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The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    ONE 
Aachen— Assize 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN    INTERNATIONAL    WORK    OF    REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,     DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND   HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED   BY 

CHARLES   G.  HP;RBERMANN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD    A.  PACE,  Ph.D.,  D.D.         CONDE    B.  FALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOALAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN    J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED   BY   NUMEROUS   COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  I 


SPECIAL    ED ITION 

UNDER   THE   AnSPICES    OF 

THE  KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS  CATHOLIC  TRUTH  CO.MMITTEE 


flew  l?orl? 
THE  ENCYCLOPEDL\  PRESS,  INC. 


Nihil  Obstat,  November  1,  1907 

REMY  LAFORT,  S.  T.  D. 


Imprimatur 

-I-JOHN   CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ARCHBISHOP    OF   NEW    YORK 


Copyright,  1907 
By  Robert  Appleton  Company 

Copyright,  1913 
By  the    encyclopedia  PRESS,   INC. 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


r' 


er;;';dale 

COLLEGE 
LIBRARY 


To  the  Knights  of  Columbus  and   Their  I'Viends 

"N  taking  under  our  auspices  a  special  edition  of  Tiik  Catholic  Encyclopedia, 
we  are  actuated  by  the  motive  which  originally  Inspired  the  production  of 
tins  work. 

From  tlic  start,  as  the  Preface  to  Volume  I  declares,  it  was  determined  that 
this  encyclopedia  should  not  he  exclusively  a  Church  publication,  containing  only  matters 
of  special  interest  to  the  clergy.  It  is  intended  for  the  layman  as  well  as  for  the  priest; 
;uk1,  consequently,  it  contains  all  that  he  needs  to  know,  treated  from  his  point  of  view. 

The  Editor-in-Chief  and  tlu>  Managing  Editor  are  lajanen,  as  were  fully  500  of  the  con- 
tributors, and  150  editorial  assistants.  With  them  the  clerical  editors  and  contril^utors 
have  co-operated  in  full  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  producing  a  work  which  in  con- 
tent and  style  woukl  satisfy  the  scholar  in  his  stuily  and  yet  interest  the  man  in  the  street. 

For  this  Encj'clopedia  is  designed  to  be  the  starting-point  of  a  movement  among  Cath- 
olics, a  great  educational  movement  in  every  Catholic  home  in  the  land,  the  source  of  a 
literature  that  will  once  more  as  in  the  days  before  the  Reformation  employ  the  English 
tongue  in  the  cause  of  Catholic  truth.  It  is  verily  an  educational  and  litertiry  crusade,  and 
as  such  it  must  appeal  strongly  to  every  member  of  an  Order  whose  members,  in  the  words 
of  Archbishop  Ireland,  "ahn  to  be  the  trusted  auxiliaries  of  the  Church,  her  organized 
chivalry,  ever  first  and  foremost  when  her  call  is  heard,  or  her  banner  leads". 

We  have  but  lately  completed  our  achievement  of  providing  for  the  Catholic  University 
of  America  the  half  million  dollar  scholarship  foundation  which  is  to  enable  Catholic  young 
men  from  every  part  of  the  land  to  take  advantage  of  the  educational  facilities  of  that  great 
institution. 

Here  is  an  offer  which  brings  all  the  advantages  that  The  Catholic  University  can  at 
present  afford  and  more  right  into  our  own  homes.  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  is  a 
veritable  Catholic  Home  University.  It  has  been  truly  styled  "a  university  in  print". 
Few,  if  any,  of  our  memlx^rship,  are  in  a  position  to  take  advantage  of  the  Catholic 
University  foundation;  sc-arcely  on(^  is  unable  to  avail  hims(>lf  of  an  offer,  which  brings  to 
every  Catholic  hom(^  th(^  Ijest  the  University  can  give. 

As  if  divining  that  the  Knights  of  Columljus  would  tak<>  on  themselves  the  task  of  giving 
the  widest  possible  circulation  to  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  His  Grace,  Archbishop 
Iic^land,  discoursing  on  "The  Tj^pical  Catholic  Layman  of  America",  before  the  Supreme 
( "ouncil  of  the  OrdcM-  lately  assembled  in  St.  Paul,  recommended  the  work  in  the  following 
eloquent  terms: 

"An  intelligent  laity  is  the  prime  need  of  the  Church  to-day,  in  America.  The  battle 
is  opened.  It  is  a  flood  of  contradiction,  of  misrepresentation,  of  calumnies.  History  is 
perverted;  Catholic  discipline  is  travestied.  When  the  Church,  as  seen  daily,  cannot  with 
safety  be  assailed,  the  appeal  is  to  centuries  of  long  ago,  more  unfamiliar  to  the  reader — to 
remote  lanils  whence  no  contradiction  may  come.  The  remedy  is  intelligence  of  all  im- 
portant matters  concerning  the  Church  at  home  and  abroad,  intelligence  that  Catholics  bo 
guarded  from  poisonous  inoculation,  and  be,  at  the  same  time,  in  a  position  to  influence 
public  opinion  in  favor  of  truth  and  justice.  The  most  ready  arm  is  the  press:  hence  the 
duty  of  the  hour  is  to  give  generous  support  to  the  Catholic  newspaper,  to  read  it,  to  distribute 
it,  supplementing  it,  as  occasion  permits,  with  magazine  and  book.  One  book,  the  summary 
of  thousands,  I  especially  recommend.  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia". 

James  A.  Flaherty, 

Joseph  C.  Pelletier, 

William  J.  IMcCinley, 
Catholic  Truth  Commitlee  oj  the  Kniylils  of  Columbus. 


Preface 


IryS  '*■  SjRf£ 
rw!¥  j  w^ffi 


HE  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  as  its  name  implies,  proposes  to  give  its  readers 
full  antl  authoritative  information  on  the  entire  cycle  of  Catholic  interests, 
action  and  doctrine.  What  the  Church  teaches  and  has  taught;  what  she 
has  ilone  and  is  still  doing  for  the  highest  welfare  of  mankind;  her  methods, 
past  and  present;  her  struggles,  her  triumphs,  and  the  achievements  of  her 
members,  not  only  for  her  own  immediate  benefit,  but  for  the  broadening  and  deepening 
of  all  true  science,  literature  and  art — all  come  within  the  scope  of  The  Catholic  Encyclo- 
pedia. It  differs  from  the  general  encyclopedia  in  omitting  facts  and  information  which 
have  no  relation  to  the  Church.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  e.xclusively  a  church  encyclo- 
pedia, nor  is  it  limited  to  the  ecclesiastical  sciences  and  the  doings  of  churchmen.  It 
records  all  tiiat  Catholics  have  done,  not  only  in  behalf  of  charity  and  morals,  but  also 
for  the  intellectual  and  artistic  development  of  mankind.  It  chronicles  what  Catholic 
artists,  educators,  poets,  scientists  and  men  of  action  have  achieved  in  their  several 
provinces.  In  this  respect  it  differs  from  most  other  Catholic  encyclopedias.  Tlie 
Editors  are  fully  aware  that  there  is  no  specifically  Catholic  science,  that  mathematics, 
chemistry,  physiology  and  other  branches  of  human  knowledge  are  neither  Catholic, 
Jewish,  nor  Protestant;  but  when  it  is  commonly  asserted  that  Catholic  principles  are 
an  obstacle  to  scientific  research,  it  seems  not  only  proper  but  needful  to  register  what 
and  how  much  Catholics  have  contributed  to  every  department  of  knowledge. 

No  one  who  is  interested  in  human  history,  past  and  present,  can  ignore  the  Catholic 
Church,  either  as  an  in.stitution  which  has  been  the  central  figure  in  the  civilized  world 
for  nearly  two  thou.sand  years,  decisively  affecting  its  destinies,  religious,  literary,  scientific, 
social  and  political,  or  as  an  existing  power  whose  influence  and  activity  extend  to  every 
part  of  the  globe.  In  the  i)ast  century  the  Church  has  grown  both  extensively  and  in- 
tensively among  English-speaking  peoples.  Their  living  interests  demand  that  they 
should  have  the  means  of  informing  themselves  about  this  vast  institution,  which,  whether 
they  are  Catholics  or  not,  affects  their  fortunes  and  their  destiny.  As  for  Catholics, 
their  duty  as  members  of  the  Church  impels  them  to  learn  more  and  more  fully  its  prin- 
ciples; while  among  Protestants  the  desire  for  a  more  intimate  and  accurate  knowledge 
of  things  Catholic  increases  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  Church  in  numbers  and  in  im- 
portance. The  Catholic  clergy  are  naturally  expected  to  direct  inquirers  to  sources  of  the 
needed  information;  yet  they  find  only  too  oft-en  that  the  proper  answers  to  the  questions 
proposed  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  English  literature.  Even  the  writings  of  the  best  inten- 
tioned  authors  are  at  times  disfigured  by  serious  errors  on  Catholic  subjects,  which  are 
for  the  most  part  due,  not  to  ill-will,  but  to  lack  of  knowledge.  It  would  be  fatuous  to 
hope  to  call  into  immediate  existence  a  Catholic  English  literature  adequate  to  supply 
this  knowledge  and  correct  errors.  The  Encyclopedia,  therefore,  is  the  most  convenient 
means  of  doing  both,  enabling,  as  it  does,  the  foremost  Catholic  scholars  in  every  part 


of  the  world  to  contribute  articles  in  the  condensed  form  that  appeals  to  the  man  of  action, 
and  with  the  accuracy  that  satisfies  the  scholar. 

Designed  to  present  its  readers  with  the  full  body  of  Catholic  teaching,  the  Encyclo- 
pedia contains  not  only  precise  statements  of  what  the  Church  has  defined,  but  also  an 
impartial  record  of  different  views  of  acknowledged  authority  on  all  disputed  questions. 
In  all  things  the  object  of  the  Encyclopedia  is  to  give  the  whole  truth  without  prejudice, 
national,  political  or  factional.  In  the  determination  of  the  truth  the  most  recent  and 
acknowledge!  scientific  methods  are  employed,  and  the  results  of  the  latest  research  in 
theology,  philosophy,  history,  apologetics,  archaeology,  and  other  sciences  are  given 
careful  consideration. 

The  work  is  entirely  new,  and  not  merely  a  translation  or  a  compilation  from  other 
encyclopedic  sources.  The  Editors  have  insisted  that  the  articles  should  contain  the 
latest  and  most  accurate  information  to  be  obtained  from  the  standard  works  on  each 
subject.  Contributors  have  been  chosen  for  their  special  knowledge  and  skill  in  present- 
ing the  subject,  and  they  assume  the  responsibility  for  what  they  have  written.  Repre- 
senting as  they  do  Catholic  scholarship  in  every  part  of  the  world,  they  give  the  work  an 
international  character. 

The  Encyclopedia  bears  the  imprimatur  of  the  Most  Reverend  Archbishop  under 
whose  jurisdiction  it  is  published.  In  constituting  the  Editors  the  ecclesiastical  censors, 
he  has  given  them  a  singular  proof  of  his  confidence  and  of  his  desire  to  facilitate  the 
publication  of  the  work  which  he  has  promoted  most  effectively  by  his  influence  and 
kindly  co-operation. 

The  Editors  take  occasion  on  the  appearance  of  this  first  volume  to  express  their  grati- 
tude to  all  who  have  taken  part  with  them  in  tliis  enterprise;  in  particular  to  the  hier- 
archy for  their  cordial  endorsement;  to  Catholic  publishers  and  to  tlie  editors  of  the 
Catholic  press  for  their  frequent  courtesies ;  to  the  contributors  for  their  ready  co-operation ; 
to  the  original  subscribers  for  their  generous  support;  to  the  directors  of  the  Company 
organized  specially  to  produce  the  work,  and  to  many  non-Catholics  for  their  kindly 
encouragement. 


List  of  Contributors  to  the  First  Volume 


a'BECKET,  JOHN  J.,  Ph.D.,  New  Vouk. 

AIKEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Associate  Pro- 
FEsson  OP  Apologetics,  Catholic  Univer- 
sity OF  America,  Washington. 

ALBERT,  F.  X.  E.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary, 
YoNKERS,  New  York. 

ALDASY,  A.,  Ph.D.,  Archivist  of  the  Library 
OF  National  Museum,  Budapest. 

ALLIES,  MARY  H.,  London. 

AMADO,  RAMON  RUIZ,  S.J.,  Barcelona,  Spain. 

ARBEZ,  EDWARD,  S.S.,  M.A.,  Professor  of 
Sacked  Schiptuhe,  St.  Patrick's  Seminary, 
Menlo  Park,  Califor.nia. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  Westminster, 
London. 

BANDELIER,  AD.  F.,  Hispanic  Society  of 
America,  New  York. 

BARRY,  WILLIAM,  D.D.,  Dorchester,  England. 

BATTANDIER,  ALBERT,  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Rome. 

BECHTEL,  F.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Louis  University,  St. 
Louis. 

BENIGNI.  U.,  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory, Pont.  Collegio  Urbano  di  Propa- 
ganda Fedb,  Rome. 

BESSE,  J.  M.,  O.S.B.,  Director,  "Revue  Mabil- 
lon",  Chevetogne,  Belgiu.m. 

BIRT,  henry  NORBERT,  O.S.B.,  London. 

BOLLING,  GEORGE  MELVILLE.  A.B.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Greek  and  Sanskrit,  Catho- 
lic University  of  America,  W,\shingto.n. 

BRANN,  HENRY  A.,  D.D.,  New  York. 

liREEN,  A.  E.,  D.D.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Holy 
Scripture,  St.  Bernard's  Seminary,  Roches- 
ter, New  York. 

BROCK,  H.  M.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Physics,  Holy 
Cross  College,  Worcester,  Ma.ssachusetts. 

BROM,  GISBERT,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Head 
OF  the  Dutch  Historical  Institute.  Rome. 


BROSNAHAN,  TIMOTHY,  S.J.,  Professor  op 
Ethics,  Wood.stock  College,   Maryland. 

BUON.\IUTI,  ERNESTO,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Pro- 
FtMsoR  OP  Church  Hlstory,  The  Ro.man  Sem- 
inary, Rome. 

BURNS,  J.  A.,  C.S.C,  Pre-sident  or  Holy  Cross 
College,  Washington. 

BURTSELL,  Mgr.  R.  L.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Kingston, 
New  York. 

BIITIN,  ROMAIN,  S.M.,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
OF  Sacred  Scripture  and  Hebrew,  Marist 
College,  Washington. 

BUTLER,  E.  C,  O.S.B.,  M.A.  (Cambridge),  M.A. 
(London),  Downside  Abbey,  Bath,  England. 

BUTLER,  J.  N.,  M.I)..  A.M.,  LL.D.,  New  York. 

CAMPBELL,  T.  J.,  S.J.,  A,ssociate  Editor,  "The 
.Messenger",  New  York. 

CASARTELLI,  The  Rt.  Rev.  L.  C,  Bishop  of 
Salford,  England. 

CASTLE,  HAROLD  C,  C.SS.R.,  M.A.  (O.xon.), 
Lector  in  Theology  and  Church  History, 
St.  Mary's,  Kinnoull,  Perth,  Scotland. 

CHRISTirCH,  ELISABETH,  Belgrade,  Servia. 

CLEARY,  HENRY  W.,  Editor.  "The  New  Zea- 
L.\ND  Tai;let",  Dunedin,  Nbw  Ze.aland. 

CLIFFORD,  CORNELIUS,  Mokristown,  N.  J. 

COLEMAN,  AMBROSE.  O.P.,  Duogheda,  Ireland. 

COLEMAN,  CARYL,  B.A,,  New  York. 

CONINGTON,  E.  H.,  C.vllooney,  County  Sligo, 
Irela.vd. 

CONNELLAN,  P.  L.,  F.R.S.A.  of  Ireland;  Knight 
OF  St.  Gregory  the  Gre.at,  Rome. 

COPPENS,  C,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Philosophy, 
St.  Louis  University,  St.  Louis. 

COPPIETERS.  HONORE,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Sacred  Scrii*ture,  College  du 
Papk,  Louvain. 

CORBETT,  JOHN,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Scripture, 
Wood.stock  College,  Maryland. 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE   FIRST   VOLUME 


CREAGH,  JOHN  T.,  J.U.D.,  Professob  of  Canon 
Law,  Catholic  University  of  America, 
Washington. 

CRET,  PAUL  P.,  Professor  op  Architectural 
Dbsigx,  LTniversity  of  Pennsylvania,  Phila- 
delphia. 

CRIMONT,  The  Rt.  Rev.  JOSEPH  RAPHAEL, 
S.J.,  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Alaska,  Juneatt, 
Alaska. 

CROWLEY,  T.  J..  C.S.C,  Washington. 

CROWLEY,  T.  L.,  O.P.,  Washington. 

CURRAN,  The  Hon.  J.  J.,  Puisne  Judge, 
Province  of  Quebec. 

DAL-GAL,  NICOLAUS,  O.F.M.,  Vice-Postulator 
General,  Ro.me. 

DE  BECKER,  JULES  ALPH.  MARIE,  D.Cn.L., 
D.C.L.,  S.T.L.,  Rector  of  the  A.merican 
College,  Louvain. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH  F.,  New  York. 

DESMOND,  HUMPHREY  J.,  A.M.,  Editor,  "The 
Catholic  Citizen",  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 

tDEV.\S,  CHARLES  STANTON,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
Kensington,   London. 

DONNELLY,  F.  P.,  S.J.,  St.  Andrew-on-Hudson, 
Poughkeepsie,  New  York. 

DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  O.F.M.,  Franciscan 
Monastery,  Washington. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  D.D.,  President,  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York. 

DRISCOLL,  JOHN  T.,  A.M.,  S.T.L.,  Fonda.  New 
York. 

D'SA,  MANOEL,  Missionary  Apostolic,  Princi- 
pal OF  Antonio  de  Souza  School,  Mazagon, 
Bombay,    India. 

DUBRAY,  C.  A.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Marist  College,  Washington. 

DUFFY,  F.  p.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Logic  and 
Metaphysics,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Dun- 
woodie, New  York. 

DUGGAN,  T.  S.,  Editor,  "The  Cathol-c  Tran- 
script", Hartford,  Connecticut. 

DUNN,  JOSEPH,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of 
Celtic  Languages  and  Literature,  Catho- 
lic University  of  America,  Washington. 

DWIGHT,  WALTER,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

EHRHARD,  LICO.Canonicus  Honohauius,  Direc- 
tor OF  the  Episcopal  School,  Strasburo, 
Alsace,  Germany. 


FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 

University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 

FENLON,  JOHN  F.,  S.S.,  D.D.,  President  of 
St.  Austin's  College,  Brookland,  D.  C, 
Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Mary's 
Seminary,  Baltimore,  Maryland. 

FINNERTY,  J.  L.,  O.P.,  Washington. 

FISCHER,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Geogra- 
phy and  History,  Stella  Matutina  College. 
Feldkirch,  Austri.\. 

FITZGERALD,  E.  G.,  O.P.,  Washington. 

FORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Maldon, 
England. 

FOURNET,  A.  S.,  S.S.,  Professor  of  Belles- 
Lettres,  College  db  Montreal. 

FOX,  JAMES  J.,  D.D.,  B.A.,  Professor  of  Phi- 
losophy, St.  Thomas  College,  Washington. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor OF  Physics,  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York. 

tFRISBEE,  S.  H.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland. 

GANSS,  henry  G.,  Mus.D.,  Carlisle,  Penn- 
sylvania. 

GASQUET,  The  Rt.  Rev.  FRANCIS  AIDAN, 
O.S.B.,  D.D.,  Abbot  President  of  the  Eng- 
lish Benedictines,  London. 

GIETMANN,  G.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Classical 
Languages  and  jEsthetics,  Exaten,  near 
Baaksem,  Holland. 

GIGNAC,  JOSEPH  N.,  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Professor 
OF  Canon  Law,  University  of  Laval,  Quebec. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Sacred 
Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Dun- 
woodie, New  York. 

GILLIS,  JAMES  M.,  C.S.P.,  S.T.L.,  Chicago. 

GOGGIN,  J.  F.,  D.D.,  Ph.D.,  St.  Bernard's  Semi- 
nary, Rochester,  New  York. 

GORAL,  BOLESLAUS  E.,  St.  Kuancis  Seminauv, 
Wisconsin. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  As.sociate  Editor,  "Revue 
DEs  Deux  Monde.s".  Paris. 

GRATTAN  FLOOD,  W.  H.,  M.R.I. A..  Rosemount, 
Enniscorthy,  Ireland. 

GREEN,  E.  E.,  O.S.B.,  Downside  Abbey,  B.\th 
England. 

GREY,  FRANCIS  W.,  Ottawa,  Canada. 
t  Deceaaed. 


LIST   OF  CONTlUUrTOUS   TO  THE   FIRST   VOLUME 


GULDNER,  B.,  S.J.,  I'rofessor  of  Ethics  and 
Mktai'hysics,  Fokdham  University,  New- 
York. 

HANNA,  EDWARD  J.,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  St.  Bernard's  Seminary,  Roche.s- 
TER,  New  York. 

H.ASSETT,  M.AURICE  M..  D.D.,  IlAinusBrm;. 
Pennsylvania. 

HAVEY,  FRANCIS  P..  S.S.,  D.D.,  PutisiDENT, 
Profe-ssor  of  Ho.miletics  and  Pastoral 
Theology,  St.  John's  Seminary,  Hhii-.hton, 
Massachusetts. 

HAYES,  The  Very  Reverend  P.  J.,  D.D., 
Chancellor.  Archdiocese  of  New  York  ; 
President  of  Cathedral  College,  New 
York. 

HEALY,  The  Most  Reverend  JOHN.  Arch- 
bishoi-  of  TfAM,  D.D.,  LL.D..  M.K.I. A..  St. 
Jaulath's.  Tuam,   Ireland. 

HE.ALY,  PATRICK  J.,  D.D.,  Assi.stant  Pro- 
fessor OF  Church  History,  C.\tholic  Ini- 
VERSiTY  OF  America,  Washington. 

IlEINLEIN.  E..  D.D.,  Unionport.  Bronx,  New 

You].. 

HENRY,  H.  T.,  Litt.D.,  Professor  of  English 
Literature,  and  of  Gregorian  Chant,  St. 
Charles's  Seminary,  Overbrook,  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

HEUSER.  H.  J..  D.D..  Editor  "A.m.  Ecclesias- 
tical Review".  Professor  of  Theology,  St. 
Charlf.s's  Skmi.vahv.  Overuhook.  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

HINOJOSA,  EDUARDO  DE,  Royal  Hi.storical 
Academy,  Madrid. 

HOLWECK,  FREDERICK  G.,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri. 

HOW^LETT,  J.  A.,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  Beccles,  Suffolk, 
E.ngland. 

HUNT,  LEIGH,  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York. 

HUNTER-BLAIR,  D.  O.,  Bart.,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  Fort 
Augustus  Abbey,  Scotland,  and  Oxford, 
England. 

JENNER,  HENRY,  F.S.A.,  Assistant  Librarian, 
British  Museum,  London. 

KELLY,  P.  H.,  S.J.,  KoHLMANN  Hall,  New  York. 

KENNEDY,  D.  J.,  OP.,  S.T.M.,  Professor  op 
Dogmatic  Theology,  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion College,  Washington. 

KENT.  W.  H.,  O.S.C,  Baysw.\ter,  London. 


KERBY,  WILLIAM  J.,  Doctor  of  Social  and 
Political  Science.s,  S.T.L.,  Ph.D.,  Associate 
Professor  of  Sociology,  Catholic  Univer- 
sity OF  America,  Washington. 

KIRSCH.  Mgr.  J.  P.,  Professor  of  Pathology 
and  Christian  Arcii.f.ology,  I'niversity  ok 
Freiburg,   Switzerland. 

LABOURT,  J.,  S.T.D..  Litt.D.,  Member  of  the 
Asiatic  Soctety,  Paris. 

tLE  BARS,  JEAN,  B.A.,  Litt.D.,  Professor  of 
French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

LECLERC,  C,  C.SS.R.,  Ste.  Anne  de  Beaupr^. 
Quebec,  Canada. 

LECLERCQ,  H.,  O.S.B.,  St.  Michael's  Abbey, 
Farnborough,  Hampshire,  England. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  University  of 
Fr.\nce,  Proff.ssor  at  the  Catholic  Insti- 
tute OF  Paris. 

LE  ROY,  The  Rt.  Rev.  ALEXANDER,  C.S.Sp. 
Bishop  of  Alinda,  Superior  General  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Paris. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  Freiburg,  Germany. 

LOPEZ,  TIRSO,  O.S.A.,  Coleoio  de  los  Agus- 
tinos,  Valladolid,  Spain. 

LOUGHLIN,  Mgr.  JAME.S  F.,  D.D.,  Philadel- 
phia. 

MAAS,  a.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector  of  Wood.stock  College. 
Maryland. 

Mac  DONALD,  ALEXANDER,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  V.G., 
St.  Andrew's,  Nova  Scotia. 

McGINNIS,  AUGUSTINE,  O.S.M.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.L., 
Chicago. 

McMAHON,  A.  L.,  O.P.,  Lector  of  Sacred  Theol- 
ogy, Professor  of  Moral  Theology  and 
Sacred  Scripture,  Dominican  House  of 
Studies,  Washington. 

McMAHON,  JOSEPH  H.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  New  York. 

McNEAL,  MARK  J..  S.J.,  Woodstock  College, 
Mary-land. 

McNICHOLAS,  JOHN  T.,  O.P.,  Immaculate 
Conception  College,  Washington. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York. 

MacRORY,  J.,  D.D.,  Proffasor  of  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture, Maynooth  College,  Ireland. 

MEEHAN,   ANDREW    B.,   Ph.L.,    S.T.D.,    Pro- 

FE.SSOR     OF     CaNO.N     LaW     AND     LiTUROY,     St. 

Bernard's  Semi.vary,  Rochester,  New  York. 
MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York. 

t  DeceMed. 


LIST  OF   CONTRIBUTORS   TO  THE   FIRST   VOLUME 


MELODY,  JOHN  WEBSTER,  A.M.,  D.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Moral  Theology,  Catholic  Uni- 
versity OF  America,  Washington. 

MERRIGAN.  THOMAS  D.,  M.D.,  New  York. 

MERSHMAN,  FRANCIS,  O  SB.,  D.D.,  Professor 
OF  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law  and  Lit- 
urgy, St.  John's  University,  Collegeville, 
Minnesota. 

MESSMER,  The  Mo.st  Rev.  S.  G.,  D.D.,  D.C.L., 
Archbishop  of  Milwaukee. 

MING,  JOHN  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Moral  Phi- 
losophy, Sacred  Heart  College,  Prairie 
Du  Chien,  Wisconsin. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Professor  of  General  History, 
University  op  Louvain. 

MOYES,  Mgr.  JAMES,  D.D.,  Canon  of  We.st.\!in- 
ster  Cathedral,  London. 

MUCKERMANN,  H.,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius's  College, 
Valkenburg,  Holland. 

N.'LAI.MACK,  CHARLES  EDWARD,  Ph.B.,  M.D., 
Professor  op  Clinical  Medicine,  Cornell 
University,  New  Y^ork. 

NOON,  W.  D.,  O.P.,  W.\shington. 

O'BRIEN,  S.,  O.C,  Simla,  India. 

O'CONOR,  J.  F.  X.,  S.J.,  New  York. 

O'DONNELL,  THOMAS,  CM.,  Vice-President 
AND  Professor  op  Moral  and  Pastoral 
Theology,  All  Hallow's  College,  Dublin. 

O'DONOGHUE,  D.  J.,  Dublin,  Ireland. 

OESTREICH,  THOMAS,  O.S.B.,  Professor  op 
Church  History  and  Sacred  Scripture, 
Maryhelp    Abbey,    Belmont,    North   Caro- 

MNA. 

O'MAHONY,  T.  J.,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  All  Hallow's  College,  Dublin. 

O'MALIA,  M.  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  op  Classics  and 
History,  Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester, 
Massachusetts. 

O'NEIL,  A.  C,  O.P.,  Washington. 

O'NEILL,  JAMES  D.,  A.M.,  S.T.D.,  Lake  Forest, 
Illi.vois. 

O'REILLY,  THOMAS  C,  D.D.,  St.  Mary's  Semi- 
nary, Cleveland,  Ohio. 

O'RIORDAN,  Mgr.  M.,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  D.C.L., 
Rector  op  the  Irish  College,  Rome. 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Proffj580r  op 
the  History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  Uni- 
versity, Collegeville,  Minnesota. 


OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  He- 
brew and  the  Semitic  Languages,  Orien- 
tal History  and  Biblical  Archeology,  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York. 

OWEN,  THOMAS  M.,  Department  of  Archives 
AND  History,  Montgo.mery,  Alabama. 

PAPI,  HECTOR,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Canon  Law, 
Woodstock  College,  Maryland. 

PARGOIRE,  J.,  A.A.,  Constantinople. 

PEREZ,  NAZARIO,  S.J.,  Madrid. 

PETERSON,    JOHN    B.,    Ph.D.,    Professor    of 

EcCLESI.iSTICAL     HiSTORY     AND     LiTURGY,     St. 

John's    Seminary,   Boston,   Massachusetts. 

PETRIDES,  S.,  A. A.,  Constantinople. 

PIOLET,  JEAN-BAPTISTE,  S.J.,  Member  op  the 
International  Colonial  Institute,  Paris. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London. 

POOLE,  THOMAS  H.,  New  York. 

POPE,  HUGH,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Professor  of  Sacred 
Scripture  and  Apologetics,  Hawkesyard 
Priory,  England. 

REID,  GEORGE  J.,  S.T.L.,  Professor  of  Sacred 
Scripture  and  Hebrew,  St.  Paul's  Semi- 
nary, St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

REILLY,  W.  S.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Scripture, 
St.  John's  Seminary,  Brighton,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Instruc- 
tor in  Germanic  Languages,  Colu.mbia 
University,  New  York. 

RIORDAN,  The  Most  Rev.  P.  W.,  D.D.,  Arch- 
bishop of  San  Francisco. 

ROBINSON,  PASCHAL,  O.F.M.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  Franciscan  Mo.vastery,  Wash- 
ington. 

ROCK,  P.  M.  J.,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

RODELES,  CECILIO  GOMEZ,  S.J..  Editor, 
"Monumenta  Historica  Societ.\tis  Jesu", 
Madrid. 

tRODRIGUEZ,  JOSE  IGNACIO,  Bureau  of 
American  Republics,  W.vshington. 

ROY,  J.  EDMOND,  Litt.D.,  F.R.S.C,  Officer  of 
THE  French  Academy,  Director,  "Notarial 
Review",  Levis,  Quebec,  Canada. 

RUDGE,  FLORENCE  MARIE,  M.A.,  Younqs- 
town,  Ohio. 

t  Deceased. 


LIST   OF  CONTKIUCTORS  TO   THE   KIK6T   VOLUME 


RYAN,  J.  J.,  J.C.B.,  President  and  Professor  of 
Church  History,  St.  Patrick's  College, 
Thurles,   Ireland. 

RYAN,  PATRICK,  S.J.,  London. 

SAN  GIOVANNI,  EDOARDO,  Lit.B.,  A.M.,   In- 

STKUCTOH  I.V  the  L.\TIN  LaNGU.^GE  A.ND  LITER- 
ATURE, College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

SAUVAGE,  GEORGE  M.,  C.S.C,  D.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology,  Holy 
Cross  College,  Washingto.n. 

SAXTON,  E.  F.,  Baltlmore,  Maryland. 

SCHAEFER,    FRANCIS   J.,    D.D.,    Ph.D.,    Pro- 

Ff>isoH  OF  Church  History,  St.  Paul's  Se.mi- 
NAHv,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

SCHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria. 

SCHL.AGER,  PATRICIUS,  Harreveld  bei  Ligh- 
ten voorde,  Holland. 


Ph.D.,     Gebweiler, 


SCHMIDLIN,    J.,     S.T.D., 
Alsace,  Germany. 

SCHROEDER,  JO.^EPH,  O.P.,  Washington. 

SCHULTE,  A.  J.,  Professor  of  Liturgy,  St. 
Charles's  Seminary,  Overbrook,  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

SCinMiRTNER,  THOMAS  M.,  O.P.,  W.\shington. 

SCHWICKERATH,  ROBERT,  S.J.,  Kohlmaxn 
Hall,  New  York. 

SHANAHAN,  EDMUND  T.,  A.B.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L., 
ST  D.,  Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology, 
Cathouc  Untv.  of  America,  Washington. 

SHEEDY,  MORGAN  M.,  LL.D.,  Altoona,   Pen.v- 

SYLVANIA. 

SHIELDS,  THOMAS  E.,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Professor 
of  Physiology  and  Psychology,  Catholic 
University  of  America,  Washington. 

SHIPMAN,  ANDREW  J.,  A.M.,  LL.M.,  New  York. 

SICARD,  J.  A.,  Honorary  Canon  of  Notre  Dame, 
Paris. 

SIEGFRIED,  FRANCIS  P.\TRICK,  Profe.ssor 
of  Philosophy,  St.  Charles's  Seminary, 
Overbrook,   Pennsylvania. 

SLOANE,  CHARLES  W.,  New  York. 

SLOANE,  THOMAS  O'CONOR,  A.M.,  EM.,  Ph.D., 
New  York. 

SMITH.  SYDNEY  F.,  S.J..  London. 

80LLIER,  J.  F.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Rector  and  Pro- 

FE.SSOR  OF  MoR.\L  ThEOLOGY,  MaRIST  COLLEGE, 

Washington. 


SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  LL.B.,  D.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Holy  Scripture  and  Hebrew, 
Kenhick  Seminary,  St.  Louis. 

SPAHN,  MARTIN,  Ph.D.,  University  of  Stra.s- 
burg,  Ger.many. 

SPILLANE,   EDWARD    P.,   S.J.,    Professor   op 

Co.MPARATIVE     LITERATURE,     COLLEGE     OF     St. 

Francis  Xavier,  New  York. 

SULLIVAN,  JAMES  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Dog- 
matic Theology,  St.  Louis  University,  St. 
Louis. 

SULLIVAN,  WILLIAM  L.,  C.S.P.,  S.T.L.,  Pro- 
FF.S.SOR  OF  Scripture  and  Moral  Theology, 
St.  Thom.\s  College,  W.\shington. 

TAAFFE,  THOMAS  GAFFNEY,  Ph.D.,  In- 
structor IN  THE  English  Language  and 
LiTER.\TnRE,  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London. 

TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  A.M.,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt.  Sr. 
Mary's  College,  Em.mitsburg,  Maryland. 

TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  ok 
Logic  and  the  History  of  Philosophy, 
Catholic  University  of  America,  Wash- 
ington. 

UA  CLERIGH,  ARTHUR,  M.A.,  K.C,  London. 

VACANDARU,  E.,  S.T.D.,  Rouen,  Fh.\nce. 

VAN  CLEEF,  AUGUSTUS,  New  Y'ork. 

VAN  DEN  BIESEN,  C,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Hebrew  and  Old  Testa.ment  Exegesis,  St. 
Joseph's  College,  Mill  Hill,  London. 

VAN  DER  ESSEN,  L.,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  CoLLfcoE 
DU  Pape,  Louvain. 

VAN  HOVE,  A.,  D.C.L.,  Professor  of  Church 
History,  University  of  Louvain. 

VELLA,  P.  X.,  S.J.,  Administrator  of  the  Col- 
LEGio  Pio  Latino  Americano,  Rome. 

VffiLKER,  J.  A.,  OssiNiNG,  New  York. 

VUIBERT,  A.  J.  B.,  S.S.,  A.M.,  Professor  of 
History,  St.  Patrick's  Seminary,  Menlo 
Park,  California. 

WALSH,   J.AMES  J..   M.D.,   Ph.D.,    LL.D.,  Pro- 

KKvSOR    OF   THE    HiSTORY    OF    MeDICINE,  FoRD- 

ham  Univer-sity,  New  York. 
WA1.SH,'Mor.  JOHN.  Troy,  New  York. 
WALSH,  THOM.\S,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 
WANG,  E.  A.,  Bergen,  Norway. 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME 

WARD,    Mgr.    BERNARD,    President    op    St.  WILLMANN,  OTTO,  Ph.D.,  K.K.Hofrat,  Sau- 

Edmund's  College,  Ware,  England.  burg,  Austria. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,S.T.L.,  Professor  OF  Apolo-  „,„„„„    T/^oT:'nti  n.    o  t     r>                         r^ 

_               ,,                ,,             „  WOODS,  JOSEPH  M.,  S.J. ,  Professor  of  Eccle- 

GETICS     AND    ChURCH     HiSTORY,    MaRIST    COI^  ti                        tit                              /-. 

„,  siastical     History,    Woodstock    College, 
LEGE,  Washington. 

Maryxand. 
WELSH,  M.  S.,  O.P.,  Washington. 

WILHELM,   J.,    D.D.,    Ph.D.,   Battle,   Sussex,  ZABEL,  F.  H.,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  R.D.,  Bunker  Hill, 

England.  Illinois. 


Tables   of  Abbreviations 

The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  The  Catholic  Encycx,opedia  in 
interpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  work.     For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbreviations,  Ecclesiastical. 


I. — General  Abukevlvhons. 

a article. 

ad  an at  the  year  (Lat.  ad  annum). 

an.,  ann the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  annus, 

anni). 

ap in  (Lat.  apud). 

art article. 

.\ssyr Assyriii... 

A.  S Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V Autliorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  the 
Anglican  Church — the  so-called 
"  King  James",  or  "Protestant" 
Bible. 

b bom. 

Bk Book. 

Bl Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa);  canon;    chap- 
ter; compagnie. 

can canon. 

cap chapter  (Lat.  caput  —  used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cf compare  (Lat.  confer). 

cod codex. 

col column. 

concl conclusion. 

const.,  constit.  .  .  .Lat.  conxtitulio. 

cuni by  the  industry  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionarj'  (Fr.  dictionnaire). 

disp Lat.  disputatio. 

dis-s Lat.  dissertatio. 

di.st Lat.   disttnctio. 

U.  V Douay  Version. 

cd.,  edit edited,  edit'O"..  editor. 

Kp.,  Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  epistola). 

I"r French. 

gcii genus. 

<!r Greek. 

U.K.,  Hist.  Eccl.  .Ecclesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.,  ibid in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id ....  the  same  person,  or  author  (Lati 

idem). 


inf below  (Lat.  infra). 

It Italian. 

1.  c,  loc.  cit at   the  place  quoted   (Lat.   loco 

citato). 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  liber). 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumcnta. 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr.  .  .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in   the   work  quoted  (Lat.  open 

citato) . 

Ord Order. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page,  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) pars  (part). 

par paragraph. 

passim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly     (a     periodical),     e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q.,  QQ.,  quiBst.  .    .question,  questions  (Lat.  quoe.ilio). 

q.  V which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S.,  SS Lat.    Sanctu.'!,    Sancti,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sess Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp .Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following   page,   or   pages    (Lat. 

sequens). 

St.,  Sts Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  supra). 

s.  V Under    the    corresponding    title 

(Lat.  sub  voce). 

torn volume  (Lat   tomus). 


t^ujljlS  of  abbreviations. 


tr translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion", or  "translated  into  Eng- 
lish by".  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

V see  (Lat.  vide). 

Van Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

II. — Abbrevi.\tions  of  Titles. 

Acta  SS Ada  Sanctorum  (Bollandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,^  renuaire  pontifical 

catholique. 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.Gillow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq..  .Smith  and  Cheetham  (ed.), 
Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet,  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Wace  (ed.),  Diction 

ary  of  Christian  Biography. 
Diet,  d'arch.  chr^t. .  .Cabrol  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  d'ar- 

chcologie  chritienne  et  de  litur- 

gie. 
Diet,  de  theol.  cath.  .  Vacant    and    Mangenot  (ed.), 

Dictionnaire       de      thfologie 

catholique. 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog Stephen    (ed.),    Dictionary    of 

National  Biography. 
Hast.,  Diet,   of  the 

Bible Hastings  (eJ.),  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 
Kirchenlex Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirchenlexi- 

con. 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patres  Groeci. 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Patres  Latini. 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  de 

la   Bible. 


Note  I. — Large  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate 
chapters.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  pages.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  "  Rashdall. 
Universitiesof  Europe,  I.  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  volimie  of  that  work;  "I,  p.  ix"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

Note  II. — Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  partictilar  work  the  reference  is  always  to 
"SummaTheologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophise").  The  divisions  of  the  "Summa  Theol."  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  be=t  be  understood  by  the  following  example:  "  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  um  "  refers  the  reader  to  the  seventh  article  of  the 
sixth  question  in  the  first  part  of  the  second  part,  in  the  response  to  the  second  objection. 

Note  III. — The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Ecclesiasticus.is  indicated  by 
Ecdus.,  to  distinguish  it  from  Ecclesiastes  {Eccles.).  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Ivings  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  V. ;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Chronicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  difference 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  .\.  V.,  the  form  found  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parenthesis. 


>riv 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  I 

Frontispiece  in  Colour  paob 

The  ( "iitlieilnil,  Aachen  (Aix-la-Ciuipelie) 2 

Alibeys:  Mnckross,  Downside,  and  Fountains 14 

Facsimile  Title  Page  History  of  the  Dominicans  in  the  Philippines 160 

The  Ruins  of  Timgad 190 

Ruins  of  Forum,  Tribune,  Capitol,  and  Great  Basilica,  Timgad 192 

Alaska 250 

University  of  Alcalii ' 270 

High  Altar,  Certosa  of  Pavia 346 

The  Pala  D'Oro,  Milan 388 

Polyglot  Psalter,  Genoa  (a.d.  1516) 412 

Letter  of  Alexander  VI  to  Bernard  Boil,  O.S.B 414 

American  College,  Rome 422 

Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  Amiens 430 

The  Ancren  Riwle 464 

Door  of  the  Baptistery,  Florence 470 

The  Bcwcastlc  Cross 508 

Anglo-Saxon  Crosses 510 

Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  Angoulcme 512 

Facsimile  page  from  Antiphonary  of  St.  Gregory 578 

Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  Antwerp 588 

Sant'Apollinare,  Ravenna 616 

Christ  amid  His  Apo-stles 626 

Facsimile  pages  from  the  Book  of  Armagh 734 

The  Nativity,  Ascension,  and  Glorification,  with  Zodiacal  signs 766 


Maps 

Durham  Cathedral  and  Abbey 11 

Africa 180 

Alaska 248 

Western  Hemisphere 408 

"                 "          (areas  of  discovery) 410 

Asia  Minor 780 

Western  Asia  Minor 784 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Aachen,  in  F'rench,  Arx-LA-CnAPEi-i.E,  the  name 
by  which  the  city  is  generally  known;  in  Latin, 
Aqua"  drani,  later  Aquisgranuin,  is  the  capital  of 
a  presidency  in  Rhenisn  Prussia,  and  lies  in  a  valley 
basin,  surrounded  bv  wooded  heiglits,  on  the  Wurni, 
a  tributary  of  the  Roer,  on  its  way  to  the  Meiise. 
Population,  1  December,  1905,  151,9^2  (including 
the  Parish  of  Forst);  Catholics,  139,48,5;  Protestants, 
II), 5,52,  Israelites,  1,0.58;  other  denominations,  227. 
The  city  owes  its  origin  to  its  salubrious  springs, 
whicli  were  already  known  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  There  appears  to  have  been  a  royal  court 
in  Aachen  under  the  Merovingians,  but  it  rose 
to  greater  importance  under  Charlemagne,  who 
chose  it  as  his  favourite  place  of  residence,  adorned 
it  with  a  noble  imperial  palace  and  chapel,  and  gave 
orders  that  he  should  be  burie<l  there. 

The  precious  relics  obtained  by  Charlemagne  and 
Otho  III  for  the  imperial  chapel  were  the  objects  of 
great  pilgrimages  in  the  Mitklle  .\ges  (the  so-called 
"Shrine-pilgrimages")  which  drew  countless  swarms 
of  pilgrims  from  Germany,  .Austria,  Hungary,  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  other  countries.  From  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  onwards,  however, 
it  became  customary  to  expose  the  four  great  relics 
only  once  in  every  seven  years,  a  custom  which  still 
holds,  the  last  exposition  having  taken  place  in  1902. 
These  pilgrimages,  the  coronations  of  the  German 
emperors,  thirty-seven  of  whom  were  crowned  there 
between  813  and  1.531,  the  flourishing  industries, 
and  the  privileges  conferred  by  the  various  emperors, 
combined  to  make  Aachen  one  of  the  first  cities  of 
the  Empire. 

The  decay  of  Aachen  dates  from  the  religions  strife 
of  the  German  Reformation.  Albrecht  von  Miinster 
first  preached  Protestantism  there  in  the  year  1524, 
but  was af tenvards  forbidden  to  preach  the  new  \iews. 
an  I  executed  on  account  of  two  murders  conmiitted 
during  his  stay  in  the  cities  of  Maastricht  and  AVesel. 
A  new  Protestant  community  was  soon,  howe\er, 
formed  in  Aachen,  which  gradually  attained  such 
strength  as  to  provoke  a  rising  in  1581,  force  the 
election  of  a  Protestant  burgomaster,  and  defy  the 
Emperor  for  several  years.  The  Han  of  the  Empire 
was,  therefore,  pronounced  against  the  city  in  1.597 
and  put  in  force  by  the  Duke  of  Jiilich,  the  Catholic 
overlord  of  the  city.  The  Catholics  were  restored  to 
their  rights,  and  the  Jesuits  invited  to  Aachen,  in 
KiOO.  In  Hill,  however,  the  Protestants  rose  afresh, 
plundered  the  Jesuit  college,  drove  out  the  Catholic 
ollicials  in  1012,  and  opened  their  gates  to  troops 
from  Brandenburg.  The  Han  of  the  Empire  was  again 
laid  on  the  city,  and  executed  by  the  Spanish 
general,  Sninola.  The  Protestant  ringleaders  were 
tried  or  exiled,  and  many  other  Protestants  banished. 
These  troul)les,  together  \vith  a  great  fire  which  de- 
stroyed 4.000  houses,  put  an  end  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  city. 


Tw'o  treaties  of  peace  were  concluded  at  Aachen 
during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
Hy  the  first,  dated  2  May,  1(508,  Louis  XIV  was 
compelled,  by  the  Triple  Alliance  between  England, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Sweden,  to  abandon  the  war 
against  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  to  restore  the 
Franche  Comt^,  which  he  had  conquered,  and  to 
content  himself  with  twelve  Fleniish  fortresses. 
The  secortd  treaty,  dated  18  October,  1748,  put 
an  end  to  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succes.sion.  In 
1793  and  1794,  Aachen  was  occupied  by  the  French, 
incorporated  with  the  French  Republic  in  1798 
and  1802,  and  made  the  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Roer.  By  the  terms  of  the  French 
Concordat  of  1801  Aachen  was  made  a  bishopric 
subject  to  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  and  compo.sed 
of  79  first  class,  and  754  second  class,  parishes. 
The  first  and  only  bishop  was  Marcus  Antonius 
Berdolet  (b.  13  September,  1740,  at  Rougcmont,  in 
Alsace;  d.  13  August,  1809),  who,  for  the  most  part, 
left  the  government  of  his  diocese  to  his  vicar-gen- 
eral, Martin  Wilhelm  Fonck  (b.  28  October,  17.52, 
at  ClOch;  d.  26  June,  1830,  as  Provost  of  Cologne 
Cathedral).  After  the  death  of  Bishop  Berdolet, 
the  diocese  was  governed  by  Le  Camus,  Vicar- 
General  of  Jleaux;  at  his  decease,  in  1814,  by  the 
two  vicars-general,  Fonck  and  Klinkenberg.  The 
Bull  of  Pius  VII,  "  De  Salute  Animarum,"  dated  l(i 
July,  1821,  which  rcgtilated  church  matters  in  Prussia 
anew,  did  away  with  the  bishopric  of  Aachen,  and 
transferred  most  of  its  territory  to  the  archdiocese 
of  Cologne;  a  collegiate  chapter,  consisting  of  a 
provost  and  six  canons,  taking  the  place  of  the 
bishopric  in  1825.  In  1815  Aachen  became  Prassian 
territory.  The  Congress  of  Aix-l:i-Cliapelle  sat  there 
from  ,30  September  to  11  November,  1818,  and  was 
attended  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia,  and  by  plenipotentiaries  from  France  and 
England,  to  determine  the  relations  between  France 
and  the  Powers.  France  obtained  a  reduction  of  the 
war  indemnity  and  the  early  departure  of  the  army 
of  occupation,  and  joined  the  Holj'  Alliance;  the 
other  four  Powers  guaranteed  the  throne  of  France 
to  the  Bourbons,  against  any  revolution  that  might 
occur.  Aachen,  under  I'russian  government,  li;is 
since  attained  to  fresh  prosperity,  chiefly  through 
the  development  of  the  coal  mines  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, which  facilitated  several  extensive  industries 
(such  as  the  manufacture  of  linen,  needles,  machinerj', 
glass,  woollen,  and  half-woollen  stuffs,  etc.),  but  also 
in  con.sequence  of  the  large  numlx>r  of  visitors  to  its 
hot  springs. 

Ecclesiastically,  .\achen  constitutes  a  deanery  of 
the  archdiocese  of  (^ologne.  It  has  a  collegiate 
chapter,  already  mentioned,  with  a  provo.st,  six 
regular,  and  four  honorarj',  canons;  12  Catholic 
parishes,  46  Catholic  churches  and  chapels;  in  1906, 
there  were  87  secular,  and  24  regular,  clergy,  besides 


AACHEN 


AACHEN 


9  priests  from  other  dioceses.  The  minster  ranks 
first  ainons  the  church  buihhngs;  it  consists  of  three 
ilistinct  ]i:irts:  the  octagon,  the  clioir,  and  the  crown, 
or  ring,  of  chapels,  the  octagon  forming  the  central 
portion.  Tliis  last  is  the  most  important  monument 
of  C'arlovingian  arcliitecturc;  it  was  built  between 
7i)()  and  sot,  in  tlie  reign  of  Charlemagne,  by  Master 
Odo  of  Metz,  and  modelled  after  the  Italian  circular 
church  of  San  ^'italo  at  Uavenna.  It  was  consecrated 
by  Pope  Leo  III.  It  is  an  eight-angled,  domed 
building,  54  feet,  in  diameter,  with  a  si.xtcen-sided 
circuinlerence  of  IL'O  feet,  and  a  height  of  124  feet. 
Tlie  interior  of  the  dome  is  adorned  with  mosaics 
on  a  gold  ground,  executeil  by  Salviati  of  \'enice, 
in  1S8J,  repre.senting  Our  Lord  surrounded  by  the 
four  and  twenty  Ancients  of  the  Apocalypse.  The 
main  building  was  decorateil  with  marble  and  mosaics 
in  1902,  after  the  designs  of  H.  Schaper.  Over  the 
spot  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  Charlemagne's  grave 
hangs  an  enormous  corona  of  lamps,  the  gift  of  tlie 
Emperor  Frederick  I,  Barbarossa;  in  the  choir  of  the 
octagcm,  the  so-called  upper  minster,  stands  Charle- 
magne's throne,  made  of  great  slabs  of  white  marble, 
where,  after  the  coronation,  the  German  emperors 
received  the  homage  of  their  nobles.  The  rich  upper 
choir,  built  in  Gothic  style,  joins  on  to  the  eastern 
side  of  the  octagon;  it  was  begun  in  the  second  half 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  dedicated  in  1414. 
The  thirteen  windows,  each  100  feet  high,  have  been 
filled  with  new  coloured  glass;  on  the  pillars  between 


C,\THEDRAi,  OP  Aachen,  Interior 
them  stand  fourteen  .statues  (the  Mother  of  God,  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  and  Charlemagne),  dating  from  the 
fifteenth  century.  Amo!ig  the  treasures  of  the  choir 
should  be  mentioned  the  famous  (lospel-puli)it,  cn- 
richeil  witli  gold  plates,  the  gift  of  the  Kmperor 
Henry  11.  the  throne  canopy  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  new  Gothic  high  altar  of  l,S7(j,  and  tlie  memorial 
stone  which  marks  the  spot  where  the  Kmperor 
Otto  III  formerly  lay.  The  lower  portions  of  the 
bell-tower,  to  the  west  of  the  octagon,  belong  to  tlie 
Carlovingian  period;  the  Gothic  superstructure  dates 
from  18S4.  Of  the  chapels  which  surround  the 
whole  building,  the  so-called  Hungarian  diapel  con- 


tains tlie  minster  treasury,  which  includes  a  large 
number  of  relics,  vessels,  and  vestments,  the  most 
important  being  those  known  as  the  four  "Great 
Relics,"  namely,  the  cloak  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the 
swaddling-clothes  of  the  Infant  Jesus,  the  loin-cloth 
worn  by  Our  Lord  on  the  Cross,  and  the  cloth  on 
which  lay  the  head  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  after  his 
beheading.  They  are  exposed  every  seven  years,  and 
venerated  by  thousands  of  pilgrims  (139,628  in  1S74, 
and  158,968  in  1881).  Among  the  other  Catholic 
churches  of  Aachen,  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
the  Church  of  Our  Lady,  a  Gothic  church  in  brick, 
built  by  Friederich  Statz  in  18.59;  the  Church  of  St. 
Foillan,  the  oldest  parish  church  in  the  city,  which 
dates,  in  its  present  form,  from  the  Gothic  period, 
antl  was  renovated  between  188.3  and  1888;  and  the 
Romanesque  Church  of  St.  James,  built  between  1877 
and  1888.  The  most  important  secular  building  is 
the  Rathaus,  built  between  1333  and  1350,  on  the 
site  of,  and  out  of  the  ruins  of,  Charlemagne's  im- 
perial palace,  and  completely  renovated  between 
1S82  and  1903.  The  faijade  is  adorned  with  the 
statues  of  fifty-four  German  emperors,  the  great  hall 
(Kaisersaal)  with  eight  frescoes  from  designs  by 
Alfred  Rethel. 

In  Aachen  there  are  foundations  established  by 
the  Franciscans,  Capuchins,  and  Redemptorists. 
The  .^lexians  have  one  institution,  a  sanatorium  and 
hospital  for  insane  men  and  epileptics.  The  Fran- 
ciscan Brothers  conduct  an  apprentices'  home  and 
an  asylum  for  boys.  A  number  of  female  orders  also 
have  establishments.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  have  charge  of  an  eye-hospital,  a  city 
asylum  for  orphans  and  the  aged,  with  a  wing  for 
insane  women,  and  Our  Lady's  Hospital,  a  working- 
women's  home,  and  a  protectory  for  girls.  The 
Christensians  have  but  one  house,  which  is  devoted 
to  the  care  of  the  sick.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth 
have  five:  a  mother-house,  a  city  hospital  of  St.  Vin- 
cent, a  city  home  for  the  sick,  an  asylum  for  the  aged 
poor  imder  the  patronage  of  St.  Joseph,  and  a  city 
hospital  of  Our  Lady  of  Help.  The  Franciscan 
Sisters  have  six  institutions:  a  mother-house,  a  refuge 
for  working-women,  an  asylum  for  homeless  girls,  a 
home  for  .servant-girls  out  of  employment  and  do- 
mestics no  longer  able  to  work,  a  hospital  of  St.  Mary, 
and  a  sanatoriimi.  The  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd have  one  house.  The  Sisters  of  the  Poor  Cliihl 
Jesus  conduct  two:  a  school  for  neglected  girls,  with 
a  manual-training  school  and  kindergarten  attached, 
and  a  hospital  and  sanatorium  for  members  of  the 
Society,  with  a  bo.arding  house,  eiglit  shelters,  etc. 
The  Carmelites  have  one  institution,  and  the  Ursu- 
lines  one,  a  higher  boarding  school  for  girls.  The 
Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  have  a  creche  and  two  kinder- 
gartens, besides  six  Catholic  orphanages.  Among 
the  religious  and  social  unions  sliould  be  mentionetl 
eight  congregations  and  two  unions  for  boys,  one 
workmen's  union,  one  journeymen's  union  with  a 
home  of  its  own,  two  tradesmen's  unions,  one  union 
of  female  shop-employees,  the  Catholic  Protective 
Union  for  girls,  women,  and  cliildren,  one  vestment 
society,  and  one  Cecilian  society.  There  are  two 
Catholic   daily   papers   published   in   Aachen. 

Councils  of  A.vchkn. — .\  number  of  important 
councils  were  held  here  in  the  early  Middle  .Ages. 
In  the  mixed  council  of  789,  Charlemagne  proclaimed 
an  important  capitulary  of  eighty-one  chapters, 
largely  a  repetition  of  earlier  ecclesiastical  legi.sl.a- 
tion,  that  was  accepted  by  the  clergy  and  acquired 
canonical  authority.  .\t  the  council  of  799,  alter  a 
discussion  of  six  days,  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urgel,  in 
Spain,  avowed  liim.self  overcome  by  Alcuin  and 
withdrew  liis  heretical  theory  of  Adoptianism. 
In  the  synods  of  81(),  817,  818,  and  819,  clerical 
and  monastic  discipline  was  the  chief  issue,  and 
the    famous    "Ilegula    Aquensis"    was    made    obli- 


AARON 


AARON 


gatory  on  all  establishments  of  canons  and  canon- 
esses  (see  MoNASTic'isM,  Westehn),  while  a  new 
revision  of  the  Rule  of  .St.  Heiiedict  was  iinpo.sed  on 
the  monks  of  that  order  by  the  reformer  Henedict  of 
Aniane.  The  synod  of  S3G  was  largely  attended 
and  devoted  itself  to  the  restoration  of  ecclcsia.s- 
tical  di.sciplino  tliat  had  been  gravely  alTectcd 
by  the  civil  wars  between  Louis  the  Pious  and  his 
sons.  I'Vom  8(50  to  802  three  councils  were  occupied 
with  the  question  of  tlie  divorce  of  King  Lothaire  I 
from  his  wife,  Theutberga.  In  llUC  took  place  the 
famous  schismatic  council,  approved  by  the  Anti- 
pope  Paachal  III,  in  which  was  decreed  the 
canonization  of  Charlemagne,  that  was  solemnly 
celebrated  29  December  of  that  year. 

Bock,  Knrla  d.  Grossrn  PfnizkaptlU  und  ihre  Kuntiturhiilse. 
KunstgcschichU.  livnt-hniimim  d.  Karolini/.  Octogona  zu  Aachen 
(Koln,  18()7);  Fhom.m.  Die  l.iUratur  liher  die  Tht-rmen  rcn 
Aachen  seit  d.  Mille  d.  in.  Jahrhunderia  (Aachen,  1890);  Qcix, 
BeitrQffe zur  Oeschichte dcr tStitdl  Aaehtn  und  Umi/ebung  (.\achon, 
1840);  LfF.RHCii,  Aachmer  Rechlsdenkmtiler  aus  a.  IS.,  li.,  u. 
IS.  Jahrhundcrl.  (Bonn,  1871);  Fialschriftd.  acnerah; raamm- 
tung  d.  Geanmmti'ireina  d.  deutache.  Geachichia-  um/  Altertuma- 
vertine  zu  DUaaeldorf  (.\achen,  1902):  Fromm,  Ztitschrilt  d. 
Aachener  Geachichlaieri ina  (Aachen,  1879);  Janssen,  Hialory 
of  the  German  I'eoule  (St.  I.ouis,  1903);  BnvcE,  Holy  Roman 
Empire  (New  York,  1904);  Bigklow,  Hialory  of  Ihe  German 
Struggle  for  Liberty  (New  York,  1903),  III;  Dawson,  Germany 
and  the  Germana  (London,  1898);  Tuttle,  History  of  Pruaaia 
(Boston,  18S4-9()).  Hefkle.  Conciliengeschichle,  2cl  ed..  Ill, 
IV;  Mansi,  CoU.  Cone.  .KIII-XV. 

Joseph  Li.ns. 

Aaron,  brother  of  Moses,  and  High  Priest  of  the 
Old  Law. 

I.  Life. — .Mtogether  different  views  are  taken  of 
Aaron's  life,  according  as  the  Pentateuch,  which  is 
the  main  source  on  the  subject,  is  regarded  as  one 
continuous  work,  composed  by  Moses  or  under  his 
supervision  licnce  most  trustworthy  in  the  narration 
of  contemporary  events — or  as  a  compilation  of 
several  documents  of  divers  origins  and  dates,  strung 
together,  at  a  late  epoch,  into  the  present  form.  The 
former  conception,  supported  by  the  decisions  of  tlie 
Biblical  Commission,  is  held  by  Catholics  at  large; 
many  independent  critics  adopt  the  latter.  We 
shall  study  this  part  of  the  subject  under  this  two- 
fold aspect,  although  dwelling  longer,  as  is  meet,  on 
the  former. 

(a)  Traditional  Catholic  Standpoint.  —  According 
to  1  Paral.,  vi,  1-3,  Aaron  (the  signification  of 
whose  name  is  unknown)  was  the  great-grandson 
of  Levi,  and  the  .scconil  of  the  children  of  .Amram 
and  Jochabed,  Marj'  being  the  eldest  and  Mo.ses  the 
youngest.  Prom  Kx.,  vii,  7,  we  learn  that  Aaron 
was  bom  eighty-three,  and  Moses  eighty  years,  before 
the  Kxodus.  It  may  be  admitted,  however,  that 
this  pedigree  is  probably  incomplete,  and  the  age 
given  perhaps  incorrect.  We  know  nothing  of 
Aaron's  life  prior  to  his  calling.  The  first  mention 
of  his  name  occurs  when  Moses,  during  the  vision 
on  Mount  Horcb.  was  endeavouring  to  decline  Ihe 
perilous  mi.ssion  imposed  upon  him,  on  the  plea  that 
he  was  slow  of  speech  and  lacking  in  eloquence. 
Yahweh  answered  his  objection,  saying  that  Aaron 
the  Levite,  who  was  endowed  with  eloquence,  would 
be  his  spokesman.  About  the  same  time  Aaron 
also  was  called  from  on  high.  He  then  went  to  meet 
Moses,  in  order  to  be  instructed  by  h.im  in  the  designs 
of  God;  then  they  a.sseml)lc<l  the  ancients  of  the 
people,  and  Aaron,  who  worked  miracles  to  enforce 
the  words  of  his  divine  mission,  announced  to  them 
the  good  tidings  of  the  coming  freedom  (Ex.,  iv).  To 
deliver  God's  mes.sage  to  the  King  was  a  far  more 
laborious  task.  Phamo  harshly  rebuked  Moses 
and  .Aaron,  whose  inferfeience  proved  disastrous  to 
the  Israelites  (Ex.,  v).  Tliese  latter,  overburdened 
with  the  hard  work  to  which  they  were  subjected, 
bitterly  murmured  against  their  leaders.  Mcl-jcs  in 
turn  complained  before  (!od.  who  replied  by  confirm- 
ing his  mission  and  that  of  his  brother.     Encouraged 


by  this  fresh  assurance  of  Yahweh'shelp,  Moses  and 
Aaron  again  appeared  before  the  King  at  Tanis 
(Ps.  l.x.wii,  12),  there  to  break  the  stubbornness  ot 
Pharao's  will  by  working  the  wonders  known  as  the 
ten  plagues.  In  these,  according  to  the  sacred  nar- 
rative, the  part  taken  Ijy  .\aron  was  most  prominent. 
Of  the  ten  plagues,  the  first  three  and  the  sixth  were 
produced  at  his  command;  both  he  and  his  brother 
were  each  time  summoned  before  the  King;  both 
likewise  received  from  God  the  last  instructions  for 
tlie  departure  of  the  people;  to  botii  was,  in  later 
times,  attributed  Israel's  deliverance  from  the  land 
of  bondage;  both  finally  repeatedly  became  the  tar- 
get for  the  complaints  and  reproaches  of  the  impa- 
tient and  inconsistent  Israelites. 

When  the  Hebrews  reached  the  desert  of  Sin, 
tired  by  their  long  march,  fearful  at  tlie  thought  of 
the  coming  scarcity  of  food,  and  perhaps  weakened 
already  by  privations,  they  began  to  regret  the  abun- 
dance of  the  days  of  their  sojourn  in  Egypt,  and 
murmured  against  Moses  and  .\aron.  But  the  two 
leaders  were  soon  sent  by  God  to  appease  their  mur- 
muring by  the  promise  of  a  double  sign  of  the  provi- 
dence and  care  of  God  for  His  people.  Quails  came 
up  that  same  evening,  and  the  next  morning  the 
manna,  the  new  heavenly  bread  with  which  God 
was  to  feed  His  people  in  the  wilderness,  lay  for  the 
first  time  round  the  camp.  .Varon  was  commanded 
to  keep  a  gamor  of  manna  and  put  it  in  the  taber- 
nacle in  memory  of  this  wonderful  event.  This  is 
the  first  circumstance  in  whicli  we  liear  of  .\aron  in 
reference  to  the  tabernacle  and  the  sacred  functions 
(Ex.,  xvi).  At  Kaphidim,  the  third  station  after 
the  desert  of  Sin,  Israel  met  the  .Vmalecites  and 
fought  against  them.  While  the  men  chosen  by 
Moses  battled  in  the  plain,  .\aron  and  Hur  were 
with  Moses  on  the  top  of  a  neighbouring  hill,  whither 
the  latter  had  betaken  himself  to  pray,  and  when 
he  "lifted  up  his  hands,  Israel  overcame:  but  if  he 
let  them  down  a  little,  Amalee  overcame.  And 
Mo.ses'  hands  were  heavy:  so  they  took  a  stone,  and 
put  under  him  and  he  sat  on  it:  and  .\aron  and 
Hur  stayed  up  his  hands  on  both  sides"  until 
.\malec  w.-is  put  to  flight  (Ex.,  xvii).  In  the  val- 
ley of  Mount  Sinai  the  Hebrews  rccei\ed  the  Ten 
Commandments;  then  Aaron,  in  company  with  sev- 
enty of  the  ancients  of  Israel,  went  upon  tlie  moun- 
tain, to  be  favoured  by  a  vision  of  the  .Almighty,  "and 
they  saw  the  God  of  Israel:  and  under  his  feet  as 
it  were  a  work  of  sapphire  stone,  and  as  the  heaven, 
when  clear."  Thereupon  Moses,  having  entrusted 
to  -Aaron  and  Hur  the  charge  of  settling  the  diffi- 
culties which  might  arise,  went  up  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain. 

His  long  delay  finally  excited  in  the  minds  of  the 
Israelites  the  fear  that  he  had  perished.  They 
gathered  around  -Aaron  and  requested  him  to  make 
them  a  visible  God  that  might  go  before  them. 
Aaron  said:  "Take  the  golden  earrings  from  the 
cars  of  your  wives,  and  your  sons  and  daughters,  and 
bring  them  to  me."  When  he  had  received  them, 
he  made  of  them  a  molten  calf  before  wliich  he  built 
up  an  altar,  and  the  children  of  Israel  were  convoked 
to  celebrate  their  new  god.  What  was  .Aaron's 
intention  in  setting  up  the  golden  calf?  Whether 
he  and  the  people  meant  a  formal  idolatry,  or  ratliei 
wislied  to  raise  up  a  visible  image  of  Yahweh  theii 
deliverer,  has  been  the  subject  of  many  discussions; 
the  texts,  however,  seem  to  favour  the  latter  opinion 
(cf.  Ex.,  xxxii,  4).  Be  this  .as  it  m.iy,  Mo.ses,  at 
God's  command,  came  down  from  the  mountain  in 
the  midst  of  the  celebration;  at  the  sight  of  the 
apparent  idolatry,  filled  with  a  holy  anger,  he  broke 
the  Tables  of  the  Law.  took  hold  of  the  idol,  burnt 
it  and  beat  it  to  powder,  which  he  strowed  into  the 
water.  Then,  addressing  his  brother  as  the  real  and 
answerable   author   of   the   evil:  "What,"    said   he. 


AARON 


AARON 


'•has  this  people  done  to  thee,  that  thou  shouldst 
bring  upon  them  a  most  heinous  sin?"  (Ex.,  xxxii, 
21).  To  this  so  well  deserved  reproach,  Aaron  made 
only  an  embarrassed  answer,  and  he  would  un- 
doubtedly have  uniiergoue  the  chastisement  for  his 
crime  with  the  three  thousand  men  (so  with  the  best 
textual  authority,  although  the  Vulgate  reads  three 
and  twenty  thousand)  that  were  slain  by  the  Levites 
at  iMoses'  command  (Kx.,  xxxii,  28),  had  not  the 
latter  prayed  for  him  and  allayed  God's  wrath  (Deut., 
ix.  20). 

In  spite  of  the  sin,  God  did  not  alter  the  choice  he 
had  made  of  Aaron  (Hebr.,  v,  4)  to  be  Israel's  first 
High  Priest.  When  the  moment  came,  Moses  con- 
secrated him,  according  to  the  ritual  given  in  Ex., 
xxix,  for  his  sublime  functions;  in  like  manner 
Nadab,  Abiu,  Eleazar,  and  Ithamar,  Aaron's  sons, 
he  devoted  to  the  divine  service.  What  the  high 
priesthood  was,  and  by  what  rites  it  was  conferred, 
we  shall  see  later.  The  very  day  of  Aaron's  conse- 
cration, God,  by  an  awful  example,  indicated  with 
what  perfection  sacred  functions  ought  to  be  per- 
formed. At  the  incense-offering,  Nadab  and  Abiu 
put  strange  fire  into  the  censers  and  offered  it  up 
before  the  Lord;  whereupon  a  flame,  coming  out 
from  the  Lord,  forthwith  struck  them  to  death,  and 
they  were  taken  away  from  before  the  sanctuary, 
vested  with  their  priestly  garments,  and  cast  forth 
out  of  the  camp.  Aaron,  whose  heart  had  been 
filled  with  awe  and  sorrow  at  this  dreadful  scene, 
neglected  also  an  important  ceremony;  but  his  ex- 
cuse fully  satisfied  Moses  and  very  likely  God  Him- 
self, for  no  further  chastisement  punished  his  forget- 
fulness  (Lev.,  .x;  Num.,  iii,  4;  xxvi,  61). 

In  Lev.,  xvi,  we  see  him  perform  the  rites  of  the 
Day  of  Atonement;  in  like  manner,  to  him  were 
transmitted  the  precepts  concerning  the  sacrifices 
and  sacrificers  (Lev.,  xvii,  xxi,  x.xii).  A  few  months 
later,  when  the  Hebrews  reached  Haseroth,  the  second 
station  after  Mount  Sinai,  Aaron  fell  into  a  new 
fault.  He  and  Mary  "spoke  against  Moses,  because 
of  his  wife  the  Ethiopian.  And  they  said:  Hath 
the  Lord  spoken  by  Moses  only?"  (Num.,  xii). 
From  the  entire  passage,  especially  from  the  fact 
that  Mary  alone  was  punished,  it  has  been  surmised 
that  Aaron's  sin  was  possibly  a  mere  approval  of 
his  sister's  remarks;  perhaps  also  he  imagined  that 
his  elevation  to  the  high  priesthood  should  have 
freed  him  from  all  dependence  upon  his  brother. 
However  the  case  may  be,  both  were  summoned  by 
God  before  the  tabernacle,  there  to  hear  a  severe 
rebuke.  Mary,  besides,  was  covered  with  leprosy; 
but  Aaron,  in  the  name  of  both,  made  amends  to 
Moses,  who  in  turn  besought  God  to  heal  Mary. 
Moses'  dignity  had  been,  to  a  certain  extent,  dis- 
owned by  Aaron.  The  latter's  prerogatives  likewise 
e-xcited  the  jealousy  of  some  of  the  sons  of  Ruben; 
they  roused  even  the  en\'y  of  the  other  Levites. 
The  opponents,  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  in 
number,  found  their  leaders  in  Core,  a  cousin  of 
Moses  and  of  Aaron,  Dathan,  Abiron,  and  Hon,  of 
the  tribe  of  Ruben.  The  terrible  punishment  of  the 
rebels  and  of  their  chiefs,  which  had  at  first  filled 
the  multitude  with  awe,  soon  roused  their  anger  and 
stirred  up  a  spirit  of  revolt  against  Moses  and  Aaron, 
who  sought  refuge  in  the  tabernacle.  As  soon  as 
they  entered  it  "  the  glorj'  of  the  Lord  appeared.  And 
the  Lord  said  to  Moses:  Get  you  out  from  the  midst 
of  this  multitude,  this  momcrit  will  I  destroy  them" 
(Num.,  xvi,  43-45).  And,  indeed,  a  burning  fire 
raged  among  the  people  and  killed  many  of  them. 
Then  again,  Aaron,  at  Moses'  order,  holding  his 
ren.ser  in  his  hand,  stood  between  the  dead  and  the 
living  to  pray  for  the  people,  and  the  phigue  cea.sed. 
The  authority  of  the  Supreme  Pontiff,  strongly  eon- 
firmed  before  the  people,  very  probably  remained 
thenceforth  undiscussed.     God,  nevertheless,  wished 


to  give  a  fresh  testimony  of  His  favour.  He  com- 
manded Moses  to  take  and  lay  up  in  the  tabernacle 
the  rods  of  the  princes  of  the  Twelve  Tribes,  with  the 
name  of  every  man  written  upon  his  rod.  The  rod 
of  Levi's  tribe  should  bear  Aaron's  name:  "whom- 
soever of  these  1  shall  choose,"  the  Lord  had  said, 
"his  rod  shall  blossom."  The  following  day,  when 
they  returned  to  the  tabernacle,  they  "  found  tliat  the 
rod  of  Aaron  .  .  .  was  budded:  and  that  the  buds 
swelling  it  had  bloomed  blossoms,  wliich,  spreading, 
the  leaves  were  formed  into  almonds."  All  the 
Israelites,  seeing  this,  understood  that  Yahweh's 
choice  was  upon  Aaron,  whose  rod  was  brought  back 
into  the  tabernacle  as  an  everlasting  testimony.  Of 
the  next  thirty-seven  years  of  Aaron's  life,  the  Bible 
gives  no  detail;  its  narrative  is  concerned  only  with 
the  first  three  and  the  last  years  of  the  wandering 
life  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  de.sert;  but  from  the  events 
above  described,  we  may  conclude  that  the  life  of 
the  new  pontiff  was  passed  unmolested  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  sacerdotal  functions. 

In  the  first  month  of  the  thirty-ninth  year  after 
the  Exodus,  the  Hebrews  camped  at  Cades,  where 
Mary,  Aaron's  sister,  died  and  was  buried.  There 
the  people  were  in  want  of  wafer  and  soon  murmured 
against  Moses  and  Aaron.  Then  God  said  to  Moses: 
"Take  the  rod,  and  assemble  the  people  together, 
thou  and  Aaron  thy  brother,  and  speak  to  the  rock 
before  them,  and  it  shall  yield  waters"  (Num.,xx,  8). 
Moses  obeyed  and  struck  the  rock  twice  with  the 
rod,  so  that  there  came  forth  water  in  great  abund- 
ance. We  learn  from  Ps.  cv,  33,  that  Moses  in  this 
circumstance  was  inconsiderate  in  his  words,  per- 
haps when  he  expressed  a  doubt  as  to  whether  he 
and  Aaron  could  bring  forth  water  out  of  the  rock. 
Anyway  God  showed  himself  greatly  displeased  at 
the  two  brothers  and  declared  that  they  would  not 
bring  the  people  into  the  Land  of  Promise.  This 
divine  word  received,  four  months  later,  its  fulfil- 
ment in  Aaron's  case.  When  the  Hebrews  reached 
Mount  Hor,  on  the  borders  of  Edom,  God  announced 
to  Moses  that  his  brother's  last  day  had  come,  and 
commanded  him  to  bring  him  up  on  the  mountain. 
In  sight  of  all  the  people,  Moses  went  up  with  Aaron 
and  Eleazar.  Then  he  stripped  Aaron  of  all  the 
priestly  garments  wherewith  he  vested  Eleazar,  and 
Aaron  died.  Moses  then  came  down  with  Eleazar, 
and  all  the  multitude  mourned  for  Aaron  thirty  days. 
Mussulmans  honour  on  Djebel  Nabi-Haroun  a  monu- 
ment they  call  Aaron's  tomb;  the  authenticity  of 
this  sepulchre,  however,  is  not  altogether  certain. 
By  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  Nahason's  sister, 
four  sons  were  born  to  Aaron.  The  first  two,  Nadab 
and  Abiu,  died  without  leaving  posterity;  but  the 
descendants  of  the  two  others,  Eleazar  and  Ithamar, 
became  very  numerous.  None  of  them,  however, 
honoured  Aaron's  blood  as  much  as  John  the  Baptist, 
who,  besides  being  the  Precursor  of  the  Messias,  was 
proclaimed  by  the  Word  made  Flesh  "tlie  greatest 
among  them  that  are  born  of  women"  (Matt.,  xi,  11). 

(b)  hulf pendent  Slandjmint. — Aaron's  history  takes 
on  an  entirely  different  aspect  when  the  various 
sources  of  the  Pentateuch  are  distinguished  and 
dated  after  the  manner  commonly  adopted  by  in- 
dependent critics.  As  a  rule  it  may  be  stated  that 
originally  the  early  Judean  narrative  (J)  did  not 
mention  Aaron;  if  his  name  now  appears  here  and 
there  in  the  parts  attributed  to  that  source,  it  is 
most  likely  owing  to  an  addition  by  a  late  redactor. 
There  are  two  docinnents,  principally,  that  speak 
of  Aaron.  In  the  old  prophetic  traditions  circulating 
among  the  Ephraimites  (E)  Aaron  figured  as  a 
brother  and  helper  of  Moses.  He  moves  in  the 
shadow  of  the  latter,  in  a  secondary  position,  as,  for 
instance,  during  the  battle  against  Amalec;  with 
Hur,  he  held  up  his  brother's  hands  until  the  enemy 
was  utterly  defeated.     To  Aaron,  in  some  passages, 


AARON 


ABADDON 


the  supreme  authority  seems  to  have  been  entrusted, 
in  the  absence  of  the  great  leader,  as  when  the  latter 
was  up  on  Mount  Sinai;  but  his  administration  prov<>d 
weak,  since  he  so  unfortunately  yielded  to  the 
idolatrous  tendencies  of  the  people.  According  to 
the  document  in  question,  Aaron  is  neither  the 
pontiff  nor  the  minister  of  i)rayer.  It  is  Moses  who 
raises  his  voice  to  Clod  at  the  tabernacle  (Kx.,  xxxiii, 
7-10),  and  \vu  might  perhaps  understand  from  the 
same  place  (v.  II)  that  Josue,  not  Aaron,  ministers 
in  the  tent  of  meeting;  in  like  maimer,  Josue,  not 
Aaron,  goes  up  with  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai,  to  re- 
ceive the  stone  Tables  of  the  Law  (Kx.,  xxiv,  13). 

In  the  Priestly  narratives  (P)  Aaron,  on  the  con- 
trary, occupies  a  most  prominent  place;  there  we 
learn,  indeed,  with  Aaron'.s  pedigree  and  age,  almost 
all  the  above-narrated  particulars,  all  honourable  for 
Moses'  brother,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  part  played 
by  Aaron  in  the  plagues,  his  role  in  some  memorable 
events  of  the  desert  life,  as  the  fall  of  the  manna, 
the  striking  of  water  from  the  rock,  the  confirmation 
of  tlie  prerogatives  of  his  priesthood  against  the  pre- 
tensions of  Core  and  the  others,  and,  finally,  the  some- 
what mysterious  relation  of  his  death,  as  it  is  found  in 
Num.,  XX.  From  this  analysis  of  the  sources  of  his 
history  Aaron's  great  personality  has  undoubtedly 
come  out  belitlletl,  chiefly  because  of  the  reputation 
of  the  writer  of  the  Priestly  narrative;  critics  charge 
him  with  caste  prejudices  and  an  unconcealed  desire 
of  extolling  whatever  has  reference  to  the  sacerdotal 
order  and  functions,  which  too  often  drove  him  to 
exaggerations,  U|)on  which  history  can  hardly  rely, 
and  even  to  forgeries. 

II.  PiiiKSTiiooo. — Whatever  opinion  they  adopt 
with  regard  to  the  historical  value  of  all  the  traditions 
concerning  Aaron's  life,  all  scholars,  whether  Catho- 
lics or  independent  critics,  admit  that  in  Aaron's 
High  Priesthood  the  sacred  writer  intended  to  de- 
scribe a  model,  the  prototype,  so  to  say,  of  the 
Jewish  High  Priest.  (!od,  on  .Alount  Sinai,  institut- 
ing a  worship,  did  also  institute  an  order  of  priests. 
.According  to  the  patriarchal  customs,  the  first  born 
son  in  every  family  used  to  perform  the  functions 
connected  with  God's  worship.  It  might  have  been 
expected,  consequently,  that  Ruben's  family  would 
be  chosen  by  God  for  the  ministry  of  the  new  altar. 
According  to  the  biblical  narrative,  it  was  Aaron, 
however,  who  was  the  object  of  Yahweh's  choice. 
To  what  jealousies  this  gave  rise  later,  lias  been 
indicated  above.  The  office  of  the  Aaronitcs  was  at 
first  merely  to  take  eare  of  the  lamp  that  should 
ever  burn  before  the  veil  of  the  tabernacle  (Ex., 
xxvii,  21).  A  more  formal  calling  soon  followed 
(xxviii,  1).  Aaron  and  his  sons,  distinguished  from 
the  common  people  by  their  sacred  functions,  were 
likewise  to  receive  holy  vestments  suitable  to  their 
office.  When  the  moment  had  come,  when  the 
tabernacle,  and  all  its  appurtenances,  and  whatever 
was  rerpiired  for  Yahweh's  worship  were  ready, 
Moses,  priest  and  mediator  (Gal.,  iii,  19),  offered  the 
different  sacrifices  and  performed  the  many  cere- 
monies of  the  consecration  of  the  new  priests,  accord- 
ing to  the  divine  instructions  (Kx.,  xxix),  and  re- 
peated these  rites  for  .seven  days,  during  which  Aaron 
and  his  sons  were  entirely  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  people.  When,  on  "the  eighth  day,  the  High 
Priest  had  inaugurated  his  office  of  sacrificer  by  kill- 
ing the  victims  he  blessed  the  people,  very  likely 
according  to  the  prescriptions  of  Num..  vi,  24-20,  anci, 
with  Moses,  entered  into  the  tabernacle  so  as  to  take 
pos.se.-<sion  thereof.  As  they  "came  forth  and  blessed 
the  people.  .Vnd  the  glorj'  of  the  Lord  appeared 
to  all  the  multitude:  And  behold  a  fire,  coming  forth 
from  the  Lord,  devoured  the  holocaust,  and  the  fat 
that  was  upon  the  altar:  which  when  the  multitude 
saw,  they  praLsed  the  Lord,  falling  on  their  faces" 
(I/^v.,    ix,  23,  24).     So  was  the  institution  of  the 


Aaronic  priesthood  inaugurated  and  solemnly  ratified 
by  God. 

According  to  Wellhausen's  just  remarks,  Aaron's 
position  in  the  Law  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the 
priestly  order  is  not  merely  superior,  but  uni<|ue. 
His  sons  and  the  Levites  act  under  his  superintendence 
(Num.,  iii,  4);  he  alone  is  the  one  fully  qualified 
priest;  he  alone  bears  the  Urim  and  Thummin  and 
the  Ephod;  he  alone  is  allowed  to  enter  the  Holy  of 
Holies,  there  to  offer  inceiLse  (Lev.,  xxiii,  27)  once 
a  year  on  the  great  Day  of  Atonement.  In  virtue 
of  his  spiritual  dignity  as  the  head  of  the  priesthood, 
he  is  likewise  the  supreme  judge  and  head  of  the 
theocracy  (Num.,  xxvii,  21;  Deut.,  xvii).  He  alone 
is  the  answerable  mediator  between  the  whole  nation 
and  God;  for  this  cause  he  bears  the  names  of  the 
Twelve  'Tribes  written  on  his  breast  and  shoulders; 
his  trespasses  involve  the  whole  people  in  guilt,  and 
are  atoned  for  as  those  of  the  whole  people,  while 
the  princes,  when  their  sin  offerings  are  compared 
with  his,  appear  as  mere  private  persons  (Lev.,  iv, 
3,  13,  22;  ix,  7;  xvi,  0).  His  death  makes  an  epoch; 
it  is  when  the  High  Priest,  not  the  King,  dies,  that  the 
fugitive  slayer  obtains  his  amnesty  (Num.,  .\x.\v,  28). 
At  his  investiture  he  receives  the  chrism  like  a  king 
and  is  called  accordingly  the  anointed  priest;  he  is 
adorned  with  a  diadem  and  tiara  like  a  king  (Ex., 
xxviii),  and  like  a  king,  too,  he  wears  the  purple,  ex- 
cept when  he  goes  into  the  Holy  of  Holies  (Lev.,  xvi, 4). 

Aaron,  first  High  Priest  of  the  Old  Law,  is  most 
naturally  a  figure  of  Jesus  Christ,  first  and  sole 
Sovereign  Priest  of  the  New  Dispensation.  The 
writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  the  first  to 
set  off  the  features  of  this  parallel,  indicating  es- 
pecially two  points  of  comparison.  First,  the  calling 
of  botli  High  Priests:  "Neither  doth  any  man  take 
the  honour  to  himself,  but  he  that  is  called  by  God, 
as  Aaron  was.  So  Christ  also  did  not  glorify  him- 
self, that  he  might  be  made  a  high  priest,  but  he 
that  said  unto  him:  Thou  art  my  Son,  this  day  have 
I  begotten  thee"  (Heb.,  v,  4,  5).  In  the  second 
place,  the  efficacy  and  duration  of  both  the  one  and 
the  other  priesthood.  Aaron's  priesthood  is  from 
this  viewpoint  inferior  to  that  of  Jesus  Christ.  If, 
indeed,  the  former  had  been  able  to  perfect  men  and 
communicate  to  them  the  justice  that  pleases  C!od, 
another  would  have  been  useless.  Hence  its  in- 
efficacy  called  for  a  new  one,  and  Jesus'  priesthood 
has  forever  taken  the  place  of  that  of  Aaron  (Heb., 
vii,  11-12). 

GiooT,  Oullinrs  of  Jewish  Iluitorji  (New  York.  1S97);  IIabt. 
A  Manttat  of  Bible  Hialory  (New  York.  1900);  Kennkt.  The 
Origin  of  (he  Aarortile  Priesthood,  in  Joum.  of  Theol.  Stud., 
.Ian.,  1005;  Kfnt,  The  Studinfs  Old  Testaminl  (New  York. 
1904).  I;  EwALD,  Getehiehte  dcs  Volkcs  Israel,  tr.  Carpenter. 
The  Hitloru  of  Israel  (1809).  II;  WELLiiAtiHEN,  Prolegomtmi 
riir  Geschiehle  Israi'ts  (Berlin.  1S83\  tr.  Black  and  Menzies. 
Prolegomena  to  the  llistom  of  Israel  (Fdinburgh,  1885);  Van 
HooNACKER,  /.€  sacerdocfr  Ih'itiquc  dans  la  loi  el  dans  I'histoire 
des  IlibreuT  (London.  1889);  VoN  IIiimmei.auer.  Das  vormo- 
saisrhe  Priealerlhum  in  Israel  (I'VcibiirR.  1889);  Commentaries 
on  Erotl.,  and  Deut.:  Pahs  in  Vio.,  Did.  de  la  Bible;  White 
in  Hast..  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

Chas.  L.  Sodvay. 

Aaron,  Martyr.     See  Alban,  St. 

Aaronites.     .See  Priesthood,  Jewish. 

Abaddon,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  (1)  ruin,  de- 
struction (Job,  xx.xi,  12);  (2)  place  of  destruction; 
the  Abvss,  realm  of  the  dead  (Job,  xxvi,  6;  Prov.,  xv, 
11);  (3)  it  occurs  personified  (.\poc.,  ix,  11)  as 
'A/3a55iii',  and  is  rendered  in  Greek  by  'AiroXXi/uv, 
denoting  the  angel-prince  of  hell,  the  minister  of 
death  and  author  of  havoc  on  earth.  The  Vulgate 
renders  the  Greek  Apolli/on  by  the  Latin  Extcrminaits 
(that  is,  "Destroyer").  The  identity  of  Abaddon 
with  .^smodeus,  the  demon  of  impurity,  has  been 
as.scrtcd,  but  not  proved.  In  Job,  xxvi,  6,  and 
Prov.,  XV,  11,  the  word  occurs  in  conjunction  with 
Sheol.  A.  J.  Maa.s. 


ABANA 


6 


ABBAN 


Abana.     See  Lebanon. 

Abandonment  (more  properly,  Self-Abandon- 
ment.) a  term  used  by  writers  of  ascetical  and  mys- 
tical book.s  to  signify  the  first  stage  of  the  union  of 
tlie  soul  with  God  by  conforming  to  His  Will.  It  is 
described  as  the  first  step  in  tlie  unitive  or  perfect 
way  of  approacliing  Goi.1  by  contemplation,  of  which 
it  is  the  prelude.  It  implies  the  passive  purification 
througd  which  one  passes  by  accepting  trials  and 
sufferings  permitted  by  God  to  turn  souls  to  Him. 
It  iinplies  also  the  desolation  which  comes  upon  the 
soul  when  relinquishing  what  it  prizes  inordinately 
in  creatures,  the  surrender  of  natural  consolations 
in  order  to  seek  God,  and  the  loss  for  a  time  of  the 
consciousness  of  strong  and  ardent  impulses  of  the 
virtues  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity;  and  finally 
aridity  or  a  lack  of  fervent  devotion  in  prayer  and 
in  other  spiritual  actions.  According  to  some,  it  is 
equivalent  to  the  "obscure  night,"  described  by  St. 
John  of  the  Cross,  or  the  darkness  of  the  soul  in  a 
state  of  purgation,  without  light,  amid  many  uncer- 
tainties, risks,  and  dangers.  It  is  also  misused  to 
express  a  quietistic  condition  of  soul,  which  excludes 
not  only  all  personal  eiTort,  but  even  desires,  and 
disposes  one  to  accept  evil  with  the  fatalistic  motive 
that  it  cannot  be  helped.     (See  Self- Abandonment.) 

PoCLAiN,  Des  graces  d'oraison  (Paris,  1906,  5th  ed.).  428; 
Caussade,  Abandonment,  tr.  McMahon  (New  York,  1887). 
John  J.  Wynne. 

Abarca,  Pedro,  theologian,  b.  in  Aragon  in  1619; 
d.  1  October,  1693,  at  Palencia.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1641,  and  passed  almost  all  his 
religious  life  as  professor  of  scholastic,  moral,  and 
controversial  theology,  chiefly  in  the  University  of 
Salamanca.  Though  not  mentioned  by  Hurter  in 
the  "Nomenclator,"  he  has  left  many  theological 
works,  among  which  are  five  volumes  in  quarto  on 
the  Incarnation  and  the  Sacraments;  one  in  quarto 
on  Grace,  and  several  minor  treatises  on  moral  and 
dogmatic  subjects.  He  wrote  also  extensively  on 
points  of  history,  viz:  "The  Historical  Annals  of  the 
Kings  of  Aragon,"  "The  First  Kings  of  Pampeluna," 
and  has  left  many  manuscripts  and  one  work,  which 
he  withheld,  about  the  Church  of  del  Pilar. 

Antonio,  Bibliotheca  Hisp.;  Sommervogel,  Bibliotktque  de 
la  c.  de  J.,  I,  5. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Abarim  (Hebr.  h&r  hadbharim,  hare  ha  Sbharim; 
Sept.  t6  6pos  Tb  'A^a/)£/A,  iv  tQ  -nipav  tov  'lopSd^/ou), 
mountain  Abarim,  mountains  of  Abarim,  a  mountain 
range  across  Jordan,  extending  from  Mount  Nebo  in 
the  north,  perhaps  to  the  Arabian  desert  in  the  south. 
The  Vulgate  (Deut.,  xxxii,  49)  gives  its  etymological 
meaning  as  "  passages."  Its  northern  part  was  called 
Phasga,  (or  Pisgah)  and  the  highest  peak  of  Phasga 
was  Mount  Nebo  (Deut.,  iii,  27;  xxxiv,  1;  xxxii,  49; 
Num.,  xxiii,  14;  xxvii,  12;  xxi,  20;  xxxiii,  47). 
Balaam  blessed  Israel  the  second  time  from  the  top 
of  Mount  Phasga  (Num.,  xxiii,  14);  from  here  Moses 
saw  the  Land  of  Promise,  and  here  Jeremias  hid 
the  ark  (II  Mach.,  ii,  4,  5).     (See  Nebo,  Phasga.) 

IIacen,  Lexicon  Biblicvm  (Paris,  1905);  Legendre  in  ViG. 
Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895);  Chapman  in  Hast.  Diet,  of  the 
Bible  (New  York,  1903);  Wei-te  in  Kirchenlex. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Abba  is  the  Aramaic  word  for  "  father."  The  word 
occurs  three  times  in  the  New  Testament  (Mark,  xiv, 
36;  Kom.,  viii,  15;  Gal.,  iv,  6).  In  each  case  it  has 
its  translation  subjoined  to  it,  reading  d/3/3a  6  var'fip 
in  the  Greek  text;  abha,  pater  in  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
and  "Abba,  Father"  in  the  Enghsh  version.  St.  Paul 
made  use  of  the  double  expression  in  imitation  of 
the  early  Christians,  who,  in  their  turn,  used  it  in 
imitation  of  the  prayer  of  Christ.  Opinions  differ  as 
to  the  rea.son  for  the  double  expression  in  our  Lord's 
prayer:  (I)  Jesus  him.self  used  it;  (2)  St.  Peter 
added  the  Greek  tran.slation  in  his  preaching,  retaiii- 


Arnauld  d'  Abbadie 


ing  the  .\ramaic  direct  address;  (3)  The  Evangelist 
added    the    Greek    translation;    (4)    St.    Mark    con- 
formed to  an  existing  Christian  custom  of  praying, 
bv  way  of  h/steron  proteron. 
"Thaver  in  Hast.  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  I.  5. 

A.  J.  Maas. 
Abbacy.     See  Abbot. 

Abbadie,  .\ntoine  d',  astronomer,  geodetist,  ge- 
ographer, phy.sician.  numismatist,  philologian,  b. 
1810;  d.  March  20,  1S07.  While  still  a  young  man, 
he  conceived  the 
project  of  explor- 
ing .Africa.  Hav- 
ing prepared  him- 
self by  six  years' 
study,  he  spent 
ten  years  explor- 
ing Ethiopia,  and 
achieved  scientific 
results  of  the 
greatest  value. 
D'Abbadie  was  a 
fervent  Catholic, 
and  during  his 
explorations  i  a 
Ethiopia  made 
every  effort  to 
plant  there  the 
Catholic  Faith. 
It  was  at  his 
suggestion  .and 
that  of  his 
brother  Arnaukl, 
companion  and  colabourer  of  Antoine,  that  Gregory 
XVI  sent  missionaries  to  carry  on  the  work.  He 
published  in  the  "  Revue  des  Questions  Scientifiques," 
the  organ  of  the  society,  a  work  on  the  abolition  of 
African  slavery.  He  gave  his  estate,  called  Ab- 
badia,  in  southern  France,  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Paris,  to  carry  on  research.  His  will 
provided,  furthermore,  for  the  establishment  of 
an  observatory  at  Abbadia,  where  a  catalogue  of 
500,000  stars  must  be  made,  the  work  to  be  confided 
to  religious  and  to  be  completed  before  1950.  His 
principal  writings  are:  "Catalogue  raisonni?  de  manu- 
scrits  6thiopiens  "  (Paris,  1859);  "  R&um6  g^oddsique 
des  positions  d(5terminees  en  Ethiopie"  (Paris,  1859); 
"Geod(?sie  d'Ethiopie  ou  Triangulation  d'une  partie 
de  la  haute  Ethiopie"  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1860-73);  "Ob- 
servations relatives  a  la  physique  du  globe,  faites  au 
Brfeil  et  en  Ethiopie"  (Paris,  1873);  " Dictionnaire 
de  la  langue  Amarinfia." — II.  Abbadie,  Ar.vauld 
Michel  d',  geographer,  younger  brother  of  preceding, 
b.  in  Dubhn,  Ireland,  1815;  d.  S  Novemtjer,  1893. 
In  1837  he  accompanied  his  brother's  expedition 
to  Abyssinia,  where  he  soon  acquired  considerable 
influence,  and  never  failed  to  employ  it  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  Catholic  mi.ssions.  His  most  important 
work  is  "Douze  ans  dans  la  haute  Ethiopie"  (Paris, 
1868). 

Martial  de  Salviac,  Lea  Galla:  Grande  Nation  .Africaine 
(Paris,  1901,  44,  45);  Lettres  d'Anloine  d'Abbadie  a  Monlolem- 
bert  ct  au  cardinal  prcfet  de  la  Propof/ande  (1843-45);  Revue 
des  Questions  Scienitfiques  (.\pril,  1897). 

Thom.\s  J.  Sh.\han. 

Abban,  name  of  Several  Iui.sii  Saints.  St.  ."^bban 
OF  Magiikkanoidhe  (.Murneave  or  Murnevin),  neph-  / 
ew  of  St.  Ibar,  the  apostle  of  Wexford  (a  prederossor 
and  contemporary  of  St.  Patrick),  flourished  57()-()20. 
He  was  the  son  of  Cormac,  King  of  Leinster,  and  he 
founded  numerous  churches  in  the  district  of  I'i 
Ccnnselaigh,  almost  conterminous  with  the  present 
County  Wexford  and  Diocese  of  Ferns.  His  princi- 
pal monastery  was  at  Maghcranoidhc,  subsequently 
Iviiown  as  ".Vbbanstown,"  to-day,  .Vdamstown;  but 
lie  also  founded  an  alibey  at  Kosmic-treoin,  or  New 
Ross,  which  afterwards  becanie  famous  as  a  scholastic 


ABBAS 


ABBESS 


establishment.  Me  died  10  March,  020.  His  namo- 
Bakc,  St.  Abu.\n  OF  New  Ross,  also  known  as  St. 
Ewin,  Abhan,  or  E\in,  but  whose  name  has  been 
locally  corrupted  as  "Stephen,"  "Neville,"  and 
"Novin,"  wa.s  his  contemporary.  Some  writci-s  have 
confounded  him  with  St.  I^vin  of  Monasterovan, 
County  Kildare.  Even  Colgan  (followed  by  Dr. 
Lanigan)  fell  into  the  error  of  identifying  Ko.sglas 
(Monastorevan)  with  Kos-mic-treoin  (New  Kos.s).  St. 
Evin  of  Kosglas,  author  of  the  "Tripartite  Life  of  St. 
Patrick,"  died  22  December,  at  his  own  foundation, 
afterwards  called  Monaster  Kvin  (County  Kildare), 
whereas  St.  Abban,  or  Evin,  of  Kos-mic-trooin.  diiMl 
at  lioss.  County  Wexford.  A  third  saint  of  tliis 
name,  St.  Ann.\N  the  Hk.umit,  of  .Abingdon  (Eng- 
land), was  certainly  an  Irislinian,  and  is  commem- 
orated on  13  May,  though  the  year  of  hi.s  death 
is  not  definitely  known.  He  was  undoubtedly  pre- 
Patrician. 

GnATTAN  Flood.  Irinh  Sainls;  Bock,  in  Aria  S.5.  (IS07\ 
Oct.,  XII.  270-274;  Bitil.haoumr.  I.nl.  (1898).  I.  30fl;  OUan- 
l.os.  Lirri,  of  Irifh  iiainls  (III,  Hi  March,  V,  13  May,  and 
XII.  22  December);  Coluan.  .-li("  N.S. //i6cmi«;  (1640).  1.  024. 


Abbas  Siculus.     See  P.\noumit.\nus. 

Abbe,  a  French  word  meaning  primarily  and 
strictly  an  abbot  or  superior  of  a  monastery  of  men. 
It  came  eventually  to  be  applied,  in  France,  to  every 
man  who  wears  the  dress  of  a  secular  ecclesiastic 
(Littr6).  This  extension  of  meaning  dates  from  the 
time  of  Francis  I  (l.')15— 17),  who.  by  consent  of 
the  Holy  See,  named  secular  clerics  Abbots  in 
commendam  (See  AnnOT,  under  HI.  Kinds  of  Abbot). 
During  the  following  centuries  the  name  was  ap- 
plied to  clerics,  often  not  in  sacred  Orders,  engaged 
as  professors  or  tutors,  or  in  some  similar  capacity 
in  the  houses  of  the  nobility. 

John  .1.  x'   Becket. 

Abbeloos,  Jean  B.\ptiste,  orientalist,  b.  1,5  Jan- 
uary, 18.30,  at  Goyck,  Belgium;  d.  2.5  February, 
1900.  He  was  educated  in  the  seminary  of  Malines, 
1849-60.  .'Vfter  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood, 
22  September,  1800,  he  studied  at  Lou  vain  and 
Rome,  devoting  himself  especially  to  Syriac  language 
and  literature.  He  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  in 
Theology  from  the  University  of  Louvain,  1.5  July, 
1867,  spent  the  following  winter  in  London,  and  on 
his  return  to  Belgium  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Holy  Scripture  in  the  seminary  of  Malines.  Failing 
health  obliged  him  to  abandon  the  work  of  teaching, 
and  he  became,  in  1876,  pastor  at  Duffel.  He  was 
appointed  in  1SS.3  vicar-gcncral  under  Cardinal 
Dechamps  and  held  that  position  until  10  Februarj-, 
1887,  when  he  was  appointed  Rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Louvain.  During  his  administration  the 
University  grew  rapidly  in  equipment  and  organiza- 
tion. .\bbeloos,  although  in  the  midst  of  his  official 
duties,  was  always  the  .scholar  and  the  man  of  high 
ideals,  whose  word  and  example  stimulated  younger 
men  to  earnest  work.  Modest  and  una.ssuming,  lie 
realized  none  the  less  the  significance  of  his  position 
as  rector  of  a  great  Catholic  university,  and  he  exerted 
his  influence  in  behalf  of  Church  and  country  so  elTect- 
ually  that  his  retirement  in  1900  occasioned  regret 
both  in  the  University  and  in  the  whole  kingdom. 
His  published  works  are:  "  De  vita  ct  scriptis  S. 
Jacobi  Sarugensis"  (Louvain,  1867);  "Gregorii  Bar- 
hebraei  Chronicon  Ecclesiasticum"  (Paris  and  Lou- 
vain, 1872-77);  "Acta  Sancti  Maris"  (Bru.s.sols  and 
Leipzig,  1885);  "Acta  Mar  Kardaghi  Martyris" 
(Brus-scls,    1900). 

CoLisET,  in  L*  Mtu/on,  VII.  1.59  (190G);  Caeymaex,  in 
Rrtut  bibliooraphutue  Bclgr,  30  April.  1900. 

E.   A.   P.VCE. 

Abbess,  the  female  superior  in  spirituals  and  tem- 
porals of  a  community  of  twelve  or  more  nuns.     With 


a  few  necessary  exceptions,  the  position  of  an  Abbess 
in  her  convent  corresponds  generally  with  that  of  an 
Abbot  in  his  inonastery.  The  title  was  originally 
the  distinctive  appellation  of  Benedictine  superiors, 
but  in  the  course  of  time  it  came  to  be  applie<l  al.so 
to  the  conventual  superiors  in  other  orders,  especially 
to  those  of  the  Second  Order  of  St.  Francis  (Poor 
Clares)  and  to  tho.se  of  certain  colleges  of  canonesses. 

HisToiucAL  OuiGi.v. — Monastic  communities  for 
women  had  sprimg  up  in  the  ICast  at  a  very  early 
period,  .\fter  their  introduction  into  luirope, 
towanls  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  they  began 
to  flourish  also  in  the  West,  particularly  in  Gaul, 
where  tradition  ascribes  the  foundation  of  many 
religious  houses  to  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  Cassian, 
the  great  organizer  of  monachism  in  Gaul,  founded  a 
f;imous  convent  at  Marseilles,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,  and  from  this  convent,  at  a  later  period, 
St.  Ca'.sarius  (d.  542)  called  his  sister  Cirsaria,  and 
placed  her  over  a  religious  hou.se  which  he  was  then 
founding  at  Aries.  St.  Benedict  is  also  said  to  have 
founded  a  community  of  virgins  consecrated  to  God, 
and  to  have  placed  it  under  the  direction  of  his  sister 
St.  Scholastica,  but  whether  or  not  the  great  Patri- 
arch established  a  nunnery,  it  is  certain  that  in  a 
short  time  he  was  looked  upon  as  a  guide  and  father 
to  the  many  convents  already  existing.  His  rule 
was  almost  universally  adopted  by  them,  and  with 
it  the  title  Abbess  came  into  general  use  to  designate 
the  superior  of  a  convent  of  nuns.  Before  this  time 
the  titles  Mater  Monasterii,  Mater  Monacharum,  and 
Pro'ponita  were  more  common.  The  name  Abbess 
appears  for  the  first  time  in  a  sepulchral  inscription 
of  the  year  511,  foimd  in  1901  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
convent  of  vinjines  sacne  which  stootl  in  Home  near 
the  Basilica  of  St.  Agnes  extra  Muros.  The  inscrip- 
tion commemorates  the  .\bbess  Serena  who  presided 
over  this  convent  up  to  the  time  of  her  death  at  the 
age  of  eighty-five  years:  "  Hie  requiescit  in  pace, 
Serena  .\Dbatissa  S.  V.  quae  vixit  annos  P.  M. 
LXXXV." 

Mode  of  Election. — The  office  of  an  Abbess  is 
elective,  the  choice  being  by  the  .secret  suffrages  of 
the  .sisters.  By  the  common  law  of  the  Church,  all 
the  nuns  of  a  community,  profes.sed  for  the  choir, 
and  free  from  censures,  are  entitled  to  vote;  but  by 
particular  law  some  constitutions  extend  the  right 
of  an  active  voice  only  to  those  who  have  been  pro- 
fessed for  a  certain  number  of  years.  Lay  sisters 
are  excluded  by  the  constitutions  of  most  orders, 
but  in  communities  where  they  have  the  right  to 
vote  their  privilege  is  to  be  respected.  In  non- 
exempt  monasteries  the  election  is  presided  over  by 
the  ordinary  of  the  diocese  or  his  vicar;  in  exempt 
houses,  under  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy 
See,  the  Bishop  likewi.se  presides,  but  only  as  the 
delegate  of  the  Pope.  In  those  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  regular  prelate  the  nuns  are  obligeil  to  in- 
form the  diocesan  of  the  day  and  time  of  election, 
so  that,  if  he  wish,  he  or  his  representative  may  be 
present.  The  Bishop  and  the  regular  prelate  preside 
jointly,  but  in  no  instance  have  they  a  vote,  not  even 
a  casting  vote.  And  the  Council  of  Trent  prescribes, 
further,  that  "  he  who  presides  at  the  election,  whether 
it  be  the  bishop  or  otlicr  superior,  shall  not  enter  the 
enclosure  of  the  monasterj-,  but  shall  listen  to  or 
receive  the  vote  of  each  at  the  grille."  (Cone.  Trid., 
Sess.  XXV,  De  regular,  et  monial..  Cap.  vii.)  The 
voting  must  be  strictly  secret,  and  if  secrecy  be 
not  observed  (whether  through  ignorance  of  the  law  or 
not),  the  election  is  niill  and  void.  .V  simple  majority 
of  votes  for  one  candidate  is  sufficient  for  a  valid 
election,  unless  the  constitutions  of  an  order  require 
nrore  than  the  bare  majority.  The  result  is  to  be 
proclaimed  at  once,  by  announcing  the  number  of 
voles  cast  for  each  nun,  so  that  in  ca.se  of  a  dispute 
an    immediate    opportunity    may    be    afforded    for 


ABBESS 


ABBESS 


checking  Ihe  vote.  In  case  no  candidate  sliould  re- 
ceive tlie  requireil  number  of  votes,  the  Bishop  or 
the  regular  prelate  orders  a  new  election,  and  for  the 
time  appoints  a  superior.  If  the  community  again 
fails  to  agree  upon  any  candidate,  the  Bisliop  or  other 
superior  can  nominate  the  one  whom  he  judges  to 
be  the  most  worthy,  and  depute  her  as  Abbess.  The 
newly  appointed  .\bbess  enters  upon  the  duties  of 
her  office  immediately  after  confirmation,  which 
is  obtained  for  non-exempt  convents  from  the  dio- 
cesan, and  for  exempt  houses  either  from  the  regidar 
prelate,  if  tliey  be  under  his  jurisdiction,  or  from  the 
Holy  See  directly.  (Ferraris,  Prompta  Bibliotlieca; 
Abbati-ssa. — Cf.  Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church.) 

Eligibility. — Toucliing  tlie  age  at  which  a  nun 
becomes  eligible  for  the  office,  the  discipline  of  tlie 
Church  has  varied  at  different  times.  Pope  Leo  I 
prescribed  forty  years.  St.  Gregory  the  Great  in- 
sisted tliat  the  Abbesses  chosen  by  the  communities 
should  be  at  least  sixty — women  to  whom  years  had 
given  dignity,  discretion,  and  tlie  power  to  withstand 
temptation.  He  very  strongly  proliibited  the  ap- 
pointment of  young  women  as  Abbesses  (Ep.  iv, 
ch.  xi).  Popes  Innocent  IV  and  Boniface  VIII,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  both  content  with  thirty  years. 
According  to  the  present  legi.slation,  which  is  that  of 
the  Council  of  Trent,  no  nun  "  can  be  elected  as 
Abbess  unless  she  has  completed  the  fortieth  year  of 
her  age,  and  tlie  eighth  year  of  her  religious  profes- 
sion. But  should  no  one  be  found  in  any  convent 
w'itli  these  qualifications,  one  may  be  elected  out 
of  another  convent  of  the  same  order.  But  if  the 
superior  who  presitles  over  the  election  shall  deem 
even  this  an  inconvenience,  there  may  be  chosen, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Bishop  or  otiier  superior, 
one  from  amongst  those  in  tlie  same  convent  who 
are  beyond  their  thirtieth  year,  and  have  since  their 
profession  passed  at  least  five  of  tliose  years  in  an 
upright  manner.  ...  In  otlier  particulars,  the  con- 
stitution of  eacli  order  or  convent  shall  be  observed." 
(Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  xxv,  De  regular,  et  monial..  Cap. 
vii.)  By  various  decisions  of  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gation of  the  Coimcil  and  of  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gation of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  it  is  forbidden, 
without  a  dispensation  from  the  Holy  See,  to  elect  a 
nun  of  illegitimate  birth;  one  not  of  virginal  integrity 
of  body;  or  one  who  has  had  to  undergo  a  public 
penance  (unless  it  were  only  salutary);  a  widow; 
a  blind  or  deaf  nun;  or  one  of  three  sisters  alive  at 
the  time  in  the  same  convent.  No  nun  is  permitted 
to  vote  for  herself.  (Ferraris,  Prompta  Bibliotlieca; 
Abbati.ssa. — Taunton,  op.  cit.)  Abbesses  are  gener- 
ally elected  for  life.  In  Italy,  however,  and  the 
adjacent  islands,  by  the  Bull  of  Gregory  XIII, 
"Lxposcit  debitum"  (1  January,  1583),  tliey  are 
elected  for  tliree  years  only,  and  then  must  vacate 
the  office  for  a  period  of  tliree  years,  during  wliicli 
time  they  cannot  act  even  as  vicars. 

Rite  of  Benediction. — Abbesses  elected  for  life 
can  be  solemnly  blessed  according  to  the  rite  pre- 
scribed in  the  Pontificale  Romanum.  This  benedic- 
tion (also  called  ordination  or  consecration)  they 
must  seek,  under  pain  of  deprivation,  witliin  a  year 
of  llieir  election,  from  the  Bishop  of  tlie  diocese. 
Tlie  ceremony,  which  takes  place  during  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  can  be  performed  on  any  day 
of  tlie  week.  No  mention  is  made  in  the  Pontificale 
of  a  conferring  of  the  staff,  customary  in  many  places 
at  tlie  installation  of  an  Abbess,  but  the  rite  is  pre- 
scribed in  many  monastic  rituals,  and  as  a  rule  the 
Abbess,  like  the  ."Vbbot,  bears  the  crosier  as  a  symbol 
of  her  office  and  of  her  rank;  she  has  also  a  right  to 
the  ring.  The  induction  of  an  Abbess  into  olfice 
early  assumed  a  liturgical  character.  St.  Radegun- 
dis,  in  one  of  her  letters,  speaks  of  it,  and  informs  us 
tliat  Agnes,  the  Abbess  of  Saintc-Croi.\,  before  enter- 
ing on  tier  charge,  received  the  solemn  Kite  of  Bene- 


diction from  St.  Germain,  the  Bishop  of  Paris.  Since 
the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  the  blessing  was 
reserved  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  At  present 
some  Abbesses  are  privileged  to  receive  it  from  cer- 
tain regular  prelates. 

Authority  op  Abbess. — An  Abbess  can  exercise 
supreme  domestic  authority  (potestas  dominaliva) 
over  her  monastery  and  all  its  dependencies,  but  as  a 
female,  she  is  debarred  from  exercising  any  power  of 
spiritual  jurisdiction,  such  as  belongs  to  an  abbot. 
She  is  empowered  therefore  to  administer  the  tem- 
poral possessions  of  the  convent;  to  issue  commands 
to  her  nuns  "in  virtue  of  holy  obedience",  thus 
binding  them  in  conscience,  provided  the  obedience 
she  demands  be  in  accordance  with  the  rule  and 
statutes  of  the  order;  and  to  prescribe  and  ordain 
whatever  may  be  necessary  for  tlie  maintenance  of 
discipline  in  the  house,  or  conducive  to  the  proper 
observance  of  the  rule,  and  the  preservation  of  peace 
and  order  in  the  community.  She  can  also  irritate 
directly,  the  vows  of  her  professed  sisters,  and  in- 
directly, those  of  the  no^^ces,  but  she  cannot  commute 
those  vows,  nor  dispense  from  them.  Neither  can 
she  dispense  her  subjects  from  any  regular  and 
ecclesiastical  observances,  without  the  leave  of  her 
prelate,  though  she  can,  in  a  particular  'nstance, 
declare  that  a  certain  precept  ceases  to  bind.  She 
cannot  publicly  bless  her  nuns,  as  a  priest  or  a  prel- 
ate blesses,  but  she  can  bless  them  in  the  way  that 
a  mother  blesses  her  children.  She  is  not  permitted 
to  preach,  though  she  may,  in  chapter,  exhort  her 
nuns  by  conferences.  An  Abbess  has,  moreover,  a 
certain  power  of  coercion,  wliich  authorizes  her  to 
impose  punishments  of  a  lighter  nature,  in  harmony 
with  the  provisions  of  the  rule,  but  in  no  instance 
has  she  a  right  to  inflict  the  graver  ecclesiastical 
penalties,  such  as  censures.  By  the  decree  "Quem- 
admodum",  17  December,  1S90,  of  Leo  XIII,  ab- 
besses and  other  superiors  are  absolutely  inhibited 
"from  endeavouring,  directly  or  indirectly,  by  com- 
mand, counsel,  fear,  threats,  or  blandishments,  to 
induce  their  subjects  to  make  to  them  the  secret 
manifestations  of  conscience  in  whatsoever  manner 
or  under  what  name  soever."  The  same  decree 
declares  that  permission  or  prohibition  as  to  Holy 
Communion  "belongs  solely  to  tlie  ordinary  or  ex- 
traordinary confessor,  the  superiors  having  no  right 
whatever  to  interfere  in  the  matter,  save  only  the 
case  in  which  any  one  of  their  subjects  had  given 
scandal  to  the  community  since  .  .  .  her  last  con- 
fession, or  had  been  guilty  of  some  grievous  public 
fault,  and  this  only  until  the  guilty  one  had  once 
more  received  the  Sacrament  of  Penance."  With 
regard  to  the  administration  of  monastic  property  it 
must  be  noted  that  in  affairs  of  greater  moment  an 
Abbess  is  always  more  or  less  depenilent  on  the 
Ordinary,  if  subject  to  liira,  or  on  the  regular  prelate 
if  her  abbey  is  exempt.  By  the  Constitution  "  In- 
scrutabili,"  5  February,  1622,  of  Gregory  XV,  all 
Abbesses,  exempt  as  well  as  non-exempt,  are  further- 
more obliged  to  present  an  annual  statement  of  their 
temporalities  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese. 

In  niCLlieval  times  tlie  Abbesses  of  the  larger  and 
more  important  houses  were  not  uncommonly 
women  of  great  power  and  distinction,  whose  author- 
ity and  influence  rivalled,  at  times,  that  of  tlie  most 
venerateil  bishops  aiul  abbots.  In  Saxon  England 
"they  had  often  the  retinue  and  state  of  princesses, 
especially  when  they  came  of  royal  blood.  They 
treated  witli  kings,  bishops,  and  the  greatest  lords 
on  terms  of  perfect  eiiuality;  .  .  .  they  were  present 
at  all  great  religious  and  national  solemnities,  at  the 
dedication  of  eliurclics,  and  even,  like  tlie  queens, 
took  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  national  a.sseni- 
blies,  and  affixed  thrir  signatures  to  the  charters 
therein  granted."  (Monlaleiiiliert,  "The  Monks  of 
the  West,"  Bk.  XV.)     They  appeared  also  at  Church 


ABBESS 


ABBESS 


councils  in  the  midst  of  tlie  bishops  and  abbots  and 
priests,  as  did  tlie  Abbess  Hilda  at  the  Synod  of 
VVhitby  in  664,  and  the  Abbess  Klfleda,  who  succeeded 
her,  at  that  of  the  River  Nith  in  70.').  Five  Abbesses 
were  present  at  the  Council  of  Hecanfield  in  694, 
where  they  signed  the  decrees  before  the  presbyters. 
At  a  later  time  the  Abbess  "  took  tithes  from  churches 
impropriated  to  her  liouse,  presented  the  secular 
vicars  to  serve  the  parochial  cliurches,  and  had  all 
tlie  privileges  of  a  landlord  over  the  tcmnoral  estates 
attached  to  her  abbey.  The  .\bbess  of  Shaftesbury, 
for  instance,  at  one  time,  found  seven  kniglits'  fees 
for  the  king's  service  and  held  her  own  manor  courts. 
Wilton,  Barking,  and  Nunnaminster,  as  well  as 
Shaftesbury,  'held  of  the  king  by  an  entire  barony,' 
anil  by  right  of  this  tenure  liad,  for  a  period,  the 
privilege  of  being  summoned  to  Parliament."  (fias- 
quet,  "English  Monastic  Life."  'M).)  In  Gennany 
the  Abbesses  of  tjuedlinburg,  (landersheim,  Linthui, 
Huchau,  Obermiinster,  etc.,  all  rankeil  among  the 
independent  princes  of  the  Empire,  and  as  such  sat 
and  voted  in  the  Diet  as  nietnbers  of  the  Rhenish 
bench  of  bishops.  They  lived  in  princely  state  with 
a  court  of  their  own.  ruled  their  exten.sive  conventual 
estates  hke  temporal  lords,  and  recognized  no  ecclesi- 
astical superior  except  the  Pope.  After  the  Refor- 
mation, their  Protestant  succes,sors  continued  to 
enjoy  the  same  imperial  privileges  up  to  compara- 
tively recent  times.  In  France,  Italy,  and  Spain, 
the  female  superiors  of  the  great  monastic  houses 
were  likewise  very  powerful.  Hut  the  external 
splendour  and  glory  of  medieval  days  ha\e  now  de- 
parted from  all. 

Confession  to  the  Abbe.ss. — Abbesses  have  no 
spiritual  jurisdiction,  and  can  cxerci.se  no  authority 
tliat  is  in  any  way  connected  with  the  power  of  the 
keys  or  of  orders.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  however, 
attempts  were  not  infrei|uently  made  to  usurp  this 
spiritual  power  of  the  priesthood,  and  we  read  of 
Abbesses  who,  besides  being  guilty  of  many  minor 
encroachments  on  the  functions  of  the  .sacerdotal 
ofiice.  presumed  to  interfere  even  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacrament  of  penance  and  confessed  their 
nuns.  Thus,  in  the  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne, 
mention  is  made  of  "certain  Abbesses,  who,  contrary 
to  tlie  established  discipline  of  the  Church  of  Ciod, 
presume  to  ble.ss  the  people,  impose  their  han<ls  on 
them,  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the  foreheads  of 
men,  and  confer  the  veil  on  virgins,  employing  during 
that  ceremony  tlie  blessing  reserved  exclusively  to 
tlie  priests,"  all  of  which  practices  the  bishops  are 
urged  to  forbid  absolutely  in  their  respective  dioceses. 
(Tlioma.s.sin,  "  Vetus  et  Nova  Kcdesiic  Disciplina," 
pars  I,  Ub.  IT,  xii,  no.  17.)  The  "Monasticum 
Cislerciense"  records  the  stem  inhibition  whicli 
Innocent  III,  in  1210,  placed  upon  the  Cistercian 
.\bbe.sses  of  Burgos  and  Palencia  in  Spain,  "who 
blcs.sed  their  religious,  heard  the  confession  of  their 
sins,  and  when  reading  the  Gospel,  presumed  pub- 
licly to  preach."  (Thomassin,  op.  cit.,  pars  I,  lib. 
Ill,  xlix,  no.  4.)  The  Pope  characterized  the  in- 
trusion of  the.se  women  as  a  thing  "unheard  of,  most 
indecorous,  and  higlily  preposterous."  Dom  Mar- 
tene,  the  Benedictine  savant,  in  his  work  "  De 
Antiiiuis  Ecclesia;  Ritibus,"  speaks  of  other  Abbcs.ses 
who  likewise  confessed  their  nuns,  and  adtls.  not 
without  a  touch  of  humour,  that  "these  Abbesses 
had  evidently  overrated  their  spiritual  powers  a 
trifle."  And  as  late  as  10.').S,  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  categorically  condemned  the  acts  of  the 
.\bbess  of  Fontevrault  in  France,  who,  of  her  own 
authority,  obliged  the  monks  and  nuns  of  her  obe- 
dience to  recite  offices,  say  Mas.ses,  and  olxscrve  riles 
and  ceremonies  which  had  never  been  sanctioned  or 
approved  of  by  Home.  (Analecia  Juris  Pontificii, 
Vll,  col.  34.S.)  In  this  connection  it  must,  however, 
be  observed,    that   when   the   older   monaiitic   rules 


prescribe  confession  to  the  superior,  they  do  not 
refer  to  Bacramental  confession,  but  to  the  "chapter 
of  faults"  or  the  culpa,  at  which  the  religious  accu.se 
themselves  of  ordinary  external  faults  patent  to  all, 
and  of  minor  infractions  of  the  rule.  This  "con- 
fession" may  be  made  eitlier  privately  to  the  .superior 
or  publicly  in  the  chapter-hou.se;  no  absolution  is 
gi\en  and  the  penance  assigned  is  merely  disciplinary. 
The  "chapter  of  faults"  is  a  form  of  religious  exerci.se 
still  practised  in  all  the  monasterie.-,  of  the  ancient 
orders. 

But  reference  must  here  be  made  to  certain  ex- 
ceptional cases,  whore  Abbe.s.ses  have  been  permitted, 
by  Apostolical  conces.sion  and  privilege,  it  is  alleged, 
to  exercise  a  most  extraordinary  power  of  juri.sdiction. 
Thus,  the  Abbess  of  tlie  Cistercian  Monastery  of 
Santa  Maria  la  Real  de  las  Huelgas,  near  Burgos,  in. 
Spain,  was,  by  the  terms  of  her  official  protocol,  a 
"  noble  lady,  the  .superior,  prelate,  and  lawful  ad- 
ministratrix in  spirituals  and  temporals  of  the  said 
royal  abbey,  and  of  all  the  convents,  churches,  and 
hermitages  of  its  filiation,  of  the  villages  and  places 
under  its  jurisdiction,  seigniory,  and  vassalage,  in 
virtue  of  Bulls  and  Apostolical  concessions,  with 
plenary  jurisdiction,  privative,  quasi-episcopal,  nul- 
tius  diaresis."  (Florez,  "  Espana  sagrada,"  XXVII, 
Madrid,  1772,  col.  578.)  By  the  favour  of  the 
king,  she  was,  moreover,  mvestcd  with  almost 
royal  prerogatives,  and  cxercisetl  an  unlimited 
secular  authority  over  more  than  fifty  vilhiges. 
Like  the  Lortl  Bishops,  she  held  her  own  courts,  in 
civil  and  criminal  cases,  granted  letters  dismissorial 
for  ordination,  and  issued  licenses  authorizing  priests, 
within  the  limits  of  her  abbatial  jurisdiction,  to  hear 
confessions,  to  preach,  and  to  engage  in  the  cure  of 
souls.  She  was  privileged  also  to  confirm  Abbesses, 
to  impose  censures,  and  to  convoke  synods.  ("  Es- 
pafia  sagrada,"  XXVII,  col.  oSl.)  At  a  General 
Chapter  of  the  Cistercians  held  in  1189,  she  was  made 
Abbess  General  of  the  Order  for  the  Kingdom  of 
Leon  and  Castile,  with  the  privilege  of  convoking 
annually  a  general  cliapter  at  Burgos.  The  Abbess 
of  Las  Huelgas  retained  her  ancient  prestige  up  to 
the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

A  power  of  juristliction  almost  equal  to  that  of 
the  Abbess  of  Las  Huelg.as  was  at  one  time  exercised 
by  the  Cistercian  Abbe.ss  of  Conver.sano  in  Italy. 
.\mong  the  many  privileges  enjoyed  by  this  Abbess 
may  be  specially  mentioned,  that  of  appointing  her 
own  vicar-general  through  whom  she  goxerned  her 
abbatial  territory;  that  of  selecting  and  approving 
confessors  for  the  laity;  and  that  of  authorizing 
clerics  to  have  the  cure  of  souls  in  the  churches  under 
her  jurisdiction.  Every  newly  appointed  Abbess  of 
Conversano  was  likewise  entitled  to  receive  the  pub- 
lic "homage"  of  her  clergy, — the  ceremony  of  which 
was  sufficiently  elaborate.  On  the  appointed  day, 
the  clergy,  in  a  body,  repaircil  to  the  abbey;  at  the 
great  gate  of  her  monastery,  the  Abbe.ss,  with  mitre 
and  crosier,  sat  enthroned  untlcr  a  canopy,  and  as 
each  member  of  the  clergy  passed  before  her,  he 
made  his  obeisance,  and  kissed  her  hand.  The 
clergy,  however,  wished  to  do  away  witli  the  dis- 
tasteful practice,  and,  in  1709,  appealed  to  Rome; 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars 
thereupon  modified  some  of  the  ceremonial  details, 
but  recognized  the  right  of  the  Abbess  to  the  homage. 
Finally,  in  1750,  the  practice  was  wholly  abohshed, 
and  the  Abbess  deprived  of  all  her  power  of  jurisdic- 
tion. (Cf.  "Analecta  Juris  Pontificii,"  XXXVIII, 
col.  72.3;  and  Bizzari,  "Collectanea,"  322.)  Among 
other  Abbesses  said  to  have  exercised  like  powers  of 
jurisdiction,  for  a  period  at  least,  may  be  mentioned 
the  Abbess  of  Fontevrault  in  France,  and  of  Quedlin- 
burg  in  Germany.  (I'erraris,  "  Biblioth.  Prompta; 
Abbatis.sa.") 

Protestant   Abbesses   of   Germ.vny. — In   aomr 


ABBEY 


10 


ABBEY 


parts  of  Germany,  notably  in  Hanover,  Wiirtemberg, 
Brunswick,  and  Schleswig-Holstein,  a  number  of 
Protestant  educational  establishments,  antl  certain 
Lutheran  sisterhoods  are  directed  by  superiors  who 
style  themselves  Abbesses  even  to  the  present  day. 
Ail  these  establishments  were,  at  one  time,  Catholic 
convents  and  monasteries,  and  the  "Abbesses"  now 
presiding  over  them,  are,  in  every  instance,  the 
Protestant  successors  of  a  former  line  of  Catholic 
Abbesses.  The  transformation  into  Protestant  com- 
munity houses  and  seminaries  was  effected,  of  course, 
during  the  religious  revolution  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  the  nuns  who  remained  loyal  to  the 
Catholic  faith  were  driven  from  the  cloister,  and 
Lutheran  sisterhoods  put  in  possession  of  their 
abbeys.  In  many  religious  communities.  Protestant- 
ism was  forcibly  impo'sed  on  the  members,  while  in 
some  few,  particularly  in  North  Germany,  it  was 
voluntarily  embraced.  But  in  all  these  houses, 
where  the  ancient  monastic  offices  were  continued 
the  titles  of  the  officials  were  likewise  retained. 
And  thus  there  have  been,  since  the  sixteenth  century, 
both  Catholic  and  Protestant  Abbesses  in  Germany. 
The  abbey  of  Quedlinburg  was  one  of  the  first  to 
embrace  the  Reformation.  Its  last  Catholic  Abbess, 
Magdalena,  Princess  of  Anhalt,  died  in  1514.  As 
early  as  1539,  the  Abbess  Anna  II  of  Stolberg,  who 
had  been  elected  to  the  office  when  she  was  scarcely 
thirteen  years  of  age,  introduced  Lutheranism  in 
all  the  houses  under  her  jurisdiction.  The  choir 
service  in  the  abbey  church  was  abandoned,  and  the 
Catholic  religion  wholly  abrogated.  The  monastic 
offices  were  reduced  to  four,  but  the  ancient  official 
titles  retained.  Thereafter  tlie  institution  continued 
as  a  Lutheran  sisterhood  till  the  secularization  of  the 
abbey  in  1803.  The  last  two  Abbesses  were  the 
Princess  Anna  Amelia  (d.  1787),  sister  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  the  Princess  Sopliia  Albertina  (d. 
1829),  daughter  of  King  Adolphus  Frederick  of 
Sweden.  In  1542,  under  the  Abbess  Clara  of  the 
house  of  Brunswick,  the  Sclmialkaldic  League 
forcibly  impo.sed  Protest.antism  on  the  members  cf 
the  ancient  and  venerable  Benedictine  Abbey  of 
Ganderslieim;  but  though  the  Lutheran  intruders 
were  driven  out  again  in  1547  by  Clara's  father, 
Duke  Henry  the  Younger,  a  loyal  Catholic,  Lutheran- 
ism was  permanently  introduced,  a  few  years  later, 
by  Julius,  Duke  of  Brunswick.  Margaret,  the  last 
Catholic  Abbess,  died  in  1589,  and  after  that  period 
Lutheran  Abbesses  were  appointed  to  the  founda- 
tion. These  continued  to  enjoy  the  imperial  pri\-i- 
leges  of  tlieir  predecessors  till  1802,  when  Gander- 
slieim was  incorporated  with  Brunswick.  Among 
the  houses  of  minor  importance  still  in  existence,  the 
Abbey  of  Drabeck  may  be  specially  noticed.  At 
one  time  a  Catholic  convent,  it  fell  into  Protestant 
hands  during  the  Reformation.  In  1687,  the  Elector 
Frederick  William  I  of  Brandenburg  granted  the 
revenues  of  the  house  to  the  Counts  of  Stolberg, 
stipulating,  however,  that  -women  of  noble  birth  and 
professing  the  Evangelical  faith,  should  always 
find  a  home  in  the  convent,  be  adequately  provided 
for,  and  live  there  under  tlie  government  of  an 
Abbess.  The  wish  of  the  Elector  is  apparently  still 
respected. 

SECuL.\n  Abbess  in  Austria. — In  the  Hradschin 
of  Prague,  there  is  a  noted  Catholic  Imperial  Insti- 
tute, whose  directress  always  bears  tlie  title  .\bbess. 
Tlie  institute,  now  the  most  exclusi\'e  and  the  best 
endowed  of  it,s  kind  in  Austria,  was  founded  in  1755 
by  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  for  impoverished 
noblewomen  of  ancient  lineage.  The  Abbess  is 
always  an  Austrian  .\rcluluchess,  and  must  be  at 
least  eighteen  years  of  age  before  she  can  assume 
the  duties  of  her  office.  Her  insignia  arc  a  pectoral 
cross,  the  ring,  the  stall,  and  a  princely  coronet. 
It  was  formerly  an  exclusive  privilege  of  tliis  Abbess 


to  crown  the  Queen  of  Bohemia — a  ceremony  last 
performed  in  1808,  for  the  Empress  Maria  Louisa. 
Candidates  for  ailmission  to  tlie  Institute  must  be 
twenty-nine  years  of  age,  of  irreproachable  morals, 
and  able  to  trace  back  their  noble  ancestry,  paternal 
and  maternal,  for  eiglit  generations.  They  make  no 
vows,  but  live  in  community  antl  are  obliged  to  assist 
twice  daily  at  divine  service  in  the  Stiftskirche,  and 
must  go  to  confession  and  receive  Holy  Communion 
four  times  a  year  on  appointed  days.  They  are  all 
Hoffakig. 

Number  and  Distribution,  by  Countries,  of 
Abbesses. — The  Abbesses  of  the  Black  Benedictines 
number  at  present  120.  Of  these  there  are  71  in 
Italy,  15  in  Spain,  12  in  Austro-Hungarj',  11  in 
France  (before  the  Associations  Law),  4  in  England, 
3  in  Belgium,  2  in  Germany,  and  2  in  Switzerland. 
The  Cistercians  of  all  Observances  have  a  total  of  77 
Abbesses.  Of  these  74  belong  to  the  Cistercians  of 
the  Common  Observance,  who  have  most  of  their 
houses  in  Spain  and  in  Italy.  The  Cistercians  of 
the  Strict  Observance  have  2  .Abbesses  in  France  and 
1  in  Germany.  There  are  no  Abbesses  in  the  United 
States.  In  England  the  superiors  of  the  following 
houses  are  Abbesses:  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  Stanbrook, 
Worcester;  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  East  Bergholt,  Suf- 
folk; St.  Mary's  Abbey,  Oulton,  Staffordshire;  St. 
Scholastica's  Abbey,  Teignmouth,  Devon;  St.  Bridg- 
et's Abbey  of  Syon,  Chudleigh,  Devon  (Brigittine); 
St.  Chare's  Abbey,  Darlington,  Durham  (Poor  Clares). 
In  Ireland:  Convent  of  Poor  Clares,  Ballyjamesduff. 

MoNT.\LEMnERT,  The  Monks  of  the  West  (Gasquet's  ed.. 
in  6  vols..  New  York,  1890\  Bk.  XV;  Gasquet,  English 
Monastic  Life  (London,  1904).  viii;  Taonton,  The  English 
Black  Monks  of  St.  Benedict  (London,  1898),  I,  vi;  Taunton. 
The  Law  of  the  Church  (St.  Louis,  1906);  Kckenstein,  Woman 
under  Monastidsm  (London,  1890);  Ferraris,  Prompta 
BiblioOuca  Canonica  (Home,  1885);  Bizzarri,  Collectanea 
S.  C.  Episc.  et  Reg.  (Rome,  1885);  Petra,  Comment,  ad 
Constitut.  Apostolicas  (Rome,  170.">);  Thomassini,  Vttus  et 
Nova  Ecclesioe  Disciplina  (Mainz,  1787);  Fagnani,  JusCanon.. 
s.  Comment,  in  Decret.  (Cologne,  1704);  TAMBtiniNi,  De  jure 
et  privilegiis  abbot.,  prcelat.,  abbatiss.,  etmonial.  (Cologne.  1G91); 
Laurain,  De  rintervention  des  la'iquea,  des  dincres  ct  dcs  ab- 
besses dans  V administration  de  la  penitence  (Paris,  1897): 
.Sagmitller.  Lehrbuch  des  katholischen  Kirchenrechts  (Frei- 
Ijurg  im  Breisgau,  1904). 

Thom.\s  Oestreich. 

Abbey. — A  monastery  canonically  erected  and 
autonomous,  with  a  community  of  not  fewer  than 
twelve  religious;  monks  under  the  government  of 
an  abbot;  nuns  under  that  of  an  abbess.  An  au- 
tonomous priory  is  ruled  by  a  superior  who  bears 
the  title  of  prior  instead  of  that  of  abbot;  but  this 
distinction  was  unknown  in  the  first  centuries  of 
monastic  history.  Such  were  the  twelve  great 
cathedral  priories  of  England,  immediately  gov- 
erned by  a  prior,  the  diocesan  being  considered  the 
abbot.  Other  priories  were  foundeil  as  cells,  or  off- 
shoots from  the  great  abbeys,  anil  remained  depend- 
ent on  the  parent  house,  by  whose  alibot  the  prior 
was  appointed,  and  was  removable  at  will.  Origi- 
nally tlie  term  monastery  designated,  both  in  tlie 
East  antl  in  tlie  West,  the  dwelling  either  of  a  soli- 
tary or  of  a  community;  while  ctrnobiu/n ,  cmirircgntio, 
fraternitas,  ascdcrion,  etc.  were  apjilied  solely  to  the 
houses  of  communities.  Monasteries  took  their 
names  either  from  their  locality,  their  founders,  or 
from  some  monk  whose  life  had  shed  lustre  upon 
them;  and,  later,  from  some  saint  whose  relics  were 
there  preserved,  or  who  was  locally  an  object  of 
special  veneration.  The  monks  of  Egj'pt  and  Pal- 
estine, as  may  be  gathered  from  the  "  I'eregrinatio 
Etlieria',"  also  selected  for  their  monasteries  sites 
famous  for  their  connection  with  some  liiblical  event 
or  personage.  The  first  monks  generally  .settled  in 
solitary  places,  away  from  tlie  haunts  of  men,  though 
sometimes  they  were  to  be  found  also  in  cities  like 
.\lexandria,  Rome,  Carthage,  and  Hippo.  Moniis- 
teries,  foundeil  in  country  places,  not  mfrciiuently 


ABBEY 


11 


ABBEY 


gathered  round  them  settlements  which,  particularly 
in  luiglnnii  and  tiermany,  in  the  course  of  time 
developed  into  great  centres  of  population  and  in- 
dustry. Many  iniiwrtant  towns  owe  their  origin  to 
this  cause;  but  the  tendency  never  showeil  itself  in 
Africa  and  the  East.  Though  the  sites  selected  were 
often  beautiful,  many  .settlements,  especially  in 
Kgj-pt,  were  of  set  pur|X)se  made  amid  arid  ile.serts. 
Nor  was  this  form  of  austerity  confined  to  them. 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  more  dismal  and  savage  did 
the  site  ajipear  to  be,  the  more  did  it  apjieal  to  tlie 
rigid  mood  of  the  Cistercian.  Still,  the  ])reference, 
at  least  with  the  majority  of  the  monks  of  tlie  West, 
was  for  fertile  lands,  suitable  for  cultivation  and 
agriculture. 

The   formation   of   communities   dates   from   pre- 
Christian  times,  as  witness  the  Essenes;  but  the  earli- 


ruin,  since  they  enjoyed  a  certain  sacredness  of  char- 
acter in  popular  estimation.  Double  monasteries 
were  tho.se  in  which  dwelt  communities  both  of  men 
and  women  at  one  and  tlie  same  time,  imder  the 
government  of  a  common  superior,  either  an  abbot 
or  an  abbess.  The  Emperor  Justinian  sui)pressed 
them  in  tlie  East  on  account  of  the  abu.ses  which 
this  arrangement  might  lead  to;  but  the  custom  long 
prevailed  in  England.  France,  and  Spain,  where 
strict  rules,  keeping  the  sexes  entirely  separate  at 
all  times,  minimized  the  danger  of  scandals.  Ex- 
amples of  these  double  monasteries  in  England  were 
the  houses  of  the  Order  of  St.  (iilbert  of  Scmpring- 
ham;  and,  in  France,  Faremoutiers,  Chelles,  Remire- 
mont,  etc. 

In  the  beginning,  solitaries  attached  no  importance 
whatever  to  the  form  or  design  of  their  dwellings. 


UNO  Plan  of  Durham  Cathedral  and  Abbet 


est  Christian  monastic  foundations  of  which  we  have 
definite  knowledge  were  simply  groups  of  huts  with- 
out any  orderly  arrangement,  erected  about  tlie 
abode  of  some  solitary  famous  for  holiness  and  a.s- 
ceticism,  around  whom  had  gathered  a  knot  of  dis- 
ciples anxious  to  learn  his  doctrine  and  to  imitate 
his  way  of  life.  Communities  that  had  outgrown  the 
acconnnodation  afforded  by  their  mona.sterios  founiled 
branch  houses,  and  thus  proi)agated  themselves  like 
the  swarming  of  a  bee-hive,  liishops  founded  many 
monasteries,  while  others  owed  their  existence  to  the 
piety  of  princes  and  nobles,  who  also  generously  en- 
dowed tliem.  The  Council  of  Chalcedon  (Jol)  for- 
bade the  foundation  of  any  monasterj-  without  the 
permission  of  the  local  bishop,  thus  obviating  the 
ditliculties  likely  to  arise  from  irresponsible  action. 
Tliis  became  the  universal  law,  and  it  also  safe- 
guarded  these  institutions  against  disbandment  or 


They  made  use  of  anything  that  Nature  afforded,  or 
their  circumstances  suggested.  In  the  East,  es- 
pecially in  Egypt,  abamloncd  tombs  and  burial  caves; 
m  the  West,  caves  and  rude  huts  constructed  of 
branches  of  trees,  mud,  or  sim-tlried  bricks,  and  fur- 
nished with  the  barest  necessities,  sheltered  many  an 
early  .solitary.  When  tlie  number  of  such  solitaries 
in  a  certain  locality  grew,  and  huts  incrcascti  in  pro- 
portion, gradually  they  came  to  subject  themselves 
to  a  common  superior  and  to  follow  a  common  rule 
of  life;  but  they  had  no  common  buildings  except 
a  church  to  which  they  all  repaired  for  the  Sunday 
services.  .\t  Tabennip  on  the  Xilc,  in  Upper  ICgjpt, 
however,  St.  I'achomius  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
copnobitical  life,  arranging  everj-thiiig  in  an  organ- 
izeil  manner.  He  built  several  monasteries,  each 
containing  about  1,600  separate  cells  laid  out  in  lines, 
as  in  an  encampment,  where  the  monks  slept   and 


ABBEY 


12 


ABBEY 


performed  some  of  their  manual  tasks;  but  there 
were  hirge  lialls  for  their  common  needs,  as  the 
church,  refectory,  kitchen,  even  an  infirmary  and  a 
guest-house.  An  enclosure  protecting  all  these  build- 
ings gave  the  settlement  the  appearance  of  a  walled 
village;  but  every  part  was  of  the  utmost  simplicity, 
without  any  pretence  to  architectural  style.  It  was 
this  arrangement  of  monasteries,  inaugurated  by  St. 
Pachomius,  which  finally  spread  throughout  Pales- 
tine, and  received  the  name  of  laur(C,  that  is  "lanes" 
or  "alleys."  In  addition  to  these  congregations 
of  solitaries,  all  living  in  huts  apart,  there  were 
ccinobia,  monasteries  wherein  the  iinnates  lived  a 
common  life,  none  of  them  being  permitted  to  retire 
to  the  cells  of  a  Imircc  before  they  had  therein  un- 
dergone a  lengthy  period  of  training.  In  time  this 
form  of  common  life  superseded  that  of  the  older 
laurm. 

Monasticism  in  the  West  owes  its  development  to 
St.  Benedict  (480-543).  His  Rule  spread  rapidly, 
and  the  imraber  of  monasteries  founded  in  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy  between  520  and  700  was 
very  great.  More  than  15,000  Abbeys,  following  the 
Benedictine  Rule,  had  been  established  before  the 
Council  of  Constance  in  1415.  No  special  plan  was 
adopted  or  followed  in  the  building  of  the  first 
caenohia,  or  monasteries  as  we  understand  the  term 
to-day.  The  monks  simply  copied  the  buildings 
familiar  to  them,  the  Roman  house  or  villa,  whose 
plan,  throughout  the  extent  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
was  practically  imiform.  The  founders  of  monaster- 
ies had  often  merely  to  install  a  community  in  an 
already  existing  villa.  AVhen  they  had  to  build,  the 
natural  instinct  was  to  copy  old  models.  If  they 
fixed  upon  a  site  with  existing  buildings  in  good  re- 
pair, they  simply  adapted  them  to  their  requirements, 
as  St.  Benedict  did  at  Monte  Cassino,  not  disdaining 
to  turn  to  Christian  uses  what  had  before  served  for 
the  worship  of  idols.  The  spread  of  the  monastic 
life  gradually  effected  great  changes  in  the  model  of 
the  Roman  villa.  The  various  avocations  followed 
by  the  monks  required  suitable  buildings,  which  were 
at  first  erected  not  upon  any  premeditated  plan, 
but  just  as  the  need  for  them  arose.  These  require- 
ments, however,  being  practically  the  same  in  every 
country,  resulted  in  practically  similar  arrangements 
everywhere. 

The  monastic  lawgivers  of  the  East  have  left  no 
written  record  of  the  principal  parts  of  their  monas- 
teries. St.  Benedict,  however,  mentions  the  chief 
component  parts  with  great  exactness,  in  his  Rule, 
as  the  oratory,  dormitory,  refectory,  kitchen,  work- 
shops, cellars  for  stores,  infirmary,  novitiate,  guest- 
house, and,  by  inference,  the  conference-room  or 
ch;ipter-house.  These,  therefore,  find  a  place  in  all 
Benedictine  abbeys,  which  all  followed  one  common 
plan,  occiisionally  modified  to  suit  local  conditions. 
The  chief  buildings  were  ranged  around  a  quadrangle. 
Taking  the  normal  Engli-sh  arrangement,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  church  was  situated  as  a  rule  on  the 
northern  side,  its  high  and  massive  walls  affording 
the  niirnks  a  good  shelter  from  the  rough  north  winds. 
The  buildings  of  the  choir,  presbytery,  and  retro- 
chapels  extending  more  of  the  east,  gave  some  pro- 
tection from  the  biting  east  wind.  Canterbury  and 
Chest(!r,  however,  were  exceptions,  their  churches 
being  on  the  southern  side,  where  also  they  were 
fret^uently  found  in  warm  and  sunny  climates,  with 
the  obvious  purpose  of  obtaining  .some  shelter  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  choir  was  ordiiuirily  en- 
tered, in  the  normally  planned  English  monasteries, 
by  a  door  at  the  junction  of  the  northern  and  eastern 
cloisters,  another  tloor  at  the  western  end  of  the  north 
cloister  being  reserved  for  the  more  solemn  jjroccs- 
sions.  Although  in  the  course  of  time  there  came 
into  existence  private  rooms  (chequer,  or  scaccarium) 
wherein  the  officials  transacted  their  business,  and 


later  still  private  cells  are  to  be  met  with,  the  clois- 
ters were,  in  the  main,  the  dwelling-place  of  the  en- 
tire community,  and  here  the  common  life  was  lived. 
The  northern  cloister,  looking  south,  was  the  warmest 
of  the  four  divisions.  Here  was  the  prior's  seat,  next 
the  door  of  the  church;  then  those  of  the  rest,  more 
or  less  in  order.  The  abbot's  place  was  at  the  north- 
eastern corner.  The  novice-master  with  his  novices 
occupied  the  southern  portion  of  the  eastern  cloister, 
while  the  junior  monks  were  opposite  in  the  western 
limb.  The  cold,  sunless,  southern  walk  was  not  used; 
but  out  of  it  opened  the  refectory,  with  the  lavatory 
close  at  hand.  In  Cistercian  houses  it  stood  at  right 
angles  to  this  cloister.  Near  the  refectory  was  the 
conventual  kitchen  with  its  various  offices.  The 
chapter-house  opened  out  of  the  eastern  cloister,  as 
near  the  church  as  possible.  The  position  of  the 
dormitory  was  not  so  fixed.  Normally,  it  commu- 
nicated with  the  southern  transept,  hence  it  was  over 
the  east  cloister;  occasionally  it  stood  at  right  angles 
to  it,  as  at  Winchester,  or  on  the  western  side,  as  at 
Worcester.  The  infirmary  usually  appears  to  have 
been  to  the  east  of  the  dormitory,  but  no  fixed  posi- 
tion was  assigned  to  it.  The  guest-house  was  situ- 
ated where  it  would  be  least  likely  to  interfere  with 
the  privacy  of  the  monastery.  In  later  days,  when 
books  had  multiplied,  a  special  building  for  the  li- 
brary was  added,  at  right  angles  to  one  of  the  walks 
of  the  cloister.  To  these  may  be  added  the  calefac- 
tory, the  parlour,  or  lacutorium,  the  almonry,  and 
the  offices  of  the  obedientiaries;  but  these  additional 
buildings  fitted  into  the  general  plan  where  they  best 
might,  and  their  disposition  differed  somewhat  in  the 
various  monasteries.  The  English  Cistercian  houses 
of  which  there  are  so  many  extensive  and  beavitifui 
remains,  were  mainly  arranged  after  the  plan  of  Ci- 
teaux,  in  Burgundy,  the  mother-house,  with  slight 
local  variations. 

The  Carthusian  monastery  differed  considerably  in 
its  arrangements  from  those  of  other  orders.  The 
monks  were  practically  hermits,  and  each  occupied 
a  small  detached  cottage,  containing  three  rooms, 
which  they  left  only  to  attend  the  services  of  the 
church,  and  on  certain  days  when  the  community 
met  together  in  the  refectory.  These  cottages  opened 
out  of  three  sides  of  a  quadrangular  cloister,  and  on 
the  fourth  side  were  the  church,  refectory,  chapter- 
house, and  other  public  offices.  Both  limrce  and  rn?- 
nobia  were  surrounded  by  walls  which  protected  the 
inmates  either  from  the  intrusion  of  seculars  or  from 
the  violence  of  marauders.  No  monk  might  go  be- 
yond this  enclosure  without  permission.  The  monks 
of  the  earlier  period  considered  this  separation  from 
the  outer  world  as  a  matter  of  prime  importance. 
Women  were  never  permitted  to  enter  the  precincts 
of  monasteries  for  men;  even  access  to  the  church 
was  oftentimes  denied  them,  or,  if  accorded  admis- 
sion, as  at  Durham,  they  were  relegated  to  a  strictly 
limited  space,  farthest  removed  from  the  monks' 
choir.  Even  greater  strictness  was  observed  in  safe- 
guarding the  eiirlnsure  of  nuns.  The  danger  of  .at- 
tack from  S:ir:i(iii  hc.nli's  necessitated,  in  the  case  of 
Eiistern  monastcrirs,  llic  erection  of  lofty  walls,  with 
only  one  entranci-  placi'd  many  feet  above  the  ground, 
reached  by  a  stairway  or  drawbridge  that  could  b'' 
raised  for  tlefenco.  The  monks  of  the  West,  not 
standing  in  fear  of  such  incursions,  did  not  need  such 
elaborate  safeguards,  and  therefore  contented  them- 
selves with  ordinary  enclosure  walls.  A  religious  of 
mature  age  and  character  was  selected  for  the  re- 
sponsible office  of  porter,  and  to  act  as  (he  channel  of 
comnumication  between  the  inmates  and  the  outside 
world.  His  chamber  was  always  close  by,  so  that  he 
might  be  at  hand  to  fulfil  his  duties  of  receiving  the 
poor  and  of  announcing  the  arrival  of  guests.  In 
the  Egyptian  monasteries  the  guest-house,  situated 
near  the  entrance  gateway,  was  placed  under  the 


ABBET 


13 


ABBEY 


charge  of  the  porter,  who  was  assisted  by  the  novices. 
St.  Benedict  so  arr.anged  that  it  should  be  a  building 
distinct  from  the  niona,<tery  it.self,  although  within 
the  enclosure.  It  had  its  own  kitchen,  served  by 
two  of  the  brethren  apjiointed  for  tliat  i)ur()ose  an- 
nually; a  refectory  where  the  abbot  took  his  meals 
with  distinguished  guests,  and,  wlien  he  thought  fit, 
invited  some  of  the  .seniors  to  join  him  there;  an 
apartment  for  the  solemn  reception  of  guests,  in 
which  the  ceremony  of  washing  their  feet,  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  Rule,  was  iierformed  by  the  abbot 
and  his  conuuunity;  and  a  ilormitory  suitably  fur- 
nished. Thus  the  guests  received  every  attention 
due  to  them  by  the  laws  of  charity  and  hospitality, 
and  tlie  community,  while  gaining  the  merit  of  di.s- 
pensiiig  the.se  in  a  large-hearted  way,  tlirough  the 
appointed  ofhcials.  suffered  no  disturbance  of  their 
own  peace  and  fpiict.  It  was  usual  for  the  buildings 
dcdicateil  to  hospitality  to  be  divided  into  four  groups: 
one  for  the  reception  of  guests  of  distinction,  another 
for  poor  travellers  and  pilgrims,  a  thiril  for  merchants 
arriving  on  business  with  the  cellarer,  and  the  last 
for  monk-visitors. 

Formerly,  as  now,  mona.stic  communities  always 
and  everywhere  c.xtendeil  a  generous  hosfiitality  to 
all  comers  as  an  important  way  of  fuMilliiig  their 
social  duties;  hence  monasteries  Ijnng  on  or  near  the 
main  highways  enjoyed  particular  consiileration  and 
esteem.  Where  guests  were  frequent  and  numerous, 
the  accommodation  pro%'ided  for  them  was  on  a  com- 
mensurate scale.  And  as  it  was  necessary  for  great 
personages  to  travel  accompanied  by  a  crowd  of  re- 
tainers, vast  stables  and  other  outhouses  were  aikled 
to  the.se  monastic  hotels.  Later,  xenodochia,  or  in- 
firmaries, were  attached  to  these  gucst-hou.ses,  where 
sick  travellers  could  receive  medical  treatment.  St. 
Benedict  ordained  that  the  mon.astic  oratory  should 
be  what  its  name  implied,  a  place  exclusively  re- 
served for  public  and  pri\ate  prayer.  In  the  begin- 
ning it  was  a  mere  chapel,  only  large  enough  to  hold 
the  religious,  since  externs  were  not  .admitted.  The 
size  of  these  oratories  was  gradually  enlarged  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  liturgj'.  There  w:is  also  usu- 
ally an  oratorj',  outside  the  monastic  enclosure,  to 
which  women  were  admitted. 

The  refectory  w;ls  the  common  hall  where  the 
monks  assembled  for  their  meals.  Strict  silence  was 
observed  there,  but  during  the  meals  one  of  the 
brethren  read  aloud  to  the  community.  The  refec- 
tory was  originally  built  on  the  plan  of  the  ancient 
Roman  triclinium,  terminating  in  an  apse.  The 
tables  were  ranged  along  three  sides  of  the  room 
near  the  walls,  lca\  ing  the  interior  space  for  the 
movements  of  tlie  .servers.  Near  the  door  of  the 
refectory  was  invariably  to  be  found  tlie  lavatory, 
where  the  monks  washed  their  hands  before  and  after 
meals.  The  kitclien  was,  for  convenience,  always 
situated  near  the  refectory.  In  the  larger  monas- 
teries separate  kitchens  were  provided  for  the  com- 
munity (where  the  brethren  jierformed  the  duties  in 
weekly  turns),  the  abbot,  the  sick,  and  the  guests. 
The  dormitory  was  the  community  bed-chamber.  A 
lamp  burned  m  it  throughout  tlie  night.  The  monks 
slept  clotlied,  so  as  to  be  ready,  as  St.  Beneilict  says, 
to  ri.se  without  delay  for  tlie  night  Olfice.  The  nor- 
mal arrangement,  wliere  the  numbers  permitted  it, 
was  for  all  to  sleep  in  one  dormitory,  hence  these 
were  often  very  large;  .sometimes  more  than  one  was 
required.  The  practice,  however,  gradually  came  in 
of  tlivitling  the  large  dormitory  into  numerous  small 
cubicles,  one  being  allotted  to  each  monk.  The  la- 
trines were  separated  from  the  main  buildings  by  a 
passage,  and  were  always  iilanned  with  the  greatest 
regard  to  health  anil  cleanliness,  a  copious  supply  of 
running  water  being  utilized  wherever  po.ssible. 

.Mthiiugh  St.  Benedict  makes  no  specific  mention 
of   a  chapter-house,  nevertheless  he  does  order  liia 


monks  to  "come  together  presently  after  supper  to 
read  the  'Collations.'  "  No  chapter-house  appears 
on  tlie  plan  of  the  great  Swiss  moniustery  of  St.  (iall, 
dating  back  to  the  ninth  century;  in  the  early  days, 
theretore,  the  cloisters  must  have  served  for  the  meet- 
ings of  the  community,  either  for  instruction  or  to 
discuss  the  affairs  of  the  monastery.  But  conven- 
ience soon  suggested  a  special  jilace  for  these  purjioses, 
and  there  is  mention  of  chapter-rooms  in  the  Council 
of  .\ix-la-Chapelle  (817).  The  chapter-room  was  al- 
ways on  the  cloister  level,  on  to  which  it  opened. 
The  cloisters,  thougli  covered,  were  generally  open 
to  the  weather,  and  were  an  adaptation  of  the  old 
Roman  alrium.  Besides  jmividing  a  means  of  com- 
munication between  the  various  parts  of  the  monas- 
tery, they  were  both  the  dwelling-place  and  the 
workshop  of  the  monks,  and  thus  tlic  word  ct(iixl(r 
became  a  synonym  for  the  monastic  life.  How  the 
monks  managed  to  live  in  tlie.se  open  galleries  during 
tlie  winter  months,  in  cold  climates,  is  a  mystery;  a 
room,  called  a  "calefactory,"  heated  by  flues,  or  in 
which  a  fire  was  kept  up,  where  the  monks  might 
retire  occasionally  to  warm  themselves,  wjus  provided 
in  Knglish  monasteries.  On  the  Continent  the  pr.ac- 
tice  in  regard  to  the  novices  differed  somewhat  from 
that  prevailing  in  England.  Not  being  as  yet  in- 
corporated into  the  community,  they  were  not  per- 
mitted to  dwell  in  the  interior  of  the  monastery. 
They  had  their  places  in  the  choir  during  the  Divine 
OHice,  but  they  spent  the  rest  of  their  time  in  the 
novitiate.  .\  senior  monk,  called  the  novice-master, 
instructed  them  in  the  principles  of  the  religious  life, 
and  "tried  their  spirits  if  they  be  of  God,"  as  St. 
Benedict's  Rule  prescribed.  This  period  of  proba- 
tion lasted  a  whole  year.  Abroad,  the  building  set 
apart  for  the  novices  was  pro\ided  with  its  own  ilor- 
mitory,  kitchen,  refectorj',  workroom,  and  occasion- 
ally e\en  its  own  cloisters;  it  was,  in  fact,  a  minia- 
ture monastery  within  a  larger  one. 

The  infirmary  was  a  special  building  set  apart  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  sick  and  infirm  brethren, 
who  there  received  the  particular  care  and  attention 
they  needed,  at  tlie  hands  of  those  appointed  to  the 
duty.  A  herbal  garden  provided  many  of  the  rem- 
edies. Wlien  death  had  brought  its  reward,  the 
monks  were  laid  to  rest  in  a  cemetery  within  the 
monastic  precincts.  The  honour  of  burial  amongst 
the  religious,  a  privilege  highly  esteemed,  w;ls  also 
sometimes  accorded  to  bishops,  royal  personages,  and 
distinguished  benefactors. 

No  monastery  was  complete  without  its  cellars  for 
the  storing  of  provisions.  There  were,  in  addition, 
the  granaries,  bams,  etc.,  all  under  the  care  of  the 
cellarer,  as  also  such  buildings  and  outhouses  as  were 
used  for  agricultural  purposes.  Gardens  and  or- 
chards provided  such  vegetables  and  fruit  as  were 
cultivated  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  work  of  the 
fields  did  not,  however,  occupy  all  the  time  of  the 
monks.  Besides  cultivating  tfie  arts,  and  transcrib- 
ing manuscripts,  they  plied  many  trades,  such  as 
tailoring,  shoe-making,  carpentering,  etc.,  while 
others  baked  the  bread  for  daily  consumption. 
Most  monasteries  had  a  mill  for  grinding  their  com. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  an  Abbey,  especially  if  it 
maintained  a  large  community,  was  like  a  little  city, 
self-contained  and  self-sufficing,  as  St.  Benedict 
wished  it  to  be,  to  obviate  as  far  as  possible  any 
necessity  for  the  monks  to  leave  the  enclosure.  The 
enormous  development  of  the  monastic  life  brouglit 
in  its  train  a  similar  development  in  the  accommo- 
dation .suitable  for  it.  The  monastic  buildings,  at 
first  so  primitive,  grew  in  time  till  they  presented  a 
very  imposing  appearance;  and  the  arts  were  requi- 
sitioned and  ancient  models  of  architecture  copietl, 
adapted,  and  modified.  The  Basilican  plan,  indig- 
enous to  Italy,  was,  naturally,  that  first  adopted. 
Its  churches  consisted  of  a  nave  and  aisles..  light«d 


14 


ABBEY 


by  clerestory  windows,  and  terminating  in  a  semi- 
eiroiiUir  sanctuary  or  apse.  As  time  went  on,  the 
round  arch,  typical  of  Basilican  and  Romanesque 
arcliitecture,  gradually  gave  place  to  the  pointed 
arch,  peculiar  to  the  new  (iotliic  style,  wliich  is  de- 
fined as  "perfected  Romanesque."  In  England  a 
tenilency  developed  of  making  the  sanctuary  rect- 
angular instead  of  apsidal.  Tlie  Normans  adopted 
this  arrangement;  and  in  their  church-planning  the 
English  oblong  type  of  chancel  gradually  took  the 
place  of  the  Romanesque  and  continental  apse,  and 
the  Basilica  plan  w,i.s  abandcmed  for  that  of  the 
Gothic,  of  a  cro.ssing  or  transept,  separating  nave 
from  chancel,  the  latter  being  extended  to  make 
room  for  the  choir.  The  final  evolution  of  the  style 
peculiar  to  England  is  due  to  the  Cistercians,  the 
characteristic  of  whose  Abbeys  was  extreme  sim- 
plicity and  the  ab.sence  of  needless  ornament;  their 
renunciation  of  the  workl  was  evidenced  in  all  that 
met  the  eye.  Pinnacles,  turrets,  traceried  windows, 
and  stainetl  glass  were,  in  their  early  days  at  least, 
proscribed.  And  during  the  twelfth  century  Cis- 
tercian influence  predominated  throughout  Western 
Europe.  The  Cistercian  churches  of  this  period, 
Fountains,  Kirkstall,  Jervaulx,  Net-ley,  and  Tintern, 
have  rectangular  chancels.  These  and  other  twelfth 
century  churches  belong  to  what  is  known  as  the 
Transitional  or  Pointed  Norman  style.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  greater  elaboration  of  Early  and  Deco- 
rateil  English,  as  seen  at  Norwich  and  Worcester,  or 
rebuilt  Westminster,  culminating  in  the  splendours 
of  the  Perpendicular,  or  Tudor,  style,  of  which 
Henry  VII's  Chapel,  at  Westminster,  is  so  superb  an 
example.  Few  English  Abbeys  of  note,  however, 
were  of  homogeneous  architecture;  in  fact,  the  mix- 
ture of  styles,  though  sometimes  almost  bewildering, 
adds  to  what  is  left  of  these  stately  piles  a  greater 
picturesqueness  ever  pleasing  to  archaeologist  and 
artist. 

The  routine  of  a  monastery  could  be  maintained 
and  supervised  only  by  the  delegation  of  some  of  the 
abbot's  authority  to  various  ofTicials,  who  thus  shared 
with  him  the  burden  of  rule  and  administration,  and 
the  transaction  of  business — considerable  and  ever 
increasing  in  vohmie,  where  a  large  and  important 
monastery  was  concerned.  The  rule  was  e.xercised 
in  subordination  to  the  abbot  by  the  claustral  prior 
and  sub-prior;  the  administration,  by  officials  termed 
obedientiaries,  who  possessed  extensive  powers  in 
their  own  spheres.  Their  number  varied  in  different 
houses;  but  the  following  were  the  ordinary  officials, 
together  with  their  duties,  most  commonly  named 
in  old  Custamals:  The  cantor,  or  precentor,  regulated 
the  singing  in  the  church  services,  and  was  assisted 
by  a  succentor  or  sub-cantor.  He  trained  the  nov- 
ices to  render  the  traditional  chant  properly.  In 
some  places  he  acted  as  master  to  the  boys  of  the 
claustral  school.  He  was  the  librarian  and  archivist, 
and  in  tliis  capacity,  had  charge  of  the  precious  tomes 
and  manuscripts  preserved  in  a  special  aumbry 
or  book-cupboard,  and  had  to  provide  the  choir- 
books  and  those  for  reading  in  the  refectory.  lie 
prepared  and  sent  round  the  l)riefs,  or  mortuary- 
rolls,  announcing  the  death  of  any  of  tlie  brethren 
to  other  monasteries.  He  was  also  one  of  the  three 
oflicial  custodians  of  the  convent  seal,  holding  one 
of  the  keys  of  the  chest  where  it  was  kept.  To  the 
sacrist  and  his  a.ssistants  was  committed  the  care  of 
the  cliurch  fabric,  togctlier  with  its  sacred  plate  and 
yotiuents.  He  had  to  see  to  the  cleaning  .and  light- 
ing of  the  church,  its  decking  for  great  festivals,  and 
the  vestments  used  by  the  sacred  ministers.  The 
cemetery  was  also  under  his  charge.  To  his  office  per- 
tained tlie  lighting  of  the  entire  monastery;  and  thus 
he  superintended  the  candle-making,  and  bouglit  the 
necessary  stores  of  wax,  tallow,  and  cotton  for  wicks. 
He  slept  in  the  church,  and  took  bis  meals  near  at 


hand,  so  that  day  and  night  the  churcli  was  never 
left  without  a  guardian.  His  chief  assistants  were  a 
revestiarius,  who  saw  to  the  vestments,  the  linen,  and 
the  hangings  of  the  church,  and  was  responsible  for 
their  being  kept  in  repair,  or  replaced  when  worn  out; 
and  the  treasurer,  wno  was  in  special  charge  of  the 
shrines,  relitjuaries,  sacred  vessels,  and  other  plate. 

The  cellarer  was  the  purveyor  of  all  food-stufTs 
and  drink  for  the  use  of  the  community.  This  en- 
tailed frequent  absences,  and  hence  exemption  from 
much  of  the  ordinary  choir  duties.  He  had  charge 
of  the  hired  servants,  whom  he  alone  could  engage, 
dismiss,  or  punish.  He  superintended  tlie  ser\'ing  up 
of  the  meals.  To  his  office  belonged  the  supplying 
of  fuel,  carriage  of  goods,  repairs  of  the  house,  etc. 
He  was  aided  by  a  sub-cellarer  and,  in  the  bakerj',  by 
a  granatorius,  or  keeper  of  the  grain,  who  saw  to  the 
grinding  and  quality  of  the  flour.  The  refectorian 
had  charge  of  the  refectory,  or  "fratry,"  keeping  it 
clean,  supplied  with  cloths,  napkins,  jugs,  and  dishes, 
and  superintended  the  laying  of  the  tables.  To  him, 
too,  was  assigned  the  care  of  the  lavatory,  and  the 
providing  it  with  towels  and,  if  necessary,  hot  water. 
The  office  of  kitchener  was  one  of  great  responsibility, 
for  to  him  fell  the  portioning  out  of  the  food,  and  "it 
was  only  great  experience  which  could  preserve  the 
happy  mean  between  waste  and  niggardliness.  He 
had  under  him  an  emptor,  or  buyer,  experienced  in 
marketing.  He  had  to  keep  a  strict  account  of  his 
expenditures  and  of  the  stores,  presenting  his  books 
weekly  to  tlie  abbot  for  examination.  He  presided 
over  the  entire  kitchen  department,  seeing  particu- 
larly that  all  the  utensils  were  kept  scrupulously 
clean.  The  discharge  of  his  duty  entailed  frequent 
exemption  from  choir.  The  weekly  servers  helped 
in  the  kitchen,  under  the  kitchener's  orders,  and 
waited  at  table  during  the  meals.  They  concluded 
their  week's  work  on  Saturday  evenings  by  washing 
the  feet  of  the  brethren.  The  infirmarian  had  to  tend 
the  sick  with  affectionate  sympathy,  and,  as  far  as 
might  be  necessary,  was  excused  from  regular  du- 
ties. If  a  priest,  he  said  Mass  for  the  sick;  if  not, 
he  got  a  priest  to  do  so.  He  always  slept  in  the  in- 
firmary, even  when  there  were  no  sick  there,  so  as 
to  be  found  on  the  spot  in  case  of  emergency.  The 
curious  practice  of  blood-letting,  looked  on  as  so  sal- 
utary in  ancient  times,  was  carried  out  by  the  in- 
firmarian. The  chief  duty  of  the  almoner  was  to 
distribute  the  alms  of  the  monastery,  in  food  and 
clothing,  to  the  poor,  with  kindness  and  discretion; 
and,  while  ministering  to  their  bodily  wants,  he  was 
not  to  forget  those  of  their  soul  also.  He  superin- 
tended the  daily  maundy  or  washing  of  the  feet 
of  the  poor  selected  for  that  purpose.  .Another  of 
his  duties  was  to  take  charge  of  any  school,  other 
than  the  claustral  school,  connected  with  the  monas- 
tery. To  him  also  fell  the  task  of  seeing  to  the  cir- 
culation of  the  mortuary-rolls. 

In  medieval  days  the  hospitality  extended  to  trav- 
ellers by  the  monasteries  was  of  such  constant  oc- 
currence that  the  guest-master  required  a  full  meas- 
ure of  tact,  prudence,  and  discretion,  as  well  as 
affability,  since  the  reputation  of  the  house  was  in 
his  keeping.  His  first  duty  was  to  sec  that  the 
guest-house  was  always  ready  for  the  reception  of 
visitors,  whom  he  was  to  receive,  as  enjoined  by  the 
Rule,  as  he  would  Christ  Himself,  and  during  their 
stay  to  supply  their  wants,  entertain  them,  conduct 
them  to  the  church  services,  and  generally  to  hold 
himself  at  their  disposal.  The  chief  duties  of  the 
chamberlain  of  a  monastery  were  concerned  with  the 
wardrobe  of  the  brethren,  repairing  or  renewing  their 
worn-out  garments,  and  preserving  cast-off  clothes 
for  distribution  to  tlio  poor  by  the  almoner.  He  had 
also  to  superintend  the  laundry.  As  it  belonged  to 
him  to  provide  cloth  and  otlier  material  for  the 
clothing,  he  had  to  attend  the  neighbouring  fairs  to 


I.  MUCKKUSS  AI'.HKV,  IRELAND        II.  ST.  GREGORY'S  ABBEY,  DUWNSIUE,  ENGl-ANU 
III.   FOUNTAINS  ABBEY,  ENGLAND 


ABBO 


15 


ABBOT 


purchase  his  stock.  On  him,  too,  devolved  the  task 
of  making  preparation  for  the  baths,  feet-washing, 
and  sliaving  of  tlie  brethren. 

Tlie  novice-master  was  of  course  one  of  the  most 
important  otiicials  in  every  monasterj-.  In  churcli, 
in  the  refectory,  in  tlie  cloister,  in  tlie  dormitory,  he 
ke[)t  a  watchful  control  over  the  novices,  and  spent 
the  day  teaching  them  and  exercising  them  in  the 
rules  and  traditional  practices  of  the  religious  life, 
encouraging  and  helping  those  who  showed  real  signs 
of  a  monastic  vocation.  The  weekly  officials  in- 
cludeil,  besides  the  servers  already  referred  to,  the 
reader  in  the  refectory,  who  was  enjoined  to  make 
careful  preparation  so  as  to  avoitl  mistakes.  .-Vlso, 
the  antiplioner  whoso  duty  it  was  to  read  the  invita- 
tory  at  Matins,  intone  the  first  antiphon  of  the 
Psalms,  the  versiclcs  and  responsoria,  after  the 
lessons,  and  the  capitulum,  or  little  chapter,  etc. 
The  hebdomadarian,  or  priest  for  the  week,  had  to 
commence  all  the  various  canonical  Hours,  give  all 
the  blessings  that  might  be  required,  and  sing  the 
High  Ma.ss  each  day. 

The  greater  Abbeys  in  England  were  represented 
through  their  superiors  in  Parliament,  in  Convoca- 
tion, and  in  Synod.  These  superiors  were  regularly 
included  in  the  Commissions  of  Peace,  antl  in  all 
things  acted  as,  and  were  considereil  the  e(|uals  of, 
their  great  feudal  neighbours.  The  alms  bestowed  on 
the  poor  by  the  monasteries,  together  with  those  fur- 
nislied  by  law,  by  the  parish  priests,  served  to  sup- 
port them  without  recourse  to  tlie  more  recent  poor- 
laws.  The  lot  of  tlie  poor  was  liglitened,  and  they 
knew  that  they  could  turn  for  help  and  sympathy  to 
the  religious  houses.  Poverty  as  witnessed  in  these 
days  was  impossible  in  the  Middle  .\gcs,  because 
the  monks,  spread  all  over  the  country-,  acted 
as  merely  stewards  of  God's  property,  and  dispensed 
it,  if  lavishly,  yet  with  discretion.  The  relations  be- 
tween the  monks  and  their  tenants  were  uniformly 
kindly;  the  smaller  cottagers  were  treated  with  much 
consideration,  and  if  it  became  necessary'  to  inflict 
fines,  justice  was  tempered  with  mercy.  The  monas- 
tic manors  were  worked  somewhat  on  the  principle 
of  a  co-operative  farm.  If  we  may  form  a  judgment 
on  the  whole  of  Kngland  from  the  "  Durham  Halmote 
Rolls,"  the  conditions  of  village  life  left  little  to  be 
desired.  Provisions  for  watching  over  the  public 
health  were  enforced,  a  guard  kept  over  water  sup- 
plies, stringent  measures  taken  in  regard  to  springs 
and  wells,  and  the  cleansing  of  ponds  anil  milldams. 
A  common  mill  ground  the  tenants'  corn,  and  their 
bread  was  baked  in  a  common  oven.  The  relation 
of  the  monks  to  their  peasant-tenants  was  rather  that 
of  rent-chargers  than  of  absolute  owners.  (See 
Abbot,  .\bhess,  Priob,  Mon.vsticism,  Obedienti.\- 

RIE.S.  HENEniCTINES.) 

Bi:«,'*E,  in  Dictionnnirf  d'arrhfoloffie  chrfiimne  rt  de  lUurme; 
art.  Abbai/e  (Paris.  1903):  GAsQui-rr.  linglith  Monatlir  Lile 
(lA>n.lon,  2d  cii.,  1904):  Allies,  The  Morumlu  Life  from  tlu: 
Fathrrt  of  the  Detrrl  to  Charlemanne  (London,  18B6):  KiTrlllN 
(ed,).  A  Comucludinnni  of  the  14lh  Ctnluni  far  the  lloute  of 
St.  HwUhin.  Wmchnttrr  (H.impshiri-  Record  Societv,  1886): 
KiTciiiN  (cil.).  Cumpolua  Rolls  of  tlie  Ob,,li.nluirie»  of  St. 
Stiilhinii  Priori/.  Iv  inchenk-r  (Hampsliiro  Krcord  .'iorietv. 
181'2):  Thompson  (ed.).  CuWomiri/ o/  the  liinnlirline  .Vonii- 
teries  of  St.  Augustine,  Canlerburi/,  and  St.  Peter's.  Westminster 
(Henry  BraHshaw  Soi-iely,  1902-04):  U.»inf.  (ed.).  Rites  and 
Customs  within  thr  Monastieid  Chureh  of  Durhom  (.'iurtecs 
Snnely.  1842);  Booth  (p1.),  llnlmote  Priuratus  Dumlmtnsis 
(Surleei  Societv.  ISSti):  Fowlbk  (cd.),  Durhim  Aeeount  Rolls 
(Surlce^  .Sooietv,  1898-1900);  Gasqikt  (ed.),  Ancren  Riule: 
The  Xun's  Rrde  (I  ondon.  1903):  ErKENSxriN,  Woman  under 
Monastwism  (London,    1896). 

Henry  Nohdert  Birt. 
Abbo  Cernuns.  (the  crookeil).  a  French  Bene- 
dictine monk  of  St-Oermain-des-Prds  in  Paris,  some- 
times called  .Abbo  Parisiensis.  He  was  bom  about 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  was  present  at  the 
siege  of  Paris  by  the  Normans"  (.S.S.')-Sr)),  and  wrote 
a  description  of  it  in  Latin  verse,  with  an  account 
of  subsequent  events  to  896,   "  De  bellis  Parisiaca; 


urbis."  He  al.so  left  some  sermons  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  clerics  in  Paris  and  Poictiers  (P.  L.,  CXXII). 
His  death  took  place  after  Olil. 

WATTF.NiiAtii,L».?u(«fWarK/»  (Jrscliirhtsqurllen  ( Be;lin,  1893), 
I.  299;  .MuLl.NlLit  Les  sources  de  I  hisloire  de  France  (Paria 
1001),  I,  o.  864. 

THO.MA8  WAI.SH. 

Abbon  (or  .Abbo),  Sai.nt,  b.  near  Orleans  c.  945;  d. 
at  I'leury,  13  November,  1004,  a  monk  of  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  Fleury  sur  Loire  (Fleuret), 
conspicuous  both  for  learning  and  sanctity,  and  one 
of  the  great  lights  of  the  Church  in  the  stormy  times 
of  Hugh  Capet  of  France  and  of  the  three  Ottos 
of  (iermany.  He  devoted  himself  to  philosophy, 
mathematics,  and  astronomy.  In  early  life  he  was 
called  to  England  to  direct  the  school  of  the  newly 
founded  monastery  of  Kam.sey,  in  the  County  of 
Huntingdon,  after  which  he  returned  to  Fleurj'.  On 
the  death  of  the  Abbot  Oilbold,  Abbon  was  elected 
to  succeed  him,  but  one  of  the  monks  who  had  se- 
cured the  support  of  the  King  and  his  son  Robert, 
the  Bishop  of  Orleans,  contested  tlie  choice,  and  the 
matter  assumed  national  importance  in  the  political 
forces  it  brought  into  play.  It  was  finally  settled  by 
the  famous  (ierbert  (later  Pope  Sylvester  II)  in 
favour  of  Abbon  He  was  present  at  the  Sj-nod  of 
St  Basolus  (St.  Basle),  near  Reims,  at  which  Arch- 
bishop Arnolf  was  tried  for  treason  and  deposed,  to 
make  way  for  Gerbert.  When  the  question  arose 
about  the  marriage  of  Robert  the  Pious  and  Bertha, 
Abbon  was  commissioned  to  arrange  it  with  the 
Pope  On  the  way  to  Rome  he  met  Pope  Gregory  V, 
who  was  a  fugitive  from  the  city  from  which  the 
Antipope  John  XVII  had  expelled  him.  Between 
the  Pontiff  and  the  Abbot  the  greatest  esteem  and  af- 
fection existed.  The  royal  petition  foradispen.sation 
was  rejected.  Abbon  succeeded  in  bringing  aliout 
the  restoration  of  Araulf  to  the  see  of  Reims.  His 
influence  contributed  largely  to  calm  the  excitement 
about  the  fear  of  the  end  of  the  world  which  is  .said 
to  have  been  general  in  Europe  in  1000.  His  glori- 
ous life  had  a  sad  ending.  In  1004  he  atteni|itod 
to  restore  discipline  in  the  monastery  of  La  It^ole. 
in  Gascony.  by  transferi-ing  some  of  the  monks 
of  Fleury  into  that  community.  But  the  trouble 
increased;  fighting  began  between  the  two  parties, 
and  when  St.  Abbon  endeavoured  to  separate  them 
he  was  pierced  in  the  side  by  a  lance.  He  con- 
cealed the  wound  and  reached  his  cell,  where  he 
died  in  the  arms  of  his  faithful  disciple  Almoin, 
who  has  left  an  account  of  his  labours  and  virtues. 
The  miracles  wrought  at  his  tomb  soon  caused  him 
to  be  regarded  in  the  Church  of  Gaul  as  a  saint 
and  martyr.     His  feast  is  kept  13  November. 

CocilARD.  I.es  Snints  de  V  I'nlisr  d'  Orleans  (1879),  302-383: 
The  .tfonlh  (1874),  XX.  16;i;  XXI,  2S-42:  Sackur.  Die 
Cluniaansrr  (1892),  I,  270,  297;  Pardiac,  Hist,  de  St.  Abbon 
de  Fleury  (Paris,  1872). 

T.  J.  CAMrBELL. 

Abbot,  a  title  given  to  the  superior  of  a  community 
of  twelve  or  more  monks.  The  name  is  derived  from 
abha,  the  Syriac  form  of  the  Hebrew  word  ab,  and 
means  "father."  In  Syria,  where  it  had  its  origin, 
and  in  Egypt,  it  was  first  employed  as  a  title  of 
honour  .and  res|x;ct,  and  was  given  to  any  monk 
of  venerable  age  or  of  eminent  sanctity.  The  title 
did  not  originally  imply  the  exercise  of  any  au- 
thority over  a  religious  community.  From  the 
East  the  word  pas-sed  over  to  the  West,  and  here 
it  was  soon  received  into  general  use  to  designate 
the  superior  of  an  abbey  or  a  monastery.  In  this 
article  we  sh.all  treat:  I.  Historical  Origin;  IJ.  Nature 
of  the  Office;  III.  Kinds  of  Abbots;  IV.  Mode  of 
Election;  V.  Benediction  of  the  .\bbot;  VI.  Author- 
ity; VII.  Rights  and  Privileges;  VIII.  Assistance 
at  Councils. 

I.  Historical  Origin-. — Monastic  communities 
were  first  organized  in  Egj'pt  at  the  beginning  of 


ABBOT 


16 


ABBOT 


the  fourth  century.  St.  Anthony  introduced  one 
form  of  community  life — the  eremitical — when, 
about  the  year  A.  d.  305,  he  undertook  the  direction 
and  organization  of  the  multitude  of  hermits  who 
had  gathered  about  him  in  the  Thebaid;  a  second 
— the  cicnobitical,  or  conventual,  tj-pe  of  monachism, 
— was  instituted  by  St.  Pachomius,  who,  about 
the  same  time,  founded  his  first  ccenobium,  or  con- 
ventual monastery,  at  Tabenna;  in  the  far  south 
of  Egj'pt.  Both  systems  spread  rapidly  and  were 
soon  firmly  established  in  Palestine,  Syria,  Meso- 
potamia, and  Asia  Minor.  By  tlie  middle  of  the 
fourth  century  monachism  had  also  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  Europe,  and  here,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth,  St.  Benedict  of  Nursia  gave  it  the  definite 
form  and  constitution  which  ultimately  assured 
its  triumph  in  the  West.  E^^ery  group  of  hermits 
and  every  ccenobium  naturally  had  its  superior. 
The  title  given  him  varied.  In  the  East  he  was 
usually  styled  the  elder,  the  senior,  or  also  father 
of  the  mo"nastery.  In  Asia  Minor  and  among  the 
Greeks  generallyhe  was  called  archimandrite  (apxl>^, 
a  chief,  and  liiySpa,  a  fold,  monastery)  or  hegu- 
mcnos.  Originally  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
appreciable  difference  in  the  signification  of  these 
two  words,  but  after  the  period  of  Justinian  the 
title  archimandrite  was  jealously  reserved  for  the 
superiors  of  the  older  or  of  the  more  important 
monasteries.  Both  names  have,  however,  been 
permanently  retained,  and  are  to  this  day  the  titles 
given  to  monastic  superiors  in  the  Eastern  Church. 
Cassian,  who  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
had  transplanted  Egyptian  monachism  to  Gaul,  was 
addressed  as  Abbas,  Pater,  and  Domimts;  he  himself 
termed  the  superior  of  the  monastery  Praspositus. 
The  word  pra:positus,  in  the  signification  of  a  monastic 
ruler,  appears  also  in  Roman  Africa  and  elsewhere 
in  the  West,  but  towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury it  had  been  almost  entirely  supplanted  by  the 
term  abbas.  St.  Benedict,  in  bis  Rule,  written 
about  529,  assigned  a  subordinate  position  in  the 
community  to  the  prccposilus,  and  restricted  the 
use  of  the  title  abbas  to  the  superior  of  the  monastery. 
Through  the  Rule  of  the  great  Patriarch  of  Western 
Monachism  the  application  of  the  title  abbas  was 
definitely  fixed,  and  its  use  made  general  in  the 
West. 

II.  Nature  of  the  Office. — St.  Benedict's  con- 
ception of  a  monastic  commimity  was  distinctly  tliat 
of  a  spiritual  family.  Every  individual  monk  was 
to  be  a  son  of  that  family,  the  Abbot  its  father,  and 
the  monastery  its  permanent  home.  Upon  the 
Abbot  therefore,  as  upon  the  father  of  a  family, 
devolves  the  government  and  direction  of  those  who 
are  committed  to  his  care,  and  a  paternal  solicitude 
should  characterize  his  rule.  St.  Benedict  says  that 
"an  abbot  who  is  worthy  to  have  the  charge  of  a 
monastery  ought  always  to  remember  by  what  title 
he  is  called,"  and  that  "in  the  monastery  he  is  con- 
sidered to  represent  the  person  of  Christ,  seeing 
that  he  is  called  by  His  name  "  (Rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, ii).  "The  monastic  system  established  by 
St.  Benedict  was  based  entirely  upon  the  supremacy 
of  the  abbot.  Though  the  Rule  gives  directions  as 
to  an  alibot's  government,  and  furnishes  him  with 
principles  upon  which  to  act,  and  binds  him  to  carry 
out  certain  prescriptions  as  to  consultation  witli 
others  in  difficult  matters  etc.,  the  subject  is  told 
to  obey  without  question  or  hesitation  the  decision 
of  tlie  superior.  It  is  of  course  needless  to  say  that 
this  obedience  did  not  extend  to  the  commission 
of  evil,  even  were  any  such  command  ever  imposed" 
(Gasquet,  "English  Monastic  Life,"  London,  1904, 
p.  42).  The  obedience  shown  to  the  Abbot  is  re- 
garded as  obedience  paid  to  God  Himself,  and  all 
the  respect  and  reverence  with  which  he  is  treated 
by  the  brethren  of  his  house  is  paid  him  "tor  Christ's 


love,  because  as  abbot — father — he  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  Christ  in  the  midst  of  the  brethren." 
The  whole  government  of  a  religious  house  depends 
upon  the  Abbot.  His  will  is  supreme  in  all  things; 
yet,  as  the  Rule  says,  nothing  is  to  be  taught,  com- 
manded, or  ordered  beyond  the  precepts  of  the 
Lord.  All  the  officials  who  are  to  assist  him  in 
the  government  of  the  house,  are  appointed  by  him 
and  ha\'e  their  authority  from  him.  He  may  dis- 
miss them  at  his  discretion.  The  Abbot,  by  virtue 
of  his  office,  administers  the  temporal  possessions 
of  the  community,  exercises  a  general  supervision 
for  the  maintenance  of  monastic  discipline,  provides 
for  the  keeping  of  the  Rule,  punishes  and,  if  need 
be,  excommunicates  the  refractory,  presides  in 
choir  during  the  recitation  of  the  Office,  and  at 
Divine  Service,  and  gives  the  blessings.  In  a  word, 
uniting  in  his  person  the  threefold  office  of  father, 
teacher,  and  rviler,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Abbot  to 
see  "that  all  things  are  administered  wisely  in  the 
House  of  God." 

III.  Kinds  of  Abbots. — An  Abbot  canonically 
elected  and  confirmed,  and  exercising  the  duties  of 
his  office,  is  by  the  law  of  the  Church  styled  a  Regular 
Abbot.  Regular  Abbots  are  prelates  in  the  full  sense 
of  the  word,  and  their  dignity  is  of  three  grades. 
An  Abbot  who  presides  only  over  such  persons,  ec- 
clesiastical and  lay,  as  are  attached  to  his  monastery, 
belongs  to  tlie  lowest  grade,  and  his  jurisdiction 
carries  with  it  what  is  called  the  simple  passi\'e  ex- 
emption (exemptio  passiva)  from  the  authority  of  the 
diocesan  bishop.  If  an  Abbot's  jurisdiction  extends 
beyond  the  limits  of  his  abbey,  over  the  inhabitants 
— clergy  and  laity — of  a  certain  district  or  territory 
which  forms  an  integral  part  of  a  bishop's  diocese, 
he  belongs  to  the  middle  grade  (pralatus  quasi 
nullius  dixcesis)  and  his  exemption  is  termed  active 
(exemptio  activa).  And  when  an  Abbot  has  juris- 
diction over  the  clergy  and  laity  of  a  district  or 
territory  (comprising  one  or  several  cities  and 
places)  which  forms  no  part  whate^-er  of  any  diocese, 
his  abbey  is  styled  vere  nvUiiis  diaecesis  (of  no  diocese) 
and,  excepting  a  few  rights  only,  for  the  exercise  of 
which  the  ordo  episcopalis  is  required,  his  authority 
is  in  all  things  equal  to  that  of  a  bishop.  This  is 
the  third  and  highest  grade  of  the  dignity.  There 
are  no  abbeys  vere  nidlins  in  the  United  States  or 
in  England.  Among  abbeys  of  this  class  in  other 
countries  may  be  mentioned:  in  Italy,  the  arch- 
abbey  of  Monte  Cassino,  founded  by  St.  Benedict 
himself  about  529;  the  abbey  of  Suhiaco.  of  which 
the  titular  is  always  a  cardinal;  the  abbey  of  St.  Paul 
extra  Muros  (Rome);  that  of  Monte  Vcrgine  near 
Avellino,  founded  by  St.  William  of  Vercclli  in  1124; 
and  the  abbey  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity  at  Ca\a, 
dating  back  to  1011;  in  Switzerland,  the  abbey  of 
Einsiedeln,  founded  about  934;  in  Hungary  (Austria), 
the  archabbey  of  St.  Martin's,  (Martinsberg),  estab- 
lished A.  D.  1001  by  St.  Stephen,  King  of  Hungary; 
and  in  West  Australia  the  abbey  of  New  Norcia. 
All  exempt  abbeys,  no  matter  what  the  canonical 
title  or  degree  of  their  exemption,  are  under  the 
immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  The  term 
exempt  is,  strictly  speaking,  not  applied  to  an 
Abbot  nullius,  because  his  jurisdiction  is  entirely 
extra-territorial.  Within  the  limits  of  his  territory 
such  an  .\bbot  has,  with  few  exceptions,  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  a  bishop,  and  assimies  all  a  bishop's 
obligations.  Abbots  of  the  second  grade,  however, 
whose  authority  (though  <|uasi-cpiscopal)  is  intra- 
territorial,  caimot  be  considered  ordinaries,  nor  can 
they  lay  any  claim  to  the  rights  and  privileges  of  bi.sh- 
ops,  excepting  tliose,  of  course,  which  nave  been 
especially  granted  them  by  the  Holy  See. 

When  tlie  monasteries  in  which  the  same  regvilar 
observance  is  foUow-ed,  or  the  abbeys  of  the  same 
province,  district,  or  country    form  a   congregation 


ABBOT 


i; 


ABBOT 


i.  e.  a  federation  of  houses  to  promote  the  Reiieral 
interest  of  the  order,  the  presiding  Abbot  is  styled 
tlic  "Abbot  President,"  or  tlie  "Abljot  (leueral." 
Thus,  the  Cassiiu'-se  Congregation  of  tlio  Primitive 
01)servance  li:u<  at  its  liead  an  Abbot  General:  the 
English  Congresation,  the  American-t':ussinese,  and 
the  American-Swiss,  have  eacli  an  Abbot  President. 
The  authority  of  the  Abbot  President  is  defined  in  the 
statutes  or  constitution  of  each  congregation.  In 
the  recent  confederation  of  the  Henedictinc  Order 
all  the  Hlack  Monks  of  St.  Benedict  were  united 
under  the  presidency  of  an  ".\bbot  IViniate"  (Leo 
XIII,  "Summum  semper,"  12  July,  IS'J.'J);  but  tlie 
unification,  fraternal  in  its  nature,  brought  no 
modification  to  tlie  abbatial  dignity,  and  the  various 
congregations  preserved  tlieir  autonomy  intact. 
The  powers  of  the  .\bbot  Primate  are  s[>ecified,  and 
liis  ])iisition  defined,  in  u  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation     of 


Jons  Stok 


hold  a  canonical  visitation,  if  necessary,  in  any  con- 
gregation of  the  order,  and  to  exercise  a  general  su- 
pervision for  the  regular  observance  of  monastic  dis- 
cipline. Of  late,  however,  certain  branches  of  tlie 
Benedictine  (Jrder  seem  to  have  lost  their  original 
autonomy  to  some  extent.  The  Keformed  Cister- 
cians of  I,a  TrapjK!,  for  instance,  are  by  a  Decree  of 
Pope  Leo  XIII,  S  May,  1S92,  placed  under  the  author- 
ity of  an  Ablxit-General.  The  Abbot-fleneral  has 
full  authority  to  pass  decision  upon  all  current  affairs 
and  difficulties.  On  account  of  the  antii|uity  or  the 
pre-eminence  of  the  abbeys  over  which  they  preside, 
the  honorarv  title  of  .Vrchabbot  is  bestowed  upon  the 
superiors  of  certain  monasteries.  Monte  Ca.ssino, 
"tne  Cradle  of  Western  Monachism,"  St.  Martins- 
berg  in  Ilungarj',  St.  Martin's  of  Beiiron,  in  (iennany, 
an(l  St.  Vincent's,  Pennsylvania,  the  first  Benedic- 
tine foundation  in  America,  are  presided  over  by 
Archabbots. 

A  further  variety  of  .\bbot.s-Regular  arc  the  "Titular 
Abbots."  A  Titular  Abbot  holds  thetitleof  an  abbey 
which  has  been  either  destroyed  or  suppres.sed,  but 
he  exercises  none  of  the  functions  of  an  .\bbot,  and 
has  m  aclu  no  subjects  belonging  to  the  monastery 
whence  he  derives  his  title.  'The  law  of  the  Church 
recognizes  also  "Secular  .\bbots,"  i.  e.  clerics  who, 
though  not  professed  meinl)ers  of  any  monastic 
order,  nevertheless  possess  an  abbacy  as  an  eccle- 
siastical benefice,  with  the  title  and  some  of  the  hon- 
ours of  the  office.  These  IxMiefices  belonged  originally 
to  montustic  houses,  but  on  the  suppression  of  the 
abbeys  the  benefice  and  the  title  were  transferred 
I. -2 


to  other  churches.  There  are  various  clas--es  of 
Secular  Abbots;  some  have  both  jurisdiction  and  the 
right  to  use  the  pontifical  insignia;  others  have  only 
the  abbatial  dignity  without  either  jurisdiction  or  the 
right  to  ponlifuatia;  while  yet  another  class  holds 
in  certain  cathedral  churches  the  first  dignity  and 
the  privilege  of  jirecedence  in  choir  and  in  ;i.s- 
semblies,  by  reason  of  some  suppres.sed  or  destroyed 
conventual  church  now  become  the  cathedral.  In 
the  early  Middle  Ag(!s  the  title  Abbot  was  borne  not 
only  by  the  superiors  of  religious  houses,  but  also 
by  a  number  of  [jersons,  ecclesiastical  and  lay,  who 
had  no  connection  whatever  with  the  monastic 
system.     St.   Gregory   of   Tours,   for   instance,   eni- 

C loved  it  in  his  day  to  designate  the  principal  of  a 
ody  of  secular  clergy  attached  to  certain  churches; 
and  later,  under  the  Merovingians  and  Carlovingians, 
it  was  applied  to  the  chaplain  of  the  royal  hoiiscliold, 
Ahhas  Palalinus,  and  to  the  militaiy  diaplain  of  the 
king.  Abbas  Castreiisis.  From  the  time  of  Charles 
Martel  onward  to  the  eleventh  century  it  came  to 
be  adopted  even  by  laymen,  the  Abhacomites,  or 
Abbatcs  Milites,  mostly  nobles  dependent  on  the 
court,  or  old  officers,  to  whom  the  so\ercign  would 
assign  a  portion  of  the  revenues  of  some  monastery 
as  a  reward  for  militaiy  service.  "Commendatory 
Abbots"  (secular  ecclesiastics  who  held  an  abbacy 
not  in  litulo,  but  m  commcndam)  had  their  origin  in 
the  system  of  commendation  prevalent  during  the 
eighth  and  succeeding  centuries.  They  were  in  the 
first  instance  merely  temporary  trustees,  appointed 
to  administer  the  estates  of  an  abbey  during  a  va- 
cancy; but  in  the  course  of  time  they  retained  the 
office  for  life,  and  claimed  a  portion  of  the  revenues 
for  their  maintenance.  The  practice  of  nominating 
Commendatory  Abbots  eventually  led  to  serious 
abuses;  it  was  greatly  checked  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  and  has  in  modern  times  entirely  disappeared 
from  the  Church. 

IV.  .Mode  of  Election. — In  the  early  days  of 
monastic  institution.s  the  founder  of  a  religious  hou-'se 
was  usually  its  first  superior;  in  every  other  instance 
the  Abbot  was  appointed  or  elected.  Some  .\bbots 
indeed  selected  their  own  successors,  but  the  cxscs 
were  exceptional.  In  many  places,  when  a  vacancy 
occurred,  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  would  choose  a 
superior  from  among  the  monks  of  the  convent,  but 
it  appears  that  from  the  very  beginning  the  appoint- 
ment of  an  Abbot  rested  generally  with  the  monks 
themselves.  St.  Benedict  ordained  (Rule,  Ixiv)  that 
the  .\bbot  should  be  chosen  "by  the  general  consent 
of  the  whole  community,  or  of  a  small  part  of  the 
community,  provided  its  choice  were  made  with 
greater  wisdom  and  discretion."  The  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  the  .\bbots  and  Christian  men  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood were  called  upon  to  oppose  the  elec- 
tion of  an  unworthy  man.  Everj^  religious  house 
professing  his  Rule  adopted  the  method  prescribed 
by  the  great  monastic  legislator,  and  in  the  course 
of  time  the  right  of  the  monks  to  elect  their  own 
Abbot  came  to  be  generally  recognized,  particularly 
so  when  it  had  been  solemnly  confirmed  by  the 
canons  of  the  Church  (see  Thomassin,  Vetus  et 
Nova  Eccl.  Disciplina,  Pt.  I,  III,  c.  xxxii,  no.  6). 
But  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when  monasteries  had 
grown  wealthv  and  powerful,  kings  and  princes  grad- 
ually encroacKed  on  the  rights  of  the  monks,  until 
in  most  countries  the  sovereign  had  wholly  usur|ied 
the  power  of  nominating  abbots  for  many  of  the 
greater  houses  in  his  realm.  This  interference  of  the 
court  in  the  affairs  of  the  cloister  was  in  the  process 
of  time  the  source  of  many  evils  and  the  occasion  of 
grave  disorders,  while  in  its  effect  on  monastic  dis- 
cipline it  was  uniformly  disastrous.  The  rights  of 
the  cloister  were  finally  restored  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.  According  to  the  present  legislation,  the  .\l)- 
bot  is  elected  for  life  by  the  secret  suffrages  of  the 


ABBOT 


18 


ABBOT 


community's  professed  members  in  sacris.  To  be 
eligible  he  must  have  all  the  qualifications  required 
by  the  canons  of  the  Church.  It  is  furthermore 
necessary  that  he  should  be  a  priest,  a  professed 
member  of  the  order,  of  legitimate  birth,  and  at 
least  twenty-five  years  of  age.  The  election,  to  be 
valid,  must  be  held  in  the  manner  prescribed  bj'  the 
common  law  of  the  Church  (cf.  "Quia  propter. — De 
elect.,"  I,  6;  and  Cone.  Tricl.,  sess.  XXV,  c.  vi,  De 
reg.),  and  as  determined  in  the  statutes  or  constitu- 
tions of  each  congregation.  In  the  English  and  Amer- 
ican congregations  the  Ablx)t  of  a  monastery  is  elected 
for  life  by  a  two-thirds  \ote  of  the  professed  members 
in  sacris  of  the  chapter.  The  Abbots  themselves 
elect  the  abbot  president.  Exempt  abbeys  under  the 
immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope  must,  within  the 
space  of  a  month,  apply  to  the  Holy  See  for  a  con- 
firmation of  the  election;  non-exempt  houses,  within 
three  months,  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  The 
confirmation  confers  upon  the  Abbot-elect  the  jus  in 
re,  and  having  obtained  it  he  enters  at  once  upon  the 
duties  and  privileges  of  his  office.  A  canonical  per- 
petuity attaches  to  the  abbatial  dignity;  semel  abhas, 
semper  abbas;  and  even  after  a  resignation  the  dig- 
nity endures,  and  the  title  is  retained.  Benedictine 
abbeys  in  the  United  States  and  in  England  enjoy 
exemption;  for  America,  the  newly-elected  Abbots 
are  confirmed  directly  by  the  Pope ;  in  England,  how- 
ever, according  to  the  recent  Constitution,  "Diu 
quidem  est"  (1899),  they  are  confirmed  by  the  Abbot 
President  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  See. 

V.  Benediction  of  the  Abbot. — After  his  eccle- 
siastical confirmation,  the  newly  elected  Abbot  is 
solemnly  blessed  according  to  the  rite  prescribed  in 
the  "Pontificale  Romanum"  (De  henedicliojie  Abha- 
tis).  By  the  Constitution  of  Benedict  XIII,  "Com- 
missi Nobis, "6May,  1725, all  Regular  Abbots  elected 
for  life  are  now  obliged  to  receive  this  blessing  (or,  at 
least,  to  thrice  formally  request  it)  within  the  space 
of  a  year,  from  the  bishop  of  the  diocese;  if  they 
fail  to  have  the  ceremony  performed  within  the  re- 
quired time,  they  incur  ipso  jure  a  suspension  from 
office  for  the  period  of  one  year.  Should  the  peti- 
tion be  refused  for  the  third  time,  either  by  the  di- 
ocesan or  the  metropolitan,  an  Abbot  is  free  to  re- 
ceive benediction  from  any  bishop  in  communion 
with  Rome.  The  Constitution  at  the  same  time  ex- 
pressly declares  that  the  Abbot-elect  may  licitly  and 
validly  perform  all  the  duties  of  his  office  during 
the  interval  preceding  his  solemn  benediction.  It 
must  be  noted,  however,  that  the  legislation  enforced 
by  Benedict  XIII  does  not  affect  those  Abbots  who 
are  privileged  to  receive  the  blessing  from  their  reg- 
ular superiors,  nor  those  who  by  their  election  and 
confirmation  are  ipso  jacto  regarded  as  blessed  by 
the  Pope.  The  blessing  is  not  in  se  essential  for  the 
exercise  of  an  -Abbot's  order  and  office;  it  confers  no 
additional  jurisdiction,  and  imparts  no  sacramental 
grace  or  character.  An  Abbot  n!///H;s  may  call  upon 
any  bishop  in  union  with  the  Holy  See  to  bestow 
the  abbatial  blessing.  By  the  recent  Constitution  of 
Leo  XIII,  "Diu  quidem  est,"  1899,  the  Abbots  of 
the  English  Congregation  are  bound  within  six 
months  of  their  election  to  present  themselves  to 
the  ordinary  of  the  diocese  to  be  blessed  by  Apos- 
tolical authority;  and,  if  the  diocesan  be  prevented, 
they  can  receive  the  blessing  from  any  Catholic 
bishop. 

The  ceremony,  which  in  solemnity  differs  but 
slightly  from  that  of  a  bishop's  consecration,  takes 
place  during  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  after 
the  Epistle.  The  essentials  of  the  episcopal  order 
are  of  course  omitted,  but  before  his  benediction  the 
Abbot  takes  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Holy  See 
and,  like  the  bishop,  is  subjected  to  a  canonical  ex- 
amination. He  receives  the  insignia  of  his  office — 
the  mitre,  cro.>iier,  ring,  etc. — from  the  hands  of  the 


officiating  prelate,  and  at  the  Offertory  presents  to 
him  two  small  casks  of  wine,  two  loaves  of  bread,  and 
two  large  wax  tapers;  he  says  the  JIass  with  the 
bishop  and  receives  Holy  Conununion  from  him. 
During  the  singing  of  the  Te  Deum  the  newly  blessed 
Abbot,  with  mitre  and  crosier,  is  conducted  through 
the  nave  of  the  church  by  the  two  assistant  Abbots, 
and  blesses  the  people.  Upon  his  returning  to  hb 
seat  in  the  sanctuary  (if  in  his  own  church),  the 
monks  of  the  community  come,  one  by  one,  and, 
kneeling  before  their  new  superior,  pay  him  their 
homage,  and  receive  from  him  the  kiss  of  peace. 
The  ceremony  is  concluded  by  a  solemn  blessing  be- 
stowed by  the  newly  installed  Abbot  standing  at  the 
High  Altar.  According  to  the  "Pontificale  Roma- 
num," the  day  set  apart  for  the  function  ought  to 
be  a  Sunday  or  a  feast  day.  The  solemn  rite  of 
benediction,  once  conferred,  need  not  be  again  re- 
ceived when  an  .\bbot  is  translated  from  one  monas- 
tery to  another. 

VI.  Authority  of  the  Abbot. — The  authority  of 
an  Abbot  is  of  two  kinds,  one  relating  to  the  external 
government  of  the  house,  the  other  to  the  spiritual 
government  of  his  subjects.  The  first  is  a  paternal 
or  domestic  authority,  based  on  the  nature  of  re- 
ligious life  and  on  the  vow  of  obedience,  the  second 
a  power  of  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction,  by  virtue  of 
which  he  is  truly  a  prelate.  His  domestic  authority 
empowers  the  Abbot  to  administer  the  property  of 
the  abbey,  to  maintain  the  discipline  of  the  house,  to 
compel  the  religious,  even  by  penalties,  to  observe 
the  Rule  and  the  Constitutions  of  the  Order,  and  to 
ordain  whatever  else  may  be  essential  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  peace  and  order  in  the  community.  The 
power  of  jurisdiction  which  the  Abbot  possesses,  both 
in  joro  intemo  and  in  joro  externa,  authorizes  him  to 
absolve  his  subjects  from  all  cases  of  conscience  not 
specially  reserved,  and  to  delegate  this  power  to  the 
priests  of  his  monastery;  to  reserve  to  himself  the 
eleven  cases  enumerated  in  the  Constitution  of 
Clement  VIII,  "Ad  futurara  rei  memoriam;"  to  in- 
flict ecclesiastical  censures;  and  to  dispense  the 
members  of  his  house  in  certain  cases  for  which  a 
dispensation  is  usually  obtained  from  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese.  He  cannot,  of  course,  dispense  a  re- 
ligious from  the  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience.  Abbots,  like  the  monlvs  over  whom  they 
ruled,  were  originally  laymen,  and  subject  to  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  It  was  not  long,  however, 
before  they  were  enrolled  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  Abbots  in  the  East  had  received 
ordination.  The  change  was  effected  more  slowly 
in  the  West,  but  even  here  few  were  found  at  the 
end  of  the  seventh  century  who  had  not  been  clothed 
with  the  dignity  of  the  priesthood.  A  council  held 
at  Rome,  826,  under  Pope  Eugene  II,  enjoined  the 
ordination  of  Abbots,  but  the  canon  seems  not  to 
have  been  rigidly  enforced,  for  ;is  late  as  the  eleventh 
century  we  read  of  some  who  weie  only  deacons. 
The  Council  of  Poitiers  (1078)  finally  obliged  all 
Abbots  under  pain  of  deprivation  to  receive  priest's 
orders.  (Thomassin,  Pt.  I,  I,  iii,  passim.)  From 
this  time  forward  the  power  and  influence  of  Abbots 
steadily  increased  in  Church  and  State,  until  towards 
the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  their  iiosifion  w.is  every- 
where regarded  as  one  of  the  highest  distinction.  In 
Germany  cloven  Abbots  held  rank  as  princes  of  the 
Empire,  and  with  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
princes  took  part  in  the  deliberation  of  the  Diets. 
The  Abbots  of  Fulda  exercised  e\en  sovereign 
power  over  ten  square  miles  round  the  abbey.  In 
the  Parliament  of  England  "abbots  formed  the  bulk 
of  the  spiritual  peerage.  The  position  held  by  them 
throughout  every  part  of  the  country  gave  yet  a 
further  weight  to  their  great  position  as  noblemen 
and  local  magnates.     As  such  they  went  pari  passu 


ABBOT 


19 


ABBOT 


with  baron  or  earl  of  tlie  noblest  lineage.  On  the 
blazoned  Roll  of  tlie  l.onls,  the  Lord  Hie-hard  Whit- 
ing and  the  Lord  Hugh  I'arringdon  (Abbots  of  (ilas- 
tonbiiry  and  of  Heading)  went  hand  in  hand  with  a 
Howard  and  a  Talbot  [Cias(|uct,  Henry  Nlll  and 
the  English  Monast.  (London,  ISSS),  I,  2")].  In 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Hungary  their  [wwer  and 
influence  were  equally  great,  and  continued  so  gen- 
erally up  to  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

VII.  kicHTs  .\ND  Pkivileges. — All  regular  .Abbots 
have  the  right  to  give  the  tonsure  and  to  confer 
minor  orders  on  the  professed  niondjers  of  their 
house.  As  early  as  7S7  the  Second  Council  of  Niciea 
permitted  Ablxils  (provided  they  were  jiriests,  and 
iiad  received  the  solemn  rite  of  benediction)  to  give 
tlie  tonsure  and  to  advance  their  monks  to  the 
order  of  lector  (Thomassin,  Pt.,  I.  c. ,  1.  iii,  c.  xvii, 
no.  3).  The  privilege  granted  by  tliis  Council  was 
gradually  extended  until  it  embraced  all  the  minor 
orders,  and  in  the  course  of  time  Abbots  were  author- 
ized to  confer  them  not  only  on  tlicir  regular  but 
also  on  their  secular  subjects  [Wernz,  Jus  Decre- 
talium  (Rome,  1899)  ii,  47,  note].  The  Council  of 
Trent,  however,  decreed  that  "it  shall  not  hence- 
forth be  lawful  for  abbots,  .  .  .  howsoever  exempted, 
...  to  confer  tlie  tonsure  and  minor  orders  on 
any  but  their  regular  subjects,  nor  shall  the  said 
abbots  grant  lettei-s  dinii.s.sory  to  any  secular  clerics 
to  Ije  ordained  by  others"  [Can.  et  Decret.  Cone. 
Trid.  (ed.  Richter  et  Schulte),  p.  197].  From  this 
decree  of  the  Council  it  is  quite  clear  that  Abbots 
still  have  the  right  to  confer  the  tonsure  and  minor 
ordei-s,  but  it  is  equally  clear  that  they  may  con- 
fer them  lawfully  only  on  their  regular  subjects. 
Novices,  therefore,  oblates,  regulars  of  another 
order  or  congregation,  and  seculars  cannot  be  ad- 
vanced by  the  Abbot.  Even  the  .\bbots  styled  rcre 
nulliuis,  who  exercise  an  episcopal  jurisdiction  in 
llicir  territory,  may  not  witliout  a  special  privilege 
give  minor  orders  to  their  .'iccular  subjects  [Santi, 
I'ralect.  Jur.  Can.  (New  York,  1S9S),  I,  12o  sq., 
and  Can.  et  Oecret.  Cone.  Trid.  (ed.  Richter  et 
Schulte),  197  sq.,  where  also  tlie  decisions  of  the 
Sacred  Cong,  of  the  Council  on  this  subject  may  be 
found].  On  the  question  of  the  validity  of  orders 
conferred  by  an  .\bbot  who  goes  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  faculties  extended  by  the  Holy  See,  canonists 
disagree.  Some  pronounce  such  orders  absolutely 
invalid,  others  maintain  that  they  are  illicitly  con- 
ferred but  nevertheless  valid.  The  opinion  of  the 
latter  seems  to  be  sustained  bj'  various  decisions  of 
the  Sacred  Cong,  of  the  Council  (Santi,  op.  cit., 
p.  12S  sq.;  cf.  Benedict  XIV,  De  Syn.  Dicec.  II, 
c.  xi,no.  13).  It  is  a  much-disputed  question  whether 
.Abbots  ha%'e  ever  been  permitted  to  confer  tlic  sul)- 
diaconate  and  the  diaconate.  Many  canonists  hold 
that  tlie  subdiaconatc,  being  of  merely  ccdesiiist ical 
institution,  was  formerly  accounted  one  of  the  minor 
orders  of  the  Church,  and  infer  that  Ijefore  the  time 
of  Trban  II  (lOi):)),  .\bbots  could  have  given  that 
order.  But  the  further  claim  that  .Abbots  have  also 
conferred  the  diaconate  cannot,  apparently,  be  sus- 
tained, for  the  Bull  of  Innocent  VIII,  "Exposcit 
tua:  devotionis"  (9  April,  11S9),  in  which  this  priv- 
ilege is  said  to  have  been  granted  to  certain  Cister- 
cian -Abbots,  makes  no  reference  whatever  to  the 
diaconate — "  Fact^  inspectiono  in  Archivis  (Vati- 
cani)  .  .  .  bulla  quidem  ibidem  est  reperta,  sed 
mentio  de  diaconatu  in  eadem  deest. "  (.See  Gas- 
parri,  "Tract,  can.  de  S.  Ordinationc,"  II,  n.  798; 
cf.  also  P.  Pie  de  Langognc,  "  Bullc  d'Innocent  VIII 
aux  abljds  de  Citcaux  pour  les  ordinations  in  sacri.i  " 
(Etudes  franciscaines.  fC'V.,  1901.  129  sq.)J  Pauholzl, 
in  "  Studien  und  Mittheil.  aus  dem  Benedictiner  imd 
Cistorcien.ser-Orden,"  1S.S4.  I,  -HI  sq.  gives  the  Bull 
and  ilefends  its  authenticity.  By  the  law  of  the 
Church  Abbots  may  grant  letters  dimissorial  to  their 


regular  subjects,  authorizing  and  recommending 
them  for  ordination,  but  they  cannot  give  dimisso- 
rials  to  seculars  without  incurring  suspension.  Ab- 
bots are  furthermore  privileged  to  dedicate  their 
abbey  church  and  the  cemetery  of  the  monastery, 
and  authorized  to  reconcile  them  in  case  of  desecra- 
tion. They  can  bless  church  vestments,  altar  linens, 
ciboria,  monstrances,  etc.,  for  their  own  subjects, 
and  consecrate  altars  and  chalices  for  their  own 
churches.  As  prelates,  they  hold  the  rank  immedi- 
ately after  the  bishops,  being  preceded  only  by  the 
protonotarii  fKtrtirijHjntes  (.see  Cini.\  Ro.m.\.na),  and  by 
the  vicar-general  in  his  diocese.  It  may  be  added 
that  the  .Abbots  nullius  diaccsis  are  preconized  by 
the  Pope  in  a  public  consistory,  and  that,  within  the 
territory  over  which  they  exercise  jurisdiction,  their 
name,  like  that  of  a  diocesan,  is  inserted  in  the  canon 
of  the  Mass. 
The  use  of  the  pontifical   insignia — mitre,  crosier, 

Cectoral  cross,  ring,  gloves,  and  sandals — which  .Al>- 
ots  commonly  have,  is  one  of  their  most  ancient 
privileges.  It  cannot  be  definitely  ascertained  when 
the  privilege  was  first  granted,  but  as  early  as  043 
the  Abljcy  of  Bobbio  in  Italy  is  said  to  have  ob- 
tained a  constitution  from  Pope  Theodore  confirm- 
ing a  grant  made  to  the  Abbot  by  Honorius  I.  In 
England  the  pontifical  insignia  were  assigned  first 
to  the  .Ablxit  of  St.  -Augustine's,  Canterbury,  in  1063, 
and  nearly  a  hundred  years  later  to  the  Abbot  of 
St.  -Alban's.  The  privilege  was  gradually  extended 
to  other  abbeys  until,  at  the  close  of  the  Middle 
-Ages,  every  monastic  house  of  importance  in  Europe 
wa.s  presided  over  by  a  mitred  Abbot.  The  rights  of 
-Abbots  to  jMnlificalia  are  now  regulated  by  the  De- 
cree of  Pope  Alexander  VII  (S.  Cong,  of  Rites,  27 
September,  1G59).  By  the  terms  of  this  decree  the 
days  on  which  an  .Abbot  is  porinitted  to  pontificate 
are  limited  to  three  days  in  the  year.  The  use  of  the 
seventh  candle,  customary  at  a  solemn  pontifical 
Ma.ss,  is  forbidden.  The  .Abbot's  mitre  is  to  be  made 
of  less  costly  material  than  a  bishop's,  and  the  pas- 
toral stall  is  to  be  used  with  a  white  pendant  veil. 
The  -Abbot  is  not  to  have  a  permanent  throne  in  his 
monastic  church,  but  is  allowed,  only  when  cele- 
brating pontifically,  to  have  a  movable  throne  on 
two  steps  and  a  simple  canopy.  He  has  al.so  the 
privilege  of  using  mitre  and  ciosier  whenever  the 
ritual  functions  require  them.  .As  a  mark  of  special 
distinction,  some  .Abbots  are  permitted  bj'  the  Holy 
See  to  use  the  cappa  magna,  and  all  abbots  nullius 
may  wear  a  violet  biretta  and  zucchello.  "A  recent 
decree  of  the  S.  C.  R.  (13  June,  1902)  has  regulated 
in  accordance  with  former  legislation  the  rights  of 
the  abbots  of  the  English  Congregation  to  pontifi- 
calia. .According  to  this  decree  the  English  abbots 
can  celebrate  pontifically  not  only  in  their  own  al>- 
balial  churches,  but  also  without  the  leave  of  the 
diocesan  bishop  in  all  other  churches  served  bj'  their 
monks  with  cure  of  souls.  They  can  also  give  leave 
to  other  abbots  of  their  Congregation  to  pontificate 
in  their  churches.  They  can  use  the  prclatical  dress, 
i.  e.  rochet,  mozzcUa  and  mantcllctta  outside  their  own 
churches"  [Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (Lon- 
don, 1900),  p.  3].  The  -Abbots  of  the  .American- 
Cassinese  and  of  the  .American-Swiss  Congregations 
have  the  same  privileges. 

VIII.  A.ssi.sT.\x(E  AT  Councils. — Ecclesiastical 
councils  were  attended  by  .Abbots  at  a  vcrj'  early 
period.  Thus,  in  448,  twenty-three  archimandrites 
or  .Abbots  assisted  at  that  held  by  Flavian,  the  Pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  and  with  thirty  bishops 
signed  the  condemnation  of  Eufyches.  In  France, 
under  the  Merovingian  kings,  they  frequently  ap- 
peared at  ecclesiastical  synods  as  the  delegates  of 
bishops,  while  in  Saxon  England  and  in  Spain  the 
presence  of  monastic  superiors  at  the  councils  of  the 
Church  was  nothing  uncommon.     Their  attendance 


ABBOT 


20 


ABBOT 


did  not,  however,  become  a  general  praetice  in  the 
West  until  after  theKiglith  Council  of  Toledo  (G53), 
where  ten  Abl)ots  had  been  present,  and  had  sub- 
scribed to  tlie  decrees  by  virtue  of  their  pastoral 
charge.  From  the  eiglith  century  onward  Abbots 
had  a  voice  also  in  the  trcumenical  councils  of  the 
Churcli.  It  must  be  remarked  that  in  later  cen- 
turies Abbots  wore  invited  to  assist  at  such  councils 
and  were  permitted  to  give  a  decisive  vote,  mainly 
because  they  too,  like  the  bisliops,  exercised  a  power 
of  jurisdiction  in  tlie  Cliurch  of  God.  In  this  con- 
nection Pope  Benedict  XIV  says:  "Item  sciendum 
est  quod  quando  in  Conciliis  generalibus  soli  epis- 
copi  liabebant  vocem  definitivam,  hoc  fuit  quia 
habebant  administrationem  po[)iili  .  .  .  Postea  ad- 
diti  fuere  Abbates  eadem  de  causa,  et  quia  habe- 
bant administrationem  subjectorum"  (De  Syn.  dia?c., 
XIII,  e.  ii,  no.  5).  A  newly  appointed  Abbot,  before 
he  receives  tlic  solemn  benediction  at  the  hands  of 
the  bishop,  takes  an  oath  that  he  will  discharge 
faithfully  all  the  duties  of  his  office,  specifying  among 
others  that  of  attending  councils:  "Vocatus  ad  sy- 
nodum,  veniam,  nisi  pra'peditus  fuero  canonica 
pra-peditione"  (Pontif.  Rom.,  De  Benedidione  Ab- 
balis).  In  the  performance  of  this  duty  the  Abbot 
must  be  guided  by  the  regulations  of  the  sacred 
canons.  According  to  the  present  practice  of  the 
Church  all  Abbots  7iullius  diceccsis,  or  with  quasi- 
episcopal  jurisdiction,  have  a  right  to  assist  at  cecu- 
menical  councils.  They  have,  moreover,  the  right 
of  a  decisive  vote,  and  may  subscribe  to  the  decrees. 
Tlie  Abbots-President  of  congregations  and  tlie  ab- 
bots-general of  an  entire  order  are  also  present  and 
cast  a  decisive  vote,  though  only  by  virtue  of  privi- 
lege. Other  classes  of  Abbots  were  not  admitted  to 
the  Vatican  Council  in  1S70.  In  provincial  synods 
and  in  plenary  or  national  councils  the  Abbots  nul- 
lius  have  de  jure  a  decisive  vote,  and  sign  the  decrees 
after  the  bisliops.  Attendance  at  these  synods  is 
for  them  not  merely  a  right,  but  also  an  obligation. 
By  the  terms  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,  De 
ref.,  c.  ii)  they  are  obliged,  "like  the  bishops  who 
are  not  subject  to  any  archbishop,  to  make  choice 
of  some  neighbouring  metropolitan,  at  whose  synods 
they  shall  be  bound  to  appear,"  and  they  are  further 
directed  "to  observe  and  to  cause  to  be  observed 
whatsoever  shall  be  therein  ordained. "  Though 
other  Abbots  must  not  be  called  de  jure  to  provinical 
or  to  national  councils,  it  is  yet  the  custom,  in  most 
countries,  to  invite  also  the  mitred  Abbots  who  have 
actual  jurisdiction  only  over  their  monasteries. 
Thus,  at  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
(1S66)  both  the  Abbot  of  the  Cistercians  and  the 
Abbot-President  of  the  American-Cassinese  Benedic- 
tines were  present,  and  signed  the  decrees.  At  the 
Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1884)  six  mi- 
tred Abbots  assisted,  two  of  whom,  the  Abbots- 
President  of  the  American-Cassinese  and  of  the 
American-Swiss  Congregations  of  Benedictines,  ex- 
ercised the  riglit  of  a  decisive  vote,  wliile  the  other 
four  had  only  a  consultative  voice,  and  subscribed 
to  the  decrees  merely  as  assenting,  not  as  defining. 
And  this  is  the  practice  of  tlie  Church  generally. 
Exempt  Abbots  have  no  obligation  to  attend  dio- 
ee.san  synods. 

IX.  DisTHiHUTioN  OF  Abbot.s. — The  Black  Monks 
of  St.  Benedict  have  at  pre.sent  seven  Abbots  nullius 
diwccsis.  located  as  follows: — Italy,  4;  Switzerland, 
1;  Hungary,  1;  and  West  Australia,  1;— 86  .\bbots 
exercising  actual  jurisdiction  over  their  monasteries: 
— Austria,  19;  United  States,  14;  France,  9  (before 
the  Law  of  .V.s.sociations);  Italy,  9;  Ciermany,  7; 
England,  C;  Hungary,  5;  Switzerlanil,  4;  Brazil, 
S.  A.,  3;  Holland,  3;  Spain,  3;  Belgium,  2;  Scotland, 
1;  West  .-Xustralia,  1.  They  have  also  nine  titular, 
and  three  resignetl  .Abbots. 

The  Cistercian  Abbots  of  the  Three  Observances 


number  fifty-seven.  Of  these  the  Cistercians  of 
the  Common  and  of  the  Lesser  Observance  have 
nineteen: — Italy,  3;  Belgium,  2;  Austro-Hungarian 
Province,  8;  and  the  Swiss-German  Congregation, 
3.  The  Congregation  of  S^-nanque,  to  wliich  the 
three  -\bbots  of  the  Lesser  Ob.servance  belong,  is 
now  dispersed  by  tlie  Associations  Law  of  France. 
The  Cistercians  of  the  Strict  Observance  (Trappists) 
have  tliirty-eight: — France,  18  (not  expelled); 
Belgium,  4;  Italy,  3;  United  States,  Au.stria,  and 
Ireland,  two  each;  Canada,  China,  England,  Ger- 
many, Holland,  and  Spain,  one  each.  The  Cister- 
cians have  also  two  Abbots  nullius  dicecesis. 

In  Italy,  the  Camaldolese,  Vallombrosans,  Sil- 
vestrines,  and  Olivetans,  all  branches  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Order,  have  each  a  small  number  of  Abbots. 
Monte  Oliveto  Maggiore  belonging  to  the  Olivetans, 
is  an  abbey  nullius  dicecesis.  Some  few  houses  of 
the  various  Congregations  of  Canons  Regular,  of 
the  Antonians,  of  the  Armenian  Benedictines,  and  of 
the  Basilians,  are  also  under  the  direction  of  Abbots. 
Mitred  Abbots  in  the  United  States  are  the  Abbots  of 
St.  Vincent's  Arch-Abbey,  Beatty,  Pa.;  St.  John's 
Abbey,  Collegeville,  Minn.;  St.  Benedict's  Abbey, 
Atchison,  Kan.;  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  Newirk,  N.  J.; 
Maryhelp  Abbey,  Belmont,  N.  C. ;  St.  Bernard's 
Abbey,  St.  Bernard,  Ala.;  St.  Procopius's  Abbey, 
Chicago,  111.;  St.  Leo's  .\bbey,  St.  Leo,  Fla.;  St. 
Meinrad's  Abbey,  St.  Meinrad,  Ind.;  Immaculate 
Conception  Abbey,  Conception,  Mo.;  New  Subiaco 
Abbey,  Spielerville,  Ark.;  St.  Joseph's  Abbey,  Cov- 
ington, La.;  St.  Mary's  Abbey,  Richardton,  N.  Dak.; 
St.  Benedict's  Abbey,  Mount  Angel,  Ore.;  Geth- 
semani  Abbey,  Ky.;  New  Melleray  Abbey,  near 
Dubuque,  Iowa;  and  the  Sacred  Heart  Abbey,  Ok- 
lahoma. 

Mitred  Abbots  in  England  are  the  Titular  Abbot 
of  Reading,  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gregory's  Abbey,  Down- 
side, Bath;  St.  Lawrence's  Abbey,  Ampleforth, 
York;  St.  Edmund's  Abbey  of  Douay,  Woolhanip- 
ton,  Reading;  St.  Augustine's  Abbey,  Ramsgate; 
St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Birmingham;  Buck- 
fast  Abbey,  Buckfastleigh,  Devon;  St.  Michael's 
Abbey,  Farnborough  (Benedictines  of  Solcsmes); 
Abbey  of  St.  Pierre,  Appuldurcombe,  Isle  of  \\'ight 
(Benedictines  of  Solesmes);  St.  Bernard's  Abbey, 
Coalville,  near  Leicester  (Cistercian);  The  Canons 
Regular  of  the  Lateran,  Spettisbury,  Dorsetshire. 

In  Scotland:  St.  Benedict's  Abbey,  Fort  Augustus, 
Inverness. 

In  Ireland:  Mt.  Melleray  Abbey,  Cappoquin;  Mt. 
St.  Joseph's  Abbey,  Roscrea,  Tipperary. 

In  West  Australia:  Holy  Trinity  Abbey,  New 
Norcia    {nullius    dicecesis). 

In  Canada:  Abbey  of  Notre  Dame  du  Lac,  Lac 
des  Deux  Montagues. 

Rule  of  SI.  Benedict  in  P.  L.,  LXVI,  933  sq.  (ed.  SrHMim. 
Ratisbon,  1880;  2d  ed.,  ihid.,  1893);  Gasquet.  English 
Munaatic  Life  (London,  1904);  Taonton,  7'he  Knglish  Black 
Monks  of  St.  Benedict  (London,  1S98);  Idkm,  Tlic  Law 
of  the  Church  (St.  Louis,  1900);  Diguy.  Atorca  CatholiH; 
or  The  Ages  of  Faith  (London,  1845;  reprint.  New  York.  190(i, 
Bk.  X,  vol.  HI);  Montalembcrt,  The  Monks  of  the  West, 
from  St.  Benedict  to  St.  Bernard  (ed.  Gasiji'kt.  New  York. 
189(5);  Dovi.E,  The  Teaching  of  St.  Benedict  I  London,  1887): 
DtiouALE,  .\lonasticon  (London,  1817);  Mabili.on,  Annales 
Ordinis  S.  Benedicti  (Lucca,  1739).  I,  ii;  Thoma.ssin,  Vctus 
et  Nova  Eccl.  Diacipl.  (Mainz,  1787);  Mart^ne,  De  Antici. 
lied.  Rilibua  (Bassano,  1788),  11;  Uii  Cange,  Gloss.  Med. 
et  Infim.  Latinii.,  s.  v.  Abtma;  Ferraris,  Prompta  Bibl.  Can. 
(Rome,  1885);  Tambi'RINi,  De  Jure  et  Privilrg.  Ablrnt.  Pralut. 
(Cologne,  1091);  Fagnani.  Jus  Canon.,  a.  Cummtntaria  in 
V  Libroa  Decretalium  (ibid.,  1704);  Lucinl,  De  Visilntivne 
Sacrorum  Liminum  (Rome,  187S);  Besse,  Lea  moinea  d'om-nt 
(Paris,  1900);  Chamabd,  .•IWj/s  nu  mnyrn  tge,  in  Rer.  des. 
qurstiona  historiqucs  (1885).  XXXVIII,  71-108;  Be.sse.  in 
Diet,  d'  arehcol.  chrft.  (Paris,  1903);  I.anoogne,  in  Diet,  de 
thiol,  cath.,  8.  V.  Abbfs  (Paris.  liinSl;  WagmOller,  Lehrb.  des 
knthol.  Kirclienrechts  (Frcibiirc,  19(1.11;  llEHOENRimiER-Hoi.- 
WECK,  l.ehrb.  dea  kathol.  Kirrh.  nnrhl.-:  iil.id.,  1905);  Heil^'ER, 
in  Kirchenler..  s.  v.  Alil  (2.1  i.l.,  iln.l..  ISS2).  For  on  exten- 
sive bibiioKraphv,  see  Scuehiu,  lUmdiiuch  des  Ktrchinnehts 
(Grat.,   1880),   Jl,   729  sq.  753.       ^.j,^^,^^^  OestREICH. 


ABBOT 


21 


ABBREVIATION 


Abbot,  Hknky,  layman,  martyred  at  York,  4  July, 
1597,  pronounced  \  enerable  in  ISSO.  IIis  acts  are 
tlnis  related  by  Challoner:  "A  certain  Protestant 
minister,  for  some  misdemeanour  put  into  York  Castle, 
to  reinstate  himself  in  the  favour  of  his  superiors, 
insinuated  himself  into  Ilie  good  opinion  of  the  Catho- 
lic prisoners,  by  prelcndiuK;  a  deep  sense  of  repent- 
ance, and  a  great  desire  of  embracing  the  Catholic 
truth.  .  .  .  .So  they  directed  him,  after  he  was  en- 
larged, to  Mr.  Henry  Abbot,  a  zealous  convert  who 
lived  in  Holdcn  in  the  same  county,  to  procure  a 
priest  to  reconcile  him.  .  .  .  .Mr.  Abbot  carried  hin\ 
to  Carlton  to  the  house  of  Esquire  Staplcton,  but 
did  not  succeed  in  finding  a  priest.  .Soon  after,  the 
traitor  having  got  eno\igh  to  put  them  all  in  danger 
of  the  law,  accused  them  to  the  magistrates.  .  .  . 
They  confe.s.sed  that  they  had  explained  to  him  the 
Catholic  Faith,  and  upon  this  they  were  all  found 
guilty  and  sentenced  to  die."  The  others.  Eriing- 
ton,  Knight,  and  (iibson,  were  executed  on  29  No- 
vember, 1.596;  Abbot  was  reprie\'ed  till  the  next 
July. 

(v1iallonf:r.  Memoirs  of  Mianonary  Priests  (latest  eel., 
London.  1878);  U.ksknt.  Ads  of  Privy  Council  (I59G);  Strypk, 
.■lrmo;«  (1824).  IV,  420. 

P.^THICK  Ry.\N. 

Abbreviation,  Mkthods  of. — The  use  of  abbrevia- 
tions is  due,  in  part,  to  exigencies  arising  from  the 
nature  of  the  materials  employed  in  the  making  of 
records,  whether  stone,  marble,  bronze,  or  parch- 
ment. Lapidaries,  engravers,  and  copyists  are  under 
the  same  nece.ssity  of  making  the  most  of  the  space  at 
their  disposal.  Such  abbreviations,  indeed,  are  sel- 
dom met  with  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era; 
material  of  all  kinds  was  plentiful,  and  there  was, 
consequently,  no  need  to  be  sparing  in  the  use  of  it. 
By  the  third  or  fourth  century,  however,  it  had  grown 
to  be  scarce  and  costly,  and  it  became  the  artist's  aim 
to  inscribe  long  texts  on  surfaces  of  somewhat  scanty 
proportions.  We  shall  not  pause  here  to  discuss 
the  use  of  abbreviations  in  ordinary  writing.  The 
Komans  possessed  an  alphabet,  known  by  the  name 
of  Xotic  Tironien.ies,  which  served  the  same  pur- 
jiose  as  our  modern  systems  of  stenography.  Its 
use  necessitated  a  six;cial  course  of  study,  and  there 
is  still  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  significance  of 
the  characters  employed. 

It  is  when  we  come  to  consider  the  subject  of 
inscriptions  cut  in  stone  that  we  find  the  most  fre- 
quent use  of  abbreviations.  At  certain  late  periods — 
for  example,  in  .Spain  in  the  Middle  .Ages  this  custom 
becomes  abused  to  such  an  extent  as  to  result  in  the 
invention  of  symbols  which  are  undecipherable.  In 
the  best  period  of  epigraphy  certain  rules  are  strictly 
olwerved.  The  abl)reviations  in  <'ommon  use  fall 
imder  two  chief  heads:  (1)  The  reduction  of  the  word 
to  its  initial  letter;  (2)  The  reduction  of  a  word  to 
its  first  letters  in  a  bunch,  or  to  several  letters  taken 
at  intervals  in  the  body  of  the  word  and  set  side  by 
side.  This  latter  arrangement  is  almost  exclusively 
Christian,  whereas  in  heathen  in.scriptions  the  num- 
ber of  letters  left  in  the  abbreviation  is  more  or 
less  limited,  yet  no  intermediate  letter  is  omitted. 
The  following  readings  may  be  noted:  PON,  PONT., 
PONTF.  for  Pontijcx:  DP.,  Ui:P..  DPS.,  for  i)c/x).vi- 
(«.».•  MCP  for  Municipii.  Occasionally  a  phrase 
which  has  become  .stale  by  constant  use,  and  has 
grown  into  a  fornuila,  is  rarely  found  in  any  other 
form  than  that  of  its  abbreviation,  e.  g.  D.M.  for 
/>i'i.«  manibus,  IIIS  for  Jesus,  just  as  we  have  kept 
11. 1. P.  Sot  requicvol  in  ]xice.  L.n.stly.  a  whole  epitaph 
is  often  met  with  on  tombs  where  tlie  husband's  trib- 
ute to  his  wife  takes  the  following  form:  DlC  QU.\ 
N(ulhnn)  D(olorem)  .-Vfcceperat)  N(isi)  Mfortis). 

.Another  form  of  Abbreviation  consisted  in  doub- 
ling the  last  consonant  of  the  word  to  be  shortened 
as  many  times  as  there  were  persons  alluded  to,   e.  g. 


.\VG  for  Auyuslus,  .\V(!0  for  Augttsti  duo.  Stone- 
cutters, however,  soon  began  to  take  liberties  with 
this  rule,  and,  insteati  of  putting  COS.S  for  Cutisulihii.'. 
duobus,  invented  the  form,  CCSS.  Still,  when  there 
was  occa.sion  to  refer  to  three  or  four  people,  this 
doubling  of  the  last  consonant  gave  way  of  neces.sity, 
in  abbreviations,  to  the  simple  sign  of  the  plural.  .V 
horizontal  line  over  a  letter  or  set  of  letters  was  also 
much  u.sed,  and  was  destined,  indeed,  to  become  al- 
most universal  in  the  Middle  .Ages.  There  is  never 
any  dilliculty  in  settling  the  date  of  monuments  where 
this  sign  of  abbreviation  occurs;  the  undulating  line, 
or  one  curved  at  each  end  and  rising  in  the  middle, 
only  came  into  use  at  a  comparatively  late  period. 

Certain  marks  of  Abbreviation  have  had  so  wide- 
spreatl  a  use  as  to  merit  special  note.  The  ancient 
liturgical  manuscripts  which  contain  recensions  of 
.Ma.s.ses,  anil  are  known  as  Sacramentaries,  all  have  the 
letters  VD  at  the  beginning  of  the  Preface,  set  side 
by  side  and  joined  by  a  transverse  bar.  Mabillon 
interprets  this  monogram  as  being  that  of  the  form- 
ula, "  Vere  dignum  et  justum  est,  aequum  et  salu- 
tare",  an  interpretation  which  is  certainly  the  correct 
one.  According  to  the  various  51SS.,  the  monogram 
stands  for  the  words  vcre  dignum,  or  else  for  the 
whole  formula;  in  the  majority  of  instances  the 
letters  VD  stand  for  the  plira.se,  IVre  dignum  it 
justum  ext,  which  is  followed  by  the  rest  of  the  con- 
text, irquum  it,  etc.  In  a  large  number  of  manu- 
scripts these  letters,  VD,  have  fired  the  imagination 
of  illuminators  and  copyists.  It  is,  however,  impossi- 
ble to  enter  into  a  general  description  of  the  subject. 
Under  a  growth  of  arabesques,  of  foliage,  of  fancies 
of  all  kinds,  the  outline  of  the  two  letters  is  some- 
times hard  to  <listinguish.  The  symbol  encroaches 
more  and  more,  and  grows  from  a  mere  initial  into 
an  ornamental  page.  The  es.sential  type  varies  lit- 
tle, though  variants  of  some  importance  are  met 
with.  It  was  inevitable  that  medieval  writers  should 
build  a  whole  .system  of  mysticism  and  allegory  on 
the  VD  of  the  Preface.  John  ISeleth,  rector  of  the 
theological  .school  at  Paris,  devised  an  interpretation 
which  found  acceptance.  The  D,  he  wrote,  a  letter 
completely  closed,  signifies  the  Godhead,  which  has 
neither  beginning  nor  end;  the  half-open  V  means  the 
Manhood  of  Christ,  which  had  a  beginning,  but  has 
no  end;  the  bar  which  intersects  the  upright  lines 
of  the  VD  and  forms  a  cross,  teaches  us  that  the 
cross  makes  us  fit  for  the  life  of  God.  Fancies  of 
the  same  kind  are  to  be  found  in  Sicardus  of  Cremona 
and  in  Durandus  of  Mcmle.  Various  manuscripts 
contain  hundreds  of  variable  prefaces;  the  initial 
letters,  however,  are  not  drawn  on  a  uniform  pattern, 
and  the  chief  attempts  at  ornamentation  are  in- 
variably confined  to  the  Prafalio  Communi-i  im- 
mediately preceding  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.  The 
first  two  letters  of  the  Canon,  TE,  have  also  been 
made  the  theme  of  various  decorations,  though  less 
curious  and  less  varied  than  those  above  referretl  to. 

A  word  may  be  said  concerning  the  abbrevia- 
tion D.O.M.,  sometimes  seen  over  tlie  doors  of  our 
churches,  and  which,  whatever  may  be  said  to  the 
contrarj',  has  never  been  a  Christian  sjTnbol.  The 
formula,  in  full,  is  Deo  Optimo  Maximo  and  re- 
ferred originally  to  Jupiter.  The  abbreviation.  IH\'. 
Ills,  is  found  on  a  great  number  of  different 
objects:  ancient  gems,  coins,  epitaphs,  dedications, 
and  diplomas.  The  symbol  IHS  was  destined  to 
endure  for  many  ages,  but  it  is  only  since  the  time 
of  St.  Beniardine  of  Sienn.i  that  it  has  come  into 
such  widespread  use.  It  is  impossible,  with  the 
infoniiation  available,  to  say  whether  it  is  of  Greek 
or  Latin  origin.  Lastly,  the  abbreviation,  X.MI". 
meaning,  Xpiffxic  Mopfo  7ei'i'a,  is  often  found  on 
monuments  of  eastern  origin. 

Leci-krcq.  in  Pift.  d'nrchiot.  chrH.  et  de  Uturtrir,  T.  1.'>.'j-lS3. 
f.  v.;  MvnAToni,  Novus  thesaurus  veterum  inscriptionum  (Milau. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


22 


ABBREVIATIONS 


1739);  De  Rossi,  Insrr.  rhrisl.  urh.  Ilomir  (Rome,  1861):  Dr- 
CHESNE,  Ort(^nf»  du  culte  chrititn  (Paris,  189S);  Zell, //and- 
buch  dcr  ruminchen  Epigraphik,  1850-57. 

H.  Leclehcq. 

Abbreviations.  Ecclesiastical. — The  words  most 
commonlv  abbreviated  at  all  times  are  proper  names, 
titles  (oflicial  or  custoinarj'),  of  persons  or  corpora- 
tions, and  words  of  freriuent  occurrence.  A  good 
list  of  those  used  in  Roman  Republican  and  early- 
Imperial  times  may  be  seen  in  Egbert's  "Latin  In- 
scriptions" (New  York,  1S96),  417-459.  The  Jewish 
scribes  and  Talmudic  scholars  also  had  frequent  re- 
course to  Abbreviations. 

Between  the  se\enth  and  ninth  centuries  the 
ancient  Roman  system  of  Abbreviations  gave  way 
to  a  more  difficult  one  that  gradually  grew  up  in  the 
monastic  houses  and  in  the  chanceries  of  the  new 
Teutonic  kingdoms.  Merovingian,  Lombard,  and 
Anglo-Saxon  scripts  offer  each  their  own  Abbrevia- 
tions, not  to  speak  of  the  unique  scotica  mamis  or 
libri  scolticc  scripli  (Irish  liand,  or  books  written  in 
the  medieval  Irish  hand).  Eventually  such  pro- 
ductive centres  of  technical  manuscripts  as  the 
Papal  Chancery,  the  theological  schools  of  Paris  and 
Oxford,  and  the  civil-law  school  of  Bologna  set  the 
standards  of  Ablireviations  for  all  Europe.  The 
medieval  manuscripts  abound  in  Abbre\-iations,  ow- 
ing in  part  to  the  abandonment  of  the  uncial,  or 
quasi-uncial,  and  the  almost  universal  use  of  the 
cursive,  hand.  The  medieval  writer  inherited  a  few 
from  Cliristian  antiquity;  others  he  invented  or 
adapted,  in  order  to  save  time  and  parchment. 
They  are  found  especially  in  manuscripts  of  scholastic 
theology  and  canon  law,  annals  and  chronicles,  the 
Roman  law,  and  in  administrative  documents,  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  (charters,  privileges,  bulls,  rescripts). 
They  multiplied  with  time,  and  were  never  so  numer- 
ous as  on  tlie  eve  of  the  discovery  of  printing;  many 
of  the  early  printed  books  offer  this  peculiarity, 
together  with  other  characteristics  of  the  manuscript 
page.  The  development  of  printing  brought  about 
the  abandonment  of  many  Abbreviations,  while  it 
suggested  and  introduced  new  ones — a  process  also 
favoured  by  the  growth  of  ecclesiastical  legislation, 
the  creation  of  new  offices,  etc.  There  was  less 
medieval  abbreviation  in  the  text  of  books  much 
used  on  public  occasions,  e.  g.  missals,  antiphonaries, 
bibles;  in  one  way  or  another  the  needs  of  students 
seem  to  have  been  the  chief  cause  of  the  majority 
of  medieval  Abbre\'iations.  The  means  of  abbrevia- 
tion were  usually  full  points  or  dots  (mostly  in 
Roman  antiquity),  the  semicolon  (eventually  con- 
ventionalized), lines  (horizontal,  perpendicular,  ob- 
long, wa\'y  curves,  and  commas).  Vowel-sounds 
were  frequently  written  not  after,  but  over,  the 
consonants.  Certain  letters,  like  p  and  q,  that  occur 
with  extreme  frequency,  e.  g.  in  prepositions  and 
terminations,  became  the  source  of  many  peculiar 
abbreviations;  similarly,  frequently  recurring  words 
like  et  (and),  est  (is). 

Habit  and  convenience  are  to-day  the  principal 
motives  for  using  abbreviations.  Most  of  those  in 
actual  use  fall  under  one  or  other  of  the  following 
heads:  I.  Administrative;  II.  Liturgical;  III.  Scholas- 
tic; IV.  Chronological. 

I.  The  first  class  of  Abbreviations  includes  those 
used  in  the  composition  of  Pontifical  documents. 
They  were  once  very  numerous,  and  lists  of  them 
may  be  seen  in  the  works  quoted  below  (e.  g.  (Juantin, 
Prou).  It  may  be  well  to  state  at  once  that  since 
29  December,  1878,  by  order  of  Leo  XIII,  the  great 
papal  documents  (Liitcrm  Apoxtolica)  are  no  longer 
written  in  the  old  fiothio  hand  known  as  buUdtico; 
all  Abbreviations,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  ob- 
vious ones,  like  S.R.E.,  were  abolished  by  the  same 
authority  (Acta  S.  Sedis,  XI,  46.5-4G7).  In  the 
transaction  of  ordinary   busine.ss   the   Roman   Con- 


gregations are  wont  to  use  certain  brief  and  pithy 
formulas  (e.  g.  \egalive  =  "'Ho";  Negative  et  amplius 
=  "No  with  emphasis").  They  are  not,  correctly 
speaking,  Abbreviations.  For  a  li.st  of  these  see 
C.\NON  L.\w.  This  class  includes  also  the  abbre- 
viations for  the  names  of  most  sees.  The  full 
Latin  titles  of  all  existing  (Latin)  dioceses  may  be 
seen  in  the  Roman  annual,  "Gerarchia  Cattolica;" 
a  complete  list  of  the  Latin  names  of  all  known 
dioceses  (extant  or  extinct)  is  found  in  the  large 
folio  work  of  the  Comte  de  Mas  Latrie,  "Tr&or  de 
chronologie,  d'histoire  et  de  gfographie"  (Paris, 
1884).  For  the  same  purpose  the  reader  may  also 
consult  the  episcopal  catalogues  of  the  Benedictine 
Gams,  "Series  Episcoporum  Ecclesia;  Catholica;" 
(Ratisbon,  1873-8G),  and  the  Franciscan  Conrad 
Eubel,  "Hierarchia  Catholica  Medii  JEvi"  (Miinster, 
1898-1902).  Under  this  general  heading  may  be 
included  all  abbreviated  forms  of  addresses  in  ordinary 
intercourse,  whether  of  individuals  or  of  members  of 
religious  orders,  congregations,  institutes,  to  which 
may  be  added  the  forms  of  addresses  usual  for  mem- 
bers of  Catholic  lay  societies  and  the  Papal  orders  of 
merit.  (See  Catholic  Societies,  Orders  of  Merit.) 
The  Abbreviations  of  the  titles  of  Roman  Congrega- 
tions, and  of  the  individual  canonical  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  belong  also  to  this  class.  II.  A  second 
class  of  Abbreviations  includes  those  used  in  the 
description  of  liturgical  acts  or  the  directions  for 
their  performance,  e.  g.  the  Holy  Mass,  the  Divine 
Office  (Breviary),  the  ecclesiastical  devotions,  etc. 
In  the  following  list  the  Breviary  Abbreviations  are 
marked:  Br.  Here  may  also  be  classed  the  abbrevi- 
ated forms  for  the  name  of  God,  Jesus  Christ,  and 
the  Holy  Ghost;  also  for  the  names  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  the  saints,  etc.;  likewise  Abbreviations  used 
in  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments,  mortuary 
epitaphs,  etc.  (to  which  class  belong  the  numerous 
Catacomb  inscriptions);  finally  some  miscellaneous 
Abbreviations  like  those  used  in  the  publication  of 
documents  concerning  beatification  and  canoniza- 
tion. III.  In  the  third  class  belong  scholastic 
Abbreviations,  used  to  designate  honorific  titles  ac- 
quired in  the  schools,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of 
lengthy  titles  of  books  and  reviews,  or  to  facilitate 
reference  to  ecclesiastical  and  civil  legislation.  IV.  In 
the  fourth  class  of  Abbre\'iations  belong  all  such  as 
are  used  to  describe  the  elements  of  the  year,  civil  or 
ecclesiastical. 

Abbreviations  used  in  Apostolic  Rescripts. 

Absoluo.  Absolutio — Absolution. 

Air.  Aliter — Otherwise. 

Aplica.  Apostolica — Apostolic. 

Appatis.  Approbatis — Having  been  approved. 

Archiepus.  Archiepiscopus — Archbishop. 

Aucte.  Auctoritate — By  the  Authority. 

Canice.  Canonice — Canonically. 

Card.  Cardinalis — Cardin;il. 

Cens.  Censuris — Censures     (abl.     or     dat. 

case). 
Circumpeone.      Circumspectione — Circumspection 

(abl.  case). 
Coione.  Communione — Communion  (abl. 

case). 
Confeone.  Confessione — Confession  (abl.  case). 

Conscice.  Conscienti;c — Of   [or  to]  conscience. 

Const'""  Const  itutionibus — Constitutions  (abl. 

or  dat.  case). 
Discreoni.  Discretion! — To  the  Discretion. 

Dispensao.  Dispensatio — Dispensation. 

Dnus.  Dominus — Lord,  Sir,  or  .Mr. 

Eccla;.  Ecclesia^— Of  [or  to]  the  Church 

Ecclis.  Ecdcsiasticis — Ecclesiastical. 

Effum.  Effectum — Effect. 

Epus.  Episco])Us  — Bishop. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


23 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Excoe. 

Exit. 

Fr. 

Krum. 

finalis. 

Hiimil. 

Hnmoi. 

Igr. 

Infraptum. 

Iiitropta. 

Irregulte. 


Litma. 
Lre. 
I,te. 
Magro. 

Mir. 

•Minionc. 

Mriiiionium. 

Nultus. 

Orilinaoni. 

Ordio. 

Pbr. 
I'enia. 

I'eniaria. 


I'ntium. 

I'oc. 

Hontus. 

I'P. 

Vr. 

I'ror. 

Ptur. 

I'tus. 

(Jmlbt. 

Qtnus. 
Relione. 

Rlari. 

Roma. 

Salri. 

Snia. 

Snt:p.  1 

Sta-.     i 

Spealer. 

Spuali''"' 

Siipplioni. 

Tliia.       I 
Tlicolia.  ) 


Vonebli. 
\  r;e. 


Excomnuinioatione — Excoininunica- 
tion  (abl.  cjuse). 

Existit — Exists. 

Frater — Brother. 

Fratrum — Of  the  Hrothers. 

Gciiorahs — Cicnoral. 

Humihtor — Himibly. 

Hiij\isirio(li  — Of  this  kind. 

Igiliir      I'lierefore. 

Iiifni.siriptuin — Written  below. 

Intro.scripta — Written  witliin. 

Irreguhiritate — Irregularity  (abl. 
case). 

Licentia — License. 

Legitima — Lawful. 

Littera> — Letters. 

Licite-  Lawfully,  or  licitly. 

Magistro — Master  (dat.  or  abl. 
ciise). 

Mi.scricorditer — Mercifully. 

Miscralione — Pity  (abl.  case). 

Matrirnouium — Matrimony. 

NuUateuus — Nowise. 

Ordination! — Ordination  (dat.  case). 

Ordinario — Ordinary  (dat.  or  abl. 
case). 

Presbyter — Priest . 

Pcenitentia — ^  Penance,  or  repent- 
ance. 

Poenitentiaria — Penitentiary  (i.  e. 
Bureau  of  the  Apostolic  Peni- 
tentiary). 

Pra-sentium — Of  those  present,  or, 
Of  this  present  writing. 

Po-sse — To  be  able,  or,  The  ability  to 
do  a  thing. 

Pontificatiis — Pontificate. 

Papa — Pope. 

Pater — Father. 

Procurator. 

Pra-fertur — Is  preferred,  or,  Is 
brought  forward. 

Pncfatus — Aforesaid. 

Quod — Because,  That,  or.  Which. 

Quomodolibet — In  any  manner 
whatsoe^■e^. 

Quatenus — In  so  far  as. 

Ucligione — Religion,  or,  Religious 
Order  (abl.  ca.se). 

Regular! — Regular. 

Romana — Roman. 

Salutari — Salutary. 

Sententia — Opinion. 

Sancta; — Holy,  or,  Saints  (feminine). 

Special!  ter — Specially. 
.'^piritualibu.s — In  spiritual   matters. 
Sui>pli(ationibus — Supplication  (dat. 
or  abl.  ca.sc). 

Theologia — Theology. 

Tituli— Titles. 

Tantum — So  much,  or,  Only. 
Tamen — Nevertheless. 
Venerabili — ^Venerable. 
Vestra; — Your. 


AnnriEviATioNS  in  General  Use,  Chiefly  Eccle- 

SIASTICAL. 


A.B. 

Ab. 
Abp. 
Abs. 
A.C. 


Artium    Baccalavireus — Bachelor   of 

Arts. 
Abbas — .\bbot. 
Archbishop. 
Absens — .■Vlwent. 
Auditor    Camenn — Auditor    of     the 

Papal  Treasury. 


A.C.  Ante  Christum — Before  Christ. 

A.C.N.  Ante  Christum  Natum — Before  the 

Birth  of  Christ. 

A.  I).  Anno    Domini — Year  of  Our   Lord. 

a.  d.  ante  diem — The  day  before. 

Adm.  Rov.  Admodum  Reverendus — Very  Rev- 

erend. 

Adv.  Adventus — Advent. 

Alb.  Albus— White    (Br.). 

al.  alii,   alibi,   alias — others,  elsewhere, 

otherwise. 

\.  M.  Anno  Mundi — Year  of  the  World. 

A.  M.  Artium  Magistcr — Master  of  Arts. 

A.  M.  D.  0.  Ad  Majorem  Dei  Gloriam — For  the 
greater  glory  of  God. 

An.  Annus — Year. 

Ann,  Anni — Years. 

Ant  I  Antiphon. 

Apost.  Apostolus     Apostle. 

Ap.  Sed.  Ai)o?-iii|i(':i  Sidrs — Apostolic  See. 

Ap.  Sed.  Leg.  Ai«»iulii:r  Sc.lis  Legatus — Legate  of 

the  .\j)().sl<)ii(:  See. 

Archiop.  .\rchicpiscopus — Archbishop. 

Archid.  Archiiliaconus — Archdeacon. 

Archiprb.  Arclii  presbyter — Arch  priest. 

A.  R.  S.  Anno     Reparatie     Salutis — In     the 

year  of  Our  Redemption. 

A.  U.  Alma  I'rbs — Beloved  City  (Rome). 
Authen.  Authentica — Authentic  (e.g.  letters). 
Aux.  Auxilium,  Auxilio — Help,  With  the 

help  of. 

B.  A.  Baccalaureus    Artium — Bachelor   of 

Arts. 
B.,  BB.  Beatus,  Beati— Blessed. 

B.  C.  Before  Clirist. 

B.  C.  L.  Baccalaureus  Civilis    [or   Canonica'] 

Legis — Bachelor  of  Civil  [or  Canon] 

Law. 
B.  D.  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

B.  F.  Bona   Fide— In  Good   Faith. 

Ben.  Benedictio — Blessing. 

Benevol.  Bencvolentia — Benevolence. 

Bon.  Mem.  Bons  Memoriae — Of  Happy  Memory. 

B.  P.  Beatissirae  Pater — Most  Holy  Father. 

Bro.  Brother. 

B.  Sc.  Baccalaureus  Scientiarum — Bachelor 

of  Sciences. 
B.  U.  J.  Baccalaureus      Utriusque      Juris- 

Bachelor  of  Both  Laws  (civil  and 

canon). 
B.  T.  Baccalaureus     Theologia; — Bachelor 

of  Theology. 
B.  V.  Beatitudo  Vestra — Your   Holiness. 

B.  V.  Beata  Virgo — Blessed  Virgin. 

B.  V.  M.  Beata  Virgo  Maria — Blessed  Virgin 

Mary. 

Cam.  Camera  (Papal  Treasury). 

Cam.  Ap.  Camera  Apostolica — Apostolic  Cam- 

era (Papal  Treasury). 

Can.  Canonicus. 

Cane.  Cancellarius — Chancellor. 

Cap.  Capitulum— Little  Chapter  (Br). 

Cap.  de  scq.  Capitulum  de  .Sequenti — Little  chap- 
ter of   the   following   feast    (Br.). 

Capel.  Capella — Chapel. 

Cans.  Causa — Cause. 

C.  C.  Curatus — Curate     (u.sed     chiefly     in 

Ireland). 

CC.  VV.  Clarissimi  Viri — Illustrious  Men. 

Con.  Eccl.  Censura    Ecclesiastica — Ecclesiasti- 

cal Censure. 

Cla.  Clausula — Clause. 

CI.,  Clico.  Clcricus,  Clcrico — Cleric. 

Clun.  Cluniacen.ses — Monks  of  Cluny. 

C.  M.  Cau.sa  Mortis — On  occasion  of  death. 

Cod.  Codex — Manuscript. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


24 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Cog.  Leg. 
Cog.  Spir. 

Coll.  Cone. 

Comm.  Prec. 

Comm.  Seq. 


Compl. 
Con. 
Cone. 
Conf. 

Conf.  Doet. 
Conf.  Pont. 

Cons. 
Conseer. 
Const.  Ap. 

Cr. 

D. 

d. 

D.  C.  L. 

D.  D. 
D.  D. 

D.  D. 

Dec. 
Def. 
n.  G. 

I).  N. 

I).  N.  J.  C. 

T)K.TWs, 
D  N  U  S 
Doet. 
Oom. 
D.  O.  M. 

Doxol. 
D.  R. 

D.  Sc. 

D.  V. 
Dupl. 
Dupl.  Maj. 

Dupl.  I.  CI. 

Dupl.  II.  a. 


Cogiiutio   Logalis — Legal  Cognation. 

Cognatio  Spiritualis — Spiritual  Cog- 
nation. 

Colleetio  Coneilionun — Collection  of 
the  Councils. 

Coininemoratio  Pra'cedentis — Com- 
memoration of  the  preceding  feast 
(Hr.). 

Commemoratio  Scquentis — Com- 
memoration of  the  following  feast 
(Br.). 

Completorium — Compline    (Br.). 

Contra — against. 

Concilium — Council. 

Confessor. 

Confessor  et  Doctor  (Br.). 

Confessor  Pont  if  ex — Confessor  and 
Bishop   (Br.). 

Consecratio — Consecration. 

Consecratus — Consecrated. 

Constitutio  Apostolica — Apostolic 
Constitution. 

Credo — Creed  (Br.). 

Dominus — Lord. 

dies — day. 

Doctor  Civilis  [or  Canonica?]   Legis — 

Doctor  of  Civil  [or  Canon]  Law. 

Doctores — Doctors. 

Donum  dedit;  Dedieavit — Gave, 
dedicated. 

Doctor  Divinitatis — Doctor  of  Divin- 
ity (i.  e.  Theology). 

Decanus — Dean. 

Defunct  us — Deceased. 

Dei  Gratia — By  the  Grace  of  God. 

Dominus  Noster — Our  Lord. 

Dominus  Noster  Jesus  Christus — 
Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

Dominus — Lord. 


Doctor  (Br.). 

Dominica — Sunday. 

Deo  Optimo  Maximo — To  God,  the 

Best  and  Greatest. 
Doxologia — Doxology  (Br.). 
Decanus  Ruralis — Rural  Dean. 
Deus — God. 
Doctor       Scientiarum — Docto 

Sciences. 
Deo  Volente — God  willing. 
Duplex — Double  feast  (Br.). 
Duplex  Major — Double  Major  feast 

(Br.). 
Duplex  Prima;  Classis — Double  First 

Class  feast  (Br.). 
Duplex     Secuiidse     Classis — Double 

Second  Class  feast   (Br.). 
Ecclesiasticus — Ecclesiastic. 
Ecclesia — The  Church. 
Electio,  Electus — Election,  Elect. 
Eminentissimus — Most  Eminent. 


Gen. 
Gl. 
Gr. 
Grad. 

Grat. 

hebd. 
Horn, 
hor. 
IC 

Id. 
Igr. 
I.  H.  I 


Ind. 
Ind. 
Inq. 
i.  p.  i. 

la. 
J.  C. 
J.  C.  D. 


J.  D. 
J.  M.  J. 


of 


Jo.,  Joann. 
J.  U.  D. 


Jud. 
J.  U.  L. 

Jur. 
Kal. 
Laic. 
Laud. 
L.  C.  D. 

1.  c;  loc.  cit. 

Lect. 
Legit. 

L.  H.  D. 

Lib.,  Lo. 
Lie. 

Litt. 
LL.  B. 

LL.  D. 

LL.  M. 
Loc. 
Lov. 
Ijovan. 


Episcopus — Bishop. 


L.  S. 

Lud. 

M. 

M.  A. 

Mag. 

Mand. 

Mand.  Ap. 


Fel.  Mem. 
I'el.  Rec. 

Fer. 
Fr.,  F. 
Fund. 


Etiam — Also,  Even. 
Evangelium— Gospel  (Br.). 
Extra — Outside  of. 
Excommunicatus,    Exeommunicatio 

— Excommunicated ,  E.xcommuni- 

cation. 

Felicis.Memoriip — Of  Happy  Memory. 
Felicis  Hecordationis— Of       Happy     Mart.,  M.,  MM. 

Memory. 
Fcria — Weekday.  Mat. 

P'rater,  Frere — ^'Brother.  Matr. 

Fundatio — Foundation.  Mgr. 


Generalis — General. 

Gloria — Glory  to  God,  etc. 

Gratia — Grace. 

Gradus — Grade. 

Gratias — Thanks;  or  Gratis — With- 
out expense. 

Hebdomada — Week. 

Homilia — Homily  (Br.). 

hora — hour. 

Jesus — first  and  third  letters  of  His 
name  in  Greek. 

Idus — Ides. 

Igitur — Therefore. 

(I)Jesus  Hominum  Salvator  (usual 
interpretation),  Jesus  Saviour  of 
Men.  Really  a  faulty  Latin  trans- 
literation of  the  first  three  letters 
of  JESUS  in  Greek  (IHS  for  IHC). 

Indictio — Indiction. 

Index. 

Inquisitio — Inquisition. 

in  partibus  infideliimi — among  the 
infidels. 

Idus — Ides. 

Jesus  Christus — Jesus  Christ. 

Juris  Canonici  Doctor;  Juris  Civilis 
Doctor — Doctor  of  Canon  Law  or 
of  Civil  Law, 

Juris  Doctor — Doctor  of  Law. 

Jesus,  Maria,  Joseph — Jesus,  Mary, 
Joseph. 

Joannes — John. 

Juris  Utriusque  Doctor — Doctor  of 
Both  Laws  (Sc.  Civil  and 
Canon). 

Judicium — Judgment. 

Juris  Utriusque  Licentiatus — Licen- 
tiate of  Both  Laws. 

Juris — Of  Law. 

Kalend® — Calends. 

Laicus — Layman. 

Laudes — Lauds  (Br.). 

Legis  Civilis  Doctor — Doctor  of  Civil 
Law. 

loco  citato — at  tlio  place  already 
cited. 

Lectio — Lesson. 

Legitime,  Legitimus — Legally,  legiti- 
mate. 

Litterarum  Humaniorum  Doctor — 
Doctor  of  Literature. 

Liber,  Libro — Book,  In  the  book. 

Licentia,  Licentiatus — License,  Li- 
centiate. 

Littera— Letter. 

Legum  Baccalaureus — Bachelor  of 
Laws. 

Legum  Doctor — Doctor  of  Laws. 

Leg\un  Magister — Master  of  Laws. 

Locus — Place. 

Lovanivun — Lou  vain. 

Lovanicnses — Theologians  of  Lou- 
vain. 

Loco    Sigilli — Place   of   the   Seal. 

Ludovicus. 

Maria  -Mary. 

Magister    Artium — Master   of    Arts. 

Magister — Ma.ster. 

Mandamus — We  command. 

Mandatiun  Apostolicum — Apostolic 
Mandate,  e.  g.  for  a  bishop's  con- 
secration. 

Martyr.  Martvres — Martyr,  Mar- 
tvrs  (Br.). 

Maiutinum-    Matins  (Br.). 

Matriinonum — Marriage. 

Monseigneur,  .Monsignore — My  Lord. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


25 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Miss. 

Miss.Apost., 

M.  A. 
M.  H. 


Nativ. 

I).  N.  J.  C. 

N.  D. 

Nigr. 

No. 

Nob. 

Noct. 

Non. 

Nostr. 

Not. 

N.  S. 

N.  S. 
N.T. 

Ntri. 

Nup. 

Ob. 

Oct. 

Oinn. 

Op.   Cit. 

Or. 

t)rd. 

Or.  Oral. 

O.  S. 
( ).  T. 
Oxon. 


Pa. 

Pact. 
Pasch. 
Patr. 
I 'out. 
Ph.  B. 

Pli.  D. 

Phil. 
Ph.  M. 

I'.  K. 

P.niit. 
Ptiiiit.  Ap. 

Pont. 
I'ont. 
I'oiit.  Max. 


I'P.  AA. 
P.  P.  P. 

P.  U. 

Praf. 
Pib. 
I'resbit. 


-M!is.s     (Br.);      Prof. 


Missa,     Missionarius- 
Missioiiary. 

Missionariu-s  Apostolic\is — Mission- 
ary Apostolic. 

Missionarius  Hector — Missionary 
Rector. 

mutatur  terminatio  versiculi — the 
termination  of  the  little  verse  is 
diangcd   (Hr.). 

Nativitas  Domini  Nostri  Jesu  Christi 
— Nativity  of  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ. 

Nostra  Domina,  Notre  Dame — Our 
Lady. 

Niger— Black  (Br.). 

Nobis — to  u.s,  for  us. 

Nobilis,  Nobiles— Noble,  Nobles. 

Nocturnum — Nocturn. 

Nona- — Nones. 

Noster,   nostri — Our,   of  our. 

Notitia — Knowledge. 

Notre  Seigneur,  Nostro  Signore — 
Our  Lord. 

New  Style. 

Novum  Testainentuin — New  Testa- 
ment. 

Nostri — Of  our. 

Nuptiic — Nuptials. 

Obiit— Died. 

Octava— Octave    (Br.). 

Onmes,  Omnibus — .Ml,  to  all. 

Opere    Citato — In   the  work    cited. 

Oratio — Prayer  (Br.). 

Onlo,  Ordinatio,  Ordinarius — Order, 
Ordination,  Orilinary. 

Orator,  Oratorium — Petitioner.  Ora- 
tory. 

Old  Style. 

Old  Testament. 

Oxonium,  Oxonien.sc.s — O.xford,  Tlie- 
ologians  or  Scliolars  of  Oxford. 

Pater,   Pere — l'"ather. 
1  Papa — Pope. 
I  Pater— Father. 

Pactum — .\greeinent. 

Pasch.i— Kaster  (Br.). 

Patriarcha — Patriarch. 

Pentccostcs — Pentecost  (Br.). 

Philosophia-  Bacealaureus — Bachelor 
of  Pliilosophy. 

Philo.sophia;  Doctor — Doctor  of  Phi- 
losophy. 

Philosopfiia — Philosophy. 

Piiilo.-iopliiie  Magister — Master  of 
Pliilosopliy. 

Pridie  Kalendas — The  day  before 
llie  Calends. 

Ptmileiitia — Penance. 

Po'nitontiaria  Apostolica — Office  of 
the  Apostolic  Penitentiary. 

Pontife.\— PontilT,   Bisliop   (Br.). 

Pontificatus  — Pontificate. 

Pontifex  Maximus — Supreme  Pontiff. 

Possessor,  Possessio — Possessor,  Pos- 
session. 

Papa — Pope;  Pontificum — Of  the 
popes. 

Parochus — Parish  Priest  (used  mostly 
in    iR'land). 

Pat  res  Amplissimi — Cardinals. 

Propria  Pecuniii  Posuit — lOrccted  at 
his  own  expense. 

Permanens  Hector — Permanent 
Hector. 

Pra'fatio — Pn^face  of  the  Mass  (Br.). 

Presbyter —  Priest . 


Prop.  Fid. 

Propr. 
Prov. 

Ps. 

Pub.,  Publ. 

Purg.  Can. 

Quad  rag. 

Quinquag. 

H. 
H. 

Hescr. 
R.  D. 
Req. 

Resp. 
R.  L  P. 

Rit. 
Rom. 
R.  P. 


RR. 

Ht.  Rev. 

Rub. 

Ruhr. 

S.,  Sacr. 

Sal).,  Sabb. 

S:ec. 

Sal. 

Salmant. 

S.  C. 

S.  C.  C. 

S.  C.  EE.  RR. 

S.  C.  I. 
S.  C.  P.  F. 


sC5 

s.  d. 
S.  D. 
Semid. 
Septuag. 


Sexag. 

Sig. 
Simpl. 
Sine  Com. 


s.  1. 

s.  1.  n.  d. 
S.  M. 
Soc. 


Professus,  I'rofessio,  Profe.s.sor — 
Professed,  Profession,  Profes.sor. 

Propaganda  Fide — Congregation  of 
tlie  Propaganda,  Rome. 

Proprium — Proper  (Br.). 

Provisio,  Provisum — Provision,  Pro- 
vided. 

Psalmus — Psalm. 

Publicus,  Publice — Public,  Publicly. 

Purgatio  Canonica — Canonical  Dis- 
cu  I  pat  ion. 

Quadragesima — Lent,  also  the  Forti- 
eth day  before  Easter  (Br.). 

Quinciuagesima — The  Fiftieth  day 
before  Easter  (Br.). 

Rcsponsorium — Hesponsory  (Br.). 

Roma. 

Rescriptum — Rescript. 

Rural    Dean. 

Requiescat — May  he  {or  she]  rest, 
i.  e.  in  peace. 

Responsum — Reply. 

Requiescat  In  Pace — May  he  or  she 
rest  in  peace. 

Ritus— Rite,  Rites. 

Ronianus.  Romana — Roman. 

Revcriiidus  Pater.  R^v^rend  Pere — 
Heverenil  Fatlier. 

Rerum — Of  Tilings,  Subjects,  e.  g. 
SS.  RR.  Ital. —  Writers  on  Italian 
(historical)  subjects. 

Regesta. 

Riglit    Reverend. 

Ruber— Red   (Br.). 

Kubrica — Rubric. 

Sacrum — Sacred. 

Sabbat um — Sabbat li,  Saturday. 

Sa>culum — Century. 

Salus,  Salutis — Salvation,  of  Salva- 
tion. 

Salmanticenses — Theologians  of  Sal- 
amanca. 

Sacra  Congregatio — Sacred  Congre- 
gation. 

Sacra  Congregatio  Concilii — Sacred 
Congregation  of  the  Council,  i.  e. 
of  Trent. 

Sacra  Congregatio  Episcoporum  et 
Regularium — Sacred  Congregation 
of  Bisliops  and  Regulars. 

Sacra  Congregatio  Indicis — Sacred 
Congregation  of  tlie  Index. 

Sacra  Congregatio  de  Propaganda 
Fide — Sacred  Congregation  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith. 

Sanctu-s — Saint. 

sine  data — undated  book. 

Servus  Dei— Servant  of  God. 

Semiduplex — Semi  double  feast  (Br.). 

Septuagesima,  seventieth  day  (al- 
ways a  Sunday)  before  Easter 
,  (Br.). 

Sexagesima,  sixtieth  day  before 
Easter  (Br.). 

Sigillum — Seal. 

Simplex — Simple  feast  (Br.). 

Sine  Conimemoratione — Without 
commemoration  of  other  feast,  or 
feasts   (Br.). 

sine  loco — without  indication  of 
place  of  printing. 

sine  loco  nee  dat.i — without  indica- 
tion of  place  or  date  of  printing. 

Sanctx  Memori;r — Of  Holy  Mem- 
ory. 

Soeius  Socii — Companion,  Compan- 
ions (Br.). 


ABBREVIATIONS 


26 


ABBREVIATIONS 


S.  Off. 

s.  p. 

S.  p.,  S.  Petr. 
S.  P. 

S.  P.  A. 


Sr. 

S.  R.  C. 


S.  R.  E. 


ss. 

SS.  D.  N. 


S.,  SS. 
S.  T.  B. 

S.  T.  D. 

S.  T.  L. 

Suffr. 

S.  V. 

SjTl. 

Temp. 
Test. 

TheoL 

Tit. 

Ult. 

Usq. 

Ux. 

v..  Yen.,  W. 

v.,  Vest. 

Vac. 

Val. 

Vat.  . 

Vba. 

V.       ) 

Vers.  ( 

Vesp. 

V.  F.,  Vic.  For. 

V.  G. 

Vid. 

Vid.,  Videl. 

Vig. 

Viol. 

Virg. 

Virid. 

V.  M. 

V.  Rev. 

V.  T. 

\C.,  Xcs. 


Sanctum  Officium — Congregation  of 
till!  Holy  Oflice  (Inquisition). 

Sanctissime  Pater — Most  Holy 
Father. 

Sanctus  Petnis — St.  Peter. 

Sumnuis  Pontifex — Supreme  Pontiff, 
Pope. 

Sacrum  Palatium  Apostolicum — 
Sacred  .\postolic  Palace,  Vatican, 
Quirinal. 

Sister. 

Sacra  Rituum  Congregatio — Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites. 

Sancta  Romana  Ecclesia,  Sancts 
Romans  Ecclesia; — Most  Holy 
Roman  Church;  or,  of  the  Most 
Holy  Roman  Church. 

Scriptores — Writers. 

Sanctissimus  Dominus  Noster — Our 
Most  Holy  Lord  (Jesus  Christ), 
also  a  title  of  the  Pope. 

Sanctus,  Sancti — Saint,  Saints. 

Sacrae  Theologis  Baccalaureus — 
Bachelor  of  Sacred  Theology. 

Sacr»  Theologia!  Doctor — Doctor  of 
Sacred  Theology. 

Sacra;  Theologia^  Licentiatus — Li- 
centiate of  Sacred  Theology. 

Suffragia — Suffrages  (Br.);  prayers 
of  the  saints. 

Sanctitas  Vestra — Your  Holiness. 

Sjmodus — SjTiod. 

Tempus,   Tempore — Time,   in   time. 

Testes,  Testimonium — Witnesses, 
Testimony. 

Theologia — Theology. 

Titulus,  Tituli — Title,  Titles. 

Ultimo — Last     (day,  month,  year). 

Usque — As  far  as. 

Uxor— Wife. 

Venerabilis,  Venerabiles — -Vener- 
able. 

Vester — Your. 

Vacat,  Vacans — Vacant. 

Valor — Value. 

Vaticanus —  Vatican. 

Verba — Words. 


B.  M. 

B.  F. 
B.  L  0. 

B.  M.  F. 

B.  Q. 

C. 
CC. 

C.  F. 

CI.  V. 
CO. 

C.  O.  B.  Q. 

COL 

CS.,  COS. 
COSS. 

c.  p. 

D. 

D.  D. 
DEP. 
D.  I.  P. 

D.  M. 
D.  M.  S. 

D.  N. 
DD.  NN. 

E.  V. 
EX.  TM. 

E  VIV.  DISC. 

F. 

F.  C. 
F.  F. 

FF. 

FS. 

H. 

H.  L.  S. 


Versiculus — Versicle  (Br.). 

Vespera; — Vespers  (Br.). 
Vicarius     Foraneus — Vicar-Forane. 
Vicarius  Generalis — Vicar-General.        H.  M.  F.  F. 
Vidua— Widow  (Br.). 
Videlicet — Namely. 

Vigilia— Vigil  of  a  feast  (Br.).  H.  S. 

Violaceus — Violet  (Br.).  ID. 

Virgo— Virgin  (Br.).  IDNE. 

Viridis — Green   (Br.). 

Vir  Magnificus — Great  Man.  I.  L.  H. 

Very  Reverend. 
Vetus  Testamentum. 
Christus — Christ  (first,   middle,  and 
last  letters  of  the  Greek  name). 


Abbreviations  in  Catacomb  Inscriptions. 


INB. 
IND. 
INP. 
I.  X. 
K. 


A.  D.  Ante  Diem — e.g.  in  the  phrase,  "Ante 

Diem  VI  [wSoxtum]  Kal.  Apriles," 
is  equivalent  to  the  sixth  day  be-  K.  B.  M. 
fore  the  Calends  of  April,  counting 
both  the  Calends  and  the  day  in- 
tended to  be  indicated;  or  Anima 
Dulcis — Sweet  Soul. 

A.  Q.  I.  C.  Anima    Quioscnt    In    Christo — May 

hi.s  [or  lior)  Soul  Kepo.so  in  Clirisi. 

B.,  BMT.  Bene  Merenti— To  the  Well-Deserv- 

ing. 


L. 

\u  M. 


L.  S. 
M. 


Bona;  Memoria; — Of     Happy     Mem- 

orj-. 
Bonsc  Feminoe — To  the  Good  Woman 
Bibas  \jor  Vivas]  In  Christo — May- 

est  thou  Live  In  Christ. 
Bene  Merenti  Fecit — He  erected  this 

to  the  Well-Deserving. 
Bene    Quiescat — May    ho    \pr    she] 

Rest  Well. 
Consul. 

Consules — Consuls. 
Clarissima  Femina — Most  Illustrious 

Woman. 
Clarissimus     Vir — Most     Illustrious 

Man. 
Conjugi  Optimo — To  my  Excellent 

Husband. 
Cum     Omnibus     Bonis     Quiescat — 

May  he  \pT  she]  Repose  With  All 

Good  souls. 
Conjugi — To  my  Husband  \i)T  Wife]. 
Consul. 

Consules — Consuls. 
Clarissima   Puella — Most   Illustrious 

Maiden. 
Depositus — Laid  to  rest;  or  Dulcis — 

Dear  One. 
Dedit,  Dedicavit — Gave,  Dedicated. 
Depositus — Laid  to  rest. 
Dormit  In  Pace — Sleeps  in  Peace. 
Diis  Manibus — To  the  Manes  [of]. 
Diis  Manibus  Sacrum — Sacred  to  the 

Manes  [of]. 
Domino  Nostro — To  Our  Lord. 
Dominis  Nostris — To  Our  Lords. 
Ex  Voto — In  Fulfilment  of  a  Vow. 
E.x  Testaniento — In  accordance  with 

the  Testament  of. 
E    Vivis    Discessit — Departed    from 

Life. 
Fecit — Did;  or  Filius — Son;  or  Felici- 

ter — Happily. 

Fl:r!^crM-C--<^dt°beMade. 

t  Fratres — Brothers. 
1  Filii — Sons. 

Fossor — Digger, 
j  Hacres — Heir. 
\  Hie — Here. 

Hoc  Loco  Situs — Laid  [or  Put]  in 
This  Place. 

Hoc  Monumentum  Fieri  Fecit — 
Caused  This  ■  Monument  to  be 
Made. 

Hie  Situs — Laid  Here. 

Idibus — On  the  Ides. 

Indictione — In  the  Indiction  [a 
chronological  term]. 

Jus  Liberorum  Habens — Possessing 
the  Right  of  Children  [i.  c.  eligibil- 
ity to  public  odice  under  age]. 

In  Bono — In  Good  [odour]. 

Smw  OS  IDNE. 

In  Pace — In  Peace. 

In  Christo — In  Christ. 

Kalendas — Calends;  or  Care,  Carus, 
Cara — Dear  One;  or  Carissimus 
(-a) — Dearest. 

Karissimo    Bene    Merenti — To    the 
Most  Dear  and  Well-deserving. 
Locus — Place. 

Locvis  Monumenti — Place  of  the 
Monument. 

Locus  Selpuchri — Place  of  the  Sep- 
ulchre. 

Martyr,  or  Memoria — Memory;  or 
Monumentum — Monument. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


ABBREVIATIONS 


MM. 
M.  P. 


MRT. 


NN. 


O 

OB.  IN  XTO. 

OMS. 

UP. 


P.  C. 
P.  C. 

P.  CONS. 
P.  I. 
P.  M. 


PP. 
PK.  K. 


PRB. 

PR.  N. 


P.  T.  C.  S. 
PZ. 


Qui.    ( 
Q.  B.  AN. 

Q.  I.  P. 

Q.  V. 
R. 

Reg. 
S. 

SC.  M. 
SD. 
SSA. 
S.  I.  D. 

S.  P. 

ss. 

S.  V. 
T.,TT. 
TM. 
V. 

VB. 
V.  C. 

\V.  CC. 
V.  II. 
V.  X. 


X 

XPC. 

xs. 


Martyrcs — -Martyrs. 

Moiuinientuiii  Posuit — Erected  a 
.Monument. 

Merenti — To  the  Deserving. 

Nonas — Nones;  or  Nuniero — Num- 
ber. 

Nostris — To  Our  [with  a  plural];  or 
Numeri — Numbers. 

Ilora  -Hour;  Obiit — Died. 

Obiit  In  Chribto— Died  In  Christ. 

Omnes  — .\11. 

Optimus — Excellent,  or  Supremely 
(!ood. 

Pax  —  Peace;  or  Piu.s — Dutiful;  or 
Ponendum — To  be  Placed;  or 
Pridie — TliQ  Day  Before;  or  Plus 
— More. 

Poni  Curavit — Caused  to  be  Placed. 

Post  Consulatum — After  the  Con- 
sulate. 

Poni  Jii.ssit — Ordered  to  be  Placed. 

Plus  Minus — More  or  Less;  or  Fix 
Meniori;e — Of  Pious  Memory;  or 
Post  Mortem — After  Death. 

Pra'po.situs — Placed  over. 

Pridie  Kalendas — The  Day  Before 
the  Calends. 

Presbyter — Priest. 

Pridie  Nonas — The  Day  Before  the 
Nones. 

Pax  Tibi  Cum  Sanctis — Peace  to 
Thee  With  the  Saints. 

Pie  Zeses — (Gr.)  Mayest  thou  Live 
Piously. 

Quiescit — He  Rests. 

Qui   Bixit   \joT  Vixit]  Annos — Who 

lived years. 

Quiescat  In  Pace — May  he  \pT  she] 

Rest  in  Peace. 
Qui  Vixit — Who  Lived. 
Requiescit — He  Rests;  or  Refrigerio 

— In  [a  place  of]  Refreshment. 
Regionis — Of  the  Region. 
Suus — His;     or     Situs — Placed;     or 

Sepulchrum — Sepulchre. 
Sancta  Memoria; — Of  Holy  Memory. 
Sedit— He  sat. 
Subscripta — Subscribed. 
Spiritus    In    Deo — Spirit    [rests]    in 

God. 
Scpultus — Buried;  or  Sepulchrum — 

bepulchre. 
Sanctorum — Of  the  Saints. 
Sacra  Virgo — Holy  Virgin. 
Titulus,  Tituli— Title,  Titles. 
Testament  um — Testament. 
Vixit^ — He  Lived;  or  Vixisti — Thou 

didst — Live. 
Vir  Bonus — A  Good  Man. 
Vir  Clarissimus — A  Most  Illustrious 

Man. 
Viri  Clarissimi — Most  Illustrious  Men. 
Vir  Honestus — \  Worthy  Man. 
Vivas,  Care  [or  Cara] — Mayest   tliou 

Live,     Dear   One;    or    I'xor    Ca- 

rissima — Most  Dear  Wife. 

Christus. 


C.  J.  M. 


c. 
c. 

M. 
M. 

c. 
c. 

P. 
PP.  S 

c. 

R. 

c. 

R. 

c. 

s. 

c. 

R. 

I. 

c. 

c. 

R. 

L. 

c. 

R. 

M. 

c. 

R. 

M. 

D. 

c. 

R. 

M. 

I. 

c. 

R. 

P. 

c. 

R. 

S. 

P. 

c. 

R. 

s. 

P. 

C.  R.  T. 

C.  S.  B. 
C.  S.  C. 

C.  S.  P. 
C.  S.  Sp. 

C.  S.  V. 

C.  S3.  CC. 

C.  SS.  R. 

Inst.  Char. 
M.  S. 
M.  S.  C. 

M.  S.  C. 

O.  C. 

O.  Camald. 
O.  Cart. 
O.  Cist. 
O.  C.  C. 

O.  C.  D. 

O.  C.  R. 
O.  F.  M. 
O.  M. 
O.  Merced. 


Abbreviations  of  Titles  op  the  Principal  Reli- 
gious Orders  a.nd  Congreo.\tio.ns  of  Priests. 
A.  A.  Augustiniani  .Assumptionis — As- 

sumptionists. 
K.  B.  A.  Antoniani      Benedictini      Armeni —    O.  M.  C. 

Mechitarists. 


Congregatio  Jesu  et  Mariie — Eudi.st 

Fathers. 
Congregatio    Missionis — Lazarista. 
Congregatio  Maria; — Fathers  of  the 

Company  of  Mary. 
Congregatio  Passionis — Passionists. 
Congregatio   Pretiosissimi   Sanguinis 

— Fathers   of    the   Most    Precious 

Blood. 
Congregatio    Resurrectionis — Resur- 
rectionist Fathers. 
Clerici      Rogulares      Congrcgationis 

Somaschie — Somaschi  lathers. 
Canonici  Rogulares  Immaculata'Con- 

ceptionis — Canons  Regular  of  the 

Imiiiaculate  Conception. 
Canonici    Kegulares    Latcranenses — 

Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran. 
Clerici     Regularos     Minorcs — Clerks 

Regular  Minor,  Mariani. 
Clerici  Rogulares  Matris  Dei — Clerks 

Regvilar  of  the  Mother  of  Cod. 
Clerici    Rogulares    Ministrantcs    In- 

firmis — Clerks  Regular  Attendant 

on  the  Sick,  Camillini,  Camilliani. 
Congregatio  Reformatorum  Pra^mon- 

stratensium — Premonstratensians. 
Clerici     Regulares     Sancti     Pauli — 

Barnabites. 
Clerici   Regulares   Pauperum  Matris 

Dei     Scholaruin     Pianiin— Clerks 

Regular  of  the  Poor  Men  of  the 

Mother  of  God  for  Pious  Schools, 

Piarists. 
Clerici    Regulares    Theatini — Tliea- 

tines. 
Congregatio  .Sancti  Basilii — Basilians. 
Congregatio  .Sancta;  Crucis — Fathers 

and  Brothoi-s  of  the  Holy  Cross. 
Congregatio  Sancti  Pauli — Paulists. 
Congregatio  Sancti  Spiritus — Fathers 

of   the   Holy  Ghost. 
Clerici    Sancti    Viatoris — Clerks,   or 

Clerics,  of  St.  Viateur. 
Congregatio    Sacrati.ssiniorum    Cor- 

diuni — -Missionaries  of  the  Sacred 

Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary\ 
Congregatio     Sanctissimi     Redemp- 

toris — Redemptorists. 
Institutum  Charitatis — Rosminians. 
Missionaries  of  La  Salette  (France). 
Missionarii    Sancti    Caroli — Mission- 
aries of  St.  Charles. 
Missionarii     Sacratissimi     Cordis — 

Missionaries  of   the  Most   Sacred 

Heart. 
Ordo     Charitatis — Fathers     of     the 

Order  of  Cliarity. 
OrdoCanialdulensium — Camaldolcse. 
Ordo  Cartusiensis — Carthusians. 
Ordo  Cisterciensium — Cistercians. 
Ordo   Carmelitarurn   Calceatorum — 

Carmelites. 
Ordo  Carmelitarurn  Discalceatorum 

— Discalced,  or  Barefoot,  Carme- 
lites. 
Ordo  Reformatorum  Cisterciensium 

— Cistercians.  Trappists. 
Ordo  Fratrum  Minorum — Obser\'ant 

Franciscans. 
Ordo    (Fratrum)    Minimonim — Min- 
ims of  St.  Francis  of  Paul. 
Ordo     Beata;     Mariie     ^'irginis     de 

Redemptione     Captivorum — Mer- 

cedarians,  Nolaschi. 
Ordo     Minonim     Conventualium — 

Conventual  Franciscans. 


ABBREVIATORS 


28 


ABBREVIATORS 


Or  Jo  Pra)dicatorum — Dominicans. 


O.  M.  Cap.     I       Ordo   Minf)ruin  Caiipucinorum — Ca- 

U.  M.  C.         )  puchins. 

O.  M.  I.  Oblati    Mari;E   ImmaculatEe — Oblate 

Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate. 
().  P. 
O.  Pr. 
Ord.  Fratr. 

Pried. 
Ord.  Praem.  Ordo  Prajinonstratensium — Premon- 

stratensians,    Norbertines. 
().  S.  A.  Ordo  (Eremitarum)  Sancti  Augustini 

— Augustinians. 
O.  S.  B.  Ordo      Sancti     Benedicti — Benedic- 

tines. 
O.  S.  C.  Oblati  Sancti  Caroli— Oblate  Father-s 

of  St.  Cliarle.s. 
O.  S.  F.  C.  Ordinis  Sancti  Francisci  Capuccini — 

— Franciscan  Capuchins. 
O.  S.  F.  S.  Oblati     Sancti     Francisci     Salesii — 

Oblate  Fathers  of  St.  Francis  of 

Sales. 
O.  S.  H.  Ordo     (Eremitarum)     Sancti     Hie- 

ronymi — Hieronymites. 
O.  S.  M.  Ordo  Servorum  Maria; — Servites. 

O.  SS.  C.  Oblati    Sacratissimi    Cordis — Oblate 

Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
O.  Trinit.  Ordo  Sanctissimae  Trinitatis — Trini- 

tarians. 
P.  O.  Pretres     de     I'Oratoire,     Presbyteri 

Oratorii — Oratorians. 
P.  S.  M.  Pia  Societas  Missionum — Fathers  of 

the    Pious    Society    of    Missions, 

Pallottini. 
P.  S.  S.  Presbyteri    Sancti    Sulpicii,    Pretres 

de  S.  Sulpice — Sulpicians. 
S.  C.  Salesianorum   Congregatio    (Congre- 

gation of  St.  Francis  of  Sales) — 

Salesian  Fathers. 
S.  D.  S.  Societas   Divini   Salvatoris — Society 

of  the  Divine  Saviour. 
S.  D.  V.  Societas    Divini    Verbi — Fathers    of 

the  Divine  Word. 
S.  J.  Societas   Jesu — Jesuits. 

S.  M.  Societas  Mariie — Marists. 

S.  P.  M.  Societas      Patrum      Misericordise — 

Fathers  of  Mercy. 
S.S.S.  Societas    Sanctissimi    Sacramenti — 

Fathers  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 
Most  manuals  of  palaeography  (Greek  and  Latin)  contain 
lists  of  Abbreviations  (ancient  and  medieval),  some  of  which 
are  yet  of  ecclesiastical  interest,  while  others  have  long  since 
become  obsolete  or  rare,  and  concern  only  the  reader  of  manu- 
scripts. Some  manuals  of  diplomatics,  likewise,  have  useful 
lists  of  pontifical  chancery  Abbreviations,  e.  g,  Quantin, 
Diet,  de  diplomatique  chretienne  (Paris,  1846),  26-42,  and 
Pnon  (Paris,  1902).  In  the  latter  work  may  be  seen  the  origi- 
nal script-forms  of  these  Abbreviations.  Facsimiles  of  ab- 
breviated pontifical  documents  may  be  seen,  e.  g.  in  Denifi.e, 
Specimina  Palocographica  ab  Innoc.  Ill  ad  Urban,  V,  (Rome, 
1888).  The  Abbreviations  in  Greek  manuscripts  were  first 
scientifically  studied  by  the  Benedictine  Montfaucon,  in 
his  famous  Palaographia  Grwca  (Paris,  1708);  see  the  Intro- 
ductiona  to  Greek  Palirographij  of  Gardthausen  and  Wat- 
TENBACH. — The  little  work,  Modus  leqendi  abreviaturaa  in 
jure  tarn  civili  quam  pontijlcio  occurrenti'S  (Venice,  1590),  is 
one  of  the  earliest  attempts  at  a  dictionary  of  medieval  ab- 
breviations. A  very  useful  work  for  all  Latin  abbreviations 
is  that  of  Capelli,  Dizionario  delle  abbreviature  latinc  ed 
ilaliane  (Milan,  1900);  it  is  written  mostly  in  Latin  and  de- 
scribes all  the  abbreviations  ordinarily  used  in  Latin  and 
Italian  documents,  civil  or  ecclesiastical  Other  valuable 
works  dealing  specifically  with  abbreviations  in  pontifical 
documents  are  De  i.a  Hrana,  Signos  y  Ahrevinlvras  que  se 
tuan  en  lot  documcnlos  ponlifirios  (Leon,  1884);  Rodenbkrg, 
EpittoliT  dire.  XIII  e  rcgeslia  RR.PP.  sctecta  (Horlin,  1883),  1, 
323. — For  an  extensive  list  of  the  abbreviations  in  the  epitaphs 
of  the  Catacombs  see  Kraus,  Rcal-Eunict.  der  rhrisll.  Alterlh. 
(Freiburg,  1886),  I.  47-51.  The  chapters  on  abbreviations 
of  medieval  manuscripts  in  the  pala-ographical  manuals  of 
De  Waii.i.y  (Paris,  1843),  Ciiashant  (Paris.  1S85),  Paoi.i 
(Florence,  1891),  Reukens  (Louvain,  1899),  Cahini  (Rome, 
1889),  and  Thompson  (London,  1903)  are  recommended,  also 
the  excellent  Ijotrinisrhe  Paliiographie  of  Steffen.s  (Freii)urg, 
Switzerland,  1903,  3  vols.  fol.  with  many  plates).  See 
\}jkj-rKtipir.K,  Abbriviationa,  in  Ann.  Pont.  Calh.   (Paris  1900), 


627-538. 


Thomas  J,  Shah.w. 


Abbreviators  {abbrcviare  =  " shorten'',  "curtail"') 
those  who  make  an  abridgment  or  abstract  of  a  long 
writing  or  discourse.  This  is  acconijjlished  by  con- 
tracting tlie  parts,  i.  e.  the  words  and  sentences;  an 
abbreviated  form  of  writing  common  among  the  Ro- 
mans. Abbreviations  were  of  two  kinds,  (a)  the 
use  of  a  single  letter  for  a  single  word,  (b)  the  use  of 
a  sign,  note,  or  mark  for  a  word  or  phrase.  The 
Emperor  Justinian  forbade  the  use  of  abbreviations 
in  the  compilation  of  the  "Digest"  .and  afterwards 
e.xtended  his  prohibition  to  all  other  writings.  This 
prohibition  was  not  universally  obeyed.  The  ab- 
breviators found  it  to  their  own  convenience  and 
interest  to  use  the  abbreviated  form,  and  especially 
was  this  the  case  at  Rome.  The  early  Christians 
practised  the  abbreviated  mode,  no  doubt  as  an  easy 
and  safe  way  of  coni'municating  with  one  another 
and  safeguarding  their  secrets  from  enemies  and 
false  brethren. 

EccLESi.\STicAL  ABBREVIATORS. — In  course  of  time 
the  Apostolic  Chancery  adopted  this  mode  of  writing 
as  the  curial  style,  still  further  abridging  by  omitting 
the  diphthongs  ae  and  oe,  and  likewise  all  lines  antl 
marks  of  punctuation.  The  ecclesiastical  Abbre- 
viators are  officials  of  the  Holy  See,  inasmuch  as  they 
are  among  the  principal  officials  of  the  Apostolic 
Chancery,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  im- 
portant offices  in  the  Roman  Curia.  The  scope  of 
its  labour,  as  well  as  the  number  of  its  officials,  has 
varied  with  the  times.  Up  to  the  twelfth  or  thir- 
teenth century,  the  duty  of  the  Apostolic,  or  Roman, 
Chancery  was  to  prepare  and  expedite  the  pontifical 
letters  and  writs  for  collation  of  church  dignities  and 
other  matters  of  grave  im]5ortance  which  were  dis- 
cussed and  decided  in  Consistory.  About  the  thir- 
teenth or  fourteenth  century,  the  popes,  whilst  they 
lived  at  Avignon  in  France,  began  to  reserve  the 
collation  of  a  great  many  benefices,  so  that  all  the 
benefices,  especially  the  greater  ones,  were  to  be 
conferred  through  the  Roman  Curia  (Lega,  Pra>- 
lectiones  Jur.  Can.,  I,  ii,  2S7).  As  a  consequence, 
the  labour  was  immensely  augmented,  and  the 
number  of  Abbreviators  necessarily  increased.  To 
regulate  the  proper  expedition  of  these  reserved 
benefices.  Pope  John  XXII  instituted  the  rules  of 
chancery  to  determine  the  competency  and  mode  of 
procedure  of  the  Chancery.  Afterwards  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Dataria  and  the  Secretariate  of  Briefs 
lightened  the  work  of  the  Chancery  and  led  to  a 
reduction  in  the  number  of  Abbreviators.  According 
to  Ciainpini  (Lib.  de  Abbreviatorum  de  parco  majorc 
etc.,  cap.  i)  the  institution  of  abbreviators  was  very 
ancient,  succeeding  after  the  persecutions  to  the  no- 
taries who  recorded  the  acts  of  tlie  martyrs.  Other 
authors  reject  this  early  institution  and  ascribe  it  to 
Pope  John  XXII  (131(3).  It  is  certain  that  he  uses 
the  name  Abbreviators,  but  speaks  as  if  they  had 
existed  before  his  time,  anil  hail,  by  overtaxation  for 
their  labour,  caused  much  complaint  and  protest. 
He  (E.xtravag.  Joan.  tit.  xiil,  "  Cum  ad  Sacro.sancta- 
Romana;  Ecdesire  ")  prescribes  their  work,  determines 
how  much  they  may  charge  for  tlieir  labour,  fixes 
a  certain  tax  for  an  abstract  or  abridgment  of 
twenty-five  words,  or  their  equivalent,  150  letters, 
forbids  them  to  charge  more,  even  though  the  ab- 
stract goes  over  twenty-five  words  but  less  than 
fifty  words,  enacts  that  the  basis  of  the  tax  is  the 
labour  employed  in  writing,  expediting,  etc.,  the 
Bulls,  and  by  no  means  tlie  emoluments  accruing  to 
the  recipient  of  the  favour  or  benefice  conferred  by 
the  Bull,  and  declares  that  whoever  shall  charge 
more  than  the  tax  fixed  by  him  sliall  be  suspended 
for  six  months  from  office,  and  upon  a  second  viola- 
tion of  the  law,  shall  be  deprived  of  it  altogether, 
and  if  the  delinquent  be  an  abbreviator,  he  shall  be 
excommunicated.  Should  a  large  letter  have  to  be 
rewritten,  owing  to  the  inexavl   copy  of  the  abbre- 


ABBREVIATORS 


29 


ABBREVIATORS 


viator,  the  abbrevialnr  :iiiil  not  tlie  receiver  of  tlio 
Hull  must  pay  the  extra  cliar^e  for  the  extra  labour 
to  the  apostolic  writer.  Wliatever  may  be  the  date 
of  tlie  institution  of  the  olHce  of  abbreviator,  it  is 
certain  that  it  became  of  greater  importance  ami 
more  highly  privilego<l  upon  its  erection  into  a 
college  of  prelates.  Pope  Slartin  V  (Constit.  3  "  In 
Apostolicie,'  ii  and  v)  fixed  the  manner  for  tlieir 
examination  and  approbation  and  also  the  tax  thej' 
should  demand  for  tlieir  labour  and  the  punishment 
for  overcharge.  lie  also  assigned  to  them  certain 
emoluments.  The  .\bbreviators  of  the  lower,  or 
lesser,  were  to  be  promoted  to  the  higher,  or  greater, 
bar  or  jiresidency.  Their  offices  were  compatible 
witli  other  offices,  i.  e.  they  can  hoKl  two  benefices 
or  offices  at  one  and  the  same  time,  .some  conferreil 
by  the  Cardinal  N'iee-Chancellor,  others  by  the 
Holy  Father. 

Krection  of  the  Office  into  a  College  of 
PuEL.vTES. — In  the  pontificate  of  Pius  II,  their  num- 
ber, which  had  been  fixed  at  twenty-four,  had  over- 
grown to  such  an  extent  as  to  diminish  considerably 
the  individual  remuneration,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
able  and  competent  men  no  longer  sought  the  office, 
and  lience  the  oUl  .style  of  writing  and  expediting 
the  Hulls  was  no  longer  used,  to  the  great  injury  of 
justice,  the  interested  parties,  and  the  ilignity  of  the 
Holy  h^ee.  To  remedy  this  evil  and  to  restore  the 
old  established  chancery  style,  the  Pope  selected 
out  of  the  great  number  of  the  then  living  .\bbrevi- 
ators  seventy,  and  formed  them  into  a  college  of 
prelates,  and  decreed  that  their  office  should  be 
perpetual,  that  certain  emoluments  should  be  at- 
tached to  it,  and  granteil  certain  privileges  to  the 
possessors  of  the  .same.  lie  ordained  further  that 
some  shoulil  be  called  ".Vbbreviators  of  the  Upper 
liar"  (</c  Parco  Majori),  the  others  of  the  Lower  Bar 
(lie  Parco  Miiwri);  that  the  former  .should  sit  upon  a 
slightly  raised  portion  of  the  chamber,  .separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  hall  or  chamljer  by  lattice  work,  assist 
the  Cardinal  Vice-Cliancellor,  subscribe  the  letters 
and  have  the  principal  part  in  e.xamining,  revising, 
and  expediting  the  apostolic  letters  to  be  i.ssued  witli 
the  leaden  seal;  that  the  latter,  how-ever.  should  sit 
am(mg  the  apostolic  writers  upon  benches  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  chamber,  and  their  duty  was  to 
carry  the  signed  scheilules  or  supplications  to  the 
prelates  of  the  upper  bar.  Then  one  of  the  prelates 
of  the  upper  bar  made  an  abstract,  and  another 
prolate  of  the  same  bar  revi.sed  it.  Prelates  of  the 
u])per  bar  formed  a  quasi-tribunal,  in  which  as  a 
ciillege  they  decided  all  doubts  that  might  arise  about 
the  form  and  quality  of  the  letters,  of  the  clauses 
and  ilecrees  to  ue  atljoined  to  the  apostolic  letters, 
and  sometimes  about  the  payment  of  the  emolu- 
ments and  other  contingencies.  Their  opinion  about 
fiuestions  concerning  chancery  business  was  held  in 
the  highest  estimation  by  all  the  Roman  tribunals. 
Paul  II  supprc.s.sed  this  college;  but  Sixtus  IV 
(Constitutio  16,  "Divina")  re-established  it.  He 
appointed  seventy-two  abbreviators,  of  whom 
twelve  were  of  the  upper,  or  greater,  and  twenty-two 
of  the  lower,  or  le.s.ser,  presidency  (Parco),  and  thirty- 
eight  examiners  on  first  ajipearance  of  letters.  They 
were  bound  to  be  in  attendance  on  certain  days 
under  penalty  of  fine,  and  sign  letters  and  diplomas. 
Ciampini  mentions  a  decree  of  the  Vice-Chancellor  by 
which  absentees  were  mulcted  in  the  loss  of  their 
share  of  the  emoluments  of  the  following  chancery 
.session.  The  same  Pope  also  granted  many  privi- 
leges to  the  College  of  .\bbreviators,  but  especially  to 
the  members  of  the  greater  presidency.  Pius  VII 
suppressed  many  of  tlie  chancery  offices,  and  so  the 
Tribunal  of  Correctors  and  tlie  .Vbbreviators  of  the 
lower  presidency  disappeared.  (If  the  Tribunal  of 
Correctors,  a  substitute-corrector  alone  remains. 
Bouix  (Curia  Romana,  edit.  IS.V.))  chronicles  the  sup- 


pression of  the  lower  presidency  and  puts  the  number 
of  .Vbbreviators  at  that  date  at  eleven.  The  present 
college  con.sists  of  .seventeen  prelates,  six  substitutes, 
and  one  sub-substitute,  all  of  whom,  except  the  prel- 
ates, ni.ay  be  clerics  or  laymen.  Although  the  duty 
of  .•Vbbreviators  was  originally  to  make  abstracts  and 
abridgments  of  the  apostolic  letters,  diploma-s,  etc., 
using  the  legal  abbreviations,  clauses,  and  formu- 
laries, in  course  of  time,  as  their  office  grew  in  im- 
portance they  delegated  that  part  of  their  office  to 
their  substitute  and  confined  themselves  to  over- 
seeing the  proper  expedition  of  the  apostolic  letters. 
Prior  to  the  year  1S78,  all  apostolic  letters  and  briefs 
requiring  for  their  validity  the  leaden  seal  were  en- 
gro.ssed  upon  rough  parchment  and  in  Gothic  charac- 
ters (rouiul  letters,  al-so  called  Callicum  and  com- 
monly Bollatico,  but  in  Italy  to-day  Teutonic) 
without  lines,  or  diphthongs,  or  marks  of  punctuation. 
Hulls  engro.ssed  on  a  different  parchment,  or  in  difTer- 
ent  characters  with  lines  and  punctuation  marks,  or 
without  the  accustomed  abbreviations,  clauses,  and 
formularies,  would  be  rejected  as  spurious.  Pope 
Leo  XIII  (Constitutio  Universie  Eccles.,  29  Dec, 
lcS7S)  ordained  that  they  should  be  written  hence- 
forth in  ordinary  Latin  characters  upon  ordinary 
parchment,  and  that  no  abbreviations  should  be  used 
except  those  easily  understood. 

Titles  and  Puivilegf.s. — Many  great  privileges 
were  confcrrei,!  upon  Abbreviators  in  the  past.  By 
decree  of  Leo  X  they  were  createil  nobles.  Counts 
Palatine,  familiars  and  members  of  the  papal  house- 
liokl,  so  that  they  might  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of 
domestic  prelates  and  of  prelates  in  actual  attend- 
ance on  the  Pope,  as  regards  plurality  of  benefices 
as  well  as  cxpectives.  They  and  their  clerics  and 
their  properties  were  exempt  from  all  jurisdiction 
except  the  immediate  juri.sdiction  of  the  Pope,  and 
tlu'y  were  not  subject  to  the  judgments  of  the  Auditor 
of  Causes,  or  to  the  Cardinal  V'icar.  He  also  em- 
powered them  to  confer  (to-day  within  strict  limita- 
tions) the  degree  of  Doctor,  with  all  university 
privileges,  create  notaries  (now  abrogated),  legitimize 
chiklren  .so  as  to  make  them  eligible  to  receive  bene- 
fices vacated  by  their  fathers  (now  re\oked),  also  to 
ennoble  three  persons  and  to  make  Knights  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Sylvester  {Militiu;  Aurca;),  the  same  to 
enjoy  and  to  wear  the  insignia  of  nobility.  Pope 
Oregory  X\'I  rescinded  this  privilege  anil  reserved  to 
the  Pope  the  right  of  creatiim  of  such  knights  (.\cta 
Pont.  Cireg.  XVI,  Vol.  Ill,  178-179-180).  Pope 
Paul  V,  who  in  early  manhood  was  a  member  of  the 
College  (Con.st.  2,  "Romani"),  made  them  Referen- 
daries of  Favours,  and  after  three  years  of  service, 
Refereniiaries  likewise  of  Justice,  enjoying  the  privi- 
leges of  Referendaries  and  permitting  one  to  assist 
in  the  signatures  before  the  Pope,  giving  all  a  right 
to  a  portion  in  the  papal  palace  and  exempting  them 
from  the  registration  of  favours  as  required  by 
Pius  IV  (Const.,  98)  with  regard  to  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  Apostolic  Chamber.  They  follow  imme- 
diately after  the  twelve  voting  members  of  the  Signa- 
ture in  capclla.  Abbreviators  of  the  greater  presi- 
dency are  permitted  to  wear  the  purple  cassock  and 
cappa,  as  also  rochet  in  capclla.  Abbreviators  of  the 
lower  presidency  before  their  .suppression  were  simple 
clerics,  and  according  to  permission  granted  by  Six- 
tus IV  (loc.  cit.)  might  be  even  married  men.  These 
offices  becoming  vacant  by  death  of  the  -Vbbreviator. 
no  matter  where  the  death  take  place,  arc  reserved 
in  Curia.  The  prelates  could  resign  their  office  in 
favour  of  others.  Formerly  these  offices  a.s  well  :is 
those  of  the  other  chancerj'  officers  from  the  Regent 
ilown  were  occasions  of  vcnalitv.  which  many  of 
the  popes,  especially  Reneilict  \IV  and  Pius  VII, 
labi)un"<l  most  strenuously  to  abolish.  Leo  XMI 
(Motu  Proprio.  4  July,  1898)  most  solemnly  decreed 
the  abolition  of  all  venality  in  the  transfer  or  coUa- 


ABDENA60 


30 


ABDIAS 


tion  of  the  said  offices.  As  domestic  prelates,  prelates 
of  the  Roman  Court,  they  have  personal  pre-eminence 
in  every  diocese  of  the  world.  They  are  addressed  as 
" Reverendissimus",  "Right  Reverend",  and  "Mon- 
signor".  As  prelates,  and  therefore  possessing  the 
legal  dignity,  they  are  competent  to  receive  and 
execute  papal  commands.  Benedict  XIV  (Const.  3, 
"Maximo")  granted  prelates  of  the  greater  presi- 
dency the  privilege  of  wearing  a  hat  witli  purple  band, 
which  right  they  hold  even  after  they  have  ceased 
to  be  abbreviators. 

Ferraris.  Bibliotheca,  s.  v.  Abbreviatores;  Andre-Wagner, 
Dii't.  de  Droit  Canon.,  s.  v.  AbrvviatcuTs;  Van  Espen,  Juris 
Eccles.  Univ.,  Ft.  I.  tit.  xxiii.  Cap.  i;  Brancati  de  Laurea- 
Paravicina-Polyanthea,  Sac.  Can.,  s.  V.  AbhreviaUires; 
RiGANTi,  In  Rrij.  Cancell.,  IV,  Index;  Lega,  Pralect.  Jur. 
Can.,  Lib.  I.  vol.  II,  De  Canceltarid  Apostolica,  p.  285;  Ciam- 
PINI,  De  Abbrci-i-^itorum  de  Parco  Majori,  etc.;  De  Luca, 
Relatio  Romance  Curia:  Forensis.,  Disc.  x.  n.  9;  Petra.  Com- 
mentaria  in  Conslil.  Aposlolicas,  IV,  232-233;  V.  302-303. 

P.  M.  J.  Rock. 

Abdenago.     See  Daniel. 

Abdera,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Rhodope 
on  tlie  southern  coast  of  Thrace,  now  called  Bou- 
loustra.     It  was  founded  about  656  B.  c. 

Abdias  (.^  Minor  Prophet). — This  name  is  the 
Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  'Obhddhyah,  which  means 
"  the  servant  [or  worshipper]  of  Yahweh  ".  The  fourth 
and  shortest  of  the  minor  prophetical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  (it  contains  only  twenty-one  verses) 
is  ascribed  to  Abdias.  In  the  title  of  the  book  it  is 
usually  regarded  as  a  proper  name.  Some  recent 
scholars,  however,  think  that  it  should  be  treated 
as  an  appellative,  for,  on  the  one  hand.  Holy  Writ 
often  designates  a  true  prophet  under  the  appella- 
tive name  of  "the  servant  of  Yahweh",  and  on  the 
other,  it  nowhere  gives  any  distinct  information  con- 
cerning the  writer  of  the  work  ascribed  to  Abdias. 
It  is  true  that  in  the  absence  of  such  authoritative 
information  Jewish  and  Christian  traditions  have 
been  freely  circulated  to  supply  its  place;  but  it 
remains  none  the  less  a  fact  that  "nothing  is  known 
of  Abdias;  liis  family,  station  in  life,  place  of  birth, 
manner  of  death,  are  equally  unknown  to  us"  (.\bbe 
Trochon,  Les  petits  prophetes.  193).  The  only  thing 
that  may  be  inferred  from  the  work  concerning  its 
author  is  that  he  belonged  to  the  Kingdom  of  Juda. 
The  short  prophecy  of  Abdias  deals  almost  exclu- 
sively with  the  fate  of  Edom  as  is  stated  in  its  open- 
ing words.  God  has  summoned  the  nations  against 
her.  She  trusts  in  her  rocky  fastnesses,  but  in  vain. 
She  would  be  utterly  destroyed,  not  simply  spoiled 
as  by  thieves  (1-6).  Her  former  friends  and  allies 
have  turned  against  her  (7),  and  her  wistlom  shall 
fail  her  in  this  extremity  (8,  9).  She  is  justly  pun- 
ished for  her  unbrotherly  conduct  towards  Juda  when 
foreigners  sacked  Jerusalem  and  cast  lots  over  it  (10, 
11).  She  is  bidden  to  desist  from  her  unworthy  con- 
duct (12-14).  The  "day  of  Yahweh"  is  near  upon 
"all  the  nations",  in  whose  ruin  Edom  shall  share 
imder  the  united  efforts  of  "the  house  of  Jacob" 
and  "the  house  of  Joseph"  (16-18).  As  for  Israel, 
her  borders  will  be  enlarged  in  every  direction; 
"Saviours"  shall  appear  on  Mount  Sion  to  "judge" 
the  Mount  of  llsau,  and  the  rule  of  Yahweh  shall  be 
established  (19-121). 

D.\TB  OF  Tin:  Prophecy  of  Abdi.\s. — Besides  the 
shortness  of  the  book  of  .Vbdias  and  its  lack  of  a 
detailed  title  such  as  is  usually  prefixed  to  the  pro- 
phetical writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  there  are 
various  re;usons,  literary  and  cxegetical,  which  pre- 
\ent  scholars  from  agreeing  upon  the  date  of  its 
composition.  Many  among  them  (Keil,  Orelli,  Vi- 
gouroux,  Trochon,  Lesetre,  etc.)  assign  its  composi- 
tion to  about  the  reign  of  Joram  (ninth  century  n.  c). 
Their  main  ground  for  this  position  is  doriveil  from 
.^bdias's  reference  (11-14)  to  a  capture  of  Jerusalem 
which  they  identify  with  the  sacking  of  tlie  Holy 


City  by  the  Philistines  and  the  .Arabians  under  Jo- 
ram  (II  Paralip.,  xxi,  16,  17).  The  only  other  seiz- 
ure of  Jerusalem  to  wliich  .\bdias  (11-14)  could  be 
understood  to  refer  would  be  that  which  occurred 
during  the  lifetiine  of  the  prophet  Jeremias  and  was 
effected  by  Nabuchodonosor  (,")SS-5S7  b.  c).  But 
such  reference  to  this  latter  capture  of  the  Jewish 
capital  is  ruled  out,  we  are  told,  by  the  fact  that 
Jeremias's  description  of  tliis  event  (Jer.,  xlix,  7- 
22)  is  so  worded  as  to  betray  its  dependence  on 
Abdias  (11-14)  as  on  an  earlier  writing.  It  is  ruled 
out  also  by  Abdias's  silence  concerning  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city  or  of  the  Temple  which  was  carried 
out  by  Nabuchodonosor,  and  which,  as  far  as  we 
know,  did  not  occur  in  the  time  of  King  Joram.  \ 
second  argimient  for  this  early  date  of  the  prophecy 
is  drawn  front  a  comparison  of  its  text  with  that 
of  Amos  and  Joel.  The  resemblance  is  intimate  and, 
when  closely  examined,  shows,  it  is  claimed,  that 
Abdias  was  anterior  to  both  Joel  and  Amos.  In 
fact,  in  Joel,  ii,  32  (Heb.,  iii,  5)  "as  the  Lord  hath 
said"  introduces  a  quotation  from  Abdias  (17). 
Hence  it  is  inferred  tliat  the  prophecy  of  Abdias 
originated  between  the  reign  of  Joram  and  the  time 
of  Joel  and  Amos,  that  is,  about  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century  n.  c.  Tlie  inference  is  said  also  to  be 
confirmed  by  the  purity  of  style  of  Abdias's  prophecy. 
Other  scholars,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Mey- 
rick,  Jahn,  Ackerman,  Allioli,  etc.,  refer  the  com- 
position of  the  book  to  about  the  time  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Captivity,  some  three  centuries  after  King 
Joram.  They  think  that  the  terms  of  Abdias  (11- 
14)  can  be  adequately  understood  only  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  by  Nabuchodonosor;  only  that 
e\'ent  could  be  spoken  of  as  the  day  "when  strangers 
carried  away  his  [Juda's]  army  captive,  and  foreign- 
ers entered  into  his  gates,  and  cast  lots  upon  Jeru- 
salem"; as  "the  day  of  his  [Juda's]  leaving  his  coun- 
try, ....  the  day  of  their  [the  children  "f  Juda's] 
destruction";  "the  day  of  their  ruin";  etc.  They 
also  admit  that  Abdias  (20)  contains  an  implicit  refer- 
ence to  tlie  w-riter  as  one  of  the  captives  in  Babylon. 
Others  again,  ascribe  the  present  book  of  Abdias  to 
a  still  later  date.  They  agree  with  the  defenders  of 
the  second  opinion  in  interpreting  Abdias  (11-14) 
as  referring  to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nabu- 
chodonosor, but  differ  from  them  in  holding  that  (20) 
does  not  really  prove  that  the  author  of  the  book 
lived  during  the  Babylonian  exile.  They  claim  that 
a  close  study  of  .A.bdias  (15-21),  with  its  apocalyptic 
features  (reference  to  the  day  of  the  Lord  as  being 
at  hand  upon  all  nations,  to  a  restoration  of  all 
Israel,  to  the  wonderful  extent  of  territory  and  po- 
sition in  command  wliich  await  the  Jews  in  God's 
kingdom),  connects  necessarily  the  prophecy  of  .'Vb- 
dias  with  other  works  in  Jewish  literature  [Joel. 
Daniel,  Zacharias  (ix-xiv)]  which,  as  they  think,  be- 
long to  a  date  long  after  the  return  from  Babylon. 
Tliese,  then,  are  the  three  leading  forms  of  opinion 
which  prevail  at  the  present  day  regarding  the  date 
of  composition  of  the  book  of  Abdias,  none  of  which 
conflicts  with  the  prophetical  import  of  the  w-ork 
concerning  the  utter  ruin  of  Edom  at  a  later  date, 
and  concerning  the  Messianic  times. 

Philippe,  in  Did.  de  la  Bible;  Seluie,  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  Bible, 
s.  V.  Obadiah.  Recent  Commentaries;  Trochon  (1SS3);  Kna- 
BENBAUER  (18SG);  VoN  Orei.li  (1SS8;  tr.  1893);  Peters 
(1892);  Perowne  (1S9S);  Nowack  (1897). 

Francis  E.  Gioot. 

Abdias  of  Babylon,  an  apocryphal  writer,  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  seventy-two  Disciples  of  Christ, 
and  first  Bishop  of  Babylon,  consecrated  by  Sts. 
Simon  and  Jude.  Very  little  is  known  about  him. 
and  the  main  reason  for  mentioning  him  is  a  work 
in  ten  boolcs  called  "Historia  Certaminis  Apostolici" 
wliich  is  imputed  to  him.  It  tells  of  the  labours  and 
deatlis  of  the  Apostles.     This  compilation  purports 


ABDICATION 


31 


ABDICATION 


to  have  been  translated  from  Hebrew  into  Greek  by 
Kutiopius,  a,  discinie  of  Abdias,  and,  in  the  tliird 
century,  from  (Ireck  into  Latin  by  (Julius)  Africanvis, 
the  friend  of  Urigen.  But  it  is  really  a  Latin  work, 
for  in  it  are  cited,  witli  the  Vulgate  of  St.  Jerome, 
the  "Ecclesiastical  History"  of  Rufinus  and  his 
Latin  translation  of  the  "Recognitiones"  of  Clement. 
The  interest  of  the  work  is  due  to  what  the  author 
claims  to  have  drawn  from  the  ancient  "Acta"  of 
the  Apostles,  and  to  many  ancient  legends  which 
have  thus  been  brought  down  to  us.  The  text  of  the 
pscudo-.Mxliiui  may  be  found  in  Fabricius,  "Codex 
ApiH'iypluis  Novi  Testimenti"  (Hamburg,  1700), 
402-712,  tliougli  there  are  parallel  texts  of  single 
boolvs  printed  in  the  "Acta  Sanctorum."  Accord- 
ing to  R.  A.  Lipsius,  the  work  was  compiled  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  century,  in  some 
Frankish  monastery,  for  tlie  purpose  of  satisfying 
the  natural  curiosity  of  Western  Christians.  At  the 
same  time  he  used  much  older  pscudo-.\postolic 
materials  that  he  abridged  or  excerpted  to  suit  his 
purpose,  and  often  revised  or  expurgated  in  the 
sense  of  Catholic  teaching,  for  not  a  few  of  the  writ- 
ings that  he  used  were  originally  Gnostic  composi- 
tions, and  abounded  in  speeches  and  prayers  destined 
to  spread  that  heresy. 

HATifFol..  in  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  24;  LiPslDS,  J5i>  ApokntpHen 
Apo'Ulqctchichlcn  (Brunswick.  1883).  1,  177-178;  Batiffol, 
iti  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath..  I.  23;  LiPsius,  in  Diet,  of  Chritt. 
liwar.,   I,   1-4. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Abdication,  ecclesiastically  considered,  is  the 
resignation  of  a  benefice  or  clerical  dignity.  Every 
such  honour  or  emolument,  from  the  papal  throne 
to  the  humblest  chantry,  may  be  resigned  by  the 
incumbent.  The  general  ecclesiastical  law  concern- 
ing sucli  abdications  (exclusive  of  a  papal  resigna- 
tion) is  that  the  benefice  must  be  resigned  into  the 
hands  of  the  proper  ecclesiastical  superior.  More- 
over, the  resignation  must  be  prompted  by  a  just 
cause,  be  voluntary  and  free  from  contracts  involv- 
ing simony.  Resignations,  however,  may  be  made 
with  accompanying  stipulations,  such  as  that  the 
resigned  benefice  be  bestowed  upon  a  designated 
person,  or  that  the  abdicating  cleric  be  provided 
with  another  olfice.  It  is  also  rerjuired  that  the  one 
who  resigns  his  l>enefice,  if  in  sacred  orders,  should 
have  other  certain  means  of  support  commensurate 
with  his  dignity.  Resignations  may  be  not  only 
express  but  also  tacit.  The  latter  is  presumed  to 
have  taken  place  when  a  cleric  accepts  an  office  or 
conmiits  an  act  incompatible  with  the  holding  of  an 
ecclesiastical  dignity,  such  as  solemn  profession  in  a 
religious  order,  enrolment  in  the  army,  contracting 
marriage,  and  the  like.  No  resignation  takes  effect 
until  it  is  accepted  by  the  proper  authority.  Hence, 
tlio.se  who  hold  office  from  a  bisliop  must  resign  into 
his  hands  and  obtain  his  acquiescence.  Bishops,  in 
like  manner,  must  resign  into  the  hands  of  the  Pope. 
Vicars-general  cannot  accept  resignations  unless 
tliey  receive  powers  ad  hoc  from  the  bishop.  When 
a  bishop  abdicates  his  see,  he  may  renounce  both 
the  episcopal  benefice  and  dignity  or  only  the  bene- 
fice. If  he  resigns  Ijotli  he  cannot  in  future  perform 
any  episcopal  functions,  even  with  the  con.sent  of 
the  ordinary  of  the  dioce.se  where  he  resides.  If  he 
resign,  however,  only  the  benefice,  and  not  the 
dignity,  he  still  remains  capalile  of  performing  such 
episcopal  functions  as  other  bishoiw  may  request 
him  to  exerci.se.  Of  course,  in  the  former  case,  if  an 
abdicated  bishop  should  nevertheless  ordain  candi- 
dates, such  action  would  be  valid,  as  his  episcopal 
character  is  indelible,  but  it  would  be  entirely  illicit 
and  entail  grave  consequences  both  for  ordainer  and 
ordained.  A  bishop's  .Abdication  of  his  see  goes 
into  effect  as  soon  as  the  Pope  lias  accepted  it  in  a 
papal     consistory.     The     bishopric     then     becomes 


vacant,  but  the  actions  of  the  prelate  retain  their 
validity  until  he  receives  official  notice  of  the  accept- 
ance of  his  resignation. 

Like  every  other  ecclesiastical  dignity,  the  papal 
throne  may  also  be  resigned.  The  reasons  which 
make  it  lawful  for  a  bishop  to  abdicate  his  see,  such 
OS  the  necessity  or  utility  of  his  particular  church, 
or  the  salvation  of  his  own  soul,  apply  in  a  stronger 
manner  to  the  one  who  governs  the  universal  church. 
It  is  true  that  the  Roman  PontitT  has  no  superior  on 
earth  into  whose  hands  he  can  resign  his  dignity, 
yet  he  himself  by  the  papal  power  can  di.ssolve  the 
spiritual  marriage  between  himself  and  tlie  Roman 
Church.  A  papal  Abdication  made  without  cause 
may  be  illicit,  but  it  is  unquestionably  valid,  since 
there  is  no  one  who  can  prohibit  it  ecclesiastically 
and  it  contravenes  no  divine  law.  The  papacy  does 
not,  like  the  episcopacy,  imprint  an  indeliljle  char- 
acter on  the  soul,  and  hence  by  his  voluntary  Abdica- 
tion the  Pope  is  entirely  stripped  of  all  jurisdiction, 
just  as  by  his  voluntary  acceptance  of  the  election 
to  the  primacy  he  acquired  it.  All  doubt  as  to  the 
legitimacy  of  papal  abdications  and  all  disputes 
among  canonists  were  put  an  end  to  by  the  decree 
of  Pope  Boniface  VIII  which  was  received  into  the 
"Corpus  Juris  Canonici  "  (Cap.  Quoniam  I,  de  renun., 
in  ()).  The  PontilT  says:  "  Our  predecessor,  Pope  Ce- 
lestine  V,  whilst  he  governed  the  Church,  constituted 
and  decreed  that  the  Roman  Pontiff  can  freely  resign. 
Therefore  lest  it  happen  that  this  statute  should  in 
the  course  of  time  fall  into  oblivion,  or  that  doubt 
upon  the  subject  should  lead  to  further  disputes. 
We  have  determined  with  the  counsel  of  our  brethren 
that  it  be  placed  among  other  constitutions  for  a 
perpetual  memory  of  the  same."  Ferraris  declares 
that  the  Pope  should  make  his  abdication  into  the 
hands  of  tlie  College  of  Cardinals,  as  to  that  body 
alone  pertains  the  election  of  his  successor.  For 
whilst  it  is  true  that  the  Cardinals  did  not  bestow 
the  papal  jurisdiction  upon  him,  yet  they  designated 
him  as  the  successor  of  Peter,  and  they  must  be 
absolutely  certain  that  he  has  renounced  the  dignity 
before  they  can  validly  proceed  to  the  election  of 
another  pontiff.  Church  history  furnishes  a  number 
of  examples  of  papal  abdications.  Leaving  aside  the 
obscure  case  of  Pope  Marcellinus  (29C-30S)  adduced 
by  Pezzani,  and  the  still  more  doubtful  resignation 
of  Pope  Liberius  (352-360)  which  some  historians 
have  postulated  in  order  to  solve  the  perplexing 
position  of  Pope  Felix  II,  we  may  proceed  to  un- 
questioned abdications.  Pope  Benedict  IX  (1033- 
44),  who  had  long  caused  scandal  to  the  Church  by 
his  disorderly  life,  freely  renounced  the  pontificate 
and  took  the  habit  of  a  monk.  He  repented  of  liis 
abdication  and  seized  the  papal  throne  again  for  a 
short  time  after  the  death  of  Pope  Clement  II,  but 
he  finally  died  in  a  private  station.  His  immediate 
successor,  Pope  Gregory  VI  (1044-46)  furnishes 
another  example  of  p.apal  Abdication.  It  was 
Gregory  who  had  persuaded  Benedict  IX  to  resign 
the  Chair  of  Peter,  and  to  do  so  he  had  bestowed 
valuable  possessions  upon  him.  After  Gregory  had 
him.self  become  Pope,  this  transaction  was  looked 
on  by  many  as  simoniacal;  and  although  Gregorj-'s 
intentions  seem  to  have  been  of  the  best,  yet  it  was 
deemed  better  that  he  too  should  abdicate  the  papal 
dignity,  and  he  did  .so  voluntarily. 

The  clxssic  example  of  the  resignation  of  a  Pope 
is  that  of  St.  Cele-stine  V  (1294).  Before  his  election 
to  the  pontificate,  he  had  been  a  simple  hermit,  and 
his  sudden  elevation  found  him  unprepared  and  unfit 
for  his  exalted  position.  After  five  months  of 
jiontificate,  he  issued  a  solemn  decree  in  which  he 
declared  that  it  w;ls  permissible  for  the  Pope  to 
abdicate,  and  then  made  an  equally  solemn  re- 
nunciation of  the  papacy  into  the  hands  of  the 
<';ir(linals.     He  lived  two  years  after  his  abdication, 


ABDON 


32 


ABDUCTION 


in  tho  practice  of  virtues  which  afterwards  procured 
Ills  canonization.  Owing  to  the  troubles  which  evil- 
minded  persons  caused  his  successor,  Boniface  VIII, 
by  their  theories  about  the  impossibility  of  a  valid 
Abdication  of  the  papal  throne,  Boniface  issued  the 
above-cited  decree  to  put  the  matter  at  rest  for  all 
time.  The  latest  instance  of  a  papal  resignation  is 
that  of  Pope  Gregory  XII  (1406-15).  It  was  at  the 
time  of  the  Great  Schism  of  the  West,  when  two 
pretenders  to  the  Chair  of  Peter  disputed  Gregory's 
right,  and  rent  the  faithful  into  three  so-called 
"obediences".  To  put  an  end  to  the  strife,  the 
legitimate  Pope  Gregory  renounced  the  pontificate 
at  the  General  Council  of  Constance  in  1415.  It  is 
well  known  that  Pope  Pius  VII  (lSOO-23),  before 
setting  out  for  Paris  to  crown  Napoleon  in  1S04, 
had  signed  an  abdication  of  the  papal  throne  to  take 
effect  in  case  he  were  imprisoned  in  France  (De 
Montor).  Finally,  a  valid  Abdication  of  the  Pope 
must  be  a  free  act,  hence  a  forced  resignation  of  the 
papacy  would  be  null  and  void,  as  more  than  one 
ecclesiastical  decree  has  declared. 

Smith,  Elem.  of  Eccl.  Law  (New  York,  1895),  I;  De  Luc.\, 
Pralect.  Jur.  Can.  (Rome.  1897),  II;  Craisson,  Manuale  Jur. 
Can.  (Paris,  1899).  I.  For  Papal  Abdication  see  Ferrarls, 
Bibl.  Jur.  Can.,  art.  Papa  (Rome,  1890);  Pezzani.  Codex 
S.R.E.  EcclesvE  (Rome,  1S93),  I;  Wernz,  Jus  Decretal.  (Rome, 
1899).  II;  De  Montor,  Lives  of  Rom.  Pont.  (New  York, 
186G);  Hergenrother,  Handh.  der  allg.  Kircheug.  (Freiburg, 
1886). 

William  II.  W.  Fanning. 

Abdon  and  Sennen,  Saint.s  (variously  written  in 
early  calendars  and  martyrologies  Abdo,  Abdus; 
Sennes,  Sennis,  Zennen),  Persian  martyrs  under 
Decius,  about  A.  D.  250,  and  commemorated  30  July. 
The  veneration  paid  them  dates  from  as  early  as  the 
third  century,  though  their  Acts,  written  for  the 
most  part  prior  to  the  ninth  century,  contain  several 
fictitious  statements  about  the  cause  and  occasion 
of  their  coming  to  Rome  and  the  nature  of  their 
torments.  It  is  related  in  these  Acts  that  their 
bodies  were  buried  by  a  subdeacon,  Quirinus,  and 
transferred  in  the  reign  of  Constantine  to  the  Pontian 
cemetery  on  the  road  to  Porto,  near  the  gates  of 
Rome.  A  fresco  foimd  on  the  sarcophagus  supposed 
to  contain  their  remains  represents  them  receiving 
crowns  from  Christ.  According  to  Martigny,  this 
fresco  dates  from  the  seventh  century.  Several 
cities,  notably  Florence  anil  Soissons,  claim  possession 
of  their  bodies,  but  the  BoUandists  say  that  they 
rest  in  Rome. 

Acta  SS.,  30  July.  Martigny,  Diet,  dee  antiq.  chret.,  1; 
Cheetham,  in  Did.  Christ.  Antiq.;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints, 
July  30. 

John  J.  Wynne. 
Abduction. — Abduction  may  be  considered  as  a 
puljlic  crime  and  a  matrimonial  diriment  impedi- 
ment. Viewed  as  a  crime,  it  is  a  carrying  off  by 
force,  physical  or  moral,  of  any  virtuous  woman, 
or  even  man,  from  a  free  and  safe  place  to  another 
place  morally  different  and  neither  free  nor  safe  from 
the  captor's  power,  with  intent  to  marry  her  or  to 
gratify  lust.  Abduction  considered  as  a  matrimonial 
impediment  is  a  violent  taking  away  of  any  woman 
whatsoever,  chaste  or  unchaste,  from  a  place  free  and 
safe  to  a  morally  different  place,  and  there  detaining 
her  in  the  power  of  her  abductor  until  he  has  coerced 
her  into  consenting  to  marry  him.  Abduction  as  a 
crime  is  of  wider  scope  than  is  the  impediment, 
inasmuch  as  the  former  includes  man-captors  an(i 
intent  to  gratify  lust,  botli  of  which  are  excluded 
from  the  scope  of  the  impediment.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  impediment  is  of  wider  iiuport  than  the 
crime  in  a.s  far  a.s  it  includes  all  women,  chaste  as 
well  as  unchaste,  while  the  crime  excludes  the  corrupt. 
This  difference  arises  from  the  fact  that  tlie  State  aims 
to  suppress  tlic  public  crime  as  a  menace  to  the  safety 
of  tlie  commonwealth,  while  the  ('hurch  cares,  di- 
rectly  and   immediately,   for   the   freedom   and    tin- 


dignity  of  the  Sacratnent  of  Marriage.  Abduction  is 
often  divided  into  Abduction  by  Violence  (Raptu.'i 
Violentioe)  and  Abduction  by  Seduction,  or  Elopement 
(Raptus  Seductionis).  The  former  is  when  (a)  a 
woman  evidently  reluctant,  and  not  consenting  either 
to  the  flight  or  to  the  marriage,  is  forcibly  transferred 
with  a  matrimonial  intent  from  a  secure  and  free 
place  to  a  morally  different  one  and  there  held  under 
the  abductor's  influence  by  force,  physical  or  moral, 
i.  e.  threats,  great  fear,  or  fraud  equivalent  to  force, 
as  it  is  a  well-known  axiom  that  "  it  is  equal  to  be  com- 
pelled to  do  a  thing  as  to  know  that  it  is  possible  to 
be  compelled  to  do  it";  (b)  a  woman  enticed  by  fair 
words  and  fraurl  and  deception  consents  to  go  with 
a  man  for  other  reason  than  matrimony  from  one 
place  to  another  where  he  detains  her  by  force  or 
fraud  equivalent  to  force,  in  order  to  coerce  her  into 
a  marriage  to  which  slie  objects;  (c)  a  woman  who, 
although  she  had  already  consented  to  a  future  mar- 
riage by  act  of  betrothal,  yet  strenuously  objects  to 
abduction,  is  carried  off  violently  by  her  betrothed 
or  his  agents  from  a  free  and  safe  place  to  another 
morally  different  and  there  detained  until  she  con- 
sents to  marry  him.  Some  deny  however,  that  the 
raptor  in  this  case  is  guilty  of  abduction,  saying  that 
he  has  a  right  to  his  betrothed.  He  h^s,  indeed,  a 
right  to  compel  her  to  fulfil  her  engagement  by  public 
authority,  not,  how'ever,  by  private  authority.  His 
carrying  off  of  the  woman  against  her  will  is  the 
exercise  of  private  authority,  and  therefore  violence 
to  her  riglits.  Abduction  by  Seduction  {Raptus 
Seductionis),  or  Elopement,  is  the  taking  away  from 
one  place  to  another,  by  a  man,  of  (1)  a  woman  of 
age  or  under  .age  who  consents  to  both  the  flight  and 
the  marriage  without  consent  of  her  parents  or 
guardians;  or  (2)  a  woman  who,  although  she  refuses 
at  first,  finally,  induced  thereto  by  caresses,  flattery, 
or  any  allurement,  not  however  equivalent  to  force, 
physical  or  moral,  consents  to  both  flight  and  mar- 
riage without  knowledge  or  consent  of  her  parents 
or  guardians.  Abduction  by  seduction,  as  defined, 
is  held  by  Roman  law  to  be  abduction  by  violence, 
inasmuch  as  violence  can  be  offered  to  the  woman 
and  her  parents  simultaneously,  or  to  the  woman 
alone,  or  to  the  parents  and  guardians  alone;  and  in 
the  elopement,  while  no  violence  is  done  to  the 
woman,  violence  is  done  to  the  parents  or  guardians. 
On  the  contrary,  the  Church  does  not  consider  vio- 
lence done  to  parents,  but  the  violence  done  only  to 
the  parties  matrimonially  interested.  Hence,  elope- 
ment, or  abduction  by  seduction,  does  not  induce  an 
impediment  diriment.  Pius  VII,  in  his  letter  to 
Napoleon  I  (26  June,  1S05),  pronounced  this  kind 
of  abduction  no  abduction  in  the  Tridenfine  sense. 
The  Church  considers  it,  indeed,  a  wrong  against 
parental  authority,  but  not  a  wrong  to  the  abducted 
woman. 

The  old  Roman  law  (Jus  Vctus),  mindful  of  the 
actual  or  iinaginary  "Rape  of  the  Sabines",  dealt 
leniently  with  woman-stealers.  If  the  woman  was 
willing,  her  marriage  with  her  abductor  was  allowed 
and  solemnized  by  the  lictor  leading  her  by  the  hand 
to  the  home  of  the  raptor.  Con.stantine  the  Great, 
to  protect  female  virtue  and  safeguard  the  State, 
forbade  (a.  d.  320)  such  marriages.  The  law  was 
neither  uni\'ersally  received  nor  observed.  The 
Emperor  Justinian  (a.  ij.  52S,  533,  and  548)  forbade 
these  marriages  and  fixed  the  punishment,  for  the 
principal  and  his  accomplices  in  the  crime,  at  death 
and  confiscation  of  all  their  property.  Legal  right 
to  avenge  the  crime  was  given  to  parents,  relations, 
or  guardians;  to  put  to  instant  death  the  abductor 
caught  in  the  act  of  -Abduction.  Appeal  by  the 
victim  in  behalf  of  her  abductor,  on  the  plea  that  she 
gave  consent,  W'as  denied,  'i'he  law  awarded  the 
confiscated  property  to  tlie  woman,  if  she  had  not 
consented  to  the  abduction;  to  her  parents,  if  they 


ABDUCTION 


33 


ABDUCTION 


were  ignorant  of,  or  adverse  to,  it,  and  their  dauglitcr 
(■(insented  to  the  abdiiclioii;  but  if  the  woman  and 
licr  paiciit.s  coiisciitcd  to  the  carrying  olT,  then  all 
tlic  jiropi'itv  lapsocl  to  tlie  State,  and  the  parents  were 
Ijaiiislicd  ((/odox  .Just.,  I\,  Tit.  xiii;  Autli.  CoHat.,  IX, 
Tit.  xxvi;  Novell. ,113;  Auth.  Collat.,  IX,  Tit.  xxxiii; 
Novell.  150).  The  Byzantine  Emperor,  Leo  VI 
(S.SC-912),  railed  the  I'hilo.soplier,  approved  (Constit. 
XXXV)  tlie  former  laws  in  all  partiiulars,  with  the 
exception  that  if  sword.s  or  other  deadly  weapons  were 
carried  by  thealnlvctorand  hi.s  acconiiiliccs  during  the 
abduction  a  much  severer  punishment  was  indicted 
than  if  they  were  not  carried.  The  old  Spanish  law 
condemned  to  death  the  abductor  who  also  ravished 
the  woman,  but  the  abductor  who  did  not  ravish 
was  let  otT  witli  a  money  fine  to  be  equally  shared  by 
the  abducted  and  the  State.  If  the  woman  had  con- 
sented to  the  aliduction,  the  whole  fine  reverted  to 
the  State,  .\tlienian  law  commanded  the  abductor 
to  marry  the  abducted,  if  she  so  willed,  unless  the 
woman  or  her  parents  or  guardians  had  already  re- 
ceived money  mstead.  The  earlier  Byzantine  law 
enjoined,  but  the  later  law  forbade,  the  marriage. 
Among  the  Clermanic  nations  the  crime  of  abduction 
was  compounded  by  pecuniary  gifts  to  the  parents 
or  guardians.  The  Church  did  not  accept  the  Roman 
law  which  declared  all  the  marriages  of  the  abductor 
with  the  abducted,  without  exception,  entirely  and 
perpetually  mill  and  void.  She  held  as  valid  all 
marriages  in  which  there  was  present  true  and  real 
consent  of  the  captured  women.  According  to 
St.  Basil  (2  Canon.  Epist.  to  St.  Amphilochius,  .xxii, 
XXX,  hxed  date,  an.  375,  Post-Nicene  Fathers, 
2d  series,  VIII,  Scribner's  ed.),  the  Clmrch  issued 
no  canons  on  abduction  prior  to  his  time.  Such  a 
crime  was,  doid)tless,  extremely  rare  among  the  early 
Christians.  In  the  fourth  century,  as  men  grew  more 
audacious,  the  number  of  wife-captors  became  ex- 
ceedingly numerous.  To  check  this,  the  Church  in 
several  particular  councils,  besides  the  punishment 
of  service,  confiscation  of  goods,  and  public  penance, 
decreed  sentence  of  excommunication  (to  be  judi- 
cially pronounced)  against  laics,  and  deposition  from 
ecclesiastical  rank  against  clerics,  who  liad  violently 
carried  otT,  or  helped  to  carry  otT,  women.  Pope  (ie- 
lasius  (490)  permitted  the  marriage  of  the  abductor 
with  his  captive  if  she  wjus  willing,  and  they  had  been 
betrothed,  or  had  mutually  discu.ssed  their  future 
marriage  prior  to  the  abduction.  Antecedent  to  the 
ninth  century',  however,  the  canons  make  no  men- 
tion of  abduction  (nii>tiix)  as  a  matrimonial  impedi- 
ment, either  diriment  or  impedient.  In  the  Western 
Church,  at  least  from  the  ninth  century,  the  marriage 
of  the  captor  with  his  captive,  or  any  other  woman, 
was  perpetually  prohibited.  This  was  not,  however, 
the  universal  church  discipline,  but  rather  the  dis- 
cipline peculiar  to  tho.se  nations  among  whom  the 
absence  of  strict  laws  made  abductions  more  numer- 
ous. The  bishops  of  the  Krankish  nation  felt  the 
necessity  of  severe  legislation  to  meet  the  evil,  and 
therefore,  in  many  particular  Councils,  e.  g.  ,\ix-la- 
Chapelle  (S17),  Meaux  (845),  etc.,  issued  stringent 
canons  which  continued  as  the  peculiar  law  of  the 
Franks  until  it  w:us  abolished  by  Innocent  III. 
Furthermore,  the  impediment  was  impedient,  not 
diriment  (according  to  the  most  common  opinion). 
Marriages  celebrated  in  oppositicm  to  the  protiibition 
were  held  to  be  valid,  although  illicit.  The  Council 
of  Meaux  (.S45)  forbade  the  abiluctor  ever  to  niarrj' 
the  rapt  woman,  but  permitted  his  marriage  with 
any  other  w^oman  after  he  had  performe<l  the  pre- 
scribetl  public  penance.  Oratian  ("Oecretum  Cans.", 
XXXVl,  qua-st.  ii,  ad  finem)  inaugurated  a  milder 
discipline.  He,  relying  upon  the  (supposed)  au- 
thority of  St.  Jerome,  taught  that  an  abductor  ought 
to  be  allowed  to  marrj'  the  abilucteil.  provided  she 
was  willing  to  liavo  him  for  a  husband. 
I.— 3 


.A.fter  the  publication  of  his  decree  in  the  twelfth 
century,  this  milder  discipline  was  generally  observed 
and  met  with  the  approval  of  many  popes.  Finally, 
Innocent  III  ("  Deeret.  Greg.",  lib.  V,  tit.  xvii,  can.  vii, 
'■  l)e  Haptoribus")  decreed  for  the  universal  Clmreli 
(especially  aiming  at  the  perpetual  prohibition  by 
the  [xirticular  councils)  that  such  marriages  might 
take  place  as  often  as  a  prior  reluctance  and  di.ssent 
on  the  part  of  the  woman  should  change  to  willing- 
ness and  con.sent  to  the  marriage,  and  this  (accord- 
ing to  the  couHUon  inter|>retatioii)  even  if  the  woman 
was  in  the  power  of  the  captor  at  the  time  she  con- 
sentetl.  This  decree  practically  did  away  with  the 
impedient  impediment  of  abduction,  which  was 
merged  into  the  impediment  of  vis  el  metus.  The 
Innocentian  law  continued  to  be  the  ecclesiastical 
discipline  up  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Council 
of  Trent  introduced  an  entirely  new  discipline.  To 
guard  tlie  liberty  and  dignity  of  marriage,  to  show 
its  detestation  of  a  horrible  crime  dangerous  alike  to 
the  purity  of  morals  and  the  peace  and  security  of 
societ}'.  and  to  bar  the  criminal  from  gaining  the 
result  intended  by  his  crime,  the  Fathers  decreed: 
"between  the  abductor  and  abducted  there  can  be 
no  marriage,  as  long  as  she  remains  in  the  power  of 
the  raptor;  but  if  tlie  abducted,  having  been  sepa- 
rated from  the  abductor,  and  having  been  placed  in 
a  safe  and  free  place,  con.sents  to  have  him  for  a 
husband,  let  her  marry  him;  yet,  notwithstanding, 
the  abiluctor  with  all  his  advisers,  accomplices  and 
abettors,  are  by  the  law  itself  excommunioateti  and 
declared  forever  infamous,  incapable  of  acquiring 
dignities,  and,  if  they  be  clerics,  deposed  from  their 
ecclesiastical  rank.  Furthermore,  the  abductor  is 
bound,  whether  he  marries  the  abducted  or  not,  to 
dower  her  with  a  decent  dowry  at  the  discretion  of 
the  judge"  (Concil.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIV,  vi,  "  De  He- 
form  Matrim.").  This  law  was  to  take  immediate  ef- 
fect, requiring  no  promulgation  in  individual  parishes. 
Such  also  is  the  law  in  the  Oriental  Churches  (Synod. 
Mont.  Lilian.,  173G,  Collect.  Lacens.,  II,  167;  Synod. 
Sciarfieii.  Syror.,  1888).  The  difference  between  this 
law  and  that  of  the  Decretals  (Innocent  III)  is  evi- 
dent. .Vccording  to  the  Decretals,  the  woman's  con- 
sent, given  even  while  she  was  in  the  raptor's  power, 
was  deemed  sufficient.  The  Council  of  Trent  does  not 
consider  such  consent  of  any  avail,  and  requires  con- 
sent given  after  the  woman  has  been  entirely  sepa- 
rated from  the  control  of  the  raptor  and  is  dwelling 
in  a  place  safe  and  free  from  his  influence.  Should 
she  desire  to  marry  him,  the  marriage  may  be  cele- 
brated, the  priest  having  first  obtained  permission 
from  the  bisliop  (according  to  .some)  whose  duty  it 
is  to  testify  to  the  cessation  of  the  impediment  and 
that  the  dowry  prescribed  by  the  Council  has  been 
made  over  and  is  subject  to  the  sole  use  anil  discre- 
tion of  the  abducted.  The  general  law  of  the  Church 
does  not  require  the  aforesaid  bishop's  permission, 
but  individual  bishops  can  and  do  make  laws  to  that 
effect.  The  Council  of  Trent  by  this  law  .safe- 
guarileil  the  frcetlom  of  marriage  (1)  on  the  part  of 
the  man,  by  allowing  him  to  marry  the  abducted 
woman,  and  (2)  on  the  part  of  the  woman,  by  protect- 
ing her  from  being  coerced  while  in  the  abductor's 
power  into  a  marriage  against  her  free  will  and  con- 
sent. This  impediment  of  abduction  (ra/)(u.s)  is  one 
entirely  distinct  from  that  of  vis  rl  mctus.  The 
latter  entirely  looks  to  the  frectlom  of  consent;  the 
former,  to  the  freeiloin  of  the  place  where  true  con- 
.sent must  be  elicited.  Of  ecclesiastical  origin,  this 
impediment  is  temporary  and  public,  ami  iloes  not 
bind  two  unbaptizcd  persons  unless  the  civil  law  of 
their  country  invalidates  such  marriages.  It  does, 
however,  govern  the  marriage  of  an  unbaptized  ab- 
ductor with  a  Catholic  abducted  woman,  and  vice 
versa. 

Amidst  the  conflicting  opinions  of  canomsts  and 


ABDUCTION 


34 


ABDUCTION 


moralists  as  to  whether  alnhiction  by  seduction, 
abduction  of  a  betrotiied,  abduction  of  a  minor 
against  the  will  of  her  parents,  or  tlie  abduction  of  a 
man  by  a  woman,  induces  the  impediment  or  not,  it 
is  necessary  to  remember  that  this  impediment  is  of 
Tridentine  origin,  and  therefore  the  Council  of 
Trent  was  sole  judge  of  the  necessary  conditions; 
that  the  Roman  or  any  otlier  civil  law  or  any  prior 
ecclesiastical  law  had  nothing  to  say  in  the  matter; 
that  the  question  under  investigation  was  the  im- 
pediment, not  the  crime,  of  abduction;  and  that  in 
rebus  odiosis,  which  this  is,  the  words  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  must  be  strictly  adhered  to  and  inter- 
preted. Four  elements  are  essential  in  an  abduction 
in  order  to  induce  thereby  the  Tridentine  diriment 
impediment,  to  wit:  (1)  a  woman;  (2)  change  of 
locality;  (o)  violence;  (4)  matrimonial  intent. 

(1)  A.iy  woman,  whether  moral  or  immoral,  maid 
or  widow,  betrothed  or  not,  even  a  public  woman, 
may  be  the  object  of  a  violent  Abduction  inducing 
I  he  Tridentine  impediment  anil  punishment.  Lessius, 
Avancini,  and  others  hold  that  a  man  is  not  guilty 
of  abduction  who  carries  off  his  betrotlied.  The 
Council  of  Trent  makes  no  exception,  lience  we 
should  not.  Tlie  abduction  of  a  man  by  a  woman  is 
not  included  in  the  Tridentine  law.  The  contrary 
opinion  (Dc  Justis  and  other  earlier  authors)  is  at 
variance  with  the  language  of  tlie  Council,  which 
always  speaks  of  the  ra/dor,  but  nowhere  of  the 
raptrix.  A  woman  can  be  guilty  of  the  crime  of 
raptus;  but  the  question  here  is  not  about  crime,  but 
about  tlie  Tridentine  impediment.  Slie  may  be  an 
agent  or  accomplice  of  the  abductor  and,  as  such, 
incur  tlie  penalties  decreed  by  the  Council;  but  it 
does  not  admit  her  as  raptrix. 

(2)  Change  of  Localil;/. — Two  places  are  necessary 
to  an  abduction — one,  tlie  place  from  which,  the  other, 
the  place  to  uhich,  the  reluctant  woman  is  violently 
taken,  and  in  which  she  is  also  violently  detained. 
These  two  places  must  be  morally  (some  say  physi- 
cally, some  virtually)  different — tlie  one,  fro7n  which 
may  be  her  ovn\  or  her  parents'  home,  where  she  is 
a  free  agent;  the  other,  to  which,  must  be  subject  to 
the  power  or  influence  of  the  abductor,  wliere,  though 
she  is  free  in  very  many  of  her  actions,  she  is  not 
perfectly  free  in  all.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
place  to  which  be  the  house  of  the  abductor;  it 
suffices  if  it  be  under  his  control  or  influence.  Two 
rooms  or  two  stories  in  a  small  dwelling,  the  home  of 
one  family;  a  street  and  an  adjoining  house;  a  public 
highway  and  a  nearby  held,  would  not  afford  the 
necessary  change  of  locality.  Removal,  though  vio- 
lent, from  room  to  room  as  above,  would  not  induce 
the  impediment  under  consideration,  though  some 
hold  the  contrary  opinion.  In  case  of  a  large  castle, 
or  mansion,  or  tenement-house,  where  many  families 
dwell,  tlie  violent  transference  of  a  reluctant  woman 
from  a  part  where  her  family  dwells  to  another  re- 
mote part  where  a  different  family  lives  would  con- 
stitute sufficient  change  of  locality.  If  a  woman  is 
violently  seized,  v.  g.  in  a  room,  and  is  violently 
kept  there  without  change  to  another  room,  or  if 
she  willingly,  without  any  enticement  on  the  part  of 
the  man,  goes  to  a  place  and  is  there  violently  de- 
tained with  matrimonial  intent,  she  does  not  suffer 
abduction  in  the  Tridentine  sense.  It  is  a  mere 
sequestration,  or  detention.  Some  jurists,  how- 
ever, think  otlierwise,  claiming  virtual  change  (from 
state  of  freedom  to  that  of  .subjection)  to  bo  sufficient 
to  induce  the  Cloimcil's  impediment.  Physical  trans- 
ference from  one  place  to  another,  however,  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  constitute  raptus;  virtual  trans- 
ference does  not  suffice.  Sliould  a  woman  be  forcibly 
removed  from  a  place  to  whicli  she  went  willingly, 
to  another  where  she  is  detained  against  her  will 
with  matrimonial  intent,  it  is  abduction. 

(3)  Violence. — Abduction   always    presumes    that 


the  abducted  dissents,  and  that  her  unwillingness  is 
overcome  either  by  physical  force,  i.  e.  laying  hands 
upon  her,  or  moral  force,  i.  e.  threats,  great  fear,  and 
fraud  equivalent  to  force.  Mere  importunities,  fair 
words,  sweet  phrases,  gifts,  and  promises  are  not 
sufficient  to  constitute  the  moral  force  requisite  for 
abduction.  It  is  immaterial  whether  the  principal, 
of  and  by  himself,  or  through  his  agents  and  accom- 
plices, uses  this  force,  moral  or  physical.  Women, 
as  the  agents  of  the  principal,  may  e.xercise  it,  and 
not  infrequently  do  so. 

(4)  Matrimonial  Intent. — The  intention  or  motive 
of  the  criminal  act  is  all  important.  To  induce  the 
impediment  the  intent  must  be  to  marry  the  abducted 
woman.  Were  the  motive  other  than  marriage, 
e.  g.  vengeance,  pecuniary  gain,  or  gratification  of 
lust,  there  would  be  no  aliductioii,  no  impediment, 
no  penalties  (S.  Cong.  Cone,  23  Jan.,  1.58.5).  This  is 
evident  also  from  the  custom  of  the  Roman  Curia, 
which,  in  all  dispensations  given  or  faculties  granted 
to  ordinaries  to  dispense  in  cases  of  affinity,  con- 
sanguinity, etc.,  prefixes  "provided  that  the  woman 
was  not  abducted  on  account  of  this  [marriage]". 
This  impediment  exists  only  between  the  aliducted 
and  abductor  who,  of  and  by  himself,  or  with  the 
assistance  of  others,  had  carried  her  off  vvitli  intent 
to  marry  her.  No  impediment  ari.ses  between  the 
abducted  and  the  agent  or  abettoi-s  of  the  abduction. 
She  could  validly,  therefore,  marry  one  of  the  agents 
or  accomplices  while  still  under  the  control  of  the 
abductor.  When  the  intention  is  doubtful,  judgment 
is  arrived  at  from  consideration  of  the  circumstances. 
Thus,  it  a  man  violently  carries  off  his  betrothed 
or  a  woman  with  whom  he  has  had  conversations 
looking  to  future  marriage,  it  is  presumed  that 
his  intention  was  marriage.  If  doubts  still  remain, 
the  law  presumes  the  motive  to  be  matrimonial. 
Where  it  is  abundantly  evident  that  the  initial  motive 
of  the  abduction  was  lust,  it  is  not  abduction,  but 
sequestration,  or  detention,  althougli  afterwards, 
during  tlie  captivity,  the  captor  promise  marriage 
in  order  to  attain  his  lustful  object.  The  contrary 
opinion,  held  by  Rosset  (De  Matrimonio,  II,  1354), 
Krimer,  and  others,  is  at  variance  with  the  principle 
of  law,  that  in  crimes  the  beginning,  and  not  what  hap- 
pens accidentally  is  what  the  law  considers.  Were 
the  intent  twofold,  v.  g.  lust  and  marriage,  then  the 
carrying  off  is  abduction  and  induces  the  impedi- 
ment. The  abduction  must  be  proved,  not  presumed. 
The  mere  word  of  the  abducted  woman,  especially  as 
against  the  oath  of  the  so-called  abductor  and  the 
absence  of  all  rumour,  does  not  establish  the  fact. 
The  existence  of  the  abduction  once  admitted,  the 
burden  of  proof  rests  upon  the  abductor.  He  must 
conclusively  prove  that  the  abducted  willingly  con- 
sented to  both  abduction  and  marriage.  If  she 
admits  consent  to  the  flight,  he  must  still  prove 
conclusively  that  she  gave  willing  consent  also  to  the 
marriage;  otherwise  the  impediment  holds  and  the 
penalties  are  incurred.  Should  he  claim  (in  order 
to  exclude  impediment)  that  his  motive  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  transaction  was  not  marriage,  but 
lust,  and  that  he  proposed  marriage  in  order  to  attain 
his  initial  purpose,  then  he  must,  by  the  most  con- 
clusive evidence,  establish  his  assertion,  since  the 
law  presumes  that   his   motive  was  matrimonial. 

Punishments. — The  abductor  and  his  advisers 
and  abettors  and  accomplices  in  a  complete  (copula 
not  required),  not  merely  an  atteni|)tcd,  abduction 
are,  by  the  law  it.self  (Tridentine),  excommunicated 
(not  reserved),  and  made  )ierpetually  infamous,  in- 
capable of  acquiring  dignities;  if  they  be  clerics,  they 
also  incur  depo.sition  from  their  ecclesiastical  rank. 
The  abductor  is  also  bound,  whether  the  woman 
marries  him  or  not,  to  dower  her  with  a  decent 
dowry  at  the  discretion  of  the  bishop.  The  priest 
who   celebrates   the   marriage   while   the   woman    i^ 


ABECEDARIA 


■.io 


uiidrr  rostniiiit  docs  not  incur  the  excommunication 
nor  any  otiicr  penalty,  unless  he  has  advised  the 
ahductor  that  he  would  aid  him  in  his  al)duction  by 
his  |)resence  and  ministry.  The  agents  and  the  like, 
in  an  abduction  of  a  woman  validly  and  freely  be- 
trothed, but  unwilling  to  be  carried  olT,  do  not  in- 
cur excomnninication  and  other  Tridentine  punish- 
ments (S.  (".  Prop.  Fid.,  17  April,  1781).  The 
vindictive  punishments  are  incurred,  at  least  in  the 
ecclesiastical  conrt,  by  a  declaratory  sentence.  The 
abducted  woman,  not  the  abductor,  has  the  right  to 
(•liallcnc;e  the  validity  of  her  marriage  celel)rated 
while  uiuler  control  of  the  al)ductor.  K'o  particular 
time  is  prescribed  by  law,  but  she  should,  however, 
unless  prevented  by  reasonable  cause,  present  her 
plea  as  .soon  as  possible  after  her  entire  separation 
frotn  tlie  control  of  the  abductor. 

Disiu  NSAiioN. — The  Church  as  a  rule  does  not 
dispense  with  this  impediment.  It  even  refuses  to 
grant  otiier  dispensations,  v.  g.  affinity,  if  the  woman 
was  abducted;  indeetl  any  dispensation  granted,  in 
which  mention  of  the  abduction  has  been  omitted, 
is  held  as  invalid.  There  arc  some  cases  in  which 
the  Church  has  dispensed  when  it  is  abundantly  evi- 
dent that  the  consent  of  the  woman  was  really  free, 
although  circumstances  prevented  her  entire  separa- 
tion from  tiie  control  of  the  abductor.  The  late 
Instruction  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Inquisition 
(I.')  February,  1001,  in  the  ''Analecta  Kcclesiastica," 
Uome,  1!)()1,  98)  to  the  bishops  of  .Mbania  (where 
alxhiction  is  of  very  frccjuent  occurrence)  refn.sed  a 
general  repeal  of  the  law  for  their  eountrj',  adding 
that  the  frequency  mentioned,  far  from  being  a 
reason  for  relaxing,  was  rather  a  reason  for  insisting 
on  the  Tridentine  law;  yet,  where  it  was  abundantly 
evident  that  the  consent  of  the  woman  imder  re- 
straint was  truly  a  free  consent,  and  that  there  were 
reasons  suflicient  for  the  dispen.sation,  recourse 
should  be  had  to  Home  in  each  single  case.  Further, 
in  the  extraordinary  faculties  given  to  bishops 
{20  Fehruarj',  18S8)  for  dispensing  in  public  impedi- 
ments pei^ons  in  danger  of  death,  the  imi)ediment 
of  ra/iltiy  is  not  excluded.  The  civil  codes  of  to-day, 
as  a  rule,  do  not  recognize  abduction  as  an  impedi- 
ment diriment  to  civil  marriage,  but  consider  it  as 
a  species  of  j'/s  et  mctiis.  The  codes  of  Austria 
and  Spain,  however,  still  hold  it  as  an  impediment, 
and  among  the  jurists  of  Austria  there  is  an  earnest 
endeavour  to  make  it  an  impediment  absolute  and 
perpetual,  so  that  the  abducted  woman,  if  still 
luuier  control  of  her  abductor,  may  not  marry  even 
a  third  party. 

itloANTl,  Comment,  in  Reg.,  in  Reg.  xlix,  nn.  40  sq.; 
SniMALZGHi'BKR,  V,  xvii.  De  Rapt.  Fer«..  nn.  l-d4',  Gonsa- 
LK/.  'VKi.i.r.r,  Comment.  I'erpet..  \,  xvii:  IJkkardi,  Comment, 
in  Jut.  Eceles.,  II,  81  !.r|q.;  Wkhnz,  IV,  Jus  Malrim.,  408  -sqq.; 
HdsSKT.  De  .SVic.  Matnm.,  II,  1.344  8qq.;  Vkcciiiotti,  Instit. 
(an..  Ill,  234  sqq.;  Santi-Lkitnkii,  IV,  .'58-05;  Fkije,  De 
Imped,  et  Ditpene.;  Kl  THniKKii.  Das  Ehereeht  (18,'5(i),  III, 
4.'it>  .sqq.:  .Annlecta  Ecrlesiostica  U^onie.  .April,  1903);  PIoward, 
Hist,  oj  Matrimonial  Inst..  I,  15t>  sq..  ».  V.  Wife-Captor; 
Artti  Sanetae  Hedis,  I,  15--4:  54  sq.;  Oabpari,  De  Malrim., 
I,  3G4  sqq. 

P.  M.  J.  Rock. 

Abecedaria,  complete  or  partial  lists  of  letters 
of  the  alph:ibet,  chiefly  Greek  and  Latin,  inscribed 
on  ancient  monuments,  Piigan  and  Christian.  At, 
or  near,  the  beginning  of  the  ('hristi:in  era,  tlie  Latin 
alphabet  had  already  undergone  its  principal  changes, 
antl  had  become  a  fixed  and  definite  system.  The 
(ircek  alphabet,  moreover,  with  certain  slight  modi- 
fications, was  becoming  closely  a.ssimilated  to  the 
Latin.  Towards  the  eighth  eenttirj'  of  Rome,  the 
letters  a.ssumcd  their  artistic  forms  and  lost  their 
older,  narrower  ones.  Nor  have  the  three  letters 
added  by  the  Kmperor  Claudius  ever  been  found  in 
u.se  in  Christian  inscriptions.  The  letters  them- 
selves, it  may  be  .said,  fell  into  disu.se  at  the  death 
of  the  Emperor  in   question.     The  alphabet,   how- 


ever, employed  for  monumental  inscriptions  differea 
so  completely  from  the  cursive  .is  to  make  it  wholly 
impossible  to  mistake  the  one  for  the  other.  The 
uncial,  occurring  very  rarely  on  sculptured  monu- 
ments, and  reserved  for  writing,  did  not  make  its 
appearance  before  the  fourth  century.  The  numl)er 
of  Christian  objects  bearing  the  .\becedaria,  with 
the  exception  of  two  vases  found  at  Carthage,  is 
extremely  limited.  On  the  other  hand,  those  of 
heathen  origin  are  more  plentiful,  and  include  cer- 
tain tablets  used  by  stone-cutters'  apprentices 
while  learning  their  trade.  Stones  have  also  been 
found  in  the  catacombs,  Ijcaring  the  .symbols  A,  B,  C, 
etc.  These  are  arranged,  sometimes,  in  combina- 
tions which  have  puzzled  the  sagacity  of  scholans. 
One  such,  found  in  the  eemeterj' of  St.  .•\lex:mder,  in 
the  \'ia  .\onicnl.'in:i,  is  inscribed  as  f(illow> 


AXBVCTESDR 
EQGPH  .  .  .  .  M 


BCCEECHI 

MNOPQ 

RSTVXYZ 


This  rejireseiits,  in  all  probability,  a  schoolboy's 
tiisk,  which  may  be  compared  with  a  dtnarius  of 
L.  Ca.ssius  Ca-cinianus,  whereon  the  inscription  runs 
tlnis: 

AX,  BV,  CT,  DS,  ER,  FQ,  GP,  HO,  IN,  KM 

It  is  to  St.  Jerome  that  we  owe  an  explanation  of 
this  curious  trifle.  He  tells  us  that,  in  order  to 
train  the  memory  of  yon'ig  children,  they  were 
made  to  learn  the  alphaf)et  in  a  double  form,  joining 
.\  to  X,  and  so  on  with  the  other  letters.  .V  stone 
found  at  Rome  in  1877,  and  dating  from  the  .sixth 
or  seventh  century,  seems  to  have  been  usecf  in  a 
.school,  as  a  model  for  learning  the  alphabet,  and 
points,  incidentally,  to  the  long  continuance  of  old 
methods  of  teaching.  (See  Ali'h.\bei,  Chhisti.^n 
Use  OF.) 

H.  Leclercq. 

Abecedarians,  a  sect  of  Anabaptists  who  affected 
an  ab.solute  disdain  for  all  human  knowledge,  con- 
tending that  God  would  enlighten  His  elect  interiorly 
and  give  them  knowledge  of  necessary  truths  by 
\isions  and  ecstasies.  They  rejected  every  other 
means  of  instruction,  and  pretended  that  to  be  saved 
one  must  even  be  ignorant  of  the  first  letters  of  the 
alphabet;  whence  their  name,  A-H-C-darians.  They 
also  con.sidered  the  study  of  theology  as  a  species  of 
idolatiy,  :md  rcgardcil  learned  men  who  did  any 
preaching  as  falsifiers  of  God's  word. 

-\t  Wittenberg,  in  1  oL'L'.  Nicholas  Storch  (Pelargus) 
and  the  lllumimiti  of  Zwickau  began  to  ])reach 
this  doctrine,  mixing  it  up  with  other  errors.  Carl- 
stadt  allowcil  himself  to  be  drawn  away  by  these 
singular  views,  and  to  put  them  thoroughly  into 
practice  he  abandoned  his  title  of  Doctor  and  be- 
came a  street  porter.  He  preached  the  new  doctrine 
for  some  time  to  the  people  and  to  the  students  of 
Wittenberg.     (Sec  Axah.\i>tist8.) 

I.KCI.KUrq,  in  Diet,  de  Du.il.  enlh.,  I,  1>8. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Abel  (Ileb.,  ?3n,  Vanity,  "probably  so  called 
from  tlie  shortness  of  his  life" — Gesenius;  Gr.,'A/3e\, 
whence  Fng.  form)  was  the  second  .son  of  Adam.  Vi- 
gourouxand  Ilummelauer  contend  that  the  .-V.ssyr.o/j/u 
orahlu,  const.  .Ibfil,  i.  e.  "son,"  is  the  same  word,  not  a 
ca.sc  of  orthogiaphic  coincidence,  especially  as  Hebrew 
and  .-V.s.syrian  arc  closelv  related  tongues.  Some,  with 
Josephus  (.\nt.,  I,  ii),  tliink  it  means  "  Sorrow  '',  as  if 
written  ?3X  i.  e.  "  Lamentation'.  Clieyne  holds  that 
"a  riglit  view  of  the  story  favours  the  meaning: 
shepherd,  or  more  generally  herdsman";  Assjt. 
ihilu  (Ency.  Bib.,  s.  v.)  "ram,  camel,  ass,  or  wild 
sheep." 

Cain,  the  first-bom,  was  a  fanner.     Abel  owned 


■AG 


ABELARD 


the  flocks  that  lived  upon  the  soil.  Tlie  two  were, 
therefore,  tioubly  brothers,  by  birth  and  by  calling. 
Abel  is  not  mentioned  in  the" Old  Testament  except 
in  Gen.,  iv.  St.  Augustine  makes  him  a  type  of  the 
regenerate,  and  Cain  of  the  natural,  man.  "Cain 
founded  a  city  on  earth;  but  Abel  as  a  stranger  and 
pilgrim  looked  forward  to  the  city  of  the  saints  which 
is  in  heaven"  ^De  Civ.  Dei,  XV,  i).  The  descend- 
ants of  Cain  were  w'icked,  but,  as  nothing  is  said 
about  tliose  of  Abel,  it  is  supposed  that  he  had  none; 
or  at  least  that  no  son  was  alive  at  the  birth  of 
Seth,  "whom  God  has  given  me  for  Abel",  as  Eve 
expressed  it  (Gen.,  iv,  25).  The  Abelians,  or  Abelites, 
a  sect  in  northern  Africa  mentioned  by  St.  Augustine 
(de  Haer.,  Ixxxvii),  pretended  that  they  imitated 
Abel  by  marrj'ing,  yet  condeniBcd  the  use  of  mar- 
riage. They  adopted  children  who  also  married 
and  lived  in  the  same  manner  as  their  foster-parents. 
The  biblical  account  of  the  sacrifices  of  the  brothers 
and  of  the  murder  of  Abel  states  that  Cain  offered 
"of  the  fruits  of  the  earth",  Abel  "of  the  firstlings  of 
his  flock,  and  of  their  fat ".  Cain's  offerings  are  not 
qualified,  Abel's  show  that  he  gave  with  generosity 
and  love,  and  therefore  found  favour  with  God. 
Josephus  says  (Ant.,  I,  ii),  "God  was  more  delighted 
with  the  latter  (.Abel's)  oblation,  when  He  was 
honoured  with  what  grew  naturally  of  its  own  ac- 
cord, than  He  was  with  what  was  the  invention  of  a 
covetous  man,  and  gotten  by  forcing  the  ground." 
St.  John  gives  the  true  reason  why  God  rejected 
Cain's  sacrifice  and  accepted  that  of  Abel:  "his  own 
W'Orks  were  wicked;  and  his  brother's  just"  (I  John, 
iii,  12).  God  said  later,  "  I  will  not  receive  a  gift  of 
your  hand"  (Mai.,  i,  10).  The  love  of  the  heart 
must  sanctify  the  lifting  of  the  hands.  Cain  offered 
dans  Deo  aliquid  suum,  sibi  autem  seipsum  (de 
Civ.  Dei,  XV,  vii),  but  God  says  to  all  what  St.  Paul 
■wrote  to  the  Corinthians,  "  I  seek  not  the  things  that 
are  yours,  but  you"  (II  Cor.,  xii,  14). 

In  Hebrew,  Christian,  and  Arabic  traditions  and 
legends  it  is  said  that  God  showed  His  acceptance 
of  Abel's  sacrifice  by  sending  fire  to  consume  it,  as 
in  III  Kings,  xviii,  38.  Cain  thereupon  resolved  to 
kill  his  brother,  thinking  the  latter  would  supplant 
him  as  Jacob  did  Esau  later;  or  because  he  thought 
the  seed  of  Abel  would  have  the  honour  of  crushing 
the  .serpent's  head  (Gen.,  iii,  15. — Hummelauer,  Curs. 
Com.  S.  Sac).  St.  Jerome  (Com.  in  Ezech.,  VIII, 
xxvii,  no.  316),  following  Jewish  tradition,  makes 
the  plain  of  Damascus  the  scene  of  the  murder,  and 
interprets  the  name  of  the  city  sanguinem  bibens 
(blood-drinking),  as  if  from  npC'  and  □"!.  A  traveller 
quoted  with  approval  by  the  Rev.  S.  Baring-Gould 
(Legends  of  the  Old-Testament  Characters)  places 
the  scene  half  a  mile  from  Hebron;  but  there  is  no 
such  local  tradition  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hebron. 
The  Damascus  referred  to  is  certainly  the  Syrian  city. 
The  Koran  (Sura  v,  30,  etc.)  agrees  with  the  Bible 
in  the  main  facts  about  the  sacrifices  and  murder, 
but  adds  the  legend  that  God  sent  a  raven  which  by 
scratdiing  in  the  earth  showed  Cain  how  to  bury  his 
brother.  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  Adam  and 
Eve  were  taught  by  the  raven  how  to  bury  their  son, 
and  God  rewardetl  the  raven  by  granting  three 
things:  (1)  liis  young  were  to  be  inviolable,  (2)  abund- 
ance of  food,  (3)  his  praver  for  rain  sliould  be  granted 
(Pirke   Rab.   Eliezer,   XXI). 

In  the  New  Testament  .\bel  is  often  mentioned. 
His  pastoral  life,  his  sacrifice,  his  liolincss,  liis  tragic 
death  made  him  a. striking  type  of  Our  Divine  Saviour. 
His  just  works  are  referred  to  in  1  Jolin,  iii,  12;  he 
is  canonized  by  Christ  Himself  (Matt.,  xxiii,  34,  35) 
as  the  first  of  the  long  line  of  prophets  martyred  for 
justice'  sake.  He  prophesied  not  l)y  word,  but  by 
liis  sacrifice,  of  which  he  knew  by  revelation  tlic 
typical  meaning  (Vigouroux);  and  also  by  his  death 
'be  Civ.  Dei,  XV,  xviii).     In  Ileb.,  xii,  24,  his  death 


is  mentioned,  and  tlie  contrast  between  his  blood  and 
tliat  of  Christ  is  shown.  The  latter  calls  not  for 
vengeance,  but  for  mercy  and  pardon.  Abel,  tliough 
dead,  speaketh  (Heb,,  xi,  4),  Deo  per  merita, 
hominibus  per  cxetnplum  (Piconio),  i.  e.  to  God  by 
his  merits,  to  men  by  his  example.  For  a  rabbinic  in- 
terpretation of  the  plur.  D'On — "bloods",  in  Gen.,  iv, 
10,  see  Mishna  San.,  IV,  5,  where  it  is  said  to  refer  to 
Abel  and  to  his  seed.  "The  Fatliers  place  him  among 
the  martyrs.  Martyrium  dtdkavil  (St.  Aug.,  op. 
cit.,  VI,  xxvii);  he  is  associated  with  St.  John 
the  Baptist  by  St.  Chiysostom  (Adv.  Judceos,  viii, 
8);  others  speak  in  similar  terms.  In  the  Western 
Church,  however,  lie  is  not  found  in  the  martyrologies 
before  tlie  tenth  century  (Encycl.  theol.,  s.  v.). 

In  the  canon  of  the  Mass  his  sacrifice  is  mentioned 
with  those  of  Melchisedecli  and  Abraliam,  and  his 
name  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  saints  in- 
voked to  aid  the  dying.  Tlie  views  of  radical  higher 
criticism  may  be  summed  up  in  tlie  words  of  Cheyne: 
"The  stoni'  of  Cain  and  Abel  is  an  early  Israelitish 
legend  retained  by  J  as  having  a  profitable  tendency" 
(Encycl.  bib.,  s.  v.).  The  conservative  interpretation 
of  the  narrative  differs  from  that  of  the  radical  school 
of  critics,  because  it  accepts  the  storj'  as  history  or 
as  having  at  least  a  historic  basis,  while  they  regard 
it  as  only  one  of  the  legends  of  Genesis. 

Patri.stic  references  in  P.  G.  and  P.  L,;  Geikie.  Hours  with 
the  Bible;  Id.,  The  Descendants  of  Adam;  Id.,  Creation  to 
Patriarchs  (New  York,  1890);  Hummelauer.  Cursus  Hcrip. 
Sac.  (Paris,  1895);  Palis  in  ViG..  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  For 
Legends  see:  The  Bible,  the  Koran,  and  the  Talmud,  tr.  from 
the  Germ,  by  Weil  (London,  1846),  23-27;  Stanley,  Sinai 
and  PaleMine;  Id.,  Legends  about  Cain  and  Abel,  404,  sqq.; 
Baring-Gould,  Legends  of  the  Old  Testament  Characters  (Lon- 
don. 1871),  I,  6;  GuNKEL,  The  Legends  of  Genesis  (tr.,  Chicago, 
1901).  For  a  strong  presentation  of  the  Historicity  of  tne 
Old  Test.,  against  the  claims  of  the  critical  school,  consult 
Orr,  The  Problems  of  the  Old  Testament  (New  York,  1906); 
Driver,  Genesis  (1904). 

John  J.  Tierney. 

Abel  (meadow),  name  of  several  places  distin- 
guished by  additional  -words:  (1)  Abel-Beth-Maaclia 
(meadow  of  the  liouse,  or  family,  of  Maacha).  In 
Vulgate  also  "  Abeldomus  and  Maacha,"  "Abeldonius 
Maacha",  "Abela  and  Maacha";  identical  with  Abel- 
Maim  (meadow  of  water),  II  Par.,  xvi,  4.  It  was  a 
city  in  Upper  Galilee,  a  little  west  of  Dan. — II  K.,  xx. 
14-19;  III  K.,  XV,  20;  IV  K.,  xv,  29;  II  Par.,  xvi,  4. 
(2)  Abel-Keramim  (meadow  of  vineyards),  a  village 
of  the  Ammonites,  about  six  miles  from  Philadelphia. 
Jud.,  xi,  33.  (3)  Abelmehula,  Abelmeula  (Abel- 
mechola,  "  a  meadow  of  the  dance  "),  in  the  Jordan 
valley  near  Bethsan. — Jud.,  vii,  23;  III  K.,  iv,  12; 
xix,  16.  (4)  Abel-Mizraim  (Vulg.  "the  mourning 
of  Egypt"),  according  to  St.  Jerome  identical  with 
the  "threshing  floor  of  Atad."  Gen.,1,  10  sq.  (5) 
Abelsatim,  Settim,  Setim,  Hebr.  'abhcl  hdshshillim 
(meadow  of  acacias)  is  a  place  in  the  plains  of  Moab. 
Num.,  XXV,  1;  xxxiii,  49;  xxxiv-xxx\'i;  Jos.,  ii,  1;  iii, 
1;  Mich,  vi,  5.  (6)  The  great  Abel  in  I  K.,  vi,  IS,  is 
a  misreading  for  the  gre:it  't'bhni  (stone). 

ViGOUROix;  in  Diet,  de  1 1  Ihhie  (Paris,  1895);  Hagkn.  Ler. 
Bill.  (Paris.  190.")1;  Holzammer.  in  Kirchenlex.  (Preihurg, 
1SS2);  CoNDER,  in  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1903). 

A.  J.  M.\As. 

Abel  (.\bell),  Thomas,  Blessed.  See  Thom.\s 
Abel. 

Abelard,  Peteu,  di.alectician,  philosoplier,  and 
theologian,  b.  1079;  d.  1142.  Peter  Abelard  (also 
spelled  Abeillard,  Abailard,  etc.,  while  the  best  .MSS. 
have  AhiTlardua)  was  born  in  tlie  little  \-illage  of 
Pallet,  about  ten  miles  east  of  Nantes  in  Brittany. 
His  father,  Berengar,  was  lord  of  the  village,  his 
mother's  name  was  Lucia;  both  afterwards  entered 
the  monastic  state.  Peter,  the  oldest  of  their  chil- 
dren, was  intended  for  a  military  career,  but,  as  lie 
himself  tells  us,  he  abandoned  Mars  for  Minerva,  the 
profession  of  arms  for  that  of  learning.  Accordingly, 
at  an  early  age,  he  left  his  father's  castle  and  sought 


ABELARD 


37 


ABELARD 


instruction  as  a  wandering  scholar  at  the  schools  of 
the  most  renowned  touchers  of  tliosc  days.  Among 
tliese  teachers  w;is  Roscclin  the  Nominalist,  at  wliose 
school  at  Locnicnach,  near  Valines,  Aljelard  cer- 
tainly spent  some  time  before  he  proceeded  to  Paris. 
Althougli  tlic  I'niversity  of  Paris  did  not  exist  as  a 
corporate  institution  until  more  than  half  a  century 
after  Abelard's  death,  there  flourished  at  Paris  in 
his  time  tlie  Cathedral  School,  the  School  of  Ste. 
Genevit^ve,  and  that  of  St.  Germain  des  Prfe,  the 
forerunners  of  the  university  schools  of  the  follow- 
ing century.  The  Catliedral  Sdiool  was  undoubtedly 
the  most  important  of  these,  and  thither  the  young 
Abelard  directed  his  steps  in  order  to  study  dialectic 
under  the  renowned  master  (schnlaslicws)  William 
of  Champoaux.  Soon,  however,  the  youth  from  the 
province,  for  whom  the  prestige  of  a  great  name 
was  far  from  awe-inspiring,  not  only  ventured  to 
object  to  tlie  teaching  of  tiie  Parisian  master,  but 
attempted  to  set  up  as  a  rival  teacher.  Finding  ttiat 
tliis  was  not  an  easy  matter  in  Paris,  he  established 
his  school  first  at  Melun  and  later  at  Corbeil.  This 
was,  prol)al)ly,  in  the  year  1101.  The  next  couple 
of  years  Abelard  spent  in  his  native  place  "almost 
cut  olT  from  France  ",  as  he  says.  The  reason  of  this 
enforced  retreat  from  the  dialectical  fray  was  failing 
health.  t)n  returning  to  Paris,  he  became  once 
more  a  pupil  of  William  of  Champeaux  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stvulying  rhetoric.  When  William  retired  to 
the  monasterj'  of  St.  Victor,  Abelard,  who  meantime 
had  resumed  his  teaching  at  Mchm,  hastened  to 
Paris  to  secure  the  chair  of  the  Cathetlral  School. 
Having  failed  in  this,  he  set  up  his  school  in  Mt.  Ste. 
GeneviiHc  (1108).  There  and  at  the  Cathedral 
School,  in  which  in  1113  he  finally  succeeded  in 
obtaining  a  chair,  he  enjoyed  the  greatest  renown 
as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  and  dialectic.  Before  taking 
up  the  duty  of  teaching  theology  at  tlie  Cathedral 
School,  he  went  to  Laon  where  he  presented  himself 
to  the  venerable  Anselm  of  Laon  as  a  student  of 
tlieologj'.  Soon,  however,  his  petulant  restiveness 
under  restraint  once  more  asserted  itself,  and  he 
was  not  content  until  he  had  as  completely  dis- 
comfited the  teacher  of  theology  at  Laon  as  he  had 
successfully  harassed  the  teacher  of  rhetoric  and 
dialectic  at  Paris.  Taking  Abelard's  own  account 
of  the  incident,  it  is  impossible  not  to  blame  him 
for  the  temerity  which  made  him  such  enemies  as 
Alljeric  and  Lotulph,  pupils  of  Anselm,  who,  later 
on,  appeared  against  Abelard.  The  "theological 
studies"  pursued  by  Abelard  at  I>aon  were  what  we 
would  nowadays  call  the  study  of  exegesis. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Abelard's  career  as  a 
teacher  at  Paris,  from  llOS  to  1118,  was  an  excep- 
tionally brilliant  one.  In  his  "Story  of  My  Calam- 
ities" (Historia  Calamitatum)  he  tells  us  how 
pupils  flocked  to  him  from  every  countrj'  in  Europe, 
a  statement  which  is  more  than  corroborated  by 
the  authority  of  his  contemporaries.  He  was,  in 
fact,  the  idol  of  Paris;  eloquent,  vivacious,  hand- 
some, possessed  of  an  unusually  rich  voice,  full  of 
confidence  in  his  own  power  to  please,  he  had,  as 
he  tells  us,  the  whole  world  at  his  feet.  That  Abelard 
was  unduly  conscious  of  these  advantages  is  ad- 
mitted by  his  most  anient  admirers;  indeed,  in  the 
"Storj'  of  .My  Calamities,"  he  confesses  that  at  that 
period  of  his  life  he  was  filled  with  vanity  and  pride. 
To  these  faults  he  attributes  his  downfall,  which  was 
as  swift  and  tragic  as  was  everj'thing.  seemingly,  in 
his  meteoric  career.  He  tells  us  in  graphic  language 
the  tale  which  has  become  part  of  the  classic  literature 
of  the  love-theme,  how  he  fell  in  love  with  Heloise, 
niece  of  Canon  Fulbert;  he  spares  us  none  of  the 
details  of  the  story,  recounts  all  the  circumstances 
of  its  tragic  ending,  the  brutal  vengeance  of  the 
Canon,  the  flight  of  Heloise  to  Pallet,  where  their 
son,  whom   he   named   Astrolabius,   was   born,   the 


secret  wedding,  the  retirement  of  Heloi.se  to  the 
nunnery  of  Argenteuil,  and  his  abandonment  of  his 
academic  career.  He  was  at  the  time  a  cleric  in 
minor  orders,  and  had  naturally  looked  forward  to 
a  distinguished  career  as  an  ecclesiastical  teacher. 
After  his  downfall,  he  retired  to  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Denis,  and,  Heloise  having  taken  the  veil  at  Ar- 
genteuil, he  assumed  the  habit  of  a  Benedictine 
monk  at  the  royal  Abbey  of  St.  Denis.  He  who  had 
considered  hinuself  "the  only  surviving  philosopher 
in  the  whole  world"  was  willing  to  hide  liim.sclf — 
definitely,  as  he  thought — in  monastic  solitude. 
But  whatever  dreams  he  may  have  had  of  final  peace 
in  his  monastic  retreat  were  soon  shattered.  He 
quarrelled  with  the  monks  of  St.  Denis,  the  occasion 
being  his  irreverent  criticism  of  the  legend  of  their 
patron  saint,  and  was  sent  to  a  branch  institution, 
a  priory  or  cclla,  where,  once  more,  he  soon  attracted 
unfavourable  attention  by  the  spirit  of  the  teaching 
which  he  gave  in  philosophy  and  thcologj'.  ".More 
subtle  and  more  learned  than  ever",  as  a  contem- 
porary (Otto  of  Freising)  doscrilies  him,  he  took  up 
the  former  quarrel  with  .'^nsclm's  pupils.  Through 
their  influence,  his  ortliodoxy,  especially  on  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  was  impeached,  and 
lie  was  summoned  to  appear  before  a  council  at 
Soissons,  in  1121,  presided  over  by  the  papal  legate, 
Kuno,  Bishop  of  Prieneste.  While  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  exactly  what  took  place  at  the  Council. 
it  is  clear  that  there  was  no  formal  condemnation 
of  Abelard's  doctrines,  but  that  he  was  nevertheless 
condemned  to  recite  the  Athanasian  Creed,  and  to 
burn  his  book  on  the  Trinity.  Besides,  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  in  the  Abl)cy  of  St.  M^dard, 
at  the  instance  apparently,  of  the  monks  of  St.  Denis, 
whose  enmity,  especially  that  of  their  Abbot  Adam, 
was  unrelenting.  In  his  despair,  he  fled  to  a  desert 
place  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Troyes.  Thither  pupils 
soon  began  to  flock,  huts  and  tents  for  their  reception 
were  built,  and  an  oratory  erected,  under  the  title 
"The  Paraclete",  and  there  his  former  success  as  a 
teacher  was  renewed. 

After  the  death  of  Adam,  Abbot  of  St.  Denis,  his 
successor,  Suger,  absolved  Abelard  from  censure,  and 
thus  restored  him  to  his  rank  as  a  monk.  The  Abbey 
of  St.  Gildas  de  Rhuj-s,  near  Vannes,  on  the  coast 
of  Brittany,  having  lost  its  Abbot  in  1125,  elected 
Abelard  to  fill  his  place.  At  the  same  time,  the 
community  of  Argenteuil  was  dispersed,  and  Heloise 
gladly  accepted  the  Oratory  of  the  Paraclete,  where 
she  became  Abbess.  As  Abbot  of  St.  Gildas,  Al>elard 
had,  according  to  his  own  account,  a  verj'  trouble- 
some time.  The  monks,  considering  him  too  strict, 
endeavoured  in  various  ways  to  rid  themselves  of 
his  rule,  and  even  attempted  to  poison  him.  They 
finally  drove  him  from  the  monasterj-.  Retaining 
the  title  of  Abbot,  he  resided  for  some  time  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Nantes  and  later  (probably  in 
1130))  resumed  his  career  as  teacher  at  Paris  and 
revived,  to  some  extent,  the  renown  of  the  days 
when,  twenty  years  earlier,  he  gathered  "all  Europe  " 
to  hear  his  lectures.  Among  his  pupils  at  this  time 
were  Arnold  of  Brescia  and  John  of  Salisbury.  Now 
begins  the  last  act  in  the  tragedy  of  Abelard's  life, 
in  which  St.  Bernard  plays  a  conspicuous  part.  The 
monk  of  Clairvaux,  the  most  powerful  man  in  the 
Church  in  those  days,  was  alarmed  at  the  heterodoxy 
of  Abelard's  teaching,  and  questioned  the  Trinitarian 
doctrine  contained  in  Abelard's  writings.  There 
were  admonitions  on  the  one  side  and  defiances  on 
the  other;  St.  Bernard,  having  first  warned  .Mx>lard 
in  private,  proceeded  to  denounce  him  to  the  bishops 
of  France;  Abelard,  underestimating  the  ability  and 
influence  of  his  adversary,  requested  a  meeting,  or 
council,  of  bishops,  before  whom  Bernard  and  he 
should  discuss  the  points  in  dispute.  Accordingly, 
a  council  was  held  at  Sens  (the  metropolitan  see  to 


ABELARD 


3S 


ABELARD 


which  Paris  was  then  siitTragan)  in  1141.  On  the 
eve  of  tlie  council  a  meeting  of  bisliops  was  held, 
at  which  Bernard  was  present,  but  not  Abelard,  and 
in  that  meeting  a  number  of  propositions  \\ere  se- 
lected from  Abchird's  writings,  and  condemned. 
When,  on  the  following  morning,  these  propositions 
were  read  in  solemn  council,  Abelard,  informed,  so 
it  seems,  of  the  proceedings  of  the  evening  before, 
refused  to  defend  liimself,  declaring  tliat  he  appealed 
to  Rome.  Accordingly,  tlie  jiroi^ositions  were  con- 
demned, but  Abelard  was  allowed  his  freedom.  St. 
Bernard  now  wrote  to  tlie  members  of  the  Roman 
Curia,  with  the  result  that  Abelard  had  proceeded 
only  as  far  as  Chmy  on  his  way  to  Rome  when  the 
decree  of  Innocent  11  confirming  the  sentence  of  the 
Council  of  Sens  reached  him.  The  Venerable  Peter 
of  Cluny  now  took  up  his  ease,  obtained  from  Rome 
a  mitigation  of  the  sentence,  reconciled  him  with 
St.  Bernard,  and  gave  him  honourable  and  friendly 
hospitality  at  Cluny.  There  Abelard  spent  the  last 
years  of  his  life,  and  there  at  last  he  found  the  peace 
which  he  had  elsewhere  sought  in  vain.  He  donned 
the  habit  of  the  monks  of  Cluny  and  became  a  teacher 
in  the  school  of  the  monastery.  He  died  at  Chalon- 
sur-Saone  in  1142,  and  was  buried  at  the  Paraclete. 
In  1817  his  remains  and  those  of  Heloise  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise,  in  Paris, 
where  they  now  rest.  For  our  knowledge  of  the  life 
of  Abelard  we  rely  chiefly  on  the  "Story  of  IMy 
Calamities  ",  an  autobiography  written  as  a  letter  to  a 
friend,  and  evidently  intended  for  publication.  To 
this  may  be  added  the  letters  of  Abelard  and  Heloise, 
which  were  also  intended  for  circulation  among  Abe- 
lard's  friends.  The  "Story"  was  written  about  the 
year  1130,  and  the  letters  during  the  following  five 
or  six  years.  In  both  the  personal  element  must, 
of  course,  be  taken  into  account.  Besides  these  we 
have  very  scanty  material;  a  letter  from  Roscelin 
to  Abelard,  a  letter  of  Fuleo  of  Deuil,  the  chronicle 
of  Otto  of  Freisiiig,  the  letters  of  St.  Bernard,  and  a 
few  allusions  in  the  writings  of  John  of  Salisbury. 

Abelard's  philosophical  works  are  "Dialectica," 
a  logical  treatise  consisting  of  four  books  (of  which 
the  first  is  missing);  "Liber  Divisionum  et  Defini- 
tionum"  (edited  by  Cousin  as  a  fifth  book  of  the 
"Dialectica");  Glosses  on  Porphyry,  Boetius,  and 
the  Aristotelian  "Categories";  "Glossula  in  Porphy- 
rium"  (hitherto  unpublished  except  in  a  French 
paraphrase  by  R^musat) ;  the  fragment  ' '  De  Generi- 
bus  et  Speciebus",  ascribed  to  Abelard  by  Cousin; 
a  moral  treatise  "Scito  Teipsum,  seu  Etliica",  first 
published  by  Pez  in  "Thes.  Anecd.  Noviss".  All  of 
these,  with  the  exception  of  the  "Glossula;"  and  the 
"Ethica",  are  to  be  found  in  Cousin's  "Ouvrages 
in^dits  d'Abelard"  (Paris,  1836).  Abelard's  tlieo- 
golical  works  (published  by  Cousin,  "Petri  Abfelardi 
Opera",  in  2  vols.,  Paris,  1849-59,  also  by  Migne, 
"Patr.  Lat.",  CLXXVIII)  include  "Sic  et  Non ", 
consisting  of  scriptural  and  patristic  passages  ar- 
ranged for  and  against  various  theological  opinions, 
without  any  attempt  to  decide  whether  the  affirma- 
tive or  the  negative  opinion  is  correct  or  orthodox; 
"Tractatus  de  Unitate  et. Trinitate  Divind",  which 
was  condemned  at  the  (^ouncil  of  Sens  (discovered 
and  edited  by  Stolzle,  Freiburg,  1891);  "Theologia 
Christiana,"  a  second  and  enlarged  edition  of  the 
"Tractatus"  (first  published  by  Durand  and  Martene, 
"Thes.  Nov.,"  1717);  "Introductio  in  Theologiam" 
(more  correctly,  ""Theologia"),  of  which  the  first 
part  was  published  by  Duchesne  in  IGIG;  "Dialogus 
inter  Philosophum,  Judicum,  et  Christianum";  "Sen- 
tentia-  Petri  Abiclardi  ",  otherwise  called  "Epitome 
Theologiic  Christiana' ",  which  is  seemingly  a  com- 
pilation by  Abelard's  pupils  (first  published  liy  Rhein- 
wald,  Berlin,  1835);  and  several  cxegetical  works, 
hymns,  se(|uences,  etc.  In  philosophy  Abelard  de- 
serves   consideration    primarily    as    a    dialectician. 


For  him,  as  for  all  the  scholastic  philosophers  before 
the  thirteenth  century,  philosophical  inciuiry  meant 
almost  exclusively  the  discussion  and  elucidation  of 
the  problems  suggested  by  the  logical  treatises  of 
Aristotle  and  the  commentaries  thereon,  chiefly  the 
commentaries  of  Porphyry  and  Boetius.  Perhaps 
his  most  important  contribution  to  philosophy  and 
theology  is  the  method  which  he  developed  in  his 
"Sic  et  Non"  (Yea  and  Nay),  a  method  germinally 
contained  in  the  teaching  of  his  predecessors,  and 
afterwards  brought  to  more  definite  form  by  Alex- 
ander of  Hales  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  It  con- 
sisted in  placing  before  the  student  the  reasons  pro 
and  contra,  on  the  principle  that  truth  is  to  be  at- 
tained only  by  a  dialectical  discussion  of  apparently 
contradictory  arguments  and  authorities.  In  the 
problem  of  L'uiversals,  which  occupied  so  much  of  the 
attention  of  dialecticians  in  those  days,  Abelard  took 
a  position  of  uncompromising  hostility  to  the  crude 
nominalism  of  Roscelin  on  the  one  side,  and  to  the 
exaggerated  realism  of  William  of  Champeaux  on 
the  other.  What,  precisely,  was  his  own  doctrine 
on  the  question  is  a  matter  which  cannot  with  accu- 
racy be  determined.  However,  from  the  statements 
of  his  pupil,  John  of  Salisbury,  it  is  clear  that  Abelard's 
doctrine,  while  expressed  in  terms  of  a  modified 
Nominalism,  was  very  similar  to  the  moderate 
Realism  which  began  to  be  official  in  the  schools 
about  half  a  century  after  Abelard's  death.  In 
ethics  Abelard  laid  such  great  stress  on  the  morality 
of  the  intention  as  apparently  to  do  away  with  the 
objective  distinction  between  good  and  evil  acts. 
It  is  not  the  physical  action  itself,  he  said,  nor  any 
imaginary  mjuri/  to  God,  that  constitutes  sin,  but 
rather  the  psychological  element  in  the  action,  the 
intention  of  sinning,  whicli  is  formal  contempt  of 
God.  With  regard  to  the  relation  between  reason 
and  revelation,  between  the  sciences — including 
philosojjhy — and  theology,  Abelard  incurred  in  his 
own  day  the  censure  of  mystic  theologians  like  St. 
Bernard,  whose  tendency  was  to  disinherit  reason 
in  favour  of  contemplation  and  ecstatic  vision.  And 
it  is  true  that  if  the  principles  "Reason  aids  Faith" 
and  "Faith  aids  Reason"  are  to  be  taken  as  the 
inspiration  of  scholastic  theology,  Abelard  was  con- 
stitutionally inclined  to  emphasize  the  former,  and 
not  lay  stress  on  the  latter.  Besides,  he  adopted 
a  tone,  and  employed  a  phraseology,  when  speaking 
of  sacred  subjects,  which  gave  oifence,  and  rightly,  to 
the  more  conservative  of  his  contemporaries.  Still, 
Abelard  had  good  precedent  for  his  use  of  dialectic 
in  the  elucidation  of  the  mysteries  of  faith;  he  was 
by  no  means  an  innovator  in  this  respect;  and 
though  tlie  thirteenth  century,  the  golden  age  of 
scholasticism,  knew  little  of  Abelard,  it  took  up  his 
method,  and  with  fearlessness  equal  to  his,  though 
without  any  of  his  flippancy  or  irreverence,  gave  full 
scope  to  reason  in  the  effort  to  expound  and  defend 
the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  Faith.  St.  Bernard 
sums  lip  the  charges  against  Abelard  when  he  writes 
(Ep.  cxcii)  "Cum  de  Trinitate  loquitur,  sapit  Arium; 
cum  de  gratia,  sapit  Pelagium;  cum  de  persond 
Christi,  sapit  Nestorium ",  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  on  these  several  heads  Abelard  wrote  and 
said  many  things  which  were  open  to  objection  from 
the  point  of  view  of  orthodoxy.  That  is  to  say, 
while  combating  the  opposite  errors,  he  fell  inad- 
vertently into  mistakes  which  he  himself  did  not 
recognize  as  Arianism,  Pelagianism,  and  Nestorian- 
ism,  and  which  even  his  enemies  could  characterize 
merely  as  savouring  of  Arianism,  Pelagianism,  and 
Nestorianism.  Abelard's  influence  on  his  immedi- 
ate successors  was  not  \ery  great,  owing  partly  to 
his  conflict  with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and 
partly  to  his  personal  defects,  more  especially  his 
vanity  and  pride,  which  must  have  given  the  im- 
pression   that    he    \-alucd    truth    less   than    victory. 


ABELLT 


;59 


ABEN-EZRA 


His  influence  on  the  philosophers  and  theologians  of 
ilie  thirteenth  century  was,  however,  very  great.  It 
was  exercised  cliieHy  througli  I'eter  l.onihard,  his 
pupil,  and  other  traniers  of  the  ".Sentences.  "  In- 
deed, while  one  must  be  careful  to  di.scount  the 
exaggerated  encomiums  of  Conipayi6,  ("ousin,  and 
others,  who  represent  Abelard  as  tlie  fii-st  modern, 
the  founder  of  the  I'niversity  of  I'aris,  etc.,  one  is 
justified  in  regarding  him,  in  spite  of  his  faults  of 
character  and  mistakes  of  judgment,  as  an  important 
contributor  to  scholastic  method,  an  enlightened 
opponent  of  obscurantism,  an<l  a  continuator  of  that 
revival  of  learning  which  occurred  in  the  Carolingian 
age,  and  of  which  whatever  there  is  of  science, 
literature,  and  speculation  in  the  early  Middle  Ages 
is  the  historical  development. 

Cousin,  Priri  Alfvl.inli  Oiwra,  2  vo\s.  (Paris,  1849-1S59). 
Ouvraare  iniditt  d'Alulanl  (Pnris,  1830);  /■•.  L.  CLXXVIIl; 
llEMUSAT.  Ahetard  (Paris,  1845);  VACANiiAnii,  /'.  Abitard,  etc. 
(Paris.  1881);  Deutoch.  Peter  Abtllard  (Leipzic.  1883): 
Dkniklk  in  Archio  f.  Lilt.  u.  Kirckcngcsrh.  d.  Aliltflnlt..  1 
(188.5).  402-40i),  58'l-fi24;  Prastu,  Gcach.  drr  Lui/ik.  II.  al 
e(l.  (Leipzig,  188.5).  1G2  sqq.;  Tubnkr,  IHsl.  of  Philomphy 
(Boston,  1U03).  285  sqq.;  SriicKL, //t«(.  o/  Philosophi/,  tr.  by 
FiNLAv  (l)uljlin.  1903).  350  »q. 

William  Tuuneu. 

Abelly,  I.di'IS,  160.'?-91,  w'as  Vicar-General  of 
Hayonne.  a  |)arish  priest  in  Paris,  and  subsecpiently 
Hisliop  of  Kodez  in  ICtjl,  but  in  ItiOti  abdicated  and 
attached  himself  to  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  the  IIoii.se 
of  ."^t.  Lazare,  Paris.  His  ascetical  works  reveal  his 
deep  and  sincere  piety.  He  was  a  bitter  foe  of  the 
Jansenists,  chiefly  of  St.  Cyran,  against  whom  he 
directed  his  "Life  of  .St.  Vincent  de  Paul",  a  work 
which  Ilurter  tlescribc-s  as  "full  of  unction".  His 
"Medulla  Theologica"  went  through  many  editions, 
and  is  characterized  by  its  "solidity,  direct nc-^s,  and 
usefulness  ".  According  to  St.  .\lphonsus,  Abelly  is 
"a  da.ssic  in  probabilism ".  His  "I)<?fense  de  la 
hii'rarchic  dc  I'lCglisc ' '  was  directed  against  an  anony- 
mous (iailican  writer.  He  wrote  also  two  Enchiri- 
dions, one  for  Ijishops,  another  for  priests;  a  treatise 
entitled  "  I'e  roln'issanco  et  soumission  due  au  Pape"; 
and  another  called  "Traits  des  H(?r(''sies  ".  Reply- 
ing to  a  Jan.senist  work  known  as  "  Monita  Salutaria  ", 
he  published  his  ".Sentiments  des  SS.  Pi^res,  touchant 
les  excellences  et  les  pr(''rogatives  de  la  T.  S.  Vierge." 

HcRTKR,  Nomcnctator,  VII.  580. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Abenakis. — A  confederation  of  Algonquin  tribes, 
comprising  the  Pcnobscots,  Passamaquoddies,  Nor- 
ridgewocks,  and  others,  formerly  occupying  what  is 
now  Maine,  and  southern  New  Brunswick.  Their 
territory  adjoined  that  of  the  Micmacs  on  tlie  north- 
east, and  that  of  the  Penobscots  on  the  southwest. 
Their  speech  is  a  dialect  of  the  Micmac  language  of 
the  North  American  Indians.  They  took  sides  with 
the  French  and  maintained  an  increasing  hostility 
against  encroachments  of  the  English.  When  their 
principal  town,  Norridgewock,  was  taken,  and  their 
missionary,  Kasle,  was  killed  (1721),  the  greater 
part  of  them  removed  to  St.  Francis,  in  the  Province 
of  (Quebec,  Canada,  whither  other  refugees  from  the 
New  ICngland  tribes  liad  preceded  them.  Those 
who  remained  entered  into  an  agreement,  later  on, 
with  tlie  English,  by  which  a  small  part,  of  their  for- 
mer possession  was  allowed  to  remain  to  them. 
They  are  now  represented  by  the  Amalecites  on  the 
St.  .lohii  River,  New  Brunswick,  and  Quebec  (.S'20); 
the  Pa.ssamaquoddies,  on  the  Bay  of  that  name,  in 
Maine  (.'{()());  the  Penobscots,  at  Oldtown,  Maine 
(4IX)),  and  the  .\bnakis  at  St.  Francis  and  Becan- 
court.  (Quebec  (l.'iO).  There  are  a  dozen  variations 
of  the  name  .Mienakis,  such  as  Abena(|uiois,  Aba- 
kivis.  Quabenakionek,  Wabenakies,  etc.  They  are 
descril>ed  in  the  "Jesuit  Relations"  :ts  not  canni- 
bals, and  as  docile,  ingenuous,  temperate  in  the  u.se 
of   liquor,    and    not    profane.     Their    language    has 


been  preserved  in  the  monumental  Dictionary  of 
Sebastian  Basic.  After  the  unsuccessful  attempt 
of  de  la  Saussaye,  in  1G13,  to  plant  a  colony  at 
Mount  Desert,  where  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Biard, 
Masse,  and  Quentin  proposed  to  e\angelize  the 
Indians,  the  Capuchins  and  Recollects,  aided  by 
secular  priests    from    the  Seminaiy  of    Qiiebec,  un- 


Abenakis  Mission'  Chapel.  Point  Pleasant.  Maine,  U.S.A. 

dertook  the  work,  but  met  with  indifferent  suc- 
cess. The  Jesuit  Dniillettes  was  sent  to  them  in 
1646,  but    remained    only    a     short     time.     Subse- 

3uently  other  missionaries  like  Bigot,  Thury,  and 
e  la  Chasse  laboured  among  them,  but  three  years 
after  the  murder  of  Father  Ra.sle,  that  is  to  .say 
in  1727,  when  Fathers  Syvesme  and  Lauverjat  with- 
drew, there  was  no  resident  pastor  in  Maine,  though 
the  Indians  were  visited  by  priests  from  time  to  time. 
They  remained  unalterably  attached  to  the  Faith,  and 
during  the  Revohition,  when  Wa.-ihiiigton  sent  to  ask 
them  to  join  with  the  colonies  against  iMigland.  they 
assented  on  condition  that  a  Catliolic  priest  should 
be  sent  to  them.  Some  of  the  chaplains  of  the 
French  fleet  communicated  with  them,  promising 
to  comply  with  their  request,  but  beyond  that 
nothing  was  done.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
Indian  missions  for  the  remnants  of  the  tribe  at 
Calais,  Eastport,  and  Old  Town. 

Jetuil  Relaliuns,  passim;  Shea,  Cntholif  Church  in  Colonial 
Dans.  1521-1703  (New  York,  1886);  Macraui.t,  Hist,  des 
Abi-nakis  dt-puis  1605  &  nos  jours  ((Quebec,  ISI'jO). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Aben-Ezra  (or  Ibn  'F^zra),  Abhaham-ben-Meir, 
a  celebrated  Spanish  Rabbi,  b.  at  Toledo  in  1092;  d. 
on  his  journey  from  Rome,  or  Rodez.  to  his  native 
land,  23  January,  1107.  He  excelled  in  philosophy, 
astronomy,  medicine,  poetrj',  linguistics,  and  exegesis. 
He  was  called  the  Wise,  the  CJreat,  the  Admirable 
Doctor.  Having  to  lea\e  his  native  city  on  account 
of  the  vexations  inflicted  on  the  Jews,  lie  tra\elled 
through  a  great  part  of  Europe,  through  Egj'pt  and 
Palestine.  Rome,  London,  Narbonne,  Mantua,  Ve- 
rona, and  Rodez  arc  some  of  the  places  he  visited. 
His  chief  work  is  his  commentary  on  the  Sacred 
Books,  which  is  nearly  complete,  the  Books  of  Par- 
alipomenon  being  the  only  ones  missing.  His  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch  appeared  in  se\eral  re- 
visions. In  his  commentary  Aben-I>zra  adheres  to 
the  literal  sense  of  the  .Sacred  Books,  avoiding  Rab- 
binic allegories  and  Cabbalistic  extravagances,  though 
ho  remains  faitliful  to  the  Jewish  traditions.  This 
does  not  prexent  him  from  exercising  an  independent 
criticism,  which,  according  to  some  writers,  even 
borders  on  rationalism.  But  in  his  other  works  he 
follows  the  Cabbalistic  views.  "The  Book  of  the 
Secrets  of  the  Law  '.  "The  Mysterj-  of  the  Form  of 
the  Letters",  "The  Enigma  of  the  Quiescent  Let- 
ters", "The  Book  of  the  Name",  "The  Book  of  the 


ABERCinS 


40 


ABERCIUS 


Balance  of  the  Sacred  Language",  "The  Book  of 
Purity  [of  the  Language]''  are  pcrliaps  the  most  im- 
portant of  his  works  of  this  kind.  They  were  written 
during  liis  hfe  of  tra\el,  and  they  reflect  the  unstead- 
iness of  his  outward  circumstances.  Taking  Aben- 
Ezra's  work  as  a  wliole,  it  consists  rather  in  popular- 
izing Rabbinic  Andalusian  ideas  on  Latin  and  Saxon 
soil  than  in  producing  original  thought. 

Levesquk.  in  ViG.,  Did.  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895);  Weltk, 
in  Kirchenlex.  (Freihurg,  1S82);  Jewish  Encyelopedia.  VI,  520 
sq.  (New  York,   J904). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Abercius,  Ixscription  of. — A  Greek  hagiographi- 
cal  text,  which  has,  however,  undergone  alterations, 
and  a  Greek  inscription  of  the  second  century 
have  made  known  to  us  a  certain  Abercius,  Bishop 
of  Hieropolis,  in  Phrygia,  who,  about  the  middle  of 
the  century  in  question,  left  his  episcopal  city  and 
visited  Rome.  On  his  way  home  he  travelled 
through  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  and  was  received 
with  great  honours  in  various  places.  He  died 
shortly  after  his  return  to  Hieropolis,  but  not  before 
he  had  composed  his  own  epitaph,  conveying  a  most 
vivid  impression  of  all  he  had  admired  during  his  stay 
in  Rome.  This  epitaph  may  well  have  inspired  the 
"Life"  of  Abercius  such  as  it  has  come  down  to  us, 
since  all  its  details  may  be  explained  by  the  hints 
contained  in  the  inscription,  or  else  belong  to  the 
cornmon  foundation  of  all  legends  of  saints.  The 
"Life",  as  a  matter  of  fact,  includes  a  transcription 
of  the  epitaph.  Tillcmont  was  greatly  struck  by 
the  ideas  therein  expressed,  and  Pitra  endeavoured 
to  prove  its  authenticity  and  its  important  bearing 
on  Christian  symbolism.  Renan  regarded  both  the 
"Life"  and  inscription  as  fanciful  compositions,  but 
in  1882  an  English  traveller,  W.  Ramsay,  discovered 
at  Kelendres,  near  Synnada,  in  Phrygia  Salutaris 
(Asia  Minor),  a  Christian  stele  (inscribed  slab)  bear- 
ing the  date  of  the  year  300  of  the  Phrygian  era 
(a.  d.  216).  The  inscription  in  question  recalled 
the  memory  of  a  certain  Alexander,  son  of  Anthony. 
De  Rossi  and  Duchesne  at  once  recognized  in  it 
phrases  similar  to  those  in  the  epitaph  of  Abercius. 
On  comparison  it  was  found  that  the  inscription  in 
memoiy  of  Alexander  corresponded,  almost  word  for 
word,  with  the  first  and  last  verses  of  the  epitaph 
of  the  Bishop  of  Hieropolis;  all  the  middle  part  w-as 
missing.  Mr.  Ramsay,  on  a  second  visit  to  the  site 
of  Hieropolis,  in  1883,  discovered  two  new  fragments 
covered  with  inscriptions,  built  into  the  masonry  of 
the  public  baths.  Tliese  fragments,  which  are  now 
in  the  Vatican  Christian  Museum,  filled  out  the  mid- 
dle part  of  the  stele  inscribed  with  the  epitaph  of 
Abercius.  It  now  became  possible,  with  the  help  of 
the  text  preserved  in  the  "Life",  to  restore  the  orig- 
inal text  of  the  epitaph  with  practical  certainty. 
Certain  lacunce,  letters  effaced  or  cut  off  by  breaks 
in  the  stone,  have  been  the  subject  of  profound  dis- 
cussions, resulting  in  a  text  which  may  henceforth 
be  looked  on  as  settled,  and  which  it  may  be  useful 
to  give  here.  The  capital  letters  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  inscription  represent  the  parts  found 
on  the  inscription  of  Alexander,  the  son  of  Anthony, 
those  of  the  niidille  part  are  the  remaining  fragments 
of  the  epitaph  of  Abercius,  while  the  small  letters 
give  tlie  reading  according  to  the  manuscripts  of 
the    "Life": — 

^kAEKTHS   nOXefiS   0   nOAEI 
TTj!  rOTT    EllOIII^a 
f(2^  I'X   EXU    Kovv 
2S2MATOi;    EX6A  OESIN 
5     OTNOM  'Ap^pKLos  Cp   4 

MAeHTIIS   nOI.MENOS  AFNOr 
fi  fiSffKu  wpo^dTojif    dy^Xas 
6p€(Tiv  ireSlot^    rf 
i(/i9a\ijuivs  5s  txei  /ieyiXovs 
10     ndmij   KaOopwvTo.^ 


oPros  yap  jx   edioa^e 

(tol   fw^s)  ypdp.ijiaTa   iriffTd 

EI2   POMH^  6?  (T(pi-4,fp 

EMEX   BAi:iAfiai'  ddpfiaai. 
15     KAI    BASIAIi;crav  iSe'iP  \pvaoa- 

TOAOX   XPwoTT^SiXo.' 

AAOX   A   EIAOX   iKU   \ap.Trpdv 

S'I'PArEIAAX    Exorra 

KAI   STPIIi:;    IlESor  Ma 
20     KAI   A2TEA   lIAi-Ta    X;<ri/3i» 

ET*PATHX   MXjUi';  vrar- 

TH   A  E2X()X    ^TXO^aoi/s 

nATAOX   EXOX   EIIO'^^^ 

niilTIS   irdvT-q  5^   TTpoijye 
25     KAI   nAPHOHKE  Tpo(pijy 

HAXTH    IXeXX   Ajr6  7ri)7^s 

HAN   MEFEOH    KAeapb»  Sv 

EAPAHATO   UAPBepos  071-7} 

KAI   TOTTOX   EnESuKE  0i. 
30     A0I2   ESe/fi^  did  iravTbi 

oivov  xPV^T^v  ^xovaa 

K^paap^a   didoOtra   per    dpTov 

TaOra  Trapearihs  flirov 

A^^pKios   ujde  ypatprivai 

35      f^bopilKOUTOP    fTOS    Kal 

deOrepov  ^yov   dXtjdijs 
TavO'   6   voCiv   ef^^oiTo    vir^p 
^A^epKiov    irds    6    avvtp56^ 
OT    MEXTOI    TT.MBu    TIS    EMU 
40    ETEPOX  T.XA  eH:5;Ei 

EIA  OTX   POMAinX   TA/iEIfi 
eH2Ei  AIi:XEIAIA   xPT2A 
KAI   xPH^TH    ilATPIAi  lEPO 
nOAEI  XEIAIA  XPT2A 

— "The  citizen  of  a  chosen  city,  this  [monument]  I 
made  [while]  living,  that  there  I  might  have  in  tirne 
a  resting-place  of  my  body,  [1]  being  by  name  Aber- 
cius, the  disciple  of  a  holy  shepherd  who  feeds  flocks 
of  sheep  [both]  on  mountains  and  on  plains,  who  has 
great  eyes  that  see  everywhere.  For  this  [shepherd] 
taught  me  [that  the]  book  [of  life]  is  worthy  of  belief. 
And  to  Rome  he  sent  me  to  contemplate  majesty, 
and  to  see  a  queen  golden-robed  and  golden-sandalled; 
there  also  I  saw  a  people  bearing  a  shining  mark. 
And  I  saw  the  land  of  Syria  and  all  [it.s]  cities — 
Nisibis  [I  saw]  when  1  passed  over  Euphrates.  But 
everywhere  I  had  brethren.  I  had  Paul.  .  .  . 
Faith  everywhere  led  me  forward,  and  everywhere 
provided  as  my  food  a  fish  of  exceeding  great  size, 
and  perfect,  which  a  hol.y  virgin  drew  with  her 
hands  from  a  fountain — anil  this  it  [faith]  ever  gives 
to  its  friends  to  eat,  it  having  wine  of  great  virtue, 
and  giving  it  mingled  with  bread.  Tliese  tilings  I, 
Abercius,  having  been  a  witness  [of  them]  told  to  be 
written  here.  Verily  I  was  passing  through  my 
seventy-second  year.  He  that  discerneth  these 
things,  every  fello\v-bclie\er  [namely],  let  him  pray 
for  Abercius.  And  no  one  shall  put  another  grave 
over  my  grave;  but  if  he  do,  then  shall  he  pay  to  the 
treasury  of  [the]  Romans  two  thousand  pieces  of  gold 
and  to  my  good  native  city  of  Hieropolis  one  thou- 
sand pieces  of  gold." 

The  interpretation  of  this  inscription  has  .stimu- 
lated ingenious  efforts  and  very  animated  controver- 
sies. In  1894  G.  Ficker,  supported  by  O.  Hirscli- 
feld,  stro\-e  to  prove  that  Abercius  was  a  priest  of 
Cybele.  In  1895  A.  Harnack  offered  an  explanation 
which  was  sufficiently  oliscure,  making  Abercius  the 
representative  of  an  ill-defined  religious  syncretism 
arbitrarily  combined  in  such  a  fasliion  as  to  explain 
all  portions  of  the  inscription  which  were  otherwise  in- 
explicable. In  1896,  Dicterich  made  Abercius  a 
priest  of  Attis.  These  plausil)le  theories  have  been 
refuted  by  several  learned  arcli.eologists,  especially 
by  De  Rossi,  Duchesne,  and  Cumont.  Nor  is  there 
any  further  need  to  enter  into  the  questions  raised 


ABERCROMBY 


41 


ABERDEEN 


in  ono  r|uarter  or  another;  the  following  fonchisiou.s 
arc  iiuli.sputably  historical.  Tlie  c[)ita|)h  of  Abercius 
is  nciicrally.  anil  with  good  reason,  regarded  as  older 
tliun  tliat  of  Alexander,  the  son  of  Antliony,  i.  e.  prior 
to  the  year  of  Onr  Lord  210.  The  snhject  of  it  may 
be  identified  with  a  writer  named  Al)erciiis  Marcel- 
lus,  autlior  of  a  work  against  the  Montanists,  some 
fragments  of  which  have  been  proser\ed  by  Ruse- 
bius.  As  the  treatise  in  question  was  written  about 
the  year  193,  the  epitaph  may  be  assigned  to  the 
last  years  of  the  second,  or  to  the  beginning  of  the 
third,  century.  Tlie  writer  was  bisliop  of  a  little 
town,  the  name  of  which  is  wrongly  given  in  the 
"Life",  since  he  belongs  to  llieroiiolis  in  Phrygia 
Salutaris,  and  not  to  Ilierapolis  in  I'lirvgia  Pacatien- 
sis.  The  proof  of  this  fact  given  by  Duchesne  is  all 
that  could  be  wished  for. 

The  text  of  the  inscription  itself  is  of  the  greatest 
po.ssilile  importance  in  connection  with  the  symbol- 
ism of  the  early  Church.  The  poem  of  sixteen 
verses  which  forms  the  epitaph  shows  [jhiinly  that 
the  language  used  is  one  not  understood  by  all; 
"Let  the  brother  who  shall  understand  this  pray 
for  Abercius. "  The  bishop's  journey  to  Rcmie  is 
merely  mentioned,  but  on  his  way  home  he  gives 
us  the  principal  stages  of  his  itinerary.  He  passed 
along  the  Syrian  coast  and,  possibly,  came  to  An- 
tioch,  thence  to  Nisibis,  after  having  traversed  the 
whole  of  .Syria,  while  his  return  to  Hieropolis  may 
have  been  by  way  of  Edessa.  The  allusion  to  St. 
Paul  the  Apostle,  which  a  gap  in  the  text  renders 
indecipherable,  may  originally  have  told  how  the 
traveller  followed  on  his  way  back  to  his  country 
the  stages  of  St.  Paul's  third  missionary  journey, 
namely:  Lssus,  Tarsus,  Derbe,  Iconium,  Antioch  in 
Pisidia,  and  Apaniea  Cibotus,  which  would  bring 
him  into  the  heart  of  Phrj'gia. 

The  inscription  bears  witness  of  no  slight  value 
to  the  importance  of  the  Church  of  Home  in  the 
second  century.  A  mere  glance  at  the  text  allows 
us  to  note;  (1)  The  evidence  of  baptism  which 
marks  the  Christian  people  with  its  dazzling  seal;  (2) 
The  spread  of  Christianity,  whose  nicmbei's  Aber- 
cius meets  with  everywhere;  (3)  The  receiving  of 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  Cod  and  of  Mary,  in  the 
Eucharist,  (4)  under  the  species  of  Bread  and  Wine. 

The  liturgical  cultus  of  .\bcrcius  presents  no  point 
of  special  interest;  his  name  appears  for  the  first 
time  in  the  Creek  menologies  and  synaxaries  of  the 
tenth  century,  but  is  not  found  in  the  MartjTology 
of  St.  Jerome. 

PixnA,  in  the  Spicilroium  Soletmente  (Paris.  1855.  Ill, 
533;  IV,  483);  DrniEsNE,  Abercius,  ivfque  dllieropolit,  in 
the  Revue  dcs  tjurtlianii  hitlariquea  (1883),  XXXIV,  5-33; 
I,I.CI.ERCQ.  in  Did.  d'archiol.  chrit.  H  de  liturnie,  I.  60-87; 
I.ioHTFOOT,  Apoitolic  FathcTt  (London,  1889),  II,  i,  492-501. 
H.  Leclercq. 

Abercromby,  John,  d.  1561.  During  the  Scottish 
Reformation  we  know  that  the  Catholic  clergy  were 
treated  with  great  violence,  but  particulars  of  their 
iiiisfortunes  are  hard  to  find.  Thomas  Dempster,  a 
diligent  writer  of  the  next  century,  whose  accuracy, 
however,  cannot  always  be  trusted,  in  his  "  Historia 
Centis  Scotonnn''  (iMlinburgh,  1829),  2<S,  names 
Abercromby  as  having  lost  his  life  from  such  vio- 
lence. He  adds  that  he  thinks  the  sufferer  was  a 
Henedictine,  and  that  he  had  written  in  behalf  of 
the  Faith.  John  Hu.ngehfohd  Pollen. 

Abercromby,  Roheht,  sometimes  known  as  San- 
ders and  as  Robertson,  a  Jesuit  missionarj'  in  Scot- 
land in  the  time  of  the  persecutions,  I),  in  1.532; 
d.  at  BraunslMTg,  in  Prussia,  27  April,  IG13.  He 
was  brought  into  prominence  ehietly  by  the  fact 
that  he  converted  the  (^ueen  of  James  I  of  Eng- 
land, when  that  monarch  was  as  yet  James  VI  of 
Scotland.  The  Queen  was  Anne  of  Denmark, 
and    her    father,   an    ardent    Lutheran,   had   stipu- 


lated that  she  should  have  the  right  to  practise 
her  own  religion  in  Scotland,  and  for  that  purpose 
sent  with  her  a  chaplain  named  John  Lering,  who, 
however,  shortly  after  his  arrival,  became  a  Calvinist. 
The  Queen,  who  abhorred  Calvinism,  asked  some  of 
the  Catholic  nobles  for  advice,  and  it  was  suggested 
to  call  Father  Abercromby,  who,  with  some  other 
Jesuits,  was  secretly  working  among  the  Scotch 
Catholics  and  winning  many  illustrious  converts 
to  the  Church.  Though  brought  up  a  Lutheran, 
Queen  Anne  had  in  her  youth  lived  with  a  niece  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V,  and  not  only  knew  some- 
thing of  the  Faith,  but  had  frequently  been  present 
at  Mass  with  her  former  friend.  Abercromby  was 
introduced  into  the  palace,  instructed  the  Queen 
in  the  Catholic  religion,  and  received  her  into 
the  Church.  This  was  abotit  the  year  1000.  As  to 
the  date  there  is  some  controversy.  Andrew  Lang, 
who  merely  quotes  Mac  Quhirrie  its  to  the  fact  of 
the  conversion,  without  mentioning  Abercromby, 
puts  it  as  occurring  in  1598.  Intelligence  of  it  at 
last  came  to  the  ears  of  the  King,  who,  instead  of 
being  angry,  warned  her  to  keep  it  .secret,  as  her 
conversion  might  imperil  his  crown.  He  even  went 
so  far  as  to  appoint  Abercromby  Superintendent  of 
the  Royal  Falconry,  in  order  that  he  might  remain 
near  the  Queen.  Up  to  the  time  when  James  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown  of  England,  Father  Abercromby 
remained  at  the  Scottish  Court,  celebrating  Mass  in 
secret,  and  giving  Holy  Communion  nine  or  ten 
times  to  his  neophj'te.  When  the  King  and  (Jueen 
were  crowned  sovereigns  of  Great  Britian,  Anne 
gave  proof  of  her  sincerity  by  absolutely  refusing  to 
receive  the  Protestant  sacrament,  declaring  that  she 
preferred  to  forfeit  her  crown  rather  than  take  jiart 
m  what  she  considered  a  sacrilegious  profanation. 
Of  this,  Lang  in  his  "Ilistorj'of  Scotland"  says  noth- 
ing. She  made  several  inelTectual  attempts  to  con- 
vert the  King.  Abercromby  remained  in  Scotland 
for  some  time,  but  as  a  price  of  10,000  crowns  was 
put  upon  his  head  he  came  to  England,  only  to 
find  tliat  the  King's  kindly  dispositions  towards 
him  had  undergone  a  change.  The  alleged  dis- 
covery of  a  Gunpowder  Plot  (q.  v.)  in  1005,  and  the 
attempts  made  to  implicate  the  Jesuits  in  the  con- 
spiracy had  e.xcited  in  the  mind  of  the  King  feelings 
of  bitter  hostility  to  the  Society.  He  ordered  a 
strict  search  to  be  made  for  Abercromby,  who  con- 
sequently left  the  country  and  betook  himself  to 
Braunsberg,  in  Eastern  Prussia,  where  he  died,  in 
his  eighty-first  year. 

Bellksiieim,  Hist,  of  the  Calh.  Church  in  Scollnnd.  VIII. 
340;  RosTowsKI,  Lituanic,  S.J .,  Hisl.,  236;  AsERrHCMUY's 
Narrative  in  the  Biblioth.  Nation.,  Pari.-*,  Fonda  tatina,  (3051, 
fol.  50. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Aberdeen,  Buevi.\ry  of.     See  Brevlvky. 

Aberdeen,  The  Diocese  of  (Scotland). — A  see 
was  founded  in  10(J3  at  Mortlach  by  Bl.  Beyn.  The 
earliest  mention  of  the  old  See  of  Aberdeen  is  in  the 
charter  of  the  foundation,  by  the  Earl  of  Buchan,  of 
the  Church  of  Deer  (c.  1152),  which  is  witnessed  by 
Nectan,  Bishop  of  Aberdeen.  But  the  first  authentic 
record  of  the  see  is  in  the  Bull  of  Adrian  IV  (1157), 
confirming  to  Edward,  Bishop  of  Aberdeen,  the 
churches  of  Aberdeen  and  St.  Machar,  with  the  town 
of  Old  Aberdeen  and  other  lands.  The  granite 
cathedral  was  built  between  1272  and  1277.  Bishop 
Thomas  Spence  founded  a  Franciscan  house  in  1-180, 
and  King's  College  was  founded  at  Old  Aberdeen 
by  Bishop  Elphinstone,  for  eight  prebendaries, 
chapter,  sacristan,  organist,  and  six  choristers,  in 
1505.  The  see  was  transferred  to  Old  Aberdeen 
about  1125,  and  continued  there  until  1577,  having 
had  in  that  time  a  list  of  twenty-nine  bishops.  P'rom 
1053,  when  the  Scottish  clergy  were  incorporated 
into  a  missionary  body  by  the  Congregation  of  the 


^- 


ABERDEEN 


42 


AB6AR 


Propaganda,  until  11)95,  tlie  Catholics  of  Scotland 
were  governed  by  prcfccts-upostolic.  Then  followed 
vicars-apostolic  until  4  March,  1S78,  w4ien  Leo  XIII, 
in  the  first  year  of  his  pontificate,  restored  the 
hierarcliy  of  Scotland  by  the  Bull  "Ex  supremo 
Apostolatus  apice  ",  and  "Vicar-Aixjstolic  John  Mac- 
Donald  was  translated  to  the  restored  See  of  Aber- 
deen as  its  first  bishop. 

The  Bull  made  Aberdeen  one  of  the  four  suffragan 
sees  of  the  Archbishopric  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edin- 
burgh, and  defined  as  its  territorj'  "the  counties  of 
Aberdeen,  Kincardine,  Banff,  Elgin  or  Moray,  Nairn, 
Ross  (except  Lewis  in  the  Hebrides),  Cromarty, 
Sutherland,  Caithness,  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Islands,  and  that  portion  of  Inverness  which  hes  to 
the  north  of  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  most 
northerly  point  of  Loch  Luing  to  the  eastern  boundary 
of  tfie  said  county  of  Inverness,  -where  the  counties 
of  Aberdeen  and  BanfT  join".  In  1906,  out  of  a 
population  of  over  800,000  there  were  nearly  4,000 
Catholics;  48  secular  priests;  24  regulars;  57  churches, 
chapels,  and  stations;  1  college;  1  industrial  school 
for  girls;  1  orphanage  for  boys;  1  orphanage  for 
girls.  There  are  also  Benedictine  nuns,  Poor  Sisters 
of  Nazareth,  Franciscan  Sisters,  Religious  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  and  Sisters  of  Mercy.  There  have 
been  four  Bishops  of  Aberdeen  since  the  restora- 
tion, the  present  incumbent,  the  Rt.  Rev.  .4)neas  Chis- 
holm,  having  been  consecrated  24  February,  1899. 
There  is  a  Benedictine  Abbey  at  Fort  Augustus,  at 
which  the  restored  hierarchy  met  in  a  Provincial 
Council,  AugiLst,  1886,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  three  hundred  and 
twenty-six  years  after  the  downfall  of  the  Faith  in 
Scotland.  The  Provincial  Council  of  1  March,  1559, 
at  Edinburgh,  under  Archbishop  Hamilton,  was  the 
last  council  before  this,  and  that  had  adjourned  after 
appointing  Septuagesima  Sunday  of  1560,  for  the 
next  meeting  of  the  synod.  Fort  Augustus  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  an  abbey,  immediately  subject 
to  the  Holy  See,  by  a  brief  of  Leo  XIII,  12  December, 
1882.  The  munificence  of  Lord  Lovat  and  other 
liberal  benefactors  called  it  into  being. 

The  Catholic  Direclory  (London,  19061;  Bellesheim,  History 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland  (London,  1SS7,  tr.  Hunter- 
Blair),  I,  239,  425,  passim. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Aberdeen,  The  University  op. — The  founder 
of  this,  one  of  the  three  universities  established  in 
Scotland  in  Catholic  times,  was  William  Elphinstone, 
wlio  was  Bi-shop  of  Aberdeen  from  1483  to  1514. 
Early  in  his  episcopate  a  petition  had  been  sent  to 
Rome  in  the  name  of  King  James  IV,  but  probably 
framed  by  Elphinstone  himself,  representing  the  igno- 
rance which  prevailed  in  the  greater  part  of  his 
diocese,  and  in  the  northern  districts  of  the  kingdom 
generally.  The  Papal  Bull  for  the  erection  of  Aber- 
deen University  was  issued  24  February,  1494  (1495, 
according  to  ovir  modern  way  of  reckoning).  Bishop 
Elphinstone  liad  been  a  jjrofessor  at  Paris  and  at 
Orleans  for  nine  years,  and  it  was  on  the  University  of 
Paris,  both  as  to  form  and  organization,  and  also  in  its 
wide  scope  for  general  mental  training,  that  the  new 
establishment  was  modelled  by  its  founder.  In  1497 
Elphinstone  procured  a  royal  charter  assigning  to 
academic  purposes  certain  ecclesiastical  revenues  and 
conceding  to  the  new  university  all  the  privileges  en- 
joyed by  tlie  miiversitics  of  Paris,  St.  Andrews,  and 
Glasgow.  Hector  Boece,  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Paris,  was  a]ipointed  first  principal  of  tlie  university, 
■nhich  was  estal)lished  in  what  is  now  known  as  Old 
Aberdeen,  near  the  ancient  Cathednil  of  St.  Machar. 
In  \nO:\,  f'.corge  Keith,  fifth  Earl  Marshal  of  Scot- 
land, founded  a  second  university  (hence  called  Maris- 
chal   College)    in   the   new   town   of   Aljcrdeen,   ai\d 

? ranted  to  it  the  buildings  of  the  dispossessed  Black 
Dominican),  Grey  (Franciscan),  and  White  (Carmel- 


ite) Friars  as  endowment.  The  two  universities  were 
united  for  a  time  (from  1640  until  after  the  Restora- 
tion), and  many  schemes  for  their  permanent  reunion 
were  promulgated  in  the  eighteenth  century;  but  it 
was  not  untU  1859  that  their  fusion  was  finally  ef- 
fected, after  nuich  local  opposition.  New  professor- 
ships and  lectureships  have  been  recently  founded, 
and  at  Marischal  College,  now  the  seat  of  the  faculties 
of  science,  law,  and  medicine,  a  scheme  of  building  ex- 
tension on  a  great  scale  is  at  present  (1905)  being 
carried  out.  The  number  of  students  is  about  700, 
and  the  number  of  professors  24. 

Rashdall,  History  of  Universities.  (1895)  U,  309;  Innes, 
Sketches  of  Early  Scotch  History  (Edinburgh,  1870,  254. 

D.  O.  Hunter-Bl.ub. 

Aberle,  Moritz  von,  Catholic  theologian,  b.  at 
Rottum,  near  Biberach,  in  Swabia,  25  April,  1819; 
d.  at  Tubingen,  3  November,  1875.  He  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  Obergymnasium,  at  Ehingen,  in  1845; 
director  of  the  Wilhelmstift,  in  1848;  professor  of 
moral  theology  and  New-Testament  exegesis  in  the 
university  at  Tubingen,  in  1850,  a  position  he  re- 
tained till  the  day  of  his  death.  He  had  a  consid- 
erable number  of  pupils  in  both  branches,  but  he 
was  especially  devoted  to  Scriptural  studies.  He 
emphasized  the  activity  of  the  human  bearers  of 
revelation,  without  changing  it  into  a  purely  natural 
process.  The  results  of  his  investigations  he  pvib- 
lished  in  a  series  of  articles  contributed  to  the  "Tu- 
bingen theol.  Quartalschrift ",  1851-72,  and  to  the 
"Bonner  theol.  Lit.-Blatt".  The  main  thoughts  of 
these  articles  were  collected  and  published  under 
the  title,  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testament",  by 
Dr.  Paul  Schanz  (Freiburg,  1877).  Aberle's  view 
that  the  Gospels  and  the  Book  of  Acts  are  apolo- 
getic writings,  meeting  certam  needs  of  the  Apostolic 
times,  cannot  be  sustained.  He  took  also  an  active 
part  in  the  struggle  for  ecclesiastical  liberty  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  and  his  strong  newspaper  articles  forced  the 
State  to  arrange  Church  matters  on  a  tolerable  basis. 

HiMPEL,  Theolooische  Quartalschrift.  1S7G,  177-228;  Wer- 
ner, Geschichte  der  neuzeitl.  christlich-kirchl,  Apologctik  (Schaff- 
hausen,  1867). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Abgar,  The  Legend  of. — The  historian  Eusebius 
records  (H.  E.,  I,  xii)  a  tradition,  which  he  himself 
firmly  believes,  concerning  a  correspondence  that 
took  place  between  Our  Lord  and  the  local  poten- 
tate at  Edessa.  Three  documents  relate  to  this 
correspondence:  (1)  the  letter  of  Abgar  to  Our 
Lord;  (2)  Our  Lord's  answer;  (3)  a  picture  of  Our 
Lord,  painted  from  life.  This  legend  enjoyed  great 
popularity,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  during 
the  Middle  .\ges:  Our  Lord's  letter  was  copied  on 
parchment,  marble,  and  metal,  and  used  as  a  talis- 
man or  an  amulet.  In  the  age  of  Eusebius  the 
original  letters,  written  in  Syriac,  were  thought  to 
be  kept  in  the  archives  of  Edessa.  At  the  present 
day  we  possess  not  only  a  Syriac  text,  but  an  .\r- 
menian  translation  as  well,  two  independent  Greek 
versions,  shorter  than  the  Syriac,  and  several  in- 
scriptions on  stone,  all  of  which  are  discussed  in 
two  articles  in  the  "Dictioimaire  d'arch(5ologie 
chrC'tienne  et  de  liturgic,"  cols.  88  sq.  and  1807  sq. 
The  only  two  works  to  be  consulted  in  regard  to 
this  literary  problem  are  the  "Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory" of  Eusebius,  and  the  "Teaching  of  .-Vddai," 
which  professes  to  belong  to  the  Apostolic  age.  The 
legend,  according  to  these  two  works,  runs  as  fol- 
lows: A  king  of  Edessa,  afflicted  with  an  incurable 
sickness,  has  heard  the  fame  of  the  power  and  mira- 
cles of  Jesus  and  writes  to  Him,  jiraying  Him  to 
come  and  heal  him.  Jesus  declines,  but  promises  to 
send  a  mes.senger,  endowed  with  His  power,  namely 
Thadda-us  (or  .\dilai),  one  of  the  seventy-two  Dis- 
ciples. The  letters  of  Our  Lord  and  of  the  King  of 
lulessa  vary  in  the  version    given  in   Eusebius   and 


ABIATHAR 


r.i 


ABINGDON 


in  that  of  the  "Teaching  of  Aililai."  That  which 
follows  is  taken  from  the  "Teaching  of  Atklai," 
as  being  less  accessible  than  the  History  of  Kuse- 
bius: — 

"  Abgar  Ouchama  to  Jesus,  the  Good  Physician 
Who  has  appeared  in  the  country  of  Jerusalem, 
greeting: 

"I  have  heard  of  Thee,  and  of  Thy  healings; 
namely  tliat  Thou  dost  not  use  medicines  or  roots, 
but  by  Thy  word  openest  (the  eyes)  of  the  liliiul, 
makest  tlie  lame  to  walk,  cleansest  the  lei)ers, 
iiuikcst  the  deaf  to  hear;  how  by  Thy  word  (also) 
Thou  healcst  (sick)  spirits  anti  those  who  arc  tor- 
mented with  lunatic  demons,  and  how,  again.  Thou 
rniscst  the  dead  to  life.  Ami,  learning  tlie  wonders 
that  Thou  doest,  it  was  borne  in  upon  me  that  (of 
two  things,  one):  either  Thou  art  fJod,  who  hast 
come  down  froin  heaven,  or  else  Thou  art  the  Son 
of  God,  who  bringest  all  these  things  to  pass.  Wliere- 
forc  I  write  to  Thee,  and  pray  that  Thou  wilt  come 
to  me,  who  adore  Thee,  and  heal  all  the  ill  that  I 
suffer,  according  to  tlie  faith  I  have  in  Thee.  I  also 
learn  that  the  Jews  murmur  against  Thee,  and 
I)crsecute  Tliec.  that  tliey  seek  to  crucify  Thee, 
and  to  destroy  Thee.  I  possess  but  one  small  city, 
but  it  is  beautiful,  and  large  enough  for  us  two 
to  live  in  peace." 

When  Jesus  had  received  the  letter,  in  the  house 
of  the  high  priest  of  the  Jews,  lie  said  to  Hannan, 
the  secretary,  "Go  thou,  and  say  to  thy  master, 
wlio  hath  sent  thee  to  Me:  '  Happy  art  thou  who 
hast  believed  in  Me,  not  having  seen  Me,  for  it  is 
written  of  Me  that  those  who  shall  see  Me  shall  not 
believe  in  Me,  and  that  those  who  shall  not  see  Me 
shall  believe  in  JIc.  As  to  that  which  thou  hast 
written,  tliat  I  should  come  to  thee,  (behold)  all 
that  for  wliich  I  was  sent  here  below  is  finished, 
and  I  a.scenti  ag.iin  to  My  Father  who  sent  Me,  and 
when  I  shall  have  xscendetl  to  Him  I  will  sentl  thee 
one  of  My  disciples,  wlio  shall  heal  all  thy  sulTcrings, 
and  shall  give  (thee)  health  again,  and  sliall  convert 
all  who  are  with  thee  unto  life  eternal.  .\nd  thy 
city  shall  be  blessed  forever,  anil  the  enemy  sliall 
never  overcome  it.'  "  -According  to  Eusebius,  it 
was  not  Haiuian  who  wrot«  the  answer,  but  Our 
Lord  Himself. 

A  curious  Icgendarj'  growth  has  sprung  up  from 
this  imaginary  occurrence.  The  nature  of  .Vbgar's 
sickness  has  been  gravely  discussed,  to  the  credit  of 
various  writers'  imaginations,  some  holding  that  it 
was  gout,  others  Icjirosy;  the  former  saying  that 
it  had  lasted  seven  years,  the  latter  discovering  that 
the  sufferer  had  contracted  liis  disease  during  a  stay 
in  Persia.  Other  chroniclers,  again,  maintain  that 
the  letter  was  written  on  parchment,  thougli  some 
favour  papyrus.  Tlie  crucial  pa-ssage  in  Our  Lord's 
letter,  however,  is  that  wliich  promises  the  city  of 
Kdessa  victory  over  all  enemies.  It  gave  the  little 
town  a  popularity  which  vanished  on  the  day  that 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  conquerors.  It  was  a  rude 
shock  to  those  who  believed  the  legend;  they  were 
more  ready  to  attribute  the  fall  of  tlie  city  to  God's 
anger  against  the  inliabitants  than  to  "admit  the 
failure  of  a  safeguard  which  was  no  less  trusted  to 
at  that  time  than  in  the  past. 

The  fact  related  in  tlie  correspondence  has  long 
since  cca.scd  to  be  of  any  liistorical  value.  The 
text  is  borrowed  in  two  places  from  that  of  the 
Go.«.pel,  which  of  it.self  is  sulhciout  to  disprove  the 
autlieuticity  of  the  letter.  Moreover,  the  quotations 
are  made  not  from  the  Gospels  projier,  but  from 
the  lauioiis  concordance  of  Tatian.  coiiniileil  in  the 
seconil  ccntiirj',  anil  known  as  the  "  Diatessaron", 
thus  fixing  the  date  of  the  legend  as  approximately 
the  midille  of  the  third  centun.'.  In  addition,  how- 
ever, to  the  importance  which  it  attained  in  the 
apocrj'phal  cycle,  the  correspondence  of  King  .Vbgar 


also  gained  a  place  in  liturgy.  The  decree,  "  De 
libris  non  recipiendis",  of  the  pseudo-Gelasius,  places 
the  letter  among  tlie  apocrypha,  which  may,  |)ossibly, 
be  an  allusion  to  its  having  been  interpolated  among 
the  olliiially  sanctioned  lessons  of  the  liturgy.  The 
Syrian  liturgies  commemorate  the  correspondence  of 
.\bgar  during  Lent.  The  Celtic  lilurgv-  apiJcars  to 
have  attached  imjiortance  to  the  Icgeml;  the  "Liber 
Hymtiorum  ",  a  manuscript  preserved  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin  (H.  4,  'J),  gives  two  collect-s  on  the  lines 
of  the  letter  to  .-Vbgar.  \or  is  it  by  any  means  im- 
possible that  this  letter,  followed  by  vanous  prayers, 
may  have  formed  a  minor  liturgical  office  in  certain 
churches. 

The  account  given  by  Addai  contains  a  detail 
which  may  here  be  briefly  referred  to.  Hannan,  who 
wrote  at  Our  Lord's  dictation,  was  archivi.st  at  I'xlessa 
and  painter  to  King  .Vbgar.  He  had  been  charged  to 
paint  a  portrait  of  Our  I^ord,  a  ta.sk  which  he  carried 
out,  bringing  hack  with  him  to  Edessa  a  picture  which 
became  an  object  of  general  veneration,  but  which, 
after  a  while,  was  said  to  have  been  painted  by  Our 
Lord  Himself.  Like  the  letter,  the  portrait  w;is  des- 
tined to  be  the  nucleus  of  a  legendarj-  growth;  the 
"  Holy  Eace  of  Edessa"  was  chiefly  famous  in  the 
Byzantine  world.  A  bare  indication,  however,  of 
this  fact  must  suffice  here,  since  the  legend  of  the 
Edessa  portrait  forms  part  of  the  extremely  difficult 
and  obscure  subject  of  the  iconography  of  Christ,  and 
of  the  pictures  of  miraculous  origin  called  acheiropoie- 
tte  ("made  without  hands"). 

TlxKHoNT,  Lea  origines  de  I'Eylise  d'Edesse  ci  la  ligcnde 
d'Abgnr  (Paris,  1888);  Leclercq,  in  Dicl.  d'mchinl.  chrH. 
ei  de  Uturffie,  5,  v.;  0ict.  Christ.  Biog..  I.  5-7. 

H.  Leclercq. 
Abiathar  (Hebr.  'ibhyathar.  Father  of  plenty,  or, 
the  great  one  is  father),  descendant  of  .Vchinielech, 
Achitob,  Phinees,  Heli,  Ithamar,  .\aron,  a  high 
priest  who  escaped  from  the  slaughter  at  .\ob,  went 
to  David  in  his  banishment  (I  K..  xxii,  2()-23;  xxiii, 
6)  and  assisted  him  with  his  advice  (I  K.,  xxiii.  9-14; 
XXX,  7).  Together  with  the  high  priest  Sadoc,  he 
a.ssisted  at  the  transportation  of  the  ark  to  Jcni.salem 
(I  Par.,  XV,  U,  12),  and  tried  to  fellow  David  in  his 
flight  (II  K.,  XV,  24),  but  instead  aided  him  by 
counsel  (II  K.,  xv,  29-36;  xvii,  15  sq.;  xix,  11;  I 
Par.,  xxvii,34).  He  favoured -Vdonias  (III  K..i,7,19, 
25,  42),  and  was  banished  by  Solomon  to  .^nathoth 
(III  K.,  ii,  22-27),  thus  completing  the  ruin  of  the 
hoii.se  of  Ithamar  (I  K.,  ii,  30-36;  iii,  10-14).  As 
to  II  K.,  viii,  17,  see  Commentaries. 

Hagkn,  Leiirim  Biblicum  (Paris.  1905);  Renahd  in  Vig.. 
Dicl.  lie  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895);  White  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of 
the  Bible  (New  York,  1903). 

A.  J.  M.\.\s. 

Abila,  a  titular  see  of  Plurnicia,  in  the  region  of 
Mt.  Libanus,  now  Suk  Wady  Barada,  near  Damas- 
cus, and  the  capital  and  stronghold  of  Abilina 
(Luke,  iii,  1). 

Abingdon,  The  Abbey  of,  in  the  County  of  Berk- 
shire, England,  was  founded  A.  D.  675,  by  Cyssa, 
Viceroy  of  Kinwine,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  or 
by  his  nephew  Heane,  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
for  twelve  Benedictine  monks.  Endowed  bj-  succes- 
sive West  Saxon  kings,  it  grew  in  importance  and 
wealth  until  its  destruction  by  the  Danes  in  the  reign 
of  King  .\lfred,  and  the  seiiuestration  of  its  estates 
by  .Vlfrcd  because  the  monks  had  not  made  him  a 
sufFicient  requital  for  vanquishing  their  enemies. 
There  Ls  a  collection  of  136  charters  granted  to  this 
Abbey  by  various  Saxon  Kings  (Cottonian  MSS.  apud 
Dugdale).  Among  its  abbots  were  St.  Ethehvold, 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Winchester  (9.54),  and  Hichard 
de  Ilendred,  for  whose  appointment  the  King's  con- 
sent was  obtained  in  1262.  It  is  rcconlcd  of  him  that 
he  wore  both  mitre  and  pontificals  on  the  I'east  of 


ABIN6T0N 


44 


ABJURATION 


Holy  Trinity  in  12GS.  Hence  Willis  supposes  that 
he  was  the  first  abbot  to  ])()sscss  the  privilege.  He 
•xas  present  at  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  1272.  The 
last  Abbot  of  Abingdon  was  Thomas  Pentecost  (alias 
Rowland),  who  was  among  the  first  to  acknowledge 
the  Koyal  Supremacy.  With  the  rest  of  liis  conuiui- 
nity  he  signed  the  surrender  of  his  monastery  in  1538, 
receiving  the  manor  of  Cumnor  for  life  or  until  he  had 
preferment  to  the  extent  of  £223  per  annum.  The 
revenues  of  the  Abbey  (26  Hen.  VIII)  were  valued 
at  £1876,  10  s,  9d. 

Cbronicon  MoTiasieTii  de  Abingdon  (ed.  Stevenson):  Ddg- 
DALE.  Monasticon  Anqlicanum;  Lysons,  Magna  BriUania 
(Berkshire);   Cooper-Kino,  History  of  Berkshire,  s.  v. 

Francis  Aveling. 

Abington  (or  H.\bington),  Thomas,  an  English 
antiquarian,  b.  1.560;  d.  1647.  His  father,  who  was 
treasurer  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  had  him  educated  at 
Oxford,  Reims,  and  Paris.  For  six  years  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  being  accused,  w-ith  his 
brother  Edward,  of  having  taken  part  in  the  plot 
of  Babington  to  effect  the  escape  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots.  On  his  release  he  retired  to  Hinlip  Castle 
in  Lancaster,  where  he  gave  asylum  to  the  Jesuit 
Fathers,  Henry  Garnett  and  Oldcorne,  accused  of 
complicity  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  For  this  he  was 
condemned  to  death,  but  through  the  intervention  of 
his  son-in-law.  Lord  Monteagle,  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  exile.  His  "History  of  Edward  IV" 
was  published  after  his  death  and  also  an  English 
translation  of  "Gildas"  (London,  1638).  He  also 
left  in  manuscript  a  "History  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Worcester"  and  "Researches  into  the  Antiquities 
of  Worcester". 

GiLLow,  BibL  Diet.  English  Catholics,  s.  v. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Abipones,  Missions  Among  the. — This  Indian 
tribe,  linguistically  of  Guaycviru  stock,  formerly  roam- 
ing on  the  east  side  of  the  Parand,  river,  was  finally 
concentrated  between  the  Rio  Bermejo  on  the  north, 
the  Rio  Salado  on  the  south,  and  the  Parand  on  the 
east,  on  the  soil  of  the  present  Argentine  Republic. 
Their  customs  appear  to  have  been  the  same  as 
those  of  South-American  tribes  in  general:  clanship, 
an  elaborate  animism,  or  fetishism,  complete  sway 
of  the  medicine-men  over  private  and  tribal  mat- 
ters; chiefs  eligible,  or  imposed  through  the  impres- 
sion created  by  casual  achievements  combined  with 
wiles  of  the  Shamans.  Their  weapons  were  lances, 
bows,  and  arrows,  though  the  lance  was  preferred. 
They  had  most  of  the  customs  of  the  Guaycurus, 
including  the  couvade.  In  1641  the  Abipones  had 
already  obtained  the  horse  from  the  Spanisli  settlers. 
At  that  time  they  were,  according  to  tradition,  still 
north  of  the  Rio  Bermejo,  whence  it  is  likely  they 
were  driven  south  by  the  Tobas.  a  warlike  tribe  of 
their  own  Unguistic  stock.  Their  horses,  thriving  on 
the  grassy  plains,  soon  made  the  Al^ipones  very  dan- 
gerous to  Spanish  colonization  by  means  of  raids  on 
the  settlements,  by  which  they  iiicreased  their  own 
Btock  of  horses  and  cattle.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  Jesuits  undertook  the  task 
of  taming  these  unruly  centaurs  of  the  "  Gran  Chaco  ". 
With  great  difficulty  Fathers  Casado,  Sanchez,  and 
especially  Father  Martin  Dobrizhoffer,  who  was  for 
eighteen  years  a  missionary  in  Paraguay,  s\icceeded 
in  forming  several  .settlements  of  Christianized 
Abipones  near  the  Parand.  These  colonics  were 
maintained  in  spite  of  the  turbulent  spirit  of  the 
neophytes,  which  caused  incessant  trouble  with  Span- 
ish settlers  and,  above  all,  in  spite  of  the  murderous 
onslaughts  made  by  the  Tobas  and  Moobobis,  strong 
and  warlike  tribes,  upon  the  missions,  when  these 
showed  signs  of  material  prosperity.  The  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  from  Paraguay  in  1768  and  1709  was 
the  dc.'ithknell  for  the  .Abipones.  The  Tobas  and 
Moobobis  destroyed  them  in  the  course  of  less  than 


half  a  century.  It  is  to  the  work  of  Father  Martin 
Dobrizhoffer,  S.J.,  that  we  owe  most  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Abipones. 

Dobrizhoffer,  Historic  de  Abiponibus.  eqriestri,  bellicos^que 
Paraguarife  nalione,  etc.  (Vienna,  1784;  German  version,  1784; 
English  tr.  1822).  References  to  the  language  are  found  in 
Hervas,  Oriffine,  Formazione,  Mecanismo,  ed  Arnwnia  degli 
Idiomi  (Cesena,  178S);  Id.,  Vocabulario  poliglotto  (1787); 
Saggio  pratico  delle  Lingue,  etc.  (1787);  Adrian  Balbi,  Atlas 
ethnographiqiie  du  globe  (Paris.  1826);  Alcide  d'Obbigny, 
L'Homme  amcricain  (Paris,  1839);  Brinton,  The  American 
Race. 

Ad.  F.  Randelier. 

Abisai,  'ahhUhay,  'Abhshay;  Sept. 'A/Seo-o-d, '.i/Sio-ai, 
son  of  David's  sister  Sarvia,  and  brother  of  Joab.a 
most  valiant  warrior  (II  K..  xxiii,  18,  19;  I  Par.,  xi, 
20,  21),  and  a  faithful  friend  of  David  in  his  struggles 
against  Saul  (I  K..  xxvi,  6-9;  II  K..  ii,  24;  iii.  30), 
against  the  Ammonites,  Syrians,  and  Edomites  (II  K., 
viii,  13;  x,  9-14;  I  Par.,  xviii,  12;  xix,  11-15),  against 
Absalom  (II  K.,  xvi,  9,  10;  xix,  21,  22;  xviii,  2), 
Seba  (II  K.,  xx,  6),  and  the  Philistines  (II  K.,  xxi, 
15-17). 

Hagen,  Lexicon  Biblicum  (Paris,  1905);  Pai-is  in  ViG.,  Diet, 
de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895);  White  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible 
(New  York,  1903). 

A.   J.   Maas. 

Abjuration,  a  denial,  disavowal,  or  renunciation 
under  oath.  In  common  ecclesiastical  language  this 
term  is  restricted  to  the  renunciation  of  heresy  made 
by  the  penitent  heretic  on  the  occasion  of  his  recon- 
ciliation with  the  Church.  The  Church  has  always 
demanded  such  renunciation,  accompanied  by  ap- 
propriate penance.  In  some  cases  the  abjuration 
was  the  only  ceremony  required;  in  others  abjura- 
tion was  followed  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  or  by 
unction,  or  both  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  and  by 
unction.  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (a.  d.  590-604)  in 
a  letter  (Epistola^  lib.  XI,  Ep.  Ixvii,  P.  L.,  Tom. 
LXXVII,  Col.  1204-08;  Decret.  Gratiani,  Pars  III, 
Dist.  iv,  c.  xliv)  to  Quiricus  and  the  Bishops  of  Iberia, 
concerning  the  reconciliation  of  Nestorians,  sets  forth 
the  practice  of  the  ancient  Church  in  this  matter.  Ac- 
cording to  this  testimony  of  St.  Gregory,  in  cases 
where  the  heretical  baptism  was  invalid,  as  with  the 
PauHnists,  Montanists,  or  Cataphrygians  (Cone.  Ni- 
ca!n.,  can.  xix,  P.  L.,II,  666;  Decret.  Gratiani,  Pars  II, 
Causa  I,  Q.  i,  c.  xlii),  Eimomians  (Anomceans),  and 
others,  the  rule  was  that  the  penitent  should  be  bap- 
tized (cum  ad  sanctam  Ecclesianr  vcniiiiit,  hnptizantw); 
but  where  the  heretical  baptism  was  considered  valid, 
converts  were  admitted  into  the  Church  either  by 
anointing  with  chrism,  or  by  the  imposition  of  hands, 
or  by  a  profession  of  faith  (aid  unctionc  chrismatis, 
aut  impositione  manus,  aut  professione  fidei  ad  sinum 
malris  Ecdesice  revocantur). 

Applying  this  rule,  St.  Gregory  declares  that 
Arians  were  received  into  the  Church  in  the  AVest  by 
the  imposition  of  hands,  in  the  East  by  unction 
(Arianos  per  impositionrm  manus  Occidcns,  per  unc- 
iionem  vero  sanrli  rlirismatis  .  .  .  Oriens,  reformat), 
while  the  Monopliysitcs,  who  separated  from  the 
Church  in  the  fiftli  and  sixth  centuries,  were  treated 
with  less  severity,  being  admitted,  with  some  others, 
upon  a  mere  profession  of  the  orthodo.x  faith  [soM 
verd  confessione  rccipit  (Ecelesia)].  St.  (Gregory's 
statement  applies  to  the  Roman  Church  and  to  Italy 
(Siricius,  Epist.,  i,  c.  i;  Epist.,  iv,  c.  viii;  Innoc.  I, 
Epist.  ii,  c.  viii;  Epist.  xxii,  c.  iv),  but  not  to  the 
whole  Western  Church,  since  in  Gaul  and  Spain  the 
rite  of  unction  was  also  in  use  [Second  Coun.  of  Aries, 
can.  xvii;  Coun.  of  Orange  (a.  d.  529),  can.  ii;  Coun. 
of  Epaon,  can.  xvi;  Greg,  of  Tours,  Historia,  lib.  II, 
c.  xxxi;  lib.  IV,  cc.  xxvii,  xxviii;  Hb.  V,  c.  xxxix; 
lib.  IX,  c.  xv]. 

As  to  the  Eastern  Church,  St.  Gregory's  phrase 
entirely  agrees  with  the  rule  laid  down  in  the  seventh 
canon  of  Constantinople,  wliich,  tliough  not  emanat- 
ing from  the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  381,  bears  wit- 


ABLEGATE 


45 


ABNER 


ness  nevertheless  to  tlio  pnu-lice  of  the  Chiircli  of 
Con.stantino[)le  in  the  fifth  centiiiy  [Diichcstie, 
Cliristiaii  Worship  (London,  1901),  3:i'J,  \iU)].  This 
canon,  wliic-li  was  inserted  in  the  Triilhin  or  (juini- 
sext  Synod  (canon  xcv),  and  thus  found  a  place 
in  Byzantine  canon  law,  distinguislies  between 
sects  wlioso  baptism,  but  not  confirmation,  was  ac- 
cepted and  those  whose  baptism  aiul  conlirmation 
were  rejected.  With  the  Arians,  coiiscqiiently,  are 
chissed  the  Macedonians,  Xovatians  (Cone.  Nica'ii.,  I, 
can.  ix;  Xica-n.,  II,  can.  ii),  Sabellians,  Apollinarists, 
and  others,  who  were  to  be  received  by  the  anointing 
with  chrism  on  tlie  forehead,  eyes,  nostrils,  mouth, 
and  ears.  Some  identify  tins  ceremony  of  the  laying 
on  of  hands  witli  the  rite  of  confirmation,  and  not 
merely  an  imposition  of  hands  unto  penance.  A 
similar  discussion  prevails  in  regard  to  tlie  anointing 
with  chrism. 

I.  Imposition  of  Hands. — The  imposition  of  hands, 
as  a  sign  tliat  due  penance  had  been  done,  and  in 
token  of  recoiicilialion  (Pope  Vigilius,  P.  L.,CXXX, 
1()7(')),  was  prescribed  first  for  tliose  wlio  had  been 
baptized  in  the  t'liurch  and  who  had  later  fallen  into 
lieresy.  St.  Cyprian  in  a  letter  to  Quintus  (ei)ist. 
l-xxi,  in  P.  L.,  1\  ,  408—411)  is  witness  of  this  practice, 
as  is  also  St.  Augustine  (De  baptismo  contra  Dona- 
tistas,  lib.  Ill,  c.  xi,  in  P.  L.,  XLIII,  208).  This  rite 
was  prescribed,  secondly,  for  those  who  had  been 
baptized  in  heresy.  Regarding  Pope  Eusebius  (a.  d. 
309  or  310)  we  read  in  the  Liber  Pontificalis  (edit. 
Duchesne,  I,  107):  "Jiic  hereticos  invcnit  in  I'rbe 
Romd,  quos  ad  nianum  imiwisitiouis  [sic]  recon- 
ciliavit."  The  same  work  (I,  '21())  declares  of 
Pope  Siricius  (.\.  i>.  384-399):  "Hie  constituit  hereti- 
cum  sub  man\un  impositionis  rcconciliari,  pra.'sente 
cvnicta  ecdcsia."  [Tliis  latter  was  doubtless  copied 
from  the  hrst  cliaplcr  of  tlic  decretals  of  Pope  Siricius, 
writing  to  Himcrius.  Bisliop  of  Tarragona  in  Spain 
(P.  L.,  XIII,  1133,  1134;  Duchesne,  Lil)cr  Pontif.,  I, 
132,  133).]  Pope  St.  Stephen  declares  this  rite  to  be 
suliicient  (see  St.  Cyprian,  Epist.  Ixxiv,  in  P.  I...  IV, 
412,  413;  Eusebius",  Hi.st.  EccL,  VII,  iii,  in  P.  0., 
XX,  641).  The  first  Council  of  Aries  (a.  d.  314), 
can.  viii  [Labbe,  Concilia  (Paris,  1(571),  I,  1428; 
P.  L.,  CXXX,  376]  inculcates  the  same  law.  (See 
also  St.  Leo,  Epist.  clix,  c.  vii;  Epist.  clixvi,  c.  ii; 
Epist.  clxvii,  Inquis.  IS;  P.  L.,  LIV.) 

II.  Unction. — The  unction  alone  or  together  with 
the  imposition  of  hands  was  also  in  vogue.  The 
Council  of  Laodicea  (a.  d.  373)  in  canon  vii  (Labbe, 
Concilia,  I,  1497)  confirms  this  usage  in  the  abjura- 
tion of  Novatians,  Photinians,  and  Quartodecimans. 
The  second  Council  of  Aries  (a.  d.  4.51)  in  canon  xvii 
(Labbe,  IV,  1013)  extends  the  discipline  to  adherents 
of  Honosius,  adversaries  of  the  virginity  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  .Mary  (Uonosianos  .  .  .  cum  chrismate 
et  manus  impo.iitione  in  Ecclesid  recipi  suffwil).  The 
Council  of  Lpaon  (a.  n.  517),  canon  xvi  (Labbe,  IV, 
1578),  allows  the  same  rite  {Freshijteros  .  .  .  ,  si 
conversioTiem  subitam  petant,  chrismate  subvenire  per- 
mittimus). 

III.  Profession  of  Faith. — Especially  after  the 
birth  of  Nestorianism  and  iMitychianism,  to  abjura- 
tion of  heresy  was  added  a  solemn  profession  of  faith. 
It  was  thus  the  bishops  who,  in  the  Second  Council  of 
Epiiesiis,  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Eutyches  and 
DioscuriLs  were  reconciled  to  the  Church.  St.  Cyril 
of  Alexandria  (Epist.  xlviii,  ad  Donat.  Epis.  Nicopol., 
P.  C;.,  LX.XII,  2.52)  received  a  like  profession  f^rom 
Paul  of  Eme-sa,  who  was  thought  to  be  alTected  with 
Nestorianism.  St.  Leo  (Epist.  i.  Ad  Episc.  Aquilens. 
c.  ii,  in  P.  L.,  LIV.  .'194)  required  the  same  from  the 
votaries  of  Pelagianism,  as  did  also  a  council,  held 
at  Aachen  in  799.  from  Felix,  Bishop  of  Lrgel 
[Alzog,  I'niversal  Church  Hist.  (tr.  Cincinnati,  1899), 
II.  ISl]. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  as  clerics,  unless  degraded 


or  reduced  to  the  lay  state,  were  not  submitted  to  the 
humiliation  of  public  penance,  so,  consequently,  their 
admission  into  the  Church  involved  no  imposition 
of  hands  or  other  ceremony  except  a  profession  of 
faith  (I'ratres  15allerini,  in  Epist.  S.  Leon.,  n.  1.594, 
P.  L.,  LIV,  1492).  In  all  cases  there  was  demanded 
the  presentation  of  a  libeltus,  or  form  of  abjuration, 
in  which  the  convert  renounced  and  anathematized 
his  former  tenets.  After  declaring  his  abjuration  to 
be  free  from  compulsion,  fear,  or  other  imworthy 
motive,  he  proceeded  to  anathematize  all  heresies 
in  general  and  in  particular  that  sect  to  which  he 
had  belonged,  together  with  its  hcrcsiarchs,  past, 
present,  and  future.  He  then  enumerated  the  tenets 
accepted  by  said  sect,  and,  having  repudiated  them 
singly  and  generally,  he  ended  with  a  profession 
of  his  belief  in  the  true  Faith.  Sometimes  there  was 
added,  under  pain  of  punishment,  a  promise  to  re- 
main in  the  Church.  Accidental  differences  only  are 
found  in  the  ancient  formulas  of  abjuration  extant. 
Later,  in  the  countries  especially  where  the  Inquisi- 
tion was  established,  three  sorts  of  abjuration  were 
practised:  (1)  Abjuration  de  formali  (of  formal 
heresy),  made  by  a  notorious  heretic  or  apostate; 
i2)  de  vehemenli  (of  strong  suspicion  of  heresy),  made 
liy  a  Catholic  strongly  suspected  of  heresy;  (3)  de  levi 
-of  slight  suspicion  of  heresy),  made  by  a  Catholic 
.■-huhtly  suspected  of  heresy.  The  abjuration  de- 
manded of  converts  in  the  present  discipline  of  the 
Church  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  above.  A  con- 
Ncrt  to  the  Church  who  has  never  been  baptized  is 
not  obliged  to  abjure  heresy.  A  convert,  whose 
Ijaptism  is  considered  valid,  or  who,  at  most,  on  his 
reception  into  the  Church  is  rebaptized  conditionally, 
is  required  to  make  a  profession  of  faith,  which  con- 
tains an  abjuration  of  heresy.  A  salutary  penance 
also  is  imposed  (S.  Cong.  S.  Off.,  Nov.,  1875. — See 
Appendix  Cone.  Plen.  Bait.,  II,  277,  278;  .American 
edit.  Roman  Ritual,  1,  2,  3).  No  abjuration  is  re- 
quired from  converts  under  the  age  of  fourteen  (S. 
Cong.  S.  OfT.,  Mar.  S,  1882,  in  Collectanea  S.  Cong,  de 
Propag.  Fid.,  n.  1680,  ed.  1903). 

KuMoNi,  in  Dictiontuiire  d'arch^ologie  chretienne  et  de  titurgie 
(Paris,  1903);  Desh.vyes,  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.  {Pari,«,  1S99), 

I.  7.'J:  Macrel,  Guide  pratif/ue  de  la  liturfjie  romaine  (Paris. 
1878),  Par.  I,  §§  2,  104,  art.  6:  Benedict  XIV,  de  Synodo 
Diacetana.  V,  ix,  n.  10,  lib.  IX.  c.  iv,  n.  3;  Oehisian  Hacra- 
mentary,  I,  85,  86;  HuTi.F.R.  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Aniiq.  (Lonclon, 
1893):  Martene  and  Durand,  De  Antiquia  Kcctesirr  Rilibus. 

II,  lib.  CXI,  c.  vi;  Ferraris,  PrompUi  Bibliotkeca,  I,  32  sqq. 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Ablegate.     See  Legate. 

Ablution.     Sec  Baptism;  Mass;  Washing. 

Abner,  a  son  of  Ner,  a  cousin  of  Savil,  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  Saul's  army  (I  K.  xiv,  .50;  .xvii, 
55;  xxvi,  5,  7,  14).  After  Saul  with  three  of  his  sons 
had  fallen  at  Mount  Gelboe,  Abner  made  Isboseth, 
the  fourth  son  of  Saul,  king  over  the  whole 
land  of  Israel  excepting  Judea,  which  adhered  to 
David.  For  seven  years  and  a  half  Abner  fought 
for  the  throne  of  Isboseth.  After  his  defeat  near 
Gabaon,  he  was  hotly  pursued  by  Asael,  brother  of 
Joab,  who  was  David's  commander-in-chief,  and  in 
self-defence  he  reluctantly  slew  his  enemy  (II  K.  ii, 
12  sc].).  This  embittered  the  hostility  between  the 
two  factions,  since  Joab  considerea  himself  the 
avenger  of  his  brother  Asael.  Abner  now  married 
Respha,  a  concubine  of  Saul,  and  thus  incurred  the 
suspicion  of  aspiring  to  the  throne.  Isboseth  re- 
monstrated with  the  warrior,  and  the  latter  became 
so  angry  that  he  made  advances  to  David.  David 
demanded  that  Abner  should  first  restore  to  him 
his  wife  Miehol,  daughter  of  Saul,  who  had  been 
given  to  Phaltiel.  Abner  complied  with  this  condi- 
tion, and  came  to  a  full  understanding  with  David. 
After  his  departure  Joab.  David's  commander-in- 
chief,  sent  for  him,  and  killed  him  at  the  city  gate. 
David  bewailed  Abner,  made  Joab  walk  in  mourning- 


ABOMINATION 


46 


ABORTION 


garb  before  Abner's  bier,  and  on  )iis  death-bed  en- 
joined on  Solomon  to  avenge  Abner's  murder. 
Palis  in  Via.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Abomination  of  Desolation,  The. — The  impor- 
tance of  this  Scriptural  expression  is  chiefly  derived 
from  the  fact  that  in  St.  .Matthew,  xxiv,  15,  and  St. 
Mark,  xiii,  14,  the  appearance  of  "the  abomination 
of  desolation"  standing  "in  the  Holy  Place"  (Matt.), 
or  where  "it  ought  not"  (Mark),  is  given  by  Our 
Lord  to  His  disciples  as  the  signal  for  their  flight 
from  Judea,  at  the  time  of  the  approacliing  ruin  of 
Jerusalem  (Luke,  xxi,  20).  The  expression  itself  is 
confesseilly  obscure.  To  determine  its  meaning,  in- 
terpreters have  naturally  l>etaken  them.selves  to  the 
original  Hebrew  of  the  liook  of  Daniel;  for  our  first 
Evangelist  distinctly  says  that  "the  abomination  of 
desolation  "  he  ha.s  in  view  "  wa.s  spoken  of  by  Daniel 
the  prophet";  and  further,  the  expression  he  makes 
use  of,  in  common  with  St.  Mark,  is  simply  the 
Greek  phrase  whereby  the  Septuagint  translators  ren- 
dered literally  the  Hebrew  words  shiqqilf  shdmem 
found  in  Daniel,  xii,  11;  ix,  27;  xi,  31.  Unfortu- 
nately, despite  all  their  efforts  to  explain  these  He- 
brew terms.  Biblical  scholars  are  still  at  variance 
anent  their  precise  meaning.  While  most  commen- 
tators regard  the  first  "shiqqug",  usually  rendered  by 
"abomination",  as  designating  anything  (statue,  al- 
tar, etc.)  that  pertains  to  idolatrous  worship,  others 
take  it  to  be  a  contemptuous  designation  of  a  heathen 
god  or  idol.  Again,  while  most  commentators  ren- 
der the  second  " shumijm''  by  the  abstract  word  "des- 
olation", others  treat  it  as  a  concrete  form  referring 
to  a  person,  "a  ravager",  or  even  as  a  participial 
noun  meaning  "that  maketh  desolate".  The  most 
recent  interpretation  which  has  been  suggested  of 
those  Hebrew  words  is  to  the  following  effect:  The 
phrase  shiqijur  s-hoinfm  stands  for  the  original  ex- 
pression bd'  lit  shd»idi/lm  (Baal  of  heaven),  a  title 
found  in  Phoenician  and  Aramaic  inscriptions,  and 
the  Semitic  equivalent  of  the  Greek  ZciJs,  Jupiter, 
but  mollified  in  Daniel  through  Jewish  aversion  for 
the  name  of  a  Pagan  deity.  Wliile  thus  disagreeing 
as  to  the  precise  sense  of  tlie  Hebrew  phrase  usually 
rendered  by  "the  abomination  of  desolation".  Chris- 
tian scholars  are  practically  at  one  with  regard  to  its 
general  meaning.  They  commonly  admit,  and  in- 
deed rightly,  that  the  Hebrew  expression  must  needs 
be  untlerstood  of  some  idolatrous  emblem,  the  setting 
up  of  wliich  would  entail  the  ultimate  desolation  of 
the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  (I  Mach.,  i,  57;  iv,  38).  And 
with  this  general  meaning  in  view,  they  proceed  to 
determine  the  historical  e\-ent  between  Our  Lord's 
prediction  and  the  ruin  of  the  Temple  (a.  d.  70), 
which  should  be  regarded  as  "the  abomination  of 
desolation"  spoken  of  in  St.  Matthew,  xxiv,  15,  and 
St.  Mark,  xiii,  14.  But  here  they  are  again  divided. 
Many  scholars  have  thought,  and  still  think,  th.at  the 
introduction  of  the  Roman  standards  into  the  Holy 
Land,  and  more  particularly  into  the  Holy  City, 
shortly  before  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  is  the 
event  foretold  by  Our  Lord  to  His  disciples  as  the 
signal  for  their  flight  from  Judea.  It  is  true  that 
the  stantlards  were  worshipped  by  the  Roman  sol- 
diers and  abhorred  by  the  Jews  as  the  emblem  of 
Roman  idolatiy.  Yet  they  can  hardly  be  consid- 
ered as  "tlie  abomination  of  desolation"  referred  to 
in  St.  Matthew,  xxiv,  15.  The  Evangelist  says  that 
this  "abomination"  is  to  stand  in  the  "holy  place", 
whereby  is  naturally  meant  the  Temple  (see  also 
Daniel,  ix.  27,  where  the  Vulgate  reads:  "there  shall 
be  in  the  Temple  the  al)omination  of  the  desolation"), 
and  the  Roman  standards  were  actually  introduced 
into  the  Temple  only  after  it  had  been  entered  by 
Titus,  that  is,  too  late  to  serve  as  a  warning  for  the 
Christi.ans  of  Judea.  Other  scholars  arc  of  the  mind 
that  the  desecration  of  the  Temple  by  the  Zealots 


who  seized  it  and  made  it  their  stronghold  shortly 
before  Jerusalem  was  invested  by  Titus,  is  the  event 
foretold  by  Our  Lord.  But  this  view  is  commonly 
rejected  for  the  simple  reason  that  "  the  abomination 
of  desolation"  spoken  of  by  Daniel  and  referred  to 
in  St.  Matthew's  Go.spel,  was  certainly  .something 
connected  with  idolatrous  worship.  Others,  finally, 
interpret  Our  Lord's  warning  to  His  disciples  in  the 
light  of  the  history  of  Caligula's  attempt  to  have 
his  own  statue  set  up  and  worshipped  in  the  Temple 
of  Jerusalem.  The  following  are  the  principal  facts 
of  that  history.  About  a.  d.  40,  Caius  Caligula  is- 
sued a  peremptory  decree  ordering  the  erection  and 
worship  of  his  statue  in  the  Temple  of  God.  He 
also  appointed  Petronius  to  the  government  of  Syria, 
bidding  him  carry  out  that  decree  even  at  the  cost 
of  a  war  against  the  rebellious  Jews.  Whereupon 
the  Jews  in  tens  of  tliousands  protested  to  the  gov- 
ernor that  they  were  willing  to  be  slaughtered  rather 
than  to  be  condemned  to  witness  that  idolatrous 
profanation  of  their  lioly  Temple.  Soon  afterwards 
Petronius  asked  Caligula  to  revoke  his  order,  and 
Agrippa  L  who  then  lived  at  Rome,  prevailed  upon 
the  Emperor  not  to  enforce  his  decree.  It  seems, 
however,  that  Caligula  soon  repented  of  the  conces- 
sion, and  that  but  for  his  untimely  dealii  (a.  d.  41) 
he  would  have  had  his  statue  set  up  in  Jerusalem 
(E.  Schiirer,  Historj'  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the 
Time  of  Christ,  1  Div.,  II,  99-105;  tr.).  In  view 
of  these  facts  it  is  affirmed  by  many  scholars  that 
the  early  Christians  could  easily  regard  the  forth- 
coming erection  of  Caligula's  statue  in  the  Temple 
as  the  act  of  idolatrous  .\bomination  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  prophet  Daniel,  ix,  27.  portended  the  ruin 
of  tlie  House  of  God,  and  therefore  see  in  it  the  actual 
sign  given  by  Christ  for  their  flight  from  Judea.  This 
last  interpretation  of  tlie  phrase  "the  abomination 
of  desolation"  is  not  without  its  own  difficulties. 
Yet  it  seems  preferable  to  the  others  that  have  been 
set  forth  by  commentators  at  large 

Driver,  in  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Vigocroux,  in  Diet, 
de  la  Bible;  Commentaries  of  Maldox.^tvs,  Knabenbauer, 
Fli.LioN,  Maas,  etc.,  on  ^t.  Matthew,  and  of  Cai.met,  Knab- 
ENBAUER,  Bp^van,  etc.,  on  Daniel. 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Abortion  (from  the  Latin  word  aboriri,  "  to  perish") 
may  be  briefly  defined  .as  "the  loss  of  a  f«tal  life." 
In  it  the  fcetus  dies  while  yet  within  the  generative 
organs  of  the  mother,  or  it  is  ejected  or  extracted 
from  them  before  it  is  viable;  that  is,  before  it  is 
sufficiently  ileveloped  to  continue  its  life  by  itself. 
Tlie  term  abortion  is  also  applied,  though  less  prop- 
erly, to  cases  in  which  the  child  is  become  viable,  Ijut 
does  not  survive  parturition.  In  this  .article  we  sliall 
take  the  word  in  its  widest  meaning,  and  treat  of 
abortion  as  occurring  at  any  time  between  concejition 
and  safe  delivery.  The  word  miscarriage  is  taken  in 
the  same  wide  sense.  Yet  medical  writers  often  use 
these  words  in  special  meanings,  restricting  aliortion 
to  the  time  when  the  emlaryo  has  not  yet  a.ssumeil 
specific  features,  that  is,  in  the  human  emliryo,  before 
tlie  third  month  of  gestation;  miscarriage  occurs 
later,  but  before  viability;  while  the  birth  of  a  vialile 
child  before  the  completed  t<;rm  of  nine  months  is 
styled  premature  birth.  \'iability  may  exist  in  the 
seventli  month  of  gestation,  but  it  cannot  safely  be 
presumeil  before  the  eighth  month.  If  the  child  sur- 
vives its  premature  birth,  there  is  no  abortion;  for 
tliis  word  always  denotes  the  loss  of  foetal  life.  It 
was  long  debated  among  the  learned  at  what  period 
of  gestation  the  human  emliryo  begins  to  be  ani- 
mated by  the  rational,  s]iiritual  soul,  wliicli  elevates 
man  above  all  other  species  of  the  animal  creation, 
and  survives  the  body  to  live  forever.  The  keenest 
mind  among  the  ancient  ])hilosophers,  .\ristotle,  had 
conjectured  that  the  future  child  was  endowed  at 
conception  with  a  principle  of  only  vegetative  life, 


ABORTION 


47 


ABORTION 


which  was  excliangcd  after  a  tow  tlays  for  an  animal 
soul,  and  was  not  succtnleil  by  a  rational  soul  till 
later;  his  followers  said  on  the  fortieth  day  for  a 
male,  and  the  eightieth  for  a  female,  chilil.  The  au- 
thority of  his  great  name  and  the  want  of  ilefinite 
knowledge  to  the  contrary  caused  this  theory  to  he 
generally  accepted  up  to  recent  times.  Yet,  iis  early 
as  the  fourtli  century  of  the  Christian  era,  St.  (!rcg- 
ory  of  Nyssa  had  aiivocateti  the  view  which  modern 
.science  ha^  confirmed  almost  to  a  certainty,  namely, 
tliat  tlie  s.ame  life  principle  quickens  the  organism 
from  the  first  moment  of  its  iinlividual  existence 
until  its  death  (l^schbach,  Disp.  Phys.,  Disp.,  iii). 
Now  it  is  at  the  very  time  of  conception,  or  fecunda- 
tion, that  the  cmhrj'o  begins  to  live  a  distinct, 
individual  life.  For  life  does  not  result  from  an 
organism  when  it  has  been  built  up,  but  the  vital 
principle  builds  up  the  organism  of  its  own  body.  In 
virtue  of  the  one  eternal  act  of  the  Will  of  the  Creator, 
Who  is  of  course  ever  present  at  every  portion  of  His 
creation,  the  soul  of  every  new  human  being  begins 
to  exist  when  the  cell  wliich  generation  has  provided 
is  ready  to  receive  it  as  its  principle  of  life.  In 
the  normal  course  of  nature  the  living  cmbrvo 
carries  on  its  work  of  self-evolution  within  the 
maternal  womb,  deriving  its  nourishment  from  the 
placenta  through  the  vital  cord,  till,  on  reaching 
maturity,  it  is  by  the  contraction  of  the  uterus  issued 
to  lead  its  separate  life,  .\bortion  is  a  fatal  termi- 
nation of  this  process.  It  may  result  from  various 
causes,  which  may  be  classed  imder  two  heads,  acci- 
dental and  intentional. 

.Vccidcntal  causes  may  be  of  many  different  kinds. 
Sometimes  the  embryo,  instead  of  developing  in  the 
uterus,  remains  in  one  of  the  ovaries,  or  gets  lodged 
in  one  of  the  Fallopian  tul)cs,  or  is  precipitated  into 
the  abdomen,  resulting,  in  any  of  these  ca-ses,  in  an 
ectopic,  or  extra-utcrinc  gestation.  This  almost  in- 
variably brings  on  the  dealli  of  the  foetus,  and  is  be- 
sides often  fraught  witli  .serious  d.anger  to  the  mother. 
Even  if  an  ectopic  child  should  live  to  maturity,  it 
cannot  be  born  bv  tlie  natural  channel;  but,  once  it 
has  become  viable,  it  may  be  saved  by  a  surgical 
operation.  Most  commonly  the  embryo  develops 
in  the  uterus;  but  there,  too,  it  is  exposed  to  a  great 
variety  of  dangers,  especially  during  the  first  months 
of  its  existence.  There  may  be  remote  i)redisposi- 
tions  in  the  mother  to  contract  disea.ses  fatal  to  her 
offspring.  Heredity,  malformation,  syi)hilis,  ad- 
vanced age,  excessive  weakness,  effects  of  former 
sicknesses,  etc.  may  be  causes  of  danger;  even  the 
climate  may  exercise  an  unfavo\irable  influence. 
More  immediate  causes  of  abortion  may  be  found 
in  cruel  treatment  of  the  mother  by  her  hu.sband, 
or  in  starvation,  or  any  kind  of  hardship.  Her  own 
indiscretion  is  often  to  blame;  as  wlien  .she  under- 
takes excessive  labours,  lifts  heavy  weights,  jumps 
or  dances,  uses  intoxicating  drinks  too  freely,  or  in- 
dulges in  violent  fits  of  anger,  or  of  any  otlier  pa.ssion ; 
also  when  she  rides  in  wagons  over  rough  roads,  or 
travels  by  railroads  which  arc  rudely  built  or  un- 
skilfully managed,  or  works  vigoroiisly  treading  the 
pedals  of  a  sewing  machine.  Intense  griefs  or  sudden 
joy,  anything  in  fact  that  causes  a  .severe  sliock  to 
the  bodily  frame  or  the  nervous  .svsteni  of  tlie  mother, 
may  be  fatal  to  the  child  in  her  womb.  On  tlie  part 
of  the  father,  syphilis,  alcoholism,  old  age,  and  pliys- 
ical  weakness  may  act  imfavourablv  on  the  off- 
spring at  any  time  of  its  existence.  The  fretiuency 
of  accidental  abortions  is  no  doubt  very  great;  it 
must  differ  considerably  according  to  the  hardiness 
or  weakness  of  v.irious  races  of  men,  and  many  other 
circumstances,  so  that  the  iiroportion  between  suc- 
cessful and  unsuccessful  conceptions  is  beyond  the 
calculation  of  the  learned. 

Intentional  abortions  are  distinguished  bv  medi- 
cal writers  into  two  classes.     When  they  are  brought 


.about  for  .social  rea.sons,  [jhysicians  style  them  crimi- 
nal; and  they  rightly  condemn  them  under  any  cir- 
cumstances whatsoever.  Tlicy  express  utter  con- 
tempt for  the  doctors  and  midwives  concerned  in 
them.  They  usually  strive  to  prevent  such  crimes 
by  all  the  means  in  their  power.  "Often,  very  of- 
ten," says  Dr.  Hodge,  of  tlie  University  of  I'enn 
sylvania,  "must  all  tlie  elo(|Ucncc  and  all  the  author- 
ity of  the  practitioner  be  cmiiloyed;  often  he  must, 
as  it  were,  grasp  the  conscience  of  liis  weak  and  erring 
patient,  and  let  her  know,  in  language  not  to  be 
misunderstooil,  that  she  is  responsible  to  the  Creator 
for  the  life  of  the  being  within  her"  (Wharton  and 
Stille's  Med.  Jurispr.,  vol.  on  Abortion,  II).  The 
name  of  obstetrical  abortion  is  given  by  physicians 
to  such  as  is  pcrformel  to  save  the  life  of  the  mother. 
Whether  this  practice  is  ever  morally  lawful  we  shall 
consider  below.  Of  late  years  the  leaders  of  the 
medical  jirofession  have  employed  commendable  in- 
dustry in  lessening  the  fie<|uency  of  its  performance. 
Aside  from  moral  considerations,  they  count  it  a 
gross  bliunler  against  the  science  of  obstetrics  to 
sacrifice  the  life  of  the  child  unless  it  be  the  only 
means  to  save  the  mother's  life.  Their  efforts 
have  met  with  giatifying  success.  The  most  en- 
lightened among  them  never  perform  or  permit  abor- 
tion in  any  ca.se  whatever.  .\t  the  .sixty-first  Annual 
Meeting  of  tiie  Hritish  Medical  As.sociation  (1893), 
which  counts  about  fifteen  thousand  jiraftitioners. 
Dr.  James  Muqiliy  .said  in  his  preiudeuti.il  address 
before  the  section  of  Obstetric  Meilicine  and  Gyne- 
cology: "It  is  not  for  me  to  decide  wheiher  the 
modern  Ca;sarean  section,  I'orro's  ojieration,  sym- 
physiotomy, ischioiiubotomy,  or  other  operation  is 
the  saf(!st  or  most  suitable;  nor  yet  is  there  sufficient 
material  for  this  question  to  be  decided.  But  when 
sucli  splendiil  and  succes.sful  results  have  been 
achieved  by  Porro,  LeopoUl,  Saenger.  and  liy  our 
own  .Murdock  Cameron,  I  say  it  deliberately,  and 
with  whatever  authority  I  jiossess,  and  I  urge  it 
with  all  the  force  I  can  muster,  that  we  are  not  now- 
justified  in  destroying  a  living  child"  (Prit.  Jled. 
Journ.,  26  -Vugust,  1893).  While  the  medical  pro- 
fession is  thus  striving,  for  scientific  rea.sons.  to  <li- 
minish  tlie  practice  of  abortion,  it  is  evident  that  the 
determination  of  what  is  right  or  wrong  in  human 
conduct  belongs  to  the  science  of  ethics  and  the 
teaching  of  religious  authority.  Both  of  these  de- 
clare the  Divine  law,  "Thou  .shalt  not  kill".  The 
embryonic  child,  ;is  seen  above,  has  a  human  soul; 
and  therefore  is  a  man  from  the  time  of  its  concep- 
tion; therefore  it  has  an  equal  right  to  its  life  with 
its  mother;  therefore  neither  the  mother,  nor  medi- 
cal practitioner,  nor  any  human  being  whatever  can 
lawfully  take  that  life  aw.ay.  The  State  cannot  give 
such  right  to  the  physician;  for  it  has  not  itself  the 
right  to  put  an  innocent  person  to  death.  No  mat^ 
tcr  how  desirable  it  might  seem  to  be  at  times  to 
save  the  life  of  the  mother,  common  sense  teaches, 
and  all  nations  accept  the  maxim,  that  "evil  is  never 
to  be  done  that  good  may  come  of  it";  or,  whicli  is 
the  same  thing,  that  "a  good  end  cannot  justify  a 
bad  means".  Now  it  is  an  evil  means  to  destroy 
tlie  life  of  an  innocent  child.  The  plea  cannot  be 
made  that  the  child  is  an  unjust  aggressor.  It  is 
simply  where  nature  and  its  own  parents  have  put 
it.  Therefore,  Natural  Law  forbids  any  attempt  at 
destroying  foetal  life. 

The  teachings  of  the  Catholic  Church  admit  of  no 
doubt  on  the  .subject.  Such  moral  questions,  when 
they  are  submitted,  are  decided  by  the  Tribunal  of 
the  Holy  Office.  Now  fliis  authority  decreed.  28 
May,  1S"S4,  and  again,  IS  August,  I'SSO,  that  "it 
cannot  be  safely  taught  in  Catholic  schools  that  it 
is  lawful  to  iierform  .  .  .  .any  surgical  operation 
which  is  directly  destructive  of  the  life  of  the  foetus 
or  the  mother".     Abortion  was  condemned  by  name, 


ABORTION 


48 


ABORTION 


24  July,  lS9o,  in  answer  to  the  question  whether, 
when  tlie  mother  is  in  immediate  danger  of  death, 
and  tliere  is  no  other  means  of  saving  her  hfe,  a 
physician  can  witli  a  safe  conscience  cause  abortion, 
not  by  destroying  the  child  in  the  womb  (which  was 
explicitly  condemned  in  the  former  decree),  but  by 
giving  it  a  chance  to  be  born  alive,  though  not  being 
yet  viable,  it  would  soon  expire.  The  answer  was 
that  he  cannot.  Aft«r  these  and  other  similar  de- 
cisions had  been  given,  some  moralists  thought  they 
saw  reasons  to  doubt  w-hetlier  an  exception  might 
not  be  allowed  in  the  case  of  ectopic  gestations. 
Therefore  the  question  was  submitted:  "Is  it  ever 
allowed  to  extract  from  the  body  of  the  mother  ec- 
topic embryos  still  immature,  before  the  sixtli  month 
after  conception  is  completed?"  The  answer  given, 
20  JIarch,  1902,  was:  "No;  according  to  the  decree 
of  4  May,  1S98;  according  to  which,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, earnest  and  opportune  provision  is  to  be  made 
to  safeguard  the  life  of  the  child  and  of  the  motlier. 
As  to  the  time,  let  the  questioner  remember  that  no 
acceleration  of  birth  is  licit  unless  it  be  done  at  a 
time,  and  in  ways  in  which,  according  to  the  usual 
course  of  things,  the  life  of  the  mother  and  the  cliild 
be  provided  for  ".  Etliics,  then,  and  the  Cliurch  agree 
in  teaching  that  no  action  is  lawful  which  directly 
destroys  fcetal  life.  It  is  also  clear  that  extracting 
the  li\ing  fcetus,  before  it  is  viable,  is  destrojang  its 
life  as  directly  as  it  would  be  kilhng  a  grown  man 
directly  to  plunge  him  into  a  medium  in  wliicli  he 
cannot  live,  and  hold  him  there  till  he  expires.  But 
if  medical  treatment  or  surgical  operation,  necessary 
to  save  a  mother's  life,  is  applied  to  her  organism 
(though  the  child's  death  would,  or  at  least  might, 
follow  as  a  regretted  but  unavoidable  consequence), 
it  should  not  be  maintained  tliat  the  fcetal  life  is 
tliereby  directly  attacked.  Moralists  agree  that  we 
are  not  alw'ays  prohibited  from  doing  wliat  is  lawful 
in  itself,  though  evil  consequences  may  follow  whicli 
we  do  not  desire.  The  good  effects  of  our  acts  are 
then  directly  intended,  and  the  regretted  evil  conse- 
quences are  reluctantly  permitted  to  follow  because 
we  cannot  avoid  them.  Tliti  evil  thus  permitted  is 
said  to  be  indirectly  intended.  It  is  not  imputed  to 
us,  provided  four  conditions  are  verified,  namely: 
(a)  That  we  do  not  wish  the  evil  effects,  but  make 
all  reasonable  efforts  to  avoid  them;  (b)  That  the 
immediate  effect  be  good  in  itself;  (c)  That  the  evil 
is  not  made  a  means  to  obtain  the  good  effect;  for 
this  would  be  to  do  evil  that  good  miglit  come  of  it — 
a  procedure  never  allowed;  (d)  That  tlie  good  effect 
be  as  important  at  least  as  the  evil  ef^'ect.  All  four 
conditions  may  be  verified  in  treating  or  operating 
on  a  woman  with  child.  The  death  of  the  child  is 
not  intended,  and  every  reasonable  precaution  is  taken 
to  save  its  life;  the  immediate  effect  intended,  tlie 
mother's  life,  is  good;  no  harm  is  done  to  the  child 
in  order  to  save  the  mother;  the  saving  of  the 
mother's  life  is  in  itself  as  good  as  the  saving  of  the 
child's  life.  Of  course  provision  must  be  made  for 
the  child's  spiritual  as  well  as  for  its  physical  life, 
and  if  by  the  treatment  or  operation  in  question  the 
child  were  to  be  deprived  of  Baptism,  which  it  could 
receive  if  the  operation  were  not  performed,  then 
the  evil  would  be  greater  than  the  good  consequences 
of  the  operation.  In  this  case  tlie  operation  could 
not  lawfully  be  performed.  Whenever  it  is  possible 
to  baptize  an  emoryonic  child  before  it  expires,  Chris- 
tian charily  requires  that  it  be  done,  eitlicr  before 
or  after  delivery;  and  it  may  be  done  by  any  one, 
even  though  he  be  not  a  Christian. 

History  contains  no  mention  of  criminal  abortions 
antecedent  to  the  period  of  decadent  morality  in 
classic  Greece.  The  crime  seems  not  to  have  pre- 
vailed in  the  time  of  Moses,  either  among  the  Jews 
or  among  the  Rurroun<ling  nations;  else  that  great 
legislator  would  certainly  have  spoken  in  condemna- 


tion of  it.  No  mention  of  it  occurs  in  tlie  long  enu- 
meration of  sins  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  Canaanites. 
The  first  reference  to  it  is  found  in  the  books  attrib- 
uted to  Hippocrates,  who  required  physicians  to  bind 
themselves  by  oath  not  to  give  to  women  drinks  fatal 
to  the  child  in  the  womb.  At  that  period  volup- 
tuousness had  corrupted  the  morals  of  the  Greeks, 
and  Aspasia  was  teaching  ways  of  procuring  abor- 
tion. In  later  times  the  Romans  became  still  more 
depraved,  and  bolder  in  such  practices;  for  OviilwTote 
concerning  the  upper  classes  of  his  countrj-men: 
Nunc  uterum  vitiat  qu£e  vult  formosa  -iideri, 
Raraque,  in  hoc  aevo,  est  quie  velit  esse  parens. 
Three  centuries  later  we  meet  with  the  first  record 
of  laws  enacted  by  the  State  to  check  this  crime. 
Exile  was  decreed  against  mothers  guilty  of  it;  while 
those  who  administered  the  potion  to  procure  it  were, 
if  nobles,  sent  to  certain  islands,  if  plebeians,  con- 
demned to  work  in  the  metal  mines.  Still  the  Ro- 
mans in  their  legislation  appear  to  have  aimed  at 
punisliing  the  wrong  done  by  abortion  to  the  father 
or  the  mother,  rather  than  the  wrong  done  to  the  un- 
born child  (Dollinger,  "Heathenism  and  Judaism "). 
The  early  Christians  are  the  first  on  record  as  having 

Eronounced  abortion  to  be  the  murder  of  human 
eings;  for  their  public  apologists,  Athenagoras,  Ter- 
tuUian,  and  Minutius  Fehx  (Eschbach,  "  Disp.  Phys.," 
Disp.  iii),  to  refute  the  slander  that  a  child  was 
slain,  and  its  flesh  eaten,  by  the  guests  at  the  Agapae, 
appealed  to  tlieir  laws  as  forbidding  all  manner  of 
murder,  even  that  of  children  in  the  womb.  The 
Fathers  of  the  Church  unanimously  maintained  the 
same  doctrine.  In  the  fourth  century  the  Council  of 
Eliberis  decreed  that  Holy  Communion  should  be 
refused  all  the  rest  of  her  life,  even  on  her  deathbed, 
to  an  adulteress  who  had  procured  the  abortion  of  her 
child.  The  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council  determined, 
for  the  whole  Church,  that  anyone  who  procured 
abortion  sliould  Ijear  all  the  punishments  inflicted  on 
murderers.  In  all  these  teachings  and  enactments 
no  distinction  is  made  between  the  earlier  and  the 
later  stages  of  gestation.  For,  though  the  opinion 
of  Aristotle,  or  similar  speculations,  regarding  the 
time  when  the  rational  soul  is  infused  into  the  em- 
bryo, were  practically  accepted  for  many  centuries, 
still  it  was  always  held  by  the  Church  that  he  who 
destroyed  what  was  to  be  a  man  was  guilty  of  de- 
stroying a  human  life.  The  great  prevalence  of 
criminal  abortion  ceased  wherever  Christianity  be- 
came established.  It  was  a  crime  of  comparatively 
rare  occurrence  in  the  Mitldle  Ages.  Like  its  com- 
panion crime,  divorce,  it  did  not  again  become  a 
danger  to  society  till  of  late  years.  Except  at  times 
and  in  places  influenced  by  (^'athohc  principles,  what 
medical  writers  call  "obstetric"  abortion,  as  dis- 
tinct from  "  criminal "  (though  both  are  indefensible 
on  moral  grounds),  has  always  been  a  common  prac- 
tice. It  was  usually  performed  by  means  of  craniot- 
omy, or  the  crushing  of  the  child's  head  to  save  the 
mother's  hfe.  Hippocrates,  Celsus,  Aviccnna,  and 
the  Arabian  school  generally  invented  a  number  of 
vulnerating  instruments  to  enter  and  crush  the  child's 
cranium.  In  more  recent  times,  with  the  advance 
of  the  obstetric  science,  more  conservative  nieixsures 
have  gradually  prevailed.  By  use  of  the  forceps,  by 
skill  acquired  in  \'ersion,  by  procuring  premature 
labour,  and  especially  by  asepticism  in  the  Cxsarean 
section  and  other  equivalent  operations,  medical 
science  has  found  much  improved  means  of  saving 
both  the  child  and  its  mother.  Of  late  years  such 
progress  has  been  made  in  tliis  matter,  that  crani- 
otomy on  the  living  child  has  passed  out  of  reputable 
practice.  But  alxirtion  projur,  before  the  fa'tus  is 
viable,  is  still  often  employcil,  especially  in  ectopic 
gestation;  and  there  are  many  iiien  and  women  wno 
may  be  called  professional  abortionists. 

In  former  times  civil  laws  agauist  all  kinds  of  aboi- 


ABORTION 


49 


ABORTION 


tion  were  very  severe  among  Christian  nations. 
Among  the  Visigoths,  the  penalty  was  death,  or  [iri- 
vation  of  sight,  for  the  mother  who  allowed  it  and 
for  the  father  wlio  consent<;d  to  it,  and  death  for  the 
abortionist.  In  Spain,  the  woman  guilty  of  it  w:ui 
buried  alive.  .\n  edict  of  the  French  King  Henry  II, 
in  1.").').'),  renewed  by  Louis  XIV  in  170.S,  inflicted 
capital  punishment  for  adultery  and  abortion  com- 
bined. To-day  the  French  law  is  much  less  severe. 
It  punishes  tlie  abortionist  with  imprisonment,  and 
physicians,  surgeons,  and  pharmacist*!,  who  prescribe 
or  furnish  the  means,  with  the  penalty  of  forced 
labour.  For  Kngland,  Hlackstone  stateif  tlie  law  as 
follows:  "Life  is  the  immediate  gift  of  (iod,  a  right 
inherent  by  nature  in  every  indiviilual;  and  it  be- 
gins, in  contemplation  of  law,  a.s  soon  as  an  infant 
is  able  to  stir  in  its  mother's  womb.  For  if  a  woman 
is  quick  with  child,  and  by  a  potion,  or  otherwise, 
killeth  it  in  her  womb,  or  if  any  one  beat  her,  whereby 
the  chilli  dieth,  and  i^he  is  delivered  of  a  dead  child; 
this,  though  not  murder,  was  by  tlie  ancient  law- 
homicide  or  manslaughter.  Hut  the  modern  law  does 
not  look  upon  this  offence  in  so  atrocious  a  light,  but 
merely  as  a  heinous  misdemeanour".  In  the  United 
i^tates.  legislation  in  this  matter  is  neither  strict  nor 
uniform,  nor  are  convictions  of  frequent  occurrence. 
In  .some  of  the  States  any  metlical  practitioner  is 
allowed  to  procure  abortion  whenever  he  judges  it 
necessary  to  save  the  mother's  life. 

The  t'atholic  Church  has  not  relaxed  her  strict 
prohibition  of  all  abortion;  but,  a.s  we  have  seen 
above,  she  has  made  it  more  definite.  -\s  to  the 
penalties  .slie  inflict.s  upon  the  guilty  parties,  lier 
present  legislation  was  fixed  by  the  Hull  of  Pius  IX 
Apostolica;  Sedis".  It  decrees  excommunication — 
that  is,  dejirivation  of  the  Sacraments  and  of  the 
prayers  of  the  Church  in  the  ca.sc  of  any  of  her  mem- 
liers.  and  other  privations  besides  in  the  case  of 
clergj-men — against  all  who  .>;eek  to  procure  abortion, 
if  their  action  produces  tlie  effect.  Penalties  must  al- 
ways be  strictly  interpreted.  Therefore,  while  any- 
one who  voluntarily  aids  in  procuring  abortion,  in 
any  way  whatever,  does  morally  wrong,  only  those 
incur  the  excommunication  who  themselves  actually 
and  efTicaciously  procure  the  abortion.  And  the 
abortion  here  meant  is  that  which  is  strictly  so  called, 
namely,  that  performed  before  the  child  is  viable. 
For  no  one  but  the  lawgiver  has  the  right  to  extend 
the  law  beyond  the  terms  in  which  it  is  expres.sed. 
On  the  other  hand,  no  one  can  restrict  its  meaning 
by  private  authority,  so  as  to  make  it  less  than  the 
received  terms  of  Church  language  really  signify. 
Now  Ciregory  XIV  had  enacted  the  penalty  of  ex- 
communication for  abortion  of  a  "quickened"  child; 
but  the  present  law  makes  no  such  distinction,  and 
therefore  it  must  be  differently  understood. 

That  distinction,  however,  applies  to  another  ef- 
fect which  may  result  from  the  procuring  of  abortion; 
namely,  he  who  does  so  for  a  child  after  quickening 
incurs  an  irregularity,  or  hindrance  to  his  receiving 
or  exercising  Orders  in  the  Church.  Hut  he  would 
not  incur  such  irregularity  if  the  embr\'o  were  not 
yet  quickened.  The  terms  "quickened''  and  "ani- 
mation" in  present  usage  arc  applied  to  the  child 
after  the  mother  can  perceive  its  motion,  which  usu- 
ally happens  about  tlie  one  hundred  and  sixteenth 
day  after  conception.  Hut  in  the  old  canon  law, 
which  established  the  irregularity  here  referred  to, 
the  "animation"  of  the  embrj'o  was  supposed  to 
occur  on  the  fortieth  day  for  a  male  child,  and  on 
the  eightieth  day  for  a  female  child.  In  such  mat- 
ters of  canon  law,  just  as  in  civil  law,  many  tech- 
nicalities and  intricacies  occur,  which  it  often  takes 
the  profes-iional  student  to  understand  fully.  In 
regard  to  the  decisions  of  the  Honian  tribunal  quoted 
alMve,  it  is  proper  to  remark  that  while  tlicv  claim 
the  respect  and  loyal  adhesion  of  Catholics,  tliey  are 
I.— 4 


not  irreformable,  since  they  are  not  definitive  judg- 
ments, nor  do  they  proceed  directly  from  the  Su- 
preme Pontiff,  who  alone  ha.s  the  prerogative  of  in- 
fallibility. If  ever  rea.-<ons  should  ari.se,  which  is 
most  imiirobable,  to  change  these  pronouncements, 
those  reasons  would  receive  due  consideration. 

.Antonki.i.i,  MrdiciTUi  Pnstornlin;  Capei.i.man,  Paalorat 
Medicine;  EHrflDAcii.  Diaputationea  Physictr;  Coi-PKNR,  Moral 
Principle)  and  Medical  Practice;  Kl.ARMAN.N,  The  Crui  of 
Patloral  Medicine,  The  Right  to  Life  of  the  Unborn  Child: 
Slater,  Principia  Theologia  Moralit. 

C.    COPPENS. 

Abortion,  The  Physic.m.  Effects  of. — The  ex- 
pulsion of  the  human  ovum  occurring  during  the  first 
three  months  of  pregnancy,  and  occurring  from  any 
cause  whatsoever,  is  called  abortion.  In  the  fourth, 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  months,  i.  e.  from  the  for- 
mation of  the  placenta,  or  after-birth,  to  the  period 
of  viability,  the  occurrence  is  called  immature  deliv- 
ery, or  miscarriage;  and  a  dehvery  occurring  from  the 
twenty-eighth  week  (the  earliest  period  of  viability) 
to  the  thirty-eighth  week  is  called  premature.  "To 
understaiul  the  physical  effects  of  abortion  we  must 
know  .something  of  the  causes,  which  are  in  the  main 
the  same  as  the  causes  of  miscarriage  and  premature 
delivery.  Abortion  may  be  due  to  pathological 
changes  in  the  ovum,  the  uterus,  or  its  aJnexa — one 
or  both;  to  the  physical  or  nervous  condition  of  the 
woman;  to  diseases  either  inherited  or  acquired 
(syphilis,  tuberculosis,  rheumatism);  to  any  in- 
fectious, contagious,  or  inflammatory  disease;  to 
shock,  injury,  or  accident.  It  may  be  induced 
knowingly,  willingly,  and  criminally  by  the  pregnant 
jierson  nerself,  or  by  someone  else,  with  the  aid  of 
drugs,  or  instruments,  or  both. 

Naturally,  therefore,  the  physical  effects  of  abor- 
tion will  depend  in  direct  ratio  on  the  causation 
thereof,  and  the  coniparative  malignity  or  benignity 
of  such  causation.  In  any  case,  abortion  is  fraught 
with  serious  consequences,  direct  and  indirect;  and 
is  a  sad  miscarriage  of  nature's  plan,  greatly  to  be 
deplored,  and  earnestlj',  strenuously,  and  conscien- 
tiously to  be  avoided.  Of  course,  when  brought 
about  with  criminal  intent,  abortion  is  nothing  less 
than  murder  in  the  first  degree;  and  if  the  law  of  the 
land  does  not  discover  and  punish  the  criminal,  the 
liigher  law  of  the  God  of  Nature,  and  of  Nature's 
inexorable  reprisals  for  interference  with,  or  destruc- 
tion of  her  beneficent  designs,  will  sooner  or  later 
most  certainly  do  so.  When  abortion  is  due  to 
pathological  causes  it  is  usually  preceded  by  the  death 
of  the  faitus;  so  that  the  causes  of  abortion  are 
really  the  causes  producing  the  death  of  the  foetus. 
The  causes  may  be  grouped  as  follows: — rlirect  \\o- 
lencp  (blows,  falls,  kicks,  etc.);  diseases  of  the  foetal 
appendages  (cord,  amnion,  chorion,  placenta); 
lumiorrhage  and  other  di.sea.ses  of  the  deciuua  before 
the  complete  formation  of  the  placenta;  febrile 
affections,  excessive  ana>mia,  starvation,  corpulency, 
atrophy  or  hypertrophy  of  the  uterine  mucous  mem- 
brane, hyperu'iiiia  of  the  gravid  uterus,  excessive 
heat  or  coUl,  di.sea.ses  of  the  heart,  fiver,  or  lungs, 
long  journeys,  shock,  excessive  coitus,  nervous  in- 
fluences, uterine  anti-displacements,  and  the  like. 
The  abortion  may  be  complete  or  partial.  If  com- 
plete, the  danger  is  principally  from  shock  and  ha-m- 
orrhage;  if  incomplete  and  any  dC-bris  remains, 
there  is  danger  of  septicaemia,  ura-mia,  endometritis, 
perimetritis,  disea.ses  of  the  tubes,  ovaries,  bladder, 
cervix  uteri,  vaginal  canal,  ami  rectum;  together 
with  catarrhal  discharges  from  one  or  more  of  these 
parts,  displacements,  impoverished  blood  supply, 
various  neuroses,  and  usually  a  tardy  and  expensive 
convalescence. 

The  retention  of  the  dead  foetus  is  not  always  so 
dangerous.  Kven  if  decomposition  or  putrefaction 
occur,  Nature  frequently — possibly  more  often  than 
we  are  willing  to  give  her  credit  for — eliminates  the 


ABRA  DE  RACONIS 


50 


ABRABANEL 


offending  foreign  mass  without  the  aid  of  the  obste- 
trician. Hut  it  is  not  wise  to  advocate  the  waiting 
for  sucii  liappy  and  spontaneous  events.  However, 
while  it  is  true  that  with  proper  medical  care  and 
attention  most  cases  of  abortion  (excluding  criminal 
cases  and  those  complicated  with  other  morbid 
conditions)  present  a  modicum  of  danger,  yet  we 
must  not  forget  that  reports  and  statistics  on  this 
subject  are  very  unreliable.  First,  tliere  may  be  a 
false  diagnosis;  and  secondly,  concealment  on  the 
part  of  the  patient,  attendants,  and  all  concerned 
is  exceedingly   common   to-day. 

From  1867  to  1875  the  Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics 
of  New  York  reported  197  deaths  from  abortion, 
but  admitted  that  the  Department  believed  that 
number  to  fall  far  short  of  the  truth.  In  the  thirty 
years  since  then,  obstetrical  science  has  made  many 
and  important  advances  in  a'tiology,  pathology, 
and  treatment;  but  abortions  from  one  cause  or 
another  continue  in  abundance;  and  •  their  results 
have  been  and  are  still  crowding  the  offices  and  sana- 
toria of  the  female  speciahsts.  Hegar  reckoned 
one  abortion  to  every  eight  full-term  deliveries. 
Lusk,  Marsais,  Siebold,  Gallard,  and  other  equally 
prominent  but  more  modern  obstetricians  and  gynae- 
cologists, present  about  the  same  testimony.  From 
criminal  abortion  death  is  very  frequent.  To  tear 
out  the  living  products  of  conception  by  the  roots  is, 
in  most  cases,  to  give  the  pregnant  woman  gratuitous 
transportation  for  eternity.  Tardieu  alone  records 
seventy  women  w-ho  died  out  of  one  hundred  cases. 
Even  in  spontaneous  cases,  as  we  have  seen,  death 
may  occur  from  hemorrhage,  shock,  peritonitis, 
septicaemia,  etc.  How  much  greater  the  danger, 
then,  when  the  vandal  hand  of  the  professional 
abortionist  adds  wounds  and  injuries  to  complete 
his  diabolical  work.  After  a  careful  perusal  of  this 
subject  the  conclusions  are: — 

When  nature,  from  what  cause  soever,  produces 
the  abortion,  some  women  die,  and  most  have  troubles 
of  greater  or  less  gravity  left  over;  when  abortion 
results  from  criminal  interference,  a  large  proportion 
of  women  die,  and  all  are  more  or  less  maimed  for 
life.  Both  of  these  results  increase  in  number  and 
gravity  in  direct  proportion  to  the  number  of  times 
the  fatality  occurs  in  each  individual  case. 

Since  so  many  people  to-day  have  ceased  to  look 
on  abortion  as  a  calamity  at  all  times,  and  as  a  moral 
monstrosity  in  its  criminal  aspect,  they  should  be 
deterred  from  committing  it  by  the  fear  of  physical 
consequences,  if  they  are  not  moved  by  the  love  of 
morality  and  righteousness. 

Marbais,  Dcs  blessures  de  la  matrice  dans  lea  maiKEUvres 
criminelles  abortives  {,Bibl.  d'anthr.  crim.  et  des  sciences  pennies) 
(1870);  Siebold,  Zur  Lehre  von  der  kunstlichen  FrUhqeburt; 
Lusk,  Nature,  Origin,  and  Prevention  of  Puerperal  Fever ; 
Transactions,  International  Medical  Congress  (Philadelphia), 
830;  Heoar,  Beitrdge  zur  Pathotogie  des  Eies,  Monatsschr.  f, 
Gtburtsk.,  XXI,  34;  Gallard,  De  I'avortement  au  point  de  vue 
medico-Ugal  (Paris,  1878),  45. 

J.  N.  Butler. 

Abra  de  Raconis,  Charles  Francois  d',  a 
French  bishop,  b.  at  the  Chateau  de  Raconis  in  1580, 
of  a  Calvinistic  family;  d.  1646.  In  1592,  this  family 
was  converted  to  the  Catholic  faith,  of  which  Charles, 
then  twelve  years  of  age,  was  to  become  an  earnest 
defender.  He  taught  philosophy  at  the  College  of 
Ple.ssis,  in  1609;  theology  at  the  College  of  Navarre, 
in  1615,  and  three  years  later  was  appointed  court 
preacher  and  royal  almoner.  At  this  epoch  he  took 
an  active  part  in  religious  polemics  and  wrote  works 
of  controversy.  In  1637,  he  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Lavaur,  but  was  not  consecrated  until  1639. 
In  1643  ho  was  back  in  Paris,  and  controversies  with 
the  Jansenists  engaged  him  up  to  his  death.  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul  spurred  him  on  and  encouraged  him. 
Two  years  before  his  death  he  published  his  "  Exanien 
et  jugement  du  livre  de  la  fr^quente  communion  fait 


contre  la  frequente  communion  et  public  .sous  le  nom 
du  sieur  Arnauld"  (Paris,  1644).  The  following  year 
he  published  a  rejoinder  to  the  reply  to  this.  Ar- 
nauld affected  great  contempt  for  him,  and  declared 
that  his  works  were  "  despised  by  all  respectable 
persons".  Raconis  also  wrote  against  the  heresy 
of  "  two  heads  of  the  Church  [Sts.  Peter  and  Paul]," 
formulated  by  Martin  de  Barcos.  The  bishop's 
"Primaute  et  Souverainet6  singuliere  de  saint 
Pierre"  (1645)  roused  the  wrath  of  his  opponents. 
Towards  the  close  of  1645,  the  report  was  circulated 
in  Paris  that  he  had  written  to  the  Pope,  denouncing 
the  dangerous  teachings  in  the  "  Frequente  Com- 
munion ",  and  telling  the  Pope  that  some  French 
bishops  tolerated  and  approved  of  these  impieties. 
The  Bishop  of  Grasse  informed  a  general  assembly 
of  the  clergy  of  this  fact.  This  aroused  their  ani- 
mosity, all  the  more  since  some  of  them  had  recom- 
mended Amauld's  work.  They  entered  a  complaint 
with  the  Nuncio,  and  then  compelled  Raconis  to 
say  whether  he  had  written  the  letter  or  not.  Al- 
though he  denied  having  done  so,  they  drew  up  a 
common  protestation  against  the  accusations  of 
which  they  were  the  objects  and  sent  it  to  Inno- 
cent X. 

Oblet,  in  Diet,  de  theol.  cath.,  I,  94;  Bauer,  in  Kirchentex., 
I,  113. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Abrabanel  (Abravanel,  Abakba.vel),  Don  Isaac, 
Jewish  statesman,  apologist  and  exegete,  b.  in  Lisbon, 
1437;  d.  in  Venice,  1508,  buried  in  Padua.  From 
his  early  youth,  he  was  carefully  instructed  in  the 
Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  literatures,  and  mastered 
the  various  branches  of  secular  learning.  His  keen 
intellect  and,  above  all,  a  great  business  ability  drew 
to  him  the  attention  of  Alfonso  V  of  Portugal,  who 
made  him  his  treasurer,  a  position  that  he  held  until 
1481.  The  favour  shown  by  a  Catholic  prince  to  a 
Jew  shocked  the  public  opinion  of  those  times,  and 
imder  John  II  Abrabanel  was  accused  of  conspiring 
with  the  Duke  of  Braganza,  and  barely  saved  his  life 
by  fleeing  to  Castile,  1483.  Soon  afterwards  he  en- 
tered the  service  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  1484-92. 
After  the  fall  of  Granada,  he  shared  the  fate  of  his 
race,  and  was  banished  from  Spain  in  1492.  He 
repaired  to  Naples  and,  owing  to  various  vicissitudes, 
went  successively  to  Me.ssina,  Corfu,  Monopoli,  and 
finally  to  Venice.  Most  of  Abrabanel's  works  date 
from  the  last  years  of  his  life,  when,  on  accoimt  of 
his  misfortunes,  he  found  more  leisure  for  collecting 
and  ordering  his  thouglits.  Abrabanel  knew  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  and  is  often  ranked  among  the  Jewish 
philosophers.  His  philosophy,  however,  was  in- 
tended by  him  simply  as  a  means  of  defending  his 
religious  convictions.  He  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
written  any  work  professedly  philosophical,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  a  juvenile  treatise  on  the  form 
of  the  natural  elements;  his  views  in  this  respect 
must  be  gathered  from  his  \arious  theological  and 
exegetical  treatises.  As  a  theologian  and  apologist, 
Abrabanel  shows  himself  a  champion  of  the  most 
rigid  Jewish  orthodoxy,  and  does  not  hesitate  to 
oppose  even  Maimonides  when  the  latter  seems  to 
depart  from  the  traditional  belief.  In  the  field  of 
Biblical  exegesis,  Abrabanel  has  the  merit  of  having 
anticipated  much  of  what  has  been  ad\anced  as  new 
by  modern  in\'estigators,  and  of  having  considered 
systematically  not  only  tlie  letter  of  the  sacred  text, 
but  also  the  persons  of  its  authoi-s,  their  aim  and  sur- 
roundings. Each  commentary  is  furnished  with  a 
preface  in  which  these  preliminary  questions  are 
treated.  His  familiarity  with  Christian  authors, 
his  acquaintance  with  court  life  and  customs,  a  keen 
sense  of  his  misfortunes,  joined  with  a  very  extensive 
knowledge  and  a  great  power  of  observation,  fitted 
him  eminently  for  the  task  of  a  Biblical  interpreter. 
We  have  from  him  a  commentary  on  Deuteronomy; 


ABRAHAM 


51 


ABRAHAM 


on  tlic  first  four  books  of  the  Pentateuch;  on  tlie 
earlier  and  on  the  later  Prophets.  They  have  been 
warmly  lauded  both  by  Jews  and  by  Christians, 
have  passed  tlirough  several  editions,  and  many  of 
them  have  been,  in  whole  or  in  part,  translated  into 
Latin.  Of  his  other  works  wo  may  mention  "The 
Crown  of  the  Ancients",  "The  Pinnacle  of  Faith", 
"The  Sources  of  .Salvation",  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
mentary on  Daniel,  "The  Salvation  of  HisAnointed  ", 
"The  Herald  of  Salvation",  in  which  are  collected 
and  explained  all  the  Messianic  texts.  His  works, 
the  tilles  of  which  are  here  rendered  in  English,  were 
written  in  a  clear,  refined,  but  occasionally  dilTuse 
modern  Hebrew. 

Uraetz,  /liatvrii  of  the  Jews  (Pliilailelphia,  1891-98),  IV; 
Mai,  Disserlalio  historico-phitolui/icn  de  Origine,  VUd,  et  Hcriptis 
Isaaci  Abrabanielis  (.\ltorf,  1708>;  IUhtoi.occi,  BMiothcca 
Magna  Rabbinica  (Rome,  1(175-83),  III,  874;  Woi.F.  Biblio- 
llucu  Ilcbraa  (Hamlnirg  &  LeipziK.  1715-33),  I,  627.  III.  540, 
IV.  875;  JosT.  (iischichte  den  JmUnthuma  u.  seiner  Sfktcn 
(I.eipziit,  18.57-5',)).  111.  104;  l-"iiisr.  Bibliotheca  Judaiea 
(Leipzig,  18U3);  Dk.n-  Jacob.  Oscar  ha-Sipharim  (Wilna.  1880). 
HoMAIN  IJUTIN. 

Abraham. — The  original  form  of  the  name,  Abram, 
is  apparently  the  Assyrian  Abu-miiiu.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  usual  meaning  attached  to  that  word,  "lofty 
father",  is  correct.  The  meaning  given  to  Abraham 
in  Genesis,  xvii,  5,  is  popular  word  play,  and  the  real 
meaning  is  unknown.  The  A.s.syriologist,  Hommel, 
suggests  that  in  the  Minnean  dialect  D  is  written  for 
long  a.  Perhaps  here  we  may  ha\'e  tlie  real  deriva- 
tion of  the  word,  and  Abraham  n)ay  be  only  a  dia- 
lectical form  of  Abram.  The  story  of  Abraham  is 
contained  in  the  Book  of  Genesis,  xi,  20;  xxv,  IS. 
Wc  shall  first  give  a  brief  outline  of  tlie  Patriarch's 
life,  as  told  in  that  portion  of  Genesis,  then  we  shall 
in  succession  discuss  the  subject  of  Abraham  from 
the  view-points  of  the  Old  Testament,  New  Testa- 
ment, profane  history,  and  legend.  Thare  had  three 
sons,  Abram,  Nachor,  and  .'Vran.  Abram  married 
Sarai.  'I'hare  took  Abram  and  his  wife,  Sarai,  and 
Lot,  the  son  of  Aran,  who  was  dead,  and  leaving  I'r 
of  the  Chaldees,  came  to  Haran  and  dwelt  there  till 
he  died.  Then,  at  the  call  of  God,  Abram,  with  his 
wife,  Sarai,  and  Lot,  and  the  rest  of  his  belongings, 
went  into  the  Land  of  Chanaan.  amongst  other  jilaces 
to  Sichera  and  Bethel,  where  he  built  altars  to  the 
Lord.  A  famine  breaking  out  in  Chanaan,  Abram 
journeyed  southward  to  Egypt,  and  when  he  had 
entered  the  land,  fearing  that  he  would  be  killed  on 
account  of  his  wife,  Sarai,  he  bade  her  say  she  was 
his  sister.  The  report  of  Sarai's  beauty  w;is  brought 
to  the  Pharao,  and  he  took  her  into  his  harem,  and 
honoured  .\bram  on  account  of  her.  Later,  however, 
finding  out  that  she  was  Abram's  wife,  he  sent  her 
away  unharmed,  and.  upbraiding  Abram  for  what  he 
had  done,  lie  dismissed  him  from  Egypt.  Prom 
Egypt  Abram  came  with  Lot  towards  Bethel,  and 
there,  finding  that  their  herds  and  flocks  had  grown 
to  be  verj'  large,  he  proposed  that  thev  should  sepa- 
rate and  go  their  own  ways.  So  Lot  chose  the  coun- 
try about  the  .Jordan,  whilst  Abram  dwelt  in  Chanaan, 
and  came  and  dwelt  in  the  vale  of  Mambre  in  Hebron. 
Now,  on  account  of  a  revolt  of  the  Kings  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrha  and  other  kings  from  Chodorlaliomor 
King  of  Elam,  after  they  had  served  him  twelve  years, 
he  in  the  fourteenth  year  made  war  upon  them  with 
his  allies,  Thadal  king  of  nations,  Amraphd  King 
of  Senaar,  and  Ariocli  King  of  Pontus.  The  King  of 
Elam  was  victorious,  and  had  already  reached  Dan, 
with  Lot  a  prisoner,  and  laden  with  spoil,  when  he 
was  overtaken  by  Abram.  With  31S  men  the  patri- 
arch surprises,  attacks,  and  defeats  him;  he  re-takes 
Lot  and  the  spoil,  and  returns  in  triumph.  On  his 
way  home,  he  is  met  by  Mclchisedech.  king  of  Salem, 
who  brings  forth  bread  and  wine,  and  blesses  him. 
And  .\bram  gives  him  tithes  of  all  he  has;  but  for 
himself  he  reserves  nothing.     God  promises  Abram 


that  his  seed  shall  be  as  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  he 
shall  possess  the  land  of  Chanaan.  But  Abram  does 
not  see  how  this  is  to  be,  for  he  has  already  grown 
old.  Then  the  promise  is  guaranteed  by  a  sacrifice 
between  God  and  Abram  and  by  a  vision  and  a 
supernatural  intervention  in  the  night.  .Sarai,  who 
was  far  advanced  in  years  and  had  given  up  the 
idea  of  bearing  children,  persuaded  Abram  to  take 
to  himself  her  hand-maid.  Agar.  He  does  .so,  and 
Agar  being  with  child  despi.ses  the  barren  Sarai.  Eor 
this  .Sarai  afllicts  her  so  that  she  flies  into  the  desert, 
but  is  persuailed  to  return  by  an  angel  who  com- 
forts her  with  promises  of  the  greatness  of  the  son 
she  is  about  to  bear.  She  returns  and  brings  forth 
Ismael.  Thirteen  years  later  God  appears  to  Abram 
and  promi.ses  him  a  son  by  Sarai,  and  that  his  pos- 
terity will  be  a  great  nation.  As  a  sign,  he  changes 
Abram's  name  to  Abraham,  Sarai's  to  Sara,  and  or- 
dains the  rite  of  circumcision.  One  day  later,  as 
Abraham  is  sitting  by  his  tent,  in  the  vale  of 
Mambre,  Jehovah  with  two  angels  appears  to  him 
in  human  form.  He  shows  them  hospitality.  Then 
again  the  promi.se  of  a  son  named  Isaac  is  renewed 
to  Abraham.  The  aged  .Sara  hears  incredulously  and 
laughs.  Abraham  is  then  told  of  the  impending  de- 
struction of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  for  their  sins,  but 
obtains  from  Jehovah  the  promise  that  he  will  not 
destroy  them  if  he  finds  ten  just  men  therein.  Then 
follows  a  description  of  the  destruction  of  the  two 
cities  and  the  escape  of  Lot.  Next  morning  Abra- 
ham, looking  from  his  tent  towards  Sodom,  sees  the 
smoke  of  destruction  ascending  to  heaven.  After 
this,  Abraham  moves  south  to  Gerara,  and  again 
fearing  for  his  life  says  of  his  wife,  ".she  is  my  sister". 
The  king  of  Gerara,  Abimelech,  sends  and  takes  her, 
but  learning  in  a  dream  that  slie  is  Abraham's  wife, 
he  restores  her  to  him  untouched,  and  rebukes  him 
and  gives  him  gifts.  In  her  old  age  Sara  bears  a 
son,  Isaac,  to  Abraham,  and  he  is  circumcised  on 
the  eighth  day.  Whilst  he  is  still  young,  Sara  is 
jealous,  seeing  Ismael  playing  with  the  child  Isaac, 
so  she  procures  that  Agar  and  her  son  shall  be  cast 
out.  T  hen  Agar  would  have  allowed  Ismael  to  per- 
ish in  the  wilderness,  had  not  an  angel  encouraged  lier 
by  telling  her  of  the  boy's  future.  Abraham  is  next 
related  to  have  had  a  dispute  with  Abimelech  over  a 
well  at  Bersabee,  which  ends  in  a  covenant  being 
made  between  them.  It  was  after  this  that  the  great 
trial  of  the  faith  of  Abraham  takes  place.  God  com- 
mands him  to  sacrifice  his  only  son  Isaac.  When 
Abraham  has  his  arm  raised  and  is  in  the  very  act 
of  striking,  an  angel  from  liea\'en  stays  his  hand 
and  makes  the  most  wonderful  promises  to  him  of 
the  greatness  of  his  posterity  because  of  his  complete 
trust  in  God.  Sara  dies  at  the  age  of  127,  and  Abra- 
ham, having  purchased  from  Ephron  the  Hetliite 
the  cave  in  Machpelah  near  .Mambre.  buries  her  there. 
His  own  career  is  not  yet  quite  ended,  for  first  of  all 
he  takes  a  wife  for  his  son  Isaac,  Rebecca  from  the 
city  of  Nachor  in  Mesopotamia.  Then  he  marries 
Cetura,  old  though  he  is,  and  has  by  her  six  children. 
Finally,  leaving  all  his  possessions  to  Isaac,  he  dies 
aged  i~5,  and  is  buried  by  Isaac  and  Ismael  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah. 

View-Point  ok  Old  Te-st.^mext. — ^Abraham  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  starting-point  or  source  of 
Old  Testament  religion.  So  that  from  the  days  of 
Abraham  men  were  wont  to  speak  of  God  as  the  God 
of  .\braham,  whilst  we  do  not  find  Abraham  referring 
in  the  same  way  to  anyone  before  him.  So  wc  have 
Abraham's  servant  speaking  of  "  the  God  of  my  father 
Abraham"  (Cicn.  xxiv,  12).  Jehovah,  in  an  appari- 
tion to  Isaac,  speaks  of  himself  as  the  God  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xxvi,  24),  and  to  Jacob  he  is  "the  God  of  my 
father  .■Vbraham"  (Gen.  xxxi,  42).  .So.  too,  showing 
that  the  religion  of  Israel  docs  not  begin  with  Moses, 
God  says  to  Moses:  "I  am  the  God  of  thy  fathers, 


ABRAHAM 


52 


ABRAHAM 


the  God  of  Abraham  "  etc.  (Ex.  iii,  6).  The  same 
expression  is  used  in  the  Psalras  (xlvi,  10)  and  is 
common  in  the  Old  Testament.  Abraliara  i.s  thus 
selected  as  the  first  beginning  or  source  of  the  religion 
of  the  children  of  Israel  and  the  origin  of  its  close 
connection  with  Jehovah,  because  of  his  faith,  trust, 
and  obedience  to  and  in  Jehovah  and  because  of 
Jehovah's  promises  to  him  and  to  his  seed.  So,  in 
Genesis,  xv,  6,  it  is  said:  "Abram  believed  God,  and 
it  was  reputed  to  him  unto  justice."  This  trust  in 
God  was  thown  by  him  when  he  left  Haran  and 
journeyed  with  his  family  into  the  unknown  country 
of  Chanaan.  It  was  shown  principally  when  he  was 
willing  to  sacrifice  his  only  son  Isaac,  in  obedience 
to  a  command  from  God.  It  was  on  that  occasion 
that  God  said:  "  Because  thou  hast  not  spared  thy 
onlybegotten  son  for  my  sake,  I  will  bless  thee"  etc. 
(Gen.,  xxii,  16,  17).  It  is  to  this  and  other  promises 
made  so  often  by  God  to  Israel  that  the  writers  of  the 
Old  Testament  refer  over  and  over  again  in  confirma- 
tion of  their  privileges  as  the  chosen  people.  These 
f)romises,  which  are  recorded  to  have  been  made  no 
ess  than  eight  times,  are  that  God  will  give  the  land 
of  Chanaan  to  Abraham  and  his  seed  (Gen.,  xii,  7); 
that  his  seed  shall  increase  and  multiply  as  the  stars 
of  heaven;  that  he  himself  shall  be  blessed  and  that 
in  him  "all  the  kindred  of  the  earth  shall  be  blessed" 
(xii,  3).  Accordingly  the  traditional  view  of  the  life 
of  Abraham,  as  recorded  in  Genesis,  is  that  it  is  his- 
tory in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  Thus  Father 
von  Hummelauer,  S.J.,  in  his  commentary  on  Gene- 
sis in  the  "Cursus  Scriptunie  Sacrre"  (30),  in  an- 
swer to  the  question  from  what  author  the  section 
on  Abraham  first  proceeded,  replies,  from  Abraham 
as  the  first  source.  Indeed  he  even  says  that  it  is 
all  in  one  style,  as  a  proof  of  its  origin,  and  that  the 
passage,  xxv,  5-11,  concerning  the  goods,  death,  and 
burial  of  Abraham  comes  from  Isaac.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  added  that  it  is  doubtful  if  Father  von  Hum- 
melauer still  adheres  to  these  views,  written  before 
1895,  since  he  has  much  modified  his  position  in  the 
volume  on  Deuteronomy. 

Quite  a  different  view  on  the  section  of  Genesis 
treating  of  Abraham,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  of 
Genesis,  is  taken  by  modern  critical  scholars.  They 
almost  unanimously  hold  that  the  narrative  of  the 
patriarch's  life  is  composed  practically  in  its  entirety 
of  three  writings  or  writers  called  respectively  the 
Jahvist,  the  Elohist,  and  the  priestly  writer,  and  de- 
noted by  the  letters  J,  E,  and  P.  J  and  E  consisted 
of  collections  of  stories  relating  to  the  patriarch, 
some  of  older,  some  of  later,  origin.  Perhaps  the 
stories  of  J  show  a  greater  anticjuity  than  those  of  E. 
Still  the  two  authors  are  very  much  alike,  and  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other 
in  the  combined  narrative  of  J  and  E.  From  what 
we  can  observe,  neither  the  Jahvist  nor  the  Elohist 
was  a  personal  author.  Both  are  rather  schools,  and 
represent  the  collections  of  many  years.  Both  col- 
lections were  closed  before  the  time  of  the  Dropliets; 
J  some  time  in  the  ninth  century  n.  c,  and  E  early 
in  the  eighth  century,  the  former  probably  in  the 
South  Kmgdom,  the  latter  in  the  North.  Then 
towards  the  end  of  the  kingdom,  perhaps  owing  to 
the  inconvenience  of  having  two  rival  accounts  of 
the  stories  of  the  patriarchs  etc.  going  about,  a 
redactor  R.JE  (?)  combined  the  two  collections  in 
one,  keeping  as  much  as  po.ssible  to  the  words  of 
his  sources,  making  as  few  changes  as  jiossible  so  as 
to  fit  them  into  one  another,  and  perhaps  mostly 
following  J  in  the  account  of  Abraham.  Then  in 
the  fifth  century  a  writer  who  evidently  belonged 
to  the  sacerdotal  caste  wrote  down  again  an  account 
of  primitive  and  patriarchal  history  from  the  priestly 
pomt  of  view.  He  attached  great  importance  to 
clearness  and  exactness;  his  accounts  of  things  are 
often  cast  into  the  shape  of  formulas  fcf.  Genesis,  i); 


he  is  very  particular  about  genealogies,  also  as  to 
chronological  notes.  The  vividness  and  colour  of  the 
older  patriarchal  narratives,  J  and  E,  are  wanting 
in  the  later  one,  which  in  the  main  is  as  formal  as  a 
legal  document,  though  at  times  it  is  not  wanting  in 
dignity  and  even  grandeur,  as  is  the  case  in  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis.  Finally,  the  moral  to  be  drawn 
from  the  various  events  narrated  is  more  clearly  set 
forth  in  this  third  writing,  and,  according  to  the  critics, 
the  moral  standpoint  is  that  of  the  fifth  century  B.  c. 
Lastly,  after  the  time  of  Ezra,  this  last  history,  P, 
was  worked  up  into  one  with  the  already  combined 
narrative  J.E.  by  a  second  redactor  R.JEP,  the  re- 
sult being  the  present  history  of  Abraham,  and 
indeed  the  present  book  of  Genesis;  though  in  all 
probability  insertions  were  made  at  even  a  later 
date. 

View-Point  of  New  Test.^ment. — The  generation 
of  Jesus  Christ  is  traced  back  to  Abraham  by  St. 
Matthew,  and  though  in  Our  Lord's  genealogy,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Luke,  he  is  shown  to  be  descended 
according  to  the  flesh  not  only  from  Abraham  but 
also  from  Adam,  still  St.  Luke  shows  his  apprecia- 
tion of  the  fruits  of  descent  from  Abraham  by  at- 
tributing all  the  blessings  of  God  on  Israel  to  the 
promises  made  to  Abraham.  This  he  does  in  the 
Magnificat,  iii,  55,  and  in  the  Benedictus,  iii,  73. 
Moreover,  as  the  New  Testament  traces  the  descent 
of  Jesus  Christ  from  Abraham,  so  it  does  of  all  the 
Jews;  though  as  a  rule,  when  this  is  done,  it  is  ac- 
companied with  a  note  of  warning,  lest  the  Jews 
should  imagine  that  they  are  entitled  to  place  con- 
fidence in  the  fact  of  their  carnal  descent  from  Abra- 
ham, without  anything  further.  Thus  (Luke,  iii,  8) 
John  the  Baptist  says:  "Do  not  begin  to  say:  We 
have  Abraham  for  our  father,  for  I  say  to  you  God 
is  able  of  these  stones  to  raise  up  children  to  Abra- 
ham." In  Luke,  xix,  9,  our  Saviour  calls  the  sinner 
Zacheus  a  son  of  Abraham,  as  he  likewise  calls  a 
woman  whom  he  had  healed  a  daughter  of  Abraham 
(Luke,  xiii,  16);  but  in  these  and  many  similar  cases, 
is  it  not  merely  another  way  of  calling  them  Jews 
or  Israelites,  just  as  at  times  he  refers  to  the  Psalms 
under  the  general  name  of  David,  without  implying 
that  David  wrote  all  the  Psalms,  and  as  he  calls  the 
Pentateuch  the  Books  of  Moses,  without  pretending 
to  settle  the  question  of  the  authorship  of  that  work? 
It  is  not  carnal  descent  from  Abraham  to  which  im- 
portance is  attached;  rather,  it  is  to  practising  the 
virtues  attributed  to  Abraliam  in  Genesis.  Thus  in 
John,  viii,  the  Jews,  to  whom  Our  Lord  was  speaking, 
boast  (33):  "We  are  the  seed  of  Abraham",  and 
Jesus  replies  (39):  "If  ye  be  the  children  of  Abra- 
ham, do  the  works  of  Abraham  ".  St.  Paul,  too,  shows 
that  he  is  a  son  of  Abraham  and  glories  in  that  fact, 
as  in  II  Cor,,  xi,  22,  when  he  exclaims:  "They  are 
the  seed  of  Abraham,  so  am  I".  And  again  (Rom., 
xi,  1):  "I  also  am  an  Israelite,  of  the  seed  of  Abra- 
ham", and  he  addres.ses  the  Jews  of  Antioch  in 
Pisidia  (Acts,  xiii,  26)  as  "sons  of  the  race  of  Abra- 
ham". But,  following  the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ, 
St.  Paul  does  not  attach  too  much  importance  to 
carnal  descent  from  Abraham;  for  he  says  (Gal.,  iii, 
29):  "If  you  be  Christ's,  then  you  are  the  seed  of 
Abraham",  and  again  (Rom.,  ix,  6):  "All  are  not 
Israelites  who  are  of  Israel;  neither  are  all  they  who 
are  the  seed  of  Abraham,  children".  So,  too,  we  can 
observe  in  all  the  New  Testament  the  importance 
attached  to  the  promises  made  to  Abraham.  In  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  iii,  25,  St.  Peter  reminds  the 
Jews  of  the  promise,  "in  thy  seed  shall  all  the  fami- 
lies of  the  earth  be  blessed".  So  does  St.  Stephen 
in  his  speech  before  the  Council  (Acts,  vii),  and  St. 
Paul  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vi,  13.  Nor  was 
the  faith  of  the  ancient  patriarch  less  highly  thought 
of  b)'  the  New  Testament  writers.  The  passage  of 
Genesis  which   was  most   prominently  before  them 


ABRAHAM 


53 


ABRAHAM 


was  XV,  6:  "Abraham  believed  (lod,  and  it  was  re- 
puted to  him  unto  justice.  "  In  llomaiis.  iv,  St.  Paul 
argues  strongly  for  the  supremacy  of  faith,  which  he 
Bays  justified  Abraham;  'for  if  Abraham  were  ju.sti- 
(ied  by  works,  he  hath  whereof  to  glory,  but  not 
before  God."  The  same  idea  is  inculcated  in  the 
Kpistle  to  the  Galatians,  iii,  where  the  ([uestion  is 
discussed:  "Did  you  receive  the  spirit  by  the  works 
of  the  law,  or  by  the  hearing  of  faith?  '  St.  Paul 
decides  that  it  is  by  faith,  and  says:  "Therefore 
they  that  are  of  faith  shall  be  justified  with  faithful 
Abraham".  It  is  clear  that  this  language,  taken  by 
itself,  and  apart  from  the  aUsolute  necessity  of  good 
works  upheld  by  St.  Paul,  is  liable  to  mislead  and 
actually  lias  misled  many  in  the  history  of  the  Church. 
Hence,  in  order  to  appreciate  to  the  full  the  Catholic 
doctrine  of  faith,  we  must  supplement  St.  Paul  by 
St.  James.  In  ii,  17-22,  of  the  Catholic  Kpistle  we 
read:  "So  faith  also,  if  it  have  not  works,  is  dead  in 
itself.  But  some  man  will  say:  Thou  hast  faith,  and 
I  have  works;  show  me  thy  faith  without  works;  and 
I  will  show  thee  by  works  my  faith.  Thou  belicvest 
that  there  is  one  God.  Thou  dost  well;  the  devils 
also  believe  and  tremble.  But  wilt  thou  know,  O 
vain  man,  that  faith  without  works  is  dead?  Was 
not  Abraham  our  father  justified  by  works,  and  by 
works  faith  was  made  perfect?" 

In  the  seventh  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, St.  Patil  enters  into  a  long  discussion  concern- 
ing the  eternal  priesthood  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  re- 
calls the  words  of  the  109th  psalm  more  than  once, 
in  which  it  is  said:  "Thou  art  a  priest  for  ever  ac- 
cording to  the  order  of  Melchisedcch. ''  He  recalls 
the  fact  that  Melchi.scdech  is  etymologically  the  king 
of  justice  and  also  king  of  peace;  and  moreover  that 
he  is  not  only  king,  but  also  priest  of  the  Most  High 
God.  Then,  calling  to  mind  that  there  is  no  account 
of  his  father,  mother,  or  genealogy,  nor  any  record 
of  his  heirs,  he  likens  him  to  Christ,  king  and  priest; 
no  Levite  nor  according  to  the  order  of  Aaron,  but 
a  priest  forever  according  to  the  order  of  Melchise- 
dech. 

In  the  Light  of  Prof.\ne  History. — One  is  in- 
clined to  ask,  when  considering  tlie  light  which  pro- 
fane history  may  shed  on  the  life  of  Abraham:  Is  not 
the  life  of  the  patriarch  incredible?  That  question 
may  be,  and  is,  answered  in  different  ways,  accord- 
ing to  the  point  of  view  of  the  questit)ner.  Perhaps 
it  will  not  be  without  interest  to  quote  the  answer 
of  Professor  Driver,  an  able  and  reprejientative 
exponent  of  moderate  critical  views:  "Do  the  patri- 
archal narratives  contain  intrinsic  historical  improlj- 
abilities?  Or,  in  other  words,  is  there  anything  in- 
trinsically improbable  in  the  lives  of  the  several 
patriarchs,  and  the  vicissitudes  through  which  they 
severally  pass?  In  considering  this  question  a  dis- 
tinction must  be  drawn  between  the  different  sources 
of  which  these  narratives  are  composed.  Though 
particular  details  in  them  may  be  improbable,  and 
though  the  representation  may  in  parts  be  coloured 
by  tlie  religious  and  other  associations  of  the  age  in 
which  they  were  written,  it  cannot  Ix:  said  that  the 
biographies  of  the  first  three  patriarchs,  as  told  in 
J  and  E,  are,  generally  speaking,  historically  improb- 
able; the  movements  and  general  lives  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  are,  taken  on  the  whole,  credible" 
(Genesis,  p.  xlvi).  Such  is  the  moderate  view;  the 
advanced  attitude  is  somewhat  different.  "The  view 
taken  by  the  patient  reconstructive  criticism  of  our 
day  is  that,  not  only  religiou.sly,  but  even,  in  a  quali- 
fied sense,  historically  al.so,  the  narratives  of  Abra- 
ham have  a  claim  on  our  attention"  (Cheyne,  Encyc. 
Bib.,  2(5).  Coming  now  to  look  at  the  light  thrown 
by  profane  history  u[«)n  the  stories  of  Abraham's 
life  as  given  in  (iencsis,  we  have,  first  of  all,  the  nar- 
ratives of  ancient  historians,  as  Nicholas  of  Damas- 
cus, Bcrosus,  Ilccatcus,  and  the  like.     Nicholas  of 


Damascus  tells  how  .\lir:ih:uii,  when  he  left  Chaldea, 
lived  for  some  years  in  Damascus.  In  fact  in  Jose- 
phus  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  fourth  king  of  that 
city.  But  then  there  is  no  practical  doubt  that  this 
story  is  based  on  the  words  of  Genesis,  xiv,  15,  in 
which  the  town  of  Damascus  is  mentioned.  As  to 
the  great  man  whom  Josephus  mentions  as  spoken 
of  by  Berosus,  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  that 
great  man  was  Abraham.  In  the  "  Pra'paratio 
Evang. "  of  Eusebius  there  are  extracts  recorded 
from  numerous  ancient  writers,  but  no  historical 
value  can  be  attached  to  them.  In  fact,  as  far  as 
ancient  historians  are  concerned,  we  may  say  that 
all  we  know  about  Abraham  is  contained  in  the  book 
of  Genesis. 

A  much  more  important  and  interesting  question 
is  the  amount  of  value  to  be  attached  to  the  recent 
archu'ological  discoveries  of  Biblical  anil  other  ex- 
plorers in  the  East.  Archxologists  like  Hommel, 
and  more  especially  Sayce,  are  disjKised  to  attach 
very  great  significance  to  them.  They  sav,  in  fact, 
that  these  discoveries  throw  a  serious  element  of 
doubt  over  many  of  the  conclusions  of  the  higher 
critics.  On  the  other  hand,  critics,  both  advanced 
as  Cheyne  ami  moderate  as  Driver,  tio  not  hold  the 
deductions  drawn  by  these  archicologists  from  the 
evidence  of  the  monuments  in  very  hif;h  esteem,  but 
regard  them  as  exaggerations.  To  jiut  the  matter 
more  precisely,  we  quote  the  following  from  Pro- 
fessor Sayce,  to  enable  the  rea<ler  to  .see  for  himself 
what  he  thinks  (Early  Ilist.  of  the  Hebrews,  8): 
"  Cuneiform  tablets  have  been  found  relating  to 
Chodorlahomor  and  the  other  kings  of  the  East  men- 
tioned in  the  14th  chapter  of  Genesis,  while  in  the 
Tel-el-.\inama  correspoiulenee  the  king  of  Jerusalem 
declares  that  he  had  been  raised  to  the  throne  by 
the  'arm'  of  his  God,  and  w.is  therefore,  like  Mel- 
chiaedech,  a  priest-king.  But  Chodorlahomor  and 
Melchisedech  had  long  ago  been  banisheil  to  mythland. 
and  criticism  could  not  admit  that  archicological  dis- 
covery had  restoretl  them  to  actual  history.  Writers, 
accordingly,  in  complacent  ignorance  of  the  cunei- 
form texts,  told  the  Assyriologists  that  their  trans- 
lations and  interpretations  were  alike  erroneous." 
That  passage  will  make  it  clear  how  much  the  critics 
and  arclueologists  are  at  variance.  But  no  one  can 
deny  that  Assyriology  has  thrown  some  light  on  the 
stories  of  Abraham  and  the  other  patriarchs.  Thus 
the  name  of  Abraham  was  known  in  those  ancient 
times;  for  amongst  other  Canaanitish  or  Amorite 
names  fotmd  in  deeds  of  sale  of  that  i)eriod  are  those 
of  .\bi-ramu,  or  .Vbram,  Jacob-el  (Ya'qub-il),  and 
Joseph-cl  (Y;isub-il).  So,  too,  of  the  fourteenth  chap- 
ter of  Genesis,  which  relates  the  war  of  Choilorlahomor 
and  his  allies  in  Palestine,  it  is  not  so  long  ago  that 
the  advanced  critics  relegated  it  to  the  region  of 
fable,  under  the  conviction  that  Babylonians  and 
Elamites  at  that  early  date  in  Palestine  and  the  sur- 
rounding country  was  a  gro.ss  anachronism.  But 
now  Profes.sor  Pinches  has  deciphered  certain  in- 
scriptions relating  to  Babylonia  in  which  the  four 
kings,  .Vmraiihcl  King  of  Scnaar,  Ariocli  King  of 
Pontu^,  CluHlorlahonior  King  of  the  Elamites.  and 
Thadal  King  of  nations,  are  identified  with  Ham- 
murabi King  of  Babylon,  Eri-aku,  Kudur-laghgha- 
mar,  and  Tuduchula,  son  of  Gazza.  and  which  tells  of 
a  campaign  of  these  monarchs  in  Palestine.  So  that 
no  one  can  any  longer  a.ssert  that  the  war  spoken  of 
in  Genesis,  xiv,  can  only  be  a  kite  reflection  of  the 
w.ars  of  Sennacherib  ami  others  in  the  times  of  the 
kings.  From  the  Tel-el-.\mania  tablets  we  know- 
that  Babylonian  influence  was  predominant  in  Pal- 
estine in  those  days.  Moreover,  we  have  light  thrown 
by  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  upon  the  incident  of 
>Ielchisedech.  In  Genesis,  xiv,  l.S,  it  is  said:  "Mel- 
chisedech. the  King  of  Salem,  bringing  forth  bread 
and  wine,  for  he  was  the  priest  of  the  Most  High  God, 


ABRAHAM 


54 


ABRAHAM 


blessed  him."  Amongst  tlie  Tel-el-Amarna  letters 
is  one  from  Ebed-Tob,  King  of  Jerusalem  (the  city 
is  Urusalim,  i.  e.  city  of  Salim,  ami  it  is  spoken  of 
as  Salem).  He  is  priest  appointed  by  Salem,  the 
god  of  Peace,  and  is  lience  both  king  and  priest.  In 
the  same  manner  Melchisedecli  is  priest  and  king, 
and  naturally  comes  to  greet  Abraham  returning  in 
peace;  and  hence,  too,  Abraham  offers  to  him  as  to 
a  priest  a  tithe  of  the  spoils.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
must  be  stated  that  Professor  Driver  will  not  admit 
Sayce's  deductions  from  the  inscriptions  as  to  Ebed- 
Tob,  and  will  not  recognize  any  analogy  between 
Salem  and  the  Most  High  God. 

Taking  archa?ology  as  a  whole,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  no  definite  results  have  been  attained  as  to  Abra- 
ham. What  has  come  to  light  is  susceptible  of  dif- 
ferent interpretations.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that 
archa-ology  is  putting  an  end  to  the  idea  that  the 
patriarchal  legends  are  mere  myth.  They  are  shown 
to  he  more  than  that.  A  state  of  things  is  being 
disclosed  in  patriarchal  times  quite  consistent  with 
much  that  is  related  in  Genesis,  and  at  times  even 
apparently  confirming  the  facts  of  the  Bible. 

ViEw-Poi.NT  OF  Legend. — We  corae  now  to  the 
question:  how  far  legend  plays  a  part  in  the  life  of 
Abraham  a-s  recorded  in  (ienesis.  It  is  a  practical 
and  important  question,  because  it  is  so  mucli  dis- 
cussed by  modern  critics  and  they  all  believe  in  it. 
In  setting  forth  the  critical  view  on  the  subject,  I 
must  not  be  taken  as  giving  my  own  views  also. 

Hermann  Gunkel,  in  the  Introduction  to  his  Com- 
mentary on  Genesis  (3)  writes:  "There  is  no  denying 
that  there  are  legends  in  the  Old  Testament;  con- 
sider for  instance  the  stories  of  Samson  and  Jonah. 
Accordingly  it  is  not  a  matter  of  belief  or  scepticism, 
but  merely  a  matter  of  obtaining  better  knowledge, 
to  examine  whether  the  narratives  of  Genesis  are 
history  or  legend."  And  again:  "In  a  people  with 
such  a  highly  developed  poetical  faculty  as  Israel 
there  must  have  been  a  place  for  saga  too.  The 
senseless  confusion  of  'legend'  with  'lying'  has  caused 
good  people  to  hesitate  to  concede  that  there  are 
legends  in  the  Old  Testament.  But  legends  are  not 
lies;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  a  particular  form  of 
poetry. "  These  passages  give  a  very  good  idea  of 
the  present  position  of  the  Higher  Criticism  relative  to 
the  legends  of  Genesis,  and  of  Abraham  in  particular. 

The  first  principle  enunciated  by  the  critics  is  that 
the  accoimts  of  the  primitive  ages  and  of  the  patri- 
archal times  originated  amongst  people  who  did  not 
practise  the  art  of  writing.  Amongst  all  peoples, 
they  say,  poetry  and  saga  were  the  first  beginning  of 
history;  so  it  was  in  Greece  and  Rome,  so  it  was 
in  Israel.  These  legends  were  circulated,  and  handed 
down  by  oral  tradition,  and  contained,  no  doubt,  a 
kernel  of  truth.  Very  often,  where  individual  names 
are  used  these  names  in  reality  refer  not  to  individ- 
uals Ijut  to  tribes,  as  in  Genesis,  x,  and  the  names  of 
the  twelve  patriarchs,  whose  migrations  are  those  of 
the  tribes  they  represent.  It  is  not  of  course  to  be 
supposed  that  these  legends  are  no  older  than  the 
collections  J,  E,  and  P,  in  which  they  occur.  They 
were  in  circulation  ages  before,  and  for  long  periods 
of  time,  those  of  earlier  origin  being  shorter,  those  of 
later  origin  longer,  often  rather  romances  than  leg- 
ends, a.s  that  of  Joseph.  Nor  were  they  all  of  Is- 
raelitisli  origin;  some  were  Babylonian,  some  Egyp- 
tian. As  to  how  tlie  legends  arose,  this  came  about, 
tlicy  say,  in  many  ways.  At  times  the  cause  was 
etymological,  Ut  explain  the  meaning  of  a  name,  as 
when  it  is  said  tliat  Isaac  re<-eive(l  liis  name  because 
his  mother  lauglicd  (riihihj);  sometiiiii's  tlicy  were  ctli- 
nological,  to  explain  the  geographical  position,  the 
adversity,  or  prosperity,  of  a  certain  tribe;  .sometimes 
historical;  sometimes  ceremonial,  as  the  account  ex- 
plaining the  covenant  of  circumcision;  sometimes 
geological,  as  the  explanation  of  the  appearance  of 


the  Dead  Sea  and  its  surroundings.  ^Etiological 
legends  of  this  kind  form  one  class  of  those  to  be 
found  in  the  lives  of  the  patriarclis  and  elsewhere 
in  Genesis.  But  there  are  others  besides  wliich  do 
not  concern  us  here. 

When  we  try  to  discover  the  age  of  the  formation 
of  the  patriarchal  legends,  we  are  confrontefl  with 
a  question  of  great  complexity.  For  it  is  not  merely 
a  matter  of  the  formation  of  tlie  simple  legends  sep- 
arately, but  also  of  the  amalgamation  of  these  into 
more  complex  legends.  Criticism  teaches  us  that 
that  period  would  have  ended  about  the  year  1200 
B.  c.  Then  would  have  followed  the  period  of  remod- 
elling the  legends,  so  that  by  900  B.  c.  they  would 
have  assumed  substantially  the  form  they  now  have. 
After  that  date,  whilst  the  legends  kept  in  substance 
to  the  form  they  had  received,  they  were  modified 
in  many  ways  so  as  to  bring  them  into  conformity 
with  the  moral  standard  of  the  day;  still  not  so  com- 
pletely that  the  older  and  less  conventional  ideas  of 
a  more  primitive  age  did  not  from  time  to  time  show 
through  tliem.  At  this  time,  too,  many  collections  of 
the  ancient  legends  appear  to  have  been  made,  much 
in  the  same  way  as  St.  Luke  tells  us  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  Gospel  that  many  had  written  accounts 
of  Our  Saviour's  life  on  tlieir  own  autliority. 

Amongst  other  collections  were  those  of  J  in  the 
South  and  E  in  the  North.  Whilst  others  perished 
these  two  survived,  and  were  supplemented  towards 
the  end  of  the  captivity  by  the  collection  of  P,  which 
originated  amidst  priestly  surroundings  and  was  writ- 
ten from  the  ceremonial  standpoint.  Those  that  hold 
these  views  maintain  that  it  is  the  fusion  of  these 
three  collections  of  legends  which  has  led  to  confusion 
in  some  incidents  in  the  life  of  Abraham;  as  for  in- 
stance in  the  case  of  Sarai  in  Egypt,  where  her  age 
seems  inconsistent  with  her  adventure  with  the  I'ha- 
rao.  Herm.ann  Gunkel  writes  (148):  "It  is  not 
strange  that  tlie  chronology  of  P  displays  everywhere 
the  most  absurd  oddities  when  injected  into  tlie  old 
legends;  as  a  result,  Sarah  is  still  at  sixty-five  a 
beautiful  woman,  whom  the  Egyptians  seek  to  cap- 
ture, and  Islimael  is  carried  on  his  mother's  shoulders 
after  he  is  a  youth  of  sixteen." 

The  collection  of  P  was  intended  to  take  the  place 
of  the  old  combined  collection  of  J  and  E.  But  the 
old  narrative  had  a  firm  hold  of  the  popular  imagina- 
tion and  heart.  And  so  the  more  recent  collection 
was  combined  with  the  otlier  two,  being  used  as  tlie 
groundwork  of  the  whole,  especially  in  chronology. 
It  is  that  combined  narrative  which  we  now  possess. 

HuMMELAUER,  Genesis  (Paris,  1895);  Savce,  Early  Hist,  of 
the  Hebrews  (London,  1897);  Ryle  in  Hastings,  Hist,  of  the 
Bible  (Lonilon,  1898);  Driver,  Genesis  (London,  1904);  Car- 
penter AND  Battersby,  The  Hexateuch  (London,  1900); 
Renan,  Hist,  du  peuple  d'lsrael  (Paris,  1887);  Gunkel,  Die 
Genesis  (Gottingen,  1901). 

J.    A.    HOWLETT. 

Abraham  (in  Liturcy). — While  of  peculiar  inter- 
est to  the  liturgiologist  (especially  in  the  classification 
of  the  liturgies  of  the  East  and  of  the  West,  as  is 
noted  below  under  Miss.\l),  the  inclusion  of  noted 
names  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  liturgies  of  Chris- 
tian Churches  must  be  a  subject  of  sutlicieiitly  gen- 
eral interest  to  warrant  some  brief  notice  here.  Of 
all  the  names  thus  used,  a  special  prominence  ac- 
crues to  those  of  Abel,  Melchisedecli,  Abraham, 
through  their  association  with  the  idea  of  sacrifice 
and  their  employment  in  this  connection  in  the  most 
solemn  part  of  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  in  the  Roman 
rite.  The  inclusion  in  the  Litany  for  the  Dying 
(Roman  Ritual)  of  only  two  (.Micl  and  AhialKim) 
out  of  all  the  great  names  of  tlie  Old  T(\slam(-nt 
must  give  these  a  special  prominence  in  tlie  eyes  of 
the  faithful;  but  of  these  two,  again,  the  name  of 
Abraham  occurs  so  often  and  in  such  a  variety  of 
connections,  as  to  make  his  position  in  the  liturgy 
one  of  very  decided  pre-eminence.     Of  first  interest 


ABRAHAM 


55 


ABRAHAM 


will  be  the  present  use  of  tlie  wort]  Abrnhum  in  tlio 
Komun  liturgy: 

I.  Mautyuology  (9th  October):  "Eodem  die  me- 
iiioria  S.  Abraha;  Patriarchie  et  omniuni  i-redentiuni 
I'atris"  (The  same  day,  the  memory  of  S.  Abraham, 
I'atriardi  and  Father  of  all  believers). 

II.  KiTU.\L.  (a)  In  the  Ordo  cnmmendationlx 
unimir  (Kccoinmendation  of  a  soul  departing),  the 
brief  litany  iiu'ludes  but  two  names  from  the  Old 
Testament,  that  of  the  Baptist  belonging  to  the  New 
Testament: — 

Holy  Mary, 

All  ye  holy  Angels  antl  Archangels, 

Holy  Abel, 

All  ye  choirs  of  the  just, 

Holy  Abraham, 

St.  John  Baptist, 

St.  Joseph, 

In  the  Libera  (Deliver,  etc.),  which  follows  shortly 
after,  many  names  of  the  Old  Testament  are  men- 
tioned, including  Abraham,  but  omitting  Abel: 
"Deliver  ...  as  thou  didst  deliver  Abraham  from 
T'r  of  thoChaldcans  ".  (b)  Hcnrdictio  pcrajrinomm 
(Blessing  of  pilgrims  etc.).  The  .second  prayer  reads: 
"O  (lo<i,  who  didst  guide  Abraham  safely  through 
all  the  ways  of  his  journey  from  Ur  of  the  Chal- 
deans. ..." 

III.  BriEvi.^HY.  (a)  On  Septuagesima  Sunday  the 
lessons  from  Scripture  begin  with  the  first  verse  of 
(lenesis,  and  the  formal  narrative  of  .\braham  begins 
with  Quinquagesima  Sunday,  the  lessons  ending  on 
Shrove  Tuesday  with  the  sacrifice  of  Molchisedeeh. 
(b)  The  antiphon  to  the  Mnijnifu-nt  on  Passion  Sun- 
day is:  "Abraham  your  father  rejoiced  ..." 
(John,  viii,  50).  Again,  the  first  antiphon  of  the 
second  nocturn  of  the  Common  of  Apostles  reads: 
"The  princes  of  the  people  are  gathered  together 
with  the  (lod  of  Abraham".  The  occurrence  of  the 
name  in  the  last  verse  of  the  Magnificat  itself:  "As 
he  spake  to  our  fathers,  to  .\braham  and  his  seed 
forever",  and  in  the  Bcncdictits  (si.xth  verse):  "The 
oath  which  he  swore  to  Abraham  our  father  ..." 
make  the  name  of  daily  occurrence  in  the  Divine 
Office,  as  these  two  Canticles  are  sung  daily — the 
former  at  Vespers,  the  latter  at  Lauds.  In  the 
Psalterj',  also,  recited  during  every  week,  the  name 
occurs  in  I'ss.,  xlvi,  10;  civ,  9,  42.  See  also  the 
third  strophe  of  the  hymn  Quicxtmque  Christum 
quaritis  (Vespers  of  Transfiguration  D.  N.  J.  C. 
and  various  Lessons  in  the  Nocturns,  e.  g.  Feria  3a 
infra  Ilehd.  vi  p.  Pent.,  Feria  Sa  infra  oct.  Corp. 
Chri.'iti.  2d  7iocturn). 

IV.  Missal,  (a)  The  third  of  the  twelve  lessons 
called  "  I'ro|)hecies"  read  on  IIolv  Saturday  between 
the  lighting  of  the  Paschal  Candle  and  the  Blessing 
of  the  Font  deals  wholly  with  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac 
imposed  up)n  Abraham.  The  lesson  (Gen.,  xxii, 
1-19)  is,  like  the  others,  not  only  read  tpiietly  by  the 
priest  at  the  altar,  but  also  chanted  in  a  loud  voice 
simultaneously  by  a  cleric.  The  dramatic  incidents 
thus  rehearsed  nuist  have  impressed  the  catechu- 
mens deeply,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  reproduction  of 
the  incidents  on  the  walls  of  catacombs  and  on 
sarcophagi.  The  lesson  is  followe<l  by  a  prayer: 
"O  (!od,  the  supreme  Father  of  the  faithful,  who 
throughout  the  world  didst  multiply  the  children 
of  thy  promi.se  .  .  .  and  by  the  paschal  mystery 
dost  make  Abraham  thy  servant  the  father  of  all 
nations.  ..."  (b)  Again,  in  the  prayer  after  the 
fourth  lesson:  "O  God,  grant  that  the  fulness  of  the 
whole  world  may  pass  o\er  to  the  children  of  Abra- 
ham. ..."  (c)  Tlie  Epistle  of  the  thirteenth  Sun- 
day jifter  Pentecost:  "  To  .\braham  wore  the  prom- 
ises made.  .  .  .  But  God  gave  it  to  Abraham  by 
promi.se.  ..."  (Gal.,  iii,  1(3-22).  (d)  Offertory  of 
the   .Mass    for    the    Dead:  "O    Lord  .  .  .  may   the 


holy  standard-bearer  Michael  introduce  them  to  the 
holy  light  which  Thou  didst  [jromise  of  old  to  Abra- 
ham. ..."  (e)  In  the  Nujitial  Mass,  the  blessing 
reads:  ".May  the  God  of  .\braham,  the  God  of  Lsaac, 
the  God  of  Jacob,  be  with  you  ..."  (f)  Of  greater 
interest  than  anything  thus  far  cited  is  the  prayer 
in  the  Canon  of  the  .Mass,  when  the  priest  extends  hb 
hands  over  the  Consecrated  Species:  "Upon  which 
do  Thou  vouchsafe  to  look  .  .  .  and  accept  them, 
as  Thou  didst  vouchsafe  to  accept  the  gift  of  Thy 
just  servant  Abel,  and  the  .sacrifice  of  our  Patri- 
arch Abraham.  ..."  Here  the  Canon  insists  on  the 
idea  of  sacrifice,  a  fact  common  to  Western  liturgies, 
while  those  of  the  East,  except  the  Maronite,  omit 
in  their  cpiclcscs  all  reference  to  the  typic  sacrifices- 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  apjxjar  concerned  with 
impressing  the  faithful  with  the  idea  rather  of  sacra- 
ment and  communion.  This  is  esteemed  a  fact  of 
capital  importance  towards  a  classification  of  the 
liturgies,  (g)  In  the  Sequence  of  Corpus  Christi, 
while  .\braham  is  not  named,  his  sacrifice  (unbloody, 
like  that  of  the  altar)  is  commemorated  in  the  lines: 

In  figuris  pra'signatur, 
Cum  Isaac  immolatur.  .  .  . 

V.  Pontifical. — In  one  of  the  Prefaces  of  the  Con- 
secration of  an  altar  we  read:  "-May  it  have  as  much 
grace  with  Thee  as  that  which  Abraham,  the  father 
of  faith,  built  when  about  to  sacrifice  his  son  as  a 
figure  of  our  redemption  ..."  Again,  in  the  Bless- 
ing of  a  Cemetery  (third  Prayer)  and  in  connection 
with  Isaac  and  Jacob  (sixth  Prayer).  Finall}',  in 
two  of  the  Prayers  for  the  Blessing  and  Coronation 
of  a  King.  The  exalted  position  of  Abraham  in 
Sacred  History,  and  the  frequent  use  of  his  name  in 
invocations  etc.  in  the  Old  Testament  (e.  g.  Gen., 
xxviii,  13;  xxxii,  9;  xlviii,  15,  IG;  Exod.,  iii,  (i,  1.5,  16; 
iv,  5;  Tob.,  vii,  1.5  etc.),  and  the  continued  use 
thereof  by  the  early  Christians  (Acts,  iii,  13;  vii,  32) 
made  his  name  of  fre<|uent  occurrence  in  prayers, 
exorcisms  and  even  amongst  Pagans,  ignorant  of 
the  significance  of  the  formula  "God  of  Abraham, 
God  of  Isaac,  God  of  Jacob"  etc.,  in  magical  rites 
and  incantations,  as  Origen  testifies. 

.\  few  instances  of  the  use  of  the  word  in  other  Western  and 
Kastern  HturKies  are  given  by  Lkci.ehcq  in  Diet,  d'archeologie 
chrctienne  ct  iie  liturffie  a.  v, 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Abraham,  The  Bosom  of. — In  Holy  Writ,  the  ex- 
pression "theT3osom  of  Abraham"  is  found  only  in 
two  verses  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel  (xvi,  22,  23).  It 
occurs  in  the  parable  of  the  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus, 
the  imagery  of  which  is  plainly  drawn  from  the  pop- 
ular representations  of  the  unseen  world  of  the  dead 
which  were  current  in  Our  Lord's  time.  -Vccording 
to  the  Jewish  conceptions  of  that  day,  the  souls  of 
the  dead  were  galhcrc<l  into  a  general  tarrying-place, 
the  Sheol  of  tlie  Old  Testament  literature,  and  the 
Hades  of  the  New  Testament  writings  (cf.  Luke,  xvi, 
22 — in  the  Gr.  .xvi,  23).  A  local  discrimination,  how- 
ever, existed  among  them,  according  to  their  deeds 
during  their  mortal  life.  In  the  unseen  worKl  of  the 
dead  the  souls  of  the  righteous  occupied  an  abode 
or  compartment  of  their  own  which  was  distinctly 
separatcil  by  a  wall  or  a  chasm  from  the  abode  or 
compartment  to  which  the  souls  of  the  wicked  were 
consigneil.  The  latter  was  a  place  of  torments  usu- 
ally spoken  of  as  Gehenna  (cf.  Matt.,  v,  29,  30;  xviii, 
9;  Mark.  ix.  42  .sqq.  in  the  Latin  ^'ulgate);  the  other, 
a  place  of  bl.ss  ami  .security  known  uniler  the  names 
of  "Paradise"  (cf.  Luke,  xxiii.  43)  and  "the  Bosom 
of  .\braham"  (Luke,  xvi,  22,  23).  .Vnd  it  is  in  har- 
mony with  these  Jewi-sh  conceptions  that  Our  Lord 
pictureil  the  terrible  fate  of  the  selfish  Rich  Man, 
and  on  the  contrary,  the  glorious  reward  of  the  pa- 
tient Lazarus.  In  the  next  life  Dives  found  him.self 
in  Gehenna,  condemned  to  the  most  excruciating  tor- 


ABRAHAM 


56 


ABRAHAM 


ments,  whereas  Lazarus  was  carried  by  the  angels 
into  "tlie  Bosom  of  Abraham",  where  the  righteous 
dead  shared  in  tlie  rei^ose  anil  felicity  of  Abraham, 
"the  father  of  the  faithful".  But  while  commenta- 
tors generally  agree  ujion  the  meaning  of  the  figura- 
tive expression  "the  Bosom  of  Abraham",  as  desig- 
nating the  blissful  abode  of  the  righteous  souls  after 
death,  they  are  at  variance  with  regard  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  phrase  itself  originated.  Up  to  the 
time  of  Maldonatus  (.\.  D.  15S3),  its  origin  was  traced 
back  to  the  universal  custom  of  parents  to  take  up 
into  their  arms,  or  place  upon  their  knees,  their 
children  when  they  are  fatigued,  or  return  home,  and 
to  make  them  rest  by  their  side  during  the  night 
(cf.  II  Kings,  xii,  2;  III  Kings,  iii,  20;  xvii,  19;  Luke, 
xi,  7  sqq.),  thus  causing  them  to  enjoy  rest  and  se- 
curity m  the  bosom  of  a  loving  parent.  After  the 
same  manner  was  Abraham  supposed  to  act  towards 
his  children  after  the  fatigues  and  troubles  of  the 
present  life;  hence  the  metaphorical  expression  "to 
be  in  .Abraham's  Bosom  "  as  meaning  to  be  in  repose 
and  happiness  with  him.  But  according  to  Maldo- 
natus (In  Lucam,  xvi,  22),  whose  theory  has  since 
been  accepted  by  many  scholars,  the  metaphor  "to 
be  in  .Abraham's  Bosom"  is  derived  from  the  cus- 
tom of  reclining  on  couches  at  table  which  prevailed 
among  the  Jews  during  and  before  the  time  of  Christ. 
As  at  a  feast  each  guest  leaned  on  his  left  elbow  so 
as  to  leave  his  right  arm  at  liberty,  and  as  two  or 
more  lay  on  the  same  couch,  the  head  of  one  man 
was  near  the  breast  of  the  man  who  lay  beliind,  and 
he  was  therefore  said  "to  lie  in  the  bosom"  of  the 
other.  It  was  also  considered  by  the  Jews  of  old 
a  mark  of  -special  honour  and  favour  for  one  to  be 
allowed  to  lie  in  the  bosom  of  the  master  of  the 
feast  (cf.  John, xiii,  23).  And  it  is  by  this  illustration 
that  they  pictured  the  next  world.  They  conceived 
of  the  reward  of  the  righteous  dead  as  a  sharing  in 
a  banquet  given  by  Abraham,  "the  father  of  the 
faithful"  (cf.  Matt.,  viii,  11  sqq.),  and  of  the  highest 
form  of  that  reward  as  lying  in  "  Abraham's  Bosom". 
Since  the  coming  of  Our  Lord  "  the  Bosom  of  .\bra- 
ham"  gradually  ceased  to  designate  a  place  of  im- 
perfect happiness,  and  it  has  become  synonymous 
with  Heaven  itself.  In  their  writings  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church  mean  by  that  expression  sometimes  the 
abode  of  the  righteous  dead  before  they  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  Beatific  Vision  after  the  death  of  the 
Saviour,  sometimes  Heaven,  into  which  the  just  of 
the  New  Law  are  immediately  introduced  u]5on  their 
demise.     When  in  her  liturgy  the  Church  solemnly 

Erays  that  the  angels  may  carry  the  soul  of  one  of 
er  departed  children  to  "Abraham's  Bosom",  she 
employs  the  expression  to  designate  Heaven  and  its 
endless  bliss  in  company  with  the  faithful  of  both 
Testaments,  and  in  particular  with  .\braham,  the 
father  of  them  all.  This  passage  of  the  expression 
"the  Bosom  of  Abraham"  from  an  imperfect  and 
limited  sense  to  one  higher  and  fuller  is  a  most  nat- 
ural one,  and  is  in  full  harmony  with  the  general 
character  of  the  New  Testament  dispensation  as  a 
complement  and  fulfilment  of  the  Old  Testament 
revelation. 

Manoenot,  in  Diet,  de  la  liMe,  1.  col.  t>3  sqq.;  Maldonatus, 
In  Lucam;  Fillion,  St.  Luc;  Gokbei.,  The  Parahlea  of  Jesus. 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Abraham  (in  Chhistian  ,\rt).  See  Christl^n 
.\iir;   SvM HOLISM. 

Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara,  a  Discalced  Augus- 
tinian  friar,  preacher,  and  author  of  popular  books 
of  devotion,  b.  at  Me.sskirch,  Baden,  1041;  d.  1  Decem- 
ber, 1709.  The  eiglith  of  nine  children  born  to 
Matthew  Mcgerlin,  or  .\Iogerle,  a  well-to-do  serf  who 
kept  a  tavern  in  Krccnhernstcttcn,  he  received  in 
Baptism  the  name  John  I'lrich.  At  the  age  of  six 
he  attended  the  village  school  in  his  native  place, 


and  about  three  years  later  he  began  his  Latin  studies 
in  Messkirch.  During  the  years  1656-59,  he  passed 
successively  through  the  three  classes  of  the  Jesuit 
untergymnasium  in  Ingolstadt.  .\t  his  father's 
death,  which  occurred  about  this  time,  tlie  boy  was 
adopted  by  his  uncle,  Abraham  von  Megerlin.  canon 
of  Altotting,  who  removed  him  to  the  Benedictine 
school  in  Salzburg.  In  the  fall  of  1662,  at  the  age 
of  IS,  John  joined  the  Discalced  .Augustinians  at 
Vienna,  choosing 
the  name  Abra- 
ham—  doubtless 
out  of  respect  to 
h  i  s  uncle — w  i  t  h 
the  addition  a 
Sancta  Clara.  He 
made  his  novitiate 
and  completed  his 
theological  studies 
at  Mariabrun  n  , 
not  far  from  Vi- 
enna. On  his  or- 
dination in  Vienna 
(1666)  he  was  sent, 
after  a  brief  prepa- 
ration, as  preacher 
to  the  shrine  of 
Taxa,  near  Augs- 
burg, but  after 
about  three  years 
he  was  recalled  to 
Vienna,  a  centre  of  greater  activity.  On  2S  .\pril, 
1677,  he  was  appointed  imperial  court  preacher  by 
Leopold  I,  and  while  holding  this  office  experienced 
the  terrors  of  the  year  of  the  plague,  1679.  After 
a  rest  of  five  montlis  as  chaplain  to  the  Land- 
marshal  of  Lower  Austria,  he  once  more  ascended 
the  pulpit.  For  the  year  IGSO  he  is  recorded  as 
being  prior  of  the  convent  at  Vienna,  while  two  years 
later  we  find  him  chaplain  to  the  monastic  church 
of  his  order  in  Gratz,  where  he  remained  three 
years  as  Sunday  preacher,  and  later  as  prior.  It 
was  in  this  capacity  that  he  went  to  Rome  in  1687. 
In  1690  he  is  mentioned  once  more  by  the  house 
chronicle  of  the  Vienna  monastery  as  court  preacher, 
and  the  following  year  as  having  the  rank  of  pro- 
vincial. In  this  capacity  he  undertook  his  second 
journey  to  Rome  (1692),  where  he  took  part  in 
the  general  chapter  of  his  order.  L'pon  his  return 
he  took  up  his  cvistomary  duties,  besides  filling  the 
office  of  dcjinitor.  He  eventually  became  the  dc- 
finitor  proi'incice.  These  manifold  sustained  exer- 
tions, however,  had  gradually  undermined  his 
strength,  still  further  impaired  by  years  of  suffer- 
ing from  gout,  and  finally  resulted  in  his  death. 
Abraham  had  at  his  command  an  amazingly  lar^e 
amount  of  information  which,  with  an  abundant  wit 
in  keeping  with  the  taste  of  his  time,  made  him  an 
effective  preacher.  His  peculiar  talent  lay  in  his 
faculty  for  presenting  religious  truths,  even  the  most 
bitter,  with  such  graphic  charm  that  every  listener, 
both  liigh  and  low,  fovmd  pleasure  in  his  discourse, 
even  though  certain  of  his  contemporaries  expressed 
themselves  with  great  virulence  against  "the  buf- 
foon, the  newsmonger,  and  the  harlequin  of  the 
pulpit".  Even  in  his  character  of  author,  he  stands 
as  it  were  in  the  pulpit,  and  speaks  to  his  readers 
by  means  of  his  pen.  His  works  are  numerous.  His 
first  occasion  for  literary  work  was  furnished  by  the 
plague,  on  which  he  wrote  three  treatises.  "Merk's, 
Wien!  or  a  detailed  description  of  destructive  death" 
(Vienna,  IGSO),  shows  how  death  spares  neither 
priests,  nor  women,  nor  learned  men,  nor  married 
people,  nor  soldiers.  The  second  tract, "  Losch  Wien" 
(Vienna,  16S0),  which  is  less  powerful,  exhorts  the 
survivors  of  the  plague  to  extinguish  with  their 
good  works  the  torments  of  Purgatory  for  those  who 


ABRAHAM 


57 


ABRAHAMITES 


had  fallen  victims.  "Die  grossc  Totenbnulerschaft '' 
(lUSl)  enumerates  the  people  (if  prominence  who 
died  in  1079-80,  in  order  to  illustrate  forcibly,  and 
almost  rudely,  the  reflection  "that  after  death  the 
prince  royal  is  as  frightfully  noisome  as  the  new- 
born child  of  the  peasant".  Similarly  based  on  a 
critical  event  of  history  was  the  little  book  entitled 
"Auf,  auf,  ihr  Christen"  (Vienna,  1083),  a  stirring 
exhortation  to  Christians  in  arms  against  the  Turk. 
This  has  become  chiefly  celebrated  sus  the  original  of 
the  sermon  in  the  "  Wallenstein's  Lager"  of  Schiller. 
A  ciillcction  of  sermoiLs  which  had  been  actually 
|)rcachiHl  appeared  in  Salzburg  in  lOS-1  under  the 
title  of  "Heim  dich,  oder  ich  lis'  dich".  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  little  pilgrimage  book  was  printed  for 
the  monastery  of  Ta.\a  entitled  "(laik,  (iaik,  (laik, 
a  Ga  einer  wimderseltsamen  Hennen".  This  gro- 
tesque title  arose  from  the  story  of  the  origin  of  the 
monastery,  according  to  which  a  picture  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  was  seen  ini])rinted  on  a  hen's  egg. 
Abraham's  nia.sterpiece,  the  fruit  of  ten  years'  labour, 
is  "Judas  dcr  Erzschelm"  (''  Jutlas,  the  archknave ', 
Salzburg,  lGSG-95).  This  treats  of  the  aimcryphal 
life  of  the  traitor  Judas,  and  is  varied  with  many 
moral  reflections.  While  still  at  work  upon  this  ex- 
tensive book,  he  published  a  compendium  of  Cath- 
olic moral  teaching,  "Cirammalica  religiosa"  (Salz- 
burg, 1091),  consisting  of  fifty-five  lessons,  and 
cmliracing  the  themes  of  thirty-three  .sermons.  This 
appeared  in  a  German  translation  (Cologne,  1699). 
The  remaining  works  of  the  celcliratcd  barefoot 
preacher  are  for  the  most  part  a  confused  mixture 
of  \-erses,  reflections,  and  sermons.  Thus;  Etwas 
fiir  alle  (Something  for  All  Persons;  Wiirzburg, 
1099);  Stcrben  und  Erben  (De.ath  and  Inherit- 
ance; Amsterdam,  1702);  Ncu  erolTnete  Welt-Gal- 
leria  (Newly-Opened  World-Gallerj'  ;  Xiirnberg, 
1703);  Heilsames  C;cmisch-Gem:i.sch  (.V  Salutary 
Mix-Mash;  Wiirzburg,  1701);  Iluy!  und  Pfuy  der 
Welt  (IIol  And  Fie  on  the  Worhl;  "Wiirzburg,  1707). 
All  these  treatises  showed  the  influence  of  Sebastian 
Brant's  Narrenschiff  (Ship  of  Fools),  which  was 
even  more  aiiparent  in  the  two  follow^ing  works: 
Centifolium  stultorum  in  Quarto  (A  Hundred  ex- 
cellent fools  in  Quarto;  Vienna,  1709),  and  Wunder- 
wiirdiger  Trauni  von  einem  gro.ssen  Narrennest 
(AVondcrful  Dream  of  a  Great  Nest  of  Fools,  Salz- 
burg, 1710;  also  printed  during  the  lifetime  of  .M)ra- 
ham).  A  year  after  his  death  there  apjieared  Gcist- 
liche  Kramerladen  (Spiritual  Ilaberda.slicr's  Shop); 
Wohl  angefiillter  Weinkeller  (A  Well-filled  Wine- 
cellar;  Wiirzburg);  and  Be.sondcrs  nuMiblirt  imd  ge- 
zierte  Toten-Kapelle  (A  Strangely  Furnished  and 
Adorned  Mortuary  Chapel;  Niirnbcrg).  Five  quarto 
volumes  of  his  literary  remains  were  published  post- 
humously :  Abrahami.schcs  Bc.scheidcssen  (Abra- 
ham's Honour  Fea.sts;  Vienna,  Briinn,  1717);  Abra- 
hamische  Lauberhiitt  (.-Vbraham's  Leaf-dad  Arbour; 
Vienna  and  Niirnbcrg,  1721-23);  Abrahamisches 
Gehab  dich  wohl!  (.Vbraham's  I''arewell;  Niirnbcrg, 
1729).  A  collective  edition  of  his  works  appeared 
(Passau,  1S3.5-40)  in  nineteen  octavo  volumes. 
Schiller, a  Swabian compatriot  of  Abraham, hsis  passed 
this  interesting  judgment  on  the  literarj-  monk  in  a 
letter  to  Giithe:  "This  Father  Abraham  is  a  man  of 
wonderful  originality,  whom  we  must  respect,  and  it 
would  be  an  interesting,  though  not  at  all  an  ea.sy, 
task  to  approach  or  surpass  him  in  mad  wit  and 
cleverness.'  Moreover,  Schiller  was  greatly  influ- 
enced by  Abraham;  e\en  more  were  Jean  Paul 
Kichter  and  other  lesser  minds.  ICven  to  the  most  re- 
cent times  Abral-.am's  influence  is  chiefly  noticeable 
in  the  literature  of  the  pulpit,  though  but  little  to  its 
advantage.  To  honour  the  memory  of  Abraham  the 
city  of  \  ienna  has  begun  a  new  edition  of  his  works. 

Von    Karajan.    Abraham   a   Sancia    Clara    (Vienna,    I8fi7) 
(stiU    the    be-i    nnrk    no    the    celebrated    monk);    SciiKRiai, 


Abrithitm  m  tlio  Altyrmcine  dtaUche  Buturajihif;  .\Iaukta, 
Vibvr  Jiulna  den  Erzuchilm,  in  Proi;rarnm  ilis  .Schutten- 
yumtuiKiuni  (Vienna,  1875);  lioiiKRTAG.  Abraham  a  Sancta 
CUira,  Judas  der  Erzschelm,  in  Ki'iRSCH.SKlt'M  Oetitarhe  Natxaruil- 
literatur;  Ul.ANKK.NiiURG,  titudien  uher  die  Hitrache  Abrahima 
a  Sancta  Clara  (Halle,  1897);  Nagi.,  Oie  erzuhiache  Ein- 
virkuna  Abrahams  a  Sancta  Clara  auf  das  Osterreicherische 
Yolk  in  Dittkh'  Padagoffium  (1891);  Nagl  and  Zkiolkr, 
Deulsch-Ottlerreichitchc  Eiteratur  OetchichU  (Vienna,  1899), 
C:!l-U51. 

N.   ScHEID. 

Abraham  Ecchelensis,  a  learned  Maronite,  b.  in 
Ilckcl,  or  Im-cIicI  (heni-c  his  surname),  a  village  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  in  1000;  d.  1004  in  Rome.  He 
studied  at  the  Maronite  College  in  Home,  published 
a  Syriac  grammar  (1028),  and  taught  Syriac  and 
Arabic  at  the  College  of  the  Propaganda.  In  1030 
he  began  to  teach  the  same  languages  in  the  Hoyal 
College,  Paris,  and  to  assist  in  editing  Le  Jay's 
"Polyglot  Bible",  working  with  Gabriel  Sionita  on 
the  Syriac  and  Arabic  texts  and  their  Latin  trans- 
lation. He  contributed  III  Mach.  in  Arabic,  and 
Ruth  in  Syriac  and  Arabic,  with  a  Latin  translation. 
Abraham  and  Gabriel  soon  quarrelled,  and  the  former 
wrote  three  letters  explaining  this  tlilTerence,  and  de- 
fending his  work  against  its  dopreciators,  especially 
Valerian  Flavigny.  In  10-12  he  resumed  his  teaching 
in  Rome,  but  returned  to  Paris  in  164.5;  after  eight 
years  he  again  went  to  Rome,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  Among  his  many  works  we  may 
mention:  a  "Synopsis  of  Arab  Philosophy  "  (Paris, 
1041);  some  disciplinary  canons  of  the  Council  of 
Nice,  according  to  Eastern  attribution,  though  un- 
known to  the  Latin  and  (!reek  churches  (Paris,  1041); 
"  Abr.  Ecchellensis  et  Leon.  Allatii  Concordanlia  Na- 
tionum  Christ  ianarum  Orientalium  in  Fidei  Catho- 
licic  Dogmate"  (Mainz,  105.5);  "  I)e  Origine  nominis 
Papie,  necnon  de  illius  Proprietate  in  Romano  Ponti- 
fice,  adeoque  de  ejus  Primatu  contra  Joannem  Selde- 
num  Anglum"  (Rome,  1060);  "Epistola  ad  J.  Mori- 
num  de  variis  Gra'corum  et  Orienl:dium  ritibus;" 
"Chronicon  Orientale  nunc  primuni  l.utinitatc  dona- 
tum,  cui  Accessit  .Supplement uin  Ilistoria/ orientalis" 
(Paris,  1653);  "Catalogus  librorum  Chalda'orum  tarn 
lOccl.  quam  profanor..  Auctore  Ilebed-Jesu  Latinitate 
Donatus  et  Notis  lUustratus"  (Rome,  1().53);  a  "Life 
of  St.  Anthony;"  a  Latin  translation  of  Abulfath's 
"Paraphrase  of  Apollonius'  Conic  Sections,  5,  6,  and 
7." 

I.AMV,  in  Diet,  dethiol.,  calh.  (Paris.  1903),  116;  Biographit 
universelle,  s.  v.  Abraham  d'Ecch, 

A.  J.  M.\AS. 

Abraham  Usque.    See  Bible,  Vek.sions. 

Abrahamites. — (1)  Syrian  heretics  of  the  ninth 
century,  I  liey  were  called  lirachiniah  by  the  Arabs, 
from  tlie  name  of  their  head,  Ibrahim,  or  Abra- 
ham of  Antioch.  They  denied  the  Divinity  of  Christ, 
and  were  looked  on  by  some  as  allied  to  the 
Paulicians. — ('_')  A  sect  of  Bohemian  Deists.  They 
claimed  that  they  held  what  had  been  Abraham's 
religion  before  his  circumcision.  They  believed  in 
one  God,  but  rejected  the  Trinity,  original  sin,  and 
the  perpetuity  of  punishment  for  sin,  and  accepted 
nothing  of  the  Bible  save  only  the  Ten  Command- 
ments and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  On  their  refusal  to 
adopt  some  one  of  the  religions  tolerated  in  Bohemia, 
Jo.seph  II  banished  them  to  Transylvania  in  1783. 
Some  became  converted  later  on  to  the  Catholic 
Faith.  There arestill  found  in  Bohemia  some  whose 
religious  l)elief  suggests  that  of  the  .\brahamites.— 
(3)  Martyrs  in  the  time  of  the  Byzantine  Emperor 
Theophilus,  when  a  persecution  of  Catholics  took 
place  on  account  of  the  revival  of  the  heresy  of  the 
Iconoclasts.  At  this  time  there  was  a  monaslerj' 
of  monks  in  Constantinople  called  St.  .Abraham's. 
When  the  Emperor  called  on  them  to  renounce  the 
cult  of  holy  images  they  defended  the  practice  with 


ABRAM 


58 


ABSALOM 


great  zeal,  and  were  consequently  subjected   (832) 
to  martyrdom. 

Kirchenhx.,  I,  119,   120. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Abram,  Nicholas,  Jesuit  theologian,  b.  in  15S9, 
at  Xaronval,  in  Lorraine;  d.  7  September,  1655.  He 
taught  rhetoric  at  Pont-;\-Mousson,  then  engaged  in 
missionary  work,  and  finally  taught  theology  at  Pont- 
^-Mousson  for  seventeen  years.  His  principal  works 
are:  (1)  "Nonni  Panopolitani  Paraphrasis  Sancti 
secundum  Joannem  Evangelii.  Accesserunt  Notae 
P.  N.  A.,  Soc.  Jes."  (Paris,  1623);  (2)  "Commen- 
tarii  in  P.  Virgilii  Maronis  Bucolica  et  Georgica. 
Accessit  diatriba  de  quatuor  fluviis  et  loco  paradisi" 
(Pont-a-Mousson,  1633-35);  (3)"Pharus  Veteris 
Testamenti,  sive  sacraruin  quiestionum  libri  XV. 
Quibus  accesserunt  ejusdem  auctoris  de  veritate  et 
mendacio  libri  IV  "  (Paris,  164S).  This  is  the  prin- 
cipal exegetical  work  of  Father  N.  Abram.  His 
other  works  may  be  found  in  Sommervogel,  "Bib- 
liotheque  de  la  compagniede  J&us"  (Brussels,  1890). 

Bibliolheca  scriplorum  S.J.  (Rome,  1676);  Dom  Calmet, 
Bihliolhiqiie  de  Lorraine  (Nancy,  17S1);  Mange.not  in  ViQ., 
Dicl.  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Abrasax. — The  study  of  Abrasax  is,  at  first  sight, 
as  discouraging  as  it  is  possible  to  imagine.  The 
name  has  been  given  to  a  class  of  ancient  stone  arti- 
cles, of  small  dimensions,  inscribed  with  outlandish 
figures  and  formulas,  sometimes  wholly  indecipher- 
able, specimens  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  museum  and  private  collection.  These,  for  the 
most  part,  have  hitherto  resisted  all  attempts  at 
interpretation,  though  it  would  be  rash  to  conclude 
that  a  fuller  knowledge  may  not  solve  enigmas  which 
remain  closed  to  us.  The  true  name,  moreover,  is 
Abrasax,  and  not,  as  incorrectly  written,  Abraxas, 
a  reading  due  to  the  confusion  made  by  the  Latins 
between  S  and  S.  Among  the  early  Gnostics, 
Abrasax  appears  to  have  had  various  meanings. 
Basilides  gave  this  title  to  Almighty  God,  and 
claimed  that  the  numerical  value  of  its  letters  gave 
the  sum  of  365,  because  the  Abrasax  is  enclosed  in 
the  solar  cycle.  Sometimes  the  number  365  signifies 
the  series  of  the  heavens.  In  view  of  such  imagin- 
ings, it  is  easy  to  guess  at  the  course  taken  by  an 
untrammelled  Gnostic  fancy,  whereby  its  adherents 
strove  to  discover  the  meaning  of  the  mysterious 
word.  It  is,  however,  an  error  to  give  the  name 
Abrasax  to  all  stones  of  Gnostic  origin,  as  has  been 
done  up  to  the  present  day.  It  is  not  the  name  which 
applies  to  talismans,  any  more  than  the  names  of 
Jupiter  and  Venus  apply  to  all  ancient  statues  in- 
discriminately. Abrasax  is  the  name  given  by  the 
Gnostics  to  the  Supreme  Deity,  and  it  is  quite  possi- 
ble that  we  shall  find  a  clue  to  its  etymological  mean- 
ing in  the  influences  of  n\imbers.  The  subject  is  one 
which  has  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  many  savants, 
but  it  may  be  said  that  all  the  engraved  stones  to 
which  the  name  is  commonly  given  fall  into  three 
classes:  (1)  Abrasax,  or  stones  of  Basilidian  origin; 
(2)  Abrasaxtes,  or  stones  originating  in  ancient 
forms  of  worship,  and  adapted  by  the  Gnostics  to 
their  peculiar  opinions;  (3)  Abraxokles,  or  stones 
absolutely  unconnected  with  the  doctrine  of  Basilides. 
Bellermann,  following  Montfaucon,  made  a  tentative 
classification  of  Gnostic  stones,  which,  however,  is 
nowadays  looked  upon  as  wholly  inadequate.  His 
mistake  consisted  in  wishing,  as  it  were,  to  make  a 
frontal  attack  on  Gnosticism.  Kopp,  endowed  with 
greater  skill  and  patience,  seems  to  have  realized  in 
some  measure  how  wide  the  problem  actually  is. 
Ad.  Franck  and,  quite  lately,  Mosos  Schwab  have 
made  diligent  re.searches  in  the  direction  of  the 
Cabbala.  "The  demonology  devised  by  the  Cab- 
balists",  according  to  the  former  writer,  "  was  nothing 
more  tlian  a  carefully  thought  out  personification  of 


the  different  degrees  of  life  and  intelligence  which 
they  perceived  in  external  nature.  All  natural 
growths,  forces,  and  phenomena  are  thus  typified." 
The  outline  here  furnished  needs  only  to  be  ex- 
tended indefinitely  in  order  to  take  in  quite  easily 
the  countless  generations  of  Gnosticism.  The  whole 
moral  and  physical  world,  analyzed  and  classified 
with  an  inconceivable  minuteness,  will  find  place  in 
it.  Thence,  also,  will  issue  the  bewildering  cata- 
logues of  Gnostic  personalities.  The  chief  difficulty, 
however,  arises  from  the  nomenclature  of  Gnosticism, 


Abbasax,  From  the  collection  in  the  National 
Museum,  Paris 

and  here  the  "Sepher  Raziel"  supplies  a  first  and 
valuable  hint.  "To  succeed  in  the  operations  of 
divination",  it  says,  "it  is  necessary  to  pronounce 
the  mystic  names  of  the  planets  or  of  the  earth."  In 
fact,  stones  of  Gnostic  origin  often  show  designs 
made  up  out  of  the  initial  letters  of  the  planets. 
Another  parallel  is  still  more  suggestive.  The  Jews, 
as  is  well  known,  would  never  pronounce  the  Inef- 
fable Name,  Jehovah,  bvit  substituted  either  another 
name  or  a  paraphrase;  a  rule  which  applied,  not  only 
to  the  Ineffable  Name  and  its  derivatives,  but  to 
others  as  well,  ending,  in  order  to  evade  the  difficulty 
which  arose,  in  a  series  of  fantastic  sounds  which  at 
first  seem  simply  the  outcome  of  a  hopeless  con- 
fusion. It  became  necessary  to  resort  to  permuta- 
tions, to  the  \ise  of  other  letters,  to  numerical  and 
formal  equivalents.  The  result  was  an  outlandish 
vocabulary,  only  partially  accounted  for,  yet  one 
which  nevertheless  reveals  in  Gnosticism  the  exist- 
ence of  something  more  than  mere  incoherences. 
Very  many  secrets  of  Gnosticism  remain  unexplained, 
but  it  may  be  hoped  that  they  will  not  always  be 
shrouded  in  mystery. 

King,  The  Gnostics  and  their  Remains  (London,  1887); 
Bellermann,  Verstirh  itber  die  Gemmen  der  Alten  mil  dem 
Abraias-Iiildr  (Berlin,  1817-19);  DiETEHICH,  Die  Abrazat 
(Leipzig.  1892);  LErLERCQ,  in  Diet,  d'archcol.  chrH.  etdelitur- 
(]ie.  \,  127  s<|.:  Matter,  HiRt.  du  (rnoaticisme  (Paris,  1843); 
Montfaucon,  L'antiquili  eipiiquie  (Paris,  1722),  II,  2,  353. 

H.  Leclercq. 

Abrogation.     See  Law. 

Absalom  ('AMishalom  in  Hebr.;  Ahessalom,  Ap- 
salomoa  in  Gr.),  the  name  of  several  distinguished 
persons  mentioned  in  tlie  Old  Testament  (Kings, 
Par.,  Mach.),  interpreted  "The    Father    of  Peace". 

1.  Absalom,  Son  of  DA\nD. — lie  is  third  in  the 
order  mentioned  by  the  chronicler  (II  Kings,  iii,  2,  3) 
of  the  sons  born  at  Hebron  during  the  first  tvirbulent 
years  of  David's  reign  over  Judah,  when  Isboseth, 
son  of  Saul,  still  claimed  by  right  of  inheritance  to 
rule  over  Israel.     His  mother  was  Maacha,  daughter 


ABSALOM 


59 


ABSALOM 


of  Tholinai,  King  of  Cicssur.  The  sacred  writer  who 
sketches  for  us  the  cureer  of  Alxsalom  (II  Kings, 
xiii-xviii)  lays  stress  upon  tlie  faultless  lx;auty  of 
the  youth's  appearance,  and  mentions  in  partiiuhir 
the  luxurious  wealth  of  his  hair,  which,  when  shorn, 
weighed  over  ten  ounces.  The  significance  of  this 
latter  note  becomes  apparent  when  we  remember 
the  important  part  which  the  culture  of  the  hair 
played  in  the  devotions  of  the  Eastern  people  (note 
even  at  this  day  the  ceremonial  prayers  of  the 
Dervislies).  As  shaving  the  head  wiis  a  sign  of 
mourning,  so  offering  a  comely  growth  of  hair  to 
the  priest  was  a  token  of  personal  sacrifice  akin  to 
the  annual  offering  of  the  first  fruits  in  the  sanc- 
tuary. Probably  the  clironider  had  also  in  mind 
that  it  was  this  gift  of  nature  which  became  the 
occasion  of  Absalom's  fatal  death.  To  a  pleasing 
exterior  the  youth  AUsalom  joined  a  temperament 
which,  whilst  fond  of  display,  was  nevertheless 
reserved,  bold,  and  thoughtful.  These  qualifications 
were  caloilatcd  to  iiourisli  a  natural  desire  to  be  one 
day  the  representative  of  that  magnificent  power 
created  by  his  father,  from  the  prospective  enjoy- 
ment of  which  his  minority  of  birth  alone  seemed  to 
debar  him.  Despite  his  ambition,  there  appears  to 
have  been  in  the  youth  that  generous  instinct  of 
honour  which  inspires  noble  impulses  where  these 
do  not  clash  with  the  more  inviting  prospects  of 
self-interest.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not 
strange  that  Absalom,  idolized  by  those  around  him, 
whilst  his  natural  sense  of  gratitude  and  filial  duty 
became  gradually  dulled,  was  led  to  cultivate  that 
species  of  egotism  which  grows  cruel  in  proix)rtion  as 
it  counts  upon  the  blind  affection  of  its  friends. 

There  were  other  causes  which  alienated  Absalom 
from  his  father.  David's  eldest  son,  Amnon,  born 
of  a  Jezrahelite  mother,  and  prospective  heir  to  the 
throne  by  reason  of  his  seniority,  had  conceived  a 
violent  passion  for  Thamar,  Absalom's  beautiful 
sister.  Unable  to  control  his  affection,  yet  pre- 
vented from  gaining  access  to  her  by  the  conven- 
tionalities of  the  royal  court,  which  separated  the 
King's  wives  and  kept  Thamar  in  lier  mother's 
household,  .\mnon,  on  the  advice  of  liis  cousin 
Jonadab,  feigns  illness,  and  upon  being  visited  by 
the  King,  his  father,  requests  that  Thamar  be  per- 
mitted to  nurse  him.  It  was  thus  that  Anmon  found 
opportunity  to  wrong  the  innocence  of  his  step- 
sister. Having  injure<l  the  object  of  his  passion, 
he  forthwith  begins  to  hate  her,  and  sends  from  liim 
the  aggrieved  maiden,  who  must  be  to  him  a  con- 
stant reminder  of  his  wrongdoing.  Thamar,  de- 
parting in  the  bitterness  of  her  sorrow,  is  met  by 
Absalom,  who  forces  from  her  the  secret  of  Amnon's 
violence  to  her.  David  is  informed,  but,  apparently 
unwilling  to  let  the  disgrace  of  his  prospective  lieir 
become  public,  fails  to  punish  the  crime.  This 
gives  Absalom  the  pretext  for  avenging  his  sister's 
wrong,  for  which  now  not  only  Amnon,  the  heir  to  the 
throne,  but  also  David  appears  responsible  to  him. 
He  takes  Thamar  into  his  house  and  (luietly  but 
determinedly  lays  his  plan.  The  sacred  writer  states 
that  Absalom  never  spoke  to  Amnon,  neither  good 
words  nor  evil,  but  he  hated  him  with  a  hatred  unto 
death. 

For  two  years  Absalom  tlius  carried  his  resent- 
ment in  silence,  when  at  length  he  found  occasion 
to  act  openly.  From  the  davs  of  the  ]»atriarchs  it 
had  been  customary  among  tlie  shepherd  princes  of 
Israel  to  celebrate  as  a  public  festival  of  thanks- 
giving the  annual  sheep-sliearing.  The  first  clip  of 
the  flocks  was  ordained  for  the  priests  (Deut.,  xviii, 
4),  and  the  sacredness  of  the  feast  made  it  difficult 
for  any  menilwr  of  the  tribal  family  to  absent  him- 
self, riie  sacred  writer  does  not  state  that  there 
was  in  the  mind  of  David  a  secret  suspicion  that 
Absalom  meditated  mischief,  but  to  one  whose  in- 


gight  into  past  and  future  events  was  so  clear  as  that 
of  tlie  Royal  Seer,  it  might  easily  have  occurred  that 
there  had  been  in  tlie  days  of  his  forefather,  Jacob, 
another  Thamar  (Gen.,  xxxviii,  (5)  who  figured  at  a 
sheep-shearing,  and  who  found  means  of  avenging  a 
similar  wrong  against  herself,  though  in  a  less  bloody 
way  than  that  contemplated  by  Absalom  on  the 
present  occasion.  Although  David  e.xcuses  himself 
from  attending  the  great  sheep-shearing,  he  eventu- 
ally yields  to  Absalom's  entreaty  to  send  Amnon 
there  to  represent  him.  The  festive  reunion  of  the 
royal  household  takes  place  at  Baalhasor,  in  a  valley 
east  of  the  road  that  leads  to  Sichem,  near  Ephraim. 
When  the  banquet  is  at  its  height,  and  Amnon  has 
fairly  given  himself  over  to  the  plexsures  of  wine, 
he  is  suddenly  overpowered  by  the  trusted  servants 
of  Absalom,  and  slain.  The  rest  of  the  company 
flee.  Absalom  himself  escapes  the  inevitable  anger 
of  his  father  by  seeking  refuge  in  the  home  of  his 
maternal  grandfather  at  Gessur.  Here  he  hopes  to 
remain  until,  the  grief  of  his  father  having  died  out, 
he  might  be  forgiven  and  recalled  to  the  royal  court. 
Hut  David  does  not  relent  so  (juickly.  After  three 
years  of  banishment,  Absalom,  through  the  interven- 
tion of  Joab,  David's  nephew  and  trusted  general, 
is  allowed  to  return  to  the  city,  without,  however, 
being  permitted  to  enter  the  King's  presence.  In  this 
condition  Absalom  lives  for  two  years,  seeking  all 
the  while  to  regain  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Joab  the  favour  of  his  father.  Joab  him.self  is  re- 
luctant to  press  the  matter,  until  Absalom,  by  setting 
fire  to  the  crops  of  his  kinsman,  forces  Joab  to  come 
to  him  with  a  view  of  seeking  redress  for  the  injury. 
Absalom  turns  the  opportunity  of  this  altercation 
with  Joab  to  good  account  by  pleading  his  own 
neglected  and  liumiliated  condition:  I  would  rather 
die  ignominiously,  he  argues,  than  have  this  rancour 
of  the  King  agaiiLst  me  all  the  days  of  my  life.  As  a 
result  .\bsalom  is  received  by  the  King. 

Restored  to  his  former  princely  dignity  and  the 
apparent  confidence  of  his  father,  Absalom  now 
enters  upon  that  course  of  secret  plotting  to  which 
his  ambition  and  his  opportunity  seemed  to  urge 
him,  and  which  has  stamped  his  name  as  a  synonym 
of  unnatural  revolt.  By  ingratiating  himself  in  the 
good  will  of  the  people,  and  at  the  same  time  foster- 
ing discontent  with  the  conditions  of  his  father's 
reign,  he  succeeds  in  preparing  the  minds  of  the  dis- 
affected for  a  general  uprising.  After  four  years 
[the  Septuagint  has  "forty,"  which  is  evidently  a 
misreading,  as  appears  from  the  Hebrew  (Kcri), 
Syriac,  and  Arabic  versions]  of  energetic  secret 
activity,  Absalom  asks  leave  of  the  King  to  repair 
to  Hebron,  that  he  might  fulfil  a  self-imposed  vow 
made  while  in  captivity  at  Gcssiir.  Preparations 
liad  already  been  consummated  for  a  simultaneous 
uprising  of  the  secret  adherents  of  Absalom  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country,  and  emissaries  were  ready 
to  proclaim  the  new  king.  Achitophel,  one  of  David's 
olaest  counsellors,  had  joined  the  conspirators,  and 
by  his  design  a  strong  current  was  being  directed 
against  David.  When,  amid  the  sound  of  trumpets 
and  the  shouts  of  the  military,  the  proclamation  of 
the  new  king  reaches  David,  ho  (luickly  assembles 
his  trusted  followers  and  flies  towards  Mount  Olivet, 
hoping  to  cross  the  Jordan  in  time  to  escape  the 
ambitious  fury  of  his  son.  On  the  way  he  meets 
his  faithful  olficer  Chusai,  whom  he  advises  to  join 
Absalom.  "You  will  be  of  no  use  to  me  if  you  go 
with  us.  But  if  you  join  Absalom,  and  say  to  him: 
I  am  thy  follower,  O  King,  as  once  I  w!is  thy  father's, 
he  will  receive  thee,  and  thou  wilt  have  it  in  thy 
power  to  frustrate  the  designs  of  Achitophel  who 
lias  l)etraved  me."  Chusai  acts  on  the  advice,  and 
succeeds  in  gaining  the  confidence  of  .\bsalom.  So 
skilfully  does  he  play  his  role  as  adherent  of  the 
rebel  party  that  his  suggestion,  pretending  the  use- 


ABSALON 


60 


ABSOLUTE 


lessness  of  pursuing  r)a\id,  prevails  against  the 
urgent  counsel  of  Acliitophel.  who  urges  Atealom  to 
attack  the  King,  lest  lie  gain  time  to  organize  his 
bodyguard,  lately  streiigtliened  by  the  accession  of  six 
hundred (".ethuan soldiers.  The  event  proves  the  ac- 
curacy of  Achitophel's  foresiglit.  Da\-id  is  secretly 
informed  of  Absalom's  delay,  and  forthwith  sends  his 
three  generals,  Joab,  Abisai,  and  Ethai,  to  attack  the 
rebel  hosts  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  hill.  Shielded 
by  a  forest,  David's  men  proceed  and  meet  Absalom's 
unguarded  forces  on  the  edge  of  the  woods  which 
fringe  the  circular  plain  at  a  point  marked  by  the 
present  site  (presumably)  of  Mukaah.  A  frightful 
slaughter  ensues,  and  tlie  disorganized  rebel  party 
is  quickly  routed.  Absalom  madly  flies.  Suddenly 
he  finds  himself  stvmned  by  a  blow  while  his  head 
is  caught  in  the  fork  of  the  low  hanging  branches  of 
a  terebinth  tree.  At  the  same  time  his  long  loose 
hair  becomes  entangled  in  tlie  thick  foliage,  whilst 
the  frightened  animal  beneath  him  rushes  on,  leav- 
ing him  suspended  above  the  ground.  Before  he  is 
able  to  extricate  himself  he  is  espied  by  one  of  the 
soldiers,  who,  mindful  of  the  King's  words,  "Spare 
me  the  life  of  Absalom",  directs  Joab's  attention  to 
the  plight  of  the  hapless  youth.  The  old  general, 
less  scrupulous,  and  eager  to  rid  his  master  of  so 
dangerous  a  foe,  thrice  pierces  the  body  of  Absalom 
vrith  his  javelin.  When  the  news  of  Absalom's 
death  is  brouglit  to  Da\id,  he  is  inconsolable.  "My 
son  Absalom,  .-ibsalom  my  son:  would  to  God  that  I 
might  die  for  thee,  Absalom  my  son,  my  son  Absa- 
lom." The  sacred  text  states  that  Absalom  was 
buried  under  a  great  heap  of  stones  (II  Kings,  xviii, 
17)  near  the  scene  of  his  disaster.  The  traveller  to- 
day is  shown  a  tomb  in  Grseco-Jewish  style,  east  of 
the  Kidron,  which  is  designated  as  the  sepulchre  of 
Absalom,  but  which  is  evidently  of  much  later  con- 
struction and  probably  belongs  to  one  of  the  Jewish 
kings  of  the  Asmonean  period  (Josephus,  De  Bello 
Jud.,  V,  xii,  2).  Absalom  had  three  sons,  who  died 
before  him.  He  left  a  daughter  Maacha  (Thamar), 
who  was  afterw-ards  married  to  Roboam,  son  of  Solo- 
mon (II  Par.,  xi,  20),  although  there  is  some  doubt 
as  to  the  identity  of  this  name  mentioned  in  the 
Book  of  Kings  and  in  Paralipomenon. 

2.  Abs.\lom,  father  of  Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  xi,  70) 
and  perhaps  identical  with  Absalom,  father  of 
Jonathan  (I  Mach.,  xiii,  11). 

3.  Absalom,  one  of  the  two  ambassadors  whom 
Judas  Machabeus  sent  to  Lysias,  procurator  of  An- 
tiochus  (II  Mach.,  xi,  17),  identical  with  the  fore- 
going. H.  J.  Heuser. 

Absalon  of  Lund,  also  known  as  Axel,  a  famous 
Danish  prelate,  b.  in  1128,  at  Finnestoe,  in  Seeland; 
d.  21  March,  1201,  in  the  Benedictine  monastery  of 
Soroe  (Sora)  founded  by  his  father.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  taught  for 
a  while  in  the  school  of  Ste.  Genevieve.  In  1158 
he  was  made  Bishop  of  Roskilde,  and  in  1178  Arch- 
bishop of  Lund,  Primate  of  Denmark  and  Sweden, 
and  eventually  Papal  Legate.  In  this  capacity  he 
laboured  zealoasly  for  the  final  extirpation  of  pagan- 
ism in  the  Scandinavian  world,  notably  on  the 
Isle  of  Rugen,  its  last  stronghold.  He  exercised 
great  political  influence  under  King  Waldemar  I 
(1155-81)  and  Canute  VI.  It  was  at  his  request 
that  Saxo  Grammaticus  composed  his  "Historia; 
Danica;  Libri  XVI  ".  A  tril)uteto  Absalon  is  found 
in  the  fourteenth  book  of  that  work. 

IIefklp:.  in  Kirchenlex.,  art.  Axel,  I,  1708;  monographs  by 
EsTRui'-MoiiNiKE  (Leipzig,  1832),  anil  Hammerich  (Copen- 
hagen, 1863).  _  ,    „ 

Thomas  J.  Shah  an. 

Absence,  Ecclesiastical.     See  Residence,  Ec- 

CLKSIA.SIICAL. 

Absinthe,  Hebrew  ?4  'anah,  wormwood,  known  for 
ite  repulsive  bitterness  (Jer.,  ix,  15;  xxiii,  15;  Deut., 


xxix,  18;  Lam.,  iii,  19;  Prov.,  v,  4).  Figuratively  it 
stands  for  a  curse  or  calamity  (Lam.,  iii,  15),  or  also 
for  injustice  (Amos,  v,  7;  vi,  13).  In  Apoc,  viii,  11, 
the  Greek  equivalent  6  iinvBoi  is  given  as  a  proper 
name  to  the  star  which  fell  into  the  waters  and  made 
them  bitter.  The  Vulgate  renders  the  Hebrew  expres- 
sion by  a6s/H(/(i'i/OT,  except  in  Deut.,  xxix,  18,  where 
it  translates  it  amariiudo.  It  seems  that  the  biblical 
absinthe  is  identical  with  the  Artemisia  monosperma 
(Delile),  or  the  Artemisia  herba-alba  (Asso);  or,  again, 
the  Artemisia  judaica  Linnc.  (See  Plants  in  Bible.) 
Hagen,  Lexicon  Bihlicum.  (Paris,  1905):  VlGOUROt'.x,  in  Diet, 
de  la  Bible  (Paris.  1895);  Tristam,  Natural  History  of  the  Bible 
(London,  1889). 

A.  J.  Uaas. 

Absolute,  The,  a  term  employed  in  modern 
philosophy  with  various  meanings,  but  applied  gen- 
erally speaking  to  the  Supreme  Being.  It  signifies 
(1)  that  which  is  complete  and  perfect;  (2)  that  which 
exists  by  its  own  nature  and  is  consequently  inde- 
pendent of  everything  else;  (3)  that  which  is  related 
to  no  other  being;  (4)  the  sum  of  all  being,  actual 
and  potential  (Hegel).  In  the  first  and  the  second 
of  these  significatioiLs  the  Absolute  is  a  name  for  God 
which  Christian  philosopliy  maj'  readily  accept. 
Though  the  term  was  not  current  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
equivalent  expressions  were  used  by  the  Scholastic 
writers  in  speaking,  e.  g.,  of  God  as  Pure  Actuality 
(Actus  Purus),  as  uncaused  Being,  or  as  containing 
pre-eminently  every  perfection.  St.  Thomas,  in 
particular,  emphasizes  the  absoluteness  of  God  by 
showing  that  He  cannot  be  classed  under  any  genus 
or  species,  and  that  His  essence  is  identical  with  His 
existence.  Aquinas  also  anticipates  the  difficulties 
which  arise  from  the  use  of  the  term  Absolute  in  the 
sense  of  unrelated  being,  and  which  are  brought  out 
quite  clearly  in  modern  discussions,  notablj'  in  that 
between  Mill,  as  critic  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
philosophy,  and  Mansel  as  its  defender.  It  was 
urged  that  the  Absolute  could  not  consistently  be 
thought  of  or  spoken  of  as  First  Cause,  for  the  reason 
that  causation  implies  relation,  and  the  "Absolute  is 
outside  of  all  relation;  it  cannot,  therefore,  be  con- 
ceived as  producing  effects.  St.  Thomas,  however, 
offers  a  solution.  He  holds  that  God  and  created 
things  are  related,  but  that  the  relation  is  real  in  the 
effects  only.  It  implies  no  conditioning  or  modifica- 
tion of  the  Divine  Being;  it  is  in  its  application  to 
God  merely  conceptual.  The  fashion  of  our  thought 
obliges  us  to  concei\'e  God  as  one  term  of  a  relation, 
but  not  to  infer  that  the  relation  affects  Him  as  it 
affects  the  created  thing  which  is  the  other  term. 
This  distinction,  moreo\er,  is  based  on  experience. 
The  process  of  knowledge  invoh'cs  a  relation  between 
the  known  object  and  the  knowing  subject,  but  the 
character  of  tlie  relation  is  not  tlie  same  in  both 
terms.  In  the  mind  it  is  real  because  perception 
and  thought  imply  the  exercise  of  mental  faculties, 
and  consequently  a  modification  of  the  mind  itself. 
No  such  modification,  however,  reaches  the  object; 
this  is  the  same  whether  we  perceive  it  or  not. 

Now  it  is  just  here  that  a  more  serious  diflSculty 
arises.  It  is  claimed  that  the  Absolute  can  neither 
be  known  nor  conceived.  "To  think  is  to  condi- 
tion"; and  as  the  Absolute  is  by  its  very  nature  un- 
conditioned, no  effort  of  thought  can  reach  it.  To 
say  that  God  is  the  Absolute  is  equivalent  to  saying 
that  He  is  unknowalile. — This  view,  expressed  by 
Hamilton  and  Mansel,  and  endorsed  by  Spencer  in 
his  "First  Principles",  affords  an  apparently  strong 
support  to  Agnosticism,  while  it  assails  both  the 
reasonableness  and  the  po.ssibility  of  religion.  It  is 
only  a  partial  reply  to  state  that  God,  though  in- 
conipreliensihle.  is  ncvertlieloss  knowable  according 
to  the  iiKinncr  and  capacity  of  our  intelligence.  The 
Agiiiistic  contends  that  God,  ])rccisely  because  He  is 
the  .\bsolute,  is  beyond  the  range  of  any  knowledge 


ABSOLUTION 


61 


ABSOLUTION 


whatever  on  oiir  part.  Agnosticism,  in  other  words, 
insists  that  we  must  beheve  in  the  existence  of  an 
alwolute  and  infinite  Being  and  at  the  same  time 
warns  us  that  we  can  liave  no  idea  of  that  licing. 
Our  belief  must  express  itself  in  terms  that  are  mean- 
ingless. To  avoici  this  conclusion  one  may  reject 
altogether  a  term  out  of  which  all  significance  has 
evaporated;  or  (and  this  seems  a  wiser  course)  one 
may  retrace  tlie  genesis  of  the  term  and  hold  fast  to 
the  items  of  knowledge,  however  imperfect  and  how- 
ever in  need  of  criticism,  which  that  genesis  involves. 
In  proving  tlie  existence  of  God  as  First  t'au.se,  or  as 
Al).s(ihite  Being,  we  take  as  our  starting-jioint  facts 
that  are  knowable  and  known.  So  far  as,  in  reasoning 
upon  these  facts,  we  are  led  beyond  them  to  the  con- 
cept of  an  Absolute,  some  remnant  of  the  knowable- 
ness  which  facts  present  must  be  found  in  that  which 
is  the  ultimate  explanation  of  the  facts.  If,  as 
Spencer  aliirms,  "every  one  of  the  arguments  by 
wliich  the  relativity  of  our  knowledge  is  demon- 
strated distinctly  postulates  the  positive  existence 
of  something  bcycmd  tlic  relative",  it  follows  that  by 
getting  clearly  before  our  thought  the  mcanmg  of 
those  arguments  and  their  force  for  distinctly  postu- 
lating we  must  obtain  some  knowledge  of  the  Being 
whose  existence  is  thus  established.  Spencer,  indeed, 
does  not  realize  the  full  import  of  the  words  "  positive 
existence  ",  "ultimate reality  ",  and  "incomprehensi- 
ble power  ",  which  he  uses  so  freely.  Otherwise  he 
could  not  consistently  declare  that  the  Being  to  which 
the.se  various  predicates  apply  is  unknowable.  It  is 
in  fact  remarkable  that  so  much  knowledge  of  the 
Absolute  is  displayed  in  the  attempt  to  prove  that 
the  Absolute  cannot  be  known.  Careful  analysis  of 
a  concept  like  that  of  First  Cause  certainly  shows  that 
it  contains  a  wealth  of  meaning  which  forbids  its 
identification  with  the  Unknowable,  even  supposing 
that  the  positive  existence  of  the  Unknowable  could 
be  logically  demonstrated.  Such  an  analysis  is  fur- 
nished by  St.  Thomas  and  by  other  representatives 
of  Christian  philosophy.  The  method  which  St. 
Thomas  formulated,  and  which  his  successors 
adopted,  keeps  steadily  in  view  the  requirements  of 
critical  thinking,  and  especially  the  danger  of  apply- 
ing the  forms  of  our  human  knowledge,  without  due 
refinement,  to  the  Divine  Being.  The  warning 
against  our  anthropomori)hic  tendency  was  clearly 
given  before  the  .\bsolute  had  taken  its  actual  place 
in  philo.sophic  speculation,  or  had  yielded  that  place 
to  the  Unknowable.  While  this  warning  is  always 
needful,  especially  in  the  interest  of  religion,  nothing 
can  be  gained  by  the  attempt  to  form  a  concept  of 
God  which  olTers  a  mere  negation  to  thought  and  to 
worship.  It  is  of  course  eciually  futile  to  propose  an 
unknowable  Absolute  as  tlie  basis  of  reconciliation 
between  religion  and  science.     The  failure  of  Spencer's 

Ehilosophy  in  this  respect  is  the  more  disastrous 
ecause.  while  it  allows  full  scope  to  science  in  in- 
vestigating the  manifestations  of  the  Absolute,  it 
sets  aside  the  claim  of  religion  to  learn  anything  of 
the  power  which  is  thus  manifested.  (.See  Agnos- 
ticism, AsEiTY,  An'alooy,  God,  Knowledge,  The- 
ology. For  Hegel's  conception  of  the  Absolute, 
see  IIegeliamsm,  Ide.\lism,  P.\xtheism.) 

Schumacher.  The  Knowahlcjirsa  of  God  (Notre  Dame, 
Indiana.  190.5),  contains  Rood  bihli(»Kraphy;  St.  Thom.^s, 
Summa,  I.  <i.  xiii;  Contra  Grntm.  II,  12.  13;  Hamilton, 
DUcuMwnt  (New  York,  ISfiO);  Mill,  -In  Examination  of 
Sir  IV.  Hamilton  »  Philonophj/  (Hoston.  18r«1;  Ma.v.sel,  The 
Philotofihy  of  the  Conilitionrd  (London.  18G(i);  Oaird,  .In 
Introduction  to  the  Philosophy  of  Rdiqion  (Glasgow,  1901): 
ROYCE,  The  World  and  Ou-  Individual  (New  York,  1900); 
Flint,  Aanotlicvnn  (New  York,   1903). 

E.  A.  Pace. 
Absolution  (.i46  =  from;  solvere  =  to  free),  is  the 
remission  of  sin,  or  of  the  punishment  due  to  sin, 
granted  by  the  Church.  (For  remission  of  punish- 
ment due  to  sin,  see  Censukb,  Excommi'nicatiox, 
I.nouloence.)     Absolution  proper  is  that  act  of  the 


priest  whereby,  in  the  Sacrament  of  Penance,  he  frees 
man  from  sin.  It  presupposes  on  the  part  of  the 
penitent,  contrition,  confession,  and  promise  at  least 
of  satisfaction;  on  the  part  of  the  minister,  valid 
reception  of  the  Order  of  Priesthood  and  jurisdiction, 
granted  by  competent  authority,  over  the  fwrson 
receiving  the  sacrament.  That  there  is  in  the 
Church  power  to  absolve  sins  committed  after  bap- 
tism the  Council  of  Trent  thus  declares:  "But  the 
Lord  then  principally  instituted  the  Sacrament 
of  Penance,  when,  being  raised  from  the  dead.  He 
breathed  upon  His  disciples  saying,  'Receive  ye 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Whose  sins  you  shall  forgive, 
they  are  forgiven  them,  and  whose  sins  you  shall 
retain,  they  are  retained.'  By  which  action  so 
signal,  and  words  so  clear  the  consent  of  all  the 
Fathers  has  ever  understood  that  the  power  of  for- 
giving and  retaining  sins  was  communicated  to  the 
Apostles,  and  to  their  lawful  successors  for  the 
reconciling  of  the  faithful  who  have  fallen  after 
baptism "  (Sess.  XIV,  i).  Nor  is  there  lacking  in 
di\ine  revelation  proof  of  such  power;  the  classical 
texts  are  those  found  in  Matthew,  xvi,  19;  xviii,  18, 
and  in  John,  xx,  21-23.  To  Peter  are  given  the  keys 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Sin  is  the  great  obstacle 
to  entrance  into  the  kingdom,  and  over  sin  Peter  is 
supreme.  To  Peter  and  to  all  the  Apostles  is  given 
the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose,  and  this  again  im- 
plies supreme  power  both  legislative  and  judicial: 
power  to  forgive  sins,  power  to  free  from  sin's  pen- 
alties. This  interpretation  becomes  more  clear  in 
studying  the  rabbinical  literature,  especially  of  Our 
Lord's  time,  in  which  the  phrase  to  bind  and  to 
loose  was  in  common  use.  (Lightfoot,  Hone  Ile- 
braicie;  Buxtorf,  Lexicon  Chald.;  Knabenbauer, 
Commentary  on  Matthew,  II,  (ifi;  particularly  Maas, 
St.  .Matthew,  IS.'?,  1S4.)  The  granting  of  the  power 
to  absolve  is  put  with  unmistakable  clearness  in 
St.  John's  Gospel:  "He  breathed  upon  them  and 
said,  'Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost.  Whose  sins  ye 
shall  forgive  they  are  forgiven  them;  and  whose  sins 
ye  shall  retain,  they  are  retained'  "  (xx,  22,  23). 
It  were  foolish  to  assert  that  the  power  here  granted 
by  Christ  was  simply  a  power  to  announce  the 
Gospel  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XIX,  Can.  iii),  and 
quite  as  unwise  to  contend  that  here  is  contained 
no  power  other  than  the  power  to  remit  sin  in  the 
Sacrament  of  Baptism  (Ibid.,  Sess.  XIV);  for  the 
verj'  context  is  against  such  an  interpretation,  and 
the  words  of  the  text  imply  a  strictly  judicial  act, 
while  the  power  to  retain  sins  becomes  simply  in- 
comprehensible when  applied  to  baptism  alone,  and 
not  to  an  action  involving  discretionary  judgment. 
But  it  is  one  thing  to  a.ssert  that  the  power  of  absolu- 
tion was  granted  to  the  Church,  ana  another  to  say 
that  a  full  realization  of  the  grant  was  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  Church  from  the  beginning.  Bap- 
tism was  the  first,  the  great  sacrament,  the  sacra- 
mentof  initiation  into  the  kingdomof  Christ.  Through 
baptism  was  obtained  not  only  plenary  pardon  for 
sin,  but  also  for  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin. 
Man  once  born  anew,  the  Christian  ideal  forbade 
even  the  thought  of  his  return  to  sin.  Of  a  conse- 
quence, early  Christian  discipline  was  loath  to  grant 
even  once  a  restoration  to  grace  through  the  ministry 
of  reconciliation  vested  in  the  Church.  This  severity 
was  in  keeping  with  St.  Paul's  declaration  in  his 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews:  "For  it  is  impossible  for 
those  who  were  once  illuminated,  have  tasted  also 
the  heavenly  gift,  and  were  made  partakers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  have  moreover  tasted  the  good  word 
of  God,  and  the  powers  of  the  world  to  come  and  are 
fallen  away,  to  be  renewed  again  to  penance"  etc, 
(vi,  4-0),  The  persistence  of  this  Christian  ideal  is 
very  clear  in  the  "Pastor"  of  Hermas,  where  the 
aut^ior  contends  against  a  rigorist  school,  that  at 
least  one  opportunity  for  penance  must  be  given  by 


ABSOLUTION 


62 


ABSOLUTION 


the  Church  (III  Sim.,  viii,  11).  He  grants  only  one 
eufh  chance,  but  this  is  sufficient  to  establish  a 
belief  in  the  power  of  the  Church  to  forgive  sins  com- 
mitted after  baptism.  St.  Ignatius  in  the  first  days 
of  the  second  century  seemingly  asserts  the  power 
to  forgive  sins  when  lie  declares  in  his  letter  to  the 
Pliiladelphians  that  the  bishop  presides  over  penance. 
This  tradition  was  continued  in  the  SjTian  Church, 
as  is  evident  from  passages  found  in  Aphraates  and 
Ephrem,  and  St.  John  Chrj'sostom  voices  this  same 
Syrian  tradition  when  he  writes  "De  Sacerdotio" 
(MigneP.  C;.,LXVII,643),  that  "Christ  has  given  to 
his  priests  a  power  lie  would  not  grant  to  the  angels, 
for  he  has  not  said  to  them,  'Whatsoever  ye  bind, 
will  be  bound,' "  etc.  ;  and  further  down  he  adds, 
"The  Father  hath  given  all  judgment  into  the  hands 
of  his  Son,  and  the  Son  in  turn  has  granted  this 
power  to  his  priests." 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  who  perhaps  received  his 
inspiration  from  the  "Pastor"  of  Hermas,  tells  the 
story  of  the  young  bandit  whom  St.  Jolm  went  after 
and  brought  back  to  God,  and  in  the  story  he  speaks 
of  the  Angel  of  Penance,  " rbv  iyyekov  ttjs  fierauoias", 
meaning  the  bishop  or  priest  who  presided  over  the 
public  penance.  Following  Clement  in  the  Cate- 
chetical school  of  Alexandria  was  Origen  (230). 
In  the  commentary  on  the  words  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  "  Forgive  us  our  trespasses",  he  alludes  to 
the  practice  of  penance  in  the  Church,  recalling  the 
text  of  John,  xx,  21.  He  asserts  that  this  text  is 
proof  of  the  power  to  pardon  sin  conferred  by  Christ 
upon  His  Apostles  and  upon  their  successors.  True 
it  is  that  in  WTiting  of  the  extent  of  the  power  con- 
ferred, he  makes  exception  for  the  sins  of  idolatry 
and  adultery,  which  he  terms  irremissible,  although 
Dionysius  of  Corinth  (170)  years  before  held  that 
no  sin  was  excepted  from  the  power  of  the  keys 
granted  by  Christ  to  His  Church  (Eusebius,  Hist. 
Eccl.,  iv,  xxiii).  In  the  Alexandrian  Cliurch  we 
have  also  the  testimony  of  Athanasius,  who  in  a 
fragment  against  the  Novatians  pointedly  asserts: 
"He  who  confesses  his  sins,  receives  from  the  priest 
pardon  for  his  fault,  in  virtue  of  the  grace  of  Christ 
(just  as  he  who  is  baptized)."  Asia  Minor  is  at  an 
early  date  witness  of  this  power  to  absolve.  St.  Fir- 
milian,  in  his  famous  letter  to  St.  Cyprian,  asserts  that 
the  power  to  forgive  sins  was  given  to  the  Apostles 
and  to  their  successors  (Epp.  Cyp.,  LXXV),  and 
this  tradition  is  more  clearly  expressed  both  in  Basil 
and  Gregory  Nazianzen  (P.  G.,  XXXI,  1284;  XXXVI, 
3.56.  357).  The  Roman  tradition  is  clear  in  the 
"Pastor"  of  Hermas,  where  the  power  to  forgive  sins 
committed  after  baptism  is  defended  (Sim.,  viii, 
6,  .5;  ibid.,  ix,  19).  This  same  tradition  is  manifest 
in  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus,  wherein  the  prelate  con- 
secrating a  bishop  is  directed  to  pray:  "Grant  him, 
O  Lord,  the  power  to  forgive  sins"  (xxii).  This  is 
still  more  clearly  expressed  in  the  "Constitutiones 
Apostolica;"  (P.  G.,  I,  1073):  "Grant  him,  O  Lord 
Almighty,  by  Thy  Christ  the  fulness  of  Thy  spirit, 
that  he  may  have  the  power  to  pardon  sin,  in  accord- 
ance with  Thy  command,  that  he  may  loose  every 
bond  which  binds  the  sinner,  by  reason  of  that  power 
which  Thou  hast  granted  Thy  Apostles."  (See  also 
Duchesne,  "Christian  Worship",  439,  440.)  True, 
tliis  power  seems  to  Hermas  to  be  strangely  limited, 
while  Origen,  TertuUian,  and  the  followers  of  Nova- 
tian  principles  were  unwilling  to  grant  that  the 
Church  had  a  right  to  absolve  from  such  sins  as 
aposta.sy,  murder,  and  adultcrj'.  However,  Calixtus 
settled  the  question  for  all  time  when  he  declared 
that  in  virtue  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  he  would 
grant  pardon  to  all  who  did  penance — Ego  .  .  . 
dclida  jxmilenii/i  JunHis  dimitto.  or  again,  Habcl  jxttes- 
tatem  ecdexiii  clrliria  dimandi  (De  Pud.,  xxi).  In  this 
matter,  so;  TertuUiaii,  "  De  Pudicitia",  which  is  sim- 
ply a  vehement  protest  against  the  action  of  the  Pope, 


whom  TertuUian  accuses  of  pre-sumption  in  daring 
to  forgive  sins,  and  especially  the  greater  crimes  of 
murder,  idolatry,  etc. — "Idcirco  prsesumis  et  ad  te 
derivasse  solvendi  et  alligandi  potestatera,  id  est,  ad 
omnem  Ecclesiam  Petri  propinquam."  TertuUian 
himself,  before  becoming  a  Montanist,  asserts  in  the 
clearest  terms  that  the  power  to  forgive  sins  is  in 
the  Church.  "CoUocavit  Deus  in  vestibulo  poeni- 
tentiam  januam  secundam,  qus  pulsantibus  pate- 
faciat  [januam];  sed  jam  semel,  quia  jam  secundo,  sed 
araplius  nunquam,  quia  proxime  frustra"  (De  Poeni- 
tentia,  vii,  9,  10).  Although  TertuUian  limits  the 
exercise  of  this  power,  he  stoutly  asserts  its  existence, 
and  clearly  states  that  tlie  pardon  thus  obtained  rec- 
onciles the  sinner  not  only  with  the  Church,  but  with 
God  (Harnack,  Dogmengeschichte,  I,  note  3,  407). 
The  whole  Montanist  controversy  is  a  proof  of  the 
position  taken  by  tlie  Church  and  the  Bishops  of 
Rome;  and  the  great  Doctors  of  tiie  West  affirmed 
in  the  strongest  terms  the  power  to  absolve  granted 
to  the  priests  of  the  Church  by  Christ.  (Leo  the 
Great,  P.  L.,  LIV,  1011-1013;  Gregory  the  Great, 
P.  L.,  LXVI,  1200;  Ambrose,  P.  L.,  XV,  1639;  XVI, 
468,  477,  etc.;  Augustine,  P.  L.,  XXXIX,  1549-59.) 
From  the  days,  therefore,  of  Calixtus  the  power  to 
absolve  sins  committed  after  baptism  is  recognized 
as  vested  in  the  priests  of  the  Church  in  virtue  of 
the  command  of  Christ  to  bind  and  loose,  and  of  the 
power  of  the  keys.  At  first  this  power  is  timidly 
asserted  against  the  rigorist  party;  afterwards 
stoutly  maintained.  At  first  the  sinner  is  given  one 
opportunity  for  pardon,  and  gradually  this  indul- 
gence is  extended;  true,  some  doctors  thought  cer- 
tain sins  unpardonable,  save  by  God  alone,  but  this 
was  because  they  considered  that  the  existing  dis- 
cipline marked  the  limits  of  the  power  granted  by 
Christ.  After  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  the 
universal  practice  of  public  penance  precludes  any 
denial  of  a  belief  in  the  Church's  power  to  pardon 
the  sinner,  though  the  doctrine  and  the  practice  of 
penance  were  destined  to  have  a  still  further  ex- 
pansion. 

L.VTER  P,\TniSTic  Age. — Following  the  golden  age 
of  the  Fathers,  the  assertion  of  the  right  to  absolve 
and  the  extension  of  the  power  of  the  keys  are  even 
more  marked.  The  ancient  sacramentaries — Leo- 
nine, Gelasian,  Gregorian,  the  "Missale  Francorutn  " 
— witness  tliis  especially  in  the  ordination  service; 
then  the  bishop  prays  that  "whatever  they  bind, 
shall  be  bound"  etc.  (Duchesne,  Christian  Wor- 
ship, 360,  361).  The  missionaries  sent  from  Rome 
to  England  in  the  seventh  centuiy  did  not  establish 
a  public  form  of  penance,  but  the  affirmation  of  the 
priest's  power  is  clear  from  the  "Poenitentiale  Theo- 
dori",and  from  the  legislation  on  the  Continent,  which 
was  enacted  by  the  monks  who  came  from  England  and 
Ireland  (Council  of  Reims,  can.  xxxi,  Harduin).  The 
false  decretals  (about  850)  accentuated  the  right  of 
absolution;  and  in  a  sermon  of  the  same  century, 
attributed  perhaps  wrongly  to  St.  Eligius,  a  fully 
developed  doctrine  is  found.  The  Saint  is  speaking 
of  the  reconciliation  of  penitents  and  waras  them  to 
be  sure  of  their  dispositions,  their  sorrow,  their  pur- 
pose of  amendment;  for  "we  are  powerIe.';s,"  he  says, 
"  to  grant  pardon,  unless  you  put  off  the  old  man ; 
but  if  by  sincere  repentance  you  put  off  the  old 
man  with  his  works,  then  know  that  you  are  recon- 
cileii  to  God  by  Christ,  yea  and  by  us,  to  whom  He 
gave  the  ministry  of  reconciliation."  And  this 
ministry  of  reconciliation  which  he  claims  for  the 
priesthood  is  that  ministry  and  that  power  granted 
to  the  .\postles  by  Christ  when  He  said,  "  Whatso- 
ever you  oind  upon  earth,  shall  be  bound  in  heaven" 
(P.  L.,  LXXXVII,  609,  610).  The  theologians  of 
the  medieval  period,  from  .\lcuin  to  St.  Bernard, 
insist  that  the  right  to  absolve  from  sin  was  given  to 
the  bishops  and  priests  who  succeeded  to  the  apostolic 


ABSOLUTION 


63 


ABSOLUTION 


office  (Alcuin,  P.  L.,  CI,  652-650;  Benedict  Levita, 
P.  L.,  C,  357;  Jonas  of  Orleans,  P.  L.,  CVI,  152; 
Pseutlo-Kgbert,  P.  L.,  LXXXIX,  415;  Haymo  of 
Halberstadt,  P.  L.,  CXVIII,  702  snq.).  Following 
the  theologians,  the  canonists,  sucli  as  Uegino  of 
Prilni.  Hiirehard  of  Worms,  Ivo  of  Chartrcs,  furnish 
us  with  fuller  proofs  of  the  same  power,  and  Ilarduin 
(Councils,  VI,  i,  514)  cites  tlie  fifteenth  canon  of 
tlie  Council  of  Trosld  (909),  whicli  states  expressly 
that  penance  through  the  ministry  of  Christ's  priests 
is  "fruitful  unto  the  remission  of  sins".  This  epoch 
closes  with  St.  Bernard,  who  takes  Peter  At)elard  to 
taslc  for  daring  to  assert  that  Christ  gave  the  power 
to  forgive  sins  only  to  His  disciples,  and  conse- 
quently that  the  successors  of  tlie  Apostles  do  not 
enjoy  the  same  privileges  (P.  L.,  CLXXXII,  1054). 
But  while  Bernard  insists  that  the  power  of 
the  keys  given  to  the  Apostles  is  lodged  in  the 
bishop  anil  in  the  priests,  he  with  etjual  stress 
insists  that  such  power  be  not  exercised  unless  the 
penitent  make  a  full  confession  of  wrong  committed 
(ibid.,  938).  When  the  great  scholastic  epoch  be- 
gan, the  doctrine  which  obtained  was  a  power  to 
absolve  sins  ami  this  power  ilistinctly  recognized,  in 
virtue  of  the  power  granted  by  Christ  to  His  .Vjxjs- 
tles.  On  the  part  of  the  penitent,  sorrow  and  a 
promise  of  better  life  were  necessary,  and  also  a 
declaration  of  sin  made  to  him  wliom  Christ  had 
appointed  judge. 

ScHOL.vSTic  Age. — .\t  the  beginning  of  the  scholas- 
tic age,  special  stress  is  laid  upon  tlie  power  of  con- 
trition to  secure  pardon.  St.  Anselni  of  Canterbuiy, 
in  a  commentary  upon  Luke  xvii,  14,  likens  this 
power  to  that  possessed  of  old  by  the  Jewish 
priest  in  the  case  of  leprosy  (P.  L.,  CLVIII,  062; 
ibid..  301-130).  At  first  sight,  the  doctrine  of 
St.  .\nselm  seemed  to  annul  the  jxiwer  to  absolve 
which  antiquity  had  granted  to  the  priesthood,  and 
to  reiluce  the  office  of  reconciliation  to  a  mere  decla- 
ration that  sin  had  been  forgiven.  Hugo  of  St. 
Victor  (1097-1141)  took  ground  against  .\nselm,  not 
because  Anselm  insisteil  on  contrition,  but  because 
he  seemingly  left  no  place  for  the  power  of  the  keys. 
But  how  admit  the  one  and  not  the  other?  Hugo 
says  the  sinner  is  "bound  down  liy  obduracy  of  soul, 
and  by  the  penalty  of  future  danuiation";  the  grace 
of  God  frees  man  from  the  darkness  brouglit  on  by 
sin,  while  tlie  absolution  of  the  priest  delivers  him 
from  the  penalty  which  sin  im]iosc.s — "The  malice 
of  sin  is  best  described  as  obtluracy  of  heart,  wliich  is 
first  broken  by  sorrow,  that  later,  in  confession,  the 
sin  itself,  i.e.  the  penalty  of  damnation,  be  remitted." 
There  is  some  obscurity  in  tlie  text,  but  Hugo  seems 
inclined  to  hold  that  the  priest  absolves  from  tlie 
punishment  due  to  sin,  rather  than  from  sin  itself. 
The  Master  of  the  Sentences,  Peter  Lombard,  took 
issue  with  Hugo,  and  asserted  in  clear  terms  that 
charity  not  only  blottctl  out  the  stain  of  sin,  but  also 
freed  the  sinner  from  punishment  due  to  sin.  Not 
understanding,  however,  that  penance  as  a  sacra- 
ment is  a  moral  unit,  Peter  Lombard  in  turn  used 
language  which  is  far  from  exact.  He  seems  to  hold 
that  contrition  takes  away  sin  and  its  con.sequences, 
and  when  questioned  concerning  the  power  granted 
to  the  priest,  he  seems  to  recur  to  the  opinion  of 
Anselm  that  it  is  declarative.  "Thcv  remit  or  re- 
tain sins  when  they  judge  and  declare  them  re- 
mitted or  retained  by  God  "  (P.  L.,  CXCII,  888).  He 
also  grants  to  the  priest  certain  power  in  reference 
to  the  tem[X)ral  punishment  due  to  sin  (ibitl.). 
Richard  of  St.  Victor,  though  he  speaks  of  the  opin- 
ion of  Peter  Lombard  as  frivolous,  in  reality 
aiffers  but  little  from  the  Master  of  the  Sentences. 
Peter's  opinion  indeed  exercised  great  influence  over 
the  niinils  both  of  his  contemporaries  and  of  the 
following  generation.  With  William  of  .Auvergne 
(who   taught   up   to    1228,   when   he   became   Arc!i- 


bishop  of  Paris)  comes  the  distinction  between  con- 
trition and  attrition  in  the  Sacrament  of  Penance. 
Contrition  takes  away  all  stain  of  guilt,  while  attrition 
prepares  the  way  for  the  real  remis.sion  of  sin  in  the 
sacrament.  Theologians  had  recognized  the  dis- 
tinction between  contrition  and  attrition  even  before 
William  of  Paris,  but  neither  Alexander  of  Hales 
nor  .Albert,  the  master  of  .\quinas,  advanced  much 
beyond  the  teaching  of  Peter  Lombard.  Both 
seemingly  insisted  on  real  contrition  before  absolu- 
tion, and  both  also  held  that  such  contrition  in 
reality  took  away  mortal  .sin.  They  did  not,  how- 
ever, deny  the  office  of  the  minister,  for  they  both 
held  that  contrition  involved  a  promise  of  confes- 
sion [Alb.  Mag.,  IV  Sent.,  Dist.  xvi-.xvii  (Paris,  1894), 
X.XI.X;,  559,  660,  666,  070,  700].  St.  Bonaventure 
(IV,  Dist.  xvii)  also  admits  the  distinction  between 
contrition  and  attrition;  he  asserts  the  power  of 
contrition  to  take  away  all  sin,  even  without  the 
priest's  absolution,  confession  being  necessarj'  only 
when  possible.  .\s  regards  the  priest's  power  to 
pardon  sin,  he  not  only  admits  it,  not  only  asserts 
that  absolution  forgives  .sin  and  its  eternal  conse- 
quences, but  calls  it  the  jorma  sacramenti.  He 
even  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  attrition  is  sufficient 
for  pardon  if  accompanied  by  absolution  (ibid., 
Dist.  xviii).  When  questioned  as  to  the  manner 
in  which  absolution  produces  its  sacramental  effect, 
he  distinguishes  between  two  forms  of  absolution 
employed  by  the  priest:  the  one  deprecatory,  "Mis- 
ereatur  tui"  etc.,  and  the  other  inilicative,  "Ego 
te  ab.solvo".  In  the  former  the  priest  intercedes 
for  the  sinner,  and  this  intercession  changes  his 
attrition  into  real  contrition  and  secures  pardon  for 
sin  committed.  In  the  latter,  whicli  is  indicative 
and  personal,  the  priest  exercises  the  power  of  the 
keys,  but  remits  only  a  temporal  punishment  due 
still  on  account  of  sin.  This  after  all  is  but  a  new 
way  of  putting  the  theory  of  Peter  Lombard  (ibid.. 
Dist.  xviii).  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  treats  this  sub- 
ject in  his  Commentary  on  tiie  Master  of  the  Sen- 
tences (IV,  Dist.  xvii,  xviii,  xix;  Summa  Theologica 
III,  QQ.  Ixxxiv-xc;  Supplement,  QQ.  i-xx;  Opuscula. 
De  Formii  Absolutionis).  Taking  the  many  dis- 
tracted theories  of  the  schoolmen  with  this  partial 
truth,  he  fused  them  into  a  united  whole.  In  the 
commentary  on  the  "  Libri  Sententianim"  he  shows 
clearly  that  the  ministry  of  the  priest  is  directly  in- 
strumental in  the  forgiveness  of  sin;  for  "if  the  keys 
had  not  been  ordained  for  the  remission  of  sin,  but 
only  for  release  from  the  penalty  (which  was  the  opin- 
ion of  the  elder  scholastics),  there  would  be  no  need  of 
the  intention  to  ol^tain  tlie  efTect  of  the  keys  for  the 
remission  of  sin";  and  in  the  same  place  he  clearly 
states:  "Hence  if  before  absolution  one  had  not  been 
perfectly  dispo.sed  to  receive  grace,  one  would  receive 
it  in  sacramental  confession  and  absolution,  if  no 
obstacle  be  put  in  the  way"  (Dist.  .xvii,  2,  I,  art.  3, 
Qua)stiuncula  iv).  He  .sees  clearly  that  God  alone 
can  pardon  sin,  but  God  u.ses  the  instrumentality  of 
absolution  which,  with  confession,  contrition,  and  sat- 
isfaction, concurs  in  obtaining  forgiveness,  in  blotting 
out  the  stain,  in  opening  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  by 
cancelling  the  sentence  of  eternal  punishment.  This 
doctrine  is  expressed  again  with  eciual  clearness  in  the 
"Summa"  and  in  the  "Supplement''.  In  the 
"Summa",  Q.  Ixxxiv,  art.  3,  he  states  that  the  abso- 
lution of  the  priest  is  the  forma  sacramenti,  and  con- 
sequently confession,  contrition,  and  .satisfaction  must 
constitute  "in  some  way.  the  matter  of  the  sacra- 
ment". When  asked  whether  perfect  contrition 
secured  pardon  for  .sin  even  outside  the  Sacrament 
of  Penance,  St.  Thomas  answers  in  the  afiirmative; 
but  then  contrition  is  no  longer  an  integral  part  of  the 
sacrament;  it  .secures  pardon  liccause  forgiveness 
comes  from  perfect  charity.  Independently  of  the 
instrumentality  of  the  sacramental  rite  (Supplement, 


ABSOLUTION 


64 


ABSOLUTION 


Q.  V,  a.  1).  Duns  Scotiis  not  only  crants  the  power  of 
absolution  in  the  forgiveness  of  sin,  but  goes  a  step 
fartlier  and  asserts  that  the  sacrament  consists 
principally  in  tlie  absolution  of  the  priest,  because 
confession,  contrition,  and  satisfaction  are  not  in- 
tegral parts  or  units  in  the  sacrament,  but  only  nec- 
essary previous  dispositions  to  the  reception  of  divine 
grace  and  forgiveness.  "Tliere  is  no  similarity, 
therefore,  between  the  priest  of  the  Law  in  regard  to 
leprosy  and  the  priest  of  the  Gospel  in  regard  to  sin  ", 
and  he  adds  that  the  priest  of  the  New  Law,  "  exercet 
actum  qui  est  signum  prognosticum,  eflficax  munda- 
tionis  sequentis"  etc.  (edit.  Vivos,  XVIII,  649,  650,  in 
Dist.  XIX;  ibid.,  420,  421).  Some  think  this  opin- 
ion of  Scotus  more  in  conformity  with  the  Council  of 
Trent,  which  calls  contrition,  confession,  and  satis- 
faction not  "  the  matter  ",  but  quasi  materia,  "  as  if  the 
matter",  of  the  sacrament;  others  doubt  whether  the 
Council  thus  meant  to  class  contrition,  confession,  and 
satisfaction  as  mere  necessary  dispositions.  Tliis 
doctrine,  as  taught  by  St.  Thomas  and  Scotus,  finds 
its  echo  in  the  Council  of  Florence,  in  the  decree  of 
Eugene  IV,  as  it  does  in  the  Council  of  Trent,  which 
defines  (Sess.  XIV,  chap,  iii),  "That  the  form  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance,  wherein  its  force  principally 
consists,  is  placed  in  those  words  of  the  priest:  'I 
absolve  thee'  etc.,  but  the  acts  of  the  penitent  him- 
self are  quasi  materia  of  this  Sacrament." 

MiNisTEH. — In  the  closing  years  of  the  first  cen- 
tury. Ignatius  of  Antioch  asserts  that  Penance  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  bishop;  soon  the  same  power  is 
recognized  in  the  priests,  and  in  St.  Cyprian,  the 
deacon  on  extraordinary  occasions  performed  the  of- 
fice of  reconciliation  (BatilTol,  Theol.  pos.,  145  sqq.). 
The  deacon's  power  is  recognized  later  on  in  Alcuin, 
in  a  council  held  at  York,  1194,  and  in  the  Council  of 
London,  1200  (cap.  iii). 

Time. — The  ceremonial  rite  connected  with  the  sac- 
rament of  reconciliation  has  also  varied  with  the 
changing  discipline  of  the  Church.  The  earliest  tra- 
dition hints  at  a  public  penance — vide  tradition  supra 
— but  very  soon  there  appears  the  Presbyter  Pacni- 
tenliarius;  certainly  as  early  as  309  Pope  Marcel- 
lus  divided  Rome  into  twenty-five  districts  propter 
baptismum  et  paenitentiam,  and  Innocent  I  (416) 
mentions  the  "  priest  whose  office  it  was  to  judge 
anent  sin,  to  receive  the  confession  of  the  penitent. 
to  watch  over  his  satisfaction,  and  to  present  him 
for  reconciliation  at  the  proper  time".  The  case  of 
Nectarius  who  abolished  the  Presbyter  Pcenitenti- 
arius  is  classical  (3S1-9S).  This  reconcihation  gen- 
erally took  place  on  Holy  Tliursday,  and  the  bishop 
presided.  Surely  absolution  was  pronounced  on 
Maundy  Thursday.  Tliis  all  the  sacramentaries  at- 
test (Duchesne,  Christian  Worship,  439,  440);  but 
the  practice  of  public  penance  has  given  rise  to  the 
important  and  difficult  question,  whether  or  not  tlie 
absolution  granted  at  the  public  function  of  Holy 
Thursday  was  really  the  sacramental  ab.solution. 
Theologians  have  questioned  tliis,  many  preferring 
to  believe  that  tlie  sacramental  absolution  was  really 
imparted  by  the  Presbyter  Poenitentiarius  at  the 
early  stage  of  public  penance,  even  before  the  satis- 
faction was  complete.  They  allege  as  their  reasons 
the  long  delay  which  othenvise  would  have  been 
necessary  and  the  fact  that  the  bishop  ab.solved  on 
Holjr  Thursday,  while  the  confession  had  beeii  heard 
previously  by  the  Presl>yler  Painitcnliarius  (Palmi- 
eri,  De  poenit.,  App.  II,  nn.  8,  9).  Hut  there  are 
many  others  who  think  the  traditional  truth  concern- 
ing the  Sacrament  of  Penance  cannot  be  safeguarded 
unless  it  is  admitted  that,  orilinarily  speaking,  sacra- 
mental absolution  was  given  only  after  the  comple- 
tion of  the  penance  imposed  and  in  the  public  session 
of  Holy  Thursday.  What  was  done,  they  ask,  be- 
fore the  institution  of  the  Presbyter  PwriiteiUinrius, 
or  where  there  was  no  such  functionary?     And  they 


answer  the  objections  brought  forward  above  by  say- 
ing that  there  is  no  evidence  in  early  history  that  a 
first  absolution  was  imparted  by  the  priests  who  de- 
termined the  necessity  of  undergoing  public  satisfac- 
tion, nor  are  we  permitted  a  priori  to  judge  of  ancient 
ways  in  the  light  of  our  modern  practice  (Boudinhon, 
Revue  d'histoire  de  litterature  relig.,  II,  sec.  iii, 
329,  330,  etc.;  Batilfol,  Th(5olog.  posit.,  Les  origines 
de  la  penitence,  IV,  145  sqq.).  Moreover,  there  is 
full  evidence  of  a  reconciliation  on  Holy  Thursday; 
there  are  canons  as  late  as  the  sixth  century  forbid- 
ding priests  to  reconcile  penitents,  inconsulto  epis- 
copo  (BatifTol,  ibid.  192,  193),  and  even  as  late  as 
the  ninth  century  there  is  clear  testimony  that  ab- 
solution was  not  given  until  after  the  imposed  pen- 
ance had  been  completed  (Benedict  Levita,  P.  L., 
XCVII,  715;  Rabanus  Maurus,  P.  L.,  CVII,  342; 
Harduin,  Councils,  V,  342);  and  when  absolution 
was  granted  before  Holy  Thursday  it  was  after  the 
fashion  of  an  exception  (Pseudo  Alcuin,  CI,  1192): 
"Denique  admonendi  sunt  ut  ad  coenara  Domini 
redeant  ad  reconciliationein:  si  vero  interest  causa 
itineris  .  .  .  reconciliet  eum  statim"  etc.  This  ex- 
ception gradually  became  the  rule,  especially  after 
the  Scholastics  of  the  Middle  Age  period  began  to 
distinguish  clearly  the  different  parts  «vhich  make 
up  the  Sacrament  of  Penance. 

Form. — It  is  the  teaching  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
that  the  form  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance,  wherein 
its  force  principally  consists,  is  placed  in  these  words 
of  the  minister,  "I  absolve  thee";  to  which  words 
certain  prayers  are,  according  to  the  custom  of  Holy 
Church,  laudably  added  etc.  (Sess.  XIV,  iii).  That 
the  public  penance  was  concluded  with  some  sort  of 
prayer  for  pardon,  is  the  doctrine  of  antiquity,  par- 
ticularly as  contained  in  the  earliest  sacramentaries 
(Duchesne,  Christian  Worship,  440,  441).  Leo  the 
Great  (450)  does  not  hesitate  to  assert  that  pardon 
is  impossible  without  the  prayer  of  the  priest  ("ut 
indulgentia  nisi  supplicationibus  sacerdotum  nequeat 
obtineri").  In  the  early  Church  these  forms  cer- 
tainly varied  (Duchesne,  loc.  cit.).  Surely  all  the 
sacramentaries  assert  that  the  form  was  deprecatory, 
and  it  is  only  in  the  eleventh  century  that  we  find  a 
tendency  to  pass  to  indicative  and  personal  formulae 
(Duchesne,  loc.  cit.).  Some  of  the  forms  used  at  the 
transition  period  are  interesting:  "May  God  absolve 
thee  from  all  thy  sins,  and  through  the  penance  im- 
posed mayst  thou  be  absolved  by  the  Father,  the 
Son,  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  the  Angels,  by  the  Saints, 
and  by  me,  a  wretched  sinner"  (Garofali,  Ordo  ad 
daiidam  prenitentiam,  15).  Then  come  really  in- 
dicative and  personal  formula',  often  preceded  by 
the  supplicatory  prayer,  "Misereatur  tui"  etc. 
These  forms,  while  much  the  same  in  substance,  vary 
in  wording  not  a  little  (Vacant,  Diet,  de  th^ol., 
167).  It  was  not  until  the  scholastic  doctrine  of 
"matter  and  form"  in  the  sacraments  reached  its 
full  development  that  the  formula  of  absolution  be- 
came fixed  as  we  have  it  at  present.  The  form  in 
use  in  the  Roman  Church  to-day  has  not  changed 
since  long  before  the  Council  of  Florence.  It  is  di- 
vided into  four  parts  as  follows: — 

(1)  Deprecatory  prayer.  "May  the  Almighty  God 
have  mercy  on  you,  and  forgiving  your  sins,  bring 
you  to  life  everlasting.  Amen."  Then,  lifting  his 
right  hand  towards  the  penitent,,  the  priest  continues: 
"May  the  Almighty  and  Merciful  God  grant  you 
pardon,   absolution,   and    remission    of   your   sins". 

(2)  "May  Our  Lord  Jesus  Clirist  absolve  you,  and  I, 
by  His  authnrily,  absolve  you  from  every  bond  of 
excommunication  [suspension,  in  the  case  of  a  cleric 
only]  and  inl(!rdict  as  far  as  I  can  and  you  may  need. " 

(3)  "I  absolve  you  from  your  sins  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holv  Ghost. 
Amen."  (While  repeating  the  names  of  the  Trinity, 
the  priest  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  peni 


ABSOLUTION 


65 


ABSOLUTION 


tent.)  (4)  "May  the  Passion  of  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  tlie  merits  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  and  of 
all  the  Saints,  what  good  you  have  done  or  what 
evil  you  have  sulTered  te  to  you  for  the  remission  of 
(your)  sins,  growth  in  grace  and  the  reward  of  ever- 
lasting life.  Amen."  In  the  decree  "Pro  Arme- 
nis",  113'J,  Eugene  IV  teaches  that  the  "form"  of  the 
Sacrament  is  really  in  those  words  of  the  priest:  "  ICgo 
absolvo  te  a  jicccatis  tuis  in  nomine  Patris"  etc., 
and  theologians  teach  that  al)solutioi\  would  be  valid 
should  the  priest  use,  "Absolvo  te",  "Alwolvo  te  a 

ficccatis  tuis",  or  words  that  arc  the  exact  equiva- 
ent  (Suarcz,  Disp.,  XIX,  i,  n.  21;  Lugo,  Disp.,  XlII, 
i,  nn.  17,  IS;  Lehmkuhl,  dc  Pipnit.,  "Jth  ed.,  199). 

In  the  Oriental  churches  the  present  forms  are  dep- 
recatory, though  they  by  no  means  exclude  the  idea 
of  a  judicial  pronouncement  on  the  part  of  the  min- 
ister. Such  are  the  forms  of  absolution  among  (a) 
Greeks,  (b)  Russians,  (c)  Syrians,  (d)  Armenians, 
(e)  Copts.  Is  the  indicative  form  ncces.sary?  Many 
learned  Catholics  seem  to  hold  that  tlio  indicative 
form  as  used  at  present  in  the  Roman  Church  is  nec- 
essary even  for  the  validity  of  the  Sacrament  of  Pen- 
ance. The  great  Doctor  of  the  Sacrament,  St.  Al- 
phonsus  (De  Sac.  Pu-nit.,  n.  4:?()),  declares  that  no 
matter  wliat  may  be  the  verdict  from  the  point  of 
view  of  hislorj',  it  is  of  faith  since  the  Council  of 
Trent  tliat  tlie  indicative  form  is  essential.  St. 
Thomas  and  Suarez  also  declare  that  the  indicative 
form  is  necessarj-.  Othei's  equally  learned,  and  per- 
haps better  versed  in  historj',  hold  that  in  tlie  light  of 
the  Divine  institution  the  deprecative  form  must  not 
be  excluded,  and  that  the  Council  of  Trent  in  its  decree 
did  not  intend  to  make  final  pronovmcement  in  the 
premises.  They  point  out  witli  Morinus  (l)e  Pconit., 
l.ib.  VIII)  that  up  to  the  twelfth  century  the  depre- 
catorj-  form  was  employed  both  in  the  ICast  and  in 
the  West:  that  it  is  still  in  use  among  the  Greeks 
and  among  Orientals  generally.  In  the  light, 
therefore,  of  history  and  of  theological  opinion  it  is 
perfectly  safe  to  conclude  that  the  deprecatory  form 
IS  certainly  not  invalid,  if  it  exclude  not  the  idea  of 
judicial  pronouncement  (Palmieri,  Parergon,  127; 
ilurter,  de  Pocnit.;  Duchesne,  loc.  cit. ;  Soto,  Vas- 
qucz,  Kstius,  ct  at.).  Theologians,  however,  have 
questioned  whether  or  not  the  deprecatory  form 
would  be  valid  to-day  in  the  Latin  Church,  and  they 
point  out  that  Clement  VIII  and  Benedict  XIV  have 
prescribed  that  Greek  priests  should  use  tlie  indica- 
tive form  whensoever  tliey  alxsolvc  penitents  belong- 
ing to  the  Latin  Rite.  But  this  is  merely  a  matter 
of  discipline,  and  such  decrees  do  not  give  final  de- 
cision to  the  theological  question,  for  in  matters  of 
administration  of  the  Sacraments  those  in  authority 
simply  follow  the  safest  and  most  conservative  opin- 
ions. Morinus  is  followed  by  Tournely  in  asserting 
that  only  the  indicative  form  is  to-day  valid  in  the 
Latin  Church  (.Morinus,  De  pcenit..  Lib.  VIII;  Tour- 
nely, ibid.,  de  ab.solutionis  forma);  but  many  hold 
tliat  if  the  deprecatory  form  exclude  not  the  judicial 
pronounceincTit  of  the  priest,  and  consequently  be 
really  eciuivalent  to  the  ego  te  ah.toh'o,  it  is  surely 
not  invalid,  though  all  are  agreed  that  it  would  bo 
illicit  as  contravening  the  present  law  and  discipline 
of  the  Roman  Church.  Some,  not  pronouncing  judg- 
ment on  the  real  merits  of  the  case,  think  that  the 
Holy  See  has  withdrawn  faculties  from  those  who  do 
not  use  the  indicative  form,  but  in  the  alxsence  of 
positive  ordinance  this  is  by  no  means  certain. 

Ci)Ni>rri()N'.\L  Ansoi.ii-rioN'. — .\ntiquity  makes  no 
mention  of  conditional  absolution.  Benedict  XIV 
alludes  in  "  De  .Synodo"  (Bk.  VII,  c.  xv)  to  a  p;ussage 
of  (!andavensis(d.  rj!tt).but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
learned  pontiff  caught  the  meaning  of  the  theologian 
of  Ghent,  flerson  in  the  fifteenth  century,  both  in 
"De  schismate  toUendo"  and  "  De  unitate  ecclesiie", 
stands  :is  spon.sor  for  conditional  absolution,  although 
l.—n 


Cajetan,  a  century  later,  calls  Gerson's  position  mere 
superstition.  But  Gerson's  position  gradually  ob- 
tained, and  in  our  day  all  theologians  grant  that 
under  certain  circumstances  such  absolution  is  not 
only  valid  but  also  legitimate  (Lehmkuhl-Gury,  De 
lia-nit.,  absol.  sub  conditione);  valid,  beoause  judi- 
cial pronouncements  are  often  rendered  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  and  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  is 
es.sontially  a  judicial  act  (Counc.  of  Trent,  Sess.  XIV); 
also,  because  God  absolves  in  heaven  when  certain 
conditions  are  fulfilled  here  below.  The  fulfilment 
may  escape  man's  judgment,  but  God  no  man  may 
deceive.  This  very  doubt  makes  conditional  abso- 
lution possible.  Conditions  are  either  (a)  present, 
(b)  past,  or  (c)  future.  Following  a  general  law, 
whensoever  the  condition  leaves  in  suspense  the  ef- 
fect intended  by  the  Sacrament,  the  Sacrament  itself 
is  null  and  void.  If  the  condition  does  not  suspend 
the  sacramental  efficacy,  the  Sacrament  may  be  valid. 
As  a  consequence,  all  future  conditions  render  abso- 
lution invalid:  "I  absolve  you  if  you  die  to-day." 
Tills  is  not  true  of  conditions  past  or  present,  and 
absolution  given,  for  example,  on  condition  that  the 
subject  has  been  baptized,  or  is  still  alive,  would  cer- 
tainly not  invalidate  the  Sacrament.  What  is  in 
itself  valid  may  not  be  legitimate,  and  in  this  impor- 
tant matter  reverence  due  the  holy  Sacrament  must 
ever  be  kept  in  mind,  and  also  tlie  spiritual  need  of 
the  penitent.  The  doctrine  commonly  received  is 
that  whenever  conditional  absolution  will  safeguard 
the  holiness  and  dignity  of  the  Sacrament  it  may  be 
employed,  or  whenever  the  spiritual  need  of  the  peni- 
tent is  clear,  but  at  the  .same  time  dispositions  nec- 
essary for  the  valid  reception  of  the  Sacrament  are  in 
doubt,  then  it  would  be  a  mercy  to  impart  absolu- 
tion even  if  under  condition. 

Indirect  An.soLUTio.v. — Closely  allied  to  condi- 
tional is  the  absolution  termed  indirect.  It  obtains 
whenever  absolution  is  granted  for  a  fault  that  has 
not  been  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the  minister 
in  the  tribunal  of  penance.  Korgctfulness  on  the 
part  of  the  penitent  is  responsible  for  most  cases  of 
indirect  absolution,  though  sometimes  reservation 
(see  Resehved  C.\.ses)  may  be. 

Gii.\NTiNO  OP  Ab.solutiox. — In  virtue  of  Christ's 
dispensation,  the  bishops  and  priests  are  made  judges 
in  the  Sacrament  of  Penance.  The  power  to  bind 
iis  well  as  the  power  to  loose  has  been  given  by  Christ. 
The  minister  therefore  must  have  in  mind  not  only 
his  own  powers,  viz.,  order  and  jurisdiction,  but  he 
must  also  keep  in  mind  the  dispositions  of  the  peni- 
tent. If  (a)  the  penitent  is  well-disposed,  he  must 
alxsolve;  (b)  if  the  penitent  lack  the  requisite  dispo- 
sitions, he  must  endeavour  to  create  the  pro[)er  frame 
of  mind,  for  he  cannot  and  may  not  absolve  one  in- 
disposed; (c)  when  dispositions  remain  doubtful,  he 
employs  the  privilege  given  above  in  conditional  ab- 
solution. When  the  minister  sees  fit  to  grant  abso- 
lution, then  he  pronounces  the  words  of  the  form 
(.supra)  over  the  penitent.  It  is  commonly  taught 
that  the  penitent  must  be  physically  present;  conse- 
quently, absolution  by  telegraph  has  been  declared 
invalia,  and  when  questioned  in  regard  to  absolution 
by  the  telephone  the  Sacred  Congregation  (1  July, 
ISSl)   answered  Nihil  respondentlum. 

Absoiaition  Outside  the  L.\tin  Church. — (I)  In 
the  Greek  Church.  The  belief  of  the  ancient  Cireek 
Church  has  been  set  forth  above.  That  the  Greeks 
have  always  believed  that  the  Church  has  power  to 
forgive  sin,  that  they  believe  it  at  present,  is  clear 
from  the  formulx  of  absolution  in  vogue  among  all 
branches  of  the  Church;  also  from  the  decrees  of 
synods  which  since  the  Reformation  have  again  and 
again  expre«.sed  this  belief  (.-^Izog  on  Cyril  Lucaris, 
III,  46.t;  .Synod  of  Constantinople,  lO.'JS;  Synod 
of  Jassy,  1642;  Synod  of  Jerusalem,  1C72).  In  the 
Synod  of  Jerusalem  the  Church  reiterates  its  belief  in 


ABSOLUTION 


66 


ABSTEMII 


Seven  Sacraments,  among  them  Penance,  which  the 
Lord  estabhshed  when  He  said:  "Whose  sins  you 
shall  forgive  tliey  are  forgiven  tliem,  and  whose  sins 
you  shall  retain  tliey  are  retained."  The  formula;  of 
absolution  are  generally  deprecatory,  and  if  now  and 
then  the  indicative  form  appears,  it  may  be  traced  to 
Latin  sources. 

(II)  Russian  Church.  The  belief  of  the  Greek 
Church  is  naturally  also  that  of  the  Russian.  Rus- 
sian tlieologians  ail  hold  that  the  Church  possesses 
the  power  to  forgive  sins,  where  there  is  true  repent- 
ance and  sincere  confession.  The  form  in  use  at 
present  is  a-:  follows:  "My  child,  N.  N.,  may  our 
Lord  and  God  Christ  Jesus  by  the  mercy  of  His  love 
absolve  thee  from  thy  sins;  and  I,  His  unworthy 
priest,  in  virtue  of  the  authority  committed  to  me, 
absolve  thee  and  declare  thee  absolved  of  thy  sins 
in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  Amen." 

(III)  Armenians.  Denzinger,  in  his  "Ritus  Orien- 
talium"  (1863),  gives  us  a  full  translation  of  the  peni- 
tential ritual  used  by  the  Armenians.  The  present 
version  is  from  the  ninth  century.  The  form  of  ab- 
solution is  declarative,  though  it  is  preceded  by  a 
prayer  for  mercy  and  for  pardon.  It  is  as  follows: 
"May  the  merciful  Lord  have  pity  on  thee  and  for- 
give thee  thy  faults;  in  virtue  of  my  priestly  power, 
by  the  authority  and  command  of  God  expressed  in 
these  words,  'Whatsoever  you  shall  bind  on  earth 
shall  be  bound  in  heaven',  I  absolve  thee  from  thy 
sins,  I  absolve  thee  from  thy  thoughts,  from  thy 
words,  from  thy  deeds,  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  I  restore 
thee  to  the  Sacrament  of  the  Holy  Church.  May  all 
thy  good  works  be  for  thee  an  increase  of  merit,  may 
they  be  for  the  glory  of  life  everlasting,  Amen." 

(IV)  Copts.  Dr.  Hyvernat  asserts  that  the  litur- 
gical boolvs  of  the  Copts  have  no  penitential  formulce, 
nor  is  this  surprising,  for  they  inscribe  in  the  ritual 
only  those  things  not  found  in  other  rituals.  Father 
du  Bernat,  writing  to  Pere  Fleurian  (Lettres  ddifi- 
antes),  says,  in  reference  to  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance  among  the  Copts,  that  the  Copts  believe 
themselves  bound  to  a  full  confession  of  their  sins. 
This  finished,  the  priest  recites  over  them  the  prayer 
said  at  the  beginning  of  the  Mass,  the  prayer  asking 
pardon  and  forgi\'eness  from  God;  to  this  is  added  the 
so-called  "Benediction",  which  Father  Bernat  says 
is  like  the  prayer  said  in  the  Latin  Church  after  ab- 
solution has  been  imparted.  Dr.  Hyvernat,  however, 
asserts  thai  Father  Bernat  is  mistaken  when  he  likens 
the  Benediction  to  our  Passio  Domini,  for  it  is 
like  the  Latin  prayer  only  inasmuch  as  it  is  recited 
after  absolution. 

(V)  Jacobites.  (For  the  earliest  tradition  in  the 
Syrian  Church  see  above,  Absolution  in  Patristic 
age.)  The  Syrians  who 'are  united  with  the  Roman 
See  now  use  the  declarative  form  in  imparting  abso- 
lution. This  formula  is,  however,  of  recent  date. 
The  present  Jacobite  Church  not  only  holds  and  has 
held  the  power  to  absolve  from  sin,  but  its  ritual  is 
expressive  of  this  same  power.  Denzinger  (Ritus  Ori- 
entalium)  has  preserved  for  us  a  twelfth-century  doc- 
ument which  gives  in  full  the  order  of  absolution. 

(VI)  Ncstorians.  The  Nestorians  have  at  all  times 
believed  in  the  power  to  absolve  in  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance.  Assemani,  Renaudot,  Badger  (Nestorians 
and  their  Rituals),  also  Denzinger,  have  the  fullest  in- 
formation on  this  point.  It  is  noticeable  that  their 
formula  of  absolution  is  deprecatory,  not  indicative. 

(VII)  Protestants.  The  earliest  Reformers  at- 
tacked virulently  the  penitential  practice  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  particularly  the  confession  of  sins 
to  a  priest.  Their  opinions  expressed  in  their  later 
theological  works  do  not  differ  as  markedly  from  the 
old  position  as  one  might  suppose.  The  Lutheran 
tenet   of  justification    by   faith   alone   would   make 


all  absolution  merely  declarative,  and  reduce  the 
pardon  granted  by  the  Churcli  to  the  merest  an- 
nouncement of  the  Gospel,  especially  of  remission  of 
sins  through  Christ.  Zwingh  held  that  God  alone 
pardoned  sin,  and  he  saw  nothing  but  idolatry  in 
the  practice  of  hoping  for  pardon  trom  a  mere  crea- 
ture. If  confession  had  aught  of  good  it  was  merely 
as  direction.  Calvin  denied  all  idea  of  sacrament 
when  there  was  question  of  Penance;  but  he  held 
that  the  pardon  expressed  by  the  minister  of  the 
Church  gave  to  the  penitent  a  greater  guarantee  of 
forgiveness.  The  Confession  styled  "Helvetian" 
contents  itself  with  denying  the  necessity  of  confes- 
sion to  a  priest,  but  holds  that  the  power  granted  by 
Christ  to  absolve  is  simply  the  power  to  preach  to 
the  people  the  Gospel  of  Jesus,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  remission  of  sins:  "Rite  itaque  et  efficaeiter  min- 
istri  absolvunt  dura  cvangelium  Christi  et  in  hoc 
remissionem  peccatorum  pra-dicant. " 

(VIII)  Anglican  Church.  In  the  "Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer"  there  is  a  formula  of  Absolution  in 
Matins,  at  the  communion  service,  and  in  the  visita- 
tion of  the  sick.  The  first  two  are  general,  akin  to 
the  liturgical  absolution  in  use  in  the  Roman  Church; 
the  third  is  individual  by  the  very  nature  of  the  case. 
Of  the  third  absolution  the  rubric  speaks  as  follows: 
"Here  shall  the  sick  person  be  moved  to  make  a 
special  confession  of  his  sins  if  he  feel  his  conscience 
troubled  with  any  weighty  matter.  After  which  con- 
fession, the  priest  shall  absolve  him  (if  he  humbly 
and  heartily  desire  it)  after  this  sort:  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  who  hath  left  power  to  His  Church  to 
absolve  all  sinners  who  truly  repent  and  believe  in 
Him,  of  His  great  mercy  forgive  thee  thine  offences, 
and  by  His  authority  committed  to  me,  I  absolve 
thee  from  all  thy  sins,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Amen."  This 
is  the  form  generally  employed  by  the  Anglican 
clergymen  when  they  absolve  after  having  heard 
private  confessions.  These  formula?,  even  the  last, 
are  indeed  vague,  and  in  the  light  of  Anglican  inter- 
pretation (always  excepting  the  advanced  Ritualists) 
mean  little  more  than  the  power  to  declare  sins  for- 
given (Convocation,  1S73;  Lambeth  Conference,  1877; 
Liddon's  "Life  of  Pusey"). 

The  Ritualists,  since  the  Pusey  sermon  of  1846, 
have  held  with  more  or  less  variance  that  Christ  has 
granted  to  His  priests  the  power  to  forgive  sins. 
They  have  also  held  that  this  power  should  be  exer- 
cised after  confession  has  been  made  to  the  minister 
of  the  Church.  Among  Ritualists  themselves  some 
have  insisted  that  confession  to  the  priest  was  neces- 
sary either  in  re  or  in  veto,  others  have  not  gone  to 
such  lengths.  On  the  discussion  in  the  year  1898, 
Dr.  Temple  wrote  a  Pastoral.  One  may  consult  with 
profit  Mashell's  "Enq\iiry  upon  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Anglican  Church  on  Absolution";  Boyd's  "Confes- 
sion, Absolution  and  Real  Presence";  Father  Gall- 
wey's  "Twelve  Lectures  on  Ritualism"  (I.on  !on, 
1870).  Edward  J.  H.^nn.\. 

Absolution,  Canonical.  See  Censure;  Excom- 
munication. 

Absolutism.    See  Predestination. 

Abstemii. — An  abst.e>nius  is  one  who  cannot  take 
wine  without  risk  of  vomiting.  As,  therefore,  the 
consecration  at  Mass  must  be  effected  in  both  species, 
of  bread  and  wine,  an  abstcniius  is  consequently 
irregular.  St.  Alphonsus,  following  the  opinion  of 
Suarez,  teaches  that  such  irregularity  is  de  jure 
divino;   and   that,   therefore,  the   Pope   caimot   dis- 

fiense  from  it.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  one  who 
las  a  strong  distaste  for  wine,  though  able  to  take 
a  small  quantity.  A  distaste  of  this  nature  does  not 
constitute  irregularity,  but  a  papal  dispensation  is 
required,  in  order  to  excuse  from  the  use  of  wine  at 
the    purification    of    the    chalice   and  the  ablution 


ABSTINENCE 


67 


ABSTINENCE 


of  the  priest's  fingers  at  the  oiid  of  Mass.  In  tliese 
cases  tlie  use  of  wine  is  an  ecclesiastical  law  from 
whose  obsorvaiue  the  Church  has  power  to  dispense. 
A  decree  of  Propaganda,  dated  13  January,  1GG5, 
grants  a  disjwnsation  in  this  sense  to  missionaries 
in  Cliina,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  wine;  various 
similar  rulings  are  to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  the 
decrees  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  Abstention 
from  the  use  of  wine  has,  occasionally,  been  declared 
obligatory  by  heretics.  It  was  one  of  the  tenets 
of  Gnosticism  in  the  second  century.  Tatian,  the 
founder  of  the  sect  known  as  the  Encratitcs,  forbade 
the  use  of  wine,  and  his  adherents  refused  to  make 
use  of  it  even  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar;  in  its 
place  they  used  water.  These  heretics,  mentioned 
by  St.  Ircna'us  (.•\dv.  Haer.,  I,  xxx),  are  known  as 
llydroparastcs,  Afjuarians,  and  Encratites.  The 
great  Manichcan  heresy  followed  a  few  years  later. 
'I'hcse  heretics,  in  their  turn,  professed  the  greatest 
possible  aversion  to  wine,  as  one  of  the  sources  of  sin. 
St.  Augustine,  in  his  book  against  heresies,  cli.  xlvi, 
says  of  them,  "Vinum  non  bibunt,  dicentes  esse  fel 
prmcipum  tcnebrarum" — "They  drink  no  wine,  for 
they  say  it  is  tlie  gall  of  the  princes  of  darkness." 
They  made  use  of  water  in  celebrating  Mass.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Hcformation,  one  of  the  griev- 
ances alleged  against  the  Church  was  that  she  did 
not  allow  the  faithful  to  communicate  under  both 
kinds.  "We  excuse  the  Church",  so  runs  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  "which  has  sulTered  the  injustice 
of  only  receiving  under  one  kind,  not  being  able  to 
have  both;  but  we  do  not  excuse  the  authors  of  this 
injustice,  who  maintain  that  it  was  right  to  forbid 
the  administering  of  the  complete  Sacrament." 
How,  then,  were  those  to  bo  admitted  to  the  Lord's 
Table,  who  were  unable  to  communicate  under  the 
si)ecics  of  wine?  A  decree  of  the  Synod  of  Poiticre, 
in  ISGO,  reads:  "The  Bread  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
shall  be  administered  to  those  who  cannot  drink 
the  wine,  on  condition  that  they  shall  declare  that 
they  do  not  abstain  out  of  contempt."  Other 
Protestant  synods  also  lay  down  the  rule  that  per- 
sons unable  to  take  wine  shall  be  admitted  to  the 
Lord's  Table  on  condition  that  they  shall  at  least 
touch  with  their  lips  the  cup  which  holds  the  species 
of  wine.  Jurieu,  on  the  other  hand,  starting  from 
the  principle  that  Christ  has  founded  the  essence 
of  the  Eucharist  on  the  two  species,  held  that  an 
ahxtcmiiis  does  not  receive  the  Sacrament,  because  it 
consists  of  two  parts,  and  he  receives  only  one.  A 
great  controversy  ensued  among  the  Protestants 
themselves  on  this  point.  liossuet  held  that  com- 
munion under  both  kinds  could  not  be  of  divine 
obligation,  since  many  would  thereby  be  deprived 
of  the  Sacrament  owing  to  a  natural  weakness. 

lit.Ntutrio  Ojtrri,  Si/nopitis  llcrum  Moralium  </  JurU 
FunUficii  (Ifl04);  Thcoluuin  Moralia  Sli.  Alphonsi,  Lib.  VII, 
409:  CvUrrlnnea  S.  Conffreaationis  de  Propagandil  Fi/ie, 
N.  798:  BoflsrET,  La  Tradition  dffcndue  »ur  ta  malitre  de  (j 
communion  soua  un«  esp^cf,  VI:  Jkkomc  in  Diet,  de  thi'ot. 
cath., .«.  V.  Ahftime;  Cohblet,  Ilisl.  du  Sacrcmfnt  de  VEucharis- 
tie  (Paris.  1S80). 

Jos.  N.  GiGNAC. 

Abstinence. — Inasmuch  as  abstinence  signifies  ab- 
staining from  food,  the  Bible  narrative  points  to  the 
first  instance  wherein  such  a  course  of  conduct  was 
imposed  by  law  (Gen.,  ii,  16,  17).  The  obvious  pur- 
pose of  this  mandate  was  to  lead  the  moral  head 
of  the  human  race  to  recognize  the  necessary  de- 
pendence of  creature  upon  Creator.  The  hour 
which  witnessed  the  transgression  of  this  law  marked 
an  increase  in  the  debt  which  the  creature  owed  the 
Creator.  Adam's  disobedience  rendered  all  men 
criminal,  and  liable  to  the  necessity  of  appeasing 
God's  justice.  To  meet  this  new  exigency  nature 
dictated  the  necessity  of  penance;  positive  legishi- 
tion  flelerniined  the  ways  and  means  whereby  this 
natural   obligation   would   best   be  concreted.     The 


chief  results  of  this  detormiiiiition  are  positive  stat- 
utes concerning  fasting  and  abstinence.  Laws  re- 
lating to  fasting  are  principally  intended  to  define 
what  pertains  to  the  quantity  of  fooa  allowed  on 
days  of  fasting,  wliile  those  regulating  abstinence, 
what  refers  to  the  quality  of  viands.  In  some  in- 
stances both  obligations  coincide;  thus,  the  Fridays 
of  Lent  are  days  of  fasting  and  abstinence.  In  other 
instances  the  law  of  abstinence  alone  binds  the 
faithful;  thus  ordinary  Fridays  are  simply  days  of 
abstinence.  The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  trace 
the  history  of  ecclesiastical  legislation  regarding  the 
law  of  abstinence,  as  well  as  to  e.xamine  the  motives 
which  underlie  this  legislation. 

The  Bible:  Aiistine.vce  in  The  Old  Testament. 
— Fasting  implying  abstinence  was  ordained  by  law 
for  theUayof  Atonement  (Levit.,xvi,  29  sq.).  The 
ceremony  incident  to  this  feast  was  observed  by  the 
Jews  on  the  fifth  day  before  the  feast  of  Tabernacles. 
From  evening  of  the  ninth  until  evening  of  the  tenth 
d;iy  labour  and  eating  were  strictly  prohibited. 
Besides  this  passage  the  sacred  narrative  contains 
many  others  which  show  how  adversity  moved  the 
Jews  to  assume  the  burden  of  fasting  and  abstinence 
in  a  spirit  of  penance  (Judges,  x.x,  26;  Judith,  vi,  20; 
Joel,  i,  14;  ii,  15).  Moreover,  the  Jews  abstained  on 
the  ninth  day  of  the  fourth  month,  because  on  that 
d.iy  Nabuchodonosor  captured  Jerusalem  (Jcrcm., 
lii,  6);  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  fifth  month,  because 
on  that  day  the  temple  was  burned  (Jerern.,  lii,  12  sq.); 
on  the  third  day  of  the  seventh  month,  because  on 
that  day  Oodolias  h:id  been  murdered  (Jerem..  xli,  2); 
and  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month,  because 
on  that  day  the  Chaldecs  commenced  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  (IV  Kings,  xxv,  1  sq.).  They  were  told 
that  fidelity  to  these  regulations  would  bring  joy, 
gladness,  and  great  solemnities  to  the  house  of 
Juda  (Zach.,  viii,  19).  During  the  month  of  new 
corn  they  were  obliged  to  spend  seven  days  without 
leaven,  and  to  eat  the  bread  of  afiliction  in  memory 
of  their  delivery  from  Egj-pt  (Deut.,  xvi,  3).  In 
addition  to  those  indications  concerning  the  sea- 
sons of  abstinence  amongst  the  Jews,  the  sacred 
text  contains  passages  regarding  the  ways  and  means 
whereby  the  law  of  abstinence  assumed  more  definite 
shape  amongst  them.  After  the  deluge  God  said 
to  Noe:  "Everything  that  moveth  upon  the  earth 
shall  be  a  meat  for  you,  saving  that  flesh  with  blood 
you  sh:xll  not  eat"  (Gen.,  ix,  3,  4;  similar  passages  are 
contained  in  Levit.,  vii,  2Gsq.;  xvii,14sq.;  Deut.,xii, 
1.5,  Ki).  A  prohibition  whereby  corn,  oil,  wine,  and 
the  first-born  of  herds  and  cattle  are  forbidden  in 
towns  is  set  forth  in  Deut.,  xii,  17.  Priests  were 
forbidden  to  drink  any  into.xicant  lest  they  die 
(Levit.,  X,  9").  The  eleventh  chapter  of  Leviticus 
contains  a  detailed  enumeration  of  the  various 
beasts,  birds,  and  fish  that  fall  under  the  ban.  Such 
were  reputed  unclean.  Abstinence  from  things 
legally  unclean  was  intended  to  train  the  Israelites 
in  the  pursuit  of  spiritual  cleanness. 

The  Old  Testament  furnishes  several  instances  of 
celebrated  personages  who  betook  themselves  to  this 
chiistisement  of  tlie  fiesh.  David  kept  fa.st  on  ac- 
count of  the  child  born  of  the  wife  of  Trias  (II  Kings, 
xii,  16);  Esther  humbled  her  body  with  fasts  (Esth., 
xiv.  2);  Judith  fasted  all  the  days  of  her  life  (Jud.,  viii, 
6);  Daniel  ate  neither  bread  nor  flesh  till  the  days  of 
three  weeks  were  accomplished  (Dan.,  x,  3);  and 
Judas  Macliabeus  and  all  the  people  craved  mercy 
in  tears  and  fa.sting  (II  Macli.,  xiii,  12).  Moreover, 
Esdras  commanded  a  fast  by  the  river  Ahava  (I 
Esd.,  viii,  21).  The  King  of  Mnive  proclaimed  a  fast 
in  Ninive  whereby  neither  man  nor  beasts  should 
taste  anything,  whether  of  food  or  drink  (Jonas,  iii,  7). 
Moses  (Exod.,  xxxiv,  28)  and  Elixs  (III  Kings.xix.S) 
spent  forty  days  in  abstinence  and  fasting.  Finally, 
tlic  Pharisee  in  the  Temple  declared  that  he  fasted 


ABSTINENCE 


GS 


ABSTINENCE 


"twice  in  a  week"  (Lulcc,  xviii,  12).  Apropos  of 
this  passage  Ducliesne  says  that  Monday  and  Tliurs- 
day  were  days  of  fasting  among  the  pious  Jews 
("Christian  Worsliip",  London,  1903,  228). 

The  New  Test.vment. — In  the  first  portion  of  his 
Gospel  St.  Matthew  relates  liow  Christ  passed  forty 
days  in  tlie  desert,  during  whicli  time  neither  food 
nor  drink  passed  his  lips.  No  doubt  this  penance 
of  the  God-man  was  not  only  expiatory,  but  also 
exemplary.  True,  Christ  did  not  explicitly  define 
the  days  nor  the  weeks  wherein  his  followers  woiild 
be  obliged  to  fast  and  abstain.  At  the  same  time 
his  example,  coupled  with  his  reply  to  the  disciples 
of  the  Baptist,  is  an  evidence  that  tlie  future  would 
find  his  followers  sub.)ectcd  to  regulations  whereby 
they  would  fast  "  after  the  bridegroom  had  been  taken 
away  ".  The  only  piece  of  clearly  defined  legislation 
concerning  abstinence  embodied  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  framed  by  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  pre- 
scribing "abstinence  from  things  sacrificed  to  idols, 
and  from  blood,  and  from  things  strangled"  (Acts,  xv, 
29).  Nevertheless  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  gi\-e 
evidence  of  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  Church, 
as  an  organized  body,  to  prepare  the  way  for  im- 
portant events  by  abstinence  and  fasting  (Acts,  xiii, 
3;  xiv,  22).  In  fine,  St.  Paul  sets  forth  the  necessity 
of  abstinence  when  he  says  that  "everyone  striving 
for  the  mastery  must  abstain  from  all  things  (I  Cor., 
ix,  25);  and  "let  us  exhibit  ourselves  as  the  minis- 
ters of  Christ  in  labours,  watchings,  and  fastings " 
(II  Cor.,  vi,  5),  which  he  had  often  practised  (II 
Cor.,  xi,  27). 

The  L.\tin  Church:  Subjects  under,  and  Ma- 
terial Element  of,  the  L.vw. — Throughout  the 
Latin  Church  the  law  of  abstinence  prohibits  all 
responsible  subjects  from  indulging  in  meat  diet  on 
duly  appointed  days.  Meat  diet  comprises  the  flesh, 
blood,  or  marrow  of  such  animals  and  birds  as  con- 
stitute flesh  meat  according  to  the  appreciation  of 
intelligent  and  law-abiding  Christians.  For  this 
reason  tlie  use  of  fish,  vegetables,  molluscs,  crabs, 
turtles,  frogs,  and  such-like  cold-blooded  creatures 
is  not  at  variance  with  the  law  of  abstinence.  Am- 
phibians are  relegated  to  the  category  whereunto 
they  bear  most  striking  resemblance.  This  classifi- 
cation can  scarcely  preclude  all  doubt  regarding 
viands  prohibited  by  the  law  of  abstinence.  Local 
usage,  together  with  the  practice  of  intelligent  and 
conscientious  Christians,  generally  holds  a  key  for 
the  solution  of  mooted  points  in  such  matters,  other- 
wise the  decision  rests  with  ecclesiastical  authority. 
Furthermore,  on  many  fasting  days  during  the  year 
the  law  of  abstinence  bars  the  use  of  such  viands 
as  bear  some  identity  of  origin  with  flesh  meat. 
For  this  reason  eggs,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  lard 
are  interdicted  (St.  Thomas,  Summa,  II-II,  Q.  cvii, 
art.  ult.,  ad  3).  The  Church  enjoins  the  ways  and 
means  whereby  her  subjects  must  satisfy  the  obli- 
gation of  doing  penance  inculcated  by  natural  law. 
Many  of  the  l'"athers  allude  to  the  exercise  of  ec- 
clesiastical authority  in  reference  to  the  obligation 
of  abstinence.  The  disciplinary  canons  of  various 
councils  bear  witness  to  the  actual  exercise  of  au- 
thority in  the  same  direction.  Texts  of  theology 
and  catechisms  of  Christian  doctrine  indicate  that 
the  obligation  of  abstaining  forms  an  element  in  one 
of  the  Commandments  of  the  Church.  Satisfaction 
for  sin  is  an  item  of  primary  import  in  the  moral 
order.  Naturally  enough,  abstinence  contributes  no 
small  share  towards  tlic  realization  of  this  end.  As 
a  consequence,  the  law  of  abstinence  embodies  a 
serious  obligation  whose  transgression,  objectively 
considered,  ordinarily  involves  a  mortal  sin.  The 
unanimous  verdict  of  theologians,  the  constant 
practice  of  the  faithful,  and  the  mind  of  the  Church 
place  this  point  beyond  cavil.  They  who  would 
fain  minimize  the  character  of  this  obligation  so  as 


to  relegate  all  transgressions,  sa\e  such  as  originate 
in  contempt,  to  the  category  of  venial  sin  are 
anathematized  by  Alexander  VII  [Cf.  Prop.  23, 
ap.  Bucceroni,  Enchiridion  Morale,  145  (Rome,  1905)]. 
In  fine,  the  TruUan  synod  (can.  58,  ap.  Hefele, 
"History  of  the  Councils  of  the  Church",  V,  231,  Ed- 
inburgh, 1896)  inflicts  deposition  on  clerics  and 
excommunication  on  laymen  who  violate  this  law. 
Furthermore,  theologians  claim  that  a  grievous  sin 
is  committed  as  often  as  flesh  meat  is  consumed  in 
any  quantity  on  abstinence  days  (Sporer,  Theologia 
Moralis  super  Decalogum,  I,  De  observ.  jejunii,  §  2, 
assert.  II),  because  the  law  is  negative,  and  binds 
semper  el  -pro  semper.  In  other  words,  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  Church  in  this  matter  is  absolute.  At 
times,  however,  the  quantity  of  prohibited  material 
may  be  so  small  that  the  law  sufTers  no  substantial 
violation.  From  an  objective  standpoint  such  trans- 
gressions carry  the  guilt  of  venial  sin.  Moralists 
are  by  no  means  unanimous  in  deciding  where  the 
material  element  of  such  minor  disorders  passes  into 
a  material  disorder  of  major  importance.  Some 
think  that  an  oimce  of  flesh  meat  suffices  to  con- 
stitute a  serious  breach  of  this  law,  whereas  others 
claim  that  nothing  short  of  two  ounces  involves  in- 
fringement of  this  obligation.  Ordinarily,  the  actual 
observance  of  the  law  is  confined  to  such  circum- 
stances as  carry  no  insupportable  burden.  This  is 
why  the  sick,  the  infirm,  mendicants,  labourers,  and 
such  as  find  difficulty  in  procuring  fish  diet  are  not 
bound  to  observe  the  law  as  long  as  such  conditions 
prevail. 

Days  of  Abstinence.  (1)  Friday. — From  "the 
dawn  of  Christianity,  Friday  has  been  signalized  as  an 
abstinence  day,  in  order  to  do  homage  to  the  memory 
of  Christ  suffering  and  dying  on  that,  day  of  the 
week.  The  "Teaching  of  the  Apostles  "  (viii),  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  VI,  75),  and  Tertullian  (De 
jejun.,  xiv)  make  explicit  mention  of  this  practice. 
Pope  Nicholas  I  (S5S-8G7)  declares  that  abstinence 
from  flesh  meat  is  enjoined  on  Fridays.  There  is 
every  reason  to  conjecture  that  Innocent  III  (1198- 
1216)  had  the  existence  of  tliis  law  in  mind  when 
he  said  that  this  obligation  is  suppressed  as  often 
as  Cliristmas  Day  falls  on  Friday  (De  observ.  jejunii, 
ult.  cap.  ap.  Layman,  Theologia  Moralis,  I,  iv, 
tract,  viii,  ii).  Moreover,  the  way  in  which  the 
custom  of  abstaining  on  Saturday  originated  in  the 
Roman  Church  is  a  striking  evidence  of  the  early 
institution  of  Friday  as  an  abstinence  day. 

(2)  Saturday. — As  early  as  the  time  of  Tertullian, 
some  churches  occasionally  prolonged  the  Friday 
abstinence  and  fast  so  as  to  embrace  Saturday. 
Tertullian  (De  jejunio,  xiv)  calls  this  practice  con- 
tinuare  jejunium — an  expression  subsequently  su- 
perseded by  superponere  jejunium.  Such  prolong- 
ations were  quite  common  at  the  end  of  the  third 
century.  The  Council  of  Elvira  (can.  xxvi,  ap.  Hefele, 
op.  cit.,  I,  147)  enjoins  the  observance  of  one  such 
fast  and  abstinence  every  month,  except  during 
July  and  August.  At  the  same  time  the  fathers  of 
Elvira  abrogated  the  "superposition"  which  had 
up  to  that  time  been  obligatory  on  all  Saturdaj'S 
(Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  231).  Moreover,  Gregory  VII 
(1073-85)  speaks  in  no  uncertain  terms  of  the  obli- 
gation to  abstain  on  Saturdays,  when  he  declares 
that  all  Christians  are  bound  to  abstain  from  flesh 
meat  on  Saturday  as  often  as  no  major  solemnity 
(e.  g.  Christmas)  occurs  on  Saturday,  or  no  in- 
firmity serves  to  cancel  the  obligation  (cap.  Quia 
dies,  d.  5,  de  consecrat.,  ap.  Joannes,  Azor.  Inst. 
Moral.  I,  Bk.  VII,  c.  xii).  Various  authors  have 
assigned  different  reasons  to  account  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  obligation  so  as  to  bind  tlie  faitliful  to 
abstain  not  only  on  Fridays,  but  also  on  Saturdays. 
Some  hold  that  this  practice  wiis  inaugurated  to 
commemorate    the    burial    of    Christ   Jesus;    others 


ABSTINENCE 


G9 


ABSTINENCE 


that  it  was  instituted  to  imitate  the  Apostles  and 
Disciples  of  Christ,  who,  together  with  the  Holy 
Women,  mourned  the  death  of  Christ  even  on  the 
seventh  day;  while  others  claim  that  it  owes  its 
origin  to  the  conduct  of  St.  Peter,  who  passed  Satur- 
day in  prayer,  abstinence,  and  fasting,  to  prepare  to 
meet  Simon  Magus  on  the  following  day  (Acts,  viii, 
ISsq.;  cf.  Mignc,  P.  I..  XMX,coll.  1J7,  US).  Though 
the  Roman  Pontiffs  have  constantly  refused  to 
abrogate  the  law  of  abstaining  on  Saturday,  special 
indults  dispensing  with  the  obligation  have  been 
granted  to  the  faithful  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

(3)  Lent. — In  point  of  duration,  a.s  well  as  in  point 
of  penitential  practices,  Lent  has  been  the  subject 
of  many  vicissitudes.  In  the  days  of  St.  IreULCus 
(177-202)  the  season  of  penance  preceding  ICaster 
was  of  rather  short  duration.  Some  fasted  and 
therefore  abstained  from  flesh  meat  etc.  for  one 
day,  others  for  two  days,  and  others  again  for  a 
greater  number  of  days.  No  distinct  traces  of  the 
([uadragesimal  observance  are  discernible  until  the 
fourth  century.  The  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Nicira 
in  325  (can.  v,  ap.  Ilefele,  op.  cit.,  I,  387)  contain  the 
earliest  mention  of  Lent.  Thenceforward  ecclesi- 
a.stical  history  contains  numerous  allusions  to  those 
forty  days.  Nevertheless,  the  earliest  references  to 
the  quadragesimal  season  indicate  that  it  was  then 
usually  considered  a  time  of  preparation  for  baptism, 
or  for  the  absolution  of  penitents,  or  a  season  of 
retreat  and  recollection  for  people  living  in  the 
world.  True,  fasting  and  abstinence  formed  part 
of  the  duties  characterizing  this  season,  but  there 
was  little  or  no  uniformity  in  the  maimer  of  observ- 
ance. On  the  contrary,  different  countries  adopted 
a  different  rdgime.  At  Rome  it  was  customary  to 
spend  but  three  weeks,  immediately  before  Easter, 
in  abstinence,  fasting,  and  praying  (Socrates,  H.  E., 
V,  22).  Many  attempts  were  made  to  include  Holy 
Week  in  Quadragesima.  The  attempt  succeeded  at 
Home,  so  that  thenceforward  the  Lenten  season  con- 
sisted of  six  weeks.  During  these  six  weeks  Sun- 
days were  the  only  days  not  reache<l  by  the  law 
of  fasting,  but  the  obligation  to  abstain  was  not 
withdrawn  from  Sundays.  As  a  consequence,  the 
Lenten  season  numbered  no  more  than  thirty-six 
days.  Hence  St.  Ambrose  (Scrm.  xxxiv,  de  Quadrag.) 
notes  that  the  beginning  of  Lent  and  the  first  Sun- 
day of  Lent  were  simultaneous  prior  to  the  reign 
of  (Ircgory  I.  In  the  seventh  century  four  days 
were  added.  Some  claim  that  this  change  was  the 
work  of  Gregory  I;  others  ascribe  it  to  (ircgory  II 
(Layman,  loc.  cit.).  Duchesne  (op.  cit.,  2-14)  .says 
that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  who  aeidcd  four  days  to 
the  thirty-six  previously  comprised  in  the  Lenten 
season.  It  is  likely,  at  all  events,  that  the  change 
was  made  so  as  to  have  forty  days  in  which  to 
commemorate  Christ's  forty  days  in  the  desert. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Church  has  never  deviated 
from  the  ordinance  of  the  seventh  century  whereby 
the  Lenten  season  comprises  forty  days  over  and 
above  Sundays. 

(I )  Ember  Days. — The  lipgiiming  of  the  four  seasons 
of  the  year  is  marked  by  Emijcr  Week,  during  which 
Wednesday,  Friday,  and  Saturday  are  days  of  fast- 
ing and  abstinence.  Ember  Week  occurs  after  the 
first  Sunday  of  Lent,  after  Pentecost,  after  the  fe;ist 
of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and  after  the  third 
Sunday  in  Advent.  According  to  some  writers  the 
I.mber  Days  in  December  wore  introduced  by  the 
Apostles  as  a  preparation  for  the  ordinations  which 
occurred  during  that  month  (Layman,  loc.  cit.). 
The  scriptural  basis  for  this  practice  is  to  be  found 
in  Acts,  xiii,  2  sq.  The  summer  Ember  Days  were 
ob.served  during  the  octave  of  Pentecost  (St.  Leo  I, 
Sermo  ii.dc  Pentecost.),  and  theautumn  Ember  Days 
in  September  (Idem,  Sermo  viii,  Dc  jejunio  scptimi 
mensis).     In  the  False  Decretals   (c.  .SlO-.'iO)   Po|ie 


Callistus  (217-22)  is  made  to  a  Id  a  fourth  week.  We 
decree,  he  says,  that  the  fast  which  you  have  learned 
to  keep  three  times  yearly,  shall  henceforward  be 
made  four  times  a  year  (Epist.,  Deer.  Ixxvi,  cap.  i; 
Migne,  P.  C,  X,  1  Jl ).  St.  Jerome,  in  his  commentary 
on  the  eighth  chapter  of  Zachary,  believes  that  the 
Ember  Days  were  instituted  after  the  example  of  the 
Jews,  who  fasted  and  abstained  four  times  during  the 
year,  as  noted  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  St.  l,eo  I 
(Sermo  vii,  De  jej.  sept,  mensis)  considers  that  the 
purpose  of  penance  during  Ember  Week  is  to  urge 
the  faithful  to  special  efforts  in  the  cau.so  of  conti- 
nency.     The  two  views  are  entirely  comf)atible. 

(."))  Advent. — Iladulphus  de  Rivo  (Kalendarium 
cedes,  seu  do  observatione  canonum.  Prop,  xvi)  and 
Innocent  III  (De  ob.serv.  jej.,  cap.  ii)  testify  that 
the  Roman  Church  appointed  a  period  of  fasting  and 
abstinence  as  a  preparation  for  the  solemnization  of 
Christmas.  Traces  of  this  custom  are  still  to  be 
found  in  the  Roman  Breviary  indicating  the  recita- 
tion of  ferial  prayers  during  Advent  just  as  on 
days  of  fasting  and  abstinence.  Radulphus  de  Rivo 
(loc.  cit.)  remarks  that  the  Roman  Church  appointed 
the  first  Sunday  after  St.  Catharine's  feast  as  the 
beginning  of  Advent. 

(())  Vigils. — In  former  times  the  clergy  as.sembled 
in  church,  on  the  eves  of  great  festivals,  and  chanted 
the  divine  office.  In  like  manner  the  laity  also  re- 
paired to  their  churches  and  passed  the  time  in 
watching  and  praying.  Hence  the  term  vigil. 
Innocent  III  (op.  cit.,  i)  mentions  the  vigils  of  Christ- 
mas, the  A.ssumption,  and  the  Apostles  (28  June). 
It  is  likely  that  the  obligation  of  abstaining  on  the 
vigils  of  Pentecost,  St.  John  Baptist,  St.  Lawrence, 
and  .\11  Saints  was  introduced  by  custom  (cf.  Azor., 
op.  cit.,  VII,  xiii),  for,  according  to  Duchesne  (op. 
cit.,  287),  the  element  of  antiquity  is  not  the  fasting, 
but  the  vigil.  Formerly,  the  obligation  of  abstaining 
on  vigils  was  anticipated  as  often  as  a  vigil  fell  on 
Sunday.     This  practice  is  still  in  vogue. 

(7)  Rogation  Days. — These  days  occur  on  the  Mon- 
day, Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  preceding  the  As- 
cension. Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  introduced 
(.some  time  before  474)  the  custom  of  reciting  the 
Litanies  on  these  days.  He  also  prescribed  fasting 
and  abstinence  thereon.  This  practice  was  extended 
to  the  whole  of  Prankish  Gaul  in  511  by  the  first 
Council  of  Orle.ans  (can.  xx\'ii).  About  the  beginning 
of  the  ninth  century  Leo  III  introduced  the  Roga- 
tion Days  into  Rome  (Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  289).  An 
almost  similar  ob.servance  characterizes  the  feast 
of  St.  Mark,  and  dates  from  about  the  year  589 
(Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  288). 

Applic.\tion  of  the  Law  in  the  Uniteo  St.\te.s. 
— Diversity  in  ctistoms,  in  climate,  and  in  prices  of 
food  have  gradually  paved  the  way  for  modifications 
of  the  law  of  abstinence.  Throughout  the  United 
States  the  ordinary  Saturday  is  no  longer  a  day  of 
abstinence.  During  Lent,  in  virtue  of  an  indult, 
the  faithful  are  allowed  to  eat  meat  at  their  principal 
meal  on  Mondays,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Satur- 
days, the  second  and  last  Saturdays  excepted.  The 
use  of  meat  on  such  days  is  not  restricted  to  the 

Crincipal  meal  for  such  as  are  exempt  from  fivsting 
y  reason  of  ill  health,  age,  or  laborious  occupa- 
tions. Eggs,  milk,  butter,  and  cheese,  formerly 
prohibited,  are  now  pennitted  without  restriction 
as  far  as  the  day  of  the  week  is  concerned.  The  use 
of  lard  or  dripping  in  preparing  fish  and  vegetables 
at  all  meals  and  on  all  days  is  allowed  by  an 
indult  i.ssued  3  -August.  1887.  It  is  never  lawful  to 
take  fish  with  flesh,  at  the  same  meal,  during  Lent, 
Sundays  included  (Benedict  XIV,  Litt.  ad  .■'irchiep. 
Compostel.,  10  June,  1745,  ap.  Bucceroni.  Enchiridion 
Morale,  147).  At  other  times  this  is  not  prohibited 
(Bucceroni,  ib.).  On  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  as 
well  as  on  the  second  and  last  Saturdaj's  of  Lent, 


ABSTINENCE 


70 


ABSTINENCE 


flesh  meat  is  not  permitted.  Wednesdays,  Fridays, 
and  Saturdays  during  Ember  Week  are  still  days  of 
abstinence  and  fasting.  The  vigils  of  Christmas, 
Tentecost,  Assumption,  and  All  Saints  are  also  days 
of  abstinence  and  fasting.  In  virtue  of  faculties 
granted  by  the  Holy  See,  workingmen,  and  their 
families  as  well,  may  u.se  flesh  meat  once  a  day  on  all 
abstinence  days  throughout  the  year  e.xcept  Fridays, 
Ash  Wednesday,  Holy  Saturday,  and  the  vigil  of 
Christmas.  This  indult  was  issued  for  ten  years, 
15  March,  1895,  and  renewed  for  another  decade  on 
25  Februarj',  1905.  (See  "E.xposition  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine",  Thiladelphia,  1899,  II,  528-529; 
Spirago-Clarke,  "The  Catechism  Explained",  New 
York,  1900;  Diocesan  Regulations  for  Lent.) 

In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Fridays  during  the 
year,  Wednesdays  during  Advent,  weekdays  dur- 
ing Lent,  Ember  Days,  the  vigils  of  Christmas,  Pen- 
tecost, the  Assumption,  All  Saints,  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul,  and  St.  Andrew  (in  Scotland  only)  are  days  of 
abstinence.  Meat  is  allowed  by  indult  at  the  prin- 
cipal meal  on  all  days  during  Lent  except  Wednes- 
days, Fridays,  Holy  Thursday,  and  the  second  and 
last  Saturdaj's.  Eggs  are  allowed  at  the-  princi- 
pal meal  during  Lent  except  on  Ash  Wednesday 
and  the  last  three  days  of  Lent.  Milk,  butter,  and 
cheese  are  allowed  at  the  principal  meal,  and  at  the 
collation  during  Lent,  except  on  Ash  Wednesday 
and  Good  Friday.  Lard  and  drippings  are  allowed 
at  the  chief  meal  and  at  the  collation,  except  on 
Good  Friday.  Suet  is  prohibited  whenever  meat  is 
not  allowed.  Fish  and  flesh  are  never  allowed  at  the 
same  meal  on  any  fast  day  during  the  year  (Catho- 
lic Directory,  London,  1906).  In  Australia,  Fridays 
during  the  "year,  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  during 
Lent,  Holy  Thursday,  Wednesdays  during  Advent, 
Ember  Days,  the  vigils  of  Christmas,  Pentecost,  the 
Assumption,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paid,  and  All  Saints 
are  days  of  abstinence.  There  is  a  somewhat  gen- 
eral practice  whereby  the  use  of  meat  is  allowed 
at  the  chief  meal  on  ordinary  Saturdays  tliroughout 
the  year.  For  the  rest,  the  application  of  the  law 
of  abstinence  is  much  the  same  as  in  Ireland  (The 
Year  Book  of  Australia,  Sydney,  1892).  In  Canada, 
Fridays  during  the  year,  Wednesdays  during  Lent 
and  Advent,  Ember'  Days,  the  vigils  of  Christmas, 
Easter,  Pentecost,  the  Assumption,  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul,  and  All  Saints  are  days  of  abstinence.  The 
abstinence  incident  to  the  feasts  of  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul  and  the  Assumption  is  transferred  to  the  eve 
of  the  transferred  solemnity.  Milk,  butter,  cheese, 
and  eggs  are  allowed  during  Lent  even  at  the  colla- 
tion; lard  and  drippings  as  in  the  United  States. 
(See  "Expos,  of  Christian  Doctrine",  Philadelphia, 
1899,  II,  528,  529.) 

The  Greek  Church. — In  the  Greek  Church  the 
law  of  abstinence  is  designated  l^y  the  term  xcroph- 
agii  in  contradistinction  to  monopliagy,  signifying 
the  law  of  fasting.  In  its  strictest  sense  xeroph- 
agy  bars  all  viands  except  bread,  salt,  water,  fruits, 
and  vegetables  (St.  Epiplianius,  Expositio  Fidei,xxii; 
Migne,  P.  G.,  XLII,  col.  828;  Apost.  Const.,  V, 
xviii,  ap.  Migne,  P.  G.,  I,  col.  889).  On  days  of 
abstinence  meat,  fish,  eggs,  milk,  cheese,  oil,  and 
wine  are  rigorously  interdicted.  This  traditional 
custom  of  rigorous  abstinence  still  binds  the  Greeks 
on  all  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  on  all  days  of  their 
Major  Lent,  including  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  ex- 
cept Palm  Sunday,  on  which  day  oil,  wine,  and  fish 
are  now  permitted,  and  on  the  vigils  of  Christmas 
and  Epiphany.  Xorophagy  seems  to  have  been 
obligatory  only  on  these  days.  Another  less  severe 
form  of  abstinence,  still  common  among  the  Greeks, 
prohibits  the  use  of  meat,  eggs,  milk,  and  sometimes 
fi.sh  on  certain  occasions.  According  to  their  present 
regime,  the  Greeks  observe  this  mitigated  form  of 
abstinence  during  their  Lent  of  the  Apostles   (i.  e. 


from  Monday  after  the  feast  of  All  Saints,  celebrated 
on  the  first  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  until  29  Jimo); 
during  Mary's  Lent  (1-14  August);  during  Christ- 
mas Lent,  or  Advent  (also  called  St.  Philip's  Lent, 
15  November  to  24  December);  29  August  (com- 
memoration of  the  Beheading  of  St.  John  Baptist), 
and  on  14  September  (feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the 
Holy  Cross).  The  canonical  regulations  determin- 
ing obligatory  abstinence  have  suffered  no  sub- 
stantial alteration  during  the  lapse  of  many  centu- 
ries. In  its  general  outlines  this  legislation  is  the 
same  for  the  Greek  Church  Uniat  and  non-l'niat. 
The  Uniat  Greek  Church  is  not  allowed  to  father 
any  innovation  without  explicit  authorization  from 
the  Holy  See  (Benedict  XIV,  Decret.  Demandatam, 
§  vi,  in  his  Bullarium,  I,  128,  Venice  ed.,  1778). 
Though  izsage  and  dispensations  have  led  the  way 
to  certain  modifications,  the  canons  covering  this 
matter  remain  unchanged.  Custom  has  made  the 
use  of  wine  and  oil  legitimate  on  xerophagy  days. 
In  many  places  fish  is  likewise  allowed,  except  during 
the  first  and  last  week  of  their  Major  Lent.  Gear 
(Euchologium,  Venice,  1730,  175)  says  that  the 
Greelis  of  his  day  were  allowed  by  an  unwritten  law 
to  eat  fish,  eggs,  snails,  and  such-like  viands  on 
xerophagy  days. 

Innovations  in  the  duration  of  the  Greek  peniten- 
tial seasons  have  originated  in  usage.  Thus  aro  e  their 
practice  of  spending  tlie  v,eek  preceding  their  Major 
Lent  in  minor  abstinence,  as  a  prelude  to  the  more 
rigorous  observance  of  the  Lenten  season  (Nilles, 
Kalendarium,  II,  36,  Innsbruck,  1885;  Vacant,  Diet, 
de  th6ol.  cath.,  I,  2G4).  This  custom  lapsed  into 
desuetude,  but  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Zamose, 
1720  (tit.  xvi.  Collect.  Lacensis,  II),  show  that  the 
Ruthenians  had  again  adopted  it.  The  Melchites 
have  reduced  their  xerophagy  during  Christmas 
Lent  to  fifteen  days.  The  same  tendency  to  mini- 
mize is  found  amongst  the  Ruthenians  (Synod  of 
Zamose,  loc.  cit.).  'fhe  Apostles'  Lent  counts  no 
more  tlian  twelve  days  for  the  Melchites.  Gear 
says  that  their  Christmas  Lent  is  reduced  to  seven 
days.  Other  alterations  in  these  seasons  have  been 
made  at  various  times  in  different  places.  The 
Greeks  enjoy  some  relaxation  of  this  obligation  on  a 
certain  number  of  days  during  the  year.  Accord- 
ingly, when  feasts  solemnized  in  the  Greek  Church 
fall  on  ordinary  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  or  on  days 
during  their  various  Lenten  seasons  (Wednesdays 
and  Fridays  excepted),  a  complete  or  partial  su-s- 
pension  of  xerophagy  takes  place.  The  obligation 
of  abstaining  from  flesh  is  withdrawn  on  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays  between  Christmas  and  4  Janviary; 
whenever  Epiphany  falls  on  Wednesday  or  Friday; 
Wednesday  and  Friday  during  the  week  preceding 
the  feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross;  during 
the  octaves  of  Easter  and  Pentecost.  Some  of  the 
Greeks,  especially  the  Melchites,  hold  that  xerophagy 
does  not  bind  from  Easter  to  Pentecost  [cf.  Pil- 
grimage of  Etheria  (Peregrinatio  Sylviie)  ap.  D\i- 
chesne,  op.  cit.  569].  In  their  partial  suspension 
of  the  xerophagy  the  Greeks  maintain  the  obliga- 
tion of  abstaining  from  flesh  meat,  but  they  coun- 
tenance the  use  of  such  other  viands  as  are  ordi- 
narily prohibited  when  the  law  is  in  full  force.  This 
mitigation  finds  application  as  often  as  the  following 
festivals  fall  on  Wednesdays  or  Fridays  not  included 
in  their  Lenten  seasons,  or  any  day  C^Vednesdays 
and  Fridays  excepted)  during  their  Lenten  seasons: 
24  November,  Feast  of  St.  Philip;  21  November, 
Presentation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary;  7  January, 
Commemoration  of  St.  John  Baptist;  2  February, 
Presentation  of  Christ  in  the  Temple;  25  March, 
Annunciation  of  the  Bles.sed  Virgin  Mary;  29  June, 
The  Apostles;  6  Augu.st,  Transfiguration;  15  Augu.st, 
Assumption;  and  Palm  Sunday.  St.  Basil's  rule  is 
followed  by  all  monies  and  imns  in  the  Greek  Church. 


ABSTINENCE 


71 


ABSTINENCE 


Xerophapy  is  their  general  nilo  for  penitent  ial 
practices.  Tlie  law  of  abstaining  from  meat  admits 
no  relaxation.  The  greater  solenmities  entitle  tlieni 
to  use  lisli,  eggs,  nnlk,  oil,  and  wine.  I'ea.sts  of 
minor  solemnity,  falling  on  days  other  tlian  Wednes- 
day or  Friday,  admit  lisli,  eggs,  milii,  oil,  and  wine, 
ollierwiso  wine  and  oil  only.  Finally,  simple  feasts 
admit  the  use  of  oil  and  wine.  The  obligation  of 
xcrophagy  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  dates  its 
origin  to  apostolic  tradition  (cf.  Tcacliing  of  tlio 
Apostles,  viii,  I;  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Strom.  VI, 
Ixxv;  Tcrtullian,  De  jcjunio,  xiv).  The  xerophagy  of 
Major  Lent  is  likewise  of  ancient  growth.  There  is 
strong  reason  to  tliink  tluit  tlie  riucstion  was  mooted 
in  tlie  second  century,  when  the  Easter  controversy 
waxed  strong.  Writings  of  the  fourtli  centurj'  alTord 
freciuent  references  to  this  season.  According  to  the 
Pilgrimage  of  Etlierla  (Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  S.'iS),  the 
end  of  tlie  fourth  century  witnessed  Jerusalem  de- 
voting forty  days  (a  period  of  eight  weeks)  to  fasting 
and  abstinence.  Tlie  season  comprised  eight  weeks 
because  Orientals  keep  both  Saturday  (save  Holy 
Saturday)  and  Sunday  as  days  of  rejoicing,  and  not 
of  penance.  There  are  sc\eral  noteworthy  evidences 
of  those  forty  days  thus  appointed  by  the  Greeks 
for  abstinence  and  fasting  (St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Procatcch.,  no.  4,  and  Catech.,  iv,  3,  ap.  Migne,  P.  G., 
XXXIII,  341,  347;  Eusebius,  Do  solemnitate  pas- 
chali,  no.  4,  Migne,  P.  G.,  XXIV,  G97;  Apostolic 
Canons,  can.  Ixviii,  ap.  Hcfele,  op.  cit.,  I,  4S5).  The 
canons  of  Greek  councils  show  no  traces  of  legislation 
regariling  their  Christmas  Lent  etc.  prior  to  the 
eighth  century.  No  doubt  the  practice  of  keeping 
xerophagy  during  these  seasons  originated  in  mona.s- 
tcries  and  thence  pas.sed  to  the  laity.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  ninth  century  St.  Nicephorus,  Patri- 
arch of  Constant ino]Te,  states  that  all  are  obliged 
to  observe  xerophagy  during  those  seasons  (Pitra, 
Juris  Ecclesiastic!  Gra^ci  Ilistoria  et  Monmnenta, 
I{ome,  1S08,  II,  327).  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
note  here  that  the  Greek  Church  has  legislated 
nearly  half  of  the  year  into  days  of  fasting  or  al> 
stincnco  or  both.  Nevertheless,  many  Oriental 
writers  protest  against  a  lessening  of  this  number. 
In  point  of  fact,  however,  many  Greeks  claim  that 
many  days  of  tliis  kind  scarcely  win  proper  recogni- 
tion from  the  faithful. 

The  Ri;ssi.\N  Church. — ^The  legislation  of  the 
Russian  church  relating  to  al)stinence  consists  of  an 
e!a!>orate  programme  specifying  days  of  penance 
whereon  various  sorts  of  food  are  forbidden,  and 
indicating  several  festivals  whereon  the  rigour  of 
tie  la..-  is  tempered  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  ac- 
cording to  tlie  grade  of  solemnity  characteri/.ing  the 
fast.  Good  Friday  is  signalized  by  their  most  severe 
form  of  exterior  penance,  namely  complete  absti- 
nence. During  their  Major  Lent  cold,  dried  faro 
u  prescribed  for  Mondays,  Tuesdays,  and  Tliursdays, 
as  well  as  for  the  first  three  days  of  Holy  Week. 
On  Saturdays  and  Sundays  during  tliis  period  fish 
is  prohibited,  and  crustaceans  arc  allowed.  On 
Wedncsilays  and  Fridays  throughout  the  year,  as 
well  as  on  the  vigil  of  Christmius,  baked  fare  and 
fruit  are  enjoined.  OJ  isproliibited.and  winealloweil, 
on  Holy  .Saturday,  on  Tluirsday  of  the  Major  Canon 
(Thursday  of  the  fifth  week  in  Lent),  and  on  Good 
Friday,  whenever  the  Annunciation  coincides  there- 
with. Fisli  is  interdicted,  but  fish  eggs  are  permitted 
on  the  Saturday  preceding  Palm  Sunday,  and  on 
the  fe:ist  of  St.  Lazarus.  Wine  and  oil  are  allowed 
on  Holy  Thursday.  During  tlieir  Christmas  Lent, 
Mary's  Lent,  and  the  Apostles'  Lent  meat  is  pro- 
hibi'cd,  but  wine  and  oil  are  allowed  on  Mondays, 
Tuesdays,  and  Thursdays.  The  same  regulation 
applies  to  14  September,  '29  .August,  and  H  Januarv'. 
During  Mary's  Lent  milk  diet  is  interdicted;  fish 
diet  is  permitted  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays.     Dur- 


ing the  other  two  minor  Lents  the  same  injunction 
holds  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  Saturdays,  and  Sun- 
days. The  same  regulation  binds  on  Palm  Sunday, 
as  well  as  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  of  Paschal- 
tide.  Finally,  the  feasts  of  the  Transfiguration, 
Mary's  Nativity,  Annunciation,  Purification,  Presen- 
tation, and  Assumption,  tlie  Nativity  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  the  Commemo- 
ration of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  7  January,  occurring 
during  Lent,  or  on  Wednesday  or  Friday,  are  marked 
by  this  same  degree  of  abstinence.  Meat  diet  is 
under  the  ban,  except  during  the  whole  of  carnival 
week.  Russian  monks  are  obliged  to  observe  this 
part  of  the  programme  during  the  whole  year.  The 
Russian  Church  suspends  the  obligation  of  absti- 
nence during  Christiiui-stidc  (2.5  December  to  (i  Janu- 
ary, minus  the  vigil  of  Epipliany),  during  Eastertide, 
and  during  the  octave  of  Pentecost. 

SYii!.\.v  Church. — .\11  branches  of  the  Syrian 
Church  abstain  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  and 
during  Lent,  in  keeping  with  the  Apostolic  Canons 
(Can.  Ixviii,  Hefele,  loc.  cit).  The  Council  of  Laodicca 
(can.  1),  recognized  by  all  Syrians,  enjoins  xeroph- 
agy for  Lent  (Hefele,  op.  cit.,  II,  320).  Neverthe- 
less, changes  and  abuses  have  been  gradually  intro- 
duced into  various  portions  of  the  Syrian  Church. 

Jacobites. — (a)  Among  the  laity  all  adults  are 
obliged  to  aljstain  on  all  Wednesdays  and  Fridays. 
On  tliose  days  eggs,  milk,  and  cheese  are  interdicted. 
During  Lent  their  rigorous  regime  excludes  the 
use  of  eggs,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  fish,  and  wine. 
The  Apostles'  Lent  is  observed  from  Pentecost  to 
29  June.  Ab.stinence  is  then  recommended,  not 
imposed.  Mary's  Lent  lasts  fifteen  daj-s.  The 
Cliristmas  Lent  is  kept  by  monks  forty  days  longer 
than  by  laics.  During  these  periods  a  less  rigorous 
regime  is  in  vogue.  Finally,  their  ninivitic,  or  roga- 
tion, abstinence  continues  for  three  days,  (b)  Fol- 
lowing the  example  of  James  of  Edessa,  the  Jacobite 
monks  and  nuns  observe  alternately  seven  weeks  of 
fasting  and  abstinence,  with  seven  other  weelcs 
wherein  such  obligations  apply  on  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays  only.  Some  eat  no  meat  during  the  entire 
year.  Sozomen  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VI;  Migne,  P.  O., 
LXVII,  col.  393)  speaks  of  Syrian  anchorites  who 
live  on  herbs  without  eating  even  so  much  as  bread, 
or  drinking  wine.  Rabulas,  Bishop  of  Edessa  (d. 
43.5),  and  the  Council  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon  (420) 
(Hefele,  op.  cit.,  II,  449  sq.)  forbade  monies  and 
nuns  to  cat  meat. 

Ne.storians. — As  a  general  rule,  the  laity  follow 
the  same  regime  as  the  Jacobites.  With  them  Lent 
begins  on  Quinquagesima  Sunday.  Contrary  to 
their  ancient  discipline,  they  abstain  on  Saturdays 
and  Sundays.  They  observe  the  same  minor  peni- 
tential sca.sons  as  the  Jacobites.  Tlieir  ninivitic, 
or  rogation,  season  is  kept  on  Tuesday,  Wednesday, 
and  Thursday  of  the  third  week  before  Lent.  The 
canonical  regulations  for  monks  and  nuns  prescribe 
fasting  and  abstinence  as  observed  in  other  branches 
of  the  Syrian  Church.  Nevertliele.ss,  at  various 
periods,  innovations  and  relaxations  have  found  their 
way  into  Nestorian  communities  of  men  and  women 
(Vacant,  op.  cit.,  I,  2G8). 

Maroxites. — Lent  for  the  laity  commences  on 
Monday  of  (Juinqu.agesima  week  and  continues  until 
Holy  Saturday.  Saturdays  and  Sundays  (Holy 
Saturday  excepted),  together  with  obligatory  feiists 
occurring  during  Lent,  are  not  fasting  days,  but  even 
then  meat  and  milk  diet  are  strictly  forbidden. 
Their  Christmas  Lent  begins  on  5  December  and 
ends  on  24  December.  Mary's  Lent  begins  on  1  Au- 
gust and  ends  on  14  August;  6  August  is  not  in- 
cluded therein.  The  Apostles'  Lent  begins  1.5  June 
and  ends  2.S  June,  although  24  June  is  not  therein 
included.  Meat,  eggs,  and  milk  diet  are  interdicted 
on  all  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  except  such  as  occur 


ABSTINENCE 


72 


ABSTINENCE 


during  Christmastide,  ICa.sterticle,  or  the  octave  of 
Pentecost.  This  mitigation  takes  place  during  the 
week  preceding  their  Major  Lent  and  on  the  feasts 
of  the  Transfiguration,  .St.  Jolin  the  Baptist,  and 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul.  Their  legislation  for  monks  and 
nuns  is  simple  and  austere.  They  are  forbidden  to 
eat  flesh  meat  under  penalty  of  grievous  sin,  unless 
a  physician  sliould  order  it  for  them  in  case  of  illness. 
When  obliged  to  make  long  journeys,  they  must  have 
recourse  to  the  bishop  or  their  own  local  superior 
for  permission  to  eat  meat  during  the  journey 
(Vacant,  op.  cit.,  I,  269). 

AnMENi.\.vs. — Vartan,  whom  the  Armenians  re- 
gard as  the  leading  exponent  of  their  ecclesiastical 
traditions,  held  that  they  were  bound  not  only  to 
abide  by  the  legislation  framed  in  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem,  but  also  to  adhere  to  the  Mosaic  law  re- 
garding unclean  animals  (Vacant,  op.  cit.,  I,  269). 
The  Council  of  Florence  condemned  this  rigorism 
and  decided  that  the  decrees  enacted  in  the  Council 
of  Jerusalem  concerning  this  matter,  as  well  as  the 
Mosaic  regulations  regarding  unclean  animals,  have 
no  longer  the  binding  force  of  law.  The  Armenians 
recognize  the  si.xty-eighth  canon  of  the  Apostles, 
which  prescribes  abstinence  on  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays,  and  on  all  days  of  Major  Lent.  The  Greek 
canonists  Zonaras  and  Balsamon  liken  the  abstinence 
of  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  to  that  of  Lent.  Dur- 
ing; Lent  nothing  save  bread,  salt,  herbs,  and  wine 
is  allowed  the  laity.  Meat,  fish,  milk,  cheese,  butter, 
eggs,  and  oil  are  under  the  ban.  Nevertheless, 
with  time  there  become  visible  traces  of  innovation 
in  this  discipline.  At  present  the  Armenians  ob- 
serve the  law  of  abstinence  on  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays,  except  during  the  octave  of  Epiphany  and 
during  Eastertide,  i.  e.  from  Easter  Sunday  to 
Ascension  Day.  Their  Major  Lent  l^egins  on  Mon- 
day of  Quinquagesima  week  and  terminates  on  Holy 
Saturday.  From  Ash  Wednesday  until  Easter  Day 
they  keep  xerophagy  except  on  Saturdays  and  Sun- 
days, wlien  milk  diet  is  allowed.  Besides,  they  de- 
vote tlie  week  preceding  the  feasts  of  the  Trans- 
figuration, the  Assumption,  the  Holy  Cross,  and 
St.  Gregory  to  abstinence  and  fasting.  They  are 
likewise  obliged  to  abstain  for  one  week  during 
Advent,  one  week  preceding  the  feast  of  St.  James, 
and  another  immediately  before  the  Epiphany. 
The  Armenian  monks  and  nuns  never  eat  meat. 
With  them  the  law  of  abstinence  is  quite  rigorous. 
They  may  eat  fish  whenever-the  laity  are  allowed  to 
eat  meat. 

Copts. — Lay  people  are  obliged  to  abstain  from 
flesh  meat,  eggs,  and  milk  diet  during  all  the 
penitential  seasons.  Such  are  Major  Lent,  Mary's 
Lent,  Christmas  I^ent,  and  the  Apostles'  Lent.  They 
are  bound  by  the  law  of  abstinence  on  all  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays,  except  during  the  interval  between 
Easter  and  Pentecost,  and  whenever  Christmas  or 
Epiphany  falls  on  Wednesday  or  Friday.  The  law 
of  abstinence  extends  to  Saturdays  and  Sundays 
during  their  penitential  seasons.  During  Major 
Lent  and  Holy  Week  fish  is  prohibited.  At  other 
times  its  use  is  lawful.  Some  time  has  elapsed  since 
the  rigour  pec\iliar  to  seasons  of  penance  in  the 
Orient  was  mitigated  amongst  the  Copts.  It  was 
then  restricted  to  the  observance  of  abstinence  dur- 
ing all  seasons  except  Major  Lent.  Nevertheless, 
a  goodly  number  of  Copts  continue  to  keep  Mary's 
Lent  with  pristine  rigour.  While  residing  in  their 
monasteries,  the  Coptic  monks  and  nuns  are  bound 
to  abstain  from  meat,  eggs,  and  milk  diet  throughout 
the  year.  Whenever  they  dwell  outside  the  monas- 
tery they  may  conform  to  the  regulations  binding 
the  laity. 

Motives  of  Ecclesiastical  Laws  Pertainino 
TO  Abstinence. — According  to  the  vagaries  of  the 
Manicheans,  Montanists,  and  Encratites,  flesh  meat 


is  intrinsically  evil  and  merits  the  most  rigorous 
kind  of  prohibition.  Keenly  sensible  of  this  hetero- 
doxy, the  Church  of  Christ  has  not  based  her  ordi- 
nances enjoining  abstinence  on  any  such  vmwar- 
ranted  assumption.  As  the  exponent  of  revelation, 
the  Church  knows  and  teaches  that  every  creature 
in  tlie  visible  universe  is  equally  a  work  of  the  divine 
wisdom,  power,  and  goodness,  which  defy  all  limita- 
tions. This  is  why  the  first  pages  of  the  inspired 
text  indicate  that  the  Creator  "saw  all  the  things 
that  he  had  made  and  they  were  very  good"  (Gen.,  i, 
31).  St.  Paul  is,  if  anything,  still  more  explicit  in 
condemning  the  folly  of  those  sectaries,  though  they 
originated  after  his  day.  "Now,  the  Spirit  mani- 
festly says  that  in  the  last  times  some  shall  depart 
from  the  faith,  giving  heed  to  spirits  of  error,  and 
doctrines  of  devils,  .  .  .  forbidding  to  marry,  to 
abstain  from  meats  which  God  hath  created  to  be 
received  with  thanksgiving  by  the  faithful  and  by 
them  that  know  the  truth.  For,  every  creature  is 
good,  and  nothing  to  be  rejected  that  is  received 
with  thanksgiving"  (I  Tim.,  iv,  1,  2,  3).  Neither  is 
the  Church,  in  her  legislation  on  abstinence,  animated 
by  any  such  gross  superstition  as  influences  the  ad- 
herents of  Brahmanism  or  Buddhism.  Moved  by 
their  theories  regarding  the  transmigration  of  souls, 
they  are  logically  induced  to  abstain  from  eating 
the  flesh  of  animals,  lest  they  should  unconsciously 
consume  their  parents  or  friends.  In  consequence 
of  those  notions  their  diet  is  vegetarian.  So  rigor- 
ous is  the  law  prescribing  this  diet  that  transgressions 
are  visited  with  social  and  domestic  ostracism.  At 
the  same  time  this  ultra  conservatism  has  not  been 
espoused  by  all  who  share  the  doctrine  regarding  the 
transmigration  of  souls.  Many  of  them  have  not 
hesitated  to  temper  their  belief  in  this  creed  with  a 
mitigated  form  of  abstinence  from  flesh  meat. 

Eagerness  to  harmonize  her  disciplinary  regime 
with  the  exigencies  of  the  Mosaic  legislation  did 
not  prompt  the  Ch\irch  in  shaping  the  measures 
which  she  set  before  her  children  in  regard  to  ab- 
stinence. Though  the  Law  of  Moses  embodies  a 
detailed  catalogue  of  forbidden  viands,  Christ  abro- 
gated those  prohibitions  when  the  Law  was  fulfilled. 
The  Apostles,  assembled  in  the  Council  of  Jerusalem, 
gave  definite  shape  to  their  convictions  concerning 
the  passing  of  the  Old  Law,  as  well  as  to  their  divinely 
founded  right  to  shape  and  mould  the  tenor  of 
ecclesiastical  legislation  so  as  best  to  meet  the 
spiritual  needs  of  those  entrusted  to  their  charge 
(Acts.  XV,  28,  29).  Nevertheless,  legislation  alone 
is  wellnigh  powerless  in  attempting  to  change  ab- 
ruptly the  current  of  traditions  and  prejiidices, 
when  they  are  so  deeply  rooted  in  national  institu- 
tions as  to  form  an  important  factor  in  the  growth 
and  development  of  a  nation.  This  was  precisely 
the  sort  of  problem  that  confronted  the  missionary 
enterprises  of  the  Apostles.  Their  converts  were 
recruited  from  Paganism  and  Judaism.  Though 
Jews  and  Gentiles  were  doubtless  sincere  in  their  con- 
version to  the  new  religion,  previous  habits  of  thought 
and  action  had  left  more  than  superficial  traces  in 
their  character.  As  a  consequence,  many  Jewish 
converts  were  unwilling  to  forego  the  Mosaic  law 
concerning  unclean  meats,  while  Gentile  converts 
could  see  no  reason  whatsoever  for  adopting  the 
tenets  of  Judaism.  This  diversity  of  sentiment 
paved  the  way  to  misvmderstanding,  and  all  but 
open  rupture,  in  various  communities  of  the  early 
Church.  This  is  why  St.  Paul  speaks  so  unequivo- 
cally regarding  the  lawfulness  of  all  meats,  but  recom- 
mends due  consideration  for  those  Christians  whose 
conscience  will  not  brook  this  liberty  (Rom.,  xiv; 
Gal.,  iii,  28;  Rom.,  ii).  Centuries  of  Christian  life 
liavc  so  greatly  simplified  tliis  matter  that  it  is  now 
wellnigh  impossible  to  realize  how  there  could  then 
have   been   anything   more   than   a   passing  contro- 


ABSTINENCE 


73 


ABSTINENCE 


versy.  At  the  same  time  it  is  well  to  boar  in  mind 
that  in  tlie  bcpinning  of  the  present  era  the  Apostles 
were  calloil  upon  to  deal  amicably  with  those  who 
based  tlieir  conservatism  on  the  traditions  of  two 
thousand  years  of  adhesion  to  the  Mosaic  legislation. 
Daily  experience  testifies  that  the  plienomena 
circumscribing  the  evolution  of  life  in  the  material 
world  are  rooted  in  laws  involving  a  process  of  transi- 
tion from  death  unto  life.  "The  struggle  for  exist- 
ence and  the  survival  of  the  fittest"  is  simply  the 
dictum  of  science  admitting  the  presence  of  this  law 
in  tlie  animal  kingdom.  This  law,  so  widespread  in 
the  material  order,  has  been  embodied  in  that 
economy  wherein  they  who  would  imitate  Christ 
must  deny  themselves,  take  up  the  cross,  and  follow 
Him.  Hence,  in  moulding  her  penitential  discipline, 
the  Church  is  inspired  by  the  maxims  and  example 
of  her  Divine  Founder.  As  a  consequence,  she  is 
not  the  author  of  arbitrarj-  measures  in  this  matter; 
she  simply  frames  her  laws  of  abstinence  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  fallen  nature.  Darkness  in  the  under- 
standing, weakness  in  the  will,  and  turbulence  in 
the  passions  must  ever  remain  to  reveal  tlie  ravages 
of  sin  in  fallen  man.  Though  the  passions  are 
destined  to  satisfy  the  legitimate  cravings  of  human 
nature,  and  enable  man  to  develop  his  being  accord- 
ing to  the  dictates  of  rea.son,  still  they  give  unque-s- 
tional)le  evidence  of  a  vicious  propensity  to  invade 
the  domain  of  reason  and  usurp  her  sovereignty.  In 
order  to  check  this  lawless  invasion  of  the  passions, 
and  to  subordinate  their  movements  to  the  empire 
of  reason,  man  is  obliged  to  labour  imce^singly;  else 
he  is  sure  to  become  tlie  slave  of  unbridled  passion. 
This  is  what  St.  Paul  means  when  he  says:  "The 
flesh  lusteth  against  the  spirit,  and  the  spirit  against 
the  flesh"  etc.  (Gal.,  v,  17).  The  substance  of  cer- 
tain viands,  especially  meat,  renders  inestimalile 
service  to  man  in  his  efforts  to  gain  and  retain  the 
desired  supremacy.  This  is  what  St.  Jerome  means 
when,  quoting  Terence,  he  says:  Sine  Cerere  et 
Baccho,  frigct  ['cnus  (Cont.  Jov.,  II,  G),  or,  to  use 
the  words  of  St.  Thomas  (II-II,  qua!st.  cxlvii,  art.  1), 
"the  ardour  of  lust  is  dampened  by  abstinence  from 
food  and  drink."  Besides,  aljstinence  exercises  a 
salutary  influence  in  leading  man  to  suprasensible 
pursuits.  For,  according  to  St.  Augustine  (De  ora- 
tione  et  jcjunio,  sermo  ccxxx,  de  temp.),  abstinence 
purifies  the  soul,  elevates  the  mind,  subordinates  the 
flesh  to  the  spirit,  begets  a  humble  and  contrite 
heart,  scatters  the  clouds  of  concupiscence,  extin- 
guishes the  fire  of  lust,  and  enkindles  the  true  light 
of  chastity.  This  is  summarized  in  tlie  official 
message  of  the  Church  found  in  the  Mjiss-preface  used 
during  Lent:  "Who  by  bodily  f;isting  supprcssest 
vice,  cnnoblest  the  mind,  grantcst  virtue  and  re- 
wards." It  is  no  exaggeration,  therefore,  to  main- 
tain that  Christians  mast  find  in  abstinence  an 
efficacious  means  to  repair  the  losses  of  the  spirit 
and  augment  its  gains.  Inspired  by  such  motives, 
the  Church  wiselv  prohibits  the  use  of  flesh  meat 
at  duly  appointed  times.  Seemingly  harsh,  the  law 
of  abstinence,  in  its  last  analysis,  serves  to  promote 
bodily  and  spiritual  well-being.  The  mechanism  of 
the  body  stamps  man  as  an  omnivorous  animal. 
Hence,  all  nations  have  adopted  a  mixed  diet.  Nay 
more,  a  priori  and  a  posteriori  reasons  prove  that 
the  occasional  interruption  of  meat  diet  conduces 
to  bodily  and  spiritual  health.  In  case  of  less 
rugged  constitutions,  the  Church  tempers  the  rigours 
of  her  legislation  with  the  mildness  of  her  dispeasa- 
tions.  1'  iiially,  the  experience  of  nineteen  centuries 
proves  that  tran.sgre.ssion  of  this  law  neither  pro- 
motes hcaltli  nor  prolongs  life.  Hence,  con.summate 
wisdom  and  prudence,  seeking  to  safeguard  tlie 
welfare  of  soul  and  body,  inspire  the  C'hurcli  in 
her  laws  pertaining  to  atetinence.  (.See  Advext; 
Lent.) 


Tertui.lian,  Dt  Jejunio,  P.  L.,  II;  St.  I,eo  I,  SermoneB, 
P.  L..  LIV;  Hr.RMAS.  Pattor,  in  AnU-Nii-me  Fnthert 
(New  York).  II:  Ci.eme.st  ok  .\LexANniiiA,  ibiii.,  II;  Teach- 
ing of  the  Twelve  ApostUa,  ibid.,  VII;  Duchehne.  t'hrUtian 
Worghip:  Its  origin  awl  evolution  (tr.  I-ondon,  11M)4);  PHtjrim- 
aae  of  Etherui  (Sylvieel,  in  UcdiESNr,  op.  cil.,  547-.')77; 
Hefele,  a  Ilietorti  of  the  Councils  of  the  Church  (tr.  Kdin- 
burgh,  I89G1.  I.  II,  V;  St.  Thomah.  Sumrmi,  II-II,  OQ. 
cxivi.  cxlvii;  TllOMAsal.N,  Trailc  des  jeunes  d'  I'EgJise 
(Paris.  lOSO);  Lavma.v,  Thenlouia  Moralis  (Padua,  1733); 
Spoheii,  Thcologia  Moralis  super  Decalouum  (Venice.  1761), 
I;  Vaca-nt,  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.  (Paris.  1899),  I,  2G2-277. 

Ja.mes  D.  O'Neill. 

Abstinence,  Physical  Effects  of. — The  effects 
on  the  liuman  system  of  abstinence  from  flesh  meats 
divide  them.selves  naturally  and  logically  into  two 
parts:  (1)  Effects  due  to  total  abstinence  (in  other 
words  vegetarianism);  (2)  Effects  due  to  partial  or 
periodic  abstinence,  such  as  is  enjoined  by  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  These  abstinences  comprise  the  fish  ob- 
servance of  Fridays,  the  fasts  before  feasts,  the  forty 
days  of  Lent,  and  the  ember-days.  It  is  the  partial, 
or  Roman  Catholic,  phase  of  the  subject  with  which 
we  have  to  deal. 

Physiologically,  man  is  an  omnivorous  animal,  as 
evitlenced  by  the  structure  and  consequent  nomen- 
clature of  the  teeth;  and  a  mixed  diet,  into  which 
meat  or  flesh  food  largely  enters,  would  seem  to  be 
the  natural  requirement  for  such  a  complex  physio- 
anatomical  entity.  Additional  corroboration  of 
this  view  is  afforded  by  researches  of  physiological 
chemistry,  and  the  discovery  of  elements  produced 
at  various  points  along  the  digestive  tract,  whose 
function  it  is  to  peptonize  milk-foods,  emulsify  fats 
and  oils,  destroy  the  insulation  of  muscular  fibre,  and 
prepare  the  nucleines  for  absorption  and  nutrition. 
Granting,  therefore,  that  flesh  food  in  some  form  is 
necessary  for  the  human  race  as  a  whole,  what  are 
the  physical  effects  of  partial  Abstinence  there- 
from? These  effects  are  as  numerous  and  divergent 
as  the  cau.ses.  We  have  first,  the  family  history  of 
the  individual  (diseases  or  tendencies  inherited  or  ac- 
quired); .second,  age;  third,  personal  history  of  the 
individual  (iliseases  or  tendencies  inherited  or  ac- 
quired), natural  or  artificial  infantile  feeding;  fourth, 
education  and  environment;  fifth,  cHmatic  con- 
ditions; sixth,  occupation  and  its  effects  on  the 
physical  ami  mental  state  of  tlie  individual;  seventh, 
status  prcescns,  and  last — but  really  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all — that  indefinable  but  very  tangible  ele- 
ment wliich  we  may  call  the  personal  equation  in 
each  individual,  the  observer  as  well  as  the  ob.served. 
Additional  facts  to  be  remembered  are:  (a)  That 
women  bear  .\bstinence  better  tlian  men,  because, 
as  a  rule,  the  former  have  greater  development  of 
fatty  and  less  development  of  muscular  tissue;  (b) 
tliat  mature  age  bears  deprivation  of  customary 
food  better  than  youth  or  old  age;  (c)  that  a  very 
damp  atmosphere,  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  un- 
hygienic surroundings  (tenements,  prisons,  work- 
houses, etc.),  insufficient,  improper,  and  unwhole- 
some food,  the  state  of  pregnancy,  alcoholism,  and 
the  premature  physical  and  mental  decadence,  due 
to  the  stress  and  strain  in  the  modern  battle  of  hfe, 
are  all  to  be  consitlered  as  important  matters  for 
investigation  in  any  case  that  lias  to  do  with  the 
question  of  Abstinence. 

The  Church  has  so  wisely,  and  with  a  foreknowledge 
of  scientific  investigation  anil  present  proof  so  accu- 
rate as  to  be  almost  .supernatural,  taken  all  the  above- 
mcntiotic<l  conditions  into  consideration,  in  framing 
her  laws  n-gardiiig  .\bstinence.  that  there  is  not  the 
slightest  danger  of  any  physical  ills  accruing  to  those 
to  whom  these  laws  apply.  On  the  contran,',  it  is 
abundantly  demonstrated  by  the  higliest  scientific 
authority  that  temporary  .Abstinence  from  solid 
food — particularly  Hesh  food,  in  which  there  is  a 
great  proportion  of  waste  material,  and  con.sequently, 
increased  wear  and  fear  on  the  organs  of  excretion, 


ABSTINENTS 


74 


ABTHAIN 


such  as  the  lungs,  liver,  and  kidneys — is  greatly  to 
be  dcsireil  in  all  persons,  but  particularly  in  those 
suffering  from  acute  infcctioi.s  and  inflammatory 
diseases.  Those  who  lead  a  pliysically  active  life, 
like  the  manual  labourer,  seem  to  need  animal  food 
more  continuously  and  feel  its  temporary  withdrawal 
more  acutely  tlian  the  .sedentary  or  brain  worker. 
Here,  also,  the  important  element  is  the  personal 
equation.  The  history  ot  mankind  seems  to  show 
that  while  the  meat-eating  nations  of  the  earth  liave 
been  the  most  powerful,  aggressive,  and  sanguinary 
(growing,  in  otlier  words,  like  the  tilings  they  feed 
on),  yet  tlicy  liave  been  and  continue  to  be  conserva- 
tive forces  in  civilization;  prolific  and  enduring  con- 
tributors to  the  arts  and  sciences,  and,  in  the  final 
analysis,  strenuous  upliolders  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty  and  morality.  The  dietetic  question  raised 
by  some  as  the  result  of  the  late  Rus.so-Japanese  War 
means  nothing  as  a  basis  of  comparison.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  battles  liave  been  fought,  and 
lost,  and  won,  alike  by  men  sulTeriiig  from  too  much, 
too  little,  or  no  food  at  all.  Wars  and  their  eventu- 
alities depend,  not  so  much  on  foods  as  on  civil, 
religious,  and  politico-economical  conditions.  The 
medical  and  scientific  world  of  to-day  seems  to  be 
well  satisfied  (1)  That  while  man,  by  structure  and 
development,  is  omnivorous,  there  is  too  much  ani- 
mal food  consumed  by  the  average  individual,  par- 
ticularly in  large  centres  of  population.  (2)  That 
owing  to  this  large  consumption  of  food,  which  has 
an  amount  of  waste  out  of  proportion  to  its  nutritive 
value,  tlie  vital  organs  are  overtaxed  in  their  excre- 
tory functions,  and  that  consequently,  human  life 
and  usefulness  is  very  frequently  curtailed.  (3) 
That  this  over-ingest  ion  of  animal  food  is  in  some 
way — as  yet  undetermined — closely  associated  with 
the  rapid  increase  of  parasitic  diseases  like  cancer. 
(4)  That  over-feeding — particularly  with  strong, 
meaty  foods — togetlier  with  lack  of  proper  muscular 
exercise  have  much  to  do  with  the  question  of  so- 
called  "race-suicide".  This  last  suggestion  arises 
from  the  well-known  analogy  between  the  reproduc- 
tive processes  in  human  and  brute  animals.  Too 
much  and  too  rich  food  combined  with  physical 
inactivity  has  a  tendency  to  replace  (by  a  process 
of  degeneration)  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  repro- 
ductive organs  by  fat  cells,  and  hence  render  such 
organs  either  sterile  or  incapable  of  carrying  a  preg- 
nancy to  term. 

Yarrell  in  Hahvev,  The  Sea  Side  Book  (1857),  Cbiapter 
on  Fish  and  Fish  Diet;  Lichtenfelt,  Ueber  die  chemische 
Zuaammenselzung  einiger  Fischarten,  etc.  (Archw.  Physiol,  de 
ftleusctien,  Bonn.  Iyu4>,  Latham,  Milbank  Penitentiary  (1823): 
Sloane,  Med.  Gaz..  XVII.  389;  MrNAUGHTON,  Am.  Jour,  of 
Med.  Sci.,  VI,  543;  French  Academy,  Archives  gener.  de 
midecine,  XXVII.  130.  s.  v.  Pestilence  and  Famine  in  Ireland, 
lSi7;  Human  Foods  (U.  S.  Agricultural  Dep  t  Year  liook. 
1894),  547-558;  (1895),  573-580;  (1897),  «76-GS2;  Den.s- 
more.  How  Nature  Cures:  The  Natural  Food  of  Men  (London. 
1892),  X,  Gl-413;  Kali.e.  Nutrition  Tables  (1892);  Thomp- 
son, Diet  (Lonilon,  1902);  Annates  d'hygi^ne  publique  (1902); 
Nutrition  Imcsligations,  U.  S.  Gov.  (1894-1904);  Caspar:, 
Physiologischc  Stuttun  iiber  Vegetarismus  Archiv.  f.  d.  gesammte 
Physiol.  (Bonn,  IGOo).  CIX,  475-595. 

J.  N.  Butler. 

Abstinents.     See  Phiscillianists. 

Abstraction  (Lat.  06.5,  from;  trahcrc,  to  draw)  is 
a  process  (or  a  faculty)  by  which  the  mind  selects 
for  consideration  some  one  of  the  attributes  of  a 
thing  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest.  With  some  writers, 
including  the  Scholastics,  the  attributes  selected  for 
attention  are  said  to  be  abstracted;  with  otliers,  as 
Kant  and  Hamilton,  tlie  term  is  applied  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  tlie  attributes  which  are  ignored;  the 
process,  however,  is  tlie  same  in  both  eases.  The 
simplest-seeming  things  are  complex,  i.  e.  they  have 
vanou.s  attributes;  and  the  proce.ss  of  abstraction 
begins  with  sensation,  as  sight  perceives  certain 
tjualities;  taste,  others;  etc.  From  the  dawn  of 
intelligence  the  activity  progresses  rapidly,  as  all  of 


our  generalizations  depend  upon  the  abstraction 
from  different  objects  of  some  phase,  or  phases, 
which  they  have  in  common.  A  furtlier  and  most 
important  step  is  taken  when  the  mind  reaches  the 
stage  wliere  it  can  handle  its  abstractions,  such  as 
extension,  motion,  species,  being,  cause,  as  a  basis 
for  science  and  philosophy,  in  which,  to  a  certain 
extent  at  least,  the  abstracted  concepts  are  manipu- 
lated like  the  symbols  in  algebra,  without  immediate 
reference  to  tlie  concrete.  This  process  is  not  with- 
out its  dangers  of  fallacy,  but  human  knowledge 
would  not  progress  far  without  it.  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  that  methods  of  leading  the  mind  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  as  well  as  the  development 
of  a  power  of  handling  abstract  ideas,  are  matters 
of  great  importance  in  the  science  of  education. 

With  this  account  of  the  place  of  abstraction  in 
the  process  of  knowledge,  most  philosophers — and 
all  who  base  knowledge  on  experience — are  in  sub- 
stantial agreement.  But  they  differ  widely  con- 
cerning the  nature  and  validity  of  abstract  concepts 
themselves.  A  widely  prevalent  view,  best  repre- 
sented by  the  Associationist  school,  is  that  general 
ideas  are  formed  by  the  blending  or  fusing  of  indi- 
vidual impressions.  The  most  eminent  Scholastics, 
however,  following  Aristotle,  ascribe  to  tne  mind  in 
its  higher  aspect  a  power  (called  the  Active  Intellect) 
which  abstracts  from  the  representations  of  concrete 
things  or  qualities  the  typical,  ideal,  essential  ele- 
ments, leaving  behind  those  that  are  material  and 
particular.  The  concepts  thus  formed  may  be  very 
limited  in  content,  and  they  vary  in  number  and 
definiteness  with  the  knowledge  of  particulars;  but 
the  activity  of  the  faculty  is  always  spontaneous  and 
immediate;  it  is  never  a  process  of  blending  the  par- 
ticular representations  into  a  composite  idea,  much 
less  a  mere  grouping  of  similar  things  or  attributes 
under  a  commpn  name.  The  concept  thus  obtained 
represents  an  element  that  is  universally  realized  in 
all  members  of  the  class,  but  it  is  recognized  formally 
as  a  universal  only  by  means  of  further  observation 
and  comparison.  The  arguments  tor  tlie  e.xistence 
of  such  a  faculty  are  not  drawn  from  a  study  of  its 
actual  operation,  which  eludes  our  powers  of  intro- 
spection, but  from  an  analysis  of  its  results.  Its 
defenders  rely  mainly  on  the  fact  that  we  possess 
definite  universal  concepts,  as  of  a  triangle,  which 
transcend  the  vague  floating  images  that  represent 
the  fusion  of  our  individual  representations;  and 
also  on  the  element  of  universality  and  necessity  in 
our  judgments.  It  is  in  connection  with  this  latter 
point  that  the  question  is  of  most  importance,  as 
systems  of  philosophy  which  reject  this  power  of 
direct  abstraction  of  the  universal  idea  are  naturally 
more  or  less  sceptical  about  the  objective  validity  of 
our  universal  judgments. 

Porter.  The  Human  Intellect  (New  York,  1869).  377-430; 
Maker,  Psychology  (London  and  New  York,  1900).  294.  3U7, 
310;  Spencer,  Psychology  (New  York,  1898),  I.  viii;  Mill, 
Logur  (London  and  New  York,  1898).  I.  ii;  IV.  ii;  Mivart,  The 
Origin  of  Human  Reason  (London,  1889),  ii;  Van  Becelaere, 
The  Philos.  Rev.,  Nov.,  1903;  Newman,  Grammar  of  Asstnt 
(London  1898),  viii;  Bowne,  Theory  of  Thought  and  Knowl- 
edge (New  York.  1897),  xi;  Bain,  Education  as  a  Science 
{New  York,  1879),  vii;  Sully,  Teachers  Psychology  (New 
York,  1SS7),  xii,  xiii. 

F.  P.  Duffy. 

Abthain  (or  .Vbtiune),  an  English  or  Lowland 
Scotch  form  of  tlie  middle-Latin  word  ablhania 
(Gaelic,  ahdhainc),  meaning  abbacy.  The  exact 
sense  of  the  word  being  lost,  it  w-as  presumed  to 
denote  some  ancient  dignity,  the  holder  of  which  was 
called  ablhanus  or  ahlhane.  Dr.  W.  V.  Skene  (His- 
torians of  Scotland,  IV;  Fordun,  II,  413)  holds  that 
the  correct  meaning  of  ablhniii  (or  abthane)  is  not 
"  abbot "  or  "  over-thane  ",  but  "  abbey  "  or  "  monas- 
tery." The  word  hiis  special  reference  to  the  terri- 
tories of  the  churches  and  monasteries  founded  by  the 
old  Celtic  or  Columban  moulos,  mostly  between  the 


ABUCARA 


75 


ABYSSINIA 


mountain  chain  of  tlic  Mount li  and  the  Firth  of 
Korth.  Dr.  Slicnc  rcconuneiids  llio  use  of  the 
word  abtliany  or  ahlhanri/.  Many  of  these  abtliains 
passed  into  the  liands  of  laymen,  and  were  trans- 
mitted from  father  to  son.  Ihey  paid  certain  eccle- 
siastical tributes,  and  seem  to  have  closely  resembled 
the  tcrmon  lands  of  the  early  Irish  Church. 

Skene,  Ctllic  Scollind  (KdinburRh.  1SS7).  111,83,  2G1,  283; 
A  New  Unalith  Dictionary  (Oxford,  ISSS). 

Thomas  W.\i,sh. 

Abucara,  Theodohe,  a  bishop  of  Caria  in  Syria; 
d.,  probably,  in  770.  In  his  anti-heretical  dia- 
logues (P.  li.,  XCN'll.  IKil-lGOO)  lie  claimed  fre- 
quently to  reproduce  the  identical  words  of  the  great 
Eastern  theologian,  St.  John  of  Damascus,  whoso 
di.sciple  he  was.  St.  Jolm  atldrcssed  to  him  tluce 
famous  discourses  in  defence  of  tlie  sacred  images. 
There  are  attempts  to  identifv  him  willi  a  Uisliop 
Theoilore  of  Caria  wlio  attended  the  lOiglith  Uicu- 
menical  Council  of  Constantinople  (SG9). 

M.iKi.v,  in  Diet.  tlUol.  cilh.,  1,  287. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Abulpharagius.     .Sec  Bah  IlEnR-EUs. 

Abundius,  an  Italian  bishop,  b.  at  Thessalonica 
early  in  tlie  liftli  centun';  d.  -109.  He  was  the  fourth 
Bishop  of  Como,  in  Italy,  was  present  at  tlie  Council 
of  Constantinople  in  45(),  and  took  an  active  part 
against  the  Kutychian  heresy  at  Chalcedon  (451), 
where  he  was  the  representative  of  Pope  Leo  the 
Great.  In  i^>2  he  al.so  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
Milan,  convened  to  refute  the  same  heresy,  .\bun- 
dius  is  one  of  those  to  whom  the  authorship  of  the 
"Te  Deum"  is  occasionally  attributed. 

Wkskoit.  io  Diet,  oj  Christ.  lituur.,  1,  10;  Tili.e.mont, 
Mhn.,  X,  002. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Abydus  (.\nYDOs),  a  titular  see  of  Troas  in  Asia 
Minor,  suffragan  of  Cyzicus  in  the  Ilollcsixintic 
province.  It  was  situated  at  the  narrowest  jioint  of 
the  Hellespont,  and  was  famous  as  the  legendary 
spot  where  Leander  swam  over  to  Sestus  to  visit 
his  mistress.  Hero.  Here,  too,  Xerxes  built  the 
famous  bridge  of  boats  (4S0  B.  c.)  on  which  he 
crossed  with  nis  troops  to  a  promontory  on  the  oppo- 
site European  shore. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.  (London,  1878), 
I,  7-8;  Mas  Latrik,  Trinor  ,lr  ,hnmolo,iie.  etc.  (Paris,  1887), 
I,  197s;  Lequikn,  Oriena  Chrinlionuii.  111.  1115-10. 

Abyss  (Circck  ipvaaoi),  is  primarily  and  classically 
an  adjective,  meaning  deep,  very  deep  (Wisd  .  x,  19; 
Job.  xxxviii,  10).  Elsewhere  in  the  Bible,  and  once 
in  Diog.  Lacrt.,  it  is  a  substantive.  Some  thirty 
times  in  the  .Septuagint  it  is  the  e<|uivalent  of  the 
Hebrew  tlhom,  A.ssyrian  tihnmtti,  :ind  once  each  of  the 
Hebrew  mifii/o/i,  ". sea-deep ",f»/a/!,"  deep  flood", and 
rachdlih,  "spacious  place".  Hence  the  meanings:  (1) 
primeval  waters;  (2)  the  waters  beneath  the  earth; 
(3)  the  upper  seas  and  rivers;  (4)  the  abode  of  the 
dead,  limbo;  (5)  the  abode  of  the  evil  spirits,  hell. 
The  last  two  meanings  are  the  only  ones  found  in  the 
New  Testament. 

A.  J.  Maa.s. 

Abyssinia. — Cieoohaphv. — .\byssinia,  extending 
from  the  sixth  to  the  fifteentn  degree  of  north 
latitude,  and  situated  to  the  south  of  Nubia,  is,  by 
rca.son  of  its  peculiar  nont  ur,  uniijuc  among  the 
countries  of  tlic  African  continent.  It  has  been 
compared,  indceil,  to  a  vast  fortress,  towering  above 
the  plains  of  eastern  .-\frica.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  huge, 
granitic,  basaltic  niiuss,  forming  a  great  mountainous 
oval,  with  its  main  ridge  towards  the  cast.  .\  chain 
runs  for  over  G.JO  miles  north  and  .south;  .seen  from 
the  shores  of  the  RctI  Sea.  it  looks  like  a  v:vst  wall, 
Bomc8,(KK)  feet  high  near  Ka-icn,  opposite  Massowah; 
over  1().:!IH)  at  Mount  Souwaira;  1 1  .(H)0  at  the  plateau 
of   Augolala,   and   more  than  10,000  in  Shoa.     The 


.•Vbyssinian  chain,  however,  is  luDuntaiiious  only  on 
the  ea-stern  side.  On  the  other,  it  consists  of  plateaux 
of  varying  altitudes,  broken  up  by  mountains  shat- 
tered by  volcanic  forces,  the  summits  of  which  are  over 
G,oOO  feet  high  in  Tigre,  and  from  i:5,0(K)  to  IG.OOO 
in  Siniien.  .\  comparative  depression,  that  of  Lake 
Tana,  hollows  out  the  high  lands  to  the  southwest. 
The  lake  itself  is  at  an  elevation  of  some  five  thou.'^an  1 
feet,  and  the  ncig'.ibouring  plateaux,  from  that  height 
to  six  thousand.  The  volcanic  mass  of  Gojam,  on  the 
south,  attains  a  height  of  more  than  1.3,000  feet, 
while  the  peaks  of  Kaffa  ri.se  to  an  altitude  of  .some 
12,000  feet.  The  remarkable  elevation  of  Abyssinia 
gives  it  a  peculiar  climate,  and  savants  ha\e  cht^sified 
its  territory  into  three  chief  zones.  That  of  the  low 
valleys,  or  kolla.'i,  is  a  district  having  the  Soudanese 
climate,  great  heat,  and  a  heavy  summer  rainfall. 
The  .soil  is  sandy,  dry,  and  stony;  the  crops.  mai?e, 
sugar  cane,  and  cotton.     Various  kinds  of  acacias  and 


Church  of  St.  Joseph.  Laftu,  Abyssinia 

mimosas  form  the  sole  vegetation  of  these  arid,  un- 
healthy regions,  whose  rushing  torrents  of  the  rainy 
season  are  but  stony  beds  during  the  dry.  The  rocks 
and  caverns  are  the  haunts  of  lions  ami  leopards;  the 
trees  swarm  with  monkeys.  The  scattereil  inhabit- 
ants of  these  burning  plains  arc  small,  witliered,  nerv- 
ous, irritable,  and  quarrelsome,  devoid  of  the  ilignity 
which  marks  those  who  live  in  the  high  lands.  The 
middle  zone,  or  Voina-d  ga,  with  an  elevation  of  from 
0,000  to  S,000  feet,  is  by  far  the  largest  part  of  Abys- 
sinia, with  an  equable  heat  little  greater  than  that  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Thus  Gondar  (6.000  feet)  hius  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  19°  C.  (GG.2  Falir  ), 
with  10°  C  (GO.S  Kahr.)  as  the  minimum  of  the  coldest 
month.  This  is  a  temperature  slightly  higher  than 
that  of  .Southern  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece,  but  as, 
in  Abyssinia,  the  summer  is  the  r.ainy  season,  the 
heat  is  by  no  means  so  unbearable  as  the  summer 
months  of  the  South  of  Europe.  The  Lands  of  this 
region  form  a  series  of  va.st  plateaux,  covered  with 
ricli  pasturage,  the  grazing  ground  of  great  lienls 
of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  air  is  pure  and  dry,  the 
tcmnerature  moderate,  water  plentiful  and  of  good 
quality;  vines,  olives,  lemons,  anil  pomegranates 
thrive  there.  Nearly  the  whole  population  of  .Abys- 
sinia lives  in  this  region.  Here,  too,  are  the  cities, 
which  are  seldom  found  elsewhere,  as  the  natural 
divisions  of  the  country  are  such  as  keep  the  inluib- 
itants  in  a  state  of  patriarchal  feudalism.  The  cli- 
mate is  verj'  healthy,  and  sickness  very  in'requent. 
The  cold  zone,  or  dcija,  at  an  altitude  of  more  than 
8,000  feet,  is  marked  by  a  variable  temperature, 
and  by  chilly  nights.  The  British  army  at  a  height 
of  10,400  feet  met  with  four  degrees  of  frost  on  28 


ABYSSINIA  76 

March.  On  the  heights  are  found  the  rhododen- 
drons, mosses,  and  lichens  of  the  Alps. 

Ethnology. — Few  ca.stern  or  .\fric.in  nations  ex- 
hibit such  various  a-spccts  as  the  aborigines.  Descend- 
ants of  Cush  are  locally  known  as  .\gas,  or  "  Free- 
men ",  and  still  form  tlie  basis  of  tlie  .\byssinian  nation. 
On  the  west,  they  ha\e  intermarried  witli  the  ancient 
Berbers,  and  with  the  blacks  of  the  Soudan,  who 
must  not  be  confused  with  the  Niger,  Congo,'  and 
Zambesi  tribes.  On  the  east,  Semitic  peoples,  .\rabs 
and  Hi:nyarites,  having  cro.ssed  tlie  Red  .Sea  in  the 
fourth  century  B.  c,  conquered  the  whole  eastern 
coast  of  Africa,  and  settled  chiefly  in  the  province 
called,  after  them,  .Vmliara.  Tlie  invasion  of  the 
Galla  tribes,  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteentli  centuries, 
spread  through  all  this  region,  and  especially  towards 
the  south.  These  invasions  and  minglings  of  races 
in  all  ages  have  resulted  in  such  diversity  of  type 
that  the  neighbouring  .\rab  tribes  never  speak  of 
the  country  but  as  llabcch  (from  which  the  name 
"Abyssinia"  is  derived),  which  means  "a  crowd", 
or  "neap  of  sweepings".  Abys.sinia  answers  to  tlie 
Upper,  or  Eastern,  Ethiopia  of  tlie  ancients,  and 
comprises  the  four  provinces:  Tigre,  Amhara,  Gog- 
giam,  and  Shoa,  four  small  Idngdoms,  entrusted  to 
as  many  Has,  or  Negus,  whence  the  title,  tiegus-se 
nighist,  i.  e.  "  King  of  Kings  ",  assumed  by  the  Em- 
peror of  Abyssinia.  The  whole  empire  contains  some 
4,000,000  inhabitants.  According  to  the  vague  tradi- 
tional legend  of  the  "  Glorious  memories  of  the  Em- 
pire," or  Kcbri-jK'ghcsl,  the  dynasty  of  the  Ethiopian 
kings  goes  Ijack  to  King  Solomon  and  Makedda, 
Queen  of  Sheba;  and  by  it,  the  worship  of  the  true 
God  and  the  Mosaic  Law  were  brought  to  Ethiopia. 
Whatever  truth  may  be  in  this  legend,  it  is  certain 
that  ancient  Ethiopia  was  evangelized  in  Apostolic 
times  by  the  eunucli  of  (Jueen  Candace,  baptized  by 
Philip  the  Deacon,  but  was  not  wliolly  converted  to 
the  Faith  until  the  year  341,  when  St.  Frumentius 
{Kcddous  Fararrmnatos) ,  who  was  tutor  to  the  emper- 
or's two  young  sons,  won  his  pupils  to  Christianity. 
It  was  they  who  maile  botli  the  capital  and  the  em- 
pire Christian.  Nor  could  St.  Athanasius,  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  find  one  whom  he  thought  better  fitted 
to  rule  this  infant  Church  than  its  first  apostle,  Fru- 
mentius. 

Christianity. — The  whole  great  Ethiopian  empire 
did  not,  however,  become  Christian  at  that  period; 
since,  at  the  very  gates  of  Gondar,  the  aboriginal 
tribes  of  the  Kamant  are  pagans  to-day,  as  they  have 
been  for  fourteen  centuries.  Moreover,  even  the  con- 
verted provinces  retain,  ilespite  their  Christian  faith 
and  Christian  morality,  many  traces  of  Pagan  and 
Judaic  atavism.  Fh-cn  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
idolatrous  superstitions,  fetishism,  serpent-worship, 
and  the  cult  of  various  jimis,  Jewish  practices,  rest 
on  the  Sabbath,  and  the  custom  of  vowing  children 
to  the  keeping  of  certain  religious  observances  till 
the  age  of  puberty  are  still  active  almost  every- 
where. In  tlie  sixteenth  century.  King  Ghelaodieos 
found  them  s<j  deeply  rooted  in  the  national  liabits 
that  he  tried  to  justify  these  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church 
as  purely  civil  customs  in  no  way  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  Christianity.  So  long  its  t^lirislian  Abyssinia 
could  remain  in  touch  with  the  Catholic  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  it  was  prcservetl  from  tlie  taint  of  Arian- 
ism,  victorious  almost  everywhere  else,  as  well  as 
from  the  errors  of  Macedonius  ami  Nestorius.  In 
the  seventh  century,  however,  the  Caliph  Omar, 
after  his  conquest  of  Egj'pt,  came  to  an  understand- 
ing with  the  Jacobite  I'atriarch  Henj.amin,  whereby 
the  Copts  and  .Aby.s.sinians  were  forbidden  all  inter- 
course with  the  Roman  PontilT,  but  were  promi.sed 
toleration  on  tlial  condition.  Still,  tlic  Ethiopian 
Church,  even  after  the  ruin  i)f  the  .Alexandrian  Church 
and  of  the  Hyzantine  limpire  in  Egypt,  resisted  more 
or  less   successfully  for   nearly  three   centuries  the 


ABYSSINIA 


heresies  which  infested  all  the  other  churches  of  the 
East.  Moreover,  during  the  times  of  schism,  and 
of  Byzantine  or  of  Mu.ssulman  persecution,  it  be- 
came the  refuge  of  the  proscribed  Catholics.  Many 
monuments  of  the  tenth  and  eleventli  centuries,  due 
to  Egj'ptian  refugees,  bear  witness  to  this  fact  by 
their  Latin  character,  and  it  is  also  borne  out  by 
the  manuscripts  of  Lalib(51a. 

MooEKN  Missions. — Communication  between 
Rome  and  .\byssinia  became  more  difficult,  and  from 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  to  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  one  couKl  see  no  bond  existing  between 
.\byssinia  and  the  centre  of  Cathohcism.  The  Sov- 
ereign Pontiffs,  nevertheless,  have  bestowed  a  con- 
stant solicitude  on  the  Christians  of  Ethiopia.  The 
first  missionaries  sent  to  tlieir  aid  were  the  Domini- 
cans, whose  success,  however,  roused  the  fanaticism 
of  the  Monophysites  against  them,  and  caused  their 
martyrdom.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years  silence 
enfolded  the  ruins  of  this  Church.  At  a  later  period, 
the  fame  of  the  Crusades  having  spread,  pilgrim 
monks,  on  their  return  from  Jerusalem,  wakened  once 
more,  by  what  they  told  in  tlie  Ethiopian  court,  the 
wish  to  be  reunited  to  the  Church.  The  Acts  of  the 
Council  of  Florence  tell  of  the  emba.ssy  sent  by  the 
emperor  Zera-Jacob  with  the  object  of  obtaining  this 
result  (1452).  The  union  was  brought  about;  but, 
on  their  home  journey,  the  messengers,  while  passing 
through  Egypt,  were  given  up  to  tlie  schismatic  Copts 
and  to  the  Caliph,  and  put  to  death  before  they 
could  bring  the  good  news  to  their  native  land. 
More  than  a  hundred  years  later,  in  1557,  the  Jesuit 
Father  Oviedo  penetrated  into  Ethiopia.  One  of  his 
successors,  Father  Paez,  succeeded  in  converting 
the  Emperor  Socinios  himself.  On  11  December, 
1624,  the  Church  of  Abyssinia,  abjuring  the  heresy 
of  Eutyches  and  the  schism  of  Dioscorus,  was  reunited 
to  the  true  Church,  a  union  which,  unfortunately, 
proved  to  be  only  temporary.  In  1632,  the  Negus 
ISasilides  mounted  the  throne.  Addicted  as  he  was 
to  polygamy  and  to  every  vice,  he  showed  himself 
the  relentless  enemy  of  Catholicism  and  of  its  moral 
law.  The  Jesuits  were  handed  over  to  the  axe  of 
the  executioner,  and  .\byssiiiia  remained  closed  to 
the  missionaries  until  1702.  In  that  year  three 
Franciscans  got  as  far  as  Gondar,  the  capital,  where 
they  converted  several  princes.  The  Negus  wrote 
with  his  own  hand  to  Clement  XI,  professing  liis 
submission  to  His  Holiness.     Once   more   the  hope 

Sro\ed  futile.  A  palace  revolution  overthrew  the 
egus,  and  heresy  again  assumetl  the  reins  of  power. 
From  then  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, a  silence  as  of  death  lay  on  the  Church  of 
Abyssinia.  In  1S46,  the  Holy  See  divided  ICtliiopia 
into  two  .\postolic  vicariates:  that  of  Abyssinia,  en- 
trusted to  the  Lazarists,  and  that  of  Galla,  given  to 
the  Capuchins.  In  the  former,  the  labours  ami  suc- 
cess of  M.  de  Jacobus  awakened  the  jealousy  of  the 
schismatic  clergy.  An  ex-Emir  of  Cairo,  who  had 
become  .Vbouna  of  Ethiopia,  and  a  man  of  low  birth 
named  Kassa,  who  had  been  anointed  Negus  under 
the  name  of  Theodoros.  joined  forces  to  persecute 
the  Catholics,  drive  out  the  missionaries,  and  put 
them  to  tleatli.  The  Negus  Johannes  IV,  who  suc- 
ceeded Theoiloros,  followeil  in  his  predecessor's  foot- 
steps. His  reign  of  twenty  years  was  a  time  of 
trouble  ami  sulfering  for  the  Catholics  of  Abyssinia. 
At  last,  however,  Menelik,  the  King  of  Shoa,  who 
became  Negus  and  was  crowned  in  March,  1889, 
restored  tranquillity  to  the  nii.s.sions.  Under  his  rule 
Catholic  priests  rest  assured  of  justice  and  protec- 
tion throughout  the  whole  Empire  of  .\bys.sinia. 

CnuRrn  Constitution. — .Vbyssinia  is  a  province 
of  the  Patriarchate  of  .VlexaiKlria.  the  Church  of 
.Vbyssinia  is  daughter  of  the  Egj-ptian  Church,  and 
there  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  liaughter  ever  really 
tried  to  withdraw  herself  from  the  maternal  juris 


ABYSSINIA 


77 


ABYSSINIA 


diction.  To-day  the  Abyssiiiians  are  governed  as 
they  wore  in  the  titnc  of  St.  Atliana-sius,  by  a  .-ipecial 
licli'palf,  wlio  is  practically  tlic  vicar  of  the  Coptic 
Patriarch  of  .Mcxaiidria,  and  i.><  locally  known  !us 
Aboitna,  or  Aboii-Sitl(ima,  "  Tather  of  Peace."  He 
has  the  sole  rif^lit,  throughout  Ethiopia,  and  in 
perpetuity,  of  anointing  the  Negus  "  King  of  Kings"; 
of  con.secrating  hisliops,  of  ordaining  priests  and 
deacons,  of  blessing  altar-stones,  of  superintending 
theological  instruction,  and  of  settling,  as  a  last 
court  of  appeal,  disputed  or  diliicult  questions  of 
dogma,  morals,  and  discipline.  Tlie  law  of  ICthiopia 
demands  that  tlie  AI)ouna  shall  always  be  a  foreigner, 
an  Egj-ptian,  whom  the  Negus  obtains,  or  rather 
buvs,  from  the  Klicilive  antl  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of 
Cairo,  the  alleged  successor  of  St.  Mark  in  the  See 
of  Alexandria.  Immediately  after  obtaining  his  epis- 
copal consecration  anil  his  |)rimatial  jurisiliction,  the 
Abouna  sets  out  for  Ethiopia,  with  no  hope  of  re- 
turn; but  lands  and  large  revenues  ensure  him  a  com- 
fortable existence  there.  The  Uchaguf,  or  ICthiopian 
Archbisliop,  is  the  second  religious  pci.sonage  in 
.Miyssinia.  The  Ethiopian  primate  is  forbidden  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Alexanilria  to  con.secrate  more  tlian 
seven  bishops,  but  there  arc  a  considerable  number  of 
secular  and  religious  clergy,  recruited  willi  little  di.s- 
cretion,  and  deplorably  ignorant.  Tlie  ICthiopian 
Church  has,  in  addition  to  tlie  priests  and  monks,  an 
intermediate  class,  tlie  Ikftitriia,  or  literati,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  preserve,  interpret,  and  apply  the  writ- 
ten law,  a  vast  collection  of  the  ordinances  of  the 
Lower  Empire,  modilied  and  altered  by  the  Copts  in 
order  to  ensure  the  supremacy  of  the  See  of  .\lexan- 
dria  over  the  whole  of  Ethiopia.  The  liturgical  lan- 
guage is  the  Gheez,  a  mi.xture  of  Ciieek  and  .\ral>ie. 
Since  the  settlement  of  the  Italians  at  .Ma.ssowah 
and  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  they  have 
founded  the  colony  of  lOrj-thra-a,  .Vbyssinia  has  been 


Missionaries  Crossing  RrvER 

divided  into  three  missionary  divisions.  The  Vica- 
riate of  Abyssinia,  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists,  and 
comprising  rigr6,  Amhara,  and  Gondar,  contained, 
in  190 1,  4,000  Catholics,  two  churches,  two  chapels, 
six  Lazarist  priests,  and  four  native  secular  priests, 
with  more  than  sixty  .seminarians  studying  Glieez  at 
.\litiena.  The  Prefecture  of  Erjthia'a,  in  the  charge 
of  Italian  Capuchins,  compri.ses  the  entire  colony  of 
that  name,  and  contains  14,0t)0  Catholics,  thirty- 
three  churches,  and  fifty-one  priests,  nine  of  whom 
are  Capuchins.  The  Vicariate  of  the  Gallas,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Shoa  and  among  several  tribes  inde- 
pendent of  the  Negus,  contains  lS,fKK)  Catholics  and 
twenty  churches.  It  is  administered  by  twenty  Capu- 
chins, Trench  for  the  most  part,  and  eight  secular 
priests.  There  are  in  Aby.ssinia  200,000  >Iussulmans, 
with  much  influence  in  the  countrj',  and  filling  the 
most  important  positions  at  court;  100,000  Pagans, 
un'J  50,d00  Jews.     The  only  Protestants  who  have 


succeeded  in  gaining  a  foothold  in  Abyssinia  during 
the  nineteenth  century  are  the  missionaries  of  the 
Sweilish  National  Society,  who,  however,  may  only 
labour  in  Erythra>a,  where  they  have  two  principal 
centres,  at  ^loncullo,  near  Massowah,  and  at  Gelcb, 
as  well  as  certain  stations  in  Cunana  land  and  in  the 
province  of  Ilamasen.  Their  statistics  give  them  380 
church  members.  The  Catholic  apostolate  in  Abys- 
sinia must  always  exercise  a  courageous  discretion 
anti  an  unfailing  mililness.  The  missionaries  will 
lia\e  to  contend  lor  many  years  against  the  Eutych- 
ian  fanatici-sm  of  the  monks,  and  the  quarrelsome 
nature  of  the  inhabitants.  Moreover,  the  frequent 
political  revolutions  of  the  past  give  little  hope  of 
settled  peace  and  continued  security. 

Political  Revolutions,  Wars. — The  Galla,  or 
Oromo,  race  in  the  South  has  been  the  terror  of 
Abyssinia  ever  since  the  sixteenth  century.  The  im- 
portation of  European  rifles,  as  well  as  the  dissensions 
among  the  Galla  tribes,  gave  an  opportunity  (1870) 
to  Menelik,  King  of  Shoa,  to  undertake  the  conquest 
of  all  the  colonies  of  the  Oromo  nation  as  far  as  Lake 
Victoria-Nyanza  and  Uganda.  This  concpiest  was 
not  achieved  until  more  than  thirty  years  after  the 
time  it  was  undertaken. 

In  1846,  Gregory  XVI  appointed  as  vicar  apostolic 
to  the  Galla  missions  Father  William  Massaia,  an 
Italian  Capuchin,  formerly  tutor  to  King  Humbert. 
The  new  prelate  belonged  to  the  Order  of  St.  Erancis, 
which  was  the  onlj'  one  tliat  succeeded  ( 1  (JUti- 1 7.')2) 
in  introducing  Catholic  priests  into  Abyssinia.  The 
few  apostles  who  braved  the  Schismatics,  however, 
were  all  martyred.  The  first  Franciscan  missionaries 
were  beheaded  at  Suakin,  and  Blessed  Agathangc  of 
Vendome  and  Cassianus  of  Nantes  were  ignominiously 
hanged  (1G3S).  More  than  a  century  later  (17.')2), 
three  others  were  stoned  to  death  in  a  public  square 
of  Gondar.  From  this  time,  Abyssinia,  as  if  barred 
from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  a  wall  of  iron,  was  an 
impenetrable  region  for  the  Ciiurcli,and  it  was  almost 
a  century  later  that  Mgr.  Ma.ssaia  landed  at  .Massowah 
to  undertake  to  reanimate  the  old  faith  of  the  Ethio- 
pians. In  the  disguise  of  a  merchant,  under  the  con- 
'aiit  espionage  of  the  mercenaries  of  the  Abouna- 
-dama  and  Theodoros,  now  welcomed  by  certain 
'  liiefs,  again  attacked  by  a  frenzied  crowd,  often 
liouiul  and  condemned  to  death,  lie  always  contri\ed 
to  escape.  He  left  Abyssinia  to  go  to  I'rancc  and 
I  England,  where  he  conferred  with  Najjoleon  III  and 
v,;ueen  Victoria.  Having  received  from  them  impor- 
lant  help  for  his  work,  he  returned  to  his  mission,  in 
Scpiemlier,  lS."i3.  On  his  arrival,  he  compiled  a  fialla 
dictionary,  translated  the  Bible,  converted  a  prince 
ol  Lagamara,  vaccinated  a  hundred  people  daily  dur- 
ing a  smalliiox  epidemic,  and  once  more  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Theodoros,  who  put  him  in  chains.  Mocked 
and  flouted  by  the  populace,  he  was  thrown  into  a 
hut  open  to  the  four  winds  of  heaven.  His  patience, 
however,  won  the  esteem  of  Theodoros,  who  released 
him.  Having  been  summoned  by  Menelik,  the  young 
King  of  Shoa,  he  gained  his  affection  and  aroused  in 
him  an  admiration  of  the  Catholic  religion.  "You 
have  saints,"  said  the  king  to  the  bishop,  "and  that 
is  a  wonder  which  neither  my  priests  nor  my  deptera 
[doctors]  can  accomplish."  After  a  fruitful  apostolic 
mission  of  thirty-five  years  among  the  Galla  tribes, 
Mgr.  Mas.saia  was  created  a  Cardinal  by  Leo  XIII, 
and  died  in  18S9,  leaving  10,000  Christians  in  the 
country. 

The  British  Consul,  Walter  Plowden,  a  hardy  ad- 
venturer, frequently  gave  the  Negus  Theodoios  such 
timely  assistance  as  led  to  his  success  in  .several  wars. 
Plowden  was  assassinated,  however,  and  his  successor, 
Captain  Charles  Duncan  Cameron,  failed  to  establish 
a  good  understanding  with  the  African  emperor. 
Suspected  of  having  had  an  understanding  with  the 
Mussulmans  of  Egypt,  who  had  just  defeated  Theo- 


ABYSSINIA 


78 


ABYSSINIA 


doros  at  Ofidaril  in  the  Sudan,  he  was  imprisoned 
(July,  18G3)  with  some  German  missionaries  accused 
of  liaviiig  spoken  ill  of  the  Negus.  After  various 
promises  to  release  the  prisoners,  Theodoros  wound 
up  by  brutally  consigning  the  British  Consul  and  the 
members  of  his  suite,  together  with  some  other 
Europeans,  tied  together  in  pairs,  to  the  fortress  of 
Magdala,  which  he  had  chosen  as  his  capital.  On 
hearing  of  this  outrageous  infringement  of  inter- 
national law.  the  patience  of  tlie  British  gave  way, 
and  tliey  declared  war  (July,  1S(J7).  Sir  Robert 
Napier,  who  had  already  made  a  name  by  his  victories 
in  India,  was  placed  in  command  of  tlie  troops  as- 
signed to  this  expedition.  Colonel  Mcrewether, 
whose  activity  in  this  campaign  did  much  to  win  for 
him  the  rank  of  general,  liaving  previously  recon- 
noitred the  ground,  suggested  that  the  landing  be 
made  at  Adulis  in  Annesley  Bay.  The  British  army 
comprised  10,000  combatants,  an  equal  number  of 
servants,  forty-five  elephants,  and  a  great  many 
pack  mules.  Kapier,  on  landing  in  Abyssinia  (3  Janu- 
ary, 1SG8),  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  Ethiopians 
to  the  effect  that  the  sole  object  of  the  invasion  was 
to  deliver  the  captives,  and  that  he  had  nothing  but 
friendly  feeling  except  for  those  who  should  seek  to 
interfere  with  his  progress.  With  this,  the  army 
boldly  began  its  marcli  through  the  steep  defiles  of 
the  "great  African  citadel".  After  marching  about 
fifty-three  miles,  the  vanguard  reached  the  plateau 
of  Senal^^,  where  they  found  a  deliglitful  climate, 
a  temperature  of  30°  to  43°  Fahr.,  and  a  most  fertile 
country.  Word  reached  tliem  liere  that  several  Ras 
and  governors  of  provinces,  discontented  with  the 
suspicious  Theodoros,  stood  ready  to  replenish  tlieir 
commissary  and  to  supply  them  with  horses.  Napier 
made  this  plateau  his  base  of  operations.  He  was 
obliged  to  cover  his  line  of  march  by  three  intrenched 
camps,  the  first  at  Senaf6,  the  second  at  Addizerat, 
and  tlie  tliird  at  Antolo.  At  last,  on  10  April,  the 
troops  reached  tlie  slopes  of  Silassia  without  having 
encountered  a  single  hostile  soldier,  when  suddenly  a 
cannon  was  fired  on  the  heiglits,  and  6,000  Abyssin- 
ians  hurled  tliemselves  down  upon  the  16,1.00  British. 
The  Snider  rifies,  however,  wliich  the  British  used  for 
the  first  time  in  this  engagement,  quickly  brought 
the  assailants  to  a  halt,  and  di.sabled  the  greater  num- 
ber. By  13  April,  the  Biitish  were  beneatli  tlie  walls 
of  Magdala,  wliich  surrendered  after  a  two  hours' 
siege.  As  soon  as  Theodores  saw  the  BritisJi  soldiers 
entering  the  city,  feeling  liimsclf  abandoned  by  all, 
and  conquered,  he  put  a  pistol  to  his  mouth  and  killed 
himself.  The  victorious  army  then  released  the 
prisoners,  whom  they  had  hardly  hoped  to  find  alive. 
On  17  April,  Napier,  henceforth  Lord  Napier  of  Mag- 
dala, ordered  the  inhabitants  to  evacuate  the  city, 
after  which  the  walls  were  demolished,  and  the  public 
buildings  given  to  the  flames.  It  was  necessary  to 
hasten  the  return  of  the  troops  to  the  sea,  as  the 
rains  had  already  made  the  passage  difficult.  The 
troops  embarked  as  they  arrived  at  the  Red  Sea,  on 
descending  from  the  heights  of  Scnaf6. 

This  prompt  and  lucky  camixiign  of  the  English 
was  to  inspire  the  Italians  twenty-eight  years  later 
to  make  a  like  bold  attempt.  Their  ambitious  de- 
signs, however,  roused  the  whole  country  against 
them,  and  the  bloody  battle  of  Adua  (.Mardi,  ISDO) 
in  which  almost  20,000  were  killed,  iiut  an  end  to 
their  nwli  undertaking.  In  1897  .Air.  Rodd,  first 
secretary  of  the  British  Legation  at  Cairo,  was  en- 
trusted with  a  mission  to  the  Negus.  A  treaty  was 
signed  14  .May,  and  Menrlik  proclaimed  the  Malidists 
enemies  of  his  empire.  He  also  asked  for  tlie  adjust- 
ment of  the  frontiers  between  Ilarrar  and  Somaliland. 
Lastly,  a  Kranco-.^nglo-ltalian  agreement  was  con- 
cluded which  guuranteed  the  independence  of  Ethio- 
pia and  iiHsurod  to  the  three  Powers  bordering  on 
the  kingdom  their  respective  rights  and  interests. 


The  Abyssinian  Church. — The  chief  distinction 
between  the  Abyssinian  Church  and  the  Catholic 
Church  is  the  erroneous  doctrine  that  there  is  but  one 
nature  in  Christ,  the  divine  nature  and  the  human 
nature  being  in  some  manner  unified  by  a  species  of 
fusion.  It  was  in  Mary's  womb  according  to  some,  or 
at  the  baptism  of  Christ  according  to  others,  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  effected  this  union.  Then,  assuming  that 
the  two  natures  in  Christ,  human  and  di\ine,  form  but 
one,  Mary  is  the  mother  of  the  divine  as  well  as  of  the 
human  nature  of  her  Son,  and  becomes  by  that  very 
fact  almost  equal  to  God  the  Father.  To  these,  so 
to  speak,  original  errors  of  the  Monophysites  the 
Ethiopian  Cliurch  added  some  of  its  own:  e.  g.  the 
belief  that  the  faith  of  parents  suffices  to  save  their 
children  who  die  unbaptized;  the  wholesale  repudia- 
tion of  all  Oecumenical  Councils  held  since  the  Council 
of  Ephesus,  and  the  belief  in  traducianism  as  an 
explanation  of  the  soul's  origin.  Moreover,  they  still 
retain  in  full  force  various  practices  of  the  primitive 
Church  which  have  long  since  fallen  into  desuetude 
elsewliere:  e.  g.  abstinence  from  the  flesh  and  blood 
of  animals  which  have  been  strangled;  Baptism  by 
immersion;  the  custom  of  administering  Communion 
to  little  children  under  the  species  of  wine;  resting 
from  work  on  tlie  Sabbath,  and  tlie  celebration  of  the 
Agape.  It  may  be  added  that  no  church  has  kept 
to  this  very  day  a 
more  visible  im- 
print of  the  Jew- 
ish religion.  Chil- 
dren of  both  sexes 
are  circumcised  by 
women  two  weeks 
after  birth.  They 
are  then  b  a  p- 
tized,  girls  on  the 
eightieth  and  boys 
on  the  fortieth 
day.  As  in  Juda;a, 
they  distinguish 
by  the  term  "  Naz- 
arenes  "  children 
dedicated  by  their 
parents  to  the  ob- 
servance of  certain 
practices  or  pro- 
hibitions, such  as 
drinking  hydromel 
and  shaving  the 
head.  The  canon 
of  Scripture  ad- 
mitted by  the 
Ethiopians     com- 

E rises,  besides  the 
ooks  accepted  by 
Catholics,  certain 
apocryphal  works, 
such  as  the  "  Book 
of  Enoch",  the 
"  Ascension  of  Isa- 
iah ",  etc.  The 
oldest  translation 
of  the  Bible  into 
Ethiopian  dates 
from  the  fourth 
century,  having 
been  m  a  d  e  in 
Ghoez.  Pell,  Piatt, 
and  Dillmann  have 
edited  some  of  the  manuscripts  in  London  and  Leip- 
zig, but  the  majority  .still  remain  untouched,  in  con- 
vents of  Abyssinian  monks.  The  present  clergy  are 
buried  in  a  st.ate  of  deplorable  ignorance.  Little 
is  requiroil  of  secular  priests  beyond  the  ability 
to  read  and  to  recite  the  Nicone  Creed,  and  a 
knowledge    of  the  most  necessary    liturgical   rites 


1.  Processionai,  Cnosa 

2.  AuvasiNiAN  Priest 

;i.    CllAl.ICE 

■t.    ("m'l(  H    U9ED    BY    CUANTER3 

.").   Pkikst's  mitre 
0.  Clnser 


ACACIA 


79 


ACACIANS 


The  monks  in  their  numerous  convents  receive  an 
iiliication  .soincwluit  more  complete,  and  occasionally 
there  are  founil  among  thorn  men  versed  in  sacred 
hermcneutics,  wlio  can  recite    by  heart    the  entire 

r.il.le. 

l*uii.KT.  Mifsiona  caiholiqurs  francaiara  au  X/.Y*  aiicte 
(Paris,  1900),  I,  1-44:  Lunoi.i-.  Ilialuria  .Klhio,n<r  (Frankfurt. 
lOSU;  AliNAUl)  u'AliliADlK,  Douse  una  en  Eihinpi,-  (IMS-SO) 
(Paris);  Massaia.  /  miti  trenta  cinque  anni  nit  ittUa  EtiopUi 
(Uomc.  I'riipaKamla.  lsy."i);  Hum. and  and  IIozier,  WfcorJ  «/ 
thr  K  pcditwn  lu  Ah!/.i.-inii  (LouIdii.  1vS70);  Tkli.kz,  Historui 
ttf  Ethinpii  aitt  iCoiiTibra.  KiiiO);  Wansleb,  Biographie,  de 
Pierre  HeyUnft,  mumwnmnre  prutmiaul en  Ahiif^ninic,  ](J3o;  /Ctw 
dia  huilurv/uia  Kur  I  Eiliwiiie  (Text  of  lljc  imperial  -hroiiicU's 
(iiicuiiip,elej  and  Iran^luljon  witn  note^  l>y  I^asski'  U'ans)J. 
Jean-Haitistk  Pkii-kt. 

Acacia  (in  Hebrew  shfttah,  plural  shtttim;  Theod. 
iri'fos;  \ulgate,  .spina,  thorn).  1  he  llel)re\v  shfttah  is 
probably  a  contraction  of  .SliinltCili,  ami  thus  identical 
with  the  Kgyptian  shrnl:  the  ("optic  ylimili-,  thorn;  the 
Arabic  sunt.  Ilcncc  the  Cii'eeU  name  iKavda,  thorn, 
the  Latin,  acanthus  for  tlic  Egyptian  aoiria.  Acacia 
wood  is  designated  ^vXoy  Aae-irroi',  "incorruptible 
wood",  in  the  Septuagint,  and  liiniim  sctim,  "sotim- 
wood"  in  the  Vulgate.  The  Biblical  Aca<ia  belongs 
to  the  rjcnus  Mimosa,  and  is  no  doubt  identical  with 
the  .'Ifaci'a  setjal  (Del.)  or  the  .•Icncm  tortilis  (liayne'); 
both  are  called  seijyal,  or  torrent  trees,  satjl  meaning 
torrent.  They  grow  in  the  desert  wailis,  or  torrent 
valleys,  of  Sinai.  The  wood  is  light,  hard,  and 
durable,  and  grows  almost  as  black  as  ebony  with 
age.  The  ark  of  the  covenant,  the  table  of  the 
loaves  of  proposition,  the  altar  of  holocausts,  the 
altar  of  incense,  the  wooden  parts  of  the  tabernacle, 
were  made  of  setim-wood  (Ex.  x.w,  5).  (See 
Plants  ot--  the  Bible.) 

\iooviioi)x,  in  D\rt.  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  189.5):  CnAPMAN  in 
IIastinos,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  art.  Shitlah  Tree  (New 
York,  1002). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Acacians,  Tin:,  known  al.>;o  as  the  Homceans,  an 
Arian  sect  which  first  emerged  into  distinctness  as  an 
ecclcsiiistical  party  some  time  before  the  convocation 
of  the  joint  Synods  of  Arimiiniin  (Rimini)  and 
Seleucia  in  S.'j!).  The  sect  owed  its  name  as  well 
as  its  political  inifwrtance  to  Acacius,  Bishop  of 
Cicsarca,  oi  irepl  'AKiiiciov,  whose  theory  of  adherence 
to  scriptural  phraseology  it  adopted  and  endeavoured 
to  summarize  in  its  various  catch  words:  S/iOios,  Sfioios 
Kara.  Travra,  K.  T.  X. 

In  order  to  understand  the  theological  significance 
of  .Acacianism  as  a  critical  epi.sode,  if  only  an  episode, 
in  the  logical,  as  well  as  in  the  historical  progress  of 
Arianism,  it  is  needful  to  recall  that  the  great  defini- 
tion of  the  Ilomoousion,  promulgated  at  \icii';i  in 
325.  so  far  from  putting  an  end  to  further  discu.ssion. 
became  rather  tlic  occ;usion  for  keener  debate  and 
for  still  more  distressing  confusion  of  statement  in 
the  formulation  of  theories  on  the  relationship  of 
Our  Lord  to  His  Father,  in  so  far  as  that  relationsliip 
constituted  a  di.stinct  tenet  of  orthodox  belief. 
Events  had  already  bsgun  to  ripen  towards  a  fresh 
crisis  shortly  after  the  advent  of  Constantius  to  sole 
power,  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Constans  in  the 
j'ear  S.W.  The  new  Augustus  was  a  man  of  vacillat- 
ing character  with  an  unfortunate  siLsceptibility  to 
flattery  and  a  turn  for  theological  debate  (.\m- 
mianus,  XXI,  xvi)  that  soon  made  him  a  mere 
puppet  in  the  hands  of  the  Eusebian  faction.  Roughly 
spc:iking  there  were  at  this  period  but  three  parties 
in  the  Church:  the  Orthodox  or  Xicxan  party,  who 
syin|)athized  for  the  most  part  with  .\tlianasiu3  and 
his  supjxjrters  and  who  insistcil  on  making  his  cause 
their  own;  the  Eascbian  or  Court  party  and  their 
bewildered  Somi-Arian  followers;  aiul,  hist  of  all,  and 
not  lc;ist  logical  in  their  demands,  the  Anomocan 
party  wiiich  owed  its  origin  to  Aetius.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  357,  Trsacius  and  V'alens,  the  astute,  but  not 
always  consistent  advocates  of  this  latter  group  of 


di.ssidenta  in  the  West,  through  the  influence  which 
they  were  enabled  to  bring  to  bear  upon  the  i;m[)cror 
by  means  of  his  second  wife,  .\urelia  Eu.sebia  (I'anegyr. 
Jul.  Orat.,  iii;  Ammianus,  X.X,  vi,  4),  succeeded  in 
bringing  about  a  conference  of  bishops  at  Sirmium. 

In  the  Latin  creed  put  forth  at  this  meeting  there 
was  inserted  a  statement  of  views  drawn  up  by 
Potamiusof  Lisbon  and  the  venerable  Hosius  of  Cor- 
dova, which,  under  the  name  of  the  Sirniian  Mani- 
festo, as  it  afterwards  came  to  be  known,  roused  the 
whole  of  the  Western  Church  and  threw  the  tem- 
porizers of  the  East  into  disorder.  In  this  state- 
ment the  assembled  prelates,  while  declaring  their 
confession  in  "One  Clod,  the  Father  Almighty,  and 
in  His  only-begotten  Son,  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
generated  from  Him  before  the  ages,"  recommended 
the  disuse  of  the  terms  oIktU  (essence  or  substance), 
oMowioi'  (identical  in  essence,  or  substance),  and 
o/xoMviTLot'  (similar  in  essence,  or  substance),  "by  which 
the  minds  of  many  are  perturbed";  and  they 
held  that  thei-e  "ought  to  be  no  mention  of  any  of 
them  at  all,  nor  any  exposition  of  them  in  the  Church, 
and  for  this  retison  and  for  this  consideration  that 
there  is  nothing  written  about  tliem  in  divine  Script- 
ure and  that  they  are  above  men's  knowledge  and 
above  men's  understanding"  (Athan.,  De  Syn., 
xxviii;  Soz.,  ii,  xxx;  Ilil.,  De  Syn.,  xi).  The  effect 
of  these  propositions  upon  conservative  opinion  was 
like  that  of  the  proverl)ial  spark  in  a  barrel  of  gun- 
powder. As  we  look  back  from  the  standpoint  of 
modern  Catholicism  U|)on  the  circumstances  of  this 
publication,  it  is  impossible  not  to  see  that  they 
occasioned  the  crisis  uix)ii  which  the  whole  subse- 
quent history  of  Arianism  turned.  In  spite  of  the 
scriptural  disclaimer  against  the  employment  of 
inscrutable  terms,  nearly  all  parties  instinctively 
perceived  that  the  Manifesto  was  nothing  else  but  a 
subtly  Anomcean  document. 

The  situation  was  assuredly  rich  in  possibilities. 
Men  began  to  group  themselves  along  new  lines. 
In  the  East,  the  Anomneans  turned  almost  as  a 
matter  of  course  to  Acacius  of  Ciesarea,  whose  in- 
fluence was  growing  stronger  at  court  and  who  was 
felt  to  be  a  shrewd  and  not  too  scrupulous  tem- 
porizer. In  the  West,  bishops  like  I'rsacius  and 
Valeiis  began  to  carry  on  a  like  policy;  and  every- 
where it  w;is  felt  that  the  time  called  once  more  for 
concerted  action  on  the  part  of  the  Church.  This 
was  precisely  what  the  party  in  favour  with  the 
Emperor  Constantius  were  eager  to  bring  about;  but 
not  in  the  way  in  which  the  Nicirans  and  Moderates 
expected.  A  single  council  might  not  be  easily 
controlled;  but  two  separate  synods,  sitting,  one  in 
the  East  and  the  other  in  the  West,  could  be  kept 
better  in  hand,  .\fter  a  number  of  preliminary  con- 
ferences accompan3'ing  an  inevitable  campaign  of 
pamphleteering  in  which  Hilary  of  Poitiers  took  part, 
the  bishops  of  the  Western  portion  of  the  Empire 
met  at  ,\riminum  towards  the  end  of  May,  and  those 
of  the  East  at  Seleucia  in  the  month  of  September, 
359.  The  theological  complexion  of  both  Synods 
was  identical,  at  least  in  this,  that  the  party  of  com- 
promise, represented  at  Seleucia  by  Acacius  and  at 
Ariminum  by  Ursacius  and  Valcns,  was  politically, 
though  not  numerically,  in  the  ascendant  and  could 
exercise  a  subtle  influence  which  depended  almost 
as  much  on  the  argimientative  ability  of  their  leaders 
as  on  their  curial  prestige.  In  both  councils,  as  the 
result  of  dishonest  intrigue  and  an  unscrupulous  use 
of  intimidation,  the  Homcean  formula  associated 
with  the  name  of  .\cacius  ultimately  prevailed.  The 
Ilomoousion.  for  which  so  much  had  been  endured 
by  saintly  champions  of  orthodoxy  for  over  half  a 
century,  was  given  up  and  the  Son  w.as  declared  to 
b?  merely  similar  to — no  longer  identical  in  essence 
with — the  Father.  St.  Jerome's  characterization  of 
the  issue  still  afTords  the  best  commentary,  not  only 


ACACIX7S 


80 


ACACIUS 


on  what  had  come  to  pass,  but  on  the  means  em- 
ployed to  obtain  it.  Tlie  wliole  world  groaned  in 
wonderment  to  find  itself  Arian — ingemuit  totus  orbis 
et  Arianum  se  ease  miratus  esl.  It  wjis  Acacius  and 
his  followers  who  had  skilfully  managed  the  whole 
proceeding  from  the  outset.  Hy  coining  forward  as 
advocates  of  temporizing  methods  they  had  inspired 
the  Euscbian  or  Semi-.\rian  party  with  the  idea  of 
throwing  over  Aetius  and  his  Anomceans.  They 
thus  found  them.selves  thrust  into  a  position  of  im- 
portance to  which  neither  their  numbere  nor  their 
theological  acumen  entitled  tliem.  As  they  had 
proved  themselves  in  jjractice  all  through  tlie  course 
of  tlie  unlooked-for  movement  tliat  brought  them  to 
the  front,  so  were  they  now.  in  tlieorj'.  tlie  exponents 
of  the  Via  Media  of  their  day.  They  separated 
themselves  from  tlie  orthodox  by  the  rejection  of  the 
word  o^ioovtrios;  from  tlie  Semi-.\rians  by  their  sur- 
render of  the  Ofioiovjio!]  and  from  the  Aetians  by 
their  insistence  u|)Oii  tlio  term  Sfxatos.  They  retained 
their  influence  as  a  distinct  party  just  so  long  as  their 
spokesman  and  leader  Acacius  enjoyed  the  favour 
of  Constantius.  Under  Julian  the  Apostate,  Aetius, 
who  had  been  exiled  as  the  result  of  the  proceedings 
at  Seleucia,  was  allowed  to  regain  his  influence.  The 
Acacians  seized  the  occasion  to  make  common  cause 
with  his  ide:is.  but  the  alliance  was  only  political; 
they  threw  him  over  once  more  at  the  Synod  of 
Antioch  held  under  Jovian  in  363.  In  36.5  the  Semi- 
Arian  Synod  of  Lamjisacus  condemned  Acacius.  He 
was  deposed  from  his  see;  and  with  that  ex'ent  the 
history  of  the  party  to  which  he  had  given  his  name 
practically  came  to  an  end. 

Athanakius.  De  .S.-m..  XII,  XXIX,  XL,  in  P.  G.,  XXVI, 
701.  745,  700;  St.  Hilarius,  Contra  Constant.,  xii-xv,  in 
P.L..X.  St.  Epiphanils.  //.rr..  Ixxiii.  23-27,  in  P.  G.,XLII; 
SocRATKS  AND  Sozo.MEN.  in  P.  G.,  I.XVII;  Theodoret,  in  P. 
G..  LXXXII;  Tn.i.EMOXT,  ilfmoircs,  VI  (ed.  1704);  Hefele, 
IlUt.Ch.Counc.  (tr.  Claiik),  II;  Newman,  Ar.  IV  Cent.,  4th 
ed.;  GWATKIN,  Siudies  in  Arianism,  2d  ed.  (Camhridge.  1900). 

Cornelius  Clifford. 

Acacius,  Bishop  op  Bercea,  b.  in  Syria  c.  322;  d.  c. 
432.  While  still  very  young  he  became  a  monk 
in  the  famous  community  of  solitaries,  presided  over 
by  Asterius.  at  a  place  just  outside  Antioch.  He 
seems  to  have  been  an  ardent  cliamj>ion  of  orthodoxy 
during  the  Arian  troul^les,  and  suH'ered  greatly  for 
his  courage  and  constancy.  After  Eusebius  of 
Samosata  returned  from  exile,  on  the  death  of  Valens 
in  378,  he  gave  public  recognition  to  the  great  services 
of  Acacius  and  ordained  him  to  the  See  of  BercEa. 
We  next  hear  of  Acacius  in  Rome,  apparently  as  a 
deputy  on  the  part  of  Meletius  and  the  Fathers  of 
the  Antiochene  Synod,  when  the  questions  connected 
w  ith  the  heresy  of  ApoUinaris  came  up  for  discussion 
before  Pope  IJamasus.  While  fulfdling  this  difficult 
emba.ssy  he  attended  the  meeting  of  the  prelates 
summoned  to  decide  upon  tlie  errors  of  ApoUinaris, 
and  subscribed  the  profession  of  faith  in  the  "Two 
Natures."  It  was  thus  largely  due  to  his  efforts 
that  the  various  schismatical  movements  at  Antioch 
were  ended.  A  little  later  we  find  him  at  Con- 
stantinople, wliither  he  had  gone  to  take  part  in  the 
second  General  Council,  convened  in  381.  to  rc- 
cmpliasize  the  Nicenc  definitions  and  to  put  down 
the  errors  of  the  Macedonians  or  Pnemnatomachians. 
Meletius  of  Antioch  died  in  the  same  year  and 
Acacius,  unfortunately,  took  part  in  the  illegitimate 
consecration  of  Flavian.  For  this  constructively 
schismatical  proceeding— scliismatical  in  the  sense 
that  it  was  an  explicit  violation  of  the  agreement  en- 
tered into  between  Paulinus  an<l  Meletius  and  tended 
unhappilv  lo  keep  tlie  Eustalliian  party  in  power— 
Acacius  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  Pope  Damasus, 
who  refused  to  hold  communion  with  him  and  his 
supporters.  This  Uonian  excommunication  lasted 
some  ten  or  eleven  years  until  the  Council  of  Capua 
n>-adraitted  him  to  imity  in  391  or  392  (Labbc,  Cone., 


II,  1072).  In  398  Acacius,  who  was  now  in  his 
seventy-sixth  year,  was  charged  once  more  with  a 
delicate  mission  to  the  Roman  Church.  Having  been 
selected  by  Isidore  of  Alexandria  to  convey  to 
Pope  Siricius  the  news  of  St.  John  Chrysostom's 
election  to  the  See  of  Constantinople,  he  was  especially 
exhorted  by  the  Egyptian  metropolitan  to  do  all  in 
his  power  to  remove  the  prejudice  which  still  existed 
in  tlie  West  against  Flavian  and  his  party.  In  this, 
as  in  the  previous  embassy,  he  displayed  a  tactful- 
ncss  that  disarmed  all  opposition.  The  reader  will 
find  in  the  pages  of  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret 
an  estimate  of  the  high  value  which  the  entire  Oriental 
episcopate  put  upon  the  services  of  Acacius,  who  is 
described  as  "  famous  throughout  the  world  "  (Theod., 
V,  xxiii).  We  now  come  to  the  two  incidents  in  the 
career  of  this  remarkable  man  which  throw  so  per- 
plexing a  light  upon  the  problem  of  his  real  char- 
acter that  he  may  be  called  one  of  the  enigmas  of 
ecclesiastical  history.  We  refer  to  his  sustained 
hostility  towards  St.  John  Chr>-sostom  and  to  his 
curious  treatment  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria  during  the 
Nestorian  controversy. 

Acacius  was  always  an  avowed  rigorist  ''n  conduct 
and  enjoyed  great  repute  for  piety.  Sozomen  (VII, 
xxviii)  tells  us  that  he  was  "rigid  in  observing  all  the 
regulations  of  the  ascetic  life  "  and  that  when  raised 
to  the  episcopate  his  life  was  lived  practically  and 
austerely  "in  the  open".  Theodoret  is  consistent  in 
his  admiration  for  his  many  episcopal  qualities  and 
calls  him  "an  athlete  of  virtue"  (V,  iv).  Early  in 
the  episcopate  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  in  the  year 
398,  Acacius  came  to  Constantinople,  where  he  was 
treated  with  less  distinction  than  he  had  apparently 
looked  for.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  nature  of 
the  slight  put  upon  liim,  he  seems  to  have  felt  it 
keenly;  for  Palladius,  St.  John's  biographer,  records 
a  most  unepiscopal  saying  of  the  injured  prelate  to 
the  effect  that  he  would  one  day  give  his  brother 
of  Constantinople  a  taste  of  his  own  hospitality — 
^7ii  avTu)  apTva  x^Tpa.v  (Pallad.,  Vita  Chrys.,  VI,  viii, 
in  P.  G.,  XLVII,  22-29).  It  is  certain,  at  any  rate, 
that  from  this  time  forth,  Acacius  showed  liini.self 
indefatigable  in  working  for  the  great  orator-bishop's 
removal  and  was  not  the  least  active  of  those  who 
took  part  in  the  disgraceful  "Synod  of  the  Oak"  in 
the  year  403.  Indeed,  he  was  one  of  the  notorious 
"four"  whom  the  Saint  particularly  named  as  men 
at  whose  hands  he  could  not  expect  to  obtain  com- 
mon justice.  In  every  one  of  the  various  synods 
convened  for  the  Saint's  undoing,  the  restless  old 
man  of  Bercea  took  a  leading  and  ahnost  acrimonious 
part,  and  even  made  a  laborious,  but  happily  futile, 
effort  to  win  over  Pope  Innocent  to  his  uncharitable 
view.  He  was  excommunicated  for  his  pains  and 
remained  under  ban  until  414.  Nor  was  his  im- 
placability quenched  either  by  his  great  antagonist's 
death  or  by  the  lapse  of  time.  Fourteen  years  after 
St.  John  had  died  in  exile,  Acacius  is  found  writing 
to  Atticus  of  Constantinople,  in  421,  to  apologize  for 
the  conduct  of  Theodotus  of  Antioch,  who  had,  in 
spite  of  his  better  jutlgment,  placed  the  Saint's  name 
upon  the  diptychs.  The  same  perplexing  incon- 
sistency of  character,  considering  his  advanceil  years, 
his  profession,  and  the  wide  repute  for  sanctity  he 
enjoyed,  may  be  seen  also  in  the  attitutle  wliicli 
Acacius  maintained  towards  Nestorius.  When  his 
violent  plea  for  leniency  towards  the  hcresiarch  failed 
to  protluce  its  etTect,  he  worketl  adroitly  to  have  Cyril 
hoist  with  his  own  petard  and  charged  with  Apolli- 
narianism  at  Ephesus.  Acacius  spent  the  last  years 
of  his  life  in  trying,  with  eilifying  inconsistency,  to 
pour  the  water  of  his  charity  upon  the  smouldering 
embers  of  the  feuds  which  Nestorianisin  had  left  in 
its  train.  His  letters  to  Cyril  and  to  Pope  Celestine 
make  curious  reading  on  this  score;  and  he  has  the 
amazing  distinction  of  having  inspired  St.  Epiphaniua 


AOACIXJS 


81 


ACACIUS 


to  write  his  "Historj-  of  Heresies  "  (Hapr..  i,  2,  in  P.  O., 
XI. 1.  I7C).  He  (lietl  at  the  extraordinary  age  of 
one  hundred  and  ten  years. 

The  ecclesiastical  historian^  .Socrates,  in  P.  C.  l.XVII; 
SozoME.s-,  in  P.  a..  I..XVII;  I  iiEouoRfrr,  in  P.  6'.,  LX.\XII; 
Pauladius,  Vila  Chryt.,  VI.  viii.  in  /'.  C.  XLVIl;  UARoNirs, 
Ann.  Eccl.  (Paoi,  Cril.):  TiLi.tMoNT.  Mi-moirti:  Newman, 
Ar.lV  Cmt.  (4tli  ed.);  Gwatkin.  Studirt  in  Arianim  (2d  e<l.); 
Hefele,  Hitt.  Ch.  Counc.  (tr.  Clark;  tl.  Oxe.n'iiam),  II. 
Cornelius  Clifford. 

Acacius,  Hkiiop  of  C-esarea  in  Palestine,  disciple 
and  binfirapiiiTof  Eusebius,  tlic  liistorian.  whose  suc- 
cessor in  the  ."^ee  of  Ca^sarea  he  became  in  340.  Noth- 
ing is  known  of  the  date  or  country  of  his  birtli,  but 
he  was  probably  a  Syrian;  and  throughout  his  life 
bore  the  nickname  of  iioi/6<p0a\fiot  (one-eyed);  no 
doubt  from  a  personal  defect  (S.  Hier.  Viri  111., 
XCVIII),  but  possibly  with  a  maliciously  figurative 
reference,  also,  to  his  general  shiftiness  of  conduct 
and  his  rare  skill  in  ambiguous  statement.  He  was  a 
prelate  of  great  learning,  a  patron  of  studies  (S.  Hier., 
Epist.  ad.  Marcellam,  141).  and  was  the  author  of  a 
treati.se  on  ICccIesiastes.  He  also  wrote  six  books 
of  miscellanies  (ffviifuKra.  (yirrifiaTa)  or  essays  on 
various  subjects  which  have  come  down  to  us  only 
in  fragments.  The  student  may  consult  these  frag- 
ments in  detail  in  Fabricius,  "Bil)liotheca  Grrcca  ",  vii, 
3;5r).  and  ix,  254  sqq.  (ed.  Harless).  He  is  remembered 
chiefly  for  his  bitter  opposition  to  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru.sa- 
lem  and  for  the  part  he  was  afterwards  enabled  to  play 
in  the  more  acute  stages  of  the  .-Vrian  controversy. 
There  is  a  significant  passage  in  the  famous  twenty- 
first  oration  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  in  which  that 
champion  of  orthodoxy  speaks  of  "the  tongue  of  the 
Arians"  (Orat.,  xxi,  21)  in  dubiously  complimentary 
terms. 

If,  as  seems  probable,  it  is  .\cacius  who  is  there 
referred  to,  it  can  only  be  saiil  that  the  story  of  his 
career  fully  justifies  the  implication  so  darkly  made. 
He  was  one  of  those  imperial  prelates  so  effectively 
described  by  Newman  (.Vrians  4th  Cent.,  4th  ed., 
274)  as  "practised  in  the  gymnastics  of  the  .-Vris- 
totelic  school '  ;  and  his  readiness  in  debate  and  genius 
for  intrigue,  joined  to  the  prestige  he  already  pos- 
sessed as  the  friend  and  successor  of  the  great  Cluirch- 
historian  of  Cxsarea,  naturally  singled  him  out  as  the 
likeliest  spokesman  and  giiiifing  spirit  of  the  Court 
faction,  even  before  their  first  great  leader.  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia,  had  passed  away.  He  was  one  of  the 
notorious  "ninety"  who  signed  the  ambiguous  creeds 
at  Antioch,  in  tlie  presence  of  Constantius  in  341 
(Sozomen,  III,  v),  on  the  occasion  of  the  dedication 
of  the  Golden  Basilica.  For  his  part  in  this  trans- 
action and  for  his  open  advocacy  of  a  policy  of 
reticence  towards  the  Nicx-an  formula,  we  find  his 
name  mentioned  in  the  list  of  tho.se  who  were  deposed 
by  the  Council  of  Sardica  in  347  (.\than,asius,  Hist. 
Ar.,  XVII;  Epist.  ad.  vEeypt.,  VII).  Refusing  to 
acquiesce  in  the  sentence  pa.ssed  upon  him,  he  with- 
drew with  the  other  bishops  of  the  Court  faction  to 
Philippopolis,  wlicre  he  in  turn  helped  to  secure  a 
sentence  of  excommunication  and  deiiosition  against 
his  judges  and  also  against  Pope  Julius,  the  patron 
and  ilefender  of  St.  .\thanasius,  and  against  Hosius 
of  Cordova  (Soc,  II,  xvi;  Soz..  Ill,  xiv;  Theod., 
II.  xxvi;  Labbe,  Cone,  II,  625-629).  These  pen- 
alties which  were  inflicted  on  him  at  the  hands 
of  the  orthodox  did  nothing,  of  course,  to  diminish 
his  prestige.  If  we  may  trust  the  testimony  of 
St.  Jerome,  his  credit  with  Constantius  was  so  great 
during  all  these  years  that  when  Pope  Libcrius  was 
depo.sed  and  driven  into  exile,  in  .3.)5  or  357,  .Vcacius 
was  able  to  .secure  the  intrusion  of  Felix  the  .■Vnti- 
popc  in  his  place. 

The  year  .iM  marks  the  culmination  of  his  acrimo- 
nious and  undignified  quarrel  with  CjTil  of  Jerusalem. 
The  misunderstanding,  which  dated  back  to  a  period 
Dot  long  after  Cyril's  installation,  bad  arisen  ostensi- 
I-r. 


biy  over  a  question  of  canonical  precedence,  but  was 
most  probably  rooted  in  the  chagrin  that  .\caciua 
characteristically  felt  at  being  unable  to  sway 
Cyril's  policy  entirely  to  his  own  liking.  Charges  and 
counter-charges  of  heresy  followed  for  some  years, 
until  .\cacius  managed  to  secure  the  deposition  of 
Cyril,  through  the  assistance  of  the  Palestinian 
bishops,  whom  he  had  induced  to  examine  a  wholly 
r!iliculous  charge  of  contumacy.  Cyril  went  into 
exile,  but  was  restored  to  his  church  within  two 
years  by  a  decision  of  the  famous  0>uncil  of  Seleucia. 
liut  the  extraordinary  credit  enjoyed  by  Acacius 
with  the  weak-minded  Constantius  was  able  to  undo 
this  act  of  ordinary  justice,  and,  in  360,  Cyril  was 
condemned  once  mori, — this  time  through  the  in- 
fluence which  .\cacius  was  able  to  exercise  at  the 
Synod  of  Constantinople.  Cyril  was  forced  to  yield. 
He  left  his  see  and  remained  in  exile  until  the  acces- 
sion of  Julian,  in  361.  The  fact,  however,  that 
Acacius  received  a  tem[)orary  check  in  the  rein- 
statement of  CjTil,  at  the  hands  of  the  Synod  of 
Seleucia,  must  not  blind  the  reader  to  the  real  weight 
of  his  influence  either  in  the  Council  itself  or  in  the 
ecclesiastical  politics  of  the  time.  He  was  among 
the  foremost  of  the  Arianizing  prelates  who  suc- 
ceeded in  carrj'ing  through  the  idea  of  a  divided 
Synod  to  solve  the  problems  created  by  the  Sirmian 
manifesto.  In  this  .sense  he  may  be  charged  with 
the  bulk  of  the  mischief  created  by  the  definitions  of 
Ariminum  and  Seleucia.  The  turbulent  and  un- 
scrupulous faction  which  rallied  to  the  support  of 
his  ideas  in  both  gatherings  was  entirely  his  creation 
and  rightly  bore  his  name — oJ  irepi  'AKdKioy. 

The  detailed  account  of  his  activities  at  Seleucia 
belongs  rather  to  the  history  of  that  gathering  than  to 
the  present  sketch  of  his  life;  but  some  notice  of  his 
mode  of  procetlure  will  not  be  out  of  place  here.  The 
number  of  bishops  present  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated as  somewhere  between  one  hundred  and  fifty 
and  one  hundred  and  si.xty  (Gwatkin,  Studies  in 
Arianism,  V,  note  G,  where  the  original  authorities 
are  ably  discussed).  The  Semi-.\rians  were  in  a 
large  majority;  and  Acacius  had  a  well-disciplined 
following,  which,  with  the  .\nomfleans  whom  he  hud 
won  to  his  side,  by  holding  out  hopes  of  a  compro- 
mise, amounted  to  some  forty  in  all.  The  first 
critical  stage  of  events  was  .soon  marked  by  the  re- 
adoption  of  the  Semi-.\rian  Creed  of  .\ntiocli.  known 
popularly  as  the  "Creed  of  the  Encaenia",  or  "Creed 
of  the  Dedication"  (v  iv  roh  iyKaiytoa),  which  was 
a  negatively  unsatisfactorj'  profession  of  faith — the 
only  distinct  character  about  it  being  that  it  was 
Anti-Nicene  in  scope  and  had  been  framed  by  men 
who  had  deliberately  confirmed  the  deposition  of 
St.  Athanasius.  The  next  stage  of  events  was  more 
significant  still;  for  it  gave  .Acacius  and  his  followers 
the  opportunity  to  reveal  their  strength.  Silvanus 
of  Tarsus  proposed  to  confirm  the  famous  Lucianic 
Creed,  when  .Acacius  and  his  party  arose  and  left  the 
assembly,  by  way  of  protest.  In  spite  of  this  move 
the  Creed  was  signed  the  next  morning  witli  dosed 
doors;  a  proceeding  which  Acacius  promptly  char- 
acterized as  a  "deed  of  darkness".  On  Wcdnftsday 
Basil  of  Ancyra  and  .Macedonius  of  Constantinople 
arrived  with  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Cj'ril  of  Jerusalem, 
and  Eustathius.  CjTil  was  alreacly  under  censure; 
and  Acacius  refused  to  bring  his  followers  back  to 
the  synod  until  he  and  some  other  accused  bishops 
who  were  present  had  withdrawn,  .\fter  a  stormy 
debate  his  plan  was  agreed  to  and  Leonas,  the 
Comes,  or  representative  of  Constantius  at  the  de- 
liberation, rose  and  read  a  copy  of  a  new  Creed  which 
Acacius  had  ptit  into  his  hands.  While  not  ex- 
pressly repudiating  the  Lucianic  fonnuhis,  it  never- 
theless objected  to  the  terms  o^uxwiriOK  and  i^uuoixriot 
as  being  alike  unscriptural.  This  led  to  a  very  heated 
discussion,  and  on  Thursday  Acacius  founci  himself 


ACAOinS 


82 


ACACIUS 


bluntly    attacked    by   Eleusius,  the   ex-soldier   and 
Semi-Arian    Bishop   of  Cyzicus. 

On  Friday  Araciiis  refused  once  more  to  take  part 
in  any  further  deliberations  and  Leonas  joined  with 
him,  on  the  plea,  as  he  averred,  that  the  Emperor  had 
not  sent  him  to  preside  over  a  council  of  bishops  who 
could  not  agree  among  themselves.  The  majority 
thereupon  convened  without  them  and  deposed 
Acacius  and  some  fifteen  other  prelates.  That  astute 
leader,  however,  did  not  wait  for  the  formal  vote  of 
deposition  against  liim,  but  set  out  immediately, 
with  eight  others,  for  Constantinople.  On  arriving 
tliere  he  discovered  that  his  object  had  already  been 
secured  by  the  advent  of  a  number  of  disaffected 
deputies  from  Ariminum.  The  famous  conference 
of  Nikd  (near  Hadrianople)  had  taken  place  and  tlie 
SfiMof,  without  the  supposed  safe-guard  of  the  (tori 
irdn-a,  had  been  adopted.  This  led  to  a  fresh  synod 
held  at  the  suggestion  of  Constantius  in  the  imperial 
city  itself.  It  meant  the  complete  triumph  of  the 
indefatigable  Acacius.  Honicran  ideas  were  estab- 
lished at  Constantinople;  and,  although  their  in- 
fluence never  lasted  very  long  in  the  West,  they  en- 
joyed a  fluctuating  but  disquieting  supremacy  in 
the  East  for  nearly  twenty  years  longer.  Acacius 
returned  to  his  see  in  361  and  spent  the  next  two 
years  of  his  life  in  filling  the  vacant  sees  of  Palestirie 
with  men  who  were  thought  to  sympathize  with  his 
policy  of  theological  vagueness  and  Anti-Nicenism. 
With  characteristic  adroitness  he  consented  to  a 
complete  change  of  front  and  made  a  public  pro- 
fession of  adherence  to  the  Nicsan  formularies  on  the 
accession  of  Jovian  in  363.  When  the  Arian  Valens 
was  proclaimed  Augustus  in  364,  however,  Acacius 
once  more  reconsidered  his  views  and  took  sides  with 
Eudoxius;  but  his  versatility  this  time  served  him 
to  little  purpose.  When  the  Macedonian  bishops 
met  at  Lampsacus,  the  sentence  previously  passed 
against  him  was  confirmed  and  he  is  heard  of  no 
more  in  authentic  history.  Baronius  gives  the  date 
of  his  death  as  366. 

For  bibliography  see  Acacians. 

Cornelius  Clifford. 

Acacius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople;  Schis- 
matic; d.  489.  When  Acacius  fir-st  appears  in  authen- 
tic history  it  is  as  the  dptpavoTpdipos.  or  dignitary 
entrusted  witli  the  care  of  the  orphans,  in  the  Church 
of  Constantinople.  He  thus  filled  an  ecclesiastical 
post  that  conferred  upon  its  possessor  higli  rank 
as  well  as  curial  influence;  and,  if  we  may  borrow  a 
hint  as  to  his  real  character  from  the  phrases  in 
which  Suidas  has  attempted  to  describe  his  undoubt- 
edly striking  personality,  he  early  made  the  most 
of  his  opportunities.  lie  seems  to  have  affected  an 
engaging  magnificence  of  manner;  was  open-handed; 
suave,  yet  noble,  in  demeanour;  courtly  in  speech, 
and  fond  of  a  certain  ecclesiastical  display.  On  the 
death  of  the  Patriarch  Gennadius,  in  471,  he  was  chosen 
to  succeed  him,  and  for  the  first  five  or  six  years  of 
his  episcopate  his  life  was  uneventful  enough.  But 
there  came  a  change  wlien  the  usurping  Emperor 
Basiliscus  allowed  himself  to  be  won  over  to  Euty- 
chian  teaching  by  Timotheus  .Slurus,  the  Monophy- 
sitc  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  chanced  at  that 
time  to  be  a  guest  in  the  imperial  capital.  Timo- 
theus, who  had  been  recalletl  from  exile  only  a  sliort 
time  previously,  was  bent  on  creating  an  effective 
opposition  to  the  decrees  of  Chalccdon;  and  he 
succeeded  so  well  at  court  that  Basiliscus  was  in- 
duced to  put  forth  an  encyclical  or  imperial  proclama- 
tion (iyKVKXiot)  in  which  the  teaching  of  the  Coimcil 
was  rejected.  Acacius  himself  seems  to  have  hesi- 
tated at  first  about  adding  liis  name  to  the  list  of  tlie 
Asiatic  bishops  who  had  already  signed  the  encyclical; 
but,  warned  by  a  letter  from  Pope  Simplicius,  who 
had  learned  of  his  questionable  attitude  from  the 
ever-vigilant   monastic   party,    he    reconsidered    his 


position  and  threw  himself  violently  into  the  debate. 
This  sudden  change  of  front  redeemed  him  in  popular 
estimation,  and  he  won  the  regard  of  the  orthodox, 
particularly  among  the  various  monastic  com- 
munities throughout  the  East,  by  his  now  ostenta- 
tious concern  tor  sound  doctrine.  The  fame  of  his 
awakened  zeal  even  travelled  to  tlie  West,  and  Pope 
Simplicius  wrote  him  a  letter  of  commendation.  The 
chief  circumstance  to  which  lie  owed  this  sudden 
wave  of  popularity  was  the  adroitness  with  which 
he  succeeded  in  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
particular  movement  of  which  Daniel  the  Stylite 
was  both  the  coryphaeus  and  the  true  inspirer. 
The  agitation  was,  of  course,  a  spontaneous  one  on 
the  part  of  its  monastic  promoters  and  of  the  popu- 
lace at  large,  wlio  sincerely  detested  Eutychian 
theories  of  tlie  Incarnation;  but  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  Acacius,  either  in  orthodox  opposition  now, 
or  in  unorthodox  efforts  at  compromise  later  on, 
was  anytliing  profounder  than  a  politician  seeking 
to  compass  his  own  personal  ends.  Of  theological 
principles  he  seems  never  to  have  had  a  consistent 
grasp.  He  had  the  soul  of  a  gamester,  and  he 
played  only  for  influence.  Basiliscus  was  beaten, 
fie  withdrew  his  offensive  encyclical  by  a  counter- 

g reclamation,  but  his  surrender  did  not  save  him. 
[is  rival  Zeno,  who  had  been  a  fugitive  up  to  the 
time  of  the  Acacian  opposition,  drew  near  the  capital. 
Basiliscus,  deserted  on  all  sides,  sought  sanctuary 
in  tlie  cathedral  church  and  was  given  up  to  his 
enemies,  tradition  says,  by  the  time-serving  Patri- 
arch. For  a  brief  space  there  was  complete  accord 
between  Acacius,  the  Roman  Pontiff,  and  the  domi- 
nant party  of  Zeno,  on  the  necessity  for  taking 
stringent  metliods  to  enforce  the  authority  of  the 
Fathers  of  Clialcedon;  but  trouble  broke  out  once 
more  when  the  Monophysite  party  of  Alexandria 
attempted  to  force  the  notorious  Peter  Mongus  into 
that  see  against  tlie  more  orthodox  claims  of  John 
Talaia  in  the  year  482.  This  time  events  took  on 
a  more  critical  a.spect,  for  they  gave  Acacius  the 
opportunity  he  seems  to  have  been  waiting  for  all 
along  of  exalting  the  authority  of  his  see  and  claim- 
ing for  it  a  primacy  of  honour  and  jurisdiction  over 
the  entire  East,  which  would  emancipate  the  bishops 
of  the  capital  not  only  from  all  responsibility  to  the 
sees  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  but  to 
the  Roman  Pontiff  as  well.  Acacius,  who  had  now 
fully  ingratiated  himself  with  Zeno,  induced  that 
emperor  to  take  sides  with  Mongus.  Pope  Sim- 
plicius made  a  vehement  but  ineffectual  protest,  and 
Acacius  replied  by  coming  forward  as  the  apostle 
of  re-union  for  all  the  East.  It  was  a  specious  and 
far-reacliing  scheme,  but  it  laiil  bare  eventually 
the  ambitions  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
and  revealed  him,  to  use  Cardinal  Hergenrother's 
illuminating  phrase,  as  "the  forerunner  of  Photius". 
The  first  effective  measure  which  Acacius  adopted 
in  his  new  role  was  to  draw  up  a  document,  or  series 
of  articles,  which  constituted  at  once  both  a  creed 
and  an  instrument  of  re-union.  This  creed,  known 
to  students  of  theological  history  as  the  Henoticon, 
was  originally  directed  to  the  irreconcilable  factions 
in  Egypt.  It  was  a  plea  for  re-union  on  a  basis  of 
reticence  and  compromise.  And  under  this  aspect 
it  suggests  a  significant  comparison  with  another 
and  better  known  set  of  "articles"  composed  nearly 
eleven  centuries  later,  wlien  the  leaders  of  the  Angli- 
can schism  were  thridding  a  careful  way  between 
the  extremes  of  Roman  teacliing  on  the  one  side  and 
of  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic  negations  on  the  other. 
The  Ilenolicon  affirmed  the  Niccne-Constantinopoli- 
tan  Creed  (i.  e.  the  Creed  of  Nica\a  complcled  at 
Constantinople)  as  affording  a  common  symbol  or 
expression  of  faitli  in  whicli  all  parties  coulil  unite. 
All  other  o-uM/SoXa  or  fiotfTj/ioTa  were  excluded;  Euty- 
ches  and  Nestorius  were  unmistakably  condemned, 


AOACItrS 


83 


ACADEMIES 


while  the  anathemas  of  Cyril  were  accepted.  The 
teaching  of  Clialcedon  was  not  so  mueli  repudiated 
as  passed  over  in  silence;  Jesus  Christ  was  described 
as  the  "only-begotten  Son  of  God  .  .  .  one  and 
not  two"  {i^Lo\(ryo0^ley  t4i/  fiovoytinj  toC  8tou  (ra 
Tvyxii't"'  xal  01/  SOo  .  .  .  k.  t.  X.)  and  there  was 
no  explicit  reference  to  the  two  Natures.  Mongus 
naturally  accepted  this  accomodatingly  vague  teach- 
ing. Talaia  refused  to  subscribe  to  it  and  set  out 
for  Rome,  where  his  cause  was  taken  up  with  great 
vigour  by  Pope  Simplicius.  The  controversy  dragged 
on  under  Felix  H  (or  III)  who  sent  two  legatine 
bishops,  Vitalis  and  Misenus,  to  Constantinople,  to 
summon  Acacius  before  the  Roman  See  for  trial. 
Never  was  the  masterfulness  of  Acacius  so  strik- 
ingly illustrated  as  in  the  ascendancy  he  acquired 
over  this  luckless  pair  of  bisliops.  He  inducetl  them 
to  communicate  publicly  with  him  and  sent  tliem 
back  .stultified  to  Rome,  where  they  were  promptly 
condemned  by  an  indignant  synod  wliich  reviewed 
their  conduct,  .\caciu3  was  branded  bv  Pope 
Felix  as  one  who  had  sinned  against  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  apostolic  authority  (Ilabe  ergo  cum  his  .  .  . 
portionem  S.  Spirilus  iudicio  ct  apoxUilicA  auctoritate 
damnatus):  anu  he  was  declared  to  be  perpetually 
excommunicate — nunquamque  annthcmatix  vinctitis 
exuendus.  Another  envoy,  inappropriately  named 
Tutus,  was  .sent  to  carry  the  decree  of  this  double 
excommunication  to  .\cacius  in  person:  and  he,  too, 
like  his  hapless  predecessors,  fell  under  the  strange 
charm  of  tlie  courtly  prelate,  who  enticed  him  from 
his  allegiance.  .Vcacius  refu.sed  to  accept  the  docu- 
ments brought  by  Tutus  and  showeil  his  .sense  of 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  See.  and  of  the  synod 
wliich  had  condemned  him.  by  erasing  tlie  name  of 
Pope  Felix  from  the  diptychs.  Talaia  equivalent ly 
gave  up  the  fight  by  consenting  to  become  Rishop 
of  Nola,  and  .Vcacius  began  by  a  brutal  policy  of 
violence  and  persecution,  directed  chiefly  against 
his  old  opponents  the  monks,  to  work  with  Zcno 
for  the  general  adoption  of  tlie  Ilennliron  througliout 
the  Kast.  lie  tlius  managed  to  .secure  a  political 
eemblance  of  the  prize  for  which  he  had  workeil  from 
the  beginning.  He  was  practically  the  first  prelate 
througliout  llasteni  Christendom  until  his  death  in 
489.  His  schism  outlived  him  some  thirty  years, 
and  was  ended  only  by  the  return  of  the  Emperor 
Justin  to  unity,  under  Pope  Hormisdas  in  ,519. 

Mansi,  Coll.  Cnnril.,  (Florence.  1742)  VII.  97(>-1176;  Epp. 
Simpticii,  Papa,  in  P.  L.,  LVIII.  41-00;  Epp.  FtHrit,  Papa-, 
ibid..8i.3-9C7;  Tiikodoret,  UM.  Eccl.;  Evagrius,  //i«(.  Ecd.; 
SuiDAS,  8.  V.  *A*cdKios;  T1LLE.M0NT,  Mi-moircs,  XVI;  Heu- 
OENnoTliEH,  PhotxM.  Pair,  ton  Oon«(an(.  (Uatisbon,  1807)1; 
Marik,  Let  mointt  de  Contlanlinopte  (Pari.^.  1897). 

CoHNELius  Clifford. 

Acacius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Melitene  in  the  third 
century.  The  Greeks  venerate  him  on  different 
days,  but  especially  on  31  March.  He  lived  in  the 
time  of  the  persecution  of  Dccius,  and  altliougli  it 
is  certain  that  he  was  cited  before  the  tribunal  of 
Marcian  to  give  an  account  of  his  faith,  it  is  not  sure 
that  he  died  for  it.  He  wa-s  indeed  condemned  to 
death,  but  tlie  Kmperor  released  him  from  prison 
after  he  had  undergone  considerable  sufTcring.  He 
was  famous  both  for  the  splendour  of  his  doctrinal 
teaching  and  the  miracles  he  wrought.  There  was  a 
younger  Acacius,  who  was  also  Bishop  of  Melitene, 
and  who  was  con.spicuous  in  the  Council  of  Kphesus, 
but  it  is  not  certain  that  he  is  to  be  ranked  among 
the  sainta. 

Acta  SS.,  March  3. 

T.  J.  Campufll. 

Academies,  Roman. — The  Italian  Renaissance  at 
its  apogee  (from  the  close  of  the  Western  .Schism 
(HIS)  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century]  found 
two  intellectual  centres,  Florence  and  Rome.  Scien- 
tific, literary,  and  artistic  culture  attained  in  them 


a  development  as  intense  as  it  was  multiform,  and 
the  earlier  Roman  and  Florentine  academies  were 
typical  examples  of  this  variety.  We  shall  restrict 
our  attention  to  the  Roman  academies,  beginning 
with  a  general  survey  of  them,  and  adding  historical 
and  bibliographical  notes  concerning  the  more  im- 

fortant  of  these  associations  of  learned  men,  for  the 
talian  "Academies"  were  that  and  not  institutes 
for  instruction.  The  Middle  Ages  did  not  bequeath 
to  Rome  any  institutions  that  could  be  called  scien- 
tific or  literary  academies.  As  a  rule,  there  was  slight 
inclination  for  such  institutions.  'I  he  Academy  of 
Charlemagne  and  the  Floral  Academy  at  Toulouse 
were  princely  courts  at  which  literary  meetings  were 
held.  A  special  reason  why  literature  did  not  get 
a  stronger  footing  at  Rome  is  to  be  found  in  the 
constant  politico-religious  disturbances  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  Owing  to  tlie  oppression  of  the  papacy  under 
the  Hohenstaufen  emperors,  to  the  struggles  for  ec- 
clesiastical liberty  begun  by  GicgoryVll,  to  theepic 
conflict  between  Guelph  and  GliiLelline,  to  the  intni- 
sion  of  a  French  domination  w  liicli  gave  birth  to  papal 
Avignon  and  the  Western  .Schism,  niedie\al  Rome  wxs 
certainly  no  place  for  learned  academies.  But  when 
papal  unity  was  restored,  and  the  pores  returned  to 
Rome,  the  Renaissance  was  at  its  heiglit,  and  the  city 
welcomed  and  encouraged  every  kind  of  intellectual 
culture.  At  this  favourable  moment  begins  the  his- 
tory of  the  Roman  academics.  At  Rome,  as  at  Flor- 
ence, the  academies  reproduced  to  a  tonsiderable  ex- 
tent the  traditions  of  tiie  Academy  of  Plato;  i.e.  they 
were  centres  for  the  cultivation  of  philo.sopliy  in  that 
larger  sense  dear  to  Greek  and  Roman  antiquity, 
according  to  which  it  meant  the  broadest  kind  of 
culture.  From  the  earliest  days  of  the  Renai.s- 
sance  the  Church  was  the  highest  tjpe  of  such  an 
academy  and  the  most  prolific  source  of  culture. 
The  neo-Platonic  movement  was  an  extremely  power- 
ful factor  in  the  Renaissance,  implying  as  it  did,  a 
return  to  classical  thought  and  a  reaction  against  the 
decadent  (.\ristotelean)  Scholasticism  of  that  age.  At 
the  head  of  this  movement  in  the  above  named  "capi- 
tals of  thought"  were  two  Greeks,  Gcmistus  Plethon 
at  Florence,  and  Cardinal  Bessarion  (d.  1-172)  at 
Rome.  About  14.50  the  house  of  the  latter  was  the 
centre  of  a  flourishing  Academy  of  Platonic  philoso- 

Cliy  and  of  a  varied  intellectual  culture.  His  valua- 
le  library  (which  he  bequeathed  to  the  city  of 
\'enice)  w;is  at  the  disposal  of  the  academicians, 
among  whom  were  the  most  intellectual  Italians  and 
foreigners  resident  in  Rome.  This  Platonic  propa- 
ganda (directed  vigorously  against  the  "peripatetic" 
restoration  and  the  anti-Platonic  attacks  of  the  nco- 
Aristotelean  school)  had  an  echo  in  a  small  Latin 
folio  of  Bessarion,  "Against  the  Calumniators  of 
Plato"  (Rome,  H()9).  Bessarion,  in  the  latter  j-ears 
of  his  life,  retired  from  Rome  to  Ravenna,  but  he 
left  behind  him  ardent  adherents  of  the  classic  phil- 
osophy. Unfortunately,  in  Rome  the  Renaissance 
took  on  more  and  more  of  a  pagan  character,  and 
fell  into  the  hands  of  humanists  without  faitli  and 
without  morals.  This  imparted  to  the  academic 
movement  a  tendency  to  pagan  humanism,  one  evi- 
dence of  which  is  found  in  the  celebrated  Roman 
Academy  of  Pomponio  Leto. 

Giidio,  the  natural  son  of  a  nobleman  of  the  San- 
severino  family,  born  in  Calabria  in  14'2.'>,  and  known 
by  his  academic  name  of  "Pomponius  I.a'tus",  came 
to  Rome,  where  he  devoted  his  energies  to  the  en- 
thusiastic study  of  classical  antiquity,  and  attracted 
a  great  number  of  disciples  and  admirers.  He  was 
a  worshipper  not  merely  of  the  literarj-  and  artistic 
form,  but  also  of  the  ideas  and  spirit  of  classic  pa- 
ganism, and  therefore  a  contemner  of  Christianity 
and  an  enemy  of  the  Church.  The  initial  step  of 
his  programme  was  the  foundation  of  the  Roman 
Academy  in  which  every  member  assumed  a  classical 


ACADEMIES 


84 


ACADEMIES 


name.  Its  principal  members  were  humanists,  and 
nearly  all  of  them  were  known  for  their  irreligious 
and  epicurean  lives,  e.  g.  Bart<ilomeo  Platina  and 
Filippo  Buonaccorsi.  Moreover,  in  their  aiidacity, 
these  neo-Pagans  compromised  I  heniselves  politically, 
at  a  time  wlien  Rome  wiis  full  of  conspiracies  fo- 
mented bv  the  Roman  barons  and  the  neighbouring 
princes.  "Paul  II  (1464-71)  caused  Pomixinio  and 
the  leaders  of  the  Academy  to  be  arrested  on  charges 
of  irreligion,  immorality,  and  conspiracy  against  the 
Pope.  The  prisoners  begged  so  earnestly  for  mercy, 
and  with  such  protestations  of  repentance,  that  they 
were  pardoned.  The  Academy,  however,  collapsed 
(P:istor,  Histor>-  of  the  Popes,  II,  ii,  2).  The  six- 
teenth century  saw  at  Rome  a  great  increase  of 
literary  and  a?sthctic  academics,  more  or  less  in- 
spired by  the  Renaissance,  all  of  which  assumed, 
as  was  the  fashion,  odd  and  fantastic  names.  We 
learn  from  various  sources  the  names  of  many  such 
institutes;  as  a  rule,  they  soon  perished  and  left  no 
trace.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
came  the  "Accademia  degl'  Intronati",  for  the  en- 
couragement of  theatrical  representations.  There 
were  also  the  Academy  of  the  "  Vignaiuoli ",  or 
"Vinegrowers"  (15:50),  and  the  Academy  "della 
Virtu"  (1538),  founded  by  Claudio  Tolomei  under 
the  patronage  of  Cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici.  These 
were  followed  by  a  new  Academy  in  the  "Orti"  or 
Farnese  gardens.  There  were  also  the  Academies 
of  the  "Intrepidi"  (1560),  the  "Animosi"  (1576), 
and  the  "lUuminati"  (1598);  this  last,  founded  by 
the  Marchesa  Isabella  Aldobrandini  Pallavicino. 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  there 
were  also  the  .\caderay  of  the  "Notti  Vaticane", 
or  "Vatican  Nights",  founded  by  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo;  an  "Accademia  di  Diritto  civile  e  canonico", 
and  another  of  the  university  scholars  and  students 
of  philosophy  (Accademia  Eustachiana).  In  the  sev- 
enteenth century  we  meet  with  similar  academies; 
the  "Umoristi"  (1611),  the  "Fantastici"  (1625),  and 
the  "Ordinati",  founded  by  Cardinal  Dati  and 
Giiilio  Strozzi.  About  1700  were  founded  the  acad- 
emies of  the  "Infecondi",  the  "Occulti",  the 
"Deboli",  the  "Aborigini",  the  "Immobili",  the 
"Accademia  Esquilina",  and  others.  As  a  rule  these 
academics,  all  very  much  alike,  were  merely  circles 
of  friends  or  clients  gathered  around  a  learned  man 
or  wealthy  patron,  and  were  dedicated  to  literary 
pastimes  rather  tlian  methodical  study.  They  fitted 
m,  nevertheless,  with  the  general  situation  and  were 
in  their  own  way  one  element  of  the  historical 
development.  Despite  their  empirical  and  fugitive 
character,  they  helped  to  keep  up  the  general  esteem 
for  literary  and  other  studies.  Cardinals,  prelates, 
and  the  clergy  in  general  were  most  favourable  to 
this  movement,  and  assisted  it  by  patronage  and 
collaboration. 

With  the  seventeenth  century,  and  while  the  Ro- 
man Academy,  in  its  older  form,  still  survived,  there 
began  a  new  epoch.  The  Academy  was  constituted 
as  a  public  body,  i.  e.  it  was  no  longer  confined  to 
a  small  circle  of  friends.  It  set  itself  a  fixed  and 
permanent  scope  in  the  field  of  science,  letters,  and 
arts,  often  of  a  polemic  or  apologetic  character. 
Naturally  this  higlier  definitive  form  of  the  new  or 
remodelled  Roman  academies  was  closely  allied  with 
the  general  academic  movement  of  Italy  and  of 
foreign  countries,  whose  typical  instance  was  the 
French  .\cademy  founded  by  Richelieu.  It  was  then 
that  academies  became  practical  and  efficacious  in- 
stniments  of  culture,  with  a  direct  influence  on 
public  opinion;  in  this  way,  too,  they  claimed  the 
special  attention  of  the  heads  of  the  State.  This 
was  especially  the  ca.se  at  Rome,  where  the  papacy 
kept  up  its  tradition.ll  patronage  of  the  most  varied 
ecclesiastical  and  general  scholarship.  In  this  period 
the  first   Roman  academics  that  call  for  mention 


are  the  "Accademia  del  Lincei"  (Lynxes),  founded 
in  1603,  and  the  "Arcadia",  founded  in  1656.  Eccle- 
siastical academies,  whose  scope  was  fixed  by  the 
counter-Reformation,  were  the  "Accademia  Litur- 
gica",  founded  by  Benedict  XIV,  and  the  "Accade- 
mia Theologica",  founded  in  1695.  All  of  these  are 
still  extant;  we  shall  treat  of  them  in  detail  farther 
on.  After  the  French  Revolution  and  the  restoration 
to  Rome  of  the  papal  government,  the  new  condi- 
tions suggested  the  adoption  of  the  "Academy"  as 
a  link  between  the  old  and  the  new,  and  as  a  means 
of  invigorating  ecclesiastical  culture  and  of  promot- 
ing the  defence  of  the  Church.  In  this  way  there 
sprang  up  new  academies,  while  old  ones  were  re- 
vived. Under  Pius  VII  (1800-23)  were  founded  the 
"Accademia  di  Religione  Cattolica",  and  the  "Ac- 
cademia Tiberina";  in  1835  that  of  the  "Immacolata 
Concezione".  The  "Accademia  Liturgica"  was  re- 
established in  1840,  and  in  1847  the  "Accademia  dei 
(Nuovi)  Lincei".  Apart  from  this  group  we  have 
to  chronicle  the  appearance  in  1821  of  the  "Accade- 
mia Filaimonica ".  After  the  Italian  occupation  of 
Rome  (1870),  new  Catholic  academies  were  founded 
to  encourage  learning  and  apologetics;  such  were  tlie 
"Accademia  di  Confercnze  Storieo-Giuridiche"  and 
the  "Accademia  di  San  Tommaso",  founded  by 
Leo  XIII,  to  which  mast  be  added,  though  not  called 
an  Academy,  the  "Societa  di  Confercnze  di  Arclieo- 
logia  Sacra",  founded  in  1875.  In  1870  the  Italian 
government  resuscitated,  or  better,  founded  anew, 
the  "  Accademia  dei  Lincei",  and  in  1875  the  "Accad- 
emia Medica".  We  shall  now  deal  in  closer  detail 
with  these  various  academies. 

Acc.\DEMi.\  DEI  Lincei  and  dei  Nuovi  Lincei 
(1603).— The  Roman  prince,  Federigo  Cesi  (1585- 
1630),  a  distinguished  scholar  and  patron  of  letters, 
assembled  in  his  palace  (in  which  he  had  a  mag- 
nificent library,  a  botanical  garden,  and  a  museum 
of  antiquities)  a  number  of  scholarly  persons,  and 
with  them  founded  (17  August,  1603)  the  "Accade- 
mia dei  Lincei",  so  called  becau.se  they  took  for 
their  emblem  the  lynx,  as  denoting  the  keenness  of 
their  study  of  nature.  According  to  the  usage  of 
the  time,  the  Academy,  though  dedicated  to  physical, 
mathematical,  and  philosophical  studies,  made  way 
also  for  literary  pursuits.  This  intellectual  circle 
was  worthy  of  high  praise,  for  it  promoted  the  phys- 
ico-mathematical  studies,  then  little  cultivated,  and 
offset  the  prevalent  tendency  to  purely  literary 
studies.  In  the  end  it  devoted  itself  particularly 
to  the  study  of  the  exact  sciences,  of  which  it  be- 
came the  chief  academic  centre  in  Italy.  It  was 
not  until  1657  that  its  Tuscan  rival  arose  in  the 
ducal  "Accademia  del  Cimento".  The  Cesi  library, 
to  which  was  added  that  of  Virginio  Cesarini,  be- 
came a  powerful  aid  to  scientific  labours.  Several 
of  the  academicians,  during  the  lifetime  and  under 
the  patronage  of  Cesi,  prepared  for  publication  the 
great  unedited  work  of  Francesco  Hernandez  on  the 
natural  history  of  Mexico  (Rome,  1651).  An  abridg- 
ment of  it  in  ten  books  by  Nardo  Antonio  Recclii 
was  never  published.  They  contributed  also  to  the 
issue  of  the  posthumous  botanical  work  of  the  prince 
"Tavole  Filosofiche".  Other  colleagues  of  Cesi,  in 
the  foundation  of  the  Academy,  were  Fabio  Colonna, 
the  author  of  "  Fitobasano  "  (a  history  of  rare  plants), 
and  of  other  scientific  works,  and  Francesco  Stelluti, 
procurator-general  of  the  Academy  in  1612,  autlior 
of  the  treatise  on  "Legno  Fossile  Minerale"  (Rome, 
1635)  and  also  of  .some  literary  works.  The  Acad- 
emy gained  great  renown  through  its  famous  Italian 
members,  such  iis  Galileo  Galilei,  and  througli  such 
foreign  members  as  Joliunn  I'abcr  of  Bamberg, 
Marcus  Velser  of  Augsburg,  and  many  others.  Aft<"r 
the  death  of  Prince  Cesi,  tlie  Academy  met  in  the 
house  of  its  new  and  distinguished  president,  Cas- 
siano   dal   Pozzo.     But  notwithstanding  all   his  ef- 


ACADEMIES 


85 


ACADEMIES 


forts  the  association  began  to  decline,  insomuch  tliat 
after  the  abovo-nientionod  publication  of  tlie  works 
of  Hernandez  in  lUJl,  tlie  "Accadcrnia  dci  Lincci" 
fell  into  oblivion.  It,s  fame,  however,  had  not  per- 
ished, and  when  at  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate 
Fius  IX  sought  to  provide  an  academic  centre  for 
physico-matheinatical  studies,  he  resuscitated  Cesi's 
society,  and  on  3  July,  1847,  founded  the  "  I'ontif- 
icia  Accademia  dei  Nuovi  Lincei",  inaugurating  it 
personally  in  the  following  November,  and  endowing 
it  with  an  annual  income  from  the  |H)ntifical  treasury. 
Its  members  were  divided  into  four  clas.scs,  honor- 
ary, ordinary,  corrcsi)onding,  and  a.-isociate;  the  last 
were  young  men  who,  on  the  completion  of  their 
studies,  showed  special  aptitude  for  physico-mathc- 
matical  sciences.  ']"ho  Academy  was  directed  bj'  a 
president,  a  secretary,  an  assistant  secretary,  a 
librarian-archivist,  and  an  astronomer.  Its  head- 
quarters were  in  the  Canipidoglio.  Its  "Proceed- 
ings" from  1S47  to  1S70  fill  twenty-three  volumes. 
In  1870  some  of  the  members  withdrew  from  the 
Academy,  which  insisted  on  retaining  its  papal  char- 
acter. Desirous  at  the  same  time  of  a  traditional 
connection  with  the  past,  they  reassumed  the  original 
name,  and  thus  arose  the  "Hcgia  Accademia  dci 
Lincei".  It  was  approved  and  subsidized  by  the 
Italian  government  in  1875,  and  began  its  career 
with  an  enlarged  programme  of  studies,  divided  into 
two  classes,  the  first  of  which  includes  i)hysical, 
mathematical,  and  natural  sciences,  and  the  second, 
those  of  a  moral,  historical,  and  philological  char- 
acter. It  publishes  annually  its  "Proceedings",  and 
is  located  in  theCorsini  Palace,  whose  librarj-,  at  the 
dispo.sal  of  the  .'\cademy.  is  very  rich  in  manuscripts, 
printed  works,  and  periodicals.  It  numbers  to-day 
about  one  hundred  members,  liesides  correspondents 
and  many  foreigners.  Its  members  have  published 
important  works  on  the  exact  sciences,  also  in  the 
province  of  philology.  Among  the  latter  are  the 
Oriental  texts  and  dissertations  of  Professor  Ignazio 
Guidi,  many  of  whicli  are  of  great  value  for  the 
ecclesiii-stical  sciences.  Since  1870  the  "Pontificia 
.A.ccademia  dei  Nuovi  Lincei"  has  continued  its  la- 
bours and  the  publication  of  its  annual  "Proceed- 
ings" bearing  upon  the  physico-mathematical  sci- 
ences. It  has  quarters  in  the  palace  of  the  Cancelleria 
Apostolica,  and  hius  a  cardinal-patron.  On  the  origi- 
nal "Accademia  dci  Lincei"  see  the  work  of  its  his- 
torian, Giano  Planco  (Giovanni  Biaiichi  di  Rimini), 
published  in  the  second  edition  of  the  above-de- 
scribed work  of  Fabio  Colonna  (II  I'itobasano,  Flor- 
ence, 1744).  The  "Statuto"  or  constitution  of  the 
"Lincei"  was  published  in  Latin  at  Rome  in  1()'J4. 
For  other  information  on  the  two  academies,  pon- 
tifical and  royal,  see  their  "Proceedings". 

Pontificia  Accademia  degli  Ahcadi  (1G90). — ■ 
The  origins  of  this  famoas  literary  academy  were 
not  dilTcrent  from  those  of  similar  societies  of  the 
same  period.  A  number  of  literary  dilettanti,  ac- 
customed to  those  occasional  meetings  in  villas  and 
gardens  that  were  so  pronounced  a  feature  of  social 
hfe  during  the  eighteenth  century,  conceived  the 
idea  of  a  better  organization  of  their  literary  enter- 
tainments. In  this  manner  arose  the  academy  to 
which,  in  accordance  with  contemporary  taste,  they 
gave  the  poetical  name  of  "Arcadia".  The  members 
called  themselves  "shepherds",  and  assumed  cla.ssi- 
cal  names.  All  this  has  lxM;n  narrated  more  or  less 
sarcastically  by  varioiw  critics  and  encyclopa'dias, 
with  undisgui.sed  cont<^mpt  for  such  "pastoral  fol- 
lies". In  their  ea.sy  contempt,  however,  they  fail 
to  explain  how  such  trivial  lx!ginnings  and  puerile 
aims  succeeded  in  giving  to  the  "Arcadia"  its  great 
vigour  and  repute,  even  though  merely  relative. 
The  true  reason  of  its  fame  lies  in  the  fact  that  in 
addition  to  the  usual  "pastoral"  literature,  then 
and  thereafter  the  peculiar  occupation  of  so  many 


academies,  the  "Arcadia"  carried  out  an  artistic 
and  literary  programme  of  its  own,  that  wxs  then, 
speaking  generally,  both  oi)portune  and  important. 
It  was  the  era  of  triumph  of  that  bombastic,  mean- 
ingless, and  paradoxical  style  known  as  the  "seicen- 
tismo"  from  the  century  (1G(K)-1700)  in  which  it 
flourished,  and  that  bore  in  England  the  name  of 
"euphuism".  In  Italy,  this  "seicentesco"  style  had 
ruined  literature  and  art.  It  was  the  time  when 
.\chillini  wrote  a  sonnet  to  say  that  the  cannon  of 
Charles  V  used  the  world  for  a  ball,  and  begged 
fire  to  sweat  in  order  properly  to  fuse  the  various 
metals  needed  for  the  artillery  of  Ca-sar.  This  de- 
testable taste,  which  tended  to  lower  not  only  letters 
and  arts,  but  also  the  dignity  and  gravity  of  society, 
found  in  the  "Arcadia"  an  organized  opposition. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  in  general  the  "Arcadia" 
and  "  Arcadianisra"  often  fell  into  the  contrarj'  ex- 
treme and,  in  opposition  to  an  artificial  literature, 
conceited  and  bombastic,  produced  another  literature 
whose  simplicity  was  equally  artificial,  and  lor  the 
laboured  conceits  of  sonnets  a  imnba,  such  as 
the  afore-mentioned  one  of  Achillini,  substituted  only 
too  many  in  which  swains  and  sheep  bleated  in  uni- 
son their  far-fetched  idylls.  In  spite  of  these  ex- 
tremes the  attitude  of  the  "Arcadia"  was  beneficial. 
It  called  for  a  return  to  the  simplicity  of  nature. 
So  imperative  was  this  recall  to  nature  that  in  va- 
rious ways  it  made  itself  heard  elsewhere  in  ICurope. 
It  is  well  known  that  precisely  at  this  time  in  France, 
the  art  of  Greuze  and  of  Watteau,  and  the  "pas- 
toral" literature,  heralded  at  once  and  stimulated 
that  cult  of  simplicity  and  nature  (in  itself  an  art 
product)  which  sprang  up  in  letters  and  art,  and 
even  in  the  court,  at  the  time  of  Rousseau  and 
Marie  Antoinette.  This  is  why  the  "Arcadia"  en- 
dured and  acquired  such  high  repute  that  it  counted 
among  its  members  the  principal  literary  men  of 
the  time,  e.  g.  Menzini,  Sergardi,  Rcdi,  Metastasio, 
Rolli,  Filicaia,  Guidi,  Maggi,  and  others,  some  of 
whose  names  are  still  honoured  in  the  historj'  of 
Italian   literature. 

The  beginnings  of  the  "Arcadia"  date  back  to 
I'ebruary,  1656,  when  it  arose  under  the  auspices  of 
the  celebrated  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  but  it 
did  not  take  on  its  definite  form  and  official  name 
until  after  the  death  of  its  patroness  (1C89).  The 
"Arcadia"  chose  as  its  emblem  the  pipe  of  Pan 
with  its  seven  unequal  reeds.  The  fourteen  founders 
selected  as  first  "Custode  di  Arcadia",  or  president 
of  the  Academy,  the  somewhat  mediocre  writer,  but 
enthusiiistic  votary  of  letters,  Giovanni  Mario  Cres- 
cimbcni  (.Alfesiljeo  Carlo),  b.  in  Macerata,  1C63,  d.  at 
Rome,  17'JS,  author  of  a  history  of  Italian  poetry 
and  of  various  literary  works.  The  first  solemn 
pathering  of  the  "Arcadi"  was  held  on  the  Gianicolo, 
in  a  wood  belonging  to  the  Reformed  Minorites 
(Franciscans),  5  October,  1090.  In  1692,  the  meet- 
ings were  transferred  to  the  Ksquiline  in  the  gardens 
of  Duke  Orsini;  in  1696,  to  the  Farnesc  gardens  on 
the  Palatine.  Finally,  the  generosity  of  John  V, 
King  of  Portugal,  one  of  its  members,  under  the 
name  of  Arete  Melleo,  enabled  the  society  to  secure 
(1773)  on  the  Gianicolo  a  site  known  as  the  "  Ro.sco 
Parrasio".  Here  they  held  their  meetings  on  fine 
summer  days,  meeting  for  their  winter  stances  at 
the  "Teatro  degli  Arcadi",  in  the  Salviati  Palace. 
While  the  "Arcadia"  was  yet  on  the  Palatine,  its 
"Statuto"  (constitution)  was  drawn  up.  Owing  to 
an  exaggerated  admiration  of  antiquity,  ever  the 
organic  defect  of  this  academy,  this  constitution 
(the  work  of  Gravina)  was  modelled  on  the  ancient 
Roman  laws  of  the  "Twelve  Tables",  and  was  en- 
graved on  marble.  Unfortunately,  difTerences  soon 
arose  between  Gravina  and  the  president,  Crescim- 
beni,  one  of  those  petty  enmities  injurious  to  the 
society.     Nevertheless,  "Arcadia"  retained  its  vig- 


ACADEMIES 


86 


ACADEMIES 


our.  Soon  all  the  principal  cities  of  Italy  had  inai- 
tated  it,  and  this  confirms  our  previous  statement 
that,  apart  from  its  "  pastorellerie",  or  affected  syl- 
van note,  the  Arcadian  movement  marked  a  positive 
advance  in  the  reformation  of  literature.  Noblemen, 
ecclesiastics,  and  laymen,  men  famous  in  every  walk 
of  life,  held  memhcrship  in  it  as  an  honour;  very 
soon  it  numbered  1. :«)().  But  its  very  numbers  were 
its  undoing.  Not  a  few  of  tlicm  were  lienccforth 
mediocre  or  even  dviU,  and  in  tliis  way  an  institution 
called  into  being  for  the  impro\craent  of  letters  be- 
came itself  a  menace  tliereto.  The  arrogant  rococo 
style  in  art  and  letters  had,  indeed,  merited  the  at- 
tacks made  upon  it  by  the  "Arcadia",  and  for  this 
reason  the  latter  received,  directly  and  indirectly,  a 
large  measure  of  endorsement.  But  "  Areadianism", 
with  its  own  exaggerations  and  one-sidedness,  soon 
developed  into  a  genuine  peril  for  literature  and  art. 
It  even  reflected  on  the  public  intelligence,  since  the 
mob  of  ".Arcadia",  while  pretending  to  simplicity 
and  naturalness,  frequently  hid  a  great  poverty  of 
thouglit  beneath  a  superficial  literary  air.  Its  prin- 
cipal members,  moreover,  often  sounded  the  depths 
of  bad  taste.  Among  these  may  be  specified  one 
Bettinelli,  notorious  for  his  disparagement  of  Dante. 
The  violence  of  the  anti-Arcadian  reaction  was  owing 
to  its  chief  leaders,  Baretti  and  Paiini,  and  to  the 
fact  that,  consciously  or  not,  this  reaction  gave  vent 
to  the  new  spirit  now  dominant  on  the  eve  of 
the  French  Revolution.  Areadianism  fell,  the  last 
and  unsuccessful  tentative,  literary  and  artistic,  of 
the  ancient  regime.  This  explains  why,  in  certain 
quarters,  since  the  Revolution,  the  Arcadia,  both 
as  an  academy  and  as  a  sjTnbol,  has  been  tlie  object 
of  much  contempt,  exaggerated  at  the  best  when 
it  is  not  absolutely  unjust.  Nevertheless,  when  the 
first  onslaught  of  the  Revolution  had  lapsed,  "Arca- 
dia" strove  to  renew  itself  in  accord  with  the  spirit 
of  the  times,  without  sacrificing  its  traditional  system 
of  sylvan  associations  and  pastoral  names.  The 
academy  no  longer  represented  a  literary  school, 
but  merely  a  general  tendency  towards  the  classic 
style.  Dante  came  to  be  greatly  honoured  by  its 
members,  and  even  to  this  day  its  conferences  on 
the  great  poet  are  extremely  interesting.  Further- 
more, the  academic  field  was  enlarged  so  as  to  in- 
clude all  branches  of  study,  in  conseqvience  of  which 
historj',  archieology,  etc.  attracted,  and  continue  to 
attract,  assiduous  students.  The  new  Arcadian  re- 
vival was  marked  by  the  foundation  (1819)  of  the 
Giomale  Arcadico,  through  the  efforts  of  the  dis- 
tinguished scholars,  Perticari,  Biondi,  Odescalchi, 
and  Borghesi.  Its  fifth  series  closed  in  1904.  The 
current  (sixth)  series  began  in  1906  as  a  monthly 
magazine  of  science,  letters,  and  arts.  On  account 
of  its  frankly  Catholic  character  the  Arcadia  has 
provoked  opposition  on  tiie  part  of  anti-Catholic 
critics,  who  affect  to  belittle  it  in  the  eyes  of  a 
thoughtless  public,  as  if  even  to-day  its  "shepherds" 
did  nothing  but  indite  madrigals  to  Phyllis  and 
Chloe.  Nevertheless,  its  scientific,  literary,  and  ar- 
tistic conferences,  always  given  by  scholars  of  note, 
are  largely  attended.  Since  1870  there  have  been 
established  four  sections  of  philology  (Oriental, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian),  one  of  philosophy,  and 
one  of  historj'.  The  Pope,  foremost  of  the  members, 
promotes  its  .scientific  and  literary  development.  Its 
present  location  is  near  San  Carlo  al  Corso,  437 
torso  Umberto  I.  Cf.  Crescimbeni,  "Storia  dcUa 
volgar  Poesia"  (Rome  l{i9S)  Bk.  VI,  and  "La 
Storia  d'  Arcadia"  (Rome,  1709).  For  its  history  in 
recent  times  see  the  files  of  the  Giornale  Arcadico. 
PoNTiFiriA  ArcADEMiA  Teologica: — Like  its  sis- 
ter societies  at  Rome,  this  academy  was  of  private 
origin.  In  1095,  a  number  of  friends  gathered  in 
the  house  of  the  priest,  Raffacle  Cosma  Oirolami,  for 
lectures    and    discussiomi    ou    theological    matters. 


These  meetings  soon  took  on  the  character  of  an 
academy.  In  1707  it  was  united  to  the  Accademia 
Ecclesiastica.  Clement  XII  gave  it  formal  recog- 
nition in  1718  and  assigned  it  a  haU  in  the  Sapienza 
(University  of  Rome),  thereby  making  it  a  source  of 
encouragement  for  young  students  of  theology.  The 
academy  disposed  of  a  fund  if  eighteen  thousand 
scudi  (818,000),  tlie  income  of  which  was  devoted  to 
prizes  for  the  most  proficient  students  of  theology. 
Among  the  patrons  were  several  cardinals,  and  the 
professors  in  the  theological  faculty  in  the  University 
acted  as  cen.sors.  The  successors  of  Clement  XII 
continued  to  encourage  the  academy.  In  1720 
Clement  XIII  ordered  that  among  its  members 
twenty  indigent  secular  priests  should  recei\e  for 
six  j-ears  from  the  papal  treasury  an  annual  allowance 
of  fifty  scudi  and,  other  things  being  equal,  should 
have  the  preference  in  competitive  examinations. 
It  is  on  these  lines,  substantially,  that  its  work  is 
carried  on  at  present.  The  Academy  is  located  in 
the  Roman  Seminary. 

PoNTiFiciA  Accademia  Liturgica. — This  academy 
was  the  one  result  of  the  notable  movement  in  litur- 
gical studies  which  owed  so  much  to  the  gieat  theo- 
logian and  liturgist,  Benedict  XIV  (1740-58). 
Disbanded  in  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  the  Academy 
was  reorganized  by  the  Lazarists,  under  Gregory  XV 
(1840),  and  received  a  cardinal-protector  It  con- 
tinues its  work  under  the  direction  of  the  Lazarists, 
and  holds  frequent  conferences  in  which  liturgical 
and  cognate  subjects  are  treated  from  the  historical 
and  the  practical  point  of  view.  It  is  located  in  the 
Lazarist  house,  and  its  proceedings  are,  since  1886, 
published  in  the  Lazarist  monthly  known  as  "Ephe- 
merides  Liturgicie"  (Liturgical  Diary). 

PoNTiFiciA  Accademia  ni  Religionb  C.\ttolic.\, 
— The  urgent  need  of  oiganizing  Catliolic  apologetics 
with  a  view  to  the  anti-Cliristian  polemics  of  the 
"  Encyclop^die "  and  tlie  Revolution  gave  rise  to 
tliis  academy.  Tlie  Roman  priest  Ciio\anni  For- 
tunato  Zaraboni  fomided  it  in  18U1,  with  the  avowed 
aim  of  defeULling  tue  dogmatic  and  moral  teaching 
of  the  Church.  It  was  formally  recognized  by 
Pius  VII,  and  succeeding  popes  have  continued  to 
give  it  their  support.  It  holds  monthly  meetings 
for  the  discussion  of  various  points  in  dogmatic  and 
moral  theology,  in  pliilosophy,  history,  etc.  Its 
conferences  are  generally  pubhshed  in  some  periodi- 
cal, and  a  special  edition  is  printed  for  the  Academy. 
A  number  of  these  dissertations  have  been  printed, 
and  form  a  collection  of  several  volumes  entitled 
"  Dissertazioni  lette  nella  Pontificia  Accademia 
Romana  di  Rcligione  Cattolica".  The  Acaiiemy 
has  for  honorary  censors  a  number  of  cardinals. 
The  president  of  the  Academy  is  also  a  cardinal.  It 
includes  promoters,  censors,  resident  members,  and 
corresponding  members.  It  awards  an  annual  prize 
for  the  members  most  assiduous  at  the  meetings, 
and  is  located  in  the  palace  of  the  Cancellena  Apos- 
tohca. 

Pontificia  Accademia  Tiberina. — In  1809  the 
well-known  archaeologist,  A.  Nibby,  founded  the 
short-lived  "Accademia  EUenica".  In  1813  many 
of  its  members  withdrew  to  found  the  "Accademia 
Tiberina".  One  of  the  members,  A.  Coppi,  drew  up 
its  first  rules,  according  to  which  the  Academy  was 
to  devote  itself  to  the  study  of  Latin  and  Italian 
literature,  hold  a  weekly  meeting,  and  a  public  ses- 
sion monthly.  Great  .scientific  or  literary  events 
were  to  be  signalized  by  extraordinary  meetings. 
It  w:us  also  agreed  that  the  Academy  should  undertake 
the  history  of  Rome  from  Odoacer  to  Clement  XIV, 
as  well  as  the  literary  history  from  the  time  of  that 
pontiff.  The  historiographer  of  tlie  Academy  was  to 
edit  its  history  and  to  collect  the  biographies  of 
famous  men,  Romans  or  residents  in  Rome,  who  had 
died  since  the  foundation  of  the  "Tiberina".     For 


ACADEMIES 


87 


ACADEMIES 


this  latter  purpose  there  was  estabh'shed  a  special 
"Netrologio  Tiberiano".  Tlie  Atadcniy  begun  in 
1810  the  annual  coinage  of  commemorative  medals. 
When  Leo  XII  ordered  (1S25)  that  all  the  scientific 
associations  in  lionie  should  lie  approved  by  the  Sa- 
cred Congregation  of  Studies,  the  "  liberina  "  received 
official  recognition;  its  field  was  enlarged,  so  as  to 
include  research  in  art,  commerce,  and  especially  in 
agriculture.  Pius  VII  had  done  much  for  the  pro- 
motion of  agriculture  in  the  States  of  the  Church, 
and  Loo  XII  was  desirous  of  continuing  the  good 
work  of  his  predecessor.  I'nder  (Iregory  XVI,  in 
1831,  a  year  of  grave  disorders  and  political  plottings, 
the  Academy  was  dosed,  but  it  was  soon  reopened 
by  the  same  pontiff,  who  desired  the  "Tiberina  "  to 
devote  itself  to  general  culture,  science,  and  letters, 
Roman  history  and  archaeology,  and  to  agriculture. 
The  meetings  were  to  be  monthly,  and  it  was  to 
print  annual  reports,  or  Hemliconti.  The  Aca- 
demy was  thus  enabled  to  establish  important  re- 
lations with  foreign  scientists.  Its  members,  resident, 
corresponding,  and  honorary,  were  2,000.  The 
"Tiberina"  is  at  present  somewhat  decadent;  its 
proceedings  are  no  longer  printed.  Its  last  protector 
was  Cardinal  Parocchi.  Like  several  other  Roman 
Academies,  it  is  located  in  the  Palace  of  the  Cancel- 
leria  Apostolica. 

PONTIFICIA  ACC.\DEMI.\  RoM.^N.\  DI  ArCHEOLOOIA. 

— A  revival  of  archa;oIogical  study,  due  as  mucli  to 
love  of  art  as  to  documentary  researches  in  the  inter- 
est of  history,  occurred  in  Rome  towards  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  especially  after  the  famous 
work  of  Antonio  Hosio  on  the  Catacombs  had  drawn 
the  attention  of  archieologists  to  a  world  forgotten 
until  then.  This  revival  culminated  in  an  academi- 
cal organization,  in  the  time  of  Benedict  XIV,  under 
whose  learned  patronage  was  formed  an  association 
of  students  of  Roman  archscologj'.  In  a  ciuiet  way 
this  association  kept  up  its  activity  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  centurj-,  when  the  renaissance 
of  classical  art  duo,  in  Italy,  to  Canova  gave  a  fTosh 
impulse  to  the  study  of  antiquity.  In  1816  Pius  VII, 
on  the  recommendation  of  Cardinal  Consalvi,  and  of 
Canova  himself,  gave  official  recognition  to  the 
"Accademia  Romaiia  di  Archoologia"  already  estal> 
lished  under  the  Napoleonic  regime.  The  Academy 
became  a  most  important  international  centre  of 
arehaological  study,  the  more  so  as  there  had  not 
yet  been  established  at  Rome  the  various  national 
mstitutcs  of  history  and  archa-ologj'.  Among  the 
illustrious  foreign  memters  and  lecturers  of  whom 
the  Academy  could  then  boast  mav  be  named  Nie- 
buhr,  Akorblad,  Thorwaldson,  ani  Nibby.  Popes 
and  sovereigns  wished  to  be  inscribed  among  its 
members,  or  to  testify  in  other  ways  to  the  esteem  in 
whicli  they  held  it.  Among  these  were  Trederick 
William  iV  of  Prussia,  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia, 
and  others.  Among  its  distinguished  Italian  mem- 
bers were  Canova,  Fea,  Piali,  and  Canina.  Prizes 
were  established  for  the  best  essays  on  Roman  an- 
tiquity, many  of  which  were  awarded  to  learned 
foreigners  (Rupcrti.  Herzen,  etc).  Among  the 
merits  of  the  .Academy  we  must  reckon  its  defence 
of  the  rights  of  art  and  history  in  the  city  of  Rome, 
where,  side  by  side  with  princely  patronage,  sur- 
vived from  the  old  Roman  law  a  certain  absolutism 
of  private-property  rights  which  often  caused  or 
perpetuated  serious  damages  to  the  monuments,  or 
inconvenience  in  their  stvidy.  Thus,  after  a  long 
conflict  with  the  owners  of  hovels  that  backed  upon 
the  Pantheon,  the  Academy  succeeded  in  obtaining 
from  Pius  IX  a  decree  for  the  demolition  of  the 
houses  on  the  left  side  of  the  Rolonda  (Pantheon), 
and  al.so  protested  efficaciously  against  the  digging 
of  new  holes  in  the  walls  of  this  famous  document 
in  stone.  Similarly,  the  Academy  prevented  certain 
profanations   projected   by   bureaucrats  or   by   un- 


scrupulous engineers.  When,  in  1833,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  remove  the  tomb  of  Raphael,  the  earnest 
protest  of  the  Academy  was  heeded  by  Ciregory  XVI 
as  the  expression  of  a  competent  judgment.  Through 
one  of  its  members,  Giovanni  Azzurri,  it  advocated 
the  restoration  of  the  Ttibularium  on  the  Capi- 
toline  Hill.  Through  another  member,  Pietro  Vis- 
conti,  it  succeeded  in  abolishing  the  purely  com- 
mercial administration  of  the  excavations  at  Ostia, 
and  placed  them  on  a  scientific  basis.  For  this  pur- 
pose it  obtained  from  Pius  IX  a  decree  ordaining 
that  all  excavations  should  be  kept  open,  be  care- 
fully guarded,  and  be  made  accessible  to  students. 
In  1824,  Campanari,  a  member  of  the  Academy, 
proposed  the  establishment  of  an  Etruscan  .Museum. 
The  Academy  furthered  this  excellent  idea  until  it 
was  finally  realized  in  the  Vatican  by  Grcgorj'  XVI. 
In  1858,  Alibrandi  advocated  the  use  of  epigraphical 
monuments  in  the  study  of  law,  and  so  anticipated 
the  establishment  of  chairs  for  this  special  purpose 
in  many  European  universities.  liy  these  and 
many  other  useful  services  the  Academy  won  in  a 
special  degree  the  good  will  of  the  popes.  Pius  VIII 
gave  it  the  title  of  "Pontifical  Academy".  On  the 
revival  of  archa-ological  studies  at  Rome,  Gregorj- 
XVI  and  Pius  IX  took  the  Academy  under  their 
special  protection,  particularly  when  its  guiding 
spirit  was  the  immortal  Giambattista  l)e  Rossi. 
Leo  XIII  awarded  a  gold  medal  for  the  best  disser- 
tation presented  at  the  annual  competition  of  the 
Academy,  on  w  liich  occasion  there  are  always  offered 
two  subjects,  one  in  classical  and  the  other  in  Cliri.s- 
tian  ardupology,  either  of  which  the  competitors 
are  free  to  clioo.se.  The  seal  of  the  Academy  repre- 
sents the  ruins  of  a  classical  temple,  with  the  motto: 
In  apricum  profcrct  (It  will  brmg  to  light).  The 
last  revision  of  its  constitution  and  by-laws  was  pul)- 
lished  28  December,  1894.  In  1821  was  begun  the 
publication  of  the  "  Disscrtazioni  della  Ponlificia 
Accademia  Romana  di  Archeologia"  which  reached 
in  18G4  its  sixteenth  volume.  The  Cardinal  Camcr- 
lengo  is  its  protector.  It  has  a  steady  membership 
of  one  hvmdred,  thirty  of  whom  are  ordinary  mem- 
bers; the  others  are  honorary,  corresponding,  and 
associate,  members.  The  Academy  met  at  first  in 
Campidoglio;  under  Gregory  X\T,  at  the  I'niversity. 
.\t  present  its  meetings  are  held  in  the  palace  of  the 
Cancellcria  Apostolica.  See  "  Leggi  della  Pontificia 
Accademia  Romana  di  Archeologia"  (Rome,  1894); 
"  Omaggio  al  II  Congresso  Int«rnazionale  di  Archeo- 
logia Cristiana  in  Roma  "  (Rome,  1900);  "  Bul'-^ttino 
di  Archeologia  Cristiana"  of  Giovanni  Battista  De 
Rossi  (to  the  end  of  1,894)  paxsitn:  "II  Xuovo  Bullet- 
tino  di  Archeologia  Cristiana"    (Rome,  1S94-190G). 

Acc.\nEMi.\  FiL.\RMONicA. — It  was  founded  in 
1821  for  the  study  and  practice  of  music.  It  has 
200  members,  and  is  located  at  225,  Piazza  San 
Marcello. 

PoxTiFiciA  Accademia  della  Immacolata  Con- 
CEZioNE. — This  academy  was  founded  in  1.835  by 
young  students  of  Sant'  ApoUinare  (Roman  Scm- 
inarjO  and  of  the  Gregorian  University.  Among 
its  founders  Monsignor  Vincenzo  Anivitti  deserves 
special  mention.  Its  purpose  was  the  encourage- 
ment of  serious  study  among  the  youth  of  Rome. 
Hence,  two-thirds  of  the  members  must  be  young 
students.  Its  title  was  assumed  at  a  later  date.  It 
was  approved  in  1S47  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Studies.  The  work  is  divided  into  five  sections: 
theologj-;  philologj-  and  history;  philosophy;  physics, 
ethics  and  economics.  Its  meetings  are  held  weekly, 
and  in  1873  it  began  to  publish  bi-monthly  reports  of 
its  proceedings  under  the  title  "Mcmorie  per  gli  .\tti 
della  Pont.  Accademia  della  Immacolata  Concez- 
ione".  Twenty-one  n\mibers  were  issued.  Since 
1875  the  Academy  has  published  many  of  the  lec- 
tures read  before  its  members.     The  most  flouhslung 


ACADEMIES  « 

period  of  this  academy  was  from  1873  to  1882. 
Among  its  most  illustrious  deceased  members  may 
be  mentioned  I'atlier  Secclii,  S.J.,  Monsignor  Balan, 
and  Micliele  Stclano  l)e  Rossi.  Tlie  Academy,  now 
in  its  decline,  is  attached  to  the  Church  of  the  Santi 
Apostoli.  ,        J  J    • 

Recia  Accademia  Medica.— It  was  founded  m 
1875  for  tlie  study  of  medical  and  cognate  sciences, 
has  fifty  ordinary  members,  and  is  located  in  the 
University. 

PoNTiFiciA  Accademia  di  Conferenee  Storico- 
GivniDicHE.— Tliis  academy  was  founded  in  1878 
to  encourage  among  Cathohcs  the  study  of  history, 
archaeology,  and  jurisprudence.  In  1880  it  began  to 
publish  a  quarterly  entitled  "Studi  e  Documenti 
di  Storia  e  di  Diritto  ",  highly  esteemed  for  its  learned 
articles  and  for  its  publication  of  important  docu- 
ments with  apposite  commentaries.  After  an  ex- 
istence of  twenly-five  years  tliis  review  ceased  to 
appear  at  the  end  of  1905.  The  president  of  the 
Academy  is  a  cardinal,  and  it  holds  its  meetings  in 
the  Roman  Seminary. 

PoNTiFiciA  Accademia  Romana  di  San  Tommaso 
DI  Aquino.— When  Leo  XIII  at  the  beginning  of 
his  pontificate  undertook  the  restoration  of  scholastic 
philosophy  and  theology,  this  academy  was  founded 
(1880)  for  the  dilTusion  of  Thomistic  doctrine.  Its 
president  is  a  cardinal,  and  its  meetings  are  held  in 
the  Roman  Seminary. 

Academic  Schools  of  Rome. — The  following  is  a 
brief  account  of  the  several  academic  schools  men- 
tioned above.  One  is  ecclesiastical,  the  others  are 
devoted  to  the  fine  arts.  Some  are  Roman,  and 
otliers  are  foreign: — 

PoNTiFiciA  Accademia  dei  Nobili  Ecclesias- 
Tici. — It  was  founded  in  1701   by  Clement  XI,   to 

f)repare  for  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  Holy  See  a 
)ody  of  men  trained  in  the  juridical  sciences  and  in 
other  requisite  branches  of  learning.  At  the  time, 
European  diplomacy  was  usually  confided  to  th.e 
nobility;  hence  the  Academy  was  instituted  and 
maintained  for  noble  ecclesiastics.  However,  later, 
it  opened  its  doors  more  freely  to  the  sons  of  families 
in  some  way  distinguisheil  and  in  comfortable  cir- 
cumstances. Occasionally  this  academy  languished, 
especially  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
but  since  then  it  has  recovered  and  has  steadily  im- 
proved. Of  late  it  has  become  a  school  of  higher 
ecclesiastical  education,  with  an  eye  to  a  diplomatic 
career  for  its  students.  This,  however,  does  not  im- 
ply that  all  its  students,  or  even  a  majority  of  them, 
are  destined  for  tliat  career;  indeed,  the  scliool  tends 
constantly  to  set  aside  its  earlier  limitation.  The 
academic  course  includes  ecclesiastical  diplomacy, 
political  economy,  diplomatic  forms  (stile  diplo- 
matico),  the  principal  foreign  languages,  and,  in 
addition,  a  practical  course  (after  the  manner  of 
apprenticeship)  at  the  bureaux  of  various  congre- 
gations for  such  students  as  wish  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  an  office  in  any  of  these  bodies.  As  a  rule, 
Romans  are  not  admitted  to  this  academy,  it  having 
been  expressly  designed  for  those  who,  not  being 
Romans,  would  have  no  other  opportunity  to  acquire 
such  a  peculiar  education  and  training.  Its  students 
pay  a  monthly  fee.  It  has  a  cardinal-protector  and 
a  Roman  prelate  for  president  (rector).  It  owns 
and  occupies  its  own  palace  (70,  Piazza  della  Min- 
erva). 

The  Roman  Academies  in  the  service  of  the  fine 
arts  are  the  following:  Regia  Accademia  Romana 
DI  San  Luca  (Accademia  delle  Helle  Arti).  This 
academy  exhibit.s  the  evolution  of  the  Roman  cor- 
poration of  artist-painters,  reformed  under  Sixtus  V 
(l.'«77)  by  Kederigo  Zuccari  and  Girolamo  .Muziano. 
It  look  then  the  title  of  academy,  and  had  for  its 
purpose  the  teaching  of  the  fine  art,s,  the  reward  of 
artistic  merit,  and  the  preservation  and  illustration 


$  ACADEMIES 

of  the  historic  and  artistic  monuments  of  Rome. 
In  respect  of  all  these  it  enjoyed  papal  approval 
and  encouragement.  It  rendered  great  services 
and  counted  among  its  members  illustrious  masters 
and  pupils.  In  1870  it  passed  under  the  control  of 
the  new  government,  and  is  now  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  King.  It  possesses  a  gallery  of  paintings 
and  an  excellent  library,  open  to  the  pubUc  (44,  Via 
Bonella). 

Regia  Accademia  di  S.\nta  Cecilia  (Accademia 
di  Musica).  Pierluigi  da  Palestrina  and  G.  M.  Nanini 
founded  in  1570  a  school  of  music  that  was  later 
(1583)  canonically  erected  into  a  confraternity,  or 
congregation,  by  Gregory  XIII.  The  popes  en- 
couraged this  association  as  an  ideal  instrument 
for  the  dissemination  of  good  taste  and  the  pioniotion 
of  musical  science.  Urban  VIII  decreed  that  no 
musical  works  should  be  publislied  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  censors  of  this  congregation,  and 
that  no  school  of  music  or  of  singing  should  be  opened 
in  any  church  without  the  written  pei mission  of  its 
deputies.  This  very  rigorous  ordinance  provoked 
numerous  complaints  from  interested  parties,  and 
its  restrictions  were  soon  much  neglected.  In  1684 
Innocent  XI  conceded  to  the  congregation  the 
right  to  admit  even  foreign  members,  and  in  1774 
women  were  admitted  as  members.  Oving  to  the 
political  troubles  of  the  period,  the  congregation 
was  suspended  from  1799  to  1803,  and  again  from 
1809  to  1822.  Among  its  members  have  been  illus- 
trious musicians.  We  may  mention,  besides  the 
above-named  founders,  Carissimi;  Irescobaldi,  the 
organist;  Giuseppe  Tartini,  violinist  and  author  of  a 
new  system  of  harmony;  the  brotheis  Fede,  cele- 
brated singers;  and  Muzio  Clementi,  panist.  From 
1868  John  Sgambati  and  Ettore  Finelli  taught  gratui- 
tously in  this  academy.  Since  1870  the  congre- 
gation of  St.  Cecilia  has  been  transformed  into  a 
Royal  Academy.  In  1876  the  "Liceo  di  Musica" 
was  added  to  it,  with  a  substantial  appropriation 
from  the  funds  of  the  province  and  city  of  Rome. 
In  1874  the  statutes  of  this  school  were  remodelled. 
It  is  greatly  esteemed  and  is  much  frequented  (18, 
Via  dei  Greci). 

.\ccademia  di  Raffaele  Sanzio. — This  is  a  school 
of  modern  foundation,  with  daily  and  evening  courses 
for  the  study  of  art  (504,  Corso  Umberto  I). 

There  are  several  foreign  academies  of  a  scholastic 
kind.  The  .\merican  Academy,  founded  in  1896,  is 
located  in  the  Villa  del'  Aurora  (42,  Via  Lombardi). 
The  .\cad6mie  de  France  was  founded  by  Louis  XIV 
in  16()6.  This  illustrious  school  has  given  many 
great  artists  to  France.  Its  competitive  prize  (Prijc 
lie  Home)  is  very  celebrated.  It  owns  and  occupies 
its  own  palace,  the  Villa  Medici  on  the  Pincio.  The 
Englisl)  Academy  was  founded  in  1 821,  and  possesses 
a  notable  library  (53,  B  Via  Margutfa).  The  Acca- 
demia di  Spagna  was  founded  in  ISSl  (32,  B  Piazza 
San  Pietro  in  Montorio).  Finally,  it  should  be 
noted  that,  as  formerly,  there  are  now  in  Rome 
various  associations  which  are  true  academies  and 
may  be  classed  as  such,  though  they  do  not  bear  that 
name. 

Societ.\  di  Conferenze  di  Sacra  Archeologia 
(founded  in  1875  by  Giambattista  De  Rossi).  Its 
name  is  well  merited,  expressing  as  it  does  the 
active  contributions  of  its  members.  In  each  con- 
ference are  announced  or  illustrated  new  discoveries, 
and  important  studies  are  presented.  The  meetings 
are  held  monthly,  from  November  to  March,  and  are 
open  to  the  public.  This  excellent  association  has 
done  much  to  p<i]Milarize  the  study  of  Christian  archx- 
ology,  especially  the  study  of  tl.e  Roman  catacombs. 
Its  proceedings  arc  publislied  annually  in  the  "  Nuovo 
Bulletino  di  Sacra  Archeologia".  Its  sessions  are 
held  in  the  palace  of  the  Cancelleria  Apostolica. 

CiucoLO  GiURlDico  DI  RoMA. — It  was  founded  in 


ACADEMY 


89 


ACADEMY 


1899,  and  olTcrs  a  mcotiiig-groiind  for  students  and 
[iiofessors  of  legal  and  sociologicid  lore,  and  sciences, 
tliroiigli  lectures,  discussions,  etc.  Attadietl  to  it 
is  tlie  "Istituto  di  Diritto  Romano"  founded  in  1S87 
for  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  Uoman  law  (307, 
Corso  Umberto  1). 

The  Bhitism  and  A.\iEiticA>j  Archaeological 
Society  was  founded  in  ISGo  to  promote  amone 
English-speaking  people,  through  discussions  and 
lectures  (for  which  latter  it  ix)ssesses  a  convenient 
library),  a  broader  and  more  general  culture  in  all 
that  pertains  to  Rome  (72,  Via  tjan  Nicola  da  Tolen- 
tino). 

Tlie  Rcnernl  biblioKraphy  of  the  Roman  Academies  is  very 
deficient,  as  is  that  of  the  greater  part  of  the  inilividual  Acatf- 
emics.  Rcsiiles  the  best  guides  and  monographs  on  Home, 
the  following  works  may  be  consulted:  jAltKlNS,  Specimm 
hititoria  Acaiiemiarum  iUilicr  (Leipzig,  172.5);  GlsliKiiTl.  Gloria 
,l,Ur  Accadrmif  illlalviiVemve,  1747);  Cantu,  jVcmonc  Jrllc 
Mudeme  Amulemie  ifltalia,  m  /IrimK  UnurrmH  di  HUUMica 
(Milan,  1841).  In  several  of  the  principal  French  and  Italian 
encyclopaedias  there  are  noteworthy  articles  on  the  Arcadia^ 
the  l.incei,  the  Acadhnie  de  France,  etc. 

U.  Benigni. 

Academy,  The.    See  Platonism. 

Academy,  The  French. — The  French  .\cai!emy 
was  founded  by  Cardinal  de  Richelieu  in  103").  For 
.several  years  a  number  of  learned  gentlemen,  such 
as  Godeau,  de  Oombeaud,  (!ir\-,  Cluiplain,  Ilabert, 
de  Serizay,  and  the  Al)b6  Cerisy  de  .Malleville,  had 
met  ouce  a  week  at  Conrart's  house  for  the  purpose 
of  di.scussing  literary  subjects.  Through  the  Abb6 
de  Boisrobert  the  existence  of  tliis  society  became 
known  to  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,  who  conceived  the 
idea  of  making  it  a  national  institution.  In  1G35 
the  French  Academy  was  formally  established  by 
royal  letters-patent.  The  number  of  its  men-.bers 
w.Ts  fixed  at  forty,  and  statutes  were  drawn  up  wliich 
have  sufTered  scarcely  any  change  since  (hat  time. 
.■\t  the  head  of  the  .Vcademy  were  three  ofTicers:  a 
director,  to  preside  at  its  meetings;  a  chancellor,  to 
have  the  custody  of  its  archives  and  the  seal;  a  pcr- 
petu.al  secretary,  to  prepare  its  work  and  kecj)  its 
records.  The  perpetual  secretarj*  w;us  appointed  by 
lot  for  life  with  a  salary  of  6,000  francs  a  year.  The 
director  and  the  chancellor  were  at  first  appointed 
by  lot  for  two  months  only.  At  present  tliey  are 
elected  by  vote  for  the  term  of  three  months.  They 
arc  sinijily  nrimi  inter  jvircs,  and  receive,  like  all  the 
other  members,  an  ainiual  salarj'  of  1,500  francs. 
The  manner  of  electing  members  has  been  changed 
several  times  since  Wi'.i').  At  present,  when  an  Aca- 
demician dies,  candidates  who  think  themselves  eli- 
gible present  themselves  to  fill  the  vacancy.  The 
new  member  is  elected  by  the  majority  of  the  entire 
body.  About  a  year  later  his  public  reception  takes 
place.  In  the  early  years  of  the  Academy  all  its 
members  were  Catholics.  Among  the  distinguished 
men  who  held  seats  in  it  are  the  following:  Comeille, 
Racine,  Boileau,  I.a  Bruyc're,  d'.'Vguesscau,  Bossuct, 
Frnelon,  Flechier,  Mabillon,  Lamoignon,  S<^gtiicr, 
Fleury.  Delille,  Chateaubriand,  Lamartino,  de  Bar- 
ante.  deToc'iueville,  Beriyer,  Lacord.aire.  Dupanloup, 
de  Falloux,  Oatry,  Montalembert,  .Vmpc'rc,  Pasteur, 
de  Bornier,  Carihnal  Pcrraud,  all  of  them  faithful 
sons  of  the  Church.  Among  other  Catholic  mem- 
bers of  the  French  Academy  we  shall  mention: 
Brunetitirc,  Coppt^e,  de  Mun,  Lamy,  JKziC'res,  Due 
de  Broglie,  Ren6  Bazin,  Comte  d'llaussonville,  and 
Thureau-Dangin.  The  entire  niunbcr  of  members  of 
the  French  .\eademy  from  1634  to  1906  has  been 
.500.  Of  these  fourteen  were  cartlinals,  nine  arch- 
bishops, and  twenty-five  bishops;  three  belonged  to 
reigning  families:  Comte  de  Clennont.  Lucien  Bona- 
parte, and  Due  d'.Aumale:  one  member,  \.  Thiers, 
wa-s  Presiilent  of  the  French  Republic:  fifteen  were 
prime  ministers;  forty-nine,  ministers;  thirty-six, 
ambass.adors;  twenty,  dukes  and  peers;  six,  grandees 
of  Spain;  thirty-nine,  knights  of    the  orders  of  the 


King,  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  of  St.  Louis;  eleven, 
Knigiits  of  the  Golden  Fleece;  and  thirty,  grand-cro.ss 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  Twenty-four  members 
were  elected  to  the  French  .\cademy  before  they 
were  twenty-three  years  of  age;  twenty-three  were 
at  lea.st  seventy  years  of  age  before  their  reception 
took  place;  fifteen  died  before  reaching  the  age  of 
forty-five;  eighteen  were  about  ninety  years  old  when 
they  died  and  two  lived  to  be  almost  centenarians. 

The  Dictionary. — The  object  for  which  the  Acad- 
emy was  founded,  as  set  forth  in  its  statutes,  was  the 
purification  of  the  French  language.  To  attain  this 
end  it  proposed  to  compile  a  dictionary,  a  grammar, 
a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  and  a  treatise  on  poetics. 
Only  the  dictionary  has  been  carried  out.  From 
1G94  to  IS7S  seven  editions  of  this  work  were  pub- 
lished. The  office  of  the  Academy  is  not  to  creat-e 
but  to  register  words  approveil  by  the  authority  of 
the  best  writers  and  by  good  society.  The  dictionary 
is  pre[)ared  by  six  menibers  named  for  life,  who  are 
assisted  by  tFie  perpetual  secretary.  Each  word  is 
submitted  by  the  chairman  of  this  committee  to 
the  Academy  for  approval.  Besides  this  dicticmary, 
the  French  .\cademy,  at  the  suggestion  of  Voltaire, 
in  1778,  began  an  "Historical  Dictionary  of  the 
French  Language",  which,  however,  never  progressed 
beyond  the  letter  A.  This  undertaking  was  aban- 
doned some  twenty  years  ago.  Every  year  the 
Aeademy  awards  a  number  of  prizes.  Previous  to 
17S0  only  two  prizes  were  distributed.  Since  that 
period  legacies  and  donations  have  provided  an  an- 
nual sum  of  more  than  200,000  francs  for  the  "  Prix 
de  Vertu",  and  the  literary  prizes.  Some  prizes  for 
prose  and  poetry  are  given  after  competition.  The 
"Prix  Monthyon "  (for  literature.  19,000  francs), 
the  "Prix  Therouanne"  (for  historical  works,  4,000 
francs),  the  "  Prix  Marcellin  Gu^rin "  (for  literarj- 
works,  5,000  francs),  and  the  "  Prix  Gobert  "  (for 
French  history,  10,000  francs),  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. The  "Prix  de  Vertu",  of  which  (he  first  was 
establi-shed  by  M.  de  Monthyon  in  17S4,  are  given  (o 
poor  persons  who  have  accomplished  some  remark- 
able act  of  charity  or  courage.  Many  of  these  have 
gone  to  missionaries  and  sisters  belonging  to  various 
religious  ortlers. 

Hi-STORY. — .\t  first  the  Academicians  held  their 
sessions  at  the  house  of  Conrart.  then  at  that  of 
S<?guier,  after  whose  death  Louis  XIV  placed  a  large 
room  at  their  disposal,  with  ample  provision  for 
clerks,  copyists,  and  servants.  In  1793  the  Conven- 
tion suppressed  the  French  Academy,  also  the  .Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres.  (he  Academy 
of  Sciences,  the  .\cademy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture, 
and  the  .■\cademy  of  Architecture.  They  were  re- 
established in  1795,  under  (he  name  of  a  National 
Institute,  composed  of  three  sections:  the  first 
comprising  the  sciences  of  physics  and  mathematics; 
the  second,  (he  moral  and  political  sciences;  the 
third,  literature  and  the  fine  arts.  From  that  period 
d.ates  the  uniform  which  is  still  worn  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Institute  at  public  ceremonials  and  other 
solemn  functions.  It  consists  of  a  long  coat,  the 
collar  antl  the  lapels  of  which  are  embroidered  in 
green,  a  cocked  hat  trimmed  with  black  feathers, 
and  adorned  with  a  tricoloured  cockade,  and  dress 
sword  with  a  hilt  of  mother-of-pearl  and  gold.  Bona- 
parte, after  his  election  as  First  Consul,  gave  a  new 
organization  to  the  Institute,  which  henceforth  was 
to  be  composed  of  four  sections,  (he  first  being  a 
section  of  sciences,  corresponding  to  the  former  .Acad- 
emy of  Science;  the  second  that  of  French  Language 
and  Literature,  corresponding  to  the  former  French 
.Academy;  the  third,  that  of  History  and  .Ancient 
Literature,  corresponding  to  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions; and  the  fourth,  that  of  Fine  .Arts,  correspond- 
ing to  the  former  .Academy  of  Fine  .Arts.  In  1S06 
Napoleon  I  granted  to  (he  Insritute  the  College  of 


ACADIA 


90 


ACADIA 


the  Four  Nations.  Here  the  Academy  holds  its 
sessions,  and  here  are  its  offices  and  Hbrary.  This 
building  received  tlie  name  of  Pahice  of  the  Institute. 
Louis  XVII 1  officially  re-established  the  n.ime  of 
Academy.  Louis  Philippe  adde.i  a  fifth  section 
to  the  Institute;  under  the  name  of  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  Since  then  no  modi- 
fications have  been  made  in  the  organization  of  the 
Institute.  It  therefore  includes  at  present:  (1)  The 
French  Academy;  (2)  The  .\cademy  of  Fine  Arts; 

(3)  The  -Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lett  res; 

(4)  Tlic  .\cadcmV  of  Sciences;  {.'>)  The  Academy  of 
M"rql  and  Political  Sciences.     What  haa  been  the 


Photo.  RcutUnger 
Member  of  French  Academy  in  Uniform 

influence  of  the  French  Academy?  Some  critics  have 
reproached  it  with  a  tendency  to  hamper  and  crush 
originahty.  Hut  it  is  the  general  opinion  of  scholars 
that  it  has  corrected  the  judgment,  purified  the  taste, 
and  formed  the  language  of  French  writers.  Matthew 
Arnold,  in  his  essay  on  "The  Literary  Influence  of 
the  .\cademies",  praised  it  :us  a  high  court  of  letters 
and  a  rallying  point  for  educated  opinion.  To  it  he 
ascrilied  tlic  most  striking  characteristics  of  the 
French  language,  its  purity,  delicacy,  and  flexibility. 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts. — The  .Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  replaced,  in  179.5,  the  Academy  of  Painting  and 
Sculpture  founded  by  Louis  XIV  in  1048,  and  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  founded  in  107').  It  wa.s 
reorganized  2."5  .lamiary,  1803,  and  again  21  March, 
1816.  It  is  now  composed  of  forty  members:  four- 
teen painters,  eight  sculptors,  eiglit  architects,  four 
engravers,  and  six  musical  composers.  There  are, 
besides,  ten  honorarj'  meml)ers,  forty  correspond- 
ing members,  and  ten  honorary  corresponding  mem- 
bers. From  among  the  members  are  chosen  tlie 
Directors  of  the  "  I'.cole  des  Heaux  .Arts",  and  of  the 
Villa  .Medici,  the  Art  Academy  of  France  at  Rome, 
founded  by  {."olbert  in  1660,  for  young  painters,  sculp- 
tors, architects,  and  musicians  who,  liaving  been 
chosen  l)y  competition,  are  sent  to  Italy  for  four 
years  to  complete  their  studies  at  the  expense  of 
the  Government. 


Ac.\DEMY  OF  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres. 
— In  1663,  at  the  suggestion  of  Colbert,  Louis  XIV 
appointed  a  committee  of  four  members  of  the  French 
Academy  charged  with  the  duty  of  furnishing  leg- 
ends and  inscriptions  for  medals.  This  was  the  ori- 
gin of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles- 
Lettres,  founded  in  1701.  It  was  composed  of  ten 
honorary  members,  ten  pensionnaires,  ten  a.ssociates, 
and  ten  pupils.  Tlie  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 
Belles-Lettres  deals  with  the  history,  geography,  and 
antiquities  of  France,  with  Oriental,  Greek,  and  Latin 
antiquities,  the  liistory  of  science  among  the  ancients, 
and  comparative  philology. 

Academy  ok  Sciences. — The  Academy  of  Sciences 
was  foimded  in  1666,  at  the  suggestion  of  Colbert. 
At  first  it  dealt  only  with  geometry,  astronomy, 
mechanics,  anatomy,  chemistry,  ami  botany.  At 
present  it  numbers  sixty-six  members,  divided  into 
eleven  sections  of  six  members  each:  geometrj',  me- 
chanics, phj'sics,  astronomy,  geography  and  na\i- 
gation,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  botany,  agriculture, 
anatomy  and  zoology,  medicine  and  surgery.  Tliere 
are,  besides,  two  perpetual  secretaries,  ten  honorary 
members,  eight  foreign  members,  eight  foicign  asso- 
ciates, and  one  hundred  French  and  foreign  corres- 
ponding members. 

Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences. — 
The  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences  was 
founded  in  1795.  Suppressed  by  Napoleon  in  1803, 
it  was  re-established  by  Louis  Philippe  in  1S32.  It 
was  then  composed  of  thirty  members  divided  into 
five  sections:  philo-sophy;  morals;  legislation,  pub- 
lic law,  and  jurisprudence;  political  economy;  gen- 
eral and  philosophic  historj'.  Another  section  was 
added  in  1855:  politics,  administration,  and  finances. 
In  1872  the  number  of  the  members  was  fixed  at 
forty,  besides  ten  honorary  members,  six  a.ssociates, 
and  from  thirty  to  forty  corresponding  members. 
Every  year  on  25  October,  the  five  sections  of  the 
Institute  hold  a  general  public  session,  when  prizes 
awarded  by  tlie  several  Academies  are  distributed. 
In  1877,  the  Due  d'.Aumale  left  to  tlie  Institute  of 
France  by  his  will  the  chateau  of  Chantilly  with  its 
art  collections. 

IloussAYE.  The  Forum,  February,  1876;  Vincent,  The 
French  Academy  (Boston.  1901):  Fvnck-Bhentano.  Riche- 
lieu cl  V Academic  (Paris,  1904);  Fabbe,  Chapclain  it  nos  deux 
premiires  Academies  (Paris,  1890);  Ta.stet,  Histoire  des 
quarante  fauteuils  de  V Acadcmie  iran^aise  dcpuis  sa  fondation 
jusqu'-d^  iu>s  jours  (Paris.  1855):  Pelisson-Olivet.  ed.  Livet, 
Histoirede  Z' Academic franfaisr  (Paris,  1858);  JEANROY-Ffei.ix, 
Fauteuils  contemporains  dc  t'Academie  /ronfowc  (Paris,  1900); 
Fagi'et,  Histoire  de  la  litterature  jranpaise  (Paris,  1900),  II; 
Petit  de  Juli.evili.e,  Ilistoire  de  la  langue  et  de  la  litterature 
irantaiae  (Paris,  1897),  IV. 

Je.^n  Le  Bars. 

Acadia. — The  precise  location  and  extent  of  Aca- 
dia was  a  subject  of  constant  dispute  and  consequent 
warfare  between  the  French  and  English  colonists  of 
America  for  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years. 
When  Henry  IV  of  France  granted  to  tlie  Sieur  de 
Monts  tlie  territory  of  "La  Cadie",  as  it  was  called, 
it  was  "to  cultivate,  to  cause  to  be  peopled,  and  to 
search  for  gold  and  silver  mines  from  the  40th  to 
tlie40tli  degree  N.  lat."  The  Marquise  de  Guerche- 
ville,  who  purchased  the  claim  from  de  Monts,  fancied 
she  owned  from  Florida  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  Sub- 
sequently it  was  considered  to  be  the  present  penin- 
sula of  Nova  Scotia,  and  now  is  usually  regarded  as 
the  small  district  on  the  south  shore  of  flie  Bay  of 
Fundy  from  Annapolis  to  the  B.asin  of  Minas.  De 
Monts  received  his  concession  8  November,  1603. 
Claims  had  previously  been  laid  to  the  territory  by 
Cartier's  nephews;  and  de  la  Roche,  Chauvin,  and 
de  Chastes  had  made  attempts  to  found  a  colony 
there;  but  it  had  all  resulted  in  nothing.  De  Monts 
was  a  Calvinist,  but  Henry  enjoined  on  him  to  teach 
Catholicity  to  tlie  tribe  of  Micmacs  wlio  inhabited 
those  regions.     With  de  Monts,  on  his  journey  out. 


ACADIA 


91 


ACADIA 


were  Champlain,  who  was  averse  to  the  settlement,  as 
being  too  near  the  Knghsli;  and  also  I'ontgrav^,  the 
Baron  of  I'outrincourt.  After  wandering  alK)ut  the 
coast  of  Maine,  and  attempting  a  settlement  on  an 
island  which  they  called  Sainte  Croix,  they  entered 
the  harbour  to  which  Champlain  gave  the  name  of 
Port  Royal,  now  Annapolis.  De  Monts'  charter  was 
revoked  the  following  year,  and,  on  withdrawing  to 
France,  he  made  over  Port  Royal  and  surroimdings 
to  Poutrincourt.  The  colony  had  great  difliculty  to 
maintain  itself.  Mme.  de  Giiercheville  attempted 
the  work,  but,  disgusted  with  her  ill-success,  ordered 
La  Saussaye,  whom  she  sent  over,  to  go  somewhere 
else.  Touching  at  Port  Royal,  lie  found  its  number 
of  colonists  very  inconsiderable,  and,  taking  the  two 
Jesuit  priests  Riard  and  Massd.  who  were  there,  he 
with  some  new  settlers  established  the  colony  of 
St.  Sauveur  at  what  is  now  Bar  Harbor  in  Maine. 
Hardly  was  the  work  begun  when  the  notorious  pi- 
rate Argal  of  Virginia  descended  upon  it  and  carried 
off  the  priests  and  some  others,  intending  to  hang 
them  in  Virginia,  bidding  the  rest  to  witlulraw,  as 
they  were  in  what  he  declared  to  be  English  territory. 
Returning  with  three  vessels  he  utterly  destroyed  the 
colony,  and  then  .sailing  across  to  Port  Royal  de- 
stroyed it  also.  This  was  in  1013.  Haliburton  attrib- 
utes this  raid  to  the  "indigestible  malice"  of  Father 
Biard,  but  the  testimony  of  Champlain  to  the  con- 
trary refutes  this  accusation.  Poutrincourt  returned 
to  Prance  and  died  in  battle.  His  son,  commonly 
kno«Ti  as  Biencourt,  remained  with  some  associates, 
among  whom  was  Charles  de  la  Tour,  subsequently 
famous  in  Acadian  historj',  and  lived  with  the  In- 
dians as  coureurs  de  hois,  waiting  for  Ix-tter  times. 

As  it  was  now  considered  by  the  English  to  be 
their  territory  beyond  dispute,  a  grant  of  it  was 
made  in  1G27  to  Sir  William  Alexander,  who,  though 
he  never  esfablislied  a  colony  there,  gave  the  country 
the  name,  which  it  still  retains,  of  Nova  Scotia.  Sir 
William  also  received  other  grants  of  the  most  ex- 
travagant extent  cl.iewhcre.  Meantime,  de  la  Tour's 
father,  Claude,  wlio  had  left  Acadia  and  turned 
traitor  to  his  country,  came  over  in  a  vessel  fur- 
nished by  England,  having  promised  the  government 
to  induce  his  son  to  yield  up  the  entire  territorj'. 
This,  however,  the  son  refused  to  do.  Both  the  de 
la  Tours  were  Huguenots,  though  the  younger  is  said 
to  have  later  on  become  a  Catholic.  In  virtue  of 
the  treaty  of  St.  Gerraain-en-Laye,  Acadia  became 
French  territory  again  in  1632,  and  Isaac  de  RaziUy 
was  sent  over  as  Governor.  Associated  with  him 
were  his  kinsman  Charnisay,  young  de  la  Tour,  and 
Denys,  each  controlling  certain  assigned  portions  of 
the  country.  On  the  death  of  Razilly  in  1030,  these 
three  lieutenants  began  a  fierce  war  for  possession 
of  the  land,  and  later  on  a  fourth  claimant,  in  the 
person  of  Le  Borgnc,  appeared,  with  the  pretence 
that  the  territory  of  Charnisay  had  hcen  mortgaged 
to  him.  The  struggle  was  fought  diiclly  between  de  la 
Tour  and  Charnisay,  both  of  whom  treacherously 
appealed  to  the  Puritans  of  Boston  for  assistance. 
This  shameful  strife  ended  in  the  English  again  en- 
tering into  possession.  Oliver  Cromwell  then  ruled 
England,  and  de  la  Tour  crossed  the  ocean  and  ob- 
tained a  commission  from  the  Protector  to  govern 
the  colony,  one  of  the  stipulations  being  that  no 
Catholics  should  Ix;  allowed  to  settle  there.  With 
him  were  associated  two  Englishmen,  Crowne  and 
Temple.  In  1007  it  was  again  restored  to  France  by 
the  treaty  of  Breda,  and  Grandfontaine,  the  new 
Governor,  reported  that  there  were  only  400  souls 
in  Acadia,  more  than  three-fourths  of  whom  lived 
in  and  around  Port  Roval;  but  it  is  probable  that 
many  had  married  Indians  and  were  coureurs  de 
bois.  In  1687  the  ponulalion  had  grown  to  800. 
The  census  of  1714  gives  2,100;  of  17.37,  7,59S;  of 
1747,  about  12,500.     After  eighty  years  it  had  grown 


to  18,000,  though  there  was  little  or  no  immigration. 
From  1671  the  inhabitants  began  to  attach  them- 
selves to  the  soil;  agriculture  wsis  an  almost  universal 
occupation,  and  where  the  population  was  remote 
from  Port  Royal  and  unmolested  it  developed  into  a 
peaceful,  prosperous,  and  moral  people.  But  from 
the  time  of  the  treaty  of  Breda  till  1712,  Port  Royal 
had  been  besieged  no  less  than  five  times.  In  1690 
it  wiis  taken  and  sacked  by  Admiral  Phips,  Gov- 
ernor do  Menneval  and  his  garrison  being  carried 
off  as  prisoners  to  Boston;  but  as  Phips  was  pre- 
occupied with  his  projected  expedition  to  Quebec, 
he  took  no  steps  to  secure  the  fort  and  it  soon  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  French.  This  whole  period  of 
twenty  years  was  one  series  of  pillage,  murder,  and 
devastation.  Finally  a  supreme  effort  was  made  to 
dislodge  the  F'rench.  Four  expeditions  were  sent 
against  Port  Royal  by  the  English,  under  Church, 
March,  Wainwright,  and  Nicholson.  On  the  French 
side  were  Subercase  and  de  Saint-Castin.  Nicholson 
finally  entered  Port  Royal,  12  October,  1710,  after 
a  siege  of  nineteen  days.  Since  then  it  is  known  as 
Annapolis.  Finally,  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  13 
April,  1713,  all  Acadia  was  ceded  to  England, 
The  French  inhabitants  then  determined  to  leave 
the  country,  and  their  kindred  at  Cape  Breton  and 
Prince  Edward's  Island  endeavoured  to  have  them 
migrate  in  their  direction.  This  the  English  (Jov- 
ernor  opposed,  although  Queen  Anne  had  commanded 
him  to  let  them  withdraw;  but,  as  she  died  shortly 
afterwards,  Nichol.son  had  his  way,  and  the  Acadians 
took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  King  George,  with  the 
clause,  however,  that  they  should  not  be  bound  to 
take  arms  against  the  F'rench  or  their  Indian  allies. 
In  1720,  General  Philipps,  then  Governor,  ordered 
them  to  take  the  oath  without  reserve,  or  to  with- 
draw inside  of  four  months;  whereupon  they  pre- 
pared to  emigrate  with  their  property,  but  were  again 
prevented.  Now  began  the  plot  to  deport  them. 
The  purpose  was  not  to  permit  them  to  go  to  Canada 
or  elsewhere  among  the  French,  but  to  colonize  them 
among  the  English,  "in  order  to  make  them  true 
Englishmen",  and  get  them  to  change  their  faith, 
as  is  evident  from  a  letter  of  Craggs,  the  Secretary 
of  State,  to  the  Governor.  The  deportation  was 
already  settled  for  that  spring,  but  it  did  not  take 
place  till  long  years  afterwards.  During  forty  years 
they  refused  to  be  cajoled  or  threatened  into  taking 
the  complete  oath  of  allegiance.  They  admitted  only 
an  oath  of  fealty,  and  were  known  as  the  "  French 
Neutrals".  So  loyal  were  they  that,  when  in  1742 
the  French  under  Duvivier  invaded  Acadia,  they  gave 
him  no  assistance,  continuing  the  same  course  of 
action  during  four  successive  years,  even  when  the 
F'rench  troops  under  de  Ramesay  were  at  the  walls  of 
Annapolis,  all  of  which  is  proved  by  State  documents. 
In  1745-46  Governor  Shirley  did  his  utmost  to  make 
them  apostatize,  and  proposed  "to  drive  all  Romish 
priests  out  of  the  Province  and  introduce  English 
schools  and  French  Protestant  ministers".  In  1749 
an  oath  without  restriction  was  exacted  by  Corn- 
wallis,  but  refused  by  the  whole  population,  and  in 
1750  they  asked  again  to  quit  the  country.  Finally, 
when  the  French  made  their  last  stand  at  I'ort  Beau- 
sdjour,  north  of  the  Bay  of  F'undy,  the  Acadians  gave 
them  no  assistance,  except  300  who  were  forced  un- 
der threat  of  death.  Beausdjour  surrendered  IG 
June,  1755.  After  the  fall  of  Beausdjour,  which  was 
due  to  the  treachery  of  its  French  occupants,  began 
the  famous  deportation  of  these  peaceful  peasants, 
who  for  forty  years  had  been  faithful  to  the  English 
Government.  It  is  the  subject  oi  Longfellow's 
"Evangeline".  They  were  torn  from  their  homes, 
in  what  Bancroft  calls  "the  appalling  cold  of  De- 
cember", and  nidely  thnist  without  money  or  pro- 
visions into  the  holds  of  ships;  parents  separated 
from  their  children,  husbands  from  their  wives,  and 


ACANTHUS  92 

cast  everywhere  along  the  coast  from  Massachusetts 
to  Georgia,  some  wandering  over  to  their  compa- 
triots in  Louisiana,  some  to  Guianas  and  the  West 
Indies,  and  others  rcadiing  France.  As  to  the  num- 
ber of  victims,  some  writers  put  it  as  low  as  8,000, 
others,  who  are  very  reliable,  rating  it  at  18,000. 
The  mortality  attending  tliis  act  of  cruelty  was  very 
great,  particularly  among  the  children.  All  the 
farms,  cattle,  and  houses  were  confiscated  and  handed 
over  to  the  English  colonists  who  took  their  place. 
After  a  wliile  many  of  the  Acadians  wandered  back 
to  their  old  homes,  and  finally  came  in  such  numbers 
that  on  10  September,  IS.'').''),  they  celebrated  in 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Cape  Breton,  and 
Prince  Edward's  Island  tlie  centenary  of  their  dis- 
persion. According  to  Richard  in  his  "Acadia" 
(II,  ,342),  there  are  no  fewer  tlian  270,000  descend- 
ants of  the  Acadians  living  to-day;  130,000  in  the 
Maritime  Provinces,  100,000  in  French  Canada,  and 
40,000  in  Louisiana. 

Jetuil  Reunions  (ClevelamI,  1890-1901):  Rochemontf.ix. 
Lf«  Jisuitrt  H  la  nowelk  France  au  XVII  sirde;  MuBDOCH, 
Hislory  of  Nora  Hcotia  (1807);  Richard.  Acadia  (1894); 
Halidubton,  Iliatoru  of  Nora  Scotia  (Halifax,  1862);  Park- 
man.  Montcalm  and   WolU  (Boston,   1889,   1902). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Acanthus,  a  titular  see  of  Macedonia,  on  the 
Strymonic  Gulf,  now  known  as  Erisso.  Its  inhabi- 
tants were  praised  by  Xerxes  for  their  zeal  in  his 
cause  (Herodotus  Vll,  cxxv).  There  were  still 
extant  earlier  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  ruins  of 
a  large  curving  mole  built  far  into  the  sea. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  anil  Roman  Geogr.  (London,  1887), 
I  8-  Leake,  Travels  in  Northern  Greece  (London,  1835),  III, 
147. 

Acanthus. — A  plant,  indigenous  to  middle  Europe, 
the  le;if  of  which  has  served  in  all  ages  as  an  orna- 
ment, or  for  ornamentation.  There  are  two  varie- 
ties, one  wild  and  thorny,  and  one  with  soft  branches 
without  spines.  The  acanthus  appears  for  the  first 
time  in  the  arts  in  ancient  Greece.  It  was  chosen 
for  decorative  purposes  because  of  the  beauty  of  its 
leaves,  as  well  as  for  its  abimdance  on  Greek  soil. 
At  first  it  was  taken  directly  from  nature.  Greek 
sculpture  rendered  it  with  truthful  expression, 
whether  of  the  soft  or  the  spiky  variety,  showing 
the  character,  texture,  and  model  of  the  leaf.  Dur- 
ing the  fifth  century  n.  c.  the  acanthus  ornament 
took  an  important  place  especially  in  architecture, 
and  was  tlie  principal  ornament  of  the  Corinthian 
capital.  From  the  conquest  of  Alexander  in  the 
East  can  be  traced  the  transformation  of  the  acan- 
thus that  is  found  in  later  Eastern  art. 

Thom.\s  H.  Poole. 

Acarie,  Barbe  Avuillot.     See  Caumelites. 

Acathistua  (Gr.,  dA-dSio-Tos;  d  privative,  KaSlfa, 
"s.t";  i.  e.  not  sitting;  standing). — The  title  of  a  cer- 
tain hymn  (o  dKaOiaros  (j/xtos)  or,  better,  an  Office 
in  the  Greek  Liturgy,  in  lionoiir  of  tlie  Mother  of  God. 
The  title  is  one  of  eminence;  since,  while  in  other 
similar  hymns  the  peoi)le  are  permitted  to  sit  during 
part  of  tlie  time,  this  hynm  is  partly  read,  partly 
sung,  all  standing  (or,  perhaps,  standing  all  night). 
The  word  is  employed  sometimes  to  indii'ate  tlie  dny 
on  which  the  hymn  is  said  (i.  e.  tlie  Saturday  of  the 
fifth  week  of  Lent),  as  on  that  day  it  must" be  said 
by  clergy  and  laity  alike,  "none  ceasing  from  the 
divine  praises",  ns  the  long  Iiistorical  Le.sson  of  the 
Office  remarks.  It  is  proper  to  note  in  this  connec- 
tion that,  while  the  whole  Ofiice  is  to  be  said  on  this 
day,  portions  of  it  are  (Mstributcd  over  the  first  four 
Saturdays  of  Lent.  When  recited  entire,  it  is  di- 
vided into  four  parts  or  stations,  between  which 
various  Psalms  and  Canticles  may  be  sung  sitting. 
Francis  Juniu.s  wrongly  interpreted  Acathistus  as  one 
who  neither  sits  nor  rests,  but  journeys  with  child; 
as  for  instance  when  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  brought 


ACATHISTUS 


by  Joseph  to  Bethlehem.  Gretser  [Commentarius 
in  Codin.  Curop.  (Bonn,  1839),  321]  easily  refutes 
the  interpretation  by  citing  from  the  i^e.aon  in  the 
Triodion.  The  origin  of  the  feast  is  assigned  by  the 
Lesson  to  the  year  626,  when  Constantinople,  in  the 
reign  of  Heraclius,  was  attacked  by  the  Persians  and 
Scythians  but  saved  through  tlie  intervention  of  the 
Mother  of  God.  A  sudden  hurricane  dispersed  the 
fleet  of  the  enemy,  casting  the  vessels  on  the  shore 
near  the  great  church  of  the  Deipara  (Mother  of 
God)  at  Blacherna;,  a  quarter  of  Constantinople  near 
the  Golden  Horn.  The  people  spent  the  whole  night, 
says  the  Lesson,  thanking  her  for  the  unexpected 
deliverance.  "From  that  time,  therefore,  the 
Church,  in  memory  of  so  great  and  so  divine  a  miracle, 
desired  this  day  to  be  a  feast  in  honour  of  the  Mother 
of  God  .  .  .  and  called  it  Acathiitus"  (Lesson). 
This  origin  is  disputed  by  Sophocles  (Greek  Lexicon 
of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  Periods,  s.  v.)  on  the 
ground  that  the  hymn  could  not  have  been  composed 
in  one  day,  while  on  the  other  hand  its  twenty-four 
oIkoi  contain  no  allusion  to  such  an  event  and 
therefore  could  scarcely  have  been  originally  com- 
posed to  commemorate  it.  Perhaps  tho  KovniKiov, 
which  might  seem  to  be  allusive,  was  originally  com- 
posed for  the  celebration  on  the  night  of  the  victory. 
However  the  feast  may  have  originated,  the  Lesson 
commemorates  two  other  victories,  under  Leo  the 
Isaurian,  and  Constantine  Pogonatus,  similarly  as- 
cribed to  the  intervention  of  the  Deipara. 

No  certain  ascription  of  its  authorship  can  be 
made.  It  has  been  attributed  to  Sergius,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  whose  pious  activities  the  Lesson 
commemorates  in  great  detail.  Quercius  (P.  G., 
XCII,  1333  sqq.)  assigns  it  to  Georgios  Pisides, 
deacon,  archivist,  and  sacristan  of  Saint-Sophia, 
whose  poems  find  an  echo  both  in  style  and  in  theme 
in  the  Acathistus;  the  elegance,  antithetic  and  bal- 
anced style,  the  vividness  of  the  narrative,  the 
flowers  of  poetic  imagery  being  all  very  suggestive  of 
his  work.  His  position  as  sacristan  would  naturally 
suggest  such  a  tribute  to  Our  Lady,  as  the  hymn 
only  gives  more  elaborately  the  sentiments  con- 
densed into  two  epigrams  of  Pisides  found  in  her 
church  at  Blachernje.  Quercius  also  argues  that 
words,  phrases,  and  sentences  of  the  hymn  are  to 
be  found  in  tlie  poetry  of  Pisides.  Ledercq  (in 
Cabrol,  "Diet,  d'arch^ol.  chr^t.  et  de  liturgie",  s.  v. 
"Acathistus")  finds  nothing  absolutely  demon- 
strative in  such  a  comparison  and  offers  a  suggestion 
which  may  possibly  help  to  a  solution  of  the  problem. 

In  addition  to  several  Latin  versions,  it  has  been 
translated  into  Italian,  Ruthcnian,  Rumanian, 
Arabic,  German,  and  Russian.  Its  very  great  length 
precludes  anything  more  than  the  briefest  summary 
here.  It  is  prefaced  by  a  troparion,  followed  by  a 
kontalion  (a  short  hymnodal  summary  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  feast),  which  is  repeated  at  intervals 
throughout  the  hymn.  As  this  kontakion  is  tlie 
only  part  of  the  hymn  which  may  clearly  refer  to 
the  victory  commemorated,  and  may  have  been  the 
only  original  text  (with  repetitions  interspersed 
witli  psalms,  hymns,  etc.,  already  well  known  to  the 
populace)  composed  for  the  night-celebration,  it  is 
translated  here: — ■ 

"To  thee,  O  Mother  of  God,  unconquercd  Em- 
press, do  I,  thy  City  freed  from  evils,  offer  thanl^ 
for  the  victories  achieved;  but  do  thou,  by  thy 
invincible  power,  deliver  me  from  every  kind  of 
danger;  that  I  may  cry  to  thee.  Hail,  maiden  Spousel " 

The  Hymn  ])roi)er  comprises  twenty-four  oikoi 
(a  word  which  Gretser  interprets  as  referring  to 
various  churches  or  temples;  but  the  Triodion  itself 
indicates  its  meaning  in  the  rubric,  "The  first  six 
oikoi  are  read,  and  we  stand  during  their  reading" 
— oikos  thus  clearly  referring  to  a  liivision  of  the 
hymn)   or  stanzas  (which  may  fairly  translate  the 


ACCA 


93 


ACCARON 


word — stanza,  like  oihos,  having  an  architectural 
value).  Tlicso  oikoi  are  alternately  lonRor  and 
shorter,  ami  Iheir  initial  letters  form  a  (ireek  al)- 
eredary.  'I'lie  last  (a  shorter)  one,  beginning  with 
the  letter  omega,   reads: 

"()  Motlier,  worthy  of  all  hymn-tributes,  who 
didst  bring  forth  the  Word,  Most  Holy  of  all  the  lioly, 
accept  tlie  present  olTcring,  deliver  all  from  every 
evil,  and  save  from  future  sulTering  all  who  cry  to 
thee.     Alleluia." 

This  Alleluia  follows  each  one  of  the  shorter 
stanzas.  The  loncer  ones  begin  with  a  sentence 
of  about  the  same  length,  which  skilfully  leads  up  to 
a  series  of  salutations  beginning  with  "Hail".  All 
of  these  longer  stanzas,  except  the  fii'st  (which  lias 
fourteen)  compri.se  thirteen  such  sentences,  including 
the  last,  uhi<  li,  as  a  sort  of  refrain,  is  always  "Hail, 
maiden  Spouse!"  The  first  stanza  narrates  the 
mission  of  (labriel  to  Mary;  and  his  astonislmient  at 
the  condescension  of  the  Almighty  is  so  great  that 
he  bursts  forth  into: — 

Hail,  through  whom  joy  shall  shine  forth! 
Hail,  through  whom  evil  shall  end! 
Hail,  restorer  of  fallen  Adam! 
Hail,  redemption  of  Eve's  tears! 

— etc.  The  second  stanza  gives  the  questioning  of 
Mary;  the  third  continues  it  and  gives  the  answer  of 
Gabriel;  the  fourth  narrates  the  Incarnation;  the 
fifth,  the  visit  to  Elizabeth,  with  a  series  of  "Hails" 
prettily  conceived  as  being  translations  into  words 
of  the  joyful  leapings  of  the  Haptist;  the  sixth, 
Joseph's  trouble  of  mind;  the  seventh,  the  coming 
of  the  shepherds,  who  begin  their  "Hail"  very 
appropriately; — 

Hail,  Mother  of  the  Lamb  and  of  the  Shepliord! 
Hail,  Shecpfold  of  rational  sheepi 

In  the  ninth  stanza  the  Magi,  star-led,  cry  out  in 
joy: 

Hail,  Mother  of  the  unwestering  Starl 
Hail,  Splendour  of  the  mystic  Day! 

In  the  tenth  the  Magi  return  Iiome  to  announce 
Alleluia;  the  eleventli  h:is  appropriate  allusions  to 
the  Flight  into  Egypt: 

Hail,  Sea  that  didst  ovcnvhelm  the  wise  Pharaoh! 
Hail,  Rock  that  gavest  life  to  the  thirsty! 

— with  other  references  to  the  cloud,  the  pillar  of 
fire,  the  manna,  etc.  The  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
deal  with  Simeon;  the  fourteenth  and  twenty-second 
are  more  general  in  character;  the  twenty-third 
perhaps  consciously  borrows  imagery  from  the 
Blachernian  Church  of  the  Dcipara  and  perhaps 
also  alludes  distantly  to  the  victory  (or  to  the  three 
victories)    conunemorated    in    the   Lesson: — 

Hail,  Tabernacle  of  God  and  the  Word! 

Hail,  tmshaken  Tower  of  the  ChurchI 

Hail,  inexp\ignalilo  Wall! 

Hail,  tlirougli  whom  trophies  are  lifted  up! 

Hail,  tliroufjli  whom  enemies  fall  down! 

Hail,  healing  of  my  body! 

Hail,  safety  of  my  soul! 

P.  G..  XCII.  has  the  work.i  of  Pisidea  and  the  Acathiatus 
with  much  comment;  Sopiiocleh,  Grrrk  Lexicon,  etc.,  ha-s 
an  interesting  note:  Lkclkrcq,  in  Diet,  d'archtot.  chrtt,  et  de 
lit.,  ffivea  an  extensive  biblioeraphy. 

H.  T.  Henhy. 

Acca,  City  on  Coast  op  Palestine.  See  Ache, 
St.  Jean  d'. 

Acca,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Hexham,  and  natron  of 
learning  (c.  ()()0-742).  Acca  was  a  Northumbrian 
by  birth  and  began  life  in  the  household  of  a  certain 
Rosa,  who  aft<,'rwards  became  Bishop  of  York. 
After  a  few  years,  however,  Acca  attached  him.sclf 


to  St.  Wilfrid  and  remained  his  devoted  disciple  and 
companion  in  all  his  troubles.  He  may  have  joined 
Wilfrid  as  early  as  678,  and  he  certainly  was  with 
him  at  the  time  of  his  second  journey  to  Home  in 
092.  On  tlieir  return  to  li^ngland,  when  Wilfrid  was 
reinstated  at  Hexham,  he  made  Acca  Abbot  of  St. 
Antlrew's  monastery  there;  and  after  Wilfrid's  death 
(709)  Acca  succeeded  him  as  bishop.  The  work 
of  completing  and  adorning  the  churches  left  un- 
tinislied  by  St.  Wilfritl  wms  energetically  carrictl  on 
by  his  succes.sor.  In  ruling  tlie  diocese  anil  in  con- 
ducting the  services  of  the  Church,  Acca  was  equally 
zealous.  He  brouglit  to  the  North  a  famous  cantor 
named  Maban,  who  had  learneil  in  Kent  the  Roman 
tratlitions  of  psalmody  handeil  down  from  St.  Gregory 
the  Great  through  St.  Augustine.  He  was  famed 
also  for  his  theo- 
logical learning, 
and  for  his  en- 
couragement of 
students  by  every 
means  in  his  pow- 
er.  It  was  at 
Acca's  instigation 
tliat  i:ddius  un- 
tlortook  tlie  Life 
of  St.  Wilfrid,  and 
above  all,  it  was  to 
the  same  kind 
friend  and  patron 
that  Bede  dedica- 
ted several  of  his 
most  important 
works,  especially 
those  dealing  with 
Holy  Scripture. 
I'or  some  unex- 
plained  re;Lson 
Acca  was  driven 
from  liis  diocese  in 
732.  He  is  believ- 
ed to  liave  retired 
to  Witlieni  in  Gal- 
loway, but  he  re- 
turneil  to  Hexham 
before  his  death  in 
7  12.  when  he  was 
at  once  revered  as 
a  S  a  i  n  t.  T  w  o 
crosses  of  exquisite  workmanship,  one  of  which  is 
still  preserved  in  a  fragmentary  state,  were  erected 
at  the  liead  and  foot  of  his  grave.  When  the 
body  of  the  Saint  was  translated,  the  vestments 
were  found  entire,  and  accmint.s  of  his  miracles 
were  drawn  up  by  St.  .Elred  and  by  Simeon 
of  Durham.  Of  any  true  liturgical  cultus  there 
is  little  trace,  but  his  feast  is  said  to  have  been 
kept  on  2U  October.  There  is  also  mention  of  19 
Eeoruary,  wliicli  may  have  been  the  date  of  some 
translation  of  his  relics. 

The  only  writiiiE  of  Accu's  which  we  possess  is  a  letter 
addressetl  to  St.  Hede  and  printed  in  liis  worlds.  This  docu- 
ment, toRCther  witti  much  other  material  relating  to  Acca, 
has  also  been  printed  in  R.Klsv.'s  Priory  of  Ilejhrtm  (l.on<lon, 
1804),  Surtee.s  Society,  18U4.  Our  knowledge  of  .\ccas  hfc  is 
derived  primarily  from  Ukdk,  Eddivs,  Simi;ov  of  Dcrham. 
UlCHARD  OK  DitnilAM.  and  yEi.RF.n.  Adequate  acco\mts  may 
be  alw  found  in  ^TAXTOs'a EnpKsh  Mrnologu  (London,  lS9:i), 
507;  Dirt,  of  Not.  Biog.;  Dirt,  of  Christ.  Hwq.  For  some 
archjpological  sidelights,  cf.  Browne  (Anglican  bishop),  TheO' 
dore  and  WUjrith  (London,  1897). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Acca  of  Galloway.     See  Acca,  Saint. 

Accad.     See  Bahylonia. 

Accaron  {Ekn'm) ,  the  most  northern  of  t  he  five  prin- 
cipal I'liilistine  cities  (Jos.  xiii,  3;  xv,  ll,4(i).  We  do 
not  know  whether  it  was  founded  by  the  Philistines  or 
the  Hevites.     It  was  first  given  to  the  tribe  of  Juda 


The  Cross 


ACCENTUS 


94 


ACCEPTANTS 


(Jos.,  XV,  11,  45)  and  then  to  Dan  (Jos.,  xix,  43). 
Juda  conquered  it  for  a  time  (Judg.,  i,  18),  but  it  fell 
again  into  the  hands  of  the  PhiUstines.  who  brought 
here  the  captive  ark  of  the  covenant  after  it  had 
passed  through  Azotus  and  Geth  (I  K.,  v,  10).  It 
came  near  benig  reconquered  by  Israel  after  tlie  de- 
feat of  Gohath  (1  K.,  vii,  14).  The  city  possessed  a 
famous  sanctuary  of  Beelzebub  (IV  K.,  i,  2,  3,  6.  10), 
and  was  often  denounced  by  the  prophets  (Jcr.,  xxv, 
20;  Am.,  i,  8;  Soph.,  ii,  4;  Zach.,  ix,  5).  King  Alex- 
ander Ilales  gave  the  city  to  Jonatlian  Machabeus  (I 
Mach.,  X,  89).  Robinson  identified  it  with  the  village 
Akir,  a  station  on  the  railway  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem. 
H.voEN,  Uricon  Biblicum  (Paris,  1905);  Guerin  in  Diet, 
de  la  BihU  (Paris,  1S95). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Accentus  Ecclesiasticus,  the  counterpart  of  con- 
cenlus.  In  the  ancient  Church  music  all  that  portion 
of  the  liturgical  song  which  was  performed  by  the 
entire  choir,  or  by  sections  of  it,  say  two  or  three 
singers,  was  called  conccntus.  Thus  hymns,  psalms, 
and  alleluias  were,  generally  speaking,  included  under 
the  term  concentus.  On  the  other  hand,  such  parts 
of  the  liturgy  as  the  priest,  or  the  deacon,  or  sub- 
deacon,  or  the  acolyte  sang  alone  were  called  ac- 
centus; such  were  the  Collects,  the  Epistle  and  Gospel, 
the  Preface,  in  short  anything  which  was  recited 
chiefly  on  one  tone,  rather  than  sung,  by  the  priest 
or  one  of  his  assistants.  The  accentus  should  never 
be  accompanied  by  harmonies,  whether  of  voices  or 
of  instnnnents,  although  the  concentus  may  receive 
an  accompaniment.  The  words  Gloria  in  cxcdsis  Deo 
and  Credo  in  Unum  Deum,  being  assigned  to  the  cele- 
brant, should  not  be  repeated  by  the  choir  or 
accompanied  by  the  organ  or  other  musical  instru- 
ment. J.  A.  VoLKER. 

Acceptance,  in  canon  law,  the  act  by  which  one  re- 
ceives a  thing  with  approbation  or  satisfaction.  The 
collation  of  a  benefice  is  not  complete  till  it  has  been 
accepted  by  him  on  whom  it  has  been  conferred. 
Acceptance  is  the  link  between  the  benefice  and  the 
benefited.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  accept  the 
benefice,  to  have  jus  in  re;  till  the  acceptance,  there 
is  at  most  a  jus  ad  rem.  (See  Right.)  Acceptance 
is  needed  for  the  validity  of  an  election.  If  the 
person  chosen  be  absent,  a  specified  time  may  be 
given  for  acceptance,  and  a  further  time  may  be 
allowed  to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  the  election 
to  an  office.'  Acceptance  is  of  the  essence  of  a  gift, 
which,  in  law,  means  a  gratuitous  transfer  of  prop- 
erty. Delivery  of  personal  property  with  words  of 
gift  suffices;  if  delivery  is  not  made,  a  deed  or  writ- 
ing under  seal  should  be  executed  and  delivered. 
For  the  transfer  of  real  property,  a  deed  is  generally 
necessary.  In  all  cases  acceptance  is  necessary  to 
make  the  transfer  binding  in  law. 

Acceptance  of  a  law  is  not  necessary  to  impose  the 
obligation  of  submission.  E\en  in  a  democracy, 
where  the  organized  peojile  may,  or  should,  take  part 
in  the  preparation  and  making  of  the  laws,  it  may 
not  refuj-e  to  accept  and  to  obey  the  laws  when  made 
and  promulgated.  Otlierwise  the  legislative  author- 
ity would  Ije  a  mockery,  and  all  governmental  power 
would  vanish.  Wo  are  not  now  posing  the  question 
whether  an  unjust  law  is  binding;  nor  arc  we  dis- 
cussing how  far  either  custom  or  desuetude  may 
take  away  the  binding  force  of  a  law;  both  may 
imply  the  a-ssent  of  the  law-making  power.  Accept- 
ance by  the  faithful  is  not  required  for  the  binding 
force  of  ecclesiastical  laws.  The  Apostles  received 
from  Christ  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing,  and 
the  hierarchy  (1.  e.  the  Pope,  bishops  and  other  prel- 
ates) have  inherited  this  power,  as  has  always  been 
recognized  in  the  Church.  In  the  Catholic  "Church 
the  law-making  power  established  by  Christ  will  ever 
have  the  authority  to  make  laws  previous  to,  and 


independent  of,  the  acceptance  of  the  faithful.  If 
bishops  or  other  prelates  should  enact  a  law  contrary 
to  the  canons,  there  is  the  remedy  oi  an  appeal  to 
the  highest  authority  of  the  Church  for  its  annul- 
ment. Wyclif  attacked  this  authority  when  he 
proclaimed,  in  the  fifteenth  thesis  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Constance  and  Martin  V,  that  "no  one 
was  a  temporal  prince,  or  prelate,  or  bishop,  who 
was  in  mortal  sin".  Huss  (ibid..  Prop.  30)  declared 
that  "ecclesiastical  obedience  was  an  invention  of 
the  priests  of  the  Church,  and  outside  the  authority 
of  Scripture".  Luther,  in  the  proposition  condemned 
(1521)  by  the  University  of  Paris,  taught  that 
"neither  pope  nor  bishop  nor  any  one  among  men 
has  the  right  to  impose  on  a  Christian  a  single  syl- 
lable without  his  full  acceptance;  anything  otherwise 
done  is  in  the  spirit  of  tyranny."  The  Jansenists 
favoured  the  theory  that  the  authority  of  the  bishops 
and  Pope  was  representative  of  the  will  of  the  whole 
body  of  the  Church;  hence  Clement  XI,  in  1713, 
condemned  the  90th  proposition  of  Quesnel:  "The 
Church  has  the  power  to  excommunicate,  to  be  used 
by  the  chief  pastor,  with  the  (at  least  presumed) 
consent  of  the  whole  body."  Against  .<>  natural  or 
divine  law,  no  custom  or  desuetude  can  avail  for  the 
cessation  of  obligation.  From  a  merely  ecclesias- 
tical law  either  custom  or  desuetude  may  withdraw 
the  obligation,  wherever  they  may  properly  imply 
the  assent  of  the  law-making  power  in  the  Church. 
(See  Law,  Custom.) 

D'AviNO.  Enc.  diW  Eedesinstico  (Turin,  1878);  ANDRt- 
Wagnfr,  Diet,  de  droit  can.  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1901);  Didiot  in 
Diet,  de  thiol  calh.  (Paris,  1903),  s.  v. 

R.    L.    BURTSELL. 

Acceptants,  those  Jansenists  who  accepted 
without  any  reserve  or  mental  restriction  the  Bull 
"  Unigenitus",  issued  in  1713  against  the  Jansenist 
doctrines  as  set  forth  in  the  "  R^'flexions  morales  sur 
le  Nouveau  Testament"  of  the  Oratorian,  Pasquier 
Quesnel.  As  is  well  known,  the  error  of  Jansenius 
gave  rise  to  two  conflicts  in  the  Church:  the  first, 
early  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
centred  about  his  book  "  Augustinus",  and  ceased 
with  the  Pax  Clementina,  also  called  the  paix  jourrce 
or  "False  Peace"  (1669);  the  second,  which  began 
with  the  eighteenth  century,  was  waged  around  the 
above-mentioned  work  of  Quesnel.  The  peace  too 
hastily  granted  by  Clement  IX  was  favourable 
to  Jansenism.  The  doctrine  took  deep  root  in 
the  French  Parliaments  and  affected  several  re- 
ligious orders,  Benedictines,  Fathers  of  Christian 
Doctrine,  Genevievans,  and  especially  Oratorians. 
Attention  was  called  to  the  spread  of  the  heresy  by 
the  success  of  the  "  R(5flexions  morales".  This  work, 
published  as  a  small  volume  in  1671  with  the  approval 
of  Vialart,  Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Marne,  had  been 
steadily  enlarged  in  .succeeding  editions  until,  in 
1693,  it  numbered  four  compact  volumes  bearing 
always  the  approbation  of  Vialart,  who  ilied  in  1080. 
De  NoaiUes,  the  new  Bishop  of  Chalons,  sanctioned 
the  work  in  1095,  but  the  following  year,  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  lie  conilemned  it.  The  edition  of 
1099  was  publishetl  without  the  changes  demanded 
by  Bossuet,  without  the  preface  which  he  composed 
for  it,  and  without  the  approval  of  the  diocesan 
bishop.  The  following  year  (2  July,  1700)  the 
anonymous  work  "  Problcmc  ecclcsiastiquc,  etc.", 
and  the  controversies  to  which  it  gave  rise,  again 
drew  attention  to  the  peril  of  Jansenism.  At  the 
.■\ssembly  of  the  French  Clergy,  in  the  same  year, 
Bossuet  brought  about  the  condemnation  of  four 
Jansenist  propositions  and  of  127  others  of  lax 
morality.  After  the  death  of  Bossuet  (1704),  F<!neIon 
led  the  contest  against  Jansenism  and  especially 
against  the  distinction  between  "fact"  and  "right" 
{/ail  ct  droit).  Finally,  at  the  request  of  Louis  XIV, 
and    following    the    example    of    his    predecessors. 


ACCESSION 


95 


ACCESSION 


Clement  XI  condemned  in  tlie  Bull  "  Vineam  Domini" 
(17Uo)  the  Jaiisonist  evasion  known  as  .'•itentium 
obsci{uiosum,  or  respectful  silence,  and  proscribed 
(1708)  the  "H(5(lexions  morales".  Shortly  after- 
wards, tlie  King  caused  the  Jansenist  establishment 
of  Port-Uoyal  to  be  demolished  (1710).  Jansenism, 
however,  had  not  yet  been  overthrown.  Louis  XIV 
then  urged  the  Pope  (November,  1711)  to  publish 
another  Hull,  and  promised  to  have  it  accepted  with 
due  respect  by  the  Krencli  bishops.  On  tliis  a.ssur- 
ancc  Clement  XI  cstablishe<l  a  special  congregation 
to  draw  up  the  new  constitution,  .\ftcr  eigliteen 
months  of  careful  study,  the  famous  Hull  "  Unigeni- 
tus",  destined  soon  to  provoke  an  outburst  of  wrath 
on  the  part  of  the  Jansenists,  was  promulgated  in 
Rome  (S  September,  1713).  In  it  the  Pope  con- 
deiiincd  101  propositions  from  Qucsnel's  book  as 
"  false,  misleading,  scandalous,  suspectetl  and  savour- 
ing of  heresy,  bordering  upon  heresy,  frequently 
condemned;  wliat  is  more,  as  being  heretical  and 
reviving  various  propositions  of  Jansenius,  in  the 
very  sense  for  wiiich  tliey  were  first  proscribed". 
Noailles  at  first  submitted,  but  later,  in  an  assembly 
of  forty-nine  bishops,  wlio  met  at  the  instance  of 
K^nelon  in  the  archiepiscopal  palace  in  Paris,  ho 
recalled  his  submission  and  with  eight  of  his  col- 
leagues ranged  himself  among  the  appelants.  The 
forty  others  voted  to  accept.  The  Parliament  of 
Paris  registered  the  Bull  (15  February,  1714),  and 
tlic  Sorbonne  did  tlie  same,  albeit  under  pressure  of 
royal  authority.  The  French  Episcopate,  with  the 
exception  of  twenty  hesitating  or  stubborn  members, 
submitted  forthwith.  To  make  an  end  of  tlie  matter, 
Louis  XIV,  at  I'Y'nelon's  suggestion,  conceived  the 
idea  of  holding  a  national  council  as  a  means  of  re- 
storing unity;  but  his  deatli  prevented  this  and 
defcrreil  the  hour  of  final  pacification. 

The  Regent,  Philip  of  Orleans,  a  man  without 
religious  or  moral  convictions,  a  "vicious  braggart", 
as  Louis  XIV  styled  him,  attempted  to  liold  the 
balance   between   the   two   parties.     The  Jansenists 

{irofited  by  his  neutrality.  Noailles  was  put  at  the 
lead  of  a  "conseil  de  conscience  pour  les  affaires 
cccl<5siastiques",  and  four  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne 
who  had  been  exiled  because  of  their  violent  oppo- 
sition to  the  Hull  were  recalled.  The  Sorbonne, 
which  had  accepted  tlie  Bull  "  L'nigenitus"  by  a 
mere  majority,  now  cancelled  its  acceptance  (171C). 
The  Pope  through  a  Brief  punished  the  Sorbonne 
by  depriving  it  of  all  its  privileges.  The  Parliament 
of  Paris  sideil  with  the  Faculty  antl  suppressed  the 
Brief,  while  tlic  Sorbonne  itself  contested  the  right 
of  tlie  Sovereign  PontifT  to  withdraw  lawfully  granted 
privileges.  The  following  year  four  bishops,  Soanen 
of  Sencz,  Colbert  of  Montpellicr,  de  la  Broue  of  Mirc- 
poix,  and  de  Langle  of  Boulogne,  appealed  from 
the  Bull  "Unigcnitus"  to  a  future  general  council. 
Their  example  was  followed  by  sixteen  bishops, 
ninety-seven  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  a  number  of 
curfe  of  Paris,  Oralorians,  Gencvievans,  Benedictines 
of  Saint-Maur,  Dominicans,  members  of  female 
religious  orders,  and  even  lay  people.  This  move- 
ment extended  to  the  provinces,  but  not  to  the 
universities,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of 
Nantes  and  Kciriis,  supporteil  the  Papal  Bull.  Of 
the  100,000  priests  then  in  France,  hardly  3,0(J0 
were  among  the  appctants.  and  700  of  these  were  in 
Paris.  Tlie  great  majority  voted  for  acceptance 
and  counted  on  their  side  more  than  100  bishops. 
The  appvtaiUs  had  only  20  bishops.  Clement  XI 
knew  that  he  must  act  vigorou.sly.  lie  had  used 
every  means  of  persuasion  and  hatl  written  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris  beseeching  him  to  .set  the  ex- 
ample of  submission.  He  even  consented  to  a  delay. 
But  the  opposition  was  unyielding.  It  was  then 
that  the  Pope  published  the  Bull  "  Pastoralis  OfTicii" 
(28  August,  1718),  in  which  be  pronounced  excom- 


munication upon  all  who  opposed  the  Bull  "Uni- 
gcnitus". The  same  year,  2  October,  Noailles  and 
his  party  appealed  from  this  second  Bull,  and  the 
Faculties  of  the  University  of  Paris,  headed  by  the 
famous  RoUin,  endorsed  the  appeal.  The  Regent 
thought  it  time  to  intervene.  He  was  indifTerent  to 
the  question  of  doctrine,  but  was  politic  enough  to 
see  that  censorious  people  like  the  appelants  were  no 
less  dangerous  to  the  State  than  to  the  Church. 
Moreover,  his  old  teacher,  the  Abb6  Dubois,  now  his 
Prime  Minister,  with  an  eye  perhaps  to  the  cardinal's 
hat,  was  in  favour  of  peace.  He  caused  to  be  com- 
posed a  "Corps  de  Doctrine"  (1720)  explaining  the 
Bull  "  Unigenitus",  and  about  one  hundred  prelates 
gave  their  adhesion  to  it.  Noailles  then  accepted 
the  Bull  (19  November,  1720),  "following  the  ex- 
planations which  have  been  approved  of  by  a  great 
number  of  French  bishops".  This  ambiguous  and 
uncertain  submission  did  not  satisfy  Clement  XI; 
he  died,  however,  without  having  obtained  anything 
more  definite. 

Louis  XV  and  his  aged  minister,  the  Cardinal  de 
Fleury,  opposed  the  sect  with  vigour.  Authorized 
by  them,  De  Tencin,  Archbishop  of  Embrun,  con- 
vokeil  a  provincial  council  (1727)  to  examine  Soanen, 
the  agctl  Bishop  of  Sencz,  who  in  a  pastoral  instruc- 
tion liad  gone  to  extremes.  Many  bisliops  took 
part  in  this  council,  notably  De  Belzunce,  famous 
for  the  zeal  he  displayed  during  the  plague  of  .Mar- 
seilles. Although  supported  by  twelve  bishops  and 
fifty  advocates,  Soanen  was  suspended  and  sent  to 
the  monastery  of  Chaise-Dieu  where  he  died,  insub- 
ordinate, at  the  age  of  ninety-three.  After  numerous 
evasions,  ending  in  submission,  Noailles  died  in  1729. 
The  only  appelants  left  were  the  Bishops  Colbert  of 
Montpellier,  Caylus  of  Au.xerre,  anil  Bossuet  of 
Troyes,  a  nephew  of  the  great  Bisliop  of  Meaux.  .\t 
the  same  time  700  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  of  whom 
thirty-nine  were  bishops,  ratified  the  earlier  (1714) 
acceptance  of  the  Bull  "  Unigenitus".  It  was  a 
triumph  for  the  acceptantf!,  that  is  to  say,  for  the 
authority  of  the  Pope  and  of  the  Church. 

Lafitau,  HiMoire  de  la  Constitution  Unigenitus  (AvignoD, 
1757):  Saint-Simom,  Mt-moirea  (prejudiced  and  untrust- 
worthy); Jacer.  Hist,  de  I'Eglige  cathotyjue  en  France  (1802- 
68):  Scnii.i.,  Die  Konstitution  Vni^fnitus  (Freiburg,  187(5); 
Bower,  History  of  the  Roman  Popes,  XC,  i;33  sqq.;  Bar- 
THEI.EMY,  l.e  Cardinal  de  Noailles  (Pari.«.  1888);  Le  Hoy, 
La  France  it  Home  de  1700  a  1715  (Pans.  1892);  De  Croubaz- 
i'>.s.TT.r,  LEglise  U  lEtat  au  Xyill'sitcte  (Paris,  181.3): 
TiiciMER,  /.<!  seeonde  phase  du  Janseniame  (Paris.  1901); 
Bliabi),  Dubois,  cardinal  el  ministre  (Paris,  1902);  TiitNON, 
L'Egtise  au  XVIIIe  siMe,  in  Lavisse  and  Rambaud.  L'His- 
toire  de  France  (Paris.  1803-07);  Ue  Lacomre,  L'opposUion 
rdigieuse  audfbut  du  XVJJle  si^cle,  in  Le  Correspondanl,  10 
April,  1904. 

A.    FOURNET. 

Accession  (from  Lat.  accedcre,  to  go  to;  hence, 
to  be  added  to)  is  a  method  of  acquiring  ownership 
of  a  thing  arising  from  the  fact  that  it  is  in  some  way 
added  to,  or  is  tlie  fruit  of  something  alreatly  belong- 
ing to  oneself.  This  may  happen  in  three  waj's: 
(1)  naturally;  (2)  artificially;  (.?)  from  the  combined 
operation  of  nature  and  industry.  (1)  Malural. — The 
increase  of  an  animal,  the  vield  of  fields,  the  rent  of 
a  house,  etc.,  belong  to  tlie  owner  of  the  animal, 
fields,  anil  house,  respectively.  Thus,  the  offspring 
of  a  female  animal  is  the  property  of  her  owner,  even 
though  it  be  the  result  of  intercourse  with  a  male 
belonging  to  someone  el.se.  The  axiom  applies  in 
the  case  that  partus  sequilur  vcnlrem.  The  Louisiana 
Code,  in  acconlance  with  the  Roman  law,  provided 
that  the  issue  of  slaves  though  born  during  the 
temporary  u.se  or  hiring  of  their  mothers,  belonged 
not  to  the  hirer  but  to  the  permanent  owner.  But 
the  ofTspring  of  a  slave  bom  during  a  tenancy  for 
life  belonged  to  the  tenant  for  life.  In  the  same 
division  is  the  species  of  accession  due  to  alluvion. 
This  is  an  addition  to  one's  land  m.ade  by  the  action 
of  water,  as  by  the  current  of  a  river.     If  this  in- 


ACCESSUS  96 

crease  is  gradual  and  imperceptible,  the  augmentation 
belongs  to  the  owner  of  tlie  land.  If  it  has  been 
sudden  and  in  large  (luantity,  by  the  common  law 
it  belongs  to  tlie  State.  (J)  .'Irti/icjaZ.— Tlus  sort 
occurs  (a)  by  specification,  wlien  one's  labour  or 
artistic  talent  is  employed  upon  materials  owned  by 
another,  so  that  a  new  substance  or  thing  is  producetl. 
Where  tliis  is  done  in  good  faith,  the  product  be- 
longs to  the  artist  or  labourer  with  the  obligation 
on  his  part  of  indemnifying  tlie  owner  of  tlie  mate- 
rials, (b)  By  adjunction,  wlien  one's  labour  and 
material  have  been  so  united  with  the  property  of 
another  that  tliey  cannot  be  separated.  Tlie  re- 
sultant then  belongs  to  him  who  has  contributed  the 
more  important  component,  (c)  By  blending,  when 
materials  of  equal  value  appertaining  to  different 
owners,  are  nii.\ed  together.  The  thing  or  its  price 
is  then  to  be  divided  according  to  natural  equity 
between  the  original  jiosscssors,  if  the  mixture  has 
been  made  in  good  faitlr.  othenvise  the  weight  of  law 
is  thrown  in  his  favour  whose  right  has  been  violated. 
(3)  Mixed. — An  example  of  the  third  kind  of  accession 
is  the  building  of  a  house  on  another's  ground,  or  the 
planting  of  trees  or  sowing  of  vegetables  in  an- 
other's field.  The  house,  trees,  etc.,  belong  to  the 
master  of  the  soil  after  making  suitable  compensa- 
tion to  the  builder,  planter,  etc. 

BODVIEH,  Law  Dictionary;  Sabetti,  Theol.  Moralis. 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Accessus,  a  term  applied  to  the  voting  in  con- 
clave for  the  election  of  a  pope,  by  which  a  cardinal 
changes  his  vote  and  "accedes"  to  some  other  can- 
didate. When  the  votes  of  the  cardinals  have  been 
counted  after  the  first  balloting  and  the  two-thirds 
majority  has  fallen  to  none  of  'hose  voted  for,  at 
the  following  vote  opportunity  is  granted  for  a  car- 
dinal to  change  his  vote,  by  writing,  Accedo  domino 
Cardinali,  mentioning  some  one  of  those  who  have 
been  voted  for,  but  not  the  cardinal  for  whom  he 
has  already  voted.  If  he  should  not  wish  to  change 
his  vote,  the  cardinal  can  vote  Nemini,  i.  e.  for  no 
one.  If  these  supplementary  votes  of  accession, 
added  to  those  a  candidate  has  received,  equal  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  vote,  then  there  is  an  election.  If 
not,  the  ballots  are  burned,  and  the  usual  ballot  takes 
place  the  next  day.     (See  Concl.we.) 

Locit:8  Lkitor.  Le  Conrtavp.  orinine.  histoire,  Ptc.  (Porii^, 
1894);  Ladkkntius,  InM.  Jur.  Ecd.  (FreiburK,  190.5')  n.  120. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Acciajuoli,  name  of  three  cardinals  belonging 
to  an  illustrious  Florentine  family  of  this  name. — - 
.^ngelo,  noted  for  his  learning,  experience,  and  in- 
tegrity, b.  1349;  d.  at  Pisa,  31  May,  1408.  He  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Florence  in  1383,  and  Cardinal 
in  138.5,  by  Pope  Urban  VI.  He  resisted  all  en- 
deavours that  were  made  to  bring  him  over  to  the 
Antipope,  Clement  VII,  and  defended  by  word  and 
deed  the  regularity  of  the  election  of  Urban  VI. 
After  this  Pope's  death,  half  the  votes  in  the  succeed- 
ing conclave  were  for  Acciajuoli;  but  to  end  the 
schism,  he  directed  the  election  towards  Boniface  IX. 
The  new  Pope  made  him  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia, 
and  sent  him  to  Germany,  Slavonia,  and  Bulgaria 
to  settle  dilficulties  there.  He  afterwards  became 
Covernor  of  Naples,  and  guardian  of  the  young 
King  Ladislaus,  whom  he  brought  to  Naples,  and 
some  time  later  accompanied  on  his  march  into 
Hungary.  On  liis  return  he  reconciled  the  Pope 
with  the  Orsini,  and  reformed  tlie  Benedictine 
monastery  of  St.  Paul  in  Home.  He  died  on  his 
way  to  Pisa,  and  was  buried  in  Florence,  at  the 
Certosa,  u  monastic  foundation  of  his  family. — 
Nirf()i>i'«,  b.  at  Florence,  1(>.30;  d.  in  Uome,  23  Febru- 
ary, 1719,  us  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia,  in  his  eiglitv- 
ninth  year.— Fii.iPi-o,  b.  in  Rome,  12  March,  1700. 
He  waa  nuncio  in  Portugal,  but  was  expelled  M-ith 


ACCIDENT 


military  force  by  Pombal  (.August,  1760)  because 
of  his  interference  in  behalf  of  the  Jesuits.  Clem- 
ent XIII  made  him  Cardinal  in  1759;  he  died  at 
Ancona,  as  Bishop  of  that  see,  4  July,  1766  (Duhr, 
Pombal,  1891,  121  sqq.).       John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Accident  [Lat.  acridere,  to  happen — whathapperis 
to  be  in  a  subject;  any  contingent,  or  non-essential 
attribute]. 

I. — The  obvious  division  of  things  into  the  stable 
and  the  unstable,  the  more  or  less  independently 
subsistent  and  the  dependent,  or  essentially  inherent, 
appears  beset  with  obscurity  and  difficulty  as  soon 
as  it  is  brought  under  reflective  consideration.  In 
their  endeavour  to  solve  the  problem,  philosophers 
have  followed  two  extreme  tendencies.  Some  have 
denied  the  objectivity  of  the  substantial  or  noumenal 
element,  and  attributed  it  wholly  or  in  part  to  the 
mind;  others  have  made  the  phenomenal  or  accidental 
element  subjective,  and  accorded  objectivity  to  sub- 
stance alone.  These  two  extreme  tendencies  are 
represented  among  the  ancient  Greek  materialists 
and  atomists  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Eleatic  pan- 
theists on  tlie  other.  Aristotle  and  his  medieval 
followers  steer  a  middle  course.  They  hold  to  the 
objectivity  both  of  substance  and  of  accident,  though 
they  recognize  the  subjective  factor  in  the  mode  of 
perception.  They  use  the  term  accident  to  designate 
any  contingent  (i.  e.  non-essential)  relation  between 
an  attribute  and  its  subject.  As  such  it  is  a  merely 
logical  denomination,  one  of  the  five  "predicables" 
or  universals,  modes  of  systematic  classification — 
genus,  difference,  species,  property,  accident.  In  this 
sense  it  is  called  predicable,  as  distinguished  from 
predicamental,  accident,  the  latter  term  standing  for 
a  real  ohjectirc  form  or  status  of  things,  and  denoting 
a  being  whose  essential  nature  it  is  to  inhere  in  another 
as  in  a  subject.  Accident  thus  implies  inexistence  in 
substance — i.  e.  not  as  the  contained  in  the  con- 
tainer, not  as  part  in  the  whole,  not  as  a  being  in 
time  or  place,  not  as  effect  in  cause,  not  as  the  known 
in  the  knower;  but  as  an  inherent  entity  or  mode  in 
a  subject  which  it  determines.  Accidents  modify  or 
denominate  their  subject  in  various  ways,  and  to 
these  correspond  the  nine  "Categories":  (1)  quan- 
tity, in  virtue  whereof  material  substance  has  inte- 
grant, positional  parts,  divisibility,  location,  impen- 
etrability, etc. ;  (2)  quality,  which  modifies  substance 
immediately  and  intrinsically,  either  statically  or  dy- 
namically, and  includes  such  inhercnts  of  substance 
as  habit,  faculty,  sense-stimuli,  and  figure  or  shape; 
(3)  relation,  the  bearing  of  one  substance  on  another 
(e.  g.  paternity).  These  three  groups  are  called  in- 
trinsic accidents,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
remaining  six  groups — action,  passion,  location,  dura- 
tion, position,  habiliment — w'hich,  as  their  names  suf- 
ficiently suggest,  are  simply  extrinsic  denominations 
accruing  to  a  substance  because  of  its  bearings  on 
some  other  substance.  Quantity  and  quality,  and, 
in  a  restricted  sense,  relation  are  said  to  be  absolute 
accidents,  because  they  are  held  to  superadd  soine 
special  form  of  being  to  the  substance  wherein  they 
reside.  For  this  reason  a  real,  and  not  a  merely 
conceptual,  distinction  between  them  and  their  sub- 
ject is  maintained.  Arguments  for  the  physical  real- 
ity of  this  distinction  are  drawn  from  experience; 
(a)  internal-consciousness  attesting  that  the  perma- 
nent, substantial  self  is  subject  to  constantly-shifting 
accidental  states— and  (b)  external  experience,  which 
witnesses  to  a  like  permanence  of  things  beneath  the 
incessantly  varying  phenomena  of  nature.  The  su- 
pernatural order  also  furnishes  an  argument  in  the 
theology  of  the  infu.sed  virtues  which  are  habits 
supervening  on,  and  hence  really  distinct  from,  the 
substance  of  the  natur.al  mind. 

II. — With  the  reaction  against  schol.asticism,  led 
on  by  Descartes,  a  new  theory  of  the  accident  is 


ACCIDENTS  9 

devised,  or  rather  tlie  two  extreme  views  of  the 
Greeks  referred  to  above  arc  revived.  Descartes, 
making  i|uantity  tlie  very  essenre  of  matter,  and 
tliouglit  tlie  essence  of  spirit,  denies  all  real  distinc- 
tion between  substance  and  accident.  While  teach- 
ing an  extreme  dualism  in  psychologj',  his  definition 
of  substance,  as  independent  Ix-ing,  gave  occasion 
to  Spinoza's  monism,  and  accidents  became  still 
more  deeply  buried  in  substance.  On  the  other 
hand,  substance  seems  at  last  to  disappear  with 
Locke,  the  world  is  resoKed  into  a  congeries  of  qual- 
ities (priman/,  or  extension,  and  secomtanj,  or  sen- 
sible properties).  The  primary  qualities,  however, 
still  retain  a  foundation  in  the  objective  order,  but 
witli  Berkeley  they  become  entirely  subjectified;  only 
the  soul  is  allowed  a  substantial  element  as  the  sup- 
port of  psychical  accidents.  This  element  is  likewise 
dissolved  "in  the  philosophy  of  Iliune  and  the  .As-so- 
ciationists.  Kant  considered  accidents  to  be  simply 
subjective  categories  of  sense  and  intellect,  forms 
according  to  which  the  mind  apprehends  and  judges 
of  things — which  things  are.  and  must  remain,  un- 
knowable. Spencer  retains  Kant's  unknowable  nou- 
menon  but  admits  phenomena  to  be  its  objective 
aspects  or  modifications. 

III. — .Several  other  classifications  of  accidents  are 
found  in  the  pertinent  treatises.  It  should  be  noted 
that  while  accidents  by  inhesion  modify  substance, 
they  are  witnes-ses  to  its  nature,  being  the  medium 
whereby  the  mind,  through  a  process  of  abstraction 
and  inference,  builds  its  analogical  concepts  of  the 
constitution  of  substances.  From  this  point  of  view 
material  accidents  are  classed  as  (a)  proper  sensihles 
— the  excitants  of  the  individual  senses,  colour  for 
sight,  sound  for  hearing,  etc. — and  (b)  common  sen- 
sMcs — extension  and  its  modes,  size,  distance,  etc. — 
which  stimulate  two  or  more  senses,  especially  touch 
and  sight.  Through  these  two  groups  of  accidents, 
and  concomitantly  with  their  perception,  the  under- 
lying subject  is  apperceived.  Substance  in  its  con- 
crete existence,  not  in  its  abstract  essence,  is  said 
to  be  an  accidental  object  of  sense. 

IV. — The  modern  views  of  accident,  so  far  as  they 
accord  to  it  any  objectivity,  are  based  on  the  phys- 
ical theory  that  all,  at  least  material,  phenomena 
(light,  colour,  heat,  sound,  etc.)  are  simplv  varjing 
forms  of  motion.  In  part,  the  kinetic  element  in 
such  phenomena  was  known  to  .\ristotle  and  the 
Scholastics  (cf.  St.  Thomas,  "De  Anima",  III.  I.ect. 
ii);  but  it  is  only  in  recent  times  that  physical  ex- 
perimentation has  thrown  light  on  the  correlation 
of  material  phenomena  as  conditioned  by  degrees 
of  motion.  While  all  Neo-Scholastic  philosophers 
maintain  that  motion  alone  will  not  explain  the  ob- 
jectivity of  extension,  some  (e.  g.  Gutberlet)  admit 
that  it  accounts  for  the  sensible  qualities  (colour, 
sound,  etc.).  Haan  (Philos.  Nat.)  frees  the  theory 
of  motion  from  an  extreme  idealism,  but  holds  that 
the  theory  of  the  real,  formal  objectivity  of  those 
qualities  affords  a  more  satisfactory  explanation  of 
sense-perception.  The  majority  of  Neo-Scholasfic 
writei-s  favour  this  latter  view.  (Pesch,  Phil. 
Nat.) 

V. — The  teaching  of  Catholic  philosophy  on  the 
distinct  reality  of  certain  absolute,  not  purely  modal, 
accidents  was  occasioned  by  the  doctrine  of  the  Heal 
Presence  of  the  Hody  and  Blood  of  Christ  in  the 
Eucharist,  though  the  arguments  for  the  theory  are 
deduced  from  natural  experience.  The  same  doc- 
trine, however,  suggests  tlie  further  question,  whether 
such  accidents  may  not  be  separal)le  from  sulistancc. 
Reason  alone  ofTers  no  positive  arguments  for  such 
separability.  The  most  it  can  do  is  to  show  that 
separability  involves  no  inherent  contradiction,  and 
hence  no  absolute  impossibility;  the  CImnipotence 
tliat  endows  substance  with  the  power  of  supporting 
accidents  can,  it  is  claimed,  supply  some  other  means 
I.— 7 


7  ACCLAMATION 

of  support.  Nor  would  the  accidents  thus  separated, 
and  supernaturally  supi)orted,  lose  their  character  aa 
accidents,  since  tlicy  would  still  retain  their  es.sential 
proix-rty,  i.  e.  natiirnl  ixvjincc  of  inhesion.  Of  course 
the  intrinsic  possibility  of  such  separation  depends 
solely  on  the  supernatural  interference  of  God,  nor 
may'it  extend  to  all  clas-ses  of  accidents.  Thus,  e.  g., 
it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  vital  faculties,  or  acts, 
to  exist  outside  their  natural  sufjjects,  or  principles. 
Theorists  who,  like  the  Cartesians,  deny  the  objec- 
tive, distinct  entity  of  all  accidents  have  I^een  obliged 
to  reconcile  this  negation  with  their  Ijclief  in  the 
Real  Presence  by  maintaining  that  the  speciex,  or 
accidents,  of  bread  and  wine  do  not  really  remain  in 
the  Kucharist,  but  that  after  Coasecration  God  pro- 
duces on  our  senses  the  impressions  corresponding  to 
the  natural  phenomena.  This  theory  obviously  de- 
mands a  seemingly  unnecessary  multiplication  of 
miracles  and  has  at  present  few  if  any  serious  ad- 
vocates.    (See  Eucharist.) 

John  Rickaby,  General  Melaphiiaics  (New  York.  1900); 
MlVART,  On  Truth  (London.  1899);  McCosll,  Firtl  Trulht 
(New  York,  1894):  Mercier,  Ontologie;  Nys,  Cotmoloaie 
(I.ouvain.  1903):  Gctberlet,  NalurphiloBophie,  and  On- 
lohvie  (MQnster,  1894);  Pesch,  Philotophia  Naluralit  (Frei- 
burg, 1897). 

F.  P.  Siegfried. 

Accidents,  Eucharistic.    See  Eucharist. 

Acclamation  (Lat.  ad,  to,  clamare,  to  cry  out). 
Ix  Civic  Life. — The  word  acclamatio  (in  the  pluraL 
arrlamaliones)  was  used  in  the  cla.ssical  Latin  of 
Republican  Rome  as  a  general  term  for  any  mani- 
festation of  popular  feeling  expressed  by  a  shout. 
At  weddings,  funerals,  triumphs,  etc..  these  acclama- 
tions were  generally  limiteil  to  certain  stereotyjjed 
forms.  For  example,  when  the  bride  was  being 
conducted  to  her  husband's  house  the  spectators 
cried:  lo  Hymen,  Hymenaee,  or  Talasse,  or  Tatassw. 
At  a  triumph  there  was  a  general  shout  of  lo  Trium- 
phe.  An  orator  who  gained  the  approbation  of  his 
nearers  was  interrupted  with  cries  of  belle  et  fesiii'e, 
bene  ct  prceclare,  non  potent  melius,  and  the  like, 
where  we  should  say  "Hear,  hear!"  I'nder  the 
Empire  these  acclamations  took  a  remarkable  de- 
velopment, more  particularly  in  the  circus  and  in 
the  theatre.  At  the  entrance  of  the  emperor  the 
audience  rose  and  greeted  him  with  shouts,  which 
in  the  time  of  Nero  were  reduced  to  certain  prescribed 
forms  and  were  sung  in  rhythm.  Moreover,  like 
the  guns  of  a  royal  salute,  these  cries  were  also  pro- 
longed and  repeated  for  a  definite  and  carefully  re- 
corded number  of  times.  The  same  custom  invaded 
the  senate,  and  under  the  later  Antonines  it  would 
seem  that  such  collective  expressions  of  feeling  as 
would  nowadays  be  incorporated  in  an  address  of 
congratulation  or  a  vote  of  censure,  then  took  the 
form  of  acclamations  which  must  have  been  care- 
fully drafted  beforehand  and  were  apparently 
shouted  in  chorus  by  the  whole  assembly.  A  long 
specimen  of  denunciatory  acclamations  which  in- 
deed might  better  be  called  imprecations,  chanted 
in  the  Senate  after  the  a.ssa.ssination  of  the  Emperor 
Commodus  (192),  is  pre.«er\X'tl  by  Lampridius.  The 
original  occupies  several  pages;  a  few  clauses  may 
suffice  here:  "  On  every  side  are  statues  of  the  enemy 
(i.  e.  Commodus);  on  every  side  statues  of  the  parn- 
cide;  on  every  side  statues  of  the  gladiator.  Down 
with  the  statues  of  this  gladiator  and  parricide. 
Let  the  slayer  of  his  fellow-citizens  be  dragged  in  the 
dust ;  let  the  statues  of  the  gladiator  be  dragged  at 
the  cart's  tail." 

More  to  our  present  purpose,  however,  are  the 
favourable  acclamations  of  the  Senate,  such  as 
tho.se  recorded  by  Lampridius  at  the  election  of 
.\lexander  Severus:  ".Xlexander  .\ugustus,  may 
the  gods  keep  thee.  For  thy  modesty;  for  thy 
prudence;  for  thy  guilelessness;  for  thy  chastity. 
From  this  we  tmderstand  what  sort  of  a  ruler  thou 


ACCLAMATION 


98 


ACCLAMATION 


wilt  be.  For  this  we  welcome  thee.  Thou  wilt 
make  it  appear  that  the  senate  chooses  its  rulers 
well.  Thou  wilt  prove  that  the  senate's  judgment 
is  of  the  highest  worth.  Alexander  August  u.s,  may 
the  gods  keep  thee.  Let  Alexander  -■Xugustvis  dedi- 
cate the  temples  of  the  .\ntonines.  Our  Osar,  our 
Augustus,  our  Imperator,  may  the  Gods  keep  thee. 
Mayest  thou  live,  mayest  thou  thrive,  mayest  thou 
rule  for  many  years."  It  is  only  from  an  examina- 
tion of  the  few  examples  preserved  to  us  that  one 
can  arrive  at  an  understanding  of  the  influence 
which  this  institution  of  acclamations  shouted  in 
unison  was  likely  to  exercise  upon  the  early  de- 
velopments of  the  Christian  liturgy.  The  general 
resemblance  with  certain  primitive  forms  of  litany 
or  ekiene  is  sufficiently  striking,  but  the  suljject  is 
obscure  and  we  may  content  ourselves  primarily 
here  witli  the  acclamations,  more  properly  so  called, 
which  had  and  still  have  a  recognized  place  in  the 
ceremonial  of  consecration  of  popes,  emperors,  kings, 
bishops,  etc.,  and  those  also  which  are  recorded 
in  the  acts  of  certain  early  councils. 

Growth  of  Litiugic.^l  Accl.\.m.\tions. — It  seems 
highly  probable  that  the  practices  observed  Ln  the 
election  of  the  Pagan  emperors  were  tlie  prototype 
of  most  of  the  liturgical  acclamations  now  known 
to  us.  In  the  long  account  given  by  Vopiscus  of 
the  election  of  the  Emperor  Tacitus  (2S3)  we  are 
told  that  when  Tacitus  at  first  declined  the  honour 
in  the  senate  on  tlie  score  of  his  advanced  age,  "  these 
were  the  acclamations  of  the  senators,  'Trajan,  too, 
acceded  to  tlie  Empire  as  an  old  manl'  (ten  times); 
'and  Hadrian  acceded  to  the  Empire  in  his  old  age' 
(ten  times)  .  .  .  'Do  you  give  orders,  let  the 
soldiers  fight'  (thirty  times);  'Severus  said:  It  is 
the  head  that  reigns  not  the  feet'  (thirty  times); 
'It  is  your  mind,  not  your  body,  we  are  electing' 
(twenty  times);  'Tacitus  Augustus,  may  the  Gods 
keep  you.'  "  Then  Tacitus  was  taken  out  to  the 
Campus  Martius  to  be  presented  to  the  soldiers  and 
the  people.  "Whereupon  the  people  acclaimed: 
'Most  happily  may  the  gods  keep  thee,  Tacitus', 
and  the  rest  which  it  is  customary  to  say."  The 
slender  records  which  we  possess  of  the  ceremonial 
in  other  cases  of  the  election  of  an  emperor  make 
it  clear  that  these  popular  acclamations  were  never 
discontinued  even  after  the  coronation  assimied  an 
ecclesiastical  character  and  was  carried  out  in  church. 
Thus  the  official  rituals  we  possess,  one  of  wliich 
dates  back  to  the  close  of  the  eighth  centurj',  explain 
how  when  the  crown  has  been  imposed  "tlie  people 
shout,  'Holy,  holy,  holy',  and  'Glory  to  God  in  the 
highest  and  on  earth  peace',  thrice.  And  if  there  is 
a  prince  to  be  crowned  as  consort  of  tlie  iJmpire, 
the  Patriarch  takes  the  second  crown  and  hands  it 
to  the  Emperor,  and  he  impo.ses  it,  and  tlic  two 
choirs  shout  'Worthy.'"  After  this  followed  the 
imperial  acta  (dKTo\oyetv  is  the  technical  term  in 
Greek  for  the  shouting  of  these  acclamations)  or 
taudcs,  as  they  were  called  in  the  West.  A  sort  of 
litany  consisting  of  more  than  a  score  of  venses  was 
chanted  by  heralds,  wliile  the  people  repeated  each 
verse  once  or  thrice  after  the  leaders.  In  this  we 
find  such  pa.ssagcs  as, 

"Many,  many,  many; 

R.  "  Many  years,  for  many  years, 

"  Long  years  to  you,  N.  and  N.,  autocrats  of  the 
Romans, 

R.  "  Many  years  to  you. 

"  Long  years  to  you.  Servants  of  the  Lord, 

R.  "  -Many  years  to  you."  etc. 

Almost  contemporary  with  these  are  the  acclama- 
tions found  in  our  i;nglish  Egbert  Pontifical  (proba- 
bly compiled  before  7G9)  which  with  other  English 
.M."<S.  has  preserved  to  us  the  earliest  detailed  account 
of  u  coronation  in  the  West.  The  text  is  a  little 
'uicerlain,    but    probably    should    read    as    follows: 


"Then  let  the  whole  people  say  three  times  along 
with  the  bishops  and  the  priests;  'May  our  King, 
N.,  live  for  ever'  {Vivat  Rex  .V.  in  scmpilernum). 
And  he  shall  be  confirmed  upon  the  throne  of  the 
kingdom  with  the  blessing  of  all  the  people  while  the 
great  Lords  kiss  him,  saying:  '  For  ever.  Amen, 
amen,  amen.'  "  There  is  also  in  the  Egbertine  ritual 
a  sort  of  litany  closely  resembling  tlie  imperial  ac- 
clamations just  referred  to,  and  this  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  elaborate  set  of  lauJcs,  technically 
so  called,  which  belong  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne 
and  have  been  printed  by  Duchesne  in  liis  edition  of 
the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  II,  37.  In  these  imperial 
Inudes  the  words  Christus  ^nncit,  ChriMus  rcgnat, 
Christus  imperat  (Christ  conquers,  Christ  reigns, 
Christ  commands),  nearly  always  find  a  place.  It 
should  be  atkletl  that  these  acclamations  or  some 
similar  feature  have  been  retained  to  this  day  in  the 
Eastern  coronation  rituals  and  in  a  few  of  West- 
ern origin,  amongst  others  in  that  of  England. 
Thus  for  the  coronation  of  King  Edward  VII  in  1902 
tlie  official  ceremonial  gave  the  following  direction: 
"When  the  Homage  is  ended,  the  dnmis  beat  and 
the  trumpets  sound,  and  all  the  people  shiut,  crying 
out:  'God  save  King  Edward!'  'Long  live  King 
Edward!'     'May  the  King  live  for  ever!'" 

For  Popes  .wd  Bishops. — It  was  natural  that 
the  practice  of  acclaiming  should  not  be  confined  to 
the  person  of  the  sovereign  or  to  the  occasion  of  his 
election.  Just  as  we  read  of  the  king  "wearing  his 
crown"  upon  great  feasts  in  certain  favoured  cities, 
a  ceremony  which  seems  to  have  amounted  to  a  sort 
of  secondary  coronation,  so  the  elaborate  laudes  in 
honour  of  the  emperor  were  often  repeated  on  festi- 
vals, especially  at  the  papal  Mass.  But  more  than 
this  the  practice  of  acclaiming  the  emperor  at  his 
election  was  also  extended  to  the  Pope  and  in  some 
ca.ses  to  simple  bishops.  In  the  case  of  the  Pope 
our  testimonies  are  not  very  ancient,  but  the  "Liber 
Pontificalis"  in  the  eighth  centurj'  frequently  al- 
ludes to  the  practice,  associating  the  words  accla- 
mationes  and  laudes  in  many  combinations;  while 
at  a  somewhat  later  date  we  have  the  explicit  testi- 
mony of  the  "Ordines  Romani".  In  the  case  of  the 
coronation  of  Leo  (probably  the  fourth  pope  of  that 
name),  we  learn  that  tlie  leaders  of  the  people  from 
each  district  acclaimed  him  with  the  words:  "The 
Lord  Leo  Pope,  whom  St.  Peter  has  chosen  to  sit  in 
his  see  for  many  years."  At  the  present  day  after 
the  Gloria  and  the  Collect  of  the  Mass  of  the  Coro- 
nation, the  senior  Cardinal  Deacon,  standing  before 
the  Pope  enthroned,  chants  the  words,  "  Exaudi, 
Christe"  (Hear,  O  Christ);  to  which  all  present 
reply  "  Long  life  to  our  Lord  Pius  who  has  been 
appointed  Supreme  Pontiff  and  T'niversal  Pope." 
This  is  repeated  three  times  with  some  other  invoca- 
tions, and  it  tlien  expands  into  a  short  litany  in  which 
the  repetition  of  each  title  is  an.swered  by  the  prayer 
tu  ilium  adjum  (Do  thou  help  him).  This  last 
feature  clo.scly  reproduces  the  laudes  of  tlie  Middle 
Ages,  chanted  at  the  coronation  of  kings.  Similar 
acclamations  seem  to  have  been  familiar  from  very 
early  times  at  tlie  election  of  bishops,  though  it  would 
probably  be  going  much  too  far  to  represent  them  as 
regularly  forming  part  of  the  ritual.  The  classical 
instance  is  that  recorded  by  St.  .August ine,  who  pro- 
posed Heraclius  to  the  people  of  Ilijipo  as  his  suc- 
cessor. Thereupon,  he  says,  "The  people  .shouted. 
'Thanks  be  to  God,  Praised  be  Christ.'  This  was 
said  twenty-three  times.  '  Hear,  t)  Christ ;  long 
live  .\ugu.stine,'  sixteen  times.  'Thee  for  our 
Father,  Thee  for  our  Bishop,'  twenty  times,  'Well 
deserving,  truly  worthy,'  five  times";  and  so  on 
(St.  Aug.,  Epist.,  212;  P.  L.,  XX.XIII,  966).  In  this, 
however,  there  was  clearly  nothing  liturgical,  though 
that  character  may  perhaps  be  better  recognized  in 
the   cries  of,   "  He  is  worthy,   he  is  worthy,   he  is 


i 


ACCLAMATION 


99 


ACCOMMODATION 


worthy;  for  many  years",  etc.,  wlikh  tlie  people  in 
certain  ancient  rituals  were  directed  to  make  when 
the  bishop-elect  was  presented  to  them  before  his 
consecration. 

Councils. — Other  acclamations  meet  us  in  the 
acts  of  .some  of  the  early  councils.  They  seem  in 
most  ca.ses  to  have  taken  the  form  of  compliments  to 
the  emperors,  and  may  often  ix-rhaps  be  no  more 
significant  tlian  a  toast  to  the  king  and  royal  family 
at  a  moilorn  banciuet.  Hut  we  read  of  other  cries, 
for  inslanco,  tliat  at  tlie  first  session  of  the  Cotmcil 
of  Chalcedon  (October,  451)  the  I'atliers  shouted, 
regarding  Dioscurus:  "The  scoffer  always  runs 
away.  Christ  has  deposed  Dioscurus,  Christ  has 
deposed  the  murderer  ';  or  again:  "This  is  a  just 
verdict;  This  is  a  just  council";  or  again,  "(Sod  has 
avenged  His  Martyrs".  Upon  tlie  other  meanings 
which  have  been  attaclied  to  the  word  acclamation — 
some  of  them  rather  strained — it  does  not  seem  neces- 
sary to  speak  at  length.  (1)  The  applause  of 
the  congregation  which  often  in  ancient  times  in- 
terrupted the  sermons  of  favourite  preacliers.  (2) 
The  prayers  ami  good  wislies  fount!  upon  sepul- 
chral monuments,  etc.,  to  which  tlie  name  acclama- 
tions is  sometimes  given.  (3)  The  brief  liturgical 
formula;,  such  as  Dominus  vobiscum,  Kyrie  Eleison, 
Deo  gratias,  etc.  (4)  For  election  by  acclamation, 
See  Election,  Concl.we,  and  Accl.\matiox  i.n 
P.vPAL  Elections. 

Cabrol  in  Diet,  d'archeol.  chrit..  240-205.  This  article 
incluvlest  a  (iiscu-ssion  of  inscriptions.  liturgical  formulip,  and 
other  miscellaneous  matters.  Per  the  subject  of  Acclamatiuns 
in  classical  times,  cf.  Darembehg  a.ni>  Saglio,  Diet.  (It's 
Antiq.,  s.  v.:  Pauly-Wis.sowa,  Real-Encyctopadie der  claasiachm 
AtterthtimawissenBchaft;  Mo.mmsen'.  Rum.  Staatsrecht,  III, 
951.  349;  Fctek.  Die  Scriplores  Ilisl.  .luoual.  (Leipjie,  1892), 
221  sqq.;  Heer,  in  /^AiVotoffiis  (supplementary  vol.).  IX  (1904), 

187  sqq. — For  CORONATIONS  IMPERIAL  AND  PAPAL,  see  I.e 
Laudes  nelV  Ineoronazione  del  Horn.  Fontifiee,  in  Ln  Civittit 
Calloliea,  15  .\ug.,  1903,  387-404;  Brigiitman,  lii/iiinlin,- 
Imperial  Coronaliona,  in  Joum.  of  Theol.  Stuiliia,  .\pril,  I'JOl; 
Grisar,  .inakeln  Romana  (Kome,  1899),  229  s<|i|.;  Martene, 
De  Ant.  Ecel.  Rit.  (1737),  II,  578,  851-852;  Die.mand,  Daa 
Ceremoniell  drr  Kaiserkrimungen  (Munich,  1894),  82;  Maskell, 
MonumenUt  Ritualia  (2d  ed..  Oxford,  1882),  II,  85;  Lego, 
English  Coronation  Records  (London,  1901). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Acclamation,  in  P.\pal  Elections,  one  of  the  forms 
of  papal  election.  The  method  of  electing  the  Roman 
Pontiff  is  containeil  in  the  constitutions  of  Gregory 
XV,  "^literni  Patris  Filius"  and  "  Decct  Homanum 
Pontificem".  Urban  VHUs  constitution,  ".\d  Ro- 
mani  Pontificis  Providentiam",  is  confirniatorj' of  the 
preceding,  .\ccording  to  these  documents,  three 
methoils  of  election  alone  are  valid;  namely,  by  scru- 
tiny, by  compromise,  and  by  acclamation,  or  quasi- 
inspiratioii.  This  last  form  of  election  consists  in  all 
the  cardinals  present  unanimously  proclaiming  one  of 
the  candidates  Supreme  PontitT.  without  the  formal- 
ity of  casting  votes.  .Vs  this  must  be  done  without 
previous  consultation  or  negotiation  it  is  looked  on  as 
proceeding  from  the  Holy  Ghost  and  hence  is  also 
designated  "<iuasi-inspiration".  An  example  of  this 
nuule  of  election  in  more  recent  times  is  found  in 
the  ca.se  of  Clement  X  (1670-76),  formerly  Cardi- 
nal .-Vltieri,  who.se  election  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
termined by  the  sudden  cry  of  the  people  outside 
tlie  conclave,  "  .\ltieri  Papa",  which  was  confirmed 
by  the  cardinals  (Keller).  Innocent  XI  (167t)-.S'J) 
is  another  example.  The  cardinals  surrounded  him 
in  the  chapel  of  the  conclave  and  in  spite  of  his 
resistance  every  one  of  them  kissed  his  hand,  pro- 
claiming him   Pope   (De  Montor). 

Ferraris,  /liMiolhrra.  art.  Papa  (Kome,  1890);  Wernz, 
Jwi  Drcrrl.  (Kome.  1.S99),  II,  tit.  30;  Ue  .Montor,  Urea  of 
Rom.  font.  (New  York).  1800);  Keller.  Life  of  Leo  Xtll 
(.New  York.  ISSSi;  I.EcnoR,  Le  Conclave  (P:iris.  1898). 

WiLLIA.M  II.  W.  F.VNNING. 

Accommodation,  Bidlic.vl. — We  shall  consider 
(1)  what  is  meant  by  biblical  accommodation;  (2) 
its  use  in  Sacred  Scripture;  (3)  the  rules  which  ought 


to  regulate  its  use. — (1)  What  is  Biblical  Accommo- 
JatiunY     14y     accommodation      is     understood     the 
adaptation  of  words  or  sentences  from  Sacretl  Script- 
ure to  signify  ideas  different  from   those  expres.sed 
by  the  sacred  author.     Thus,  if  a  sinner  excu-ses  his 
fault    by   saying.    "The   serpent   deceived  me",    he 
applies  the  .scriptural  words  of  Eve  (Gen.,  iii,  13)  to 
express  an  idea  which  the  sentence  does  not  convey 
in  the  Bible.     Similarly,  a  blind  person  might  u.se 
the  words  of  Tob.,  v,  12,  "What  manner  of  joy  sliall 
be  to  me,  who  sit  in  darkness,  and  .see  not  tlic  liglit 
of  heaven".     Here,  again,  the  words  would  have  a 
meaning  wlich  they  do  not  bear  in  Sacred  Scripture. 
This  accommodation  is  sometimes  incorrectly  styled 
the    accommodated,    or    accommodative,    sen.se    of 
Scripture.     From  the  definition  it  is  clear  that  it  is 
not  a  sense  of  Scripture  at  all.     The  po.ssibility  of 
sucli    accommodation    may   arise,    first,  from    some 
similarity  between  the  ideas  in  the  sacred  text  and 
the  subject  to  which  the  passage  is  accommodated; 
secondly,  from  the  fact  that  the  words  of  Scripture 
may   be   understood   in   two   difTercnt   sen.ses.     The 
first  is  called  extensive  accommodation.     Examples 
of  it  are  found  in  the  Church's  offices,  botli  in  tlie 
15reviary  and  the  Missal,  when  the  prai.ses  bestowed 
by  tlie  Holy  Ghost  on  Noe,  Isaac,  and  Moses  are 
applied  to  other  saints.     Thus  the  words  of  lOcclus., 
xxxii,  1,  5:  "Have  they  made  thee  ruler?  .  .  .  hin- 
der not  music"   are  sometimes  applied   to   College 
presidents  assuming  the  burden  of   their  office;  we 
need  not  say  that  the  words  of  Sacred   Scripture 
have  quite  a  difterent  meaning.     The  second  species 
of   accommodation,  called    allusive,  is  often  a  mere 
play  on  words  and  at  times  seems  due  to  a  misunder- 
standing   of    the    original    meaning.     The    Vulgate 
text.  Mirabilis  Dens  in  Sanctis  sua.s-  (Ps.,  Ixvii,  36) 
means,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Psalmist,  that  God  is 
wonderful   in   His   sanctuary   (sancta,   -orum).     The 
Latin  words  may  also  be  translated  "God  is  wonder- 
ful in  his  saints"   (.5a«r(i, -orum),  and  they  are  em- 
ployed in  this  sense  in  the  .Missal.     .As  this  .seconcl 
signification  was  not  intended  by  the  inspired  writer, 
the  English  rendering  of  the  text  in  the  Douay  ver- 
sion is  a  mistranslation. — (2)   Tlic  Use  of  Accommoda- 
tion in  the   Bible.     It  is   generally  held  by  Catholic 
authors  that  certain  passages  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment have  been  used  over  again  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament with  a  change  of  meaning.     In  the   Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  (xiii,  5)  the  words  sjjoken  to  Josue, 
"  I  will  not  leave  thee,  nor  forsake  thee"  (Jos.,  i,  5), 
are  applied   to   all  Christians.     Other  examples  of 
accommodation  are  the  use  of   Exod.,  xvi,  18  in  II 
Cor.,  viii,  l.i;  Zach.,  iv,  14  in  .\poc.,  xi,  4;  Ps.,  vi,  9 
in  Matt.,  vii,  2,  3;  Mich.,  vii,  6  in  .Matt.,  x,  36.     Evi- 
dently, the  new  meaning  attached  to  the  words  is 
also  inspired.     Rationalistic  WTiters  have  maintained 
that   similar    accommodations   are   to   be   found   in 
every  ease  where  the  Evangelists  quote  the  prophe- 
cies   of    the    Old    Testament.     Some    few    (Jatliolic 
writers  have  been  willing  to  grant  this  explanation 
for  a  few  pa,ssages,  but  the  words  in  which  the  Evan- 
gelists .isscrt  that  events  in  Our  Lord's  life  took  place 
"in  order  that"  the   prophecies   might   be  fidtilled 
are  incompatible  with   the  theory  that   they  wished 
to  indicate  only  a  resemblance  between  the  event 
and   the  prophet's  words.     It  is  probable  that  no 
prophecy  is  used  in  the  Gospels  merely  by  accommo- 
dation.—(3)   Uules  for  Accommoitalion.     The  use  of 
accommodation  in  the  Liturgj-and  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church  is  sufficient  to  show  that" it  is  legitimate. 
Hence  texts  have  been,  and  are  frequently,  accom- 
motlatcd  by  preachers  and  ascetical  authors.     .Many 
of  the  sermons  of  St.  Bemartl  are  mosaics  of  Script ur<i 

fihrases  and  owe  much  of  their  peculiar  unction  to- 
ils happy  use  of  the  sacred  words.  Latin  writers, 
and  preachers  have  not  been  .so  reverent  and  careful 
in  their  accommodation,  and  this  was  one  of  the  abuses 


ACCOMPLICE 


100 


ACEPHALI 


condemned  by  the  Council  of  Trent  when  it^  forbade 
the  wresting  of  Scripture  to  profane  uses  (Sess.  IV, 
Decret.  "  De  editione  et  usu  Sacronim  Librorum"). 
Interpreters  are  wont  to  give  the  following  rules  for 
guidance  in  the  accommodation  of  Scripture:  (a) 
Accommodated  texts  should  never  be  used  as  argu- 
ments drawn  from  revelation;  for  the  words  are 
not  employed  in  tiie  sense,  either  literal  or  typical, 
intended  by  tlie  Holy  Ghost.  Violations  of  this 
rule  arc  not  rare,  eitlicr  in  .sermons  or  in  pious  litera- 
ture, (b)  .\coommodation  should  not  be  far- 
fetched. Allusive  accommodations  in  many  cases 
are  mere  distortions  of  tlie  sacred  text,  (c)  Accom- 
modations shovild  be  reverent.  Holy  words  should 
be  employed  for  purposes  of  edification,  not  to  excite 
laughter,  much  less  to  cloak  errors. 

CoRNKLY.  Inlrmluctio  Generalis,  nn.  20G-20S;  Pathizi,  De 
InUrprelalione  Bibliarum  (Home,  1802),  273  sq.;  Vasquez  in 
S.  Thorn.,  I,  Q.  i,  a.  7,  dist.  14;  Sebarids,  Prolegomena  Biblica, 
21,  14;  ArosTA.  De  vcr6  Scripturas  tractandi  ratione,  III, 
v-viii;  Vigouroux.  Manitet  bihiique,  1;  Longhate,  La  pred- 
ication (Paris,  1888).  295-301;  Bainvel,  Les  contreaens  bibli- 
queit;  Ma.vgenot  in  ViG.  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  Accommodation; 
cf.  works  on  biblical  herraeneutics,  and  also  many  of  the 
introductions  to  Sacred  Scripture. 

John  Corbett. 

Accomplice,  a  term  generally  employed  to  des- 
ignate a  partner  in  some  form  of  evil-doing.  An 
accomplice  is  one  who  co-operates  in  some  way  in 
the  wrongful  activity  of  another  who  is  accounted 
the  principal.  From  the  view-point  of  the  moral 
theologian  not  every  such  species  of  association  is 
straiglitway  to  be  adjudged  unlawful.  It  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  first  of  all  between  formal  and  mate- 
rial co-operation.  To  formally  co-operate  in  the  sin 
of  another  is  to  be  associated  witl>  him  in  the  per- 
formance of  a  bad  deed  in  so  far  forth  as  it  is  bad, 
that  is,  to  share  in  the  perverse  frame  of  mind  of 
that  other.  On  the  contrary,  to  materially  co-operate 
in  another's  crime  is  to  participate  in  the  action  so 
far  as  its  physical  entity  is  concerned,  but  not  in 
so  far  as  it  is  motived  by  the  malice  of  the  principal 
in  the  case.  For  example,  to  persuade  another  to 
absent  himself  without  reason  from  Mass  on  Sunday 
would  be  an  instance  of  formal  co-operation.  To 
sell  a  person  in  an  ordinary  business  transaction  a 
revolver  which  he  presently  uses  to  kill  himself 
is  a  case  of  material  co-operation.  Then  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  co-operation  may  be  de- 
scribed as  proximate  or  remote  in  proportion  to  the 
closeness  of  relation  between  the  action  of  the  prin- 
cipal and  that  of  his  helper.  The  teaching  with  re- 
gard to  this  subject-matter  is  very  plain,  and  may 
be  stated  in  this  wise:  Formal  co-operation  is  never 
lawful,  since  it  presupposes  a  manifestly  sinful  atti- 
tude on  the  part  of  the  will  of  tlie  accompUce.  Ma- 
terial complicity  is  held  to  be  justified  when  it  is 
brought  about  by  an  action  whicli  is  in  itself  either 
morally  good  or  at  any  rate  indiiTercnt,  and  when 
there  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  permitting  on  the 
part  of  another  the  sin  which  is  a  consequence  of 
the  action.  The  reason  for  this  assertion  is  patent; 
for  the  action  of  tlie  accomplice  is  assumed  to  be 
unexceptionable,  his  intention  is  already  bespoken 
to  be  proper,  and  he  cannot  be  burdened  with  the 
sin  of  the  principal  agent,  since  tliere  is  suppo.sed  to 
be  a  commensurately  weighty  reason  for  not  prevent- 
ing it.  Practically,  however,  it  is  often  dilhcult  to 
apply  these  principles,  because  it  is  hard  to  determine 
whether  the  co-operation  is  formal  or  only  material, 
and  also  whether  the  reason  alleged  for  a  case  of 
material  co-operation  bears  due  proportion  to  tlie 
grievousness  of  the  sin  committed  by  the  principal, 
and  I  lie  intimacy  of  the  a.s.sociation  with  him.  It  is 
esperi:illy  the  last-named  factor  which  is  a  fruitful 
Hoiirre  of  perplexity.  In  general,  however,  the  fol- 
lowing consideralions  will  be  of  value  in  discerning 
whether  in  an  instance  of  material  co-operation  the 


reason  avowed  is  valid  or  not.  The  necessity  for  a 
more  and  more  powerful  reason  is  accentuated  in 
proportion  as  there  is  (1)  a  greater  likelihood  that 
the  sin  would  not  be  committed  without  the  act  of 
material  co-operation;  (2)  a  closer  relationship  be- 
tween the  two;  and  (3)  a  greater  heiuousness  in  the 
sin,  especially  in  regard  to  harm  done  either  to  the 
common  weal  or  some  unoffending  third  party.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that,  when  damage  has  Deen  done 
to  a  third  person,  the  question  is  raised  not  only  of 
the  lawfulness  of  the  co-operation,  but  also  of  res- 
titution to  be  made  for  the  violation  of  a  strict  right. 
Whether  in  tliat  case  the  accomplice  has  shared  in 
the  perpetration  of  the  injustice  physically  or  mor- 
ally (i.  e.  by  giving  a  command,  by  persuasion,  etc.) 
whether  positively  or  negatively  (i.  e.  by  failing  to 
prevent  it)  the  obligation  of  restitution  is  determined 
in  accordance  witli  the  following  principle.  All  are 
bound  to  reparation  who  in  any  way  are  accounted 
to  be  the  actual  efficient  causes  of  the  injury  wrought, 
or  who,  being  obliged  by  contract,  express  or  implied, 
to  prevent  it,  have  not  done  so.  There  are  circum- 
stances in  which  fellowsliip  in  the  working  of  dam- 
age to  another  makes  the  accomplice  liable  to  res- 
titution in  solidum;  that  is,  he  is  then  responsible 
for  the  entire  loss  in  so  far  as  his  partners  have  failed 
to  make  good  for  their  share.  Finally,  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  Constitution  of  Benedict  XIV, 
"Sacramentum  Po^nitentije",  governing  a  particular 
case  of  complicity.  It  pro\'ides  that  a  priest  who 
has  been  the  accomplice  of  any  person  in  a  sin 
against  the  Sixth  Commandment  is  rendered  inca- 
pable of  absolving  validly  that  person  from  that  sin, 
except  in  danger  of  death,  and  then  only  if  there  be 
no  other  priest  obtainable. 

Genicot,   Theot.  Moralis  (Louvain,   1898). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

AccuTSius,  Francesco  (It.  Accorso),  (1)  a  cele- 
brated Italian  jurisconsult  of  the  Middle  Ages,  b.  at 
Florence,  1182;  d.  at  Bologna,  1260.  After  apply- 
ing himself  to  various  studies  until  he  was  twenty- 
eight,  or  according  to  other  statements,  thirty-seven 
years  old,  he  took  up  the  law  and  became  one  of  its 
most  distingtiished  exponents.  He  taught  at  Bo- 
logna, and  then  devoted  himself  to  compiling  a 
glossary  or  commentary  on  the  whole  body  of  law, 
which  took  precedence  of  any  work  then  extant. 
Accorso,  or  Accursius,  was  not  proficient  in  the 
classics,  but  he  was  called  "the  Idol  of  the  Juris- 
consults". (2)  Francesco,  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  also  a  lawyer,  b.  at  Bologna,  1225;  d.  1293. 
The  two  are  often  confounded.  Francesco  was 
more  distinguished  for  his  tact  than  for  his  wisdom. 
Edward  I  of  England,  returning  from  the  Holy 
Land,  brought  him  with  him  to  England.  He  re- 
turned to  Bologna  in  1282,  and  practised  law  there 
until  liis  death.  His  two  sons,  Cervottus  and 
Guglielmo,  and  a  daughter  studied  law  with  him 
and  also  practised  in  Bologna.  Dante  places  Fran- 
cesco Accursius  in  Hell  (Inf.  XV,  110).  The  tomb 
of  his  father  and  himself  in  Bologna  bears  the  in- 
scription: "Sepulchrum  Accursii,  glossatoris  legum, 
et    Francisci,   ejus    filii." 

GiRAUD,  Bibl.  Sac. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Aceldama.     See  II.\celdama. 

Acephali,  a  term  applied  to  the  Eutychians  who 
withdrew  from  Peter  Mongus,  the  Monophysite 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  in  182.  With  the  apparent 
purpose  of  bringing  the  orthodox  and  heretics  into 
unity,  Peter  Mongus  and  Acacius  of  Cons(;intinoplc 
had  claboratetl  a  new  creed  in  which  tliey  conilemned 
expressly  Nestorius  and  Kutyches,  but  at  the  .same 
time  affected  to  pass  over  the  decisions  of  the  Council 
of  Chalccdon  and  rejected  them  hypocritically. 
This  ambiguous  formula,   though  approved  by  the 


ACERBO 


101 


ACHAZ 


Emperor  Zeno  and  imposed  by  him  in  his  edict  of 
union,  or  Ilenotimn,  could  only  satisfy  the  indifTerent. 
Tlie  condemnation  of  Kutyclies  irrnate<l  the  rigid 
Monopliysites;  the  equivocal  attitude  taken  towards 
the  Council  of  Chalccdon  appeared  to  them  insufli- 
cient,  and  many  of  them,  especially  the  monks, 
deserted  Peter  Mongus,  preferring  to  be  without  a 
head  (dit^i^aXoi),  rather  than  remain  in  communion 
with  him.  Later,  thev  joined  the  partisans  of  the 
Monophysite  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Severus.  The 
Deacon  Liberatus  (Breviariuin.  P.  L.,  LVIII,  9.SS) 
supposes  the  name  Acephali  (Headless)  to  have  been 
given  to  those  at  the  Council  of  ICjiliesvis  who  followed 
neither  Cvril  of  Alexandria  nor  John  of  Antioch. 

Leont.  Btzant..  DrSrrli,.  inP.G..  I.XXXII,  V230:  B.tnos- 
ifs, /lnna(f».  an.482;  Hekki.k, //m«.  o/ Counci/s, //;  U;irden- 
HF.wcRin  KirchenUi.  (Freiburg,  18S2),  !. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 
Acerbo  Nimis.  See  C.\TEtHETics. 
Acerenza  (.\chero.vti.\),  The  Archdiocese  of, 
in  the  provinces  of  Lecce  and  Potenza,  Italy,  has 
been  united  since  VlO'i  with  the  Diocese  of  Alatera. 
It  lays  claim  to  a  very  early,  even  .\postolic,  origin. 
Acerenza  was  certainly  an  cpi.scopal  see  in  the  course 
of  the  fifth  century,  for  in  49'.)  we  meet  with  the 
name  of  its  first  known  bishop,  Justus,  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Roman  Synod  of  that  year.  The  town 
is  situated  on  an  elevated  ridge  of  the  Apennines 
whence  the  eye  dominates  botii  the  Adriatic  and 
the  Mediterranean;  it  was  known  in  antiquity  as 
"the  high  nest  of  Acherontia"  (Hor.,  Oiles,  III,  iv, 
14).  The  cathedral  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
beautiful  in  Italy,  and  has  lately  become  quite  famous 
for  a  bust  long  .supposed  to  be  tliat  of  St.  Canus  or 
Canius  (Ascanius?)  patron  of  the  citv,  but  now 
judged  to  be  a  portrait-bust  of  Julian  tlie  Apostate, 
though  others  maintain  that  it  is  a  bust  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II,  after  the  manner  of  the 
sculptors  of  the  Antonine  age.  Acerenza  was  in 
early  imperial  times  a  populous  and  important 
town,  and  a  bulwark  of  the  territory  of  Lucania  anil 
Apulia.  In  the  Gothic  and  Lombard  period  it  fell 
into  decay,  but  was  restored  by  C'.rimwald,  Duke  of 
Beneventum  (687-689).  An  .\rclibishop  of  .Acerenza 
(Giraldus)  appears  in  1063  in  an  act  of  donation  of 
Robert  Guiscard  to  the  monastery  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  in  \'enosa.  For  a  few  years  after  968  .\cer- 
enza  was  forced  to  adopt  the  Greek  Rite  in  conse- 
quence of  a  tyrannical  ortler  of  the  Bvzantine  Em- 
peror Nicephorus  Phocas  (963-969),  whereby  it  was 
made  one  of  five  suffragans  of  Otranto,  and  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  (Moroni,  Dizionario,  L,  63). 
Pope  Urban  VI  (1378-89,  Bartolommeo  Prignano), 
was  once  Archbishop  of  Acerenza.  Matera  is  said 
to  have  been  created  a  see  by  the  Greeks.  Its 
cathedral  dates  from  the  year  1000,  and  is  likewise 
a  richly  ornamented  specimen  of  contemporary 
ecclesiastical  architecture  in  Southern  Italy.  The 
Archdiocese  of  Acerenza  contains  22  parishes,  308 
secular  priests,  and  a  few  priests  of  religious  orders. 
The  population  numbers  147,900.  The  present 
bishon  is  Monsignor  Raffaele  Rossi,  successor  (1899) 
of  ^lonsignor  Diometle  I'alconio,  now  Apostolic 
Delegate  to  the  L'nited  States. 

I'oHELLl,  Italia  Sacra  (Venice.  1722),  VII,  5:  Cappelletti, 
Lf  rhiese  dUalia  (Venice.  1800),  XX,  420-431;  I-enorua.nt. 
A  Iravm  lApulie  et  la  Lueanie  (Paris,  1874),  I.  271;  Volpe, 
Memorie  Horiche,  profane  e  relioioK  tulla  ciltti  dl  Malm 
(Naples.   1813). 

Er.vesto  BuoNAiim. 

Acerao.      See  Salerno. 

Achab  {'Xh'abh,  'Axadp,  in  Jer..  xxix,  22,  'Ehahh, 
'Ax"<i/3),  son  of  Amriand  King  of  Israel,  918-897  B.  <■., 
according  to  III  K.,  xvi,  29,  but  S7.5-,S.>I  according 
to  the  AssjTian  documents.  The  original  reading 
of  III  K.,  xvi,  29,  may  have  Ix-cn  changed.  The 
King  was  married  to  Jezabel,  a  Sidonian  princess, 
and  was  misled  by  her  into  idolatrj'  (III  K.,  xvi,  31 


sqq.),  the  persecution  of  the  prophets  (III  K.,  xviii, 
13  sqq.),  and  a  most  grievious  injustice  against  Na- 
both  (III  K.,  xxi).  He  was  twice  victorious  in  his 
wars  against  Syria  (III  K.,  xx,  13-28),  and  made  an 
alliance  with  the  SjTian  King  Benadad  in  spite  of 
prophetic  warning  (III  K.,  xx,  33).  In  the  sixth 
year  of  Salmanassar  II  the  allies  were  overcome  by 
the  .\ssyriaiLs  near  Karkar,  and  their  compact  cea.seJ. 
Achab  now  allied  himself  with  Jo.saphat,  King  of 
Juda,  and  they  I)egan  war  against  .Syria  in  order  to 
conquer  Ramoth  Galaad  (III  K.,"xxii,  3  sqq.). 
The  false  prophets  foretold  \ictoiy,  while  Micheas 
predicted  defeat.  The  battle  was  begun  in  spite 
of  this  warning,  and  an  arrow  wounded  Achab  Ije- 
tween  the  lungs  and  the  stomach  (III  K.,  xxii,  34). 
He  died  in  the  evening,  and  when  his  chariot  was 
washed  in  the  pool  of  .Samaria,  the  dogs  licked  up 
his  blood  (III  K.,  xxii,  38). 

MEcHlNKAe  in  Vic.  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895):  Hacen, 
Lericon  BMictxm  (Paris,  1905);  Wf.lte  in  Ktrchenlrz. 

A.  J.  M.VW. 

Achaia  (.Egialeia),  the  name,  before  the  Roman 
conquest  in  146  b.  c,  of  a  strip  of  land  between  the 
gulf  of  Corinth  in  tlie  north  and  Elis  and  .\rcadia  in 
the  south,  embracing  twelve  cities  leagueil  togetlier. 
The  Aeluean  League  was  prominent  in  the  struggle 
of  the  Greeks  against  Roman  domination.  It  is 
probably  due  to  this  fact  that  the  name  was  after- 
wards extended  to  the  whole  count rj-  soutli  of  Mace- 
donia and  Illyricum,  corresponding  approximately  to 
modern  Greece.  During  the  Roman  period  Achaia 
was  usually  governed  as  a  senatorial  province.  The 
Governor  w;is  an  ex-Pra-tor  of  Rome,  and  bore  the 
title  of  Proconsul.  Corinth  was  the  capital.  When 
St.  Paul  came  into  Achaia  (Acts,  xviii),  Gallic,  a 
brother  of  Seneca,  was  proconsul.  His  refusal  to 
interfere  in  the  religious  affairs  of  the  Jews  and  the 
tolerance  of  his  administration  favoured  the  spread 
of  Christianity.  In  Corinth  the  Apostle  founded  a 
flourishing  church.  In  his  Second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  he  salutes  Christians  "in  all  Achaia" 
(i,  1)  and  commends  their  charity  (ix,  2). 

Ra-msav  in  Hastings,  Dirt,  of  the  Bible;  Momusen,  Provinces 
of  the  Roman  Empire  (Rum.  Geech.),  V,  vii. 

W.  S.  Reillv. 

Achaicus,    a  Corinthian  Christian,  who.  together 

with  For'unatus  and  Stephanas,  carried  a  letter  from 

the  Corinthians  to  St.  Paul,  and  from  St.   Paul  to 

the  Corinthians  (I  Cor.,  xvi,  17;    Cf.  also  xvi,  1,5). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Achard  de  Saint  Victor.    See  Sai.nt  Victor. 

Achart,  Saint  (Aichard).     See  Rouen. 

Achatius,  S.unt.    See  Acacius. 

Achaz  (.\h.\z,  ''Axof),  King  of  Juda,  placed  vari- 
ously, 741-726  B.  c,  744-728,748-727,724-709,734- 
728.  It  seems  to  be  certain  that  Theglathphalasar's 
first  expedition  against  Damascus  mentioned  in  the 
life  of  Achaz  fell  in  733  b.  c,  and  the  .second  in  731. 
Owing  to  his  idolatrj'  (IV  K.,  xvi,  3,  4,  II  Par.,  xxviii, 
2-4),  Achaz  was  conquered  first  by  Rasin,  King  of 
Syria,  and  then  by  Phacec,  King  of  Israel  (II  Par., 
xxviii,  5;  IV  K.,  xvi,  6).  Now,  Rasin  and  Phacee 
made  an  alliance  in  order  to  dethrone  the  house  of 
David  in  Juda,  and  to  make  the  son  of  Tabeel  king 
(Is.,  vii,  2-6).  The  prophet  Isaias  offers  to  Achaz 
God's  aid  with  the  promise  of  safety  in  case  of  belief, 
but  with  the  threat  of  punishment  in  case  of  unbelief 
(Is.,  vii,  12-21).  Achaz  is  unbelieving,  seeks  help 
from  Theglathphalasar,  oflering  at  the  sjime  time  rich 
presents  from  the  temple  treasurj-  (IV  K.,  xvi,  7,  8). 
The  king  of  the  AssjTians  takes  Damascus,  afflicts 
Israel  (IV'  K.,  xv,  29;  xvi,  9),  but  reduces  Juda  to 
the  necessity  of  buying  its  freedom  (IV  K.,  xvi,  17; 
II  Par.,  xxviii,  20).  Achaz  was  not  improved  by 
this  affliction,  but  he  introduced  Into  the  tcmpro 
an  altar  modelled  after  that  at  Damascus  (IV  K., 


ACHERY 


1U2 


ACHONRT 


xvi,  14  sq.;  II  Par.,  xxviii,  22-25).  On  account  of 
the  king's  sin  Juda  was  also  oppressed  by  the  Edo- 
mites  and  tlio  I'liihstinc?  (II  Par.,  xxviii,  17  sq.). 
Kfnaui)  in  Via..  Did.  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  IS95);  Pkake  in 
Ha.-^ti.ngs,  Diet,  ol  Oie  liible  (New  York.  1903);  Hagen,  Lexicon 
Biblicum  (Paris,  1905).  .     ,    ,, 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Ach^ry,  Lucas  d',  a  French  Benedictine  (Mau- 
rist),  b.  1G09  at  Saint  Quentin  in  Picardy;  d.  in  the 
monasterj-  of  St.  Germain  dcs  Prfe  at  Paris,  29  April, 
1685.  He  was  a  profound  student  of  medieval 
historical  and  theological  materials,  mostly  in  original 
manuscripts,  to  the  collection,  elucidation,  and  print- 
ing of  which  he  devoted  his  whole  life.  He  entered 
the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  at  an  early  age,  was  pro- 
fessed at  the  Abbey  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  Vendome, 
4  October,  1632,  but  his  health  soon  obliged  him  to 
remove  to  Paris.  He  became  a  member  (1637)  of 
the  monastery  of  St.  Germain  des  Pr(*s,  and  in  his 
long  sojourn  of  nearly  fifty  years  scarcely  ever  quitted 
its  walls.  As  librarian  of  the  monasterj'  he  was  soon 
acquainted  with  its  rich  treasures  of  medie\al  history 
and  theology,  and  by  a  continuous  correspondence 
with  other  monasteries,  both  in  and  out  of  France, 
he  soon  made  himself  a  bibliographical  authority  of 
the  first  rank,  especially  in  all  that  pertained  to  the 
unedited  or  forgotten  writings  of  medieval  scholars. 
His  first  important  work  was  an  edition  (Paris,  1645) 
of  the  "Epistle  of  Barnabas",  whose  Greek  text  had 
been  prepared  for  the  press,  before  his  death,  by  the 
Maurist  Hugo  Menard.  D'Ach^ry's  "Asceticorum 
vulgo  spiritualium  opusculorum  Indiculus"  (Paris, 
1645)  served  as  a  guide  to  his  confrere,  Claude 
Chantelou,  in  the  preparation  of  the  five  volumes  of 
his  "Bibliotheca  Patrum  ascetica"  (Paris,  1661). 
In  1648  he  published  all  the  works  of  Blessed  Lan- 
franc  of  Canterburj-  (P.  L.,  CL,  9).  He  published 
and  edited  for  the  first  time  the  works  of  Abbot  Gui- 
bert  of  Nogent  (Paris,  1661)  with  an  appendix  of 
minor  writings  of  an  ecclesiastical  character.  In 
1656  he  edited  the  "Regula  Solitaria"  of  the  ninth- 
century  priest  Grimlaicus  (Grimlaic),  a  spiritual 
guide  for  hermits.  His  principal  work,  however,  is 
the  famous  "Spicilegium,  sive  Collectio  veterum 
aliquot  scriptorum  qui  in  Gallia>  bibliothecis,  maxime 
Benedietinorura,  latuerunt"  (Paris,  1655-77),  con- 
tinued by  Baluze  and  Martcne,  to  whom  we  owe  an 
enlarged  and  improved  edition  (Paris,  1723). 
D'Achdry  collected  the  historical  materials  for  the 
great  work  known  as  "Acta  Ordinis  S.  Benedicti" 
but  Mabillon  added  so  much  to  it  in  the  way  of 
prefaces,  notes,  and  "excursus"  that  it  is  justly  ac- 
coimted  as  his  work.  I)'Ach6ry  was  the  soul  of  the 
noble  Maurist  movement,  and  a  type  of  the  medieval 
Benedictine,  humble  and  .self-sacrificing,  virtuous  and 
learned.  Despite  continued  illness  he  was  foremost 
in  all  the  labours  of  the  French  Benedictines  of  St. 
Maur,  and  was  the  master  of  many  of  the  most 
illustrious  among  them,  e.  g.  Mabillon.  His  valua- 
ble correspondence  is  preserved  in  the  liibliothique 
Nationale  at  Paris. 

DCPIN,  Bibtiolhique  lies  aulrurs  eccUa.,  XVIII,  144,5;  Tassin, 
Hitt.  lilt,  de  la  compnnnie  dc  S.  Maur;  Pez,  Biblioth.  Mauriana, 
I,  31;  Baumkr,  Mabillon  (1892),  29. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Acheul,  S.MNT.     See  Amiens. 

Achiachanis  is  mentioned  only  once  in  the  Vulgate 
version  of  Tobias  (xi,  20,  under  the  form  Achior), 
but  the  name  occurs  four  times  in  the  Greek  versions. 
He  is  represented  a-s  a  nephew  of  Tobiiis,  and  an  in- 
f)uenli:il  minister  of  the  Assyrian  King  Esarhiuldon 
(681-668  B.  c).  On  the  relation,  siipposed  bv  some 
critics,  of  this  personage  to  .\hiakar  the  Wise,  of 
eastern  legend,  see  E.  Cosquin,  in  "Revue  biblique 
Inlcni:ilit>Male",   1899,  .')0  .sej.  W.  S.  Hkii.ly. 

Achimaas.— (1)  Father  of  Achinoam,  wife  of  Saul 
(1  K.,  xiv,  50).— (2)  Son  of  Sadoc,  the  priest.     He 


was  a  swiftfooted  messenger  in  the  service  of  David 
during  the  rebellion  of  Absalom.  He  brought  from 
Jerusalem  news  of  the  enemy's  mo\'ements,  and,  after 
the  battle  in  which  Absalom  was  slain,  he  was  the 
first  to  reach  the  King  with  the  news  of  ^•ictory. 
He  was  "a  good  man",  according  to  David  (II  K., 
XV,  35,  36;  xvii,  17  sq.;  xviii,  19  sq.).  This  Achimaas 
is  perhaps  the  same  as  one  of  Solomon's  prefects, 
the  governor  of  Nephtali,  and  son-in-law  of  the  King 
an  K.,  iv,  15). 

W.  S.  Reillv. 

Achimelech. — (1)  The  priest  of  Nobe  who  ex- 
tended hospitality  to  David  during  his  flight  from 
the  court  of  Saul.  For  this  he  was  put  to  death, 
together  with  all  the  priests  of  Nobe,  except  Abiathar, 
his  son,  who  escaped  and  joined  David  (I  K.,  xxi- 
xxii). —  (2)  A  Hethite,  companion  of  the  outlawed 
David  (t  K.,  xxvi,  6). —  (3)  There  is  an  Achimelech 
spoken  of  (II  K.,  viii,  17,  and  I  Par.,  xviii,  16;  xxiv, 
3,  6,  31),  as  a  "son  of  Abiathar"  and  an  associate  of 
Sadoc  in  the  priesthood.  As  this  position  is  usually 
attributed  to  "Abiathar,  son  of  Achimelech"  it  is 
thought  that  the  reading  "Achimelech,  son  of  Abia- 
thar" is  due  to  an  accidental  transposition  of  the 
text  of  Kings,  and  that  this  transposition  has  affected 
the  text  of  Paralipomenon. — (4)  Name  given  to 
Achis,  King  of  Geth,  in  the  title  of  Ps.  xxxiii.  Some 
texts  have  Abimelech. 

W.  S.  Reilly. 

Achitopel  was  an  able  and  honoured  counsellor  of 
David,  who  joined  the  rebellion  of  Absalom.  The 
King  was  much  affected  by  this  desertion.  Hearing 
that  the  man  on  whose  word  he  had  been  wont  to 
rely  as  "on  an  oracle  of  God"  was  giving  his  advice 
to  the  enemy,  he  prayed  the  Lord  to  "infatuate  the 
counsel  of  Achitopel".  Some  have  seen  in  Pss.  liv, 
13-15;  xl,  10,  reflections  of  David  on  this  faithless 
friend.  It  was  on  the  advice  of  Achitopel  that  Ab- 
salom took  possession  of  his  father's  harem,  thus 
cutting  off  all  hope  of  reconciliation.  Understand- 
ing the  need  of  energetic  measures,  he  urged  that 
12,000  men  be  sent  from  Jerusalem  in  pursuit  of  the 
King.  He  offered  to  lead  them  himself.  Chusai,  a 
secret  friend  of  David,  defeated  his  purpose.  There- 
upon he  proudly  withdrew  to  his  town  of  Gilo,  put 
his  house  in  order,  and  strangled  himself.  (See 
II  Kings,  XV,  12;  xvii,  23;  I  Par.,  xxvii,  33.)  It 
would  seem  from  a  conjunction  of  II  Kings, xxiii,  34, 
and  xi,  3,  that  Achitopel  was  the  grandfather  of 
Bethsabee,  and  it  has  been  suggested,  as  an  explana- 
tion of  his  conduct  towards  David,  that  he  had  kept 
a  secret  grudge  against  the  King  for  the  way  he  had 
treated  Bethsabee,  and  her  fii-st  husband,  the  lui- 
fortunate  I'ri.as.  This,  or  some  motive  of  ambition, 
would  be  in  keeping  with  the  haughty  character  of 
Achitopel.  Dryden  has  used  this  name  in  the  title 
of  his  famous  satire  against  the  Protestant  Party. 
"Absalom  and  Achitophel". 

W.  S.  Reilly. 

Achonry  (Gaelic,  Achadh-Chonnairc,  Comiarj-'s 
Field),  The  Diocese  of,  in  Ireland,  suffragan  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Tuam.  The  village  of  Achonry  occu- 
pies a  \'ery  picturesque  situation  in  the  south  of 
the  County  Sligo.  Here  St.  Finian,  who  died  in  552, 
established  a  church  and  monastery  on  some  land 
given  him  by  the  prince  of  the  Clann  Chonnaire. 
Over  this  he  placed  Nathi  O'llara,  who  had  been  his 
pupil  in  the  famous  school  of  Clonard  and  is  always 
spoken  of  in  the  annals  as  Cruimihir-.Xalhi,  i.  c.  the 
Priest  Nathi.  In  a  short  time  the  monastery  and 
its  head  acquired  a  remarkable  reputation,  and  a 
diocese  was  formed  (c.  5(i())  of  which  Nathi  is  re|)utcd 
to  have  been  the  first  bishop,  though  he  may  have 
been  only  the  al)l>ot-sui)erior,  according  to  the 
Irish  system  of  ecclesiastical  organization  from  the 


ACHOR 


iu:{ 


AOHRIDA 


sixth  to  the  twelfth  century,  which  porniitlcHl  in 
monastic  government  such  peculiar  subordination. 
He  is  the  patron  of  the  diocese,  and  his  feast  is  celtv 
bratcd  on  9  August,  llis  successors  made  iLse  of  his 
monastery-church  as  their  cathedral,  and  traces  of 
it  may  still  be  seen.  The  diocese  was  formerly  some- 
times called  I.eyney  from  one  of  its  largest  and  most 
important  baronies,  or  perlia|)s  because  it  was  co- 
extensive with  what  is  still  known  as  the  barony  of 
Leyney.  Adtlitions  were  made  to  it  at  dilTerent 
periods  until  its  bovmdaries  were  finally  fixed  in  the 
twelfth  centurj'.  It  now  includes  some  of  Kos- 
conirnon,  a  considerable  part  of  Mayo,  and  the 
crcutcr  part  of  Sligo.  At  the  important  Synod  of 
Kdls.  lidd  in  .Mardi,  ll.')2,  presided  over  by  Cardi- 
nal I'aparo,  and  attended  by  the  IJishop  of  Lismore, 
then  Apostolic  Delegate,  by  twenty  other  bishops, 
and  by  many  inferior  clergy,  the  Dioce.so  of  Achonry 
was  represented  by  its  bisliop,  Mclruan  O'Ruadhan. 
Its  diocesan  limits  were  then  (ixed,  and  it  was  made 
suffragan  to  Tuam.  From  that  date  the  catalogue 
of  its  bishops  is  less  fragmentary.  Of  the  three 
Irish  bishops  who  were  members  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  one  was  Eugene  O'llart,  Bishop  of  Achonrj'. 
He  is  described  in  the  records  of  the  Council  as  a 
"professor  of  Theology  and  a  learned  and  distin- 
giiislicd  ecclesiastic",  and  had  been  a  Dominican 
i'i  ."~ligo  Abbey.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  its 
ili'lilicrations,  and  left  on  all  its  members  a  deep  im- 
pression of  his  zeal  and  learning.  From  the  death 
of  Dr.  O'Hart  in  1003,  except  for  a  brief  interval 
of  four  years  (1(541-4.5),  there  was  no  bishop  until 
1707,  and  the  diocese  was  governed  by  vicars- 
apostolic.  Achonry  is  one  of  the  most  Catliolic  dio- 
ceses in  the  world.  The  total  population,  according 
to  the  latest  census  (1901)  is  82,79.5,  of  which  2,242 
are  non-Catholics,  so  that  97.3  per  cent  of  the 
whole  are  Catholics.  Achonry  has  twenty-two  par- 
ishes, twenty  of  which  have  parish  jjriests  with  full 
canonical  riglits;  the  remaining  two  are  mon.sal 
parishes  of  the  bishop.  There  are  51  priests  in  the 
diocc.-ic,  and  thougli  at  one  period  of  its  history 
Achonrj-  was  studded  with  religious  hou.ses,  it  has  at 
the  present  time  no  regular  dergj'.  There  are  7  con- 
gregations of  religious  sisters:  3  of  the  Irish  Sisters 
of  Charity,  2  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  1  of  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Louis,  and  1  of  the  Marist  Sisters.  The  Chris- 
tian Hrothers  have  a  liou.se  in  Hallughaderreen  and 
the  Marist  Hrothers  one  in  Swineford.  Full  provision 
is  made  for  the  education  of  the  yoimg.  In  addition 
to  the  episcopal  seminary  with  hve  professors  there 
are  day  schools  under  the  nuns  and  brothers  and 
201  schools  under  lay  teachers.  There  is  l)esides  a 
boarding-school  for  young  ladies  conducted  bv  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Louis.  There  are  also  under  the  ciiarge 
of  the  nuns  2  industrial  and  7  teclinical  schools. 
Since  the  accession  of  Dr.  M.  Nicholas  in  1S18,  the 
bishop  resides  in  liallaghaderreen.  The  cathedral,  a 
very  line  (lothic  building,  erected  at  great  expetise 
by  Dr.  Durcan,  has  been  completed  by  tlie  present 
bishop.  Dr.  Lyster,  by  the  addition  of  a  magnificent 
tower  and  spire.  Witliin  the  last  fifty  years  many 
new  churches,  some  very  beautiful,  have  been  built, 
old  ones  renovated,  houses  supplied  for  the  clergy, 
convents  established,   and  schools   provided. 

Gams.  .S>n<»  rpiaop.  Keel.  cath.  (1S73\  1.  204.  234  (188(11. 
II.  M;  HuaiiV.  Kpiscopal  Suereimion  in  KnulnnJ,  ficolUmd. 
anil  Irrlaml  (Itome.  ISVfit;  I.amoan,  KccI.  IHhI.  of  Irrlarui 
(Uuhlin.  IS-'U).  1,34.5;  I.KWIs.  Tiipoiiraphical  lli»t.  of  Irrlaml 
(I^n.loii.  1837).  0:   UVKKK.  lli»lo,-u  ol  the  Archbithopt  oj  Tuam 

i Dublin.  !882);  Annalt  of  the  Four  Matlert  (eU.  ODonova.n, 
)ul)lin,  10,58),  VII.  8.  v.,  Achadh  Channaire. 

E.  H.  CONIXGTON. 

Achor  Valley,  the  scene  of  the  death  of  the  "trou- 
bler"  .\ehan,  with  whom  its  name  is  associated 
(Jos.,  vii,  20).  Usee  foretells  the  time  when  this 
gloomy,  ill-omened  valley  will  lie  for  an  "opening 
of  hope"  to  the  returning  e.xiles  of  Israel  (Os.,  li,  1.5); 


another  prophet  pictures  it,  in  the  same  glorious 
future,  transformed  into  a  "place  for  the  herds  to 
lie  down  in"  (Is.,  Ixv,  10).  It  was  on  the  north 
lM)iindarj'  of  juda,  leading  past  Jericho  to  the 
Jordan  (Jos.,  xv,  7).  It  is  commonly  identified  with 
the  modern  Wady-el- Kelt  and  is  usually  written  .\kor. 
W.  S.  Reilly. 

Achrida,  a  titular  see  in  Upper  Albania,  the  famous 
metn)|K)lis  and  capital  of  the  medieval  kingdom  of 
Hulgaria,  now  the  little  village  of  Ochrida,  on  the 
Lake  of  Ochrida,  the  ancient  Imcux  J.ychnitis, 
whose  blue  and  exceedingly  transparent  waters  in 
remote  antiquity  gave  to  the  lake  its  Greek  name. 
The  city  was  known  in  antiquity  as  Lychnidus  and 
was  so  called  occasionally  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In 
the  conflicts  of  the  lllyrian  tribes  with  Uomc  it 
served  the  former  as  a  frontier  outpost  and  was 
later  one  of  the  principal  points  on  the  great  Roman 
highway  known  as  the  Via  Egnatiana.  Its  hrst 
known  bishop  was  Zosimus  (c.  344).  In  the  sixth 
century  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  (I'rocop.. 
Hist.  Arcana,  xv),  but  was  rebuilt  by  Justinian 
(,527-5(5.5),  who  was  bom  in  the  vicinity,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  called  by  him  Justiniana  Prima,  i.  e.  tlie 
most  important  of  the  several  new  cities  that  bore 
his  name.  Duchesne,  however,  says  that  this 
honour  belongs  to  Scupi  (L^skub),  another  frontier 
town  of  lUyria  (Les6glises  s^par^'es,  Paris,  1896,  240). 
The  new  city  was  made  the  capital  of  the  prefecture, 
or  department,  of  lUyria.  and  for  the  sake  of  political 
convenience  it  was  made  also  the  ecclesiastical  cai)i- 
tal  of  the  lUjTian  or  Southern  Danubian  parts  of  the 
empire  (Southern  Hungary,  Bosnia,  Servia,  Transyl- 
vania, Rumania).  Justinian  was  unable  to  obtain 
immediately  for  this  step  a  satisfactory  approbation 
from  Pope  Agapctus  or  Pope  Silverius.  The  ICm- 
peror's  act,  besides  being  a  usurpation  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority,  was  a  detriment  to  the  ancient  rights 
of  Thessalonica  as  representative  of  tlie  .Viiostolie 
See  in  the  lllyrian  regions.  Nevertheless,  tne  new 
diocese  claimed,  and  obtained  in  fact,  the  privilege 
of  aulocephalia,  or  independence,  and  through  its 
long  and  chequered  history  retained,  or  struggled  to 
retain,  this  character.  Pope  Yigilius,  under  pressure 
from  Justinian,  recognized  the  exerci.se  of  patri- 
archal rights  by  the  Metropolitan  of  Justiniana 
Prima  within  the  broad  limits  of  its  civil  territorj'. 
but  Ciregorj'  the  Great  treated  him  as  no  less  subject 
than  otlier  lllyrian  bishops  to  the  -Xpcstolic  ."^ce 
(Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  233-237).  The  inroads  of  the 
Avars  and  Slavs  in  the  seventh  centurj*  brought 
about  the  ruin  of  this  ancient  lUj-rian  centre  of 
religion  and  civilization,  and  for  two  centuries  its 
metropolitan  character  was  in  abej'ance.  Hut  after 
the  conversion  of  the  new  Bulgarian  masters  of 
IlljTia  (8(54)  the  see  rose  again  to  great  prominence, 
this  time  under  the  name  of  .•'ichrida  (Achris). 
Though  Greek  missionaries  were  the  first  to  preach 
the  Christian  Faith  in  this  region,  the  first  arcliDishop 
was  sent  bj-  Rome.  It  was  thence  also  that  the  Hul- 
garians  drew  their  first  ollicial  instruction  and  counsel 
in  matters  of  Christian  faith  and  discipline,  a  monu- 
ment of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  "  Rcsponsa  ad 
Consulta  Hulgarorum"  of  Nicholas  I  (So8-S07). 
one  of  the  most  influential  of  medieval  canonical 
documents  (Mansi,  xv,  401;  llefele,  Concilieng.,  iv, 
340  sq.).  However,  the  Bulgarian  King  (Car) 
Bogaris  was  soon  won  over  bj'  Greek  influence.  In 
the  Eighth  General  Council  held  at  Constantinople 
(8C9)  Bulgaria  was  incorporated  with  the  Bj-zantinc 
patriarchate,  and  in  .S70  the  Latin  missionaries  were 
expelled.  Henceforth  Greek  metropolitans  preside 
in  Achrida;  it  was  made  the  political  capital  of  tlie 
Bulgarian  kingdom  and  profited  bv  the  tenth- 
centurj'  conquests  of  its  warlike  rulers  so  that  it 
became  the  metropolitan  of  several  Greek  dioceses 


ACHTERFELDT 


104 


ACIDALinS 


in   the   newly   conquered   territories   in   Macedonia,  title  " Christ katholische  Dogmatik"  (Miinster,  1834- 

Thessaly     and   Thrace.     Bulgaria    fell   unavoidably  36)  the  theological  writings  which  Hermes  (d.  1831) 

within  the  range  of  the  Photian  schism,  and  so,  from  had  left  in  MSS.     This  publication  was  followed  by 

the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  the  diocese  of  Achrida  sharp  controversy,  and  eventually  by  the  condem- 

was    lost    to    Western    and    papal    influences.     The  nation  of  the  works  of  Hermes,  which  Pope  Cireg- 

ovcrthrow   of   the   indcpemlent    I5ulgarian   kingdom  ory  XVI  placed  upon  the  Index,  26  September,  1835. 

in  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century  by  Basil  In   1843,  Achterfeldt  incurred  suspension   from  his 

the  Macedonian  brought  Achrida  into  closer  touch  professorial  chair  rather  than  sign  the  declaration  of 

with  Constantinople.     At  a  later  date  some  of  the  faith  required  by  the  Coadjutor  Archbishop  von  Geis- 

great  Byzantine  families   (e.  g.  the  Ducas  and  the  sel  of  Cologne.      Though  Hermesianism  lost  ground 

Comneni)  claimed  descent  from  the  Kings,  or  Cars,  and  finally    disappeared   during   the    revolution   of 

of  Bulgaria.     In  10."i3  the  metropolitan  Leo  of  Ach-  1848,  Acht«rfeldt  clung  to  his  views.     In  1862,  how- 

rida    signed    with    .Michael    Cxrularius    the    latter's  ever,  he   was    reinstated  as   professor,  and   in  1873, 

circular  letter  to  John  of  Trani   (.A.pulia  in  Italy)  having  made  his    submission    to    ecclesiastical   au- 

against  the  Latin  Church.     Theophylactus  of  Ach-  thority,  he  was  freed  from  suspension. 


rida  (1078)  was  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  medie- 
val Greek  cxegetes;  in  his  correspondence  (Ep.,  27) 
he  maintains  the  traditional  independence  of  the 
Diocese  of  Achrida.     The  Bishop  of  Constantinople, 

he  says,  has  no  right  of  ordination  in  Bulgaria,  whose  sculptor,  was  born  in  1799,  at  Miinster  in  West- 
bishop  '  is  independent.  In  reality  Achrida  was  phalia,  of  poor  parents.  After  \yorking  on  a  farm 
during  this  period  seldom  in  communion  with  either     he  became  a  cabinet-maker.     His   carxing    was  so 


1  Did.  de  theol.  calholiqu 
Handbuch  d.   atlg.   Klrchengesch.  (Freiburg,  1886),  III.   969. 

E.  A.  Pace. 
Achtermann,   Theodore    William,    a    German 


Constantinople  or 
Rome.  Towards 
the  latter  see, 
however,  its  senti- 
ments were  less 
thnn  friendly,  for 
in  the  fourteenth 
centurj'we  find  the 
metropolitan  .\n- 
thimus  of  .\chrida 
writing  against  the 
procession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  from 
the  Father  and 
the  Son  (see  Trini- 
ry).  Latin  mis- 
sionaries, however, 
appear  in  Achrida 
in  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, mostly  Fran- 
ciscan monks,  to 
whom  the  preser- 
vation of  the  Ro- 
man obedience  in 
these  regions  is 
largely  owing  (see 
Alb.^xia).  The 
Latin  bishops  of 
Achrida  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century 
are  probably,  like 
those  of    our  own 


Pieta,  BY  Achtermann,  IN  the  Cathedral  of  Mi  ns 


clever  and  grace- 
ful that  i*  attract- 
ed attention,  and 
procured  him  the 
good  will  of  some 
art  patrons,  who 
sent  him  to  Berlin 
(1831).  where  he 
studied  under  the 
direction  of  Ranch, 
Tieck,  and  Scha- 
dow,  then  the  fore- 
most sculptors  of 
Germany.  Achter- 
mann, however,  be- 
ing of  a  profoundly 
religious  character, 
was  drawn  irresisti- 
bly to  Rome,  wliere 
he  arrived  in  1839 
and  remained  till 
the  end  of  his  life. 
The  first  prominent 
product  of  his  Ro- 
man studies  was  a 
Picta  which  was  se- 
cured for  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Miinster  and 
which  has  often 
been  copied.  In 
1858  the  same 
cathedral  acquired 
a    group    of     .seven 


time,  titular  bishops.  The  ecclesiastical  independ-  life-sizefigures  representing  the  de.scent  from  t  lie  Cross. 
ence  of  Achrida  seeming  in  modern  times  to  leave  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  its  chief  art  treasures.  His 
an  opening  for  Roman  Catholic  influence  in  Bui-  last  great  work,  finished  when  the  artist  liad  passcd.his 
garia,  Anscnius,  tlie  Orthodox  Patriarch  of  Con-  seventieth  year,  was  a  Gotliic  altar  witli  three  rtliefs 
stantinople,  had  it  finally  abolished  in  1767  by  an  representing  scenes  from  the  life  of  Our  Saviour. 
order  of  Sultan  Mustaplia.  At  the  height  of  its  This  was  set  up  in  the  cathedral  at  Prague  in  the 
authority,  Achrida  could  count  as  subject  to  its  au-  year  1873.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1884.  Achtermann's 
thority  ten  metropolitan  and  si.x  episcopal  dioceses,     art  is  characterized  by  deep  religious  feeling  and  great 

-     ---      -  -  .         imaginative  power,  though,  on  account  of  his  having 

taken  to  an  artistic  career  when  somewhat  ad\ancea 
in  life,  he  did  not  attain  the  technical  mastery  which 
he  might  otherwise  have  acquired. 

Hertkens,  Wilhclm  Achlrrmann  (Trier.  189.''i). 

Charles  G.  Herbermann. 
Acidalius,  Valens    (German.  Ilavekenthal),  nhil- 


Farlati,  Illur.  Sacr.,  VIII.  18.  158;  Lequien.  Oriens 
ChriaCiantui.  11,  282-3(X);  III,  953-954;  Ddchesne,  Lea 
iglitet  autiiciphalrt,  in  Let  ialitea  tfparies  (Pari.s,  1896); 
Gelzer,  Uat  PatriuTchal  ion  Akrida  (1902);  Krdmbacher, 
Getch.  d.  btiianl.  Lill.  (2rl  e<l.,  Munich,  1897),  994  sqq.;  Neher, 
in  KirchmUi..  1,  105-107. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Achterfeldt,  Johann  Hbinrich,  theologian,  b.  at 


Wesel,  17  June,  1788;  d.  at  Bonn,  11   May,  1877.  ologist,    Latin   poet,    and   convert    to   the   Catholic 

He  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  Church,  b.  1567  at  Wittstock  in  the  Mark  of  Bran- 

1826  and   in    18:52   he   founded   with   his   colleague,  denburg;  d.  25  May,  1595,  at  Nei.sse.     .-Vfter  hiseduca- 

J.  W.  J.  Braim  (d.  1863),  the  "Zeitschrift  fiir  Phil-  tion  at  the  universities  of   Rostock,  Greifswald,  and 

osophie  iind  Katholi.sclie  Theologie"  (1832-52),  the  Hclmstadt,   he   began   tlie   study   of   medicine,    but 

chief  purpo.se  of  which  was  to  defend  the  teachings  later  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  the  Latin  classics, 

of  IlcnncH   ((J.   v.).     Ho  also   published  under  the  spending  three  years  in  the  universities  of    Padua 


ACI 


105 


ACOLOUTHIA 


and  Bologna  and  travelling  through  the  chief  Italian 
cities.  After  taking  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine 
at  Bologna,  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  Latin 
literature.  Ketuniing  to  Germany  in  1593  in  feebler 
health,  he  found  a  patron  in  Johann  MatthausWacke 
Vdii  Wackenfels,  also  a  convert,  and  chancellor  to  the 
Hisliop  of  Hreslau,  Andreas  von  Jerin.  In  l.TO^  he 
l)ei:iine  a  Catholic,  and,  about  the  same  time,  Hector 
iif  the  Hreslau  Gymnasium.  lie  died  a  few  weeks 
later.  Heforc  his  death  appeared  "Animadver- 
.siones  in  Q.  Curtium  "  (Frankfurt,  1591)  and  "  Plau- 
tina;  divinationes  et  interpretatione.s"  (Frankfurt, 
1595).  A  posthumous  work  is  "  Notajin  Taciti  opera, 
in  Panegyricos  veteres."  Lipsius  spoke  of  him  as  a 
"pearl  of  Germany",  and  Ritschl,  as  having  a  "re- 
markable critical  faculty". 

HiNDEit  in   Kirchenles.;  Rass,  Convertiten. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Aci-Reale  (J.\ca  Reg.\lis),  The  Diocese  of,  in 
the  island  of  Sicily,  includes  fourteen  communes 
in  the  civil  province  of  Catania,  immediately  subject 
to  Home.  It  was  created  by  Gregory  XVI,  in  1844, 
though  no  bishop  was  appointed  until  1872.  The 
epi.scopal  city  is  picturesquely  situated  at  the  foot 
of  Mt.  Etna,  amid  rich  gardens  of  oranges  and 
almonds.  There  are  18  parishes,  305  churches,  330 
secular  priests,  70  regulars,  and  1.50,'J19  inhabitants. 
Its  first  bishop  was  Monsignor  Gerlando  Maria  Gen- 
uardi,  of  the  Oratory. 

Cappelletti,  Lt  chicK  d'ltalia  (Venice,  18GG),  XXI.  569: 
Gam.s.  Series  epitcoporum  ecctesitr  catholic(E  (Ratiabon.  1873), 
955;  V'iGO,  Notizie  atoriche  delta  cilia  d'Acireale  (Palermo, 
1836):  PlRRl,  Sirilia  Sacra  (Palermo,  1733),  continued  by 
SIarzo-Fkrro  (ibid.,  1860).  For  the  controversy  concerning 
the  rii/(uaof  St.  Kxpedite.  seeCiinltii  Callolica,  2,  and  10  Dec. 
1905.  also    AnaUcla  BoUand.  (1906).  I. 

Ackermann,  Leopold,  a  Catholic  profe.s.sor  of  exe- 
gesis, b.  in  Vienna,  17  November,  1771;  d.  in  the 
same  city,  9  September,  1831.  He  entered  the  can- 
ons regular  of  St.  Augustine,  taking,  in  religion,  the 
name  of  Peter  Fourrier.  He  taught  Oriental  lan- 
guages and  archicologj",  and  in  ISOti  became  professor 
of  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  University 
of  Vienna,  succeeding  Jahn  there.  He  filled  this 
chair  for  twenty-five  years  with  success.  Two  works 
of  his,  "  Introductio  in  libros  Veteris  Foederis  usibus 
academicis  accomodata  "  (Vienna,  1825) and  "  Archajo- 
logia  biblica"  (Vienna,  1826),  have  new  and  cor- 
rected editions  by  Jahn,  third  and  fourth  respectively. 
The  latter  was  reprinted  by  Migne  (Cursus  Scrip- 
tura;  Sacrx,  II,  1S40,  col.  823-1068).  He  also  wrote 
"  Proplietx  Minores  perpetua  annotationc  iUustrata" 
(\'ienna,  1830).  in  wliicn  he  gives  nothing  new  but 
collects  whatever  is  best  in  older  works,  and  sup- 
plies pliilologic:d  observations  upon  it.  He  repro- 
duces tlie  original  Hebrew  text  and  comments  on 
it,  briefly  but  excellently. 

Seback,  p.  F.  Ackermann,  biographitche  Skizze  (Vienna, 
1832);  ViooROUX  in  Did.  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895),  I,  149. 150. 

John  J.  .\'  Becket. 

Acmonia,  a  titular  see  of  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  in 
Asia  .\Iiii(ir,  now  known  as  Ahat-Keui.  It  is  men- 
tioned by  Cicero  (Pro  Flacco,  15)  and  was  a  point 
on  the  road  between  Dorj-la-um  and  Philadelphia. 

S\inu,Dicl.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geoffr.  ( London.  187S).  I, 
21;  Mas  Latrie,  Trftor  de  chronologie,  etc.  (Paris,  1887), 
1979. 

Acoemetse  (Greek  dKof^Trrai,  from  privative  4  and 
Koifiiv,  to  rest).  Sometimes,  an  appellation  com- 
mon to  all  Eastern  ascetics  known  by  the  rigour 
of  their  vigils;  but  usually,  the  name  of  a  special 
order  of  Greek  or  Basilian  monks  devoting  them- 
selves to  praver  and  praise  without  intermission,  day 
and  night.  "That  order  w.as  founded,  aViout  the  year 
4(K),  by  a  certain  .Alexander,  a  man  of  noble  birth, 
will)  ne<l  from  the  court  of  Bvzantium  to  tlie  desert, 
Ijoth  from  love  of  solitude  and  fear  of  epi.s- 
copal   honours.     When    he   returned    to   Constanti- 


nople, there  to  establish  the  laus  perennii,  he 
brought  with  him  the  experience  of  a  first  foundation 
on  the  Euphrates  and  tliree  hundred  monks.  The 
enterprise,  however,  proved  diflicult,  owing  to  the 
hostility  of  Patriarch  Nestorius  and  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius.  Driven  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Mennas 
which  he  had  reared  in  the  city,  and  thrown  with  his 
monks  on  the  hospitality  of  St.  Hypathius,  .\bbot  of 
Hufiniana,  he  finally  succeeded  in  building  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Black  Sea  the  monastery  of  Gomon, 
where  he  died,  about  440.  His  succes.sor.  Abbot 
John,  founded  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Hos- 
phorus,  opposite  Sostenium  or  Istenia,  the  Irenaion, 
always  referred  to  in  ancient  documents  as  the  "great 
mon.astery"  ormother-house  of  tlie.\ca?meta>.  L'nder 
the  third  abbot,  St.  .Marcellus,  when  the  hostility  of 
Patriarch  and  Emperor  had  somewhat  subsided, 
Studius,  a  former  Consul,  founded  in  the  city  the 
famous  "Studium"  which  later,  chiefly  under  Abbot 
Theodore  (759-826),  became  a  centre  of  learning  as 
well  as  piety,  and  brought  to  a  culmination  the  glory 
of  the  order.  On  the  other  hand,  the  very  glamour 
of  the  new  "Studites"  gradually  cast  into  the 
shade  the  old  Accemeta;.  Tlie  feature  that  dis- 
tinguished the  .VccemetK  from  the  other  Basilian 
monks  was  the  uninterrupted  service  of  God. 
Their  monasteries,  which  numbered  hundreds  of 
inmates  and  sometimes  went  into  the  thousand, 
were  distributed  in  national  groups,  Latins,  Greeks, 
Syrians,  Egyptians;  and  each  group  into  as  many 
choirs  as  the  membership  permitted  and  the  service 
required.  With  tiiem  the  divine  office  was  the 
literal  carrying  out  of  Psalm  cxviii,  164:  "Seven 
times  a  day  have  I  given  praise  to  Thee,"  consist- 
ing as  it  did  of  seven  hours:  ip0pipbv,  Tplrri,  ^ktij, 
ipdrij,  XvxPtKdv^  wpuffinrviov^  pxtxovvKTiov^  which  through 
St.  Benedict  of  Nursia  passed  into  tlie  Western 
Church  under  the  equivalent  names  of  prime,  tierce, 
sext,  none,  vespers,  compline,  matins  (noctums)  and 
lauds.  The  influence  of  the  .Vcoemeta;  on  Christian 
life  was  considerable.  The  splendour  of  their  relig- 
ious services  largely  contributed  to  shape  the  liturgy. 
Their  idea  of  the  laus  perennis  and  similar  institu- 
tions, passed  into  the  Western  Church  with  St. 
Maurice  of  .\gaune  and  St.  Denys.  Our  modern 
perpetual  adoration  is  a  remnant  of  it.  Even  be- 
fore the  time  of  tlie  Studites,  the  copying  of  manu- 
scripts was  in  honour  among  the  -Aca'meta',  and 
the  hbrary  of  the  "Great  Monasterj-,"  consulted 
even  by  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  is  the  first  mentioned 
by  the  historians  of  Byzantium.  The  .\ccrmetiB 
took  a  prominent  part — and  always  in  the  sense  of 
orthodoxy — in  the  Christ  ological  discussions  raised  by 
Nestorius  and  Eutyches.  and  later,  in  the  controver- 
sies of  the  Icons.  They  proved  strong  supporters 
of  the  -Apostolic  See  in  the  schism  of  -Acacius,  as  did 
the  Studites  in  that  of  Photius.  The  only  flaw 
which  marred  the  purity  of  their  doctrine  and 
their  loyalty  to  Rome,  occurred  in  the  sixth  cen- 
turj-,  when,  the  better  to  combat  the  l-Ailycliian 
tendencies  of  the  Scythian  monks,  they  tliem.selves 
fell  into  the  Ne.storian  error  and  had  to  be  excom- 
municated by  Pope  John  II.  But  it  was  the  er- 
ror of  a  few  {quihuxitam  i>nuri.<!  jnonachh,  says 
a  contemporarj'  document),  and  it  could  not  seri- 
ously iletract  from  the  praise  given  their  order  by 
the  Rom;in  Sj-nod  of  484:  "Thanks  to  vour  true 
piety  towards  God.  to  your  zeal  ever  on  tiie  watch, 
and  to  a  special  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  you  discern 
the  just  from  the  impious,  tlie  faithful  from  the 
miscreants,  the  Catholics  from  the  heretics." 

Hklyot.  Ilijtloire  dea  ordrea  monaatiquea  (Paris.  1714); 
MElMnucilER,  Ordm  u.  Konarrgalionm  iPailcrborn.  1890); 
Marin,  Lea  moincg  de  Conalanlinople — I>e  Sttidio.  fimobio 
Conalanlinopolilnno  (Paris,  1897);  tiARli.VKR,  Thrmlure  of 
Sludium  (London,  1905). 

J.    F.    SoLLIER. 

Acolouttaia  (from  the  Greek  <UoXov0/w,  to  follow) 


ACOLYTE 


106 


ACOLYTE 


in  ecclesiastical  terminology  signifies  the  order  or 
arrangement  of  the  Divine  Office  (perhaps  Ijecause  the 
parts  are  closely  roiinected  and  follow  in  order)  and 
also,  in  a  wide  sense,  tlie  Office  itself.  Tlie  Acolouthia 
is  composed  of  musical  and  rhetorical  elements, 
the  first  usually  given  in  the  musical  mode  or  tone, 
('Hxos)  according  to  which  tlic  liturgical  composi- 
tions are  chanted.  There  are  eight  modes,  four 
primary  and  four  secondary.  As  the  Greeks  rarely 
used  texts  set  to  nui.^ical  notation,  they  learned  by 
heart  the  words  and  music  of  some  standard  liynin 
or  canticle,  and  this  .served  as  a  model  for  other 
hymns  of  the  .same  rliytlim.  A  strophe  or  stanza  of 
a  standard  liyuui  which  indicates  the  melody  of  a 
composition,  "is  known  as  a  liirmos  (clp^s).  Some 
believe  tliat  a  hirmos  placed  at  the  end  of  a  hymn 
should  be  calleil  a  catabasia  (KOTo/3o<r/a),  wliile  others 
hold  that  the  calahnsla  is  a  short  hymn  sung  by  the 
choir,  who  descend  from  their  seats  into  the  church 
for  tlie  purpose.  Tlie  fundamental  element  of  the 
Acoloutliia  is  the  troparinn  (TpoTrd/jioc),  which  is  a 
short  hymn,  or  one  of  the  stanzas  of  a  hymn.  The 
cunldkion  (KovrdKior)  is  a  trnparion  which  explains 
brieliy  the  character  of  the  feast  celebrated  in  tlie 
day's" Office.  The  oikos  {oXKOi)  is  a  somewhat  longer 
troparinn,  which  in  concise  style  glorifies  the  virtues 
and  merits  of  the  subject  of  the  feast.  The  apohj- 
tikion  {cLToKvTtKiov)  is  a  troparion  wliich  is  proper  to 
the  day,  and  is  said  just  before  the  prayer  of  dismissal. 

The  ode  {<m)  was  originally  one  of  the  nine  in- 
spired canticles  sung  in  the  morning  Office,  but  later 
the  name  was  also  given  to  uninspired  compo.sitions, 
consisting  of  a  varying  number  of  poetical  troparia 
and  modelled  after  the  Scriptural  odes.  Such  odes 
are  often  combined  to  form  a  canon  (Kaviiv)  which  is 
usually  composed  of  nine,  but  sometimes  of  a  smaller 
number  of  odes.  Finally,  the  stichos  (cttIxos)  is  a 
short  A-erse  taken  from  "the  Psalms  or  some  other 
book  of  Holy  Scripture,  while  the  sticlicron  (arlxvpo") 
is  a  short  verse  of  ecclesiastical  composition  mo(lelled 
after  the  stichos.  The  parts  of  the  Office  are  the 
Little  Vespers.  theGreater  Vespers,  the  Ort/iros  (dawn), 
the  four  little  Hours,  and  the  Apodeipnon  (compline). 
The  Little  \'espers,  which  are  recited  before  sunset, 
consist  of  the  invitatory  versicles,  P.salms  ciii  and 
cxl,  several  stichoi  and  similar  stichera,  a  short  liymn, 
and  a  psalm,  some  similar  stichera  and  stichoi,  the 
Nunc  dimittis.  the  trisagion,  and  the  apolytikion. 

Greater  Vespers,  which  are  said  after  sunset,  begin 
with  the  invitatory.  Psalm  ciii  and  the  greater  litany, 
and  tlien  the  priest  says  the  prayers  of  the  Lychnic. 
Tlie  choir  recites  the  first  cathisma  (division  of  the 
psalter),  and  after  the  deacon  lias  said  the  litany  it 
chants  Psalm  cxl,  and  several  versicles  during  the 
incensation.  After  changing  his  vestments  in  the 
sacristy,  the  priest  says  the  prayer  for  the  entrance, 
the  deacon  after  some  versicles  recites  the  litanies, 
and  the  priest  says  the  prayer  of  benediction.  Dur- 
ing tlie  procession  to  tlie  narthex.  stichera  proper  to 
the  feast  are  recited,  and  tlien  the  priest  recites  a 
series  of  prayers,  to  which  the  choir  answers  Kyrie 
Eleison  many  times,  anil  the  priest  bles.ses  all  present. 
Next  the  stichera  proper  to  the  feast  are  saiil  by  the 
choir  with  the  \unc  dimittis,  the  trisagion,  a  prayer 
to  the  Trinity,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  apoly- 
tikion, and  Vespers  arc  concluded  with  lessons  from 
the  Scriptures.  The  first  part  of  the  Orthros,  or 
midniglit  office,  con.sists  of  twelve  pravers,  the  greater 
litany,  two  stichera  followed  by  Psalms  cxxxiv  and 
cxxxv,  a  third  sticheron  followed  by  the  gradual 
psalms,  an  antiphon  with  the  prokeimcnon,  the  read- 
mg  of  the  Gospel,  many  acclamations  and  three 
canons  of  odes,  while  the  second  part  of  the  Orthros, 
corrcMiKinding  to  Lauds  in  the  Roman  Office,  is  com- 
posed of  P.salms  cxlviii,  cxlix,  d,  several  similar 
stichera,  the  greater  doxology,  a  benediction,  and 
the  prayer  for  tlie  ilisini.ssal. 


Each  httle  Hour  is  followed  by  a  supplementary' 
hour,  called  a  Mtaiiptov.  Prime  begins  with  the 
recitation  of  three  psalms  followed  by  a  doxology, 
two  stichoi,  a  do.\ology,  a  troparion  in  honour  of  tlie 
Theotokos  (the  Hirthgiver  of  God,  i.  e.  the  Hle.ssed 
Virgin),  the  trisagion,  several  variable  troparia,  the 
doxology  and  dismissal,  while  its  supplementary 
Hour  is  composed  of  a  troparion,  doxology,  troparion 
of  the  Theotokos,  Kyrie  Eleison  repeated  forty 
times,  a  prayer,  and  a  doxology.  Terce,  Sext,  and 
None  each  contain  the  inA-itatory  versicles,  three 
psalms,  a  doxology,  two  stichoi,  a  doxologj'.  the 
troparion  of  the  Theotokos,  the  trisagion.  do.xologj', 
another  troparion  of  tlie  Blessed  Virgin,  and  tlie  Ky- 
rie Eleison  repeated  forty  times,  and  their  Me<r<ipia 
have  tlie  invitatory  versicles,  tliree  psalms,  a  tlox- 
ology,  troparion,  doxology,  troparion  of  the  Theoto- 
kos, Kyrie  Eleison  repeated  forty  times,  and  a  proper 
prayer. 

Before  or  after  None,  an  office  called  Td  Tv-iriKi  is 
recited,  which  consists  ordinarily  of  the  in\'itatory 
versicles.  Psalms  cii  and  cxlv,  and  a  troparion,  but 
in  the  seasons  of  fasting  this  Office  is  regulated  by 
different  rubrics.  The  last  part  of  the  Office  is  called 
the  Apodeipnon  and  corresponds  to  the  Roman  Com- 
pline. The  greater  Apodeipnon  is  said  during  Lent, 
the  little  Apodeipnon  during  the  rest  of  the  year. 
The  latter  is  composed  of  a  doxology,  troparion,  the 
trisagion,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Kyrie  Eleison  re- 
peated twelve  times,  and  invitatory  versicles,  and 
Psalms  1,  Ixix,  and  clxii,  which  are  followed  by  the 
greater  doxology,  the  Creed,  the  trisagion,  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  troparion  proper  to  the  feast,  the  Kyrie 
Eleison  repeated  forty  times,  .several  invocations, 
and  the  long  prayers  of  dismis.sal. 

Ray.eus,  TractatiLS  (If  Acolouthia,  etc.,  in  Acta  SS.,  June 
II,  13;  Leclkrcq  in  Did.  d'archeol.  chrft.,  II.,  340;  Neale,  His- 
tory of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church   (London,  1S50). 

J.    F.   GOGGIN. 

Acolyte,  (Gr.  diriXouffos;  Lat.  seguens,  comes,  a 
follower,  an  attendant). — An  acolyte  is  a  cleric 
promoted  to  the  fourth  and  liighest  minor  order  in 
the  Latin  Church,  ranking  next  to  a  subdeacon. 
The  chief  offices  of  an  acolyte  are  to  light  the  candles 
on  the  altar,  to  carry  them  in  procession,  and  during 
the  solemn  singing  of  the  Gospel;  to  prepare  wine  and 
water  for  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass;  and  to  a.ssist  the 
sacred  ministers  at  the  Mass,  and  other  public 
services  of  the  Church.  In  the  ordination  of  an 
acolyte  the  bishop  presents  him  with  a  candle,  ex- 
tinguished, and  an  empty  cruet,  using  appropriate 
words  expressive  of  tlie.se  duties.  Altar  boys  art' 
often  designated  as  acolytes  and  perform  the  duties 
of  such.  The  duties  of  the  acolyte  in  Catholic  litur- 
gical services  are  fully  described  in  the  manuals  of 
liturgy,  e.  g.  Pio  Martinucci,  "Manuale  Sacrarum 
Cieremoniarum"  (Rome,  1880),  VI,  625;  and  De 
Herdt,  "Sacrae  Liturgise  Praxis"  (Louvain,  1889), 
II,  28-39. 

It  is  just  possible  that  the  obscure  passage  in  tlie 
life  of  Victor  I  (189-199),  erroneously  attributed  by 
Ferraris  (I,  101)  to  Pius  I  (140-15.5),  concerning 
scquentes  may  reallv  mean  acolytes  (Duchesne,  Lib. 
Pont.,  1. 137;  cf.  I,  "iGl).  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  first 
authentic  document  extant  in  which  mention  is 
made  of  acolytes  is  a  letter  (Eus.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VI, 
xliii),  written"  ill  251,  by  Pope  Cornelius  to  Fabius, 
Bishop  of  Antioch,  and  in  which  we  possess  a  definite 
enumeration  of  the  Roman  clergy.  There  existed 
at  that  time  in  Rome  forty-six  priests,  seven  deacons, 
seven  sub-deacons,  forty-two  acolytes,  and  fifty-two 
exorcists,  lectors,  and  doorkeepers.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  later  the 
"Constitutum  Silvestri,"  a  document  of  about  501 
(Mansi,  "Coll.  Cone,"  II,  (>26;  cf.  "Lib.  Pont.,"  ed. 
Duchesne.  Introd.,  13S),  gives  forty-five  acolytes 
as  the  number  in  Rome.     Pope  Fabian   (230-250), 


ACOLYTE 


107 


ACOLYTE 


llip  iiiiinediatc  prcdoiessor  of  Cornelius,  had  divided 
Home  into  seven  eedesiastical  districts  or  regions, 
setting  a  deacon  over  each  one.  A  redistribution 
of  tlie  clergy  of  the  city  soon  followed  according 
to  these  seven  divisions.  The  Honian  acolytes 
were  .subject  to  the  deacon  of  the  region,  or,  in  ca.se 
of  his  aljsence  or  death,  to  the  archdeacon.  In 
eadi  region  there  was  a  deacon,  a  subdeucon,  and, 
according  to  the  numeration  above,  probably  six- 
acolytes.  .Ancient  ecclesiastical  nioiuiments  and 
docinnents  lead  us  to  believe  that  a  subdeacon  was 
a  sort  of  head-acolyte  or  arcli-acolyte,  holding  the 
same  relation  to  the  acolytes  as  the  arclideacon  to 
deacons,  with  this  difTerence,  however,  tliat  there  was 
only  one  archdeacon,  while  there  «as  a  deacon  for 
each  region.  As  late  as  the  first  half  of  the  tenth 
century  we  meet  with  the  term  arch-acolyte  in 
I.nitprand  of  Cremona  (" Antapodosis",  VI,  G; 
Muratori,  "SS.  Rcr.  Ital.",  II,  1,  IT-i),  where  it 
stands  for  a  "dignity"  (q.  v.)  in  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Capua.  We  may  therefore  regard  the 
ministry  of  the  subdeacon  and  acolyte  as  a  dcveloi)- 
ment  of  that  of  the  deacon.  Moreover,  these  three 
categories  of  clerics  differ  from  the  lower  orders  in 
tliis,  that  they  are  all  attached  to  the  service  of  the 
altar,  while  the  others  are  not. 

The  letters  of  .St.  Cyprian  (7,  28,  34,  .52.  .59,  78,  79) 
give  ample  proof  of  the  fact  that  at  Carthage  also, 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  acolytes  existed. 
Eusebius  (I)e  Vita  Constant.,  Ill,  8)  mention.s  the 
acolytes  present  at  the  Council  of  Nice  (325),  not 
as  (lesignated  for  the  service  of  the  altar,  but  as 
[H-rsons  attached  to  the  retinue  of  bishops.  The 
".Statuta  Eedesiic  Antimia",  often  referred  to  as 
the  decrees  of  the  so-called  Fourth  Synod  of  Car- 
thage (3981.  but  really  belonging  to  the  end  of  the 
fifth,  or  the  early  part  of  the  sixth,  century  (Du- 
chesne, "Christian  Worship",  3.32,  3.50),  prove  that 
this  order  was  then  known  in  the  ecclesiastical 
province  of  .Aries  in  (iaul,  where  these  decrees  were 
enacted.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  all  the 
churches  in  the  West,  and  more  especially  the 
smaller  churches,  did  not  have  acolytes.  We  might 
conclude  that  at  Reims,  in  the  fifth  century,  there 
were  no  acolytes,  if  we  could  attach  credence  to 
the  will  of  Bishop  Bennadius,  predecessor  of  St. 
Heniigius  (q.  v.).  He  gives  all  the  categories  of 
clerics  except  this  one  (I'lodoard,  Hist.  Rem.  Eccl., 
I,  ix.  in  P.  L.,  LXXXV,  43).  In  the  Christian  epi- 
graphy of  Gaul  mention  is  made,  as  far  as  is  known, 
of  only  one  acolyte,  viz.,  at  Lyons  in  517  (La  Blant, 
"Inser.  chr6t.  de  la  Gaule,"  I,  30),  and,  in  general, 
very  few  c[)igniplis  of  acolytes  are  found  in  tlie  first 
five  centuries.  In  the  Irish  Collection  of  Canons 
(Collectio Canonuin  Ilil^rnensis,  ed.  Wasserschlebcn, 
(iiesscn,  1874,  32)  the  arch-acolyte  is  not  mentioned 
among  the  seven  ecclesiastical  degrees,  but  placed 
with  the  psalmist  and  cantor  outside  the  ordinary 
hierarchy. 

In  thesixth  canon  of  the  aforementioned"  Statuta" 
the  duties  of  a<'olytes  are  specified,  as  they  are  by  a 
contemporary  writer,  .lohn  the  Deacon,  in  his  letter 
to  Senarius  (P.  L.,  LI.\,  404).  .S|ieci(ic  information 
concerning  the  place  and  duties  of  acolytes  in  the 
Roman  Church  between  the  fifth  and  ninth  cen- 
turies is  drawn  from  a  .series  of  ancient  directions 
known  as  the  "Ordines  Romani"  (i).  v. — Duchesne, 
op.  cit.,  14()  and  imxxini).  According  to  them  there 
were  in  Rome  (pcrha|>s  also  in  Carthage,  and  other 
large  Wi'stcrn  cities)  three  cla-sses  of  acolytes,  all 
of  whom,  nevertheless,  had  their  duties  in  relation 
to  the  liturgical  .synaxes  or  as.semblies:  (1)  those 
of  the  palace  {jtatntini),  who  .served  the  Pope  (or 
bishop)  in  his  palace,  and  in  the  I.ateran  Ba-silica; 
(2)  those  of  the  region  (regionarii),  who  a.ssisted  the 
deacons  in  their  duties  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
sity;    (3)    those    of    the    station    (slationarii) ,    who 


served  in  church;  these  last  were  not  a  distinct  body, 
but  belonged  to  the  regional  acolytes.  Regional 
acolytes  were  also  termed  titular  \titularcs)  from 
the  church  to  which  they  were  attached  (.\labillon, 
"Conun.  in  t)rd.  Rom.",  in  his  "Musa-inn  Italicum," 
II,  20;  for  an  old  epigraph  in  Aringhius,  150,  see 
Ferraris,  I,  100;  Magani,  "Antica  Lit.  Rom.",  .Milan, 
1899,  III,  61 — see  also  Rome, City  oi-).  Acolytes  of 
the  palace  were  destined  in  a  particular  manner  to  the 
service  of  the  Pope,  assisting  him  not  only  in  church 
functions,  but  also  as  ablegates,  messengers  of  the 
papal  court,  in  distributing  alms,  carrying  pontifical 
documents  and  notices,  and  performing  other  duties 
of  like  character.  These  offices,  however,  acolytes 
shared  with  readers  and  subdeacons,  or  arch- 
acolytes.  At  Rome  they  carried  not  only  the 
eulogia  (q.  v.),  or  blessed  bread,  when  occasion  re- 
quired, but  also  the  Blessed  Eucharist  from  the 
Pope's  Mass  to  that  of  the  priests  whose  duty  it 
was  to  celebrate  in  the  churches  {tituli).  This  ia 
evident  from  the  letter  of  Innocent  I  (401-417)  to 
Dccentius,  Bishop  of  Gubbio,  in  Italy  (P.  L.,  XX, 
.5.50;.  They  also  carried  the  sacred  species  to  the 
aUsent,  €;(*pecially  to  confessors  of  the  faith  detained 
in  prison  (see  T.\nsiritTs).  This  office  of  carrying 
the  Blessed  Eucharist,  St.  Justin,  who  suffered 
martyrdom  alwut  105  or  166,  had  pn'vioiisly  as- 
signed to  deacons  (Apolog.,  I,  67),  which  would 
indicate  that  at  that  time  acolytes  did  not  exist. 

We  learn  still  further  from  the  "Ordines  Romani" 
that  when  the  Pope  was  to  pontificate  in  a  desig- 
nated district  all  the  acolytes  of  that  region  went 
to  the  Lateran  Palace  to  receive  and  accompany 
him.  In  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  perhaps  a 
little  earlier,  the  chief  acolyte  of  the  stational  church, 
carrying  the  sacred  chrism  covered  with  a  veil,  and, 
directing  the  procession,  preceded  on  foot  the  horse 
on  which  the  Pope  rode.  The  other  acolytes  fol- 
lowed, carrying  the  Gospel-book,  burses,  and  other 
articles  used  in  the  holy  sacrifice.  They  accom- 
panied the  Pope  to  the  secretarium  or  sacristy  (see 
B.\siLic.\).  One  of  them  solemnly  placed  the  book 
of  Gospels  upon  the  altar.  They  carried  seven 
lighted  candles  before  the  pontiff  entering  the  sanctu- 
ary. With  lighted  candles,  two  acolytes  accom- 
panied the  deacon  to  the  ambo  (q.  v.)  for  the  singing 
of  the  Gospel.  After  the  Gospel,  another  acolyte 
received  the  book,  which,  placed  in  a  case  and  sealed, 
was  later  returned  to  tlie  Lateran  by  the  heacl 
acolyte.  An  acolyte  carried  to  the  deacon  at  the 
altar,  the  chalice  and  pall;  acolytes  received,  and 
cared  for,  the  offerings  gathered  by  the  Pope;  an 
acolyte  held  the  paten,  covered  with  a  veil,  from 
the  l^ginning  to  the  middle  of  the  canon.  In  due 
time  acolytes  bore,  in  linen  bags,  or  burses  sus- 
pended from  their  necks,  the  ohlata,  or  consecrated 
loaves  from  the  altar  to  the  bishops  and  priests  in 
the  sanctuary,  that  they  might  break  the  sacred 
species  (see  Fr.\ctio  P.\nis).  It  will  be  seen  from 
tncse,  and  other  duties  devolving  upon  acolytes, 
that  they  were  in  a  large  measure  responsible  for 
the  successful  carrying  out  of  pontifical  and  stational 
ceremonies.  This  was  particularly  true  after  the 
foundation  of  the  Schola  Cantorum  (q.  v.)  at  Rome, 
of  which  there  is  clear  evidence  from  the  seventh 
centurj'  onward.  Being  then  the  only  ones  in  minor 
orders  engaged  in  active  ministrj',  acolytes  acquired 
a  much  greater  importance  than  they  had  hitherto 
enjoyed.  Cardinal  priests  had  no  other  assistants 
in  their  titular  churches.  During  Lent,  and  at  the 
solemnization  of  baptism,  acolytes  fulfilled  all  the 
functions  which  hitherto  had  devolved  upon  the 
exorcists,  just  as  the  subdeacon  had  alxsorlx-d  tlio.se 
of  the  lector  or  reader.  .Alexander  VII  (1055-07) 
alxilished  the  medieval  college  of  acolytes  described 
al><)ve  and  sulxstituted  in  their  place  (20  ()ctol>er, 
10.55)  the  tweh-e  voting  prelates  of  the  Signature  of 


ACOSMISM 


108 


ACOSTA 


Justice.  As  evidence  of  their  origin  these  prelates 
still  retain,  at  papal  functions,  many  of  the  offices 
or  duties  described  above. 

According  to  tlie  ancient  discipline  of  the  Roman 
Church  the  order  of  acolyte  was  conferred  as  the 
candidate  approached  adolescence,  about  the  age 
of  twenty,  as  the  decree  of  Pope  Siricius  (385)  to 
Himerius,  Bishop  of  Tarragona,  in  Spain,  was  in- 
terpreted (P.  L.,  XIII,  1142).  Five  years  were  to 
elapse  before  an  acolyte  could  receive  subdeaconship. 
Pope  Zosimus  reduced  (41S)  tliis  term  to  four  years. 
Tlie  Council  of  Trent  leaves  to  the  judgment  of 
bishops  to  determine  what  space  should  elapse  be- 
tween the  conferring  of  the  acolythate  and  sub- 
deaconship; it  is  also  interesting  to  note,  with  Dr. 
Probst  (Kirchenlex.,  I,  385),  that  the  Council's 
desire  (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  17,  de  ref.)  concerning  the 
performance  of  ministerial  services  exclu.si\-ely  by 
minor-order  clerics  was  never  fulfilled.  In  ancient 
ecclesiastical  Rome  there  was  no  solemn  ordination 
of  acolytes.  At  communion-time  in  any  ordinary 
Mass,  even  when  it  was  not  stational,  the  candidate 
approached  the  Pope,  or  in  his  absence,  one  of  the 
bishops  of  the  pontifical  court.  At  an  earlier  mo- 
ment of  the  Mass  he  had  been  vested  with  the  stole 
and  the  chasuble.  Holding  in  his  arms  a  linen  bag 
(porrigitur  in  ulnas  ejus  sacciihis  super  planetam; 
a  symbol  of  the  highest  function  of  these  clerics, 
that  of  carrying,  as  stated  above,  the  consecrated 
hosts)  he  prostrated  himself  while  the  Pontiff  pro- 
nounced over  him  a  simple  blessing  (Mabillon, 
op.  cit.,  II,  85,  ed.  Paris,  1724).  It  may  be  well  to 
mention  here  the  two  prayers  of  the  ancient  Roman 
Mass-book  known  as  the  "  Sacramentarium  Grego- 
rianum"  (Mabillon,  Lit.  Rom.  Vetus,  II,  407), 
said  by  the  Pontiff  over  the  acolyte,  and  the  first 
of  which  is  identical  with  that  of  the  actual  Roman 
Pontifical  "  Domine,  sancte  Pater,  aeterne  Deus, 
qui  ad  Moysen  et  Aaron  locutus  es,"  etc. 

According  to  the  aforementioned  "Statuta  Ec- 
clesiiE  Antiqua,"  which  give  us  the  ritual  usage  of 
the  most  important  churches  in  Gaul  about  the 
year  500,  the  candidate  for  acolyte  was  first  instructed 
by  the  bishop  in  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  then  a 
candlestick,  with  a  candle  extingiiished,  was  placed 
in  his  hand  by  the  archdeacon,  as  a  sign  that  the 
lights  of  the  church  would  be  in  his  care;  moreover, 
an  empty  cruet  was  given  him,  symbolical  of  his 
office  of  presenting  wine  and  water  at  the  altar 
for  the  holy  sacrifice.  A  short  blessing  followed. 
(See  Minor  Orders;  Fractio  Panis;  Eucharist: 
Mass.) 

Duchesne,  Christian  Worship:  Its  Origin  and  Evolution 
(tr.  2d  ed.,  London,  1904),  344,  352,  SfiG;  Bingham,  Antiqui- 
ties of  the  Christian  Church:  Field,  History  of  the  Church  (new 
ed.,  Cambridge,  Ene.,  18.53):  Magani,  L^antica  liturgia  Romana 
{.Milan,  1897-99),  III,  59-64;  Leclercq  in  Diet,  d'archeol.  chrit. 
et  de  liturgie.  I,  348-356  (Paris,  1905);  Maurice  in  Diet,  de  thiol, 
cath.,  I  (Paris,  1905);  Hoissonet,  Diet,  des  rites;  Khaus.  Real- 
Encykl.  dcr  christl.  Alterthilmer  (Freiburg,  1880),  I,  30,  31; 
THOMA89IN,  Vet.  el  Nova  Eccl.  Diseiplina  (Paris,  1688);  Fer- 
RARis,  Prompta  Biblioth.   (Rome,   1885). 

Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Acosmism.     See  Pantheism. 

Acosta,  .loAQUiN,  a  native  of  Colombia  in  South 
America,  who  .served  in  tiic  Colombian  army  and  in 
1834  attempted  a  scientific  survey  of  the  country 
between  Socorro  and  the  .Magdalena  River.  Seven 
years  later  he  explored  W(!stern  Colombia  from  .^ntio- 
quia  to  Ancerma  studying  its  topography,  its  natural 
history, andthetraccsof  itsaboriginal  inhabitants.  In 
1845  he  went  to  Spain  to  examine  such  documentary 
material  concerning  ('oloml)i;i  and  its  colonial  history 
as  was  then  acce.'^sible.  and  tliree  years  later  he  pub- 
li.shcd  his  "  Comncndio  ",  a  work  on  llie  discovery  and 
colonization  f)f  New  Granada  (Colombia).  The"  map 
accompanying  this  work,  now  out  of  date,  was  very 
fair  for  the  time,  and  the  work  it.self  is  still  valuable 
for  its  abundant  bibliographic  references  and  Ijio- 


graphic  notes.  What  he  says  in  it  of  the  writ- 
ings of  Quesada  the  conqueror  of  New  Granada,  is 
very  incomplete  and  in  many  ways  erroneous,  but 
his  biographies  of  the  ecclesiastics  to  whom,  follow- 
ing upon  Que.sada,  our  knowledge  of  the  country,  its 
aborigines,  and  early  colonization,  is  due,  remain  a 
valuable  guide  to  the  student  of  Spanish-American 
history.  Without  him,  we  might  yet  be  ignorant  of 
the  fundamental  works  of  Zamora,  Fre.sle,  and  of 
the  linguistic  labours  of  Lugo.  One  year  after  the 
"Compendio",  tlie  "Semenario"  appeared  at  Paris, 
embodying  the  botanical  papers  of  (Jaldas. 

Compendio  histi'irico  del  descubrimiento  y  colonizacion  de  la 
Nueva  Granada  (1848);  Biographic  universelle,  I;  Ludwig, 
Literature  of  American  Aboriginal  Languages  (London,  1858); 
Brinton,  The  American  Race  (New  York,  1891). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Acosta,  Jose  de,  the  son  of  well-to-do  and  respected 
parents,  b.  at  Medina  del  Campo  in  Spain,  1540;  d.  at 
Salamanca,  15  February,  1(300.  He  became  a  novice 
in  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age  of  thirteen  at  the 
place  of  his  birth.  Four  of  his  brothers  succes- 
sively joined  the  same  order.  Before  leaving  Spain  he 
was  lecturer  in  theology  at  Ocafia,  and  in  April, 
1569,  was  sent  to  Lima,  Peru,  where  the  Jesuits  had 
been  established  in  the  preceding  year.  At  Lima 
Acosta  again  occupied  the  chair  of  theology.  His 
fame  as  an  orator  had  preceded  him.  In  1571  he 
went  to  Cuzco  as  visitor  of  tlie  college  of  the  Jesuits 
then  recently  founded.  Returning  to  Lima  three 
years  later,  to  again  fill  the  chair  of  theology,  he 
was  elected  provincial  in  1576.  He  founded  a  num- 
ber of  colleges,  among  them  those  of  Arequipa, 
Potosi,  Chuquisaca,  Pananid,  and  La  Paz,  but  met 
with  considerable  opposition  from  the  viceroy, 
Francisco  de  Toledo.  His  official  duties  obliged  him 
to  investigate  personally  a  very  extensive  range  of 
territory,  so  that  he  acquired  a  practical  knowledge 
of  the  vast  province  and  of  its  aboriginal  inhabitants. 
At  the  provincial  council  of  1582,  at  Lima,  Acosta 
played  a  very  important  part.  Called  to  Spain  by 
the  king  in  1585,  he  was  detained  three  years  in 
Mexico,  where  he  dedicated  himself  to  studies  of 
the  country  and  people.  Returning  to  Europe,  he 
filled  the  chair  of  theology  at  the  Roman  college 
in  1594,  as  well  as  other  important  positions.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  rector  of  the  college  at 
Salamanca. 

Few  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  six- 
teenth century  have  been  so  uniformly  eulogized 
as  Father  Acosta.  Independently  of  his  private 
character,  his  learning  and  the  philosophic  spirit 
pervading  his  works  attracted  the  widest  attention 
in  learnecl  circles.  Translations  of  his  works  exist 
in  many  languages  of  Europe,  while  the  naturalists 
of  the  eighteenth  century  praise  his  knowledge  of 
the  flora  of  western  South  America.  Aside  from 
his  publications  of  the  proceedings  of  the  provincial 
councils  of  1567  and  1583,  and  several  works  of 
exclusively  theological  import,  Acosta  is  best  known 
as  a  writer  through  the  "De  Natura  Novi  Orbis," 
"De  promulgatione  Evangclii  apud  barbaros,  sive 
De  procuranda  Indoruni  salute",  and,  above  all, 
the  Historia  natural  y  moral  de  las  Indias."  The 
first  two  appeared  at  Salamanca,  in  1588;  the  last 
at  Seville,  in  1590,  and  was  soon  after  its  publica- 
tion translated  into  various  languages.  It  is  chiefly 
the  "Historia  natural  y  moral"  that  has  established 
the  reputation  of  Acosta.  In  a  form  more  concise 
than  that  employed  by  his  predecessors,  Gomara 
and  Ovicdo,  he  treats  the  natural  and  philosophic 
history  of  the  New  World  from  a  broader  point  of 
view.  Much  of  what  he  says  is  of  necessity  errone- 
ous, because  it  is  influenced  by  the  standard  of 
knowledge  of  his  time,  but  his  criticisms  are  re- 
markal)le,  while  always  dignified.  He  reflects  the 
scientific  errors  of  the  period  in  which  he  lived,  but 


ACQUAPENDENTE 


109 


AOQUAVIVA 


with  hints  at  a  more  advanced  understanding.  As 
far  as  the  work  of  the  Church  among  the  Indians  is 
ooncernod,  the  "He  procuranda  Indorum  salute" 
is  perluips  more  vahiable  tlian  the  hitor  "Historia," 
because  it  shows  the  standpoint  from  whicli  efforts 
at  civilizing  the  aborigines  should  be  undertaken. 
That  standpoint  indicates  no  conunon  jjerccption 
of  the  true  nature  of  the  Indian,  and  of  the  methods 
of  approaching  him  for  his  own  benefit. 

Dk  Backkr,  liibliothhque  dea  t'crivaina  de  la  Cie.de  Jt'aui. 
Ainonfc  earlier  sources,  Fatiikr  Eusebics  Nieremdkro, 
A.NKi.i,o  Oliva,  Historia  del  Peru  y  de  loa  Varonea  inaiynea  de  la 
CompatKa  de  Jeaita  (1639).  (ie.'*er\'e.s  mention,  u.s  well  ii.s  Nico- 
las Antonio,  Biblioteca,  Vetuatiaima  ami  the  liiblioaraphi/  of 
Hkristain  de  Soitza;  writera  on  Spani.'*ii-Anierican  literature 
Kenerally  mention  Acosta.  .\  Rooil  BioRraphv,  and  a  short 
HibHography  of  .Acosta.  are  found  in  Enrioue  Torre.s  Salda- 
NANUO,  I.oa  aniiffuoa  Jcauilaa  del  I'eru  (I^ima,  18S2).  See  aIj<o: 
Menuiuuru,  Diccionario  hiatvrico-bwgrdfico  dtl  Peru,  1  (IS7-I). 

Ad.  F.  Uandeliek. 

Acqtiapendente,  a  diocese  in  Italy  under  the  im- 
mediate jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  .'^op,  comprising  seven 
towns  of  the  Province  of  Rome.  Aci|ua[H>ndente 
was  under  the  ecdesia.stiial  jurisdiction  of  Orvieto 
until  1649.  That  year,  in  con.se(iucnce  of  a  con- 
spiracy, Cristoforo  Girarda,  a  Harnabite  of  Novara, 
Bishop  of  Castro,  was  as.sassinated.  In  ptmishment 
of  this  crime,  Innocent  X  ordered  Ca.stro  to  be  de- 
stroyed, and  raised  Acquapendenle  to  the  dignity  of 
an  episcopal  city  (Bull,  13  September,  IG-l'J).  Its 
bishops,  however,  retain  the  appellation  "post  Cast- 
renses. "  Tlie  first  incumbent  of  the  new  See  was 
the  Hieronymite  (il  ijcroiiolimilami)  Pompeo  Mig- 
nucci  of  Offida,  who  had  been  Archbishop  of  Ragusa. 
He  took  po.s.se.ssion  10  January,  16.50.  This  diocese 
contains  13  parishes;  80  churches,  chapels,  and  ora- 
tories; 47  secular  clergy;  3.5  seminarians;  15  regular 
pri(>sts;  49  religious  (women);  30  confraternities. 
Population,   19,3.50. 

Ugiiei.li.  //<i(i<i  Sacra  (Venice,  1722),  I,  58.3;  Cappelletti, 
Le  ehifse  ditalia  (Venice,  18fi6),  V,  549:  Gams,  Seriea  Epia- 
coporum  Ercletice  Catholira  (Ratisbon.  1873),  OCO:  Khangiabi, 
Btbliografia  iMorica  della  cittii  e  luoghi  dello  Stalo  Pontificio 
(Umne,  17721. 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Acquaviva,  name  of  several  Italian  cardinals. — 
FuANCKsi  o,  b.  1065  at  Naples,  of  the  family  of  the 
Dukes  of  .\tri.  He  filled  various  olficcs  imder  Inno- 
cent XI,  .Alexander  VIII,  Innocent  XII,  and  Clem- 
ent XI.  The  latter  created  him  Cardinal,  and  Bishop 
of  Sabina.  He  died  in  1723,  and  was  buried  at 
Rome  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Cecilia. — Giov.\XN'i 
ViNTEXZO,  Bishop  of  Melfi  and  Rapolla  (1537), 
Cardinal-priest  of  Svlvester  and  Martin  (1542),  d.  in 
1566.— GiULio,  b.  at  Naples,  1.546;  d.  1574.  Nuncio 
of  St.  Pius  V  to  Philip  II  of  Spain,  made  Cardinal  by 
the  same  pope,  whom  he  a.ssisted  on  h.is  deathbed. — 
Ottavio  (the  elder),  b.  at  Naples,  1.560;  d.  1612; 
filled  various  offices  under  Sixtus  V,  Gregory  XIV, 
and  Clement  VIII,  was  Cardinal-legate  in  the 
Campagna  and  at  Avignon,  and  was  instrvimental  in 
the  conversion  of  Henri  IV.  Leo  XI  made  him  Arch- 
bishop of  Naples  (1605). — Ott.wio  (the  younger), 
of  the  family  of  the  dukes  of  Atri,  b.  at  Naples,  1608; 
d.  at  Rome,  1674.  He  was  made  Cardinal  in  1654 
by  Innocent  IX,  and  legate  at  Vitcrbo  and  in  Ro- 
magna,  where  he  checked  the  ravages  of  the  banditti. 
He  is  buried  at  Rome  in  the  church  of  Santa  Cecilia. 
— Tkoiano,  b.  1694  at  Naples,  of  the  same  ducal 
family;  d.  at  Rome  in  1747.  He  was  employed  by 
Benedict  XIII  in  the  administration  of  the  Papal 
States,  made  Cardinal  by  Clement  XII  in  1732.  He 
represented  in  the  Curia  the  Kings  of  Spain,  Philip  V 
and  Charles  III,  and  at  the  former's  request  was 
made  .Vrchbishop  of  Toledo,  whence  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Montereale.  He  was  influential  in  the  con- 
clave that  elected  (17  August,  1740)  Benedict  XIV. 
He   is    buried   at   Rome    in    the  Church   of   Santa 


Cecilia. — Pasquale,  of  Avignon,  b.  1719  at  Naples;  d. 
1 788.    He  was  made  Cardinal  by  Clement  XI V  in  1 773. 

Stahi.  in  Kirchmlex..  I,  U77-78. 

Tho\H3    J.    SHAH.VN. 

Acquaviva,  Claudids,  fifth  General  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  b.  October,  1543;  d.  31  January,  1615.  He 
was  the  son  of  Prince  Giovanni  Antonio  Acquaviva, 
Duke  of  Atri,  in  the  Abruzzi,  and,  at  twenty-five, 
when  high  in  favour  at  the  papal  court,  where  he 
was   Chamberlain,    renounced    his    brilliant    worldly 

Prospects  and  entered  the  Society.  After  being 
'rovincial  both  of  Naples  and  Rome,  he  was  elected 
General  of  the  Society,  19  February,  1581.  He  was 
the  youngest  who  ever  occupied  that  post.  His 
election  coincided  with  the  first  accu.sation  of  ambi- 
tion ever  made  against  a  great  official  of  the  Order. 
Manareus  had  been  named  Vicar  by  Father  Mer- 
curian,  and  it  was  alleged  that  he  aspired  to  the 
generalship.  His  warm  defender  was  Acquaviva, 
but,  to  dispel  the  faintest  suspicion,  Manareus  re- 
nounced his  right  to  be  elected.  Acquaviva  was 
chosen  by  a  strong  majority.  His  subsequent  career 
justified  the  wisdom  of  the  choice,  which  was  very 
much  doubted  at  the  time  by  the  Pope  himself. 
During  his  generaLship  the  persecution  in  England, 
whither  he  had  once  asked  to  go  as  a  missionary, 
was  raging;  the  Huguenot  troubles  in  France  were 
at  their  height;  Christianity  was  being  cru.shed  in 
Japan;  the  Society  w;is  expelled  from  Venice,  and 
was  oppressed  elsewhere;  a  schism  witliin  the  Society 
was  imminent;  the  Pope,  the  Inquisition,  and 
Philip  II  were  hostile.  Acquaviva  was  denounced 
to  the  Pope,  even  by  men  like  Toletus  (q.  v.),  yet, 
such  was  his  prudence,  his  skill,  his  courage,  and  his 
success,  that  he  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  admin- 
istrator, after  St.  Ignatius,  the  Society  ever  had. 
Even  those  who  were  jealous  of  him  admitted  his 
merit,  wlien,  to  satisfy  them,  the  fifth  and  sixth 
Congregations  ordered  an  investigation  to  be  made 
of  his  method  of  government.  The  greatest  diffi- 
culty he  had  to  face  was  the  schism  organized  in 
Spain  by  Vasquez  (q.  v.).  The  King  and  Pope  had 
been  won  over  by  the  dissidents.  t)pcn  demands 
of  quasi-independence  for  Spain  had  been  made  in 
the  Congregations  of  the  Society.  No  Jesuit  was 
allowed  to  leave  Spain  without  royal  permission. 
Episcopal  visitation  of  the  houses  had  been  asked 
for  and  granted.  But  finally,  through  the  media- 
tion of  the  English  Jesuit,  Rol)ert  Parsons  (q.  v.), 
who  was  highly  esteemed  by  Philip,  the  King  was 
persuaded  of  the  impolicy  of  the  measure,  while 
Acquaviva  convinced  the  Pope  that  the  schism 
would  be  disastrous  for  the  Church.  Deprived  of 
these  supports  the  rebellion  collapsed.  Sunultanc- 
ously,  the  Inquisition  was  doing  its  best  to  destroy 
the  Society.  It  listened  to  defamatorj'  accusations, 
threw  the  Provincial  of  Castile  into  prison,  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  Constitutions  for  examination, 
until  Acquaviva  succeeded  in  inducing  the  Pope  to 
call  the  case  to  his  own  tribunal,  and  revoke  the 
powers  which  had  been  given  to  the  Inquisition,  or 
which  it  claimed.  Finally.  Pope  Sixtus  V,  who  had 
been  always  unfriendly  to  the  Society,  determined 
to  change  it  completely.  The  Emiwror  Ferdinand 
implored  him  not  to  act;  the  College  of  Cardinals 
resisted;  but  the  Pope  was  obstinate.  The  bull  was 
preparcil,  and  .Acquaviva  himself  was  compelled  to 
send  in  a  personal  request  to  have  even  its  name 
changed,  when  the  death  of  the  pontiff  saved  the 
situation — a  coincidence  which  gave  rise  to  accusa- 
tions against  the  Society.  His  successor,  Gregorj* 
XIV,  hastened  to  renew  all  the  former  privileges  of 
the  Order  and  to  confirm  its  previous  approbations. 
During  Acquaviva 's  administration  the  protracted 
controversy  on  Grace  (see  Ghace,  Controvehsies 
o.n),  between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits,  took 


AOQUAVIVA 


110 


ACRE 


place,  and  was  carried  on  with  some  interniptions 
for  nearly  nine  years,  without  either  party  drawing 
any  decision  from  tlie  Church,  tlie  contestants  being 
ultimately  ordered  to  discontinue  the  discussion. 
It  was  Acquaviva  who  ordered  the  scheme  of  Jesuit 
studies,  known  as  the  "  Ratio  Studiorum  "  (q.  v.),  to  be 
drawn  up,  which,  with  some  modifications,  has  been 
followed  to  the  present  day.  Six  of  the  most  learned 
and  experienced  scholars  "of  the  Society  were  sum- 
moned to  Home,  who  laid  out  the  entire  plan  of 
studies,  begimiing  with  theology,  philosophy,  and 
their  cognate  branches,  and  going  down  to  the 
smallest  details  of  granunar.  When  finished,  it  was 
sent  to  the  difTerent  Provinces  for  suggestions,  but 
was  not  imposed  until  1592,  and  then  with  the  pro- 
viso that  the  Society  would  determine  what  change 
was  to  be  made,  which  was  done  in  the  General 
Congregation  of  l.iQS. 

The  period  of  his  Generalship  was  the  most  notable 
in  the  history  of  the  Society  for  the  men  it  produced, 
and  the  work  it  accomplished.  The  names  of  Suarez, 
Toletus,  Bellarmine,  Maldonatus,  Clavius,  Lessius, 
Ripalda,  Ricci,  Parsons,  Southwell,  Campion,  Aloysius 
Gonzaga,  and  a  host  of  others  are  identified  with 
it;  royal  and  pontifical  missions  to  France,  Russia, 
Poland,  Constantinople,  and  Japan  were  entrusted 
to  men  like  Possevin,  and  Bellarmine,  and  Vallignani; 
houses  were  multiplied  all  over  the  world  with  an 
astonishing  rapidity;  the  colleges  were  educating 
some  of  the  most  brilliant  statesmen,  princes,  and 
warriors  of  Europe;  the  Reductions  of  Paraguay 
were  organized;  the  heroic  work  of  the  missions  of 
Canada  was  begun;  South  America  was  being 
traversed  in  all  directions;  China  had  been  pene- 
trated, and  the  Jesuits  were  the  Emperor's  official 
astronomers;  martyrs  in  great  numbers  were  sacrific- 
ing their  lives  in  England,  America,  India,  Japan, 
and  elsewhere;  and  the  great  struggle  organized  by 
Canisius  and  Nadal  to  check  the  Reformation  in  Ger- 
many had  been  broiight  to  a  successful  conclusion. 
The  guiding  spirit  of  all  these  great  achievements, 
and  many  more  besides,  was  Claudius  Acquaviva. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-one,  31  January, 
1615.  Jouvency  says  the  longer  he  lived  the 
more  glorious  the  Society  became;  and  Cordarius 
speaks  of  his  election  as  an  inspiration.  Besides  the 
"Ratio  Studiorum,"  of  which  he  is  substantially  the 
author,  as  it  was  under  his  initiative  and  supervision 
that  the  plan  was  conceived  and  carried  out,  we  have 
also  the  "Directorium  Exercitiorum  Spiritualium 
S.  P.  N.  Ignatii,"  or  "Guide  to  the  Spiritual  Exer- 
cises," which  was  also  suggested  and  revised  by  him. 
This  work  has  been  inserted  in  the  "Corpus  Insti- 
tuti  S.  J."  More  directly  his  are  the  "Industrise  ad 
Curandos  Animie  Morlios."  As  General,  he  wrote 
many  encyclical  letters,  and  he  is  the  author  of  nearly 
all  the  "Ordinationcs  Generalium"  which  were 
printed  in  159,"),  with  the  approbation  of  the  Fifth 
General  Congregation.  Many  other  documents  and 
letters,  relating  chiefly  'to  matters  of  government, 
are  still  extant. 

JocvENCY,  Epitome  Iliitt.  Soc.  Jesu,  IV:  CR<-:T!Nr.AU-JoLT, 
Histoire  dc  la  comp.  dc  Jt'nus,  III;  ]'ariines  Ilustrc»,  V,  79; 
Menologium  H.  J.,  31  January. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 
Acquaviva,  Rudolph.     See  Rudolph  Acqu.\viv.\, 

Bl.KSSED. 

Acqui,  a  dioce.se  suffragan  of  Turin,  Italy,  which 
contains  ninety-three  towns  in  the  Province  of  Alex- 
andria, twenty-three  in  the  Province  of  Genoa,  and 
one  in  the  Province  of  Cuneo.  The  first  indubital)le 
Bishop  of  Acqui  is  Ditarius.  A  tablet  found  in  1753 
in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  informs  us  that  Ditarius, 
the  bishop,  died  on  the  25th  of  Jimuary,  488,  in  the 
Consulate  of  Dinamias  and  Syphidius.  Popular  tra- 
dition gives  Dcusdedit,  Andreas  Severus  Maximus, 


and,  earliest  of  all,  Majorinue,  as  bishops  prior  to  him. 
Calculating  the  time  that  these  bishops,  Roman  cer- 
tainly in  name,  governed  this  see,  Majorinus  prob- 
ably lived  either  at  the  end  of  the  fourth,  or  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth,  century.  It  is  very  probable 
that  the  dioc&se  of  Acqui  was  erected  at  the  end  of 
th.e  fourth  century,  about  the  same  time,  it  would 
appear,  as  the  dioceses  of  Novara,  Turin,  Ivrea, 
Aosta  and  perhaps,  Asti  and  Alba.  Presupposing 
the  fact  that  the  erection  of  dioceses  in  the  provinces 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  after  Constantine,  was  not 
done  without  previous  agreement  between  the  Church 
and  the  emperors,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  most 
propitious  time  for  such  organization  in  Northern 
Italy  was  the  seven  years  of  the  reign  of  Honorius 
(395-402),  when  a  complete  reorganization  of  the 
Provinces  of  Northern  Italy  and  Southern  Gaul  was 
effected.  Other  arguments  could  be  advanced  to 
confirm  the  existence  and  episcopate  of  St.  Majorinus. 
The  name  was  very  common  in  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  centuries.  St.  Augustine  (De  Haer.,  1, 69)  speaks 
of  two  bishops  of  this  name;  two  others  appear  as 
signers  of  the  Letter  of  the  Synod  of  Carthage  to 
Pope  Innocent  the  First  (401-417)  against  Pelagius 
(Ep.  St.  Aug.,  II,  90).  Veneration  was  offered  to 
the  saint  from  time  immemorial  by  the  church  in 
Acqui,  shown  by  his  statues  and  relics.  This  venera- 
tion, however,  has  ceased  since  a  decree  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites  (8  April,  1628)  prohibited  the 
veneration  of  saints  whose  sanctity  had  not  been 
declared  by  the  Holy  See.  In  the  list  of  the  bishops 
of  Acqui,  St.  Guido  (1034-70)  is  worthy  of  note. 
He  was  of  the  Counts  of  Acquasana  under  whose 
government  the  cathedral  was  erected,  and  is  the 
patron  saint  of  Acqui.  The  bishopric  contains  122 
parishes;  456  churches,  chapels,  and  oratories;  317 
secular  priests;  180  seminarians;  42  regular  priests; 
20  lay-brothers;  75  religious  (women);  60  confra- 
ternities; 3  boys'  schools  (168  pupils);  4  girls'  schools 
(231  pupils).     Population,  18,120. 

Ughelli,  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1722).  IV,  326;  Cappelletti. 
Le  chiese  d'ltalia  (Venice,  18(i6).  XIV,  134:  Gams,  Series 
Episcoporum  Ecclesite  Catholica-  (Katisbon,  1873),  808:  Savio. 
OH  antichi  rescovi  d'ltalia  dalle  origini  al  1300  deacntti  per 
rcqioni.  I  Piemonte  (Turin,  1899),  9-48;  Pedrocca,  Solatia 
chronologica  sacrosanctw  Aguensis  EcdesifP  (manuscript  in  the 
Curia  of  Acqui,  1628);  Moriundus,  Monumenta  Aquenaia 
adjectw  sunt  plures  Alexandrite  ac  finitimaruTti  Pedemontants 
ditionia  provinciarum,  Chartce  et  Chronica  (Turin,  1790); 
HioRCi,  Antichith  e  prerogative  d' Acqui  Staziella  aua  iatoria 
profana-eccleaiastica  (Tortona,  1818);  Mamio,  Bibliogra^ 
provvisoria  acqueae,  in  preparazione  alia  bibliografia  atonca 
degli  atali  dclla  monorchia  di  Savoia   (Turin,   1885). 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Acquisition.     See  Property,  Ecclesiastical. 

Acre  (Saint-Jean-d'Acre),  in  Hebr.  'Acch/i,  Sept. 
'Axxii,  in  the  Books  of  Mach.  liroXefiah,  in  Greek 
writers  "Akt;  ("ApKri),  in  Latin  writers.lrc  or Acce,  in 
A.ssyrian  inscriptions  Al-ku-u,  in  modern  Arabic 
'Akka.  It  is  a  Syri:in  .sc:iiiort  on  tlic  Mediterranean, 
in  a  plain  with  Movmt  Carmcl  on  the  .south,  and  the 
mountains  of  Galilee  on  the  east.  Though  choked 
up  with  sand,  it  is  one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the 
Syrian  coast.  The  city  was  built  by  the  Chanaanites, 
and  given  to  the  tribe  of  Aser  (Judges,  i,  31),  but  not 
conquered  (Jos.,  xi.x,  24-31).  It  is  mentioned  in 
Mich.,  i,  10.  It  was  taken  by  Sennacherib  the 
AssjTian  (704-680  n.  c),  pa.ssed  into  the  power  of 
Tyro,  of  the  Selcucid  kings  of  Syria,  and  the  Romans. 
At  the  time  of  tlie  Macchabccs  it  bcliinged  for  a  short 
time  to  the  sanctii;iry  in  Jerusalem  by  gift  of  Deme- 
trius Soter  (I  Mach.,  x,  1-12,  xiii).  The  Emperor 
Claudius  granted  Roman  municipal  rights  to  the 
town; hence  it  received  the  name  "Colonia  Claudii 
Cipsaris."  St.  Paul  visited  its  early  Christian  com- 
munity (Acts,  xxi,  7).  The  city  was  taken  by  the 
Moslems  a.  d.  638,  by  the  Crusaders  A.  d.  1104,  again 
by  the  Moslems  a.  d.  11.87,  by  the  Crusaders  again 
A.  D.   1191,  and  finally  by  the  Moslems  a.  d.  1291. 


ACROSTIC 


111 


ACIA 


Though  Napoleon  could  not  conquer  it  in  1799,  it  was 
taken  by  the  Viceroy  of  Kgypt  in  1832,  but  recon- 
quered by  tlie  Sultan  in  1840.  Till  about  1400  it  was 
the  see  of  a  Latin  bishop;  it  iias  also  been  the  resi- 
dence of  a  few  Jacobite  bislioiis,  and  lias  now  a 
Melchite  bishop  who  is  subject  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch. 

Hagkn,  lexicon  Biblicum  (Paris.  1905):  Nkiier  in  Kircheri' 
lei..  I.EGENDRE  in  Vio.,  Diet,  dr  til  bihir  (Paris.  1895);  liwiNO 
in  Hastings,  Did.  of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1903). 

A.  J.  Ma.vs. 

Acrostic  (4/tpos  ffTi.x"',  "at  the  end  of  a  verse"), 
a  poem  the  initial  or  final  letters  (syllables  or  words) 
of  whoso  \erscs  form  certain  words  or  sentences. 
Its  invention  i.s  attributed  to  Epicharinus.  The  ino.st 
n  inarkabh'  cxainple  of  such  a  poem  is  attributed  by 
l.aclantius  and  Ku.scbius  to  the  Krythra"an  sibvf, 
the  initial  letters  forming  the  words  '\rjaoOi  X^wttAi 
8(ov  vlii  <raiT7)p  (<rTavp6s),  "Jesus  Christ.  .Son  of  (Jod, 
Saviour  (cross)".  Omitting  the  doubtful  ])arenthesis, 
these  words  form  a  minor  acrostic:  'Ix"'''.  fish,  the 
mystical  symbol  of  our  Lord.  The  acrostic  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  quite  popular  among  the  early 
Christians.  In  a  wider  sense  the  name  acro.<<tic  is 
applied  to  alphabetical  or  "abecedarian"  poems. 
In  this  kind  of  poetry  the  successive  verses  or  stanzas 
liegin  with  the  successive  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
We  see  this  exemplified  in  Rss.  c.xi,  cxii,  cxix  (Vulg. 
ex,  cxi,  cxviii);  Prov.,  xxxi,  10-31;  Lam.,  i,  ii,  iii,  iv; 
and  in  a  less  regular  manner,  in  Pss.  x,  xxv,  xxxv, 
cxlv  (Vulg.  ix,  xxiv,  xxxiv,  xx.xvi,  cxliv);  Ecclus.,  li, 
18-38.       (See      Hebrew     Poetry,     Par.u.i.elism, 

Ps.\LMS.) 

I-EtLERCQ  in  Diet,  d'archfol.  chrit.  et  de  lit.  (Paris,  1903): 
ViGorRorx  in  Diet.  d$  la  bible,  8.  v.  Alphab^tique  {Pohne) 
a'aris,  1S95). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Act.     The  Conventicle.     Sec  CoNVE.NTirLE  Act. 

Acta  Martyrum.     See  Martyrs,  Acts  of  the. 

Acta  Pilati  (or  Gospei,  of  Nicodemi's). — This 
work  does  not  assume  to  have  been  WTitten  by 
Pilate,  but  to  have  been  derived  from  the  official 
.\cts  preserved  in  the  pra-torium  at  Jerusalem.  The 
alleged  Hebrew  original  is  attributed  to  Xicodemus. 
The  title  "(iospel  of  Nicodenuis"  is  of  medieval 
origin.  The  apocryphon  gained  wide  credit  in  the 
Midillo  Ages,  and  has  considerably  atTected  the 
legends  of  our  Saviour's  Passion.  Its  popularity  is 
attested  by  the  number  of  languages  in  which  it 
exists,  each  of  these  being  represented  by  two  or 
more  recensions.  We  possess  a  text  in  Greek,  the 
original  language;  a  Coptic,  an  Armenian,  and  a  Latin, 
besides  modern  translations.  The  Latin  versions 
were  naturally  its  most  current  form  and  were 
printed  several  times  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  One  cla.ss  of  the  Latin  MSS.  contain  as 
an  appendix  or  continuation,  the  "Cura  Sanitatis 
Tibcrii",   the  oldest   form   of  the   Veronica  legend. 

The  "Acta"  consist  of  three  sections,  which  reveal 
inequalities  of  style.  The  first  (i-xi)  contains  the 
trial  of  JesiLs,  based  upon  Luke,  xxiii.  The  second 
part  conipri.ses  xii-xvi;  it  regards  the  Resurrection. 
An  appendix,  detailing  the  IJcycmsiis  ad  Inferos, 
forms  the  third  section.  This  does  not  exist  in  the 
Greek  text  and  is  a  later  addition.  Leucius  and 
Charinus,  two  souls  raised  from  the  dead  after  the 
Crucifixion,  relate  to  the  Sanhetlrin  the  circum- 
stances of  Our  Lord's  descent  to  Limbo.  The  well- 
informed  Eu-scbius  (3.!,'j),  although  he  mentions  the 
Acta  Pilati  referrc<l  to  by  Justin  and  Tertullian,  and 
heathen  pseudo-.\its  of  this  kiml,  shows  no  ac- 
quaintance with  this  work.  We  arc  forced  to  admit 
that  it  is  of  later  origin,  and  scholars  agree  in  a.ssign- 
ing  it  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth  centurj-.  There 
is  no  internal  relation  l)etween  the  ".Acta"  an<l  the 
feigned  letter  found  in  the  .\cts  of  Peter  and  Paul. 
Epiplmnius  refers  to  an  Acta  Pilati  siniilar  to  our 


own,  as  early  as  376,  but  there  are  indications  that 
the  current  Greek  text,  the  earliest  extant  form,  is 
a  revision  of  the  original  one.  The  "Acta"  are 
of  orthodox  com|>osition  and  free  from  Gnostic 
taint.  The  book  aimed  at  gratifying  the  desire  for 
extra-evangelical  details  concerning  Our  Lord,  and 
at  the  same  time,  to  strengthen  faith  in  the  Kesur- 
rection  of  Clirist,  and  at  general  edification.  The 
w Titers  (for  the  work  as  we  have  it  is  com[)osite)  could 
not  have  expected  their  produi^tion  to  be  seriously 
accepted  by  unbelievers.  (See  Apocryha,  under 
Pilate  Literati^re.) 

The  best  Greek  and  Latin  edition  of  tlie  text,  with  nf)te8, 
is  that  of  Tiin-o,  Codex  Apocn/phorum  Novi  Teatamtnti,  I 
(Leipzig.  1832):  TlHCHENDORF.  Ev(in(itti/t  .Apocrypha  (Leipzig, 
1853.  187r,).  is  uncritical  in  this  regard.  For  disserlalions: 
Lipsics.  Die  Pilatut  Akten  /.riliech  unterguehl  (Kiel.  1.S71); 
WcLCKER,  Daa  Evangelium  \icodemi  in  der  nbmdinndiacher 
Litteratur  (I'ailcrborn.  1872):  Doliscili  tz,  art.  Gospel  of 
N icodemua,  in  Ha.stings.  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  extra  volume; 
Lipsics.  art.  Apocryphal  Ooepel,  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Bioy.,  II, 
707-709.  Tlie  Acta  Pilati  receives  due  notice  in  the  histories 
of  ancient  Christian  literature  by  Bardenhewek.  Zahn,  Har- 
NACK,  and  Pretjschen. 

George  J.  Reid. 

Acta  SanctSB  Sedis,  a  Roman  monthly  publica- 
tion containing  the  principal  public  documents  issued 
by  the  Pope,  directly  or  through  the  Roman  Con- 
gregations. It  was  begun  in  ISd.'i.  under  the  title  of 
".\cta  Sancta;  Sedis  in  compendium  redacta  etc.", 
and  was  declared,  23  May,  1904,  an  organ  of  the 
Holy  Sec  to  the  extent  that  all  documents  printed 
in  it  are  "authentic  and  official". 

Acta  Sanctorum.     See  Hollandists. 

Acta  Sanctorum  Hibemise,  the  abbreviated  title 
of  a  celebrated  work  on  the  Irish  saints  by  the 
Franciscan,  John  Colgan  (Louvain,  104.5).  The 
full  title  runs  as  follows:  "Acta  Sanctorum  veteris 
et  majoris  Scotia;,  seu  Hibernite,  Sanctorum  Insuhe, 
partim  e.x  variis  per  Europam  MSS.  codd.  exscripta, 

Cartim  ex  antitiuis  monumentis  et  probatis  authori- 
us  eruta  et  congesta;  omnia  notis  et  appendicibus 
illustrata,  per  R.P.F.  Joannem  Colganum,  in  con- 
ventu  F.F.  Minor.  Ilibern.  Strictioris  Observ., 
Lovanii,  S.  Theologia;  Lectorem  Jubilatum.  Nunc 
primum  de  eisdem  actis  juxta  ordinera  mensium 
et  dierum  prodit  tomus  primus,  qui  de  sacris 
Hibernia-  antiquitatibus  est  tertius,  Januarium,  Feb- 
ruarium,  et  Martium  complectens."  Colgan  was  an 
ardent  Irishman,  of  the  Mac  Colgan  sept,  b.  in  the 
County  Derry,  1.592.  He  entered  the  Irish  House  of 
Franciscans,  at  Louvain,  in  1(J12.  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  KilS.  .Aided  by  Father  Hugh  Ward,  O. P.M., 
Father  Stephen  White,  S.J.,  and  Brother  Michael 
O'CIeary,  (J.  F.M.,  Colgan  sedulously  collected  enor- 
mous material  for  the  Lives  of  the  Irish  .Saints,  and 
at  length,  after  thirty  years  of  sifting  and  digesting 
his  materials,  put  to  pre.ss  his  "Acta  Sanctorum 
Hibernia","  a  portion  of  the  expense  of  which  w;is 
defrayed  by  Archbishop  O'Reilly  of  .Armagh.  The 
first  volume,  covering  the  lives  of  Irish  saints  for  the 
months  of  January,  February,  and  March,  was  in- 
tended to  be  the  third  volume  of  the  "Ecclesiastical 
Antiquities  of  Ireland,"  but  only  one  volume  was 
printed  at  Louvain  in  1G4.5.  To  students  of  Irish 
ecclesiastical  history  Colgan's  noble  volume  is  simply 
invaluable.  \V.  H.  GnATTAN-FLOOD. 

Acta  Triadis  Thatmiaturgae  (The  Acts  op  a 
WoNOEK-woiiKiNoTniAD),  or  tlie  lives  of  St.  Patrick, 
St.  Brigid,  and  St.  Columba;  published  at  Louvain, 
in  1647,  by  John  Colgan,  O.F..\I..  mainly  at  the  ex- 
pense of  Thomas  Fleming,  Archbishop  of  Dublin, 
riie  full  title  nins  as  follows:  "Triadis  Tnaumaturga>, 
seu  divorum  Patricii,  Columba-.  et  Brigida-.  trium 
veteris  et  majoris  Scotia",  seu  IIibernia>,  Sanctorum 
insula",  communium  patronorum  acta,  a  variis,  iisque 
pervetustis  ac  Sanctis,  authoribus  Scripta.  ac  studio 
R.P.F.   Joannis  Colgani,   in   conventu   F.F.   Minor. 


ACT 


112 


ACT 


Hibemor,  Strictior,  Observ.,  Lovanii,  S.  Theologia? 
Lectoris  Jubilati,  ex  variis  bibliothecis  coUecta, 
scholiis  et  commentariis  illustrata,  et  pluribus  ap- 
pendicibus  aucta;  complectitur  tomus  secundus 
sacrarum  cjvisdem  insuLo  anticiuitatuni,  nunc  primum 
in  luccm  jirodiens  ".  Want  of  funds  alone  prevented 
the  publication  of  all  the  priceless  material  which 
Colgan  had  transcribed  and  prepared  for  press,  and 
from  the  catalogue  of  the  manuscripts  found  in  his 
cell  after  his  death,  it  is  evident  that  the  great  Irish 
hagiologist  had  given  a  detailed  account  of  the 
labours  of  Irish  missionaries  in  England,  Scotland, 
Belgium,  Alsace,  Lorraine,  Burgundy,  Germany, 
and  Italy.  A  small  remnant  of  these  tinpublished 
volumes  is  now  in  the  Franciscan  Library,  Merchants' 
Quay,  Dublin.  In  1652  Colgan  begged  his  superiors 
to  relieve  him  of  the  duties  of  guardian  and  pro- 
fessor, and  he  died  at  St.  Anthony's,  Louvain,  15 
January,  1658,  aged  66. 

W.  H.  Grattan  Flood. 

Act,  Five  Mile.     See  Five  Mile  Act. 

Actio.     See  Mass. 

Active  Perseverance.     See  Perseverance. 

Act  of  Charity.     See  Charitv. 

Act  of  Faith.     See  Faith. 

Act  of  Hope.     See  Hope. 

Act  of  Settlement  (Irish). — In  1662  an  act  was 
passed  by  the  Irish  Parliament,  the  privileges  of 
which  were  restored  on  the  return  of  Charles  II, 
entitled  "an  act  for  the  better  execution  of  his 
majesty's  gracious  declaration  for  the  Settlement 
of  his  Kingdom  of  Ireland,  and  the  satisfaction  of 
the  several  interests  of  adventurers,  soldiers,  and 
other  his  subjects  there".  To  understand  the 
provisions  of  this  complicated  Act,  and  the  Act  of 
Explanation  of  it  (1664),  it  is  necessary  to  recall 
that  during  the  time  of  Cromwell  English  ad\-en- 
turers,  as  they  were  styled,  advanced  money  for  the 
war,  and  the  soldiers  engaged  in  it  had  large  sums 
due  to  them  for  arrears  of  pay.  To  meet  these  de- 
mands, extirpate  Papacy,  and  establish  a  Protestant 
interest  in  Ireland,  almost  all  the  land  in  Munster, 
lieinster,  and  Ulster  was  confiscated  under  the  Crom- 
wellian  Settlement.  The  confiscations  were  arranged 
under  different  categories  in  such  a  way  that  scarcely 
any  Catholic,  or  even  Old  Protestant,  could  escape. 
All  persons  who  had  taken  part  in  the  rebellion, 
before  10  November,  1042,  or  who  had  assisted  the 
rebels  in  any  way  before  that  date,  and  also  about 
100  named  persons,  including  Ormond,  Bishop  Bram- 
hall,  and  a  great  part  of  the  aristocracy  of  Ireland, 
were  condemned  to  death,  and  their  estates  declared 
forfeit.  All  other  landowners  who  had  at  any 
period  borne  arms  against  the  Parliament,  either  for 
the  rebels  or  for  the  King,  were  deprived  of  their 
estates,  but  were  promised  land  of  a  third  of  the 
value  in  Connaught.  Catholics  who  during  the 
whole  of  the  war  had  never  borne  arms  against  the 
Parliament,  but  who  had  not  manifested  "a  con- 
stant good  affection"  towards  it,  were  to  be  deprived 
of  their  estates,  but  were  to  receive  two-thirds  of 
their  value  in  Connaught.  Such  a  confiscation  was 
practically  universal  (Lecky,  I,  106).  The  Puritan 
made  no  distinction  between  the  rebel  and  the 
royalist,  and  did  not,  of  course,  consider  himself 
bound  by  the  Articles  of  Peace  (17  January,  1049). 
By  these  Charles  I,  through  Ormond,  had  engaged 
that,  with  the  exception  of  nmrderers  etc.,  all 
Catholics  who  submitted  to  the  articles  should  "be 
restored  to  their  respective  possessions  and  heredita- 
ments", and  that  all  trea.son  etc.,  committed  since 
the  heginiiing  of  the  rebellion,  should  be  covered  by 
an  "Act  of  Oblivion"  (Articles  of  Peace,  1C>19,  §  4). 
And  Charles  II,  in  a  letter  from  Jersey,  dated  2  Feb- 


ruary, 1649-50,  to  Ormond,  ratifies  and  confirms 
this  Peace  (Carte,  III,  524-.590,ed.  1851).  Many  of 
the  Catholic  proprietors  had  never  taken  anna 
against  the  King,  and  the  rest  who  had  done  so, 
w-hen  the  English  Parliament  announced  its  inten- 
tion to  extirpate  the  Catholic  religion  in  Ireland, 
with  few  exceptions  submitted  under  the  Articles  of 
Peace,  and  supported  his  cause  to  the  end.  All  these 
had  a  clear  title  to  restoration,  but  the  adventurers 
and  soldiers  were  in  the  actual  possession  of  the  lands, 
and  were  allowed  to  vote  as  freeholders  at  the  elec- 
tions, though  they  had  no  legal  status,  their  titles 
resting  on  an  act  of  Cromwell's  London  Parliament, 
and  an  entry  and  ouster  of  the  old  proprietors  under 
it.  The  Catholics  who  were  legally  the  true  free- 
holders had,  of  course,  no  votes.  When  the  new 
Parliament  met,  the  Puritan  adventurers  and  soldiers 
had  an  enormous  majority,  while  the  Catholics  were 
almost  unrepresented  in  the  House  of  Commons 
(1662).  The  King  had  previously  issued  a  Declara- 
tion, in  November,  1660,  which  was  made  the  basis 
of  the  Act  of  Settlement.  The  Irish  Parliament, 
under  Poyning's  Act,  could  not  entertain  a  Bill 
that  had  not  previously  been  sanctioned  by  the 
Privy  Council  in  England.  He  confirmed  to  the 
adventurers  all  the  lands  possessed  by  them  on 
7  May,  1659,  allotted  to  them  under  the  Cromwellian 
settlement.  He  did  the  same  as  regards  the  soldiers 
with  a  few  exceptions.  Protestants,  however,  whose 
estates  had  been  given  to  adventurers  or  soldiers, 
were  to  be  at  once  restored,  unless  they  had  been 
in  rebellion  before  the  cessation  (truce)  of  1643,  or 
had  taken  out  orders  for  lands  in  Connaught  or 
Clare,  and  the  adventurers  or  soldiers  displaced  were 
to  be  reprised,  i.  e.  get  other  lands  instead.  The 
Catholics  were  divided  into  "innocent  "and  "nocent". 
No  one  was  to  be  esteemed  "innocent"  (1)  who, 
before  the  cessation  of  15  September,  1643,  was  of 
the  rebels'  party,  or  who  enjoyed  his  estate  in  the 
rebels'  quarters,  except  in  Cork  and  Youghal,  where 
the  inhabitants  were  driven  into  them  by  force;  or 
(2)  who  had  entered  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Con- 
federacy before  the  Peace  of  1648;  or  (3)  who  had 
at  any  time  adhered  to  the  nuncio's  party;  or 
(4)  who  had  inherited  his  property  from  anyone 
who  had  been  guilty  of  those  crimes;  or  (5)  who 
had  sat  in  any  of  the  confederate  assemblies  or  coun- 
cils, or  acted  on  any  commissions  or  powers  derived 
from  them.  Those  who  established  their  claims  as 
"innocents",  if  they  had  taken  lands  in  Connaught 
were  to  be  restored  to  their  estates  by  2  May,  1661, 
but  if  they  had  sold  their  lands  they  were  to  in- 
demnify the  purchaser,  and  the  ad\cnturers  and 
soldiers  dispossessed  were  to  be  at  once  reprised. 

The  "nocent"  Catholics  who  had  been  in  the 
rebellion,  but  who  had  submitted  and  constantly 
adhered  to  the  Peace  of  1648,  if  they  had  taken  lands 
in  Connaught,  were  to  be  bound  by  that  arrange- 
ment, and  not  restored  to  their  former  estates.  If 
they  had  served  under  his  Majesty  abroad,  and  not 
taken  lands  in  Connaught  or  Clare,  they  were  to  be 
restored  after  reprisals  made  to  the  adventurers  and 
soldiers.  If  all  this  was  to  be  accomplished,  "there 
must"  said  Ormond,  "be  new  discoveries  of  a  new 
Ireland,  for  the  old  will  not  serve  to  satisfy  these 
engagements.  It  remains,  then,  to  determine  which 
party  must  suffer  in  the  default  of  means  to  satisfy 
all."  The  result  was  not  doubtful.  The  Protestant 
interest  was  resolute  and  armed,  and  threatened  to 
use  force,  if  necessary,  to  defend  their  possessions. 
The  Catholics  were  poor,  broken,  and  friendless. 
"All  the  other  comjieting  interests  in  Ireland  were 
united  in  their  implacable  malice  to  the  Irish  and 
in  their  desire  that  thev  might  gain  nothing  by  the 
King's  return."  The  fving  yielded  to  the  pressure 
of  the  Protestants,  the  vast  majority  of  whom  were 
accessory,  before  or  after  the  fact,  to  the  execution 


ACT 


113 


ACTON 


of  his  father.  He  declared  that  he  was  for  the 
establishment  of  an  EneHsh  interest  in  Ireland.  .Ml 
atteiiii)ls  to  carry  out  his  father's  and  his  own  en- 
gagciiients  were  abandonetl.  .\  commission  \va.s 
appointed  consisting  of  thirty-si.\  persons,  all  Prot- 
estants, and  they  proceeded  to  appoint  from  amongst 
their  body  a  court  of  daim.s  to  hear  cases  and  decide 
without  a  jurj'.  Four  thou.sand  Catholics  claimed 
to  1)6  restored  to  their  former  estates.  About  (iOO 
claims  were  heard,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  claimants  proved  "innocencv".  A  loud  outcry 
arose  from  the  Puritan  and  I'rotestant  interest. 
The  mutterings  of  an  intended  insurrection  were 
heard.  The  anger  and  panic  of  the  Cromwellians 
knew  no  bounds.  A  formidalilc  plot  was  discovered. 
A  small  outbreak  took  place  (Lord  V..  I'itzrnaurice, 
"  Life  of  Petty",  p.  131).  A  new  Bill  of  Settlement,  or, 
as  it  was  called,  of  Explanation.  wa.s  then  approved 
in  England,  and  brought  in  and  pa.ssed  in  Ireland 
(166.5).  It  provided  that  the  adventurers  and 
soldiers  should  give  up  one-third  of  their  grants  under 
the  Cromwellian  settlement,  to  be  applied  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  the  fund  for  reprisals.  Protest- 
ant adventurers  and  .soldiers  serving  before  1649, 
and  Protestant  purcha.sei-s  in  Coiinaught  or  Clare 
before  1663,  removable  from  restorabic  lands,  were 
to  receive,  before  the  lands  were  restored,  two- 
thirds  equivalent  in  other  lands.  Protestant  pur- 
chasers from  transplanted  persons  in  Connaught  or 
Clare  Ijefore  1  September,  1663,  were  confirmed  in 
two-thirds  of  their  purcha.se.  Every  clause  in  this 
and  the  preceding  act  was  to  be  construed  most 
lil)erally  and  beneficially  for  protecting  and  settling 
the  estates  and  persons  of  Protestants,  whom  the 
Act  was  principally  intended  to  settle  and  secure 
(§  73).  The  clause  in  the  first  act,  empowering  the 
King  to  restore  innocent  Catholics  to  their  houses 
within  Corporations,  was  repealed  (§  221).  The 
.Anglican  Church  regained  its  estates,  including  its 
large  revenue  of  tithes,  and  its  hierarchy  was  re- 
placed in  its  former  position.  Finally  (and  this  is 
the  most  important  and  iniquitous  provision  in  the 
Act)  it  was  declared  "that  no  person  who  by  the 
qualifications  of  the  former  Act  hath  not  been 
adjudged  innocent,  shall  at  anj'  time  hereafter  be 
reputed  innocent,  so  as  to  obtain  any  lands  or  tene- 
ments", etc.  This  excluded  the  whole  Ixidy  of  the 
4,000  innocent  claimants,  except  the  (WO  already 
disposed  of  "without  a  trial  from  the  inheritance 
of  their  fathers,  an  act  of  the  grossest  and  most 
cruel  injustice"  (Lecky,  I,  11.5).  After  these  acts 
the  Protestants  possessed,  according  to  Petty,  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  good  l.md,  and  of  the  Protes- 
tant landowners  in  1G.S9.  according  to  Archbishop 
King,  two-thirds  held  their  estates  under  the  Acts 
of    Settlement    and    Explanation. 

I.FCKT.  liigtory  of  Irelnnd  during  the  2Sth  Cmtury.  I, 
(1892);  PRF.NnF.RGAST,  The  Cromiceltinn  Nrltlemenl  of  Ire- 
land (1870):  Id..  Ireland  fnim  the  Rettoration  to  the  Resolu- 
tion (1887);  FlTZMAiRlcE.  The  Life  of  Sir  Wxlliam  Petty 
1023-87  (1895):  Carte,  Life  of  Duke  of  Ormond  (ed.  1851, 
Oxford). 

Arthur  ua  Clerigh. 

Act  of  Supremacy.    See  Suprem.a.cy. 

Act,  THK  Te.st.     See  Test. 

Act,  THE  ToLER.\TIO\.      See  E>fCL.\XD. 

Acton,  Ch.\rles  Jantarivs,  an  English  cardinal, 
b.  at  Naples,  6  March,  1803;  d.  at  Naples,  23  June, 
18-17.  He  was  the  .second  son  of  Sir  John  Francis 
Acton,  Bart.  The  family,  a  cadet  branch  of  the 
Actons  of  Aldenham  Hall,  near  Bridgnorth,  in  .Shrop- 
shire, had  settled  in  Naples  some  time  before  his 
birth.  His  father  was  engage<l  in  the  Neapolitan 
trade  when  he  succeeded  to  the  family  estate  and 
title  through  the  death  of  his  cousin.  Sir  Hichard 
Acton,  Bart.  The  Cardinal's  education  was  English, 
as  he  and  his  elder  brother  were  sent  to  England  on 
I.— 8 


their  father's  death  in  1811,  to  a  school  near  London 
kept  by  the  Abb6  (ju6qu6.  They  were  then  sent  to 
\\'estminster  School,  with  the  imderstanding  that 
their  religion  was  not  to  be  interfered  with.  Yet 
they  not  only  were  sent  to  this  Protestant  school, 
but  they  had  a  Protestant  clergj'man  as  tutor.  In 
1819  they  went  to  Magdalen  (.'ollege,  Cambridge, 
where  they  finished  their  education.  After  this 
strange  schooling  for  a  future  cardinal,  Charles  went 
to  Rome  when  he  was  twenty,  and  entered  the  Acadc- 
niia  Ecclesiastica,  where  ecclesiastics  intending  to  be 
candidates  for  public  offices  receive  a  special  training. 
An  es.say  of  his  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Sec- 
retarj-  of  .State,  della  Somaglia,  and  Leo  XII  made 
him  a  chamberlain  and  attach^  to  the  Paris  Nun- 
ciature, where  he  had  the  best  opportunity  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  diplomacy.  Pius  VIII  re- 
called him  and  named  him  vice-legate,  granting 
him  choice  of  any  of  the  four  legations  over  wliicli 
cardinals  presided.  He  chose  Bologna,  as  alTordiiig 
most  opportunity  for  improvement.  He  left  thee 
at  the  close  of  Pius  VHI's  brief  pontificate,  and  went 
to  England,  in  1829,  to  marrj'  his  sister  to  Sir  Richard 
Throckmorton.  Gregory  XVI  made  him  assistant 
judge  in  the  Civil  Court  of  Rome.  In  1837  he  was 
made  Auditor  to  the  Apostolic  Chamber,  the  highest 
Roman  dignity  after  the  cardinalate.  Probably  this 
was  the  first  time  it  was  e\cn  offered  to  a  foreigner. 
Acton  declined  it,  but  was  commanded  to  retain  it. 
He  was  proclaimed  Cardinal-Priest,  with  the  title  of 
Santa  Maria  della  Pace,  in  1842;  having  Ijeen  created 
nearly  three  years  previously.  His  strength,  never 
very  great,  began  to  decline,  and  a  severe  attack  of 
ague  made  him  seek  rest  and  recuperation,  first  at 
Palermo  and  then  at  Naples.  But  without  avail, 
for  he  died  in  the  latter  city.  His  sterling  worth 
was  little  known  through  his  modesty  and  humility. 
In  his  youth  his  musical  talent  and  genial  wit  sup- 
plied much  innocent  gaiety,  but  the  pressure  of 
serious  responsibilities  and  the  adoption  of  a  spiritual 
life  somewhat  subdued  its  exercise. 

His  judgment  and  legal  ability  were  such  that  ad- 
vocates of  the  first  rank  .said  that  could  they  know 
his  view  of  a  case  they  could  tell  how  it  would  be 
decided.  When  he  communicated  anything  in  writ- 
ing, Pone  Gregorj'  used  to  say  he  never  had  occasion 
to  reaa  it  more  than  once.  He  was  selected  as 
interpreter  in  the  interview  which  the  Pope  had  with 
the  (jzar  of  Russia.  The  Cardinal  never  said  any- 
thing about  this  except  that  when  he  had  interpreted 
the  Pope's  first  sentence  the  Czar  said:  "It  will  be 
agreeable  to  me,  if  your  Eminence  will  act  as  my  in- 
terpreter, also.  "  After  the  conference  Cardinal"  Ac- 
ton, by  reqviest  of  the  Pope,  wrote  out  a  minute 
account  of  it;  but  he  never  permitted  it  to  be  seen. 
The  King  of  Naples  urged  him  earnestly  to  be- 
come .Archbishop  of  Naples,  but  he  inexorably  re- 
fu.scd.  His  charities  were  unbounded.  He  once 
WTOte  from  Naples  that  he  actually  tasted  the  distress 
which  he  souglit  to  solace.  He  may  be  said  to  have 
departed  this  life  in  all  the  wealth  of  a  willing 
poverty. 

GiLLOw,  Diet.  Eng.  Calh..  I,  3-6:  Wiseman,  Recollectiona 
of  the  Latt  Four  Pope:     (London,  1858). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 


Acton,  John,  an  English  canonist,  after  1.329 
canon  of  Lincoln;  d.  1350.  His  name  is  spelled 
variously,  .\chedune,  de  Athona,  Aton,  Eaton; 
Maitland  and  Stubljs  wxite  Aj-ton.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  John  Stratford  (afterwards"  -■Vrchbishop  of  Canter- 
burj'),  and  is  declared  by  Maitland  (p.  98)  to  1)6 
"one  of  the  three  English  canonists  who  after  the 
earliest  years  of  the  thirteenth  centurj-  wrote  books 
that  met  with  any  success".  He  is  l)e-st  known  as 
a  glossator  of  the  legatine  "Constitutions"  of  Car- 
dinals Otho  and  Ottobone,  papal  legates  to  Eng- 


ACTON 


114 


ACTS 


land  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  contemporary 
lawyers  must  have  found  his  notes  both  full  and 
learned,  for  many  manuscript  copies  of  them  are 
said  by  Maitland  to  be  still  extant  at  Oxford. 
Tliey  were  first  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in 
his  edition  of  William  Lyndewood's  "  Provinciale" 
(1496)  and  partly  Iransla'ted  in  Johnson's  "Collec- 
tion of  Ecclesiastical  Laws"  (London,  1720:  cf.  the 
English  translation  of  Otho's  "Ecclesiastical  Laws", 
bv  J.  W.  White,  1844).  The  printed  copies  must 
be  received  with  caution,  for  they  contain  references 
to  books  that  were  not  written  until  after  the  death 
of  Acton.  His  canonical  doctrine  lends  no  support 
to  the  thesis  of  a  medieval  Anglican  independence  of 
the  papal  decretal  legislation.  "I  have  been  un- 
able", says  Dr.  F.  W.  Maitland  in  the  work  quoted 
below  (p.  8),  "to  find  any  passage  in  which  either 
John  of  Ayton  or  Lyndewood  denies,  disputes,  or 
debates  the  binding  force  of  any  decretal"  (cf.  ib., 
pp.  1 1-14).  Of  Acton  the  same  writer  says  (pp.  7,  8) 
that  he  was  "a  little  too  human  to  be  strictly  scientific. 
His  gloss  often  becomes  a  growl  against  the  bad 
world  in  which  he  lives,  the  greedy  prelates,  the 
hynocritical   friars,   the   rapacious   officials." 

F.  W.  Maitland,  Roman  Canon  Law  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land (London,  1898),  6  sqq.;   Diet,  of  jVal.  Biogr..  s.  v. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Acton,  John  Emerich  Edward  Dalberg,  Baron 
Acton,  Professor  of  Modern  History  at  Cambridge, 
1895-1902,  b.  at  Naples,  10  January,  1834,  where 
his  father.  Sir  Richard  Acton,  held  an  important 
diplomatic  appointment;  d.  at  Tegernsee,  Bavaria, 
19  June.  1902.  His  mother  was  the  heiress  of  a 
distinguished  Bavarian  family,  the  Dalbergs.  The 
Actons,  though  of  an  old  English  Catholic  stock,  had 
long  been  naturalized  in  Naples,  where  Lord  Acton's 
grandfather  had  been  prime  minister.  The  future 
historian  was  thus  in  an  extraordinary  degree  cos- 
mopolitan, and  much  of  his  exceptional  mastery  of 
historical  literature  may  be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that 
the  principal  languages  of  Europe  were  as  familiar 
to  him  as  his  native  tongue.  In  1843  the  boy  was 
sent  CO  Oscott  College,  Birmingliani,  where  Doctor, 
afterwards  Cardinal,  Nicholas  Wiseman  was  then 
president.  After  five  years  spent  at  Oscott,  Acton 
completed  his  education  at  Munich,  as  the  pupil  of 
the  celebrated  historian  I^oUinger.  With  Pollinger 
he  visited  France,  and  both  there  and  in  Germany 
lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  most  eminent 
historical  scholars  of  the  day.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land, however,  in  1859,  to  settle  upon  the  family 
estate  of  Aldenham  in  .Shropshire,  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  an  Irish  constituency,  and  re- 
tained his  seat  for  six  years,  voting  with  the  Liberals, 
but  taking  little  part  in  the  debates.  In  the  mean- 
time he  devoted  himself  to  literary  work,  and  upon 
iSewman's  retirement,  in  1859,  succeeded  him  in  the 
editorship  of  a  Catholic  periodical  called  "The 
Kambler  ',  which,  after  1862,  was  transformed  into 
a  quarterly  under  the  title  of  "The  Home  and  Foreign 
Review".  The  ultra  liber.al  tone  of  this  journal 
gave  offence  to  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  Acton 
eventually  judged  it  necessary  to  discontinue  its 
publication,  in  April.  1864,  when  he  wrote,  conccrn- 
mg  certain  tenets  of  his  which  had  licen  disapproved 
of,  that  "the  principles  had  not  ceased  to  be  true, 
nor  the  authority  which  censured  them  to  be  legiti- 
mate, because  the  two  were  in  contradiction."  The 
publication  of  the  "Syllabus"  by  Pius  IX  in  1864 
tended  to  alienate  Acton  still  further  from  Ultra- 
montane counsels.  He  had  in  the  meantime  become 
very  intimate  with  Mr.  Gladstone,  by  whom  he  «as 
recommended  for  a  peerage  in  1869,  and  at  the  time 
of  the  Vatican  Council  Lord  Acton  went  to  Rome 
with  the  express  object  of  organizing  a  party  of 
resistance  to  the  proposed  definition  of  papal  in- 
fallibility.    The   decree,    when    it    came,   seems    to 


have  had  the  effect  of  permanently  embittering 
Acton's  feelings  towards  Roman  authority,  but  he 
did  not,  like  his  friend  DoUinger,  formally  sever  his 
connection  with  the  Church.  Indeed  in  his  later 
years  at  Cambridge  he  regularly  attended  Mass,  and 
he  received  the  last  sacraments,  at  Tegernsee,  on  his 
death-bed.  The  Cambridge  Professorship  of  Modern 
History  was  offered  to  him  by  Lord  Hosebery  in 
1895,  and,  besides  the  lectures  which  he  delivered 
there,  he  conceived  and  partly  organized  the  "Cam- 
bridge Modern  History",  the  first  volume  of  which 
was  only  to  see  the  light  after  his  death.  Lord  Acton 
never  produced  anything  which  deserves  to  be  called 
a  book,  but  he  wrote  a  good  many  reviews  and  occa- 
sionally an  article  or  a  lecture.  As  an  historian  he 
was  probably  more  remarkable  for  knowledge  of 
detail  than  for  judgment  or  intiiition.  The  "Letters 
of  Quiriims,"  published  in  the  ".\llgemeine  Zeitung", 
at  the  time  of  the  Vatican  Council,  and  attributed  to 
Lord  Acton,  as  well  as  other  letters  addressed  to 
the  "Times",  in  November,  1874,  show  a  mind  mtich 
warped  against  the  Roman  system.  The  "Letters 
to  Mrs.  Drew"  (Mr.  Gladstone's  daughter),  which 
were  printed  by  Mr.  Herbert  Paul  in  1903,  are 
brilliant  but  often  bitter.  A  pleasanter  impression 
is  given  by  another  collection  of  Lord  Acton's  pri- 
vate letters  (published  1906)  under  the  editorship  of 
Abbot  Gasquet.  Some  of  .Acton's  best  work  was 
contributed  to  the  "English  Historical  Review". 
His  articles  on  "German  Schools  of  Hi.story",  in  the 
first  volume,  and  on  "  Dollinger's  Historical  Work", 
in  the  fifth,  deserve  particular  mention. 

An  excellent  bibliography  of  Lord  Acton's  literary  work 
has  been  compiled  for  the  Royal  Historical  .Society  by  Dr. 
W.  A.  .Shaw  (London,  190.3).  For  biographical  details  see 
Ga.squet,  Lord  Acton  and  his  Circle,  and  Herbert  Paul's 
Memoir  just  mentioned;  also  Eng.  Hist.  Reriew,  Oct.,  1902. 
and  Edinburgh  Review.  Oct..  1903.  The  rashness  of  Lord 
Acton's  historical  verdicts  has  been  discussed  by  the  present 
writer  in  the  London  Tablet.  15  July  and  29  July,  1905.  A 
collective  edition  of  Acto.x's  lectures  and  articles  is  in 
preparation. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Acton,  John  Francis  Edward,  sixth  Baronet 
of  the  name,  son  of  a  Shropshire  physician,  b.  at 
Besan^on,  3  Jvme,  1736;  d  at  Palermo,  12  August, 
1811.  He  entered  the  military  service  of  the  Duke 
of  Tuscany,  and  distinguished  liimsclf  in  the  .^Igerine 
war  in  1775,  during  which  he  rescued  4,000  Spaniards 
from  the  Corsairs.  Since  1779  he  was  engaged  in 
the  reorganization  of  the  Neapolitan  na\'j'.  He  be- 
came a  favourite  of  Queen  Caroline  and  was  made 
successively  minister  of  the  marine,  of  finance,  and 
prime  minister  of  the  kingdom  to  which  he  rendered 
notable  services.  When  the  Parthenopeian  Re- 
public was  estatjlished  by  the  French  at  Naples  in 
1798,  Acton  fled.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons he  was  temporarily  reinstated,  but  was  removed 
in  1806,  and  retired  to  Palermo. 

Diet,  o!  Nat.  Biogr..  I,  fi7,  68;  Colletta,  Storin  de!  Reame 
di  NapoH,  1734-1825;  Nicholas,  Despatches  and  Letters  of 
Nelson   (London,    lS44-4(i). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Acts,  Canonical. — .According  to  tlie  oKl  Roman 
jurisprudence,  acts  are  the  registers  (acta)  in  which 
were  recorded  the  official  docinnents,  the  decisions 
and  sentences  of  the  judges.  Acts  designate  in  law 
whatever  serves  to  prove  or  justify  a  thing.  Rec- 
ords, decrees,  reports,  certificates,  etc.  are  called 
acts.  Canonical  acts  derive  their  name  from  con- 
nection with  ecclesiastical  procedure.  Acts  may 
be  public  or  private,  civil  or  ecclesiastical. 

Public  acts  are  tliose  certified  by  a  public  notary 
or  other  person  holding  a  pulihc  office  or  position 
The.se  acts  may  be  judicial,  or  a  p;irt  of  court- 
procedure,  or  voluntary.  In  contentious  trials  to 
secure  justice,  the  acts  should  be  judicial;  extra- 
judicial   acts    are    not    contentious   but    voluntary. 


ACTS 


115 


ACTS 


Both  civil  and  canon  law  recognize  as  public  acts 
those  that  occur  before  witnesses,  if  these  acknowledge 
them  before  the  court,  otherwise  tliey  are  private. 
Public  acts  include  any  action  talten  by  the  judge, 
the  authorities  he  may  cjuote,  the  proceedings  in  the 
court,  documents  drawn  from  the  public  archives. 
An  original  document  of  a  community,  bishop,  or 
public  officer,  with  tlie  otlicial  seal,  or  a  copy  of  these 
sent  by  these  persons  with  due  authentication,  is  a 
public  act.  Public  acts  are  determinative  against 
anyone,  though  at  times  they  may  not  impose 
personal  obligation  on  tliose  not  participating  in 
them.  In  old  public  acts,  the  presumption  is  in 
favour  of  tlieir  being  riglitly  done;  to  upset  their 
value,  the  burden  of  proof  is  upon  liim  who  attacks 
them  or  argues  that  they  were  not  executed  with 
due  formalities.  Ecclesiastically,  an  exception  is 
made  for  alienation  of  Church  property,  where,  for 
the  validity  of  a  deed,  a  further  requisite  may  be 
exacted,  such  as  a  clear  proof  of  the  authorization 
of  a  bijliop,  or  the  consent  of  the  chapter.  For  these 
presumption  does  not  suffice. 

Private  acts  are  tliose  of  one  or  more  individuals; 
they  tell  against  those  wlu>  executed  tlicm,  not 
against  absent  parties  not  participating  in  them. 
While  public  acts  have  force  from  the  (lay  of  their 
date,  private  acts,  wliose  date  is  not  authenticated, 
have  force  only  from  the  day  of  their  public  registry. 
When  authenticated,  fraud  alone  can  upset  them. 
If  the  authenticating  official  overstepped  his  com- 
petency, the  act  would  only  bo  a  private  act,  but 
yet  of  private  value,  unless  the  law  requires  for  its 
validity  the  authentication  of  an  official.  Thus,  a 
deed  transferring  real  estate,  even  signed  by  the 
parties,  becomes  valid  for  public  purposes  when 
authenticated  by  the  official  designated  by  law, 
though  the  private  agreement  may  be  a  basis  for 
redress. 

It  is  not  easy  to  draw  precise  limits  between  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  acts.  Wliilo  civil  acts  arc  mainly 
of  the  laity,  about  secular  things,  and  ecclesiastical 
acts  mainly  of  ecclesiastics,  in  connection  with 
spiritual  things,  yet  both  easily  overlap  each  other. 
Acts  are  civil  or  ecclesiastical  by  their  relations  with 
the  State  or  the  Church,  by  tiieir  emanation  from 
either,  by  toucliing  upon  matters  belonging  to  either, 
or  by  affecting  the  dealings  of  persons  with  either. 
The  same  individuals  are  subject  to  both  authorities. 
Thus  ecclesiastics  do  not  cease  to  be  citizens,  and 
all  Christian  citizens  are  subject  to  tlie  authority  of 
the  Church  as  well  as  of  the  State.  Many  things, 
even  linked  with  spiritual  affairs,  <lo  not  lose  their 
natural  character  of  temporalities.  Many  acts 
passing  between  ecclesia.stics  are  purely  civil.  \n 
ecclesiastic,  though  a  minister  of  the  Cliurch,  is  also 
a  citizen;  his  actions  as  a  citizen  are  purely  civil; 
those  emanating  from  him  as  a  clergyman  are  ecclesi- 
astical. If  the  acts  are  such  as  could  be  properly 
performed  by  a  layman,  tliey  would  belong  to  the 
civil  order;  if  their  perfomiance  re(juired  the  clerical 
state,  they  are  ecclesiastical.  Vet  a  layman's 
spiritual  duties  and  exerci.ses  arc  ecclesiastical, 
coming  under  the  authority  of  the  Church;  an 
ecclesiastic's  money  matters  come  under  the  author- 
ity of  the  State  as  far  as  those  of  other  citizens. 
This  is  the  basis  of  the  distinction  between  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  jorum.  The  Cluirch  by  divine 
right  has  inalienable  control  of  strictlv  spiritual 
things;  the  State  of  strictly  temporal  tilings.  !?y 
the  goodwill  of  peoples  and  goveniments  the  Cliurcii 
obtained  many  privileges  for  its  jonim.  respecting 
the  temporalities  of  ecclesiastics,  and  even  of  the 
laity  in  matters  conncctoil  with  spiritual  things.  In 
otiier  matters  assigniMl  to  her  by  Divine  Law  she 
cannot  yield  lier  authority,  though  for  peace'  .sake 
she  may  tolerate  aggressions  U[)on  it.  She  may 
yield    (and  in   concordats  and   in  other  ways  does 


yield)  those  privileges  which  had  for  centuries  be- 
come part  of  her  jorum. 

Acts  also  designate  certain  general  formalities 
for  the  validity  of  documents,  often  essential  requi- 
sites, such  as  the  date,  the  signature,  the  qualifica- 
tions of  persons,  the  accurate  names  of  witnesses, 
and  other  similar  conditions  which  may  be  demanded 
by  civil  or  ecclesiastical  laws  or  by  tlie  custom  of  a 
country. — .•\cts  of  a  council  are  tlie  definitions  of 
faith,  decrees,  canons,  and  official  declarations  of 
the  council,  whose  sphere  of  action  is  more  or  less 
exten<led  according  as  it  is  oecumenical,  national, 
provincial,  etc. — Acts  of  tlie  Martyrs  are  tlie  docu- 
ments, narrations,  and  testimonies  of  tlie  arrest, 
interrogatories,  answers,  torments,  and  heroic  deaths 
of  the  Christians  who  sealed  their  faith  by  the  shed- 
ding of  their  blood  in  the  times  of  persecution.  The 
documents  of  tlie  Congregation  of  Kites  connected 
with  the  Ix-atification  and  canonization  of  saints 
are  designated  as  Acts  of  the  Saints.  This  is  also 
the  title  given  by  the  Bollandists  to  their  monumental 
account  of  the  lives  of  the  saints  (Acta  Sanctonim). 
Acts-('a[)itular  are  the  official  discu.ssions  of  the 
as,<enil)led  members  of  the  chapter,  the  name  given 
to  the  canons  of  the  cathedral  who  form  a  corporation 
established  to  aid  the  bishop  in  the  government  of 
the  diocese,  and  to  supply  his  place  when  the  see  is 
vacant. 

^ \a^¥.n,  Dictionnaire  de  droit  eccU».,v.  Art'-n  (Pari.-i,  1901)* 
Sa.nti,  Pro-;,  iur.  can.,  11,  Lib.  XXII,  De  Fitte  Inttrum.  (New 
York);  Smith,  Ecclea.  Law,  II.  v.  Judicial  I'raofn:  D'AviNO, 
Enciclopcdia  drW  Ecclenaslico  (Turin,  1878)  v.  Atli:  Craisson] 
Man.  tot.  iur.  can.,  IV,  iii,  art.  3,  De  Innlrum.  (I'oitier.-i,  1880); 
PlRiilNQ.  Sac.  Can.  Doctrina,  II,  Lib.  XXII,  De  Fide  Inttrum 
(Home,  Propaganda,  1859). 

R.   L.   BURTSELL. 

Acts,  Udm.^n. — Acts  are  termed  human  when 
they  are  proper  to  man  as  man;  when,  on  the  con- 
trary, they  are  elicited  by  man,  but  not  proper  to 
him  as  a  rational  agent,  they  are  called  acts  of  man. 

N.\TrnE. — St.  Thomas  and  the  scliolastics  in  gen- 
eral regard  only  the  free  and  deliberate  acts  of  the 
will  as  human.  Their  view  is  grounded  on  psycho- 
logical analysis.  A  free  act  is  voluntary,  that  is,  it 
proceeds  from  the  will  with  the  apprehension  of  the 
end  sought,  or,  in  other  words,  is  put  fortli  by  tlie 
will  solicited  by  the  goodness  of  the  object  as  pre- 
sented to  it  by  the  understanding.  Free  acts,  more- 
over, proceed  from  the  will's  own  determination, 
without  necessitation,  intrinsic  or  extrinsic.  For  the}' 
are  those  acts  which  the  will  can  elicit  or  abstain 
from  eliciting,  even  though  all  the  requisites  of  voli- 
tion are  present.  They,  consequently,  are  acts  to 
which  the  will  is  determined  neither  by  the  object 
nor  by  its  own  natural  dispositions  and  habits,  but  to 
which  it  determines  itself.  The  will  alone  is  capable 
of  self-determination  or  freedom;  the  other  faculties, 
as  the  understanding,  the  senses,  the  power  of  mo- 
tion, are  not  free;  but  some  of  their  acts  are  con- 
trolled by  the  will  and  so  far  share  its  freedom  in- 
directly. The  active  indeterminateness  of  the  will, 
its  miustery  over  its  own  actions,  is  consequent  upon 
the  deliberation  of  reason.  For  the  intellect  dis- 
cerns in  a  given  object  both  perfection  and  imper- 
fection, both  good  and  evil,  and  therefore  presents 
it  to  the  will  as  desirable  in  one  respect  and  un- 
desirable in  another.  But  when  an  object  is  thus 
proposed,  the  will,  on  account  of  its  unlimited  scope, 
may  love  or  hate,  embrace  or  reject  it  The  resultant 
state  of  the  will  is  indilTerence,  in  which  it  has  the 
power  to  determine  itself  to  either  alternative. 
Hence,  whenever  there  is  deliberation  in  the  under- 
standing, there  is  freedom  in  the  will,  and  the  con- 
sequent act  is  free;  vice  versa,  whenever  an  act  pro- 
ceeds from  the  will  without  deliberation,  it  is  not 
free,  but  necessarj'.  Wherefore,  as  deliberate  and 
free  actions,  so  indeliberate  and  necessary  actions  are 
identical.     The  free  act  of  the  will  thus  analyzed  is 


ACTS 


116 


ACTS 


evidently  the  act  proper  to  man  as  a  rational  agent. 
For  it  is  man  who  is  its  determining  cause;  whereas 
his  necessary  actions  are  unavoidably  determined 
by  his  nature  and  environment.  He  is  the  master 
of  the  former,  wliile  tlie  latter  are  not  under  his 
dominion  and  cannot  be  withheld  by  him.  These, 
therefore,  are  properly  .styled  acts  of  man,  because 
elicited,  but  not  determined,  by  him.  The  human 
act  admits  of  increment  and  decrement.  Its  volun- 
tariness can  be  diminished  or  increased.  Ignorance, 
as  far  as  it  goes,  renders  an  act  involuntary,  siiice 
what  is  unknown  cannot  be  willed;  passions  intensify 
the  inclination  of  the  will,  and  thus  increase  vol- 
untariness, but  lessen  deliberation  and  consequently 
also  frectiom. 

Properties. — Human  acts  are  imputable  to  man 
so  as  to  involve  his  responsibility,  for  the  very  reason 
that  he  puts  them  forth  deliberatively  and  with  self- 
determination.  They  are,  moreover,  not  subject  to 
physical  laws  which  necessitate  the  agent,  bvit  to  a 
law  which  lays  the  will  under  obligation  without 
interfering  with  his  freedom  of  choice.  Besides,  they 
are  moral.  For  a  moral  act  is  one  that  is  freely 
elicited  with  the  knowledge  of  its  conformity  with, 
or  difformity  from,  the  law  of  practical  reason  proxi- 
mately and  the  law  of  God  ultimately.  But  when- 
ever an  act  is  elicited  with  full  deliberation,  its  re- 
lationship to  the  law  of  reason  is  adverted  to.  Hence 
human  acts  are  either  morally  good  or  morally  bad, 
and  their  goodness  or  badness  is  imputed  to  man. 
And  as,  in  consequence,  they  are  worthy  of  praise  or 
blame,  so  man,  who  elicits  them,  is  regarded  as  virtu- 
ous or  wicked,  innocent  or  guilty,  deserving  of  re- 
ward or  punishment.  Upon  the  freedom  of  the 
human  act,  therefore,  rest  imputability  and  morality, 
man's  moral  character,  his  ability  to  pursue  his 
ultimate  end  not  of  necessity  and  compulsion,  but 
of  his  own  will  and  choice;  in  a  word,  his  entire 
dignity  and  pre-eminence  in  this  visible  universe. 

Recent  Views. — Recent  philosophic  speculation 
discards  free  will  conceived  as  capability  of  self- 
determination.  The  main  reason  advanced  against 
it  is  its  apparent  incompatibility  with  the  law  of 
causation.  Instead  of  indeterminism,  determinism 
is  now  most  widely  accepted.  According  to  the 
latter,  every  act  of  the  will  is  of  necessity  determined 
by  the  character  of  the  agent  and  the  moti\'es  which 
render  the  action  desirable.  Character,  consisting  of 
individual  dispositions  and  habits,  is  either  inherited 
from  ancestors  or  acquired  by  past  activity;  motives 
arise  from  the  pleasurableness  or  vmpleasurableness 
of  the  action  and  its  object,  or  from  the  external 
environment.  Many  determinists  drop  freedom,  im- 
putability, and  responsibility,  as  inconsistent  with 
their  theory.  To  them,  therefore,  the  human  act 
cannot  be  anything  else  than  the  voluntary  act. 
But  there  are  other  determinists  who  still  admit  the 
freedom  of  will.  In  their  opinion  a  free  action  is  that 
which  "flows  from  the  universe  of  the  character  of 
the  agent".  And  as  "character  is  the  constitution 
of  Self  a-s  a  whole  ",  they  define  freedom  as  "  the  con- 
trol proceeding  from  the  Self  as  a  whole,  and  deter- 
mining the  Self  as  a  whole".  We  find  freedom  also 
defined  as  a  state  in  which  man  wills  only  in  con- 
formity with  his  true,  imchangcd,  and  untrammelled 
personality.  In  like  manner  Kant,  though  in  his 
Critique  of  Pure  Reason"  he  advocates  determinism, 
nevertheless  in  his  "Fundamental  Metaphy.sics  of 
Morals"  admits  the  freedom  of  the  will,  conceiving 
it  a.s  independence  of  external  causes.  The  will,  he 
maintains,  is  a  cau.sality  proper  to  rational  beings, 
and  freedom  is  its  eiidowment  enabling  it  to  act  witli- 
out  being  determined  from  without,  just  as  natural 
necessity  is  the  need  proixjr  to  irrational  creatures  of 
being  determined  to  action  by  external  influence. 
He  adds,  however,  in  explanation,  that  the  will  nnist 
act  according  to  unchangeable  laws,  as  else  it  would 


be  an  absurdity.  Free  acts  thus  characterized  are 
termed  human  by  these  determinists,  because  they 
proceed  from  man's  reason  and  personality.  But 
plainly  they  are  not  human  in  the  scholastic  accepta- 
tion, nor  in  the  full  and  proper  sense.  They  are  not 
such,  because  they  are  not  under  the  dominion  of 
man.  True  freedom,  which  makes  man  master  of  his 
actions,  must  be  conceived  as  immunity  from  all 
necessitation  to  act.  So  it  was  understood  by  the 
scholastics.  They  defined  it  as  immunity  from  both 
intrinsic  and  extrinsic  necessitation.  Not  so  the 
determinists.  According  to  them  it  involves  im- 
munity from  extrinsic,  but  not  from  intrinsic,  nec- 
essitation. Human  acts,  therefore,  as  also  imputa- 
bility and  responsibility,  are  not  the  same  thing  in  the 
old  and  in  the  new  schools. 

So  it  comes  to  pass,  that,  while  nowadays  in  ethics 
and  law  the  very  same  scientific  terms  are  employed 
as  in  former  ages,  they  no  longer  have  the  same  mean- 
ing as  in  the  past  nor  the  same  in  Catholic  as  in  non- 
Catholic  literature. 

Maher,  Psychology  (4th  ed.,  New  York.  1900);  Ladd, 
Psychology,  xxvi  (4th  ed.,  New  York.  1903);  MacKenzie, 
Manual  of  Ethics  (4th  ed.,  New  York.  1901);  SuAREz,  Trad, 
de  Voluntario;  Offner,  Willensjrciheit,  Zurech.tung,  und 
V erantwortung  (Leipzig,   1904). 

John  J.  Ming. 

Acts,  Indifferent. — A  human  act  may  be  con- 
sidered in  the  abstract  (in  specie)  or  in  the  concrete  {in 
individuo).  Taken  in  the  former  sense  it  is  clear  the 
morality  of  a  human  act  will  be  determined  by  its 
object  only,  and  as  this  may  be  of  a  kind  that  is 
neither  conformable  to  a  moral  norm  nor  contrary 
to  it,  we  may  have  an  act  that  can  be  said  to  be 
neither  good  nor  bad,  but  indifferent.  But  can  this 
character  of  indifTerence  be  predicated  of  the  act  we 
are  discussing,  considered  not  as  an  abstraction  of 
the  mind,  but  in  the  concrete,  as  it  is  exercised  by 
the  individual  in  particular  circumstances,  and  for  a 
certain  end?  To  this  question  St.  Bonaventure  (in 
2,  dist.  41,  a.  1,  q.  3,  where,  however,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, the  Seraphic  Doctor  speaks  directly  of  merit 
only)  answers  in  the  affirmative,  and  with  him  Scotus 
(in"2,  dist.  40-41,  et  quodl.  IS),  and  all  the  Scotist 
school.  So  also  Sporer  (Theol.  Moral.,  1,111,  §  v); 
Elbel  (Theol.  Moral.,  tom.  i,  n.  86);  Vasquez  (in  1-2, 
disp.  52);  Arriaga  (De  Act.  Hum.,  disp.  21);  and  in 
our  own  day  Archbishop  Walsh  (De  Act.  Hum.,  n. 
5SS  sq.).  St.  Thomas  (In  2,  dist.  40.,  a.  5;  De  Malo, 
q.  2,  a.  4  et  5;  1-2,  q.  18,  a.  9),  and  his  commentators 
hold  the  opposite  opinion.  So  too  do  Suarez  (De 
Bon.  et  Mai.,  disp.  ix);  Billuart  (diss.  IV,  a.  5  et  6); 
St.  Alphonsus  (L.  2,  n.  XLIV);  Bouquillon  (Theol. 
Moral.  Fund.,  n.  371);  Lehmkuhl  (Theol.  Moral.,  L.  I, 
tract.  I,  III) ;  and  Noldin  (Sum.  Theol.  Moral. ,  1 ,  85  sq.). 

It  mu.st  be  noted  that  the  Thoniists,  no  less  than 
the  Scotists,  recognize  as  morally  indifferent  acts 
done  without  deliberation,  such,  for  instance,  as  the 
stroking  of  one's  beard  or  the  rubbing  of  one's 
hands  together,  as  these  ordinarily  fake  place.  Ad- 
mittedly indifferent,  too,  will  those  acts  be  in  which 
there  is  but  a  physical  deliberation,  as  it  is  called, 
such  as  is  realized  when,  for  instance,  we  deliberately 
read  or  write,  without  any  thought  of  the  moral 
order.  The  question  here  is  of  those  acts  only  that 
are  performed  with  advertence  to  a  moral  rule. 
Again,  most  of  the  Thomists  will  allow  that  an  act 
would  be  indifferent  in  the  case  where  an  agent 
would  judge  it  to  be  neither  good  nor  bad  after  he 
had  formed  his  conscience,  according  to  the  opinion 
of  Scotists,  to  which,  it  must  be  conceded,  a  solid 
probability  is  attached.  Finally,  it  nnist  be  remarked 
that  no  controversy  is  raised  regarding  the  indiffer- 
ence of  acts  with  reference  to  supernatural  merit. 
The  doctrine  that  all  the  works  of  infidels  are  evil 
has  been  formally  condemned.  Yet  clearly,  while 
the  deeds  of  those  without  grace  may  be  moially 
good,  and  thus  in  the  supernatural  order  escape  lul 


ACTS 


u; 


demerit,  tliey  cannot,  at  the  same  time,  lay  claim 
to  any  merit. 

Both  the  Thomists  and  Scotists  will  declare  that, 
to  Ix;  morally  good,  an  act  must  be  in  coiiforniily 
with  the  exigencies  and  dignity  of  our  rational  nature. 
But  tlie  (|Uc.stion  is,  what  i.s  to  Ix'  reckoned  a.s  con- 
formable to  the  exigencies  and  dignity  of  our  rational 
nature?  According  to  the  Scotists,  the  deliberate  act 
of  a  rational  being,  to  be  morally  good,  must  be  re- 
ferred to  a  positively  good  end.  lience  tho.se  act.s 
in  which  the  agent  adverts  to  no  end,  and  whicli 
have  for  their  object  nothing  that  is  eitlier  conform- 
able to  our  rational  nature,  nor  yet  contrarj'  to  it, 
such  as  eating,  drinking,  taking  recreation,  and  the 
like,  cannot  be  accounted  morally  good.  Since,  how- 
ever, these  discover  no  deviation  from  the  moral 
norm,  they  cannot  be  characterized  as  evil,  and  so 
therefore,  it  is  said,  must  be  considered  as  indifferent. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  St.  Thomas,  which  is 
the  more  common  one  among  theologians,  it  is  not 
necessary,  in  order  to  be  morally  good,  that  an  act 
should  be  referred  to  a  positively  good  end.  It  is 
enough  that  the  end  is  seen  to  be  not  evil,  and  that 
in  the  performance  of  the  act  the  bounds  set  by 
right  reason  l)e  not  transgressed.  Thus  the  acts  of 
eating,  drinking,  taking  recreation,  and  the  like, 
while,  in  the  abstract,  they  are  neither  conformable 
nor  contrary  to  our  rational  nature,  in  the  concrete, 
b}'  reason  of  the  circumstance  of  their  being  done 
in  the  manner  and  the  measure  prescribed  by  rea- 
son, become  fully  in  accord  with  our  rational  nature, 
and  hence  morally  good.  It  will  be  observed  from 
the  foregoing  tliut  tlie  Thomists  hold  as  morally  good 
the  acts  which  the  Scotists  maintain  to  1)C  only  mor- 
ally indifferent.  According  to  a  third  class  of  theo- 
logians, a  deliberate  act  wliich  is  not  referred  to  a 
positively  good  end  must  be  reputed  as  morally  c\il. 
Hence  that  which  we  have  described  as  good  in  the 
doctrine  of  St.  Thomas,  and  as  indifferent  to  the 
mind  of  Scotus,  must,  according  to  these  theologians, 
be  deemed  nothing  else  than  bad.  Wrongly  styled 
Thomists,  the  advocates  of  this  opinion  are  one  with 
the  Angelic  Doctor  only  in  declaring  that  there  are 
no  indifferent  deliberate  acts.  They  differ  from  him 
radically  in  their  unwarrantable  rigour,  and  their 
teaching  is  condemned  by  the  sense  and  practice  of 
even  the  most  delicately  conscientious  persons. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  the  followinK  may  be 
consulteil:  Ai.knsis,  Sum.,  III.  Q.  XXX\*.  3;  Amort,  De  nctu 
morali  indifjerenti  in  imiiruliw:  Mkykr.  Inst.  jur.  nal.,  1. 
292-310;  CosTA-KossETTl.  /n»(.  elh.  el  jur.  nal.  Ih..  20;  MuL- 
LER,  torn.  I,  par.  97;  I'rcnkk.  Moral  Iheol..  I.  21,  §  4. 

JoHX  Webster  Melody. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles. — X.vme. — In  the  accepted 
order  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  the  filth 
book  is  called  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (irpiffn 
AiroffToXwi-).  Some  have  thought  that  the  title  of 
the  book  was  affi.xcil  by  the  author  himself.  Thia 
is  the  opinion  of  Comely  in  his  "  Introduction  to  the 
Hooks  of  the  New  Testament  "  {.second  edition,  page 
.■^1.')).  It  seems  far  more  probable,  however,  that 
the  name  was  subsequently  attached  to  the  book, 
just  as  the  headings  of  the  .several  Gospels  were 
adi.xed  to  them.  In  fact,  the  name.  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  docs  not  precisely  convey  the  idea  of  the 
contents  of  the  book;  ami  such  a  title  would  scarcely 
be  given  to  the  work  by  the  author  himself. 

Cii.NTEXT. — The  bool<  does  not  contain  the  .\ct3 
of  all  the  .\postles,  neither  does  it  contain  all  the 
acts  of  any  .\postle.  It  opens  with  a  brief  notice  of 
the  forty  d:iys  succeeding  the  Resurrection  of  Christ, 
during  whidi  He  appeared  to  the  -Apostles,  ".speaking 
the  things  concerning  the  Kingdom  of  God".  The 
promi.se  of  tlie  Holy  (!host  anil  the  .\scension  of 
Christ  are  then  briefly  recorded.  St.  Peter  advises 
that  a  .s\icre.s.sor  be  chosen  in  the  place  of  .ludas 
Iscariot,  and  Matthias  is  chosen  by  lot.  On  Pente- 
cost the  Holy  Ghost  descends  on  the  Apostles,  and 


confers  on  them  the  gift  of  tongues.  To  the  wonder- 
ing wilnes.ses  St.  Peter  explains  the  great  miracle, 
proving  that  it  is  the  power  of  Jesus  Christ  that  is 
operating.  By  that  great  discourse  many  were 
converted  to  the  religion  of  Christ  and  were  baptized, 
"and  there  were  adiled  unto  them  in  that  day  about 
three  thou.sand  .souls".  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  Juda'o-Christian  Church.  "And  the  Lord  atUled 
to  them  day  by  day  tho.se  that  were  being  saved." 
Peter  and  John  heal  a  man,  lame  from  his  mother's 
womb,  at  the  door  of  the  Temple  which  is  called 
Heauliful.  The  people  are  filled  with  wonder  and 
amazement  at  the  miracle  and  run  together  unto 
Peter  and  John  in  the  portico  that  was  called  Solo- 
mon's. Peter  again  preaches  Jesus  Clirist,  asserting 
that  by  faith  in  the  name  of  Jesus  the  lame  man  had 
been  made  strong.  ".And  many  of  them  that  heard 
the  word  believed",  and  the  number  of  the  men 
came  to  be  about  five  thousand.  But  now  "the 
priests,  and  the  prefect  of  the  Temple  and  the  Saddu- 
cees  came  upon  them,  being  sorely  troubled  because 
they  taught  the  people,  and  proclaimed  in  Jesus 
the  resurrection  from  the  dead.  And  they  laid 
hands  on  them,  and  put  them  in  prison  imto  the 
morrow."  On  the  morrow  Peter  and  John  are 
summoned  before  rulers,  elders,  and  scribes,  among 
whom  were  present  Annas,  the  High-Priesl.  Caiplias, 
and  as  many  as  were  of  the  kindred  of  the  Iligh- 
Priest.  And  when  they  had  set  Peter  ami  John  in 
the  midst  they  inquired:  "  Ry  what  power,  or  in 
what  name  have  ye  done  this'?"  Then  Peter,  filled 
with  the  Holy  Ghost,  answering  gave  utterance  to  one 
of  the  most  sublime  professions  of  the  Christi;m 
faith  ever  made  by  man:  "Be  it  known  unto  you  all, 
and  to  all  the  people  of  Israel,  that  in  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ  of  Nazareth,  whom  ye  crucifieil.  whom 
God  raised  from  the  dead,  in  this  name  doth  this 
man  stand  here  before  you  whole.  He  [Jesus]  is 
the  stone  which  was  set  at  naught  by  you  the  builders, 
which  was  made  the  head  of  the  comer  [Isaias, 
xxviii,  16;  Matt.,  xxi,  42].  .\nd  in  no  other  is  there 
salvation:  For  neither  is  there  any  other  name  under 
Heaven,  that  is  given  among  men,  wherein  we  must 
be  saved."  The  members  of  the  council  were 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  most  positive  evidence 
of  the  truth  of  the  Chri.stian  religion.  They  com- 
mand the  two  Apostles  to  go  a.side  out  of  the  council, 
and  then  they  confer  among  themselves,  saj-ing: 
"  What  .shall  we  tlo  with  these  men?  For  that  indeed 
a  notable  miracle  hath  been  wrought  through  them, 
is  manifest  to  all  that  dwell  in  Jerusalem;  and  we 
cannot  deny  it".  Here  is  one  of  the  .splendid  in- 
stances of  that  great  cumulus  of  evidence  upon  which 
the  certitude  of  the  Chri.stian  Faith  rests.  A  bitterly 
hostile  council  of  the  chief  Jews  of  Jerusalem  is 
obliged  to  declare  that  a  notable  miracle  had  been 
wrought,  which  it  cannot  deny,  and  which  is 
manifest  to  all  that  dwell  in  Jenisalcm. 

With  dreadful  malice  the  council  attempts  to  re- 
strain the  great  movement  of  Christianity.  Thcv 
threaten  the  Apostles,  and  charge  them  not  to  speak 
at  all  or  teach  in  the  name  of  Jesus;  Peter  and  John 
contemn  the  threat,  calling  upon  the  council  to 
judge  whether  it  be  right  to  hearken  unto  the  council 
rather  than  imto  Goil.  The  members  of  the  council 
could  not  inflict  punishment  upon  the  two  .\postles, 
on  account  of  the  people,  who  glorified  God  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  miracle.  Peter  .and  John,  being 
freed  frtmi  custoily,  return  to  the  other  Ajpostles. 
They  all  give  glorj-  to  God  and  pray  for  bohlness  to 
speak  the  woni  of  God.  .After  the  prayer  the  place 
snakes,  and  they  are  filled  with  the  Iloly  Ghost. 

The  fervour  of  the  Christians  at  that  epoch  was 
ver\'  great.  They  were  of  one  heart  and  soul;  they 
had  all  things  in  common.  .As  many  as  were  pos- 
.sessors  of  lands  or  hou.ses  sold  them  and  delivered 
the  price  to  the  Apwstles,  and  tliis  money  was  dis- 


ACTS 


118 


ACTS 


tributed  as  anyone  had  need.  But  a  certain  Ananias, 
with  Saphira  his  wife,  sold  a  possession  and  kept 
back  part  of  the  price,  the  wife  being  accessory  to 
the  deed.  St.  Peter  is  inspireti  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
to  know  the  deception,  and  rebukes  Ananias  for  the 
lie  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  At  the  rebuke  the  man  falls 
dead.  Saphira,  coming  up  afterwards,  and  knowing 
nothing  of  the  death  of  her  husband,  is  interrogated 
by  St.  Peter  regarding  the  transaction.  She  also 
keeps  back  a  part  of  the  price,  and  lyingly  asserts 
that  the  full  price  has  been  brought  to  the  Apostles. 
St.  Peter  rebukes  her,  and  she  also  falls  dead  at  his 
words.  The  multitude  saw  in  the  death  of  Ananias 
and  Saphira  God's  punishment,  and  great  fear  came 
upon  all.  This  miracle  of  God's  punishment  of  sin 
also  confirmed  the  faith  of  those  that  believed,  and 
drew  disciples  to  them.  At  this  stage  of  the  life  of 
the  Churcli  miracles  were  necessary  to  attest  the 
truth  of  her  teaching,  and  the  power  of  miracles  was 
abimdantly  bestowed  upon  the  Apostles.  These 
miracles  are  not  reviewed  in  detail  in  Acts,  but  it  is 
stated:  "And  by  the  hands  of  the  apostles  were 
many  signs  and  wonders  wrought  among  the  people  " 
(Acts.  V,  12).  Multitudes  both  of  men  and  women 
were  added  to  the  Christian  conmiunity.  The 
people  of  Jerusalem  carried  out  the  sick  and  laid  them 
on  beds  and  couches  in  the  streets  that  the  shadow 
of  St.  Peter  might  fall  on  them.  They  brought  the 
sick  from  the  cities  round  about  Jerusalem,  and 
every  one  was  healed. 

The  most  powerful  sect  among  the  Jews  at  this 
epoch  were  the  Sadducees.  They  were  especially 
opposed  to  the  Christian  religion  on  account  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  The 
cardinal  truth  of  the  Apostles'  teaching  was:  Life 
Everlasting  through  Jesus,  Who  was  crucified  for 
our  sins,  and  Wio  is  risen  from  the  dead.  The  High- 
ftiest  Annas  favoured  tiie  Sadducees,  and  his  son 
Ananus,  who  afterwards  became  High-Priest,  was  a 
Sadducee  (Josephus.  .\ntiq..  XX,  viii).  These 
fierce  sectaries  made  with  Annas  and  Caiphas  com- 
mon cause  against  the  Apostles  of  Christ,  and  cast 
them  again  into  prison.  The  Acts  leaves  us  in  no 
doubt  as  to  the  motive  that  inspired  the  High-Priest 
and  the  sectaries:  "They  were  filled  with  jealousy". 
The  religious  leaders  of  the  Old  Law  saw  their  in- 
fluence with  the  people  waning  before  the  power 
wliich  worked  in  the  Apostles  of  Christ.  An  angel  of 
the  Loril  by  night  opened  the  prison  doors,  and 
brought  the  Apostles  out,  and  bade  them  go  and  preach 
in  the  Temple.  The  council  of  the  Jews,  not  finding 
Peter  and  John  in  the  prison,  and  learning  of  their 
miraculous  deliverance,  are  much  perplexed.  On 
information  that  they  are  teaching  in  the  Temple, 
they  send  and  take  them,  but  without  violence, 
fearing  the  people.  It  is  evident  throughout  that 
the  common  people  are  disposed  to  follow  the  Apos- 
tles; the  opposition  comes  from  the  priests  and  the 
classes,  most  of  the  latter  being  Sadducees.  The 
council  accuses  the  Apostles  that,  contrary  to  its 
former  injunction  not  to  teach  in  Christ's  name, 
they  had  filled  Jerusalem  with  Christ's  teaching. 
Peter's  defence  is  that  they  must  obey  God  rather 
than  men.  He  then  boklly  reiterates  the  doctrine 
of  the  Redemption  and  of  the  Hesurrection.  The 
council  is  minded  to  kill  the  Apostles.  At  this 
point  Gamaliel,  a  Pharisee,  a  doctor  of  the  Jewish 
law,  held  in  honour  of  all  the  people,  arises  in  tlie 
council  in  defence  of  the  Apostles.  He  cites  prec- 
edents to  prove  that,  if  the  New  Teaching  be  of 
men,  it  will  be  overthrown;  and  if  it  be  of  God.  it 
will  be  impo.s.sible  to  overthrow  it.  Gamaliel's 
coun.sel  prevails,  and  the  council  calls  the  Apostles, 
beats  them,  and  lets  them  go,  charging  them  not  to 
speak  in  the  name  of  Jesus.  Hut  the  Apostles  de- 
j)artcd,  rejoicing  that  thev  were  coimted  worthy  to 
suffer  dishonour  for  the  liame.     And  every  day.  in 


the  Temple  and  privately,  they  ceased  not  to  teach 
and  to  preach  Jesus  the  Christ. 

A  murmuring  having  arisen  of  the  Grecian  Jews, 
that  their  widows  were  neglected  in  the  daily  minis- 
tration, the  Apostles,  deeming  it  unworthy  that 
they  should  forsake  the  word  of  God  and  serve  tables, 
appoint  seven  deacons  to  minister.  Chief  among 
the  deacons  was  Stephen,  a  man  full  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  He  wrought  great  signs  and  wonders  among 
the  people.  The  anti-Christian  Jews  endeavour  to 
resist  him,  but  are  not  able  to  withstand  the  wisdom 
and  the  spirit  by  which  he  speaks.  They  suborn 
witnesses  to  testify  that  he  has  spoken  against  Moses 
and  the  Temple.  Stephen  is  seized  and  brought 
into  the  council.  False  witnesses  testify  that  they 
have  heard  Stephen  say  that  "  this  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
shall  destroy  this  place,  and  shall  change  the  customs 
which  Moses  delivered  to  us".  All  who  sat  in  the 
council  saw  Stephen's  face,  as  it  had  been  the  face 
of  an  angel.  He  makes  a  defence,  in  which  he  re- 
views the  cliief  events  in  the  first  covenant,  and  its 
relation  to  the  New  Law.  They  rush  upon  Stephen, 
drag  him  out  of  the  city,  and  stone  him  to  death. 
And  he  kneels  down  and  prays:  "Lord,  laj  not  this 
sin  to  their  charge",  and  dies.  Beginning  with  the 
martyrdom  of  Stephen,  a  great  persecution  arose 
against  the  Church  at  Jerusalem;  all  were  scattered 
abroad  throughout  Judea  and  Samaria,  except  the 
Apostles.  The  leader  of  the  persecution  was  Saul, 
afterwards  to  become  the  great  St.  Paul,  the  Apostle 
of  the  Gentiles.  The  deacon  Philip  first  preacnes  in 
Samaria  with  great  fruit.  Like  all  the  preachers  of 
the  first  days  of  the  Church,  Phihp  confirms  his 
preaching  by  great  miracles.  Peter  and  John  go  up 
to  Samaria  and  confirm  the  converts  whom  Philip 
had  made.  Philip,  commanded  by  an  angel,  goes 
down  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza,  and  on  the 
way  converts  and  baptizes  the  eunuch  of  Candace, 
Queen  of  Ethiopia.  Philip  is  thence  transported  by 
Divine  power  to  Azotus,  and  preaches  to  all  the  coast 
cities  until  he  comes  to  Ctesarca. 

Saul,  breathing  threatening  and  slaughter  against 
the  disciples  of  the  Lord,  sets  out  for  Damascus  to 
apprehend  any  Christians  whom  he  may  find  there. 
As  he  draws  near  to  Damascus,  the  Lord  Jesus  speaks 
to  him  out  of  the  heavens  and  converts  him.  St. 
Paul  is  baptized  by  Ananias  at  Damascus,  and 
straightway  for  some  clays  abides  there,  preaching 
in  the  sj'nagogues  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of 
God.  He  withdraws  into  Arabia;  again  returns  to 
Damascus;  and  after  three  years  he  goes  up  to  Jeru- 
salem. At  Jerusalem  Paul  is  at  first  distrusted  liy 
the  disciples  of  Jesus;  but  after  Barnabas  narrates 
to  them  Paul's  marvellous  conversion,  they  receive 
Paul,  and  he  preaches  boldly  in  the  name  of  Jesus, 
disputing  especially  against  the  Grecian  Jews.  They 
plot  to  kill  him;  but  the  Christians  bring  Paul  down 
to  Csesarea,  and  send  him  forth  to  Tarsus,  his  native 
city. 

At  this  epoch  Acts  describes  the  Church  in  Judea, 
Samaria,  and  Galilee  as  "at  peace,  being  buililed  up, 
and  walking  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  and  by  the 
strength  of  the  Holy  Ghost  it  was  nuiltiplied". 
Peter  now  goes  throughout  all  parts  comforting  the 
faithful.  At  Lydda  he  heals  the  palsied  /Eneas;  and 
at  Joppa  he  raises  the  pious  widow  Tabit ha  (Greek, 
Dorcas)  from  the  dead.  These  miracles  still  more 
confirm  the  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  At  Jopjia  Peter 
has  the  great  vision  of  the  sheet  let  down  from 
Heaven  containing  all  manner  of  animals,  of  whidi 
he,  being  in  a  trance,  is  commanded  to  kill  and  eat. 
Peter  refuses,  on  the  ground  that  he  cannot  eat  that 
which  is  common  and  unclean.  Whereupon  it  is 
made  known  to  him  from  God,  that  God  has  cleanseil 
what  was  before  to  the  Jew  unclean.  This  gnat 
vision,  repeated  three  times,  was  llie  manifestation 
of  the  will  of  Heaven  that  the  ritual  law  of  the  Jews 


ACTS 


ll'J 


should  cease;  and  that  henceforth  salvation  should 
be  offered  without  distinction  to  Jew  and  Gentile. 
The  meaning  of  tlie  vision  is  unfolded  to  Peter,  when 
he  is  commanded  by  an  angel  to  go  to  Cipsarca,  to 
the  (ientile  centurion  Cornelius,  whose  messengers 
were  even  then  come  to  fetch  him.  He  goes,  and 
hears  from  Cornelius  also  tlie  centurion's  own  vision. 
He  preaches  to  him  and  to  all  a.'^.semhled;  the  Holy 
Ghost  descends  upon  them,  and  I'eter  commands 
that  they  be  baptizeil.  Keturning  to  Jerusalem, 
the  Jews  contend  with  Peter  that  he  has  gime  in  to 
men  uncircumcised,  and  eaten  with  them.  He  ex- 
pounds to  them  his  vision  at  Joppa,  and  alst)  the 
vision  of  Cornelius,  wherein  tlie  latter  was  commanded 
by  an  angel  to  send  and  fetch  Peter  from  Jopiia,  that 
he  might  receive  from  Peter  the  Gospel.  Tne  Jews 
acquiesce,  glorifying  God,  and  declaring  tliat  "unto 
the  Gentiles  also  hath  God  granted  repentance  unto 
life".  Tho.se  who  hail  been  scattered  abroad  from 
Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  Stephen's  martyrdom  had 
travelled  as  far  as  Plurnicia,  Cyprus,  and  Antioch, 
preaching  Christ;  but  they  preached  to  none  save 
the  Jews.  The  calling  of  the  Gentiles  was  not  yet 
understootl  by  them.  But  now  some  converts  from 
Cyprus  and  Cyrene  come  up  to  Antioch,  and  preach 
the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  A  great  number  lielieve, 
and  turn  to  the  I-ord.  The  report  of  the  work  at 
Antioch  comes  to  the  ears  of  the  Churcli  in  Jerusalem; 
and  they  send  Barnabas,  "a  good  man,  full  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  of  faith",  to  them.  He  takes  Paul 
from  Tarsus,  and  they  both  dwell  at  .Antioch  a  whole 
year,  and  teach  many  people.  The  disciples  of 
Christ  are  called  Christians  first  at  Antioch. 

The  rest  of  .\cts  narrates  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  by  Herod  Agrippa;  the  mi.s.sion  of  Paul 
and  Harn.ibas  from  .\ntioch  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  to 
preach  to  tlie  Gentile  nations;  the  labours  of  Paul 
and  Barnabas  in  Cyprus  and  in  Asia  Minor,  their 
return  to  Antioch;  the  dissension  at  .\ntioch  con- 
cerning circumcision;  the  journey  of  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas to  Jerusalem,  the  decision  of  the  .\postolic 
Council  of  Jerusalem,  tlie  separation  of  Paul  from 
Bam.ib,is,  in  whose  stead  he  takes  Silas,  or  Silvanus; 
Paul's  visit  to  his  A.siatic  Churches,  his  foundation 
of  the  Church  at  Philippi;  Paul's  sufferings  for  Jesus 
Christ;  Paul's  visit  to  .\thens,  his  foundation  of  the 
churches  of  Corinth  and  of  Ephesus;  Paul's  return 
to  Jerusalem,  his  persecution  by  the  Jews;  Paul's 
imprisonment  at  Ca-.sarea;  Paul's  appeal  to  Ca'.sar. 
his  voyage  to  Rome;  the  shipwreck;  Paul's  arrival 
at  Rome,  and  the  manner  of  his  life  there.  Wo 
see  therefore  that  a  more  proper  title  of  this  book 
would  be  "The  Beginnings  of  the  Christian  Re- 
ligion". It  is  an  artistic  whole,  the  fullest  history 
which  we  possess  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Church 
developed. 

The  Onir.ix  of  the  Church. — In  Acts  wo  see 
the  fulfilment  of  Christ's  promises.  In  Acts,  i,  8, 
Jesus  ha<l  declared  that  the  Apostles  should  receive 
power  when  the  Holy  Ghost  should  come  upon  them, 
and  sliould  be  His  witnes,ses  fcoth  in  Jerusalem  and 
in  all  Judea  and  Samaria,  and  unto  the  uttermost 
parts  of  the  earth.  In  John,  xiv,  I'J,  Jesus  li.'ul  de- 
clared: "  He  that  believeth  in  me,  the  works  that  I 
do,  he  also  .shall  do;  and  greater  works  than  these 
shall  he  do.  Because  I  go  to  the  Fatlier".  In  these 
passages  is  found  the  key-note  of  tlie  origin  of  the 
Church.  The  Church  developed  according  to  the 
plan  conceived  by  Christ.  There  is,  a.ssuredly,  in  the 
narration  evidence  of  the  working  out  of  a  great  plan; 
for  the  rea.son  that  the  writer  records  the  working 
out  of  the  great  design  of  Christ,  conceived  in  infinite 
wisdom,  and  executed  by  omnipotent  power.  There 
is  throughout  a  well-<lefined.  .systematic  order  of 
narration,  an  exactness  ami  fullness  of  detail.  After 
the  calling  of  the  first  twelve  .\postles.  there  is  no 
event  in  the  history  of  the  Church  so  important  as 


Paul's  conversion  and  commission  to  teach  in  Christ's 
name. 

I'p  to  Paul's  conversion,  the  inspired  historian  of 
the  Ads  has  given  us  a  condensed  statement  of  the 
growth  of  the  Church  among  the  Jews.  Peter  and 
John  are  prominent  in  the  work.  But  the  great 
message  is  now  to  issue  forth  from  the  confines  of 
Judaism;  all  flesh  is  to  see  the  salvation  of  God;  and 
St.  Paul  is  to  be  the  great  instrument  in  preaching 
Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  In  the  development  of  the 
Christian  Church  Paul  wrought  more  than  all  the 
other  Apostles;  and  therefore  in  Acts  St.  Paul  stands 
forth,  the  prominent  agent  of  God  in  the  conversion 
of  the  world.  His  appointment  as  the  Apostle  of 
the  Gentiles  does  not  prevent  him  from  preaching 
to  the  Jews,  but  his  ricnest  fruits  are  gathered  from 
the  (ientiles.  He  fills  proconsular  Asia,  Macedonia, 
Greece,  and  Rome  with  the  Gospel  of  Christ;  and 
the  greater  part  of  Acts  is  devoted  exclusively  to 
recording  his  work. 

Division  of  Book. — In  the  Acts  there  are  no 
divisions  of  the  narration  contemplated  by  the 
author.  It  is  open  to  us  to  divide  the  work  as  we 
deem  fit.  The  nature  of  the  history  therein  recorded 
easily  suggests  a  greater  division  of  Acts  into  two 
parts:  1.  The  beginning  and  propagation  of  the 
Christian  religion  among  the  Jews  (i-ix);  2.  The 
beginning  and  propagation  of  the  Christian  religion 
among  the  Gentiles  (.x-.xxviii).  St.  Peter  plays  the 
chief  role  in  the  first  part;  St.  Paul,  in  the  second 
part. 

Object. — The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  must  not  be 
believed  to  be  an  isolated  writing,  but  rather  an 
integral  part  in  a  well-ordered  series.  Acts  pre- 
supposes its  readers  to  know  the  Gospels;  it  con- 
tinues the  Gospel  narrative.  The  Four  Evangelists 
close  with  the  account  of  the  Resurrection  and 
Ascension  of  Jesus  Christ.  St.  Mark  is  the  only  one 
who  essays  to  give  any  of  the  subsequent  historj-, 
and  he  condenses  his  account  into  one  brief  sentence: 
"  .\nd  they  went  forth  and  preached  ever\^vhere: 
the  Lord  working  with  them,  and  confirming  the  word 
by  tlie  .signs  that  followed"  (Mark,  .\vi,  20).  Now 
the  .\cts  of  the  .Apostles  takes  up  the  narrative  here 
and  records  succinctly  the  mighty  events  wliich  were 
wrought  by  the  Holy  Ghost  through  chosen  human 
agents.  It  is  a  condensed  record  of  the  fulfilment 
of  the  promises  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  Evangelists 
record  Christ's  promises  which  He  made  to  the  dis- 
ciples, regarding  the  establishment  of  the  Church 
and  its  mission  (Matt.,  xvi.  15-20);  the  gift  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (Luke,  xxiv,  49;  John,  xiv,  16.  17);  the 
calling  of  the  Gentiles  (Matt.,  xxviii.  l,S-20;  Luke, 
xxiv,  46,  47).  Acts  records  the  fulfilment.  The 
history  begins  at  Jerusalem  and  ends  at  Rome.  AVith 
divine  simplicity  Acts  shows  us  the  growth  of  the 
religion  of  Christ  among  the  nations.  The  dis- 
tinction between  Jew  and  Gentile  is  abolished  by 
the  revelation  to  St.  Peter;  Paul  is  called  to  devote 
him.self  specially  to  the  Gentile  ministry;  the  Holy 
Ghost  works  signs  in  confirmation  of  the  doctrines 
of  Christ;  men  suffer  and  die,  but  the  Church  grows; 
and  tlius  the  whole  world  sees  the  Salvation  of  God. 
Nowhere  in  Holy  Writ  is  the  action  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  the  Church  so  forcibly  set  forth  as  in  the 
Acts.  He  fills  the  Apostles  with  knowledge  ami 
power  on  Pentecost;  they  speak  as  the  Holy  Ghost 
gave  them  to  speak;  the  Holy  Ghost  bi<ls  Philip 
the  deacon  go  to  the  eunuch  of  Candace;  the  same 
Spirit  catches  up  Phihp.  after  the  baptism  of  the 
eunuch,  and  brings  him  to  .\zotus;  the  Holy  Ghost 
tells  Peter  to  go  to  Cornelius;  when  Peter  preaches 
to  Cornelius  and  his  family  the  Holy  Ghost  falls  on 
them  all;  the  Holy  Ghost  directly  commands  that 
Paul  and  Bamab.as  be  set  apart  for  the  Gentile 
ministn,-;  the  Holy  Ghost  forbids  Paul  and  Pil.as  to 
preach  in  Asia;  constantly,  by  the  laying  on  of  the 


ACTS 


120 


ACTS 


Apostles'  hands,  the  Holy  Ghost  comes  upon  the 
faithful;  Paul  is  directed  by  the  Holy  Ghost  in  every- 
tliinf;:  tlie  Holy  Ghost  foretells  to  him  that  bonds 
and  afllictions  await  him  in  everj-  city;  when  Agabus 
prophesies  Paul's  martyrdom,  he  says:  "Thus  saith 
the  Holy  Ghost:  'So  sliall  tlie  Jews  at  Jerusalem 
bind  the  man  that  ownetli  this  girdle,  and  shall 
deliver  liim  into  the  hands  of  tlie  Gentiles'  ".  Acts 
declares  that  on  the  Gentiles  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Gliost  is  poured  out;  in  the  splendid  description  of 
St.  Stephen's  martyrdom  he  is  declared  full  of  the 
Holy  Ghost;  when  Peter  makes  his  defence  before 
rulers,  elders,  and  scribes,  he  is  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost;  often  it  is  declared  that  the  Apostles  are  filled 
with  the  Holy  Ghost;  Phihp  is  chosen  as  a  deacon 
because  he  is  full  of  faith  and  the  Holy  Ghost;  when 
Ananias  is  sent  to  Paul  at  Damascus  he  declares  that 
lie  is  sent  that  Paul  may  receive  his  sight  and  be  filled 
with  the  Holy  Ghost;  Jesus  Christ  is  declared  to  be 
anointed  with  the  Holy  Ghost;  Barnabas  is  declared 
to  be  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  men  of  Samaria 
receive  the  Holy  Ghost  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands 
of  Peter  and  John.  This  history  shows  the  real 
nature  of  the  Christian  religion;  its  members  are 
baptized  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  are  upheld  by  His 
power.  The  source  in  the  Church  of  infallible  truth 
in  teaching,  of  grace,  and  of  the  power  that  resists 
the  gates  of  Hell  is  the  Holy  Ghost.  By  the  power 
of  the  Spirit  the  Apostles  established  the  Church  in 
the  great  centres  of  the  world:  Jerusalem,  Antioch, 
Cyprus,  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra,  Derbe, 
Philippi,  Thessalonica,  Beroea,  Athens,  Corinth, 
Ephesus,  and  Rome,  From  these  centres  the  mes- 
sage went  to  the  surrounding  lands.  We  see  in  the 
Acts  the  realization  of  Christ's  promises  just  before 
his  Ascension:  "But  ye  shall  receive  power  when 
the  Holy  Ghost  is  come  upon  you;  and  ye  shall  be 
my  witnesses  both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  all  Judea,  and 
Samaria,  and  unto  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth". 
In  the  New  Testament  Acts  forms  a  necessary  con- 
necting-link between  the  Gospels  and  the  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul.  It  gives  the  necessary  information 
concerning  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul  and  his  aposto- 
late,  and  also  concerning  the  formation  of  the  great 
Churches  to  which  St.  Paul  wrote  his  Epistles. 

Authenticity. — The  authenticity  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  is  proved  by  intrinsic  evidence;  it  is 
attested  by  the  concordant  voice  of  tradition.  The 
unity  of  style  of  Acts  and  its  artistic  completeness 
compel  us  to  receive  the  book  as  the  work  of  one 
autlior.  Such  an  effect  could  never  arise  from  the 
piecing  together  bits  of  writings  of  different  authors. 
The  writer  writes  as  an  eyewitness  and  companion 
of  Paul.  The  passages  xvi,  10-17;  xx,  5-15;  xxi, 
1-18;  xxvii,  1;  xxviii,  16  are  called  the  We  passages. 
In  these  the  writer  uniformly  employs  the  first  per- 
son plural,  closely  identifying  himself  with  St.  Paul. 
This  excludes  the  theory  tliat  Acts  is  the  work 
of  a  redactor.  As  Renan  has  well  said,  such  use  of 
the  pronoun  is  incompatible  with  any  theory  of 
redaction.  We  know  from  many  proofs  that  Luke 
was  the  companion  and  fellow-labourer  of  Paul. 
Writing  to  the  Colossians,  in  his  salutation  Paul 
associates  with  him.self,  "Luke,  the  bekn-ed  jihysi- 
cian"  (iv,  14).  In  II  Tim.,  iv.  11  Paul  declares: 
"Only  Luke  is  with  me".  'To  Philemon  (24)  Paul 
calls  Luke  his  fellow-worker.  Now  in  this  article, 
we  may  suppose  the  Lucan  authorship  of  the  third 
Gospel  as  proved.  The  writer  of  Acts  in  his  opening 
sentence  implicitly  declares  himself  to  be  the  author 
of  the  third  Gospel.  He  addres.ses  his  work  to 
Theophilus,  the  addre.s.see  of  (lie  third  Gospel;  he 
mentions  his  former  work  and  in  substance  makes 
known  his  intention  of  continuing  tlie  history  which, 
in  his  former  treatise,  he  had  brought  up  to  tlie  day 
when  (he  Lord  Jesus  was  received  up.  Tliere  is  an 
identity  of  style  between  Acts  and  the  third  Gospel. 


An  examination  of  the  original  Greek  texts  of  the 
third  Gospel  and  of  the  Acts  reveals  that  there  is  in 
them  a  remarkable  identity  of  manner  of  thinking 
and  of  writing.  There  is  in  both  the  same  tender 
regard  for  the  Gentiles,  the  same  respect  for  the 
Roman  Empire,  the  same  treatment  of  the  Jewish 
rites,  the  same  broad  concejition  that  the  Gospel  is 
for  all  men.  In  forms  of  expression  the  third  Gospel 
and  the  Acts  reveal  an  identity  of  authorship.  Many 
of  the  expressions  usual  in  both  works  occur  but 
rarely  in  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament;  other 
expressions  are  found  nowhere  else  save  in  the  third 
Gospel  and  in  the  Acts.  If  one  will  compare  the 
following  expressions  in  the  Greek,  he  will  be  per- 
suaded that  both  works  are  of  the  same  author: 
Luke,  i,  1 — Acts,  xv,  24-25;  Luke,  xv,  13 — Acts,  i, 
5,  xxvii,  14.  xix,  11;  Luke,  i,  20,  80— Acts,  i,  2,  22, 
ii,  29,  vii,  45;  Luke,  iv,  34— Acts,  ii,  27,  iv,  27,  30; 
Luke,  xxiii,  5 — Acts,  x,  37;  Luke,  i,  9 — Acts,  i,  17; 
Luke,  xii,  56,  xxi,  35 — Acts  xvii,  26.  The  last- 
cited  parallel  expression,  t4  irpdawvov  t^s  yijs,  is 
employed  only  in  the  third  Gospel  and  in  Acts.  The 
evidence  of  the  Lucan  authorship  of  Acts  is  cumula- 
tive. The  intrinsic  evidence  is  corroborated  by  the 
testimonies  of  many  witnesses.  It  must  be  granted 
that  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers  we  find  but  faint 
allusions  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  Fathers 
of  that  age  wrote  but  little;  and  the  injury  of  time 
has  robbed  us  of  much  of  what  was  written.  The 
Gospels  were  more  prominent  in  the  teachings  of 
that  day  and  they  consequently  have  a  more  abun- 
dant witness.  The  canon  of  Muratori  contains  the 
canon  of  Scriptures  of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  the 
second  century.  Of  Acts  it  declares:  "But  the  Acts 
of  all  the  Apostles  are  written  in  one  book,  which 
for  the  excellent  Theophilus  Luke  wrote,  because 
he  was  an  eye-witness  of  all".  In  "The  Doctrine  of 
Addai",  which  contaips  the  ancient  tradition  of  the 
Church  of  Edessa,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  de- 
clared to  be  a  part  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (Doctrine 
of  Addai,  ed.  Phillips,  1876,  46).  The  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  chapters  of  St. 
Irensus's  third  book  "  Against  Heresies  "  are  based 
upon  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Irena>us  convinc- 
ingly defends  the  Lucan  authorship  of  the  third 
Gospel  and  Acts,  declaring:  "But  that  this  Luke 
was  inseparable  from  Paul,  and  was  his  fellow- 
labourer  in  the  Gospel,  he  himself  clearly  evinces, 
not  as  a  matter  of  boasting,  but  as  bound  to  do 
.so,  by  the  truth  itself.  .  .  .  And  all  the  remaining 
facts  of  his  courses  with  Paul,  he  recounts.  ...  As 
Luke  was  present  at  all  these  occurrences,  he  care- 
fully noted  them  down  in  writing,  so  that  he  cannot 
be  convicted  of  falsehood  or  boastfulness,  etc." 
Irena^us  unites  in  himself  the  witness  of  the  Christian 
Church  of  the  East  and  the  West  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. He  continues  unchanged  the  teaching  of  the 
Apostohc  Fathers.  In  his  treatise  "On  Fasting" 
Tertullian  accepts  Acts  as  Holy  Scripture,  and  calls 
them  the  "Commentary  of  Luke".  In  his  treatise 
"On  Prescription  against  Heretics",  xxii,  Ter- 
tullian is  strong  in  as.serting  the  canonicity  of  Acts: 
"And  assuredly,  Goii  fulfilled  his  promise,  since  it  is 
proved  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  that  (he  Holy 
Ghost  did  come  down.  Now  they  who  reject  (luit 
Scripture  can  neither  belong  (o  the  Holy  Ghost, 
seeing  that  they  cannot  acknowledge  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  has  been  sent  as  yet  to  the  disciples,  nor  can 
they  presume  to  be  a  church  themselves,  who  posi- 
tively have  no  means  of  proving  when,  and  with 
what  infant-nur.sings  this  body  was.  established. " 
Again,  in  chapter  xxiii  of  the  .same  treatise,  he  issues 
a  challenge  to  those  who  reject  Acts:  "I  may  say 
here  to  those  who  reject  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles: 
It  is  first  necessary  that  you  show  us  who  this  Paul 
was;  botli  what  he  was  before  he  became  an  Apostle, 
and  how  he  became  an  Apostle"  etc.     Clement  of 


ACTS 


121 


ACTS 


Alexandria  is  a  clear  witness.  In  "Stromata",  v,  11, 
he  declares:  "Most  instructively,  therefore,  says 
Paul  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles:  'The  (ioii  that  made 
the  world,  and  all  things  in  it,  being  the  Lord  of 
Heaven  and  of  earth,  dwelleth  not  in  temples  made 
with  hands'  "  etc.  (Acts,  xvii,  :.'4,  J.')).  Again,  in 
chapter  xii,  he  states:  "As  Luke,  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  relates  that  Paul  said:  'Men  of  Athens, 
I  perceive  that  in  all  things,  ye  are  greatly  super- 
stitious' ".  In  Horn.,  xiii,  on  Genesis,  ii,  Ongen 
a.s,serts  the  Luean  authorship  of  Acts  as  a  truth  that 
all  the  world  accepted.  Ku.seljius  (Ilist.  Ik'cl.,  HI, 
xxv)  places  Acts  among  ri  diioXorfovfitva.  tlie  books 
of  whicli  no  one  has  doubted.  The  autlienlicity  of 
.Vets  is  .so  well  proved  that  even  the  sceptical  Kenan 
was  forced  to  declare:  "A  thing  beyond  all  doubt 
is  that  the  Acts  have  the  same  author  as  the  third 
Gospel,  and  are  a  continuation  of  the  same.  One 
finds  no  necessity  to  prove  this  fact,  which  has  never 
seriously  been  denied.  The  prefaces  of  the  two 
writings,  the  dedication  of  both  the  one  and  the 
other  to  Theophilus,  the  perfect  resemblance  of  ideas 
and  manner  of  expression  furnish  a  convincing 
demonstration  of  the  fact"  (Les  Apotres,  Introd., 
p.  x).  .\gain  he  says:  "The  third  Gospel  and  the 
Acts  form  a  well-ordered  work,  written  with  reflection 
and  even  witli  art,  written  by  the  .same  hand,  and 
with  a  definite  plan.  The  two  works  taken  together 
form  a  whole,  having  tlie  same  style,  presenting  the 
.same  characteristic  expressions,  and  citing  the 
Scripture  in  tlie  same  manner"  (ibid.,  p.  xi). 

Ohjkctio.ns  Against  the  At'thentkity. — Never- 
theless this  well-proved  truth  has  been  contradicted. 
Haur,  Schwanbcck.  De  Wette.  David.son,  Mayerhoff, 
Hohlriermacher,  Bleek,  Krenkcl.  and  others  have 
opposed  the  authenticity  of  the  Acts.  An  objection 
is  drawn  from  the  discrepancy  between  .\cts  ix,  19- 
L'S  and  Gal.,  i.  17,  19.  In  the  Kpi.stle  to  the  Galatians, 
i.  17,  18,  St.  Paul  declares  that,  immediately  after 
his  conversion,  he  went  away  into  Arabia,  and  again 
returned  to  Damascus.  "Then  after  three  years,  I 
went  up  to  .Jerusalem  to  visit  Cephas. "  In  Acts  no 
mention  is  made  of  St.  Paul's  journey  into  Arabia; 
anil  the  journey  to  Jerusalem  is  placed  immediately 
after  the  notice  of  Paul's  prc.-u-hing  in  the  sjTiagogues. 
Hilgenfeld.  Wentlt,  Weiziicker.  Weiss,  and  others 
allege  here  a  contradiction  between  the  writer  of  the 
.\cts  and  St.  Paul.  Their  charge  is  vain.  There  is 
here  verified  wliat  is  the  usual  fact  when  two  in- 
spired writers  narrate  synchronistic  events.  No 
writer  of  either  Testament  had  in  mind  to  write  a 
complete  history.  Out  of  the  great  nia.ss  of  words 
and  deeds  they  grouped  together  tho.se  things  which 
they  deemed  best  for  their  scope.  They  always 
concur  on  the  great  lines  of  the  doctrines  and  the 
main  facts;  they  differ  in  that  one  omits  certain 
things  which  another  relates.  The  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  wrote  with  the  conviction  that 
the  world  had  already  received  the  nics.sage  by  oral 
comnnmication.  Not  all  could  have  a  manuscript 
of  the  written  word,  but  all  heard  the  voice  of  those 
who  pre;iched  Christ.  The  intense  activity  of  the 
first  teachers  of  the  New  Law  made  it  a  living  reality 
in  everj'  land.  The  few  writings  which  were  pro- 
duced were  considerc<l  a.s  .supplementary-  to  the 
greater  economy  of  preaching.  Hence  we  find 
notable  omissions  in  all  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament;  and  ever\'  writer  has  some  things 
proper  to  himself.  In  the  present  instance  tlie 
writer  of  .\cts  has  omitted  St.  Paul's  journey  into 
Arabia  and  sojourn  there.  The  evidence  of  the 
omission  is  in  the  text  it.self.  In  Acts,  ix,  19,  the 
writer  speaks  of  St.  Paul's  sojourn  in  Damascus  as 
covering  a  period  of  "certain  days".  This  is  the 
indefinite  description  of  a  relatively  short  space  of 
time.  In  .\cts,  ix,  23,  he  connects  the  next  event 
narrated   with   tho   foregoing  by   declaring   that   it 


came  to  pass  "after  many  days  were  fulfilled".  It 
is  evident  that  some  series  of  events  must  have  hail 
place  between  the  "certain  days"  of  the  nineteeiilh 
verse,  and  the  "many  days"  of  the  twenty-third 
verse;  these  events  are  Paul's  journey  into  Arabia, 
his  .sojourn  there,  and  his  return  to  Dama.scus.  .An- 
other objection  is  urged  from  I  Thess.,  iii,  1,  2,  com- 
pared with  .Vets,  xvii,  14,  1.5,  and  xviii,  5.  In  Acts, 
xvii,  14,  15,  Paul  leaves  Timothy  and  Silas  at  Heroea, 
with  a  commandment  to  come  to  him  at  Athens.  In 
Acts,  .xviii,  5,  Timothy  and  Silas  come  out  of  Mace- 
donia to  Paul  at  Corinth.  Hut  in  1  Thess.,  iii,  1,  2, 
Timothy  is  sent  by  Paul  out  of  Athens  to  The.s.sa- 
lonica,  and  no  mention  is  made  of  Silas.  We  must 
appeal  to  the  principle  that  when  a  writer  omits 
one  or  more  members  in  a  series  of  events  he  does 
not  thereby  contradict  another  writer  who  may 
narrate  the  thing  omitted.  Timothy  ami  Silas  came 
down  from  Hera-a  to  Paul  at  Athens.  In  his  zeal 
for  the  Macedonian  churches,  Paul  sent  Timothy 
back  from  Athens  to  Thessalonica,  and  Silas  to  some 
other  part  of  Macedonia.  When  they  return  out 
of  Macedonia  they  come  to  Paul  at  Corinth.  Acts 
has  omitted  their  coming  to  Athens  and  their  return 
to  Macedonia.  In  Acts  many  things  are  condensed 
into  a  narrow  compa.ss.  Ihus,  to  the  Galatian 
niinistry  of  Paul,  which  must  have  lasted  a  con- 
siderable time.  Acts  devotes  the  one  sentence:  "They 
pas.sed  through  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia" 
(Acts,  xvi,  6).  The  fourth  journey  of  Paul  to  Jeru- 
salem is  described  in  one  ver.se  (.Acts,  xviii,  22). 
The  objection  is  urged  that,  from  Acts,  xvi,  12,  it  is 
evident  that  the  author  of  the  Acts  was  with  Paul  in 
the  foundation  of  the  Church  at  Pliilippi.  There- 
fore, they  say  that,  since  Luke  was  at  Home  with 
Paul  when  he  wrote  thence  to  the  Philippians,  had 
Luke  been  the  author  of  Acts,  Paul  would  have 
a.ssociated  Luke  with  himself  in  his  salutation  to  the 
Phihppians  in  the  letter  which  he  wrote  them.  On 
the  contrary,  we  find  in  it  no  mention  of  Luke;  but 
Timothy  is  a.s.sociated  with  Paul  in  the  salutation. 
This  is  a  mere  negative  argument,  and  of  no  avail. 
The  apostolic  men  of  that  day  neither  sought  nor 
gave  vain  personal  recognition  in  their  work.  St. 
Paul  wrote  to  the  Romans  without  ever  mentioning 
St.  Peter.  There  was  no  struggle  for  place  or  fame 
among  those  men.  It  may  have  been  that,  though 
Luke  was  with  St.  Paul  at  Philippi,  Timothy  was 
the  better  known  to  that  Churcli.  Again,  at  the 
moment  of  St.  Paul's  writing  Luke  may  have  been 
absent  from  Paul. 

The  rationahsts  allege  that  there  is  an  error  in  the 
discourse  of  Gamaliel  (Acts,  v,  36).  Gamaliel  refers 
to  the  insurrection  of  Theodas  as  a  thing  that  had 
happened  before  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  whereas 
Josephus  (Antiq.,  XN,  v,  1)  places  the  rebellion  of 
Theodas  under  Fadus,  fourteen  years  after  the  date 
of  the  speech  of  Gamaliel.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the 
adversaries  of  Holy  Scriptures  presuppose  every 
writer  who  disagrees  with  the  Holy  Scriptures  to  be 
right.  Everj'  one  who  lia.s  examined  Jo.sephus  must 
be  struck  by  his  carelessness  and  inaccuracy.  He 
wrote  mainly  from  memorj',  and  often  contradicts 
liim.self.  In  the  present  instance  some  suppo.se  that 
he  has  confu.sed  the  insurrection  of  Theodas  with 
that  of  a  certain  Mathias,  of  whom  he  speaks  in 
.\nti<i.,  XVII,  vi,  4.  Themlas  is  a  contraction  of 
TlucKloros,  and  is  identical  in  signification  with  the 
Hebrew  name  Mathias,  both  names  signifying,  "Gift 
of  (iod".  This  is  the  opinion  of  Corluy  in  ^'igouroux, 
"  Dictionnaire  de  la  Hible".  Against  Corluv's 
opinion  it  may  rightly  be  objected  that  Gamaiiel 
clearly  intimates  that  the  author  of  the  insurrection 
of  which  he  speaks  was  not  actuated  by  holy  motives. 
He  speaks  of  him  as  a  .seditious  man,  who  inisle<l  his 
followers,  "giving  liim.self  out  to  be  somebody". 
Hut  Josephus  describes  Mathias  as  a  most  eloc|uent 


122 


ACTS 


interpreter  of  the  Jewish  law,  a  man  beloved  by  the 
people,  whose  lectures  those  who  were  studious  of 
virtue  frequented.  Moreover,  he  incited  the  young 
men  to  pull  down  the  golden  eagle  which  the  im- 
pious Herod  had  erected  in  the  Temple  of  God. 
Certainly  such  an  act  was  pleasing  to  God,  not  the 
act  of  an  impostor.  The  argument  of  Gamaliel  is 
based  on  the  fact  that  Theodas  claimed  to  be  some- 
thing which  he  was  not.  The  character  of  Theodas 
as  given  by  Josephus,  XX,  v,  1,  accords  with  the 
implied  character  of  the  Theodas  of  Acts.  Were  it 
not  for  the  discrepancy  of  dates,  the  two  testimonies 
would  be  in  perfect  accord.  It  seems  far  more 
probable,  therefore,  that  both  writers  speak  of  the 
same  man,  and  that  Josephus  has  erroneously  placed 
his  epoch  about  thirty  years  too  late.  Of  course 
it  is  possible  that  there  may  have  been  two  Theodases 
of  similar  character:  one  of  the  days  of  Herod  the 
Great,  whom  Josephus  docs  not  name,  but  who  is 
mentioned  by  Gamahel;  and  one  in  the  days  of 
Cuspius  Fadus  the  procurator  of  Judea,  whose 
insurrection  Josephus  records.  There  must  have 
been  many  of  such  character  in  the  days  of  Herod 
the  Great,  for  Josephus,  speaking  of  that  epoch, 
declares  that  "at  this  time  there  were  ten  thousand 
other  disorders  in  Judsea  wliich  were  like  tumults" 
(Antiq.,  XVH,  X,  4). 

It  is  urged  that  the  three  accounts  of  the  conversion 
of  St.  Paul  (.\cts,  ix,  7;  xxii,  9;  xxvi,  14)  do  not 
agree.  In  Acts,  ix,  7,  the  author  declares  that  "the 
men  that  journeyed  with  Paul  stood  speechless, 
hearing  the  voice,  but  beholding  no  man".  In 
x.xii,  9,  Paul  declares:  "And  they  that  were  with 
me  beheld  indeed  the  light;  but  they  heard  not  the 
voice  of  Him  that  spake  to  me".  In  xxvi,  14, 
Paul  declares  that  they  all  fell  to  the  earth,  which 
seems  to  contradict  the  first  statement,  that  they 
"stood  speechless".  This  is  purely  a  question  of 
circumstantial  detail,  of  very  minor  moment.  There 
are  many  solutions  of  this  difficulty.  Supported 
by  many  precedents,  we  may  hold  that  in  the  several 
narrations  of  the  same  event  inspiration  does  not 
compel  an  absolute  agreement  in  mere  extrinsic 
details  which  in  nowise  affects  the  substance  of  the 
narration.  In  all  the  Bible,  where  the  same  event 
is  several  times  narrated  by  the  same  writer,  or 
narrated  by  several  writers,  there  is  some  slight 
divergency,  as  it  is  natural  there  should  be  with 
those  who  spoke  and  wrote  from  memory.  Divine 
inspiration  covers  the  substance  of  the  narration. 
For  those  who  insist  that  divine  inspiration  extends 
also  to  these  minor  details  there  are  valid  solutions. 
Pape  and  others  give  to  the  ela-Tij/tturay  the  sense  of 
an  emphatic  thai,  and  thus  it  could  be  rendered: 
"The  men  that  journeyed  with  him  became  speech- 
less", thus  agreeing  with  xxvi,  14.  Moreover,  the 
three  accounts  can  be  placed  in  agreement  by  sup- 
po.sing  that  the  .several  accounts  contemplate  the 
event  at  different  moments  of  its  course.  All  saw 
a  great  light;  all  heard  a  sound  from  Heaven.  They 
fell  on  their  faces  in  fear;  and  then,  ari.sing,  stood 
still  and  speechless,  while  Paid  conversed  with  Jesus, 
whose  articulate  voice  he  alone  heard.  In  Acts, 
ix,  7,  the  marginal  reading  of  the  Revised  Edition 
of  Oxford  should  be  accepted:  "hearing  the  sound". 
The  Greek  is  iKovofTet  rrji  (pui^s.  When  the  writer 
speaks  of  the  articulate  voice  of  Christ,  which  Paul 
alone  heard,  he  employs  the  phrase,  ■^kouitov  <t)uvi)v. 
Thus  the  .same  term,  0wn},  by  a  different  grammatical 
construction,  may  signify  tJie  inarticulate  sound  of 
the  voice  which  all  heard  and  the  articulate  voice 
which  Paul  alone  heard. 

It  is  urged  that  Acts,  xvi,  6  and  xviii,  23  represent 
Paul  as  merely  pa.ssing  tlirough  Galatia,  whereas 
the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  gives  evidence  of  Paul's 
longer  sojourn  in  Galatia.  Comely  and  others 
answer  this  difficulty  by  supposing  that  St.   Paul 


employs  the  term  Galatia  in  the  administrative 
sense,  as  a  province,  which  comprised  Galatia  proper, 
Lycaonia,  Pisidia,  Lsauria,  and  a  great  part  of  Phry- 
gia;  whereas  St.  Luke  employs  the  term  to  denote 
Galatia  proper.  But  we  are  not  limited  to  this 
explanation;  St.  Luke  in  Acts  often  severely  con- 
denses his  narrative.  He  devotes  but  one  verse 
(xviii,  22)  to  Paul's  fourth  journey  to  Jerusalem; 
he  conden.ses  his  narrative  of  St.  Paul's  two  years  of 
imprisonment  at  Caesarea  into  a  few  lines.  Thus 
he  may  also  have  judged  good  for  his  scope  to  pass 
over  in  one  sentence  Paul's  Galatian  ministry. 

Date  of  Composition. — As  regards  the  date  of 
the  Book  of  Acts,  we  may  at  most  assign  a  probable 
date  for  the  completion  of  the  book.  It  is  recog- 
nized by  all  that  Acts  ends  abruptly.  The  author 
devotes  but  two  verses  to  the  two  years  which  Paul 
spent  at  Rome.  These  two  years  were  in  a  certain 
sense  uneventful  Paul  dwelt  peaceably  at  Rome, 
and  preached  the  kingdom  of  God  to  all  who  went  in 
unto  him.  It  seems  probable  that  during  this 
peaceful  epoch  St.  Luke  composed  the  Book  of  Acts, 
and  terminated  it  abruptly  at  the  end  of  the  two 
years,  as  some  unrecorded  vicissitude  ca.Tietl  him 
out  into  other  events.  The  date  of  the  completion 
of  Acts  is  therefore  dependent  on  the  date  of  St. 
Paul's  Roman  captivity.  Writers  are  quite  con- 
cordant in  placing  the  date  of  Paul's  coming  to 
Rome  in  the  year  62;  hence  the  year  64  is  the  most 
probable  date  for  the  Acts. 

Texts  of  the  Acts. — In  the  Grseco-Latin  codices 
D  and  E  of  .\cts,  we  find  a  text  widely  differing  from 
that  of  the  other  codices,  and  from  the  received  text. 
By  Sanday  and  Headlam  (Romans,  p.  xxi)  this  is 
called  the  S  text;  by  Blass  (Acta  Apostolorum,  p.  24) 
it  is  called  the  ;3  text.  The  famous  Latin  Codex  now 
at  Stockholm,  from  its  size  called  the  Codex  Gigas, 
also  in  the  main  represents  tliis  text.  Dr.  Borne- 
mann  (Acta  Apost.)  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
the  aforesaid  text  was  Luke's  original,  but  his  theory 
has  not  been  received.  Dr.  Blass  (Acta  Apost.,  p. 
vii)  endeavours  to  prove  that  Luke  wrote  first  a 
rough  draft  of  Acts,  and  that  this  is  preserved  in 
D  and  E.  Luke  revised  tliis  rough  draft,  and  sent 
it  to  Theophilus;  and  this  revised  copy  he  supposes 
to  be  the  original  of  our  received  text.  Belser, 
Nestle,  Zoeckler,  and  others  have  adopted  his  theory. 
The  theory  is,  however,  rejected  by  the  greater 
number.  It  seems  far  more  probable  that  D  and 
E  contain  a  recension,  wherein  the  copyists  have 
added,  paraphrased,  and  changed  things  in  the  text, 
according  to  that  tendency  which  prevailed  up  to 
the  second  half  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era. 

Beelen,  Commenlariiu  in  Acta  Apoatolomm  (2d  ed.,  Lou- 
vain);  Belseb,  Studien  zur  Apostelgeschichte,  in  Theol.  Quartal- 
tchrijl  (1895),  50-96;  Lukaa  und  Josephus,  ibid.  (1896).  1-78; 
Die  Selbstvertheidigung  des  H.  Paulus  im  Galaterbriefe 
in  Bibliache  Studien  (Freiburg,  1896).  1-3;  Beitr/ige  zur  Erkltl- 
rurxg  der  Apoatelgeschichie  auf  Grund  dcr  Lesarten  des  Codex  D 
und  seiner  Genoasen,  ibid.  (1897);  Blass,  Cfie  zu'eifache  Teitil- 
berlieferuJig  in  der  Apostelgeschichte,  in  Thcologische  Studien 
und  Kritiken  (1894),  86-119;  Acta  Apostolorum,  sire  Lucce  ad 
Theophilum  liber  alter  (Gottingen,  1895):  De  duplici  form& 
Actorum  Lucce  in  Hermathena,  (1895).  121-143;  Ueber  die 
rerschiedenen  Textesformcn  in  den  Schrifttn  des  Lukas,  in 
Neue  kirchl.  Zcit.  (1895).  712-725;  Acta  Apostolorum  semndum 
formam  qua-  videtur  Romana  (Leipzig,  1896);  Neue  Terteszeuffen 
far  die  Apostelgeschichte,  in  Theol.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  (1896),  436- 
471;  Zii  Codex  D,  in  der  Apostelgeschichte,  ibid.  (1898),  539- 
542;  Zu  den  zwei  Texten  der  Apostelgeschichte.  ibid.  (1900). 
6-28;  Priscilla  und  .iquila,  ibid.  (1901),  124-126;  Boknemann, 
Acta  Apostolorum  ad  Codicis  C fintabrxgicnsia  Jldcm  (Gros.sen- 
liain,  1848);  Conybeare.  On  the  Weslirm  Text  of  the  Ads,  in 
Am.  J.  Phil.  (1896),  135-172;  Papias  and  the  Ads  of  the 
Apostles,  in  Class.  Rev.  (1895),  258;  Coppieters,  De  Hist. 
Text.  Act.  Apost.  (Louvain,  1902);  Cornely.  Introdudio  in 
Utriusque  Test.  Littros  Sacros  (Paris,  1895);  In.,  Introdudio 
iSpcciatis  in  Singulos  Novi  Trstamcnti  Libras  (Paris,  1S97): 
(ToRssKV,  Drr  ( ' fij'rinnisehe  Text  der  .Ada  Apostolorum  (Berlin, 
1802);  ('11. .-s,  .V„(,.  on  Arts  ix  (1900),  19-25;  Gacn.f.I's, 
Scholi,,  n,  ArluH  Aiuisl.  (Paris,  1552);  HARNArK,  Das  Apostfl- 
dcrril  und  ,l:r  lil,i.i.isrhe  H upolhcse  (Berlin.  1899).  150-170; 
Veber  d,  n   umprunglichen   Tell  Act.   Apost.  li,  S7-S8  (Berlip 


ACTS 


123 


ACTS 


1899),  316-327:  Headlau,  Acta  of  Ihe  ApottUt,  in  Diet.  Bibl. 
(Edinburgh.  1898);  Hilgknkeld,  Dit  A posUtfjeachiehtf  nach 
lArm  Qiullmtchrijlen  unlrrtucht,  in  Znttchnft  fur  ui»«rn- 
trhiijll.  Thiol.  {1895  and  188«):  Der  Kinaano  dtr  Apotlrt- 
grtcku-hle,  ibul.  (1898),  I119-C25;  Knahknualkr.  Commrnlnriut 
in  Actus  Aputlulorum  (Paris.  1899):  Licak.  Tritmil  Criticiam 
and  the  Acts  o/  the  Aposltes,  in  Dub.  ffri .  (1894),  30-r,3;  K.vmsay, 
Professor  lilass  on  the  tuo  Editions  of  Acts  (ISU.i),  IL'9-Ui,  JIJ- 
225;  Are  there  tuo  l.ucan  Texts  of  Aclst  m  The  Ar;H).i/or  ( 1 897 ) , 
400-471;  St.  Paul  the  Traveller  arul  the  Roman  Cl/li.n  (London. 
1900);  Some  recent  Editions  of  the  Acts  of  the  .\poslles,  in  The  Ei- 
positor  (1900,  Nov.),  321-335;  .Saiiatikh,  l/auteur  du  litre  des 
Actes  des  .ipotres,  a-t-il  connu  et  utilise  dans  son  rccit  les  Epitrea 
de  St.-Pault.m  Bibhotheque  de  lEcole  des  llnutes  Etudes  iParnt, 
1889).  I,  202-229:  Sorof,  Die  Knlstehunn  der  .i posleli/eschichte 
(Berlin,  1890);  Spitta,  Die  Anoslelgeschuhle,  ihre  (Juellen  und 
deren    geichichllichen    Wert    (Halle.    1891). 

A.    E,    BUEEN. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Apockyph.\l.     See  .\poc- 

RYI'HA. 

Acts  of  the  Councils.     See  Councils. 

Acts   of   the    Martyrs.     See  M.uityrs,  Acts  op 

THK. 

Acts  of  Roman  Congregations,  a  term  used  to 
designate  tl)e  docunient.s  (called  also  decrees)  issued 
by  tlie  Koinan  Congregations  in  virtue  of  powers 
conferred  on  them  by  the  Roman  Pontiff.  This 
subject  will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads: 
I.  Kinds;  II.  Authouity;  III.  Use;  IV.  M.vnnek 
OP  Pkeservation;  V.  Accessibility;  VI.  Collec- 
tions. 

I.  Kinds. — In  virtue  of  their  governing  and 
executive  powers,  the  Congregations  grant  privileges 
and  dispensations  from  ecclesiastical  laws,  or  issue 
ordinances  to  safeguard  tlieir  olwervance;  m  virtue 
of  their  power  of  interpreting  laws,  they  give  au- 
thentic declarations;  in  virtue  of  their  judicial  power 
they  give  decisions  between  contending  parties.  All 
these  powers,  however,  do  not  Ijelong  to  each  Con- 
gregation. (See  Congregations,  Roman.)  Again, 
their  decrees  are  particular  or  universal,  according 
as  they  are  directed  to  individuals  or  to  the  whole 
Church.  Particular  decrees,  containing  simply  an 
autlientic  interpretation  of  a  universal  law,  are  called 
equivalently  universal.  Finally,  most  decrees  are 
disciplinary,  dealing  with  positive  ecclesiastical  laws, 
which  they  e.xplain,  or  enforce,  or  dispense  from; 
but  some  are  doctrinal,  e.  g.,  tliose  which  declare  a 
doctrine  to  be  untenable,  or  an  act  unlawful  because 
contrary  to  a  divine  law. 

II.  Authority. — (a)  In  general. — The  authority 
of  these  decrees  is  in  a  certain  sense  supreme,  inas- 
much as  they  come  from  the  highest  ecclesiastical 
tribunals;  but  it  is  not  absolutely  supreme,  for  the 
Congregations  are  juridically  distinct  from  the  Pope 
and  inferior  to  him;  hence  their  acts  are  not,  strictly 
speaking,  acts  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.  The  Congre- 
gations do  not  always  make  use  of  all  the  authority 
they  possess.  Hence  it  is  from  the  wording  of  the 
documents,  and  by  applying  the  general  rules  of 
interpretation,  that  we  must  judge  in  each  case  of 
the  legal  force  of  their  decrees,  whether  they  contain, 
for  instance,  orders  or  instructions,  authentic  inter- 
pretations, or  only  practical  directions.  (6)  Au- 
thority of  doctrinal  decrees. — Doctrinal  decrees  are 
not  of  themselves  infallible;  the  prerogative  of  in- 
fallibility cannot  be  communicated  to  the  Congre- 
gations by  the  Pope.  On  the  other  hand,  owing  to 
the  teaching  power  delegated  to  the  Congregations 
for  safeguarding  the  purity  of  Cliristian  doctrine, 
exterior  compliance  and  interior  assent  are  due  to 
such  decrees.  However,  solid  proofs  to  the  con- 
trary may  at  times  justify  the  learned  in  suspend- 
ing their  assent  until  the  infallible  authority  of  the 
Church  intervenes,  (r)  Authority  of  disciplinary 
decrees. — Universal  decrees  bind  either  all  the  faith- 
ful, or  such  cla.s.se3  or  persons  as  are  directly  con- 
cerned. Particular  decrees  affect,  first  of  all,  those 
to  whom  they  are  directed.  .As  to  other  persons, 
■we   must    distinguish    various   cases.     A    particular 


decree  which  grants  a  privilege  or  a  dispensation 
affects  others  only  by  preventing  them  from  disturb- 
ing the  recipients.  A  particular  decree  containing 
a  judicial  sentence  has  not  the  force  of  a  universal 
law,  unless  the  same  decision  has  been  gi\en  re- 
I)eatedly  in  similar  cases,  because  sucli  decisions 
rendered  by  courts  that  are  supreme  form  a  judicial 
custom,  to  which  inferior  judges  must  conform 
fl.  38.  D.  de  legibus).  Finally,  when  particular 
decrees  are  equivalently  universal,  canonists  are 
divided  as  to  the  limits  of  their  binding  force.  Most 
authors  distinguish  between  comprehensive  and  ex- 
tensive interpretations.  Tlie  latter  are  held  to  bind 
only  persons  to  whom  they  are  directed,  unless 
promulgate<l  to  the  l^niversal  Church,  because,  being 
extensive,  they  enforce  a  sense  not  included  in  the 
law  and  are  equivalent  to  a  new  law;  the  former 
are  held  to  bind  all  without  need  of  i)romulgation, 
because  the  sense  explained  in  a  comprehensive 
interpretation  being  already  included  in  the  law, 
such  decrees  are  not  new  laws  and  do  not  need 
further  promulgation.  Many  canonists  follow  an 
opposite  view;  without  distinguishing  between  com- 
prehensive and  extensive  interpretations,  tliey  main- 
tain that  any  decree  interpreting  a  law  in  itself 
obscure  and  doubtful  binds  only  those  to  whom  it 
is  directed,  unless  promulgated  to  tlie  Universal 
Church.  They  base  their  opinion  upon  the  doctrine 
that,  when  a  law  is  in  itself  doubtful  and  obscure, 
an  authentic  interpretation,  i.  e.,  a  declaration  oblig- 
ing people  to  put  that  law  into  practice  in  a  certain 
definite  sense,  is  equivalent  to  a  new  law;  hence 
the  necessity  of  its  promulgation.  These  authors, 
however,  admit  that  no  promulgation  is  necessary, 
either  when  the  same  declaration  has  been  re- 
peatedly given,  so  as  to  have  established  what  is 
termed  the  Sti/lus  Curiw  (a  custom  similar  to 
that  mentioned  above  in  connection  with  the  au- 
thority of  judicial  sentences),  or  when  the  declara- 
tion in  question,  though  given  only  once,  has  been 
universally  accepted,  so  as  to  have  become  the  com- 
mon practice  of  the  Church. 

III.  Use. — Their  use  is  determined  by  their  special 
character  and  value,  according  as  they  are  sentences, 
or  declarations  and  so  forth.  Moreover,  besides 
settling  the  cases  for  which  they  are  Lssued,  they  are 
often  useful  for  professors  of  canon  law  and  moral 
theology  in  discussing  disputed  questions,  as  well 
as  for  judges  in  the  prudent  administration  of  justice; 
on  the  other  hand,  all,  especially  clerics,  may  find, 
even  in  those  that  are  not  universal,  safe  directions 
in  matters  of  religion  and  morality.  This  directive 
effect  is  all  the  more  reasonable  as  these  acts  come 
from  men  of  learning  and  experience,  well  qualified 
for  their  offices,  who  devote  the  most  careful  study 
to  each  case,  according  to  its  relative  importance. 
Decisions  of  lesser  moment  are  given  by  the  cardinal 
who  is  at  the  head  of  the  Congregation,  in  a  meeting 
(congresso)  composed  of  the  same  cardinal,  the 
secretary,  and  some  other  officials  of  the  Congrega- 
tion. More  important  matters  are  decided  only  by 
the  general  Congregation.  Before  the  Congregation 
meets  to  take  action  in  affairs  of  verj-  great  im- 
portance, each  cardinal  has  been  fully  informed  of 
the  question  to  be  treated,  by  means  of  a  paper  in 
which  the  matter  is  thoroughly  discussed,  and  all 
points  of  fact  and  law  connected  with  it  are  pre- 
sented, with  reasons  for  both  sides.  The  cardinals 
then  discuss  the  matter  in  their  meeting,  and  the 
decision  is  reached  by  voting.  These  decisions  are 
brought  to  the  Pope  for  his  consideration  or  appro- 
bation in  all  cases  in  which  custom  or  law  prescribes 
sucli  procedure.  Ordinarily  tliis  approval  is  not 
legally  of  such  a  character  as  to  make  these  decrees 
"(pontifical  acts";  they  become  such  only  by  the 
special  confinnation.  termed  by  canonists" in  formd 
$pccijicd,  which   is  seldom  given.     Finally,   the  act 


ACTS 


124 


ACTUS 


is  drawn  up  in  due  form,  and,  lia'vnng  been  sealed  and 
signed  by  the  Cardinal  Prefect  of  the  Congregation 
and  the  Secretary,  is  dispatched  to  its  destination. 

IV.  M.\NNER  OK  Presehvatiox. — All  pending  af- 
fairs are  entered,  under  progressive  numbers,  in  the 
register  called  Prolncollo,  with  a  short  indication 
of  the  stage  of  tlie  transaction.  Suitable  alphabeti- 
cal indexes  render  easy  the  work  of  looking  up  details. 
All  the  documents  relating  to  each  case,  from  the 
first,  containing  the  petition  addressed  to  the  Con- 
gregation, to  the  olhcial  copy  of  the  final  act,  and 
forming  what  is  technically  called  the  posizione,  are 
kept  together,  separate  from  all  other  documents, 
and  are  preserveii  in  the  archives  of  the  Congrega- 
tion, either  permanently  or  for  a  definite  period  of 
time  (ordinarilj-,  ten  years),  when  the  documents 
are  removed  to  the  ^'atican  arcliives.  Tliis  latter 
practice  prevails  in  the  Congregations  of  the  Council, 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  and  of  Rites. 

V.  Accessibility. — The  arcliives  of  the  Congre- 
gations are  not  opened  to  the  public.  If  one  wishes 
to  study  the  documents,  he  should  ask  permission 
from  the  authorities  of  the  Congregations.  Ordi- 
narily it  is  sufficient  to  ask  it  of  the  secretary;  in 
the  Congregations  of  Propaganda  and  of  the  Index 
the  petition  should  be  addressed  to  the  Cardinal 
Prefect,  and  in  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office, 
to  the  Congregation  itself;  finally,  in  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  AfTairs,  the 
matter  has  to  be  referred  to  the  Pope.  When  there 
are  suflicient  reasons,  which  shoukl  be  more  or  less 
grave  according  to  the  quality  of  the  matter,  the 
petitioner  either  will  be  allowed  to  inspect  the  original 
documents  or  will  be  supplied  with  authentic  copies. 

VI.  Collections. — Many  of  the  acts  are  accessible 
in  the  various  collections,  which  several  of  the  Con- 
gregations have  permitted  to  be  published.  Some 
of  these  collections  are  also  authentic,  inasmuch  as 
their  genuineness  and  authenticity  are  vouched  for 
by  the  authorities  of  the  Congregations.  Moreover, 
editors  of  periodicals  on  ecclesiastical  subjects  have 
been  allowed  for  several  years  back  to  publish  in 
their  magazines  the  acts  of  the  Congregations,  and 
one  of  these  periodicals,  "Acta  Sancts  Sedis",  has 
received  the  privilege  of  being  declared  "authentic 
and  official  for  publishing  the  acts  of  the  Apostolic 
See"  (S.  C.  de  Prop.  Fid.,  23  May,  1904).  The  follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  the  chief  collections: 

Collectanea  S.  Congr.  de  Propagandd  Fide  (Rome, 
189.3);  Thesaurus  Resolutionum  S.  Congr.  Concilii 
(Rome,  1718 — );  Zamboni,  Collectio  Declarationum 
S.  C.  Concilii  (Arras,  1860);  Pallottini,  Collectio 
Conclusionum  et  Resolutionum  S.  C.  Concilii  (Rome, 
1868-93);  Lingen  et  Reuss,  Causes  Selectee,  in  S.  C. 
Concilii  Propositoe  (New  York,  1871);  Bizzarri, 
Collectanea  S.  Congr.  Episcoporum  et  Regularium 
(Rome,  1S85);  Decreta  authentica  C.  Sacrorum  Rituum 
(Rome,  1898-1901);  Decreta  authentica  S.  Congr. 
Jndulgenliis  Sacrisqjie  Rcliquiis  prcepositce  (New 
York,  1883);  Schneider,  Rescripta  authentica  S.  C. 
Indulgentiis  Sacrisque  Rcliquiis  prcepositce  (Ratis- 
bon,  1885);  Ricci,  Sgnopais  Dccrctorum  et  Resolu- 
tionum S.  Congr.  Immunitatis  (Turin,  1719).  Among 
the  Catholic  periodicals  that  publish  regularly,  with 
more  or  less  completeness,  the  acts  of  the  Congre- 
gations are  the  following  (the  date  after  the  title 
indicates  the  first  year  of  publication): 

Archiv  jilr  Kathnl.  Kirchcnrechl  (1857);  Analecta 
Juris  Pontificii  (Rome,  1855),  since  1893,  Analecta 
Ecclesiastica;  Le  Canoni-stc  Contemporain  (Paris, 
1893);  American  Ecclesiastical  Review  (New  York, 
1889);  Irish  Ecclcsiaalical  Record  (Dublin,  1861); 
Nouvellc  Revue  Thiologiguc  (Tonriiay,  18(i9);  Acta 
Snnctai  Sedis  (Rome,  1865);  Monilore  Ecclesiastica 
(Rome,  1870). 

Am.  F.ccl.  R.,  I,  p.  404:  Baabt,  The  Roman  Court  (New 
York),  230;    UuMPiinitY,    Vrbt  et  Orlrit  (London,    1899— au 


English  work),  317;  Analecta  Juris  Pontificii,  II  Sirie,  Lea 
Congregations  Romaines  et  de  leur  pratique  (Paris.  1857) 
2230-82,  2364-2424;  Bangen,  Die  rbmiache  Kurie  (Munster. 
1854);  Booix,  De  Curid  Roman/1  (Paris,  1880),  293;  De 
Principiis  Juris  Canonici  (Paris,  1852),  334;  Ferraris,  Bibli- 
otheca  Canonica  (Rome,  1885-99),  II,  s.  v.  Congregationes; 
Hergenrcether-Hollweck,  Lehrbuch  ties  katholischen  Kir- 
chcnrechts  (Freiburg,  1905),  292;  Hinschics,  System  d.  hath. 
Kirchenreckts  (Berlin,  1809),  I,  448  (non-Catholic);  Lega,  De 
Judiciis  Ecclesiasticis  (Rome.  189G-1901),  II,  96;  De  origine 
et  naturd  Sacr.  Romanarum  Con^jrcgaiionum  in  Analecta  Ec- 
clesiastica (Rome,  189C),  IV,  458;  Phillips,  Kirchenrecht 
(Ratisbon,  1864),  VI,  pp.  507-582,  583-673;  Simor,  De 
Sacris  Congregationibus  et  illarum  auctoritate,  in  Archiv.  f.  kath. 
Kirchenrecht  (1804),  410;  Sacmiller,  Lehrbuch  des  kalhol. 
Kirchenreckts  (Freiburg.  1900),  325-337,  75-77;  Wernz,  Jus 
Decretalium.  (Rome,  1905),  I;  Haskins,  in  Catholic  University 
Bulletin.  Ill,   177. 

Hector  Papi. 

Acts  of  the  Saints.     See  Bollandists. 

Actual  Grace.     See  Grace. 

Actual  Sin.     See  Sin. 

Actus  et  Potentia,  a  technical  expression  in  scho- 
lastic phraseology. 

I. — The  terms  actus  and  potentia  were  used  by  the 
scholastics  to  translate  Aristotle's  ivip-yeia  or 
ivTeKix^LCL,  and  Sivatui.  There  is  no  single  word 
in  English  that  would  be  an  exact  rendering  of  either. 
Act,  action,  actuality,  perfection,  determination  ex- 
press the  various  meanings  of  actus;  potency,  poten- 
tiality, power,  capacity,  those  of  potentia.  In  gen- 
eral, potentia  means  an  aptitude  to  change,  to  act 
or  to  be  acted  upon,  to  give  or  to  receive  some  new 
determination.  Actus  means  the  fulfilment  of  such 
a  capacity.  So,  potentia  always  refers  to  something 
future,  which  at  present  exists  only  as  a  germ  to  be 
evolved;  actus  denotes  the  corresponding  complete 
reality.  In  a  word,  potentia  is  the  determinable 
being,  and  actus,  the  determined  being.  The  term 
actus,  therefore,  has  a  much  greater  extension  than 
act  or  operation.  Every  operation  is  an  actus, 
because  it  is  the  complement  of  a  power;  but  all 
other  perfections  and  determinations,  whatever  be 
their  nature,  are  also  actus.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
being  in  potentiA  is  not  to  be  identified  with  the 
possible  being.  The  latter  belongs  to  the  logical 
order;  it  is  a  notion  whose  elements  invoh-e  no  con- 
tradiction. The  former  belongs  to  the  real  order; 
it  exists  in  a  subject  which,  though  undetermined,  is 
capable  of  determination.  Potentia  is  more  than  a 
mere  statement  of  futurity,  which  has  reference  to 
time  only;  it  implies  a  positive  aptitude  to  be  realized 
in  the  future.  It  would  also  be  a  mistake  to  identify 
the  scholastic  actus  and  potentia  with  the  actual  and 
potential  energy  of  physics.  These  terms  apply  only 
to  material  substances,  and  are  exclusively  dynamic; 
they  signify  the  capacity  for  doing  work,  or  the 
actual  performing  of  work.  The  scliolastic  terms 
apply  to  all,  even  spiritual,  beings,  and  refer  to  any 
reality  which  tliey  pos.sess  or  can  acquire.  The 
Aristotelian  "energy"  (actus)  as  such,  i.  e.,  con- 
sidered as  actuality,  can  never  be  potential,  these 
two  terms  being  opposed  to  each  other.  Actuality 
and  potentiality  are  mutually  exclusive,  since  one 
means  the  presence,  and  the  other  the  absence,  of 
the  same  determination.  Yet,  in  all  beings  except 
God  (see  Actus  Puru.s)  there  is  a  combination  of 
actuality  and  potentiality;  they  possess  some  deter- 
minations and  are  capable  of  acquiring  others. 
Moreover,  the  same  reality  may  be  considered  as 
actuality  or  potentiality,  according  as  we  take  a 
retrospective  or  a  prospective  point  of  view.  In 
man,  skill  and  science  arc  actualities  if  we  compare 
them  to  human  nature,  which  they  presuppose. 
But  if  we  comjiare  them  to  the  actions  themselves, 
or  to  the  actual  recall  of  acquired  knowledge  to 
consciousness,  tliey  are  powers,  or  potentia:  If  we 
keep  the  same  point  of  view,  it  is  impossible  for 
tiie  same    thing  to    be    at   the   same  time  in   actu 


ACTUS 


125 


ACTUS 


and  in  potentid  with  regard  to  tlie  same  determi- 
nation. 

Aristotle  and  St.  Thomas  explain  this  theorj'  by 
many  illustrations,  one  of  which  will  suffice.  The 
statue  exists  potentially  in  the  block  of  marble, 
because  marble  has  an  aptitude  to  receive  the  shape 
of  a  statue.  This  aptitude  is  something  real  in  tlie 
marble,  since  many  other  substances  are  deprived 
of  it.  It  is  a  receptive  potentiality.  With  regard  to 
the  same  statue,  the  sculptor  has  the  power,  by  his 
action,  to  carve  the  marble  into  tlie  form  of  a  statue. 
His  is  an  active  power,  a  real  skill  or  ability  which 
is  lacking  in  many  other  persons.  In  order  to  have 
the  actual  statue  (acltts),  it  is  neccssarj'  for  the 
sculptor  to  exercise  (aclu.s)  his  real  skill  (poieniia) 
on  a  substance  which  is  not  yet  a  statue,  but  which 
has  a  real  aptitude  (polentia)  to  become  one.  I  can 
form  no  idea  cither  of  tlie  marble's  potentiality  or 
of  tlie  sculptor's  skill  unless  I  first  know  what  is 
meant  by  an  actual  statue.  In  the  same  manner,  the 
man  born  blind  is  unable  to  understand  what  is 
meant  by  the  faculty  of  vision.  In  general,  polcnlia 
has  no  meaning,  and  cannot  be  defined  except 
through   the   corresponding   actus. 

II. —  The  distinction  between  polentia  and  actus 
is  at  tlie  basis  of,  and  pervades,  the  whole  scholastic 
system  of  philosophy  and  theologj'.  Whatever  is 
determinable  is  considered  as  potential  with  regard 
to  the  actual  determination,  (ienus  and  species, 
subject  and  predicate,  quantity  and  shape,  child  and 
adult,  matter  and  form  of  the  .--acran.ents,  etc.,  are 
examples  of  potentiality  and  actuality.  Here  we 
must  confine  ourselves  to  the  fundamental  applica- 
tions in  metaphysics  and  in  psj-chology.  (1)  In 
metaphysics  the  distinction  runs  through  the  ten 
Aristotelian  categories.  All  being,  whether  sub- 
stance or  accident  (q.  v.),  is  either  in  actu  or  in 
potetitiii.  The  e-ssence  of  creatures  is  a  potentiality 
with  regard  to  their  existence.  Material  substances 
are  composed  of  primary  matter  and  substantial 
form  (see  M.\TTErt  .\nd  Form),  matter  being  a  pure 
potentiality,  i.  e.,  wholly  undetermined,  and  form 
being  the  first  determination  given  to  matter. 
Efficient  causality  is  also  an  application  of  potentiality 
and  actuality;  the  cause,  when  at  rest,  remains  able 
to  act.  Change  is  a  transition  from  the  state  of 
potentiality  to  that  of  actuality.  Cleneration,  growth, 
and  evolution  suppose  a  capacity  which  becomes 
fulfilled.  (2)  In  psychologj'  special  emphasis  is  laid 
on  the  reality  of  the  potenti<r,  or  faculties  (q.  v.), 
and  their  distinction  both  from  the  soul  and  from 
tlieir  operations.  External  senses  are  determined 
or  actualized  by  an  external  stimulus  (.see  Species), 
which  gives  them  the  determination  necessary  to 
the  act  of  perception.  The  internal  senses  (scnsus 
communix,  phatilasia,  memoria,  ivstiinativa)  depend 
on  external  sensations  for  their  exercise.  Memory 
and  imagination  preserve  in  potentid  traces  of  past 
impressions,  and  when  the  proper  conditions  are 
verified  the  image  becomes  actual.  We  have  no 
innate  ideas,  but  in  the  Ijeginning  human  intelligence 
is  simply  a  power  to  aopiire  ideas.  Hy  its  opera- 
tion, the  active  power  of  the  intellect  {inlellectus 
aqens)  forms  the  species  intrtliijibilis  or  the  determi- 
nation necessary  to  the  intelligence  {intvllectus  pos- 
sibilis)  for  its  cognitive  act.  All  tendency  and  desire 
is  actualized  by  some  good  which  one  strives  to 
acquire.  In  rational  psychology  man  is  conceived 
as  one  substantial  being,  composed  of  body  and 
soul,  or  matter  and  form,  united  as  polentia  and 
actus. 

There  is  a  tendency  to-day  in  nearly  all  the  sciences 
towards  "actuality"  theories.  But,  if  analyzed 
carefully,  such  theories  will  necessarily  yield  potential 
elements.  In  all  things  we  find  capacities  for  further 
development  and  evolution,  forces  and  aptitudes 
which  come  to  be  utilized  little  by  little.     In  scholas- 


tic terminology  these  are  now  real,  but  not  actual. 
They  exist  only  as  potentiiB,  which,  to  manifest  them- 
selves, await  the  proper  actualization. 


Berlin  ed.)  and  passim  in  Summa  Thtolvtfica  and  oilier  works; 
FAHOE.S,  AcU  el  puissance  (3d  ed..  Pari.-<.  189.'}).  Mutiire  el 
hnne  (3d  e<i.,  Paris,  1894);  Harpeh.  The  M.laplujsics  of 
the  Schuul,  II,  ii.  lii,  and  V,  ii,  iii.  piistim  (London.  1879); 
H.M'OIN.  L'acte  et  la  puissance  dans  .Aristote  in  Jirt-ue  Ihomistf, 
VII  klS99>.  40.  153.  274.  584,  VIII  (19(X)),  273;  VVatko.v, 
The  Mrtiiphyaic  of  .XrisluUe.  III.  IV;  I'otmhnl  and  Actual 
Heality.m  Philosophical  Review,  VII  (1898).  337;  I.OGAN,  The 
.iristotelian  Concept  of  Ipiffti,  in  Philosophical  Review,  VI 
(1897).  IS;  ne  Vorges.  L'acte  el  la  puissamr,  in  Arinales  de 
philosophie  chrftienne,  n.  s.,  XIV  (1886),  471;  Hovtbocx  in 
La  ffrande  encyclopMie,  art.  Aristote.  5  viii,  Mitaphjisiqve; 
liAl.Dwi.N,  Dicl.  of  Fhilos.  and  Psychol.,  s.  v.  Potentiality  and 
Potency. 

C.  A.  DUBRAY. 

Actus  primus,  a  technical  expression  used  in 
.scholastic  philosophy.  Actus  means  determination, 
complement,  perfection.  In  cveiy  being  there  are 
many  actualities,  and  these  are  subordinated.  Thus 
existence  supposes  essence;  power  supposes  exist- 
ence; action  .supposes  faculty.  The  first  actuality 
{actus  primus)  begins  a  series;  it  supposes  no  other 
actuality  preceding  it  in  the  same  .^cries,  but  calls 
for  a  further  complement,  namely,  the  second  actu- 
ality (actus  secun(lu.s) .  But  as  the  same  reality  may 
be  called  "actuality"  when  viewed  in  the  light  of 
what  precedes,  and  "potentiality"  when  viewed  in 
tlie  light  of  what  follows  (see  Actvs  kt  Potenti.\), 
the  meaning  of  the  term  "first  actuality"  may  vary 
according  to  the  view  one  takes,  and  the  point  where 
the  series  is  made  to  begin.  Primarj'  matter  (see 
M.\TTEH  .WD  Form)  is  a  pure  potentiality,  and  tlie 
substantial  form  is  its  first  determinaticn,  its  first 
actuality.  The  complete  substance  (oiistitufcd  by 
these  two  principles  receives  further  determinations, 
which  are,  in  that  respect,  second  actualities.  Vet 
these  niay  also  be  conceived  as  first  actualities. 
Thus  the  extensive  quantity  of  a  substance  is  a  first 
actuality  when  compared  to  the  shape.  Power  is 
a  first  actuality  when  compared  to  action.  And  this 
is  the  most  frequent  application  of  the  terms  actus 
primus  and  actus  .'sccundtis.  The  former  is  the 
faculty;  the  latter,  the  exercise,  or  function.  To  see 
in  actu  prima  simply  means  to  ha\e  the  sense  of 
vision;  to  see  in  actu  secundo  is  to  actually  jierform 
acts  of  vision.  The  modern  distinction  of  potential 
and  kinetic  energy  might  serve  as  another  illustra- 
tion: the  loaded  gun,  or  the  engine  with  steam  up 
represent  first  actualities;  the  bullet  speeding  to 
the  mark,  the  engine  flying  over  the  rails,  represent 
second  actualities.  C.  A.  DrsRAY. 

Actus  Purus,  a  term  employed  in  scholastic  philos- 
ophy to  express  the  absolute  perfection  of  Clod.  In 
all  iinite  beings  we  find  actuality  and  potentiality, 
perfection  and  imperfection.  Primary  matter,  which 
is  the  basis  of  material  substance,  is  a  pure 
potentiality.  Moreover,  change  necessarily  sup- 
poses a  potential  element,  for  it  is  a  transition  from 
a  state  .of  potentiality  to  a  state  of  actuality;  and 
material  things  undergo  manifold  changes  in  sub- 
stance, quantity,  quality,  place,  activity,  etc.  Angels, 
since  they  are  pure  spirits,  are  subject  to  none  of  the 
changes  that  depend  on  the  material  principle. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  in  them  imperfection  and 
potentiality.  Their  existence  is  contingent.  Their 
actions  are  successive,  and  are  distinct  from  the 
faculty  of  acting.  The  fact  that  all  things  have  in 
themselves  some  potentiality  warrants  the  conclu- 
sion that  there  must  exist  a  being,  God,  from  whom 
potentiality  is  wholly  excluded,  and  who,  therefore, 
IS  simply  actuality  and  perfection.  Actus  Ptirus. 

It  is  true  that  in  the  same  being  the  state  of 
potentiality  precedes  that  of  actuality;  before  Ix-ing 
realize'd,  a  perfection  must  be  cajiable  of  realization. 
But,  absolutely  speaking,  actuality  precedes  poten- 


ACUAS 


126 


ADALBERT 


tiality.  For  in  order  to  change,  a  thing  must  be 
acted  upon,  or  actuahzed;  change  and  potentiality 
presuppose,  therefore,  a  being  wliich  is  in  actii.  This 
actuality,  if  mixed  with  potentiality,  supposes  an- 
other actuality,  and  so  on,  until  we  reach  the  Actus 
Pnrus.  Tlius  the  existence  of  mo\ement  (in  scholas- 
tic terminology,  motui'.  any  change)  points  to  the 
existence  of  a  prime  and  immobile  motor.  Causality 
leads  to  the  conception  of  God  as  the  unproduced 
cause.  Contingent  beings  require  a  necessary  being. 
The  limited  perfection  of  creatures  postulates  the 
unlimited  perfection  of  the  Creator.  The  direction 
of  various  activities  towards  the  realization  of  an 
order  in  the  universe  manifests  a  plan  and  a  divine 
intelligence.  Wlien  we  endeavour  to  account  ulti- 
mately for  the  series  of  phenomena  in  the  world,  it 
is  necessary  to  place  at  the  beginning  of  the  series 
— if  the  series  be  conceived  as  finite  in  duration — 
or  above  the  series — if  it  be  conceived  as  eternal — 
a  pure  actuality  without  which  no  explanation  is 
possible.  Thus,  at  one  extreme  of  reality  we  find 
primary  matter,  a  pure  potentiality,  without  any 
specific  perfection,  and  having,  on  this  account,  a 
certain  infinity  (of  indetermination).  It  needs  to 
be  completed  by  a  substantial  form,  but  does  not, 
of  itself,  demand  any  one  form  rather  than  another. 
At  the  other  extreme  is  God,  pure  actuality,  wholly 
determined  by  the  very  fact  that  He  is  infinite  in 
His  perfection.  Between  these  extremes  are  the 
realities  of  the  world,  with  various  degrees  of  poten- 
tiality and  actuality. 

So  that  God  is  not  a  becoming,  as  in  some  pan- 
theistic systems,  nor  a  being  whose  infinite  poten- 
tiality is  gradually  unfolded  or  evolved.  But  He 
possesses  at  once  all  perfections.  He  is  simultane- 
ously all  that  He  can  be,  infinitely  real  and  infinitely 
perfect.  What  we  conceive  as  His  attributes  or  His 
operations,  are  really  identical  with  His  essence, 
and  His  essence  includes  essentially  His  existence. 
For  all  intelligences  except  His  own,  God  is  incom- 
prehensible and  indefinable.  The  nearest  approach 
we  can  make  to  a  definition  is  to  call  Him  the  Actus 
Purus.  It  is  the  name  God  gives  to  Himself:  "I 
am  who  am  ",  i.  e.,  I  am  the  fulness  of  being  and  of 
perfection. 

Aristotle,  esp.  Metaphysics.  Bk.  XI  (Berlin,  ed.  1831); 
Physics.  Bks.  VII.  VIII;  St.  Thomas,  Comment,  in  lib.  VII, 
VIII  Physic,  and  in  lib.  XII  Metaphysic.  (XI  of  Berlin  ed.); 
Summa  theologica,  esp.  P.  I,  QQ.  ii,  iii,  iv,  etc.,  Contra  Gent. 
L.  I.  c.  xiii,  xvi,  etc.:  Piat,  Dieu  ei  la  nature  d'aprH  Aristote 
in  Revue  neo-scotastique,  VlII,  1901,  p.  167  (reproduced  in  his 
book  ArisloU,  L.   II,  c,  ii  Paris,   1903);  Watson,   The  Meta- 


p.  341. 


C.  A.  DuBRAY. 


Acuas,  one  of  the  first  to  spread  Manicheism  in 
the  Clu'istian  Orient.  He  was  probably  a  Mesopo- 
tamian,  and  introduced  the  heresy  into  Eleuthero- 
polis  (Palestine).  The  Manichieans  were  sometimes 
called  after  him  Acua7tit(B.  St.  Epiphanius  (Adv. 
H;er.,  Ixvi,  1)  calls  him  a  vcteranus,  i.  e.  .'in  ex- 
soldier  of  the  empire,  and  fixes  his  propaganda  in 
the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Aurelian  (273). 

CowELL.  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr..  I.  32. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Adalard,  Saint,  born  c.  751 ;  d.  2  January,  827. 
Bernard,  son  of  Charles  Martel  and  half-brother  of 
Pepin,  was  his  father,  and  Charlemagne  his  cousin- 
gerinan.  lie  received  a  good  etlucation  in  the 
Palatine  .School  at  the  Court  of  Charlemagne,  and 
while  still  very  young  Wius  ma<ie  Count  of  the  Palace. 
At  tlie  age  of  twenty  he  entered  the  mona.st^ry  at 
Corbie  in  Picardy.  In  order  to  be  more  sccluiled,  he 
went  to  Mont«  Cassino,  but  w.is  ordered  by  Cliar- 
lemagne  to  retvim  to  Corbie,  whore  he  was  elected 
abbot.  .At  the  same  time  Charlemagne  made  him 
prime  minister  to  his  son  Pepin,  King  of  Italy. 
When,  in  814.  Bernard,  son  of  Pepin,  aspired  after 


the  imperial  crown,  Louis  le  Debonnaire  suspected 
Adalard  of  being  in  sympathy  with  Bernard  and 
banished  him  to  Hermoutier,  the  modern  Noir- 
moutier,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name.  After 
seven  years  Louis  le  Debonnaire  saw  his  mistake  and 
made  Adalard  one  of  his  chief  advisers.  In  822 
Adalard  and  his  brother  Wala  founded  the  monastery 
of  (New)  Corvey  in  Westphalia.  Adalard  is  honoured 
as  patron  of  many  churches  and  towns  in  France  and 
along  the  lower  Rhine. 

Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints:  Baring-Gould,  Lilies  of  the 
Saints  (London,  1877):  Lechner,  Martyrotog.  des  Benediktiner- 
Ordens  (Augsburg,  1855);  Wattenbach,  Deutschlands  Ges- 
chichtsguellen  (Cth  ed..  Berlin,  1893),  I,  250-252;  Enck.  De 
S.  Adalhardo  (Munster,  1873);  Ram,  Hagiogr.  Beloe  (1804).  I. 
16-31. 

Michael  Ott. 
Adalbero  of  Montreuil.     See  Albero    of   Mon- 

TREUIL. 

Adalbert,     Archbishop    op    Hamburg-Bremen, 

b.  about  1000;  d.  1072  at  Goslar;  son  of  Count 
Friedrich  von  Goseck,  and  Agnes  of  the  lineage  of 
the  Weimar  Counts.  He  became  successively  canon 
in  Halberstadt;  subdeacon  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Hamburg  (1032);  Provost  of  the  Halberp'adt  Cathe- 
dral; and  Archbishop  of  Hamburg  (1043  or  1045) 
by  royal  appointment,  with  supremacy  over  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula  and  a  great  part  of  the 
Wend  lands,  in  addition  to  the  territory  north  of  the 
Elbe.  He  is  probably  the  Adalbert  mentioned  as 
the  Chancellor  for  Italy  under  Henrj'  III  in  1045. 
At  the  very  outset  of  his  episcopal  career  he  took  up 
the  old  feud  of  Hamburg  with  the  Billings,  in  whicn 
he  had  the  co-operation  of  Henrj-  III.  Having 
accompanied  the  Emperor  on  a  campaign  against 
the  Liutzi  (1045),  he  also  journeyed  with  him  to 
Rome  (1046).  Upon  the  settlement  of  the  papal 
schism  Henry  wished  to  make  Adalbert  Pope,  but 
he  refused,  and  presented  his  friend  Suidger  (Clement 
II)  as  a  candidate.  He  co-operated  in  the  conversion 
of  the  Wends,  and  three  new  bishoprics  were  erected, 
all  subject  to  Hamburg.  Adalbert  then  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  great  northern  patriarchate,  with  its 
seat  at  Hamburg,  but  was  constantly  foiled.  The 
Kings  of  Norway  and  Sweden  began  to  send  their 
bishops  to  England  for  consecration,  and  Sven 
Estrithson,  King  of  Denmark,  appealed  to  Henry 
and  Pope  Leo  IX  for  an  archbi.shop  of  his  own, 
which  would  mean  a  loss  to  Hamburg  of  lands  just 
yielding  fruits  after  two  hundred  years  of  evangeliza- 
tion. The  assent  of  Adalbert  was  necessary  for  such 
a  decision,  which  he  promised  to  ratify  only  on  con- 
dition that  his  dream  of  a  northern  patriarchate  be 
realized.  The  whole  discussion  was  cut  short  by 
the  death  of  both  Pope  (1054)  and  Emperor  (1056). 
During  the  regency  of  Empress  Agnes,  Adalbert 
lost  his  hold  on  the  court,  and  the  j'oung  Emperor, 
Henry  IV,  fell  under  the  influence  of  Anno,  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne.  Despite  the  ancient  feud  between 
Hamburg  and  Cologne,  .Adalbert  gained  control  of 
Henry's  education,  eventually  superseding  Anno  in 
his  confidence  and  esteem.  In  extenuation  of 
Adalbert's  eagerness  to  obtain  privileges  for  his 
archdiocese  it  must  be  recalled  that  he  had  sacrificed 
much  in  the  royal  service,  and  that  his  influence  was 
ever  for  the  more  open  and  straightforward  course 
of  action,  in  contrailistinction  to  that  of  the  oppo- 
sition party.  Ilis  flattery  and  indulgence  of  Henry, 
however,  were  baneful  in  their  effects.  Forced  to 
retire  from  court  in  1006,  by  the  jealousy  of  the 
nobles,  he  was  again  .admitted  to  Henry's  councils  in 
1069.  His  ascendency  o\-er  the  Emjicror  ended  only 
with  his  death  (1072).  Archbishop  .Adalbert  is  char- 
acterized by  .Adam  of  Bremen  as  mina.r  vultu  </ 
habitu  verborumque  altitudiuc  suspcctus  audioilibus. 
Generous,  prudent,  and  zenlnus  as  he  was,  his  charac- 
ter was  marred  by  indoniitalile  nrido,  which  has 
caused  him  to  be  depicted  in  tlie  blackest  colours 


ADALBERT 


127 


AD  APOSTOLIOiE 


Adamx  Grata  IJ ammaburgensis  rccletitr  p&ntificum,  ed.  Lap- 
PENUEKG.  Mon.  Germ..  SS.  VII.  2ti7;  Gie8EBKK(iit.  Deutsche 
Kaisrrzrit,  ill;  \\\tt^su\ch,  Getchichlaquellen.  II.  GZ;  Pastor 
in  Kirchmlex.,  s.  v. 

F.  M.  RuDOE. 

Adalbert  I  (or  Albert),  Archbishop  of  Mainz 
(Maycme)  1111  to  1137.  He  was  of  the  family  of 
tlie  Counts  of  Saarbnicken,  and  under  both  Henry  IV 
and  Henry  V  of  (iernmny  he  held  the  oflice  of  imperial 
chancellor,  discharging  his  duties  with  energy  and 
skill.  In  1110,  as  liead  of  an  embassy  sent  to  Home 
to  arrange  for  tlie  coronation  of  Henry  V  as  Emperor 
(crowned  kinp  6  January.  lO'.CJ),  he  had  much  to 
do  witli  bringmg  about  the  Treaty  of  Sutri,  in  which 
advantage  was  taken  of  the  character  of  I'ope  Pas- 
chal II,  formerly  .\hbot  of  Cluny,  who  was  a  saintly 
man,  but  no  diplomat.  A  disagreement  arising  re- 
garding tlie  treaty,  Henry  subjected  the  Pope  to  a 
liarsli  iinprisiiiwnent  of  two  montlis.  Kearing  sdii.sm, 
the  Pope  tii\:Uly  granted  Honiy  the  privilege  of  con- 
ferring tlie  ring  and  staff  on  bishops,  providing  they 
were  elected  by  papal  con.sent,  and  soon  after  he 
crowned  Henrj'  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  (1111). 
Henrj',  according  to  compact,  named  Adalbert  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  in  reward  for  his  part  in  the  shameful 
intrigue  against  the  Supreme  Pontiff.  From  the  day 
when,  as  Archbishop  elect,  he  received  the  insignia  of 
his  othce,  .Adalbert  become  a  changed  man.  Whether 
this  marvelloiLs  change  was  due  to  a  realization  of  his 
sacred  duties  or  to  an  awakening  to  the  sacrilegious 
injustice  of  Henry's  conduct  at  Rome,  we  cannot  say. 
At  any  rate  the  ex-chancellor,  lately  so  blindly 
zealoiLs  for  the  Emperor  in  right  or  wrong,  became 
henceforth  a  brave  and  loyal  defender  of  the  Church 
and  the  Pope.  In  1112  Henry  V  was  excommuni- 
cated, and  -Adalbert  fearlessly  promulgated  the  sen- 
tence; wliereu|win  the  enraged  Emperor  cast  him  into 
a  dark  dimgeon.  .\fter  three  years  of  cruel  im- 
pri.sonment  had  reduced  him  to  a  mere  skeleton,  the 
people  of  Mainz,  rising  in  a  body,  forced  Henrj"  to 
release  him.  The  episcopal  consecration,  delayed  by 
his  confinement,  was  then  received  at  the  hands  of 
Otto,  Bishop  of  Bamberg  (111.5).  Later,  when,  under 
Pope  Calixtus  II,  Adalbert  was  made  a  legate,  Henrj* 
seized  some  pretext  for  attacking  Mainz,  whereupon 
Adalbert  aroused  the  Saxon  princes  to  arms.  'l"he 
two  armies  met,  but  arbitration  prevented  a  battle. 
As  a  result,  the  Council  of  Worms  (1122)  was  finally 
held,  bringing  to  a  close  the  long  strife  regarding 
Investitures.  In  112.5  Henry  V  was  on  his  death-bed, 
and  being  without  male  issue  sent  the  imperial  insignia 
to  his  wife  .Matilda,  daughter  of  Henrj'  I  of  England. 
The  politic  Adalbert,  ever  on  the  alert  to  ward  off 
any  aanger  of  a  schism,  induced  Matilda  to  return 
the  insignia,  and  called  an  assemblj-  of  princes,  who 
chose  as  Henrj-'s  successor  Lothair  II  the  Saxon, 
afterwards  crowned  Emperor  in  Rome  bj-  Pope  Inno- 
cent II  (1133).  Thus  the  Empire  passed  from  the 
house  of  Franconia  to  that  of  Saxony,  which  had  so 
long  proved  it.self  loyal  to  the  cause  of  Rome.  Adal- 
bert died  in  1137,  having  atoned  for  his  early  in- 
justice bj'  long  j'ears  of  faithful  and  efficient  service 
in  all  that  touched  the  interests  of  truth  and  the 
welfare  of  the  Clnirch. 

RoiiRinrnKR.  //i.(.  ,lr  V^alii-.  XV:  Wn.l..  in  KirehmUx.. 
I,  194.  ItiKM.  Rraml'-n  zur  Grtch.  drr  Mainzrr  Erzb.  (Inn.s- 
bruck,  1877).  I;  Hcpkrz.  De  Adrlbrrlo  Archirp.  Momtnt. 
(Monster.  1855). 

John  J.  \'  Becket. 

Adalbert,  S.mnt,  apastle  of  the  Slavs,  probably 
a  native  of  Lorraine,  d.  9,S1.  He  was  a  Cicrman 
monk  who  was  consecrated  bishop  and  sent  to  estal)- 
lish  Christianitj-  in  Ru.ssia  in  901.  His  mi.ssion  wjis 
the  result  of  a  request  of  the  princess  Olga  who, 
having  appealed  in  vain  to  the  court  of  Constanti- 
nople for  someone  to  evangelize  her  people,  besought 
the  Cierman  Emperor  Otho,  who  sent  Adalbert  and 
a  number  of  priests  to  begin  the  work.     Russia  was 


then  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  and  the  missionaries 
were  attacked  on  the  way,  some  of  the  priests  being 
killed,  Adalbert  barely  escaping  with  his  life.  Re- 
turning to  Germany,  he  was  made  Abbot  of  Wci.ssen- 
burg  in  Alsace,  and  in  the  following  jx>ar  became 
Bishop  of  the  new  see  of  .Magdeburg,  which  was 
erected  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  especiallj'  with 
the  Slavs.  Magdeburg  became  one  of  the  great 
bishoprics  of  the  country,  the  chief  one  in  the  North, 
and  ranking  with  Cologne,  Mainz,  and  Trier. 
Adalbert  was  made  Metropolitan  of  the  Slavs,  and 
established  among  them  the  sees  of  Naumburg, 
Meissen,  Merseburg,  Brandenburg,  Havelljerg,  and 
Posen.  The  Pope  appointed  two  legates  to  assist 
him  in  his  apostolate.  He  governed  his  church  until 
his   death   in  981. 

Acta  SS.,  5  June.  T.  J.  CAMPBELL. 

Adalbert,  S.\i.\t,  b.  939  of  a  noble  Bohemian 
family;  d.  !t97.  He  assumed  the  name  of  the  Arch- 
bishop Adalbert  (his  name  had  been  Wojtech).  un- 
der whom  he  studied  at  Magdeburg.  He  became 
Bishop  of  Prague,  whence  he  was  obliged  to  flee  on 
account  of  the  enmity  he  had  aroused  by  his  efforfa 
to  reform  the  clergy  of  his  diocese.  He  betook  him- 
self to  Rome,  and  when  released  by  Pope  John  XV 
from  his  episcopal  obligations,  withdrew  to  a  monas- 
tery and  occupied  himself  in  the  most  humble  duties 
of  the  house.  Recalled  by  his  people,  who  received 
him  with  great  demonstrations  of  joy,  lie  was  never- 
theless expelled  a  second  time  and  returned  to  Rome. 
The  people  of  Hungarj*  were  just  then  turning  tCK 
wards  Christianitj-.  Adalbert  went  among  them  as 
a  missionarj%  and  probablj'  baptized  King  Gej'sa 
and  his  familj',  and  King  Stephen.  He  afterwards 
evangelized  the  Poles,  and  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Gnesen.  But  he"  again  relinquished  liis  see,  and 
set  out  to  preach  to  the  idolatrous  inhabitants  of 
what  is  now  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia.  ,Success  at- 
tended his  efforts  at  first,  but  his  imperious  manner 
in  commanding  them  to  abandon  paganism  irritated 
them,  and  at  the  instigation  of  one  of  the  pagan 

friests  he  was  killed.  This  was  in  the  j'ear  997. 
lis  feast  is  celebrated  23  April,  and  he  is  called  the 
Apostle  of  Prussia.  Boleslas  I.  Prince  of  Poland, 
is  said  to  have  ransomed  his  bodj'  for  an  equivalent 
weight  of  gold.  He  is  thought  to  be  the  author  of 
the  war-song,  ''  Boga-Rodzica  ",  which  the  Poles  used 
to  sing  when  going  to  battle. 
Acta  SS.,  3  April;  Michacd.  Biog.  Univ.,  139. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Adalbert  Diaconus,  Saint.     See  Etiielbert. 

Ad  ApostoUcae  Dignitatis  Apicem. — .\postolic 
letter  issued  against  Emperor  Frederick  II  bj*  Pope 
Innocent  IV  (1243-,54),  during  the  Council  of  Lj-ons, 
17  Julj",  12-15,  the  third  j'ear  of  his  pontificate.  The 
letter  sets  forth  that  Innocent,  desiring  to  have 
peace  restored  to  those  parts  which  were  then  dis- 
tracted bj'  dissensions,  sent  for  that  purpose  three 
legates  to  Frederick  as  the  chief  author  of  those 
evils,  pointed  out  the  waj'  to  peace,  and  promised 
that  he  would  do  his  own  part  to  restore  it.  Freder- 
ick agreetl  to  terms  of  peace,  which  he  swore  to 
observe,  but  which  he  at  once  violated.  The  letter 
then  sets  forth  the  crimes  of  which  Frederick  was 
guilty.  It  accuses  him  of  perjurj';  of  contempt  for 
the  spiritual  authoritj'  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  bj-  dis- 
regarding the  excommunication  pronounced  against 
him  and  bj*  compelling  others  to  do  so;  of  invading 
pontifical  territorj';  of  having  broken  the  terms  of 
peace  made  with  Pope  Gregorj',  and  which  he  swore 
to  keep;  of  oppressing  the  Church  in  Sicilj"  of  hav- 
ing talcen.  persecuted,  and  done  to  death  bishops 
and  others  who  were  on  their  way  to  Rome  for  a 
council  which  he  himself  had  asked  to  be  convoked; 
of  having  incurred  suspicion  of  heresj-  for  treating 
a  papal  excommunication  with  contempt;  of  having 


AD   LIMINA 


128 


AD   UNIVERSALIS 


conspired  with  the  Saracens  and  other  enemies  of 
Christianity;  of  being  guilty  of  the  death  of  the 
King  of  Bavaria,  and  of  giving  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage to  a  schismatic;  of  not  paying  tribute  for 
Sicily,  which  is  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter.  For 
these  and  for  otlier  crimes.  Innocent  IV,  by  this 
apostolic  letter,  declares  Frederick  unworthy  to  rule, 
and  his  subjects  freed  from  their  duty  of  obedience 
to  him  as  sovereign. 

Bullar.   Roman,   (cti..  Turin,   1858),  III.  510-516;    Mas'si, 
Cotl.    Cone.    XXIII.    01.3-fil9;  Hefele,     Conciliengeschichte. 
V,  1125;   RoHRBACHtR,  Hist.  unit',  de  leglise,  IX,  14-16. 
M.  O'RiORDAN. 

Ad  Limina  Apostolorum,  an  ecclesiastical  term 
meaning  a  pilgrimage  to  the  sepulchres  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  at  Rome,  i.  e.  to  the  Basilica  of  the 
Prince  of  the  Apostles  and  to  the  Basilica  of  St. 
Paul  "  outside  the  walls". 

Ad  Sanctam  Beati  Petri  Sedem. — This  letter 
was  issued  by  Alexander  VII,  and  is  dated  at  Rome, 
16  October,  i6.5G,  the  second  year  of  his  pontificate. 
It  is  a  confirmation  of  the  Constitution  of  Inno- 
cent X,  by  which  he  condemned  five  propositions 
talien  from  the  work  entitled  "Augustinus"  of 
Cornelius  Jansenius  (q.  \-.),  Bisliop  of  Ypres.  The 
letter  opens  with  an  explanation  of  the  reason  for 
its  publication.  It  observes  that,  altliough  what 
has  already  been  defined  in  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions needs  no  confirmation  by  any  future  decisions, 
yet,  since  some  try  to  cast  doubt  upon  these  defini- 
tions or  to  neutralize  their  effort  by  false  inter- 
pretations, the  apostolic  authority  must  not  defer 
using  a  prompt  remedy  against  tlie  spread  of  the 
evil.  The  letter  then  refers  to  the  decision  of 
Innocent  X,  and  quotes  the  words  of  its  title  in  order 
to  show  that  it  was  a  decision  for  all  the  faithful. 
But  as  a  controversj'  had  arisen,  especially  in  France, 
on  five  propositions  taken  from  the  "Augustinus", 
sevei'al  French  bishops  sulimitted  them  to  Alexander 
VII  for  a  clear,  definite  decision.  The  letter  thus 
enumerates  these  five  propositions:  (1)  There  are 
some  divine  precepts  which  are  impossible  of  ob- 
servance by  just  men  willing  and  trying  to  observe 
them  according  to  their  present  strength;  the  grace 
also  is  wanting  to  them,  by  which  tliose  precepts 
are  possible.  (2)  In  the  state  of  fallen  nature 
interior  grace  is  not  resisted.  (3)  For  merit  and 
demerit,  in  the  state  of  fallen  nature,  libertas  a  nec- 
essitate (liberty  to  choose)  is  not  necessary  for  man; 
libertas  a  coaclione  (freedom  from  external  compul- 
sion) is  enough.  (4)  The  Semipelagians  admitted 
the  necessity  of  interior  preventing  grace  {pra:- 
venienlis  gratiie  itxterioris)  for  each  and  every  act, 
even  for  the  beginning  of  faitli  {initium  fidei);  and 
in  that  they  were  heretical,  inasmuch  as  they  held 
that  grace  to  be  such  as  the  human  will  could  resist 
or  obey.  (.5)  It  is  Semipelagian  to  say  that  Christ 
died,  or  shed  His  blood  for  all  men. 

The  letter  then  goes  on  to  declare  that,  those 
five  propositions  having  been  submitted  to  due  ex- 
amination, each  was  found  to  be  lieretical.  The  let- 
ter repeats  each  proposition  singly,  and  formally 
condemns  it.  It  next  declares  that  the  decision  binds 
all  the  faithful,  and  enjoins  on  all  bishops  to  en- 
force it,  and  adds,  "Wo  are  not  to  be  understood, 
however,  by  making  tliis  declaration  and  definition 
on  those  five  propositions,  as  at  all  approving  other 
opinions  contained  in  the  above-named  book  of 
Cornelius  Jansenius."  Moreover,  since  some  still 
insisted  that  those  propositions  were  not  to  be  found 
in  the  "Augustinus",  or  were  not  meant  by  the 
author  in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  condemned, 
the  letter  furthermore  declares  that  they  are  con- 
tained in  the  "Augustinus",  and  have  "been  con- 
demned according  to  the  sense  of  the  author. 

BuUarium  Komanum  (ed.  Turin,  1869),  XVI,  245-247. 
M.  O'KlOUDAN. 


Ad  Universalis  Ecclesiae,  a  papal  constitution 
dealing  with  the  conditions  for  admission  to  religious 
orders  of  men  in  which  solemn  vows  are  prescribed. 
It  was  issued  by  Pius  IX,  7  Februarj',  1862.  This 
Pope  had  issued  from  time  to  time  various  decrees: 
v.  g.  "Romani  Pontifices"  (25  January-,  1848),  "Reg- 
ulari  Disciplina;"  (for  Italy  and  adjacent  isles,  25 
January,  1848),  and  "Nemineni  Latet"  (19  March, 
1857).  These  three  decrees  found  their  completion 
and  perfection  in  the  constitution,  "  Ad  Universalis 
Ecclesiae".  It  marks  a  distinct  departure  from  the 
Tridentine  law,  both  as  to  the  necessarj'  age  and 
other  requirements  for  admission  of  men  to  solemn 
vows  in  orders,  congregations,  and  institutes,  old  and 
new,  in  which  solemn  vows  are  prescribed.  The  im- 
mediate occasion  of  its  promulgation  was  the  settle- 
ment, once  and  forever,  of  doubts  which  had  arisen 
and  been  presented  to  the  Holy  See  about  the  va- 
lidity of  solemn  vows  made  without  due  observance 
of  the  decree,  "  Neminem  Latet",  i.  e.  without  the 
three  years'  profession  of  simple  vows.  It  gives  the 
reason  of  the  "Neminem  Latet"  regulation,  which 
was  to  safeguard  the  religious  orders,  congregations, 
and  institutes  from  losing  their  genuine  spirit  and 
former  excellence  by  hastily  and  imprudently  ad- 
mitting youths  having  no  true  vocation  or  of  whose 
lives,  morals,  bodily  and  mental  endowments,  no 
proper  investigation  had  been  made  and  no  testi- 
monial to  the  aforesaid  had  been  requested  of,  or 
received  from,  the  bishop  of  their  native  place,  or 
of  the  places  where  they  had  sojourned  for  the  year 
immediately  preceding  their  admission  to  the  house 
of  postulants.  Tliis  the  "  Neminem  Latet "  accom- 
plished by  decreeing  that  novices  after  the  completion 
of  their  probation  and  novitiate  and,  if  clerics,  of 
the  sixteenth  year  of  their  age  (prescribed  by  the 
Council  of  Trent),  or  of  a  more  advanced  age,  if  the 
rule  of  their  order  approved  by  the  Holy  See  required 
it.  if  lay  brotliers,  the  age  fixed  by  Pope  Clement  VIII 
(in  Suprema),  shoidd  make  profession  of  simple  vows 
for  the  term  of  three  full  years;  and  after  the  comple- 
tion of  said  term,  to  be  computed  from  day  of  pro- 
fession to  the  last  hour  of  the  tliird  year,  if  found 
worthy,  they  were  to  be  admitted  to  solemn  profes- 
sion, unless  their  superiors,  for  just  and  reasonable 
cause,  postponed  the  solemn  profession;  such  post- 
ponement being  prohibited  beyond  the  twenty-fiftli 
year  of  age,  except  in  the  orders  and  countries  where 
a  longer  term  of  simple  profession  was  conceded  by 
special  indult  of  the  Holy  See.  The  Pope  says  that, 
nevertheless,  novices  had  been  admitted  to  solemn 
profession  without  the  tliree  years'  simple  vows, 
thereby  giving  great  cause  for  doubt  concerning  the 
validity  of  said  solemn  profession;  and  a  decision 
upon  that  matter  was  requested  from  the  Holy  See. 
As  the  "Neminem  Latet"  said  not  a  word  about  the 
nullity  of  solemn  profession  made  in  opposition  to 
its  regulation,  the  solemn  profession  maile  without 
the  prescribed  three  years  of  simple  vows  was  vahtl, 
though  illicit.  This  was  decided  later  (S.  Cong,  on 
State  of  Rcgidars,  16  August,  1866). 

"We,  therefore,"  declares  Pius  IX  in  this  con- 
stitution, "in  a  matter  of  such  great  importance, 
desiring  to  remove  all  occasion  of  future  iloubt, 
of  Our  own  motion  and  certain  knowledge,  and  in 
the  plenitutle  of  Our  Apostolic  power  as  regards 
the  religious  conununities  of  men  of  wluitever  order, 
congregation,  or  institution  in  w'hich  solenm  vows 
are  made,  do  determine  and  decree  to  be  mill 
and  void  and  of  no  valvie  the  profession  of  solemn 
\ows,  knowingly,  or  ignorantly,  in  any  maimer, 
colour  or  pretext,  made  by  novices  or  lay  brothers, 
who,  although  they  h.id  completed  the  Tridcntine 
probation  and  novitiate,  had  not  previously  nuule 
profession  of  simple  vows  and  remained  in  tliat  pro- 
fession for  the  entire  three  years,  even  tliough  the 
superiors,  or  they,  or  both  respectively,  liad  tlie  in- 


ADAM 


129 


ADAM 


tention  of  admitting  to,  or  making,  solemn  vows, 
and  had  used  all  the  ceremonies  prescribed  for  solemn 
profession." 

Women  were  not  included  in  this  law.  They,  un- 
less wliere  special  indults  were  granted,  as  in  .Austria 
(Bizzarri,  158),  and  Uavaria  (IJi/.zarri,  403),  followed 
the  Trideutine  regulation  until  Leo  XIII  (.'i  May. 
1902,  Decretiun  "  Ferpciisis",  S.  C.  Kpp.  et  Ucgul. ) 
enjoined  On  tliem  the  same  profession  of  simple  vows 
for  tliree  years  prior  to  the  solemn  profession,  under 
penalty  of  nullity. 

N'k.timkkrwii.  iJf  rilifjioais  inslitutia  et  j>eraoni«,  II  (Monn- 
nieniii.  332-330;  L'33-L'.34;  289  s<iq.);  Bizzarri,  roHfctonfii  m 
u»um  ftecrelaria  S.  Canar.  Kpii.  <(  Kri/ul.  ( Konic.  1885). 
831,  843.  853  «|(l.;  MocrllKClANl.  Juriapriulrnlm  ErcUn.,  I, 
lib.  II;  Nkrveq.na,  De  Jure  l'r,irti,-o  /i,„iil,irium.  113  llil>.  II. 
"Dr  j>ro/f«»i»");  rKKRAiu.  Dr  Blalii  rrliy.  Commmt.,  05  (vi. 
De  pri^eBtlione^;  MoNTF.Nsl.  Prielect.  Juris  liiguln 
B<iq.;  Lucini-ScnNKUJKR,  Dr  Vinitiitione  SS.  Li 
"3  8q(; 
V,  Di 


III,  tit.  xxiv,  De  profeasione  rtlii/ioed). 

P.  M.  J.  Rock. 

Adam  (Heb.,  DIN?  Sept.,  'ASdn),  the  first  man  and 
the  fatiior  of  the  human  race. 

Ety.moi.ocv  and  I'sE  or  Wokd. — There  is  not  a 
little  divergence  of  o[)inion  among  Semitic  scholars 
wlien  they  attempt  to  explain  the  etymological 
signification  of  the  Hebrew  word  adam  (wliich  in  all 
probability  was  originally  used  as  a  common  rather 
than  a  proper  name),  and  .so  far  no  theory  appears 
to  be  fully  .satisfactorj-.  One  cause  of  uncertainty 
in  tlie  matter  is  tlie  fact  that  the  root  ailani  as  signify- 
ing "man"  or  "mankind"  is  not  conuiion  to  all  the 
Semitic  tongues,  though  of  course  the  name  is 
adopted  by  them  in  translations  of  tlie  Old  Testament. 
As  an  indigenous  term  witli  tlic  above  signification, 
it  occurs  only  in  Phtrnician  ami  Sabean.  and  probably 
also  in  A.s.syrian.  In  Gen.,  ii,  7,  the  name  .seems  to  be 
connecteil  with  the  woril  ha-ailamah  (nfyinn)  "the 
ground  ",  in  whirli  case  tlie  value  of  tlie  term  would 
be  to  represent  man  {rcili<inc  materiir)  as  eartli-born, 
iiuicli  tlie  same  as  in  Latin,  wliere  tlie  word  homo  is 
supposed  to  be  kiiulreil  with  humux.  It  is  a  generally 
recognized  fact  that  tlic  etyiiiologics  proposeil  in  the 
n:irrativcs  which  make  up  the  Hook  of  Oenesis  are 
ot'len  divergent  aiul  not  always  philologicallj-  correct, 
and  tliougli  the  theory  (founded  on  Gen.,  ii,  7)  that 
connects  adam  with  adamah  has  been  defended  by 
some  scliolars.  it  is  at  present  generally  abandoned. 
Others  exphdn  the  term  as  signifying  "to  be  red", 
a  .sense  which  the  root  bears  in  various  passages  of 
the  Old  Testament  (e.  g.  Gen.,  xxv,  oO),  as  al-so  in 
.Vrabic  and  Kthiopic.  In  this  hypothesis  the  name 
would  .seem  to  have  been  originallj'  applied  to  a 
distinctively  red  or  ruddy  race.  In  this  connection 
Gcsenius  (Thesaurus,  s.  v.,  p.  2'))  remarks  that  on 
the  ancient  nionumciits  of  ICgj^pt  the  human  figures 
representing  Lgyplians  arc  constantly  depicted  in 
red,  while  those  standing  for  other  races  are  black 
or  of  some  other  colour.  Something  analogous  to 
this  explanation  is  revealed  in  the  .A.ssyrian  expre.s.sion 
falmM  qaiujadi.  i.  e.  "the  black-headed",  which  is 
often  used  to  denote  men  in  general.  (Cf.  Delitsch. 
.■\s.syr.  Ilandworterbuch,  Leipzig,  1.S90,  p.  2.5.) 
Some  writers  combine  this  exiilanation  with  the 
lircceding  one,  and  a.ssign  to  tlie  word  adam  the 
twofolil  signification  of  "red  earth",  thus  ailding  to 
the  notion  of  man's  material  origin  a  connotation  of 
the  color  of  the  ground  from  which  he  w;is  formed. 
A  third  tlieorj',  which  .seems  to  be  the  prevailing  one 
at  present  (cf.  Pinches.  The  Old  Testament  in  the 
Light  of  the  Historical  Uecords  and  Legends  of 
A.s,syria  and  Babylonia.  1903.  pp.  78,  79),  explains 
the  root  adam  as  signifying  "  to  make",  "  to  produce", 
connecting  it  with  the  .\.s.syrian  adnnni.  the  meaning 
of  which  is  pn)l)ably  "  lo  build",  "to  construct", 
whence  adam  would  sipiify  "man"  either  in  the 
paiwive  sense,  as  made,  produced,  created,  or  in  the 
active  sense,  as  a  producer. 
I. -9 


In  the  Old  Testament  the  word  is  used  both  as  a 
common  and  a  proper  noun,  and  in  the  former 
acceptation  it  has  different  meanings.  Thus  in 
Genesis  ii,  5,  it  is  employed  to  signify  a  human  being, 
man  or  woman;  rarely,  as  in  Gen.,  ii,  22,  it  signifies 
man  as  opposed  to  woman,  and,  finally,  it  sometimes 
stands  for  mankind  collectively,  as  in  Gen.,  i,  26. 
The  use  of  the  term,  as  a  proper  as  well  as  a  common 
noun,  is  common  to  both  the  sources  designated  in 
critical  circles  as  P  and  J.  Thus  in  the  first  narrative 
of  the  Creation  (P)  the  word  is  used  with  reference 
to  the  production  of  mankind  in  both  sexes,  but  in 
Gen.,  V,  1-4,  which  belongs  to  the  same  source,  it  is 
also  taken  as  a  proper  name.  In  like  manner  the 
second  account  of  the  creation  (J)  speaks  of  "the 
man  "  (ha-adam),  but  later  on  (Gen.,  iv,  25)  the  same 
document  employs  the  word  as  a  proper  name  without 
the  article. 

Ad.vm  w  the  Old  Te.st.\ment.- — Practically  all 
the  Old  Testament  information  concerning  Adam 
and  the  beginnings  of  the  human  race  is  contained 
in  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis.  To  what  extent 
these  chapters  should  be  con.sidered  as  strictly  his- 
torical is  a  much  disputed  (juestion,  the  discussion 
of  which  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  the 
present  article.  Attention,  however,  must  be  called 
to  the  fact  that  the  story  of  the  Creation  is  told 
twice,  viz.  in  the  first  chapter  and  in  the  .second,  and 
that  while  there  is  a  substantial  agreement  between 
the  two  accounts  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  con.sider- 
able  divergence  as  regards  the  setting  of  the  narra- 
tive and  the  details.  It  has  been  the  custom  of 
writers  who  were  loath  to  recognize  the  presence  of 
independent  sources  or  documents  in  the  Pentateuch 
to  explain  the  fact  of  this  twofold  narrative  by  saying 
that  the  sacred  writer,  having  set  forth  systematically 
in  the  first  chapter  the  succe.s.sive  phases  of  the 
Creation,  returns  to  the  same  topic  in  the  second 
chapter  in  order  to  add  some  furtiier  special  details 
with  regard  to  the  origin  of  man.  It  must  be  granted, 
however,  that  very  few  scholars  of  the  present  day, 
even  among  Catholics,  are  satisfied  with  this  explana- 
tion, anil  that  among  critics  of  everj-  school  there  is 
a  strong  preponderance  of  opinion  to  the  effect  that 
we  are  here  in  presence  of  a  phenomenon  common 
enough  in  Oriental  liistorical  compositions,  viz.  the 
combination  or  juxtaposition  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent documents  more  or  less  closely  welded  to- 
gether by  the  historiographer,  who  among  the  Semites 
is  essentially  a  compiler.  (See  Guidi,  "  L'historiog- 
rapliie  chez  les  Semites"  in  the  "Revue  biblique", 
October,  1906.)  The  reasons  on  which  this  view  is 
ba-sed,  as  well  as  the  arguments  of  those  who  oppose 
it,  may  be  found  in  Dr.  Gigot's  "Special  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament  ".  Pt.  I.  Suffice  it 
to  mention  here  that  a  similar  repetition  of  the  princi- 
pal events  narrated  is  plainly  discernible  throughout 
all  the  historic  portions  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  even  of 
the  later  books,  such  as  Samuel  and  Kings,  and  that 
the  inference  drawn  from  this  constant  phenomenon  is 
confirmeil  not  only  by  the  tliffercnce  of  style  and  view- 
point characteristic  of  the  duplicate  narrati\es,  but 
also  by  the  divergences  and  antinomies  whicli  they 
generally  exhibit.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  will  be  perti- 
nent to  the  piirpo.se  of  the  present  article  to  examine 
the  main  features  of  the  twofoKI  Creation  narrative 
with  special  reference  to  the  origin  of  man. 

In  the  first  account  (Ch.  i,  ii,  4a)  l!lohim  is 
represented  as  creating  diflferent  categories  of  beings 
on  successive  days.  Thus  the  veget!il)le  kingdom  is 
produced  on  the  third  day.  and,  having  .set  the  sun 
and  moon  in  the  firmament  of  heaven  on  the  fourth. 
God  on  the  fifth  day  creates  the  living  things  of  the 
water  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  which  receive  a  .special 
blessing,  with  the  command  to  increa.se  and  multiply. 
On  the  sixth  day  Klohim  creates,  first,  all  the  living 
creatures  and  beasts  of  the  earth;  then,  in  the  words 


ADAM 


130 


ADAM 


of  the  sacred  narrative,  "he  said:  Let  us  make  man 
to  our  image  and  likeness:  and  let  him  have  dominion 
over  the  fishes  of  the  sea,  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and 
the  beasts,  and  the  whole  earth,  and  e\ery  creeping 
creature  that  movcth  upon  the  earth.  And  God 
created  man  to  his  own  image:  to  tlie  image  of  God 
he  created  him:  male  and  female  he  created  them." 
Then  follows  the  blessing  accompanied  by  the  com- 
mand to  increase  and  fill  the  earth,  and  finally  the 
vegetal)le  kingdom  is  a.^^signed  to  them  for  food. 
(,'onsidered  independently,  this  account  of  the  Crea- 
tion would  leave  room  for  doubt  as  to  whether  the 
word  adam,  "  man  ".  here  employed  was  understood  by 
the  writer  as  designating  an  individual  or  the  species. 
Certain  indications  would  seem  to  favour  the  latter, 
e.  g.  the  context,  since  tlie  creations  previously  re- 
conied  refer  doubtless  to  the  production  not  of  an  in- 
dividual or  of  a  pair,  but  of  vast  numbers  of  indivi- 
(hials  pertaining  to  the  various  species,  and  the  same 
in  case  of  man  might  further  be  inferred  from  the  ex- 
pression, "  male  and  female  he  created  them  ".  How- 
ever, another  passage  (Gen.,  v,  1-5),  which  belongs  to 
the  same  source  as  this  first  narrative  and  in  part 
repeats  it,  supplements  the  information  contained  in 
the  latter  and  affords  a  key  to  its  internretation.  In 
this  passage  which  contains  the  last  reference  of  the 
so-called  priestly  document  to  Adam,  we  read  that 
God  "created  them  male  and  female;  .  .  .  and 
called  their  name  adam,  in  the  day  when  they  were 
created".  And  the  writer  continues:  "And  Adam 
lived  a  hundred  and  thirty  years,  and  begot  a  son  to 
his  own  image  and  likeness,  and  called  his  name 
Seth.  And  the  days  of  Adam,  after  he  begot  Seth, 
were  eight  hundred  years  and  he  begot  sons  and 
daughters.  .\nd  all  the  time  that  Adam  lived  came 
to  nine  hundred  and  thirty  years,  and  he  died." 
Here  evidently  the  adam  or  man  of  the  Creation 
narrative  is  identified  with  a  particular  individual, 
and  consequently  tlie  plural  forms  which  might 
otherwise  cause  doubt  are  to  be  understood  with 
reference  to  the  first  pair  of  human  beings. 

In  Genesis,  ii,  4b-25  we  have  what  is  apparently 
a  ne.v  and  independent  narrative  of  the  Creation, 
not  a  mere  amplification  of  the  accoimt  already  given. 
The  writer  indeed,  without  seeming  to  presuppose 
anything  previously  recorded,  goes  back  to  the  time 
when  there  was  yet  no  rain,  no  plant  or  beast  of  the 
field;  and,  while  the  earth  is  still  a  barren,  lifeless 
waste,  man  is  formed  from  the  dust  by  Yahweh, 
who  animates  him  by  breathing  into  his  nostrils  the 
breath  of  life.  How  far  these  terms  are  to  be  in- 
terpreted literally  or  figuratively,  and  whether  the 
Creation  of  the  first  man  was  direct  or  indirect,  see 
Genesis,  Cue.\tion,  M.vn.  Thus  the  creation  of 
man,  instead  of  occupying  the  last  place,  as  it  does 
in  the  ascending  scale  of  the  first  account,  is  placed 
liefore  the  creation  of  the  plants  and  animals,  and 
these  are  represented  as  having  been  produced  subse- 
([uently  in  order  to  satisfy  man's  needs.  Man  is  not 
commissioned  to  dominate  the  whole  earth,  as  in  the 
first  narrative,  but  is  set  to  take  care  of  the  Garden 
of  Kden  with  permission  to  cat  of  its  fruit,  except 
that  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil, 
and  the  formation  of  woman  as  a  helpmeet  for  man 
is  represented  as  an  afterthought  on  the  part  of  Yah- 
weh in  recognition  of  man's  inability  to  find  suitable 
companionship  in  the  brute  creation.  In  the  pre- 
ceding account,  after  each  progressive  step  "God 
saw  that  it  was  good",  but  here  Yahweh  perceives, 
as  it  were,  that  it  is  nnl  good  for  man  to  be  alone,  anil 
he  proceeds  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  fashioning 
the  woman  Kve  from  the  rib  of  the  man  while  he  is 
in  a  deep  sleep.  According  to  the  same  narrative, 
they  live  in  childlike  innocence  until  Eve  is  tempted 
by  the  serpent,  and  they  both  partake  of  the  for- 
bidden fniit.  They  thereby  become  conscious  of 
ain,  iocur  the  displeasure  of  Yahweh,  and  lest  they 


should  eat  of  the  tree  of  life  and  become  immortal, 
they  are  expelled  from  the  garden  of  Eden.  Hence- 
forth their  lot  is  to  be  one  of  pain  and  hardship,  and 
man  is  condemned  to  the  toilsome  task  of  winning 
his  sustenance  from  a  soil  which  on  his  account  has 
been  cursed  with  barrenness.  The  same  document 
gives  us  a  few  details  connected  with  our  first 
parents  after  the  Fall,  viz:  the  birth  of  Cain  and  Abel, 
the  fratricide,  and  the  birth  of  Seth.  The  other 
narrative,  which  seems  to  know  nothing  of  Cain  or 
Abel,  mentions  Seth  (Chap,  v,  3)  as  if  he  were  the 
first  bom,  and  adds  that  during  the  eight  hundred 
years  following  the  birth  of  Seth  Adam  begat  sons 
and  daughters. 

Notwithstanding  the  differences  and  discrepancies 
noticeable  in  the  two  accounts  of  the  origin  of  man- 
kind, the  narratives  are  nevertheless  in  substantial 
agreement,  and  in  the  esteem  of  the  majority  of 
scholars  they  are  easiest  explaineil  and  reconciled 
if  considered  as  representing  two  varying  traditions 
among  the  Hebrews — traditions  which  in  ditTerent 
form  and  setting  embodied  the  selfsame  central 
liistoric  facts,  together  with  a  presentation  more  or 
less  symbolical  of  certain  moral  and  religious  truths. 
Thus  in  both  accounts  man  is  clearly  di.stinguished 
from,  and  made  dependent  upon.  God  the  Creator; 
yet  he  is  directly  connected  with  Him  through  the 
creative  act,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  intennediary 
beings  or  demi-gods  such  as  are  found  in  the  various 
heathen  mythologies.  That  man  beyond  all  the 
other  creatures  partakes  of  the  perfection  of  God  is 
made  manifest  in  the  first  narrative,  in  that  he  is 
created  in  the  image  of  God.  to  which  corresponds 
in  the  other  account  the  equally  significant  figure  of 
man  receiving  his  life  from  the  breath  of  Yahweh. 
That  man  on  the  other  hand  has  something  in  com- 
mon with  the  animals  is  imphed  in  the  one  case  in 
his  creation  on  the  same  day,  and  in  the  other  by  his 
attempt,  though  inefTectual,  to  find  among  them  a 
suitable  companion.  He  is  the  lord  and  the  crown 
of  creation,  as  is  clearly  expressed  in  the  first  account, 
where  the  creation  of  man  is  the  climax  of  God's 
successive  works,  and  where  his  supremacy  is  ex- 
plicitly stated,  but  the  same  is  implied  no  less  clearly 
in  the  second  narrative.  Such  indeed  may  be  the 
significance  of  placing  man's  creation  before  that  of 
the  animals  and  plants,  but,  however  that  may  be, 
the  animals  and  plants  are  plainly  created  for  his 
utility  and  benefit.  Woman  is  introduced  as  secon- 
dary and  subordinate  to  man.  though  identical  with 
him  in  nature,  and  the  formation  of  a  single  woman 
for  a  single  man  implies  the  doctrine  of  monogamy. 
Moreover,  man  was  created  innocent  and  good;  sin 
came  to  him  from  without,  and  it  was  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  a  severe  punishment  affecting  not  only  the 
guilty  pair,  but  their  descendants  and  other  beings  .as 
well.  (Cf.  Bennett  in  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Hible, 
s.  v.)  The  two  accounts,  therefore,  are  practically 
at  one  with  regard  to  didactic  purpose  and  illustni- 
tion,  and  it  is  doubtless  to  this  feature  that  we  shouUl 
attach  their  cliief  significance.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  remark  in  passing  that  the  loftiness  of  the  doc- 
trinal and  ethical  truths  here  set  forth  place  the 
biblical  narrative  immeasurably  above  the  extrava- 
gant Creation  stories  current  among  the  pagan 
nations  of  antiquity,  though  some  of  these,  particu- 
larly the  Babylonian,  bear  a  more  or  less  striking 
resemblance  to  it  in  form.  In  the  light  of  this 
doctrinal  and  moral  excellence,  the  question  of  the 
strict  historical  character  of  the  narrative,  as  regards 
the  framework  and  details,  becomes  of  relatively 
slight  importance,  especially  when  wc  recall  that  in 
history  as  conceived  by  the  other  biblical  authors,  as 
well  as  by  Semitic  writers  gener.ally,  the  presentation 
and  arrangement  of  facts — and  indeed  their  entire 
role — is  habitually  made  subordinate  to  the  exigencies 
of  a  didactic  preoccupation. 


ADAM 


IM 


ADAM 


As  regards  cxtra-biljliciil  sources  which  throw 
Mfiht  upon  the  OUl  Testaiiieut  narrative,  it  is  well 
known  that  the  Hebrew  account  of  the  Creation  finds 
a  parallel  in  the  Babylonian  tradition  as  revealed  by 
the  cuneiform  writings.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of 
the  present  article  to  iliscuss  tlie  relations  of  his- 
torical dependence  generally  admitted  to  exist  be- 
tween the  two  cosmogonies.  .Suflice  it  to  say  with 
regard  to  the  origin  of  man,  that  though  the  fragment 
of  tlie  "(,'reation  I'Ipie",  which  is  supposed  to  contain 
it,  has  tiot  been  found,  there  are  nevertheless  good  in- 
dependent grounds  for  assuming  that  it  belonged 
originally  to  the  tradition  embodied  in  the  poem, 
and  that  it  must  have  occupied  a  place  in  the  latter 
just  after  the  account  given  of  the  production  of 
the  plants  anil  the  animals,  as  in  the  first  chapter  of 
(iene.sis.  Among  the  reasons  for  this  assumption 
are:  (a)  the  Divine  admonitions  adtlressed  to  men 
after  their  creation,  towards  the  end  of  the  poem; 

(b)  the  account  of  Merosus,  who  mentions  the  creation 
of  man  l)y  one  of  the  gods,  who  mixed  with  clay  the 
blood  wliich  Mowed  from  the  severed  head  of  Tinmat; 

(c)  a  non-Semitic  (or  pre-Semitic)  account  translated 
liy  Pinches  from  a  bilingual  text,  and  in  which  Mar- 
iluk  is  said  to  have  made  mankind,  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  godiless  Aruru.  (Cf.  "  Kncyclo- 
pedia  Hiblica",  art.  "Creation",  also  Davis,  "Genesis 
and  Semitic  Tradition",  pji.  36— 17.)  As  regards  the 
creation  of  lOve,  no  parallel  has  so  far  been  discovered 
among  the  fragmentary  records  of  the  Babylonian 
creation  storj'.  That  the  account,  as  it  stands  in 
(leiK'sis,  is  not  to  be  taken  literally  as  descriptive  of 
historic  fact  was  tlie  opinion  of  Origen,  of  Cajetan, 
anil  if  is  now  maintained  liy  such  scholars  as  Iloberg 
(Die  (ienesis,  Freiburg,  1899,  ]>.  ',H>)  and  von  Humme- 
lauer  (Comm.  in  Genesim,  pp.  149  sqci.).  The.se  and 
other  writers  see  in  this  narrati\e  tne  record  of  a 
\ision  symbolical  of  tin;  future  and  analogous  to  the 
one  vouchsafed  to  Abraham  (Gen.,  xv,  12  sqq.), 
and  to  St.  Peter  in  .Joppe  (.Acts,  x,  10  sqq.).  (See 
Gigot,  Special  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Old 
Testament,  Pt.  I,  p.  16,'),  sqq.) 

References  to  Adam  as  an  individual  in  the  later 
Old  Testament  books  are  very  few,  and  they  add 
nothing  to  the  information  contained  in  (ienesis. 
Thus  the  name  stands  without  comment  at  the  head 
of  the  genealogies  at  the  beginning  of  I  Paralipo- 
menon;  it  is  mentioned  likewise  in  Tobias,  viii,  8; 
Osee,  vi,  7;  Kcclus.,  xxxv,  24,  etc.  The  Hebrew 
word  adnm  occurs  in  various  other  passages,  but  in 
the  sense  of  man  or  mankind.  The  mention  of 
Adam  in  Zacharias,  xiii,  5,  according  to  the  Douay 
version  and  the  Vulgate,  is  due  to  a  mistranslation  of 
the   original. 

Ad.vm  I.N'  THE  New  Te.stament.^ — In  the  New  Testa- 
ment references  to  Adam  as  an  historical  personage 
occur  only  in  a  few  passages.  Thus  in  the  third 
chapter  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel  the  genealogy  of  the 
Saviour  is  traced  back  to  "Adam  who  was  of  God". 
This  priilongation  of  the  earthly  lineage  of  Jesus 
beyond  Abraham,  who  forms  the  starting  point  in 
St.  .Matthew,  is  doubtless  due  to  the  more  universal 
spirit  and  sympathy  characteristic  of  our  third 
Evangelist,  who  writes  not  so  nuich  from  the  view- 
point of  Jewish  prophecy  and  expectation  as  for  the 
instruction  of  the  (ientile  recruits  to  Christianity. 
Anotlier  mention  of  the  historic  father  of  the  race  is 
found  in  the  Epistle  of  Jude  (verse  14).  where  a 
quotation  is  inserted  from  the  apocrj-phal  Book  of 
Knoch.  which,  rather  strange  to  say,  is  attributed  to 
the  antediluvian  (latriarch  of  that  name,  "the 
•seventh  from  .\ilam".  But  the  most  important 
references  to  .\dani  are  found  in  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  Thus  in  I  Tim.,  ii,  11-14,  the  Apostle,  after 
laying  down  certain  practical  rules  referring  to  the 
conduct  of  women,  particularly  as  regards  public 
worship,  and  inculcating  the  duty  of  subordination 


to  the  other  .sex,  makes  use  of  an  argument  the 
weight  of  which  rests  more  upon  the  logical  methods 
current  at  the  time  than  upon  its  intrinsic  value  as 
appreciated  by  the  modern  mind:  "  Eor  Adam  was 
first  formed;  then  Kve.  And  Adam  was  not  seduced; 
but  the  woman  being  seduced,  was  in  the  transgres- 
sion." A  similar  line  of  argument  is  pursued  in 
I  Cor.,  xi,  8,  9.  More  important  is  the  theological 
doctrine  forniuhvted  by  St.  Paul  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  v,  12-21,  ami  in  I  Cor.,  xv,  22-4.5.  In  the 
latter  pa.ssage  Jesus  Christ  is  called  by  analogy  and 
contnist  the  new  or  "last  Adam".  This  is  under- 
stooil  in  the  .sen.se  that  as  the  original  Adam  was  the 
head  of  all  mankind,  the  father  of  all  according  to 
the  flesh,  so  also  Jesus  Christ  was  constituted  chief 
and  head  of  the  spiritual  family  of  the  elect,  and 
potentially  of  all  mankind,  since  all  are  invited  to 
partake  of  His  salvation.  Thus  the  first  Adam  is  a 
type  of  the  second,  but  while  the  former  transmits 
to  his  progeny  a  legacy  of  death,  the  latter,  on  tlie 
contrary,  becomes  the  vivifying  principle  of  restored 
righteousness.  Christ  is  the  "last  Adam"  inasmuch 
as  "there  is  no  other  name  under  heaven  given  to 
men,  whereby  we  must  be  saved"  (Acts,  iv,  12);  no 
other  chief  or  father  of  the  race  is  to  be  expected. 
Both  the  first  and  the  second  Adam  occupy  the 
position  of  head  with  regard  to  humanity,  but 
whereas  the  first  through  his  disobedience  vitiated, 
as  it  were,  in  himself  the  stirps  of  the  entire  race,  and 
left  to  his  posterity  an  inheritance  of  death,  sin,  and 
misery,  the  other  through  liis  obedience  merits  for 
all  those  who  become  his  members  a  new  life  of 
holiness  and  an  everlasting  reward.  It  may  be  said 
that  the  contrast  thus  formulated  expresses  a  fun- 
damental tenet  of  the  Christian  religion  and  em- 
bodies in  a  nutshell  the  entire  doctrine  of  the  economy 
of  .salvation.  It  is  principally  on  these  and  passages 
of  similar  import  (e.  g.  Matt.,  xviii,  11)  that  is 
based  the  fundamental  doctrine  that  our  first  parents 
were  raised  by  the  Creator  to  a  state  of  supernatural 
righteousness,  the  restoration  of  which  was  the  object 
of  the  Incarnation.  It  need  hardly  be  .said  that  the 
fact  of  this  elevation  could  not  be  .^o  clearly  inferred 
from  the  Old  Testament  account  taken  independently. 
Ad.\m  in  Jewish  .vnd  Chuistian  Tradition. — It 
is  a  well-known  fact  that,  partly  from  a  desire  to 
satisfy  pious  curiosity  by  adding  details  to  the  too 
meagre  biblical  accounts,  and  partly  with  ethical 
intent,  there  grew  up  in  later  Jewish  as  well  as  in 
early  Christian  and  Mohammedan  tradition  a  luxuri- 
ant crop  of  legendary  lore  around  the  names  of  all 
the  important  personages  of  the  Old  Testament. 
It  was  therefore  only  natural  that  the  story  of  Adam 
and  Eve  should  receive  special  attention  and  be 
largely  developed  by  this  process  of  embellishment. 
These  additions,  some  of  which  arc  extravagant  and 
puerile,  are  chiefly  imaginary,  or  at  best  based  on  a 
fanciful  umlcrstanding  of  some  slight  detail  of  the 
sacred  narrative.  Needless  to  say  that  they  do  not 
embody  any  real  historic  information,  and  their  chief 
utility  is  to  afford  an  example  of  the  pious  popular 
credulity  of  the  times  as  well  as  of  the  slight  value  to 
be  attached  to  the  so-called  Jewish  traditions  when 
they  are  invoked  as  an  argument  in  critical  iliscus- 
sion.  Many  rabbinical  legends  concerning  our 
first  parents  are  found  in  the  Talmud,  and  many 
others  were  contained  in  the  apocryphal  Book  of 
Ailam  now  lest,  but  of  which  extracts  have  come 
down  to  us  in  other  works  of  a  similar  character 
(see  M.vn).  The  most  important  of  these  legends, 
which  it  is  not  the  scope  of  the  present  article  to 
reproduce,  may  be  found  in  the  "Jewish  Encyclo- 
pedia", I,  art.  "Adam",  and  as  regards  the  Christian 
legends,  in  Smith  and  Wace,  "  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Biography",  s.  v. 


ADAM 


132 


ADAM 


ences.  see  commentaries;  for  Old  Testament,  Gigot,  Special 
Introduction  to  the  Studu  of  the  Old  Testament,  I,  iv;  von  Hum- 
MKLAL'ER,  Comm.  in  Geneeim. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Adam  in  Early  Christian  Liturgy  and  Litera- 
ture.— A(hun's  importance  to  the  l-'atliers  ami  to 
the  authors  of  the  many  apocrj'phal  writings  of  the 
first  five  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era  is  clearly 
shown  by  their  frequent  allusions  to  him.  His  place 
in  the  liturgy  is.  however,  by  no  means  a  prominent 
one.  His  name  occurs  in  the  calendar,  and  in  one 
hjTun  of  the  Eastern  Church,  nor  does  he  fare  much 
better  in  the  Western.  The  sections  wliicli  refer  to 
him  are  the  first  prophecy  on  Holy  Saturday  and 
the  readings  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  at  Septuagesima 
time. 

In  literature,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  more  gen- 
erously treated,  and  has  become  the  hero  of  several 
books,  such  as:  "The  Book  of  the  Penance  or  Combat 
of  Adam"  (Migne,  "Dictionnaire  des  apocryphes  ", 
vol.  H);  "The  Struggle  of  Adam  and  Eve  which  they 
underwent  after  being  driven  out  of  the  Garden, 
and  during  their  stay  in  the  cave  of  treasures,  by 
the  command  of  The  Lord  their  Creator"  (Migne, 
op.  cit.).  The  "Codex  Nazarteus"  (ibid.);  the 
"Testament  of  Adam";  the  "Apocalypse  of  Adam"; 
the  "Book  of  the  Daughters  of  Adam";  the  "Penance 
of  Adam ",  etc.  also  show  to  what  an  extent  the 
memory  of  the  first  man  was  made  use  of  in  litera- 
ture. 

The  "Testament  of  Adam ",  now  consisting  of 
merely  a  few  fragments,  is  of  great  interest.  Its 
precise  place  in  the  histoiy  of  literature  can  only 
be  determined  after  a  study  of  the  connexion  which 
exists  between  it  and  writings  of  the  same  or  of  an 
earlier  period.  The  liturgical  fragments  which  have 
to  do  with  the  division  of  the  hours  of  the  day  and 
night  make  it  possible  to  perceive  in  what  way 
Persian  ideas  influenced  Gnosticism.  Passages  may 
be  found  in  the  "Apostolical  Constitutions"  of  the 
Copts  which  seem  to  bear  some  relation  to  the  ideas 
contained  in  the  liturgical  fragments.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  translation  of  one  of  them: — 

"First  fragment.     Night  hours. 

"First  hour:  This  is  the  hour  in  which  the  demons 
adore;  and,  so  long  as  they  are  adoring,  they  cease 
to  do  harm  to  man,  because  the  hidden  power  of 
the  Creator  restrains  them. 

"Second  hour:  This  is  the  hour  in  which  the  fish 
adore,  and  all  the  reptiles  that  are  in  the  sea. 

"  Third  hour:  Adoration  of  the  lower  abysses,  and 
of  the  light  that  is  in  the  abysses,  and  of  the  lower 
light  which  man  cannot  fathom. 

"Fourth  hour:  Trisagion  of  the  Seraphim.  'Be- 
fore my  sin'  saith  Adam  'I  heard  at  this  hour,  O 
my  son,  the  noise  of  their  wings  in  Paradise;  for  the 
Seraphim  had  gone  on  beating  their  wings,  making 
a  harmonious  sound,  in  the  temple  set  apart  for  their 
worship.  But  after  my  sin,  and  the  traasgression 
of  God's  order,  I  ceased  to  hear  and  see  them,  even 
as  was  just.' 

"Fifth  hour:  Adoration  of  the  waters  that  are 
above  the  heavens.  'At  this  hour,  O  my  son  Seth, 
we  heard,  I  and  the  angels,  the  noise  of  the  great 
waves,  lifting  their  voice  to  give  glory  to  God, 
because  of  me  hidden  sign  of  God  which  moves 
them.' 

"Sixth  hour:  A  gathering  of  clouds,  and  great 
religious  awe,  which  veils  the  middle  of  the  niglit. 

"Seventh  hour:  Rest  of  the  powers,  and  of  all 
natures,  while  the  waters  sleep;  and  at  this  hour, 
if  one  shall  take  water,  let  the  priest  of  God  mix 
holy  oil  therewith,  and  sign  with  this  oil  those  wlio 
suffer,  and  do  not  sleep;  they  shall  l)e  healed. 

"Eighth  hour:  Thanks  given  to  God  for  the  growth 
of  plants  and  seeds,  wlien  the  dew  of  heaven  falls 
upon  them. 


" Xinlh  hour:  Service  of  the  angels  who  stand 
before  the  throne  of  God. 

"Tenth  hour:  Adoration  of  men.  The  gate  of 
heaven  opens  that  the  prayer  of  all  that  lives  may 
enter  in;  they  prostrate  themselves,  and  then  with- 
draw. At  this  hour  all  that  man  asks  of  God  is 
granted  him,  when  the  Seraphim  beat  their  wings 
or  the  cock  crows. 

"Eleventh  hour:  Great  joy  of  all  the  earth  when 
the  sun  rises  from  the  paradise  of  the  Living  God 
over  all  creation,  and  lifts  itself  over  the  imiverse. 

"Twelfth  hour:  Waiting  and  deep  silence  amid  all 
the  orders  of  light  and  spirits,  until  the  priests  shall 
have  set  perfumes  before  God.  Then  all  the  orders 
and  all  the  powers  of  heaven  draw  apart." 

There  is  a  long  and  important  article  on  the 
"Liber  Adami"  by  Sylvcstre  de  Sacy  in  the  "Journal 
des  Savants"  for  1819-20.  The '  book  condemns 
continence,  and  prescribes  marriage;  allows  the  eat- 
ing of  the  flesh  of  animals,  fish,  and  birds.  The 
liturgical  ritual  provided  for  prayer  three  times  a 
day:  after  sunrise,  at  the  seventh  hour,  and  at 
sunset.  The  Nazarenes  are  bound  to  almsgiving 
and  to  preaching,  must  baptize  their  c'^ildren  in 
the  Jordan,  and  choose  the  first  day  of  the  week 
for  the  ceremony.  H.  Leclercq. 

Adam,  the  Books  op. — The  Book  of  Adam  or 
"Contradiction  of  Adam  and  Eve,"  is  a  romance 
made  up  of  Oriental  fables.  It  was  first  translated 
from  the  Ethiopian  version  into  German  by  Dillman, 
"Das  ehristliche  Adambuch"  (Gottingen,  1853),  and 
into  English  by  Malan,  "The  Book  of  Adam  and 
Eve"  (London,  1882).  The  "Penitence  d'Adam ", 
or  "Testament  d'Adam",  is  composed  of  some  SjTian 
fragments  translated  by  Renan  (Journal  asiatique, 
1853.  II,  pp.  427-469).  "The  Penitence  of  Adam  and 
Eve  "  has  been  publisiied  in  Latin  by  W.  Meyer  in 
the  "  Treatises  of  the  Royal  Ba\'arian  Academy  of 
Sciences",  XIV,  3  (Munich,  1879).  To  these  are 
added  "The  Books  of  the  Daughters  of  Adam", 
mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of  Pope  Saint  Gelasius 
in  495-496,  who  identifies  it  with  the  "Book  of 
Jubilees  ",  or  "Little  Genesis  ",  and  also  the  "Testa- 
ment of  Our  First  Parents  ",  cited  by  Anastasius  the 
Sinaite,  LXXXIX,  col.  967. 

Batiffol,  Apocryphes,  in  Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible;  W. 
Smith,  Books  of  Adam,  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biography;  David  Mill, 
Dissertafio  de  Mohammedismo  ante  Mohammeden,  in  tiie  The- 
saurus d'Ugolino,  XXIII,  1330;  Weil,  Bibl.  Legenden  der 
Muselmdnner. 

George  J.  Reid. 

Adam   and   Eve   in   Early  Christian  Art.    See 

Chri.sti.\x  Art,  Symbolism. 

Adam  of  Bremen,  a  Cierman  historian  and  geog- 
rapher of  the  eleventh  century.  The  dates  of  his 
birth  and  death  are  unknown.  He  wrote  the  "Gesta 
Hammaburgensis  Ecclesise  Pontificum",  a  history  of 
the  See  of  Hamburg  and  of  the  Clmstian  missions 
in  the  North  from  .\.  n.  788  to  1072.  It  is  the  chief 
source  of  our  knowledge  concerning  the  history  and 
ethnography  of  the  Northern  regions  before  the 
thirteentti  century.  Little  is  known  of  the  author's 
life;  he  hini.self  gives  us  very  scanty  information. 
In  the  preface  to  his  history  he  merely  signs  him.^clf 
by  his  mitial  letter,  A.  That  this  stands  for  Adam, 
we  know  through  Helmold's  Slavic  Chronicle,  which 
refers  distinctly  to  .■Vdam  as  the  author  of  a  history 
of  the  Hamburg  Church.  That  he  was  a  native  of 
Saxony,  and  more  particularly  of  Meissen,  is  a  mere 
conjecture  based  on  evidence  furnished  by  dialectic 
traces  occurring  in  -the  work.  He  came  to  Bremen 
in  1068,  at  the  invitation  of  Archbishop  .\dalbert  of 
Bremen,  in  the  24th  year  of  that  prelate's  reign. 
From  a  passage  in  the  epilogue  it  would  seem  that 
he  was  at  that  time  still  a  yoimg  man.  He  wa." 
maile  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  and  magistcr  schota- 
rum,  "director  of  schools".     As  such,  his  name  is 


I 


ADAM 


i:v.i 


ADAM 


signed  loan  official  document  dated  11  Juno,  1000. 
Sliortly  after  his  arrival  at  Bremen  lie  made  a  journey 
to  the  Uanisli  King  Svend  Kslridson  (1(M7-7I>), 
who  enjoyeil  a  j;reat  reputation  for  liis  knowled(;e  of 
the  history  anil  {;eof;raphy  of  the  Northern  lands. 
Possibly  tliis  meeting;  took  place  in  Seeland;  we  have 
no  eviilence  that  .\dain  ever  visited  the  North  in 
person.  He  was  well  received  by  the  King,  and  ob- 
taineil  from  him  nuich  valuable  information  for  tlie 
historical  work  which  he  intendeil  to  write,  an<l 
which  he  began  after  the  death  of  Archbishop  Adal- 
bert. The  preface  is  dedicated  to  Atlalbert's  suc- 
cessor, Liemar  (1072-1101).  The  work  it.self.  at 
least  in  part,  was  finislied  before  the  death  of  King 
Svend,  in  107('),  for  in  the  .second  book  he  refers  to 
this  king  as  still  living.  We  do  not  know  how  long 
Adam  retained  liis  oflice.  The  Church  record  gives 
12  October  as  the  day  of  liis  death,  but  does  not 
mention  the  year.  According  to  tradition,  he  lies 
buried  in  the  convent  of  Hamesloli,  in  a  grove  wliich 
he  him.self  had  donated  to  the  cloister. 

His  work  is  dividcil  into  four  books,  the  first  three 
being  mainly  liistorical,  while  the  last  is  purely 
geogriipliical.  The  first  book  gives  an  account  of 
tlu'  Hromen  Cliurch,  of  its  first  bisliops,  and  of  tlie 
propagation  of  Christianity  in  the  North.  The 
second  book  continues  this  narrative,  and  also  deals 
largely  with  (ierman  atTairs  between  9-10  and  10-15. 
It  relates  the  wars  carried  on  by  the  (Jermans  against 
the  Slavs  and  Scandinavians.  The  tliird  book  is 
devoted  to  the  deeds  of  .Vrchbishop  Adalbert.  The 
fourtii  book  is  a  geographical  appendix  entitled 
"Descriptio  insularum  .\iiuilonis",  and  dcscriln-; 
the  Northern  lands  ami  the  islands  in  the  Northerti 
seas,  many  of  whicli  had  but  recently  been  explored. 
It  contains  the  earliest  mention  of  America  found  in 
any  geographical  work.  The  pa.ssage  is  as  follows 
(IV,  38):  "  Furthermore  he  [King  Svend]  mentioned 
still  another  island  found  by  many  in  that  ocean. 
This  island  is  called  W'inland,  because  grape-vines 
grow  there  wild,  yielding  the  finest  wine.  And  that 
crops  grow  tliere  in  plenty  without  having  been  sown, 
I  know,  not  from  fabulous  report,  but  through  the 
definite  information  of  tlie  Danes." 

Adam  ba.ses  his  knowledge  partly  on  written 
sources,  partly  on  oral  communication.  Ho  made 
diligent  u.se  of  the  records  and  manu.scrints  in  the 
archives  of  his  church,  as  well  as  of  the  official 
documents  of  popes  and  kings.  He  also  knew  the 
work  of  preceding  chroniclers,  such  as  Einhard  and 
CJregory  of  Tours.  Besides  this,  he  was  well  versed 
in  the  writings  of  ancient  Roman  authors.  He 
cites  from  Virgil,  Horace,  Lucan,  Juvenal.  Persius, 
Cicero.  Sallust,  Orosius,  Solinus,  and  Martianus 
Capella.  He  also  quotes  from  the  Venerable  Bede 
and  the  Latin  Fathers,  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Ciregorj- 
the  Great.  But  his  most  valuable  information  was 
obtained  orally  from  persons  wlio  had  actually 
visited  the  lands  whicli  he  describes.  The  most 
notable  of  the.se  witnes.ses  is  the  Danish  King  Svend 
Estridson,  "who  remembered  all  the  deeds  of  the 
barbarians  as  if  they  had  been  written  down  "  (11,41). 
Adam's  journey  to  this  king,  unilertakeii  for  the 
express  purpo.se  of  obtaining  information,  has  been 
mentioned.  He  al.so  learned  nnich  from  .Vrchbishop 
Adalbert  himself,  who  took  great  interest  in  the 
Northern  missions  and  was  well  informed  about  the 
lands  where  they  were  located.  Much  information 
was  imparted  to  him  also  by  the  traders  and  mis- 
sionaries who  were  continually  pa.ssing  through 
Bremen,  flie  great  centre  for  all  travel  to  and  fnim 
the  North.  .\dam  a.s.snres  us  repeatedly  that  he 
has  taken  gn-at  pains  to  make  liis  account  both 
tnithful  and  accurate.  "If  1  have  not  been  able 
to  write  well",  so  he  says  in  his  epilogue.  "  I  have  at 
any  rate  written  tratlifully.  using  as  authorities 
those  who  are  best  informed  about  the  subject." 


.As  for  the  style  in  which  the  work  is  written,  it 
cannot  receive  uniiualified  prai.se.  It  is  closely 
modelled  on  Sallust,  whole  plira.ses  anil  .sentences 
from  that  author  being  often  incorporatetl  in  .Vdam's 
work.  Besides  being  obscure  and  difficult,  his 
Latin  shows  a  number  of  Germanisms,  and  is'  not 
free  from  positive  grammatical  errors.  Of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  "Gesta"  none  are  older  than  the 
thirteenth  century,  excepting  one  at  Leyden,  which, 
however,  is  very  fragmentary.  The  best  manuscript 
is  at  Vienna.  The  first  edition  was  brought  out  by 
Andreius  Severinus  Velleius  (Vedel),  at  Copenhagen, 
in  1579.  Two  subsequent  editions  were  j)ublisli<il 
at  Hamburg,  in  1595  and  1009  respectively,  by 
lOrpold  Lindenbruch,  a  canon  of  tlie  Hamburg 
Church;  a  fourth  edition  by  Joachim  Johannes 
Maderus  appeared  at  Ilelmstadt  in  1070;  it  is  ba.seil 
on  the  preceding  one.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Lappenberg  in  Pertz  "  Monum.  Germ.  Hist.  Scrip- 
tores"  (1S46)  VII,  267-293,  reprinted  in  P.  L., 
CXLVI,  and  re-edited  by  Waitz  in  "  Script,  rer. 
Germ."  (Hanover,  1876).  The  best  translation  is 
the  German  one  by  J.  C.  M.  Laurent  in  "(jeschicht- 
schreiber  der  deutschen  Vorzeit"  (Berlin,  18,50,  ed. 
by  Wattenbach;  2d  edition,  revised  by  Wattenbach, 
Berlin,  1893).  (See  Amebica,  PRE-CoLUMni.\N  Dis- 
covery OF.) 

Preface  to  Lappenberg's  ed.  of  Adam  of  Bremen.  Also 
AsMUSSEN,  De  Fonlibua  Adami  Bremensis  (Kiel,  1834); 
1Jern.\kd,  De  Adamo  Brementi  Gcographo  (Paris,  1895); 
I.ONBono, -It/am  0/  Bremen,  ochhans  akitdrinn  af  Nordeuropaa 
lander  och  folk  (Upsala,  1877). 

Abthuk  F.  J.  Remy. 

Adam  of  Ebrach.     See  Ebrach. 

Adam  of  Fulda,  b.  about  ll.')0,  d.  after  l.')37,  one 
of  the  most  learned  musicians  of  his  age.  He  Wiis 
a,  monk  of  Franconia,  deriving  his  name  from  the 
capital  city  of  that  country.  At  that  time  the  contra- 
puntal music,  of  which  Josquin  was  such  a  brilliant 
star,  flourished  above  all  in  the  Netherlands.  Adam 
of  Fulda,  himself  a  disciple  of  the  Dutch  teachers, 
ultimately  became  their  rival.  He  is  best  known  for 
a  famous  treatise  on  music,  written  in  1490,  and 
lirinted  by  Gerbert  von  Homan,  in  his  "Scriptores 
eccles.  de  Mus.  Sacra",  III.  This  treatise  is  divided 
into  forty-five  chapters,  some  of  which  treat  of  the 
invention  and  the  praise  of  music,  of  the  voice,  of 
sound,  of  tone,  of  keys,  of  measured  and  figured 
music,  of  tone  relations,  intervals,  consonances,  etc. 
A  list  of  his  compositions  may  be  found  in  the 
"Quellcn-Lexikon".  As  he  called  himself  musicus 
ducali".  lie  was  probably  in  the  service  of  some  prince, 
possibly  of  the  Bishop  of  Wiirzburg. 

KouNMt^Li.ER,  Lex.  der  kirchl.  Tonkuntt;  Grove,  Diet. 
of  Sluaic  and  Musiciana. 

J.    A.    V6LKER. 

Adam  of  Marisco.     See  Marisco. 

Adam  of  Murimuth,  an  English  chronicler  of 
about  the  midille  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He 
was  a  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  affairs  of  Church  and  State  during  the 
reigns  of  lOdward  II  and  Edward  III.  His  history 
of  his  own  times  is  entitled  "Chronicon,  sive  res 
gestae  sui  temporis  quibus  ipse  interfuit,  res  Homanas 
et  Gallicas  .Anglicanis  intertexens,  1302-1343  " 
(Cottonian  Librarj-  MSS.).  ".\dam  of  Murimuth 
continues  to  l^e  a  principal  witness  for  events  up  to 
the  year  1346,  after  wliich  the  narrative  is  carried  on 
by  his  unknown  continuator  to  the  year  13S0.  His 
statements  are  for  the  most  part  made  on  good  au- 
thority, or  as  the  result  of  personal  observation,  and 
the  impression  we  derive  is  that  of  one  who  was  an 
honest  and  veracious  chronicler,  although  posses.sed 
of  no  descriptive  literary  power"  [Gardiner  and  Mull- 
inger.  "English  History  for  Students"  (New  York, 
18,81),  284]. 


ADAM 


134 


ADAM 


Sttjbbs,  Chron.  Edward  I-Il  (1882),  I,  Ixx-xxiv;  Gross, 
SouTcet  and  Literature  of  English  History,  etc.  (New  York, 
1900),  s.  V. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Adam  of  Perseigne,  a  I'rcnch  Cistercian,  Abbot  of 
tlie  monastery  of  Perseigne  in  the  Diocese  of  Mans, 
b.  about  (lie  middle  of  tlic  twelfth  century.  He  is 
thought  to  have  been  first  a  canon  regular,  later  a 
Benedictine  of  Marnioutier  and  then  a  Cistercian. 
About  the  year  1  ISO  he  became  Abbot  of  Perseigne, 
whither  his  reputation  for  holiness  and  wisdom  drew 
the  great  personages  of  his  time  to  seek  his  counsel. 
He  had  at  Rome  a  conference  with  the  celebrated 
mystic,  Joachim,  Abbot  of  Flora  (in  Calabria,  Italy), 
on  the  subject  of  the  latter's  revelations,  and  aided 
Foulques  de  Neuilly  in  preaching  the  Fourth  Crusade. 
His  letters  and  sermons  were  published  at  Rome  in 
1662  under  the  title  "Adanii  Abbatis  Persenia- 
Ordinis  Cisterciensis  Mariale." 

MiGNON  in  Diet,  de  Iheol.  ealh.,  s.  v. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Adam  of  Saint  Victor,  a  prominent  and  prolific 
writer  of  Latin  hymns,  b.  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
twelfth  century,  probably  at  Paris;  d.  in  the  Abbey 
of  Saint  Victor  then  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris  but 
included  in  it  subsequently  through  the  city's  growth, 
some  time  between  1172  and  1192.  By  tliose  more 
nearly  his  contemporaries  he  is  styled  "Brito",  a 
word  winch  means  "Briton",  or  "Breton".  But 
as  he  was  educated  in  Paris,  and  entered  the  Abbey 
of  Saint  Victor  when  quite  young,  he  was  presumably 
French.  He  hved  in  the  abbey,  wliich  was  some- 
what of  a  theological  centre,  until  liis  death.  Adam 
of  Saint  Victor  is  the  most  illustrious  exponent  of 
the  revival  of  liturgical  poetry  which  the  twelfth 
century  affords.  Archbishop  Trench  characterizes 
him  as  "the  foremost  among  the  sacred  Latin  poets 
of  the  Middle  Ages ".  Of  his  hymns  and  sequences 
some  tliirty-seven  were  published  in  the  "Elucida- 
torium  Ecclesiasticum "  of  Clichtoveus,  a  Cathohc 
theologian  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Nearly  all  of 
the  remaining  seventy  were  preserved  in  the  Abbey 
of  Saint  Victor  up  to  the  time  of  its  dissolution  in 
the  Revolution.  They  were  then  transferred  to 
the  Bibliolh^que  Nationale,  where  they  were  dis- 
covered by  L6on  Gautier,  who  edited  the  first  com- 
plete edition  of  them  (Paris,  1858).  Besides  these 
poetic  works,  some  prose  ones  are  attributed  to  Adam 
of  Saint  Victor,  viz.,  "Summa  Britonis,  sen  de 
difiicilioribus  verljis  in  BibUa  contentis",  a  dictionary 
of  all  the  dilhcult  words  in  the  Bible  for  the  use  of 
novices  and  beginners  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures; 
and  a  sequel  to  this,  "  Expositio  super  omnes  prolo- 
gos",  an  historical  commentary  on  the  prologues  of  St. 
Jerome.  Fabricius,  Pits,  and  others  deny  liis  author- 
ship of  these  prose  works,  saying  they  were  written 
by  Guillaume  le  Breton.  Levesque  advances  some 
plausible  reasons  for  believing  them  the  work  of 
Adam,  while  Abb6  Lejay  declares  emphatically  that 
none  of  the  prose  works  ascribed  to  nim  can  be  re- 
garded with  any  likelihood  as  his.  Some  of  his  best 
fiynins  are  "Laudes  crucis  attolamus",  "Vcrbi  vere 
substantivi",  and  "Stola  regni  laureatus". 

Gactif.r,  (Eurres  poetiqucs  dAdum  dc  SI.  Viclur  (Pari.s, 
1858)  with  an  Essui  sur  sa  ric  el  «r«  ouvragcs,  tr.  Wiiancham 
(London,  1881);  Julian,  Diet,  of  llymnology  (New  York, 
1892),  14,  15;  Lpzvesque  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible;  Lejav  in 
Diet,  de  thiol,  calh. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Adam  of  Usk,  an  English  priest,  canonist,  and 
chronicler,  b.  at  I'sk,  in  Monmouthshire,  between 
1360  and  136.');  date  of  death  unknown.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  his  doctorate  and  be- 
came extTaordinarins  in  canon  law.  He  practised  in 
the  archiepiscopal  court  of  Canterbury,  1390-97,  and 
in  1399  accompanied  the  Archbishop  and  Boling- 
broke's    army    on    the    march    to    Chester.     After 


Richard's  surrender  Adam  was  rewarded  with  the 
living  of  Kemsing  and  Seal  in  Kent,  and  later  with 
a  prebend  in  the  church  of  Bangor.  However,  he 
forfeited  the  King's  fa\'Our  by  the  boldness  of  his 
criticisms,  and  was  banished  to  Rome  in  1402,  where 
in  1404  and  later  he  was  successively  nominated  to 
the  sees  of  Hereford  and  St.  David's,  bvit  was  unable 
to  obtain  po.ssession  of  either.  He  left  a  Latin 
chronicle  of  English  hi.story  from  1377  to  1404,  edited 
bj'  Edward  Maunde  Thompson  for  the  Royal  Society 
of  Literature,  as  "Chronicon  AdiE  de  Usk"  (London, 
1876). 

Thompson,  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Httrter,  Nomenelator, 
s.  v.;  Balzani,  La  storia  di  Roma  nella  Cronaea  di  Adnmo  da 
Usk,  in  Arehiv.  soe.  Rom.  star.  pair.  (1880),  III,  473-488; 
CiAiRDNER,  in  Academy  (1S77),  XI,  4-5;  Gross,  Sources  and 
Lit.  of  Eng.  History  (New  York,  1900).  s.  v. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Adam,  John,  a  distinguished  preacher  and  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  Calvinists  and  Jansenists, 
b.  at  Limoges  in  1608;  d.  at  Bordeaux,  12  May,  1684. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1622.  He  wrote 
"The  Triumph  of  the  Blessed  Eucharist";  "A 
Week's  Controversy  on  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar"; 
"Calvin  Defeated  by  Himself";  "The  Tomb  of 
Jansenism";  "An  Abridgement  of  the  Life  of  St. 
Francis  Borgia";  Lenten  sermons;  some  books  of 
devotion;  and  translations  of  hymns.  His  views  on 
St.  Augustine  brought  him  into  collision  with  Cardi- 
nal Noris  who  attacked  Father  Adam  in  his  "  Vindici^ 
Augustiniana; ".  A  book  by  Noel  de  Lalanne  also 
assailed  what  is  called  "the  errors,  calumnies,  and 
scandalous  invectives  which  the  Jesuit  Father  Adam 
has  uttered  in  a  sermon,  on  the  second  Thursday 
of  Lent,  in  the  Church  of  St.   Pa\il." 

Southwell,  Ba-i-le,  Cretineati-Joly,  Remarques  sur 
Bayie,  57;  Sommervogel,  I,  47;  Varin,  La  reritc  sur  Ics 
Arnauld    (Biog.    univ.     I,    145). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Adam,  Nicholas,  linguist  and  writer,  b.  in  Paris, 
1716;  d.  1792.  He  achieved  distinction  by  a  peculiar 
grammar  of  which  he  was  the  author.  It  bore  the 
title:  "La  vraie  maniere  d'apprendre  une  langue 
quelconque,  vivante  ou  morte,  par  le  moyen  de  la 
langue  fran(^aise ".  It  consisted  of  five  grammars: 
French,  Latin,  Italian,  German,  and  English.  He 
published  another  book  which  he  called  "Les  quatre 
chapitres ", — on  reason,  self-love,  love  of  our 
neighbour,  and  love  of  virtue — writing  it  in  good 
and  bad  Latin,  and  good  and  bad  French.  He  has 
also  left  many  translations  of  classic  works,  among 
them.  Pope's  "Essay  on  Man",  Johnson's  "Rasse- 
las",  Addison's  "Cato",  Young's  "Night  Thoughts", 
etc.  He  was  a  favourite  of  Choiseul.  who  sent  him 
as  French  ambassador  to  Venice.  It  is  said  that  he 
knew  all  the  languages  of  Europe  and  possessed  a 
rare  gift  of  communicating  his  knowledge  to  others. 
For  many  years  he  had  been  professor  of  eloquence 
at  the  College  of  Lisieux. 

MiCHAUD,  Biogr.   Unit-.,  1,  228. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Adam  Scotus  (or  The  Premonsthatensian),  a 
theologian  and  Church  historian  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  twelfth  century.  He  was  born  either  in  Scotland 
or  England,  and  joined  the  newly-founded  order  of 
Saint  Norbert.  It  is  also  believed  that  he  became 
Abbot  and  Bishop  of  Candida  Casa,  or  Whithorn  in 
Scotland,  and  died  after  1180.  His  works  consist  of 
"Sermoncs"  (P.  L.,  CXCVIII,  91-440);  "Liber  de 
Ordine,  Habitu  et  Profe.ssionc  Canonicorum  Ordinis 
Prsmonstratensis  (Ibid.,  (WCVIII,  439-610),  a 
work  which  is  sometimes  entitled  the  "Commentary 
on  the  Rule  of  St.  .\ugustinc";  "  De  Tripartito 
Tabernaculo"  (CXCVIII,  (;()9-792);  "  De  Triplici 
Genere  Contemplationis  '  (CXCVIII,  791-842);  "So- 
liloquiorum  de  Instructione  anima-  libri  duo" 
(CXCVIII,  841-872).     He  was  one  of  the  most  ap- 


ADAMANTIUS 


i;5.3 


AD  ANA 


predated  mystical  authors  of  the  Middle  Ages;  both 
in  style  and  matter  his  works  show  unusual  sweetness 
and  spirituality.  He  is  also  known  as  Adam  An- 
glicus  and  Aiiglo-Scotus. 

Diet,  uf  \al.  litogr.,  s.  v.;  Whigiit,  Biogr.  Brit.  I.itt.  (184C). 
11,  322;  HoliiiGAlN,  La  chairr  iruntaiix  ou  XII  nhU  (Pari«, 
1879),  135-130;  J<:RdME,  in  Otct.  </<■  IhM.  calh.,  ».  v. 

Thomas  Waush. 

Adamantius.    Pec  Orioen. 

Adami  da  Bolsena,  Anduka,  an  Italian  musician 
I),  lit  r.dlMii;,.  lii(i:i;  d.  in  Home.  1742.  Through  the 
influence  of  Cardinal  Pietru  Ottoboni  he  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  tlie  p.ipal  chnir.  He  left  a  hi.s- 
tory  of  this  institution,  with  iK>rtraits  and  memoirs 
of  the  singers,  under  the  title  of  "Osservazioni  [)er 
ben  regolare  il  coro  dei  cantori  dclla  ('api)ella  Ponti- 
ficia"  (Rome,  1711).  He  was  liiglily  esteemed  by 
the  Romans  for  his  personal  as  well  as  his  musical 
gifts. 

CiRovE,  Dirt,  of  Music  and  A/unctans;  Rikmaxn,  Did.  of 
Mu,ir. 

J.  A.  VoLKER. 

Adamites,  an  obscure  sect,  dating  f)erhaps  from 
the  seconil  century,  which  professed  to  have  re- 
gained Adam's  primeval  innocence.  St.  Epiphanius 
and  St.  Augustine  mention  the  Adamites  by  name, 
and  describe  their  practices.  They  called  their 
church  Paradi.sc;  they  condemned  marriage  as  foreign 
to  Eden,  and  they  stripped  themselves  naked  while 
engaged  in  common  woreliip.  They  could  not  have 
been  numerous.  \'arious  accounts  are  given  of 
their  origin.  Some  have  thought  them  to  have 
been  an  offshoot  of  the  Carpocratian  (Inostics.  who 
professed  a  sensual  mysticism  and  a  complete  eman- 
cipation from  the  moral  law.  Theodorct  (Haer. 
Fab.,  I,  6)  held  this  view  of  them,  and  identified 
them  with  the  licentious  sects  whose  practices  are 
described  by  Clement  of  Alexandria.  Others,  on 
the  contrarj',  consider  them  to  have  l)ecn  misguided 
ascetics,  who  strove  to  extirpate  carnal  desires  by 
a  return  to  simpler  manners,  and  by  tlie  abolition 
of  marriage.  Practices  similar  to  those  just  de- 
scribed appeared  in  Europe  several  times  in  later 
ages.  In  tlie  thirteenth  centurj'  they  were  revived 
in  the  Netherlands  by  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of 
the  Free  Spirit,  and,  in  a  grosser  form,  in  the  four- 
teenth by  the  Bcghards  (q.  v.)  in  Germany.  Everj-- 
where  they  met  with  firm  opposition.  The  Bcghards 
became  the  Picards  of  Bohemia,  wlio  took  possession 
of  an  island  in  the  river  Nczarka,  and  gave  them- 
selves up  to  a  shameful  communism.  Ziska,  the 
Hussite  leader,  nearly  exterminated  the  .sect  in 
1421  (cf.  Holler,  "Geschichts<iuellen  Bohmens",  I, 
414,  431).  A  brief  revival  of  these  doctrines  took 
place  in  Bohemia  after  1781,  owing  to  the  edict  of 
toleration  issued  by  Joseph  II;  these  communistic 
Neo-Adamites  were  suppressed  by  force  in  1849. 

Clem,  of  Alkx.,  Strom..  Ill,  iv;  Epipii.,  Ilarr.,  lii;  Ac- 
OCSTINK,  De  Ilacr.,  XXX I;  Bossuet,  Variations  of  Prot. 
Churches;  Rcdinoer.  De  Ecdes.  Frat.  in  Bohemia;  Svatek, 
Adamiien  unfl  Deistt-n  in  Bvhmrn  in  cuUurhist.  Bitdrr  aus 
Behmen  (Vienna,  1879),  I,  97;  HeiioenrOtbeb  in  Kirchenler. 
I.,  216-218. 

Francis  P.  Havey. 

Adamnan  (or  Eun.\n),  Saint,  Abbot  of  lona,  b.  at 
DrumliDinc.  County  Donegal.  Ireland,  c.  624;  d.  at 
the  AbU-y  of  lona.  in  704.  He  was  educated  by  the 
C'olumban  monks  of  his  native  place,  subsequently 
liecoming  a  novice  at  lona  in  050.  In  (179  he  suc- 
ceeded to  tlie  abbacy  of  lona,  which  position  he  held 
up  to  his  death.  He  was  also  president-general  of 
all  the  Columban  houses  in  Ireland.  During  his  nde 
he  paid  three  lengthy  visits  to  Ireland,  one  of 
which  is  memorable  for  his  success  in  introducing 
the  Roman  Paschal  olwervanco.  On  his  third  visit 
(()97)  he  assisted  at  the  Synod  of  Tara,  when  the 
Cain  Adnninahi,  or  Canon  of  Adamnan  (ed.  Kuno 
Meyer,   London,    1905)    was    adopted,   which    freed 


women  and  children  from  the  evils  inseparable  from 
war,  forbidding  them  to  be  killed  or  made  captive 
in  times  of  strife.  It  is  not  improbable,  as  stated 
in  the  "Life  of  St.  Gerald"  (d.  Bishop  of  Mayo,  732), 
tliat  Adamnan  ruled  the  abbey  of  Mayo  from  097 
until  23  Sept.,  704,  but  in  Ireland  his  memorj'  is 
inseparably  connected  with  Raphoe,  of  which  he  is 
patron.  I-rom  a  literary  point  of  view,  .St.  Adamnan 
takes  the  very  highest  place  as  the  biographer  of 
St.  Columba  (Columcille),  and  as  the  author  of  a 
treatise  "De  Locis  Sanctis".  Pinkerton  describes 
his  "Vita  Columba?"  as  "the  most  complete  piece 
of  biography  that  all  Euroi>e  can  Ixiast  of,  not  only 
at  so  early  a  period  but  even  through  the  whole 
Middle  Ages".  It  was  printed  by  Colgan  (from  a 
copy  supplied  by  Father  Stephen  White,  S.J.),  and 
by  the  Bollandists,  but  it  was  left  for  a  nineteenth- 
century  Iri.sli  scholar  (Dr.  Reeves,  Protestant  Bishop 
of  Down,  Connor,  and  Droniore)  to  issue,  in  1837,  the 
most  admirable  of  all  existing  editions.  St.  Bede 
highly  praises  the  tract  "De  Locis  Sanctis",  the 
autograph  copy  of  which  was  presented  by  St.  Adam- 
nan to  King  .-Vldfrid  of  Nortliumbria,  who  had  studied 
in  Ireland.  The  "Four  Masters"  tells  us  that  he  was 
"tearful,  |x;nitent,  fond  of  prayer,  diligent  and 
ascetic,  and  learned  in  the  clear  understanding  of 
the  Holy  .Scriptures  of  God."  His  feast  is  celebrated 
23  September. 

W.  II.  Grattan  Flood. 

Adams,  Jame.s,  professor  of  humanities  at  St. 
Omers,  b.  in  England  in  1737;  d.  at  Dublin,  6  De- 
cemlier,  1802.  He  became  a  Jesuit  at  Watten, 
7  .September,  1750,  and  worked  on  the  mission  in 
England.  He  wrote  a  translation  from  the  French 
of  "Early  Rules  for  Taking  a  Likeness",  by  Bono- 
maci;  and  was  honoured  with  the  thanks  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  for  a  treati.se  on  "English 
Pronunciation,  with  appendices  on  various  dialects, 
and  an  analj-tical  discussion  and  vindication  of 
Scotch ".  He  composed  also  a  volume  of  Roman 
History,  and  projected  a  book  on  a  "Tour  through 
the  Hebrides  '  ,  which  was  never  printed. 

Foi.KY.  Records  of  the  Enotish  Province;  Sohmervogel, 
BiUiothique  de  la  c.  de  J.,   I,  50. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Adams,  Johx,  Venerable,  priest,  martjTed  at 
Tyburn,  8  October,  1.580.  He  had  Iwen  a  Protestant 
minister,  but  being  converted,  went  to  Reims  in 
1579,  where  he  was  ordained  a  priest.  He  returned 
to  England  in  March,  1.581.  Father  William  War- 
ford,  who  knew  him  personally,  descrilied  him  as 
a  man  of  "alwut  forty  years  of  age,  of  average 
lieight,  with  a  dark  beard,  a  sprightly  look  and  black 
eyes.  He  was  a  verj'  good  controversialist,  straight- 
forward, very  pious,  and  pre-eminently  a  man  of 
hard  work.  lie  laboured  ver>-  strenuously  at 
Winchester  and  in  Hampshire,  where  he  helped 
many,  especially  of  the  [worer  classes."  Imprisoned 
in  1584,  he  w.as  banished  with  seventy-two  other 
priests  in  158.5;  but  liaving  returned  was  again 
arrested,  and  executed,  witli  two  others,  Ven.  John 
Lowe    and  Ven.  Robert  Dibdale. 

Patrick  Ryan. 

Adana.  a  diocese  of  Armenian  rite  in  Asia  Minor 
(.Vsiatic  Turkey).  This  ancient  Phccnician  colony 
"of  willows"  is  situated  about  nineteen  miles  froiii 
the  sea.  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sarus.  or  Seyhoun, 
in  the  heart  of  Cilicia  Campestris.  It  was  once  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucida;,  and  after  the 
passing  of  Antiochiis  Epiphanes  it  took  (171  b.  r.) 
the  name  of  .\ntioch  of  Sams.  Later  it  received 
from  Emperor  Hadrian  (117-138)  the  title  of  Had- 
riana  and  from  Emperor  Maximianus  that  of  Maxi- 
miana.  It  has  some  political  import.ance  as  capital 
of  the  vilaytt  or  district,  .\dana  appears  in  the 
fourth  centurj-  as  a  see  subject  to  the  metropolitan 


ADAR 


136 


ADDEUS 


of  Tarsus  and  the  patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  tlie  Greek  hierarchy  disappeared,  and 
is  now  representerl  in  Cihcia  by  only  one  prelate  who 
styles  himself  Metropolitan  of  Tarsos  and  Adana, 
arid  resides  in  the  latter  town.  Most  of  his  diocesans 
are  foreigners,  antl  come  from  Cappadocia  or  the 
Archipelago.  They  are  much  attached  to  Hellenism, 
and  desire  to  be  under  the  patriarchate  of  Constanti- 
nople and  not  of  Antioch.  They  even  live  in  open 
strife  with  the  latter,  since  the  election  (1899)  of  an 
Arabic-speaking  prelate.  In  medieval  times  Adana, 
deprived  of  a  Greek  bishop,  had  an  Armenian  one, 
subject  to  the  Catholicos  of  Sis.  The  first  of  this  line 
known  to  history  is  a  certain  Stephen,  who  distin- 
guished himself  in  1307  and  1316.  Under  him  a 
great  national  Armenian  council  (the  last  of  its  kind), 
attended  by  the  patriarch  and  the  king,  the  clergy 
and  the  nobility,  was  held  at  Adana  (1316).  Thirty 
years  earlier,  iii  1286,  another  Armenian  council  niet 
for  forty  days  in  Adana  for  the  purpose  of  electing 
the  Catholicos  Constantine  and  to  dispose  of  several 
other  questions.  To-day  the  Armenians  of  Adana 
are  divided  into  Gregorians,  Cathohes,  and  Protes- 
tants. For  the  Gregorians  it  is  the  centre  of  one  of 
the  fourteen  or  fifteen  districts  governed  by  the 
Catholicos  of  Sis;  he  is  represented  in  Adana  by  a 
bishop.  For  the  Catholics  there  is  an  episcopal 
see  at  Adana.  As  regards  Protestants.  Adana  is  a 
mission  station  of  the  Central  Turkey  Mission  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  (about  1,000  members).  The  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  (U.  S.  A.)  holds  it  as  a  mis- 
sionary station  attended  from  Tarsus.  There  are, 
moreover,  at  Adana  some  Maronite  and  Syrian  mer- 
chants and  some  Europeans  employed  in  various 
capacities.  The  total  population  amounts  to  about 
45,000  inhabitants  during  the  two  or  three  months 
when  the  decortication  and  the  cleaning  of  cotton 
attract  a  great  many  workers.  During  the  rest  of 
the  year  the  population  does  not  exceed  30,000  in- 
habitants, viz:  14,000  Mussulmans,  12,575  Armen- 
ians, 3,425  Greeks,  and  a  few  others.  There  are  in 
the  town  18  mosques,  37  medrcsses,  and  8  tckkes.  2 
Armenian  churches,  1  Latin  church,  1  Greek  church, 
and  1  Protestant  church;  29  Turkish  schools  of 
which  28  are  elementary  schools  and  one  is  secondary, 
2  Greek  schools,  1  Armenian  school,  1  Protestant 
school,  and  2  French  educational  establishments — 
one  for  boys  directed  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  the  other 
for  girls,  under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Lyons. 
The  latter  includes  a  day-school  and  a  boarding- 
school.  J.  Pargoire. 

Adar. — (1)  A  frontier  town  in  the  South  of  Cha- 
naan  (Num.,  xxxiv,  4;  Jos.,  xv,  3).  It  has  not  been 
identified.  (2)  King  of  Edom,  Gen.,  xxxvi,  39,  called 
Adad  (R.  V.,  Hadad),  I  Par.,  i,  50.  (3)  The  twelfth 
month  of  the  Jewish  year,  corresponding  approxi- 
mately to  the  latter  half  of  February  and  the  first 
half  of  March.  (4)  A  Chaldean  god.  The  name  is 
found  in  the  compound  word  Adramelech  (Adar  is 
King)  in  IV  K.,  xvii,  31.  W.  S.  Reilly. 

Adda,  Ferdin.^ndo  d',  Cardinal  and  Papal  Legate, 
b.  at  Milan,  1649;  d.  at  Rome,  1719.  He  was  made 
Cardinal-Priest  in  1090,  and  in  1715  Cardinal-Bishop 
of  Albano.  He  was  also  Prefect  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rites.  As  Papal  Nuncio  in  London  during  the 
reign  of  James  II  (1685-88)  he  wiis  charged  by  limo- 
ccnt  XI  with  the  delicate  task  of  inducing  tlie  Eng- 
lish King  to  intercede  with  Louis  XIV  (llien  quite 
inimical  to  the  Holy  See)  in  favour  of  the  oppressed 
Protestants  of  France. 

Cardella,   Memorie  tloriche  de'  Cardinali  (Home,  1793\ 

vni,  7. 

Thom.\s  J.  Sh,\h.\n. 

Addas,  one  of  the  three  original  disci|ilcs  of 
Manes  (q.  v.),  who  according  to  the  Acts  of  Arcliclaus 


introduced  the  heretical  teachings  of  Manes  into 
Scythia  and  later  went  on  a  similar  mi.ssion  to  the 
East,  being  also  commissioned  to  collect  Christian 
books.  He  is  called  Baddas  by  CjTil  of  Jerusalem. 
Photius  refers  to  a  work  of  his  (Biblioth.  Cod.  85) 
entitled  "Modion"  (Mark,  iv,  21)  which  was  refuted 
by  Diodorus  of  Tarsus.  A  work  against  Moses  and 
the  Prophets  by  Addas  and  Adimantus  is  also  men- 
tioned. 

CowELL  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr.,  I,  43. 

Thoma-s  Walsh. 

Addeus  and  Maris,  Liturgy  of. — This  is  an 
Oriental  liturgj-,  sometimes  assigned  to  the  Syrian 
group  because  it  is  written  in  the  Syriac  tongue; 
sometimes  to  the  Persian  group  because  it  w"as  used 
in  Mesopotamia  and  Persia.  It  is  known  as  the 
normal  liturgy  of  the  Nestorians,  but  probably  it 
had  been  in  use  before  the  rise  of  the  Nestorian  heresy. 
According  to  tradition,  it  was  composed  by  Addeus 
and  Maris,  who  evangelized  Edessa,  Sele\icia-Ctesi- 
phon  and  the  surrounding  country.  This  tradition 
is  based  on  the  narrative  contained  in  the  "  Doctrine 
of  Addai ",  a  work  generally  ascribed  to  the  second 
half  of  the  third  century.  The  account  spates  that 
King  .\bgar  the  Black,  having  heard  of  the  wonder- 
ful works  of  Christ,  besought  Our  Lord  to  come  and 
cure  him  of  a  serious  malady,  but  that  he  obtained 
only  the  promise  that  Our  Lord  would  send  one  of 
His  disciples,  a  promise  which  was  fulfilled  after 
the  ascension,  when  Thaddeus  (in  Syriac,  Addai), 
one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples,  was  sent  by  St. 
Thomas  to  Edessa  to  cure  the  King.  Addeus  and 
his  disciple  JIaris  are  said  to  have  converted  the  King 
and  people  of  Edessa,  to  have  organized  the  Christian 
Church  there,  and  to  have  composed  the  liturgy 
which  bears  their  names.  There  seem  to  be  no 
documents  earlier  than  the  "Doctrine  of  Addai"  to 
confirm  this  tradition.  Although  good  historical 
evidence  concerning  the  foimdation  of  the  Church 
of  Edessa  is  wanting,  still  it  is  quite  certain  that 
Christianity  was  Introduced  there  at  a  very  early 
date,  since  towards  the  end  of  the  second  century 
the  king  was  a  Christian,  and  a  bishop  (Palouth)  of 
the  see  was  consecrated  by  Serapion  of  Antioch 
(190-203).  It  was  only  natural  that  the  Edessans 
should  regard  Addeus  and  Maris  as  the  authors  of 
their  liturgy,  since  they  already  regarded  these  men 
as  the  founders  of  their  Church.  The  Nestorians 
attribute  the  final  redaction  of  the  text  of  the  Liturgy 
of  Addeus  and  Maris  to  their  patriarch  Jesuyab  III, 
who  lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century. 
After  the  condemnation  of  Nestorianism,  the  Nes- 
torians retreated  into  the  Persian  kingdom,  an<l  pene- 
trated even  into  India  and  China,  founding  churches 
and  introducing  their  liturgy  wherever  the  Syriac 
language  was  ased.  At  the  present  time  this  liturgy 
is  used  chiefly  by  the  Nestorians,  who  reside  for  the 
most  part  in  Kurdistan.  It  is  also  used  by  the 
Chaldean  I'niats  of  the  same  region,  but  their  liturgy 
has,  of  course,  been  purged  of  all  traces  of  Nestorian 
tenets.  Finally,  it  is  in  use  among  the  Chaldean 
IJniats  of  Malabar,  but  it  was  very  much  altered 
by  the  Synod  of  Diamper  lield  in  1599, 

Exposition  of  Parts, — The  liturgy  may  be 
divided  conveniently  into  two  parts:  tlie  Mass  of 
the  catechumens,  extending  as  far  as  the  offertory, 
when  the  catechumens  were  dismissed,  and  the  Mass 
of  tlie  faithful,  embracing  all  from  the  offertory  to 
the  end.  Or  again,  it  may  be  di\iiled  into  the  prepa- 
ration for  the  sacrifice  extcinling  as  lar  as  tlie  preface, 
and  the  anaphora  or  fornuila  for  consecration  corres- 
ponding to  the  Roman  canon.  "  The  order  of  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Apostles,  composed  by  Mar  Addai  and 
Mar  Mari,  the  blessed  .\postles  "  'begins  with  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  after  wliich  the  verse  "Glory 
to  God  in  the  highest"  etc.  (Luke,  ii,  14),  the 
Lord's    Prayer,    and    a    prayer    for    the    priest   on 


ADDIS 


137 


ADDRESSES 


Sundays  and  feasts  of  Our  Lord,  or  a  doxoloey  of 
praise  to  the  Trinity  on  saints'  days  and  ferials  are 
recited.  Several  psalms  are  tlien  said,  together 
with  the  anthem  of  the  sanctuary  (variable  for 
Sundays  and  feasts  or  Saints'  days)  and  a  prayer  of 
praise   and    adoration. 

The  deacon  then  invites  the  people  "to  lift  up  their 
voices  and  glorify  the  living  (iod  '  ,  and  they  respond 
by  reciting  the  'I'risagion.  Then  the  priest  says  a 
prayer  and  blesses  the  reader  of  the  lessons.  Ordi- 
narily two  lessons  from  the  Old  Testament  are  read, 
but  during  Eastertide  a  le.sson  from  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  is  substituted  for  the  second  Old  Testament 
lesson.  After  an  anthem  ami  a  prayer  the  deacon 
reads  the  third  les.son  (called  the  .\postlc),  which  is 
taken  from  one  of  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The 
priest  prepares  for  the  (!ospel  by  reciting  the  appro- 
priate prayers  and  blessing  tlie  incense,  and  after 
tlie  alleluia  is  sung  lie  reads  the  Gospel.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  its  proper  antliein,  tlie  diaconal  litany,  and 
a  short  prayer  recited  by  the  priest,  after  which  the 
deacons  invite  the  people  "to  bow  their  heads  for 
the  imposition  of  hands  and  receive  the  blessing" 
which  the  priest  invokes  upon  them.  The  .Ma.ss  of 
the  catechumens  is  thus  concluded,  .so  the  deacons 
ailmonish  those  who  have  not  received  baptism  to 
depart,  and  the  Mass  of  the  faithful  begins.  The 
priest  offers  the  bread  ami  wine,  reciting  the  prescribed 
prayers,  covers  the  chalice  and  paten  with  a  largo 
veil,  goes  down  from  the  altar  and  begins  the  anthem 
of  the  mysteries.  The  recital  of  the  Creed  at  this 
point  is  a  late  addition  to  the  liturgj'. 

Having  entered  within  the  arch,  the  priest  makes 
the  prescribed  inclinations  to  the  altar,  washes  his 
hands  and  begins  the  preparatory  prayers  for  the 
annph'irn.  He  recites  an  invitation  to  prayer  cor- 
respomling  to  the  Roman  Ornte  jralrcs,  and  then 
beseeches  the  Lord  not  to  regard  his  sins  nor  those  of 
the  people,  but  in  all  mercy  to  account  him  worthy 
to  celebrate  the  mysteries  of  the  Body  and  Wood  of 
Christ  and  worthily  praise  and  worsliip  the  Lord, 
after  which  he  crosses  hini.self  and  the  people  answer 
"  .\tnen  ".  .Vt  this  point  on  Sundays  and  feasts  of  Our 
Lord  the  deacon  seems  to  have  read  the  diptychs, 
called  by  the  Nestorians  the  "  Book  of  the  Living  ami 
the  Dead".  The  ki.ss  of  peace  is  then  given,  and  a 
prayer  recited  for  all  cla.sses  of  persons  in  the  church. 
The  nnapliorii  proper  begins  with  the  preface.  The 
deacon  now  invites  the  people  to  pray,  and  the  priest 
recites  a  .secret  prayer,  lifts  the  veil  from  the  offerings, 
bles.ses  the  incense,  and  prays  that  "the  grace  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  love  of  God  the  Father, 
and  the  fellowship  of  the  Holy  CJhost  be  with  us  all 
now  and  ever  world  without  end",  and  signs  the 
mysteries,  and  the  people  answer  "Amen."  The 
priest  then  begins  the  preface  with  the  words:  "Lift 
up  your  minds."  The  preface  is  followed  by  the 
sanctus  and  the  anamnesis  (commemoration  of 
Christ).  In  present  usage  the  words  of  institution 
are  here  inserted,  althougli  they  .seem  to  have  little 
connection  with  the  context.  He  pronounces  a  short 
doxology,  and  signs  the  mysteries,  and  the  people 
answer  "  .\men  ". 

.After  the  deacon  says  "  Pray  in  your  minds.  Peace 
be  with  us,"  the  priest  recites  quietly  the  great  inter- 
cession or  memento.  The  cpicUsix,  or  invocation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  follows  as  a  sort  of  continuation  of 
the  intercession.  The  priest  then  says  a  prayer  for 
peace  and  one  of  thanksgiving,  ami  incenses  himself 
and  the  oblations,  reciting  the  appropriate  prayers 
in  the  meantime.  While  the  deacon  recites  a  hjTiin 
referring  to  the  Eucharist,  the  priest,  taking  the  Host 
in  both  hands,  .says  a  prayer  alluding  to  the  life-giving 
power  of  this  bread  which  came  down  from  Heaven 
(ill  the  Chaldean  Cniat  liturgies  the  words  of  insti- 
tution are  placed  after  the  first  part  of  this  nraver), 
breaks  the   Host  into   two  parts,  one  of  whieli   he 


places  on  the  paten,  while  with  the  other  he  signs 
the  chalice,  ami  after  dipping  it  into  the  chalice  signs 
the  other  half  of  the  Host,  reciting  meanwhile  the 
proper  prayers  for  the  consignation.  Joining  the 
parts  together  he  says  a  prayer  referring  to  the  cere- 
monies just  completed,  cleaves  with  his  thumb  the 
Host  where  it  was  dipped  in  the  chalice,  signs  his 
forehead  with  his  thumb,  and  recites  a  prayer  of 
prai.se  to  Christ  and  to  the  Trinity.  After  Ki.ssing 
the  altar,  he  invokes  a  blessing  upon  all — "The  grace 
of  Our  Lord  "  etc.,  as  quoted  above. 

While  the  priest  breaks  the  Host,  the  deacon  in- 
vites the  people  to  consider  the  meaning  of  these 
holy  mysteries  and  to  have  the  proper  dispositions 
for  receiving  them;  to  forgive  the  transgressions  of 
others,  and  then  to  beseech  the  Lord  to  forgive  their 
own  offences.  The  priest,  continuing  this  idea,  in- 
troduces the  Lord's  Prayer  (which  all  recite)  and 
says  a  prayer  that  expands  the  last  two  petitions. 
After  a  short  doxology  the  priest  gives  the  Chalice  to 
the  deacon,  blesses  the  people,  and  then  both  dis- 
tribute Communion.  A  special  anthem  is  said  during 
the  distribution.  The  deacon  then  invites  all  who 
have  received  Communion  to  give  thanks,  and  the 
priest  recites  aloud  a  prayer  of  thank.sgiving  and  one 
of  petition.  Mass  is  concluded  with  a  blessing  pro- 
nounced by  the  priest  over  the  people.  The  chief 
characteristic  in  this,  as  in  the  other  Nestorian  litur- 
gies, is  the  position  of  the  general  intercession  or 
memento.  It  occurs,  not  after  the  epicU-sis  as  in 
the  Syrian  liturgies,  but  immediately  before  it.  It 
seems  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  anammsis.  Of 
minor  differences,  it  might  be  noted  that  the  Nestor- 
ians use  one  large  veil  to  cover  paten  and  clialice; 
they  use  incen.se  at  the  preface;  and  they  have  two 
fractions  of  the  Host,  one  symbolical  recalling  the 

Eassion  of  Christ,  the  other  necessary  for  the  distri- 
ution  of  Communion. 

Liturffia  SS.  Apostotorum  Addei  et  Maris  in  Brightman, 
Liturgies  Eastern  and  Western  (Oxford.  1896),  1;  IUdgkh.  The 
Nestorians  and  their  Rituals  (London,  1852);  Ermoni  in  Diet. 
d'areheol.  chrH.  (Paris,  1903),  col.  519:  RENArnoT,  LHurgiarum 
Orientalium  Collectio  (Frankfort,  1847),  II:  Assemani,  UMio- 
theca  Orientalis  (Home,  1728),  III;  Neale,  History  of  the  Holy 
Eastern  Chureh  (London,  1858),  I. 

J.    F.   GOGGIN. 

Addis,  WiLLi.\M  E.     See  Dictionaries,  Catholic. 

Addresses,  Ecclesi.\stical. — It  is  from  Italy 
that  we  derive  rules  as  to  what  is  fitting  and  cus- 
tomary in  the  matter  of  ecclesiastical  correspondence. 
These  rules  the  different  Catholic  nations  have 
adopted  with  greater  or  lesser  modifications,  accord- 
ing to  local  conditions,  resulting  in  differences  which 
will  be  here  dealt  with. 

Prelimin'.\ries. — Before  describing  how  an  ad- 
dress should  be  written,  or  how  a  letter  to  an  ec- 
clesiastical personage  should  be  begun  and  ended, 
it  may  be  well  to  say  that  the  paper  must  always  be 
white,  no  other  colour  being  allowed.  The  size  and 
form  of  stationery  considered  appropriate  is  that 
known  in  Italy  as  jxilomba;  it  is  used  by  the  lioman 
Congregations,  and  is  so  called  because  it  h;is  the 
watermark  of  a  dove  (It.,  palomba).  In  other  coun- 
tries the  paper  used  for  protocols  or  ministerial  cor- 
respondence may  be  employed,  but  it  should  be  hand- 
made, as  both  stronger  and  more  suitable.  The  ink 
must  always  be  black;  coloured  inks  are  forbidden: 
first,  because  they  are  contrary  to  traditioiuil 
usage,  and  next  because  they  arc  liable  to  changes, 
having,  for  the  most  part,  a  basis  of  aniline  or  of 
animal  oil;  moreover,  these  inks  on  l)cing  exposed 
to  the  light  lose  colour  rapidly  and  soon  make  the 
letter  impossible  to  read.  The  letter  must  be  written 
a-s  our  fathers  wrote,  and  not,  as  business  letters  are 
now  sometimes  written,  first  on  the  right  hand  sheet 
and  then  on  the  left,  in  inverse  order  to  that  of  the 
leaves  of  a  book.  This  is  expressly  laid  down  in  an 
instruction  issued   by  Propaganda  when   Monsignor 


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138 


ADDRESSES 


Ciasca  was  secretary,  and  rests  on  the  necessity  of 
providing  for  the  due  order  of  the  archives  and  for 
facility  of  classification.  I^astly,  it  is  better  not  to 
write  on  the  back  of  tlie  sheet,  as  the  ink  may  soak 
through  the  paper  and  make  the  document  less  easy 
to  read;  in  any  case,  it  is  a  rule  of  politeness  to 
facilitate  the  reading  of  a  letter  in  everj'  possible  way. 
Ten  years  ago  tlie  use  of  a  typewriter  was  not  per- 
missible; at  the  present  day  it  is.  Many  decrees  of 
the  Congregation  of  Rites  are  written  in  this  way; 
tlie  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  allow  it 
in  the  case  of  documents  addre.ssed  to  them,  and 
other  ecclesiastical  courts  have  followed  their  exam- 
ple, but  letters  addressed  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff 
personally  nuist  still  be  written  by  hand.  If  the 
letter  be  sealed,  red  wax  must  be  used,  any  other 
colour,  or  even  black,  being  forbidden;  but  the  use 
of  wafers,  made  to  look  like  seals  of  red  wax,  which 
are  gummed  on  to  the  envelope,  is  now  tolerated. 
Moreover,  according  to  the  practice  of  the  eccle- 
siastical chanceries,  the  seal  used  should  be  smaller 
in  proportion  to  the  dignity  of  the  person  addressed. 
In  practice,  however,  it  is  not  easy  to  follow  this 
rule,  since  it  is  not  everyone  who  possesses  seals  of 
different  sizes. 

Forms  of  .\ddress  in  v.\rious  countries. — Italy. 
— The  Sovereign  Pontiff  is  addressed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  letter  as  "Most  Holy  Father" 
{Beatissi?no  Padre);  in  the  body  of  the  letter  as  "His 
Holiness"  {Sim  or  Vostra  Santita).  It  is  customary 
to  speak  to  him  always  in  the  tliird  person,  and  the 
letter  ends  with:  "Prostrate  at  the  feet  of  Your 
Holiness,  I  have  the  honour  to  profess  myself,  with 
the  most  profound  respect,  Your  Holiness's  most 
humble  servant."  If,  instead  of  a  letter,  a  petition 
is  sent  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  to  be  examined  by 
him  or  by  one  of  the  Roman  Congregations,  it  should 
begin:  "Most  Holy  Father,  Prostrate  at  the  feet  of 
Your  Holiness,  the  undersigned   N. ,  of  the  diocese 

of  N.,  has  the  honour  to  set  forth  as  follows:"  

and  the  statement  of  the  request  ends  with  the 
words:  "And  may  God  ..."  (meaning,  "May  God 
enrich  Your  Holiness  with  His  gifts").  If  written 
in  Italian  the  petition  ends  with  the  formula,  Che 
delta  qrazia  .  .  .,  the  beginning  of  a  phrase  imply- 
ing tliat  the  favour  asked  is  looked  for  from  the 
great  kindness  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff.  After  fold- 
ing the  petition  lengthways  to  the  paper,  the  peti- 
tioner should  write  at  the  top,  "To  His  Holiness, 
Pope  N  .  .  .";  in  the  middle,  "for  the  petitioner" 
(per  Vinjrascritto  oratore),  and  at  the  bottom,  to  the 
right,  the  name  of  the  agent,  or  the  person  charged 
with  the  transaction  of  that  particular  business  at 
the  Roman  court.  In  writing  to  an  Italian  cardi- 
nal, the  letter  should  begin  with  the  words,  "Most 
Reverend  Eminence"  {Eminenza  Revma.);  if  he 
should  be  of  a  princely  family,  "Most  Illustrious  and 
Reverend  Eminence  ".  In  the  body  of  the  letter  itself 
he  should  always  be  addressed  in  the  third  person 
and  as  "Your  Eminence",  or  "His  Eminence  ",  and 
the  letter  should  end:  "Embracing  the  purple  of 
His  Most  Reverend  Eminence,  I  am  His  Eminence's 
verj'  humble  and  obedient  servant ".  This  is  an 
adaptation  of  the  more  complicated  Italian  formula, 
"Prostrato  al  bacio  della  sacra  porpora,  ho  I'onore 
di  confermarmi  dell'  Eminenza  Vostra  Rev'ma 
dev'mo  ed  oss'mo  servo".  The  Cardinal's  address, 
as  written  on  the  envelope,  must  be  repeated  at  the 
left-hand  lower  corner  of  the  first  page  of  the  letter, 
and  this  must  be  done  in  all  letters  of  this  kind, 
being  intended  to  show  that  there  has  been  no  mis- 
take made  in  the  addre.ss.  A  Pishop's  title  is 
"Most  Illustrious  and  Most  Reverend  Lord".  The 
words,  "Your  Greatness  ",  a  translation  of  the  Latin, 
Antplitudo  Vef:lra,  used  in  chancery  letters,  are  not 
ruslomary  in  Italy,  except  when  writing  in  I.atin. 
On  the  other  hand,  bishops  there  generally  receive 


the  title  of  "Excellency"  (Eccellenza).  A  decree  of 
the  Congregalio  Ceremonialis ,  3  June,  1893,  assigns 
this  title  to  patriarchs,  instead  of  "His  Beatitude", 
wrongly  assumed  by  them.  Traditional  usage,  in- 
deed, reserves  this  title  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  one 
of  the  most  ancient  instances  being  met  with  in  a 
letter  from  St.  Jerome  to  Pope  St.  Damasus  (d.  384), 
but  in  practice  patriarchs  still  use  it,  and  it  is  still 
given  to  them.  Nuncios  take  the  title  of  "Ex- 
cellency" in  accordance  with  the  usage  of  European 
courts,  and  custom  accords  it  to  legates  of  the  Holy 
See  in  virtue  of  their  office  (see  Leg.\te),  of  whom  the 
best  known  is  the  Archbishop  of  Reims,  in  France.  As 
all  Bishops  in  Italy  take,  or  accept,  this  title,  a  letter 
should  be  addressed:  "To  His  Excellency,  the  Most 

Illustrious  and  Most  Reverend  Monsignore  N 

Bishop  of  .  .  ."  and  should  end  with  the  w'orils: 
"Kissing  his  pastoral  ring,  I  am  His  Most  Illustrious 
and  Most  Reverend  Excellency's  very  humble  and 
very  obedient  servant  ".  Moreover,  custom  requires 
that  the  title  should  be  given  to  the  four  prelates 
known  in  Italian  as  di  fiochetti  (those  who  have  the 
right  to  have  tufts  on  their  carriage-harness), 
namely:  The  Vice-Chamberlain,  the  Auditor  of  the 
Apostolic  Chamber,  the  Treasurer  of  the  same  Cham- 
ber (an  office  not  filled  since  1870),  and  the  Major- 
domo.  The  other  prelates  di  mantelletta ,  whether  en- 
rolled in  a  college  of  prelates  or  not,  have  the  title  of 
"Most  Illustrious  and  Most  Reverend  Lord."  The 
letter  should  begin:  "To  the  Most  Illustrious  and 
Most  Reverend  Lord,  Monsignore  N.  .  .  ."  and  end; 
"  I  am  Your  Most  Illustrious  and  Most  Reverend  Lord- 
ship's very  humble  servant  ".  In  addressing  a  pri\-y 
chamberlain,  honorary  chamberlain,  or  papal  chap- 
lain, the  term  "Monsignore"  should  be  used  (in  French 
M onseignevr)  "Monsignore  Reverendissimo"  in  Ital- 
ian, and  the  letter  should  end:  "I  am  Your  Lord- 
ship's very  devoted  [or  very  humble]  servant,"  ac- 
cording to  the  writer's  rank.  A  religious  should  be 
addressed  as  "Reverend  Father  "  or  "Most  Reverend 
Father"  ("Reverendo  padre"  or  "Reverendissimo 
Padre"),  according  to  his  rank  in  his  order,  and  the 
words  "Vostra  Paternita  "  or  "Vostra  Riverenza  ", 
"Your  Paternity  "  or  "Your  Reverence  ",  used  in  the 
letter  itself.  'There  are,  indeed,  certain  fine  dis- 
tinctions to  be  made  in  the  use  of  these  expressions, 
according  as  the  religious  written  to  belongs  to  one 
order  or  another,  but  nowadays  these  chancery 
formulas,  once  clearly  distinguished,  are  commonly 
used  indiscriminately.  In  writing  to  one  of  a  com- 
munity of  Brothers,  such  as  the  Christian  Brothers, 
a  simple  religious  should  be  addressed  as  "Very 
Dear  Brother"  (the  customary  form  among  the 
Christian  Brothers);  should  he  hold  a  position  in 
his  congregation,  as  "Honoured  Brother,"  or  "Much 
Honoured  Brother  ".  By  the  motu  propria  of  Pius  X 
(21  February,  1905),  he  conferred  on  vicars-general 
during  their  tenure  of  office  the  title  "Monsignor". 
on  canons  "Reverendo  Signer,  Don  N.  .  .  .  can- 
onico  di  .  .  .",  in  French  "Monsieur  le  Chanoine  ", 
in  English  "The  Very  Reverend  Canon  ".  Consultors 
of  the  Roman  Congregations  have  the  title  of 
"Most  Reverend,"  and  must  he  so  addressed  at  the 
beginning  and  end  of  letters  written  to  them.  Lastly, 
parish  priests  should  be  addressed  in  Italian  as 
"Reverendo  Signer  Parroco"  or  "Curato  di",  in 
French,  as  "Monsieur  le  Cur6",  in  English  as  "The 
Reverend  A.  .  .  .  B.  .  .  . "  "Parish  priest"  (curi) 
is  a  general  term.-  Most  of  the  Italian  provinces  lia\e 
special  names  for  the  office,  such  as  "pievano", 
"prevosto  ",  and  others  which  it  would  take  too  long 
to  enumerate,  but  "Reverendo  Signor  Parroco"  may 
always  be  safely  used.  All  priests  in  Italy  have  the 
title  "  Don  ",  an  abbreviation  of  Dominu.t  (Lord),  and 
should  therefore  be  addressed  as  "Reverendo  Don" 
(or  "I).");  or,  in  the  case  of  a  doctor,  "Reverendo 
[or  Rev.]  Uott.,  Don  N.  .  .  ."     Various  formulas  of 


ADDRESSES 


139 


ADDRESSES 


respect  still  occasionally  used  by  Italian  politeness 
may  l)p  noted, sucli  lus:  "All'  III'  nioe  Rev'mo  Padrone 
[I'diie)  Coltissiino  [Colnio]  cd  Osservantissiino  [Ossnio] 
Sijjiior  ",  titles  willumt  e(Hiivalent  in  I'reiich  or  lOng- 
lisli,  now  very  rarely  given,  even  in  Home,  and  wliicli 
belong  rather  to  the  archaeology  of  ecclesiastical 
civility. 

Khance. — The  epistolary  style  of  France  is  more 
simple.  A  cardinal  should  be  addressed  as  "Emi- 
nence Rdvdrciulissinic"  (Most  Reverend  Eminence); 
not  as  "Monseigneur  le  Cardinal",  the  title  ".Mon- 
seigneur"  being  Ixjlow  the  cardinalitial  dignity. 
Only  the  kings  of  France  said  "Monsieur  le  Cardinal^', 
the  formula  which  the  I'o|)e  uses  when  speaking  to 
them  "  Signor  Cardinale" — but  one  of  inferior  rank 
should  never  presume  to  use  this  form  of  address, 
and  will  evade  the  difliculty  by  writing,  "Eminence 
R6v<5rendissime "  at  the  begiiming  of  a  letter,  in 
the  body  of  the  letter  "  Yoiu-  Eminence"  or  "His 
Eminence";  at  the  end,  "I  liave  the  honour  to  be, 
with  profound  respect.  Your  Most  HevcrciKl  Immi- 
nences very  humble  and  very  obedient  servant" 
(J'ai  I'honneur  d'etre,  avec  un  profond  respect,  de 
Votre  Eminence  R6vme.  le  trte  humble  et  trt's 
ob^issant  serviteur).  Hishops  in  France  have  tlie 
title  of  "firandeur";  the  envelope  would,  accord- 
ingly, be  addressed:  "  A  sa  Clrandeur,  Monseigneur  N., 
6veque  de  .  .  .",  and  tlie  letter  should  end:  "I  have 
the  honour  to  be  Your  Grandeur's  verj'  humble 
servant  ".  Prelates,  vicars-general,  and  chamberlains 
should  be  called  "Monseigneur"  and,  both  in  the 
letter  itself  and  at  the  end,  "Votre  Seigncurie" 
("Your  Lordship");  religious  "Reverend  Father" 
or  "Very  Reverend  Father  ",  as  the  case  may  be;  the 
words  "Paternity"  and  "R^v^rence"  being  but 
seldom  used  in  France.  Benedictines  have  tlie  title 
"l)om",  so  that  a  religious  of  that  order  would  be 
addrcs.sed  as  "The  Rev.  Father,  Dom  N.  .  .  ."  an 
abliot   as  "The   Right   Rev.   [Revme]   Father,  Dom 

N.,  .\bbot  of ".     There    are,  finally,  the   titles 

"Monsieur  le  Chanoine  "  and  "Monsieur  le  C'ur6  ", 
the  latter  being  used  for  all  parish  priests. 

Spain. — The  forms  used  in  Spain  are  as  follows: 
"Emmo.  y  Revmo.  Sr.  Cardenal,  Dr.  1).  N."  [Most 
Eminent  and  Most  Reverend  Lord  Cardinal  Doctor 
(if  he  have  that  title)  Don  N.]  The  letter  should  end 
with:  "I  kiss  Your  Ivninence's  pastoral  ring,  of  whom 
I  prof&ss  myself,  with  the  deepest  respect.  .  .  ." 
The  same  formula  is  used  in  the  case  of  archbishops 
and  bishops,  only  that  the  word  " E.xcellency "  takes 
the  place  of  "Eminence".  Vicars-general  have  the 
title  of  "Most  lllvistrious ",  shortened  into  "  Muy 
Iltr.  Seilor",  which  is  also  given  to  the  great  digni- 
taries of  the  diocese,  and  to  the  canons  of  the  cathe- 
dral church.  In  the  letter  itself,  "Your  Lordship" 
should  be  u.sed,  which  is  abbreviated  into  "V.  S." 
(Vuestra  SeAoria),  nor  must  the  academic  titles  of 
doctor  or  licentiate,  l)elonging  to  the  person  ad- 
<lressed,  be  omitted,  but  they  must  precede  the  name, 
thus,  "Seflor  Doctor  [or  Seilor  Licenciado],  Don" 
[abbreviated,  D.],  followed  by  the  proper  title  of  his 
charge.  In  the  case  of  regulars  the  rule  to  be  fol- 
lowed is  that  which  has  been  indicated  for  Italy.  All 
simple  priests  have  the  title  of  "  Don". 

(iKHMANY.— In  writing  to  a  cardinal  one  should 
address  the  envelope,  ".\n  seine  Eminenz  den  hoch- 
wiirdigsten  llerrn  Kardinal  N."  ("To  His  Eminence 
the  most  worthy  Lord  Cardinal" — Ilcrr,  of  which 
llerm  is  the  accusative,  meaning  "Lord,"  or  "Mis 
ter").  In  the  body  of  the  letter  the  cardinal  should 
lie  addressed  as  "ICminenz  ",  and  the  ending  should 
be:  "Your  Eminence's  most  humble  .servant"  (Kurer 
I'.minenz  unterthiinigster  Diener).  .'V  Bishop  has 
the  title  of  "His  I-'.piscopal  (!ra<e"  (Bischiilliclie 
(inaden),  and  his  letter  should  lie  aildre.sscd,  ".\n 
seine  bischofliehen  finaden  den  hochwurdigsten 
Herrn"   (To  His  Episcopal  Cirace  the  most  worthy 


Lord);  in  the  case  of  an  archbishop,  "ErzbiscliS- 
flichen"  (archiepiscopal)  is  used  instead  of  "Bischo- 
fliehen"; in  that  of  a  prince  bishop,  "Furstbischo- 
flichen  ".  There  are  several  sees  in  Germany  and 
in  .\ustria  whose  titulars  have  the  rank  of  prince- 
bishops;  such  are  Breslau,  Gratz,  Gurk,  Lavant, 
Salzburg,  and  Trent.  The  letter  should  end:  "Your 
ICpiscopal  [or  Arcliiej)iscopal]  Grace's  most  liumble 
.servant."  It  sliould  be  noted  that  in  Germany  the 
title  of  "Excellency"  belongs  only  to  those  to  whom 
it  has  been  granted  by  tlie  Government,  so  that 
it  is  well  to  ascertain  whether  the  prelate  addressed 
has  obtained  it.  A  prelate  di  maiddUttu  .should 
be  addressed  as  "  hochwiirdigster  Herr  Pralat  '  (.\Io.st 
wortliy  Lord  Prelate).  There  is  no  title  in  Ger- 
many equivalent  to  that  of  the  Monsignore  given  to 
chamberlains  and  Papal  chaplains;  it  lias,  tliercfore, 
become  customary  to  address  them  as  "Monsignore  " 
or,  if  more  respect  is  to  be  shown  them,  "An  seine 
Hochwiirden,  Monsignore"  (His  High  Worthiness, 
Monsignore).  "Ilochwurden"  is  also  commonly 
used  in  the  case  of  parish  priests,  the  superlative, 
"hochwiirdigster  ",  being  applied  to  canons  and  great 
diocesan  dignitaries.  Letters  so  addressed  should 
end,  "Your  High  Worthiness's  [Euer  Hochwiirden] 
very  humble  servant." 

E.VGLisH-sPEAKiNG  CoUN'TiiiES. — "The  Catholic 
Directory"  (London,  190())  gives  the  following  brief 
directions  for  forms  of  address,  which,  with  the  slight 
exceptions  noted,  may  be  safely  taken  as  representing 
the  best  custom  of  the  United  States,  the  British 
Isles,  Canada,  Australia,  and  the  British  colonies  in 
general : — 

"Caui)inai-8.  Ilis  Eminence  Cardinal  ...  If  he 
is  also  an  Archbishop:  His  Eminence  the  Cardinal 
Archbishop  o/  .  .  .  ;  or  Ilis  Eminence  Cardinal 
.  .  .  ,  Archbishop  0/  .  .  .  ;  [to  begin  a  letter]  My 
Lord  Cardinal,  or  Mi/  Lord;   Your  Eminence. 

"  Ahchbishops.  His  Grace  the  Archbishop  of 
.  .  .  ;  OT  The  Most  Reverend  the  Archbishop  oj  .  .  .  ; 
Ml/  Lord  Archbishop,  or  My  Lord;  Your  Grace. 

"Bishops.  The  Lord  Bishop  0/  .  .  .;  or  The 
Right  Reverend  the  Bishop  0/  .  .  .  ;  or  His  Lordship 
the  Bishop  of  ...  ;  My  Lord  Bishop,  or  My  Lord; 
Your  Lordship.  In  Ireland,  Bishops  are  usually 
addressed  as  The  Mo.-<t  Reverend.  [In  tlie  United 
States  the  titles  My  Lord  and  Your  Lordship  are  not 
usually  given  to  Bishops.]  An  Archbishop  or  Bishop 
of  a  Titular  See  may  be  addressed,  \.  by  his  title 
alone,  iis  other  Archbishops  and  Bishops;  or  2.  by 
his  Christian  name  and  surname,  followed  by  the 
title  of  his  See,  or  of  any  office,  such  as  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic, that  he  holds,  as  The  Most  Rev.  (or  The  Ritjhl 
Rev.)  A.  B.,  Archbishop  (or  Bi.ihop,  or  I'i'car  Apos- 
tolic) 0/  .  .  .  ;  or  3.  by  his  surname  only,  preceded 
by  Archbishop  or  Bishop,  as  The  Most  Rev.  Arch- 
bi.'ihop  (or  The  Riqhl  Rev.  Bishop)  ....  The  addi- 
tion of  D.l).,  or  tiie  prefixing  of  Doctor  or  Dr.,  to  the 
names  of  Catholic  Archbishops  or  Bishops,  is  not  nec- 
essary, and  is  not  in  conformity  with  the  best  usage. 
[It  is,  however,  the  usual  custom  in  the  United  States.] 
When  an  Archbishop  or  Bishop  is  mentioned  by  his 
surname,  it  is  better  to  say  Arcldrishop  (or  Bishop) 
.  .  .  than  to  say  Dr.  .  .  .  ;  for  the  latter  title  is 
common  to  Doctors  of  all  kinds,  and  does  not  of  itself 
indicate  any  sacred  dignity  or  office. 

"  \'icars-tleneral,  Provosts,  Canons. — 1.  The  Very 
Rev.  A.  B.  (or,  if  he  is  such,  Provost  .  .  .,  or 
Canoji  .  .  .  ),  V.  G.;  or  The  Very  Reverend  the  Vicar- 
General.  2.  The  Very  Rev.  Provost  .  .  .  (surname). 
3.  The  Very  Rev.  Canon  .  .  .  (surname);  or  (Chris- 
tian name  and  surname)  The  Very  Rev.  A.  Canon  B. 
[The  various  ranks  of  Domestic  Prelates  are  ad- 
flressed  in  English-speaking  countries  according  to 
rules  laid  down  above  under  Italy]. — Mitred  AI>l>ots. 
The  Ri<ihl  Rev.  Abbot  .  .  .  (surname).  Right  Rev. 
Father. — Provincials.     The    Very    Rev.    Father  . 


ADELAIDE 


140 


ADELAIDE 


(surname);  or  The  Very  Rev.  Father  Provincial. 
Very  Rev.  Father. — Some  others  (heads  of  colleges, 
etc.)  are,  at  least  by  courtesy,  addressed  as  Very 
Reverend;  but  no  general  rule  can  be  given. — The 
title  of  Father  is  very  commonly  given  to  Secular 
Priests,  as  well  as  to  Priests  of  Religious  Orders  and 
Congregations.  " 

Even,  however,  with  these  explanations,  which 
might  have  been  developed  at  greater  length,  some 
difficulty  may  occasionally  occur,  in  which  case  it  is 
better  to  make  a  free  use  of  titles  of  respect,  rather 
than  to  run  the  risk  of  not  using  enough,  and  of  thus 
falling  short  of  what  is  due  and  fitting. 

B.VTrAN-DiER.  Anmmire  pojilificu!  cclholique  (1899),  500  sq.; 
Francesco  Parisi,  Islruzioni  per  Ut  gioventil  impiegata  nella 
eegreUiria  (Rome,  1785).  Some  ioformation  may  be  obtained 
in  Branchereau,  Politesses  et  convenances  ecclesiastiques 
(1875). 

Albert  Battandieb. 

Adelaide,  The  Archdiocese  of,  has  its  centre  in 
Adelaide,  capital  of  South  Australia.  It  comprises  all 
the  territory  of  South  Australia  south  of  the  coun- 
ties of  Victoria  and  Burra  to  Northwest  Bend.  The 
River  Murray  from  this  point  forms  the  boundary 
to  the  confines  of  New  South  Wales.  The  counties 
of  Flinders,  llusgrave,  and  Jervois  form  the  western 
portion  of  the  Archdiocese,  with  the  adjacent  islands. 
Area,  40.320  square  miles.  South  Australia  was 
founded  by  a  chartered  company  in  1S36.  It  was 
intended  to  be  a  "'free"  (that  is,  non-convict)  Eng- 
lish Protestant  colony.  "Papists  and  pagans'' 
were  to  have  been  excluded.  A  few  Catholics  were, 
however,  among  the  first  immigrants.  Dr.  UUa- 
thorne  (Sydney)  visited  Adelaide  in  June,  1840. 
Governor  Gawler  roughly  refused  the  Government 
school  (commonly  used  for  religious  services)  "either 
to  the  Popish  priest  to  go  through  his  Mass,  or  to 
the  ignorant  Catholics  to  be  present  at  it".  A  store 
was  lent  by  a  generous  Protestant,  and  there  the  first 
Mass  was  celebrated  for  a  congregation  of  about 
fifty.  The  first  resident  priest  was  the  Rev.  William 
Benson  (1841-44).  Adelaide  (hitherto  part  of  the 
Diocese  of  Sydney)  was  created  an  episcopal  see  in 
1843.  Its  first  Bishop  was  the  Right  Rev.  Francis 
Murphy,  the  first  prelate  consecrated  in  Australasia. 
At  the  census  of  1844  there  were  in  South  Australia 
only  1,055  Catholics  in  a  total  white  population  of 
17,366.  Bishop  Murphy  had  then  only  one  priest, 
no  presbj'tery  or  school,  and  his  only  chvirch  was  a 
small  weather-board  store  which  was  rented.  Three 
years  of  hard  poverty,  broken  by  a  con\"ert's  gifts, 
were  followed  by  four  years  (1847-51)  of  State  aid 
for  churches  and  ministers  of  religion  (witlidrawn  by 
the  first  elective  parliament  in  1852)  and  by  capita- 
tion grants  to  denominational  schools  (1847-51). 
The  wild  exodus  to  the  goldfields  of  Victoria  in  1851 
almost  emptied  Adelaide  of  its  adult  male  inhabi- 
tants. Some  of  the  clergy  had  to  seek  missions  else- 
where, and  the  Bishop  and  the  two  who  remained 
had,  until  timely  aid  from  the  goldfields  arrived, 
to  exist  on  a  total  income  of  8s.  6d.  per  week,  in  a  dio- 
cese burdened  with  a  debt  of  .C4,000.  Prosperous 
years  followed.  The  Passionists  were  introduced  in 
1840;  Jesuits,  1S4S;  Sisters  of  Mercy,  1857;  Sister- 
hood of  St.  Joseph  founded  1867;  secular  public  in- 
struction established  1878;  Adelaide  created  an  arch- 
bishopric, and  part  of  its  territorj'  formed  into  the 
Diocese  of  Port  Augusta,  1887.  The  bishops  and 
archbishops  of  Adelaide  have  been:  Bishops  Francis 
Murphy  (1844-58);  Patrick  B.  Geoghcgan,  O.S.F. 
(1858-64);  Lawrence  B.  Shiel,  O.S.F.  (1866-72); 
Archbishops  Christopher  A.  RejTiolds  (1873-93);  and 
John  O'Reilly,  transferred  from  Port  Augusta  (1895). 
Arclibishop  O'Keilly,  who  relieved  his  former  dio- 
cese of  a  heavy  debt ,  liius  gone  far  towards  perform- 
ing a  like  service  for  that  of  Adelaide.  Two  gifted 
scientists  of  the  Archdiocese  were  Father  Hintci- 
ocker,  S.J.,  a  skilled   naturalist,  and   Father   Julian 


Tenison  Woods,  a  prolific  writer  on  Australian  geol- 
ogy. Catholic  weeklj',  "  The  Southern  Cross  "  (Ade- 
laide). 

Statistics  (April,  1906).  Parochial  districts,  27; 
churches,  73;  secular  priests,  34;  regular  priests — 
11  Jesuit  Fathers  (14  lay  brothers),  4  Dominicans, 
5  Passionist  Fathers  (1  lay  brother),  4  Carmelites; 
Christian  and  Marist  Brothers,  45;  nuns  (302) — 127 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  86  Dominicans,  80  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  5  Good  Samaritans,  4  Loreto;  colleges,  2; 
boarding  schools  (girls),  8;  superior  day  schools,  16; 
primary  schools,  35;  charitable  institutions,  9;  chil- 
dren in  Catholic  schools,  4,.306;  Catholic  population 
(estimate,  1905),  40,460 — about  one-seventh  of  total 
population. 

statistical  Register  (various  dates);  Bennett.  South  Aus- 
tralian Almanac  (Adelaide,  1841);  Ullathorne,  Autobiography 
(London.  1892);  Hodder,  History  of  South  Australia  (Loadon, 
1893);  Moran,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Australasia 
(Sydney,  undated);  Woods,  The  Province  of  South  Australia 
(.Adelaide,  1895);  Byrne,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  m 
South  Australia  (Adelaide,  I,  1896;  II,  1902):  Hodder,  The 
Founding  of  South  Australia  (London,  1898);  Woods,  Port 
Augusta, 

Henry  W.  Cleary. 

Adelaide,  Saint.  Abbess,  b.  in  the  tenth  century; 
d.  at  Cologne,  5  February,  1015.  She  was  daughter 
of  Megingoz,  Count  of  Guelders,  and  when  still  very 
young  entered  the  convent  of  St.  Ursula  in  Cologne, 
where  the  Rule  of  St.  Jerome  was  followed.  When 
her  parents  founded  the  convent  of  Villicli.  opposite 
the  city  of  Bonn,  on  the  Rhine,  Adelaide  became 
Abbess  of  this  new  convent,  and  after  some  time  in- 
troduced the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  which  appeared 
stricter  to  her  than  that  of  St.  Jerome.  The  fame 
of  her  sanctity  and  of  her  gift  of  working  miracles 
soon  attracted  the  attention  of  St.  Herbert,  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne,  who  desired  her  as  abbess  of 
St.  Man,-'s  convent  at  Cologne,  to  succeed  her  sister 
Bertlia,  who  had  died.  Only  upon  the  command  of 
Emperor  Otho  III  did  Adelaide  accept  this  new 
dignity.  While  Abbess  of  St.  XIarj''s  at  Cologne,  she 
continued  to  be  Abbess  of  Villich.  She  died  at  her 
convent  in  Cologne  in  the  year  1015,  but  was  buried 
at  ^^illich,  wliere  her  feast  is  solemnly  celebrated  on 
5  February,  the  day  of  her  death. 

Ranbeck.  The  Benedictine  Calendar  (London,  1896); 
I^echner,  Martyrologium  des  Benediktiner-Ordens  l,.\ugsburg, 
1855);  Stadler,  Heiligen-Lexikon  (.\ugsbiu-g,  1858);  Moos- 
MUELLER,  Die  Legende,\l\,  448. 

Michael  Ott. 

Adelaide  (Adelheid),  S.vint,  b.  931;  d.  16  Decem- 
ber, 999,  one  of  the  conspicuous  characters  in  the 
struggle  of  Otho  the  Great  to  obtain  the  imperial 
crown  from  the  Roman  Pontiffs.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Rudolph  II,  King  of  Burgundy,  who 
was  at  war  with  Hugh  of  Provence  for  the  crown  of 
Italy.  The  rivals  concluded  a  peace  in  933,  by 
which  it  was  stipulated  that  Adelaide  should  marry 
Hugh's  son  Lothaire.  The  marriage  took  place, 
however,  only  fourteen  years  later;  Adelaide's 
mother  meantime  married  Hugh.  By  this  time 
Berengarius,  the  Marquis  of  Ivrea,  came  upon  the 
scene,  claiming  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  for  himself. 
He  forced  Hugh  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  Lothaire, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  afterwards  put  Lothaire 
to  death  by  poison.  He  then  proposed  to  imite 
Adelaide  in  marriage  with  his  son,  Adalbert.  Re- 
fusing the  offer,  Adelaide  was  kept  in  almost  solitary 
captivity,  in  the  C:ustle  of  Garda,  on  the  lake  of  that 
name.  From  it  she  was  rescued  by  a  priest  named 
Martin,  who  dug  a  subterraneous  passage,  by 
which  she  escaped,  and  remained  concealed  in  the 
woods,  her  rescuer  supporting  her,  meantime,  by 
the  fish  he  caught  in  the  lake.  Soon,  however,  the 
Duke  of  Canossa,  Alberto  TV.zo,  who  had  been  ad- 
vised of  the  rescue,  arrived  and  carried  her  off  to 
his  castle.  While  this  was  going  on  tlie  Italian 
I'.obles,  weary  of  Berengarius,  had  invited  Otho  to 


ADELHAM 


111 


ADEODATUS 


invade  Italy.  He  met  with  little  resistance,  and 
betook  himself  to  Cunossa  where  he  met  Atlelaide, 
and  married  her  on  Christmas  day,  951,  at  I'avia. 
This  marriage  gave  Otho  no  new  rights  over  Italy, 
but  the  enthwsixsm  of  the  people  for  Adelaide,  whose 
career  had  been  so  romantic,  appealed  to  them  and 
made  Otho's  work  of  subjugating  the  peninsula  eiusy. 
In  Ciermany  she  was  the  idol  of  her  subjects,  while 
lier  husband  lived.  During  the  reign  of  her  .son 
Otho  II,  her  troubles  began,  chiefly  owing  to  the 
jealousy    i>f    iier    daughter-in-law,   'I'heophano,    and 

f)OSsibly  also  because  of  her  excessive  liberality  in 
ler  works  of  cliarity.  It  resulted  in  licr  withdrawing 
from  court  and  fixing  her  residence  at  I'avia,  bvit  a 
rcciimiliation  was  eltecteil  by  the  Abbot  of  Cluny, 
St.  .\layeul.  The  same  troubles  broke  out  when  her 
graiul.son  came  to  the  throne,  the  jealous  daughter- 
in-law  being  yet  imreconciled,  and  Adelaide  was 
again  forcea  into  seclusion.  But  Theophaiio  dying 
suddenly,  Adelaide  wijs  recalled  to  assume  the  bur- 
den of  a  Regency.  Her  administration  was  char- 
acterized by  tlie  greatest  wisdom.  She  took  no  re- 
venge upon  her  enemies;  her  court  was  like  a  religious 
house;  she  multiplied  monasteries  and  churches  in 
the  varioiLS  provinces,  and  was  incessant  in  her 
efforts  to  convert  the  pagans  of  the  North.  In  the 
liust  year  of  her  reign  she  undertook  a  journey  to 
Hurgundy  to  reconcile  her  nephew  Rudolph  with 
his  subjects,  but  died  on  the  way  at  Seltz,  in  Alsace. 
She  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Roman  martyrology, 
but  her  name  appears  in  se\eral  calendars  of  Cier- 
many, and  her  relics  are  enshrined  in  Hanover.  St. 
Odilo  of  Cluny  wrote  her  life. 
I'l/e   de'Santi   Gentilucci,    Decembre. 

T.  J.  C.\MPnELL. 

Adelham  (or  .Xdi.an'd),  Joh.v  Pl.\cid,  a  Protestant 
minister.  1).  in  Wiltshire,  who  became  a  Catholic  ami 
joined  the  Benedictines.  He  was  professeil  at  St. 
lAlward's  Monastery,  Paris,  1652.  He  was  Prior  of 
St.  Lawrence's  Monastery,  at  Dieulward  from  1659 
to  1661,  and  was  then  sent  to  England  and  stationed 
at  Somerset  Hou.se  from  1661  to  1675.  Banished 
that  year,  he  returned  to  I.nglantl  again  and  became 
a  victim  of  the  "  Popisli  Plot"  of  Titus  Gates.  He 
was  trieil  and  condemned  to  <leatli  merely  as  a  priest, 
17  .January.  167S-79.  Though  reprieved,  he  was 
detained  in  Xewgate  Pri.son,  where  he  died  between 
the  years  1681  and  1685. 

GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet,  of  Engl.  Calli. 

John"  J.  \'  Becket. 
Adelm,  Saint.     Sec  .\u>helm. 

Adelmann,  Bishop  of  Brescia  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
turj-.  Of  unknown  parentage  and  nationality,  he 
was  educatetl  at  the  famous  school  of  Chartres,  in 
France,  founded  by  Fulbert,  and  was  considered 
one  of  his  favourite  scholars.  Among  his  fellow 
students  was  BerenKarius,  to  whom,  at  a  later  period, 
he  addressed  two  letters.  The  second  (incomplete) 
letter  (P.  L.,  CXLUI.  1-'S9)  is  a  valuable  dogmatic 
exposition  of  the  teaching  of  the  Church  on  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  (lOpist.  dc  EucharistiiB  Sacra- 
iTicnto);  the  Benedictine  editors  of  the  "  Histoire 
littcraire  de  la  France"  call  it  "one  of  the  finest 
literary  documents  of  the  period".  It  breathes  a 
tender  afTection  for  Berengarius.  the  friend  of  the 
writer's  youth.  Calvin  called  him  "barbarus,  im- 
peritus.  et  sophista".  Adelmann  seems  to  have  be- 
come Bishop  of  lirescia  in  lO.iO,  and  to  have  t.akcn 
an  active  snare  in  the  church-reform  movement  of 
the  period,  especially  against  the  clerical  abuses  of 
simony  and  concubinage. 

HRisi-iiMt  in  Kirchrnlej.,  I.  222:  Uoiir.i.l.l.  Italia  Sacra,  IV. 
540:  llinl.  LUt.  dr  (<i  Frailer.  VIII,  542.  The  edition  olSrhmi.l 
(I)runswick,  1770)  i'<  fuller  thiin  the  one  reprinted  in  Migne 
from  tbe   Bibl.  I.u(i<l.,  XVIII,  438. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 
Adelophagi  (<lJi)Xuis=  secretly,  and  <piyu=l  eat), 


a  sect  mentioned  by  the  anonymous  author  known 
as  Prsedestinatus  (P.  L.,  LIII,612).  They  pretended 
that  a  Christian  ought  to  conceal  him.self  from  other 
men  to  take  his  nourishment,  miagining  that  thus 
he  imitated  the  Prophets,  and  basing  their  view  on 
certain  passages  of  Scripture.  The  author  of  Prae- 
dcstinatus  said  this  was  their  only  error,  but  Philas- 
trius  intimates  that  they  also  rejected  the  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Clhost.  They  .seem  to  have  flourished 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century. 
HoBT  in  Diet.  Chrttl.  Biog.,  I.  43. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Adelpbians.     See  Messah.wjs. 

Aden  (.\dane),  Vicaki.\te  .-Vpostolic  of. — It  com- 
prises all  .\rabia,  and  is  properly  known  as  the  \'i- 
cariiite  .Vpostolic  of  .\rabia  and  .\den.  The  present 
incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Bernardine  Thomas 
Clark.  It  includes  also  the  i.slands  that  depend 
geographically  on  Arabia,  notably  Perim  and  So- 
cotra.  From  1S39  to  1851,  it  was  part  of  the  Vi- 
cariate Apostolic  of  Kgypt,  when  it  was  united  to 
tlie  .\frican  Vicariate  of  the  Callas  of  Abyssinia, 
under  the  Capuchins.  In  18.54  a  secular  priest, 
.\loysius  Sturla,  became  Prefect  Apostolic  there. 
Later  the  mission  was  given  back  to  the  Cajiuehins, 
under  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bombay.  In  18.59 
it  became  an  indeixjndent  mission,  and  in  1875  it 
was  again  united  to  tlie  African  Vicariate.  It  was 
made  an  independent  Vicariate  Apostolic  again  in 
bSSS.  and  committed  to  the  care  of  the  Capuchins. 
The  population  of  Aden,  now  a  strongly  fortified  place, 
is  about  40,000,  Arabs,  Somalis,  Jews,  and  Indians, 
besides  the  IJritish  garrison  and  ofhcials.  The  large 
and  important  harbour  furnishes  one  of  the  princip:d 
coaling-stations  of  the  British  Empire.  Being  a  free 
port,  it  has  become  the  chief  trading-centre  for  :dl 
the  neiglibouring  countries.  The  British  settlement 
tlates  from  1839,  and  the  site  is  almost  the  most 
.southerly  on  the  .\rabian  coast,  "  being  a  peninsula 
of  an  irregular  oval  form,  of  about  fifteen  miles  in 
circumference,  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow,  sandy  isthmus".  There  are  in  this  Vicariate 
Apostolic  11  missionary  priests;  6  churches  and 
chapels;  6  stations;  2  religious  orders  of  men,  and  1 
of  women;  4  orphanages  and  G  elementary  schools. 
The  Catholic  population  is  about  1,5(K). 

.Annuario  Ecclesiaelico  (Rome,  190C):  b.\TrANDiER,  ^n- 
nuaire  ponl.  ciUh.  (Paris.  1905),  344:  Werner.  Orbit  Trrr. 
Cath.  (Freiburg.  18901,  144;  Missionrg  Calholicir.  (Uoine,  1901.) 

Thomas  J.  Sh.\h.\n. 

Adeodatus,  son  of  St.  Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo, 
b.  372;  d.  388.  St.  Augustine  was  not  converted 
to  the  Faith  until  he  was  thirty-two  years  of  age. 
At  seventeen  he  contracted  an  illicit  relation  with  a 
young  woman  and  Adeodatus  was  bom  of  this  union. 
Augustine,  in  his  dehght,  named  him  "Adeodatus", 
i.  e.  the  "  gift  of  God".  AVhen  Augustine  went  to 
Rome,  and,  later,  to  Milan,  this  young  woman  and 
the  child  went  with  him,  and  she  and  .-Augustine 
continued  their  guilty  relations.  The  young  Adeo- 
datus was  the  pride  and  hope  of  his  parents,  and  pos- 
sessed of  an  extraordinary  mental  endowment. 
Bound  by  this  natural  enthralment,  Augustine 
would  not  bring  himself  to  break  from  it;  and  as  the 
sinful  union  was  an  obstacle  to  his  receiving  the  gift 
of  faith,  St.  Monica,  his  mother,  desired  him  to  marry 
the  mother  of  his  child,  feeling  that  then  his  mind 
would  be  enlightened  by  grace.  Just  as  the  name 
of  the  mother  of  Adeodatus  has  never  been  told,  so 
also  there  has  never  been  given  the  reason  why  she 
and  .\ugustine  did  not  marry  at  this  juncture,  though 
there  wius  evidently  some  strong  if  not  insurmountable 
one.  Finally  they  separated.  "She  was  stronger 
than  I ",  wrote  St.  .\ugustine,  "  and  made  her  sacri- 
fice with  a  courage  and  a  generosity  which  I  was 
not  strong  enough   to   imitate".     She  returned   to 


ADEODATUS 


142 


ADJURATION 


Carthage,  whence  she  had  come,  and  the  grace  which 
had  led  her  to  sacrifice  the  object  of  lier  affection 
furtlier  impelled  her  to  bury  herself  in  a  monastery, 
where  she  might  atone  for  the  sin  which  had  been 
the  price  so  long  paid  for  it.  She  left  the  brilliant 
young  boy,  Adeodatus,  with  his  father.  Seeing  the 
wonilerful  intelligence  of  his  son,  Augustine  felt  a 
sort  of  awe.  "Tlie  grandeur  of  his  mind  filled  me 
witli  a  kind  of  terror",  he  says  himself  (De  beata 
vifA,  c.  vi).  Augustine  received  baptism  at  the  age 
of  thirty-two  from  the  hands  of  St.  Ambrose,  the  in- 
timate friend  of  St.  Monica  and  himself.  To  aug- 
ment his  joy,  .-Vdeodatus,  Alypius,  Augustine's  life- 
long a.ssociate,  and  a  number  of  his  closest  friends, 
all  became  Christians  on  the  same  occasion  and  re- 
ceived baptism  together.  Monica,  Augustine,  Adeo- 
datus, who  was  now  fifteen,  and  a  son  of  Grace,  if 
indeed  "the  child  of  my  sin",  as  Augustine  had 
styled  him  in  the  bitterness  of  self-reproach  and  con- 
trition, together  with  the  loyal  Alypius,  dwelt  to- 
gether in  a  villa  at  Cassiciacum,  near  Milan.  The 
many  conversations  and  investigations  into  holy 
questions  and  truths  made  it  a  Christian  Academy, 
of  more  exalted  philosophy  than  Plato's,  .\deodatus 
had  his  full  share  in  many  of  these  learned  dis- 
cussions. He  appears  as  interlocutor  in  his  father's 
treatise  "De  beata  vita"  (pner  ille  minimus  omnium, 
that  boy,  the  youngest  of  them  all),  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  treatise  "De  Magistro",  written  two 
years  later.  He  appears  to  have  died  soon  after,  in 
his  sixteenth  year.     (See  Augustine,  St.). 

MoBERLv  in  Did.  of  Christ.  Biog,,  I,  43;  Poujohlat, 
Hist,  de  St.  Auguslin.  m  vie,  ses  ceuvres,  etc..  7th  ed.,  1886; 
WoLFSGRUBER,  AuifusHnus  (Paderbom,  188S);  Desjardins, 
Essai  sur  Us  confessions  de  St.  Auyustin  (Paris,  1855). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Adeodatus  I,  Pope.     See  Deusdedit. 

Adeodatus  (672-676),  Saint,  Pope,  a  monk  of 
the  Roman  cloister  of  St.  Erasmus  on  the  Coelian 
Hill.  He  was  active  in  the  perfection  of  monastic 
discipline  and  in  the  repression  of  the  Monothelite 
heresy.  Little  else  is  known  of  him.  Of  his  corres- 
pondence only  the  letters  for  the  Abbeys  of  St. 
Peter  of  Canterbury  and  St.  Martin  of  Tours  have 
been  preserved.  He  is  sometimes  called  Adeoda- 
tus n,  his  predecessor,  Deusdedit,  being  occasionally 
known  as  Adeodatus  I. 

Liber.  Pont.,  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  346-347;  Jaffe,  Reg. 
RR.  Pont.,  I.  237;  Mansi,  Coll.  Cone,  XI,  101. 

■Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Adeste  Fideles. — A  hymn  used  at  Benediction 
at  Christ inastide  in  France  and  England  since  the 
clo.se  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  sung  at  the 
Portuguese  Legation  in  London  as  early  as  1797. 
The  most  popular  musical  setting  was  ascribed  by 
Vincent  Novello,  organist  there,  to  John  Reading, 
who  was  organist  at  Winchester  Cathedral  from 
1675-81,  and  later  at  Winchester  College.  The 
hymn  itself  has  been  attributed  to  St.  Bonaventure, 
but  is  not  found  among  his  works.  It  is  probably 
of  French  or  German  authorship.  It  invites  all  the 
faithful  to  come  to  Bethlehem  to  worship  the  new- 
born Saviour. 

Julian,  Diet,  of  Uymnology  s.  v. 

Joseph   Otten. 

Adlaphora.     See  Acts,  Indifferent. 

Adi-Buddha.     See  Buddha. 

Adjuration  (Lat.  adjurarc,  to  swear;  to  affirm  by 
oath),  an  urgent  demand  made  upon  another  to  do 
something,  or  to  desist  from  doing  something,  which 
demand  is  rendered  more  solemn  and  more  irresistible 
by  coupling  with  it  the  name  of  God  or  of  some  sacred 
person  or  thing.  Such,  too,  was  the  primitive  use 
of  the  word.  In  its  theological  acceptation,  how- 
ever, adjuration  never  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  an 
oath,  or  the  calling  upon  God  to  witness  to  the  truth 


of  what  is  asserted.  Adjuration  is  rather  an  earnest 
aj)peal,  or  a  most  stringent  command  requiring  an- 
other to  act,  or  not  to  act,  under  pain  of  divine  visita- 
tion or  the  rupture  of  the  sacred  ties  of  reverence  and 
love.  Thus,  when  Christ  was  silent  in  the  house  of 
Caiphas,  answering  nothing  to  the  things  that  were 
witnessed  against  Him,  the  High  Priest  would  force 
Him  to  speak  and  so  said  to  Him:  "I  adjure  Thee 
by  the  living  God,  that  Thou  tell  us  if  Thou  be  the 
Christ  the  Son  of  God."  (Matt.,  xxvi,  63.)  Adjura- 
tion may  be  either  deprecatory  or  imprecatorj-.  The 
one  implies  deference,  affection,  reverence,  or  prayer; 
the  other,  authority,  command,  or  menace.  The  one 
may  be  addressed  to  any  rational  creature  except 
the  demon;  the  other  can  be  addressed  only  to  in- 
feriors and  to  the  demon.  In  Mark  (v,  7)  the  man 
with  the  unclean  spirit  cast  himself  at  the  feet  of 
Jesus  saying:  "What  have  we  to  do  with  Thee 
Jesus  the  Son  of  the  Most  High  God?  I  adjure  Thee 
that  Thou  torment  me  not."  The  wretched  man 
recognized  that  Christ  was  his  superior,  and  his 
attitude  was  that  of  humility  and  petition.  Caiphas, 
on  the  contrary,  fancied  himself  vastly  superior  to 
the  Prisoner  before  him.  He  stood  and  commanded 
Christ  to  declare  Himself  under  pain  ot  incurring 
the  WTath  of  Hea\'en.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
insist  that  one  mode  of  adjuration  is  to  be  employed 
when  addressuig  the  Deity  and  quite  another  when 
dealing  with  the  powers  of  darkness.  Helpless  man, 
calling  upon  Heaven  to  assist  him,  adds  weight  to 
his  naked  words  by  joining  with  them  the  persuasive 
names  of  those  whose  deeds  and  virtues  are  ^\Titten 
in  the  Book  of  Life.  No  necessity  is  thereby  laid 
upon  the  Almighty,  and  no  constraint  save  that  of 
benevolence  and  love.  But  when  the  spirit  of  dark- 
ness is  to  be  adjured,  it  is  never  allowable  to  address 
him  in  the  language  of  peace  and  friendship.  Satan 
must  ever  be  approached  as  man's  eternal  enemy. 
He  must  be  spoken  to  in  the  language  of  hostility 
and  command.  Nor  is  there  aught  of  presumption 
in  such  treatment  of  the  evil  one.  It  were  indeed 
egregious  temerity  for  man  to  cope  single-handed 
with  the  devil  and  his  ministers,  but  the  name  of 
God,  reverently  invoked,  carries  with  it  an  efficacy 
which  demons  are  unable  to  withstand.  Nor  should 
it  be  supposed  that  adjuration  implies  disrespect  for 
the  Almighty.  If  it  is  allowable  to  invoke  the  adora- 
ble name  of  God  in  order  to  induce  others  to  build 
more  securely  upon  our  word,  it  must  be  equally  per- 
missible to  make  use  of  the  same  means  in  order  to 
impel  others  to  action.  Indeed,  when  used  under  due 
conditions,  that  is  "in  truth,  in  justice,  and  in  judg- 
ment ",  adjuration  is  a  positive  act  of  religion,  for  it 
presupposes  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  faith  in  God 
and  His  superintending  Providence,  as  well  as  an 
acknowledgment  that  He  is  to  be  reckoned  with  in 
the  manifold  affairs  of  life.  What  more  beautiful 
form  of  prayer  than  that  of  the  litany,  wherein  we 
beg  immunity  from  evil  through  the  Advent,  the 
Birth,  the  Fasting,  the  Cross,  the  Death  and  Burial, 
the  Holy  Resurrection,  and  the  wonderful  Ascension 
of  the  Second  Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity?  Christ 
Himself  recommends  this  form  of  invocation:  "What- 
soever you  shall  ask  the  Father  in  My  name,  that 
will  I  do:  that  the  Father  may  be  glorified  in  the 
Son"  (John,  xiv,  13).  Acting  upon  this  promise,  the 
Church  ends  all  her  more  solemn  prayers  with  the 
adjuration:  Per  Domiman  no.ftrnm  Jestim  ChriMum 
(Through  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ).  St.  Thomas  de- 
clares tliat  the  words  of  Christ,  "in  Mj'  name  they 
shall  cast  out  devils"  (Mark,  xvi,  17),  give  all  be- 
lieving Christians  warrant  to  adjure  the  spirit  of 
evil.  This,  however,  must  not  be  done  out  of  mere 
curiosity,  for  vainglorj",  or  for  any  other  imworthy 
motive.  According  to  .\cts  (xix,  12),  Si.  Paul  was 
successful  in  casting  out  "wicked  spirits,"  wherejis 
the  Jewish  exorcists,  using  magic  arts  purporting  to 


ADMINISTRATOR 


n:i 


ADMINISTRATOR 


come  from  Solomon,  "attempted  to  invoke  over  them 
that  had  evil  spirits,  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  say- 
ing: 'I  conjure  you  by  Jcsvis,  whom  Paul  preaches,'  " 
were  leaped  upon  and  overcome  by  those  possessed, 
in  such  sort  that  they  found  it  convenient  "to  flee 
out  of  that  house,  naked  and  wounded  ".  In  ad- 
juring the  demon  one  may  bid  liim  depart  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord,  or  in  sudi  other  language  a-s  faith 
and  piety  may  suggest;  or  lie  may  drive  him  forth 
by  the  formal  and  fixed  prayers  of  the  Church.  The 
first  manner,  which  is  free  to  all  Christians,  is  called 
private  adjuration.  The  second,  which  is  reserved  to 
the  ministers  of  the  Church  alone,  is  called  solemn. 
Solemn  adjuration,  or  adjuration  properly  so  called, 
corresponds  to  the  Cireek  i(opKuriJi6s.  It  properly 
moans  an  expelling  of  the  evil  one.  In  the  Roman 
Kitual  there  are  many  forms  of  solemn  adjuration. 
Tlicsc  are  to  be  found,  notably,  in  the  ceremony  of 
l)aptism.  One  is  pronounced  over  the  water,  an- 
olIuT  over  the  salt,  wliile  many  are  pronounced  over 
tlie  child.  iManifold  and  solemn  as  are  the  adjura- 
tions pronounced  over  the  catoduunen  in  baptism, 
those  uttered  over  the  posse.s.sed  are  more  mmierous 
and,  if  possible,  more  solemn.  This  ceremony,  with 
its  rubrics,  takes  up  thirty  pages  of  the  Roman 
Ritual.  It  is,  however,  biit  rarely  used,  and  never 
without  the  express  permission  of  the  bishop,  for 
there  is  room  for  no  end  of  deception  and  hallucina- 
tion when  it  is  question  of  dealing  with  the  unseen 
powers.     (See  B.\itism;  Devii,;  Exorcism.) 

Bit.hiaut,  Summn  Snnrii  Thoma,  V;  B.m.i.eiiini,  Opus 
Tkrologu-iim  Mor.iU-.  IV:  I.KllMKlilu..  Theolonin  MoraU»,  I; 
.Mahc,  Institutivnes  MoraU-s  Alphonswna;  I;  LiGUOKl,  V,  2, 
uppendi.x. 

T.  S.  DUGGAN. 

Administrator. — The  term  Admlnixlmtor  in  its 
gencnd  .sense  signifies  a  person  who  administers 
some  conunon  affairs,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period, 
not  in  liis  own  name  or  in  \nrtue  of  the  orilinary 
jurisdiction  attaclied  to  a  certain  office,  but  in  the 
name  and  by  tlie  authority  of  a  superior  officer  by 
whom  he  is  delegated,  fn  this  sen.se  vicars-,  and 
prefects-apostolic,  vicars-capitular  and  even  vicars- 
general  are  sometimes  cla.ssed  as  administrators. 
In  the  stricter  sense,  however,  this  term  is  applied  by 
modem  writers  to  a  person,  usually  a  cleric  and  but 
rarely  a  layman,  to  whom  the  provisional  adminis- 
tration of  certain  ecclesiastical  affairs  is  entrusted 
by  speci;d  papal  or  episcopal  appointment.  -Although 
in  it.self  (lelcgated,  the  power  of  an  administrator 
may  be  qua.si-ordinarj'  with  the  right  of  subdele- 
gatmg.  Its  extent  depends  entirely  on  the  tenor  of  his 
commission.  His  juri.sdiction  may  extend  to  tem- 
poralities only,  or  to  spiritual  matters  exclusively, 
or  it  may  compri.se  both.  There  arc  three  kinds  of 
administrators  who  deserve  special  mention:  (1) 
Administrators  of  dioceses;  (2)  Administrators  of 
pari.shes;  (3)  Administrators  of  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions. 

(1)  Adminhtratnrs  of  (linccxes.  Inasmuch  as  these 
administrators  are  appointed  only  by  the  .Apostohc 
See,  the  title  of  Ailministrator  AjxistoHc  apphes 
principally  to  clergv'men,  bishops,  or  priests,  who 
are  appointed  directly  l)v  tlie  Iloly  See,  with  epi.s- 
cop:d  jurisdiction  to  atlmmisler  tlie  affairs,  temporal, 
or  spiritual,  or  both,  of  a  diocese.  Their  power  is 
very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  ^^cars-,  and  prefects- 
apostolic.  A  provicar  is  in  fact  .simply  an  adminis- 
trator apostolic.  ITnless  it  be  otherwise  stated  in 
the  brief  of  appointment,  the  administrator  apostolic 
has  full  episcopal  jurisdiction,  although  in  its  exerei.se 
he  is  bound  by  the  same  laws  as  the  bishop  him.self. 
Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  Unite<l  States  the  adminis- 
trator of  the  diocese  is  bound  to  take  the  adWee  or  to 
get  the  consent  of  the  dioce.san  consultors,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  bishop  (III  PI.  C.  Halt.,  n.  22). 
For  the  event  of  his  death,  the  administrator  apos- 


tolic may  designate  in  advance  his  own  succe.s.sor. 
His  support  must  come  from  the  diocese  which  he 
administers,  unless  otherwise  provided  for.  While 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  administrator  apostolic  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  bishop,  yet  liis  honorary  rights 
are  greatly  limited.  Even  if  he  has  epi.scopal  orders, 
he  cannot  u.se  the  throne,  nor  the  seventh  candle,  nor 
honorary  deacons,  although  he  has  the  right  of  the 
crosier.  His  name  is  not  mentioned  in  the  canon, 
nor  is  the  anniversarj'  of  his  consecration  commemo- 
rated. -\<lmini.strators  apostolic  may  be  appointed 
in  two  ca.ses:  (a)  Seile  impedild;  that  is,  when  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  is  unaole  any  longer  to  atlminis- 
ter  the  affairs  of  the  diocese  either  through  infirmity, 
insanity,  imprisonment,  banishment,  or  because  of 
excommunication  or  suspension.  In  this  case  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  administrator,  though  he  were  a 
simple  priest,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  bishop,  who 
can  no  longer  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  diocese. 
On  the  death  of  the  bishop  the  administrator  remains 
in  office  until  recalled  by  Rome,  or  until  the  new 
bishop  takes  charge  of  the  diocese;  (b)  Sede  vacante, 
when  a  diocese  which  has  no  cathedral  chapter  be- 
comes vacant  by  the  resignation,  or  the  removal,  or 
the  death  of  its  bishop.  Where  there  is  a  cathedral 
chapter  it  will  in  those  cases  elect  a  vicar-capitular  to 
administer  the  diocese.  Otherwise  an  administrator 
must  be  chosen  or  appointed  who  will  provisionally 
administer  the  diocese  until  confirmed  Ijy  the  Holy 
See.  In  missionary  countries  the  bishop  or  vicar- 
apostolic  may  him.self  designate  the  future  adminis- 
trator of  the  diocese  or  vicariate.  If  he  neglects  to 
do  so,  after  his  death  an  administrator  is  appointed 
by  the  nearest  bishop  or  vicar-apostolic,  or,  in  the 
Lnited  States,  by  the  metropolitan  and  in  his  absence 
by  the  .senior  bishop  of  the  province.  In  China  and 
East  India,  if  no  provision  for  a  provicar  is  made  by 
the  \'icar-apostohc,  the  priest  longest  in  the  mission 
becomes  administrator  apostolic  of  the  vicariate.  In 
case  of  doubt  or  other  difficulties,  the  decision  rests 
with  the  nearest  vicar-apostolic.  When  a  diocese 
becomes  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  the  bishop,  he 
may  be  appointed  by  Rome  administrator  of  the 
same  diocese  until  his  successor  take  posses.sion  of  it. 
When  a  diocese  is  divided,  the  bishop  may  become 
administrator  of  the  new  diocese,  or,  if  transferred 
to  the  new  diocese,  become  administrator  of  the  old 
one,  until  a  bishop  is  appointed  for  the  vacant  see. 

(2)  Administrators  of  parishes — sometimes  called 
parish  vicars,  curates,  or  coadjutors.  They  may  be 
appointe<l  for  the  same  reasons  as  an  administrator 
apostolic,  namely,  for  a  vacant  parish,  or  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  rector  or  pastor  who  has  become 
unfit  for  the  administration  of  the  parish,  or  during 
his  ab.sence  for  a  longer  period.  Such  an  adminis- 
trator is  usually  appointed  by  the  bishop  of  the  dio- 
cese, with  full  jurisdiction  over  parish  affairs  and 
with  a  sufficient  revenue  for  his  support,  which  ac- 
cording to  circumstances  may  be  derived  from  the 
parish,  or  from  the  pastor,  o!  from  both.  His  office 
and  jurisdiction  cease  either  by  recall  or  by  appoint- 
ment of  a  new  pastor.  In  the  United  States,  wlien 
an  irremovable  rector  of  a  parish  makes  an  appeal 
against  his  removal  by  the  bishop,  the  bishop  must 
appoint  an  administrator  of  the  parish  until  the 
appeal  is  decided  by  the  higher  authority  (III  PI.  C. 
Bait.,  n.  286).  Among  these  parish  administra- 
tors may  be  classed  the  so-called  perpetual  or  per- 
manent curates  of  parishes  whicli  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  some  convent  or  monastery,  ami  of 
which  the  rector  or  curate  is  appointed  not  by  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  but  by  the  superior  of  such 
convent.  The  case  is  far  more  frequent  in  Europe 
than  in  .\merica.  The  charge  of  the  parish  is  con- 
sidered to  be  with  the  monasterj',  and  the  curate  is 
merely  the  administrator  of  the  parish  for  the  con- 
vent. 


ADMINISTRATOR 


144 


ADMONITIONS 


(3)  Administrators  of  ecclesiastical  institutions,  as 
seminaries,  colleges,  hospitals,  asylums,  convents, 
etc..  which  in  the  language  of  canon  law  are  usually 
called  toca  pia,  pious  places;  that  is,  religious  and 
charitable  institutions.  Inasmuch  as  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal institutions  within  a  diocese,  with  the  exception 
of  those  privileged  by  papal  "exemption",  are  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  it  is  evidently 
within  his  power  to  appoint  a  special  or  extraordinary 
administrator  for  any  of  these  institutions,  whenever 
he  considers  such  a  measure  necessary  for  the  welfare 
or  the  protection  of  such  institution.  It  is  true, 
the  institution  may,  under  certain  conditions,  appeal 
against  tlie  appointment  of  such  an  administrator  or 
against  the  person  so  ajipointed.  The  Holy  See 
having  supreme  jurisdiction  over  all  institutions 
within  the  Church,  may  appoint  administrators  for 
any  ecclesiastical  institution,  according  to  its  own 
judgment,  without  recourse  or  appeal  against  its 
action.  Administrators  (executors)  may  also  be 
api»inted  by  popes  or  bishops  to  take  charge  of 
certain  pious  bequests  and  legacies  made  in  favour 
of  the  Church  or  for  the  spiritual  good  of  her  members. 
Although  the  administration  of  all  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  even  those  of  a  temporal  and  material  nature, 
belongs  by  the  constitutional  law  of  the  Church 
exclusively  to  the  hierarchy,  yet  she  often  allows 
laymen  to  take  part  in  the  administration  of  her 
temporalities. 

In  regard  to  Administrators  of  Dioceses,  consult  Ferrari, 
Tbforica  ct  Praj-is  Rcgiminis  DioEcesani  -prmsertim  Sede  Va- 
cante  (Paris,  1876);  Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Law 
(New  York,  1877),  I,  425;  Concilium  Plenarium  Balti- 
morense,  II,  nn.  9C-99. 

S.  G.  Messmeh. 

A(iministrator  (op  Ecclesl\stical  Property), 
one  charged  with  the  care  of  church  property. 
Supreme  administrative  authority  in  regard  to  all 
ecclesiastical  temporalities  resides  in  the  Sovereign 
Pontiff,  in  virtue  of  his  primacy  of  jurisdiction. 
The  pope's  power  in  this  connection  is  solely  ad- 
ministrative, as  he  cannot  be  said  properly  to  be 
the  owner  of  goods  belonging  either  to  the  universal 
Church  or  to  particular  churches.  Pontifical  ad- 
ministrative autliority  is  exercised  principally  through 
the  Propaganda,  tlie  Fabrica  of  St.  Peter,  the  Camera 
Apostolica,  the  Cardinal  Camerlengo,  and  finds  fre- 
quent recognition  and  expression  in  the  decrees  of 
councils  held  throughout  the  world.  In  each  diocese 
the  administration  of  property  belongs  primarily 
to  the  bishop,  subject  to  the  superior  authority  of 
the  Holy  See.  From  the  very  beginning  of  the  life 
of  the  Church,  this  power  has  been  a  part  of  the 
episcopal  office  (can.  37,  Can.  Apost..  Lib.  II,  cap. 
XXV,  xxvii,  XXXV.  Const.  Apost.).  On  him  all  inferior 
administrators  depend,  unless  they  have  secured  an 
exemption  by  law,  as  in  the  case  of  religious  orders. 
Tlierefore,  if  an  arrangement  exists  by  wliich  the 
administration  of  certain  diocesan  or  parish  property 
is  entrustetl  to  some  members  of  the  clergy  or  to 
laymen,  the  discipline  of  the  Church,  nevertheless, 
maintains  the  bishop  in  supreme  control  wth  the 
right  to  direct  and  modify,  if  need  be,  the  action  taken 
by  subordinate  administrators.  One  of  the  impor- 
tant duties  of  a  jiarisli  priest  is  the  administration  of 
the  moneys  anti  goods  lielonging  to  his  church.  The 
Third  Plenary  Council  of  Haltimore,  Tit.  IX,  Cap. 
iii,  gives  detailed  regulations  concerning  tlie  manner 
in  which  a  rector  is  to  acquit  liimself  of  this  obliga- 
tion. Among  other  things,  it  is  required  that  he 
shall  keep  an  accurate  record  of  receipts,  expendi- 
tures, and  debts;  tliat  he  shall  prepare  an  inventory 
containing  a  list  of  all  things  liclongiiig  to  tlie  church, 
of  its  income  and  financial  (jblig.itions;  that  one  copy 
of  this  inventory  shall  lie  deposited  in  the  archives  of 
the  parish  and  another  in  tlie  diocesan  archives;  that 
every  year  necessary  changes  shall  be  made  in  this 
inventory    and    signified    to    the    chancellor.     The 


authority  of  the  parish  priest  is  circumscribed  by 
tlie  general  authority  of  the  bishop  and  by  speciai 
enactments  wliicli  prevent  liim  from  taking  any 
important  step  without  the  express  written  per- 
mission of   the  ordinary. 

In  many  places  laymen  are  called  to  a  part  in  the 
care  of  church  property,  sometimes  in  recognition  of 
particular  acts  of  generosity,  more  often  because 
their  co-operation  with  the  parish  priest  will  be 
beneficial  on  accoimt  of  their  experience  in  temporal 
matters.  Although  the  origin  of  the  modem  fabrica, 
or  board  of  laymen,  is  placed  by  some  in  the  four- 
teenth and  by  others  in  the  sixteenth  centurj',  the 
intervention  of  laymen  really  goes  back  to  very 
early  times,  since  we  find  it  referred  to  in  councils  of 
the  seventh  century.  Lay  administrators  remain 
completely  subject  to  the  bishop  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  parish  priest.  The  difficulties  caused  by  the 
illegal  pretensions  of  trustees  in  the  L'nited  States 
during  the  early  part  of  the  last  centurj'  evoked  from 
the  Holy  See  a  reiteration  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church  regarding  diocesan  and  parish  administration, 
notably  in  a  brief  of  Gregory  XVI  (12  August,  1841) 
wherein  the  Pope  declared  anew  that  the  right  of 
such  inferior  administrators  depends  entirely  on  the 
authority  of  the  bishop,  and  that  they  can  do  only 
what  the  bishop  has  empowered  them  to  do.  In 
some  dioceses  where  the  system  of  administration 
by  lay  trustees  is  in  vogue  the  regulations  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  Catholic  Church  are  made  a  part  of  the 
by-laws  of  church  corporations,  a  measure  which  is 
of  great  advantage  in  case  of  a  process  before  the 
secular  courts.  The  administration  of  property 
belonging  to  religious  institutes  imder  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  ordinary  rests  naturally  with  their  supe- 
riors, but  the  bishop  may  reserve  to  himself  in  the 
constitutions  a  large  right  of  control  and  supervision. 
In  reference  to  institutes  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Holy  See  the  bishop's  right  is  limited  to  signing 
the  report  sent  to  Rome  every  third  year  by  the 
superior.  Religious  orders  are  exempt  from  dio- 
cesan control  in  the  administration  of  their  property, 
but  are  bound,  when  engaged  in  parocliial  work,  to 

E resent  to  the  bishop  a  report  of  the  amounts  they 
ave  received  for  parochial  purposes,  and  of  the  use 
made  of  such  contributions.  The  exclusive  rights  of 
ecclesiastical  authorities  in  the  administration  of 
church  property  have  been  denied  in  practice  by 
civil  authorities,  often  with  the  result  of  serious 
injustice  and  hardship  to  particular  churches, 
especially  during  the  last  two  centuries.  Hence  the 
care  taken  in  various  councils  to  admonish  adminis- 
trators to  secure  the  titles  to  church  property  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  secular  law,  e.  g. 
Ill  Plen.  Bait.,  no.  266. 

Zech,  De  jure  rerum  ecclesiasticarum;  Meurer,  Begriff  und 
EigenthuTner  der  heiligen  Sachen;  II  Concilium  Plenarium 
Baltimorense,  IV;    III  Concilium  Pleruirium  Baltimorense,  IX. 

John  T.  Creagh. 

Admonitions,  Canonical,  a  preliminary  means 
used  by  the  Church  towards  a  suspected  person, 
as  a  preventive  of  harm  or  a  remedy  of  evil.  In  the 
Instruction  emanating  in  1880,  by  direction  of 
Leo  XIII,  from  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars  to  the  bishops  of  Italy,  and  gi\'ing  them 
the  privilege  to  use  a  summary  procedure  in  trials 
of  the  clergy  for  criminal  or  di.s(iplinary  transgres- 
sions. Article  IV  decrees:  "Among  the  preser\ative 
measures  are  chiefly  to  be  reckoned  the  spiritual 
retreat,  admonitions,  and  injunctions";  Article  VI: 
"The  canonical  admonitions  may  be  made  in  a 
paternal  and  private  manner  (e\en  by  letter  or  by 
an  intermediary  person),  or  in  legal  form,  but  always 
in  such  a  way  that  proof  of  their  having  been  made 
sliall  remain  on  record." 

These  admonitions  are  to  be  founded  upon  a  sus- 
picion of  guilt  excited  by  public  rumour,  and  after 


ADMONT 


145 


ADO 


an  investigation  to  be  made  by  one  having  due  au- 
thority, with  the  result  of  estubhsliine  a  reasonable 
basis  for  the  suspicion.  I'pon  slender  foundation 
the  su[3erior  should  not  even  admonish,  unless  the 
suspected  person  has  given  on  previous  occasions 
serious  motive  for  fault-finding.  Admonitions  may 
be  either  paternal  or  legal  (canonical).  If  the  grounds 
are  such  as  to  produce  a  serious  likelihood,  or  half- 
proof,  they  will  suffice  for  a  paternal  admonition, 
which  is  administered  after  the  following  manner: 
The  prelate  either  jxjrsonally  or  throiigh  a  con- 
hdential  delegate  informs  the  susf)ected  person  of 
what  hius  been  said  about  him,  without  mentioning 
the  source  of  information,  and  without  threat,  but 
urges  amendment.  If  the  party  suspected  can  at 
once  sliow  that  there  is  no  basis  for  suspicion,  nothing 
further  is  to  Ix!  done  in  the  matter.  If  his  denial 
does  not  banish  the  doubts  about  him,  the  prelate 
should  try  by  persuasion,  exhortation,  and  bcseech- 
ings  to  induce  him  to  avoid  whatever  may  be  a  near 
occasion  of  wrong,  and  to  repair  the  harm  or  scandal 
given.  If  this  is  not  etTective,  the  prelate  may  begin 
the  judicial  procedure.  If  the  proofs  at  hand  are 
inadequate,  this  is  not  advisable;  lie  should  rather 
lie  ccmtcnt  with  watchfulness,  and  witli  using  negative 
penalties,  such  as  withholding  special  oflices  and, 
where  no  slur  could  be  manifest  on  the  suspect's 
reputation,  by  withdrawing  those  before  held.  If 
the  suspect  does  not  answer  to  the  summons,  the 
prelate's  suspicion  reasonably  increases,  and  he 
should  then  depute  a  reliable  person  to  seek  an  in- 
terview with  him,  and  to  report  to  him  the  result. 
If  he  should  refuse  to  deal  with  the  delegate,  the 
latter  in  the  name  of  the  delegating  prelate  should 
through  another  or  by  letter  send  a  second  and  a 
third  peremptory  call,  and  give  jiroof  of  the  further 
refusal,  with  evidence  that  the  summons  has  l)cen 
received;  now  the  suspect  is  presumed  guilty.  Thus 
the  way  is  paved  for  the  above-mentioned  canonical 
or  legal  admonition.  The  a.ssumed  half-proof  is 
strengthened,  first,  by  the  contumacy  of  the  suspect; 
secondly,  by  his  confession  of  the  charge  in  question. 
An  accusation  issuing  from  a  reliable  person,  as  also 
a  prevalent  evil  reputation,  may  supply  for  the  defect 
of  proof  needed  for  indictment.  For  the  paternal 
admonition  it  is  enough  that  this  evil  reputation 
should  be  spread  among  less  responsible  persons, 
but  for  the  legal  admonition  the  evil  reputation 
should  emanate  from  serious  and  reliable  persons. 
The  legal  admonition  is  to  a  jjreat  extent  akin  to  the 
summons  to  judgment.  It  is  always  desirable  for 
the  suspect,  and  for  the  honour  of  the  Church,  that 
the  prelate  should  arrange  the  matter  quietly  and 
amicably.  Hence  he  should,  by  letter  or  through 
a  delegate  whose  authority  is  made  known,  summon 
the  suspect,  informing  him  that  a  serious  charge  has 
been  made  against  him.  The  summons,  if  not  re- 
sponded to,  should  be  made  a  second  and  a  third 
time.  If  contumacious,  the  suspect  gives  ample 
ground  for  an  indictment.  If  there  be  any  urgency 
in  the  case,  one  peremptory  summons,  declaring  it 
to  take  the  place  of  the  three,  will  suffice.  The 
prelate  may  still  feel  that  he  has  not  enough  evi- 
dence to  prove  the  delinquency.  He  may  allow  the 
suspect  to  purge  him.self  of  the  .suspicion  or  accusii- 
tion  by  his  oath  and  the  attestation  of  two  or  more 
reliable  persons  that  they  are  persuaded  of  his 
innocence  and  that  thej'  trust  his  word.  If  he  can- 
not find  such  vouchers  for  his  innocence,  and  yet 
there  be  no  strictly  legal  proof  of  his  guilt  (though 
there  are  grave  reasons  lor  suspicion),  the  prelate 
may  follow  the  legal  admonition  by  a  special  precept 
or  command,  according  to  the  character  of  the  su.s- 
|X"cted  delinquency.  The  infringement  of  this  pre- 
cept will  entail  the  right  to  inllict  the  penalty  which 
should  Vie  mentioned  at  the  time  the  command  is 
given.  This  must  be  done  by  the  prelate  or  his 
I.-IO 


delegate  in  a  formal  legal  way  before  two  witnesses 
and  the  notary  of  his  curia,  be  signed  by  them, 
and  by  the  suspect  if  he  so  desires.  The  paternal 
admonition  is  to  l>c  kept  secret;  the  legal  admonition 
is  a  recognized  part  of  the  "acts"  for  future  pro- 
cedure. 

I'iKiiA.NTONKl.l.l.  PraHB  Fori  Keel.  (Rome,  1883);  DnosTE- 
Mks.smkr.  Can<m.  Procd.  in  Crim.  and  Dwc.  Catet  (New 
^'nrk.  1K8());  Hmith,  Klementa  of  EccUnaaticat  I^w  (New 
Yorii.    1877). 

R.  L.  BUHTSELL. 

Admont,  a  Benedictine  abbey  in  Styria,  Austro- 
llungary,  on  the  river  Enns,  about  fifty  miles  south 
of  Linz.  St.  Ileinma,  Countess  of  Fricsach  and 
Zeltschach,  is  regarded  as  its  foundre.ss,  for  upon 
entering  the  convent  at  Gurk  .she  left  her  lands  for 
the  building  of  a  monastery  near  the  salt  works  of 
Hall.  The  foundation,  however,  was  not  begun 
until  107'J,  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  the 
Saint's  death,  and  two  years  later  the  abbey  church 
was  consecrated  by  Gebhard  von  Helfenstein,  Arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg,  in  lionour  of  St.  Hlasius.  This 
prelate  also  brought  twelve  Benedictines  from  Salz- 
burg iis  a  nucleus  for  the  new  community.  During 
the  first  century  of  its  existence,  Admont  ro.se  into 
prominence  particularly  under  the  Abbots  Wolfhold 
and  Gottfried  of  Venningen;  the  former  founded  a 
convent  for  the  education  of  girls  of  noble  families, 
while  under  the  latter  thirteen  of  its  monks  were 
cho.sen  abbots  of  other  monasteries.  A  period  of 
decline  followed  after  the  middle  of  the  tliirteenth 
century,  when  war  and  rapine  did  much  injury.  A 
new  era  opened  under  Abbot  Henry  VII  (1275-97), 
and  the  work  of  restoration  was  completed  by 
lOngelbcrt  (1297-1331).  The  abbey  suffered  again 
in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  from  the  in- 
roads of  the  Turks  and  the  prevailing  social  disturb- 
ances, and  the  Reformation  made  itself  felt  within 
the  cloister.  The  Abbot  Valentine  was  even  forced 
to  resign  on  account  of  his  leaning  towards  the  new 
doctrines.  With  the  return  of  more  peaceful  times, 
the  educational  work  of  the  abbey  extended  and  a 
faculty  of  philosophy  and  thcologj-  was  added  to  the 
gj'mniisium,  of  which  the  cloister  school  had  been  the 
germ.  The  gymnasium,  however,  was  afterwards 
transferred  to  Lcoden  and  later  to  Judenburg,  when 
it  became  independent  of  Admont.  In  I<S(i,5  the 
abbey  and  church  were  burnt,  but  were  soon  rebuilt. 
The  first  abbot  was  Isingrin.  Not  a  few  of  his  suc- 
cessors were  men  of  great  learning  and  zeal,  and 
under  their  giiidance  Admont  became  an  important 
factor  in  the  history  of  Styria.  The  second  abbot, 
Giselbert,  introduced  the  reform  of  Cluny.  luigel- 
bert  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  works,  chiefly 
theological.  Albert  von  Muchar,  who  taught  at  the 
University  of  Graz  and  is  known  for  his  historical 
works,  may  also  be  mentioned. 

WlcHNKli,  Geachichte  d.  Bcncdictineretiltee  Admont  (Gras, 
1874-80);  WoLFsoRonER,  in  AircAra/ci.,  1,  ^35-237;  Cheva- 
lier, Topo-bibl.  (Paris,  1894-99)  s.  v. 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Ado  of  Vienne,  S.mnt,  bom  alxiut  SOO,  in  the  dio- 
cese of  ."sins;  (I.  16  December,  .S7.5.  He  was  brought 
up  at  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Ferricres,  and  had 
as  one  of  his  masters  the  Abbot  Lupus  Servatus, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  humanists  of  those  times. 
By  his  brilliant  talents  and  a.ssiduous  application 
Ado  gained  the  esteem  of  his  masters  and  school- 
mates, while  his  ready  obedience,  deep  humilitv,  and 
sincere  piety  foreshadowed  his  future  holinesa 
Though  urged  on  all  sides  to  enter  upon  a  career  in 
the  world,  to  which  his  nobility  of  birth  and  great 
intellectual  abilities  entitled  him,  he  consecrated 
himself  entirely  to  God  by  taking  the  Benedictine 
habit  at  Ferri^res.  When  Markward,  a  monk  of 
l-'errii'-res,  became  Abbot  of  Priim  near  Trier,  he 
applied  for  Ado  to  teach  the  sacred  sciences  there. 
His  request  was  granted.     Soon,  however,   certain 


ADONAI 


146 


ADONIAS 


envious  monks  of  Priim  conceived  an  implacable 
hatred  against  Ado,  and  upon  tlie  death  of  Mark- 
ward,  turned  him  out  of  their  monastery.  Witli  tlie 
permission  of  his  abbot.  Ado  now  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  Rome,  where  lie  remained  fne  years.  He  then 
went  to  Ravenna,  where  lie  discoxered  an  old  Roman 
martyrology  which  .served  .as  the  basis  for  his  own 
renowned  martyrology  published  in  858,  which  is 
generally  known  as  the  "Martyrology  of  Ado  ".  At 
Lyons  he  was  received  witli  open  arms  by  the  Arch- 
bishop, St.  Remigius,  who,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Abbot  of  Ferricres,  appointed  him  pastor  of  the 
Churdi  of  St.  Roman  near  Vienne.  In  860  he  be- 
came .\rchbishop  of  Vienne,  and  a  year  later  re- 
ceived the  pallium  from  Nicholas  I.  By  word  and 
example  he  began  reforming  the  laxity  of  his  priests, 
and  he  gave  them  strict  orders  to  instruct  the  laity 
in  the  necessary  doctrines  of  Christianity.  His  own 
life  was  a  model  of  humility  and  austerity.  When 
Lothaire  II,  King  of  Lorraine,  had  unjustly  dis- 
missed his  wife  Theutberga  and  the  papal  legates 
at  the  Synod  of  Metz  had  been  bribed  to  sanction 
the  King's  marriage  to  his  concubine  Waldrada, 
Ado  hastened  to  Rome,  and  reported  the  crime  to 
the  Pope,  who  thereupon  annulled  the  acts  of  the 
synod.  Besides  the  "  Martyrology  "  mentioned  above 
Ado  wrote  a  chronicle  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world  to  \.  D.  874,"Chronicon  de  VI  a!tatibus  mundi  ", 
and  the  lives  of  St.  Desiderius  and  St.  Theuderius. 
Ado's  name  is  in  the  Roman  martyrology  and  at 
Vienne  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  16  December,  the 
day  of  his  death. 

Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  16  Dec:  for  his  praise  Ma- 
billon,  Acta  SS.  Ord.  S.  Bened.  (1680),  IV  (2),  262-275: 
Ebert,  Gfsch.  der  tat.  Lilt,  des  MiltelalUrs  (1880).  II.  384- 
387:  Lechner.  Martyrologium  des  Benedikllner-Ordens  (Augs- 
burg, 1858):  H.  AcHELIs,  Die  Martyrolopien,  ihre  Geschzchte 
und  ihr  Wert  (Berlin,  1900).  For  his  martyrology  P.  L., 
CXXIII.  9  sqq. 

Michael  Ott. 

Adonai  CJIK),  lord,  ruler,  is  a  name  bestowed 
upon  God  in  tlie  Old  Testament.  It  is  retained  in 
the  Vulgate  and  its  dependent  versions,  Exod.,  vi,  3; 
Judith,  xvi,  16.  No  otlier  name  applied  to  God  is 
more  definite  and  more  easily  understood  than  this. 
Etymologically  it  is  the  plural  of  Adon,  with  the 
suffix  of  the  possessive  pronoun,  first  person,  singular 
number.  This  plural  has  been  subjected  to  various 
explanations.  It  m.ay  be  looked  upon  as  a  plurale 
abdractum,  and  as  such  it  would  indicate  the  fullness 
of  divine  sway  and  point  to  God  as  the  Lord  of  lords. 
This  explanation  has  the  endorsement  of  Hebrew 
grammarians,  wlio  distinguish  a  plurale  I'irium,  or 
virtutum.  Others  prefer  to  designate  this  form  as 
plurale  excellenlite,  magnitudinis,  or  plurale  majes- 
iatis.  To  look  upon  it  as  a  form  of  politeness  such 
as  the  German  Sic  for  du,  or  French  vous  for  tu  is 
certainly  not  warranted  by  Hebrew  usage.  The 
possessive  pronoun  has  no  more  significance  in  this 
word  than  it  has  in  liabhi  (my  master).  Monsieur,  or 
Madonna.  Adonai  is  also  the  perpetual  substitute 
for  the  ineffable  Name  Yahi'e,  to  which  it  lends  its 
vowel  signs.  Whenever,  therefore,  the  word  Yaliiv. 
occurs  in  the  text,  the  Jew  will  read  Adonai. 

Kautzsch-Gesenius,  llehrwitche  Grammatik  (Leipzig, 
1890):  Dalman,  Dir  Gollesname  und  seine  Geschiehle  (Berlin. 
1889);  Stade,  Biblischt  Throtogie des  Alien  Testaments  (Tubin- 
gen, 1B05).  _    ^^ 

L.  Heinlein. 

Adonias,  Hebrew:  ' Adnniyah' ,  'Adoniyahuh,  Yah- 
weh  is  Lord;  Septuagint;  'AJuWas. — L  Adonias, 
the  fourth  son  of  King  David,  was  born  in  Hebron, 
during  his  father's  sojourn  in  that  city  (III  Kings,  i, 
4,  .5;  I  Paralip.,  iii,  1.  2).  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
mother,  Haggitli,  except  her  name.  Nothing  is 
known,  likewi.se,  of  Adonias  himself  until  the  last 
days  of  his  fatlier's  reign,  when  lie  suddenly  appears 
as  a  competitor  for  the  Jewisli  crown.  He  wa8  then 
thirty-five   years    old,    and    of    comely    appearance 


(III  Kings,  i,  6).  Since  the  death  of  Absalom  he 
ranked  next  in  succession  to  the  throne  in  the  order 
of  birth,  and  as  the  prospect  of  his  father's  death 
was  now  growing  near,  he  not  unnaturally  cherished 
the  hope  of  securing  the  succession.  A  younger  son 
of  David,  Solomon,  however,  stood  in  the  way  of 
his  ambition.  The  aged  monarch  had  determined 
tc  appoint  as  his  successor  this  son  of  Bethsabee, 
in  preference  to  Adonias,  and  the  latter  was  well 
aware  of  the  fact.  Yet.  relying  on  his  father's 
past  indulgence,  and  stiU  more  on  his  present  weak- 
ened condition,  Adonias  resolved  to  seize  the  throne, 
without,  however,  arousing  any  serious  opposition. 
At  first  he  simply  set  up  a  quasi-royal  state,  with 
chariots,  horses,  and  fifty  running  footmen.  As  this 
open  profession  of  his  ambition  did  not  meet  with 
a  rebuke  from  the  too  indulgent  Kmg,  he  proceeded 
a  step  farther.  He  now  strove  to  win  to  his  cause 
the  heads  of  the  military  and  the  religious  forces 
of  the  nation,  and  was  again  successful  in  his  at- 
tempt. Joab,  David's  oldest  and  bravest  general, 
and  Abiathar,  the  ablest  and  most  influential  high- 
priest  in  David's  reign,  agreed  to  side  with  him. 
It  was  only  then  that,  surrounded  by  a  powerful 
party,  he  ventured  to  take  wliat  was  practically  the 
last  step  towards  the  throne.  He  boldly  invited  to  a 
great  banquet  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jerusalem 
all  his  adherents  and  all  his  brothers,  except  of 
course  Solomon,  to  have  himself  proclaimed  king. 
The  sacrificial  feast  took  place  near  the  fountain 
Rogel,  southeast  of  the  Holy  City,  and  everj'thing 
seemed  to  presage  full  success.  It  is  plain,  however, 
that  Adonias  had  misconceived  the  public  feeling 
and  over-estimated  the  strength  of  his  position. 
He  had  formidable  opponents  in  the  prophet  Nathan, 
the  high  priest  Sadoc,  and  Banaias,  the  valiant  head 
of  the  veteran  body-guard;  and  in  going  away  from 
Jerusalem  he  had  left  the  weak  old  king  subject 
to  their  united  influences.  Quick  to  seize  the  op- 
portunity, Nathan  prevailed  upon  Bethsabee  to 
remind  David  of  his  promise  to  nominate  Solomon 
as  his  successor,  and  to  acquaint  him  with  Adonias's 
latest  proceedings.  During  her  interview  with  the 
aged  ruler  Nathan  himself  entered,  confirmed  Beth- 
sabee's  report,  and  obtained  for  her  David's  solemn 
reassertion  that  Solomon  should  be  king.  Acting 
with  a  surprising  vigour,  Daxid  summoned  at  once 
to  his  presence  Sadoc,  Nathan,  and  Banaias,  and 
bade  them  take  Solomon  upon  the  royal  mule  to 
Gihon  (probably  "the  Virgin's  Fountain"),  and 
there  to  anoint  and  proclaim  the  son  of  Bethsabee 
as  his  successor.  His  orders  were  promptly  complied 
with;  the  anointed  Solomon  returned  to  Jerusalem 
amidst  the  enthusiastic  cheers  of  the  people,  and 
took  solemn  possession  of  tlie  throne. 

Meanwhile,  Adonias'  banquet  hiid  quietly  pro- 
ceeded to  its  end,  and  his  guests  were  about  to  pro- 
claim him  king,  when  a  blare  of  trumpets  sounded 
in  their  ears,  causing  Joab  to  wonder  what  it  might 
mean.  Suddenly,  Jonathan,  Abiathar's  son,  entered 
and  gave  a  detailed  account  of  all  that  had  been 
done  in  Gihon  and  in  the  Holy  City.  Whereupon 
all  the  conspirators  took  to  flight.  To  secure  im- 
munity, Adonias  fled  to  the  altar  of  holocausts, 
raised  by  his  father  on  Mount  Moria,  and  clung 
to  its  horns,  acknowledging  Soloiium's  royal  dignity, 
and  begging  for  the  new  king's  o:itli  that  his  life 
should  be  spared.  Solomon  suujily  pledged  his  word 
that  Adonias  should  .sulTcr  no  luirt,  provided  that 
he  would  henceforth  remain  loyal  in  all  things.  This 
was  indeed  a  magnanimous  promise  on  the  part  of 
Solomon,  for  in  the  East  Adonias's  attempt  to  seize 
the  throne  was  punishable  with  death.  Thus  con- 
ditionally pardoned,  Adonias  left  the  altar,  did 
obei.sance  to  the  new  monarch,  and  withdrew  safely 
home  (III  Kings,  i,  5-53). 

It   might   be   naturally  expected   that  after  this 


ADOPTION 


147 


ADOPTION 


utter  failure  of  liis  ambitious  efforts,  Adonias  would 
be  satisfied  with  tlie  peaceful  obscurity  of  a  private 
life.  Solomon  was  now  in  possession  of  the  royal 
power,  and  although  his  first  exercise  of  it  had  l)ccn 
an  act  of  clemency  towards  his  rival,  it  could  hardly 
be  supposed  that  he  would  treat  with  the  same 
leniency  a  second  attempt  of  Adonias  to  secure  the 
erown.  Gratitude,  fidelity,  and  due  regard  for  his 
own  safety  sliould.  therefore,  liave  caused  Adonias 
to  give  up  his  andiitious  dreams.  He  seems,  how- 
ever, to  have  looked  upon  Solomon's  deed  of  clemency 
as  an  act  of  weakness,  and  to  have  thought  that  ho 
might  be  more  successful  in  another  attempt  to 
reach  the  throne.  In  fact,  soon  after  his  fatlier's 
death  he  adroitly  petitioned,  through  Heth.sabee, 
the  queen  mother,  to  be  allowed  to  marry  the  Suna- 
mitess,  Abisag,  one  of  tlie  wives  of  tlie  deceased 
monarch.  The  petition  was  made  witli  a  view  to 
reassert  his  claim  to  tlie  royal  dignity,  and  he  ap- 
parently relied  on  Solomon's  supposed  weakness 
of  character  not  to  dare  to  refvise  nis  request.  But 
again  the  event  soon  proved  how  greatly  mistaken 
he  was  in  his  calculation.  Scarcely  had  his  request 
reached  Solomon  when  the  king's  wrath  broke 
forth  against  Adonias'  perfidy.  With  the  most 
solemn  oath  the  monarch  pronoimced  him  worthy 
of  death,  and  without  tlie  lca.st  delay  the  sword  of 
Banaias  carried  out  the  royal  sentence  (III  Kings,  ii, 
13-24).  Thus  did  Adonias  perish, a  victim  of  his  own 
heedless  ambition.  The  Scriptural  account  of  his 
vain  efforts  to  deprive  ,Solomon  of  the  throne  which 
God  had  expressly  intended  for  him  (II  Kings,  vii, 
12-16;  I  Paralip.,  xxii,  7-10)  teaches  how  divine 
Providence  overrules  man's  and>itious  schemes.  It 
is  a  model  of  vivid  narration  and  of  perfect  faithful- 
ness to  Oriental  life.  In  particular,  if  it  nowhere 
charges  Solomon  with  excessive  severity  in  putting 
Adonias  to  death,  it  is  because,  according  to  Eastern 
notions,  the  latter's  conduct  fully  deserved  that 
punishment. 

II.  Adonias,  one  of  the  Invites  sent  by  King 
Josaphat  to  teach  the  people  in  the  cities  of  Juda 
(II  Paralip.,  xvii,  8).  V.  E.  CiicoT. 

Adoption. — In  the  Old  Test.\ment. — Adoption, 
as  defined  in  canon  law,  is  foreign  to  tlie  Bible.  The 
incidents  in  Exod.,  ii,  10,  and  Esther,  ii,  7,  ii,  15,  can- 
not be  adduced  as  examples  to  the  contrary,  for  the 
original  text  contains  but  a  vague  expression  instead 
of  the  word  "adopted  ",  and  the  context  merely  im- 
plies tliat  Moses  and  Esther  were  the  prot(5g&  of 
their  respective  beiiefactoi-s.  The  people  of  Israel 
enjoyed  a  similar  privilege  at  the  hands  of  God.  The 
facts  mentioned  in  Gen.,xlviii,  5,  however,  bear  close 
resemblance  to  adoption  taken  in  its  strict  sense. 

In  the  New  Te.stament. — St.  Paul  introduces  the 
word  adoption  (viodtcla)  into  the  New  Testament 
(Rom.,  viii,  15,  23;  Gal.,  iv,  5;  Eph.,  i,  5),  and  applies 
it  to  a  special  relationship  (sonsnip)  of  man  towards 
God,  brought  about  by  tlie  indwelling  in  our  soul  of 
the  ".Spirit  of  God  ".  This  Spirit  gives  us  a  new,  a 
supernatural  life,  the  life  of  grace,  together  with  the 
•  on.sciousness  (Rom.,  viii,  l(j)  that  this  new  life  comes 
from  God  and  that  we  are  consequently  the  children 
of  God,  endowed  with  the  privilege  of  calling  Him 
Abba,  "  Father ",  and  of  Ix-ing  His  heirs  (Rom., 
viii,  17;  Gal.,  iv,  6).  This  adoption  will  be  consum- 
mated when  to  the  "first  fruits  of  tlie  Spirit",  of 
which  our  soul  is  made  the  recipient  in  this  life,  is 
added  the  "redemption  of  our  body"  (Rom.,  viii, 23) 
in  tlie  life  to  come. 

CoRNEi.Y.  Eiruloln  ml  Romnnot  (Pnris,  18901;  EsTirs. 
In  I'auli  EpUtolat  (.Mainz.  1.S.-.N);  Van  Stkenkistk,  In  fauli 
Epulolnt  (Bnige-.  !.>«(,);  I,ii;i!tfoot,  ,SI.  I'ault  EyitlU  to 
the  Galaliant  (fniiitiriiige,  London,  l8(iS1;  Sani>at.  Epullr  In 
titr  Romans  (New  York,  1895);  Zocki.kr,  (JaMrrbrirl  (Mun- 
ich. 1894);  I-CTHABDT,  Drr  Bnrt  T'fuli  an  die  Rimer  (.Munich. 
1894);  .Ma.sy  in  Vic,  DicL  de  la  Bible  (Paris.  1 89.'))  s.  v. 

£.  Heinlein. 


Adoption,  Canonical. — In  a  legal  sense,  adoption 
is  an  act  by  which  a  person,  with  the  co-operation  of 
the  public  authority,  selects  for  his  child  one  who 
does  not  belong  to  him.  In  Roman  law  ailmydtio 
was  the  name  given  to  the  adoption  of  one  already 
of  fidl  age  (.sui  juris);  dalio  in  adoptionem,  when  one 
was  given  in  adoption  by  one  having  control  or  power 
over  him.  The  adoption  was  full  (plena)  if  the 
adopting  father  was  a  relative  in  an  ascen<iing  scale 
of  the  one  adopted;  le.ss  full  (minus  jilcna)  if  there 
was  no  such  natural  tie.  Perfect  adoption  placed 
the  adopted  under  the  control  of  the  a(iopter,  whose 
name  was  taken,  and  the  adopted  was  made  necessary 
heir.  The  adoption  was  le.ss  perfect  which  consti- 
tuted the  adopted  necessary  heir,  in  ca.se  the  adoptir 
should  die  without  a  will.  The  rule  was  that  a  man, 
not  a  woman,  could  adopt;  that  the  adopter  should 
be  at  least  18  years  oliler  than  the  adopted;  that  the 
adopter  shouhl  be  of  full  ag(^  and  older  than  25  years. 
In  .\thens  the  power  of  adoption  was  allowed  to  all 
citizens  of  sound  mind.  Adoption  was  vcn,'  fre- 
quent among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  cus- 
tom w.as  very  strictly  regulated  in  their  laws. 

The  Cliurch  made  its  own  the  Roman  law  of 
adoption,  with  its  legal  consequences.  Pope  Nicholas 
I  (8.58-807)  spoke  of  this  law  as  venerable,  when  in- 
culcating its  observance  upon  the  Bulgarians.  Hence 
adoption,  under  the  title  cognalio  Icyalis,  or  "legal 
relationsliip",  was  recognized  by  the  Church  as  a 
diriment  impediment  of  marriage.  This  legal  re- 
lationsliip sprang  from  its  resemblance  to  the  natural 
relationslii[)  (and  made  a  bar  to  marriage):  1°  civil 
paternity  between  the  adopter  and  the  adopted, 
and  the  hitter's  legitimate  natural  children,  even 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  adoption;  2°  civil  brother- 
hood between  the  adopted  and  the  legitimate  natural 
chiKlren  of  tlie  adopter,  until  the  adoption  was 
dis.solvcd,  or  the  natural  children  were  iilaced  under 
their  own  control  (sui  juris);  'S°  affinity  arising 
from  tlie  tie  of  adoption  between  the  adopted  and 
the  adopter's  wife,  and  between  the  adopter  and 
the  adopteil's  wife.  This  was  not  removed  by  the 
dissolution  of  the  adoption.  The  Churcli  recognized 
in  the  intimacy  con.seciuent  upon  these  legal  relations 
ample  grounds  for  placing  a  bar  on  the  hope  of 
marriage,  out  of  respect  for  public  propriety,  and  to 
.safeguard  the  morals  of  those  brought  into  such  close 
relations.  The  Code  of  .lustinian  modified  tlie  older 
Roman  law  by  determining  that  the  riglits  (leri\cd 
from  the  natural  parentage  were  not  lost  by  adoption 
by  a  stranger.  'This  gave  ri.se  to  another  distinction 
between  perfect  and  imperfect  adoption.  But  as 
the  modification  of  Justinian  made  no  change  in  the 
customary  intimacy  brought  about  by  the  adoption, 
so  the  Cliurch  at  no  time  expressly  recognized  any 
distinction  between  the  perfect  antl  less  jx^rfect  adop- 
tion as  a  bar  to  marriage.  There  arose,  however, 
among  canonists  a  controversy  on  this  subject, 
some  conteniling  that  only  the  perfect  adoption  was 
a  diriment  impediment  to  mamage.  Benedict  XIV 
(De  Syn.  Dicec,  I,  x,  5)  tells  of  this  discussion  and, 
while  giving  no  positive  decision,  lays  down  the  prin- 
ciple that  all  controversies  must  be  decided  in  this 
matter  in  accord  with  the  substantial  sanctions  of 
the  Roman  law.  This  is  a  key  to  the  practical 
question  which  to-day  ari.ses  from  the  more  or  less 
serious  modifications  which  the  Roman,  or  Civil,  law 
has  undergone  in  almost  all  tlie  countries  wlicrc  it 
held  sway,  and  hence  flows  tlie  con.sequent  doiilit, 
at  times,  whether  this  diriment  impediment  of  legal 
relationship  still  exists  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church. 
Wherever  the  substantial  elements  of  the  Roman 
law  are  retained  in  the  new  codes,  the  Church  recog- 
nizes this  relationship  as  a  diriment  impediment  in 
accord  with  the  principle  laid  down  by  Benedict  XIV. 
This  is  thorouglilv  recognized  liy  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Office  in  its  positive  decision  with  regard 


ADOPTION 


148 


ADOPTION 


to  the  Code  of  the  Neapolitan  Kingdom  (23  February, 
1853).  In  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
legal  adoption,  in  the  sense  of  the  Roman  law,  is  not 
recognized.  Adoption  is  regulated  in  the  United 
States  by  State  statutes;  generally  it  is  accom- 
plished by  mutual  obligations  assumed  in  the  manner 
prescribed  by  law.  It  is  usually  brought  before  the 
county  clerk,  as  in  Texas,  or  before  tlie  probate 
judges,  as  in  New  Jersey.  In  such  cases  the  relation 
of  parent  and  child  is  established;  but  tlie  main 
purpose  is  to  entitle  the  adopted  to  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  a  legal  lieir.  Adoption,  or  contract  by 
private  authority,  or  under  private  arrangements,  is 
not  recognized  by  the  Church  as  productive  of  this 
legal  relationship.  Tlie  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Office  (16  April,  1761)  had  occasion  to  make  this 
declaration  with  regard  to  it,  as  customary  among 
the  Bulgarians.  Hence,  generally  in  the  United  States 
adoption  is  not  a  diriment  impediment  to  marriage, 
nor  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church  in  any  way  preventive 
of  it.  A  different  view  is  taken  by  the  Roman 
Congregations  of  the  Holy  Office  and  of  the  Sacred 
Penitentiary  of  adoption  as  recognized  in  otlier 
countries  which  have  retained  the  substantial  ele- 
ments of  the  Roman  law  establishing  this  relation- 
ship. The  French  Code  (art.  383)  decides  that  the 
adopted  will  remain  with  liis  natural  family  and 
preserve  all  liis  rights,  but  it  enforces  the  prohibitions 
of  marriage  as  in  the  Roman  law.  Hence  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Penitentiary  decided  (17  May,  1825) 
that  if  the  adoption  took  place  in  accordance  with 
the  French  law,  it  involved  the  canonical  diriment 
impediment  of  marriage.  In  Germany,  by  the  new 
law  taking  effect  in  1900,  there  is  prescribed  the  pro- 
cedure by  which  adoption  is  effected,  and  by  which 
the  adopted  passes  into  the  family  of  the  adopter, 
losing  the  rights  coming  from  his  natural  family.  In 
Germany,  liowever,  many  subtile  distinctions  have 
been  engrafted  upon  this  adoption.  Tlie  restric- 
tions of  the  relationship  by  the  German  law  are  not, 
however,  accepted  by  the  Church.  When  adoption 
is  in  accord  witli  the  substantial  elements  of  tlie 
Roman  law,  as  in  the  case  of  the  German  code,  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Cliurch  it  carries  with  it  all  the  re- 
strictions in  the  matter  of  marriage  accepted  by  the 
Church  from  tlie  Roman  law.  Thus,  by  the  German 
law,  the  wife  of  the  adopter  is  not  united  by  affinity 
to  the  adopted,  nor  the  adopter  to  the  adopted's 
wife.  But  the  Church  still  recognizes  this  affinity  to 
hold  even  in  Germany.  The  Austrian  Code  has  almost 
the  same  prescriptions  as  the  German.  When  there 
is  a  reasonable  doubt  or  difference  of  opinion  among 
canonists  or  theologians  upon  the  fact  of  legal  re- 
lationship, the  safe  rule  is  to  ask  for  a  dispensation. 
In  the  Legislature  of  Quebec,  a  few  years  ago,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  introduce  into  the  Civil  Clode 
the  almost  identical  principles  of  the  Napoleonic 
Code  for  adoption,  but  tlie  proposal  was  rejected 
by  the  Chamber.  Tlie  Church  authorities  in  Canada 
do  not  recognize  that  any  impediment  to  marriage 
arises  from  whatever  private  arrangements  of  adop- 
tion may  be  there  recognized. 

Bknedict  XIV,  De  Sim.  Diac,  IX,  c.  x;  Fkijk,  De  Imped, 
el  IHhji.  Mntr.  (Louvain,  188.')),  tit.  xvii,  p.  288.  sqq.;  De 
ANGKLls,Pr/r/.  Jiir.  Can.  {Rome.  1880),  III,  i,  lit).  IV,  tit.  xii; 
Sami.  I'riil.  Jtir.  Can.  (New  York),  lib.  IV,  tit.  xii;  Craisson. 
Man.  Jut.  Cm.,  lib.  II,  c.  viii,  de  Matr.:  Kknbick,  Theol.  Mor. 
(Mttlines,  18(51),  II,  Tract,  xxi,  De  Matr.,  s.  v.;  D'  Avino, 
Dizumario  delV  Eccleeiattico  (Turin,  1878);  ANDRfi-WAONEH, 
Dictumniiire  de  droit  canoniqtte  (Pari.s,  1901).  s,  v. 

R.  L.  BunxsELL. 

Adoption,  Supernatural. —  (Lat.  ndoptare,  to 
choose.)  Adoption  is  the  grattiitous  taking  of  a 
stranger  as  one's  own  child  and  heir.  According  as 
the  adopter  is  man  or  God,  the  adoption  is  styled 
hum.an  or  divine,  natural  or  supernatur.al.  In  the 
present  instance  there  is  question  only  of  the  divine, 
that  adoption  of  man  by  God  in  virtue  of  whicii  we 


become  His  sons  and  heirs.  Is  this  adoption  only  a 
figurative  way  of  speaking?  Is  there  substantial  au- 
tliority  to  vouch  for  its  reality?  What  idea  are  we 
to  form  of  its  nature  and  constituents?  A  careful 
consideration  of  the  presentation  of  Holy  Scripture, 
of  the  teacliings  of  Christian  tradition,  and  of  the 
theories  set  forth  by  theologians  relative  to  our 
adopted  sonship,  will  help  to  answer  these  questions. 
The  Old  Testament,  which  St.  Paul  aptly  compares 
to  tlie  state  of  cliildhood  and  bondage,  contains  no 
text  that  would  point  conclusively  to  our  adoption. 
There  were  indeed  saints  in  the  days  of  the  Old  Law, 
and  if  tliere  were  saints  there  were  also  adopted 
cliildren  of  God,  for  sanctity  and  adoption  are  in- 
separable effects  of  the  same  habitual  grace.  But 
as  the  Old  Law  did  not  possess  the  virtue  of  giving 
that  grace,  neither  did  it  contain  a  clear  intimation 
of  supernatural  adoption.  Such  sayings  as  those  of 
Exodus  (iv,  22).  "Israel  is  my  son,  my  firstborn", 
Osee  (i,  10),  "Ye  are  the  sons  of  the  living  God", 
and  Rom.  (ix,  4),  "  Lsraelites  to  whom  belongeth  the 
adoption  as  of  cliildren  ",  are  not  to  be  applied  to  any 
individual  soul,  for  they  were  spoken  of  God's  chosen 
people  taken  collectively.  It  is  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  marks  the  fullness  of  time  and  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Redeemer,  that  we  must  search  for  the 
revelation  of  this  heaven-born  privilege  (cf.  Gal.  iv, 
1).  "Son  of  God"  is  an  expression  of  no  infrequent 
use  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  and  as  therein  employed, 
the  words  apply  both  to  Jesus  and  to  ourselves.  But 
whether,  in  the  case  of  Jesus,  this  phrase  pouits  to 
Messiahship  only,  or  would  also  include  the  idea  of 
real  divine  filiation,  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence 
in  our  particular  case.  Surely  in  our  case  it  cannot 
of  itself  afford  us  a  sufficiently  stable  foundation  on 
which  to  establish  a  valid  claim  to  adopted  sonship. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  St.  Matthew  (v,  9,  45) 
speaks  of  the  "children  of  God",  he  means  the  peace- 
makers, and  when  he  speaks  of  "  children  of  your 
Father  who  is  in  Heaven",  he  means  those  who  re- 
pay hatred  with  love,  thereby  implying  throughout 
nothing  more  tlian  a  broad  resemblance  to,  and  moral 
union  with  God.  Tlie  charter  of  our  adoption  is 
properly  recorded  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  viii;  Eph.,  i; 
Gal.,  iv);  St.  John  (prologue  and  1  Epist.,  i,  iii);  St. 
Peter  (I  Epist.,  i);  and  St.  James  (I  Epist.,  i).  Ac- 
cording to  these  several  passages  we  are  begotten, 
born  of  God.  He  is  our  Father,  but  in  such  wise  that 
we  may  call  ourselves,  and  truly  are,  His  children, 
the  members  of  His  family,  brothers  of  Jesus  Christ 
with  whom  we  partake  of  the  Divine  Nature  and 
claim  a  share  in  the  heavenly  heritage.  This  di^dne 
filiation,  togetlier  with  the  right  of  coheritage,  finds 
its  source  in  God's  own  will  and  graceful  condescen- 
sion. When  St.  Paul,  using  a  technical  term  bor- 
rowed from  tlie  Greeks,  calls  it  adoption,  we  must 
interpret  the  word  in  a  merely  analogical  sense.  In 
general,  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  Scriptural 
concept  of  our  adoption  must  follow  the  golden  mean 
and  locate  itself  midway  between  the  Divine  Sonship 
of  Jesus  on  the  one  hand,  and  human  adoption  on 
the  other — immeasurably  below  tlie  former  and  above 
the  latter.  Human  adoption  may  modify  the  social 
standing,  but  adds  nothing  to  the  intrinsic  worth  of 
an  adopted  child.  Divine  adoption,  on  the  contrary, 
works  inward,  penetrating  to  the  very  core  of  our 
life,  renovating,  enriching,  transforming  it  into  the 
likeness  of  Jesus,  "  the  first-born  among  many  breth- 
ren". Of  course  it  cannot  be  more  tlian  a  likeness, 
an  image  of  the  Divine  Original  mirrored  in  our  im- 
perfect selves.  There  will  ever  be  between  our  adop- 
tion and  tlio  filiation  of  Jesus  the  infinite  distance 
wliich  separates  created  grace  from  hypostalical 
union.  .Ami  yet,  tliat  intimate  and  mysterious  coni- 
munion  with  Christ,  and  through  Him  witli  (!od,  is 
the  glory  of  our  adopted  sonsliip:  "  ,\nd  the  glory 
which  thou  hast  given  me,  I  have  given  to  them — 


ADOPTION 


Hi) 


ADOPTION 


I  in  them  ami  tlicm  in  me"  (Joliii,  xvii,  22,  23). 
The  oft-repeat rd  ciupliasis  ivliich  Holy  Writ  lays  on 
our  siipeniatiiial  adoptiim  won  great  popularity  for 
that  dogma  in  the  <arly  Church.  Baptism,  the  laver 
of  regeneration,  became  the  occtusion  of  a  sponta- 
neous expression  of  faith  in  our  adopted  sonship. 
The  newly  baptizeil  were  called  injiinlis,  irrespec- 
tive of  age.  They  assumeil  nanie.s  which  suggested 
the  idea  of  adoption,  such  as  Adeptus,  Kcgeneratus, 
Renatu.s,  Deigenitus,  Theogonus,  and  the  like.  In 
the  liturgical  prayers  for  neophytes,  .some  of  which 
have  survived  even  to  our  own  day  (e.  g.  the  collect 
for  Holy  Saturday  and  the  ])reface  for  Pentecost), 
the  olHciating  prelate  made  it  a  sacreil  duty  to  re- 
minil  them  of  this  grace  of  adoption,  and  to  call 
down  from  Heaven  a  like  blessing  on  those  who  had 
not  yet  been  so  favoured.  (See  B.\ptism.)  The 
Fathers  dwell  on  this  privilege  which  they  are 
pleased  to  style  deification.  St.  Iren;pus  (.\dv.  Hirr- 
eses,  iii,  17-19);  St.  .\thanasius  (Cont.  Arianos,  ii, 
59);  St.  Cyril  of  .Alexandria  (Comment,  on  St.  John, 
i,  13,  14);  St.  John  Chrysostom  (Homilies  on  St. 
Matthew,  ii,  2);  St.  .\ugustino  (Tracts  11  and  12  on 
St.  John);  St.  Peter  Chry.sologus  (Sermon  72  on  the 
Lord's  Prayer) — all  seem  willing  to  spend  their  elo- 
cjuence  on  the  subHmity  of  our  adoption.  For  them 
it  was  an  uncontradicteil  primal  jjrineiple,  an  ever 
ready  source  of  instruction  for  the  faithful,  as  well  as 
an  argimient  against  heretics  such  as  the  .Arians, 
Macedonians,  and  .\estorians.  The  Son  is  truly  God, 
else  licnv  could  He  deify  us?  The  Holy  Ghost  is  truly 
God,  else  how  could  His  indwelling  sanctify  us?  The 
incarnation  of  the  Logos  is  real,  else  how  could  our 
deification  be  real?  He  the  value  of  such  arginnents 
what  it  may,  the  fact  of  their  having  been  used,  and 
this  to  good  effect,  bears  witne.ss  to  the  popularity 
and  common  acceptance  of  the  dogma  in  those  days. 
Some  writers.  like  Scheeben,  go  further  still  and  look 
in  the  patristic  writings  for  set  theories  regarding 
the  constituent  factor  of  our  adoption.  They  claim 
that,  while  the  Fathers  of  the  ICast  account  for  our 
supernatural  sonship  by  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  Fathers  of  the  West  maintain  that  sanc- 
tifying grace  is  the  real  factor.  Such  a  view  is  pre- 
mature. True  it  is  that  St.  Cyril  lays  special  stress 
on  the  pre.sence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  soul  of  the 
just  man,  whereas  St.  .\ugustine  is  more  partial 
towards  grace.  But  it  is  equally  true  that  neither 
speaks  exclusively,  much  less  pretends  to  lay  down 
the  causa  iormalis  of  adoption  as  we  understand  it 
to-day.  In  spite  of  all  tlie  catcchetic  and  polemic 
uses  to  which  the  Fathers  nut  this  dogma,  they  left 
it  in  no  clearer  light  than  diil  their  predecc.s.sors,  the 
inspired  writers  of  the  distant  past.  The  patristic 
sayings,  like  tho.se  of  Holy  Scripture,  afford  precious 
data  for  the  framing  of  a  theorj',  but  that  theory 
itself  is  the  work  of  later  ages. 

What  is  the  essential  factor  or  formal  cause  of  our 
supernatural  adoption?  This  question  was  never 
seriously  mooted  prc\novis  to  the  scholastic  period. 
The  solutions  it  then  received  were  to  a  great  extent 
influenced  by  the  then  current  theories  on  grace. 
Peter  the  Lombartl,  who  iilcntihes  grace  and  charity 
with  the  Holy  Ghost,  was  naturally  brought  to  ex- 
plain our  adoption  l>y  the  .sole  presence  of  the  Spirit 
m  the  soul  of  the  just,  to  the  exclusion  of  any  created 
and  inherent  God-given  entity.  The  Nominalists  and 
Scotus,  though  reluctantly  .ailmittiiig  a  created  en- 
tity, nevertheless  failed  to  .see  in  it  a  valid  factor  of 
our  divine  adoption,  and  conse(|uently  hail  recourse 
to  a  divine  positive  enactment  decreeing  and  receiv- 
ing us  as  children  of  (!od  and  heirs  of  tiie  Kingdom. 
Apart  from  the.sc.  a  vast  majority  of  the  Schoolmen 
with  .Vlcxander  Hales,  .-Vlbert  the  Great,  St.  Uona- 
venture,  and  pre-eminently  St.  Thomas,  pointed  to 
habitual  grace  (an  expression  coined  by  .Mcxanilcr) 
as  the  essential  factor  of  our  adopted  sonship.     For 


them  the  same  inherent  quality  which  gives  new  life 
and  birth  to  the  soul  gives  it  al.so  a  new  filiation.  Says 
the  Angel  of  the  Schools  (III,  il  i.x,  a.  23,  ad  3""), 
"  The  creature  is  assimilated  to  the  Word  of  Ciod  in 
His  Unity  with  the  Father;  and  this  is  done  by  grace 
ami  charity.  .  .  .  Such  a  likeness  perfects  the  idea 
of  adoption,  for  to  the  like  is  due  the  same  eternal 
heritage."  (See  Gn.\CF..)  This  last  view  received  the 
seal  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  VI,  c.  vii,  can.  1 1). 
The  Council  first  identifies  justification  with  adop- 
tion: "To  become  just  and  to  be  heir  according  to 
the  hope  of  life  everlasting"  is  one  an<l  the  same 
thing.  It  then  proceeds  to  give  the  real  essence  of 
justification:  "Its  sole  formal  cause  is  the  justice  of 
God,  not  that  whereby  He  Himself  is  just,  but  tli.at 
whereby  He  maketh  us  just."  Furthermore,  it  re- 
peatedly characterizes  the  grace  of  justification  and 
adoption  as  "no  mere  extrinsic  attribute  or  favour, 
but  a  gift  inherent  in  our  hearts. "  This  teaching 
was  still  more  forcibly  emphasized  in  the  Catechism 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  (De  Hapt.,  No.  ,'A)),  and  by 
the  condemnation  by  Pius  V  of  the  forty-second 
proposition  of  Baius,  the  contradictory  of  which 
re.ads:  "Justice  is  a  grace  infused  into  the  soul 
whereby  man  is  adopted  into  divine  sonship."  It 
would  seem  that  the  thoroughness  with  which  the 
Council  of  Trent  treated  this  doctrine  should  have 
precluded  even  the  possibility  of  further  discussion. 
Nevertheless  the  question  came  to  the  fore  again 
with  Leonard  Leys  (Lessius),  1623;  Denis  Petau 
(Petavius),  1652;  and  Matthias  Scheeben,  1888.  Ac- 
cording to  their  views,  it  could  very  well  be  that  the 
unica  causa  formaiis  of  the  Council  of  Trent  is  not 
the  complete  cause  of  our  adoption,  and  it  is  for  this 
rea.son  that  they  would  make  the  indwelling  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  at  least  a  partial  constituent  of  divine 
.sonship.  Here  we  need  waste  no  words  in  consid- 
eration of  the  singular  idea  of  making  the  indwelling 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  an  act  proper  to,  and  not  merely 
an  appropriation  of,  the  Third  Person  of  the  Blessed 
Trinity.  (See  Api'roi'riation.)  .As  to  tlie  main 
point  at  issue,  if  we  carefully  weigh  the  posthumous 
explanations  given  by  Lessius;  if  we  recall  the  fact 
that  Petavius  spoke  of  the  matter  under  consiilcra- 
tion  rather  en  passant;  and  if  we  notice  the  care 
Scheeben  takes  to  assert  that  grace  is  the  essential 
factor  of  our  adoption,  the  pre.sence  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  being  only  an  integral  part  and  substantial 
complement  of  the  same,  there  will  be  little  room  for 
alarm  as  to  the  orthodoxy  of  these  distinguished 
writers.  The  innovation,  however,  was  not  happy. 
It  did  not  blend  with  the  obvious  teaching  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  It  ignored  the  terse  interpretation 
given  in  the  CatechLsm  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  It 
served  only  to  compUcatc  and  obscure  that  simple 
and  direct  traditional  theory,  accounting  for  our  re- 
generation and  adoption  by  the  self.same  factor.  Still 
it  had  the  atlvantage  of  throwing  a  stronger  light 
upon  the  connotations  of  sanctifying  grace,  and  of 
.setting  olT  in  purer  relief  the  relations  of  the  sanctified 
and  adopted  soul  with  the  Three  Per-sons  of  the 
Blessed  Trinity:  with  the  Father,  the  -Author  ami 
Giver  of  grace;  with  the  Incarnate  Son,  the  merito- 
rious Cau.se  and  Exemplar  of  our  adoption;  and 
especially  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Bond  of  our 
union  with  God,  and  the  infallible  Pledge  of  our  in- 
heritance. It  al.so  brotiglit  us  back  to  the  .somewhat 
forgotten  ethical  lessons  of  our  communion  with  the 
Triune  God,  and  especially  with  the  Holy  (ihost, 
lessons  .so  much  iiLsisted  upon  in  ancient  "patristic 
literature  and  the  in.spired  writings.  "The  Threo 
Persons  of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  the  Father,  the  Son 
an<l  the  Holy  Ghost",  says  St.  Augustine  (Tract  70; 
In  Joan),  "come  to  us  as  long  as  we  go  to  Them, 
They  come  with  Their  help,  if  we  go  with  submi.vsion. 
They  come  with  light,  if  we  go  to  learn;  They  come 
to  replenish,  if  we  go  to  be  filled,  that  our  vision  of 


ADOPTIONISM 


15U 


ADOPTIONISM 


Tliem  be  not  from  without  but  from  within,  and  that 
Their  indwelling  in  us  be  not  fleeting  but  eternal." 
And  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.,  iii.  16. 17),  "Know  you  not  that 
you  are  the  temple  of  God  and  that  the  Spirit  of 
God  dwelleth  in  you?  But  if  any  man  violate  the 
temple  of  God,  him  shall  God  destroy.  For  the 
temple  of  God  is  holy,  which  you  are. "  From  what 
has  been  said,  it  is  manifest  that  our  supernatural 
adoption  is  an  inmiediate  and  necessary  property  of 
sanctifying  grace.  The  jirimal  concept  of  sanctifying 
grace  is  a  new  God-given  and  God-like  life  super- 
added to  our  natural  life.  By  that  very  Ufe  we  are 
bom  to  God  even  as  the  child  to  its  parent,  and  thus 
we  acquire  a  new  filiation.  This  filiation  is  called 
adoption  for  two  reasons:  first,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  one  natural  filiation  which  belongs  to  Jesus; 
second,  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  we  have  it  only 
through  the  free  choice  and  merciful  condescension 
of  God.  Again,  as  from  our  natural  filiation  many 
social  relations  crop  up  between  us  and  the  rest  of 
the  world,  so  our  divine  life  and  adoption  establish 
manifold  relations  between  the  regenerate  and 
adopted  soul  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Triune  God 
on  the  other.  It  was  not  without  reason  that  Script- 
ure and  the  Eastern  Church  singled  out  the  Tliird 
Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  as  the  special  term  of 
these  higher  relations.  Adoption  is  the  work  of  love. 
"What  is  adoption,"  says  the  Council  of  Frankfort, 
"if  not  a  union  of  love?"  It  is,  therefore,  meet  that 
it  should  be  traced  to,  and  terminate  in,  the  intimate 
presence  of  the  Spirit  of  Love. 

WiLHELM  .VND  Sc.\N.VELL.  A  Manual  of  Catholic  Theology 
baaed  on  Scheeben's  Donmatik  (London,  1S90);  Hunter,  Out- 
lines of  Dogmatic  Theology  (New  York,  1894);  Nieremberg- 
ScHEEBEN,  The  Glories  of  Divine  Grace  (New  York,  1885); 
Devine,  Manual  of  Ascetic  Theology  or  the  Supernatural  Life 
j>f  the  Soul  (London,  1902);  Newman,  St.  Athanasius,  II, 
Deification,  Grace  of  God,  Divine  Indwelling,  Sanctification 
<London,  1895);  Bellamy,  La  vie  aumaturelle  (Paris,  1895); 
Terrien,  La  Ordce  el  La  Gloire  (Paris,  1897);  Lessids.  De 
Perfectionibus  Moribusque  Divinis;  De  Summo  Bono  et  JStemA 
Beatitudine  (Antwerp.  1C20;  Paris,  1881);  Pet.avius,  Opus 
de  Theologicis  Dogmalibus  (Bar-le-Duc,  1867);  Scheeben, 
Handbuch  der  kathol.  Dogmatik  (Freiburg,  1873);  see  also 
current  treatises  on  grace;  Mazzella,  Hdrter,  Pesch. 
Katschthaler. 

J.    F.    SOLLIER. 

Adoptionism,  in  a  broad  sense,  a  christological 
theory  according  to  which  Christ,  as  man.  is  the 
adoptive  Son  of  God;  the  precise  import  of  the  word 
varies  with  the  successive  stages  and  exponents  of  the 
theory.  Roughly,  we  have  (1)  the  adoptionism  of 
Elipandus  and  Felix  in  the  eighth  century;  (2)  the 
Neo-.\doptionism  of  Abelard  in  the  twelfth  century; 
(3)  the  qualified  Adoptionism  of  some  theologians 
from  the  fourteenth  century  on. 

1. — Adoptionism  of  Elipandus  and  Felix  in  the 
Eighth  Century.  This,  the  original  form  of  Adop- 
tionism, asserts  a  double  sonship  in  Christ:  one  by 
generation  and  nature,  and  the  other  by  adoption 
and  grace.  Christ  as  God  is  indeed  the  Son  of  God 
by  generation  and  nature,  but  Christ  as  man  is  Son 
of  God  only  by  adoption  and  grace.  Hence  "The 
Man  Christ"  is  the  adoptive  and  not  the  natural  Son 
of  (iod.  Such  is  the  tlieory  held  towards  the  end 
of  the  eighth  century  by  Elipandus,  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  then  under  the  Mohammedan  rule,  and  by 
Felix,  Bishoi)  of  Urgel,  then  under  the  Frankish 
dominion.  The  origin  of  this  Illspanicus  error, 
as  it  was  called,  is  obscure.  Nestorianism  had  been 
a  decidedly  Eastern  heresy  and  we  are  surprised  to 
find  an  offshoot  of  it  in  the  most  western  part  of 
the  Western  Church,  and  this  so  long  after  the  parent 
here.«!y  had  found  a  grave  in  its  native  land.  It  is, 
however,  noteworthy  that  Adoptionism  began  in  that 
part  of  Spain  where  Islumisni  dominated,  and  wliere 
a  Nestorian  colony  had  for  years  found  refuge.  The 
combined  infiucnce  of  Islamisin  and  Nestorianism 
had,  no  doubt,  blunted  the  aged  Elipandus's  Catholic 
venae.     Then  came  a  certain  Migetius,  preaching  a 


loose  doctrine,  and  holding,  among  other  errors,  that 
the  Second  Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  did  not 
exist  before  the  Incarnation.  The  better  to  confute 
this  error,  Elipandus  drew  a  hard  and  fast  line  be- 
tween Jesus  as  God  and  Jesus  as  Man,  the  former 
being  the  natural,  and  the  latter  merely  the  adoptive 
Son  of  God.  Tliis  reassertion  of  Nestorianism  raised 
a  storm  of  protest  from  Catholics,  headed  by  Beatus, 
Abbot  of  Libana,  and  Etherius,  Bishop  of  Osma. 
It  was  to  maintain  his  position  that  Elipandus  deftly 
enlisted  the  co-operation  of  Felix  of  t'rgel,  known 
for  his  learning  and  versatile  mind.  Felix  entered 
the  contest  thoughtlessly.  Once  in  the  heat  of  it, 
he  proved  a  strong  ally  for  Elipandus,  and  even  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  new  movement  called  by  con- 
temporaries the  Hocresis  Feliciana.  While  Eli- 
pandus put  an  indomitable  will  at  the  service  of 
Adoptionism,  Felix  gave  it  the  support  of  his  science 
and  also  Punic  faith.  From  Scripture  he  quoted 
innumerable  texts.  In  the  patristic  literature  and 
Mozarabic  Liturgy  he  found  such  expressions  as 
adoptio,  homo  adoptivus,  Ms  derbs,  supposedly  ap>- 
plied  to  the  Incarnation  and  Jesus  Christ.  Nor  did 
he  neglect  the  aid  of  dialectics,  remarking  '"Mth  sub- 
tilty  that  the  epithet  "Natural  Son  of  God"  could 
not  be  predicated  of  "The  Man  Jesus",  who  was  be- 
gotten by  temporal  generation;  who  was  inferior  to 
the  Father;  who  was  related  not  to  the  Father  es- 
pecially, but  to  the  whole  Trinity,  the  relation  in 
question  remaining  unaltered  if  the  Father  or  the 
Holy  Ghost  had  been  incarnate  instead  of  the  Son. 
Elipandus's  obstinacy  and  Felix's  versatility  were 
but  the  partial  cause  of  the  temporary  success  of 
Adoptionism.  If  that  offspring  of  Nestorianism  held 
sway  in  Spain  for  wellnigh  two  decades  and  e^•en 
made  an  inroad  into  southern  France,  the  true  cause 
is  to  be  found  in  Islamitic  rule,  which  practically 
brought  to  naught  the  control  of  Rome  over  the 
greater  part  of  Spain;  and  in  the  over-conciliatory 
attitude  of  Charlemagne,  who,  in  spite  of  his  whole- 
souled  loyalty  to  the  Roman  Faith,  could  ill  afford 
to  alienate  politically  provinces  so  dearly  bought. 
Of  the  two  heresiarchs,  Elipandus  died  in  his  error. 
Felix,  after  many  insincere  recantations,  was  placed 
under  the  surveillance  of  Leidrad  of  Lyons  and  gave 
all  the  signs  of  a  genuine  conversion.  His  death 
would  even  \\a,ve  passed  for  a  repentant's  death  if 
Agobar,  Leidrad's  successor,  had  not  found  among 
his  papers  a  definite  retractation  of  all  former  re- 
tractations. Adoptionism  did  not  long  outlive  its 
authors.  What  Charlemagne  could  not  do  by  diplo- 
macy and  synods  (Narbonne,  788;  Ratisbon,  792; 
Frankfort,  794;  Aix-la-Chapelle,  799)  he  accom- 
plished by  enlisting  the  services  of  missionaries  like 
St.  Benedict  of  Aniane,  who  reported  as  early  as  800 
the  conversion  of  20,000  clerics  and  laymen;  and 
savants  like  Alcuin,  whose  treatises  "Adv.  Elipan- 
dum  Toletanum"  and  "Contra  Felicem  Urgellensem" 
will  ever  be  a  credit  to  Christian  learning. 

The  official  condemnation  of  Adoptionism  is  to  be 
found  (1)  in  Pope  Hadrian's  two  letters,  one  to  the 
bishops  of  Spain,  785,  and  the  other  to  Charlemagne, 
794;  (2)  in  the  decrees  of  the  Cotuicil  of  Frankfort 
(794),  summoned  by  Charlemagne,  it  is  true,  but 
"in  full  apostolic  power"  and  presided  over  by  the 
legate  of  Rome,  therefore  a  sijnodus  unirer.iaUs, 
according  to  an  exjiression  of  contemporary  chroni- 
clers. In  these  documents  the  natural  divine  filia- 
tion of  Jesus  even  as  man  is  strongly  asserted,  and 
His  adoptive  filiation,  at  least  in  so  far  lus  it  excludes 
the  natural,  is  rejected  as  heretical.  Some  writers, 
mainly  Protestant,  have  tried  to  erase  from  Ailoiv 
tionisin  all  stain  of  the  Ncstorian  heresy.  These 
writers  do  not  seem  to  have  caught  the  meaning  of 
the  Church's  definition.  Since  sonship  is  an  attribute 
of  the  person  and  not  of  the  nature,  to  |)osit  two 
sons  is  to  posit  two  persons  in  Christ,  the  very  error 


ADOPTIONISTS 


lol 


ADORATION 


of  Nestoriaiiism.  Aleuin  exactly  renders  tlie  mind 
of  the  Church  when  lie  says,  "As  the  Nestorian  im- 
piety divided  Christ  into  two  persons  because  of  the 
two  natures,  so  your  unlearned  temerity  diviilcd  llim 
into  two  SOILS,  one  natural  and  one  adoptive"  (Con- 
tra Felicem,  I,  P.  L.  CI,  Col.  I'Mi).  With  regard  to 
the  arguments  adduced  hy  Kelix  in  support  of  his 
theory,  it  may  be  briefly  remarked  that  (1)  such 
scriptural  texts  as  John,  xiv,  'JS,  had  already  been 
explained  at  the  time  of  the  Arian  controversy,  and 
such  others  as  Rom.,  viii,  29,  refer  to  our  adoption, 
not  to  that  of  Jesus;  Christ  is  nowhere  in  the  Hible 
called  the  adopted  Son  of  Ciod;  nay  more.  Holy 
Scripture  attributes  to  "The  Man  Christ"  all  the 
prcclicates  which  belong  to  the  Kternal  Son  (cf.  John, 
i,  IS;  iii,  10;  Kom.,  viii,  32).  (2)  The  expression 
adojitarr,  adoptio,  used  by  some  Fathers,  has  for  its 
olijcct  the  sacred  Humanity,  not  the  person  of 
Chri.st;  the  human  nature,  not  Christ,  is  said  to  be 
ado|)ted  or  assumed  by  the  Word.  The  concrete 
expression  of  the  Mozarabic  Mi.ssal,  Homo  ailopta- 
tun,  or  of  some  Greek  Fathers,  vlit  $(t6s,  either  does 
not  apply  to  Christ  or  is  an  instance  of  the  not  in- 
frequent use  in  early  days  of  the  concrete  for  the 
abstract.  (3)  The  dialectical  arguments  of  Fcli.x 
cease  to  have  a  meaning  the  moment  it  is  clearly 
understood  that,  as  St.  Thomas  says,  "  Filiation  prop- 
erly belongs  to  the  person".  Christ,  Son  of  Ood, 
by  His  eternal  generation,  remains  Son  of  God, 
even  after  the  Word  has  assumed  and  substantially 
united  to  Himself  the  sacred  Humanity;  Incarna- 
tion detracts  no  more  from  the  eternal  .son.ship  than 
it  does  from  the  eternal  personality  of  the  W'ord. 
(See  Nestorianism.) 

II. — Neo-Adopliottistn  of  Abelard  in  the  Turlftk 
Century.  The  Spanish  heresy  left  few  traces  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  christo- 
logical  errors  of  Abelard  can  be  traced  to  it.  They 
rather  seem  to  be  the  logical  consequence  of  a  wrong 
construction  put  upon  the  hypostatical  union. 
Abelard  began  to  question  the  truth  of  such  expres- 
sions as  "Christ  is  God";  "Christ  is  man".  ISack 
of  what  might  seem  a  mere  logomachy  there  is  really, 
in  .\belard's  mind,  a  fundamental  error.  He  imder- 
stood  the  hypostatical  union  as  a  fusion  of  two 
natures,  the  divine  and  the  human.  .\nd  lest  that 
fusion  become  a  confusion,  he  made  the  sacred  Hu- 
manity the  external  habit  and  adventitious  instru- 
ment of  the  Word  only,  and  thus  denied  the  sub- 
stantial reality  of  "The  Man  Christ" — "Christiis  ut 
homo  non  est  aliquid  sed  dici  potest  alicuius  modi." 
It  is  self-evident  that  in  such  a  theorj-  the  Man  Christ 
could  not  be  called  the  true  Son  of  C!od.  Was  He 
the  adoptive  Son  of  God?  Personally,  Abelard  re- 
pudiated all  kinship  with  the  Adoptionists,  just  as 
they  deprecated  the  very  idea  of  tlieir  afliliation  to 
the  Nestorian  heresy.  But  after  Abelard's  theory 
spread  beyond  France,  into  Italy,  Germany  and  even 
the  Orient,  the  disciples  were  less  cautious  than  the 
master.  Luitolph  defended  at  Rome  the  following 
proposition  -"Christ,  as  man,  is  the  natural  son  of 
man  and  the  adoptive  Son  of  God";  and  Folmar, 
in  Germany,  carried  this  erroneous  tenet  to  its  ex- 
treme consequences,  denying  to  Christ  as  man  the 
right  to  adoration.  Abelard's  neo-Adoptionism  was 
rondenmed,  at  least  in  its  fundamental  principles, 
by  .Mcxander  III,  in  a  rescript  dated  1177:  "Wc 
forbid  under  pain  of  anathema  that  anyone  in  the 
future  dare  assert  that  Chri.st  as  man  is  not  a  sul)- 
staiitial  reality  (non  c.v.se  aliquid)  becau.se  as  He  is 
truly  God,  so  lie  is  verily  man."  The  refutation  of 
this  new  form  of  .'\doptionisni.  as  it  rests  altogether 
on  the  interpretation  of  the  hypostatical  union,  will 
be  found  in  the  treatment  of  that  word.  (See  Hvpcs- 
T.\Tic  Union.') 

III. — Qualified  Adoplitmism  of  iMter  Theoloffians. 
The  formulas  '  natiiial  Son  of  God  ",  "  adopted  Son 


of  God"  were  again  subjected  to  a  close  analysis  by 
such  theologians  as  Duns  .Scotus  (1300);  Durandus  a 
S.  Portiano  (1320);  Vasquez  (160-1);  Suarez  (lt)17). 
They  all  admitted  the  doctrine  of  Frankfort,  and 
confes.sed  that  Jesus  as  man  was  the  natural  and 
not  merely  the  adoptive  Son  of  God.  Hut  besides 
that  natural  sonship  resting  upon  the  hypostatical 
union,  they  thought  there  was  room  for  a  second 
filiation,  resting  on  grace,  the  grace  of  union  ((/ralia 
unionis).  They  did  not  agree,  however,  in  (|ualify- 
ing  that  second  filiation.  Some  called  it  adoptive, 
because  of  its  analogy  with  our  supernatural  adop- 
tion. Others,  fearing  lest  the  implication  of  the 
word  adoption  might  make  Jesus  a  stranger  to,  and 
alien  from  God,  preferred  to  call  it  natural.  None 
of  these  theories  runs  counter  to  a  defined  dogma; 
yet,  since  sonship  is  an  attribute  of  the  person,  there 
is  danger  of  multiplying  the  persons  by  multiplying 
the  filiations  in  Clirist.  A  second  natural  filiation 
is  not  intelligible.  A  second  adoptive  filiation  does 
not  sufficiently  eschew  the  connotation  of  adoption 
iis  defined  by  the  Council  of  Frankfort.  "W'e  call 
adoptive  him  who  is  stranger  to  the  adopter."  The 
common  mistake  of  these  novel  theories,  a  mistake 
already  made  by  the  old  Adoptionists  and  by  Abel- 
ard, lies  in  the  supposition  that  the  grace  of  union 
in  (jhrist,  not  being  less  fruitful  than  habitual  grace 
in  man,  should  have  a  similar  effect,  viz.,  filiation. 
Less  fruitful  it  is  not,  and  yet  it  cannot  have  the 
same  effect  in  Him  as  in  us,  because  to  Him  it  was 
said:  "Thou  art  ray  Son,  to-day  have  I  begotten 
Thee"  (Hebr.,  i,  5);  and  to  us,  "  Vou  were  afar  otT" 
(Eph.,  ii,  13). 

Works  of  Alcuin',  witfi  di.ssertations  by  Frohknius  an<l 
Enhubf.r.  p.  L.,  CI;  Birkh.euser,  History  of  ike  Chunk 
(New  York.  1891),  316;  Hhukck  (tr..  Pruente). //wfurj/.i/ :,u- 
Cilkolic  Ckurck  (New  York.  1884),  1,  299;  Hergkm.i.ihhi. 
Ilantlburk  tier  allgemeinen  Kxrchenotechichte  (4th  ed.,  Frei- 
liiirg.  1904\  137;  Hefei.e.  Concilitngeechichte  (FreiburK,  18SG;. 
III.  t>42:  QuiLLlET  and  PoRTALlfe.  in  Diet,  de  theol.  cathvlif/ue^ 
s.  v.;  ScHAFT,  Ilitt.  of  the  Ckriitian  Ckurck  (New  Y'ork.  190,')), 
IV;  St.  Thomas,  Sumrrn  Tkrot..  Ill,  Q.  xxiii;  Denzingkr.  En- 
ckiri^lion  .Si/mholorum  (Wiirzburg,  1895);  Wii.hei.m  and  Sca.n- 
NEi.L.  Manual  of  Catholic  Theology  (London.  New  York,  1898); 
Hunter,  Outline)  of  Dogmatic  Theology  (New  Y'ork,  1894); 
also  worlds  of  theologians  named  in  article  and  current  treatises 
De  incamatione  by  SxENTRtJP,  Pekch,  Katschthalfr,  and 
Franzelin. 

J.    F.    SOLLIER. 

Adoptionists.     See  Adoptionism. 

Adoration,  in  the  strict  sense,  an  act  of  religion 
offered  to  God  in  acknowledgment  of  His  supreme 
perfection  and  dominion,  and  of  the  creature's  de- 
pendence upon  Him;  in  a  looser  sen.se,  the  reverence 
shown  to  any  person  or  object  possessing,  inherently 
or  by  a.ssociation,  a  sacred  character  or  a  high  degree 
of  moral  excellence.  The  rational  creature,  looking 
up  to  God,  whom  reason  and  revelation  show  to  be 
infinitely  perfect,  cannot  in  right  and  justice  maintain 
an  attituile  of  indifference.  That  perfection  which 
is  infinite  in  itself,  and  the  source  and  fulfilment  of 
all  the  good  that  we  possess  or  shall  po.'^.'ie.'^s,  we  must 
worship,  acknowledging  its  immensity,  and  submit- 
ting to  its  supremacy.  This  worship  called  forth  by 
God,  and  given  exclusively  to  Him  as  God,  is  ilesig- 
nated  by  the  Greek  name  latrcia  (latini/ed,  Intria), 
for  which  the  best  tran.slation  that  our  language 
affords  is  the  word  Adoration.  Adoration  differs 
from  other  acts  of  worship,  such  as  supplication, 
confession  of  sin,  etc.,  inasmuch  as  it  formally  con- 
sists in  self-abasement  before  the  Infinite,  and  in 
devout  recognition  of  His  transcendent  excellence. 
.\n  admirable  example  of  adoration  is  given  in  the 
.\pocalypse.  vii.  11,  12:  "And  all  the  angels  stood 
round  about  the  throne,  and  about  the  ancients,  and 
about  the  living  creatures;  and  they  fell  before  the 
throne  unon  their  faces,  and  adored  God.  .saying- 
.\men.  Benediction  and  glorj-,  and  wi.sdom.  and 
thanksgiving,  honour,  and  jiower,  and  strength  to  our 
Ciod,  forever  and  ever,  .\men."     The  revealed  pre- 


ADORATION 


152 


ADORATION 


cept  to  adore  God  was  spoken  to  Moses  upon  Sinai 
and  reaflinncd  in  the  words  of  Christ:  "The  Lord 
thy  Clod  tliou  sluilt  adore,  and  Him  only  shalt  thou 
serve"   (Matt.,  iv,  10). 

The  primary  and  fundamental  element  in  adora- 
tion is  an  interior  act  of  mind  and  will;  the  mind 
percei%'ing  that  God's  perfection  is  infinite,  the  will 
bidding  us  to  e.Ktol  and  worship  this  perfection. 
Without  some  measure  of  this  interior  adoration 
"in  spirit  and  in  truth"  it  is  evident  that  any  out- 
ward show  of  divine  worsliip  would  be  mere  panto- 
mime and  falseliood.  But  equally  evident  is  it  that 
the  adoration  felt  within  will  seek  outward  ex- 
pression. Human  nature  demands  physical  utter- 
ance of  some  sort  for  its  spiritual  and  emotional 
moods;  and  it  is  to  this  instinct  for  self-expression 
that  our  whole  apparatus  of  speech  and  gesture  is 
due.  To  suppress  tliis  instinct  in  religion  would  be 
as  unreasonable  as  to  repress  it  in  any  other  province 
of  our  experience.  Moreover,  it  would  do  religion 
grievous  harm  to  check  its  tendency  to  outward 
manifestation,  since  the  external  expression  reacts 
upon  the  interior  sentiment,  quickening,  strengthen- 
ing, and  sustaining  it.  As  St.  Thomas  teaches, 
"it  is  connatural  for  us  to  pass  from  the  physical 
signs  to  the  spiritual  basis  upon  wliich  they  rest" 
(Summa  11-11,  Q.  xlviii,  art.  2).  It  is  to  be  expected, 
then,  that  men  should  have  agreed  upon  certain 
conventional  actions  as  expressing  adoration  of  the 
Supreme  Being.  Of  these  actions,  one  has  pre- 
eminently and  exclusively  signified  adoration,  and 
that  is  sacrifice.  Other  acts  have  been  widely  used 
for  the  same  purpose,  but  most  of  them — sacrifice 
always  excepted — have  not  been  exclusively  reserved 
for  Divine  worship;  they  have  also  been  employed 
to  manifest  friendship,  or  reverence  for  high  person- 
ages. Thus  Abram  "fell  flat  on  his  face"  before 
the  Lord  (Gen.,  xvii,  .3).  This  was  clearly  an  act 
of  adoration  in  its  higliest  sense;  yet  that  it  could 
have  otlier  meanings,  we  know  from,  e.  g.,  I  Kings,  xx, 
41,  wliich  says  that  David  adored  "  falling  on  his  face 
to  the  ground  "  before  Jonathan,  who  had  come  to  warn 
him  of  Saul's  hatred.  In  Hke  manner,  Gen.,  xxxiii,  3, 
narrates  that  Jacob,  on  meeting  his  brotlier  Esau, 
"bowed  down  witli  his  face  to  the  ground  seven 
times".  We  read  of  other  forms  of  adoration  among 
the  Hebrews,  such  as  taking  off  the  shoes  (Exod., 
iii,  5),  bowing  (Gen.,  xxiv,  26),  and  we  are  told  that 
the  contrite  publican  stood  when  he  prayed,  and 
that  St.  Paul  knelt  when  he  worshipped  with  the 
elders  of  Ephesus.  Among  the  early  Christians  it 
was  common  to  adore  God,  standing  with  outstretched 
arms,  and  facing  the  east.  Finally,  we  ought  per- 
haps to  mention  the  act  of  pagan  adoration  whicli 
seems  to  contain  the  etymological  explanation  of  our 
word  adoration.  Tlie  word  adoratio  very  probably 
originated  from  the  plirase  (manum)  ad  os  {miltere), 
which  designated  tlie  act  of  kissing  the  hand  to  the 
statue  of  tlie  god  one  wished  to  honour.  Concerning 
tlie  verbal  manifestation  of  adoration — that  is,  the 
prayer  of  praise — explanation  is  not  necessary.  The 
connection  between  our  inner  feelings  and  their 
articulate  utterance  is  obvious. 

Thus  far  wc  have  spoken  of  the  worship  given 
directly  to  God  as  the  infinitely  perfect  Being.  It  is 
clear  that  adoration  in  tliis  sense  can  be  offered  to  no 
finite  object.  Still,  the  impulse  that  leads  us  to 
worsliip  God's  perfection  in  itself  will  move  us  also 
to  venerate  the  traces  and  bestowals  of  that  perfection 
as  it  appears  conspicuously  in  saintly  men  ami  wonicn. 
Even  to  inanimate  ol)jccts,  wliicli  for  one  reason  or 
otlier  strikingly  recall  tlie  excellence,  majesty,  love, 
or  mercy  of  God,  we  naturally  pay  some  measure  of 
reverence.  Tlie  goodness  which  these  creatures 
pos,se.ss  by  participation  or  association  is  a  reflection 
of  God's  gooilne.ss;  by  honouring  them  in  the  proper 
way  we  oiler  tribute  to  the  Giver  of  all  good,     lie 


is  the  ultimate  end  of  our  worship  in  such  cases,  as 
He  is  the  source  of  the  derived  perfection  which 
called  it  forth.  But,  as  was  intimated  above,  when- 
ever the  immediate  object  of  our  veneration  is  a 
creature  of  this  sort,  the  mode  of  worship  which  we 
exhibit  towards  it  is  fundamentally  different  from 
the  worship  which  belongs  to  God  alone.  Latria,  as 
we  have  already  said,  is  the  name  of  this  latter 
worship;  and  for  the  secondarj-  kind,  evoked  by 
saints  or  angels,  we  use  tlie  term  dtdia.  The  Blessed 
Virgin,  as  manifesting  in  a  sublimer  manner  than 
any  other  creature  the  goodness  of  God,  dcser\-es 
from  us  a  higher  recognition  and  deeper  veneration 
than  any  other  of  the  saints;  and  this  peculiar  cultus, 
due  to  her  because  of  her  unique  position  in  the 
Di\'ine  economy,  is  designated  in  theology  hyperdutia, 
that  is  dulia  in  an  eminent  degree.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  neither  our  own  language  nor  the  Latin  possesses, 
in  all  this  terminologj',  the  precision  of  the  Greek. 
The  word  latria  is  never  applied  in  any  other  sense 
than  that  of  the  incommunicable  adoration  which  is 
due  to  God  alone.  But  in  English  the  words  adore 
and  worship  are  still  sometimes  used,  and  in  the  past 
were  commonly  so  used,  to  mean  also  inferior  species 
of  religious  veneration,  and  even  to  express  admira- 
tion or  affection  for  persons  living  upon  earth.  So 
David  adored  Jonathan.  In  like  manner  Miphibo- 
seth  "fell  on  liis  face  and  worshipped"  David  (II 
Kings,  ix,  6).  Tennyson  says  that  Enid,  in  her  true 
heart,  adored  the  queen.  Those  who  perforce 
adopted  these  modes  of  expression  understood  per- 
fectly well  what  was  meant  by  them,  and  were  in  no 
danger  of  thereby  encroaching  upon  the  rights  of 
the  Divinity.  It  is  hardly  needful  to  remark  that 
CathoUcs  too,  even  the  most  unlearned,  are  in  no 
peril  of  confounding  the  adoration  due  to  God  with 
the  religious  honour  given  to  any  finite  creature,  even 
when  tlie  word  worship,  owing  to  the  po\'erty  of  our 
language,  is  applied  to  both.  The  Seventh  General 
Council,  in  787,  puts  the  matter  in  a  few  words,  when 
it  says  that  "  true  latria  is  to  be  given  to  God  alone"; 
and  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV)  makes  clear 
the  difference  between  invocation  of  saints  and 
idolatry. 

A  few  words  may  be  added  in  conclusion  on  the 
offences  which  conflict  with  the  adoration  of  God. 
They  may  be  summed  up  under  three  categories,  that 
is  to  say:  worship  offered  to  false  gods;  worship 
offered  to  the  true  God,  but  in  a  false,  unworthy, 
and  scandalous  manner;  and  blasphemy.  The  first 
class  comprises  sins  of  idolatrj'.  The  second  class 
embraces  sins  of  superstition.  These  may  take 
manifold  forms,  to  be  treated  under  separate  titles. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  vain  observances  which  neglect 
the  essential  thing  in  the  worship  of  God,  and  make 
much  of  purely  accidental  or  trivial  features,  or 
which  bring  it  into  contempt  through  fantastic  and 
puerile  excesses,  are  empliatically  reprobated  in 
Catholic  theology.  Honouring,  or  pretending  to 
honour,  God  by  mystic  numbers  or  magical  phrases, 
as  though  adoration  consisted  chiefly  in  the  number 
or  the  physical  utterance  of  the  phrases,  belongs  to 
Jewish  Cabbala  or  pagan  mythology,  not  to  the 
true  worship  of  the  Most  High.  (See  Blasphemy; 
Idolatry;  Mauy;  Saints;  Wonsmp.) 

St.  Thomas,  Sumtna  II-II,  Q.  Ixxxiv;  Dictumanj  of  Chris- 
tian Antiquities  s.  v.  Prayer;  Hastings,  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  8.  V.  Adoration;  Beurlikr  in  Diet,  de  thfol.  cathotujue, 
9.   V.   Adoration. 

William  L.  Sullivan. 

Adoration,  Perpetual,  a  term  broadly  used  to 
designate  the  practically  uninterrupted  adoration  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament^  The  term  is  used  in  a  truly 
literal  sense,  i.  e.  to  indicate  that  the  adoration  is 
physically  perpetual;  and,  more  frequently,  in  a 
moral  sense,  when  it  is  interrupted  only  for  a  short 
time,  or  for  imperative  reasons,  or  through  uncon- 


ADORATION 


I5:i 


ADORATION 


trollable  circumstances,  to  be  resumed,  however,  wlieii 
possible;  or  it  may  indicate  an  uninterrupted  adora- 
tion for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  a  day,  or  a  few 
days,  as  in  the  devotion  of  the  Forty  Ilours;  or 
it  may  designate  an  uninterrupted  adoration  in  one 
spe<ial  church,  or  in  different  diurches  in  a  locality, 
or  diiKcsc,  or  country,  or  tlirouRhout  the  world. 
No  trace  of  the  existence  of  any  such  cxtra-hturgical 
cultus  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  can  be  found  in  the 
records  of  the  early  Church.  Ciiristian  Lupus,  in- 
deed, argues  that  in  the  days  of  St.  .\inbrosc  and 
St.  Augustine  it  was  cuslonuiry  for  the  neophytes 
to  adore,  for  eight  days  following  their  baptism,  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  exposed;  but  no  sound  proof  is 
adduced.  It  first  appears  in  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  It 
certainly  may  be  conjectured  that  such  adoration 
was  really  connoted  bj'  the  fact  of  reservation  in 
the  early  Church  (Duchesne,  Corblet,  Wordsworth 
and  Krankland),  especially  in  view  of  the  evident 
desire  to  have  the  Eucharist  represent  the  unity  and 
continuity  of  the  Church  (Duchesne,  Ciiristian 
Worship,  tr.,  185  sqq.),  as  it  is  unlikely  that  there 
would  not  be  some  continuation  of  the  adoration 
evidently  given  to  the  Host  at  the  Synaxis.  But 
such  conjecture  cannot  lie  insisted  upon  (1)  in  view 
of  the  remarkable  fact  that  no  trace  of  any  such 
adoration  is  to  be  found  in  the  lives  of  saints  noted 
for  their  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in 
Holy  Comniunion;  thus  it  is  remarkable  that 
St.  Ignatius  in  "The  Spiritual  Exercises,"  when 
directing  attention  to  the  abiding  presence  of  God 
with  His  creatures  as  a  motive  for  awakening  love, 
says  not  a  word  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (Thurston, 
Preface  to  "Coram  Sanctissimo ",  S  sqq.);  (2)  be- 
lau.-ic  of  the  practice  of  even  the  present  day  Greek 
Church  which,  although  believing  explicitly  in  tran- 
substantiation,  has  never  considered  Our  Lord  in 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  "our  companion,  and  refuge 
as  well  as  our  food"  (Tluu'ston,  ib.).  The  slowness 
with  which  the  Exposition  of  the  Blesscfi  Sacra- 
ment came  into  vogue,  and  the  also  slow  develop- 
ment of  the  custom  of  paying  Visits  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  [Father  Bridgett  as.scrting  that  he  had 
not  come  across  one  clear  example  in  England  of  a 
visit  to  the  Ble.s.sed  Sacrament  in  pre-Bcformation 
times  (Thurston,  ih.)],  render  it  increasingly  difficult 
to  make  out  a  case  for  any  adoration,  perpetual  or 
temporary,  outside  the  Mass  and  Holy  Communion 
(Corblet,  Histoire,  II,  1,  xviii.  1),  as  the.se  various 
lornis  of  devotion  are  do.sely  linked  together.  Most 
liturgists  rightly  attribute  the  Exposition  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  and  its  special  adoration  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Feast  of  Corpus  Christi  (q.  v.). 
But  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  first  recorded  in- 
stance of  Perpetual  Adoration  antedates  Corpus 
Christi,  and  occurred  at  Avignon,  (^n  14  Septem- 
ber, rj'2(),  in  compliance  with  the  wish  of  Louis  VII, 
who  had  just  been  victorious  over  the  Albigensians, 
the  Bles-sed  Sacrament,  veiled,  was  exixised  in  the 
Chapel  of  the  Holy  Cross,  as  an  act  of  thanksgiving. 
So  great  was  the  throng  of  adorei^  that  the  Bishop, 
Pierre  de  Corbie,  judged  it  expedient  to  continue 
(he  adoration  by  night,  as  well  as  by  day,  a  j)roposal 
that  was  subsequently  ratified  by  the  approval  of 
the  Holy  See.  This  really  Perpetual  .\doration,  in- 
terrupted in  1792,  wa.s  resumed  in  l.S2i),  through  the 
efforts  of  the  "Confraternity  of  Penitent.s-Gris" 
(.\nnales  du  .Saint-Sacrement,  III,  00).  It  is  said 
that  there  has  l)een  a  Perpetual  .\doration  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Lugo.  Spain,  for  more  than  a  thousand 
years  in  expiatio..  of  the  PrisciUian  heresy.  (Cardi- 
nal \'aughan  refers  to  this  in  an  official  letter  to  the  . 
Cardinal  Primate  of  Spain,  1S9.">.) 

IIisTouv.  — Ex|X)sition,  and  consequently  adora- 
tion, became  comparatively  general  only  in  the 
fifteenth  century.     It  is  curious  to  note  that  these 


adorations  were  usually  for  some  special  reason: 
c.  g.  for  the  cure  of  a  sick  person;  or,  on  the  eve  of  an 
execution,  in  the  hope  that  the  condemned  would 
die  a  happy  death.  The  Order  of  the  "Heligiosi 
bianchi  del  corpo  di  Gesii  Christo,"  a  Benedicliiio 
reform,  united  to  Citeaux  in  1393,  and  approved  later 
as  a  separate  community,  devoted  them.selves  to  the 
adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  Philip  II  of 
Spain  founded  in  the  Escorial  the  Vigil  of  the 
Ble.sseti  Sacrament,  religious  in  8uece.ssive  pairs  re- 
maining constantly,  night  and  day,  before  the 
Ble.s.sed  .Sacrament.  Bur,  practically,  the  devotion 
of  the  Forty  Ilours,  begun  in  1534,  and  ollicially 
established  in  1592,  developed  the  really  general 
Periietual  Adoration,  spreadmg  as  it  did  from  the 
adoration  in  one  or  more  churches  in  Rome,  until 
it  gradually  extended  throughout  the  world,  so  that 
it  may  be  truly  said  that  during  every  hour  of  the 
year  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  solemnly  expo.sed,  is 
adored  by  multitudes  of  the  faithful.  In  1G41 
Baron  de  Henty,  famous  for  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
SacTament,  founded  in  St.  Paul's  parish,  in  Paris, 
an  association  of  ladies  for  practically  a  Perpetual 
Adoration;  and,  in  1648,  at  St.  Sulpice  the  Perpetual 
Adoration,  day  and  night,  was  established  as  a 
reparation  for  an  outrage  committed  bj'  thieves 
against  the  Sacred  Host  (Huguet,  Devotion  !\  la 
Hainte  Euchar.,  3d  ed.,  456).  The  Perpetual  Adora- 
tion was  founded  at  Lyons,  in  1G67,  in  the  Church 
of  the  Hotel-Dieu.  In  various  places,  and  by  ditTer- 
cnt  people,  lay  and  religious,  new  foundations  have 
been  made  since  then,  the  history  of  which  can  be 
traced  in  the  valuable  "Ili-stoire  du  Sacrement  de 
I'Eucharistie,"  by  Jules  Corblet  (II,  xviii).  The  hist 
development  that  it  is  important  to  notice  here  is 
the  organization  at  Rome,  in  18S2,  of  "The  Per- 
petual Adoration  of  Catholic  Nations  represented 
in  the  Eternal  City  ".  Its  object  is  to  offer  to  God 
a  reparation  that  is  renewed  daily  by  some  of  the 
Catholic  nations  represented  in  Rome,  in  the  churches 
in  which  the  Forty  Hours  is  being  held,  as  follows: 
on  Sunday  by  Portugal,  Poland,  Ireland,  and  Lom- 
bardy;  on  Monday  by  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary, 
and  Greece;  on  Tuesflay  by  Italy;  on  Wednesday  by 
North  and  South  America,  and  Scotland;  on  Thurs- 
day by  France;  on  Friday  by  the  Catholic  Missions, 
and  Switzerland;  on  Saturday  by  Spain,  England, 
and  Belgium.  This  society  has  affiliations  through- 
out the  world. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  propagation  in  France 
during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  in  all  the  dnu-ches  and 
chapels  of  certain  dioceses.  The  earliest  mention 
of  this  practice  is  in  1658,  when  the  cliurches  in  the 
Diocese  of  Chartres  were  opened  for  this  purpose 
from  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  six  in  the  evening, 
and  wherever  there  were  religious  communities 
possessing  a  chapel  the  adoration  was  continued  day 
and  night.  So,  too,  in  Amiens  (1658);  in  I.vons 
(1667);  Evreux  (1672);  Rouen  (1700);  Boulogne 
(17.53).  In  this  last  diocese  the  parishes  were  di- 
vided into  twelve  groups,  representing  the  twelve 
months  of  the  year,  eacli  group  containing  as  many 
parishes  as  there  were  days  in  the  month  it  repre- 
sented. To  each  church  in  everj' group  wa-s  assigned 
a  day  for  the  adoration.  In  Bavaria  the  work  of 
the  Perpetual  Adoration,  Ix-gun  in  1674,  fell  into 
desuetude,  but  was  re-established  in  1S02,  and  on  a 
larger  scale  in  1873.  Interrupted  in  France  by  the 
Revolution,  the  Perpetual  Adoration  was  restored 
under  Louis  Philippe  in  some  dioceses,  but  especially 
in  1848,  by  the  influence  of  the  celebrated  pianist, 
Herrmann,  who  afterwards  became  a  Discahcd 
Carmelite,  under  the  name  of  Pt^re  Auguslin  of  the 
Ble,s.sed  Sacrament.  In  six  French  dioce.ses  the 
adoration  is  strictly  perjietual.  It  flourishes  also 
in  Belgium,  in  different  dioceses  of  Germany,  in  Italy, 


ADORATION 


154 


ADORO 


in  Mexico,  in  Rrazil,  and  other  South  American 
countries,  in  the  United  States,  and  Canada,  and 
even  in  tJceanica.  The  .Nocturnal  Adoration  is  car- 
ried on  in  many  countries  by  associations  of  men. 
The  first  confraternity  for  tlie  Nocturnal  Adoration 
called  "Pia  Unione  di  Adoratori  del  SS.  Sagra- 
mento"  was  founded  in  Rome,  in  1810.  In  Paris, 
before  the  passage  of  the  Associations  Law,  the 
Nocturnal  Adoration  was  practised  in  upwards  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty  churches  and  chapels  by 
more  than  twenty-five  hundred  men.  The  Noc- 
turnal .\doration,  at  Rome,  founded  in  1851,  and 
erected  into  an  arcliconfraternity  in  1S58,  practically 
completes  the  chain  of  associations  that  render 
perpetual,  in  a  strict  sense,  tlie  adoration  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  It  would  be  impossible  to  give 
here  an  adequate  notice  of  the  enormous  number 
of  Eucharist ic  associations,  lay  and  clerical,  formed 
for  the  work  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  two  associations  mentioned  by 
B^renger  (II,  104-110)  unite  the  work  of  providing 
poor  churches  with  ornaments,  eucharistic  vessels, 
vestments,  etc.,  for  the  adoration.  In  addition  to 
the  communities  and  associations  mentioned  above, 
we  shall  here  enumerate  only  the  most  important 
societies  whose  object  is  the  Perpetual  Adoration. 
A  comparatively  exhaustive  list  will  be  found  in 
Corblet   (op.   cit'.,  II,  444  sqq.). 

(1)  The  Society  of  Picpus  was  founded  in  1594, 
having  as  one  of  their  objects  to  honour  the  hid- 
den life  of  Christ,  by  the  Perpetual  Adoration 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  (2)  In  1868  the  privi- 
lege of  Perpetual  Adoration  was  granted  by  Pope 
Piux  IX  to  the  Sisters  of  the  Second  Order  of  St. 
Dominic  in  tlie  monastery  of  Quellins,  near  Lyons, 
France.  This  order  was  founded  by  St.  Dominic 
himself  in  1206,  the  constitutions  being  based  on 
the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  The  privilege  of  Per- 
petual Adoration  was  extended  to  the  few  mon- 
asteries, such  as  those  of  Newark,  New  Jersey, 
and  Hunt's  Point,  New  York  City,  which  were 
founded  from  Quellins,  but  not  to  the  other  con- 
vents of  the  order.  (3)  In  1647  the  Bernardincs 
of  Port  Royal  were  associated  to  the  Institute 
of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, and  joined  to  their  original  name  that  of 
Daughters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  (4)  Anne  of 
Austria  founded,  through  Mere  Mechtildc,  a  Benedic- 
tine, the  first  community  of  Benedictines  of  the  Per- 
petual Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  in  1654, 
an  institute  widely  spread  throughout  continental 
Europe.  The  members  take  a  solemn  vow  of  Perpet- 
ual Adoration.  During  the  conventual  Mass  one  of 
the  community  kneels  in  the  middle  of  the  choir,  hav- 
ing a  rope  around  her  neck,  and  holding  a  lighted 
torch,  as  a  reparation  to  the  Blessed  Eucharist  so  fre- 
quently insulted.  Their  password  is  "Praised  be  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  of  tlie  Altar".  It  is  their  saluta- 
tion in  their  letters  and  visits,  at  the  beginning  of 
their  office,  the  first  word  pronounced  on  waking,  the 
last  said  on  retiring.  (5)  'I'lic  Order  of  Religious  of  St. 
Norbcrt,  founded  in  1767  at  Coire  (Switzerland),  per- 
petually adore  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  singing 
German  hymns.  (6)  The  Perpetual  Adorers  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  (women),  commonly  known  as 
Sacramentines,  were  founiled  at  Rome,  by  a  Fran- 
ciscan sister,  and  were  approxed  by  Pius  VII  in 
1807.  During  their  nocturnal  adoration  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  remains  in  the  tabernacle.  (7)  The 
Si.sters  of  the  Perpetual  .Vdoration  at  Quimper  were 
founded  in  1S.'J5.  In  addition  to  the  Perpetual  Adora- 
tion, they  train  young  girls  to  become  domestics, 
or  teach  them  a  trade.  (8)  .\  Congregation  of 
Religicnis  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  was  founded 
in  1845  at  Einsiedeln,  Switzerland.  The  sisters 
wear  a  small  osten.sorium  on  the  breast,  to  indicate 
iheir  special  function  of  perpetual  adorers.     (9)  The 


Congregation  of  Ladies  of  the  Adoration  of  Repara- 
tion, founded  after  the  Revolution  of  1848,  have 
three  classes  of  members,  whose  common  duty  is  the 
Perpetual  .\doration.  (10)  The  Congregation  of  the 
Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  and  of  the  Poor 
Churches,  foundetl  originally  in  Belgium,  has  houses 
all  over  the  world.  By  a  special  decree  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  Indulgences  the  seat  of  tliis  arclicon- 
fraternity was  transferred  to  Rome  in  1879,  where 
it  absorbed  the  arcliconfraternity  of  the  same  name 
already  existing  there.  Its  work,  however,  is  not 
strictly  a  Perpetual  Adoration.  (11)  The  Society  of 
the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  founded  in  1857  by 
Pere  Eyniard,  is  perhaps  the  best  known  of  all. 
The  members  are  divided  into  three  classes:  (a)  the 
religious  contemplatives  consecrated  to  the  per- 
petual adoration;  (b)  the  religious,  both  contem- 
plative and  active,  who  are  engaged  in  the  sacred 
ministry;  (c)  a  Third  Order,  priests  or  laics,  who 
follow  only  a  part  of  the  Rule.  This  society  main- 
tains a  Eucharistic  monthly  called  "  Le  Tres  Saint 
Sacreinent";  the  .\merican  edition  is  called  "The 
Sentinel  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament ".  It  has  an 
auxiliary  society  of  female  religious,  and  hTs  houses 
all  over  the  world.  Its  houses  in  Montreal,  Canada, 
and  in  New  York  City  are  well  known.  (12)  The 
Eucharistic  League  of  Priests  through  its  monthly, 
"Emmanuel",  practically  maintains  the  Perpetual 
Adoration  among  its  priestly  members.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  enumerate  the  special  indulgences 
belonging  to  these  different  associations.  B^renger 
C'Les  Indulgences,"  II,  107  sqq.)  gives  a  list  of  those 
granted  to  the  Arcliconfraternity  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration,  wliich  will  indicate  the  rich  endowment 
made  by  the  Holy  See  to  these  Eucharistic  works. 

Corblet,  Histoire  Dogmatiqice,  Liiurqique  et  Archeoloffigue 
du  Sacremenl  de  I'Eucharistie,  2  vols.  {Paris,  1886),  contains 
a  most  complete  Eucharistic  bibliography,  embracing  books 
in  Latin,  French,  English.  German,  Dutch,  Swedish,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  and  Italian;  Le  Tres  iiaint  Sacrement;  B^renger. 
Les  Indulacnces,  2  vols.  (Paris.  1905);  Thurston,  various 
prefaces  and  essays  in  The  Month;  Duchesne.  Christian  Wor- 
ship, tr.  (London,  1903);  Wordsworth.  The  Ministry  of 
Grace  (London,  1901);  Frankland.  The  Early  Eucharist 
(London.  1902);  Helyot,  Les  Ordres  Religieux;  Moroni. 
Dizionario. 

Joseph  H.  McMahon. 

Adoration  of  the  Cross.     See  Cross. 

Adoration  of  the  Magi.    See  Magi. 

Adomo,  Francis,  a  celebrated  Italian  preacher, 
b.  1531;  d.  at  Genoa,  13  January,  1586.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  family  of  the  last  Doge  of  Genoa, 
and  was  born  three  years  after  the  name  of  the 
Adorni  was  suppressed,  and  the  office  of  Doge  abol- 
ished. This  measure  was  taken  to  put  an  end  to 
the  strife  of  165  years  between  that  family  and  the 
Fregosi,  whose  name  also  was  changed.  This  politi- 
cal revolution  was  effected  by  Andrew  Doria,  the 
famous  Genoese  admiral.  Francis  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  Portugal,  whither  he  had  been 
sent  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  was  recalled  to  Rome, 
where  he  taught  theology,  and  gained  at  the  same 
time  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  greatest 
orators  in  Italy.  He  was  the  first  rector  of  the 
College  of  Milan,  and  was  subsequently  charged  with 
the  administration  of  several  houses  of  the  Order. 
He  was  the  friend,  adviser,  and  confessor  of  St. 
Charles  Borromeo.  Besides  two  volumes  "De 
Discipline  Ecclesiastic^ ",  which  he  wrote  at  the 
request  of  St.  Charles,  there  remain  his  sermons, 
some  Latin  verse,  counsels  to  Herbert  Foglieta, 
"De  Ratione  lUustrandie  Ligurum  Historioe",  and, 
in  the  Ambrosian  library,  a  treatise  on  "Usury". 

Sommervooel.  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.       1"   J    CAMPBELL. 

Adomo,  Giovanni  Agostino.  See  Fr.^ncis 
Cahaccku.o.  Saint. 

Adoro  Te  Devote  (I  adore  Thee  devoutly),  a 
hymn    sometimes    styled    Rhythmus,    or   Oratio,   S. 


ADRIA 


155 


ADRIAN 


Thonue  (sc.  Aquinatis)  written  c.  1260  (?),  which 
forms  no  part  of  the  Ofhce  or  Mass  of  the  Rlessed 
Sacruniont,  althougli  found  in  the  Honiaii  Missal  (/u 
gratiaruin  luiioiie  pust  mi.isain)  witli  100  days  indul- 
gonce  for  priests  (siibse(|ueiitly  extended  to  all  the 
faithful  by  deeree  of  tlie  <S.  C  I ndutijerU.,  17  June, 
1895).  It  is  also  found  conunonly  in  prayer  and 
hymn-l)ool4s.  It  has  received  sixteen  translations  into 
Knglish  verse.  Tlie  Latin  text,  witli  Knglish  trans- 
lation, may  be  found  in  the  Baltimore  "Manual  of 
I'rayers"  (ti.i9,  6(50).  Kitlier  one  of  two  refrains  is 
iii.serted  after  each  quatrain  (a  variation  of  one  of 
wliich  is  in  the  Manual),  but  originally  the  hymn 
lacked  tlie  refrain. 

Monk,  hatrininrhe  Hvmnen  drt  MilUliillem.  I,  275-276,  for 
MSS.  variations  antl  elucidations  anil  for  two  rrfraina;  Danikl, 
Thraaurus  Hi/mnotogicu».  I,  25.')-25t>,  anil  IV.  2,14-235;  Julian, 
Dicl.  of  llumnoloyu,  s.  v..  for  first  lines  of  KnKlish  versions; 
American  Ecclea.  Rev.,  Feb,.  1896,  143-147.  for  text,  transl., 
rhythmic  analysis,  etc.;  also  ibid.,  167,  for  iniiulgence  ex- 
teniieil. 

11.  T.  Henry. 

Adria,  an  Italian  bishopric,  suffragan  to  Venice, 
which  comprises  55  towns  in  the  Province  of  Rovigo, 
and  a  part  of  one  town  in  the  Province  of  Padua. 
Tradition  dates  the  preacliing  of  the  Oospel  in  Adria 
from  the  days  of  St.  Apollinaris,  who  had  been  con- 
secrated bishop  by  St.  Peter.  The  figure  of  this 
Hishop  of  Ravenna  has  a  singular  importance  in 
the  hagiographical  legends  of  the  northeast  of  Italy. 
Recent  investigation  has  shown  that  even  if  Emilia, 
Romagna,  and  the  territory  around  Venice  were 
Christianized  and  had  bishops  (the  two  facts  are 
concomitant)  before  Piedmont,  for  example,  still 
their  conversion  does  not  go  back  beyond  the  end 
of  the  .second  century.  (See  Zattoni,  "II  valore 
storico  ilella  Passio  di  S.  .Xpollinare  e  la  fondazione 
deir  episcopato  a  Ravenna  e  in  Romagna",  in  the 
'  Rivista  storico-.Titica  delle  scienze  teologiche  ",  1, 10, 
anil  II,  3.)  The  first  bishop  of  .Xdria  of  whose  name 
we  are  positive  is  Oallonistus.  who  was  present  at  a 
synod  in  Rome  (649)  under  Martin  I  (Mansi,  XII). 
Venerable  Rede,  in  his  "  Martyrology  ".mentions  a  St. 
Colianus,  Bishop  of  Adria,  but  we  know  nothing 
about  him.  .Amongst  the  bisliops  of  Adria  is  the 
Blessed  Aldobrandinus  of  Kste  (1248-1.352).  This 
diocese  contains  80  pari.slics;  300  churches,  chapels, 
and  oratories;  250  secular  priests;  72  seminarians; 
12  regular  priests;  9  lay-brothers;  90  confraterni- 
ties; 3  boys'  schools  (07  pupils);  6  girls'  schools  (99 
pupils).     Population,    190,400. 

UoiiKl.l.l,  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1722),  II.  397;  Cappelletti. 
Le  chitse  d  Italia  (Venice,  1800),  X,  9;  Gam.».  S<Tif»  rpit- 
coporum  Ecclrtia  catholica:  (Uatisbon.  1873).  768;  Speroni, 
Adriensium  epiacoporum  aeries  hialarico-chronologica  monu- 
mmtia  illualrata  (Padua,  1788);  F,  C,  Diaaertazione  »u  d'  un 
anlico  raao  biilleaimaU  d  Adria  (Rovigo,  1840);  Uk  Vit,  Adria 
e  U  aue  antiche  cingraji  illuatraia  (Florence,  1888);  De  Lardi, 
Serie  cronoloffica  dei  veacovi  d' Adria  (Venice,  1851). 

Ernesto  Buon.\iuti. 

Adrian  I,  Pope,  from  about  1  February,  772,  till 
25  December,  795;  date  of  birth  uncertain;  d.  25  De- 
cember, 795.  His  pontificate  of  twenty-three  years, 
ten  months,  and  twenty-four  clays  was  unequalled 
in  length  by  that  of  any  succe.s.sor  of  St.  Peter  until 
a  thousand  years  later,  when  Pius  VI,  deposed  and 
imprisoned  by  the  same  Prankish  arms  which  had 
entlironed  the  first  Pope-King,  surpassed  Adrian 
by  a  pontificate  six  months  longer.  At  a  critical 
period  in  tlic  liistory  of  the  Papacy.  Adrian  possessed 
all  the  qualities  es.sential  in  the  founder  of  a  new 
dynasty.  He  was  a  Roman  of  noble  extraction  and 
majestic  stature.  By  a  life  of  singular  piety,  by 
accoiiiplishments  deemed  extraordinarj-  in  that  iron 
age,  and  by  valuable  .services  rendered  during  the 
pontificate  of  Paul  I  and  .Stephen  III.  he  had  so 
gained  the  esteem  of  his  unruly  countrj'men  that 
the  powerful  chamberlain,  Paul  .\fiarta,  who  repre- 
sented in  Rome  the  interests  of  Desiderius,  the 
Lombard  king,  was  powerless  to  resist  the  unanimous 


voice  of  the  clergy  and  people  demanding  for  Adrian 
the  papal  chair.  The  new  pontiff's  temporal  policy 
was,  from  the  first,  sharply  defined  and  tenaciously 
adhered  to;  the  keynote  was  a  steadfast  resistance 
to  Lombard  aggression.  He  released  from  prison 
or  recalled  from  exile  the  numerous  victims  of  the 
chamberlain's  violence;  and,  upon  discovering  that 
Afiarta  had  caused  .Sergius,  a  high  official  of  the  papal 
court,  to  be  assassinated  in  prison,  ordered  his  arrest 
in  Rimini,  just  as  Afiarta  was  returning  from  an 
embiussy  to  Desiderius  with  the  avowed  intention 
of  bringing  the  Po[5e  to  the  Lombard  court,  "were  it 
even  in  cliains."  The  time  seemed  propitious  for 
subjecting  all  Italy  to  the  Lombard  rule;  and  with 
le.ss  able  antagonists  than  Adrian  and  Charles  (to 
Ix!    famous    in    later    ages    as    Charlemagne),    most 

f)robably  the  ambition  of  Desiderius  would  have 
)een  gratified.  There  seemed  little  prospect  of 
Prankish  intervention.  The  Lombards  held  the 
passes  of  the  Alps,  and  Charles  was  engrossed  by  the 
difficulties  of  the  Saxon  war;  moreover,  the  presence 
in  Pavia  of  Cierberga  and  her  two  sons,  the  widow 
and  orphans  of  Carloman,  whose  territories,  on  his 
brother's  death,  Charles  had  annexed,  seemed  to 
offer  an  excellent  opportunity  of  stirring  up  discord 
among  the  Franks,  if  only  the  Pope  could  be  per- 
suaded, or  coerced,  to  anoint  the  children  as  heirs 
to  their  father's  throne.  Instead  of  complying, 
.•\drian  valiantly  determined  upon  resistance.  He 
strengthened  the  fortifications  of  Rome,  called  to  the 
aid  of  the  militia  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding 
territory,  and,  as  the  Lombard  host  advanced, 
ravaging  and  plundering,  summoned  Charles  to 
hasten  to  the  defence  of  their  common  interests.  An 
opjiortune  lull  in  the  Saxon  war  left  the  great  com- 
mander free  to  act.  Unable  to  bring  the  deceitful 
Lombard  to  terms  by  peaceful  overtures,  he  scaled 
the  .Alps  in  the  autumn  of  773,  seized  Verona,  where 
Cerbeiga  and  her  sons  had  sought  refuge,  and  be- 
sieged Desiderius  in  his  capital.  The  following 
spring,  leaving  his  army  to  prosecute  the  siege  of 
Pavia,  he  proceeded  with  a  strong  detachment  to 
Rome,  in  order  to  celebrate  the  festival  of  Easter  at 
the  tomb  of  the  Apostles.  Arriving  on  Holy  Satur- 
day, he  was  received  by  Adrian  and  the  Romans 
with  the  utmost  solemnity.  The  next  three  days 
were  devoted  to  religious  rites;  the  following  Wed- 
nesday to  affairs  of  state.  The  enduring  outcome 
of  their  momentous  meeting  was  the  famous  "Dona- 
tion of  Charlemagne",  for  eleven  centuries  the  Magna 
Charta  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pojies.  (See 
Ch.\hlem.\gne.)  Duchesne's  thorough  and  im- 
partial investigation  of  its  authenticity  in  his  edition 
of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  (I,  ccxxxv-ccxliii)  would 
seem  to  have  dissipated  any  reasonable  doubt.  Two 
months  later  Pavia  fell  into  the  hands  of  Charles; 
the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  was  extinguished,  and 
the  Papacv  was  forever  delivered  from  its  persistent 
anil  hereiiitarv  foe.  Nomin.ally,  Adrian  was  now 
monarch  of  above  two-thirds  of  tlie  Italian  penin- 
sula; but  his  sway  was  little  more  than  nominal. 
Over  a  great  portion  of  the  district  mentioned  in 
the  Donation,  the  papal  claims  were  permitted  to 
lapse.  To  pain  and  regain  the  rest,  Charles  was 
forced  to  make  repeated  cxi^editions  across  the  Alps. 
We  may  well  doubt  whether  the  great  King  of  the 
Franks  would  have  suffered  the  difficulties  of  the 
Pope  to  interfere  with  his  more  immediate  cares, 
were  it  not  for  his  extreme  personal  veneration  of 
Adrian,  whom  in  life  and  death  he  never  ceased  to 
proclaim  his  father  and  best  friend.  It  was  in  no 
slight  degree  owing  to  Adrian's  political  sagacity, 
vigilance,  and  activity,  that  the  temjwral  power  of  the 
Pajiacy  did  not  remain  a  fiction  of  the  imagination. 
His  merits  were  equally  great  in  the  more  spiritual 
concerns  of  the  Church.  In  co-operation  with  the 
orthodox  Empress  Irene,  he  laboured  to  repair  the 


ADRIAN 


156 


ADRIAN 


damages  wrought  by  the  Iconoclastic  storms.  In 
the  year  787  he  presided,  through  his  legates,  over 
the  Seventh  General  Council,  held  at  Nicipa,  in  which 
the  Catholic  doc-trine  regarding  the  use  and  venera- 
tion of  images  was  definitely  expounded.  The  im- 
portance of  the  temporary  opposition  to  the  decrees 
of  tlie  Council  throughout  the  West,  caused  mainly 
by  a  defective  translation,  aggra\-ated  by  political 
motives,  has  been  greatly  exaggerated  in  modern 
times.  The  controversy  elicited  a  strong  refutation 
of  the  so-called  "  Libri  Carolini "  from  Pope  Adrian 
and  occasioned  no  diminution  of  friendship  be- 
tween him  and  Cliarles.  He  opposed  most  vigor- 
ously, by  synods  and  writings,  the  nascent  heresy  of 
Adoptionisra  (q.  v.),  one  of  the  few  Christological 
errors  originated  by  the  West.  The  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis"  enlarges  upon  his  merits  in  embellishing  the 
city  of  Rome,  upon  which  he  is  said  to  have  ex- 
pended fabulous  sums.  He  died  universally  re- 
gretted, and  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's.  His  epitaph, 
ascribed  to  his  lifelong  friend,  Charlemagne,  is  still 
extant.  Rarely  have  the  priesthood  and  the  empire 
worked  together  so  harmoniously,  and  with  such 
beneficent  results  to  the  Church  and  to  humanity, 
as  during  the  lifetime  of  these  two  great  rulers.  The 
chief  sources  of  our  information  as  to  Adrian  are  the 
Life  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  (q.  v.),  and  his  letters 
to  Charlemagne,  preserved  by  the  latter  in  his 
"Codex  Carolinus".  Estimates  of  Adrian's  work  and 
character  by  modern  historians  differ  with  the  vary- 
ing views  of  writers  regarding  the  temporal  sover- 
eignty of  the  popes,  of  which  Adrian  I  must  be  con- 
sidered the  real  founder. 

Liher  Pontificalia  (ed.  Duchesne),  I,  486-523,  and  prtef. 
CCXXXIV  sq.;  ID.,  Les  premiers  temps  de  Vctat  pontifical 
(Paris.  1898);  J.iff6,  Regesta  RR.  PP.  (2d  ed.),  I,  289-306, 
II,  701;  ID.,  Bibl.  Rer.  Germanic.  (.Codids  Carol.  Epistolce), 
IV.  13-306;  Cenni.  Monum.  dominat.  ponlif.  (1761).  II, 
289-316.  also  in  P.  L.  XCVIII;  Mann,  The  Lives  of  the  Popes 
in  the  Early  Middle  Ages  (London,  1902),  I,  II,  395-496; 
Hefele,  History  of  the  Councils  (tr.).  Ill,  passim;  Niehues, 
Gesch.  d.  Verhaltnisses  zwischen  dem  Kaiserthum  u.  Papsthum 
im  Miltelalter  (Munster,  1877),  I,  517-546;  Gosselin,  Power 
of  the  Pope  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Baltimore,  1853),  I.  230  sq.; 
ScHNi-'RER,  Entstehung  des  Kirchenstaates  (Cologne,  1894). 
For  a  bibliography  of  Adrian  I  see  Chevalier,  Bio-Bibliogr. 
(2d  ed.,  Paris,  1905),  55,  56. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Adrian  II,  Pope  (867-872).— After  the  death  of  St. 
Nicholas  I,  the  Roman  clergy  and  people  elected, 
much  against  his  will,  the  venerable  Cardinal  Adrian, 
universally  beloved  for  his  charity  and  amiability, 
descended  from  a  Roman  family  which  had  already 
given  two  pontitts  to  the  Church,  Stephen  HI  and 
Sergius  II.  Adrian  was  now  seventy-five  years  old, 
and  twice  before  had  refused  tlie  dignity.  He  had 
been  married  before  taking  orders,  and  his  old  age 
was  saddened  by  a  domestic  tragedy.  As  pope,  he 
followed  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  his  energetic 
predecessor.  He  strove  to  maintain  peace  among 
the  greedy  and  incompetent  descendants  of  Charle- 
magne. In  an  interview  at  Monte  Cassino  he  ad- 
mitted to  communion  the  repentant  King  Lothair 
of  Lorraine,  after  exacting  from  him  a  public  oath 
that  he  had  held  no  intercourse  with  his  concubine 
since  the  pope's  prohibition,  that  he  would  take 
back  his  lawful  wife  Tlicutberga,  and  abide  by  the 
final  decision  of  the  Roman  See.  He  upheld  with 
vigour  against  Hincmar  of  Reims  the  unlimited 
right  of  bishops  to  appeal  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff. 
At  the  Eiglith  (leneral  Council,  which  he  convened 
at  Constantinople  in  SfiO,  and  presided  over  through 
ten  legates,  he  effected  the  deposition  of  Photius 
and  tlie  restoration  of  unity  between  the  East  and 
the  West.  He  wsis  unsuccessful  in  retaining  the 
Bulgarians  for  the  western  patriarchate;  that  nation 
unwisely  determined  to  adhere  to  Constantinople,  a 
course  which  was  destined  to  bring  upon  it  ruin 
and  stagnation.  Adrian  saved  the  western  Sla\s 
<rom  a  similar  fate    by  seconding  the  efforts  of   the 


saintly  brothers,  Cyril  and  Methodius.  Of  enduring 
influence,  for  good  or  evil,  was  the  endorsement  he 
gave  to  their  rendering  of  the  liturgy  in  the  Slavonic 
tongue.  Adrian  died  towards  the  close  of  the  year 
872. 

Liber  Pontif.  (ed.  Duchesne),  II,  173-190;  Jaff£,  Regesta 
RR.  PP.  (2d  ed.),  I.  368-375.  II,  703,  704.  745.  746;  Mansi, 
Coll.  Cone,  XV,  819  .sq.;  WATTERicn,  lite  Rom.  Pont.,  I, 
631  sq.;  Lap6tre,  Hadrien  II  et  les  fausses  decretales,  in 
Rev.  des  Quest.  Hist.  (1880),  XXVII,  377-431;  Artaud  de 
MoNTOR,  Lives  and  Times  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  (tr.  New 
York.  1867),  I,  225,  226;  Gorini,  Defense  de  lEglise  (1866), 
III.  20-38,  160-176;  Alex.  Natalis,  Hist,  Eccl.  (1778),  VI, 
399-409. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Adrian  III,  Saint,  Pope,  of  Roman  extraction,  was 
elected  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  884,  and  died  near 
Modena  in  the  summer  of  the  following  year,  while 
on  his  way  to  the  diet  summoned  by  Charles  the  Fat 
to  determine  the  succession  to  the  Empire.  He  was 
buried  in  the  monastery  of  Nonantula,  where  his 
memory  has  ever  since  been  held  in  local  veneration. 
By  decree  of  Pope  Leo  XIII  the  clergy  of  Rome  and 
Modena  celebrate  his  Mass  and  office  ritu  duplici  on 
7  September. 

Liber  Pontif.  (ed.  Duchesne),  II,  225;  Jaffe,  Regesta 
RR.  PP.  (2d  ed.),  I.  426,  427,  II,  705;  Quattrini,  Del  cullo 
del  papa  Sant'  Adriano  III  a  Nonantola  (Modena,  1889); 
Maini.  Le  piU  antiche  memorie  del  cxdto  a  Sant'  Adriano  III 
papa  (Modena,  1890);  Cirittit  Cattolka  (1890),  VI.  575-577; 
Analecta  Bolland.,  XIII,  61,  62;  Watterich,  Vitee  Rom. 
Pont.,  I.  650,  718;  Artaud  de  Montor,  Lives  and  Times  of 
the  Roman  Pontiffs  (tr.  New  York,  1867).  I.  251. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Adrian  IV,  Pope,  b.  1100  (?);  d.  1  September, 
1159.  Very  little  is  known  about  the  birthplace, 
parentage,  or  boyhood  of  Adrian.  Yet,  as  is  usual 
in  such  cases,  very  various,  and  sometimes  verj'  cir- 
cumstantial, accounts  have  reached  us  about  him. 
Our  only  reliable  information  we  owe  to  two  writers. 
Cardinal  Boso  and  John  of  Salisbury.  The  former 
wrote  a  life  of  Adrian,  which  is  included  in  the  col- 
lection of  Nicolas  Roselli,  made  Cardinal  of  Aragon 
in  1356  during  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  VI.  Boso's 
life,  published  by  Muratori  (SS.  Rer.  Ital.  III.  I, 
441-446)  and  reprinted  in  Migne  (P.L.,  CLXXXVIII, 
1351-60),  also  edited  by  Watterich  (Vitse  Pontificum, 
II,  323-374),  and  now  to  be  read  in  Duchesne's  edi- 
tion of  the  Liber  Pontificalis  (II,  388-397;  cf.  proleg. 
XXXVII-XLV),  states  that  Boso,  the  author  of  it, 
was  created  cardinal-deacon  of  the  title  of  Sts. 
Cosmas  and  Damian,  was  chamberlain  to  Adrian  and 
in  constant  and  familiar  attendance  upon  him  from  the 
commencement  of  his  apostolate.  [Ciacconius  says 
that  Boso  was  the  nephew  of  Adrian,  but  Watter- 
ich observes  (op.  cit.  prolegomena)  that  he  finds 
no  proof  of  this.]  Boso  tells  us  that  Adrian  was 
born  in  England  in  or  near  the  burg  of  St.  Albans, 
and  that  he  left  his  eoimtry  and  his  relations  in  his 
boyhood  to  complete  his  studies,  and  went  to  Aries 
in  France.  During  the  vacation  he  visiteil  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Rufus  near  Avignon,  where  he  took 
the  vows  and  habit  of  an  Austin  canon.  After  some 
time  he  was  elected  abbot  anil,  going  to  Rome  on 
important  business  connecteil  witli  the  monastery, 
was  retained  there  by  Pope  Eugenius  III,  and  made 
a  cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Albano  (1146).  Matthew 
Paris  agrees  in  some  measure  with  this,  for  he  tells 
us  that  on  Adrian's  applying  to  the  abbot  of  St.  Al- 
ban's  to  be  received  as  a  monk,  the  abbot,  after 
examining  him,  found  him  deficient  and  said  to  him 
kindly:  "Have  patience,  my  son,  and  stay  at  school 
yet  a  while  till  you  are  better  fitted  for  the  position 
you  desire. "  lie  states  further  that  ho  was  "  a  na- 
tive of  some  hamlet  under  the  abbey,  perhajis  Lang- 
ley",  and  I  may  add  that  it  is  now  tolerably  certain 
that  he  was  born  at  Abbot's  Langley  in  Hertford- 
shire, about  the  year  1100;  that  his  father  was  Rob- 
ert Brekespear,  a  m.an  of  humble  means,  though  of 
a  decent  stock;  and  that  Adrian  went  abroad  as  a 


ADRIAN 


lo? 


ADRIAN 


poor  wandering  scliolar,  like  John  of  Salisljury  and 
ina'iy  otiiers  at  that  time.  However,  Wilhani  of 
NewDurgh,  in  tlie  Nortli  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  an 
Austin  canon  and  a  liistorian  of  high  repute  (li:{{)- 
98?),  gives  a  very  difTeront  account,  which  he  prol)- 
ably  liad  from  the  neiglibouriiig  Cistercian  hou.scs 
of  Hievaiilx  and  Hyland.  "  lUigoiiius  111",  he  tells 
us,  "  was  succeeded  by  Nicolas,  Bishop  of  Albano, 
who,  clianging  his  name  with  his  fortune,  called  him- 
self Adrian.  Of  this  nuui  it  may  be  well  to  relate 
how  he  was  raised  a.s  it  were  from  the  dust  to  sit 
in  the  midst  of  ])rinces  and  to  occupy  the  throne  of 
apostdlic  glory.  He  wa.s  born  in  Lngland,  and  his 
father  was  a  clerk  of  .slender  means  who,  abandoning 
his  youthful  son,  became  a  monk  at  St.  Albans.  As 
the  boy  grew  up,  seeing  that  through  want  he  could 
not  afford  the  time  to  go  to  school,  lie  attended  the 
monastery  for  a  daily  iiittance.  Ilis  father  wa.s 
ashamed  of  this,  taunted  him  with  bitter  words  for 
his  idleness,  and,  highly  indignant,  drove  him  away 
disconsolate.  The  boy,  left  to  himself,  and  com- 
l)ellcd  to  do  soTMCtliing  by  hard  necessity,  ingenu- 
ou.sly  aslianied  cither  to  dig  or  beg,  crossed  over  to 
France."  lie  then  states  that  after  Adrian  was 
elected  .Vbbot  of  St.  Rufus  the  canons  repented  of 
tlieir  choice  and  came  to  hate  him,  and  appealed  to 
the  Pope  on  two  occasions,  bringing  divers  charges 
against  him  (II,  vi).  This  narrative  is  not  only  con- 
trary to  Hoso's  but  to  what  Adrian  himself  told 
.John  of  Salisbury.  "The  office  of  Pope,  he  assured 
me.  was  a  tliorny  one,  be.set  on  all  sides  with  sharp 
pricks.  He  wished  indeed  that  he  had  never  left 
luigland,  his  native  land,  or  at  least  hail  lived  his 
life  quietly  in  the  cloister  of  St.  Rufus  rather  than 
have  entered  on  such  difficult  paths,  but  he  dared 
not  refuse,  since  it  was  the  Lord's  bidding"  (Poly- 
craticus,  Bk.  IV,  xxviii).  How  could  he  have  looked 
back  witli  regret  to  quiet  and  happy  days  it  he  had 
encountered  parental  cruelty  at  St.  Albans  and  mon- 
astic insulmnlinatioTi  at  St.  Rufus?  In  1152  Adrian 
was  sent  on  a  delicate  and  important  mission  to  Scan- 
dinavia, a.s  papal  legate,  in  which  lie  acquitted  him- 
self to  tlie  satisfaction  of  everybody.  He  (■st;ibli.shed 
an  indepeiulent  archicpiscopal  .sec  for  Norway  at 
Trondhjem,  which  he  selected  chiefly  in  honour  of 
St.  Olaf.  whose  relics  repo.sed  in  its  church.  He  re- 
formed the  abuses  that  luul  crept  into  the  usages 
of  the  clerg}',  and  even  aided  in  bettering  the  civil 
institutions  of  the  country.  Snorro  relates  that  no 
foreigner  ever  came  to  Norway  who  gaineil  so  much 
public  honour  and  deference  among  the  [icople  as 
Nicholas  Brekespear.  He  w:us  preventeil  for  the 
time  from  establisliing  an  archicpiscopal  .see  in 
Sweden  by  the  rivalry  between  Sweden  and  Goth- 
land, the  one  party  claiming  the  honour  for  Upsala, 
the  other  for  Skara.  But  he  reformeil  abuses  there 
also,  and  established  the  contribution  known  as 
Peter's-pence.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  was  hailed 
as  the  Apostle  of  the  North,  and^  the  death  of  An- 
astasius  IV  occurring  at  that  time  (2  December, 
11.51),  he  was  on  the  following  day  unanimou.sly 
elected  the  succes.sor  of  St.  Peter;  but  the  office 
was  not  a  bed  of  ro.ses.  King  William  of  Sicily  was 
in  open  hostility,  and  the  professeil  friendship  of 
Frederick  Barbarossa  (q.  v.)  was  even  more  dan- 
gerous. The  barons  in  the  Campagna  fought  with 
each  other  and  with  the  Pope  and,  i.ssuing  from  their 
castles,  raided  the  coiintrj-  in  every  direction,  and 
even  robbed  the  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  the  tombs 
of  the  .Vpostles.  The  turbulent  and  fickle  populace 
of  Rome  was  in  oj)en  revolt  under  the  leadership 
of  .Arnold  of  Bre.scia.  Cardinal  (ierardus  was  mor- 
tally wounded  in  broad  daylight,  as  he  was  walk- 
ing along  the  Via  Sacra.  .Vtlrian,  a  detcnnined  man, 
at  once  laid  the  city  under  an  interdict  and  retire<l 
to  Viterbo.  He  forbade  the  ob.servance  of  any  sacred 
service  until  the  Wednesday  of  Holy  Week.     "Then 


were  the  senators  impelled  by  the  voice  of  the  clergy 
anil  laity  alike  to  prostrate  themselves  before  His 
Holiness."  Submission  was  matle,  and  the  ban  re- 
moved. The  Pope  returned  to  Rome,  and  Arnold 
escapetl  and  was  taken  under  the  protection  of  some 
of  the  bandit  barons  of  the  northern  Ctmipagna.  He 
was  subsequently  delivered  up  and  executed.  Mean- 
while Barbarossa  was  advancing  through  Lombardy, 
and  after  receiving  the  Iron  Crown  at  Pavia  had 
ai)])roaclied  the  confines  of  the  pajial  territory,  in- 
tending to  receive  the  imperial  crown  in  Rome  at 
the  hands  of  the  Pope.  After  some  negotiations  a 
famous  meeting  took  place  at  Sutri,  about  30  miles 
north  of  Rome,  on  the  9lh  of  June,  1155,  between 
Frederick  of  Hohenstauffen,  then  the  most  powerful 
ruler  in  Europe,  and  the  humble  canon  of  St.  Rufus, 
now  the  most  powerful  spiritual  ruler  in  the  world. 
As  the  Pope  aiiproached,  the  Emperor  advanced  to 
meet  him,  but  did  not  hold  the  Pope's  stirrup,  which 
was  part  of  the  customary  ceremony  of  liomage. 
The  Pope  said  nothing  then,  but  dismounted,  and 
the  I'.mperor  led  him  to  a  chair  and  kissed  his  slipper. 
Custom  leijuired  that  the  Pope  should  then  give  the 
ki.ss  of  peace.  He  refu.sed  to  do  so,  and  tohl  F'red- 
erick  that  until  full  homage  had  been  jjaid  he  would 
withhold  it.  This  implied  that  he  would  not  crown 
him.  Frederick  had  to  submit,  and  on  the  11th  of 
June  another  meeting  was  arranged  at  Ncpi,  when 
Frederick  advanced  on  foot  and  held  the  Pope's 
stirrup,  and  the  incident  was  closed.  I'rederick  was 
afterwards  duly  crowned  at  St.  Peter's,  and  took 
the  solemn  oaths  prescribed  by  ancient  custom. 
During  the  ceremonies  a  guard  of  imperial  troops 
had  been  placed  on  or  near  the  bridge  of  St.  Angelo 
to  protect  that  suburb,  then  known  ;is  the  L  onine 
City.  The  bridge  was  stormeil  by  the  republican 
troops  from  the  city  proper,  and  a  fierce  battle  en- 
sued between  the  imperial  army  anil  the  Romans. 
F'ighting  lasted  through  the  hot  summer's  day  and 
far  on  into  the  evening.  Finally  the  Romans  were 
routed.  Over  200  fell  as  prisoners  into  F'rederick's 
liaiuls,  including  most  of  the  leaders,  and  more  than 
1  ,II0U  were  killed  or  drowned  in  the  Tiber.  The  citi- 
zens, however,  held  the  city  and  refu.seil  to  give  the 
Emperor  provisions;  the  latter,  now  that  he  was 
crowned,  made  no  serious  effort  either  to  help  the 
Pope  apainst  the  Normans  or  to  reduce  the  city  to 
subjection.  Malaria  appeared  among  his  troops. 
"He  w.as  obliged  to  turn",  says  Ciregorovius,  in  his 
"  History  of  tlie  City  of  Rome'',  "and,  not  without 
some  painful  self-repro.acli,  to  abandon  the  Pope  to 
his  fate."  He  took  leave  of  him  at  Tivoli.  .and, 
marching  north  by  way  of  Farfa,  reduced  to  ashes  on 
his  route  the  ancient  and  celebrated  city  of  Spoleto. 
William  I  succeeded  his  father  on  tlic  throne  of 
Sicily  in  Februarj',  1154.  Adrian  refused  to  recog- 
nize him  as  king,  and  addressed  him  merely  as  Domi- 
nus  (Lord).  Hostilities  followed.  The  Sicilians  laid 
siege  to  Beneventum  without  result,  and  afterwards 
ravaged  the  sout  hern  Campagna  and  ret  ired.  Adrian 
excommunicated  William.  After  the  departure  of 
Frederick,  Adrian  collected  his  va.ssals  and  merce- 
naries and  marched  south  to  Beneventum,  a  papal 
po.ssession,  where  he  remained  until  June,  11.50.  It 
was  during  this  time  that  John  of  Salisbury  spent 
three  months  with  him,  and  obtained  from  him 
the  famous  Donation  of  Ireland  (see  page  158).  The 
fortune  of  war  favoured  William,  lie  captured 
Brundusium,  with  an  immense  store  of  provisions 
and  munitions  of  war,  and  five  thou.sanil  pounds' 
weight  of  gold  that  the  Creek  Emperor,  Manuel  I, 
intended  for  his  ally  the  Pope.  He  also  took  ca|>- 
tivc  many  wealthy  Cireeks,  whom  he  sent  to  Palermo, 
some  for  ransom,  but  the  greater  number  to  be  sold 
into  slavery.  This  practically  determined  the  i.s.sue 
of  the  war.  Peace  was  made  in  June,  115(),  and  a 
treaty  concluded.     The  Pope  agreed  to  invest  Wil- 


ADRIAN 


158 


ADRIAN 


liam  with  the  crowTis  of  Sicily  and  Apulia,  the  ter- 
ritories and  states  of  Naples,  Salerno,  and  Amalfi, 
the  XIarch  of  Ancona,  and  all  the  other  cities  which 
the  King  then  possessed.  William  on  his  part  took 
the  feudal  oath  and  became  the  liegeman  of  the 
Pope,  and  promised  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute,  and  to 
defend  the  papal  possessions  (Watterich,  op.  cit.,  II, 
352).  After  this,  the  Pope  went  to  Viterbo,  w^heie 
he  came  to  an  agreement  with  the  Romans,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  1157  returned  to  the  City.  T!ie 
Emperor  deeply  resented  the  act  of  the  Pope  in  in- 
vesting William  with  territories  which  he  claimed  as 
part  of  his  dominions,  and  for  this  and  other  causes 
a  conflict  broke  out  between  them.  (See  Alexan- 
der III,  Frederick  I,  Investitures.)  Adrian  died 
at  Anagni,  in  open  strife  with  the  Emperor,  and  in 
league  with  the  Lombards  against  him.  Alexan- 
der III  carried  out  the  intentions  of  Adrian,  and 
shortly  afterwards  excommunicated  the  Emperor. 

The  Don.^tion  of  Ireland. — It  was  during  the 
Pope's  stay  at  Beneventum  (1156),  as  we  have  stated, 
that  John  of  Salisbury  visited  him.  "I  recollect", 
he  writes,  "a  journey  I  once  made  into  Apulia  for 
the  purpose  of  visiting  his  Holiness,  Pope  Adrian  IV. 
I  stayed  with  him  at  Beneventum  for  nearly  three 
months"  (Polycraticus,  VI,  24;  P.  L.  CXCIX,  623). 
In  another  work,  the  "  Metalogicus  ",  this  writer  says: 
"At  my  solicitation  [ad  preces  mens]  he  gave  and 
granted  Hibernia  to  Henry  II,  the  illustrious  King 
of  England,  to  hold  by  hereditary  right  as  his  letter 
[which  is  extantj  to  this  day  testifies.  For  all  islands 
of  ancient  right,  according  to  the  Donation  of  Con- 
stantine,  are  said  to  belong  to  the  Roman  Church, 
which  he  founded.  He  sent  also  by  me  a  ring  of 
gold,  with  the  best  of  emeralds  set  therein,  where- 
with the  investiture  might  be  made  for  his  governor- 
ship of  Ireland,  and  that  same  ring  was  ordered  to 
be  and  is  still  in  the  public  treasury  of  the  King." 
It  will  be  observed  that  he  says,  "at  my  solicitation," 
and  not  at  the  request  of  Henry,  and  that  he  went 
"for  the  purpose  of  visiting"  {causd  visitandi),  not 
on  an  official  mission.  The  suggestion  that  because 
he  was  born  in  England  Adrian  made  Ireland  over 
to  the  Angevin  monarch,  who  was  no  relation  of  his, 
does  not  merit  serious  attention.  The  "Metalogicus" 
was  WTitten  in  the  autumn  of  1159  or  early  in  1160, 
and  the  passage  quoted  occurs  in  the  last  chapter 
(IV,  xlii;  P.  L.,  vol.  cit.,  col.  945).  It  is  found  in  all 
manuscripts  of  the  work,  one  of  w'hich  was  written 
possibly  as  early  as  1175,  and  certainly  before  1200. 
Nobody  questions  the  truthfulness  of  John  of  Salis- 
bury, and  the  only  objection  raised  to  the  statement 
is  that  it  may  be  an  interpolation.  If  it  is  not  an 
interpolation,  it  constitutes  a  complete  proof  of  the 
Donation,  the  investiture  by  the  ring  being  legally 
sufficient,  and  in  fact  the  mode  used  in  the  case  of 
the  Isle  of  Man,  as  Boichorst  points  out.  Adrian's 
Letter,  however,  creates  a  difficulty.  His  Bull,  us- 
ually called  "  Laudabiliter,"  does  not  purport  to  con- 
fer Hibernia  "by  hereditary  right",  but  the  letter  re- 
ferred to  was  not  "  Laudabiliter,"  b\it  a  formal  letter 
of  investiture,  such  as  was  used  in  the  case  of  Robert 
Guiscard  in  Italy,  e.  g.  "I  Gregory,  Pope,  invest  you, 
Duke  Robert,  with  the  land  of",  etc.  ("Ego  Gregorius 
Papa  investio  te,  Roberte  Dux,  de  terrfl,,"  etc.;  Mansi, 
Coll.  Cone,  XX,  313).  The  question  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  pas.sage  in  the  "  Aletalogieus  ",  impugned 
by  Cardinal  Moran,  W.  B.  Morris,  and  others,  must  be 
kept  quite  separate  from  the  question  of  the  genu- 
ineness of  "  Laudabiliter,"  and  it  is  mainly  by  mixing 
both  together  that  tlie  passage  in  the  "  Metalogicus  "  is 
assailed  as  a  forgery.  Boicliorst  (Mitthciliinscn  dcs 
Instituts  fiir  iJesterreichische  Geschichtsroischuni;  IV, 
supplementary  vol. ,  1893, p.  101)  rcganlstlie  Donation 
as  indisputable,  while  rejecting  "  Laudabiliter  "  as  a 
forjjery.  Liebermann  (Deutsciie  Zeitsclirift  fiir  Ge- 
schichtswissenschaft,   1892,   I,   58)   holds   the  same 


view.  Thatcher,  in  "Studies  Concerning  Adrian  IV; 
I.  The  Offer  of  Ireland  to  Henry  II,"  printed  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  the  Decennial  Publications  for  the 
University  of  Chicago  (Series  I,  Cliicago,  1903),  re- 
produces the  arguments  of  Boichorst.  Bishop 
Creighton  held  John  of  Salisbury  to  be  unanswerable 
(Tarleton,  p.  180).  The  overwhelming  weight  of  au- 
thority is  therefore  in  tUvour  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
passage  in  "  Metalogicus."  The  Bull  "  Laudabiliter  " 
stands  on  a  different  footing.  Opinions  have  hitherto 
been  sharply  divided  as  to  its  genuineness,  as  will 
be  seen  by  a  reference  to  the  end  of  tliis  article;  but 
these  opinions  have  been  formed  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  text  of  the  "  Laudabiliter  "  in  the  Book  of 
Leinster,  e.xcept  in  the  case  of  Boichorst,  who  refers 
to  it  casually  in  a  note  which  has  been  recently  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time  by  the  writer  (New  Ireland 
Review  March,  1906;  cf.  his  History  of  Ireland, 
xxvi,  Dublin,  1906).  To  the  text  of  tlie  Bull  are 
prefixed  the  following  headings:  "Ah!  men  of  the 
faith  of  the  world,  how  beautiful  [so  far  Gaelic]  when 
over  the  cold  sea  in  ships  Zephyrus  wafts  glad  tid- 
ings" [Latin] — a  Bull  granted  to  the  King  of  the 
English  on  the  collation,  i.  e.  grant,  of  H '.hernia,  in 
which  nothing  is  derogated  from  the  rights  of  the 
Irish,  as  appears  by  the  w'ords  of  the  text.  This 
was  almost  certainly  written,  and  probably  by  his 
old  tutor  Aedh  McCrimthainn,  during  the  lifetime  of 
Diarmaid  MacMurchada,  who  was  banished  in  1157, 
and  died  in  1171.  The  text  of  the  Bull  was  therefore 
no  medieval  scholastic  exercise.  Assuming  the  state- 
ments in  the  "Metalogicus"  to  be  correct,  the  texts 
relating  to  the  Donation  of  Adrian  may  be  conjectur- 
ally  arranged  as  follows:  (1)  The  Letter  of  Investi- 
ture referred  to  by  John  of  Salisbury,  1156;  (2)  "  Lau- 
dabiliter," prepared  probably  in  1156,  and  issued  in 
1159(?);  (3)  A  Confirmation  of  the  Letter  of  Inves- 
titure by  Alexander  III  in  1159  (?);  (4)  Three  Let- 
ters of  Alexander  III,  20  September,  1172,  in  sub- 
stance a  confirmation  of  "Laudabiliter."  The  Bull 
was  not  sent  forward  in  1156  because  the  offer  of 
Adrian  was  not  then  acted  on,  though  the  investiture 
was  accepted.  Robert  of  Torrigny  (d.  11S6  or  1184) 
tells  us  that  at  a  Council  held  at  Winchester,  29  Sep- 
tember, 1156,  the  question  of  subduing  Ireland  and 
giving  it  to  William,  Henry's  brother,  was  consid- 
ered; "but  because  it  was  not  pleasing  to  the  Em- 
press, Henry's  mother,  the  ejrpedition  uas  put  off  to 
another  time"  [intermissa  est  ad  tempus  ilia  expe- 
ditio].  This  clearly  implies  an  acceptance  of  the  in- 
vestiture and  supports  the  genuineness  of  the  passage 
in  the  "  Metalogicus."  Henry,  then  twenty-two,  had 
his  hands  full  of  domestic  troubles  with  the  refrac- 
tory barons  in  England,  with  the  Welsh,  and  with 
the  discordant  elements  in  his  French  dominions,  and 
could  not  undertake  a  great  military  operation  like 
the  invasion  of  Ireland.  And  not  having  done  so  in 
the  lifetime  of  Adrian,  he  would  certainly  require  a 
confirmation  of  the  Donation  by  Alexaiuier  before 
leading  an  army  into  a  territory  the  oveilordship  of 
which  belonged  to  the  latter.  The  Letter  of  (jon- 
firmation  is  found  only  in  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  first 
in  the  "  De  Expugnatione  Hibernia^"  (II,  v,  in  Rolls 
Series  V,  'MH),  and  again  in  the  "De  Instructione 
Principis"  (II,  c.  xix,  in  Rolls  Series  VIII,  197), 
where  the  te.xt  states  that  the  genuineness  of  the 
confirmation  was  denied  by  some.  This,  however, 
may  be  a  later  interpolation,  as  some  maintain.  The 
three  letters  of  20  .Scptcmlicr,  1172,  do  not  contain 
any  direct  confirmation  of  tlie  Donation  of  Adrian. 
They  are  addrcssod  to  Henry  II,  the  bishops,  and 
the  Kings  ami  cliicftains  of  Ireland  respectively.  The 
letter  addrc-s.-^cd  to  Henry  congnitulates  him  on  his 
success,  and  cxliorts  liim  to  ]irotcct  and  extend  the 
rights  of  tlie  Church,  and  to  offer  the  first  fruits 
of  his  victory  to  (iod.  A  point  is  made  that  there 
is  no  grant  of  Ireland  contained  in  the  letter,  nor 


ADRIAN 


159 


ADRIAN 


any  confirmation  of  a  previous  grant,  but  how  could 
we  expect  a  second  confirmation  if  Adrian's  grant 
liad  in  fact  been  already  confirmed  according  to  the 
text  in  (iiraldus?  There  is  no  ([ucslion  as  to  tlio 
genuineness  of  the  three  letters  of  the  20th  of  Sep- 
tember. Tliey  are  found  in  the  "  Liber  Scaccarii," 
and  are  printed  in  Migne  (P.L.  CC,  col.  882). 

The  Donation  of  Adrian  was  subse<iuently  recog- 
nized in  many  official  writings,  and  tiic  l'o|)e  for  more 
than  four  centuries  claimed  the  ovcrlnrdship  of  Ire- 
land. In  VMS  (1317?)  Domhnall  O'.Ncill  and  other 
kings  and  chieftains,  and  the  whole  laity  of  Ireland, 
forwarded  to  Pope  John  XXll  a  letter  of  appeal  and 
protest.  They  state  in  the  letter  that  I'ope  Adrian, 
mduced  by  false  representations,  granted  Ireland  to 
Henry  II,  and  enclose  a  copy  of  tiie  Hull  which  the 
context  shows  wivs"  l.audabiliter. "  On  30  May,  l.'Jl.S, 
the  I'ope  wrote  from  Avignon  a  letter  of  imternal 
advice  to  Kdward  II,  urging  him  to  redress  the  griev- 
ances of  the  Irish,  and  enclosed  O'Neill's  letters  and 
"a  copy  of  the  grant  which  Pope  Adrian  is  said  to 
have  made  to  Ilenry  II."  Edward  II  did  not  deny 
that  he  held  under  that  grant.  By  an  Act  of  the 
Irish  Parliament  (Parliament  Roll,  7th  Edward  IV, 
\nn.  14G7),  after  reciting  that  "as  our  Holy  Father 
Adrian,  Pope  of  Rome,  was  possessed  of  all  sover- 
eignty of  Ireland  in  his  demesne  as  of  fee  in  the 
right  of  liis  Church  of  Rome,  and  with  the  intent  that 
vice  should  be  subdued  had  alienated  the  said  land 
to  the  King  of  England  ...  by  which  grant  the  said 
subjects  of  Ireland  owe  their  allegiance  to  the  King 
of  England  as  their  sovereign  Lord,"  it  was  enacted 
"that  all  archbishops  and  bishops  shall  excommuni- 
cate all  disobedient  Irish  subjects,  and  if  they  neg- 
lect to  do  so  they  shall  forfeit  £100."  In  1,55.'>,  by 
a  consistorial  decree  followed  by  a  Hull,  Paul  IV,  on 
the  humble  supplication  of  Philip  and  Mary,  erected 
into  a  kingdom  the  Island  of  Hihernia.  of  wliidi, 
from  the  time  tliat  tlio  kings  of  England  obtained 
the  dominion  of  it  througli  tlie  .Vpostiilic  ."^oe,  they 
had  merely  called  themselves  Lorcls  {Domini),  witli- 
out  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  the  Roman  Church  and 
of  any  other  person  claiming  to  liave  right  in  it  or  to 
it.  [Bull.  Rom  (ed.  Turin.)  VI.  4.S'.),4'.)().1  In  1570 
the  Irish  had  offered  or  were  alxmt  to  offer  the  king- 
ship of  Ireland  to  Philip  of  Spain.  The  Archbishop 
of  Cashel  acted  as  their  envoy.  The  project  was 
communicated  to  the  Pope  through  Cardmal  .■Vlciato, 
who  wrote  to  the  .\rchbishop  of  Cashel  (9  June, 
1.570):  "His  Holiness  wiis  ;istonished  that  anj-thing 
of  the  kind  should  be  attempted  without  his  author- 
ity since  it  was  ea-sy  to  remember  that  the  kingdom 
of  Ireland  belonged  to  the  dominion  of  the  Church, 
was  held  as  a  fief  under  it,  and  could  not  therefore, 
unless  by  the  Pope,  be  subjected  to  any  new  ruler. 
And  the  Pope,  that  the  right  of  the  Church  may  be 
preserved  as  it  should  be,  says  he  will  not  give  the 
letters  you  ask  for  the  King  of  Spain.  But  if  the 
King  of  Spain  himself  were  to  ask  for  the  fief  of  that 
Kingdom  in  my  opinion  the  Pope  would  not  refuse". 
(Spicil.  Ossor.,  cd.  Card.  Moran,  I,  09).  In  conclu- 
sion there  is  not  in  my  judgment  any  controverted 
m.itter  in  history  about  which  the  evidence  prepon- 
derates in  favour  of  one  view  so  decisively  as  about 
the  Donation  of  .Adrian. 

The  principal  auttioriticH  for  the  life  of  A<trian  are  collecteil 
in  VVArrFRIcnH  lite  I'ontifirum  Romanorum  (wc.  IX-XIIl) 
adirriia  gttis  dtutue  rt  tinn/iUbuti  ft  documenlig  (frttrwribu» 
(LeipziK.  18f>2).  II.  He  uivcs  the  Ule  of  Adruin  bv  Ud.so, 
an.l  exiractit  from  the  annaU  of  Wii.i.iam  or  NF.wnrnGil, 
Wir.T.HM  OK  TvRK.  HoMi'Ai.u  OF  Sai.krno.  Otto  of  Fkfi.-*- 
INO.  Kai.kwix.  ami  (lonFnKV  of  Coloosk.  as  well  an  several 
letters  (II.  32.-J1.  There  i»  al.w  a  valuable  rimpler  (v)  of 
frolrgomrna  (1.  ].XX\).  To  Watterirh  may  be  a.hle.1  John 
OF  SAi.i.sBfRV  and  OniAl.niH  rAMliRKNHlK.  alreailv  nienlione.1. 
Raby,  I'ope  Adririn  thr  Fnurlh.  an  lluloricnl  Skilrh.  1S49; 
Alfred  TARitrroN.  .VirA<i//i«  Ilrrnktpmr  {Adrian  /l).  Ena- 
linhmnn  nml  /'d;x  (rx)n.lon.  lOOfil.  A^  to  the  Kemnneness  of 
J^tidnhilitrT,  the  literature  in  very  voluminoii!*.  The  follow- 
iiJK  nantes  may  be  mentione*!:  nxainst  it,  John  I.tnch,  i'nm- 
brrntU    A'r/rrfiM    (IfitiJ).    SrePHK.S    WlIITli    (il.    before    ICM), 


Arms  of  Adrian  V. 


_      _       II.  457;   RaunaUun.    Ann 
L.  1276';  2i).  27;  Muratori.  SS.  Rer.    lUxl..  Ill,  COS; 


Cardinal  Moran,  Don  Gabqdkt,  W.  B.  Morris,  the  writer 
in  AnaUcla  Juris  Pontificii  (1882),  A.  Bellesheiu,  Fflugk- 
Hautunu,  GiNNfc:LL.  HeroiuNRutiier.  Da.uui:ruek,  Scheffer- 
Hon-tloHsr,    F.    LiKUERUANN,   and   O.   Thatcher;    in    favour 

of    It:     I.INGARD,     l.ANIGAN,   J.    DlMOCK    (editor    of    C>IRALDC8    in 

HuUa  ^'rrw-a,  V,  Jllti — he  says  that  it  is  "indihputably  genu- 
ine"), J.  C  O'Callaghan,  S.  Malo.ne,  (J.  Pfclf,  Kate 
NoRQATE,  A.  Tarleton,  L.  Cahartelli.  None  of  these 
writers,  except  SchefTer-Boichorst,  refer  to  the  text  of 
LaudabitHtr  in  the  Book  of  Leinslrr,  which  is  by  far  the  most 
important  piece  of  evidence  bearing  on  the  question.  Aa 
extensive  biblioKrapby  of  the  subject  is  given  in  Chevalier, 
Rep.  dts  auurcea  hist,  du  mouen  dge  (Bio.-bibl..  2d  e<l..  Paris, 
1905).  56.  57.     Cf.  also  O.  J.  Thatcher  op.  cU..  154. 

Akthur  ua  Clekigh. 

Adrian  V,  Pope  (Ottobdon'o  Fieschi,  a  Cienoese, 
nopliew  of  Innocent  IV),  was  elected  at  Viterbo, 
12  July,  127(5.  -As  Cardinal 
Fieschi,  he  had  laboured  to  re- 
store harmony  in  England  be- 
tween Ilenry  III  and  the  re- 
bellious barons.  He  annulled 
the  rigid  enactments  of  Creg- 
ory  X  relating  to  the  papal 
conclaves,  but  died  before  sul>- 
stituting  milder  ones,  18  Au- 
gust. He  lived  just  long  enoucti 
to  experience  "how  gn:it 
the  mantle  weighs".  Dante 
(Purg.,  c.  xix)  held  an  inter- 
esting conversation  with  him 
in  Purgatory. 

Liber   Pontif.    (ed.    Duchesne), 
fcW.  arfon.. /^/fi;  20.  27;  Muratoi  _.  . 

Artacd  de  Montor.  Lives  and  Times  of  the  Roman  Ponliffa 
(tr.   New  York.   1807),   1.  454. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Adrian  VI,  Pope,  the  last  pnntefice  barbaro 
(Ciuicciardini,  XIV,  v),  and  the  only  pope  of 
modem  times,  except  Marcellus  II,  who  retained 
his  baptismal  name,  succeeded  Pope  Leo  X,  from 
9  January,  1522,  to  14  Sep- 
tember. 1523.  He  was  born 
of  humble  parentage  in  Ut- 
recht, 2  March,  1459.  He  lost 
his  pious  father,  Florentius 
Dedel,  at  an  early  age,  and 
was  kept  at  school  by  the 
fortitude  of  his  widowed 
mother,  first  at  home,  later 
at  ZwoUe  with  the  Brothers 
of  the  Common  Life,  finally  at 
the  University  of  Louvain. 
After  a  thorough  course  in 
philosophy,  theology,  and 
jurisprudence,  he  was  cre- 
ated Doctor  of  Divinity  in  1491.  Margaret  of 
Burgundy  defrayed  the  expenses  of  the  poor  student. 
His  popularity  as  professor  of  theologj'  in  Louvain 
is  shown  to  have  been  deserved  by  his  two  chief 
works,  "Qua>stiones  quodlibeticx"  (1521),  and  his 
"Commentarius  in  Lib.  IV  Scntentiarum  Petri 
Lombardi"  (1512),  which  was  published  without  his 
knowledge  from  notes  of  students,  and  saw  many 
editions.  As  dean  of  the  collegiate  church  of  St. 
Peter  in  Louvain,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity, he  laboured  to  advance  the  arts  and  sciences, 
sacred  and  profane,  and  gave  universal  edification 
by  a  life  of  singular  piety  and  severe  asceticism.  In 
1.506,  he  was,  happily  for  the  Church,  selected  by  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  as  tutor  to  his  grandson,  tho 
future  Charles  V,  then  in  his  sixth  year.  Whatever 
accomplishments  Charles  possessed,  beyond  the  art 
of  war,  he  owed  to  the  efforts  of  Adrian;  most  pre- 
cious of  all,  his  unalterable  attachment  to  the  Faith 
of  his  fathers.  Transferred  from  the  academic 
shades  into  public  life,  the  humble  profes-sor  rase  to 
eminence  with  wonderful  celerity.  Within  a  decade 
he  wius  the  associate  of  Ximenes,  Bishop  of  Tortosa, 
Grand  Inquisitor  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  Cardinal 


Arms  of  Adria.v 


ADRIAN 


160 


ADRIAN 


of  the  Roman  Church,  and  finally  Regent  of  Spain. 
He  was  no  less  surprised  than  the  rest  of  mankind 
when  the  intelligence  reached  him  that  the  unani- 
mous voice  of  the  Sacred  College  had  raised  him  to 
the  highest  dignity  on  earth.  Appalling  tasks  lay 
before  him  in  this  darkest  hour  of  the  Papacy.  To 
extirpate  inveterate  abuses;  to  reform  a  court  which 
thrived  on  corruption,  and  detested  the  very  name 
of  reform;  to  hold  in  leash  young  and  warlike  princes, 
ready  to  bound  at  each  other's  throats;  to  stem  the 
rising  torrent  of  revolt  in  Germany;  to  save  Christen- 
dom from  the  Turks,  who  from  Belgrade  now  threat- 
ened Hungarj'.  and  if  Rhodes  fell  would  be  masters 
of  the  Mediterranean — these  were  herculean  labours 
for  one  who  was  in  his  sixty-third  year,  had  never 
seen  Italy,  and  was  sure  to  be  despised  by  the  Romans 
as  a  "barbarian".  Adrian  accepted  the  responsi- 
bilities of  his  office  with  a  full  conception  of  their 
magnitude.  Charles  was  elated  at  the  news  of  the 
elevation  of  his  tutor,  but  soon  found  that  the  new 
pontiff,  notwithstanding  his  affection  for  him,  was 
resolved  to  reign  impartially.  Francis  I,  on  the 
contrary,  who  had  looked  upon  Adrian  as  a  mere 
tool  of  the  Emperor,  and  had  uttered  threats  of  a 
schism,  before  long  acquiesced,  and  sent  an  embassy 
to  present  his  homage.  Apprehensions  of  a  Spanish 
Avignon  were  baseless;  at  the  earliest  possible  date 
Adrian  embarked  for  Italy,  and  made  his  solemn 
entry  into  Rome  on  29  August.  Two  days  later  he 
received  the  triple  crown.  History  presents  no  more 
pathetic  figure  than  that  of  this  noble  pontiff, 
struggling  single-handed  against  insurmountable 
difficulties.  Through  the  reckless  extravagances  of 
his  predecessor,  the  papal  finances  were  in  a  sad 
tangle.  Adrian's  efforts  to  retrench  expenses  only 
gained  for  him  from  his  needy  courtiers  the  epithet 
of  miser.  Vested  rights  were  quoted  against  his 
attempts  to  reform  the  curia.  His  nuncio  to  Ger- 
many, Chierigati,  received  but  scant  courtesy.  His 
exaggerated  acknowledgment  that  the  Roman  Court 
had  been  the  fountain-head  of  all  the  corruptions  in 
the  Church  was  eagerly  seized  upon  by  the  Reformers 
as  a  justification  of  their  apostasy.  His  urgent  ap- 
peals to  the  princes  of  Christendom  to  hasten  to  the 
defence  of  Rhodes  found  unheeding  ears;  on  24  Octo- 
ber that  valiantly  defended  bulwark  of  the  Christian 
Faith  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  a  disaster 
which  hastened  the  Pontiff's  death.  His  unrelaxing 
activity  and  Rome's  unhealthy  climate  combined 
to  shatter  his  health.  He  died  appropriately  on  the 
feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  that  Cross  to  which  he  had 
been  nailed  for  more  than  a  year  (14  September, 
1.523).  His  monument,  erected  by  his  faithful  friend, 
Wilhelm  Enckenvoert,  is  still  seen  at  Rome,  in  the 
national  church  of  the  Germans,  Santa  Maria  dell' 
Anima,  with  its  quaint  inscription,  so  often  ad- 
mired, to  the  effect  that  even  the  best  of  men  may  be 
born  in  times  un.suited  to  their  virtues:  "  Proh  Dolor! 
Quantum  refert  in  qua;  tempora  vel  optimi  eujusque 
virtus  incidat"  [Gregorovius-Ampere  "  Les  tombeaux 
des  papes  Romains  "  (Paris,  18.59),  200,  201 ,  294, 295]. 
To  the  times,  in  fact,  was  it  owing,  not  to  any  fault 
of  his,  that  the  friond.ship  of  the  sixth  Adrian  and 
the  fifth  Charles  did  not  revive  the  happy  days  of 
the  first  Adrian  and  the  first  and  greatest  of  the 
Charleses. 

BuRRMANN,  Analecta  I/uloru-a  de  Hadriano  VI  (Utrecht, 
1727);  RF.U88ENR.  Syntagma  Tlieoloii.  Adriam  VI;  Anerdota  de 
vUA  el  scriplit  Adriani  VI  (Louvain.  1802):  Gaciiard.  Cor- 
retporulancc  de  Charles  QuinI  <•(  d'Adrii-n  VI  (Bnixelles,  18.')9); 
RoBl.NsoN.  riie  Month  (1877),  XXXI,  3riO:  Pastor.  Hint. 
Jahrb.  (1882).  Ill,  121-130.  The  classic  stiuhe.s  on  this 
pope's  life  are  those  of  Conhtantink  von  Hufi.ku,  among 
others  Der  deuturhc  KatJtrr  und  dcr  Ictztc  dciilnrhe  I'aptit  (\'ienna. 
187(0:  Uben  din  I'ltptlm  Adrian  VI  (Vienna.  1880);  cf.  his 
article  on  A.Irian  VI  in  KirckrnUz..  V.  142l)-27.  Ahtai'd 
Dr.  MoNTOR.  Liirt  and  Timet  of  the  Itoman  Pontiffs  (tr.  New 
York,  1867).  I,  098-707.  For  an  extensive  tiilihoeraphv  of 
Adrian  VI  aee  Chevalier,  Bio-Biblioar.  (2il  ed.,  Paris,  1905), 

"•^-  James  F.  LouGHLiN. 


Adrian,  Roman  Emperor.  See  Hadrian;  Ro- 
man Empire. 

Adrian  of  Canterbury,  Saint,  an  African  by 
birth,  d.  710.  He  became  Abbot  of  Nerida,  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  near  Naples,  when  he  was  very 
young.  Pope  Vitalian  intended  to  appoint  him 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  succeed  St.  Deusdedit, 
who  had  died  in  664,  but  Adrian  considered  him- 
self unworthy  of  so  great  a  dignity,  and  begged  the 
Pope  to  appoint  Theodore,  a  Greek  monk,  in  his 
place.  The  Pope  yielded,  on  condition  that  Adrian 
should  accompany  Theodore  to  England  and  be  his 
adviser  in  the  administration  of  the  Diocese  of 
Canterbury.  They  left  Rome  in  668,  but  Adrian 
was  detained  in  France  by  Ebroin,  the  Mayor  of  the 
Palace,  who  suspected  that  he  had  a  secret  mission 
from  the  Eastern  Emperor,  Constans  II,  to  the  Eng- 
lish kings.  After  two  years  Ebroin  found  that  his 
suspicion  had  been  groundless  and  allowed  Adrian 
to  proceed  to  England.  Immediately  upon  his  ar- 
rival in  England,  Archbishop  Theodore  appointed 
him  Abbot  of  St.  Peter  in  Canterbury,  a  monastery 
which  had  been  founded  by  St.  Augustine,  the 
apostle  of  England,  and  became  afterwards  known 
as  St.  Austin's.  Adrian  accompanied  Theodore  on 
his  apostolic  visitations  of  England,  and  by  his  pru- 
dent advice  and  co-operation  assisted  the  Archbishop 
in  the  great  work  of  unifying  the  customs  and  prac- 
tices of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  with  those  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Adrian  was  well  versed  in  all  the 
branches  of  ecclesiastical  and  profane  learning, 
lender  his  direction  the  School  of  Canterbury  became 
the  centre  of  English  learning.  He  established  nu- 
merous other  schools  in  various  parts  of  England.  In 
these  schools  of  Adrian  were  educated  many  of  the 
saints,  scholars,  and  missionaries,  who  during  the 
next  century  rekindled  the  waning  light  of  faith  and 
learning  in  France  and  Germany.  After  spending 
thirty-nine  years  in  England  Adrian  died  in  the  year 
710  and  was  buried  at  Canterbury.  His  feast  is 
celebrated  9  January,  the  day  of  his  death. 

Stanton.  A  Menology  of  England  and  Wales  (London, 
1892):  Ranbeck,  The  Benedictine  Calendar  (London.  1896); 
MoNTAi.EMBERT,  The  Monks  of  the  West  (Boston),  II,  344; 
Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints;  Lechner,  M artyrologium  des 
Benediktiner-Ordens  (Augsburg,  1852);  St.  Bede.  Life  of 
Adrian,  in  Hist.  Eccl.,  tr.  by  BARlNO-GonLn,  Lives  of  the 
Saints,  9  January. 

Michael  Ott. 

Adrian  of  Castello,  also  called  de  Corneto, 
from  his  birthplace  in  Tuscany,  an  Italian  prelate 
distinguished  as  a  statesman  and  reviver  of  learning, 
b.  about  1460;  d.  about  1521.  In  148S  he  was  sent 
by  Innocent  VIII  as  nuncio  to  Scotland,  but  was 
recalled  when  the  news  of  the  death  of  James  III 
reached  Rome.  However,  Adrian  had  arrived  in 
England  and  gained  the  favour  of  Henry  VII.  who 
appointed  him  as  his  agent  at  Rome.  In  1 489  he 
returned  to  England  as  collector  of  Peter'.-i-pcnce. 
and  in  1492  obtained  the  prebend  of  Ealdland  in 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  the  rectory  of  St.  Dunstan- 
in-the-East.  On  the  death  of  Innocent  VIII,  he 
returned  to  Rome,  where  he  acted  as  a  secretary  in 
the  Papal  treasury  and  also  as  ambassador  of  Henry 
VII.  In  1,502,  he  was  promoted  to  the  Bishopric  of 
Hereford.  In  1.50.'?  Alexander  VI  raised  him  to  the 
cardinalate  with  the  title  of  St.  Chrysogonus.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander  VI,  Adrian's  influence  in 
Rome  declined.  In  1.504  he  was  tran.slatcd  to  the 
Bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells,  but  never  occupied  the 
see.  In  1509,  fearing  the  displeasure  of  Julius  II, 
he  left  Roine  for  Venice,  and  later  for  Trent,  where 
he  remained  until  the  death  of  Julius  and  the  election 
of  Leo  .\.  when  he  returned  to  Rome  (1511).  He 
was  aK;iin.  in  1517,  implicated  in  a  charge  of  conspir- 
ing with  Cardinal  Pctrucci  to  poison  the  Pope,  and 
confessed  to  having  been  privy  to  tho  affair.  He 
was  forgiven  by  Leo,  but  found  it  safer  to  escape 


HISTORIADELAPRO 

VINCIADEL  SANCTO   ROSA. 

RIODELAORDENDE  PRE  DlC  AD  ORES  EN  PHl- 
LIPPINAS  ,IAPON,  Y  CHINA. 

POR  BL  REVERENDISSIMODON  FRAY  DIEGO 

Adiiirte  Obifpo  de  la  Nucvafegovia.Afiadidaporelmuy  Revcjendo 

Padre  Fray  Domiogo  Gonzalez  Comlflano  del  Bnc^o  Officio^    * 

vRegmte  del  ColeglodeSanfto  Thornajdela 

rv  mifma  Provinda.    r\t 


CONLICENCIA,EN  MANILA 

En  el  Colegio  d^  Saao  Thomas, por  Luis 
BelcranimprefFordelibros.  Anode  1(540. 


FAC-SlMirE  OF  TITLE  PAGE— A   IIISTORV   OK  THE  DOMINICAN 
ORUER  IN  THE  PHILIPPINES  (PUIiLISHED  AT  MANILA  IN   1640) 


ADRIANISTS 


IGl 


ADUARTE 


from  Rome  to  Venice.  He  never  appeared  in  Rome 
ag.iin.  He  had  previously  been  deprived  of  liis 
ollico  of  colli'ctor  of  Pct<.T's-()enee.  ami  on  5  July, 
l.'ils.  was  iltfiraiicd  from  the  cardinalate  and  his 
15islin|>ric  <;f  liath  given  to  Cardinal  Wolscy.  He 
was  long  associato<l  with  the  scholar  Polyilore  Vergil, 
who  was  liis  sub-collector  of  Peter's-pence  in  England. 
Among  his  writings  are  a  poem  in  elegant  Latiiiity, 
entitled  "Venatio"  (.Vldus,  1505),  and  treati.ses, 
"l)e  Vera  Philosophia "  (Hologna,  1507;  Cologne, 
15IS;  Rome,  1775);  and  "l)e  Sermone  Latino  et 
modo  Latine  loquenili"   (Basle,  1513). 

I'A.sTon,  lluinn/  of  Ihi-  Poprn.  ir.  ANTiionim,  V,  144-Hfi; 
VI.  50.  129.  132,  179.  2.S1 ,  3.",;!.  3(13.  370,  380  (London.  1891-98, 
St,  Louis.  1902);  Vacant  in  Diet.  Oiiol.  calh..  s.  v.;  Stkphens. 
Out.  Nitl.  Bion..  s.  v.;  I'oi.vn.  Vfaicn.,  Hial.  An,ilic.;  Huhter. 
NomenclUor  lilirarius,  IV,  940;  Wharton-.  Anglia  tiacra,  I, 
570;  Calendar  of  Stale  Pupera.  Henry  VII,  I  and  II;  Calendar 
of  Venetian  State  Papers,  I-IV. 

Thom.\.s  Walsh. 

Adrianists.    See  H.\msted. 

Adrianople,  a  city  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  Accord- 
ing to  legend.  ( Ircstes,  .son  of  .\gameninon,  built  this 
city  at  the  cDnlhicMco  of  the  Tonsus  (Toundja)  and 
the  .Vrdiscus  (.\rda)  with  the  Hebrus  (.Maritza). 
The  Emperor  Hadrian  developed  it,  adorned  it  with 
monuments,  clianged  its  name  of  Orestias  to  Hadri- 
anopolis,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Ha'mimont,  or  Thrace.  Licinius  was  defeated  tliere 
by  Constantine  in  323,  and  Valens  killed  by  the 
(ioths  in  378.  During  the  existence  of  the  Latin 
lunpire  of  Constantinople,  Theodore,  Despot  of 
lOpirus,  took  possession  of  it  in  1227,  and  two  years 
later  was  killed  there  by  .\sen.  King  of  the  Bulgarians. 
It  was  captured  by  .\murat  I  in  1360,  and  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  Turks  from  1302  to  1453.  It  was 
occupied  by  the  Russians  in  1829,  during  the  war  for 
(Irecian  independence,  and  in  1878,  in  the  war  for 
Bulg;irian  independence.  Adrianople  is  to-day  the 
principid  city  of  a  vilayet  (province)  of  the  same 
name,  wliich  has  about  960,000  inhabitants.  It  h.is 
a  thriving  commerce  in  woven  stuflfs,  silks,  carpets, 
and  agricultural  products.  Adrianople  contains  the 
ruins  of  tlie  ancient  palace  of  the  Sultans,  and  has 
many  beautiful  mosques,  the  most  remarkable  being 
that  of  Selini  II,  of  an  altogether  grandiose  appearance 
anil  witli  a  cupola  three  or  four  feet  higher  tnan  that 
of  St.  Sopliia.  The  city  suffered  greatly  in  1905, 
from  a  conflagration.  It  then  po.ssessed  about 
80,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  30,000  were  Mussul- 
mans (Turks  and  some  Albanians.  Tzigani,  and 
Circassians);  22,000  Greeks,  or  those  speaking 
Creek:  10,000  Bulgarians;  4,000  Armenians;  12,000 
.Jews;  2.0(11)  not  classifiable.  The  see  of  a  Greek 
metropolitan  and  of  a  Gregorian  Armenian  bishop, 
Adrianople  is  also  the  centre  of  a  Bulgarian  diocese, 
but  it  is  not  recognized  and  is  deprived  of  a  bishop. 
The  city  also  has  some  Protestants.  The  Latin 
Catholics,  foreigners  for  the  most  part,  and  not 
numerous,  are  uependents  of  the  vicariate-apostolic 
of  Constantinople.  \t  .\tlrianople  itself  there  are  the 
parish  of  St.  .-Anthony  of  Padua  (Minors  Conventual) 
and  a  school  for  girls  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  .\gram.  In  the  suburb  of  Kara-.\ghatch 
there  are  a  church  (Minor  Conventuals),  a  school  for 
boys  (.\ssumptionists).  and  a  school  for  girls  (Ob- 
lates  of  the  .Vssumption).  Each  of  its  mission  sta- 
tions, at  Rodosto  and  D<5d(5-.\ghatch,  has  a  school 
(.Minor  Conventuals),  and  there  is  one  at  Gallipoli 
(the  .V.ssumptionists).  From  the  .standpoint  of  the 
Oriental  Catholics,  .\drianople  is  the  residence  of  a 
Bulgarian  vicar-apostolic  for  the  I'niats  of  the 
vilayet  (province)  of  Thrace  and  of  the  principality 
of  Bulgaria.  There  are  4,600  of  them.  They  have 
18  parishes  or  missions,  6  of  which  are  in  the  princi- 
pality, with  20  churches  or  chapels,  31  priests,  of 
whom  6  are  .■Vssumptionists  and  6  arc  Resurrectionists; 
11  schools  with  070  pupils.  In  Adrianople  itself 
I.— U 


there  are  only  a  very  few  United  Bulgarians,  with 
an  episcopal  church  of  St.  Eli.os,  and  the  churches  of 
St.  Demetrius  and  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius.  The  last 
is  .served  by  tlie  Resurrectionists,  who  have  al.so  a 
college  of  90  pupils.  In  the  suburb  of  Kara-.Agliatch, 
the  .\.ssumptionists  have  a  parish  and  a  seminary 
with  .')0  pupils.  Besides  the  United  Bulgarians,  the 
above  statistics  include  the  Greek  Catholic  missions 
of  Malgara  and  Daoudili,  with  4  priests  and  200 
faithful,  because  from  the  civil  point  of  view  they 
belong  to  the  Bulgarian  Vicariate.      S.  Pktridks. 

Adrichem,  Chhlstlvm  Kiu'ik  van  (Christianus 
Crueius  .\drichomius),  Catholic  priest  and  theologie;il 
writer,  b.  at  Delft,  13  February,  1.533;  d.  at  Cologne, 
20  ,Iune,  1.58.5.  He  was  ordained  in  1500,  and  was 
Director  of  the  Convent  of  St.  Barbara  in  Delft  till  ex- 
pelled by  the  storm  of  the  Reformation.  His  works 
are:  "Vita  Jesu  Christi"  (Antwerp,  1578);  "Thea- 
trum  Terr.T  Sanctre  et  Biblicarum  Historiarum" 
(Cologne,  1.590).  This  last  work  gives  a  description 
of  Palestine,  of  the  antiquities  of  Jerusalem,  and  a 
chronology  from  Adam  till  the  death  of  John  the 
Apostle,  A.  D.  109. 

Van  Heussen  and  van  Run.  Krrkelijkf  hietorie  en  Outhfden 
der  10  vereen.  provinc.  III.  713;  Beschryving  der  Stadt  Delit. 
1729,  704  sqq.;  TllUM  in  Kirchenlex. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Adrichomius.    See  Adrichem. 

Adso,  .\bbot  of  the  Cluniac  monasterj'of  Moutior- 
en-Dcr,  d.  992,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem;  one 
of  the  foremost  writers  of  the  tenth  centurj-.  Born 
of  rich  and  noble  parents,  he  was  educated  at  the 
Abbey  of  Luxeuil,  was  called  to  Toul  as  instructor 
of  the  clergy,  and  made  .Vbbot  of  Moutier-en-Der 
in  960.  He  was  the  friend  of  Gerbert,  afterwards 
Silvester  II,  of  Abbo  of  Fleurj',  and  other  famous 
men  of  his  time.  Ilis  w-ritings  include  hymns,  lives 
of  saints,  among  them  a  life  of  St.  Mansuetus,  Bishop 
of  Toul  (48.5-.509),  a  metrical  rendering  of  the  second 
book  of  the  "Dialogues"  of  Gregory  the  Great,  and 
a  tractate  "De  Antichristo"  in  the  form  of  a  letter 
to  Queen  Gerberga,  wife  of  Louis  IV  (d'CJutremer). 
This  latter  work  has  been  attributed  to  Rabanus 
Maurus,  Alcuin,  and  even  to  St.  Augustine,  and  is 
quoted  by  Dollingor  among  other  writings  of  the 
medieval  conception  of  Antichrist.  It  is  printed 
among  the  works  of  Alcuin  (P.  L.,  CI,  12,S9-93). 
The  other  writings  of  Adso  are  also  found  in  Migne 
(P.  L.,  CXXXVI,  .5.89-003). 

ScjlRiiDL  in  Kirchrnlei.;  Rl\KT,  Hint.  LUl.de  la  France.  VI, 
471;  Dol.l.lNOF.R,  Prophecies  and  the  Prophetic  Spirit  in  the 
Christian  Era  (London,  1873),  83. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Aduarte,  Diego  Francisco,  missionary  and 
historian.  1).  1,566,  at  Saragos.sa,  in  Spain;  d.  at 
Nueva  Segovia,  in  the  Philippines,  about  1035. 
He  was  educated  at  the  I'niversity  of  Alcald  and 
entered  the  Dominican  Order,  In  1594,  with  other 
members  of  that  Order,  he  sailed  for  the  Philippines, 
landing  at  Manila  in  1595.  As  a  missionarj'  he  was 
conspicuous  even  among  the  heroic  apostles  of  that 
period.  He  first  devoted  himself  to  the  difficult  task 
of  catechizing  the  Chinese  residents  in  the  Philip- 
pines, and  met  with  unusual  success.  Shortly  after, 
lie  w.as  .selected  as  one  of  two  Dominicans  to  accom- 
pany a  military  expedition  in  aid  of  the  native  ruler 
of  Cambay.  .\fter  an  eventful  journey  of  more  than 
a  year  they  landed  in  .Siam.  only  to  find  that  the  aid 
arrived  too  late,  and  that  they  were  in  danger  from 
the  treacherj'  of  the  natives.  They  then  entered 
Cochin  China  for  the  purpose  of  evangelizing  the 
heathen,  but  were  obliged  to  retire  before  the  fert)city 
of  the  natives.  Several  such  journeys  by  sea  and 
land,  some  extending  over  many  months  and  even 
years,  during  which  he  sufTered  hunger  and  thirst 
and  equatorial  heats,  fell  to  his  lot  during  the  labori- 


ADULLAM 


162 


ADULTERATION 


ous  years  of  his  middle  and  later  life.  Yet  no  ob- 
stacles could  cause  him  to  waver  in  the  work  of 
spreading  tlie  light  of  faith.  From  Cochin  China  he 
returned  to  Manila,  and  went  thence  to  Spain  (1G03) 
in  the  interests  of  tlie  missions.  After  two  years 
spent  in  recruiting  suitable  missionaries,  he  sailed 
for  the  Philippines  in  1605.  He  had  already  (1595) 
been  made  prior  of  tlie  Dominican  convent  and  rector 
of  tlie  College  of  San  Tonuts.  In  1608,  he  was  called 
again  to  S])ain  to  act  as  Procurator  in  the  interests 
of  liis  order,  antl  lie  began  here  his  famous  history  of 
the  Dominican  Province  of  tlie  Philippines,  one  of 
the  most  important  sources  of  early  Spanish  history 
in  the  islands.  It  throws  much  light  on  the  relations 
of  Church  and  State  in  tlie  Philippines.  The  civil 
governors  of  the  islands,  often  unscrupulous  men, 
bent  on  enslaving  and  demoralizing  the  natives,  had 
put  these  relations  in  a  false  light.  The  work  of 
Fra  Diego  exhibits  truthfully  the  constant  checks 
which  the  religious  orders  put  upon  the  rapacity  of 
the  Spanish  seekers  of  wealth.  His  principal  works 
are  "  Relacion  de  niuclios  cristianos  que  han  decidido 
por  la  fe  catolica  en  el  Japon  desde  el  afio  1616  haste 
el  de  1628"  (Manila,  1632,  1640);  "Relacion  de 
algunas  entradas  que  han  hecho  los  religiosos  de  la 
orden  de  Predicadores  de  la  provincia  del  Santo 
Rosario"  (Manila,  1638);  "  Historia  de  la  provincia 
del  Santisimo  Rosario  de  Filipinas,  Japon  y  Chyna" 
(Manila,  1640,  and  Saragossa,  1693);  "Relacion  de 
los  gloriosos  martirios  de  seis  religiosos  de  San 
Domingo  de  la  provincia  del  Santo  Rosario"  (Manila, 
1634;  Valladolid,  1637),  a  rare  and  curious  work. 

TouRON,  Hist,  des  hommes  illusires  de  Vordre  de  S.  Domin- 
iqiie,  s.  v.;  Dice,  Endclop.  Hispano- Americana,  s.  v.;  Bl.mr 
AND  Robertson,  Collection  of  Documents  relating  to  the 
Philippine    Islands    Cvols.    XXX-XXXII). 

M.  S.  Welsh. 

Adullam,  Hebr.  'Adhullam,  Sept.  'OSoWdfi  Vulg. 
Odollam,  but  Adullam  in  Jos.,  xv,  35. — (1)  A  Chanaan- 
ite  city,  to  the  west  of  Bethlehem,  at  tlie  foot  of  the 
mountains  of  Juda.  From  the  hands  of  the  Chanaan- 
ites  (Gen.,  xxxviii,  1  sqq.)  it  passed  into  the  power  of 
Juda  ^Jos.,  xii,  15;  xv,  35),  was  fortified  by  Roboain 
(II  Par.,  xi,  7),  mentioned  by  tlie  prophet  Miclieas 
(i,  15),  and  after  tlie  exile  repeopled  bj'  Jews  (II 
Esdr.,  xi,  30;  11  Macli.,  xii,  38).  (2)  The  Cave  of 
Adullam,  the  shelter  of  David  and  his  followers 
(I  K.,  xxii,  1,2),  is  situated,  according  to  some,  six 
miles  southeast  of  Bethlehem,  in  the  Wady  Kharei- 
tun;  but  more  probably  near  the  city  of  Adullam. 

Clermont-Ganneau  and  Conder,  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund,  Mem.,  Ill,  301-367;  Mdir  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible,  I  (New  York,  1903). 

A.  J.  Ma.\s. 

Adulteration  of  Pood  (Lat.  adulterare,  to  pol- 
lute, to  adulterate).  This  act  is  defined  as  the  ad- 
dition of  any  non-condimental  substance  to  a  food, 
such  substance  not  constituting  a  portion  of  the 
food.  Even  this  carefully-worded  definition  is  not 
perfect.  Some  kinds  of  salt  provisions  have  so  much 
salt  added  that  some  of  it  has  to  be  removed  by 
soaking,  to  render  the  food  edible,  yet  this  does 
not  constitute  adulteration.  Adulteration  of  food 
has  long  been  practised.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
case  of  bread  by  Pliny,  who  also  says  that  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  Rome  in  procuring  pure  wines. 
Athens  had  its  public  inspector  of  wines.  England 
and  France  early  passed  laws  to  guard  against  the 
adulteration  of  bread,  and  as  far  back  as  the  days 
of  Edward  the  Confessor  public  punishment  was 
provided  for  the  brewers  of  bad  ale.  The  legal 
status  of  adulteration  is  largely  a  matter  of  statute, 
varying  with  each  governmental  body  which  attacks 
the  .subject.  Food  is  declared  adulterated  if  tliere 
is  added  to  it  a  substance  which  depreciates  or  in- 
juriously affects  it;  if  cheaper  or  inferior  substances 
are  substituted  wholly  or  in  part  for  it;  if  any  val- 


uable or  necessary  constituent  has  been  wholly  or 
in  part  abstracted;  if  it  is  an  imitation;  if  it  is  col- 
oured orotherwi.se  treated,  to  improve  its  appearance; 
if  it  contains  any  added  substance  injurious  to  health. 
These  are  examples  of  statutory  pro\isions.  Politi- 
cal considerations,  such  as  the  desire  to  protect  the 
food-producers  of  a  country,  may  affect  legislation. 
Thus  adulteration  may  be  so  defined  as  to  include 
foreign  products,  which  otherwise  miglit  be  treated 
as  unobjectionable.  Food-preservatives  ha^•e  a  very 
extensive  use,  which  often  constitutes  adulteration. 
Salt  is  the  classic  preser\ati\e,  but  is  also  a  condi- 
ment, and  is  seldom  classed  as  an  adulterant.  Sali- 
cylic, benzoic,  and  boric  acids,  and  their  sodium  salts, 
formaldehyde,  ammonium  fluoride,  sulphurous  acid 
and  its  salts  are  among  the  principal  preservatives. 
Many  of  these  appear  to  be  innocuous,  but  there  is 
danger  that  the  continued  use  of  food  preserved  by 
their  agency  may  be  injurious.  Extensi\c  experi- 
ments on  this  subject  have  been  performed  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Chemistry  and  by  the  Ger- 
man Imperial  Board  of  Health,  among  others.  Some 
preservatives  have  been  conclusively  shown  to  be  in- 
jurious when  used  for  long  periods,  although  their 
occasional  use  may  be  attended  with  no  bad  effect. 
Boric  acid  is  pretty  definitely  condemned,  after  ex- 
periments on  living  subjects.  Salicylic,  sulphurous, 
and  benzoic  acids  are  indicated  as  injurious.  The 
direct  indictment  against  preservatives  is  not  very 
strong.  The  principal  point  is  that  while  the  amount 
of  preservative  in  a  sample  of  food  might  be  innocuous, 
the  constant  absorption  of  a  preserving  chemical  by 
the  system  may  have  bad  effects.  Preservati\cs  are 
often  sold  for  household  use,  as  for  the  preparation 
of  "cold  process"  preserves.  If  really  made  without 
heat,  the  tendency  is,  on  the  housekeeper's  part,  to 
use  a  proportion  of  the  chemical  larger  than  that 
employed  by  the  manufacturer,  thus  increasing  any 
bad  effect  attributable  to  them.  Colouring  matters 
are  much  used.  Coal-tar  colours  are  employed  a 
great  deal,  and  have  received  legal  recognition  in 
Europe.  In  the  United  States  the  tendency  is  rather 
to  favour  vegetable  colours.  Pickles  and  canned 
vegetables  are  sometimes  coloured  green  with  copper 
salts;  butter  is  made  more  yellow  by  anatta;  tur- 
meric is  used  in  mustard  and  some  cereal  prepara- 
tions. Apples  are  the  basis  for  many  jellies,  which 
are  coloured  so  as  to  simulate  finer  ones.  This  is  an 
instance  of  the  use  of  colouring  matter  fraudulently, 
to  imitate  a  more  expensive  article.  But  in  con- 
fectionery dangerous  colours,  such  as  chrome  yellow, 
Prussian  blue,  copper  and  arsenic-compounds  are 
employed.  Yellow  and  orange-coloured  candy  is  to 
be  suspected.  Fruit  syrups,  and  wines,  and  tomato 
catsup  are  often  artificially  coloured.  Canned  peas 
are  especially  to  be  suspected;  often  the  fact  tliat 
they  are  coloured  is  stated  on  the  label.  Artificial 
flavouring-compounds  are  employed  in  the  concoc- 
tion of  fruit  syrups,  especially  those  used  for  soda 
water.  The  latter  are  often  altogether  artificial. 
Among  this  class  are:  pear  essence  (amylic  and 
ethylic  acetates);  banana  essence  (a  mixture  of  aniyl 
acetate  and  ethyl  butyrate),  aiid  others.  Milk  is 
adulterated  with  water,  and  indirectly  by  removing 
the  cream.  It  is  also  a  favourite  subject  for  pre- 
servatives. Tlic  latter  are  condemned  partly  be- 
cause they  render  extreme  cleanliness  less  necessary, 
for  milk  ordinarily  exacts  a  high  degree  of  purity 
in  its  surroundings.  The  addition  of  water  may  in- 
troduce disease  germs.  Cream  is  adulterated  witli 
gelatine,  and  formaldehyde  is  employeil  as  a  pre- 
servative for  it.  Butter  is  adulterated  to  an  enor- 
mous extent  with  oleomargarine,  a  product  of  beef 
fat.  It  is  a  lawful  product,  but  it  is  required  bj- 
many  enactments  that  its  presence  in  butter  be  in- 
dicated on  the  package.  Lard  is  another  adulterant 
of  butter.      Cheese  is  made  from  skim-milk  some 


ADULTERY 


163 


ADULTERY 


times,  and  cotton-seed  oil  and  other  cheap  fats  are 
substituted  for  the  cream.  Tliere  are  two  principal 
biieur  substitutes.  One  is  glucose,  with  which  sugar 
proiluits  are  adulterated.  It  has  less  than  two- 
thirds  the  sweetening  power  of  sugar,  'i'he  other  is 
saccharine.  This  is  the  sweetest  substance  known; 
it  is  2'M)  times  sweeter  than  sugar.  It  may  he  re- 
garded as  practically  harmless.  Sugar  itself  is  gen- 
erally pure.  Meat  is  not  much  adulterated.  It  is 
generally  only  open  to  athiltcration  with  preserva- 
tives, and  cold  storage  cavuscs  these  to  be  little  used. 
It  is  sometimes  dusted  over  with  a  nreservativo 
while  in  the  j)icce,  and  sausages  and  similar  products 
are  often  treated  with  preservatives  and  colouring 
matter.  Rorie  acid  and  borax  are  typical  preserva- 
tives, and  sulphurous-acid  salts  are  used  to  restore 
a  fresh  appearance  to  stale  meat.  Starch  is  added 
to  sausages.  It  is  clainietl  that  it  prevents  them 
from  shrinking  in  cooking.  Flour  is  adulterated  by 
the  addition  of  lower-grade  meals,  such  as  rye  flour, 
corn  meal,  or  potato  starch;  their  use  is  not  very 
common.  .■Vlum  is  employed  to  disguise  tlie  pres- 
ence of  damaged  flour,  and  to  prevent  decomposition. 
Alum  is  a  still  more  frequent  adulterant  of  bread; 
it  is  considered  injurious  to  the  animal  system. 
Coffee  is  much  adulterated,  when  sold  ground.  The 
root  of  chicoiy  is  a  conunon  adulterant,  antl  even 
this  lias  been  .supplanted  by  otlier  and  cheaper  snb- 
stanccs  such  as  peas,  beans,  wheat,  ground  up  after 
rojusting.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  a 
counterfeit  of  the  berry,  an  imitation  being  moulded 
out  of  some  paste,  but  this  has  made  no  imoads. 
If  coffee  is  bought  unground,  it  will  generally  be 
pure,  although  the  countrj'  of  its  origin  may  not  be 
truthfully  stated.  Tea  is  generally  pure,  except  that 
it  may  be  of  much  lower  grade  than  stated.  Spent 
leaves  are  sometimes  usc<l,  and  the  appearance  is 
sometimes  improved  by  "facing".  This  is  the  agi- 
tation with  soapstone,  Prussian  blue,  etc. 

Tor  discussion  of  the  morality  of  adulteration  of 
food  see  Injustice;  Deceition. 

Has»ei.l.  Food:  ila  AduUeratum  and  the  Mrlhoda  for  their 
Dett-etum  (London,  1876);  Battehhiiall.  Food  Adulteration 
an^i  its  Detection  (New  York,  1887):  Blvtii,  Foods,  their 
Composition  ami  Anali/sis  (London,  1890);  Chaimn,  Municipal 
SamUiliun  in  the  United  Stales  (Providenie,  U.  I.,  1901); 
Lkach,  Food  Inspection  and  Analysis  (New  York,  1904); 
SONUEIHAU,  Xouveau  dictionnaire  des  ialsificolions  et  dcs 
atUralions  (Paris.  1874);  Canadian  Reports  on  Adulteration  of 
Food  (Ottawa,  1876  et  seq.);  Report  of  the  Municipal  I^bora- 
torj/ (Paris,  France);  Report  of  the  National  Academn  of  Science 
and  of  the  Normal  Board  of  Ilcallh  (Washington.  D.  ('.);  Ann. 
Reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  Michigan, 
New  Jersey,  and  New  York;  Reports  and  Bulletins  of  Bureau 
of  Chemistry;  U.  S.  Department  of  Affriculture  on  Food  Adul- 
teration.  especially  Bulletin  No.  100. 

TH0M.\8   O'CONOU    SlO.\XE. 

Adultery. — It  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to 
consider  adultery  with  reference  only  to  morality. 
The  study  of  it,  as  more  particularly  affecting  the 
bond  of  marriage,  will  be  foinul  under  the  head  of 
Divorce.  The  discus.sion  of  adultcrj-  may  be  ordered 
under  three  general  divisions:  I,  N.\tuue  of  Adul- 
teuy;  II,  Its  Guilt;  and  III,  Obligations  En- 
t.mled  Upon  the  Offenders. 

I.  N.\ture  of  .\i)t-LTERY. — Adultery  is  defined  as 
carnal  connexion  between  a  married  person  and  one 
unmarried,  or  between  a  married  person  and  the 
spouse  of  another.  It  is  seen  to  differ  from  fornica- 
tion in  that  it  supposes  the  marriage  of  one  or  both 
of  the  agenLs.  Nor  is  it  nccessarj'  tliat  this  marriage 
be  already  consummated;  it  need  only  be  what  theolog- 
ians call  tnatrimonium  ratum.  Sexual  commerce  witii 
one  engaged  to  another  does  not,  it  is  most  gen- 
erally hehl,  constitute  adultery.  Again,  adultery, 
as  the  definition  declares,  is  committed  in  carnal 
intercourse.  Nevertheless  immodest  actions  in- 
dulged in  between  a  married  person  and  another 
not  the  lawful  spouse,  while  not  of  the  .same  flegrec 
of  guilt,    arc  of   the  same   character  of   malice  as 


adultery  (Sanchez,  De  Mat.,  L.  IX.  Disp.  XLVI, 
n.  17).  It  must  be  added,  however,  tliat  St.  Al- 
phonsus  Liguori,  with  most  theologians,  declares 
that  even  between  lawful  man  and  wife  adultery  is 
committed  when  tlieir  intercourse  takes  tlie  form  of 
sodomy  (S.  Liguori,  L.  III.  n.  4-lG). 

Among  savages  generally  adultery  is  rigorously 
condemned  and  punislied.  But  it  is  condemned 
and  punished  only  as  a  violation  of  the  husband's 
riglits.  Among  such  peoples  the  wife  is  commonly 
reckoned  as  tlie  properly  of  her  spouse,  and  adultery, 
therefore,  is  identified  with  theft.  But  it  is  theft  of 
an  aggravated  kind,  as  the  property  wliicli  it  would 
spoliate  is  more  iiiglily  appraiseu  than  other  chattels. 
So  it  is  that  in  .some  parts  of  Africa  the  seducer  is 
punished  with  the  loss  of  one  or  both  hands,  as  one 
who  has  perpetrated  a  robbery  upon  the  husband 
(Reade,  Savage  Africa,  p.  61).  But  it  is  not  the 
seducer  alone  that  suffers.  Dire  penalties  are 
visited  U[)on  the  offending  wife  by  her  wronged 
spouse.  In  many  instances  she  is  made  to  endure 
such  a  botlily  mutilation  as  will,  in  the  mind  of  tlie 
aggrieved  husband,  prevent  her  being  thereafter  a 
temptation  to  other  men  (Schoolcraft,  Historical 
anil  Statistical  Information  Respecting  the  History, 
Condition  and  Pro.specfs  of  tlie  Indian  Tribes  of  tlie 
United  States,  I,  2,30;  V,  GS3,  084,  GSt;;  also  H.  H. 
Bancroft,  The  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States  of 
North  .\merica,  I,  514).  If,  however,  the  wronged 
husband  could  visit  swift  and  terrible  retribution 
upon  the  adulterous  W'ife,  the  latter  was  allowed  no 
cau.se  against  the  unfaithful  husband;  and  this 
discrimination  found  in  the  practices  of  savage 
peoples  is  moreover  set  forth  in  nearly  all  ancient 
codes  of  law.  The  Laws  of  Manu  are  striking  on 
this  point.  In  ancient  India,  "though  destitute  of 
virtue  or  seeking  pleasure  elsewhere,  or  devoid  of 
good  qualities,  yet  a  hu.sband  must  be  constantly 
worshipped  as  a  god  by  a  faithful  wife";  on  the  other 
hand,  "if  a  wife,  proud  of  the  greatness  of  her  rela- 
tives or  [her  own]  excellence,  violates  the  duty 
which  she  owes  to  her  lord,  the  king  shall  cause  her 
to  be  devoured  by  dogs  in  a  place  frequented  by 
many"  (Laws  of  Alanu,  V,  l.')4;  VIII,  371). 

In  the  Gra;co-Roman  world  we  find  stringent  laws 
against  adulterj',  yet  almost  througlnnit  they  dis- 
criminate against  the  wife.  The  ancient  idea  that 
the  wife  was  the  property  of  the  husband  is  still 
operative.  The  lending  of  wives  practised  among 
some  savages  was,  as  Plutarch  tells  us,  encouraged 
also  by  Lycurgus,  though,  be  it  observed,  from  a 
motive  other  than  that  which  actuated  the  savages 
(Plutarch,  Lycurgus,  XXIX).  The  recognized  li- 
cense of  the  Greek  husband  may  be  seen  in  the 
following  passage  of  tlie  Oration  against  Ncera,  the 
author  of  whicli  is  uncertain,  though  it  has  been 
attributed  to  Demosthenes:  "We  keep  mistresses 
for  our  pleasures,  concubines  for  constant  attendance, 
an<l  wives  to  bear  us  legitimate  children,  and  to  be 
our  faithful  housekeepers."  Yet,  because  of  the 
wrong  done  to  the  husband  only,  the  Athenian 
lawgiver,  Solon,  allowed  any  man  to  kill  an  adulterer 
whom  he  had  taken  in  the  act  (Plutarch,  Solon). 

In  the  early  Roman  Law  the  jus  tori  belonged  to 
the  husband.  There  was,  therefore,  no  such  thing  as 
the  crime  of  adultery  on  the  part  of  a  husband 
towards  his  wife.  Moreover,  this  crime  was  not 
committed  unless  one  of  the  parties  was  a  married 
woman  (Dig.,  XLVIII,  ad  leg.  Jul.).  That  the 
Roman  husband  often  took  advantage  of  his  legal 
immunity  is  well  known.  Thus  we  are  told  by  the 
historian  Spartianus  that  Venis,  tlie  colleague  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  did  not  hesitate  to  declare  to  liis 
reproaching  wife:  "Uxor  enim  dignitatis  nomen 
est,  non  voluptatis"  (Vcrus,  V).  Later  on  in  Ro- 
man history,  as  the  late  William  E.  H.  I.ecky 
has  shown,  the  idea  that  the   husband  owed  a  fidef- 


ADULTERY 


164 


ADULTERY 


ity  like  that  clemaiuieil  of  the  wife  must  have 
gained  ground  at  least  in  theory.  This  Lecky 
gathers  from  t!ie  legal  maxim  of  Ulpian:  "It 
seems  most  unfair  for  a  man  to  require  from  a 
wife  the  cliastity  he  does  not  himself  practice"  (Cod. 
Just.,  Digest,  XLVIII,  5-13;  Lecky,  History  of  Eu- 
ropean Morals,  II,  313). 

In  the  Mosaic  Law,  as  in  the  old  Roman  Law, 
atlultery  meant  only  the  carnal  intercourse  of  a  wife 
with  a  man  who  was  not  her  lawful  husband.  Tlie 
intercourse  of  a  married  man  with  a  single  woman 
was  not  accounted  adultery,  but  fornication.  The 
penal  statute  on  the  subject,  in  Lev.,  xx,  10,  makes 
this  clear:  "If  any  man  commit  adultery  with  the 
wife  of  another  and  defile  his  neighbour's  wile  let 
them  be  put  to  ileath  both  the  adulterer  and  the 
adulteress."  (See  also  Deut.,  xxii,  22.)  This  was 
quite  in  keeping  witli  the  prevailing  practice  of 
polygamy  among  the  Israelites. 

In  the  Christian  law  this  discrimination  against 
the  wife  is  emphatically  repudiated.  In  the  law  of 
Jesus  Christ  regarding  marriage  the  unfaithful  hus- 
band loses  his  ancient  immunity  (Matt.,  xix,  3-13). 
The  obligation  of  mutual  fidelity,  incumbent  upon 
husband  as  well  as  wife,  is  moreover  implied  in  the 
notion  of  the  Christian  sacrament,  in  which  is  sym- 
bolized tlie  ineffable  and  lasting  union  of  the  Heavenly 
Bridegroom  and  His  unspotted  Bride,  the  Church, 
St.  Paul  insists  with  emphasis  upon  tlie  duty  of  equal 
mutual  fidelity  in  both  the  marital  partners  (I  Cor., 
VII,  4);  and  several  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
as  Tertullian  (De  Monogamia,  cix),  Lactantius 
(Divin.  Instit.,  LVI,  c.  xxiii),  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen 
(Oratio,  xxxi),  and  St.  Augustine  (De  Bono  Con- 
jugati,  n.  4),  have  given  clear  expression  to  the  same 
idea.  But  the  notion  that  obligations  of  fidelity 
rested  upon  tlie  husband  the  same  as  upon  the 
■wife  is  one  that  has  not  always  found  practical 
exemplification  in  the  laws  of  Christian  states. 
Despite  the  protests  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  the  English 
Parliament  passed,  in  1857,  a  law  by  which  a  husband 
may  obtain  absolute  divorce  on  account  of  simple 
adultery  in  his  wife,  while  the  latter  can  be  freed 
from  lier  adulterous  husband  only  when  his  infi- 
delity has  been  attended  with  such  cruelty  "as  would 
have  entitled  her  to  a  divorce  a  mensA  et  toro". 
The  same  discrimination  against  the  wife  is  found  in 
some  of  our  early  New  England  colonies.  Thus,  in 
Massachusetts  the  adulter}'  of  the  husband,  unlike 
that  of  tlie  wife,  was  not  sufficient  ground  for  divorce. 
And  the  same  most  likely  was  the  case  in  Plymouth 
Plantation  (Howard,  A  History  of  Matrimonial  In- 
stitutions, II,  .331-.351).  At  present,  in  our  States 
there  is  not  tliis  discrimination,  but  divorce,  when 
granted  on  the  ground  of  adultery,  is  obtainable 
by  the  wife  just  as  by  the  husband. 

II.  Guilt  op  .\dultery. — We  have  referred  to 
the  severe  punishment  meted  out  to  the  adulterous 
woman  and  her  .seducer  among  savages.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  the  .severity  of  tlie.se  penalties  did  not 
find  their  .sanction  in  anything  like  an  adequate  idea 
of  the  guilt  of  tliis  crime.  In  contrast  with  such 
rigour  is  the  lofty  benignity  of  Je.sus  Christ  towards 
the  one  guilty  of  adultery  (John,  viii,  3,  4),  a  contrast 
as  marked  as  that  which  exists  between  the  Christian 
doctrine  regarding  the  malice  of  this  sin  and  the  idea 
of  its  guilt  which  prevailed  before  the  Christian  era. 
In  the  early  discipline  of  the  Church  we  .see  reflected 
a  sense  of  the  enormity  of  adultery,  though  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  severity  of  this  legislation, 
Bucli  as  that,  for  instance,  which  we  find  in  canons 
8  and  47  of  the  Council  of  Elvira  (c.  300),  must 
be  largely  accounted  for  by  the  general  harshness  of 
the  times.  Considering  now  the  act  in  itself,  adul- 
tery, forbidden  by  the  sixth  commandment,  has  in 
it  a  twofold  malice.  In  common  with  fornication  it 
violates  chastity,  and  it  is,  besides. a  sin  against  justice. 


Drawing  a  distinction  between  these  two  elements 
of  malice,  certain  casuists,  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  declared  that  intercourse  with  a  married 
woman,  when  her  husband  gave  his  consent,  consti- 
stuted  not  the  sin  of  adultery,  but  of  fornication.  It 
would,  therefore,  they  contended,  be  sufficient  for 
the  penitent,  having  committed  this  act,  to  accuse 
himself  of  tlie  latter  sin  only  in  confession.  At  the 
instance  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mechhn,  the  Academy 
of  Louvain,  in  the  year  1653,  censured  as  false  and 
erroneous  the  proposition:  "Copula  cum  conjugata 
consentiente  marito  non  est  adulteriuni,  adeoque 
sufficit  in  confessione  dicere  se  esse  fornicatum. " 
The  same  proposition  was  condemned  by  Inno- 
cent XI,  2  March,  1679  (Denzinger,  Enchir.,  p.  222, 
5th  ed.).  The  falsity  of  this  doctrine  appears  from 
the  very  etymology  of  the  word  adultery,  for  the 
term  signifies  the  going  into  the  bed  of  another 
(St.  Thom.,  II-II,  Q.  cliv,  art.  8).  And  the  consent 
of  the  husband  is  unavailing  to  strip  the  act  by  which 
another  has  intercourse  with  his  wife  of  this  essential 
characterization.  Again,  the  right  of  the  husband 
over  his  wife  is  qualified  by  the  good  of  human 
generation.  This  good  regards  not  only  'he  birth, 
but  the  nourishment  and  education,  of  offspring,  and 
its  postulates  cannot  in  any  way  be  affected  by  the 
consent  of  parents.  Such  con.sent,  therefore,  as  sub- 
versive of  the  good  of  human  generation,  becomes 
juridically  void.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  adduced 
as  a  ground  for  the  doctrine  set  forth  in  tlie  con- 
demned proposition  above  mentioned.  For  the  legal 
axiom  that  an  injury  is  not  done  to  one  who  knows 
and  wills  it  (scienti  et  volenti  non  fit  injuria)  finds  no 
place  when  the  con-sent  is  thus  vitiated. 

But  it  may  be  contended  that  the  consent  of  the 
husband  lessens  the  enormity  of  adultery  to  the 
extent  that  whereas,  ordinarily,  there  is  a  double 
malice — that  against  the  good  of  human  generation 
and  that  against  the  private  rights  of  the  husband — 
with  the  consent  of  the  latter  there  is  only  the  first- 
named  malice;  hence,  one  having  had  carnal  inter- 
course with  another's  wife,  her  husband  consenting, 
should  in  confession  declare  the  circumstance  of  this 
permission  that  he  may  not  accuse  himself  of  that 
of  wliich  he  is  not  guilty.  In  answer  to  this,  it  must 
be  said  that  the  injury  offered  the  husbantl  in  adul- 
tery is  done  him  not  as  a  private  individual  but  as  a 
member  of  a  marital  society,  upon  whom  it  is  incum- 
bent to  consult  the  good  of  the  prospective  child. 
As  such,  his  consent  does  not  avail  to  take  away  the 
malice  of  which  it  is  question.  Whence  it  follows 
that  there  is  no  obligation  to  reveal  the  fact  of 
his  consent  in  the  case  we  have  supposed  (Vi\a, 
Damnata2  Theses,  318).  And  here  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  consenting  husband  may  be  un- 
derstood to  have  renounced  his  right  to  any  resti- 
tution. 

The  question  has  been  discussed,  whether  in  adul- 
tery committed  with  a  Christian,  as  distinct  from 
that  committed  with  a  Pagan,  there  would  be  a 
special  maUce  against  the  sacrament  constitut- 
ing a  sin  against  religion.  Though  some  theo- 
logians have  held  that  such  would  be  the  case,  il 
should  be  said,  with  Viva,  that  the  fact  that  the 
sinful  person  was  a  Christian  ^^■ould  create  an  ag- 
gravating circumstance  only,  which  would  not  call 
for  specification  in  confession. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  when  the  parties  to 
adultery  are  both  married  the  sin  is  more  grievous 
than  when  one  of  them  is  single.  Nor  is  it  sullicient 
for  a  married  person  whose  guilty  partner  in  this  act 
was  also  married  to  declare  in  confession  the  fact 
simply  of  having  committed  adultery.  The  circum- 
stance that  both  parties  to  the  sin  were  married  is 
one  that  must  be  made  known.  Again  tlie  adulterer 
in  his  confession  must  specify  whether,  as  married, 
lie  violated  his  own  marriage  pledge  or,  as  singlo 


ADULTS 


105 


ADVENT 


he  brought  about  the  violation  of  the  marriage 
pledge  of  another.  Finally,  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
m  case  only  one  of  the  parties  to  adultery  is  married, 
a  more  heinous  sin  is  committed  when  the  married 
person  is  the  woman  than  when  she  is  the  unmarried 
agent.  For  in  the  former  in.-ilance  the  due  process 
of  generation  is  not  infrci|uciilly  interfered  witli,  to 
the  injury  of  the  lawful  hu.sbaiid;  moreover,  uncer- 
tainty of  parentage  may  result,  and  even  a  fal.se  heir 
may  be  imposed  upon  the  family.  Such  a  distinc- 
tion as  is  here  remarked,  therefore,  calls  for  specifica- 
tion in  the  confessional. 

III.  Oblig.vtions  F;nt.\iled  upon  the  Offend- 
ers.— .^s  we  have  seen,  the  sin  of  adultery  implies 
an  act  of  inju-stice.  This  is  committed  against  the 
lawful  spouse  of  the  adulterer  or  adulteress.  Hy  the 
tiilultery  of  a  wife,  be.sidos  the  injury  done  the  hu.s- 
liarid  by  her  iiifidclity,  a  spurious  child  may  be  born 
uhii'li  iic  may  think  liimself  l)Ound  to  sustain,  and 
whicli  may  (icrhaps  become  his  heir.  For  the  injury 
sutTerod  in  the  mifaithfulncss  of  his  wife  restitution 
must  be  made  to  tlie  husband,  should  he  become 
apprised  of  the  crime.  Nor  is  the  oliligation  of  this 
restitution  ordinarily  discharged  by  an  award  of 
money.  A  more  commensurate  reparation,  when 
possil)le,  is  to  be  offered.  Whenever  it  is  certain 
that  the  offspring  is  illegitimate,  and  when  the 
adulterer  has  employed  violence  to  make  the  woman 
sin,  he  is  bound  to  refund  the  ex]>enses  incurred  by 
the  putative  father  in  the  .support  of  the  spurious 
child,  and  to  make  restitution  for  any  inheritance 
which  this  child  may  receive.  In  case  he  di<l  not 
employ  violence,  there  being  on  his  part  but  a  simple 
conrurrence.  then,  according  to  the  more  probable 
opinion  of  theologians,  tlie  adulterer  and  adulteress 
are  eipially  bound  to  the  restitution  just  described. 
Kven  when  one  hiw  moved  the  other  to  sin  both  are 
boimd  to  restitution,  though  most  tlieologians  say 
that  the  obligation  is  more  immediately  pressing 
upon  tlie  one  who  induced  the  other  to  sin.  When 
it  is  not  sure  that  the  offspring  is  illegitimate  the  com- 
mon opinion  of  theologians  is  that  the  sinful  parties 
are  not  bound  to  restitution.  As  for  the  adulterous 
mother,  in  case  she  cannot  secretly  undo  the  in- 
justice resulting  from  the  presence  of  her  illegitimate 
child,  she  is  not  obliged  to  reveal  her  sin  either  to 
her  husbatid  or  to  her  spurious  offspring,  unless  the 
evil  which  the  good  name  of  the  mother  might  su.s- 
tain  is  less  than  that  which  would  inevitably  come 
from  her  failure  to  make  such  a  revelation.  Again, 
in  case  there  would  not  be  the  danger  of  infamy, 
she  would  be  held  to  reveal  lier  sin  when  she  could 
reasonably  hope  that  such  a  manifestation  \yould 
be  productive  of  good  results.  This  kind  of  issue, 
however,  would  be  necessarily  rare. 

Tlie  followinK  work.s  may  lie  particularly  con''ulte<l:  Sanchez, 
De  Miitrimonio;  Viva.  Uumnatir  ThcKs;  Chaikson,  [>e  Rebus 
Venereia;  LetourNEAU,  The  Erolulwn  of  Marriage;  Wester- 
UARCK,  The  Hitlory  of  Human  Marrittnr. 

John  Weiistek  Melody. 

Adults.     See  Acf-,  Cwonical. 

Adults,  H.\PTisM  OF.    See  Baptism. 

Advent  (Lat.  ad-venio,  to  come  to),  accord- 
ing to  present  usage,  is  a  period  beginning  with  the 
Simday  nearest  to  the  feast  of  St.  Andrew  the 
Apostle  (."?()  November)  and  embracing  four  .Sundays. 
Tlie  (irst  .Suntlay  may  Ix;  as  early  as  27  November, 
and  then  .\dvent  has  twenty-eight  days,  or  as  late 
as  3  December,  giving  the  sea.son  onlv  twenty-one 
days.  With  .\dvent  the  ecclesiastical  year  begins 
in  the  Western  churches.  During  this  time  the 
faithful  are  admonished  to  prepare  themselves 
worthily  to  celebrate  the  anniversaiy  of  the  Lord's 
coming  into  the  world  as  the  incarnate  flod  of  love, 
thus  to  make  their  souls  filling  abodes  for  the  Up- 
deemer  I'oming  in  Holy  Communion  and  through 
grace,   and   thereby  to  make  Ihenisclves  ready   for 


His  final  coming  as  judge,  at  death  and  at  the  end 
of  the  world. 

Sy.\!I(Olism. — To  attain  this  object  the  Church 
lias  arranged  the  Liturgy  for  this  season.  In  the 
ollicial  prayer,  the  Breviary,  she  calls  upon  her 
ministers,  in  the  Invitatory  for  Matins,  to  adore 
"the  Lord  the  King  that  is  to  come,"  "the  Lord 
already  near  ",  "  Him  Whose  glory  will  be  .seen  on  the 
morrow".  As  I.essons  for  the  first  Nocturn  she 
prescribes  chapters  from  the  prophet  Isai;is,  who 
speaks  in  scatliing  terms  of  the  ingratitude  of  the 
house  of  Israel,  tlie  chosen  children  who  had  for- 
saken and  forgotten  their  Father;  who  tells  of  the 
Man  of  Sorrows  stricken  for  the  sins  of  His  people; 
who  describes  accurately  the  passion  and  death  of 
the  coming  Saviour  and  His  final  glory;  who  an- 
nounces the  gathering  of  the  (ienlilcs  to  the  Holy 
Hill.  In  the  .second  Nocturn  the  Lessons  on  three 
Sundays  are  taken  from  the  cighdi  Ijomily  of  I'opi^  St. 
Leo  (440-461)  on  fasting  and  almsdeeds  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  advent  of  the  Lord,  and  on  one  Sunday 
(the  second)  from  St.  Jerome's  commentar-y  on 
Isaias,  xi,  1,  which  text  he  interprets  of  the  Uiessed 
Virgin  Mary  as  "the  rod  out  of  the  root  of  Jesse". 
In  the  hymns  of  the  season  we  finii  praise  for  the 
coming  of  Christ,  the  Creator  of  the  universe,  as 
Redeemer,  combined  with  jirayer  to  the  coming 
judge  of  the  world  to  protect  us  from  the  enemy. 
Similar  ideas  are  expressed  in  the  antiphons  for  the 
Magnificat  on  the  last  seven  days  before  the  Vigil 
of  the  Nativity.  In  them,  the  Church  calls  on  the 
Divine  Wisdom  to  teach  us  the  way  of  prudence; 
on  the  Key  of  David  to  free  us  from  bondage;  on 
the  Rising  Sun  to  illuminate  us  sitting  in  darkness 
and  the  shadow  of  death,  etc.  In  the  Masses  the 
intention  of  the  Church  is  shown  in  the  choice  of  the 
Epistles  and  Gospels.  In  the  Epistle  she  exhorts 
the  faithful  that,  since  the  Redeemer  is  nearer,  they 
should  cast  aside  the  works  of  darkness  and  put  on 
the  armour  of  light;  should  walk  honestly,  as  in  the 
day,  and  put  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Clirist;  she  shows 
that  the  nations  are  called  to  praise  the  name  of  the 
Lord;  she  asks  thein  to  rejoice  in  the  nearness  of  the 
Lord,  so  that  the  peace  of  Cod,  which  surpa.sses  all 
understanding,  may  keep  their  hearts  and  minds  in 
Christ  Jesus;  she  admonishes  them  not  to  pa.--s  judg- 
ment, for  the  Lord,  when  He  comes,  will  manifest 
the  secrets  hidden  in  hearts.  In  the  Gospels  the 
Church  speaks  of  the  Lord  coming  in  glory;  of  Him 
in,  and  through,  Whom  the  prophecies  are  Ijeing  ful- 
filled; of  the  Eternal  walking  in  the  midst  of  the 
Jews;  of  the  voice  in  the  desert,  "Prepare  ye  the 
way  of  the  Lord".  The  Church  in  her  Liturgy 
takes  us  in  spirit  back  to  the  time  before  the  incarna- 
tion of  the  Son  of  God,  as  though  it  were  really  yet 
to  take  place.  Cardinal  Wiseman  says:  "We  are 
not  dryly  exhorted  to  profit  by  that  blessed  event, 
but  we  are  daily  made  to  sigh  with  the  Fathers  of 
old,  'Send  down  the  dew,  ye  heavens,  from  above, 
and  let  the  clouds  rain  the  Just  One:  let  the  earth 
be  opened,  and  bud  forth  the  Redeemer.'  The 
Collects  on  three  of  the  four  Sundays  of  that  sea-son 
begin  with  the  words,  'Lord,  raise  up  thy  power 
and  come'  —  a.s  though  we  feared  our  iniquities 
would  prevent  His  being  born." 

Di'KATioN  and  Ritual. — On  every  day  of  .\dvent 
the  Office  and  Mass  of  the  Sunday  or  Feria  must  be 
said,  or  at  least  a  Commemoration  must  be  made 
of  them,  no  matter  what  grade  of  feast  occurs.  In 
the  Divine  Olhce  the  Tc  Drum,  the  joyful  hymn  of 
praise  and  tliank.sgiving.  is  omitted;  in  the  Nlass  the 
Gloria  in  excrlxix  is  not  .said.  The  Alleluia,  however, 
is  retained.  During  this  time  the  solemnization  of 
matrimony  (Nuptial  Mass  and  Benediction)  cannot 
take  place;  which  prohibition  binds  to  the  fciust  of 
Epiphany  inclusively.  The  celebrant  and  s.acre<i 
ministers   use   violet   vestments.     The   deacon   and 


ADVENT 


166 


ADVENTISTS 


subdeacon  at  Mass,  in  place  of  tlie  dalmatics  com- 
monly used,  wear  folded  chasubles.  The  subdeacon 
removes  his  during  the  reading  of  the  Epistle,  and 
the  deacon  exchanges  his  for  another,  or  for  a  wider 
stole,  worn  over  the  left  shoulder  during  the  time 
between  the  singing  of  the  Clospel  and  the  Com- 
munion. An  exception  is  made  for  the  third  Sun- 
day (Gaiulele  Sunday),  on  which  the  vestments  may 
be  rose-coloured,  or  richer  violet  ones;  the  sacred 
ministers  may  on  this  Sunday  wear  dalmatics,  which 
may  also  bo  used  on  the  Vigil  of  the  Nativity,  even 
if  it  be  the  fourth  Sunday  of  Advent.  Pope  Inno- 
cent III  (119S-121G)  states  that  black  was  the  colour 
to  be  used  during  Advent,  but  violet  had  already 
come  into  use  for  this  season  at  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Binterim  says  that  there  was  also 
a  law  that  pictures  should  be  covered  during  Advent. 
Flowers  and  relics  of  Saints  are  not  to  be  placed  on 
the  altars  during  the  Ofhce  and  Masses  of  this  time, 
except  on  the  third  Sunday;  and  the  same  prohibition 
and  exception  exist  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the 
organ.  The  popular  idea  that  the  four  weeks  of 
Advent  symbolize  the  four  thousand  years  of 
darkness  in  which  the  world  was  enveloped  before 
the  coming  of  Christ  finds  no  confirmation  in  the 
Liturgy. 

Historical  Origin. — It  cannot  be  determined 
with  any  degree  of  certainty  when  the  celebration 
of  Advent  was  first  introduced  into  the  Church.  The 
preparation  for  the  feast  of  the  Nativity  of  Our 
Lord  was  not  held  before  the  feast  itself  existed,  and 
of  this  we  find  no  evidence  before  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  when,  according  to  Duchesne  [Chris- 
tian Worship  (London,  1904),  260],  it  was  celebrated 
throughout  the  whole  Church,  by  some  on  25  Decem- 
ber, by  others  on  6  January.  Of  such  a  preparation 
we  read  in  the  .\cts  of  a  synod  held  at  Saragossa 
in  380,  whose  fourth  canon  prescribes  that  from  the 
seventeenth  of  December  to  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany 
no  one  should  be  permitted  to  absent  himself  from 
church.  We  have  two  homilies  of  St.  Maximus, 
Bishop  of  Turin  (415-466),  entitled  "In  Adventu 
Domini  ",  but  he  makes  no  reference  to  a  special  time. 
The  title  may  be  the  addition  of  a  copyist.  There 
are  some  homilies  extant,  most  likely  of  St.  Cffisarius, 
Bishop  of  Aries  (.502-542),  in  which  we  find  mention 
of  a  preparation  before  the  birthday  of  Christ;  still, 
to  judge  from  the  context,  no  general  law  on  the 
matter  seems  then  to  have  been  in  existence.  A 
synod  held  (581)  at  MAcon,  in  Gaul,  by  its  ninth 
canon  orders  that  from  the  eleventh  of  November 
to  the  Nativity  the  Sacrifice  be  offered  according 
to  the  Lenten  rite  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday 
of  the  week.  The  Gelasian  Sacramentary  notes 
five  Sundays  for  the  season;  these  five  were  re- 
duced to  four  by  Pope  St.  Gregory  VII  (1073-85). 
The  collection  of  homilies  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
(590-604)  begins  with  a  sermon  for  the  second  Sun- 
day of  Advent.  In  050  Ad\ent  was  celebrated  in 
Spain  witli  five  Simdays.  Several  synods  had  made 
laws  al)out  fasting  to  be  observed  during  this  time, 
some  bcgiiming  with  the  eleventh  of  November,  others 
the  fifteenth,  and  others  as  early  as  the  autumnal 
equinox.  Other  synods  forbade  the  celebration 
of^  matrimony.  In  the  Greek  Church  we  find  no 
documents  for  the  observance  of  Advent  earlier  than 
the  eighth  century.  St.  Theodore  the  Studite 
(d.  826),  who  speaks  of  the  feasts  and  fasts  commonly 
celebrated  by  the  Greeks,  makes  no  mention  of  this 
season.  In  the  eighth  century  we  find  it  observed 
not  as  a  liturgical  celebration,  but  as  a  time  of  fast 
and  abstinence,  from  15  November  to  the  Nativity, 
which,  according  to  Goar,  was  later  reduced  to 
seven  days.  But  a  council  of  the  liuthenians  (1720) 
ordered  the  fast  according  to  the  old  rule  from  the 
fifteenth  of  November.  This  is  the  rule  with  at  least 
eome  of  the  Greeks.     Similarly,  the  Ambrosian  and 


the  Mozarabic  rites  have  no  special  liturgy  for  Ad- 
vent, but  only  the  fast. 

HuTLER,  Feasts  and  Fasts;  Binterim,  Denkwiirdigkeiten, 
V.  i;  Probst  in  Kirchenlei.,  (2d  ed.).  1.  250-252;  Binder, 
Allgcmeine  Realcncykiopaedie;  B.«:u-MER-Biron.  Hist,  du 
breviaire  romain  (i'aris.  1905),  J,  901,  260,  371;  II,  52-53; 
Kellner,  Heortologie  (Freiburg,  1901),  106-108;  Nilles, 
Kalendarium  ManuaU  utriusque  EccUsim   (Innspruck.   1897), 

II,  535-539,  511-514;  Ceremonialc  Episcoporum;  Gderanqer, 
Annee  Liturgique  (Paris,  1870;  Eng.  tr.  hondon). 

Fr.\ncis  Mershman. 

Advent,  Second.     See  Millennium. 

Adventists. — A  group  of  six  American  Protestant 
sects  wliich  hold  in  common  a  belief  in  the  near  return 
of  Christ  in  person,  and  differ  from  one  another  mainly 
in  their  understanding  of  several  doctrines  related 
to  this  common  belief.  They  are,  excepting  the 
"Seventh  Day  Adventists"  and  the  branch  entitled 
"The  Church  of  God",  congregational  in  govern- 
ment. The  sects  of  Adventists  are  the  outcome  of  a 
religious  agitation  begun  by  William  Miller  (1781- 
1849)  in  1831,  after  a  minute  study  of  the  prophecies 
of  the  Bible.  Testing  the  mysterious  pronounce- 
ments concerning  the  Messias  by  a  method  exclusively 
historical,  he  looked  for  the  fulfilment  of  evey  proph- 
ecy in  its  obvious  surface  reading.  E\ery  prophecy 
which  had  not  been  literally  accomplished  in  the  first 
coming  of  Christ  must  needs  be  accomplished  in  His 
second  corning.  Christ,  therefore,  should  return  at 
the  end  of  the  world  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  to  possess 
the  land  of  Canaan,  and  to  reign  in  an  earthly 
triumph  on  the  throne  of  David  for  a  thousand  years. 
Moreover,  taking  the  2,300  days  of  the  Prophet  Daniel 
for  so  many  years,  and  computing  from  457  B,  c, — 
that  is,  from  the  commencement  of  the  seventy 
weeks  before  the  first  coming.  Miller  concluded  that 
the  world  would  come  to  an  end,  and  Christ  would 
return,  in  A.  d.  1843.  He  gave  wide  circulation  to  his 
views  and  gained  a  considerable  following  in  a  few 
years.  When  the  year  1843  had  passed  as  any  other, 
and  the  prediction  had  failed.  Snow,  one  of  his 
disciples,  set  himself  to  correct  Miller's  calculations, 
and  in  his  turn  announced  the  end  of  the  world  for 
22  October,  1844.  As  the  day  drew  near  groups  of 
Millerites  here  and  there  throughout  the  I'nited 
States,  putting  aside  all  worldly  occupations,  awaited, 
in  a  fever  of  expectancy,  the  promised  coming  of 
Christ,  but  were  again  doomed  to  disappointment. 
The  faithful  followers  of  Miller  next  met  in  conference 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1845,  and  professed  their  un- 
shaken faith  in  the  near  personal  coming  of  the  Son 
of  God.  And  this  has  remained  the  fundamental 
point  of  the  Adventist  creed.  According  to  the 
ofTicial  census  of  1890,  the  Adventists  had  60,491 
communicants;  at  present  they  ha\e  about  100,000 
adherents  all  told.  The  Adventist  movement,  in- 
augurated by  Miller,  has  differentiated  into  the  follow- 
ing independent  bodies: — 

I.  Evangelical  Adventists  (the  original  stock). — They 
believe  the  dead  are  conscious  after  separation  from 
the  body,  and  will  rise  again;  the  just,  first  to  reign 
with  Christ  on  earth  for  the  Millennium  and,  after 
the  Judgment,  in  heaven  for  all  eternity;  the  wicked 
to  rise  at  the  Day  of  Judgment  to  be  condemned  to 
hell  forever.  They  may  be  said  to  have  organized 
in  1845.  They  number  1,147  communicants.  II.  Ad- 
vent Christians. — These  believe  that  the  dead  lie  in 
an  unconscious  state  till  Christ  comes  again,  when 
all  will  arise;  the  just  to  receive  everlasting  life; 
the  wicked  to  be  annihilated;  since  immortality,  once 
man's  natural  birthright,  has  been  forfeited  by  sin 
and  is  now  a  supernatural  gift  had  only  through 
faith  in  Christ.  The  General  Association  was  formed 
in    ISGl.     The   Advent    Christians   number   26,.500. 

III.  Seventh  Day  Adventistn. — These  hold  to  the  olv 
serv.ance  of  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  as  the 
Sabbath.  Thoy  believe  that  the  dead  remain  un- 
conscious until  Judgment,  when  the  wicked  will  be 


ADVERSUS 


167 


ADVOCATES 


destroyed.  They  attempt,  in  addition,  a  detailed 
interpretation  of  certain  biblical  prophecies,  and  lie- 
lieve  the  prophetic  gift  is  still  conitnunicated,  and 
was  possessed  latterly  by  Mi-s.  K.  (i.  White  in  particu- 
lar. They  were  formed  into  a  body  in  IS-io.  They 
number  70,102  members.  IV.  The  Church  oj  God. — 
.\n  offshoot  of  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists.  These 
dissidents  refuse  to  accept  the  piopliecics  of  .Mrs. 
White,  or  the  interpretation  of  tlic  vision  in  .^poc.,  xii, 
11-17,  as  applying  to  the  I'nitcil  States.  Otherwise 
they  resemble  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists.  They 
became  an  independent  body  in  1804  O.'i.  This 
church  has  047  members.  V.  lAjc  and  Adrcid  Union. 
— A  movement  which,  begun  in  1S4.S,  was  compacted 
into  an  organized  body  in  1800.  Tliis  church  insists 
that  the  widved  will  not  rise  again,  but  will  remain 
in  an  endless  sleep.  It  has  a  membership  of  3,800. 
\T.  Aqc-to-come  Advcnli-fta. — These  believe,  besides 
the  common  Adventist  doctrines,  that  the  wicked 
will  iiltim:itcly  be  destroyed,  and  that  eternal  life 
is  given  tlirough  Christ  alone.  They  originated  in 
18.51;  the  (icncral  Conference  was  organized  in  1885. 
Tliey  n\iml)or  2,872  in  the  United  States. 

Tavi.or.  The  Reign  of  Chrial  (Uoston,  1889);  Wellcome, 
liitttoru  of  Ihf  i^econd  Adi't-nt  Mfssiif/e  (Yarmouth,  Maine, 
1874);  MrKlssTKEV,  The  Worlds  Great  Empirea  (Haverhill, 
Mass.,  18,S7);  A.NDnEW.l,  Hinlon/  of  the  Seventh  and  Firtt 
Day  (Ballle  Creek.  Mich.,  1873);  VViiite,  The  Great  Con- 
troierm/  (Hattle  Creek,  1870);  Smith,  Thoughla  on  Daniel 
ami  Ueveliilion  (1882);  Lonq,  Kin„dom  of  Ilearen  Upon 
Earth  (1882);  The  End  of  the  UngodUj  (188(5);  Pile,  The 
Doctrine  of  Conditional  Immortalitu  (SprinRtield,  Mass.); 
Brown,   The  Divine  Key  of  Redemption  (SprinKfielti,  Mass.). 

V.  p.  Ha\'ev. 

Adversus  Aleatores.     Sec  Gambling. 

Advertence.    Sec  Acts,  Human. 

Advertisements,  Book  of. — .\  series  of  enactments 
concerning  ecclesiastical  matters,  drawn  up  by 
Maltliew  l':irl<er,  .\rchbishop  of  Canterbury  (15.59- 
75),  with  the  help  of  Grindal,  Home,  Cox,  and 
Biillingham.  It  is  important  as  connected  with  the 
origin  of  English  Nonconformity,  and  as  being  one 
of  a  group  of  documents  concerning  ritual,  the  im- 
port of  which  became  in  the  nineteenth  century  the 
subject  of  prolonged  and  inconclusive  discussion. 
On  Elizabeth's  accession  (November,  1.558),  the 
Latin  services  and  the  Catholic  ceremonial  were  in 
use.  The  return  from  exile  of  the  extreme  Protest- 
ants, whose  doctrinal  disputes  at  Frankfort  had 
shown  the  lengths  to  whicli  tliey  were  prepared  to 
go,  was  viewed  with  apprehension  by  those  in  au- 
thority. The  opposition  of  the  House  of  Lords  to 
tlie  .■Vet  of  Uniformity  (1.559),  rendering  obligatory 
the  use  of  the  English  Prayer-I?ook,  made  the  Gov- 
ernment warily  follow  a  policj'  of  compromise.  The 
rubric  authorizing  (subject  to  the  proviso  in  the 
act,  "until  other  order  shouhl  be  taken  by  the 
(Jueen"),  the  retention  of  the  Catholic  ornaments 
in  u.se  in  the  second  year  of  Edward  VI,  w.is  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  tone  of  the  rest  of  the  Prayer- 
Book,  for  tlio  communion  service  was  substantially 
that  of  the  second  Praycr-Book  of  Edward  VI  (1.552), 
whicli  had  been  sai<l  at  a  bare  table  by  a  iurpliced 
minister.  The  Reformers'  dismay  w.is  extreme. 
"Other  order",  however,  was  taken  by  Elizabeth  in 
the  "Injunctions",  of  which  the  provisions,  though 
opposed  to  the  rubric,  became  the  rule  of  the  .\nglican 
Church.  The  Reformers  were  further  appeased  by 
the  wholesale  destruction  of  Catholic  vestments  and 
emblems  during  the  General  Visitation  (.Vugust- 
October,  1.5.59).  The  Bishops'  Conference  held  in 
February,  1.500,  ended  in  compromise;  the  cnicifix 
was  rejected,  but  the  cope  w,i.s  retained.  Such 
"rags  of  the  Roman  Antichrist"  irritated  the  ex- 
treme Reformers,  who  wanted  a  worship  purified 
from  all  taint  of  popery,  and  they  were,  therefore, 
known  as  "Puritans".  They  would  have  none  of 
the  cap  and  gown  for  clerical  use  in  daily  life,  nor 


of  the  surplice  in  church.  Elizabeth  peremptorily 
called  upon  the  bishops  (January,  15G4-(J5)  to  re- 
store uniformity,  and  Parker  with  Grindal  and  others 
drew  up  a  "Book  of  Articles",  which  he  forwarded 
to  Sir  William  Cecil  (3  March,  1564-05).  To  his 
intense  annoyance  they  were  not  approved;  but  after 
many  delays  and  alterations  they  were  again  sul^ 
mittcd  to  Cecil  (28  .March,  1,5(J0),  and  published 
under  the  title  of  "  .Aducrti.scments,  partly  for  due 
order  in  the  publi(iue  adniinislration  of  common 
pniyers  and  usmge  the  holy  .sacraments,  and  partly 
for  the  apparell  of  all  persons  ecclesiasticall."  Eliza- 
beth withheld  her  formal  assent  and  support;  and 
the  bishops  were  told  to  exercise  their  own  lawful 
authority,  and  so  made  to  bear  all  the  odium  their 
action  aroused.  The  "Advertisements"  recognize 
that  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  cope  worn  at  the 
communion  service,  and  are  content  to  enforce  the 
use  of  the  surplice.  Hence,  then,  the  clerical  vest- 
ment for  all  services  is  the  surplice,  in  the  parish 
church,  and  the  cope  for  the  communion  service  in 
c;ithe(lral  churches.  Even  that  was  too  much  for 
the  liking  of  the  extremists.  Conformity  was  en- 
forced under  penalty  of  deprivation,  thus  giving 
ri.se  to  violent  di.s.sensions  which  embittered  Parker's 
closing  years,  and  occasioned  the  first  open  sepa- 
ration of  Nonconformists  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. 

Corretmondenee  of  Archbishop  Parker  (Parker  Society,  1853); 
Zurich  Letters,  Second  Series,  140-51,  15(J-64;  Strype, 
Parker.  I,  313-320  (O.\ford  ed.,  1821);  Stkvpe,  Grindal  (Ox- 
ford. 1821),  13i)-78;  the  text  of  the  Book  of  Adrertisemints 
is  in  Cahdwells  Documrntary  Annnls  (Oxford.  1839).  I,  287. 
See  ChureJi  (Juart.  Rev..  XVII.  54-60;  Gee.  77i<-  Elizabethan 
Prayer-Iiook  and^  Ornaments  (London,  1902);  Maitland, 
*      "      bridge   Modem   Histc 

Bernahd  Ward. 

Advocates  of  Roman  Congregations  are  persons, 
ecclesiastical  or  lay,  versed  in  canon  and  civil  law, 
who  plead  causes  before  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals 
in  Rome.  The  learning  required  of  these  advocates 
is  exceptional  and  profound.  Besides  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  jurisprudence,  both  canonical  and 
civil,  they  must  also  be  versed  in  moral  and  dog- 
matic Theology,  and  in  sacred  and  profane  history. 
Frequent  references  to  the  councils  and  canons  of 
the  Church  and  to  the  decrees  of  the  Sovereign  Pon- 
tiffs oblige  them  to  acquire  a  deep  and  varied  erudi- 
tion which  embraces  various  languages,  ancient  and 
modern.  In  several  ways  the  advocate  of  the  Ro- 
man Court  differs  from  the  ordinary  legal  pleader. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  his  duty  to  establish  the 
facts  in  a  given  case.  That  is  the  business  of  an- 
other ofhcial  called  the  procurator.  The  ad- 
vocate assumes  the  facts  delivered  to  him  by  the 
procurator  to  be  true,  and  on  them  he  builds  his 
legal  argument.  Dealing  as  he  does  directly  with 
points  of  law  and  not  with  the  question  of  establish- 
ing facts,  he  is  freed  from  the  temptation  of  suborn- 
ing false  witnesses  or  distorting  testimony.  Again, 
a  Roman  ;ul\ocate  plea<ls  always  before  learned 
judges.  He  cannot,  therefore,  appcid  to  the  passions 
or  indulge  in  theatrical  displays  of  eloquence,  a.s  if 
he  had  to  deal  with  a  jury.  His  language  is  expected 
to  be  sober  and  refined,  clear  and  precise.  Having 
stated  plainly  the  facts  in  the  cjise,  he  is  required 
to  state  equally  plainly  the  laws  on  which  the  de- 
cision <lepends.  Very  frequently  the  advocate's  plc;i 
is  made  in  wTifing.  The  recompense  of  a  Roman 
advocate  is  a  fixed  sum,  which  is  to  be  paid  by  the 
client  whether  the  ease  be  gained  or  lost.  There  is 
no  temptation,  therefore,  to  proceed  to  questionable 
means  to  obtain  a  favourable  verdict.  Moreover, 
the  consistorial  advocates  are  pledged  to  defend  the 
poor  free  of  charge  in  case  of  need.  .\  Pious  .Society 
of  Advocates  exists  at  Rome  whose  officers  divide 
the  coses  of  the  poor  among  the  members.     Con- 


ADVOCATES 


168 


ADVOCATUS 


sistorial  advocates  proper  were  originally  only  seven 
in  nviinber,  forming  tlie  Consistorial  College.  Six- 
tus  IV  added  five  more  (called  juniors),  and  this 
number  of  twelve  was  definitely  fixed  by  Bene- 
dict XIV  in  1744.  Tlie  other  advocates  are  called 
titular  or  simple  advocates. 

HcMPHREv.  Vrb8  et  Orbis  (London,  1899);  Ferraris. 
PrampUi  Bibl.  Can.,  art.  Adv.  Consist.  (Rome,  1885);  Baart, 
The  Roman  Court  (New  York,  1895);  Wernz,  Jus  Decretalium 
(Rome,  1899). 

William  H.  W.   Fanning. 

Advocates  of  St.  Peter,  a  body  of  jurists  consti- 
tuting a  society  whose  statutes  were  confirmed  by 
a  brief  of  Leo  XIII,  5  July,  1878.  As  the  name 
indicates,  its  main  object  is  the  defence  of  the  Holy 
See  in  its  rights  and  privileges,  both  in  the  spiritual 
and  temporal  order.  It  binds  its  members  to  refute 
calumnies  of  enemies  of  tlie  Church,  wliether  derived 
from  distortions  of  historj',  jurisprudence,  or  dogma, 
but  above  all  are  they  to  devote  their  legal  knowl- 
edge to  a  defence  of  the  Church's  rights  before  civil 
tribunals.  Tlie  society  was  formed  in  1877,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Golden  Episcopal  Jubilee  of  Pope 
Pius  IX,  and  the  .Advocate  Count  Cajetan  Agnelli 
dei  Malherbi,  of  Rome,  became  its  first  president. 
Pope  Pius  IX  warmly  approved  of  the  undertaking, 
and  desired  a  wide  extension  of  the  society,  as  the 
immunities  of  the  Church  need  defence  eve^J'^vhere, 
and  under  every  system  of  government.  It  has 
spread  rapidly  over  the  Catholic  world,  and  branches 
of  the  society  are  found  among  the  principal  na- 
tions of  Christendom.  The  ordinary  members  must 
be  jurists,  but  the  society  also  enrolls  as  honorary 
members  distinguished  ecclesiastics  or  laymen  who 
have  made  it  a  practice  to  defend  Church  interests 
along  the  lines  of  this  organization.  Colleges  of  the 
Advocates  of  St.  Peter,  numbering  many  hundred 
members,  exist  in  Italy,  England,  Austria,  France, 
Spain,  Germany,  Canada,  and  South  America.  All 
of  these  bodies  are  affiliated  to  the  directory  in 
Rome. 

Gbashof  in  Kirchenlei.,  I.  253. 

William  H.  W.  F.^^nning. 

Advocatus  Diaboli  (Ad\ocate  of  the  Devil),  a 
popular  title  given  to  one  of  the  most  important 
officers  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites,  estab- 
lished in  1587,  by  Sixtus  V,  to  deal  juridically  with 
processes  of  beatification  and  canonization.  His 
official  title  is  Promoter  of  the  Faith  (Promotor 
Fidei).  His  duty  requires  him  to  prepare  in  writing 
all  possible  arguments,  even  at  times  seemingly 
sHght,  against  the  raising  of  any  one  to  the  honours 
of  the  altar.  The  interest  and  honour  of  the  Clnirch 
are  concerned  in  preventing  any  one  from  receiving 
those  honours  whose  death  is  not  juridically  proved 
to  have  been  "precious  in  the  sight  of  God"  (see 
Beatification  and  Canonization).  Prospero  Lam- 
bertini,  afterwards  Pope  Benedict  XIV  (1740-58), 
was  the  Promoter  of  the  Faith  for  twenty  years, 
and  had  every  opportunity  to  study  the  workings 
of  the  Church  in  tliis  most  important  function;  he 
was.  therefore,  peculiarly  qualified  to  compose  his 
monumental  work  "On  the  Beatification  and  Can- 
onization of  Saints,"  which  contains  the  complete 
vindication  of  the  rights  of  the  Church  in  this  mat- 
ter, and  sets  forth  historically  its  extreme  care  of 
the  use  of  this  right.  No  important  act  in  the 
process  of  beatification  or  canonization  is  valid  un- 
less poiformod  in  the  presence  of  the  Promoter  of 
the  I'aitli  formally  recognized.  His  duty  is  to  pro- 
test against  the  omission  of  tlie  forms  laid  down,  and 
to  insist  upon  the  consideration  of  any  objection. 
The  first  formal  mention  of  such  an  officer  is  found 
in  the  canonization  of  St.  J-awrencc  Justinian  under 
Leo  X  (15i:?-21).  Urban  VIII.  in  l(i.31.  made  liis 
presence    necessary,    at    least    by    deputy,    for    the 


validity  of  any  act  connected  with  the  process  of 
beatification  or  canonization. 

Benedict   XIV,    De   Beat,  ct   Canon.    Sanctorum,    I,   xviii. 
R.  L.  BURTSELL. 

Advocatus  Ecclesise,  a  name  applied,  in  the  Middle 

Ages,  to  certain  lay  persons,  generally  of  noljle  birth, 
whose  duty  it  was,  under  given  conditions,  to  rep- 
resent a  particular  church  or  monasten,',  and  to  de- 
fend its  rights  against  force.  These  ad\ocates  were 
specially  bound  to  represent  their  clients  before  the 
secular  courts.  They  exercised  civil  jurisdiction  in 
the  domain  of  the  church  or  monastery,  and  were 
bound  to  protect  the  church  with  arms  in  the  event 
of  actual  assault.  Finally,  it  was  their  duty  to  lead 
the  men-at-arms  in  the  name  of  the  church  or  mon- 
astery, and  to  command  them  in  time  of  w.ir.  In 
return  for  these  services  the  advocate  received  cer- 
tain definite  revenues  from  the  possessions  of  the 
church,  in  the  form  of  supplies  or  services,  which  he 
could  demand,  or  in  the  form  of  a  lien  on  the  church- 
property.  Such  advocates  are  to  be  found  even  in 
Roman  times;  a  Synod  of  Carthage  decreed,  in  401, 
that  the  emperor  should  be  requested  to  provide, 
in  conjunction  with  the  bishops,  defensores  for 
tlie  churches  (Hefele,  "  Conciliengeschichte,"  2d  ed., 
I,  8.3).  There  is  evidence,  nioreo\er,  for  such  de- 
fensore.s  ecdesice  in  Italy,  at  the  close  of  the  fifth 
century.  Gregory  I,  however,  confined  the  office  to 
members  of  tlie  clergy.  It  \\as  the  duty  of  these 
defeiisores  to  protect  the  poor,  and  to  defend  the 
rights  and  possessions  of  the  church.  In  the  Prank- 
ish kingdom,  and  under  the  Carlovingians,  the  du- 
ties of  the  church  advocate  were  enlarged  and  de- 
fined according  to  the  principles  of  government  which 
prevailed  in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne;  henceforward 
we  meet  with  the  advocatus  ecclcn'w  in  the  me- 
dieval sense.  A  Capitulary  of  about  790  (Mon- 
Germ.  Hist.,  Cap.  Reg.  Francor.,  I,  201)  ordained  that 
the  higher  clergy,  "for  the  sake  of  the  church's 
honour,  and  the  respect  due  to  the  priesthood  (jiro 
ecclesiastico  honore,  et  pro  sacerdotum  reverentia) ", 
should  have  advocates.  Charlemagne,  who  obliged 
bishops,  abbots,  and  abbesses  to  maintain  adro- 
cati,  commanded  that  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  the  choice  of  persons  to  fill  the  office;  they 
must  be  judicious  men,  familiar  with  the  law,  and 
owning  property  in  the  covintv  (Grafschaft. —  See 
Capitulary  of  802,  and  801-13, 1.  "c.  I,  93,  172).  The 
churches,  monasteries,  and  canonries,  as  such,  alike 
received  advocates,  who  by  degrees  assimied  the 
position  above  defined.  In  the  time  of  Charlemagne 
the  king  had  the  riglit  to  appoint  the  advocates,  but 
many  ecclesiastical  institutions  obtained  the  right  of 
election.  The  office  was  not,  at  first,  hereditary,  nor 
even  for  life;  in  the  post-Carlovingian  period,  how- 
ever, it  developed  into  an  hereditary  one.  and  was 
held  by  powerful  noliles,  who  constantly  endeavoured 
to  enlarge  their  rights  in  connection  with  the  church 
or  the  monastery.  Conciliar  decrees  were  passed  as 
early  as  the  ninth  century  to  protect  ecclesiastical 
institutions  against  the  excessive  claims  of  their  ad- 
vocates, who,  indeed,  grew  to  be  in  many  ways  a 
liea\'y  burden  to  their  clients.  They  dealt  with  the 
possessions  entrusted  to  tliem  as  with  their  own 
property,  plundered  the  church  estate,  appropriated 
the  tithes  and  other  revenues,  and  oppressed  in  every 
possible  way  those  whom  they  were  appointed  to 
protect.  The  office,  since  it  offered  many  advan- 
tages, was  eagerly  sought  after.  The  excessive  claims 
of  the  advocates  ga^■e  rise  to  many  disputes  between 
them  and  the  churches  or  monasteries.  The  bishops 
and  abbots,  who  found  their  rights  .seriously  cur- 
tailed, appealed  to  the  emperor  and  to  the  Pope  for 
protection.  In  the  twelfth  centur>-  grave  warn- 
mgs  issued  from  Rome,  restraining  the  high-handed 
actions  of  the  advocates  under  pain  of  severe  eccle- 


J 


ADVOWSON 


169 


ADVOWSON 


siastioal  penalties,  which  did  not,  however,  put  an 
end  to  all  the  abuses  that  prevailed.  On  certain 
occasions,  emperors  and  princes  exercised  the  office 
of  advocate,  in  which  case  they  appointed  deputy- 
advocates  (subadvocati)  to  represent  them. 

rir.iM\s.siN.  Velut  et  Nora  I'ccUtia  Ditriitlina  (I.yonji. 
17()^'|.  III.  l)k.  2.  Iv;  Van  Km'en.  Jus  fcdraiatticum  (I^juvum, 
17."i:i  .Wi.  II.  §  3.  bk.  8,  i;  Kkhhaki.-*.  UMiutheca  canonica.  etc. 
(Ki)riie,  1844),  «.  v.  "Advocatus  Ecclesiarura,"  1.  143  nq.; 
ROiiMKii.  lie  AdvocaM  EccUsvirum  cum  Jure  Patrunatut, 
in  hlH  Obnrrvationea  Juris  Canonici  (Guttinffen,  1703), 
obsprvat.  VI;  Happ,  De  Ailrocniui  Ecclrniatlicd  (Bonn,  1870); 
Ci.  Hl.oN'DEL.  Df  Advocatis  EccUnaslirM  in  RhrTtanta  prirtirrtim 
R''g\onibu»  a  IX  u»que  u/t  XIII  Sa-culum,  Dingrrlatio  (l*ariH, 
1KU21;  UauNNER,  DeuUche  Rrchtsf/rtchirhie  (I.eipziK.  1891'), 
II.  302  s<iq.;  Waitz.  Deutsche  V rTJnssungBgeschurktr  ('1  eil.. 
Herlin.  1885).  IV,  408  sq.,  cf.  VII.  320  »q.:  Hinbchius, 
Kire>u.-nrecht  (Berlin,  1878),  II,  629. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Advowson  (Lat.,  advocatio;  Old  Fr.,  avoi-son). — 
In  I'.nglish  law  the  right  of  patronage  of  a  church  or 
ccclisiastical  benefice,  a  right  exercised  by  nomina- 
tiiiri  of  a  clergyman  to  such  cliurch  or  other  benefice. 
ETi!;lisli  law  recognizes  two  kinds  of  advowsons, 
prcscntative  and  collative.  Until  the  year  1898 
tliere  was  also  a  third  kind,  known  as  advowson 
donative. 

I.  In  the  very  early  Saxon  period  parishes  and 
dioceses  in  England  were  <o-terminous,  each  bishop 
residing  with  his  clcrgj'  at  his  cathedral  church.  The 
clergy  went  forth  to  distant  regions  of  the  diocese, 
preaching  and  administering  the  sacraments.  But 
all  titlics  and  oblations  were  brought  into  a  common 
fund  for  support  of  the  bishop  and  clcrgj-,  repair  of 
churclies  and  other  works  of  pietv  and  devotion.  In 
course  of  time  parochial  churclies  arose,  in  some 
places  througli  the  liberality  of  the  inhabitants,  in 
otlier  places  by  the  action  of  the  bishops  themselves. 
By  the  eighth  century,  it  is  said,  great  lords,  such 
as  tlic  lorils  of  manors,  had  begun  to  build  and  en- 
dow churches  for  the  use  of  their  families  and  tenants, 
or  friends.  Bisliops  would  permit  the  founder  of  a 
church  to  nominate  its  resident  priest;  and,  more- 
over, consented  that,  contrary  to  the  ancient  custom, 
the  use  of  its  income  shouhl  be  rcstrictetl  to  such  a 
church.  But  as  the  bishop's  pcnnission  was  required 
for  the  erection  of  a  church,  he  liad  to  pronounce 
upon  the  sufficiency  of  its  enilowment  undv  digne 
domux  Dei  sustenlaretur  (that  the  house  of  God 
should  thereby  be  worthily  supported),  and  the 
nominee  was  to  be  presented  to  him  and  approved 
of  by  him.  The  riglit  of  presentation  constituted 
an  advowson  presentative.  In  those  rude  ages 
there  followed  on  this  riglit  to  nominate,  the  duty  to 
defenil.  to  become  ailmralus  or  advowee,  champion 
or  protector  of  the  church  of  which  the  patron  had 
named  the  incumbent.  .Vbout  the  year  800  these 
lay  foundations  hail  become  common.  Moreover, 
monasteries  were  often  vcsteil  with  advowsons  by  act 
of  tlieir  founders  or  benefactors.  After  the  Norman 
conquest,  French  or  Norman  monasteries  might  hold 
the  advowsons  of  ICngHsh  parishes.  And  when  at 
tlie  time  of  the  Kefornialion  the  F^nglish  monasteries 
were  suppressed  tlieir  advowsons  pas.setl  with  their 
estates  to  tlic  lay  benchciaries  of  tlie  suppression. 

II.  .Vdvowsons  donative  were  recognized  by  the 
law  of  IJigliiiid  until  1S9S.  A  statute  of  that  year 
maile  all  such  advowsons  presentative.  The  owner 
of  an  advowson  donative  po.sse.ssed  by  law  extraor- 
dinarj-  privileges.  His  right  of  patronage  was 
exercised  without  presentation  of  his  nominee  to 
the  bishop.  The  latter  had  not,  as  in  advowsons 
presentative,  the  right  of  institution;  that  is,  the 
right  of  conveying  or  committing  the  cure  to  the 
inciimlient;  nor  the  right  of  induction;  that  is.  of 
issuing  a  mandate  inducting  the  incumbent  into 
possession  of  the  church,  with  its  rights  and  profits. 
The  patron  had  sole  right  of  visitation,  and  sole  right 
to  deprive  the  incumbent,  and  to  the  patron  any 
resignation  of  the  charge  was  to  be  made. 


III.  An  advowson  coUative  is  an  advow.son  held 
by  a  bishop,  who  is  said  to  confer  the  benefice  "  by 
the  one  act  of  collation,"  remarks  Sir  William  Hlack- 
Ktone.  For,  the  same  authority  explains,  as  the 
bishop  cannot  present  to  himself,  lie  does,  by  this  one 
act,  "  the  whole  that  is  done  in  common  cases  by  both 
presentation  and  institution"  (Commentaries,  II, 
lii,  22).  .Vdvowsons  began  to  be  regarded  as  a  kind 
of  property  at  about  the  periotl  of  the  Norman  con- 
quest. From  the  spiritual  point  of  view  an  ecclesias- 
tical preferment  was  a  duty,  a  cure  of  souls,  with 
endowment  for  support  of  him  to  whom  this  spiritual 
duty  or  trast  was  confided,  but  from  the  Kiiglish 
legal  point  of  view  the  preferment  (subject  to  per- 
formance of  parochial  duties)  was  a  benefice  enjoyed 
by  the  incumbent,  who,  to  quote  a  reported  law  case 
of  the  year  1.303,  took  the  "great  tithes,  small  tithes, 
oblations,  obventions,  and  other  kind  of  issues." 
(See  Year  Books  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  the 
First,  ed.  and  tr.  by  .Vlfred  J.  Horwood,  London, 
1803,  31   Edward  I,  338.) 

English  law  rejected  the  view  that  presentation 
was  "a  personal,  spiritual  trust"  (Mirehouse  v.  Ren- 
nell,  8  Bingham's  Reports,  490,  p.  491),  admitting 
the  object  of  the  advowson  to  be  of  a  spiritual  nature, 
but  holding  the  advowson  to  be  a  temporal  estate  of 
inheritance  witli  presentation  as  its  mode  of  enjoy- 
ment, profit  or  rent.  The  canonical  qualifications 
of  the  clergyman  nominated  are  to  be  passed  upon  by 
the  bishop  in  the  instance  of  a  lay  advow.son  pre- 
sentative. But  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  nomination 
is  subject  to  the  King's  Courts  only.  Writs  even  of 
the  reign  of  King  Henrj'  the  Second  (11,54-89)  recited 
"lites  de  Advocationibus  ecclesiarum  ad  Coronam  et 
dignitatem  meam  pertinent."  And  after  the  Refor- 
mation the  king  was  declared  by  law  to  be  "the 
supreme  ecclesiastical  authority.'  As  to  nomina- 
tion; "Tlie  incorrupt  exercise  of  the  trust  is  secured," 
remarks  an  English  judge,  "by  the  penalties  against 
simony,  and  the  selection  of  a  fit  clerk  by  the  ex- 
amination of  the  ordinary."  (See  8  Bingham's 
Reports,  527.)  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  expresses  wliat 
had  doubtless  become  the  rule  as  to  this  examination 
when  he  states  that  "  the  bishop  has  no  power  to 
reject  a  man  nominated  by  the  patron,  but  for  some 
crime  that  might  exclude  him  from  the  priesthood." 
(Boswell,  Life  of  Johnson,  ed.  G.  B.  Hill,  Oxford, 
1887,  II,  243.) 

An  advowson,  regarded  by  the  law  as  property, 
is  termed  an  incorporeal  hereditament,  "a  right 
issuing  out  of  a  thing  corporate."  It  is  a  market- 
able property,  which  may  be  granted  by  deed  or  will, 
which  passes  by  a  grant  of  all  lands  and  tenements, 
and  which  may.  therefore,  become  the  subject  of 
litigation.  Blackstone,  extolling  King  Edward  the 
First  as  "our  English  Ju.stinian."  mentions  among 
the  king's  achievements  his  having  "effectually 
provideil  for  tlie  recoverj'  of  advowsons  as  temporal 
rights"  (Commentaries,  IV,  xxxiii,  425,  42G).  And 
in  the  law  reports  of  this  king's  reign  we  find  a 
bishop  sued  by  a  prior  whose  nominee  the  bishop 
had  refused,  pleadmg  that  the  prior's  nominee  was 
not  suitable  for  reasons  which  are  specified  to  the 
court,  the  bishop  thus  seeming  to  submit  (at  least, 
to  some  extent)  the  propriety  of  his  acts  to  the 
court's  judgment.  (See  "iear  Books  already  cited. 
32  Edward  I,  30,  1304.) 

The  right  of  presentation  which,  originally,  was 
conferred  on  a  person  building  or  endowing  a  church, 
appears  to  have  become,  by  degrees,  "appendant  to 
the  manor  in  which  it  was  built"  (S  Bingham's  Re- 
ports, 491),  and,  therefore,  termed  an  advowson 
appendant.  And  the  boundaries  of  manors  became 
the  l)oundaries  of  parishes.  But  in  many  instances 
advowsons  passed  from  owners  of  land  to  other 
private  persons,  or  to  lay  or  ecclesiastical  corpora- 
tions.    Advowsons  thus  severed  from  ownership  of 


ADYTUM 


170 


iEGIDIUS 


land  are  terniod  ailvowsons  in  gross.  There  are  in 
the  Church  of  England  more  tlian  13,000  benefices; 
of  these,  in  or  about  1S7S,  private  persons  held  the 
advowsons  of  some  7,000,  and  bishops,  of  only  about 
2,324,  the  remainder  being  divitled  among  deans  and 
chapters,  the  universities,  and  parochial  clergy. 
The  ancient  duty  of  protection,  or  championship, 
ceased,  long  since,  to  attach  to  the  right  of  presenta- 
tion. An  advowson  may  apparently  be  held  by  a 
Jew,  if  he  be  owner  in  his  own  right,  and  not  merely 
in  an  ofUcial  capacity.  But  no  Roman  Catholic  or 
alien  may  exercise  the  rights  of  a  patron  or  present  to 
a  living  in  the  Churcli  of  England.  To  the  king,  as 
patron  paramoimt  of  all  benefices  in  England,  be- 
longs the  right  of  presenting  to  those  benefices  to 
which  no  other  person  has  a  right  of  presentation. 

MiREiiousE.  .1  Practical  Treatise  im  the  Law  of  Advowsons 
(London,  1824):  Stepiikn,  New  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of 
England  (14th  ed.,  London,  1903),  II,  681-685;  Bingham, 
Reports  (anno  1832),  VIII  (case  of  Mirehouse  v.  Rennell); 
Mdrrav,  .4  New  English  Dictionary  on  Historical  Principles 
(New  York,  1888),  s.  v.:  Glanville,  Tractatus  De  Legibus  et 
Conauetudinibus  Regni  Angliie  (London,  1780);  Phillimore, 
The  Ecclesiastical  Law  of  the  Church  of  England  (London, 
1895);  Freeman,  The  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest  of 
Enghnd  (New  York,  1876)  V,  336-337;  Idem,  The  Reign  of 
William  Rufus  and  The  Accession  of  Henry  the  First  (Oxford, 
1882),  I.  420. 

Charles  W.  Sloane. 

Adytum  (from  &Svtoii;  sc.  a  privative  ■+-S6tji= 
enter),  a  secret  chamber  or  place  of  retirement  in 
the  ancient  temples,  and  esteemed  the  most  sacred 
spot;  the  innermost  sanctuary  or  shrine.  None  but 
the  otTiciating  priests  were  permitted  to  enter.  From 
this  place  the  oracles  were  given.  The  Holy  of 
Holies,  or  Sanctum  Sanctornm,  of  the  temple  of  Solo- 
mon was  of  the  nature  of  the  pagan  adytum;  none 
but  the  high  priest  being  admitted  into  it,  and  he  but 
once  a  year.  Among  the  Egyptians  the  secos  was 
the  same  thing,  and  is  described  by  Strabo.  A  well- 
preserved  adytum  that  has  come  to  our  knowledge 
is  in  the  little  temple  in  Pompeii;  it  is  raised  some 
steps  above  the  level  of  the  temple  itself,  and  is 
witho\it  light.  In  Christian  architecture  it  some- 
times s'gnifies  the  chancel,  or  altar  end  of  a  church. 
(See  Chancel.) 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Aedan  of  Ferns,  Saint,  ('Aedh-og  or  Mo-Aedh-og) 
Bishop  and  patron  of  Ferns,  in  Ireland,  b.  at  Inis- 
brefny,  near  Templeport,  County  Cavan,  about  550; 
d.  at  Ferns,  31  January,  632.  When  a  youth  he 
was  a  hostage  in  the  hands  of  .\edh  Ainmire,  High- 
King  of  Ireland.  He  studied  at  the  great  school  of 
Kilmuine,  in  Wales,  under  St.  David,  and  returned 
to  Ireland  in  580,  landing  on  the  coast  of  Wexford. 
In  thanksgiving  for  the  victory  of  Dunbolg,  County 
Wicklow,  10  January,  598,  in  which  King  JEdh  was 
slain.  Bran  Dubh,  King  of  Leinster,  convened  a  synod 
at  which,  having  represented  the  great  services  ren- 
dered to  the  kingdom  of  Leinster  by  St.  Aedan, 
notably  the  remission  of  the  Boromha  tribute,  it  was 
agreed  that  Ferns  be  made  an  episcopal  see,  with 
.■\edan  as  first  bishop.  He  was  also  given  a  nominal 
supremacy  over  the  other  Leinster  bishops  by  the 
title  of  .\rd-Escop  or  Chief  Bishop.  King  Bran  Dubh 
was  slain  at  Ferns  in  605.  St.  Aedan,  popularly 
known  as  Mogue  (Mo-Acdh-oq—  my  dear  Aedh) 
founded  thirty  churches  in  tlie  Covmty  Wexford. 
The  episcopal  seat  of  Ferns  is  now  at  Enniseorthy, 
where  there  is  a  beautiful  cathedral  dedicated  to 
St.  .\cdan,  whose  patronal  feast  is  observed  31  Janu- 
ary. 

Acta  SS  (1867),  Jan.  HI,  727  sqq.;  Coi.oan,  Acta  SS. 
HibemicB  (1045),  I,  637;  Boase  in  Dirt.  Christ.  Biein..  s.  v. 
Maidoc;  De  Smedt,  Acta  SS.  Hihrmia:  (Edinburgh,  1888).  403. 

W.  H.  G RATTAN  Flood. 
.ffldesius  and  Frumentius.    See  Edesius. 
Aedh   oi-    Kii.DAHK,    King    of    Leinster,  an   Irish 
«aint,    commemorated    by    Colgan    under    date    of 


4  January;  but  much  obscurity  attaches  to  his  life- 
work.  The  "Annals  of  the  Four  Masters"  and  the 
"Annals  of  ITster"  agree  in  the  account  of  this 
monarch,  who  resigned  his  crow^l  and  eventually 
became  Bishop  of  Kildare.  LTnder  the  name  of 
Aldus,  a  latinized  form  of  Aedh,  liis  name  is  to  be 
found  in  several  martyrologies.  The  year  of  his 
death  was  639,  according  to  the  corrected  chronology 
of  the  "Annals  of  Ulster."  Colgan  tells  us  that  he 
resigned  the  throne  of  Leinster  in  591  (really,  592), 
and  entered  the  great  monastery  of  Kildare,  where 
he  served  God  for  forty-eight  years,  becoming  suc- 
cessively abbot  and  bishop.  His  episcopate  was 
from  about  630  to  639.  He  must  not  be  confounded 
with  Aedh  Finn,  king  of  Ossory,  knowii  as  ".\edh 
the  cleric,"  who  was  a  contemporarj-,  and  resigned 
the  throne  of  Ossory  for  a  monastic  cell.  St.  Aedh 
of  Leinster  is  styled  Aedh  Dubh,  from  his  dark  feat- 
ures, whilst  Aedh  of  Ossory  was  fair,  hence  the  affix 
/Jnra  (/ioran=fair).  Another  St.  Aedh  is  venerated 
on  3  May. 

Colgan,  Acta  Sand.  Hibemice  (1645),  I,  41S-423;  Hardy, 
Descriptive  Catalogue  of  MSS.,  etc.  (1862),  I,  1,  165-166; 
Bibl.  hagiogr.  Latina  (1898),  31-32. 

W.  H.  Gratt.\n  Flood. 

.ffigidius.     See  Giles. 

.ffigidius  of  Assisi,  Blessed,  one  of  the  original 
companions  of  St.  Francis.  He  is  also  known  as 
Blessed  Ciiles,  and  holds  the  foremost  place  among 
the  companions  of  St.  Francis.  "The  Knight  of 
our  Round  Table"  St.  Francis  called  him.  Of  his 
antecedents  and  early  life  nothing  certain  is  known. 
In  April,  1209,  moved  by  the  example  of  two  lead- 
ing fellow-Assisians,  who  became  the  first  followers 
of  St.  Francis,  he  begged  permission  to  join  the  little 
band,  and  on  the  feast  of  St.  George  was  invested  in 
a  poor  habit  St.  Francis  had  begged  for  him.  Almost 
immediately  afterwards  he  set  out  with  St.  Francis 
to  preach  in  the  Marches  of  Ancona.  He  accom- 
panied the  saint  to  Rome  when  the  first  Rule  was 
approved  orally  by  Innocent  III,  and  appears  to 
have  then  received  the  clerical  toasure.  About  1212 
.lEgidius  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  St.  James 
at  Compostella,  in  Spain.  Shortly  after  his  return 
to  Assisi  he  started  for  Jerusalem,  to  \'enerate  the 
Holy  Places,  visiting  on  his  way  home  the  Italian 
shrines  of  St.  Michael,  at  Monte  Gargano,  and  St. 
Nicholas,  at  Bari.  We  next  find  him  in  Rome  and 
still  later  at  Tunis.  In  these  joiu'neys  ^gidius  was 
ever  at  pains  to  procure  by  manual  labour  what  food 
and  shelter  he  needed.  At  Ancona  he  made  reed 
baskets;  at  Brindisi  he  carried  water  and  helped  to 
bury  the  dead;  at  Rome  he  cut  wood,  trod  the 
wine-press,  and  gathered  nuts;  while  the  guest  of 
a  cardinal  at  Rieti  he  insisted  on  sweeping  the  house 
and  cleaning  the  knives.  A  keen  obser\cr  of  men 
and  events,  vEgidius  acquired  in  the  course  of  these 
travels  much  valuable  knowledge  and  experience, 
which  he  turned  to  good  account.  For  he  lost  no 
occasion  of  preaching  to  the  people.  His  sermons, 
if  such  they  can  be  called,  were  brief  and  heartfelt 
talks,  replete  with  homely  wisdom;  he  ne\er  minced 
his  words,  but  spoke  to  all  with  apostolic  freedom. 
After  some  years  of  activity  ^giduis  was  assigned 
by  St.  Francis  to  the  hermitage  of  Fabriano,  where 
he  began  that  life  of  contemplation  and  ecstasy 
which  continued  with  very  visible  increase  until  his 
death.  It  was  in  1262,  on  the  fifty-second  anni- 
versary of  his  reception  into  the  Order  of  l>iars 
Minor,"  that  yRgidius  passed  away,  already  re\cred 
as  a  saint.  His  immemorial  cultus  w-as  confirmed 
by  Pius  VI,  and  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  the  twenty- 
third  of  April. 

^gidius  was  a  stranger  to  theological  and  classical 
learning,  but  by  constant  contemplation  of  heavenly 
things,  and  by  the  divine  love  with  which  he  was 
inflamed,  he  acquired  that  fullness  of  holy  wisdom 


^GIDIUS 


J71 


iSELFRIO 


which  filled  his  contemporaries  with  wonder,  and 
wliicli  drew  men  of  every  condition,  even  the  Poix; 
himself,  to  Perugia  to  hear  from  ^■Kgidius'  lips  the 
Word  of  Life.  The  answers  and  advice  these  visitors 
received  were  remembered,  talked  over,  and  com- 
mitted to  writing,  and  thus  w:is  formed  a  collection 
of  the  familiar  "Dicta"  or  "Sayings"  of  ^I'^gidius, 
which  have  often  been  c<lited  in  Latin  and  trans- 
lated into  different  languages.  St.  Bonaventure  held 
these  "Sayings"  in  hig!i  esteem,  and  they  are  cited 
in  the  works  of  many  sub.sc(|uent  ascetical  writers. 
They  are  short,  pithy,  popular  counsels  on  Christian 
perfection,  applicable  to  all  cla.s.ses.  Saturated  with 
mysticism,  yet  exquisitely  human  and  possessing  a 
picturesque  vein  of  originality,  they  faithfully  reflect 
the  early  Franciscan  spirit  and  teaching.  'i"he  latest 
and  best  edition  of  the  "  Dicta  "  is  that  published  at 
Quaracchi,  in  1905.  There  is  a  critical  English 
translation  of  the  same:  "The  Golden  Words  of  the 
Blessed  Brother  Giles",  togetlier  with  a  sketch  of  his 
hfe,  by  the  writer  of  this  article  (Philadelphia,  1906); 
also  a  new  German  version,  "  Der  .selige  iTJgidius  von 
Assisi,  scin  Lcben  und  seine  Spruchc",  by  Gisbert 
Minge  (Paderbom,  191)5). 

Arlu  .S.S.,  III,  .\pril.  220  aqq.:  Chronica  XX/V  Gmrralium 
(Quaracchi.  1897),  74-115;  Vita  Beali  J^aidii  Assisialu 
(Qiinracrhi.  1901);  Fratini,  Vita  tld  B.  Kffulio  d'Assin 
(As-sisi,  1898);  SAB.tTlim,  Actun  li.  Franrim  el  aociorum  ejus 
(Paris,  lOOLM;  I{obi.>.son,  The  BUfunl  dilea  nf  Aatiti  in  Fran- 
ciacim  Monlhlu  (London,  Jan.-Junc.   190(j). 

P.\S(I1.\L   RoBINSOX. 

.£gidius  of  Viterbo,  cardinal,  theologian,  orator, 
humanist,  and  poet,  b.  at  \'iterbo  Italy;  d.  at  Rome, 
12  November,  l.>{2.  He  entered  the  .\ugustinian  Or- 
der at  an  early  age  and  became  its  general.  ^Egidius 
is  famous  in  ecclesi;istical  history  for  the  boldness 
and  earnestness  of  the  tliscourse  wliich  he  delivered 
at  the  opening  of  the  Fifth  General  Council,  held  in 
1512.  at  the  Lateran.  It  is  printed  in  Harduin's 
collection  of  the  councils  (IX,  1576).  Leo  X  made 
him  cardinal,  confided  to  liim  several  sees  in  succes- 
sion, employed  him  as  legate  on  important  missions, 
and  gave  liim  (1523)  tlie  title  of  (Latin)  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  His  zeal  for  the  genuine  reforma- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  conditions  prompted  him  to 
present  to  .-Vdrian  VI  a  "  Promemoria".  edited  by 
Constantin  Hofier  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Munich 
.\cademy  of  Sciences  [III  da.ss.  IV,  3  (B)  62-891. 
He  was  universally  esteemeil  as  a  learned  and  vir- 
tuous member  of  the  great  pontifical  senate  and  many 
deemed  him  destined  to  succeed  Clement  VII.  He 
wrote  many  works,  but  only  a  few  of  his  writings 
have  been  printed  in  the  third  volume  of  the  "Col- 
lectio  Novissima"  of  Mart(>ne.  He  was  a  profound 
student  of  the  Scriptures  and  a  good  scholar  in 
Greek    and    Hebrew. 

When  urged  by  Clement  VII  to  publish  his  works, 
he  is  said,  by  the  .\ugustinian  Tliomas  de  Herrera,  to 
have  repHed  that  he  feared  to  contradict  famous  and 
lioly  men  by  his  exposition  of  Scripture.  The  Pope 
replied  that  human  respect  should  not  deter  him; 
it  was  quite  permissible  to  preach  antl  write  what 
was  contrary  to  the  opinions  of  others,  provided  one 
did  not  depart  from  tlie  truth  and  from  the  common 
tradition  of  tlic  Church  (Nat.  .-Mex.,  Hist.  Eccl., 
saec.  XV,  1,  5.  16;  XVII.  354).  His  principal  work 
is  an  historical  treatise  yet  unpublished:  "  Historia 
viginti  sa'culorum  per  totidem  psalmos  conscripta". 
It  deals  in  a  philosophico-historical  way  with  the 
historj'  of  the  worlil  before  and  after  the  birtli  of 
Clirist.  is  valuable  for  the  history  of  his  own  time, 
and  olTers  a  certain  analogj-  witli  Bossuet's  famous 
"  Discours  sur  I'histoire  univcrseile".  The  six 
books  of  his  important  correspondence  (1497-1523) 
concerning  the  affairs  of  his  order,  much  of  which  is 
addressed  to  (i;ibriel  of  Venice,  his  succes.sor.  are 
preserved  at  Home  in  the  Bibliothcca  .Vngelica. 
Cardinal  llergenrijther  praises  particularly  the  circular 


letter  in  which  iSgidius  made  known  (27  February, 
1519)  his  resignation  of  the  office  of  General  of  the 
Augustinian  Order  (Lammer,  "  Zur  Kirchengeschichte 
des  XVI.  und  XNII.  Jahrhunderts",  Freiburg.  1863. 
64-67).  Other  known  works  of  jEgidius  arc  a  com- 
mentary on  the  first  book  of  the  "Sentences"  of 
Peter  Lombard,  three  "  Eclogie  Sacra;",  a  dictionary 
of  Hebrew  roots,  a  "  Libeilus  de  ecclesiie  incre- 
inento",  a  "Liber  dialogorum",  and  an  "Infor- 
matio  pro  sedis  aixjstolica;  auctoritatc  contra 
Lutheranam  sectam". 

Caki>.  Hkiu:i:nh6ther.  in  Kirchentex.,  I.  255-250;  Os- 
KiNOKH  in  Bihlwlh.  Auoutliniana  (InKol!'tadt,  17r)9)  I,  190-198: 
F.\nnun'.»-MANsi.  Bibl.  Lot,,  1,  23;  Pabtoh,  Gesch.  der  PaptU 
(3d  ed.).  III.  100.  18.1,  723 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

iEgidius  Romanus.    See  Colonna,  Egidio  de. 

JElbert  of  York.     See  Ethelbert. 

yElfege.     See  Ei.phege. 

.^Ifleda.     See  Elfleda. 

.Alfred.     See  Alfred. 

iGIfric,  Ahbot  of  Eynsham,  also  known  as  "the 
(irammarian,"  the  author  of  Homilies  in  Anglo- 
Saxon,  a  translator  of  Holy  Scripture,  and  a  writer 
upon  many  miscellaneous  subjects.  He  seems  to 
have  been  born  about  955,  and  to  ha\e  died  about 
1020.  The  identity  of  this  writer  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  controversy.  Even  in  Freeman's 
"Norman  Conquest"  he  is  wTOngly  identified  with 
vElfric,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1005).  But  of 
late  years  nearly  all  scholars  have  come  round  to  the 
opinion  of  Lingard  and  Dietrich  that  there  was  but 
one  .'Elfric  famous  in  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  and 
that  this  man  was  never  raised  to  any  higher  dignity 
than  that  of  abbot.  Of  his  career  we  know  but 
little.  He  was  undoubtedly  a  monk  of  tlie  Old 
Monasterj-  of  Winchester  under  Saint  Athehvold, 
whose  life  lie  subsequently  wrote  in  Latin.  Some 
time  after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  he  was 
sent  to  Cerne  Abbey,  or  as  he  himself  writes  it 
"Cerncl",  in  Dorsetshire,  Thence  he  became,  in 
1005,  abbot  of  the  recently-founded  mon.asterj'  of 
Eynsham,  near  Oxford,  wliere  he  probably  remained 
until  his  death.  Of  all  the  writers  in  Anglo-Saxon 
that  have  been  preserved  to  us  .^ilfric  was  the  most 

frolifie.  He  is  especially  remembered  for  his 
lomilies,  around  the  theological  teaching  of  which 
concerning  the  Blessed  Sacrament  a  great  contro- 
versy has  raged.  Already  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  it  was  asserted  by  Mathew  Parker,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbviry,  that  ^Elfric  in  his  Homily  for 
Easter  Day  clearly  evinced  his  disbelief  in  Transub- 
stantiation,  and  that  he  must,  moreover,  be  regarded 
as  expressing  the  sentiments  of  the  whole  Anglo- 
Saxon  church,  of  which  he  was  a  prominent  and 
trusted  representative.  The  details  of  the  con- 
troversy cannot  be  discussed  here.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  noted  that  the  Anglican  writer,  W.  Hunt, 
wlio  eighteen  years  ago  in  the  "Dictionary  of  Na- 
tional Biography"  described  iElfrie  as  vigorously 
opposing  "the  doctrine  of  the  Roman  Church  on  the 
subject  of  the  Eucharist,"  has  recently  so  far  modi- 
fied his  view  as  to  allow  that  "it  is  possible  to  recon- 
cile jElfric's  words  with  the  pre.sent  teaching  of 
Rome;  liis  expressions  are  loose  and  unphilosophical, 
and.  therefore,  capable  of  being  interpreted  according 
to  demand."  ("Tlie  English  Churcli  to  the  Norman 
Conquest,"  p.  376.)  This  latter  view  is  undoubtedly 
the  more  correct.  iElfrie  never  intended  to  attack 
the  doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence.  He  quotes  with 
approval  instances  of  the  miraculous  apjiearance  of 
blood  at  the  breaking  of  the  Host.  But  lie  had 
adopted  the  views  of  Ratramnus  of  Corbie,  whom 
he  repeatedly  paraphrases,  insisting  tliat  in  the 
Eucharist  was  a  "spiritual"  presence  as  opposed 
to  a  "bodily"  (t.  e.,  fleshly  or   carnal)    one.     That 


iELNOTH 


172 


^NEAS 


Ratraranus  was  no  opponent  of  Transubstantiation 
has  recently  been  proved  to  demonstration  in  the 
monograph'  of  Dr.  Aug.  Xiegle  (Vienna,  1903). 
.-Elfrio's  numerous  works  in  Anglo-Sa.xon,  which  give 
evidence  of  mucli  literary  power,  liave  now  nearly 
all  been  printed.  Both  tlie  "CatlioUc  Homilies" 
and  the  "  Homilies  on  the  Saints  "  have  been  edited 
with  translations;  the  former  in  1S46,  by  Thorpe; 
tlie  latter  in  1900,  by  Skeat. 

CMiOLisE  I,.  White.  New  Study  of  Aelfric,  in  Yale  Studies, 
II  (New  York,  1898);  Skeat,  Introduction  to  Aelfric'a  Lii'ea 
ol  Snints  (E  E.  T.  S.,  1900);  Dietrich  in  Niedner's  Zeil- 
schrilt  (1855  and  1856);  also  many  histories  of  English 
Literature,  e.  g.,  those  of  Ten  Brink,  Wulker,  or  Stopford 
Urooke.  The  article  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography 
.xhoiild  be  read  with  great  caution.  See  The  Month,  June, 
1900  On  the  Eucharistic  controversy,  see  especially  Lingard, 
Angh-Saron  Church,  II;  note  R.;  Bridoett,  Holy  Eucharist  in 
Great  Britain,  I,  1.33  nqq.;  N.egle,  Ratramnus,  pp.  305-309. 
The  extreme  Protestant  view  is  represented  by  Soames, 
Anglo-Saxon  Church  (1856),  225  sgQ. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

.ffilnoth,  monk  and  biographer,  of  whom  nothing 
is  known  except  his  Life  of  St.  Canute  the  Martyr, 
written  in  1109.  In  this  work  he  describes  himself 
as  a  priest,  a  native  of  Canterbury,  and  states  that 
he  has  lived  in  Denmark  for  twenty-four  years.  This 
gives  1085  as  the  date  at  which  he  left  England.  In 
that  year  certain  relics  of  St.  Alban  were  translated 
to  Denmark,  from  which  fact  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  he  accompanied  them.  In  the  title  of  his  work 
he  is  described  as  a  monk;  he  was  probably  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Canute,  in  Odense. 
No  record  of  his  death  has  been  preserved.  His 
Life  of  St.  Canute  was  first  printed  by  Huitfeld  in 
1002,  reprinted  by  Meursius  in  1746;  but  the  best 
critical  edition  was  published  by  the  BoUandists  in 
their  "Acta  Sanctorum"  (July  10),  being  edited  by 
Solerius. 

Chevalier,  Repertoire  des  sources  historiques  du  moyen  Age 
(1905);  Hurter,  Nomenclatnr,  II.  48  (1903);  Dirt.  Nat. 
Biog.,  I.  170  (ISS5);  Bollandists.  Acto  5.S.,  XXX,  118 
(18fiS);  Langebek  and  .Schm,  Scriptores  Rerum  Danic.  Med. 
.ifv.   (1772);  Fabricius,   Bib.  Med.  Aev.    (1734 1. 

Bernard  Ward. 

.Sired,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Rievaulx,  homilist  and 
historian  (1109-66).  St.  J<;ired,  whose  name  is  also 
written  Ailred,  jEthelred,  and  Ethelred,  was  the 
son  of  one  of  those  married  priests  of  whom  many 
were  found  in  England  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries.  He  was  born  at  Hexham,  but  at  an  early 
age  made  the  acquaintance  of  David,  St.  Margaret's 
youngest  son,  shortly  afterwards  King  of  Scotland, 
at  whose  court  he  apparently  acted  for  some  years 
as  a  sort  of  page,  or  companion  to  the  young  Prince 
Henry.  King  David  loved  the  pious  English  youth, 
promoted  him  in  his  household,  and  wished  to  make 
him  bishop,  but  jElred  decided  to  become  a  Cister- 
cian monk,  in  the  recently  founded  abbey  of  Rie- 
vaulx in  Yorkshire.  Soon  he  was  appointed  master 
of  novices,  and  was  long  remembered  for  his  extra- 
ordinary tenderness  and  patience  towards  those 
under  his  charge.  In  1143  when  William,  Earl  of 
Lincoln,  founded  a  new  Cistercian  abbey  upon  his 
estates  at  Revesby  in  Lincolnshire,  St.  jElred  was 
sent  with  twelve  monks  to  take  possession  of  the 
new  foundation.  His  stay  at  Revesby,  where  he 
seems  to  have  met  St.  Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  was 
not  of  long  duration,  for  in  1116  he  was  elected 
abbot  of  Rievaulx.  In  tliis  position  the  saint  was 
not  only  superior  of  a  community  of  300  monks, 
but  he  was  head  of  all  the  Cistercian  abbots  in 
England.  Causes  were  referred  to  him,  and  often 
he  nad  to  undertake  considerable  journeys  to  visit 
the  monasteries  of  liis  order.  Such  a  journey  in 
1153  took  him  to  Scotland,  and  there  meeting 
King  David,  for  the  la.st  time,  he  wrote  on  his  return 
to  Rievaulx,  wlierc  the  news  of  l)a\'id's  death  reached 
him  shortly  afterwards,  a  sympathetic  sketch  of  the 
character  of  the  late  king.     He  seems  to  have  exer- 


cised considerable  influence  over  Henry  II,  in  the 
early  years  of  his  reign,  and  to  have  persuaded  him 
to  join  Louis  VII  of  France  in  meeting  Pope  .Alex- 
ander III,  at  Touci,  in  1162.  Although  suffering 
from  a  complication  of  most  painful  maladies,  he 
journeyed  to  France  to  attend  the  general  chapter 
of  his  Order.  He  was  present  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  at  the  translation  of  St.  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, in  1163,  and,  in  view  of  this  event,  he  both 
wrote  a  life  of  the  saintly  king  and  preached  a  homily 
in  his  praise.  The  next  year  ^Ired  undertook  a 
mission  to  the  barbarous  Pictish  tribes  of  Galloway, 
where  their  chief  is  said  to  have  been  so  deeply 
moved  by  his  exhortations  that  he  became  a  monk. 
Throughout  his  last  years  JEhed  gave  an  extra- 
ordinary example  of  heroic  patience  under  a  succes- 
sion of  infirmities.  He  was,  moreover,  so  abstemious 
that  he  is  described  as  being  "more  like  a  ghost  than 
a  man."  His  death  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
occurred  12  January,  1166,  although  there  are  reasons 
for  thinking  that  the  true  year  may  be  1167.  St. 
jElred  left  a  considerable  collection  of  sermons,  the 
remarkable  eloquence  of  which  has  earned  for  him 
the  title  of  the  English  St.  Bernard.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  ascetical  treatises,  notably  the 
"Speculum  Charitatis,"  also  a  compendium  of  the 
same  (really  a  rough  draught  from  which  the  larger 
work  was  developed),  a  treatise  "De  Spirituali 
Amicitia."  and  a  certain  letter  to  an  anchoress.  All 
these,  together  with  a  fragment  of  his  historical 
work,  were  collected  and  published  by  Richard  Gib- 
bons, S.J.,  at  Douai,  in  1631.  A  fuller  and  better 
edition  is  contained  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  "  Bib- 
liotheca  Ci.sterciensis"  of  Tissier,  1662,  from  which 
they  have  been  printed  in  P.  L.,  vol.  CXCV.  The 
historical  works  include  a  "Life  of  St.  Edward," 
an  important  account  of  the  "Battle  of  the  Stand- 
ard" (1138),  an  incomplete  work  on  the  genealogy 
of  the  kings  of  England,  a  tractate  "  De  Sanctimoniali 
de  Watton"  (.\bout  the  Nun.  of  Watton),  a  "Life 
of  St.  Ninian,"  a  work  on  the  "Miracles  of  the  Church 
of  Hexham,"  an  account  of  the  foundations  of  St.  Mary 
of  York  and  Fountains  Abbey,  as  well  as  some  that 
are  lost.  No  complete  edition  of  ^Ired's  historical 
opusctila  has  ever  been  published.  A  few  were 
printed  by  Twysden  in  his  "Decem  Scriptores," 
others  must  be  sought  in  the  Rolls  Series  or  in 
Raine's  "Priory  of  Hexham"  (Surtees  Society, 
Durham,  1864). 

An  anonymous  Latin  Life  of  St.  j^lred  is  printed  by  the 
Bollandists.  Acta  SS.,  January,  vol.  11;  while  other  materials 
may  be  gathered  from  Raine,  Priory  of  Hexham,  and  from 
Shed's  own  writings.  An  excellent  short  biography  was 
compiled  by  Father  Dalgairns  for  Newman's  series  of  Lives 
of  the  English  Saints,  1845  (new  e.l.,  London.  1903);  Diet, 
of  Nat.  Biog.  s.  v.  Ethelred  (XVIII,  33-35);  Baring- 
Gould.  Lives  of  the  Saints,  I.  and  the  great  Cistercian  collec- 
tions of  Henriquez  and  Manrique. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

.ffilurus,  Timotheus.     See  Timotheus. 

.ffimilianus  Hieronymus.  See  Jerome  Emiuan, 
Saint. 

.ffineas,  Irish  Prelate.  See  Aengus,  Saint, 
The  Cui.dee. 

JGneas  of  Gaza,  a  Neo-Platonic  philosopher,  a 
convert  to  Christianity,  who  flourished  towards  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century.  In  a  dialogue  entitled 
"  Theophrastus "  he  alludes  to  Hierocles  (of  .Alex- 
andria) as  his  teacher,  and  in  some  of  his  letters 
mentions  as  his  contemporaries  writers  whom  we 
know  to  have  lived  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  centuiy 
and  the  beginning  of  tlie  sixth.  His  testimony  is 
often  quoted  in  favour  of  the  miraculous  gift  of 
speech  conferred  on  the  Christian  martyrs  who.se 
tongues  were  cut  out  In'  order  of  the  Vandal  king 
lluneric  (Baronius.  ad  ann.  481.  n.  91  sqq).  Like 
.all  tlie  Christian  Neo-Platonists.  JEnviMi  held  Plato 
in   higher  esteem   than   Aristotle,   although   his  ac- 


iENEAS 


173 


^ONS 


qiiaintiiiice  with  Plato's  doctrine  was  acquired 
tnroueh  traditional  teacliinR  and  the  study  of  a]x)c- 
ryphal  Platonic  writings,  and  not — to  any  great  ex- 
tent, at  least — through  the  study  of  the  genuine  "  Dia- 
logues. "  Like  Syne.siu.s,  Nenic.siu.s,  and  others,  he 
found  in  Neo-Platonism  the  pliilosophical  system 
which  best  accorded  with  Christian  revelation.  Kut. 
unlike  Synesius  and  Xemesius.  he  rejected  some  of 
the  most  characteristic  doctrines  of  the  Neo-Platon- 
ists  as  being  inconsistent  with  Cliristian  dogma.  Kor 
instance,  he  rejected  the  ductrine  of  pre-existence 
(according  to  which  the  .soul  of  man  existed  before 
its  union  with  body),  arguing  that  the  soul  be- 
fore its  union  with  the  body  would  have  been  "  idle. " 
incapable  of  exercising  anv  of  its  faculties  (Migiic. 
P.  G.,  LXXXV,  947).  Sim'ilarly,  he  rejected  the  doc- 
trine of  the  eternal  duration  of  the  world,  on  the 
grounil  that  the  world  is  cor|X)real,  and,  althougli 
the  best  po.ssible  "mechanism."  contains  in  itself 
the  elements  of  dissolution  (op.  cit.  958  sqq).  Again, 
he  taught  that  "  man's  body  is  composed  of  matter 
and  form,"  and  that  while  the  matter  perishes  the 
"  form  "  of  the  body  retains  the  power  of  resuscitat- 
ing tlie  "matter"  on  the  last  day  (op.  cit.,  982). 

TnKopHRASTt's  is  published  in  /*.  <i.,  LXXXV:  ^Eneas's 
Lf tiers,  in  Fadricius,  liihl.  (Jraca,  I;  Boissonade,  jEnetia 
GiW<rus.  etc.  (Paris,  1S30I:  Bahth,  .■En.  Gm.  .  .  .  de  im- 
morttil.  anima  .  .  .  (LeipziK,  1G55):  Uebeuweo,  Gesch.  der 
1-hil..  II,  9  eJ.  (Berlin.  1905).  140,  tr.  by  Morris  (New  York, 
lJi71).  I.  347:  Stockl,  Lehrb.  der  Getch.  der  Phil.  3  ed.  (Maim, 
1S8S),  1,  311. 

WiLLi.\M  Turner. 

JEneas  Sylvius.     See  Pius  II. 

.^nesidemus.     See  NeoPl-\tonism. 

AengTis,  Saint  (The  Culdee),  an  Irish  saint  who 
flourished  in  the  last  quarter  of  tlie  eighth  century, 
and  is  held  in  imperishable  honour  as  the  author  of 
the  I'tliri,  or  Festologv'  of  the  Saints.  Bom  near 
Clonengh,  Ireland,  Aengus  was  educated  at  the 
monastic  school,  founded  there  by  St.  Fintan, 
not  far  from  the  present  town  of  Mountrath. 
Becoming  a  hermit,  lie  lived  for  a  time  at  Disert- 
beagh,  where,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nore,  he  is 
saitl  to  have  communed  witli  the  angels.  From 
his  love  of  prayer  and  solitude  he  was  named  the 
"Culdee";  in  other  words,  the  Ceile  Di,  or  "Servant 
of  God."  (See  Culdees.)  Xot  satisfied  with  his 
hermitage,  which  was  only  a  mile  from  Clonenagh, 
and.  therefore,  liable  to  be  disturbed  by  students  or 
wayfarers,  .\engus  removed  to  a  more  solitary  abode 
eight  miles  distant.  This  sequestered  place,  two 
miles  southeast  of  the  present  town  of  Marj-borough, 
was  called  after  l>.im  "the  Desert  of  Aengus",  or 
"  Dysert-Enos  ".  Here  he  erected  a  little  oratory  on 
a  gentle  eminence  among  the  Dy.sert  Hills,  now  rep- 
resented by  a  ruined  and  deserted  Protestant  church. 
His  earliest  biographer  (ninth  centurj-)  relates  the 
wonderful  austerities  practised  by  St.  Aengus  in  his 
"desert",  and  though  he  sought  to  be  far  from  the 
haunts  of  men,  his  fame  attracted  a  .stream  of  vis- 
itors. The  result  was  that  the  good  saint  aban- 
doned his  oratory  at  Dysert-Knos,  and,  after  some 
wanderings,  came  to  the  monastery  of  Tallaght,  near 
Dublin,  then  governed  by  St.  Maelruain.  He  en- 
tered as  a  lay-brother,  concealing  his  identity,  but 
St.  M.aelruain  soon  discovered  him,  and  collaborated 
with  him  on  the  work  known  as  the  "  Martyrologj' of 
Tallaght  ",  about  the  year  790.  This  work  is  a  prose 
catalogue  of  Irish  saints,  and  is  the  okle.st  of  the 
Irish  martyrologies.  .\bout  the  year  SO.i  St.  .\engus 
finished  his  famous  Felirf,  a  poetical  work  on  the 
saints  of  Ireland,  a  copy  of  which  is  in  the  Lenhhnr 
Breac.  The  last  touches  were  given  to  this  work  in 
the  cell  at  Disert-bcagh  (.^1.  Aengus  had  left  Tallaght, 
not  long  after  the  death  of  St.  Maelniain).  where  he 

Ca.s.sed   awav  on   Friday,    11    .March.   .S24.     He  w.is 
uricd  in  Cfonenagh.  as  we  re.-iil  in  liis  metrical  life, 
and  his  death  is  commemorated  U  .March. 


Acta  SS.  (1867\  March  11.  84-87:  Coloan,  Acta  SS.  Uihem. 
(1645),  I.  579-583:  OHanlon,  Tht  Lilt  and  Workt  of  Amgut 
the  CuUler.  in  Irith  Eccl.  Record  (Dublin,  1809):  D'Aruois 
i)E  JuHAlNviLLE,  Revue  Critique  (1881).  B.  XI.  183-188; 
Madillon.  Ada  SS.  Ord.  S.  Bened.  (1085).  V.  900:  Hardy, 
Detcripliie  Calalooue.  etc.  (1862).  II.  ii.  511. 

VV.  H.  Gratt.\n  Flood. 

.£non  (Aifiix;  Vulgate,  JEnnon;  Douay,  Ennon), 
mentioned  in  John,  iii,  23,  as  the  locality  where  the 
forerunner  of  Christ  baptized.  It  is  ifescribed  as 
being  "near  Salim"  and  as  having  "  mucli  water  ". 
Where  is  it  situated?  Barclay's  hypothesis,  which 
gratuitously  identifies  Salim  with  Jerusalem  and 
selects  the  Wady  Fara  as  the  scene  of  the  Baptist's 
activity,  is  improbable.  Nor  should  it  be  sought 
in  the  southern  extremity  of  Palestine,  where  one 
would  look  in  vain  for  "much  water".  Conder  and 
others  favour  .\inun,  a  village  to  the  north-east  of 
ancient  Salim.  This  identification  is  also  open  to 
objections,  .\inun  is  about  as  near  to  Nabulus 
(ancient  Sichem)  as  it  is  to  Salim.  Since  the  former 
was  the  more  important,  we  should  rather  expect 
the  Evangelist  to  describe  .Enon  as  being  "near 
Sichem ".  Moreover,  according  to  this  hj-j^othesis, 
the  place  selected  by  the  Baptist  would  have  been 
in  the  very  heart  of  Samaritan  territorj-,  which  the 
Jews  avoided,  and,  therefore,  ill-suited  for  the  mi.s- 
sionary  purpose  of  Christ's  precursor.  Tlie  most 
probable  opinion  places  yEnon  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  some  two  miles  to  the  west  of  the  stream 
and  about  .seven  miles  to  the  south  of  Beisan  (ancient 
Scythopolis).  This  site  was  on  the  confines  of  the 
Samaritan  territorj'  and  on  the  road  frequented  by 
the  Galileans.  Van  de  Velde  found  a  Salim  in  this 
place,  and  close  by  there  are  seven  wells — "  much 
water ".  Eusebius,  St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Silvia  .saw 
the  ruins  of  Sahm,  and  there  a  guide  pointed  out  to 
them  the  place  where  John  baptized. 

LiGilTKooT.  Bihlical  Enrnut  (1-ondon.  1893);  Andrews. 
Life  of  our  Lord  (New  York.  1891):  Conder,  On  the  Identifi- 
cation oi  .linon  (London.  1874):  Henderson  in  Hastings, 
Did.  of  the  Bible  (New  Y'ork.  1898):  Van  de  Velde.  Reise 
durch  St/ricn  und  Falatt.  (Leipzig.  1850):  Legendre  in  VlGoc- 
Roux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895)  II,  1811;  Onomastica  Sacra 
(Gottingen,  1870):  Gamurrini,  Sancta Silvice Aauitance Peregr. 
ad  Loc.  SS.  (Rome,  1888);  Knabenbacer,  Evang.  sec.  Joan. 
(Paris,  1898).  g.    Hei.NLEIN. 

.£ons,  the  term  appropriated  by  Gnostic  here- 
siarchs  to  designate  the  series  of  spiritual  powers 
evolved  by  progressive  emanation  from  the  divine 
eternal  Being,  and  constituting  the  Plcroma,  or 
invisible  spiritual  world,  as  distinct  from  the  Kenoma, 
or  visible  material  world.  The  word  aon  (aiiif), 
signifying  "age",  "the  ever-existing",  "eternity", 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  divine  eternal  power,  and 
to  the  personified  attributes  of  that  power,  whence 
it  was  extended  to  designate  the  successive  emana- 
tions from  the  divinity  which  the  Gnostics  conceived 
as  neccssarj-  intermediaries  between  the  spiritual 
and  the  material  worlds.  The  Cinostic  concept  of 
the  .Eon  may  l)e  traced  to  the  influence  of  a  phi- 
losophy which  postulated  a  divinity  incapable  of  any 
contact  with  the  material  world  or  with  evil,  and 
the  deaire  to  reconcile  this  philosophy  with  the 
Christian  notion  of  a  direct  interference  of  God  in 
the  afl'airs  of  the  material  world,  and  particularly  in 
the  Creation  and  Redemption  of  man.  Jewish 
angelology,  which  represented  Jehovah  ministered 
to  by  a  court  of  celestial  beings,  and  Hellenic  re- 
ligious systems,  which  imagined  a  number  of  inter- 
mediaries l)etwcen  the  finite  and  the  infinite,  sug- 
gested the  emanation  from  the  divinity  of  a  series 
of  subordinate  heavenly  powers,  each  less  perfect, 
the  further  removed  it  was  from  the  supreme  deity, 
until  at  length  increasing  imperfection  would  serve 
as  the  connecting  link  between  the  spiritual  world 
and  the  material  world  of  evil. 

In  different  (^mostic  systems  the  hierarchy  of 
.■Eons  was  diversely  elaborated.  But  in  all  are  recog- 
nizable  a   mixture   of    Platonic,  mythological,  and 


iSBQUIPROB  ABILIS  M 


174 


ESTHETICS 


Christian  elements.  There  is  always  the  primitive 
all-perfect  JEon,  the  fountain-head  of  divinity,  and 
a  co-eternal  companion  JEon.  From  these  emanate 
a  second  pair  who,  in  turn,  engender  others,  generally 
in  pairs,  or  in  groups  of  pairs,  in  keeping  with  the 
Egyptian  idea  of  divine  couples.  One  of  these  in- 
ferior -Eons,  desiring  to  know  the  unknowable,  to 
penetrate  the  secrets  of  the  primal  JEon,  brings  dis- 
order into  tlie  ^Eon-world,  is  exiled,  and  brings  forth 
a  very  imperfect  yEon,  who,  being  unworthy  of  a 
place  in  the  Pleroma.  brings  the  divine  spark  to  the 
nether  world.  Then  follows  the  creation  of  the 
material  universe.  Finally,  there  is  evolved  the 
^Eon  Christ,  who  is  to  restore  harmony  in  the  iEon- 
world,  and  heal  the  disorder  in  the  material  world 
consequent  upon  the  catastrophe  in  the  ideal  order, 
by  giving  to  man  the  knowledge  which  will  rescue 
him  from  the  dominion  of  matter  and  evil.  The 
number  of  ^Eons  varies  with  different  systems,  being 
determined  in  some  by  Pj^hagorean  and  Platonic 
ideas  on  the  mystic  eificacy  of  numbers;  in  others 
by  epochs  in.  or  the  duration  of,  the  life  of  Christ. 
The  ^Eons  were  given  names,  each  Gnostic  system 
ha\'ing  its  own  catalogue,  suggested  by  Christian 
terminology,  and  by  Oriental,  or  philosophical  and 
mj-tiiological  nomenclature.  There  were  nearly  as 
many  ieonic  hierarchies  as  there  were  Gnostic  sys- 
tems, but  the  most  elaborate  of  these,  as  far  as  is 
known,  was  that  of  Valentinus,  whose  fusion  of 
Christianity  and  Platonism  is  so  completely  de- 
scribed in  the  refutation  of  this  system  by  St.  Irenteus 
and  Tertullian.  (See  Gnosticism,  Valentinus, 
Basilides,  Ptolemy.) 

The  best  description  of  :ponic  systems  is  to  be  found  in 
the  refutations  of  Gnosticism  bv  early  Christian  writers: — 
Irex.eus.  Adv.  Hareses.  in  P  G.,  Ytl.  I.  II,  tr.  in  Ante- 
Nicene  Fnthers  (New  York,  1903),  I,  315  sq.;  Tertullian, 
Contra  Valentinianos.  in  P.  L..  II,  523.  The  mtroduction 
contains  graphic  schemata  illustrating  the  .^Eonic  genealogy, 
vi  sq  (tr.  a^  above  III.  503):  Hippolttus,  P^t/osopAuTTifna, 
in  P.  G.,  XVI.  3,  attributed  to  Ohigen,  tr.  RefuUilion  of  all 
Hrrtsies.  as  above  V,  9:  B.\ur.  Christliche  Gnosis  (Tubingen, 
1835);  De  Fate,  Introduction  h  I'etude  du  gnosticisme,  in  Revue 
de  rhisloire  des  religions,  (1902,  1G6  sq.);  Dufourcq,  La  pensee 
chretimne.  Saint  Irenes  (Paris.  1905),  41-112;  Duchesne,  His- 
toire  ancienne  de  I'Eqlise  (Paris,  1906).  I.  153-194:  Mead, 
Fragments  of  a  Faith  Forgotten  (London,  1900).  See  atso  works 
on  Gnosticism,  and  on  the  heresiarchs  referred  to  above. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

.Squiprobabilism.     See  Probabilism. 

Aer  (Greek,  d.iip,  the  air),  the  largest  and  outer- 
most covering  of  the  clialice  and  paten  in  the  Greek 
church,  corresponding  to  the  veil  in  the  Latin  rite. 
It  is  slightly  larger  than  the  veil  used  to  cover  the 
chalice  and  paten  in  the  Latin  rite,  and  is  beautifully 
embroidered  in  the  same  style  and  colour  as  the  vest- 
ments of  the  officiating  priest.  It  takes  its  name 
either  from  the  lightness  of  the  material  of  which  it 
was  formerly  made  or  from  the  fact  that  the  priest 
during  the  time  of  the  recital  of  the  Nicene  Creed 
in  the  Mass  holds  it  high  in  the  air  and  waves  it 
slowly  towards  the  chalice.  Its  use,  like  that  of  the 
veil,  was  originally  to  cover  the  chalice  and  to  pre- 
vent anything  from  falling  therein  before  the  con- 
secration and  before  the  sacred  vessels  were  brought 
to  the  altar.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  name  in  an 
explanation  of  the  liturgy  (Ma.ss)  by  a  writer  of  the 
sixth  century,  and  is  also  alluded  to  as  "  the  so-called 
air"  in  the  Acts  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople. 
In  the  Greek  Orthodox  church  the  veil  is  put  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  deacon  who  brings  the  paten  to  the 
altar  at  the  great  entrance,  and  the  same  rite  is 
preserved  in  the  Greek  Catholic  church,  where  the 
acr  usually  has  a  couple  of  short  strings  to  secure  it 
over  the  shoulders.  A  similar  ceremony  is  still 
prcscrveil  in  the  Roman  rite,  where  the  deacon  at 
nigh  .Mass  brings  the  chalice  and  paten  to  the  altar 
and  places  a  special  veil  over  his  shoulders. 

Cluonet,   Diet,  grec-franfaia  dea  noma   liturgi^uea   (Paris, 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 


Aerius  of  Pontus,  a  friend  and  fellow  ascetic 
of  Eustathius,  who  became  Bishop  of  Sebaste  (355), 
and  who  ordained  Aerius  and  placed  him  over  the 
hospital  or  a.sylum  in  that  city,  .\erius  fell  out 
with  Eustathius,  upbraided  him  for  having  deserted 
ascetic  practices,  and  began  to  preach  new  doctrines, 
insisting  that  there  was  no  sacred  character  distin- 
guishing bishop  or  priest  from  laymen,  that  the  ob- 
servance of  the  feast  of  Easter  was  a  Jewish  supersti- 
tion, and  that  it  was  wrong  to  prescribe  fasts  or 
abstinences  by  law,  and  useless  to  pray  for  the  dead. 
According  to  some,  Aerius  was  inspired  to  teach  these 
doctrines  by  his  jealousy  of  Eustathius.  For  a  time, 
he  had  many  followers  in  Sebaste,  but  he  could  not 
make  his  tenets  popular,  and  gradually  he  and  his 
sect  became  an  occasion  of  abu.ses,  which  made  them 
odious.  His  movement  is  considered  important  by 
Protestants  as  indicating  a  tendency  to  some  of  their 
\'iews  even  at  this  early  period;  but  it  also  shows 
how  strongly  the  Christians  of  his  day  were  opposed 
to  the  teaching  of  Aerius. 

.St.  Epiphanius,  Adr.  Hares,  75,  P.  G..  t.  XLII;  Hemmeh, 
in  Diet,  thcol.  cath.;  Venables.  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog. 

John  J.  Wynne. 

.Esthetics  may  be  defined  as  a  systematic  train- 
ing to  right  thinking  and  right  feeling  in  matters  of 
art,  and  is  made  a  part  of  philosophy  by  A.  G. 
Baumgarten.  Its  domain,  according  to  Wolff's  sys- 
tem, is  that  of  indistinct  presentations  and  the  can- 
ons of  sensuous  taste  (aia$f]TiKr]  t^x"").  from  aUddfeadai, 
to  perceive  and  feel).  It  has,  however,  developed  into 
a  philosophy  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  art,  and, 
finally,  into  a  science  of  the  (fine)  arts  based  on  philo- 
sophical principles.  Natural  beauty,  particular  works 
of  art,  pure,  that  is,  not  sensual,  beauty,  and 
philosophical  questions  are  sometimes  treated  thor- 
oughly, sometimes  merely  touched  upon.  Applied 
Eesthetics  is  the  accurate  description  and  valuation 
of  particular  works  of  art;  technical  a-sthetics,  the 
training  of  the  art -student  in  individual  productions; 
art-history,  the  continuous  record  of  the  develop- 
ment of  art,  according  to  a  definite  plan.  It  is  the 
duty  of  aesthetics  always  to  seek  the  deepest  grounds 
of  the  pleasure  derived  from  art,  not  only  in  the 
laws  of  nature,  but,  above  all,  in  those  of  the  mind, 
and  thus  to  come  in  touch  with  philosophy;  but  the 
fruitful  source  of  sound  judgment  is  to  be  found  in 
a  correct  view  of  the  world  of  art  itself.  The  student 
of  aesthetics,  though  he  cannot  wholly  dispense  with 
an  insight  into  the  technique  of  artistic  production, 
or  with  a  knowledge  of  the  varied  manifestations  of 
beauty  in  nature  and  life,  or  even  with  an  actual 
exercise  of  one  kind  of  art  or  another,  must  rely 
chiefly  on  a  quick  perceptive  faculty,  systematizing 
talent,  and  an  intelligent  appreciation.  In  this  re- 
spect aesthetics  will,  on  the  one  hand,  oR'er  more,  on 
the  other  hand,  le.ss,  th,an  technical  treatises  on  any 
one  art,  practical  instruction  in  the  exercise  of  the 
same,  or  illustrated  art  books  for  everj'one. 

The  Philosophy  of  .(Esthetics. — ^Esthetics,  as 
a  general  science,  takes  no  account  of  the  individual 
arts.  It  investigates  the  physiological  and  psy- 
chological principles  of  art,  the  conceptions  of  art, 
of  beauty,  and  of  the  beautiful  in  art,  and  develops 
the  universal  laws  of  artistic  activity.  Clear  and 
orderly  thinking,  the  presupposition  of  all  scientific 
discussion,  is  indispensable  m  aesthetics,  the  more 
so  because,  otherwise,  aimless  circumlocution  and 
serious  errors  are  unavoidable.  All  ideas,  moreover, 
concerning  aesthetic  beauty  and  the  aim  of  art  need 
to  be  carefully  examined  into.  Finally,  the  sub- 
jective conditions  of  the  artist,  his  relation  to  nature, 
and  the  division  and  classification  of  the  material 
that  lies  to  his  hand  must  be  taken  into  account. 

The  Science  of  the  Arts. — In  a  history  of  art 
only  the  imitative  arts  and,  possibly,  music  are, 
as  a  rule,  included;  aesthetics,  on  the  other  hand, 


ESTHETICS 


175 


AESTHETICS 


takes  in  the  arts  of  oratory  as  well,  though  mere 
oloquence,  because  of  its  eminently  practical  char- 
acter, is  generally  omitted.  Originally,  esthetics 
was  chiefly  occupied  with  poetry,  the  laws  of  which 
are  the  most  easily  explained.  With  poetry  the 
ancillary  arts  of  rhythm  and  acting  are  ni.separably 
connected.  If  vocal  music  be  added  to  these,  we  have 
all  tliose  which  are  the  direct,  though  transient,  out- 
come of  voice  and  gesture.  Man,  however,  soon 
progresses  to  the  use  of  musical  instruments  and 
gives  his  artistic  productions  a  permanent  existence 
by  means  of  written  notes  or  marks.  The  construc- 
tive arts,  on  the  other  hand,  always  make  use  of  ex- 
traneous material,  such  as  colour,  wood,  stone,  or 
metal,  with  results  that  are  not  at  the  same  time 
complete  and  visible.  The  graphic  and  textile  arts 
are  groujied  with  that  of  painting;  with  sculpture, 
ceramics,  relief-work,  and  every  kind  of  engraving; 
the  le.s.ser  decorative  arts  with  painting  and  aichitcc- 
ture.  The  lestlietics  of  the  individual  arts  does  not 
bear  the  abstract  impress  of  aesthetics  in  general;  for 
although  it  everywhere  seeks  out  the  deeper-lying 
principles  of  xsthetic  satisfaction,  it  often  invades  the 
domain  of  art-history  in  search  of  illustration,  in  or- 
der to  prove  the  laws  of  art  by  means  of  characteris- 
tic types. 

Systems  .*.n'd  Methods. ^This  peculiar  method  of 
dealing  with  the  subject  ensures  to  ^^Lsthetics  the 
position  of  an  independent  and  valuable  science. 
For  this  reason  various  methods  and  systems  have 
grown  up  in  it,  as  in  art  itself,  which  lay  stress  on 
one  aspect  rather  than  on  another.  Idealism  loves 
great  subjects,  a  lofty  conception,  monumental 
execution;  it  looks  to  find  the  divine  and  tlie  spiritual 
in  all  things,  be  it  only  allegorically  and  symbolically. 
It  treats  ajsthetics  from  above,  and  guards  most 
effectually  against  the  tlebasement  of  art.  but  is 
exposed  (as  was  Platonisni  in  philosophy)  to  the  risk 
of  losing  it.sclf  in  abstraction  and,  moreover,  of  not 
giving  due  importance  to  the  form  of  art.  With 
irsthctic  formalism,  on  the  contrary,  this  is  the  most 
important  matter;  it  does  not  ask  Whol.  but  How; 
it  does  not  look  at  the  content,  but  at  the  form  which 
the  artist  gives  it.  It  defines  what  forms  are  "pleas- 
ing" in  the  absolute  sense;  that  is,  combine  to  make 
up  the  image  of  beauty.  When,  moreover,  it  goes  be- 
yond oxiK-rience,  and  confirms  the  verdict  of  the 
senses  by  that  of  the  mind,  it  draws,  with  perfect  jus- 
tice, the  characteristic  distinction  between  artLstic 
conception  and  scientific  treatment.  Form,  how- 
ever, without  content  would  be  empty;  it  should  be 
rather, as  it  were,  the  blossoming  of  the  idea,  and  a 
great  subject,  vmless,  indeed,  it  surpass  the  powers 
of  the  artist,  gives  his  genius  an  impulse  towards 
the  highest  possible  expression.  Keali.-im  brings  into 
prominence  only  the  truth  and  palpable  actuality  of 
this  content.  It  sets  art  on  a  sure  foundation  and 
opens  the  treasures  of  the  visible  world  of  matter.  It 
brings  art  into  living  relationship  with  life  and 
nature,  with  national  characteristics  and  current 
ideas,  and  leads  it,  through  the  favouring  uiflucnce  of 
artistic  industries,  into  the  home  life  of  the  jieople. 
This  .system,  however,  docs  not  always  safeguard  the 
true  w-orth  of  the  highest  art,  who,se  part  it  is  not  to 
imitate,  but  to  idealize  reality,  to  seek  its  materials 
in  the  world  of  ideas  as  well  as  in  that  of  phenomena; 
which  sets  a  greater,  unchangeable  tnith  side  by  side 
with  one  which  is  lower  in  this  world  of  experience, 
and  does  not,  to  take  one  example,  regard,  after  the 
coarser  manner  of  realistic  art,  mere  fishermen  of 
Galilee,  in  working  garb  and  with  .Jewish  features,  as 
true  and  fitting  presentations  of  the  Lord's  Apostles. 
It  may,  therefore,  he  said  with  a  mea.sure  of  tnith 
that  the  chief  task  of  art  begins  precisely  at  the 
point  where  the  truth  of  nature  reaches  its  perfection. 
Naturalism,  again,  goes  much  further  than  Realism, 
in  that  it  not  only  insists  on  fidelity  to  nature,  to  the 


point  of  illusion,  in  all  arts,  whether  of  painting, 
drama,  romance,  or  other,  but  also  suppresses  as  far 
as  possible  all  that  is  spiritual  or  supersensuou.s. 
Kelapse  into  merest  sensuousness  Ijecoines,  in  such 
case,  inevitable.  Not  anatomical  and  organic  fidelity 
of  presentation,  but  the  nude,  with  its  allurement, 
then  easily  becomes  of  chief  importance,  and  the 
artLstic  conception  sinks  likewise,  with  regard  to 
other  things,  to  the  level  of  crude  naturalism  and 
sensuous  pleasure  In  so  far,  however,  as  Natural- 
ism holds  aloof  from  this  aby.ss,  it  champions  the 
autonomy  of  art  in  order  to  maintain  its  indepen- 
dence of  religion  and  morality.  It  thereby  sets  it.self 
in  open  contradiction  to  Christianity;  since  all  things 
human,  even  art,  are  subject  to  the  eternal  law. 
Artistic  expression  is  indeed  neither  the  act  of  a 
blindly  toiling  genius  nor  that  of  an  understanding 
govcrnc<l  by  its  own  laws,  but  is  the  act  of  a  free, 
responsible  will.  It  affects  not  only  the  sight  and 
Iierception  of  the  spectator,  but  also  his  mental  dis- 

Cosition  and  his  will.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  the 
iws  of  morality  apply  to  art  as  a  practical  calling. 
Likewise,  as  against  Naturalism,  .n  moral  and  re- 
ligious aim  in  art  must  be  recognized.  "Art  is  its 
own  aim"  (art  for  art's  .sake),  is  a  principle  which 
holds  true  only  of  the  immediate  or  inner  aim  (finis 
operis).  The  work  must  of  course,  above  all,  com- 
ply with  the  laws  of  the  art  in  order  to  be  a  com- 
plete work  of  art.  But  it  may,  even  so,  serve  other 
ends,  such  as  the  mental  and  religious  betterment 
of  mankind,  and,  above  all,  the  glorj'  of  God.  The 
systems  hitherto  referred  to  are  old,  and  have  their 
source  in  certain  fundamental  views  of  art;  those 
which  foUow  owe  their  origin  rather  to  reflexion  and 
reaction.  The  names.  "Classicism",  "Byzantin- 
ism  ",  "Orientalism  ",  "Romanticism  ",  "Archaism  ", 
and  even  "Renaissance"  (in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  word)  indicate  certain  tendencies  of  art,  and  of 
aesthetics,  which  discern  the  conditions  of  progress 
in  a  reversion  to  earlier  periods  of  art-development. 
Witness  the  aesthetic  conceptions  of  the  "  Naza- 
renes  ",  who  laid  stress  on  the  poetic,  national,  and 
religious  temper,  in  contradistinction  to  academic 
stiffness  and  classical  coldne-ss,  and  who,  therefore, 
reverted  to  the  Italian  art  of  the  fifteenth  century 
(the  Overbeck  school).  These  ide;»s  exercised  an 
important  influence  upon  the  Christian  art  of  Ger- 
many, down  to  the  period  of  Steinle  and  the  Diissel- 
dorf  school.  Pre-Raphaelitism  shares  with  the 
Nazarenes  their  predilection  for  the  Early  Renais- 
sance, with  its  fresh-blossoming,  freely-evolving  sim- 
plicity; shares  still  more  their  distaste  for  a  narrow- 
ing routine  and  a  conventional  uniformity.  The 
Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood  (Rossetti,  Holman  Hunt, 
Millais),  made  noteworthy  by  Ruskin's  writings  on 
the  subject,  sought  to  give  English  art  a  greater 
independence,  fidelity  to  nature,  and  poetic  spirit,  by 
linking  it  to  the  "primitive"  painters  of  Italy.  This 
tendency,  which  showed  it.sell  somewhat  earlier  than 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  endured,  under 
the  name  of  ^Estheticism,  partly  in  England,  and 
partly  in  -'Vmerica,  until  the  end  of  the  last  century 
(Burne-Jones,  William  Morris).  Its  representatives 
souglit  chiefly  the  oldest  and  best  forms  of  art,  and 
devoted  themselves,  not  without  eccentricities,  to 
furniture  and  draperies.  "Individualism"  seeks 
.salvation  not  in  historj'.  but  in  denial  of  the  his- 
torical. It  is  the  so-called  "Secession",  however, 
which  has  attracted  most  attention.  Having  at 
first  been  mainly  a  social  movement  of  revolt  (in 
Munich),  it  has  tended  to  eschew  learning  and 
aspired  to  create  all  things  anew,  with  results  which 
are  .sometimes  original,  sometimes  ivstonishing.  and 
occasionally  ludicrous.  Whether  the  new  style  sought 
for  will  develop  from  this,  is  more  than  doubtful; 
never,  certainly,  from  the  purely  negative  theorj*  of  the 
tendency,  since  it  tends  to  do  away  with  ideas,  form, 


^TERNI 


176 


and  style.  Yet  this  striving  after  new  forms  is  not 
witliovit  a  certain  justification.  A  somewhat  wide- 
spread tlieory,  which  may  be  called  "Akallisra", 
rejects  the  old  doctrine  of  the  beauty  of  a  true 
work  of  art,  and  aims  to  set  tliat  which  has  char- 
acter, or  meaning,  in  tlie  place  of  the  beautiful. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  nearly  aU  writers  on  testlietics 
ha\c  made  tlie  idea  of  beauty  the  foundation  of  the 
whole  system,  and  e\-en  Jungmann  found  it  impossi- 
ble to  devise  a  symmetrical  system  of  aesthetics 
without  that  idea.  There  is  no  need  to  deny  the 
possibility  of  devising  such  a  system,  but  the  witness 
of  history  is  on  the  side  of  tlie  so-called  Eesthetics  of 
beauty.  Akallism,  ho\\ever,  as  a  rule,  aims  at  re- 
placing the  beautiful  not  by  the  great,  but  by  that 
which  is  strikingly  characteristic,  or  brutally  realistic. 
Subjectivism  threatens  scientific  aesthetics  witli  an 
entirely  new  danger.  The  forcible  emphasis  of  the 
subjective  side  of  art,  and  of  the  psychological  and 
physiological  conditions  of  artistic  expression,  is 
undoubtedly  an  advance — provided  objective  condi- 
tions and  norms  suffer  no  diminution  of  their  right- 
ful sphere.  Yet  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  re- 
gard all  esthetic  principles  and  judgments  as  mere 
fluctuating  opinions,  and  reject  all  that  constitutes 
system,  principle,  or  definition.  Such  scepticism, 
born  of  spiritual  weakness  and  cowardice,  makes  an 
end,  once  for  all,  of  all  science. 

A  word  must  be  added  here  concerning  the  various 
methods  of  aesthetics.  The  older,  abstract,  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  is  no  longer  available,  in  view 
of  the  abundant  facilities  which  perception  now  has 
at  its  disposal.  Mere  sense-training,  however,  leads, 
in  its  turn,  to  very  superficial  knowledge;  it  is  the 
chief  function  of  perception  to  prepare  the  way  for 
mental  insight  and  ideal  conception.  Nor  can  we 
dispense  with  either  tlie  systematic  arrangement  of 
the  history  of  art,  or  tlie  quasi-philosophical  basis 
of  aesthetics.  The  introduction  of  natural-science 
methods  into  esthetics  (Taine,  Grant  Allen,  Helm- 
holtz,  Fechner),  as  well  as  the  close  connection  be- 
tween tlieoretical  and  practical  instruction  and 
artistic  expression  (Ruskin),  offers  great  advantages, 
if  not  relied  on  exclusively.  At  the  same  time,  it 
remains  true  that  high  art  can  never  be  wholly 
dissected  by  the  methods  of  the  exact  sciences,  but 
rather  itself  lays  do-ivn  in  turn  the  governing  norms 
which  art  expression  should  follow  and,  having  once 
attained  its  proper  perfection,  is  not  longer  depen- 
dent on  such  expression.  The  proper  subject,  there- 
fore, of  eesthetics  is  the  great  arts;  the  technique 
and  the  theories  of  the  lesser  arts  have  a  narrower 
range  of  material.  As  a  matter  of  method,  it  is 
advisable  to  set  poetry  in  the  foreground  of  any 
discussion  concerning  art,  since  it  is  thereby  easier 
to  keep  the  Eesthetics  of  the  other  arts  from  becom- 
ing mere  technique. 

History  of  ^Esthetics. — Socrates,  in  Xenophon's 
"Memorabilia"  and  "Symposium",  makes  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  good  and  the  beautiful,  and 
the  same  indcfiniteness  extends  to  Plato's  philosophy 
(Tlie  Republic,  Phaedrus,  Philebus)  and  that  of 
Plolinus  (Knnead,  I,  vi).  The  idealism  of  this 
philosophy  not  only  gave  rise  to  the  work  of  Longi- 
nus  concerning  "The  Sublime",  but  also  inspired 
Dionysius  tiie  Areopagite  (De  Divinis  Nominibus) 
and  several  l'"athers  of  the  Church.  Aristotle,  on  the 
other  hand,  gravely  analysed  the  form  and  properties 
of  the  beautiful,  as,  in  his  "Poetica,"  he  analysed  the 
art  of  epic,  tragic,  and  comic  poetry.  The  acute 
incidental  comments  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  are 
chiefly  confined  to  the  notion  of  the  beautiful  and 
of  art,  and  to  the  artistic  idea.  The  systematic 
treatment  of  a-sthetics  begins  with  A.  G.  Baum- 
garton's  ".^^sthetica"  (IT-W-SS).  However  little 
philosophical  value  his  canons  of  taste,  founded  on 
confused  ideas"  and  "sensitive  perceptions",  may 


possess,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  his  book  had  a  stronger 
influence  upon  the  further  development  of  aesthetics 
than  both  English  and  French  philosophy  had 
prior  to  his  time.  The  former,  starting  from  a 
Platonic  idealism,  sank  further  and  further  into 
empiricism  and  sensualism,  and  insisted,  not  too 
philosophically,  on  the  principle  of  common  sense 
(Shaftesbury,  Hutcheson,  Reid,  Hume,  Burke). 
Hogarth  devoted  himself  to  painting  and  proposed 
as  the  "line  of  beauty"  the  curve  which  bears  his 
name.  Among  the  French,  Batteux,  following  Aris- 
totle, devised  a  system  of  the  fine  arts,  which,  how- 
ever, clung  somewhat  too  closely  to  the  principle  of 
imitating  nature.  Diderot  did  the  same  to  an  even 
more  marked  extent,  whereas  the  later  French 
aesthetics  approximated  to  idealism  (Cousin).  In 
Germany  jpsthetics  came  to  be  treated  of  with  much 
zeal  after  Baumgarten's  time,  both  in  a  philosophical 
and  in  a  popular  fashion.  To  allude  here  only  to  the 
first,  the  art-critics  Winckelmann  and  Lessing  were 
among  the  numerous  followers  of  the  Baumgarten 
school,  the  former  directing  his  special  attention 
to  the  art  of  sculpture.  Kant,  again,  obtained  great 
influence,  and,  though  his  pet  theory,  that  beauty  is 
merely  a  subjective,  formal  fitness,  found  no  fol- 
lowers, he  stimulated  activity  in  many  quarters  by 
means  of  self-contradictoiy  concatenation  of  various 
systems.  From  him,  then,  is  derived  the  abstract 
idealism  of  Schelling  and  Schopenhauer,  wherein  the 
general  idea  of  beauty  is  not  sufficiently  absorbed  in 
the  form  of  its  manifestation.  Concrete  idealism  also 
(that  of  Hegel  and  Schleiermacher)  o\\es  its  origin  to 
Kant.  It  regards  beauty  not  as  a  universal  idea,  but 
as  an  individual  evolution.  To  him,  too,  may  be 
traced  the  aesthetic  formalism  of  Herbart  and  Zim- 
mermann,  and  "aesthetics  of  feeling"  (Kirchmann). 
Hegel,  Vorlesungen  iiber  dU  Msthetik  (Berlin,  1835-38); 
Th.  Vischer,  J^sthetik,  oder  Wissenschaft  dcs  Schimen  (Reut- 
lingen,  1840-57);  Deutingf.r,  Kunstkhre  (Ratisbon,  1845); 
KosTLiN,  J^sthetik  (Tubingen,  18G3-6S);  C.^rriere,  JEsthetik 
(Leipzig,  1885);  Idem,  Die  Kunst  im  Zusnmmmhange  der 
Kulturentwicklunff  (3d  ed.,  Leipziji.  1S77-86);  Zimmermann, 
JEsthetik  ah  Formwissenschaft  (Vienna,  1865);  Jungmann. 
Milh'itik  (3d  ed..  Freiburg,  Baden,  18861;  Konr.  Lange, 
Wesen  der  Kunst  (1901);  Gietmann-Soren.'^en,  Kunntlehre 
(Freiburg,  Baden,  1899-1903).— In  England  Riiskin's  Modem 
Painters  has  had  a  wide  circulation,  as  have  his  other  numer- 
ous works.  The  following  French  works  may  be  mentioned; 
Sutter,  Esthi'tique  generate  et  appliquee  (Paris,  1865);  Long- 
haye,  Theorie  des  belles  lellres  (Paris,  1885). — For  the  hi.story 
of  Esthetics:  Muller,  Gesrh.  der  Theorie  der  Kunst  bei  den 
Allen  (Breslau,  1834-37);  Zimmermann,  Gesrh.  der  ^sthetik 
(Vienna,  1858);  Schasler,  Kritisehe  Gesch.  der  Jisthetik 
(Berlin.  1872);  von  Hartmann.  Die  deutsche  /Esthetik  seit 
Kant  (Leipzig,  1886). — For  the  history  of  Art:  KraI'S.  Gesch. 
der  christl.  Kunst  (Freiburg.  Baden,  1896-97);  Springer, 
Handb.  der  Kunstgeseh.  (6th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1901-2);  KtiHN, 
Allgem.  Kunstgeseh.  (Einsiedeln,  1891,  incomplete  in  1906); 
WoERMANN,  Gesch.  der  Kunst  alter  Zeiten  u.  Volker  (Leip- 
zig, 1905) — not  yet  complete. 

G.  GlETMANN. 

.ffitemi  Patris,  The  Apostolic  Letteh,  of  Pius  IX, 
by  which  he  summoned  the  Vatican  Council.  It  is 
dated  Rome,  29  June,  1868.  It  begins  with  the  same 
words,  and  is  therefore  quoted  under  the  same  title, 
as  the  Encyclical  of  Leo  XIII  on  scholastic  philoso- 
phy. But  their  purpose  and  substance  are  very 
different.  This  letter  begins  by  pointing  out  the 
provision  which  Christ  made  to  have  His  faith  and 
morals  taught,  and  unity  in  both  secured.  He 
commissioned  the  Apostles  to  teacli.  He  placed 
St.  Peter  at  their  head,  as  Prince  of  the  Apostles. 
It  was  an  office  for  the  sake  of  the  Church,  and, 
after  St.  Peter  had  died,  should  live  on  in  the  per- 
sons of  a  series  of  successors,  one  after  the  other. 
Hence  the  same  supreme  power,  jurisdiction,  and 
primacy  are  transmitted  to  the  Ronian  Pontiffs  who 
sit  in  the  Chair  of  Peter.  Hence  the  Roman  Pontiffs 
have  always,  as  their  office  demands,  guarded  the 
Christian  faith  and  Christian  morals.  Hence,  as 
occasion  required,  tlioy  have  summoned  General 
Councils  to  meet  grave  needs  of  the  Cliurch.     TheD 


^TERNI 


i: 


AFFINITY 


follows  a  rapid  review  of  tlie  existing  dangers  to 
faitli  and  morals,  to  remedy  which  Pius  I\  issues 
this  letter  summoning  the  bishops,  and  others  whoso 
right  or  duly  it  is  to  be  present,  to  a  (ieneral  Council 
to  meet  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  in  Home,  on 
the  Sth  of  December.  IS(H).  the  annivei-sary  of  the 
defmition  of  the  Iintii:icul:ilo  Concept  ion.  This  let- 
ter nuist  not  be  confounded  with  the  Decree  "Pastor 
.Ftcrnus"  which  was  i.ss\ied  by  Pius  IX  at  the  close 
(if  llic  Council,  the  following  year,  and  in  which  the 
dogma  of  Papal  Infallibility  was  defined. 

.l<-(<i  I'ii  IX  ClSfiS),  412-423,  tr.  in  Dub.  Rci:,  1SG8,  529-535. 
M.  0'RlOUD.\N. 

JEtemi  Patris,  The  Encyclicai,,  of  Leo  XIII, 
issued  4  .Vugust,  1879.  Its  purpose  was  the  revival 
of  Scholastic  philosophy,  according  to  the  mind  of 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  It  opens  with  the  considera- 
tion that  the  Church,  although  officially  the  teacher 
of  revealed  truth  only,  has  always  been  interested  in 
the  cultivation  of  every  branch  of  human  knowledge, 
especially  of  philosophy  on  which  the  right  cultiva- 
tion of  other  sciences  in  great  measure  depends. 
Rut  the  Pope  declares  that  the  actual  condition  of 
tliought  makes  it  a  duty  for  him  to  do  something 
for  tlie  study  of  true  philosophy;  because  many 
present  evils  are  to  l)c  ascribed  to  false  philosophy, 
inasmuch  as,  since  man  is  naturally  led  by  reason, 
whither  the  rea.son  leads  the  will  easily  follows. 
The  Encyclical  then  shows  how  rational  philo.sophy 
prepares  the  motives  of  credibility  in  matters  of 
faith,  and  explains  and  vindicates  revealed  truths. 
Hut  the  truth  imfolded  by  rea.son  cannot  contradict 
the  truths  revealed  by  flod;  hence,  although  in  the 
pursviit  of  natural  knowledge  philosophy  may  justly 
use  its  own  method,  principles,  and  arguments,  yet 
not  so  as  to  withdraw  from  the  authority  of  Divine 
revelation.  The  Encyclical  next  shows,  by  extracts 
from  many  Fathers  of  the  Church,  what  reason  helped 
by  revelation  can  do  for  the  progress  of  lunnan 
knowledge.  Then  came  the  Scholastics  of  the  Mid- 
dle .Ages,  who  brought  together  and  bound  into  one 
harmonious  whole,  by  a  system  of  philosophy,  the 
Christian  wisdom  of  the  Fathers.  Since  it  was  the 
work  of  the  Scholastic  theologians,  according  to  the 
Encyclical,  to  unite  divine  and  human  science,  their 
theology  could  never  have  succeeded,  as  it  did  suc- 
ceed, if  their  philosophy  had  not  been  a  complete 
system. 

Leo  XIII  then  marks  out  St.  Thomas  as  the 
prince  of  the  Scholastic  theologians  and  philosophers, 
for  which  he  finds  evidence  in  the  acknowledgment 
of  the  universities,  of  popes,  general  councils,  and 
even  of  those  outside  the  Cliurch,  one  of  whom 
boasted  that  if  the  works  of  St.  Thomas  were  taken 
away  he  would  fight  and  defeat  the  Church.  That 
accounts  for  the  unrelenting  war  which  has  been 
made  against  Scholastic  pliilosophy  since  the  Refor- 
mation arose.  The  Encyclical  jromts  out  how  some 
have  turned  away  from  it,  but  pa.sses  on  to  show 
how  it  can  help  in  the  pursuit  of  metaphysical  and 
social  science.  It  also  insists  that  St.  Thomas  con- 
stantly founded  his  reasons  and  arguments  on 
experiments;  in  thp  course  of  the  centuries  which 
have  passed  since  his  time,  experiments  have,  of 
course,  been  disclosing  facts  and  secrets  of  nature; 
nevertheless  the  writings  of  St.  Thomas  bear  witness 
that  the  experimental  spirit  was  as  strong  in  him 
as  it  is  in  us.  Hence,  in  the  Pope's  appeal  to  the 
bishops  of  the  Christian  world  to  help  in  restoring 
and  spreading  the  "wisdom''  (xa picntiam)  of  St. 
Thomas,  he  repeats.  Snpiintiam  Sanrti  Thomcr  iliri- 
mux,  because,  as  he  explains,  he  docs  not  at  all  ask 
to  have  the  excessive  subtilties  of  some  scholastics 
revived,  nor  opinions  which  later  investigations  have 
exploded.  The  purpose  of  Leo  XIII  was  the  revival 
of  St.  Thomas's  philosophy  and  the  continuing  of 
his  spirit  of  investigation,  but  not  necessarily  the 
L— IJ 


adoption  of  eveiy  argument  and  opinion  to  l)e  found 
in  the  works  of  the  scholastics.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  Leo  XIII,  following  up  the  Encyclical, 
addrcs.sed  (15  October,  1S79)  a  letter  to  Cardi- 
nal de  Luca  in  which,  besides  ordering  that  the 
l)hil().sophy  of  St.  Thomas  l>e  taught  in  all  the  Roman 
schools,  he  founded  the  "Accademia  di  .San  Tom- 
maso ",  and  made  provision  for  a  new  edition  of 
St.  Thomas's  works.  The  Accademia  has  done  much 
to  help  on  the  movement  thus  inaugurated,  and  a 
Collegium  of  Dominican  Fathers  have  ever  since  been 
working  at  the  new  (Leonine)  edition  of  St.  Thomas. 
A  great  part  of  the  work  has  already  been  done,  but 
all  will  not  be  completed  for  some  years  to  come. 

Ada   Leonit   XIII,  283-285    (1879);  VVvnne.  Great  Encu- 
clicat  Letters  of  Leo  XIII.  34-37  (tr..  New  York,   1903.) 
M.  O'RiOUDAN. 

.aithelbert,   .ffithelfrith,    iEthelhard,   etc.     See 

]/niKi.iu:uT,  l/rMKLrHiTU,  Etiiei.h.mid,  ktc. 

.Sthelred  of  Rieval.     See  AiiMVA^,  Saint. 

Aistius,  a  Roman  general,  patrician,  and  consul, 
b.  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century;  d.  4S4. 
He  was  the  son  of  an  Italian  mother  and  Gaudentius, 
a  Scythian  soldier  of  the  empire,  and  in  his  youth 
had  been  given  as  a  hostage  to  Alaric  (fiom  whom 
he  learned  the  art  of  war),  and  to  Rugila,  King  of 
the  Huns,  and  in  this  way,  doubtless,  ac(|uircd  among 
them  the  prestige  and  authority  that  were  at  once 
his  basis  of  power  and  the  source  of  his  fall.  This 
deliverer  of  Europe  from  the  Huns  first  appears  in 
history  as  the  leader  of  60,000  Huns  in  the  pay  of 
the  imperial  usurper  Johannes  (424).  The  ignomini- 
ous execution  of  the  latter  was  followed  by  the 
pardon  of  Actius  and  his  restoration  to  the  favour 
of  the  Empress  Placidia.  He  was  made  Count 
(probably  of  Italy),  and  became  the  chief  adviser  of 
the  Western  rulers,  Placidia  and  her  son  Valen- 
tinian  III.  In  this  quality  it  was  not  long  before  he 
came  into  conflict  witli  the  powerful  Bonifacius,  Count 
of  Africa,  and  is  said  by  later  historians  (Procopius 
of  Byzantium,  John  of  Antioch)  to  have  .so  discredited 
the  latter  with  Placidia  that  he  was  driven  to  revolt, 
brought  over  (4'2S)  the  Vandals  into  Africa,  and  en- 
tered Italy  (432)  with  the  purpose  of  overthrowing 
in  civil  war  his  powerful  enemy.  But  Boniface  fell 
in  battle  near  Rimini,  and  Aetius  retired  for  some 
time  to  the  Ilunnish  camp  in  Pannonia.  In  433  he 
returned  to  power  at  Ravenna,  and  for  the  remain- 
ing seventeen  years  of  the  joint  reign  of  Placidia  and 
Valentinian  III  was,  as  before,  the  nding  spirit  of 
the  Western  Empire.  The  peace  that  he  maintained 
through  his  alliances  with  the  Huns  and  the  Alani 
and  througli  a  treaty  with  the  Ostrogotlis,  was 
broken  (4,50)  by  the  invasion  of  Attila.  In  the  smn- 
mer  of  that  year  Aetius,  in  concert  with  the  brave 
and  loyal  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  re- 
lieved (Jrl^ans  besieged  by  Attila,  and  arrested  the 
progress  of  the  great  Hun  on  the  Catalaunian  Fields, 
near  Troyes,  where  he  won  one  of  the  decisive 
victories  of  history,  and  saved  Europe  for  Latins, 
Teutons,  Celts,  and  Slavs,  as  against  the  dcgratled 
and  odious  Huns.  His  death  followed  clo.se  upon 
his  triumph;  this  strong  and  resourceful  man  was 
slain  at  Ravenna  (4.54)  by  the  weakling  Ijnpcror 
Valentinian  III,  in  a  fit  of  jealous  rage,  never  clearly 
explained,  but  supposedly  caused  by  the  ambition 
of  Aetius  to  place  his  son  upon  the  imperial  throne. 
The  assassination  of  the  saviour  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion led  to  the  assassination   (4.5.5)  of  Valentinian. 

(iiniioN,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Kmtrire,  x.\xiii-v; 
IIddckin.  Italy  and  hrr  Imadera  (Oxfoni.  IS92).  I.  ii.  874 
w|(i;  889-98;  Bunv,  Ilittoru  of  the  Later  Roman  Empire  (Lon- 
don. 1889),  I.  1.59-83.  For  a  critical  discus-iion  of  certain 
loRendary  ilem.s  in  Ihc  history  of  Aetiu.s  sec  Frkkma.s-,  Atliut 
and  Boniface,  in  Englith  Ilitt.,  Retiew,  July.  1887. 

ThOM.AS  J.  Sll.\HAX. 

Affiliation.     See  .Aggregation;    Incahdin.^tion. 
Affinity    (i.v   the    Bible). — Scripture    recognizes 


AFFINITY 


i: 


AFFINITY 


affinity  as  an  impediment  to  wedloek.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  the  legislation  contained  in  Le\'.,  xviii, 
8,  14-10,  18;  XX,  11,  12,  14,20,  21.  Unlike  canonical 
affinity,  which  arises  both  from  lawful  and  unlawful 
consummated  carnal  intercovirse,  affinity  in  the  code 
of  the  Old  Testament  springs  from  the  sponnalia 
only,  which  with  the  Hebrews  did  not  differ  sub- 
stantially from  our  matri>rio7uum  ralum.  The  above 
mentioned  texts  forbid  marriage  (1)  in  lined  rectd, 
witli  stepmother,  stepdaughter,  grand-stepdaughter, 
mothor-in-law,  (iaughter-in-lnw;  (2)  in  lined  col- 
taterali,  with  paternal  uncle's  wife — aunt — (some  ver- 
sions inchide  also  maternal  uncle's  wife),  with  sister- 
in-law,  except  in  tliose  cases  wliere  the  lex  leviratus 
ol.itains,  with  wife's  sister  as  long  as  the  former  is 
living.  Be  it  remarked  here  that  the  Jews  con- 
sidered the  relationship  existing  between  the  wife 
and  her  husband's  family  as  of  a  closer  nature  than 
that  between  the  husband  and  his  wife's  family. 

The  laws  given  in  Lev.,  xviii  receive  sanction  in 
Lev.,  .XX.  Death  is  indicated  as  the  penalty  of  those 
\\\\o  transgress  the  ordinances  of  affinity  in  lined 
recld,  whereas  childlessness  is  threatened  to  those 
who  marry  within  the  forbidden  degrees  in  lined 
collalerali.  It  is  well  to  note  that  childlessness  here 
referred  to  means  either  that  the  offspring  shall  be 
looked  upon  as  illegitimate,  or  that  they  shall  be 
considered  as  the  legitimate  descendants  of  the  de- 
ceased vmcle  or  brotlier.  In  either  case  they  would 
be  childless  before  the  law,  and  their  possessions 
would  pass  into  anotlier  family.  No  sanction  is 
given  to  the  law  prohibiting  a  man  from  marrying 
simultaneously  two  sisters.  From  the  fact  that  the 
separation  of  the  spouses  is  nowhere  enjoined  in  case 
they  married  within  the  forbidden  degree  in  lined 
enltaterali,  we  may  infer  that  the  existence  of  these 
impediments  did  not  void  the  matrimonial  contract. 
The  sanction  of  tlie  laws  in  question  is,  with  one 
exception,  rather  severe.  What  reasons  dictated 
this  rigour?  Moral  propriety  is  one.  The  expres- 
sions "heinous  crime"  and  "great  abomination"  are 
tokens  of  the  inspired  writer's  unfeigned  abhor- 
rence of  the  acts  qualified  by  tliem.  The  welfare  of 
family  life  is  another.  People  closely  related  as  a 
rule  dwell  together,  especially  in  Eastern  countries. 
Were  it  not  for  the  above-mentioned  prohibitions 
di.sorders  fatal  to  family  life  would  creep  in  under 
the  pretext  of  future  marriage.  Maimonides  and 
St.  Thomas  insist  strongly  on  this  reason.  The  Bible 
finally  intimates  tliat  the  observance  of  these  laws 
v.ill  differentiate  the  chosen  people  from  heathen 
nations  (Lev.,  xviii,  24).  The  New  Testament  does 
not  contain  any  legislation  on  this  subject,  but 
narrates  two  incidents  where  the  laws  of  Leviticus 
were  violated.  Herod  Antipas  married  Herodias, 
the  wife  of  his  brother  Pliilip  (Matt.,  xiv,  3,  4;  Mark,  vi, 
17-18;  Luke,  iii,  19),  contrary  to  Lev.,  xviii,  16. 
For,  even  granting  that  Philip  was  dead,  a  much 
controverted  question,  the  lex  leviratus  did  not  ob- 
tain since  Herodias  had  a  daughter  by  Philip.  The 
man  of  Corinth  had  his  father's  wife  (I  Cor.,  v,  1) 
in  opposition  to  Lev.,  xviii,  8. 

Dk  IluMMBLACKR,  Commtnliirius  in  Lcviiicum  (Paris,  1897); 
Jami;h  in  Hastings,  Did.  of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1898); 
Many  in  ViG.,  Dirt,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895)  s.  v.;  Crelier, 
Commcnlaire  tur  VEiode  et  le    Lcvilique  (Paris.  1886). 

E.  Heinlein. 

Affinity  (i.v  tfie  c.vnon  law),  a  relationship  arising 
from  the  carnal  intercourse  of  a  man  and  a  woman, 
sulhcicnt  f<ir  the  generation  of  children,  whereby  the 
man  Ix'comcs  related  to  the  woman's  blood-relatives 
and  the  woman  to  the  man's.  If  this  intercourse  is 
between  husband  and  wife,  this  relationship  extends 
to  (he  fourlli  degree  of  consanguinity,  and  the  de- 
gree of  ;i(linily  ct)incides  with  that  of  "blood  relation- 
ship. To-d.iy  affinity  does  not  beget  affinity.  There- 
fore tlie  relatives  of  the  man  do  not  become  relatives 


of  the  woman's  relatives,  neither  do  those  of  the 
woman  become  relatives  of  the  man's  relatives. 
Even  if  the  intercourse  were  the  result  of  force  or 
committed  in  ignorance,  e.  g.  in  drunkenness,  the 
juridical  effect  would  follow.  If  the  intercourse  is 
licit,  it  is  a  diriment  impediment  of  marriage  in  the 
collateral  line  of  the  fourth  degree,  as  also  in  the 
direct  line.  If  the  intercourse  is  illicit  or  out  of 
marriage,  the  impediment  to-day  is  limited  to  the 
second  degree.  The  Council  of  Trent  makes  no  dis- 
tinction with  regard  to  the  extent  in  either  line. 
Though  the  Church  has  no  jurisdiction  o\er  the  not- 
baptized,  yet  it  considers  an  affinity  arising  before 
baptism  as  a  diriment  impediment.  The  regulations 
of  the  Mosaic  law,  based  on  considerations  of  rela- 
tionship, are  contained  in  Leviticus,  xviii.  The  de- 
sign of  the  legislator  was  apparently  to  gi\e  an  ex- 
haustive list  of  prohibitions;  he  not  only  gives 
examples  of  degrees  of  relationship,  but  he  specifies 
the  prohibitions  which  are  strictly  parallel  to  each 
other,  e.  g.  son's  daughter  and  daugliter's  daughter, 
W'ife's  son's  daughter  and  wife's  daughter's  daughter, 
whereas  had  he  wished  to  exhibit  the  prohibited  de- 
gree, one  of  these  instances  would  have  been  suffi- 
cient. He  prohibits  marriage  to  a  brother's  widow, 
but  not  to  a  deceased  wife's  sister.  Yet  he  requires 
a  brother  to  marry  his  brother's  widow  in  case  the 
latter  died  without  issue;  and  he  cautions  the  man 
not  to  hold  intercourse  with  his  wife's  sister  while 
the  wife  is  living.  The  Roman  law  considered  the 
intercourse  of  marriage  to  be  a  bar  to  marriage  only 
with  the  kindred  in  the  direct  line.  The  Christian 
emperors  extended  it  to  the  first  degree  of  collateral 
affinity.  The  ecclesiastical  law  extended  the  juridi- 
cal effect  also  to  illicit  intercourse.  In  the  Coimcil 
of  Elvira  (c.  300),  the  only  recognized  prohibition 
is  the  marriage  of  a  widower  with  his  deceased  wife's 
sister.  The  prohibition  became  slowly  more  exten- 
sive till,  in  10.59,  the  eleventh  canon  of  the  Council  of 
Rome  recognizes  the  impediment  of  affinity  as  well 
as  of  consanguinity  to  extend  to  the  seventh  degree. 
This  probably  arose  from  the  need  of  mingling  the 
various  barbarian  races  through  marriage,  an  end 
that  was  effected  by  the  extension  of  prohibitions  of 
marriage  between  persons  related  Innocent  III  in 
the  Fourth  Council  of  Lateran  (1215)  limited  both 
affinity  and  consanguinity  to  the  fourth  degree. 
The  Council  of  Trent  (Scss.  XXIV,  c.  iv,  De  Ref.) 
limited  the  juridical  effect  of  the  extra-matrimonial 
intercourse  to  the  second  degree  of  affinity. 

The  motive  for  the  impediment  of  affinity  is  akin 
to,  thovigh  not  as  strong  as,  that  of  consanguinity; 
there  arises  from  the  partners'  carnal  intercourse  a 
nearness  and  natural  intimacy  with  the  blood-relatives 
of  the  other  side.  The  degrees  of  affinity  are  deter- 
mined lay  the  same  rule  as  the  degree  of  blood-re- 
lationship. Before  the  Fourth  Council  of  Lateran 
two  other  kinds  of  alHnity  were  recognized  as  an 
impediment  to  marriage.  If  a  man  then  married  a 
widow,  those  who  were  akin  to  hor  by  the  previous 
marriage  were  also  akin  to  tlie  present  husband. 
Moreover,  if  the  first  husband  of  the  widow  had  been 
a  widower,  tlu-  blood  rolati\i's  of  his  first  wife  were 
akin  to  tlio  first  liusband,  were  also  akin  to  tlie  new 
wife,  and  to  tlu^  last  husband.  We  give  an  example: 
Titius  contracted  and  consvnnmatetl  marriage  W'ith 
Bertha.  The  blood-relatives  of  Bortha  were  akin  to 
Titius.  Bertha  dies.  Titius  contracts  and  consum- 
mates marriage  with  Sarah.  The  blood-relatives 
of  Bertha,  akin  to  Titius  by  the  first  kind,  became 
akin  to  Sarah  by  the  second  kind  of  affinity.  Titius 
dies  and  Sarah  contracts  and  consummates  marriage 
with  Robert.  The  blooil-iclativcs  of  Bertha,  akin 
by  second  kind  to  Sarali,  become  akin  bv  the  tliird 
kind  of  affinity  to  Robert.  Affinity  al.so,  in  the 
ancient  law,  arose  between  the  children  of  a  woman 
from  a  deceased  husband  and  the  children  of  her 


AFFIRMATION 


179 


AFFLIGHEM 


hiisbaiid  from  a  ticceased  wife.  Hence  a  father  and 
a  son  could  not  marry  a  mother  and  a  daughter. 
Affinity  begot  affinity.  But  tlie  I'"ourth  Council  of 
I.atcran  took  away  all  but  tlie  first  kind  of  allinity; 
hence  the  a.\iom  that  "adinity  does  not  beget  af- 
finity". There  was  some  really  groundless  discus- 
sion in  the  eiglitccnth  century  as  to  whether  a  ste|)- 
father  could  marry  the  widow  of  his  deceased  stepson; 
but  it  was  authoritatively  decided,  as  Benedict  XIV 
states  (De  Syn.  Diccc,  IX,  xii)  that  there  was  no  im- 
pediment to  their  marriage,  it  having  been  done 
away  with  by  the  Fourth  Council  of  I.atcran. 

The  impediment  to  marriage  from  allinity  arises 
from  ecclesiastical  law.  This  is  clearly  recognized 
to-day  by  theologians  with  regard  to  collateral  af- 
finity. The  Church  grants  dispen.sation  in  all  the 
degrees  of  this  alfinity.  In  regard  to  affinity  in  the 
direct  line,  there  was  a  serious  discussion  whether 
in  the  first  degree  it  arose  from  a  natural,  Divine,  or 
ecclesiastical  law;  by  what  law  was  a  stepfather 
forbidden  to  marry  liis  stepdaughter?  The  Church 
refrains  from  granting  the  dispen.sation,  but  does 
not  disclaim  the  right  to  do  so.  Indeed,  a  decree 
of  the  Holy  Office  (-"  February,  ISS.S)  implies  that 
this  affinity  ari.ses  from  ecclesia.stical  law:  "The  Holy 
F'ather  pertnits  bishops  to  dispense  from  all  publio 
im|)edimcnts  diriment  of  marriage  derived  from  the 
ecclesiastical  law,  except  from  the  order  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  affinity,  in  the  direct  line,  arising  from 
lawful  intercourse."  Craisson  states  (.Man.  Jur. 
Canon.,  Lib.  II,  De  affin.,  n.  42S5)  that  "Collator 
Andegavensis"  quotes  (35)4)  Sanchez  and  Pontius 
as  asserting  that  "  the  Pope  .  .  .  dispenses  converted 
infidels  married  within  this  first  degree  of  affinity, 
if  they  had  contracted  marriage  in  accord  with  the 
law  of  their  countrj'. "  This  supposes  that  this  af- 
finity in  the  first  degree  of  the  direct  line  is  not  an 
impediment  of  the  natural  or  Divine  law.  An  ad- 
ditional argument  may  be  drawn  from  the  dispen- 
sation which  the  Church  grants  in  this  ca.-;e  wliero 
there  has  been  occult  unlawful  intercourse.  Any 
repugnance  of  nature  would  hold  then,  as  where  the 
intercourse  proceeded  from  marriage. 

If  a  married  pei-son  should  have  intercourse  with 
the  marriage-partner's  blood-relative  of  the  second 
degree,  in  the  direct  or  collateral  line,  a  penalty  is 
placed  upon  the  one  so  sinning  of  forfeiting  the 
right  to  ask  for  marital  intercourse  from  the  mar- 
riage-partner, though  the  innocent  party  does  not 
forfeit  the  right  to  claim  it.  If  the  wrong  had  been 
done  through  fear,  the  common  teaching  is  that  the 
penalty  is  not  incurred,  and  this  is  also  probably  so 
if  done  without  knowledge  of  the  penalty.  If  in- 
curred, a  dispensation  from  the  penalty  may  be 
obtained  from  the  bishop.  The  aflinity  would  be- 
come more  complicated,  and  add  new  bars  to  mar- 
riage, if  the  person  had  intercourse  with  several 
persons  of  varying  degrees  of  affinity.  By  the  Ro- 
man law,  the  affinity  cexscd  at  the  Jealh  of  the  one 
from  whom  it  originated.  Thus  when  a  remarried 
father  died,  his  second  wife  was  no  longer  akin  to 
the  children  of  his  former  wife.  By  canon  law 
a  marriage  not  consummated  does  not  liegct  affinity. 
By  a  marriage  null  through  a  diriment  impetfi- 
ment,  the  alfinity  probably  does  not  extend  beyond 
the  second  degree.  By  the  French  <ode  the  aflinity 
in  the  direct  line,  and  in  the  first  degree  of  the 
collateral  line,  is  a  bar  to  marriage,  though  the 
privilege  was  given  to  the  king  to  dispense  in  the 
second  case.  The  British  law  forbids  the  marriage 
of  a  man  with  his  deceased  wife's  sister,  and  a  mar- 
riage of  this  kind  performed  in  the  colonies  of  the 
British  Empire,  where  it  may  be  allowed,  is  not  held 
as  valid  in  Great  Britain.  In  the  scsBion  of  the 
British  Parliament  in  1906,  a  strong  efTort  was  made 
to  enact  a  law  to  recognize  as  valid,  in  tireat  Britain, 
such  a  marriagei   if  the  colonial  law  recognized  its 


validity  where  contracted.  In  Virginia  this  marriage 
is  null,  but  it  is  generally  recognized  in  the  other 
States  of  the  Union.  The  Greek  Church  adheres  to 
the  law  as  laid  down  in  Leviticus,  xviii,  S,  1-1,  10,  IS- 
XX,  II,  12,  14,  19,  21.  Vet  the  Greek  patriarchs  and 
bishops  grant  dispensations  from  some  of  the  afiinities 
therein  mentioned.  Nestorians  allow  affinity  to 
beget  affinity  very  extensively.  Armenians  extend 
the  affinity  to  the  fourth  degree.  The  United 
Orientals  approach  the  Catholic  regulations. 

Br.NtDKT  XlV,  Dc  Sim.  Diac,  IX,  xiii;  Santi.  Prtrlecl.  Jur. 
Canon.  Drtrrt.  Grrgor'.  IX,  Lib.  iv,  Tit.  xiv,  De  afflnilale  (Ed. 
Leitner.  ItatmhoD.  1898);  Feijk,  De  Impid.  ct  Ditp.  Mnir 
(4lli  «!..  1893);  Cbaisson,  Manuale  Jut.  Can.,  Lib.  II; 
ANDRfc-WAONEn,  Dicl.  de  droii  canon.,  s.  v.  AfflniU  (3d  ed 
Paris,  1901);  cf.  Freisen,  GMcAicAte  *•«  Kanan.  Bhrrechit 
(2d  ed.,  1893),  and  Esmein,  Le  mariage  en  droii  canoniqiLe,  1 
(Paris,  1891). 

R.  L.  BURTSELL. 

Affirmation,  a  solemn  declaration  accepted  In 
legal  procedure  in  lieu  of  the  requisite  oath.  In 
England,  Canada,  and  the  United  States,  this  is  uni- 
versal. In  England  and  Canada  the  statutory  enact- 
ments upon  the  matter  provide  that  false  statements 
under  affirmation  shall  constitute  the  crime  of  per- 
jurj'  in  like  manner  as  false  statements  under  oath. 
The  same  provision  either  direct  or  implied  is  found 
in  the  legislation  of  the  various  States  of  the  Union. 
This  right  to  affirm  instead  of  giving  oath  is  gen- 
erally conferred  in  deference  to  conscientious  or 
religious  scruples  against  swearing,  such  as  are  enter- 
tained by  (Quakers,  Moravians,  Dunkers,  and  Men- 
nonites.  In  the  court  of  conscience  such  an  affirma- 
tion is  not  held  to  have  the  standing  of  an  oath  for 
the  cardinal  and  obvious  reason  that  the  intention 
to  swear,  i.  e.  to  call  God  to  witness,  is  formally  ex- 
cluded. 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Afflighem,  a  Benedictine  abbey  near  Alost  in 
Brabant,  Belgium.  It  was  founded  by  a  party  of 
six  knights  who,  after  abandoning  their  wild  life, 
had  resolved  to  do  penance  in  the  religious  life  on 
the  scene  of  their  former  excesses.  After  building 
a  church,  they  received,  in  10.S4,  a  gift  of  the  neigh- 
bouring lands  from  the  Countess  Adela  and  her  sons. 
The  rule  of  St.  Benedict  was  adopted,  a  Benedictine, 
Wederig,  having  been  the  instrument  of  their  con- 
version, and  in  after  times  the  abbey  became 
known  for  its  strict  observance  of  religious  iliscijiline. 
The  Dukes  of  Brabant  and  Lorraine,  and  the  Counts 
of  Flanders,  Louvain,  Bnis.sels,  and  Bologne  were 
its  patrons  antl  protectors,  and  regarded  it  as  a 
coveted  privilege  to  be  buried  in  the  abbey  church. 
Several  monasteries,  among  them  Maria-Laach,  owe 
their  foundation  to  monks  from  Afllighem.  St. 
Bernard,  who  visited  the  abbey  in  114(i.  declared 
that  he  ha<l  found  angels  there.  It  was  during  this 
visit  that  an  image  of  Our  Lady  is  said  to  have  replied 
to  the  salutation  of  the  Saint.  In  loL'.S,  Afflighem 
joined  the  Bursfeld  Congregation — a  union  of  Bene- 
dictine Mona.steries  formed  in  the  fifteenth  century 
for  the  stricter  observance  of  monastic  rule.  In 
15G9,  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin  became  commen- 
datory abbot  and  exercised  his  authority  through  a 
Crior.  This  continued  until  the  Suppression,  .\rch- 
ishop  Booncn  desired  to  sever  relations  with  the 
Bursfeld  Congregation  and  introduce  the  Monte 
Ca.ssino  observance.  Yielding  to  his  solicitations, 
the  Prior.  Benedict  Haeften,  founded,  in  1627,  a  new 
congregation,  "  B.  M.  V.  in  Tempio  Pra'sentata^". 
It  included  Afflighem  and  several  other  Belgian 
monasteries.  It  was  di.s.solved  in  16.54.  In  1796, 
in  con.scquence  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  monks 
were  dispersed,  the  buildings  destroyed,  and  the 
lands  .sold.  The  List  Prior,  BcdaRcgauts.  preserved 
the  miraculous  image  of  Our  Lady,  and  the  staff  and 
chalice  which  had  been  presented  by  St.    Bernard. 


AFFRANCHISEMENT 


180 


AFRA 


These  came  into  the  possession  of  tlie  Benedictine, 
Veremund  Daens,  who,  in  1S38,  began  a  new  founda- 
tion at  Ternionde,  which  was  transferred  in  1869  to 
Afflighem.  Tlie  first  abbot  of  the  old  abbey  was 
Fulgentius  (10S8-1122).  Among  the  more  promi- 
nent of  his  successors  may  be  mentioned  Franco, 
(1122-35),  the  author  of  twelve  books  "  De  Gratia" 
(P.L.,  CLXVI),  Albert,  whose  devotion  to  Our 
Lady  won  him  the  title  Abbas  .}[arianus,  and  Bene- 
dict Haeften,  the  author  of  several  works  of  art. 

Heigl,  in  Kirchenlei.,  I.  liUO:  Pitha,  Notre  Dame  d'Afflig- 
h,m  in  Revue  Catholime  (Louvain,  1849).  B.  Ill,  425-431, 
4o7-468;  Studitn  u.  Mitlheil.  in  Cistere.  OrJm  (1887),  VIII. 
423-427  (for  the  new  Abbey). 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Aflranchisement.  See  M.^jjumissign  op  Chris- 
Ti.\N  Slaves. 

Afire,  Denis  Adgtjste,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  b.  at 
St.  Rorae-de-Tarn,  in  the  Department  of  Tarn, 
27  September,  1793;  d.  in  Paris,  27  June,  1S4S.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered  the  seminary  of  Saint 
Sulpice,  then  under  the  direction  of  his  uncle,  Denis 
Boyer.  He  conijileted  his  studies  with  great  credit, 
and  spent  some  time  as  professor  of  philosophy  in 
the  seminary  at  Nantes.  He  was  ordained  a  priest 
16  May,  1818,  and  joined  the  Sulpician  community. 
He  was  successively  Vicar-General  of  the  Dioceses  of 
Lugon  and  Amiens,  and  was  appointed  Coadjutor 


Tomb  of  Archbishop  Affre  at  Paris 

of  Strasburg  in  1839.  This  post,  however,  he  never 
filled,  being  called  on  to  act  .as  Vicar-Capitular  of 
Paris,  coiijoiiilly  with  .MM.  .\uper  and  Morel,  at  the 
death  of  .\n  libishop  (^iidlen.  Five  months  later  he 
was  noriiiiiati'c!  to  tlie  vacant  see  (18-40).  His  tenure 
of  tliis  ollirc  w.is  marked  hy  a  zealous  devotion  to 
the  improvement  of  clerical  studies  and  to  the  free 


exercise  of  the  teaching  office  (liberie  d'enseujnement). 
During  the  insurrection  of  1848  the  Archbishop  waa 
led  to  belie\e  that  his  presence  at  the  barricades 
might  be  tlie  means  of  re.storing  peace.  He  accord- 
ingly applied  to  General  Cavaignac,  who  warned  him 
of  the  risk  he  was  about  to  incur.  "My  life",  the 
Archbishop  answered,  "is  of  little  value,  I  will  gladly 
risk  it".  Soon  afterwards,  the  firing  having  ceased 
at  his  request,  he  appeared  on  the  barricade  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Faubourg  Saint-Antoine,  accom- 
panied by  M.  Albert,  of  the  national  guard,  who 
w'ore  the  dress  of  a  workingman,  and  bore  a  green 
branch  as  a  sign  of  peace,  and  by  Tellier,  a  devoted 
servant.  His  reception  was  not  very  favourable, 
and  he  had  spoken  ordy  a  few  words,  when  the  in- 
surgents, hearing  some  shots,  and  thinking  they  were 
betrayed,  opened  fire  on  the  National  Guard,  and 
the  Archbishop  fell.  He  was  removed  to  his  palace, 
where  he  died.  Next  day  the  National  Assembly 
issued  a  decree  expressing  their  great  sorrow  at  his 
death.  The  public  funeral,  7  July,  was  one  of  the 
most  striking  spectacles  of  its  kind.  Archbishop  Affre 
wrote,  in  addition  to  his  pastorals  and  various  articles 
in  "La  France  Chr^tiemie",  "Traits  de  I'aJminis- 
tration  temporelle  des  paroisses"  (Paris,  1827; 
nth  ed.,  1890),  "Traits  de  la  propri^td  des  biens 
ecclfeiastiques"  (Paris,  1837),  "Introduction  philos- 
ophique  a  I'^tude  du  Christianisme "  (Paris,  5th  ed., 
1846). 

Fl.sQUET,  La  France  pontificate  (Paris,  1867).  1.  619; 
d'Avenel.  Les  evcques  et  archeveques  de  Paris  (Paris,  1878). 
II.  204;  The  Biographies  of  de  Riancev  (Paris,  1848);  Cruice 
(Paris,    1850);  Castan   (1864). 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Afra,  Saint  .and  martyr.  The  city  of  Augusta 
Vindelicorum  (the  present  Augsburg)  was  situated 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  Roman  provmce  of 
Rha-tia  on  the  river  Lech,  not  far  from  its  junction 
with  the  Danube.  It  was  an  important  Roman 
colony,  invested  with  municipal  rights  {inu7iicipium) 
by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  into  which  Christianity 
had  penetrated  even  before  the  time  of  Constantine, 
as  is  proved  beyond  question  by  the  martyrdom  of 
St.  Afra.  It  is  an  indisputable  historical  fact  that 
a  Christian  named  Afra  was  beheaded  at  Augsburg 
during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  (c.  304)  for  her 
steadfast  profession  of  faith,  and  that  at  an  early 
period  her  grave  was  the  object  of  great  veneration. 
The  so-called  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum",  a 
compilation  from  various  calendars  and  lists  of 
martyrs,  tlating  in  its  original  form  from  the  fourth 
century,  mentions,  uniler  date  of  5  .\ugust  (in  some 
MSS.,  6  or  7  August),  St.  .\fra  as  having  suffered  in 
the  city  of  Augsburg,  and  as  buried  there  (Martyr- 
ologium Hieronym.,  ed.  de  Rossi  and  Duchesne; 
Acta  SS..  II,  Nov.,1  sqq.).  In  his  poem  on  St.  Mar- 
tin. \'ciiantius  Fortunatus,  Bishop  of  Poitiers  in  the 
sixth  century,  also  mentions  Augsburg  as  her  burial 
place  (\ita  S.  Martini,  IV,  642  sq.;  Pergis  ad  Au- 
gust am  quam  Virdo  et  Lica  fluentant,  lUic  ossa  sacrie 
vencrabcre  martyris  Afra;).  There  are  extant  cer- 
tain -Vets  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Afra  (.\cta  SS., 
II,  .\ugust,  39  sqq.;  ed.  Krusch  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.; 
SS.  RR.  Merovingic.,  Ill,  56  sqq.),  in  the  opinion 
of  most  critics  not  a  coherent  whole,  but  a  compila- 
tion of  two  ilifferent  accounts,  the  story  of  the  con- 
\ersion  of  St.  .\fra,  and  the  story  of  her  martyrdom. 
The  former  is  of  later  origin,  and  has  not  the 
le.ast  claim  to  historical  credibility,  being  merely  a 
legeiuiary  narrati\e  of  Carlovingian  times,  drawn  up 
with  the  intention  of  connecting  with  St.  .Vfra  the 
organization  of  the  church  of  .Vugsburg.  It  relates 
that  the  grandparents  of  Afra  came  from  Cyprus  to 
Augsburg  and  were  there  initiatcil  into  the  worship 
of  Venus.  Afra  was  given  over  as  a  prostitute  to 
the  .service  of  the  goddess  by  her  own  mother  Hilaria, 
or  Hilara.     In  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  Bishop 


The  prcleslafltlcal  divisions  are  Indicated 
by  Arabic  numeniLs.  l-hl.  lorthe  Latin 
Ritt'.  and  by  Uuinan  Dumerals  lur  tbe 
OrlcotAl  iO)ptlcj  lUlc. 

See  articles  Congo  and  Ectft  (or  mapa 
fElvtng  In  detail  tbo  i-cclesiastlcal  bouo- 
dailad  and  scata. 

Seat  o!  Patriarchate ^ 

"  "  Archbishopric i 

"  "  Bishopric t 

"  "  Bishopric  (vacated) *? 

■•  ■'  Mcarlate  Ainxstollc -y 

"  ■•  Prefecture  ApootoUc J 

"  "  PrcLiturc  Numua j 

"  ••  Missions. X 

Latin  Rite 

1  Pref.  Delta  ot  the  XUc Cairo 

2  Vic.  Esypt Alexandrta 

3  Pret.  Trliwii    TrIpoU 

4  Archb.  CarthaRfl Tunis 

5  liiah.  Constantino Constantino 

6  Archb.  Aliilcn AlKlcra 

7  Blah.  Oran Oran 

8  "  Ceuta Joined  to  CadU 

9  Pref.      Morocco Tangier 

10  Blsh.      Aogra.  .Antcrj.  isl.  ur  lerctlra, 

11  "  Funch.ll Funchal.  Madeira 

12  "         8anCrui6bal,S.  Cnir,  lonerlfle. 

canaries 

13  "         Canartcs Las  I'almas 

14  Pret.      Uhardala  .Cjhanlala.  LaKhouat, 

a.  Terr.,  Fr.  Sahara 

15  Vic        Sahara. .  .Set;ou-8lKora.  Fr.  W. 

Africa 

16  Pret.       Seneeal SL   LnuK   SoncKal 

17  Vic.        Sencuarabla. .      Dakar.  Seneeal 

18  Blsh.      Sao  Thlatfo.  Sao  Thlaito.  Cape 

Vcnio  Islands 

19  Pret.       French  Guinea Konakry 

20  Vic.         Sierra  Leone   Freetown 

21  Pr«f.       Ivory  Coa^t Grand  Bassam 

22  Vic  Gold  Coast.  I *pe  Coast  Castle, 

23  Pret.       Totfoland l^ome.  Toaoland 

24  Vic.  Dahomey.  .Wbydah.  Dahomey 

25  "  Benin Lagos.   Laeos 

20  Pret       Northern  Nlserla t>okoya 

27  Southern  NUcrla OnlUtna 

28  Vic.         Kamerun Duata 

29  "  Fcman«lo-Po Si^  Isabel 

30  Blsh.      S.  Thome lal.  Sfio  Thom€ 

31  Vic        Gftbun Libreville.  Fr.  Conito 

32  "         Fr.  I'pperConco. ..  Drazxavllle 
83      "         Fr.  Lower  Congo Loango 


39  BLsh. 

40  MIS3. 

41  Pref. 


Leopoldvlllo 

Kwanco  rMIaslon) 

Upper  Kassal  (.Mission) 

l.unda  (Angola) 

Ansoki S.  Paulo  de  Loanda 


Lower  CImhebaala.  .Windhoek 

43  Vic.        Oranee  River Pella 

44  "  W.  Cape  Colony  . . .  .Capetown 

45  Pret.      Central  Capo  Col Beaufort 

West 
40  Vic        K.  Capo  Col.  . .   Port  Fllwibeth 

47  ••  Natal Pletermarlizburc 

48  Pref.       Basutoland Marlanhlll 

49  Vic        OranKO  RIv.  CoL  .  .    Klmberlev 

50  "  The  Transvaal.  .J'lhannrsbun; 

51  "  S.  Madasasrar Ft   Dauphin 

52  "  Ccnir.  Madaicaacar.  Tananarlvo 

53  "  N.  Madaeascar.  .  .DteeoSuarez 

54  Btsh.      Reunion St.  Deny;*,  isl.  of 

Reunion 

65      "         Port  I/>uL^ Mauritius 

Pnri  Victoria. Mah*.  Seychelles 


8.  Zanzibar DarH»-Salaam 

N.  Zanzibar Zanzibar 

Tanganyika Karema      i 

Vnyanyembe Ushlrombo 

S.  Victoria  Nyanza..  .Kamogo 
N.  Victoria  Nyanza. .  .Rubaea 
VpperCongo  (Ind.Staict, 


\Velle 

t'cnnda 

Calla-I^nd Harrar 

Br.Somatlland  (to  Vic  Arabia). 


57  Pref. 
CO  t  Pre  I. 
^  .  Nul. 


.  HeUvllle.  Noasl  B^ 

Mozambique Quillmane 

Zambrsia Bulawayo 

Nyasaland Kalambl 


Benadir  Brawa,  It.SoroaUlaDd 

Kcnia  Mission.. 

Liberia Monro\1a 

Shire 

Central  Zanzibar. .  .Bacamcyo 
UbanKhl-Sharl 


Oriental  (Coptic)   Rite 


AFRICA 


181 


AFRICA 


Narcissus  of  Ocnintlum,  in  Spain,  took  refuge  from 
his  persecutors  in  Augsburg,  anil  chanced  to  find  an 
asylum  in  Afra's  house.  Through  his  efforts  the 
family  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  baptized. 
Narcissus,  on  his  departure,  ordained  presbyter  (or 
bishop)  a  brother  of  Hilaria,  Uionysius  by  name. 
To  the  same  narrative  clearly  belongs  the  conclusion 
of  the  story  of  Afra's  martyrdom,  in  which  mention 
is  made  of  the  mother  and  three  handmaidens  of 
.'\fra  (L)igna,  Eunomia  or  Kumenia,  and  Eutropia  or 
Euprepia),  who,  after  the  remains  of  the  martyr 
were  placeil  in  the  tomb,  them.selves  .suffered  martyr- 
dom by  fire.  The  second  part  of  the  "  .-Vets  of  -Afra", 
dealing  with  her  trial  and  death  (Ruinart,  Acta 
Sincera,  48:2—184,  Kati.sbon,  1859),  is  more  ancient. 
In  the  opinion  of  Diichesne  it  dates  from  the  end  of 
the  fourth,  or  the  l)egimiing  of  the  fifth,  centurj'. 
It  may,  therefore,  liave  preserved,  not  only  the  fact 
of  the  martyrdom,  but  also  reliable  details  concern- 
ing the  Saint  ami  her  death.  In  this  narrative  Afra 
alone  is  mentioned,  and  there  is  no  trace  of  those 
exaggerations  and  fantastic  embellishments  which 
characterize  the  later  legends  of  the  martjTS.  Ac- 
cording to  this  I'a.ixio,  .\fra  (see  M.mitvrs,  Acts  of) 
w;ls  condemned  to  the  flames  because  she  professed 
herself  a  Christian,  and  refu.sed  to  participate  in 
pagan  rites.  She  was  executed  on  a  little  island  in 
the  river  Lech,  and  her  remains  were  burietl  at  some 
distance  from  the  place  of  her  death.  The  testimony 
of  Venantius  Fortunatus  shows  that  her  grave  was 
held  in  great  veneration  in  the  sixth  centurj-.  Her 
remains  are  still  at  .\ugsburg  in  the  church  of  Sts. 
ririch  and  Afra,  beside  which  stands  a  famous  Bene- 
dictine abbey.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  on  7  August. 
Tii.i.hMONT,  .U.m.  iiaur  ai-rrir  h  Ihiat.  ecd..  V.  271.  093; 
Kettukho,  Kirchtng.  DtuUchlands  (Gi.ltingen,  1840),  1,  144 
.•«lt4.;  Friedkich.  Rircherm.  Denlfchlanda  (Bamberg.  1SG7), 
I.  IHt'i  ^iq-.  427  sqq.;  Hauck,  Kirchenp,  D*:ulschland9  (Lcip- 
«iK.  189S).  2d  &\.,  1,  93;  Ali.aro.  Huttoire  des  perefcutumit 
(Paris.  1890).  IV.  419  sofl.;  Diche.>*xe,  A  propos  du  mar- 
ttirul.mr  hirronymim.  in  Awilecia  Boltaruliana  (1S98),  XVII, 
43;i  x|il.;  IvKUsril,  Norhrmils  dir  Afndtgcruie  und  das  Mar' 
tuTolinjmm  lluroni/mianum,  in  Mittheit.  det  ln*l.  fiir  cetterr. 
(J<\<-hu-htaforschung  (19(X)),  XXI,  I  aqq.;  Butler,  Lives, 
5  .\ug. 

J.    P.    KlRSCH. 

Africa. — This  name,  which  is  of  Phoenician  origin, 
was  at  first  given  by  the  Romans  to  the  territory 
about  the  city  of  Carthage.  It  gradually  came 
to  t)e  applied  to  the  whole  Libyan  territory  occu- 
pied by  the  Romans,  and  it  was  understood  in  this 
sense,  as  late  as  the  eleventh  century,  by  Pope  St. 
l.eo  VS.,  who,  when  asked  to  decide  as  to  the 
primacy  of  the  bishops  of  ancient  Numidia,  wrote 
these  words,  now  engraved  in  letters  of  gold  on  the 
modern  basilica  of  Carthage,  built  by  Cardinal  La- 
vigerie:  "Sine  dubio,  post  Romanum  pontificem, 
prunus  Nubi;B  cpiscopus  et  totius  Africa^  maximus 
metropolitanus  est  Carthaginiensis  cpiscopus"  (There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  after  the  Roman  Pontiff  the 
first  Bishop  of  N'ubia,  and  indeed  the  principal  Met- 
ro[X)litan  of  .\frica  is  the  Bisliop  of  Carthage).  In 
their  turn  the  Aralw  adopted  the  name;  then  the 
writers  of  the  Middle  Ages;  finally  it  has  come  to 
include  the  entire  continent. 

1.  The  CoiNTRV. — Africa  is,  in  extent,  about 
112,000,000  square  miles,  or  about  three  times  as 
large  as  J-^urope,  and  five  times  as  large  as  the  I'ni- 
teti  States,  without  Alaska.  It  is  joined  to  the  Asi- 
atic continent  only  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  Its 
general  slia|)e  is  that  of  an  irregular  triangle,  which 
rieculiarity  of  shape,  with  the  scarcity  of  bays  or 
nartH)urs,  seriously  affected  its  historical  develop- 
ment prior  to  the  use  of  steam.  It  rests  on  a  rocky 
foundation,  which  forms  an  immense  plateau  in  the 
interior,  whence,  in  isolated  masses,  branch  off  ranges 
like  the  .^tlas,  the  mountains  of  Abj-ssinia,  Cape 
Colony,  the  Orange  River  Colony,  the  Transvaal, 
the  Kenya,   Kilinia-Njaro,  the  Mfumbiro,  and  the 


Kameruns.  These  mountains,  which  attain  in  some 
places  a  height  of  20,000  feet,  have  the  appearance 
of  islets,  where  rise  in  stages  belts  of  a  wonderfully 
varied  vegetation.  This  plateau  is  bounded  by  a 
coast  depression,  whence  the  land  sinks  gradually. 
The  west  coast,  from  Morocco  to  the  Cajjc,  is  ex- 
tremely rough  and  difficult  to  approach.  On  tlie 
Ecpiator  the  rains  are  frequent  and  torrential;  ;ii 
(iaboon,  for  instance,  it  rains  every  day  for  ninf 
months,  the  atmosphere  is  lieaN-y  with  humidity,  and 
the  heat  is  maintained  at  an  almost  unchanging 
temperature.  An  enormous  quantity  of  water  is 
gathered  in  aerial  seas  by  the  winds,  which,  meeting, 
neutralize  each  other.  This  water,  drawn  down  by 
the  daily  thunder-storms,  forms  the  vast  reservoirs 
of  the  interior:  the  lakes  of  Timbuctu,  Tchad,  Vic- 
toria, Albert,  Tanganyika,  Bangweolo,  Mweru,  Ny- 
assa,  and  others,  whence  ffow  the  i)rincipal  rivers: 
the  Niger,  the  B<5nu<5,  the  Congo,  the  Zand)esi,  and 
the  Nile,  and  others,  less  known,  but  of  considerable 
importance.  Most  of  them  flow  to  the  sea  o\er 
rocky  beds,  forming  rapids  and  waterfalls.  These 
rivers  liave  their  sources  at  a  much  greater  altitude 
than  the  rivers  of  other  continents.  The  source  of 
the  Congo  is  at  a  height  of  6,000  feet;  of  the  Nile 
at  4,.50O;  and  of  the  Niger  at  3,000;  while  that  of 
the  Amazon  is  not  more  than  700  feet,  and  the 
Mississipjn  only  about  2,000  feet.  It  has  been  said 
that  .\frica  has  been  less  travelled  than  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  It  is  there  that  are  found,  more 
than  anywhere  else,  huge  mountains,  such  as  Kilima- 
Njaro,  Kenya,  etc.,  wliich  rise  suddenly  from  the 
level  surface  of  great  plains;  vast  lakes  of  uncertain 
outlines,  which  seem  at  one  time  to  be  drj'ing  up, 
and  at  another  to  be  making  new  inroads  on  the 
land;  long  rivers  whose  branches  cover  millions  of 
sfpiare  miles,  and  which,  like  the  Nile,  flow  slowly 
through  valleys  as  desolate  as  an  unfinished  world; 
solemn  forests  and  the  endless  desert,  vast  anc' 
well  suited  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  such  great  plants 
as  the  baobab,  and  of  strange  creatures  like  the 
ostrich,  the  giraffe,  the  elephant,  the  hippopotamus, 
and  the  gorilla;  in  very  truth  it  is  tiie  primiti\c 
world.  It  is  in  the  Eciuatorial  zone,  and  especially 
towards  the  west,  that  the  forests  are  largest,  while 
in  other  parts  they  are  somewhat  irregularly  scat- 
tered, witli  trees  rising  straight  and  mighty  above  a 
vigorous  undergrowth.  It  is  possible  to  travel  for 
days,  and  even  months,  in  these  forests  without  so 
much  ;is  a  glimp.se  of  the  sky,  except  in  some  chance 
clearing  where  the  natives  have  cut  down  a  few  trees, 
to  build  their  little  village,  or  to  till  their  fields. 
Silence  reigns  everj-where,  broken  only,  in  the  day- 
time, by  an  occasional  flapping  of  wings  overhead; 
and  at  night  by  the  shrill  music  of  insects  in  a  mo- 
notonous chorus.  Storms  echo  in  a  frightful  fashion; 
the  rains  caiLse  an  invariable  humidity,  rendering 
everj-thing  impervious  to  fire,  and  it  is  only  during 
the  short  dr>'  season  of  three  or  four  months  that  it 
is  safe  to  penetrate  these  forests.  t)n  both  sides  of 
the  Equator,  as  far  as  15°  north  and  20°  south, 
stretches  a  zone  that  has  two  seasons,  a  rainy  and 
a  drj'  season.  In  this  region,  the  great  virgin  forest 
and  i)erpetual  verdure  are  but  seldom  found  save 
in  the  narrow  spaces,  stretching  ribbonlike  along  the 
river  banks,  or  crowding  in  the  valleys,  or  climbing, 
in  rows,  along  the  mountain-sides.  Elsewhere  are 
found  great  prairies,  over  which  the  fire  passes  at 
the  encl  of  ejich  dry  sojison,  and  where  roam  great 
herds  of  antelope,  giraffe,  zebu,  and  buffalo.  Be- 
yond this  double  zone,  wliich  begins  with  Equatorial 
landscapes  and  ends  in  a  semi-desert,  stretches 
another  zone  of  rocks,  grass-lands,  swamps,  clay, 
and  almost  wholly  barren  sand.  This,  to  the  north, 
is  the  S;ihara  and  the  Libyan  desert;  to  the  south, 
the  Kalahari  and  the  .solitude  that  surrounds  it.  It 
is  a  land  where  the  sky  is  without  cloud,  and  the 


AFRICA 


182 


AFRICA 


earth  without  shade.  These  deserts,  which  are  not 
lacking  in  grandeur  and  attraction,  mark,  north  and 
soutli,  tlie  true  boundaries  of  Africa.  Beyond  them, 
north  and  soutli— to  the  north,  Mauretania,  Algeria, 
Egj'pt;  to  the  south,  the  region  of  Cape  Colony — 
the  soil,  the  climate,  the  fauna  and  flora,  the  inhabi- 
tants are  no  longer  characteristically  African,  but 
European. 

II.  The  Inhabit,\nts. — The  most  recent  statis- 
tics give  the  population  of  Africa  as  from  160,000,000 
to  200,000,000  souls.  Of  these,  128,000,000  repre- 
sent the  black  element  -i-ery  imevenly  distributed 
over  the  12,000,000  square  miles  of  surface.  In  some 
parts  it  is  very  dense,  as  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile 
and  of  the  Niger;  in  Algeria,  Morocco,  and  Abyssinia; 
in  certain  States  of  the  Sudan;  near  the  lakes  of 
the  interior,  and  in  the  region  of  Cape  Colony;  while 
it  is  verj'  sparse  in  great  spaces  like  the  Sahara  and 
the  Kalahari  desert,  or  the  swamps  where  the  tribu- 
tarie.s  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  Zambesi  pour  their 
sluggish  currents.  The  occupation  of  the  continent 
by  the  European  nations,  which  put  an  end  to  local 
wars,  slave  raids,  and,  to  some  extent,  to  poisonings, 
infanticide,  and  human  sacrifices,  might  well  lead 
men  to  hope  for  the  repeopling  of  Africa.  These 
advantages,  however,  seem,  in  modern  times,  sadly 
outweighed  by  the  spread  of  the  dread  sleeping- 
sickness  and  other  contagious  diseases,  drunkenness, 
and  tlie  breaking  up  of  native  family  life,  due  to  con- 
tact with  our  civilization.  African  ethnography  pre- 
sents a  very  complicated  problem.  Five  thousand 
years  before  Christ  the  valley  of  the  Nile  was  in- 
habited by  a  population  already  possessing  a  remark- 
able civilization.  Traces  of  its  occupation  even  prior 
to  that  period,  during  the  Age  of  Stone,  have  been 
found  from  the  Atlas  to  the  Cape,  from  Somaliland 
to  the  Guinea  Coast.  The  question,  then,  arises, 
whether  these  primitive  populations  may  not  now 
be  represented  by  the  Negritos,  or  Pygmies,  of  Africa, 
mentioned  by  ancient  authors  and  once  more  dis- 
covered in  modern  times.  Under  the  various  names 
of  "Akka",  "Ba-twa",  "A-kwa",  "Be-ku",  etc., 
they  are  met  with  in  scanty  groups  throughout 
Equatorial  Africa,  from  the  banks  of  the  Tuba  to  the 
valley  of  the  Ogowai  (French  Congo)  and  that  of 
the  Congo.  Near  the  Cunene  they  come  in  contact 
with  another  population  of  similar  stature  (4ft.  to 
4  ft.  2  in.),  manners,  and  physical  qualities:  the 
"San",  called  "Bosjesmannen"  by  the  Dutch,  and 
"Bushmen"  in  English.  There  are  two  types:  one 
black,  the  other  yellowLsh;  but  they  undoubtedly 
constitute  distinct  races,  with  well  marked  ethnic 
characteristics.  There  are  valid  reasons  for  thinking 
that  these  tribes  formerly  lived  in  Ethiopia  and  in  the 
Nile  basin.  Traces  of  similar  populations  are  found 
in  Europe;  and,  at  the  present  day  a  parallel  race 
is  represented  by  the  Negritos  of  the  Andamans, 
Moluccas,  and  the  islands  in  the  vicinity  of  Indo- 
China.  These  little  men  would  therefore  seem  to 
have  occupied  the  whole  of  the  ancient  continent, 
scattering  from  a  central  point,  which,  if  we  may 
trust  certain  indications,  was  the  valley  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. That  which  is  certain,  however,  is  that  the 
Negritos  appear  in  Africa  as  a  primitive  population, 
which  was  scattered  by  the  stronger  an(l  better  or- 
ganized tribes  who  came  after  them.  This,  more- 
over, is  exactly  the  notion  they  have  formed  con- 
cerning themselves,  and  which  has  been  formed  of 
them  by  the  blacks;  they  look  on  themselves,  and 
are  looked  on  by  their  neighbours,  a-s  the  first  own- 
ers of  the  ICarth.  It  is  to  them  that  the  forest  be- 
longs, with  all  that  it  contains,  animals  and  fruits; 
and  it  is  they  who  possess  the  secrets  of  African 
nature.  Their  life  is  everywhere  the  same;  they  are 
nomads,  who  make  no  settled  encampments,  have 
no  trade,  commerce,  or  farming,  neither  flocks  nor 
domestic  animals  of  any  kind,  except  a  small  dog. 


also  found  all  over  Africa,  whose  life  is  on  a  level 
with  the  wretched  life  of  his  master.  These  people 
live  by  hunting,  by  what  they  can  pick  up  or  beg 
from  the  agricultural  or  pastoral  tribes  among  whom 
they  live,  and  whom  they  supply  with  meat,  ivory, 
and  rubber.  Their  language  as  a  rule  resembles 
that  of  the  people  among  whom  they  have  stayed 
longest.  It  is,  however,  among  the  San  (Bushmen) 
that  we  must  look  for  the  race  which,  it  would  seem, 
grew  up  shortly  afterw-ards  by  mingling  their  blood, 
and  possibly  their  speech,  with  that  of  the  Negritos 
(dwarfs).  These  are  the  Namas,  Nama-kwa,  Gri- 
kwa  (Griqua),  etc.,  known  to  Europeans  by  the  ge- 
neric name  of  Hottentots  (a  name  derived  from  a 
Dutch  word  meaning  "brute").  Somewhat  taller, 
of  a  darker  colour,  with  longer  hair,  equally  prone 
to  obesity,  they  have  fixed  villages  and  lead  a  pas- 
toral life.  Their  language,  which  is  agglutinative, 
with  pronominal  suffixes,  is  characterized  by  the  use 
of  four  different  kinds  of  "clicks",  also  used  by  the 
San,  and  which  have  no  equivalent  in  our  alphabet. 
In  the  opinion  of  many  scholars — among  them,  Den- 
iker — the  primitive  Hottentots  before  their  fusion 
with  the  San  were  the  original  Bantu.  This  word 
(from  mu-nln,  "  man",  "a  being  endowed  with  reason", 
plural,  ba-ritu)  has  been  used  to  designate  an  im- 
portant family  of  languages  which  stretches  from 
one  ocean  to  the  other,  from  the  basin  of  the  Congo 
and  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  the  north,  to  the  Orange 
River  and  the  Limpopo,  deducting  the  Hottentot 
tribes.  Although  every  tribe  in  this  vast  region  has 
its  own  language,  the  basis  of  vocabulary  and  gram- 
mar is  common  to  them  all.  They  are  agglutinative 
in  structure,  and  characterized  by  pronominal  pre- 
fixes w'hich  not  only  determine  the  number  and  cate- 
gory of  the  noun,  but  extend  to  the  adjective  and 
the  verb  by  very  rational  rules,  which  are  always 
applied.  The  Bantu,  who  include,  among  other  bet- 
ter known  tribes,  the  Zulus,  Basutos,  Matabele,  Ma- 
kua,  Wa-swahili,  Wa-nyamwezi,  Ba-ganda,  Ba- 
congo,  Uepongw6,  Fang,  etc.,  present  a  great  variety 
of  types,  due,  no  doubt,  to  di\ers  mi.xtures  of  race, 
which,  as  a  rule,  it  is  difficult  to  trace  very  far  back. 
Their  manner  of  life  seems  to  depend  chiefly  on  the 
country  they  live  in;  they  are  farmers,  shepherds, 
and  fishermen.  Certain  tribes,  such  as  the  Ba-ganda, 
have  formed,  and  still  form,  large  communities  with 
regular  institutions,  generally  in  the  form  of  an  au- 
tocratic government.  Most  of  them,  how'ever,  have 
maintained  their  patriarchal  life,  and  are  scattered 
in  little  villages,  practically  independent  of  each 
other.  Moreover,  litigation  and  war,  slavery,  po- 
lygamy, the  practice  of  a  degrading  fetishism,  with 
their  train  of  legal  infanticide,  trials  by  poison  and 
by  fire,  arbitrary  condemnations,  poisonings,  human 
sacrifices,  and  even  cannibalism,  prevail  more  or  less 
extensively,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  among 
all  these  interesting  peoples.  Besides  the  lands  oc- 
cupied by  the  Bantu,  there  are  to  be  found  in  the 
valleys  of  Senegal,  Ciambia,  of  the  Niger,  Lake  Tchad, 
and  Bi5nu(5,  strong  and  numerous  tribes  of  a  more 
markedly  negro  type,  of  great  stature,  strongly 
dolichocephalous,  with  very  black  skins,  rouiuled 
foreheads,  thick  lips,  and  frequent  prognathism. 
These  tribes,  sufliciently  varied  in  appearance,  are 
often  known  under  the  generic  name  of  Nigritians, 
and  are  divided  into  four  principal  groups:  the  Nil- 
otic negroes,  such  as  the  .Mittu,  the  Bari,  the  Bongo, 
the  Sandd,  etc.;  the  negroes  of  the  central  Sudan, 
such  as  the  natives  of  Bornu,  Baghirmi,  Wadai, 
Darfur,  Kordofan,  etc.;  the  negroes  of  the  western 
Sudan,  such  as  the  Sonrhai,  the  Mossi,  the  Man- 
dink^,  and  their  kinsmen  (Malink^,  Banibara,  So- 
nink6);  and,  finally,  the  coast,  or  Guinea,  negroes, 
such  as  the  Volof,  the  Sener.  the  Susu,  the  Aku.  the 
Ashanti,  the  Fanti,  the  peonle  of  Dahomey,  tlie  ICg- 
bas,  the  Yoruba,  the  Mina,  tne  Ibo,  etc.     These  tribea 


AFRICA 


1S3 


AFRICA 


arc,  as  a  nilc.  stronger  than  the  Bantu,  more  indus- 
trious, better  organized  for  figlitine,  and  for  resist- 
ance to  invasion.  Many,  indeed,  have  known  real 
epochs  of  prosperity  and  greatness.  Moreover,  this 
superiority  is  most  clearly  marked  in  proportion  to 
the  "crossing''  of  races.  This  is  true  of  the  "All- 
colours",  Wonging  to  a  dilTcrent  ethnic  type,  rej)- 
resented  by  the  llamitcs  (Chaniitcs),  also  known  as 
Kushites,  Ethiopians,  or  Nubians.  To  this  group 
should  be  joined  the  Hedja  of  Nubia,  the  Aliyssin- 
ians,  the  Oronio,  or  dallas,  the  Afora,  or  Danakil,  the 
Somalis.  the  Ma.sai,  and,  in  the  west,  the  Fula  and 
the  Kull)<5.  All  these  tribes,  whose  skin  is  black, 
bronze,  or  reddish — tlie  result,  no  doubt  of  a  consid- 
erable mingling  with  the  tribes  they  (ii-st  met  with — 
are,  as  a  rule,  of  a  regular  type,  often  handsome, 
with  shapely  limbs,  oval  faces,  long  noses,  and  hair 
long  and  curly;  all  witli  an  air  that  appears  to 
greater  advantage  from  tlicir  skill  in  drapmg  them- 
selves in  the  fashion  of  antique  statues.  TTiey  are 
no  longer  negroes.  Most  of  them  load  a  pastoral  life 
and,  divided  into  something  like  clans,  tend  their 
flocks  on  the  wide  strip  of  half-desert  pasture-land 
which  stretches  from  Cajie  Ciardafui  to  Cape  Verde. 
They  are  intelligent,  warlike,  independent,  given  to 

Eillage,  and  full  of  scorn  for  inferior  races;  they  are 
ad  neighbours,  but  have  great  influence  wherever 
they  may  be.  From  the  llamitcs  we  pass,  by  a 
natural  transition,  to  the  Berbers,  who  have  held 
northern  Africa  for  many  centuries.  While  the  other 
tribes  are  of  Asiatic  origin,  the  Bcrbci-s  came  from 
Europe  at  an  unknown  period,  and  belong  to  two 
types,  the  brown  and  the  fair.  About  .\.  d.  1100, 
tney  founded  Timbuktu,  and  spread  as  iiit  as  the 
Canary  Islands;  then,  roused  by  Islam,  they  made 
their  way  into  Spain,  and  threatened  the  south  of 
France.  They  are  represented  by  the  Barabra,  the 
Kabyles  of  the  Atlas,  the  Tuareg  of  the  Sahara, 
and  the  Moors  of  tlie  western  coast,  and  have  had  a 
considerable  part  in  the  formation  of  the  so-called 
"Arab"  populations  of  the  "Barbary  States".  In 
addition  to  these  various  elements,  yet  another,  the 
Semitic,  has  settled  among,  and  to  some  extent 
mingled  with,  the  people  of  Africa.  This  element  is 
to  be  found  chiefly  in  Egypt,  in  Abyssinia,  and  on 
the  East  Coast.  In  more  recent  times  there  has 
been  an  influx  of  modern  Europeans — thcPortugue.se 
in  Guinea,  .\ngola,  and  Mozambique;  the  Dutch  on 
the  Gold  Coast,  at  the  Cape,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Orange  and  the  Linijjopo;  the  English,  Germans, 
Belgians,  and  French  in  their  recent  colonies.  Thus, 
at  periods  which  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  men 
evidently  of  the  same  species,  but  not  of  tlie  same 
race,  settled  on  this  primitive  soil,  mingling  some  of 
their  qualities,  changing  their  hues,  confounding 
their  customs  and  their  speech,  yet,  nevertheless, 
often  retaining  clear  traces  of  their  original  descent. 
III.  Religion. — (A)  Nati\-e  Relkiio.v.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  then-  is  to  be  found  among  the  na- 
tions of  Africa,  apart  from  Christianity  and  Moham- 
medanism, a  religion,  a  belief  in  a  higher,  living,  and 
personal  principle,  implj-ing  on  man's  part  the  duty 
of  recognizing  it  by  means  of  some  kind  of  worship. 
Individuals,  families,  and  even  communities  may 
doubtless  l)e  found  in  Africa,  as  elsewhere,  utterly, 
or  almost,  devoid  of  all  notion  of  religion  and  moral- 
ity. This  fact  has  led  certain  travellers,  who,  it  is 
certain,  were  not  familiar  with  the  native  languages, 
who  had  not  penetrated  into  the  inner  secrets  of 
the  peoples  they  professed  to  have  studied,  and  who, 
in  addition,  were  often  wrongly  informed  by  chance 
inlerpretcre,  into  the  belief  that  trilK-s  without  a 
religion  exist  in  Africa.  A  more  careful  study,  how- 
ever, makes  it  po.ssible  to  assert  that  in  Africa  re- 
ligion is  everj-wlicre,  as  M.  Robert  II.  Nas-sau  says, 
"closely  Ixtund  up  with  tlie  dilTerent  matters  which 
concern  the  family,  the  rights  of  property,  authority, 


the  organization  of  the  tribe — with  judicial  trials,  pun- 
ishments, foreign  relations,  and  with  trade".  Re- 
ligious beliefs  and  practices,  characterized  by  the  two 
principal  elements  of  prayer  and  sacrifice,  form  part 
of  the  daily  life  of  the  blacks.  What  is  also  true, 
however,  is  that  no  body  of  doctrine,  properly  so 
called,  exists  anywhere  with  interpreters  bound  to 
ensure  its  integrity,  to  explain  and  to  hand  it  down 
to  others.  There  is,  therefore,  no  distinct  religious 
code,  no  official  teaching,  no  books,  no  schools,  as 
in  Islam,  Buddhism,  and  other  positive  religions. 
What  is  known  concerning  supernatural  matters  is 
a  sort  of  common  deposit,  guarded  by  e\erybody, 
and  handed  down  without  any  intervention  on  tlie 
part  of  an  authority;  fuller  in  one  place,  scantier  in 
another,  or,  again,  more  loaded  with  external  sym- 
bols according  to  the  intelligence,  the  temperament, 
the  organization,  the  habits,  and  the  manner  of  the 
people's  life.  Certain  specialists,  however,  exist, 
known  to  us  as  sorcerers,  witch-doctors,  etc.,  who  are 
familiar  with  the  mysterious  secrets  of  tilings,  wlio 
make  use  of  them  on  behalf  of  tho.se  interested,  and 
hand  them  down  to  chosen  disciples.  There  arc  also 
secret  societies  which  guard  what  may  be  called  the 
preternatural  tradition  of  the  tribe,  and  deduce 
therefrom  the  decisions  to  be  arrived  at.  Finally,  it 
is  understood  that  certain  things  are  forbidden;  there 
are  prohibitions  which  cannot  be  defied  save  at  the 
risk  of  misfortune.  Nevertheless,  that  which  eth- 
nologists call  Naturism,  Animism,  or  Fetishism  no- 
where constitutes  in  primitive  Africa  a  body  of 
doctrine,  with  correlative  precepts  and  settled  prac- 
tice which  may  be  reduced  to  a  system.  The  idea 
of  a  Being  higher  than  man,  invisible,  inaccessible, 
master  of  life  and  death,  orderer  of  all  things,  seems 
to  exist  everjavhere;  among  the  Negritos,  the  Hot- 
tentots, the  Bantu,  the  Nigritians,  the  Ilamites;  for 
everywhere  this  Being  has  a  name.  He  is  the 
"Great",  the  "Ancient  One",  the  " Heavenly  One  ", 
the  "Bright  One",  the  "Master",  sometimes  the 
"Author",  or  "Creator".  The  notion,  however, 
concerning  Him  is  clear,  obliterated,  or  vague  ac- 
cording to  the  tribe;  nowhere,  at  least,  is  He  rej)- 
resented  under  any  image,  for  He  is  incapable  of 
representation.  What  does  He  require  of  us'.'  What 
are  His  relations  with  man?  Has  life  any  aim? — .Ml 
this  is  unknown;  it  is  unasked.  Man  finds  himself 
a  being  on  the  earth,  like  the  plants  and  animals. 
That  fact  he  is  conscious  of.  He  eats,  he  repro- 
duces himself,  he  does  what  he  can;  he  dies  also,  as 
a  rule,  though  death  is  looked  on  as  an  accident, 
.the  causes  of  which  must  always  be  inquired  into. 
In  the  hereafter,  the  spirits  or  shadows  of  kings, 
chiefs,  witch-doctors,  of  great  men,  rich  and  pow- 
erful, being  set  free  from  the  bodies  to  which  they 
were  united,  wander  through  space  until  they  find 
another  body  into  which  to  enter.  They  keep  after 
this  life  the  power,  often  intensified,  which  they  had 
before;  they  can  injure  or  give  help;  they  can  in- 
fluence the  elements.  More,  they  often  bring  news 
of  themselves;  they  cause  most  of  the  sicknesses  of 
children;  they  are  seen  in  dreams;  they  cause  night- 
mares; they  are  heard  at  night;  they  show  them- 
selves in  many  inexplicable  phenomena.  The  shades 
of  ordinary  persons  have  less  power;  of  no  impor- 
tance after  death,  as  in  life,  they  disappear.  It 
is  important,  however,  to  give  all  these  shades  a 
fixed  abode.  This  is  done  by  means  of  certain  com- 
plicated cereraonics:  by  calling  them  into  caves,  into 
sacred  groves,  to  the  foot  of  certain  trees,  sometimes 
into  living  animals,  but  more  often  into  statuettes 
of  earth,  wood,  or  metal,  placed  on  the  skull  of  the 
ancestor,  or  containing  some  part  of  his  remains — • 
nails,  hair,  eyebrows,  or  skin.  There  are  some  re- 
bellious shades,  however,  who  are  difficult  to  keep 
in  one  spot;  they  are  called  back  by  means  of  fresh 
ceremonies.     Moreover,  on  all  necessary  occasions — 


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184 


AFRICA 


for  tlie  success  of  a  journey,  of  a  hunt,  of  a  trade,  or 
war,  to  ward  off  a  plague,  to  turn  aside  misfortune — 
recourse  is  had  to  the  sacred  object;  prayers  are  said 
to  it,  ,ind  offerings  made  (glass  beads,  rice,  maize, 
milk,  beer);  victims  are  sacrificed  to  it,  birds,  kids, 
sheep,  oxen,  men;  for  the  more  the  shade  is  to  be 
honoured  the  more  worthy  must  be  the  sacrifice. 
Nor  is  tliis  all.  '  The  oiTering  must,  of  necessity,  be 
eaten  in  common;  it  is  by  drinking  the  blood,  and 
by  eating  the  flesh  of  the  animal  or  man  sacrificed, 
in  company  with  the  manes  of  the  ancestors  van- 
ished, yet  present,  that  their  favours  are  obtained, 
and  tliey  are  satisfied.  This  satisfaction  is  most 
esteemed  when  it  is  possible  to  sacrifice  their  ene- 
mies, those  who  have  caused  their  death,  and  on 
whom  they  thus  wreak  the  sweetest  revenge  that 
can  be  dreamed  of.  This  is  the  origin  of  cannibal- 
ism, which  in  some  parts  of  Africa  has  taken  on 
peculiarly  disgusting  forms.  Ancestor  worship,  in 
one  form  or  other,  is  thus  the  chief  expression  of 
African  religion.  But  besides  shades,  there  are  a 
number  of  spirits,  whose  origin  is  unknown,  who  re- 
veal themselves  in  various  ways.  Most  of  these  are 
wicked,  some  terrible,  but  others  are  mischievous, 
capricious,  fanciful;  while  some,  again,  are  more  or 
less  indifferent,  and  sometimes  well-disposed.  It  is 
the  darksome  activity  of  these  spirits  which  must 
be  held  accountable  for  the  epidemics,  storms, 
droughts,  floods,  and  fires — all  the  ills  that  seem 
to  have  no  apparent  cause.  The  same  holds  true 
of  possession,  so  common  everywhere.  To  offset 
these  ills  it  is  necessary  to  consult  the  "seers", 
who,  after  the  necessary  ceremonies,  will  find  the 
name  and  character  of  the  spirit  who  is  at  fault; 
will  indicate  the  specialist  (witch-doctor)  to  whom 
recourse  must  be  had,  and  w'ho  will  obtain  the  de- 
sired result,  a  cessation  of  the  trial,  a  cure  of  the 
sickness,  an  end  to  tlie  possession,  by  means  of  the 
practices  or  sacrifices  demanded  by  the  spirit.  In 
a  word,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  black  man, 
the  world  was  formed  to  progress  regularly,  and 
might  possibly  have  attained  its  end,  had  its  Crea- 
tor so  willed  it.  But,  for  unknown  reasons,  God 
had  left  His  work  exposed  to  many  harmful  influences 
of  elements,  of  animals,  of  men,  of  sorcerers,  of 
ghosts,  of  spirits.  And,  since  He  is  beyond  man's 
reach,  since  man  cannot  get  to  where  He  is,  and 
can  do  nothing  against  His  action  or  His  inactivity, 
he  is  led  to  placate  or  to  neutralize  such  influences 
as  can  be  reached  among  the  thousands  that  every- 
where reveal  themselv&s.  It  is  to  the  general  scheme 
of  these  mysterious  things  that  we  must  reduce  the 
almost  universal  belief  that  there  exists  for  each 
individual,  for  each  family,  something  sacred  or  for- 
bidden, the  taboo  of  the  JIaoris,  which  cannot  be 
touched  without  misfortune:  a  fruit,  a  tree,  a  fish, 
an  animal,  whose  name  one  bears.  It  is  to  this 
scheme,  again,  that  the  use  of  amulets  must  be  re- 
ferred, made,  as  they  are,  of  rare  and  outlandish 
things;  of  mysterious  remedies,  of  protective  fe- 
tislies  for  everything  and  against  everything.  More- 
over, divination,  second-sight,  philtres,  enchant- 
ments, horoscopes,  forecasts,  are  equally  well  known. 
Judicial  trials,  held  to  make  known  the  guilty,  are 
of  daily  occurrence.  But,  just  as  it  is  possible  for 
man  to  use  to  his  advantage  or  to  neutralize,  these 
my.sterious  influences,  these  secret  virtues  in  things, 
so  he  can  make  use  of  them  to  effect  his  revenge, 
to  do  harm  to  those  about  him,  as  do  sorcerers, 
conjurers,  or  wizards.  In  league  with  hidden  powers, 
these  practitioners  send  sicknesses,  cause  death,  be- 
witch their  enemies,  and  roam  at  niglit  in  the  form 
of  a  ball  of  fire,  of  some  bird  or  animal,  to  spread 
their  witcheries.  They  are,  consequently,  feared  and 
hated.  Many  have  recourse  to  them,  if  they  can 
get  to  know  them,  in  order  to  join  them,  or  to  follow 
them  with  their  hatred.     If  they  are  discovered,  they 


are  made  to  do  penance,  are  sold,  killed,  or  burned, 
as  local  justice  shall  decide.  It  is  curious  to  meet, 
in  the  heart  of  Africa,  with  facts  of  sorcery  abso- 
lutely identical  with  those  knowTi  among  us  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  e\en  at  the  present  day.  And,  if 
these  wizards  and  witches  practise  their  arts  at  the 
risk  of  their  lives,  it  may  be  well  to  add  that  they 
have  not  seldom  merited  their  fate,  for  many  of 
them,  in  addition  to  and  aside  from  their  relations 
to  the  supernatural,  are  undeniably  very  skilful  poi- 
soners. Certain  anthropologists  and  ethnologists, 
anxious  to  find  in  Africa  a  territory'  propitious  to 
their  theories,  endeavour  to  prove  that  the  religious 
evolution  of  man  starts  from  simple  Naturism, 
whence  it  proceeds  to  Animism,  and  thence  to  Fe- 
tishism, to  attain  at  length  to  a  more  or  less  pure 
Theism.  This  upward  march,  which  supposes  man 
to  have  set  out  from  tlie  lowest  stage  towards  an 
indefinite  progress,  appears  reasonaljle.  But  it  is 
reasoning  a  priori,  based  on  an  untenable  hypothesis. 
The  actual  facts  are  found  on  examination  to  be 
far  from  agreement  with  this  theory. 

(1)  Naturistn  is  the  worship  paid  to  personified 
natural  objects:  the  sky,  the  sun,  the  moo^,  the 
mountains,  the  thunder,  etc.  The  Hottentots  have 
been  said  to  adore  the  moon,  in  whose  honour  they 
perform  long  dances.  This  statement,  however,  is 
now  known  to  be  erroneous.  The  Hottentots,  like 
all  Africans,  are  fond  of  dancing  by  moonlight;  they 
hail  the  moon's  reappearance  and  follow  her  course 
closely,  since  it  is  she  who  measures  time,  but  this 
is  very  far  from  being  worship.  The  true  objects  of 
Hottentot  worship  are  the  spirits  of  their  dead. 
They  recognize,  moreover,  a  Power  higher  than 
these  shades,  "Tsu  Goab",  an  expression  which  the 
missionaries  have  made  use  of  to  translate  the  word 
"God".  Again,  other  Bantu  tribes  use  terms  which 
mean  either  "Sky"  or  "God",  "Sun"  or  "God", 
etc.,  but  make  a  clear  distinction  as  to  the  meaning 
conveyed  by  these  words.  Not  one,  in  fact,  imagines 
that  a  material  identity  exists  between  the  planet 
that  gives  us  light,  or  the  firmament  wherein  it 
moves,  and  the  Supreme  Being  who  inhabits  or 
makes  use  of  them.  The  same  may  be  said  concern- 
ing the  thunder.  The  blacks,  indeed,  sometimes 
say  that  it  is  God,  who  by  this  sign,  foretells  the  rain, 
but  this  is  not  worship.  Naturism,  in  the  strict 
sense  given  to  the  word,  does  not  exist  in  Africa. 

(2)  Animism,  based  on  the  distinction  between 
matter  and  spirit,  is  the  belief  in  beings  which  have 
no  affinity  to  any  special  thing  in  nature,  but  are 
endowed  with  a  higher  power;  to  whom  a  certain 
worship  is  paid,  yet  who  are  incapable  of  being  rep- 
resented in  a  visible  form.  Taken  in  this  very  vague 
and  general  sense,  it  may  be  said  that  Animism  is 
the  religion  of  a  great  part  of  Africa:  the  Negritos, 
Hottentots,  Bantus  of  the  south  and  east,  many  of 
the  Nigritians,  and  most  of  the  Hamites,  have  prac- 
tically neither  fetishes,  idols,  nor  material  images, 
honoured  with  any  kind  of  worship.  They  believe, 
as  we  have  said,  in  the  survival  of  the  spirits  of  the 
departed  (under  an  ill-defined  form  which  they  liken, 
as  a  rule,  to  a  shadow),  in  their  possession  of  more 
or  less  power,  in  the  need  of  honouring  them,  pla- 
cating them,  and  settling  them  in  fixed  localities. 
They  believe,  also,  in  the  existence  of  spirits  differ- 
ing from  these  shades;  in  mysterious  influences; 
lastly,  in  a  Higher  Power  which  they  more  or  less 
clearly  distinguish  from  visible  creation,  from  the 
earth,  the  firmament,  etc.  However,  the  want  of  a 
true  idea  of  a  supreme  Deity,  and  scientific  ignorance, 
are  the  causes  of  a  great  mass  of  superstition  of  all 
kinds  among  the  blacks,  even  among  those  who  are 
animists. 

(3)  Fetishism. — The  qiiestion  has  been  raised 
whether  Animism  gave  birtli  to  Fetishism,  or  sprang 
from  a  purified  Fetishism;  but  the  discussion  would 


I 


i 


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185 


AFRICA 


be  futile.  These  two  forms  of  religion,  if  one  ni:iv 
call  tlioin  so,  seem  to  correspond  more  closely  with 
two  divergent  sul)jective  dispositions  than  with  two 
principles,  two  doctrines,  or  two  traditions.  We  find, 
ill  fact,  individuals  and  families,  in  the  midst  of  ani- 
niist  populations,  who  materialize  the  expression  of 
tlieir  worship  by  making  images,  into  which  they 
summon  tlie  souls  of  their  dead;  and  similarly,  in 
the  inid.-it  of  fcti.sliist  populations,  a  number  of  in- 
ilividual.s  and  families  who  have  no  fetishes.  The 
word  "fetish",  derived  from  the  Portuguese  /cid'fo 
(Lat.  facticius),  signifies  a  material  object  to  which  is 
attributed  a  mysterious  influence,  in  consequence  of 
the  presence  or  action  of  an  invisible  power  in  this 
sacred  thing.  Fetisliism  is  the  sum  of  beliefs  and 
practices  e.\isting  in  connection  with  this  idea.  It 
IS  therefore  a  mistake  to  fancy  that  the  negro  adores 
the  material  of  which  his  fetish  is  made,  or  attril>- 
utes  to  it  a  supernatural  power.  On  the  contrarj', 
the  fetish  only  possesses  influence  by  means  of  the 
particular  virtue  which  the  fetishist  has  fixed  in  it. 
But,  subject  to  this  reservation,  anything  may  be- 
come a  fetish:  images,  bones  of  men  or  animals, 
figures  more  or  less  grotesque,  stones,  trees,  huts, 
etc.,  according  to  circumstances  or  to  personal  pre- 
dilection. As  to  the  diffusion  of  Fetishism,  Living- 
stone called  attention  to  the  proofs  that  tlie  blacks 
seem  to  be  more  superstitious  and  more  idolatrous 
in  proportion  as  the  traveller  penetrates  into  the 
forest  countrj-;  an  observation  that  was  well  founded. 
And,  since  western  Africa  is  far  more  thickly  wooded 
than  the  eastern  part,  it  is  chiefly  in  the  west  that 
we  find  classics  Fetishism,  with  its  material  images 
and  its  coarse  practices.  It  is  practically  non-exist- 
ent among  the  Hottentots,  the  Hantus  of  the  east, 
the  Xigritians,  the  Hamites,  and  the  Negritos.  We 
are  thus  led  to  conclude  that  the.se  peoples,  being 
more  given  to  wandering  than  the  others,  often  liv- 
ing a  pastoral  life  in  a  more  open  coxintrj-,  have  been 
less  prone  than  were  the  sedentary  tribes  to  mate- 
rialize their  worship  in  objects  diflicult  to  carry 
about  with  them.  This,  po.ssilily,  is  the  explanation 
of  the  phenomenon  which  attracted  Livingstone's 
attention.  However  this  may  be,  an  impartial  study 
of  African  religion  makes  it  impossible  for  anyone, 
in  the  present  state  of  acquaintance  with  the  sub- 
ject, to  assert  that  man  began  on  this  great  conti- 
nent by  having  no  religions  ideas;  that  from  such 
a  state  he  passed  to  Natuiism,  to  rise,  by  degrees, 
to  Animism,  Fetishism,  and  Theism.  Indeed,  we  find 
as  many,  or  more,  facts  indicating  that  the  black 
man,  from  a  religious  standpoint,  has  degenerated. 
In  fact,  from  one  end  of  Africa  to  the  other  we  meet, 
overgrown  by  a  more  or  less  confu.sed  ma,«s  of  strange 
superstitions,  tlie  essential  ideas  of  that  which  evcrj'- 
where  has  been  looked  upon  as  the  primitive  relig- 
ion: an  unseen  God,  Master  of  all  things,  and  t)r- 
ganizer  of  the  world;  the  survival  of  the  human  soul, 
under  a  form  not  clearly  defined;  at  times,  the  idea 
of  reward  and  punishment  in  the  other  world;  the 
existence  and  activity  of  spirits,  some  of  whom  help 
men  while  others  deceive  them;  prayer,  sacrifice, 
the  need  of  a  worship;  the  sacred  nature  of  a  fruit, 
a  tree,  or  an  anim.il;  the  duty  of  abstaining  from 
certain  actions,  of  practising  self-restiaint;  the  idea 
of  sin,  of  the  power  left  in  man  to  wipe  out  its  stain, 
etc.  The  sum  total  of  this  evidence — and  the  list 
might  be  prolonged — more  or  less  clear,  distinct,  or 
scattered,  collected  from  tribes  of  different  origin 
which  cannot  possibly  have  met  for  centuries, 
leaves  us  convinced  that  at  the  beginning  of  the 
formation  of  the  black  race  there  were  common  be- 
liefs and  practices,  such  as  arc  found  at  the  begin- 
nings of  everj'  human  race,  and  on  which  Christianity 
itself  rests,  a.s  we  have  it  to-day. 

(H)  Jrn.MSM. — The  first   historical   record  of  the 
settlement  of  the  Jews  in  .\frica  is  the  story  of  Joseph; 


but  it  is  probable  that  there  had  been  others  there 
before  him.  I'nder  Moses,  who  had  Ijeen  educated 
at  the  court  of  the  Pharaoh  Rameses  "in  all  tlie 
wisdom  of  the  Kgj'ptians"  (Acts,  vii,  22),  the  Chil- 
dren of  Israel  once  more  crossed  the  Red  Sea.  Alex- 
ander of  Macedon,  however,  recalled  many  of  them,  in 
332  B.  c,  to  take  part  in  the  foundation  of  Alexan- 
dria. Alexandrian  Jews,  merchant  jirinccs  and  good 
soldiers,  have  also  produced  historians  such  as  Alex- 
ander of  Miletus,  surnamed  Polyliistor  (though  mod- 
ern critics  pronounce  him  a  pagan  to  whom  some 
fragments  of  a  Jewish  tendency  have  been  falsely 
attributed);  moralists  and  philosophers,  such  as  At- 
istobulus  and  I'hilo;  elegant  writers  of  Cireek  verse, 
such  as  the  tragic  poet  Ezechiel  (c.  200-150  n.  c). 
It  was  at  .'\lexandria  that  the  "Seventy"  (Septua- 
gint)  translated  (third  century  B.  r.)  the  Law  and 
the  Prophets  into  Greek.  Thence,  the  Jews  spread 
over  the  Cyrenaica,  and  made  their  way  to  Carthage. 
A  second  wave  of  Jewish  emigrants,  mor<'over,  left 
Italy  on  the  conquest  of  the  Carthaginian  Slate  by 
the  Romans  (HO  B.  c),  and  founded  tra<lc-cxcliangcs 
in  most  of  the  seaports  of  northern  Africa.  Hence, 
St.  Jerome,  writing  to  Dardanus,  could  .say  that  the 
Jewish  colonies  formed  in  his  time  an  unbroken 
chain  across  .\frica,  "from  Mauretania  to  India". 
Yet  another  scattering  of  the  Children  of  Israel  fol- 
lowed the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (.\.  n.  70) 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  bringing  a  tliird 
wave  of  Jewisli  emigrants  into  Roman  Africa.  The 
triumph  of  .Mohammed  at  Mecca  (.\.  i>.  030),  and 
the  rapid  spread  of  his  religion,  obliged  a  large  num- 
ber of  Jews  to  leave  Arabia.  Of  those  who  crossed 
the  Red  .Sea  some  took  refuge  in  Abyssinia,  a  countrj' 
with  which  they  had  long  had  intercourse,  and  where 
they  doubtless  found  some  of  their  older  colonies. 
It  is  from  these,  probably,  that  the  Falashes  and 
Gond;is  are  descended,  although  these  tribes  trace 
their  ancestrj'  to  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba. 
Others  took  the  well-known  route  to  Egypt,  and, 
following  the  Mediterranean  coast,  set  out  to  rejoin 
their  co-religionists  in  the  territories  of  Tripoli  and 
Tunis.  Some,  by  pursuing  the  caravan  route  of 
Dar-Fur,  across  the  Wadai,  Bornu,  and  Sokoto,  ar- 
rived, about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  centurj-,  at 
the  valley  of  the  Niger.  Finally,  when,  in  1492,"tliey 
were  driven  from  Spain,  many  of  them  went  to  Mo- 
rocco, and  others  to  Tunis.  Such  varied  origins 
have  caused  diversities  of  type,  manners,  and  speech, 
among  the  Jews  of  Africa,  but  all  have  kept  tliat 
peculiar,  personal  imprint  which  distinguishes  e\erj'- 
where  the  Children  of  Israel.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  approximate  number  of  Jews  in  .\frica  may  l)e 
divided  thus:  .50,000  in  Abyssinia;  30,000  in  Egj-pt; 
00,000  in  Tunis;  57,000  in  Algeria;  100,000  in  Mo- 
rocco; more  than  10,000  along  the  border  of  the  Sa- 
liara,  and  l.SOO  at  the  Cape;  giving  a  total  of  about 
300,000.  The  study  of  their  history  in  Africa  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  their  monotheistic  influence 
was  real  in  Egj-pt  and  Numidia,  and  even  in  the 
Sudan.  At  the  present  day,  howe\-er,  they  carry 
on  no  religious  propaganda,  but  arc  satisfied  with 
keeping  their  Israelitish  worship  intact,  in  conunu- 
nities  more  or  less  numerous  ami  faithful,  under  the 
guidance  of  rabbis  of  various  cla.sscs — officiating  ral> 
bis,  sacrificing  rabbis,  who  attend  to  circumcision, 
rabbi  notaries,  and  grand  rabbis. 

(C)  IsLAMis.M. — Islamism  has  found  in  Africa  a 
boundless  sphere  of  conq\iest,  and  its  uninterrupted 
spread,  from  the  seventh  century  down  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  among  all  the  races  of  the  continent  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  of  historj-.  To- 
day a  .Massulman  may  travel  from  .Monrovia  to 
Mecca,  and  thence  to  Balavia  without  once  setting 
foot  on  "infidel"  .soil.  Three  phases  in  this  move- 
ment of  expansion  may  be  distinguished.  In  the 
first  (638-1050)  the  Arabs,  in  a  rapid  advance,  prop- 


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agatcd  Islam  along  the  wliole  Mediterranean  coast, 
from  Egypt  to  Morocco,  a  conciuest  greatly  aided 
by  the  exploitation  of  the  country  Ijy  the  Byzantine 
governors,  the  divisions  among  the  Christians,  and 
political  disorganization.  In  the  nmth  and  tenth 
centuries,  however,  tlie  opposition  of  the  Berbers 
and  the  too  tardy  resistance  of  the  Byzantines,  as- 
sisted by  the  Normans,  but  chiefly  the  mutual  strife 
of  the  Mussiilman  emii-s,  arrested  its  advance;  there 
were  still  bishops  at  Carthage,  Hippo,  and  Constan- 
tine  in  the  eleventh  century.  The  second  period 
(105()-17.'iO)  is  connected  with  the  invasion  of  the 
Himyarite  (Arabian)  Bedouins,  sent  by  El  Mestune, 
Caliph  of  Cairo,  to  chastise  the  Magreb,  or  country 
stretching  from  Tripoli  to  Morocco.  It  was  then 
that  Mauretania  became  definitely  Lslamized,  and 
in  its  turn  the  centre  of  a  propaganda  carried  on 
among  the  Berber  tribes  of  the  Atlas,  and  of  the 
Sahara,  and  among  the  negroes  of  the  Sudan.  This 
conquest,  however,  was  not  unresisted.  We  learn 
from  an  Arab  historian,  Ibn  Khaldun,  that  the  pop- 
ulation of  northern  Africa  was  forced  fourteen  times, 
at  the  point  of  the  sw-ord,  to  embrace  Islamism,  and 
that  it  returned  fourteen  times  to  its  own  religion. 
Traces,  moreover,  of  Christianity  are  still  found 
among  the  Kabyles  of  Algeria,  among  the  Tuaregs, 
and  the  Mzabetes  of  the  Sahara.  The  name  Tua- 
reg (singular,  Targui)  was  given  by  the  Arabs  to 
the  Berbers  of  the  desert,  and  means  "those  for- 
saken of  God".  They  were  the  founders  of  Tim- 
buctoo  {.K.  D.  1077),  Dfenn6,  and  of  the  principal  cen- 
tres of  influence  in  northwest  Africa.  While  this 
part  of  the  continent  was  being  converted,  willingly 
or  by  force,  to  Islam,  eastern  Africa  was  invaded 
in  its  turn  by  colonies  of  merchants,  who,  however, 
readily  became  warriors,  and  never  failed  to  be 
apostles.  It  was  thus  that  Islam  gained  the  shores 
of  tlie  Ked  Sea,  Somaliland,  the  Zanzibar  coast  as 
far  as  Kiloa,  and  the  islands  as  far  as  the  Comoto 
Islands  and  Madagascar.  One  nation  alone,  Ethiopia, 
entrenched  in  its  huge,  mountainous  citadel,  held  out 
against  them.  Unfortunately,  however,  since  the 
sixth  century,  it  has  held  the  Monophysite  heresy. 
It  was  on  these  unconquered  Christians  that  the 
Arabs  bestowed  the  scornful  name  of  Ilabesh,  mean- 
ing, "sweepings  of  the  nations",  whence  the  name 
Abyssinia  is  derived.  The  last  period  of  the  Moham- 
medan expansion  extends  to  the  present  time.  It  is 
due  to  a  veritable  recrudescence  of  fanaticism,  zeal- 
ously fostered  by  a  number  of  religious  societies, 
whose  members,  or  Khuans,  are  to  be  found  every- 
where, and  possess  unbounded  influence.  Daily,  one 
may  say,  Islam  spreads  over  the  great  African  con- 
tinent, creeping  down  from  Morocco  to  Senegal,  mak- 
ing inroads  on  the  valley  of  the  Niger  and  the  shores 
of  Lake  Tchad,  passing  from  Kordofan  into  Uganda, 
and  from  Zanzibar  to  the  Congo.  Bitterly  hostile 
to  Europeans  by  its  very  nature,  it  is  yet  verj-  skilful 
in  adapt  ing  itsc^lt  to  circumstances.  This  is,  doubtless, 
why  so  many  governors,  functionaries,  travellers  and 
writers,  duped  by  this  deep  hypocrisy,  favour  this 
expansion  of  Mohammedanism,  and  are  even  guilty 
of  flagrant  injustice  and  abuse  of  power  in  imposing 
it  on  fetishist  popiflations  who  ha\e  no  wish  to  em- 
brace it.  As  there  are  no  Mohammedan  statistics, 
it  is  impossible  to  make  an  accurate  census.  The 
following  figures  may,  however,  be  quoted:  4,070,000 
in  Algeria;  1  ..'iOO ,000  in  Tunis;  10,000,000  in  Mo- 
rocco; fi,K()0,()IIO  in  French  Western  Africa;  3,000,000 
in  tlie  Wailai  and  (he  Sudan,  besides  those  in  Egypt, 
Somaliland,  Zanzibar,  and  the  interior.  The  total 
numbers  of  Islam  in  Africa  approximately  amount 
to  between  thirty  and  forty  millions.  Its  marvel- 
lous spread  is  due  to  various  cau.ses.  In  Egypt,  to 
licgin  with,  and  throughout  northern  Africa,  it  was 
a  forcible  conquest  of  countries  and  peoples  in  a 
state  of  utter  social,  political,  and  religious  disorgani- 


zation. These  remnants  of  peoples  were  intoxicated 
by  a  doctrine  of  great  power,  covering  all  that  re- 
lates to  the  interests  and  concerns  of  man.  From 
the  new  groups  thus  remoulded  issvied  successively 
other  conquerore,  down  to  the  recent  uprisings  of 
the  Samory  and  the  Rabah  tribes  in  the  Sudan. 
Moreover,  since  Islam  is  at  once  a  religious  doctrine, 
a  social  system,  a  political  principle,  a  commercial 
interest,  a  civilization  that  arrogates  to  itself  all 
manner  of  rights  against  the  "infidel",  it  follows 
that  each  Mussulman  is  intimately  possessed  by  the 
spirit  of  proselytism.  To  this  end  he  may,  and  does, 
make  use  of  every  means;  all  is  permissible  against 
the  "unbeliever".  Islam,  therefore,  imposes  itself 
by  force,  by  persuasion,  by  interest,  by  alliances, 
by  the  spirit  of  imitation,  by  fashion.  It  should  be 
added  that  there  is  a  real  affinity  between  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Moors  and  Arabs  and  those 
of  the  more  or  less  mixed  populations  of  northern 
Africa;  and  between  these  and  the  negro  tribes. 
Moreover,  Mussulman  exclusiveness  becomes  not  a 
little  modified  by  contact  with  Fetishism,  and  if 
Islam  imposes  certain  beliefs  and  practices  on  its 
black  disciples,  they,  in  turn,  bring  into  it  -■.  num- 
ber of  their  superstitions  and  usages.  Finally,  the 
extreme  simplicity  of  its  doctrine,  the  easy  yoke  of 
its  liturgical  discipline,  its  liberal  indulgence  in  re- 
spect of  morality,  all  sustained  by  the  hope  of  a 
Paradise  made  up  of  well-defined  and  attractive 
pleasures,  combine  to  make  Islam  an  ideal  religion 
for  the  childish  intelligence  and  sensual  nature  of 
the  African  peoples  among  which  it  labours.  These 
causes,  of  themselves,  suffice  to  explain  the  slight 
hold  that  Christianity  has  gained  on  the  Moham- 
medan social  system.  The  Mussulman  who  becomes 
a  Christian  must  renounce,  not  only  his  faith,  but 
also  his  family,  his  social  standing,  his  interests,  all 
that  binds  him  to  the  world.  Hence  it  is  evident 
how  utterly  mistaken  those  are  ■\\ho  may  have  held 
that  Islam  is  a  kind  of  useful,  possibly  necessary, 
transition,  between  Fetishism  and  Christianity.  On 
the  contrary,  Islam  as  it  were  crystallizes  the  heart 
and  mind  of  man.  It  is  not  a  step  taken  upward, 
but  a  wall  that  arrests  all  progress.  From  a  philo- 
sophical and  religious  standpoint,  however,  Islam  is 
undoubtedly  superior  to  the  Fetishism  of  the  negro. 
It  ac'.aaowledges  but  One  God  Almighty,  who  re- 
wards good  and  punishes  evil  in  a  future  life;  it 
teaches  the  need  of  prayer,  penance,  and  almsgiving; 
of  a  public  worship;  of  abstainmg  from  the  use  of 
fermented  liquors,  etc.  But  the  absolute  freedom 
with  which  it  preys  on  the  "infidel"  by  means  of 
polygamy,  slavery,  thefts,  and  all  kinds  of  injustice, 
the  utter  corruption  and  the  spread  of  venereal  dis- 
eases to'.'hich  it  gives  rise,  the  pride,  hypocrisy,  and 
laziness  which  it  engenders  in  its  disciples,  the  for- 
midable cohesion  which  it  gives  them,  make  the 
expansion  of  "Mussulman  civilization"  among  fetish- 
ist peoples  anything  but  desirable.  From  the  stand- 
point of  their  proximate  evolution  they  have  more 
to  lose  from  it  than  to  gain.  As  fctisliists  they  con- 
stitute a  reserve  for  Christian  civilization;  as  Mus- 
sulmans, they  are  lost  to  it. 

(D)  P.vrseeism;  Buddhism;  Br.^hminism. — To 
be  complete,  this  account  should  include  certain 
Parsee  colonies  at  Zanzibar,  Mombiusa,  Natal,  and 
the  Cape;  Chinese  and  Indian  Buddhists  in  the  Trans- 
vaal, and  the  Island  of  JIauritius;  and  the  Brah- 
minist  Banyans,  natives  of  Kurachi,  Kach,  and  Bom- 
bay, who  trade  with  intelligence  and  succe.'«  in  most 
of  the  centres  of  Eastern  Africa,  from  Port  Said  to 
the  Cape.  None  of  these,  however,  make  any  prose- 
lytes, and  all  will  receive  due  treatment  under  their 
respective  titles. 

(K)  Chhisti.\nity. — Christianity  penetrated  into 
Africa  through  two  principal  channels.  It  was  first 
brought  by  the  Evangelist  St.  Mark  to  Alexandria, 


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where  it  soon  shone  with  great  splendour  and  was 
represented  by  such  men  as  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Origen,  Atliamisius,  and  Cj'ril.  It  pa.ssed  thence 
into  Lower  Kgvpt,  then  into  the  Thebaid,  Upix-r 
Kgypt.  and  NuLia,  and,  by  way  of  the  Ked  Sia  as 
far  as  Ethiopia,  adopting  as  its  own  the  Gra'co-Jewish 
civilization,  which  it  found  prevailing  in  Egjpt  and 
the  Cyrenaica.  At  the  same  period,  however,  about 
the  end  of  tlie  first  century,  Roman  soldiers  and  mer- 
chants brouglit  the  (lospcl  to  Carthage,  whence  it 
soon  spread  to  Proconsular  Africa,  to  the  Byzaceno 
province,  and  to  Numidia,  added  a  glorious  band  to 
the  army  of  martyrs,  and  produced  such  Doctors  as 
Tertullian,  Minucius  Felix,  Cyprian,  Arnobius,  Lac- 
tantius,  t)ptatus,  and  the  great  Bishop  of  Hippo, 
St.  Augustine. 

(1)  The  Dixxulent  Chtirches. — Unfortunately,  Afri- 
can Christianity  was  constantly  exposed  to  the  at- 
tacks of  schism  and  liercsy;  of  Gnostics,  Monophy- 
sites,  Ariuns,  Pelagians,  Maniclueans,  Novatians,  and 
Donatists,  who  divided  and  enfeebled  it,  and  so 
paved  the  way  for  its  destruction,  first,  by  the  Van- 
dals and,  finally,  by  Islam.  Most  of  these  sects 
have  long  since  disappeared;  but  the  Monophysites 
who,  following  Eutvches,  acknowledge  only  one 
nature  in  Christ  (tlie  divine  nature  having  ab- 
sorbed the  human),  have  continued  to  e.xist,  and  form 
at  the  |)re.sent  time  three  distinct  churches,  namely: 
The  Armenian  Church,  whose  Patriarch,  or  Catholicos, 
resides  near  Erzerum  (see  Armenia);  The  Jacobite 
Churcli  of  i^yria  and  .Mesopotamia,  whose  head  is  the 
Patriarch  of  .\ntioch  (see  J.vcobites,  Monophy- 
sites); The  Coptic  Church  of  Egypt,  governed  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  resident  at  Cairo,  who 
exercises  a  kind  of  ecclesiastical  suzerainty  over  the 
Monophysite  Church  of  Abyssinia.  These  Copts 
(from  dr.,  AI'7iijrTos.  Egypt),  descendants  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  are  alx)ut  200,000  in  number,  and 
are  spread  over  some  twenty  dioceses,  as  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries  (see  Coit.s.)  In  Ethi- 
opia (see  .-VnY.s.sixi.v),  the  Monophysites  number 
3..5tM).IH)Oout  of  a  total  population  of  nearly  4 ,000,000. 
The  rest  are  Mussulmans  (JOO.OOO).  Israelites  {.'lO.OOO), 
Pagans  (UK).0()0),  or  Catholics  (.30.000).  The  lib- 
eral pn)selytism  of  Protestantism  has  made,  and 
still  makes,  considerable  efforts  on  this  continent. 
Every  nation  in  which  Protestantism  flourishes  lias 
taken  part  in  this  missionarj'  work:  Germany,  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  England.  Holland,  Switzerland,  France, 
and  the  United  States  of  America.  In  1736  the 
Moravian  Brethren  established  themselves  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  formed  colonies  of  farmers 
and  meclKUiics.  Their  influence  has  contributed  to 
the  civilization  of  the  Hottentots  and  Kafirs.  They 
.settled  among  the  K.afirs  in  1828.  and,  in  1885.  to 
the  north  of  Lake  Xyassa.  The  mission  which  they 
had  founded  at  ChrLstian.sborg.  on  the  Gold  Coast, 
and  then  abandoned,  was  taken  up  in  1828  by  the 
SocitU  lies  missions  vvangihques  of  Basle,  which 
has  since  spread  to  the  country  of  the  .-Vshantis,  to 
the  German  colony  of  the  Togo,  and  to  the  Kamer- 
uns,  where  they  iiave  replaced  (1887)  the  EnglLsh 
Baptists.  From  Germany,  the  Berlin  Missions  have 
sent  their  agents  to  the  Orange  River  Colony,  to 
Gri(|\i:dand,  the  Transvaal,  and  German  East  .\frica; 
the  Rhenish  .Mission,  to  the  Hottentots,  the  Namas, 
the  Herrerrjs.  and  the  Ovambos;  the  North-German 
Missions  (Bremen  and  Hermannsburg)  to  Togoland 
and  the  Gold  Co-xst;  and.  in  the  Transvaal,  to  the 
Basutos  and  the  Zulus.  Finally,  there  are  the  Scan- 
dinavian missions.  The  Swedes  are  established  in 
the  Italian  colony  of  Erj'thrira;  the  Norwegians  have 
an  important  mission  at  Betsileo.  in  Madagivscar, 
numbering  .')0.000  .Malagasy.  With  the  exception 
of  the  German  mission  of  Hermannsburg.  and  the 
Nonvegian  missions,  which  arc  distinctively  Luth- 
eran, all  the  others  have  various  creeds  diliicult  to 


specify.  The  English  missions  are  notably  rich  and 
numerous.  The  most  important  only  need  be  men- 
tioned here,  namely:  The  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Go.spel,  which  dates  from  1752,  and 
labours  on  the  Guinea  Coast,  at  the  Cape,  and  in 
Madagascar;  The  Church  Missionary  Society, 
founded  in  1799,  which  has  fifteen  bishoprics  in  Af- 
rica; The  London  Missionary  Society,  established 
in  1795  on  an  undenominational  basis,  which  made 
its  action  chiefly  felt  in  South  Africa,  witli  Moffat 
and  Dr.  Livingstone;  The  Universities  Missions  So- 
ciety, with  its  centre  at  Zanzibar;  the  Baptist  Mis- 
sions at  Fernando  Po,  in  the  Kameruns  and  on 
the  Congo;  the  .Methodist  Missions  of  Sierra  Leone, 
the  Niger,  and  the  Gold  Coast;  the  Scottish  Missions, 
etc.  The  French  Protestants,  in  their  turn,  founded 
the  .SoctV/c  des  missions  h-angiiiques  at  Paris, 
in  1824,  which  has  sent  its  agents  to  the  Basutos  in 
nortlie.astern  Cape  Colony,  where  they  have  been 
very  successful;  to  the  F'rench  Congo  (Gaboon  re- 
gion), where  they  replaced  the  American  Presbyte- 
rians (1892);  to  the  Barotse  country  on  the  Upper 
Zambesi,  antl.  finally,  to  Mailagascar,  where  they 
have  been  called  upon  to  take  the  place,  to  some 
extent,  of  the  English  missions  (1895).  Nor  must 
the  American  missions  be  forgotten.  Three  denomi- 
nations have  taken  the  chief  part  in  this  work:  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  the  Baptist  Churcli, 
and  the  Presbyterian  Church.  The  >Iethodists  be- 
gan their  labours  in  the  colony  of  Liberia  from  its 
very  foundation  (1820).  but  it  was  only  in  1858  tiiat 
they  were  able  to  establish  a  permanent  bishopric 
there.  The  Baptists,  al.so,  have  stations  in  Jlonro- 
via.  Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  and  Lagos.  The  most 
important  missions,  however,  are  those  of  the  Pres- 
byterians. In  Egj-pt  there  is  hardly  a  village  on 
the  Nile  without  one  of  their  schools,  imder  a  Coptic 
m.oster.  Protestantism,  therefore,  shows  consider- 
able activity  in  Africa,  seconded,  as  it  is,  by  the 
magnificent  generosity  of  its  adherents  and  of  its 
numerous  native  a.ssistants.  It  would  be  impossible 
in  an  article  of  this  kind  to  specify  not  only  all  the 
societies  engaged  in  African  missions,  but  also  the 
stations  they  occupy,  the  personnel  they  employ,  the 
funds  at  their  disposal,  or  the  number  of  neophytes 
which  they  profess  to  have  gathered  around  them. 
The  figures  which  might  be  quoted  varj*  according 
to  the  documents  consulted.  There  exists,  moreover, 
no  estimate  of  the  total.  Each  year  introduces  start- 
ling discrep.ancies  into  the  statistics,  and  in  any  at- 
tempt at  exactitude,  there  is  a  risk  of  manifest  error. 
However  the  most  recent  returns  are  as  follows 
(190G):— 

Protestant  missionary  societies  in  Africa.  95;  Or- 
dained mi.ssionaries,  1,158;  Lay  missionaries,  1,893; 
Native  assistants  employed,  15,732;  Communicants, 
274.650;  Christians    (approximately),    400.000. 

To  complete  the  infornuilion  given  above,  we  sub- 
join a  list  of  the  principal  societies,  with  their  spheres 
of  labour.  American  Boartl  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  .Missions,  Benguela.  Rhodesia.  Natal;  Ameri- 
can Baptist  Union,  Congo  State;  American  Lutherans, 
Liberia;  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Missions.  Li- 
beria and  South  .\frica;  American  (North)  Presbyteri- 
ans, Liberia.  Kameruns,  Gaboon;  American  (South) 
Baptists,  Liberia,  Yoruba;  American  (South)  Presby- 
terians. Congo  State;  American  Presbyterians 
(L'nite<l).  Egj-pt;  African  Zion  Methodists.  Liberia; 
Basler  .Mi.ssion.  Gold  Coast,  Kameruns;  Balolo  Mis- 
sion, Congo  .'^tate;  Moravian  Mi.ssion.  Cape.  Kaffraria, 
German  .\frica;  Berliner  Mis.sion  (Berlin  1),  Cape, 
Orange  Colony.  Transva.al.  Rhodesia,  German  .\frica; 
Church  Missionary  Society,  Sierra  Leone,  Yoruba, 
Nigeria.  Seychelles.  German  .\frica.  East  Africa, 
Uganda.  Egj'pt;  Congregation.al  Union.  Cape.  Orange 
Colony:  Deutsche  Uaptisten.  Kameruns;  Evang  .Mis- 
sionsgesellschaft   fur   Deutsche  Africa   (Berlin  III): 


AFRICA 


188 


AFRICA 


German  Africa;  English  Baptist  Mission,  Congo  State; 
Established  Church  of  Scotland,  Nyassa;  Evangelska 
Fosterlands  Stiftelsc,  Erythra-a;  Friends  (Quakers), 
Madagascar;  Finlumlisclie  Mission,  German  South- 
west Africa;  IkTinannsburger  Mission,  Natal,  Zulu- 
land.  Transvaal;  Lontlon  Missionary  Society,  Cape, 
Bechuanalaml,  Mashonaland,  Rhodesia,  Madagascar; 
Leipziger  Mission,  German  East  Africa,  British  East 
Africa;  Methodist  Episcopal  Missionary  Society,  Li- 
beria, Congo  State,  Angola;  Mission  romande  (French 
Swiss),  Transvaal,  Mozambique;  Nord-Afrika  Mis- 
sion, Algeria,  Morocco,  Egypt;  Norddeutsche  Mis- 
sionsgesellschaft  (Bremen),  Togoland;  Norwegian 
Society  of  Missions,  Natal,  Ziduland,  Madagascar; 
Missionsanstalt  Neukirchen  bei  Mors  a.-R.,  Rhodesia, 
British  East  Africa;  Open  Brethren  (formerly  Plym- 
outh Brethren,  or  Darbyites),  Algeria,  Morocco,  fien- 
guela,  Lunda;  Soci^te  des  missions  evang^liques  de 
Paris,  French  Guinea,  Basutoland,  Barotseland,  Ga- 
boon, Madagascar;  Protestant  Episcopal  Mission,  Li- 
beria; Primitive  Methodist  Mission,  Fernando  Po, 
Cape;  Rheinische  Missionsgesellschaft,  German  South- 
west Africa,  Namaland,  Cape;  Dutch  South  African 
Mission,  Transvaal,  Rhodesia;  Swedish  Mission  (State 
Church),  Natal,  Zululand;  Swedish  Society  of  Mis- 
sions, Congo  State;  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel,  Guinea,  Cape,  Natal,  Basutoland,  Orange 
Colony,  Rhodesia,  Madagascar,  Mauritius,  Seychelles; 
United  Brethren  in  Christ,  Sierra  Leone;  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  Calabar,  Cape,  Kanrland,  Natal, 
Nyassa;  United  Methodist  Free  Church,  British  East 
Africa;  Universities  Mission,  Zanzibar,  Nyassa,  Ger- 
man East  Africa;  Wesleyan  Methodist,  Senegambia, 
Sierra  Leone,  Togoland,  Gold  Coast,  Lagos  and  Yo- 
ruba,  Cape,  Kafirland,  Natal,  Basutoland,  Orange 
Colony,  Transvaal,  Rhodesia. 

(2)  The  Catholic  Church. — We  have  already  noted 
the  rapid  expansion  of  Christianity  throughout 
northern  Africa;  the  splendour  which  it  derived 
from  its  many  faithful,  its  doctors,  anchorites,  con- 
fes.sors,  and  martyrs;  the  divisions  that  crept  in;  how 
it  spread,  on  the  one  hand,  from  Alexandria  in 
Egy^jt  to  Libya  and  Etliiopia,  on  the  other,  from 
the  metropolis  of  Carthage  to  Numidia  and  Maure- 
tania.  Unfortunately,  the  Lower  Empire,  under 
whose  sway  this  country  had  fallen,  was  more  occu- 
pied with  its  religious  quarrels  than  with  its  organi- 
zation or  defence,  and  was  unable  to  withstand  the 
successive  inroads  of  the  new  peoples.  Islam  made 
its  inroad,  and  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century 
Africa  became,  so  far  as  Europe  was  concerned,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  a  closed  continent.  The  Church, 
however,  never  wholly  forsook  it,  nor  ever  ceased  to 
hope  that  it  would  one  day  be  again  open  to  her. 
According  to  the  letters  of  Pope  Leo  IX  (1049-.54) 
to  the  Bishop  of  Gurnni,  there  were,  even  at  this 
periotl,  three  or  four  Christian  bishoprics  in  the  very 
heart  of  Mussulman  territoiy:  one  at  Carthage,  one 
at  Hippo,  and  tlie  third  at  Constantino.  The  Pope 
wrote:  "Carthage  will  keep  its  canonical  primacy  so 
long  .as  the  name  of  Christ  shall  be  invoked  within 
its  walls,  whether  its  scanty  monuments  lie  in  the 
dust  forever,  as  they  lie  to-day,  or  a  glorious  resur- 
rection shall  one  day  cause  its  ruins  to  rise  again". 
This  seems  almost  a  prophecy  of  the  modern  restora- 
tion of  the  Catliolic  Church  in  Tunis,  achieved  in 
our  day  by  Cardinal  Lavigerie,  under  the  auspices 
of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  The  Crusades  and  the  founda- 
tion of  the  religious  orders — tho.se,  especially,  for 
the  redemption  of  captives — brought  about  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  number  of  little  Cliristian  colonies 
along  the  Mus.-iulman  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Tliere  was  even  a  Christian  bishopric,  first  at  Fez, 
and  then  at  Marrakesh,  in  Morocco  (1223),  which 
lasted  until  the  sixteenth  century,  .\nother  was  es- 
tablished at  Ceuta,  after  its  capture  by  ,John  1,  King 
of  Portugal  (1418).     Catholic  chapels  existed  at  Oran, 


Tlemcen,  Bona,  Bougie,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  etc.;  that 
is  to  say  wherever  the  factories  or  counting-houses 
of  Spanish,  Italian,  or  French  merchants  were  to 
be  found.  The  Trinitarians  alone,  between  the 
date  of  their  foundation  by  St.  John  of  Matha,  in 
1198,  and  the  eighteenth  centurJ^  set  free  nearly 
900,000  slaves,  European  Christians  who  had  been 
taken  by  the  Moors.  Portugal  has  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  soldiers 
of  Mohammed,  and  to  regain  for  Christianity  a  foot- 
hold on  the  African  continent.  The  taking  of  Ceuta, 
followed  by  that  of  Tangier  and  Tetuan,  was  the 
starting-point  for  the  exploration  of  the  coasts. 
Guided  by  the  genius  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navi- 
gator, Portuguese  sailors  passed  Cape  Bogador  (1433), 
reached  the  Rio  de  Ouro  (1442),  doubled  Cape  Verde 
(1444),  and  got  as  far  as  Sierra  Leone.  Wherever 
they  landed  the  discoverers  raised  a  pedras,  or  stone 
boundary-pillar,  and  peopled  the  new  posts  with 
criminals  who  had  been  condemned  to  death.  The 
Equator  was  crossed  in  1471.  Diogo  Cam  discovered 
the  Congo  and  travelled  up  it  for  1,128  miles;  Bar- 
tiiolomew  Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  of  Storms,  and, 
finally,  Vasco  da  Gania,  who  had  sailed  from  Lisbon, 
with  three  caravels  on  8  June,  1497,  and  had  fol- 
lowed the  Mozambique  coast  as  far  as  Malindi, 
reached  the  East  Indies  on  20  May,  1498.  Their 
thscovery  gave  a  great  impulse  to  missions.  Portu- 
guese and  Spaniards,  French  and  Italians,  gave  them- 
selves with  an  admirable  ardour  to  the  work  of  the 
foreign  apostolate.  This  period  witnessed  the  found- 
ing of  the  Bishoprics  of  Las  Palmas  in  the  Canary 
Islands  (1409),  Funchal  in  Madeira  (1514),  Sant' 
lago  at  Cape  Verde;  San  Tliome  and  San  Salvador 
(1498),  afterwards  transferred  to  Loanda.  The  Ca- 
puchins and  Jesuits  did  wonders  in  Angola;  the  Do- 
minicans settled  at  Mozambique,  the  bishopric  of 
which  dates  from  1614;  and  the  Augustinians  took 
Zanzibar,  Mombasa,  and  Pat6  as  their  sphere  of  la- 
bour, where  they  founded  numerous  Christian  com- 
munities. Attempts  were  made  at  the  same  time 
to  discover  the  famous  Prester  John  in  Abyssinia, 
but  it  was  only  in  the  seventeenth  century  and  for 
barely  forty  years,  that  the  Jesuits  were  able  to  es- 
tablish themselves  in  that  coimtry,  with  the  hope, 
soon  destroyed  by  a  violent  persecution,  of  bringing 
back  this  ancient  church  to  Catholicism.  Unfor- 
tunately, however,  evil  days  were  destined  to  blight 
the  fair  promise  of  the  African  missions.  And  just  as 
Protestantism  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury had  brought  about  irreparable  divisions  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  thus  hindered  the  conversion  of  the 
world,  so  now  other  social,  political,  and  religious 
disturbances  were  to  check  for  a  while  the  coloniz- 
ing activities  of  the  European  nations  in  the  countries 
they  had  lately  discovered.  The  sectarian  policy 
of  the  Marquis  de  Pombal,  the  bigotry  of  the  Dutch 
and  English  governments,  and,  lastly,  the  French 
Revolution,  combined  to  disintegrate  the  re- 
ligious orders,  and  at  the  same  time  to  destroy  the 
missions.  But  when  the  storm  was  over,  the  Church 
set  to  work  to  build  up  the  ruins,  to  make  good  the 
harm  done,  to  take  up  once  again  her  forward  march 
on  behalf  of  civilization.  In  Africa  there  were  only 
a  few  priests  and  these  were  at  the  European  trading 
stations:  St.  Louis  in  Senegal,  the  French  island  of 
Gor6e,  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Reunion,  and  M.auritius.  In  1839  M.  de  Ja- 
cobis,  a  priest  of  the  Mission,  with  a  few  of  his  Laza- 
rist  brethren,  had  succeeded  in  entering  Abyssinia, 
and  in  taking  up,  with  many  jirecautions,  the  old 
missions  of  the  Portuguese  Jesuits;  antl  the  Francis- 
cans maintained  such  remnants  of  their  missions  as 
were  left  in  Egypt,  in  Tripoli,  Tunis,  and  Morocco. 
But  while  tlie  powers  of  Europe  were  preparing  to 
make  a  final  division  of  the  .\frican  contment  be- 
tween them,  God  was  making  ready  a  new  apostle 


AFRICA 


IS!) 


AFRICA 


for  the  evangelization  of  Africa.  Tliis  work,  wliiih 
was  to  mark  the  dose  of  the  ninetoentli  century, 
hail  very  lowly  bcf^innings,  and  originated  in  Amer- 
ica. A  philantlirupic  a.ssociation  had  exi.sted  in  the 
United  State.s  since  1817,  wliose  object  was  t«  pro- 
vide a  neutral  territory  in  Africa  for  liberated  negro 
slaves,  where,  under  the  direction  of  llie  missionaries, 
they  miglit  build  up  an  independent  country  for 
themselves.  The  first  exi)eriment  w;is  made  on  Sher- 
bro  Island,  to  tlie  south  of  Sierra  Leone;  this,  how- 
ever, proved  a  failure.  The  undertaking  wxs  re- 
newed in  lH2'.i  with  better  success,  on  a  point  of 
Cape  .Mesurailo,  which  \v;us  calle<l  Monrovia,  in  honour 
of  President  Monroe,  and  which  became  .the  capital 
of  Liberia.  In  ISl'!),  Bishop  llnglaiid,  of  Charleston, 
S.  C,  called  tlie  attention  of  I'ropafjanda  to  the  un- 
dertaking, and  the  Secoiul  Provincial  Synod  of 
Baltimore,  wliich  was  to  meet  shortly  afterwards 
(183;5),  received  authority  to  deal  with  the  matter. 
The  Synod  tlecided  to  apply  to  the  Jesuits,  but  the 
negotiations  were  not  carrieil  through.  The  matter 
Wiis  finally  taken  in  hand  by  Hishop  Kenrick  of 
Philadelphia,  and  at  his  request  his  vicar-general, 
the  Rev.  Kdward  liarron,  was  sent  out,  Decem- 
ber. 1841,  with  tlie  title  of  Prefect  Apostolic  of 
Upper  Guinea,  accompanied  by  the  Rev.  John  Kelly 
and  Denis  Pindar,  a  catecliist,  all  of  Irish  origin. 
These  missionaries  arriveil  at  Monrovia  after  a  voyage 
of  thirty-four  days,  but,  fimling  only  a  lew  Catholics 
among  tlie  emigrants,  proceeded  thence  to  Cape 
Palma.s,  wliere  anotlier  tow-n  was  being  built.  Its 
inhabitants  numbered  about  3,000,  among  whom 
there  were  eighteen  Catholics.  The  Prefect  Apos- 
tolic accordingly  began  his  missionary  labours,  and 
having  visited  Cape  Palma-s,  Elniina,  and  Accra, 
where  he  found  hopeful  traces  of  the  ancient  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  missions,  went  to  Europe  in 
search  of  missionaries,  and  to  ask  help  of  the  Society 
for  tlie  Propagation  of  the  Paith,  which  h;ul  recently 
been  founded  at  Lyons.  Rome  nominated  him  Vicar 
.\postolic  of  the  Two  Ciuineas  and  Sierra  Leone  (22 
January,  1S4J);  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faitli  gave  him  a.ssistance,  and  the  Minister  (ien- 
eral  of  the  Capuchins  promi-seil  him  the  help  of  re- 
ligious from  the  Spanisli  Province,  one  of  whom  w:i.s 
even  named  prefect  apostolic.  Unforeseen  <lelays, 
however,  occurreil,  and  this  last  arrangement  w.as 
not  carried  out.  Barron,  finding  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  mi.ssion  without  missionaries,  went  to 
the  .shrine  of  Our  Laily  of  Victories,  in  Paris,  to 
pray  for  them.  .\t  that  very  time,  the  venerable 
ratlier  M.  P.  Libermann,  superior  of  a  congrega- 
tion recently  founded  for  the  evangelization  of  tlie 
negroes,  had  several  missionaries  at  his  tiisi)osal, 
and  had  come  to  ask  Our  Lady  of  Victories  to  open 
to  him  a  field  of  niissionaiy  labour.  An  agreement 
was  (piickly  matle,  and  it  was  thus  that,  under 
the  leadership  of  a  prelate  from  America,  the  Fathers 
of  the  Holy  (lliost  were  led  to  fake  up  the  missions 
of  the  Dark  Continent.  Not  long  afterwards,  Mgr. 
liarron,  disheartened  by  illness  and  disappointment, 
resignetl,  and  the  Vi(!ariate  Apostolic  ol  the  Two 
(hiineas  W!us  entrusted  to  the  Society  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  .Mary,  which  was  soon  (18-18)  to  amalga- 
mate with  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  (ihost.  This 
vicariate  extended  from  Senegal  to  the  Orange  river, 
with  the  exception  of  the  region,  then  hardly  occu- 
pied, included  in  the  Portuguese  Diocese  of  St.  Paul 
lie  Luanda.  This  v.-ust  coimtry  w;ls  gradually  par- 
titioned out,  and  there  arose  the  present  system  of 
mi.ssions,  prefectures,  and  vicariates  apostolic,  through 
which  the  Catholic  mi.ssions  of  western  Afiica  are 
coniiucteil.  The  Portuguese  Bishopric  of  .\ngola  and 
Congo  hail  been  maintained  at  Loanda,  but  the 
Portuguese  missions,  properly  so  called,  hail  en- 
tirely disappeared,  when  the  daring  initiative  of 
Father   Duparquet,   another  of   the   Fathers  of   the 


Holy  Ghost,  undertook  their  revival.  In  1872  he 
founded  a  permanent  post  at  Landana,  which  has 
become  the  headquarters  of  the  Lower  Congo,  or 
Portuguese  Congo,  Mission.  In  1881,  the  mission 
of  the  Huilla  Plateau  was  started,  which  was  to  ex- 
tend its  sphere  of  action  beyond  the  Cunene;  in 
1884,  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Cimbebasie  included 
Cxssinga,  then  Caconda,  Bihe,  Massaca,  and  Cuan- 
yama,  and  reached  almost  as  far  as  the  basin  of  the 
tipper  Zambesi.  Finally,  in  1887,  a  po.st  was  founded 
in  Loanda  itself,  whence  the  mission  pii.s.sed  to  Ma- 
langa  in  1890,  and,  recently,  along  the  Congo,  in  the 
very  heart  of  the  Lunda  country.  A  vicariate  which 
was  established,  in  IS'Sl.  in  the  Cape  region  to  the 
south,  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  I'^uropean  colony, 
has  also  been  divided,  and  we  now  find  there:  the 
Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Western  Cape  Colony  (1837); 
of  Central  Cape  Colony  (1874),  and  of  Eastern  Cape 
Colony  (1847),  served  l>y  English  priests;  the  Orange 
River  Prefecture,  established  by  the  I'athers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  then  made  over  to  the  Oblates  of 
St.  Francis  of  Sales  at  Troyes,  and  recently  raised  to  a 
\'icariate  (1898);  and  lastly,  the  Prefectures  of  Basu- 
toland  (1894)  and  the  Transvaal  (188());  the  \'icari- 
ates  of  the  (Jrange  Free  State,  now  Orange  River  Col- 
ony (,188ti)  and  xN'atal  (18,30),  .served  by  the  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate.  On  the  East  Coast  the  mission- 
ary movement  had  its  beginning  in  the  Island  of  Bour- 
bon (Reunion).  Two  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
Father  Dalmond  in  1848,  and  Father  Monnet  in 
1849,  who  had  evangelized  the  Saint  Mary  Islands  and 
the  Island  of  Nossi-Bi},  were  named,  one  after  the 
other.  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madagascar.  Death,  how- 
ever, prevented  both  from  settling  on  the  mainlaiul. 
The  mission  was,  therefore,  entrusted,  in  IS.iO.  to  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  In  1852,  the  Capuchin  Fathers  of 
the  Savoy  Province  were  placed  in  charge  of  the 
Seychelles  mission,  which  w;is  made  a  vicariate  in 
1S80.  It  was  from  Bourbon  that  Father  Fava,  one 
of  the  local  clergy,  who  died,  later,  as  Bishop  of 
Grenoble,  set  out  for  Zanzibar  in  1860.  Shortly 
afterwards,  the  Fathei^s  of  the  Holy  Ghost  took 
possession  of  this  East  Coast  and  extended  their 
jurisdiction  from  the  Portuguese  prelature  of  Mozam- 
bique to  Cape  Gardafui,  coming  in  touch  in  the  mys- 
terious interior  of  the  continent  with  the  vaguely- 
delined  boundaries  which  separated  them  from  their 
brethren  of  the  West  Co;ist.  The  work  had  been 
begun,  but  more  missionaries  were  needed  to  prosecute 
it.  These  came,  indeed,  in  greater  numbers  than  men 
had  dared  to  hope.  In  addition  to  the  Oblates  of 
Marj'  Immaculate,  founded  at  Mareeillcs  by  Mgr.  de 
Mazenod,  the  following  should  be  named:  The  Priests 
of  the  African  Missions  at  Lyons,  founded  in  1859 
by  .\lgr.  Marion  de  Brfeilhac,  on  the  lines  of  the 
Alissions  Etrangdres  at  Paris;  the  Missionaries  of 
Our  Lady  of  Africa  in  Algeria,  or  White  Fathers, 
founded  by  the  illustrious  Cardinal  Lavigerie  in  1808, 
and  destined  to  take  an  early  and  brilliant  share  in 
evangelization  of  the  continent;  the  Oblates  of  St. 
Francis  de  Sales,  at  Troyes,  already  mentioned;  the 
Priests  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  at  St.  Quentin,  who  have 
recently  settled  in  the  Congo  Free  State.  The  Society 
of  Jesus,  moreover,  never  vanquished,  was  resuming 
its  old  place  on  the  Dark  Continent,  in  that  same 
colony,  as  also  in  the  Zambesi  b;isin,  and  in  Egypt. 
The  Spanish  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary  had 
long  (since  1855)  been  labouring  in  Fernando  Po  and 
its  deix'iidencies;  the  Belgian  missionaries  of  Schcut- 
lez-Bru.\clles  had  succeeded  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  the  missions  o|)ened  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Congo;  German  missionaries  had  followed  their  coun- 
trj-men  to  Togoland,  the  Kamcruns,  and  Damara- 
land,  in  East  Africa;  the  Italian  Capuchins,  side  by 
side  with  their  French  brethren  among  the  Galkis, 
and  the  Lazarists  in  Abyssinia,  wished  to  take  their 
share  of  missionary  labour  in  the  conquered  passes- 


AFRICA 


190 


AFRICA 


sions  of  King  Humbert  in  Erythraca.  We  should 
adtl,  to  complete  our  list,  that  the  Institute  of  Ve- 
rona, resuming  its  former  undertaking,  has  been  in 
charge  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  since  1872,  and  that 
the  Englisli  missionaries  of  St.  Joseph,  from  Mill  Hill, 
have  received  from  tlie  White  Fathers  the  Vicariate 
of  the  Upper  Nile,  in  Northern  Uganda.  In  a  word, 
the  missionary  movement,  begun  amid  so  many  dif- 
ficulties, has  developed  wonderfully,  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  it  is  comforting  for  the  Catholic  to  see,  at 
the  beginning  of  this  twentieth  century,  the  heroism 
with  which  the  missionaries  are  assailing  the  Dark 
Continent.  In  order  to  give  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  religious  activity  there,  it  will  be  instructive 
to  quote  in  a  single  table  the  various  jurisdictions 
into  which  Catholic  Africa  is  divided,  with  their  dates 
of  establishment  and  the  society  in  charge  of  each. 
The  most  recent  statistics,  which,  unfortunately,  are 
very  far  from  being  exact,  give  a  total  of  300,000 
faithful— 362,177,  according  to  Father  J.  B.  Piolet— 
with  1,064  missionaries.  The  religious  statistics  of 
Africa,  in  1906,  may  be  given  as  follows:  Animists, 
Fetishists,  90,000,000;  Mussulmans,  36,000,000;  Jews 
(including  the  Falashes  of  Ethiopia),  300,000;  other 
non-Christians  (Parsees,  Buddhists,  etc.),  3,000; 
Christians:  Monophysite  Copts  of  Egypt,  150,000; 
Abyssinian  Church,  3,000,000;  Schismatic  Greeks, 
Armenians,  2,000;  Protestants,  400,000;  Catholics, 
360,000;  Total,    130,215,000. 

CATHOLIC  AFRICA 


Cen- 
tury 


1S14 
15.32 
1534 

1534 

1612 

1640 


1765 
181S 


1838 
1838 


TAIexandria  (Coptic; ) 
Patriarchate,  1S95)  [ 
J  Armenian  bishopric  J 
I  Hermopoiis,  Thebes  j 
I  (Coptic  bishoprics,  > 
1 1895)  ) 

Carthage— Tunis  (1884) 
(1859) 


La.'f  Palmas  (Canaries) 
ijeuta  (joined  to  Cadiz) 

Funchal  (Madeira) 

Sao  Thiago  do  Cabo  Verde 

Sao  Thonw^ 

.\ngra  (Azores) 

Mozambique 

Portuguese  Congo  (1865) 

Tripoli 
Fernando-Po  (1855) 

Senegal 

Western  Cape  Colony 

San  Cristobal  de  la  La- 
guna  (Santa  Cruz,  Tene- 
riffe) 

Algiers 


Abyssinia 


Gallas 
Kgyptii 


Eastern  Cape  Colony 
Port-Louis  (Mauritius) 


Madagascar  (Central) 
.Mayotte  Islands,  Nossi- 
W,  Comores 

Saint-Denis  (Reunion) 


Secular      clergy 


Secular      clergy 


(Seeularclergy, 
i  Fathers  of  the 
(  Holy  Ghost 
Secular  clergy 
Society  of  Jesuf 
Fathers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost 

ranciscans 
Sacred  Heart  of 
Mary       (Ba 
lona) 
Fathers   of    the 
Holy  Ghost 
Secular  clergy 


Secular     clergy 

White  Fathers 

Lazarists 

Franciscans 
Fatliers    of    the 
Holy  Ghost 
Capuchin 
Institute  of  Ve- 
rona 

Secular  clergy 
Secular  :;lergy, ) 
Fathers  of  the  } 
Holv  Ghost  ) 
Jesuits 

Fathers    of   the 
Holy  Ghost 
rscciilar  cler-'] 
KV,    Fathers 
of  the  Holy  \ 
l^Ghost  J 


Bishoprics 

Archbishopric 
Prefecture 
Apostolic 
Bishopric 
Ancient 
bishopric 
Bishopric 


Prelature 

nulliua 
Prefecture 
Apostolic 

Vicariate 
Apostolic 

Prefecture 
Apostolic 


Archbishopric 
Vicariate  Ap. 


Bishopric 

Vicariate  Ap. 
Prefecture 
Apostolic 

Bishopric 


Date 
erec 

■on              N^-o 

Clergy 

Title 

1850 

Natal 

Oblates  of  Mary 

Vicariate 
Apostolic 

1858 

Sierra  Leone 

Fathers   of   the 
Holy  Ghost 

1860 

Benin 

African         Mis- 
sions. Lyons 
Fathers    of    the 

" 

1862 

Northern  Zanguebar 

1 

Holy  Ghost 
Fathers    of    the 

1863 

Senegambia 

Holy  Ghost 

1866 

Oran 

Secular  clergy 

Diocese 

1866 

Constantine 

1808 

Sahara  (Ghardaia) 

White    Fathers 

Prefecture 
Apostolic 

1874 

Central  Cape  Colony 

Secular  clergv 

1879 

Upper  Cimbebasia 

Fathers    of    the 
Holy  Ghost 

1879 

Gold  Coast 

African         Mis- 

Vicariate 

sions  of  Lyons 

Apostolic 
Mission 

1879 

Zambesia 

Jesuits 

1880 

Upper  Congo 

White    Fathers 

Vicariate 
ApostoUc 

1882 

Dahomey 

African         Mis- 
sions  of    Lyons 

1883 

Southern  Victoria-Ny- 

White     Fathers 

1884 

Upper  Niger 

African         Mis- 

Prefecture 

.•sions    of    Lyons 

Apostolic 

fOblates    'of^ 

1884 

Orange  River 

St.     Francis 
i  of      Sales       f 
UTroyes)        J 

Vicariate 
Apostolic 

1885 

Delta  of  the  Nile 

African         Mis- 

Prefecture 

sions    of    Lyons 

Apostolic 

1886 

Transvaal 

Oblates  of  Mary 

Orange  Free  State 

Vicariate 
ApostoUc 

Loango 

Fathers    of    the 
Holy  Ghost 

Tanganyika 

White  ^Fathers 

Unyanyembe 

1887 

Southern  Zanguebar 

Bavarian  Bene- 
dictines 

1888 

Congo  Free  State 

Mission            ol 
Scheut 

1889 

Lower  Niger 

Fathers    of   the 

Prefecture 

Holy  Ghost 

Apostolic 

1890 

Kamerun 

Pallotines 

French  Upper  Congo 

Fathers    of    the 

Vicariate 

Holv  Ghost 

Apostolic 

1891 

Sahara  and  Sudan 

White    Fathers 

1892 

Seychelles  (Port  Victoria) 

Capuchins 

Diocese 

Lower  Cimbebasia 

Oblates  of  Mary 

Prefecture 
Apostolic 

" 

Togo 

Foreign         Mis- 
sions of  Steyl 

1892 

Koango 

Jesuits 

Mission 

1894 

Upper  Nile 

Foreign         Mis- 

Vicariate 

sions  of  Mill  Hill 

Apostolic 

Northern   Victoria-Ny- 

White     Fathers 

Erythrtea 

Capuchins  (Ital- 
ians) 

Prefecture 
Apostolic 

Basutoland 

Oblates  of  Mary 

1895 

Ivory  Coast 

African         Mis- 
sions  of   Lyons 

1896 

Southern  Madagascar 

Lazarists 

Vicariate 
Apostolic 

1897 

Nyassa 

White    Fathers 

French  Guinea 

Fathers    of    the 

Prefecture 

Holy  Ghost 

Apostolic 

1898 

Welle 

Primonstrants 

Northern  Madagascar 

Fathers    of   the 

Vicariate 

Holy  Ghost 

Apostolic 

1901 

Upper  Kassai 

Missions           of 

Prefecture 

Scheut 

Apostolic 
Jlission 

Lunda  (Angola) 

Fathers   of   the 

Holy  Ghost 

1903 

Shire 

Company         of 

Prefecture 

Mary 

Apostolic 

Liberia 

.\frican         Mis- 
sions   of    Lyons 

1904 

Bata  (Spanish  Guinea) 

Fathers    of    the 
Holy  Ghost 

Mission 

Stanley  Falls 

Priests     of     the 

Prefecture 

Sacred  Heart 

Apostolic 

Benadir 

Trinitarians 

1905 

Kenya 

Institute  Conso- 

Mission 

1906 

Central  Zanguebar 

Fnthers    of    the 

Vicariate 

Holv  Ghost 

Apostolic 

Ubangi-Shari 

Fathers  of     the 

Prefecture 

Holy  Ghost 

Apostolic 

♦ 


AFRICAN 


191 


AFBIOAN 


RfiSUMfi  OF   DIOCESES  AND  MISSIONS 
IN  1906 


Clcrgjr 

Di.>. 

Vicur- 
latca 
Apo*. 

Prefec- 
ture* 

PreUlurea 

1 

tolic 

Secular    clergy 
1.  Fathers    of    the     Holy 

17 

1 

1 

1 

20 

Ghost   (Paris) 

8 

7 

4  missions 

10 

2.  White  Fathers    (of  Al- 

giers) 

7 

1 

8 

3.  African     Missions     (Ly- 

ons) 

3 

4 

4.  Oblates  of  Mary  (Rome) 

2 

3 

5.  Franciscans  (Itome) 

1 

2 

6.  Capuchins  (Home) 

1 

1 

1 

7.  Jesuits  (Home) 

1 

2  missions 

8.   Lazarists  (I'aris) 

2 

9.  iSons      of      the     Sacred 

Heart    (Verona) 

1 

10.  Fathers    of     the    Heart 

of    Mary    (Scheut-Iez- 

Hruxelles) 

1 

1 

11.  Fathers    of    the    Divine 

Word  (Stcyl) 
12.  Seminary    of    Mill    Hill 

1 

(London) 

1 

13.  Premonstrants  (Tonger- 

loo,  UclK.um) 

I 

14.  Oblates     of     St.    Fran- 

cis of  Sales  (Troyes) 

1 

15.  Priests  of  the  Seminary 

of  St.  guentin  (Rome) 

1 

16.  Pallotine       Missionaries 

(Rome) 

1 

17.  Mi.ssionaries  of  the  Con- 

solata  (Turin) 

1  mission 

18.  Missionaries  of  the  Im- 

maculate    Heart      of 

Mary  (Harcelona) 

1 

19.  Trinitarians 

1 

20.  Bavarian  Denedictines 

1 

21.  Company        of        Mary 
(Blessed      de      Mont- 

fort) 

1 

1 

18 

32 

20 

8 

84 

To  these  Societies  of  missionary  priests  must  be 
added  a  numljer  of  congregations  of  missionary 
brotlicrs  and  sisters.  (See  also  names  of  Princes, 
Sees,  Vicariates  .Vpostolic,  etc.) 

Brown,  Tfic  Story  of  Africa  and  ita  Explorers  (London, 
18U4>;  CusT,  Africa  rediviva  (Ix)ndon,  1891);  Keltie,  The 
Farlition  of  Africa  (London,  1895);  E.  Reclus,  NouielU  bi'o- 
araphic  univemelle—Afrigue  (Paris,  1885-88,  tr.  by  Keane, 
New  York,  1893);  Vivien  ue  St.  Martin  et  Rolsselet, 
Oitl.  de  geographic  universetic,  et  tiuppU-menl  (Paris.  1879-97); 
Le  Roy,  /,.»  Pmmees  (Tours,  1905);  Nahsau,  Fetichitm  in 
Ho/ .l/n'ca  (London.  19041:  Piolkt,  Let  missions  catholit/uea 
Irnnciises  (Pans,  1902);  Bon.nkt-Mmrv,  f.ls!amisme  et  le 
Chnsdtnismc  en  Afriqiui  (Pans.  1900);  Pioi.ct.  Uueslions 
d'Aniititerre  (Paris.  1906);  Werner  et  Groffier.  .4(;<i»  </r» 
Missions  calholioues  (Lyons.  188(1);  Hansen,  Missionskarle 
run  Afrika  (Sleyl.  1903).  Consult  especially  the  official  list  of 
Catholic  missions,  publishe  l^in  Rome  about  every  three  years: 


Missiones  catholictz  curd  S,  C.  de  Propannndil  Fide  descrtpta. 

Ale.\.\ndeij  Le  Roy. 

African  Church,  E.ARLV.^The  name,  Early  African 
Clmrr'li,  is  given  to  the  Christian  communities  in- 
habiting tlio  region  known  politically  as  Roman 
Africa,  and  comprised  geographically  within  the 
following  limits,  namely:  the  Mediterranean  littoral 
Ijetween  Cyren;iica  on  the  cast  and  the  river  .■Vmp- 
saga  (now  the  Riimmel)  on  the  west;  that  part  of 
it  which  faces  the  Atlantic  Ocean  being  called 
Maiiretania.  These  Christian  communities,  appar- 
ently, extended  only  as  far  as  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tangiers  (Tangi).  The  evangelization  of  Africa  fol- 
lowed much  the  same  lines  as  those  traced  by  Roman 
civiliz;ition.  .Starting  from  Carthage,  it  overran 
Proconsular  Africa  and  Numidia,  and  grew  less 
thorough  as  it  drew  near  to  Mauret.ania. 

IIi.STOKV. — The  delimitation  of  the  ecclesia-stical 
boundaries  of  the  .\frican  Church  is  a  matter  of  great 
dilHculty.  .\gain  and  again  the  Roman  political 
authority  rearranged  the  provincial  division.^,  and 
on  various  occasions  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
ronforme<l  the  limits  of  their  respective  jurisdictions 
to  those  of  the  civil  power.  These  limits,  however, 
were  not  only  liable  to  successive  rectification,  but 


in  some  cases  they  were  not  even  clearly  marked. 
Parts  of  Mauretania  always  remained  independent; 
the  mountainous  region  to  the  west  of  the  .\ut& 
(Middle  Atlas),  and  the  plateaux  above  the  Tell 
never  Ijecame  Roman.  The  high  lands  of  the  Sahara 
and  all  the  country  west  of  the  Atlas  range  were  in- 
habited by  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  (letuli,  and  there 
are  neither  churches  nor  definite  ecdesia.stical  or- 
ganizations to  be  found  there.  Christianity  filtered 
in,  so  to  speak,  little  by  little.  Bishoprics  were 
founded  among  the  converts,  as  the  ncetl  for  them 
arose;  were  moved,  possibly,  from  place  to  [ilace,  and 
disappeared,  without  leaving  a  trace  of  their  exist- 
ence. The  historical  period  of  the  African  Church 
begins  in  ISO  with  groups  of  martyrs.  At  a  some- 
what later  tlate  the  writings  of  Tertullian  tell  us  how 
rapidly  African  Christianity  had  grown.  It  had 
passed  the  Roman  military  lines,  and  spread  among 
the  peoples  to  the  south  and  southea.st  of  the  .Aur^. 
About  the  year  200  there  was  a  \iolent  persecution 
at  Carthage  and  in  the  provinces  held  by  the  Ro- 
mans. We  gain  information  as  to  its  various  phases 
from  the  martyrdom  of  St.  I'erpetua  and  the  trea- 
tises of  Tertullian.  Christianity,  however,  did  not 
even  then  cease  to  make  distant  conquests;  Cluis- 
tian  epitaphs  are  to  be  found  at  Aumale,  dated 
227,  and  at  Tipasa,  dated  238.  These  dates  are  as- 
sured. If  we  rely  on  texts  less  definite,  yet  of  great 
value,  we  may  admit  that  the  evangelization  of 
Northern  .Africa  began  very  early.  By  the  oi)ening 
of  the  third  century  there  was  a  large  Christian 
population  in  the  towns  and  even  in  the  country 
districts,  which  included  not  only  the  poor,  but  also 
persons  of  the  highest  rank.  A  council  held  at 
Carthage  about  the  year  220  was  attended  by 
eighteen  bishops  from  the  province  of  Numidia. 
Another  council,  held  in  the  time  of  St.  Cyprian, 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  was  attended 
by  eighty-seven  bishops,  ki  this  period  the  Afri- 
can Church  went  through  a  verj-  grave  crisis.  The 
long  peace  had  caused  the  faithful  to  relax  the  vir- 
tues needed  in  times  of  persecution.  The  Emjjeror 
Decius  published  an  edict,  the  effect  of  which  was 
to  make  m!my  martyrs  and  confessors,  and  not  a 
few  apostates.  A  certain  bishop,  followed  by  his 
whole  community,  was  to  be  seen  sacrificing  to  the 
gods.  The  apostates  (see  Lapsi)  and  the  timid 
who  had  bought  a  certificate  of  apostasy  for  money 
(see  LinEi.LATKi)  became  so  numerous  as  to  fancy 
that  they  could  lay  down  the  law  to  the  Church, 
and  demand  their  restoration  to  ecclesiastical  com- 
munion, a  state  of  affairs  which  gave  rise  to  con- 
troversies and  deplorable  troubles.  Yet  the  Church 
of  Africa  had  martyrs,  even  at  such  a  time.  The 
names  of  St.  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  of  the  martyrs  of 
Massa  Candida,  of  Theogencs  of  Hippo,  Agapius  and 
Secundus  at  Cirta,  of  James,  ,Marianus.  and  others; 
of  Lucian,  .Montanus.  and  their  companions,  showed 
that  there  were  still  brave  and  sincere  Christians  to 
be  found  in  her  fold.  The  persecutions  at  the  end 
of  the  third,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth, 
century  did  not  only  make  martyrs;  they  also  gave 
rise  toa  heresy  which  claimed  that  Christians  could 
deliver  the  sacred  books  and  the  archives  of  the 
Cliurch  to  the  officers  of  the  State,  without  lapsing 
from  the  faith.     (.See  Traditohes.) 

The  accession  of  Constantine  found  the  African 
Church  rent  by  controversies  and  heresies;  Catholics 
and  Donatistsconfended  not  only  in  wordy  warfare, 
but  also  in  a  violent  and  sanguinary  way.  A  law  of 
Constantine  (318)  deprived  the  Donatists  of  their 
churches,  most  of  which  they  had  taken  from  the 
Catholics.  They  had,  howe\er,  grown  so  powerful 
that  even  such  a  measure  failed  to  cnisli  them;  so 
numerous  were  they  that  a  Donatist  Council,  hold 
at  Carthage,  in  327,  was  attended  by  270  bishops. 
Attempts  at  reconciliation,  suggested   by  the   Em- 


AFRICAN 


192 


AFRICAN 


peror  Constantius,  only  widened  the  breach,  and  led 
to  armed  repression,  an  ever-growing  disquiet,  and 
an  enmity  that  became  more  and  more  embittered. 
Vet,  in  the  very  midst  of  these  troubles,  the  Primate 
of  Carthage,  Gratus,  declared  (in  the  year  349): 
"God  has  restored  Africa  to  religious  unity."  Ju- 
lian's accession  (3G1)  and  his  permission  to  all 
religious  exiles  to  return  to  their  homes  added  to 
the  troubles  of  the  African  Church.  A  Donatist 
l)ishop  sat  in  the  heretical  see  of  Carthage,  in  op- 
position to  the  orthodox  bishop.  One  act  of  vio- 
lence followed  another  and  begot  new  conflicts. 
About  this  period,  Optatus,  Bishop  of  Milevi,  began 
to  combat  the  sect  by  his  writings.  A  few  years 
later,  St.  Augustine  (q.  v.),  converted  at  Milan,  re- 
turned to  his  native  land,  and  entered  the  lists 
against  every  kind  of  error.  Paganism  had  by  that 
time  ceased  to  be  a  menace;  in  399  the  temples 
were  closed  at  Carthage.  Nevertheless  the  energy 
and  genius  of  .-Vugustine  were  abundantly  occupied 
in  training  the  clergy  and  instructing  the  faithful,  as 
well  as  in  theological  controversy  with  the  heretics. 
For  forty  years,  from  390  to  430,  the  Councils  of 
Carthage  (see  .\fric-\n  Synods),  which  reunited  a 
great  part  of  the  African  Episcopate,  public  discus- 
sions with  the  Donatists,  sermons,  homilies,  scriptural 
conmientaries,  followed  almost  without  interval;  an 
unparalleled  activity  which  had  commensurate  re- 
sults. The  Pelagian  heresy,  which  had  made  great 
strides  in  Africa,  was  condemned  at  the  Council  of 
Cartilage  in  412.  Donatisra,  also,  and  Semi-Pela- 
gianism  (see  DoN-\tism,  PEL.\Gi.\Nisir)  were  stricken 
to  death  at  an  hour  when  political  events  of  the 
utmost  gravity  changed  the  history  and  the  destiny 
of  the  African  Church.  Boniface,  Count  of  Africa, 
had  summoned  the  Vandals  to  Africa  in  426,  and 
by  429  the  invasion  was  completed  The  barbari- 
ans advanced  rapidly,  and  made  themselves  masters 
of  cities  and  provinces.  In  430  St.  Augustine  died, 
during  the  siege  of  Hippo;  nine  years  later  Geiserich, 
King  of  the  Vandals,  took  possession  of  Carthage. 
Then  began  for  the  African  Church  an  era  of  per- 
secution of  a  kind  hitherto  vmknown.  The  Van- 
dals were  Arians  and  sectaries.  Not  only  did  they 
w-ish  to  establish  their  own  Arian  sect,  but  they 
were  bent  on  the  destruction  of  Catholicism. 
The  churches  which  the  invasion  had  left  stand- 
ing were  either  transferred  to  the  Arians  or  with- 
drawn from  the  Catholics  and  closed  to  public 
worship.  The  intervention  of  the  Emperor  Zeno 
(474-491)  and  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  peace 
with  Geiserich,  were  followed  by  a  transient  calm. 
The  churches  were  opened,  and  the  Catholics  were 
allowed  to  choose  a  bishop  (476),  but  the  death  of 
Geiserich,  and  the  edict  of  Ilunnerich,  in  4S4,  made 
matters  worse  than  before.  A  contemporary  writer, 
Victor  of  Vita  (q.  v.),  has  told  us  what  we  know  of 
this  long  history  of  the  Vandal  persecution.  Even 
in  such  a  condition  of  peril,  the  Christians  of  Africa 
were  far  from  showing  those  virtues  which  might 
1)0  looked  for  in  a  time  of  persecution.  It  is  trvie  that 
Salvius  of  Marseilles  (q.  v.)  is  prone  to  exaggeration 
in  all  that  he  says,  but  he  gives  us  a  most  deplorable, 
and  not  wholly  inaccm-ate,  accomit  of  the  crimes  of 
all  kinds  which  made  Africa  one  of  the  most  wretched 
provinces  in  the  world.  Nor  had  the  Vandals  es- 
caped the  effects  of  this  moral  corruption,  which 
slowly  destroyed  their  power  and  evcntiially  ef- 
fected their  ruin.  During  the  last  years  of  Vandal 
rule  in  .\fnca,  .St.  Fulgentius  (q.  v.).  Bishop  of 
Uuspe,  exercised  a  fortunate  influence  o\er  the 
princes  of  the  dynasty,  who  were  no  longer  ignorant 
barbarians,  but  whose  culture,  wholly  Roman  and 
Byzantine,  equalled  that  of  their  native  subjects. 
Vet  the  Vandal  monarchy,  which  had  lasted  for 
nearly  a  century,  seemed  less  firmly  establislied  than 
at  its  beginning.     Hildcrich,  who  succeedeil  Tlirasa- 


mond  in  523,  was  too  cultured  and  too  mild  a  prince 
to  impose  his  will  on  others.  Gilimer  made  an  at- 
tempt to  deprive  him  of  power,  and,  proclaimed 
King  of  the  Vandals  in  531,  marched  on  Carthage 
and  dethroned  Hilderich.  His  cause  appeared  to  be 
completely  successful,  and  his  authority  firmly  es- 
tablished, when  a  Byzantine  fleet  appeared  off  the 
coast  of  Africa.  The  naval  battle  of  Decimum 
(13  September,  533)  destroyed,  in  a  few  hours,  the  sea- 
power  of  the  Vandals.  The  landing  of  the  Byzantine 
army,  the  taking  of  Carthage,  the  flight  of  Gilimer, 
and  the  battle  of  Tricamarum,  about  the  middle  of 
December,  completed  their  destruction  and  their  dis- 
appearance. 

The  victor,  Belisarius,  had  but  to  show  liim- 
self  in  order  to  reconquer  the  greater  part  of 
the  coast,  and  to  place  the  cities  under  the  au- 
thority of  the  Emperor  Justinian.  A  council  held 
at  Carthage  in  534  was  attended  by  220  bishops, 
representing  all  the  churches.  It  issued  a  decree 
forbidding  the  public  exercise  of  Arian  worship. 
The  establishment  of  Byzantine  rule,  however,  was 
far  from  restoring  unity  to  the  African  Church.  The 
Councils  of  Carthage  brought  together  the  bishops 
of  Proconsular  Africa,  Byzacena,  and  Numidia,  but 
those  of  Tripolitana  and  Mauretania  were  absent. 
Mauretania  had,  in  fact,  regained  its  political  auton- 
omy, during  the  Vandal  period.  A  native  dynasty 
had  been  set  up,  and  the  Byzantine  army  of  occu- 
pation never  succeeded  in  conquering  a  part  of  the 
country  so  far  from  their  base  at  Carthage. 

The  reign  of  Justinian  marks  a  sad  period  in  the 
history  of  the  African  Church,  due  to  the  part  taken 
by  the  clergy  in  the  matter  known  as  that  of  the 
Tria  Capiliila  (See  Three  Chapters).  While  one 
part  of  the  episcopate  wasted  its  time  and  energies 
in  fruitless  theological  discussions,  others  failed  of 
their  duty.  It  was  under  these  circumstances  that 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great  sent  men  to  Africa,  whose 
lofty  character  contributed  greatly  to  increase  the 
prestige  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  notary  Hilarus 
became  in  some  sense  a  papal  legate  with  authority 
over  the  African  bishops.  He  left  them  in  no  doubt 
as  to  their  duty,  instructed  or  reprimanded  them, 
and  summoned  councils  in  the  Pope's  name.  With 
the  help  of  the  metropolitan  of  Carthage,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  restoring  unity,  peace,  and  ecclesiastical 
discipline  in  the  African  Church,  which  drew  strength 
from  so  fortunate  a  change  even  so  surely  as  the 
See  of  Rome  gained  in  respect  and  authority.  Tliis 
renewal  of  vigour,  however,  was  not  of  long  dura- 
tion. The  Arabs,  who  had  conquered  Egypt,  made 
their  way  into  Africa.  In  642  they  occupied  Barca 
and  Cyrenaica;  in  643  they  conquered  part  of  the 
Tripolitana.  In  647  the  Caliph  Othman  gave  orders 
for  a  direct  attack  on  Africa,  and  an  army  which  had 
gained  a  victory  at  Sbeitla  withdrew  on  payment  of 
a  large  ransom.  Some  years  of  respite  ensued.  The 
African  Church  showed  its  firm  attachment  to 
orthodoxy  by  remaining  loyal  to  Pope  Martin  1  (649- 
655)  in  his  conflict  with  the  Emperor  of  Byzantium. 
The  last  forty  years  of  the  seventh  century  witnessed 
the  gradual  fall  of  the  fragments  of  Byzantine  Africa 
into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs.  The  Berber,  or  native 
tribes,  which  before  this  had  seemed  on  the  way  to 
conversion  to  the  Gospel,  passed  in  a  short  time, 
and  without  resistance,  to  Islam.  Carthage  (q.  v.) 
was  taken  by  the  Arabs  in  695.  Two  years  later  it 
was  re-entered  by  the  Patrician  John,  but  only  for 
a  brief  period;  in' 698  Hassan  once  more  took  posses- 
sion of  the  capital  of  Northern  .\frica.  In  this  over- 
whelming disaster  of  the  .\rab  invasion  the  Churches 
of  Africa  were  blotted  out.  Not  that  all  was  de- 
stroyed, but  that  tlie  remnant  of  Christian  life  was 
so  small  as  to  be  matter  for  erudition  rather  than 
for  history. 

ClIKISTl.W    LlTEU.\TUHE    OP    Afric.\. — The    occle' 


laiNS   OF  'IIMC  \i) 


ll 


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193 


AFRICAN 


siastical  literature  of  Christian  Africa  is  the  most 
important  of  Latin  C'liristian  literatures.  The  first 
name  which  presents  itself  is  that  of  TertuUian  (q.  v.), 
an  admirable  writer,  much  of  whose  work  we  still 
possess,  notwithstanding  the  tacunic  due  to  lost  writ- 
mgs.  Such  works  as  the  "Passio  S.  Perpetua;"  have 
been  attributed  to  him,  but  the  great  apologist  stands 
so  complete  that  he  liiis  no  need  to  borrow  from 
others.  Not  that  TertuUian  is  alwaj's  remarkable 
for  style,  ideas,  and  theology,  but  he  has  furnished 
matter  for  very  suggestive  studies.  His  style,  in- 
deed, is  often  exaggerated,  but  his  faults  are  those 
of  a  period  not  far  removed  from  the  great  age  of 
Latin  literature.  Xor  are  all  his  ideas  alike  novel 
and  original,  so  that  what  seems  actually  to  be  his 
own  gain.-i  in  importance  on  that  very  account.  In 
contradistinction  to  the  apologists  of,  and  before, 
his  time,  TertuUian  refused  to  make  Christian 
apologetics  merely  defensive;  he  appealed  to  the  law 
of  the  Empire,  claimed  the  right  to  social  existence, 
and  took  the  olTensivc.  His  theology  is  sometimes 
daring,  and  even  inaccurate;  his  morality  inad- 
missible through  verj' excess.  Some  of  the  treatises 
which  have  come  down  to  us  were  written  after  he 
had  become  separated  from  the  Church;  yet,  what- 
ever verdict  may  be  passed  upon  this  great  man, 
his  works  remain  among  the  most  valuable  of  Chris- 
tian antiquity.  The  lawyer,  Minucius  Kelix,  has 
shown  so  much  literary  skill  in  his  short  treatises 
of  a  few  pages  that  he  has  deservedly  attained  to 
fame.  The  correspondence,  treatises,  and  sermons 
of  St.  Cyprian  (q.  v.),  Bishop  of  Carthage,  belong 
approximately  to  the  middle  of  the  third  centuiy, 
the  correspondence  f(jrming  one  of  the  most  valuable 
sources  for  the  history  of  Christianity  in  Africa  and 
the  West  during  his  time.  His  relations  with  the 
Church  of  Rome,  the  councils  of  Carthage,  his  end- 
less disputes  with  the  African  bi.shops,  take  the  place, 
to  some  extent,  of  the  lost  documents  of  the  period. 
St.  Cyprian,  indeed,  although  an  orator  before  he 
became  a  bishop,  is  not  TertuUian's  equal  in  the 
matter  of  style.  His  treatises  are  well  composed,  and 
written  with  art;  they  do  not,  however,  contain  that 
inexhaustible  abundance  of  views  and  perspectives 
which  are  the  sole  privilege  of  certain  very  lofty 
minds.  Arnobius,  the  autlior  of  an  apology  for 
Christianity,  is  of  a  secondary  interest;  Lactantius 
(q.  v.),  more  cultured  and  more  literary,  only  be- 
longs to  Africa  by  reason  of  the  richness  of  his  genius. 
The  peculiar  bent  of  his  talent  is  purely  Ciceronian, 
nor  was  he  trained  in  the  schools  of  his  native  land. 
Among  these,  each  of  whom  has  his  name  and  place, 
there  moved  others,  almost  unknown,  or  hidden 
under  an  imjHjnetrable  anonymousne.ss.  Writings 
collected  among  the  Spuria  of  Latin  literature  have 
been  sometimes  attributed  to  TertuUian,  sometimes 
to  St.  Cyprian,  or  even  to  Pope  Victor,  the  con- 
tcmporarj-  of  the  Kmperor  Commodus;  they  need  not, 
however,  detain  us  here.  Other  authors,  again,  such 
as  Maximius  of  Madaura  and  Victorinus,  stand,  with 
Optatus  of  Milevi,  in  the  front  rank  of  African 
literature  in  the  fourth  centurj',  before  the  appear- 
ance of  St.  Augustine. 

The  literary  labours  of  St.  Augustine  are  so  closely 
connected  with  his  work  as  a  bishop,  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult, at  the  present  time,  to  separate  one  from  the 
other.  He  wrote  not  for  the  sake  of  writing,  but 
for  the  sake  of  doing.  From  the  year  3SG  onward, 
his  treatises  appeared  evcrj-  year.  Such  profuseness 
is  often  detrimental  to  their  literary  worth;  but 
what  is  more  injurious,  however,  wjis  his  own  care- 
lessness concerning  lK>auty  of  form,  of  which  he  hardly 
ever  seems  to  think  in  his  solicitude  about  other 
things.  His  one  aim  above  all  el.se  is  to  ensure 
conviction;  the  result  is  that  we  owe  to  the  mere 
splendour  of  his  genius  the  few  Ixsiutiful  passages 
which  have  fallen  from  his  pen.     It  is  to  the  loftiness 


of  his  thought,  rather  tlian  to  the  culture  of  his 
mind,  that  we  owe  certain  pages  which  are  admirable, 
but  not  perfect.  The  language  of  Augustine  waa 
Latin  indeed,  but  a  Latin  that  had  already  entered 
on  its  decline.  His  desire  was  to  be  understood, 
not  to  be  admired,  which  explains  the  shortcomings 
of  his  work  in  respect  of  style.  But  when  from  his 
style  we  pass  to  his  thoughts,  we  may  admire  almost 
unreservedly.  Even  hero  we  find  occasional  traces 
of  bad  ta.ste,  but  it  is  the  taste  of  his  period:  florid, 
fond  of  glitter,  puns,  refinements — in  a  word,  of  the 
weaknesses  of  contemporary  Latin.  Of  all  St.  Au- 
gustine's vast  labours  those  which  hold  the  first 
place,  as  they  hold  one  of  the  first  among  Christian 
writings,  are:  The  "Confessions,"  the  "City  of  God,'' 
and  the  "Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John." 
As  regards  theology,  his  works  gave  Christianity  an 
impulse  the  effect  of  which  was  felt  for  centuries; 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  supplied  him  with  matter 
for  the  most  finished  exposition  to  be  found  among 
the  works  of  the  Doctors  of  the  Church.  Other 
writers,  theologians,  poets,  or  historians,  are  to  be 
met  with  after  .St.  Augustine's  time,  but  their  names, 
lionourable  as  they  are,  cannot  compare  in  fame 
with  the  great  ones  which  we  have  recorded  as  be- 
longing to  the  third  and  fourth  centuries.  The 
endeavour  of  St.  Fulgentius,  Bishop  of  Kuspe,  is  to 
think  and  write  as  a  faithful  disciple  of  St.  Augus- 
tine. Dracontius,  a  meritorious  poet,  lacks  eleva- 
tion; only  an  occasional  line  deserves  a  place  among 
the  poetrj-  which  does  not  die.  Victor  of  Vita,  an 
impetuous  historian,  makes  us  sometimes  wish,  in 
presence  of  his  too  literary  descriptions,  for  the 
monotonous  simplicity  of  the  chronicles,  with  their 
rigorous  exactness.  In  the  theological  or  historical 
wTitings  of  I'acundus  of  Hermiane,  Verecundus,  and 
Victor  of  Tunmmum,  may  be  found  bursts  of  passion 
not  wholly  without  merit  from  a  literarj'  standpoint, 
but  which  not  seldom  leave  us  doubtful  as  to  the 
historical  accurary  of  their  narratives  or  their  remin- 
iscences. 

The  WTitings  of  African  authors,  e.  g.  TertuUian 
and  St.  Augustine,  are  full  of  quotations  drawn  from 
the  Sacred  Scriptures.  These  fragmentary  texts  are 
among  the  most  ancient  witnesses  to  the  Latin  Bil:)le, 
and  are  of  great  importance. not  only  in  connection 
with  the  formation  of  the  style  and  vocabulary  of  the 
Christian  writers  of  Africa,  but  also  in  regard  to  the 
c-stablishment  of  the  biblical  text.  Africa  is  repre- 
sented at  the  present  day  by  a  group  of  te.xts  in 
which  is  preserved  a  version  commonly  known  as 
the  "African  Version"  of  the  Xew  Testament.  It 
may  now  be  taken  as  certain  tliat  there  never  existed 
in  early  Christian  Africa  an  official  Latin  text  known 
to  all  the  Churches,  or  used  by  the  faithful  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others.  The  African  bishops  will- 
ingly allowed  corrections  to  be  made  in  a  copy  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  or  even  a  reference,  when  nec- 
essary, to  the  Greek  text.  With  some  exceptions, 
it  was  the  Scptuagint  text  that  prevailed,  for  the 
Old  Testament,  until  the  fourth  century.  In  the 
case  of  the  Xew,  the  MSS.  were  of  the  western  type. 
(.See  Bini.E,  Canon-.)  On  this  basis  there  arose  a 
variety  of  translations  and  interpretations.  This 
well-established  fact  as  to  the  existence  of  a  number 
of  versions  of  the  Bible  of  Africa  docs  not  implv, 
however,  that  there  was  no  one  version  more  widely 
used  and  more  generally  received  than  the  rest, 
i.  e.  the  version  which  is  found  nearly  complete  in 
the  works  of  St.  Cj'prian.  Yet  even  this  version  w;is 
not  without  rivals.  Apart  from  the  discrepancies 
to  be  foimd  in  two  quotations  of  the  same  text  in 
the  works  of  two  different  authors,  and  sometimes  of 
the  same  author,  Ave  now  know  that  of  several  books 
of  Scripture  there  were  versions  wholly  inde|X'ndcnt 
of  each  other.  Xo  fewer  than  three  different  versions 
of  Daniel  are  to  be  found  in  use  in  Africa  during  the 


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tliird  century;  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  the 
Donatist  I'ychonius  uses  and  collates  two  versions 
of  the  Apocalypse. 

Liturgy. — Tlie  liturgy  of  the  African  Church  is 
Ivnown  to  us  from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  but 
there  exists  no  complete  work,  no  liturgical  book, 
belonging  to  it.  The  writings  of  TertuUian,  of 
St.  Cyprian,  of  St.  Augustine  are  full  of  valuable 
indications  which  permit  us  to  conclude  that  the 
liturgy  of  Africa  presented  many  and  characteristic 
points  of  contact  with  the  liturgy  of  the  Roman 
("hurch.  The  liturgical  year  comprised  the  feasts 
in  lionour  of  Our  Lord  and  a  great  number  of  feasts 
of  martyrs,  which  are  offset  by  certain  days  of 
penance.  Africa,  howe\'er,  does  not  seem  to  have 
conformed  rigorously,  in  this  matter,  with  what 
was  elsewhere  customary.  The  station  days  (q.  v.), 
Wednesday  and  Friday,  were  not  of  universal  ob- 
servance; they  are  e\en  spoken  of,  at  times,  as 
rigours  suitable  to  the  Montanist  sect.  The  fast  of 
these  days  was  not  continued  beyond  the  third  hour 
after  noon.  Easter  in  the  African  Church  had  the 
same  character  as  in  other  Churches;  it  continued 
to  draw  a  part  of  the  year  into  its  orbit  by  fixing 
the  date  of  Lent  and  of  the  Paschal  season,  while 
Pentecost  and  the  Ascension  likewise  gravitated 
around  it.  Christmas  and  the  Epiphany  were  kept 
clearly  apart,  and  had  fixed  dates.  The  cultus  of 
the  martjTS  is  not  always  to  be  distinguished  from 
that  of  the  dead,  and  it  is  only  by  degrees  that  the 
line  was  drawn  between  the  martyrs  who  were  to 
be  invoked  and  the  dead  who  were  to  be  prayed 
for.  The  prayer  (petition)  for  a  place  of  refresh- 
ment, rejrigerium,  bears  witness  to  tlie  belief  of  an 
interchange  of  help  between  the  living  and  the  de- 
parted. In  addition,  moreover,  to  tlie  prayer  for 
the  dead,  we  find  in  Africa  the  prayer  for  certain 
classes  of  the  living.     (See  African  Liturgy.) 

Dialects. — Several  languages  were  used  simul- 
taneously by  the  people  of  Africa;  the  northern  part 
seems  at  first  to  have  been  a  Latin-speaking 
country.  Indeed,  previous  to,  and  during  the  first 
centuries  of,  our  era  we  find  there  a  flourishing  Latin 
literature,  many  schools,  and  famous  rhetoricians. 
However,  Greek  was  currently  spoken  at  Carthage 
in  the  second  century;  some  of  Tertullian's  treatises 
were  written  also  in  Greek.  The  steady  advance  of 
Roman  civilization  caused  the  neglect  and  abandon- 
ment of  that  tongue.  At  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  an  African,  chosen  at  random,  would  have 
expressed  himself  more  easily  in  Greek  than  in 
Latin;  two  hundred  years  later,  St.  Augustine  and 
the  poet  Dracontius  had  at  best  but  a  .sliglit  knowl- 
edge of  Greek.  As  to  local  dialects,  we  know  little. 
No  work  of  Christian  literature  written  in  Punic 
has  come  down  to  us,  though  there  can  be  no  doubt 
but  that  the  clergy  and  faithful  used  a  language 
much  spoken  in  Carthage  and  in  the  coast  towns  of 
the  Proconsular  Province.  The  lower  and  middle 
classes  spoke  Punic,  and  the  Circumcellion  (q.  v.) 
heretics  were  to  be  among  the  last  of  its  defenders. 
The  Christian  writers  almost  wholly  ignore  the  native 
Libyan,  or  Berber,  dialect.  St.  Augustine,  indeed, 
tells  us  that  this  speech  was  only  in  use  among  the 
nomad  tribes. 

I.Fcr.KncQ,  h'AJTique  chrdienne  (Paris,  1904);  Idem.,  in 
the  Diet,  d'archiol.  chTit.  el  de  lit.,  I,  576-775. 

H.  Leclercq. 

African  Liturgy. — This  liturgy  was  in  use  not 
only  in  the  old  Roman  province  of  Africa  of  which 
Carthage  was  the  capital,  but  also  in  Numidia  and 
Mauretania;  in  fact,  in  all  of  Northern  Africa  from 
the  borders  of  Egypt  west  to  tlie  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  procon.sular  Africa 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century,  probably  by 
missionaries  from  Rome,  and  then  spread  rapidly 
through  the  other  African  provinces.     The  language 


of  the  liturgy  was  Latin,  modified  somewhat  by  the 
introduction  of  many  Africanisms.  It  is  probably 
the  oldest  Latin  liturgy,  since  it  had  been  in  use  long 
before  the  Roman  Cliurcii  clianged  her  official  lan- 
guage from  the  Greek  to  the  Latin  idiom.  A  study 
of  the  African  liturgy  might  thus  be  very  useful  to 
trace  the  origin  anil  development  of  the  different 
rites,  and  to  determine  what  influence  one  rite  had 
upon  another.  Since  tlie  African  Church  was  always 
dependent  upon  Rome,  always  devoted  to  the  See 
of  St.  Peter,  and  since  there  was  constant  communi- 
cation between  Africa  and  Rome  concerning  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  it  may  easily  be  supposed  that  liturgi- 
cal questions  were  raised,  different  customs  discussed, 
and  possibly  the  customs  or  formulas  of  one  church 
adopted  by  the  other.  At  a  later  date  the  African 
liturgy  would  seem  to  have  exercised  some  influence 
upon  the  Mozarabic  and  Gallican  hturgies.  The 
great  similarity  in  .some  of  the  phraseology,  etc., 
would  show  a  common  origin  or  a  mutual  dependence 
of  the  liturgies.  The  African  liturgy  may  be  con- 
sidered in  two  difTerent  periods:  the  ante-Nicene 
period,  when  the  Churcli  was  suffering  persecution 
and  could  not  freely  develop  the  forms  uf  public 
worsliip,  and  when  the  Uturgical  prayers  and  acts 
had  not  become  fixed;  and  the  post-Nicene  period, 
when  the  simple,  improvised  forms  of  prayer  gave 
way  to  more  elaborate,  set  formularies,  and  tlie  primi- 
tive liturgical  actions  evolved  into  grand  and  formal 
ceremonies. 

I.  Ante-Nicene  Period. — It  is  a  difficult  matter 
to  reconstruct  the  ancient  African  liturgy  since  there 
are  so  few  available  data;  lor  instance,  owing  to  the 
ravages  of  time  and  of  the  Saracens,  no  hturgical 
codices  now  survive;  in  the  works  of  the  early 
Fathers  or  ecclesiastical  writers,  and  in  the  acts  of 
the  councils  there  are  but  few  quotations  from  the 
liturgical  books,  and  not  many  references  to  the 
words  or  ceremonies  of  the  hturgy.  In  the  first,  or 
ante-Nicene  period,  it  may  be  said  there  were  only 
two  writers  who  furnish  useful  information  on  the 
subject — TertuUian  and  St.  Cyprian.  The  writings 
of  TertuUian  are  especially  rich  in  descriptions  of 
ecclesiastical  customs,  or  in  clear  allusions  to  existing 
rites  and  usages.  Some  additional  information 
may  be  gained  from  the  acts  of  the  early  martyrs, 
e.  g.  the  Acts  of  St.  Perpetua  and  St,  FeUcitas, 
which  are  quite  authentic  and  authoritative.  Fi- 
nally, the  inscriptions  on  Christian  monuments 
give  much  confirmatory  evidence  on  the  beliefs  and 
practices  of  the  time.  From  these  various  sources 
one  may  learn  some  of  the  customs  which  were 
peculiar  to  the  African  Cliurch,  and  what  formu- 
laries and  ceremonies  were  common  to  all  the  Western 
churches.  The  prayers  of  the  Christians  were  either 
private  or  liturgical.  Privately  they  prayed  every 
morning  and  evening,  and  many  of  them  prayed 
frequently  during  the  day;  for  example,  at  the  third, 
sixth,  and  ninth  hours,  before  meals,  and  before 
undertaking  any  imusual  work  or  enterprise.  The 
liturgical  prayers  were  said  chiefly  during  the  re- 
unions of  the  faithful  to  observe  the  vigils,  or  to  cele- 
brate the  agape  and  the-  Holy  Eucharist.  These 
Christian  assemblies  in  Africa  seem  to  have  been 
modelled  on  the  same  plan  as  those  in  other  countries. 
They  imitated,  in  a  certain  measure,  the  services  of 
the  Jewish  synagogue,  adding  thereto  tlie  Eucharistic 
sacrifice  and  some  institutions  peculiar  to  Christi- 
anity. In  these  reunions  three  elements  are  easily 
di.stiiiguishahle:  psalmody,  the  reading  of  passages 
from  tlie  OKI  and  New  Testaments,  and  prayer,  to 
which  a  lioniily  on  the  Scripture  was  generally  added. 
Such  meetings  were  sometimes  distinct  from  the 
Mass,  but  sometimes  tliey  formed  a  preparation  for 
the  celebration  of  the  divine  mysteries.  The  elders 
of  the  Churcli  presided  over  the  assembly,  instruc- 
tions and  exhortations  were  given,  prayers  recited 


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for  the  needs  of  tlic  C'luirdi,  the  necessities  of  the 
brethren  were  consiilered  and  proviileil  for,  and 
various  business  pertaining  to  the  Cliristian  com- 
munity was  transacted;  and  finally,  the  agape  was 
celebrated  as  a  fitting  conclusion  to  a  reunion  of 
the  disciples  of  Christ.  The  agape  seems  to  liave 
been  celebrated  in  Africa  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
other  countries,  and  to  have  degenerated  into  an 
abuse  to  be  suppressed  here,  as  well  as  elsewhere. 

These  liturgical  meetings  generally  took  place  at 
night,  or  just  before  dawn,  and  hence  TertuUian 
speaks  of  sucli  an  assembly  as  a  calux  anhlucanu.i, 
a  " meeting  before  the  dawn"  (.\pol.,  ii),  while  others 
speak  of  it  as  a  vigil.  Po.ssibiy  the  hour  was  chosen 
to  commemorate  the  time  of  the  RcsurnH-tion  of  the 
Lord,  or  perhaps  it  was  selected  to  enable  the  C'liri.s- 
tians  in  times  of  persecution  to  evade  their  perse- 
cutors. The  true  Christian  liturgy,  in  a  strict  sen.so 
of  the  word,  is  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Kucharist, 
the  sacrifice  of  the  New  Law.  This  generally  followed 
the  long  prayers  of  a  vigil,  and  even  to-tiay  some 
traces  of  tlie  vigil  survive,  since  a  similarity  may 
easily  be  noticed  between  the  prayers  for  the  ancient 
vigils,  antl  the  first,  or  preparatory  part  of  the  Mass; 
or  perhaps  even  more  clearly  in  the  first  part  of  the 
Masses  for  the  I'Imber  days,  or  the  Mass  of  the  Pre- 
sanctified  on  Good  I'riday.  Thus  the  Holy  ICucharist 
was  celebrated  very  early  in  the  morning  ordinarily, 
and  the  regular  <lay  chosen  for  assisting  at  the  sacri- 
fuf  and  partaking  of  Holy  Communion  was  the  Sun- 
day, in  coMunemoration  of  tlie  Resurrection  of  Christ. 
The  Sabbath  was  not  observed  by  the  Christians  in 
the  Jewish  sense,  and  the  Jewish  festivals  were  also 
abandoned,  as  is  evident  from  the  words  of  Ter- 
tuUian (De  idolatria,  xiv),  s|)eaking  of  the  observance 
of  festivals  by  Christians,  "  to  whom  Sabbaths  are 
strange,  and  the  new-moons  and  festivals  formerly 
beloved  by  Ood".  The  Sunday  was  now  the  Lord's 
day,  a  day  of  rejoicing,  on  which  it  was  forbidden  to 
fast  and  to  pray  in  a  kneeling  posture.  "'  We  count 
fasting  or  kneeling  in  worship  on  the  Lord's  day  to 
be  unlawful".     (Tert.,  De  corona,  iii.) 

When  Sunday  wivs  thus  kept  in  honour  of  the 
Resurrection  it  was  only  natural  that  Friday  should 
be  considered  the  approi)riale  <lay  for  conunemorating 
the  pa.ssion  and  ilcath  of  Christ,  and  lience  the  early 
Christians  met  for  prayer  on  Friday.  Tliere  was  al.so 
a  reunion  on  Weunesdays,  whose  origin  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  accounted  for.  The  Weiliiesday  and 
Friday  meetings  were  known  to  TertuUian  by  the 
name  of  stations  {stationes).  In  Africa  it  appears 
to  have  been  the  custom  to  celebrate  the  floly 
Eucharist  on  station  days,  although  it  does  not  .seem 
to  have  been  the  practice  in  other  churches.  Every- 
where these  were  days  of  fasting,  but  as  the  fast  lasted 
only  until  the  ninth  hour,  the  liturgy  would  be 
celebrated  and  communion  distributed  about  that 
time  in  the  afternoon.  Of  all  the  Sundays,  the  feast 
of  Easter  was  the  greatest,  and  was  celebrated  with 
special  solemnity.     Good  Friday,  called  by  TertuUian 

Pascha",  was  a  day  of  strict  fast,  which  was  pro- 
longed through  Holy  Saturday.  This  latter  day  was 
only  a  day  for  the  preparation  for  the  fea.st  of  Easter; 
but  still  it  was  the  most  .solenm  vigil  during  the  year, 
and  the  one  on  which  all  the  vigils  were  modelled. 
Holy  Saturday  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any  special 
liturgical  .service  assigned,  the  present  service  Wing 
the  ancient  Easter  vigil  anticipated.  Possibly  the 
vigil  of  ICaster  was  obser\'eil  .so  .solemnly  on  account 
of  the  tradition  that  the  Lord  would  return  to  judge 
the  work!  on  the  feast  of  Ea.ster,  and  the  early 
Christians  hoped  He  would  find  them  watching. 
Easter  in  Tertullian's  time  was  followed  by  a  period 
of  fifty  days'  rejoicing  until  Pentecost,  which  was 
considered  as  the  clo.sc  of  the  Easter  sea.son  rather 
than  as  a  solemn  feast  with  a  special  significance. 
In  the  third  century  Lent,  as  a  period  of  forty  days' 


fasting,  was  unknown  in  .\frica.  Ol  the  greater  im- 
movable feasts  the  earlier  writers  appear  to  know 
nothing;  hence  Christma.s,  the  Circumcision,  the 
Epiphany,  the  festivals  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and 
the  feasts  of  the  Ap<wtles  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
celebrated.  The  festivals  of  local  martyrs  seem  to 
have  taken  precedence  over  what  are  now  reganled 
as  the  greatest  feasts  of  the  Church,  and  their  anni- 
versaries were  celebrated  long  before  the  great  im- 
movable feasts  were  introduced.  Such  celebrations 
were  purely  local,  and  it  was  only  at  a  much  later 
date  that  commemorations  of  foreign  saints  were 
made.  Tlie  early  Christians  had  a  great  devotion 
towards  the  martyrs  and  confes.sors  of  the  faith, 
carefully  preserved  and  venerated  their  relics,  made 
pilgrimages  to  their  tombs,  and  sought  to  be  buried 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  relics  of  the  martyrs,  and 
hence  the  anniversaries  of  the  local  saints  were 
celebrate<l  with  great  solemnity.  Thus  the  calendar 
of  the  .\frican  Church  in  the  ante-Nicene  period  was 
rather  restricted,  and  contained  but  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  feast  days. 

.Vmong  the  liturgical  functions,  the  celebration 
of  Ma.ss,  or  of  the  lioly  Eucharist,  occupies  the  most 
important  place.  Although  the  early  writers  speak 
in  a  guarded  manner  concerning  these  sacred  mys- 
teries, still  they  give  much  precious  information  on 
the  liturgy  of  their  age.  Tiie  Mass  seems  to  have 
been  divided  into  the  .Mass  of  the  catechumens,  ;in<l 
the  Mass  of  the  faithful,  and  among  the  orthodox 
Christians  the  catechumens  were  rigidly  excludeil 
from  assisting  at  the  sacrifice  proper.  Bread  and 
wine  are  used  as  the  matter  of  the  sacrament,  but  a 
little  water  is  added  to  the  wine  to  signify  the  union 
of  the  people  with  Christ.  St.  Cyprian  severely 
condemns  certain  bishops  who  u.seu  only  water  in 
the  ch.alice,  declaring  that  water  is  not  the  essential 
matter  of  the  sacrifice,  and  its  exclusive  use  renders 
the  sacrament  invalid.  Both  TertuUian  and  St. 
Cyprian  have  passages  which  seem  to  give  the  form 
of  the  Eucharist  in  the  very  words  of  Christ  as  quoted 
in  the  Holy  Scripture.  Sometimes  there  is  great 
similarity  between  their  words  and  the  phraseology 
of  the  Roman  canon.  There  are  allusions  to  the 
Preface,  the  Sanctus,  the  commemoration  of  Christ, 
the  Pater  nostor,  and  to  different  acclamations. 
TertuUian  speaks  often  of  the  ki.ss  of  peace,  and 
considers  the  ceremony  very  important.  Refer- 
ences are  also  made  to  a  litany  which  was  recited 
during  the  Miws,  but  no  precise  information  is  given 
concerning  its  place  in  the  liturgy.  At  Ma.ss  the 
faithful  received  communicm  uiuler  both  species, 
under  the  species  of  bread  from  the  bishop  or  priest, 
and  under  the  species  of  wine  from  the  deacon,  ancl 
each  one,  after  receiving  communion,  answered 
"  .\men "  to  profess  liis  faith  in  the  sacrament. 
Sometimes  the  faithful  carried  the  Host  home,  and 
there  communicated  them.selves,  especially  in  times 
of  persecution.  Communion  seems  to  have  been 
received  fasting,  as  TertuUian  imjilies  when  lie 
inquires  what  a  pagan  husband  will  think  of  the 
food  of  which  his  Christian  wife  partakes  before  any 
other  food.  The  early  Christians  appear  to  lia\e 
communicated  frequently,  even  every  day,  especially 
during  a  period  of  persecution.  The  greatest  rever- 
ence was  shown  to  the  Sacred  Species,  so  the  faithful 
strove  to  be  free  from  all  stain  of  grievous  sin,  and 
deemetl  it  a  serious  fault  to  allow  any  of  the  conse- 
crated elements  to  fall  to  the  grounil. 

Baptism,  as  the  initiatory  rite  of  Christianity,  ia 
mentioned  frequently  by  the  early  writers;  Tertullian 
wrote  a  special  treatise  on  this  sacrament,  describing 
the  preparation  required  for  it,  and  the  ceremonies 
accompanying  it.  The  catechumens  should  prepare 
for  the  reception  ci  baptism  by  frequent  prayers,  by 
fasts,  and  vigils,  .\lthough  he  usually  speaks  of  the 
baptism  of  adults,   still   he  admits  the  baptism  of 


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infants,  but  seems  to  be  somewhat  opposed  to  this 
practice,  which  was  commended  by  St.  Cyprian. 
The  time  set  for  the  solemn  administration  of  bap- 
tism was  Easter,  or  any  day  between  Easter  and 
Pentecost,  but  TertulHan  declares  that  as  every 
day  belongs  to  tlie  Lord  it  might  be  conferred  at 
any  time.  He  holds  that  it  should  be  administered 
by  the  bishop,  who,  however,  may  delegate  a  priest 
or  deacon  to  act  in  liis  place,  altliough  in  certain 
cases  he  would  permit  laymen  to  baptize.  Any 
kind  of  water  may  ser\e  as  the  matter  of  the  sacra- 
ment, and  the  water  is  used  to  baptize  the  catechu- 
men "in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and 
of  the  Holy  Ghost".  The  mode  of  baptizing  was  by 
triple  immersion  in  tlie  font,  which  had  already 
been  blessed.  Many  beautiful  symbolical  cere- 
monies accompanied  the  rite  of  baptism.  Before 
the  candidate  for  baptism  entered  tlie  font  he  re- 
nounced the  devil  with  his  pomps  and  his  angels. 
There  was  also  a  creed  to  be  recited  by  tlie  candidate 
for  baptism,  probably  an  African  form  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed.  TertuUian  gives  several  different  forms  of 
this  rule  of  faith,  .^fter  the  neophyte  ascended 
from  the  font  he  received  a  drink  of  milk  and  honey, 
and  was  then  anointed  with  consecrated  oil.  Ter- 
tulHan also  states  that  the  neophyte  was  signed 
with  the  sign  of  tlie  cross,  that  he  received  the  im- 
position of  hands  with  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  that  the  newly  baptized  Christian  then 
partook  of  his  first  lioly  communion.  TertuUian 
explains  many  of  these  ceremonies  in  his  treatise  on 
the  Resurrection  (viii).  "Tlie  flesh  indeed  is 
■washed  in  order  that  the  soul  may  be  cleansed; 
the  flesh  is  anointed,  that  the  soul  may  be  conse- 
crated; the  flesh  is  signed  (with  the  sign  of  the 
cross)  that  the  soul  too  may  be  fortified;  the  flesh  is 
shadowed  with  the  imposition  of  hands,  that  the 
soul  also  may  be  illuminated  by  the  spirit;  the  flesh 
feeds  on  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ,  that  the  soul 
likewise  may  fatten  on  its  God." 

The  testimonies  relating  to  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance  describe  principally  the  public  penances 
imposed  for  grievous  sins,  and  the  absolution  of  the 
penitents  after  the  public  penances  had  been  per- 
formed to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Church.  Ter- 
tuUian at  first  asserted  that  the  Church  had  the  power 
of  forgiving  all  kinds  of  sins,  but  after  becoming  a 
Montanist  lie  denied  that  this  power  extended  to 
certain  most  heinous  crimes,  and  then  ridiculed  the 
practice  of  the  Pope  and  the  Roman  Church,  who 
denied  absolution  to  no  Christian  that  was  truly 
penitent  for  liis  sins.  In  writing  sarcastically  of 
the  mode  of  procedure  in  use  at  Rome  in  the  time  of 
Pope  St.  Callixtus,  he  probably  gives  a  good  descrip- 
tion of  the  manner  in  which  a  penitent  sinner  was 
absolved  and  readmitted  into  communion  with  the 
faithful.  He  narrates  how  the  penitent,  "  clothed 
in  a  hair-shirt  and  covered  with  aslies,  appears  before 
the  assembly  of  the  faithful  craving  absolution,  how 
he  prostrates  him.self  before  the  priests  and  widows, 
seizes  the  hem  of  their  garments,  kisses  their  foot- 
prints, clasps  them  by  the  knees",  how  the  bishop, 
m  tlie  meantime,  addresses  the  people,  exhorting 
them  by  the  recital  of  the  parable  of  the  lost  sheep 
to  be  merciful  and  show  pity  to  the  poor  penitent 
who  asks  for  pardon.  The  bishop  prayed  for  the 
penitents,  and  the  bishop  and  priests  imposeil  hands 
upon  them  as  a  sign  of  absolution  and  restoration 
into  the  communion  of  the  Church.  Altliough 
TertuUian  in  these  words  wished  io  throw  ridicule 
on  what  he  deemed  excessive  laxity  at  Rome,  still 
he  describes  faithfully  rites  which  seem  to  have  been 
in  use  in  the  Cliurch  of  Africa  al.so,  since  el.scwhere 
in  his  writings  he  mentions  doing  penance  in  sack- 
cloth and  ashes,  of  weeping  for  sins,  and  of  asking  the 
forgiveness  of  the  faithful.  St.  Cyprian  also  writes 
of  the  different  acts  of  penance,  of  the  confession  of 


sin,  of  the  manner  in  which  the  public  penance  was 
performed,  of  the  absolution  given  by  the  priest, 
and  of  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  bishop  and 
priests  through  which  the  penitents  regained  their 
rights  in  tlie  Church. 

TertuUian  speaks  of  the  nuptial  blessing  pro- 
nounced by  the  Church  on  the  marriage  of  Christians, 
asking  "  how  he  could  sufHciently  extol  the  happiness 
of  that  marriage  which  is  cemented  by  the  Church, 
confirmed  by  the  oblation,  sealed  with  the  benedic- 
tion, which  the  angels  proclaim,  which  is  ratified  by 
the  Heavenly  Father".  Christian  marriage  thus 
seems  to  have  been  celebrate  i  publicly  before  the 
Church  with  more  or  less  solemnity,  but  the  nuptial 
blessing  would  appear  to  have  been  optional  and 
not  obligatory,  except  perhaps  by  force  of  custom. 

Both  TertuUian  and  St.  Cyprian  mention  orili- 
nation  and  the  various  orders  in  the  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy,  but  unfortunately  do  not  give  much 
information  which  is  strictly  liturgical.  TertuUian 
speaks  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  whose  powers 
and  functions  are  pretty  well  defined,  who  are  chosen 
on  account  of  their  exemplary  conduct  by  the 
brethren,  and  are  then  consecrated  to  God  by  regular 
ordination.  Only  tliose  who  are  ordained,  says 
St.  Cyprian,  may  baptize  and  grant  pardon  of  sins. 
St.  Cyprian  distinguishes  the  different  orders,  men- 
tioning bishops,  priests,  deacons,  sub-deacons, 
acolytes,  exorcists,  and  lectors,  and  in  describing 
the  election  of  St.  Cornelius  at  Rome  declares  that 
Cornelius  was  promoted  from  one  order  to  another 
until  finally  he  was  elected  by  the  votes  of  all  to  the 
supreme  pontificate.  All  the  orders  except  the 
minor  order  of  ostiary  are  enumerated  by  the  early 
African  writers.  Both  exorcists  and  lectors  appear 
to  have  occupied  a  much  more  important  liturgical 
position  in  the  early  ages  than  in  later  times.  The 
exorcist,  for  example,  was  frequently  called  upon  to 
exercise  the  power  he  had  received  at  ordination. 
TertuUian  speaks  of  tliis  extraordinary  power  which 
was  exercised  in  the  name  of  Christ.  Sometimes 
the  exorcist  used  the  rite  of  exsufUation,  and  some- 
times, as  St.  Cyprian  states,  adjured  the  evil  spirit 
to  depart  per  Deum  vcrum  (by  the  true  God).  Lec- 
tors also  had  many  liturgical  functions  to  perform. 
The  lector,  for  example,  recited  the  lessons  from  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  even  read  the  Gospel 
from  the  pulpit  to  the  people.  In  later  ages  liis 
duties  were  divided,  and  some  were  given  to  the 
other  ministers,  some  to  regular  chanters. 

Among  other  liturgical  ceremonies  the  early  writers 
often  allude  to  the  rites  accompanying  the  burial 
of  the  dead,  and  particularly  the  entombment  of  the 
bodies  of  the  martyrs  and  confessors,  f^rom  the 
earliest  times  the  Christians  showed  great  reverence 
to  the  bodies  of  the  faithful,  embalmed  them  with 
incense  and  spices,  and  buried  them  carefully  in 
distinctively  Christian  cemeteries.  Prayers  were 
said  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of  the  dead,  Masses 
were  offered  especially  on  the  anniversary  of  death, 
and  their  names  were  recited  in  the  Memento  of 
the  Mass,  provided  that  they  had  lived  in  accortlance 
with  Christian  ideals.  The  faithful  were  taught 
not  to  mourn  for  their  dead,  but  to  rejoice  that  the 
souls  of  the  departed  were  already  living  with  God 
and  enjoying  peace  and  refreshing  happiness  after 
their  earthly  trials  and  labours.  TertuUian,  St. 
Cyprian,  and  the  Acts  of  St.  Perpetua,  all  give  testi- 
mony to  the  antiquity  of  these  customs.  The  ceme- 
teries in  Africa  (called  area-)  were  not  catacombs 
like  those  in  Rome,  but  above  ground  in  the  open  air, 
and  often  had  a  chapel  (cclla)  adjoining  them,  where 
the  reunions  of  the  faithful  took  (ilace  on  the  anni- 
versaries of  the  martyrs  and  of  the  other  Christians 
who  were  buried  there.  The  inscriptions  on  the 
tombs  often  state  that  the  departed  had  liveil  a  life 
of  Christian  peace,  in  pace  vixil,  or  often  beautifuUy 


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express  the  faith  and  hope  of  the  faithful  in  a  future 
life  of  happiness  together  witli  the  Lord — spcs  in 
Deo, — in    Deo    tnias. 

Finally,  some  ceremonial  acts  might  be  considered 
to  which  reference  is  often  made  by  the  early  writers. 
Prayers  were  said  sometimes  kneeling,  sometimes 
standing;  for  example,  on  .'>imdays.  and  during  the 
fifty  days  following  Ivister,  it  was  forbiilden  to  kneel, 
while  on  fast  days  the  kneeling  posture  was  considered 
appropriate.  Ihe  Christians  prayed  with  their 
arms  stretched  out  somewliat  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 
The  sign  of  the  cross  was  made  very  frequently, 
often  on  some  object  witli  the  intention  of  blessing 
it,  often  on  the  forehead  of  Christians  to  invoke 
God's  protection  and  assistance.  Tertullian  in  his 
"  De  Corona"  writes:  ".\t  every  forward  step  and 
movement,  at  every  going  in  and  out,  wlien  we  put 
on  our  clothes  and  shoes,  wlien  we  bathe,  when  we 
sit  at  table,  when  wo  light  the  lamps,  on  couch,  on 
seat,  in  all  ordinary  actions  of  daily  life,  we  trace  upon 
the  forehead  the  sign  of  the  cross".  The  early 
Christians  were  also  accustomed  to  strike  their  breasts 
in  sign  of  guilt  and  contrition  for  sin.  Tertullian 
believed  that  the  kiss  of  peace  should  be  given  often; 
in  fact,  that  it  should  accompany  every  prayer  and 
ceremony.  Not  only  are  there  many  ceremonial 
acts  such  as  those  just  mentioned  which  existed  in 
the  thirtl  century  and  liave  been  preserved  even  to 
the  present  in  tlie  liturgj',  but  there  are  also  many 
phrases  and  acclamations  of  the  early  African  Church, 
which  have  found  a  permanent  place  in  the  liturgical 
formularies.  These  expressions,  and  perhaps  also 
the  measured  style  in  wliich  they  were  composed, 
may  have  had  considerable  influence  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  other  Latin  liturgies. 

II.  PosT-NicE.NK  Pehioi). — .\fter  the  edict  of 
Constantine  granting  freedom  of  worship  to  the 
Christian  religion,  and  especially  after  tlie  Council 
of  Nica>a,  there  was  a  great  development  in  the 
liturgy  of  the  Church.  It  was  only  natural  that  for 
some  time  after  the  foundation  of  the  new  religion, 
its  liturgy  should  contain  only  the  essentials  of 
Christian  worship,  and  that  in  the  course  of  time  it 
should  develop  and  expand  its  ritual  according  to 
the  needs  of  the  people.  Moreover,  the  first  periotl 
was  an  age  of  persecution  and  hence  the  ceremonial 
was  necessarily  curtailed.  But  when  persecution 
ceased,  the  Churcli  began  immediately  to  expand 
her  ceremonial,  changing  and  modifying  the  old 
forms  and  introducing  new  rites  according  to  the 
ref|uirements  of  pubhc  liturgical  worship,  so  that 
the  lit  urgj' would  be  more  dignified,  more  n'agnificent, 
and  more  impressive.  In  tlie  beginning  great  liberty 
was  allowed  tlie  individual  celebrant  to  improvi.se 
the  prayers  of  the  Hturgj-.  provided  that  he  adiiered 
to  the  strict  form  in  essentials  and  followed  the  theme 
demanded,  but  at  a  later  date  the  Cliurch  felt  the 
need  of  a  set  of  formularies  ami  fixed  ceremonies, 
lest  dogmatic  errors  should  find  expression  in  tlie 
liturgy  and  thus  corrupt  the  faith  of  the  people.  In 
the  fourth  century  all  the.se  tendencies  to  expansion 
and  development  are  very  noticeable  in  all  tlie  litur- 
gies. This  is  true,  also,  of  the  Church  in  Africa  in 
the  second  period  of  the  historj-  of  the  African 
liturgy  which  embraces  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  centuries  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century,  when  Christianity  in  .\frica  was  practically 
destroyed  by  the  Mohammeilans.  No  liturgical 
books  or  codices  belonging  to  this  period  are  extant, 
so  the  liturgy  must  be  reconstructed  from  contem- 
porary writings  and  monuments.  Of  the  writers 
of  the  period  St.  .\ugustine  is  richest  in  allusions  to 
ceremonies  and  fonnularies,  but  St.  Optatus,  Marius 
Victorinus,  Amobius,  and  Victor  Vitensis  give  some 
useful  information.  The  inscriptions,  which  arc 
more  numerous  in  this  period,  and  tlie  arclucological 
dlBcovcries  also  furnish  some  liturgical  data. 


The  beginning  of  a  real  ecclesiastical  calendar,  with 
definitely  fi.xed  feasta  and  fasts,  now  appears.  The 
great  feast  of  Easter,  upon  which  all  tlie  movable 
feasts  depended,  is  celebrated  with  even  greater 
solemnity  than  in  the  time  of  Tertullian.  Before 
Easter  there  was  a  period  of  forty  days'  preparation, 
devoted  to  fasting  and  other  works  of  penance. 
Tlie  vigil  of  Easter  was  celebrated  with  the  usual 
ritual,  but  the  length  of  the  offices  seems  to  liave 
been  increased.  The  Paschal  solemnity  was  followed 
by  a  sea.son  of  fifty  days'  rejoicing  until  Pentecost  day, 
which,  in  the  fourth  century,  appears  to  have  a  di.s- 
tinctive  character  as  the  commemoration  of  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  Apostles  rather 
than  as  the  close  of  the  Easter  season.  In  Holy 
Week,  Holy  Thursday  commemorated  the  institution 
of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  according  to  St.  Augus- 
tine, besides  the  morning  Mass,  a  Mass  was  also 
celebrated  in  the  evening  in  order  to  carry  out  all 
tlie  circumstances  of  the  institution  at  the  La.st 
Supper.  Good  Friday  was  observed  by  attending 
the  long  liturgical  ofiices,  while  Holy  Saturday  was 
celebrated  in  about  the  same  manner  as  in  the  time  of 
Tertullian.  .Vscension  Day  seems  to  lia\e  been 
introduced  in  the  fourth  centun',  but  in  the  time  of 
St.  .\ugustine  it  was  universally  observed.  As  for 
the  immovable  feasts,  Christmas  and  tlie  Epiphany, 
which  were  unknown  to  Tertullian,  were  celebrated 
with  the  greatest  solemnity  in  the  fiftli  century. 
The  first  of  January  was  observed  not  as  the  feast 
of  the  Circumcision,  but  as  a  fast  day  which  had  been 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  turning  the  people 
away  from  the  ccleoration  of  the  pagan  festivities 
which  took  place  at  that  time  of  the  year.  Feasts 
of  other  than  local  saints  were  introduced,  for  in- 
stance, immediately  after  Christmas,  the  feast  of 
St.  Stephen,  of  the  Holy  Innocents  and  of  Sts.  John 
and  James,  and  later  in  the  year,  the  fea.sts  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  of  the 
Maccabees,  of  St.  Lawrence,  St.  Vincent,  etc.  The 
festivals  of  the  local  martyrs  were  celebrated  with 
even  greater  solemnity  than  in  early  times,  anil  were 
often  accompanied  by  feasting  which  was  frequently 
condemned  in  the  sermons  of  the  time,  on  account 
of  abuses.  When  such  a  large  number  of  feasts 
wa-s  annually  otiserveil.  it  was  to  be  expected  that 
a  list  or  calendar  would  be  drawn  up,  and,  in  truth,  a 
calendar  was  drawn  up  for  the  use  of  the  Church  of 
Carthage  in  the  beginning  of  tlie  .sixth  centun,', 
from  which  very  important  information  concerning 
the  institution  and  liistorj'  of  the  great  feast  days 
may  be  obtained.  When  Christianity  received 
legal  recognition  in  the  Empire,  the  Christians  began 
to  construct  churches  and  adorn  them  fittingly  to 
serve  their  purpose.  Most  of  these  were  built  in  the 
old  basilica  style,  with  some  few  differences.  The 
churches  were  iletlicated  in  honour  of  the  holy  mar- 
tyrs frequently,  and  relics  of  the  martyrs  were  placed 
beneath  the  altars.  The  inscriptions  of  the  period 
mention  the  dedication  to  the  martyrs  and  also  Ihe 
fact  that  the  relics  were  placed  in  the  church  or  in 
the  altar.  The  altar  itself,  called  tncnsa  (table),  was 
generally  made  of  wood,  but  sometimes  of  stone,  anil 
was  covered  over  with  linen  cloths.  There  was  a 
special  rite  for  dedicating  churches  and  also  for  con- 
secrating altars,  in  which  blessed  water  and  the  sign 
of  the  cross  were  used. 

The  Mass  became  a  daily  function  celebrated 
every  morning  when  the  ("hristians  could  meet 
frequently  witliout  fear  of  persecution,  and  when 
the  increased  number  of  feasts  required  a  more 
frequent  celebration  of  the  liturgical  ollices.  Little 
is  known  with  precision  and  certitude  of  the  com- 
position of  the  different  parts  of  the  Ma.ss,  but  still 
there  are  many  allusions  in  various  authors  which 
give  some  valuable  information.  The  .M.a.ss  of  the 
catechiwiens  consisted  of   psalms  and  lessons  from 


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the  Scriptures.  These  lessons  were  chosen  from 
both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  it  would 
seem  that  there  were  three  lessons  as  in  some  of  the 
Oriental  liturgies,  one  from  the  Old  Testament,  one 
from  the  Epistles  in  the  New  Testament,  and  one 
from  the  Gospels.  The  Third  Council  of  Carthage 
decreed  that  only  lessons  from  the  canonical  books 
of  Scripture  or  from  the  acts  of  the  martyrs  on  their 
feast  days  might  be  read  in  tlie  churches.  Between 
the  Epistle  and  Gospel  a  psalm  containing  some  idea 
in  harmony  with  the  feast  of  the  day  was  recited, 
and  corresponded  to  the  gradual  or  tract  in  the 
Roman  Mass.  An  alleluia  was  also  simg.  more  or 
less  solemnly,  e.specially  on  Sundays  and  during  the 
fifty  days'  prolongation  of  the  Easter  festival.  The 
lessons  from  the  Scriptures  were  generally  followed 
by  a  homily,  after  wliich  both  the  catechumens  and 
the  penitents  were  dismissed,  and  the  Mass  of  the 
faithfid  commenced.  This  rule  of  dismissing  the 
catechumens,  etc.,  seems  to  have  been  strictly 
observed,  since  nearly  all  the  African  writers  in  their 
sermons  or  other  works  use  expressions  which  indi- 
cate that  their  words  would  be  intelligible  only  to 
the  initiated,  and  that  the  catechumens  were  ignorant 
of  the  mysteries  celebrated  in  the  Mass  of  the  faithful. 
The  litany  may  have  been  recited  after  the  Gospel, 
although  its  precise  position  cannot  be  determined 
with  certainty.  The  litany  consisted  of  short  peti- 
tions for  the  various  needs  of  tlie  Churcli,  resembling 
somewhat  the  petitions  in  the  present  Litany  of  tlie 
Saints,  or  perhaps  the  prayers  for  different  classes  of 
persons,  or  necessities  of  the  Church  which  are  now 
recited  on  Good  Friday.  The  people  very  probably 
responded  with  some  acclamation  like  Kyrie  eleison, 
or  Te  rogamus  audi  nos. 

In  the  time  of  St.  Augustine  a  chant  for  the  Offer- 
tory was  introduced  in  the  Church  of  Carthage;  it 
consisted  of  a  psalm  having  some  reference  to  the 
oblation,  and  was  sung  while  the  people  were  making 
their  offerings.  Each  of  the  faithful  was  supposed 
to  bring  an  offering  for  his  communion.  The  offer- 
ings were  received  by  the  bishop  and  placed  upon 
the  altar,  with  the  appropriate  prayers,  and  then  the 
bishop  proceeded  with  the  Mass.  The  Dominus 
vobiscum  preceded  the  Preface,  wliich  properly  began 
with  the  words  Sursum  corda,  Habemus  ad  Dominum, 
Gratias  agamus  Domino  Deo  nostra,  Dignum  et  justum 
est.  The  canon  of  the  Mass  was  known  in  Africa  as 
the  actio,  or  agenda,  and  was  mentioned  but  very 
seldom  on  account  of  tlie  "discipline  of  the  secret". 
There  are,  however,  some  passages  in  the  African 
writers  wliich  show  that  there  was  a  great  similarity 
between  the  African  actio  and  the  Roman  canon,  so 
much  so  that  some  of  the  texts  when  put  in  juxta- 
position are  almost  identical.  The  actio  contained 
the  usual  prayers,  the  commemoration  for  the  living 
and  the  dead,  the  words  of  institution  and  sanctifica- 
tion  of  the  sacrifice,  the  commemoration  of  Christ, 
the  Pater  Noster,  and  the  preparation  for  Communion. 
The  Pater  Noster  seems  to  have  held  the  same  position 
that  it  now  has  in  the  Roman  canon,  and  it  was  said 
before  the  Communion,  as  St.  Augustine  states,  be- 
cause in  the  Lord's  Prayer  we  beseech  God  to  for- 
give our  offences,  and  tlius  we  may  approach  the 
communion  table  with  better  dispositions.  The 
kiss  of  peace  followed  shortly  after  the  Pater  Noster, 
and  was  closely  connected  with  tlie  Comnumion, 
being  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  the  fraternal  union 
existing  between  all  tho.se  who  partook  of  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  Christ.  The  faithful  received  com- 
munion frequently,  and  were  encouraged  in  the 
practice  of  receiving  daily  communion.  At  the 
proper  time  tlie  communicants  approached  the 
altar  and  there  partook  of  the  l';ucharist  under  both 
species,  answering  "Amen"  to  the  formula  pro- 
nounced by  the  priest  in  order  to  profess  their  faith 
in  the  sacrament  just  received.     During  the  distri- 


bution of  communion  the  thirty-third  psalm  was 
recited  or  sung,  because  that  psalm  contained  some 
verses  considered  appropriate  for  the  Communion. 
Prayers  of  thanksgiving  were  then  said,  and  the 
people  dismissed  from  the  church  with  a  benediction. 

The  prayers  accompanying  the  administration  of 
the  other  sacraments  seem  to  have  become  more 
fixed  and  to  have  lengthened  since  the  time  of  Ter- 
tullian.  For  the  more  decorous  and  convenient 
administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism,  large 
baptisteries  were  erected,  in  which  the  ceremony  was 
carried  out  with  great  solemnity.  The  African 
Church  seems  to  have  followed  practically  the  same 
ritual  as  the  Roman  Church  during  the  catechu- 
nienate,  which  lasted  for  the  forty  days  preceding 
Easter.  St.  Augustine,  for  instance,  speaks  of  teach- 
ing the  catechumens  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  of  the  rites  for  the  Vigil  of  Easter, 
as  if  they  were  in  accord  with  those  in  use  at  Rome; 
but  there  appears  to  be  only  one  unction,  that  after 
baptism,  and  the  kiss  of  peace  after  baptism  is  still 
given  as  in  the  days  of  St.  Cyprian.  Victor  Vitensis 
asserts  that  the  African  Church  admitted  the  feast 
of  the  Epiphany  as  a  day  appointed  for  the  solemn 
administration  of  baptism  according  to  the  custom 
prevailing  in  Oriental  churches.  The  neophytes 
were  confirmed  after  baptism  through  the  imposition 
of  hands  and  the  unction  with  chrism  on  the  forehead 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  on  the  same  day  they  seem 
to  have  received  their  first  holy  communion  with 
about  the  same  ceremonies  as  in  the  ante-Nicene 
period.  The  rite  for  the  Sacrament  of  Penance 
shows  few  peculiarities  in  Africa,  so  public  penances 
were  imposed  and  the  reconciliation  of  penitents 
was  effected  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  age  of 
TertuUian. 

Matrimony  is  often  mentioned,  especially  by  St. 
Augustine,  who  speaks  of  the  nuptial  blessing  and 
the  various  other  ceremonies,  civil  and  religious, 
connected  with  it,  as  for  instance  the  tabulae  nuptiales, 
etc. 

As  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders  had  a  more 
public  character  like  the  Eucharist,  it  is  frequently 
alluded  to  in  the  writings  and  inscriptions  of  the 
time.  Allusions  are  made  to  the  various  orders  and 
to  ordination,  but  there  is  scarcely  ever  a  description 
of  the  rite  of  ordination,  or  an  explanation  of  the 
formulas.  It  might  be  noted  that  the  archdeacon 
now  appears  and  has  special  functions  assigned  to 
him.  Clerics  began  their  ecclesiastical  career  as 
lectors  often  at  a  tender  age,  anil  the  lectors  formed 
a  schola  (school),  which  sang  the  ecclesiastical  offices. 
Later  on,  the  lectors  became  chanters,  and  their  duties 
were  given  to  the  other  ministers.  St.  Augustine 
also  speaks  frequently  of  the  ceremony  of  the  con- 
secration of  virgins,  which  seems  to  have  been  re- 
served to  the  bishops.  The  veil  might  be  received 
at  a  much  younger  age  in  Africa  than  at  Rome. 

The  faithful  showed  the  same  loving  care  and  re- 
spect to  the  bodies  of  the  departed  as  in  the  ante- 
Nicene  period,  but  now  the  funeral  rites  were  longer 
and  more  solemn.  Prayers  were  said  for  the  dead. 
Mass  was  offered  for  the  souls  of  the  faithful  de- 
parted, and  special  rites  took  place  while  the  funeral 
procession  was  on  the  way  and  when  the  body  was 
entombed.  The  names  of  the  tlead  were  recited  in 
the  diptychs,  and  Mass  was  offered  for  tliem  on  tlie 
anniversaries  of  death.  Moreover,  the  inscriptions 
of  this  age  contain  beautiful  sentiments  of  hope  in  a 
happy  future  life  for  those  who  had  lived  and  died 
in  the  peace  of  the  Lord,  and  beseech  God  to  grant 
eternal  rest  and  beatitude  to  those  who  trust  in  His 
mercy.  Many  of  these  expressions  arc  very  similar 
to  the  phrases  now  used  in  the  obsequies  of  the  dead. 

The  Divine  Office  was  gradually  developing,  but 
was  still  in  a  very  rudimentary  state.  It  consisted 
of  the  recitation  or  chanting  of  psalms  and  canticles. 


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of  versicles  and  acclamations,  and  the  reading  of 
portions  of  the  Scriptures.  There  was  a  special 
collection  of  canticles  taken  from  the  Old  Testament 
in  use  in  tlie  African  Cliurch,  and  perliaps,  also,  a 
collection  of  hymns  composed  by  uninspired  writers, 
in  which  were  the  hymns  of  St.  .Vmhrose.  Many  of 
the  versicles  quoted  in  the  writings  of  the  time  may 
be  now  found  in  the  present  Uoman  liturgy.  St. 
Augustine  wa.s  evidently  opposed  to  the  growing 
tendency  to  abandon  the  simple  recitative  lone  and 
make  the  chant  of  the  odices  more  solemn  and  ornate 
as  the  ceremonial  became  more  formal.  Gradually 
tlie  formularies  became  more  fixed,  and  liberty  to 
improvi.se  was  curtailed  by  the  African  councils. 
Few,  however,  of  the  prayers  have  been  preserved, 
altliough  many  shorter  ver.ses  and  acclaination.s 
lia\c'  been  (juoted  in  the  writings  of  tlio  period,  as 
for  example,  tlie  Deo  Oralias,  Deo  Laudea,  and  Arncn, 
with  which  tlio  people  approved  tlic  words  of  the 
preaclier,  or  the  do.xologies  and  conclusions  of  some 
of  the  prayers.  The  people  still  used  the  sign  of 
the  cross  frequently  in  their  private  devotions  as  in 
the  (Lays  of  TertuUian.  Other  ceremonial  acts  in 
common  use  were  striking  the  breast  as  a  sign  of 
petiaiue,  extending  the  arms  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
knelling  during  prayers,  etc.,  all  ot  which  had  been 
haiideil  ilown  from  primitive  times.  Such  are  some 
of  the  most  important  data  furnished  by  the  early 
writers  and  in.scriptioiis  concerning  the  liturgy  of  the 
.\frican  Church,  and  they  are  useful  to  show  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  Latin  rite  in  Africa  as  well  as  the 
similarity  between  the  .\frican  and  other  liturgies. 

Cabkoi.  in  Uul.  ifarch.  chnH.  (Paris.  19031.  .Wl:  Duchesne, 
Chritliim  Wurship,  tr.  .McCi.iJiiE  (Loncloii.  1903);  Pkobst, 
Liturf/ie  der  tirei  t-rsten  christlicfu-n  Jahrhunderte  (Tubingen, 
1870);  li>KM.  Liturtfu-  lii-n  rU-r/rii  Jnhrhundfrttt  iintlderen  Rtfttrm 
(Milnster,  1893);  Monk,  Ldtiiniitchr  und  uriichiachi-  Mesam  nun 
dcm  ziiTttcn  his  gtchatcn  Jahrhumlfrt  (I'Vankfon.  1S50);  Cabroi. 
CT  I-ECLEHcg,  Monunuiila  ICccieaia  Lilurt/ica  (Pari.H.  1902),  I. 
J.   F.   GOGGIN. 

African  SyTlods. — There  was  no  general  council  of 
the  entire  Cliurch  held  at  any  time  in  North  Africa. 
There  were,  however,  many  national  or  plenaiy  as- 
semblies of  bishops  representing  the  North  African 
Church.  These  are  commonly  called  African  or  Car- 
thaginian Synods,  and  are  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  district  or  provincial  assemblies,  of  which  there 
were  also  very  many  in  the  separate  provinces  of 
North  Africa.  These  Roman  provinces  lay  between 
the  Sahara  and  the  .Mediterranean  and  extended  from 
Cyrenaica  on  the  east  to  the  Atlantic  on  the  west, 
corresponding  roughly  to  the  part  of  the  continent 
occupied  by  modern  Tripoli,  .4lgeria,  and  Morocco. 
The  Church  entered  into  history  there  at  the  end  of 
the  second  century,  and  disappeared  in  the  beginning 
of  the  eighth. 

EfcLEsiA.sTicAL  OiiaANiZATioNs. — Aljout  the  mid- 
dle of  the  third  century  the  bishops  of  the  three  civil 
provinces  (Proconsular  Africa,  Numidia,  and  Maure- 
tania)  formed  but  one  ecclesiastical  province,  but  as 
dioicscs  were  multiplied,  they  came  to  be  grouped 
into  ilivisions  corresponding  to  the  jirevailiiig  polit- 
ii:il  divisions  of  the  country.  Diocletian  re-districted 
North  .\frica  into  six  civil  provinces,  and  by  the  end 
of  the  fourth  centurj-  the  Church  had  adjusted  her 
organization  to  these  lines.  Thus  there  came  to  be 
six  cccU-siastical  provinces:  1.  Proconsular  Africa; 
2.  Numidia;  3.  Hyzacena;  4.  Tripoli;  .5.  Mauretania 
Sitifensis;  G.  Im|x;rial  Mauretania.  This  organiza- 
tion lasted  till  the  Arab  invasion  in  the  .seventh  cen- 
tury. Hecau.se  of  its  civil  importance,  Carthage  was 
the  primal ial  .sec  and  held  control  of  these  sulT'ragan 
provinces,  except  perhaps  during  the  period  of  the 
llyzantine  domination  in  Africa  (534-(34G),  when 
Tripoli  and  the  two  .Mauretanias  seem  to  have  been 
independent  of  Carthage.  The  Bishop  of  Carthage 
was  in  rank  and  privilege,  though  not  in  name,  the 
Patriarch  of  the  African  Church.     It   was  he  who 


called  and  presided  over  the  general  synods,  and, 
early  in  the  fifth  century,  it  was  his  wont  to  sign 
the  decrees  in  the  name  of  all.  These  synods  were 
held,  with  but  few  exceptions  (e.  g.  Ilip[X),  393; 
-Milevum,  402)  at  Carthage.  In  several  instances  we 
are  able  to  name  the  church  where  the  meeting  took 
place:  as  "the  Church  of  the  Second  District",  or 
the  "Ecdesia  Ilestituta",  or  the  "Secretariuin  Basil- 
ica' Fausti." 

NuMBEii  or  Synods. — In  the  time  of  TertuUian 
there  were  no  synods  held  in  Africa.  But  about  220, 
Agrippinus  called  together  seventy  bishops  from 
Proconsular  .\frica  and  Numidia.  From  the  time 
of  St.  Cyprian  general  synods  came  to  be  the  wonted 
resource  of  Church  administration,  and  they  were 
held  in  Africa  with  greater  frequency  and  regularity 
than  elsewhere  in  Christendom.  We  know  from  the 
letters  of  St.  Cyprian  that,  except  in  time  of  perse- 
cution, the  African  bishops  met  at  least  once  a  year, 
in  the  springtime,  and  sometimes  again  in  the  au- 
tumn. Si.x  or  .seven  synods,  for  instance,  were  held 
under  St.  Cy[)rian's  presidency  during  the  decade  of 
his  administration  (249-258),  and  more  than  fifteen 
under  Aurelius  (391-429).  The  Synod  of  Hippo 
(393)  ordered  a  general  meeting  yearly.  Hut  this 
was  found  too  onerous  for  the  bishops,  and  in  the 
Synod  of  Carthage  (407)  it  was  decided  to  hold  a 
general  synod  only  when  necessary  for  the  needs  of 
all  Africa,  and  it  was  to  be  held  at  the  place  most 
convenient  for  the  purpose.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  needs  were  so  persistent  that  general  synods 
were  held  with  perhaps  equal  frequency  up  to  the 
Vandal  invasion  (429),  and  Carthage  continued  to 
be  the  meeting-place.  The  Church  of  Africa  then 
entered  on  "penal  times".  Towards  the  end  of  the 
Vandal  domination  there  was  a  cessation  of  perse- 
cution, and  -synods  were  resumed.  Tliegeneral  .'^yiiod 
of  Carthage  in  52."),  though  numerou.sly  atteiulcd, 
shows  in  reality  a  humble  and  diminished  clnircli. 
There  was  an  improvement  under  the  Hvzantiiii?  con- 
trol (533-647),  and  the  Synod  of  534  (perhaps  the  only 
general  one  for  this  )>eriod)  is  the  second  largest  in 
point  of  numbers  of  all  the  African  .synods.  In  G4G 
we  still  find  the  bishops  meeting  in  provincial  synods, 
on  the  verj'  eve  of  the  final  dissolution  of  their  an- 
cient organization.  The  Arab  domination  spread  in 
successive  waves  from  647  up  to  G98,  when  Carthage 
fell.  Within  the  following  half  century  the  Church 
of  Roman  Africa  had  ceased  to  be. 

Attexda.vce  and  Representatio.v. — Elsewhere 
in  Christendom  only  bishops  attended  general  synods; 
but  in  North  Africa  there  was,  at  letist  for  a  time,  a 
departure  from  this  custom.  In  the  synods  held  un- 
der St.  Cyprian,  to  deal  with  the  lapsed,  and  in  the 
synod  of  256,  which  considered  the  question  of  re- 
baptism,  there  were  present  not  only  the  bishops, 
but  many  priests  and  deacons,  and  e\cn  a  very  large 
representation  of  the  laity.  Only  the  bisliops,  how- 
ever, had  a  vote  in  the  final  determinations.  Not 
all  the  bishops  of  the  country  were  required  to  a.ssist 
at  the  general  synod.  At  the  Synod  of  Hippo  (393) 
it  was  ordered  that  "dignities"  should  be  sent  from 
each  ecclesiastical  province.  Only  one  was  required 
from  Tripoli,  because  of  the  poverty  of  the  bi.-iliops 
of  that  province.  In  the  .synod  held  in  Carthago  in 
September,  401,  it  was  decreed  that  each  province 
should  be  divided  into  two  or  three  districts,  and 
that  each  of  them  should  send  deputies  to  the  gen- 
eral synod.  Attendance  was  urgently  insisted  on. 
There  were  ninety  bishops  in  attendance  at  the 
s>Tiod  that  condemned  Privatus  (236-24S),  and  more 
than  two  hundred  and  twenty-three,  the  largest  re- 
corded for  Africa,  at  the  SjTiod  of  418.  It  h.as  been 
through  her  literature,  the  writings  of  TertuUian, 
St.  Cj'prian,  and,  more  than  all,  of  St.  Augustine, 
rather  than  by  her  synodal  action  that  the  great 
Church  of  Africa  has  modified  the  world's  history. 


AGABUS 


200 


AGAPE 


The  African  sj-nods  dealt  for  tlie  most  part,  as  was 
natural,  with  matters  of  local  discipline,  and  to-day 
are  chiefly  of  interest  to  students  of  Church  History 
and  Canon  Law.  Nevertheless,  at  times,  their  de- 
crees transcended  their  immediate  and  local  scope 
and  helped,  in  concert  with  Home,  to  fix  the  disci- 
pline and  to  define  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  Uni- 
versal. The  penitential  decrees  drawn  up  after  the 
Decian  persecution  and  the  decrees  against  Pelagian- 
ism  are  instances  in  point. 

Bkief  Anaiasis  op  Synodal  Acts. — The  sjti- 
odal  decrees  show  how  restless  and  factional  the 
national  temper  was,  and  how  ready  to  break  out 
into  violent  schism.  Those  who  lapsed  under  De- 
cius  formed  a  party  strong  enough  to  withstand  the 
hierarchy,  and  the  sjTiods  of  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries  are  constantly  engaged  with  the  bitter  and 
persistent  Donatist  Scliism,  which  upset  all  Africa 
and  perplexed  both  Cliurch  and  State.  Civil  inter- 
vention was  invoked  in  the  Synod  of  404.  The  per- 
secution of  Decius  left  in  Africa,  as  elsewhere,  many 
who  had  denied  or  compromised  their  faith  under 
fear  of  death.  The  Church  was  now  called  upon  to 
determine  whether  she  might  forgive  so  grave  a  sin. 
In  the  Synod  of  May,  251,  under  the  presidency  of 
St.  Cyprian,  it  was  decided  that  the  lapsed  should  be 
admitted  to  penance,  and  should  be  reconciled  at  least 
at  the  moment  of  death.  The  next  year  (Synod  of 
252)  further  grace  was  shown  them  in  view  of  the  per- 
secution of  Gallus,  and  all  who  had  entered  seriously 
upon  a  course  of  penance  were  to  be  restored  to 
fellowship  at  once.  The  Church  of  Africa  was  not 
equally  fortunate  in  finding  the  solution  for  the  dif- 
ficult problem  of  the  worth  of  Baptism  as  adminis- 
tered outside  the  Church.  The  earliest  synod  (about 
220)  took  the  matter  up  and  declared  such  Baptism 
invalid,  and  this  decision  was  re-affirmed  in  synods 
held  in  255-256  under  St.  Cyprian.  All  converts 
should  be  re-baptized.  St.  Cyprian  strove  to  press  the 
African  views  on  Rome,  but  Pope  Stephen  (q.  v.)  men- 
aced excommunication.  At  the  celebrated  Septem- 
ber Synod  of  256  the  eighty-seven  bishops  assembled 
from  the  three  provinces  still  maintained  their  atti- 
tude against  Baptism  by  heretics.  This  error  was 
finally  retracted  in  the  Synod  (345-348)  under 
G rat us. 

These  records  also  show  how  the  close  relations 
between  Africa  and  Rome  were  several  times  troubled 
during  the  course  of  five  centuries.  The  baptismal 
controversy  put  the  Church  into  a  state  of  passive 
resistance  to  Rome.  In  the  Synod  of  September, 
256,  St.  Cyprian  was  placed  in  a  painful  dilemma. 
While  maintaining  the  right  of  bishops  to  think  for 
themselves,  he  still  clung  to  the  necessity  of  unity 
in  the  Church,  and  would  not  break  the  revered  bond 
with  Rome.  Again,  early  in  the  fifth  century,  the 
appeal  to  Rome  of  Apiarius  (q.  v.),  a  deposed  priest, 
stirred  up  strong  feeling  among  the  African  bishops, 
and  appeals  of  priests  and  laics  "over  sea"  (to  Rome) 
were  forbidden  in  the  Synod  of  418.  Legates  came 
from  Rome  to  adjust  the  difference.  In  the  Synods 
of  419  an  enquiry  was  made  into  the  canonical  war- 
rant for  such  appeals.  The  Roman  legates  cited  by 
mistake,  as  canons  passed  at  Nicea  (325),  the  canons 
of  Sardica  (343)  regulating  the  appeals  of  bishops. 
This  led  to  a  tedious  delay,  and  the  whole  matter 
was  dropped  for  the  moment.  It  was  reopened  a 
few  years  later,  when  Apiarius,  who  had  been  do- 
posed  a  second  time,  on  new  charges,  again  appealed 
to  Rome  for  reinstatement.  Faastinus,  the  Roman 
legate,  reappeared  at  the  S>^lod  of  424  and  de- 
manded the  annulment  of  the  sentence  passed  on 
the  priest.  Apiarius,  however,  broke  down  under 
examination,  and  admitted  his  guilt.  So  nothing 
further  could  be  done  for  him.  A  synodal  letter  to 
Rome  emphasized  how  needful  it  was  that  Rome 
BJiould  not  lightly  credit  all  complainants  from  Af- 


rica, nor  receive  into  fellowship  such  as  had  been 
excommunicated.  At  the  Synod  of  Hippo  (393), 
and  again  at  the  Synod  of  397  at  Carthage,  a  list  of 
the  books  of  Holy  Scripture  was  drawn  up.  It  is 
the  Catholic  canon  (i.  e.  including  the  books  classed 
by  Protestants  as  "Apocrypha").  The  latter  synod, 
at  the  end  of  the  enumeration,  added,  "  But  let  the 
Church  beyond  sea  (Rome)  be  consulted  about  con- 
firming this  canon".  St.  Augustine  was  one  among 
the  forty-four  bishops  who  signed  the  proceedings. 
Celestius,  the  friend  of  Pelagius,  came  to  Carthage 
to  be  ordained  a  priest;  Paulinus,  the  deacon  of 
Milan,  warned  the  Bi.shop  of  Carthage  against  him; 
and  thus,  in  411,  began  the  series  of  synods  against 
Pelagianism.  They  had  a  most  miportant  influence 
in  checking  its  spread.  The  earlier  ones  seem  to 
have  been  provincial.  The  important  Synod  of  416, 
under  Sylvanus,  at  Milevura  urged  Innocent  I  to  stop 
the  heresy,  and  in  the  synod  of  all  Africa  held  at 
Carthage  in  420  the  bishops,  intensely  convinced  that 
vital  issues  were  involved,  passed  a  series  of  doctri- 
nal utterances  with  annexed  anathemas  against  the 
Pelagians.  St.  Augustine  was  present.  It  was,  in 
respect  of  doctrine,  the  most  important  ci  all  the 
synods  of  Africa  It  is  no  longer  possible  from  the 
meagre  remains  to  attempt  a  complete  list  of  the 
general  synods  of  Africa;  nor  is  it  any  longer  possible 
to  determine,  with  exactness  in  everj'  instance,  what 
synods  were  general.  The  following  approximate 
enumeration  is  made  therefore  with  all  due 
reserve : — 

Under  St.  Cyprian.  Synods  about  A.  D.  220 
under  Agrippinus;  236-248  (condemned  Privatus  of 
Lambesa).  Carthage,  251,  252,  254,  255;  Autumn 
of  255,  or  Spring  of  256;  September,  256. 

Under   Gratus,   at   Carthage,   345-348. 

Under  Aurelius,  at  Carthage,  Hippo-Regius,  393, 
394,  397  (two  sessions),  June  and  September;  401;  at 
Milevum,  402;  at  Carthage,  403-410,  end  of  417  or 
beginning  of  418;  May,  418;  May  and  November, 
419;  420,  424. 

Under  Boniface,  Synod  of  Carthage,  525,  534. 

The  te-xts  of  the  Synods  are  found  in  the  collections  of 
Mansi  or  of  Hardouin.  Cf.  Hkfele.  History  of  the  Christian 
Councils  (Edinburgh,  1S71)  I;  Routh,  Reliauioe  Hacra^.  Ill, 
93-217;  Leclerq.  L'Afrique  chriticnne  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1904), 
DocHESNE,  Hisloire  ancienne  de  fEglise  (Paris,  1905),  1  3SS- 
432. 

F.  P.  Havey. 

Agabus,  mentioned  in  Acts,  xi,28,  and  xxi,  10,  as 
a  prophet  of  the  New  Testament.  Most  probably 
both  passages  refer  to  the  same  person,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  resident  of  Jerusalem.  Tradition  makes 
him  one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples  (Luke,  x,  1), 
and  one  of  the  martyrs  who  suffeied  at  Antioch. 
The  Roman  Martyrology  mentions  his  name  on 
13  February,  while  the  Greek  Church  commemorates 
him  on  8  March.  According  to  Acts,  xi,  27-30, 
Agabus  predicted  the  famine  which  apparently  must 
be  identified  with  that  happening  in  the  fourtli  year 
of  Claudius,  a.  d.  45.  In  the  year  58  the  prophet 
predicted  to  St.  Paul  his  coming  captivity,  though 
he  could  not  induce  the  Apostle  to  stay  away  from 
Jerusalem   (Acts,   xxi,    10,  11). 

Haoen.  Lexicon  Biblicum  (Paris,  1905);  Jacqcieb  in  Via., 
Did.  de  la  bible  (Paris,  1895);  Scheoq  in    Kirchenlex. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Aganduru,  Roderigo  M.,  O.S.A.  See  Philip- 
pines. 

Agape. — The  celebration  of  funeral  feasts  in  hon- 
our of  the  dead  dates  back  almost  to  the  beginnings 
of  the  worship  of  the  departed — that  is,  to  the  very 
earliest  times.  The  dead,  in  the  region  beyond  the 
tomb,  were  thought  to  deri\e  both  pleasure  and 
atlvantage  from  these  offerings.  The  same  convic- 
tion explains  the  existence  of  funeral  furniture  for 
the  use  of  the  dead.  Arms,  vessels,  and  clothes,  as 
things  not  subject  to  decay,  did  not  need  to  be  re- 


AGAPE 


'201 


AGAPE 


iiewed,  but  food  did;  lienco  feasts  at  stated  seasons. 
Hut  tlie  body  of  the  departed  gained  no  relief  from 
olTeriiigs  made  to  liis  shade  unless  these  were  accom- 
panied by  the  obligatorj'  rites.  Yet  the  funeral 
feast  was  not  merely  a  conunemoration;  it  was  a 
true  communion,  and  the  food  brought  by  the  guests 
xMis  really  meant  for  the  use  of  the  departed.  The 
milk  and  wine  were  poured  out  on  the  earth  around 
the  tomb,  while  the  solid  food  was  passed  in  to  the 
corpse  through  a  hole  in  the  tomb. 

The  use  of  the  funeral  feast  was  almost  universal 
in  the  tIra'co-Koman  world.  Many  ancient  authors 
may  be  cited  as  witne.s,ses  to  the  practice  in  classical 
lands.  Among  the  Jews,  averse  by  taste  and  reason 
to  all  foreign  customs,  we  find  what  amounts  to  a 
funeral  banquet,  if  not  the  rite  itself;  the  Jewish 
colonics  of  the  Dispci-sion,  less  impervious  to  sur- 
nnuKling  influences,  adopted  the  practice  of  fraternal 
buni|uots.  If  we  study  the  texts  relative  to  the 
Supper,  the  last  solemn  meal  taken  by  Our  Lord 
witli  His  discii)les,  we  shall  find  tliat  it  was  the  Pass- 
over Supper,  with  the  changes  wrought  by  time  on 
the  primitive  ritual,  since  it  took  place  in  the  even- 
ing, and  the  guests  reclined  at  tlie  table.  As  the 
liturgical  meal  draws  to  a  close,  the  Host  introduces 
a  new  rite,  and  bids  those  present  repeat  it  when 
He  shall  have  ceased  to  be  with  them.  This  done, 
they  sing  the  customary  hymn  and  withdraw.  Such 
is  tlie  meal  that  Our  Lord  would  have  renewed,  but 
it  is  plain  that  He  did  not  connnand  the  repetition 
of  the  Passover  Supper  during  the  year,  since  it 
could  liave  no  meaning  except  on  the  Feast  itself. 
Now  the  first  chapters  of  the  .\cts  of  the  Apostles 
state  that  the  repast  of  the  Breaking  of  Pread  took 
place  very  often,  perhaps  daily.  That  which  was 
repeated  was,  therefore,  not  the  liturgical  feast  of 
the  Jewi.sh  ritual,  but  the  event  introduce<I  by  Our 
Lord  into  this  feast  when,  after  the  drinking  of  the 
fourth  cup.  Ho  instituted  the  Breaking  of  Bread, 
the  ICucharist.  To  what  degree  this  new  rite,  re- 
peated by  the  faithful,  departed  from  the  rite  and 
fornuila,'  of  the  Passo\er  Sup[)er,  we  have  no  means, 
at  the  present  time,  of  determining.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that,  in  repeating  the  luicharist,  it  was 
deemed  fit  to  preserve  certain  portions  of  the  Pass- 
over Supper,  aa  much  out  of  respect  for  what  had 
taken  place  in  the  Cirnaculum  as  from  the  impos- 
sibility of  breaking  roughly  with  the  Jewish  Pass- 
over rite,  so  intimately  linked  by  the  circumstances 
with  the  Eucharistic  one. 

This,  at  its  origin,  is  clearly  marked  as  funerary 
in  its  intention,  a  fact  attested  by  the  most  ancient 
testimonies  that  have  come  down  to  us.  Our  Lord, 
in  instituting  the  Eucharist,  used  these  words:  "As 
often  as  you  shall  eat  this  Bread  and  drink  this 
chalice,  you  shall  show  forth  the  Lord's  Death". 
Nothing  could  be  clearer.  0\ir  Lord  chose  the 
means  generally  used  in  His  time,  namely:  the 
funeral  bancpict.  to  bind  together  those  who  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  memory  of  Him  who  had 
gone.  We  nui.st,  however,  Ix^  on  our  guard  against 
as.sociating  the  thought  of  sadness  with  the  Euchar- 
istic Sup(x,>r,  regarded  in  this  light.  If  the  memory 
of  the  .Master's  Pa.ssion  made  tlie  commemoration  of 
these  liust  hours  in  any  measure  sad,  the  glorious 
thought  of  the  Resurrection  gave  this  meeting  of  the 
brethren  its  joyous  aspect.  The  Christian  a.-ssembly 
was  lield  in  the  evening,  and  w.as  continued  far  into 
the  niglit.  The  supper,  preaching,  common  prayer, 
the  breaking  of  bread,  took  up  several  hours;  the 
meeting  Ijogan  on  Saturday  and  ended  on  Sunday, 
thus  passing  from  the  commemoration  of  the  siid 
hours  to  that  of  the  triumphant  moment  of  the 
Re-surrection,  and  the  Eucharistic  feast  in  very 
truth  "showed  forth  the  Lord's  Death",  as  it 
will  "until  He  come".  Our  Lord's  command  wtus 
understood  and  obeyed. 


Certain  texts  refer  to  the  meetings  of  the  faithful 
in  early  times.  Two,  from  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to 
the  Corinthians  (I  Cor.,  xi,  18,  20-22,  S.i,  34),  allow 
us  to  draw  the  following  conclusions:  'I'he  brethren 
were  at  liberty  to  eat  before  going  to  the  meeting; 
all  present  must  Ix!  in  a  fit  condition  to  celebrate  the 
Supper  of  the  Lord,  though  they  must  not  eat  of 
the  funeral  supper  until  all  were  present.  We  know, 
from  two  texts  of  the  first  century,  that  these  meet- 
ings did  not  long  remain  witliin  becoming  bouruls. 
The  agape,  as  we  shall  see,  was  destined,  during  tlie 
few  centuries  that  it  lasted,  to  fall,  from  time  to 
time,  into  abuses.  The  faithful,  united  in  bodies, 
guilds,  corporations  or  "collegia",  admitted  coarse, 
intemperate  men  among  them,  who  degraded  the 
character  of  the  assemblies.  These  Christian  "col- 
legia" seem  to  have  differed  but  little  from  those 
of  the  pagans,  in  respect,  at  all  events,  of  the  obli- 
gations imi)o,sed  by  the  rules  of  incorporation.  There 
is  no  evidence  available  to  show  tliat  the  collegia 
from  the  first  undertook  the  burial  of  decetised  mem- 
bers; but  it  seems  probable  that  they  did  so  at  an 
early  period.  The  establishment  of  such  colleges 
gave  the  Christians  an  opportunity  of  meeting  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  pagans  did — subject 
always  to  the  many  obstacles  which  the  law  im- 
posed. Little  feasts  were  held,  to  which  each  of 
the  guests  contributed  his  share,  and  the  supper 
with  which  the  meeting  ended  might  very  well  be 
allowed  by  the  authorities  as  a  funerary  one.  In 
reality,  however,  for  all  faithful  worthy  of  the  name, 
it  was  a  liturgical  assembly.  The  texts,  which  it 
would  take  too  long  to  quote,  do  not  allow  us  to  as- 
sert that  all  these  meetings  ended  with  a  celebration 
of  the  Eucharist.  In  such  matters  sweeping  gener- 
alizations should  be  avoided.  At  the  out.set  it  must 
be  stated  that  no  text  affirms  that  the  funeral  supjier 
of  the  Christian  colleges  must  always  and  e\'ery- 
where  be  identified  with  the  agape,  nor  does  any 
text  tell  us  that  the  agape  was  always  and  every- 
where connected  with  the  celebration  of  the  Euchar- 
ist. But  subject  to  these  reservations,  we  may 
gather  that  under  certain  circumstances  the  agape 
and  the  Eucharist  appear  to  form  parts  of  a  single 
liturgical  function.  The  meal,  as  understood  by  the 
Christians,  was  a  real  supper,  which  followed  the 
Communion;  and  an  important  monument,  a  fresco 
of  the  second  centurj'  preserved  in  the  cemetery  of 
St.  Priseilla,  at  Rome,  shows  us  a  company  of  the 
faithful  supping  and  communicating.  The  guests  re- 
cline on  a  couch  which  serves  as  a  seat,  but,  if  they 
are  in  the  attitude  of  those  who  are  at  supper,  the 
meal  appears  a.s  finished.  They  have  reached  the 
moment  of  the  Eucharistic  communion,  symbolized 
in  the  fresco  by  the  mystical  fish  and  the  chalice 
(See  Fish  ;  Eucharist;  SYSinoLis.M.) 

TertuUian  has  described  at  length  (.\polog.,  vii - 
ix)  these  Christian  suppers,  the  mystery  of  which 
puzzled  the  Pagans,  and  has  given  a  detailed  account 
of  the  agape,  w-liich  had  been  the  subject  of  so  much 
calumny;  an  account  which  affords  us  an  insight 
into  the  ritual  of  the  aga|x>  in  Africa  in  the  second 
centun,'.  1.  The introductorv  prayer.  2.  Theguests 
take  their  places  on  the  couc)ies.  3.  A  meal,  during 
which  they  talk  on  pious  subjects.  4.  The  washing 
of  hands.  .'5.  The  hall  is  lit  up.  (i.  Singing  of  psalms 
and  improvised  hymns.  7.  Final  prayer  and  de- 
parture. The  hour  of  meeting  is  not  specified,  but 
the  use  made  of  torches  shows  clearly  enough  that 
it  must  have  been  in  the  evening  or  at  night.  The 
document  known  as  the  "Canons  of  Ilippolytus" 
appears  to  have  been  written  in  the  time  of 
TertuUian,  but  its  Roman  or  Egj'ptian  origin  re- 
mains in  doubt.  It  contains  very  precise  regula- 
tions in  regard  to  the  agape,  similar  to  those  which 
may  be  inferred  from  other  texts.  We  gather  that 
the  guests  are  at  liberty  to  eat  and  drink  according 


AGAPETiE 


202^ 


A6APETUS 


!o  the  need  of  each.  The  agape,  as  prescribed  to 
the  .Sinyrna?ans  by  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioeh,  was 
presided  over  by  the  bishop;  according  to  the  "Can- 
ons of  Hippolytus",  catecliuniens  were  excluded,  a 
regulation  which  seems  to  indicate  that  the  meeting 
bore  a  liturgical  aspect. 

An  example  of  tlie  halls  in  which  the  faithful  met 
to  celebrate  the  agape  may  be  seen  in  the  vestil^ule 
of  the  Catacomb  of  Domitilla.  A  bench  runs  round 
tliis  great  hall,  on  which  the  guests  took  their  places. 
With  this  may  be  compared  an  inscription  found  at 
Chcrchel,  in  Algeria,  recording  the  gift  made  to  the 
local  church  of  a  plot  of  land  and  a  building  intended 
as  a  meeting-place  for  the  corporation  or  guild  of 
the  Christians.  I'Vom  the  fourth  century  onward, 
the  agape  rapidly  lost  its  original  character.  The 
political  liberty  granted  to  the  Church  made  it  pos- 
sible for  the  meetings  to  grow  larger,  and  involved 
a  departure  from  jjrimitive  simplicity^  The  funeral 
banquet  continued  to  be  practised,  but  gave  rise  to 
flagrant  and  intolerable  abuses.  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola, 
usually  mild  and  kindly,  is  forced  to  admit  that  the 
crowd,  gathered  to  honour  the  feast  of  a  certain 
martyr,  took  possession  of  the  basilica  and  atrium, 
and  there  ate  the  food  which  had  been  given  out  in 
large  quantities.  The  Council  of  Laodicea  (363)  for- 
bade the  clergy  and  laity  who  should  be  present  at 
an  agape  to  make  it  a  means  of  supply,  or  to  take 
food  away  from  it,  at  the  same  time  that  it  forbade 
the  setting  up  of  tables  in  the  churches.  In  the  fifth 
century  the  agape  becomes  of  infrequent  occurrence, 
and  between  the  sixth  and  the  eighth  it  disappears 
altogether  from  the  churches. 

One  fact  in  connection  with  a  subject  at  present 
so  nuich  studied  and  discussed  seems  to  be  estab- 
lished beyond  question,  namely,  that  the  agape  was 
never  a  universal  institution.  If  found  in  one  place, 
there  is  not  so  much  as  a  trace  of  it  in  another,  nor 
any  reason  to  suppose  that  it  ever  existed  there.  A 
feeling  of  veneration  for  the  dead  inspired  the  fu- 
neral banquet,  a  feeling  closely  akin  to  a  Christian 
inspiration.  Death  was  not  looked  upon  as  the  end 
of  the  whole  man,  but  as  the  l3eginning  of  a  new 
and  mysterious  span  of  life.  Tlie  last  meal  of  Christ 
with  His  Apostles  pointed  to  this  belief  of  a  lite  after 
death,  but  added  to  it  something  new  and  unparal- 
leled, the  Eucharist  ic  communion.  It  would  be  use- 
less to  look  for  analogies  between  the  funeral  ban- 
quet and  the  Eucharistic  supper,  yet  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  Eucharistic  supper  was  funda- 
mentally a  funerary  memorial. 

Batiffol,  Elurles  d'histoire  et  de  theologie  positive  (Paris, 
1902),  277-311;  Funk  in  the  Rrviie  d'histoire  eccUsingtigite 
(15  Januar.v,  1903):  Keating,  The  Agape  and  the  Eucharist 
m  the  Early  Church  (I.ondon,  1901);  Leclercq  in  Diet, 
d'nrchiol.  chrit.  rt  de  lit.,  I,  ml.  775-848. 

H.  Leclercq. 

Agapetae  (a.yairr)Tai,  beloved).  In  the  first  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  tlie  Agapeta;  were  virgins 
who  consecrated  themselves  to  God  with  a  vow  of 
chastity  and  associated  with  laymen.  In  the  be- 
ginning tliis  community  of  spiritual  life  and  mutual 
support,  wliich  was  ba.sed  on  St.  Paul's  First  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians  (ix,  5),  was  holy  and  edifying.  But 
later  it  resulted  in  abu.ses  and  scaml.'ds,  so  that 
councils  of  the  fourth  century  forbade  it.  The 
origin  of  this  association  was  very  proliably  that 
these  virgins,  who  did  not  hve  in  community,  re- 
quired laymen  to  look  after  their  material  in- 
terests, and  they  naturally  chose  those  who,  like 
them.selves,  had  taken  a  vow  of  chastity.  St. 
Jerome  a.skod  indignantly  (Ep.,  xxii,  ad  Eustochium) 
after  it  had  degenerated,  Unde  in  ccdcsias  Aga- 
pctarntn  pentis  introiit  ?  A  letter  of  St.  Cyprian 
sliows  that  abuses  of  this  kind  developed  in  Africa 
and  in  the  East  (Ep.,  iv.,  Ed.  Ilartel).  The  Coun- 
cil of  Ancyra,  in  314,  forbade  virgins  consecrated  to 
God  to  live  thus  with  men  as  sisters.     This  did  not 


correct  the  practice  entirely,  for  St.  Jerome  arraigns 
Syrian  monks  for  living  in  cities  with  Christian  vir- 
gins. The  Agapetae  are  sometimes  confounded  with 
the  subinlroductcc,  or  women  who  lived  with  clerics 
without  marriage,  a  class  against  which  the  third 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Nice  (3:25)  was  directed. 
The  word  Agapetie  was  also  tlie  name  of  a  branch 
of  the  Gnostics  in  395,  whose  tenet  was  that  the  re- 
lations of  the  sexes  were  purified  of  impropriety  if 
the  mind  was  pure.  They  taught  that  one  should 
perjure  himself  rather  than  reveal  the  secrets  of  his 
sect. 

Hemmeh  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.  s.  v.;  and  in  Giraud.  Bibl. 
Sae.,  I,  207-208;  Achelis,  Yirgines  Subintruducta  (Leipzig 
1902). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Agapetus,  a  deacon  of  the  church  of  Sancta  Sophia 
at  Constantinople  (about  500),  reputed  tutor  of 
Justinian,  and  author  of  a  series  of  exhortations  in 
72  short  chapters  addressed  (c.  527)  to  that  emperor 
(P.G.,  LXXXVI,  1153-86).  The  first  letters  of 
each  chapter  form  an  acrostic  of  dedication  that 
reads:  The  very  humble  Deacon  Agapetus  to  the 
sacred  and  venerable  Emperor  Justinian.  The  little 
work  deals  in  general  terms  with  the  moral,  religious, 
and  political  duties  of  a  ruler.  In  form  it  is  quite 
sententious  and  rhetorical,  and  resembles  closely  a 
similar  work  in  the  romance  of  Barlaam  and  Joasaph. 
Both  of  these  seem  to  be  based  on  Isocrates,  and  on 
Basil  the  Great  and  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  The 
work  of  Agapetus  was  eminently  fitted  for  the  use 
of  medieval  teachers  by  reason  of  its  edifying  con- 
tent, the  purity  of  its  Greek  diction,  and  its  skilful 
construction.  It  was  translated  into  Latin,  French, 
and  German,  and  was  highly  conunended  by  the 
humanists  of  the  Renaissance.  Some  twenty  edi- 
tions of  it  appeared  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Krumbacher.  Gcsch.  d.byz.  Lit.,  I,  450-457;  K.  Pr.echter, 
Bt/z.  Zeitschr.  (1893),  II,  444-4G0;  Fabricids,  Bibl.  Gr., 
VIII,  36  sq. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Agapetus  I  (also  Ag.\pitus),  Saint,  Pope  (53.5- 
536),  date  of  birth  uncertain;  d.  21.'  April,  536.  He 
was  the  son  of  Gordianus,  a  Roman  priest  who  had 
been  slain  during  the  riots  in  the  days  of  Pope  Sym- 
machus.  His  first  official  act  was  to  bum  in  the 
presence  of  the  assembled  clergy  the  anathema 
which  Boniface  II  (q.  v.)  had  pronounced  against 
the  latter's  rival  Dioscurus  and  had  ordered  to  be 
preserved  in  the  Roman  archives.  He  confirmed  the 
decrees  of  the  council  held  at  Carthage,  after  the 
liberation  of  Africa  from  the  \'andal  yoke,  according 
to  which  converts  from  Arianism  were  declared 
ineligible  to  Holy  Orders  and  those  already  ordained 
were  merely  admitted  to  lay  communion.  He  ac- 
cepted an  appeal  from  Contimieliosus,  Bishop  of 
Riez,  whom  a  council  at  Marseilles  had  condemned 
for  immorality,  and  he  ordered  St.  Csesarius  of  Aries 
to  grant  the  accused  a  new  trial  before  papal  dele- 
gates. Meanwhile  Bclisarius,  after  the  very  easy 
conquest  of  Sicily,  was  preparing  for  an  invasion  of 
Italy.  The  Gothic  king,  Theodeliad,  as  a  last  resort, 
begged  the  aged  pontiff  to  proceed  to  Constantinople 
and  bring  his  personal  influence  to  bear  on  the 
Emperor  Justinian.  To  defray  the  costs  of  the 
embassy,  Agapetus  was  compelled  to  pledge  the 
sacred  vessels  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  set  out 
in  midwinter  with  five  bishops  and  an  imposing 
retinue.  In  February,  536,  he  appeareil  in  the  capi- 
tal of  the  East  and  was  received  with  all  tlie  honours 
befitting  the  head  of  the  Catliolic  Church.  As  he 
no  doubt  had  foreseen,  tlie  ostcnsilile  object  of  his 
visit  wa.s  doomed  to  failure.  Justinian  could  not  be 
swerved  from  his  resolve  to  re-establish  the  rights  of 
the  ICmpire  in  Italy.  But  from  the  ecclesiastical 
standpoint,  the  visit  of  the  Pope  in  Constantinople 
issued  in  a  triumph  scarcely  less  memorable  than  the 
campaigns  of  Belisarius.     'fhe  then  occupant  of  the 


AGAPETUS 


203 


AGATHA 


Byzantine  See  was  a  certain  Anthimus,  who  without 
the  authority  of  the  canons  had  left  his  episcopal 
see  of  Trebizond  to  join  the  crj'pto-Monopliysites 
who,  in  conjunction  with  the  Knipress  Theodora 
were  then  intriguing  to  untleniiiiie  (lie  authority 
of  the  Council  of  Chaloeddn.  Against  the  protests  of 
the  orthodox,  the  Kinpress  finally  scaled  Anthimus 
in  the  patriarchal  chair.  No  sooner  had  the  Pope 
arrived  tlian  the  most  prominent  of  the  clcrgj'  en- 
tered charges  against  the  new  patriarch  as  an  in- 
truder and  a  heretic.  Agapctu-s  ordered  him  to  make 
a  written  profession  of  faith  and  to  return  to  his 
forsaken  see;  upon  his  refusal,  he  declined  to  have 
any  relations  with  him.  This  vexed  the  Kmperor, 
who  hail  been  deceived  by  his  wife  as  to  the  orthotloxy 
of  her  favourite,  and  he  went  so  far  as  to  threaten 
the  Pope  with  banishment.  Agapetus  replied  with 
spirit:  "  With  eager  longing  have  1  come  to  gaze  upon 
tlie  Most  Christian  Emperor  Justinian.  In  his  place 
I  find  a  Diocletian,  whose  threats,  however,  terrify 
me  not."  This  intrepid  language  made  Justinian 
pause;  and  being  finally  convinced  tliat  Anthimus 
was  unsound  in  faith,  he  made  no  objection  to  the 
Pope's  exercising  the  plenitude  of  his  powers  in 
deposing  and  suspending  the  intruder  and,  for  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  the  Church,  personally 
consecrating  his  legally  elected  successor,  Mennas. 
This  memorable  exercise  of  the  papal  prerogative 
was  not  soon  forgotten  by  the  Orientals,  who,  to- 
gether with  the  Latins,  venerate  him  as  a  saint.  In 
order  to  clear  himself  of  everj'  suspicion  of  abetting 
heresy,  Justinian  delivered  to  the  Pope  a  written 
profession  of  faith,  which  the  latter  accepted  with 
tlie  judicious  proviso  that  "  although  he  could  not 
ailmit  in  a  layman  the  right  of  teaching  religion,  yet 
he  observed  with  pleasure  that  the  zeal  of  the  Em- 

feror  was  in  perfect  accord  with  the  decisions  of  the 
athers  ".  Shortly  afterwards  .\gapctus  fell  ill  and 
tlied,  after  a  gloriovis  reign  of  ten  months.  His 
remains  were  brought  in  a  leaden  coffin  to  Rome 
and  deposited  in  St.  Peter's.  His  memory  is  kept 
on  20  September,  the  day  of  his  deposition.  The 
Greeks  commemorate  him  on  22  April,  the  day  of 
his  death. 

Lihrr  Ponlificalis  (ed.  DtrcHESNE),  I,  287-289;  Cleus  in 
Aria  SS.,  Sept.,  VI,  163-179;  AitTACU  de  iloNTon,  Liva  of 
the  Popct  (New  York,  1807).  1,  123.  124. 

J.\MES  F.  LOUGHLIN. 

Agapetus  II,  Pope,  a  Roman  by  birth,  elected 
to  the  papacy  10  May,  916;  he  reigned,  not  in- 
gloriously,  for  ten  years,  during  what  has  been  termed 
the  period  of  deepest  humiliation  for  the  papacy. 
He  proved  that  the  true  spiritual  dignity  of  the 
papacy  can  lie  successfully  upheld  by  a  samtly  and 
resolute  pontiff  amid  the  most  untoward  surround- 
ings. The  temporal  power  had  practically  vanished 
and  Rome  w.as  ruled  by  the  vigorous  Princeps  and 
Srnntor  .Mbericht,  who  was  the  prototype  of  the  later 
Italian  tyrants.  Nevertheless,  the  name  and  virtues 
of  .\gapetus  were  respected  throughout  the  entire 
Christian  world.  He  laboured  incessantly  to  re- 
store the  decadent  di-scipline  in  churches  and  cloisters. 
He  succeeded  eventually  in  quieting  the  disturbances 
in  the  metropolitan  see  of  Reims.  He  supported 
the  Emperor  Otto  the  Great  in  his  plans  for  the 
evangelization  of  the  heathens  of  the  North.  Seeing 
no  other  way  of  putting  an  end  to  anarchy  in  Italy, 
he  joined  with  other  Italian  nobles  in  persuading 
the  Emperor  to  make  his  first  expedition  into  the 
peninsula.  During  his  lifetime,  his  succe.<,sor  was 
virtually  appointed  in  the  person  of  .Vlbericht's 
notorious  son  Octavian,  later  John  XII,  whose  father 
forced  the  Romans  to  swear  that  they  would  elect 
him  as  their  temporal  and  spiritual  lord  upon  the 
demise  of  Agapetus.  The  Pope  died  in  August,  950, 
leaving  an  unsulUed  name,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
John  Latcran. 


Libff  PonHficalU  (ed.  Duchesne),  II,  245.  For  his  cor. 
rcsponilcncc  nee  Jafke,  Rtgetta  KR.  PP.,  2d  ed..  1,  46iH463; 
Ahtaud  ue  Montor.  Hitlory  of  the  Popes  (New  York.  1807), 
250-201. 

James  F.   Loughlin. 

Agar,  Wii,Li.\M  Seth,  an  English  Canon,  b.  at 
York,  2,5  December,  181.');  d.  23  August,  1.S72.  Ho 
was  etlucated  at  Prior  Park,  Bath,  and  was  orilained 
priest  there,  and  appouitcd  (1845)  to  Lyme,  Dorset- 
shire. Ill  health  obliged  him  to  leave  Lyme  twice, 
antl  in  1852  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  canon- 
esses  of  St.  .Augustine  at  Abbotsleigh,  where  he  lived 
uninterruptedly  to  his  death.  In  1850  he  was  in- 
stalled as  Canon  of  the  Plymouth  Chapter.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  "one  of  the  most  deeply  versed 
priests  in  England  in  ascetical  and  mystical  theology, 
and  in  the  operations  of  grace  in  .souls".  He  was 
more  a  profoimd  thinker  than  a  great  reader,  al- 
though he  studied  many  theological  anil  philosophical 
Works,  especially  the  published  writings  of  his  fa^ 
vourite  author,  Kosmini,  which  he  carefully  anno- 
tated. 

The  Tablet  (London).  7  Sept..  1872;  Gillow,  BMiogr. 
Diet,  of  English  Calhotict,  I,  9. 

John  J.  \'  Becket. 

Agata  dai  Ooti,  Santa.    See  Santa  .■Vgata  dei 

GOTI. 

Agate.     See  Stones,  Preciods,  in  Bible. 

Agatha,  Saint,  martyr,  one  of  the  most  highly 
venerated  virgin  martyrs  of  Christian  antiquity,  put 
to  death  for  her  steailfast  profession  of  faith  in 
Catania,  Sicily.  Although  it  is  uncertain  in  which 
persecution  this  took  place,  we  may  accept,  as 
probably  bxsed  on  ancient  tradition,  the  evidence 
of  her  legendary  life,  composed  at  a  later  date,  to  the 
effect  that  her  martyrdom  occurred  during  the  per- 
secution of  Decius  (2.50-2.13).  Historic  certitude 
attaches  merely  to  the  fact  of  her  martyrdom  and 
the  pubUc  veneration  paid  her  in  the  Church  since 

Frimitive  times.  In  the  so-called  "  Martyrologium 
lieronymianum "  (ed.  De  Ros.si  and  Duchesne,  in 
Acta  SS.,  Nov.  II,  17)  and  in  the  ancient  MartjTO- 
logium  Carthaginiense  dating  from  the  fifth  or  sixth 
century  (Ruinart,  Acta  Sincera,  Ratisbon,  1859, 
634),  the  name  of  St.  Agatha  is  recorded  on  5  Febru- 
ary. In  the  sixth  century  Venantius  Fortunatus 
mentions  her  in  his  poem  on  virginity  as  one  of  the 
celebrated  Christian  virgins  and  martyrs  (Carm., 
VIII,  4,  De  Virginitate:  IlUc  Euphemia  pariter  quoque 
plaudit  .\gathe  Et  Justina  simul  consociante  Thecla, 
etc.).  Among  the  poems  of  Pope  Damasus  pub- 
lished by  Merenda  and  others  is  a  hymn  to  St. 
Agatha  (P.  L.,  XIII,  403  sqq.;  Ihm,  Dama-si  Epi- 
grammata,  75,  Leipzig,  1895).  However,  this  poem 
is  not  the  work  of  Damasus  but  the  product  of  an 
unknown  author  at  a  later  period,  and  was  evidently 
meant  for  the  liturgical  celebration  of  the  Saint's 
fcxst.  Its  content  is  drawn  from  the  legend  of 
St.  Agatha,  and  the  poem  is  marked  by  end-rhyme. 
From  a  letter  of  Pope  Gcl.asius  (492—190)  to  a  certain 
Bishop  Victor  (Thiel,  Epist.  Roman.  Pont.,  495)  we 
learn  of  a  Basilica  of  St.  Agatha  in  jundo  Caclnnn, 
i.  e.,  on  the  estate  of  that  name.  The  letters  of 
Gregory  I  make  mention  of  a  church  of  St.  Agatha 
at  Rome,  in  the  Subura,  with  which  a  diaconia 
or  deaconry  (q.  v.)  was  connected  (Epp.,  IV,  19; 
P.  L.,  LX^tVlI,  OSS).  It  was  in  existence  as  early 
as  the  fifth  centurj-,  for  in  the  latter  half  of  thiit 
century  Ricimer  enriched  it  with  a  mosaic.  This 
same  church  was  given  the  .\rian  Goths  by  Ricimer 
and  was  restored  to  Catholic  worship  by  Pope  f!reg- 
ory  I  (590-004).  .Vlthough  the  marfJTilom  of  St. 
Agatha  is  thus  authenticated,  .and  her  vener.ation 
as  a  saint  h.ad  even  in  antiquity  spread  beyond  her 
native  place,  we  still  pos.sess  no  rcli.able  information 
concerning  the  details  of  her  glorious  death.     It  is 


AGATHANGELUS 


204 


AGATHO 


true  that  we  have  the  Acts  of  her  martyrdom  in  two 
versions,  Latin  and  Greek,  the  latter  deviating  from 
the  former  (Acta  SS.,  I,  Feb.,  595  sqq.).  Neitlier  of 
tlicse  recensions,  however,  can  lay  any  claim  to 
historical  credibility,  and  neither  gives  the  necessary 
internal  evidence  that  the  information  it  contains 
rests,  even  in  the  more  important  details,  upon 
genuine  tradition.  If  there  is  a  kernel  of  historical 
truth  in  the  narrative,  it  has  not  as  yet  been  possible 
to  .sift  it  out  from  the  later  embelhshments.  In  their 
present  form  the  Latin  Acts  are  not  older  than  tlie 
sixth  century.  According  to  them  Agatha,  daughter 
of  a  distinguisheil  family  and  remarkable  for  her 
beauty  of  person,  was  persecuted  by  the  Senator 
Quintianus  with  avowals  of  love.  As  his  proposals 
were  resolutely  spurned  by  the  pious  Christian  virgin, 
lie  committed  her  to  the  charge  of  an  evil  woman, 
whose  seductive  arts,  however,  were  baffled  by 
.Agatha's  unswerving  firmness  in  the  Christian  faith. 
Quintianus  then  had  her  subjected  to  various  cruel 
tortures.  Especially  inhuman  seemed  his  order  to 
have  her  breasts  cut  off,  a  detail  which  furnished  to 
the  Christian  medieval  iconography  the  peculiar 
characteristic  of  Agatha.  But  the  holy  virgin  was 
consoled  by  a  vision  of  St.  Peter,  who  miraculously 
cured  her.  Eventually  she  succumbed  to  the  re- 
peated cruelties  practised  on  her.  As  already  stated, 
these  details,  in  so  far  as  they  are  based  on  the  Acts, 
have  no  claim  to  historical  credibility.  .Allard  also 
characterizes  the  Acts  as  the  work  of  a  later  author 
who  was  more  concerned  with  writing  an  edifying 
narrative,  abounding  in  miracles,  than  in  transmit- 
ting historical  traditions.  Both  Catania  and  Palermo 
claim  the  honour  of  being  Agatha's  birthplace.  Her 
feast  is  kept  on  5  February;  her  office  in  the  Roman 
Breviary  is  drawn  in  part  from  the  Latin  Acts. 
Catania  honours  St.  Agatha  as  her  patron  saint,  and 
throughout  the  region  around  Mount  Etna  she  is 
invoked  against  the  eruptions  of  the  volcano,  as  else- 
where again.st  fire  and  hghtning.  In  some  places 
bread  and  water  are  blessed  during  Mass  on  her 
feast  after  the  Consecration,  and  called  Agatha 
bread. 

Acta  SS.,  loc.  cit.;  Joan  de  Grossis,  Agatha  Catanensia 
eivc  de  natali  patrid  S.  Agathx,  dissert,  histor.  (Catania, 
1656);  Allard,  Histoire  des  persecutions  (Paris,  1886),  II, 
301  sqq.;  Hymnus  de  S.  Agathd,  in  Ihm,  Daniasi  epigrammata 
(Leipzig,  1895),  75  sqq.;  Butler,  Lives,  5  Feb. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Agathangelus,  a  supposed  secretary  of  Tiri- 
dates  II,  King  of  Armenia,  under  whose  name  there 
has  come  down  a  life  of  the  first  apostle  of  Armenia, 
Gregory  the  Illuminator,  who  died  about  332.  It 
purports  to  exhibit  the  deeds  and  discourses  of 
Gregory,  and  has  reached  us  in  Armenian  and  in 
Greek.  The  Greek  text  is  now  recognized  as  a  trans- 
lation, made  probably  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth 
century,  while  the  Armenian  is  original  and  belongs 
to  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century.  Von  Gut- 
schmid  maintains  that  the  unknown  author  made 
use  of  a  genuine  life  of  St.  Gregory,  also  of  a  history 
of  his  martyrdom  and  of  that  of  St.  Ripsime  and 
her  companions.  Historical  facts  are  intermingled 
in  this  life  with  legendary  or  uncertain  additions, 
and  the  whole  is  woven  into  a  certain  unity  by  the 
narrator,  who  may  have  assumed  his  significant  name 
from  his  quality  of  narrator  of  "the  good  news"  of 
Armenia's  conversion  ('A7a9i£77«Xos). 

Hardknhewkr,  Pdtrolonie,  2(1  eil.  (1901),  520.  521.  The 
Armenian  text  wa.i  printed  at  Constanlinople  (1709,  1824) 
an.i  at  Venice  (183.5,  I8(i2);  the  Greek  text  (with  a  French 
tran.ilation)  is  in  Lanoi.oih,  Collection  des  hialoriens  ancicna 
el  modemet  d'Armfnif  (Paris,  1807),  I,  97-163.  reprinted  from 
Acta  SS.,  Sept.,  VIII)  1762),  320-402;  Von  GtJTsciiMin, 
Atl/ithnrwrlos,  in  Zeitschrift  d.  dcutsch.  moraenl.  Gesellschaft 
(1877),  X.X.XI.  1-00. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Agathias,  a  Byzantine  historian  and  man  of  letters, 
b.  at  .\Iyrina  in  Asia  Minor  about  536;  d.  at  Constan- 


tinople 582  (594?).  He  is  a  principal  authority  for 
the  reign  of  Justinian  (527-65),  and  is  often  quoted 
by  ecclesiastical  historians.  He  was  probably  edu- 
cated at  Constantinople,  spent  some  time  at  Alex- 
andria, and  returned  to  the  royal  city  in  554,  where 
he  took  up  the  profession  of  law  and  became  a 
successful  pleader  at  the  bar.  His  tastes,  however, 
were  literary,  and  he  soon  produced  nine  books  of 
erotic  poetry  (Daphniaca),  also  epigrams  and  son- 
nets, many  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  so-called 
Palatine  Anthology.  He  wrote  also  marginal  notes 
on  the  Periegetes  of  Pausanias.  He  is  the  last  in 
whom  we  can  yet  trace  some  sparks  of  the  poetic 
fire  of  the  classic  epigrammatists.  At  the  age  of 
thirty  he  turned  to  the  writing  of  history  and  com- 
posed a  work  in  five  books  "On  the  Reign  of  Jus- 
tinian ".  It  deals  with  the  e\'ents  of  552-558,  and 
depicts  the  wars  with  the  Goths,  Vandals,  and 
Franks,  as  well  as  those  against  the  Persians  and  the 
Huns.  He  is  the  continuator  of  Procopius,  whom 
he  imitates  in  form  and  also  in  the  abundance  of 
attractive  episodes.  Agathias,  it  has  been  said,  is 
a  poet  and  a  rhetorician,  while  Procopius  is  a  soldier 
and  a  statesman.  The  former  loves  to  gi^•e  free  play 
to  his  imagination,  and  his  pages  abound  in  philo- 
sophic reflexion.  He  is  able  and  reliable,  though 
he  gathered  his  information  from  eye-witnesses,  and 
not,  as  Procopius,  in  the  exercise  of  high  military  and 
political  offices.  He  delights  in  depicting  the  man- 
ners, customs,  and  religion  of  the  foreign  peoples  of 
whom  he  writes;  the  great  disturbances  of  his  time, 
earthquakes,  plagues,  famines,  attract  his  attention, 
and  he  does  not  fail  to  insert  "many  incidental 
notices  of  cities,  forts,  and  rivers,  philosophers,  and 
subordinate  commanders  ".  Many  of  his  facts  are 
not  to  be  found  elsewhere,  and  he  has  always  been 
looked  on  as  a  valuable  authority  for  the  period  he 
describes.  There  are  reasons  for  doubting  that  he 
was  a  Christian,  though  it  seems  improbable  that 
he  could  have  been  at  that  late  date  a  genuine  pagan. 
Dr.  Milligan  thinks  (Diet,  of  Chr.  Biogr.  I,  59) 
that  "he  had  gained  from  Christianity  those  just 
notions  of  God  and  religion  to  which  he  often  gi\'es 
expression,  but  that  he  had  not  embraced  its  more 
peculiar  truths."  His  history  was  edited  by  B.  G. 
Niebuhr  for  the  "Corpus  SS.  Bvzant. "  (Bonn,  1828; 
P.O.,  LXXXVIII,  1248-1608),  and  is  also  in  Dindorf, 
"Hist.  Gra;ci  minores"  (1871),  II,  132-453. 

Krumbacher,  Gesch.  d.  byzant.  Lilt.  I,  240-242;  Bury.  His- 
tory of  tlie  Later  Roman  Empire  (London,   1889).  II.  179-81. 

Thom.\s  J.  Shahan. 

Agatho,  Saint,  Pope,  b.  towards  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century  in  Sicily;  d.  in  Rome,  681.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  Agatho  was  originally  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  at  St.  Hermes  in  Palermo,  and  there 
is  good  authority  that  he  was  more  than  100  years 
old  when,  in  678,  he  ascended  the  papal  chair  as 
successor  to  Pope  Donus.  Shortly  after  Agatho  be- 
came Pope,  St.  Wilfred,  Archbishop  of  York,  who 
had  been  unjustly  and  uncanonically  deposed  from 
his  see  by  Theodore  of  Canterbury,  arrived  at  Rome 
to  invoke  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See  in  his  behalf. 
At  a  synod  which  Pope  Agatho  convoked  in  the 
Lateran  to  investigate  the  affair,  Wilfred  was  re- 
stored to  his  see.  The  chief  event  of  Agatho's  pon- 
tificate is,  however,  the  Sixth  Oecumenical  Council, 
held  at  Constantinople  in  680,  at  which  the  papal 
legates  presided  and  which  practically  ended  the 
Monothelite  heresy.  Before  the  decrees  of  the  coun- 
cil arrived  in  Rome  for  the  approval  of  the  pope, 
Agatho  had  died.  He  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's, 
10  January,  681.  Pope  .4gatho  was  remarkable  for 
his  affability  and  charity.  On  account  of  the  many 
miracles  he  wrought  he  has  been  styled  Thauma- 
liircfu.'i,  or  Wonderworker.  His  memory  is  cele- 
brated by  the  Latin  as  well  as  the  Greek  church. 


AGAUNUM 


205 


AGAUNUM 


Mann.  Livet  of  the  Popet  in  tilt  Earl)/  Middle  Aget  (Lon- 
don. 1902);  BiTl-Kli.  Livel  of  tiie  Saxnta;  Babino-Gould, 
/,tvi'»  of  the  Saints  (London,  1877);  Montalembebt,  Tht 
Monkt  of  the  West  (Boston),  II,  383  8qq.;  MoBKBLY  in 
bid.  of  Christ,  liioar.  (London,  1877);  I^bkowitz,  Statistik 
der  Papste  (Krciburg  and  St.  Louis,   1905). 

MiCH.VEL     OtT. 

Agaunum,  M.vktyrs  of.    See  Ag.\unu.m. 

Agaunum  (to-day  St.  M.\urice-en-Val.\is)  in  the 
diocese  of  Sion,  Switzerland,  owes  it.s  fame  to  an 
event  related  by  St.  Euclierius,  Ui.shop  of  Lyons,  tlie 
martyrdom  of  a  Roman  legion,  known  as  the  "Theban 
Legion",  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century. 
I'or  centuries  this  martyrdom  was  accepted  as  an 
historical  fact,  but  since  the  Keformatlon  it  has 
been  the  subject  of  long  and  violent  controversies, 
;in  exact  account  of  which  may  be  found  in  the 
work  of  I'ranz  StoUe.  The  sources  for  the  martyr- 
dom of  tlie  Thebans  are  few,  consisting  of  two  edi- 
tions of  their  "Acts  ",  certain  entries  in  the  calendars 
and  in  the  martjTologies,  and  the  letter  of  Bishop 
Eucherius.  written  in  the  year  450.     To  these  may 


dom,  though  his  account  has  many  excellent  quali- 
ties, historical  as  well  as  literary.  Certain  facts  are 
related  with  exactitude,  and  the  author  has  re- 
frained from  all  miraculous  additions.  Hut  on  the 
other  hand,  the  speeches  which  he  attributes  to  the 
martyrs,  and  the  allusion  by  which  he  strives  to 
connect  the  massacre  of  the  Theban  Legion  with 
the  gt'iicral  persecution  under  Diocletian  have  given 
ri.se  to  much  discussion.  The  speeches  were  proba- 
bly of  the  Bishop's  own  composition;  the  historical 
groundwork  on  which  he  professes  to  base  the  mar- 
tyrdom is  wholly  independent  of  the  original  narra- 
tive. Tlie  objections  raised  against  the  fact  itself, 
and  the  attempts  made  to  reduce  the  massacre  of 
the  legion  to  the  mere  death  of  six  men,  one  of 
whom  W!is  a  veteran,  do  not  seem  to  merit  attention. 
I'.arlxiroiis  as  it  may  apix;ar,  there  is  nothing  in- 
credible in  the  ma.ssacre  of  a  legion;  instances  might 
lie  cited  in  support  of  so  unusual  an  occurrence, 
though  it  is  (luite  possible  that  at  Agaunum  we 
have   to  do   not  witn  a  legion,  but  with  a  simple 


OF  St.  MAmfrE,  Aoauxcm 


be  added  certain  "Pa-ssiones"  of  Theban  martyrs, 
who  escaix-d  from  the  ma.ssacre  of  .\gaunuin,  but 
who  later  fell  victims  to  the  persecution  in  CSermany 
and  Italy.  It  was  only  in  the  episcopate  of  Theo- 
dore of  Octodurum  (3(i"9-.391 ),  a  long  time  after  the 
occurrence,  that  attention  seems  to  have  been 
drawn  to  the  massacre  of  a  Homan  legion  at  Agau- 
nimi.  It  w:us  then  that,  according  to  St.  Eucherius, 
a  basilica  was  built  in  honour  of  the  martyrs,  whose 
presence  had  been  made  known  to  Bishop  Theodore 
by  means  of  a  revelation.  The  document  of  primary 
importance  in  connection  with  this  historj'  is  the 
letter  of  .St.  Eucherius  to  Bishop  Salvius,  wherein 
he  records  the  successive  witnesses  through  whom 
the  tradition  was  handed  down  to  his  time — over  a 
period,  that  is,  of  alxiut  one  hundred  and  fifty  years. 
He  had  journeyed  to  the  place  of  martyrdom, 
whither  pilgrims  came  in  great  numbers,  and  had, 
he  says,  questioned  those  who  were  able  to  tell 
him  the  truth  concerning  the  matter.  He  does  not, 
however,  appear  to  have  seen  a  text  of  the  martyr- 


rt'jrillalio.  The  silence  of  contemporary  historians, 
which  has  been  appealed  to  .as  an  unanswerable 
argument  against  the  truth  of  the  martyrdom  of 
the  Thebans,  is  far  from  having  the  weight  that 
has  been  given  it.  Paul  .\llard  luus  shown  this 
very  clearly  by  pro\ing  that  there  was  no  reason 
why  Sulpicius  Severus,  Orosius,  Prufientius,  Euse- 
biiis,  or  Lactantius  should  have  spoken  of  the 
Theban  martyrs.  He  fixes  the  date  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom as  prior  to  the  year  '292,  not,  as  generally 
received,  in  303.  Dom  Ruinart,  Paul  .\llard,  and 
the  editors  of  the  ".\nalecta  Hollandiana"  are  of 
opinion  that  "the  martyrdom  of  the  legion,  attested, 
as  it  is,  by  ancient  and  reliable  evidence,  cannot  be 
called  in  question  by  any  honest  mind".  This 
optimistic  view,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have 
convinced  all  the  critics.  (See  EucHEiiius  of  Lyoxs; 
M  \rRi(-E,  St.) 

The  letter  of  Eucherius  gives  us  no  details  as  to 
the  rule  imposed  on  the  prii»ts  entrusted  by  Theo- 
dore of  Octodurum   with   the  care  of  the  basilica 


AGAZZARI 


206 


AGE 


at  Agaunum;  nor  do  wc  know  whether  they  were 
regulars  or  secuUirs,  though  a  sermon  of  St.  Avitus, 
Bishop  of  Vienne,  wouhl  appear  to  indicate  the 
existence  of  a  monastic  foundation,  which  was  re- 
placed and  renewed  by  tlie  foundation  of  Sigismund, 
King  of  tlic  Burg\mdians.  Of  the  two  documents 
whicli  confirm  tliis  view,  the  "Vita  Severini  Acaun- 
ensis"  is  utterly  luireliable,  being  a  tissue  of  con- 
tradictions and  falsehoods;  the  "Vita  Sanctorum 
Abbatum  Acaunensium",  a  work  of  slight  value, 
to  be  received  with  caution,  though  certain  facts 
may  be  gathered  from  it.  At  the  date  of  Sigis- 
mund's  first  gifts  to  Agaunum  the  commvmity  was 
governed  by  .\bbot  Eneniodus,  who  died  3  Januarj', 
516.  His  next  successor  but  one,  Ambrosius,  brought 
Agaunum  into  notice  by  an  innovation  unknown 
in  the  West,  the  Perpetual  Psalmody,  in  522  or 
523  at  latest.  This  Perpetual  Psalmody,  or  laiis 
perennis,  was  carried  on,  day  and  night,  by  several 
choirs,  or  tnrm:r,  who  succeeded  each  other  in  the 
recitation  of  the  Divine  Office,  so  that  prayer  went 
on  without  cessation.  This  laiis  perennis  was  prac- 
tised in  the  East  by  the  Acoemetse  (q.  v.),  and  its 
inauguration  at  Agaunum  was  the  occasion  of  a 
solemn  ceremony,  and  of  a  sermon  by  St.  Avitus 
which  has  come  down  to  us.  The  "custom  of 
Agaunum ",  as  it  came  to  be  called,  spread  over 
Gaul,  to  Lyons,  Chalons,  the  Abbey  of  Saint  Denis, 
to  Luxeuil,  Saint  Germain  at  Paris,  Saint  M^dard  at 
Soissons,  to  Saint-Riquier,  and  was  taken  up  by  the 
monks  of  Remiremont  and  Laon,  though  the  Abbey 
of  Agaunum  had  ceased  to  practise  it  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century.  But  Agaunum  had  gained 
a  world-wide  fame  by  its  martyrs  and  its  psalmody. 
The  abbey  had  some  of  the  richest  and  best 
preserved  treasures  in  the  West.  Among  the  price- 
less and  artistically  exqtiisite  pieces  of  goldsmith 
work,  we  need  only  mention  the  chdsse  (reliquary), 
decorated  with  glass  mosaic,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  West  for  the  study  of  the  beginnings 
of  barbarian  and  Byzantine  art.  It  ranks  with  the 
armour  of  Childeric,  the  Book  of  the  Gospels  at 
Monza  in  Italy,  and  the  crowns  of  Guarrazar  in 
Spain.  It  is  decorated  not  only  with  mosaics,  but 
with  tiles  and  precious  stones,  smooth  or  engraved. 
The  front  is  ornamented  with  a  medallion,  long 
taken  for  a  cameo,  but  which  is  a  unique  piece  of 
work  in  spun  glass.  Its  date  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed. The  back  bears  a  long  inscription,  which 
unfortunately  afforcLs  no  solution  of  the  problem, 
b>it  we  may  agree  with  d'Arbois  de  Jubainville 
that  it  is  not  of  earlier  date  than  the  year  563. 

Stolle,  Daa  Marlyrium  der  Ihebdischen  Lcfjion  (Breslau, 
1890);  Allard,  Le  Martyre  de  la  Icpion  thebcennc,  Hist,  des 
perseciUwns  (Pari.?.  1890;  V,  33.5-364);  Anakcta  boltandiana 
(1891.  X,  3G9-370);  Schmidt,  Der  hi.  Mauritius  und  seine 
GenoHsi-n  (Lucerne,  1893);  Kku.scu,  La  falsiUcatwn  des  ries 
de  saints  burgondes,  in  Melanges  Julien  Havet  (Paris,  1895); 
AcBEnT,  Tresnr  de  VAbbaye  de  Saint-Maurice  d'Agaune 
(Pans,  1872);  Leclebcq  in  Diet,  d'archiol.  chrel.  et  de  lit.  (1903, 
I,  850-871). 

H.  Lecleiicq. 
Agazzari,  .\gostini,  a  nuisic;il  composer,  b.  2  De- 
cember, 1578,  of  a  noble  f:imily  of  Sienna;  d.  probably 
10  April,  1640.  He  is  said  to  have  pas,sed  the  fir.s't 
years  of  his  professional  life  in  the  service  of  the 
Kniperor  Matthia-s.  He  wont  to  Rome  about  IfiOO, 
succeeding  Anerio  as  maestro  di  cappella  at  the  Gor- 
man College,  going  later  in  a  similar  capacity  to 
St.  Apollinaris  and  the  Roman  Seminary.  Viadana 
of  Mantua  gave  him  the  final  touches  of  his  musical 
education,  and  both  men  are  entitled  to  the  distinc- 
tion of  having  developed  thoroughba.ss  and  of  having 
taught  the  correct  method  of  figuring  a  bass.  Agaz- 
zari, in  his  "Sacra;  Cantioncs",  gives  hints  as  to  its 
use.  In  1630  he  returned  to  Sienna,  where  he  became 
mneslro  of  the  cathedral,  and  died  while  holding  that 
IH)st.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  .\r- 
luonici    lutronati,    and    one    of    the    most    fruitful 


composers  of  the  Roman  school.  His  numerous 
publications  comprise  masses  (1596-1008),  motets, 
Magnificats,  litanies,  etc.,  republished  frequently. 
They  are  mentioned  with  eulogies  in  Proske's  "Mu- 
sica  divina".  Besides  two  volumes  of  madrigals, 
he  also  wrote  a  dramatic  composition  for  a  nuptial 
celebration,  entitled  "Eumelio,  drama  pastorale" 
(Ronciglione,  1614),  and  a  pamphlet  (Sienna)  con- 
taining only  sixteen  pages,  entitled  "La  Musica 
ecclesiastica,  dove  si  contiene  la  vera  diffinizione 
della  musica  come  scienza,  non  pifi  veduta  e  sua 
nobilta ",  showing  how  church  music  sliould  con- 
form to  the  resolutions  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

KoRNMULLER,  Lex.  der  kirchl.  Tonkunst;  Grove,  Diet,  of 
Music  and  Musicians;  Naumann,  Geschichte  der  Musik. 

J.  A.  VoLKER. 

Agde,  Council  of,  held  in  506  at  Agatha  or  Agde 
in  Languedoc,  under  the  presidency  of  St.  Caesarius 
of  Aries.  It  was  attended  by  thirty-five  bishops, 
and  its  forty-seven  genuine  canons  deal  with  eccle- 
siastical discipline.  One  of  its  canons  (the  seventh), 
forbidding  ecclesiastics  to  sell  or  alienate  the  property 
of  the  church  whence  they  drew  their  li^•ing,  seems 
to  be  the  earliest  indication  of  the  later  system  of 
benefices.  In  general,  its  canons  shed  light  on  the 
moral  conditions  of  the  clergy  and  laity  in  southern 
France  at  the  beginning  of  the  transition  from  the 
Grffico-Roman  social  order  to  that  of  the  new  bar- 
barian conquerors.  They  are  also  of  some  impor- 
tance for  the  study  of  certain  early  ecclesiastical 
institutions. 

Mansi,  VIII,  323  sq;  Hefele,  Coneiliengesehichte,  2d.  ed. 
11,649-660. 

Thomas  J.   Shahan. 

Age,  Canonical. — The  word  age,  taken  in  its  widest 
meaning,  may  be  described  as  "  a  period  of  time  ". 
The  geologist,  physiologist,  and  jurist  define  it  differ- 
ently, each  from  his  own  view-point.  Jurists  define 
it  as  "that  period  of  life  at  which  the  law  allows 
persons  to  do  acts  and  discharge  functions  which,  for 
want  of  years,  they  were  prohibited  from  doing  or 
undertaking  before  "  (Bouvier's  Law  Diet.).  They 
divide  the  years  of  a  man  into  seven  ages,  to  wit: 
infancy,  from  the  day  of  birth,  not  baptism  (Sacr. 
Congr.  Cone,  4  December,  1627),  to  the  seventh 
year;  childhood,  7-14;  puberty,  14-25;  majority 
(young  manhood),  25-40;  manhood,  40-50  or  60; 
old  age,  6(J-70;'  decrepitude,  70-100,  or  death. 
The  terminal  year  in  each  of  the  above  ages  must 
be  complete.  Canonical  age  is  the  year  fixed  by 
the  canons,  or  law  of  the  Church,  at  w^hich  her  sub- 
jects become  capable  of  incurring  certain  obligations, 
enjoying  special  privileges,  embracing  special  states 
of  life,  holding  office  or  dignity,  or  receiving  the 
sacraments.  Each  and  every  one  of  these,  being  a 
human  act,  requires  a  development  of  mind  and 
body  proportioned  to  the  free  and  voluntary  accep- 
tance of  these  gifts  and  privileges,  also  an  ade- 
quate knowledge  of,  and  cajiability  for,  the  fluties 
and  obligations  attached.  Hence  the  Church  pre- 
scribes tliat  age  at  which  one  is  generally  supposed 
to  have  the  necessary  qualifications.  It  is  evident 
that  a  lesser  ilevclopmcnt  of  body  and  mind  is  nec- 
essary to  the  reception  of  baptism  than  is  required 
for  cither  matrimony  or  the  priesthood,  and  greater 
qualifications  for  the  higher  than  for  the  lower  offices. 
Hence,  the  canonical  age  necessarily  varies  as  <lo 
the  privileges,  offices,  dignities,  etc.  The  three 
states,  ecclesiastical,  religious,  and  laic,  embrace  all 
the  ecclesiastical  enactments  concerning  age. 

Ante-Tiudf.ntine  Discipline.  —  Ecclesiastical 
State. — The  ancient  discipline  was  neither  universal 
nor  fixed,  but  varied  with  circumstances  of  time  and 
locality.  The  requisite  age,  according  to  Gratian, 
for  tonsure  and  the  first  three  minor  orders,  i.  e. 
iloorkeepcr,    reader,    and   exorcist,   was   seven,   and 


207 


AGE 


for  acolyte,  twelve  years  complete.  Tlie  present  age 
for  tonsure  is  seven  full  years  (Cap.  4,  de  temp, 
ordin.  in  sexto;  Henedict  XIV',  "  Inter  sollieitos  ', 
§  9-179.i).  Subdeuconsliip  called  for  the  attaimnont 
of  the  twentieth  year  (Cone.  Trullanum,  (J'J'J;  Cone. 
Uothomag.,  1074).  Deaconship  re(|uiri'<l  the  thirtieth 
year  complete,  according  to  Pope  8iricius  (:isj — Orig. 
text — C.  ;{,  Dist.  77);  twenty-five  full  years  ac- 
cording to  various  councils,  including  that  of 
Toulouse  (10.'<0);  and  the  twentieth  year  inchoate  ac- 
cording to  Clement  V  (KJO.'j-lli).  For  priesthood,  al- 
though I'opo  Siricius  (loc.  cit.)  demanded  thirty-five 
years,  the  general  discipline  up  to  the  Latcran  Coun- 
cil exacted  only  thirty  full  years.  Di.sj)ensations  from 
that  age  were  frequently  granted,  owing  to  the  great 
need  for  priests  from  the  eighth  century  onward. 
The  aforesaid  Lateran  Council  fixed  the  necessary 
age  for  a  parochial  rector  at  the  twenty-fifth  year 
inchoate,  which  Clement  V  (loc.  cit.)  finally  con- 
firmed. The  episcopate  was  not  conferred  until  the 
completion  of  the  forty-fifth  year,  according  to 
Pope  Siricius  (loc.  cit.).  Various  councils  fi.xed  the 
episcopal  age  at  thirty  years  complete. 

Tridentine  Discipline. — The  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  xxiii,  cap.  4,  de  Reform.)  fi.xed  no  certain  age 
for  tonsure  and  minor  orders;  yet  the  ciualifications 
specified  by  it  for  tonsure  and  minor  orders  indicate 
seven  years  for  the  former,  and  a  more  advanced 
age  than  seven  for  the  latter,  which,  however,  may 
be  licitly  received  before  the  fourteenth  year  (ibid.,  c. 
4). — Major  Orders.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiii, 
cap.  I'J)  fixed  the  age  of  twenty-two  for  Subdeacon- 
ship,  twenty-three  for  Deaconship,  and  twenty-five 
for  the  Priesthood.  The  first  day  of  the  year  pre- 
scribed suffices  for  the  reception  of  the  Oriler.  Trent 
(Sess.  vii,  c.  1,  de  reform.)  confirmed  the  Lateran 
age  of  thirty  full  years  for  the  episcopate. — The  age 
for  cardinals  (even  cardinal-deacons)  was  fixed  by 
the  Council  (Se.ss.  xxiv,  de  reform.,  cap.  1)  at  thirty 
years  complete.  Sixtus  \,  however,  made  the 
twenty-second  year  inchoate  age  sufficient  for  cardi- 
n.il-deacon.  provided  that  within  a  year  he  can  be, 
and  is,  ordaineil  deacon,  under  penalty  of  loss  of 
active  and  passive  vote  in  all  consistories,  and  even 
in  the  conclave  for  the  election  of  a  pope. — Papacy. 
No  certain  age  is  fixed  by  law  for  election  to  the 
papacy.  History  records  the  election  of  some  very 
young  popes.  John  XI  wa.s  scarcely  twenty-three 
(I'uga),  or  twenty-four  (according  to  Heminus),  and 
John  XII  wa-s  not  twenty-two.  But  they  were  ex- 
ceptions. The  exalted  i«)sition  and  important  duties 
attached  to  the  papacy  require  qualifications  greater 
than  those  necessary  even  for  the  episcopate.  Con- 
sequently, a  mature  age  is  desired. — Dispensation 
from  the  canonical  age  is  a  relaxation  of  the 
canon  law ;  hence  the  pope  alone  can  ilispense.  He 
rarely  docs  .so  in  the  case  of  age  requisite  for  sub- 
deaconship  or  deaconship.  But  on  account  of  recent 
military  laws  in  certain  Euro]K"an  countries,  he  ha-s 
dispensed  with  the  age  prescribed  for  candidates 
for  subdeaconship.  Tliough  a  cleric  who  has  not 
completed  his  thirtieth  year  cannot  be  elected,  he  can 
be  postulated  for  (see  Ki.i-XTiox,  Postui,.\tion)  as 
bishop.  The  Holy  Father  ordinarily  refuses  unless 
the  cleric  is  fully  twenty-seven  years  old.  Bishops 
in  countries  subject  to  the  Congregation  of  Propa- 
ganda (e.  g.  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  the  United  States, 
Holland,  Cicrmany.  Canada,  .Australia,  India,  and 
the  Orient)  have  faculties  (Formula  I,  art.  3)  to 
dispense  (a)  with  twelve  months  in  the  ca.se  of 
candidates  for  priesthood,  whether  they  are  yet  in 
orders  or  not.  This  applies  to  regular  a-s  well  as 
secular  can<lidates  (Holy  Olfice,  29  January,  1896); 
(b)  with  fourteen  months  in  the  ca.se  of  dea- 
cons, also  regular  and  secular  candidates  for  the 
Eriesthood  (Formula  C.  art.  .'?,  etc.).  The  Canadian 
isliops  arc  empowered  (Formula  T,  art.  1)  to  dis- 


pense with  eighteen  months  in  case  of  fifteen  deacons 
(regular  and  secular)  about  to  be  ordained  priests. 
These  dispensations  do  not  apply  to  candidates  for 
sulxleaconsliip  or  deaconship.  Though  the  censures 
to  be  incurreil  by  the  violators  of  the  canonical 
ages,  according  to  ancient  law  and  the  constitution 
of  Pius  II,  have  been  abrogated  (see  Apost.  Skdis), 
nevertheless  the  vindictive  punishments,  i.  e.  pro- 
hibition to  exercise  the  order  recei^■ell  and  privation 
of  benefice  annexed,  still  remain  in  full  force  (Santi, 
I,  120,  n.  10;  Wernz.,  Jus  Decret.,  II,  148). 

BENEFICE.S. — No  special  age  was  fixed  by  ancient 
canons  for  collation  of  a  simple  benefice  (see  Be.ne- 
FICB,  Coll.\tU)N),  i.  e.  without  any  cure  of  .souls 
attached.  The  Council  of  Trent  reiiuired  the  four- 
teenth year  inchoate,  but  it  said  nothing  about  the 
age  for  benefices  whose  foundation  permitted  a  le.sser 
age.  For  such  seven  years  sufficed.  The  same  age 
was  sufficient  in  the  ca.se  of  canons  upon  whom 
collecti\ely,  not  singly,  the  cure  of  souls  devolved, 
a-s  also  of  recipients  of  cathedral  half-portions  and 
[jensions  arising  from  benefices.  Canons  of  collegi- 
ate churches  who.se  prebend  neither  by  founda- 
tions nor  by  custom  demanded  Sacred  Orders  in 
its  incumbent,  were  required  to  be  fourteen  years 
old.  The  Council  of  Trent  did  not  change  this  law. 
Dignitaries  of  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches 
with  cure  of  souls  attached  should  have  attained 
their  twenty-fifth  year  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  xxiv, 
cap.  12).  The  age  of  twenty-three  years  complete 
for  parochial  benefices,  as  fixed  by  the  papal  decre- 
tals (cap.  14,  de  elect,  in  sexto),  still  holds; 
the  Council  of  Trent  made  no  innovation  in  this 
matter.  The  decretal  age  of  fourteen  years  for 
cathedral  and  collegiate  dignitaries  without  cure 
of  souls  was  changed  to  twenty-two  years  complete, 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Se.ss.  xxiv,  de  reform., 
cap.  12,  §  ad  ca-teras).  .V  vicar-general  must  be 
twenty-five,  and  a  penitentiary,  or  diocesan  con- 
fciwor,  forty  years  inchoate.  lor  cathedral  canons 
there  was  no  fixed  decretal  age.  Clement  V,  how- 
ever, decreed  that  canons  not  having  at  least  sub- 
deaconship should  have  no  vote  in  the  chapter, 
and  tho.se  po.s.sessing  a  prebend  to  which  a  major 
order  was  alfixed  should  receive  that  order  within 
a  year,  under  forfeiture  of  half  the  daily  distri- 
butions and  of  a  vote  in  chapter.  Trent  decreed 
that  every  cathedral  prebend  should  have  attached 
to  it  one  of  the  three  major  orders,  which  must 
be  received  within  a  year  from  election  to  the 
office  of  canon.  It  advised  all  bishops  to  make 
division  of  the  canonries,  so  that  the  one  half  should 
be  presbytcral  and  the  other  half  diaconal  and 
subaiaconal.  Hence,  for  a  subdiaconal  prebend 
twenty  years  complete,  for  a  diaconal  twenty-one 
years  complete,  and  for  a  presbyteral  twenty-three 
years  complete  sufficed.  Where  the  Tritientine 
division  was  not  introduced  the  Clementine  law- 
qualifying  the  fourteen  years  holds.  Collation  of  a 
benefice  or  ecclesiastical  office,  without  papal  dis- 
pensation, upon  a  candidate  who  lacks  even  one 
day  of  the  necessary  age.  is  invalid. 

Ueligious  St.^te. — (icncrals,  provincials,  abbots, 
and  other  regular  prelates  having  quasi-episcopal 
jurisdiction  must,  according  to  many,  have  com- 
pleteil  their  thirtieth  year  before  election  (Ferraris, 
Wernz,  et  al.);  according  to  others,  the  twenty-fifth 
year  inchoate  will  suffice  (Piat,  Vemieersch,  and 
Ferrari).  The  various  orders  and  congregations, 
however,  have  their  peculiar  niles  as  to  the  requisite 
age  for  inferior  offices  and  dignities  in  their  re- 
spective organizations.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXV,  cap.  7,  de  regular,  et  monial.)  fixed  forty 
years  complete  and  eight  years  after  her  profes- 
sion for  an  abbe.s.s,  mother  general,  or  prioress  of 
any  religious  order  of  nuns.  Could  no  such  one  be 
found   in   the  monastery,   then   a  nun  over  thirty 


AGE 


208 


AGE 


years  old  and  more  than  five  years  a  professed,  can 
be  elected.  An  election  contrary  to  these  rules 
is  invalid.  For  clotliing  with  the  religious  habit 
or  entrance  into  the  novitiate  no  special  age  wsis 
fixed  by  decretal  law.  Clement  VIII  (Cum  ad 
Regularera,  19  March,  1(J03)  decreed  that  the  con- 
stitution of  each  community  should  be  the  guide. 
He  directed,  however,  that  lay  brothers  and  lay 
sisters  sliould  not  be  admitted  before  their  twentieth 
year.  Tlie  Sacreil  Congregation  of  the  Council 
(16  July,  10.32;  7  .\pril,  1634)  forbade  the  reception 
of  novices  until  they  attained  their  fifteenth  year. 
The  Congregation  of'Bishops  and  Regulars  (23  May, 
1659)  prohibited  the  clothing  with  the  habit  before 
the  completion  of  the  fifteenth  year.  The  same 
Congregation  (Normaj  de  Novis  Institutis,  28  June, 

1901)  decreed  that  no  one  could  be  admitted  under 
fifteen,  or  over  thirty,  years  of  age  without  dispensa- 
tion from  the  Holy  See.  For  religious  profession  the 
Council  of  Trent  (.Sess.  xxv,  cap.  15)  exacted  sixteen 
years  complete  with  one  year's  novitiate  necessarily 
preceding.  The  latest  enactment,  prescribing  sirnple 
vows  for  three  continuous  years  after  the  novitiate 
before  solemn  profession,  fixes  the  age  for  solemn 
profession  at  nineteen  years  complete.  This  applies 
to  women  (Congr.  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  3  May, 

1902)  as  well  as  to  men.  It  is  forbidden  to  postpone 
the  solemn  profession  of  men,  who  have  been  under 
simple  vows  for  tliree  years,  beyond  the  full  twenty- 
fifth  year  of  their  age,  except  in  some  localities  and 
institutes,  e.  g.  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  wliich  the 
profession  of  simple  vows  is  continued  for  a  much 
longer  term  of  years  than  three. 

Ordinary  Christian  Life. — No  certain  age  is  fixed 
for  baptism;  yet  the  Holy  Office  (30  July,  1771) 
forbids  the  postponement  of  infant  baptism  beyond 
the  tliird  day.  .\ccording  to  early  ecclesiastical 
discipline  confirmation  and  Holy  Communion  were 
administered  to  infants  after  baptism.  To-day, 
twelve  years  is  generally  recommended  for  con- 
firmation; but,  if  urgent  reasons  exist  for  not  await- 
ing that  age,  it  is  expedient  not  to  confirm  before 
the  age  of  reason,  i.  e.  seven  years  (Roman  Cate- 
chism; Holy  Office,  11  December,  1850;  Second 
Cone.  Bait.,  V,  c.  iii,  252).  Leo  XIII  commended 
Robert,  Bishop  of  Marseilles,  for  introducing  the 
custom  of  confirming  before  Holy  Communion 
(22  June,  1897).  For  confession  the  age  is  seven 
years,  i.  e.  the  age  of  reason,  when  a  child  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  capable  of  mortal  sin  and  bound  by 
the  law  of  annual  confession  [Cone.  Lat.,  c.  21 ; 
Second  Cone.  Bait.,  tit.  ix;  First  Plenary  Cone,  of 
S.  America  (Rome,  1899),  tit.  V,  cap.  4].  Children 
should  receive  Holy  Communion  when  they  have 
attained  the  age  of  discretion  (Innocent  III  in 
Cone.  Lat.,  e.  21).  There  is  much  controversy  as 
to  what  that  age  precisely  is.  According  to  some, 
it  ordinarily  occurs  between  the  tenth  and  fourteenth 
year  (Suarez,  quoted  by  Benedict  XIV,  "Syp. 
Dioc,"  VII,  xii,  3;  Raimundi,  "Inst.  Past.,"  tit. 
I,  cap.  iv,  n.  57;  Zitelli,  Apparatus  Jur.  Pont.,  p. 
319,  no.  4;  Second  Plen.  Cone.  Bait.,  tit.  V);  others, 
e.  g.  Ferraris  (I,  154,  n.  39),  place  it  between 
eleven  and  twelve  years.  Children  in  danger  of 
death,  capable  of  committing  and  making  confession 
of  mortal  sin.  and  of  distinguishing  the  heavenly 
from  the  ordinary  food,  and  desiring  to  receive  Holy 
Communion,  must  not  be  denied  it,  although  they 
may  not  have  reached  the  minimum  year  mentioned 
(Roman  Catechism,  de  Kuch.,  n.  63;  Second  Plen. 
Cone.  Bait.,  and  I'irst  Plen.  Cone,  of  South  .\merica, 
loc.  cit.).  Extreme  unction  is  to  be  administered 
to  a  child  of  seven  years  or  yoimger,  capable 
of  sin.  Children  of  seven  years  comijlete  are  bound 
by  the  laws  of  abstinence  and  of  hearing  Ma.ss. 
They  can  also  be  sponsors  in  the  conferring  of 
baptism  and  confirmation;    but  the  Roman  Ritual 


(tit.  II,  n.  24)  says  that  it  is  more  expedient  that 
they  should  be  fourteen  years  old  and  also  con- 
firmed. The  Congregations  of  Propaganda  (4  May, 
1774)  and  the  Holy  Office  (1  July,  1882)  forbid  chil- 
dren under  fourteen  years  of  age  to  act  as  spon.sors 
at  confirmation.  Only  those  who  have  completed 
their  twenty-first  year  are  bound  to  fast.  Be- 
trothals [sponsalia]  require  seven  full  years  in  the 
contracting  parties.  The  marriageable  age  is  four- 
teen full  years  in  males  and  twelve  full  years 
in  females,  under  penalty  of  nullity  (unless  natural 
puberty  supplies  the  want  of  years).  Marriages  void 
because  of  the  absence  of  legal  or  natural  puberty 
are  held  as  sponsalia,  inducing  thereby  impediment 
of  "public  decorum"  (Cap.  14,  tit.  de  despon. 
impub.,  X,  4,  2).  Civil  codes  generally  require  a 
more  advanced  age  than  the  canonical.  Dispensa- 
tions, however,  as  to  the  required  ages  are  expressly 
granted  by  France,  Italy,  Belgium.  Holland,  Rou- 
mania,  and  Russia.  The  marriageable  age  in  France, 
Italy,  Belgium,  and  Roumania  is  eighteen  for  men, 
and  fifteen  for  women  (France  requires  also,  under 
penalty  of  nullity,  the  consent  of  parents);  Holland, 
Switzerland,  Russia  (Caucasian  Provinces  excepted), 
fifteen  and  thirteen;  and  Hungarj*  fixes  the  age  at 
eighteen  and  sixteen;  Austria,  fourteen  for  both 
parties;  Denmark,  twenty  and  sixteen;  Germany, 
twenty-one  (minors  set  free  by  parents  at  eighteen) 
and  sixteen  years  respectively.  Marriages  contracted 
in  Germany  below  the  ages  aforesaid  are  valid  but 
illicit.  In  India  natives  marry  under  canonical 
age.  So  also  in  China,  where  there  is  a  further 
deviation  from  canonical  age.  owing  to  the  Chinese 
method  of  reckoning  age  by  lunar  rather  than  solar 
years  (thirteen  lunar  months  make  a  solar  year). 
The  canonical  age  holds  in  England,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Greece  (Ionian  Isles  excepted,  where  it  is  sixteen  and 
fourteen),  and  a-s  regards  Catholics  even  in  Austria. 
While  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  the  canoni- 
cal marriage  age  of  fourteen  and  twelve  still  prevails, 
in  others  it  has  been  enlarged  by  statutes.  Such 
statutes,  however,  as  a  rule,  do  not  make  void  mar- 
riages contracted  by  a  male  and  female  of  fourteen 
and  twelve  years  respectively,  unless  the  statute 
expres.sly  forbids  them  under  penalty  of  nullity. 
The  English  Common  Law  age  of  fourteen  in  males 
and  twelve  in  females  prevails  in  all  the  Canadian 
provinces,  with  the  exception  of  Ontario  and  Mani- 
toba. Ontario  requires  fourteen  years,  and  Manitoba 
sixteen  years,  in  both  parties.  Marriages  contracted 
at  more  youthful  ages  than  these  are  not  irreparably 
null  and  void.  They  can  be,  and  are,  ratified  by 
continued  cohabitation  after  the  prescribed  age.  In 
all  the  provinces  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  is 
required  where  one  or  both  of  the  parties  have  not 
attained  a  certain  age, — Ontario.  Manitoba,  and  New 
Brunswick,  eighteen  years;  in  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia, 
British  Columbia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  -Mberta,  and 
Saskatchewan  the  age  is  twenty-one.  Except  in  the 
case  of  Quebec  and  Prince  Edward  Island  such  consent 
is  only  directory,  and  does  not  affect  the  validity  of 
marriage  after  celebration.  Such  marriages  in  the 
former  province  are  not  void,  and  can  only  be  attacked 
by  parties  whose  consent  is  required;  in  the  latter 
province  they  are  null  and  void  by  virtue  of  a  pre- 
confederation  Law  of  1831.  The  marriage  law  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  United  States  requires  the 
consent  of  parents  before  license  is  granted  to  minors. 
Such  statutes  are  merely  directive,  and  do  not  render 
void  marriages  without  tlie  parents'  con.scnt  (".Am. 
and  Eng.  Ency.  of  Law,"  art.  "Marriage",  1191). 
Neither  in  England  is  a  marriage  declared  void  for 
want  of  parental  con.sent  (Brown,  Hist.  Matr.  Inst., 
II,  191). 

Ff.rrakis,  Bibliclheea,  I,  s.  v.  ^taa;  Wernz,  Jus  Drcrrt., 
II,  de  defcc.  alatis,  142  sqn.;  Idem.,  Jua  MatrimoniaU,  IV 
df  imped,  atatia,  457   sqq.;  SANTi-I.EiTNKn,  I,  119,  nn.  8-12; 


AOE 


2U9 


AGGEUS 


IV,  101  »qq.;  Ojetti,  Synop.  Rer.  Mot.  tt  Jur.  Ponl.  Index, 
s.  V.  jEtnn:  Uahi-ahi,  De  Matrimonio,  I,  491-500;  De  Ordinal., 
I,  48.'>-533;  MoccilfciGiANi,  J uriaprudmtia  Ecctes.,  Ill,  xxv, 
§§9-ia;  Ueshavk.h,  Manuate  Jur.  Ecc.  Indrz,  a.  v.  £tat: 
Vkhmkkkkch,  De  litltgiosu,  1.  1G4,  ItiTt,  214;  Kkkhahi,  Dc 
^tatu  Rfiit/iuso,  huifx,  a.  v.  ^Etas;  Piato  Monten«|8,  FrtrcUcl. 
Jur.  Rtg.  Index,  a.  v.  J,'(u«;  Hknedkt  XIV.  De  .S(/n.  Diirc, 
\'1I:  CollecUme'i  Sac.  Cony,  de  l^rop.  Fid.,  s.  v.  ^EUitii  Im/H-d.; 
I'UTZER.  Comnu-nt.  in  Far.  .ipual.,  158  (105),  309  (l).  17li), 
426  (n.  249),  ami  402  (8);  Zitkij.i,  Apptiral.  jur.  ecrt..  3S0, 
412-487:  Salamanticensks.  De  Benfjiciig;  Bishop,  Marruiye, 
etc.;  .-Xmerican  and  Ennligh  Enn/c.  o/  Law.  1191;  lloWAitu 
Eliottk  Bhown,  Ilislorjj  of  Matrim.  Institutions  (II,  fur 
statutory  laws  of  the  different  States);  Nkkvecna,  De  Jure 
practifo  regularium  index,  ».  v.  .Etas;  Basties,  Directoire 
canoniqur.  Index,  s.  v.  ^Etaa;  RAlMirNi>l.  Inatructio  Fas- 
toratia,  55  (n.  57);  and  59,  92,  497  (n.  670). 

P.  M.  J.  Rock. 

Age  of  Man.    See  M.\n. 

Age  of  Reason,  the  name  given  to  that  period 
of  hiimiiii  life  at  which  persoas  are  tleemed  to  begin 
to  be  morally  responsible.  This,  as  a  rule,  hapj^ens 
at  the  age  of  seven,  or  thereabouts,  though  the  use  of 
reason  requisite  for  moral  discernment  may  come 
before,  or  may  be  delayed  until  notably  after,  that 
time.  .\t  this  age  Christians  come  under  the  opera- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  laws,  such  as  the  precept  of 
assistance  at  Mass  on  Sundays  and  liolydays,  absti- 
nence from  meat  on  certain  days,  and  annual  con- 
fession, should  they  have  incurred  mortal  sin.  The 
obligation  of  Easter  Communion,  literally  understood, 
applies  to  all  who  have  reached  "the  years  of  dis- 
cretion"; but  according  to  the  practical  interpretation 
of  the  Church  it  is  not  regarded  as  binding  children 
just  iis  soon  as  they  are  seven  years  old.  At  the  age 
of  reason  a  person  is  juridically  considered  eligible  to 
act  as  witness  to  a  marriage,  as  sponsor  at  t>aptisin 
or  confirmation,  and  as  a  party  to  the  formal  con- 
tract of  betrothal;  at  this  age  one  is  considered 
capable  of  receiving  extreme  unction,  of  being 
promoted  to  first  tonsure  and  minor  orders,  of 
being  the  incumljcnt  of  a  simple  benefice  (beneficium 
simplex)  if  the  founder  of  it  should  have  so  provided; 
and,  lastly,  is  held  liable  to  ecclesiastical  censures.  In 
the  present  discipline,  however,  persons  do  not  incur 
these  penalties  until  they  reach  the  age  of  puberty, 
unless  explicitly  included  in  the  decree  imposing 
them.  The  only  censure  surely  applicable  to  per- 
sons of  this  age  is  that  for  the  violation  of  the  clausiira 
of  nuns,  while  that  for  the  maltreatment,  suadenle 
diabolo,  of  clerics,  is  probably  so. 

Ferraris,  Bibliotheca  prompta  jur.  can.  s.  v.  ^ta3  (Rome, 
1844);  Wernz,  Jua  Decretaltum   (Rome,   1899). 

Joseph  F.  Del-Otv. 

Agelnothus.    See  Ethelnothus. 

Agen  (Agixxum),  The  Diocese  of,  comprises  the 
Department  of  Lot  and  Garonne.  It  has  been  suc- 
ce.ssively  suffragan  to  the  archdioceses  of  Bordeaux 
(under  the  old  regime),  Toulouse  (1802-22),  and 
Bordeaux  (since  1822).  Legends  which  do  not  ante- 
date the  ninth  centurj'  concerning  the  hermit, 
St.  Caprasius,  martyred  with  St.  Fides  by  Dacianus, 
Prefect  of  the  Gauls,  during  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian,  and  the  story  of  \  incentius,  a  Christian 
mart\T  (written  about  .520).  furnish  no  foundation 
for  later  traditions  which  make  these  two  saints  early 
bishops  of  .\gen.  The  first  bishop  of  Agen  known 
to  histon.'  is  St.  Phicbadius,  friend  of  St.  Hilar}',  who 
publi.^ilicd  (in  3.57)  a  treatise  against  the  .Arians  and 
figuri'il  prominently  at  the  Council  of  Rimini  in  359. 
Among  the  bishops  of  .\gcn  were  Wilhelmus  II,  sent 
by  Pope  Urban  IV  (1201-64)  to  St.  Louis  in  12C2 
to  ask  his  aid  in  favour  of  the  Latin  Empire  of 
Constantinople:  Bertrand  de  Goth,  who.se  uncle  of 
the  same  name  w.as  rai.sed  from  the  .\rchbishopric  of 
Bordeaux  to  the  Papal  See  under  the  name  of  Clem- 
ent V  (130.5-11),  and  during  his  pontificate  visited 
the  city  of  .\gen;  Cardinal  Jean  de  Lorraine  (1.53S- 
50);  the  Oratorian.  Jules  Mascaron.  a  celebrated 
preacher,  transferred  from  the  see  of  Tulle,  to  that 
I.— 14 


of  Agen  (1679-1703);  Hubert,  who  was  cur{  of  Ver- 
sailles, had  contributed  to  the  withdrawal  of  Madame 
<le  Montcspan  from  the  royal  court,  and  who  when 
appointed  liishop  of  .Agen  (1703)  had  as  vicar- 
gencral  until  1711'J  the  celebrated  Belsunce;  de  Bonnac 
(1707-1801),  who  in  the  parliamentary  session  of 
3  January,  1792,  was  the  first  to  refu.se  to  sign  the 
constitutional  oath.  The  church  of  St.  Caprasius, 
a  spleiulid  specimen  of  Romance  architecture,  dating 
from  tlie  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  has  been 
made  the  cathedral  in  place  of  the  church  of  St. 
Etienne,  which  was  unfortunately  destroyed  during 
the  Revolution.  The  Diocese  of  Agen  comprised 
(end  of  1905)  278,740  inhabitants,  47  first  class 
parishes,  397  second  class  parishes,  and  27  vicariates, 
formerly  with  State  subventions. 

aallia  Chrittiana  (e<l.  Nora,  1720),  11,  891-936,  7n«(ru- 
mmtii,  427-38;  DiroilliiNE,  Fatten  epitcopaur  de  I'ancienne 
Oaule,  II,  03-64,  142-146  (Paris,  1900);  Uahrere,  Ilitloire 
religieute  el  monumrntale  du  diuclse  d'Amn  (.^gcn,  1855); 
Chevalier,  Topo-bM.  (Paris.  1894-99).  lS-19. 

Geoiu;es  Goyau. 

Agents  of  Roman  Congregations,  persons  whose 
business  it  is  to  look  after  the  alTairs  of  tlieir  patrons 
at  the  Roman  Curia.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  Atjcns  in  Rebus,  corresponding  to  tlie  Greek 
Apocri.^iarius.  We  first  meet  these  agents  for  eccle- 
siastical matters  not  at  the  court  of  Rorne,  but  at 
the  imperial  palace  of  Constantinople.  Owing  to  the 
close  connection  between  Church  and  State  under 
the  early  Christian  emperors  and  the  absence  of 
canons  concerning  many  matters  of  mixed  jurisdic- 
tion, the  principal  bishops  found  it  necessarj'  to 
maintain  agents  to  look  after  their  interests  at  tlie 
imperial  court.  Until  the  French  Revolution,  the 
prelates  of  France  maintained  similar  agents  at  the 
royal  court  of  St.  Denis.  (See  Assemblies  of  Fhexch 
Clergy.)  At  present  the  agents  of  the  Roman 
Congregations  are  employed  by  bishops  or  pri\afe 
persons  to  transact  their  affairs  in  the  pontifical 
courts.  Such  an  agency  is  undertaken  temporarily 
or  perpetually.  The  principal  business  of  the  agents 
is  to  urge  the  expedition  of  the  cases  of  their  patrons. 
They  undertake  both  judicial  and  extrajudicial  busi- 
ness. If  it  is  a  question  of  favours,  such  as  dispensa- 
tions or  increased  faculties,  these  agents  prepare  the 
proper  supplications  and  call  repeatedly  on  the  offi- 
cials of  the  proper  congregation  until  an  answer  is 
obtained.  They  expend  whatever  money  is  neces- 
sary to  pay  for  the  legal  documents  or  to  advance  in 
general  the  affairs  of  those  who  employ  them.  These 
agents  have  a  recognized  position  in  the  Roman 
Curia,  and  rank  next  in  dignity  before  the  notaries. 
The  money  they  expend  and  the  pay  they  receive 
depend  entirely  on  the  will  of  their  employers.  Some 
authors  include  under  this  name  the  solicitors  and 
cxpeditioners  of  the  Roman  Oiria,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  assist  the  procurators  in  the  mechani- 
cal details  of  the  preparation  of  cases  for  the  con- 
gregational tribunals.  I'sually,  however,  these  func- 
tionaries are  considered  as  distinct  from  agents  and 
as  outranking  them  in  dignity. 

Baart,  The  Roman  Court  (New  York,  1895);  Hcmphret, 
Vrba  el  Orbit  (London,  1899);  Migne,  Diet,  de  droit  canon. 
(Paris,  1846),  I;  Wernz,  Jut  Decrelalium  (Rome,  1899),  II. 

WiLLi.vM  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Aggeus. — 1.  N.vME  AND  Personal  Life. — The 
tenth  among  the  minor  prophets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  called  in  the  Hebiew  text,  Hdggiiy,  and  in 
the  Septuagint  'A770ios,  whence  the  Latin  form 
Aggeus.  The  exact  meaning  of  his  name  is  uncer- 
tain. Many  scholars  consider  it  as  an  adjective 
signifying  "the  festive  one"  (bom  on  fciist-day"), 
while  others  take  it  to  be  an  abbreviate<l  form  of 
the  noun  Hiiggfy>-ah,  "  my  feast  is  Yaliweh  ",  .a  Jewish 
proix-r  name  found  in  I  Chronicles,  vi,  1.5  (Vulgate: 
I  Paralip.,  vi,  30).  Great  uncertainty  prevails  also 
concerning  the   prophet's  personal  life.     The   book 


AGGITH 


210 


AGILES 


which  bears  his  name  is  very  short,  and  contains 
no  detailed  information  about  its  author.  The  few 
passages  whieli  spealv  of  him  refer  simply  to  the  occa- 
sion on  which  he  had  to  deliver  a  divine  message  in 
Jerusalem,  during  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of 
the  Persian  king,  Darius  I  (520  B.  c.  ).  and  all  that 
Jewish  tradition  tells  of  Aggeus  does  not  seem  to 
have  much,  if  any,  historical  basis.  It  states  that 
he  was  born  in  'Chaldea  during  the  Babylonian 
Captivity,  was  a  young  man  when  he  came  to  Jeru- 
salem with  the  returning  exiles,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Holy  City  among  the  priests.  It  also  repre- 
sents him  as  an  angel  in  human  form,  as  one  of  the 
men  who  were  with  Daniel  when  he  saw  the  vision 
related  in  Dan.  x,  7,  as  a  member  of  the  so-called 
Great  Synagogue,  as  surviving  until  the  entry  of 
Alexander  the  Great  into  Jerusalem  (331  B.  c),  and 
even  until  the  time  of  Our  Saviour.  Obviously, 
these  and  similar  traditions  deserve  but  little 
credence. 

2.  Historical  Circumstances. — Upon  the  return 
from  Babylon  (536  b.  c.)  the  Jews,  full  of  religious 
zeal,  promptly  set  up  an  altar  to  the  God  of  Israel, 
and  reorganized  His  sacrificial  worship.  They  next 
celebrated  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  and  some  time 
later  laid  the  foundation  of  the  "Second"  Temple, 
called  also  the  Temple  of  Zorobabel.  Presently  the 
Samaritans — that  is,  the  mixed  races  which  dwelt  in 
Samaria — prevented  them,  by  an  appeal  to  the  Pereian 
authorities,  from  proceeding  further  with  the  re- 
building of  the  Temple.  In  fact,  the  work  was 
interrupted  for  sixteen  years,  during  which  various 
circumstances,  such  as  the  Persian  invasion  of 
Egj'pt  in  527  B.  c.  a  succession  of  bad  seasons  en- 
tailing the  failure  of  the  harvest  and  the  vintage, 
the  indulgence  in  luxury  and  self-seeking  by  the 
wealthier  classes  of  Jerusalem,  caused  the  Jews  to 
neglect  altogether  the  restoration  of  the  House  of 
the  Lord.  Toward  the  end  of  this  period  the  politi- 
cal struggles  through  which  Persia  passed  would 
have  made  it  impossible  for  its  rulers  to  interfere 
with  the  work  of  reconstruction  in  Jerusalem,  even 
had  they  wished  to  do  so,  and  this  was  distinctly 
realized  by  the  Prophet  Aggeus.  At  length,  in  the 
second  year  of  the  reign  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hy- 
staspes  (520  B.  c),  Aggeus  came  forward  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord  to  rebuke  the  apathy  of  the  Jews,  and 
convince  them  that  the  time  had  come  to  complete 
their  national  sanctuary,  that  outward  symbol  of 
the  Divine  presence  among  them. 

3.  The  PROPHEriEs. — The  book  of  Aggeus  is  made 
up  of  four  prophetical  utterances,  each  one  headed 
by  the  date  on  which  it  was  delivered.  The  first 
(i,  1,2)  is  ascribed  to  the  first  day  of  the  sixth 
month  (.August)  of  the  second  year  of  Darius' 
reign.  It  urges  the  Jews  to  resume  the  work  of 
rearing  the  Temple,  and  not  to  be  turned  aside  from 
this  duty  by  the  enjoyment  of  their  luxurious  homes. 
It  also  represents  a  recent  drought  as  a  divine  pun- 
ishment for  their  past  neglect.  This  first  utterance 
is  followed  by  a  brief  account  (I,  xii-xiv)  of  its  efi'ect 
upon  the  hearers;  three  weeks  later  work  was 
started  on  the  Temple.  In  his  second  utterance 
(II,  i-x),  dated  the  twentieth  day  of  the  same  month, 
the  prophet  foretells  that  the  new  House,  which 
then  appears  so  poor  in  comparison  with  the  former 
Temple  of  Solomon,  will  one  day  be  incomparably 
more  glorious.  The  third  utterance  (II,  xi-xx), 
referred  to  the  twenty-fourth  of  the  ninth  month 
(Nov.-Dec),  declares  that  as  long  as  God's  Hou.se 
is  not  rebuilt,  the  life  of  the  .lews  will  be  tainted  and 
blasted,  but  that  the  divine  blessing  will  reward  their 
renewed  zeal.  The  last  utterance  (II,  xx-xxiii), 
ascribed  to  the  same  day  as  the  preceding,  tells  of 
the  divine  favour  which,  in  the  approaching  over- 
throw of  the  heathen  nations,  will  be  bestowed  on 
Zorobabel,  the  scion  and  representative  of  the  royal 


house  of  David.  The  simple  reading  of  these  oraclee 
makes  one  feel  that  although  they  are  shaped  into 
parallel  clauses  such  as  are  usual  in  Hebrew  poetry, 
their  literary  style  is  rugged  and  unadorned,  ex- 
tremely direct,  and,  therefore,  most  natural  on  the 
part  of  a  prophet  intent  on  convincing  his  hearers 
of  their  duty  to  rebuild  the  House  of  the  Lord. 
Besides  this  harmony  of  the  style  with  the  general 
tone  of  the  book  of  Aggeus,  strong  internal  data 
occur  to  confirm  the  traditional  date  and  authorship 
of  that  sacred  WTiting.  In  particular,  each  portion 
of  the  work  is  supplied  with  such  precise  dates,  and 
ascribed  so  expressly  to  Aggeus,  that  each  utterance 
bears  the  distinct  mark  of  having  been  written  soon 
after  it  was  delivered.  It  should  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that  although  the  prophecies  of  Aggeus  were 
directly  meant  to  secure  the  inmicdiate  rearing 
of  the  Lord's  House,  they  are  not  without  a  much 
higher  import.  The  three  passages  which  are  usu- 
ally brought  forth  as  truly  Messianic,  are  II,  vii- 
viii;  II,  .x;  and  II,  xxi-xxiv.  It  is  true  that  the 
meaning  of  the  first  two  passages  in  the  original  He- 
brew differs  somewhat  from  the  present  rendering  of 
the  Vulgate,  but  all  three  contain  a  referen  -e  to  Messi- 
anic times.  The  primitive  text  of  the  book  of  Aggeus 
has  been  particularly  well  preserved.  The  few 
variations  which  occur  in  the  MSS.  are  due  to  errors 
in  transcribing,  and  do  not  affect  materially  the  sense 
of  the  prophecy.  Besides  the  short  prophetical 
work  which  bears  his  name,  Aggeus  has  also  been 
credited,  but  wrongly,  with  the  authorship  of  Psalms 
cxi  and  cxlv  (Heb.  cxii,  cxlvi).      (See  Psalms.) 

Commentaries:  Knabenbauer  (1S86);  Perowne  (1886); 
Thochon  (1883):  Orelli  (1888;  tr.  1893);  Nowack  (1897); 
Smith  (1901).  Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament:  Vigouroux; 
Kault;  Trochon-Lesetre;  Keil;  Bleek-Weelhadsen; 
Kaulen;  Cornely;  Driver;  Gigot. 

F.  E.  GiGOT. 

Aggith.     See  Haggith. 

Aggregation.  See  Archconfr.\ternity;  Third 
Order. 

Aggressor,  Unjust. — According  to  the  accepted 
teaching  of  theologians,  it  is  lawful,  in  the  defence 
of  life  or  limb,  of  property  of  some  importance,  and 
of  chastity,  to  repel  violence  with  violence,  even  to 
the  extent  of  killing  an  unjust  assailant.  This  is 
admitted  to  be  true  with  the  reservation  included 
in  the  phrase  "servato  moderamine  inculpatae 
tutelse."  That  is,  only  that  degree  of  violence  may 
be  employed  which  is  necessary  adequately  to  pro- 
tect one  from  the  attack.  For  example,  if  it  were 
enough  in  the  circumstances  to  maim  an  enemy  it 
would  be  unlawful  to  kill  him.  It  is  likewise  lawful 
to  aid  another  to  the  same  extent  and  within  the 
same  limits  as  are  permissible  for  self-defence.  (See 
Homicide.) 

GiiRY,  Comp.  Theol.  Moral.  (Prato,  1901)  I,  381;  LionoBi, 
n.  380. 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Agil,  Saint.     See  Bav.\ria. 

Agiles  (or  Aguilers),  Raymond  d',  a  chronicler 
and  canon  of  Puy-en-Velay,  France,  toward  the  close 
of  the  eleventh  century.  He  accompanied  the  Count 
of  Toulouse  on  tlie  First  Crusade  (1096-99),  as 
chaplain  to  Adh^mar,  Bishop  of  Puy,  legate  of 
Pope  Urban  II.  With  Pons  de  Balazuc  he  under- 
took to  write  a  history  of  the  expedition,  but.  Pons 
having  been  killed,  he  was  obliged  to  carry  on  the 
undertaking  alone.  At  a  sortie  of  the  crusaders 
during  the  siege  of  Aniioch  (28  Jime,  1098)  .\giles 
went  before  the  column,  bearing  in  his  hands  the 
Sacred  Lance.  He  took  part  in  the  entry  into 
Jerusalem,  accompanied  the  Count  of  Toulouse  on 
his  pilgrimage  to  the  Jordan,  and  was  at  the  battle 
of  Ascalon.  After  this  he  is  lost  sight  of.  His 
"Historia  Francorum  qui  ceperunt  Hierusalem" 
(P.   L.,  CLV,  591-668)   is  the  account  of  an  eye- 


AGILOLFIKQS 


211 


AGIOS 


wilnos.s  of  most  of  the  events  of  the  First  Crusade. 
It  was  first  published  by  IJongars  (Gesta  Dei  per 
Francos,  I,  139-lcS;{),  and  again  in  the"Recueil  des 
historieus  oci'identaux  <les  troisadcs"  (ISGO),  235- 
309;  it  is  translated  into  I'rondi  in  (juizot,  "Mdinoires 
sur  I'histoire  de  France"  (1821),  XXI,  227-397. 
The  narrative  is  largely  devoted  to  the  visions  of 
Pierre  Barth^lemy,  and  the  authenticity  of  the 
Holy  Lance  found  on  the  eve  of  battle.  Molinier 
says  of  the  author  that  he  is  partial,  credulous, 
ignorant,  and  prejudiced.  "He  may  be  utilized, 
but  on  condition  of  close  criticism." 

.Moi.iNiKR.  .Sources  de  Ihiil.  de  France  (Paris,  1902),  no. 
212-',  283. 

Thomas  Waush. 

Agilolfings.     See  Bavaria. 

Ag^lulfus,  Sai.vt,  .\bbot  of  Stavelot,  Bishop  of 
Cologne  and  -Martyr,  7oO.  We  know  but  little  of 
this  Saint.  The  account,  written  of  him  by  a  monk 
of  Malmedy  and  printed  by  the  BoUandists,  is,  as 
they  state,  quite  untrustworthy.  He  was  of  good 
family,  was  educated  under  Abbot  .\ngelinus  at 
Stavelot,  and  eventually  became  abbot  there.  Not 
long  afterwards  .\gilulfus  was  elected  Bishop  of 
Cologne.  He  is  said  to  have  tried  to  persuade  King 
Pepin  on  his  death-beil  not  to  leave  the  succession 
to  Charles  .Martel,  his  illegitimate  son,  and  the 
Bishop's  death  by  violence  soon  after  is  attributed 
to  the  vengeance  of  the  prince  he  souglit  to  exclude. 
.\  letter  of  Pope  Zacharias  in  747  commends  .Agilulfus 
for  signing  tlie  Charta  I'cra-  ct  orthndnxcv  pro/essionis. 
His  remains  were  conveyed  to  the  Church  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Steps,  at  Cologne,  where  they  have 
recently  again  receiveil  public  veneration.  His 
feast  is  kept  on  9  July. 

Acta  S.S.,  9  July;  Stkffens,  Per  heilige  Ai/ihtfus  (Cologne, 
1893). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Agios  0  Theos  (O  Holy  God),  the  opening  words 
in  (Ireek  of  an  invocation,  or  doxology,  or  hymn — 
for  it  may  properly  receive  any  of  tliese  titles — 
which  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  is  sung  during  the 
Improprria,  or  "  Reproaches  ",  at  the  ceremony  of  tlie 
Adoration  of  the  Cross,  on  Good  Friday.  The  brief 
hymn  is  then  sung  by  two  choirs  alternately  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  as  follows:  First  Choir:  Agios  o  Theos  (O 
Holy  (!od).  Second  Choir:  Sanctus  Detis.  First 
Choir:  .Ij/i'os  ischi/ros  (Holy,  Strong).  Second  Choir: 
Sanctus  fortis.  First  Choir:  Agios  athanatos,  eleison 
inias  (Holy,  Immortal,  have  mercy  on  us).  Second 
Choir:  Sanctus  immortalis,  miserere  nobis.  Thus  the 
hymn  appears  in  the  Office  of  Holy  Week,  with 
the  Greek  words  'A710S  i  Beit,  6(7105  l<rx'>pi^,  fi7<os 
affivaTot.  i\iTi<Toy  Tjfiat  expressed  in  Latinized  char- 
acters, chosen  to  represent  the  Greek  pronunciation 
(e.  g.  ilcisoti  imaf:  for  clci'son  cmas,  the  aspirate,  as  in 
modern  (!reek,  remaining  unheard).  The  hymn  is 
thus  sung  twelve  times,  alternating  with  a  series  of 
varied  "Reproaches". 

From  the  Latin  word  Sanctus  thrice  said,  the 
hj-mn  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  Tersanctus,  and  is 
thus  apt  to  be  confused  with  the  triple  Sanctus  at 
the  end  of  the  preface  at  Mass.  In  the  rubrics  of 
the  Greek  Liturgj',  in  which  the  hymn  is  said  verj'  fre- 
quently, it  is  always  referred  to  as  the  Trisaf/ion 
(Tp/s=thrice,  a7io$  =  holy),  and  is  thus  generally 
and  properly  known.  It  is  sung  at  the  Lesser  En- 
trance, or  solemn  processional  carrj'ing  of  the  book 
of  the  GosiM'ls  at  .\uiss,  in  the  Constantinopolitan  and 
Armenian  liturgies  and  in  that  of  St.  .Mark.  In  the 
Galilean  Liturgj-  it  was  placed  both  before  and  after 
theCiospel.  The  hymn  is  certainly  of  great  antiquity, 
and  perhaps  much  oUler  than  the  event  assigned  by 
the  Greek  .Menology  a.s  its  origin.  The  legend,  whicli 
may  be  considered  a  highly  improbable  one,  re- 
counts that  <luring  the  reign  of  tlie  younger  Theo- 
dosius   (408-4.50),  Constantinople  was  shaken  by  a 


violent  earthquake,  24  September,  and  that  whibt 
the  people,  the  Emperor,  and  the  Patriarch  Proclus 
(434-4  It) )  were  praymg  for  heavenly  succour,  a  child 
was  suddenly  lilted  into  mid-air,  to  whom  forthwith 
all  cried  out  Ki/rie  eleison;  and  that  the  child,  return- 
ing again  to  earth,  admonished  the  people  with  a 
loud  voice  to  pray  thus:  "O  Holy  God,  Holy  and 
Strong,  Holy  and  Immortal  ",  and  immediately  ex- 
pired. The  fact  that  the  hymn  was  one  of  the  ex- 
clamations of  the  Fathers  at  the  Council  of  Chakedon 
(451),  and  that  not  only  is  it  common  to  all  the  Greek 
Oriental  liturgies,  but  was  u.sed  also  in  the  Gallican 
Liturgj' [.St.  Germanusof  Paris,  (d.  570),  referring  to  it 
as  being  sung  both  in  Greek  and  in  Latin:  "In- 
cipiente  pra^sule  ecclesia  Ajus  (that  is.  Agios) 
psallit,  dicens  latinum  cum  grsco  ",  as  also  previously 
in  Greek  alone,  before  the  Prophetia]  suggests  from 
such  a  widespread  and  apparently  common  use  the 
conclusion  that  the  hymn  is  extremely  ancient,  per- 
haps of  apostolic  origin.  Benedict  XIV  thought  that 
the  Greek  fornuila  was  joined  with  the  Latin  in 
allusion  to  the  divine  voice  heard  at  Constantinople. 
But  the  explanation  seems  hardly  necessary,  in  view 
of  the  retention  of  Kr/rie  eleison  in  the  Roman  Liturgy, 
as  well  as  of  such  Hebrew  words  as  Amen,  Alleluia, 
Uosanna,  Sahaolh.  Reverence  for  anli'iuity,  and 
the  influence  of  liturgy  upon  liturgy,  would  suffice  to 
explain  the  Greek  form.  It  is  true  that  the  Kyrie 
eleison  is  not  joined  to  a  Latin  version.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  so  simple  and  occurs  so  frecpiently,  that 
its  meaning  could  easily  be  learned  and  remembered; 
whereas  the  Trisagion,  elaborate  and  rarely  used, 
might  well  receive  a  parallel  version  into  Latin. 
Various  additions  made  to  it  from  time  to  time  in 
the  East  have  either  disfigured  its  simplicity  or  en- 
dangered its  orthodoxy.  Thus,  the  phra.se  "Who 
wast  crucified  for  us  ",  added  to  it  by  Peter  the  Fuller, 
in  order  to  spread  the  heresy  of  the  Theopaschites 
(who  asserted  that  the  Divine  Nature  suffered  upon 
the  cross),  while  susceptible  of  a  correct  interpreta- 
tion, was  inserted  nevertheless  with  heretical  intent. 
Traditionally,  the  hymn  had  always  been  addressed 
to  the  Holy  Trinity  (Isaias,  vi,  3).  Sul)se<iuently, 
Calandion,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  sought  both  to  allay 
the  tumults  aroused  by  the  addition  and  to  remove 
its  evil  suggestion  by  prefixing  to  it  the  words 
"Christ,  King",  thus  making  it  refer  directly  and 
unequivocally  to  the  Incarnate  Word:  "O  Holy  God, 
Holy  and  Strong,  Holy  and  Immortal,  Christ,  King, 
Who  xeasl  cruciiicd  for  vs,  have  mercy  on  us."  His 
well-meant  effort  did  not  succeed,  and  his  emcnda^ 
tion  was  rejected.  Subse<|uently,  the  heretic  Severus, 
Patriarch  of  Antioch,  wrote  to  prove  the  correct 
ascription  of  the  hymn  to  the  Son  of  God,  and  made 
the  use  of  the  addition  general  in  his  diocese. 

Gregory  VII  (1073-85)  wrote  to  the  .Vrmenians, 
who  still  u.sed  the  new  formula,  bidding  them  avoid 
all  occasion  of  scandal  and  suspicion  of  wrong  inter- 
pretation, by  cancelling  a  formula  which  neither  the 
Roman  nor  any  Eastern  Church,  save  the  .■\rnienian, 
had  adopted.  The  injunction  seems  to  have  been 
disregarded;  for  when,  centuries  after,  union  with  the 
Armenians  was  again  discussed,  a  question  was  ad- 
dressed (30  Januarj',  1635)  to  Propaganda,  whether 
the  -Armenians  might  still  use  the  formula  "Who 
sulTorcd  for  us ",  and  was  answered  negatively. 
Variations  of  the  traditional  formula  and  Trinitarian 
ascription  arc  found  in  the  Armeno-tiregorian  rite. 
These  are  addressed  to  the  Redeemer,  and  vary  with 
the  feast  or  otiice.  Thus,  the  formula  of  Peter  is 
lused  on  all  Fridays;  on  all  Sundays:  "Thou  that 
didst  arise  from  the  dead";  on  Holy  Thursday:  "Thou 
that  wast  betrayed  for  us";  on  Holy  Saturday: 
"Thou  that  wrist  buried  for  us";  on  the  Feast  of  the 
.Assumption:  "Thou  that  didst  come  to  the  death 
of  the  Holy  Mother  and  Virgin  ",  etc.  The  .■Vrmeno- 
Roman  rite  has  suppressed  all  of  these  variations. 


AGNELLI 


212 


AGNELLUS 


The  Trisagion  is  sung  in  the  Greek  Church  at  all  the 
canonical  hours  and  several  times  during  the  long 
Mass-service.  In  the  Latin  Church  it  is  sung  only 
on  Good  Friday,  as  we  have  seen.  Sung  throughout 
the  impressive  ceremony  of  the  Adoration  of  the 
Cros.s,  the  polyphonic  musical  setting  of  Palestrina 
for  both  the  "Reproaches"  and  the  Trisagion,  as- 
suredly a  masterpiece,  perhaps  the  masterpiece  of 
that  prince  of  church  song,  adds  an  overpowering 
pathos  of  music  to  the  words,  and  constitutes,  like 
the  Hallelujah  Chorus  of  Handel,  a  marvel  of  sim- 
plicity achieving  a  marvellous  effect. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Agnelli,  Gioseppe,  chiefly  known  for  his  cate- 
chetical and  devotional  works,  b.  at  Naples,  1621; 
d.  in  Rome,  8  October,  1706.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  in  Rome,  in  1637.  He  was  professor 
of  moral  tlieology,  and  rector  of  the  colleges  of 
Montepulciano,  Macerata,  and  Ancona,  and  also 
Consultor  of  the  Inquisition  of  the  March  of  Ancona. 
He  passed  the  last  thirty-three  years  of  his  life  in 
the  Professed  House  at  Rome,  where  he  died.  He 
wrote  (1)  "II  Catechismo  annuale  ".  It  was  adapted 
to  the  use  of  parish  priests,  and  contained  explana- 
tions of  the  Gospels  for  every  Sunday  of  the  year. 
It  went  through  three  editions.  (2)  A  week's  de- 
votion to  St.  Josepli,  for  the  Bona  Mors  Sodality. 
(3)  Four  treatises  on  tlie  "Exercises  of  St.  Ignatius  ", 
chiefly  with  regard  to  election.  (4)  A  Raccolta  of 
meditations  for  a  triduum  and  a  retreat  of  ten  days. 
(5)  Sermons  for  Lent  and  Advent. 

Beorchia  Notes  bibliog.;  Sommervogel,  Bibliothhque  de  la 
c.  de  J.,  I,  66. 

T.  J.  C.\MPBELL. 

Agnelli,  Guglielmo,  Fra,  sculptor  and  architect, 
b.  at  Pisa,  probably  in  1238;  d.  probably  in  1313. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Niccolo  Pisano,  who  had  then 
brought  the  art  of  sculpture  to  a  great  perfection, 
modelled  on  Greek  and  Roman  ideas,  matured  by 
the  study  of  actual  truth,  and  preserving  only  such 
traditions  of  the  earlier  medieval  school  as  seemed 
necessary  for  Christian  art  at  a  time  when  art  was 
truly  the  handmaid  of  religion.  Agnelli  joined  the 
Dominican  Order  at  Pisa  in  1257,  as  a  lay  brother. 
He  was  soon  engaged  in  work  on  the  convent  of  the 
brethren  at  Pisa  and  built  the  campanile  of  the 
Abbey  of  Settimo,  near  Florence.  His  best  work 
is  the  series  of  marble  reliefs  executed,  in  conjunction 
with  Pisano,  for  the  famous  tomb  of  St.  Dominic  in 
the  cliurch  of  that  Saint  at  Bologna.  Tlie  figures 
on  tlie  funeral  urn,  in  mczzo-rilievo,  are  about  two 
feet  high.  Fra  Guglielmo's  work  on  the  posterior 
face  of  the  tomb  deals  with  six  Dominican  legends, 
viz;  the  Blessed  Reginald  smitten  by  a  distemper; 
the  Madonna  healing  a  sick  man  and  pointing  to  the 
habit  of  the  Friars  Preachers,  indicating  that  lie 
sliould  assume  it;  the  same  man  freed  from  a  terrible 
temptation  by  holding  St.  Dominic's  hands;  Hono- 
rius  III  having  his  vision  of  St.  Dominic  supporting 
the  falling  Lateran  Basilica;  Ilonorius  examining 
the  Dominican  rule,  and  his  solemn  approbation  of 
it.  This  work  afforded  little  scope  to  Fra  Guglielmo's 
imaginative  powers,  but  its  masterly  execution 
places  him  among  the  greatest  artists  of  his  time, 
seconil  only  to  his  master,  Niccolo  Pisano.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  figures  sliow  some  faultiness  char- 
acteristic of  the  period,  in  the  stiffness  and  lack  of 
finish  in  tlic  extremities.  They  are  also  crowded 
into  too  narrow  limits.  Fra  Guglielmo  and  Niccolo 
also  embellished  the  upper  cornice  of  the  urn  with 
acantlius  leaves  and  birds.  We  know  no  more  of 
Fra  Guglielmo  unlil  \2'X\  when  we  find  liim  occupied 
on  the  f.imous  Callieilral  of  Orvieto.  Thougli  his 
share  in  the  sculptures  of  tliis  edific^e  is  not  fully  es- 
tablished, it  is  b('lievcd  that  tlie  bas-reliefs  are  in 
great  part  his  work.     The  length  of  time  he  spent 


at  Orvieto  is  also  unknown.  In  1304  he  was  en- 
gaged on  works  of  sculpture  and  architecture  at  his 
native  Pisa,  antl  was  called  upon  to  adorn  the  facade 
of  the  Cliurcli  of  San  Michele  di  15orgo  witli  historical 
bas-reliefs.  Tliese  labours,  together  with  his  work 
on  otlier  parts  of  that  cliurch,  and  the  construction 
of  a  pulpit,  engaged  him  for  the  remaining  nine  years 
of  his  life.  Fra  Guglielmo  was  not  only  the  fore- 
most among  the  Dominican  sculptors,  but  according 
to  Marchese,  "  by  reason  of  his  many  anil  important 
works,  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  tlie  grandest 
Italian  sculptors,  far  excelling  all  contemporaries, 
Arnolfo,  Giovanni  Pisano,  and  his  master  e.xcepted." 
Marchess,  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Painters,  Sculptors 
and  Architects  of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  (tr.  Dublin,  1852),  I, 
3S-70;  MoRTlER,  Hisloire  des  mattrea  generaui  de  I'ordre  des 
Frcres  Prlcheurs  (Paris,  1905),  II,  46-61;  Kehthier.  Le 
tombeau  de  Saint  Dominique-  (Paris,  1895);  Razzi,  Vite  de* 
Santi  e  Beati  Domenicani,  I.  296  sqq. 

J.  L.  FlNNERTY. 

Agnellus  of  Pisa,  Blessed,  Friar  Minor  and 
founder  of  the  luiglish  Franciscan  Province,  b.  at 
Pi.sa  c.  1195,  of  the  noble  family  of  the  Agnelli;  d.  at 
Oxford,  7  May,  1236.  In  early  youth  he  was  received 
into  the  Seraphic  Order  by  St.  Francis  liimself,  during 
file  latter's  sojourn  in  Pisa,  and  soon  became  an 
accomplished  model  of  religious  perfection.  Sent 
by  St.  Francis  to  Paris,  he  erected  a  convent  there 
and  became  custos.  Having  returned  to  Italy, 
he  was  present  at  the  so-called  Chapter  of  Mats,  and 
was  sent  thence  by  St.  Francis  to  found  the  Order  in 
England.  Agnellus,  then  in  deacon's  orders,  landed 
at  Dover  with  nine  other  friars,  12  September,  1224, 
having  been  cliaritably  conveyed  from  France  by 
the  monks  of  Fdcamp.  A  few  weeks  aftersvards 
they  obtained  a  house  at  Oxford  and  there  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  Englisli  Province,  which 
became  the  exemplar  for  all  the  provinces  of  the 
order.  Though  not  himself  a  learned  man,  he  es- 
tablished a  school  for  the  friars  at  Oxford,  which 
was  destined  to  play  no  small  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  university.  But  his  solicitude  extended 
beyond  the  immediate  welfare  of  his  bretliren.  He 
sent  his  friars  about  to  preach  the  word  of  God  to 
the  faithful,  and  to  perform  the  other  offices  of  the 
sacred  ministry.  Agnellus  wielded  considerable 
influence  in  affairs  of  state,  and  in  his  efforts  to  avert 
civil  war  between  the  King  and  the  Earl  Marshal, 
who  had  leagued  with  the  Welsh,  he  contracted  a 
fatal  illness.  Eccleston  has  left  us  a  brief  account 
of  his  death.  Agnellus's  body,  incorrupt,  was  pre- 
served with  great  veneration  at  Oxford  up  to  the 
dissolution  of  the  religious  houses  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.  The  cultus  of  Blessed  Agnellus  was 
formally  confirmed  by  Leo  XIII  in  1882,  and  his 
feast  is  kept  in  the  Order  on  7  May. 

Thomas  of  Eccleston,  Liber  de  adventu  Minorum  in 
Anfjlixim,  (written  about  1260);  Brewer,  JMonumenta  Fran- 
ciscana  (London,  1S58).  I,  and  HoWLfnT  (I.ondon,  I8S2)  II; 
Analects  Franciscana  (Quaraochi,  18SS),  1,  217-256;  CuTH- 
BERT,  The  Friars  and  How  They  Came  to  Enaland  (London. 
1903);  Jessop,  The  Coming  of  The  Friars  (New  York,  1889); 
Leo.  Lives  of  The  Saints  and  Blessed  of  The  Three  Orders  of 
St.  Francis  (Taunton,  1887),  IV,  305. 

Stephen  M.  Donov.\n. 

Agnellus  of  Ravenna,  Andre.^s,  historian  of 
that  churcli,  b.  805;  the  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known, but  was  probably  about  846.  Tliough  called 
Abbot,  first  of  St.  Mary  ad  Blachernas,  and,  later,  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  he  appears  to  have  remained  a 
secular  priest,  being  probably  only  titular  abbot 
of  each  abbey.  He  is  best  known  a.s  tlie  author  of 
the  "Liber  Pontificalis  l'>cl.  Ravennatis",  an  ac- 
count of  the  occupants  of  his  native  see,  compiled 
on  the  model  of  the  Roman  Liber  Pontificalis  (q.  v.). 
It  begins  with  St.  .\pollinaris  (q.  v.)  and  ends  with 
Georgius,  the  forty-eighth  arclibishop  (846).  Though 
the  work  cont.ains  no  little  unreliable  material,  it  is 
a  unique  and  ricli  source  of  information  concerning 


AONES 


213 


AONES 


the  buildings,  inscriptions,  manners,  and  religious 
customs  of  Uavcnna  in  the  ninth  century.  The 
author  sliows  a  strong  bi;us  and  loses  no  opportunity 
of  exalting  as  tratlitional  the  independence  or  " auto- 
rijihdlin"  of  the  cluirdi  of  Ravenna  as  against  the 
legitimate  authority  of  the  Holy  See.  P"or  his  time 
lie  is  a  kind  of  polemical  Galliean.  His  work  bears 
also  traces  of  personal  vanity.  In  his  efforts  to  be 
erudite  he  often  falls  into  unpardonable  errors.  The 
diction  i.s  barbarous,  and  the  text  is  faulty  anil  cor- 
rupt. 

Tl.e  wiirk  of  .Vgnellus  wiw  edited  by  Bacchini  (1708),  and 
l>v  Ml'UAToRl  in  ttie  second  volume  of  his  -Scnpforca  Rerum 
Itnltc.  (reprinte.1  in  /'.  L..  CVI,  -169-752).  The  latest  edition 
in  that  of  Hol.uKK-l'AiuKU,  in  Mon.  Oerm.  lliat.  Script.  Langob.. 
2(>5  wiq.  (Hanover,  1878).  See  Ebert,  OcschichU'  der  Litteratur 
den  MUlelalters.  etc.  (LeipziR.  1880),  II,  374;  Balzani,  Le 
Cronache  Ituliane  net  media  <id  (Milan,  1900),  93-98.  For  the 
peculiar  autocenhntia  claimed  by  the  archbishops  of  Ravenna 
(akin  to  that  of  Milan  and  .-Vquileia)  see  the  noteof  Deciii-:s.\i£ 
in  his  edition  of  the  Iloinan  Liber  Pontificalia  (Paris,  1880), 
I,  348,  349. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Agnes,  Sai.mt,  CEMETEnv  op.     See  C.\tacombs. 

Agnes,  Sai.vt,  of  Assist,  younger  sister  of  St.  Clare 
and  Abbess  of  the  Poor  Ladies,  b.  at  Assisi,  1197, 
or  1198;  d.  12.53.  She  was  the  younger  daugliter  of 
Count  Favorino  Scifi.  Her  saintly  mother,  Blessed 
Hortulana,  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of  the 
Fiumi,  and  her  cousin  Uufino  was  one  of  the  cele- 
brated "Three  Companions"  of  St.  Francis.  Agncs's 
childhood  was  passed  between  her  father's  palace 
in  the  city  and  his  castle  of  Sasso  Rosso  on  Mount 
Subasio.  On  18  .March,  1212,  her  eldest  sister  Clare, 
moved  by  the  preaching  and  example  of  St.  Francis, 
had  left  her  father's  home  to  follow  the  way  of  life 
taught  by  the  Saint.  Sixteen  days  later  Agnes  re- 
paired to  the  monastery  of  St.  Angelo  in  I'an.so, 
where  the  Benedictine  nuns  had  alTorded  Clare 
temporary  shelter,  and  resolved  to  share  her  sister's 
life  of  poverty  and  penance.  At  this  step  the  fury 
of  Count  Favorino  knew  no  bounds.  He  sent  his 
brother  .Monaldo,  with  sover.al  relatives  and  some 
armed  followers,  to  St.  Angelo  to  force  Agnes,  if 
persuasion  failed,  to  return  home.  The  conflict 
which  followed  is  related  in  detail  in  the  "Chronicles 
of  the  Twenty-four  Generals."  Monaldo,  beside 
himself  with  rage,  drew  his  sword  to  strike  the  young 

f;irl,  but  his  arm  dropped,  withered  and  useless,  by 
lis  side;  others  dragged  .\gnes  out  of  the  monastery 
by  the  hair,  striking  her,  and  even  kicking  her  re- 
peatedly. Presently  .St.  Clare  came  to  the  rescue, 
and  of  a  sudden  .Vgnes's  body  became  so  heavy  that 
tlie  soldiers  having  tried  in  vain  to  carry  her  off, 
dropped  her,  half  dead,  in  a  field  near  the  monasterj-. 
Overcome  by  a  spiritual  power  against  which  physical 
force  availed  not,  .\gnes's  relati\cs  nere  obligctl  to 
withdraw  and  to  allow  her  to  remain  with  St.  Clare. 
St.  Francis,  who  was  overjoyed  at  Agncs's  heroic 
resistance  to  the  entreaties  and  threats  of  her  pur- 
suers, presently  cut  off  her  hair  and  gave  her  the 
habit  of  Poverty.  Soon  after,  ho  established  the 
two  sisters  at  St.  Daniian's,  in  a  small  rude  dwell- 
ing adjoining  the  lunnble  sanctuary  which  he  had 
helped  to  rebuild  with  his  own  hands.  There  several 
oilier  noble  ladies  of  .\ssisi  joined  Clare  and  Agnes, 
and  thus  l)egan  the  Oriler  of  the  Poor  Ladies  of 
St.  Daniian's,  or  Poor  Clares,  as  these  Franciscan 
nuns  afterwards  came  to  be  called.  From  the  outset 
of  her  religious  life,  -Agnes  was  distinguished  for 
such  an  eminent  degree  of  virtue  that  her  com- 
panions declared  she  seemed  to  have  discovered  a 
now  road  to  perfection  known  only  to  herself.  As 
abbess,  she  ruled  with  loving  kindness  and  know  how 
to  make  the  practice  of  virtue  bright  and  attractive 
to  her  subjects.  In  1219,  Agnes,  despite  her  youtli, 
w!us  chosen  by  St.  Francis  to  found  and  govern  a 
community  of  the  Poor  Ladies  at  Monticelli,  near 
Florence,  which  in  course  of  time  became  almost  as 


famous  as  St.  Damian's.  A  letter  written  by  .St. 
Agnes  to  Clare  after  this  separation  is  still  extant, 
touchingly  lieautiful  in  its  simplicity  and  affection. 
Nothing  [xsrhaps  in  .Agnes's  character  is  more  strik- 
ing and  attractive  than  her  loving  fidelity  to  Clare's 
ideals  and  her  undying  loyalty  in  upholding  tlie 
latter  in  her  lifelong  and  arduous  struggle  for  Seraphic 
Po\erty.  Full  of  zeal  for  the  spread  of  the  Order, 
Agnes  established  from  Monticelli  several  monas- 
teries of  the  Poor  Ladies  in  the  north  of  Italy,  in- 
cluding those  of  Mantua,  Venice,  and  Padua,  all  of 
which  observed  the  same  fidelity  to  the  teaching  of 
St.  Francis  and  St.  Clare  In  1253,  Agnes  was  sum- 
moned to  St.  Damian's  during  the  last  illness  of 
St.  Clare,  and  assisted  at  the  latter's  triumphant 
death  and  funeral.  On  16  November  of  the  same 
year  she  followed  St.  Clare  to  her  eternal  reward. 
Her  mother  Hortulana  and  her  younger  sister 
Beatrice,  both  of  wliom  had  followed  Clare  and 
Agnes  into  the  Order,  had  already  passed  away. 
Tlie  precious  remains  of  St.  Agnes  repose  near  the 
body  of  her  mother  and  sisters,  in  the  church  of 
St.  Clare  at  Assisi.  God,  Who  had  favoured  Agnes 
with  many  heavenly  manifestations  during  life, 
glorified  her  tomb  after  death  by  numerous  miracles. 
Benedict  XIV  permitted  the  Order  of  St.  Francis 
to  celebrate  her  feast.  It  is  kept  on  16  November, 
as  a  double  of  the  second  class. 

Wadding,  Annates  Afinonim  (2d  ed.),  ad  an.  1212.  n.  23 
sqq.  et  1253  st|(i.:  Vita  Sororis  Afjnetis  in  Chronica  XXIV 
Generalium  (Quaracchi,  1897),  173-182;  De  Celano.  Vita 
S.  Ctartx  (cd.  SEDULirs,  Antwerp,  1613),  iii;  Christofani, 
Storut  delta  chieaa  e  chioglro  di  S.  Damiano  (Assisi,  1882); 
FiEOE,  The  Princett  of  Poverly  (Evansville,  1900);  Lives 
of  tl:e  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St.  Francis 
(Taunton,  1887),  IV,  GG-70. 

Paschal  Robinson. 

Ag^es  of  Bohemia,  Blessed,  or  Agnes  of 
Pn.vciJE,  as  she  is  sometimes  called,  b.  at  Prague  in 
the  year  1200;  d.  probably  in  1281.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Ottocar,  King  of  Bohemia  and  Con- 
stance of  Hungary,  a  relative  of  St.  Elizabeth.  .\t 
an  early  age  she  was  sent  to  the  monastery  of  Trei- 
nitz,  where  at  the  hands  of  the  Cistercian  religious 
she  received  the  education  that  became  her  rank. 
She  was  betrothed  to  Frederick  II,  Emperor  of  C!er- 
m.any;  but  when  the  time  arrived  for  the  solemni- 
iration  of  the  marriage,  it  was  impossible  to  persuade 
her  to  abandon  the  resolution  she  had  made  of  con- 
secrating herself  to  the  service  of  God  in  the  sanc- 
tuary of  the  cloister.  The  Emperor  Frederick  was 
incensed  at  the  unsuccessful  issue  of  his  matrimonial 
venture,  but,  on  learning  that  Blessed  Agnes  had 
left  him  to  become  the  .spouse  of  Christ,  he  is  said 
to  have  remarked:  "If  she  h.ad  left  me  for  a  mortal 
man,  I  would  have  taken  vengeance  with  the  sword, 
but  I  cannot  take  offence  becau.se  in  i>rcference  to 
me  she  has  chosen  the  King  of  Heaven."  The  .ser- 
vant of  God  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Clare  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Saviour  at  Prague,  which  she  herself 
had  erected.  She  was  elected  abbess  of  the  monas- 
tery, and  became  in  tliis  office  a  model  of  Christian 
virtue  and  religious  obser\'ance  for  all.  God  fa- 
voured her  with  the  gift  of  miracles,  and  she  pre- 
dicted the  victory  of  her  brother  Wenceslaus  over 
the  Duke  of  .Vustria.  The  exact  year  of  the  death 
of  Blessed  Agnes  is  not  certain;  1281  is  the  most 
probable  date.  Her  feast  is  kept  on  the  second  of 
March. 

Leo,  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of 
St.  Francis  (Taunton,  1885),  1  ;  Analecta  Franciscana  (Quar- 
acchi, 1897),  II.  60,  01,  95.  Ill,  185,  note,  7  ;  Wadding,  An- 
nates .Minorum.  1234,  No.  4-5.  For  the  English  translation 
of  her  correspondence  with  St.  Clare  cf.  Fiege,  The  Prin~ 
cess  of  Poverty  (Evansville,  Ind..  1000)  120-136. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Agnes  of  Montepulciano,  Saint.,  b.  in  the 
neighbourhnoil  of  Montc|iulciano  in  Tuscany  al)out 
1208;  d    there  1317.     .\t  the  age  of  nine  years  she 


AGNES 


214 


AGNESI 


entered  a  monastery.  Four  years  later  she  was 
commissioned  by  Pope  Nicliolas  IV  to  assist  iii  the 
foundation  of  a  monastery  at  Proceno.  and  became 
its  prioress  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  At  the  entreaty 
of  the  citizens  of  her  native  town,  she  established 
(1298)  the  celebrated  convent  of  Dominican  nuns 
at  Montepulciano  which  she  governed  until  the  time 
of  her  death.  She  was  canonized  by  Benedict  XIII 
in  1726.     Her  feast  is  celebrated  on  20  April. 

Ada  SS..  April,  II,  791,  792,  813-81 7;  Leboi-.\,  La  tie 
de  S.  Agnia  de  Monlepolitun,  dominicaine  (Paris,  1728);  Annee 
dominicaine  (1889),  IV.  519-546. 

E.  G.  Fitzgerald. 

Agnes  of  Rome,  Saint,  MAiixyR. — Of  all  the  virgin 
martyrs  of  Home  none  was  held  in  such  high  honour 
by  the  primiti\e  cliurch,  since  the  fourth  century, 
as  St.  Agnes.  In  the  ancient  Roman  calendar  of  the 
feasts  of  the  martyrs  (Depositio  Martyrum),  incor- 
porated into  the  collection  of  Furius  Dionysius  Philo- 
calus,  dating  from  354  and  often  reprinted,  e.  g.  in 
Ruinart  ["Acta  Sinoera  Martyrum"  (ed.  Ratisbon. 
1859),  63  sqr|.l,  her  feast  is  assigned  to  21  January, 
to  which  is  added  a  detail  as  to  the  name  of  the  road 
(Via  Nomentana)  near  which  her  grave  was  located. 
The  earliest  sacramentaries  give  the  same  date  for 
her  feast,  and  it  is  on  this  day  that  the  Latin 
Church  even  now  keeps  her  memory  sacred.  Since 
the  close  of  the  fourth  century  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church  and  Christian  poets  have  sung  her  praises 
and  extolled  her  virginity  and  heroism  under  torture. 
It  is  clear,  however,  from  the  diversity  in  the  earliest 
accounts  that  there  was  extant  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  no  accurate  and  reliable  narrative,  at 
least  in  writing,  concerning  the  details  of  her  martyr- 
dom. On  one  point  only  is  there  mutual  agreement, 
viz.,  the  youth  of  the  Christian  heroine.  St.  Am- 
brose gives  her  age  as  twelve  (De  Virginibus,  I,  2; 
P.  L.,  XVI,  200-202:  "  Haec  duodecim  annorum  mar- 
tyrium  fecisse  traditur"),  St.  Augustine  as  thirteen 
("Agnes  puella  tredecim  annorum";  Sermo  cclxxiii, 
6,  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  1251),  which  harmonizes  well 
with  the  words  of  Prudentius:  "Aiunt  jugali  vix 
habilem  toro"  ("  Peristephanon,"  Hymn  xiv,  10  in 
Ruinart,  Act.  Sine,  ed  cit.  486).  Damasus  depicts 
her  as  hastening  to  martyrdom  from  the  lap  of  her 
mother  or  nurse  ("  Nutricis  gremium  subito  liquisse 
puellam";  in  St.  Agneten,  3,  ed.  Ihm,  Damasi  epi- 
grammata,  Leipzig,  1895,  43,  n.  40).  We  have  no 
reason  whatever  for  doubting  this  tradition.  It  in- 
deed explains  very  well  the  renown  of  the  youthful 
martyr.  We  have  already  cited  the  testimony  of 
tlie  three  oldest  witnesses  to  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Agnes:   (1)    St.    Ambrose,    "  De    Virginibus,"    I,    2; 

(2)  the  inscription  of  Pope  Damasus  engraved  on 
marble,  the  original  of  which  may  yet  be  seen  at 
the  foot  of  the  stairs  leading  to  the  sepulchre  and 
<'hurch  of   St.  Agnes   (Sanf  Agnese   juori  le  muri); 

(3)  Prudentius,  "Peristephanon",  Hymn  14  The 
rhetorical  narrative  of  St.  Ambrose,  in  addition  to 
the  martyr's  age,  gives  nothing  except  hor  execution 
by  the  sword.  The  metrical  panegyric  of  Pope  Da- 
masus tells  us  that  immediately  after  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  imperial  edict  against  the  Christians 
Agnes  voluntarily  declared  herself  a  Christian,  and 
suffered  very  steadfastly  tlie  martyrdom  of  fire,  giv- 
ing scarcely  a  thought  to  the  frightful  torments  she 
had  to  endure,  and  conc'erned  only  with  veiling,  by 
means  of  her  flo^ving  hair,  her  chaste  body  which 
had  been  exposed  to  the  gaze  of  the  heathen  multi- 
tude (Nudaquo  profusum  crinem  per  membra  de- 
disse,  Ne  domini  templum  facies  peritura  ^ideret). 
Prudentius,  in  his  de.scription  of  the  martyrdom, 
adheres  rather  to  the  account  of  St.  Ambrose,  but 
adds  a  new  episode:  "The  judge  threatened  to  give 
over  her  virginity  to  a  house  of  prostitution,  and 
even  executed  this  threat;  but  when  a  young  man 
turned  a  lascivious  look  upon  the  virgin,  he  fell  to 


the  ground  stricken  with  blindness,  and  lay  as  one 
dead.  "  Possibly  this  is  what  Damasus  and  Ambrose 
refer  to,  in  saying  that  the  purity  of  St.  Agnes  was 
endangered;  the  latter  in  particular  says  (loc.  cit.): 
"Habetis  igitur  in  una  hostia  duplex  martyrium, 
pudoris  et  religionis:  et  virgo  perniansit  et  marty- 
rium obtinuit"  (Behold  therefore  in  the  same  victim 
a  double  martyrdom,  one  of  modesty,  the  other  of 
religion.  She  remained  a  virgin,  and  obtained  the 
crown  of  martyrdom).  Prudentius,  therefore,  may 
have  drawn  at  least  the  .substance  of  this  episode 
from  a  trustworthy  popular  legend.  Still  another 
source  of  information,  earlier  than  the  "Acts"  of 
her  martyrdom,  is  the  glorious  hymn:  "Agnes  beatse 
virginis",  which,  though  probably  not  from  the  pen 
of  St.  Ambrose  (since  the  poet's  narrative  clings 
more  closely  to  the  account  of  Damasus),  still  be- 
trays a  certain  use  of  the  text  of  St.  Ambrose,  and 
was  composed  not  long  after  the  latter  work.  (See 
the  text  in  Dreves,  Aur.  Ambrosius  der  \'ater  des 
Kirchengesanges,  135,  Freiburg,  1893.)  The  "Acts" 
of  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Agnes  belong  to  a  some- 
what later  period,  and  are  met  with  in  three  recen- 
sions, two  Greek  and  one  Latin.  The  oldeot  of  them 
is  the  shorter  of  the  two  Greek  texts,  on  which  the 
Latin  text  was  based,  though  it  was  at  the  same 
time  quite  freely  enlarged.  The  longer  Greek  text 
is  a  translation  of  this  Latin  enlargement  (Pio 
Franclii  de'  Cavalieri,  "St.  Agnese  nella  tradizione 
e  nella  legenda  ",  in  Romisehe  Quartalschrift,  Supple- 
ment X,  Rome,  1899;  cf.  Acta  SS.,  Jan.  II,  350  sqq). 
The  Latin  and,  consequentlj',  the  shorter  Greek  text 
date  back  to  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century,  when 
St.  Maximus,  Bishop  of  Turin  (c.  450-470),  evidently 
used  the  Latin  "Acts"  in  a  sermon  (P.  L.,  LVII, 
643  sqq.).  In  these  "Acts"  the  brothel  episode  is 
still  further  elaborated,  and  the  virgin  is  decapitated 
after  remaining  untouched  by  the  flames.  We  do 
not  loiow  with  certainty  in  which  persecution  the 
courageous  virgin  won  the  martyr's  crown.  For- 
merly it  was  customary  to  assign  her  death  to  tlie 
persecution  of  Diocletian  (c.  304),  but  arguments 
are  now  brought  forward,  based  on  the  inscription 
of  Damasus,  to  prove  that  it  occurred  during  one 
of  the  third-century  persecutions  subsequent  to  that 
of  Decius.  The  body  of  the  virgin  martjT  was 
placed  in  a  separate  sepulchre  on  the  Via  Nomentana, 
and  around  her  tomb  there  grew  up  a  larger  cata- 
comb that  bore  her  name.  The  original  slab  which 
covered  her  remains,  with  the  inscription  "Ague 
sanctissima",  is  probably  the  same  one  whicli  is 
now  preserved  in  the  Museum  at  Naples.  During 
the  reign  of  Constantine,  through  the  efforts  of  his 
daughter  Constantina,  a  basilica  was  erected  over 
the  grave  of  St.  Agnes,  which  was  later  entirely  re- 
modelled by  Pope  Honorius  (625-638),  and  has  since 
remained  unaltered.  In  the  apse  is  a  mosaic  showing 
the  martyr  amid  flames,  with  a  sword  at  her  feet. 
A  beautiful  relief  of  the  saint  is  found  on  a  marble 
slab  that  dates  from  the  fourth  century  and  was 
originally  a  part  of  the  altar  of  her  church.  Since 
the  Middle  Ages  St.  Agnes  has  been  represented  with 
a  lamb,  the  symbol  of  her  virginal  innocence.  On 
her  feast  two  lambs  are  solemnly  blessed,  and  from 
their  wool  arc  made  the  palliums  sent  by  the  Pope  to 
archbishops. 

In  adtiitiun  to  the  works  above  mentioned,  cf.  Tillemont, 
M^-moires  pnur  srrvir  h  Vhist.  ecch's.,  V,  Mtj  yqq.:  MAZzorrm, 
Commentarii  in  marmor.  Neapol.  Kulendarium  (Naples,  1755) 

III,  909  sqq.;  Ai.LARn,  Histoire  dra  pcrtn'rulions  (Paris,    1890) 

IV.  386  sqq.;  Wilpert,  Die  fiottfinerihlrn  Junglraucn  im 
chrigtlirhm  Allfrtum  (FreilnirE.  1SB2);  Wkym.^n,  Virr  Epi- 
aramme  dea  hi.  Papales  Damaaua  1  (Munich,  1905);  Bartoi.i.m. 
Gil  alii  del  marlirio  delta  nobitiasima  rernine  S.  At7nr8e  (Rome, 
18.58);  Armi:i.i.ini,  II  Cimilero  di  S.  Agnrac  (Rome,  1880); 
Butler,   Livea,  21  Jan. 

J.    P.    KlRSCH. 

Agnesi,  Maria  Gaktana,  b.  at  Milan,  16  May. 
1718;  d.  at  Milan,  9  January,  1799,  an  Italian  woman 


AGNETZ 


21.5 


AGNOSTICISM 


of  remarkable  intellectual  gifU  and  attainments. 
Her  father  waa  professor  of  mathematics  at  Hologna. 
Wlieii  nine  years  old  she  spoke  Latin  fluently,  and 
wrote  a  discourse  to  sliow  that  liberal  studies  were 
not  unsuited  to  her  sex:  "Uratio  <(ua  ostenditur 
artium  liberalium  studia  femineo  sexu  neutiquain 
abhorrere".  This  wa-s  printed  at  Milan  in  1~'27. 
She  is  said  to  have  sixiken  Clreek  fluently  when  only 
eleven  years  old,  and  at  thirteen  she  had  mastered 
Hebrew,  French,  Spanisli,  fiernian,  and  other  lan- 
guages. She  w:us  called  the  "Walking  Polyglot". 
Her  father  a.s.soml)led  the  most  learned  men  of 
HolopiKi  at  his  liouse  at  stated  intervals,  and  .Maria 
explained  and  defended  various  philosophical  theses. 
A  contemporary,  President  do  Hrosses,  in  his  "  I.ct- 
tres  sur  I'ltalie"  (I,  243),  declares  that  conversation 
with  the  young  girl  w:u5  intensely  interesting,  as 
Maria  wiis  attractive  in  manner  and  richly  endowed 
in  mind.  So  far  from  becoming  \'ain  over  her  suc- 
cess, she  was  averse  to  these  public  displays  of  her 
plienomenal  learning,  and  at  twenty  years  of  age 
desired  to  enter  a  convent.  Althougli  this  desire 
was  not  gratified,  the  meetings  were  discontinued, 
and  she  led  a  life  of  retirement,  in  wliich  she  devoted 
herself  especially  to  the  study  of  mathematics.  The 
191  tlieses  which  slie  defended  were  published  in 
173S,  at  .Milan,  under  the  title,  "  Propositionos  Pliilo- 
sophic;e".  Maria  showed  a  phenomenal  aptitude  for 
mathematics.  She  wrote  an  excellent  treatise  on 
conic  sections,  and  in  her  thirteenth  year  her  "In- 
stituzioni  Analitiche"  was  published  in  two  volumes 
(Milan,  17-18),  the  first  treating  of  the  analysis  of 
finite  quantities;  the  second,  the  analysis  of  infini- 
tesimals. This,  the  most  valuable  result  of  her 
labovirs  in  this  field,  was  regarded  ;is  the  best  intro- 
duction extant  to  the  works  of  Enler.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Colson  of  Cambridge,  and  into 
French  by  d'.\ntelmy,  with  the  notes  of  Abb6  Bos- 
stiet.  The  plane  curve,  known  as  vcrsicrn,  is  also 
called  "the  Witch  of  Agnesi".  Maria  gained  such 
reputation  as  a  mathematician  that  she  was  appointed 
by  Benedict  XIV  to  teach  mathematics  in  tne  I'ni- 
vcrsity  of  Bologna,  during  her  father's  illness.  This 
was  in  1750,  and  two  years  later  her  father  died. 
Maria  then  devoted  herself  to  the  study  of  theologj' 
and  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.  Her  long  aspira- 
tions to  the  religious  life  were  destinetl  to  be  gratified, 
for  after  acting  for  some  years  as  director  of  the 
Hospice  Trivulzio  of  the  Blue  Nuns  in  Milan,  she 
joined  the  order  and  died  a  member  of  it,  in  her 
eightv-first  year. 

Kri'-'i.  KIou'w  Sloriro  (Milan.  169G);  Boyeb,  in  Revue  calho- 
liquf  ilrn  rrvHt-a  (1897).  IV,  451;  Anzoletti,  Maria  Gattana 
AgjUBi  tMilun,   1«00). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Agnetz  (Latin,  agnus,  lamb),  the  Slavonic  word 
for  the  square  portion  of  bread  cut  from  the  first 
loaf  in  the  prep.iration  (prosKoiniitc)  for  Mass  accord- 
ing to  the  (ireck  rite.  The  word  is  u.se<l  both  in  the 
fireek  Catholic  and  (Ireek  Orthodox  churches  of  the 
I'nited  States,  as  well  as  in  Europe. 

Andrew  J.  Shipm.vn. 

Agnoetse  (dyvojiral  from  dym^u.  to  be  ignorant 
of),  the  name  given  to  tlio.se  who  denied  the  omni- 
science either  of  (.'lod  or  of  Christ.  The  Theophro- 
nians.  .so  named  from  their  leader,  Theophronius  of 
Cappadocia  (370),  denied  that  (lod  knew  the  past 
by  memory  or  the  future  with  certainty;  and  taught 
that  even  for  a  knowledge  of  the  past  He  required 
study  and  reflection.  The  .Vrians,  regarding  the 
nature  of  Christ  as  inferior  to  that  of  His  Father, 
claimed  that  He  was  ignorant  of  many  things,  as 
appears  from  His  own  statements  about  the  day  of 
judgment  and  by  the  fact  that  He  frequently  asked 
questions  of  His  companions  and  of  the  Jews.  The 
Apollinarists,  denying  that  Christ  had  a  human  soul, 
or,  at  least,  that  He  had  an  intellect,  necessarily  re- 


garded Him  as  devoid  of  knowledge.  The  Nestorians 
generally,  and  the  Adoptionists  who  renewed  their 
error,  believed  that  the  knowledge  of  Christ  was  lim- 
ited; that  He  grew  in  learning  as  He  grew  in  age. 
The  .M<jnophysites  logically  believed  that  Clirist  knew 
all  things,  since,  according  to  them.  He  had  but  one 
nature  and  that  divine.  But  some  of  them,  known 
as  the  Sevcrian  Monophysites,  set  limits  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  Clirist.  Luther  attributed  extraordinary 
knowledge,  if  not  omni-science.  to  Christ,  but  many  of 
the  reformers,  like  Bucer,  Calvin,  Zwinglius,  and 
others,  denied  His  omniscience.  Some  Catholics 
during  the  last  century  have  also  questioned  the 
omni.sciciice  of  the  human  intellect  of  Christ,  e.  g. 
Klee,  (iunther,  Bougaud,  and  the  controversy  has 
again  aroused  .some  interest  owing  to  the  speculations 
of  .\bbe  Loisy.  See  Knowledge  of  Christ;  Mono- 
PiivsirisM. 

PET.i\'ius,  De  Incamatione,  I,  XL,  c.  I-IV;  Stentrup, 
Chritftoloffia  (Innsbruck,  1882),  XI.  theses  Ixviii-lxxiii;  Vacant, 
in  Diet.  IIUol.  mlh.,  a.  v. 

Agnosticism,  a  philosophical  theory  which  limits 
tlie  extent  and  validity  of  knowledge. 

I.  Exposition. — (1)  The  word  Agnostic  (Greek 
'o,  privative -t- 7''WffTiK(is,  "knowing")  was  coined 
by  Profes.sor  Huxley  in  1SG9  to  describe  the  mental 
attitude  of  one  who  regarded  as  futile  aU  attempts 
to  know  the  reality  corresponding  to  our  ultimate 
scientific,  philo.sophic,  and  religious  ideas.  As  first 
employed  by  Hu.xley,  the  new  term  suggested  the 
contrast  between  his  own  unpretentious  ignorance 
and  the  vain  knowledge  which  the  Gnostics  of  the 
second  and  third  century  claimed  to  possess.  This 
antithesis  served  to  discredit  the  conclusions  of 
natural  theologj',  or  theistic  reasoning,  by  classing 
them  with  the  idle  vapourings  of  Gnosticism.  The 
classification  was  unfair,  the  attempted  antithesis 
overdrawn.  It  is  rather  the  Gnostic  and  the  Agnostic 
who  are  tlie  real  extremists;  the  former  extending 
tlie  bounds  of  knowledge,  and  the  latter  narrowing 
them,  unduly.  Natural  theology,  or  theism,  occupies 
the  middle  ground  between  these  extremes,  and 
should  have  been  disassociated  both  from  the  Gnostic 
position,  that  the  mind  can  know  everj-thing.and 
from  the  .\gnostic  position,  that  it  can  know  noth- 
ing, concerning  the  truths  of  religion.  (See  G.nosti- 
cisM.)  (2)  .Agnosticism,  as  a  general  term  in  philoso- 
pliy,  is  frequently  employed  to  express  any  conscious 
attitude  of  doubt,  denial,  or  disbelief,  towards  some, 
or  even  all,  of  man's  powers  of  knowing  or  objects  of 
knowledge.  The  meaning  of  the  term  may  accord- 
ingly vary,  hke  that  of  the  older  word  "Scepticism", 
which  it  has  largely  replaced,  from  partial  to  com- 
plete Agnosticism;  it  mav  be  our  knowledge  of  the 
worid,  of  the  self,  or  of  God,  that  is  questioned;  or 
it  may  be  the  knowableness  of  all  three,  and  the 
validity  of  any  knowledge,  whether  of  sense  or  in- 
tellect, science  or  pliilosophy,  history,  ethics,  religion. 
The  variable  element  in  the  term  is  the  group  of 
objects,  or  propositions,  to  which  it  refers;  the  in- 
variable element,  the  attitude  of  learned  ignorance 
it  always  implies  towards  the  possibility  of  acquiring 
knowledge.  (3)  Agnosticism,  as  a  term  of  modern 
philosophy,  is  used  to  descril>e  those  theories  of  the 
limitations  of  human  knowledge  which  deny  tlie 
constitutional  aljility  of  the  mind  to  know  reality 
and  conclude  with  the  recognition  of  an  intrinsically 
Unknowable.  The  existence  of  "absolute  reality" 
is  usually  affirmed  while,  at  the  same  time,  its  know- 
ableness is  denied.  Kant,  Hamilton,  Mansel,  and 
Spencer  make  this  affirmation  an  integral  part  of 
their  philosophic  sj-stems.  The  Phenomenalists, 
how-eyer,  deny  the  assertion  outright,  while  tlie 
Positivists,  Comte  and  Mill,  suspend  judgment  con- 
cerning the  existence  of  "something  l)oyond  phenom- 
ena '.  (.See  Positivism.)  (4)  Modern  Agnosticism 
differs  from  its  ancient  prototj*pe.     Its  genesis  is  not 


AGNOSTICISM 


216 


AGNOSTICISM 


due  to  a  reactionary  spirit  of  protest,  and  a  collec- 
tion of  sceptical  arguments,  against  "dogmatic  sys- 
tems" of  philosopliy  in  vogue,  so  much  as  to  an 
adverse  criticism  of  iuan's  knowing-powers  in  answer 
to  the  fundamental  question:  What  can  we  know? 
Kant,  who  was  the  first  to  raise  this  question,  in  his 
memorable  reply  to  Hume,  answered  it  by  a  distinc- 
tion between  ''knowable  phenomena"  and  "un- 
knowable things-in-t hemselves  ".  Hamilton  soon  fol- 
lowed with  his  doctrine  that  "we  know  only  the 
relations  of  things".  Modern  Agnosticism  is  thus 
closely  associated  with  Kant's  distinction  and  Hamil- 
ton's "principle  of  relativity.  It  asserts  our  inability 
to  know  the  reality  corresponding  to  our  ultimate 
scientific,  philosopliic,  or  religious  ideas.  (5)  Agnos- 
ticism, with  special  reference  to  theology,  is  a  name 
for  any  theory  which  denies  that  it  is  possible  for 
man  to  acquire  knowledge  of  God.  It  may  assume 
either  a  religious  or  an  anti-religious  form,  according 
as  it  is  confined  to  a  criticism  of  rational  knowledge 
or  extended  to  a  criticism  of  belief.  De  Bonald  (1754- 
1840),  in  his  theory  that  language  is  of  divine 
origin,  containing,  preserving,  and  transmitting  the 
primitive  revelation  of  God  to  man;  De  Lammenais 
(1782-1854),  in  his  theory  that  individual  reason  is 
powerless,  and  social  reason  alone  competent; 
Bonetty  (1798-1879),  in  his  advocacy  of  faith  in 
God,  the  Scriptures,  and  the  Church,  afford  instances 
of  Catholic  theologians  attempting  to  combine  belief 
in  moral  and  religious  truths  with  the  denial  that 
valid  knowledge  of  the  same  is  attainable  by  reason 
apart  from  revelation  and  tradition.  To  these  sys- 
tems of  Fideism  and  Traditionalism  should  be  added 
the  theory  of  Mansel  (1820-71),  which  Spencer 
regarded  as  a  confession  of  Agnosticism,  that  the 
very  inability  of  reason  to  know  the  being  and  attri- 
butes of  God  proves  that  revelation  is  necessary  to 
supplement  the  mind's  shortcomings.  This  attitude 
of  criticising  knowledge,  but  not  faith,  was  also  a 
feature  of  Sir  William  Ilamilton's  philosophy.  (See 
Fideism  and  Traditionalism.)  (6)  The  extreme 
view  that  knowledge  of  God  is  impossible,  even  with 
the  aid  of  revelation,  is  the  latest  form  of  religious 
Agnosticism.  The  new  theory  regards  religion  and 
science  as  two  distinct  and  separate  accounts  of 
experience,  and  seeks  to  combine  an  agnostic  in- 
tellect with  a  believing  heart.  It  has  been  aptly 
called  "mental  book-keeping  by  double  entry". 
Ritschl,  reviving  Kant's  separatist  distinction  of 
theoretical  from  practical  reason,  proclaims  that  the 
idea  of  God  contains  not  so  much  as  a  grain  of  rea- 
soned knowledge;  it  is  merely  "an  attractive  ideal", 
having  moral  and  religious,  but  no  objective,  scientific, 
value  for  the  believer  who  accepts  it.  Harnack 
locates  the  essence  of  Christianity  in  a  filial  relation 
felt  towards  an  unknowable  God  the  Father.  Saba- 
tier  considers  the  words  God,  Father,  as  sym- 
bols which  register  the  feelings  of  the  human  heart 
towards  the  Great  Unknowable  of  the  intellect. 
(7)  Ilecent  Agnosticism  is  also  to  a  great  extent  anti- 
religious,  criticizing  adversely  not  only  the  knowledge 
we  liave  of  God,  but  the  grounds  of  belief  in  Him 
as  well.  A  combination  of  Agnosticism  with  Atheism, 
rather  than  with  sentimental,  irrational  belief,  is  the 
course  adopted  by  many.  The  idea  of  God  is  elimi- 
nated both  from  the  systematic  and  personal  view 
which  is  taken  of  the  world  and  of  life.  The  attitude 
of  "solemnly  suspended  judgment"  shades  off  first 
into  indifference  towards  religion,  as  an  inscrutable 
affair  at  best,  and  next  into  disbelief.  The  Agnostic 
does  not  always  merely  abstain  from  either  affirm- 
ing or  denying  the  existence  of  God,  but  crosses  over 
to  the  old  position  of  theoretic  Atheism  and,  on  the 
plea  of  insufficient  evidence,  ceases  even  to  believe 
that  God  exists.  While,  therefore,  not  to  be  iden- 
tified with  Atheism,  Agnosticism  is  often  found  in 
eombination  with  it.     (See  Atheism.) 


II.  Total  Agnosticism  Self-refuting. — Total  or 
complete  Agnosticism — see  (2) — is  self-refuting.  The 
fact  of  its  ever  having  existed,  even  in  the  formula 
of  Arcesilaos,  "I  know  nothing,  not  even  that  I  know 
nothing",  is  questioned.  It  is  impossible  to  con- 
struct theoretically  a  self-con.sistent  scheme  of  total 
nescience,  doubt,  unbelief.  The  mind  w-hich  under- 
took to  prove  its  own  utter  incompetence  would  have 
to  assume,  while  so  doing,  that  it  was  competent  to 
perform  tlie  allotted  task.  Besides,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  applj''  such  a  theory  practically;  and 
a  theory  wholly  subversive  of  reason,  contradictory 
to  conscience,  and  inapplicable  to  conduct  is  a 
philosophy  of  unreason  out  of  place  in  a  world  of 
law.  It  is  the  systems  of  partial  Agnosticism,  there- 
fore, which  merit  examination.  These  do  not  aim 
at  constructing  a  complete  philosophy  of  the  Un- 
knowable, but  at  excluding  special  kinds  of  truth, 
notably  religious,  from  the  domain  of  knowledge. 
They  are   bviildings   designedly  left  unfinished. 

III.  K.\nt's  distinction  between  Appearance 
AND  Reality  examined. — Kant's  idea  of  "a  world 
of  things  apart  from  the  world  we  know"  furnished 
the  starting-point  of  the  modern  movemert  towards 
constructing  a  philosophy  of  the  Unknowable.  With 
the  laudable  intention  of  silencing  the  sceptic  Hume, 
he  showed  that  the  latter's  analysis  of  human  ex- 
perience into  particular  sense-impressions  was  faulty 
and  incomplete,  inasmuch  as  it  failed  to  recognize 
the  universal  and  necessary  elements  present  in 
human  thought.  Kant  accordingly  proceeded  to 
construct  a  theory  of  knowledge  which  should  em- 
phasize the  features  of  human  thought  neglected  by 
Hume.  He  assumed  that  universality,  necessity, 
causality,  space,  and  time  were  merely  the  mind's 
constitutional  w-ay  of  looking  at  things,  and  in  no 
sense  derived  from  experience.  The  result  was  that 
he  had  to  admit  the  mind's  incapacity  for  knowing 
the  reality  of  the  world,  the  soul,  or  God,  and  was 
forced  to  take  refuge  against  Hume's  scepticism  in 
the  categorical  imperative  "Thou  shalt"  of  the 
"moral  reason".  He  had  made  "pure  reason" 
powerless  by  his  transfer  of  causality  and  necessity 
from  the  objects  of  thought  to  the  thinking  subject. 

To  discredit  this  idea  of  a  "reality  "  inaccessibly 
hidden  behind  "appearances",  it  is  sufficient  to  point 
out  the  gratuitous  assumptions  on  which  it  is  based. 
Kant's  radical  mistake  was,  to  prejudge,  instead  of 
investigating,  the  conditions  under  which  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge  becomes  possible.  No  proof 
was  offered  of  the  arbitrary  assumption  that  the 
categories  are  wholly  subjective;  proof  is  not  even 
possible.  "The  fact  that  a  category  lives  subject- 
ively in  the  act  of  knowing  is  no  proof  that  the 
category  does  not  at  the  same  time  truly  e.xpress  the 
nature  of  the  reality  known".  [Seth,  "'Two  Lectures 
on  'Theism  "  (New  York,  1897)  p.  19.]  The  harmony 
of  the  mind's  function  with  the  objects  it  perceives 
and  the  relations  it  discovers  shows  that  the  ability 
of  the  mind  to  reach  reality  is  involved  in  our  very 
acts  of  perception.  Yet  Kant,  substituting  theory 
for  fact,  would  disqualify  the  mind  for  its  task  of 
knowing  the  actual  world  we  live  in,  and  invent  a 
hinterland  of  things-in-themselves  never  known  as 
they  are,  but  only  as  they  appear  to  be.  This  use 
of  a  purely  speculative  principle  to  criticize  the 
actual  contents  of  human  experience,  is  unjustifiable. 
Knowledge  is  a  living  process  to  be  concretely  in- 
vestigated, not  a  mechanical  affair  for  abstract  rea- 
son to  play  with  by  introducing  artificial  severances  of 
thought  from  object,  and  of  reality  from  appearance. 
Once  knowledge  is  regarded  as  a  synthetic  act  of  a 
self-active  subject,  the  gap  artificially  created  be- 
tween subject  and  object,  reality  and  appearance, 
closes  of  itself.     (See  Kant,  Philosophy  of.) 

IV.  Hamilton'.s  Doctrine  of  Relativity  ex- 
amined.— Sir    William    Hamilton    contributed    the 


AGNOSTICISM 


217 


AGNOSTICISM 


philosophical  principle  on  which  modern  Agnosticism 
rests,  in  his  doctrine  that  "all  knowledge  is  relative". 
To  know  is  to  condition;  to  know  the  I'nconditioned 
(Absolute,  or  Infinite)  is,  therefore,  iinix)ssible,  our 
best  efforts  resulting  in  "mere  negations  of  thought". 
'I'his  doctrine  of  relativity  contains  two  serious 
equivocations  which,  when  pointed  out,  reveal  the 
basic  dilTcrence  between  the  i)hilosophios  of  Agnosti- 
cism and  of  Theism.  The  first  is  in  the  word  "rela- 
tivity". The  statement  that  knowledge  is  "rela- 
tive" may  mean  simply  that  to  know  anything, 
whether  the  world  or  God,  we  must  know  it  as  mani- 
festing itself  to  us  under  the  laws  and  relations  of 
our  own  consciousness;  apart  from  which  relations 
of  self-manifestation  it  would  be  for  us  an  isolated, 
imknowable  blank.  Thus  understood,  the  doctrine 
of  relativity  states  the  actual  human  method  of 
knowing  the  world,  the  soul,  the  self,  f!od,  grace, 
and  the  sui>ernatural.  Who  would  hold  that  we 
know  Ciod,  naturally,  in  any  other  way  than  through 
the  manifestations  He  makes  of  Himself  in  mind 
and  nature? 

But  Hamilton  understood  the  principle  of  rela- 
tivity to  mean  that  "we  know  only  the  relations  of 
things";  only  the  Relative,  never  the  Absolute.  A 
neg.'itive  conclusion,  fixing  a  limit  to  what  wo  can 
know,  was  thus  drawn  from  a  principle  which  of 
itself  merely  affirms  the  method,  but  settles  nothing 
as  to  the  limits,  of  our  knowledge.  This  arbitrary 
interpretation  of  a  method  as  a  limitation  is  the  centre 
of  the  Agnostic  position  against  Theism.  An  ideally 
perfect  possible  knowledge  is  contrasted  with  the 
iin|X!rfect,  yet  none  the  less  true,  knowledge  which 
we  actually  possess.  By  thus  assuming  "  ideal  com- 
prehension" as  a  standard  by  which  to  criticize 
"real  apprehension",  the  Agnostic  invalidates,  ap- 
parently, the  little  that  we  do  know,  as  at  present 
constituted,  by  the  more  we  might  know,  if  our 
mental  constitution  were  other  than  it  is.  The 
Theist,  however,  recognizing  that  the  limits  of  human 
knowledge  are  to  be  determined  by  fact,  not  by 
speculation,  refuses  to  prejudge  the  i.ssue,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  investigate  what  we  can  legitimately  know 
of  (iod  through   His  efTects  or  manifestations. 

The  second  serious  equivocation  is  in  the  terms 
"Absolute  ","  Infinite  ",  "  I'nconditioned  ".  The  .Ag- 
nostic has  in  mind,  when  he  uses  these  terms,  that 
vague  general  idea  of  being  which  our  mind  reaches 
by  emptying  concrete  reality  of  ail  its  particular 
contents.  The  result  of  this  em|itving  process  is  the 
Indefinite  of  abstract,  as  compared  with  the  Definite 
of  concrete,  thought.  It  is  this  Indefinite  which  the 
Agnostic  exhibits  as  the  utterly  I'melated,  Uncon- 
ditioned. But  this  is  not  the  Absolute  in  question. 
Our  inability  to  know  such  an  Absolute,  Ix^ing  simply 
our  inability  to  define  the  indefinite,  to  condition 
the  unconditioned,  is  an  irrelevant  tniism.  The 
.\bsoluto  in  question  with  Theists  is  the  real,  not  the 
logical;  the  Infinite  in  question  Ls  the  actual  In- 
finite of  realized  [Jerfection,  not  the  Indefinite  of 
thought.  The  All-perfect  is  the  idea  of  Clod,  not  the 
.\ll-im|x;rfect,  two  polar  'opposites  frequently  mis- 
taken for  each  other  by  Pantheists  and  Materialists 
from  the  days  of  the  lonians  to  our  own.  The 
.\gnostic,  therefore,  displaces  the  whole  Theistic 
prnblcrn  when  he  substitutes  a  logical  Absolute, 
defined  as  "that  which  excludes  all  relations  outer 
and  inner",  for  the  real.  lOxamination  of  our  ex- 
perience shows  that  the  only  relation  which  the 
.\lxsolute  essentially  excludes  is  the  relation  of  real 
dependence  upon  anything  else.  We  have  no  right 
in  reason  to  define  it  as  the  non-related.  In  fact,  it 
manifests  itself  as  the  causal,  sustaining  ground  of 
all  relations.  Whether  our  knowledge  of  this  real 
Alwohite,  or  God,  deserves  to  be  characterized  as 
wholly  negative,  is  consequently  a  distinct  problem 
(see  VI). 


V.    SpENCEH'.S     DOCTKINE     op     the     t'NKVOWAni.E 

EXAMi.vBD. — According  to  Herbert  Spencer,  the 
doctrine  that  all  knowledge  is  relative  caimot  be 
intelligibly  stated  without  postulating  the  existence 
of  the  Absolute.  The  momentum  of  thought  in- 
evitably carries  us  beyond  conditioned  existence 
(definite  consciousness)  to  unconditioned  existence 
(indefinite  consciousness).  The  existence  of  Aljso- 
lute  Reality  must  therefore  lje  allirmed.  Spencer 
thus  made  a  distinct  advance  upon  the  philo.sophy 
of  C'omte  and  Mill,  which  maintained  a  non-committal 
attitude  on  the  question  of  any  ab.solute  existence. 
Hamilton  and  Mansel  admitted  the  existence  of  the 
Infinite  on  faith,  denying  only  man's  ability  to  form 
a  positive  conception  of  it.  Slansel's  test  for  a  valid 
conception  of  anj-thing  is  an  exhaustive  grasp  of  its 
positive  contents — a  test  so  ideal  as  to  invalidate 
knowledge  of  the  finite  and  infinite  alike.  Spen- 
cer's test  is  "inability  to  conceive  the  opposite". 
But  since  he  understood  "to  conceive"  as  meaning 
"to  construct  a  mental  image",  the  conse<iuence  was 
that  the  highest  conceptions  of  science  and  religion 
— matter,  space,  time,  the  Infinite — failed  to  corre- 
spond to  his  assumed  standard,  and  were  declared 
to  be  "mere  .symbols  of  the  real,  not  actual  cognitions 
of  it  at  all  ".  He  was  thus  led  to  seek  the  basis  and 
reconciliation  of  science,  philosophy,  and  religion  in 
the  common  recognition  of  Unknowable  Reality  as 
the  object  of  man's  constant  pursuit  and  worship. 
The  non-existence  of  the  Al>solute  is  imthinkable;  all 
efforts  to  know  positively  what  the  Absolute  is  re- 
sult in  contradictions. 

Spencer's  adverse  criticism  of  all  knowledge  and 
belief,  as  affording  no  insight  into  the  ultimate  na- 
ture of  reality,  rests  on  glaring  assumptions.  The 
assumption  that  every  idea  is  "symbolic"  which 
cannot  be  vividly  realized  in  thought  is  so  ar- 
bitrary as  to  be  decisive  against  his  entire  system; 
it  is  a  pre-judgment,  not  a  valid  canon  of  in- 
ductive criticism,  which  he  constantly  employs. 
From  the  fact  that  w-e  can  form  no  conception  of 
infinity,  as  we  picture  an  object  or  recall  a  scene, 
it  does  not  follow  that  we  have  no  apprehension  of 
the  Infinite.  We  constantly  apprehend  things  of 
which  we  can  distinctly  frame  no  mental  image. 
Spencer  merely  contrasts  our  picturesque  with  our 
unpicturable  forms  of  thought,  using  the  former  to 
criticize  the  latter  adversely.  The  contradictions 
which  he  discovers  are  all  reducible  to  this  contrast  of 
definite  with  indefinite  thought,  and  disappear  when 
we  have  in  mind  a  real  Infinite  of  perfection,  not  a 
logical  Absolute.  Spencer's  attempt  to  stop  finally 
at  the  mere  affirmation  that  the  Absolute  exists  he 
himself  proved  to  be  impossible.  He  frequently  de- 
scribes the  Unknowable  as  the  "Power  manifesting 
itself  in  phenomena  ".  This  physical  description  is  a 
surrender  of  his  own  position  and  a  virtual  accept- 
ance of  the  principle  of  Theism,  that  the  Ab-solute  is 
known  through,  not  apart  from,  its  manifestations. 
If  the  Al>solute  can  be  known  as  physical  power, 
surely  it  can  be  known  as  Intelligent  Personal  Power, 
by  taking  not  the  lowest,  but  the  highest,  manifesta- 
tions of  power  known  to  tis  as  the  basis  for  a  less 
inadequate  conception.  Blank  existence  is  no  final 
stopping-place  for  human  thought.  The  only  ra- 
tional course  is  to  conceive  God  under  the  highest 
manifestations  of  Himself  and  to  remember  while 
so  doing  that  we  are  describing,  not  defining.  His 
abysmal  nature.  It  is  not  a  question  of  degrading 
God  to  our  level,  but  of  not  conceiving  Him  below 
that  level  as  uncon.scioiLS  energv'.  Spencer's  further 
attempt  to  empty  religion  antf  science  of  their  re- 
spective rational  contents,  so  as  to  leave  only  a  blank 
abstraction  or  sjnnbol  for  the  final  object  of  both,  is 
a  gross  conf\ision,  again,  of  the  indefinite  of  thought 
with  the  infinite  of  reality.  .\  religion  wholly  cut  otT 
from    belief,    worship,   and   conduct    never   existed. 


AGNOSTICISM 


218 


AGNOSTICISM 


Religion  must  know  its  object  to  some  extent  or  be 
mere  irrational  emotion.  All  religion  recognizes 
mysterj';  truth  and  reality  imperfectly  kno\ra, 
not  wliolly  unknowable.  The  distinction  of  "know- 
able  plienomena  from  unknowable  reality  behind 
lihenomena"  breaks  down  at  every  turn;  and  Spen- 
cer well  illustrates  how  easy  it  is  to  mistake  simplified 
thoughts  for  tlie  original  simplicities  of  things. 
His  categorj'  of  the  Inknowable  is  a  convenient 
receptacle  for  anytliing  one  may  choose  to  put  into 
it,  because  no  rational  statement  concerning  its  con- 
tents is  possible.  In  fact,  Spencer  calmly  affirms  the 
identity  of  tlie  two  "unknowables"  of  Religion  and 
.Science,  without  appearing  to  realize  that  neither 
in  reason  nor  according  to  his  own  principles  is  there 
any  foundation  for  this  most  dogmatic  of  state- 
ments. 

VI.  The  power  to  Know. — The  primary  fact  dis- 
closed in  our  sense-knowledge  is  that  an  external 
object  exists,  not  tliat  a  sensation  has  been  experi- 
enced. What  we  directly  perceive  is  the  presence 
of  tlie  object,  not  the  mental  process.  Tliis  vital 
union  of  sul)joct  and  object  in  the  very  act  of  knowl- 
edge impUes  tliat  things  and  minds  are  harmoniously 
related  to  cacii  other  in  a  system  of  reality.  The  real 
is  invohed  in  our  acts  of  perception,  and  any  theory 
which  neglects  to  take  tliis  basic  fact  into  accoimt 
disregards  tlie  data  of  direct  experience.  Through- 
out the  whole  process  of  our  knowing,  the  mind  has 
reality,  fundamentally  at  least,  for  its  object.  The 
second  fact  of  our  knowledge  is  that  things  are 
kno^^Ti  according  to  the  nature  of  the  knower.  We 
can  know  tlie  real  object,  but  the  extent  of  this 
knowledge  will  depend  on  the  number  and  degree  of 
manifestations,  as  on  the  actual  conditions  of  our 
mental  and  bodily  powers.  Whatever  be  the  results 
reached  by  psychologists  or  by  physicists  in  their 
study  of  the  genesis  of  knowledge  or  the  nature  of 
reality,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  testimony  of 
consciousness  to  the  existence  of  a  reality  "not 
ourselves ".  Knowledge  is,  therefore,  proportioned 
to  the  manifestations  of  the  object  and  to  the  nature 
and  conditions  of  the  knowing  subject.  Our  power 
to  know  God  is  no  exception  to  this  general  law,  the 
non-observance  of  which  is  the  weakness  of  Agnosti- 
cism, as  the  observance  of  it  is  the  strength  of  Theism. 
The  pi\'otal  assumption  in  agnostic  systems  generally 
is  that  we  can  know  the  existence  of  a  thing  and  still 
remain  in  complete  ignorance  of  its  nature.  The 
process  of  our  knowing  is  contrasted  with  the  object 
supposedly  known.  The  result  of  this  contrast  Ls  to 
make  knowledge  appear  not  as  reporting,  but  as 
transforming,  reality;  and  to  make  the  object  appear 
as  qualitatively  different  from  the  knowledge  we 
have  of  it,  and,  therefore,  intrinsically  unknowable. 
This  assumption  begs  the  whole  question.  No  valid 
reason  exists  for  regarding  the  physical  stimulus  of 
sensation  as  "reality  pure  and  simple",  or  as  the 
ultimate  object  of  knowledge.  To  conceive  of 
knowledge  as  altering  its  object  is  to  make  it  mean- 
ingless, and  to  contradict  the  testimony  of  con- 
sciousness. We  cannot,  therefore,  know  the  exist- 
ence of  a  thing  and  remain  in  complete  ignorance  of 
its  nature. 

Tlie  problem  of  God's  knowableness  raises  four 
more  or  less  distinct  questions:  existence,  nature, 
|)Ossibility  of  knowledge,  possibility  of  definition.  In 
treating  these,  the  Agnostic  separates  the  first  two, 
which  he  should  combine,  and  combines  the  last  two, 
which  lie  should  separate.  The  first  two  questions, 
while  distinct,  are  inseparable  in  treatment,  because 
we  have  no  direct  insight  into  the  nature  of  anything, 
and  must  be  content  to  study  the  nature  of  God 
through  the  indirect  manifestations  He  makes  of 
Himself  in  creatures.  The  Agnostic,  l)y  treating  the 
quest  ion  of  (Jod's  nature  apart  from  the  question  of 
God's  existence,  cuts  himself  off  from  the  only  possi- 


ble natural  means  of  knowing,  and  then  turns  about 
to  convert  his  fault  of  method  into  a  philosophy  of 
the  Unknowable.  It  is  only  by  studying  the  Abso- 
lute and  the  manifestations  together  that  we  can 
round  out  and  fill  in  the  concept  of  the  former  by 
means  of  the  latter.  The  idea  of  C!od  cannot  be  an- 
alyzed wholly  apart  from  the  evidences,  or  "proofs  ". 
Deduction  needs  the  companion  process  of  induction 
to  succeed  in  this  instance.  Spencer  overlooked  this 
fact,  which  St.  Thomas  admirably  observed  in  his 
classic  treatment  of  the  problem. 

The  question  of  knowing  God  is  not  the  same  as 
the  question  of  defining  Him.  The  two  do  not  stand 
or  fall  together.  By  identifying  the  t\\o,  the  Agnos- 
tic confounds  "inability  to  define"  with  "total  in- 
ability to  know  ",  which  are  distinct  problems  to  be 
treated  separately,  since  knowledge  may  fall  short  of 
definition  and  be  knowledge  still.  Spencer  furnishes 
the  typical  instance.  He  admits  that  inquiry  into 
the  nature  of  things  leads  inevitably  to  the  concept  of 
Absolute  Existence,  and  here  his  confusion  of  know- 
ing with  defining  compels  him  to  stop.  He  cannot 
discover  in  the  isolated  concept  of  the  Absolute  the 
three  conditions  of  relation,  likeness,  and  difference, 
necessary  for  defining  it.  He  rightly  claims  that  no 
direct  resemblance,  no  agreement  in  the  possession 
of  the  same  identical  qualities,  is  possible  between 
the  Absolute  and  the  world  of  created  things.  The 
Absolute  cannot  be  defined  or  classified,  in  the  sense 
of  being  brought  into  relations  of  specific  or  generic 
agreement  with  any  objects  we  know  or  any  con- 
cepts we  frame.  This  was  no  discovery  of  Spencer's. 
The  Eastern  Fathers  of  the  Church,  in  theii'  so-called 
"negative  theology",  refuted  the  pretentious  knowl- 
edge of  the  Gnostics  on  this  very  principle,  that  the 
Absolute  transcends  all  our  schemes  of  classification. 
But  Spencer  was  WTong  in  neglecting  to  take  into 
account  the  considerable  amount  of  positive,  though 
not  strictly  definable,  knowledge  contained  in  the 
affirmation,  which  he  makes  in  common  with  the 
Theist,  that  God  exists.  The  Absolute,  studied  in  the 
light  of  its  manifestations,  not  in  the  darkness  of 
isolation,  discloses  itself  to  our  experience  as  Originat- 
ing Source.  Between  the  Manifestations  and  the 
Source  there  exists,  therefore,  some  relationship.  It 
is  not  a  direct  resemblance,  in  the  very  nature  of  the 
case.  But  there  is  another  kind  of  resemblance 
which  is  wholly  indirect,  the  resemblance  of  two  pro- 
portions, or  Analogy.  The  relation  of  God  to  His 
absolute  nature  must  be,  proportionally  at  least,  the 
same  as  that  of  creatures  to  theirs.  However  in- 
finite the  distance  and  ditTerence  between  the  two, 
this  relation  of  proportional  similarity  exists  .be- 
tween them,  and  is  sufficient  to  make  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  former  possible  through  the  latter,  be- 
cause both  are  proportionally  alike,  while  infinitely 
diverse  in  being  and  attributes.  The  Originating 
Source  must  precontain,  in  an  infinitely  surpassing 
way,  the  perfections  dimly  reflected  in  the  mirror  of 
Nature.  Of  this,  the  principle  of  causality,  object- 
ively understood,  is  ample  warrant.  Spencer's  three 
conditions  for  knowledge — namely:  relation,  like- 
ness, and  difference — are  thus  verified  in  another  way, 
with  proportional  truth  for  their  basis.  The  con- 
clusions of  natural  theology  cannot,  therefore,  be 
excluded  from  the  domain  of  the  knowable,  but  only 
from  that  of  the  definable.      (See  Analogy.) 

The  process  of  knowing  God  thus  becomes  a  process 
of  correcting  our  human  concepts.  The  correction 
consists  in  raising  to  infinite,  unlimited  significance 
the  objective  perfections  discernible  in  men  and 
things.  This  is  accomplished  in  turn  by  denying  the 
limiting  modes  and  imnerfcct  features  distinctive  of 
created  reality,  in  order  to  replace  these  by  the 
thought  of  the  All-perfect,  in  the  plenitude  of  whoso 
I5cing  one  undivided  reality  corresponds  to  our 
numerous,  distinct,  partial  concepts.     In  the  liglit  of 


AGNOSTICISM 


219 


AGNOSTICISM 


this  applied  corrective  we  are  enabled  to  attribute  to 
God  the  perfections  manifested  in  intelligence,  will, 
power,  personality,  without  making  the  objective 
content  of  our  idea  of  (iod  merely  the  luiniaii  magni- 
fied, or  a  bvindlc  of  negations.  The  extreme  of  An- 
thropoinorphisiri,  or  of  defining  (iod  in  terms  of  man 
magnified,  is  tlius  avoided,  and  the  opposite  extreme 
of  AgnosticisMi  discounted.  Necessity  compels  \is  to 
think  (iod  under  the  relative,  dependent  features  of 
our  experience.  But  no  necessity  of  thought  com- 
pc^ls  us  to  make  the  accidental  features  of  our  know- 
ing the  very  essence  of  His  being.  The  function  of 
denial,  which  the  .Agnostic  overlooks,  is  a  corrective, 
not  purely  negative,  function;  and  our  idea  of  Ciod, 
inadequate  and  .solely  proportional  as  it  is,  is  never- 
theless positive,  true,  and  valid  according  to  the 
laws  which  govern  all  our  knowing. 

VII.  The  will  to  Believe. — Tlie  Catholic  con- 
ception of  faith  is  a  firm  assent,  on  account  of  the 
authority  of  (Iod,  to  revealed  truths.  It  presup- 
poses the  philo.sophical  truth  that  a  nersonal  Clod 
exists  who  can  neither  deceive  nor  be  deceived,  and 
the  historical  truth  of  the  fact  of  revelation.  The 
two  sources  of  knowledge — reason  and  revelation — 
complete  each  other.  Faith  begins  where  science 
ends.  Revelation  adds  a  new  world  of  truth  to  the 
sum  of  himian  knowledge.  This  new  world  of  truth 
is  a  world  of  mystery,  but  not  of  contradiction.  The 
fact  that  none  of  the  truths  which  we  believe  on 
God's  authority  contradicts  the  laws  of  human 
thought  or  the  certainties  of  natural  knowledge 
shows  that  the  world  of  faith  is  a  world  of  higher 
reason.  Taith  is  conseciuently  an  intellectual  assent; 
a  kind  of  s\iporatlded  knowledge  distinct  from,  yet 
continuous  with,  the  knowledge  derived  from  ex- 
perience. 

In  contrast  with  this  conception  of  faith  and  rea- 
son as  distinct  is  the  widespread  view  which  urges 
their  absolute  separation.  The  word  knowledge 
is  restricted  to  the  results  of  the  exact  sciences;  the 
word  belief  is  extended  to  all  that  cannot  be  thus 
exactly  ascertained.  The  passive  attitude  of  the 
man  of  science,  who  suspends  judgment  until  the 
evidence  forces  his  assent,  is  assumed  towards  reli- 
gious truth.  The  result  is  that  the  "will  to  believe" 
takes  on  enormous  significance  in  contrast  with  the 
"power  to  know  ",  ami  faith  sinks  to  the  level  of  blind 
belief  c\it  off  from  all  continuity  with  knowledge. 

It  is  true  that  the  will,  the  conscience,  the  heart, 
and  divine  grace  co-operate  in  the  production  of  the 
act  of  faith,  but  it  is  no  less  true  that  reason  plays  an 
essential  part.  Faith  is  an  act  of  intellect  and  will; 
when  tluly  analyzed,  it  discloses  intellectual,  moral, 
and  sentimental  elements.  We  are  living  beings,  not 
pure  reasoning  machines,  and  our  whole  nature  co- 
operates vitally  in  the  acceptance  of  the  divine  word. 
"Man  is  a  being  who  thinks  all  his  experience  and 
perforce  must  think  his  religious  experience." — 
Sterrett,  "The  Freedom  of  Authority"  (New  York, 
1905)  p.  .'J6. — Where  rca-son  does  not  enter  at  all, 
we  have  but  caprice  or  enthusiasm.  Faith  is  not  a 
persuasion  to  be  duly  explained  by  reference  to  sub- 
conscious will-attitudes  alone,  nor  is  distrust  of  rea- 
son one  of  its  marks. 

It  is  also  true  that  the  attitude  of  the  believer,  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  scientific  observer,  is 
strongly  personal,  and  interested  in  the  object  of 
belief.  But  this  contrast  of  personal  with  imper- 
sonal attitudes  affords  no  justification  for  regarcling 
belief  as  wholly  blind.  It  is  unfair  to  generalize 
these  two  attitudes  into  mutually  exclusive  philoso- 
phies. The  moral  ideal  of  conscience  is  clifTerent 
from  the  cold,  impartial  ideal  of  physical  science. 
Truths  which  nourish  the  moral  life  of  the  soul,  and 
shape  conduct,  cannot  wait  for  acceptance,  like  purely 
scientific  truths,  until  theoretical  rea.son  studies  the 
problem  thoroughly.     They  present  distinct  motives 


for  the  conscience  to  appreciate  actively,  not  for  the 
speculative  reason  to  contemplate  passi\ely.  Con- 
science appreciates  the  moral  value  of  testimonies, 
commands  their  acceptance,  and  bids  the  intellect 
to  "ponder  them  with  assent". 

It  is  wrong,  therefore,  to  liken  the  function  of 
conscience  to  that  of  speculative  reason,  to  apply  to 
the  solution  of  moral  and  religious  questions  the 
methods  of  the  exact  sciences,  to  give  to  the  latter 
the  monopr)ly  of  all  certitude,  and  to  declare  the 
region  beyoiul  scientific  knowledge  a  region  of  ne.s- 
cience  and  blind  belief.  On  the  assumption  that  the 
knowable  and  the  definable  are  synonymous  terms, 
the  "first  principles  of  thought"  are  transferred  from 
the  category  of  knowledge  to  that  of  belief,  but  the 
transfer  is  arbitrary.  It  is  too  much  to  suppose  that 
we  know  only  what  we  can  explain.  The  mistake  is 
in  making  a  general  philosophy  out  of  a  particular 
method  of  scientific  explanation.  This  criticism  ap- 
plies to  all  systematic  attempts  to  divide  the  mind 
into  opposite  hemispheres  of  intellect  and  will,  to 
divorce  faith  completely  from  knowledge.  Con- 
sciousness is  one  and  continuous.  Our  distinctions 
should  never  amount  to  separations,  nor  should  the 
"pragmatic"  method  now  in  vogue  be  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  a  universal  philosophy.  "The  soul  with 
its  powers  does  not  form  an  integral  whole  di\ided, 
or  divisible,  into  non-communicating  compartments 
of  intellect  and  will;  it  is  a  potential  inter-|)enetrative 
whole".  (Baillie,  "Revue  de  I'hilos.",  April,  190-1, 
p.  468.)  In  the  solidary  interaction  of  all  man's 
powers,  the  contributions  furnished  by  will  and  con- 
science increase  and  vivify  the  meagre  knowledge  of 
God  we  are  able  to  acquire  by  reasoning. 

VIII.  Agnosticism  and  the  Docthi.ve  of  the 
CHtrncH. — The  Agnostic  denial  of  the  ability  of 
human  reason  to  know  God  is  tlirectly  opposed  to 
Catholic  Faith.  The  Council  of  the  \'atican  solemnly 
declares  that  "God,  the  beginning  and  end  of  all, 
can,  by  the  natural  light  of  human  reason,  be  known 
with  certainty  from  the  works  of  creation  ".  (Const. 
De  Fide,  II,  De  Rev.)  The  intention  of  the  (I'ouncil 
was  to  reassert  the  historic  claim  of  Christianity 
to  be  reasonable,  and  to  condemn  Traditionalism 
together  with  all  views  which  denied  to  reason 
the  power  to  know  God  with  certainty.  Religion 
would  be  deprived  of  all  foundation  in  reason,  the 
motives  of  credibility  would  become  worthless,  con- 
duct would  be  severed  from  creed,  and  faith  be  blind, 
if  the  power  of  knowing  God  with  rational  certainty 
were  called  in  (juestion.  The  declaration  of  the 
Council  was  based  primarily  on  Scripture,  not  on  any 
of  the  historic  systems  of  philosophy.  The  Council 
simply  defined  the  possibility  of  man's  knowing  God 
with  certainty  by  reason  apart  from  revelation. 
This  po.ssibility  of  knowing  God  was  not  affirmed  of 
any  historical  individual  in  particular;  the  state- 
ment was  limited  to  the  power  of  human  reason,  not 
extended  to  the  exercise  of  that  power  in  any  given 
instance  of  time  or  person.  The  definition  thus  took 
on  the  feature  of  the  objective  statement:  Man  can 
certainly  know  God  by  the  "physical"  power  of 
reason  when  the  latter  is  rightly  developed,  even 
though  revelation  lje  "moraUy"  necessary  for  man- 
kind in  the  bulk,  when  the  difficulties  of  reaching  a 
prompt,  certain,  and  correct  knowledge  of  (!od  are 
taken  into  account.  What  conditions  were  necessary 
for  this  right  development  of  reason,  how  much  posi- 
tive education  was  required  to  equip  the  mind  for 
this  task  of  knowing  God  and  some  of  His  attributes 
with  certainty,  the  Council  did  not  profess  to  deter- 
mine. Neither  did  it  undertake  to  decide  whether 
the  function  of  reason  in  this  case  is  to  derive  the 
idea  of  God  wholly  from  reflection  on  the  data 
furnished  by  sense,  or  merely  to  bring  out  into 
explicit  form,  by  means  of  such  data,  an  idea  already 
instinctive  and  innate.     The  former  view,  that  of 


AGNUS 


220 


AGNUS 


Aristotle,  had  the  preference;  but  the  latter  view, 
that  of  Plato,  was  not  condemned.  God's  indirect 
manifestations  of  Himself  in  the  mirror  of  nature,  in 
the  created  world  of  things  and  persons,  were  simply- 
declared  to  be  true  sources  of  knowledge  distinct 
from  revelation. 

(A)  Works  in  wh^h  Aanoaticiem  is  professed: — Hamilton, 
Discussions  07i  Phihsophii.  Literature,  and  Education  (London, 
1852);  lectures  on  Metaphysics  (Edinburgh,  1859-60,  London. 
1861-00);  Man.sel,  Limits  of  Reliijious  Thought  (London, 
1858);  Philosophy  of  the  Conditioned  (London,  1860);  Comte, 
Cours  de  philosophic  positive  (Paris,  1830-42);  Mill.  Augusle 
Comte  arul  Positivism  (London,  1866);  Spencer,  First  Prin- 
ciples (London,  1862);  Clifford,  Lectures  and  Essays  (Lon- 
don. 1879);  Hdxlev.  Collecttd  Essays  (9  vols..  London, 
1893-94);  FisKE.  Cosmic  Philosophy  (London  and  Boston, 
1874);  RiTSCHL,  Theologie  und  Metaphysik,  (Bonn.  1881);  Sa- 
batie'r,  Esguisse  d'une  philosophic  de  la  relioion  (Paris,  1897); 
Harnvck,  Das   Wesen  des  Christenthums  (Leipzig,  1900). 

(B)  Works  criticizing  an!  refuting  Agnosticism:— 'B-ROQl.lE, 
Le  pnsitivisme  et  la  scioK,  ,  ,.  ,.«.  i.t.ilr  (Pans,  1882),  La  re- 
action contre  le  positirinm.  In,  .  In'.i4);  Calderwood,  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Infinite  [K  <■■'  1^    li;  Chiesa,  La  base  del 

realismo  e  la  crilica  nevK    ■  ;, I,..nie,  1899);  Flint,  .4o- 

nosticism  (London.  190.3';  '  /.  tntnism  by  Aveling.  Dub.  R. 
(4  S  ,  XLVII,  1903).  pp.  82-102;  Gruber,  Der  Positivismus 
(Freiburg  im  B..  2d  ed.,  1891);  GnTBERLET,  Die  Theodicee 
(Munster,'2d  ed.,  1890);  Ladd,  Philosophy  of  Knowledge  (New 
York,  1897);  Lucas.  Agnosticism  and  Religion  (Baltimore. 
1895);  Pesch,  Die  grossen  Weltrathsel  (Freiburg,  im  B.,  1883, 
1892)-  Put,  L'ldee  (Paris.  1895);  Porter, /I pnosficism  (Lon- 
don, 1872);  Semeria,  Scienza  e  Fede  (Rome,  1903);  Waite, 
Spencer  and  his  Critics  (Chicago,  1900)  contains  many  quo- 
tations and  references;  Warb,  Naturalism  and  Agnosticism 
(London,  1903);  Ward,  Essays  on  the  Philosophy  of  Theism 
(London,  1884). 

(C)  Magazine  articles  (in  addition  to  those  mentioned  by 
Waite);— Clarke,  The  Sources  of  Agnosticism,  in  The  Month, 
XLV,  pp.  316-329;  The  Coryphaeus  of  Agnosticism,  ibid.,  pp. 
457-491;  Som.e  More  .ignostic  Fallacies,  ibid.,  XLVI,  pp.  370- 
391;  Hewitt,  The  Christian  Agnostic  and  the  Christian  Gnostic, 
in  Am.  Cath.  Q.,  Jan..  1892;  Mercier,  L" Agnosticisme,  Rev. 
neo-scol.,  II.  1895.  pp.  402  sqq.;  Sbanahan,  John  Fiske  on  the 
Idea  of  God,  in  Calh.  Univ.  Bull.,  Jan.,  1879;  Ward.  Philoso- 
phy of  the  Theistic  Controversy,  Dub.  R.,  3  S.,  VII,  Jan.,  1882, 
pp.  49-86. 

(D)  Some  essays  on  the  Knowahleness  of  God. — St.  Thomas 
treated  this  question  specially  in  the  Summa  contra  Gent.,  I. 
cc.  i-xxxvi;  Summa  Theobrgica,  P.  I.,  qq.  i-xiii;  Bacelaere, 
St.  Thomas's  Philosophy  of  Knowledge,  Phil.  Rev.,  XII,  1903. 
pp.  611-628;  Ballerini,  H  principio  di  causalith  e  I'esistenza 
di  Dio  (Florence,  1904);  Gardair.  Theorie  de  la  connaissance 
d'apris  St.  Thomas,  Annul,  de  Philos.  Chret.,  XXIII,  1891, 
pp.  373-382;  Huoonin,  Dieu,  est-il  mconnaissablef  ibid., 
XXXI.  1894,  pp.  129-144.  217-233,  409-428.  505-531;  Schd- 
macher,  The  Knowableness  of  God  (Notre  Dame,  1905);  Ser- 
TiLLANGES,  .\gnosticisme  ou  anthropomorphismef  in  Rev.  de 
Philos.,  Feb.,  1906,  pp.  129-165. 

(E)  On  the  doctrine  of  the  Council  of  the  Vatican: — Vacant, 
Etudes  th^ologiques  sur  les  constitutions  du  Concile  du  Vatican 
(Paris,  1895).  EdMUND  T.  ShaNAHAN. 

Agnus  Dei. — ^The  name  Agnus  Dei  has  been 
given  to  certain  discs  of  wax  impressed  with  the 
figure  of  a  lamb  and  blessed  at  stated  seasons  by  the 
Pope.  They  are  sometimes  round,  sometimes  oval 
or  oblong,  and  they  vary  from  an  inch  to  six  inches 
in  diameter.  The  lamb  usually  bears  a  cross  or  flag, 
while  figures  of  saints  or  the  name  and  arms  of  the 
Pope  are  also  commonly  impressed  on  the  reverse. 
These  Agnus  Deis  may  be  worn  suspended  round  the 
neck,  or  they  may  be  preserved  as  objects  of  devo- 
tion. In  virtue  of  the  consecration  they  receive, 
they  are  regarded,  like  holy  water,  blessed  palms, 
etc.,  as  "Sacramentals  ". 

Origin. — The  origin  of  Agnus  Deis  is  a  matter  of 
much  obscurity.  Recent  authorities  lay  stress  upon 
the  lack  of  evidence  for  their  existence  before  the 
ninth  century.  But  it  seems  probable  that  they  had 
their  beginnmg  in  some  pagan  usage  of  charms  or 
amulets,  from  which  the  ruder  populace  were  weaned 
by  the  employment  of  this  Christian  substitute 
ble-ssed  by  prayer.  The  early  history  of  Catholic 
ceremonial  affords  numerous  parallels  for  this  Chris- 
tianizing of  pagan  rites.  It  is  not  disputed  that  the 
Agnus  Deis  originated  in  Rome.  If  so.  we  may 
probably  trace  the  custom  back  to  the  final  over- 
throw of  Paganism  in  that  city,  say  the  fifth  century. 
We  know  that  when  we  first  lioar  of  tlieni  (c.  820) 
they  were  made  of  the  remnants  of  the  preceding 
year's  paschal  candle.     We  also  know  from  Enno- 


dius  (c.  .510)  that  fragments  of  the  paschal  candles 
were  used  as  a  protection  against  tempests  and 
blight  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LXIII,  pp.  259,  262).  It  is 
also  possible  that  a  mention  of  the  blessing  of  wax 
under  Pope  Zosimus  (418)  in  the  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis"  (first  edition)  should  be  interpreted,  with 
Mgr.  Duchesne,  of  the  Agnus  Dei,  though  it  more 
probably  refers  to  the  paschal  candle.  It  was  at  this 
period  and  before  the  TruUan  Council  of  691  that  the 
symbolism  of  the  Lamb  most  flourished;  see  the 
Sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus.  The  alleged  ex- 
amples of  early  Agnus  Deis,  e.  g.  one  of  Ciregory  the 
Great  in  the  treasury  of  Monza  (see  Kraus,  "Real- 
Encyclopadie,"  s.  v.)  cannot  be  trusted.  The  earliest 
certain  specimen  now  in  existence  seems  to  belong 
to  the  time  of  Gregory  XI  (1370). 

History. — From  the  time  of  Amalarius  (c.  820) 
onwards  we  find  frequent  mention  of  the  use  of 
Agnus  Deis.  At  a  later  period  they  were  often  sent 
by  the  Popes  as  presents  to  sovereigns  and  distin- 
guished personages.  A  famous  letter  in  verse  ac- 
companied the  Agnus  Dei  despatched  by  Urban  V 
to  the  Emperor  John  Palaologus  in  1366.  In  the 
penal  laws  of  Queen  Elizabeth  Agnus  Djis  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  among  other  "  popish  trum- 
peries "  the  importation  of  which  into  England  was 
rigorously  forbidden. 

Blessing  and  Distribution. — We  learn  from  an 
"Ordo  Romanus"  printed  by  Muratori  ("Lit.  Rom.", 
II,  p.  1,004)  that  in  the  ninth  century  the  Arch- 
deacon manufactured  the  Agnus  Deis  early  on  Holy 
Saturday  morning  out  of  clean  wax  mixed  with 
chrism,  and  that  they  were  distributed  by  him  to  the 
people  on  the  Saturday  following  {Sahbato  in  Albis). 
At  a  later  date  the  Pope  himself  generally  assisted 
at  both  the  blessing  and  the  distribution.  The  great 
consecration  of  Agnus  Deis  took  place  only  in  the 
first  year  of  each  pontificate  and  every  seventh  year 
afterwards,  which  rule  is  still  followed.  The  discs 
of  wax  are  now  prepared  beforehand  by  certain 
monks,  and  without  the  use  of  chrism.  On  the 
Wednesday  of  Easter  week  these  discs  are  brought 
to  the  Pope,  who  dips  them  into  a  vessel  of  water 
mixed  with  chrism  and  balsam,  adding  various  con- 
secratory  prayers.  The  distribution  takes  place  with 
solemnity  on  the  Saturday  following,  when  the 
Pope,  after  the  "Agnus  Dei"  of  the  Mass,  puts  a 
packet  of  Agnus  Deis  into  the  inverted  mitre  of  each 
cardinal  and  bishop  who  comes  up  to  receive  them. 

Symbolism  and  Use. — The  symbolism  of  the 
Agnus  Deis  is  best  gathered  from  the  prayers  used 
at  various  epochs  in  blessing  them.  As  in  the  paschal 
candle,  the  wax  typifies  the  virgin  flesh  of  Christ, 
the  cross  associated  with  the  lamb  suggests  the  idea 
of  a  victim  offered  in  sacrifice,  and,  as  the  blood  of 
the  paschal  lamb  of  old  protected  each  household 
from  the  destroying  angel,  so  the  purpose  of  these 
consecrated  medallions  is  to  protect  those  who  wear 
or  possess  them  from  all  malign  influences.  In  the 
prayers  of  blessing,  special  mention  is  made  of  the 
perils  from  storm  and  pestilence,  from  fire  and  flood, 
and  also  of  the  dangers  to  which  women  are  exposed 
in  childbirth.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  in  Rome 
to  accompany  the  gift  of  an  Agnus  Dei  with  a  printed 
leaflet  describing  its  many  virtues.  Miraculous  ef- 
fects have  been  believed  to  follow  the  use  of  these 
objects  of  piety.  Fires  are  said  to  have  been  ex- 
tinguished, and  floods  stayed.  The  manufacture  of 
counterfeits,  and  even  the  painting  and  ornamentation 
of  genuine  Agnus  Deis,  has  been  strictly  prohibited 
by  various  papal  bulls. 

Martyrs'  Paste. — There  are  also  Agnus  Deis  of 
a  grey  colour,  made  from  wax  mingled  with  the  dust 
which  is  Ijelieved  to  be  that  of  the  bones  of  martyrs. 
Those,  wliich  are  called  "Paste  de'  SS.  Martiri ", 
are  held  to  need  no  special  consecration  and  are 
treated  as  relics. 


221 


Manqenot  in  Did.  de  thiol,  calh.,  I,  605;  Henry  in 
Diet.  d'archM..  I,  B09;  Krauh,  Real-EncyclopOdit.  I,  2U; 
Barbikr  de  MoNTAUhT  in  Analecta  Juris  I*ontificii,  \'II1, 
1475:  Baldasxari.  /  Ponliilci  Agnua  D,i  (Venice.  1714); 
Thuhhton,  llotu  Year  o/  JubiUt  (Loniion.  lUOO).  1'47-L*5(i; 
Barbirr  de  MoNTAlTLT,  Vn  Annus  Dti  de  (Jn'yotrr  II  (Pnitiers. 
1880);  ('ozzA  LlTzzi.  Sopra  un  antico  atampo  di  At/nus  Dei 
in  the  Rimische  QuarUilschrilt  U8U3).  U'03. 

Hkkueht  TnunsTON. 

Agnus  Dei  (I.v  LixfucY),  a  name  given  to  tlie 
formula  recited  thrice  by  the  priest  at  Mass  (except 
on  tiood  Friday  and  Holy  Saturday)  in  the  Homan 
rite.  It  occurs  towards  the  end  of  the  Canon,  after 
the  prayer  "ILcc  comnii.\tio  ",  etc.  Having  finislied 
saying  lliis  prayer,  the  priest  covers  the  cliaHce  witli 
the  pall,  genuflects,  rises,  inclines  his  head  (but  not 
his  body)  profoundly  towards  the  altar  and,  with 
hands  joinetl  before  his  breast  (and  not,  therefore, 
resting  on  the  altar),  says  with  a  loud  voice:  "Agnus 
Dei,  qui  toUis  peccata  numdi,  miserere  nobis  "  (Lamb 
of  God,  Who  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world,  have 
mercy  on  us),  repeats  the  fornnila  unchanged,  and 
still  a  third  time,  substituting  now  "dona  nobis 
pacem"  (grant  us  peace)  for  "miserere  nobis", 
meanwhile  striking  his  breast  thrice,  once  at  each 
"miserere  nobis"  and  once  at  "dona  nobis  pacem", 
with  the  right  haml  (the  left  liand  resting  throughout, 
from  the  first  "  mi.serere  ",  on  the  altar).  In  Requiem 
Masses,  liowever,  the  formula  occurs  at  the  same  part 
of  the  rite,  but  with  the  substitution  of  "dona  ois 
requiem"  (grant  them  rest)  for  "miserere  nobis", 
and  of  "dona  eis  requiem  sempiternam"  (grant  them 
eternal  rest)  for  "dona  nobis  pacem."  In  this  cjise, 
the  priest  does  not  strike  his  breast,  but  keeps  his 
hands  joined  before  his  breiist  throughout  the  whole 
formula.  These  rubricsvl  details  are  given  here  for 
the  rea.son  that  both  the  formula  and  the  ceremonial 
accompanying  it  have  undergone  various  changes  in 
different  ages  and  difT<'rent  places.  Into  the  sym- 
bolic re:isons  for  tlie  present  practice  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  enter  here. 

Slightly  changed  in  respect  of  one  word,  peccata 
for  pcccatum  (pcccatum,  however,  appearing  in  other 
sources,  such  jus  the  Mis.sal  of  Stowe  and  other 
English  MS.">. .  and  in  the  Bangor  Antiphonarj-),  the 
formula  api>ears  to  ha\e  been  directly  taken  from 
the  very  ancient  chant  of  the  "Gloria  in  e.\celsis." 
In  the  text  of  the  Roman  and  Ambrosian  rites: 
"Agnus  Dei,  Kilius  Patris,  Qui  tollis  peccata  mundi, 
miserere  nobis;  Qui  tollis  peccata  numdi,  suscipe 
deprecationem  nostram;  Qui  sedes  ad  dextcram 
Patris,  miserere  nobis",  containing  all  the  words  of 
the  original  formula  of  the  Agnus  Dei,  we  may  find 
the  innnediate  .source  of  its  text.  Its  remoter  source 
was  the  declaration  of  the  Baptist:  "Ecce  Agnus  Dei, 
ecce  Qui  toUit  peccatum  mundi"  (John,  i,  29),  su|>- 
plemented  by  the  cry  of  the  two  blind  men  (.Matt,  ix, 
27):  "Miserere  nostri,  fili  David."  The  scriptural 
origin  of  the  formula  is  therefore  evident  at  a  glance. 
Its  symbolism,  however,  is  traced  in  the  Apocalypse 
through  the  more  than  thirty  references  to  "the 
Lamb  that  wiis  slain  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world"  (xiii,  8);  "the  blood  of  the  Lamb"  (xii,  ii); 
"they  that  are  written  in  the  book  of  life  of  the 
Lamb"  (xxi,  27);  and  in  the  following:  v,  G,  8,  12,  13; 
vi,  1,  16;  vii,9,  10,  11,  17;  xiv,  1,4,  10;  xv,  3;  .xvii,  14; 
xix,  7,  9;  xxi,  9,  14,  22,  23,  27;  xxii,  1,  3,  14.  Erom 
the  Apocalypse  we  trace  it  backward  to  the  Eirst 
Epistle  of  St.  Peter  (i,  19):  "the  precious  blood  of 
Christ,  as  of  a  lamb  unspotted  and  undcfiled";  to 
the  perplexe<l  reading  of  the  eunuch  of  Queen  Can- 
dace  (Acts,  viii,  .32,  33):  "He  was  led  as  a  sheep  to 
the  slaughter;  and  like  a  lamb  without  voice  before 
his  shearer,  so  openeth  he  not  his  mouth  .  .  .;" 
and  thus  finally  to  the  great  Messianic  chapter  of 
Isaias  (liii,  7-12).  wliich  formed  the  subject  of  the 
eunuch's  querj':  "I  beseech  thee,  of  whom  doth  the 
prophet  speak  this?  of  himself,  or  of  some  other 
man?     Then    Philip,  opening   his    mouth    and    be- 


ginning at  this  scripture,  preached  unto  him  Jesus" 
(Acts,  viii,  34,  35).  While  Isaias  compared  Our 
Saviour  to  a  lamb,  the  Baptist  was  the  first  actually 
to  bestow  this  name  upon  Our  Lord  ("Behold  the 
Lamb  of  God"),  and  doubtless  with  a  determinate 
sense  derived  from  ancient  tyixi  and  prophecy.  The 
Christian  mind  will  recall  such  instances  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  the  Paschal  Lamb  of  the  Jews,  "with- 
out blemish,  a  male,  of  one  year"  (Exod.,  xii,  5), 
whose  blood,  sprinkled  on  the  door-posts,  should 
s:ive  from  the  Destroying  Angel — a  figure  of  the 
Inunaculate  Lamb  whose  blood  was  to  conquer 
death  and  to  open  to  men  the  true  Land  of  Promise; 
and  also  the  perpetual  offering  of  a  lairib  morning 
and  night  (Exod.,  xxix,  38,  39), — a  figure  of  the 
perpetual  sacrifice  of  the  altar  in  the  New  Dispensa- 
tion. To  the  ideas  of  immaculate  purity,  gentleness, 
atoning,  and  eucharistic  sacrifice,  the  Baptist  adds 
that  of  universality  of  purpose:  "Who  taketli  away 
the  sins  of  the  world  ",  and  not  alone  of  Israel.  From 
the  Baptist  the  other  John  caught  the  fullness  of  the 
symbolism  and  repeated  it  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
chapters  of  the  Apocalypse  in  such  a  way  as  to  fore- 
shailow  the  splendours  of  the  Solemn  Mass — the 
Lamb  u\xm  the  altar  as  upon  a  throne;  the  attendant 
clergj'  as  four-and-twcnty  ancients  seated,  clothed 
in  wliitc  vestments;  the  chanting  of  the  "Sanctus, 
sanctus,  sanctus";  the  incense  arising  from  golden 
cen.sers,  ami  the  music  of  harps;  and  then,  as  by  a 
sucklen  change,  in  the  midst  of  all  "a  Lamb  stancfing 
as  it  were  slain"  (v,  G).  Naturally,  the  sj-mbolism  of 
tj-pes  and  figures  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  Messianic 
prophecy  of  Lsaias,  the  declaration  of  the  Baptist,  the 
mystical  revelations  of  the  Apocalypse,  were  early 
commemorated  in  the  morning  hynm  of  the  "Gloria 
in  excelsis",  which  was  originally  a  part  of  the  office 
of  .Matins.  In  a  .slightly  difTcrent  form  it  is  found  in 
the  ".Vpostolic  Constitutions"  and  in  the  appendixes 
to  the  Bible  in  the  "Code.x  Alcxandrinus"  of  the  fifth 
ccnturj'.  It  first  appears  in  use  at  Rome,  appro- 
priately, in  the  first  Mass  of  the  Nativity.  Pope  St. 
Synunachus  (498-514)  extended  its  use  in  episcopal 
Alasses.  The  distinct  and  condensed  formula  of  the 
Agnus  Dei  itself,  however,  was  not  apparently  in- 
troduced into  the  .Ma.ss  until  the  year  687,  when 
Pope  Sergius  I  decreed  that  during  the  fraction  of 
the  Host  both  clergy  and  people  should  sing  the 
.■\gnus  Dei:  "Hie  statuit  ut  tempore  confractionis 
dominiei  corporis  Agnus  Dei.  qui  tollis  peccata  mundi, 
miserere  nobis,  a  clero  et  a  populo  decantetur" 
(Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  381,  note  42). 
Duchesne,  accepting  the  view  of  Sergius's  reason 
propouinletl  by  Cardinal  Bona,  says:  "  II  n'est  pas 
d(5fendu  de  voir,  dans  ce  dccret  do  Sergius,  une  pro- 
testation contre  le  canon  82  du  concile  in  Tridlo, 
qui  proscrivit  la  representation  symbolique  du 
Sauveur  sous  forme  d'agneau". 

In  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James,  the  priest  when  sign- 
ing the  Bread,  shortly  before  communicating  him- 
self, says:  "Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  the  Son  of  the 
Father,  who  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world, 
.sacrificed  for  the  life  and  salvation  of  the  world." 
The  formula  is  thus  said  but  once.  At  about  the 
same  part  of  the  Mass  in  the  present  Liturgy  of 
St.  Jolin  Chrj'sostom,  the  priest  divides  the  Holy 
Bre.id  into  four  parts,  "with  care  and  reverence" 
(in  the  language  of  the  rubric)  and  says:  "The  Lamb 
of  God  is  broken  and  distributed;  He  that  is  broken 
and  not  divided  in  sunder;  ever  eaten  and  never  con- 
sumed, but  sanctifying  the  communicants"  (Neale, 
History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church.  Introduction, 
6.">()).  These  words  are  ab.sent,  however,  from  the 
ancient  Mass  of  the  Saint  (ninth  centurj-).  In  the 
Office  of  Prothesis  (a  .sort  of  preparatorj'  Mass,  deal- 
ing with  the  preparation  of  the  "Holy  Bread",  or 
"  Holy  Lamb",  as  it  is  called)  now  in  u.se.  the  proph- 
ecy of  Isaias  is  more  minutely  referretl  to  in  the 


AGNUS 


222 


AGNUS 


ceremonial;  and,  finally,  the  deacon,  laying  the 
"Lamb"  down  in  the  disk,  says  to  the  priest:  "Sir, 
sacrifice";  to  which  the  priest,  while  cutting  it  cross- 
wise, answers:  "The  Lamb  of  God  is  sacrificed,  Who 
taketli  away  tlie  sin  of  the  world,  for  the  life  and 
salvation  of  tlie  world"  (Neale,  loc.  cit.,  343,  344). 
While  it  is  true  that,  unlike  several  other  hturgies, 
the  Roman  contains  no  longer  any  chant  for  the 
fraction  of  the  Host,  the  Agnus  Dei,  although  not 
properly  a  praj'er  therefor,  occupies  the  void  suffi- 
ciently well;  and,  more  condensed  than  that  of  St. 
James,  and  quite  different  from  that  of  St.  Chrysos- 
tom,  quoted  above,  it  appears  in  the  Roman  Mass 
with  all  the  symmetry  of  ceremonial  and  of  appro- 
priate jymboli'sm  possible  to  a  liturgy. 

The  words  of  the  "  Liber  Pontificalis "  (o  clero 
et  a  popuh  decantetur)  suggest  the  question  whether 
previously  the  formula  had  been  sung  by  the 
choir  alone,  as  Mabillon  infers,  and  as  was  tlie 
case  in  the  ninth  century  and  in  the  time  of  Inno- 
cent III  (d.  1216).  Originally  the  celebrant  did  not 
recite  it  himself,  as  his  other  functions  sufficiently 
occupied  his  attention;  but  certainly  by  the  thirteenth 
century  the  introduction  of  this  feature  must  have 
l3ecome  common,  Durandus  noting  that  some  priests 
recited  it  with  their  hands  resting  on  the  altar, 
others  with  hands  joined  before  the  breast.  Origi- 
nally, too,  recited  or  sung  but  once,  Mart^ne  shows 
that  its  triple  recitation  was  prescribed  in  some 
churches. — for  example,  in  that  of  Tours,  before  the 
year  1000;  and  Jea.i  Beleth,  a  canon  of  Paris,  writ- 
ing in  the  twelfth  century,  remarks:  "Agnus  Dei 
ter  canitur".  About  the  same  time  the  custom  was 
introduced  of  substituting  "  dona  nobis  pacem  "  for 
the  third  "miserere  nobis";  although  by  way  of 
exception,  the  third  "miserere"  was  said  on  Holy 
Thursday  (perhaps  because  on  that  day  the  "  kiss 
of  peace"  is  not  given).  A  sufficient  reason  for  the 
substitution  of  "dona  nobis  pacem"  might  be  found 
in  its  appropriateness  as  a  preparation  for  the  "kiss 
of  peace"  (the  Pax)  which  follows,  although  Inno- 
cent III  ascribes  its  introduction  to  disturbances  and 
calamities  afflicting  the  Church.  The  Lateran  Basil- 
ica, however,  retains  the  ancient  custom  of  the  triple 
"miserere".  No  trace  of  the  Agnus  Dei  is  found  in 
the  Roman  Mass  of  the  Missal  of  Bobbio,  or  in  that 
of  Stowe;  nor  is  it  found  in  the  Mozarabic,  the  Gela- 
Bian,  or  Ambrosian  (except  in  Ambrosian  Requiem 
Masses,  where  it  occurs  with  triple  invocation,  as  in 
the  Roman  Missal,  but  adds  to  the  third  invocation 
the  words  "et  locum  indulgentia;  cum  Sanctis  tuis 
in  gloria").  It  has  been  said  above  that  the  Agnus 
Dei  now  follows  the  prayer  "  Hajc  commixtio".  It 
preceded  that  prayer,  however,  in  so  many  manu- 
scripts of  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  centuries,  that 
one  liturgist  looks  on  the  formula  as  the  ordinary 
conclusion  of  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  As  in  tlie  case  of  the  "  Kyrie  eleison  '  and 
other  texts  of  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  (e.  g.  the 
Gloria,  Sequence,  Credo,  Sanctus,  Hosanna,  Ite, 
missa  est),  the  words  of  the  Agnus  Dei  were  often 
considerably  extended  by  tropes,  styled  by  the 
Romans  (in  ignorance,  perhaps,  of  their  Greek 
origin)  Festivm  Laudes.  These  additions  were  pre- 
faces, or  intercalations,  or  concluding  sentences  or 
phrases,  sometimes  bearing  a  strict  connexion  with 
the  meaning  of  the  text,  sometimes  constituting 
practically  mdividual  compositions  with  only  a 
titular  relation  to  the  text.  Cardinal  Bona  gives  an 
interesting  one: 

Agnus  Dei,  qui  toUis  peccata  mundi, 
Crimina  tollis,  aspera  mollis,  Agnus  honoris, 
Mi.serere  nobis. 

Agnus  Dei.   qui  tollis  peccata  mundi, 
Vulnera  sanas,  ardua  planas,  Agnus  amoris, 
Miserere  nobis. 


Agnus  Dei,  qui  tollis  peccata  mundi, 

Sordida  mundas,  cuncta  fcecundas,  Agnus  odoris, 

Dona  nobis  pacem. 

The  Cardinal  does  not  mention  the  date  of  his 
source;  but  the  poem  is  given  by  Blume  and  Bannis- 
ter in  their  "Tropi  Graduales"  [Analecta  Hymnica 
(Leipzig,  1905),  XLVII,  398],  with  several  dated  MS. 
references.  This  splendid  collection  contains  no 
fewer  than  ninety-seven  tropes  of  the  Agnus  Dei 
alone.  The  following  trope  of  the  tenth  century 
will  illustrate  another  form,  of  which  there  are  many 
examplp.:,  in  classical  hexameters: 

Agnus  Dei,  qui  tollis  peccata  mundi, 

1.  Omnipotens,   seterna   Dei   sapientia,   Christe, 
miserere  nobis,   Agnus   Dei  .  .  .  peccata  mundi, 

2.  Verum  subsistens  vero  de  lumine  lumen, 
miserere  nobis.     Agnus  Dei  .  .  .  peccata  mundi, 

3.  Optima  perpetuoe  concedens  gaudia  vitse, 
dona  nobis  pacem. 

Sometimes  the  tropes  were  not  in  measure,  whether 
classical  or  accentual,  but  merely  in  a  rude  kind  of 
rhymed,  or  rather,  assonantal  prose;  as  the  following 
(tenth  century),  which  has  the  triple  "miserere 
nobis"  instead  of  "dona  .  .  ."  etc.: 

1.  Agnus  Dei  .  .  .  peccata  mundi, 
Omnipotens,  pie, 

te  precamur  assidue, 
miserere  nobis. 

2.  Agnus  Dei  .  .  .  peccata  mundi. 
Qui  cuncta  creasti. 

Nobis  semper  (te)  adiunge, 
miserere  nobis. 

3.  Agnus  Dei  .  .  .  peccata  mundi, 
Redemptor,  Christe, 
Exoramus  te  supplices, 

miserere  nobis. 

Sometimes  they  were  very  brief,  sometimes  ex- 
tensive, as  the  following  (of  which  space  will  allow 
but  one  strophe)  of  the  thirteenth  century: 

1.  Agnus  Dei, 

Sine  peccati  macula 
solus  permanens 
cuncta  per  sa-cula, 
nostra  crimina  dele, 
qui  tollis  peccata  mundi; 
Hfec  enim  gloria  soli 
Domino  est  congrua; 
Miserere  nobis. 

Two  other  uses  of  the  Agnus  Dei  may  be  men- 
tioned briefly.  First,  before  giving  Holy  Commun- 
ion, whether  during  or  outside  of  Ma.ss,  the  priest 
holds  a  particle  up  for  the  faithful  to  see,  sajing: 
"  Ecce  Agnus  Dei,  ecce  qui  tollit  peccata  mundi. 
Domine  non  sum  dignus",  etc.  The  use  of  the 
formula  in  this  connection  appears  to  be  of  com- 
paratively recent  date.  Anciently  the  formula  used 
was  simply  "Corpus  Christi",  "Sanguis  Christi",  to 
which  the  faithful  answered  "Amen",  a  formula 
similar  to  that  in  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark:  "The 
Holy  Body",  "The  precious  Blood  of  Our  Lord 
and  God  and  Saviour ".  Secondly,  at  the  end  of 
litanies  the  formula  appears  as  follows:  "Agnus  Dei 
qui  tollis  peccata  mundi,  Parce  nobis,  Domine " 
(Spare  us,  O  Lord).  "Agnus  Dei  qui  tollis  peccata 
mundi,  Exaudi  nos,  Domino"  (Graciously  hear  us. 
O  Lord).  "Agnus  Dei  qui  tollis  peccata  mundi, 
miserere  nobis "  (Have  mercy  on  us).  Thus,  for 
the  litany  of  the  Saints  and  for  that  of  I.<ireto. 
The  litany  of  the  Most  Holy  Name  of  .lesus  adds  the 
woril  Jesu  to  the  last  word,  and  substitutes  Jesu  for 
Domine  in  the  previous  two  endings.  In  the  so- 
called    "Litania    Romana",  found   in   an   old   MS. 


AQNITS 


223 


AGONISTICI 


sacramentary  of  St.  (irt-goty  the  Great,  the  formula 
appears  but  once,  and  then  in  the  words  of  the 
formula  used  at  .Mass:  "Agnus  Dei  .  .  .  niundi, 
miserere  nobis".  Tlie  use  of  the  formula  in  htanies 
is  of  comparatively  recent  date. 

It  remains  to  say  a  word  about  the  musical  set- 
tings of  the  .\gnus  Dei  in  the  Ma.s.s.  Originally,  of 
course,  the  melody  was  plainsong,  doubtless  very 
simple  and  syllabic  at  first,  and  subsequently  de- 
velopetl  into  richer  forms.  Recent  studies  in  musical 
pal:i'o!;raphy  have  succeeded  in  rescuing  the  ancient 
mclciilies  from  oblivion,  and  in  the  Vatican  "  Kyriale" 
(lOU.ji  we  find  twenty  settings  substantially  repro- 
ducing the  ancient  text,s.  These  melodies  range  from 
the  syllal)ic  up  through  various  grades  of  the  (lorid 
into  moderately  melismatic  chants.  .\  rough  idea 
of  the  melodic  forms  may  be  gained  by  considering 
that  there  are  eighteen  syllables  of  text  in  any  one 
of  the  three  invocations,  and  that  the  number  of 
notes  accompanving  any  one  of  these  invocations 
of  eighteen  syllables  ranges  from  nineteen  (in  which 
case  only  one  .syllable  of  the  text  can  receive  two 
notes)  up  to  sixty-one  (as  in  No.  V  of  the  "  Kyriale"). 
In  No.  V  the  first  syllable  has  nine  notes,  however; 
and  a  mere  enumeration  of  notes  is  not  sufficiently 
descriptive  of  the  character  and  flow  of  the  melody, 
although  such  enumeration  will  help  towards  form- 
ing an  idea  of  the  melodic  richness  or  poverty. 
The  familiar  melody  of  the  Requiem  Mass  Agiuis 
Dei.  with  its  twenty  notes  to  eighteen  syllables,  will 
illustrate  a  purely  syllabic  chant,  and  will  serve 
to  explain  its  assignment  to  days  of  penitential 
'haracter,  such  as  the  ferial  days  in  Lent  antl  Advent, 
Ember  and  Rogation  ilays,  and  vigils,  to  which  the 
"  Kyriale"  nominally  assigns  it.  With  respect  to  the 
variety  of  melody  otTeretl  in  the  triple  invocation,  we 
fnul  six  masses  (Nos.  I,  V,  VI,  XVIII,  XIX,  XX)  in 
which  the  melody  remains  the  same  for  all  three  in- 
vocations^a  form  which  might  be  indicated  as  a,  a, 
a:  twelve  mas-ses  in  which  the  melody  of  the  first  and 
third  Agnus  Dei  are  identical,  but  the  .second  dif- 
ferent— type  a,  b,  a:  one  ma.ss  in  which  the  first  two 
are  identical,  while  the  third  varies — type  a.  a,  b: 
and  one  mass  in  which  all  three  are  different  (No. 
VII) — type  a,  b,  c.  In  type  a,  b,  a,  however,  many 
correspondences  of  melody  between  a  and  b  are 
found  in  certain  portions  of  the  text;  while  in  type 
a,  b,  c,  the  melody  of  "nobis"  is  common  to  all 
three.  In  all  this  we  can  perceive  the  operation  of 
excellent  itleas  of  symmetry  and  form  amid  great 
variety  of  melody.  The  plainsong  melodies  of  the 
.Agnus  Dei  (as.  indeetl,  of  other  chants  as  well,  the 
Kyries  exhibiting  similar  obvious  symmetries,  while 
the  more  melismatic  chants  of  the  Proper  of  the  Mass 
will,  under  enlighteneil  analysis,  yield  surprisingly 
beautiful  results)  are  illustrations  of  the  fact  that 
the  ancient  composers,  although  working  under  very 
different  conceptions  of  music  from  tho.se  which 
obtain  in  our  days,  had  clear  perceptions  of  the  pro- 
vince of  form  in  musical  art,  and  had  canons  of  con- 
struction and  criticism  which  we  have  not  as  yet, 
in  all  likelihood,  fully  appreciatc<l  [Wagner,  "  ICinliih- 
rung  in  die  Grcgorianischen  Melodien"  (Freiburg. 
Schweiz,  1895),  217--'.50;  also,  in  the  Philadelphia 
quarterly,  "Church  Music",  June,  1906.  .'JGl-'-liSO, 
tw^o  articles  on  the  Introit:  "Gaudeamus  omnes  in 
Domino",  and  March,  1906,  222-232,  the  article  on 
the  "  Hire  dies"]. 

The  text  of  the  .Agnus  Dei,  triple  in  repetition,  and, 
therefoR',  possessing  its  own  rights  of  textual  symme- 
try. w;us  respected  by  the  medieval  compo.sers;  and 
the  one  fact  which,  in  this  respect,  di.scriminatcs 
their  forms  of  treatment  from  those  of  the  master- 
composers  of  modem  church  music,  is  the  absence 
of  any  .separate  treatment  of  the  "Dona  nobis 
pacem".  that  grand  finale  movement  in  which 
the  modems  have  been  so  accustomed  to  assemble 


all  their  energies  of  technitjue,  voices,  and  instru- 
ments, and  to  which  they  assign  a  movement  entirely 
different  from  the  preceding  one.  Familiar  exam- 
ples of  this  are  found  in  Hach  s  great  Mass  in  H-minor, 
where  the  first  two  Agnus  Deis  are  alto  solos,  followed 
by  the  "  Dona"  in  four-part  fugue.  Significant  of  the 
musical  and  liturgical  aloofness  of  the  "Dona"  from 
the  Agnus  Dei  in  this  composition,  is  the  fact  that  no 
third  .Agnus  Dei  occurs  at  all.  In  IJeetlioven's  monu- 
mental .Ma.ss  in  D,  solo  and  chorus  sing  the  ".Agnus 
.  .  .  nobis"  thrice  adagio,  the  "Dona"  forming  a 
new  movement  in  allegretto  vivace  and  rcfiuiring  more 
than  three  times  as  many  pages  as  the  thrice-re- 
peated ".Agnus";  so,  too,  m  his  Mass  in  C,  the 
"  Dona  ",  allajro  ma  non  tropjm,  takes  thrice  as  many 
pages  as  the  whole  precedmg  text  in  poco  andante. 
bo,  too,  Haydn's  "Third"  ("Dona",  allegro  xnvace, 
twice  as  many  pages  as  all  the  rest  adagio);  his 
"First"  ("Agnus",  adagio,  strings  only — "Dona", 
allegro,  oboes,  trumpets,  tympani,  and  strings);  his 
"Sixth"  ("  Agnus  ",  a</a(?io,  } — "Dona",  allegro  con 
spirito,  J);  his  "Sixteenth"  ("Agnus,"  adagio,  } — 
"Dona",  alleifro,  J,  strings,  clarinets,  trumpets,  tym- 
pani, and  organ).  Illustrations  might  be  multiplied 
without  number  from  other  masses,  of  Mozart, 
Schubert,  and  the  rest.  A  very  interesting  excep- 
tion is  found  in  the  masses  of  Gounod  (quite  naturally, 
in  view  of  his  training  and  polyphonic  studies),  which 
respect  the  triple  symmetry  of  the  text ;  and  we  find  in 
his  "  Agnus  "  almost  the  primitive  plainsong  .symme- 
try. Thus,  his  second  mass  of  the  "Orphtonistes" 
gives  us  the  tyjie  a,  a,  b;  his  first  of  the  Orph^onistes, 
the  type  a.  6,  c  (agreeing,  curiously  enough,  with  the 
single  illustration  of  that  type  in  the  "  KjTiale  ",  in 
having  for  the  two  "  nobis  "  and  the  "  dona  "  the  one 
musical  formula);  his  "Sacred  Heart  Mass  ",  the  type 
(with  slight  variations)  a,  b,  a;  his  "St.  Cecilia" 
(omitting  the  interpolation  of  the  "Domine  non  sum 
dignus."  etc.),  the  type  a,  a,  a  (with  slight  variation). 
Goimod's  interpolation  of  "  Domine  non  sum  dignus" 
has  been  very  .severely  criticizeil  as  a  great  liturgical 
offence — and  so  it  is;  but  it  is  additionally  interesting 
to  note,  even  here,  an  echo  of  the  medieval  custom 
spoken  of  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  article,  of  the 
trope-treatment  of  the  liturgical  texts.  Gounod's 
trope  was  built  up  0)it  of  his  own  fancy,  but  was 
at  least  wholly  liturgical  in  the  selection  of  the 
intercalated  text;  it  was  also  singularly  appropriate 
to  the  portion  of  the  Mass  then  reached,  namely,  the 
Commvmion  of  priest  or  of  people.  Of  the  quasi- 
dramatic  treatments  which  the  Agnus  Dei  has  re- 
ceived in  modern  times,  it  is  not  worth  while  to 
speak  (e.  g.  Haydn's  Mass  in  tempore  belli,  Hee- 
tnoven's  in  D,  with  the  roll  of  drums  accentuating 
the  blessings  of  peace  in  contrast  with  the  horrors  of 
w^ar),  or  of  the  treatments  which  have  thoroughly 
disfigured,  by  omissions,  insertions,  and  additions  of 
words,  the  beauty  of  the  liturgical  text;  or  have  so 
interpo-scd  the  words  as  to  make  nonsense  (e.  g. 
Poniatowski's  "  Mass  in  F  "^to  select  from  the 
lesser  order,  which  indiscriminately  assigns  to  each 
of  the  ".Agnus  .  .  .  mundi"a  confused  jumble  of 
"  mi.serere  "and  "  dona'' — a  conceit,  the  symbolism  of 
which  is  not  clearly  intelligible).  In  general,  these 
liturgical  excesses  resulted  from  the  dramatic  in- 
stinct working  in  the  field  of  sacred  music. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Agonistici  (Gr.,  (i7«i<= struggle),  one  of  the 
names  given  by  the  Donatists  to  those  of  their 
followers  who  went  through  cities  and  villages  to 
disseminate  the  doctrine  of  Donatus.  They  first 
appeared  about  317  (Tillemont,  M6m..  VI,  96),  and 
claimed  that  they  were  champions  of  Christ,  fighting 
with  the  sword  of  Israel.  Their  war-cry  was  Laudcs 
Den  (Prai-ses  to  God).  They  committe<l  many  bar- 
barous acts  and  deeds  of  violence.     Whether  they 


AGONY 


224 


AGOULT 


called  themselves  "fighters"  (Agonistic)  because 
they  fought  the  battles  of  the  Lord,  or  because  they 
were  forced  to  fight  those  \yho  sought  to  protect 
their  property  against  tlieir  invasions,  is  not  clear. 
The  Catholics  styled  the  Agonistici,  "Circumcellions," 
i.  e.  Hrcum  cellos  cuntt's,  because  they  roved  about 
among  tlie  peasants,  living  on  those  they  sought  to 
indoctrinate. 

GraAUD.  Bibl.  Sac.  I,  226.  ,       ,  „ 

John  J.  a  Becket. 

Agony  of  Christ  (from  Ayuvla,  a  struggle;  particu- 
larly, in  profane  literature,  the  physical  struggle  of 
athletes  in  the  arena,  or  the  mental  excitement 
previous  to  tlic  conflict).— The  word  is  used  only  once 
in  Sacred  Scripture  (Luke,  xxii,  43)  to  designate  the 
anguish  of  Our  Lord  in  the  Garden  of  Gethseraani. 
The  incident  is  narrated  also  in  St.  JIatthew  (xxvi, 
36-46)  and  St.  Mark  (xiv,  32-42) ;  but  it  is  remark- 
able that  only  St.  Luke  mentions  the  details  of  the 
sweat  of  blood  and  the  visitation  of  the  angel.  The 
authenticity  of  tlie  verses  narrating  these  details 
(43-44)  has  been  called  in  question,  because  of 
their  absence,  not  only  from  the  text  of  the  other 
synoptists,  but  even  from  that  of  St.  Luke  in  several 
of  the  ancient  codices  (notably  1/P— the  revised 
Sinaiticus— A.,  B.,  et  al.).  The  presence  of  tlie 
verses,  however,  in  the  majority  of  the  MSS.,  both 
uncial  and  cursive,  has  sufficed  to  warrant  their  being 
retained  in  the  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament. 
Their  acceptance  by  such  scholars  as  Tischendorf, 
Hammond,  and  Scrivener  seems  to  place  the  ques- 
tion of  their  authenticity  beyond  controversy.  The 
"sweat  of  blood"  is  understood  literally  by  almost 
all  Catliolic  exegetes;  and  medical  testimony  has  been 
alleged  in  evidence  of  the  fact  that  such  a  phenome- 
non {haemalodrosis),  though  rare  and  abnormal,  Ls 
neither  impossible  nor  preternatural. 

DuRAND,  Vacant,  Baraban,  composite  article  in  Vacant, 
Diet,  de  thcoi.  cnth..  s.  v.  .igonie  du  Christ. 

James  M.  Gillis. 

AgOStini,  Paoi.o,  b.  at  Vallerano  in  1593;  d.  1629, 
famous  composer  and  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Nanini, 
wliose  son-in-law  he  became.  Taking  for  models  liis 
predecessors  of  the  Venetian  and  Roman  school,  he 
studied  in  a  particular  manner  the  art  of  compos- 
ing for  a  number  of  simultaneous  choirs,  and  so 
gained  the  l)ighest  esteem  of  his  contemporaries. 
On  one  occasion,  after  assisting  at  a  mass  of  his 
for  forty-eight  voices.  Pope  Urban  VIII  expressed 
his  highest  admiration  for  the  composition.  Manu- 
script copies  of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Vatican  Archives,  and  in  the  Corsini  Library.  Tlie 
only  ones  printed  were  two  volumes  of  Psalms  (Rome, 
1619);  two  volumes  of  Magnificats  (ib.,  1620),  and 
five  volumes  of  masses,  for  four  to  twelve  voices 
(ib.,  1624-28).  He  succeeded  I^golini  as  maestro  at 
the  Vatican  Chapel  in  1627.  His  compositions  were 
distinguislied  by  elegance  and  ingenuity,  but  he 
could  rise  to  lofty  flights  of  genius,  as  in  an  Agnus 
Dei  reprinted  by  P.  Martini  in  his  "Saggio  di 
Contrappunto." 

KoRNMUl.LER,  Lexikon  der  kirchl.  Tonkunst;  Grove,  Diet, 
of  Music  and  Musicians. 

J.  A.  VOLKER. 

Agostino  Novello,  Blessed  (M.^tteo  di  Teh- 
mini),  b.  in  the  first  half  of  tlie  thirteenth  century, 
at  Termini,  a  village  of  Sicily,  from  which  lie  derived 
his  surname.  As  that  village  belonged  to  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Palermo,  he  is  sometimes  called  Panor- 
milano;  tlie  Breviary  says  of  him  qucm  Thermcnses 
et  Pannrmitani  cirem  nuum  esxc  dicutit.  On  entering 
religion  he  changed  his  name  to  .Xgostino.  and  later 
was  given  the  additional  name  of  Novello,  a  title 
suggested  by  liis  great  learninK  and  virtue.  Ilis 
parents,  of  a  noble  family  originally  from  Catalonia 
in  Spain,  educated  him  most  carefully  and  had  liim 


instructed  in  all  the  then  known  sciences,  first  at 
home  and  afterwards  in  the  city  of  Bologna,  where 
he  carried  off  high  honours,  especially  in  civil  and 
canon  law.  Returning  to  his  native  land,  he  held 
many  positions  of  honour  in  the  magistracy,  fulfill- 
ing all  the  duties  of  these  posts  with  such  prudence 
and  exactitude  that  the  King  of  Sicily,  Manfred, 
made  him  one  of  his  counsellors.  In  this  capacity  he 
accompanied  the  King  in  the  war  against  Charles  of 
Anjou,  who  disputed  Manfred's  right  to  the  crown 
of  Sicily,  and  in  the  battle  in  which  Manfred  was 
killed  and  his  army  routed,  Agostino,  thought  to  be 
dead,  was  left  on  the  battlefield  among  the  corpses 
of  other  soldiers.  Regaining  consciousness,  he  was 
able  to  reach  his  home,  and,  disillusioned  with  the 
world,  and  the  lightness  and  evanescence  of  all 
earthly  glory,  he  determined  henceforth  to  serve  the 
King  of  kings,  Jesus  Christ,  and  forsake  all  worldly 
honours  and  dignities.  Following  this  special  in- 
spiration of  Heaven,  he  asked  admission  as  a  lay- 
brother  into  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine,  and  was 
received  in  a  convent  in  Tuscany,  where  he  could 
live  unknown  to  the  world,  far  from  his  home  and 
his  people.  Here,  devoted  to  exercises  of  piety,  he 
lived  tranquilly  until  an  unforeseen  incident  brought 
him  once  more  before  the  world.  The  title  to  some 
property  belonging  to  the  convent  was  claimed  by  a 
rich  and  learned  lawyer  of  Sienna,  Giacomo  Pallares. 
Agostino.  in  a  written  document,  defended  the  rights 
of  his  brethren.  Pallares,  who  at  once  perceived  that 
the  humble  habit  of  a  lay-brother  concealed  a  most 
learned  jurist,  asked  to  see  him,  and  to  his  astonish- 
ment recognized  his  former  fellow-student  of  the 
University  of  Bologna,  Matteo  di  Termini.  He  lost 
no  time  in  acquainting  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
with  his  identity,  begging  them  to  keep  no  longer  in 
obscurity  such  a  wealth  of  learning.  When  Clement 
of  Osimo,  General  of  the  Order,  heard  of  this,  he  com- 
pelled Agostino,  under  obedience,  to  receive  Holy 
Orders,  and,  moreover,  appointed  liim  one  of  liis 
associates.  Agostino  reformed  the  Constitutions 
and  brought  much  splendour  on  his  Order,  of  wliich 
he  became  General,  a  charge  which  he  finally  re- 
signed to  live  in  retirement,  giving  all  his  time  to 
study,  prayer,  and  penance,  whereby  he  reached  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  Before  he  was  made  Gen- 
eral, Nicholas  IV  appointed  liim  his  confessor  and 
Grand  Penitentiary,  a  charge  which  he  accepted  only 
under  obedience,  and  with  such  manifest  reluctance 
and  so  many  protestations  of  his  unworthiness  that 
the  Pope  and  the  cardinals  were  visibly  affected. 
In  his  retreat  in  the  convent  of  San  Leonardo,  near 
Sienna,  he  not  only  dedicated  liimself  to  the  practice 
of  the  virtues  proper  to  the  rehgious  state,  which  he 
carried  to  an  heroic  degree,  but,  impelled  by  an 
ardent  and  almost  consuming  charity,  he  began 
collecting  alms  and  was  able  to  enlarge  and  practi- 
cally rebuild  an  excellent  orphanage  and  hospital  for 
the  sick  and  aged  who  had  neither  means  to  care  for 
themselves  during  sickness,  nor  a  place  in  which  to 
pass  their  last  days.  Many  of  the  miracles  wrought 
through  the  intercession  of  Blessed  Agostino  wore 
verified  and  authenticated.  Clement  XllI  solemnly 
beatified  him,  and  Clement  XIV  authorized  his  cult 
on  23  July,  1770.  Tirso  Lopez. 

Agoult,  Charles  Constance  Cesar  Joseph 
MATrHiEU  d',  a  French  prelate,  b.  at  Grenoble,  1747; 
d.  at  Paris,  1824.  He  studied  at  the  Seminary  of 
St.  Sulpice,  at  Paris,  and  became  Bishop  of  Paniiers, 
in  1787.  During  the  French  Revolution  he  emi- 
grated, but  returned  to  France  in  1801,  after  haying 
surrendered  his  bishopric.  He  wrote:  "Projet  d'une 
banque  nationale"  (Paris,  1815);  " Eclaircissement 
sur  le  projet  d'une  banque  nationale"  (Paris,  1S16); 
"Lettre  i  un  Jacobin,  ou  reflexions  politiques  sur  la 
constitution  d'Angleterre  et  la  cliarte  royale  "  (Paris, 


I 


AGRA 


22") 


AORAPHA 


1815);  "Conversation  avec  E.  Burke,  sur  I'interCt  des 
puissances  de  TEurope"  (Paris,  1814). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

AgT&,  The  Archdiocese  of.  Is  situated  in  British 
India  and  lies  between  25°  30'  and  32°  N.  lat.,  and 
75°  and  81°  K.  loiif;.  The  area  in  square  miles  is 
91 ,843.  The  population,  according  to  the  last  census, 
is  28,086,364.  Tlie  predominant  religion  of  India 
when  missions  were  first  introduced  was  Moliamnied- 
ariism.  Tlie  primitive  religion  is  Hinduism.  The 
hulk  of  the  population  tiien,  as  now,  belonged  to 
this  sect.  Tlie  .\rchdioce.se  of  Agra  is  an  outcome 
of  tlie  Tibet  Mission,  wliicli  was  tlie  first  regularly 
established  in  this  part  of  India.  Pellegrino  da 
Forli  in  his  "  Annali  ilei  Caiipuocini",  IV,  115, 
states:  "Since  1703  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
I'riipaqation  of  the  Failh  lias  a.ssigned  to  the  Capu- 
chins of  the  Marca  d'.Ancona  the  Alission  of  Tibet". 
The  first  decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  which 
refers  to  tlie  Tibetan  Mission  is  dated  II  January, 
1704.  By  this  instrument  Father  Felix,  a  Mon- 
tecchio  of  the  Capuchin  Order,  is  appointed  Mi.s- 
sionary  Apostolic  for  ten  years  under  the  Prefect 
John  Francis  a  Camerino  (Bull.  Ordin.  F.  Miii.  Cap. 
S.  Francisci,  t.  Vll,  250).  From  1704  to  1808  thirty 
bands  of  missionaries,  varying  in  number  from  two 
or  three  to  eleven  or  twelve,  were  sent  out.  Owing 
to  the  unsettled  condition  of  ICurope,  none  were  sent, 
from  1808  to  1823,  to  re-enforce  these.  Ludovic 
Micara,  a  Capuchin  of  Frascati,  was  consecrated 
Hisliop  on  13  .\pril,  1820,  and  appointed  Vicar- 
.\postolic  of  the  Tibet-Hindustan  Mission.  But 
circumstances  prevented  his  leaving  Europe,  where 
he  died,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Frascati.  The  Right 
Kev.  Zenobius  Benucci,  O.  C,  Bishop  of  Henna, 
was  appointed  Vicar-.\postoHc  of  .Vgra,  ami  died 
at  .\gra,  23  June,  1824.  From  then  up  to  1886 
there  was  a  regular  succession  of  vicar.s-apostolic 
of  .\gra.  Pope  Leo  XIII,  by  the  Bull  "  Huma- 
nic  Salutis  .\uctor",  1  September,  188G,  consti- 
tuted and  erected  the  Catholic  hierarchy  of  India, 
and  converteil  the  vicariate  apostolic  of  Agra  into 
a  metropolitan  .see.  The  Mi.ssion  of  Tibet  had  been 
productive  of  good  results,  and  after  two  centuries 
(1703-1906)  it  has  expandeil  into  a  metropolitan 
province.  The  suffragans  of  the  .\rchbisho|)  of 
Agra  are  the  Bishops  of  .\llahabad  and  Lahore  and 
the  Prefects  Ajxistolic  of  Kajpulana.  Bettiah  and 
Nepal  Kafristan  and  Kaslimer.  The  Metropolitan, 
witli  his  suffragans,  rules  over  a  counlrj-  comprised 
in  the  following  political  divisions  of  India:  The 
Cnited  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  the  Central 
India  .\gcncy,  the  Punjab,  the  North-West  Frontier 
Province.  Kashmir,  and  portions  of  Bengal  and  the 
Central   Provinces. 

The  Begum  Suniroo,  who  ruled  over  Sardhana  as  a 
vassal  of  Delhi,  was  a  convert  from  Mnliaintnedanism. 
With  this  princess  the  fathers  of  the  Tihelau  Mi.ssion 
found  a  home.  Slie  obtained  from  the  Holy  ."^ee  the 
promotion  of  Father  Giulio  Cosare,  one  of  the  members 
of  the  Mission,  to  tlie  episcopal  dignity.  His  Holiness 
Pope  (iregory  XVI  wrote  to  her.  and  .sent  her  tokens 
of  his  paternal  approbation.  This  gifted  and  great 
woman  caused  Catholicism  to  be  respected  even 
amidst  the  decay  of  the  great  Mopil  empire.  She 
bequeathe<l  to  her  posterity  not  onlj-  an  example  of 
regal  munificence  in  her  many  charitable  endow- 
ments, but  also  a  holy  heritage  in  the  colony  of 
Christians  that  survive  to  this  day  in  her  beloved 
Sardhana.  The  following  list  of  Bishops  of  Tibet - 
Hindustan,  with  their  dates  of  con.secration,  is  culled 
from  the  compilation  made  by  Father  Felix  of  the 
Diocese  of  Lahore  (Calh.  Calendar  and  Directory 
of  the  .Vrchdioce.se):  Rt.  Rev.  Ludovic  Micara, 
O.C,  consecrated  13  April.  1820:  Rt.  Rev.  Zenobius 
Benucci.  O.C,  1823;  Anthony  Pezzoni,  CO.,  1826; 
L— 15 


Dr.  Joseph  Angelus  Planella,  CO.,  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Toposo  with  right  of  succession  of  the 
Vicar-.Xpostolic  of  Agra;  Joseph  Anthony  Borghi, 
O.C,  consecrated  1839;  Cajetan  Carii,  O.C,  1844; 
Ignatius  Persico,  O.C.  1854;  .\ngelicus  Bedenik,  O.C, 
1861;  Michael  Angelus  Jacobi,    1868. 

Bishop  Jacobi  was  created  first  Archbishop  of 
.\gra  1  September,  1886,  and  ilied  at  Mussoorie 
14  October,  1801.  The  Most  Rev.  Dr.  Emmanuel 
Van  Den  Bosch  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Lahore 
in  1891  and  transferred  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Agra 
in  1892.  He  resigned  in  1898.  The  Most  Rev.  Dr. 
Charles  Cicntili,  O.C.  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
.Mlahabad  29  June,  1897,  and  appointed  Archbishop 
of  Agra  27  August,  1898. 

The  .Vrchdiocese  of  Agra  has  a  Catholic  popula- 
tion of  9,442;  regular  priests,  38;  secular  priests, 
16;  sisters,  228;  brothers,  11;  parochial  schools  for 
boys,  11;  for  girls,  5;  colleges  for  boys,  2;  for  girls, 
1 ;  convents,  6;  orphanages  for  boys,  3;  inmates 
403;  orphanages  for  girls,  5;  inmates  459;  prepara- 
tory seminary  for  native  priests,  1. 

ImiM-rial  GitzvtUer;  Keene.  India;  Keegan.  SoTdhana; 
PKl.LEciRiNO  DA  FoHLI.  AniwH  del  Coppucrini,  AnaUcta  Or- 
dinia  Minorum  Capuccinorum;  Catholic  Calendar  and  Direc- 
tory of  the  Archdiocese  of  Agra  and  its  Hufjragan  dioceses. 

S.  O'Brien. 

Agram  (Zaifrahin),  also  Z.\orab.  arcliiepiscopal  .see 
of  tlie  ancient  kingdom  of  Croatia,  in  Austria,  founded 
towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  as  a  suffragan 
of  Kalocsa  in  Hungary,  and  made  an  archdiocese  in 
1852.  Its  Latin  Catholic  population  is  1,319,367; 
there  are  1,877  Greek  Catholics,  118,304  Greek 
Schismatics,  9,573  Protestants,  and  11,929  Jews, 
besides  a  few  Mohommedans.  Agram  has  348 
parishes,  served  by  615  secular  and  66  regular  priests. 
The  episcopal  city  (20,000)  is  pleasantly  located  in  a 
broad  [ilain,  near  the  Save,  and  is  surrounded  to  the 
north  and  west  by  vine-clad  hills.  The  castle-like 
residence  of  the  archbishop  and  the  medieval  Gothic 
cathedral,  with  its  sacristy  (itself  a  churcli),  are  re- 
markable monuments.  There  are  three  sufTragan 
sees:  Bosnia-Syrmia  (witli  residence  at  Djakovar), 
Scnj  (Zengg,  .Segnia),  and  Krizevac  (Koros,  Kriz. 
Kreutz).  The  vernacular  of  the  people  is  tlie 
Croatian  tongue.  Agram  possesses  a  university  for 
the  southern  Slavs,  opened  in  1874,  owing  chiefly  to 
the  endeavours  and  sacrifices  of  Bishop  Strossmayer 
of  Djakoviir.  There  are  also  an  archiepiscopal  semi- 
nary and  a  college  for  boys,  besides  a  Greek  Catholic 
seminary  and  gymnasium.  Among  the  ecclesiastical 
institutes  of  Agram  is  the  "Piarum  summarum  prav 
fectura",  a  fund  of  about  one  million  dollars  (1882), 
the  interest  of  which  is  devoted  to  the  support  of 
establishments  of  charity  and  beneficence. 

Nkiieh,  in  Kirehenlex.,  I,  347;  Hattandieu,  Anri.  Pont, 
Cath.  (PiiriH,  190.')).  300;  Werner.  Orbis  Terr.  Calh.  (Freiburg. 
1800),  90;  Kerbelicii,  Hist.  Eccl.  Zagrab  (ibid.,  1773);  Farlati 
Illyricum  Sacrum,  V,  330. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Acn'apha,  a  name  first  used,  in  1776,  by  J.  G. 
Kiirner,  for  the  Sayings  of  Jesus  that  have  come 
down  to  us  outside  the  canonical  Gospels.  After 
Alfred  Resell  liad  chosen  the  expression,  as  the  title 
for  his  learned  work  on  these  Sayings  (1889),  its 
technical  meaning  was  generally  accepted.  We  shall 
consider,  first,  the  limits  of  the  Agrapha;  secondly,  the 
criteria  of  their  genuineness;  thirdly,  the  list  of  those 
that  are  probably  authentic. 

Limits. — The  Agrapha  must  satisfy  three  condi- 
tions: they  must  be  Sayings,  not  discourses;  they 
must  be  .Mayings  of  Jesus;  they  must  not  be  con- 
tained in  the  canonical  Gospels,  (a)  Being  mere  Say- 
ings, and  not  discourses,  the  .Agrapha  do  not  embrace 
the  lengthy  sections  ascribed  to  Jesus  in  the  "Di- 
dascalia"  and  the  "  Pistis  Sophia.  "  These  works  con- 
tain al.so  some  brief  (juotations  of  alleged  words  of 
Jesus,  though  they  may  have  to  be  excluded  from  the 


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Sayings  for  other  reasons.  Such  seems  to  be  the  Say- 
ing in  "Didasc.  Syr."  11,8  (ed.  Lagarde,  p.  14):  "A 
man  is  unapproved,  if  lie  be  untempted.  "  (6)  Being 
Sayings    of   Je.siis,    the    Agrapha    do    not    embrace: 

(1)  The  Sayings  contained  in  rehgioiis  romances, 
such  as  we  find  in  the  apocryplial  Gospels,  the  apoc- 
ryphal Acts,  or  the  Letter  of  Christ  to  Abgar  (Eus. 
llist.  Eccl.,  I,  13).  (2)  .Scripture  passages  ascribed  to 
Jesus  by  a  mere  oversight.  Thus  "Didasc.  Apost. 
Syr. "  (ed.  Lagarde,  p.  1 1 ,  hne  12)  assigns  to  the  Lord 
the  words  of  Prov.,  xv,  1  (Sept.),  "Wrath  destroy- 
eth  even  wise  men  ".  (3)  The  expressions  attributed 
to  Jesus  by  the  mistake  of  transcribers.  The  Epistle 
of  Barnabas,  iv,  9.  reads:  "As  the  son  of  God  says, 
Let  us  resist  aU  iniquity,  and  hold  it  in  hatred." 
But  this  is  merely  a  rendering  of  a  mistake  of  the 
Latin  scribe  who  wrote  "sicut  dicit  filius  Dei",  in- 
stead of  "sicut  decet  filios  Dei",  the  true  rendering 
of  the  Greek  us  wpdirei  viols  0coO.  (4)  The  Sayings 
attributed  to  Jesus  by  mere  conjecture.  Resch  has 
put  forth  the  conjecture  that  the  words  of  Clem. 
Alex.  Strom.  I,  8,  41,  "These  are  they  who  ply  their 
looms  and  weave  nothing,  saith  the  Scripture",  re- 
fer to  a  Saying  of  Jesus,  though  there  is  no  solid 
foundation  for  this  belief,  (c)  Coming  down  to  us 
through  channels  outside  the  canonical  Gospels,  the 
Agrapha  do  not  comprise:  (1)  Mere  parallel  forms, 
or  amplifications,  or,  again,  combinations  of  Sayings 
contained  in  the  canonical  Ciospels.  Thus  we  find 
a  combination  of  Matt.,  vi,  19;  x,  9;  Luke,  xii,  33,  in 
Ephr.  Syr.  Test.  (opp.  Greece,  ed.  Assemani,  II,  232): 
"For  I  heard  the  Good  Teacher  in  the  divine  gospels 
saying  to  his  disciples.  Get  you  nothing  on  earth." 

(2)  Homiletical  paragraphs  of  Jesus,  thoughts  given 
by  ancient  writers.  Thus  Hippolytus  (Demonstr. 
adv.  Judceos,  VII)  paraphrases  Ps.  Ixviii  (Ixix),  26: 
"Whence  he  saith,  Let  their  temple,  Father,  be  des- 
olate. ' ' 

Criteri.\  of  Genuineness. — The  genuineness  of 
the  Agrapha  may  be  inferred  partly  from  external 
and  partly  from  internal  evidence,  (a)  External 
Evidence. — First  determine  the  independent  source 
or  sources  by  which  any  Saying  in  question  has  been 
preserved,  and  then  see  whether  tlie  earliest  author- 
ity for  the  Saying  is  of  such  date  and  character  that 
it  might  reasonably  have  had  access  to  extra-canoni- 
cal tradition.  For  Papias  and  Justin  Martyr  such 
access  may  be  admitted,  but  hardly  for  a  writer  of 
the  fourth  century.  These  are  extreme  cases;  the 
main  difficulty  is  concerned  with  the  intermediate 
wTiters.  (b)  Internal  Evidence. — The  next  ques- 
tion is,  whether  the  Saying  under  consideration  is 
consistent  with  the  thought  and  spirit  of  Jesus  as 
manifested  in  the  canonical  gospels.  If  a  negative 
conclusion  be  reached  in  this  investigation,  the  proof 
must  be  completed  by  finding  a  fair  explanation  of 
the  rise  of  the  Saying. 

List  of  Authentic  Agrapha. — The  sources  from 
which  the  authentic  Agrapha  may  be  gathered  are: 
(a)  the  New  Testament  and  the  New  Testament 
manuscripts;  (6)  the  Apocryphal  tradition;  (c)  the 
patristic  citations;  and  (d)  the  so-called  "  Oxyrhyn- 
chus  Logia"  of  Jesus.  Agrapha  contained  in  Jewish 
or  Mohammedan  sources  may  be  curious,  but  they 
are  hardly  authentic.  Since  the  criticism  of  the 
Agrapha  is  in  most  cases  difficult,  and  often  unsat- 
isfactory, frequent  disagreement  in  the  critical  re- 
sults must  be  expected  as  a  matter  of  course.  The 
following  Agrapha  are  probably  genuine  sayings  of 
Jesus. 

(a)  In  the  New  Testament  and  the  New  Testament 
manuscripts:  In  Codices  D  and  *,  and  in  some  ver- 
eioiis  of  .Matt.,  xx,  28,  "But  ye  seek  from  the  small 
to  increase,  and  from  the  greater  to  be  less."  In 
Codex  n  of  Luke,  vi,  4:  "(Jn  the  same  day,  seeing 
one  working  on  the  Sabbath,  he  said  to  hini:  Man, 
if  thou  knowest  what  thou  doest,  blessed  art  thou; 


but  if  thou  knowest  not,  thou  art  accursed  and  a 
transgressor  of  the  Law."  In  Acts,  xx,  35,  "Re- 
member the  word  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  how  he  said:  It  is 
a  more  blessed  thing  to  give,  rather  than  to  receive." 
((;)  In  apocryphal  tradition:  In  tlie  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews  (Jerome,  Ezech.,  xviii,  7): 
"In  the  Gospel  which  the  Nazarenes  are  accustomed 
to  read,  that  according  to  the  Hebrews,  there  is  put 
among  the  greatest  crimes  he  who  shall  have  grieved 
the  spirit  of  his  brother."  In  the  same  Gospel  (Jer- 
ome, Eph.,  V,  3  sq.):  "In  the  Hebrew  Gospel  too  we 
read  of  the  Lord  saying  to  the  disciples:  And  never, 
said  he,  rejoice,  except  when  you  have  looked  upon 
your  brother  in  love."  In  Apostolic  Church-C)rder, 
26:  "For  he  said  to  us  before,  when  he  was  teaching: 
That  which  is  weak  shall  be  saved  through  that 
which  is  strong."  In  "Acta  Philippi ",  34:  "For 
the  Lord  .said  to  me:  Except  ye  make  the  lower  into 
the  upper  and  the  left  into  the  right,  ye  shall  not 
enter  into  my  kingdom." 

(c)  In  patristic  citations:  Justin  MartjT,  Dial.  47: 
"Wherefore  also  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  said.  In  what- 
soever things  I  apprehend  you,  in  those  I  shall  judge 
you."  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Strom.  I,  24,  158: 
"For  ask,  he  says  for  the  great  things,  and  the  small 
shall  be  added  to  you."  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Strom.  I,  28,  177:  "Rightly  therefore  the  Scripture 
also  in  its  desire  to  make  us  such  dialecticians,  ex- 
horts us:  Be  approved  moneychangers,  disapproving 
some  things,  but  holding  fast  that  which  is  good." 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Strom.  V,  10,  64:  "For  not 
grudgingly,  he  saith,  did  the  Lord  declare  in  a  cer- 
tain gospel:  My  mystery  is  for  me  and  for  the  sons 
of  my  house.  "  Origen,  Homil.  in  Jer.,  XX,  3:  "But 
the  Saviour  himself  saith:  He  who  is  near  me  is  near 
the  fire;  he  who  is  far  from  me,  is  far  from  the  king- 
dom. " 

(d)  In  the  Oxyrhynchus  Logia:  The  first  Logion 
is  part  of  Luke,  vi,  42;  of  the  fourth,  only  the  word 
"poverty"  is  left;  the  eighth,  too,  is  badly  mutilated. 
The  text  of  the  other  Logia  is  in  a  more  satisfactory 
condition.  Second  Logion:  "  Jesus  saith,  Except  you 
fast  to  the  world,  you  shall  in  no  wise  find  the  king- 
dom of  God."  Third  Logion:  "Jesus  saith,  I  stood 
in  the  midst  of  the  world,  and  in  the  flesh  was  I 
seen  of  them,  and  I  found  all  men  drunken,  and 
none  found  I  athirst  among  them,  and  my  soul 
grieved  over  the  sons  of  men,  because  they  are  blind 
in  their  heart,  and  see  not."  Fifth  Logion:  "Jesus 
saith,  Wherever  there  are  two,  they  are  not  without 
God;  and  wherever  there  is  one  alone,  I  say  I  am 
with  him.  Raise  the  stone,  and  there  thou  shalt 
find  me;  cleave  the  wood,  and  there  am  I."  Sixth 
Logion:  "Jesus  saith,  A  prophet  is  not  acceptable 
in  his  own  country,  neither  doth  a  physician  work 
cures  upon  them  that  know  him."  Seventh  Logion: 
"Jesus  saith,  A  city  built  upon  the  top  of  a  hill  and 
stablished  can  neither  fall  nor  be  hid."  Eighth 
Logion:  "Jesus  saith.  Thou  hearest  with  one  ear 
..."  Resch's  contention  that  seventy-five  Agra- 
pha are  probably  genuine  Sayings  of  Jesus  har- 
monizes with  the  assumption  that  all  spring  from 
the  same  source,  but  does  not  commend  itself  to 
the  judgment  of  other  scholars. 

Ropes  in  II.isT..  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (New  York.  1905); 
Spriiche  Jesu,  Tejte  und  Unlersuch.,  XIV,  2  (Leipzig.  lS9t>); 
IlE.srH,  Agrapha,  Textc  und  UnteTsuch.,\\  (Leipzig.  1889): 
Grenfeli,  and  Hunt,  AOFIA  IHSOT,  (Egypt  Expl.  Fun.l, 
London,  1897);  Lock  and  S.^nday.  Sailings  of  Jesus  (Oxford. 
1897);  Nestle.  N.  T.  sunplementtim  (Leipzig,  1896).  Com- 
plete bibliographies  will  be  found  in  most  of  the  foregoing 
works. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Agrarianism. — The  Latin  word  atjrarms  was  ap- 
plied historically  to  laws,  or  their  partisans,  favour- 
ing the  division  of  Roman  public  lands  among  the 
poorer  citizens.  So  the  English  words,  agrarianism, 
and  agrarian  generally,   imply   theories  and  move- 


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227 


AGRARIANISM 


ments  intended  to  benefit  the  poorer  classes  of  so- 
ciety by  dealing  in  some  way  with  the  ownership  of 
land  or  the  legal  obligations  of  the  cultivators.  In 
modern  tiermun,  indeed,  the  prefix  Agrar  is  used  to 
mean  rural  or  agricultural,  and  a  German  political 
party,  roughly  corresponding  to  the  former  "country 
party"  or  "landed  mtercst"  in  England,  is  called 
(lie  Ai/rarpartci,  often  translated  us  the  Agrarians, 
though  unlike  the  stricter  use  of  agrarianism  given 
above.  Keeping  to  that  stricter  \ise  of  the  word, 
we  can  distinguish  two  social  movements  rimning 
through  history,  one  being  agrarian  reform,  the  other 
agrarian  revolution.  The  border  line  is  indeed  ol>- 
scure,  but  the  ditference,  as  of  night  and  day,  funda- 
mental. 

Let  us  look  first  at  the  movements  of  agrarian 
reform.  Conspicuous  is  the  case  of  the  Hebrew 
Prophets.  How  far  the  land  organization  of  the 
Mo.saic  Law  was  ever  in  full  working  order  is  dis- 
puted, probably  unascertainable.  What  can  be  as- 
certained is  the  growth,  pari  passu  with  the  growth 
of  wealth  and  commerce  under  tlie  kings,  of  ill- 
treatment  of  the  Hebrew  peasantry,  mainly  by  over- 
taxation to  pay  for  a  luxurious  court,  by  corn-jobbery 
and  monopoly,  and  by  (usurious  loans,  whicli  made 
the  [ieasant  a  debtor-slave  or  totally  dispossessed 
him.  And  we  see  lawless  dispossession:  witness  the 
frequent  complaints  of  the  oppression  of  widows  and 
orpiiaus,  and  the  case  of  Naboth's  vineyard.  Against 
tins  oppression  the  I'rophets  protested  so  vigorously 
tliut  liy  some  moderns  they  have  been  taken  to  be 
Socialists.  Uvit  they  were  eminently  social  reform- 
ers, not  revolutionists.  They  incited  to  no  act  of 
human  vengeance  upon  evil-doers,  nor  to  revolt 
against  authority,  even  when  it  was  misused;  but 
they  denounced  immorality  in  home  life,  fraud  in 
commerce,  harshness  to  debtors,  injustice  to  the 
poor;  and  as,  under  the  technical  conditions  of  pro- 
duction in  antiquity,  the  main  social  problem  was 
the  preservation  of  a  free  peasantry,  and  the  social 
question  primarily  an  agrarian  question,  the  Prophets 
appeared  as  agrarian  reformers,  with  the  not  imprac- 
ticable aim  that  each  man  should  dwell  in  security 
under  his  own  vine  and  his  own  fig-tree,  on  his 
father's  inheritance.  Their  exhortations,  in  fact,  kept 
before  the  Israelites  a  high  social  ideal;  and  by  re- 
calling the  ancient  law  that  bond-servants  should  be 
freed  every  seventh  year,  and  that  loans  in  kind  and 
money  should  be  gratuitous,  the  growth  of  the  slave- 
cultivation  of  Punic,  Greek,  and  Roman  civilization 
was  restrained,  and  Palestine  preserved  as  a  land  of 
Jewish  peasant  proprietors. 

In  secular  history  two  conspicuous  examples  of 
agrarian  reform  are  those  of  Solon  in  Attica  and  of 
the  Gracchi  in  Italy.  The  release  of  debtor-slaves 
and  the  removal  of  unlawful  enclosures  seem  the 
main  features  of  Solon's  economic  legislation,  of 
which  indeed  full  trustworthy  details  are  wanting. 
The  character  of  the  Gracchan  reform  is  more  ac- 
curately known,  beinj;  mainly  to  promote  the  colo- 
nization of  the  nublic  lands  by  small  farmers  in 
accordance  with  old  laws  which  ha<I  Ix-en  disregarded. 
The  Gracchan  land  laws  were  akin  to  those  of  moderii 
Australasia.  They  were  partly  successful  in  re- 
establishing and  protecting  the  free  peasantry,  but 
were  \iltinuitely  frustrated,  chiefly  through  the  fatal 
ixTinission  to  mortgage  and  sell,  allowing  the  small 
holdings  to  be  absorbed  by  latilundia  cultivated  by 
slaves.  After  the  advent  of  Christianity,  the  two 
great  processes  of  agrarian  reform  were:  first,  the  trans- 
formation of  rural  slaves  (often  working  in  chains 
and  sleeping  in  cnjnslula),  into  serfs  (cohni),  attached 
to  the  soil;  and  secondly,  in  feudal  times,  the  miti- 
gation of  the  burdens  of  serfdom,  and  the  transfor- 
ni.ition  of  serfs  into  a  free  pea.santry,  from  that  of 
Kngland,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  to  that  of  Russia, 
in   the   nineteenth,   a  gradual   movement   from   re- 


straint to  freedom,  from  feudal  immobility  to  free 
trade  in  land,  and  to  unrestricted  agricultural  im- 
provements. Hut  then  also,  as  a  parallel  movement, 
the  checks  to  usury  were  withdrawn,  as  well  as  those 
to  over-indebtedness,  exhaustive  cultivation,  whole- 
sale evictions  of  the  peasantry,  appropriation  of  vast 
tracts  by  individuals  or  companies,  and  the  oppo- 
site evil  of  subdividing  small  farms  into  fragmenti*; 
so  that  the  seeming  freedom  of  the  rural  classes  was 
leading  to  jjoverty  and  oppression,  while  reckless 
com|X!tition  was  leading  to  the  waste  of  national 
resources.  Hence  agrarian  reform,  suited  to  the  new 
conditions,  social  and  technical,  of  rural  life,  became 
a  necessity,  and  is  in  process  of  being  carried  out. 

The  following  are  some  examples:  (1)  Legislation 
in  the  Ignited  Slates  (1862),  Canada,  Australasia,  and 
some  other  colonial  countries,  favouring  colonization 
and  bond  fide  agricultural  settlers,  as  against  the 
occupation  of  vast  tracts  for  pastoral  or  speculative 
purposes;  (2)  analogous  laws  in  older  coimtries  fa- 
vouring the  creation  of  small  holdings,  allotments, 
and  gardens,  like  the  British  of  1882-92  and  the  cre- 
ation of  lii-ntcmjiiter  in  Germany  (1890-90);  (3)  the 
American  Homestead  Exemption  Laws,  spreading 
since  1849  to  most  of  the  States,  the  maxinnim  value 
protected  from  seizure  for  debt  being  $.5,000  in  Cali- 
fornia; the  maximum  area  240  acres  in  Mississippi. 
These  laws  have  been  imitated  elsewhere,  and  the 
secure  homestead,  under  the  title  of  le  bien  de  jamille, 
is  advocated  by  the  Catholics  of  France;  (4)  re- 
newed usury  laws,  notably  in  1880,  for  Germany, 
and  in  1900  for  the  United  Kingdom  and  parts  of 
British  India;  (5)  establishment  of  a  special  peas- 
ants' law  in  Germany  (Anerbenrecht) ,  enabling  one 
son  to  preserve  the  small  inheritance;  special  fa\ours 
by  the  Belgian  law  of  1890  to  the  succession  to  small 
holdings;  (6)  special  legislation  against  eviction 
and  unfair  rents,  by  the  Irish  Land  Laws  of  1881 
and  1887,  and  the  Scotch  Crofters'  Holdings  Act  of 
1886.  Parallel  to  such  legislation,  and  its  essential 
auxiliary,  hiis  arisen  the  modern  agricultural  co- 
of)erative  movement,  resulting  in  associations  like 
those  of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  the  Farmers' 
Alliance,  and  others,  in  the  Cnited  States,  or  the 
Raiffei.sen  popular  banks  among  German  and  Italian 
peasants,  or  the  peasants'  league  (Boerenbond)  of 
Belgium,  or  the  agricultural  co-operative  societies  of 
Ireland.  And  just  as  the  new  agrarian  legislation 
is  the  expression  in  modern  form  of  the  fundamental 
needs  of  rural  life,  protected  at  other  times  by  feudal 
inmiobility,  so  the  new  co-oiierative  movement  is  the 
expression  of  the  need  of  mutual  help,  protected  at 
other  times  by  the  patriarchal  family  and  the  village 
comnumity. 

T-et  us  turn  from  the  movements  of  reform,  seen 
in  rural  history,  to  the  movements  of  agrarian 
revolution.  These  were  conspicuous  in  the  declining 
days  of  classical  Greece.  Hereon  Roscher  said  well: 
"In  the  Greek  w'orld  all  that  we  call  tradition,  and 
the  feeling  of  national  honour,  national  destiny,  and 
national  justice,  had  in  fact  Ix-en  supplanted  by  ra- 
tionalistic argumentation,  and  the  argumentation 
directetl  with  terrible  exclusiveness  to  the  opposi- 
tion between  rich  and  poor"  (Nationalokonomie, 
§  204).  This  opposition,  in  conformity  with  the 
technical  and  legal  conditions  of  the  time,  took  the 
form,  not  of  any  system  of  land-nationalization,  but 
simply  of  cancelling  debts  and  re-dividing  lands, 
revolution  alternating  with  counter-revolution.  In 
time,  the  agrarian  struggles  Ixjcamc  mixed  up  with 
the  national  movement  for  Greek  independence 
against  Roman  dominion,  the  Romans  everj'where 
taking  the  side  of  the  rich  against  the  poor  (Livy, 
XXXV,  xxxiv).  These  social  revohitions  arc  of  im- 
portance to  \is  as  showing  some  significant  analogies 
with  our  own  times.  It  is  otherwise  with  the  peas- 
ant risings  of  later  times  such  as  the  French  Jacquerie 


AGRARIANISM 


228 


AGRARIANISM 


in  the  fourteenth  century;  the  English  insurrection 
under  Jaclc  Cade  in  the  fifteenth;  the  German  Peas- 
ants' War  in  the  sixteenth,  and  tlie  burning  of  the 
chateaux  of  the  French  Revolution:  all  being  efforts 
to  remove  by  violence  tlie  legal  obligations  attached 
to  land  or  its  tillers,  and.  therefore,  being  revolution- 
ary agrarianism;  but  all  remote  from  the  agrarian 
problems  of  the  modern  Western  World,  and  very 
different  even  from  those  of  the  modern  Russian 
Empire. 

Rather,  it  will  be  more  profitable,  before  dealing 
with  the  Single-Tax  Theorj',  to  glance  at  the  pre- 
cursors of  Henrj'  George.  (1)  The  Physiocrats 
taught  that  land  alone  yielded  a  net  produce,  was 
thus  the  ultimate  source  of  taxation,  and  should  be 
made  the  immediate  source,  and  all  simplified  by  a 
single  tax  (impot  unique.)  on  land.  (2)  Thomas  Spence 
(1750-18141  urged  that  landowners  should  be  dis- 
possessed without  compensation,  and  all  land  held 
inalienably  by  the  commune.  (3)  William  Ogilvie's 
"Essay  on  the  Right  of  Property  in  Land"  (1782) 
denounced  the  pernicious  monopoly  of  landowners 
as  the  cause  of  social  misery,  and  urged  a  distribu- 
tion of  land  among  genuine  cultivatois  of  inalienable 
hereditary  small  farms.  (4)  Ricardo  (1772-1823) 
thought  land,  labour,  and  capital  to  be  the  three 
factors  of  production,  yielding  rent  to  the  landlord, 
wages  to  the  labourer,  and  profit  to  the  capitalists, 
the  increasing  demand  for  food  from  the  increasing 
population  inevitably  giving  the  landlord  an  ever- 
larger  share  of  the  total  produce,  and  leaving  less 
for  wages  and  profits.  (5)  J.  S.  Mill  followed  Ri- 
cardo in  believing  that,  through  the  progress  of  so- 
ciety, an  ever-increasing  unearned  sum  flowed  into 
the  pockets  of  the  landlords,  but  no  longer,  like 
Ricardo,  appealed  to  tlie  rights  of  property  in  de- 
fence of  it,  but  emphasized  it  by  giving  it  the  name 
of  "unearned  increment";  and  though,  in  view  of  the 
frequent  recent  changes  of  ownership,  he  left  past 
acquisitions  imtouched,  he  urged  that  the  State 
should  take  not  the  past,  but  any  fresh  unearned 
increment  in  the  future.  Then  the  American  Henry 
George  (1S39-97)  set  forth  most  attractively  in  his 
"Progress  and  Poverty"  (1879)  the  theory  that  not 
merely  all  future,  but  all  actual  unearned  increment 
should  be  intercepted,  the  method  being  the  total 
appropriation  of  rent  by  taxation,  a  single  tax  on 
land  values  replacing  all  other  taxes.  This  "simple 
yet  sovereign  remedy"  would  raise  wages  and  profits, 
abolish  poverty,  lessen  crime,  elevate  morals,  and 
purify  government.  Indeed  this  single-tax  tlieory 
appeared  to  its  author  so  self-evident  that  he  re- 
proached the  Pope  for  not  having,  in  his  Labour 
Encyclical  (Rerum  Novarum,  1891),  accepted  its 
reasoning  (Open  Letter  to  Pope  Leo  XIII,  New 
York,  1891).  "Progress  and  Poverty"  was  trans- 
lated into  eleven  languages;  a  Land-Nationalization 
Society,  still  existent  (1906),  was  founded,  in  Eng- 
land, under  Dr.  A.  Russel  Wallace  (author  of  "Land 
Nationalisation",  London,  1882),  who  indeed  allowed 
to  actual  landlords  what  George  calls  "the  impudent 

Clea"  of  compensation;  the  single-tax  was  advocated 
y  Fliirscheim  in  Germany,  and,  under  the  persis- 
tent misnomer  of  "land-reform",  still  has  a  German 
Society  to  support  it  (Adolf  Damaschke,  "Die  Boden- 
reform",  Berlin,  1902). 

Henry  George  has  been  criticized  from  the  eco- 
nomic, the  juridical,  and  the  socialist  standpoint  on 
the  following  grounds:  (a)  That  "rent",  in  tlie  sense 
of  an  unearned  increment,  is  not  confined  to  land, 
but  is  seen  in  all  fonns  of  production,  wherever  a 
common  market  price  yields  a  surplus  to  those  who 
can  produce  more  cheaply  than  their  competitors, 
(b)  That  we  cannot  separate  "tlie  original  powers 
of  the  soil  from  the  land  as  transformed  by  culture" 
(e.  g.  drainage  or  accessibility),  or  separate  "prop- 
erty in  things  created  by  God"  from  "property  m 


things  made  by  man",  much  of  so-called  "rent" 
being  merely  interest  on  previous  expenditure,  and 
the  part  that  is  really  unearned  increment  rarely 
ascertainable,  (c)  That  neither  theoretically  nor 
historically  true  is  the  alleged  tendency  to  a  per- 
petual rise  of  rent;  the  amount  depending  on  differ- 
ential advantages,  the  difference  incessantly  fluctu- 
ating up  and  down,  according  to  every  change  in 
production,  consumption,  and  communication;  and 
the  final  twenty  years  of  George's  life  witnessing  a 
serious  decline  in  the  value  of  farming-land  in  the 
United  Kingdom  and  in  New  England,  (d)  That 
in  one  vast  section  of  British  India,  where  for  many 
years  the  State  has  attempted  by  periodical  land- 
settlements  to  absorb  the  unearned  increment,  and 
the  single-tax  system  is  in  great  measure  in  force, 
the  population  is  no  better  off,  but  rather  more 
penurious,  than  in  the  other  vast  section,  where  no 
such  system  is  in  force,  but  the  Permanent  Settle- 
ment of  Bengal  instead,  (e)  That  a  great  unmerited 
loss  is  inflicted  on  those  wlio  have  recently  bought 
land,  or  have  received  land  as  their  part  of  a  tes- 
tamentary estate,  while  those  who  have  recently 
sold  land,  or  have  received  cash  as  their  part  of  a 
testamentary  estate,  escape  scot-free,  (f)  That  if 
individuals  may  not  take  to  themselves  the  land  that 
God  has  given  to  all,  no  more  may  nations;  and  the 
Irish  soil  thus  'oelongs  no  more  to  the  Celts  than  to 
the  Saxons,  tlie  LTnited  iStates  no  more  to  the  Amer- 
icans than  to  the  Chinese.  Further,  from  the  so- 
cialist standpoint  (g),  that  George  offers  an  illogical 
half  measure,  recovering  for  the  workers  only  one 
portion  of  the  "surplus  product",  and  leaving  com- 
petitive anarchy  and  capitalist  exploitation  un- 
touched; whereas  incomes,  in  the  shape  of  dividends 
and  interest,  are  just  as  much  "unearned  income" 
as  incomes  in  the  shape  of  rent. 

But  though  there  is  discord  between  revolutionary 
agrarianism  and  collectivism,  they  are  alike  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  uniform  teaching  and  tradition  of  the 
Catholic  Church  on  the  lawfulness  of  pri\-afe  owner- 
ship of  income-yielding  property,  whether  it  be  named 
"land"  or  "capital".  And  they  are  alike  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  ideal  of  all  great  statesmen  from  Solon  to 
Leo  XIII,  namely,  flourishing  populations  of  small 
farmere  or  peasants.  Thus  George  attacks  any  wide 
distribution  of  landed  property,  asserts  the  productiv- 
ity of  large  farms  to  be  the  greatest,  the  tendency  of 
small  farms  to  disappear,  the  misery  of  their  hold- 
ers, the  pity  of  multiplj'ing  them  (Progress  and 
Poverty,  Vl,  i.).  Equally  hostile  is  the  brilliant 
socialist  Karl  Kautsky,  "Die  Agrarfrage"  (Stuttgart, 
1899),  asserting  the  technical  inferiority  and  social 
misery  of  the  small  farmer;  and,  instead  of  his  "sham 
independence",  promising  him  "redemption  from  the 
hell  wherein  his  private  property  keeps  liim  chained  ". 
Neither  George  nor  Kautsky  are  true  to  facts,  but 
both  are  good  witnesses  to  the  importance  of  agra- 
rian reform  as  fatal  to  agrarian  socialism.  The  mis- 
use of  the  rights  of  property,  such  as  the  misdeeds 
of  Scotch  and  Irish  landlordism,  and  of  the  tenement- 
owners  of  Europe  and  America,  are  the  food  that 
feeds  agrarian  socialism.  To  make  such  misdeeds 
impossible  is  the  task  of  social  reform  under  a  wise 
government.  Nor  is  it  accidental  that  the  Encycli- 
cals of  Leo  XIII  form  a  manual  of  social  politics. 
For  as  grace  rests  on  nature,  the  religion  that  is  alone 
truly  Divine,  must  also  i';wo  facto  be  truly  human. 
But  the  instinct  of  ])rivate  property  is  truly  human; 
and  the  proper  unfolding  of  human  liberty  and  per- 
sonality is  historically  l)<)und  up  with  it,  and  cannot 
develop  where  eacli  person  is  only  a  sharer  in  a  com- 
pulsory partnership,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  where 
property  is  confined  to  a  privileged  few.  Suitably, 
therefore,  the  same  Pope  who  had  defended  the  true 
dignity  and  true  liberty  of  man  urged  the  diffusion 
of  property  as  the  mean  between  Socialism  and  In- 


AGREDA 


229 


AGREDA 


dividualism.  and  tliat  wliere  possible  each  citizen 
should  dwell  secure  in  a  homestead  which,  however 
humble,  was  his  own. 

Franz  Wautkii,  Dir  Provhrtm  in  ihrrm  toHnlm  Brrut 
(Freil)urK.  1900),  niid  the  liihlioKrapliv  therein;  Gl<ci:Nli>r.i:, 
llulor,/  of  Hume  (Lxjiidoii.  1904);  Rosen kh,  Ackerbau  (,13th  e.l., 
StuIlKart.  1903);  FisTKi,  de  Coulanoes,  Orijin  of  froperli/ 
in  l.'iwl  (Loniloii,  1891);  Janssen,  The  Sociat  Rctolulton  of 
15-'-l-<l.  lieinK  IV  of  the  tr..  l/ialory  of  Ihe  German  Piuple, 
(Ixjniion.  laoo).  but  II  of  the  German  original:  Bauen  Pow- 
ell, Lnn,!  Rnrnur  in  lirilith  InJui  (Oxfor.l,  1894);  UurnEN- 
BEHOER,  Agnirwrxr-n  unti  Afjrartwtitik  (Lcipxiff,  1892);  Cath- 
REiN.  The  ("hnmpions  of  Agrarinn  Sorutlium  (tr.  Hcinzle, 
ButTaln.  N.  Y.,  1889).  Thi-i  excerpt  from  Catiibei.vk  Momt- 
philnsuphie  ciin  be  found  amen^Ietl  in  the  fourth  German 
edition  (FreiburR.  1904),  II.  247.  28.'"),  and  i.i  the  datvio  aeainst 
Henrv  Georce.  Capart.  tAi  Froprit'U  inilividiulle  el  U  cot' 
Irclifitme  (Bni'wels,  1897);  Menoer.  Riqltt  to  the  whole 
Prodwe  of  I^ihnur  (London,  1899;  third  German  ed..  Stutt- 
rtarl.  1905);  Rivikri:,  /,<•  bim  dc  famille  (Paris,  190fi); 
and  many  of  the  93  precedinfc  tract.s  pubhsheil  by  L'Aclion 
Populaire;  Wolfe.  Ptoplr't  [iimkt  (London,  1890);  Ver- 
MEER8C1I,  Legitlation  et  aeuvresen  Betaiijuf  (Louvain,  1904). 

Ch.\ki,es  Stanton  Devas. 

Agreda,  Maria  de  (or,  according  to  her  conventual 
title.  Mari:i  of  Jesus),  a  discalced  Franciscan  nun, 
b.  1()()'2;  li.  24  May,  106.5.  Her  family  name  was 
Coronel,  but  she  is  commonly  known  as  Maria 
dc.\grc(la,  from  the  little  town  in  Old  Castile,  on 
the  borders  of  Anigon,  where  some  ancestor,  it  is 
.said,  had  built  a  convent  in  obedience  to  commands 
conveyed  in  a  revelation.  La  Fuente,  in  his  "His- 
toria  edcsiastica  de  Espafia".  .says  the  Coronels 
were  una  rirtuoxa  y  modcxta  jamilia  dc  aqurl  piiehto. 
By  some  writers  they  are  described  as  noble,  but 
impoverished.  Maria  is  said  to  have  made  a  vow 
of  chastity  at  the  age  of  eight,  but  no  importance 
need  l)e  attached  to  that,  as,  naturally,  she  could 
not  have  known  the  character  of  such  an  obligation, 
and  we  are  not  compelled  to  suppose  any  divine 
guidance  in  case  the  vow  was  made.  She  and  her 
mother  entered  the  convent  together,  Januarj',  IfilO, 
and  simultaneously  her  father  and  two  brothers 
became  Franciscan  friars.  When  only  twenty-five, 
in  spite  of  her  unwillingness,  she  was  made  abbess, 
by  papal  dispensation.  This  was  almost  eight  years 
after  her  entrance.  With  the  exception  of  an  in- 
terval of  three  years,  she  remained  superior  all  her 
life.  I'nder  her  administration  the  convent,  which 
was  in  a  state  of  decay,  rose  to  great  material  pros- 
perity, and  at  the  s;iine  time  became  one  of  the  most 
fervent  in  Spain.  She  died  with  the  reputation  of  a 
saint;  and  the  cause  of  her  canonization  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  21  June,  1072, 
at  the  request  of  the  Court  of  Spain.  This  was  only 
seven  years  after  her  death.  What  has  gi\en  her 
prominence,  however,  is  not  so  much  the  holiness 
of  her  life,  about  which  there  seems  to  be  general 
consent,  as  the  character  of  one  of  her  writings 
known  as  "La  mfstica  ciudad  de  Dios,  historia 
divina  de  la  Virgen,  .Madre  de  Dios".  This  "Divine 
History  of  the  Mother  of  God"  was  first  conceived 
in  1027;  that  is  to  say,  nine  years  after  she  became 
a  nun.  Ten  years  later,  by  the  express  command 
of  her  confes.sor,  she  set  to  work  at  it,  and  in  twenty 
days  wrote  the  first  part,  consisting  of  4(M)  pages. 
.\ltliough  it  was  her  desire  to  prevent  its  publication, 
a  copy  of  it  was  sent  to  Philip  IV,  to  whom  she  wrote 
a  great  number  of  letters  in  the  course  of  her  life, 
and  who  had  expressed  a  desire  to  have  it.  Later 
on,  in  obedience  to  another  confessor,  she  threw  it 
and  all  her  other  writings,  into  the  fire,  without  any 
apparent  repugnance.  A  third  conunand  of  a 
spiritual  director,  in  IO.i.t,  resulted  in  her  beginning 
again,  and  in  1660  she  finished  the  book.  It  was 
not,  however,  given  to  the  world  imtil  five  years 
after  her  death.  It  was  printed  in  Madrid,  in  1070. 
Its  lengthy  title  contains  no  less  than  ninety  words. 
"The  Mystical  City"  purports  to  be  the  account  of 
special  revelations,  which  the  author  declares  were 
made  to  her  by  Ciod,  Who,  after  raising  her  to  a  state 


of  sublime  contemplation,  commanded  her  to  write 
it,  and  then  revealed  to  her  these  prf)f()uiid  mysteries. 
She  declares  that  God  gave  her  at  first  six  angels  to 
guide  her,  the  numljer  being  afterwards  increased 
to  eight,  who,  having  purified  her,  led  her  into  the 
pre.sence  of  the  Lord.  She  then  beheld  the  lilcs.sed 
V'irgin,  as  she  is  described  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  saw 
al.so  all  the  various  stages  of  her  life:  how  when  she 
came  into  the  world  God  ordered  the  angels  to  tniiis- 
port  her  into  the  empyrean  heaven,  a|)pointing  a 
hundred  spirits  from  each  of  the  nine  choirs  to  attend 
her,  twelve  others  in  visible  and  corporeal  forni  to 
be  always  near  her,  and  eighteen  of  the  most  splendid 
to  be  ambassadors  perpetually  ascending  and  de- 
scending the  Ladder  of  Jacob.  In  tlie  twentieth 
chapter  she  describes  all  that  happened  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  during  the  nine  months  she  was  in 
her  mother's  womb;  and  tells  how,  when  she  was 
three  years  old,  she  swejit  the  house  with  the  help 
of  the  angels.  The  fifteenth  chapter  enters  into 
many  details,  which  by  some  were  denounced  as 
indecent.  The  stj'le,  in  the  opinion  of  certain 
critics,  is  elegant,  and  the  narrative  compact.  Gor- 
res,  on  the  other  hand,  while  expressing  liis  admira- 
tion for  the  wonderful  depth  of  its  speculations,  finds 
that  the  style  is  in  the  bad  taste  of  the- period, 
pompous  and  strained,  and  very  wearisome  in  the 
prolixity  of  the  moral  applications  appended  to  each 
chapter. 

The  book  did  not  attract  much  attention  outside 
of  Spain  until  Croset,  a  Recollect  friar,  translated 
and  published  the  first  part  of  it,  at  Marseilles,  1696. 
This  was  the  signal  of  a  storm,  which  broke  out 
especially  in  the  .Sorbonne.  It  had  already  been 
condemned  in  Rome,  4  August,  KjSl,  by  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Inquisition,  and  Innocent  XI  had  for- 
bidden the  reading  of  it,  but,  at  the  instance  of 
Charles  II,  suspended  execution  of  the  decree  for 
Spain.  But  Croset 's  translation  transgressetl  the  or- 
der, and  caused  it  to  be  referred  to  the  Sorbonne, 
2  May,  1690.  According  to  HergenrOther,  "  Kirchen- 
gcschichte"  (trad,  franc,  1892,  V,  vi,  p.  418),  it  was 
studied  from  the  2d  to  the  14th  of  July,  and  thirty- 
two  sessions  were  held  during  which  132  doctors 
spoke.  It  was  condemned  17  July,  102  out  of  1.52 
members  of  the  commission  voting  against  the  book. 
It  was  found  that  "it  gave  more  weight  to  the 
revelations  alleged  to  have  been  received  than  to 
the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation;  that  it  adduced 
new  revelations  which  the  Apostles  themselves  could 
not  have  supported;  that  it  applied  the  term  'adora- 
tion' to  Marj-;  that  it  referred  all  l)er  graces  to  the 
Immaculate  Conception;  that  it  attributed  to  her 
the  government  of  the  Church;  that  it  designated 
her  in  every  res[)ect  the  Mother  of  Mercy  and  the 
Mediatrix  of  Grace,  and  pretended  that  St.  Ann  had 
not  contracted  sin  in  her  birth,  besides  a  number 
of  other  imaginary  and  scandalous  assertions." 

This  censure  was  confirmed  on  the  1st  of  October. 
The  Spanish  Cardinal  Aguirre,  although  a  friend  of 
Bossuet  who  fidly  approved  the  censure,  strove  to 
have  it  annulled,  and  expressed  his  opinion  that  the 
Sorbonne  could  easily  do  so,  as  their  judgment  was 
based  on  a  bad  translation.  Bossuet  denounced  it 
as  "an  impious  impertinence,  and  a  trick  of  the 
devil".  He  objected  to  its  title,  "The  Divine  Life", 
to  its  apocrj'phal  stories,  its  indecent  language,  and 
its  exaggerated  .Scotist  philo.sophy.  However,  al- 
though this  appreciation  is  found  in  Bossuet's  works 
("dCuvres",  Versailles,  1817,  XXX,  pp.  637-640,  and 
XL.  pp.  172  and  204-207).  it  is  of  questionable 
authenticity.  As  to  the  reproach  of  indecency,  her 
defenders  allege  that,  although  there  may  l)e  some 
crudities  of  expression  which  more  recent  times 
would  not  admit,  it  is  aljsurd  to  bring  such  an  ac- 
cusation against  one  whose  sanctity  is  genendly 
conceded.     New    investigations   of    the    book   were 


AGRIA 


230 


A6RIC0LA 


made  in  1729,  under  Benedict  XIII,  when  her 
canonization  was  again  urged.  On  16  January,  1748, 
Benedict  XIV,  in  a  letter  which  La  Fuente,  in  his 
"Historia  eclesidstica  de  Espana ",  finds  "suma- 
merUe  curiosa  ",  wrote  to  the  General  of  the  Observan- 
tines  instructing  him  as  to  tlie  investigation  of  the 
authenticity  of  the  WTitings,  while  conceding  that 
the  booli  had  received  the  approbation  of  the  Uni- 
versities of  Salamanca,  AlcalA,  Toulouse,  and  Lou- 
vain.  It  had  meantime  been  fiercely  assailed  by 
Eusebius  Amort,  a  canon  of  PoUingen,  in  1744,  in 
a  work  entitled  "De  revelationibus,  visionibus,  et 
apparitionibus  privatis,  regulee  tuts  ",  which,  though 
at  first  imperfectly  answered  by  Mathes,  a  Spaniard, 
and  by  Maier,  a  Bavarian,  to  both  of  whom  Amort 
replied,  was  subsequently  refuted  in  another  work 
by  Mathes,  who  showed  that  in  eighty  places  Amort 
had  not  understood  the  Spanish  text  of  Maria 
deAgreda.  With  Mathes,  in  this  exculpation,  was 
P.  Dalmatius  Kich,  who  published,  at  Ratisbon, 
1750,  his  "  RevelatioriKm  Agredanarum  jusla  defensio, 
cum  moderamine  incidpala;  tulelw".  Hergenrother, 
in  his  "Kirchengeschichte",  trad,  franc,  VI,  p.  416 
(V.  Palm6,  Paris,  1892),  informs  us  that  the  con- 
demnation of  the  book  by  the  Roman  Inquisition, 
in  1681,  was  thought  to  have  come  from  the  fact 
either  that,  in  its  publication,  the  Decree  of  Urban 
VIII,  of  14  March,  1625,  had  been  disregarded,  or 
because  it  contained  apocryphal  stories,  and  main- 
tained opinions  of  the  Scotist  school  as  Divine  re\-cla- 
tions.  Some  blamed  the  writer  for  having  said  that 
she  saw  the  earth  under  the  form  of  an  egg,  and  that 
it  was  a  globe  slightly  compressed  at  the  two  poles, 
all  of  which  seemed  worthy  of  censure.  Others 
condemned  her  for  exaggerating  the  devotion  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and  for  obscuring  the  mystery  of  the 
Incarnation.  The  Spaniards  were  surprised  at  the 
reception  the  book  met  with  in  France,  especially 
as  the  Spanish  Inquisition  had  given  it  fourteen 
years  of  study  before  pronouncing  in  its  favour. 
As  noted  above,  the  suspension  of  the  Decree  of 
Innocent  XI,  condemning  the  book,  was  made 
operative  only  in  Spain,  and  although  Charles  II 
asked  to  have  the  permission  to  read  it  extended  to 
the  whole  of  Christendom,  Alexander  VIII  not  only 
refused  the  petition,  but  confirmed  the  Brief  of  his 
predecessor.  The  King  made  the  same  request  to 
Innocent  XII,  who  did  nothing,  however,  except  to 
institute  a  commission  to  examine  the  reasons  alleged 
by  the  Court  of  Spain.  The  King  renewed  his  ap- 
peal more  urgently,  but  the  Pope  died  without 
having  given  any  decision. 

La  Fuente,  in  his  "Historia  eclesidstica  de  Es- 
pafia"  (V,  p.  493),  attributes  the  opposition  to  the 
impatience  of  the  Thomists  at  seeing  Scotist  doc- 
trines published  as  revelations,  as  if  to  settle  various 
Scholastic  controversies  in  tlie  name  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  in  the  sense  of  the  P'ranciscans,  to  whose 
order  Agreda  belonged.  Moreo\er,  it  was  alleged 
that  her  confessors  had  tampered  with  the  text,  and 
had  interpolated  many  of  the  apocryphal  stories 
w'hich  were  then  current,  but  her  most  bitter  enemies 
respected  her  virtues  and  holy  life,  and  were  far  from 
confounding  her  with  the  deluded  ilhiminalie  of  that 
period.  Her  works  had  Ijeen  put  on  the  Index,  but 
when  the  Franciscans  protested  they  were  accorded 
satisfaction  by  being  assured  that  it  was  a  trick  of 
the  printer  (supcrcheria) ,  as  no  condemnation  ap- 
I>eared  there. 

The  other  works  of  Maria  deAgreda  are:  1st,  her 
letters  to  Philip  IV  of  Spain  edited  by  Francisco  Sil- 
vola;  2d,  "  Leycs  do  la  Esposa  conceptos  y  suspires  del 
coraz6n  para  alcanzar  el  ultimo  y  vcrdadero  fin  del 
agrado  del  Espo.so  y  Sefior";  3d,  " Meditaciones  de 
la  pasi6n  de  nucstro  Sefior";  4th,  "Sus  exercicios 
quotidianos";  5tli,  "F.scala  Spiritual  para  subir  d 
la  perfecci6n  ".   The  "  Mlstica  ciudad  "  has  been  trans- 


lated into  several  languages;  and  there  are  several 
editions  of  the  correspondence  with  Philip  IV;  but 
the  other  writings  are  still  in  manuscript,  either  in 
the  convent  of  Agreda,  or  in  the  Franciscan  monas- 
tery of  Quaracchi  in  Italy. 

Sacra  Riluum  Conqregatio,  Examen  responsionis  ad  Censuram 
ohm  editam  super  libris  misticw  civitatis  Dei  (Rome,  1730); 
Synopsis  obserrationum  et  responsionum  super  libris  ven. 
abbatissoe  Marim  a  Jesu  de  Agreda  (Ilorae.  1737);  Super 
examine  operis  a  Maria  a  Jesu  de  Agreda  eonsrripti  (Rome, 
1747):  DoM  GuERANGER,  La  mystique  cite  de  Dieu,  Unirers 
(1858-59);  Preuss,  Die  romische  Lehre  von  der  unbefleckten 
Empfdngnis  (Berlin,  186.5),  102;  Ant.  Maria  de  VictNZA, 
Vita  del  Ven.  S.  Maria  d' Agreda  (Bologna,  1870);  Id.,  Delia 
mietica  cittii  di  Dio  ....  Allegazione  storieo-apologeliea 
(Bologna,  1873):  Reusch,  Der  Index  der  verbolenen  Biieher 
(Bonn,    1885).     II,     253;     Analccta     juris     ponlificii,     18fi2, 

f.  1550;  MoNTUcLA,  Hisloire  dea  mathematiques  (Paris,  1758), 
.  441 ;  Mtjrr,  Briefe  Tiber  die  Jesuiten,  24;  Baumgarten, 
Nachrichtcn  von  Merkwiirdigen  Biiehern,  II,  506,  and  IV, 
20S:  Vita  delta  Ven.  Madre  Maria  di  Gesu,  comp.  dal 
R.  P.  Samaniego,  O.S.F.  (Antwerp,  1712);  Van  den  Gheyn 
in  Did.  de  theol.  cath. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Agria  (Erlau,  Eger,  Jager),  an  archiepiseopal 
see  of  Hungary,  founded  in  1009,  and  made  an  arch- 
diocese in  1804,  by  Pius  VII.  It  has  633,804  Latin 
Catholics;  81,217  Greek  Catholics,  and  503,^07  partly 
Greek  Schismatics  and  partly  Protestants,  with  a 
sprinkling  of  Jews.  The  parishes  number  200,  and 
there  are  342  secular  clergy,  and  51  religious.  The 
vernacular  tongue  is  largely  Hungarian  and  German, 
but  Croat,  Sla^■onic,  and  Armenian  are  also  spoken. 
The  suffragan  dioceses  are  Kosice  (Kassa,  Kaschau), 
Rozsnyo  (Rosenau),  Szathmar,  and  Szepes  (Zipo, 
Zipsen). 

Battandier,  Ann.  pant.  cath.  (Paris,  1905),  240;  Werner 
Orbis  Terr.  Cath.  (Freiburg,  1890),  95. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Agricius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Trier  (Treves),  in  the 
fourth  century  (332  or  335).  A  local  ninth-century 
tradition  states  that  he  had  been  Patriarcii  of  An- 
tioch,  and  that  he  was  translated  to  the  See  of  Trier 
by  Pope  Silvester,  at  the  request  of  the  Empress 
Helena.  He  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Aries  in 
314,  and  signed  the  acts  immediately  after  the  pre- 
siding bishop  of  that  diocese,  thus  indicating  that  in 
the  fourth  century  Trier  laid  claim  to  the  primacy 
of  Gaul  and  Germany,  a  claim  which  his  successor, 
St.  Maximin,  made  good  by  signing  in  a  similar  way 
the  Decree  of  the  Council  of  Sardica  (343).  St.  .Athan- 
asius,  who  came  as  an  exile  to  Trier  in  335  or  336, 
speaks  of  the  large  numbers  of  faithful  whom  he 
found  there  and  the  number  of  churches  in  course  of 
erection.  The  famous  relics  of  Trier  (Holy  Coat, 
Nail  of  the  True  Cross,  the  body  of  St.  Matthias  the 
Apostle)  are  said  by  local  tradition  to  have  been 
brought  thither  by  Agricius.  The  schools  of  Trier 
became  famous  under  Agricius.  Lactantius  taught 
in  them,  and  St.  Maximin  and  St.  Paulinus,  later 
successors  to  the  See  of  Trier,  came  from  Aquitaine 
to  study  there.  Agricius  died  after  an  active  epis- 
copate of  twenty  years. 

Kraft,  in  Kirehenlex..  I,  352,  353;  Sauerland,  Trierer 
G.  Quellen  des  XI.  Jahrhunderts  (1889);  Acta  SS.,  Jan.  1; 
DlEL,  Die  heiligen  Maximinus  urtd  Paulinus,  Bischdfe  v. 
Trier  (1875). 

Francis  W.  Ghet. 

Agricola,  Alexander,  a  celebrated  composer  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  pupil  of  Okeghem,  was, 
accordmg  to  some,  of  Belgian  and,  acconling  to  other 
writers,  of  German,  origin.  Born  about  1446,  he  was 
educated  in  the  Netherlands  and  lived  there  some 
time.  Even  in  his  youth  he  was  a  fine  singer  and 
performer.  Up  to  1474  he  was  a  singer  in  the  ducal 
chapel,  at  Milan,  then  entered  tlie  .'service  of  the 
Duke  of  Mantua,  then  that  of  I'liilip,  Diike  of  Austria 
and  King  of  the  Netherl.mds.  fullowiiig  him  to  Castile, 
in  1505.  There  (at  Valhulolid)  he  died  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  at  the  age  of  sixty.  He  stood  in  high  esteem 
as  a  composer.     It  is  believed  that  a  large  number 


AGRICOLA 


231 


AORIPPA 


of  his  compositions  are  still  in  the  libraries  of  Spain, 
awaiting  a  publisher.  Of  those  published,  Petrucci 
(irinted  (1502-3)  thirty-one  songs  and  motets,  and 
a  volume  of  five  masses  bearing  the  titles:  "  Le 
Serviteur",  "  Je  ne  demande  ",  "Malheur  me  bat", 
"Primi    toni  ",  "Secundi   toni  ". 

RiEMANN,  Dirt,  of  Music;  GnovE,  Diet,  of  Afuaic  and  Afuai- 
cinns;  KonNMri.i.En,  Lex.  der  kirchl.  Tonkunat;  Naumann, 
Geachicht*f  der  Musik. 

J.  A.  VoLKEU. 

Agricola,  Geohg?;  (Bauku.  latinized  into  Aoui- 
cola),  physician,  mineralogist,  historian,  and  con- 
troversialist, b.  at  Glauchau,  in  Saxony,  24  Marcli, 
1  194;  d.  at  Chemnitz,  23  October,  "l5,55.  After 
a  wide  course  of  studies  in  philosophy,  pliilology, 
and  natural  sciences,  in  Germany  and  in  Italy,  he 
practised  medicine  for  some  years  at  Joachimsthul 
in  Bohemia.  In  1530,  or  1531,  he  went,  at  the  in- 
vitation of  the  Elector  Maurice  of  Saxony,  to  the 
mining  district  of  Chemnitz,  where  he  continued  his 
favourite  studies  in  geology  and  mineralogy,  and 
undertook  the  duties  of  a  Saxon  historiograplier,  a 
post  assigned  him  by  his  patron.  He  approved 
Luther's  first  proceedings.  The  moral  efTects  of  the 
Reformation,  however,  and  a  study  of  tlic  Fathers, 
had  the  effect  of  confirming  him  in  his  Catliolic  Faith, 
whiih.  to  the  day  of  his  deatli,  he  continued  to  de- 
fend boldly  and  strenuously,  even  in  the  midst  of 
I'luti'stant  surroundings,  lie  is  deservedly  styled 
tlie  Father  of  Mineralogy.  His  chief  work,  "De  Re 
Metallica",  gives  a  minute  description  of  various 
contemporary  metliods  of  mining,  smelting,  etc.,  and 
contains  a  number  of  curious  woodcuts.  It  was 
published  at  Basle,  in  1556,  the  year  after  his  death. 
Of  his  purely  historical  works,  the  "  Dominatores 
Saxonici"  (Freiberg,  1538)  may  be  mentioned;  the 
results  of  his  patristic  studies  were  embodied  in  an 
unprinted  treatise,  "  Dc  traditionibus  apostolicis ". 
.\  comiilete  collection  of  his  writings  was  published 
at  Basle,  from  1550  to  15.58,  and  again  in  1657;  his 
mineralogical  works,  in  German,  by  Lehmann,  in 
four  volumes,  at  Freiberg,   1806-13. 

UicHTER.l  ito  G.  .igriroliv  (."VnnaberB.  17SS);  Becher,  Die 
Minrratoiim  Agricola  und  Werner  (Freibcrf;,  1819);  Doi/- 
I.INOER.  Reform.,  I,  580  sqq.;  SrHLossER  in  Kirchenlcx.^  8.  v.; 
Jan«sen,  Ueach.  d.  deiUtchen    Votkes,  VII,  319-320. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Agricola,  RcDOLPH,  a  distinguished  humanist  of 
the  earlier  period,  and  a  zealous  promoter  of  tlie 
study  of  the  classics  in  Germany,  b.  m  1442,  or  1443, 
at  Bafflo,  near  Groningen,  Holland;  d.  at  Heidel- 
berg, 28  October,  1485.  His  family  name  was 
Huysmann.  He  be^an  his  study  of  the  higher 
branches  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  where  he 
studied  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  gaining  distinction 
by  the  purity  of  his  Latin  diction  and  his  skill  in 
disputation.  He  had  already  become  adept  in 
French,  and,  after  taking  his  degree  as  Master  of 
Arts,  ho  went  to  Paris.  Here  lie  continued  his 
classical  work  witli  Hcynlin  von  Stein,  and  formed 
a  close  friendship  with  John  Reuchlin.  Early  in  the 
seventies  he  went  to  Italy,  where  ho  associated  him- 
self witli  the  humanists,  chicHy  in  Rome  and  Ferrara. 
Devoted  to  the  study  of  the  ancients,  he  won  renown 
for  the  elegance  of  his  Latin  style  and  his  knowledge 
of  philosophy.  He  delivered  a  pancgj'ric  on  tlic 
subject  of  philosophy  in  tho  presence  of  Hercules 
d'Estc,  the  .Ma-cenas  of  humanists.  After  a  sojourn 
of  seven  years  in  Italy,  .\gricola,  returning  to  Ger- 
many, got  into  close  touch  with  his  numerous  friends, 
personally  and  by  letter,  and  rou.scd  tlicir  enthusiasm 
tor  the  promotion  of  classical  learning.  His  love  of 
independence,  however,  prevented  Agricola  from  ac- 
cepting any  definite  position.  In  1481  he  spent  six 
months  in  Brussels,  at  the  court  of  the  Archduke, 
later  Emperor  Maximilian  I,  tran.sacting  business  for 
the  city  of  Groningen.  Resisting  all  the  efforts  of  his 
friends  to  keep  him  at  court,  lie  accepted  the  in- 


vitation of  John  of  Dalberg,  Bishop  of  Worms,  to 
go  to  the  University  of  Heidelljerg,  where  he  began 
to  deliver  lectures  in  1482.  He  was  admitted  into 
the  closest  friendship  of  Dalberg,  the  generous  Ijene- 
factor  of  learning.  He  now  began  the  study  of 
Hebrew,  and  publi.shed  an  original  translation  of 
the  Psalms.  His  fruitful  activity  in  Heidelberg  was, 
unfortunately,  of  short  duration,  being  brought  to 
a  sudden  clo.se  by  his  journey  to  Rome  (1485), 
whither  he  accompanied  John  of  Dalberg,  who  was 
sent  as  an  ambassador  to  Innocent  VIII.  Shortly 
after  liis  return,  Agricola  was  stricken  with  a  fatal 
illness,  and  died  at  Heidelberg.  To  Agricola  belongs 
the  palm  as  pioneer  of  classical  learning  in  Germany. 
His  importance  cannot  be  estimated  by  the  works 
which  he  wrote;  he  must  be  classed  with  those  who 
accomplished  more  by  their  pensonal  influence,  and 
the  powerful  stimulus  they  gave  to  their  contem- 
poraries than  by  their  own  literary  achievements. 
Thus  we  gather  the  full  significance  of  Agricola's 
work  from  the  testimony  of  his  contemporaries,  who 
bestow  upon  him  the  iiighest  praise.  "It  is  from 
my  teacher,  .Vgricola,"  says  the  distinguished  master, 
Alexander  Ilcgius,  "that  I  have  learned  all  that  I 
know,  or  that  pco|>lo  think  I  know."  Notwitlistand- 
ing  tlio  impulse  Agricola's  zeal  gave  to  classical 
learning,  he  did  not  neglect  his  mother  tongue.  At 
the  same  time  he  was  of  a  deeply  religious  disposition, 
and  possessed  of  lively  faith.  His  reputation  was 
stainless.  During  the  last  years  of  his  life,  lie  took 
up  the  study  of  theology.  His  discourse  "De  Na- 
tivitate  Christi  "  breathes  a  spirit  of  deep  piety. 
The  most  important  of  his  pedagogical  writings  is 
the  treatise  "  De  studio  formando  ",  which  he  sent  to 
his  friend  Barbarianus;  chief  among  his  philosophical 
works  is  "  De  Invcntione  Dialectic^."  A  collective 
edition  of  his  works  (Letters,  Treatises,  Translations, 
Poems,  and  Discourses)  appeared  in  two  quarto 
volumes  (Cologne,  1539),  under  the  title  "Rudolphi 
Agrieolae  Lucubrationes  aliquot  lectu  dignissinuc  in 
hunc  usque  diem  nusquam  prius  cdita",  per  Alardum 
Amsteloaamum. " 

Mk.lanchthon.  Oratio  m  Rud.  Aoricotam,  in  Corpus  rrfor- 
mator.,  XI.  col.  438-446;  ScHcEPPEHLIN.  Diagertatio  de  Rwi. 
Affricota  Friaii  in  elegantiorea  titleras  promeritin  (Jena,  1753); 
Epermann,  Distiert.  de  Rud.  Agricola  litterarum  ptr  Gcr- 
maninm  inatauratore,  inter  Grtrcoa  graciaaimo,  inter  Latinoa 
Uitiniaaimo  (Upsala,  1702);  Trebling,  Vita  (t  merita  Rud. 
Agricola  (GroninRCn,  1830);  Bossert,  De  Rud.  AgriroM  Fri- 
aio,  litterarum  in  Germaniii  rcalilulore  (Paris.  1805);  Meiners, 
Lehenabeachreibungen  beriihmter  Manner  aua  der  Zril  der  Wieder- 
heratellung  der  W  iaaenachaften  (2  vols,  Zurich,  1 7B6).  332-363; 
Geioer,  Art.  Agricola  Rud.  in  Atlgemeine  deutache  Biographic 
(I.eipjig.  1875),  I,  151  s<iq.;  F.  v.  Bezoi.d,  Rudolf  Agricola, 
ein  deutacher  Vertreter  der  ilalieniachen  Renaiaannee:  Featrede 
(Mnnicli,  1884);  Ihm.  Der  Humanist  R.  Agricola,  aein  Lrben 
und  seine  Schriften,  in  Sammtung  der  bedeutendaten  pddagog- 
iarhen  .Schriftrn  (I'a<lerborn,  1893);  .Ianssen,  Orachicbte  det 
deulschen  Votkes  (0th  crl.),  I,  56-58;  EnilAHn,  Geachirhle  des 
Wiedernufblahena  uiaaenschafll.  Bildung,  1.  374-415;  Hitter, 
Giachichte  der  Philosophic.  IX.  201-207;  Uavmer.  Gesch.  der 
Pilditgogik  vom  Wicderaufbluhen  klassiacher  t^tudicn  bia  auf 
unsere  Xeit,  2.1  p.l.  (Stuttftart.  1846),  I,  79-87;  Geiger,  lluman- 
iamua  und  Rmaiaaance  in  Italicn  und  Deutachland,  in  Oncken- 
ache  Sammlung  (Berlin,  1882). 

J.  P.  KlUSCH. 

Agriculture,  Medieval.    See  Monasticisii. 

A^^ppa  of  Nettestaeim,  Heinricii  Couxeltu.s, 
b.  14  September,  14S0,  at  Cologne;  li.  at  Grenoble  or 
J,yoiis  in  1534  or  1,")35.  One  of  the  remarkable  men 
of  the  Renaissance  period.  Described  as  "knight, 
doctor,  and  by  common  reputation,  a  magician", 
Agrippa  earneil  and  rep.aid  the  bitter  enmity  of  his 
more  con.servative  contemporaries.  We  find  liim  a 
student  at  Cologne  and  Paris  (1500).  in  Spain  (1507- 
08),  a  teaciier  of  Hebrew  at  Dole  (1509),  a  teacher 
in  England  (1510),  about  which  time  he  finished  his 
work  "  De  occulta  philosophia "  (.\ntweqi,  1,531),  a 
mixture  of  Neoplatonism  anil  the  Cal)l)ala.  He  spent 
some  time  in  Italy  in  the  military'  .service  of  the 
I'.mpemr  Maximili.an,  who  rewarded  his  bravery  by 
making  him  a  RUleT  or   knight.      He  soon   turned 


AGRIPPINUS 


232 


AHICAM 


liowever,  to  other  pursuits,  studied  medicine,  Hebrew, 
alchemy,  theology,  and  finally  devoted  himself  to 
"Cabalism"  under  the  influence  of  Reuchlin  (q.  v.) 
and  Raymund  Lully  (q.  v.).  He  lived  and  taught 
in  various  places,  making  friends  or  enemies  wherever 
he  went,  but  was  apparently  not  very  successful  fi- 
nancially, as  he  was  banished  from  Cologne  for  debt, 
and  spent  his  last  days  in  poverty,  a  tj-pical  example 
of  the  irregular,  vicissitudinous  life  led  by  liis  kind 
at  that  time.  His  numerous  works,  chiefly  philo- 
sophical, liave  a  strong  bias  towards  "occultism", 
and  run  counter  to  the  received  opinions  of  his  time 
in  tlieologj'  and  scholastic  philosophy.  He  lived  and 
died  nominally  a  Catholic,  but  was  openly  in  sym- 
pathy with  Luther,  wliose  tone  towards  the  Church 
and  her  institutions  he  adopted,  wliile  professing 
that  lie  was  merely  attacking  abuses,  not  the  Church, 
an  attitude  frequently  assumed  at  that  period. 

His  famous  work  "De  incertitudine  et  vanitate 
scientiarum",  published  in  1527,  has  been  trans- 
lated into  many  European  vernaculars  and  is  well 
described  as  "a  compountl  of  erudition  and  ignor- 
ance, gravity  and  vanity".  It  aboimds  in  denun- 
ciations of  scholasticism,  veneration  of  relics  and 
saints,  the  canon  law  and  the  hierarchy,  and  calls 
for  a  return  to  the  Scriptures  as  the  philosopher's 
stone  (Lydius  fapw)  of  Christian  teaching.  For  the 
rest  he  is  no  follower  of  Luther  or  his  companions. 
They  interest  him  as  the  first  who  stood  out  with 
success  against  Catholic  orthodoxy.  Giordano  Bruno 
(q.  V.)  made  use  of  his  writings,  and  their  influence 
was  long  powerful.  Among  liis  minor  writings  are 
the  often  quoted  booklet  "  De  nobilitate  et  prascel- 
lentiil  feminei  sexus  declamatio ",  dedicated  to 
Margaret  of  Austria,  "  Libellus  de  sacramento  matri- 
monii", a  commentary  on  the  "  Ats  Brevis ",  of 
Raymund  Lully,  etc.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  at  Lyons  in  1600. 

Stockl,  in  Kirchenlei.,  I,  364-366;  Morley,  Lije  of 
Cornelius  Agrippa  (London,  1856);  Frost,  Cornelius  Agrippa: 
sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres  (Paris,  1881). 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Agrippinus,  Bishop  of  Carthage  at  the  close  of 
the  second  and  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
During  his  episcopacy  the  question  arose  in  the 
African  Church  as  to  what  should  be  done  with  re- 
gard to  converts  from  schism  or  heresy.  If  they 
had  previously  been  Catholics,  ecclesiastical  discipline 
held  them  subject  to  penance.  But  if  it  were  a  ques- 
tion of  receiving  those  who  had  been  baptized  out- 
side the  Church,  was  their  baptism  to  be  regarded 
as  valid  ?  Agrippinus  convoked  the  bishops  of 
Numidia  and  .Africa  for  the  First  Council  of  Africa 
(probably  21.5-217);  which  resolved  the  question 
negatively.  He  consequently  decided  that  such 
persons  should  be  baptized,  not  conditionally  but 
absolutely.  Heretics,  it  was  argued,  have  not  the 
true  faith;  they  cannot  absolve  from  sin;  the  water 
in  their  baptism  cannot  cleanse  from  sin.  These 
reasons  seemed  to  him  to  warrant  the  conclusion 
arrived  at,  but  it  was  not  the  Roman  usage.  The 
point,  however,  had  not  yet  been  raised  and  definitely 
settled.  But  as.suming  their  good  faith,  Agrippinus 
and  the  others  were  not  excluded  from  the  unity  of 
the  Church.  Half  a  century  later,  St.  Cyprian 
speaks  of  the  continuovis  good  repute  of  Agrippinus 
{l>o?uE  memorite  vir);  and  St.  Augustine  in  writing 
agairist  the  Donatists  defends  Agrippinus  and 
Cyprian  by  showing  that,  although  they  were  mis- 
taken, they  had  not  broken  the  unity  of  the  Church. 

Babkillk  in  Did.  de  thiol  cnth.,  I,  637.  638;  Bknson  in 
Dtct.  Chntt.  Dwg.,  I,  65;  Hefei,k,  Concilicngcsch.,  2d  ed.,  I, 
104—125. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Aguas  Oalientes  (Lat.  Aqv.k  Cai.id/f,),  thk  Dio- 
(KSE  OK.  :i  Mexican  see  dependent  on  Ciuadalaxara; 
erected  by  Leo    XIIl,    Decree    "Apostolica;    Sedis", 


27  Aug.,  1899,  by  detaching  it  from  Guadalaxara. 
It  comprises  the  province  of  Aguas  Calientes.  The 
first  bishop  was  Jos6  Maria  Portugal,  a  Friar  Minor, 
b.  in  Mexico,  24  Jan,,  1838;  made  Bishop  of  Sinaloa, 
25  Oct.,  1888;  transferred  to  Saltillo,  28  Nov.,  1898, 
and  to  the  Diocese  of  ,\guas  Calientes,  9  June,  1902. 
Aguas  Cahentes  is  an  inland  State  of  Mexico  with  an 
area  of  2,950  square  miles.  Its  capital,  .A,guas 
Calientes,  300  miles  north-east  of  the  city  of  Mexico, 
is  on  a  plateau  6,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Popula- 
tion 30,000   (1895). 

Battandier,  Ann.  pont.  cath.  (1906). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 
Aguesseau,  Henri  Francois  d'.      See  Dagdes- 

SEAU. 

Aguirre,  Joseph  Saenz  de.  Cardinal,  a  learned 
Spanish  Benedictine;  b.  at  Logrofio,  in  Old  Castile, 
24  March,  1630;  d.  19  August,  1699.  He  entered 
the  congregation  of  Monte  Cassino.  He  directed 
the  studies  in  tlie  Monastery  of  St.  Vincent  of  Sala- 
manca for  fifteen  years,  and  became  its  abbot.  He 
then  profes.sed  dogmatic  theology  and  inaugiirated 
the  course  in  Holy  Scripture  at  the  Uni\ersity  of 
Salamanca.  He  was  councillor  and  secretary  of  the 
Holy  Office  and  president  of  its  congregation  of  the 
province  of  Spain.  His  work  against  the  Declaration 
of  the  Galilean  Clergy  of  1682  won  him  a  cardinal's 
hat  and  the  warm  eulogj'  of  Innocent  XI.  His 
correspondence  with  Bossuet  shows  how  vigorously 
he  combated  (Juietism.  His  excessive  labours  under- 
mined his  health,  and  for  many  years  he  suffered 
from  epileptic  attacks.  He  died  suddenly  from  a 
stroke  of  apoplexy.  He  was  buried  in  the  Spanish 
Church  of  St.  James  in  Rome,  and  his  heart  was 
deposited  in  Monte  Cassino,  as  he  had  requested. 

His  more  important  works  are  on  philosophical 
and  theological  subjects,  but  he  also  produced  valu- 
able writings  on  ecclesiastical  history,  commentaries 
on  the  theology  of  St.  Anselm,  two  volumes  of 
miscellanea,  and  a  book  to  prove  that  the  "De 
Imitatione  Christi"  was  by  tiae  Benedictine,  John 
Gersen. 

His  principal  works  on  philosophy  are:  (1)  "  Philo- 
sophia  Nova-antiqua "  etc.,  a  defence  of  Aristotle 
and  St.  Thomas  against  their  opponents  (Salamanca, 
1671-2-5,  3  in  fol.);  (2)  "  Philosophia  Morum"  etc. 
(Salamanca,  1677;  Rome,  1698),  a  commentary 
in  four  volumes  on  Aristotle's  Ethics;  (3)  "De 
virtutibus  et  vitiis  disputationes  ethicae  in  quibus 
disseritur  quicquid  spectat  ad  philosophiam  mo- 
ralem  ab  .\ristotele  traditam"  (Salamanca,  1677; 
2d  ed.  enlarged,  Rome,  1697;  3d.  ed.  Rome,  1717). 
His  principal  theological  works  are  (1)  a  treatise  on 
the  Angels,  especially  the  Guardian  Angels,  which  he 
prepareil  as  his  thesis  for  the  degree  of  Doctor.  (2) 
"S.  Anselnii  .  .  .  Theologia,  commentariis  et  dis- 
putationibus  tum  dogmaticis  turn  scholasticis  illus- 
trata"  (Salamanca,  1678-81,  2d  ed.  Rome,  1688-90). 
The  third  volume,  "De  nature  hominis  puni  et 
lapsii  ",  is  especially  directed  against  Jansenist  errors. 
(3)  "Auctoritas  infallibilis  et  summa  Cathedra; 
Sancti  Petri",  etc.  (Salamanca,  1683),  a  learned 
refutation  of  the  four  articles  of  the  Declaration  of 
the  Galilean  Clergy  of  France  in  1682.  (4)  "  CoUectio 
maxima  conciliorum  omnium  Hispania;  et  novi 
orbis"  .  .  .  etc.    (Salamanca,    1686). 

Bayle,  CoUectio  maHma  Cunriliorum  (2d  ed.,  Rome.  1753), 

I,  1-32;  Ddpin.  Bibl.  des  auleurs  ecclesiast.  (Paris,  1719),  XXI, 

273-276;    Stanonick   in   Kirchenlei.   (FreiburK  im  Breisgau, 

1882),  I,   366-67;    Manoenot   in    Diet,  de   thiol,  cath.,  s.  v. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Ahasuenis.    See  .^ssuerus. 

Ahicam  (DD'riN:  "My  brother  has  risen"),  a 
higli  court  official  under  Josias  and  his  two  sons, 
wlio  protected  Jcrcmijis  from  the  fury  of  the  popu- 
lace. He  w:is  the  .son  of  Saphan,  "the  scribe",  and 
father  of   Godolias,   later  governor  of   the   country 


233 


AIGUILLON 


under  Nabuchodonosor  (see  IV  Kings,  xxii,  12;  Jer., 
xxvi,  24;  xl,  5).  F.  Bechtel. 

Ahriman  and  Ormuzd  (more  correctly  OuMrzo 
AM)  AiiKiMAN),  the  modern  Persian  forms  of  Anro 
Mainyus  and  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Kvil  Spirit  and  the 
Good  Spirit,  respectively,  of  tlie  Avestic  or  Zoroas- 
trian  religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians  and  modern 
i'arsce.s.     (See  Avesta.)  L.  C.  Casartelli. 

Aiblinger,  Joiiann  Caspar,  composer,  b.  23  Feb- 
ruary, 1779.  at  Wasserburg,  Bavaria;  d.  at  Munich, 
6  May,  1867.  In  his  eleventh  year  he  commenced 
his  studies  at  Tegernsee  Abbey,  wliere  he  was  in- 
structed in  piano,  and  orgun-jilaying.  Four  years 
later  he  entered  the  g)-mna.siuni  at  Munich,  where 
he  studied  under  Professor  Schlett,  his  countryman. 
Thence  he  went  (in  18(X))  to  the  l"niver.<ity  of  Lands- 
hut.  Inwardly  drawn  to  the  Church,  he  completed 
his  philosophy  and  began  theology,  but  the  seculari- 
zation of  many  religious  orders  in  Bavaria  preventetl 
his  entrance  into  a  cloister.  He  now  devoted  him- 
self solely  to  music.  Led  by  the  then  prevailing 
iilea  that  without  a  visit  to  Italy  no  musical  edu- 
cation is  complete,  he  turned  his  footsteps  south- 
ward. After  a  stay  of  eight  years  at  Vicenza,  where 
he  fell  under  the  influence  of  his  countryman  Simon 
Mayr,  .\iblinger  (1811)  went  to  Venice  and  there 
met  Meyerbeer,  who  procured  for  him  an  ajipoint- 
ment  at  the  Conservatoi-y.  His  failure  to  establish 
a  school  for  classical  music  led  him  to  Milan  to 
assume  the  direction  of  the  local  ballet.  On  his 
return  to  Bavaria  King  Max  I  invited  him  to  JIunich 
to  direct  the  Italian  opera.  King  Ludwig  appointed 
him  director  of  the  royal  orchestra,  and  sent  him  to 
Italy  to  collect  ohl  Italian  masterpieces.  On  his 
return  he  became  the  organist  of  the  church  of  All 
Saints,  for  which  he  wrote  many  valuable  composi- 
tions. In  18G4  he  resigned,  on  account  of  advancing 
years.  Between  1820  and  1830  he  tried  operatic  com- 
position, but  was  unsuccessful.  .\  crusatle  against 
Italian  mu.sic,  which  led  to  the  revival  of  Gluck's 
"Iphigeneia  in  Tauris",  followed.  Then  he  took  up 
church  music,  studying  the  old  ma.stcrs  and  procur- 
ing perform.ances  of  their  works.  lie  also  wrote  much 
church  music,  which  is  generally  fidl  of  simple 
dignity  and  great  purity,  with  a  certain  degree  of 
freedom,  but  it  is  stiff,  drj',  and  weakly  sentimental. 
His  instrumentation  is  not  strong.  He  was,  however, 
inspired  with  the  spirit  of  tlie  Church.  Of  his 
numerous  compositions,  comprising  masses  and 
rei)uiems,  offertories  and  graduals,  psalms,  litanies, 
anil  (ierman  hymns,  many  have  been  published  at 
Augsburg,  .Munich,  Ratisbon,  and  Mainz.  His 
choicest  works,  consisting  of  masses,  vespers,  motets, 
etc.  (133  in  number),  are  preserved  in  the  archives 
of  the  royal  court  chapel  in  Munich. 

KoRN.\iC'LLEB,  Lfx.  der  kirchl.  Tankuntt;  Grove,  Diet,  of 
Music  and  Musicians, 

J.  A.  VOLKER. 

Aichinger,  Gregor,  organist  and  composer  of 
sacred  music,  b.  probably  at  Ratisbon  in  1.565;  d.  at 
Augsburg,  21  Januarj',  1628.  He  waa  a  priest  at 
least  towards  the  end"  of  his  life.  As  early  as  1.590 
he  was  the  organist  to  the  patrician  Jacob  Fuggcr 
at  .\ugsburg.  He  paid  a  visit  to  Rome  in  1.599. 
His  musical  development  was  largely  influenced  by 
the  Venetian  school,  and  especially  by  Gabrieli.  In 
1(301,  or  thereabouts,  he  returned  to  Augsburg  and 
re-entered  the  service  of  the  Fuggers.  Of  his  numer- 
ous compositions  we  mention  "Liturgica.  sive  Sacra 
OfTicia  ad  omnes  dies  festos  Magna^  Dei  Matris'' 
(Augsburg,  1603);  "Sacnc  Cantiones",  for  four,  five, 
six,  eight,  and  ten  voices  (Venice,  1.590);  "Tricinia 
Mariana"  (Innsbnick,  1.598);  "Fasciculus  Sacr. 
Harmonianun'  (I)illingen,  KiOG).  The  full  list  is 
found  in  ICitner's  "(iuellen-Lexikon."  Proskc  thus 
characterizes  Aichinger  and  his  fellow-worker  Hass- 


ler  in  tlie  Fugger  choir:  "Though  Hasslcr  excelled 
in  intellect  aiul  originality,  both  masters  had  this  in 
common  that  they  combined  the  solid  features  of 
German  art  with  tlie  refined  forms  of  Italian  genius, 
which  flourished  at  that  time  especially  in  Rome  and 
Venice,  and  had  stamped  their  works  with  freer 
melody  and  more  fluent  harmony.  Aichinger  in 
particular  distinguishes  liimself  by  a  warmth  and 
tenderness  of  feeling  bcjrdering  on  mellowness,  which 
is  everywhere  imbued  with  deep  devotion.  Mean- 
while he  does  not  lack  sublimity  nor  solenmity, 
indeed  some  of  his  longest  compositions  satisfy 
throughout  the  strictest  demands  of  art." 

Kon.sMCLLER.    Lex.    der    kirchl.    Tonkunst;    Grove.    Did. 
of  Music  and   Musicians;  Nacmann,   Geschichte  der    Musik. 
J.  A.  VoLKEK. 

Aidan  of  Lindisfame,  Saint,  an  Irish  monk 
who  had  stmlied  under  St.  Senan,  at  Iniscathay 
(Scattery  Islaml).  He  is  placed  as  Bishop  of  Clogher 
by  Ware  anil  Lynch,  but  he  resigned  tliat  see  and 
became  a  monk  at  lona  about  630.  His  virtues, 
however,  shone  so  resplendently  that  he  was  se- 
lected ((j3.5)  as  first  Bishop  of  Lindisfame,  and  in 
time  became  apostle  of  Northumbria.  St.  Bede  is 
lavish  in  praise  of  the  episcopal  rule  of  St.  Aidan, 
and  of  his  Irish  co-workers  in  the  ministn,'.  Oswald, 
King  of  Northumbria,  who  had  studied  in  Ireland, 
was  a  firm  friend  of  St.  Aidan,  and  did  all  he  could 
for  the  Iri.sh  missioners  until  his  sad  death  at  Maser- 
fiekl  near  Oswestry,  5  .-Vugust,  642.  St.  Aidan  died 
at  Bamborough  on  the  last  day  of  August,  6,51,  and 
his  remains  were  borne  to  Lindisfame.  Bede  tells 
us  that  "  he  was  a  pontiff  inspired  with  a  passionate 
love  of  virtue,  but  at  tlie  same  time  full  of  a  surpass- 
ing mildness  and  gentleness".  His  feast  is  cele- 
brated 31  August. 

W.  H.  Grattan  Flood. 

Aignan  of  Vienne,  S.unt.     See  Vienne. 

Aiguille,  Raymond  d'.     See  Agiles. 

Aiguillon,  Diciiess  of,  Marie  de  Vignerot  de 
Pontcourlay,  Marquise  of  Combalet  and  Duchesse 
d'.Viguillon,  niece  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  b.  1604; 
d.  at  Paris,  1675.  First  promised  to  Comte  de 
Bethune,  son  of  SuUv,  she  married  .\ntoinc  de 
Roure.  Marquis  of  Combalet,  in  1620,  who  was  killed 
two  years  later  at  the  siege  of  Montpellier.  A  child- 
less widow,  she  entered  the  Carmelite  convent  in 
Paris,  fully  determined  to  end  her  days  there;  but 
after  Richelieu  became  premier  of  Louis  XllI  she 
had  to  follow  him,  and  was  appointed  lady  of  the 
bed-chamber  to  Marie  de  Mcdicis.  Obliged  to  do 
the  honours  of  the  Cardinal's  palace,  she  took  into 
her  hands  the  distribution  "of  his  liberality  and  of 
his  alms",  to  use  Flcchier's  expressions.  Convinced 
of  the  vanity  of  worldly  honours,  she  only  busied 
herself  in  distributing  riches  without  seeking  any 
enjoyment  from  wealth.  She  well  deserved,  by  her 
virtues  and  piety,  the  title  of  "great  Christian"  and 
"heroic  woman",  which  her  panegjTists  give  to  her. 
Charity  was  her  dominant  virtue.  She  had  part  in  all 
the  beneficence  of  her  times.  She  founded,  emlowed, 
or  enriched  especiallj'  the  establishments  of  foreign 
missions  in  Paris  and  in  Rome;  the  church  and 
.seminary  of  Saint  Sulpice;  the  hospitals  of  Marseilles 
and  of  .Vlgiers;  the  convent  of  the  Carmelites;  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  all  the  religious 
houses  of  Paris.  She  gave  fifty  thou.sand  francs  for 
the  foundation  of  a  general  hospital  in  Paris,  which 
she  first  established  at  La  Salpetrii^re.  Patron  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  she  was  the  .soul  of  charitable 
a.ssemblies,  of  evangelical  missions,  and  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  institutions  created  bv  that  saint. 
She  gave  him  the  funds  needed  to  found  the  College 
des  Bon.s-Enfants.  Her  charity  extended  to  the 
missions  of  China  and  she  defraved  the  expenses  of 
sending  the  first  bishops  there.     But  it  was  above  all 


AIKENHEAD 


234 


AILERAN 


the  colony  of  Canada  whicli  received  a  large  share  of 
tier  benefits.  She  especially  recommended  this  work 
to  lier  uncle,  and  Riclielieu  sent  some  Jesuits  there. 
Tlie  Hotel-Dieu  at  Queljee  was  erected  at  her  ex- 
pense, and  she  put  the  Keligieuses  Hospitalicres  of 
Dieppe  in  charge  of  it,  after  providing  for  it  an  annual 
income  of  tliree  tliousand  francs.  Masses  are  still 
said  there  daily  for  tlie  intention  of  herself  and  of 
Richeheu,  and  an  inscription  composed  by  her  is 
over  the  principal  entrance.  It  was  under  her 
exalted  patronage  that  the  first  UrsuUnes  were  sent 
there.  Witli  Olier,  she  conceived  the  plan  of  found- 
ing the  Colony  of  Montreal  and  got  tlie  Pope  to 
approve  of  tlie  society  wliich  was  formed  for  this 
purpose.  Finally  she  had  the  creation  of  the  bish- 
opric of  Queliec  brought  before  tlie  General  Assembly 
of  the  French  clergy,  and  obtained  from  Mazarin  a 
pension  of  1  ,L'00  crowns  for  its  support. 

This  woman  of  great  mind  was  sought  in  marriage 
by  princes  of  the  royal  blood,  but  she  preferred  re- 
maining a  widow  the  better  to  pursue  her  good 
works.  When  she  was  created  Duchesse  d'Aiguillon 
she  gave  twenty-two  thousand  livres  to  found  a  mis- 
sion for  instructing  tlie  poor  of  the  duchy.  She  was 
equally  the  enliglitened  patroness  of  the  writers  of 
her  time.  Voiture,  Scudery,  Moliere,  Scarron,  and 
Corneille  were  recipients  of  her  favours.  The  last 
named  dedicated  to  her  "  Le  Cid  ". 

After  the  deatli  of  Richelieu,  who  made  her  his 
principal  heir,  she  retired  to  the  Petit-Luxembourg, 
published  her  uncle's  works  and  continued  her  gen- 
erous benefactions  to  all  kinds  of  charities.  She 
carried  out  tlie  Cardinal's  last  request  by  having  the 
church  and  tlie  college  of  the  Sorbonne  completed, 
as  well  as  the  Hotel  Richelieu,  which  has  since  been 
converted  into  tlie  Bibliotheque  Nationale.  The 
great  Fl^chier  was  charged  with  pronouncing  lier 
funeral  oration,  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  eloquence  of  French  pulpit  oratory. 

BoNNEAU-.\vENANT.  La  duchesse  d'Aiguillon,  niece  du 
cardil^l  de  Richelieu,  sa  vie  et  ses  auvres  charitnhles  (Paris, 
1879);  Revue  Canadienne,  nouvelle  s^rie,  II,  735;    III,  27. 

J.  Edmond  Roy. 

Aikenhead,  M.miy,  foundress  of  the  Irish  Sisters 
of  Charity,  b.  in  Cork,  19  January,  1787;  d.  in  Dublin, 
22  July,  18,58;  daughter  of  David  Aikenhead,  a 
physician,  member  of  the  Established  Cliurch,  and 
Mary  Stacpole,  a 
Catholic.  She 
was  brought  up 
in  the  Church  of 
England,  but 
became  a  Catholic 
6  June,  1802,  some 
time  after  the 
ileatli  of  her  father 
who  had  been  re- 
ceived into  the 
Church  on  his 
death-bed.  Ac- 
customed as  she 
was  to  an  active 
life  of  charity,  and 
feeling  called  to 
the  religious  life, 
she  looked  in  vain 
for  an  order  de- 
vofeil  to  outside 
charitable  work. 
Against  her  will  she  was  chosen  by  Al-chbishop 
Murray,  Coadjutor  of  Dublin,  to  carry  out  his 
plan  of  founding  a  congregation  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  in  Irel.and,  and  in  preparation  for  it  made  a 
novitiate  of  three  years  (1812-1.5)  in  tlie  Convent  of 
the  Institute  of  the  Ulcsscd  Virgin  at  Mieklegate  Bar, 
York,  the  rule  of  wliich  corresponded  most  nearly  to 
the  ideas  of  the  .\rclibisliop.     She  tliere  assumed  tlie 


name  she  kept  till  death.  Sister  Mary  Augustine, 
though  always  known  to  the  world  as  Mrs.  -Aiken- 
head. On  1  September,  1815,  the  first  members  of 
the  new  Order  took  their  vows.  Sister  Mary  Au- 
gustine being  appointed  Superior-General.  The  fol- 
lowing sixteen  years  were  filled  with  the  arduous 
work  of  organizing  the  community  and  extending  its 
sphere  of  labour  to  everj'  phase  of  charity,  cliiefly 
hospital  and  rescue  work.  In  1831  overexertion 
and  disease  shattered  Mrs.  Aikenhead's  health,  leav- 
ing her  an  invalid.  Her  activity  was  unceasing, 
however,  and  she  directed  her  sisters  in  their  heroic 
work  during  the  plague  of  1832,  placed  them  in 
charge  of  new  institutions,  and  sent  them  on  mis- 
sions to  France  and  Australia.  After  a  long  period 
of  trial  and  suffering  she  passed  away  in  her  sexenty- 
second  year,  having  left  her  Order  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  in  charge  of  ten  institutions,  besides  in- 
numerable missions  and  branches  of  charitable  work. 
S.  A.  Mary  Aikenhead:  her  Life,  her  Work,  and  her  Frie-nds 
(Dublin,  1882);  Stephen  in  Did.  of  Nat.  Biog. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Ailbe,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Emly  in  Munster  (Ire- 
land); d.  about  527,  or  541.  It  is  verj'  difficult  to 
sift  out  tlie  germs  of  truth  from  among  the  mass 
of  legends  which  have  gathered  round  the  life  of  this 
Irish  saint.  Beyond  the  fact,  which  is  itself  dis- 
puted, that  he  was  a  disciple  of  St.  Patrick  and  was 
probably  ordained  priest  by  him,  we  know  really 
nothing  of  the  history  of  St.  Ailbe.  Legend  says 
that  in  his  infancy  he  was  left  in  the  forest  to  be 
devoured  by  the  wolves,  but  that  a  she-wolf  took 
compassion  upon  him  and  suckled  him.  Long  after- 
wards, when  Ailbe  was  bishop,  an  old  slie-wolf, 
pursued  by  a  hunting  party,  fled  to  the  Bishop  and 
laid  her  head  upon  his  breast.  Ailbe  protected  his 
old  foster-mother,  and  every  day  thereafter  she  and 
her  little  ones  came  to  take  their  food  in  his  hall. 
The  Acts  of  St.  Ailbe  are  quite  untrustworthy;  they 
represent  Ailbe  as  preaching  in  Ireland  before 
St.  Patrick,  but  this  is  directly  contradicted  by 
St.  Patrick's  biographer,  Tirechan.  Probably  the 
most  authentic  information  we  possess  about  Ailbe 
is  that  contained  in  Cuimmon's  eulogium:  "Ailbe 
loved  hospitality.  The  devotion  was  not  untruth- 
ful. Never  entered  a  body  of  clay  one  that  was 
better  as  to  food  and  raiment."  His  feast,  which 
is  12  September,  is  kept  throughout  Ireland  as  a 
greater  double. 

The  AcU  of  St.  Ailbe  may  be  found  in  the  Codex  Salmanti- 
censis,  edited  in  1588  by  the  BoUandists  under  the  title  of 
Acta  Sanctorum  Hibernian,  at  the  charges  of  the  Marquis  of 
Bute  (cf.  SuvsKEN,  in  Acta  SS.,  Sept.,  IV,  2(5-33);  Heai.t. 
Irish  Schools  and  Scholars;  Lanigan,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ire- 
land. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Aileran,  an  Irish  saint,  generally  known  as 
"Sapiens"  (the  Wise),  one  of  tlie  most  distinguished 
professors  at  the  School  of  Clonard  in  the  se\enth 
century.  He  died  of  the  all-destroying  Yellow 
Plague,  and  his  death  is  chronicled  in  the  "Annals 
of  Ulster",  29  December,  GG4.  His  early  life  is  not 
recorded,  but  he  was  attracted  to  the  great  School  of 
Clonard  by  the  fame  of  St.  Finian  and  his  disciples, 
and,  about  650,  was  rector  of  this  celebrated  scat  of 
learning.  As  a  classical  scholar  he  was  almost  with- 
out a  rival  in  his  day,  and  his  acquaintance  with  the 
works  of  Origen,  Philo,  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine, 
and  others,  stamps  him  as  a  master  of  Latin  and 
Greek.  Accortling  to  Colgan,  numerous  works  are 
to  be  ascribed  to  St.  Aileran,  including  the  "Fourth 
Life  of  St.  Patrick",  a  Latin-Irisli  Litany,  and  the 
"Lives  of  St.  Brigid  and  St.  I'echin  of  I'ore".  As 
regards  the  Latin-Irish  Litany,  there  is  scarcely  a 
doubt  but  that  St.  Aileran  was  its  author.  An 
excellent  transcript  of  it  is  in  the  "Yellow  Book  of 
Lecain"  (l.cahhitr  liiiidhc  Lccain),  a  valuable  Irish 
manuscript  copied  by  the  MacFirbises  in  the  foui> 


AILLEBOUST 


235 


AILLT 


teenth  centuPi'.  The  best  known  work  of  St.  Aileran 
is  his  tract  on  the  genealogj'  of  0\it  Lord  according 
to  St.  Matthew.  A  coiniilete  copy  of  this  remarkable 
scriptural  commentary  is  at  \  ienna  in  a  manuscript 
of  Sedulius  (Siadhuil  or  Shiel),  cotisisting  of  157 
folios,  large  (luarto,  written  in  two  columns,  with 
red  initial  letters.  It  is  entitled:  "Tipicus  ac  Tro- 
iwlogicus  Jesu  Christi  Genealogia>  Intellcctus  quern 
Sanctus  Aileranus  Scottorum  Sapieiitissinuis  cx- 
posuit ".  The  I'ranci.scan,  Patrick  I'leming,  |)ublislied 
a  fragment  of  this  "  Interpretatio  Mystica  I'rogeni- 
tonim  Christi"  (.Mystical  Interpretation  of  the  An- 
cestry of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ),  in  10G7,  at  I.ouvain 
— being  a  posthumous  publication  passed  through 
press  by  lather  Thomas  O'Sheeriii,  O.I'.M.,  who  died 
in  1G73.  This  waa  reprinted  in  the  Hetiedictine 
edition  of  the  Fathers,  in  1G77,  and  again  by  Mignc 
in  his  Latin  "Patrology"  (LXXX,  327  sqq.).  The 
Benedictine  editors  take  care  to  explain  that  al- 
though St.  Aileran  was  not  a  member  of  their  order, 
yet  they  deemed  the  work  of  such  extraordinary 
merit  tnat  it  deserved  being  better  known.  To 
quote  their  own  words,  "Aileran  unfolded  the  mean- 
ing of  Sacred  Scripture  with  so  nuich  learning  and 
ingenuity  that  every  student  of  the  sacred  volume, 
and  especially  preachers  of  the  Divine  Word,  will 
regard  the  publication  as  most  acceptable."  An- 
other fragment  of  a  work  by  St.  Aileran,  namely, 
"A  Short  Moral  Explanation  of  the  Sacred  Names", 
found  in  the  Latin  "I'atrology"  of  Migne,  displays 
much  erudition.  Archbishop  Healy  says  of  it:  "We 
read  over  both  fragments  carefidly,  and  we  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying  that  whether  we  consider  the 
style  of  the  latinity,  the  learning,  or  the  ingenuity 
of  the  writer,  it  is  equally  marvellous  and  equally 
honourable  to  the  School  of  Clonard."  The  feast 
of  St.  Aileran  is  celebrated  29  December.  Otto 
Schmid  says  (Kirchenlex.,  I.  370)  that  in  medieval 
times  it  was  customary  in  the  great  Swiss  monastery 
of  St.  Gall  to  read  this  admirable  work  on  the  Feast 
of  the  Nativity  of  Our  Lady  (S  Sept.)  as  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Gospel  of  the  day,  i.  e.  the  genealogy 
of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.,  i,  1-16). 

W.  H.  Grattan  Flood. 

Ailleboust,  d',  Familt  op. — (1)  Ailleboust, 
Loiis  i>',  Sieur  de  Coulanges,  third  Governor  of 
Canada,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  in  Montreal 
31  May,  1660.  He  came  to  Canada  in  1643.  He 
was  an  associate  of  the  Comjiaqnie  de  Monlrtal,  aided 
Maisonneuve  in  founding  Montreal,  building  the  first 
fortifications,  and  was  commandant  of  the  city  from 
October,  1646,  to  May,  1647.  Sent  to  France,  he 
obtained  help  and  important  reforms  in  favour  of  the 
colonists.  He  succeeded  Montmagny  as  Governor 
General,  arriving  at  Quebec  20  .\vigust,  1648.  He 
formed  a  flying  camp  of  forty  soldiers  to  guard  the 
communications  between  the  capital  and  Montreal. 
During  his  term  of  olfice  the  Huron  missions  of 
Ontario  were  destroyed  by  the  Iroquois,  and  the 
Jesuits,  Br^bcuf,  Lalemant,  Daniel,  Gamier,  and 
Chabanel,  suffered  martyrdom  (1648—19).  He  settled 
the  Huron  refugees  on  the  Island  of  Orleans,  and 
tried  to  establish  an  alliance  and  commercial  rela- 
tions with  New  England.  The  Jesuit  Druillettes  has 
left  an  account  of  the  einbiis.sy  sent  on  this  occasion. 
On  the  21st  of  Octotx>r,  16.'jl ,  Jean  Lauzon  succeeded 
d'.Ailleboust  as  governor,  and  the  latter  was  not 
sorry  to  re-sign  a  post  in  which  lie  had  been  left  with- 
out support.  In  reward  of  his  services,  several  im- 
portant seigniories  were  granted  him  (.Argentenaye, 
Coulanges,  Saint-Villemer).  He  retired  to  .Montreal, 
where  he  took  to  farming,  and  was  the  first  to  sow- 
French  grain  in  Canada.  In  16G.T  he  accompanied 
Maisonneuve  to  France,  where  he  induced  the 
Sulpicians  to  a.ssume  pos.session  of  the  I.sland  of 
Montreal,  and  to  send  mi^ionarics  thither.     He  also 


persuaded  the  Sisters  of  ITnstitut  Saint  Jo.seph,  of 
Lafli'che,  to  take  charge  of  the  Hotel-Dieu.  Re- 
turning to  Canada  with  four  Sulpicians,  d'Ailleboust 
was  entrusted  with  the  interior  administration  of  the 
colony  (18  September,  1657;  4  July,  1G58)  until 
the  arrival  of  d'Argen.son.  He  laid  (23  March,  1658) 
the  first  stone  of  the  church  of  Sainte  Anne  de  Beau- 
pr6,  the  place  of  pilgrimage  which  has  since  become 
so  famous.  He  died  leaving  a  name  as  a  good 
Christian,  a  man  of  judicious  and  impartial  mind. 
—  (2)  AiLi.EDOUST,  B.\RBE  d'  (nie  de  Boulogne), 
date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  1685.  Wife  of  the  fore- 
going; followed  her  husband  to  Canada  in  order  to 
devote  her  life  to  the  instruction  of  the  Indians. 
She  learned  the  Algonquin  language,  which  she 
taught  to  the  Sulpicians.  Jeanne  Mance,  Sister 
Bourgeois,  and  Barbe  d'Ailleboust,  rivals  in  virtue, 
have  given  Canada  examples  worthy  of  the  great 
ages  of  the  Church.  After  the  death  of  lier  husband, 
with  whom  she  had  lived  in  continence,  in  order  to 
fulfil  a  vow  made  in  early  life,  she  withdrew  to  the 
Hotel-Dieu  at  Montreal,  where  she  divided  her  time 
between  prayer  and  good  works.  In  1G63,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Jesuit  Father  Chaumonot,  she 
founded  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Family,  a 
devotion  which  spread  all  over  Canada  and  did 
much  to  preserve  good  morals.  Mgr.  de  Laval  sub- 
sequently invited  her  to  Quebec,  and  gave  her  the 
general  management  of  this  pious  confraternity, 
which  was  canonically  erected  14  March,  1664,  and 
still  exists.  In  1675,  the  Bishop  had  a  little  book 
printed  in  Paris,  instructing  the  members  of  the 
confraternity  as  to  the  virtues  which  they  should 
practise,  and  the  rules  they  should  follow  (La 
solide  devotion  ii  la  Sainte  Famille).  He  also 
established  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Family,  and  caused 
a  mass  and  office  to  be  drawn  up  which  are  proper  to 
the  Dioce-se  of  Quebec.  Madame  d'Ailleboust,  who 
was  endowed  with  great  talents,  witli  charms  of  mind 
and  person,  was  sought  in  marriage  by  the  Governor, 
de  Courcelles,  and  by  the  Intendant,  Talon,  but  she 
was  faithful  to  her  vow.  She  died  at  the  Hotel-Dieu, 
in  Quebec,  whither  she  had  retired,  to  which  she  had 
given  her  fortune,  and  where  she  is  held  in  veneration. 
— (3)  AiLLEBOiTST,  Chakles  Joseph  d',  Sieur  des 
Musseaux,  nephew  of  the  foregoing;  b.  1624;  d.  1700; 
came  to  (Canada  in  1650,  where  he  commanded  the 
flying  column  organized  to  protect  the  settlements 
against  Iroquois  attacks,  and  was  Commandant  of 
Montreal  from  October,  1651,  to  September,  1653, 
during  the  absence  of  Maisonneuve,  whom  he  ac- 
companied to  France  (1653-56).  Argenson,  the 
Governor,  who  had  confidence  in  d 'Ailleboust 's 
worth,  suggested  him  to  the  King  as  his  lieutenant  in 
1658.  He  was  made  civil  and  criminal  judge  of 
Montreal,  a  position  which  he  held  until  1693.  A 
good  soldier,  a  prudent  administrator,  an  upright 
judge,  d'Ailleboust  at  his  death  left,  by  his  marriage 
witli  Catherine  le  Gardeur  de  Tilly,  several  children 
who  took  service,  and  distinguished  thcmsehes,  in 
the  colonial  army.  They  founded  the  families  of 
d'Argenteuil,  de  Cussy,  de  Perigny,  and  de  Manthet; 
names  borrowed  from  Champagne,  and  still  found 
in  France,  near  Auxerre  (Vonne).  The  d'Ailleboust 
family  was  confirmed  in  its  rank  of  nobility  by  a 
decree  of  the  King  of  France,  registered  at  Quebec 
in  1720.  Some  of  its  descendants  still  live  at  the 
village  of  Caughnawaga,   near  Montreal. 

Ilittoire  de  V II 6lH-Dieu  df  QiUbec  (1761)  207-268:  Faillos. 
Ilittoire  dr  la  rolimU  iranfaiie  au  Canada  (1808),  III,  52  ami 
54.3;  Daniel,  Ilittoire  des  grandes  famillea  francai^ea  du  Can- 
ada (1807).   128. 

J.  Edmond  Rot. 

Ailly,  Pierre  d'  (Petrus  de  .\llaco).  a  French 
thcoloKian  and  philosopher,  bishop  and  cardinal, 
b.  13,i()  at  Compi^gne;  d.  probably  1420  at  Avignon. 
He  studied  at  the  College  of  Navarre.  Tniversity  of 


AIMERICH 


236 


AIMERICH 


Paris.  In  1375,  by  his  commentaries  on  the  Sen- 
tences of  Peter  Lombard,  he  furthered  the  cause  of 
Nominalism  in  the  University  of  Paris.  He  received 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology  in  1380.  At  that 
time  he  wrote  several  treatises,  in  wliich  he  main- 
tained, among  other  doctrines,  that  bisliops  and 
priests  hold  their  jurisdiction  from  Christ,  not  from 
the  Pope,  that  the  Pope  is  inferior  to  a  general 
council,  that  neither  the  Pope  nor  the  council  is 
strictly  infallible,  but  only  the  universal  Church.  In 
1384  lie  became  director  of  the  College  of  Navarre; 
Gerson  and  Nicholas  of  Clemanges  were  among  his 
pupils.  He  acquired  great  fame  by  his  sermons, 
writings,  and  discussions.  The  University  having 
censured  several  propositions  of  the  Dominican 
John  of  Monzon,  who  denied  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  latter  appealed  to 
Clement  VII.  In  behalf  of  the  University,  d'Ailly 
was  sent  to  .\vignon  as  tlie  head  of  a  delegation,  and 
finally  (1389)  persuaded  Clement  to  maintain  the  con- 
demnation. The  same  year  d'Ailly  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  University,  Confessor  of  the  King, 
and  Treasurer  of  the  Sainte  Cliapelle.  When  Bene- 
dict XIII  succeeded  Clement  VII  at  Avignon, 
d'Ailly's  influence  caused  him  to  be  recognized  at 
the  French  court.  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Le  Puy  in  1395,  and  in  1397  Bishop  of  Cambrai. 
He  was  very  active  in  trying  to  solve  the  principal 
question  of  the  day,  the  ending  of  the  great  schism. 
He  proposed  the  assembling  of  a  general  council — 
an  idea  wliicli  he  had  suggested  in  a  sermon  as  early 
as  1381 — and  endeavoured  to  bring  tlie  two  Popes 
to  resign.  On  account  of  Benedict's  hesitations  and 
false  promises,  d'.Ailly  withdrew  more  and  more  from 
the  .Avignon  Pope,  and  when,  in  1398,  the  French 
King  recalled  his  submission,  d'Ailly  approved  tliis 
action.  Later,  however,  he  counselled  obedience, 
though  only  in  essential  matters,  and  this  cour.se 
having  been  accepted  by  the  Council  of  Paris,  he 
announced  it  in  a  sermon  in  the  Church  of  Notre 
Dame  (1403).  At  the  Council  of  Aix  (Jan.,  1409) 
d'Ailly  again  advocated  the  necessity  of  a  general 
council.  Tlie  unity  of  the  Cliurcli,  he  claimed,  does 
noi  depend  on  the  unity  of  the  Pope,  but  on  that  of 
Christ.  The  Church  has  a  natural  and  divine  right 
to  its  unity  and  self-preservation;  hence  it  can,  even 
without  the  Pope's  sanction,  assemble  in  a  general 
council.  A  few  months  later,  in  fact,  the  Council 
of  Pisa  was  convoked,  in  which  both  Popes  were 
deposed,  and  a  third,  .Alexander  V,  was  elected,  thus 
comphcating  the  difficulty.  In  1411  d'Ailly  was 
made  cardinal  by  .-Alexander's  successor,  John  XXIII, 
and  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Rome  (1412).  In  1414 
the  Council  of  Constance  was  convoked,  and  was 
successful  in  ending  the  schism  by  the  election  of 
Martin  V  (1418).  D'Ailly  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
council  and  presided  at  its  third  session  (March  26, 
1415).  He  insisted  on  several  principles,  some  of 
which  had  been  developed  already  in  his  earlier  writ- 
ings. The  council,  he  said,  having  been  duly  con- 
voked, could  not  now  be  dissolved  by  any  action  of 
the  Pope;  as  its  power  came  from  Christ  immedi- 
ately, all  tlie  faithful,  anil  the  Pope  himself,  were 
obliged  to  submit  to  its  decisions.  He  favoured  the 
method  of  voting  by  nations  and  the  extension  of 
the  power  of  voting  to  the  doctors  of  theology  and 
of  canon  law,  and  to  the  princes  and  their  legates. 
These  were  complete  departures  from  the  practice 
of  the  Church.  After  the  Council  of  Constance, 
d'Ailly  was  appointed  by  Martin  V  legate  at  Avignon, 
where  lie  dic(l. 

D'Ailly  enjoyed  considerable  celebrity  among  his 
contemporaries,  who  gave  liim  the  titles  of  Aquila 
FrancUc,  et  aberranlium  a  veritate  malleus  incJclcusus 
(The  eagle  of  France  and  the  indefatigable  hammer 
of  heretics).  If  his  princifJcs  concerning  the  power 
in   the  Church  are  exaggerated — and,  in  fact,  they 


have  been  condemned  since — they  should  be  con- 
sidered with  reference  to  the  condition  of  those  times 
when  the  Church  was  divided  under  two  heads.  In 
many  respects  d'Ailly  reproduces  the  theses  of 
Occam  and  the  Nominalists,  that  the  existence  of 
God  cannot  be  strictly  demonstrated,  that  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  cannot  be  estabhshed  from  the 
Scriptures,  that  positive  law  is  the  only  basis  of 
morality,  etc.  In  many  instances  he  shows  a 
tendency  to  mysticism.  His  works  are  numerous 
(154);  some  of  them  have  not  yet  been  published. 
Besides  those  that  ha\'e  reference  to  the  schism  and 
the  reformation  of  the  Church,  others  treat  of  Holy 
Scripture,  apologetics,  asceticism,  theologj',  philoso- 
phy and  the  sciences.  He  was  a  believer  in  astrology, 
and  in  his  "Concordance  of  Astronomy  with  His- 
tory" he  attempts  to  show  that  the  dates  of  the 
main  events  of  history  can  be  determined  by  as- 
tronomical calculations.  In  his  "Imago  mundi"  he 
taught  the  possibility  of  reaching  the  Indies  by  the 
West,  and  in  confirmation  of  his  own  reasoning  he 
alleged  the  authority  of  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  Seneca. 
D'Ailly's  views  were  useful  to  Columbus  and  en- 
couraged him  in  his  undertaking.  [Cf.  La  d^cou- 
verte  de  I'Amerique  et  Pierre  d'Ailly,  by  Salembier, 
in  "Revue  de  Lille",  1892,  V,  622-641.]  Columbus 
had  a  copy  of  the  "Imago  mundi  ",  on  tlie  margin  of 
wliich  he  had  written  many  notes  with  his  own 
hand,  and  which  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Columbine 
Library  at  Seville.  In  another  of  Columbus's 
books,  the  "  Libro  de  las  profecias",  are  to  be 
found  many  notes  taken  from  d'Ailly's  works  on  cos- 
mography. Hence  Las  Casas  (Historia  de  las  Indias, 
vol.  I,  xi,  89)  says  that  of  all  "modern"  writers 
d'.'Ailly  exercised  the  greatest  influence  on  the  realiza- 
tion of  Columbus's  plans.  His  dissertation  on  the 
reformation  of  the  calendar,  composed  in  1411,  and 
read  at  the  Council  of  Constance  in  March,  1417,  was 
later  accepted  and  completed  by  Gregory  XIII. 

S.\LEMBiER,  Peirus  de  Alliaco  (Lille,  1886):  Id.  in  Dict.de 
thcol.  cath.  (Paris,  1900);  Hurtek,  Nomenclalor,  IV,  601  sqq. 
(Innsbruck,  1899);  Tschackert,  Peler  von  .4i7K  (Ootha,  1877). 

C.  A.  Dhbray. 

Aimerich,  Mateo,  a  learned  philologist,  b.  at 
Bordil,  in  Spain,  1715;  d.  at  Ferrara,  1799.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  eighteen,  and,  having 
finished  his  studies,  taught  philosophy  and  theology 
in  several  colleges  of  his  Order.  He  was  subsequently 
Rector  of  Barcelona  and  Cervera,  and  Chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Gandia.  He  was  at  Madrid, 
supervising  the  printing  of  some  books,  when  the 
decree  of  expulsion  of  the  Society  from  Spain  was 
announced.  He  went  on  board  ship  without  a 
murmur,  and  thought  only  of  consoling  his  com- 
panions, several  of  whom  were  old  and  infirm.  He 
took  up  his  abode  at  Ferrara,  and  it  was  there,  in 
exile,  that  he  composed  the  works  which  have  won  for 
him  a  distinguished  place  among  the  philologists  and 
critics  of  the  eighteenth  century.  What  is  remark- 
able about  his  literary  labours  is  that  his  only  help 
was  the  public  library,  and  even  that  his  infirmities 
often  prevented  him  from  consulting.  He  died,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-four,  in  sentiments  of  great  piety. 
Gifted  with  a  fine,  judicious  mind,  he  united  to 
his  vast  erudition  the  faculty  of  writing  Latin  with 
great  elegance  and  purity.  Besides  some  works  of 
scholastic  philosophy,  ascetical  works,  and  dis- 
courses, we  have  from  his  pen,  1st,  "Nomina  et  acta 
Episcoporurn  Barcinonensium";  2d,  "Quinti  Mod- 
erati  Censorini  de  vitd  et  morte  lingua;  latinie  Para- 
doxa  philologica,  criticis  nonnullis  dissert  at  ionibus 
opposita,  asserta  et  probata",  of  which  there  were 
but  a  few  copies  printed;  the  book  is  consequently 
very  rare;  3(1,  a  defence  of  the  preceding  work; 
4th,  "Specimen  veteris  romanie  literatunc  dcpcrditie 
vel  adluic  latentis;"  5th,  "Novum  Lexicon  histori- 
cuin  et  criticum  antiqux'  roinaua;  literatura;."    This 


AIRE 


237 


AIX 


work,  which  is  the  sequel  to  the  preceding,  was  the 
one  which  made  Aimerich's  reputation.  He  left 
also  a  MS.,  which  was  a  supplement  to  his  dictionary; 
and  a  number  of  Latin  discoui-ses. 

MicilAUD.  liuiar.    Univ.;    GuERiN,  UUtiunnaire   det  diclion- 

T.  J.  Campbkll. 

Aire  (Atukum),  Diocese  of,  comprises  the  terri- 
tory of  tlie  I)cp;irtmeut  of  Landes.  It  was  a  suffra- 
gan of  Auch  under  the  old  regime,  but  was  not  re- 
establislieil  until  1822,  when  it  was  again  made  a 
siilTragan  of  tlie  re-establishetl  Archiliocesc  of  Audi, 
and  was  assigned  the  territory  of  tlie  former  Dioceses 
of  .\ire  and  .\cqs  (Dax).  The  first  bisliop  mentioned 
in  history  is  AlarccUus  (represented  at  the  Council 
of  Agde  .iUti).  Aire,  on  tlie  river  .Vdour,  the  home 
of  St.  Philibert,  numbered  among  its  bishops 
during  the  second  half  of  the  .sixteenth  century 
Francois  de  Foix,  Count  of  Candale,  an  illustrious 
matlicmatician,  who  translated  Kuclid  and  founded 
a  cliair  of  mathematics  at  tlie  I'niversity  of  IJordeau.x. 
The  liamlct  renowned  as  the  birthplace  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  is  within  tlie  limits  of  tlie  present  Diocese  of 
Aire.  In  the  Gallo-Roman  crj-pt  of  Mas  d'.Vire  is 
preserved  in  a  sarcophagus  the  body  of  St.  Quitteria, 
daughter  of  a  governor  of  Gallicia,  and  martyred, 
perliaps  under  Commodus,  for  her  resolution  to 
remain  a  virgin.  The  city  of  Saint-Sever,  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  .\ire,  owes  its  origin  to  an  ancient  Benedictine 
abbey,  built  in  the  tenth  century  by  a  Duke  of 
tiascony  as  an  act  of  thanksgiving  for  a  victor)'  over 
the  Northmen,  and  whose  church  was  dedicated  to 
St.  Severus.  The  beautiful  Gothic  churdi  of  Mimi- 
zai.  is  the  only  survival  of  a  great  Benedictine  abbey. 
The  church  of  Carcards,  dating  from  the  year  810, 
is  one  of  the  oldest  in  F" ranee.  The  Diocese  of  Aire 
comprised  (end  of  1905),  291,586  inhabitants,  28 
first  class,  293  second  class  parishes,  and  40  vicariates 
formerly  with  State  subventions. 

Galliu  (AruKiim  (el.  Nova,  1715),  I.  1147-72,  and  Irutru- 
mmta,   lSl-185;    Duc»k.snk,   Fastea  t^piscopaux  de  Vancienne 
Oaule,   II,   100;  Chevalier,    Topo-bibl.   (Paris,   1894-99),  27. 
Georges  Goy.\u. 

Airoli  (or  .\ykoli),  Gucomo  Maria,  a  Jesuit 
Orientalist  and  Scriptural  commentator;  b.  at 
Genoa,  lliOO;  d.  in  Rome,  27  March,  1721.  He  was 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Roman  College,  and  later 
succeeded  Cardinal  Tolomei  in  the  cliair  of  contro- 
versy. His  knowledge  of  Hebrew  is  shown  by  his 
Hebrew  translation  of  a  homily  of  Pope  Clement  XI. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  dissertations  on 
Scriptural  subjects,  mostly  chronological,  which  were 
highly  thought  of.  Sommorvogel  enumerates  four- 
teen, chief  among  which  are:  (1)  "Di.ssertatio  Biblica 
in  qua  Scriptunc  textus  aliquot  insigniores,  ad- 
hibitis   Unguis   hebra>a,   syriaca,   chaldaica,   arabica, 

fra'ca,  .  .  .  dilucidantur"  (Rome,  1704);  (2)  "Liber 
iXX  hebdomadum  resignatus,  seu  in  cap.  IX 
Danielis  di.ssertatio"  (Rome,  1713),  several  times 
reprinted;  (3)  "Dissertatio  ehronologica  de  anno, 
mense,  et  die  mortis  Domini  Nostri  Jesus  Christi" 
(Rome,  1718). 

A  full  list  of  his  works  is  found  in  Sommervooel,  Bibl. 
dt  la  C.  de  J.  (Paris.  1890),  I,  717. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Aisle  (T^at.  ala;  Old  Fr.  aUc),  sometimes  written 
Isle,  Vie.  and  Alley;  in  architecture  one  of  the  lateral 
or  longitudinal  divisions  of  a  church,  .separated  from 
the  nave  (sometimes  called  the  centre  aisle)  by  rows 
of  piers,  pillars,  or  columns.  Sometimes  a  church 
has  one  side-aisle  only.  Often  the  aisle  is  continued 
around  the  apse.  Occasionally  the  aisles  stop  at  the 
transepts.  In  very  large  churches  transepts  may 
have  three  aisles.  As  a  nile  in  fiothic  arcliitecture 
the  aisle-roofs  are  much  lower  than  the  nave  roof, 
allowing  the  admission  of  light  through  the  cleres- 
tory  windows,   but    in    most    of    the    Romanesque 


churches  the  aisle-roofs  are  but  little  lower  than  that 
of  the  nave.  The  aisle  is  generally  one  story,  but 
occasionally  there  is  an  upper  story,  sometimes  used 
as  a  gallery.  As  a  general  rule,  churches  are  divided 
into  three  aisles,  but  there  is  no  fixed  rule  that 
governs  the  number.  The  cathedrals  at  Chichester, 
Slilan,  and  Amiens  have  five  aisles;  Antwerp  and 
Paris  seven.  The  most  remarkable  in  this  respect, 
the  cathedral  of  Cordova  in  Spain,  lias  nineteen. 
Aisles  existed  in  the  Roman  basilicas,  and  in  the 
majority  of  Christian  churches  of  all  periods.  Tran- 
septs were  sometimes  called  the  cro.ss  isle  or  yle. 
The  term  is  popularly  used  to  describe  the  passage 
between  pews  or  seating.  Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Aistulph  (also  AisTULF,  AsTULPH,  AsTULF,  and 
.A.stoli'h),  King  of  the  Lombards;  d.  756.  He 
succeedeil  his  brother  Ratchis  in  749,  and  set  about 
the  coniiuest  of  all  Italy.  After  taking  from  the 
Cireeks  tlie  Kxarchate  of  Ravenna,  he  was  about  to 
seize  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter  when  Pope  Stephen 
II  (or  III — 752-57)  appealed  for  aid  to  Pejiin  the 
Short,  King  of  the  Franks.  Faihng  to  influence  the 
Lombard  king  by  persuasion,  Pepin  letl  an  army 
through  the  passes  of  the  Alps,  defeated  Aistulph, 
and  besieged  him  in  the  city  of  Pavia  (754).  A 
peace  was  then  concluded,  Aistulph  undertaking  to 
surrender  the  Kxarcliate  and  all  other  teiritciry 
conquered  by  liim.  But  Pepin  and  his  Franks  hail 
hartfly  returned  to  their  own  country  when  .\isttilph 
besieged  Rome  itself,  and  laid  waste  the  surrounding 
territory.  A  second  time  responding  to  the  Pontiff's 
call,  Pepin  again  besieged  Pavia  and  again  over- 
powered Aistulph.  This  time  Pepin  took  care  to 
exact  substantial  guarantees  for  the  fulfilment  of 
Aistulph's  promises;  the  latter  was  obliged  to  pay 
an  indemnity  and  surrender  to  his  conqueror  the 
town  of  Comaccliio,  on  the  Adriatic,  whicii  had  not 
formed  part  of  tlie  E.xarchate.  Constantine  Copro 
nymus,  the  Byzantine  Emperor,  asserted  that  the 
ICxarchatc  of  Ravenna  was  his  by  right,  and  had 
been  violently  WTested  from  him  by  Aistulph.  He 
demanded  its  restitution  by  Pepin.  Tlie  latter 
replied  that  the  Kxarchate  and  all  other  territory 
rescued  from  the  hands  of  Aistulph  belonged  to  the 
victor  by  right  of  conquest;  he  then  endowed  the 
Holy  See  with  these  territories,  his  representative, 
I'ulrail,  Abbot  of  St.  Denis,  formally  laying  the  keys 
of  the  fortified  places  with  a  deed  of  gift  upon  the 
altar  of  St.  Peter.  Aistulph  even  yet  found  pretexts 
to  postpone  the  actual  evacuation  of  .some  of  the 
theoretically  surrendered  places,  and  it  is  probable 
that  he  contemplated  another  essay  of  the  chances 
of  war.  A  fall  from  his  lior.se  while  hunting  (or, 
according  to  some,  a  wound  received  from  a  wild 
boar)  ended  his  life  before  he  hail  time  to  renew  his 
warlike  enterprises.  He  left  no  male  issue.  (See 
Te.mporal  Power.) 

Haronius,  .'Inn.  Ecd.  ad  an.  7B0,  3-756,  2;  J.iber  Pontif. 
(cil.  DucHEaNE)  I;  Ddchesne,  Lea  premiera  tcmpa  de  I'Hat 
pontifical  (Paris,  1890);  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  Invadert 
(Jpxford,  189(i),  VI;  Mann,  The  Uvea  of  the  Popea  in  the 
Early  Middle  Agca  (London,  1902). 

E.  Macpherson. 

Aix,  Archdiocese  of  (Aqxiw  Se.Ttitr),  full  title 
the  .-Vrchdiocese  of  Aix,  Aries,  and  Embrun.  It  in- 
cludes the  districts  of  Aix  and  .■\rles  (Department 
of  the  Bouclies-du-Rhone).  Before  the  Revolution 
the  .Vrchdiocese  of  .\ix  had  as  its  suffragans  the 
sees  of  .\pt.  Riez.  Fr(5jus,  Gap,  and  Sisteron;  the 
Archdiocese  of  l';mbrun,  the  sees  of  Digne.  Grasse, 
Vence,  Gland^ve,  Senez,  and  Nice;  the  .Archdiocese 
of  Aries,  the  sees  of  Marseille,  St.  Paul-Trois-Cha- 
teaux,  Toulon,  and  Or.mge.  The  .A.rchbi.slioprics  of 
-Vrles  and  ICmbrun  do  not  exist  to-day,  and  the  .Vrch- 
bi.shopric  of  .Vix  luus  .as  dependants  the  sees  of  Mar- 
•seille,  Fr<'>jus,  Digne,  Gap.  .\jaccio,  and  Nice.  Cer- 
tain traditions  make  St.  Ma.\iminu8  the  first  Bishop 


AIX 


238 


AJACCIO 


of  Aix,  one  of  the  seventy-two  Disciples  and  the 
companion  of  Mary  Magdalen  in  Provence.  The 
Abb^  Duchesne  seems  to  ha\'e  proved  that  this  saint, 
the  object  of  a  very  ancient  local  cult,  was  not 
considered  the  first  bishop  of  Aix,  or  connected  with 
the  life  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  except  in  very  recent 
legends,  devised  towards  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century  by  the  monks  of  Vezelay.  The  first  histor- 
ically known  bishop  of  Aix  is  Lazarus,  who  occupied 
this  see  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 
It  was  only  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  that 
Aix  became  an  archbishopric;  up  to  that  time  it 
was  dependent  upon  the  Bishop  of  Aries.  Aries, 
which  to-day  is  not  even  a  bishopric,  formerly 
played  a  verj'  important  ecclesiastical  role.  Its  first 
incumbent  was  St.  Trophimus,  whose  episcopate 
Gregory  of  Tours  places  about  the  year  250.  In  a 
letter  to  Pope  Leo,  in  450,  the  bishops  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Aries  said  that  Trophimus  was  sent  there  by 
St.  Peter.  Is  the  apostolic  origin  of  the  episcopate 
of  St.  Tropliimus  authentic,  or  was  it  invented  to 
serve  the  claims  of  the  church  of  Aries?  This  is 
hard  to  decide,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  date  given 
by  Gregory  of  Tours  is  much  too  late,  as  the  see  of 
Aries  existed  before  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
and  was  already  flourishing  and  esteemed  in  254  when 
the  Bishop  Marcianus  was  tainted  with  the  Novatian 
errors.  Celebrated  names  first  became  connected 
with  the  see  of  Aries  in  417  when  Pope  Zosi- 
mus  made  Bishop  Patrocles  the  metropolitan,  not 
only  of  the  province  of  Vienne,  to  which  Aries  be- 
longed, but  of  the  two  provinces  of  Narbonne;  and 
to  prevent  the  bishops  of  Gaul  from  following  the 
custom  of  appealing  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Milan, 
Zosimus  made  Patrocles  a  kind  of  intermediary  be- 
tween the  episcopate  of  Gaul  and  the  Apostolic  See. 
Under  Pope  Boniface,  the  successor  of  Zosimus,  the 
Bishops  of  Narbonne  and  Vienne  were  proclaimed 
metropolitans,  and  Aries  was  authorized  to  keep  the 
southern  province  of  Vienne,  the  second  province  of 
Narbonne,  and  the  Maritime  Alps.  The  church  of  Aries 
had  then  two  great  bishops  at  its  head,  St.  Hono- 
ratus,  founder  of  the  monastery  of  L^rins  (427-429), 
and  St.  Hilarius,  disciple  of  St.  Honoratus,  celebrated 
as  a  preacher  (429—449),  who,  after  his  conflicts  with 
the  church  of  Vienne,  had  animated  disputes  with 
the  Pope,  St.  Leo  the  Great.  Pope  Hilary  (461- 
468),  intending  to  confer  certain  privileges  on  the 
Bishopric  of  Aries,  in  474  or  475,  reassembled  30 
prelates  of  Gaul  against  the  predestination  heresy 
and  increased  the  importance  of  the  see.  With  St. 
Cssarius  (q.  v.),  Aries  (502-542)  reached  its  greatest 
prosperity;  there  the  Prefect  of  the  Pra>torium  of 
Theodoric  had  liis  seat,  while  St,  Csesarius  repre- 
sented the  Pope  with  the  episcopate  of  Gaul  and 
Spain,  and  exercised  an  indefatigable  activity  in 
codifying  the  canon  law  of  Merovingian  Gaul.  After 
Ca;sarius  the  superiority  of  the  bishops  of  Aries  was 
merely  nominal;  St.  Virgilius,  monk  of  L^rins,  was 
made  Bishop  of  Aries  in  588,  and  consecrated  the 
monk  St.  .\ugustine,  sent  to  Great  Britain  by  St. 
Gregory  the  Great.  But  after  the  sixth  century 
there  was  no  longer  any  question  of  intermediation; 
and  in  the  succeeding  centuries  the  metropolitans  of 
Aries  and  Vienne  existed  side  by  side,  not  without 
frequent  discussion  as  to  the  limits  of  their  territory. 
The  creation  of  the  special  metropolitans  at  Aix  and 
at  Kmbrun  in  794,  at  Avignon  in  1475,  diminished 
the  power  of  the  sec  of  Aries,  which  was  suppressed 
in  1802.  The  Blessed  Louis  Aleman,  wlio  played  an 
important  part  in  the  councils  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, was  Archbishop  of  Aries  from  1423  to   1450. 

Among  other  prelates  who  brought  fame  to  the 
see  of  Aix,  must  be  mentioned  Saljran,  who  was  sent 
to  Jerusalem  in  1107  by  Pascal  II,  and  founded  tlie 
Bee  of  Bethlehem;  Phihtster  (q.  v.),  Alphonse  Louis 
du    Plcssis    de    Richelieu    (1625-29),    and    Michel 


Mazarin  (1644-55),  nephews  of  the  cardinals  of  the 
same  name;  Monsignor  du  Lau,  killed  at  the  Cannes 
prison  in  1792. 

The  church  of  Aries  honours  the  memory  of  the 
martyr  Genesius,  public  registrar  of  Aries,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  who  was  beheaded 
for  having  refused  to  copy  the  edict  of  persecution 
against  the  Christians;  the  church  of  Aix  honours 
the  martyr  Mitre.  The  city  of  Tarascon  has  for  its 
patron,  St.  Martha,  who,  according  to  the  legend, 
deUvered  the  country  of  a  monster  called  "Tar- 
asque".  The  church  of  the  "  Saintes  Maries  de  la 
Mer"  in  the  Camargue  contains  three  venerated 
tombs,  wliich  are  objects  of  a  pilgrimage;  according 
to  a  tradition  which  is  attached  to  the  legends  con- 
cerning the  emigration  of  St.  Lazarus,  St.  Martha, 
St.  Mary  Magdalen,  and  St.  Maximinus,  these 
tombs  contain  the  bodies  of  the  three  Marj's  of  the 
Gospel.  The  principal  councils  held  at  Aries  were: 
that  of  314,  convened  by  order  of  Constantine  to 
condemn  the  Donatists;  that  of  353,  which  defended 
the  Arians  against  St.  Athanasius;  and  that  of 
1234,  which  dealt  with  the  Albigensian  heresy.  A 
faculty  of  theology,  estabhshed  at  the  Dniversity 
of  Aix  in  1802,  was  suppressed  in  1876.  The  cathe- 
dral of  Aries,  at  first  dedicated  to  the  martyr  St. 
Stephen,  and  in  1152  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Tro- 
phimus, possesses  a  doorway  and  Gothic  cloister  of 
the  most  imposing  type  of  beauty.  The  cemetery 
of  Alyscaraps,  celebrated  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
contained,  up  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  remains  of  St.  Trophimus,  which  were  finally 
moved  to  the  cathedral.  The  ruins  of  Montmajour, 
in  the  suburbs  of  Aries,  perpetuate  the  memory  of 
a  great  Benedictine  abbey  foimded  in  the  twelfth 
century.  The  cathedral  of  Aix  is  a  very  beautiful 
edifice  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  Archdiocese  of 
Aix,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1905,  had  188,872  in- 
habitants, 23  parishes  of  the  first,  106  of  the  second 
class  and  21  curacies  formerly  paid  by  the  State. 

Gallia  Christiana  (Nova,  1715),  I,  277-344,  and  inslruTnenta, 
63-70;  Albanes  et  Chevalier,  Gallia  Christiana  Noi-usima 
(Valence,  1901),  1;  Duchesne,  Fasias  episcopauxdeVancienne 
Gaule;  Villevieille,  Noa  Saints  :  la  vie  et  le  culte  dea  Saints 
du  dioche  d'Aix  (Aix,  1901). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Aix-en-Provence,  Councils  of. — Councils  were 
held  at  Aix  in  1112,  1374,  1409,  1585,  1612,  1838, 
and  1850.  In  that  of  1612  the  Gallican  work  of 
Edmund  Richer,  "De  la  puissance  eccl^siastique  et 
politique"  (Paris,  1611),  was  censured.  In  that  of 
1838  the  Fathers  requested  Gregory  XVI  to  add 
"Immaculate"  to  the  word  "Conception"  in  the 
preface  of  the  Mass  for  that  feast  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  which  he  did.  In  the  council  of  1850  many 
modern  errors  were  condemned,  rationalism,  panthe- 
ism, communism,  also  the  arbitrary  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures. 

Hefele,  Conciliengcachichte,  2d  ed.,  V,  322  et  al.;  Colkclio 
Cone.  Lacensis  (Freiburg,  1S70),  IV.  955. 

Thomas  J.   SH.4aAN. 

Aix-la-Chapelle.     See  Aachen. 

Ajaccio  (.\djacensis).  Diocese  of,  comprises  the 
island  of  Corsica.  It  was  formerly  a  suffragan  of 
the  -Vrchdioccse  of  Pisa,  but  since  the  French  Con- 
cordat, has  been  a  suffragan  of  Aix.  The  first  bishop 
known  to  history  was  Evander,  who  assisted  at  the 
Council  of  Rome  in  313.  Before  the  Revolution 
Corsica  contained  five  other  dioceses:  Accia  (vacant 
since  1563);  Aleria,  an  ancient  city  of  the  Phocians, 
whose  bishop  resided  at  Corte;  Sagone,  a  vanished 
city  who.se  bishop  resided  at  Calvi,  while  the  chapter 
was  at  Vico;  Mariana,  also  a  vanished  city,  whose 
bi.shop  resided  at  Bastia;  and  Ncl)l)io.  Pius  X, 
when  appointing  Mgr.  Desanti  Bishoi>  of  .Vjaccio 
(in  the  summer  of  1906),  reserved  the  right  of  regu- 
lating anew  the  diocesan  limits,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  Diocese  of  Bastia  may  be  restored.     The  Byzan- 


aehm!n 


239 


AEOMINATOS 


tine  ruins  at  Mariana  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the 
cliurch  built  by  tlie  Pisans  in  tlie  twelfth  century. 
Tliere  is  a  legend  to  the  effect  that  the  bishops 
banished  from  Africa  to  Corsica  in  484  by  Hunneric, 
King  of  tlie  Vandals,  built  with  their  own  hands  the 
primitive  cathedral  of  Ajaccio.  The  present  cathe- 
dral, dating  from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
owes  its  construction  to  the  initiative  of  Gregory  XllI, 
who  while  still  Ugo  lUionconipagni,  spent  some  time 
at  Ajaccio  as  papal  legate.  The  see  was  left  vacant 
for  five  years,  during  which  time  the  dioce.san  reve- 
nues were  applied  to  the  buililing  of  tlie  cathedral. 
It  was  finished  by  Bishop  Giustiniani  after  his  nomi- 
nation. Services  are  held  accortling  to  the  Greek 
rite  in  the  village  of  Cargese,  founded  (1671))  by  the 
descendants  of  Stephen  t'omnenus.  whom  the  Turks 
had  expelled  from  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Diocese  of 
Ajaccio  contained  (end  of  1905)  L'95,5S9  inhabitants, 
70  first  class,  3.t1  second  cla.ss  parishes,  and  91  vicar- 
iates formerly  with  State  subventions. 

Cappelletti.  I^  chifK  d  Italia  (Venice,  18611,  XVI,  272- 
404;  .\RMAN.  Noire  Damr  ilAmccio  (Ajaccio.  1844);  Ajaccio. 
ill  Comhill  Magazine  (18()S),  XVIII.  490;  Eclectic  Magazine 
(1868),  LXXI,  1513:  ARDOul.v-Di'MAZin-,  La  Corse  (Paris, 
1898);  Chevalier,   Topo-bibl.   (Paris.   1894-99),  33. 

Geohges  Gotau. 

Akhmln,  a  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  situated  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile.  Of  late  years  it  has  attained 
great  importance,  on  account  of  the  discoveries 
made  in  its  cemeteries.  The  hill  of  Akhmin,  some 
two  miles  long,  is  filled  with  human  remains  piled  up 
in  pits  which  contain  as  many  as  eight  or  ten  small 
chambers,  one  above  the  other,  witli  a  dozen  coffins 
in  each.  There  are  also  caves  containing  mummies 
crowded  together  in  the  common  ditch.  Heathens 
and  Christians  are  heaped  together  in  such  a  fashion 
as  to  make  it  frequently  impossible  to  say  whether 
the  owner  of  the  little  articles  found  near  a  body 
was  a  heathen,  a  Christian,  or  a  member  of  some 
heretical  sect,  since  we  know  Eutychianism  had 
become  the  religion  of  almost  the  whole  Coptic 
nation,  from  the  fifth  century  onward. 

The  city  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  papyri  and  for 
its  tapestries.  Among  the  former,  the  fragments 
known  as  the  "Gospel  of  Peter",  the  "Apocalypse 
of  Pet-er",  and  the  "Book  of  Henoch"  hold  the  first 

f)lace.  but  need  not  be  discussed  here.  The  tapestries, 
lowever,  have  furnished  material  of  primary  im- 
portance to  the  historj'  of  textile  handicrafts  in 
ancient  times.  .\  few  pieces,  of  imcertain  date, 
were  to  be  fountl  in  various  Eui-opean  museums. 
The  excavations  at  .\khmin  and  the  copies  made 
by  R.  Forrer  have  now  supplied  us  with  a  quantity 
of  materials  in  excellent  preservation  and  of  the 
greatest  possible  variety.  The  style  of  these  .Akhmin 
tapestries  is  sometimes  original,  but  in  a  great  many 
instances  it  approximates  the  decorative  tj^pe  of 
Roman  or  Eastern  art.  The  older  ones  are  far 
superior  to  the  others  in  design,  especially  in  their 
treatment  of  the  human  figure.  The  growing  want 
of  skill  in  this  regard  enables  us  to  trace,  step  by 
step,  the  progress  of  decadence.  The.se  most  ancient 
tapestries  are  in  two  colours,  yellow  and  pale  brown. 
^Vlth  the  introduction  of  [wlychromy,  ornament  and 
animal  decoration  take  the  place  of  human  figures. 
Even  this  animal  decoration  is  often  so  angular, 
BO  poorly  rendered,  as  to  end  in  outlines  resembling 
geometncal    designs. 

The  discoveries  at  .\khmtn  have  not  been  confined 
to  tapestries,  tliough  these  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  history  of  the  industri.il  arts.  Forrer 
nas  brought  to  light  ampulla?  of  tcrra-cotta,  clay, 
and  bronze,  also  jewels  and  toilet  articles  of  gold 
or  ivory.  The  discoveries  have,  however,  revealed 
but  few  .symbolisms  not  previously  known.  One 
tapcstr^•,  indeed,  shows  the  Lamb  of  God,  bearing 
the  little  banner,  which  is  probably  the  most  an- 
cient example  of  this  still  familiar  symbolism. 


Leclercq,  in  Diet,  d'arch^ol.  chrH.  et  de  liturgie,  I,  1042- 
53;  CiERBPAcn.  Lf»  tapitteriea  coptra  (Paris,  1890);  FORRER, 
Die  Graber  und  Tertilfunde  von  Achmin — Tnnopolia  (Slrnif- 
burg,  ixyl);  FuKiiKH,  Die  Trrtilim  van  Achtmn  und  xhr 
W-rhaltnins  tu  dvn  Katakombennuiierrien,  in  liie  Jriihchrxnt- 
Irichen  Allerlhitmer  out  dem  (JrHbeTfelde  ran  Achmin— Tanopulit 
(Strasburg,  1893). 

H.  Leclercq. 
Akiba  ben  Joseph.    Si'c  Tal.mld;  Judaism. 

Akoimetae.     ."^ee  .■\«k.met.i;. 

Akominatos,  .Mkiiael,  d.  1215;  and  .Nk  eta.s, 
d.  Il'OCi;  also  known  as  Choniates,  from  their  native 
city,  Clionia  (the  Colossa;  of  St.  Paul),  two  famous 
(ireeks  of  the  later  Byzantine  period.  While  study- 
ing at  Constantinople  by  their  father's  wish,  Michael 
acted  as  tutor  to  nis  younger  brother  Nicetas.  Mi- 
chael became  a  priest;  Nicetas  studied  history  and 
iurispnulence,  in  addition  to  Iheologj-,  and  rose  to 
high  honours  in  the  imperial  service.  As  go\ernor 
of  the  province  of   Philippopolis,   he  witnessed  the 

Eassage  of  the  Third  Crusade  under  Frederick  Bar- 
arossa,  in  IISO,  a  march  which  entailed  great  hard- 
ships and  sufferings  on  the  whole  Eastern  Empire, 
and  whicli  Walter  Scott  has  dealt  with,  incidentally, 
in  his  "Count  Robert  of  Paris".  Michael,  who,  by 
his  brother's  influence,  had  been  matle  Archbishop 
of  .Athens  in  1175,  had  a  similar  experience  of  "  Latin" 
aggressions,  and  was  even  forced  to  retire  to  the 
island  of  Chios.  Nicetas,  with  his  family,  fled  from 
Constantinople  to  Nicaca,  where  he  died.  Nicetas  is 
the  author  of  several  important  works  concerning 
Byzantine  theology  and  history.  His  "Treasure  of 
Orthodoxy"  (Qriaavpi^  'OpBoioiiai)  is  a  historical 
and  polemical  work  against  all  anti-Christian  here- 
sies, valuable  among  other  reasons  for  the  treatment 
of  contemporary  errors,  and  in  a  way  supplementary 
to  the  famous  "Armory  of  Doctrine"  (JlavoirMa 
Ao-yiuxTiK-fi)  of  Euthymios  Zigabenos.  It  is  also 
prized  for  its  quotations  from  the  sjTiods  of  his 
time  anil  for  the  fragments  it  has  saved  from  lost 
Monophysite  and  other  heretical  writings.  It  has 
never  been  printed  in  its  entirety;  some  portions  of 
it  are  reprinted  from  earlier  editions  in  Migne  (P.  G., 
CXXXIX,  1101-1444;  CXL,  9-L>81).  The  work  was 
written  probably  between  1204  and  1210.  His  fame 
as  an  historian  of  medieval  Constantinople  rests  on 
his  description  in  twenty-two  books  of  the  period 
from  1180  to  1206;  it  is  practically  an  account  of 
the  fateful  reigns  of  the  last  of  the  Comneni, 
especially  the  vicissitudes  of  the  royal  city  during 
the  Fourth  Crus.ide  (1204);  its  siege,  capture,  and 
pillage  by  the  Latin  Christians  (P.  G.,  CXXXIX, 
287-1088).  Krvmibacher  vouches  for  his  generally 
objective  temper  and  equitable  treatment  of  persons 
and  events.  The  style  is  bombastic  and  overladen 
with  rhetorical  ornament.  His  little  treatise  on  the 
statues  destroyed  by  the  Latin  "barbarians"  (De 
Signis,  P.  G.,  CXXXIX,  287)  is  higlily  prized  by 
students  of  classical  antiquities.  Michael,  of  whom 
Krumbacher  says  (p.  4G9)  that  his  tenure  of  the  see  of 
Athens  was  equivalent  to  a  ray  of  light  amid  the 
obscurity  of  ages,  was  a  meritorious  orator,  pastoral 
writer,  poet,  and  correspondent.  His  discourses  cast 
a  s.ad  light  on  the  wretched  conditions  of  contem- 
porary .\ttica,  as  does  his  iambic  elegy  "On  the  City 
of  .Athens",  described  .as  "the  first  and  only  surviv- 
ing lamentation  for  the  decay  and  ruin  of  the  ancient 
and  illustrious  city".  Of  his  letters  ISO  have  reached 
us.  His  character  is  describetl  as  energetic,  but 
gentle  and  upright.  He  was  too  much  a  Byzantine 
to  denounce  the  imperial  authority  in  the  person  of 
the  cruel  .Andronicus,  while  that  monster  lived;  but 
after  his  death,  says  Kmmbacher.  he  could  not  find 
words  enough  to  depict  his  iniquities.  Manv  of  his 
writings  are  in  Migne  (P.  C...  C.\L,  298-384;  124- 
12.iS).  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of 
Spiridion  Lambros  (.Athens,  1879-80). 


AKRA 


240 


ALABAMA 


Krdmbacher,  Getch.  d.  hyzani.  Litteratur  (2d  ed.,  Munich, 
1897).  92  sqq.,  281  sqq.,  468  sqq.;  Carl  Neumann,  6'ri«cA. 
GeachichUchreiber.  etc.  (Leipzig.  1888);  Wilken.  Gesch.  der 
Knuzzugc  V  (Leipzig.  182'J;  for  the  treatise  on  the  statues). 
The  IliMory  of  Nicetas  was  edited  by  Bekker  for  tlie  Corpus 
Script.  Byzant.  (Bonn,  183.5).  The  portions  relating  to  the 
Crusailos  are  found  in  Miller,  Recueil  des  historiens  grecs  dee 
croiaadea  (Paris.  1875).  For  a  comparison  between  Nicetas 
and  the  French  "Herodotus  of  the  Crusades",  Geoffroy  de 
Villehariloum.  see  Sainte  Beuve.  Causeriea  du  Lundi  (faris, 
1854),  IX,  305-40;  see  also  Takel,  Komnenen  und  Normannen 
(1852). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Akra.     See  Amadia. 

Alabama. — The  twenty-second  State  admitted 
into  tlie  Federal  Union  of  America.  It  lies  north 
of  tlie  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  known  as  one  of  the 
Gulf,  or  South  Central,  States.  It  is  bounded  north 
by  Tennessee,  east  by  Georgia,  south  by  the  Gulf 
and  by  Florida,  and  west  by  Mississippi.  It  lies 
between  the  paral- 
lels of  30°  15'  and 
35°  north  latitude, 
and  the  meridians 
of  84°  56'  and  88° 
48'  west  of  Green- 
wich. From  north 
to  south  it  is  336 
miles;  and  east  to 
west,  from  148  to 
200  miles.  It  has 
an  area  of  52,250 
square  miles,  of 
which  710  is  water 
surface  and  51,540 
land  surface.  Its 
area  in  acres  is 
33,440,000.  It  has 
about  2,000  miles  of  navigable  rivers,  and  Mo- 
bile is  its  only  seaport.  The  State  may  be  roughly 
di\'ided  into  the  Tennessee  Valley  on  the  north, 
highly  productive  of  corn,  cotton,  cereals,  and 
fruits;  the  mineral  region;  the  cotton  belt;  the 
timber  and  the  coast  regions.  The  vegetation  in 
the  north  belongs  to  the  temperate  zone,  while  in 
the  south  it  is  semi-tropical.  Fine  hardwood,  as 
well  as  ordinary  timber,  are  to  be  found  well  dis- 
tributed over  the  entire  State.  The  climate  of  the 
State  is  equable,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
are  rarely  experienced.  Animals  and  birds,  usual 
in  the  West  and  South-west,  are  to  be  found.  The 
streams  abound  in  fish  of  almost  every  variety. 
The  principal  crop  is  cotton,  the  yield  in  1905  being 
1,249,685  bales,  giving  the  State  the  third  position 
in  cotton  production.  Corn,  wheat,  oats,  hay,  and 
all  other  farm  and  garden  products  are  profitably 
grown  in  considerable  quantities.  Alabama  has,  in 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  taken  very  high  rank 
as  a  mineral  State.  The  following  are  the  statistics 
for  1905:  iron  ore,  3,782,831  tons;  coal,  11,900,153 
tons;  coke,  2,756,698  tons;  pig  iron,  1,604,062  tons. 
In  addition  to  the  items  just  named,  clay,  bauxite, 
cement,  graphite,  marble,  sulphur,  and  pyrites, 
silver  and  gold  are  mined  in  paying  quantities.  The 
growth  of  the  mineral  interests  has  quickened  the 
laying  out  of  cities,  the  multiplication  of  railroad 
lines,  and  the  development  of  manufactures.  In 
1905  there  were  in  the  State  1,882  manufacturing 
establishments  with  a  caiiital  of  .$105,382,859,  em- 
ploying 3,763  officials,  and  62,173  wage  earners,  and 
turning  out  a  product  vahicd  at  $109,169,922.  The 
eleven  leading  industries  in  1905  were:  car  construc- 
tion, 16  [)lants;  coke,  24;  cotton  goods,  46;  fertilizers, 
19;  foundry  and  machine  sliops,  7S;  blast  furnaces, 
steel  works,  and  rolling  mills,  29;  lumber  and  timber 
products,  .590;  luniljcr-planing-miU  products,  67;  oil, 
cotton,  and  coke,  58;  printing  and  publisliing,  241; 
and  turpentine  and  rosin,  144.  Tlie  following  are  the 
statistics  of  railroad  mileage,  1905:  4,227.70  miles  of 


main  track;  1,317.36  miles  of  side  track;  total  value  of 
main  line,  side  track,  and  rolling  stock,  $53,706,025.93. 
The  public  debt  of  the  State  is  $9,057,000.  The 
State  ta.x  rate  cannot  exceed  si.xty-fi\'e  cents  per 
annum  on  the  hundred  dollars. 

History. — The  territory  now  included  in  the  State 
was  for  hundreds  of  years  the  home  in  part  of  the 
Creek,  Cherokee,  Choctaw,  and  Chickasaw  Indian 
tribes.  It  is  not  possible  to  place  any  approximate 
limit  to  their  occupation,  and  tlieir  early  history  is 
involved  in  obscurity.  (J'ertain  it  is  that  the  abo- 
riginal inhabitants,  first  encountered  by  European 
explorers  in  this  region,  were  the  direct  ancestors  of 
the  tribes  named.  In  the  early  years  of  the  sixteenth 
century  daring  sailors  doubtless  touched  the  shores 
of  Mobile  Bay;  and  survivors  of  the  ill-fated  Narvaez 
expedition  are  believed  to  have  passed  across  the 
lower  part  of  the  State.  In  1540  De  Soto  traversed 
the  State,  entering  near  Rome,  Ga. ,  and  passing  out 
not  far  from  Columbus,  Miss.  On  tlie  18  of  October 
of  that  year  he  fouglit  the  great  battle  of  Mauvila, 
the  most  sanguinary  of  Indian  conflicts  on  the  Ameri- 
can Continent.  He  made  no  settlements,  and  his 
expedition  was  of  no  value  further  than  for  the  record 
left  by  his  chroniclers  concerning  the  Southern 
Indians.  In  1560  a  Spanish  colony  was  located  at 
Nanipacna,  believed  to  be  in  the  present  Wilcox 
county,  Ala.,  but  it  was  short-lived  and  no  details 
are  preserved.  A  century  and  a  half  pass,  and  a  dark 
veil  of  obscurity  covers  the  land.  In  1697,  or  1698, 
three  Englishmen,  coming  overland  from  the  Caro- 
linas,  descended  the  Alabama  River  to  the  village  of 
the  Mobilians  on  the  Mobile  River.  La  Salle  had  in 
the  meantime  (1682)  taken  formal  possession  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  named  the  country  Louisiana. 
Entering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  1699,  Iberville  ex- 
plored the  southern  coast  of  what  is  now  the  L^nited 
States,  and  made  temporary  settlement  at  Old 
Biloxi,  near  the  present  Ocean  Springs,  Miss.  In 
January,  1702,  he  transferred  his  colony  to  27-Mile 
Bluff,  Mobile  River,  in  the  limits  of  what  is  now 
Alabama,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Fort  Louis.  This 
was  the  first  attempt  at  a  permanent  settlement  on 
the  Gulf  Coast,  and  was  the  site  of  Old  Jlobile.  It 
is  an  interesting  fact  that  in  1707  a  number  of  the 
colonists  went  down  to  Dauphin  Island,  where  they 
settled  and  planted  small  crops,  thus  becoming  the 
first  farmers  in  this  territory.  In  1711,  the  site  of 
Fort  Louis  proving  unsatisfactory,  the  whole  colony 
was  removed  to  tlie  present  Mobile,  and  this  town 
was,  until  1720,  the  residence  of  the  governors  and 
the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Louisiana.  In  1714, 
Fort  Toulouse,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Coosa  and 
Tallapoosa  Rivers,  was  planted  as  a  remote  outpost 
for  Indian  trade  and  as  a  buffer  to  the  English  ad- 
vance from  the  South  Atlantic  settlements;  in  1721 
the  first  African  slav'es  were  landed  at  Mobile;  in 
1736,  Fort  Tombeckb6  was  built  on  the  Tombigbee 
River  in  the  heart  of  the  Choctaw  country,  to  keep 
that  tribe  under  French  control;  on  18  Februarj', 
1763,  France  ceded  all  her  possessions  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  excepting  the  Island  of  Orleans,  to 
Great  Britain;  by  treaty  of  30  November,  1782,  mark- 
ing the  close  of  the  contest  of  the  colonies  with 
the  mother  country.  Great  Britain  ceded  to  them 
all  her  claims  north  of  latitude  31°;  and  on  27  Octo- 
ber, 1795,  Spain  relinquished  to  the  ITnited  States 
her  claims  to  West  Florida,  south  of  line  31°.  Miss- 
issippi Territory  w;is  created  by  Act  of  Congress, 
7  April,  179S,  and  tmder  this  and  subsequent  Acts 
of  enlargement  the  present  States  of  Alabama  and 
Mississippi  constituted  one  Territory  until  1817. 
The  Creek  Indian  War  of  1813  and"  1814,  fought 
largely  in  Alabama,  and  which  started  General  An- 
drew Jackson  on  his  long  public  career,  temporarily 
retarded  the  growth  of  tiie  Territory.  On  1  March, 
1817,  Alabama  Territory  wx.  formed,  and  after  the 


ALABAMA 


241 


ALABAMA 


adoption  of  a  constitution  under  an  Emibiing  Act 
of  2  March,  1819,  the  State  was,  14  December,  ionn- 
ally  admitted  into  the  Federal  Union.  St.  Stephens 
was  the  seat  of  government  for  t  he  Territory.  C'ahaba 
was  selected  as  tlie  capital  in  IMS;  Tuscaloo.sa,  \S2Ct; 
and  Montgomery,  1840.  In  1S2.5  (leneral  Lafayette, 
on  his  last  tour  througli  the  United  Stales,  visited 
several  towns  in  Alabama.  In  the  thirties  the  State 
University  w;us  opened,  the  terms  of  tlio  judges  wore 
fixed  for  six  years,  tlie  first  railroad  tracl<  west  of  tlie 
Alleghany  Mountains  was  laid  from  Tuscumbia  in 
the  direction  of  Decatur,  the  Indians  were  removed 
to  the  West,  a  financial  panic  fell  heavily  uoon  tlie 
people,  a  State  penitentiary  was  provided  i)y  law, 
and  imprisonment  for  debt,  except  in  cases  of  fraud, 
was  abolished.  To  tlie  struggles  of  the  heroic 
Texans  Alabama  contributed  a  luimber  of  brave  .sons; 
and  to  the  Mexican  War  she  gave  3,()2()  volunteers. 

Under  the  leadership  of  William  Lowndes  Yancey, 
Alabama  hail  earlv  taken  a  most  advanced  ]iosition 
in  opposition  to  the  Abolition  sCTitiment  ;iud  agita- 
lidii  of  the  North,  and  in  1800  tlie  Legislature  ])ro- 
vidcd  for  a  convention,  in  case  of  the  eh'ction  of 
Lincoln,  "to  do  whatever  in  the  opinion  of  said  con- 
vention, the  rights,  interests  and  honour  of  the 
State  of  Alabama  require  to  be  done  for  their  protec- 
tion". The  convention  met  7  January,  18G1,  and 
on  11  January  passed  an  Ordinance  of  Secession 
by  a  vote  of  01  to  39.  After  its  pa.ssage  the  members 
of  Congress  from  Alabama  withdrew  in  a  body. 
On  4  February,  1801,  in  the  Senate  Uhamber  of  the 
State  capitol  at  Montgomery,  the  delegates  from  six 
seceding  States,  including  Alabama,  met  and  formed 
the  Provisional  (lovernment  of  the  Confederate 
States  of  America.  On  15  April,  1801,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  President  of  the  United  States,  issued  a 
formal  proclamation  of  war,  and  at  once  the  brave 
and  patriotic  people  of  the  State  rallied  to  her  de- 
fence. The  Tennessee  Valley  was  the  theatre  of 
numberless  raids,  and  the  people  suffered  many  in- 
dignities at  the  hands  of  the  Federals.  Tlie  forts 
below  Mobile,  although  strongly  defended,  were 
taken  in  1801,  and  the  town  was  taken  1805.  The 
I'niversity  buildings  were  wantonly  burned  in  1805, 
by  an  invading  force  under  (leneral  Croxton.  Sclma 
and  Montgomery  were  taken  in  1805.  .Maliama 
contributed  to  the  war  from  1801  to  1805  more  than 
100.000  men,  out  of  a  total  white  population,  in  1800, 
of  520,271.  There  was  no  important  battle  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River  in  which  her  troops  did  not 
perform  an  lionourable  part.  Among  the  general 
officers  cre<litcd  to  Alabama  were  Longstrect,  Gor- 
don, Withers,  Forney,  Rodes,  Clayton,  Allen,  Peltus, 
Morgan,  dracie.  Battle,  Sanders,  Kelly,  and  Clorgas. 
Admiral  Semmes  and  the  gallant  John  Pelham  were 
on  the  Confederate  rolls  its  from  Alabama.  On 
21  June,  1805,  by  the  appo]ntnient  of  Lewis  E. 
Parsons  as  Provisional  Crovernor,  civil  government 
was  in  a  measure  set  in  motion,  but  it  was  almost  ten 
years  before  the  people  of  the  State  finally  entered 
upon  a  normal  and  healthy  growth.  The  period 
from  1805  to  1874,  known  as  the  Reconstruction  Kra, 
was  one  continuous  series  of  sickening  experiences 
in  social,  business,  and  political  life,  and  as  a  legacy 
a  debt  of  many  millions  was  fixed  upon  the  people. 
Constitutional  conventions  have  been  held  in  1819, 
1861,   1805,    1867,   1875,    and    1901. 

PopuL.\TioN. — As  previously  stated,  Mobile  and 
vicinity  were  the  first  .settled  portions  of  the  State. 
The  inhabitants  were  largely  French.  For  about 
one  hundred  years  the  interior  had  only  an  isolated 
settlement  liere  and  there.  In  1800,  population  had 
so  increased  on  the  Tombigbee  that  tlie  settlements 
were  formed  into  Wiusliington  county.  About  1805 
the  Tennessee  Valley,  in  the  vicinity  of  Iluntsville, 
received  its  first  settler,  and  in  1808  Madison  county 
was  created.  After  the  Creek  War,  or  about  1815. 
I.- 16 


settlers  in  large  numliers  rushed  in  from  the  South 
Atlantic  seaboard,  consisting  principally  of  American 
pioneers  of  British  origin.  The  Spanish  came  to 
Mobile  in  considerable  numbers  from  1780  to  1811, 
and  the  (iiilf  city  to-day  is  the  only  community  in  the 
State  in  which  there  is  any  very  large  infusion  of  the 
Latin  races.  The  territory  embraced  in  the  State  is 
said  to  have  been  settled  more  rapidly  than  any 
other  section  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1819  pa.s.sed 
from  territorial  pupilage.  In  1800  Washington 
county,  then  in  the  Mississippi  Territory,  had  a  popu- 
lation of  1,2.50;  in  1810  the  counties  of  Baldwin, 
Madison,  and  Washington,  also  in  the  Mississippi 
Territory,  had  9,046.  In  1820  the  population  of  the 
State  at  the  first  census  was  127,901.  In  1900  the 
population  was  1,828,697,  or  more  than  fourteen 
times  that  of  1820.  From  1820  to  1830  the  popula- 
tion increased  142  per  cent,  and  from  1830  to  1840, 
90,9  per  cent,  but  subseiiuently  the  rate  of  increase 
declined  until  the  decade  from  1800  to  1870,  when 
it  Wivs  only  3.4  per  cent.  The  rate  of  increase  of 
1900  over  1,S90  is  20.9  per  cent.  The  total  land  sur- 
face of  the  State  is  approximately  51,540  square 
miles,  anil  the  average  number  of  persons  to  the 
square  mile  was,  for  1890,  29.4;  for  1900,  35.5.  De- 
tailed population  statistics  are  as  follows:  1820,  white 
85,451,  coloured  (including  slaves  and  free  negroes) 
42,450,  total  127,901;  1830,  white  190,400,  col- 
oured 119,121,  total  309,527;  1840,  white  3.35,185, 
coloured  255,571,  total  590,750;  1850,  white  420,514, 
coloured  345,109,  total  771,023  ;  1800,  white 
520,271,  coloured  437,770,  total  904,041;  1870,  white 
.521,384,  coloured  475,510,  all  others  98,  total 
990,992;  1880,  white  062,185,  coloured  600,103,  all 
others  217,  total  1,262,505;  1890,  white  830,790, 
coloured  081,431,  all  others  790,  total  1,513,017; 
1900,  white  1,001,1.52,  coloured  827,307,  all  others 
238,  total  1,828,097.  The  estimated  population  of 
Alabama  on  31  December,  1905,  was  2,017,877,  and 
the  estimated  population  of  the  following  cities, 
same  date,  is  as  follows:  Anniston,  10,919;  Birming- 
ham, 45,869;  Iluntsville,  8,110;  Mobile,  42,903; 
Montgomery,    40,808;  and  Selma,  12,047. 

Education. — During  the  territorial  period,  or 
prior  to  1819,  educational  advantsiges  were  limited 
to  a  few  private  schools  and  academies.  The  Con- 
gressional Enabling  Act  granted  seventy-two  sec- 
tions of  land  "for  the  use  of  a  seminaiy  of  learning", 
and  all  10th  sections,  or  an  equivalent,  "to  the  in- 
habitants for  the  use  of  schools".  The  constitution 
of  1819  provided  that  "schools  and  the  means  of 
education  .shall  be  forever  encouraged".  In  the 
execution  of  this  mandate  the  Legislature  passed  a 
number  of  Acts  regulating  (1)  the  State  University 
and  its  land  grant,  (2)  the  incorporation  and  regula- 
tion of  academies,  and  (3)  the  management  and 
pre-servation  of  the  lOth-section  funds.  ()n  10  Janu- 
ary, 1826,  the  schools  of  Mobile  county  were  regu- 
lated by  an  Act,  through  which  they  were  organized 
in  a  more  or  less  effective  way,  but  it  was  not  until 
15  February,  1854,  that  "a  system  of  free  public 
schools"  was  adopted  for  the  State.  The  State 
University  was  incorporated  18  December,  1821,  and 
on  18  .\pril,  1831,  it  opened  its  doors  for  students. 
The  University  and  well-conducted  academies  in  all 
parts  of  the  State  afforded  the  principal  means  for 
education  prior  to  the  Public-school  Act  of  18.54, 
and  even  for  many  years  after  its  passage.  The 
higher  education  of  women  received  much  attention, 
and  in  Alabama  was  located  the  first  chartered  in- 
stitution to  grant  diplomas  to  women.  The  last 
quarter  of  a  century  has  witnessed  a  remarkable 
increase  of  interest  in  education,  and  at  present 
(1905)  about  one-half  of  the  State's  revenues  go  into 
support  of  the  public  or  common  schools  and  the 
higher  in.stitufions  of  learning.  The  State  Uni- 
versity, the  head  of  the  system,  is  located  at  Tusca- 


ALABAMA 


242 


ALABAMA 


loosa;  the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute  (agricultu- 
ral and  mechanical)  established  in  1872,  is  located  at 
Auburn;  the  Alabama  dirls'  Industrial  School,  at 
Montevallo;  four  normal  colleges,  for  white  pupils, 
at  I'lorence,  Troy,  .lacksonville,  and  Livingston; 
three  normal  schools,  for  negro  pupils,  at  Mont- 
gomery, Tuskegoe,  and  Normal,  and  nine  agri- 
cultural schools  and  experiment  stations  at  Jackson, 
IJvergreen,  Abbeville,  Sylacauga,  Wetumpka,  Hamil- 
ton, Albertville,  Athens,  and  Blountsville.  The 
common  schools  are  directed  by  a  State  superintend- 
ent of  education,  and  the  local  machinery  consists 
of  county  boards  and  district  trustees.  There  are 
fifty  separate  school  districts,  self-governing  or  regu- 
lated by  special  Acts,  as  Montgomery,  Birmingham, 
etc.  Separate  State  institutions  for  both  white  and 
negro  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  are  located  at  Talladega. 
A  Reform  School  for  white  boys  is  conducted  at  East 
Lake.  A  separate  agricultural  experiment  station 
is  maintained  at  Uniontown.  Expenditures  have 
been  made  by  the  State  for  educational  purposes  for 
the  fiscal  year  ending  30  September,  1906,  as  follows: 
public,  or  common,  school  system,  $1,215,115.92; 
Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,  S20,2S0.00;  Uni- 
versity of  Alabama,  $27,000.00;  Deaf,  Dumb,  and 
Blinifinstitutions,  $71,322.50;  .Alabama  Girls'  Indus- 
trial School,  $25,000.00;  Alabama  Industrial  School 
for  White  Boys,  $8,000.00. 

In  addition  to  the  institutions  maintained  from 
the  public  treasury,  there  are  the  following  higlier 
institutions  supported  and  controlled  by  religious 
denominations:  Spring  Hill  College,  near  Mobile; 
St.  Bernard  College,  Cullman;  McGill  Institute, 
Mobile;  St.  Joseph's  College  for  Negro  Catechists, 
Montgomery  (CathoUc);  Southern  University,  Greens- 
boro; North  Alabama  Conference  College,  Birming- 
ham; Athens  Female  College,  Athens;  and  Alabama 
Conference  Female  College,  Tuskegee  (Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  Soutli);  Howard  College,  East 
Lake;  and  Judson  Female  College,  Marion  (Baptist); 
Noble  Institute,  Anniston  (Protestant  Episcopal); 
Synodical  College  for  Men,  Anniston,  and  Isbell 
College,  Talladega  (Presbyterian).  Several  institu- 
tions of  high  grade  are  conducted  as  private  enter- 
f)rises,  notably  the  Marion  Military  Institute.  Col- 
eges  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  are  located  in  Bir- 
mingham and  Mobile;  and  a  school  of  dentistry  at 
Birmingham.  Theological  courses  are  offered  at 
Howard  College  (Baptist);  schools  of  music  and  art, 
and  business  colleges  are  in  operation  in  Birmingham, 
Montgomery,  and  Mobile.  A  law  department  is 
maintained  at  the  State  University. 

Co-education  obtains  in  all  State  institutions,  ex- 
cept in  tlie  .Alabama  Girls'  Industrial  School  and  the 
Livingston  State  Normal  School.  There  are  several 
schools  for  the  higher  education  of  negroes  in  atkli- 
tion  to  the  three  normal  schools  above  noted,  namely: 
Talladega  College,  Talladega;  Alabama  Baptist  Nor- 
mal and  Theological  School,  Selma;  Aca<[emic  and 
Industrial  Institute,  Kowaliga;  Calhoun  Coloured 
School,  Calhoun;  and  Normal  Industrial  Institute, 
Snow  Hill.  The  Theological  School  at  Sehna,  as  tlie 
name  impHcs,  has  a  theological  department;  tlie 
Stillman  Institute  is  conducted  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  (white)  for  tlie  education 
of  negro  preacliers,  and  St.  Joseph's  College,  at 
Montgomery,  is  a  Catholic  institution  for  the  train- 
ing of  negro  catecliists. 

llEi.iGio.v. — The  Catholic  Church  on  the  Alabama 
Gulf  Coast  dates  from  the  coming  of  Iberville's 
colony  in  1699.  He  was  accompanied  by  Fatlier 
Anastase  Douay,  who  had  once  been  an  explorer 
with  La  Salle.  Catholic  mi.ssionaries  were  abroad  in 
the  .Mississippi  Valley  prior  to  this  date,  and  Biloxi 
had  hardly  been  located  wlien  Father  .\ntony  Davion 
made  his  appearance.  He  and  Fatlier  Doug*"'  min- 
istered to  the  spiritual  wants  of  the    colonists  until 


1704,  and  even  after,  but  in  this  year  came  the  induc- 
tion, by  Davion,  of  De  La  Vente  as  priest  of  a  church 
formally  set  up  at  Fort  Louis.  This  step  was  taken 
in  consequence  of  the  erection  of  Mobile  into  a 
canonical  parish  by  the  Bishop  of  Quebec.  From 
this  time  on  the  Church  has  a  continuous  history  in 
Mobile.  La  Vente  alternated  with  Alexander  Huv6, 
his  assistant,  until  1710,  while  tlie  later  continued 
to  about  1722.  Father  Jean  Mattheu,  of  the  Capu- 
chin Order,  officiated  at  Mobile,  1721  to  1736;  while 
Father  Jean  Fran<;ois  and  Father  Ferdinand,  also 
Capuchins,  as  well  as  Jesuits,  were  here  from  1736 
to  1763.  From  time  to  time  numbers  of  other  names 
appear  as  officiating  priests.  The  quaint  manuscript 
records,  showing  births,  deaths,  marriages,  and  bap- 
tisms, are  preserved  in  the  church  archives  at  Mobile. 
Excellent  summaries  and  details  from  these  records 
are  to  be  found  in  Peter  J.  Hamilton's  "Colonial 
Mobile"  (1897).  After  the  occupation  of  Mobile  by 
tlie  Spanish,  in  1780,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  British, 
the  church  was  called  the  Immaculate  Conception,  a 
name  it  has  since  borne.  After  American  occupa- 
tion, in  1812,  for  a  number  of  years  no  substantial  ad- 
vance was  made,  and  in  1825,  when  Bishop  Portier 
ehtered  upon  hi.s  office,  the  church  in  Mobile  was  the 
only  one  in  Alabama,  and  he  was  the  only  priest. 
The  church  building  was  burned  in   1827. 

The  early  priests  were  zealous  missionaries,  and 
with  consecrated  zeal  they  laboured  to  bring  the 
untutored  child  of  the  forest  into  the  fold  of  the 
Church.  Father  Davion,  above  mentioned,  was 
first  a  missionary  to  the  Tunicas.  In  1709  churches 
were  erected  at  Dauphin  Island,  and  also  ten  miles 
above  Mobile  for  a  band  of  Apalache  Indians,  who 
had  been  earlier  converted  by  Spanish  missionaries. 
Father  Charles,  a  Carmelite,  was  a  missionary  among 
them  in  1721.  There  were  missions  at  Fort  Toulouse 
and  Fort  Tombecb^,  and  also  at  Chickasawhay. 
Father  Michael  Baudouin  was  for  eigliteen  years 
among  the  Choctaws.  These  missions  were  largely 
abandoned  after  1763,  owing  to  British  occupation. 
Until  1722  the  parish  of  Mobile  was  a  part  of  the 
Diocese  of  Queoec.  In  this  year,  with  the  sub- 
di\'ision  of  the  southern  country  for  administrative 
purposes  by  Law's  Company,  there  was  a  parceUing- 
out,  or  assignment,  of  the  divisions  to  the  different 
orders  of  the  Church.  The  Illinois  country  went  to 
the  Jesuits;  New  Orleans  and  we.st  of  the  Mississippi 
to  the  Capuchins,  and  the  Mobile  district  to  the 
Barefoot  Carmelites.  In  a  very  short  time  a  change 
was  made,  and  Mobile  was  given  over  to  the  Ca- 
puchins. During  Spanish  occupation  Mobile  was  in 
the  Diocese  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  Later  the  northern 
part  of  the  territorj'  now  embraced  in  the  State  was 
under  the  .Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  while  the  south- 
ern was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Dioce.se  of 
Louisiana  and  Florida.  In  1825  the  Vicariate- 
Apostolic  of  .Maliaiua  and  Florida  was  created,  and 
the  Reverend  Michael  Portier  was  appointed  bishop. 
He  was  consecrated  5  November,  1826.  On  15  May, 
1829,  the  Diocese  of  Mobile  was  created,  embracing 
in  its  bounds  West  Florida  and  all  of  Alabama. 
Bishop  Portier  was  continued  in  his  oHice,  and  served 
until  his  death,  in  1859.  His  successors  in  order 
were  John  Quinlan  (18.59-1883);  Dominic  Manuey 
(1883-188,5);  and  Jeremiah  O'Sullivan  (1885-1897). 
These  men  possessed  marked  ability  and  were  positive 
and  uplifting  forces  in  the  life  of  the  State.  The 
incumbent  bishop  is  the  Right  Reverend  Edward  P. 
.Allen  (1897).  During  the  life  of  the  Church  in  the 
State  it  has  been  served,  in  Mobile  and  at  other 
points,  by  many  priests  of  deep  jiiety  and  extensive 
learning,  and  men  who  have  contributed  their  part 
as  wellin  shaping  the  growtli  of  the  commonwealth 
in  high  civic  ideals.  In  addition  to  the  above-named 
clergy,  the  following  prominent  members  of  the 
Catholic    Church    in    Alabama    should    be     noted: 


ALABAMA 


243 


ALABAMA 


Fatlicr  Abram  J.  Ryan,  poet-priest;  Margaret 
O'Brifii  Davis,  author;  Lucian  Julian  Walker, 
jouniulist  ami  autlior;  Raphael  Semmes,  Admiral  in 
the  Confcclcralf  'states  Navy;  S.  A.  M.  Wood  and 
Alpheus  Baker,  Iiri(;adier-Generals,  C.  S.  A.;  R.  M. 
Sands  and  D.  S.  Troy,  Lieutenant-Colonels,  C.  S.  A,; 
Wm.  R.  Smith,  poet,  historian,  lawyer,  political 
leader,  and  Colonel,  C.  S.  A;  Frank  P.  O'Brien, 
political  leader  and  journalist.  Arthur  and  Kelix 
Mcdill  are  the  names  of  the  founders  and  patrons  of 
McCiill  Institute  at  Mobile.  The  Catholic  population 
of  the  State  at  the  present  writing  is  28,;{97. 

In  educational  and  benevolent  enterprises  the 
Catholic  Cluirch  of  .Mabama  has  an  enviable  record. 
Institutions  devoted  to  charity  and  education  under 
its  direction  are  as  follows:  Spring  Hill  College,  St. 
Bernard  College,  .Vcadeinv  of  the  Visitation,  and 
McdiU  Institute,  at  .Mohil'e;  St.  Vincent's  Hospital, 
at  Binningluun;  Proviilcnce  Infirmary,  at  Mobile;  and 
St.  Margaret's  Hospital,  at  Montgomery.  Convents 
and  schools  arc  conducted  in  Montgomery  and 
Birmingham  by  the  Sisters  of  Loretto,  in  Sclma  by 
tli('  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  Cullman  by  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  and  in  Tuscumbia  by  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Benedict.  .Vn  asylum  for  boys  is  con- 
ducted at  Mobile  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred 
Heart:  and  for  girls  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  of 
i:mniitlsburg,  Md.  St.  Joseph's  College  for  negro 
catediists  is  located  near  Montgomery.  A  Catholic 
newspaper,  The  Messenger,  is  published  in  the  same 
city. 

Protestant  and  other  religious  efforts. — From  the 
very  first  arrival  of  American  emigrants  the  Prot- 
estant denominations  were  represented,  but  it  was 
not  until  180S  that  formal  organization  of  congrega- 
tions took  place.  They  entered  the  field  that  year 
iiiost  probably  in  the  following  order:  Methodist, 
Cumberland  Presbyterian,  and  Baptist.  However, 
in  the  territorial  period  the  struggle  for  existence  on 
the  part  of  settlers  was  so  intense  that  no  very  gen- 
eral progress  wa.s  niatle  until  the  first  decade  of 
statehood.  From  1819  to  1832  they  entered  upon 
a  real  healthy  growth  and  expansion.  A  higher 
state  of  intellectual  cultivation  existed  among  the 
preachers.  Regular  hou.ses  of  worship  took  the 
places  of  the  makeshifts  of  private  houses,  the  county 
courthouse,  and  the  open  air.  The  camp-meeting 
grew  to  be  a  most  potent  factor  in  awakening  religious 
interest,  and  in  advancing  the  cause  of  the  churches. 
In  October,  1823,  the  Baptist  State  Convention  wa.s 
organized.  On  1  March,  1821,  the  Presbytery  of 
Alabama  was  formed,  and  in  1834  the  Synod  of 
Alabama  was  set  off  from  the  Missi.ssippi  Synotl. 
From  its  introduction  into  the  State,  in  1808,  to  1832 
the  Methodist  Church  had  at  various  times  been  in 
part  under  the  .South  Carolina,  the  Tennessee,  the 
Mis.sis.sippi,  and  the  Georgia  Conferences.  In  the 
latter  year  the  .-Vlabama  Conference  was  organized. 
The  Methodist  Protestant  Church  was  organized  in 
Alabama  in  1829.  While  there  were  numbers  of 
individual  Episcopalians  in  the  State  fmm  the  date 
of  the  occupation  of  its  territor\'  by  Great  Britain, 
it  was  not  until  182,')  that,  in  Mobile,  its  first  lOpisco- 
pal  church  was  organized,  but  it  had  no  minister 
until  December,  1827.  .\  Primary  Convention  was 
held  25  January,  l&JO,  and  an  organization  ofTected. 
According  to  the  most  reliable  information,  the 
Southern  Baptists  in  .Vlabama  number  l.'iO.Dl.');  the 
Methoilist  Kpiscopalians.  1.33,(KX);  the  Southern 
Presbyterians,  1.5,021).  The  following  denominations 
are  also  representeil  in  the  State:  Unitarians.  Congre- 
gationalists.  I'niversalists,  Christian  Scientists,  Luth- 
erans. Salvation  Anny,  an<l  Canipbcllites.  Nearly 
all  denominations  are  well  represented  among  the 
coloured  population,  which  also  has  several  religious 
organizations  of  its  own.  The  Jews  have  strong 
congregations  in  all  of  the  leading  towns.     Sectarian 


schools  have  already  been  noted  under  the  head  of 
education.  Orphan  a-sylums  and  other  benevolences 
are  conducted  by  the  Baptists,  Methodists,  Presby- 
terians,  Kpiscopalian.s,  and   the  Salvation  Army. 

State  taivs  on  subjects  direclli/  afferling  religion. — 
Under  the  Constitution  of  1901,  wliich  practically 
followed  earlier  instruments,  it  is  provided  (Section  2): 
"That  no  religion  shall  be  established  by  law;  that 
no  preference  shall  be  given  by  law  to  any  religious 
sect,  .society,  (lenominalioii  or  mode  of  \vorshi[);  that 
no  one  shall  be  compelled  by  law  to  attend  any  place 
of  worship,  nor  to  pay  any  tithes,  taxes  or  other  rate 
for  building  or  repairing  any  place  of  worship,  or 
for  maintaining  any  minister  or  ministry;  that  no 
rehgious  test  shall  oe  required  a.s  a  qualification  to 
any  office  or  public  trust  under  this  State;  and  that 
the  civil  rights,  privileges  and  capacities  of  any 
citizen  shall  not  be  in  any  manner  affected  by  his 
religious  principles".  In  the  courts  testimony  is 
required  to  be  gi\en  under  oath  or  affirmation.  No 
search  warrant  can  issue  unless  supported  by  oath. 
All  executive,  legislative,  and  juuicial  ofTiccrs  are 
required  to  take  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitu- 
tions of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  State,  and  to 
faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  the  office.  By 
statute  the  word  "oath"  includes  "affirmation". 
(See  71  Ala.  Reports,  319,  for  discussion  of  nature 
and  character  of  an  oath.)  The  observance  of  Sun- 
day is  not  directly  enjoined,  but  the  sanctity  of  the 
day  is  recognized  in  the  prohibition  against  the 
working  of  a  child,  apprentice,  or  servant,  except  in 
"the  customary  domestic  duties  of  daily  necessity 
or  comfort,  or  works  of  charity",  al.so  in  the  pro- 
hibition against  shooting,  hunting,  gaming,  card- 
playing,  or  racing,  or  keeping  open  store  or  market 
(except  by  druggists)  on  that  day.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  these  provisions  "do  not  apply  to  the 
running  of  railroatls,  stages,  or  steamboats,  or  other 
vessels  navigating  the  waters  of  this  State,  or  any 
manufacturing  establishment  which  requires  to  be 
kept  in  constant  operation".  There  is  no  statute 
against  blasphemy  or  profanity,  as  such,  these  sub- 
jects being  regulated  as  at  common  law.  There  is 
no  constitutional  or  statutory  provision  requiring 
the  use  of  prayer  in  the  State  Senate  and  Hou.se 
of  Representatives,  but  it  has  always  been  customary 
for  each  body  to  provide  for  such  a  service  to  be  held 
at  the  opening  of  the  day's  session.  I'sually  the 
clergymen  of  the  capital  city,  without  discrimina- 
tion, are  a.sked  to  alternate.  Among  other  holidays, 
Sunday,  Christmas,  and  Good  Friday,  are  set  apart 
by  statute  for  public  ob.servance. 

Laws  on  subjects  affecting  religious  work. — Members 
of  any  church  or  religious  society,  or  the  owners  of 
a  graveyard,  may  become  incorporated  by  comply- 
ing with  a  liberal  .statute  on  the  subject,  and  may 
hold  real  and  personal  property  not  to  exceed 
$.50,000  in  value.  The  property  of  institutions  de- 
voted cxdu.sively  to  religious,  educational,  or  charita- 
ble purposes  is  exempt  from  taxation  to  a  limited, 
yet  liberal,  extent.  Ministers  in  charge  of  churches 
are  exempt  from  jury  duty.  Military  service  is 
voluntarv.  Marriage  Del  ween  whites  and  negroes 
is  prohibited.  Lcgi.slative  divorce  is  not  allowed 
under  the  constitution.  With  certain  limitations  the 
following  are  the  statutory  grounds  for  divorce: 
physical  and  incurable  incaiiacity.  adultery,  volun- 
tary abandonment,  imprisonment  in  the  penitentiary, 
the  commission  of  the  crime  against  nature,  habitual 
drunkenness,  and  cruelty.  The  Constitution  pro- 
hibits the  appropriation  of  public  school  funds  in  sup- 
Eort  of  any  sectarian  or  denominational  school, 
liberal  charters  of  incorporation  are  allowed  to 
charitable  institutions,  and  their  property  is  exempt 
from  taxation  as  above,  but  no  public  funds  can  be 
appropriated  to  any  charitable  institution  "not  umlcr 
the  absolute  control  of  the  State".     Cemeteries  are 


ALABANOA 


244 


ALAIN 


not  subject  to  taxation.  The  sale  of  liquors  is  regu- 
lated by  State,  county,  and  municipal  license. 
Special  proliibition  laws,  local  dispensaries,  and  local- 
option  laws  are  in  operation  in  various  parts  of  tlie 
State.  .\  State  penitentiary  is  maintained.  State 
and  county  convicts,  under  general  or  local  regula- 
tions, arc  worked  in  tlie  mines,  in  lumber  camps,  on 
tiie  public  roads,  on  farms,  and  in  factories.  A  re- 
form school  for  wliito  boys  is  conducted  by  the  State 
at  East  Lake.  Insane  hospitals,  for  the  wliites  at 
Tuscaloosa,  and  for  the  negroes  at  Mt.  Vernon,  are 
generously  supported  by  the  State.  Liberal  regula- 
tions obtain  on  the  suljjects  of  wills  of  real  and 
personal  property,  limited  to  soundness  of  mind,  and 
to  persons  of  twenty-one  years,  in  the  case  of  realty, 
and  eighteen  years,  in  tlie  case  of  personalty.  De- 
vises may  be  made  to  any  person  or  corporation 
capable  by  law  of  holding  real  estate.  Tlie  Supreme 
Court  has  held  tliat  a  bequest  to  "the  Baptist 
Societies  for  Foreign  and  Domestic  Missions  and  the 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society",  is  valid;  also 
one  to  "Pilgrim's  Uest  Association",  and  also  one 
for  the  erection  of  monuments  to  certain  named  per- 
sons. But  in  the  case  of  Festorazzi  vs.  St.  Joseph's 
Church  (104  .-Via.,  327),  it  was  held  that  a  bequest 
to  a  church  to  be  expended  in  saying  Mass  for  the 
repo.se  of  the  testator's  soul  is  invalid,  because  the 
church  might  apply  the  fund  to  other  uses,  and  thus 
defeat  the  testator's   intent. 

Alabfimn  Historical  Socit'ti/,  Transactions  (1898-1904)  and 
MiscelUineous  Collections  (1901);  Berney,  Handbook  of  Ala- 
bama  (1892);  Brewer,  Alabama  (1872);  Brown,  History  of 
Alabama  for  Schools  (1900);  Joel  C.  Du  Bose,  Sketches  of 
Alabama  History  (1901);  John  W.  Dn  Bo.se,  Life  and  Times 
of  Wm.  L,  Yancey  (1892);  Fleming,  Civil  War  and  Recon- 
struction in  Alabama.  (1905);  Garrett,  Public  Men  in  Alabama 
(1872);  H.\LBERT  AND  T.  H.  Ball.  Creek  War  of  1813  and 
ISli  (1895);  Hamilton,  Colonial  Mobile  (1897);  Hodcson, 
Cradle  of  the  Confederacy  (1870);  McCorvev,  Government  of 
Oie  People  of  Alabama  (1895);  Miller,  History  of  Alabama^ 
(1901);  Monette,  History  of  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi 
(1848);  OvvKN,  Hihlioyraphy  of  Alabama  (1898);  Pickett, 
History  of  Alabama,  ed.  b.v  Owen  (1900);  Riley,  History  of 
the  Baptists  of  Alabama  (1895);  Shea,  Catholic  Missions  (1854), 
and  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  ^oithin  tlie  United  States 
(1886-92);  West,  History  of  Methodism  in  Alabama  (1898); 
Whitaker,  History  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
Alabama   (1898). 

Thomas  M.  Owen. 

Alabanda,  a  titular  see  of  Caria  in  Asia  Minor, 
supposed  to  be  the  present  Arab-Hissar.  A  list  of 
its  bishops  is  known  from  451  to  879.  In  antiquity 
its  inhabitants  were  noted  for  their  habits  of  luxury. 
It  was  tlie  seat  of  a  district  court  in  imperial  times 
and  a  very  flourishing  town. 

.Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom.  Geogr.,  I,  81;  Lequien, 
Oriens  Christianas  (1740),  1,  91. 

Alabaster  ((ir.  dXdfJmrrpos.-oi';  Lat.  alabaster, -trum; 
of  uiicortaiii  origin).  Tlie  substance  commonly 
known  a.s  alabaster  is  a  fine-grained  variety  of  gyp- 
sum (calcium  sulphate)  much  used  for  vases  and 
other  ornamental  articles.  Oriental  alabaster,  the 
alahaxtrites  of  the  classical  writers,  is  a  translucent 
marble  (calcium  carbonate)  obtained  from  stalagmitic 
deposits;  because  of  its  usually  banded  structure, 
which  gives  it  some  resemblance  to  onjrx,  it  is  al.so 
called  onyx  marble,  or  simply,  though  incorrectly, 
onyx.  From  remote  times  it  was  highly  esteemed 
for  decorative  purposes.  Among  the  ancients  Ori- 
ental alal)aster  was  frequently  iLsed  for  vases  to 
hold  unguents,  in  the  belief  that  it  preserved  them; 
whence  the  vases  were  called  alabasters,  even  when 
made  of  other  materials.  Such  was  the  "alabastrum 
unguenti"  (Matt.,  xxvi,  7;  Mark,  xiv,  3;  Luke,  vii, 
37),  with  which  the  sinful  woman  anointed  the  Sav- 
iour. The  vase,  however,  thougli  probably  of  ala- 
baster, was  not  necessarily  of  that  material,  as  our 
English  translation  "alabaster  box  of  ointments" 
seerns  to  imply. 

TuoMAH  in  Via., 


Diet,  de  la  Bible,  I,  330. 


F.  Bechtel. 


I,  The  Diocese  of. — .\  South  American  dio- 
cese, in  eastern  Brazil,  dependent  on  Bahia.  By  a 
decree  of  Leo  XIII,  Poslremis  hisce  temporibus,  2  July, 
1900,  it  was  separated  from  the  Diocese  of  Olinda. 
It  comprises  tlie  State  of  Alagoas,  bounded  by 
Pemambuco  on  the  north  and  north-west,  the  -Atlantic 
on  the  south-east,  and  Sergipe  on  the  south-west. 
Area,  22,583  square  miles.  Population  (1890), 
648,009.  Monsignor  Castilho  de  Brandao,  the  first 
bishop,  who  resides  at  Maceio,  the  capital,  a  town 
of  12,000  inhabitants,  was  consecrated  at  Belera 
de  Para,  7  Sept.,  1894,  and  transferred  to  this  see, 
5  June,  1901. 

B.VTTANDlER,  Ann.  Pontif.  Cath.,  1906. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Alagona,  Pietro,  theologian,  b.  at  Syracuse,  1549; 
d.  in  Rome,  19  October,  1624.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1.564,  taught  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  was  Rector  of  Trapani.  His  first 
works  were  published  under  the  family  name  of  his 
mother,  Givarra.  Later  on  he  used  his  own  name. 
Alagona,  and  is  best  known  for  his  Compendium  ol 
the  works  of  Martin  Aspilcueta,  who  was  a  doctor 
of  theology  in  Navarre.  This  Martin  Aspilcueta 
was  the  uncle  of  St.  Francis  Xavier.  The  "Enchiri- 
dion, seu  Manuale  Confessariorum.  "  which  was  com- 
piled by  Alagona.  went  through  at  least  twenty-three 
editions.  A  translation  of  it  into  French,  by  Legard, 
was  condemned  by  the  Parliament  of  Rouen,  12  Feb- 
ruary, 1762.  He  also  published  a  compendium  of 
the  "Summa, "  which  ran  through  twenty-five  edi- 
tions, and  a  compendium  of  the  whole  of  Canon  Law 
in  two  volumes,  quarto.  In  the  Jesuit  College  of 
Palermo  there  is  also  found  a  treatise  by  Alagona 
on  Logic  and  Physics. 

Southwell;  Mongitone;  Sommervogel,  Bibliothl'Que  de 
la  c.  de  J.,  I,  108  and  in  Diet,  de  tfi^ol.  cath.;  Hurter,  Nomen- 
clator,   I,  360. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alain  Chartier.     See  Chartier. 

Alain  de  I'lsle,  (also  called  Alain  of  Lille, 
Al-\nus  ab  Insulis,  or  de  Insulis,  Al.^in  von  Rys- 
sel  etc.),  monk,  poet,  preacher,  theologian,  and  eclec- 
tic philosopher,  b.  prob.ably  at  Lille,  whence  his  name, 
about  1128;  d.  at  Citeaux,  1203.  Alain,  there  is  rea- 
son to  believe,  studied  and  tauglit  for  some  time  in 
Paris.  In  1179  he  took  part  in  tlie  Third  Council 
of  the  Lateran.  Later  he  entered  the  Monastery  of 
Citeaux,  where  he  died  in  1202  or  1203.  Alain  at- 
tained extraordinary  celebrity  in  his  day  as  a  teacher 
and  a  learned  man;  he  was  called  Alain  the  Great, 
The  Universal  Doctor,  etc.  To  this  the  legend  al- 
ludes, according  to  which  a  scholar,  discomfited  in  a 
dialectical  contest,  cried  out  that  his  opponent  was 
"either  .\lain  or  the  devil".  Alain's  principal  work 
is  "Ars  Fidei  Catholicse",  dedicated  to  Clement  III, 
and  composed  for  the  purpose  of  refuting,  on  rational 
grounds,  the  errors  of  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and 
heretics.  With  the  same  view  he  wrote  "Tractatus 
Contra  Hareticos"  and  "Theologies  RcguhT".  He 
wrote  two  poems,  "De  Planctu  Naturx"  and  "Anti- 
claudianus".  The  only  collection  of  .Main's  works 
is  Migne's  somewliat  uncritical  edition,  P.  L.,  CCX. 
The  two  poems  are  iiulilished  by  Wriglit  in  "Satiri- 
cal Poets  of  the  Twelfth  Century",  11  (Herum  Brit.an- 
nicarum  Scriptores).  Tliere  arc  several  of  Alain's 
treatises  still  unpublished,  for  instance,  "De  Virtu- 
tibus  et  Vitiis"  (Codex,  Paris,  Bibl.  Nat.,  n.  3238). 
.Main's  tlieology  is  characterized  by  that  peculiar 
variety  of  rationalism  tinged  with  mysticism  wliich 
is  found  in  the  writings  of  John  Scotus  Erigena, 
and  which  afterwards  reappeared  in  the  works  of 
Raymond  LuUy.  The  mysticism  is,  perliajis.  more 
in  flie  style  than  in  the  matter;  the  rationalism  con- 
sists in  the  effort  to  prove  that  all  religious  trullis, 
even  the  mysteries  of  faitli.  flow  out  of  princijiles 
that  are  self-evident  to  the  human  reason  unaided 


ALAIS 


245 


by  revelation.  His  pliilosopliy  is  a  syncretism,  or 
eclecticism,  in  wliicli  tlie  pnncijial  elements  are  Pla- 
tonism,  Aristoteleunism,  ami  Pytliagoreanism.  Ho 
esteemed  Plato  a.s  the  jjliilosoplier;  Aristotle  lie  re- 
garded merely  as  a  subtle  logician.  His  knowledge 
of  Plato  lie  derived  from  Martiamis  Capella  AnuleiiLs, 
Hoethius,  and  the  members  of  the  -school  of  Chartres; 
his  first-liand  acquaintance  with  the  "Oialogues" 
being  limited  to  Chalcidius's  rendering  of  a  fragment 
of  the  "Tiina'us".  He  was  acauainteil  with  .some 
of  .Aristotle's  logical  writings  ana  with  the  commen- 
taries of  Hoethius  anil  Porphyry.  He  derixcil  liis 
Pythagoreanism  from  the  so-called  Hernietical  writ- 
ers, .Vsdepius  and  Mercurius.  Finally  his  mystic 
manner  was  influenced  by  Pseudo-Dionysius  and 
John  Scotus  Erigena. 

The  effect  of  all  these  influences  was  an  attempt 
on  Alain's  part  to  fu.se  into  one  system  the  various 
elements  derived  from  dilfercnt  sources,  without  tak- 
ing mucli  pains  to  finil  a  common  basis  or  a  principle 
of  organic  .synthesis.  Thus,  in  psychology  lie  gives 
at  ditTerent  times  three  different  divisions  of  the 
faculties  of  the  soul:  a  twofoUl  {ratio,  sensiialilan), 
a  threefold  (saiiifittia,  voluntas,  voluntas),  and  a  fi\-c- 
fold  (sensus,  imnijinatio,  ratio,  intellectus,  inlcHiijcn- 
tia).  The  soul,  lie  teaches,  is  spirit;  the  body,  matter 
(in  later  Platonic  sense);  and  the  bond  between  them 
is  a  physical  spirit  (spiritus  phijsicus).  In  cosmologj' 
he  teaches  that  God  first  created  "Nature",  who.se 
role  it  was  to  act  as  his  intermediary  {Dei  auctoris 
vicaria)  in  tlie  details  of  creating  and  organizing 
matter  into  the  visible  universe.  .\t  every  step  in 
this  portion  of  his  philosophy  the  influence  of  the 
nco-Pythagorcans  appears.  As  a  writer,  Alain  ex- 
hibited an  unusual  combinatifin  of  iwetio  imagina- 
tiveness and  dialectical  precision.  He  modelled  his 
style  on  that  of  Martianus  Capella,  tliough  in  his 
later  years  the  influence  of  Boetliius  was,  pcrliajis, 
predominant.  He  is  to  be  enumerated  among  the 
medieval  writers  who  influenced  Dante. 

Baumqartser,  Dif  Philot,  d.  Alanua  de  IniuHs  etc.  in 
Beitr.  z.  Gegch.  d.  Philot.  d.  M..\..  (MUnster,  1896)  Bd.  II; 
Baumker,  Hamltchrijtlichea  zu  den  M'rrken  des  Alanua 
(Fulda,  1894);  Ukukkweo,  Geiich.  d.  Philos.,  (Berlin,  1905), 
B(l.  11,9  Ed.,  214  sqq.;  HaurIcau, //i«(.  df /n  p/it(.  »ro(.  (Paris, 
1872),  I,  521  W].:  De  Wulf,  llhl.  de  la  phit.  acol.  duns  leu 
Pays-Bas  (Louvain,  IS95),  41  9<i.;  Tvrner,  Iliat.  of  Phil. 
(Boston,   1903),  301,  302. 

WiLi,i.\M  Turner. 

Alais,  Peace  of.    See  Huguenots. 

Alalia  (Alalius),  a  titular  see  of  Phoenicia  (Pal- 
myra), whose  episcopal  list  is  known  from  325  to  -I.")!. 
It  was  located  near  the  Euphrates,  and  was  a  suf- 
fragan of  Damascus. 

Leqciex,  Orims  Chrial.  (1740),  II,  847-848. 

Alaman,  Lucas,  a  Mexican  statesman  and  histo- 
rian of  great  merit,  b.  at  tluanajuato  in  Mexico,  of 
Spanish  parents,  1,S  October,  1792;  d.  in  the  city  of 
Mexico,  2  June,  l.S,"),'{.  He  received  his  early  educa- 
tion in  the  city  of  Mexico,  went  to  Spain  and  France 
in  181-1,  and  returned  to  America  in  1815.  He  made 
a  second  voyage  between  1S15  and  1823;  in  1824 
he  became  Secretary  of  State  of  the  Mexican  Re- 
public. Alaman  w;ls  a  moderate  Republican,  and, 
therefore,  violently  persecuted  by  the  extremistic  fac- 
tions in  IKU,  and  compelled  to'  hide  for  a  full  year. 
.\fter  18;}(i  he  dedicated  himself  to  literary  .and  his- 
torical work  until  ISol,  when  Santa  Ana  recalled  him 
to  the  post  of  Secretary  of  State.  His  two  monu- 
mental works  are:  "  Discrtacioncs  sobre  la  Historia 
de  la  Republica  mexicana"  (Mexico,  1844),  and  "  His- 
toria de  Mexico,  desde  los  primeros  movimientos  que 
prepararonsu  independencia  en  el  afio  de  181)8,  ha.sta 
la  epoca  presente  (Ibid.,  1849).  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  (now  antiquated)  conceptions  of  the  primi- 
tive condition  of  the  Mexican  Indians,  these  works 
are  of  st;iiid:ird  value. 

[)i'-rnm'irtii  tunrirHttl  de  historia  y  de  geoffrafia  (Mexico, 
1853),   I.   Introduction,   .-In  obituary    of    Alaman;    Memoriaa 


de  la  academia   mericana    (Mexico,   1878),  I,  4;    Montrb  db 
Oca,  Oraciiin  funebre  en  lag  honraa  de  D.  Juan  Ruiz  de  Obregon. 

Ad   F.  Handelier. 

Alamanni,  Niccol^,  a  Roman  antiquary  of  Creek 
origin,  b.  at  Ancona,  12  January,  15S;j;  d.  in  Rome, 
162G.  He  was  educated  in  Rome  at  the  Greek  Col- 
lege, founded  by  Gregory  XllI,  but  was  ordained 
deacon  and  priest  according  to  tlie  Latin  rite.  After 
teaching  Greek  for  some  time  to  pcr.-ions  of  rank,  he 
was  appointed  secretary  to  Cardinal  Horghe.se,  and 
afterwards  m:ulc  custodian  of  the  N'atican  Library. 
His  de;ith  is  said  to  ha\e  been  caused  by  too  close 
atteiulance  at  the  erection  of  the  high  altar  of  St. 
Peter's,  to  which  honourable  duty  he  had  been  as- 
signeil  with  oriiers  to  see  that  the  sepulchres  of  the 
holy  martyrs  were  not  interfered  with  in  the  course 
of  the  work.  He  wrote  a  "Syntagma  de  Lateran- 
ensibus  parietibus"  (Rome,  1625)  on  the  occasion  of 
restorations  carried  out  in  the  church  of  St.  John 
Lateran  by  his  patron.  Cardinal  Horghese,  also  a 
dissertation  on  the  relative  importance  of  the  right 
ami  left  side  as  exhibited  in  certain  old  papal  coins 
that  place  St.  Paul  to  the  right  of  St.  Peter,  "De 
dextra!  hevieiiuc  manus  pra-rogativiX  ex  antiquis  Pon- 
tificum  nummis  Paulum  Petro  apostolo  anteponen- 
tibus. "  He  is  known  in  the  history  of  classical 
literature  as  the  editor  (Lyons,  1G23)  of  the  famous 
".Vnecdota",  or  "Secret  History  ",  of  Procopius,  a  work 
that  was  violently  criticized  outside  of  Italy. 

MorAri,  Dul.  huslorique  (1740),  I,  206;  Nicius  E"rytuk<ed8, 
Pinacotheca  Imay.  III.,  I,  Ixx.  ^ 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 
Alan,  William.     See  Allen. 

Alan  of  Tewkesbury,  a  Benedictine  abbot  and 
writer,  d.  1202.  Alan  is  stated  by  Gervase  of  Can-i 
terbury,  a  contemporary  chronicler,  to  have  been 
English  by  race,  i.  e.  not  of  Norman,  or  any  immi- 
grant, extraction.  He  is  supposed  to  have  spelit 
some  years  at  Benev.ento  in  lUily,  before  entering 
the  Benedictine  novitiate  at  Canterbury,  where  he 
became  Prior  in  1179.  He  zealously  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  clergy  against  Henry  II  in  the  struggle 
which  led  to  the  niartyrd<mi  of  St.  Thomas.  He  was 
reinoved  from  Canterburj-  to  the  Abbey  of  Tewkes- 
bury, where  he  could  less  effectively  oppose  Henry's- 
encroachments  on  the  rights  of  the  church.  'I  he- 
intimacy  with  iSt.  Thomas  which  Alan  of  Tewkes- 
bury enjoyed,  and  his  almost  lifelong  acquaintance 
with  the  politico-ecclesiastical  controversies  of  the 
time,  qualified  him  to  write  the  "Life of  St. Thomas," 
whicli  (as  Life  of  Becket)  is  printed  in  the  second 
volume  of  "Materials  for  the  History  of  Thomas 
Becket  ",  edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  C.  Robertson  (Rolls 
Series,  London,  1875-85;  Part  I,  CXC,  1475-88). 
Alan  also  collected  and  arranged  a  number  of  the 
Saint's  epistles.  Critics  are  doubtful  iis  to  the  genu- 
incness  of  the  other  works  traditionally  ascribed  to 
him. 

Diet,  of  Nat.  Bion.,  8.  v.;  Gervase,  Chronica,  e<I.  Studbs 
{Rolls  Series,  Ix>ni]on,  1879-80);  Robertson,  preface  to 
Materials  for  the  History  of  Thomat  Becket. 

E.  Macpherson. 

Alan  of  'Walsingham,  d.  c.  1304;  a  celebrated  ar- 
chitect, first  heard  of  in  1314  as  a  junior  monk  at  Ely, 
distinguished  by  his  skill  in  goldsmith's  work,  and  for 
his  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  mechanics. 
He  afterwards  turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of 
ardiitecturc,  and  in  1331,  when  sub-prior  of  his 
(■onvent,  designed  and  Ix^gati  to  build  the  beautiful 
St.  Mary's  Chapel  (now  Trinity  Church),  attached  to 
the  cathedral.  .'\t  the  same  time  he  was  engaged 
in  the  erection  of  Prior  Cranden's  chapel,  the  new 
sacristy,  and  many  minor  works.  In  December, 
1321,  he  was  elected  .sacristan,  with  .sole  charge  of 
the  fabric  of  the  cathedral.  In  Februarj',  1322,  the 
great  tower  of  the  cathedral  fell,  ami  carried  with  it 
the  choir  and  other  attached  portions  of  the  struct- 


ALANUS 


246 


ALASKA 


lire.  Instead  of  rebuilding  the  four  piers,  which 
carried  the  Norman  (square)  tower— a  weal<  point 
in  catliedral  construction  from  tliat  day  to  this— 
Alan  advanced  tlie  supports,  to  the  extent  of  one 
bay,  into  eadi  arm  of  the  cross;  and  by  so  doing  he 
not  only  distributed  tlie  weight  upon  eight  piers  in- 
stead of  four,  but  oljtained  a  magnificent  central 
octagonal  hall,  which  he  roofed  with  a  dome  sur- 
mounted by  a  lofty  lantern.  The  result  was  not 
only  very  beautiful,"  but  in  every  sense  original.  It 
is  almost  certain  that  Alan  never  travelled  beyond 
the  limits  of  his  convent,  and  that  he  was  not  ac- 
quainted, except  perhaps  from  hearsay,  with  the 
domed  churches  of  the  East,  whose  principles  of 
construction,  moreover,  differ  essentially  from  those 
employed  by  Alan.  His  \\ork  remains  to  this  day 
unique  among  the  cathedrals  of  Europe.  He  sub- 
sequently rebuilt  the  bays  of  the  choir,  which  had 
been  ruined  by  the  fall  of  the  great  tower,  and  these 
are  admittedly  amongst  the  most  beautiful  examples 
of  Decorated,  or  Second  Pointed,  English  Gothic. 
In  1341  Alan  was  elected  prior  of  his  convent,  and  in 
1344  to  the  bishopric  of  Ely,  rendered  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Simon  de  Montacute.  When  he  thus  became 
bishop-elect  the  works  connected  with  the  fabric  of 
the  cathedral  had  been  conducted  to  a  successful  ter- 
mination, leaving  for  his  successor  only  the  decorations 
and  fittings.  His  election,  however,  was  set  aside 
by  the  Pope  in  favour  of  Thomas  L'Isle,  a  Dominican 
friar,  who  was  at  Avignon  with  the  Pope  at  the  time. 
A  similar  honour  was  destined  for  Alan  in  1361,  but 
the  choice  of  the  convent  was  again  overruled,  and 
Simon  Langhara,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  Cardinal,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Ely 
in  his  stead.  The  possessions  of  the  convent  were 
said  to  have  increased  under  his  wise  and  capable 
administration. 

Ddgdale.  Uonaslicon  (ed.  1817),  I.  468;  Thomas  Wal.s- 
tNGHAM,  Hist.  Anglicana  in  R.  S.,  II,  104;  Wharton,  Anglia 
Sacra,  I,  684;  CoUon.   MSS.,  Tit.  A.   I. 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Alanus  de  Rupe  (sometimes  de  la  Roche),  b. 
about  1428;  d.  at  ZwoUe  in  Holland,  8  September, 
1475.  Some  writers  claim  him  as  a  native  of  Ger- 
many, others  of  Belgium;  but  liis  disciple,  CorneUus 
Sneek,  O.P.,  assures  us  that  he  was  born  in  Brittany. 
Early  in  Ufe  he  entered  the  Dominican  Order,  and 
wliile  pursuing  his  stutlies  at  Saint  Jacques,  Paris, 
he  distinguished  liimself  in  philosophy  and  theology. 
From  1459  to  1475  he  taught  almost  uninterruptedly 
at  Paris,  Lille,  Douay,  Ghent,  and  Rostock  in 
Germany,  where,  in  1473,  he  was  made  Master  of 
Sacred  Theology.  During  his  sixteen  years  of  teach- 
ing he  became  a  most  renowned  preacher.  He  was 
indefatigable  in  what  he  regarded  as  his  special 
mission,  the  preaching  and  re-establishment  of  the 
Kosary,  wliich  he  did  with  success  throughout  north- 
em  France,  Flanders,  and  the  Netherlands.  His 
vision  of  the  restoration  of  the  devotion  of  the 
Rosary  is  assigned  to  the  year  1460.  Alanus  pub- 
lished nothing  during  his  lifetime,  but  immediately 
after  liis  death  tlie  brethren  of  liis  province  were 
commanded  to  collect  his  writings  for  publication. 
These  were  edited  at  different  times  and  have  occa- 
sioned much  controversy  among  scholars.  His  rela- 
tions of  the  visions  and  sermons  of  St.  Dominic,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  revealed  to  Alanus,  are  not  to  be 
regarded  as  liistorical.  His  works  are  published  by 
Grajsso  in  "Tr6sor  des  livres  rares  et  pr^cieux". 

CiloyUKT,  Sancli  Edio.  O.  P.  (Douay,  1C18);  QuIotif  and 
EcHAKl),    .S.S.    Ord.    I'rrrd.,    I,    849    eqq.;    Annie    Dominic    ' 
(Lyoiw),  8  Septembro;  Im  vie  du  B.  Alain  de  la  Roche  ii 
(May,  June,  July,   1868);  Schmitz,  Dat  Rosenkr 


Seal  of  Axaska 


fi^l  im    16.    unJ   AnlantfC  dett   16.   Jahrhunderls    (l*'reiburg. 
903),    containing    a    Danisti    nocti< 
Micif£L,  of  materials  left  by  Alan. 


,   by   Master 
J.  T.  McNiCHOLAS. 


Aluc6n,  Hernando  de.    See  Coron ado,  Vasquez. 


Alarc6n  y  Mendoza.  See  Ruiz  de  Alarc6n  t 
Mendoza,  Ju.\n  de. 

Alaska.  I.  History. — The  first  definite  knowl- 
edge of  Alaska  was  acquired  in  1741  through  the 
expedition  under  Vitus  Bering,  a  Dane  in  the  Rus- 
sian service,  who,  in  that  year,  sailed  from  Okhotsk  as 
far  as  58^'  30'  N.  lat.  A  couple  of  years  later,  Si- 
berian fur  hunters  began  to  coast  along  the  mainland 
of  the  American  continent  and  the  Aleutian  Islands 
in  search  of  the  valuable  sea-otter.  In  17612  An- 
dreian  Tolstykh,  aft€r  a  sojourn  of  three  years  in 
these  regions,  re- 
turned to  Russia, 
and  on  his  repre- 
.sentation  of  the 
commercial  impor- 
tance of  Alaska 
Catherine  II  sent 
an  expedition  to 
foster  trade  and 
colonization.  Ri- 
val companies  be- 
gan to  dispute  the 
territory,  but  in 
1 780  two  traders, 
G  rigor  Shilikof  and 
Ivan  Golikof,  rely- 
ing on  home  influ- 
ence,   chiefly    tliat 

of  Rezanof,  Chamberlain  to  the  Emperor,  formed 
the  Russian-American  Fur  company,  the  history  of 
which  is  the  history  of  Muscovite  domination  in 
Alaska  from  17S0  until  the  sale  of  the  territory  to 
the  United  States  in  1867.  In  1786,  Gerassim  Pribi- 
lof,  an  employee  of  the  Company,  discovered  the 
seal  rookeries  in  the  Bering  Sea.  Tliis  discovery 
occasioned  the  reopening  of  trade  with  China,  from 
which  Holland  and  England,  by  their  greater  faciU- 
ties,  had  driven  Russia.  Tlie  fur  of  the  seal  was 
especially  prized  by  the  Chinese,  who  had  found  the 
secret  of  plucking  and  dyeing  the  skins,  and  a  lucra- 
tive trade  was  the  result.  Alexander  Baranof,  who, 
in  1790,  became  general  manager  of  the  company, 
was  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  pre- 
siding genius  of  a  commerce  which  extended  to  Cali- 
fornia and  the  Sandwich  Islands  as  well  as  to  China. 
Kadiak  Island  was  the  first  head-quarters  of  the  Rus- 
sians in  Alaska,  but  they  afterwards  established  their 
capital  at  Sitka,  on  Baranof  Island,  where  a  new 
centre  of  Russian  activity  was  established.  Ship- 
building and  various  other  industries  were  started. 
Rude  agricultural  implements  were  made  for  the 
Mexican  and  Californian  trade:  and  bells  were  cast 
for  the  Spanish  mission  churches,  which  are  said  to 
be  stiU  in  use.  The  pohcy  of  inland  exploration 
pursued  by  the  successors  of  Baranof  turned  the 
energies  of  the  fur  company  into  other  channels, 
and  necessarily  reduced  its  dividends.  The  charter 
granted  in  1799  had  been  renewed  in  1821  and  1844. 
When  it  expired  in  1864  a  renewal  was  not  granted, 
nor  was  it  souglit.  Negotiations  had  been  begun 
with  the  United  States,  which  ended  in  the  purchase 
of  Alaska  in  1867,  for  §7,200.000.  The  oflicial  trans- 
fer was  made  in  October  of  that  year,  General  Rous- 
seau acting  for  the  I^uitetl  States  and  Prince  Mak- 
sutof  for  Russia.  The  Russians  were  given  two 
years  to  close  up  their  business  in  the  territory. 
Meanwhile  American  activity  was  rife;  squatters  and 
miners  flocked  into  the  country,  and  great  commer- 
cial companies  were  organized  to  exploit  the  new 
field.  These  companies  have  made  fortunes  in  fish- 
eries and  fur-hunting,  while  in  recent  years  mining 
of  the  various  metals  has  been  promising  similar  re- 
turns. 

II.  Area  and  ArcEssinii.iTY. — Arconling  to  the 
census  of  1900,  Alaska  embraces,  inclusive  of  the 
islands,  590,804  square  miles.     These  figures  repre- 


ALASKA 


247 


ALASKA 


sent  all  the  North  American  continent  west  of  the 
141.st  meridian  of  western  lonjjitude,  with  a  narrow 
fringe  of  laiul  between  tlie  Pacific  and  liritisli  terri- 
tory, all  the  islands  along  the  coast,  and  the  Aleutian 
chain.  The  acreage,  according  to  the  Governor's  re- 
port for  1901,  is  3G0.ol'9.600.  This  great  empire  is 
equal  in  size  to  all  the  States  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
Its  heart  is  a  great  central  plateau,  600  miles  long 
east  to  west,  anil  400  miles  broad  north  to  south, 
though  its  extreme  limits  are  800  by  1,000  miles; 
this  does  not  include  the  Aleutian  Lslands— the  step- 
ping stones  to  .Asia — that  stretch  from  its  southwest- 
erly portion  westward  into  the  Pacific  about  l,.50O 
miles.  Numerous  inlet-s  provide  an  easy  coastwise 
intercommunication,  but  the  chief  natural  highway 
is  the  mighty  Yukon,  navigable  for  l*.oOO  miles  east 
to  west.  It  tlivitles  the  .Alaskan  territory  near  the 
centre,  and  is  ice-free  from  June  to  October.  Petroff 
says  tiiat  at  its  mouth  it  discliarges  into  the  Bering 
Sea  a  greater  volume  of  water  than  the  Mississippi. 
Several  large  navigable  rivers,  notably  the  Koyukuk 
and  Tanana,  flow  into  the  Yukon,  but  many  of  tlie 
smaller  streams,  running  into  the  Bering  Sea  and 
the  -Arctic  Ocean,  are  shallow,  and  availalile  only  for 
small  craft,  a  circumstance  which  is  retarding  the 
work  of  prospecting  and  mining.  Various  railways 
in  and  through  .Alaska  are  projected,  one  or  two  of 
which  are  under  construction.  The  completion  of 
these  new  channels  of  inland  transportation  will  ad- 
vance a  hundredfold  the  interests  of  the  countrj-. 
Alaska  is  mountainous,  but  contains  extensive  river 
valleys  of  proiluctive  soil.  From  Seattle  to  Skagway 
is  a  ilistance  of  about  1,000  miles,  a  little  more  than 
from  New  York  to  Chicago:  and  from  Seattle  to  the 
most  distant  point  of  .Ala.ska  is  about  the  distance 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco.  The  gold-fields 
of  the  Y'ukon  are  reached  from  Seattle  by  ocean 
steamer,  rail,  and  river  steamer  in  about  six  days. 
It  takes  about  twice  as  long  to  reach  the  placer  mines 
of  Nome.  Communication  is  open  during  the  sum- 
mer season  only;  in  winter,  transportation  is  carried 
on  with  the  aiii  of  dog-teams. 

III.  Resources. — The  actual  wealth  of  Alaska 
consist~s  in  fur-seals,  fisheries,  and  gold-mines.  The 
principal  breeding-ground  of  the  fur  seal  is  on  the 
Pribilof  Islands,  just  north  of  tlie  .Aleutian  chain. 
From  18(18  to  the  middle  of  190.3  the  seals  taken  by 
the  lessees  of  these  islands  represent  a  value  of 
$.3,-).000,000;  other  furs  to  the  value  of  .517,000,000 
bring  the  total  value  of  the  .Alaskan  fur  trade  in  this 
period  to  the  sum  of  .?.5_'.000.000.  These  figures  take 
no  account  of  the  pelagic-seal  catch.  The  salnum 
fisheries  are  another  source  of  wealth;  in  1901,  19.000 
barrels  of  canned  salmon  were  sent  to  the  Unitetl 
States,  and  in  190.5  the  tot.al  value  of  the  fish  exporta- 
tion was  §9,010,089.  The  cotl-fisheries  promise,  by 
reason  of  their  vast  area  and  rich  supply,  to  exceed 
in  value  those  of  Newfoundlaml  or  any  other  part 
of  the  world.  Placer  gold  luus  been  located  in  many 
places  in  .Alaska — a  fact  which  (irovcs  that  the  terri- 
torj-  is  only  beginning  to  reveal  its  wealth.  (!old 
mines  are  being  successfully  worked  in  three  locali- 
ties: southeastern  .Alaska,  the  Yukon  river  and  its 
tributaries,  and  the  Cape  Nome  district  opposite  the 
coast  of  .A.>iia.  The  output  of  gold  in  .American 
Alaska  for  the  fi.scal  year  190.>  was  about  .?10.000.000. 
Its  copper,  coal,  tin,  silver,  gj-psum,  and  marble  now 
enter  into  calculations  of  commerce.  There  is  abun- 
dant supply  of  valuable  timber,  especially  in  south- 
eastern .AKiska,  but  it  is  not  yet  legally  available  for 
export,  as  the  public  lands  have  not  been  surveyed. 
Agriculture  is  possible  in  about  100.000  square  miles 
in  southeastern  .Alaska,  which  owes  to  the  ".lapan 
current"  its  temperate  climate,  and  which  can  pro- 
duce wheat,  oats.  gras,ses  for  cattle,  and  vegctaliles 
in  great  variety.  The  latest  official  reports  speak 
with  praise  of  the  supplies  raised  at  the  Holy  Cross 


Mission,  on  the  Yukon.  It  would  be  possible  for 
the  land  to  furnish  at  least  a  portion  of  the  food 
supplv  iii'ciled  by  the  prosciit  pi)[)ulation.  The  total 
wealtli  accruing  to  the  I'liited  States  from  its  Alaskan 
pos.ses.sioiis  between  1807  and  li)Oo  is  calculated  at 
neariy  .'j>ltiO,lX)0,000,  about  equally  accredited  to  furs, 
fish,  and  gold.  During  the  fi.scal  year  of  1903  the 
bulk  of  trade,  export  and  import,  amounted  to  about 
S21,t)00,000.  In  1891,  Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson  intro- 
duced rein<leer  from  Siberia  into  nortliern  Alaska, 
but  their  usefulness,  as  a  means  of  transportation 
and  a  source  of  supplies  for  miners  anil  natives,  is 
still  a  matter  of  experiment.  The  animals  are  farmed 
out  in  herds  to  the  various  mission  centres  on  the 
Yukon,  along  the  Bering  coast,  and  on  Kotzebue 
Sound.  Ueimleer  moss,  indigenous  to  northwestern 
.Alaska,  furnishes  abundant  food  for  those  animals, 
whose  numbers  now  reach  about  6,000. 

IV.  Cli.m.vte. — .Alaska  offers  a  great  variety  of  cli- 
mates. .Along  the  southern  and  southeastern  coasts 
the  "Japan  current"  distributes  a  part  of  its  equa- 
torial heat,  and  creates  on  the  fringe  of  islands,  and 
for  some  twenty  miles  inland,  a  distinctly  temperate 
zone.  The  mean  temperature  of  Sitka  is  32°  Fahren- 
heit. Winter  opens  with  December,  and  the  .snows 
are  gone  by  ^Iay,  except  on  the  mountain-sides. 
Little  of  the  warmth  of  the  "Japan  current"  reaches 
north  of  the  .Aleutian  range.  The  winter  in  the  Yu- 
kon and  Sewaril  Peninsula  is  rigorous  and  long;  the 
summer  warm  and  brief.  The  winter  sun  rises  in 
the  Y'ukon  \alley  from  9.30  to  10,  and  sets  between  2 
and  3.  The  summer  sun  rises  at  1.30  in  the  morning 
and  sets  at  10  in  the  evening,  and  the  twentv  hours 
of  daylight  are  followed  by  a  iliffused  twiliglit.  In 
general,  the  changes  of  climate  in  the  north  are 
rapiil  anil  extreme,  the  mean  summer  temperature 
being  from  00°-70°  Fahrenheit,  while  the  winter  cold 
registers  as  low  as  50°  and  60°  below  zero,  and  near 
the  -Arctic  Circle  still  greater  extremes  are  met  with, 
the  thermometer  reaching  70°  below  zero.  However, 
owing  to  the  drj-ness  of  the  atmosphere,  the  intense 
cold  is  not  disagreeable,  and  white  men  in  those 
northern  reeions  exjicrience  no  inconvenience  in  trav-  . 
ellingover  the  tundras  with  their  dog-teams  and  .sleds. 

V.  Govf;nNMF.NT  .\ND  REVENUE. — Alaska,  though 
called  a  territory',  is  projierly  known  as  the  "  Dis- 
trict of  .Alaska  ".  It  has  no  legislature  and  no 
territorial  form  of  government,  but  is  governed 
directly  by  Congress,  and  locally  administered  by  a 
governor,  assisted  by  a  secretarj-,  and  a  surveyor- 
general,  I'nited  States  marshals,  and  attorneys, 
appointed  by  the  President,  subject  to  the  ap[)roval 
of  the  Senate.  It  constitutes  a  judicial  district, 
with  three  subdivisions  and  three  courts.  The 
Governor  is  required  to  make  an  annual  report  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  The  capital  is  Sitka, 
on  Baranof  Island,  a  city  founded  by  the  Russian 
Governor  of  that  name  in  1799,  and  the  oldest  town 
in  -Alaska.  The  sale  of  liquor  to  the  nati\es  is 
governed  by  special  regulations.  From  1867  to  30 
June.  1903,  the  Government  revenues  amounted  to 
.$9 ,.5.5.5,909,  of  which  57,597,331  were  paid  in  as  a 
tax  on  fur  seals,  and  $.528,5.58  as  customs. 

VI.  Education. — The  pupils  are  under  the  official 
supervision  of  a  United  States  general  agent  for 
education  in  -Alaska,  who  resides  at  Washington.  In 
1905  there  were  fiftv-one  public  schools,  with  sixtv- 
two  teaihcrs  and  3,()83  pupils.  From  1884  to  1901 
Congress  made  a  small  annual  grant  for  the  support 
of  tliese  schools,  but  in  1901  an  act  was  passeil  by 
which  license  fees  collected  from  unincorporated 
towns  were  to  be  applied  in  part  to  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  schools  for  "the  education 
of  white  children  and  children  of  mixed  blood  who 
load  a  civilized  life ".  Such  schools  are  placed  in 
charge  of  the  Governor  of  .Alaska  as  ex-otHcio  suiwr- 
intendent  of  education.     By  the  same  act  the  edu- 


ALASKA 


248 


ALASKA 


cation  of  the  Eskimos  and  Indians  remained  under 
the  contrjl  of  tlie  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and 
provision  is  made  for  tlie  work  by  an  annual  appro- 
priation ($50,000  in  1905).  The  principal  elements 
of  this  public  education  for  the  natives  are  the  teach- 
ing of  the  English  language,  spoken  and  written,  and 
the  arts  of  reindeer-herding  and  transportation,  help- 
ful at  once  to  the  white  man  and  the  native  (State- 
nient  351  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  30  June,  1905,  26-48). 

VII.  Native  Tribes — Pagan  Superstitions,  etc. 
— ^The  Alaskan  aborigines  fall  under  four  main 
divisions  or  groups:  (1)  The  Aleuts,  who  occupy  the 
whole  of  tlie  Aleutian  Islands,  the  north  coast  of  the 
Alaskan  Peninsula  from  Cape  Stroganof  westward, 
and  its  southern  coast  from  Pavlof  Bay  westward; 
(2)  the  Ten'a,  or  western  Athabascans,  who  are 
spread  over  the  interior  of  the  territory  on  both  sides 
of   the  Yukon  river  as  far  west  as   Koserefsky.     A 


among  their  misguided  votaries  credit  for  infallibility 
and  makes  them  in  the  eyes  of  believers  mediators 
between  the  visible  and  invisible  worlds.  Ivan 
PetroiT,  in  his  "Population,  Resources,  etc.  of 
Alaska"  (embodied  in  the  United  States  Census  Re- 
port for  1880),  describes  the  Shamanistic  ceremonies 
of  initiation,  incantations,  etc.  Veniaminof  (John 
Popoff)  the  most  authoritative  Russian  writer  on 
Alaska,  says:  "It  was  a  very  rare  occurrence  that 
the  son  of  a  Shaman  adopted  the  trade  of  his 
father.  Probably  the  Shaman  on  his  death-bed 
forbade  his  son  to  do  so,  explaining  to  him  the  worst 
side  of  his  position,  and  turning  his  desires  in  another 
direction.  Many  of  the  Shamans  called  their  occu- 
pation the  service  of  the  devil,  and  told  the  young 
men  that  nobody  who  had  any  fear  or  apprehension 
must  lay  claim  to  the  title  of  Shaman,  and  that  they 
themselves  had  not  adopted  the  profession  volun- 
tarily, but  because    they  were   powerless    to  resist 


belt  of  Eskimo  hems  them  in  on  the  northwest  and 
south  and  separates  them  completely  from  the  ocean 
except  at  one  point  near  Cook's  Inlet  on  the  North 
Pacific;  (.3)  the  Thlinkcts,  or  Koloslies,  as  the  Rus- 
sians called  them,  who  jicoiile  the  islands  and  coast 
of  southeastern  Alaska;  (4)  the  Eskimo,  or  Innuits, 
who  are  scattered  along  the  coast  line  from  Alaska 
to  Labrador.  These  different  groups  are  subdivided 
into  families,  subdivisions  which  are  based  mainly 
on  linguistic  differences.  Like  most  northern  sav- 
ages they  were  at  one  time,  and  still  are  in  some  de- 
gree, addicted  to  Sliamanism,  or  sorcery,  which  enters 
mtiinately  into  all  their  relations,  personal,  social,  and 
civil.  An  occult  influence,  they  l)elieve,  resides  in 
certain  persons  and  is  liereditary,  being  transmitted 
with  its  mysteries  and  paraphernalia  (masks,  drums, 
straps,  bones,  etc.)  to  sons  and  grandsons.  It  en- 
ables them  to  reveal  the  future,  to  discover  lost  or 
hidden  things,  and  with  preternatural  assistance  to 
avoid   misfortunes   or   disasters.     It   ensures    them 


the  devil."  There  were,  of  course,  numerous  errors 
in  a  religion  allied  to  such  practices.  Nevertheless 
we  do  not  subscribe  to  the  statement  (p.  13)  in  "Hand- 
book 84  on  Alaska",  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Repubhcs,  Washington  (ISSO):  "Except  as  their 
ideas  are  modified  by  relations  and  intercourse  with 
white  people  they  have  no  religion,  unless  certain 
definite  superstitions,  having  no  connection  with  any 
idea  of  a  supreme  spiritual  being,  be  called  religion.  ' 
On  the  contrary,  it  can  be  seen  in  the  writings  of 
Petroff,  Ilolcmberg,  and  Veniaminof  that  they 
possess  certain  elements  of  religion.  Thus,  every 
tribe  recognized  a  Creator,  termed  in  the  traditions 
of  the  coast,  Nunalukhta;  throughout  the_  archi- 
pelagic circle,  Agoughouk;  among  the  Kadiaks, 
Shliara-Shoa;  and  along  the  narrow  strip  to  the  south- 
east, the  Yeshl,  or  Vchl,  They  held  an  immortality 
and  a  state  of  retributive  rewards  and  punishments 
even  beyond  the  grave,  and  this  in  tlie  micoiiunon 
case  of  cremation  of  the  body.     They  exhibited  at 


ALASKA 


249 


ALASKA 


times  a  wonderfully  elaborate  moral  code.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  Ilydah  branch  of  the  Thlinkets, 
who,  etiiiiologically,  are  the  most  interesting  branch 
of  the  Ahiskan  natives.  They  inhabit  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  and  their  haunts  are  visited  yearly  by 
hundreds  of  tourists.  The  myths  attached  to  their 
origin  the  story  of  the  descent  of  their  families,  one 
from  the  bear,  another  from  the  whale,  a  third  from 
the  raven,  and  so  on;  and  the  elaborate  totem  system 
resulting  therefrom,  with  far-re;iching  clan  restric- 
tions -have  given  the  Ilydahs  a  special  place  among 
the  aboriginal  peoples.  The  totem  system,  with  its 
well-known  poles,  or  carved  tree  trunks,  originated 
with  the  Hydalis,  but  in  course  of  time  extended  to 
the  rest  of  the  Thlinket  group.  There  were  three 
kinds  of  carved  poles:  the  historical,  the  death,  and 
the  pedigree,  or  totem,  pole,  the  last  giving  the  line 
of  descent  of  the  mother's  family.  Children  were 
always  known  by  the  totem  of  the  mother.  Many 
of  those  poles  are  still  standing,  but  the  combinations 
of  figures  of  birds  and  other  living  things,  distorted 
lx!yond  recognition,  are  no  longer  intelligible.  The 
encroachments  of  modern  methods  and  intercourse 
with  the  white  races  have  made  the  Thlinket  group 
more  or  less  oblivious  of  the  past.  The  totem  system 
is  dying  out;  even  the  family  totem  is  falling  into 
disuse.  It  was  the  cause  of  nuich  injustice  and 
suffering  owing  to  the  unequal  and  unjust  distribu- 
tion of  property.  Among  the  traditions  of  the 
Alaskan  tribes  resemblances  can  be  traced  to  cer- 
tain Biblical  narratives — the  creation  of  light,  the 
fall  of  man,  the  deluge,  the  confusion  of  tongues,  the 
dispersion  of  races,  etc.  Polygamy  was  common  in 
a  more  or  less  exaggerated  form.  In  northern 
Alaska  it  is  no  longer  so  common,  though  it  some- 
times occurs.  Matrimony,  until  ratified  by  the  birth 
of  children,  is  not  looked  on  as  being  indissoluble, 
but  rather  as  a  sort  of  espousals.  There  was  also  a 
belief  in  metempsychosis.  They  held,  with  most 
savages,  that  it  is  a  strict  duty  to  revenge  insult  or 
injury.  The  hardshijis  to  vhich  females  were  sul)- 
jected  at  critical  periods  are  appalling,  and  may 
explain  their  premature  old  age. 

VlII.  Missions. — (1)  lius.tian  jVf^.sion. — Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  into  Alaska  in  1794.  A  few- 
spasmodic  attempts  were  made  prior  to  that  date  by 
Russian  traders,  notably  Olottof,  but,  according  to 
the  candid  chronicler  Veniaininof  already  quoted,  it 
was  not  so  much  Christian  ardour  as  business  consid- 
erations that  induced  the  Russians  to  persuade  the 
Aleuts  to  accept  baptism.  The  converted  natives 
were  always  more  manageable.  They  became  at- 
tached, to  a  certain  extent,  to  their  godfathers,  and 
gave  their  trade  exclusively  to  them.  The  first 
serious  attempt  to  Christianize  the  Alaskan  tribes 
was  made  by  Shelikof,  one  of  the  organizers  of  the 
Russian  American  Fur  Company,  who,  in  17S7,  peti- 
tioned the  Russian  Synod  to  send  missionaries  to 
convert  the  Aleuts.  He  promised  to  provide  them 
with  transportation  and  to  support  them  in  their 
new  field.  In  a  uka.se.  dated  June,  1793,  Catherine  II 
instructed  the  Metropolitan  Ciabriel  to  select  the  Iwst 
material  for  the  mission,  and  in  1794  a  band  of  ten, 
eight  ecclesiastics  and  two  laymen,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  Archimandrite  Ivassof,  left  St.  Petersburg 
for  Okhotsk,  whence  they  sailed  for  Kadiak.  This 
large  island  was  for  some  years  the  head-quarters  of 
the  Russian-.\merican  I'ur  Company,  and  from  it  the 
monks  dis|)ersed  in  different  directions  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  fur  hunters.  Makar  proceeded  to  Vn- 
alaska  and  began  to  baptize  the  natives;  another, 
Juvenal,  laboured  among  the  natives  of  Kadiak  Is- 
land and  those  on  Cook's  Inlet.  This  missionarj'  was 
murdered  two  years  later  for  trj-ing  to  put  down 
jKilygainy.  He  was  a  man  of  great  energy,  and  did 
more  to  spread  the  Russian  doctrines  than  the  rest 
of  his  companions.     In  1798  Ivassof,  the  leader,  was 


promoted  to  the  rank  of  Archbishop  of  Irkutsk,  in 
Siljeria,  but  was  lost  at  sea  the  following  year.  Mis- 
sionary work  remained  in  al>eyance  until  the  arrival 
of  .Mcxander  Haranof,  who  asked  for  a  priest  for 
Sitka,  the  new  head-quarters  of  the  Fur  Company. 
In  ISK),  .Sobolof,  the  first  Russian-Creek  missionary, 
apparently,  who  laboured  among  the  Thlinkets, 
reached  southeiistern  Alaska.  In  1S2.'J  Ivan  \eni- 
aminof,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Hu.ssian  eccle- 
siastics in  Alaska,  known  as  the  "lOnlightener  of 
the  Aleuts",  arrived  at  Cnalaska.  During  his  career 
of  nearly  thirty  years  he  displayed  intense  zeal.  He 
was  instrumental  in  spreading  Christianity  over  a 
vast  extent  of  territory,  visiting  not  only  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands,  but  all  the  coa.st  of  the  mainland  from 
Bristol  Hay  to  the  Kuskokwim.  Vcnianiinof  was  a 
man  of  exceptional  ability.  He  nuislered  the  Aleut 
and  Thlinket  languages,  translated  portions  of  the 
New  Testament,  composed  a  catechism  and  hymnal, 
and  began  an  exhaustive  research  into  the  traditions, 
beliefs,  superstitions,  etc.  of  the  natives  of  the  Aleu- 
tian group.  In  1840,  after  the  division  of  the  diocese 
of  Irkutsk,  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Kamchatka, 
the  Kurile  and  Aleutian  Islands,  and  assumed,  after 
the  Russian  custom,  the  name  of  Innocentius.  Dur- 
ing his  sojourn  in  southeastern  Alaska,  he  devoted 
himself  with  great  zeal  to  the  conversion  of  the 
Thlinkets.  He  established  at  Sitka  a  seminarj'  for 
the  training  of  natives  and  half-breeds  for  the  Rus- 
sian priesthood,  an  institution  which  was  maintained 
for  many  years.  In  1852,  he  was  transferred  to 
Yakutsk,  and  died  in  1S79,  Metropolitan  of  Moscow. 
Veniaminof,  of  whom  there  exists  a  biography,  is 
highly  venerated  as  a  man  and  a  writer.  Petroff 
says  of  him,  however,  that  the  success  of  his  work 
of  conversion  was  only  temporary  and  was  confined 
altogether  to  the  time  of  his  presence  among  the 
natives.  In  18.59,  Archimandrite  Peter,  Rector  of 
the  seminary  at  Sitka,  was  made  bishop  of  that  place. 
He  was  succeeded,  in  1867,  by  Bishop  Paul.  In  1870 
his  successor,  Bishop  John,  took  the  title  of  Bishop 
of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands.  An  important 
event  was  the  transfer,  in  1872,  of  the  hcad-fjuarters 
of  the  Russian  missions  from  Sitka  to  San  Francisco. 
Bishop  Nestor  was  sent  thither,  in  1879,  in  charge 
of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands;  he  was  lost  at 
sea  in  1882.  In  1888  Bishop  Vladimir  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  same  office;  in  1891,  Bishop  Nicholas; 
in  1898,  Bishop  Tikhon;  and  in  1904,  Bishop  Inno- 
cent. In  1893  Russian  orphanages  were  opened  at 
Sitka,  Kadiak.  and  Unalaska;  and  in  1894,  a  Russian 
church  and  school  at  Juneau.  Parochial  schools  are 
attached  to  every  Russian  churcii.  The  Report  on 
Education  for  1903  ('2.352-53)  enumerates  in  Ahiska 
thirty  schools,  with  740  pupils,  and  adds  that  there 
are  sixteen  parishes  in  Alaska  with  10,225  parishion- 
ers. The  Czar  still  maintains  a  salaried  hierarchy 
there,  but  his  influence  is  destined  to  dwindle  away 
before  American  Missionary  endeavours. 

(2)  Protestant  Missions. — Several  of  the  Protestant 
sects,  notably  the  Moravian,  Presbyterian,  Swedish, 
Evangelical,  Congregational,  and  Episcopal,  are  at 
work  in  various  parts  of  Alaska.  Their  mission  sta- 
tions extend  up  the  'i'ukon  and  Kuskokwim  rivers, 
and  along  the  main  coast  as  far  north  as  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales  and  Point  Barrow.  The  Presbyterians,  who 
landed  in  that  country  in  1878,  have  been  the  most 
successful.  They  have  strongly  organized  missions 
in  southeastern  Alaska.  The  late  (^lovernor  of  the 
territory',  John  B.  Brady,  was  a  Presbyterian  mis- 
sionary for  years;  and  the  Rev.  Sheldon  Jackson, 
another  Presbyterian  missionarj-,  is  Superintendent 
of  I-",ducation  for  the  territory'. 

(3)  Ctitholic  Missions. — Prior  to  the  cession  of 
Alaska  to  the  United  States,  no  Catholic  priest  had 
sojourned  in  the  tcrritorv.  In  1872,  Francis  Mercier, 
chief  agent  of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company  at 


ALASKA 


250 


ALASKA 


Nuklukhoyit,  alarmed  at  the  constantly  threatening 
attitude  of  the  Ten'a  on  the  Yukon  and  Tanana, 
took  steps  to  introduce  Catholic  missionaries  among 
them.  He  invited  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate 
to  take  up  the  work.  In  the  autumn  of  1871 
Bishop  Glut,  of  the  Athabascan-MacKenzie  district, 
with  two  companions,  Father  Lecorre  and  an  In- 
dian interpreter  named  Silvain,  crossed  over  the 
mountains  and  wintered  at  Fort  Yukon.  The  fol- 
lowing spring  the  three  sailed  down  the  Yukon  river 
to  Nuklukhoj-it,  wliero  they  met  a  large  number  of 
natives  from"  the  Tanana  and  Koyokuk  districts. 
They  then  continued  tlieir  journey  down  the  river, 
instructing  both  Ten'a  and  Eskimo  adults  and  bap- 
tizing their  children.  Notwithstanding  the  oppo- 
sition shown  by  tlie  Shamans  and  the  Russianized 
natives,  the  Oblates  considered  the  prospects  so 
bright  that  they  decided  to  establish  stations  on  the 
Yukon.  After  spending  a  year  in  reconnoitring, 
Bishop  Glut  returned  to  his  own  missions,  leaving 
Father  Lecorre  in  residence  at  St.  Michael  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  Tlie  missionary  remained  there 
until  1874,  wlien  the  news  came  to  him  that  the 
spiritual  jurisdiction  of  the  Alaskan  territory  had 
been  entrusted  to  the  Bishop  of  Victoria,  the  saintly 
Charles  John  Seghers,  wlio  ultimately  gave  up  his 
life  in  the  work.  In  July,  1877,  this  prelate,  with 
one  companion.  Father  Mandart,  made  a  preliminary 
voyage  to  St.  Michael,  and  went  up  the  river  as 
far  as  Nulato.  During  the  following  winter  he  visited 
many  native  villages,  and  in  doing  so  underwent 
severe  privations.  Before  his  return  to  civilization, 
he  promised  the  Ten'a  that  he  would  establish  mis- 
sions among  tliem.  In  the  interval  Bishop  Seghers 
was  transferred  to  Oregon  City  as  Coadjutor  to  Arch- 
bishop Blanchet.  However,  his  first  visit  to  Alaska 
produced  immediate  results.  In  1878  Father  Althoff 
went  to  reside  at  Wrangel,  in  southeastern  Alaska, 
from  which  point  he  visited  the  Cassiar  country  and 
the  coast.  He  was  transferred  to  Juneau  in  1885, 
where  he  was  joined  by  Father  Heynen,  who  was 
sent  to  aid  him  in  his  labours  at  Sitlia.  These  two 
apostolic  men  were  tlie  pioneers  of  the  Cliurch  in 
southeastern  Alaska.  They  lived  in  a  log  cabin,  in 
the  utter  isolation  of  primitive  missionary  life, 
preaching  the  Gospel  to  Thlinket  and  white  man 
alike.  In  September,  1886,  Father  Althoff  brought 
to  Juneau  the  Sisters  of  St.  Ann,  for  the  service  of 
the  new  hospital,  and  thenceforth  always  ascribed 
his  success  to  their  faithful  co-operation.  The  names 
of  those  devoted  women — Sister  M.  Zeno,  Sister  M. 
Bonsecours,  and.  Sister  M.  Victor — all  three  of  whom 
are  stillliving  (1906),  deserve  to  be  recorded.  Bishop 
Seghers  liad  meanwhile  secured  liis  reappointment 
to  the  See  of  Victoria,  and  resumed  his  plans,  long 
delayed,  for  tlie  conversion  of  the  Alaskan  tribes. 
He  invited  the  Society  of  Jesus  to  undertake  the 
■work  of  evangelizing  the  territory.  In  July  of  that 
year,  the  prelate — now  Archbishop  Seghers — accom- 
panied by  two  Jesuits,  Fathers  Paschal  Tosi  and 
Aloysius  Robaut,  and  a  hired  man  named  Fuller, 
started  over  the  Chilcoot  Pass  for  the  headwaters 
of  the  Yukon.  It  was  decided  that  the  two  Jesuits 
should  remain  for  the  winter  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Stewart  river,  while  the  Bishop,  with  the  servant 
Fuller,  should  proceed  in  haste  to  Nulato,  not  merely 
to  keep  the  promise  he  had  made  the  Ten'a  six  years 
previously,  but  to  forestall  the  members  of  a  sect 
who  contemplated  establishing  themselves  at  that 
spot.  During  the  l,in0-milc  journey.  Fuller  devel- 
oped symptoms  of  insanity  and  at  times  threatened 
the  Archbishop  insolently.  At  Yessetlatoh,  near  the 
mouth  of  tlie  Koyukuk,  they  took  up  quarters  in 
an  abandoned  fishing  cabin.  On  the  morning  of 
25  November  Fuller  aroused  the  iirelate  from  his 
sleep,  pointed  a  rifle  at  him,  and  shot  him  through 
the  heart.     Deatli  was  instantaneous.     The  remains 


of  the  murdered  Archbishop  were  taken  down  the 
Yukon  river  to  St.  Michael,  whence,  two  years 
later,  they  were  transferred  to  the  crypt  of  the  ca- 
thedral in  Victoria,  B.  C.  The  murderer  was  sub- 
sequently tried,  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  ten 
years'  imprisonment.  This  tragedy  changed  the  con- 
dition of  mission  work  in  Alaska;  new  and  compli- 
cated problems  presented  themselves  to  the  Jesuits. 
Father  Tosi  went  to  Europe,  where  he  met  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith 
at  Lyons,  who  contributed  S4,000  towards  the  sup- 
port of  the  Alaskan  Missions.  A  decree  of  the  Prop- 
aganda, dated  17  July,  1894,  raised  Alaska  to  a 
Prefecture  Apostolic,  with  Father  Tosi,  S.J.,  as  the 
first  incumbent  of  the  office.  He  exercised  his  duties 
as  Prefect  Apostolic  until  March,  1897,  when  he  re- 
signed, owing  to  failing  health,  and  died,  at  the  age 
of  fifty-one,  at  Juneau,  14  January,  1898.  The  Very 
Rev.  John  B.  Ren6,  S.J. ,  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
He  resigned  in  March,  1904,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent,  the  Very  Rev.  Joseph  R.  Cri- 
mont,  S.J.  The  conditions  of  the  Alaskan  mission 
have  changed  greatly  since  the  advent  of  the  first 
missionaries.  The  discovery  of  placer  ^old-mines 
and  the  influx  of  miners  into  Alaska,  during  the  past 
six  years,  have  robbed  Alaska  of  much  of  its  primi- 
tive isolation.  There  are  resident  Jesuit  priests  at 
Juneau,  Douglas,  Fairbanks,  Nome,  Skagway,  St. 
Michael,  and  Seward.  From  these  centres  white 
missions  are  attended  at  Ketchikan,  Wrangel,  Eagle 
City,  Circle  City,  Fort  Y'ukon,  Forty  Mile  Post, 
Golden  City,  Council  City,  Sitka,  Haines,  Valdez, 
Chenilia,  Kliketari,  Pastolik,  Picmetalhc,  Stebben, 
etc.  Among  the  native  tribes  there  are  also  mis- 
sions, exclusively  Ten'a,  on  the  Yukon  at  Koserefsky 
and  Nulato.  The  Eskimo  in  the  Nome  district  on 
the  Kuskokwim  and  in  the  Y'ukon  Delta  are  also 
attended  by  Jesuit  Fathers  and  Brothere.  In  south- 
eastern Alaska,  owing  to  lack  of  men  and  means,  no 
Catholic  mission  among  the  Thlinkets  has  yet  been 
established.  A  training-school  for  boys  and  girls 
exists  at  Holy  Gross  Mission  near  Koserefsky.  The 
girls  are  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Ann. 
These  native  children  are  taught  the  arts  of  cooking, 
sewing,  etc.;  the  boys,  with  the  Jesuit  lay  brothers 
as  instructors,  are  taught  gardening,  carpentry,  and 
smithing  of  various  kinds.  The  lives  of  the  mis- 
sionaries who  are  devoting  themselves  exclusively 
to  the  native  population  are  li\'es  of  intense  isola- 
tion, but  their  personal  sufferings  and  inconven- 
iences count  for  little  when  there  are  souls  to  be 
saved. 

IX.  The  Prefecture  Apostolic  comprises  the 
531,409  square  miles  that  make  up  the  Territory  of 
Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands.  From  1867  to 
17  July,  1894,  these  missions  were  subject  to  the 
Bishop  of  Vancouver  Island,  B.  C;  they  were  then 
placed  in  charge  of  a  Prefect  Apostolic  who  resides 
at  Juneau.  The  total  population  is  about  72,000,  of 
which  about  15,000  are  Catholics,  ont»-third  of  these 
being  natives.  The  mission  is  entrusted  to  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus.  There  are  at  present  {190())  seven- 
teen Jesuit  Fathers  and  one  secular  priest,  in  charge 
of  twenty-eight  stations,  of  which  twehe  are  pro- 
vided with  resident  priests,  the  others  being  missions 
attended  occasionally.  Nine  of  the  missions  are  pro- 
vided with  cliapels.  Jesuit  Lay  Brothers  (8)  and 
Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  (2),  from  Ploermcl 
in  Brittany,  attend  to  the  Catholic  education  of  the 
boys.  The  girls  are  in  charge  of  Sisters  of  Charity 
of 'Providence  (8),  Sistei-s  of  St.  Ann  (22),  and  Ur- 
suline  Si.sters  (3).  There  arc  fi\e  convents,  two  acad- 
emies (Juneau  and  Douglas  City)  three  day  schools, 
four  hospitals  (Juneau.  lOagle,  Douglas,  and  Nome), 
an  orphanage  for  Indian  girls,  and  an  industrial  school 
for  Indian  lioys  (Koserefsky).  The  total  number  of 
children  in  Catholic  institutions  is  2SS.     There  is  as 


I.  SCIIOOI-  OF  THE  IIOI.Y  CROSS.  KOFENFSKY.       3.  MISSION  CIIAPEr..  KOFENFSKY.  YUKON  RIVER 

VL'KON  KIVEU         ■>.  Rl^SSIAN  Cllliail  4.  CATIIOMC  fllUUCII  WITH  ELECTRIC  CROSS.  I*niIE 


ALATRI 


251 


yet  no  seminary  for  ecclesiastical  students.  The 
orphanage  and  mission  schools  are  supported  mainly 
by  C'atiiolic  charity,  and  the  hospitals  by  organized 
contributions. 

Umled  Slairt  Bureau  of  American  Republict,  Handbook, 
1884;  Alatka:  Arckivrt  of  the  Prefecture  Aiwttolu:  of  Alatka; 
Devise.  Acrost  Widett  America  (.Montrenl.  1905).  AKso 
tiiuus,  D.vLL,  Nelson,  IIolmbero,  wiili  Pethoj-f,  Navv, 
and  other  Russian  writers. 

Joseph  R.\ph.\el  Crimont. 

Alatri,  an  Italian  bishopric  under  the  immediate 
juri.sdiction  of  the  Holy  See,  comprising  seven  towns 
in  the  Province  of  Rome.  The  clo.se  proximity  of 
this  city  to  Home  is  an  argument  for  believing  that 
Christianity  was  tauglit  there  at  a  very  early  date, 
though  this  does  not  compel  belief  in  the  local  leg- 
ends which  place  the  conversion  of  Ferentino,  Alatri, 
and  neiglibouring  towns  in  the  apostolic  age.  The 
route  folio wetl  by  the  earliest  preachers  of  the  Gospel 
in  Italy  is  still  unknown,  ^\e  first  meet  the  name 
of  a  bishop  of  Alatri  in  Paschasius  (.">.')!)  who  ac- 
companied Pope  Vigilius  to  Constantinople  on  the 
occasion  of  the  controversy  of  the  Three  Chapters. 
In  the  church  of  St.  Mary  Major  in  Alatri,  is  pre- 
served a  wooden  statue  of  the  Mailonna,  a  splendid 
example  of  Roman  art  of  the  twelftii  century.  (See 
Fogolari,  "Sculture  in  legno  del  secolo  XII",  in 
'  L'Art",  1903,  I,  IV;  also  Venturi,  "Storia  dell  'arte 
Italiana",  III,  382.)  .\latri  contains  16  pari.shes; 
77  churches,  chapels,  and  oratories;  64  secular  priests, 
52  seminarians;  42  regular  clergy;  31  lay  brothers; 
81  religious  (women);  30  confraternities;  1  boys' 
school  (87  pupils);  3  girls'  schools  (30  pupils).  Pop- 
ulation, 24,000. 

UoiiEl.Ll,  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1722),  I,  288:  Cappelletti, 
Le  chieae  d  Italia  (Venice.  186B),  VI,  433;  Orlandi,  Com- 
prndiose  notizie  sacre  e  profane  delle  cillti  d'ltalia  (PeruRia, 
1770\  I;  Gams,  Series  epitcoporum  Ecclcnce  cathoticce  (Ratis- 
bon,  1873).  660. 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Alb,  a  white  linen  vestment  with  clcse  fitting 
sleeves,  reacliing  nearly  to  the  ground  and  secured 
round  the  waist  by  a  girdle.  It  has  in  the  past  been 
known  by  many  various  names:  linea  or  tunica  linea, 
from  the  material  of  which  it  is  made;  poderis, 
tunica  talaris,  or 
simply  talaris, 
from  the  fact  of 
its  reaching  to 
the  feet  (tali, 
ankles);  camisia, 
from  the  shirt- 
like nature  of  the 
garment;  alba, 
(wliite)  from  its 
colour;  and  fin- 
ally, alba  Rom- 
ana,  this  last 
seemingly  in  con- 
Alb  tradistinction   to 

the  shorter  tunics 
which  found  favour  outside  of  Rome  (cf.  Jafl(5- 
Lowcnfeld,  "  Regesta  ",  229.5).  Of  these  the  name 
Alba  almost  alone  survives.  Another  use  of  the 
word  all),  commonlj'  in  the  plural  albie  (restcs), 
occurs  in  medieval  writers.     It  refers  to  the  white 

farinents  wliich  tlie  newly  baptized  a-ssumed  on 
loly  Saturday,  and  wore  until  Low  Sunday,  which 
was  consefiuently  known  as  dominica  in  alhis  (dc- 
jnncndis),  the  Sunday  of  the  Qaying  aside  of  the) 
white  gannents.  This  rolx>,  however,  will  be  more 
conveniently  discussed  under  the  word  "Chrismal" 
((|.  v.).  From  the  usage  mentioned,  lx)th  Low 
Sunday  and  Trinity  Sunday,  together  with  the  days 
preceding,  seem  sometimes  to  have  been  called 
Alba-.  Possibly  our  Whit-.'^unday,  the  Sunday  after 
the  Pentecost  baptisms,  may  derive  its  name  from 
a  similar   practice.     In   this  article  we   shall  treat 


of  the  origin,  symbolism,  use,  form,  ornamentation, 
material,  and  colour  of  the  alb. 

It  is  impossible  to  speak  positively  about  the 
origin  of  this  vestment.  Meciieval  liturgists,  e.  g. 
Rupert  of  Deutz,  favoured  the  view  that  the  Chris- 
tian vestments  in  general  were  derived  from  those 
of  the  Jewish  priesthood,  and  that  the  alb  in  particu- 
lar represents  the  Kethonet,  a  white  linen  tunic  of 
which  we  read  in  Exodus,  xxviii,  39.  But  a  white 
linen  tunic  also  formed  part  of  the  ordinary  attire  of 
both  Romans  and  Greeks  under  the  l-^mpire,  and 
most  modern  authorities,  e.  g.  Duchesne  and  Braun, 
think  it  needless  to  look  further  for  the  origin  of 
our  alb.  This  view  is  confirmed,  first,  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  Eucharistic  scenes  of  the  catacomb 
frescoes  (e.  g.  those  indicated  by  Monsignor  Wilpcrt 
in  his  "Fractio  Panis")  the  white  under-tunic  is 
not  always  found;  and,  secondly,  by  the  silence  of 
early  Christian  writers  under  circumstances  which 
would  lead  us  to  expect  some  allusion  to  the  relation 
between  Jewish  and  Christian  vestments,  if  any  such 
were  recognized  (cf.  Hieron.,  "Ad  Fabiolam,"  Ep.  64, 
P.  L.,  XXII,  607).  The  fact  that  a  white  linen  tunic 
was  a  common  feature  of  secular  attire  also  makes 
it  difficult  to  determine  the  epoch  to  which  we  nmst 
assign  the  introduction  of  our  present  alb  as  a 
distinctly  liturgical  garment.  The  word  alba,  in- 
deed, meets  us  not  infrequently  in  connection  with 
ecclesiastical  vesture  in  the  first  seven  centuries, 
but  we  cannot  safely  argue  from  the  identitj'  of 
the  name  to  the  identity  of  the  thing.  On  the 
contrary,  when  we  find  mention  of  an  alba  in  the 
"Expositio  Misste"  of  St.  Germanus  of  Paris  (d.  576), 
or  in  the  canons  of  the  Fourth  Sj-nod  of  Toledo  (663), 
it  seems  clear  that  the  vestment  intended  was  of 
the  nature  of  a  dalmatic.  Hence  we  can  only  .say 
that  the  words  of  the  so-called  Fourth  Synod  of 
Carthage  (c.  398),  "ut  diaconus  tempore  oblationis 
tantum  vel  lectionis  alba  utatur,"  may  or  may  not 
refer  to  a  vestment  akin  to  our  alb.  The  slender 
available  evidence  has  been  careftiUy  discussed  by 
Braun  (Priesterlichen  Gewiinder,  24),  and  he  con- 
cludes that  in  the  early  centuries  some  sort  of 
s|)ecial  white  tunic  was  generally  worn  by  priests 
under  the  chasuble,  and  that  in  course  of  time  this 
came  to  be  regarded  as  liturgical.  A  prayer  luen- 
tioning  "the  tunic  of  chastity,"  which  is  assigned 
to  the  priest  in  the  Stowe  Missal,  helps  to  confirm 
this  view,  and  a  similar  confirmation  may  be  drawn 
from  the  figures  in  the  Ravenna  mosaics,  though  we 
cannot  be  sure  that  these  last  have  been  preserved 
to  us  unaltered.  Before  the  time  of  Rabanus 
Maurus,  who  wrote  his  "De  Clericorum  In.stitu- 
tione"  in  818,  the  alb  had  become  an  integral  part 
of  the  priest's  sacrificial  attire.  Rabanus  describes 
it  fully  (P.  L.,  CVII,  306).  It  was  to  be  put  on  after 
the  amice.  It  was  made,  he  says,  of  white  linen, 
to  sjinbolize  the  self-denial  and  chastity  befitting 
a  prie-st.  It  hung  down  to  the  ankles,  to  remind  him 
that  he  was  bound  to  practise  good  works  to  his 
life's  end.  At  present  tlie  priest  in  putting  on  the 
alb  says  this  prayer:  "Purify  me,  O  Lord,  from  all 
stain,  and  cleanse  my  heart,  that  washed  in  the 
Blood  of  the  Lamb  I  may  enjoy  eternal  delights." 
The  symlxilism  has  evidently  changed  but  little  since 
the  ninth  centurj'. 

As  regards  the  u.se  of  the  alb,  the  practice  has 
varied  from  age  to  age.  Until  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  centurj-  the  alb  was  the  vestment  which  all 
clerics  wore  when  exercising  their  functions,  and 
Ruiwrt  of  Deutz  mentions  that,  on  great  festivals, 
l>oth  in  his  own  monasterj'  and  at  Cluny.  not  only 
those  who  officiated  in  the  .sanctuarj',  but  all  the 
monks  in  their  stalls  wore  albs.  The  alb  was  also 
worn  at  this  period  in  all  religious  functions,  e.  g. 
in  taking  Communion  to  the  sick,  or  when  assisting 
at  a  synod.     Since  the  twelfth  centurj-,  however,  the 


ALBA 


252 


ALBAN 


cotta  or  surplice  has  gradually  been  substituted  for 
the  alb  in  the  case  of  all  clerics  save  those  in  greater 
orders,  i.  e.  sub-deacon,  deacon,  priest,  and  bishop. 
At  present  the  alb  is  little  used  outside  the  time  of 
Mass.  At  all  other  functions  it  is  permissible  for 
priests  to  wear  a  surplice. 

Beyond  a  certain  enlargement  or  contraction  as 
to  lateral  dimensions,  no  great  change  has  taken 
place  in  the  shape  of  the  alb  since  the  ninth  century. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  the  vestment  seems  to  have  been 
made  to  fit  pretty  closely  around  the  waist,  but  it 
broadened  out  befow  so  that  the  lower  edge,  in  some 
ca.ses,  measured  as  much  as  five  yards,  or  more,  in 
circumference.  No  doubt  in  practice  it  was  pleated 
and  made  to  hang  tolerably  close  to  the  figure. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  again, 
when  voluminous  garments  were  everywhere  in 
vogue,  St.  Charles  Borromeo  prescribed  a  circum- 
ference of  over  seven  yards  for  the  bottom  of  the  alb. 
But  his  regulation,  though  approved,  cannot  be  said 
to  make  a  law  for  the  Church  at  large. 

Much  greater  diversity  has  been  sho-n-n  in  the 
ornamentation  of  the  alb.  In  the  early  ages  we 
find  the  lower  edge  decorated  with  a  border  some- 
times both  rich  and  deep.  Similar  embroideries 
adorned  the  wrists  and  the  caputium  (head  open- 
ing), i.  e.  the  neck.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
the  fashion  of  "apparels  ",  which  apparently  origi- 
nated in  the  north  of  France,  rapidly  became  gen- 
eral. These  were  oblong  patches  of  rich  brocade, 
or  embroidery,  sewn  on  to  the  lower  part  of  the  alb 
both  before  and  behind.  Similar  patches  were  at- 
tached to  the  wrists,  producing  almost  the  effect  of 
a  pair  of  cuffs.  Another  patch  was  often  sewn  on 
to  the  breast  or  back,  sometimes  to  both.  To  these 
apparels  many  names  were  given.  The  commonest 
were  parurce,  plagutce,  grammata,  gemmata.  This 
custom,  though  it  lingered  on  for  centuries,  and  in 
Milan  survives  until  the  present  day,  gave  way  finally 
before  the  introduction  of  lace  as  an  ornament. 
The  use  of  lace,  though  permitted,  ought  never  to 
lose  the  character  of  a  pure  decoration.  Albs,  with 
lace  reaching  above  the  knees,  are  not,  strictly  speak- 
ing, en  regie,  though  there  is  a  special  decree  of  16  June, 
1893,  tolerating  albs  with  lace  below  the  cincture  for 
canons  at  Mass,  on  solemn  feast  days.  Formerly  a 
decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  prohibited  any 
coloured  lining  behind  the  flounce,  or  cuffs,  or  lace 
with  which  the  alb  might  be  decorated,  but  a  more 
recent  decree  (12  July,  1892)  sanctioned  the  practice. 
In  point  of  material  the  alb  must  be  made  of  linen 
(woven  of  flax  or  hemp);  hence  cotton  or  wool  are 
forbidden.  The  colour  must  now  be  white.  Much 
discussion  has  been  caused  by  the  frequent  occur- 
rence in  medieval  inventories  of  albs  which  ap- 
parently comply  with  neither  of  these  regulations. 
Not  only  do  we  read  of  blue,  red,  and  even  black 
albs,  but  albs  of  silk,  velvet,  and  cloth  of  gold  are 
frequently  mentioned.  It  has  been  contended  that 
in  many  cases  such  designations  must  be  regarded 
as  referring  to  the  apparels  with  which  the  albs  were 
adorned;  also  that  the  albs  of  silk,  velvet,  etc.  were 
probably  tunicles  or  dalmatics.  But  there  is  a 
residue  of  ca.ses  which  it  is  impossible  to  explain 
satisfactorily,  and  the  prevalence  at  least  of  blue  albs 
seems  to  be  proved  by  the  miniatures  of  early  manu- 
scripts. Moreover,  the  use  of  silk  and  colours  in- 
stead of  albs  of  white  linen  has  lasted  on  in  isolated 
instances,  both  in  East  and  West,  down  to  our  own 
days.  It  may  be  added  that,  like  other  sacerdotal 
vestments,  the  alb  needs  to  be  blessed  before  use. 

J.  BRAt'N.  Die  prirnterlirhm  Geu'ttnrltr  den  Abendlandea 
(Freiburg,  1897),  10-43.  Thin  is  thi-  only  satLsfartory  treatise 
which  embrace.s  the  whole  field.  Rock,  Thr  Church  of  our 
FnthfTt  (2il  eel.,  London,  1903),  T,  3-17-73:  DliCHKKNE,  Chris- 
lum  Wor$hii>  (tr,  London,  1903),  381;  MACALlBTKn,  Kcclo- 
iiittiral  Vritmmti  (Lomlon,  1894);  Mahuiott,  Vetlinrium 
Chritlinnum  (Ix)ndon,  18B8);  The  Month,  September,  1898, 
860-77;   IIaiiiiieh    de    Montaui-t,    Le    coitume  et    let  utagtt 


eccUsiaatigues,  II,  231-242  (Paris,  1900);  Keacs,  Real-Encyclo- 
pddie,  s.  V.  Atbe;  Rohault  de  Fleury,  La  Mease  (Paris, 
1889),  VII,  11-26;  Bock,  Die  lilurgischen  Gewander  dei  MitUl- 
alters,  II,  31-50  (Bonn,  ISfifi);  Hinz,  Die  Schatzkammer  der 
Marienkirche  zu  Danzig  (Danzig,  1870);  Von  Hefelk,  Bei' 
trage,  II,  167-174  (Tubingen,  1864);  Bhaun.  Zeilechrift  f. 
Christ.  Kunst.  art.  Veslmenta  of  the  Castle  of  St.  Elia,  XII,  352- 
55  (1900). 

Hehbert  Thurston. 

Alba,  Juan  de.     See  Albi. 

Alba  Julia.     See  Fogaras. 

Alba  Pompeia,  Diocese  op,  compri-ses  eighty 
towns  in  the  province  of  Cuneo  and  two  in  the 
province  of  Alexandria,  in  Italy.  Heading  the  list 
of  the  bishops  of  Alba  is  a  St.  Dionysius,  of  whom  we 
are  told  that  after  serving  there  for  some  years  he 
became  Archbishop  of  Milan.  He  was  the  Dionysius 
who  so  energetically  opposed  the  Arian  heresy,  and 
was  exiled  in  the  year  355,  by  the  Emperor  Constans. 
Papebrocli  (.A.cta  SS.,  VI,  40)  disputes  the  reliability 
of  tliis  tradition,  since  a  bishop  of  that  period  was 
forbidden  to  leave  his  diocese  for  another.  A  hst  of 
nine  early  bishops  of  Alba,  from  another  St.  Dio- 
nysius (380)  down  to  a  Bishop  Julius  (553)  was  com- 
piled from  sepulchral  inscriptions  fouad  in  the 
cathedral  of  Alba  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  by  Dalmazzo  Berendenco,  an  antiquarian. 
De  Rossi,  however,  on  examination  proved  it  a 
forgery  (Boll,  di  Arch.  Crist.,  1868,  45-47).  The 
first  bishop  of  Alba  of  whose  existence  we  are  certain 
is  Lampradius  who  was  present  at  the  synod  held 
in  Rome  (499)  under  Pope  Symmachus.  (Mansi, 
VIII,  235,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Auct.  Antiq.,  XII, 
400.)  In  the  scries  of  bishops,  Benzo  is  notable  as 
an  adversary  of  Gregory  VII  and  a  partisan  of  the 
Empire  in  the  struggle  of  the  Investitures.  (Orsi, 
"  Un  libellista  del  sec.  XI"  in  "  Rivista  storica 
Italiana",  1884,  p.  427.)  The  diocese  contains  101 
parishes;  276  secular  priests;  11  regulars;  403  churches 
and  chapels;  10  seminaries. 

Ughelli,  Itnlia  sacra  (Venice,  1722'),  IV,  281;  Cappelletti, 
Le  chiese  d'ltalia  (Venice,  1806),  XIV,  159;  Gams,  Serifs 
eptscoporum  Ecclesia  catholicce  (Ratisbon.  1873),  809;  Savio, 
Gli  antichi  vescovi  d^ltalia  dalle  origini  al  1300,  descritti  per 
regioni  (Turin,  1899),  49;  Vernazza,  Romanorum  litterala 
monumenta  Albte  Pompei<e  civitatem  et  agrum  illustrantia  (Turin, 
1787);  Cappelli,  Notizie  storiche  delta  citth  d'Alba  (Turin, 
1788). 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Alba  Reale.  See  Stuhlweissenburg, 
Alban,  Saint,  first  martyr  of  Britain,  suffered 
c.  304.  The  commonly  received  account  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Alban  meets  us  as  early  as  the  pages 
of  Bede's  "Ecclesiastical  History"  (Bk.  I,  chs.  vii 
and  xviii).  According  to  this,  St.  Alban  was  a  pagan 
living  at  Verulamium  (now  the  town  of  St.  Albans 
in  Hertfordshire),  when  a  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians broke  out,  and  a  certain  cleric  flying  for  his 
hfe  took  refuge  in  Alban's  house.  Alban  sheltered 
liim,  and  after  some  days,  moved  by  his  example, 
liimself  received  baptism.  Later  on,  when  the  gov- 
ernor's emissaries  came  to  search  the  house,  Alban 
disguised  himself  in  the  cloak  of  his  guest  and  gave 
himself  up  in  his  place.  He  was  dragged  before  the 
judge,  scourged,  and,  when  he  would  not  deny  his 
faith,  condemned  to  death.  On  the  way  to  the  place 
of  execution  Alban  arrested  the  waters  of  a  river  so 
that  they  crossed  dry-shod,  and  he  further  caused  a 
fountain  of  water  to  flow  on  the  summit  of  the  hill 
on  which  he  was  beheaded.  His  executioner  was 
converted,  and  the  man  who  replaced  him,  after 
striking  the  fatal  blow,  was  punished  with  blindness. 
A  later  development  of  the  legend  informs  us  that 
the  cleric's  name  was  Amphibalus,  and  that  he,  with 
some  companions,  was  stoned  to  death  a  few  days 
afterwards  at  Redbourn,  four  miles  from  St.  Albans. 
What  germ  of  truth  may  underlie  these  legends  it  is 
difficult  to  decide.  The  first  authority  to  mention 
St.  Alban  is  Constantius,  in  liis  Life  of  St.  Germanua 


ALBANENSES 


253 


ALBANIA 


of  Auxerre,  written  about  480.  But  the  further  de- 
tails tliere  given  about  the  opening  of  St.  Alban's 
tomb  and  the  taking  out  of  rehcs  are  later  interpola- 
tions, as  has  recently  been  discovered  (.see  Levison 
in  the  "  Neues  Archiv  ",  1903,  p.  148).  Still  the  whole 
legend  as  known  to  Hede  was  probably  in  existence 
in  tlie  tirst  half  of  the  sixth  century  (VV.  Meyer, 
"  I-egeiule  iles  h.  Albanus",  p.  21),  and  was  u.sed  by 
Gildas  before  .')47.  It  is  also  probable  that  the  name 
Amphibalus  is  derived  from  some  version  of  the 
legend  in  which  the  cleric's  cloak  is  called  an  amphi- 
balus; for  (ieotTrey  of  Monmouth,  the  earliest  witness 
to  the  name  Ampliibalus,  makes  precisely  the  same 
mistake  in  another  pa.ssage,  converting  the  garment 
called  amiihiliatus  into  the  name  of  a  saint.  (See 
Ussher,  Works,  V,  p.  181,  and  VI,  p.  58;  and  Revue 
Celtique,  18'.)(),  p.  349.)  From  what  has  been  said, 
it  is  certain  that  St.  .\lban  has  been  continuously 
venerated  in  Englanil  since  the  fiftli  century.  More- 
over, his  name  was  known  about  the  year  580  to 
V'cnantius  Fortunatus,  in  Southern  Gaul,  who  com- 
memorates him  in  the  Hne: — 

Albanum    cgregium    fecunda    Britannia    profert. 

(Lo!  fruitful  Britain  vaunts  great  Alban's  name). 
("Carmina",  VIII,  iii,  1,55).  His  feast  is  still  kept  as 
of  old,  on  22  June,  and  it  is  celebrated  throughout 
England  as  a  greater  double.  That  of  St.  Amphi- 
balus is  not  now  observed,  but  it  seems  formerly  to 
have  been  attached  to  25  June.  In  some  later  devel- 
opments of  the  legend  St.  .\lban  appears  as  a  .soldier 
who  had  visited  Home,  and  his  story  was  also  con- 
fused with  that  of  another  St.  Alban,  or  Albinus, 
martyred  at  Mainz. 

Martvueiom  or  St.  Alban. — Ada  SS..  22  June.  V;  Stan- 
ton. Emiluh  Mtnoloay  (London.  1892),  281-282;  Did.  Chrwt. 
Bioff.  8.  v.;  Dirt.  Nut.  Biog.,  Supplant.,  I.  27:  Bright,  EaTly  Eng. 
Ch.  Hiet.  (I-onilon.  1897).  (i-7;  H\RU\,  Descripliie  CaUilvaue, 
1,  3-34;  Plummkr.  Bedf  (Oxford.  1896),  II.  17-20;  Haddan 
AND  STunns.  Vouncila,  I,  7;  Atkin.ion,  French  Legend  of 
^t.  Alban  (Dublin.  1870);  Allard,  Hiatoire  des  persecutions 
(Paris.  1890).  IV,  41;  Narbey,  Supplimmt  aux  Ada  Sanc- 
torum (Pari."*.  1902).  II,  104;  but  especially  Mkver,  Die  Lcgende 
det  h.  .4(fc(ini4»  in  the  Ahhandlungen  d.  K.  Gesellschaft  d.  Wil- 
senschaften.  (Gcittingen,  1904),  new  .-ieries.  VIII. 

Herbeht  Thuhston. 

Albanenses,  Manichaian  heretics  who  lived  in 
Albania,  probably  about  the  eighth  century,  but  con- 
cerning whom  little  is  known,  except  that  they  were 
one  of  the  numerous  sects  through  which  tlie  original 
Manicha'ism  continued  to  flourish.  (.See  Bocomil.e, 
C.\TH.M(i,  Paulician.s.)  They  appear  to  have  pro- 
fessed a  very  strict  and  unconijiromising  form  of 
the  heresy,  rejecting  all  doctrinal  modifications  as 
to  the  eternity  of  tlie  evil  principle,  and  its  absolute 
equality  with  the  good  principle. 

Heumer  in  Diet,  de  thM.  ealh.,  I,  658. 

Fr.\ncis  W.  Gkey. 

Albania,  the  ancient  Epirus  and  lUyria,  is  the 
most  western  land  occvipiecl  by  tlie  Turks  in  Europe. 
Its  extreme  length  is  about  290  miles,  and  its  breadth 
fR)m  forty  to  ninety  miles.  On  the  west  and  south- 
west it  is  bounded  by  the  Adriatic  and  the  Ionian 
seas.  It  is  generally  divided  into  three  regions: 
Upper  .Mbania,  from  tlie  Montenegrin  frontier  to  the 
river  Shkumbi;  Lower  .Mbania,  or  Epirus,  from  the 
Slikumbi  to  the  Gulf  of  .\rta;  and  Eastern  Albania,  to 
the  east  of  theSchar-Dagh  chain.  It  is  a  mountainous 
and  rugged  territory,  some  of  its  peaks  reaching  a 
height  of  .S,50()  feet,  and  has  only  one  ((lain  of  note, 
that  of  Scutari  (the  ancient  ScoJra,  v  ^xdSpa),  which 
holds  the  lake  of  the  same  name  and  is  watered  by 
its  affluent,  the  Drin.  Many  rivers  flow  from  sav- 
age, inaccessible  heights  to  the  Ionian  Sea:  the 
Mati,  Shkumbi,  Ergent  or  Devol,  Voynssa,  Kalamas. 
Among  them  are  the  celebrated  Acheron  and  Cocytus 
of  antiquity.  .Mbania  shares  with  Greece  the  pecu- 
liar phenomenon  of  subterranean  rivers;  the  waters 
of  the  lake  of  Janina  How  through  one  of  the.se  un- 
derground channels  into  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  and  this 


gave  rise  to  the  myth  that  here  was  the  entrance  to 
the  infernal  world  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  The  Bur- 
roundiiig  coimtrj'  is  covered  with  Cyclopean  ruins. 
In  the  rigi(ni  of  Lakes  Ochrida  and  Presba  there  are 
lia.ssiigcs  through  the  mountains,  whicli  facilitate 
communication  between  Albania  and  Macedonia;  and 
the  Turkish  mail  post  actually  follows  the  old  Via 
Kgnatiii  of  the  Romans  from  Durrazzo  (the  ancient 
Dyrracliium)  to  ."^alonica,  passing  by  Bitolia.  Far- 
ther down,  between  the  Grammos  and  the  Pindar 
chains,  a  detile  allows  communication  with  the 
roail  from  Janina  to  Larissa.  The  .Mavropotamas, 
or  Acheron,  formerly  received  the  afllueiits  of  the 
Cocytus  and  Phlegeton,  which  have  now  disappeared. 
Tlie  soil  is  barren  from  want  of  cultivation  and  the 
exports  are  few,  consisting  principally  of  hiiles,  bark 
for  dyeing,  and  tobacco.  If  the  Boyana  river  were 
made  navigable,  Scutari  would  be  connected  with 
the  sea.  and  trade  would  assuredly  lead  to  progress 
of  all  kinds;  but  Mussulman  rule  precludes  the  at- 
tempt. 

Tlio  .•Mbanians  (more  of  an  ethnographic  than  a 
geographic  term)  are  called  Amauts  (.'\rnaoots,  .\r- 
naouts)  by  the  other  peoples  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula; they  give  themselves  the  name  of  Skipetur.'i  or 
"mountaineers".  They  claim  descent  from  the  Epi- 
rots  and  Illyrians,  and,  like  the  latter,  have  always 
been  distinguished  by  their  warlike  spirit.  After 
having  been  conquered  in  the  Illyrian  wars  by  Rome, 
the  tribes  of  this  region  furnished  the  best  soldiers 
of  the  empire;  several  emperors  were  of  Illyrian 
stock  (Freeman,  The  Illyrian  l^mperors.  Historical 
Es.says.  London,  1892,  III,  22-68).  Christianity 
probably  penetrated  these  mountain  fastnes.ses 
through  the  Roman  soldiers  and  traders  from  Epirus 
and  .Macedonia;  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  traces  of 
the  original  apostolate  survived  the  ruin  of  the 
Roman  State  in  the  West.  After  the  dismember- 
ment of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Illyrian  population, 
gradually  driven  southward  by  the  invading  Slavs, 
became  known  as  .Mbanians,  were  long  subject  to 
schismatic  Constantinople,  then  fell  under  the  sway 
of  the  Serbs,  aiul  finally  became  (133(»-56)  a  prov- 
ince of  the  metlieval  Servian  Empire  under  Tsar 
Stephen  Duschan.  (See  Sekvi.\.)  On  its  dismember- 
ment, after  the  battle  of  Ko.ssovo  which  took  phice 
(1389),  the  victorious  Turks  overran  the  country,  but 
Prince  George  Castriota,  the  famous  Scanderbeg  who 
was  known  also  as  Iskander  Bey,  or  Prince  .\lexander, 
maintained  an  independent  rule  in  Upper  Albania 
for  a  quarter  of  a  century  (1443-07).  This  hero, 
whose  feats  of  valour  are  almost  legendarj',  was  bred 
as  a  Mo.slem  at  the  court  of  Murad  II  to  whom  he 
had  been  given  as  a  hostage  by  his  father,  an  Al- 
banian chief;  but  after  having  won  fame  and  honour 
in  the  Sultan's  service,  his  race  a.sserted  itself,  and 
he  broke  away  to  place  him.sclf  at  the  head  of  his 
own  people  and  embrace  Christianity.  He  defeated 
the  Turkish  army  in  several  engagements  and  se- 
cured an  honourable  peace  on  his  own  terms.  But, 
cncouragetl  by  the  Pope  anil  the  promise  of  help 
from  the  Venetians,  he  again  attacked  the  Turks 
and  gained  numerous  victories.  On  his  death  at 
Alessio  (14()7),  the  Sultan  exclaimed:  "Now  that  the 
infiilels  have  lost  their  sworil  and  buckler,  who  can 
save  them  from  my  wrath?"  The  ..Mbanians  be- 
came disorganized  and  were  finally  subjected  (1479) 
to  Mu.ssulman  dominion.  They  have,  however,  never 
been  subdued,  and  are,  even  today,  treated  more 
like  allies  than  subjects.  They  now  supply  the 
Turkish  army  with  its  best  .soldiers  as  they  once  did 
the  legions  of  Rome,  and  are  exempted  from  taxes 
and  from  compulsory  military  service.  As  volun- 
teers, they  receive  high  pay  and  many  privileges. 
While  .several  tribes  have  embracetl  Islam  and  others 
belong  to  the  Greek  schism,  the  liest  of  the  popu- 
lation  is  Catholic,   and   while  guarding   traditional 


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254 


ALBANIA 


customs  and  a  primitive  manner  of  life,  practise 
tlieir  religion  devoutly.  The  purity  of  their  morals 
is  proverbial  throughout  tlie  Balkan  peninsula,  and 
the  zealous  Austrian  and  Italian  missionaries  have 
met  with  conditions  most  favourable  for  their  teach- 
ing. Schools  have  been  opened  in  all  the  villages 
of  note  by  Franciscan  and  Jesuit  Fathers,  but  the 
spread  of  education  is  hindered  by  the  lack  of  a 
grammatically  organized  language.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  decide  upon  an  alphabet,  but 
none  has  yet  succeeded  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
expressing  the  oral  sounils  by  any  known  combina- 
tion of  European  letters.  A  cultured  Albanian, 
therefore,  takes  Komnanian,  Greek,  Servian,  or  Ital- 
ian, for  his  medium  of  intercommunication.  An 
Albanian  journal  is  published  in  Bukarest  and  an- 
other in  Belgrade.  In  the  country  itself  there  is 
no  attempt  at  a  newspaper,  and  the  periodicals  most 
prevalent  in  the  towns  are  Italian  publications  of  a 
religious  tone.  The  tribes  which  have  resisted  Mus- 
sulman rule  successfully  and  retained  their  creed 
have,  notwithstanding  this,  adopted  many  Moslem 
customs. 

Religion. — For  four  centuries  the  Catholic  Alba- 
nians have  defended  their  faith  with  bravery,  greatly 
aided  by  the  Franciscan  missionaries,  especially 
since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when 
the  cruel  persecutions  of  their  Mussulman  lords  be- 
gan to  bring  about  the  apostasy  of  many  villages, 
particularly  among  the  schismatic  Greeks.  The 
Ck)llege  of  Propaganda  at  Rome  was  especially  prom- 
inent in  the  religious  and  moral  support  of  the  Al- 
banian Catholics.  During  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  particularly,  it  educated  yoimg 
clerics  for  service  on  the  Albanian  missions,  con- 
tributed then  as  now  to  their  support  and  to  that 
of  the  churches,  in  wliich  good  work  it  is  aided  by 
the  Austrian  Government  which  gives  yearly  to  these 
missions  about  five  thousand  dollars,  in  its  quality 
of  Protector  of  tlie  Christian  community  under  Turk- 
ish rule.  The  Church  legislation  of  the  Albanians 
was  reformed  by  Clement  XI,  who  caused  a  general 
ecclesiastical  visitation  to  be  held  (170.3)  by  the 
.\rchbishop  of  Antivari  (q.  v.),  at  the  close  of  which 
a  national  synod  was  held.  Its  decrees  were  printed 
by  Propaganda  (1705),  and  renewed  in  1803  (Coll. 
Lacensis  Cone.  Recent.,  I,  283  sq.).  In  1872,  Pius  IX 
caused  a  second  national  synod  to  be  held  at  Scutari, 
for  the  renovation  of  the  popular  and  ecclesiastical 
life.  Apropos  of  the  Austrian  interest  in  Albania, 
it  may  be  stated  that  it  is  the  Austrian  ambassador 
who  obtains  from  the  Sultan  the  Berat,  or  civil 
document  of  institution  for  the  Catholic  bishops  of 
.AJbania  (Neher,  in  K.  L.,  XI,  18,  19). 

-Albania  is  divided  ecclesiastically  into  several 
archiepiscopal  provinces:  (1)  Antivari  (since  1878 
a  part  of  the  principality  of  Montenegro  (q.  v.); 
since  18S6,  without  suffragans,  and  separated  from 
Scutari,  with  which  it  liad  been  united  in  1867  on 
terms  of  equality);  (2)  Scutari,  with  the  suffragan 
Sees  of  Alessio,  Pulati,  Sappa  and  (since  1888) 
the  Abbatia  nullius  of  St.  Alexander  of  Orosci; 
(3)  Durazzo;  (4)  Uskup.  The  latter  two  are  with- 
out suffragans,  and  depend  immetliately  on  the  Holy 
See.  A  seminary,  founded  in  1S5S  by  Archbishop 
Topich  of  Scutari,  was  destroyed  by  the  Turks,  but 
was  later  re-established  on  Austrian  territory  and 
placed  under  the  imperial  protection.  In  Scutari  the 
Catholic  women,  as  well  as  the  Mohammedan,  go 
veiled.  The  .Vlbanian  woman  works  unceasingly  in 
the  field  and  in  the  home;  so  that  every  household 
care  devolves  upon  her  in  the  frequent"  absence  of 
the  men  who  are  either  regular  or  irregular  fighters 
in  the  .-Mbanian  or  Turko-.Mbanian  bands.  Tlie 
women  are  dressed  in  tight  skirts  of  light  colour 
striped  with  black,  and  their  heads  and  shoulders 
are  covered  on  feast  days  with  masses  of  gold  and 


silver  coins.  In  the  Catholic  churches,  the  women 
appear  unveiled,  and  the  hmnbler  class  generally 
remove  their  shoes  at  the  entrance.  The  service  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Scutari  is  most  impressive,  although 
primitive  to  an  extreme  degree.  There  is  little  quiet, 
for  the  congregation  rasps  out  the  respon.ses  with  a 
fervour  that  precludes  either  modulation  or  rhythm; 
and  the  incessant  rattle  of  the  coins  on  the  women's 
breasts  and  heads  as  they  bend  forward  and  again 
kneel  upright  accompanies  every  intonation.  The 
scarlet  colour  predominates  in  the  altar  decorations, 
as  well  as  in  the  clothes  of  the  \vorship])ers.  It  is 
impossible  to  witness  the  attitude  of  the  Catholic 
-Albanian  at  worship  and  remain  unmoved  at  his 
simple,  whole-hearted  demonstration  of  li\-ing  faith. 
The  admirable  work  of  the  friars  in  dispelling  the 
old  vendetta  custom  is  one  of  the  chief  factors  in 
the  evolution  of  this  semi-barbaric  race.  The  Al- 
banians of  to-day  give  the  same  promise  of  a  vig- 
orous Christian  development  as  the  Franks  of  the 
time  of  Clovis,  and  it  is  characteristic  of  their  stead- 
fastness that  no  bribes  or  threats  have  succeeded  in 
drawing  them  from  their  first  allegiance.  Wliile 
every  other  race  in  the  Balkans,  with  tlie  exception 
of  the  Western  Serbs,  called  Hmats  (Croats),  went 
over  to  schism,  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  remained 
secure  in  the  fastnesses  of  northern  Albania. 

When  one  recalls  that  to  adopt  Islamism  meant 
to  become  a  lord  and  a  recognized  warrior,  while  to 
remain  Christian  meant  to  become  a  slave,  deprived 
of  the  right  to  carry  weapons,  it  is  easily  seen  why 
so  many  Albanian  tribes  fell  away.  The  chief  tribes 
of  Upper  Albania,  the  Shoshi  and  the  Mirdites,  are 
at  once  the  pioneers  of  nationality  and  Catholicity. 
Long  ago  the  Mirdites  were  wont  to  carry  off  Turk- 
ish girls  of  good  family  and,  after  baptizing  them, 
make  them  their  wives,  so  that  there  is  a  strong 
strain  of  Turkish  blood  in  the  Catholic  Mirdites  of 
to-day.  This  tribe  has  special  privileges,  such  as  the 
place  of  honour  in  the  Sultan's  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  its  own  chieftain.  In  accepting  a  comrade- 
ship of  arms  with  Mussulman  troops  it  guards  its 
creed  and  nationality  witli  the  same  fidelity  with 
which  it  serves  the  Sultan  when  called  upon.  The 
Mirdites,  about  40,000  in  number,  and  with  a  chief 
town  of  some  four  hundred  houses,  Orosci,  treat  on 
equal  terms  with  the  Porte.  The  force  of  ciicum- 
stances  has  driven  the  Albanian  into  fierce  espousal 
of  one  or  other  of  the  causes  which  are  being  peri- 
odically fought  out  between  antagonists  wliose  suc- 
cess or  defeat  leaves  his  own  condition  almost  un- 
changed. It  was  an  Albanian  who  led  the  Greeks 
in  the  War  of  Independence,  and  again  an  Albanian 
who  commanded  the  Turkisli  troops  sent  to  quell 
the  rebellion.  The  Kings  of  Naples  kept  an  Albanian 
regiment  styled  the  Royal  Macedonian,  and  the  fa- 
mous resistance  of  Silistria  in  1854  is  due  to  dogged 
Albanian  bravery.  Courage  and  heroism  are  inborn 
qualities  of  this  singular  and  gifted  race.  The  re- 
vival of  the  national  aspirations  of  Albania  dates 
from  tlie  Congress  of  Berlin  (1878),  when  Austria, 
in  order  to  compensate  Servia  and  Montenegro  for 
her  retention  of  the  Servian  lands  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  thought  to  divide  the  land  of  Albania 
between  them.  Tlie  Turks  secretly  fostered  the  op- 
position of  both  Mussulmans  and  "Catholics,  and  the 
Albanian  League  was  formed  "  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  country's  integrity  and  the  reconstitution  of 
its  independence".  I'lie  territories  allotted  to  Servia 
were  already  occupied  by  her  troops  when  resistance 
broke  forth",  ami  the  idea  of  dislodging  them  had  to 
be  abandoned;  but  Montenegro  was  imable  to  ob- 
tain possession  of  her  share,  the  rich  districts  of 
Gusinie  and  Plava.  The  .Mbanians,  undaunted  by 
the  unexpected  opposition  of  their  former  allies,  the 
Turks,  now  forced  by  Russia  to  assist  Montenegro, 
made  face  against  all  their  enemies  with  a  deterini- 


ALBANI 


255 


ALBANO 


nation  that  baffled  and  dismayed  Europe.  Mehemet- 
Ali  was  routed,  Ills  liouse  at  Diakovo  burned  down, 
and  himself  niassacreil.  The  Albanians  had  much 
to  avenge.  Tliey  had  not  yet  forgotten  the  war  of 
a  centurj'  before  when  their  women  precipitated 
themselves  by  hundreds  over  the  rocks  near  Vanina 
to  escape  .\Ii-I'asha's  .soldiers.  The  Turks  finally 
relinquished  their  cITorts  to  quell  the  movement  they 
had  themselves  helped  to  precinitat.e,  and  Monte- 
negro had  to  content  herself  witii  the  barren  tracts 
of  the  Boyanu  and  the  port  of  Dulcigno.  She  could 
not  have  aspireil  even  to  these,  had  not  Russia,  anx- 
ious to  spread  the  doctrines  of  "Orthodoxy",  ail- 
vocated  tlie  ilismemberment  of  Catholic  and  Mussul- 
man .\lbania  in  favour  of  the  Servian  race. 

After  Scutari.  Yanina  is  the  largest  and  most  in- 
teresting town  of  motlern  .Vlbania.  Near  it  are  the 
ruins  of  the  temple  of  Dodona,  the  cradle  of  pagan 
civilization  in  (ireece.  This  oracle  uttered  its  proph- 
ecies by  interpreting  the  rustling  of  oak  branches; 
the  fame  of  its  prieste.sses  drew  votaries  from  all 
parts  of  Greece.  In  this  neighbourhood  also  dwelt 
the  Pel.isgic  tribes  of  Selles,  or  Helles,  and  the 
Graiki,  whose  names  were  afterwards  taken  to  de- 
note the  Hellenes,  or  Greeks.  The  plateau  of  Yanina 
is  fertile  anil  favourably  situateti  for  defence,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  the  city  have  been  able  to  de- 
velop many  industries,  such  a-s  the  inlaying  of  metal, 
weaving  gold-threaded  stuffs,  and  the  fabrication  of 
fire-arms.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  exact  statistics 
of  any  province  of  the  Turkish  Empire;  the  popu- 
lation of  .\lbania  is  variously  e.stimated,  from 
1.21)0.000  to  1, (500,000,  of  which  1,500,000  are  strictly 
Albanian.  In  the  Kircheiilex.  (Ereiburg.  1899),  XI, 
18,  Eather  Neher  estimates  the  population  at  about 
1,400,000,  one  million  of  which  is  made  up  of  Mus- 
sulmans. There  are  318,000  members  of  the  Greek 
schismatic  church,  and  about  120,000  Catholics.  It 
must  be  aildeil  that  there  are  in  Greece  proper  about 
2,i0,000  .\lbanians.  and  in  Italy  about  100,000,  the 
latter  being  all  Catholics.  In  svnnming  up  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  race,  there  are  two  points  on  which 
travellers  invariably  agree:  the  chivalry  toward  the 
weaker  sex  of  even  the  unreclaimed  .Ubanian,  and 
the  spotless  ch;istity  of  their  women.  Eor  the  rest, 
lunnan  life  is  as  cheap  .as  in  all  lands  where  indi- 
viduals must  reckon  on  tliem.selves  for  its  preser%'a- 
tion. 

(See  .\n-tiv.\ri,  Scut.\ri,  Durazzo,  and  the  other 
dioceses  of  .\lbania.) 

I.KAKK,  TraveU  in  Sorlhrm  Greece  (London,  1835);  Ei.i.'ifcE 
Rkclis,  The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants  (New  York.  1895, 
Eng.  tr.);  Kuroiie,  I,  115-12G;  Niox,  I'rninsule  drs  Balkans; 
Durham's  Travels:  Wilkinson,  Datmatia  and  Monlentgro; 
Hkri>kr.  Konvers,  Lex.,  s.  v.:  liONE,  Turquie  d' Europe  (Paris, 
1889):  DroRAM),  Souvenirs  (Pari.i,  1901):  Fortai.,  Sole 
Aihanesi  (I'alermo,  1903).— The  documents  of  tlie  medieval 
religious  history  of  .\lbania  are  he.-;t  found  in  the  eight  volumes 
of  Fari.ati.  Ilii/rirum  Sacrum  (Venice.  1751-1.S19).  Sec  al.so 
Thkiskh,  Vetera  Monumenla  Slavorum  mfriflionalium  historiam 
Muslrantia  (Rome.  18(13  sqq.).  Uecent  ecclesiastical  statistics 
mav  be  seen  in  O.  Werner,  Orbis  Terrarum  Cotholicus  (Frei- 
burg. 1890),  122-124.  anil  120:  al.so  in  the  latest  edition  of 
the  Missionts  Cathotictx  (Home,  Propaganda  Press,  tricnnially). 
El1Z.\BETH    CnRISTITCH. 

Albani.  a  distinguished  Italian  family,  said  to 
be  ilescended  from  .Xllxiniau  refugees  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  .soon  divided  into  two  branches,  those 
of  Bergamo  and  those  of  I'rbino.  They  gave  to  the 
Church  one  Pope  (Clement  XI,  1700-21)  and  several 
well-known  cardinals.  (1)  CJia.n  Girolamo,  soldier, 
statesman,  and  canonist,  b.  at  Hergamo,  '.i  Januarj', 
1.50 1;  d.  2,5  April,  1.591.  For  services  to  the  Venetian 
republic  he  was  rewarded  with  the  office  of  inquisitor 
at  Hergamo.  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Cardinal  Ghisliero.  When  the  latter  became  Pius  V, 
he  invited  Albani  to  Rome,  made  him  a  cardinal 
(1570),  and  cmploj-cd  him  on  diplomatic  mi.s-sions, 
among  them  being  the  formation  of  an  alliance  of 
Christian  princes  against  the  Turlcs.     Gian  Girolamo 


was  a  distinguished  canonist,  and  was  accounted 
by  his  contemporaries  a  man  of  "solid  judgment, 
rare  erudition  and  eloquence,  free  and  firm  in  his 
decisions,  pleaaant  and  temperate  in  s|}eech,  in  every 
way  a  grave  and  reliable  person  ".  Among  his  often 
icprhitcd  works  are  "  De  donatione  Constantini" 
(Cologne,  1.535),  "De  cardinalatu"  (Rome,  1541), 
"De  potestato  papie  et  concilii"  (Venice,  1544), 
"  Uc  iinmunitate  ecclesiarum"  (Rome,  1.553):  cf. 
Hurler,  "  Nomencl.  Lit."  (2d  ed.),  I,  122.— (2)  Fr.\x- 
cEsco  (.see  Clement  XI). — (3)  An.S'IUale,  Cardinal- 
Bishop  of  .Sabina  (1711),  cousin  of  Clement  XI,  b. 
15  August,  lt)82,  at  I'rbino;  d.  21  September,  1751; 
patron  of  ecclesiastical  literature;  he  left  a  valuable 
library,  a  gallery  of  paintings  and  sculpture,  and  a 
cabinet  of  coins  that  eventually  was  added  to  the 
V'atican  collection.  He  edited,  in  two  volumes,  the 
letters,  briefs,  and  bulls  of  Clement  XI  (Rome,  1724), 
the  ".Menologium  Gra!corum"  (3  vols.,  Urbino, 
1727),  and  historical  memoirs  of  Urbiiio  (Rome, 
1722-24). — (4)  .\LEssAxnito,  brother  of  Annibale, 
b.  at  Urbino,  19  October,  1(392;  d.  11  December,  1779. 
He  entered  the  priesthood  at  the  earnest  insistence  of 
Clement  XI,  but  gave  no  little  trouble  to  that  Pope 
liecaii.se  of  his  worldly  and  undisciplined  life.  In 
1721  limoccnt  XII  made  him  cardinal.  He  was  a 
friend  of  .\ustria  during  the  delicate  negotiations  of 
his  own  time,  and  sided  with  the  opposition  in  the 
reign  of  Clement  XH'  (1769-74).  lie  was  also  an 
enlightened  patron  ii  art  and  artists,  helped  to 
reconcile  witli  the  Church  the  sculptor  and  art- 
historian  Winckelman.i,  built  the  Villa  Albani  (17G0), 
and  filled  it  with  treasures  of  antique  scvilpture  and 
other  precious  relics  of  Greek  and  Roman  art  (dis- 
persed by  Napoleon  I;  the  famous  Antinous  is  there 
still).  His  coins  went  to  the  Vatican  Library, 
over  which  he  presided  as  bihliolhfcarius  from  1761 
(Strocchi,  "De  vita  Alex.  Albani,"  Rome,  1790). — 
(5)  Ciiov.\xxi  FRAXctsco.  b.  at  Rome,  26  Febru- 
ary, 1727;  d.  September,  1803;  a  nephew  of  Clem- 
ent XI,  and  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia  at  the  age 
of  twenty-seven. — (6)  Gif.sEPPE,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  b.  at  Rone,  17,50,  made  cardinal  LSOl; 
lie  shared  the  habitual  devotion  of  his  house  to 
Austria,  took  refuge  in  Vienna,  1796-1814,  returned 
to  Rome  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  and  oc- 
cupied offices  of  distinction  in  the  papal  administra- 
tion until  his  death  (1834).  He  left  his  fortune 
partly  to  the  Holy  .See,  partly  for  religious  purposes. 
With  his  brother  Eilippo  the  family  died  out;  its 
name  and  part  of  its  possessions  passed  to  the  Chigi. 

Mazzvchelli,  5m7/on  d'/ta/ui;  TiPALDO.  Biografia  Italiana; 
I.iTTA,  Famiijlie  celebri  Italiane;  DCx  in  Kirchenlex.  For  the 
Palazzo  Albani  and  the  Villa  Albani,  see  L^arouilly,  Lea 
Mifices  de  Rome  modeme  (Brussels,  18o5-0C). 

TnoMAs  J.  Shahan. 

Albano,  a  suburban  see,  comprising  seven  towns 
in  t!ie  Province  of  Rome.  Albano  (derived  from 
Alba  I.onga)  is  situated  ten  miles  from  Rome,  on 
the  .Appian  Way.  It  was  a  military  post,  and  hence 
Christian  soldiers  must  have  l>een  stationed  there  at 
a  very  early  date.  Appii  Forum  and  the  Three 
Taverns,  where  St.  Paul  was  met  on  his  way  to 
Rome  by  the  brethren  are  not  far  distant  (.Acts, 
xxviii,  14,  15).  In  the  very  j-ear  of  his  consulate, 
Acilius  (ilabrio  was  compelled  by  Domitian  to  fight, 
unarmed,  in  the  amphitheatre  at  Albano,  a  Numidian 
bear,  according  to  Juvenal  (Sat.,  iv,  99);  an  enor- 
mous lion,  according  to  Dio  Cassius  (Hist.  Rom., 
LXVI,  iii).  This  same  .\cilius  Glabrio  is  later  in- 
cluded in  a  Christian  group  of  the  Flavian  family 
as  a  molllor  rcruin  novarum  (Suet.,  D.  10).  The 
"Liber  Pontificalis."  under  the  name  Silvester  (ed. 
Duchesne,  Paris,  18,S6,  I,  1.S5)  .says:  "fecit  basilicam 
Augustus  Constantinus  in  civitate-Mbanensi,  videlicet 
S.  Joannis  Baptista; "  [Harnack,  "  Die  Mission  ",  (Leip- 
zig), 1902,  p.  501].     This  basilica  of  the  time  of  CJon- 


ALBANO 


256 


ALBANY 


stantine  vas  destroyed  by  fire  toward  the  end  of 
the  eighth  centurj'  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
(Lib.  Pont.,  Leo  III;  ed.  Duchesne,  11,32).  Franconi 
has  estabhshed  (La  catacomba  e  la  basihca  Constan- 
tiniana  di  Albano  Laziale,  Rome,  1877)  the  identity 
of  this  basihca  with  tlie  present  cathedral,  which  still 
contains  some  remains  of  the  edifice  dedicated  by 
Leo  III  to  St.  Pancratius.  I'nder  the  basilica  there 
was  a  crypt,  or  confcssio,  from  which  bodies 
were  transferred  to  the  cemetery  near  by.  The 
foundation  of  the  episcopal  see  of  Albario  is  very 
probably  contemporaneous  with  the  erection  of  the 
Constantinian  basilica.  However,  the  first  bishop 
of  the  see  of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge  is 
Dionysius  (d.  355).  It  is  more  than  a  century  later 
(463)  that  we  meet  -Kith  another  Bishop  of  Albano, 
Romanus.  To  these  is  to  be  added  Ursinus,  whose 
name  is  found  on  an  inscription  in  the  Catacomb  of 
Domitilla.  The  consular  date  is  either  345  or  395. 
The  importance  of  this  early  Christian  community 
is  apparent  from  its  cemetery,  discovered  in  1720 
by  Marangoni.  Being  near  Rome,  it  differs  but  little 
from  the  Christian  cemeteries  found  there.  Its  plan, 
clearly  mapped  out  in  the  "Epitome  de  locis  ss. 
martyrum  qute  sunt  foris  civitatis  Romje,"  is  con- 
sidered by  De  Rossi  as  the  synopsis  of  an  ancient 
description  of  the  cemeteries,  ■svTitten  before  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century:  "per  eandem  vere  viam  (Ap- 
piam)  pervenitur  ad  Albanam  civitatem  et  per 
eandem  civitatem  ad  ecclesiam  S.  Senatoris  ubi  et 
Perpetua  jacet  corpore  et  innumeri  sancti  et  magna 
mirabilia  ibidem  geruntur. "  The  saints  here  named 
are  not  known.  St.  Senator  is  inserted  without 
further  explanation  in  the  martyrology  for  26 
September  {et  in  Albano  Senatoris).  From  this 
he  passed  to  the  Roman  martyrology,  where  he  is 
commemorated  on  the  same  day.  But  the  first  ac- 
count of  the  martyrs  of  Albano  is  found  in  the 
"Almanac  of  Philocahis"  (fourth  century)  on  the 
eighth  of  August:  "VI  Idus  aug.  Carpophori,  Vic- 
torini  et  Severiani,  Albano,  et  Ostense  septimo  bal- 
listaria,  Cyriaci,  Largi,  Crescentiani,  Memmise,  Ju- 
lianEB,  et  Smaragdi. "  The  cemetery  has  valuable 
frescoes,  painted  at  various  times  by  unknown  artists, 
which  show  the  progress  of  Christian  art  from  the 
fourth  to  the  ninth  century.  The  series  of  titular 
bishops  of  Albano  contains  many  illustrious  names: 
Peter  II,  afterwards  Pope  Sergius  IV  (1009-12); 
Boniface  (1049),  with  whom  the  series  of  Cardinal- 
bishops  begins;  Blessed  Peter  Igneus  (1074-92)  of 
Vallombrosa,  the  stern  associate  of  Gregory  VII 
in  his  work  of  ecclesiastical  reform;  Nicholas  Break- 
spear,  afterwards  Pope  Adrian  IV  (1154-59);  St. 
Bona  venture  of  Bagnorea  (d.  1272),  the  Seraphic 
Doctor;  and  Rodrigo  Borgia,  afterwards  Alexan- 
der VI  (1492-1503).  This  see  contains  12  parishes, 
67    churches,    chapels,     and    oratories;  60    secular 

Eriests;  26  seminarians  ;  79  regular  clergy;  45  lay 
rothers;  289  religious  (women);  15  confraternities; 
8  boys'  schools  (360  pupils);  3  girls'  schools  (180 
pupils).     Population,  41,000. 

UoHELLl.  lUilia  mcra  (Venice,  1722),  I,  247;  Cappelletti, 
Le  chiete  d'ltalia  (Venice,  18GG),  I,  657;  G.tMs.  Series  Episcopo- 
riim  Eccksi(iCatholica:(,lia.tishon,  1873),  XXII,  464;  Marucchi, 
Di  alcune  inscrizioni  rccentemenle  trovate  e  ricomposte  net 
cimHero  di  Domitilla,  in  Niwvo  bull,  di  arch.  criM.  (1S99),  24; 
Ricci,  Memorie  atoriche  dell'  antichissima  citth  di  Alba  Longa 
e  dell  Albano  modemo  (Rome.  1787);  VoLPl,  Latium  Vetua, 
Profanum  et  Sacrum  (Rome,  1726);  GloNi,  Storia  di  Albano 
(Rome.  1842);  De  Rossi,  Le  catacombe  di  Albano.  in  Bull, 
di  arch,  criat.  (1869);  Leclercq.  Albano  {catacombe  d'),  in 
Diet,  d'archial.  chrit.  et  de  lit.  (Paris.  1904). 

Ernesto  Buonaioti. 

Albano,  Cemetery  of.     See  Catacombs. 

Albany,  The  Diocese  of,  comprises  the  entire 
counties  of  Albany,  Columbia,  Delaware,  Fulton, 
Greene,  Montgomery,  Otsego,  Ren.sselaer,  Saratoga, 
Schenectady,  Schoharie,  Warren,  Washington,  and 
that  part  of  Herkimer  and  Hamilton  counties  south 


of  the  northern  line  of  the  townships  of  Ohio  and 
Russia,  Benson  and  Hope,  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
It  covers  a  territory  of  10,419  square  miles.  Of  the 
total  population  (852,471),  180,030  are  Catholics. 
The  majority  are  of  Irish,  German,  or  French- 
Canadian  origin,  but  other  nationalities  and  races 
are  also  represented — Italian,  Polish,  Russian,  Turk- 
ish, Greek,  Austro-Hungarian,  Slavs,  Syrians,  and 
some  American  negroes. 

Colonial  Period. — Any  general  account  of  the 
early  missions  within  the  borders  of  the  present 
diocese  of  Albany  must  include,  with  more  or  le.ss 
detail,  the  labours  of  the  Jesuits  who  came  into  it 
from  Quebec  with  credentials  first  from  the  arch- 
bishop of  Rouen  (France),  and  afterwards  from  the 
bishop  of  Quebec  itself,  that  ancient  centre  of  Catho- 
lic lite.  From  this  point  of  view,  the  territory  em- 
braced in  its  limits  has  a  unique  history  of  apostolic 
zeal,  undaunted  courage,  grievous  hardships,  and 
privations  endured,  blood  shed  for  the  truth,  and  for 
many  years  an  apparently  hopeless  struggle  with  the 
most  astute  and  resourceful  of  all  the  Indian  tribes 
who  lived  on  the  flats  of  the  Mohawk  Valley,  and 
whose  cruel  nature  was  finally  subdued  by  the  gentle- 
ness and  perseverance  of  these  French  missionaries. 
Its  history  starts  with  the  treaty  of  Saint-Germain 
des  Pr&  (1632),  when  England  at  last  restored 
Canada  to  France.  Cardinal  Richelieu  first  offered 
the  Canadian  missions  to  the  Capuchins,  who  refused, 
and  then  to  the  Jesuits,  who  accepted  them.  Quebec 
and  Montreal,  founded  in  the  first  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  were  the  two  foci  of  all  missionary 
ardour  and  enterprise  until  the  consecration  of 
Bishop  Carroll  in  1790,  not  only  for  Canada  and  the 
Northwest,  but  also  for  all  the  country  adjacent  to 
Canada,  including  northern  and  central  New  York 
as  far  as  the  stockades  of  Fort  Orange  or  Albany, 
which  from  the  time  of  the  English  occupation  in 
1664  became  subject  to  the  vicar-apostolic  of  Lon- 
don. The  pioneer  missionary  in  the  district  now 
known  as  a  part  and  parcel  of  the  diocese  of  .Vlbany 
was  Father  Isaac  Jogues,  who  reached  Ossernenon, 
or  Auriesville,  in  Montgomery  County,  14  August, 
1642,  as  a  captive  of  the  cruel  and  treacherous 
Mohawks.  Mutilated  and  dismembered,  he  escaped 
by  the  aid  of  the  Dutch  at  Fort  Orange,  and,  taking 
passage  on  a  vessel  bound  for  Holland,  reached  his 
own  country  on  Christmas  day.  His  successor  in 
captivity  and  torture  by  the  same  tribe  was  Father 
Joseph  Bressani,  a  Roman  Jesuit  (1644).  The  same 
year  Father  Jogues  returned  to  Quebec,  and  was  sent 
in  May,  1646,  into  the  Mohawk  countn,',  as  an  agent 
to  ratify  a  peace  with  this  tribe.  On  this  journey  he 
reached  Lake  George  on  the  Feast  of  Corpus  Christi 
and  named  it  Lac  St.  Sacrament.  Having  received 
their  promises  of  good  will  he  returned  to  Canada, 
but,  deceived  and  lured  by  their  wily  attitude  of 
friendship,  he  retraced  his  steps  at  once  to  establish 
a  mission  among  them.  In  October,  1640,  he  was 
tomahawked,  beheaded,  and  his  body  thrown  into 
the  Mohawk  river.  In  his  footsteps  and,  some  of 
them,  in  his  sufferings  followed  Fathers  Joseph 
Poncet,  Le  Moyne,  and  Jacques  de  Lamberville,  who 
had  the  glory  of  baptizing,  on  Easter  Sunday,  1675, 
Tegakouita,  who  is  called  Catharine  in  the  baptismal 
record,  and  "The  Lily  of  the  Mohawk"  by  Catholic 
tradition. 

Within  the  stockaded  settlement  of  Fort  Orange 
another  current  of  history  was  running  more  tran- 
quilly than  through  these  blood-stained  Mohawk 
chronicles.  Without  straining  the  verities  of  history, 
that  foundation  named  Fort  Orange,  and  surnamed 
Albany,  merits  the  honour  of  being  the  oldest  sur- 
viving European  settlement  in  the  original  Thirteen 
States.  Diitch  in  the  beginning,  it  was  wrested  from 
the  Dutch  in  1664  by  diaries  II  of  England,  who, 
regardless  of  their  claims,  granted  to  his  brother, 


ALBANY 


257 


ALBANY 


the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany,  afterwards  James  TI, 
all  the  land  lying  between  the  Connecticut  and  Dela- 
ware rivers.  Before  the  transfer  Catholics  were  few. 
Two  Portuguese  sailors  at  Fort  Orange  in  1626,  a 
Portuguese  woman,  and  a  transient  Iri.snman,  met  by 
I'atlier  Jogue-s  in  164:5,  made  up  the  quota.  After 
the  iMighsh  possession  there  is  credible  evidence  tliat 
.several  Catholics  from  the  Netherlands  settled  in 
.\lbany  in  1677,  for  wliom  the  Pranci.scan  Father 
Hennepin  provided.  In  1682  came  Colonel  Thomas 
Dongan  as  governor,  the  son  of  an  Irish  baronet, 
afterwards  the  Earl  of  Limerick.  The  project  of  de- 
taching the  Five  Nations  from  the  French,  who  had 
wr)n  them  by  the  disinterested  labours  of  their  mis- 
sionaries, suggested  tlic  scheme  of  colonizing  them  at 
Saratoga  under  English  Jesuit  influence,  to  counter- 
act a  similar  colonization  enterprise  at  La  Prairie 
under  French  aiisjiices.  The  Jesuits,  Thomas  Har- 
vey, Henry  Harrison,  Charles  Gage,  and  two  lay 
brothers  were  the  patlifinders  under  tlic  new  regime. 

Amkkic.\n  Peuioi). — In  1790  John  Carroll  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  and  Albany  passed 
over  to  his  jurisdiction  from  that  of  the  archbishops 
of  Rouen  and  the  archbishops  of  Quebec.  Saint 
Mary's,  the  first  cluirch  in  the  diocese,  and  for  many 
years  tlie  only  Catholic  church  between  St.  Peter's, 
Barclay  street,  New  York  City,  and  Detroit,  was  built 
in  1797  during  the  episcopate  of  John  Carroll.  Be- 
cause of  its  isolation,  its  corner  stone  was  laid  by  one 
of  its  trustees,  Thomas  Barry.  The  earlier  priests 
during  this  Baltimore  era  were  Fathers  Thayer, 
Whclan,  O'Brien,  D.  Mahoney,  James  Buyshe,  and 
Hurley.  The  laymen  of  mark  were  James  Roubi- 
chaux,  Louis  Le  Coulteaux,  David  ilcEvers,  Tliomas 
Barrj',  William  DulTy,  and  Daniel  Cassidy.  On  the 
same  day  of  the  year  ISOS,  Baltimore  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  an  archdiocese,  and  three  new  sees 
were  created:  New  Yoik,  Philadelpliia,  and  Boston. 
The  new  Bishop  of  New  York  as.sumed  jurisdiction 
over  the  entire  State,  and  Albany  heard  the  voice  of 
a  new  shepherd.  From  this  year  to  the  year  of  its 
erection  as  a  diocese  (23  April,  1847)  there  was  a 
steady  growth  of  Catholics,  sluggish  at  first,  and 
afterwards  flowing  with  fuller  voUnne  as  we  ap- 
proach the  yeare  of  the  Irish  famine  and  the  climac- 
teric of  immigration.  Within  this  New  York  era 
we  note  the  foundation  of  the  following  parishes  and 
churches:^ 

St.  Peter's,  Troy,  1826;  its  pioneer  priests  the 
Revs.  McGilligan,  John  Shanahan,  and  James 
(Juinn.  St.  John's,  Schenectady,  1830,  organized 
by  the  Rev.  Charles  Smith,  of  St.  Marj''s,  Albany; 
its  first  pastor  the  Rev.  John  Kelly,  succeeded  by 
the  Rev.  Patrick  McCloskey.  St.  John's,  Albany, 
1837;  its  first  priest  the  Rev.  John  Kelly,  and  his 
succe-ssors,  the  Revs.  McDonougli  and  Patrick  Mc- 
Closkey. St.  Patrick's,  Watervliet,  1840;  the  earliest 
attending  priest  the  Rev.  John  Sluinahan,  then 
p;istor  of  St.  Peter's,  Troy.  The  Rev.  James  Quinn, 
a.ssistant  at  St.  Peter's,  became  first  pastor  of  tliis 
parish,  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Martin. 
Church  of  the  Assumption,  Little  Falls,  1841;  its 
first  pjistor  the  Rev.  Joseph  M.  Bourke.  St.  .Joseph's, 
Albany,  1842;  founded  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  .Schncller, 
then  at  St.  Mary's,  Albany,  who  was  .succeeded  by 
the  Revs.  Newell  and  P.  llogan.  The  Rev.  John 
J.  Conroy,  afterwards  Bishop  of  .\lbanv,  was  its 
first  pastor.  St.  Mary's,  Sandy  Hill,  1833  (though 
first  mentioned  in  the  Directory  in  1S42);  its  first 
pastor  the  Rev.  Father  Guerdet.  St.  Marj-'s,  Troy, 
was  built  in  1843  by  the  Rev.  Peter  Havermans. 
St.  Augustine's,  Lansingburg,  1844,  had  for  its  first 
pastor  the  Rev.  F.  Coyle. 

The  prominent  lavmen  of  this  epoch  were  Peter 
Morange,  Thomiis  .4usten,  James  Mahar,  William 
Hawe,  Patrick  McQuade,  Peter  Cagger,  Jolm  Stuart, 
Thomas  Geough,  Thomas  Mattimore,  Jolm  Tracey, 


Dr.  O'Callaghan,  of  Albany,  John  Keenan,  of  Glens 
Falls,  Keatmg  Rawson,  Thomas  Sausse,  and  Pliilip 
Quinn,  of  Troy. 

B1SH0P.S  OF  Albany. — (1)  The  Right  Rev.  John 
McCloskey,  D.D.  (afterwards  Cardinal),  consecrated 
Coadjutor-Bishop  of  New  York,  10  March,  1844, 
transferred  to  Albany  as  its  first  bishoj),  21  May, 
1847.  Ho  first  selected  the  venerable  St.  Mary's 
church  of  his  episcopal  city  for  his  cathedral,  and, 
that  proving  unsuitable,  he  began  the  erection  of  the 
cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  the  corner 
stone  of  which  was  laid  2  July,  1848,  by  Ardi- 
bishop  Hughes.  The  edifice,  completed  with  the 
exception  of  one  of  its  twin  towers,  was  dedicated 
21  November,  1852.  It  is  suggestive  that  the 
church  was  christened  before  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception was  declared  an  article  of  faith.  He  con- 
vened the  first  dioce.san  synod  7  October,  1855. 
To  provide  for  the  inrush  "of  Irish  immigrants  he 
founded  many  parishes,  encouraged  the  building  of 
many  churches,  and  augmented  the  number  of  his 
priests.  The  secular  dergj'  proving  insulhcicnt,  he 
mvited  the  assistance  of  Jesuits,  to  wliom  he  en- 
trusted the  large  parish  of  St.  Josepli's,  in  Troy. 
He  was  tirele.ss  in  visiting  every  portion  of  his  ex- 
tensive diocese,  which  comprised  all  that  territory 
now  included  in  the  dioceses  of  Albany,  Syrac\ise,and 
Ogdensburg.  He  made  provision  for  Catholic  educa- 
tion by  installing  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in 
Albany,  and  the  Christian  Brothers  in  Troy.  He 
disarmed  anti-Catholic  and  anti-Irish  bias  by  the 
charm  of  his  personality  and  the  winsome  graces  of 
his  consummate  oratory. — (2)  The  Right  Rev.  John 
Joseph  Conroy,  D.D.,  consecrated  15  October,  1865. 
lie  built  tlie  beautiful  St.  Joseph's  Church  in  tlie 
city  of  Albany,  and  established  a  home  for  the  aged 
in  charge  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  and 
orphanages  imdcr  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
and  Christian  Brothers  in  the  same  city.  The 
secular  clergy  still  proving  inadequate  for  tlie  grow- 
ing and  insistent  needs  of  the  ministry,  he  encouraged 
the  Augustinian  Fathers  and  the  Minor  Conventuals 
to  cast  their  lot  with  the  diocese.  He  secured  the 
future  of  Catholic  schools  by  establishing  the  cele- 
brated convent  of  the  .Sacred  Heart  at  Kenwood, 
and  soliciting  and  welcoming  foundations  of  the 
Sisters  of  .St.  Joseph  of  Caron<lclot,  Mo.,  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  and  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names.  The  second 
diocesan  sjTiod  was  held  in  his  episcopate. — (3)  The 
Right  Rev.  Francis  McNeirny,  D.D.,  consecrated 
21  .■\pril,  1872.  He  purchased  the  rectory  for  the 
cathedral  clergy  at  12  Sladison  Place,  the  chancerj' at 
125  Eagle  street,  and  the  historic  Schuyler  mansion 
as  an  additional  asylum.  The  Dominican  Tertiaries, 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  Redemptorist 
leathers  established  foundations  at  his  invitation 
He  systematized  the  work  of  the  chancerj-,  formu- 
lated schedules  for  complete  annual  reports  from 
each  parish,  and  initiated  tlie  practice  of  convening 
synods  of  the  clergy,  administermg  confirmation,  and 
canonically  visiting  every  church  in  his  diocese 
triennially.  Clerical  conferences,  conducted  with 
method  and  regularity,  were  liis  creation,  and  he 
closed  his  episcopate  and  his  life  witli  their 
crowning  achievement — the  enlargement  and  com- 
pletion of  tlie  cathedral  by  the  addition  of  an  apse 
and  the  erection  of  new  sacristies  and  a  tower. — 
(4)  The  Right  Rev.  Thom:vs  .M.  A.  Burke,  D.D.,  con- 
secrated 1  July,  1894.  He  erected  the  school  and 
rectory  of  St.  Joseph's  parish,  Albany,  whilst  its 
rector,  and  evidenced  administrative  capacity  of  a 
high  order  in  tlie  management  of  its  affairs.  As 
bishop  he  has  enlarged  the  Boys'  Asylum  in  Albany, 
cancelled  the  indebtedness  of  the  cathedral,  refur- 
nished and  renewed  it,  anil  consecrated  it  with  solenm 
ceremoniiil,  16  November,  1902.  With  characteristic 
exactitude  for  all  canonical  processes  and  require- 


ALBEN6A 


258 


ALBERGATI 


ments  in  the  matter  of  synods,  visitations,  erection 
of  parishes,  scliools,  homes  of  industry  and  charity, 
and  the  lidding  of  church  properties,  he  is  inde- 
fatigable and  cont  inues  the  best  traditions  and  labours 
of  his  predecessors. 

Causes  of  Growth.— The  growth  of  this  see  is 
explained  entirely  by  immigration.  The  incentives 
to  it  were  predominantly  industrial.  Agriculture 
played  only  a  moderate  part,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  land 
was  second  choice.  In  the  early  years  of  the  last 
century  New  York  State  entered  upon  a  vast  scheme 
of  internal  improvements— the  linking  of  the  great 
lakes  with  the  ocean  by  a  system  of  canals.  As 
Albany  was  the  chief  beneficiary  of  the  enterprise,  it 
became  the  princi)xil  distributing  centre  of  the  army 
of  labourers  who  flocked  into  it  in  quest  of  employ- 
ment. Work  on  the  Erie  Canal  was  begun  in  1817 
and  completed  in  1825.  Development  of  1;he  entire 
system  of  artificial  waterways  went  on  simultane- 
ously. These  opened  up  a  vast  uninhabited  territory 
to  tillage,  colonization,  and  manufacture.  From  1831 
to  1852  railroad  construction  was  under  way,  and 
as  Ireland  was  then  pouring  into  this  country  a 
flood-tide  of  fugitives  from  the  famine,  they  found 
remunerative  work  at  once.  The  earnings  of  these 
labourers  were  the  chief  contribution  to  the  erection 
of  contemporaneous  churches.  On  the  completion 
of  the  canals  and  railways,  some  of  these  strangers 
purchased  land  and  began  a  farming  life;  most  of 
them  either  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  new  settle- 
ments sprouting  promiscuously  along  the  new  lines 
of  travel,  or  sought  residence  and  employment  in 
special  localities  because  of  their  prosperous  indus- 
tries. Albany  drew  numbers  because  of  its  lumber, 
iron,  stoves,  shoes,  cattle,  and  breweries;  Glens  Falls 
attracted  by  its  flourishing  lumber  activities;  Ballston 
by  its  tanneries;  Cohoes  by  its  axe  industry,  and 
cotton  and  woollen  mills:  Troy  by  the  manufacture 
of  stoves,  nails,  railway  iron,  and  collars;  Schagti- 
coke  and  Amsterdam  by  their  textile  manufactures. 
During  these  years  facilities  of  communication  made 
access  to  most  of  the  diocese  comparatively  easy, 
and  the  people  were  attended  by  a  growing  ministry. 
Its  northern  and  lower  western  sections  remained 
isolated  and  accessible  only  with  great  difficulty  for 
many  years,  and  here  were  some  leakages  from  the 
Faith.  Bigotry  was  rife  in  out-of-the-way  corners, 
and  met  Catholic  profession  and  practice  with  slan- 
der and  slight — without  violence,  however.  All  this 
is  superseded  in  our  day  by  juster  standards  of 
measurement. 

Notable  Benefactors. — The  Right  Rev.  John  ,1. 
Conroy,  the  Right  Rev.  Monsignor  McDermott,  and 
the  Rev.  P.  McCloskey  left  bequests  for  education. 
The  Rev.  Maurice  Sheehan,  the  Rev.  William  CuUi- 
nan,  and  Mrs.  Peter  Cagger  were  generous  patrons  of 
St.  Peter's  Hospital,  Albany.  For  various  and  large 
benefactions  the  diocese  is  indebted  to  John  A. 
McCall,  of  New  York;  Anthony  N.  Brady,  and 
Eugene  D.  Wood,  of  Albany;  Thomas  Breslin,  of 
Waterford;  Edward  Murphy,  Jr.;  James  O'Neil, 
Francis  J.  MoUoy,  Edmund  Fitzgerald,  Peter  Mc- 
Carthy, and  Daniel  E.  Conway,  of  Troy.  In  the 
field  of  cliarity  and  Catholic  usefulness,  where  fidelity 
to  Catholic  interests  was  and  is  a  dominating  prin- 
ciple of  conduct,  the  names  of  Nicholas  Husscy, 
John  H.  l*'arrell,  Charles  Tracey,  Peter  Cassidy,  John 
W.  .McXaniara,  James  V.  'iVacoy,  John  1'.  Mc- 
Donough,  Edward  F.  Hu.ssey,  of  .\lbany,  and  Edward 
Kelly,  P.  P.  Connolly,  Cornelius  F.  Burns,  and 
Stephen  Dudy,  of  Troy,  de-servc  special  mention. 

Impohtaxt  Events. — Among  the  notable  events 
of  the  diocesan  history  are  the  erection  of  the  Cathc- 
dnd  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (1S48-52)  and 
its  consecration,  16  November,  li)02;  the  phe- 
nomenally fruitful  career  of  St.  Joseph's  Provincial 
Seminary,  Troy,  from  18C5  to  1890,  at  which  latter 


date  it  was  transferred  to  Dunwoodie,  Yonkeis, 
N.  Y.;  the  purchase  and  consecration  of  St.  Agnes's 
Cemetery,  Albany,  1867;  the  formation  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Ogdensburg  in  1872,  and  of  Syracuse  in  1886, 
both  of  them  previously  included  in  the  Diocese  of 
Albany;  the  incoming  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
(1840),  Jesuits  (1849-1900),  Christian  Brothers 
(lS51),Ladiesof  the  Sacred  Heart  (1853),  August inian 
Fathers  (1858),  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  (1860),  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Names  (1865),  Sisters  of  Mercy  (1865), 
Minor  Conventuals  (1867),  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor 
(1871),  Dominican  Tertiaries  of  St.  Catharine  de 
Ricci  (1880),  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  (1884), 
Redemptorists  (1886). 

Statistics. — The  clergy  now  (1906)  number  214, 
of  whom  168  are  diocesan  priests,  and  49  regulars 
(Franciscans,  Augustinians,  Redemptorists,  and 
Salesians).  The  teaching  Brothers  are  55,  among 
them  44  Christian  Brothers.  The  Sisters,  or  re- 
ligious women,  number  698;  parishes  with  resident 
priests,  105;  missions  with  churches,  49.  The  paro- 
chial schools  number  42,  with  15,133  pupils  (7,107 
boys  and  8,026  girls).  A  preparatory  seminary 
(Troy)  has  59  pupils.  There  are  2  colleges  with  79 
pupils,  and  19  academies  with  894  pupils.  There 
are  11  asylunis  with  1,455  children;  3  hospitals  with 
a  daily  list  of  197  patients;  2  Houses  of  the  Good 
Sheplierd  with  245  inmates;  2  Houses  of  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor,  with  328  inmates;  2  Houses  of  Retreat, 
kept  by  Dominican  Sisters,  with  35  inmates;  2 
Homes  for  Women,  with  15  imnates;  and  the  Seton 
Home  for  Working  Girls,  with  20  inmates. 

Brodhead,  History  of  the  State  of  New  York  (New  York, 
1853-71);  Martin,  Life  of  Father  Jopues,  (English  tr..  New 
York,  1896);  Dongan  Reports  in  vol.  Ill  of  Documents  relat- 
inff  to  the  Colonial  History  of  New  York  (Albany,  1853): 
O'Callaghan,  Documentary  History  of  the  State  of  New  York 
(Albany,  1849-51);  Foley.  Records  of  the  English  Province 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (London,  1877-83);  John  Gilmary 
Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States 
(New  York,  1880-92):  Howell-Tenney,  History  of  Albany 
and  Schenectady  Counties  (New  York,  1886);  Weise.  Troy's 
One  Hundred  Years  (Troy,  1891);  Albany  Argus,  26  Jan.. 
1813;  O'Callaghan,  History  of  New  Netherland  (New  York. 
1846-48). 

John  Walsh. 

Albenga,  The  Diocese  of,  comprises  seventy-nine 
towns  in  the  province  of  Port  Maurice  and  forty-five 
in  the  [irovince  of  Genoa,  sufi'ragan  to  the  .\rch- 
dioce.se  of  Genoa,  Italy.  Legend  makes  Albenga 
between  the  years  121  and  125  the  scene  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Calocero  of  Brescia,  an  officer  of  the 
court  of  Adrian.  But  the  Acts  of  his  martyrdom, 
together  with  those  of  Sts.  Faustinus  and  Jovita  with 
which  they  are  incorporated,  are  not  historically 
verified.  The  first  bishop  of  whom  we  know  any- 
thing is  Quintius,  who  in  the  year  451  signed  the 
Synodal  Letter  of  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Milan,  to 
Leo  I,  in  wliich  the  condemnation  of  Nest orius  and 
Eutyches  was  sanctioned  (Mansi).  Albenga  con- 
tains 170  parishes;  485  secular  priests;  86  regulars; 
119,280  inhabitants;  354  churches  and  chapels; 
90  seminaries. 

UtiHELLi,  Italia  sacra  (Venice,  1722),  IV,  910;  Cappelletti, 
Le  chicse  d'ltaKa  (Venice,  1866),  XIII,  529;  Gams,  Series 
episcoporum  Ecclesia:  catholica  (Ratisbon,  1873).  810;  Nlc- 
colahi,  Crnni  stnrici  delta  cilth  d' Albenga  (1847);  Cattolas.so, 
Sai/aio  storiro  suit'  antico  cd  attuale  stato  delta  citth  d'Albenga 
(Genoa,  1820). 

Ernesto  Buon.viuti. 

Albergati,  Niccolo,  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of 
Bologna,  b.  at  Bologna  in  1357;  d.  at  Sienna,  9  May, 
1443.  He  entered  the  Carthusian  Order  in  1394, 
served  as  prior  in  various  monasteries,  and  was 
made  Bishop  of  Bologna,  against  his  will,  in  1417. 
In  this  office  ho  still  followed  the  Rule  of  his  Order, 
was  zealous  for  the  reform  of  regular  and  secular 
clergy,  and  was  a  great  patron  of  learned  men, 
among  whom  was  .(Eneas  Sylvius,  afterwards  Pi\is  II. 
Martin  Y,  and  his  successor,  Eugenius  IV,  employed 


ALBERIC 


259 


ALBERO 


him  on  several  important  missions,  thrice  to  France 
(1422,  1431,  1435),  and  thrice  to  Lombardy  (1420, 
1427,  1430).  He  was  made  a  Cardinal  in  1420, 
attended  tlie  Council  of  Basle  in  1432,  and  again  in 
1434  and  143G,  as  legate  of  Kugenius  IV,  a  position 
which  lie  also  filled  in  January,  1348,  at  Ferrara, 
whither  Eugenius  had  transferred  the  Synod.  He 
took  part  in  the  conferences  with  the  Cireeka  in  prepa- 
ration for  the  union  effected  at  I'lorence.  The  Pope 
appointed  hini  (irand  Penitentiary  shortly  before 
his  death.  Though  never  formally  canonized,  he 
has  long  been  popularly  vciicralcd  a.s  Hles.sed  (Acta 
SS.,IIMay,  409  sqq.,  and  Analecta  Boll.,  Vlll,  381 
8qq.).  He  is  the  author  of  various  theological  and 
other  treatises,  including:  "KecoUecta  miilta;  elcc- 
tionis";  "Apologia  pro  Eugenio  IV";  sermons, 
prayers,  epistles  (P-  L.,  CCIV).  His  life  has  been 
written  by  many  different  authors,  contemporary  and 
since  his  time. 

KcGs,  Purp.  ilocttg.  III,  14;  HuGGKRl,  Tcittimonia  de  Nic.  Alb. 
(Rome.  1744);  .Stano.nik  in  Kirchenlrr.,  1,  408;  Pastoh,  His- 
tory of  the  Popes  ^London,    1892),   1,   passim. 

Fii.^Ncis  W.  Grey. 
Alberic  of  Monte  Cassino,  d.  1088;  cardinal 
since  1057.  He  was  (perha[)s)  a  native  of  Trier,  and 
became  a  Benedictine.  He  opposed  successfully  the 
heresy  of  Berengarius,  defended  the  measures  of 
Gregory  VII,  ana  composed  several  theological  and 
scientific  works,  lives  of  saints,  etc.  He  is  the  author 
of  the  earliest  medieval  treatise  on  letter-writing 
(De  dictamine).  Many  of  his  letters  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  works  of  St.  Peter  Damian  (P.  L.,  CXLV, 
621-034). 

ZlKGKi.iiACER,  Hist.  Lilt.  O.S.B.,  III,  94;   Hcrteb,  Nomen- 
clalor  (Innsbruck,   190.3),  V,    10.51-52;   WA-lTE.NnACH,  Deulsrh- 
lands  GeschichHquellen  (0th  ed.),  II,  2<Xi:     UocKlNGEn,    Itrirj- 
sletlcr  und  Formitbucher  des  X/.his  A'/V.  Juhrhumtcrta.  29-46. 
Thom.\s  J.  Shahan. 

Alberic  of  Ostia,  a  Benedictine  monk,  and 
Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia  from  1138—17.  Bom  in 
1080,  at  Heauvais  in  France;  d.  at  Verdun,  1147. 
He  entered  the  monastery  of  Cluny  and  became  its 
sub-prior,  and,  later,  prior  of  St.  Martin-dcs-Champs, 
but  was  recalled  (1120)  to  Cluny  by  Peter  the  \'cner- 
able,  to  aid  in  the  restoration  of  discipline  in  that 
famous  monastery.  In  1 131  he  was  Abbot  of  \ezelay 
in  the  Diocese  of  .\utun,and  held  that  oflice  until  he 
was  made  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia  by  Pope  Innocent 
II  (1138).  Immediately  after  his  consecration  .Vl- 
beric  went  as  papal  legate  to  luigland.  He  was  suc- 
cessful in  his  endeavours  to  end  the  war  then  raging 
for  possession  of  the  throne  between  the  usurper 
Stepnen  of  Blois  and  David  I  of  Scoll:in<l,  who  had 
espou.sed  the  cause  of  Empress  Matilda.  He  then 
called  a  council  of  all  the  bishops  and  abbots  of 
England,  which  assembled  at  London,  December 
1138,  and  at  which  eighteen  bishops  and  about 
thirty  abbots  were  present.  The  chief  business  of 
the  council,  besiiles  some  disciplinary  measures,  was 
the  election  of  an  archbishop  for  the  See  of  Canter- 
bury. Thibaut,  Abbot  of  Bee,  was  cho.sen.  and  con- 
secrated by  Alberic.  -Accompanied  by  Thibaut  and 
other  bisliops  and  abbots,  he  returned  to  Rome  in 
January.  11.39.  The  same  year.  Alberic  was  sent  to 
exhort  the  inhabitants  of  Bari,  a  town  on  the  .Adri- 
atic, to  acknowledge  as  their  lawful  sovereign  Roger 
II  of  Sicily,  against  whom  they  were  in  revolt. 
They  refu.sed,  however,  to  listen  to  the  legate  of  the 
Holy  See.  and  shut  their  gates  against  him.  In  1140 
Alberic  was  appointed  to  examine  into  the  conduct 
of  Rodolph,  Patriarch  of  .Antioch.  In  a  council 
of  eastern  bishops  and  abbots,  at  which  Alberic 
presided,  Rodolph  was  deposed,  and  was  cast  into 
prison  (.30  Novcmlicr,  1140).  Pope  Eugenius  III 
sent  .Alberic  (1147)  to  combat  the  Ilenrician 
heretics  (see  .ALnKiEN.iEs),  who  were  causing  much 
trouble  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Toulouse.  In  a 
letter  written  at  this  time  to  the  bishops  of  that 
I.  -17 


district,  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  calls  .Alberic  "the 
venerable  Bishop  of  Ostia,  a  man  who  has  done 
great  things  in  Israel,  through  whom  Christ  has  often 
given  victory  to  His  Church".  St.  Bernard  was 
induced  to  join  the  legate,  and  it  was  owing  chiefly 
to  the  miracles  and  eloquence  of  the  Saint  that  the 
embassy  was  in  .some  ilegree  successful.  Three  days 
before  the  arrival  of  St.  Bernard,  Alberic  had  been 
given  a  very  cold  welcome.  The  populace,  in  de- 
rision of  his  office,  had  gone  to  meet  Iiim,  riding  on 
a.sses,  and  escorted  him  to  his  residence  with  the 
music  of  rude  instruments.  It  is  said  of  him  that 
he  could  not  win  the  people,  but  that  the  leaders  of 
the  heresy  feared  him  more  than  any  other  cardinal 
of  his  time.  The  last  work  of  Alberic  was  that  of 
co-operating  with  St.  Bernard  in  promoting  the 
second  Cru.sade.  He  it  was  who  arranged  with 
Louis  VII  of  France  the  details  of  the  undertaking. 
JlADn.l-oN,  Life  ani  Works  of  SI.  Bernard,  Abliol  of  (bnnaux, 
tr.  by  Ka[,K8  (London,  1889-98);  I.ingabd,  History  of  ICjio- 
lantl,  II,  iv;  Fi-kury,  Ilistoire  ecclisiastiqiie  (Pari.'*,  l?.**!), 
XI\':  KoiiRBACilCR,  Ilistoirc  univeraelU  de  I'tylise  catho- 
lique,  VI. 

M.  J.  O'Malia. 

Albero  de  Montreuil,  Archbishop  of  Trier  b. 
nc;ir  Toul,  in  ^clrr;unl^  about  1080;  il.  at  Coblciiz, 
18  Janu;iry,  1  !.'>_'.  .After  acquiring  some  dignities  in 
the  churches  of  Toul  and  \'erdun,  he  was  made 
.Archdeacon  and  Provost  of  St.  Amulf  at  Metz. 
Here  he  became  identified  with  the  church  reform 
party  which  was  opposed  to  Bishop  Adalbero  IV, 
and  went  in  person  to  Rome  to  secure  his  deposition 
from  Pope  Pasehalis  II.  On  his  return  he  urought 
about  the  election  of  Theotger,  Abbot  of  St.  Ceorge 
in  the  Black  Forest,  who  was  consecrated  against 
his  will  in  July,  1118,  and,  being  prevented  from 
entering  his  diocese  by  the  imperial  party,  died  in 
1120.  -Albero  then  ai(5ed  in  the  election  of  Stephen 
of  Bar,  who  rewarded  his  zeal  by  making  him  primi- 
ccrius  of  Metz.  After  having  been  mentioned  for 
the  vacant  Sees  of  Magdeburg  and  Halbersladt, 
both  of  which  he  refused,  -Albero  was,  in  1 130,  chosen 
Archbishop  of  Trier  to  succeed  Meginher.  The 
position  was  not  an  easy  one,  for  the  church  was  in 
need  of  reform,  and  the  previous  occupants  of  the 
.see  had  been  dominated  oy  the  Burgrave  Ludwig. 
He  could  not  be  induced  to  accept  the  burden  until 
Innocent  II  summoned  him  to  the  Synod  at  Reims, 
and  even  threatened  him  with  suspension  from  his 
priestly  functions.  He  was  consecrated  by  the 
Pope  himself  at   Vienne. 

-Albero  vigorously  prosecuted  the  w^ork  of  reform. 
He  restored  peace  and  order  in  his  archdiocese,  and 
before  his  death  made  it  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Germany.  In  1130  he  accompanied  the  Emperor, 
Lothair  II,  on  his  expedition  into  Italy,  whither  he 
had  been  summoned  by  Innocent  II  to  resist  the 
aggressions  of  Roger  of  Sicily,  one  of  the  adherents 
of  the  anti-Pope  Anacletus  II.  In  the  dispute  which 
arose  between  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor,  -Albero 
showed  himself  a  staunch  defender  of  the  Papal 
cause,  and  on  his  return  Innocent  made  him  Pri- 
mate of  Belgian  Gaul  and  Papal  Legate  in  Germany. 
After  the  death  of  Lothair  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  election  of  Conrad  III,  founder  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen  djmasty.  In  1148,  Pope  Eugene  III  visited 
Trier,  after  presiding  at  the  Council  of  Reims,  and 
was  entertained  by  him  with  great  .splendour.  -Albero 
was  a  churchman  of  great  zeal  and  energy.  His 
generosity  was  unbounded,  and  though  often  com- 
pelleil  to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  he  was  none  the  less  a  devout  priest  and  a 
patron  of  letters.  .Among  his  friends  he  counted 
St.  Norbert  and  St.  Bemaril,  who  seconded  his 
efforts  for  the  restoration  of  religious  discipline  in 
his  archdiocese. 

Orsln  Alhrronis  Metrira  (1132-45)  in  A/on.  Grrm.  Hist. 
(1848),   VIII.   230-243;    Balderico,  Getla   AlbcronU  Archi- 


ALBERONI 


260 


ALBERT 


•piscopi,  243-261,  ibid;  Panzer,  ErzbUchof  Albero  v.  Trier  u. 
die  deuUchen  Spitlmannsepen  (Strasburg,  1902);  Marx, 
Geechichtf  dea  Erialifta  Trier  (Trier,  1858),  I,  xvii;  for  politico- 
ecclesiastical  history  of  the  time:  Barry,  Papal  Monarchy 
(New  York,  1902).  H.   M.   BrocK. 

Alberoni,  Giulio,  Cardinal  and  statesman;  b. 
30  May,  lOG-l,  at  Firenzuola  in  the  duchy  of  Parma; 
d.  26  June.  1752,  at  Piacenza.  He  was  the  son  of 
very  poor  parents,  and  laboured  as  a  farm  hand  or 
gardener  until  his  fifteenth  year.  After  that  he 
became  a  bellringer  in  the  cathedral  of  Piacenza, 
where  he  gainetl  tlie  favourable  notice  of  the  Bishop, 
was  ordained  priest,  and  appointed  a  canon.  The 
Due  de  Vendome,  in  command  of  the  French  troops 
in  Italy,  became  tlie  patron  of  Alberoni,  took  him  to 
Paris  (1706),  and  made  use  of  his  talents  in  several 
■important  aiJairs.  Having  accompanied  Vendome 
to  the  court  of  Spain  in  1711,  the  reputation  of 
Alberoni's  talents  won  for  him,  after  the  death  of  his 
patron,  the  position  of  agent  of  the  Duke  of  Parma  in 
Madrid.  He  was  very  active  in  furthering  the 
acces.sion  of  the  French  candidate  for  the  throne  of 
Spain,  Pliilip  V,  and  afterwards  became  the  royal 
favourite.  Upon  the  death  of  the  Queen  (Maria 
Luisa  of  Savoy),  Alberoni  used  his  influence  to  bring 
about,  in  1714,  a  marriage  between  the  widowed 
King  and  Elisabetta  Farnese,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Parma.  In  consequence  of  this  diplomatic  success 
he  became  prime  minister,  a  duke  and  grandee  of 
Spain,  and  Bishop  of  Malaga.  He  also  established 
more  satisfactory  relations  than  had  existed  between 
the  Roman  Curia  and  the  court  of  Philip  V.  In 
1717  Clement  XI,  yielding  to  royal  pressure,  created 
him  Cardinal  Deacon  of  San  Adriano.  As  prime 
minister,  .\lberoni's  political  economy  was  decidedly 
in  advance  of  his  times.  He  strove  to  make  tlie 
Spanish  a  manufacturing  nation,  and  so  far  antici- 
pated the  developments  of  tlie  nineteentli  century  as 
to  establish  a  regular  mail  service  between  Spain  and 
her  American  colonies.  He  reformed  many  abuses 
in  the  government  and  instituted  a  school  of  navi- 
gation for  the  sons  of  the  nobiUty.  At  the  same 
fime  he  did  not  hesitate  to  sacrifice  the  popular 
liberties  of  Spain  to  the  interests  of  the  absolute 
monarchy;  while  the  foreign  policy  by  which  he 
Bought  to  recover  Spain's  lost  Italian  possessions, 
his  efforts  to  obtain  for  Philip  V  the  crown  of  France 
and,  generally,  to  aggrandize  the  Spanish  monarchy 
at  all  costs,  must  have  led  to  a  general  European  war 
if  they  had  not  resulted  in  his  own  downfall  (5  Decem- 
ber, 1719).  He  is  blamed  for  tlie  unwarrantable 
invasion  of  Sardinia  and  of  Sicily  by  Spain,  in  spite 
of  formal  assurances  to  the  contrary  given  to  tlie 
•Pope.  Another  extravagant  scheme  of  Alberoni's 
was  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  to  the  Britisli 
throne  by  the  co-operation  of  the  Tsar  and  the  King 
of  Sweden.  At  last,  in  1719,  Philip  V,  to  save  him- 
self from  being  treated  as  the  common  enemy  of 
Europe,  dismissed  and  exiled  the  Cardinal,  wlio 
returned  to  Italy  to  face  the  indignation  of  Clement 
-XI.  His  journey  was  interrupted  at  Genoa,  where 
he  was  placed  under  arrest  to  await  the  decision  of 
a  special  commi.ssion  of  the  Sacred  College.  He 
■escaped,  however,  and  remained  in  liiding  until  the 
death  of  Clement  XI  in  1721.  Under  the  next 
Pope,  Innocent  XIII,  he  w'as  cleared,  by  a  com- 
mission of  cardinals,  of  the  charges  brought  against 
him  (1723),  and  for  some  time  he  Uved  in  retirement 
in  a  Jesuit  house,  after  which  he  was  promoted  to  be 
Cardinal  Priest  of  the  Title  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Lucina. 
Under  Clement  XII  he  served  tlie  Holy  See  as  Legate 
at  Ravenna,  and  under  Benedict  XlV  at  Bologna. 
Cardinal  .\lberoni's  declining  years  were  spent  in 
retirement.  He  is  buried  in  the  church  of  the  college 
of  San  Lazzaro,  which  he  founded  at  Piacenza. 

Berhani.  .Storia  del  CardinaU   Giulio    Alberoni    (Piacenza, 
1861,  1872;;  Von  Hefele,  ia  KirchenUi..  I,  410-411. 

K.  Macphbrson. 


Albert  (.\lbrecht),  Bishop  of  Riga,  Apostle  of 
Livonia,  d.  17  January,  1229.  After  the  inhabitants 
of  Livonia  had  twice  lapsed  from  Christianity  into 
paganism,  and  heroic  measures  were  necessary  to 
reclaim  them,  Albert  organized  a  crusade.  He  -sailed 
up  tlie  DUna  (.-^pril,  1200),  with  twenty-three  ships; 
conquered  the  land  on  both  sides;  founded  the  city 
of  Riga  (1201),  of  which  he  was  made  bishop;  estab- 
lished the  famous  Order  of  Knights  of  the  Sword 
(1202),  which  served  as  a  standing  army;  completed 
the  conversion  of  the  country  before  1206;  and 
erected  the  dependent  bishoprics  of  Semgall-Kurland, 
Dorpat,  and  (Esel. 

FniTz  in  Kirchenlex.;  Heinrici  chronicon  Livonia:  in  Man. 
Germ.  Script.,  XXIII,  231-232. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Albert  (Albrecht)  II,  eighteenth  Archbishop 
of  Magdeburg  in  Saxony,  date  of  birth  unknown; 
d.  12.32.  He  was  the 'son  of  Gimther  III,  Count 
of  Kevernburg,  and  began  his  studies  at  Hildesheim, 
completing  them  later  at  Paris  and  Bologna.  At 
an  early  age  he  was  made  a  prebendary  of  tlie  Magde- 
burg cathedral,  and  in  1200  was  appointed  Provost 
of  the  Cathedral  Chapter  by  Innocent  IF.  Through 
the  influence  of  the  Bishop  of  Halberstadt,  he  was 
nominated  as  the  successor  of  Ludolph,  Archbishop 
of  Magdeburg  (d.  1205).  After  receiving  the  papal 
approbation,  which  was  at  first  withheld,  partly 
on  account  of  those  who  had  taken  part  in  his  elec- 
tion and  partly  on  account  of  his  attitude  towards 
Philip  of  Suabia,  Albert  proceeded  to  Rome,  where 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  by  the  Pope  (Dec,  1206) 
and  received  the  pallium.  He  entered  Magdeburg 
on  Palm  Sunday,  15  April,  1207,  and  five  days 
later  a  conflagration  destroyed  many  of  the  build- 
ings of  the  city,  including  his  own  cathedral.  One 
of  his  first  cares  was  to  repair  the  damage  wrought 
by  firt,  and  in  1208  he  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the 
present  cathedral,  wliich,  though  completed  156 
years  later,  serves  as  his  most  fitting  memorial. 
He  likewise  rebuilt  a  large  part  of  the  city,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Neustadt.  Magde- 
burg was  also  indebted  to  liim  for  several  valuable 
privileges  wliich  he  obtained  from  Otto  IV  after 
the  death  of  Philip  of  Suabia.  Albert  did  much 
to  further  the  interests  of  religion.  He  establislied 
the  Dominicans  (1224),  and  the  Franciscans  (1225) 
in  the  city,  and  also  founded  a  convent  for  women 
in  honour  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen. 

But  Albert's  activity  was  not  confined  to  his 
diocese.  He  also  played  a  prominent  part  in  the 
great  struggle  for  tlie  imperial  crown,  whicli  marked 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  centuries.  Even  before  liis  consecration, 
he  had  inclined  to  the  side  of  Pliilip  of  Suabia,  wlio 
sought  the  crown  in  spite  of  liis  young  nephew 
Frederick,  the  son  and  heir  of  Henry  VI  (d.  28  Sept., 
1197).  But  later,  accepting  the  papal  "Dehbera- 
tion",  he  gave  his  support  to  Otto  IV,  second  son 
of  Henry  the  Lion,  who  had  been  set  up  as  anti-king 
by  a  party  headed  by  Adolphus  of  Cologne  and 
crowned  at  Ai.x-la-Chapelle.  After  the  assassina- 
tion of  Philip  (July,  1208)  Albert  did  much  to  have 
liis  rival  acknowleiiged  as  king.  Otto  proceeded 
to  Rome,  accompanied  by  Albert,  where  he  was 
crowned  by  the  Pope  on  4  Oct.,  1209,  and  soon  after 
seized  Ancona  and  Spoleto — part  of  the  papal  terri- 
tories. Upon  attempting  to  enter  Sicily  he  was 
excommunicated  by  Innocent  III  (Maundy  Thursday, 
1211),  and  his  subjects  relea.sed  from  their  allegiance. 
Albert,  after  some  hesitation,  published  the  bull 
of  excommunication  and  thenceforth  transferred 
his  allegiance  to  Frederick  II,  the  Hohenstaufen, 
son  of  Henry  VI.  In  1212  Otto  returned  to  Ger- 
many anil  defied  the  Pope.  The  struggles  that 
followed,  in  wliidi  Magdeburg  and  its  neighbourhood 
suffered  severely,  did  not  come  to  an  end  until  Otto's 


ALBERT 


261 


ALBERT 


power  was  broken  at  the  battle  of  Bouvines  (1214). 
Albert  is  said  to  have  died  in  123J  during  an  interval 
of  peace  between  the  Empire  and  the  Papacy. 

Mon.  Germ.  Hint..  XIV,  -118,  (Jeela  Archirp.  Maodrb;  Woi.- 
teh,  Oesch.  der  Stadt  Magdilmrg  UUOl).  ^7;  FECllTni'I-  in 
Kirchenlex.:  Barry,  Fapat  Monarchy,  1902;  also  article:*  on 
Innocent  III,  Frederick  II,  Otto  IV. 

II.  M.  Bhock. 

Albert,  Blessed,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  one  of 
the  conspicuous  ecclesiastics  in  the  troubles  between 
the  Holy  See  and  Frederick  Harbarossa;  date  of 
birth  uncertain;  d.  14  September,  121,').  He  was  in 
fact  asked  by  both  Pope  and  Enijieror  to  act  as 
umpire  in  their  dispute  and,  as  a  reward,  w:i.s  made 
Prince  of  the  Empire.  He  was  born  in  the  diocese 
of  Panna,  became  a  canon  regular  in  the  .Monastery 
of  Mortara  (not  Mortura,  as  Butler  has  it)  in  the 
Milanese,  and,  after  being  Bishop  of  Bobbio,  for  a 
short  time,  w;is  translated  to  the  sec  of  Vcrcelli. 
This  was  about  1184.  At  that  time  the  Latins  oc- 
cupied Jerusalem,  and,  the  Patriarchate  falling  vacant, 
Albert  Wiis  implored  by  the  Christians  of  Palestine 
to  accept  the  see.  As  it  implied  persecution  and  a 
prospect  of  martyrdom,  he  accepted,  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  Innocent  III,  who  at  the  same  time 
made  him  Papal  Legate.  His  sanctity  procured  him 
the  veneration  of  even  the  Mohammedans.  It  was 
while  here  that  lie  undertook  a  work  with  which  his 
name  is  particularly  and  peculiarly  as.sociated.  In 
Palestine,  at  that  time,  the  hermits  of  Mount  Carmel 
lived  in  separate  cells.  One  of  their  number  gathered 
them  into  a  community,  and  in  1209  their  superior, 
Brocard,  requested  the  Patriarch,  though  not  a  Car- 
melite, to  draw  up  a  rule  for  them.  He  a.s.sented, 
and  legislated  in  the  most  rigorous  fashion,  prescrib- 
ing perpetual  abstinence  from  flesh,  protracted  fasts, 
long  silence,  .ind  extreme  seclusion.  It  was  so  severe 
that  mitigations  had  to  be  introduced  by  Innocent 
IV  in  124(). 

The  end  of  this  great  prelate  was  most  tragic. 
Summoned  by  Innocent  III  to  take  part  in  the  Gen- 
eral Council  of  the  Lateran,  in  121.5,  he  was  assassi- 
nated before  he  left  Palestine,  while  taking  part  in 
a  procession,  on  the  feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the 
Holy  Cross.  He  is  honoured  among  the  saints  by 
the  Carmelites,  on  8  April.  The  Bollandists  call  at- 
tention to  this  curious  anomaly,  that  not  at  Vercelli, 
or  Bobbio,  where  he  was  bishop,  not  at  Jerusalem, 
where  he  was  Patriarch,  not  among  the  Canons  Reg- 
ular, to  whom  he  properly  belonged,  but  in  the  Order 
of  the  Carmelites,  of  which  he  was  not  a  member,  docs 
he  receive  the  honour  of  a  saint.  "That  holy  Order 
could  not  and  ought  not  to  lose  the  memory  of  him 
by  whom  it  was  ranked  among  the  Orders  approved 
by  the  Roman  Church;  in  saying  which",  adds  the 
writer,  "I  in  no  way  wish  to  impugn  the  Carmelite 
claim  of  de-scent  from  Elias.  "  At  Vercelli  Albert  docs 
not  even  figure  as  Blessed,  and  the  Canons  Regular 
honour  him  as  a  saint,  but  pay  him  no  public  cult. 

Acta  SS.,  April  1;  Butler,  Lircs  o/  (Ac  Sainlt  8  .\pril. 
T.  J.  Campbell. 

Albert,  King  of  the  E.vst  Angles.  See  Ethel- 
be  rt. 

Albert,  Saint,  Cardinal,  Bishop  of  Lit^ge,  d.  1192 
or  1193.  He  was  a  son  of  Godfrey  III,  Count  of 
Loiivain,  and  brother  of  Henry  I,  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine and  Brabant,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Lh^ge 
in  1191  by  the  suffrages  of  l)oth  |x"oplc  and  chapter. 
The  Emperor  Hcnrj'  \'I  violently  intruded  his  own 
venal  choice  into  the  see.  and  .\lbort  journeyed  to 
Rome  to  appeal  to  Cclestine  III,  who  ordained  him 
deacon,  created  him  cardinal,  and  sent  him  away 
with  gifts  of  great  value  and  a  letter  of  recommenda- 
tion to  the  -Archbishop  of  Rheims,  where  ho  was 
ordained  priest  and  consecrated  bishop.  Outside 
that  city,  soon  after,  he  was  set  upon  by  eight  Ger- 
man knights  of  the  Emperor's  following,  who  took 


advantage  of  the  confiding  kindness  of  the  saintly 
bishop,  and  stabbed  him  to  death.  The  date  of  hia 
martyrdom  is  given  variously  as  24  November,  1193 
(.Moroni),  23  November,  1192  (Hoefer),  while  the 
Bollandists,  placing  it  in  the  latter  year,  give  21  No- 
vember as  its  precise  date,  this  being  -Aso  the  day 
on  which  the  saint's  feast  is  kept.  His  body  rciio.-^ed 
at  Rheims  until  1(J12,  when  it  was  transferred  by  the 
Archduke  Albert  of  Austria  to  the  church  of  the 
Carmelite  convent,  which  he  had  just  founded  at 
Brussels.  The  relics  of  this  strenuous  defender  of 
ecclesiastical  liberty  were,  by  permission  of  the  Holy 
See,  shared  with  tlie  cathedral  of  Li^ge,  in  1822. 

Gii.»iH  OF  Li^QK,  Gfstn  Episcoporum  Lcodiensium  (Li^ge, 
1013),  134-180;  Baronius,  Annates  (Bar-!c-duc,  IKCB),  XIX, 
040;  KollRDACllER,  Hiitoire  de  VEglite  caOwlique  (Paris, 
1872),  VIII,  671-<57aL 

Thomas  J.  Shah.\n. 

Albert  Berdini  of  Sarteano,  Blk.ssed,  Fran- 
ciscan l'ri:ir  and  missionary,  b.  at  Sarteano,  in 
Tuscany,  13S,'>;  d.  at  Milan,  15  August,  14.')U.  He 
entered  the  order  of  Minor  Conventuals  in  1405, 
but  later,  attracted  by  the  apostolic  life  and  remark- 
able virtues  of  St.  Bcrnardine  of  Sienna,  the  fame  of 
whose  sanctity  was  spread  throughout  Italy,  and 
desirous  of  following  more  strictly  the  rule  of  St. 
Francis,  he  passed  over  to  the  Friars  Minor  and 
became  one  of  the  devout  disciples  and  faithful 
companions  of  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Holy  Name. 
Under  the  masterful  guidance  of  St.  Bernardino  his 
fame  as  an  orator  became  so  renowned  that  he  was 
commonly  known  as  the  "  King  of  Preachers "  {Hex 
Prcrdicalorum);  and  it  is  recorded  of  the  famous 
rhetorician,  Guerimus  of  Ferrara,  that  when  Ble.ssed 
Albert  was  aimounced  to  preach  at  Ferrara,  the 
preceptor  anticipated  the  hour  for  his  lecture  and, 
the  lecture  finished,  took  his  students  to  hear  the 
sermon  of  the  missionary,  saying  to  them:  "Vou 
have  heard  the  theory,  let  us  now  go  and  sec  it  put 
into  practice."  Pope  Eugcnius  IV  commissioned 
him  as  one  of  his  legates  to  negotiate  with  the  Greek 
Schismatics  and  induce  them  to  be  present  at  the 
council  held  in  Bologna  in  1435.  Though  the  title 
of  Blessed  has  always  been  accorded  to  Albert  of 
Sarteano,  principally  on  account  of  the  fact,  as  one 
of  the  early  chroniclers  of  the  order  tells  us,  of  the 
numerous  miracles  he  worked  after  his  death  at 
Milan,  his  cultws  has  never  been  explicitly  approved 
by  the  Church.  Active  steps  have,  however,  lately 
been  taken  for  his  formal  beatification. 

BKNEDtrrro  Neri,  La  VUa  e  i  Tempi  del  Beato  Alberto  da 
Snrleano  (Quaracchi,  1902);  Haroldds,  B.  Atberli  a  Sarlhiani^ 
Vita  tt  Opera,  opus  poglhumum;  Suaralea,  Supplcmentum  et 
Castiqatio  ad  Scriptorea  trium  ordinum  S.  FranciM  (Home, 
1800);  I.EMMENs,  CVlronvca  Beali  Bemardini,  AquHanHRom», 
1902);  DaCivezza,  i'toria  delle  Miaaiuni  Francetcane  (Rome, 
18(30). 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Albert  of  Aachen  (.\lbertus  .Aquensis),  a 
chronicler  of  tlie  First  Crusade.  His  "  Chronicon  Hi- 
ero.solymitanum  de  bello  sacro",  in  twelve  books, 
from  1095  to  1121,  printed  in  Bongars  (Gesta  Dei 
per  Francos,  I,  184-381),  is  also  found  in  the  fourtt 
volume  of  the  "  Recueil  des  historiens  des  croisades  ". 
It  is  now  usually  accepte*!  that  he  was  a  canon  o( 
Aachen  (.\ix-la-Chapelle),  though  Wattenbach  as- 
serts (Deutsch.  Gcsch.  II,  179)  tliat  it  is  yet  doubtful 
whether  the  earlier  locating  of  him  at  the  church  of 
Aix-en-Provence  be  not  correct.  His  narrative  is 
written  with  little  order  and  less  critical  skill,  his 
chronology  is  inexact,  and  his  topographical  references 
are  often  greatly  disfigured.  But  the  work  is  to  be 
looked  on  as  the  outpouring  of  a  deeply  religious  and 
poetic  heart,  which  saw  in  the  conteraporarj-  Chris- 
tian knighthood  the  salvation  of  the  civilization  of 
Christendom.  From  this  point  of  N'iew,  s.ays  Dr. 
PiLstor.  ■'  the  .severe  criticism  of  von  Sybel,  in  hia 
'Cie-schichte  des  ersten  Kreuzzugs '  (Du.s,seldorf, 
1841),  72-108,  losesmuch  of  its  point."     Wattenbach 


ALBERT 


262 


ALBERTI 


says  that  he  may  have  occasionally  used  good  histori- 
cal material;  in  general  he  is  the  panegyrist  of  an 
ideal  Cliristian  mihtary  service,  a  brilliant  painter  of 
scenes  and  events;  his  work  and  others  like  it  served 
as  bugle  calls  to  summon  to  the  Orient  new  multi- 
tuiles  of  devoted  soldiers  of  Christ. 

l*ASTOK  iu  Kirc/wrtU-T.;  Wattenbach,  Deutschland's  Gcs- 
chichlsquMcn  (Cth  ed..  Berlin,  1893),  II,  17S-I80;  Kugleu, 
Albert  von  Aachen  (Stuttgart,  1885);  Krebs,  Zut  Krilik 
Alberts  ron  Aachen  (Miinster,  1881);  1'ioeonneac,  Le  cycle 
de  la  croitade  (St.  Gloud,  1877). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Cardinal  and  Elector 
of  the  Holy  Hoinan  Empire,  b.  28  June,  1490;  d. 
24  September,  1.545.  As  early  as  1509  he  was  Pre- 
bendary in  the  Cathedral  of  Mainz;  Archbishop  of 
Magdeburg  and  .Administrator  of  Halberstadt  from 
1513;  Archbishop  of  Mainz  from  1514;  Cardinal- 
Priest  from  1518.  Tlie  Indulgence  issued  by  Leo  X 
in  1514  for  the  building  of  the  new  St.  Peter's  in 
Rome,  was  entrusted  to  Albert  (1517)  for  publica- 
tion in  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  Tliis  commission 
has  been  made  by  d'Aubignd  and  others  the  ground 
of  many  accus-atioiis  against  Albert  and  Leo  X,  as 
though  they  had  used  the  Indulgence  as  a  means  of 
enriching  themselves  personally,  "dividing  before- 
hand the  spoils  of  the  credulous  souls  of  Germany" 
(d'Aubign(?,  History  of  the  Reformation).  Albert 
employed  Tetzel  for  the  actual  preaching  of  the 
Indulgence  and  furnished  him  a  book  of  instructions: 
"Instructio  sumraaria  ad  Subcommissarios  Pceni- 
tentiarum  et  Coiifessores. "  Later,  Martin  Luther 
addressed  a  letter  of  protest  to  Albert  concerning 
the  conduct  of  Tetzel,  found  fault  with  the  Bishop's 
book  of  instructions,  and  asked  him  to  suppress  it. 
Luther's  charges  are  altogether  groundless;  the  in- 
structions of  Albert  to  the  preachers  are  both  wise 
and  edifying.  Luther's  letter  was  disregarded. 
Though  many  of  the  accusations  against  Albert's 
morals  were,  doubtless,  false,  Luther  was  probably 
justified  in  thinking  that  he  would  find  in  Albert  a 
strong  partisan.  The  young  bishop  was  somewhat 
worldly-minded,  extravagant,  better  trained  in  hu- 
manistic studies  than  in  theology,  too  much  given 
to  the  patronage  of  learned  men  and  artists.  His 
long  intimacy  with  Ulrich  von  Hutten  is  especially 
reprehensible.  Leo  X  was  obliged  to  send  an  ad- 
monition to  Mainz  because  so  many  books  hostile 
to  the  Faith  were  being  published  under  the  Bishop's 
eye.  In  later  life  Albert  changed  his  conduct.  In 
his  diocese  celebrated  defenders  of  Catholicism  were 
engaged;  at  Speyer  and  Ratisbon  he  met  Blessed 
Peter  Faber,  S.J.,  and  kept  him  in  his  diocese  (1542- 
43);  after  this  he  was  always  a  friend  to  the  new 
order.  Albert  strove  earnestly  to  introduce  a  more 
perfect  system  of  religious  instruction  and  brought 
forward  measures  for  that  purpose  in  the  Diet  of 
Nuremberg.  He  became  by  the  sincerity  of  his  zeal 
the  great  defender  of  the  Faith  in  Germany.  As  a 
temporal  prince,  he  ruled  his  electorate  well;  he  in- 
troduced reforms  in  the  administration  of  justice, 
into  the  police  system,  and  into  commerce.  He  was 
buried  in  the  Cathedral  of  Mainz.  An  artistic  memo- 
rial marks  the  resting-place  of  his  remains. 

Al.zoo,  Universal  Church  History,  Pabisch-Byrne  tr. 
(Cincinnati,  1876);  Roscok,  Life  of  Leo  X;  D'AuBlGNfc, 
History  of  licformation  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  Eng.  tr. 
(Philadelphia.  1843);  Smith,  Luther  and  Tetzel  (Cath.  Truth 
8oc.  Publication)  43;  RoiiiinAciiER,  Ilistoire  universelle  de 
Viglise  cettholique,  IX,;  Pai.i.avicino,  Istoria  del  Concilio  di 
Trento  (Ilome,  1833);  Orlanuini,  Hieloria  Soc.  Jeau  (Cologne, 
1616). 

M.  J.  O'Malia. 

Albert  of  Bulsano.    Sec  Knoll,  Joseph. 

Albert  of  Castile,  historian,  b.  about  1460; 
d.  1522.  He  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  at  an 
early  age  in  the  (>)nvent  of  Sts.  John  and  Paul  at 
Venice  and  became  skilled  in  nearly  every  depart- 
ment of  contemporary  learning.     History,  however, 


was  his  chief  study.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
noteworthy  works,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned: "Catalogus  lUustrium  Ordinis  Virorum" 
(Venice,  1501);  "Catalogus  Sanctorum  a  Petro  de 
Natalibus  \'eneto  e  regione  Costellanii  episcopo 
Equilino  concinnatus"  (Venice,  1501);  "Chronica 
brevis  ab  initio  ordinis  usque  ad  pra'sens  tempus" 
(Venice,  1504);  an  account  of  the  Popes,  the  Domin- 
ican Generals,  and  the  illustrious  men  of  the  Order,  be- 
ginning with  its  foundation,  drawn  up  chiefly  from  tlie 
work  of  the  Dominican  Giacomo  de  Luzato.  He  is 
also  the  editor  of  the  following  works:  "  Biblia  Latina 
cum  pleno  apparatu  tersissime  et  nitidissime  im- 
pressa"  (Venice,  1506);  this  he  re-edited  fifteen  years 
later  with  a  concordance  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa^ 
ments;  "Pontificale  secundum  ritum  Romana-  Eccle- 
sise  emendatum  primum  a  Jacobo  de  Lutiis  episcopo 
Cafacensi  et  Joanne  Burckardo"  (Venice,  152(3); 
"  Constitutiones  ord.  Pr»d.,  una  cum  adjectis  ad 
singulos  textus  opportune  declarationibus"  (Venice, 
1507);  "Liber  de  instructione  officialium  venerabilis 
Humberti  magistri  ordinis  V"  (Venice,  1507);  "Reg- 
ula  et  privilegia  Fratrum  et  Sororum  de  pocnitentid 
B.  Dominici"  (Venice,  1507);  "Defensoiium  contra 
impugnantes  Fratres  Prsedicatores,  quod  non  vivant 
secundum  vitam  apostolicam,  a  Jacobo  de  Voragine, 
O.P.  archiepiscopo  Januensi"  (Venice,  1504). 
QufiTiF  AND  EcHARD,  SS.  Ord.  Prad..  II.  48-49. 

Joseph  Schroeder. 

Albert  of  Stade,  a  chronicler  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  He  was  born  before  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century.  It  is  known  that  he  became  abbot  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Stade  (near  Hamburg)  in 
1232.  Failing  to  change  (1236)  the  rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict in  his  abbey  to  that  of  the  Cistercians,  he  re- 
signed his  office  and  in  1240  joined  the  Franciscans. 
In  the  same  year  he  commenced  to  compile  his  chron- 
icle, which  begins  with  the  creation  of  the  world  and 
comes  down  to  1256;  he  may  also  be  the  author  of 
the  continuations  to  1265.  The  earlier  portions  ap- 
pear to  have  been  taken  from  Bede's  "  Libellus  de 
sex  a;tatibus  mundi",  and  Ekkehard's  "Chronicle." 
As  he  approaches  his  own  times,  Albert  becomes, 
after  the  manner  of  medieval  chroniclers,  both  fuller 
and  more  reliable.  The  first  and  only  complete  edi- 
tion is  that  printed  at  Helmstadt  in  1587;  (Witten- 
berg, 1608).  He  is  also  credited  with  the  authorship 
of  a  work  called  "Troilus",  a  Latin  epic  on  the 
Trojan  War,  in  5,320  lines,  a  manuscript  copy  of 
which  is  in  the  Wolfenbuttel  library. 

Von  Funk,  in  Kirchenlei.,  I,  425,  426;  Wattenbach, 
Deutschlamls  Geschichtsqutllen  (6th  ed.,  Berlin,  1893).  II.  439- 
441.  The  text  of  the  Chronicle  from  1165  to  the  end  is  best 
found  in  Man.  Germ.  Hist. — Scriptores.  XVI,  272  sqq.,  431  sqq. 
See  HuRTER,  Nomenclator.,  IV,  269,  353. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Albert  of  York.    See  Ethelbert. 

Albert!,  Le.^ndro,  historian,  b.  at  Bologna  in 
1479;  d.  same  place,  probably  in  1552.  In  early 
youth  he  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Bolognese 
rhetorician,  Giovanni  Garzo,  who  volunteered  to  act 
as  his  tutor.  He  entered  the  Dominican  Order  in 
1493,  and  after  the  completion  of  his  philosophical 
and  theological  studies  was  called  to  Rome  by  his 
friend,  the  Master  General,  Francesco  Silvestro 
Ferraris.  He  served  him  as  secretary  and  s<icius 
until  the  death  of  Ferraris  in  1.52S.  In  1517,  he 
published  in  six  books  a  treatise  on  the  famous  men 
of  his  Order.  This  work  has  gone  (hrougli  countless 
editions  and  been  translated  into  in:iny  modern 
tongues.  Besides  several  lives  of  tlie  saints,  some  of 
wliich  Papcbroch  embodied  in  tlic  ".\cta  Sanctorum  ", 
and  a  liistory  of  tlic  Madonna  di  S:ui  Luca  and  the 
adjoining  moniustery,  lie  pulilislicd  (Bologna,  1514, 
1543)  a  chronicle  of  liis  native  city  (Istoria  di  Bologna, 
etc.)  to  1273.  It  was  continued  by  Lucio  Cacciane- 
mici  to  1279.     The  fame  of  Alberti  rests  chiefly  on 


ALBERTI 


26;j 


ALBERTRANDI 


his  "Descrizione  d'ltalia"  (Bologna,  1550),  a  book 
ill  which  are  found  many  valuable  topographical  and 
archirological  observations.  Many  of  the  heraldic 
and  historical  facts  are  useless,  however,  sin<'e  Alberti 
followed  closely  the  uncritical  work  written  by  Annius 
of  Viterbo  on  the  same  subject.  The  work  was 
traaslated  into  Latin  in  15G7,  after  having  been  three 
times  enlarged  in  the  Italian.  He  also  wrote  a 
chronicle  of  Italian  events  from  1199  to  1552,  and 
sketches  of  famous  Venetians.  His  explanations 
of  the  prophecies  of  the  Abbot  Joachim  and  his 
treatise  on  the  beginnings  of  the  Venetian  Republic 
indicate  the  current  of  historical  criticism  of  his  day. 
He  waa  a  close  friend  of  most  of  the  contemporary 
literati,  who  frequently  consulted  him.  He  is  often 
mentioned  in  the  letters  of  the  poet  Giannantius 
Flamino,  who  dedicated  the  tenth  book  of  his  poems 
to  the  friar.  Hardly  a  man  of  that  day  had  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  contents  of  most  European  libra- 
ries than  Alberti. 

QuETiK  AND  EcHAHD.  SS.  Ord.  Prtrd.,  II,  137,  82,J;  Touron. 
Hommes  illits.  de  I'ordre  de  Saint  Dominique,  IV,  121-127; 
TlBABOacHl,  Storia  dtlla  Lelleralura  llatiana,  VII,  Pt.  Ill,  798- 
800. 

Thos.  M.  Schwehtner. 

Alberti,  Leone  B.\tti9t.^,  b.  18  Februarj*,  1404; 
d.  April,  1472,  a  Florentine  ecclesiastic  and  artist  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  He  embraced  the  ecclesi- 
astical state  and  became  a  canon  of  the  Metropolitan 
Church  of  Florence,  in  1447,  and  .'Vbbot  of  San  Sovino, 
or  Sant'  Eremita,  of  Pisa.  Althovigli  Alberti  was  a 
scholar,  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  it  is  by  his 
works  of  architecture  that  he  is  best  known.  Among 
them  are  the  completion  of  the  Pitti  Palace  at 
Florence,  the  chapel  of  tlie  Rucellai  in  the  church 
of  St.  PancRis,  the  fa(,-ade  of  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Novella,  the  choir  of  the  church  of  the  Nun- 
ziata,  and  the  churches  of  St.  Sebastian  and  St. 
Andrew,  at  Mantua.  His  greatest  work  is  generally 
conceded  to  be  the  church  of  St.  Francis  at  Himini. 
His  writings  on  art  are  his  best,  and  his  reputation 
rests  largely  on  his  "De  Re  .iEdificatoria ",  vol.  X, 
a  work  on  architecture,  which  was  only  published 
after  his  death.  It  was  brought  out  in  1485,  and 
the  latest  edition  of  it  was  a  folio  one  at  Bologna, 
in  1782.     See  It.\ly.  Re.vaiss.^nce. 

Russell  Sturgis.  Dirt,  of  Arch,  amt  Building,  I,  3-7; 
RoscoE,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici;  Vasari,  Life. 

J.  J.  a'  Becket. 

Albertini  also  (.Viibertini),  Nicolo.  medieval 
statesman,  b.  at  Prato  in  Italy,  c.  12.50;  d.  at  Avig- 
non, 27  .\pril,  1321.  His  early  education  WiLs  directed 
by  his  parents,  both  of  whom  belonged  to  illustrious 
families  of  Tuscany.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  (12GG) 
he  entered  the  Dominican  Order  in  the  Convent  of 
Santa  Maria  No\ella  at  Florence,  and  was  sent  to 
the  I'niversity  of  Paris  to  complete  his  studies.     He 

f)reached  in  Italy  with  success,  and  his  theological 
ectures  were  especially  well  attended  at  Florence 
and  at  Rome.  He  was  entrusted  by  his  superiors 
with  various  important  duties  and  governed  se\eral 
houses.  He  was  made  Procurator-Ceneral  of  the 
whole  Order  of  St.  Dominic  by  151e.s.sed  \icol(i 
Boccassini,  then  Jlaster  General,  and  was  after- 
wards elected  Provincial  of  t!io  Roman  Province. 
In  1299,  Boniface  VII I  made  him  Bi.shop  of  Spoleto 
and  soon  afterwards  sent  him  its  Papal  Legato  to 
the  Kings  of  France  and  England,  Philip  IV  and 
Edward  I,  with  a  view  to  reconciling  them,  a  seem- 
ingly hopeless  task.  All>crtini  succeeded  in  his 
mission.  The  Poj>e  in  full  consistorj'  thanked  him, 
and  made  him  \  icar  of  Rome.  Benedict  XI  was 
particularly  attached  to  Albertini.  with  whom  ho 
had  lived  a  long  time  in  the  .same  cloister.  Shortly 
after  his  accession  to  the  Papacj,^  (22  Octolier,  I'M'.i) 
he  made  All>ertini  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Oslia  and 
Dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  which  office  he  held  for 


eighteen  or  nineteen  years.  The  civil  wars  that  in 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  had  deviis- 
tated  a  great  part  of  Italy,  especially  Tuscany,  Ro- 
magna, and  the  March  of  Trevi,  caused  the  Pope  again 
to  invest  the  new  Cardinal  with  the  dignity  of  Apos- 
tolic Legate,  and  to  send  him  to  restore  peace  in 
these  ilisturbcd  provinces.  His  authority  was  also 
extended  to  the  Dioceses  of  Aquila,  Ravenna,  Fer- 
rara,  and  those  in  the  territory  of  \'enice.  He  \v:is 
well  received  by  the  people  of  Florence,  but  after 
many  futile  efforts  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between 
the  Guelplis  and  the  Ghibellines  he  left  the  city  and 
placed  it  under  interdict.  On  the  29th  of  June 
(1312),  in  the  name  of  Clement  V,  he  crowned 
Henry  VII  of  Luxemburg  at  Rome.  Albertini 
is  the  leading  figure  in  tlie  trial  that  exonerated  the 
Dominican,  Bernardo  da  Montepulciano,  from  the 
charge  of  killing  this  king  by  giving  him  a  poisoned 
host  for  Communion.  Ho  crowned  King  Robert  of 
Sicily,  son  and  successor  of  Charles  II.  'i  he  Cardinal 
of  Ostia  was  known  for  his  great  love  for  the  poor, 
especially  for  the  poor  of  the  city  of  Prato.  He  also 
gave  generou.sly  to  religious  houses  and  towards  the 
erection  of  churches.  At  Avignon  he  established  a 
community  of  nuns  similar  to  those  fomidcd  by  St. 
Dominic  at  San  Sisto  in  Rome.  He  obtained  for 
his  Order  the  oflice  of  "  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace", 
that  luis  always  been  held  by  a  Dominican.  Two 
small  works  are  all  that  are  known  of  his  writings. 
One  is  a  treatise  on  Paradise,  the  other  on  the  man- 
ner of  holding  ;issemblies  of  bishops.  He  was  buried 
in  the  Dominican  church  at  Avignon. 

QufcTiF  AND  EcHARD.  SS.  Ord.  Prctd..  I,  54f>;  Corner, 
Chronicon  rerum  Saxonicarum,  in  Seelen,  De  II.  Komero 
cujusque  MS.  commentario  (LUbeck,  1720);  Cartellieri,  in 
Neue  Ileidelberger  JahrbUcher  (1904),  XIII.    121.   129. 

T.  L.  Crowley. 

Albertrandi,  John  Baptist,  who  is  also  called 
Jan  Chrzcicicl,  or  Christian,  a  Polish  Jesuit,  of 
Italian  extraction,  b.  at  Warsaw,  7  December,  1731; 
d.  August,  1808.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  14  August,  1748,  and  left  the 
Society  shortly  before  the  suppression,  probably  in 
1709,  for  his  name  is  not  found  in  the  catalogue  of 
1770.  After  teaching  literature  for  twelve  years  in  the 
various  Jesuit  colleges  of  Poland,  he  was  entrusted 
with  the  caro  of  the  great  library  foundetl  by 
Zaluski,  the  famous  prelate  and  litterateur,  who 
had  revived  literature  in  Poland.  This  library 
which  he  liequeathed  to  Poland  was  seized  by  Russia 
and  now  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  Imperial  library. 
Subsequently   .\lbertrandi    accepted    tlie   charge   of 

E receptor  to  the  nephew  of  the  Primate,  Arch- 
ishop  Lubienski.  With  his  pupil,  who  afterwards 
became  Minister  of  Justice  in  Poland,  he  travelled 
through  the  various  countries  of  Europe,  chietly 
Italv,  to  gather  material  for  a  great  history  of  Poland. 
With  his  own  hand  he  copied  manuscripts  referring 
to  Poland  wherever  he  found  them  and  in  three 
years  amassed  a  collection  of  one  hundred  and  ten 
folio  volumes.  Where  he  was  not  allowed  to  copy, 
he  read  and,  on  returning  home  in  the  evening, 
wrote  out  what  his  prodigious  memory  retained. 
Sommervogel  says  that  the  net  result  was  two 
Inmdred  folio  volumes.  He  is  called  the  Polish 
Polyhistor.  His  style  is  rapid,  orderly,  and  methodi- 
cal. He  knew  Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew,  and  most  of 
the  European  languages.  His  published  works  arc: 
two  volumes  of  a  translation  of  Macquer's  "Roman 
History";  an  abridged  ".\nnals  of  Poland";  a  great 
number  of  articles  in  the  "Moniteur",  a  journal  of 
Warsaw.  He  also  colIalx)ratctl  witli  I'ather  Narus- 
zcwicz,  .S.J.,  in  a  periodical  called  ".\greeable  and 
I'seful  Recreations",  and  producetl  a  work  on  nu- 
mismatics, besides  many  discourses  for  the  Academy 
of  Warsaw,  which  he  founded.  After  leaving  the 
Society,  he  became  Royal  Librarian,  and  Bishop  of 


ALBERTUS 


264 


ALBERTUS 


Zenopolis,  and  was  decorated  with  the  Order  of 
St.  Stanislaus.  In  his  work  in  the  Royal  Library  he 
not  only  published  a  catalogue  in  ten  volumes 
octavo,  Ijut  left  critical  remarks  in  each  of  the  books. 
He  also  had  ready  for  publication  manuscripts  for 
the  history  of  the  three  last  centuries  of  Poland, 
explained  by  medals;  Polish  annals  up  to  the  reign 
of  Vladislas  IV;  and  a  "History  of  Stephen  Bori ". 
This  last  has  been  published. 

SoM-MERVoGEL,  Bihliolhlque  de  la  c,  de  J.,  I,  122;  132. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Albertus  Magnus,  Ble.ssed  (Albert  the  Great), 
scientist,  philosopher,  and  theologian,  born  c.  1206; 
d.  at  Cologne,  15  November,  12S0.  He  is  called 
"the  Great",  and  "Doctor  Universalis"  (I'niversal 
Doctor),  in  recognition  of  his  extraordinary  genius 
and  extensive  knowledge,  for  he  was  proficient  in 
every  branch  of  learning  cultivated  in  his  day,  and 
surpassed  all  his  contemporaries,  except  perhaps 
Roger  Bacon  (1214-94),  in  the  knowledge  of  nature. 
Ulrich  Engelbert,  a  contemporary,  calls  him  the 
wonder  and  the  miracle  of  his  age:  "Vir  in  omni 
scientia  adeo  divinus,  ut  nostri  temporis  stupor  et 
miraeulum  congrue  vocari  possit"  (De  summo  bono, 
tr.  Ill,  iv). 

I.  Life. — Albert,  eldest  son  of  the  Count  of  BoU- 
etadt,  was  born  at  Lauingen,  Swabia,  in  the  j'ear 
1205  or  1206,  though  many  historians  give  it  as 
1193.  Nothing  certain  is  known  of  his  primary  or 
preparatory  education,  which  was  received  either 
under  the  paternal  roof  or  in  a  school  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood. As  a  youth  he  was  sent  to  pursue  his 
studies  at  the  University  of  Padua;  that  city  being 
chosen  either  because  his  uncle  resided  there,  or  be- 
cause Padua  was  famous  for  its  culture  of  the  liberal 
arts,  for  which  the  young  Swabian  liad  a  special 
predilection.  The  date  of  this  journey  to  Padua 
cannot  be  accurately  determined.  In  the  year  1223 
he  joined  tlic  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  being  attracted 
by  the  preaching  of  Blessed  Jordan  of  Saxony, 
second  Master  General  of  the  Order.  Historians  do 
pot  tell  us  whether  Albert's  studies  were  continued  at 
Padua,  Bologna,  Paris,  or  Cologne.  After  complet- 
ing his  studies  he  taught  theology  at  Hildesheim,  Frei- 
burg (Breisgau),  Ratisbon,  Strasburg,  and  Cologne. 
He  was  in  the  convent  of  Cologne,  interpreting  Peter 
Lombard's  "Book  of  the  Sentences",  when,  in  1245, 
he  was  ordered  to  repair  to  Paris.  There  he  received 
the  Doctor's  degree  in  the  university  which,  above 
all  others,  was  celebrated  as  a  school  of  theology. 
It  was  during  this  period  of  teaching  at  Cologne  and 
Paris  that  he  counted  amongst  his  hearers  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  then  a  silent,  thoughtful  youth,  whose 
genius  he  recognized,  and  whose  future  greatness  he 
foretold.  The  disciple  accompanied  his  master  to 
Paris  in  1245,  and  returned  with  him,  in  1248,  to 
the  new  Sludium  Generale  of  Cologne,  in  which 
Albert  was  appointed  Regent,  whilst  Thomas  became 
second  professor  and  M agister  Shidcrdium  (Master 
of  Students).  In  1254  Albert  was  elected  Provin- 
cial of  liis  Order  in  Germany.  He  journeyed  to 
Rome  in  12.56.  to  defend  the  Mendicant  Orders  again.st 
the  attack.s  of  William  of  St.  Amour,  whose  book, 
"De  novissimis  temporum  periculis",  was  condemned 
by  Pope  Alexander  IV,  on  5  October,  1256.  During 
his  sojourn  in  Home  Albert  filled  the  office  of  Master 
of  the  Sacred  Palace  (instituted  in  the  time  of  St. 
Dotninic),  and  preached  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John 
and  the  Canonical  EpLstles.  He  resigned  the  office 
of  Provincial  in  1257  in  order  to  devote  himself  to 
study  and  to  teaching.  At  the  General  Chapter  of 
the  Dominicans  held  at  Valenciennes  in  12,59,  with 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Peter  of  Tarentasia  (after- 
ward.s  Pope  Innocent  V),  he  drew  \ip  rules  for  the 
direction  of  studies,  and  for  determining  the  .system 
of  graduation,  in  the  Order.  In  the  year  1260  he 
was  appointed   Bishop  of  Ratisbon.     Humbert   de 


Romanis,  Master  General  of  the  Dominicans,  being 
loath  to  lose  the  services  of  the  great  Master,  en- 
deavoured to  prevent  the  nomination,  but  was  un- 
successful. Albert  governed  the  diocese  until  1262, 
when,  upon  the  acceptance  of  his  resignation,  he  vol- 
untarily resumed  the  duties  of  a  professor  in  the 
Studium  at  Cologne.  In  the  year  1270  he  sent  a 
memoir  to  Paris  to  aid  St.  Thomas  in  combating 
Siger  de  Brabant  and  the  Averroists.  This  was  his 
second  special  treatise  against  the  Arabian  com- 
mentator, the  first  having  been  written  in  12.56, 
under  the  title  "De  Unitate  Intellectus  Contra  Aver- 
roem".  He  was  called  by  Pope  Gregorj'  X  to  attend 
the  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  in  the  deliberations  of 
which  he  took  an  active  part.  The  announcement 
of  the  death  of  St.  Thomas  at  Fossa  Nuova,  as  he 
was  proceeding  to  the  Council,  was  a  heavy  blow 
to  Albert,  and  he  declared  that  "The  Light  of  the 
Church"  had  been  extinguished.  It  was  but  natural 
that  he  should  have  grown  to  love  his  distinguished, 
saintly  pupil,  and  it  is  said  that  ever  afterwards  he 
could  not  restrain  his  tears  whenever  the  name  of 
St.  Thomas  was  mentioned.  Something  of  his  old 
vigour  and  spirit  returned  in  1277,  when  it  was  an- 
nounced that  Stephen  Tempier  and  others  wished 
to  condemn  the  writings  of  St.  Thomas,  on  the  plea 
that  they  were  too  favourable  to  the  unbelie\ing 
philosophers,  and  he  journeyed  to  Paris  to  defend 
the  memory  of  his  disciple.  Some  time  after  1278 
(in  which  year  he  drew  up  his  testament)  he  suffered 
a  lapse  of  memory;  his  strong  mind  gradually  be- 
came clouded;  his  body,  weakened  by  vigils,  aus- 
terities, and  manifold  labours,  sank  under  the  weight 
of  years.  He  was  beatified  by  Pope  Gregorj'  XN' 
in  1622;  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  the  15th  of  No- 
vember. The  Bishops  of  Germany,  assembled  at 
Fulda  in  September,  1872,  sent  to  the  Holy  See  a 
petition  for  his  canonization. 

II.  Works. — Two  editions  of  Albert's  complete 
works  (Opera  Omnia)  have  been  published;  one  at 
Lyons  in  1651,  in  twenty-one  folio  volumes,  edited 
by  Father  Peter  Jammy,  O.P.,  the  other  at  Paris 
(Louis  Vivcs),  1890-99,  in  thirty-eight  quarto  vol- 
umes, published  under  the  direction  of  the  Abb6 
Auguste  Borgnct,  of  the  diocese  of  Reims.  Paul 
von  Loe  gives  the  chronology  of  Albert's  writings 
in  the  "Analecta  Bollandiana"  (De  Vita  et  scripti-i 
B.  Alb.  Mag.,  XIX,  XX,  and  XXI).  The  logical 
order  is  given  by  P.  Mandonnet,  O.P.,  in  Vacant 's 
"  Dictionnaire  de  th^ologie  catholique".  The  follow- 
ing list  indicates  the  subjects  of  the  various  treatises, 
the  numbers  referring  to  the  vohmies  of  Borgnet's 
edition.  Lof/i'c.'  seven  treatises  (1,  2).  Physical  Sci- 
ences :  "Physicorum"  (3);  "De  Coelo  et  Mundo", 
"De  Generatione  et  Corruptione",  "Meteororum" 
(4);  "Mineralium"  (5);  "De  Natura  locorum",  "  De 

Eassionibus  aeris"  (9).  Biological :  "De  vegetabili- 
us  et  plantis"  (10);  "De  animalibus"  (11-12);  "  De 
motibus  animalium",  "De  nutrimcnto  et  nutribili", 
"De  tetate",  "De  morte  et  vita",  "De  spiritu  et 
respiratione"  (9).  Psi/chohgical:  "De  Animd"  (5); 
"De  sensu  et  sensato",  "De  Memoria  et  reminis- 
centid",  "De  somno  et  vigilid",  "De  naturA  et 
origins  anima;",  "De  intellectu  et  intelligibili",  "De 
unitate  intellectus"  (9).  The  foregoing  subjects, 
with  the  exception  of  Logic,  are  treated  compendi- 
ously in  the  "Philosophia  pauperum"  (5).  Moral 
and  Political :  "Ethicorum"  (7);  "Politicorum"  (S). 
Metaphysical :  " Metaphysicorum "  (6);  "De  causis 
et  processu  universitatis"  (10).  Theological:  "Com- 
mentary on  the  works  of  Denis  the  Areopagitc"  (14): 
"Commentary  on  the  Sentences  of  the  Lombard' 
(25-30);  "Summa  Theologi:e"  (31-33);  "Sumnia  de 
creaturis"  (34-35);  "De  Sacramento  Eucharistiir" 
(38);  "Super  evangclium  missus  est"  (37).  Exege- 
lical:  "Commentaries  on  the  Psalms  and  Prophets" 
(15-19);  "Commentaries  on  the  Gospels"   (20-24); 


ALBERTUS 


265 


ALBERTUS 


"On  the  Apocalypse"  (38).  Sermons  (13).  The 
"Quindecim  problemata  contra  Averroistas"  was  edi- 
ted by  Mandonnet  in  his  "Sigcr  de  Hrabant"  (I'Vei- 
bure,  1899).  The  authenticity  of  the  following 
works  i.s  not  established:  "De  apprehensione"  (5); 
"Speculum  astrononiicum"  (5);  "  De  alchimia"  (38); 
"Scriptum  super  arborcm  Aristotclis"'  (.'jS);  "Para- 
disus  animic'  (37);  "Liber  de  adha>rendo  Deo" 
(37);  "De  laudibus  B.  Virginis"  (.%);  "Biblia  Mar- 
iana" (37). 

III.  Influence. — The  influence  exerted  by  Albert 
on  the  scholars  of  his  own  day  and  on  those  of  sul;- 
sequent  ages  was  naturally  great.  His  fame  is  due 
in  part  to  the  fact  that  he  was  the  forerunner,  the 
guide  and  master  of  St.  Thomas  Ac|uiiias,  but  he  was 
great  in  his  own  name,  his  claim  to  (list ii\ct ion  being 
recognized  by  his  contemporaries  and  by  posterity. 
It  is  remarkable  that  this  friar  of  the  Aliddle  Ages, 
in  the  midst  of  his  many  duties  as  a  religious,  as 
provincial  of  his  order,  as  bishop  and  papal  legate, 
as  preacher  of  a  crusade,  and  while  making  many 
laborious  journeys  from  Cologne  to  Paris  and  Rome, 
and  fre(iuent  excvirsious  into  dilTerent  parts  of  Ger- 
many, sliould  have  been  able  to  compo.sc  a  veritable 
encyclopedia,  containing  scientific  treatises  on  almost 
every  subject,  and  displaying  an  insight  into  nature 
and  a  knowledge  of  theology  which  surprised  his 
contemporaries  and  still  excites  the  admiration  of 
learned  men  in  our  own  times.  He  was,  in  truth, 
a  Doctor  Universalis.  Of  him  it  may  justly  be 
said:  .\'i7  tctigit  quod  non  omavit;  and  there  is  no 
exaggeration  in  the  praises  of  the  modern  critic 
who  wrote:  "Whether  we  consider  him  as  a  theolo- 
gian or  as  a  philosopher,  Albert  was  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  of  his  age;  I 
might  say,  one  of  the  most  wonderful  men  of  genius 
who  appeared  in  past  times"  (Jourdain,  Recherchcs 
Critiques).  Philosophy,  in  the  days  of  Albert,  w;us 
a  general  science  embracing  everything  that  could 
be  known  by  the  natural  powers  of  the  mind;  phys- 
ics, mathematics,  and  metaphysics.  In  his  writings 
we  do  not,  it  is  true,  find  the  distinction  between 
the  sciences  and  philosophy  which  recent  usage 
makes.  It  will,  however,  be  convenient  to  consider 
his  skill  in  the  experimental  sciences,  his  influence 
on  scholastic  philosophy,  his  theology. 

IV.  Albert  .\.nd  the  Exteuimental  Sciences. — It 
is  not  surprising  that  Albert  should  have  drawn  upon 
the  sources  of  information  which  his  time  afTorded, 
and  especially  upon  the  scientific  writings  of  Aris- 
totle. Yet  he  says:  "The  aim  of  natural  science  is 
not  simply  to  accept  the  statements  [narrata]  of 
others,  but  to  investigate  the  causes  that  are  at  work 
in  nature"  (De  Miner.,  lib.  II,  tr.  ii,  i).  In  his 
treatise  on  plants  he  lays  down  the  principle:  Ex- 
j)erimenlum  solum  ccrtificat  in  talibus  (Experiment 
IS  the  only  safe  guide  in  such  investigations).  (De 
Veg.,  VI,  tr.  ii,  i).  Deeply  versed  as  he  was  in 
theology,  he  declares:  "In  studying  nature  we  have 
not  to  inquire  how  God  the  Creator  may,  as  He 
freely  wills,  use  His  creatures  to  work  miracles  and 
thereby  show  forth  His  power:  we  have  rather  to 
inquire  what  Nature  with  its  immanent  causes  can 
naturally  bring  to  pass"  (Do  Coelo  et  Mundo,  I,  tr.  iv, 
x).  And  though,  in  questions  of  natural  science,  he 
■would  prefer  .\ristotle  to  St.  Augustine  (In  2,  Sent. 
dist.  13,  C  art.  2),  he  does  not  hesitate  to  criticize 
the  Greek  philosopher.  "Whoever  Ijclievcs  that 
Aristotle  was  a  god.  must  also  believe  that  he  never 
erred.  But  if  one  believe  that  Aristotle  was  a  man, 
then  doubtless  he  was  liable  to  error  just  as  we  are." 
(Physic,  lib.  VIII,  tr.  1 .  xiv).  In  fact  Alljert  devotes  a 
lengthy  chapter  to  what  he  calls  "the  errors  of  Aris- 
totle" (Sum.  Thcol.,  P.  II,  tr.  i,  quacst.  iv).  In  a 
word,  his  appreciation  of  Aristotle  is  critical.  He 
deserves  credit  not  only  for  bringing  the  scientific 
teaching  of  the  Stagirite  to  the  attention  of  medieval 


scholars,  but  also  for  indicating  the  method  and  the 
spirit  in  which  that  teaching  was  to  be  received. 
Like  his  contemporary,  Roger  Bacon  (1214-94),  Al- 
bert was  an  indefatigable  student  of  nature,  and 
applied  himself  energetically  to  the  experimental 
sciences  with  such  remarkable  success  that  he  has 
been  accused  of  neglecting  the  sacred  sciences  (Henry 
of  Ghent,  De  scriptoribus  ecclesiasticis,  II,  x).  In- 
deed, many  legends  have  been  circulated  which 
attribute  to  him  the  power  of  a  magician  or  .sorcerer. 
Dr.  Sighart  (Albcrtus  Magnus)  examined  these  leg- 
ends, and  endeavoured  to  sift  the  truth  from  false 
or  exaggerated  stories.  Other  biographers  content 
themselves  with  noting  the  fact  that  Albert's  pro- 
ficiency in  the  physical  sciences  was  the  foundation 
on  which  the  fables  were  constructed.  The  truth 
lies  between  the  two  extremes.  Albert  was  assidu- 
ous in  cultivating  the  natural  sciences;  he  was  an 
authority  on  physics,  geography,  astronomy,  miner- 
alogy, chemistry  {alchimia),  zoology,  physiology,  and 
even  phrenology.  On  all  these  subjects  his  erudition 
was  vast,  and  many  of  his  olxscrvations  are  of  per- 
manent value.  Humboldt  pays  a  high  tribute  to 
his  knowledge  of  physical  geography  (Cosmos,  II, 
vi).  Meyer  writes  (Ge.sch.  der  Botanik):  "No  bot- 
anist who  lived  before  Albert  can  bo  compared  with 
him,  unless  it  be  Theophrastus,  with  whom  he  was 
not  acquainted;  and  after  him  none  has  painted 
nature  in  such  living  colours,  or  studied  it  so  pro- 
foundly, until  the  time  of  Conrad,  Gesner,  and  Ces- 
alpini.  All  honour,  then,  to  the  man  who  made 
such  astonishing  progress  in  the  science  of  nature 
as  to  find  no  one,  I  will  not  say  to  surpass,  but  even 
to  equal  him  for  the  space  of  three  centuries."  The 
list  of  his  published  works  is  sufficient  vindication 
from  the  charge  of  neglecting  theology  and  the 
Sacred  Scriptures.  On  the  other  hand,  he  expressed 
contempt  for  everj'thing  that  savoured  of  enchant- 
ment or  the  art  of  magic:  "Non  approbo  dictum 
Avicenna;  et  Algazel  do  fascinatione,  quia  credo  quod 
non  nocet  fascinatio,  nee  nocere  potest  ars  magic  a, 
nee  facit  aliquid  ex  his  quic  timentur  de  talibus  ' 
(See  Qu^-tif,  I,  107).  That  he  did  not  admit  the 
possibility  of  making  gold  by  alchemy  or  the  u.se  of 
the  philosopher's  stone,  is  evident  from  his  own 
words:  "Art  alone  cannot  produce  a  substantial 
form".  (Non  est  probatum  hoe  quod  educitur  de 
plumbo  e.?.se  auriim,  eo  quod  sola  ars  non  potest  dare 
formam  substantialem — De  Mineral.,  lib.  II,  dist.  3). 
Roger  Bacon  and  Albert  proved  to  the  world  that 
the  Church  is  not  oppo.sed  to  the  study  of  nature, 
that  faith  and  science  may  go  hand  in  hand;  their 
lives  and  their  WTitings  emphasize  tlie  importance  of 
experiment  and  investigation.  Bacon  was  indefati- 
gable and  bold  in  investigating;  at  times,  loo,  his 
criticism  was  sharp.  But  of  Albert  he  said:  "Studi- 
osissinius  erat,  et  vidit  infinita,  et  habuit  expensum, 
et  ideo  multa  potuit  colligere  in  pel.ago  auctonun 
infinito"  (Opera,  ed.  Brewer,  327).  Albert  re- 
spected authority  and  traditions,  was  pnident  in 
proposing  the  results  of  his  investigations,  and 
hence  "contributed  far  more  than  Bacon  did  to  the 
advancement  of  science  in  the  thirteenth  century" 
(Turner,  Hist,  of  Phil.).  His  method  of  treating  the 
sciences  was  historical  and  critical.  He  gathered 
into  one  vast  encyclopedia  all  that  was  known  in 
his  day,  and  then  expres.scd  his  own  opinions,  prin- 
cipally in  the  form  of  commentaries  on  the  works 
of  Aristotle.  Sometimes,  however,  he  hesitates,  and 
does  not  express  his  own  opinion,  probably  because 
he  feared  that  his  theories,  which  were  "advanced" 
for  those  times,  would  excite  surprise  and  occasion 
imfavourable  comment.  "Dicta  peripateticonun, 
prout  melius  potui  exposui:  nee  aliquis  in  eo  potest 
deprehendere  quid  ego  ipse  sentiam  in  philosophia 
naturali  "  (De  Animalibus,  circa  finem).  In  Augusta 
Thcodosia    Drane's    excellent    work    on    "Christian 


ALBERTUS 


266 


ALBERTUS 


Schools  and  Scholars"  (419  sqq.)  there  are  some 
interesting  remarks  on  "a  few  scientific  views  of 
Albert,  which  show  liow  mucli  lie  owed  to  his  own 
sagacious  observation  of  natural  phenomena,  and 
how  far  he  was  in  advance  of  his  age.  ..."  In 
spealving  of  the  British  Isles,  he  alluded  to  the  com- 
monly received  idea  tliat  another  Island — Tile,  or 
Thule — existed  in  the  Western  Ocean,  uninhabitable 
by  reason  of  its  frightful  clime,  "but  which",  he  says, 
"has  perhaps  not  yet  been  visited  by  man".  Albert 
gives  an  elaborate  demonstration  of  the  sphericity  of 
tlie  earth;  and  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  his  vievA'S 
on  this  subject  led  eventually  to  the  discovery  of 
America  (cf.  Mandonnet,  in  "Revue  Thomiste",  I, 
1893;  46-64,  200-221). 

V.  Albert  .\xd  Scholastic  Philosophy. — More 
important  than  Albert's  development  of  the  physical 
sciences  was  his  influence  on  the  study  of  philosophy 
and  theology.  He,  more  than  any  one  of  the  great 
scholastics  preceding  St.  Thomas,  gave  to  Christian 
philosopliy  and  theology  the  form  and  method  which, 
substantially,  they  retain  to  this  day.  In  this  re- 
spect he  was  tlie  forerunner  and  master  of  St.  Thomas, 
who  e.xcelled  liim,  however,  in  many  qualities  re- 
quired in  a  perfect  Christian  Doctor.  In  marking 
out  the  course  which  others  followed,  Albert  shared 
the  glorv'  of  being  a  pioneer  with  Alexander  of  Hales 
(d.  124,5),  whose  "Summa  Theologia?"  was  the  first 
■svTitten  after  all  the  works  of  Aristotle  had  become 
generally  known  at  Paris.  Their  application  of  Aris- 
totelean  methods  and  principles  to  the  study  of 
revealed  doctrine  gave  to  the  world  the  scholastic 
system  which  embodies  the  reconciliation  of  reason 
and  orthodox  faith.  After  the  unorthodo.x  Averroes, 
Albert  was  tlie  cliief  commentator  on  the  works  of 
Aristotle,  whose  writings  he  studied  most  assiduously, 
and  wliose  principles  he  adopted,  in  order  to  sys- 
tematize theology,  by  which  was  meant  a  scientific 
exposition  and  defence  of  Christian  doctrine.  The 
choice  of  Aristotle  as  a  master  excited  strong  oppo- 
sition. Jewish  and  Arabic  commentaries  on  the 
works  of  the  Stagirite  had  given  rise  to  so  many 
errors  in  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies that  for  several  years  (1210-25)  the  study  of 
Aristotle's  Physics  and  Metaphysics  was  forbidden 
at  Paris.  Albert,  however,  knew  that  A\'erroes, 
Abelard,  Amalric,  and  others  had  drawn  false  doc- 
trines from  the  writings  of  the  Philosopher;  he  knew, 
moreover,  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  to 
stem  the  tide  of  enthusiasm  in  favour  of  philosophical 
studies;  and  so  he  resolved  to  purify  the  works  of 
Aristotle  from  Rationalism,  Averroism,  Pantheism, 
and  other  errors,  and  thus  compel  jragan  philosophy 
to  do  service  in  the  cause  of  revealed  trutli.  In  this 
he  followed  the  canon  laid  down  liy  St.  Augustine 
(II  De  Doct.  Christ.,  xl),  who  declared  that  truths 
found  in  the  writings  of  pagan  philosophers  were 
to  be  adopted  by  the  defenders  of  the  true  faith, 
while  their  erroneous  opinions  were  to  be  abandoned, 
or  explained  in  a  Cliristian  sense.  (See  St.  Thomas. 
Sumnia  Theol.,  I,  Q.  Ixxxiv,  a.  5.)  All  inferior  (nat- 
ural) sciences  should  be  the  servants  (ancill(r)  of  Theol- 
ogy, which  is  the  superior  and  the  mistress  (ibid.,  I  P., 
tr.  l,qua'st,  6).  Against  the  rationalism  of  Abelard 
and  his  followers  Albert  pointed  out  the  distinction 
between  truths  naturally  knowable  and  mysteries 
(e.  g.  tlie  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation)  which  cannot 
be  known  without  revelation  (ibid.,  1  P.,  tr.  Ill, 
qu.Tst.  13).  We  have  seen  that  lie  wrote  two  treats 
i.ses  against  Averroism,  which  destroved  individual 
immortality  and  individual  responsibility,  by  teach- 
ing that  there  is  but  one  rational  soul  "for  iill  men. 
Pantheism  wa-s  refuted  along  witli  Averroism  wlien 
the  true  doctrine  on  I'niversals,  the  system  known 
as  moderate  Realism,  was  accepted  by  the  schohistic 
philosophers.  This  doctrine  Albert  based  upon  the 
diatinetion   of   the   universal   ante  rem  (an   idea  or 


archetype  in  the  mind  of  God),  in  re  (existing  or 
capable  of  existing  in  many  individuals),  and  post 
rem  (as  a  concept  abstracted  by  the  mind,  and  com- 
pared with  the  individuals  of  which  it  can  be  predi- 
cated). "Universale  duobus  constituitur,  naturi 
scilicet  cui  accidit  universalitas,  et  rcspectu  ad  multa, 
qui  complet  illam  in  natura  universalis"  (Met.,  lib. 
V,  tr.  vi,  cc.  V,  vi).  A.  T.  Drane  (Mother  Raphael, 
O.S.D.)  gives  a  remarkable  explanation  of  these 
doctrines  (op.  cit.,  344-429).  Though  a  follower  of 
Aristotle,  Albert  did  not  neglect  Plato.  "Scias  quod 
non  perficitur  homo  in  philosophia,  nisi  scientia  dua- 
rum  philosophiarum,  Aristotelis  et  Platonis"  (Met., 
lib.  I,  tr.  v,c.xv).  It  is  erroneous  to  say  that  he  was 
merely  the  "Ape"  (simius)  of  Aristotle.  In  the 
knowledge  of  Divine  things  faith  precedes  the  under- 
standing of  Divine  truth,  aiitliority  precedes  reason 
(I  Sent.,  dist.  II,  a.  10);  but  in  m.attors  that  can  be 
naturally  known  a  philosopher  sliould  not  hold  an 
opinion  which  he  is  not  prepared  to  defend  by  reason 
(ibid.,  XII;  Periherm.  1,  I,  tr.  1,  c.  i).  Logic,  ac- 
cording to  Albert,  was  a  preparation  for  philosophy; 
teaching  how  we  should  use  reason  in  order  to  pass 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown:  "Doceiis  qualiter 
et  per  quce  devenitur  pernotumad  ignoti  notitiani" 
(De  proedicabilibus,  tr.  i,  c.  iv).  Philosophy  is  either 
contemplative  or  practical.  Contemplative  philos- 
ophy embraces  physics,  mathematics,  and  meta- 
physics; practical  (moral)  philosophy  is  monastic 
(for  the  individual),  domestic  (for  the  family),  or 
political  (for  the  state,  or  society).  Excluding 
physics,  now  a  special  study,  authors  in  our  times 
still  retain  the  old  scholastic  division  of  philosophy 
into  logic,  metaphysics  (general  and  special),  and 
ethics. 

VI.  Albert's  Theology. — In  theologj'  Albert 
occupies  a  place  between  Peter  Lombard,  the  Master 
of  the  Sentences,  and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  In 
systematic  order,  in  accuracy  and  clearness  he  sur- 
passes the  former,  but  is  inferior  to  his  own  illus- 
trious disciple.  His  "Summa  Theologiie"  marks  an 
advance  beyond  the  custom  of  his  time  in  the  scien- 
tific order  observed,  in  the  elimination  of  useless 
questions,  in  the  limitation  of  arguments  and  ol>- 
jcctions;  there  still  remain,  however,  many  of  the 
impedimenta ,  hindrances,  or  stumbling  blocks,  which 
St.  Thomas  considered  serious  enough  to  call  for  a 
new  manual  of  theology  for  the  use  of  beginners — 
ad  eruditioncm  incipientium,  as  the  Angelic  Doctor 
modestly  remarks  in  the  prologue  of  his  immortal 
"Summa".  Tlie  mind  of  the  Doctor  Universalis 
was  so  filled  with  the  knowledge  of  many  things 
that  he  could  not  always  adapt  his  expositions  of 
the  truth  to  the  capacity  of  novices  in  the  science 
of  theology.  He  trained  and  directed  a  pupil  who 
gave  the  world  a  concise,  clear,  and  perfect  scientific 
exposition  and  defence  of  Christian  Doctrine;  under 
God,  therefore,  we  owe  to  Albcrtus  Magnus  the 
"Summa  Theologica"  of  St.  Thomas.  (See  Alex- 
ander OF  Hales,  Aristotle,  Averroes;  B.-vcon, 
Roger;  Paris,  University  of;  Philosophy,  R.\- 
tio.nalism,  Scholasticism,  Thom.w  Aquinas,  St.; 
Theology.) 

QofiTiF  ET  EcHARD.  Scriptorcs  Ordinis  Prcpdicatorum  (Paris, 
1719),  I,  162-184;  Sighaht.  Albcrlus  Mrgniis:  Srin  Leben  und 
srine  Wisaenschcifl  (llatisbon,  1SJ7),  tr.  by  Dixon,  Athert 
Ihe  Great:  His  Life  ami  .Schatnslie  Labours  (London,  1S76); 
Dougherty,  Albrrtits  Mafinus,  in  Coiliolic  World  (18S3), 
XXXVII,  197;  Hewit,  Albcrtus  Magnus  Vitulitaled.  ibid. 
(1871),  XIII,  712;  IWEiNs.  Le  liicnhcurcur  Albert  Le  Grand. 
2d  ed.  (Brufsels,  1874);  TrlnE.MEs,  Albcrlus  M  tinwt  in  d- 
schieht*' und Sof/e  (ColoKne.  ISSO);  Va.\  Weddixgen,  Altterl  Le 
f^'rand,  te  mallre  de  Saint  Thomas  d'Aquin,  d'aprcs  les  pluji 
r{'cents  travaui  critiqxus  (Paris,  1881);  Von  Heotling,  Albertus 
Miftnus.  Beilrttiie  rii  seiner  Wurliuuno  (ColoRnc.  1880); 
MlrllAEI,.  Albert  der  Grosse.  in  Zeilsehrilt  ftir  hdholisehe  Throl- 
Oflic,  (IflOnt.  .\.\V,  37-08.  181-201;  lliid,  (1903)  t.  XXVII, 
3.50-302;  Geschiehle  des  deutaehtn  Volkes  (1st  ,ind  3.1  pd.. 
Freiburg,  1903),  III;  Gerard,  La  Cusmographie  d'Alhrrl  le 
Grand,  d'apres  I'observation  el  I'erpfrience  au  inoyen  age.  in 
Rcvut  Thomiste  (Paris,  1904),  t.  XII,  46&-470,  t.  XIII,  147- 


ALBI 


267 


ALBIOENSES 


173;  FiNKE,  UnQtdruckte  Dominikanerbriefe  det  13.  Jahrhund- 
erta  (Paderborn,  1891):  Mandonnet,  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath. 
(Paris,  1900);  Vadgh*n,  Life  and  l.ubourt  of  Ht.  Thomat  Aguinaa 
(Loniion,  1872 — abridged  editiuii  with  same  title,  London, 
1875);  U'A».tAlLLV,  Albert  te  Grand,  fancien  monde  devunt  le 
nout'eau  (I'uris,  1870);  de  Likchty,  Albert  le  (jrand  €t  saint 
Thomas  d'Aquin,  uu  la  science  au  vwyen  dge  (Paris,  1880); 
Dn\NF.,  Christian  i:ichoul8  and  Scholara  (London,  1881);  HuH- 
TER,  t\omenclal<ir,  IV,  297-302;  Humboldt,  Coamot  (New 
York,  1800),  naaaim,  especially  II,  vi;  Fl;lif"r,  La  faculle  de 
theoloaie  de  Paria  (Puna,  1895),  II,  421-441;  Finke,  Die. 
Freiburaer  Dominikaner  und  Mitnattrbau  (Freiburg  ini  Breis- 
(tau.  1901),  2-18;  Talamo,  L* Ariatoteliamo  dilla  acholaatica 
(Naples,  1873);  Mandonnet,  Siflcr  de  Jirabant  tl  lArirroiame 
lalin  ait  Xlll'aihle  (Freiburg,  Switzerland,  1899);  JoinDAlN. 
Recherchea  critifjuea  aur  I'd/je  tt  iorigine  dta  traducliona  latinea 
dArialole  (Paris,  1843),  310-358;  Udnzai.es,  i^tuditt  on  the 
Philoaophu  of  .llberl,  in  Ilittoriea  of  Philoaoiihu,  Frenrh  tr.  by 
DE  Pascal  (Paris,  1890);  Ueberweo  (tr.  New  York,  1890); 
Tuhner  (Boston,  1903);   De  Wclf   (Louvain,  1895);  see  es- 

Sjcially  Ueiiekweo,  2J  Part  (9th  ed.,  Berlin,  1905).  and 
E  WuLF,  lliat.  de  li  philosophie  mfdifvnle  (2d  ed.,  Louvain, 
lOO.'j);  GuTTMAN,  Die  Scholaslik  dra  dreiiihnltn  Jahrhunderia 
in  ihrer  Beziehuno  lum  Judcnlhum  (Hreslau,  1902),  iii;  Pod- 
CHET,  Iliatoire  dea  aciencea  natunUea  au  moi/tn  age,  on  Albert 
le  Grand  et  aon  epoque  conaidirea  comme  point  de  depart  de 
I'^eole  erpt^rimeiUaU  (Paris,  1853):  Bach,  Dea  Albertua  Mag- 
nua  Verhidtnina  zu  der  Erkenntniaalehre  der  Criechtn,  Lateiner, 
Araber\mdJudenl,\ienna,  1881);  Fellner,  Albertua  Mngnua 
ala  Botimiker  (Vienna,  1881);  Joel,  Vtrhtillniaa  Albert  dea 
Groaaen  zu  Moaea  Maimonidea  (Breslau,  1S03);  Feiler,  Die 
Moral  dea  Albertua  Magniia  (Leipzig,  1891 );  S<  hneider,  £>ie 
Paychologie  Alberla  dea  Groaaen  (Milnster.  1903);  De  Vitil  et 
Scriplia  Beati  Alberti  Magni,  in  Annlerln  Bollandiana  (1900). 
t.  XIX,  257-284;  (1901)  t.  XX,  273-316;  (1902)  t.  XXII. 
301-371;  Ehrle,  Der  aelige  Albert  der  Groaae,  in  Slimmen 
aua  Mari^-l.aach,  (1880)  XIX,  241-2.58,  39,')-4l4;  De  Loe, 
Kritiache  Streifziige  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Albert  Magnus  For- 
aehung,  in  .\nrvden  dea  hiatoriachen  Vereina  fiir  den  Nieder- 
rhrin  (Cologne,  1902),  LXXIV.  115-126. 

D.  .1.  Kennedy. 

Albi  (Albia)  The  ARCHniocE.SE  of,  comprises  the 
Department  of  the  Tarn.  An  arcliiepiscopal  see 
from  l(i7S  up  to  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution 
Albi  hatl  a.s  sulTragans  the  Bishops  of  Rodez,  Cas- 
trcs,  Vabres,  Cahors,  and  Mende;  it  wa.s  not  re- 
establislied  until  1822,  and  by  tliis  new  distribution 
it  united  tlie  ancient  Bishopric  of  Castres  and  had 
for  sulTragans,  besides  the  Dioce.ses  of  Hodez  (joined 
with  Vabro.->)  of  Cahors,  and  of  Mende,  the  Bishopric 
of  Perpignan.  A  local  tradition  which  dates  from 
the  twelfth  century  attributes  the  foundation  of 
the  see  to  St.  Clarus,  of  African  birth,  who  installed 
his  disciple  Anthimus  as  his  successor,  and  went  to 
Lectoure  where  he  was  beheaded.  The  details  of 
this  legend  have  caused  the  BoUandists  to  legiti- 
mately suspect  its  authenticity.  The  first  bishop 
known  to  history  is  Diogenianus  (about  406).  The 
church  at  Albi  is  rich  in  mementoes;  it  was  at 
Vieux,  in  the  Diocese  of  Albi,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  that  the  first  monastery  of  the  Gauls 
(cartus  sanctorum)  was  founded  by  St.  Eugene,  a 
bishop  exiled  from  Carthage,  St.  Longin,  and  St. 
Vindemialis,  near  the  tomb  of  St.  Amarandus  (mar- 
tyr of  the  third  centurj')-  From  the  sixth  to  the 
eighth  centuries,  two  great  families  of  Albi  gave 
many  saints  to  the  Church,  tlie  Salvia  family,  to 
wliich  belonged  St.  Salvius,  Bishop  of  Albi,  St.  Rus- 
ticus,  St.  Desiderius,  Bishojis  of  Cahors,  also  St. 
Disciola,  the  companion  of  St.  Radegonda;  the 
Ansbertina  family  to  which  belonged  St.  Godric 
and  St.  Sigisbald,  Bishops  of  Metz,  and  the  latter's 
sister,  .St.  Sigolina,  abbess  of  Traclar  in  the  Diocese 
of  -Mbi.  The  celebrated  Cardinal  de  Bernis,  ambas- 
sador of  Louis  XV,  at  Rome,  was  titular  Bishop  of 
Albi  from  1701  to  1794.  The  memory  of  St.  Dommic 
who  vigorf)usly  combated  the  Albigensian  heresy  is 
still  very  frosli  in  the  Diocese  of  .\lbi;  in  the  vicinity  of 
Castres  there  is  a  natural  grotto  containing  several 
rooms,  wliich  is  called  the  grotto  of  St.  Dominic; 
tradition  a.H.scrts  that  it  was  the  retreat  of  the  saint. 
The  Council  of  Albi,  in  1254,  triumphed  over  tlie 
Albigensian  licresy  by  organizing  the  hupiisition  in 
that  region.  The  parish  church  of  I.autrec  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 
The  cathedral  of  St.  Cecilia  of  Albi  (1282-1512)  is  a 


typical  model  of  a  fortified  church;  its  sculptured 
gallery  is  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  France.  The 
ancient  Benedictine  abbey  of  Sorcze,  founded  in 
757,  wiis  converted  into  a  school  in  1854  under  the 
direction  of  the  Dominican  Lacordaire.  The  cities 
of  Castres  and  Oaillac  owe  their  origin  to  the  Bene- 
dictine abbeys,  the  first  of  which,  it  is  said,  wxs 
founded  by  Charlemagne,  and  the  second  by  Rai- 
mond  I,  Count  of  Toulouse,  in  900.  Tlie  Ardidiocese 
of  Albi,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1905,  contained  339,309 
inliabitant.s,  49  first-class  parishes,  447  second-class 
parishes,  and  08  vicariates  with  salaries  formerly  paid 
by  the  State. 

Galliii  Chnatiann  (Nova,  1715).  I,  1-46.  and  1325,  and 
Instrumenta,  1-12.  and  202;  Duciif:»ne,  Fastea  epiacopaux  de 
lanci.-nne  Gaule,  II.  41,  44.  and  128-130;  D'AuRlAC,  Uiatoire 
de  Vancienne  eathedrale  et  dea  ivtquea  d'Albi  (Paris,  1858); 
iSalauert,  Lea  aainte  et  lea  martyra  au  diocise  d'Albi  (Toulouse, 
Privat). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Albi,  Council  op. — It  was  held  in  1254  by  St. 
Louis  on  his  return  from  his  unlucky  Crusade,  under 
the  presidency  of  Zoen,  Bishop  of  Avignon  and 
Papal  Legate,  for  the  final  repression  of  the  Al- 
bigensian iieresy  and  the  reformation  of  clergy  and 
people.     It   also   legislated   concerning   the   .lews. 

Heeele,  Conciliengeachichte,  2d  ed.  (Freiburg,  1890),  VI, 
49-54;  Man»i,  XXIII,  829-852. 

Thomas  J.  Sh.\Hjvn. 

Albi  (or  Alba),  Juan  de,  a  Spanish  Carthusian  of 
the  Convent  Val-Christ,  near  Segovia,  date  of  birth 
uncertain;  d.  27  December,  1591.  lie  was  familiar 
with  the  Oriental  languages,  especially  Hebrew,  and 
had  the  reputation  of  being  a  skilled  commentator. 
His  work  is:  "Sacrarum  semioseon,  aniniadver- 
sionum  et  electorum  ex  ulriusque  Testament!  lectiono 
commcntarius  et  centuria"  (Valencia,  1610);  it  was 
re-edited  in  Venice,  1613,  under  the  title  "Selects! 
Annotione-s  in  varia  utriusque  Testament!  loca 
difficiliora." 

Uenard  in  Via..  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895);  An- 
tonio, Bibliotheca  hiapana  nova  (Madrid,  1783). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Albicus,  SioiSMUND,  Archbishop  of  Prague,  a 
Moravian,  b.  at  Mahrisch-Neustatlt  in  1347;  d.  in 
Hungary,  1427.  He  entered  the  University  of 
Prague  wlien  quite  young  and  took  his  degree  in 
medicine  in  1387.  Desiring  to  prosecute  tlie  study 
of  civil  and  canon  law  with  more  profit,  he  went  to 
Italy  and  received  the  Doctor's  degree  in  1404,  at 
Padua.  On  his  return  to  Prague,  he  taught  medicine 
for  twenty  years  in  the  University.  He  was  ap- 
pointed )ihysician-in-chicf  to  Wenceslaus  IV  who  rec- 
ommended him  as  succe.«or  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Prague,  on  tlie  death  of  its  incumbent  in  1409.  The 
canons  appointed  him  to  the  po.sition,  although  re- 
luctantly. .\lbicus  lield  it  only  four  years,  and  wlien 
he  resigned,  in  1413,  Conrail  was  elected  in  his  place. 
Albicus  received  later  the  Priory  of  Wissehrad,  and 
the  title  of  Archbishop  of  C;csarea.  He  was  accused 
of  favouring  the  new  doctrines  of  ,lolin  Huss  and 
Wydif.  He  retired  to  Hungary  during  the  war  of 
the  Hussites,  and  died  there,  in  1427.  He  left  three 
works  on  medical  subjects,  which  were  published 
after  his  deatli:  "Praxis  medcndi";  "Regimen  Sani- 
tatis";  "Regimen  pestilentia; "  (Leipzig,  14S4-S7). 
John  .1.  a'  Becket. 

Albigenses  (from  Albi,  Lat.  Albiqa,  the  present 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Tarn),  a  Neo-Manichxan 
sect  that  flourished  in  southern  France  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  Tlie  name  .Mbigenses, 
given  them  by  the  Council  of  Tours  (1163)  prevailed 
towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  centurj'  and  was  for  a 
long  time  ani)lie<l  to  all  the  heretics  of  the  south  of 
France.  They  were  also  called  Catharists  (KoffapAs, 
pure),  though  in  reality  they  were  only  a  branch  of 
the  Catharistic  movement.     The  rise  and  spread  of 


ALBIGENSES 


268 


ALBIGENSES 


the  new  doctrine  in  soutliem  France  was  favoured 
by  various  circumstances,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned:  the  fascinatinn  exorcised  by  the  readily- 
grasped  dualistic  principle;  tlie  remnant  of  Jewish 
and  Mohammedan  doctrinal  elements;  the  weaUh, 
leisure,  and  imaginative  mind  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Languedoc;  their  contempt  for  the  CathoUc  clergy, 
caused  by  the  ignorance  and  the  worldly,  too  fre- 
quently scandalous,  Uves  of  the  latter;  the  protection 
of  an  overwhelming  majority  of  the  nobility,  and  the 
intimate  local  blending  of  national  aspirations  and 
religious  sentiment. 

I  PuiNcirLES. —  (a)  Doctrinal. — The  Albigenses 
asserted  the  co-existence  of  two  mutually  opposed 
principles,  one  good,  the  other  e\'il.  The  former  is 
the  creator  of  the  spiritual,  the  latter  of  the  material 
world.  The  bad  principle  is  the  source  of  all  evil; 
natural  phenomena,  either  ordinary  hke  the  growth 
of  plants,  or  extraordinary  as  earthquakes,  hkewise 
moral  disorders  (war),  must  be  attributed  to  him. 
He  created  the  human  body  and  is  the  author  of  sin, 
which  springs  from  matter  and  not  from  the  spirit. 
The  Old  Testament  must  be  either  partly  or  entirely 
ascribed  to  him;  whereas  the  New  Testament  is  the 
revelation  of  the  beneficent  God.  The  latter  is  the 
creator  of  human  souls,  which  the  bad  principle 
imprisoned  in  material  bodies  after  he  had  deceived 
them  into  leaving  the  kingdom  of  light.  This  earth 
is  a  place  of  punishment,  the  only  hell  that  exists  for 
the  human  soul.  Punishment,  however,  is  not  ever- 
lasting; for  all  souls,  being  Divine  in  nature,  must 
eventually  be  liberated.  To  accomplish  this  de- 
liverance God  sent  upon  earth  Jesus  Christ,  who, 
although  very  perfect,  hke  the  Holy  Ghost,  is  still 
a  mere  creature.  The  Redeemer  could  not  take  on 
a  genuine  human  body,  because  He  would  thereby 
have  come  under  the  control  of  the  evil  principle. 
His  body  was,  therefore,  of  celestial  essence,  and 
with  it  He  penetrated  the  ear  of  Mary.  It  was  only 
apparently  that  He  was  born  from  her  and  only 
apparently  that  He  suffered.  His  redemption  was 
not  operative,  but  solely  instructive.  To  enjoy  its 
benefits,  one  must  become  a  member  of  the  Church 
of  Christ  (the  Albigenses).  Here  below,  it  is  not 
the  Catholic  sacraments  but  the  peculiar  ceremony 
of  the  Albigenses  known  as  the  consolamentum,  or 
"  consolation",  that  purifies  the  soul  from  all  sin  and 
ensures  its  immediate  return  to  heaven.  The  resur- 
rection of  the  body  will  not  take  place,  since  by  its 
nature  all  flesh  is  evil,  (b)  Moral. — The  dualism 
of  the  .\lbigenses  was  also  tlie  basis  of  their  moral 
teaching.  Slan,  they  taught,  is  a  living  contradic- 
tion. Hence,  the  liberation  of  the  soul  from  its 
captivity  in  the  body  is  the  true  end  of  our  being. 
To  attain  this,  suicide  is  commendable;  it  was  cus- 
tomary among  them  in  the  form  of  the  endura 
(starvation).  The  extinction  of  bodily  life  on  the 
largest  scale  consistent  with  himian  existence  is 
also  a  perfect  aim.  As  generation  propagates  the 
slavery  of  the  soul  to  the  body,  perpetual  chastity 
should  be  practised.  Matrimonial  intercourse  is 
unlawful;  concubinage,  being  of  a  less  permanent 
nature,  is  preferable  to  marriage.  Abandonment 
of  his  wife  by  tlie  husband,  or  vice  versa,  is  desirable. 
Generation  was  ubhorretl  by  the  Albigenses  even  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  Con.sequently,  abstention 
from  all  animal  food,  except  fish,  was  enjoined. 
Their  belief  in  metempsychosis,  or  the  transmigration 
of  .souls,  the  result  of  their  logical  rejection  of  purga- 
tory, furnishes  another  explanation  for  the  same 
abstinence.  To  this  practice  they  added  long  and 
rigorous  fast.s.  The  necessity  of  absolute  fidelity 
to  the  .sect  was  .strongly  inculcated.  War  and  capital 
punishment  were  absolutely  condemned. 

II  OuiniN  AND  HisToiiv.— The  contact  of  Christi- 
anity with  the  Oriental  mind  and  Oriental  religions 
Lad  produced  several  sects  (Gnostics,  Manichaians, 


Paulicians,  Bogomilae)  whose  doctrines  were  akin  to 
the  tenets  of  the  Albigenses.  But  the  historical 
connection  between  the  new  heretics  and  their 
predecessors  cannot  be  clearly  traced.  In  France, 
where  they  were  probably  introduced  by  a  woman 
from  Italy,  the  Neo-Manichsean  doctrines  were 
secretly  diffused  for  several  years  before  they  ap- 
peared, almost  simultaneously,  near  Toulouse  and 
at  the  Sjmod  of  Orleans  (1022).  Those  who  proposed 
tliem  were  even  made  to  suffer  the  extreme  penalty 
of  death.  The  Councils  of  Arras  (1025),  Charroux, 
Dep.  of  Vienne  (c.  1028),  and  of  Reims  (1049) 
had  to  deal  with  the  heresy.  At  that  of  Beauvais 
(1114)  the  case  of  Neo-Manichceans  in  the  Diocese  of 
Soissons  was  brought  up,  but  was  referred  to  the 
council  shortly  to  be  held  in  the  latter  city.  Petro- 
brusianism  now  familiarized  the  South  with  some 
of  the  tenets  of  the  Albigenses.  Its  condemnation 
by  tlie  Council  of  Toulouse  (1119)  did  not  prevent 
the  evil  from  spreading.  Pope  Eugene  III  (1145-53) 
sent  a  legate.  Cardinal  Alberic  of  Ostia,  to  Langue- 
doc (1145),  and  St.  Bernard  seconded  the  legate's 
efforts.  But  their  preaching  produced  no  lasting 
effect.  The  Council  of  Reims  (1148)  excommuni- 
cated the  protectors  "of  the  heretics  of  Gascony 
and  Provence".  That  of  Tours  (1163)  decreed  that 
the  Albigenses  should  be  imprisoned  and  their  prop- 
erty confiscated.  A  religious  disputation  was  held 
(1165)  at  Lombez,  with  the  usual  unsatisfactory 
result  of  such  conferences.  Two  years  later,  the 
Albigenses  held  a  general  council  at  Toulouse,  their 
chief  centre  of  activity.  The  Cardinal-Legate  Peter 
made  another  attempt  at  peaceful  settlement  (1178), 
but  he  was  received  with  derision.  The  Tliird 
General  Council  of  the  Lateran  (1179)  renewed  the 
previous  severe  measures  and  issued  a  summons  to 
use  force  against  the  heretics,  who  were  plundering 
and  devastating  Albi,  Toulouse,  and  the  vicinity. 
At  the  death  (1194)  of  the  Cathohc  Count  of  Tou- 
louse, Raymond  V,  his  succession  fell  to  Raymond 
VI  (1194-1222)  who  favoured  the  heresy.  W'ith  the 
accession  of  Innocent  III  (1198)  the  work  of  con- 
version and  repression  was  taken  up  vigorously.  In 
1205-6  three  events  augured  well  for  the  success  of 
the  efforts  made  in  that  direction.  Raymond  VI,  in 
face  of  the  threatening  military  operations  urged 
by  Innocent  against  him,  promised  under  oath  to 
banish  the  dissidents  from  his  dominions.  The 
monk  Fulco  of  Marseilles,  formerly  a  troubadour, 
now  became  Archbishop  of  Toulouse  (1205-31). 
Two  Spaniards,  Diego,  Bishop  of  Osma  and  his 
companion,  Dominic  Guzman  (St.  Dominic),  return- 
ing from  Rome,  visited  the  papal  legates  at  Mont- 
pellier.  By  their  advice,  the  excessive  outward 
splendour  of  Catholic  preachers,  which  offended  the 
heretics,  was  replaced  by  apostolical  austerity. 
Religious  disputations  were  renewed.  St.  Dominic, 
perceiving  the  great  advantages  derived  by  his 
opponents  from  tlie  co-operation  of  women,  founded 
(1206)  at  Pouille  near  Carcassonne  a  religious  con- 
gregation for  women,  whose  object  was  the  education 
of  the  poorer  girls  of  the  nobihty.  Not  long  after 
this  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Dominican  Ortler. 
Innocent  III,  in  view  of  the  immense  spread  of  the 
heresy,  which  infected  over  1000  cities  or  towns, 
called  (1207)  upon  the  King  of  France,  as  Suzerain 
of  the  County  of  Toulouse,  to  use  force.  He  renewed 
his  appeal  on  receiving  news  of  the  assassination  of 
his  legate,  Peter  of  Castelnau,  a  Cistercian  monk 
(1208),  which,  judging  by  appearances,  he  attributed 
to  Raymond  VI.  Numerous  barons  of  northern 
France,  Germany,  and  Belgium  joined  the  crusade, 
and  papal  legates  were  put  at  the  head  of  the  ex- 
pedition, .\rnold,  .\bbot  of  Citeaux,  and  two  bishops. 
Raymond  VI,  still  under  the  ban  of  excommunication 
pronounceil  against  him  by  Peter  of  Castelnau,  now 
offered  to  submit,  was  reconciled  with  the  Church, 


ALBINUS 


269 


ALBINUS 


and  took  the  field  against  his  former  friends.  Roger, 
Viscount  of  B^'ziers,  was  first  attacked,  and  his 
principal  fortresses,  J}(^ziers  and  Carcassonne,  were 
taken  (1J09).  The  monstrous  words:  "Slay  all; 
God  will  know  His  own  ",  alleged  to  have  been  uttered 
at  the  capture  of  H(5ziers,  by  the  papal  legate,  were 
never  pronounced  (Tamizcy  de  Larroque,  "  Rev. 
des  quest,  hist."  1860,  I,  108-91).  Simon  of  Mont- 
fort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  was  given  control  of  the 
conquered  territory  anti  became  the  military  leader 
of  the  crusade.  .U  tlie  Council  of  Avignon  (1209) 
Raymond  \'I  was  again  excommunicated  for  not 
fulnlliiig  tlic  conditions  of  ecclesiastical  reconcilia- 
tion, lie  went  in  person  to  Rome,  and  the  Pope 
ordered  an  investigation.  After  fruitless  attempts 
in  the  Council  of  .\rles  (1211)  at  an  agreement  be- 
tween tlie  papal  legates  and  the  Count  of  Toulouse, 
the  latter  left  the  council  and  prepared  to  resist.  He 
was  declared  an  enemy  of  the  Churcli  and  his  po.s- 
sessions  were  forfeited  to  whoever  would  conquer 
them.  Lavaur.  Uep.  of  Tam,  fell  in  1211,  amid 
dreadful  carnage,  into  the  hanils  of  the  crusaders. 
The  latter,  exasperated  by  the  reported  massacre  of 
6,000  of  tlicir  followers,  spared  neither  age  nor  sex. 
Tlie  crusade  now  degenerated  into  a  war  of  conquest, 
and  Innocent  III,  in  spite  of  liis  efforts,  was  powerless 
to  bring  the  undertaking  back  to  its  original  purpose. 
Peter  of  .Vragon.  Raymond's  brother-in-law,  inter- 
posed to  obtain  his  forgiveness,  but  without  success. 
He  then  took  up  arms  to  defend  him.  The  troops 
of  Peter  and  of  Simon  of  Montfort  met  at  Muret 
(1213).  Peter  was  defeated  ami  killed.  The  allies 
of  the  fallen  king  were  now  so  weakened  that  tlicy 
offered  to  submit.  The  Pope  sent  as  his  representa- 
tive  the  Cardinal-Deacon  Peter  of  Santa  ilaria  in 


.\quiro,  who  carried  out  only  part  of  his  instructions, 
receiving  indeed  Raymond,  the  inliabitaiits  of 
Toulouse,  and  otliers  back  into  the  Church,  but 
furthering  at  the  same  time  Simon's  plans  of  con- 
quest. This  commander  continued  the  war  and 
was  appointed  by  the  Council  of  Montpellier  (1215) 
lord  over  all  the  acquired  territory.  The  Pope,  in- 
formed that  it  was  the  only  effectual  means  of  crush- 
ing the  heresy,  approved  the  choice.  At  the  death 
of  Simon  (1218),  his  .son  -\malric  inherited  liis  riglits 
and  continued  tlie  war  with  but  little  success.  The 
territory  was  ultimately  ceded  almost  entirely  by 
both  .\malric  and  Raymond  VII  to  the  King  of 
France,  while  the  Council  of  Toulouse  (1229)  en- 
trusteil  the  Inquisition,  wliich  soon  pas.sed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Dominicans  (1233),  with  the  repression 
of  .\lbigeiisianism.  The  heresy  disappeared  about 
the  end  of  the  fourt-eenth  century. 

Ill  OuoAMiz.\TioN  .\ND  LiTUHGY. — The  members 
of  the  sect  were  divided  into  two  classes:  The  "per- 
fect" (perjerli)  and  the  mere  "believers"  {credenles). 
The  "perfect"  were  those  who  had  submitted  to 
the  initiation-rite  (consolamcntum).  They  were  few 
in  number  and  were  alone  bound  to  the  ob.servance 
of  the  above-describetl  rigiil  moral  law.  While  the 
female  members  of  this  chiss  did  not  travel,  the  men 
went,  by  twos,  from  place  to  place,  performing  the 
ceremony  of  initiation.  The  only  bond  tliat  attached 
the  "believers"  to  .\lbigensianism  was  the  promise 
to  receive  the  consolamcntum  before  death.  They 
were  very  numerous,  could  marrj',  wage  war,  etc., 
and  generally  observed  the  ten  commandments. 
Many  remained  "  believers  "  for  years  and  were  only 
initialed  on  their  death-bed.  if  the  illness  did  not 
end  fatally,  starvation  or  poison  prevented  rather 
frequently  subsequent  moral  transgressions.  In 
some  instances  the  Tcconsnlatio  was  administered 
to  those  who,  after  initiation,  had  relapsed  into  sin. 
The  hierarchy  con.sisted  of  bishops  and  deacons. 
The  existence  of  an  .\lbigensian  Pope  is  not  univer- 
sally admitted.  The  bishops  were  chosen  from 
among  the  "perfect".     They  had  two  assistants,  the 


older  and  the  younger  son  {filius  major  and  filiut 
minor),  and  were  generally  succeeded  by  the  former. 
The  consolamcntum,  or  ceremony  of  initiation,  was  a 
sort  of  spiritual  baptism,  analogous  in  rite  ami  equiva- 
lent in  significance  to  several  of  the  Catholic  .sacra- 
ments (liaptism.  Penance,  Order).  Its  reception, 
from  which  children  were  debarreil,  was,  if  possible, 
preceded  by  careful  religious  study  and  penitential 
practices.  In  this  period  of  preparation,  the  can- 
didates used  ceremonies  that  bore  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  the  ancient  Christian  catechumenate. 
The  es.sential  rite  of  the  consolamentutn  was  the  im- 
position of  hands.  The  engagement  which  the 
"believers"  took  to  be  initiated  before  death  was 
known  as  the  convenenza  (promise). 

IV  Attitude  of  the  Chubch. — Properly  speak- 
ing, Albigen.sianism  was  not  a  Christian  heresy  but 
an  extra-Christian  religion.  Ecclesiastical  authority, 
after  persuasion  had  failed,  adopted  a  course  of  severe 
repres-sion,  which  led  at  times  to  regrettable  excess. 
Simon  of  Montfort  intended  well  at  first,  but  later 
u.sed  the  pretext  of  religion  to  usurp  the  territory  <i( 
the  Counts  of  Toulou.se.  The  death-penalty  was, 
indeed,  inflicted  too  freely  on  the  Albigenses,  but  it 
must  be  renieinbered  that  the  penal  code  of  the  time 
was  consitlerably  more  rigorous  than  ours,  antl  the 
excesses  were  sometimes  provoked.  Raymond  \T 
and  his  successor,  Raymond  VII,  were,  when  in 
distress,  ever  ready  to  promise,  but  never  to  earnestly 
amend.  Pope  Innocent  III  was  justified  in  saying 
that  the  Albigenses  were  "worse  than  the  Saracens"; 
and  still  he  counselled  moderation  and  disapproved 
of  the  selfish  policy  adopted  by  Simon  of  Montfort. 
What  the  Church  combated  was  principles  that  led 
directly  not  only  to  the  ruin  of  Christianity,  but  to 
the  very  extinction  of  the  human  race. 

Peter  of  Vaux-Cehsay.  Ilitloria  Albit/i-nsium,  in  Bococet, 
Reaieii  dee  hisloru-ns  des  0'aufc«  (Paris,  1880),  XIX,  1-113; 
William  of  Puv-LAenEN»,  Hutoria  Albiginsium,  ibid.,  193- 
225:  Ilitloire  de  ta  Guerre  des  Albigeois  .  .  .  par  un  autrur 
anonyme,  ibid.,  114-192;  /xi  chanson  de  la  crmsade  centre  let 
Albigeois,  ed.  .Meyeh  (Paris.  1875-79);  Dollinger.  Beitrage 
zur  SektemgeschichU  des  MtUelallers  (Munich,  1890);  Moi.inier. 
Catalogue  des  actes  de  Simon  rt  d'Amaurj/  de  Montfort  in  liib- 
lioth.  de  Kcole  des  chartes.  (1873)  XXXIV,  153-203,  445-501; 
Twiooe,  .4/61  and  the  Albigmsians  in  Dublin  Rev.  (1894), 
V,  309-332;  Schmidt,  Hislaire  et  doctrine  de  la  tecle  des  Calha- 
res  ou  Albigeois  (Paris,  1849);  UoUAla,  Les  Albigetis  (Parrs, 
1879);  Torco.  /,'  eresia  rtel  medio  evo  (Florence.  1884),  73-134; 
llnrKLK.  Concilimgesch.  (Freiburg.  188G).  V,  827-01;  Vacan- 
DARD,  Les  oriffines  de  I'hh-^sie  Albiqeoise  in  Rev.  des  quest  hist. 
(1S94),  I.  50-83;  Guiracd,  Questtorts  dhistoire  (Paris,  1906), 
3-149.  For  an  extensive  bibliography,  see  Chevalier, 
Repertoire  topo-bibl.  (Montb<!liard,  1894),  39-42. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Albinus,  a  scholarly  English  monk,  pupil  of  Arch- 
bishop Theodore,  and  of  Ablx>t  Adrian  of  St.  Peter's, 
Canterbury,  contemporary  of  Saint  Bede  (073-735). 
He  succeeded  Adrian  in  the  abbatial  office,  and  was 
buried  beside  him  in  732.  His  chief  title  to  fame  lies 
in  the  fact  that  we  owe  to  him  the  composition  by 
Saint  Bedo  of  his  "Ecclesiastical  History  of  the' 
English  ".  The  latter  gratefully  records  the  fact  in 
the  letter  which  he  sent  to  Albinus  with  a  copy  of 
the  work,  and  at  greater  length  in  his  letter  to 
King  Ceolwulf,  both  of  which  serve  as  a  preface  to 
the  narrative.  He  calls  Albinus  a  most  learned 
man  in  all  the  sciences  (Hist.  Ecc.  Angl.,  v,  20), 
and  says  that  to  his  instigation  and  help  the  above- 
mentioned  work  was  chiefly  owing  (auctor  ante 
omnes  atque  adiutor  opusculi  hujus).  Bede 
learned  from  him  what  had  happened  in  Kent  since 
the  arrival  of  St.  Augustine,  both  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  matters.  Nothelm,  a  priest  of  London,  served 
as  their  intermediary,  and  when  the  former  returned 
from  Rome  with  additional  documents  from  the 
pontifical  archives,  Albinus  w.os  again  called  on  to 
help  in  fitting  them  into  their  proper  places.  He 
seems  to  have  been  endowed  with  a  fine  historical 
sense,  for  the  Father  of  English  ecclesiastical  history 


ALBRECHTSBERGER 


270 


ALBUQUERQUE 


delights  in  confessing  his  earnestness,  diligence,  and 
erudition  in  all  that  pertained  to  the  apostolic  period 
of  England's  conversion. 

Bede,  OpiK  Hisl.  (ed.  riuramer,  Oxford,  1896),  I,  3,  G; 
Hiat.  Ecc.  Aug.,  v.  20,  for  Hede's  references  to  Albinus;  Studbs 
in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr.,  I,  70. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Albrechtsberger,  Johann  G.,  master  of  musical 
theory,  and  teacher  of  Hummel  and  Beetlioven, 
b.  at  Klosterneuljurg  in  Lower  Austria,  3  Fel^ruary, 
1736;  d.  in  Vienna,  7  March,  1809.  He  began  his 
musical  career  as  a  choir-boy  at  tlie  early  age  of 
seven.  Tlie  pastor  of  St.  Martin's,  Klosterneuburg, 
observing  the  boy's  talent  and  his  remarkable 
industry,  and  being  liimself  an  excellent  musician, 
gave  him  tlie  first  lessons  in  thoroughbass,  and 
even  had  a  little  organ  built  for  him.  Young  Al- 
brechtsberger's  ambition  was  so  great  that  he  did 
not  even  rest  on  Sundays  and  holidays.  To  com- 
plete his  scientific  and  musical  studies,  he  repaired 
to  the  Benedictine  Aljbey  at  Melk.  Here  his  beauti- 
ful soprano  voice  attracted  tlie  attention  of  the 
future  Emperor  Leopold,  who  on  one  occasion 
expressed  liis  higli  appreciation,  and  presented  the 
boy  with  a  ducat.  The  library  at  Melk  gave  him 
tiie  opportunity  to  stutly  the  works  of  Caldara  Fux, 
Pergolese,  Handel,  Graun,  etc.  Tlie  result  was  the 
profound  knowledge  of  music  which  gave  him  a 
nigh  rank  among  theorists.  Having  completed  his 
studies  he  became  organist  at  the  cathedral  there, 
where  he  remained  for  twelve  years.  He  next  had 
charge  of  the  choir  at  Raab  in  Hungary,  and  at 
Mariatafel.  Subsequently  he  went  to  Vienna,  hav- 
ing been  named  choir-director  of  the  church  of  the 
Carmelites.  Here  he  took  lessons  from  tlie  court 
organist,  Mann,  who  was  highly  esteemed  at  that 
time.  Mann  became  his  friend,  as  did  also  Joseph 
and  Michael  Haydn,  Gassmann,  and  other  excellent 
musicians.  In  1772  he  obtained  the  position  of 
court  organist  in  Vienna,  which  Emperor  Joseph 
had  promised  him  years  before.  This  position  he 
held  for  twenty  years,  and  then  became  choir- 
master at  St.  Stephen's.  Here  he  gathered  about 
him  a  circle  of  pupils,  some  of  whom  w'ere  destined 
to  become  musicians  of  immortal  fame.  Among 
them  Ludwig  von  Beethoven,  Joseph  Eybler,  Johann 
Nepomuk  Hummel,  Joseph  Weigl  and  others.  'The 
Swedish  Academy  of  Music  at  Stockholm  made  him 
an  honorary  member  in  1798.  Albrechtsberger  will 
probably  always  hold  a  high  rank  among  musical 
scientists,  his  treatise  on  composition  especially  will 
ever  remain  a  work  of  importance  by  reason  of  its 
lucidity  and  minuteness  of  detail.  His  complete 
works  on  thoroughbass,  harmony,  and  composition 
were  published,  in  three  volumes,  by  his  pupil, 
Ignaz  Von  Seyfried.  His  many  church  compositions, 
on  the  other  hand,  while  technically  correct  and 
ornate,  are  dry,  and  betray  the  theorist.  Of  his 
compositions  only  twenty-se\-en  are  printed,  out  of 
a  total  of  261 ;  of  tlie  unpublislied  remainder,  the 
larger  part  is  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  Gesell- 
schajt  dcr  Musikjreunde   at   Vienna. 

KonNMULLER,   Lei.  dcT  kirchl.    Tonkunat;  Grove    Dicl.   of 
Mutic  and  Mundans;  Naumann,  aeschichle  dcr  Musik. 
J.  A.  VoI.KEK. 

Albright  Brethren,  The  (known  as  the  Evangel- 
ical Association);  "a  body  of  American  Christians 
chiefly  of  German  descent",  founded,  in  1800,  by 
tlie  Rev.  Jacob  Albright,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania 
(1759-1808).  The  association  is  Arininian  in  doctrine 
and  tlicology;  in  its  form  of  church  government, 
Mcthodi.st  Episcopal.  It  numbers  148,r)(JG  members, 
not  including  children,  with  1,804  ministers  and  2,0-13 
churches,  in  the  Tnitcd  States,  Canada,  and  Germany. 

f;E«K.  Drr  AtrthoditmM  und  du  cvnnn.  Kirrkc  Wurtinbera 
(l.udwigsburg,  1870);   Hundhauben   in  Kirchtnler.,  I,  4t>Z. 

Erancis  W.  Guev. 


Albuquerque,  Afonzo  de  (also  Dalboquerque), 
surnamed  "the  Great",  b.  in  Portugal,  in  1453;  d.  at 
Goa,    16   December,    1515.     He   was   second   son  of 
Gonzallo  de  Albuquerque,  lord  of  Villa\erde,  and  be- 
came attached  to  the  person  of  the  King  of  Portugal. 
He  went  to  Otranto  witli  Alphonso  V  in  1480,  and 
made  his  first  voyage  to  the  far  East  in  1503,  return- 
ing to  Lisbon  1504.     When  Tristan  da  Cunha  sailed 
for  India  in  1506,  Albuciuerque  was  one  of  his  officers. 
He  formed  the  plan  to  monopolize  trade  with  East 
India   for   Portugal,  by  excluding  from  it  botli  the 
Venetians  and  the  Saracens,  and  therefore  sought  to 
make  himself  master  of  the  Red  Sea.     Eor  that  pur- 
po.se  he  seized  the  Island  of  Socotra  and  attacked 
Ormuz,  landing  10  October,   1507,  and  raising  forti- 
fications.    The  attack  was  repeated  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing,   also    at   Cochim   in    December.     When   the 
Viceroy  of  India,  d' Almeida,   returned  to  Portugal, 
1509,  Albuquerque  was  appointed  in  his  place.     In 
1513,  King  Emmanuel  cads  him  "  protho-capitaneus 
noster".     Annoyed  by  the  constant  hostihties  of  the 
people  of  Calicut,  he  destroyed  the  place  on  4  Janu- 
ary, 1510.     To  secure  a  permanent  foothold  on  the 
coast  of  India,  he  took  Goa  in  March,  151u.  abandon- 
ing it  two  months  afterwards,  only  to  return  in  No- 
vember, when  he  took  the  place  again  and  held  it 
thereafter  for  the  Portuguese.     Once   safely  estab- 
lished on  the  eastern  coast  of  what  is  generally  com- 
prised under  the  name  of  Dekkan,  Albuquerque  turned 
his  attention  to  the  organization  of  the  colonies  and 
to  discoveries  towards  the  farthest  East.   He  took  Mal- 
acca in  July,  1511,  and  attempted  to  explore  the  Mo- 
luccas in  the  same  year.     In  pursuance  of  his  policy 
to  prevent  otlier  nations  from  intercourse  with  India, 
he  occupied  a  strong  position  at  Aden,  on  the  Red 
Sea,  March,  1513,  but  about  the  same  time  the  Turks 
had  conquered  Egypt  and  effectively  barred  access 
to  the  far  East  to  all  other  nations  except  by  sea. 
While  Albuquerque  was  thus  establishing  Portugue.se 
colonization  in  India  on  a  firm  footing,  and  planning 
advances   beyond  eastern   Asia,  the  Crown  of  Port- 
ugal was  listening  to  intrigues  to  his  prejudice.     Still 
it  may  be  that  the   state  of  his  health,  greatly  im- 
paired  through    climate   and   strain,    induced   King 
Emmanuel  to  provide  for  a  succcesor.     Albuquerque 
was  manifestly  broken  down   physically.     So  Lope 
Suarez  was  sent  to  supersede  him.     The  news  of  what 
he  considered  an  act  of  ingratitude  prostrated  him, 
and  although  King  Emmanuel  recommended,  in  for- 
cible terms  to  his  successor  to  pay  special  deference 
to   the  meritorious  leader,    expressing,   at  the  same 
time  regret  at  having  removed  him  from  his  high 
position,   Albuquerque   pined    antl   died   at   the  en- 
trance to  the  bay  of  Goa,  16  December,  1515.     Fifty- 
one  years  later  his  remains  were  transported  to  Lis- 
bon, wliere  a  more  worthy  resting  place  had  been 
prepared  for  them.     Among  the  distinguished  lead- 
ers and  administrators  that  sprang  up  in  southern 
Europe  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  in  tlie  first 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Afonzo  de  Albuquerque 
holds  a  very  prominent  position.     His  achievements, 
from  a  military  standpoint,  were  more  remarkable 
than   any  of  the  so-called   conquerors  of  the   New 
World;  for  he  had  to  cope  with  aiiversaries  armed 
very  nearly  like  the  Europeans,  with  hosts  that  were 
superior  to  any  encountered  by  Cortez  or  Pizarro, 
and  had  at  his  command  forces  hardly  more  numer- 
ous than  those  that  achieved  the  conquest  of  Peru 
and  Mexico.     His  enemies  opposed  him  at  sea,   as 
well  as  on  land,  and  they  might,  at  any  time,  obtain 
succour   from   powerful   Mohaniniedan   states   inter- 
lying  between  Europe  and  Asia.     His  only  route  for 
communication  and  relief  was  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.     When,  during  the  last  five  years  of  his 
life,  he  could  at  last  turn  his  attcnticm  to  organiza- 
tion and  administration,  he  proved  him.self  a  great 
man  in  this  respect  also.     His  religious  zeal  was  not 


ALOALA 


271 


ALCANTARA 


the  less  notable.  He  built  churches  in  Goa  and  had 
Franciscans  and  a  fauious  Dominican  with  hini.  The 
church  of  the  151cssed  N'irgin  at  Goa,  which  he  built, 
is  (■:illc<l  by  I'atlicr  Spillniann.  S.J..  "the  cradle  of 
t  liristianity,  not  only  in  India,  but  in  all  Kast  Asia  " 
(Kirchcnlexikon,  V,  s.  v.  Goa). 

Perhaps  the  earhest  montiun  of  Albuquerque  and  his  achieve- 
ment.s  in  the  far  Ka-st  is  due  to  King  Kmnianuel  hiin.sctf  in 
l-is  letter  of  "idu.s  Junias ",  1513.  Epivtola  PoUntUsimi 
Ri-gi*  Portufj'ilt-ngis  ft  Aluarbiarum,  etc.,  Dc  VictoriU  habitis 
m  Iruiiii  et  Malachui  ( Itonie.  9  Aug.,  1513),  wherein  tlio 
King  calls  him  (perliaps  a  mi.'^print)  "  Albiet-herqe  ".  There 
are  se\'eral  editions,  some  without  place  or  date;  Joan  oe 
Barkus,  Asiit  (.second  tiecade,  Lisbon,  1553):  Fkhnao  Lopkz 
DE  Castanhkda,  HiMoritt  do  descubrimunto  &  conquista  da 
India  {Coimbra.  1,'>52).  II,  III;  Damiao  dk  (joes.  Chronica 
do  Serenimimo  Svnhor  Hfi  d.  Maniifl  (seconti  ed.,  Lisbon,  1749, 
by  Ueinerio  Hocache).  ,\n  important,  but  of  iiece.ssity  partial, 
source  is  the  work  of  his  natural  son  (Albmiuertiue  wa.s  never 
married)  Braz,  who  took  the  name  of  Afonso  thk.  Yoc.n'oer. 
Comnu-ntarioa  do  Grande  Afonzo  Dalboquernuf ,  capilan  tjeral 
que  foy  da«  In/li'ta  Orimbxa,  etc,  (first  etl.,  Lisbon,  1570,  second 
ed..  ibid..  177ti),  English  tr.  by  Hakluyt  Society.  1875-84, 
The  Commentaries  of  the  oreat  A f onto  Dalboquerque,  four  vols.; 
Biographic  universette  (Paris,  1854),  I;  Silva,  Diccionario 
bibliaf/rdfico  porluguez   (Lisbon,    1859),    I. 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Alcalt^  I'.viVERSiTY  OF. — This  university  may  be 
said  to  have  had  its  inception  in  the  tliirteentli  cen- 
tury, when  .Sancho  IV,  the  Brave,  King  of  Castile, 
conceived  the  idea  of  fovniding  a  Sludium  Oenerale 
in  Alcald  de  Henare-s,  and  (20  .May,  1293),  conferred 
full  faculties  on  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  Gonzalo 
Gudicl,  to  carry  out  this  plan.  What  success  at- 
tended these  efforts  is,  however,  not  known;  we 
know  only  that  on  16  July,  H.'jO,  Pius  II  g.ive  per- 
mission to  the  .\rchbishop  of  Toledo,  Alon.so  CarriUo, 
to  establish  some  professorships  where,  "on  certain 
days  at  the  time  appointed  or  to  be  appointed", 
prammar  and  the  liberal  arts  would  be  taught.  It 
does  not  appear  that  the  chairs  of  tlicology  and 
canon  law  were  established  then,  and  e\cn  grammar 
was  taught  only  irregularly  in  the  Franciscan  con- 
vent of  San  Diego.  Tlie  honour  of  founding  tlie 
Iniversity,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  College, 
of  San  lldcfonso,  belongs  to  the  Franciscan,  Fran- 
cisco Ximencz  de  Cisncros,  Prime  Minister  of  Spain, 
who  submitted  his  plan  to  Pope  Alexander  VI,  and 
received  his  approbation  13  April,  1499.  Neverthe- 
less, prior  to  this  there  existed  "certain  chairs  in 
some  of  the  faculties",  as  he  himself  says  in  his  pe- 
tition. The  Pope  granted  to  the  College  of  San  lldc- 
fonso the  same  concessions  allowed  to  the  College  of 
San  Bartolom^  at  Salamanca,  and  to  the  college 
founded  at  Hologria  by  Cardinal  Albornoz.  To  the 
professors  and  scholars  he  granted  tlie  privileges  en- 
joyed by  those  of  Salamanca,  Valladolid,  and  the 
other  General  Colleges.  He  conferred  the  degree  of 
Hachelor  on  the  professors,  and  Doctor  of  Laws  and 
Master  of  Arts  on  the  abbot,  or,  in  his  absence,  on 
the  treasurer,  of  the  Collegiate  Church  of  San  Justo 
and  San  Pastor.  Those  who  were  thus  honoured 
enjoyed  the  same  privileges  as  the  professors  of 
Bologna  and  other  universities,  and  could  occupy 
prebendary  stalls  for  which  university  degrees  were 
necessary  (13  May,  1501).  In  1.505  ecclesiastical 
benefices  were  aggregated  to  the  Collctiium  .ichalarium, 
and  22  Januarj',  1512,  the  archbishop  published  the 
statutes  of  the  college.  Denifie  says  that  research 
in  (iermany  regarding  this  tmiversity  is  incomplete 
and  inexact.  Meiners  and  Savigny  know  nothing 
regarding  its  origin;  the  dates  are  not  reliable  even 
in  Hefele  and  Gams.  Neither  can  Rsishdall's  lusser- 
tion  that  "the  Universities  of  Spain  were  essentially 
royal  creations"  (II,  pt.  I,  p.  69)  be  sustaine<l  here. 
On  24  July,  150S,  Cisneros  went  to  Alcald  with  a 
scholastic  colony  recruited  in  Salamanca  to  found  his 
College  of  San  Ildefonso.  The  rector  was  to  be 
chosen  by  the  students  (not  by  the  profe.s.sors,  as 
was  the  custom  at  Salamanca)  each  year  about  the 
feast  of  St.  Luke  when  studies  were  resumed.     The 


older  students  were  obliged  to  study  theology;  civil 
law  was  excluded,  although  the  canonists  introduced 
it  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Besides  theology 
and  canon  law,  the  course  of  study  included  logic, 
philosophy,  medicine,  Hebrew,  Greek,  rhetoric,  and 
grammar.  Dcmetrio  de  Creta  was  engaged  to  teach 
Greek,  and  the  mathematician,  Pedro  Ciruelo,  cx- 
jilained  the  theology  of  St.  Thomas.  Cisneros  not 
only  founded  a  university,  but  built  a  new  town, 
certain  portions  of  which  were  devoted  to  the  houses 
of  the  students  and  booksellers.  Numerous  colleges 
also  sprang  up;  Santa  Catalina  and  i^anta  Balbina 
for  philosophers;  San  Eugenio  and  San  Isidoro  for 
grammarians;  and  the  Trilingue.  He  erected  a  hos- 
pital in  honour  of  the  Mother  of  God  for  the  students, 
and  established  three  places  of  recreation:  the  Abbey 
of  San  Tuy,  near  Buitrago;  the  Aldehuela,  near  Tor- 
relaguna;  and  AnchuelOj  near  Alcaht.  Soon,  how- 
ever, a  spirit  of  insubordination  began  to  sliow  itself 
in  the  wrangling  of  the  students  with  the  towns- 
people, the  severe  Cisneros  apparently  showing  a 
strange  leniency  towards  the  students.  This  want 
of  discipline  caused  the  faculty  in  1518  to  consider 
the  advisability  of  returning  to  Madrid.  Some  of 
the  professors  left  the  university  Ijecause  of  the  re- 
duction of  their  salaries.  In  1G23  an  effort  was  once 
more  made  to  return  to  Madrid,  but  the  change  was 
not  effected  until  1822,  and  even  then  it  was  not 
permanent,  as  they  returned  to  Alcalit  in  1823.  The 
final  and  definite  removal  took  place  in  1 836.  The 
revenues  left  to  the  College  of  San  Ildefonso  by  Cis- 
neros reached  the  sum  of  14,000  ducats,  and  in  the 
sixteenth  century  reached  42,000,  or  6,000  less  than 
those  of  Salamanca.  The  celebrated  grammarian, 
Antonio  de  Nebrija,  received  3,333  maravedis  a 
month;  the  professor  of  medicine.  Dr.  Tarragona, 
was  paid  53,000  a  year,  and  Demetrio  de  Creta  an 
equal  sum  (100  florins).  Cisneros  enforced  very  rigid 
examinations.  In  the  theological  course  which  was 
divided  into  ten  terms,  there  were  five  tests.  The 
first  and  most  dreaded  was  the  Aljonsina,  which 
corresponded  to  that  of  the  Sorbonne  of  Paris. 
Those  who  failed  usually  went  to  other  universities. 
To  the  successful  licentiates  letras  de  ordcn  were  given, 
the  first  being  designated  by  an  L,  and  the  others 
by  superior  or  inferior  letters,  according  to  their 
merit.  The  number  of  students  never  exceeded 
2,000,  one-third  of  the  attendance  at  Salamanca. 
About  1570  the  magnificent  building  of  the  univer- 
sity was  completed,  the  twenty-five  letters  of  the 
motto  Et  Luteam  Olim  M.akmore.vm  Ninc  being 
displayed  on  as  many  columns.  The  patronage  ex- 
ercised by  the  kings  over  the  universities  they  had 
founded  or  protected  led  to  the  sending  of  visitors 
and  reformers.  The  principal  one  sent  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  .\lcald  was  Don  Garcfa  de  Medrano.  The 
reforms  which  were  instituted  brought  to  an  end  the 
university  autonomy  which  had  been  cherished  and 
encouraged  by  tlie  Catholic  Church. 

De  Castro.  De  rebu*  gestis  a  Francisco  \imcno  de  Citncrot 
(ISCiO);  UE  LA  P'CENTE,  Historia  de  laa  Vnirrrsuiadcs  (Madrid, 
1S-S5).  II  sq.;  Desifle.  Die  EnMchxing  dcr  VniveTsilHltTi  del 
MUtclallert  (Berlin.  1885);  Rasiidall,  The  Uniitrntica  of 
Europe  (Oxford.  1895),  II,  pt.  I.  99. 

R.vm<5n  Ruiz  Am.\do. 

Alc^tara,  Miutary  Order  op. — Aledntara,  a 
town  on  the  Tagus  (here  cro.ssed  by  a  bridge — can- 
lara,  whence  the  name),  is  situated  in  the  plain  of 
Estrcmadura,  a  great  field  of  conflict  for  the  Moslems 
and  Christians  of  Spain  in  the  twelfth  centurj'. 
First  taken  in  1167  by  the  King  of  Leon,  Fernando  II, 
.Mcintara  fell  again  (1172)  into  the  hands  of  the 
fierce  Jussuf,  the  third  of  the  African  Almohadcs; 
nor  was  it  recovered  until  1214,  when  it  was  taken 
by  .-Vlonzo  of  Leon,  the  son  of  Fernando.  In  order 
to  defend  this  conquest,  on  a  border  exposed  to 
many  as.saults,  the  king  resorted  to  militarj"  orders. 
The   Middle    Ages   knew    neither    standing    armies 


ALCANTARA 


272 


ALCHEMY 


nor  garrisons,  a  deficiency  that  the  militaiy  or- 
ders supplied,  combining  as  they  did  military 
training  with  monastic  stability.  Alcantara  was 
first  committed  (1214)  to  the  care  of  the  Castilian 
Knights  of  Calatrava,  who  had  lately  given  many 
proofs  of  their  gallantry  in  the  famous  battle 
of  Las  Navas  de  Tolosas  against  the  Almohades 
(1212).  Alonzo  of  Leon  wished  to  found  at  .Alcan- 
tara a  special  branch  of  this  celebrated  order  for  his 
realm.  But  four  years  later  these  Knights  felt  that 
the  post  was  too  far  from  their  Castilian  quarters. 
They  gave  up  the  scheme  and  transferred  the  castle, 
with  the  permission  of  the  king,  to  a  peculiar  Leon- 
ese  order  still  in  a  formative  stage,  known  as  "Knights 
of  St.  Julian  de  Pereiro  ".  Their  genesis  is  obscure, 
but  according  to  a  somewhat  questionable  tradition, 
St.  Julian  de  Pereiro  w'as  a  hermit  of  the  country  of 
Salamanca,  where  by  his  counsel,  some  knights 
built  a  castle  on  the  river  Tagus  to  oppose  the  Mos- 
lems. They  are  mentioned  in  1176,  in  a  grant  of 
King  Fernando  of  Leon,  but  without  allusion  to 
their  military  character.  They  are  first  acknowl- 
edged as  a  military  order  by  a  privilege  of  Pope 
Celestine  III  in  1197.  Through  their  compact  with 
the  Knights  of  Calatrava,  they  accepted  the  Cister- 
cian rule  and  costume,  a  white  mantle  with  the 
scarlet  overcross,  and  they  submitted  to  the  right 
of  inspection  and  correction  from  the  Master  of 
Calatrava.  This  union  did  not  last  long.  The 
Knights  of  Alcantara,  under  their  new  name,  ac- 
quired many  castles  and  estates,  for  the  most  part 
at  the  expense  of  the  Moslems.  They  amassed 
great  wealth  from  booty  during  the  war  and  from 
pious  donations.  It  was  a  turning  point  in  their 
career.  However,  ambitions  and  dissensions  in- 
creased among  them.  The  post  of  grand  master 
became  the  aim  of  rival  aspirants.  They  employed 
against  one  another  swords  which  had  been  vowed 
only  to  warfare  against  the  infidels.  In  1318,  the 
castle  of  Alcdntara  presented  the  lamentable  spec- 
tacle of  the  Grand  Master,  Ruy  Vaz,  besieged  by  his 
own  Knights,  sustained  in  this  by  the  Grand  Master 
of  Calatrava.  This  rent  in  their  body  showed  no 
less  than  three  grand  masters  in  contention,  sup- 
ported severally  by  the  Knights,  by  the  Cistercians, 
and  by  the  king.  Such  instances  show  sufficiently 
to  what  a  pass  the  monastic  spirit  had  come.  All 
that  can  be  said  in  extenuation  of  such  a  scandal  is 
that  military  orders  lost  the  chief  object  of  their 
vocation  when  the  Moors  were  driven  from  their 
last  foothold  in  Spain.  Some  authors  assign  as 
causes  of  their  disintegration  the  decimation  of  the 
cloisters  by  the  Black  Death  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  the  laxity  which  recruited  them  from  the  most 
poorly  qualified  .subjects.  Lastly,  there  was  the 
revolution  in  warfare,  when  the  growth  of  modern 
artillery  and  infantry  overpowered  the  armed  cav- 
alry of  feudal  times,  the  orders  still  holding  to  their 
obsolete  mode  of  fighting.  The  orders,  neverthe- 
less, by  their  wealth  and  numerous  vassals,  remained 
a  tremendous  power  in  the  kingdom,  and  before 
long  were  involved  deeply  in  political  agitations. 
During  the  fatal  schism  between  Peter  the  Cruel 
and  his  brother,  Ilcniy  the  Bastard,  which  divided 
half  Europe,  the  Knights  of  Alcantara  were  also 
split  into  two  factions  which  warred  upon  each  other. 
The  kings,  on  tlieir  side,  diil  not  fail  to  take  an 
active  part  in  the  election  of  the  grand  master,  who 
could  bring  such  valuable  support  to  the  royal 
authority.  In  1409,  the  regent  of  Castile  succeded 
in  having  his  son,  Sancho,  a  boy  of  eight  years,  made 
Grand  Master  of  .Meant ara.  These  intrigues  went 
on  till  1492,  when  Pope  .Alexander  VI  invested  the 
Catholic  King.  Ferilinand  of  Aragon,  with  the 
grand  mastership  of  .Mciintara  for  life.  Adrian  \'I 
went  farther,  in  favour  of  his  pupil,  Charles  V,  for 
in  1522  he  bestowed  the  three  masterships  of  Spain 


upon  the  Crown,  even  permitting  their  inheritance 
through  the  female  line.  The  Knights  of  Alcdntara 
were  released  from  the  vow  of  celibacy  by  the  Holy 
See  in  1540,  and  the  ties  of  common  life  were  sun- 
dered. The  order  was  reduced  to  a  system  of  endow- 
ments at  the  disposal  of  the  king,  of  which  he  availed 
himself  to  reward  his  nobles.  There  were  no  less 
than  thirty-seven  "  Commanderies  ",  with  fifty-three 
castles  or  villages.  Under  the  French  domination 
the  revenues  of  .Alcantara  were  confiscated,  in  1808, 
and  they  were  only  partly  given  back  in  1814,  after 
the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  VU.  They  disappeared 
finally  during  the  subsequent  Spanish  revolutions, 
and  since  1875  the  Order  of  Alcantara  is  only  a  per- 
sonal decoration,  conferred  by  the  king  for  military 
services.     See  Military  Orders. 

De  Robles,  Privilegia  militia;  de  Atcantard  a  pontiftcibui 
(Mai-lrid,  1G62);  De  Valencia,  Definicionea  y  establecimitnuos 
de  la  Orden  de  Alcantara  (Madrid,  1602);  Manrique,  Annates 
cistercienses  (till  1283)  (Lyon.  1642),  4  vols,  fol.;  R\di-;s  y 
ANORAnA,  Cronici'm  de  las  tres  drdenes  y  caballerins  (Toledo, 
1572):  Abaujo  y  Cuellas,  Recopilacidn  histtjrica  de  las  cuatro 
ordenea  miliiares  (Madrid,  1866):  Helyot,  Histo^re  des  ordres 
nligieux  et  militaires,  6  vols.  (Tours,  1718);  De  la  Fcente 
Historia  eel.  de  Espana,  4  vols.  (Madrid,  1874). 

Ch.  Moeller. 

Alcantara,  Saint  Peter  of.     See  Peter. 

Alcantarines.     See  Friars  Minor. 

Alcedo,  Antonio  de, soldier,  b.  at  Quito  (Ecuador), 
1755,  where  his  father  was  President  of  the  Royal 
Audiencia  from  1728  to  1737.  He  selected  the 
military  career,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Brigadier 
General  in  1792,  in  the  Spanish  army.  He  wrote  a 
dictionary,  historical  and  geographical,  of  the  West 
Indies,  in  five  volumes,  for  which  the  work  of  Father 
Giovanni  Coletti,  S.J.,  "Dizionario  deH'America 
meridionale"  (Venice,  1771)  was  a  substantial  basis. 
The  work  of  Alcedo  was  translated  into  English  by 
G.  A.  Thompson  in  1812,  and  that  translation  is 
looked  upon  by  many  as  an  improvement,  whereas 
it  in  fact  teems  with  errors  from  which  the  original  is 
relatively  free. 

Alcedo.  Dircionario  fjeogrdfico-histdrico  de  las  Indias  ocH~ 
dentales  (^Madrid,  1780-89);  Thompson,  The  Cconraphical  and 
Historical  Dictionary  of  America  and  the  West  Indies  (London, 
1812):  Beristain  de  Souza,  Biblioteca  hisp. — americana 
septentrional  (Mexico,  1816);  Mendibur6,  Diccionario  etc. 
(Lima,  1874). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Alchemy  (from  Arabic  al,  the,  and  Greek  xw'^  or 
XTip-fla,  wliich  occurs  first  in  an  edict  of  Diocletian), 
the  art  of  transmuting  baser  metals  into  gold  and 
silver.  It  was  the  predecessor  of  the  modern  science 
of  chemistry,  for  the  first  steps  in  the  developments 
of  the  modern  science  were  based  on  the  work  of  the 
old  alchemists.  Chemistry  dates  from  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  About  this  time  the  idea 
was  formulated  that  the  formation  of  an  oxide  was 
an  additive  process;  that  an  oxide  was  heavier  than 
the  original  metal,  because  something  was  added  to  it. 
The  discovery  of  oxygen  is  often  taken  as  the  date 
of  the  birth  of  chemistry.  It  established  the  fact 
that  red  oxide  of  mercury  is  composed  of  mercury 
and  oxygen.  The  lack  of  this  seemingly  simple 
conception  gave  alchemy  its  definite  existence. 
From  old  Egyptian  times  men  had  stuilied  the 
chemical  properties  of  bodies  without  e.stablishing 
any  tangible  or  tenable  theorj'.  The  name  ahhennj 
has  been  applied  to  the  work  of  all  early  investiga- 
tions. By  their  means  were  determined  a  vast  num- 
ber of  facts,  which  were  only  classified  and  reasonably 
explained  by  the  new  science  of  chemistn,'.  Many 
of  the  alchemists  were  earnest  .seekers  after  truth, 
and  some  of  the  greatest  intellects  of  their  time 
figure  among  them.  Two  motives  actuated  many 
investigators:  the  hope  of  realizing  the  transmutation 
of  metals,  and  the  search  for  terrestrial  immortahty 
by  the  discovery  of  the  elixir  i-itcr.  The  fantastic 
element  apparent  in  such  desires  operated  to  give 


ALOMUND 


273 


ALCOOK 


alchemy  a  bad  reputation,  and  it  is  not  always  ac- 
corded the  place  in  the  liistory  of  science  to  which  it 
is  entitled.  As  the  belief  in  the  possibility  of  the 
transmutation  of  metals  was  almost  universal,  much 
of  the  work  of  the  alchemists  was  directed  to  tlie 
production  of  gold.  Often  the  work  was  perfectly 
iionest,  but  many  instances  of  charlatanism  are  on 
record.  Dislionest  men  practised  on  the  greed  of 
rulers.  If  discovercil  to  be  guilty  of  fraud,  capital 
punishment  was  sometimes  administered.  Henry 
IV  of  England  exhorted  the  learned  men  of  his 
kingdom  to  stuilv  alchemy,  and  pay  off  the  debts  of 
the  country  by  discovering  the  philosopher's  stone. 
In  the  sixteenth  centurj'  practically  all  rulers  patron- 
ized   alchemists. 

Many  clerics  were  alchemists.  To  Albertus 
Magnus,  a  prominent  Dominican  and  Bishop  of 
Ratisbon,  is  attributed  the  work  "De  Alchimia", 
though  this  is  of  doubtful  authenticity.  Several 
treatises  on  alchemy  arc  attributed  to  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas.  He  investigated  theologically  the  question 
of  whether  gold  produced  liy  alchemy  could  be  sold 
as  real  gold,  and  deciiled  tliut  it  could,  if  it  really 
possessed  the  properties  of  gold  (Sum.  Theol.,  11-11. 
Q.  77,  Art.  2).  A  treatise  on  the  subject  is  attributed 
to  Pope  Jolin  XXII,  who  is  also  the  author  of  a  Hull 
"Spondent  quas  non  exhibent"  (1317)  against  dis- 
honest alchemists.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  in- 
sisted on  that  there  were  many  honest  alchemists. 
Chemists  have  never  given  up  the  belief  that  the 
transmutation  of  elements  might  yet  be  effected, 
and  recent  work  in  ratlio-actiN-ity  goes  to  prove  its 
pos.sible  accomplishment  in  the  case  of  radium  and 
nelium. 

The  literature  of  the  subject  is  extensive.  Many 
of  the  works  of  the  old  writers  have  been  preserved, 
often  unintelligible  on  accoimi  of  the  terminology. 
Modern  authors  have  also  written  treatises  on  the 
history  of  the  subject.  Bert  helot  has  edited  a 
work  "Collection  des  anciens  Alchimistes  Grecs" 
with  the  Greek  texts.  He  has  written  "Les  Origines 
de  I'Alchimie"  and  other  works  on  the  same  subject. 
Schmieder's  "Geschichte  der  .Mchimie"  (Halle,  1S32) 
is  useful.  Observations  on  the  subject  will  be  foimd 
in  treatises  on  the  history  of  chemistry,  such  as  Lie- 
big's  "  Famihar  Letters",  and  Thomson's  "History 
of  Chemistry",  and  in  the  introductory  portions  of 
manuals  of  chemistry. 

T.  O'CoNOK  Slo.vne. 

Alcmund,  S.\int,  Bishop  of  Hexham;  d.  781. 
Though  we  know  practically  nothing  of  the  life  of 
St.  Alcmimd,  or  Alclimund,  it  is  clear  that  he  was 
regarded  with  nuich  veneration  at  Hexham  in 
Northumberland.  The  church  founded  by  St.  Wil- 
frid at  Hexham  became  an  episcopal  .see,  and 
Alcmund,  succeeding  as  bishop  in  707,  led  a  hfe  of 
remarkable  piety  until  his  death,  7  September,  781. 
He  was  buried  beside  St.  Acca  outsiile  the  church. 
About  two  centuries  and  a  half  later,  after  the  coun- 
try had  been  laid  waste  by  the  Danes,  all  memory  of 
his  tomb  seemed  to  have  perished,  but  the  Saint  is 
said  to  have  appeared  in  a  vision  to  a  man  of  Hex- 
ham bidding  him  tell  .Vlured,  or  Alfred  (.Vlveredus), 
sacrist  of  Durliani,  to  have  his  body  translated. 
Alured  obcyctl  anil,  having  discovered  and  exhumed 
the  Saint's  remains  stole  one  of  the  bones  to  take 
back  with  liim  to  Durham,  but  it  was  found  that  the 
shrine  could  not  be  moved  by  any  strength  of  man 
until  the  bone  was  restored.  In  ll.'>4.  the  church 
having  again  been  laid  waste,  the  building  was  re- 
stored, and  the  bones  of  the  Hexham  saints,  tliose  of 
Alcmund  amoi\g  the  rest,  were  gathered  into  one 
shrine.  The  whole,  however,  was  finally  pillaged 
and  destroyed  by  the  Scots  in  a  border  raid,  a.  d. 
1296. 

Ada  SS..  7  Seplombor.  Ill;  Stanton,  Englith  Menology 
(London,   1892),   438;  Diet.  Sat.  Biog.,  ».  v.;   Diet.   Christ. 


Biog. — Our  principal  information  cornea  from  Simeon  of 
DcuiiAM,  and  Ai.rkd,  On  the  Saints  of  Hexham,  both 
printed  in  Rolls  .SVriea.  and  a  full  account  will  be  found  in 
tlio  Preface  and  Documents  of  Raine.  I'rioru  of  Hexham 
(Surtees  Society,   London,   1804-05). 

Herbeiit  Thuuston. 

Alciati,  .\ndrea,  an  Italian  jurist,  b.  at  Alzano, 
near  .Milan,  8  May,  1492;  d.  at  Pavia,  12  June.  1550. 
He  w;ls  the  only  son  of  a  .Milane.se  ambassador  to 
the  Kepul)lic  of  Venice.  He  studied  law  at  Pavia 
and  Hologna,  and  published  (1522)  an  explanation 
of  the  Greek  terms  in  the  Roman  law,  under  the  title 
of  "  Paradoxa  juris  civilis";  he  had  composed  tliis 
work  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  In  1518  he  became  a 
i)rofes.sor  of  law  at  Avignon,  tlien  at  Bourges;  finally 
lie  returned  to  Milan  in  1538,  and  was  appointed 
profe.s.sor  of  law  at  Pavia,  after  which  he  t;uight  at 
Milan,  Bologna  and  Ferrara.  He  was  highly  hon- 
oured by  Paul  in  antl  Charles  V,  and  w;us  acknowl- 
edged as  the  first  of  the  scholars  of  his  age  wlio  had 
known  how  to  embellish  with  hterary  skill  tlie  legal 
lore  that  had  hitherto  been  presented  in  a  very  bar- 
barous form  (De  Feller).  His  works  on  jurisprudence 
were  collected  and  published  at  Padua  (1571,  0  vols, 
fob),  but  he  wrote  other  works  not  included  in  that 
edition:  "  Historia  McdiolanensLs "  (published  post- 
humously at  Milan,  1625),  "Responsa"  (Lyons, 
1501),  "Formula  rornani  imperii"  (1559),  and  "  Kpi- 
grammata"  (1.539).  His  gravity  and  moderation, 
and  his  caution  in  tlie  solution  of  legal  difficulties, 
are  praisetl  by  his  biographers.  He  is  best  known 
to  the  modern  world  by  his  curious  and  entertaining 
"Embleinata",  a  metrical  collection  of  moral,  prov- 
erlvlike  sayings,  in  wliich  the  ethical  teaching  is 
couched  in  elegant  and  forceful  diction,  though  it 
lacks,  somewhat,  simpUcity  and  naturalness.  This 
work  was  first  edited  by  Peutinger  (Augsburg,  1531); 
an  excellent  edition  is  that  of  Padua  (1661),  with 
commentaries. 

Dk  Fkller.  Biographie  UniversetU  (Paris  ed..  1847).  109: 
Mazzuchki.li,  i^crittori  d'llalia,  a.  v.:  Grekn,  Andrea  Alcittti 
and  his  Book  of  Emblems  (187.3):  Id..  Shakspeare  and  the 
Emblem-writers,  etc.,   down  to  ItllO   (1872). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Alcibiades  of  Apamea.     See  Elcesaites. 

Alcimus  ('AXkimos,  "brave,"  probably  a  Gra?cized 
form  of  Ileb.  DV'^X,  Eliacim),  high-priest,  the 
leader  of  the  helleni/.ing  party  in  tlie  time  of  Judas 
Macliabeus.  By  antagonizing  the  religious  and  na- 
tional sentiments  of  his  countrymen,  he  won  favour 
at  court,  and  though  not  of  high-priestly  stock,  lie 
was  appointed  high-priest  by  Lysias,  the  regent  of 
AntiocluLS  Eupator  (102  n.  c);  but  the  opposition 
of  the  Machabean  party  prevented  him  from  exer- 
cising the  office.  He  therefore  went  to  Demetrius 
Soter,  who  in  the  meanwhile  li:id  overthrown  Eupa- 
tor, and  denounced  Judas  and  his  adherents  as  rebels 
and  disturbers.  Demetrius  reappointed  him  to  the 
liigli-priestliood  and  sent  Bacchides  with  an  army 
to  install  liim.  But  the  perfidious  .slaughter  of  sixty 
prominent  Assideans,  tiie  cruelties  of  Bacchides, 
and  the  excesses  of  .A.lcimus's  followers  strengthened 
the  Machabean  party,  and  Bacchides  had  hardly 
left  the  country  when  Alcimus  was  forced  to  appeal 
to  the  king  for  help.  Demetrius  first  sent  Nicanor 
with  an  army,  and,  after  his  defeat  and  death,  Bac- 
chides, in  fighting  against  whom  Judas  died  a  heroic 
death  at  Laisa  (Eleiusa),  100  ii.  f.  Alcimus  now  set 
to  work  to  carry  out  his  liellenizing  policy  and  to 
persecute  those  faithful  to  the  law.  But  that  same 
year  he  was  stricken  with  paralysis  and  died  in  great 
suffering. 

I  Marh.  vii.  5-i3C,  56:  II  Mach.  xiv,  1.3-xv.  35:  Josr.piies. 
Antiq.,  XII,  \x,  7-xi.  incl.:  Son*  nrn,  llistorg  of  the  Jewish 
People.  (New  York,  1891)  1,  i,  227-230. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Alcock,  John,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  Worcester, 
and  Ely,  b.  at  Beverley,  H:iO;  d.  at  Wisbeach  Castle, 


ALCOHOLISM 


274 


ALCOHOLISM 


1  October,  1500.  After  studies  at  the  grammar  school 
in  Beverley,  he  went  to  Cambridge.  About  1461,  he 
wa.s  presented  to  tlie  rectory  of  St.  Margaret's,  Lon- 
don, and  to  the  deanery  of  St.  Stephen's,  West- 
minster. In  146 J  lie  was  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and 
in  1468  Prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  London.  In 
1470-71  lie  was  Privy  Councillor.  He  was  on  the 
commission  that  treated  with  James  III  of  Scotland, 
and  his  services  were  enlisted  for  similar  tasks  by 
Richartl  III  and  Henry  VII.  He  was  tutor  to  young 
King  Edward  V  ami  baptized  Prince  Arthur.  He 
was  an  architect  of  great  merit  and  was  buried  in  a 
fine  chapel  which  he  had  erected  for  liimself  in  Ely 
Cathedral.  His  published  writings  are:  "Sponsage 
of  a  Virgin  to  Christ"  (14SG);  "  Hill  of  Perfection" 
(1491,  1497,  1501);  "Sermons  upon  the  Eighth  Chap- 
ter of  Luke  " ;  "  Gallicantus  Joannis  Alcock  episcopi 
Elisensis  ad  fratres  suos  curatos  in  Sinodo  apud 
Barnwell"  (1498);  "Abbey  of  the  Holy  Ghost", 
"Castle  of  Labour",  translated  from  the  French, 
(1536).  Alcock  is  also  thought  to  have  written  a 
metrical  work  in  English  on  the  Seven  Penitential 
Psalms.  Bale  says  of  liim  that  he  "  made  such  a  pro- 
ficiency in  virtue  that  no  one  in  England  had  a  greater 
reputation  for  sanctity".  He  restored  many  eccles- 
iastical buihiings,  and  fovmded  Jesus  College,  Cam- 
bridge, on  the  ruined  nunnery  of  St.  Rhadegund.  He 
also  endowed  Peterhouse.  Alcock  was  a  distinguished 
canonist,  but  made  no  provisions  for  the  study  of 
this  branch  in  Jesus  College.  His  life  was  one  marked 
by  the  practice  of  Christian  virtues,  full  of  zeal  and 
of  a  penitential  spirit. 

Bentham,  History  of  Ely;  Mullinger,  History  of  the^  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,     I;    Cooper,    Athena    Cantabrigienses. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Alcoholism. — The  term  alcoholism  is  understood 
to  include  all  the  changes  that  may  occur  in  the 
human  organism  after  the  ingestion  of  any  form  of 
alcohol.  These  changes  vary  from  the  merest  tran- 
sient exhilaration  of  the  cerebral  fimctions  up  to  pro- 
found unconsciousness,  ending  in  coma  and  perhaps 
in  death.  These  variations  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  alcohol  taken,  the  form  of  alcohol  used,  the 
rapidity  of  its  administration,  and  the  habituation 
of  the  individual  to  its  effects.  A  vast  amount  of 
literature  has  grown  up  around  the  apparently  simple 
cjuestion  of  the  amount  of  alcohol  which  can  be 
o.\idized  or  burnt  up  in  the  body  and  its  energy 
made  available  for  the  needs  of  the  system.  The 
question  as  to  whether  alcohol  is  really  a  food  has 
also  aroused  much  discussion  and  considerable 
diversity  of  opinion.  The  more  accurate  methods 
of  study  in  recent  days  and  the  careful  work  now 
being  done  in  physiological  chemistry  make  it  cer- 
tain that  alcohol  can  be  burned  in  the  body,  and 
that  the  system  may  derive  energy  therefrom,  as  in 
the  o.xidation  of  sugar  or  fat.  But  it  must  be  clearly 
understood  that  this  statement  does  not  carry  with 
it  the  idea  that  alcohol  is  to  be  recommended  for  its 
food  value,  or  tliat  prior  to  its  oxidation  it  may  not 
exert  some  physiological  action  the  reverse  of  bene- 
ficial. As  a  matter  of  fact,  its  disadvantages  so  far 
outweigli  its  useful  effects,  when  taken  as  a  food  or 
beverage,  that  its  use  in  this  way  must  be  emphati- 
cally condemned,  while  the  damage  that  the  con- 
sumption of  alcohol  does  to  man's  nervous  apparatus, 
to  his  intellect  and  will,  and  to  his  moral  sense 
furnishes  additional  reason  why  abstinence,  during 
health  at  least,  should  be  man's  rule  of  life.  To 
appreciate  fully  tlie  facts  upon  which  tliis  state- 
ment is  based  we  must  consider  what  alcohol  is,  its 
chemical  composition,  the  forms  of  alcohol  in  conunon 
ase,  its  physiological  action  in  the  human  body, 
and  its  poisonous  effects  in  excessive,  or  in  long 
continued  do.se.s. 

Alcohol  is  a  liquid  composed  of  ninety-one  per  cent 
by  weight  (94  by  volume)  of  ethylic  alcohol  and  of 


9  per  cent  by  weight  (6  by  volume)  of  water.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  0.820  at  60°  F.  It  is  a  trans- 
parent, colourless,  volatile,  and  inflammable  sub- 
stance, with  a  characteristic,  rather  pungent,  taste 
and  oclour.  Ethylic  alcohol  is  the  alcohol  of  brandy, 
whiskey,  wine,  and  the  various  spirits  and  cordials. 
Its  effects  upon  the  system  are  less  dangerous  than 
those  of  other  alcohols,  such  as  amylic,  methylic,  or 
butylic.  During  distillation  of  grain,  unless  very 
carefully  conducted,  considerable  amylic  alcohol 
(fusel  oil)  will  pass  over  with  the  ethylic,  especially 
if  the  process  be  continued  too  long.  By  keeping 
whiskey  stored  for  several  years  the  amylic  alcohol 
becomes  changed  into  various  ethers,  which  impart 
the  flavour  to  the  spirit.  Therefore  grain-spirit 
(whiskey)  should  be  at  least  two  years  old,  and  the 
spirit  from  fermented  grapes  (brandy)  at  least  four 
years  old.  Wine  is  made  by  fermentation  without 
distillation;  red  wine  by  fermenting  the  juice  of 
coloured  grapes  in  the  presence  of  their  skins,  and 
white  wine  by  fermenting  the  unmodified  juice  of 
the  grape,  free  from  seeds,  stems,  and  stones.  Gin 
is  obtained  by  adding  juniper  berries  to  dilute 
alcohol.  Rum,  or  molasses  spirit,  by  distillation 
from  sugar  or  molasses  which  has  undergone  alco- 
holic fermentation.  Malt  liquors — ale,  beer,  porter, 
etc. — are  produced  by  fermentation  of  malt  and 
hops.  Absolutely  pure  alcohol  is  rarely  found,  even 
in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist.  Owing  to  its 
great  affinity  for  water,  it  will  abstract  it  even  from 
the  air.  What  is  known  as  absolute  alcohol  of  the 
shops  usually  contains  about  2  per  cent  of  water. 
In  order  to  estimate  the  effects  of  different  forms 
of  alcoholic  liquors  the  following  comparative 
strength  should  be  remembered:  Brandy,  whiskey, 
rum,  gin,  cordials,  30  to  50  per  cent  of  absolute 
alcohol;  Spanish  and  Italian  sweet  wines,  13  to 
17  per  cent;  hock  and  claret,  8  to  11  per  cent;  ale, 
porter,  stout  or  beer,  4  to  6  per  cent;  koumyss,  1  to 
3  per  cent.  Champagne  contains  from  8  to  10  per 
cent,  but  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  gas  makes 
it  more  "heady,"  that  is  to  say,  the  cerebral  stimu- 
lation is  produced  more  quickly,  and  the  carbonic 
acid  acts  as  a  sedative  to  the  stomach,  making 
champagne  especially  serviceable  where  prompt 
stimulation  is  required  and  the  stomach  is  irritable, 
as  in  seasickness  or  in  yellow  fever.  Besides  the 
open  and  undisguised  alcoholic  pieparatioits  cited 
above,  there  is  a  host  of  patent  medicines,  pro- 
prietary foods,  tonics,  and  other  nostrums  adver- 
tised as  entirely  harmless  and  as  containing  no 
alcohol,  and  recommended  for  inebriates,  for  con- 
valescents, and  for  persons  weakened  by  disease. 
Analysis  of  many  of  these  has  shown  alcohol  in 
quantities  ranging  from  7  to  47  per  cent.  The  use 
of  these  substances  is  having  a  tremendous,  but  un- 
recognized, influence,  physical,  economical,  and 
moral,  upon  society  at  the  present  day.  Although 
it  is  unquestionably  true  that  alcohol  may  take  the 
place  of  some  fat  or  carbohydrate  in  the  food,  it  is 
an  extraordinary  food,  to  be  used  only  under  cer- 
tain conditions  when  its  ease  of  oxidation  may  be 
of  great  benefit,  and  on  account  of  its  peculiar  toxic 
effect  it  should  not  be  taken  except  when  needed. 
It  has  been  compared  to  the  furniture  of  a  ship, 
together  with  its  decks  and  stanchions,  which  are 
undoubtedly  fuel  substances,  yet  which  no  sane  cap- 
tain would  use  for  fuel  purposes,  except  in  the  direst 
need.  Physiologically,  it  is  both  unwise  and  in- 
correct to  advise  that  the  continued  use  of  alcohol 
in  moderate  doses  is  harmless.  Alcohol,  like  salt 
water  in  a  steam  boiler,  shoidd  be  used  only  in 
emergencies.  To  imderstand  this,  we  must  consider 
its  physiological  action  in  the  human  body. 

Physiologists  now  universally  belie\-e  that  the 
cell  is  the  scene  of  all  vital  processes.  The  essential 
processes   of   nutrition   are   the   metabolic   changes 


I 


ALCOHOLISM 


275 


ALCOHOLISM 


which  take  place  within  tlio  cells  of  the  body,  all 
other  steps  of  nutrition  being  either  antecedent  or 
euccedent  accessories.  The  antecedent  accessories 
of  nutrition  are  tlio  preparation  of  the  food,  its 
mastication,  its  deglutition,  its  digestion,  its  absorj)- 
tion,  its  distribution  by  the  circulatory  system,  and 
its  selection  by  the  individual  cells  from  the  capil- 
laries direct  or  from  the  tissue  plasma.  Physiolo- 
gists and  biologists  believe  that  all  foods  arc  built  up 
into  prutophisni;  that  is,  they  are  selected  and  made 
part  of  the  living  coll.  A  food  must  therefore  satisfy 
the  following  conditions:  First,  it  must  bo  digestible 
and  absorbable  by  llic  organism  which  it  is  to  noin- 
ish;  second,  it  must  be  assimilable  by  the  living  colls 
of  the  organism,  in  order  to  build  up  now  tissue; 
third,  after  assimilation  it  must  be  capable  of  cata- 
bolic  changes  accomi)anied  by  oxidation,  in  order 
to  liberate  energy;  fourth,  the  energy  must  be  liber- 
ated at  such  a  time  and  place  as  to  bo  advantageous 
and  beneficial  to  the  organism.  It  is  not  enough  to 
prove  that  potential  chemical  energy  is  changed  into 
kinetic  energy.  The  o.xidation  must  take  place  at 
the  right  time  and  place,  before  the  energy  liberated 
can  be  useful  in  function.  All  food  is  tissue-building 
in  its  assimilation;  all  food  is  energy-yielding  in  its 
catabolism.  The  only  points  alcohol  possesses  in 
common  with  the  foods  are  two:  first,  it  is  oxidized 
within  the  body;  secondly,  it  diminishes  carbonaceous 
and  perhaps  proteid  catabolism — the  so-called  "spar- 
ing" action  of  alcohol.  This  "sparing"  is  accom- 
panied by  an  accumulation  of  the  carbonaceous 
materials  of  the  body  and  an  actual  deposit  of  fat. 
But  this  condition  is  brought  about  by  reducing  the 
activity  of  the  cell  by  the  narcotic  effect  of  the  alco- 
hol, and  is  not  in  any  sense  to  be  compared  with  the 
increased  demand  for  food  by  the  cell,  rcsidting 
from  proper  mental  and  physical  exercise  and  all 
conditions  which  favour  vigorous  nutrition.  Yet 
the  advocates  of  alcohol  as  a  food  in  liealth  base 
upon  their  physiological  misconceptions  a  super- 
structure of  fallacious  reasoning. 

A  detailed  consideration  of  the  effects  of  alcohol 
upon  the  individual  organs  and  tissues  will  perhaps 
elucidate  the  foregoing  statements.  Applied  to  the 
skin,  alcohol  excites  a  sense  of  heat  and  superficial 
inflammation  if  evaporation  be  prevented.  It  co- 
agulates the  albumen  and  hardens  the  animal  tex- 
tures. If  evaporation  is  not  prevented,  the  surface 
temperature  is  reduced.  The  lining  of  the  mouth 
is  corrugated  by  it — a  result  due  to  the  abstraction 
of  water  and  condensation  of  the  albumen.  In  the 
stomach  it  causes  a  sensation  of  warmth  which  is 
dilTused  over  the  abdomen  and  quickly  followed  by 
a  general  glow  of  the  body.  In  moderate  quantity, 
it  induces  an  increased  blood-supjily  which  enables 
the  mucous  follicles  and  gastric  glands  to  produce 
a  more  abundant  secretion  of  stomach  juices.  When 
habitually  taken,  a  gastric  catarrh  is  established  with 
the  |)roiluction  of  a  fluid  abnormal  both  in  quantity 
and  qualify.  The  increased  blood  supply  also  sets 
up  irritation  of  the  structural  framework  (connective 
ti.ssue)  of  the  stomach,  resulting  in  its  overgrowth, 
with  the  crowding  out  of  the  working-cells,  which 
gradually  shrink.  Alcohol  also  affects  directly  the 
chemistry  of  the  gastric  secretion  by  precipitating 
the  pepsm — a  necessary  ferment  to  tlie  digestion  of 
albuminoid  food.  The  abnormal  mucus,  which  is 
elaborated  in  great  quantity,  sets  up  pathological 
fermentation  in  the  starchy  saccharrine  and  fatty 
elements  of  the  food,  giving  rise  to  acidity,  heartburn, 
regurgitation  of  food,  and  a  peculiar  retching  in  the 
mornmg. 

Alcohol  enters  the  blood  with  great  facility,  and 
probably  almost  all  taken  into  the  stomach  passes 
mto  the  blood  from  this  organ,  and  goes  directly  to 
the  liver  by  way  of  the  portal  vein.  In  the  liver, 
it  increases  at  &rst  the  functional  activity  of  the 
I.— 18 


working-cells,  and  a  more  abundant  production  of 
bile  is  the  result.  Frequent  stimulation  and  conse- 
quent overaction  result  in  impairment  or  loss  of  the 
proper  function  of  the  part,  as  is  the  universal  law. 
The  liver  cells  shrink,  the  structural  framework  in- 
creases in  size  at  first  but  subsequently  contracts, 
producing  the  small,  nodular,  hard  liver,  to  which 
the  term  cirrhosis  has  been  applied.  Alcohol 
also  diminishes  the  normal  storage  of  glycogen, 
leaving  less  to  draw  u|)(>n  when  needed  by  the  sys- 
tem during  stress.  In  small  doses  alcohol  increa.ses 
the  action  of  the  heart  and  the  cutaneous  circula- 
tion; a  slight  rise  of  temfxjrature  is  observed,  and 
all  the  functions  are  for  the  time  being  more  ener- 
getically performed.  On  the  nervous  system  its 
first  etfect  is  to  increase  the  functional  activity  of 
the  brain;  the  ideas  flow  more  easily,  the  senses  are 
more  acute,  the  muscular  movements  more  active. 
With  increa.sed  action  of  the  alcohol,  the  excitement 
becomes  disorderly,  the  ideas  incoherent  and  ranil> 
ling,  the  muscular  movements  uncontrolled  and  in- 
co-ordinated.  With  an  excessive  ciuantity,  the  func- 
tions of  the  cerebrum  arc  suspended,  and  complete 
unconsciousness  results.  By  an  extension  of  the 
poisonous  influence  to  the  nervous  centres  governing 
respiration  and  circulation,  these  functions  may  cea.se, 
and  death  result.  Alcohol  has  a  special  allinitv  for 
nervous  tissue,  and  as  a  result  chiefly  of  its  liiroct 
contact,  but  partly  from  its  effects  on  the  blood 
current,  the  working  cells  of  the  brain  shrink,  the 
supporting  structure  hardens,  the  cerebrospinal  fluid, 
which  should  act  as  a  protective  water-jacket,  in- 
creases in  quantity  and  exerts  injurious  press\ire. 
giving  the  familiar  picture  of  "wet  brain"  so  com- 
mon in  the  autopsy  room  of  hospitals  caring  for 
large  numbers  of  habitual  drunkards.  Existing  in 
a  less  degree,  these  brain  changes  are  objectively 
shown  in  the  impaired  mental  power,  the  muscular 
trembling,  the  shambling  gait,  and  the  lack  of  moral 
sense  of  the  chronic  drinker.  Delirium  tremens  is 
a  variety  of  alcoholism  occurring  in  some  subjects 
from  sudden  excess  of  a  periodical  kind,  in  otnors 
from  a  failure  of  the  stomach  to  dispose,  not  only  of 
food,  but  of  the  accustomed  stimulus,  and  in  another 
group — common  in  hospitals  and  jails — to  sudden 
deprivation  of  liquor  in  steady  drinkers  when  under 
confinement  for  injury  or  crime.  Idiosyncrasy  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  causation  of  delirium  tremens, 
as  is  also  the  u.se  of  alcoholic  beverages  rich  in  fusel 
oil — like  the  cheaper  whiskeys.  The  long-continued 
action  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous  system  produces 
many  other  chronic  disorders.  Loss  of  sensation, 
epilepsy,  motor-paralysis,  and  blindness  often  result 
from  alcoholic  excess.  It  is  probable  that  if  alcohol 
could  be  stamped  out  for  a  century  insanity  would 
shrink  in  prevalence  seventy-five  per  cent.  The 
best  and  latest  authorities  all  agree  that  the  action 
of  alcohol  upon  the  nervous  system  is  always  that  of  a 
narcotic,  whether  the  dose  be  largo  or  small.  On 
the  bodily  temperature  there  is  no  longer  any  doubt 
that  alcohol  jiroduccs  a  reduction,  after  the  primary 
and  transient  sensation  of  heat  has  passed  away. 
All  northern  explorers  know  that  the  use  of  alcohol 
endangers  life  through  cooling  of  the  body.  It  is 
useful,  in  the  form  of  hot  drink,  to  revive  a  person 
who  has  been  exposed  to  cold,  but  only  after  the 
exposure  has  ceased.  Dr.  Parkes,  in  the  Ashantee 
campaign,  found  that  the  fatigue  of  marching  in  the 
tropics  is  better  borne  without  the  aid  of  a  spirit 
ration.  The  power  of  alcohol  to  diminish  muscular 
work  and  agility  is  so  well  known  that  athletes 
rigorously  abstain  during  training,  and  the  records 
of  the  prize-ring  demonstrate  that  only  the  pugilist 
who  has  no  alliance  with  alcohol  is  able  to  remain 
in  the  game. 

There  is  no  dilTerence  of  opinion  among  physiolo- 
gists regarding  the  facts  of  the  action  of  alcohol  in 


ALCORAN 


276 


ALCUIN 


the  human  body.  They  differ  sfremiously  regarding 
tlie  conchisions  to  be  drawn  from  these  facts,  some 
contending  that  alcohol  is  a  "partial  food  when  taken 
in  moderate'quantities  ".  Modern  knowledge  justifies 
the  belief  that  in  health  it  is  never  a  food  in  any 
sense,  be  the  quantity  large  or  small,  but  always  a 
I'oison,  biologically  or  physiologically  speaking;  in 
disease  it  is  neither  a  food  nor  a  poison,  but  may 
be  a  suitable  and  helpful  drug.  It  should  be  rightly 
called  what  it  riglitly  is,  a  drug,  and  not  a  drink;  a 
narcotic,  and  not  a  tonic.  Its  use  as  a  drug  will  then 
be  rightly  restricted,  as  in  the  case  of  other  drugs, 
to  the  intelligent  direction  of  men  upon  whom  the 
State  imposes,  at  the  present  day,  rigid  restrictions 
as  to  preliminary  education,  supplemented  by  study 
of  the  technical  knowledge  of  the  profession  of 
medicine.  Its  u.se.s  in  disease  are  many,  but  their 
consideration  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this 
article.  There  are  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  pneumonia, 
and  diphtheria  in  which  alcohol  is  a  most  valuable 
help,  and  in  some  other  conditions  its  use  may  be 
advisable.  Careful  observations  of  its  effects,  in 
private  practice  and  in  extensive  hospital  experience, 
compel  the  writer  to  subscribe  to  this  conclusion: 
"Alcohol  in  health  is  often  a  curse;  alcohol  in 
disease  is  mostly  a  blessing."  From  a  sociological 
standpoint,  we  are  compelled  by  incontrovertible 
evidence  to  acknowledge  that  it  is  of  all  causes  the 
most  frequent  source  of  poverty,  unhappiness,  di- 
vorce, suicide,  immorality,  crime,  insanity,  disease, 
and  death. 

Chittenden  (Yale),  Medical  News,  22  April,  1905;  Shoe- 
maker. Materit  Medico,  and  Therapeutics  (Philadelphia,  1894); 
Bekbe,  New  York  Medical  Journal  (15  April.  1905);  Foster, 
Textbook  of  Physiology  (London,  1S9S);  Flint,  Handbook 
of  Physiologj/  (New  York,  1905);  Barthoi.ow,  Materia 
Mrdictt  and  Therapeutics  (New  York,  1903):  Hall,  Journal 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  (14  July.  1900);  At- 
w^ter,  Physiolooic'il  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem  (Boston. 
1903);  Welch,  Physiological  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem 
(Boston.  1903);  Bunge.  Physiologische  und  Pathologische 
Chemic  (1894).  124;  Nammack.  Alcohol  in  Typhoid  Fever 
in  Medical  Record  (28  AprU,  1906);  Peaeody,  Alcohol  in 
Disease,  in  Medical  News  (22  April,  1905);  O'Gorman, 
Scientific   Valuation  of  Alcohol  in   Health   (London,   1900). 

Ch.\rles  Edward  Najimack. 

Alcoran.    See  Koran. 

Alctiin  (.\lhw'in,  Alchoin:  Lat.  Albinus,  also 
Flaccus),  an  eminent  educator,  scholar,  and  theo- 
logian, b.  about  735;  d.  19  May,  804.  He  came  of 
noble  Northumbrian  parentage^  but  the  place  of  his 
birth  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  It  was  probably  in  or 
near  York.  While  still  a  mere  child,  he  entered  the 
cathedral  school  founded  at  that  place  by  Arch- 
bishop Egbert.  His  aptitude  and  piety  early  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  .Elbert,  master  of  the  school, 
as  well  as  of  the  Archbishop,  both  of  whom  devoted 
special  attention  to  his  instruction.  In  company 
with  his  master,  he  made  several  visits  to  the  con- 
tinent while  a  youth,  and  when,  in  767,  ^Elbert 
succeeded  to  the  Archbishopric  of  York,  the  duty 
of  directing  the  school  naturally  devolved  upon 
.\lcuin.  During  the  fifteen  years  that  followed,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  instruction  at  York, 
attracting  numerous  students  and  enriching  the 
already  valuable  library.  While  returning  from 
Home  in  March,  781,  he  met  Charlemagne  at  Parma, 
and  was  induced  by  that  prince,  whom  he  greatly 
admired,  to  remove  to  France  and  take  up  his  rcsi- 
(lence  at  the  royal  court  as  "Master  of  the  Palace 
School ".  The  school  was  kept  at  Aaclicn  most  of 
the  time,  but  was  removed  from  place  to  place, 
according  as  the  royal  residence  was  changed.  In  78(5 
he  returned  to  England,  in  connection,  apparently, 
with  important  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  again  m 
7!>(),  on  a  mission  from  Charlemagne.  Alcuin  at- 
tended the  Synod  of  Frankfort  in  794,  and  took  an 
imprirtant  part  in  the  framing  of  the  decrees  con- 
demning Adopt  ionism  as  well  as  in  the  efforts 
made  subsequently  to  effect  the  submission  of  the 


recalcitrant  Spanish  prelates.  In  796,  when  past 
his  sixtieth  year,  being  anxious  to  withdraw  from 
the  world,  he  was  appointed  by  Charlemagne  .\bbot 
of  St.  Martin's  at  Tours.  Here,  in  his  declining 
years,  but  with  undiminished  zeal,  he  .set  himself  to 
build  up  a  model  monastic  school,  gathering  books 
and  drawing  students,  as  before,  at  Aachen  and 
York,  from  far  and  near.  He  died  19  May,  804. 
Alcuin  appears  to  have  been  only  a  deacon,  his 
favourite  appellation  for  himself  in  his  letters  being 
"Albinus,  humilis  Levita".  Some  have  thought, 
however,  that  he  became  a  priest,  at  least  during 
his  later  years.  His  unknown  biographer,  in  de- 
scribing this  period,  says  of  him,  cclcbrabat  omni  die 
missarum  solcmnia  (Jaffe,  "  Mon.  Alcuin.,  Vita,"  30). 
In  one  of  his  last  letters  Alcuin  acknowledged  the 
gift  of  a  casiila,  or  chasuble,  which  he  promises  to 
use  in  7nissariim  solemniis  (Kp.  203).  It  is  probable 
that  he  was  a  monk,  and  a  member  of  the  Benedic- 
tine Order,  although  this  also  has  been  disputed, 
some  historians  maintaining  that  he  was  simply  a 
member  of  the  secular  clergy,  even  when  he  exercised 
the  office  of  abbot  at  Tours. 

I.  Educator  and  Scholar. — Of  his  work  as  an 
educator  and  scholar  it  may  be  said,  in  a  general 
way,  that  he  had  the  largest  share  in  the  movement 
for  the  revival  of  learning  which  distinguished  the 
age  in  which  he  lived,  and  which  made  possible  the 
great  intellectual  renaissance  of  three  centuries  later. 
In  him  Anglo-Saxon  scholarship  attained  to  its 
widest  influence,  the  rich  intellectual  inheritance 
left  by  Bede  at  Jarrow  being  taken  up  by  Alcuin  at 
York,  and,  through  his  subsecjuent  labours  on  the 
Continent,  becoming  the  permanent  possession  of 
civilized  Europe.  The  influences  surrounding  Alcuin 
at  York  were  made  up  chiefly  of  elements  from 
two  sources,  Irish  and  Continental.  From  the  sixth 
century  onward  Irishmen  were  busy  founding 
schools  as  well  as  churches  and  monasteries  all 
over  Europe;  and  from  lona,  according  to  Bede, 
Aidan  and  other  Celtic  missionaries  bore  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  classics,  along  with  the  light  of  the 
Christian  faith,  into  Northumbria.  Both  Aldhelra 
and  Bede  had  Irish  teachers.  Celtic  scholarship 
appears,  however,  to  have  entered  only  remotely 
and  indirectly  into  Alcuin's  training.  The  strongly 
Roman  cast  which  characterized  the  School  of 
Canterbury,  founded  by  Theodore  and  Hadrian, 
who  were  sent  by  the  Pope  to  England  in  669,  was 
naturally  reproduced  in  the  School  of  Jarrow,  and 
from  this,  in  turn,  in  the  School  of  York.  The  in- 
fluence is  discernible  in  Alcuin,  on  the  religious  side, 
in  his  devoted  adhesion  to  Roman,  as  distinguished 
from  particular  local  or  national,  traditions,  as  well 
as,  in  an  intellectual  way,  in  the  fact  that  his  knowl- 
edge of  Greek,  which  was  a  favourite  study  with 
Irish  scholars,  appears  to  have  been  very  slight. 

.A.n  important  feature  of  Alcuin's  educational  work 
at  York  was  the  care  and  preservation,  as  well  as 
the  enlargement,  of  its  precious  library.  Several 
times  he  journeyed  through  Europe  for  the  purpose 
of  copying  and  collecting  books.  Nimicrous  pupils, 
too,  gathered  around  him,  from  all  parts  of  England 
and  the  continent.  In  his  poem  "On  the  Saints  of 
the  Church  of  York  ",  written,  probably,  before  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  France,  he  has  left  us  a 
valuable  description  of  the  academic  life  at  York, 
together  with  a  list  of  the  authors  rcpresenteti  by 
its  catalogue  of  books.  The  course  of  studies  em- 
braced, in  the  words  of  .Alcuin,  "  liberal  studies 
and  the  holy  word",  or  the  seven  liberal  arts 
comprising  the  trivium  and  the  qundririum,  with 
the  study  of  Scripture  and  the  Fathers  for  those 
more  advanced.  A  feature  of  the  school  that  de- 
serves mention  was  the  organization  of  studies  on 
the  modern  plan,  the  students  being  scparatoil  into 
classes,  according  to  the  subjects  and  divisions  of 


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277 


ALOniN 


subjects  studied,  with  a  special  teacher  for  each 
class.  But  it  was  when  he  took  chiirgc  of  the  Palace 
School  that  the  abilities  of  Alcuin  were  most  con- 
spicuously shown.  In  spile  of  the  influence  of  York, 
learning  in  Knglantl  was  declining.  The  country 
was  a  prey  to  dissensions  and  civil  wars,  and  Alcuin 
perceived  in  the  growing  power  of  Charlernagiie  and 
his  eagerness  for  the  development  of  learning  an 
opportunity  such  as  even  \ork,  with  all  its  pre- 
eminence and  scholastic  advantages,  could  not  afford. 
Nor  was  he  disappointed.  Charlemagne  counted  on 
education  to  complete  the  work  of  empire-building 
in  which  he  was  engaged,  and  his  mind  was  busy 
with  educational  projects.  A  literary  revival,  in 
fact,  had  already  begun.  Scholars  were  drawn 
from  Italy,  Germany,  and  Ireland,  and  when  Alcuin, 
in  782,  transferred  his  allegiance  to  Charlemagne, 
he  soon  found  surrounding  him  at  Aachen,  in  addi- 
tion to  tlie  youthful  members  of  the  nobility  he  was 
called  upon  to  instruct,  a  band  of  older  learners 
some  of  whom  were  ranked  among  the  best  scholars 
of  the  time.  I'nder  his  leadership  the  Palace 
School  became  wliat  Charles  hail  hoped  to  make  it, 
tlie  centre  of  knowledge  and  culture  for  the  whole 
kingdom,  and  indeed  for  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Charlemagne  him.self,  his  queen,  Luitgard,  his  sister 
Ciisela,  liis  three  sons,  and  two  daughters  became 
pupils  of  the  school,  an  example  which  the  rest  of 
tlie  nobility  were  not  slow  to  imitate.  Alcuin's 
supreme  merit  as  an  educator  lay,  however,  not 
merely  in  the  training  up  of  a  generation  of  educated 
men  and  women,  but,  above  all,  in  inspiring  with 
his  own  enthusiasm  for  learning  and  teacliing  the 
talented  youths  who  flocked  to  liim  from  all  sides. 
His  educational  writings,  comprising  the  treatises, 
"On  Grammar",  "On  Orthograpliy  ",  "  t)ii  Khetoric 
anil  the  Virtues",  "On  Dialectics",  the  "Disputation 
with  Pepin",  and  the  astronomical  treati.sc  entitled 
"  De  Cursu  et  Saltu  Lun;B  ac  Bisse.\to",  afford  an 
insight  into  the  matter  and  methods  of  teaching 
employed  in  the  Palace  School  and  the  schools  of 
the  time  generally,  but  they  are  not  remarkable 
either  for  originality  or  literary  excellence.  They 
are  mostly  compilations — generally  in  the  form  of 
dialogues — drawn  from  the  works  of  earlier  scholars, 
and  were  probably  intended  to  be  used  as  text-books 
by  his  own  pupils. 

Alcuin,  like  Bede,  was  a  teacher  rather  than  a 
thinker,  a  gatherer  and  a  distributor  ratlier  than  an 
originator  of  knowledge,  and  in  this  respect,  it  is 
plain  to  us  now,  tlie  bent  of  his  genius  responded 
perfectly  to  the  imperative  intellectual  need  of  the 
age,  which  was  the  preservation  and  the  re-pre.senta- 
tion  to  the  world  of  the  treasures  of  knowledge 
inherite<l  from  the  past,  long  buried  out  of  sight  by 
the  successive  tides  of  barbarian  invasion.  Disce 
ut  doceas  (learn  in  order  to  teach)  was  the  motto  of 
his  life,  and  the  supreme  value  he  attached  to  the 
office  of  teaching  is  recognizable  in  his  admonition 
to  his  disciples  that  the  idle  youth  would  never 
become  a  teacher  in  his  old  age  (Qui  non  discit  in 
pueritid,  non  docet  in  senectule,  Ep.  27).  Alcuin  was 
eminently  qualified  to  be  the  .schoolma.ster  of  his  age. 
.■\lthough  living  in  the  world  and  occupied  much  witli 
public  affairs,  he  was  a  man  of  singular  humility  and 
purity  of  life.  He  had  an  unbounded  enthusiasm 
for  learning  and  a  tireless  zeal  for  the  practical 
work  of  the  class-room  and  library,  and  the  young 
men  of  talent  whom  he  drew  in  crowds  around  him 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  went  away  in.spired  with 
something  of  his  own  passionate  ardour  for  study. 
His  warm-hearted  and  affectionate  di.sposition  made 
him  universally  beloved,  and  the  ties  that  bound 
master  and  pupil  often  ripeneil  into  intimate  friend- 
ship that  husted  through  life.  Many  of  his  letters 
that  have  been  preserved  were  written  to  his  former 
pupils,    more    than    thirty    being   addressed    to    his 


tenderly  loved  disciple  Arno,  who  became  Arch- 
bishop  of  Salzburg.  Before  he  died  Alcuin  had 
tlie  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  young  men  whom  ho 
had  trained,  engaged  all  over  Europe  in  the  work 
of  teaching.  "Wherever",  says  Wattenbach,  in 
speaking  of  the  period  that  followed,  "anything  of 
literary  activity  is  visible,  there  we  can  with  certainty 
count  on  finding  a  pupil  of  Alcuin's."  Many  of  liis 
pupils  came  to  occupy  important  positions  in  Churcli 
and  .State  and  lent  their  influence  to  the  cause  of 
learning,  as  the  above-mentioned  Arno,  Archbishop 
of  Salzburg;  Theodulph,  Bishop  of  Orleans;  Eanbalil, 
Archbi.shop  of  York;  Adelhard,  the  cousin  of  Charles, 
who  became  Abbot  of  (New)  Corbie,  in  Saxony; 
Aldrich,  Abbot  of  Ferrii^res,  and  Fridugis,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Alcuin  at  Tours.  Among  his  pupils  also 
was  the  cclebrateil  Rabanus  Maurus,  the  intellec- 
tual successor  of  Alcuin,  who  came  to  s'  idy  under 
him  for  a  time  at  Tours,  and  who  sub.sequenlly, 
in  his  school  at  Fulda,  continued  the  work  of  Alcuin 
at  Aachen  and  Tours. 

The  development  of  the  Palace  School,  however, 
important  ;ls  it  was,  was  only  a  part  of  the  broad 
educational  plans  of  Charlemagne.  For  the  diffu.slon 
of  learning,  other  educational  ^.cntres  had  to  be 
established  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  for  this, 
in  an  age  when  e<lucation  was  so  largely  under  the 
control  of  the  Church,  it  was  es.sential  that  the 
clergy  should  be  a  body  of  educated  men.  With  this 
object  in  view,  a  series  of  decrees  or  capitulars 
were  issued  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor,  which 
enjoined  upon  all  clerics,  secular  as  well  as  regular, 
under  penalty  of  suspension  and  deprivation  of 
office,  the  ability  to  read  antl  write  and  the  possession 
of  the  knowledge  requisite  for  the  intelligent  per- 
formance of  the  duties  of  the  clerical  state.  Reading- 
schools  were  to  be  established  for  the  benefit  uC 
candidates  for  the  priesthood,  and  bishops  were 
reijuired  to  examine  their  clergy  from  time  to  time, 
to  ascertain  the  degree  of  their  compliance  with  these 
eilucational  laws.  A  sclieme  for  universal  elementary 
education  was  also  projected.  A  capitular  of  the 
year  802  enjoinetl  that  "everj'one  should  send  his 
son  to  study  letters,  and  that  the  child  should  remain 
at  school  with  all  diligence  until  he  should  become 
well  instructed  in  learning"  (West,  54).  Following 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Vaison,  a  primary  school 
was  to  be  establislietl  in  every  town  and  village,  to 
be  taught  by  the  priests  gratuitously.  It  is  im- 
possible to  say  precisely  to  what  extent  Alcuin  de- 
serves credit  for  the  organization  of  the  vast  educa- 
tional system  whicli  was  thus  set  up,  comprising  a 
central  higher  institution,  the  Palace  School,  a 
number  of  subordinate  schools  of  tlie  liberal  arts 
scattered  throughout  the  countrj',  antl  schools  for 
the  common  people  in  every  city  anil  village.  His 
hand  is  nowhere  visible  in  the  scries  of  legislative 
enactments  referretl  to:  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  had  much  to  Jo  with  the  instigation,  if  not 
with  the  framing,  of  these  laws.  "The  voice", 
Gaskoin  aptly  say.s,  "is  the  voice  of  Charles,  but  the 
hand  is  tlie  hand  of  Alcuin".  It  was  with  Alcuin, 
too,  and  his  pupils  that  the  responsibility  rested 
for  carrj'ing  out  the  legislation.  True,  the  laws 
were  only  imperfectly  carried  into  effect;  the  meas- 
ures planned  and  partially  put  into  practice  for  the 
enlightenment  of  the  people  did  not  meet  with  com- 
plete success;  the  movement  for  the  revival  and 
diffusion  of  learning  throughout  the  Empire  did  not 
last.  Yet  much  was  accomplished  that  did  endure. 
The  accumulated  \visdom  of  the  past,  which  was  in 
<langer  of  perishing,  was  prcscr\-ed,  and  when  the 
greater  and  more  permanent  renai.ssance  of  learning 
came,  several  centuries  later,  "when  the  light  began 
again  to  pierce  through  the  .storm-clouds  of  feudal 
strife  and  anarcliy,  the  founilations  laid  in  the 
eighth  century  were  still  there,  ready  to  receive  the 


ALCUIN 


278 


ALCUIN 


weight  of  the  higher  learning  which  the  scholars  of 
the  new  revival  should  build  up"  (Gaskoin,  209). 
Alcuiii's  poems  range  from  brief,  epigrammatic 
verses,  addressed  to  liis  friends,  or  intended  as 
inscriptions  for  books,  churches,  altars,  etc.,  to 
lengthy  metrical  histories  of  biblical  and  ecclesias- 
tical events.  His  verses  seldom  rise  to  the  level  of 
real  poetry,  and,  like  most  of  the  work  of  the  poets 
of  the  period,  they  often  fail  to  conform  to  the  rules 
for  quantity,  just  as  his  prose,  though  simple  and 
vigorous,  shows  here  and  there  a  seeming  disregard 
for  the  accepted  canons  of  syntax.  His  principal 
metrical  work,  tlie  "  Poem  on  the  Saints  of  the  Churcli 
at  York",  consists  of  1657  hexameter  lines  and  is 
really  a  history  of  that  Church. 

n.  .\LcniN  AS  A  Theologian. — .^Icuin's  work  as 
a  theologian  may  be  classed  as  exegetical  or  biblical, 
moral,  and  dogmatic.  Here  again  the  characteris- 
tic that  has  been  noted  in  his  educational  work  is 
conspicuous:  it  is  that  of  conservation  rather  than 
originality.  His  nine  Scriptural  commentaries — on 
Genesis,  Tlie  Psalms,  The  Song  of  Solomon,  Ecclesi- 
astes.  Hebrew  Names,  St.  Jolm's  Gospel,  the  Epistles 
to  Titus,  Philemon,  and  the  Hebrews,  The  Sayings 
of  St.  Paul,  and  the  Apocalypse — consist  mostly  of 
sentences  taken  from  the  Fathers,  the  idea,  appar- 
ently, being  to  collect  into  convenient  form  the 
observations  on  the  more  important  Scriptural 
passages  of  the  best  commentators  who  had  pre- 
ceded him.  A  more  important  Biblical  undertaking 
by  .A-lcuin  was  tlie  revision  of  the  text  of  tlie  Latin 
Vulgate.  At  the  beginning  of  tlie  ninth  century, 
this  version  had  displaced  in  France,  as  elsewhere 
throughout  tlie  Western  Cluirch,  the  Old-Itala 
(Vetus  Itala)  and  other  Latin  versions  of  the  Bible; 
but  the  Vulgate,  as  it  existed,  showed  many  variants 
from  the  original  of  St.  Jerome.  Uniformity  in  the 
sacred  text  was,  in  fact,  unknown.  Every  church 
and  monastery  had  its  own  accepted  readings,  and 
varying  texts  were  often  to  be  found  in  the  Bibles 
used  in  the  same  house.  Other  scholars  besides 
Alcuin  were  engaged  in  the  task  of  endeavouring 
to  remedy  tins  condition.  Theodulph  of  Orleans 
produced  a  revised  text  of  the  Vulgate  which  has 
survived  in  tlie  "Codex  Memmianus  ".  The  original 
work  of  Alcuin  has  not  come  down  to  us,  the  care- 
lessness of  copyists  and  the  extensive  usage  to  which 
it  attained  having  led  to  numberless,  though  for  the 
most  part  unimportant  variations  from  the  standard 
he  souglit  to  fix.  In  his  letters  he  simply  mentions 
the  fact  that  he  is  engaged,  by  the  order  of  Cliarle- 
magne,  "in  emendatione  Veteris  Novique  Testamenti" 
(Ep.,  1.36).  Four  Bibles  are  shown  by  the  dedicatory 
poems  affixed  to  them  to  have  been  prepared  by 
him,  or  under  his  direction,  while  lie  was  Abbot  of 
Tours,  probably  during  tlie  years  799-801.  In  the 
opinion  of  Bergcr  the  "  Tours  Bibles  "  all  represent  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  notwithstanding  their  varia- 
tions in  detail,  the  original  Alcuinian  text  (Hist,  de 
la  vulg.,  242).  Whatever  the  exact  changes  made 
by  Alcuin  in  the  Bible  text  may  have  been,  the 
known  temper  of  the  man,  no  less  tlian  the  limits  of 
tlie  scliolarship  of  tlie  age,  makes  it  certain  that  these 
changes  were  not  of  a  far-reaching  kind.  Tlie  idea 
being,  liowever,  to  reproduce  the  genuine  text  of 
St.  Jerome,  so  far  as  possible,  and  to  correct  tlie 
gross  blunders  wliich  disfigured  tlie  Sacred  writings, 
the  Biblical  work  of  .\Icuin  was,  from  this  point  of 
view,  important.  Of  the  three  brief  moral  treatises 
Alcuin  has  left  us,  two,  "De  virtutibus  et  vitiis", 
and  "De  anima;  ratione",  are  largely  abridgments 
of  the  writinfp  of  St.  Augustine  on  tlic  same  subjects, 
while  Lhe  third,  "On  tlie  Confession  of  Sins",  is  a 
concise  exposition  of  the  nature  of  confession,  ad- 
dressed to  the  monks  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  Closely 
allied  to  his  moral  writings  in  spirit  and  purpose  are 
liis  sketches  of  the  lives  of  St.  Martin  ol  Tours,  St. 


Vedast,   St.   Riquier,   and   St.    Willibrord,    the   last 
being  a  biography  of  considerable  length. 

It  is  upon  his  dogmatic  writings  that  the  fame  of 
Alcuin  as  a  tlieologian  principally  rests.  Against 
the  Adoptionist  heresy  he  stood  forth  as  the  fore- 
most champion  of  the  Churcli.  It  is  a  proof  of  his 
power  of  penetration — a  quality  of  mind  which  some 
historians  appear  to  deny  him  altogether — that  he 
so  clearly  perceived  the  essentially  heretical  attitude 
of  Felix  and  Elipandus  towartls  tlie  Christ ological 
question,  an  attitude  whose  heterodoxy  was  shrouded 
perhaps  even  from  their  own  eyes  in  the  beginning, 
by  the  specious  distinction  between  natural  and 
adoptive  sonship;  and  it  was  a  worthy  tribute  to 
the  range  of  his  patristic  scholarship  when  Felix,  the 
chief  intellectual  defender  of  Adoptionism,  after  the 
disputation  with  Alcuin  at  Aachen,  acknowledgeil 
the  error  of  his  position.  The  condemnation  of  the 
rising  heresy  by  the  Synod  of  Regensburg  (Ratisbon), 
in  792,  having  failed  to  check  its  spread,  another  and 
a  larger  synod,  composed  of  representatives  of  the 
Churches  of  France,  Italy,  Britain,  and  Galicia,  was 
convened  at  Frankfort  by  the  order  of  Charles,  in 
794.  Alcuin  was  present  at  this  meetu.g  and  no 
doubt  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  discussions  and 
in  the  drawing  up  of  the  "  Epistola  Synodica", 
although,  with  characteristic  modesty,  he  furnishes 
no  evidence  of  the  fact  in  his  letters.  Following  up 
the  work  of  the  Synod,  he  addressed  to  Felix,  for 
whom  he  had  formerly  entertained  a  high  esteem,  a 
touching  letter  of  admonition  and  exhortation. 
After  his  transfer  to  Tours,  in  796,  he  received  from 
Felix  a  reply  which  showed  that  something  more 
than  friendly  entreaty  would  be  needed  to  stay  the 
progress  of  the  heresy.  He  had  already  drawn  up 
a  small  treatise,  consisting  mainly  of  patristic  quota- 
tions, against  the  teaching  of  the  heretics,  under  the 
title  "Liber  Albini  contra  hteresim  Felicis",  and  he 
now  undertook  a  larger  and.  more  thorough  tlis- 
cussion  of  the  theological  questions  involved.  This 
work,  in  seven  books,  "Libri  VII  adversus  Felicem  ", 
was  a  refutation  of  the  position  of  the  Adoptionists, 
rather  than  an  exposition  of  Catholic  doctrine,  and 
hence  followed  the  lines  of  their  arguments,  instead 
of  a  strictly  logical  order  of  development.  Alcuin 
urged  against  the  Adoptionists  the  universal  testi- 
mony of  the  Fathers,  the  inconsistencies  involved 
in  the  doctrine  itself,  its  logical  relation  to  Nestorian- 
ism,  and  the  rationalistic  spirit  which  was  forever 
prompting  to  just  such  attempted  human  explana- 
tions of  the  unsearchable  mysteries  of  faith.  In  the 
spring  of  799  a  disputation  took  place  between 
Alcuin  and  Felix  in  the  royal  palace  at  Aachen, 
which  ended  by  Felix  acknowledging  his  errors  ami 
accepting  the  teachings  of  the  Church.  Felix  sub- 
sequently paid  a  friendly  visit  to  Alcuin  at  Tours. 
Having  sought  in  vain  to  bring  about  the  submission 
of  Elipandus,  Alcuin  drew  up  another  treatise 
entitled  "Adversus  Elipandum  Libri  IV",  entrusting 
it  for  circulation  to  the  commissioners  whom  Charle- 
magne was  sending  to  Spain.  In  802  he  sent  to  the 
Emperor  the  last,  and  perhaps  the  most  important, 
of  his  theological  treatises,  the  "  Libellus  de  Sancta 
Trinitate",  a  work  which  is  uncontroversial  in  form, 
although  probably  suggested  to  him  during  the 
discussions  with  the  Adoptionists.  The  treatise 
contains  a  brief  appendix  entitled  "De  Trinitate  ad 
Fridegisum  qun?stiones  XXVIII".  The  book  is  a 
carefully  thought  out  summary  of  Catholic  doctrine 
concerning  the  Holy  Trinity,  St.  Augustine's  treatise 
on  the  subject  being  kept  steadily  in  view.  It  is 
uncertain  to  what  extent  ,\lcuin  shared  in  the  atti- 
tude of  remonstrance  assumed  by  the  Frankish 
Church,  at  the  instance  of  Charlemagne,  towards 
the  badly  translated  and  ill  understood  decrees  of 
the  second  Council  of  Nica-a,  held  in  787.  The 
style    of    the    "Libri   Carolini"   which    condemned, 


ALDEGUNDIS 


279 


ALDERSBACH 


in  tlie  name  of  tlie  King,  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil, favours  the  assumption  that  Alcuin  had  at  least 
no  <lirect  part  in  tlie  composition  of  the  work. 

III.  .\i.rriN  .\s  .\  LiTiuiiisT. —  Hesides  his  justly 
merited  fame  as  an  educator  and  a  theologian, 
Alcuin  lia.s  the  honour  of  having  been  the  principal 
agent  in  the  great  work  of  liturgical  reform  accom- 
plished by  the  authority  of  Charlemagne.  At  the 
accession  of  Charles  the  Gallican  rite  prevailetl  in 
France,  but  it  was  so  modifieil  by  local  customs  and 
traditions  as  to  constitute  a  serious  obstacle  to  com- 
plete ecclesiastical  unity.  It  was  the  purpo.se  of  the 
King  to  substitute  the  Roman  rite  in  place  of  the 
Galilean,  or  at  least  to  bring  about  sucli  a  revision  of 
the  latter  as  to  make  it  substantially  one  with  the 
Roman.  The  stmng  leaning  of  Alcuin  towards  the 
traditions  of  the  Roman  Church,  combined  witli 
his  conservative  cliuracter  and  the  universal  autlior- 
ity  of  his  name,  qualified  liim  for  the  accomplishment 
of  a  change  which  the  royal  authority  in  it.self  was 
powerless  to  etTect.  The  first  of  Alcuin's  liturgical 
works  appears  to  have  been  a  Homiliary,  or  collection 
of  sermons  in  Latin  for  the  use  of  priests.  Tlie 
Homiliarj'  which  was  printed  under  his  name  in  tlie 
fifteenth  century  was  by  a  different  hand,  although 
it  is  probable,  as  Dom  Morin  contends,  that  a  re- 
cently discovered  MS.  of  the  twelfth  centurj'  con- 
tains the  genuine  Alcuinian  sermons  (Revue  Wn6- 
tlictine,  1S92).  Another  liturgical  work  of  Alcuin 
consists  of  a  collection  of  the  Epistles  to  be  read  on 
Simdays  and  holy-days  througnout  the  year,  and 
bears  the  name,  "Comes  ab  Albino  ex  Caroli  imp. 
pnrcepto  emendatus  ".  .\s,  previous  to  his  time,  tlie 
portions  of  Scripture  to  be  read  at  Mass  were  often 
merely  indicated  on  the  margins  of  the  Bibles  used, 
the  "Comes"  commended  itself  by  its  convenience, 
and  as  he  followed  Roman  usage  here  also,  the  re- 
sult was  another  advance  in  tlie  way  of  conformity 
to  the  Roman  liturgy.  The  work  of  Alcuin  which 
had  the  greatest  and  most  lasting  influence  in  this 
ilirection,  however,  was  the  Sacramentarj',  or  Missal 
which  he  compiled,  using  the  Gregorian  Sacramen- 
tary  as  a  basis,  and  to  this  adding  a  supplement  of 
ma.sses  and  prayers  drawn  from  Gallican  and  other 
liturgical  sources.  Prescribed  as  the  official  Mass- 
book  for  the  Prankish  Church,  Alcuin's  Missal  soon 
came  to  be  commonly  used  throughout  Europe  and 
was  largely  instrumental  in  bringing  about  uni- 
formity in  respect  to  the  liturgy  of  the  Mass  in  the 
whole  Western  Church.  Other  liturgical  produc- 
tions of  Alcuin  were  a  collection  of  votive  Masses, 
drawn  up  for  the  monks  of  Fulda,  a  treatise  called 
"  l)e  p.salmorum  usu",  a  breviary  for  laymen,  and 
a  brief  explanation  of  the  ceremonies  of  Baptism. 

A  complete  edition  of  Alcuin's  works,  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  his  Epistles,  is  to  be  found  in 
.Migne,  comprising  volumes  C-CI  of  the  "Patrologia 
l.atiiia".  The  text  of  the  Migne  edition  was  first 
publislied  by  Froben,  Abbot  of  St.  Emmeran,  at 
Hati.sbon,  in  1777,  a  previous  and  le.ss  complete 
rditinn  having  been  published  by  Duchesne  at 
I'aris,  in  1617.  A  critically  accurate  edition  of  the 
"1  Epistles"  of  Alcuin,  together  with  his  poem,  "On 
the  Saints  of  the  Church  at  York",  his  ''Life  of  St. 
Willibrord ",  and  the  "Life  of  Alcuin",  composed 
about  SJO,  is  found  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
"  Bibliotheca  Rerum  Gernianicarum ",  under  the 
title  "  Monumenta  .Mcuiniana",  edited  by  Jaff^, 
Watteiibuch,  and  Duemmler  (Berlin,  1873).  This 
edition  contains  293  of  Alcuin's  Epistles,  against 
the  '-'30  in  Migne. 

Mon.  drrm.  Ilitt.;  l.roum  Srctio.  I,  II;  Pnrln-  Arti  Carol.. 
I;  CiA.sKolN.  Alcuin.  IliK  l.ifr  and  Work  (I^)nclon,  1904); 
Wr.sT,  Ateuin  ami  Ihr  Risr  nf  thr  rhritilian  Schoalt  (.Nrw 
York.  18921;  MtLi.iNOKR.  Thr  .SVAooin  o/  CharUt  Ihr  Crrat 
(I^jncliin.  1877);  IIavck,  Kirrhmumchichlr  Drultrhlandt  (I.pin- 
liE.  1900),  II:  WEUSF.n,  AUtiin  und  jriti  Jahrhiimlrrt  C.M  eel., 
Vicnnu.  IS81):  Dcitt,  Alcuin  tl  Ircolr  dr  Saint  Marlin  ,lc 
Touri  (Tours,  1876);  Laforet,  Alcuin.  retlauralrur  dtS 


m  oeeidmt  tout  Charlrmngnr  (Ixiuvain,  1851);  Monnikr,  AU 
cuin  rt  ton  inftucncr  httirairr,  rrlit/ieusr.  rl  politujur  chrz  Ut 
Franct  (I'Bris,  Ig-IS);  Ukane,  Chruluin  .School,  a,ut  Sclwlort 
(Lonilon,  1881);  Hehoer,  Hitloirr  dc  la  vuliinlc  I  I'un^.  IhW); 
Hkfei.k,  Concititnaetchichir  (Freiburg,  1877),  111.  \kiinkt, 
in  Diet,  dr  thiol,  eaih..  n.  v.;  Stubdb,  in  Oicl.  Chrut.  ISioo. 
(Boston,  1877),  I.  73-70. 

J.  A.  Burns. 

Aldegundis.  S.\int,  virgin  and  abbess  (c.  6.39-684), 
variously  written  Adelgundis,  Aldcgonde,  etc.  She 
was  nearly  rehileil  to  the  .Merovingian  royal  family. 
Her  father  and  mother,  after%vards  honoured  as  St. 
Walbert  and  St.  Bertilia,  lived  in  Flanders  in  the 
province  of  Ilainault.  .Mdegundis  was  urged  to 
marry,  but  she  chose  a  life  of  virginity  and,  leaving 
her  home,  received  the  veil  from  St.  Aniaiidus, 
Bishop  of  Ma;istricht.  Then  she  walked  drj--sliod 
over  the  Sambre,  and  built  on  its  banks  a  small 
nunnery,  at  a  desert  placed  called  Malbode.  This 
foundation  afterwards,  under  the  name  Maubeuge, 
became  a  famous  abbey  of  Benedictine  nuns,  though 
at  a  later  date  these  were  replaced  by  canoncsses. 
St.  Aldegundis'  feast  is  kept  on  30  January.  Tliere 
are  several  early  Lives,  but  none  by  contemporaries. 
Several  of  these,  including  the  tenth-century  biography 
by  HucbalcL  are  printed  by  the  Bollandists  (Acta 
SS.,  Jan.,  II.  103-1-35). 

BoLLANDisT.-,  OS  above;   DuNnAR.  Diet,  of  Saintlu  Women 
(Lonilon,  1905),  I,  41,  42;   Leroy,  Hittoire  de  Ste.  Aldiyonde 
(Paris,    1SS3);    Chevalier,  Bio-bibliogr.    (2d    ed.),  125,   126. 
HeKBERT  'THlTli.STON. 

Aldersbach,  a  former  Cistercian  Abbey  in  the 
valley  of  the  Vils  in  Lower  Bavaria.  It  was  founded 
in  1127  by  St.  Otto,  B'shop  of  Bamberg,  and  the 
first  community  was  composed  of  canons  regular. 
The  site  chosen  was  near  a  church  consecrated  in 
880  by  Englmar,  Bishop  of  Passau,  in  honour  of  St. 
Peter.  In  1140  Egilbert,  the  successor  of  Otto, 
ga\e  the  foundation  and  a  new  church  of  Our  Lady 
to  the  Cistercians,  and  after  the  departure  of  the 
canons,  Abbot  Sefried,  with  monks  from  Ebrach, 
took  possession.  LTnder  Cistercian  rule  Aldersbach 
flourished  for  more  than  six  centuries.  It  was 
famous  for  the  rigour  of  its  religious  discipline  and 
exerted  a  wide  influence.  From  its  cloisters  came 
the  first  communities  established  at  Flirsteiifeld 
(1263),  Fiirstenzell  (1274),  and  Gotteszell  (1285). 
The  monks  cultivated  the  soil  and  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  works  of  the  ministry  in  their  own  and 
in  the  neighbouring  churches  dependent  upon  the 
abbey.  Nor  was  the  pursuit  of  learning  neglected. 
The  first  abbot,  Sefried.  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
hbrary  to  which  valuable  additions  were  made  by 
his  successors.  Abbots  and  monl.s  carried  on  their 
studies  not  only  in  the  cloister,  but  also  at  the  great 
universities  of  Paris,  Vienna,  Padua,  Heidelberg, 
and  Ingolstadt.  Aldersbach  suffered  from  time  to 
time  from  the  ravages  of  war.  During  the  Thirty 
Years  War  which  followed  the  Reformation,  it  was 

Cillaged  and  almost  entirely  abandoned.  'The  li- 
rary,  however,  escaped  ilestruction.  and  under  the 
abbots  Matthew  and  Gcbhard  Horgcr  the  old 
r(^gime  was  restored.  Abbot  TheobaKi  II  repaired 
the  injuries  sustained  during  the  wars  of  the  Spanish 
and  Austrian  Successions.  W'hen  the  Abbey  was 
suppressed,  1  April,  1803,  the  monks  numbered 
forty.  The  buildings  were  sold,  and  the  .\bbey 
church  was  converted  into  a  parish  church,  while 
the  monks  engaged  in  parish  work  or  teaching.  The 
library  became  a  part  of  the  National  Library'  at 
Munich.  Aldersbach  was  fortunate  in  the  abbots 
who  were  chosen  to  rule  its  destinies!  They  main- 
tained monastic  discipline,  furthered  the  interests 
of  the  abbey,  and  encourageil  the  pursuit  of  learning. 
.•\mong  the  more  prominent,  besides  those  already 
mcntione<l,  were  Dietrich  I  (1239-53,  12,>S-77); 
Conrad  (130.S-,36);  John  II.  John  III,  and  Wolfgang 
Marius.     The  last-named  is  perhaps  the  best  known. 


ALDFRITH 


280 


ALDHELM 


He  had  studied  at  Heidelberg,  and  was  the  author  of 
several  works.  While  Theobald  11  was  abbot,  one 
of  his  monks,  P.  Balduin  Wurzer,  taught  at  Ingol- 
etadt.  Fatlier  Stephan  Wiest  also  became  known 
later  as  a  tlieologian.  He  taught  at  Ingolstadt,  was 
rector  of  the  Uni\-ersity  (1787-88),  and  six  years 
later  returned  to  Aldersbach,  where  he  died  in  1797. 
Verhrmdl-  dea  hitt.  Vereins  Jtir  Niederhayem,  \\\,  VIII, 
XII,  XV;  BRAUNMiiLLEB  in  Kirchenlei.,  I,  467^1)9. 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Aldfrith,  a  Northumbrian  king,  son  of  Iving 
Oswin;  d.  14  December,  705.  He  succeeded  his 
brotlier,  Ecgfritli.  William  of  Malmesbury  says  he 
received  his  education  in  Ireland,  where  he  passed 
his  early  life,  and  imbibed  there  a  love  of  learning 
and  learned  men.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  Script- 
ures. Ilis  taste  for  literature  is  shown  by  his  part- 
ing with  a  large  piece  of  land  as  payment  for  a  copy 
of  the  "  Cosmograplii".  Adamnan,  Abbot  of  Zona, 
on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  England  for  the  re- 
demption of  some  captives,  presented  liis  book  "De 
Locis  Sanctis"  to  Aldfrith  as  a  testimonial  of  the 
lung's  appreciation  of  learning,  and  Aldhelm,  Abbot 
of  Malmesbury,  dedicated  his  work  on  "Metres"  to 
him..  Aldfrith  restored  Northumbria,  which  had 
been  nearly  ruined  by  warfare  in  the  preceding 
reign,  to  peace  and  prosperity.  He  recalled  St. 
Wilfrid  to  liis  Bishopric  of  Hexham,  and  later  on  to 
that  of  York,  but  afterwards  became  hostile  to  him. 
An  effort  at  reconcihation,  made  some  years  later  at 
the  Council  of  ^tswinapath  by  Aldfrith,  failed. 
The  dissension  between  Aldfrith  and  Wilfrid  was 
largely  due  to  their  respective  advocacy  of  two 
difTerent  schools  of  learnmg — the  Roman  and  the 
Irish — and  of  administration,  one  favouring  the 
Roman  and  the  other  the  Irish  party.  Just 
before  Iiis  death,  however,  Aldfrith  enjoined  on  liis 
successor  the  necessity  of  becoming  reconciled  with 
Wilfrid.  Little  is  known  of  the  results  of  Aldfrith's 
rule.  William  of  Malmesbury  says  Northumbria 
was  considerably  restricted  through  victories  of  the 
Picts,  and  Bede  dates  the  deterioration  of  ecclesias- 
tical administration  in  the  kingdom  from  Aldfrith's 
death. 

Stubbs  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.,  I,  77:  Hardiman,  Irish  Min- 
elrelsy,  II,  372;  Tanner,  Bibl.  Brit.  Ilib.  (1748),  35,  245. 
John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Aldhelm,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Malmesbury  and  Bishop 
of  Sherl)orne,  Latin  poet  and  ecclesiastical  writer 
(c.  639-709).  Aldlielm,  also  written  Ealdhelm,  M\d- 
helm,  Adelelmus,  Althelmus,  and  Adelme,  was  a 
kiiLsman  of  Ine,  King  of  Wc-ssex,  and  apparently 
received  his  early  education  at  Malmesbury,  in 
Wiltshire,  under  an  Irish  Christian  teacher  named 
Maildubh.  It  is  curious  that  Malmesbury,  in  early 
documents,  is  styled  both  Maildulfsburgh  and  Eald- 
helm.sbyrig.  so  that  it  is  disputed  whether  the  present 
name  is  commemorative  of  Maildubh  or  Ealdlielm, 
or,  by  "contamination",  possibly  of  both  (Plummer's 
"Bede",  II,  310).  Aldhelm  himself  attributes  his 
progress  in  letters  to  the  famous  Adrian,  a  native 
of  Roman  Africa,  but  formerly  a  monk  of  Monte 
Ca.ssino,  who  came  to  England  in  the  train  of  Arch- 
bishoj)  Theodore  and  was  made  Abbot  of  St.  Au- 
gastine's,  Canterbury.  Seeing,  however,  that  Theo- 
dore came  to  England  only  m  C71,  Aldhelm  must 
then  have  been  thirty  or  forty  years  of  age.  The 
Saxon  scholar's  turgid  style  and  his  partiality  for 
Creek  and  extravagant  terms  liavo  been  traced  with 
some  probability  to  Adrian's  influence  (Hahn, 
"Bonifaz  und  Lul",  p.  11).  On  returning  to  settle 
in  .Malmesbury  our  Saint,  probably  already  a  monk, 
seems  to  have  succeeded  his  former  teacher  Mail- 
dubh, both  in  the  direction  of  the  Malmesbury 
Sfliool,  and  also  as  Abbot  of  the  Monastery;  but 
Uh:  exact  dates  given  by  some  of  the  Saints  bio- 
graphers cannot  be  trusted,  since  they  depend  upon 


charters  of  very  doubtful  authenticity.  As  abbot 
his  life  was  most  austere,  and  it  is  particularly  re- 
corded of  him  that  he  was  wont  to  recite  the  entire 
Psalter  standing  up  to  his  neck  in  ice-cold  water. 
Under  his  rule  the  Abbey  of  Malmesbury  prospered 
greatly,  other  monasteries  were  founded  from  it,  and 
a  chapel  (ecclesiola) .  dedicated  to  St.  Lawrence,  built 
by  Aldhehn  in  the  village  of  Bradford-on-Avon,  is 
standing  to  this  day.  (A.  Freeman,  "Academy", 
1886,  XXX,  154.)  During  the  pontificate  of  Pope 
Sergius  (687-701),  the  Saint  visited  Rome,  and  is 
said  to  have  brought  back  from  the  Pope  a  privilege 
of  exemption  for  his  monastery.  L'nfortunately, 
however,  the  document  which  in  the  twelfth  century 
passed  for  the  Bull  of  Pope  Sergius  is  undoubtedly 
spurious.  At  the  request  of  a  synod,  held  in  Wessex, 
Aldhelm  wrote  a  letter  to  tlie  Britons  of  Devon  and 
Cornwall  upon  the  Paschal  question,  by  which  many 
of  them  are  said  to  have  been  brought  back  to  unity. 
In  the  year  705  Hedda,  Bishop  of  the  West  Saxons, 
died,  and,  his  diocese  being  divided,  the  western 
portion  was  assigned  to  Aldhelm,  who  reluctantly 
became  the  first  Bishop  of  Sherborne.  His  episco- 
pate was  short  in  duration.  Some  of  the  slone-work 
of  a  church  he  built  at  Sherborne  still  remains. 
He  died  at  Doulting  (Somerset),  in  709.  His  body 
was  conveyed  to  I\Ialmesbury,  a  distance  of  fifty 
miles,  and  crosses  were  erected  along  the  way  at 
each  halting  place  where  his  remains  rested  for  the 
night.  Many  miracles  were  attributed  to  the  Saint 
both  before  and  after  his  death.  His  feast  was  on 
May  the  25th,  and  in  857  King  Etheh\Tilf  erected  a 
magnificent  silver  shrine  at  Malmesbury  in  his 
honour. 

"Aldhelm  was  the  first  Englishman  who  cultivated 
classical  learning  with  any  success,  and  the  first  of 
whom  any  literary  remains  are  preserved"  (Stubbs). 
Both  from  Ireland  and  from  the  Continent  men 
wrote  to  ask  him  questions  on  points  of  learning. 
His  chief  prose  work  is  a  treatise,  "De  laude  vir- 
ginitatis"  ("In  praise  of  virginity"),  preserved  to 
us  in  a  large  number  of  manuscripts,  some  as  early 
as  the  eighth  century.  This  treatise,  in  imitation  of 
Sedulius,  Aldhelm  afterwards  versified.  The  metri- 
cal version  is  also  still  extant,  and  Ehwald  has 
recently  shown  that  it  forms  one  piece  with  another 
poem,  "De  octo  principalibus  vitiis"  ("On  the  eight 
deadly  sins").  The  prose  treatise  on  virginity  was 
dedicated  to  the  Abbess  and  nuns  of  Barking,  a 
community  which  seems  to  have  included  more 
than  one  of  the  Saint's  own  relatives.  Besides  the 
tractate  on  the  Paschal  controversy  already  men 
tioned,  several  other  letters  of  Aldhelm  are  preserved. 
One  of  these,  addressed  to  Acircius,  i.  e.  Eald- 
fritli.  King  of  Northumbria,  is  a  work  of  importance 
on  the  laws  of  prosody.  To  illustrate  the  rules  laid 
down,  the  WTiter  incorporates  in  his  treatise  a  large 
collection  of  metrical  Latin  riddles.  A  few  shorter 
extant  poems  are  interesting,  like  all  Aldlielm's 
writings,  for  the  light  which  they  throw  upon  re- 
ligious thought  in  England  at  the  close  of  the  seventh 
century.  We  are  struck  by  the  writer's  earnest 
devotion  to  the  Mother  of  God.  by  the  veneration 
paid  to  the  saints,  and  notably  to  St.  Peter,  "the 
key-bearer",  by  the  importance  attached  to  the  holy 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  to  prayer  for  the  dead, 
and  by  the  esteem  in  which  he  held  the  monastic 
profession.  Aldhelm's  vocabulary  is  very  extrava- 
gant, and  his  style  artificial  and  involved.  His 
latinity  might  |)erhaps  ajipear  to  more  advantage 
if  it  were  critically  edited.  An  authoritative  edition 
of  his  works  is  much  needed.  To  this  day,  on  ac- 
coimt  of  the  misinterpretation  of  two  lines  which 
really  refer  to  Our  Blessed  Lady,  his  poem  on  \ir- 
ginity  is  still  printed  as  if  it  were  dedicated  to  a  cer- 
tain Abbess  Maxima.  Aldhelm  also  composed 
poetry  in  his  native  tongue,  but  of  this  no  specimen 


ALDINE 


281 


ALEGRE 


survives.  The  best  edition  of  Aldhelm's  works, 
though  very  unsatisfactory,  is  that  of  Dr.  Giles 
(Oxford,  184-1).  It  has  been  reprinted  in  Migne 
(P.  L.,  LXXXIX,  S3  sqq.).  Some  of  his  letters  have 
been  edited  among  those  of  St.  Uoniface  in  the  "Mon- 
umenta  Germauia,'"    (Kpist.   .\evi   MerovinKici,   1). 

Abbot  Fahuhs  in  an  i-k-vt-nlli-teiitury  li]..Kru[)li.v  (.l.M 
.SS.,  May  (VI)];  William  in-  .Malml^uuhv,  G'>»(,i  i'u,il:,u„m. 
V;  WlLiiMAN,  Lil,-  of  St.  Eaidlulm  (London,  l'M5):  biiuw.sK. 
St.  Aldhelm  (London.  1903);  Linoakd.  Anglo-iiaion  Church; 
MoNTALKMBERT,  Tlie  Munkn  uf  the  »'.»(  dr.).  V;  Hunt  in  Dut. 
of  Nut.  Bion.:  .Stubbs  in  Diet,  of  Chritl.  Biog.;  UiKo.v  in  Diet, 
de  thfol.  oilh.:  Kitsnoyy,  Aldhilm  ton  Mnlmeabunj  (Dresden, 
1894);  S\NT>VH.  .1  lliatorji  of  Ctastticat  Schotarghip  (Cambridge, 
1903 ).  430;  M  » s  M  1  r,.  Geitehichtf  der  chrUtlich-lateinUrhcn  Hot  sic 
(StullB:irt,  LS'Jl  '.  lv.l-49l>;  Sitzungtheruhtc  Akud.  WUn.  I'hil. 
ffitl.  el.  CXII,  .')3iJ-(;34;  Kbkbt.  Urechichle  der  Litlrratur  des 
M.A.  (lid  el.,  LcipziK.  1889),  I,  C23-(334;  Traube.  Karulmi/i- 
schen  Dirhtunt/en  (Berlin,  188S);  SxUungnberichte  des  Haj/tr. 
Aknd.  phil.  phUoloi,.  cl.  (Munich,  1900),  477;  Khwald,  Ald- 
helmt  Gedicht  de  VirainivUc  (Gotlm.  1904);  bibliography  in 
Chevaliek's  Repertoire,  etc.,  Bio-BilUiogr.  (2U  ed.,  Paris, 
1905),  45,  46. 

Hekbert  Thurston. 

Aldine  Editions.     See  M.vnutius,  .\ldus. 

Aldric,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Le  Mans  in  the  time  of 
Louis  lo  Ddbonnaire,  b.  c.  800;  d.  at  Le  Mans, 
7  January,  8.56.  As  a  youth  he  lived  in  tlie  court 
of  Charlemagne,  at  .\i.\  la  Chapelle,  as  well  as  in  that 
of  his  son  and  successor  Louis.  By  both  monarchs 
he  was  highly  esteemed,  but  when  only  twenty- 
one,  he  withdrew  to  Metz  and  became  a  priest,  only 
to  be  recalled  to  court  by  Louis,  who  took  him  as  the 
guide  of  his  conscience.  Nine  years  after  liis  ordina- 
tion he  was  made  Bishop  of  Le  Mans,  and,  besides 
being  conspicuous  for  the  most  exalted  virtue,  was 
distinguished  by  his  civic  spirit  in  constructing 
aqueducts,  as  well  as  for  building  churches,  restor- 
ing monasteries,  ran.soming  captives,  etc.  In  the 
civil  wars  that  followed  the  death  of  Louis,  liis  fidelity 
to  Charles  the  Bald  resulted  in  his  expulsion  from 
his  see,  and  he  withdrew  to.  Rome.  Gregorj'  IV 
reinstated  him.  With  the  Bishop  of  Paris,  Erchen- 
rad,  he,  as  a  deputy  of  the  Council  of  A\\  la  Chapelle, 
visited  Pepin,  wlio  was  then  King  of  Aquitaine,  and 
persuaded  him  to  cause  all  the  possessions  of  tlie 
Church  which  had  been  seized  by  tliose  of  his  party 
to  Ije  restored.  We  find  him  during  his  lifetime 
taking  part  in  the  Councils  of  Paris  and  Tours.  His 
episcopate  lasted  twenty-four  years. 

Acta  .S.S.,  I,  January;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  7  January. 
T.  J.  C.VMPBELL. 

Aldrovandi,  Ulissi,  Italian  naturalist,  b.  at 
Bologna,  U  Sept.,  1522;  d.  there  10  Nov.,  1G07. 
He  was  etlucatLnl  in  Bologna  and  Padua,  received 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  (155.3)  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  natural  liistory  in  the  L^ni- 
versity  of  Bologna.  \t  liis  instigation,  the  Senate 
of  that  city  established  a  botanical  gartlen  of  which 
.•\ldrovandi  was  the  first  director  (1568).  He  was 
also  made  Inspector  of  Pharmacies,  a  po.sition  which 
brought  liim  into  conflict  with  the  apothecaries  and 
physicians.  He  appealed  to  Pope  Gregory  XIII  and 
■was  sustained  (1576).  In  the  interest  of  -science,  he 
travelletl  extensively,  spent  a  fortune,  and  gathered 
rich  collections  in  botany  and  zoology  which  became, 
by  his  legacy,  the  nucleus  of  the  Bologna  Mu.seum. 
His  herbarium  is  the  first  collection  deserving  the 
name.  In  his  scientific  work  he  enjoyed  the  patron- 
age of  Popes  Gregory  XIII.  and  Sixtus  V,  and  of 
Cardinal  Montalto.  lie  was  buried  in  the  church  of 
St.  Steplien  at  Bologna,  and  his  epitaph  was  written 
by  Cardinal  Barberini,  afterwards  Pope  Urban  VIII. 
The  published  works  of  .\ldrovandi  fill  fourteen 
volumes  in  folio,  four  of  which  were  printed  during 
his  lifetime.  The  rest  were  published  in  various 
editions  between  l.")99  and  1700  at  Bologna,  Venice, 
and  Frankfort.  These,  with  Aldrovandi's  manu- 
scripts, cover  the  entire  field  of  natural  history,  mak- 
ing a  vast  compilation  wliich,  in  spite  of  its  proli.xity, 


won  the  admiration  of  later  naturalists  like  Cuvier 
and  Buflon. 

Kantuzzi,  Memorie  delta  vita  d*Ulissi  Aldrovandi  (Bologna. 
1774). 

K.  A.  Pace. 

Aldus  Manutius.     See  Manutius,  .\i,I)Us. 

Alea,  Lioii.NAKi),  a  Trench  polemical  writer  of  the 
early  y(;irs  of  tlie  nineteenth  century,  b.  in  Paris, 
date  unknown;  d.  1812.  He  came  from  a  family  of 
bankers.  He  published  anonymously  in  1801  his 
first  book,  "L'antidote  de  I'atli^isme  ,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  new  edition  appeared,  enlarged  to 
two  volumes,  with  its  title  clianged  to  "  La  religion 
triomphante  des  attentats  de  I'impi6t6  ",  and  bear- 
ing the  name  of  its  author.  The  book  was  written 
to  refute  Sylvicn  Mar(5chal's  "  Dictionnaire  des 
Ath6es"  then  lately  published,  and  was  so  timely, 
fair,  and  to  the  point  that  it  received  a  cordial  wel- 
come. Mar(5chal  himself  acknowledged  his  adver- 
sary's moileration.  Cardinal  Gerdil  expres.sed  his 
high  appreciation  of  the  work,  and  Portalis,  to  whom 
Alea  had  deilicated  the  second  edition,  was  delighted 
with  the  book,  and  sub.sequently  tried  to  get  the  au- 
thor to  enter  the  Council  of  State  but  without  success. 
Alea's  only  other  work  is  "  Ilefle.xions  contre  le 
divorce ",  which  also  appeared  in   1802. 

Beucnet  in  Diet,  dc  thcol.  cath.  8.  v. 

J.  C.  Da^-ey. 

Aleatory  Contracts.    See  Contracts;  Gamdlino. 

Alegambe,  Philippe,  a  Jesuit  historiographer, 
b.  in  Brus.sels,  22  January.  1592;  d.  in  Rome,  (i  Scp*- 
tembcr,  1052.  After  finishing  his  studies  he  went  to 
Spain,  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Osuna,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Sicily.  There  he  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  at  Palermo,  on  7  September,  1013, 
studied  at  Rome,  taught  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Gratz,  Austria,  and  for  several  years  travelled  through 
the  various  countries  of  Eurojxj  as  preceptor  of  the 
Prince  of  Eggenberg.  His  last  days  were  spent  in 
Rome,  where  he  became  superior  of  the  house  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  secretarj'  to  the  General  of  the  Society. 
He  is  chiefly  known  for  his  "Bibliotheca  Scriptorum 
Societatis  Jesu",  published  in  1642.  It  was  a  con- 
tinuation and  enlargement  of  Father  Ribadeneira's 
Catalogue,  which  had  been  brought  up  to  1008.  He 
wrote  also  "  Heroes  et  victima;  caritatis  Societatis 
Jesu"  and  "De  Vitd  et  Moribus  P.  Joannis  Cardim 
Lusitani,  e  Societate  Jesu  ",  and  "  Aeta  Sanctse  Justx 
virg.  et  mart.,  ex  variis  M.SS". 

NictRON,  XXXIX:  Paquot;  Bayle,  I.  430-34;  Aguilera, 
Hist.  Prov.  SiciUa,  II,  591-94;  De  Backer,  Bibliothinuc  de 
la  c.  de  J.,  I,  63. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alegre,  Francisco  X.\^^ER,  historian,  b.  at  Vera 
Cruz,  in  Mexico,  or  New  Spain,  12  November,  1729; 
d.  at  Bologna,  16  August,  1788.  He  entered  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus  in  1747,  and  soon  acquired  a  reputation 
of  unusual  learning  in  everything  related  to  the 
classics.  He  occupied  a  chair  at  the  Jesuit  college 
of  Ilabana,  and  alter%vards  at  M^rida,  in  Yucatan; 
recalled  to  Europe  in  1767,  he  settled  at  Bologna, 
where  he  died  of  apoplexy.  He  left  quite  a  num- 
ber of  shorter  works,  mostly  translations  of  classics. 
Among  them  are  the  "  Alexandriadas"  (1773,  Italy), 
the  "Iliad"  in  Latin  (Rome,  1788),  "Homeri 
Batrachiomachia"  in  Latin  (Mexico,  1789),  togethei 
with  fragments  from  Horace  and  a  good  transla- 
tion into  Spanish  of  the  first  three  cantos  of  the 
".■\rt  podtique"  of  Boileau.  But  the  work  for  which 
he  is  especially  noted  is  his  "History  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  New  Spain"  (ed.  Bustamente,  Mexico,  1841). 
Although  composed  at  a  time  when  the  Order  was 
persecuted  in  the  .Spanish  colonies,  and  often  with 
preat  rigour,  the  tone  of  this  most  valuable  work, 
indispensable  for  the  study  of  the  colonial  histon,- 
of  Mexico  and  of  many  of  its  Indian  tribes,  is  dignified 
and  free  from  attacks  upon  Spain  and  the  Spaniards 


ALEMANT 


282 


ALEMANY 


Beristain  de  Socza,  liihliotecn  hispano-americana  aeten- 
trional,  I  (Mexico.  1818);  Alf.ghe,  HiMoria  de  le  Compaiiia 
de  Jeatis  en  Niteva  Espaila  (Mexico,  1841);  OpuecuU)8  inidihia, 
iMlinoa  y  CattManos,  del  Padre  Francitco  Xavier  Alegre 
(Mexico.  1889);  BANCROtT.  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States; 
IJistory  of  the  Pacific  States. 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Alemany,  Joseph  Sadoc,  first  Archbishop  of  San 
Francisco,  California,  V.  S.  A.,  b.  at  Vich  in  Spain, 
y.i  July,  1814;  d.  at  Valencia  in  Spain,  14  April, 
1S88.  He  entered  at  an  early  age  the  Order  of  St. 
Dominic,  was  ordained  jiii  st  at  \iterbo  in  Italy,  27 
March,  1837;  con- 
.-(■(■rated  Bishop  of 
.Monterey  in  Cali- 
fornia (at  Rome), 
;«)June,  1850,  and 
was  transferred  29 
July,  1853,  to  the 
See  of  San  Francis- 
co as  its  first  arch- 
bishop. He  re- 
signed in  No\'em-  ■ 
ber,  1884,  was 
appointed  titular 
Archbishop  of  Pe- 
u.sium.  California 
having  but  recently 
jiassed  from  Mexi- 
can to  American 
rvile  and  still  con- 
taining a  large 
Spanish  p  o  p  u  1  a- 
tion  with  Spanish 
customs  and  traditions,  the  appointment  of  Arch- 
bishop Alemany  as  the  first  bishop  under  the 
changed  conditions  was  a  providential  measure. 
Ten  years  of  missionary  activity  in  Ohio,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Tennessee  had  enabled  him  to  master 
the  English  language,  which  he  spoke  and  wrote 
correctly  and  fluently;  familiarized  him  with  the 
customs  and  spirit  of  the  Republic;  and  imbued  him 
with  a  love  for  the  United  States  which  he  carried 
with  him  to  the  grave.  His  episcopal  labours  were 
to  begin  among  a  population  composed  of  almost 
all  nationalities.  Born  in  Spain,  educated  in  Rome, 
and  long  resident  in  America,  his  experience  and  his 
command  of  several  languages  put  him  in  touch  and 
in  sympathy  with  all  the  elements  of  his  diocese. 
His  humility  and  simplicity  of  manner,  though  by 
nature  retiring,  drew  to  him  the  hearts  of  all  classes. 
Naturally  his  first  thought  was  to  secure  a  body  of 
priests  and  nuns  as  co-labourers  in  his  new  field; 
for  this  he  made  partial  provision  before  reaching 
San  Francisco.  The  Franciscan  Missions  (whose 
memory  and  whose  remains  in  the  second  century 
of  their  existence  are  still  treasured  not  by  California 
alone,  but  by  the  whole  country)  having  been  lately 
confiscated  in  the  name  of  "secularization",  the 
missionaries  driven  away  and  their  flocks  largely 
dispersed,  it  was  evident  that  his  work  was  simply 
to  create  all  that  a  new  order  of  things  called  for,  an 
order  as  unique  as  a  bishop  ever  had  to  encoimter. 
The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  a  few  years  before 
his  appointment  had  attracted  to  it  a  population 
from  every  quarter  of  the  world,  most  of  whom 
thought  little  of  making  it  their  permanent  home. 
Many,  however,  brought  the  old  Faith  with  them 
and  even  in  the  mad  rusli  of  all  for  gokl  were  ready 
to  respond  gonerou-sly  to  ji  personality  such  as  that 
of  the  young  bishop.  When  he  began  "his  work,  there 
were  but  twenty-one  adobe  mi.ssion-churches  scat- 
tered up  and  down  the  State,  and  not  more  than  a 
dozen  priests  in  all  California.  He  lived  to  see  the 
State  divided  into  three  dioceses,  with  about  three 
hundred  thousand  Catholic  population,  many  clnirches 
of  modern  architecture  and  some  of  respectable 
dimensions,  a  body  of  devoted  clergy,  secular  and 


regular,  charitable  and  educational  institutions  con- 
ducted by  the  teaching  orders  of  both  men  and  w  omen, 
such  as  to  meet,  as  far  as  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances, the  wants  of  a  constantly  growing  popula- 
tion. He  w-as  ever  intent,  as  the  first  object  of  his 
work,  upon  the  spiritual  welfare  of  his  people,  but 
in  the  early  years  of  his  ministry  in  California  much 
arduous  labour  was  expended  in  protecting  the 
church  property  from  "Squatters",  and  in  prosecut- 
ing the  claims  of  the  "Pious  Fund"  against  Mexico. 
Through  the  State  Department  of  the  United  States 
Government  he  compelled  Mexico  to  respect  her  self- 
made  agreement  with  the  Church  in  California  to  pay 
at  least  the  interest  up  to  the  date  of  the  decision 
upon  the  moneys  derix'ed  from  the  enforced  sale  of 
the  Mission  property  at  the  time  of  the  "seculariza- 
tion" and  which  had  been  turned  into  the  Mexican 
Treasury.  Under  his  successor,  in  the  year  1902,  a 
final  adjvidication  of  the  "Pious  Fund"  in  favour  of 
the  Church  in  California  was  reached  by  an  Inter- 
national Board  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague. 

The  episcopal  office  which  he  had  accepted  only 
under  obedience  was,  in  a  human  sense,  never  con- 
genial to  Archbisliop  Alemany;  his  whole  tv.mpera- 
ment  inclined  him  to  be  simply  a  missionarj'  priest; 
in  a  large  sense,  he  continued  to  be  such  up  to  the 
day  of  his  resignation.  His  characteristic  devotion 
to  the  rights  of  the  Church,  his  love  of  a  common- 
sense  freedom  of  the  individual,  and  particularly  his 
admiration  of  the  free  institutions  of  the  American 
Union,  were  manifested  by  an  occurrence  on  the 
occasion  of  a  visit  made  to  his  native  land  after  many 
years'  absence.  Before  an  infidel  spirit  had  poisoned 
the  minds  of  many  in  power,  even  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries, it  had  been  the  custom  in  Spain,  as  in  other 
Catholic  lands,  for  priests  to  wear  their  sacerdotal 
dress  in  the  streets.  Tliis  new  spirit  indeed  had 
driven  him  from  Spain  when  a  student,  desiring  as 
he  did  to  become  a  member  of  one  of  the  proscribed 
Orders,  and  when  he  ret\n'ncd  on  the  occasion  in 
question  it  was  a  novelty  to  see  him  in  the  streets 
dressed  as  a  Dominican  Friar.  When  his  would-be 
custodian  warned  him  to  put  off  his  cassock  for 
outdoor  use  he  produced  his  passport  as  an  Ameri- 
can citizen,  stating  that  in  his  adopted  country, 
where  Catholics  were  greatly  in  the  minority,  he  was 
permitted  to  wear  any  sort  of  coat  he  preferred, 
and  that  surely  this  privilege  would  not  be  denied 
him  in  Catholic  Spain,  the  land  of  his  birth.  It  was 
not  denied  him;  at  least,  for  that  once.  So  wedded 
was  he  to  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  that  when  be- 
coming Bishop  of  Monterey,  and  ever  after  till  his 
death,  he  wore  the  white  cassock  of  the  Order  and 
in  letter  and  spirit  adhered  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Dominic 
as  far  as  it  is  possible  outside  of  community  life. 
The  exalted  office  of  archbishop  did  not  grow  more 
agreeable  to  him  with  years,  and  with  a  view  of 
resigning  and  becoming  again  a  missionary  priest 
he  besought  Rome  to  grant  him  a  coadjutor,  cum 
jure  siiccessio7iis ,  long  before  one  was  given  him. 
When,  however,  his  prayer  was  heard,  which  was 
not  imtil  he  had  reached  the  scriptural  age  of  three 
score  years  and  fen,  he  lovingly  transferred  to  his 
successor  the  burden  which  he  had  borne  long  and 
faithfully  for  his  Master's  sake.  Whilst  he  had 
ever  the  greatest  consideration  for  the  comfort  of 
others,  his  own  life  was  one  of  austerity.  No  one 
but  himself  ever  entered  his  living  apartments, 
which  were  so  connected  willi  the  church  that  ho 
could  make  his  visits  to  the  Blessed  .Sacrament  and 
keep  his  long  vigils  at  a  little  latticed  window  look- 
ing in  upon  the  Tabernacle.  No  one  ever  saw  him 
manifest  anger;  he  was  ever  gentle,  but  firm  when 
duty  called  for  this.  So  considerate  was  he  for  the 
feelings  of  others  tliat  he  certainly  never  intentionally 
or  unjustly  wounded  them.  Most  thoughtful  ami 
courteous  in  all  he  did,  he  journeyed  a  thousand  miles 


ALEMBERT 


283 


ALESSANDRIA 


to  Ogden,  Utah,  in  Xovember,  1883,  to  meet  for  tlie 
first  lime,  to  accompany  thence  and  to  welcome  to 
San  Francisco  his  coadjutor  and  successor,  the 
Most  Uev.  1'.  \V.  Kiordan.  I'Vom  tlie  first  meeting 
and  until  his  death  the  closest  and  tenderest  friend- 
ship existed  between  them.  Having  aojuainted  his 
successor  fully  with  diocesan  affairs  and  transferred 
to  him  as  a  "corporation  sole"  all  diocesan  property 
(according  to  a  law  which  he  had  had  piissed  through 
tlio  California  legislature  for  the  better  security  of 
church  property),  tlie  Archbisliop  resigned  in  1884, 
returned  to  his  native  land,  and  died  there.  His 
intense  love  for  the  missionarj'  life  and  his  zeal  for 
souls  did  not  end  with  his  resignation;  his  seventy 
years  unfitted  him  for  active  worli  of  tliat  nature, 
but  he  returned  to  Spain  with  a  dream  of  founding 
a  missionary  college  to  supply  priest-s  for  the  Ameri- 
can missions.  For  tliis  purpose  he  left  beliind  him 
in  San  Franci.sco  the  amount  of  a  testimonial  given 
him  liy  tlie  priests  and  people  of  the  diocese  as  some 
little  iVcogiiitiini  of  liis  long  services  and  tlie  example 
of  lii.s  saintly  life  among  them.  He  stipulated  that, 
should  he  not  use  it  for  that  purpose,  it  should  Ix; 
expended  by  his  successor  for  religious  and  charitable 
purposes  in  San  Francisco.  He  recei\ed  generous 
support  from  the  diocese,  but  found  the  proposed 
missionary  college  impracticable.  So,  on  his  retire- 
ment from  thirty  years  of  apostolic  labours  in  Cali- 
fornia, he  left  as  a  legacy  to  the  diocese  the  example 
of  a  true  apostle,  and  died  as  an  apostle  sliould, 
possessing  nothing  but  the  merits  of  his  "works 
which  had  gone  before  him  ". 

Reuss,  Biographical  Encycl.  of  Uie  Cath,  Hierarchy  of  the 
V.  S.  (Milwaukee,  \Vi3.,  1898);  Dominicana  (San  Francisco, 
1900-6). 

P.  W.  RionD.\N. 

Alembert,  Je.\nleRondd'.    See  Encyclopedias. 

Alenio,  Giulio,  Chinese  missionary  and  scholar, 
b.  at  Brescia,  in  It.aly,  in  1582;  d.  at  Fou-Tclieou, 
China,  in  August,  1044.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  .lesus  in  1000,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  mathematics  and  theology.  He 
was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  China  in  1610,  and 
while  waiting  at  .Macao  a  favourable  oi)portunity  to 
enter  the  country  he  published  his  "H(5sultat  de 
I'observation  sur  I'ddipse  de  lune  du  8  N'ovcmbre, 
1612,  faite  iV  Macao"  (M6moires  de  F.\cad.  des 
Sciences,  VU,  700).  After  his  arrival  in  China,  he 
preached  the  Cio.-ipel  in  the  provinces  of  Xan-si  and 
Fi-Kien.  He  published  many  works  in  Chinese  on 
a  variety  of  topics,  .\mong  the  most  important  are 
a  controversial  treatise  on  the  Catholic  Faith,  in 
which  are  refuted  the  principal  errors  of  the  Chinese; 
"The  True  Origin  of  all  Things";  and  "The  Life 
of  (iod,  the  Saviour,  from  the  Four  Gospels".  There 
is  a  complete  list  of  .\lcnio's  works  in  Sommervogel. 

SoMMKKVOGEL,  Biblioth^qttc  tie  la  Compafjnic  dc  Ji'suM^  I, 
157  »q.;  Pkister.  S.J..  Kibliaar.  do  Jt'nitiles  Chinoia  mu».; 
CoHDiER.  Easai  tl'unc  bihliotrr.  dc8  ouvr.  publ,  en  Chiiie  par  tea 
KuroprtnH  \Paris.  tSi>3». 

Joseph  M.  Woods. 
Aleppo,  Archdiocese  of  (.Armenian  Rite),  in 
Sj'ria.  The  city  of  .-Vleppo  is  situated  in  the  plain 
that  stretches  from  the  Orontes  to  the  Euphrates 
in  the  northwestern  extremity  of  the  Syrian  desert. 
It  rises  in  the  middle  of  an  oasis  on  eight  little  hills, 
and  is  watered  by  the  Kouik.  .\ncient  Egj'ptian 
records  mention  this  town,  .\ccording  to  an  .\rab 
tradition,  .Vbraham  lived  in  it,  and  distributed 
some  milk  to  cverj'  comer,  whence  the  town's  name, 
Ilnkb.  Seleucus  Nicator  (.311-280  n  .c.)  gave  it 
the  name  of  Beroea  (Berrhoe)  by  which  it  was  known 
in  early  Christian  times.  Its  prc.-ient  Semitic  name 
dates  from  the  .\rab  conquest  in  030.  It  belonged 
to  the  Scljukids  from  1090  to  1117;  to  the  Orto- 
kids  from  1117  to  11X3  (besieged  bv  the  Crusaders 
1124);  to  the  Ayoubitcs  from  11S.3  to  1260  (Mongol 
Invasion);  and  to  the  Egj-ptian  Sultans.     In   1317 


it  passed  definitively  to  the  Ottoman  Turks,  except 
for  the  Egyptian  occupation,  1833-39.  To-day  it 
is  the  chief  resilience  of  a  vilayet  of  the  .same  name. 
In  ancient  times  .\leppo  was  a  commercial  depot  for 
the  trade  between  India,  the  regions  along  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  and  the  Mediterranean. 
.Vltliough  it  has  long  lost  much  of  its  importance, 
it  still  sends  to  .\lexandria  the  products  of  Diarbekir, 
Mossoul,  and  Bagtlad.  It  is  noted  for  its  fertile 
gardens  and  its  healthy  climate.  A  more  disagree- 
able peculiarity  is  the  ulcer  known  as  the  "Alepi>o 
button ".  The  plague  raged  there  in  1822.  Its 
ramparts  and  forts  have  fallen  into  decay.  Among 
the  architectural  monuments  are  a  Roman  aqueduct 
and  a  beautiful  mosque  of  the  Seljukiil  ejioch. 
The  population  is  about  127,000,  of  whom  ',I7,4.')0 
are  M^u.ssulmans  (.-Vrabs,  Turks,  etc.),  19,200  Catholics 
(Greeks,  United  or  Melchites,  Syrians,  Armenians, 
Maronites,  Chaldeans,  and  Latins),  2,800  non-Catho- 
lic Christians  (mostly  Gregorian  Armenians),  and 
7,800  Jews.  Four  Catholic  archbishops  govern  the 
Melchites,  the  Syrians,  the  .\rmenians,  and  the 
Maronites.  The  Gregorian  -Armenians  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  Vartabet  appointed  by  the  Catholicos  of 
Sis.  The  Orthodox  Greeks  are  very  rare  in  the  town, 
but  quite  numerous  in  the  surrounding  country. 
They  constitute  a  metropolitan  diocese,  which  sepa- 
rated from  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch  in  1757,  and 
was  restored  to  it  by  the  Patriarchate  of  Constanti- 
nople in  .\ugust,  1888.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Orthodox  metropolitan,  Gerassimus  (d.  1783, 
at  .\thos)  was  a  stem  enemy  of  the  union  with  Rome. 
Alepjx)  remains  the  centre  of  the  French  Catholic 
missions  of  Syria.  In  1025  the  Carmelites  estab- 
lished them.selves  there;  somewhat  later  they  re- 
tired to  Mount  Carmel,  where  they  built  a  nionas- 
terj-.  (They  had  also  in  the  Orient  other  stations.) 
In  .Aleppo  they  were  succeeded  by  the  Lazarists 
from  1785  to  1869.  In  1S73  the  Jesuits  founded  a 
mission  at  .\leppo.  In  1026  the  Capuchins  organ- 
ized a  "Custodia"  from  which  were  directed  twelve 
missions.  Their  activity  was  interrupted  by  the 
French  Revolution  and  in  1808  these  Capuchin 
missions  were  given  to  the  Italian  Franciscans. 
The  latter  founded  a  college  in  1859.  The  Sisters 
of  St.  Jo.seph  direct  a  boarding-school.  There  are 
also  Protestant  missionaries  in  .■Vleppo.  It  has 
260  schools:  115  Mussulman,  116  Cnristian,  and 
29  Israelite. 

S.  PferniDES. 

Ales  and  Terralba,  Diocese  of,  made  up  of  42 
communes  in  the  province  of  Cagliari,  .\rclibi.shopric 
of  Oristano,  Italy.  The  two  sees  were  united  by 
Julius  II  in  1503*.  Christianity  was  possibly  intro- 
duced into  Sardinia  by  groups  of  the  faithful,  who 
were  condemned  to  work  in  its  mines  [Pliilos.,  IX,  12; 
Catal.  Liber.,  s.  v.  "Pontianus";  cf.  Harnack,  Die 
Mission,  etc.  (Leipzig,  1902),  502].  Gregory  the 
Great  alludes  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Ales  (anciently 
Uselli),  in  his  letter  to  Januarius  of  Cagliari  in  591 
(JalT(r-,  1130).  .\fter  this  nothing  is  to  be  found 
about  it  until  1147,  when  the  name  of  Bishop  Rello 
appears  in  a  diploma.  The  local  traditions  of 
'lerralba  have  preserved  the  memorj'  of  a  Bishop 
Mariano,  who  erected  the  cathedral  about  1144. 
The  diocese  contains  42  parishes,  102  priests,  59,.530 
inhabitants. 

CAfPELLE-m,  Le  chute  dllatia  (Venice,  ISGC).  XIII.  249: 
Cams.  Series  rpitcoporum  Eccleaict  calholict  (Uatisbon,  1S7.3\ 
8,31;  VlTALE.  Apparalut  ad  Annales  Sardinia  (Cagliari,  17S01; 
Mattii.E!.  Sardinia  Sacra  8cu  hialoria  de  episcopia  Snrdia 
(Home.  17.181;  Martini,  Sloria  cccteaiaalica  di  Sardcgna 
(Cagliari.  1S391. 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Alessandria  della  Paglia,  Diocese  of,  in  Pied- 
mont. Italy,  a  suffnigan  of  Vercelli.  It  was  made 
a  see  in  11^5  by  .Mexander  III.  by  a  Brief  of  30  Jan. 
1176,  in  which"  he  declares  that  he  selects  a  bishop 


ALESSI 


284 


ALESSIO 


without  any  detriment  to  the  rights  of  the  chapter 
for  the  future.  It  was  suppressed  in  1213,  and  united 
to  Acqui;  re-established,  1240,  and  reunited  to 
Acqui,  1405;  suppressed.  1803,  and  re-estabhshed  as 
independent  in  1S17.  It  was  vacant  from  1854  to 
1867.  Tliere  are  116,0t)0  Catholics;  61  parishes, 
143  secular  priests,  and  ISS  ehurclies  and  chapels. 
Ii\rr.\NDlER,  Ann.  pontif.  calh,  (1906). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Alessi,  Galeazzo,  a  famous  Italian  architect, 
b.  1500;  d.  1572.  He  showed  an  inclination  for 
mathematics  and  literature  at  a  very  early  age,  and 
afterwards  studied  drawing  for  civil  and  military 
architecture,  under  the  direction  of  Giarabattista 
Caporali,  a  Perugian  architect  and  painter.  At 
Rome  he  became  a  friend  of  Michael  Angelo.  He 
completed  the  fortress  of  Perugia,  begun  by  Sangallo, 
built  an  apartment  in  it  for  the  governor  of  the 
castle,  and  erected  a  number  of  palaces,  regarded  as 
the  finest  in  the  city.  He  resided  in  Genoa  a  num- 
ber of  j'ears,  engaged  in  the  erection  of  various 
edifices,  the  lajnng-out  of  streets,  and  the  restoration 
of  the  walls  of  the  city.  On  the  Carignano  Hill  he 
built  the  church  of  the  Madonna.  He  repaired,  re- 
stored and  embellished  the  cathedral  and  made  de- 
signs for  its  tribune,  choir,  and  cupola.  His  abilities 
were  most  conspicuous  in  his  design  for  the  harbour. 
He  erected  therein  a  large  gateway,  flanked  by 
rustic  columns,  and  adorned  the  sea-front  with  a 
Doric  portico,  ingeniously  defended  by  balustrades. 
This  fortress-like  work  protected  the  city  from 
within  and  without  and  had  a  spacious  square  for 
the  military  in  the  interior.  He  also  extended  the 
mole  more  than  600  paces  into  the  sea,  and  left  a 
number  of  designs  and  models  wliich  have  been  at 
various  times  executed  by  the  rich  nobles  of  that 
city.  These  and  similar  splendid  edifices  have  ob- 
tained for  Genoa  the  title  of  La  Supcrba  (The 
Proud).  Alessi  executed  many  works  at  Ferrara. 
At  Bologna  he  erected  the  great  gate  of  the  Palazzo 
Publico.  He  finished  the  palace  of  the  Institute 
according  to  the  design  of  Pellegrino  Tibaldi,  and 
made  plans  for  the  facade  of  San  Petronio.  At  Milan 
he  built  the  church  of  San  Vittore,  tlie  whimsical 
auditorium  del  Cambio,  and  the  fagade  of  San  Celso, 
and  greatly  distinguished  liimself  by  the  erection  of 
the  magnificent  palace  of  Tommaso  Marini,  Duke  of 
Torre  Nuova.  He  also  designed  edifices  in  Naples 
and  Sicily,  France,  Germany,  and  Flanders.  The 
King  of  Spain  sent  for  liim  to  execute  some  buildings. 
which,  however,  are  not  known,  and  after  some  time 
permitted  liim  to  return  to  Perugia,  laden  with  riches 
and  honours.  He  was  received  by  his  fellow-citizens 
with  the  most  flattering  expressions  of-  regard,  was 
admitted  into  the  Scuola  di  CommeTzio;  and  was  sent 
to  Pope  Pius  V  on  a  commission  invohdng  public 
interest.  On  liis  return  to  liis  own  country  he  was 
requested  by  Cardinal  Odoardo  Farnese  to  submit 
a  design  for  the  facade  of  the  Ciesil  at  Rome,  so  ex- 
pensive, that  it  was  never  executed.  For  the  Duke 
<lella  Corgna  he  built  the  stately  palace  of  Castig- 
lione  on  the  Lake  of  Perugia,  and  for  the  Cardinal, 
brother  of  the  duke,  he  erected  another  on  a  hill 
a  few  miles  from  the  city.  In  conjunction  with 
Giulio  Danti,  a  Perugian  architect,  he  was  employed 
in  the  erection  of  the  church  of  the  Madonna  degli 
Angeli,  near  Assisi,  built  after  the  design  of  Vignola. 
Finally,  Alessi  submitted  to  tlie  Spanish  Court  a 
design  for  the  monastery  and  church  of  the  Escorial 
(q.  v.)  in  Spain.  It  wa.s  considered  the  best  among 
plans  submitted  in  a  general  competition  by  all  the 
architects  of  Europe,  and  he  was  requested  to  exe- 
cute it,  but  age  and  indisposition  prevented  him. 
Alessi  Wius  learned,  agreeable  in  conversation,  and 
capable  of  negotiating  the  most  important  affairs. 

Mil.l7.iA.  Lives  of  CeUbrated  ArchitrcU;  CJkwitt.  Encyclo- 
padu.  0/  ArchiUcturc.  ThoMAS  H.  PooLE. 


Alessio  (Lissus,  Alexiensis),  Diocese  op,  in  Eu- 
ropean Turkey,  since  1886  suffragan  of  Scutari.  It 
is  one  of  the  principal  seaports  of  Albania,  is  favour- 
ably located  near  the  mouth  of  the  Drin,  was  founded 
by  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  and  was  an  important  and 
beautiful  city  in  the  time  of  Diodorus  Siculus.  It  is 
now  known  as  Alise,  Lesch,  Eschenderari.  or  Mrtav. 
Like  all  the  cities  of  Albania,  it  frequently  clianged 
masters  in  the  Middle  Ages  until  the  Venetians  took 
possession  of  it  in  1386.  It  still  belonged  to  them 
when  Skanderbeg  died,  but  shortly  afterwards  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  In  1501  the  in- 
habitants again  returned  to  the  Venetian  domination, 
but  in  the  year  1506  Sultan  Bajazet  obtained  the 
restitution  of  the  city,  after  it  had  been  evacuated 
and  deprived  of  its  ramparts.  To-day  it  is  a  poor 
straggling  hamlet  of  about  2,000  people,  one-third 
of  whom  are  Catholics.  In  it,  however,  the  moun- 
taineers hold  a  weekly  bazaar  where  very  large  trans- 
actions take  place.  The  -Vcrolissus  or  citadel  is  in- 
teresting for  the  well  preserved  Roman  cisterns  and 
medieval  arches  it  still  holds.  The  first  known 
Bishop  of  Alessio  is  Valens,  who  attended  the  Council 
of  Sardica  in  340.  It  does  not  figure  prrminently 
in  ecclesiastical  iiistory  until  the  sixth  centurJ^  when 
it  is  mentioned  as  a  see  in  the  correspondence  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604).  Since  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  when  it  came  under  A'enetian 
rule,  it  has  had  again  a  series  of  Latin  bishops. 

Alessio  had  formerly  five  churches.  The  cathedral 
was  dedicated  to  St.  Nicholas  and  once  held  the 
mortal  remains  of  the  patriot  George  Castriota,  the 
immortal  Skanderbeg,  who  died  in  1467.  Local 
tradition  relates  that  when  the  Turks  took  the  town 
they  opened  his  grave  and  made  amulets  of  his  bones, 
believing  that  these  would  confer  indomitable 
bravery  on  the  wearer.  Transformed  into  a  mosque, 
the  cathedral  was  abandoned  by  the  Ottomans  after 
three  dervishes  had  successively  committed  suicide 
from  one  of  its  towers.  Two  other  churches  dedicated 
to  St.  George  and  to  St.  Sebastian  still  survive  as 
mosques.  The  population  is  mostly  Catholic  (about 
14,000),  attended  by  fifteen  secular  priests.  The 
present  bishop,  elected  24  May,  1870,  is  Monsignor 
Francis  Malczyinski,  an  alumnus  of  the  Propaganda. 
He  resides  at  Calmeti,  a  little  distance  from  Alessio. 

At  the  summit  of  a  group  of  rocky  hills,  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Drin,  facing  the  town,  are  the 
church  and  convent  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  under 
the  care  of  the  Franciscan  friars,  a  last  remnant  of 
the  thirty  convents  they  once  possessed  in  Albania. 
The  site  is  said  to  have  been  chosen  by  the  saint 
himself,  and  is  greatly  venerated,  especially  by  the 
mountaineers  of  Scutari  wlio  make  an  annual  pil- 
grimage to  it  on  13  June,  and  exhibit  on  that  occa- 
sion a  very  striking  piety.  The  Mussulmans  them- 
selves respect  the  church  and  confide  their  treasures 
to  the  friars  whenever  they  have  reason  to  fear  the 
rapacity  of  their  pashas. 

Within  the  diocesan  limits  of  Alessio  is  the  quasi- 
episcopal  abbey  (abbatia  tiullius)  of  St.  Alexander 
Orosci  or  Orochi,  the  mountain  stronghokl  of  the 
small  but  brave  body  of  the  Cathohc  Mirdites  of 
Albania.  Since  1888  it  enjoys  an  independent 
jurisiliction  over  this  faithful  and  warlike  people 
which  in  1894  obtained  from  the  Porte,  through  the 
good  offices  of  Leo  XIII,  a  civil  jurisdiction  for  its 
abbot,  and  thereby  freed  itself  from  the  irksome 
protectorate  of  Austria.  The  abbot  has  jurisdiction 
over  about  18,000  Catholics,  with  16  churches,  13 
chapels,  11  secular  priests,  and  2  l'>anciscans.  The 
present  abbot,  elected  in  1SS8,  is  Monsignor  Primo 
Dochi,    an  alumnus  of  the   Propaganda. 

Faulati.  Ilh/r.  Sacr.  (1817).  VII.  384-394;  Gams.  Serif 
epinc.  Ecd.  caih.  (1872),  392;  HKcyiAiU).  La  haute  AWanit 
(Paris,  1859);  Battandier,  Ann.  j«m(.  cath.  (1905).  322, 
eq. 

Elisabeth  Christitch. 


ALEUTIAN 


285 


ALEXANDER 


Aleutian  Versions  of  Scripture.  See  Bidi.e 
Versions,   Ai.kitivn 

Alexander,  name  of  seven  men. — (1)  Alexander 
THE  (iuEAT,  King  of  Macedon,  336-323  d.  c.  He  is 
mentioned  in  I  Mach.,  i,  1-10;  vi,  2.  He  is  also  sup- 
posed to  be  spoken  of  in  Dan.,  ii,  39;  vii,  6;  viii,  a-7; 
xi,  3,  4. — (2)  Alex.^nder  B.\l.\.s,  eleventh  King  of 
Syria,  150-14.5  B.  c.  His  struggle  for  the  throne,  his 
promises  to  Jonathan,  his  pro-Jewish  policy  may  be 
learned  from  I  Mach.,  x,  1-89.  He  was  vanquished 
by  his  father-in-law,  Ptolemy  Philometor  of  Egj-pt, 
and  Syria  thus  passed  into  tlie  hands  of  Demetrius 
II  (I  Mach.,  xi,  1-19). — (3)  Alexander,  a  son  of 
Simon  of  Cyrene  mentioned  by  St.  Mark  (xv,  21) 
who  carried  the  Cross  after  Jcsus.^ — (4)  Alexander, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  court  that  tried  Peter  and 
John  (Acts,  iv,  6);  some  identify  liim  with  Alexander 
Lysimachus  tlie  brother  of  Pliilo  and  friend  of 
Claudius  before  he  jiscended  the  throne. — (5)  Alex- 
ander, a  Jew  or  a  Jewish  Christian  (Acts,  xix,  33,  34), 
who  attempted  to  defend  St.  Paul  in  his  Ephesian 
difficulty;  some  identify  him  with  the  son  of  Simon 
of  Cyrene. — (6)  Alexander,  an  Ephesian  Christian 
who  apostatized  (I  Tim.,  i,  20),  and  who  together 
with  flymeneus  was  deUvered  up  to  .Satan  by  the 
Apostles.  —  (7)  Alexander,  a  coppersmith  of  Ephesus 
(II  Tim.,  iv,  14,  15),  who  did  much  evil  to  St.  Paul; 
some  identify  him  witli  the  Alexander  mentioned 
under  the  preceding  nimiber. 

Haoen,  Leiiron  Bihlicum  (Paris,  1905):  VioouRoux  and 
Jacqiheb  in  Vio..  Diet,  dc  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895);  Hast., 
Robertson  and  Moss  in  Diet,  of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1903). 

A.  J.  M.4AS. 

Alexander,  name  of  several  bishops  in  the  early 
Chri.stian  [Hiriod. — Alexander  of  Antioch,  thirty- 
eighth  bishop  of  that  see  (413-421),  praised  by 
Theodoret  (Hist.  Ecd.,  V,  35)  "for  the  lioliness  and 
austerity  of  his  life,  his  contempt  of  riches,  his  love 
of  wisdom,  and  powerful  eloquence."  He  healed 
the  last  remnants  of  tlie  Meletian  schism  at  Antioch, 
and  obtained  at  Constantinople  the  restitution  of  the 
name  of  .St.  John  Clirj'sostom  to  the  ecclesiastical 
diptychs  (registers). — .\lexa.nder  of  Apamea,  a  Sy- 
rian bishop  at  the  Couno'l  of  Epliesus  (431),  and  one 
of  the  eight  bishops  deputed  by  the  party  of  John  of 
Antioch  to  the  Emperor  Theodosius. — Alexander  ok 
B.\siLiN"OPOLis,  in  Bithynia,  a  friend  of  St.  John  Chry- 
sostom,  to  whom  he  owed  his  ap)>ointment  as  bishop; 
after  the  fall  of  his  patron  he  retired  (c.  410)  to  his 
native  Ptolemais  in  Egypt,  where  he  experienced  the 
hatred  of  Theophilus  of  .\ntioch  and  the  private  friend- 
ship of  .Synesius  (Epp.  (jl,  67). — .\lexander  ok  By- 
zantium, as  Constantinople  was  then  called,  bishop  of 
that  see  during  the  original  Arian  troubles.  He  was 
73  years  old  when  appointed  (313  or  317),  and  gov- 
erned the  see  for  23  years.  He  supported  his  name- 
sake of  Alexandria  against  .\niis,  took  part  in  the 
Council  of  Nic:ca  (325),  and  refused  to  admit  the 
arch-heretic  to  communion,  though  threatened  with 
deposition  and  exile.  The  sudden  death  of  Arius 
was  looked  on  by  contemporary  Catholics  as  an  an- 
swer to  the  prayers  of  the  good  bishop,  whom  Theo- 
doret (Hist.  Eccl.,  I,  3)  calls  an  "apostolic"  man. 
He  did  not  long  survive  this  tragic  event. — Alexan- 
der OK  HiERAPOLis  (Euphratensis),an  unlx^nding  op- 
ponent of  St.  CjTil  in  tlie  Council  of  Ephesus  (431), 
and  an  equally  stanch  advocate  of  Nestorius.  Even 
when  John  of  .Vntioch  and  most  of  the  Oriental 
bishops  yielded,  and  a  general  reconciliation  was  ef- 
fected, .Alexander  stooa  out  against  "the  abomina- 
tion of  Egypt".  His  character  is  vividly  portrayed 
in  the  correspondence  of  his  friend  and  admirer,  tlie 
historian  Theodoret,  as  that  of  a  grave,  holy,  pious 
man,  beloved  by  his  people,  but  hopelessly  stubborn 
along  the  line  of  what  seemed  to  him  the  orthodox 
faith,  .\fter  the  exhaustion  of  all  measures  to  over- 
come  his   resistance,   he   was   banished   by   imperial 


decree  to  the  mines  of  Phamuthin  in  Egypt,  where 
he  died  (TiUemont,  M^m.,  XIV,  XV). — Alexander 
OK  Jerusalem,  the  friend  of  Origen,  and  his  fellow- 
student  at  Alexandria  under  Panta-nus  and  Clement. 
He  became  bi.shop  of  a  see  in  Cappadocia  (or  Cilicia?) 
early  in  the  tliira  century,  entertained  for  a  time  his 
master  Clement,  and  himself  sulTered  impri.sonmeiit 
for  the  Kaith  (204-212).  On  his  release,  lie  visited 
Jerusalem,  and  was  chosen  coadjutor  to  Narcissus, 
the  elderly  jccupant  of  that  see.  This  was  the  first 
case  of  an  episcopal  translation  and  coadjutorship, 
and  had  to  be  ratified  by  the  hierarchy  of  Palestine, 
as.sembled  at  Jerusalem  (Valesius  in  Eus.,  Hist. 
Ecd.,  VI,  11;  Socrates,  Hist.  Ecd.,  VII,  ,3C).  The 
first  Christian  theological  library  was  formed  by  him 
at  Jeru.salem  (Eus.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  20).  He  de- 
fended Origen  against  his  bisliop,  Demetrius,  when 
the  latter  had  taken  olTence  at  the  permission  ac- 
corded Origen  to  expound  the  scriptures  publidj'  in 
the  church  of  Ca;sarea  in  the  presence  of  bishops,  the 
latter  being  the  only  authoritative  e.xponents  of  the 
sacred  text.  Alexander  and  Tlieoctistus  (Bishop  of 
C;psarea)  wrote  a  joint  letter  to  Demetrius,  in  wiiich 
they  pleaded  the  ecclesiastical  usage  of  other  places 
(Eus.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  19).  In  the  end  Origen 
was  ordained  a  priest  by  his  two  protectors  (c.  230). 
He  bears  personal  testimony  at  the  beginning  of  his 
first  homily  on  the  Books"  of  Kings,  to  the  ami- 
able character  of  Alexander.  The  latter  died  in 
prison  at  Ca)sarea  (251)  during  the  Decian  persecu- 
tion. Some  fragments  of  his  letters  are  pre.-icrvcd 
in  the  sixth  book  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Historj'  of 
Eusebius. 

Venables  and  SiurrH  in  Diet,  of  Chr.  Biogr.,  I,  82-86; 
Hefele,  History  of  the  Councils,  I-II. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Alexander    I — III,    Kings    of    Scotland.     See 

ScoTL.\.\D. 

Alexander  I,  Saint,  Pope. — St.  Irenseus  of 
Lyons,  writing  in  the  latter  quarter  of  the  second 
century,  reckons  him  as  the  fifth  pope  in  succession 
from  the  .\postles,  though  he  says  nothing  of  his 
martyrdom.  His  pontificate  is  variouslv  dated  by 
critics,  e.  g.  lOC-115  (Duchesne)  or  109-116  (Light- 
foot).  In  Christian  antiquity  he  was  credited  with 
a  pontificate  of  about  ten  years  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl., 
IV,  i,)  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  he  was 
on  the  "catalogue  of  bishops"  drawn  up  at  Rome 
by  Hegesippus  (Eusebius,  I\  ,  xxii,  3)  before  the  death 
of  Pope  Eleutherius  (c.  189).  According  to  a  tradi- 
tion extant  in  the  Roman  Church  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century,  and  recorded  in  the  Liber  Pontificalis, 
he  suffered  a  martyr's  death  by  decapitation  on  the 
Via  Nomentana  in  Rome,  3  May.  The  same  tradi- 
tion declares  him  to  have  been  a  Roman  by  birth, 
and  to  have  ruled  the  Church  in  the  reign  of  Trajan 
(98-117).  It  likewise  attributes  to  him,  but  scarcely 
with  accuracy,  the  insertion  in  the  canon  of  the 
Qui  Pridic,  or  words  commemorative  of  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Eucharist,  such  lx;ing  certainly  primi- 
tive and  original  in  the  Mass.  He  is  also  said  to 
ha\e  introduced  the  use  of  blessing  water  mixed 
with  salt  for  the  purification  of  Christian  homes 
from  evil  influences  (constituit  aquam  sparsionis 
cum  sale  benedici  in  habitaculis  hominum).  Du- 
chesne (Lib.  Pont.,  I,  127)  calls  attention  to  the 
persistence  of  this  early  Roman  custom  by  way 
of  a  blessing  in  the  Gelasian  Sacramenfarj'  that 
recalls  ver\'  forcibly  the  actual  -■Vsix^rges  prayer  at 
the  l)oginning  of  Ma.ss.  In  18.55.  a  semi-subterranean 
cemeterj-  of  the  holy  martjTS  Sts.  Alexander,  Even- 
tulus,  and  Theodulus  was  discovered  near  Rome,  at 
the  spot  where  the  above  mentioned  tradition  de- 
clares the  Pope  to  have  been  martyred.  .According 
to  some  archa-ologist.'s.  this  Alexander  is  identical 
with  the  Pope,  and  this  ancient  and  important  tomb 


ALEXANDER 


286 


ALEXANDER 


marks  the  actual  site  of  the  Pope's  martyrdom. 
Duchesne,  however  (op.  cit.,  I,  xci-ii)  denies  the 
identity  of  the  martyr  and  tlie  pope,  while  admittmg 
that  tlie  confusion  of  both  personages  is  of  ancient 
date,  probably  anterior  to  the  beginning  of  the  si.xth 
century,  when  the  Liber  Pontificalis  was  first  com- 
piled [Dufourcq,  C.esta  Martyrum  Romains  (Paris, 
1900),  210-211],  The  difficulties  raised  in  recent 
times  by  Richard  Lipsius  (Chronologie  der  romischen 
Bischofe,  Kiel,  1869)  and  Adolph  Harnack  (Die 
Zeit  des  Ignatius  u.  die  Chronologie  der  antiocheni- 
schen  Bischofe.  187S)  concerning  the  earliest  suc- 
cessors of  St.  Peter  are  ably  discussed  and  answered 
by  F.  S.  (Canlinal  Francesco  Segna)  in  his  "De  suc- 
cessione  priorum  Romanoruni  Pontificum"  (Rome 
1897);  with  moderation  and  learning  by  Bishop 
Lightfoot,  in  his  "ApostoHc  Fathers:  St.  Clement" 
(London,  1890)  I,  201-345;  especially  by  Duchesne 
in  the  introduction  to  his  edition  of  the  "Liber  Pon- 
tificalis"  (Paris,  1886)  I,  i-xlviii  and  Ixviii-lxxiii. 
The  letters  ascribed  to  Alexander  I  by  Pseudo- 
Isidore  may  be  seen  in  P.  G.,  V,  1057  sq.,  and  in 
Hinschius,  "  Decretales  Pseudo-Isidorianse  "  (Leipzig, 
1863)  94-105.  His  remains  are  said  to  have  been 
transferred  to  Freising  in  Bavaria  in  834  (Dilmmler, 
Poeta;  Latini  Aevi  Carolini,  Berlin,  1884,  II,  120). 
His  so-called  "Acts"  are  not  genuine,  and  were 
compiled  at  a  much  later  date  (Tillemont,  Mem.  II, 
590  sqq;  Dufourcq,  op.  cit.,  210-211). 

Liber  Pontificalis  (erl.  Duchesne).  I,  xci-ii.  127,  Hist.  An- 
cienne  de  VEglite  (Paris,  1906).  236-237;  Acta  SS.,  May  1, 
375  sqq.;  Atti  del  mnrtirio  diS.  Alessandro,  etc.  (Rome,  1855); 
De  Kossi,  Btillettino    di   archeologia    cristiana  (Rome.    1865), 

Thomas  J.  Sh.\h.\n. 
Alexander  II,  Pope,  1061-73. — As  Anselm  of 
Lucca,  he  had  been  recognized  for  a  number  of  years 
as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  reform  party,  especially 
in  the  Milanese  territory,  where  he  was  born,  at 
Baggio,  of  noble  parentage.  Together  with  Hilde- 
brand,  he  had  imbibed  in  Chniy  (q.  v.)  the  zeal  for 
reformation.  The  first  theatre  of  his  activity  was 
Milan,  where  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Pataria,  and  lent  to  that  great  agitation  against 
simony  and  clerical  incontinency  the  weight  of  his 
eloquence  and  noble  birth.  The  device  of  silencing 
him,  contrived  by  Archbishop  Guido  and  other 
episcopal  foes  of  reform  in  Lombardy,  viz.  sending 
him  to  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Henry  III,  had  the 
contrary  effect  of  enabling  liim  to  spread  the  propa- 
ganda in  Germany.  In  1057  the  Emperor  appointed 
him  to  the  bisliopric  of  Lucca.  With  increased 
prestige,  he  reappeared  twice  in  Milan  as  legate  of 
the  Holy  See,  in  1057  in  the  company  of  Hildebrand, 
and  in  1059  with  St.  Peter  Damiani.  Under  the  able 
generalship  of  tliis  saintly  triumvirate  the  reform 
forces  were  held  well  in  hand,  in  preparation  for  the 
inevitable  conflict.  The  decree  of  Nicholas  II  (10.59), 
by  wliich  the  right  of  papal  elections  was  virtually 
vested  in  the  College  of  Cardinals,  formed  the  issue 
to  be  fought  and  decided  at  the  next  vacancy  of  the 
Apostolic  Throne.  The  death  of  Pope  Nicholas  two 
years  later  found  both  parties  in  battle  array.  The 
candidate  of  the  Hildebrandists,  endorsed  by  the 
cardinals,  was  the  Bishop  of  Lucca;  the  other  side 
put  fonvard  the  name  of  Cadalus,  Bisliop  of  Parma, 
a  protector  and  example  of  the  prevailing  vices  of 
the  age.  The  cardinals  met  in  legal  form  and  elected 
Anseiin,  who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  II.  Before 
proceeding  to  his  enthronization,  the  Sacred  College 
notified  the  German  Court  of  their  action.  The  Ger- 
mans were  considered  to  have  forfeited  the  privilege 
of  confirming  llie  election,  reserved  to  their  king  with 
studied  vagueness  in  the  decree  of  Nicholas  II,  when 
they  cont<Miiptuously  disini.s.sed  the  ambassador  of 
the  cardinals  without  a  hearing.  Foreseeing  a  civil 
war,  the  cardinals  on  30  September  completed  the 
election  by  the  ceremony  of  enthronization.  Mean- 
while a  deputation  of  the  Roman  nobles,  who  were 


enraged  at  their  elimination  as  a  dominant  factor  in 
the  papal  elections,  joined  by  deputies  of  the  unre- 
formed  episcopate  of  Lombardy,  had  proceeded  to  the 
German  Court  with  a  request  for  the  royal  sanction 
to  a  new  election.  The  Empress  Agnes,  as  regent  for 
her  ten-year-old  son,  Henry  IV,  convoked  an 
assembly  of  lay  and  clerical  magnates  at  Basle;  and 
here,  without  any  legal  right,  and  without  the  pres- 
ence of  a  single  cardinal,  the  Bishop  of  Parma  was 
declared  Pope,  and  took  the  name  of  Honorius  II 
(28  October).  In  the  contest  which  ensued.  Pope  Al- 
exander was  supported  by  the  consciousness  of  the 
sanctity  of  his  cause,  by  public  opinion  clamouring  for 
reform,  by  the  aid  of  the  allied  Normans  of  southern 
Italy,  and  by  the  benevolence  of  Beatrice  and 
Matilda  of  Tuscany.  Even  in  Germany  things  took  a 
favourable  turn  for  him,  when  Anno  of  Cologne  seized 
the  regency,  and  the  repentant  Empress  withdrew  to 
a  convent.  In  a  new  diet,  at  Augsburg  (Oct.,  1062), 
it  was  decided  that  Burchard,  Bishop  of  Halberstadt, 
should  proceed  to  Rome  and,  after  investigating  the 
election  of  Alexander  on  the  spot,  make  a  report  to  a 
later  assemblage  of  the  bishops  of  Germany  and 
Italy.  Burchard's  report  was  entirely  in  fi.vour  of 
Alexander.  The  latter  defended  his  cause  with  elo- 
quence and  spirit  in  a  council  held  at  Mantua,  at 
Pentecost.  10(i4  (C.  Wile,  Benzos  Panegyricus,  Mar- 
burg, 1856),  and  was  formally  recognized  as  legiti- 
mate Pope.  His  rival  was  excommunicated,  but 
kept  up  the  contest  with  dwindling  prospects  till  his 
death  in  1072.  During  the  darkest  hours  of  the 
schism  Alexander  and  his  chancellor.  Cardinal  Hilde- 
brand, never  for  a  moment  relaxed  their  hold  upon 
the  reins  of  government.  In  striking  contrast  to  his 
helplessness  amidst  the  Roman  factions  is  his  lofty 
attitude  towards  the  potentates,  lay  and  clerical,  of 
Europe.  Under  banners  blessed  by  him,  Roger  ad- 
vanced to  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  and  William  to  the 
conquest  of  England.  His  Regesta  fill  ele\'en  pages 
of  Jaffe  (Regesta  Rom.  Pontif.,  2d  ed.,  4,  nos.  4459- 
4770).  He  was  omnipresent,  through  his  legates, 
punishing  simoniacal  bishops  and  incontinent  clerics. 
He  did  not  spare  even  his  protector.  Anno  of  Cologne, 
whom  he  twice  summoned  to  Rome,  once  in  1068, 
to  do  penance,  barefoot,  for  holding  relations  with 
the  antipope,  and  again  in  1070  to  purge  himself  of 
the  charge  of  simony.  A  similar  discipline  was  ad- 
ministered to  Sigfried  of  Mainz,  Hermann  of  Bam- 
berg, and  Werner  of  Strasburg.  In  his  name  his 
legate.  St.  Peter  Damiani,  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfurt, 
in  1089,  under  threat  of  excommunication  and  ex- 
clusion from  the  imperial  throne,  deterred  Henry  IV 
from  the  project  of  divorcing  his  queen.  Bertha  of 
Turin,  though  instigated  tliereto  by  several  German 
bishops.  His  completest  triumph  was  that  of  com- 
pelling Bishop  Charles  of  Constance  and  Abbot 
Robert  of  Reichenau  to  return  to  the  King  the 
croziers  and  rings  they  had  obtained  through  simony. 
One  serious  quarrel  with  Henry  was  left  to  be  de- 
cided by  his  successor.  In  1069  the  Pope  had  re- 
jected as  a  simonist  the  subdeacon  Godfrey,  whom 
Henry  had  appointed  Archbishop  of  Milan;  Henry 
failing  to  acquiesce,  the  Pope  confirmed  Atto,  the 
choice  of  the  reform  party.  Upon  the  king's  order- 
ing his  appointee  to  be  consecrated,  Alexander 
fulminated  an  anathema  against  the  royal  ailvisers. 
The  death  of  the  Pope,  21  April,  1073,  left  Hilde- 
brand, his  faithful  chancellor,  heir  to  his  triumphs 
and  difficulties,  .\lexander  deserved  well  of  the 
English  Church  by  elevating  his  ancient  teacher, 
Lanfranc  of  Bee  (q.  v.),  to  the  See  of  Canterbury; 
and  appointing  him  Primate  of  England. 

DuciiK.sNi:  (oil.).  LiJ>.  Pontif..  II.  281,  S.W-SeO;  BahonidS; 
Ann.  Keel,  ad  <inn.  1061,  \.  1073,  12;  Marocco,  Storia  di 
Aksanndro  II  (Turin,  18S6);  Delarc,  Le  ponti;lcat  d'Alex.  II, 
in  Rev.  den  quest,  hist.  (Jan.,  1888);  Id..  St.  Gnooire  VII  (189), 
TI.  161-.526;  DE  MoNTOR,  Lives  o)  the  Roman  Pontiffs  (New 
York,  1867),  I,  290-294. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 


ALEXANDER 


287 


ALEXANDER 


Alexander  III,  Pope,  1150-81  (Orlando  Ban- 
DiNELi.i),  born  of  a  distinguished  Sienese  fa- 
mily; d.  3  August,  1181.  As  professor  in  Hologna 
he  "acquired  a  great  reputation  as  a  canonist,  wliicli 
he  increased  by  tlie  publication  of  his  commen- 
tary on  the  "Decretura"  of  Gratian,  popularly 
known  as  "Summa  Magistri  Uolandi "  (ed.  Thaner, 
Innsbruck,  1S74).  Called  to  Koine  by  Eugene  III 
in  the  year  1150,  liis  advancement  was  rapid.  He 
was  created  Cardinal-Deacon,  then  Cardinal- Priest 
of  the  title  of  St.  Mark,  and  Papal  Chancellor. 
He  was  tlie  trusted  advi.scr  of  .Adrian  IV  and 
was  regarded  as  tlie  soul  of  the  party  of  inde- 
pendence among  the  cardinals,  which  sought  to 
escape  the  German  yoke  by  alliance  witli  the  Normans 
of  Naples.  For  opeidy  asserting  before  Barbarossa, 
at  the  Diet  of  Hesanron  (11(17)  that  the  imperial 
dignity  was  a  papal  licncpcium  (in  the  general 
sense  of  favour,  not  feudal  .sense  of  fief),  he  incurred 
the  wrath  of  tlie  German  princes,  and  would  iiave 
fallen  on  the  spot  umler  the  battle-axe  of  his  life-long 
foe.  Otto  of  Witlelsliach  had  Frederick  not  in- 
tervened (llergennither-Kirsch,  Kircheng.,  Frei- 
burg. 1904,  II,  -151).  For  the  purpose  of  securing 
a  submissive  ixintifT  at  the  next  vacancy,  the  Em- 
peror despatched  into  Italy  two  able  emissaries  who 
were  to  work  upon  the  weaknesses  and  fears  of  the 
cardinals  and  the  Romans,  the  aforesaid  Otto  and 
the  .\rclibisliop-elect  of  Cologne,  Rainald  von  Dassel, 
whose  anti-papal  attitude  was  largely  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  Holy  See  refused  to  confirm  his  ap- 
pointment. The  fruits  of  their  activity  became 
Catent  after  the  death  of  Pope  Adrian  IV  (1  Septem- 
er,  1159).  Of  the  twenty-two  cardinals  assembled, 
7  September,  to  elect  a  succes.sor  all  but  tliree  voted 
for  Orlando.  The  contention  made  later,  that  the 
imperialist  cardinals  numbered  nine,  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  sumii.se  that  in  the  earlier  ballotings 
six  of  the  faithful  cardinals  voted  for  a  less  prominent 
and  obnoxious  candidate.  In  opposition  to  Cardinal 
Orlando,  wlio  took  the  immortal  name  of  Alexander 
III,  the  three  imperialist  members  cho.se  one  of  their 
number,  Cardinal  Octavian,  who  a.ssumed  the  title 
of  Victor  IV.  .V  mob  hired  by  the  Count  of  Wittels- 
bach  broke  up  the  conclave,  .\lexander  retreated 
towards  the  Norman  south  and  was  con.secrated 
and  crowned,  20  September,  at  the  little  Volscian 
town  of  Nympha.  Octavian's  consecration  took 
place  4  October,  at  the  monastery  of  Farfa.  The 
Emperor  now  interposed  to  settle  a  disturbance 
entirely  cau.sed  by  his  own  agents,  and  summoned 
both  claimants  before  a  packed  assembly  at  Pavia. 
He  betrayed  his  animus  by  addressing  Octavian  as 
Victor  IV  and  the  true  Pope  as  Cardinal  Orlando. 
Pope  .\lexander  refused  to  submit  his  clear  right  to 
this  iniquitous  tribunal,  which,  as  was  foreseen, 
declared  for  the  usurper  (11  Februan,-,  1160).  Alex- 
ander promptly  responded,  from  the  ill-fated  Anagni, 
by  solemnly  excommunicating  the  Emperor  and 
releasing  his  subjects  from  their  oaths  of  allegiance. 
The  ensuing  schism,  far  more  disastrous  to  the 
Empire  than  to  the  Papacy,  la.sted  for  seventeen 
years  and  ended  after  the  battle  of  Legnano  (1176) 
with  the  unconditional  .surrender  of  the  hauglity 
Barbarossa,  in  Venice,  1177.  (See  Frederick  I.) 
The  chililish  legeml  that  the  Pope  placed  his  foot  on 
the  neck  of  the  prostrate  Emperor  has  done  valiant 
service  to  Protestant  trailition  since  the  days  of 
Luther.  [See  the  di.s.scrtation  of  George  Remus, 
Nuremberg,  1625;  Lyons,  17J8;  and  Gosselin,  "The 
Power  of  the  Pope  during  the  Middle  .Vpes'^tr.  Lon- 
don, 1853)  II.  133.]  .Alexander's  enforced  exile 
(1162-65)  in  France  contributed  greatly  to  enliance 
the  dignity  of  the  papacy,  never  so  popular  as  when 
in  disti-ess.  It  al.so  brought  him  into  direct  contact 
with  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  the  West.  Henrj- 
II  of  England.     The  cautious  manner  in  wliich  he 


defended  the  rights  of  the  Ciiurch  during  the  quarrel 
between  the  two  impetuous  Normans,  King  Henry 
and  St.  Thomas  Hccfcet,  though  many  a  time  excit- 
ing tlie  displeasure  of  both  contestants,  and  often 
since  denounced  as  "shifty",  was  the  strategy  of  an 
able  commander  who,  by  marches  and  counter- 
marches succeeds  in  keeping  the  field  against  over- 
whelming odds.  It  is  no  disparagement  of  the 
Martyr  of  Canterbury  to  say  that  tlie  Pope  equalled 
him  in  firmness  and  excelled  him  in  the  arts  of  diplo- 
macy. .\fter  Becket's  murder  the  Pope  succeeded, 
witliout  actual  recourse  to  ban  or  interdict,  in  ob- 
taining from  the  penitent  monarch  every  right  for 
which  the  martyr  had  fouglit  and  bled. 

To  crown  and  seal  the  triumph  of  religion,  Alex- 
ander convoked  and  presidecl  over  the  Third  Lateran 
Council  (Eleventh  Gx-umenical),  in  1179.  Sur- 
rounded by  over  300  bishops,  the  much-tried  Pon- 
tiff issued  many  salutary  decrees,  notably  the  ordi- 
nance which  vested  the  exclusive  right  of  papal 
elections  in  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  cardinals. 
Throughout  all  the  vicissitudes  of  his  chequered 
career  Alexander  remained  a  canonist.  A  glance 
at  the  Decretals  shows  that,  as  an  ecclesiastical 
legislator,  he  was  scarcely  second  to  Innocent  III. 
Worn  out  by  trials,  he  died  at  Civiti,  Castellana. 
When  we  are  told  that  "the  Romans"  pursued  his 
remains  with  curses  and  stones,  the  remembrance  of 
a  similar  scene  at  the  burial  of  Pius  IX  teaches  us 
what  value  to  attach  to  such  a  demonstration.  In 
the  estimation  of  Rome,  Italy,  and  Christendom, 
Alexander  Ill's  epita[)h  expresses  the  truth,  when  it 
calls  him  "the  Light  of  the  Clergy,  the  Ornament  of 
the  Church,  the  Father  of  his  City  and  of  the  World  ". 
He  was  frieniUy  to  the  new  academical  movement 
that  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  great  medieval 
universities  (Rashdall,  The  Universities  of  Europe  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  Oxford,  1895,  I,  283,  292;  II,  138, 
724).  His  own  reputation  as  a  teacher  and  a  canonist 
has  been  greatly  enhanced  througli  the  di.scovery  by 
Father  Denifle  in  the  public  library  of  Nureinberg  of 
the  "Sententiffi  Rolandi  liononiensis",  edited  (Frei- 
burg, 1891)  by  Father  ,\nibrosius  Gietl.  The  collec- 
tion of  his  letters  (JaflY^.  Regesta  KR.  Pontif.,  Xos. 
10,584-14,424)  was  enriched  by  Lowenfeld's  publica- 
tion of  many  hitherto  unknown  (Epistola;  Pontif. 
Rom.  ineditie,  Leipzig,  1885).  Even  \oltaire  regards 
him  as  the  man  who  in  medieval  times  deserved 
best  from  the  human  race,  for  abolishing  .slaverj-,  for 
overcoming  the  violence  of  the  Emperor  Barbarossa, 
for  compelling  Henry  II  of  l^ngland  to  ask  pardon 
for  the  murder  of  Thomas  Becket,  for  restoring  to 
men  their  rights,  and  giving  splendour  to  many  cities 
(CEuvres,  Paris,  1817,  X,  998). 

Artai'd  dk  .Montok.  Lirrs  of  the  Roman  Ponliffs  (New  York, 
1867).  I.  350-350;  Hefei.e,  ConcilimgeschicJiU  (2.1.  e<l,)  V, 
520-720,  Kirchmgesch.  (ed.  Kinsrii,,  FrcihurR,  19041.  II.  447- 
462,  GREOonoviiH,  Giich.  d.  Stndt  Rvm.  (Stuttgart.  IS'JO).  IV; 
R2b-5G5:  Von  Redmont,  GfsM.  rf.  ^■^ld/  Ktmi  (Herlin,  1867) 
11.  449-157;  Tosti,  Sloria  della  l.cqn  Lombarda  (Milan.  1SIJ6); 
Lib.  Pont.  (ed.  Duchesne)  II.  394-446  and  pra-f.  XLII-XLIII. 
James  F.  Loughlin. 

Alexander  IV,  Pope,  12.54-61  (Rinaldo  Conti), 
of  the  house  of  Segni,  which  had  already  given  two 
illustrious  sons  to  tlio  Papacy,  Innocent  III  and 
Gregory  IX,  date  of  birtli  uncertain;  d.  25  May,  1261, 
at  Vitcrbo.  He  was  created  Cardinal-Deacon,  in  1227, 
by  his  uncleGregory  IX,  and  four  years  later  Cardinal- 
Bishop  of  Ostia.  Gregory  also  bequeatlied  to  him 
his  solicitude  for  the  Franciscan  Order,  which  he  had 
.so  well  iK'friended.  On  the  death  of  Innocent  I\', 
at  Naples,  7  Dccemljor,  12.>1,  the  aged  Cardinal  w.as 
unanimously  chosen  to  succeed  him.  Wc  may  well 
believe  his  protestation  that  he  yielded  verj-  reluct- 
antly to  the  importunities  of  the  Sacred  College. 
Matthew  of  Paris  has  depicted  him  as  "kind  and  re- 
ligious, assiduous  in  prayer  and  strict  in  alxstinence, 
but  easily  led  away  oy  the  whispering  of  flatterers, 


ALEXANDER 


288 


ALEXANDER 


and  inclined  to  listen  to  the  wicked  suggestions  of 
avaricious  persons".  The  "flatterers"  and  "avaric- 
ious persons"  referred  to  were  tliose  who  induced 
the  new  Pontiff  to  continue  Innocent's  policy  of  a 
war  of  extermination  against  the  progeny  of  Fred- 
erick II,  now  reduced  to  tiie  infant  Conradin  in 
Germany  and  the  formidable 
Manfred  in  Apulia,  ilany  an 
liistorian  at  the  present  day 
agrees  with  the  shrewd  chroni- 
cler, that  it  would  have  been 
far  more  statesmanlike  and 
might  have  averted  the  disas- 
ters that  were  in  destiny  for  the 
Churcii,  the  Empire,  and  Italy, 
luid  Alexander  firmly  espoused 
the  cause  of  Conradin.  De- 
terred by  the  precedent  of  the 
infant  Frederick,  the  "viper" 
that  the  Roman  Church  had 
nourished  to  become  its  de- 
stroyer, and  persuaded  that  iniquity  was  heredit- 
ary in  the  whole  brood  of  the  Hohenstaufens, 
he  continued  Innocent's  dubious  policy  of  call- 
ing in  French  or  English  Beelzebubs  to  cast  out 
the  German  Lucifers.  On  25  March,  1255,  he 
fulminated  an  excommunication  against  Manfred 
and  a  few  days  afterwards  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  envoys  of  Henry  III  of  England  by  which  he 
made  over  tlie  vassal  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to 
Edmund  of  Lancaster,  Henry's  second  son.  In  the 
contest  for  tlie  German  crown  which  followed  on  the 
death  of  William  of  Holland  (1256)  the  Pope  sup- 
ported the  claims  of  Richard  of  Cornwall  against 
Alfoaso  of  Castile.  The  pecuniary  assistance  which 
these  measures  brought  him  was  dearly  bought  by 
the  erabitterment  of  the  English  clergy  and  people 
against  the  exactions  of  the  Roman  See.  Manfred's 
power  grew  from  day  to  day.  In  August,  1258,  in 
consequence  of  a  rumour  spread  by  himself,  that 
Conradin  had  died  in  Germany,  the  usurper  was 
crowned  king  in  Palermo  and  became  the  acknowl- 
edged head  of  the  Gliibelline  party  in  Italy.  Alex- 
ander lived  to  see  the  victor  of  Montaperti  (1260) 
supreme  ruler  of  Central  as  well  as  Southern  Italy. 
In  the  north  of  Italy  he  was  more  successful,  for  his 
crusaders  finally  crushed  the  odious  tyrant  Ezzelino. 
In  Rome,  wliicli  was  under  the  rule  of  hostile  magis- 
trates and  in  alliance  with  Manfred,  the  papal  au- 
thority was  all  but  forgotten.  Meanwhile  the  Pope 
was  making  futile  efforts  to  unite  the  powers  of  the 
Christian  world  against  the  threatening  invasion  of 
the  Tartars.  The  crusading  spirit  had  departed. 
The  unity  of  Christendom  was  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Whether  the  result  would  have  been  different  had  a 
great  statesman  occupied  the  Papal  Chair  during 
these  seven  critical  years,  we  can  only  surmise. 
Alexander  IV  ruled  the  spiritual  affairs  of  the  Church 
with  dignity  and  prudence.  As  Pope,  he  continued 
to  show  great  favour  to  the  children  of  St.  Francis. 
One  of  his  first  official  acts  was  to  canonize  St.  Clare. 
In  a  diploma  he  asserted  the  truth  of  the  impression 
of  the  stigmata.  St.  Bonaventure  informs  us  that 
the  Pope  alfirmed  in  a  sermon  that  he  had  seen  them. 
In  the  violent  controversies  excited  at  the  University 
of  Paris  by  William  of  St.  Amour,  Alexander  IV 
took  the  friars  under  his  protection.  He  died,  deeply 
afflicted  by  the  sense  of  his  powerlessness  to  stem  the 
evils  of  the  age. 

POTTIIAST,  RiqcDtn  RR.  Ponlif.,  II,  1286  sqq.;  Bocrel  db 
,  Lra  Riiiittrm  d'Alex.  IV  (Pans,  1896):  Ray- 
Eccl.  lid  iin.  ISSi,  sqq. I  HKnaENHoTHER-KinscH, 
■       (FrcilnirK.   1904),   II,  575,576;   Artaud 


Arms  of  Ale.xander  V 


LA    llo 

NALDU 

Kirchenocsrhichlt 

Montor,  llitt.  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs'  (New'Vdrlt,  1807).  T 

429-435. 

J.^MF.S  F.  LOUGHLIN. 

Alexander  V,  Poi>k  (PiKTnoPmi.AiuJHO.b.  c.  1.339, 
on  the  island  of  Crete  (Candia),  whence  his  appella- 


tion, Peter  of  Candia;  elected  26  June,  1409;  d.  at 
Bologna,  3  May,  1410.  A  homeless  beggar-boy  in 
a  Cretan  city,  knowing  neither  parents  nor  relations, 
he  became  the  prot6g6  of  a  discerning  Capuchin  friar, 
from  whom  he  received  an  elementary  education, 
and  under  whose  guidance  he  became  a  Franciscan 
in  a  Cretan  monastery.  The 
youth  gave  promise  of  ex- 
traordinary ability,  and  was 
sent  to  enjoy  the  superior 
educational  advantages  of 
Italy.  He  studied  later  at 
Oxford  and  finally  at  Paris, 
where  he  distinguished  himself 
as  professor,  preacher,  and 
writer.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  good  commentary  on  the 
"Sentences"  of  Peter  Lom- 
bard. During  his  stay  at  Paris 
the  Great  Schism  (1378-1417) 
rent  the  Church,  and  Philarghi  was  ranged  among 
the  partisans  of  Urban  VI  (1375-89).  Returning 
to  Italy,  he  found  a  place  in  the  court  of  Giovanni 
Galeazzo  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  where  l.e  acted 
as  tutor  to  his  soils  and  ambassador  on  important 
missions.  Through  the  favour  of  the  Visconti  he 
was  made  successively  Bishop  of  Piacenza,  in  1386; 
of  Vicenza,  in  1387;  of  Navoya,  in  1389;  and  finally 
Archbishop  of  Milan,  in  1402.  In  1405  Pope  Inno- 
cent VII  made  him  Cardinal,  and  turned  his  ability 
and  his  friendship  with  the  Visconti  to  advantage 
by  confirming  him  as  papal  legate  to  Lombardy. 
Henceforth  his  history  becomes  a  part  of  that  of  the 
Schism.  The  Cardinal  of  Milan  was  foremost 
among  the  advocates  of  a  council.  To  this  end  he 
appro\'ed  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  cardinals  of 
Gregory  XII  from  their  obedience,  sanctioned  the 
agreement  of  the  rival  colleges  of  cardinals  to  join 
in  a  common  effort  for  unity,  and  negotiated  with 
Henry  IV  of  England  and  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury to  secure  England's  neutrality.  He  thus  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  Gregory  XII,  who  de- 
prived him  of  the  archbishopric  of  Milan,  and  even 
declared  him  to  be  shorn  of  the  cardinalitial  dignity. 
At  the  Council  of  Pisa  (25  March,  1409)  Cardi- 
nal Philarghi  was  the  leading  spirit.  He  preached 
the  opening  ser- 
mon, a  scathing 
condemnation  of 
the  tenacity  of 
the  rival  popes, 
and  presided  at 
the  deliberations 
of  the  theologians 
who  declared  these 
popes  heretics  and 
schismatics. 

On  2  6  June, 
1409,  he  was  the 
unanimous  choice 
of  the  cardinals 
to  fill  the  presum- 
ably vacant  Papal 
Chair.  His  stain- 
less character, 
vast  erudition, 
world-wide  experi- 
ence, and  tried 
administrat  ive 
ability,  together 
with  tlie  fact  that 
he  had  neither  country  nor  relations  in  the  riven 
Catholic  world  to  favour,  gave  promise  of  glory  to 
the  Papacy  antl  peace  to  the  Church.  Alexander 
V  soon  found  all  nations  in  sympathy  with  him, 
save  Spain  and  Scotland  and  some  Italian  cities 
whose   interests   were  bound  up  in  the   legitimacy 


ALEXANDER 


289 


ALEXANDER 


of  the  stubborn  Renedict  XIII.  He  was  des- 
tined, however,  to  rule  but  ten  months.  His  pon- 
tificate was  marked  by  unsuccessful  efforts  to  reach 
Rome,  then  in  control  of  King  I.adislas  of  Na- 
ples, whom  Alexander  deprived  of  his  kingdom 
m  favour  of  Louis  II  of  Anjou.  Detained  by  Cardi- 
nal Cossa  in  Bologna,  the  stronglmUl  of  that  self- 
seeking  adviser,  he  died  there  iiiuicr  circumstances 
which  led  the  enemies  of  Cossa,  who  succeeded 
Alexander  V  as  Jolm  XXIII,  to  bring  before  the 
Council  of  Constance  the  now  discredited  charge 
that  he  had  poisoned  the  Pisan  pope.  Alexander 
lived  long  enough  to  disappoint  the  hopes  his  elec- 
tion inspired.  His  legitimacy  was  soon  questioned, 
and  the  world  was  cliagrined  to  find  that  instead 
of  two  popes  it  now  had  three.  His  ardour  for  re- 
form diminished.  Generous  to  a  fault,  he  scattered 
favours  with  undiscriminating  munificence.  The 
mendicant  orders  were  unduly  favoured  by  being 
confirmed  in  privileges  which  parish  priests  and  the 
theological  faculties  resented  as  encroaching  on 
their  rights.  Whether  or  not  Alexander  was  a  true 
pope  is  a  question  which  canonists  and  historians 
of  the  Schism  still  disciiss.  The  Church  has  not 
pronounced  a  definite  opinion,  nor  is  it  at  all  likely 
that  she  will.  The  Roman  "Clerarchia  Cattolica", 
not  an  authoritative  work,  which  prior  to  1906  con- 
tained a  chronological  list  of  the  popes,  designated 
Alexander  V  as  the  211th  pope,  succeeding  Greg- 
ory XII.  resigned.  (See  P.\p.*cy.)  His  remains  are 
interred  in  the  church  of  St.  Francis  at  Bologna  in 
a  tomb  magnificently  restored  in  1889  under  the 
direction  of  Leo  XIII.  (See  Schism,  Western; 
Pis.\,  Council  of.) 

Librr  Ponlificalis,  e.l.  Duchesne,  II,  511-515.  53G-544; 
Hkfele.  ConcUienaeschichte  (Freiburg,  1807),  VI:  Mcratobi, 
Rrrum  Itnlicarum  Scrivtoret  (Milan.  1730-341,  III,  ii,  842: 
XIV,  1 195:  Kays/vldcs,  Annalea  Eccl.,  1409,  72,  73-S0-8.5-89; 
and  1410,  .5-13;  Crfiohton,  Histori/  of  the  Papaci/  (London, 
1897).  I,  2,5lj-2e7;  Pastor-Antrobus,  llirlory  o/  the  Popet 
(I.ondon,  1898),  I.  190.  See  also  works  on  the  Schism,  par- 
ticularly the  well-dot  umented  Valois,  La  France  et  le  grand 
Bchiame  d'Occident  (Paris,  1902).  \\:  Salembier,  Le  grand 
Bchisme  d'Occident  (Paris.  1900).  The  only  independent  life 
is  by  Mark  RrsifeRE.  ' lo'ToptA-al  ;«X^at,  6  (Wijif  Trdirai 
'A\^iay5pos  i  (.\thens,  18S1). 

J.  B.  Petehson. 

Alexander  VI  Pope,  (Rodrioo  Borgi.\),  b.  at 
Xativa,  near  Valencia,  in  Spain,  1  January,  1431;  d. 
in  Rome,  18  .Vugust,  1.503.  His  parents  were  Jofre 
Lani.ol  and  Isabella  Borja,  sister  of  Cardinal  .\lfonso 
Borja,  later  Pope  Callixtus  III.  The  young  Rodrigo 
had  not  yet  definitely  chosen 
his  profession  when  the  eleva- 
tion of  his  uncle  to  the  papacy 
(1455)  opened  up  new  prospects 
to  his  ambition.  He  was 
adopted  into  the  immediate 
family  of  Callixtus  and  was 
known  henceforward  to  the 
Italians  as  Rodrigo  Borgia. 
Like  so  many  other  princely 
cadets,  he  was  obtruded  upon 
the  Church,  the  question  of  a 
clerical  vocation  being  left  com- 
pletely out  of  consideration. 
Arms  or  .\lkx.v.sder  .Vfter  conferring  several  rich 
^1  benefices  on  him,  his  uncle  sent 

him  for  a  short  year  to  study 
law  at  the  University  of  Bologna.  In  1456,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  was  made  Cardinal- 
Deacon  of  St.  Nicolo  in  Carcere,  and  held  that 
title  until  1471,  when  he  became  Cardinal- Hishop  of 
Albano;  in  1476  he  w.as  made  Canlinal-Hishop  of 
Porto  anil  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College  (ICubel, 
Hierarcliia  Catholica,  II,  12).  Ilis  oliicial  posi- 
tion in  the  Curia  after  1457  w.as  that  of  Vicc-Chancel- 
lor  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  though  many  envied 
him  this  lucrative  otlice  he  seems  in  liis  long  adminis- 


tration of  the  Papal  Chancery  to  have  given  general 
satisfaction.  Even  Gulcciardini  admits  that  "in  him 
were  combined  rare  prudence  and  vigilance,  mature  re- 
flection, marvellous  power  of  persuasion,  skill  and  ca- 
pacity for  the  coniluct  of  the  most  difficult  affairs". 
On  the  other  hand,  the  list  of  archbishonrics,  bisho[)- 
rics,  abbacies,  and  oilier  dignities  held  by  him,  as 
enumerated  by  the  Hishop  of  iModcna  in  a  letter  to  the 
Duchess  of  Ferrara  (Pastor,  Historj'  of  the  Popes,  V, 
533,  Knglish  tr.)  reads  hke  the  famous  catalogue  of 
Leporello;  and  since,  notwithstanding  the  magnifi- 
cence of  his  household  and  his  pa.ssion  for  card-pl:iy- 
ing,  he  was  strictly  abstemious  in  eating  and  drinking, 
and  a  careful  administrator,  he  became  one  of  the 
wealthiest  men  of  his  time.  In  his  twenty-ninth  yiar 
he  drew  a  scathing  letter  of  reproof  from  Pope  I'ius  II 
for  misconduct  in  Sienna  which  had  been  .so  notorious 
as  to  shock  the  whole  town  and  court  (Raynaldus, 
Ann.  eccl.  ad.  an.  1460,  n.  31).  Even  after  his  ordi- 
nation to  the  priesthood,  in  1468,  he  contiinied  his  evil 
ways.  His  contemporaries  praise  his  handsome  and 
imposing  figure,  his  cheerful  countenance,  persuasive 
manner,  brilliant  conversation,  and  intimate  mastery 
of  the  ways  of  polite  society.  The  best  portrait  of 
him  is  said  to  be  that  painted  by  Pinturicchio  in  the 
Appartimento  Borgia  at  the  Vatican;  Yriarte  (.\u- 
tour  des  Borgia,  79)  praises  its  general  air  of  gran- 
deur iiiconttslable.  Towards  1470  began  his  relations 
with  the  Roman  lady,  Vanozza  Catanei,  the  mother  of 
his  four  children:  Juan,  Ca?sar,  Lucrezia  and  Jofre, 
born,  respectively,  according  to  Gregorovius  (Lucre- 
zia Borgia,  13)  in' 1474,  1476,  1480,  and  1482. 

Borgia,  by  a  bare  two-thircls  majority  secured  by  liis 
own  vote,  was  proclaimed  Pope  on  the  morning  of  11 
Aug.,  1492,andtook  thename  of  Alexander VI.  [For 
details  of  the  conclave  see  Pastor, "  Hist,  of  the  Popes", 
(German  ed.,  Freiburg,  1S95),  III,  275-278;  also  Am. 
Cath.  Quart.  Review,  .\pril,  1900.]  That  he  ob- 
tained the  papacy  through  simony  was  the  general 
belief  (Pastor,  loc.  cit.)  and  is  not  improbable  (Uay- 
naltlus,  Ann.  eccl.  ad  an.  1492,  n.  26),  ttiough  it  would 
be  difficult  to  prove  it  juridically;  at  any  rate,  as  the 
law  then  stood  the  election  was  valid.  There  is  no 
irresistible  evidence  that  Borgia  paid  anyone  a  ducat 
for  his  vote;  Infessura's  t:de  of  mule-loads  of  silver  has 
long  since  been  discreilited.  Piistor's  indictment,  on 
closer  inspection,  needs  .some  revision;  for  he  states 
(III,  277)  that  eight  of  the  twenty-three  electors,  viz. 
della  Rovere,  Piccolomini,  Medici,  Caraffa,  Costa, 
Basso,  Zeno,  and  Cibo,  held  out  to  the  end  against  Bor- 
gia. If  that  were  true,  Borgia  could  not  have  secured 
a  two-thirds  majority.  .\11  we  can  affirm  with  cer- 
tainty is  that  the  determining  factor  of  this  election 
was  the  accession  to  Borgia  of  Cardinal  Ascanio 
Sforza's  vote  and  influence:  it  is  almost  equally  certain 
that  .Sforza's  course  was  dictated  not  by  silver,  but  by 
the  desire  to  be  the  future  Pontiff's  chief  adviser. 

The  elevation  to  the  papacy  of  one  who  for  thir- 
ty-five years  had  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  Roman 
chancery  with  rare  ability  and  industry  met  with  gen- 
eral approbation;  we  find  no  evidence  of  the  "alarm 
and  horror"  of  which  Guicciardini  speaks.  To  the 
Romans  especially,  who  had  come  to  regard  Borgia  as 
one  of  them.sclves,  and  who  predicted  a  pontificate  at 
once  splendid  and  energetic,  the  choice  was  most  ac- 
ceptable; and  they  manifesteil  their  joy  in  bonfires, 
torchlight  proceessions,  garlands  of  flowers,  and  the 
erection  of  triumphal  arches  with  extravagant  inscrip- 
tions. At  his  coronation  in  St.  Peter's  (26  .Vug.),  and 
during  his  progress  to  St.  John  Lateran,  he  was  greeted 
with  an  ovation,  "greater",  says  the  diarist,  "than 
any  Pontiff  had  ever  received".  He  proceeded  at  once 
to  justify  this  good  opinion  of  the  Romans  by  put- 
ting an  end  to  the  lawle.s.sncss  which  reigned  in  the 
cily.  the  extent  of  which  we  can  infer  from  the  state- 
mi-nt  of  Infcssura  that  within  a  few  months  over  two 
hundred  and  twenty  assassinations  had  taken  place. 


ALEXANDER 


290 


ALEXANDER 


Alexander  ordered  investigations  to  be  made,  every 
culprit  discovered  to  be  lianged  on  the  spot,  and  his 
house  to  be  razed  to  the  ground.  He  divided  the  citv 
into  four  districts,  jilacing  over  each  a  magistrate  with 
plenary  powers  for  the  maintenance  of  order;  in  addi- 
tion, he  reserved  the  Tuesday  of  each  week  as  a  day  on 
which  any  man  or  woman  could  lay  his  or  her  griev- 
ances before  liim.self  personally;  "and",  says  the  dia- 
rist, "he set  about  dispensing  justice  in  an  admirable 
manner."  This  vigorous  method  of  administering 
justice  soon  changed  tlie  face  of  the  city,  and  was  as- 
cribed by  the  grateful  populace  to  "  the  interposition 
of  God".  Alexancler  next  turned  liis  attention  to  the 
defence  and  embellishment  of  the  Eternal  Citv.  He 
changed  the  .Mausoleum  of  Adrian  into  a  veritable  for- 
tress capable  of  sustaining  a  siege.  By  the  fortifica- 
tion of  Torre  di  Nona,  he  securetl  the  city  from  naval 
attacks.  He  deserves  to  be  called  the  founder  of  the 
Leonine  City,  which  he  transformed  into  the  most 
fasliionable  quarter  of  Rome.  His  magnificent  Via 
Alessandrina,  now  called  Borgo  Nuovo,  remains  to 
the  present  day  the  grand  approach  to  St.  Peter's. 
Under  his  direction,  Pinturicchio  adorned  the  Ap- 
partimento  Borgia  in  the  Vatican,  pointing  the  way 
to  his  immortal  disciple,  Raphael.  In  addition  to 
the  structures  erected  by  himself,  his  memory  is  as- 
sociated witli  the  many  others  built  by  monarchs  and 
cardinals  at  his  instigation.  During  liis  reign  Bra- 
mante  designed  for  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  that 
exquisite  architectural  gem,  the  Tempietto,  on  the  tra- 
ditional site  of  St.  Peter's  martyrdom.  If  not  Bra- 
mante,  some  other  great  architect,  equally  attracted 
to  Rome  by  the  report  of  the  Pope's  liberality,  built 
for  Cardinal  Riario  the  magnificent  palace  of  the  Can- 
cellaria.  In  l.WO,  the  ambassador  of  Emperor  Max- 
imilian laid  the  cornerstone  of  the  handsome  national 
cliuroh  of  the  Germans,  Santa  Maria  dell'  Anima. 
Not  to  be  outdone,  the  French  Cardinal  Bri^onnet 
erected  SS.  Trinita  dei  Monti,  and  the  Spaniards 
Santa  Maria  di  Monserrato.  To  Alexander  we  owe 
the  beautiful  ceiling  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  in  the 
decoration  of  which  tradition  says  he  employed  the 
first  gold  brought  from  America  by  Columbus. 

Although  he  laid  no  great  claim  to  learning,  he  fos- 
tered literature  and  science.  As  cardinal  he  had 
written  two  treatises  on  canonical  subjects  and  a  de- 
fence of  the  Christian  faith.  He  rebuilt  the  Roman 
University  and  made  generous  provision  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  professors.  He  surrounded  himself  with 
learned  men  and  had  a  special  predilection  for  ju- 
rists. His  fondness  for  theatrical  performances  en- 
couraged the  development  of  the  drama.  He  loved 
pontifical  ceremonies,  to  which  his  majestic  figure 
lent  grace  and  dignity.  He  listened  to  good  sermons 
with  a  critical  ear,  and  admired  fine  music.  In  1497, 
Alexander  decreed  that  the  "  Prffifectus  Sacrarii  Pon- 
tificii",  commonly  called  "Sacristan  of  the  Pope", 
but  virtually  parish-priest  of  the  Vatican  and  keeper 
of  tlie  Pope's  conscience,  should  be  permanently  and 
exclusively  a  prelate  chosen  from  the  Augustinian 
Order,  an  arrangement  that  still  endures.  Alexander 
earned  the  enmity  of  Spain,  tlie  obloquy  of  many  nar- 
row minded  contemporaries,  and  the  gratitude  of  pos- 
terity, by  his  tolerant  policy  towards  the  Jews,  whom 
he  c()iil(l  not  be  coerced  into  banishing  or  molesting. 
The  concourse  of  pilgrims  to  Rome  in  the  Jubilee 
year.  1. ")()(),  was  a  magnificent  demonstration  of  the 
depth  and  univer.sality  of  the  popular  faith.  The 
capacity  of  the  city  to  house  and  feed  so  many  thous- 
anils  of  visitors  from  all  parts  of  ICurope  was  taxed  to 
the  utmost,  but  Alexander  spared  no  expense  or  pains 
to  provide  for  the  .security  and  comfort  of  his  guests. 
To  maintain  peace  among  Christians  and  to  form  a 
coalition  of  the  European  Powers  against  the  Turks 
was  the  policy  he  had  inherited  from  his  imcle.  One 
of  the  first  of  his  pul)lic  acts  was  to  prevent  a  collision 
between  Spain  and  Portugal    over  their  ncwly-di.s- 


covered  territories,  by  drawing  his  line  of  demarcation, 
an  act  of  truly  peaceful  import,  and  not  of  usurpation 
and  ambition  [Civilta,  Cattolica  (1865),  I,  665-680]. 
He  did  his  best  to  dissuade  Charles  VIII  of  France 
from  his  projected  invasion  of  Italy;  if  ho  was  un- 
successful, the  blame  is  in  no  slight  degree  due  to  the 
unpatriotic  course  of  that  same  Giuliano  della  Rovere 
who  later,  as  Julius  II,  made  futile  efforts  to  expel  the 
"barbarians"  whom  he  liimself  had  invited.  Alex- 
ander issued  a  wise  decree  concerning  the  censorship 
of  books,  and  sent  the  first  missionaries  to  the  New 
Worid. 

Notwithstanding  these  and  similar  actions,  which 
might  seem  to  entitle  him  to  no  mean  place  in  the 
annals  of  the  papacy,  Alexander  continued  as  Pope 
the  manner  of  life  that  had  disgraced  his  cardinalate 
(Pastor,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  449-452).  A  stern  Nemesis 
pursued  liim  tiU  death  in  the  shape  of  a  strong  paren- 
tal affection  for  his  children.  The  report  of  the  Fer- 
rarese  ambassador,  that  the  new  Pope  had  resolved  to 
keep  them  at  a  distance  from  Rome,  is  quite  credi- 
ble, for  all  his  earlier  measures  for  their  advancement 
pointed  towards  Spain.  While  still  a  cardinal,  he  had 
married  one  daughter,  Girolama,  to  a  Span'=!h  noble- 
man. He  had  bought  for  a  son,  Pedro  Luis,  from  the 
Spanish  monarch  the  Duchy  of  Gandia,  and  when 
Pedro  died  soon  after  he  procured  it  for  Juan,  his  old- 
est surviving  son  by  Vanozza.  Tlus  ill-starred  young 
man  was  married  to  a  cousin  of  the  King  of  Spain, 
and  became  grandfather  to  St.  Francis  Borgia,  whose 
virtues  went  a  great  way  towards  atoning  for  the  vices 
of  his  kin.  The  fond  father  made  a  great  mistake 
when  he  selected  his  boy  Csesar  as  the  ecclesiastical 
representative  of  the  Borgias.  In  1480,  Pope  Inno- 
cent VIII  made  the  child  eligible  for  Orders  by  absol- 
ving him  from  the  ecclesiastical  irregidarity  that  fol- 
lowed his  birth  de  cplscopo  cardrnali  el  conjvgatd,  and 
conferred  several  Spanish  benefices  on  liim,  the  last 
being  the  Bishopric  of  Pampeluna,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which,  by  a  strange  fatality,  he  eventually 
met  his  death.  A  week  after  Alexander's  coronation 
he  appointed  Ca>sar,  now  eighteen  years  old,  to  the 
Archbishopric  of  Valencia;  but  Cresar  neither  went 
to  Spain  nor  e\'er  took  Orders.  The  youngest  son, 
Jofre,  was  also  to  be  inflicted  upon  tlie  Church  of 
Spain.  A  further  e\'idence  that  the  Pope  had  deter- 
mined to  keep  his  cliildren  at  a  distance  from  court 
is  that  his  daughter  Lucrezia  was  betrothed  to  a  Span- 
ish gentleman;  the  marriage,  however,  never  took 
place.  It  had  already  become  the  .settled  policy  of 
the  popes  to  have  a  personal  representati\e  in  the 
Sacred  College,  and  so  Alexander  cho.se  for  tliis  con- 
fidential position  Cardinal  Giovanni  Borgia,  his  sis- 
ter's son.  The  subsequent  abandonment  of  liis  good 
resolutions  concerning  his  children  may  safely  be  as- 
cribed to  the  evil  counsels  of  Ascanio  Sforza,  wliom 
Borgia  had  rewardetl  with  the  vice-chancellorship, 
and  who  was  \irtually  his  prime  minister.  The  main 
purpose  of  Ascanio's  residence  at  the  papal  court  was 
to  advance  the  interests  of  his  brother,  Lodovico  il 
Moro,  who  had  been  regent  of  Milan  for  so  many 
years,  during  the  minority  of  their  nephew  Gian  Ga- 
leazzo,  that  he  now  refused  to  surrender  tlie  reins  of 
government,  though  the  rightful  duke  had  attained 
his  majority.  Gian  Galeazzo  was  powerless  to  assert 
liis  rights;  but  his  more  energetic  wife  was  grand- 
daughter to  King  I'errante  of  Naples,  and  her  inces- 
sant appeals  to  her  family  for  aid  left  Lodovico  in  con- 
stant dread  of  Neapolitan  invasion.  Alexander  had 
many  real  grievances  against  Fcrrantc,  the  latest  of 
which  was  tlie  financial  aid  the  King  had  given  to  the 
Pope's  vassal,  Virginio  Orsini,  in  the  purchase  of 
Cervctri  and  Anguillara,  without  Alexander's  con- 
sent. In  addition  to  the  contempt  of  the  papal  au- 
tliority  involved  in  the  transaction,  this  accession  ot 
strenglli  to  a  l)aroiiial  f.amily  already  too  powerful 
could  not  but  be  highly  displeasing.     Alexander  was, 


ALEXANDER 


291 


ALEXANDER 


therefore,  easily  induced  to  enter  a  defensive  alliance 
with  Milan  and  Venice;  the  league  was  solemnly  pro- 
claimeil.  L'.")  April,  I-1"J3.  It  was  cemented  by  the  first 
of  Lucrezia's  marriages.  Her  first  husband  was  a 
cousin  of  .\scanio,  Giovanni  Sforza,  Lord  of  I'esaro. 
The  wedding  was  celebrated  in  tlie  Vatican  in  the 

Cresence  of  tlie  Pope,  ten  cardinals,  and  tlie  chief  no- 
tes of  Home  with  tlieir  ladies;  tlie  revelries  of  tlie 
occasion,  even  wlien  exaggerations  and  rumours  are 
dismissetl,  remain  a  blot  upon  the  diaracter  of  Alex- 
ander. Ferrantu  tall<od  of  war,  but,  tlirougli  the 
mediation  of  Spain,  lie  came  to  terms  with  the  Pope 
and,  as  a  pledge  of  reconciliation,  gave  his  grand- 
daughter, Sancia,  in  marriage  to  Alexander's  young- 
est son  Jofre,  with  tlie  principality  of  Squillacc  as 
dower.  Cicsar  Borgia  was  created  Cardinal,  20  Sep- 
tember. Ferrante's  reconciliation  witli  the  Pope 
came  none  too  soon. 

A  few  daj's  after  peace  had  been  concluded,  an  en- 
voy of  KingCliarlos  VIII  arrived  in  Rome  to  demand 
the  investiture  of  N'ajilos  for  his  master.  Alexander 
returned  a  positive  refusal;  and  wlicn  Ferrante  died, 
January,  1494,  neglecting  French  protests  and  threats, 
he  confirmed  tlie  succe.ssion  of  Ferrante's  son,  Alfonso 
II,  and  sent  his  nephew.  Cardinal  Giovanni  Borgia,  to 
Naples  to  crown  him.  The  policy  of  Alexamler  was 
dictate<l  not  only  by  a  laudable  desire  to  maintain 
the  peace  of  Italy,  but  also  because  he  was  aware  that 
a  strong  faction  of  his  cardinals,  with  tlie  resolute 
della  Uovere  at  tlieir  head,  was  promoting  the  inva- 
sion of  Charles  as  a  means  towards  deposing  him  on 
the  twofold  charge  of  simony  and  immorality.  In 
September,  1494,  the  French  cro.sscd  the  Alps;  on  the 
last  day  of  that  year  they  made  their  entry  into  Home, 
needing  no  other  weapon  in  their  march  through  the 
peninsula,  as  .Mexander  wittily  remarked  (Commines, 
vii,  1,)),  than  the  chalk  with  which  they  marked  out 
the  lodgings  of  the  troops.  The  barons  of  the  Pope 
deserted  him  one  after  the  other.  Colonna  and  Sa- 
velli  were  traitors  from  the  beginning,  but  he  felt  most 
keenly  the  defection  of  Virginio  Orsini,  tlie  comman- 
der of  his  army.  Many  a  saintlicr  pope  than  Alexan- 
der VI  would  nave  made  the  fatal  mistake  of  yielding 
to  brute  force  and  surrendering  unconditionally  to 
the  conqueror  of  Italy;  the  most  heroic  of  the  popes 
could  not  have  sustained  the  stability  of  the  Holy  See 
at  this  crucial  moment  with  greater  firmness.  I'rom 
the  crumbling  ramparts  of  St.  Angelo,  the  defences  of 
which  were  still  incomplete,  he  looked  calmly  into  the 
mouth  of  the  French  cannon;  with  equal  intrepidity 
he  faced  the  cabal  of  della  Rovere's  cardinals,  clam- 
orous for  his  deposition.  At  the  end  of  a  furlinglit  it 
was  Charles  who  capitulated.  He  acknowledged 
Alexander  as  true  Pope,  greatly  to  the  disgust  of  ilella 
Rovero,  and  "diil  his  iilial  obedience",  says  Corn- 
mines,  "with  all  imaginable  humility";  but  lie  could 
not  extort  from  the  Pontiff  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
claims  to  Naples.  Charles  entered  Naples,  22  Feb- 
ruary, 149,3,  without  strikinga  blow.  At  his apiiroach 
the  unpopular  Alfonso  abdicated  in  favour  of  liis  son 
Ferrantiiin;  the  latter,  failing  to  receive  support,  re- 
tired to  seek  the  protection  of  Spain.  Whilst  Charles 
wasted  over  two  months  in  fruitless  attempts  to 
induce  the  Pope  by  promi.scs  and  threats  to  sanction 
his  usurpation,  a  powerful  league,  consisting  of  Ven- 
ice, Milan,  the  Kmpire,  Spain,  and  the  Holy  See,  was 
formed  against  him.  I'inally,  on  12  May,  he  crowned 
himself,  but  in  the  following  July  he  was  cutting  his 
way  home  through  the  ranks  of  the  allieil  Italians. 
By  the  end  of  the  year  the  French  had  re-cro.ssed  into 
France.  No  one  wished  for  their  return,  except  the 
restless  della  Rovere,  and  the  adherents  of  Savona- 
rola. The  stor)'  of  the  Florentine  friar  will  be  re- 
lated elsewhere;  here  it  sullices  to  note  that  Alexan- 
der's treatment  of  him  was  marked  by  extreme 
patience  and  forbearance. 
The  French  invasion  was  the  turning  point  in  the 
I.-19 


political  career  of  Alexander  VI.  It  had  taught  him 
that  if  he  would  be  .safe  in  Home  and  be  really  mas- 
ter in  the  States  of  the  Church,  he  must  curb  the  in.so- 
lent  and  disloyal  barons  who  had  betrayed  him  in  his 
hour  of  danger.  Unfortunately,  this  laudable  pur- 
po.se  became  more  and  more  identified  in  his  mind 
with  schemes  for  the  aggrandizement  of  his  family 
There  was  no  place  in  lii.i  programme  for  a  reform  of 
abu.ses.  Quite  the  contrary;  in  order  to  obtain 
money  for  his  military  operations  he  disposed  of  civil 
and  spiritual  privileges  and  offices  in  a  scandalous 
manner.  He  resolved  to  begin  with  the  Orsini,  whose 
trea.son  at  the  most  critical  moment  had  reduced  him 
to  tiesperate  straits.  The  time  seemed  opportune; 
for  Virginio,  the  head  of  the  house,  was  a  prisoner  in 
the  hands  of  Ferrantino.  As  commander  of  his 
troops  he  selected  his  youthful  son  Juan,  Duke  of 
Gandia.  The  struggle  dragged  on  for  months.  The 
minor  castles  of  the  Orsini  surrendered;  but  Brac- 
ciano,  their  main  fortress,  resisted  all  the  efforts  of 
the  pontifical  troops.  They  were  finally  obliged  to 
rai.se  the  siege,  and  on  25  January,  1497,  they  were 
completely  routeil  at  Soriano.  Both  siiles  were  now 
di.sposed  to  peace.  On  payment  of  50,000  golden 
florins  the  Orsini  received  back  all  their  castles  exccjit 
Cervetri  and  -AnguiUara,  which  had  been  the  original 
cause  of  their  (juarrel  with  the  Pope.  In  order  to 
reduce  the  strong  fortress  of  Ostia,  held  by  French 
troops  for  Cartlinal  della  Uovere,  Alexander  wisely 
invoked  the  aid  of  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  and  his  Span- 
ish veterans.  It  surrendered  to  the  "Great  Cap- 
tain" within  two  weeks.  Unsuccessful  in  obtaining 
for  his  family  the  possessions  of  the  Orsini,  the  Pope 
now  demanded  the  consent  of  his  cardinals  to  the 
erection  of  Benevento,  Terracina.  and  Pontecorvo 
into  a  duchy  for  the  Duke  of  Gandia.  Cardinal 
Piccolomini  was  the  only  member  who  dareil  pro- 
test against  this  improper  alienation  of  the  property 
of  the  Church.  A  more  powerful  protest  than  that 
of  the  Cardinal  of  Sienna  reverberated  through  the 
world  a  week  later  when,  on  the  sixteenth  of  June, 
the  body  of  the  young  Duke  was  fished  out  of  the  Ti- 
ber, with  the  throat  cut  and  many  gaping  wounds. 
Historians  have  laboured  in  vain  to  discover  who 
perpetrated  the  foul  deed;  but  that  it  was  a  warning 
from  Heaven  to  repent,  no  one  felt  more  keenly  than 
the  Pope  himself.  In  the  first  wild  paroxysm  of 
grief  he  spoke  of  resigning  the  tiara.  Then,  after 
three  days  and  nights  jiassed  without  food  or  sleep, 
he  appeared  in  consistory  and  proclaimed  his  deter- 
mination to  set  about  that  reform  of  the  Church  "in 
hc.iil  and  members"  for  which  the  world  had  .so  long 
been  clamouring.  A  commission  of  cardinals  anil 
canonists  began  industriously  to  frame  ordinances 
which  foreshadowed  the  disciplinarj'  decrees  of  Trent. 
But  tliev  were  never  promulgated.  Time  gradually 
assuaged  the  sorrow  and  extinguished  the  contrition 
of  Alexander.  From  now  on  Ca-sar's  iron  will  w.is 
supreme  law.  That  he  aimed  high  from  the  start  is 
evident  from  his  resolve,  opjxised  at  first  by  the  Pope, 
to  resign  his  cardinalate  and  other  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nities, and  to  become  a  .secular  prince.  The  coiulition 
of  Naples  was  alluring.  The  gallant  F'errantino  had 
ilicd  childless  and  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle  Fed- 
erigo,  whose  coronation  was  one  of  Ca>sar's  last,  pos- 
sibly also  one  of  his  first,  ecclesiastical  acts,  hy  se- 
curing the  hand  of  Fcdcrigo's  daughter,  Carlotta, 
Princess  of  Tarento.  he  would  become  one  of  the  most 
powerful  barons  of  the  kingdom,  with  ulterior  pros- 
spects  of  wearing  the  crown.  Carlotta's  repugnance, 
however,  could  not  be  overcome.  But  in  the  course 
of  the  suit,  another  marriage  was  conclude<l  which 
gave  much  scandal.  Lucrezia's  marriage  with  Sforza 
was  <leclared  null  on  the  ground  of  the  hitter's  impo- 
tence, and  she  was  given  as  wife  to  .\lfonso  of  Bi- 
seglia,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Alfonso  11. 

Meanwhile,  affairs  in  France  took  an  unexpected 


ALEXANDER 


292 


ALEXANDER 


cum  which  deeply  modified  the  course  of  Italian  his- 
tory and  the  career  of  the  Horgias.  Charles  VIII 
died  in  April.  1498,  [ireceded  to  tlie  tomb  by  his  only 
son.  and  left  the  tlirone  to  lii.s  cousin,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  King  Louis  XII,  who  stood  now  in  need  of 
two  papal  favours.  In  liis  youth  he  had  been  co- 
erced into  mar- 
rying Jane  of 
V  a  1  o  i  s ,  the 
saintly  but  de- 
formed daugh- 
ter of  Louis  XI. 
Moreover,  in  or- 
der  to  retain 
Brittany,  it  was 
essential  that  he 
should  marry 
his  deceased 
cousin's  widow, 
Queen  Anne. 
No  blame  at- 
taches to  Alex- 
ander for  issuing 
the  desired  de- 
cree annulling 
the  King's  mar- 
riage  or  for 
granting  him  a 
ilispensation 
from  the  im- 
pediment of  af- 
fi  n  i  t  y .  The 
commission  of  investigation  appointed  by  him 
established  the  two  fundamental  facts  that  tiie 
marriage  with  Jane  was  invalid,  from  lack  of  con- 
sent, and  that  it  never  had  been  consuinmated. 
It  was  the  political  use  made  by  the  Borgias  of 
their  opportunity,  and  the  prospective  alliance  of 
France  and  the  Holy  See,  which  now  drove  several 
of  the  Powers  of  Europe  to  the  verge  of  schism. 
Threats  of  a  council  and  of  deposition  had  no  terrors 
for  Alexander,  whose  control  of  the  Sacred  College 
was  absolute.  Delia  Rovere  was  now  his  agent  in 
France;  .\scanio  Sforza  was  soon  to  retire  perma- 
nently from  Rome.  Louis  had  inherited  from  his 
grandmother,  Valentina  Visconti,  strong  claims  to 
the  Duchy  of  Milan,  usurped  by  the  Sforzas,  and  he 
made  no  secret  of  his  intention  to  enforce  them.  Al- 
exander cannot  be  held  responsible  for  the  second 
"barbarian"  invasion  of  Italy,  but  he  was  quick  to 
take  advantage  of  it  for  the  consolidation  of  his  tem- 
poral power  and  the  aggrandizement  of  his  family. 
On  1  October,  1498,  Caesar,  no  longer  a  cardinal,  but 
designated  Duke  of  Valentinois  and  Peer  of  France, 
set  out  from  Rome  to  bring  the  papal  dispensation  to 
King  Louis,  a  cardinal's  hat  to  his  minister  D'Am- 
boise,  and  to  find  for  himself  a  wife  of  high  degree, 
lie  still  longed  for  tlie  hand  of  Carlotta,  who  resided 
in  I'" ranee,  but  since  tliat  princess  persisted  in  her  re- 
fusal, he  received  instead  the  hand  of  a  niece  of  King 
Louis,  the  sister  of  the  King  of  Navarre,  Charlotte 
l)'.\lbret.  On  8  October,  1499,  King  Louis,  accom- 
panied by  Duke  Ca-sar  and  Cardinal  della  Rovere 
made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Milan.  It  was  the  sig- 
nal lu  begin  operations  against  tlio  petty  tjTants  who 
were  devastating  the  States  of  the  Church.  Alexan- 
der would  have  merited  great  credit  for  this  much- 
needcil  work,  had  ho  not  .spoiled  it  by  substituting  his 
own  family  in  their  place.  Wliat  his  ultimate  inten- 
tions were  we  cannot  fathom.  However,  the  tyrants 
who  were  expelled  never  returned,  whilst  the  Borgian 
"lynaslv  came  to  a  speedy  end  in  the  pontificate  of 
Julius  11.  In  the  meantime  Caesar  liad  carried  on  his 
campaign  so  succcs.sfiilly  that  by  the  year  1501  he 
was  ni.asler  of  all  the  usurped  papal  territorj-  and  was 
nia<le  Duke  of  Komagna  by  llie  Pope,  whose  affection 
for  the  brilliant  young  general  was  manifested  in  still 


other  ways.  During  the  war,  however,  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  Jubilee  of  1500  there  occurred  another 
domestic  murder.  On  15  July  of  that  year  the  Duke 
of  Biseglia,  Lucretia's  husband,  was  attacked  by  five 
masked  assassins,  who  grievously  wounded  him.  Con- 
vinced that  Caesar  was  the  instigator  of  the  deed,  he 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt,  on  his  recovery,  to 
kill  his  supposed  enemy,  and  was  instantly  dispatched 
by  Caesar's  bodyguard.  Tlie  latter,  having  com- 
pleted, in  April,  l.iOl,  the  conquest  of  the  Romagna, 
now  aspired  to  the  conquest  of  Tuscany;  but  he  was 
soon  recalled  to  Rome  to  take  part  in  a  different  en- 
terprise. On  27  June  of  that  year  the  Pope  deposed 
his  chief  va.ssal,  Federigo  of  Naples,  on  tlie  plea  of  an 
alleged  alliance  witli  the  Turks  to  the  detriment  of 
Christendom,  and  approved  the  secret  Treaty  of 
Granada,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  Kingdom  of  Na- 
ples was  partitioned  between  Spain  and  France. 

Alexander's  motive  in  thus  reversing  his  former 
policy  with  respect  to  foreign  interference  was  patent. 
The  Colonna,  tlie  Savelli,  the  Gaetani  and  other  bar- 
ons of  the  Patrimony  had  always  been  supported  in 
their  oppo.sition  to  the  popes  by  the  favour  of  the  Ara- 
gonese  dynasty,  deprived  of  which  they  folt  them- 
selves powerless.  Excommunicated  by  the  Pontiff 
as  rebels,  they  offered  to  surrender  the  keys  of  their 
castles  to  the  Sacred  College,  but  Alexantler  demanded 
them  for  himself.  The  Orsini,  who  might  have  known 
that  their  turn  would  come  next,  were  so  short- 
sighted as  to  assist  the  Pope  in  the  ruin  of  their 
hereditary  foes.  One  after  another,  the  castles  were 
surrendered.  On  27  July,  Alexander  left  Rome  to 
survey  his  conquest;  at  the  same  time  he  left  the 
widowed  Lucrezia  in  the  Vatican  with  authority  to 
open  his  correspondence  and  conduct  the  routine 
business  of  the  Holy  See.  He  also  erected  the  con- 
fiscated possessions  of  the  aforesaid  families  into  two 
duchies,  bestowing  one  on  Rodrigo,  the  infant  son  of 
Lucrezia,  the  other  on  Juan  Borgia,  born  to  him  a 
sliort  while  after  the  murder  of  Gandia,  and  to  whom 
was  given  the  latter's  baptismal  name  (Pastor,  op. 
cit..  Ill,  449).  Lucrezia,  now  in  her  twenty-third 
year,  did  not  long  remain  a  widow;  her  father  destined 
her  to  be  the  bride  of  another  Alfonso,  son  and  heir 
of  Duke  Ercole  of  Ferrara.  Although  both  father 
and  son  at  first  spurnetl  the  notion  of  a  matrimonial 
alliance  between  the  proud  house  of  Este  and  the 
Pope's  illegitimate  daughter,  they  were  favourably 
influenced  by  the  King  of  France.  The  third  mar- 
riage of  Lucrezia,  celebrated  by  proxy  in  the  Vatican 
(30  December,  1501),  far  exceeded  the  first  in  splen- 
dour and  extravagance.  If  her  father  meant  her  as 
an  instrument  in  her  new  position  for  the  advance- 
ment of  his  political  combinations,  he  was  mistaken. 
She  is  known  hencefortli,  and  till  her  death  in  1519,  as 
a  model  wife  and  princess,  lauded  by  all  for  her  amia- 
bility, her  \Trtue,  and  her  charity.  Nothing  could 
well  be  more  different  from  the  fiendish  Lucrezia  Bor- 
gia of  the  drama  and  the  opera  than  the  historical 
IJuchess  of  Ferrara.  Cipsar,  liowever,  continued  his 
infamous  career  of  simony,  extortion,  and  treachery, 
and  by  the  end  of  1502  hail  roimtied  out  liis  posses- 
sions by  the  capture  of  Camerino  ami  Sinigagha.  In 
October  of  that  year  the  Orsini  conspireil  with  his 
generals  to  destroy  him.  With  coolness  and  skill  Cae- 
sar decoyed  the  conspirators  into  his  power  antl  put 
tlicm  to  death.  The  Pope  followed  up  tlie  blow  by 
proceeding  against  the  Orsini  witli  greater  success 
than  formerly.  Cardinal  Orsini,  the  soul  of  the  con- 
spiracy, was  committed  to  Castle  St.  Aiigelo;  twelve 
days  later  he  was  a  corpse.  Whether  he  died  a  nat- 
ural death  or  was  privately  executed,  is  uncertain 
Losing  no  time,  Ca-sar  returned  towards  Rome,  and 
so  great  was  the  terror  he  inspired  that  the  frightened 
barons  fled  before  him,  says  Villari  (1.  3,")G),  "as  from 
tlie  face  of  a  hydra".  By  .\pril  nothing  remained 
to  the  Orsini  except  the  fortress  of  Bracciano,  and 


ALEXANDER 


293 


ALEXANDER 


they  begged  for  an  aiinisticc.  Tlie  luimiliation  of  the 
Roman  aristocraey  was  coiuplelo;  for  the  first  time  in 
the  history  of  tlie  papacy  tlie  Pope  was,  in  the  fullest 
sense,  ruler  of  his  States. 

Alexander,  still  hale  and  vigorous  in  his  seventy- 
third  year,  and  looking  forward  to  many  more  years 
of  reign,  proceeded  to  strengthen  his  position  by  re- 

Cleting  liis  treasury  in  ways  that  were  more  than  du- 
ious.  The  Sacreil  College  now  contained  so  many  of 
his  adherents  and  countrymen  that  he  had  nothing 
to  fear  from  that  quarter.  He  enjoyed  anil  lauglied 
at  tlie  scurrilous  lampoons  that  were  in  circulation. 
in  which  he  was  accused  of  incredible  crinics,  and  took 
no  steps  to  sliield  his  reputation.  War  had  broken 
out  in  Naples  between  France  and  Spain  over  the 
division  of  the  spoils.  Alexander  was  still  in  doubt 
which  siilu  he  could  mo.st  advantageously  support, 
when  his  career  came  to  an  abrupt  close.  On  0  Au- 
gust, loO.'-i.  the  Pope,  with  Cu'sar  and  others,  dined 
witli  Cardinal  .Vdriano  da  Corneto  in  a  villa  belonging 
to  tlie  Cardinal,  and  very  imprudently  remained  in 
the  open  air  after  nightfall.  The  entire  company 
paid  tlie  penalty  by  contracting  the  pernicious  Uoman 
fever.  On  the  twelfth  tlie  Pope  took  to  his  bed.  On 
the  eighteenth  his  life  was  despaireil  of;  ho  made  his 
confes.sion,  received  the  last  sacraments,  and  expired 
towards  evening.  The  rapid  decomposition  and  swol- 
len appearance  of  his  corpse  gave  ri.se  to  the  familiar 
suspicion  of  poison.  Later  the  tale  ran  that  he  had 
drunk  by  mistake  a  poisoned  cup  of  wine  which  he  had 
prepared  for  his  host.  Nothing  is  more  certain  than 
that  the  poison  which  killeil  him  was  the  deadly  mi- 
crobe of  the  Uoman  campagna  [Pastor,  op.  cit.,  Ill, 
469— J7 J;  Creighton,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy  (London, 
1887),  IV,  44].  His  remains  lie  in  tlie  Spanish  na- 
tional church  of  Santa  Maria  di  Monserrato. 

\n  impartial  appreciation  of  the  career  of  this  ex- 
traordinary person  must  at  once  distinguish  between 
tlie  man  and  the  office.  "  .\n  imperfect  .setting", 
says  Dr.  Pastor  (op.  cit.,  111,475),  "does  not  affect  the 
intrinsic  worth  of  the  jewel,  nor  does  the  golden  coin 
lose  its  value  when  it  pas.ses  through  impure  hands. 
In  so  far  as  the  priest  is  a  public  officer  of  a  holy 
Church,  a  blameless  life  is  expected  from  him,  both 
because  he  is  by  his  office  the  model  of  virtue  to  whom 
the  laity  look  up,  and  because  his  life,  when  virtuous, 
inspires  in  onlookers  respect  for  the  society  of  which 
he  IS  an  ornament.  But  the  treasures  of  the  Church, 
her  nivine  character,  her  holiness,  Divine  revelation, 
the  grace  of  Ciod,  spiritual  authority,  it  is  well  known, 
are  not  dependent  on  the  moral  character  of  the  agents 
and  olticers  of  the  Church.  The  foremost  of  her 
priests  cannot  diminish  by  an  iota  the  intrinsic  value 
of  the  spiritual  treasures  confided  to  him."  There 
have  been  at  all  times  wicked  men  in  the  eccle.si.isti- 
cal  ranks.  Our  Lord  foretohl,  as  one  of  its  .•severest 
trials,  the  presence  in  His  Church  not  only  of  f.also 
brethren,  but  of  rulers  who  wouhl  offend,  by  various 
forms  of  selfishness,  both  the  children  of  the  house- 
hold and  "tho.so  who  are  without".  Similarly,  He 
compared  His  beloved  spou.se,  the  Church,  to  a  thresh- 
ing floor,  on  which  fall  Doth  chaff  and  grain  until  the 
time  of  separation.  The  most  .severe  arraignments  of 
Alexander,  because  in  a  sense  otficial,  are  tho.se  of  his 
Catholic  contemporaries.  Pope  Julius  II  (Gregoro- 
vius,  VII.  4!)4)  and  the  .\ugustinian  cardinal  and  re- 
former, -Egiilius  of  Viterbo.  in  his  manuscript  "  Ilis- 
toria  XX  Sirculorum".  preserved  at  Home  in  the 
Hibliotheca  .\ngelica.  The  Oratorian  Raynaldus  (d. 
1()77),  who  continued  the  .semi-official  Annals  of  Ha- 
ronius,  gave  to  the  worlil  at  Rome  {ad an.  1460,  no. 
41)  the  above-mentioned  paternal  but  severe  reproof 
of  the  youthful  Cardinal  by  Pius  II,  and  stated  else- 
where (ail  an.  149.i.  no.  20)  that  it  was  in  his  time  the 
opinion  of  liistori.ans  that  .Mexandcr  had  obtained  the 
papacy  partly  through  money  and  partly  through 
promises  and  the  persuasion  that  he  would  not  inter- 


fere with  the  lives  of  his  electors.  Mansi,  the  schol- 
arly -Vrchbishop  of  Lucca,  eilitor  and  annotator  of 
Raynaldus,  says  (.XI.  415)  that  it  is  easier  to  keep 
silence  tlian  to  write  with  moderation  about  this  Pope. 
The  severe  juilgment  of  the  late  Cardinal  Hergenro- 
thcr,  in  his  "  Kirchengeschichte",  or  .Manual  of 
Church  History  (4tli.  ed.,  Freiburg,  K/O-l  II,  982-983) 
is  too  well  known  to  need  more  than  n>ention. 

So  httle  have  Catholic  historians  defended  him  that 
in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  Ce.sare  Cantu 
could  write  that  .Alexander  VI  was  the  only  Pope  who 
had  never  found  an  apologi.st.  However,  since  that 
time  .some  Catholic  writers,  both  in  books  and  period- 
icals, have  attempted  to  defend  him  from  the  most 
grievous  accusations  of  his  contemporaries.  Two 
in  particular  may  be  mentioned:  the  Dominican  <>1- 
jivier,  "  Le  Pape  Alexandre  VI  et  Ics  IJorgia "  (Paris, 
1870),  of  whose  work  only  one  volume  appeared, 
tiealing  with  the  Pope's  cardinalate;  and  Leonctti, 
"  Papa  Ale-ssandro  VI  secondo  documenti  e  carteggi 
del  tempo "  (3  vols.,  Bologna,  1880).  The.se  and 
other  works  were  occa.sioned,  partly  by  a  laudable  de- 
sire to  remove  a  stigma  from  the  gooil  re[)uto  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  partly  by  the  gro.ss  cx.iggerations 
of  Victor  Hugo  and  others  wlio  permitted  tlieuLselves 
all  licence  in  deahng  with  a  name  .so  helpless  and  de- 
tested. It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  these  works 
have  corresponded  to  their  authors'  zeal.  Dr.  Pas- 
tor ranks  them  all  as  failures.  Such  is  the  opinion 
of  Henri  de  I'Epinois  in  the  "Revue  des  questions 
historiques"  (1881),  XXIX,  147,  a  study  that  even 
Thuasne,  the  hostile  eilitor  of  the  Diary  of  Burchard, 
calls  "the  indispensable  guide  of  all  students  of  Bor- 
gia historj'".  It  is  also  the  opinion  of  the  Bollandist 
Matagnc,  in  the  .same  review  for  1870  and  1872  (IX, 
466-175;  XI,  181-198),  and  of  Von  Ueumont,  the 
Catholic  historian  of  medieval  Rome,  in  Bonn.  Tlieol. 
Lit.  Blatt  (1870).  V.  68(5.  Dr.  Pastor  considers  that 
the  publication  of  the  documents  in  the  supplement 
to  the  third  volume  of  Thuasne's  edition  of  the  Diary 
of  Burchard  (Paris,  1883)  renders  "forever  impos- 
sible "  any  attempts  to  save  the  reputation  of  Alex- 
ander VI.  There  is  all  the  less  reason,  therefore,  saya 
Cardinal  Hergenrother  (op.  cit.,  11,983),  for  the  false 
charges  that  have  been  added  to  his  account,  e.  g.  his 
attempt  to  poison  Cardinal  Adriano  da  Corneto  and 
his  incestuous  relations  with  Lucrezia  (Pastor,  op. 
cit..  Ill,  375,  450-451,  475).  Other  accusations,  saya 
the  same  writer,  have  been  dealt  with,  not  unsuccess- 
fully, by  Roscoe  in  his  "  Life  of  Leo  the  Tenth  " ;  by 
Capefigue  in  his  "Eglise  pendant  les  qiiatre  demiera 
.sicclcs"  (I,  41-46),  and  by  Chantrel,  "Le  Pape  .Alex- 
andre VI"  (Paris,  1864).  On  the  other  hand,  while 
immoral  writers  have  made  only  too  much  capital  out 
of  the  salacious  paragraphs  scattered  through  Bur- 
chard and  Infessura,  there  is  no  more  reason  now 
than  in  the  days  of  RajTialdus  and  Mansi  for  con- 
cealing or  perverting  the  facts  of  historj'.  "  I  am  a 
Catholic",  siiys  M.  de  I'Epinois  (loc.  cit.),  "and  a 
disciple  of  the  God  who  hath  a  horror  of  lies.  I  seek 
the  truth,  all  the  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth 
Although  our  weak  eyes  do  not  sec  at  once  the  uses 
of  it,  or  rather  see  damage  and  peril,  we  must  pro- 
claim it  fearlessly."  The  same  good  principle  is  set 
forth  by  Leo  Xlll  in  his  Letter  of  8 September.  1889, 
to  Cardinals  De  Luca.  Pitra,  and  Hergenrother  on 
the  study  of  Church  Historj':  "The  hi.storian  of  the 
Church  has  the  duty  to  dissimulate  none  of  the  trials 
that  the  Church  has  had  to  suffer  from  the  faults  of 
her  children,  and  even  at  times  from  tho.se  of  her  own 
ministers."  Long  .igo  Leo  the  Great  (44(V— 161)  de- 
clared, in  his  third  homily  for  Christmas  Day,  th.it 
"the  dignity  of  Peter  suffers  no  diminution  even  in 
an  unworthy  succ«.ssor"  (ruius  difinitas  diam  in  in- 
digno  haredc  non  deficit).  The  verj'  indignation  that 
the  ev\\  life  of  a  great  ecclesiastic  rouses  at  all  times 
(nobly  expressed  Dy  Pius  II  in  the  above-mentioned 


ALEXANDER 


294 


ALEXANDER 


letter  to  Cardinal  lio.lrigo  Borgia)  is  itself  a  tribute 
to  the  high  spiritual  ideal  which  for  so  long  and  on  so 
broad  a  scale  the  Church  has  presented  to  the  world 
in  so  many  holy  examples,  and  has  therefore  accus- 
tomed the  latter  to  demand  from  priests.  "The 
latter  are  forgiven  nothing",  says  De  Maistre  in  liis 
great  work,  "  l)u  Pape",  "because  everything  is 
expected  from  them,  wherefore  the  vices  hghtly 
passed  over  in  a  Louis  XIV  become  most  offensive 
and  scandalous  in  an  Alexander  VI"  (II,  c.  xiv). 

The  contemporary  iliariea  of  Johann  Burcharb  and 
Stefano  Infesscra  are  to  be  read  with  great  caution,  says 
Von  Reomont,  Kirchfntcx.,  I,  490-491.  Burchard,  Diarium 
eive  rerum  urbanarum  commenUirii  (1483-1506),  in  Eccard, 
Corpus  Hisl.  SS.  Mfiiii  .En.  II,  ed.  by  Genharelli  (Florence, 
1854);  Thcasne  (Paris,  18S3,  3  vols.);  Infesshha,  Diario 
della  cittlx  di  Roma,  in  Eccard,  Ioc.  cit.,  and  in  Mura- 
TORI,  SS.  Rer.  Ital.,  Ill,  II,  1112-1252,  ed.  by  Tommasini 
(Rome,  1890). — The  principal  events  of  bis  pontificate  are 
related  in  Raynaldus,  Ann.  Eccl.  ad  arm.  1492-1503. — Among 
modern  writers  the  reader  ma.v  consult  the  Catholic  historians. 
Von  Reumont,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom  (Berlin,  1868),  II,  i, 
199-249,  also  his  article  in  KirchenUx.,  I,  4S3-491,  and  Pastor, 
History  of  Ike  Popes  since  the  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages  (London, 
1S98),  V,  375  sqq.:  among  Protestant  writers  Gregorovius. 
Geschichte  der  Sladt  Rom  (Stuttgart,  1890),  VII.  299-494,  and 
his  Lucrezia  Borgia  nach  Urkunden  uvA  Corrispondenz  (ibid,, 
1870);  alsoCRElGHToN,  History  of  the  Popes  during  the  Reforma- 
tion (London,  1887 ),  III,  IV.     See  also  Zopffel-Hauck, 

in  the  Realencyclopadie  f.  prot.  Kirche  u.  Theologie  (3d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1896).  I,  347-349,  and  J.  Paquier,  in  Vacant,  Diet. 
de  (AcolcafA.  (Paris,  1900),  I,  724-727.  The  important  Reio- 
zioni  of  the  Venetian  ambassadors  to  their  senate  are  found  in 
the  collection  of  Alberi  (Florence,  3d  series.  1839-55).  The 
reader  is  also  referred  to  the  valuable  contemporary  Diarii  of 
the  Venetian  Marino  Sanuto  (Venice,  1879),  I-XV.  The 
Roman  dispatches  of  Giustiniani  to  the  authorities  tf  Florence 
were  edited  by  Pasqhale  Villari  (Florence,  3  vols.,  1876). 
The  statements  of  Macchiavellt  in  It  Principe,  in  the  I^ltcre 
Famigliari,  ed.  by  Alvisi  (Florence,  1883),  and  elsewhere,  are 
discussed  by  Pastor,  op.  cit.,  15  sqq.  For  Ciesar  Borgia  see 
Alvisi,  Cesare  Borgia,  Duca  di  Romagnola  (Imola.  1878). 
There  is  an  exhaustive  bibliography  of  Alexander  VI  in  Cheva- 
lier, Bio-Bibliographie,  2d  ed.  (Paris,  1905 ).  The  fair- 
est treatment  of  Alexander  by  a  non-Catholic  is  that  of  Rich- 
ard Garnett  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  in  the 
Cambridge  Modern  History. 

James  F.  Lodghlin. 
Alexander  VII,  Pope  (Fabio  Chigi)  ,  b.  at  Sierma, 
13  February,  1599;  elected  7  April,  165.5;  d.  at  Rome, 
22  Mfv,  1667.  The  Chigi  of  Sienna  were  among  tlie 
mast  illustrious  and  pow'erful  of  Italian  families. 
In  the  Rome  of  Renaissance  times,  an  ancestor  of 
Alexander  VII  was  known  as 
the  "Magnificent".  The  fu- 
ture Pope's  father,  Flavio Chigi, 
nephew  of  Pope  Paul  V,  though 
not  as  prosperous  as  his  fore- 
bears, gave  his  son  a  suitable 
training.  The  latter  owed 
much  also  to  his  mother,  a 
w  Oman  of  singular  power  and 
skill  in  the  formation  of  youth. 
Tlie  youth  of  Fabio  was  marked 
by  continued  ill-health,  conse- 
quent upon  an  attack  of  apo- 
plexy in  infancy.  Unable  to 
attend  school,  he  was  taught 
first  by  his  mother,  and  later 
by  able  tutors,  and  displayed  remarkable  pre- 
cocity and  love  of  reading.  In  his  twenty-seventh 
year,  he  obtained  the  doctorates  of  philosophy, 
law,  and  theology  in  the  University  of  Sienna, 
and  in  December,  1626,  ho  entered  upon  his  eccle- 
siastical career  at  Rome.  In  1027  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Urban  \'III  Vice-l.cgate  of  Ferrara,  and 
hi:  served  five  years  under  the  Cardinals  Sacchetti 
and  Pallotta,  whose  commendations  won  for  liim  tlio 
important  post  of  Inquisitor  of  Malta,  together  with 
the  episcopal  consecration.  In  1639  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  nunciature  of  Cologne;  and  in  1644 
wa.s  made  envoy  cxtraordinarj'  of  Innocent  X  to 
the  conference  of  Minister,  in  "which  post  he  ener- 
getically defended  papal  interests  during  the  ne- 
gotiations that  led,  in  164.S,  to  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia.    (See    Thirty- Veahs'    Wah.)    Innocent    X 


called  him  to  Rome  in  1651  to  be  his  secretary  of 
state,  and  in  February,  1052,  made  him  Cardinal. 
In  the  conclave  of  1655,  famous  for  its  duration  of 
eighty  days,  and  for  the  clash  of  national  and  fac- 
tional interests.  Cardinal  Chigi  was  unanimously 
elected  Pope.  The  choice  was  considered  provi- 
dential. At  a  time  wlien  churchmen  were  being 
forced  to  realize  the  deplorable  consetiuences,  moral 
and  financial,  of  nepotism,  there  was  needed  a  ]>ope 
who  would  rule  without  the  aid  of  relatives.  For 
a  year  the  hopes  of  Christendom  seemed  to  be  realized. 
Alexander  forbade  his  relatives  to  come  to  Rome. 
His  own  sanctity  of  life,  severity  of  morals,  and 
aversion  to  luxury  made  more  resplendent  his 
virtues  and  talents.  But  in  the  consistory  of 
24  April,  1656,  influenced  by  those  who  feared  (he 
weakness  of  a  papal  court  unsustained  by  ties  of 
family  interest,  he  proposed  to  bring  his  brother 
and  nephews  to  assist  him.  With  their  advent  came 
a  marked  change  in  the  manner  of  life  of  tlie  pontiff. 
The  administration  was  gi^■en  largely  into  the  hands 
of  his  relatives,  and  nepotic  abuses  came  to  weigh 
as  heavily  as  ever  upon  the  papacy.  The  endeavours 
of  the  Chigi  to  enrich  their  family  were  too  indul- 
gently regarded  by  the  Pope;  but,  ever  pious  and 
devout,  he  was  far  from  having  a  share  in  the  ex- 
cesses of  his  luxury-loving  nephews.  His  burden 
being  in  this  way  lightened,  he  passed  much  of  his 
time  in  literary  pursuits  and  in  the  society  of  the 
learned;  but  the  friends  whom  he  favoured  were 
those  who  could  be  best  relied  on  as  counsellors. 

The  pontificate  of  Alexander  \TI  was  shadowed 
by  continual  difficulties  with  tlie  young  and  ill- 
ad\ised  Louis  XIV  of  France,  whose  representatives 
were  a  constant  source  of  annoyance  to  tlie  Pope. 
Tlie  French  prime  minister.  Cardinal  Mazarin,  had 
not  forgiven  the  legate  who  resolutely  opposed 
him  at  the  conferences  of  Miinster  and  Osnabruck, 
or  the  papal  secretary  of  state  who  stood  in  the  way 
of  his  anti-Roman  policy.  During  the  conclave  he 
had  been  bitterly  hostile  to  Chigi,  but  w.as  in  the 
end  compelled  to  accept  his  election  as  a  com- 
promise. However,  he  prevented  Louis  XIV  from 
sending  the  usual  embassy  of  obedience  to  Alexan- 
der VII,  and,  while  he  lived,  hindered  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  French  ambassador  to  Rome,  diplomatic 
affairs  being  meantime  conducted  by  cardinal 
protectors,  generally  personal  enemies  of  the 
Pope.  In  1662  the  equally  hostile  Due  de  Cr^qui 
was  made  ambassador.  By  his  high-handed  abuse 
of  the  traditional  right  of  asylum  granted  to  am- 
bassadorial precincts  in  Rome,  he  precipitated  a 
quarrel  between  France  and  the  papacy,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  Pope's  temporary  loss  of  Avignon 
and  his  forced  acceptance  of  the  humiliating  treaty 
of  Pisa  in  1664.  (See  Louis  XIV.)  Emboldened 
by  these  triumphs,  the  French  Jansenists,  who 
recognized  in  Alexander  an  old  enemy,  became  in- 
solently assertive,  professing  that  the  propositions 
condemned  in  1653  were  not  to  be  found  in  the 
"Augustinus"  of  Cornelius  Jansen.  (See  jAN.-iE- 
Nius.)  Alexander  VII,  who  as  advisor  of  Innocent 
X  had  vigorously  advocated  the  condemnation,  con- 
firmed it  in  1665  by  the  Bidl  "  .^d  Sacram'  declar- 
ing that  it  applied  to  the  aforesaid  work  of  Jansen 
and  to  the  very  meaning  intended  by  him;  ho  also 
sent  to  France  his  famous  "formulary",  to  be  signed 
by  all  the  clergy  as  a  means  of  detecting  and  ex- 
tirpating Jansenism  (q.  v.).  His  reign  is  merao- 
ralilo  in  the  annals  of  moral  theology  for  the  con- 
dcinn:i(i()n  of  a  number  of  erroneous  propositions. 
Cardiii:il  Ilirgenrotlier  praises  (Kirchenge.sch.il  1, 4 1 4) 
his  iiiodcration  in  the  heated  dogmatic  controversies 
of  the  period.  During  his  reign  occurred  the  con- 
version of  (^ueen  Christina  of  Sweden,  who,  after 
her  abdication,  came  to  reside  in  Rome,  where 
on  Christmas  Day,  1655,  she  was  confirmed  by  the 


ALEXANDER 


295 


ALEXANDER 


Pope  Alexander  VII 


Pope,  in  whom*  she  found  a  generous  friend  and 
benefactor.  He  assisted  tlie  Venetians  in  combatine 
the  Turks  who  liad  gained  a  foothold  in  Crete,  and 
obtained  in  return  the  restoration  of  the  Jesuits, 
exiled  from  Venice  since  1600.  (See  S.\ni'i,  Venick, 
Jesuits.)  The 
inimical  rela- 
tions between 
S|);iiM  and  I'or- 
tuKaloccjusioned 
by  tlie  latter's 
cstalilishment 
of  indeiwnilenco 
(Ki-lO)  wore  a 
source  of  grave 
trials  for  Ale.x- 
antlcr,  ;is  for 
other  jioixis  be- 
fore and  after 
him.  .■\lo.\aiKler 
VII  did  much 
to  beautify 
Home.  Houses 
were  lev  e  1 1  e  d 
to  make  way 
for  straighter 
streets  and 
broad  p>iaz/.as, 
such  as  tliose  of 
Colonna,  and 
the  CoUegio  Romano.  The  decorations  of  the 
church  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  titular  church 
of  more  than  one  of  the  Chigi  cardinals,  the  Scala 
Regia,  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Vatican  I?:isilica, 
and  the  great  colonnade  before  that  edifice  bespeak 
alike  the  genius  of  Bernini  and  tlie  munificence  of 
his  papal  patron.  He  was  also  a  patron  of  learning, 
moaernized  the  Roman  I'niversity,  known  as  Sa- 
pienza,  and  enriched  it  with  a  magnificent  library. 
He  also  made  extensive  additions  to  the  Vatican 
library.  His  tomb  by  Bernini  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  monuments  in  St.  Peter's. 

The  public  .locurnentM  of  .Me.xanilcr  VII  are  fouml  in  Bullar. 
Rom.  (e.1.  Turin,  isr,9),  XVI-XVII:  I'ai.i.avi<  i.NO,  Vita  di 
Mrtaandro  Vll  i  Prato.  1W9.  2  voUl;  MuRATom.  Annali 
dlVilui  (Milan,  1,S20).  .XVI.  14-75;  Bargrave,  Pope  AUz- 
ander  VII  aivi  Ou-  CuUrof  of  CardinaU,  a  contemporary  ac- 
count (e.l.  Westminster.  181171;  Ranke.  The  Popes  of  Home, 
their  Church  nn,l  Stale  (e<l.  Kilinhurgh.  1847),  II,  190  sq.. 
502  so.;  VoN  Reumont.  Fabi»  Chit/i  in  Deutschland  (Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  1885);  /.'  Conclave  d'Alexandre  Vll.  a  conclavist 'a 
reconi  (OoloKne,  lGr>7i;  Rrvitr  dea  quettiona  historiquea.  July, 
1871.  A  lenRthy  Rtndv  of  the  numerous  proposition.^  con- 
demne<i  bv  .\lexander  VII  is  found  in  Vacant,  Diet,  de  thiol, 
eath.  (Paris.  1903),  I,  729-747:  Denzinger,  Enchiridion 
airmb.  et  defin.  (9th  e«l.,  Freiburg,   1000).  252-2.58. 

J.  B.  Peterson. 
Alexander  VlIX,  Pope  (Pietuo  Ottoboni),  b.  at 
Vcnico,  .\pril,  KilO;  elected  .5  October,  1089;  d.  at 
Rome,  1  Fcbruarj',  Ki'Jl.  He  was  tlie  son  of  Marco 
Ottoboni,  chancellor  of  the  Renublic  of  Venice,  and 
a  descentlant  of  a  noble  family 
of  that  city.  The  futtire  pope 
enjoyed  all  that  wealth  and 
.social  position  could  contribute 
towards  a  ix>rfcct  education. 
His  early  studies  were  made 
with  marked  brilliancy  at  the 
I'niverxlty  of  Padua  (().  v.1, 
whore,  in  1(J27,  he  secured  the 
doctorate  in  canon  and  civil 
law.  He  wont  to  Rome,  dur- 
ing the  pontificate  of  I'rban 
VllI  (l(;j:i  -H),  and  was  made 
Arms  or  Alexander  governor  of  Ternl,  Rioti,  and 
VIII  Spoleto.     For     fourteen    years 

he  served  as  auditor  of  the 
Rota  (q.  v.).  .\t  the  request  of  the  R"pul)lic  this 
favoured  son  wjis  made  Cardinal  by  Inn<iccnt  X 
(19  February,   1G52),  and  was  later  given  the  Blsli- 


opric  of  Brescia,  in  Venetian  territory,  where  he 
quietly  spent  the  best  years  of  middle  life.  Clenv 
ent  IX  made  him  Cardinal- Datary.  He  was  al- 
ready an  octogenarian  when  elected  to  the  papacy, 
and  lived  but  sixteen  months,  during  which  time 
little  of  importance  wtis  done.  Louis  XlV  of  France. 
wlio.se  political  situation  was  now  critical,  profited 
by  the  i)eacefiJ  dispositions  of  the  new  Pope, 
restored  to  him  Avignon,  and  renounced  the  long- 
abused  right  of  asylum  for  the  French  I';nil>;Ls.sy. 
(See  Alex.\ndeii  Vll.)  But  the  king's  conciliatory 
spirit  did  not  dissuade  the  resolute  Pope  from  de- 
claring (4  August,  1690)  that  the  Declaration  of 
Galilean  Liberties  (q.  v.),  drawn  up  in  1682,  was 
null  and  invalid.  He  assisted  his  native  Venice 
by  generous  sulwidies  in  the  war  against  the  Turks, 
and  he  purchased  for  the  Vatican  library  the  books 
and  manuscripts  owned  by  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden.  He  condemned  the  doctrine  of  a  number 
of  variously  erroneous  propositions,  among  them 
(24  August,  1690)  the  doctrine  of  "philosophical 
sin"  (see  Sin);  ef.  Denzinger,  "Enchiridion  Svmb.  et 
Dcfin."  (9th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1900),  274-278;  and 
Vacant  "Diet,  do  th^ol.  cath."  (Paris,  1903),  I, 
748-76:?.  Alexander  was  an  upright  man,  gen- 
erous, peace-loving,  and  indulgent.  Out  of  com- 
piLsslon  for  the  poor  of  well-nigh  impoverished  Italy, 
he  sought  to  succour  them  by  reducing  the  taxes. 
But  this  same  generous  nature  led  him  to  bestow 
on  his  relations  the  riches  they  were  eager  to  ac- 
cumulate; in  their  behalf,  and  to  the  discredit  of  his 
pontificate,  he  revived  sinecure  offices  which  had 
been  suppressed  by  his  predecessor. 

Kor  the  public  documents  of  his  pontificate  pee  BuUarium 
Rormmiim  (Turin,  1870),  .XX;  Mcratori,  ^nnoK  d  Italia 
(Milan.  1820).  XVI.  200-21(1;  Von  Uanke,  The  Popea  of 
Rome,  etc.  (ed.  EdinburEli.  1S47).  II,  278  fi\..  525  sq.;  Gerin, 
Le  Pajie  .ileinndre  Vlll  el  l.ouia  XlV  d'aprit  dea  docu- 
menla  inedUa  (Paris,  IS7S);  Bargrave  (cited  under  Alexan- 
der Vin,  chapter  on  Cardinal  Ottoboni. 

J.  B.  Peterson. 

Alexander,  Saint,  who  died  in  chains  after  cruel 
torments  in  the  persecution  of  Dccius,  was  first 
Bishop  of  Cappadocia,  and  was  afterwards  associated 
as  coadjutor  with  the  Bisliop  of  Jerusalem,  who  was 
then  116  years  old.  This  association  came  about  as 
follows:  Alexander  had  Ijeen  imprisoned  for  his 
faith  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus  and  on  being 
released  came  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  compelled 
by  the  aged  bLshop  to  remain,  and  assist  him  in  the 
government  of  that  see.  This  arrangement,  how- 
ever, was  entered  into  with  the  consent  of  all  the 
bishops  of  Palestine.  It  was  .\lexander  who  per- 
mitted Orlgen,  although  only  a  layman,  to  speak  In 
the  churches.  For  this  concession  he  was  taken 
to  task,  but  he  defended  himself  by  examples  of  other 
permissions  of  the  same  kind  given  o\en  to  Origen 
liimself  elsewhere,  although  tlion  quite  young. 
Butler  says  that  they  had  studied  together  in  the 
groat  Christian  school  of  Alexandria.  Alexander 
ordained  him  a  priest.  Especial  praise  is  given  to 
.Mexander  for  the  library  he  built  at  Jerusalem. 
F'inally,  In  spite  of  his  years,  he,  with  several  other 
bishops,  was  carried  off  a  prisoner  to  Ciosarea,  and 
as  the  historians  say,  "the  glorj-  of  his  white  hairs 
and  great  sanctity  formed  a  double  crown  for  him 
in  captivity".  He  suffered  many  tortures,  but  sur- 
vived them  all.  Wlien  the  wild  lx>iists  were  brought 
to  devour  him,  some  licked  his  feet,  and  others  their 
impress  on  the  sand  of  the  arena.  Worn  out  by  his 
sufferings  ho  died  in  prison.  This  was  In  the  year 
2.51.  His  feast  is  kept  by  the  Latins  on  18  March, 
by  the  Greeks,  22  December. 

Acta  Sanctorum.  II,  March;   Botler,   18  March. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alexander,  Saint,  known  as  "The  charcoal 
burner,"     was     Bishop    of     Comana,    in     Pontua. 


ALEXANDER 


296 


ALEXANDER 


Whether  he  was  the  first  to  occupy  that  see  is  open 
to  discussion.  The  Bollandists  have  also  a  long 
paper  as  to  the  exact  location  of  Comaua  as  there 
were  several  places  of  that  name,  but  decide  for 
Pontus,  near  Neo-Ca-sarea.  The  curious  name  of 
the  saint  corner  from  the  fact  that  he  had,  out  of 
humility,  taken  up  the  work  of  burning  charcoal, 
so  as  to  escape  worldly  honours.  He  is  called  a 
philosopher,  but  it  is  not  certain  that  the  term  is  to 
be  taken  literally.  His  philosophy  consisted  rather 
in  his  preference  of  heavenly  to  earthly  things.  The 
discovery  of  his  virtues  was  due  to  the  very  con- 
tempt with  which  he  had  been  regarded.  St.  Greg- 
ory Thaumaturgus  had  been  asked  to  come  to  Comana 
tohelp  select  a  bishop  for  that  place.  As  he  rejected 
all  the  candidates,  .some  one  in  derision  suggested 
that  he  might  accept  Alexander  the  charcoal-burner. 
Gregory  took  the  suggestion  seriously,  summoned 
Alexander,  and  found  that  he  had  to  do  with  a  saint, 
and  a  man  of  great  capabilities.  Alexander  was 
made  bishop  of  the  see,  administered  it  with  re- 
markable wisdom,  and  ultimately  gave  up  his  life 
for  the  Faith,  being  burned  to  death  in  the  persecu- 
tion of  Decius.  The  vagueness  of  the  information 
we  have  about  him  comes  from  the  fact  that  his  name 
is  not  found  in  any  of  the  old  Greek  or  Roman 
calendars.  He  would  have  been  absolutely  unknown 
were  it  not  for  a  discourse  pronounced  by  St.  Gregory 

.of  Nyssa,  on  the  life  of  St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus, 
in  which  the  election  of  Alexander  is  incidentally 
described.     In  the  modern  Roman  Martyrology  his 

■  name  occurs,  and  he  is  described  as  a  "  philosophus 
disertissimus."     His  feast  is  kept  on  11  August. 
AcUt  Sanctorum,  August  I.  rn    x    <-. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alexander,  S.mnt,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  date 
of  birth  uncertain;  d.  17  April,  326.  He  is,  apart 
from  his  own  greatness,  prominent  by  the  fact  that 
his  appointment  to  the  patriarchial  see  e.xcluded 
the  heresiarch  Arius  from  that  post.  Arius  had 
begun  to  teach  his  heresies  in  300  when  Peter,  by 
whom  he  was  excommunicated,  was  Patriarch.  He 
was  reinstated  by  Achillas,  the  successor  of  Peter, 
and  then  began  to  scheme  to  be  made  a  bishop. 
When  Achillas  died  .Alexander  was  elected,  and  after 
that  Arius  threw  off  all  disguise.  Alexander  was 
particularly  obnoxious  to  him,  although  so  tolerant 
at  first  of  the  errors  of  Arius  that  the  clergy  nearly 
revolted.  Finally,  the  heresy  was  condemned  in  a 
council  held  in  Alexandria,  and  later  on,  as  is  well 
known,  in  the  General  Council  of  Nicsa,  whose  Acts 
Alexander  is  credited  with  having  drawn  up.  An 
additional  merit  of  this  great  man  is  that  during  his 
priesthood  he  passed  through  the  bloody  persecu- 
tions of  Galerius,  Maximinus,  and  others.  It  was 
while  his  predecessor  Peter  was  in  prison,  waiting 
for  martyrdom,  that  he  and  Achillas  succeeded  in 
reaching  the  pontiff,  and  interceded  for  the  rein- 
statement of  Arius,  which  Peter  absolutely  refused, 
declaring  that  Arius  was  doomed  to  perdition.  The 
refusal  evidently  had  little  effect,  for  when  Achillas 
succeeded  Peter,  Arius  was  made  a  priest;  and  when 
in  turn  Alexander  came  to  the  .see,  the  heretic  was 
still  tolerated.  It  is  worth  recording  that  the  great 
Athanasius  succeeded  Alexander,  the  dying  pontiff 
compelling  the  future  doctor  of  the  Church  to  accept 
the  post.  Alexander  is  described  as  "a  man  held 
in  the  highest  honour  by  the  people  and  clergy, 
magnificent,  liberal,  eloquent,  just,  a  lover  of  God 
and  man,  devoted  to  the  poor,  good  and  sweet  to  all, 
so  mortified  that  he  never  broke  his  fast  while  the 
sun  was  in  the  heavens."  His  feast  is  kept  on 
17  April.  ^ 

Achi  SS.,  Ill,  February;  Botler,  Livct  of  the  Saints,  17  Feb- 

T.  J.  Campbell. 
Alexander  Saint,  Cemetery  of.    See  Catacombs. 


Alexander  I,  Scotch  Prince.     See  Scotl.\nd. 

Alexander  Briant,  Blessed,  English  Jesuit  and 
martyr,  b.  in  Somersetsliire  of  a  yeoman  family 
about  1556;  executed  at  Tyburn,  1  December,  15S1. 
He  entered  Hert  Hall,  Oxford,  at  an  early  age,  where 
liis  remarkable  beauty  and  purity  of  countenance 
won  for  him  the  appellation,  "the  beautiful  Oxford 
youth".  At  Oxford  he  became  a  pupil  of  Fatlier 
Robert  Persons  to  which  fact,  together  with  liis 
association  with  Richard  Holtby,  is  attributed  his 
conversion.  Having  left  the  university  he  entered 
the  English  college  at  Reims,  whither  Holtby  had 
preceded  him,  and  was  ordained  priest  29  March, 
1578.  Assigned  to  the  English  mission  in  August  of 
the  following  year  he  laboured  with  exemplary  zeal 
in  his  own  county  of  Somersetshire.  During  his 
ministrations  he  reconciled  to  the  Faith  the  father 
of  liis  former  tutor,  Father  Robert  Persons,  and 
the  intimacy  resulting  from  tliis  fresh  tie  between 
pupil  and  master  probably  led  to  the  former's  un- 
timely death.  A  party  of  the  persecution,  searching 
for  Fatlier  Robert  Persons,  placed  Blessed  Alex- 
ander under  arrest,  28  April,  15S1,  in  the  hope  of 
extorting  information.  After  fruitless  attempts  to 
this  end  at  Counter  Prison,  London,  he  was  taken 
to  the  Tower  where  he  was  subjected  to  excruciating 
tortures.  To  the  rack,  starvation,  and  cold  was 
added  the  inhuman  forcing  of  needles  under  the 
nails.  It  was  during  this  confinement  that  Blessed 
Alexander  penned  his  pathetic  letter  to  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  in  England  requesting  admission  into  the 
Society,  which  was  granted.  But  liis  membership 
was  short-lived;  together  with  six  other  priests  he 
was  arraigned,  16  November,  1581,  in  Queen's 
Bench,  Westminster,  on  the  charge  of  high  treason, 
and  condemned  to  death.  The  details  of  this  last 
great  suffering,  which  occurred  on  the  1  December 
following,  like  those  of  the  previous  torture  are  re- 
volting. Through  either  malice  or  carelessness  of 
the  executioner  he  was  put  to  needless  suffering. 
His  face  is  said  to  have  been  strikingly  beautiful  even 
up  to  his  death.  In  his  letter  to  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
he  protests  that  he  felt  no  pain  during  the  tortures 
he  underwent,  and  adds:  "  Whether  tliis  that  I  say 
be  miraculous  or  no,  God  knoweth".  He  was 
scarcely  more  than  twenty-five  years  of  age  at  the 
time   of   liis   martyrdom. 

Camm,  Lii'es  of  the  English  Martyrs  (London,  1905),  II, 
397-423;  Gillow,  Bibliograph.  Diet,  of  English  Calholica 
(London,  1885),  I,  293;  Foley,  Records  S.  J.,  IV,  343-367; 
Briefe  Historic,  85-91;  Persons,  De  Persecutione  Anglicana, 

E.  F.  Saxton. 

Alexander  Natalis  (or  Noel  Alexandre),  a 
F'rench  historian  and  theologian,  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Dominic,  b.  at  Rouen,  19  January,  1639;  d.  in  Paris, 
21  August,  1724.  He  made  his  early  studies  at  the 
Dominican  College  of  Rouen  and,  after  entering  the 
Dominican  Order  in  that  city,  9  May,  1655,  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  in  the  convent  of  Saint 
Jacques,  Paris,  where  he  afterwards  taught  for 
twelve  years,  during  which  time  he  gained  some 
renown  as  a  preacher.  In  1672,  at  the  wish  of  his 
superiors,  he  obtained  the  licentiate  from  tlie  Sor- 
bonne,  and  in  1675,  the  doctorate.  About  this  time 
he  attracted  much  attention  by  writing  against 
Launoy  on  the  subject  of  simony.  Persuaded  by 
that  generous  promoter  of  learning,  the  great  French 
minister,  Jean  Baptiste  Colbert,  to  enter  the  society 
of  savants  of  which  the  Abb(5  Colbert  (later  Arch- 
bishop of  Rouen)  was  the  central  figure,  he  lectured 
before  it  on  particular  events  of  history  with  such 
success  that  he  was  urged  to  write  a  complete  his- 
tory after  the  method  that  he  had  followed  in  his 
lecture.  He  yielded  to  this  wish  of  the  French 
scholar  and  published  at  Paris,  in  1677,  the  first 
volume,  bearing  the  general  title  "Selecta  historiio 
ecclesiasticsE  capita  et    in    loca    ejusdem    insignia 


ALEXANDER 


297 


ALEXANDER 


dissertationes  historictc,  criticte,  dogmatica; ",  in 
which  lie  treated  of  the  first  century  of  Christianity, 
and  in  UiSO,  the  twenty-fourth  voUinie  in  wliicli  lie 
closed  his  studies  of  New  Testament  history  willi 
dissertations  on  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  the  next 
few  years  he  published  six  octavo  volumes  of  ilisser- 
tations  on  the  liistory  of  the  Old  Testament.  His 
directness  and  conciseness,  his  critical  acumen,  and 
his  manner  of  viewing  history  and  dividing  it  into 
special  studies  (then  quite  original,  although  now 
common  enough)  won  for  him  the  approbation  of 
the  learned.  The  first  volumes  of  the  liistorj*  brought 
him  letters  of  commendation  and  i)raise  from  Pope 
Innocent  XI  and  many  cardinals,  but  later  volumes 
gave  offence  at  Home  because  of  the  author's  Clalli- 
canism,  and  Innocent  XI  finally  forbade  (l.'S  July, 
1684)  the  faithful  to  read  the  historj-  under  pain  of 
excommunication.  In  the  preface  to  the  third 
edition  (Paris,  Hi!)!),  eiglit  folio  volumes)  Father 
Alexander  submitted  fully  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Holy  See,  and  in  some  scholia  added  to  the  ilis.ser- 
tations  showed  that  in  some  instances  he  had  been 
criticized  and  judged  unjustly.  Father  Honcaglia 
(of  the  Clerks  Regular)  brought  out  at  Lucca,  in 
1734,  a  sixth  edition  of  the  work  in  nine  folio  volumes, 
in  which  he  gave  the  text  unaltered,  but  with  the 
addition  of  paragraphs  and  dissertations  correcting 
the  most  ofTensive  statonieiits. 

The  work  thus  corrccteil  was  removed  from  the 
Index  by  Pope  Benedict  XIII,  and  many  editions 
were  thereafter  given  to  the  public.  The  best  is 
that  of  Archbishop  Mansi  of  Lucca,  in  nine  folio 
volumes  (Lucca,  1749),  wlio  added  many  explana- 
tory notes.  .\n  anonymous  writer  in  two  supple- 
mentary volumes  carneil  the  history  into  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  and  added  various  dissertations 
from  the  pens  of  other  historians.  The  work  thus 
completed  appeared  at  Venice  in  1778,  in  eleven 
folio  volumes,  and  at  Bingen,  17(S;')-90,  in  twenty 
quarto  volumes.  LTpon  the  completion  of  his  his- 
torical dissertation  Father  Alexander  turned  his 
attention  for  some  years  to  strictly  theological 
studies,  and  in  IGO.'J  published  at  Paris  in  ten  octavo 
volumes  a  commentary  on  the  "  Catechismus  Roma- 
nus  "  entitled  "Theologia  dogmatica  et  moralis"  to 
which  he  added  for  preachers  an  Index  Concinnatorius, 
distributing  the  whole  work  into  sketches  of  ser- 
mons for  all  the  Sundays  antl  feast-days  of  the  year. 
The  work  has  also  two  appendixes  containing  valu- 
able letters  from  his  pen  on  moral  theology  and 
casuistry,  and  many  papal,  synodal,  and  episcopal 
documents  bearing  on  the  disputes  of  the  time. 
Later  editions  of  the  work  appeared  at  Paris  in  1703, 
two  folio  volumes,  in  1743,  four  quarto  volumes,  anil 
at  Finsiedeln  in  1768,  ten  volumes  octavo.  His 
next  work  of  importance  was  a  handbook  for  preach- 
ers: "  Pni'cepta  et  regulte  ad  pradicatorcs  verbi 
divini  informandos  ",  w-liich  first  appeared  in  Paris 
in  1701,  and  last  at  .Vugsburg  in  1763,  in  octavo. 
This  was  followed  (1703-10)  by  a  commentary 
" Commentarius  litcralis  et  moralis"  on  one  hundred 
and  sixty  Gospels  (for  Sundays  and  feast-days)  and 
on  the  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament,  which  has  often 
been  re-edited  in  various  forms.  In  1704,  Father 
Alexander  fell  into  Jansenism  by  signing  the  Cas 
de  Conscience,  but  he  soon  retracted.  Before  this  he 
carried  on  a  bitter  controversy  with  Father  Daniel, 
S.J.,  on  the  Dominican  and  Jesuit  doctrines  on  Prob- 
abilism,  Grace,  and  Predestination,  as  compared 
with  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  .Aquinas  on  these 
subjects,  which  waa  terminated  by  the  King,  who 
silenced  both  parties.  In  1706.  having  been  elected 
Provincial  of  the  Dominican  Province  of  France, 
he  was  obliged  to  interrupt  his  literary  labours. 
Freed  from  his  administrative  duties  in  1710.  he  .set 
himself  to  the  t.isk  of  writing  a  commentary  on  the 
prophetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.     In  1712 


he  was  forced  to  lay  aside  his  pen  by  a  weakness  of 
the  eyes  which  finally  resulted  in  total  blindness. 
He  died  of  old  age  in  the  convent  of  Saint  Jacques 
in  Paris,  having  enjoyed  throughout  his  long  and 
busy  literary  life  a  close  intimacy  with  all  the  learned 
men  of  his  time,  especially  with  Cardinal  Noris. 

While  writing  the  important  works  noticed  above 
Father  .Vlexanuer  published  several  dissertations  in 
which  he  .showed  (1)  that  St.  Thomas  was  the  author 
of  the  "Sununa  Theologica";  (2)  that  St.  Thomas 
was  the  author  of  the  "Office  of  Corpus  Chrisli"; 
(3)  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  a  I'ranciscan 
and  a  Dominican,  that  St.  i'honias  was  not  a  di.sci[ile 
of  Alexander  of  Hales,  and  that  the  Secunda  SccundiF 
of  the  "  Summa  "  was  not  borrowed  from  the  latter. 
These,  with  a  (li.s.sertation  against  Father  Frassen, 
O.S.F.,  on  the  Vulgate,  have  been  incorporated  in 
his  "Ilistoria  Kccle-siastica"  (Venice  edition,  1778). 
Father  .Vlexander  wrote  and  published  in  French: 
"  Recueil  de  plusieurs  pii^ces  pour  la  lidfense  ile  la 
morale  et  tie  la  grace  de  J.  C."  (Delft,  1698);  "  Apolo- 
gie  dcs  Dominicains  Mi.ssionaires  de  la  Chine,  ou 
r^-ponse  au  livre  intitul6",  "  D<5fense  des  nouveaux 
Chretiens"  (Cologne,  1697);  "Conformity  des  c('t6- 
monies  C'hinoises  avec  I'idolatrie  grecque  et  romaine, 
pour  servir  de  confirmation  h  I'apologie  des  Domini- 
cains Mi.s.sionaires  de  la  Chine"  (Cologne,  1700); 
"Lcttres  tl'un  Docteur  de  I'ordrc  de  S.  Dominique 
sur  les  c<5r6monics  de  la  Chine"  (Cologne,  1700). 

Qvkrn-  ani>  Eciiard,  ,S.S.  Onl.  Pmd..  II,  810;  Toiiion, 
Ilommet  illuttrrs  de  Vordre  de  Saint  Dominiaue,  V,  804-K40; 
Hii-GKHH,  Dcr  Index  der  verbotencn  BUcher  (Freiburg,  1904), 
138,  432  8<i<i. 

A.  L.  McMahon. 

Alexander  of  Abonoteichos,  the  most  notorious 
impostor  of  the  .second  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
Ilis  life  is  fully  described  by  Lucian  in  his  •itvibiiavTis, 
or  "Alexaniler,  the  Oracle-Monger."  Being  intel- 
lectual, of  pleasing  appearance  and  captivating  ad- 
dress, he  gained  many  followers,  not  only  in  his  own 
country  but  from  different  parts  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  By  cleverly  devi.sed  oracles  he  prepared 
souls  for  a  new  birth  an<l  exhibited  a  huge  serpent 
as  the  embodiment  of  his  new  divinity.  His  fame 
spread,  and  about  1.50  he  built  in  his  native  city  of 
Paphlagonia  a  temple  to  Esculapius,  that  was  soon 
visited  by  many  from  all  parts  of  Greece  and  Italy. 
The  numerous  questions  asked  of  the  new  oracle 
were  answered  by  "the  prophet"  in  metrical  pre- 
dictions. In  his  most  prosperous  year  he  is  saiil  to 
have  delivered  nearly  80,000  replies,  concerning 
bodily,  mental,  and  social  afflictions,  for  each  of 
which  he  received  a  drachma  and  two  oboli.  Great 
officials  consulted  the  oracle,  and  the  Roman  Rutil- 
ianus  married  the  charlatan's  daughter.  The  non- 
fulfilment  of  his  predictions  he  explained  plausibly, 
declaring  that  Pontus  wis  full  of  Christians  and  un- 
believers who  derided  him,  and  that  they  should  be 
stoned,  or  else  his  god  wouKi  no  longer  fa\i)ur  the 
people.  He  established  new  mv.steries  and  on  the 
tlay  of  their  inauguration  he  liad  this  proclama- 
tion made  in  the  temple:  "If  an  Atheist,  a  Chris- 
tian, or  an  Epicurean  be  present,  let  him  withdraw. 
Then  only  may  tho.se  who  accept  the  gotl,  do  him 
worship  joyfully."  As  the  objects  of  his  aversion 
were  being  expelled,  ho  continued  to  cry  out:  "Out 
with  the  Christians!"  while  the  crowd  added:  "Out 
with  the  Epicureans!"  Lewdness  figured  in  the 
ceremonies,  and  his  own  private  life  was  marked  by 
licentiousness.  He  continued  in  this  debiusing  career 
for  many  years  before  the  public  deserted  him.  He 
had  predicted  that  he  would  die  when  loO  years  okl, 
translated  from  this  sphere  of  action  to  another  by 
a  thunderbolt.  He  died  when  he  was  70  of  a  loath- 
,some  di.sease,  devoured  by  worms.  The  •i'tv&ktuivTtt 
is  deilicated  by  Lucian  to  Celsus,  possibly  the  au- 
thor of  the  anti-Christiau  work  refuted  by  Origen. 


ALEXANDER 


298 


ALEXANDER 


Elsewhere  decidedly  hostile  to  the  Christians  as  in 
"Peregrinus  Proteus",  unquestionably  Lucian  is  in 
tliis  work  favourable  to  them.  He  shows  tliat  while 
high  and  low  were  being  led  astray  by  the  false 
mysticism  of  AlexanikT  of  Abonoteichos,  the  Chris- 
tians lield  aloof  from  him,  and  with  the  Epicureans, 
with  whom  Lucian  markedly  contrasts  them  in  tlie 
"Peregrinus",  shared  the  full  measure  of  the  arch- 
hypocrite's  hate.  It  is  the  testimony  of  an  enemy, 
who  here,  at  least,  is  no  slanderer,  but  an  unwill- 
ing apologist  of  Jesus  Christ  and  His  persecuted  ad- 
herents. 

Dr,i. LINGER,  Heidcnthum  und  Judenthum,  644  sqq.;  Kell- 
NER,  HrlU'nismua  und  Chrislenlhum,  89  sq.;  H.  W.  Fowler 
AND  F.  O.  Fowi.ER.  The  Works  of  Lucian  rf  Samosata  (Oxford, 
1905),  tr.   II,  212-23S;    Himpel  in  Kirchenlex.,   I,  493. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Alexander  o£  Hales,  Franciscan,  theologian,  and 
philosopher,  one  of  tlie  greatest  of  the  scholastics, 
b.  at  Hales,  or  Hailles,  in  Gloucestershire,  towards 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century;  d.  at  Paris,  in  124.5. 
He  was  educated  at  the  monastic  school  in  his 
native  village,  and  probably  also  at  Oxford.  After 
having  finished  his  studies  in  England,  he  went  to 
the  University  of  Paris,  and  there  attained  the 
Jlaster's  degree,  first  in  the  faculty  of  arts  (philoso- 
phy), and  afterwards  in  that  of  theology.  From  a 
remark  made  by  Roger  Bacon  it  is  inferred  that,  in 
1210,  Alexander  was  Mai/istcr  regens  in  the  faculty 
of  arts,  and  this  is  the  first  date  of  his  biography 
that  is  certain.  Roger  is  also  our  authority  (though 
not  the  only  one)  that  Alexander  became  arcli- 
deacon;  but  whether  the  title  was  conferred  by  the 
Bishop  of  Paris  or  by  an  English  bishop,  is  uncer- 
tain. In  1220,  Alexander  joined  the  faculty  of 
theology,  in  which  he  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  teachers.  In  1231,  he  entered  the  Order 
of  St.  Francis,  continuing,  however,  to  perform,  as 
a  monk,  the  duties  of  a  licensed  teacher  of  theology, 
a  fact  which  was  of  the  utmost  importance  both  for 
tlie  University  and  for  the  course  of  studies  in  the 
Franciscan  Order.  Alexander  died  at  the  convent 
of  his  Order  in  Paris. 

In  the  chronicles  and  theological  treatises  of  the 
fourteenth  century  we  find  Alexander  styled  Doctor 
irreJTagabUvi,  Fans  Vita;,  Theologorum  monarcha.  His 
principal  work  is  the  "  Summa  Universse  Tlieologia"", 
begun  about  the  year  12.31  and  left  unfinished.  The 
third  part  is  defective,  especially  the  portion  treat- 
ing of  the  virtues  and  other  questions  in  moral 
tlieology.  To  supply  this  defect,  the  "Summa 
Virtutum  "  was  com|30sed  by  the  Franciscan  William 
of  Melitona,  though  the  work  was,  and  is  still  some- 
times, ascribed  to  Alexander  himself.  It  is  now 
agreed  that  not  Alexander  of  Hales,  but  Alexander 
of  Bonini  is  the  author  of  the  "Commentaries"  on 
Aristotle's  "Metaphysics"  and  "De  Anima."  The 
"Summa  Theologia;"  has  been  several  times  pub- 
lished (Venice,  1475,  l.-iTfi;  Nuremberg,  14S1,  1502; 
Pavia,  14.S1;  Cologne,  1622).  A  critical  edition  has 
recently  been  promised  by  the  Quaracchi  editors 
of  tlie  works  of  St.  Bonaventure.  Alexander's  other 
works  (Salimbene,  a  contemporary,  speaks  of  his 
"many  writings")  arc  still  unpublished. 

Alexander's  importance  for  the  history  of  theology 
and  philosophy  lies  in  the  fact,  that  he  was  tlic  first 
to  attempt  a  .systematic  exposition  of  Catholic 
doctrine,  after  tlie  metaphysical  and  physical  works 
of  Aristotle  had  become  known  to  the  schoolmen. 
His  is  not  the  first  "Summa".  The  collections  of 
".Sentences",  which  were  current  in  the  schools  since 
the  days  of  Abelard,  were  summaries  of  theology, 
and  were  often  so  titled  in  manuscripts.  .So  that 
Alexander  had  many  Summists  as  predecessors  for 
instance:  Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  Roland,  Omnebene, 
I'ctcr  Lombard,  Stephen  Langton,  Robert  of  Mehm, 
Peter  of  Poitiers,  William  of  Au.xerre,  and  Robert 


Pulleyn.  His,  however,  is  the  first  "Summa"  in 
which  use  was  made  of  Aristotle's  physical,  meta- 
physical, and  ethical,  as  well  as  logical  treatises. 
Peter  Lombard  did  not  quote  Aristotle  once;  Alex- 
ander quotes  him  in  almost  every  Qucestio;  he  quotes 
also  Arabian  commentators,  especially  Avicenna, 
and  thus  prepares  the  way  for  Albert,  St.  Thomas, 
St.  Bonaventure,  and  Duns  Scotus  for  whom  Aris- 
totle was  the  philosopher.  The  "Summa"  is  divided 
into  four  parts:  the  first  treats  of  God,  the  Trinity, 
etc.;  the  second,  of  creatures,  sin,  etc.;  the  third,  of 
Christ,  Redemption,  supernatural  law;  the  fourth,  of 
the  sacraments.  Each  Part  is  divided  into  Ques- 
tions, each  Question  into  Members,  each  Member 
into  Articles.  The  method  is  a  development  of  that 
employed  by  Abelard  in  his  "Yea  and  Nay",  and 
is  practically  that  with  which  readers  of  St.  Thomas 
are  familiar.  The  article  opens  with  a  recital  of  the 
objections,  then  follows  the  thesis,  with  proofs, 
scriptural,  patristic,  and  rational,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  article,  under  the  title  Resolutio  are  given  the 
answers  to  the  objections. 

Alexander's  theology  is,  in  its  main  outline.s, 
identical  with  that  of  St.  Bonaventure  and  St. 
Thomas.  Thus  he  starts  with  the  question  of  the 
knowableness  of  God,  and  decides  that,  while  the 
human  mind  can  know  that  He  is,  no  created  mind 
can  comprehend  what  He  is.  In  enumerating  the 
proofs  of  the  existence  of  God,  he  lays  stress  on 
St.  Augustine's  argument  from  the  need  of  an  abso- 
lute truth,  on  St.  Anselm's  ontological  argument, 
on  Hugh  of  St.  Victor's  argument  from  conscious- 
ness, and  on  the  Aristotelean  argument  from  causality. 
He  teaches  that  God  is  the  exemplar,  efficient  and 
final  cause  of  all  things,  that  He  is  the  Creator  and 
Preserver  of  all  things,  that  He  is  pure  Actuality 
(Actus  Purus).  all  tilings  else  being  composed  of 
matter  and  form.  This  latter  point,  the  coexten- 
siveness  of  matter  with  created  being,  later  on  became 
a  distinctive  tenet  of  the  Franciscan  School.  On 
the  problem  of  Universals,  Alexander  takes  up  the 
position  of  a  metaphysician  and  psychologist,  and 
thus  reaches  a  conclusion  to  which  his  predecessors 
of  the  twelfth  century,  who  argued  the  question  solely 
from  the  point  of  view  of  dialectics,  could  never  have 
attained;  he  teaches  that  L^niversals  exist  ante  rem, 
in  the  mind  of  God,  and  also  in  re,  as  forms  or  es- 
sences which  the  active  intellect  abstracts.  This  is 
the  conclusion  of  Moderate  Realism. 

In  psychology,  more  than  elsewhere,  Alexander 
shows  that  he  is  not  prepared  to  break  with  the 
traditional  Augustinian  teadiing  which  prevailed 
in  the  schools  before  the  introduction  of  Aristotle's 
"De  Anima".  Thus  he  adopts  the  threefold  division 
of  the  faculties  of  the  soul  into  ratio,  which  has  for  its 
object  the  external  world,  intcUrctus,  which  has  for  its 
object  created  spiritual  substances,  and  intcHigcntia, 
which  has  for  its  object  first  principles  and  the 
eternal  prototypes  of  things  in  the  mind  of  God. 
Augustinian,  also,  is  the  doctrine  that  our  knowledge 
of  higher  truths,  especially  of  higher  spiritual  truths, 
is  dependent  on  special  divine  illumination.  Despite 
these  Augustinian  principles,  however,  he  adopts 
Aristotle's  doctrine  of  the  Active  and  Passive  In- 
tellect, and  by  means  of  it  accounts  for  our  knowledge 
of  the  external  world.  Alexander's  importance  m 
the  history  of  Christian  Etliics  is  due  to  the  use  which 
he  makes  of  Aristotle's  ethical  treatises.  William 
of  Auxerre,  in  his  "Summa  Aurea",  made  use  of  a 
Latin  tran.slation  of  Aristotle's  "Ethics";  following 
his  example,  though  working  along  indeiicndent 
lines,  Alexander  takes  up  the  problems  of  the  Highest 
Good,  the  nature  of  virtue,  the  moral  aspects  of  ac- 
tions and  habits,  and  brings  to  bear  on  his  discus- 
sions not  merely  the  principles  of  the  evangelical 
law,  the  ethical  definitions  of  patristic  writers,  the 
legislation  and  practice  of  the  Church,  but  also  the 


ALEXANDER 


299 


ALEXANDRIA 


definitions  and  principles  laid  down  in  the  "Ethics". 
God,  he  teaches,  is  the  higliest  (iood;  man's  duty  is 
through  knowledge  ami  love  of  C!od  to  attain  posses- 
sion of  Him.  lie  defines  virtue,  in  the  Aristotelcan, 
not  in  the  traditional  .\ugustinian,  sen.se.  Alex- 
ander, being  the  first  of  tlie  great  thirteenth  century- 
schoolmen  in  point  of  time,  naturally  exercised  con- 
siderable infiuence  on  all  tho.se  great  leaders  who 
made  the  thirteenth  century  the  golden  age  of 
Scholasticism.  Within  his  own  Order  he  was  the 
model  of  other  great  Summists  as  to  method  and 
arrangement  of  matter,  (icrson  says  that  Alexander 
was  a  favourite  teacher  (doctor)  of  St.  Thomas. 
This,  however,  need  not  mean,  as  it  is  sometimes 
taken  to  mean,  that  St.  Thomas  frequented  his 
lecture-hall.  The  influence  was  exerted  chiefly,  if 
not  exclusively,  through  Alexander's  "Summa 
Univers;e  Theologi:e,"  w-liieh  St.  Thomas  followed 
very  closely  in  the  arrangement  and  method  of  his 
"Summa  Theologica  ". 

KNr)iiKs,  Des  Aler.  von  Uatea  Lrben,  etc.,  in  Philosophischea 
Jnhrh.  (Fulila,  1888)  1;  Felker.  Sludien  im  Framiskanrrorden 
(FreibiirK.  1904),  177  sqq.:  De  Maktion^,  La  scolastique  et  lea 
tradilvma  franciacainfa  (Paris,  1888);  .Stockl.  Geach.  der  Phil, 
dea  MilUl'iltera,  Bd.  II  (Mainz.  1805).  320  sqq.;  Turner,  Hial. 
of  PhOoaophy  (Boston,  1905),  320  sqn. 

William  Turner. 

Alexander  of  Lycopolis,  the  writer  of  a  short 
trc.'itisc.  in  twenty-six  chapters,  against  the  Mani- 
clurans  (R  (!.,  .XVIII,  -1U9-448).  He  must  have 
flourished  early  in  the  fourth  century,  as  he  says  in 
the  second  chapter  of  this  work  that  he  derived 
his  knowledge  of  Manes'  teaching  dvb  tUv  yvt^plnuv 
roil  avSpbi  (from  the  man's  friends).  Despite  its 
brevity  and  occasional  obscurity,  the  work  is  valuable 
as  a  specimen  of  Greek  analytical  genius  in  the  service 
of  Christian  theology,  "a  calm  but  vigorous  protest 
of  the  trained  scientific  intellect  against  the  vague 
dogmatism  of  the  Oriental  thcosophies".  It  has 
been  questioned  whether  Alexander  was  a  Christian 
when  he  wrote  this  work,  or  ever  became  one  after- 
wards. Photius  says  (Contra  ManiclLTos,  i,  11) 
that  he  was  Bishop  of  Lycopolis  (in  the  Egyptian 
Thebaid).  but  Bardenhewer  opines  (Patrologie,  234) 
that  he  was  a  pagan  and  a  platonist. 

CowELL  in  Diet,  of  Cbriat.  BiogT.,  I,  8G.  A  Rood 
aeparate  edition  is  that  of  A.   Brinkmann   (Leipzig,   1895). 

John  J.  a'  Beckkt. 

Alexander  of  Neckam.    See  Neckam. 

Alexander  Sauli,  Hi.ks.sed,  Apostle  of  Corsica, 
b.  at  Milan,  1533,  of  an  illustrious  Lombard  family; 
d.  at  Pavia,  II  October,  1.592;  declared  Blessed  by 
Benedict  XIV,  23  .Vpril,  1742.  .\fter  some  years  of 
study  under  capable  masters,  he  entered  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Barnabites  at  an  early  age,  and  be- 
came teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pavia,  and  later  Superior-General  of  the 
Congregation  (1.55.i).  In  l.")71  he  was  appointed  by 
Pius  V  to  the  ancient  .see  of  Aleria,  Cor-sica,  where 
faith  was  all  but  extinguished,  and  dergj-  and  people 
were  in  a  state  of  deplorable  ignorance.  With  the  aid 
of  three  companions,  he  reclaimed  the  inhabitants, 
corrected  abuses,  rebuilt  churches,  founded  colleges 
and  seminaries,  and  despite  the  depredations  of 
cor.s.airs,  and  the  death  of  his  comrades,  he  placed 
the  Church  in  a  flourishing  condition.  In  1")91  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Pavia,  where  he  died  the  follow- 
ing year.  He  left  a  number  of  works  chiefly  cate- 
chetical. 

Rauscii  in  Kirchenler.;  Bianciii,  Vita  del  B.  Alea.  Sauli 
(Bologna,  1878);  Acta  SS.,  23  April. 

F.  M.  RunoE. 

Alexander  Sevenis.  See  Persecutions:  Roman 
Emimuk:  .Skvkuis.  .\lexander. 

Alexandre,  Dom  Jacques,  a  learned  Benedictine 
mciiik  of  llic  Congregation  of  St.  Maur.  b.  at  Orleans, 
France,    24   January,    1653;  d.   at    Bonne-Nouvelle, 


23  June,  1734.  He  made  his  profession  in  the  abbey 
of  Vendomc,  26  .August,  1673,  and  after  completing 
his  philosophical  and  theological  studies,  was  sent 
to  the  monastery  of  Bonne-Nouvelle,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  died  sub-prior  of  the 
monastery.  Though  somewhat  delicate  in  health, 
he  was  a  man  of  great  industry  and  all  his  leisure  was 
devoted  to  the  stutly  of  mathematics  and  physical 
and  mechanical  science.  He  wrote  much,  though 
apparently  without  thought  of  publication,  for  most 
of  his  writings  were  merely  transcribed  into  a  large 
folio  volume  which  was  preserved  in  the  library  of 
Bonne-Nouvelle. 

.Mexandre  is  known  chiefly  by  his  two  works, 
" Traits  du  flux  et  du  reflux  de  la  mcr"  and  the 
"Traitc;  g(5n(^'ral  des  horloges."  The  former  had  al- 
ready been  written  when  the  Academy  of  Bordeaux 
proposeil  the  cause  of  the  tides  as  the  subject  of  a 
prize  essay.  He  submitted  an  extract  which  was 
deemed  worthy  of  the  prize  and  his  success  led  him 
to  publi.sh  the  entire  work  at  Paris,  1726.  This 
treati.sc,  based  as  it  is  upon  the  supposed  rotation 
of  the  earth  about  the  moon,  is  of  interest  only  from 
an  historical  point  of  view,  as  a  contribution  to  the 
solution  of  a  problem  which  has  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  most  skilful  analysts  since  the  time  of 
Newton.  The  "Trait(5  g<''n<''ral  des  horloges",  Paris, 
1734,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  a  general  t  reati.se  on 
the  history  and  the  art  of  constructing  time-pieces. 
It  contains  a  catalogue  of  writers  on  the  subject 
with  a  brief  account  of  their  principal  works.  Be- 
sitles  his  manuscript  works  on  subjects  in  mathe- 
matics, mechanics,  etc.,  Alexandre  added  a  sixth 
part  to  Huyghen's  treatise  "De  horologio  oscilla- 
torio",  in  which  he  describes  a  clock  the  length  of 
whose  pendulum  was  automatically  varied  to  enable 
it  to  indicate  apparent  solar  instead  of  mean  solar 
time.  \  description  of  the  penilulum  mechanism, 
which  never  came  into  practical  use,  may  be  found  in 
Berthoucl's  "  lvs.sai  sur  I'horlogerie",  Paris,  1786, 
I,  xvii,  where  some  of  its  defects  are  pointed  out. 

lliatnire  Littiraire  de  la  Corif/rtyation  de  Saint  Maur  (Brus- 
sels, 1770). 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Alexandria. — .\n  important  seaport  of  Egj-pt, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile.  It  was  founded  by 
Alexander  the  Great  to  replace  the  small  borough 
called  Racondah  or  llakhotis,  331  n.  c.  The  Ptole- 
mies, Alexander's  successors  on  the  throne  of  Egypt, 
soon  made  it  the  intellectual  and  commercial  metrop- 
olis of  the  world.  CV.sar  who  visited  it  46  n.  c.  left 
it  to  Queen  Cleopatra,  but  when  Octavius  went  there 
in  30  II.  c.  he  transformed  the  Egj-ptian  k'ngdom 
into  a  Roman  province.  Alexandria  continued 
prosperous  under  the  Roman  rule  but  declined  a 
little  under  that  of  Constantinople.  When,  after 
the  treaty  of  October,  642,  the  Byzantines  abandoned 
it  to  -Vmru.  the  Arab  invaders  hastened  its  ruin 
owing  to  the  conqueror's  impatience  to  build  a  new- 
town,  Cairo,  and  to  transfer  to  it  the  government 
of  Egj'pt  henceforth  a  Mussulman  province.  The 
ruin  had  been  great  under  the  .\rabians,  but  it  be- 
came worse  under  the  Turkish  rule  when  the  vic- 
tories of  Selim  had  subjugated  the  valley  of  the  Nile 
in  1517.  Bonaparte  on  the  2d  of  Julv.  170S,  did  not 
find  more  than  7,000  inhabitants  in  tiie  town.  Since 
then,  thanks  to  the  efTorts  of  Mehemet  .Mi  and  to  the 
great  political  and  commercial  events  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  city  of  Alexandria  has  become 
once  more  the  first  port  of  the  Eastern  Mediter- 
ranean with  235,000  inhabitants.  Christianity  w.is 
brought  to  .Alexandria  by  the  Evangelist  St.  Mark. 
It  was  ma<le  illustrious  by  a  lineage  of  learneil  doctors 
such  as  Panta^nus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
Origen;  it  has  been  govcrne<l  by  a  scries  of  great 
bishops  amongst  whom  .\thanasius  and  Cj-ril  must 
be  mentioned.     Under  Dioscurus,  successor  of  Cyril, 


ALEXANDRIA 


300 


ALEXANDRIA 


Eutychianism  appeared  and  the  native  popula- 
tion saw  in  it  an  excellent  means  of  freeing  them- 
selves from  Byzantium.  Their  zeal  for  this  heresy 
transformed  tiie  town  into  a  battle-field  where 
blood  was  shed  more  than  once  during  the  fifth, 
sixth,  and  seventh  centuries.  At  last  the  patnarchal 
Church  of  St.  Mark  found  itself  divided  into  two 
communions:  the  native  Copts  bound  to  error,  and 
the  foreign  Greeks  faithful  to  orthodoxy.  After 
the  .\rabian  conquest,  the  Greek  patriarchate  re- 
mained vacant  for  many  years;  at  the  time  of  the 
Byzantine  emperors  and  under  the  Ottoman  sultan 
its  holders  were  obliged  to  Uve  habitually  at  Con- 
stantinople. On  the  other  hand,  the  Copt  patri- 
archate transferred  itself  to  Cairo  and  saw  most  of  its 
disciples  become  Mu.ssulmans.  To-day,  owing  to 
its  commercial  importance,  Alexandria  possesses 
within  its  walls  every  tongue  and  Christian  race: 
Copts,  Greeks,  Latins,  Armenians,  Maronites,  Syr- 
ians, Clialdeans,  Protestants.  ,.  -j  j 
(1)  The  Copts,  a  small  community,  are  divided 
into  Monophysites  and  Catholics;  the  chief  of  the 
first  is  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  and  resides  at 
Cairo;  the  chief  of  the  latter  is  also  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  since  Leo  XIII  created  this  title  in 
favour  of  Mgr.  Macaire,  19  June,  1899.  (2)  The 
Greeks  also  form  two  groups,  the  so-called  Ortho- 
dox and  the  Melchites.  The  Orthodox,  separated 
from  Rome,  are  divided  into  two  factions  wliich 
differ  in  language  and  origin,  and  live  in  enmity: 
on  one  side,  the  Hellenophones,  many  of  whom  are 
natives  of  the  Greek  kingdom;  on  the  other,  the 
Arabophones,  subject  to  the  khedive  or  natives  of 
Syria;  all  these  have  a  patriarch  of  Greek  tongue 
and  race  whose  official  residence  is  in  the  town,  near 
the  church  of  St.  Sabas.  The  Melchites,  united  to 
Rome,  are  natives  of  Egypt  and  Syria;  they  are 
under  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jeru- 
salem, and  all  the  East,  but,  as  the  prelate  resides 
at  Damascus,  they  are  governed  by  a  bishop  who  is 
vicar  of  the  patriarchate.  (3)  The  Latins  have  no 
patriarch.  A  Latin  patriarchate  was  created  by 
the  Crusaders  who  took  Alexandria  in  1202  and  in 
1367;  but  this  patriarchate,  established  residentially 
from  1859  to  1866,  is  become  again  merely  nominal. 
Now,  nothing  but  an  apostolical  vicariate  exists; 
the  vicar,  a  member  of  the  Friars  Minor  of  St.  Francis 
has  specially  under  his  direction  the  Europeans  of 
foreign  colonies.  (4)  The  Armenians  are  divided 
into  Gregorians  and  Catholics;  the  latter  have  a 
Bishop  of  Alexandria  who  resides,  however,  at  Cairo; 
the  Gregorians  are  subject  to  a  simple  vartabet.  (5) 
The  Maronites,  whose  number  is  increasing  every 
day,  wish  to  constitute  a  diocese.  In  the  meanwhile 
they  are  governed  by  priests  appointed  by  the 
Patriarch  of  the  Lebanon.  (6)  To  the  300  Syrian 
Catholics  of  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  a  chorepiscopus 
who  resides  in  the  latter  town  is  given.  (7)  Still 
less  numerous,  the  United  Chaldeans  possess  no 
special  organization.  (8)  The  Protestants  are  repre- 
sented at  Alexandria  by  numerous  sects:  the  Angli- 
can Church  has  a  commvmity  since  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  and  a  school;  the  Scotch  Free 
Church  has  a  church  since  1867  and  a  school;  the 
Evangelical  Church  of  Germany,  established  in  the 
town  since  1857,  opened  a  churcli  in  1866  and  a 
little  school.  But  these  are  for  foreign  residents; 
the  mission  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
the  United  States  has  a  church  and  two  schools  for 
the  Copts  (about  100  members).  Moreover,  most 
of  the  Protestant  missions  which  work  among 
the  Copts  of  Upper  ICgypt  liavc  stations  or  lodgings 
at  Alexandria.  We  must  say  the  same  of  every 
religious  order  of  Catholic  mi.ssionaries  in  Egypt. 
Several  of  these  orders  have  scholastic  establish- 
ments. The  Jesuits  direct  the  college  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier.     The    Brothers    of    the    Christian    Schools 


conduct  a  college  to  which  a  school  of  arts  and  trades 
is  attached.  They  have  also  free  classes  and  different 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  town.  The  education 
of  young  girls  is  conducted  by  different  religious 
congregations,  such  as  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Mother  of  God,  and  the  Sisters  of  the 
D^livrande.  Jules   Pargoire. 

Alexandria,  Councils  of. — In  231  a  council  of 
bisliops  and  priests  met  at  Alexandria,  called  by 
Bisliop  Demetrius  for  the  purpose  of  declaring 
Origen  unworthy  of  the  office  of  teacher,  and  of 
excommunicating  him.  In  306,  a  council  held  under 
St.  Peter  of  Alexandria  deposed  Meletius,  Bishop  of 
Lycopolis,  for  idolatry  and  other  crimes.  The 
schism  then  begun  by  him  lasted  fifty  years  and  w;is 
the  source  of  much  sorrow  for  the  Church  of  Egypt. 
In  321  was  held  the  council  that  first  condemned 
Arius,  then  parish  priest  of  the  section  of  Alexandria 
known  as  Baucalis.  After  his  condemnation  Arius 
withdrew  to  Palestine,  where  he  secured  the  powerful 
support  of  Eusebius  of  Cwsarea.  At  the  Council  of 
326,  St.  Athanasius  was  elected  to  succeed  the  aged 
Alexander,  and  various  heresies  and  schisms  of 
Egypt  were  denounced.  In  340,  one  hundred 
bishops  met  at  Alexandria,  declared  in  favour  of 
Athanasius,  and  vigorously  rejected  the  calumnies 
of  the  Eusebian  faction  at  Tyre.  At  a  council  in 
350,  St.  Athanasius  was  replaced  in  his  see.  In  362 
w-as  held  one  of  the  most  important  of  these  councils. 
It  was  presided  over  by  St.  Athanasius  and  St.  Euse- 
bius of  Vercelli,  and  was  directed  against  those  who 
denied  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  human 
soul  of  Our  Lord,  and  His  Divinity.  Mild  measures 
were  agreed  on  for  those  apostate  bishops  who  re- 
pented, but  severe  penance  was  decreed  for  the  chief 
leaders  of  the  great  heresies  that  had  been  devastat- 
ing tlie  Cliristian  Church.  In  363,  another  council 
met  under  St.  Athanasius  for  the  purpose  of  sub- 
mitting to  the  new  Emperor  Jovian  an  account  of 
the  true  faith.  Somewhat  similar  was  the  purpose 
of  the  Council  of  364.  That  of  370  approved  the 
action  of  Pope  Damasus  in  condemning  Ursacius  and 
Valens  (see  Arianism),  and  expressed  its  surprise 
that  Auxentius  was  yet  tolerated  at  Milan.  In  399, 
a  council  of  Alexandria  condemned,  without  naming 
himself,  the  writings  of  Origen.  In  430,  St.  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  held  a  council  to  make  known  to  the 
bishops  of  Egypt  the  letter  of  Pope  Celestine  I  (422- 
432),  in  which  a  pontifical  admonition  was  conveyed 
to  the  heresiarcli  Nestorius.  In  this  council  the 
bishops  warned  him  that  unless  he  retracted  his 
errors,  confessed  the  Catholic  faith,  and  reformed 
his  life,  they  would  refuse  to  look  on  him  as  a  bishop. 
In  633,  the  patriarch  Cyrus  held  a  council  in  favour 
of  the  Monothelites,  with  which  closed  the  series  of 
these  deliberative  meetings  of  the  ancient  Church  of 
Egypt. 

Hefei.e,  Conrilirnnrsrhichle.  2d  eti.,  I.  II,  III,  paaiim; 
Neai.e,  The  Holy  Ensltrn  Church:  The  Patriarchate  of  Alex- 
andria (London,   1847);  Mansi,  I-X,  passim. 

Thomas  J.  Shah.wj. 

Alexandria,  The  Catechetical  School  of.  See 
Catechktics. 

Alexandria,  The  Church  of.  The  Church  of  Alex- 
andria, founded  according  to  the  constant  tradition 
of  both  East  and  West  by  St.  Mark  the  Evangelist, 
was  the  centre  from  which  Christianity  spread 
throughout  all  l''.gypt,  the  nucleus  of  the  powerful 
Patriarchate  of  .Vlixandria.  Within  its  jurisdiction, 
during  its  most  flourishing  period,  were  included 
about  108  bisliojis;  its  territorj'  embraced  the  six 
provinces  of  Upper  Liljya,  Lower  Libya  (or  Pentap- 
olis),  the  Thebaid,  I'^-gypt,  Arcadia  (or  Ileptapolis), 
and  Augustamnica.  In  tlie  beginning  the  successor 
of  St.  Mark  was  the  only  metropolitan,  and  he  gov- 
erned ecclesiastically  the  ent-re  territory.     As  the 


ALEXANDRIA 


301 


ALEXANDRIA 


Christians  multiplied,  and  other  metropolitan  sees 
were  created,  he  became  known  a.s  the  arch-metro- 
politan. The  title  of  patriarch  did  not  come  into 
use  until  the  fifth  century.  [I'or  the  controversy 
concerning  the  manner  of  electing  the  earliest  suc- 
cessors of  St.  Mark  see  that  article  and  Bi.siiop 
(cf.  Cahrol,  Diet.  d'arch6ol.  chrdt.,  I,  120-1-1210).] 

I'p  to  the  time  of  the  second  <rcunienical  council 
(3S1)  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  ranked  next  to 
the  Bishop  of  Rome.  By  the  third  canon  of  this 
council,  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  twenty-eighth 
canon  of  the  Council  of  Chalcodon  (-151),  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  supported  by  imperial  authority 
and  by  a  variety  of  concurring  advantages,  was 
given  the  right  of  precedency  o\-cr  the  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria.  But  neither  Home  nor  Alexandria 
recognized  the  claim  imtil  many  years  later.  Dur- 
ing the  first  two  centuries  of  our  era,  though  lOgypt 
enjoyed  unusual  quiet,  little  is  known  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical history  of  its  chief  see,  beyond  a  barren 
list  of  the  names  of  its  patriarchs,  handed  down  to 
us  chiefly  tlirough  the  ecclesiastical  historian  Euse- 
l>ivis.  Tlicy  were,  in  order:  Anianus  (d.  84);  Abilius; 
t'erdon,  one  of  the  presbyters  whom  St.  Mark  or- 
ilained;  Primus,  also  called  Ephraim,  advanced  from 
the  grade  of  layman;  Justus  (d.  130);  Eumenes; 
Mark  II;  Celadion;  Agrippinus;  Jvilian  (d.  1S9). 
With  the  successors  of  Julian  we  have  something 
more  than  a  mere  list  of  names.  Demetrius  governed 
the  Church  of  .Mexandria  for  forty-two  years,  and  it 
was  he  who  deposed  and  excommunicated  Origen, 
notwithstanding  his  great  work  as  a  catechist. 
Ileraclas  (d.  247)  exercised  his  power  as  arch- 
Mictropolitan  by  deposing  Ammonius,  Bishop  of 
Thniuis,  and  installing  a  successor  (Photius,  P.  G., 
CIV,  1229). 

Maximus  and  Theonas  (282-300)  were  followed  by 
Peter,  the  first  occupant  of  the  See  of  St.  Mark  to 
die  a  martyr  (311  or  312).  Then  came  Achillas,  who 
ordained  Arius  through  ignorance  of  the  man's  real 
character;  otherwise  St.  Athanasius  certainly  would 
not  have  given  that  bisliop  the  prai.se  he  docs.  On 
the  death  of  Achillas,  Alexander,  who  proved  him- 
self a  zealous  defender  of  the  orthodox  faith  in  the 
contest  against  Arius,  was  elected  bishop  by  unani- 
mous consent  of  clergy  and  jieople,  anci  in  spite  of 
the  interested  opposition  of  Arius.  Alexander,  ac- 
companied bv  hrs  deacon  Athanasius,  took  part  in 
the  Council  of  Xic:ra  (32.5),  but  died  soon  after  (328). 
The  Mcletian  faction  took  advantage  of  his  death, 
and  of  tl\e  absence  of  Athanasius  from  the  city, 
to  intrude  a  creature  of  their  own  into  the  vacant 
see,  one  Theonius.  lie  survived  but  three  months, 
when  Athanasius,  having  returned,  was  chosen  to 
succeed  Alexander. 

Of  the  ante-Nicene  bishops  who  ruled  this  church, 
Dionysius  and  Alexander  were  the  most  illustrious, 
as  also  were  St.  Athanasius  and  St.  Cyril  among 
tho.se  who  sulxscfiuently  filled  the  sec.  Athanasius, 
supi)orted  by  Home,  where  ho  sought  protection 
and  help,  tlie  unconquered  champion  of  the  true 
Faith  against  Arius,  died  in  373,  a  glorious  confessor 
of  the  Kaith,  after  an  episcopate  of  forty-three  j-ears. 
The  interval  between  the  death  of  Athanasius  and 
the  accession  of  St.  Cyril  (412)  was  filled  by  Peter  II, 
a  zealous  bishop,  who  wjis  obliged  to  seek  refuge 
in  Home  from  the  persecuting  Arians  (d.  381); 
Timothy  I  (3S1-3.S,"))  who  was  present  at  the  second 
aH'umcnical  council,  and  was  honoured  with  the 
contempt  of  the  imperial  court,  because  he  vigor- 
ou.sly  oppo.sed,  and  refused  to  acknowledge,  the  decree 
which  gave  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople  rank 
over  that  of  Alexandria;  Thcophilus  (385-412),  the 
inuuediatc  predece.s.sor  of  CyTil.  I'nder  St.  CjTil 
(412-444)  whose  noble  defence  of  the  Divinity  of 
Christ  has  rendered  his  memorj"  precious  in  the 
Church,  the  Patriarcliate  of  Alexandria  reached  its 


most  flourishing  epoch.  Over  100  bishops,  among 
them  ten  metropolitans,  acknowledged  his  authority; 
he  tells  us  himself  that  the  city  \va.s  renowned  for 
the  number  of  its  churches,  monasteries,  [jriests,  and 
religious  (P.  (i.,  LXX,  972).  At  this  time,  too,  the 
patriarch  po.sses.sed  considerable  civil  ])()wer,  and 
may  be  said  to  have  readied  tlie  zenith  of  his  reputa- 
tion. The  decline  of  his  office  dates  from  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century.  I'nder  Dioscurus  (444-4.')l), 
the  unworthy  successor  of  St.  Cyril,  the  CImrch  of 
Alexandria  became  embroiled  in  the  Monophysite 
heresy.  Dioscunis  was  deposed,  and  later  banished. 
The  election  of  Proterius  as  Catholic  patriarch  wiis 
followed  by  an  open  schism.  Preterms  was  mur- 
dered in  457,  and  Timothy  j^^lurus,  a  Monophysite, 
was  intruded  into  the  see.  The  schism  thus  begun 
by  Dioscunis  and  Timothy  gave  rise  to  two  factions, 
the  orthodox,  or  Catliolic,  party,  which  maintained 
the  faith  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ,  as  prescrilx'd 
by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  and  the  .Mo- 
nophysites,  who  followed  the  heresy  of  Dioscurus. 
The  former  came  to  be  known  as  Melchites  or  Ho.yul- 
ists,  i.  e.,  adherents  or  favourites  of  the  emperor, 
and  the  latter  as  Jacobites,  The  possession  of  tlie 
See  of  Alexandria  alternated  between  these  parties 
for  a  time;  eventually  each  communion  maintained 
a  distinct  and  independent  succession.  Thus  the 
Church  of  Alexandria  became  the  scene  of  serious 
disturbances,  which  finally  brought  about  its  ruin. 

We  touch  but  briefly  on  the  more  important  events 
that  followed.  The  Catholic  Patriarch,  John  Talaia, 
elected  in  482,  was  banished  by  the  lOmperor  Zeno, 
through  the  intrigues  of  his  Jacobite  rival,  Peter 
Mongus.  In  his  exile  ho  sought  refuge  with  Pope 
Simplicius  (408-483),  who  exerted  himself  seriously 
for  the  re-cstabli.shment  of  John,  but  to  no  purpose. 
The  latter  never  returned  to  his  see.  With  his 
banishment  the  Catholic  succession  of  Alexandrian 
bishops  was  interrupted  for  sixty  years,  and  the  local 
Church  fell  into  the  utmost  confusion.  The  Em- 
peror Justinian,  anxious  to  end  this  state  of  affairs, 
restored  the  Catholic  succession  (538-539)  in  the  per- 
son of  the  Abbot  Paul.  Unfortunately,  the  new  pa- 
triarch gave  some  grievous  offence  to  the  Emperor, 
whereupon  he  was  deposed,  and  Zoilus  succeeded 
him  in  541,  Among  the  successors  of  the  latter 
patriarch,  Eulogius,  Theodore  Scribo,  and  St,  John 
the  Almoner  (d,  C20)  csix^cially  distinguished  them- 
selves, and  restored  to  the  .Mexandrian  Church  some- 
thing of  its  former  reputation.  In  the  meantime, 
through  mutual  factions,  the  influence  of  the  Jacob- 
ites had  gradually  waned  until  the  election  of  the 
Patriarch  Benjamin  (G20),  On  the  other  hand,  dur- 
ing the  contest  between  the  Jacobites  and  Melchites 
(Catholics),  so  completely  had  the  spirit  of  sectarian- 
ism extinguished  tne  feeling  of  nationality  that  at 
the  time  of  the  Saracen  invasion  the  Jacobites  did 
not  hesitate,  in  their  animosity  towards  the  Mel- 
chites, the  imperial  or  Byzantine  part3',  to  give  up 
(038)  their  cities  and  places  of  strength  to  the  in- 
vaders (see  Mohammed.\.nism).  The  favour  which 
they  thus  secured  with  the  conquerors  enabled  them 
to  as.sume  a  predominant  position  [Dub,  Hev,, 
XXIV  (1848),  439].  Hitherto  the  Melchites.  though 
far  less  numerous  than  the  Jacobites,  had  held  the 
civil  power,  owing  to  the  aid  of  the  Emperor  and  his 
odicials.  By  the  treason  of  the  Jacobites  they  lost 
not  only  this  power,  but  with  it  many  of  their 
churches  and  monasteries.  After  the  death  of  the 
Patriarch  Peter  (054)  the  Melchite  succession  was 
broken  for  nearly  SO  years,  a  fact  that  contributed 
much  to  the  complete  Jacobite  control  of  the  pa- 
triarchate. During  this  inter\-al  the  .Metropolitan 
of  Tyre  consecrated  the  Catholic  bishops,  whose 
numlier  rapidly  decreased. 

The  Saracen  domination,  so  gladly  welcomed  by 
the  Jacobites,  proved  to  them  more  of  a  curse  tlmn 


ALEXANDRIA 


302 


ALEXANDRIA 


a  blessing.  They  suffered  many  bitter  persecutions 
under  successive  Moslem  rulers.  Many  among  the 
clergy  and  laity  apostatized.  Nor  did  the  Melchites 
escaiie.  Indeed  they  were  worse  off,  ground  as 
tliey  were  between  the  upper  and  nether  millstones, 
the"  Jacobites  and  the  Saracens.  When  their  pa- 
triarchate was  restored  (727),  under  Cosmas,  in  the 
caliphate  of  N'ischam,  their  situation  was  deplorable. 
Through  the  exertions  of  this  patriarch  they  got 
back  many  of  their  churches.  Ignorance  and  in- 
dolence, however,  had  spread  among  the  Melchites. 
In  the  services  of  the  Church  the  Greek  language 
was  soon  wholly  replaced  by  the  Arabic,  and  when, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  the  Venetians 
carried  away  to  their  own  city  the  body  of  St.  Mark, 
the  ruinous"  patriarchate  was  hardly  more  than  a 
name. 

With  the  Jacobites  matters  were  not  much  better. 
There  was  a  succession  of  undistinguished  patri- 
archs, except  at  intervals,  when  the  see  was  vacant 
because  of  internal  disputes.  Persecution  was 
frequent,  and  renegades  were  numerous.  By  the 
eleventh  century  Alexandria  had  ceased  to  be  the 
sole  place  where  the  patriarch  was  consecrated. 
From  this  date  Cairo  claimed  that  honour  alter- 
nately with  Alexandria,  though  the  enthronement 
took  place  in  the  latter  city.  A  little  later,  during 
the  patriarchate  of  Christodulus  (Abd-el-Me.ssiah), 
Cairo  became  the  fixed  and  official  residence  of  the 
Jacobite  patriarch.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Saladin  (1169)  a  serious  controversy  arose  be- 
tween tlie  Jacobite  Patriarchs  of  Antioch  and  those 
of  Alexandria,  concerning  the  use  of  auricular  con- 
fession. The  Jacobite  parties  of  the  two  patri- 
archates had  for  many  years  kept  in  close  touch 
with  one  another.  More  than  once  their  relations 
were  strained,  as  happened  particularly  in  the  time 
of  John  X  (Barsusan)  of  Antioch,  and  Christodulus 
(Abd-el-Messiah)  of  Alexandria.  They  fell  out  over 
the  proper  preparation  of  the  Eucharistic  oblations, 
in  which  the  Syrian  Jacobites  were  in  the  habit  of 
mingling  a  little  oil  and  salt.  (Neale,  Patriarchate 
of  Alex.,  II,  214).  Christodulus  insultingly  re- 
jected the  practice.  John  of  Antioch  wTOte  in  its 
defence.  The  new  controversy  about  the  use  of 
auricular  confession  severed  the  once  friendly  rela- 
tions of  the  two  communions.  Mark,  son  of  Kunbar, 
and  his  successor,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  were  f"r 
abolishing  the  practice  altogether,  while  Michael 
of  Antioch  as  vigorously  insisted  upon  its  continu- 
ance (Renaudot,  Liturg.  Orient. ,  II,  50,  44S;  Historia 
Patr.  Jacobit.  Alex.,  550;  Neale,  op.  cit.,  II,  261). 

For  twenty  years  (1215-35)  the  Jacobites  were 
without  a  patriarch,  because  they  could  not  agree 
among  themselves.  During  this  break  in  the 
Jacobite  succession,  Nicholas  I,  the  Melchite  pa- 
triarch, addressed  an  appeal  to  Pope  Innocent  III 
(1198-1216),  imploring  his  good  offices  with  the 
Templars  and  Hospitallers  in  favour  of  some  Chris- 
tian captives  (Neale,  op  cit.,  II,  279).  A  few  years 
later  (1221),  when  Damietta  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens,  Nicholas  wrote  again  to  the 
Pope,  Ilonorius  III  (1216-27),  for  assistance  in  the 
struggles  that  were  fast  overwhelming  his  Church. 
We  may  note  here  that  the  revolutions  which  sub- 
sequently befell  the  (ireek  Empire  of  Constantinople 
had  little  effect  on  the  fortvmcs  of  the  Church  of 
Alexandria.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Crusades; 
though  closely  connected  with  local  Alexandrian 
history,  they  do  not  .seem  to  have  had  much  influ- 
ence upon  its  internal  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

There  is  little  left  to  chronicle  of  the  Jacobite 
and  -Melchite  communions  of  the  Church  of  Alexan- 
dria. Botli  suffered  severely  in  the  cnishing  perse- 
cution of  the  fourteenth  cent\iry.  The  Jacobites, 
utterly  demoralized,  managed  to  continue  the  s\ic- 
cession  of   their  patriarchs,  who,  as  we  have  seen. 


resided  no  longer  in  Alexandria,  but  in  old  Cairo. 
In  its  widest  extension,  the  patriarchate  included 
fifteen  bishoprics,  and  laid  claim  to  jurisdiction  over 
all  the  Coptic  Christians  of  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Nubia, 
and  Barbary,  or  the  native  tribes  of  northern  Africa. 
During  this  dark  period  the  Melchites  fell  more  and 
more  under  the  influence  of  the  Byzantine  patri- 
archs, and  thus  sank  ever  deeper  into  the  Greek 
schism.  Their  patriarch,  a  mere  shadow  of  what 
he  once  was,  resides  at  Stamboul,  and  glories  in 
the  title  of  "Patriarch  of  Alexandria  and  CKcumeni- 
cal  Judge  ".  It  is  an  empty  title,  since  he  is  supreme 
pastor  over  only  five  thousand  souls,  and  where 
formerly  more  than  one  hundred  bishops  acknowl- 
edged the  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
only  four  now  form  the  synod  of  the  "OCcumenical 
Judge".  They  are  the  Bishops  of  Ethiopia,  Mem- 
phis, Damietta,  and  Rosetta. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  treat  briefly  of  the 
Latin  patriarchate  of  the  Church  of  Alexandria. 
Since  the  seventh  century  the  patriarchate,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  divided  between  the  Jacobites  and 
the  Melchites,  both  of  which  bodies  eventually 
became  schismatical.  Among  the  patriarchs  a  few 
had  courted  the  friendship  of  Rome,  but  none  seems 
to  have  entered  into  full  communion  with  her. 
There  were,  however,  some  Christians,  as  there  are 
to-day,  who  were  in  no  sense  schismatical,  but 
remained  in  full  communion  with  the  Holy  See. 
It  was  doubtless  in  their  behalf  that  in  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Innocent  111(1198-1216)  a  patriarch  of  the 
Latin  rite  was  appointed  for  Alexandria.  The  time 
seemed  favourable  for  such  an  appointment,  be- 
cause of  the  progress  of  the  Crusades.  The  actual 
date  is,  however,  uncertain.  Sollerius  (Acta  SS., 
Jun.  vii,  1887),  and  the  "Lexicon  Biblicum"  of  Simon, 
quoted  by  him,  speak  of  a  "S.  Athanasius  Claro- 
montanus  pro  Latinis,  A.  D.  1219  ".  There  is  no 
further  mention  of  this  patriarch,  nor  is  it  certai/i 
that  he  was  the  first  incumbent  of  the  Latin  patri- 
archate. We  say  it  is  not  certain,  because  the  date 
of  appointment,  or  perhaps  of  the  consecration,  of 
Athanasius,  as  given  by  Sollerius,  is  1219,  whereas 
the  establishment  of  the  Latin  patriarchate  oc- 
curred in  1215.  This  is  clear  from  the  Twelfth 
General  Council  (Fourth  Lateran),  held  in  that  year 
(Labbe,  xi.,  153).  Neale  (op.  cit.,  II,  288)  gives  a 
list  of  the  Latin  patriarchs,  and  heads  it  with  the 
name  of  Giles,  a  Dominican  friar  appointed  in  1310 
by  Clement  V.  From  this  on  he  follows  Sollerius 
(Acta  SS.,  loc.  cit.),  who  gives  us  the  names  of  the 
Latin  patriarchs  from  1219  to  1547. 

After  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land  and  the  overthrow 
of  all  Latin  domination  in  the  Byzantine  Empire, 
the  Latin  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria  ceased  to  exist 
except  as  a  mere  titular  dignity  (Wcrnz,  Jus  Decre- 
talium,  p.  837).  In  1895,  Pope  "Leo  XIII  established 
a  patriarchate  of  the  Coptic  rite  with  two  suffragan 
sees,  Minieh  and  Luksor,  for  the  Copts  in  conununion 
with  the  Holy  See  (Monit.  Eccles.,  ix,  part.  1,  225). 

Vansleb,  Hiatoire  de  fegiise  (T .Uexandrie  (Paris.  1677); 
I.E  QuiKN.  Oricna  Christianus  (Paris.  1740),  II,  329-512, 
III,  114I—1G:  Renaudot,  Historia  Patriorchnrum  Aleiandr, 
Jacobitarum  (Paris,  17131;  Sollerius,  De  Patriarchit  Aleian- 
drinis.  in  Acta  ss.  Jun.  vii  (ed.  Paris,  1807)  Mokini,  D* 
Patriarcharum  et  Primatum  origine,  in  his  Exercit.  Select. 
(Paris,  1669);  Edtvciiius  (Melchite  Patriarch  of  Alexnmlria. 
933-940).  Alexandrina  Ecclesice  Origines  (ed.  Pococke,  Oxon., 
1(558);  Nealh.  The  Patriarchate  ii[  Alexandria,  (2  vols.  Lon- 
don. 1847);  Macaire,  Hut.  de  Vtgli»e  dAlei.  depuii  Saint 
Marc  jusqu'U  noa  joura  (Cairo,  1894).  The  ecclesiastical 
aiitiquitie.s  of  Alexandria  are  treated  at  lenirth  by  Lb- 
CLERCQ  in  Diet,  d'archiiil.  chrct.  el  de  lit..  I,  1098-1182;  cf. 
iliitl.  (1177-82)  an  extensive  bibliography,  also  in  Chevalier, 
Rip.  dea  Sourcea  hiat.  (Topo-Bibl.),  I,  49-52. 

Joseph  M.  \\  oods. 

Alexandria,  The  Diocese  of,  suffragan  of  Kings- 
ton, Ont.  It  comprises  the  counties  of  Glcngarrv  and 
Stormont.  and  was  created  a  diocese  by  Leo  XIII,  by 
the  Decree  "In  hac  sublimi",  23  Jan.,  li^30.     It  has 


ALEXANDRIA 


303 


ALEXANDRINE 


24.000  Catholics,  19  priests,  IC.  sisters,  14  parishes, 
19  churches,  4  convents,  2, .500  children  in  Catliolic 
schools.  First  bishop,  Alexander  MucDonnell,  b. 
Lochiel.  County  Glengarry,  Ont.,  1  Nov.,  ISXi; 
d.  at  Montreal,  30  May,  1905.  He  was  ordained 
priest  20  Dec,  1S62;  appointed  bishop,  IS  July, 
1900;   consecrated   in   October  of  same  year. 

J.f  CuTi'ula  fcdenuiftique  pour  Vannfe,  1906  (Montreal); 
Battam>ii.h.  Ann.  ponl.  culh..  1900.  189. 

Alexandria,   The   Exegetical  School  of.     See 

KXEGESI.S. 

Alexandrian  Codex,  Tiif:.     See  Codex  Alex.vn- 

DUINUS. 

Alexandrian  Library,  The. — The  Great  Library  of 
Alexandria,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
smaller  or  "daughter''  library  in  the  Serapeum, 
was  a  foundation  of  the  first  Ptolemies  for  the  pur- 
pose of  aiihng  the  maintenance  of  Greek  civilization 
m  the  midst  of  the  coii.servative  Egyptians.  If  the 
removal  of  Demetrius  Phalereus  to  Alexandria,  in 
29G-29.5  n.  c.,was  connected  with  the  organization 
of  the  library,  at  least  the  plan  for  this  institution 
must  have  been  formed  under  Ptolemaios  Soter 
(died  c.  284  B.  c),  but  the  completion  of  the  work 
and  its  connection  with  the  Museum  was  the  achieve- 
ment of  his  successor,  Ptolemaios  Philadelphos.  As 
Strabo  does  not  mention  the  library  in  his  description 
of  the  buildings  upon  tiie  harbour,  it  is  clear  that  it  was 
not  in  that  part  of  the  city,  and  its  connection  with 
the  Museum  points  to  a  location  in  the  Bruclieion, 
or  nortlnvestem  quarter  of  the  city.  Of  the  means 
by  which  the  boolcs  were  acquired  many  anecdotes 
are  told.  Ships  entering  the  liarbour  were  forced  to 
give  up  any  manuscripts  they  had  on  board  and 
take  copies  instead.  Tlie  odicial  copy  of  the  works 
of  the  three  great  tragedians  belonging  to  Atliens 
was  retained  by  forfeiting  the  deposit  of  15  talents 
that  had  been  pledged  for  its  return.  The  rivalry 
between  Alexandria  and  Pergamon  was  so  keen  that 
to  cripple  the  latter  the  exportation  of  papyrus  was 
proliibited.  Necessity  led  to  the  peifccting  of  the 
metliods  of  preparing  skins  to  receive  writing,  the 
impro\ed  material  being  known  as  "charta  i)erga- 
mena",  from  which  is  derived  our  "parchment". 
This  rivalry  was  also  the  occasion  of  the  composition 
of  many  spurious  works,  of  devices  for  giving  to 
man\tscripts  a  false  appearance  of  antiquity,  and  also 
of  hastv  and  careless  copying.  The  number  of  books 
thus  obtained  is  variously  stated,  the  discrepancy 
being  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  statements 
refer  to  various  periods.  Demetrius  Plialereus  is 
said  to  have  reported  that  the  number  of  papynis 
rolls  was  2fX),0()0,  but  that  he  hoped  to  increase  it 
soon  to  .5(K).000.  In  the  time  of  Callimachos  490,000 
rolls  are  mentioned;  later,  Auliis  Gellius  and  Am- 
mianus  Marcellinus  speak  of  700,000  rolls.  Orosius, 
on  the  other  hand.  sjK'aks  only  of  400,000,  while 
Seneca  says  that  40.000  rolls  were  burnt  (probably 
an  error  for  400,000).  The  first  librarian  was  Ze- 
nodotus  (234  B.C.).  He  was  succeeded  in  turn  by 
Eratosthenes  (234-195  ii.  c);  Aristophanes  of  Bj-zan- 
tium  (195-181  B.C.);  and  Aristarchos  of  Samothrace 
(lSI-171  E.G.),  all  famous  names  in  the  history  of 
scholarship.  The  inclusion  in  this  list  of  Callima- 
chos and  ApoUonios  Rhodios  rests  on  slight  authority 
and  seems  chronologically  impossible.  The  work  of 
these  men  consisted  in  chissifying,  cataloguing,  and 
editing  the  works  of  Greek  literature  and  exerted 
a  deep  and  permanent  influence  not  only  upon 
the  form  of  the  books,  their  subdivisions,  and 
arrangement,  but  also  upon  the  transmission  of  the 
texts  and  all  phases  of  the  study  of  the  history  of 
literature.  After  Aristarchos  the  importance  of  the 
library  l)egan  to  wane.  In  47  H.  c.  CVsar  was  com- 
pelled to  set  fire  to  his  fleet  to  prevent  its  falling  into 
tlie  hands  of  the  Egj'ptians.  The  fire  spread  to  the 
docks  and  the  naval  arsenal,  and  destroyed  400,000 


rolls.  It  is  most  probable  from  the  statement  of 
Orosius  that  these  were  not  in  the  librarj'  itself,  but 
had  been  removed  from  it  preparatory  for  shipment 
to  Rome,  a  view  confirmed  by  the  statement  of  the 
author  of  the  "  Bellum  Alexandrinum "  that  Alex- 
andria Wiis  built  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  safe  from  a 
great  conflagration.  Seneca  and  Gellius  also  speak 
only  of  tlie  burning  of  manuscripts,  though  the  latter 
represents  tlie  destruction  as  complete.  Less  care- 
fully, Plutarch  and  Dio  Ciissius  speak  of  the  burning 
of  the  library,  but  had  this  been  the  case  we  .should 
find  mention  of  it  in  Cicero  and  Strabo.  The  loss 
of  books  was  partly  repaired  by  Anthonj''s  gift  to 
Cleopatra,  in  41  B.  c,  of  200,000  volumes  from  the 
library  of  Pergamon.  Domitian  drew  upon  the 
library  for  transcripts.  Under  Aurelian,  in  a.  d.  272, 
the  greater  part  of  the  Bruclieion  was  destroyed,  and 
it  is  most  probable  that  the  library  iJerished  at  this 
time.  The  small  library  in  the  Serapeum  is  supposed 
to  have  perished  when  the  temple  of  Serapis  was  de- 
stroyed bv  Theophilus,  but  there  is  no  definite  state- 
ment to  tliat  etTect.  Up  to  the  time  of  Gibbon,  the 
generally  accepted  version  of  the  destruction  of  the  li- 
brary was  that,  on  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  Ma- 
hommedans  in  A.  D.  642,  John  Philoponos,  having 
formed  a  friendship  with  their  general  Am.rou,  a-sked 
for  the  gift  of  the  librarj'.  Amrou  referred  the  mat- 
ter to  the  Caliph  Omar  and  received  the  answer:  "If 
these  writings  of  the  Greeks  agree  with  the  book  of 
God,  they  are  useless,  and  need  not  be  preserved;  if 
they  disagree,  they  are  pernicious,  and  ought  to  be 
destroyed."  Accordingly,  they  were  employed  in  tlie 
baths  as  fuel,  and  lasted  six  months.  Phis  storj-  is 
now  generally  discredited,  chiefly  because  it  rests 
only  on  the  authority  of  Abulpharagius,  a  writer  si.x 
ccnturit>s  later,  wliile  earlier  writers,  especially  Euty- 
chius  and  Elmacin,  make  no  mention  of  it.  Besides, 
the  act  is  contrarv  to  Mohammedan  custom;  John 
Philoponos  lived  about  a  century  before  the  capture 
of  the  city,  and  the  statement  of  the  time  the  rolb 
lasted  as  fuel  is  preposterous.  Finally,  there  is  the 
evidence  given  above  for  the  earlier  destruction  of 
the  librarj'. 

Sa.niits,  ".I  Uitloru  of  ClaMical  Scholarship  (Cambridge, 
1903);  UlTsniL,  OpuDcuta  Philoloi/ica.  I;  Si'semihl,  GetrhirhU 
der  ffr.  LUterutur  in  dcr  AUxandrinerzcit  (Leipziff.  IS'Jl  ); 
DziATZKO,  in  Tauly-Wissowa,  Rfal-Encyclopadie,  111.  409- 
414. 

GEonGE  Melville  Bollino. 
Alexandrine  Liturgy,  The.— The  tradition  of  the 
Church  of  Egypt  traces  its  origin  to  the  Evangelist 
St.  Mark,  the  first  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  as- 
scribes  to  him  the  parent  liturgy  from  which  all  the 
others  used  by  Melchites,  Copts,  and  by  the  daughter- 
Church  of  Abyssinia  are  derived.  These  three  bodies 
possess  the  three  groups  of  liturgies  used  throughout 
the  original  Patnarchate  of  Alexandria.  There  is 
the  Greek  Liturgj-  of  St.  Mark,  the  oldest  form  of  the 
three,  u.sed  for  some  centuries  after  the  Monophysite 
schism  by  the  orthodox  Mclcliites;  there  are  then 
three  liturgies,  still  used  by  the  Copts,  translated  into 
Coptic  from  the  Greek  and  derived  from  the  Greek 
St.  Mark,  and,  further,  a  number  of  Abyssinian 
(Ethiopic)  uses,  of  which  the  foundation  is  the 
"Liturgj'  of  the  Twelve  Apostles",  that  also  de- 
scends from  the  original  Greek  Alexandrine  rite. 
By  comparing  these  liturgies  and  noticing  what  is 
common  to  them,  it  is  possible  in  some  measure  to 
reconstruct  the  old  use  of  the  Church  of  Alexandria 
as  it  existed  before  the  Monophvsite  schism  and  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451).  There  are,  moreover, 
other  indications  of  that  use.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(d.  c.  217)  makes  one  or  two  allusions  to  it;  St.  Athana- 
sius  (d.  373)  has  many  more;  the  Prayer  Book  of 
Scrapion,  Bishop  of  Thmuis  in  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  centurj',  and  the  descriptions  of  Pseudo- 
Dionysius  (De  hierarchia  eccl.),  at  about  the  same 
time,  in  Egj'pt,  make  it  possible  to  reconstruct  the 


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ALEXANDRINE 


outline  of  the  Egypti;iii  Liturgy  of  their  time,  which 
is  then  seen  to  coincide  w  itli  tlie  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark. 

I.  The  Liturgv  ok  St.  Athanasius,  Serapion, 
AND  PsEUDO-DioNVsius. — Tlie  Mass  was  divided  into 
two  cliief  parts,  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  and 
that  of  tlie  Faithful.  When  the  Arians  persuaded 
a  certain  Ischyras  to  accuse  St.  Athanasius  of  having 
overturned  his  altar  and  broken  his  chalice  during 
the  Liturgy,  they  made  the  mistake  of  producing  a 
catechumen  as  a  witness.  St.  Athanasius  could  at 
once  point  out  that  the  chalice  is  not  brought  to  the 
altar  till  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful,  when  the  cate- 
chumens have  been  dismissed  (Contr.  Arian.,  xxviii 
and  xlvi).  The  JIass  of  the  Cateclumiens  consisted 
of  Lessons  from  Holy  Scripture,  Psalms  sung  alter- 
nately, and  Homilies.  Then  follow  the  blessing  and 
dismissal  of  various  kinds  of  people  who  are  not 
allowed  to  be  present  at  the  Holy  Eucharist,  the 
catechumens,  penitents,  and  cnergumens.     In  Sera- 

Cion  and  Pseudo-Dionysius  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful 
egins  with  the  bringing  of  the  oblations  to  the  altar; 
they  are  then  covered  with  a  veil.  The  deacon  reads 
out  a  litany  for  various  causes  (v  KutfoXi/cT;),  to  each 
petition  of  which  the  people  answer  "  Kyrie  eleison  ", 
and  the  bishop  sums  up  their  prayers  in  a  collect. 
Then  follows  the  kiss  of  peace.  St.  Athanasius  ap- 
pears to  place  the  offering  of  the  gifts  at  this  point 
(Probst,  Lit.  des  IV.  Jahrh.,  iii).  The  diptychs  are 
read,  followed  by  another  collect  and  a  prayer  for 
the  people.  The  bishop  washes  his  hands  and  begins 
the  Eucharistic  Prayer  (of  wliich  our  Preface  is  the 
first  part).  The  opening  of  the  Eucharistic  Prayer 
has  always  been  very  long  in  the  Egyptian  Liturgy. 
St.  Athanasius  refers  to  thanksgiving  for  the  Crea- 
tion, with  detailed  references  to  the  different  works, 
the  Garden  of  Eden,  the  Incarnation,  and  so  on; 
then  comes  an  allusion  to  the  Angels  and  their  orders, 
who  praise  God  and  say  (and  the  people  interrupt 
the  prayer  by  taking  up  the  Angels'  words):  "Holy, 
holy,  holy.  Lord  Ciod  of  hosts  ".  The  bishop  con- 
tinues, praises  God  the  Son  who,  having  been  made 
Man,  on  the  night  when  He  was  betrayed  took  bread, 
blessed,  broke,  and  gave  it  to  His  disciples,  saying  .  .  . 
The  words  of  Institution  follow,  although  St.  Atha- 
nasius, because  of  the  disciplina  arcani,  avoids  quot- 
ing them.  Nor  does  he  mention  the  Epiklesis  that 
certainly  followed.  Theophilus  of  Alexandria  (385- 
412)  says  that:  "The  Bread  of  the  Lord,  in  which 
the  Body  of  the  Saviour  is  shown,  which  we  break 
for  our  salvation,  and  the  holy  Chalice  which  is  placed 
upon  the  Table  of  the  Church  are  (at  first)  unquick- 
ened,  but  are  sanctified  by  the  Invocation  and  de- 
scent of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (translated  by  St.  Jerome, 
Ep.  xcviii,  n.  13).  The  Blessed  Sacrament  is  shown 
to  the  people,  the  Host  is  broken  (the  Our  Father 
was  probably  said  at  this  point).  Communion  is 
given,  the  Host  by  the  bishop,  the  Chalice  by  the 
deacon,  and  the  Thanksgiving  (apparently  Ps.  xxxiii) 
is  said.  We  notice  already  in  these  first  references 
the  great  length  of  the  first  part  of  the  Eucharistic 
Prayer  (the  Preface),  and  the  fact  that  the  diptychs 
are  read  before  the  Consecration.  These  two  notes 
are  characteristic  of  all  the  Egyptian  uses. 

II.  The  Gueek  LiTiuMiY  of  St.  Mark. — This  rite 
as  it  now  exists  has  already  undergone  consideralile 
development.  A  Prothpsis  (preparation  of  the  obla- 
tions before  the  beginning  of  the  actual  liturgy)  has 
been  added  to  it  from  tlic  Byzantine  Liturgy:  the 
Creeil  is  said  as  at  Constantinople  just  before  tlie 
Anaphora;  the  Epiklesis  shows  signs  of  the  same  in- 
fluence; and  the  Great  Entrance  is  accompanied  by 
a  Cherubikon.  Since  the  Mononhysite  schism  tliis 
use  was  more  and  more  affected  by  the  Byzantine 
Liturgy,  till  at  last  it  entirely  gave  way  to  it  among 
the  Melchiles.  However,  it  is  possiljle  to  disengage 
it  from  later  additions  and  to  reproduce  the  original 
Greek   Alexandrine    Liturgy,    the  parent  rite  of   all 


others  in  Egypt.  After  tlie  Prothesis,  the  Mass  of  the 
Catechumens  begins  with  the  greeting  of  the  priest: 
"Peace  to  all",  to  which  tlie  people  answer:  "And 
with  thy  spirit."  The  deacon  says  "Pray"  and  they 
repeat  Kyrie  eleison  three  times;  the  priest  then  says 
a  collect.  The  whole  rite  is  repeated  three  times, 
so  that  there  are  nine  Kyrie  eleisons  interspersed 
with  the  greeting  and  collects.  During  the  Little 
Entrance  (procession  of  the  priest  and  deacon  with 
the  books  for  the  lessons)  the  choir  sings  the  Trisagion 
(Holy  Ciod,  Holy  Strong  One,  Holy  Immortal  One, 
have  mercy  on  us).  The  lessons  begin  with  the 
usual  greeting:  "Peace  to  all  ".  R.  "And  with  thy 
spirit".  "The  Apostle"  is  read,  and  then,  after  in- 
cense has  been  put  into  the  thurible,  follows  the  Gos- 
pel. The  deacon  tells  the  people  to  stand  while  they 
hear  it.  Sozomen  (d.  after  425)  notes  as  a  peculiar 
custom  of  Alexandria  that  the  bishop  does  not  stand 
at  the  Gospel  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  xix).  After  the 
Gospel  follows  the  Homily.  Both  Socrates  and 
Sozomen  say  that  in  their  time  only  the  bishop 
preaches, and  they  ascribe  this  custom  to  the  result  of 
the  trouble  caused  by  Arius  (Socr.,  V,  xxii;  Soz.,  VII, 
xix).  Before  the  Catechumens  are  dismissed  a  litany 
(the  great  Ekteneia)  is  said  by  the  deacon.  He  tells 
the  people  to  pray  for  the  living,  the  sick,  travellers, 
for  fine  weather,  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  for  the 
"regular  rise  of  the  waters  of  the  river"  (the  Nile, 
an  important  matter  in  Egypt),  "good  rain  and  the 
cornfields  of  the  earth  ",  for  the  salvation  of  all  men, 
"the  safety  of  the  world  and  of  this  city  ",  for  "our 
Christ-loving  sovereigns",  for  prisoners,  "those 
fallen  asleep  ",  "the  sacrifice  of  our  offerings  ",  for  the 
afflicted,  and  for  the  Catechumens.  To  each  clause 
the  people  answer:  "Kyrie  eleison."  The  priest 
meanwliile  is  praying  silently  for  the  same  objects, 
and  when  the  deacon's  litany  is  finished,  he  ends  his 
prayer  aloud  with  a  doxology.  The  "verse"  (o-rixos, 
a  \'erse  from  a  psalm)  is  sung,  and  the  deacon  says 
"The  Three",  that  is,  three  prayers  for  the  whole 
Church,  the  Patriarch,  and  the  local  Churcli;  in  each 
case  tlie  priest  ends  with  a  collect.  The  catechu- 
mens are  then  dismissed,  and  the  Mass  of  the  Faitliful 
begins  with  the  "Great  Entrance".  The  priest  and 
deacon  bring  the  offerings  from  the  Prothesis  to  the 
altar  while  the  people  sing  the  Cherubikon.  The 
kiss  of  peace  follows,  with  the  prayer  belonging  to  it; 
then  the  Creed  is  said  and  the  Offertory  prayer  at  the 
altar.  (In  other  liturgies  the  Offertory  is  said  before 
the  Great  Entrance  at  the  Prothesis.)  The  Ana- 
phora begins,  as  always,  with  the  greeting  to  the 
people  and  the  dialogue:  "Let  us  lift  up  our  hearts." 
ft.  "We  have  them  to  the  Lord." — "Let  us  give 
thanks  to  the  Lord."  R.  "It  is  meet  and  just." 
And  then  the  Eucharistic  Prayer:  "It  is  truly  meet 
and  just,  right,  holy,  proper,  and  good  for  our  souls,  O 
Master,  Lord,  God,  Almighty  Father,  to  praise  Thee, 
sing  to  Thee,  thank  Thee.  ..."  The  peculiarity  of 
all  the  Egyptian  Liturgies  is  that  the  Supplication 
for  various  causes  and  people,  which  in  all  otlier  rites 
follows  the  Sanctus  and  the  Consecration,  comes  at 
this  point,  during  what  we  should  call  the  Preface. 
The  Alexandrine  Preface  then  is  very  long;  inter- 
woven into  it  are  a  series  of  prayers  for  the  Church, 
the  Emperor,  the  sick,  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  so  on. 
Again  tlio  priest  prays  God  to  "draw  up  the  waters 
of  the  river  to  their  right  measure";  he  remembers 
various  classes  of  Saints,  especially  St.  Mark,  says 
the  first  part  of  the  Hail  Mary,  and  then  goes  on 
aloud:  "especially  our  all-holy,  immaculate,  and 
glorious  Lady  Mary,  Motlicr  of  God  and  ever  Virgin  ". 
The  deacon  iicre  reads  tlic  diptychs  of  the  dead;  the 
priest  continues  his  sujiplication  for  the  patriarch, 
the  bi.shop,  and  all  the  living;  the  deacon  calls  out 
to  the  people  to  stand  and  then  to  look  towards  the 
cast;  and  so  at  last  comes  the  Sanctus:  "the  many- 
eyed  Cherubim  and   the  six-winged  Seraphim  .  .  - 


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305 


ALEXANDRINE 


sing,  cry  out,  pniiso  'I'licc,  iuid  say:  Holy,  holy,  holy  is 
the  Lord  of  liost.s ".  And  then  :d()nd  he  goes  on: 
"■Sanctify  all  of  us  and  receive  our  i)niise,  who  with 
all  who  sanctify  Thee,  Lord  jind  Master,  sing  and 
say"  (and  the  people  continue):  "Holy,  holy,  holy 
is  the  Lord."  After  the  long  Preface  theC'anon  up  to 
the  words  of  Institution  is  very  short.  The  priest, 
as  u.sual,  takes  up  the  people's  words  and  almost  at 
once  conies  to  Our  Lord,  (!otl,  and  great  King 
(TTa^/SacriXfi/s),  Jesus  Christ,  who  in  the  night  in 
which  he  gave  himself  to  a  most  dreadful  death  for 
our  sins,  taking  bread  in  His  holy,  pure,  and  inunacu- 
lato  hands,  and  looking  up  to  heaven  to  Thee,  His 
Father,  our  (lod  and  Ciod  of  all  things,  gave  thanks, 
hlcssiil,  broke,  and  gave  it  to  His  holy  and  blessed 
Disciples  and  Apostles,  saying  [aloud]:  Take,  eat  [the 
deacon  tells  the  concelcbrating  priests  to  stretch  out 
their  hands],  for  this  is  My  liody,  broken  and  given 
for  you  for  tlio  forgiveness  of  sins."  R.  Amen. 
The  words  of  Institution  of  the  Chalice  are  said  in 
the  same  way.  The  priest  lifts  up  his  voice  at  the 
end,  saying:  "Drink  of  this  all";  the  deAcon  says: 
"Again  stretch  out  your  hands",  and  the  priest  con- 
tinues: "this  is  My  Blood  of  the  Now  Testament, 
shed  for  you  and  for  numy  and  given  for  the  for- 
giveness of  sins."  R.  Amen.  "Do  this  in  memory 
of  Me,  ..."  .Vnd  the  Anamimnesis  follows,  referring 
to  Our  Lord's  death,  resurrection,  ascension,  and 
second  coming  and  going  inunediately  on  to  the 
Epiklesis:  "Send  down  upon  us  and  upon  this  bread 
anci  chalice  Thy  Holy  Cihost  that  He  as  Almighty 
God  may  bless  and  perfect  them  [aloud]  and  make 
this  bread  the  Body.  R.  Amen.  ".\nd  this  chalice 
the  IJlood  of  the  New  Testament,  the  IJlood  of  Our 
Lord,  and  God,  and  Saviour,  and  great  King,  Jesus 
Christ."  .  .  .  Tlie  Epiklesis  ends  with  a  doxology 
to  which  the  people  answer:  ".\s  it  was  and  is". 
Then  follow  the  Our  Father,  said  first  by  the  priest 
silently  and  then  aloud  by  the  people,  with  the  usual 
iMiiboiismos,  the  Inclination  before  the  Blessed 
Sacrament — the  deacon  says:  "Let  us  bow  our  heads 
before  the  Lord",  and  the  peojile  answer:  "Before 
Thee  O  Lord";  the  Klevation  with  the  words:  "Holy 
things  to  the  Holy";  and  the  answer:  "One  Holy 
Father,  one  Holy  Son,  one  Holy  Ghost,  in  the  union 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Amen".  Then  come  the  Breaking 
of  the  Bread,  during  which  Psalm  d  (Laudatc 
Dnminum  in  sanclis  eiu-s)  is  sung,  and  the  Com- 
munion. The  form  of  Communion  is:  "The  holy 
Body"  and  then  "the  precious  Blood  of  Our  Lorcl, 
God  and  Saviour".  A  short  thank.sgiving  follows, 
and  the  people  are  dismissed  with  the  blessing  quoted 
from  II  Cor.,  xiii,  13.  Some  more  prayers  are  said 
in  the  Diakonikon,  and  the  liturgy  ends  with  the 
words:  "Blessed  be  God  who  ble.s.ses,  sanctifies,  pro- 
tects, and  keeps  us  all  through  the  share  in  His  holy 
mysteries.     He  is  bles.sed  for  ever.     Amen." 

The  characteristic  points  of  this  rite  are  the  nine 
Kyrie  eleisons  at  the  beginning,  the  OITertorj'  prayers 
said  at  the  altar  instead  of  at  the  Prothesis,  and 
especially  the  place  of  the  great  Supplication  before 
the  Sanctus.  This  last  circumstance  causes  the 
Consecration  to  occur  much  later  in  this  Liturgy  than 
in  any  of  the  others.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
place  of  the  Supplication  is  a  dilliculty  in  the  Roman 
.Miiss.  Wo  say  part  of  it  (for  the  Church,  Pope,  and 
Mishop,  the  Mcmrnto  Vivoriim  and  Communicantcii) 
U'fore,  and  part  (Memento  Dej\tnctnrum,  Kohis  quoque 
prcraloribu.i)  after  the  Consecration.  In  the  An- 
tiochene  use,  and  in  all  those  derived  from  it,  the 
whole  Supplication  conies  after  the  Epiklesis.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  explanation  of  these 
dilTerences  is  that  originally  everj'where  the  deacon 
Ix'gan  to  read  out  the  chiuses  of  the  Supplication  as 
soon  ;vs  the  priest  had  begun  the  Eucharistic  Prayer. 
They  would  then  go  on  saying  their  part.s  togetlier, 
the  deacon  being  interrupted  by  the  words  said  aloud 


by  the  priest.  The  pf)iiit  at  which  the  Supplication 
ends  would  then  depend  on  its  length;  and  if  eventu- 
ally that  point  (at  which  the  priest  sums  up  its  dau.ses 
in  a  collect)  were  taken  as  its  place  in  the  liturg)',  it 
might  occur  before  the  Con-secration  (as  at  Alexan- 
dria), or  after  it  (as  at  Antioch),  or  the  Supplication 
might  still  be  said  partly  before  and  partly  after 
(as  at  Home).  The  Roman  use,  then,  woulcl  repre- 
sent an  intermediate  stage  of  development  (cf.  A. 
(!astou6  in  Cabrol,  Diet,  d'arch.  chr^t.  et  de  liturgie, 
Paris,  1904).  But  the  parallels  between  the  Roman 
and  Alexandrine  uses  are  too  obvious  not  to  suggest 
a  common  source  for  these  Liturgies.  There  is  the 
Kyrie  elcison,  said  nine  times  in  groups  of  three, 
as  soon  as  the  priest  stands  at  the  altar,  just  before 
the  Trisagion  which  more  or  less  corresponds  to  our 
Gloria  in  excelsis.  There  are,  moreover,  clauses  and 
e\ en  whole  prayers  whose  common  origin  with  those 
cf  our  Canon  cannot  be  doubted.  As  an  example, 
let  the  prayer  said  after  the  reading  of  the  diptychs 
of  the  dead  be  compared  with  our  Su])rn  qucB  and 
Suppticcs  te  Toijamiis.  In  St.  Mark's  liturgy  it  is: 
"  Receive,  O  God,  the  Sacrifice, offerings,  and  Eucharist 
of  thy  servants  on  Thy  holy,  heavenly,  and  spiritual 
altar  in  the  height  of  Heaven  by  the  ministrj"  of  thy 
archangels  ...  as  Thou  didst  receive  the  gifts  of 
Thy  just  Abel  and  the  sacrifice  of  our  father  Abra- 
ham. ..."  There  are  other  parallel  passages  no 
less  striking;  so  that,  in  spite  of  likenesses  between 
the  Roman  Canon  and  the  Syrian  Anaphora,  it  is 
with  this  Egy[)tian  Liturgj'  that  ours  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  had  a  common  source  (Duchesne, 
Origines,  p.  54).  Socrates  and  Sozomen  notice 
some  peculiarities  of  the  Alexandrine  Patriarchate 
in  the  fifth  centurj'.  On  Wednesdays  and  FVidays 
the  Liturgy  was  not  celebrated  (Socr.,  V,  xxii, 
who  says  this  is  a  most  ancient  custom).  In  this 
case,  too,  Alexandria  and  Rome  follow  the  same 
practice,  whereas  that  of  all  the  other  Eastern 
Churches  is  different  (Duchesne,  Origines,  p.  220). 
The  first  two  sees  also  agreed  in  having  no  Alass  on 
Saturday;  in  other  parts  of  Egypt  there  was  a  Liturgy 
of  the  Presanctified,  and  pcojile  received  Holy  Com- 
munion on  Saturday  evening,  not  fasting  (Socr., 
ib.,  Soz.,  VH,  xix,  nv<rTi)pluy  utT^xovai). 

TuK  Greek  I^iturgy,  Manx-scripts. — There  are  no  very  old 
manuscripts  of  this  use;  theearhest  i.s  a  large  fragment  written  in 
the  twelfth  century,  and  kept  in  the  University  Library  of  Mes- 
sina (gr.  n.  177).  The  Vatican  Library  contains  a  llurteenth- 
century  manuscript  of  ttie  wtiole  Liturgy  tgr.  1970).  which  has 
become  tlie  base  of  the  Uxtus  rrreptua  anil  i.s  reproiiuced  by 
Kwainson  and  lirightnmn.  Ttiere  are  also  a  tnanuscript  of 
the  year  13)7  (liibl.  Vat.  gr.  22.S1)  and  a  fragment  of  the 
twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  at  Mount  Sinai,  with  an  .^rn- 
hie  translation  in  the  margin.  Printed  Editions. — 'H  Seta 
XetTovpyla  tou  aylov  diroffT&Xov  Kal  «i)o77«Xi<rTo5  MdpKov 
fia0r]Tou  ToO  ayiov  ll^rpov  (Paris,  1583).  e<Iited  by  John  a 
S.  Andrea  (deSaint-,\ndrL^e).  This  is  therf/i/io  prtnrrpd.  It  is 
reprinted  by  Pronto  Drr.Ers  (Pronton  leDoc),  Bibliolhfca 
vrt.  patrum  (Paris,  iri24):  Renaudot,  Liturfjiarum  OrienlnUum 
collrclio  (ed.  II,  Frankfort,  1847).  I,  120-148;  Assemani, 
Codex  liturfjicwt  reel,  universalis  (Home.  17.'j4),  \'II,  1  sqq.; 
Neale,  Telratoiria  lilurqica  (London,  1840);  Daniel,  CW. 
liturg.  reel.  univ.  (Leipzig.  1853),  IV,  134  sqq.;  Swainson, 
The  Greek  Liturgiet  (Cambridge.  1884),  2-73;  Briohtman, 
Liturgies  Eastern  and  HVii(mi  (Oxford,  189(1).  I,  113-143; 
Neale  and  Littledale.  The  Liturgies  of  St.  Mark,  St.  James, 
SI.  Clemrnl.  St.  Chrysostom,  SI.  Basil  (London.  1875).  5-31. 
Thansi.atkins. — The  edition  of  John  a  S.  Andrea  contains  a 
Latin  version  since  reproduced  by  Assemani.  HenaI'Dot,  etc. 
English  versions  in  Brett.  .4  Colleeliim  of  the  Prineival  Liturgies 
(London.  1720).  20-41;  Neai.e.  Ilistary  of  the  Holy  Eastern 
Chureh  (London,  1850),  I.  532-570;  The  LUurgirs  of  S.  Mark. 
S.  James.  S.  Clement.  S.  Chrysostom,  S.  Basil,  and  of  the 
Christians  of  Malabar  (Londoii,  1859).  German  vcr.sions  in 
PnolisT,  Liturgie  Her  drei  erslen  ehri*tliehrn  Jahrhuruferte 
(Tiibingen.  1870),  318-334;  Storfe,  Die  grieehitehrn  Liturgicn 
(Kempten,  1877),  84-116. 

III.  The  Coptic  Liti^rgiks. — After  the  Monophy- 
site  schism  the  Copts  compo.sed  a  numlwr  of  liturgies 
in  their  own  language.  Three  of  these  became  the 
most  important  and  are  still  used:  those  of  St.  Cvril, 
St.  Gregorj'    (of   Nazianzus),  and   St.  Basil.     They 


ALEXIAN 


306 


ALEXIANS 


differ  only  in  the  Anaplioras  wliich  are  joined  to  a 
common  "Preparation  and  Mass  of  tlie  Catetliumens. 
The  Anaphora  of  St.  Cyril,  also  called  that  of  St. 
Mark,  together  with  the"  part  of  the  liturgy  that  is 
common  to  all,  corresponds  exactly  to  the  Greek 
St.  Mark.  When  it  was  translated  into  Coptic  a 
great  part  of  the  formulas,  such  as  the  Trisagion, 
the  deacon's  litany,  said  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Mass  of  the  Faithful,  nearly  all  the  short  greetings 
like  elpvinj  Traa-if  S.vu  v/jlui/  Tas  Kapdlas-  ra  cLyia  rors 
07(015,  and  everj'thing  said  by  the  people  had  already 
become  universally  known  in  Greek.  These  parts 
were  then  left  in  that  language,  and  they  are  still 
written  or  printed  in  Greek,  although  in  Coptic 
characters,  throughout  the  Coptic  Liturgy.  A  few 
prayers  have  been  added  to  the  original  Greek 
Liturgy,  such  as  a  very  definite  act  of  faith  in  the 
Real  Presence  said  by  the  priest  before  his  Com- 
munion. There  are  also  Greek  versions  of  the  other 
two  Coptic  Anaphoras:  those  of  St.  Basil  and  St. 
Gregory. 

The  Coptic  Liturgies.  Manuscripts. — The  Vatican  Li- 
brary contains  a  manuscript  of  the  Anaphoras  of  St.  Basil,  St. 
Gregory,  and  St.  Cyril  of  the  year  1288  (Vat.  Copt.  XVII),  as  also 
others  of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
For  the  hst  of  other  manuscripts  (all  quite  recent)  see  Bright- 
man,  op  cit.,  LXX.  Printed  Texts, — TuKi,  Miasale  Coptice  et 
Arabia  (Rome,  1736— for  the  Uniates).  The  Kulaji  (Eucho- 
logion)  and  Diikonikon  are  published  at  Cairo  in  Coptic  and 
Arabic  (at  the  El-Watan  office,  a?ra  martyrum,  1603,  a.  d. 
1887).  Translations. — Latin  in  Scialach,  Liturgiw  Basilii 
magni,  Gregorii  theologi,  Cyrilli  alexandrini  ex  arabico  converecB 
(Augsburg,  1604),  reprinted  in  Renaudot,  op.  cit.,  I,  1-25,  25- 
37,  38-51,  AssEMANi,  op.  cit.,  VII.  etc.  English  in  Malan, 
Original  Documents  of  the  Coptir  Church  (London,  1875); 
Bute,  The  Coptic  Morning  Service  for  the  Lord's  Day  (London, 
1882);  Neale,  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church  (London, 
1850),  I,  381  sqq.;  Rodwell,  The  Liturgies  of  S.  Basil,  S. 
Gregory,  and  S.  Cyril,  From  a  Coptic  manuscript  of  the  XIII 
cfw^urj/ (London,  1870):  Brightman,  op.  cit.,  144-188. 

IV.  The  Ethiopic  Liturgies. — In  her  liturgies, 
as  in  everything  else,  the  Church  of  Abyssinia  de- 
pends on  the  Coptic  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria. 
The  normal  and  original  Ethiopic  use  is  the  "Liturgy 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles",  which  is  the  Coptic  St.  Cyril 
done  into  their  own  language.  The  Abyssinians  have 
also  a  number  of  other  Anaphoras  (ten  or  fifteen)  as- 
cribed to  various  people  such  as  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, the  318  Fathers  of  Nica;a,  St.  John  Chrysos- 
tom,  etc.,  which  they  join  to  the  first  part  of  their 
J>iturgy  on  various  occasions  instead  of  its  own 
Canon. 

The  Ethiopic  Liturgies.  Manuscripts. — The  Vatican  li- 
brary contains  manuscripts  of  Anaphoras  (Vat.  Ethiop.,  XIII, 
XVI,  XXII,  XXVIII,  XXIX,  XXXIV,  XXXIX,  LXVI. 
LXIX):  the  British  Museum  has  a  seventeenth-century  manu- 
Bcript  of  the  Ordo  Communis  with  various  Anaphoras  (Or.  545) 
and  there  are  others  and  fragments  at  Paris  and  Berlin,  all  as 
late  as  the  seventeenth  century.  Printed  Texts. — Swainson, 
op  cit.,  349-395;  although  this  is  described  as  the  Coptic  Ordi- 
nary Canon  of  the  Mass,  it  is  the  Ethiopic  Pre-anaphoral  ac- 
cording to  the  Brit.  Mus.  MS.  545  (see  Brightman,  op.  cit., 
Ixxii).  Petrds  Ethtops  (sic),  Testamentum  novum  .  .  .  Mis- 
sale  cum  benedictions  incensi,  cerce,  etc.  (Rome,  1548),  158-167 
— for  the  Uniates;  this  contains  the  Ordo  communis  and  the 
Anaphora  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.  Translations. — Latin  in 
I'Krnus  Ethyops  (op.  cit);  Renaudot  (op.  cit.),  I,  reprints  it 
472-495.  The  Bullarium  patronatus  PortogallicE  regum  in  eccle- 
siis  Afririr  (Li.sbon,  1879)  contains  versions  of  the  Anaphora  of 
Our  Lady  Mary  and  Dioscor;  Dillman,  Chrestomalhia  ^thiopiea 
(Leipzig,  1800),  gives  that  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  51-56. 

V.  The  Phesent  Use. — Of  these  three  groups 
two,  the  Copts  and  Abyssinians,  still  keep  their  own 
liturgies.  The  Copts  use  that  of  St.  Basil  through- 
out the  year  on  Sundays  and  weekdays,  and  for 
requiems;  on  certain  great  feasts  they  substitute  the 
Anaphora  of  St.  Gregory;  that  of  St.  Cj;ril  is  kept 
for  Lent  and  Christmas  lOve.  This  order  is  common 
to  the  Monophysite  and  Uniate  Copts.  Very  soon 
after  the  Arabs  conquered  Egypt  (641)  their  lan- 
guage became  the  only  one  used  even  by  the  Chris- 
tians; in  less  than  two  centuries  Coptic  had  become 
a  completely  dead   language.     For    this  reason  tlie 


rubrics  of  the  Coptic  liturgical  books  have  for  a  long 
time  been  written  in  Arabic  as  well;  sometimes 
Arabic  translation.s  of  the  prayers  are  added  too. 
The  books  needed  for  the  Liturgy  are  the  Khulaji 
(fixo\byiov) ,  Kidtnarus  (Kara,  ixipos) ,  a  lectionary 
containing  the  lessons  from  Holy  Scripture,  the 
Si/naxar  (o-wa^dpioy),  which  contains  legends  of 
saints,  sometimes  read  instead  of  those  from  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  "  Book  of  the  Jlinistry 
of  the  Deacons"  (Brightman,  Ixvii).  The  Coptic 
and  Abyssinian  L^niates  have  books  specially  printed 
for  them,  which  differ  from  the  others  only  inasmuch 
as  the  names  of  Monophysites  are  omitted,  that  of 
Chalcedon  is  inserted,  and  the  Filioque  is  added  to 
the  Creed.  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Egj-pt  has  long 
sacrificed  her  own  use  for  that  of  Constantinople. 
For  a  time  after  the  Monophysite  schism  she  still 
kept  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark  in  Greek.  But  there 
were  very  few  Orthodox  left  in  the  country;  they  were 
nearly  all  officials  of  the  Imperial  government,  and, 
after  the  Arab  conquest  especially,  the  influence  of 
Constantinbple  over  them,  as  over  the  whole  Ortho- 
dox world,  grew  enormously.  So  eventually  they 
followed  the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  in  their  rites  as 
in  everything  else.  The  Orthodox  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  even  went  to  live  at  Constantinople  under 
the  shadow  of  Caesar  and  of  Caesar's  Court  Bishop. 
The  change  of  liturgy  took  place  at  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century.  Theodore  Balsamon  says  that  at 
that  time  a  certain  Mark,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
came  to  Constantinople  and  there  went  on  celebrat- 
ing the  Liturgy  of  his  own  Church.  The  Byzantines 
told  him  that  the  use  of  the  most  holy  Quumenical 
throne  was  different,  and  that  the  Emperor  had 
already  commanded  all  Orthodox  Churches  through- 
out the  world  to  follow  that  of  the  Imperial  city. 
So  Mark  apologized  for  not  having  known  about  this 
law  and  conformed  to  the  Byzantine  use  (P.  G., 
CXXXVIII,  954).  Since  then  the  Greek  Liturgy  of 
St.  Mark  has  no  longer  been  used  by  anyone.  It 
remains  to  be  seen  whether,  now  that  the  Orthodox 
Church  of  Jerusalem  has  begun  to  make  some  small 
restoration  of  her  own  use  (see  Antiochene  Litvugy), 
the  very  determined  and  strongly  anti-Phanariote 
prelate  who  rules  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Egypt 
(Lord  Photios  of  Alexandria)  will  not  revive,  at  any 
rate  for  one  day  in  the  year,  the  venerable  liturgy  of 
his  own  see. 

Dissertations. — Besides  the  introductions  and  notes  in 
Renaudot,  Brightman,  Swainson,  Prod.st,  Neale,  Lord 
Bute  (op.  cit.),  Probst,  Liturgie  des  IV.  Jahrhunderts  (Mons- 
ter, 1893\  106-124,  reconstructions  from  St.  Athanasius, 
Pseudo-Dionysius,  etc.;  Butler,  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches 
of  Egypt  (Oxford,  18841;  Ewetts  and  Butler,  The  Churches 
and  Monasteries  of  Enypt  (Oxford,  1S95);  Ewetts,  Rites  of  the 
Coptic  Church  (London,  1888);  Ludolf,  Historia  ^thiopica 
(Frankfort,  1681);  Le  Brun,  Explication  de  la  Messe  (Paris, 
1788),  IV,  469-518,  519-579;  Bent,  The  Sacred  City  of  the 
Ethiopians  (London,  1893). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Alezian  Nuns. — Early  in  the  fifteenth  century 
religious  women  began  to  be  affiliated  to  the  Alexian 
Brotherhood  (see  below).  The.se  sisters  adopted  the 
Rule  of  St.  Augustine  and  ilevotcd  ihcnisclvos  to  the 
same  corporal  works  of  mercy  as  those  of  the  Brothers 
of  St.  Alexius,  or  Cellites.  Their  habit  is  black,  with  a 
mantle  of  the  same  colour  and  a  white  cap,  whence 
their  common  name  of  "black  sisters".  The  black, 
or  Cclhtine,  sisters  at  present  have  their  mother- 
house  at  Cologne.  They  are  not  represented  in  the 
list  of  religious  women  established  in  the  United 
States    and    Canada. 

Schlosser  in  Kirchcnter. 

Alexlans,  or  Cei-i.ites,  a  religious  institute  or  con- 
gregation, which  had  its  origin  at  Mechlin,  in  Brabant, 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  during  the  terrible  ravages 
of  a  pest  c.iUed  the  "black  death".  Certain  laymen 
united  under  the  guidance  of  a  man  named  Tobiaa 


ALEXIS 


307 


ALEXIUS 


to  succour  the  plague-stricken,  without  taking  any 
vows  or  adopting  a  rule  of  life.  One  of  their  most 
obvious  actions  being  tlic  burial  of  those  who  ilied 
from  the  plague;  they  were  known  as  "CuUites" 
(Lat.  celta.  a  cell,  and  hence,  a  grave),  l.ater  on, 
tliey  chose  ;i.s  their  patron,  Alexius,  a  saint  who 
served  many  years  in  a  hospital  at  Kdessa  in  Syria; 
■inil  ihL'iicclurth  thev  callod  tlicinselves  the  Alexian 
r.ruthers.  They 
read  rapidly 
iliiough  Germany, 
lirabant,  Flanders, 
and  other  countries. 
As  they  were  also 
styled  LollhnTilen 
(Old  Germ.  loUon, 
to  sing  softly)  from 
their  chants  for  the 
dead,  they  have  con- 
sequently been  some- 
times  confounded 
witli  the  Wyclitian 
sect  of  heretics,  tlie 
Lollards.  They  did 
not  escape  calumny 
and  persecution,  as 
appears  from  the 
Bull".\d.\udientiain 
Nostram"  (2  Dec, 
1377)  wliich  Gregory 
XI  sent  to  the  Ger- 
man bishops,  especi- 
ally tho.se  of  Col- 
ogne, Trier,  and 
Mainz,  forbidding 
annoyance  of  the  Cellites  and  enjoining  punish- 
ment for  their  persecutors.  This  was  followed  by 
Hulls  of  a  similar  tenor  from  Honiface  IX  (7  Jan., 
1396),  Eugenius  IV  (12  May,  1431),  Nicholas  V,  and 
Pius  II.  In  1469,  the  mother-house  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  voiced  the  general  feeling  of  the  Brothers 
in  asking  the  Prince  Bishop  of  Li^gc,  Louis  de 
Bourbon,  to  raise  that  hou.se  to  a  convent  of  the 
Order  of  St.  .\ugustine.  This  request  was  granted, 
and  Father  Dominicus  Brock  and  five  of  the  Brotlicrs 
took  the  solemn  vows  of  religious.  This  step  and  the 
revised  constitution  of  the  Order  were  confirmed  by 
Pius  I.K  (12  Sept.,  1870). 

The  .\lexian  Brothers  have  four  hospitals  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  was  built  in  Chicago,  1866; 
<lcstroyed  by  the  great  fire,  9  Oct.,  1871,  and  rebuilt 
the  following  year.  The  second,  erected  at  St.  Louis 
in  1S69,  covers  an  acre  with  its  departments  for  the 
insane,  nervous  disea.ses,  and  inebriates.  The  third 
is  at  Oshkosh,  Wis.  (1880).  The  fourtli  was  built  at 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  on  land  given  for  that  purpo.se  by 
Right  Kev.  Bislion  Wigger.  Competent  surgeons  and 
physicians  attentl  to  the  patients,  anil  the  Brothers 
arc  luirses  and  do  the  housework  of  the  hospitals. 

Bishop  V'aughan  of  Salford,  ICngland  (later.  Cardi- 
nal), invitetl  the  .Vlexian  Brothers  to  take  charge  of 
a  new  home  and  hospital  in  his  diocese,  wliich  led 
to  their  establishing  themselves  in  England  in  June, 
1875.  Dr.  Lacy,  Bishop  of  .Middlesborougli,  secured 
them  for  his  dioce.se  in  1884.  In  1885,  the  Brothers 
cstablislicd  a  Province  of  their  Order  and  a  novitiate 
in  the  I'nitcd  Kingdom.  The  latter,  first  attached 
to  St.  Mary's  Convent,  Newton  Heath,  Manchester, 
was  later  transferred  to  Twj-ford  .Vbbey,  near  Ealing, 
which  the  .\lexian  Brothers  had  purcha.scd.  In 
England  they  ilo  not  have  any  a.sylums  for  the  care 
of  tlie  insane,  a.s  in  Germany,  Belgmm,  and  .\merica. 
The  English  establishments  arc  only  for  the  aged 
and  infirm. 

Stkki.k,  Monnalrrift  and  Heliffio\t»  flowtrn  of  Great  Britain 
and  Inhmt  (I^n.li.n.  1903).  10-13;  cf.  Brirf  llitloru  of  the 
AUzian  Brothers  (Cbicaso).  _  tit-, 

John  J.  a  Becket. 
I.— 20 


Alexis  Falconieri,  S.\int,  b.  in  Florence,  1200; 
d.  17  February,  1310,  at  Mount  Senario,  near  Flor- 
ence. He  was  the  .son  of  Bernard  Falconieri,  a  mer- 
chant prince  of  Florence,  and  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Republic.  His  family  belonged  to  the  Guelph 
party,  ami  opposed  the  Imperialists  wlienever  they 
could  consistently  with  their  political  principles. 
Alexis  grew  up  in  the  practice  of  the  most  profound 
humility.  He  joined  the  Laude.ti,  a  pious  con- 
fraternity of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  there  met  the 
six  future  companions  of  his  life  of  sanctity.  He 
was  favoured  with  an  apparition  of  the  Mother  of 
God,  15  August,  1233,  as  were  these  companions. 
The  seven  soon  afterwartls  founded  the  Order  of  the 
Servites.  With  consistent  loyalty  and  heroism 
Alexis  at  once  abandoned  all,  and  retired  to  La 
Camarzia,  a  house  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  and 
the  following  year  to  Mt.  Senario.  With  character- 
istic humility,  he  traversed,  as  a  mendicant,  in  quest 
of  alms  for  his  brethren,  the  streets  of  the  city 
through  which  he  had  lately  moved  as  a  prominent 
citizen.  So  deep  and  sincere  was  liis  humility  that, 
though  he  lived  to  the  great  age  of  one  hundred  and 
ten  years,  he  always  refused  to  enter  tlie  priesthood, 
of  which  he  deemed  himself  unworthy.  The  duties 
of  our  Saint  were  confined  principally  to  the  material 
needs  of  the  various  communities  in  which  he  lived. 
In  1252  the  new  church  at  Cafaggio,  on  the  outskirts 
of  Florence,  was  compileted  under  his  care,  with  the 
financial  a.ssistance  of  Chiarissimo  Falconieri.  The 
miraculous  image  of  the  Annunciation,  still  highly 
venerated  in  Italy,  had  its  origin  here.  St.  Juliana 
Falconieri,  his  niece,  was  trained  in  sanctity  under 
his  personal  direction.  The  influence  e.xerted  on 
his  countrymen  by  .\Iexis  and  his  companions  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  a  few  jears  ten 
thousand  persons  had  enrolled  themselves  under  the 
banner  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  the  Servite  Order. 
At  his  death  he  was  visited  by  the  Infant  Jesus  in 
visible  form,  as  was  attested  by  eye-witnesses. 
His  body  rests  near  the  church  of  the  .Annunciation, 
in  Florence.  Clement  XI  declared  .\lexis  worthy 
of  the  veneration  of  the  faithful,  1  December,  1717, 
and  accorded  the  same  honour  to  his  six  companions, 
3   July,    1725. 

Annul.  Ord.  Serv.  B.  M.  Virg.  (Florence,  1729);  Ledodx. 
llifl.  of  the  Snen  Holy  Foundern  (London,  1889);  Acta  SS. 
Feb.  17  (Paris,  1880). 

Augustine  McGinnis. 

Alexius,  S.\iNT  AXD  Confessor. — According  to 
the  most  recent  researches  he  was  an  Eastern  saint 
whose  veneration  was  transplanted  from  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  to  Rome,  whence  it  spread  rapidly 
throughout  western  Christendom.  Together  with 
the  name  and  veneration  of  tlie  Saint,  his  legend  was 
made  known  to  Rome  and  the  West  by  means  of 
Latin  versions  and  recensions  based  on  the  form 
current  in  the  Byzantine  Orient.  This  process  was 
facilitated  by  the  fact  that  according  to  the  earlier 
Syriac  legend  of  the  Saint,  the  "Man  of  God",  of 
Edessa  (identical  with  .St.  Alexius)  was  a  native  of 
Rome.  The  Greek  legend,  which  antedates  the  ninth 
century  and  is  tlie  basis  of  all  later  versions,  makes 
.\lexius  the  son  of  a  distinguished  Roman  named 
Euphemianus.  The  night  of  his  marriage  he  se- 
cretly left  his  father's  house  and  journeyed  to  Edessa 
in  the  Syrian  Orient  where,  for  seventeen  years,  he 
led  the  life  of  a  pious  ascetic.  As  the  fame  of  his 
.sanctity  grew,  he  left  Edessa  and  returned  to  Rome, 
where,  for  seventeen  years,  he  dwelt  iis  a  beggar 
under  the  stairs  of  his  father's  palace,  unknown  to 
his  father  or  wife.  After  his  death,  assigned  to  the 
year  417,  a  document  was  found  on  his  body,  in 
which  he  revealed  his  identity.  He  was  forthwith 
honoured  as  a  saint  and  his  father's  house  was  con- 
verted into  a  church  pl.accd  under  the  patronage 
of  Alexius.     In  this  expanded  form   the  legend  is 


ALFIELD 


308 


ALFIERl 


tirst  found  in  a  hj-mn  (canon)  of  the  Greek  liym- 
nographer  Josephus  (d.  883).  It  also  occurs  in  a 
Syrian  biograpliy  of  Alexius,  written  not  lat«r  than 
the  nintli  century,  and  which  presupposes  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Greek  "life  of  the  Saint.  The  latter  is  in 
turn  based  on  an  earlier  Syriac  legend  (referred  to 
above),  composed  at  Edessa  between  450  and  475. 
Although  in  this  latter  document  the  name  of  Alexius 
is  not  mentioned,  he  is  manifestly  the  same  as  the 
"Man  of  Ciod"  of  whom  this  earlier  Syriac  legend 
relates  that  he  lived  in  Edessa  during  the  episcopate 
of  Bishop  Rabula  (412-435)  as  a  poor  beggar,  and 
solicited  alms  at  the  church  door.  These  he  divided 
among  the  rest  of  the  poor,  after  reserving  barely 
enough  for  the  absolute  necessities  of  life.  He  died 
in  the  hospital  and  was  buried  in  the  common  grave 
of  the  poor.  Before  his  death,  however,  he  revealed 
to  one  of  the  church  servants  that  he  was  the  only 
son  of  distinguished  Roman  parents.  After  the 
Saint's  death,  the  servant  told  this  to  the  Bishop. 
Thereupon  the  grave  was  opened,  but  only  his  pau- 
per's rags  were  now  found  therein.  How  far  this 
account  is  based  on  historical  tradition  is  hard  to 
determine.  Perhaps  the  only  basis  for  the  story  is 
the  fact  that  a  certain  pious  ascetic  at  Edessa  lived 
the  life  of  a  beggar  and  was  later  venerated  as  a 
saint.  In  addition  to  this  earlier  Syriac  legend,  the 
Greek  author  of  the  later  biography  of  St.  Alexius, 
which  we  have  mentioned  above  as  having  been 
written  before  the  ninth  century,  probably  had  in 
mind  also  the  events  related  in  the  life  of  St.  John 
Calybata,  a  young  Roman  patrician,  concerning 
whom  a  similar  story  is  told.  In  the  West  we  find 
no  trace  of  the  name  Alexius  in  any  martyrology  or 
other  liturgical  book  previous  to  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century;  he  seems  to  have  been  completely 
unknown.  He  first  appears  in  connection  with  St. 
Boniface  as  titular  saint  of  a  church  on  the  Aventine 
at  Rome.  On  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  church 
of  Sant'  Alessio  there  was  at  one  time  a  diaconia, 
i.  e.  an  establishment  for  the  care  of  the  poor  of 
the  Roman  Church.  Connected  with  this  was  a 
church  which  by  the  eighth  century  had  been  in  ex- 
istence for  some  time  and  was  dedicated  to  St.  Boni- 
face. In  972  Pope  Benedict  VII  transferred  the 
almost  abandoned  church  to  the  exiled  Greek  met- 
ropolitan, Sergius  of  Damascus.  The  latter  erected 
beside  the  church  a  monastery  for  Greek  and  Latin 
monks,  soon  made  famous  for  the  austere  life  of  its 
inmates.  To  the  name  of  St.  Boniface  was  now 
added  that  of  St.  Alexius  as  titular  saint  of  the 
church  and  monastery.  It  is  evidently  Sergius  and 
his  monlvs  who  brought  to  Rome  the  veneration  of 
St.  Alexius.  The  Oriental  Saint,  according  to  his 
legend  a  native  of  Rome,  was  soon  very  popular 
with  the  folk  of  that  city.  Among  the  frescoes  exe- 
cuted towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  in 
the  Roman  basilica  of  St.  Clement  (now  the  lower 
church  of  San  Clemente)  are  very  interesting  rei> 
resentations  of  events  in  the  life  of  St.  Alexius.  His 
feast  is  observed  on  the  17th  of  July,  in  the  West; 
in  the  East,  on  the  17th  of  March.  The  church  of 
Sts.  Alexius  and  Boniface  on  the  Aventine  has  lieen 
renovated  in  modern  times  but  several  medieval 
monuments  are  still  preserved  there.  Among  them 
the  visitor  is  shown  the  alleged  stairs  of  the  house  of 
Euphemianus  under  which  Alexius  is  said  to  have  lived. 

ArUi  .S.S..  July,  IV,  238  sqq.;  Anolcctn  Bollonilinnn,  XIX, 
241  iKiq.  (1900);  Duchesne.  Leg  Ugmdm  chretitnnca dc  I' Avenlin; 
Nottg  «ur  la  topooraphi^  de  Rome  an  moJ/en-d[tr,  N.  VII,  in  M^- 
lanoff  d'lirrhi-ul.  rt  d'hitt.,  X,  234  sqci.  (18901;  Amiand,  La 
Upiiule  Si/riaqiu-  de  S.  Aleiig,  I'llomme  de  Ditu  {Pari.«,  1899); 
KoNHAi)  VON  WinzniKG,  Dat  Lrhm  dm  hi.  Alexius  (Berlin, 
189S);  MAfNMANN,  .S(.  AtejriM  Lebm  (CJueillinlnirK  an<l  Leipzig, 
1843);  Neiiinii'h.  De  Irmplo  el  eanohio  Scmrlnrum  Bonifatii  el 
AUiii  (Home,  1752);  Uutler,  JMet.  17  July. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Alfleld,  Thomas.    See  Thomas  Ai-field,  Ri-essed. 
Alfieri,  Count  Vittorio,  the  greatest  tragic  poet 


of  Italy;  b.  at  Asti  (Piedmont),  17  January,  1749; 
d.  at  Florence,  8  October,  1803.  He  was  the  son  of 
Count  Antonio  Alfieri  and  Monica  Maillard  de  Tour- 
non.  His  training  (1758-CG)  at  the  Regia  Academia 
of  Turin,  where,  owing  to  his  father's  early  death, 
he  had  been  placed  by  his  uncle.  Count  Benedetto 
Alfieri,  bore  no  fruit.  Recklessly  plunging  into  the 
world  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  the  uncontrolled  master 
of  a  considerable  fortune,  after  a  short  service  in  the 
Piedmontese  army,  he  took  to  travelling  all  over 
Europe  without  any  definite  aim  in  view,  urged  on 
by  an  overwhelming  spirit  of  unrest.  Thus  he  spent 
his  best  years  in  disreputable  intrigues,  profitless 
roving,  and  the  promiscuous  reading  of  unworthy 
literature.  French  he  knew  well  enough,  but  of  his 
native  tongue  he  had  little  more  than  a  colloquial 
smattering.  His  real  education  was  to  begin  soon 
after  his  twenty-ninth  year,  when  his  hitherto  dor- 
mant genius  suddenly  kindled  in  him  an  indomitable 
literary  ambition,  whicli  first  caused  him  to  delve 
into  Italian,  then  into  Latin,  and,  nineteen  years  later, 
into  Greek  with  sturdy  courage  and  unflagging  per- 
severance. Italy  lacked  a  tragic  literature  worthy 
of  the  name.  Alfieri  created  it.  Having  settled  at 
Florence  in  1778,  he  contracted  there  an  intimacy 
with  Louisa  von  Stolberg-Gedern,  Countess  of  Albany, 
the  wife  of  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  the  Pretender. 
In  1792,  when  debauchery  had  brought  the  latter  to 
his  grave,  the  Countess  began  to  share  tlie  poet's 
home.  The  criticisms  of  society  were  ignored  and 
the  lovers  lived  unwedded  to  the  end.  The  poet's 
religious  feelings,  howe\er,  always  appeared  strong 
and  sincere.  He  died  after  receiving  the  sacraments 
of  the  Church  and  was  buried  in  Santa  Croce,  where 
a  monument  bj^  Canova  marks  his  grave. 

Alfieri's  literary  production,  begun  in  1778,  was 
laborious  and  voluminous.  His  fame  rests  mainly 
on  twenty-two  tragedies,  viz.:  "  Filippo,"  "Polinice," 
— both  based  on  an  extremely  weird  plot  and  ex- 
hibiting at  times  the  beginner's  hand;  "Antigone," 
"Virginia,"  "Agamennone,"  showing  greater  poetic 
finish  and  maturer  artistic  skill;  "Oreste,"  "Ros- 
munda,"  "Ottavia,"  "Timoleone,"  "Merope," — in 
which  the  author  is  at  his  best;  "Maria  Stuarda,"  a 
little  below  the  standard  previously  set;  "La  Con- 
giura  dei  Pazzi,"  full  of  vigour  and  poetic  impetus; 
"Don  Garzia,"  "Saul,"  this  being  his  masterpiece; 
"Agide,"  "Sofonisba,"  "Bruto  Primo,"  "Mirra," 
rich  in  striking  effects;  "Bruto  Secondo,"  "Abele," 
"Alceste  Seconda,"  and  "Antonio  e  Cleopatra," 
which  closed  his  repertoire.  Alfieri's  tragedies  have 
been  said  to  be  cast  in  a  form  often  constrained  and 
pedantic.  Even  if  this  be  true,  the  fault  almost  dis- 
appears when  their  forcefulness,  freshness,  sincerity 
of  feeling,  and  inspiration  are  fully  appreciatea. 
Nor  is  the  poet's  fame  waning  in  the  hearts  of  con- 
temporary Italy.  His  unrelenting  hatred  of  tyranny, 
ringing  through  every  word  and  line,  is  now  more 
than  ever  acknowledged  to  have  been  tlie  strongest 
literary  factor  in  Italy's  fight  for  political  unity  and 
independence.  There  is  a  complete  edition  of  Al- 
fieri's works  in  twenty-two  volumes,  by  Capurro 
(Pisa,  1805-15).  It  contains,  besides  the  tragedies, 
the  "Vita  di  Vittorio  Alfieri,  scritta  da  esso,"  the 
"Misogallo,"  and  sundry  minor  writings. 

The  standard  work  on  Alfieri  is  by  Centofanti  (Florenre, 
1842).  Tedeschi,  Studi  sulle  Traqcdie  di  V.  A.  (Turin.  1S7(>); 
Copping,  Alfuri  and  Golloni:  thtir  Lives  and  Adnnlures 
(London,  1857);  PunnnES,  Lord  Bwon,  the  Admirer  and  Imi- 
tator of  Alfieri.  in  Engliache  Studien.  XXXIII,  40-83;  Sii.n- 
VAN,  The  Centenary  of  Alfieri  at  Asti  in  Seribner's  Mngazine, 
XXXV,  224-233;  and  Berti,  La  volontii  ed  il  tintimtnto 
religioso  netla  vita  e  nrtle  opere  di  V,  A,  in  Sentti  Vari 
(Turin,  1892),  I,  13;  Alfieri's  AutohioKraphy  ha.-'  found  two 
American  translators  in  C.  E.  Lester  (New  York,  1845),  and 
W.  D.  HoWELLs  (Boston,  18901. 

Edoaudo  San  Giovanni. 

Alfieri,  Pif.tho,  a  priest  and  at  one  time  a  Camal- 
dolcse   monk,    b.    at    Rome,    June,    1801;    d.    there 


ALFONSO 


309 


ALFRED 


12  June,  1863.  For  many  years  the  professor  of  sing- 
ing at  the  Englisli  College  in  Home,  he  is  n'membcrt'd 
chiefiy  for  his  scientific  writings  and  his  collections 
of  the  music  of  the  old  masters.  I'crhiips  his  most 
vaUiable  work  is  his  "Raccolta  di  Musica  .Sacra" 
in  seven  large  volumes,  a  reprint  of  the  sixteenth- 
century  churcli  nuisic,  mostly  by  Palestrina,  which 
was  supplemented  by  later  and  smaller  collections, 
such  as  "K.xccrpta  ex  celebrioribus  do  musicA  viris" 
(Rome,  18401,  and  "Uaccolta  di  Motetti"  (Rome, 
1841).  On  plain  chant  he  published  "Accompag- 
namento  coll  organo"  (Rome,  l.S4());  "Ristaliilmciilo 
del  canto  e  doUa  nuisica  ccclesiastica"  (Home,  ISI.i); 
"Saggio  storico  del  canto  (ircgoriano"  (Rome,  1S4.'J); 
"Prodromo  sulla  rcstaurazione  de'  libri  di  canto 
Gregoriano"  (Rome,  18.57).  He  al.so  translated  into 
Italian  Catel's  "Trait<5  d'harnionie"  and  contributed 
to  the  "(iazzetta  nuisicale  di  Milano"  and  other 
periodicals  many  articles  on  church  music  of  great 
value  to  the  student. 

Grove,  Diet,  oj  Mutic  ami  Mu«hiixn«:  Baker,  Biog.  Diet, 
of  Musiciana. 

J.  A.  VSLKEn. 

Alfonso  de  Alcala.     See  Polyglot  Bible. 

Alfonso  de  Zamora,  a  converted  Spanish  Rabbi, 
baptized  l.')0(j;  d.  l.").'}!.  He  revi.scd  the  Hebrew 
text  for  Ximenes's  Polyglot  Bil>le,  translated  the 
Chaldee  paraphrase  in  it,  and  added  the  sixth  vol- 
ume. He  p\iblishcd  also  a  work  called  "Introduc- 
tioiios  Hcbraica-"   (.\kala,   l.'JiG).  A.  J.  M.\.\s. 

Alfonso  of  Burgos,  b.  of  a  nol)le  family,  in 
the  city  of  that  name;  d.  at  Palencia,  8  December, 
14S9.  He  Wius  conspicuous  for  learning  before  iiis 
entrance  into  the  Dominican  order,  early  in  life. 
His  preaching  attracted  the  notice  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  who  selected  him  as  royal  confessor.  On 
the  recommcntlation  of  the  latter,  Alfori.so  was  ajv 
pointed  to  the  .see  of  Cordova  by  Sixtus  IV,  30  April, 
1477.  Remaining  there  only  four  years,  lie  was 
transferred  to  the  Bishopric  of  C'uenoa,  and  in  1484, 
or  according  to  dams  (Series  I'.pi.scoporum,  p.  64) 
in  148G,  to  Palencia.  At  the  same  time  he  held  suc- 
cessively tlie  office  of  Grand  Chaplain  of  the  Court, 
Counsellor  of  the  Catholic  King,  and  President  of  the 
Council  of  CVstile.  In  tlie  latter  cajiacity  he  was 
instrumental  in  getting  pecuniary  grants  from  the 
crown  for  Cohnnbus.  During  the  years  1487  and 
1488  he  obtained  eight  fhoasand  pounds  at  various 
times  for  the  fitting  out  of  a  fleet.  In  the  absence  of 
the  king  he  exercised  his  right  as  President  of  the 
Council  in  giving  orders  for  a  payment  of  three  thou- 
sand pounds  to  the  discoverer.  These  duties  did  not 
hinder  him  from  repairing  many  dila|)idated  churches 
of  his  diocese.  He  built,  out  of  his  own  revemic.v, 
the  Dominican  convent  of  St.  Vincent  Ferrer  ;;t 
Palencia,  in  1480.  He  takes  a  high  rank  in  the 
history  of  .Spanish  education  for  completing  the 
Collegium  Snndi  Gre(jiirii  at  Valladolid,  liegun  by 
King  Alfonso  the  Wise  (12.52-84).  Posterity  justly 
calls  him  the  founder  of  this  famous  college  of  his 
order. 

TocRON,  llommm  iltut.  de  Vordre  de  St.  Dominique,  III, 
693-1107;  Mandonnet.  Let  dominienins  <■(  la  dfcouverle  de 
VAm&ri'iut  (Purin.  ISUS).  IL'l  »|i|.;  .Navakrette,  Coleeeion 
ie  ton  rnajef  u  deaenbrimientoa  tjue  nicim.n  por  mar  log  eKpai)nte» 
(Madri.l.  18:;.'i),  II,  4  »qq.:  La  Fcente,  Ilitloria  de  laa  uni- 
veraiiladea,  eoleniua  u  demda  eatableeimientoa  de  rnaeHanza  en 
EaimtUi  (Madrid,  ifes),  II,  24,  25. 

Thos.  M.  Schwertneh. 

Alford,  Michael,  a  Jesuit  missionary  in  F.ngland 
during  tlie  [)ersecution,  b.  in  London  in  1.587;  d.  at 
St.  Oiners,  11  August,  1G.52.  His  real  name  was 
Griffith,  and  he  sometimes  passed  aa  John  Flood, 
the  alia.ses  being  used  to  e-scapc  detection.  Ho 
entered  the  novitiate  at  Louvain,  in  1007,  studied 
philosophy  in  the  F.nglish  College  at  Seville  and 
Uieology   at   Louvain,   and   was   made  u   professed 


of  the  four  vows  (see  Jesuits)  in  1619.  After  his 
ordination,  he  was  sent  to  Naples  to  minister  to  his 
fellow  countrymen  there,  as  well  as  to  the  British 
merchantmen  and  .sailors  who  frequented  that  port. 
From  thence  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  he  filled 
the  ofrice  of  Penitentiary  from  1GI.5  to  1020.  He 
then  became  Socius  to  the  Master  of  Novices,  and, 
subiscquently.  Rector  of  the  Society's  College  at 
Ghent.  In  1628,  he  went  over  to  England  and, 
immediately  on  his  arrival  at  Dover,  was  seized  as 
a  priest.  When  restored  to  liberty  he  went  to 
Leicestershire,  where  he  laboured  for  nearly  thirty- 
three  years.  His  principal  hiding  place  was  at 
Combe,  in  Hereford,  where  a  subsequent  search  re- 
vealed a  considerable  library,  most  probably  made 
use  of  by  him  in  his  writings.  He  wiis  the  author 
of  many  important  works,  especially  of  the  famous 
"Annales  Kcclesiastici  et  Civiles  Britannorum,  Saxo- 
nuni,  et  Anglorum."  The  "  Britannia  Illustrata"  is 
attributed  to  him,  but  Sommervogel  denies  the 
authenticity  of  "The  Admirable  Life  of  St.  Wine- 
fride",  also  ascribed  to  him.  To  complete  his 
"Annales"  he  received  permission  to  pass  over  to 
the  continent,  but  on  arriving  at  St.  Omers  he  was 
attacked  by  a  fever  and  died. 

E.voLisn  Menology;  Southwell;  Paquot;  De  Backer, 
Bibtiothique  de  la  e,  de  J .,  I,  71;  Foley,  Recorda  of  the  Engliah 
Province,  II,  299-308. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alfred,  or  JEUred,  the  Okkat,  King  of  the 
West-Saxons,  b.  Wantage,  Berkshire.  lOiighmd,  849; 
d.  899,  was  the  fifth  son  oi  Kthelwulf,  or  -Kthelwulf. 
King  of  Wessex,  and  Osburh,  his  queen,  of  the  royal 
hou.se  of  the  Jutes  of  Wight.  When  he  was  four 
years  old,  according  to  a  story  which  has  been  re- 
peated .so  frequently  that  it  is  generally  accepted  as 
true,  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  anointed  king  by  Pope  Leo  IV.  This,  however, 
like  many  other  legends  which  have  crystallized 
about  the  name  of  Alfred,  is  without  foundation. 
Two  years  later,  in  855,  Etlielwulf  went  on  a  pil- 
grimage to  Rome,  taking  Alfred  witii  him.  This 
vi.sit,  recorded  by  As.ser  is  accepted  as  authentic  by 
moilem  historians.     In  858  Ethelwulf  died  and  Wessex 


The  Alfred  Jewel 


W.1S  governed  by  his  sons.  Kthelbald.  F,thel1)ert,  and 
Ethelred,  succes-sively,  until  871,  when  .Alfred  came 
to  the  throne.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  movements 
during  tlic  reigns  of  Kthelbald  antl  Kthclbert.  but 
A.s,ser.  speaking  of  him  during  the  reign  of  ICthelred, 
gives  him  the  title  of  Secumlnrai.t.  In  SO.S  he  married 
Kalhswith,  daughter  of  Ethelred,  surnanie<l  the 
Mickle,  ICaldorman  of  the  Gainas.  The  West- 
Saxons  and  the  Mercians  were  then  engaged  in  a  war 
against  the  invading  Danes  and  .Mfred  took  an 
active  part  in  the  struggle.  He  ascended  the  throne 
tluring  the  thickest  of  this  conllict.  but  before  the 
end  of  the  year  he  succeeded  in  cITecting  a  peace, 


ALFRIDA 


310 


ALGHERO 


probably  by  paying  a  sum  of  money  to  the  invaders. 
Wessex'enjoyeci  a  measure  of  peace  for  a  few  years, 
but  about  875  the  Danes  renewed  their  attacks. 
They  were  repulsed  then,  and  again  in  876  and  877, 
on  each  occasion  making  solemn  pledges  of  peace. 
In  878  came  the  great  invasion  under  Guthrum. 
For  a  few  months  tlie  Danes  met  with  success,  but 
about  Easter  Alfred  establislietl  himself  at  Athelney 
and  later  marched  to  Brixton,  gathering  new  forces 
on  the  way.  In  the  battle  of  Ethandun  (probably 
the  present  Edington,  in  Wiltshire)  he  defeated  the 
Danes.  Guthrum  agreed  to  a  peace  and  consented 
to  be  baptized.  It  is  in  connection  with  this  struggle 
that  many  of  the  legends  of  Alfred  have  sprung  up 
and  been  "perpetuated— the  story  of  the  burnt  cakes, 
the  account  of  his  visit  to  the  Danish  camp  in  the 
guise  of  a  harper,  and  many  others.  For  fifteen 
years  Alfred's  kingdom  was  at  peace,  but  in  903 
the  Danes  who  had  been  driven  out  made  another 
onslauglit.  This  war  lasted  for  four  years  and  re- 
sulted in  the  final  establishment  of  Saxon  supremacy. 
These  struggles  had  another  result,  hardly  less  im- 
portant than  the  freedom  from  Danish  oppression. 
The  successive  invasions  had  crushed  out  of  exist- 
ence most  of  the  individual  kingdoms.  Alfred  made 
Wessex  a  rallpng  point  for  all  the  Saxons  and  by 
freeing  the  country  of  the  invaders  unwittingly 
unified  England  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
eventual  supremacy  of  his  successors. 

Popular  fancy  has  been  busy  with  other  phases 
of  .Alfred's  career  than  that  wliich  is  concerned  with 
his  military  acliievements.  He  is  generally  credited 
with  establishing  trial  by  jury,  the  law  of  "frank- 
pledge", and  many  other  institutions  wliich  were 
rather  the  development  of  national  customs  of  long 
standing.  He  is  represented  as  the  founder  of 
Oxford,  a  claim  which  recent  research  has  dis- 
proved. But  even  the  elimination  of  the  legendary 
from  Alfred's  liistory  does  not  in  any  way  diminish 
his  greatness,  so  much  is  there  of  actual,  recorded 
achievement  to  his  credit.  His  own  estimate  of  what 
he  did  for  tlie  regeneration  of  England  is  modest 
beside  the  authentic  history  of  his  deeds.  He  en- 
deavoured, lie  tells  us,  to  gather  all  that  seemed  good 
in  the  old  English  laws,  and  adds:  "I  durst  not 
venture  much  of  mine  own  to  set  down,  for  I  knew 
not  what  should  be  approved  by  those  who  came 
after  us."  Not  only  did  he  codify  and  promulgate 
laws,  but  he  looked,  too,  to  their  enforcement,  and 
insisted  that  justice  should  be  dispensed  without  fear 
or  favour.  He  devoted  his  energies  to  restoring 
what  had  been  destroyed  by  the  long  wars  with  the 
invaders.  Monasteries  were  rebuilt  and  founded, 
and  learned  men  brought  from  other  lands.  He 
brought  Archbishop  Plegmund  and  Bishop  Wetfrith 
from  Mercia;  Grimbold  and  John  the  Old-Saxon 
from  other  Teutonic  lands;  Asser,  John  Scotus 
Erigena  and  many  others.  He  not  only  encouraged 
men  of  learning,  but  he  laboured  himself  and  gave 
proof  of  his  own  learning.  He  translated  into 
Anglo-Saxon:  "The  Consolation  of  Philosophy"  of 
Boethius;  "The  History  of  the  World"  of  Orosius; 
the  "Ecclesiastical  History"  of  Bede,  and  the 
"  Pastoral  Rule  "  and  the  "  Dialogues  "  of  St.  Gregory 
the  Great.  The  "Consolation  of  Philosophy"  he 
not  only  translated  but  adapted,  adding  much  of 
his  own.^  The  "Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle",  the  record 
of  the  English  race  from  the  earliest  time,  was  in- 
spired by  iiira. 

nuviKr.n,  Edilor,  Alfred  (Ac  Grenf  (London,  1899);  Plummeu, 
JJIr  1,1  Mired  IheGreal  (London,  1902);  ScilHlD,  Die.  Gesctzeder 
Armcltachien,  'M  eel.  (1858).  Contemporary  authorities  are 
the  Life  of  Alfred  by  Abhek  and  the  Anulo-Sajon  Chronicle. 
The.-^e  and  the  later  accounts  by  Kthelwkkd,  Simeon  of  Dur- 
ham, etc.,  can  be  conveniently  studied  in  CoNYBEAnE,  Alfred 
in  the  f:hronieler»  (1900).  For  Alfred'H  writinRs  see  HoHwonTH, 
The  Workt  of  Alfred  the  Oreiil  (Jubilee  edition,  IS.'iS.  2  vols.). 
Alfred's  laws  are  printed  in  LiEnEitMANN'H  Laws  al  the  Analo- 
SnTont  (1903).  Among  modern  accounts  see  I'aui.i.  Life 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  tr.  WnioiiT  (1802);  LAiTCNOElto,  EnoUind 


under  the  Analo-Snxon  Kings,  tr.  from  the  German  by  Thorpe 
(1881),  II:  LiNGARD,  Hialory  of  Enuland,  I;  Knight,  Life  of 
King  Alfred  (1880).  For  a  literary  appreciation,  see  Brooke, 
History  of  English  Literature  to  the  Norman  Conquest  (London 
and  New  York,  1878). 

Thomas  Gaffney  T.^\ffe. 

Alfrida,  Saint,  virgin,  and  recluse,  c.  795. 
This  saint,  whose  name  is  variously  written  Elf- 
thritha,  /Elfleda,  ^Ifthrj-th,  Alfritha,  Etheldreda, 
etc.,  was  a  daughter  of  King  Offa  of  Mercia.  Accord- 
ing to  a  late  and  not  very  trustworthy  legend  she 
was  betrothed  to  St.  Ethelbert,  King  of  the  East 
Angles,  but  when  he  came  to  the  court  of  OfTa  to 
claim  her,  he  was  treacherously  murdered  by  the 
contrivance  of  Cynethritha,  Offa's  queen.  After 
this  Alfrida  retired  to  the  marshes  of  Crowland, 
where  she  was  built  into  a  cell  and  lived  as  a  recluse 
to  the  end  of  her  days.  It  is  impossible  not  to  sus- 
pect the  existence  of  some  confusion  with  ^Ifleda, 
another  daughter  of  Ofia,  whose  husband  was  also 
murdered  by  treachery. 

Acta  S.S'.,  2  August;  Stubbs  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.,ll,S3,s.  v. 
Elfthritha;  ibid.,  215  si.  v.  Ethelbert;  Dunbar,  Diet,  of  Sainted 
Women,  I,  44;  Stanton,  Menology,  221.  For  Brompton's 
account  see  the  Bollandists  and  the  works  of  GiRALDtis 
Cambrensis,   III,   411-420. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Alfwold,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Sherborne,  in  Dorset- 
shire; d.  ICOS.  Alfwold,  or  jElfwold,  is  a  rather  ob- 
scure English  saint  of  whom  we  know  little  beside 
the  few  details  preserved  by  William  of  Malmesbury 
(Gest.  Pont.,  Bk.  II,  §82).  Alfwold  had  been  a 
monk  of  Winchester  and  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Sherborne  in  1045,  succeeding  his  own  brother 
Brightwy.  He  gave  great  edification  by  the  fru- 
gahty  of  his  way  of  life,  which  was  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  riotous  banquetings  which  the  example 
of  the  Danish  monarchs  had  rendered  popular  at 
that  epoch.  He  was  very  devout  to  St.  Swithun, 
his  old  patron  of  Winchester,  antl  also  to  St.  Cuth- 
bert,  to  whose  shrine  at  Durham  he  made  a  pil- 
grimage. He  died  while  singing  the  antiphon  of 
St.  Cuthbert.  He  was,  strictly  speaking,  the  last 
Bishop  of  Sherborne,  for  after  his  death  the  see  of 
Sherborne  was  united  to  that  of  Ramsbury. 

Acta  SS.,  25  March,  III;  Stanton,  English  Menology 
(London,  1892),  134. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Alger  of  Liege,  a  learned  French  priest,  b.  at 
Li^ge,  about  10.55;  d.  at  Cluny,  1132.  He  studied 
at  Li^ge  and  was  appointed  Deacon  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's. About  1100,  he  was  made  Canon  of  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Lambert,  where  he  remained  for 
twenty  years.  In  1121,  he  retired  to  the  Monastery 
at  Cluny,  and  died  there.  He  was  well  known  as  an 
ecclesiastical  writer.  A  treatise  directed  against 
the  heresy  of  Berengarius,  "  De  sacraniento  corporis 
et  sanguinis  Domini"  was  highly  esteemed  by  Peter 
of  Cluny  and  Erasmus.  He  also  wrote  "  De  niiseri- 
cordiaet  justitia",  extracts  from  the  Fathers  with 
brief  commentaries  on  them;  a  work  on  Free  '\Vill, 
and  one  on  the  "Sacrifice  of  the  Mass".  This  is 
contained  in  the  "Collectio  Scriptorum  Veterum" 
of  Angelo  Mai. 

De  sacramentis  corporis  et  sanguine  Domini  (Louvain,  1847; 

Innsbruck,   187S);   De  misericordia  et  justitia,   in   MartSne  8 

Thesaurus  .inecdotoritm   (Paris,   1717),  also  in   the  collections 

of  the  brothers  Pez,  and  also  in  Mabii.i.on,  P.  L.,  166;  1339. 

John  J.  a   Becket. 

Alghero,  an  Italian  diocese  comprising  twenty- 
two  communes  in  the  province  of  Sassari,  and  four 
in  that  of  Cagliari,  Archdiocese  of  Sassari.  The  city 
was  built  by  the  Doria  of  Genoa  in  1102.  In  1106 
John,  Bishop  of  Alglicro,  assisted  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  Church  of  the  Trinity  in  Sacargia.  After 
a  long  period  of  decadence,  the  see  was  renewed 
and  confirmed  by  Julius  II  in  his  Bull  of  1503. 
Pictro  Parens,  a  Genoese,  became  bishop;  he  was 
present  at  the  Lateran  Council  in   1512,  from  the 


ALGIERS 


311 


ALOONQUIN3 


first  to  the  seventh  session.     It  contains  20  parishes, 
71  secular  priests,  .')1,300  inliabitants. 

CAPPE1.1.KTTI,  Le  diiese  d-IUilm  (Venice,  18(50),  XIII.  HI; 
Gams  AVnVa  epuscupurum  iccli-si(r  catholica;  (Uati»buli,  1873), 
832;   Mai-ih.ki,  Hardinia  Sacni  (Rome.   1758),   171. 

EHNE8T0    liUONAIUTI. 

Algiers  (Icosium),  The  Archdiocese  op,  comprises 
the  province  of  Alg(5rie  in  I'Vencli  Africa.  Its  sufTra- 
gans  are  tlie  Sees  of  Oran  ami  Constantino.  In  1G32, 
several  missions  were  estaljlishcd  in  .\lgeria;  soon 
after,  an  apostolic-vicar  was  installcil  there,  who, 
towards  tlie  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  had 
under  him  tlie  pro-vicar  of  Tunis  and  tlie  prefect  of 
Tripoli.  Tlie  ejjiscopal  See  of  Algiers,  foundetl  in  the 
second  century  at  Icosiuni,  did  not  survive  the 
Arabic  conquest.  It  was  re-established  in  1838  as  a 
suffragan  ot  tlie  .\rclidiocese  of  Aix.  Mgr.  Antoiiio 
Adolpli  Dupuch  (d.  I>S.')0)  was  its  first  bishop  until 
184,"),  when  he  resigned  and  was  succeeded  by 
Mgr.  Aiitoine  I'avy  (181U-GG).  On  the  death  of  the 
latter,  Algiers  became  an  archdiocese,  with  two 
newly-cre;ited   sees    (1807),    Oran   and   Constantine, 


Algonqulns. — The  Indians  known  by  thi.'i  name 
were  probably  at  one  time  the  most  numerous  of 
all  the  North  American  tribes.  Migrations,  inter- 
marriages, political  alliances,  wholesale  absorption 
of  eaptiv(\s  and  desertions,  however,  make  it  im- 
possible to  fix  the  tribal  hmits  with  any  degree  of 
exactness;  yet  the  Algonquins  may  be  said  to  have 
roameil  over  the  country  from  what  is  now  Kentucky 
to  Hudson  Bay,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mi.s.s- 
issippi  and  perhaps  beyond.  The  Micmacs,  Abe- 
nakis,  ilonta^nais,  Penobscots,  Chippewas,  Mas- 
cout<?ns,  Nipissings,  Sacs,  Pottowatoniies,  and 
Illinois,  the  I'eiiuods  of  Miissachusetts,  the  iMohegans 
of  New  York,  the  Lenapes  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Delaware,  with  many  other  minor  tribes,  may  be 
classed  among  them.  Linguistically  and  physically 
they  have  many  unmistakable  traits  in  common. 
John  Eliot  and  Cotton  Mather  had  a  very  poor  idea 
of  them  and  spoke  of  their  condition  .is  "infinitely 
b.irbarous".  The  early  French  nii.'!sionarics  gave 
more  flattering  accounts  of  their  intellectual  power, 
their  poetry,  their  oratory,  their  nobility  of  character, 


Page  khom  Algonquin  Dictionary 


for  suffragans.  Mgr.  Charles  Martial  Allemand 
Lavigerie,  Bi.shop  of  Nancy,  became  its  first  arch- 
bishop (d.  1893).  The  Cliurch  of  Algiers  honours  in 
a  special  manner  the  memory  of  several  holy  con- 
fes.sors  of  the  Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  for  the 
Redemption  of  Captives  foumlcil  in  r_'32  by 
St.  Peter  Nohisco.  .Vmoiig  them  are  St.  Peter  Ar- 
mcngaud  (thirteenth  century),  confessor  at  Hougie, 
and  St.  Raymund  Nonnatus  (thirteenth  century), 
confessor  at  Algiers.  It  cherishes  also  a  particular 
veneration  for  the  memories  of  Blessed  Raymond 
LuUy  who  died  at  Bougie  in  1325,  antl  the  Ven- 
cralAe  Oeronimo,  buried  alive  at  Algiers  in  1.5G9. 
The  Diocese  of  .Algiers  contained  (enil  of  190.')), 
220,843  inhabitants  of  ICuropcan  birth  (exclusive  of 
the  army),  8  first-class;  101  second-class  parishes  and 
2.")  vicariates,  formerly  with  St;ite  subventions.  There 
were  al.so  24  auxili;ip»'  priests. 

Dupccii,   FaatrB  dc  t'Afrique  rhritiennt  (Ronlcaux,   1840); 
Grithsfnmeykr,     \'\nt)t-cinq    anri'Va    d'^pUcoptit    m    Franer, 
tt  en  Afru/ur:  documenU  bioffraphiqufK  »ur  U  Cardinal  hivi(jcric 
(Algiers,  1888);  Chevalier,  Topo-bM.  (I'aris,  ISOl-OOi,  .I-'. 
Geouoes  Goyau. 


and  even  their  mechanical  skill.  In  his  "Indian 
Tribes  of  the  United  States",  though  referring  to 
somewhat  more  modern  Indians,  Drake  rather 
shares  the  latter  view,  at  least  with  regard  to  the 
Algonquins  of  Lake  Superior.  The  name  Algonquin 
seemed  to  be  a  general  designation,  and  it  is  not  cer- 
tain that  they  were  united  in  a  confederation  at 
least  in  one  as  compact  and  its  permanent  as  that  of 
the  Iroquois,  who  supplanted  and  cnished  them. 
Whatever  union  there  was  had  given  way  l>efore  the 
whites  arrived.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  mistakes 
of  Champlain  that  he  espoiLsed  the  cause  of  the 
Algonquins,  whose  power  was  not  only  waning  but 
who  were  actually  vassals  of  the  Iroquois,  and  made 
war  against  the  Iroquois,  their  enemies;  a  policy 
which,  besides,  threw  the  Iroquois  with  the  English 
and  resulted  in  so  many  bloody  wars.  In  his  I'ref- 
ace  to  the  "Jesuit  Relations",  Thwaites  is  of  the 
opinion  that  they  have  made  a  larger  figure  in  our 
history  than  any  other  family,  l)ecause  through 
their  lands  came  the  heaviest  and  most  aggro.-isive 
movement  of  wliite  population,  French  and  English; 


ALIENATION 


312 


ALIMENTATION 


b>it  it  is  now  believed  tluit  tlie  number  was  never  so 
great  as  was  at  first  estimated  by  the  Jesuit  fathers 
and  the  earliest  EngHsli  colonists.  A  careful  modern 
estimate  is  that  tlic  Algonquins  at  no  time  numbered 
over  90,000  souls  and  possibly  not  o\'er  50,000.  But 
as  the  actual  number  of  Algonquins  now  living  is 
in  excess  of  that,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  early 
missionaries  did  not  exaggerate  and  that  there  may 
have  been  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  them,  as 
some  moderns  still  claim.  The  missions  among 
them  began  with  the  Micmac  tribe  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  the  Abenakis  (q.  v.)  of  Maine.  The  work  at 
Tadoussac  was  contemporaneous  with  the  first  at- 
tempt at  colonization;  it  extended  north  as  far  as 
Hudson  Bay,  and  along  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa 
to  the  Great  Lakes  on  whose  shores  the  Algonquins 
were  found,  sometimes  living  with  the  Hurons  who 
were  kinsmen  of  the  Iroquois.  The  Chippewas, 
whom  Raymbault  and  Jogues  visited  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  in  1641, •  were  Algonquins  as  were  those  whom 
Allouez  (q.  v.)  later  gathered  together  in  his  famous 
mission  of  La  Pointe  on  Lake  Superior.  The  Algon- 
quin language  has  been  more  cultivated  than  any  of 
the  other  North  American  tongues.  Its  sounds  are 
not  difficult  to  catch,  its  vocabulary  is  copious  and 
its  expressions  clear.  The  early  missionaries  called 
it  the  "Indian  court  language."  It  was  the  most 
widely  diffused  and  most  fertile  in  dialects  of  all  the 
Indian  tongues.  "It  was  spoken,  though  not  exchi- 
sively",  says  Bancroft,  "in  a  territory  that  extended 
through  sixty  degrees  of  longitude  and  more  than 
twenty  degrees  of  latitude."  This  facilitated  to  some 
extent  the  work  of  the  missionaries.  Eliot  translated 
the  Bible  into  Algonquin  and  Father  Rasle  (q.  v.) 
left  an  Abenaki  Dictionary  wliich  is  the  possession  of 
Harvard  University.  In  recent  days,  Bishop  Baraga 
(q.  V.)  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Michigan,  has  written  a 
remarkable  series  of  works  such  as  the  Ojibway 
Catechism,  prayer  book,  hymn  book,  extracts 
from  tlie  Old  and  New  Testament,  the  Gospels  of 
the  year,  and  a  grammar  and  dictionary.  They 
regarded  Manabozho,  or  the  Great  Hare,  as  their 
ancestor,  and  the  tribe  that  bore  his  totem  was  en- 
titled to  the  greatest  respect.  He  was  the  founder 
and  teacher  of  the  nation,  the  creator  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  the  shaper  of  the  earth.  He  still  lives 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  Supreme  Spirit  they  called 
Monedo,  or  Manitou,  to  whom  they  ascribe  some  of 
the  attributes  of  God,  but  who  does  not  judge  or 
punish  evil  doing.  Bad  actions  are  not  considered 
as  committed  against  him.  There  is  an  evil  spirit 
who  has  to  be  propitiated,  and  besides  him  are  many 
others  who  bring  all  temporal  misfortunes.  Hence 
the  universal  superstition,  magic,  sorcery,  and  the 
like.  According  to  one  authority  the  number  of  In- 
dians of  Algonquin  stock  in  1902  was  estimated  at 
about  82,000  souls,  of  whom  43,000  are  in  the  United 
States,  the  remainder  being  in  Canada  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  refugees  in  Mexico. 

Drake,  The  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States;  Jesuit 
Relations;  Charlevoix,   Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle-France. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 
Alienation  of  Church  Property.    See  Propertv, 

ECCI.ESI.\ST1C.\L. 

Ahfe,  a  diocese  made  up  of  twelve  communes  in 
the  province  of  Caserta,  Archbishopric  of  Benevento, 
Italy.  The  name  of  a  Bishop  of  Alife  appears  for 
the  first  time  among  the  signatories  of  the  Roman 
Synod  of  499,  in  the  time  of  Pope  Synnnaehus 
(f'ltirus  epixcinrus  Ecclraiie  AUijanm  subscripsi — ) 
"  Monumenta  Germania^  Historica,"  auct.  Antiquiss., 
XII,  400.  It  contains  17  parishes,  60  priests, 
2;!.S90  inhabitants. 

Cai'pki.i.ktti,  /.<•  chiete  d'llalia  (Venice.  1806),  XIX,  89; 
UoiiELi.i,  lUitia  Sacra  (Venire.  172L>),  VIII,  20(1;  Gams, 
Serift  epiteojiorum  Eecksia  cnthaliea  (Ratisbon,  1873),  S47; 
D'AviNO,  Cmni  StuHci  (Nnplcn,  1820).  8. 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 


Alighieri,  Dante.     See  Dante. 

Alimentation. — Support  or  maintenance.  Ali- 
ment in  a  broad  sense  means  whatever  is  necessary  to 
Bu.stain  human  life:  not  merely  food  and  drink,  but 
lodging,  clothing,  care  during  sickness  and  burial. 
A  parent  is  bound  to  supply  such  aliment  to  his 
child,  and  this  whether  it  is  of  legitimate  or  illegiti- 
mate birth;  and,  if  the  latter,  whether  it  is  the  Iruit 
of  simple  unlawful  cohabitation,  or  of  an  adulterous, 
incestuous,  or  sacrilegious  one.  This  is  a  duty  im- 
posed by  the  natural  law,  personal  and  real,  since  it 
not  only  binds  the  father  himself  but  is  a  claim  upon 
his  estate.  The  husband  owes  aliment  to  his  wife, 
and  children  owe  it  to  their  father  and  mother,  and 
to  other  relatives  who  are  in  want.  The  Common 
Law  of  civilized  countries  determines  all  these  du- 
ties. By  the  religious  profession  the  professed  is 
incorporated  into  his  order,  and  has  a  right  to  aliment 
from  it;  becoming  a  son,  so  to  speak,  of  his  monas- 
terj',  he  acquires  the  rights  of  the  son  of  a  family 
in  his  father's  house.  He  retains  this  right  even  if 
he  is  shut  up  in  another  monastery  to  do  penance 
there,  or  if  he  is  expelled  unjustly  from  his  order; 
he  is  entitled  to  it  while  on  trial  for  some  charge, 
though  this  may  result  in  his  expulsion;  but  his  sen- 
tence once  pronounced  and  accepted,  he  can  claim 
nothing  from  his  monastery. 

Clerics  must  be  assured  of  something  that  will  sup- 
port them,  since  they  cannot  be  promoted  to  major 
orders  if  they  have  no  title  guaranteeing  them  an 
honourable  sub,sistence.  As  a  matter  of  ia.ct  it  has 
always  been  repugnant  to  the  Cliurch  that  one  who 
exercises  the  holy  ministry  should  have  to  beg  his 
bread  or  practise  some  undignified  calling.  Formerly, 
no  one  was  ordained  even  to  minor  ortlers  who  had 
not  some  ecclesiastical  charge  in  a  church  which  pro- 
vitled  him  with  a  suitable  maintenance;  the  church 
for  which  he  was  ordained  was  called  the  "Title  of 
Ordination",  and  he  liimself  was  said  to  be  "titled" 
(Intitidatus).  Later,  after  it  had  become  the  cus- 
tom not  only  to  give  the  tonsure,  but  also  minor 
and  major  orders,  without  a  title,  Alexander  III,  in 
the  Third  Lateran  Council,  condemned  bishops  who 
should  ordain  deacons  and  priests  without  a  title, 
to  support  such  priests  from  the  episcopal  table  if 
they  came  to  want.  Innocent  III  extended  this  dis- 
cipline to  subdeacons,  and  it  is  since  this  that  the 
"title  of  ordination"  is  exacted  only  for  the  major 
orders.  The  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  ch.  2, 
"  De  ref. ",  maintained  the  necessity  for  the  "  title 
of  ordination",  and  recognized  three:  a  benefice, 
a  patrimony,  and  a  fixed  income.  Title  in  general  is 
something  that  assures  support  for  life  to  a  cleric 
promoted  to  major  orders.  Even  religious  must 
receive  some  such  assurance  when  they  are  ordained. 
Religious  of  solemn  vows  are  ordained  uniler  the 
"Title  of  Poverty",  or  of  "Religious  Profession", 
and  this  assures  them  permanent  support  from  the 
revenues  of  the  monastery.  Religious  of  simple  vows 
are  ordinarily  ordained,  by  virtue  of  Apostolic  in- 
dults,  under  the  "Title  of  the  Common  Table", 
which  assures  them  due  support  from  the  goods  of 
the  congregation  to  which  they  belong.  Should  they, 
throtigh  an  indult  of  secularization,  be  permitted  to 
withdraw  from  their  religious  family,  they  inay  not 
do  so  until  they  have  been  accepted  by  some  bishop 
and  are  provided  with  a  title  that  offers  them  a  re- 
spect.able  living. 

Secular  clerics  will  be  secured  against  need  when 
they  are  ordained,  by  the  title  of  a  benefice,  patri- 
mony, or  stable  income.  By  the  title  of  a  benefice 
the  cleric  promoted  to  major  orders  is  provided  with 
a  perpetual  ecclesiastical  office,  the  revenue  from 
which  .suHiccs  for  his  proper  support.  By  the  title 
of  patrimony,  the  onlained  clerk,  having  personal 
property  gives  .a  guarantee  to  his  bishop  that,  in 
case  he  should  not  be  provided  with  an  ecclesiastica' 


ALIMONY 


313 


benefice,  he  can  supjxirt  himself  fitly  for  life  out  of 
his  own  fortune.  By  the  title  of  pension,  or  stable 
provision,  some  one  pleilces  himself  to  provide  for 
the  priest  ordained,  should  he  fall  into  indigence. 
These  three  titles  do  not  avail  in  nii.ssionary  coun- 
tries, either  because  tliere  arc  no  ccclcsia.-ilical  bene- 
fices in  such  regions,  or  tliat  personal  fortunes  are 
rare,  or  that  there  are  few  willing  to  bind  themselves 
to  supply  permanent  supjxjrt  for  a  cleric.  This  is 
why  the  (,\>n;j;rcgatioii  of  Propaganda,  in  a  celebrated 
instruction  sent  to  countries  dependent  on  it,  per- 
mits bishops  to  ordain  priests  under  "title  of  tlio 
mission".  By  this  title,  the  acolvte  before  receiving 
the  subde.aconship.  pronii.ses  under  oath,  that,  once 
ordaineil,  he  will  not  enter  any  religious  order  or 
congregation,  without  permission  of  Propaganda,  and 
that  lie  will  live  in  the  dioce.se  under  tlie  jurisdiction 
of  the  bishop,  employing  himself  in  the  .service  of 
the  mi.ssion.  Tlie  clerk  so  ordained  is  a  charge  on 
the  diocese  for  wliicli  he  has  been  ordained,  which 
assure.s  him  a  respectable  support  if  tlirough  infirm- 
ity or  incapacity  lie  chance  to  fall  into  poverty.  It 
should  be  remarked  here  that  a  priest  ordained  un- 
der the  title  of  the  mission  has  a  right  to  his  sup- 
port, even  when,  through  his  own  fault,  he  has  become 
unworthy  of  filling  an  ecclesiastical  position.  The 
Coiigrc'gation  of  Propaganda  in  a  response  to  the 
Bishop  of  Natchez,  4  February,  1S73,  shows  clearly 
that  the  priest  cannot  be  deprived  of  his  means  of 
support,  unless,  after  repeated  warnings,  he  refases 
to  amend,  and  falls  into  contumacy,  (irave  olTences 
committed  by  him  such  as  may  even  justify  his  dep- 
osition from  office,  will  not  warrant  the  bishop  in 
refusing  him  means  of  support.  He  will,  of  course, 
have  no  right  to  the  pension  from  the  benefice  from 
which  he  lias  been  deposed,  but  should  he  wish  to 
amend,  the  Church,  like  a  compiussionate  mother,  in- 
stead of  turning  him  into  the  street  will  supply  him 
with  his  daily  Dread,  and  will  endeavour  to  bring 
him  to  a  realization  of  his  evil  courses  and  conse- 
quent penance. 

This  obligation  of  providing  for  priests  ordained 
under  "  title  of  the  mission "  creates  a  somewhat 
heavy  burden  for  dioceses.  In  these  countries,  es- 
pecially the  United  States  and  Canada,  the  bishops 
nave  been  forced  to  devise  .some  way  of  satisfying 
this  demand  of  their  pastoral  charge.  In  virtue  of 
a  special  power  of  the  Congregation  of  Propagantla, 
they  can  grant  to  the  priest  or  missionary  wMio  re- 
signs his  parish  or  mission,  on  account  of  infirmity, 
a  pension  drawn  from  the  revenues  of  the  parish 
or  mission,  to  be  paid  by  his  succe.s.sor  in  it.  For  a 
priest  to  have  a  claim  to  such  pension,  (1)  lie  must 
nave  resigned  becau.se  of  infirmity;  (2)  he  must 
have  licen  ten  years  in  the  parish  or  mis,sion;  and 
(3)  the  |)en.sion  mast  not  exceed  a  third  of  the  rev- 
enues of  the  parish  or  mi.ssion.  Moreover,  bi.shops 
have  encouraged  among  the  priests  the  foundation 
of  "Clerical  Funds",  whose  purpo.se  is  to  afford 
pecuniary  a.ssist.ance  during  their  life  to  members 
who  become  infirm  and  con.sequently  incapable  of 
fulfilling  an  ecclesiastical  charge.  Priests  in  good 
health  belonging  to  the  dioce.se  enter  into  these  so- 
cieties, and  the  members  contribute  something  every 
year  to  the  "Clerical  Fund".  The  society  is  aj- 
ministered  by  a  bureau  of  which  it  is  customary  for 
the  bisliop  to  be  the  president,  while  the  directors 
are  priests  chosen  by  members  of  the  .society.  The 
amount  disbursed  to  needy  members  depends  on  the 
contributions  received  ami  varies  with  difTerent 
places.  .\s  fallen  pricst.s  who  have  repented  cannot 
De  abandoned,  the  bishops  provide  for  them  either 
by  founding  houses  of  retreat  in  which  they  can  do 
penance,  or  by  sending  them  to  monasteries,  where, 
under  the  watchful  care  of  holy  religious  they  may, 
by  reflecting  on  the  sanctity  of  their  state,  cause  the 
grace  of  ordination  to  revive. 


VvTzr.n,  Commentatium  in  fae.  apoatol.  (5th  ©d.  1808),  num. 
211;  Cone.  Ballimarmie  III.  dec.  De  tacerdnl.  mfirmit  et 
lapne;  Gahpariu,  De  Sacra  Ordinatione  (1803),  I,  n.  584  Hqq.; 
Ferraris,  BMiol/i.  Canon,  g.  v.  AUmenla. 

Joseph  N.  Gicnac. 

Alimony  (I,at.,  alimonia,  nutriment,  from  alere, 
to  nourish),  in  the  common  legal  sense  of  the  word, 
is  the  allowance  which  by  order  of  the  court  a  hus- 
band pays  to  his  wife  for  her  maintenance  wliile 
she  is  living  separately  from  him,  or  the  allowance 
or  provision  ordered  by  the  court  to  be  paid  by  her 
former  husband  to  a  divorced  woman.  There  are 
two  kind.s  of  alimony,  the  one  kind,  alimony  pendente 
lite,  being  an  allowance  to  the  w'ife  pending  a  suit 
between  herself  and  her  husband,  and  the  other  the 
allowance  or  provision  after  suit,  and  which  is  known 
as  permanent  alimony.  Exclusive  jurisdiction  of 
matrimonial  causes  was  in  England  formerly  vested 
in  ecclesiastical  courts.  These  courts,  notwith- 
standing the  English  common  law,  by  which  the  pro|v 
erty  of  a  wife  became  on  marriage  the  projierty  of 
her  husband,  assigned  to  a  wife  who  \v;is  compelled 
to  live  apart  from  her  husband  a  portion  of  his 
income  for  her  maintenance  or  alimony.  Kegulaling 
their  action  by  the  canon  law,  these  courts  conliiicd 
themselves  to  two  general  classes  of  matrimonial 
cases:  suits  for  separation  (divorce  a  mennd  et  toro), 
and  suits  to  have  a  marriage  declared  void  from  the 
beginning.  Alimony  pendente  lite  might  be  allowed 
in  a  suit  belonging  to  either  class,  but  permanent 
alimony  in  a  suit  for  separation  only.  For,  being 
incidental  to  marriage,  alimony  was  not  allowed  in 
a  decree  declaring  a  marriage  to  have  been  void 
from  the  beginning.  Non-payment  by  the  husband 
subjected  him  to  excommunication,  a  judgment  of 
the  ecclesiastical  court  which  the  executive  depart- 
ment of  the  civil  government  enforced  througn  its 
oHicer,  the  sheriff,  to  whom  was  issued  the  writ 
de  excommuniealo  capiendo,  reciting  that  "potestas 
regia  sacrosanctie  ecclesiie  in  querelis  suis  dee.sse 
non  debet"  (Kegistrum  omnium  brevium,  65).  And 
so  it  is  said  that  under  the  appellation  of  estovers, 
collection  of  alimony  was  enforced  through  writ 
de  estovcriis  habendis.  In  1857,  jurisdiction  in  matri- 
monial cases  was  taken  by  statute  from  the  eccle- 
siastical courts,  and  the  court  of  divorce  and  matri- 
monial causes,  with  power  to  grant  absolute  divorce, 
was  established.  In  none  of  the  states  of  the  I'nited 
States  have  matrimonial  cases  been  confided  to 
ecclesiastical  courts.  The  courts  in  the  several 
states  having  jurisdiction  to  award  alimony  in  matri- 
monial cases  and  the  circumstances  under  which  it 
may  be  awarded  are  to  be  ascertained  from  the  con- 
stitution, the  statutes,  and  the  decisions  of  the  courts 
of  each  state.  By  the  ancient  Roman  law  there  was 
allowed  on  behalf  of  a  pupil  against  an  unfaithful 
tutor  or  curator  a  proceeding  in  which  the  pupil 
might  obtain  what  has  been  termed  alimony.  In 
this  proceeding  it  became  the  pra-tor's  duty  to  fix 
the  character  and  amount  of  tlie  pupil's  expenses, 
"  deeemere  alimenta" ,  "and  if",  remarks  Cumin  (".\ 
Manual  of  Civil  Law",  2d  ed.,  London,  1805,  79), 
"the  tutor  appeared  and  falsely  alleged  that  the 
pupil's  means  would  not  allow  alimony  to  be  de- 
creed, ho  would  be  removed  as  susj)eetus  and  delivered 
to  the  Prcrjeclus  urbis  for  punishment."  The  Civil 
Code  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  contains  a  very  broad 
definition  of  alimony  as  a  claim  for  support.  The 
term  has  been  used  in  English  literature  in  the  gen- 
eral sense  of  nourishment.  Thus,  Jeremy  Taylcir 
refers  to  the  Sacraments  lieing  considered  "spiritual 
alimony."  See  "A  New  English  Dictionary  on  His- 
torical Principles,"  by  J.  A.  H.  Murray,  Oxford, 
New  York.  1888,  s.  y.  "Alimony." 

Bl.ArKSToNE.  CommmtnricH  on  thr  iMWif  of  Enqlnnd,  I.  xv, 


Alanby  et  at.  vt.  ScoU,  X  Levinz  U«p.  4  (Salkeld'tt  tr.);  Anon., 


ALITURGICAL 


314 


ALL   HALLOWS 


2  Shower's  Rep.  282;  Bishop,  ^'ew  Commeniariet  on  Mar- 
riage, DiiOTce  and  tieparadon  (Chicago,  1891),  I,  §  1386  and 
note  1,  II,  5S  855.  887.  925;  Blkn,  The  Ecclesiastical  Law,  (9th 
ed.,  London.  1S42).  508.  s.  v.  Marriage;  Phillimore,  The 
Ecclesiastical  Law  uf  Uie  Church  of  England  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1895)  U38.  042;  Merrick,  licrised  Civil  Code  of  the  State  of 
Louisiani  (New  Orleans,  1900),  art.  230;  for  Scotch  law, 
W\tso.n-Beli„  Dictionary  and  Digest  of  the  Law  of  Scotland, 
(Edinburgh,  1890)  s.  v.  AUment. 

Ch.\rles  W.  Sloane. 
Aliturgical  Days. — This  term,  though  not  recog- 
nized by  any  English  dictionary,  has  lately  come  into 
use  as  "a  convenient  designation  for  those  days  on 
which  the  "liturgy",  i.  e.  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the 
Eucharist,  is  not  allowed  to  be  celebrated.  The 
term  is  warranted  by  moilern  Greek  example  (dXciroup- 
yriTiKds.liturgia  rarcns  dies —KiWes,  "Calendarium", 
II,  743 — though  d\(iTovpyr)o-la  under  the  Empire 
commonly  meant  exemption  from  p\iblic  burdens), 
and  the  "conception  is  much  more  familiar  ainong 
the  Eastern  Cluirches  than  in  the  West.  In  the 
Roman  Rite,  in  fact,  there  is  only  one  day  in  the  year 
which  is  generally  recognized  as  aliturgical.  Tliis  is 
Good  Friday,  on  which,  as  is  well  known,  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  is  not  offered;  since  the  so-called  "  Mass  of  the 
Presanctified "  which  takes  its  place  contains  no 
praj'er  of  consecration,  and  the  sacred  Host  which 
is  consumed  by  the  celebrant  is  one  that  has  been 
consecrated  on  the  preceding  day.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, the  Holy  Saturday  is  also  an  aliturgic  day  in  the 
West;  for  it  is  easy  to  show  that  the  Mass  which  is  now 
celebrated  in  the  morning,  after  the  blessing  of  the 
paschal  candle  and  the  font,  belongs  of  right  to  the 
office  of  Easter  Eve,  and  that  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  Churcli  it  was  only  celebrated  after  midnight  at 
the  close  of  the  great  Easter  vigil.  In  the  Am- 
brosian  Rite,  still  retained  in  the  Church  of  Milan, 
all  the  Fridays  of  Lent  are  also  theoretically  alitur- 
gical, and  no  Mass  is  celebrated  on  those  days  in  the 
cathedral  or  the  parish  churches  (see  the  sketch  of 
Ambrosian  practices  in  Magani,  "L'Antica  Liturgia 
Rornana",  Milan,  1897,  I).  But  the  prohibition  is 
evaded  by  many  of  the  clergy  who  on  these  days  say 
their  Mass  in  convents  and  other  privileged  chapels 
where  the  Roman  Rite  is  followed.  In  the  Russian 
Orthodox  Church  at  the  present  day  the  whole  of 
the  seven  weeks  preceding  Easter  are  aliturgical, 
except  the  Saturday  and  Sunday  of  each  week. 
Amongst  these  aliturgical  days,  however,  certain 
differences  are  made,  for  on  some  of  them  the  "service 
of  the  presanctified"  (d/coXouWa  tQv  vpoTiyiaffixivuv) 
is  celebrated  in  the  evening.  These  days  are  the 
Wednesday  and  the  Friday  of  the  first  six  weeks  of 
Lent,  a  very  few  minor  festivals,  and  the  first  three 
days  of  Holy  Week.  The  feast  of  the  Annunciation, 
whenever  it  falls,  is  a  liturgical  day,  but  if  it  chances 
to  coincide  with  Good  Friday  the  feast  is  transferred 
to  Easter  Week. 

.Although  we  do  not  possess  much  which  can  be 
regarded  as  direct  and  clear  evidence,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  in  early  centuries  of  the  Church 
aliturgical  days  were  numerous  both  in  East  and 
West.  In  the  beginning  of  things  Mass  seems  to 
have  been  said  only  on  Sundays  and  on  the  very 
few  festivals  then  recognized,  or  perhaps  on  the  anni- 
versaries of  the  martyrs,  the  bishop  himself  officiat- 
ing. To  these  occasions  we  have  to  add  certain  days 
of  "stations"  which  seem  to  have  coincided  with  the 
We<lnesday  and  Friday  fa.st  then  kept  regularly 
throughout  the  Church.  Hut  there  is  considerable 
doubt  whether  the  liturgy  was  always  celebrated  on 
the.se  days  of  stations,  and  we  have  indications  in 
TertuUian  and  otlier  writers  of  a  current  of  opinion 
which  tended  to  regard  the  offering  of  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  a.s  inconsistent  with  the  observance  of  a 
true  and  serious  fa.st.  In  Alexandria  in  the  fifth 
century  we  have  direct  testimony  of  the  observances 
on  certain  fast  davs  of  all  the  rites  which  belonged 
to  the  usual  assembly  of  the  faithful  {synaiis),  "with 


the  exception  of  the  celebration  of  the  mysteries". 
This  probably  points  to  some  kind  of  Mass  of  the 
Pre.sanctified.  A  letter  of  Pope  Innocent  I  (401-417) 
to  Decentius  of  Eugubium  makes  it  clear  that  no 
Mass  was  said  in  Rome  on  Good  Friday  and  Holy 
Saturday,  and  some  writers  ha\'e  wished  to  draw 
the  conclusion  that  the  same  was  true  of  all  Fridays 
and  Saturdays  throughout  the  year.  In  Spain 
Canon  xxvi  of  the  Council  of  Eh-ira  (300)  may  be 
quoted  as  evidence  that  the  faithful  at  that  time 
fasted  every  Thursday  evening  to  the  Sunday  morn- 
ing, and  that  the  liturgy  was  probably  celebrated 
during  the  vigil  of  the  Saturday  night  as  the  fast 
drew  to  its  close.  No  doubt  this  practice  followed 
the  type  of  the  Holy  Saturday  vigil.  In  the  later 
centuries  we  can  only  be  sure  of  certain  isolated 
facts  wliich  argue  considerable  diversity  of  usage. 
Dom  Germain  Morin  has  shown  that  at  Capua,  in 
the  sixth  century,  and  also  in  Spain,  Mass  was  cele- 
brated during  Lent  only  on  the  Wednesday  and  the 
Friday.  It  is  probable  that  a  similar  rule,  but  in- 
cluding the  Monday  also,  obtained  in  England  in  the 
days  of  Bede  or  even  later  (see  "  Revue  Benedictine  ", 
1891,  VIII,  529).  At  Rome  we  also  know  ihat  down 
to  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  II  (715-731),  the  liturgy 
was  not  celebrated  on  Thursdays.  In  the  East, 
Canon  xlix  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (365?),  laid  it 
down  "  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  offer  bread  in  Lent 
except  on  the  Saturday  and  the  Lord's  day",  while 
the  Council  of  Constantinople  (in  Trullo),  in  692, 
speaks  explicitly  of  the  liturgy  of  the  presanctified 
anil  appoints  it  to  be  celebrated  on  all  days  of  Lent, 
except  the  Saturday,  the  Sunday,  and  tlie  feast  of 
the  Annunciation. 

Morin,  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrct..  I,  1218-20;  NiLLES, 
Calendarium  Manuale  (Innsbruck,  1897),  11,  251-253;  Malt- 
EEW,  Liturgikon  (Berlin,  1902),  1G3-194;  Duchesne,  Chris- 
tian Worship,  tr.  (London,  1903).  249;  Allatius,  De  Missd 
Presanctijicatorum  (Paris,  1646),  12;  Raible  in  Der  Katholik 
(Mainz,  Feb.-April,   1901). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

All  Hallows  College,  an  institution  devoted  to  the 
preparation  of  priests  for  the  missions  in  English- 
speaking  countries.  In  the  year  1840  a  young  priest, 
the  Reverend  John  Hand,  who  lived  with  a  Vincen- 
tian  community  in  Dublin  without  being  bound  by 
their  rules,  began  to  take  a  deep  interest  in  the 
evangelization  of  his  countrymen  in  English-speaking 
lands;  and  recognizing  the  homesteads  of  Catholic 
Ireland  as  excellent  seed-beds  of  apostolic  workmen 
— as,  in  a  very  true  sense,  pctits  siminaires — he  de- 
termined to  consecrate  his  life  to  the  foundation  of 
a  college  destined  exclusively  for  the  education  and 
equipment  of  missionaries.  Such  a  project  in  the 
hands  of  one  so  young,  unknown,  and  penniless, 
seemed  chimerical;  but  Father  Hand  placed  his 
trust  in  Heaven  and  in  the  traditional  generosity  of 
the  Irish  race.  His  first  step  was  to  go  to  Rome. 
There  he  received  from  Ciregory  XVI  a  Rescript 
expressing  the  "fullest  approbation  of  so  holy  an 
vmdertaking  ".  ITpon  his  return,  aided  by  O'Connell, 
he  obtained  from  the  Corporation  of  Dublin  a  lease 
of  a  stately  mansion  on  the  north  side  of  the  city,  and 
with  it  twenty-six  acres  of  land  which  in  the  pre- 
Reformatiou  days  had  belonged  to  the  Priorj-  of 
All  Hallows  (All  Saints).  On  the  1st  day  of  Novem- 
ber, 1S4'2,  with  the  advice  and  encouragement  of  the 
venerable  Archbishop  Murray,  he  formally  opened 
the  college  and  bestowed  upon  it  its  present  ap- 
propriate name.  For  four  yetirs  he  conliiuied  Presi- 
dent, directing  the  studies,  establishing  the  finances, 
and  organizing  the  professional  staff.  Then,  worn 
out  by  solicitudes  and  labours,  especially  by  the 
weary  work  of  collecting  funds  from  house  to  liouse 
in  the  city,  and  from  parish  to  parish  in  the  country, 
he  died  in  the  spring  of  1840,  leaving  to  others  the 
legacy  of  an  ample  harvest.  \  lofty  and  Celtic  ideal 
had    attracted   and   stimulated    Father    Hand.     He 


ALL  SAINTS 


315 


ALL  SOULS' 


desired  All  Hallows  "to  be  Apostolic,  and  to  cease  to 
exist,  as  soon  as  it  ceased  to  be  Apostolic."  He 
wislied  tlie  professors  to  labour  without  stipend,  and 
the  students  not  only  to  be  tuuglit  and  boarded, 
but  to  receive  everj'  collegiate  coiivciiicii<-c,  free  of 
charge.  The  profes.sors  of  the  college  tlirougliout  its 
history  have  been  men  of  capacity  and  di.stinction, 
and  men  whose  lives  were  according  to  1-atlicr  Hand's 
de.-;ire,  modelled  upon  the  teacliing  and  the  e.xaniple 
of  -M.  Olier  and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  Among.st  those 
wlio  gratuitously  gave  their  services  to  All  Hallows 
the  following  deserve  special  mention:  Dr.  Bartholo- 
mew Wuodlock,  Dr.  Daniel  Moriarty,  Dr.  Michael 
Flannery,  Dr.  Kugene  O'Connell,  Dr.  (loorge  Conroy, 
Dr.  James  McDevitt,  and  Dr.  Patrick  Dclany  (Ho- 
bart),  all  of  wliom  were  elevated  in  coui-se  of  time 
to  episcopal  rank.  To  these  should  be  added  Dr. 
Thomas  Bennet,  Provincial  of  the  Carmelites;  Dr. 
Sylvester  Barry,  now  Vicar-fieneral  of  Sandhurst; 
Monsignor  James  O'Brien,  Hector  of  St.  John's 
College  in  the  University  of  Sy<Iney;  Dr.  John 
McDevitt,  author  of  the  "Life  of  Father  Hand"; 
Father  Thomas  Potter,  and  Mr.  Henrj'  Bedford,  the 
last  two  distinguished  converts  and  men  of  literary 
eminence.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  directors  of 
.\ll  Hallows  from  the  beginning  to  form  missionaries 
of  a  practical  type,  men  who  would  throw  themselves 
with  .sympathy  and  zeal  into  the  advancing  civiliza- 
tion of  the  New  World.  In  furtherance  of  this  aim 
the  studies,  discipline,  and  general  spirit  of  the 
college  have  been  develoyied  along  certain  definite 
lines.  In  an  academic  course  of  seven  years  three 
are  devoted  to  physics,  mental  philosophy,  lan- 
guages, and  English  literature;  the  remaining  four 
years  to  Sacred  Scripture,  history,  liturgy,  canon 
law,  sacred  eloquence,  and  the  science  of  theology. 
Throughout  the  entire  period  there  are  classes  m 
elocution  and  in  modern  and  Ciregorian  music. 
Examinations,  written  and  oral,  are  lield  twice  each 
year,  supplemented  by  monthly  revisions.  Prayer, 
the  sacraments,  conferences,  retreats,  and  friendly 
advice  are  the  means  used  in  the  formation  of  char- 
acter. The  students  are  encouraged  to  foster  and 
strengthen  the  spontaneous  spirit  of  piety,  which  is 
the  heritage  of  most  Irish  children.  They  are  also 
encouraged  to  develop  health  and  manliness  by 
outdoor  exercises  and  recreations,  such  as  football, 
hurling,  hockey,  handball,  tennis,  cricket,  athletic 
competitions,  and  long  walks.  In  1892,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  wishes  of  the  Irish  Episcopate,  the 
Vincentian  Fathers  undertook  the  direction  of  the 
college,,  receiving  at  the  same  time  the  co-operation 
of  several  of  the  former  professors.  Two  of  these — 
Dr.  William  Fortune,  President  for  a  quarter  of  a 
centurj-,  and  Dr.  Timothy  O'.Mahony,  Dean  for  al- 
most an  equal  period— fill  respectively  the  senior 
chairs  of  moral  and  dogmatic  tlieology.  The  entire 
teaching  staff  consists  of  fourteen  professors,  some 
of  them  Vinccntians,  some  secular  priests,  and  some 
laymen.  From  twenty  to  thirty  students  are  or- 
dained priests  each  year  on  the  feast  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  and  sent  to  various  parts  of  the  English- 
speaking  world.  For  instance,  last  sununer  (1905) 
thirteen  were  ordained  for  the  Australian  mission, 
one  for  New  iJealand,  two  for  South  Africa,  seven 
for  different  dioceses  of  the  United  States,  three  for 
Canada,  and  one  for  England.  The  dioccsjin  destina- 
tion of  the  missionaries  varies  each  decade  with  the 
needs  and  advances  of  the  Church;  but,  this  fact 
apart,  an  easy  computation  shows  that,  during  an 
existence  of  upwards  of  sixty  years.  All  Hallows  has 
sent  aliout  fifteen  hundred  priests  to  minister  to  the 
Irish  "of  the  dispersion"  m  different  parts  of  the 
New  World.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  supply 
of  missionaries  has  been  maintained  during  a  period 
when  Ireland  herself  posses.se(I  few  educational  o|v 
portunities,  and  while  her  population,  under  stress 


of  famine  and  enforced  expatriation,  was  dwindling 
from  eight  millions  to  half  that  lunnber.  At  the 
present  time  about  five  hundred  AII-Hallow.s-taught 
priests,  including  two  archbisho|)s  and  twelve  bishops, 
are  scattered  throughout  Great  Britain,  the  British 
Colonies,  the  United  States,  and  the  Argentine 
Republic. 

Si-e  All  Hallow  in  All  Hallowt  Annual  (Dul)lin,  1902);  Mo 
DtvriT,  Life  u/  Falhtr  Hand  (Dublin,  18S5). 

Thomas  O'Donnell. 

All  Saints,  a  feast  of  the  highest  rank,  celebrated 
on  the  first  of  November,  having  a  vigil  and  an 
octave,  and  giving  place  to  no  other  feast.  It  is 
instituted  to  honour  all  the  saints,  known  and  un- 
known, and,  according  to  Urban  IV,  to  supply  any 
deficiencies  in  the  faithful's  celebration  of  saints' 
feasts  during  the  year.  In  the  early  days  the  Chris- 
tians were  accustomed  to  solemnize  the  anniversary 
of  a  martyr's  death  for  Christ  at  the  place  of  martyr- 
dom. In  the  fourth  century,  neighbouring  dioceses 
began  to  interchange  feasts,  to  transfer  relics,  to 
divide  them,  and  to  join  in  a  connnon  feast;  as  is 
shown  by  the  invitation  of  St.  Basil  of  C;rsarea  (397) 
to  the  bishops  of  the  province  of  Pontus.  Fre- 
ciuently  groups  of  martyrs  sulTered  on  the  same  day, 
which  naturally  led  to  a  joint  commemoration.  In 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian  the  number  of  martyrs 
became  so  great  that  a  separate  day  could  not  bo 
assigned  to  each.  But  the  Church,  feeling  that  every 
martyr  should  be  venerated,  appointed  a  common 
day  for  all.  The  first  trace  of  this  we  find  in  Antioch 
on  the  Sunday  after  Pentecost.  We  also  find  men- 
tion of  a  common  day  in  a  sermon  of  St.  Ephrem 
the  Syrian  (.373),  and  in  the  74th  homily  of  St. 
John  Chrj'sostom  (407).  At  first  only  martjT^  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist  were  honoured  by  a  special 
day.  Other  saints  were  added  gradually,  and  in- 
creased in  number  when  a  regular  process  of  canoniza- 
tion was  established;  still,  as  early  as  411  there  is 
in  the  Chaldean  Calendar  a  "Commemoratio  Con- 
fessorum"  for  the  Friday  after  Eiuster.  In  the  West, 
Boniface  IV,  13  May,  609,  or  GIO,  consecrated  the 
Pantheon  in  Rome  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  all 
the  martyrs,  ordering  an  anniversary.  Gregory  III 
(731-741)  con.secrated  a  chapel  in  the  basilica  of 
St.  Peter  to  all  the  saints  and  fixed  the  anniversary 
for  1  November.  A  basilica  of  the  Apostles  already 
existed  in  Rome,  and  its  dedication  was  annually 
remembered  on  1  May.  Gregory  IV  (827-844)  ex- 
tended the  celebration  on  1  November  to  the  entire 
Church.  The  vigil  seems  to  have  been  held  as  early 
as  the  feast  itself.  The  octave  was  added  by  SLx- 
tus  IV  (1471-84). 

BnTLER,  Livct  of  Uie  Sainit;  I.inoard,  The  Hittory  and 
Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church;  Baring-Goui-d,  Lirra 
o/  the  Saintt:  Binder,  Allgemrine  Realencyklo^urdie;  Binterim 
DenkxcHrdigkeilen;  Probst  in  KirchenUz..  Kkllner,  HeortO' 
logie;    Nilles,    Kalendarium    Manuale    utri\t9<iue    Eecleaiae. 

FnA^■cls  Mehshman. 

All  Souls  College.     See  Oxford. 

All  Souls'  Day. — The  commemoration  of  all  the 
faithful  departed  is  celebrated  by  the  Church  on 
2  November,  or,  if  this  be  a  Sunday  or  a  feast  of  the 
first  class,  on  3  November.  The  Office  of  the  Dead 
must  be  recited  by  the  clergj-  and  all  the  Masses  are 
to  be  of  Requiem,  except  one  of  the  current  feast, 
where  this  is  of  obligation.  The  theological  basis  for 
the  fca-st  is  the  doctrine  that  the  souls  which,  on  de- 
parting from  the  body,  arc  not  perfectly  clcan.sed 
from  venial  sins,  or  have  not  fully  atoned  for  p:ist 
transgressions,  are  debarred  from  the  Beatific  Vision, 
and  that  the  faithful  on  earth  can  help  them  by 
prayers,  almsdeeils  anil  especially  by  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Ma.ss.  In  the  early  days  of  Christianitv  the 
names  of  the  departed  brethren  were  entcretl  m  the 
diptychs.  Later,  in  the  sixth  century,  it  w.is  cus- 
toniarj-  in  Benedictine  monasteries  to  hold  a  com 


ALLAH 


316 


ALLAHABAD 


memoration  of  the  decea-sctl  members  at  Whitsun- 
tide. In  Spain  there  w:us  such  a  day  on  Saturday 
before  Sexagesima  or  before  Pentecost,  at  the  time 
of  St.  Isidore  (d.  630).  In  Germany  there  existed 
(according  to  the  testimony  of  Widukind,  Abbot  of 
Corvey,  c  980)  a  time-honoured  ceremony  of  pray- 
ing to  the  dead  on  1  October.  This  was  accepted 
and  sanctified  by  tlie  Cluirch.  St.  Odilo  of  Cluny 
(d.  1048)  ordered  tlie  commemoration  of  all  the 
faithful  departed  to  lie  held  annually  in  the  monas- 
teries of  his  congregatioa  Tlience  it  spread  among 
the  other  congregations  of  the  Benedictines  and 
among  the  Carthusians.  Of  tlie  dioceses,  Li6ge  was 
the  first  to  ailopt  it  under  Bishop  Notger  (d.  1008). 
It  is  then  found  in  the  martyrology  of  St.  Protadius 
of  Besan<;on  {1053-()6).  Bishop  Otricus  (1120-25) 
introduced  it  into  Milan  for  the  15  October.  In 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Latin  America,  priests  on  this 
day  say  three  Masses.  A  similar  concession  for  the 
entire  world  was  asked  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  He 
wouUl  not  grant  the  favour  but  ordered  a  special 
Requiem  on  Sunday,  30  September,  1888.  In  the 
Greek  Rite  this  commemoration  is  held  on  the  eve 
of  Sexagesima  Sunday,  or  on  the  eve  of  Pentecost. 
The  Armenians  celebrate  the  passover  of  the  dead 
on  the  day  after  Easter. 

BARING-Cioin.n,  Lives  of  the  Saints;  Butler,  Lives  of  the 
Saints  (2  Nov.1;  Linoard,  The  History  and  Antiquities  of  the 
Annlo-Saron  Church  (reprint,  London,  1899);  Gummere,  Ger- 
mjnir  Origins  (.New  York,  1892);  Binder,  AUgemeine  Realen- 
cyklop'rtli^:  BiNTERiM,  DenkwUrdiakeiten;  Kellneu.  Heorto- 
Innir.  (rreihurK,  1901),  11,  180,  181;  Probst  in  Kirchenlex.; 
RixoiioLz,  Der  hi.  Odilo  von  Cluny  (Bruenn.  1885);  Nilles, 
Kalendarium  Manuale  utriusque  Ecclesiee  (2d  ed.,  Innsbruck, 
1896). 

Francis  Mershman. 

Allah,  the  name  of  God  in  Arabic.  It  is  a  com- 
pound word  from  the  article,  'al,  and  ilah,  divinity,  and 
signifies  "the  god"  par  excellence.  This  form  of  the 
divine  name  is  in  itself  a  sure  proof  that  iliih  was  at 
one  time  an  appellative,  common  to  all  the  local  and 
tribal  gods,  (jradually,  with  the  addition  of  the 
article,  it  was  restricted  to  one  of  them  who  took 
precedence  of  the  others;  finally,  with  the  triumph 
of  monotheism.  He  was  recognized  as  the  only  true 
God.  In  one  form  or  another  tliis  root  7X  occurs  in 
all  Semitic  languages  as  a  designation  of  the  Divinity; 
but  whether  jj^  was  originally  a  proper  name 
pointing  to  a  primitive  monotheism,  with  sub- 
sequent deviation  into  polytheism  and  further 
rehabilitation,  or  was  from  the  beginning  an  appella- 
tive which  became  a  proper  name  only  when  the 
Semites  had  reached  monotheism,  is  a  much  debated 
question.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  before  the 
time  of  Mohammed,  owing  to  their  contact  with 
Jews  and  ('hristians,  the  Arabs  were  generally  mono- 
theists.  The  notion  of  Allah  in  Arabic  theology  is 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  God  among  the 
Jews,  and  also  among  the  Christians,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Trinity,  which  is  positively  excluded 
in  the  Koran,  cxii:  "Say  God,  is  one  God,  the  eternal 
God,  he  begetteth  not;  neither  is  he  begotten  and 
there  is  not  any  one  like  unto  him."  His  attributes, 
denied  by  the  heterodox  Motazilitcs,  are  ninety-nine 
in  number.  I'>ach  one  of  them  is  represented  by  a 
bead  in  the  Mussiilmanic  chaplet,  while  on  the  one 
hundredth  and  larger  bead,  the  name  of  Allah  itself 
is  pronounced.  It  is  preposterous  to  assert  with 
Curtiss  (IVsemitische  Religion,  119)  that  the  nomadic 
tribes  of  Arabia,  consider  seriously  the  Oum-cl- 
(Ihfilh,  "mother  of  the  rain",  as  the  bride  of  Allah; 
antl  even  if  the  expression  were  used,  such  symbohcal 
langii;ige  wouhl  not  impair,  in  the  least,  tlie  purity 
of  monotheism  held  by  those  tribes.  (Cf.  Revue 
Hibli(|uc,  Oct.,  1900,  580  sqq.)  Let  it  be  noted  that 
although  Allah  is  an  Arabic  term,  it  is  used  by  all 
Moslems,  whatever  be  their  language,  as  the  name 
of   God. 


D'Herbelot,  Bibliothi-que  Orientate  (Maastricht,  1776). 
s.  V.  .Allah;  SMrrii.  The  Religion  of  the  Semites,  (2d  ed. 
London,  1901);  hAGRAi^GE,  Etudes  sur  les  Religions  Semitiquea 
(Paris,  1903). 

R.   BUTIN. 

Allahabad,  The  Diocese  of,  suffragan  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Agra,  India,  is  included  between  28° 
and  30°  north  lat.,  and  77°  and  88°  long,  east  of 
Greenwich.  It  has  an  area  of  150,000  square  miles. 
East  and  west  it  is  situated  between  the  Archdioceses 
of  Calcutta  and  Agra,  and  north  and  south  between 
the  Prefecture-Apostolic  of  Bettiah  and  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains  and  Nagpur.  The  mission  dates 
its  origin  from  1069,  when  the  Right  Rev.  Dr. 
Matheus  de  Castro,  an  Indian  from  Goa  by  race,  and 
a  Brahmin  by  caste,  was  entrusted  by  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation of  Propaganda  with  the  spiritual  care  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Great  Mogul.  This  field  of 
labour  was,  however,  too  vast,  and  the  labourers  too 
few.  Hence  it  was  that,  by  a  decree  of  Propaganila, 
the  Prefecture  of  Tibet  and  adjoining  countries  was 
erected,  in  1703,  and  entrusted  to  the  Capuchin 
Fathers  of  the  March  of  Ancona  (Marca  d'Ancona) 
Province.  The  Diocese  of  Allahabad  is  an  offshoot 
of  tliat  prefecture,  and  its  more  or  less  complete 
history  is  as  follows:  The  Vicariate-Apostolic  of 
Patna  (now  Diocese  of  Allahabad)  when  founded  was 
entrusted  to  the  Capuchin  Fathers.  It  was  erected 
in  1845.  The  first  vicar-apostolic  was  Dr.  Ana- 
stasius  Hartmann,  O.M.C.,  who  was  nominated  by 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  His  consecration  as  titular 
Bishop  of  Derbe  took  place  in  the  cathedral  of  Agra, 
13  M.arch,  1846.  Dr.  Hartmann  remained  at  liis  post 
till  16  August,  1849,  in  which  year  he  was  appointed 
Administrator-Apostolic  of  Bombay.  He  took  cliarge 
of  the  new  office  the  same  year,  and  held  it  till  1854, 
when  he  was  made  vicar-apostolic.  He  ruled  over 
the  ilestinies  of  the  Bombay  Mission  till  June,  1858. 
When  Dr.  Athanasius  Zuber,  O.M.C.,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded Hartmann  at  Patna  in  1849,  resigned  his 
office,  the  latter  was  nominated  a  second  time  Vicar- 
Apostolic  of  Patna,  24  January,  1860.  The  follow- 
ing year  the  provinces  of  Oiiiili  were  given  by  tlie 
Agra  Mission  to  his  vicariate.  His  death  took  place 
at  Coorjee  (Bankipore),  24  April,  1806.  This  zealous 
prelate,  who  spent  ten  hard  years  in  organizing  the 
Patna  Mission,  was  bom  at  Hitzkirch,  a  village  in  the 
canton  of  Lucerne  in  Switzerland,  24  Februarj',  1803. 
He  entered  the  Franciscan  novitiate  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1826.  As  he 
had  taught  logic,  natural  philosophy,  and  theology 
for  eleven  years,  he  was  deeply  versed  in  those 
sciences  and  was  quite  in  liis  element  whenever  any 
scientific  subject  was  the  topic  of  conversation. 
After  Dr.  Hartmann's  death.  Father  John  Baptist 
of  Malegnano  became  pro-vicar-apostolic.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Father  Benedict  of  Assisi  as  adminis- 
trator, in  1867.  On  9  P^ebruary,  1808,  Dr.  Paul 
Josi,  O.M.C.,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Rhodiopohs  and 
Vicar-Apostolic  of  Patna.  He  was  consecrated  on 
28  June  of  the  same  year,  but  was  transferreii  in 
1881  to  the  newly-erected  Vicariate-Apostolic  of  the 
Punjaub.  Dr.  Francis  Pesci,  O.M.C.,  was  chosen  to 
take  his  place  in  the  Patna  Mission  and  consecrated 
on  14  August,  1881.  On  the  establishment  of_  the 
hierarchy  in  India  by  His  Holiness  Pope  Leo  XIII, 
1  Septeinber,  1886,  the  Vicariate  of  Patna  was  con- 
stituted into  the  Diocese  of  Allahabad,  of  which 
Dr.  Pesci  then  became  the  first  bishop.  On  the  24th 
of  February,  1887,  the  Papal  Delegate,  Monsignor 
Antonio  Agliardi.  solemnly  proclaimed  the  establish- 
ment of  the  ("atliolic  hierarchy  in  India,  in  St.  Jo- 
seph's catlu'dral.  .Mlahabad,  at  a  meeting  attended 
by  the  vicars-apostolic  of  northern  India.  The  same 
year,  the  newly-ircctcd  dioce.sc  parted  with  the  dis- 
tricts of  Darjecling.  rurncali,  and  the  Pergunnas,  in 
favour  of  the  Calcutta  Mission.     The  year  1890  was 


ALLARD 


317 


ALLATinS 


remarkable  for  two  important  events  in  the  history 
of  Allahabad.  The  first  was  the  holding  of  the 
Diocesan  Synod  in  tlie  cathedral.  The  second  was 
that  the  mission  was  entrusted  by  the  Sacred  C'on- 
prcpation  of  Propaganda  to  the  t'apudiin  Province 
of  Holopia.  Italy.  In  1892,  the  districts  of  Clmpra, 
MozalTorpur,  iJarbhunga,  Bcttiah,  and  a  part  of  the 
Uhagalpiir  and  Mungliyr  districts,  and  the  Kingdom 
of  Nepal  were  niatle  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
Hettiah  and  Nepal.  On  9  July,  1890,  Dr.  Prancis 
Pcsci,  Bislinp  of  .Mlaliabad,  died  at  Lyons,  France. 
Father  Charles  Oentili  was  chosen  to  be  his  successor, 
29  March.  1897.  He  was  consecrated  on  29  June 
of  the  .same  year  and  transferred  to  Agra,  27  August, 
1898.  t)n  the  corresponding  date  of  the  following 
vear,  Father  Victor  Sinibaldi  was  nominated 
bishop,  and  consecrated,  30  November,  1899.  His 
pastoral  rule  was  short-lived,  as  he  died,  5  January, 
190J.  On  the  lOth  and  12th  of  November,  1903,  the 
first  General  Congre.s.s  a.s,sembled  at  Allahabad,  at 
which  were  present  two  archbishops,  one  bishop, 
two  administrators-apostolic,  one  prefect-apostolic, 
three  superiors-regular,  thirty  priests,  and  more  than 
200  delegates.  When  ifishop  Sinibaldi  died. 
Father  Petronius  Gramigna  ruled  the  dioce-se  in  the 
capacity  of  administrator,  from  1902  to  10  August, 
1904,  wlien  he  was  nominated  bisliop,  and  conse- 
crated in  St.  Joseph's  catliedral,  18  October,  1904. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  8,800, 
out  of  a  total  of  38,174,000,  mostly  composed  of 
Mu.ssulmans  and  Hindus.  Penares,  the  sacred  city 
of  the  latter,  and  the  centre  of  their  religious  activity, 
lies  within  the  limits  of  the  diocese.  There  are  in 
tlie  mission  22  Capuchin  Fathers,  3  secular  priests, 
18  Christian  Brotliers,  2  Profilers  of  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis,  74  nuns  of  the  Institute  of  the  B.  V.  M., 
9  Loretto  nuns,  7  Sisters  of  the  Tliird  Order  of  St. 
Francis.  There  are  six  orphanages,  male'  anil  female, 
with  about  4.50  boys  and  girls.  The  number  of  edu- 
cational establishments  Is  4,  consisting  of  colleges, 
convents,  high  schools,  boarding-  and  day-schools, 
witli  I,4liS  pupils  of  both  sexes. 

Calholir  Ciitindar  ami  Ijirecloru  uj  Ihe  Diocese  of  Allahabad; 
Thc^Miulma  Catholic  Directory;  The  Life  of  the  Right  Ret'. 
Dr.  Hartmann;  Quadroa  Biographicoa  doa  Padrea  llluatrea 
de  Goa. 

Manoel  D'S.\. 

AUard,  P.\ul,  archaeologist  and  historian,  b.  at 
Rouen  l.i  Septemlx>r,  1841,  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
practised  law  for  a  short  time  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  became  a  judge  of  the  civil  court.  His 
literarv'  and  historical  tastes  induced  him  to  abandon 
his  profession  and  devote  hini.self  to  the  study  of  the 
historj'  of  the  Church  in  the  first  four  centuries.  He 
contributed  frequently  to  the  "Revue  des  Questions 
Historiqucs ",  of  which  he  became  editor  in  1904, 
and  to  various  other  publications.  In  1874  he  trans- 
lated Northcoteand  Brownlow's"  Roma  Sot  tcrranea", 
made  many  additions  to  it,  and  enriched  it  with 
valuable  notes.  An  intimate  acquaintance  with 
Giovanni  Battista  De  Rossi  and  his  own  studies 
along  various  lines,  led  him  to  undertake  a  his- 
torj' of  the  persecutions  suffered  by  the  Christians 
at  the  hands  of  the  Roman  authorities.  The  work 
was  planned  on  very  broad  lines  and  cxecute<l  with 
a  remarkable  degree  of  minuteness  and  finality. 
The  author  was  well  fitted  for  his  tiusk;  his  sym- 
pathies were  Catholic  and  his  reading  extensive; 
he  had  a  minute  knowledge  of  Christian  arch.Tologj", 
especially  in  regard  to  the  Roman  Catacombs;  he 
had  studied  the  condition  of  the  Christian  slaves, 
and  had  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  epigraphy 
and  the  administrative  and  constitutional  history 
of  Rome.  Above  all  he  was  well  acquainted  witli 
the  history  and  spirit  of  Roman  law,  and  was  com- 
(x-tent  to  pronounce  judgment  on  the  delicate  legal 
questions   involved   in   the  history  of  the  relations 


between  the  Christian  Church  and  the  Roman  State 
during  the  era  of  the  persecutions.  On  this  sub- 
ject his  researches  have  done  much  to  elucidate 
dilficult  and  debatable  points,  though  his  conclusions 
have  not  been  generally  accepted.  The  main  idea 
of  M.  Allard's  "History  of  the  Persecutions"  is  that 
the  Christians  were  unjustly  treated  by  the  Roman 
authorities.  He  will  not  admit  that  there  was  any 
incompatibility  Iwtween  the  spread  of  Christianity 
and  the  permanence  of  the  Roman  Empire,  though 
the  acceptance  of  Christianity  by  the  people  neces- 
sarily implied  the  final  eradication  of  the  old  Roman 
cults  ami  superstitions.  The  action  of  the  Roman 
authorities  he  regards  as  ill-advised  and  brutal. 
Their  treatment  of  the  Christians  arose  from  no 
rea.sons  of  statesmanship  or  adherence  to  traditional 
policy,  but  was  based  entirely  on  low  and  unworthy 
motives.  The  causes  of  the  persecutions  he  finds 
in  the  blind  hatred  of  the  Roman  authorities  against 
this  "third  race",  in  fanaticism,  popular  fury,  or,  as 
in  the  case  of  Maximus  and  Decius,  verj'  largely  in 
private  spleen.  If  any  fault  can  be  found  with  the 
work  of  Allard,  it  is  that  ho  appears  too  ready  to 
accept  as  contemporary  historical  sources  mere 
legends  and  trailitions.  He  followed  the  example  of 
I.e  Riant  in  thinking  that  most  legends  and  Acta 
contained  some  kernel  of  truth.  He  is  not  suffi- 
ciently radical  in  his  criticism  of  the  "Acta  Mar- 
tyrum"  and  of  other  documents,  e.  g.  the  "De 
Mortibus  Persecutorum",  of  Lactantius,  all  the  as- 
sertions of  which  he  seems  to  accept  as  testimony 
of  the  first  order.  He  leans  too  strongly  to  the  side 
of  conservatism,  and  the  scientific  value  of  many 
pages  of  his  work  is  spoiled  by  his  reluctance  to  deal 
xinsparingly  with  dubious  and  spurious  Acta  and 
Passioncs.  Many  instances  of  this  kind  might  Ije 
pointed  out,  as  for  example  the  account  of  the  death 
of  St.  Irenxus,  the  story  of  Symphorosa,  etc.  These 
remarks,  however,  do  not  apph'  to  his  work  on  Julian 
the  Apostate,  in  which  he  shows  more  discrimination 
in  the  use  of  his  hagiographical  material;  it  is  con- 
sequently the  most  valuable  of  his  writings.  His 
principal  works  are:  "Rome  souterraine"  (Paris, 
1874);  ,"  Lcs  esclaves  Chretiens  depuis  les  premiers 
temps  de  I'Eglise  jusquiV  la  fin  ac  la  domination 
romaine  en  Occident"  (Paris,  1876);  "L'art  paien 
sous  les  empereurs  chr^tiens"  (Paris,  1879);  "His- 
toire  des  persecutions  pendant  les  deux  premiers 
siMes"  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1892);  "Histoire  des  pers(5- 
cutions  jxjiidant  la  premiere  moiti6  du  troisieme 
si^de"  (Paris,  1881);  "La  persecution  de  DiocMtien 
et  le  trioinphe  de  I'Eglise  '  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1890); 
"Le  Christianisme  et  I'empire  romain"  (Paris, 
1896);  "Etudes  d'histoire  et  d'arch6ologie"  (Paris, 
1898);  "St.  Basile"  (ibid.,  1S99);  "Julien  I'apos- 
tat",  2  vols,    (ibid.,   1900). 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Allatius  (.Vlacci),  Leo,  a  learne<l  Greek  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  b.  on  the  island  of  Chios  in 
l.')S(5.  anil  d.  at  Rome,  19  January.  1669.  He  en- 
tered the  Greek  college  at  Rome  in  IGOO,  spent  three 
years  in  Lucania  with  his  countrj-man.  Bishop  Ber- 
nard Giustiniani,  and  then  returned  to  Chios  where 
he  proved  of  great  assistance  to  the  Latin  Bishop, 
Marco  Giustiniani.  In  161G,  he  received  the  degree 
Doctor  of  Medicine  from  the  Sapienza,  was  maile 
Scriptor  in  the  Vatican  librarj-,  and,  later,  professor 
of  rhetoric  at  the  Greek  College,  a  position  which  he 
held  for  only  two  years.  Pope  Gregory  XV  sent 
him  to  Germany,  in  1622.  to  bring  to  Rome  the  Pa- 
latinate library  of  Heidelberg,  which  .Maximili.an  haii 
presented  to  the  Pope  in  return  for  war  subsidies, 
a  ta.sk  which  he  accomplished  in  the  face  of  great 
difficulties.  In  the  death  of  Gregorj-  XV  (1623)  .\1- 
latius  lost  his  principal  patron:  but  with  the  support 
of  influential  cnurchmen,  he  continued  his  researches, 


ALLEGIANCE 


318 


ALLEGRI 


especially  upon  the  Palatinate  manuscripts.  Alex- 
ander Vil  made  liini  custodian  of  the  Vatican  library 
in  KKil,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.  With  un- 
tirino-  cnerpy  .\llatius  combined  a  vast  erudition, 
which  he  b'rought  to  bear  upon  literary,  historical, 
philosophical,  and  theological  questions.  He  laboured 
earnestly  to  eifect  tlie  reconcihation  of  the  Greek 
Church  with  that  of  Rome  and  to  this  end  wrote  his 
most  important  work, "  De  Ecclesiaj  Occidentalis  atque 
Orientalis  pcrpetua  con.sensione"  (Cologne,  1648),  in 
which  the  points  of  agreement  between  the  Churches 
are  emphasized,  while  their  differences  are  minimized. 
He  also  edited  or  translated  into  Latin  the  writings 
of  various  Greek  authors,  corresponded  with  the  fore- 
most scholars  of  Europe,  contributed  as  editor  to  the 
"Corpus  Byzantinorum"  (Paris),  and  arranged  for  the 
publication  of  a  "  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Grajco- 
rum".  He  bequeathed  his  manuscripts  (about  150 
volumes)  and  his  correspondence  (over  l.OUO  letters) 
to  the  library  of  the  Oratorians  in  Rome. 

Gbadios  Lite  in  Mai,  Bibliotheca  Nova  Patrum  (Rome,  1853), 
VI;  Legrand.  BMiographie  helUniquedu  XV 1 1  siMe JVapa. 
1893)-  Theiner,  Die  Sckenkung  der  Hevlelb.  Bibl.  (Munich, 
1844);  Lammer,  De  Leonis  Allatii  Codicibua  (Freiburg,  1864); 
Herg'enrotbeb,  in  Kirchenlex. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Allegiance,  Civil.     See  Civil  Allegiance. 

Allegiance,  Oath  op.     See  Oath  of  Alleghnce. 

Allegory  in  the  Bible.     See  Exegesis. 

AUegranza,  Josei'H,  a  Milanese  Dominican  who 
won  distinction  as  a  historian,  archaeologist,  and 
antiquary  b.  16  October,  1715;  d.  IS  December, 
17S5.  P'rom  1748  to  1754  he  made  many  researches 
in  northern  and  central  Italy  and  in  France. 
When  put  in  charge  of  the  Royal  Library  at 
Milan,  he  made  a  catalogue  of  its  contents,  a  work 
which  was  crowned,  in  1775,  by  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa.  His  works  are:  "  Spiegazioni  e  riflessioni 
sopra  alcuni  sacri  monumenti  antichi  di  Milano" 
(Milan,  1757);  "  De  sepulcris  christianis  in  a;dibus 
sacris, — Accedunt  inscriptiones  sepulcrales  christianae 
saeculo  septimo  antiquiores  in  Insubria  Austriaca 
reperta;:  item  Inscriptiones  sepulcrales  ecclesiarum 
atque  cedium  PP.  Ord.  Prajd.  Mediolani "  (Milan, 
1773);  "De  Monogrammate  D.  N.  Jesu  Christi,  et 
usitatis  ejus  effingendi  modis"  (Milan,  1773);  "Opus- 
coH  eruditi  latini  ed  italiani"  (Cremona,  1781); 
"  Osservazioni  antiquarie,  critiche  e  fisiche,  fatte  nel 
regno  di  Sicilia"  (Milan,  1781). 

Mandonnet  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  oath. 

Walter  Dwight. 

AUegri,  Antonto,  b.  in  Correggio,  a  small  Lom- 
bard town  near  Mantua,  1494;  d.  5  March,  1534. 
His  name  in  history  is  tliat  of  his  birthplace,  but  he 
is  often  called  "The  Master  of  Parma".  Following 
the  custom  of  the  time  he  latinized  his  name  and 
signed  himself  Antonius  La;tus.  Details  in  the  life 
of  this  great  master  are  meagre.  Even  in  1542 
Vasari  found  no  traces  of  him,  no  sketch  or  portrait 
of  him  in  all  Lombardy.  Correggio  left  no  writings, 
had  no  teachers,  no  pupils,  visited  no  great  art 
centres,  made  no  acquaintance  with  his  contem- 
poraries, and  never  sued  the  favour  of  the  mighty. 
His  father,  it  is  said,  was  a  small,  well-to-do  mer- 
chant, a  good,  pious  citizen  who  gave  his  .son  an 
education  and  the  opportunity  to  become  the  great 
artist  he  proved  to  be.  An  uncle  "  who  painted  but 
was  no  artist"  (Dr.  Meyer)  had  no  influence  on 
Correggio's  artistic  life.  From  1518  to  1530  he  lived 
chiefly  in  Parma.  In  1519  he  married  Girolama 
Francesca  di  BragVietis,  of  Correggio,  who  died  in 
1529.  The  next  year  the  artist  returned  to  his 
native  town,  where,  during  the  next  five  years,  ho 
lived  a  simple,  devout  and  contented  life.  He 
wa.s  buried  in  the  Franciscan  Convent.  He  left  a 
son,  Pomponio,  au  obscure  artist;   and  the  Allcgri 


family  soon  became  extinct.  Correggio's  genius 
unfolded  itself  in  his  native  village;  his  few  patrons 
were  at  Parma,  and  his  only  society  was  the  lay 
Brotherhood  of  the  Benedictines.  He  ranks  with 
the  greatest  Italian  masters,  althougli  some  authori- 
ties incline  to  place  him  at  the  head  of  the  Decadent 
or  "Sweet"  School  of  Italian  painting.  The  early 
works  of  Correggio  are  "in  style  of  the  Ferrarese 
School"  (Jean  Paul  Richter);  and  later  he  was 
slightly  influenced  by  Mantegna  and  Da  Vinci.  But 
his  mature  style  is  peculiar  to  himself  and  the  princi- 
ples of  his  art  prevailed  in  painting  and  sculpture  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  over  all 
Italy  and  France.  Then  there  was  a  School  of 
Correggio,  and  he  had  a  host  of  imitators. 

Correggio  is  the  most  skilful  artist  since  the  ancient 
Greeks  in  the  art  of  foreshortening;  and,  indeed,  he 
was  master  of  every  technical  device  in  painting,  being 
the  first  to  introduce  tlie  rules  of  aerial  perspective. 
Radiant  light  floods  his  pictures  and  is  so  delicately 
graded  that  it  passes  subtly  into  shade  with  that  play 
of  reflections  among  the  shadows  which  gives  trans- 
parency in  every  modulation.  This  is  chiaroscuro. 
Even  in  Allegri's  earliest  works  it  was  prominent, 
and  later  he  became  the  acknowledged  master  of  it. 
His  refined  feeling  made  Correggio  paint  the  nude 
as  though  from  a  vision  of  ideal  beauty;  the  sensuous 
in  life  he  made  pure  and  beautiful;  earthly  pleasures 
he  spiritualized,  and  gave  expression  to  mental 
beauty,  the  very  culmination  of  true  Art.  His 
angel  pictures  are  a  cry  of  "Sursum  Corda!"  The 
age  in  which  he  li\-ed  and  worked  was  partly  re- 
sponsible for  this;  but  his  modesty,  his  retiring 
disposition,  his  fondness  for  solitude,  his  ideal  home- 
life,  his  piety,  and  the  fellowship  of  the  Benedictine 
monks  contributed  far  more  to  it.  Correggio's  early 
works  are  simple  and  naive;  later,  in  some  of  his 
church  frescoes,  he  is  more  conventional;  but  he 
always  possessed  a  wondrous  grasp  of  figures  in 
perspective  di  sotto  in  su,  and  gave  to  them  un- 
paralleled movement  and  grace.  He  painted  angels 
whose  smile  was  that  of  happy  human  love  and 
pictured  men  in  "sublime  bliss  and  in  the  extremity 
of  great  joyousness"  (Richter). 

Among  Correggio's  greatest  works  are  the  noble 
frescoes  in  the  church  of  St.  Paolo,  which  rank  with 
the  best  decorations  done  in  the  height  of  the  Re- 
naissance, though  consigned  to  oblivion  for  two  cen- 
turies; the  frescoes  in  the  cathedral;  in  the  church  of 
St.  John;  and  in  the  convent  of  the  Benedictine  nuns, 
— all  of  them  in  Parma.  On  seeing  these  frescoes 
Titian  exclaimed:  "Were  I  not  Titian  I  should  wish 
to  be  Correggio. "  His  easel  pictures  are  in  every  great 
European  gallery.  Dresden  possesses  "The  Reading 
Magdalen",  "The  Nativity",  called  "Die  heilige 
Nacht"  (the  Holy  Night),  and  three  Madonnas.  In 
the  "Nativity"  the  light  is  made  to  radiate  from  the 
Holy  Child  and  illuminate  all  the  other  figures  and 
the  whole  of  tlie  picture,  a  wholly  new  proceeding  in 
painting  and  original  with  Correggio.  Concerning  the 
"Reading  Magdalen",  one  of  the  most  popular  and 
most  frequently  copied  pictures  in  the  world,  tlie  pre- 
vailing idea  among  the  critics  is  that  it  is  not  by  C'or- 
reggio.  Morelli  says:  "It  is  most  likely  a  Flemish 
work.  It  is  painted  on  copper,  and  no  Italian  artist 
used  copper  before  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Director  Julius  Meyer  has  already  pronounced  this 
picture  spurious"  [cf.  "Italian  Masters  in  German 
Galleries"  (London,  1833),  129-136].  The  "Virgin 
Adoring  the  Infant  Christ"  (Uffizi)  is  an  exquisite 
poem  of  motherhood,  full  of  all  that  is  tender  and 
sweet  in  human  sentiment.  Other  celebrated  master- 
pieces are  "The  Marriage  of  Saint  Catherine" 
(Louvre);  "Madonna  in  Glory",  (Munich);  "Danae" 
(Rome);  "Madonna  'del  Latte'  "  (St.  Petersburg); 
"Iv'cc  Homo",  "  Madonna  della  Cesta  ",  and  "Vieree 
au  Panier"  (National  Gallery);  "Madonna  and  Holy 


ALLEORI 


;ii9 


ALLELUIA 


Infant,"  called  "II  Giorno"  (Parma);  "Noli  me 
tangere"  (Madrid);  "Ciirist  in  the  Garden  of  Geth- 
semane"  (Apsley  House,  London);  and  the  "Ma- 
donna del  Coniglio,"  or  "The  Zingarella"  (Naples). 
Ilaluin  Mutlirt  in  Ui-rrmm  Gallerirt  (l.on.lon,  1883),  12U-13(i. 
PuNGli.Ko.M.  Mt-murie  latoriche  di  Antoniu  Allcari  ditto  tt 
Correggw  (I'anna.  3  vols..  1817-21).  This  is  slill  the  staiidur.l 
work;  one  of  immense  research  and  scope.  Ckomf:  .\m) 
Cavalcaski.ue,  a  Nrw  lliMury  of  Painting  in  Italu  (London, 
3  vols.  1880);  Id.,  A  History  of  fainting  in  North  Itulii  (1S71, 
2  voN.);  UlcilTCR,  in  Dohm^'s  Kunst  und  KiinslUr  (Leipzig, 
1879);  .Meyer,  Cnrreggio  (Leipzig,  1871). 

Ler;h   Hunt. 

Allegri,  GnEQOHio,  a  nicnibor  of  the  same  family 
wliich  produced  tlie  painter  Corrcggio,  b.  at  Rome 
c.  1,')80;  d.  1G,JJ.  He  wa-s  attadied  to  the  catliedral 
at  Fermo,  as  a  beneficiary  priest,  ami  acteil  as 
chorister  and  compo.ser.  Tlie  attention  of  Pope  Ur- 
ban VHI  was  drawn  to  him  througli  some  of  liis 
motets  and  concerti.  and  he  \va.s  appointeil,  C  De- 
cember, 1620,  to  fill  a  vacancy  among  the  singers 
of  the  Papal  Choir,  a  i>ost  which  he  held  until 
his  death.  He  reached  the  dima.x  of  liis  fame  wlicn 
he  produced  liis  nine-voiced  "  Miserere  "  for  two  choirs, 
tlie  value  of  whicli  depends  almost  entirely  iipon 
its  execution,  in  particular  upon  certain  traditional 
ornaments  which  give  a  peculiar,  pathetic  quality 
to  many  pa.ssages,  but  without  which  it  appears  to 
be  a  piece  of  almost  hopeless  insipidity.  Allegri's 
Christian  life  was  in  perfect  harmony  witli  his 
artistic  occupation;  he  was.  says  Proske,  "a  model 
of  priestly  piety  and  humility,  a  fatlier  to  the  poor, 
tlie  con.soler  of  captives  aiul  tlie  forsaken,  a  self- 
sacrificing  helper  and  rescuer  of  sulTeriiig  humanity." 
His  published  works  consist  chiefly  of  two  volumes 
of  "Conoertini"  (1618-19),  and  two  of  "Motetti" 
(1621)  all  printed  by  Soldi  of  Rome.  But  many 
of  his  MSS.  are  containeil  in  tlie  archives  of  Sta. 
Maria  in  Yallicclla,  in  the  library  of  the  Roman 
College,  and  in  the  collection  of  the  Papal  Choir; 
and  the  library  of  the  Abb6  Santini  contained 
various  pieces  by  him,  including  "  Magnificats ", 
"Improperia",    "Lamentazioni",    and   "Motetti". 

KornmCller,  />rx.  der  kirchl.  Tonkumt;  Grove,  Diet,  of 
Music  and  Musicians, 

J.  A.   VoLKER. 

Alleluia. — Tliis  liturgical  mystic  expression  is 
found  (a)  in  the  Hook  of  Tobias,  xiii,  22;  then  (b)  in 
the  Psalter;  for  the  first  time  at  the  head  of  Psalm  civ 
according  to  the  Vulgate  and  Septuagint  arrange- 
ment, but  at  the  end  of  the  previous  psalm  according 
to  the  Hebrew  text  as  we  have  it;  after  that  at  the 
beginning  of  p.salms  of  prai.se,  as  a  kind  of  inviting 
acclamation,  or  at  the  end,  as  a  form  of  glorj'-giving 
ovation,  or  at  the  beginning  and  end.  as  for  the  last 
p.salm  of  all;  tlien  (c)  in  the  New  Testament,  only  in 
the  relation  of  St.  John's  vision  of  Divine  service  in 
Heaven  as  the  worshijvword  of  Creation  (Apoc,  xix). 

In  the  old  Greek  version  of  the  Hook  of  Tobias, 
in  the  Septuagint  Greek  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
n.salter,  and  in  the  original  (ireek  of  tlie  Apocalypse 
it  is  tran.scribed  'A\\7)Xoi/ia.  In  accordance  with  tliat 
most  :incit'nt  transcription,  our  Latin  Vulgate  gives 
it  as  AlUiuin  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New. 
Thus  it  was  given  in  the  earliest  Cliristian  liturgies 
of  whicli  we  have  reconl.  Yet,  in  place  of  it,  for 
liturgical  use,  by  way  of  translation,  the  Enghsh 
Reformers  put  the  form  of  words  we  now  find  in  the 
Protestant  Psalter  and  Hook  of  Common  Prayer. 
The  revisers  of  the  authorizetl  Anglican  version  of  the 
Hible  have  used  the  form  Hallelujah  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse, xix,  3.  To  justify  this  form  authors  and 
eilitors  of  some  recent  Knglish  Protestant  biblical 
publications  have  adopted  a  new  Cireek  form  of 
transcription,  'AWriXovla,  instead  of  'AXXtjXovio. 
|See  "New  Testament  in  the  Original  Greek";  text 
revised  by  Westcott  and  Hort  (Cambriiige,  18S1). 
and  second  edit,  of  "The  Old  Testament  in  Greek 
According   to    the   Septuagint",  by   Sweete    (1890). 


For  change  of  form,  compare  Smith's  Diet,  of  the 
Hible  (new  edit.,  1893)  and  Hastings'  Diet,  of  the 
Hible  (1898-1904).] 

Alleluia,  not  Hallelujah,  is  the  traditional  Christian 
and  proper  IJiglish  form  of  transcription.  The  ac- 
cent placed  as  in  our  liturgical  books  over  u  marks  its 
verbal  analysis,  as  that  clearly  shows  in  the  last  line 
of  the  Hebrew  Psalter:  Allelu-ia.  It  is  thus  seen  to 
be  composed  of  the  divinely  acclaiming  verbal  form 
Allelu'  (verb,  77i1)  and  the  divine  pronominal  term 
la  (rr).  So,  preserving  its  radical  sen.se  and  sound, 
and  even  the  my.stical  suggestiveness  of  its  construc- 
tion, it  may  be  literally  remlered,  "All  hail  to  Him 
Who  is!" — taking  "AH  Hail"  as  equivalent  to 
"Glorj'  in  the  Highest,"  and  taking  "Who  is"  in 
the  sense  in  which  God  said  to  Moses:  "Thus  slialt 
thou  say  to  the  children  of  Israel;  Who  Is  hath  sent 
me  to  you."  As  such,  when  was  the  expression  in- 
troduced into  the  Hebrew  liturgy? — Hesides  rea-sons 
proper  to  the  text  of  the  P.salter,  and  those  drawn 
from  a  purely  philological  consideration  of  the  word 
itself,  the  data  of  ancient  Jewish  and  Christian  tradi- 
tion all  point  to  the  conclusion  that  it  belonged,  as 
a  divinely  authorized  doxology,  to  the  Hebrew 
liturgy  from  the  beginning.  As  to  when  it  was  first 
formed,  there  seems  much  reason  for  holding  that 
we  have  in  it  man's  most  ancient  expression  of  devo- 
tion, most  ancient  formula  of  monotheistic  faith — 
the  true  believer's  primitive  Credo,  primitive  iloxol- 
ogy,  primitive  acclamation.  That  in  part  would 
explain  the  Church's  remarkable  fondness  for  its 
liturgical  use.  As  a  rule  she  so  uses  it  wherever  joy, 
consequently  triumph,  or  thanksgiving,  is  to  be 
emphatically  expressed.  As  to  the  time  of  its  use, 
in  the  Eastern  Church  it  is  heard  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year;  even  in  Masses  for  the  dead,  as  it  formerly 
was  in  the  West.  There,  at  present,  in  the  Latin 
Roman  Rite,  our  own,  according  to  St.  Gregory's 
regulation  referred  to  in  his  OHice,  from  Easter  to 
Septuagesima  it  never  leaves  the  Liturgy,  except 
for  some  passing  occasion  of  mourning  or  penance, 
such  as  Mass  and  Office  for  the  Dead,  in  Ferial  Masses 
during  Advent,  on  the  feast  of  the  martyred  Holy 
Innocents  (unless  it  fall  on  a  Sunday),  and  on  all 
vigils  which  are  fast  days,  if  the  Mass  of  the  vigil 
be  said.  But  it  is  sung  on  the  vigil  of  Easter  (Holy 
Saturday)  and  on  that  of  Pentecost,  because  on  each 
of  those  vigils,  in  early  ages,  Mass  was  said  at  night, 
and  so  was  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  joyous 
solemnity  of  the  following  day.  During  Easter- 
time  it  is  the  characteristic  Paschal  note  of  varying 
Carts  of  Ma.ss  and  Office,  constantly  ajipearing  at  the 
eginning  and  end,  and  even  in  the  middle,  of  psalms, 
as  an  instinctive  exclamation  of  ecstatic  joy.  Calmet 
thus  expressed  the  Catholic  view  of  its  traditional 
import  when  noting  (in  P.salm  civ)  that  the  very 
sound  of  the  words  should  be  held  to  signify  "a  kind 
of  acclamation  and  a  form  of  ovation  which  mere 
grammarians  cannot  satisfactorily  explain;  where- 
fore the  translators  of  the  Old  Testament  have  left 
it  untranslated  and,  in  the  same  way,  the  Church 
has  taken  it  into  the  fomiuhis  of  her  Liturgj'" — to 
which  we  might  add,  be  the  language  of  her  Uturgy 
or  of  the  people  who  use  it  at  any  time  or  place  what 
it  may. 

ALLELri.\  IN'  Greek  Liturgies. — From  the  Tem- 
ple, through  the  Coenaculum's  alleluiatic  hymn  of 
thank.sgiving,  the  word  passed  into  the  service  of  the 
Christian  Church,  whose  liturgical  language,  like  that 
of  the  Septuagint  and  the  New  Testament,  was  at 
first,  naturally,  Greek.  Of  course  its  essential  char- 
acter remained  unchanged,  but,  as  an  emotional 
utterance  of  devotion,  it  was  profoundly  affected  by 
Christian  memories,  and  by  the  .spirit  of  the  Christian 
Faith.  To  its  original  general  significance  was  thus 
added  a  new  personal  sense  as  Paschal  refrain  and, 
with  that,  among  holy  words,  a  mystic  meaning  all 


ALLELUIA 


320 


ALLEN 


its  own.  Even  as  a  form  of  divine  acclaim  its  force 
was  intensified,  the  feeling  it  evoked  deepened,  the 
ideas  it  suggested  widened  and  elevated,  and,  above 
all,  purified  under  the  spirituaUzing  influence  of 
Christian  thought.  As  that  thought's  supreme  ex- 
pression of  thanksgiving,  joy,  and  triumph,  "Alle- 
luia" assumed  a  wider  and  deeper,  a  higher  and 
holier,  meaning  than  it  ever  had  in  the  hturgy  of  the 
Hebrew  people.  With  such  supreme  Christian  sig- 
nificance it  appears  in  tlie  earliest  portions  of  the 
earliest  hturgies  of  which  we  have  written  remains, 
in  the  so-called  "primitive  hturgies  of  the  East." 
These  may  be  reduced  to  four,  called  respecti\-ely, 
and  in  the  supposed  order  of  their  antiquity,  those 
of  St.  Mark.  ,St.  James,  St.  Clement,  and  St.  Chrysos- 
tom.  The  last,  now  more  commonly  known  as  that 
of  Constantinople,  is  the  normal  hturgy  of  the 
Eastern  Churches,  used  not  only  by  the  "Orthodox", 
or  Schismatic,  but  by  the  Cathohc,  or  "United", 
Greeks  throughout  the  world.  The  Greek  Liturgy  of 
St.  James  is  still  used  by  the  schismatic  Greeks  at 
Jerusalem  on  his  feast  day,  and  in  its  Syriac  recension 
is  the  prototype  of  that  of  the  Maronites  who  are 
Catholics.  That  of  St.  Mark,  apparently  the  most 
ancient  of  all,  is  very  often  in  verbal  agreement  with 
the  Coptic  Liturgy  of  St.  Cj-ril  and  other  similar 
forms,  notablv  that  of  the  Cathohc  Copts.  The 
liturgy  called  that  of  St.  Clement,  though  undoubt- 
edly very  ancient,  seems  to  have  never  been  actually 
used  in  any  t^hurch,  so  may  be  here  passed  over. 
Now,  first  glancing  through  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark, 
as  presumably  the  most  ancient,  we  find  this  rubric, 
just  before  the  Gospel:  "Attend!:  the  Apostle;  the 
Prologue  of  Alleluia." — "The  Apostle"  is  the  usual 
ancient  Eastern  title  for  the  Epistle,  while  the 
"Prologue  of  Alleluia"  would  seem  to  be  some 
prayer  recited  by  the  priest  before  Alleluia  was  sung 
by  the  choir  or  people.  Then,  for  AUeluiatio  anthem, 
comes  the  somewhat  later  insertion  known  as  the 
Cherubic  hymn,  before  the  Consecration:  "Let  us 
who  mystically  represent  the  Cherubim,  and  sing  the 
holy  hymn  to  the  quickening  Trinity,  now  lay  by  all 
worldly  cares,  that  we  may  receive  the  King  of 
Glory  invisibly  attended  by  the  Angelic  orders: 
Alleluia,  Alleluia,  Alleluia!"  In  the  next  most 
ancient  of  these  primitive  Greek  liturgies  of  the 
East,  that  known  as  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James,  we 
find  the  following  rubric:  "  Priest:  Peace  be  with  all. 
People:  And  with  thy  Spirit.  Singers:  Alleluia!" 
—Further  on.  immediately  after  the  Cherubic 
anthem  above  noticed,  there  is  the  following  beautiful 
invocation  before  the  Consecration,  "Priest:  Let 
all  mortal  flesh  keep  silence  and  stand  with  fear  and 
trembling  and  ponder  naught  of  itself  earthly;  for 
the  King  of  Kings  and  Lord  of  Lords,  Christ  our  God, 
Cometh  forward  to  be  sacrificed  and  to  he  given  for 
food  to  the  jaithjul;  and  He  is  preceded  by  the  Choirs 
of  His  Angels  with  every  Dominion  and  Power,  by 
the  many-eyed  Cherubim  and  the  six-winged  Sera- 
phim who  covering  their  faces  sing  aloud  the  Hymn: 
Alleluia,  Alleluia,  Alleluia!"  Finally,  in  the  ancient 
Greek  Liturgy  of  Constantinople,  we  find  the  word 
used,  as  acclaiming  expression  to  a  kind  of  chorus, 
apparently  intendetl  to  be  repeated  by  the  congrega- 
tion or  assistant  ministers,  thus:  "S-  The  Lord  hear 
thee  in  the  day  of  trouble;  the  Name  of  the  God  of 
Jacob  defend  thee;  Re.  Save  us,  O  Good  Paraclete,  who 
chant  to  Thee  .Alleluia.  "^ .  Send  thee  help  from  the 
Sanctuary:  and  strengthen  thee  out  of  Sion.  R.  Save 
us,  O  Good  Paraclete,  who  chant  to  Thee  Alleluia. 
'f .  Remember  all  thy  offerings:  and  accept  thy 
burnt  .sacrifice.  R.  Save  us,  O  Good  Paraclete,  who 
chant  to  Thee  Alleluia."  Further  on,  when  the 
choir  has  hnished  the  Trisaqion,  we  have  the  rubric — 
"Deacon;  .Attend!  RE.\UKit:  .Mlehiia!"  The  read- 
ing of  the  .\postle  being  concludeil.  the  rubric  gives — • 
"Priest:    Peace   to   be   thee.     Keadek:   AUeluial" 


Then,  when  the  catechumens  have  departed,  after 
the  "prayers  for  the  faithful"  before  the  Consecra- 
tion, we  have  the  Cherubic  anthem,  with  its  triple 
Alleluia  for  "Holy  hymn  to  the  quickening  Trinity" 
as  above  in  the  Liturgies  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  James. 
These  extracts  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  word 
from  the  first  has  been  as  it  still  is  used  in  the  liturgies 
of  the  East  and  in  our  own  day,  a  supreme  form  of 
Christian  acclamation,  or  lyric  cry,  before,  in  the 
middle,  and  at  the  end,  of  versicles  and  responses,  and 
antliems  and  hymns.  The  only  difference  in  regard 
to  it  between  those  of  the  East  and  West  is  that  in 
the  former  it  is  still,  as  it  seems  at  first  to  have  been 
generally,  used  all  through  the  year,  even  during 
Lent,  and  in  Offices  for  the  dead,  as  the  Christian 
cry  of  victory  over  sin  and  death.  Thus  St.  Jerome 
tells  us  it  was  sung  at  the  obsequies  of  his  sister 
Fabiola.  With  a  kind  of  holy  pride,  in  his  own 
strong  way  he  writes: — "Sonabant  psalmi  et  aurata 
temporum  reboans  in  sublime  quatiebat  Alleluia." 
(See  Hammond's  Ancient  Liturgies.) 

Ne.^le.  The  Liturgies  of  St.  Mark.  St.  James  etc.  (London, 
1S68):  MABn,LON,D«iitor9idGa;;icand  (Paris,  1685)1  Renau- 
j}OT,  Liturgiarum  Orientatium  Cotleciio  (Paris,  1715);  Hammo.vd, 
Liturgies,  Eastern  and  Western  (Oxford,  1878  aad  1896—); 
Lebrun,  ETplication  de  la  Messe  (Paris,  1777);  Menard,  D. 
Gregorii  Papce  Sacramentorum  Liber  (Paris,  1642). 

T.  J.  O'Mahony. 

Alleluia  Saturday.     See  Holy  Week. 

Alleluiatic  Psalms.     See  Psalms. 

AUemand,  Jeax,  a  French  priest  and  Orientalist, 
b.  19  November,  1799;  d.  9  August,  1833.  After  his 
ordination  he  was  made  professor  of  Sacred  Scripture 
in  the  Roman  Seminary,  Consultor  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Index,  Censor  of  the  Academy  of  the 
Catholic  Religion,  and  editor  of  the  "Annales  des 
sciences  religieuses ".  He  ^\  rote  on  Purgatory 
against  Dudley,  and  a  warning  against  the  hierogly- 
phic discoveries  of  Champollion  (Rome,  1834). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Allen,  Edw.\hd  Patrick,  fifth  Bishop  of  Mobile, 

Alabama,  U.  S.,  b.  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  17  March,  1853. 
He  made  his  college  course  at  Mount  St.  Mary's, 
Emmittsburg,  Md.,  graduating  26  June,  1878,  and 
then  entered  the  seminary  there  for  his  theological 
studies.  He  was  ordained  priest  17  December,  1881, 
and  remained  at  Mount  St.  Mary's,  as  a  member  of 
the  faculty,  until  early  in  1882,  when  he  was  made 
an  assistant  at  the  cathedral  in  Boston,  and  later 
at  Framingham,  Mass.  In  1SS4  he  returned  to 
Mount  St.  Mary's  to  assume  the  presidency  of  the 
college,  which  office  he  held  until  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Mobile.  He  was  consecrated  at  Baltimore, 
Md.,  IG  May,  1897.  In  1889  Georgetown  University 
conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Reuss,  Biog.  Cyclo.  of  the  Cath.  Hierarchy  of  the  U.  S.; 
Catholic  Directory,  1898. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Allen,  Frances,  the  first  woman  of  New  Eng- 
land birth  to  become  a  nun,  b.  13  Nov.,  1784,  at 
Sunderland,  Vt.;  d.  10  Sept.,  1819,  at  Montreal. 
Her  origm,  education,  and  environment  were  calcu- 
lated to  make  her  the  least  likely  woman  in  the 
United  States  to  take  such  a  step.  Her  father  was 
Ethan  Allen  the  patriot,  soldier  of  the  Revolution, 
and  pioneer  of  the  State  of  Vermont,  and  an  atheist. 
He  married  as  his  third  wife  a  widow,  Frances  Mon- 
tressor,  16  Feb.,  1784,  and  Frances  was  born  13  Nov., 
of  the  same  year.  .After  Ethan  Allen's  death, 
12  Feb.,  1789,  Mrs.  Allen,  five  years  later,  mar- 
ried Dr.  Jabez  Penniman.  While  not  an  atheist, 
like  .Allen,  Dr.  Penniman  was  sufficiently  averse  to 
religion  to  exclude  every  thought  of  it,  as  far  as 
po.ssible,  from  his  stepdaughter's  mind.  Notwith- 
standing this,  her  keen  and  inquiring  intellect  led 
to  her  acquiring  such  a  knowledge  of  the  Catliohe 
religion  that  when  she  was   twenty-one  she  asked 


ALLEN 


321 


ALLEN 


leave  of  her  parents  to  go  to  Montreal  ostensibly  to 
learn  French,  but  in  reality  to  become  more  familiar 
in  a  convent  school  with  the  belief  and  practices  of 
Catholics.  They  consented,  but  first  required  her 
to  be  baptized  oy  the  Rev.  Daniel  Barber,  a  Prot- 
istaiit  mmister  of  C'laremont,  New  Hamjjshiro.  Slie 
became  a  pupil  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of 


Frances  .-Vi-len  at  the  Aoe  of  16   (from  a  Painting) 

Xotre  Dame,  at  Montreal,  in  1807.  One  day,  a 
Sister  requested  lier  to  place  .some  flowers  on  tlie 
altar.  recommondiuK  her  also  to  make  an  act  of 
adoration  of  tlie  Ileal  Presence  of  Jesus  Christ  in 
the  tabernacle.  When  the  younR  woman  attempted 
to  step  into  the  .sanctuary  slie  found  herself  unable 
to  do  so.  After  three  futile  attempts,  she  was  filled 
with  conviction  of  the  Real  Presence,  and  fell  upon 
her  knees  in  humble  adoration. 

She  was  instructed  and  received  baptism,  her 
lack  of  proper  disposition  having  rendered  that  con- 
ferred by  Mr.  Barljer  invalid.  At  her  first  Communion 
slie  felt'witliin  her  an  unmistakable  vocation  to  tlie 
religious  life.  Her  parents  promptly  withdrew  her 
from  the  convent  and  souplit  by  bestowing  on  tlie 
young  girl  every  worldly  jileasure  and  .social  enjoy- 
ment to  obliterate  the  religious  sentiments  with  which 
she  was  imbued.  The  pleasure  and  excitement  of 
such  a  life  did  not  distract  her  from  the  desire  of  a 
religious  life,  and  as  soon  as  the  year,  which  she  had 
con.sented  to  pa.ss  with  her  parents  before  taking 
any  step  in  the  matter,  was  at  an  end,  she  returned  to 
Montreal  and  entered  the  Hotel-Dieu,  making  her 
religious  profession  in  1810.  The  convent  chapel 
was  thronged,  many  .\nierican  friends  coming  to  wit- 
ness the  strange  -spectacle  of  Ethan  .Mien's  daugliter 
becoming  a  Catholic  nun.  After  eleven  vcars  of 
zealous  life  in  religion,  Frances  .Mien  died  at  the 
Hiitel-Dieu,  of  lung  trouble,  10  Dec.  1819. 

De  (".ok-ihriand.  Calknlic  Mrmoirn  <i/  lVrtn<>n(  nnii  Srw 
Hnmi'uhirr  ( Burlinitton.  Vt.,  1880);  Hakreh.  Iluloru  <./  ,11)/ 
Oum  Timrt  i\Va.«hington,  U.  C,   1827);  VaOtolu  World,  XVf. 


aOl;  Vrrmonl  GauUe  (files),  I,  567;  Shea,  Ilitt.  of  Cath.  Church 
in   UniUd  Statet  (New  York,   1904). 

John  J.  a'  Bucket. 

Allen,  George,  educator,  b.  at  Milton,  Vermont, 
17  December,  1808;  d.  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  28  May, 
1876.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont in  1827,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831. 
Later,  he  studied  theology,  and  was  rector  of  an 
Episcopal  church  at  St.  Albans,  Vt.,  from  18:54  to 
1837.  In  1837,  he  became  professor  of  ancient 
languages  in  Delaware  College,  at  Newark,  Del.,  and 
in  181.'),  he  held  the  same  chair  at  the  University  of 
Penn.sylvania,  at  Philadelphia,  where  he  w;is  after- 
wards professor  of  Greek,  lie  became  a  Catholic 
in  1847. 

Cyclopwdia  of  Am.  Biog.  j„„^  j    ^<  QeckeT. 

Allen,  John  (1476-1.')34\  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
canonist .  and  Chancellor  of  Ireland.  He  was  educated 
at  I  Ixford  and  Cambridge,  graduated  in  tlie  latter 
place,  and  spent  some  years  in  Italy,  partly  at  Home, 
for  studies  and  for  business  of  Arclibishop  Warham 
of  Canterbury.  He  was  ordained  priest  2.5  August, 
1  I'.t'.),  and  held  various  parochial  benefices  until  l.')22, 
about  which  time  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Cardi- 
nal Wolsey  (q.  v.),  whose  supple  and  helpful  com- 
niissarj-  he  was  in  the  matter  of  the  suppression  of 
the  minor  monasteries.  As  such,  his  conduct,  says 
Dr.  Gairdner,  "gave  rise  to  considerable  outcry,  and 
complaints  were  made  about  it  to  the  king".  He 
continued  to  receive  ecclesiastical  advancement,  as- 
sisted Wol.-icy  in  his  Icgatine  functions,  among  other 
things  "in  the  collusive  suit  shamefully  instituted  by 
the  cardinal  against  the  king  in  May,  1527,  by  which 
it  was  sought  at  first  to  have  the  marriage  with  Katha- 
rine declared  invalid  without  her  knowledge'' 
(Gairdner).  In  the  summer  of  the  same  year  he  ac- 
companied the  cardinal  on  his  splendid  mission  to 
France,  and  finally  (August,  1.5'28)  was  rewarded  with 
the  ardiiepiscopai  see  of  Dublin.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  made  by  the  king  Chancellor  of  Ireland 
(Rymor,  "  Foedera",  London,  1728,  XVI,  200,  2(iS). 
He  was  relieved  from  asserting,  against  Arniagli.  tlie 
legatine  authority  of  Wolsey  by  the  latter's  fall 
(Uctolx;r,  1.529).  With  the  rest  of  the  English  clergy 
he  had  to  pay  a  heavy  fine  (1531)  for  violation  of 
the  "Statutes  of  Provisors"  and  "  Pra-numire", 
in  recognizing  the  legatine  authority  of  Wolsey,  then, 
in  the  king's  eyes,  a  lieinous  crime,  and  a  reason  for 
the  cardinal's  indictment.  Allen  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  pallium,  "Epistola  de  pallii  significatione  activa. 
et  pa-ssivfi,"  on  the  occasion  of  his  reception  of  this  pon- 
tifical symbol,  and  another  "De  consuetudinibus  ac 
statutis  in  tutoriis  causis  observandis."  He  seems 
also  to  have  been  a  man  of  methodical  habits,  for  in 
the  archives  of  the  Anglican  archdiocese  of  Dublin 
arc  still  preserved  two  important  registers  made  by 
liis  order,  the  "Liber  Niger",  or  Black  Book, and  the 
"Repertorium  Viride",  or  Green  Repertorj-,  both 
so  called,  after  the  custom  of  the  age,  from  the  colour 
of  the  binding.  The  former  is  a  "chartularium" 
of  the  archdiocese,  or  collection  of  its  most  impor- 
tant documents,  and  the  latter  a  full  description 
of  the  see  as  it  was  in  1530.  Archbishop  Allen 
was  murdered  near  Dublin,  28  July,  1534.  .As  a 
•former  follower  of  Wolsey,  he  was  hate<l  by  the 
followers  of  the  great  Irish  house  of  Kildare  (Fitz- 
gerald), whose  chief,  the  ninth  earl,  had  been  im- 
prisoned by  Wolsey  in  the  Tower  from  1520  to  1530, 
and  again,  by  the  King,  early  in  1.534.  Soon  a  fal.sc 
rumour  spread  through  Ireland  that  the  earl  had 
been  put  to  death,  and  the  archbishop  was  killed 
in  consequence  of  it  by  two  retainers  of  his  son,  the 
famous  "Silken  Thomas"  Fitzgerald.  It  does  not 
appear  that  Lord  Thomas  contemplated  the  crime  or 
approved  of  it.  He  after\vards  sent  his  chaplain  to 
Rome  to  obtain  absolution  for  him  from  the  ex- 


ALLEN 


322 


ALLEN 


communication  incurred  hv  I  his  murder.  Sir  James 
Ware  says  of  Allen  (-Works",  ed.  Harris,  Dublin, 
176!,  a/).  Webb,  "Conip.  of  Irish  Biogr",  Dublin, 
1S7S,  :j)  that  "ho  was  of  a  turbulent  spirit,  but  a  man 
of  hospitality  and  learnin<;,  and  a  dilisent  inquirer 
into  antiquities."  He  belonged  to  the  shifty  and  un- 
principled class  of  which  Thomas  Cromwell  (q.  v.) 
was  leader  and  mouthpiece,  and  he  closed  unworthily 
the  series  of  the  old  Catholic  archbishops  of  Dublin; 
his  successor,  George  Browne,  was  a  formal  apostate 
and  begins  the  list  of  the  Protestant  prelates  of  the 
Anglican  Church  in  Ireland. 

Bradv  Eijiscopal  Succession  in  England,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland  (Rome,  1S76),  I,  325  sqq.;  Gairdner,  in  Diet,  of 
Nat.  Biogr.  (London,  1885),  I,  305-307;  Wood,  AthenoB 
Oionienses  (erl.  Bliss),  I,  76;  Meehan.  in  tr.  Daly,  Rise,  In- 
crease and  Fall  of  the  Geraldines,  Enrls  of  Desmond  (Dublin, 
1878),  53,  54;  Ware,  .Annals  of  Ireland,  ad  an.  IBSi:  Cox, 
Hibemia  Anolicana,  234;  Ware,  In'sh  Bishops  (ed.  Harris, 
Dublin  1764)  347:  Bklle.sheim,  Gesch.  d.  kathol.  Kirche 
in  Irland  (Mainz,  1890),  II,  5,  6,  16,  17. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Allen,  John,  priest  and  martyr.  He  was  exe- 
cuted at  Tyburn  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1538, 
because  he  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  ecclesiastical 
supremacy  of  Henry  VIII. 

Stow,  Chronicles;  Cath.  Magazine  (1832,;  Gillow. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Allen,  William,  Cardinal;  b.  England,  1532;  d. 
Rome,  16  Oct.,  1.594.  He  was  the  third  son  of 
John  Allen,  of  Rossall,  liancashire,  and  at  the  age  of 
fifteen  went  to  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  B.  A.  in  1550,  and  was  elected  Fellow 
of  his  College.  In  1554  he  proceeded  M.A.,  and  two 
years  later  was  chosen  Principal  of  St.  Mary's  Hall. 
For  a  short  time  he  also  held  a  canonry  at  York,  for 
he  had  already  determined  to  embrace  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal state.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  and  the 
re-establishment  of  Protestantism,  Allen  was  one  of 
those  who  remained  most  stanch  on  the  Catholic 
side,  and  it  is  chiefly  due  to  his  labours  that  the 
Catholic  religion  was  not  entirely  stamped  out  in 
England.  Having  resigned  all  his  preferments,  he 
left  the  country  in  1561,  and  sought  a  refuge  in  the 
university  town  of  Louvain.  The  following  year, 
however,  we  find  him  back  in  England,  devoting 
himself,  though  not  yet  in  priest's  orders,  to  evangel- 
izing his  native  county.  His  success  was  such  that 
it  attracted  notice  and  he  had  to  flee  for  safety. 
For  a  while  he  made  himself  a  missionary  centre 
near  Oxford,  where  he  had  many  acquaintances,  and 
later  for  a  time  he  sought  protection  with  the  family 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  In  1565  he  was  again  forced 
to  leave  England,  this  time,  as  it  turned  out,  for 
good.  He  was  ordained  priest  at  Mechlin  shortly 
afterwards.  The  three  years  Allen  spent  as  a  mis- 
sioner  in  England  had  a  determining  effect  on  Iiis 
whole  after  life.  For  he  found  everywhere  that  the 
people  were  not  Protestant  by  choice,  but  by  force 
of  circumstances;  and  the  majority  were  only  too 
ready,  in  response  to  his  preaching  and  ministrations, 
to  return  to  Catholicity.  He  W'as  always  convinced 
that  the  Protestant  wave  over  the  coimtry,  due  to 
the  action  of  Elizabeth,  could  only  be  temporary, 
and  that  the  whole  future  depended  on  there  being 
a  supply  of  trained  clergy  and  controversialists  ready 
to  come  into  the  country  whenever  Catholicity  should 
be  restored.  It  was  to  supply  this  neetl  that  he 
founded  the  College  at  Douay  since  identified  with 
his  name.  Tlie  idea  first  developed  itself  in  his  mind 
during  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  in  company  with  Dr. 
Vendeville,  Regius  Professor  of  Canon  Law  in  the 
Iniversity  of  Douay,  in  1,507.  No  doubt  this  was 
one  reason  why  he  thought  of  Douay  as  a  suitable 
place  for  his  new  college;  but  it  was  by  no  means 
the  only  one.  Douay  was  a  new  university,  founded 
by  Pope  l';iul  IV,  under  the  patronage  of  Iving  Phili]) 
of  Spain  (in  whose  dominions  it  then  was),  for  the 


special  object  of  combating  the  errors  of  the  Reforma- 
tion; and,  what  is  still  more  to  the  purpose,  it  was 
already  under  Oxford  influences.  The  first  chan- 
cellor, Richard  Smith,  was  an  Oxford  man,  as  were 
several  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the  uni- 
versity at  the  time  when  Allen  began.  It  was  his 
ambition  to  perpetuate  Oxford  influences  and  tradi- 
tions, and  to  make  his  new  college  practically  a 
continuation  of  Catholic  Oxford.  A  beginning  was 
made  in  a  hired  house  on  Michaelmas  Day,  1568. 
The  means  of  support  included,  besides  Allen's 
private  income,  and  other  voluntary  donations,  a 
yearly  pension  of  200  ducats  from  the  King  of  Spain, 
and  later  on  one  of  100  gold  crowns  a  month  from  the 
Pope.  The  number  of  students  grew  rapidly.  Often 
more  were  received  than  the  income  warranted,  a 
course  rendered  necessary  by  the  urgent  state  of 
Catholic  affairs,  which  Allen  met  in  the  spirit  of  faith; 
and  in  the  long  run,  means  were  never  wanting. 
The  names  of  Thomas  Stapleton,  Richard  Bristowe, 
Gregory  Martin,  Morgan  Philips,  and  others  are  still 
well  known  to  English  Catholics,  and  arc  themselves 
a  sufficient  record  of  the  ability  of  Allen's  early 
companions,  and  of  the  work  done  at  the  college. 
Allen  had  the  power  of  instilling  his  spirit  into  his 
followers.  They  lived  together  without  written  rule, 
but  in  perfect  mutual  harmony,  working  for  the  com- 
mon cause.  From  the  Douay  press  came  forth  a 
constant  stream  of  controversial  and  other  Catholic 
literature,  which  could  not  be  printed  in  England  on 
account  of  the  Penal  Laws.  In  this  Allen  himself 
took  a  prominent  part.  His  writings  are  distin- 
guished by  extent  of  learning  and  theological  acumen. 
One  of  the  chief  works  undertaken  in  the  early  years 
of  the  college  was  the  preparation  of  the  well-known 
Douay  Bible  (q.  v.).  The  New  Testament  was  pub- 
lished in  1582,  when  the  college  was  at  Rheims;  but 
the  Old  Testament,  though  completed  at  the  same 
time,  was  delayed  by  want  of  funds.  It  eventually 
appeared  at  Douay,  in  1609,  two  years  before  the 
Anglican  "Authorized  Version". 

But  the  work  for  which  Allen's  college  is  now  most 
famous  was  not  part  of  his  original  scheme,  but  an 
outgrowth  from  it.  This  was  the  sending  over  of 
missionaries  to  work  for  the  conversion  of  England 
in  defiance  of  the  law,  while  the  countrj'  still  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Protestants.  There  were  practi- 
cally no  Catholic  bishops  left,  and  the  Marian  clergy 
were  rapidly  dying  out.  Granted  that  the  Protestant 
rule  was  to  continue  indefinitely,  the  onlj^  method  to 
s;we  the  Catholics  from  extinction  was  to  send 
priests  from  abroad,  and  Allen  was  given  "faculties" 
for  all  England  to  impart  to  them.  They  had  to  face 
a  hard  and  precarious  life,  often  persecution,  the 
rack,  or  even  death.  When  found  out  they  could  be 
convicted  of  high  treason,  for  which  the  punishment 
was  to  be  hanged,  drawn  and  quartered.  More  than 
one  huntlred  and  sixty  Douay  priests  are  known  to 
have  been  put  to  death,  the  great  majority  belonging 
to  the  secular  clergy.  Many  more  suffered  in  prison 
as  Confessors  for  the  Faith.  Yet  such  Wiis  the  spirit 
which  Allen  infused  into  his  students  that  they  re- 
joiced at  the  news  of  each  successive  martyrdom, 
and  by  a  special  i)rivilege  sang  a  solemn  I\Iass  of 
thanksgiving.  And  the  success  of  the  "Seminary 
Priests",  as  they  were  called,  was  such  th;it  at  the 
<'nd  of  Elizabeth's  long  reign  it  is  said  IIkiI  the  king- 
dom was  still  at  heart  more  th.an  half  Catholic.  In 
1575  .\llen  made  a  second  journey  to  R(mie,  where  he 
helped  Pope  (ircgory  Xlll  to  found  another  college 
to  send  missionaries  to  England.  For  this  [)urpose 
liossession  was  obtained  of  the  ancient  English  hospice 
in  the  city,  which  was  converted  into  a  seminary. 
Returning  to  Dou.ay,  .Vllen  found  a  storm  gathering 
against  the  English  and  in  1578  they  were  expelled 
from  the  town.  The  collegians  took  refuge  at  the 
University  of  Rheims,  where  they  were  well  received, 


ALLERSTEIN 


323 


ALLIES 


and  continued  their  work  as  before,  Allen  being  soon 
afterwards  elected  canon  of  the  Cathedral  Chapter. 
In  isyi)  he  paid  his  third  visit  to  Hoiiic,  bciii);;  siiin- 
nioiicd  thither  in  order  that  he  might  >iso  his  uni(iue 
per>onal  influence  to  adjust  the  disputes  between  the 
Engli.sli  and  Welsh  students  at  the  new  college  there. 
It  was  during  this  \isit  that  he  was  appointed  a 
ineinbcr  of  the  I'ontifical  Coniinission  for  the  revision 
of  the  Vulgate.  Up  to  this  point  the  career  of  .\llen 
had  won  the  universal  admiration  and  gratitude  of 
English  Catholics,  for  what  he  himself  termed  his 
"scholastical  attempts"  to  convert  England.  Such 
was  not,  however,  tlie  case  with  liis  political  labours 
to  secure  the  same  end,  which  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  about  this  tiiuc,  and  were  far  less  successful. 
The  famous  Bull  "  Kcgnans  in  excelsis"  was  issued 
l)y  Pius  V  in  l.'iTO,  d(-i)osing  (Jueen  Elizabeth,  and 
releasing  her  subjects  from  their  allegiance,  but  it 
did  not  take  practical  shape  till  seventeen  years 
later,  when  preparations  were  made  for  the  invasion 
of  England  bv  the  King  of  Spain.  Allen  was  then 
once  more  in  l{otiio,  whither  he  hud  been  summoned 
by  the  Pope  after  a  dangerous  illness  two  years 
before.  He  never  loft  the  Eternal  City  again,  but 
he  kept  in  constant  communication  with  his  country- 
men in  England.  It  had  been  due  to  his  influence 
that  the  Society  of  Jesus,  to  which  he  was  greatly 
attached,  undertook  to  join  in  the  work  of  the  English 
mission;  and  now  Allen  and  Father  I'arsons  became 
joint  leaders  of  the  "Spanish  Party"  among  the 
English  Catholics.  The  exhortation  to  take  up  arms 
in  coimection  with  the  Spanish  invasion,  printed  in 
Antwerp,  was  issued  in  Allen's  name,  though  be- 
lieved to  have  been  composed  under  the  direction  of 
Kather  Parsons.  At  the  request  of  King  Philip, 
.Allen  was  created  cardinal  in  15S7,  and  held  himself 
in  readiness  to  go  to  luigland  immediately,  should 
the  invasion  prove  successful.  In  estimating  the 
number  of  those  who  would  be  adherents  to  the 
scheme,  however,  Allen  and  Parsons  were  both  at 
fault.  The  large  majority  of  English  Catholics, 
generously  forgetting  the  past,  sided  with  their  own 
nation  against  the  Spanish,  and  the  defeat  of  the 
Armada  (1.5S8)  was  a  subject  of  rejoicing  to  them  no 
less  than  to  their  Protestant  fellow  countrymen. 
Allen  survived  the  defeat  of  the  Armada  six  years. 
To  the  end  of  his  life  he  remained  firmly  convinced 
that  the  time  was  not  far  distant  when  England 
would  be  Catholic  again.  During  his  last  years  there 
was  an  estrangement  between  him  and  the  Jesuits, 
though  his  personal  relations  with  Father  Parsons 
remained  unimpaired.  In  1589  he  co-operated  with 
him  in  establishing  a  new  English  college  at  Valla- 
dolid,  in  Spain.  The  same  year  he  was  nominated  by 
Philip  II  Archbishop  of  Mechlin;  but,  for  some  reason 
which  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained,  the 
nomination,  although  publicly  allowed  to  stand  sev- 
eral years,  was  never  confirmed.  He  continued  to 
reside  at  the  English  College,  Rome,  until  his  death, 
Hi  October,  1.594.  He  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  adjoining  the  college.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  his  printed  works;  "Certain  Brief 
Heiusons  concerning  the  Catholick  Faith"  (Douay, 
l.i(J4);  "A  Defense  and  Declaration  of  the  Catholike 
Churches  Doctrine  touching  Purgatorj-,  and  Prayers 
of  the  Soules  Departed"  (Antwerp,  1.56.')),  re-edited 
by  Father  Bridgett  in  1886;  "A  Treatise  made  in 
defen.se  of  the  Lawful  Power  and  Authoritie  of  the 
Precsthoode  to  remitte  sinnes  &c."  (1.567);  "  De 
.Sacramentis"  (.\ntwerp,  1565;  Douay,  1603);  "An 
Apologj'  for  the  ICiiglish  Seminaries"  (1581);  "Apolo- 
gia Martyrum"  (15H.'});  "Martyrium  R.  P.  Edmundi 
Cainpiani,  S.J."  (1583);  "An  Answer  to  the  Libel 
of  English  Jvistice"  (Mons,  1584);  "The  Copie  of  a 
Letter  written  by  M.  Doctor  Allen  concerning  the 
Yeelding  up  of  the  Citie  of  Daventrie,  unto  his 
Catholike  .Majestie,  by  Sir  William  Stanley  Knight" 
I.— ;il 


(Antwerp,  1.5S7),  reprinted  by  the  Chetham  Society, 
1851;  "An  Admonition  to  the  Nobility  and  People  of 
I'^ngland  and  Ireland,  concerning  the  present  W'arres 
made  for  the  Execution  of  his  Holincs  Sentence, 
by  the  highe  and  mightio  Kinge  Catholike  of  Spain, 
by  the  Cardinal  of  Englande"  (1588);  "A  Declara- 
tion of  the  sentence  and  deposition  of  Elizabeth, 
the  usurper  and  pretended  Queene  of  England" 
(15SS;  reprinted  London,  1842).  Among  the  known 
ancient  portraits  of  Cardinal  Allen  are  the  following: 
Painting  formerly  in  refectory  of  the  English  College, 
Douay,  found  after  the  Revolution  in  the  upper 
sacristy  of  the  parish  church  of  St.  Jacques,  now  at 
Douai  Al)bey,  Woolhamirton;  copy  of  same  at  St. 
I'Mnumd's  College.  Old  Hall;  painting  formerly  the 
property  of  Charles  Brown  Mostyn,  Esc).,  now  at 
I  shaw  College,  Durham;  painting  in  archiepiscopal 
palace,  Uheims;  and  a  later  one,  representing  him 
as  an  old  man,  at  English  College,  Rome.  Also  a 
Belgian  print,  reproduced  in  "  History  of  St.  Edmund's 
College",  and  various  reproductions  of  the  above 
paintings. 

DoDi).  Ch.  /list,  of  Eng.;  Linoard,  Hist,  of  End.;  Knox, 
l/isl.  Introd.  to  liouuy  Diarirs  (1878);  Idem,  Inlrod.  to  Lcllrri 
ami  Memoriiila  of  Card.  Alien  (1882);  I'lTTS,  De  Anglia  iicri/t- 
L.ribus  (lfil9):  Memoir  in  Calh.  Direet..  1807;  Khtler,  Hist. 
Mem.  of  Eno.  Calh.  (1819);  GiLl.ow,  IHbl.  Dirt,  of  Eng.  Caths.; 
Diet,  of  Nat.  liiotj.;  Majuh  Marti.s  Hume,  Treason  and  Plot 
(1901). 

Beknard  Waud. 

Alleratein  (or  IIallerstein),  August,  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary in  China,  b.  in  (iermany;  d.  in  China, 
probably  about  1777,  and  consequently  after  the  suj)- 
pression  of  tlie  Society.  His  mathematical  and  as- 
tronomical acquirements  recommended  him  to  the 
imperial  court  at  Pekin,  where  he  won  the  esteem  of 
the  Emperor  Kiang-long,  ulio  made  him  a  mandarin 
and  Chief  of  the  l)c])artmeiit  of  .Mathematics,  a  post 
he  held  for  many  years.  He  has  given  the  world  a  cen- 
sus of  China  for  the  25th  and  2()th  years  of  the  reign 
of  Kiang-long.  His  list  and  the  Chinese  translation 
reached  Europe  in  1779.  The  work  is  precious  for 
the  reason  that  the  Tatar  conquerors  objected  to 
census-taking,  or  at  least  to  censu.s-publication,  lest 
the  Chinese  might  recognize  their  strength  and  grow 
restless.  Another  element  of  its  value  is  that  it  con- 
firms all  the  calculations  of  one  of  his  predecessors, 
Father  Amiot  (q.  v.),  and  affords  a  proof  of  the 
progressive  increase  of  the  Chinese  population.  In 
the  25th  year  he  found  196.837,977  souls,  and  in 
the  following  year  198,214,624.  Allerstein's  census 
is  to  be  found  in  "D&cription  G6n6rale  de  la  Chine", 
p.  283. 

MiCHAUU,  Biogr.   unir..  a.  v.  T.  J.  CAMPBELL. 

Alliance,  Eva.\gelical.  See  Evangelical  Al- 
liance. 

Alliance,  Holy.     See  Holy  Alliance. 

Allies,  Thomas  William,  an  English  writer  b. 
12  February,  1S13;  d.  17  June,  1903.  He  was  one  in 
whom  the  poetical  vein  was  tenderly  blended  with 
the  philosopher's  wisdom.  His  musings  as  a  boy 
were  uttered  in  poetry;  ronahar  scribcrc  ct  versus 
erat.  From  a  very  early  age  he  loved  books  more 
than  men,  or  rather  he  preferred  to  read  of  men 
rather  than  to  deal  with  them.  Circumstances, 
which  fashion  lives,  but  do  not  make  them,  played 
into  his  hands.  For  a  long  time  he  was  an  only 
child;  at  fourteen  he  went  to  Eton,  and  at  sixteen 
was  the  first  to  win  the  Newcastle  Scholarship.  His 
lonely  l)oyhood,  his  retired  home  at  a  country  |)arson- 
age.  and  the  lack  of  early  companions  tended  to 
iiuikc  him  .serious.  He  was  born  at  Midsonier  Norton, 
Somersetshire,  England.  His  father,  the  Rev. 
Tlinmas  .\llics,  was  at  that  time  curate  of  Henburj', 
in  Worcestershire,  later  Rector  of  Worniington.  some 
twelve  miles  from  Cheltenham.  His  mother,  who 
died  a  week  after  bis  birth,  was  Frances  Elizabeth 


ALLIES 


324 


ALLIES 


Fripp,  daughter  of  a  Bristol  merchant.  The  first  act 
of  fatlier  and  mother  after  the  birth  was  to  thank 
God  for  their  little  son.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Allies 
married  again,  his  second  wife  being  Caroline  Hill- 
house,  who  took  little  "Tom"  to  her  heart  and  loved 
him  as  one  of  her  own  children.  He  received  his 
first  lessons  at  the  Bristol  Grammar  School  and 
began  there  his  early  triumphs.  Among  his  papers 
is  recorded:  "A  Prize  Essay,  given  by  Sir  John  Cox 
Hippesley,  Baronet,  to  Thomas  William  Allies,  aged 
12  years,  and  by  him  delivered  before  the  Mayor  and 
Corporation  of  Bristol,  September  2Sth,  1825."  In 
1827,  at  his  own  request,  he  went  to  Eton,  though 
in  after  years  he  used  to  regret  his  early  advent  at 
that  famous  school.  He  was  possibly  too  young  to 
cope  with  his  contemporaries,  but  at  no  period  of  his 
life  could  his  mind  have  been  young.  There  is  a 
certain  maturity  about  even  his  youthful  poetry. 
At  Eton  he  was  in  the  house  of  the  Rev.  Edward 
Coleridge,  who  always  remained  his  devoted  friend. 
From  Eton  he  passed  to  Oxford,  taking  his  M.A. 
degree  in  1832.  Wadhani  was  his  college.  His 
classical  mind  learnt  classical  speech  at  Eton  and 
Oxford,  for  no  writing  of  English  or  of  any  other 
spoken  tongue  can  be  acquired  without  a  deep  study 
of  the  ancients.  Mr.  AUies's  Latin  prose  has  proba- 
bly not  been  surpassed.  He  was  not  called  upon  to 
write  Greek  in  the  same  way,  but  he  feasted  upon  the 
Greek  mind  in  its  purest  ideals.  Pythagoras,  he  said, 
was  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  philosophers.  Of 
modern  languages  he  knew  Italian  in  his  youth  as 
well  as  English;  German,  and  French  well,  and  he 
was  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  literature  of  the 
three  languages.  He  took  Anglican  orders  in  1838, 
and  began  his  Anglican  career  as  Examining  Chap- 
lain to  the  Bishop  of  London,  Dr.  Blomfield,  a  post 
exactly  suited  to  his  taste,  bringing  him  in  contact 
with  many  minds.  In  those  days,  however,  it  was 
premature  to  have  Church  principles.  The  out- 
spoken expression  of  them  on  AUies's  part  led  him 
to  a  country  preferment,  and  so,  indirectly,  to  the 
Catholic  Church.  In  1840  he  married  the  beautiful 
Eliza  Hall  Newman,  daughter  of  an  Essex  squire, 
who  offered  a  complete  contrast  to  himself.  She 
had  her  father's  tastes  for  horses  and  dogs,  none  for 
books.  With  the  wife  of  his  choice  he  retired  to  his 
Oxford  parsonage,  a  capital  living  of  £600  which 
Dr.  Blomfield  gave  to  him  in  fear  of  his  Church 
principles.  The  real  work  of  his  life  began  in  the 
quiet  country.  He  bought  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  and  began  to  study 
theology  for  himself,  as  he  had  not  studied  it  on  the 
I'niversity  benches.  The  Fathers,  especially  St. 
Augustine,  revealed  to  him  the  Catholic  Church. 
Moreover,  they  revealed  him  to  himself,  and  when 
he  now  set  pen  to  paper  it  was  to  write  prose.  He 
thouglit  to  find  ,\nglicanism  in  the  Fathers,  and  his 
first  book  is  the  result  of  this  delusion.  It  was 
entitled  "The  Church  of  England  Cleared  from  the 
Charge  of  Schism  ",  published  in  1846,  a  second  and 
enlarged  edition  appearing  in  1848.  It  gives  the 
key-note  of  his  lifelong  labour  and  the  whole  ques- 
tion between  Anglican  and  Catholic  in  a  niitshell. 
As  he  perceived  early  in  the  day,  the  choice  of  the 
Royal  Supremacy  or  Peter's  Primacy  constitutes  the 
kernel  of  the  entire  controversy. 

In  the  endeavour  to  clear  the  Church  of  England 
from  the  charge  of  schism,  he  saw  the  faint  glimmer- 
ing of  dawn  leading  to  perfect  day.  In  1849  he  pub- 
lished his  "Journal  in  France  ",  which  went  so  far 
as  to  say  that  for  the  Chvirch  of  England  to  be  re- 
united to  Rome  would  be  an  "  incalculable  blessing  ". 
Newman  had  left  the  Church  of  England  in  184.'3, 
yrt  Allies  plodded  on  without  his  "polar  star". 
Tint  public.'ition  of  the  "Journal"  caused  a  storm 
to  burst  over  his  head.  The  Bishop  of  Oxford, 
Dr.  Wilberforce,  called  him  to  account  sharply  for 


the  logical  expression  of  his  church  principles.  He 
has  told  the  story  of  the  struggle  in  his  "Life's 
Decision."  He  broke  with  his  Anglican  career  on 
the  day  of  his  conversion,  for  on  that  day,  11  Sep- 
tember, 1850,  he  most  certainly  "cho.se  to  be  an 
abject  in  Ciod's  House  rather  than  dwell  in  the  tents 
of  sinners."  He  renounced  his  living,  his  occupa- 
tion, his  prospects,  and,  with  a  wife  and  three  sons, 
faced  the  world  without  friends  or  resources.  His 
sole  riches  lay  in  himself.  Over  and  above  his  faith, 
he  had  his  mind,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  cause 
of  Catholic  truth  as  soon  as  lie  liad  resolved  the 
problem  of  how  to  live.  The  Hierarchy  was  re- 
established in  England  in  1850,  and  at  that  time, 
and  during  many  subsequent  years,  there  was  no 
Catholic  position  in  England.  A  man  of  letters  and 
of  mind  was  lost  in  a  body  which  scarcely  knew  how 
to  read  and  WTite.  Mr.  Allies  took  pupils  at  first  and 
tried  to  utilize  his  splendid  scholarship.  Then,  in 
1853,  he  was  nominated  Secretary  to  the  Poor  School 
Committee,  a  board  composed  of  priests  and  laymen, 
instituted  in  1S47  by  the  Bishops  of  England  to  repre- 
sent the  interests  of  Catholic  Primary  Education. 
About  the  same  time  he  was  appointed  Ltoturer  on 
History  to  the  Catholic  University  of  Ireland.  These 
two  events  made  his  career  as  a  Catholic.  He  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  in  the  cause  of  education, 
particularly  by  furthering  the  work  of  Training 
Colleges  and  the  system  of  religious  inspection  of 
primary  schools.  He  was  instrumental  in  setting 
up  the  Training  College  for  Women  at  Liverpool, 
which  has  done  magnificent  work.  Greater,  even, 
was  the  distinction  he  won  by  the  work  which  the 
scheme  for  a  Catholic  University  in  Ireland  led  him 
to  compose.  The  idea  fell  through,  but  the  lectures 
lived,  and  live  on  in  "The  Formation  of  Christen- 
dom ",  of  which  Cardinal  Vaughan  said,  "It  is  one 
of  the  noblest  historical  works  I  have  ever  read." 
The  Poor  School  Committee  and  "The  Formation 
of  Christendom"  ran  on  parallel  lines  in  his  life,  each 
representing  a  period  of  some  thirty  odd  years. 
Beginning  in  1853,  his  connexion  with  the  Poor 
School  Committee  ended  in  1890,  when  he  retired 
on  his  full  pension  of  £400.  The  opus  magnum 
similarly  ran  over  a  lifetime,  from  1861  to  1895, 
when  the  closing  vohmie  on  "The  Monastic  Life  ' 
appeared.  The  friends  of  his  mind  were  numerous 
and  largely  represented  by  the  Oxford  Movement, 
of  which  he  was  the  last  survivor.  In  1885  Pope 
Leo  XIII  created  him  a  Knight  Commander  of  St. 
Gregory,  and  in  1893  conferred  upon  him  the  signal 
favour  of  the  gold  medal  for  merit.  He  expressed 
his  gratitude  to  the  Pope  in  a  letter  composed  in 
Ciceronian  Latin.  "Liceat  ergo  niihi ",  he  wrote, 
"pro  summo  vita;  premio  usque  ad  extremmn 
halitum  Verbum  Tuum  donumque  gremio  amplecti." 
His  great  achievements  were  the  books  he  wrote, 
for  they  were  an  alms  to  God  of  his  whole  being  as 
well  as  of  his  substance.  He  outlived  all  his  con- 
temporaries. A  biography  of  his  inner  mind  from 
the  pen  of  Mary  H.  Allies  is  in  course  of  preparation. 
The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  his  works  both 
before  and  after  his  conversion: — 

Sermons.  1  vol.  (1844^;  The  Church  of  England  Cleared 
from  the  Charge  of  Schism  (1840);  Journal  in  France  (1849); 
The  See  of  St.  Peter,  the  Rock  of  the  Church,  the  Source  of  Ju- 
risdiction and  the  Centre  of  Unity  (1850);  Si.  Peter.  His  Name 
and  His  OtT^ce  (1852);  The  Formation  of  Christendom.  8  vols. 
(1801-95),  .showing  tlip  pliilosc.pliy  of  histor.v  from  the 
foundation  of  tho  ('lunch  up  td  Chiir'temnKne.  Some  of  theiie 
volumes  have  su!>-tith>s.  wliit-li  it  h;is  been  found  well  to  re- 
tain. Thus,  The  ChnHliiiii  Fiiilh  ,ind  Society  (vol.  11);  The 
Christian  Church  and  the  Greek  Phihaophif  (vol.  Ill);  Church 
and  SlaU  (vol.  IV);  The  Throne  of  the  Fisherman  (vol.  V); 
The  Holy  See  and  the  Wandering  of  the  Nations  (vol.  VI); 
Peter's  Rock  and  Mohammed's  Flood  (vol.  VII);  The  Monastic 
Life  (vol.  VIII).  Kach  volume  is  complete  in  it.self.  A 
Life's  Decision.  Ai.mk.s's  Apologia  pro  Vitfl  Suft,  was  published 
in  1880,  and  has  taken  a  high  place  in  EnRlish  (Catholic  litera- 
ture. Two  volumes  pntitle<l  Per  Crucem  ad  Lucem  appeared 
ill  1879.     They  contained,  besides  the  Treatises  on  St.  Pete; 


ALLIOLI 


325 


ALLORI 


nine  important  essays  on  the  Uoyal  Supremacy  and  cognate 
subjects.  These  volumes  ant.1  '/'/ic  Journal  in  France  are  now 
out  of  print.  The  two  vohimcs  on  J?t.  Peter  have  been  re- 
pubbsheil  by  the  Catholic  Trulli  !^ociety,  (he  smaller  one  at 
tlic  express  desire  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  io  wiiom  the  book  is 
dc.licuteU.  .1  l.ika  Drcisiun  is  m  the  secoiul  e<iition,  whicli 
contauis  an  important  addition,  five  volumes  of  the  Forma- 
tion have  appeared  in  the  popular  eilition;  the  three  remain- 
ing volumes  will  follow  at,  it  is  hoped,  no  di-^tant  date. 

Al.tKY  H.  Alliks. 

Allioli,  Joseph  Fr.vnz,  b.  at  Sulzbach,  10  August, 
17'.);!;  d.  at  Aug.sburg,  22  May,  187.'J.  He  studied 
tlioulogy  at  Landshut,  was  ordained  at  Hatisbon, 
ISlli,  .studied  Oriental  languages  at  Vienna,  Home, 
and  Paris  (lSl,S-2()),  became  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity at  Land.shut  in  KS2-1,  and  was  transferred 
with  the  university  to  Munich  in  182(5,  but  owing 
to  a  weak  throat  he  had  to  accept  a  canonrj-  at 
Ratisbon,  in  1835,  and  became  Dean  of  the  chapter  at 
Augsburg,  in  1838  His  works  are:  "Aphorismen 
iiber  den  Zusammenhang  der  heiligen  Schrift  .\lten 
und  Neuen  Testan'ents,  aus  der  Idee  des  Reidis 
Gottes"  (Ratisbon  1*19);  "Hausliche  Alterthiimcr 
der  Hebraer  nebst  biblischer  Geographic''  (1821); 
"Biblische  Alterthiimer"  (Landshut,  1825);  "Hand- 
bucli  der  biblischen  Alterthumskunde"  (in  co- 
operation with  Cinitz  and  Haneberg,  Landshut, 
18-13-44);  "  lebersttzung  der  heiligen  Schriften 
.■Mtcn  und  Neuen  Testaments,  aus  der  Vulgata,  mit 
Hezug  auf  den  Grundte.xt,  neu  iibersetzt  und  mit 
kurzon  Anmerkungen  erliiutert,  dritte  Auflage  von 
Allioli  umgearbeitet  "  (6  vols.,  Niirnberg,  1830-35). 
This  work  received  a  papal  approbation,  11  Jlay, 
1830. 

Hergesrother  in  KirchenUx,;  Wetzer  und  Welte, 
Konveraationt-LeiiJion,  3  ed.  (St.  Louis,  1902);  Vio.,  Diet,  de 
la  bible  (.Paris,  1895). 

A.  J.  M.\.\S. 

Allison,  WiLLi.^ii. — He  was  one  of  the  English 
priests  who  were  victims  of  the  plots  of  1679-80, 
and  died  a  prisoner  in  York  Castle  about  this  time. 

CHALI.ONER,  Memoirt;  GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet. 

John  J.  .\'  Becket. 

Allocution  is  a  solemn  form  of  address  or  speech 
from  the  tlirone  employed  by  the  Pope  on  certain 
occa-sions.  It  is  delivered  only  in  a  secret  consistory 
at  which  the  cardinals  alone  are  present.  The  term 
alhcutin  was  used  by  the  ancient  Romans  for 
the  speech  made  by  a  commander  to  liis  trooi>s, 
either  before  a  battle  or  during  it,  to  animate  and 
encourage  them.  The  term  when  adopted  into 
ecclesiastical  usage  retained  much  of  its  original 
significance.  An  allocution  of  the  Pope  often  takes 
the  place  of  a  manifesto  when  a  struggle  between  the 
Holy  .See  and  the  secular  powers  has  reached  an  acute 
stage.  It  then  usually  summarizes  the  points  at 
issue  and  details  the  efforts  made  by  the  Holy  See 
to  preserve  peace.  It  likewise  indicates  what  the 
Pope  has  already  conceded  and  the  limit  which 
principle  obliges  iiim  to  put  to  further  concessions. 
\  secret  consistory  of  cardinals,  as  opposed  to  a 
public  and  ceremonious  one,  is  a  meeting  of  thosa 
dignitaries  in  presence  of  the  Pope  to  discuss  mat- 
ters of  great  importance  concerning  the  well-being 
of  the  Church.  At  these  .secret  consistories  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  not  only  creates  cardinals,  bishops, 
and  legates,  but  he  also  discu.sses  with  the  cardinals 
grave  matters  of  State  arising  out  of  those  mi.xcd 
affairs,  partly  religious,  partly  civil,  in  which  con- 
flict can  easily  arise  between  Church  and  State.  In 
such  secret  consistories  the  cardinals  liave  a  con- 
sultative vote.  When  tlie  Pope  has  reached  a  con- 
chision  on  some  important  matter,  he  makes  his 
mind  known  to  the  cardinals  by  means  of  a  direct 
addrc.-is.  or  allocution.  Such  allocutions,  thougli 
delivered  in  .secret,  are  iLsuaily  published  for  the 
purpose  of  making  clear  the  attitude  of  the  Holy 
hee  on  a  given  qtiestion.  They  treat  generally  of 
tnatters  that  affect  the  whole  Church,  or  of  religious 


troubles  in  a  particular  country  where  ecclesiastical 
rights  are  infringed  or  endangered,  or  where  heretical 
or  immoral  doctrines  are  undermining  the  faith  of 
the  people.  .Most  of  the  subjects  presented  to  the 
secret  consistory  have  already  Ix-en  prepared  in  the 
consistorial  congregation,  which  is  composed  of  a 
limited  number  of  cardinals.  These  conclusions  may 
be  accepted  or  rejected  by  the  Pope  as  he  thinks 
proper.  In  matters  of  statecraft  the  Pontiff  also 
takes  counsel  with  those  most  conversant  with  tlie 
subject  at  issue  and  with  his  Secretary  of  State. 
His  conclusions  are  embodied  in  the  allocution. 
Among  papal  allocutions  of  later  times  which  at- 
tracted widespread  attention  from  the  importance 
or  delicacy  of  the  matters  with  which  they  dealt, 
may  be  mentioned  those  of  Pius  VH  on  the  French 
Concordat  (1802)  and  on  the  difficulties  created  by 
XaiX)leon  for  the  Holy  See  (1808);  those  of  Greg- 
orj'  W'l  referring  to  the  troubles  with  Prassia  con- 
cerning mixed  marriages,  and  with  Russia  over 
forcible  conversions  to  the  schismatical  Greek  Church; 
tho.se  of  Pius  IX  concerning  the  attacks  on  the  Pope's 
temporal  jxiwer,  and  of  Pius  X  on  the  rupture  with 
Irancc  occiusioned  by  the  breaking  of  the  Concordat 
anil  the  consecjuent  separation  of  Church  and  State 
in   tliat   country. 

De  I.icA.  Protect.  Jur.  Can.  (Rome,  1897).  II;  Bocix, 
De  Curia  Romana  (Paris,  1880);  Binder,  CmversationsUz. 
(Uali.'ibon,  1S4C). 

WlLUAM  H.  W.  Fa-VXING. 

Allogenes.    See  Gnostics. 

Allori,  (1)  Anoiolo  di  Cosimo,  called  II  Bronzino, 
an  exceptionally  able  painter  and  a  poet,  b.  at  .\Ion- 
ticello,  near  Florence,  in  1502;  d.  at  Florence  in 
1572.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Ralfaelino  del  Garbo  and 
later  of  Jacopo  da  Pontormo,  whom  he  assisted,  and 
some  of  whose  unfinished  works  he  completed. 
Allori,  who  was  the  friend  of  Vasari,  became  court 
painter  to  the  Medicean  tyrant  Cosimo  I,  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany.  Among  his  brilliant  series  of 
portraits  are  tho.se  of  Dante.  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio. 
A  great  admirer  of  Michael  Angelo,  his  work  shows 
that  master's  grandiose  influence.  Among  his  relig- 
ioas,  allegorical,  and  historical  paintings  the  chief  is 
the  "Limbo",  or  "Descent  of  Christ  into  Hell",  in 
the  Uffizi.  For  Florentine  public  buildings  Allori 
executed  various  works.  Some  of  his  most  notable 
paintings  in  public  galleries  are  "Young  Sculptor", 
"Boy  with  a  Letter",  "A  Lady",  and  "Ferdinando 
de'  Medici",  in  the  I'fTizi;  "The  Engineer",  at  the 
Pitti  Palace;  "Cosimo  I",  "Knight  of  St.  Stephan", 
"A  Lady",  and  "Venus,  Cupid,  Folly,  and  Time", 
in  the  National  Gallerj'  in  London!  the  last  two 
painted  for  Francis  I  of  France;  "Christ  Appearing 
to  Mary  Magdalen",  in  the  Louvre;  the  "Dead 
Christ",  in  the  Florence  Academy;  and  "Venus  and 
Cupid",  at  Buda-Pesth.  In  the  galleries  of  Vienna 
and  Dresden  appear  portraits  of  his  patron,  Cosimo, 
accompanied  by  the  Duchess  Eleonora.  Similar 
rmrtraits  arc  found  at  Lucca  in  both  tlie  Royal 
Palace  and  the  Communal  Gallerj-,  and  in  Rome"  in 
the  palace  of  the  Borghcse.  The  Duchess  is  also 
represented  at  the  T'ffizi. 

(2)  Alle.ss.\ndro,  a  nephew  of  (1),  b.  at 
Florence.  1535,  d.  there  1(507,  was  an  artist  of 
rnuch  ability  and  was  patronized  by  the  Grand  Duke 
Francesco. 

(3)  Crkstofano,  Alle-ssandro's  son,  known  as 
Bronzing  the  Voi-nger,  b.  at  Florence,  1577,  d. 
there  1(521,  a  pupil  of  his  father,  of  Santodi  Tito  and 
Cigoli,  and  of  somewhat  irregular  life,  was  a  painter 
of  talent  both  in  figure  and  landscajw  and  one  of 
the  beat  colourists  of  the  Florentine  school. 

Vasari.  /.iim  «/  the  I'ainlrrt  I  Kn,i.  Ir.  I.onilon.  1850; 
New  York.  lS9fl);  Charles  Blanc.  L'EcoU  Flormline.  in  hil 
Ihttoire  de»  pnntreg  de  louteg  leu  ^colrg  (40  vols..  Pari^.  1848- 
7ti):  BAl.DlM'rri,  Soliiie  de'  prnjrMori  del  dutryno  da  timabut 
in  VU.1  (Florence,   1681-1728.   17(37-74,  184(>-I7;  Turin.   1768. 


ALLOT 


326 


ALMAGRO 


1817)-  Desobrv  and  BicHEi.ET  Dirtionnaire  genirat,  (Varia, 
18S7. 'l883)-.  Champlin  and  Perkins,  Cydopedia  of  PainUra 
and  Painting  (New  York.  1SS7);  Brtan.  Dictionary  of  Painters 
and  Enaravert  (London  and   New  York,  1903-5). 

Augustus  Van  Cleef. 

Allot,  William,  a  student  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  retired  to  I-ouvain  on  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  (15.58),  was  ordained  priest  there,  but  soon 
returned  to  England.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  wliom  he  frequently  visited 
in  her  prison,  suffered  imprisonment  for  his  faitli, 
and  was  banislied.  At  Mary's  request  he  was  made 
a  canon  of  St.  Quentin  in  Picardy  (France).  He 
died  about  1.590,  and  left  a  worl<  entitled  "Thesaurus 
Bibliorum,  omnein  ufriusque  vitae  antidotum  secun- 
dum utriusque  Instrument!  veritatem  et  historiam 
succincte  complectens ",  with  which  is  printed  an 
"Index  rerum  memorabilium  in  epistolis  et  evan- 
geliis  per  anni  circulum  "  (Antwerp,  1577). 

GiLLow.  Bibl.  Diet,  of  Engl.  Catholics,  I,  25-26;  Ditt.  of 
Nat.  Biogr..  s.  v. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

AUouez,  Claude,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
early  Jesuit  missionaries  and  explorers  of  what  is 
now"  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  b.  in 
France  in  1620;  d.  in  1689,  near  the  St.  John's 
River,  in  the  present  State  of  Indiana.  Shea  calls 
AUouez  "the  founder  of  Catholicity  in  the  West". 
He  was  a  predecessor  and  subsequently  a  co-labourer 
of  Marquette,  and  there  is  a  book  still  extant  con- 
taining prayers  in  Illinois  and  French,  in  which  an 
ancient  note  states  that  it  was  prepared  by  AUouez 
for  the  use  of  Marquette.  AUouez  laboured  among 
the  Indians  for  thirty-two  years.  He  was  seventy- 
six  years  old  when  he  died,  worn  out  with  his  heroic 
labours.  He  preached  the  Gospel  to  twenty  differ- 
ent tribes,  and  is  said  to  have  baptized  10,000 
neophytes  with  his  own  hand.  He  took  charge  of, 
and  put  on  a  firm  basis,  the  famous  Kaskaskian 
mission,  which  death  had  compelled  Marquette  to 
relinquish.  None  of  the  missionaries  of  his  time 
dared  more  or  travelled  over  a  wider  territory  than 
AUouez.  He  even  reached  the  western  end  of 
Lake  Superior.  His  life  was  one  alternation  of 
triumplis  and  defeats.  At  times  he  had  to  prevent 
the  Indians  from  adoring  him  as  a  god;  at  others, 
they  were  about  to  sacrifice  him  to  their  deities. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  much  of  his  trouble  came 
from  the  old  Iroquois  who  had  murdered  Jogues, 
Br^ljeuf,  and  the  other  Jesuits  in  the  East,  and 
who  were  now  drifting  or  being  driven  towards 
the  West.  There  is  an  especial  distinction  to  be 
accorded  to  AUouez  in  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first 
Vicar-General  of  the  United  States,  the  office  hav- 
ing been  assigned  to  him  by  Monseigneur  La\'al, 
Bishop  of  Quebec.  His  jurisdiction  extended  over 
the  entire  western  country,  including  the  French 
tradci-s  as  well  as  the  native  tribes. 

Jesuit  Relations;  Shea.  Cath.  Church  in  Colonial  Days; 
American  Biog.;  Parkman,  La  Salle;  De  Backer,  Biblio- 
Iheque  de  la  c.  de  J. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alma,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  a  "young 
woman",  unmarried  as  well  as  married,  and  thus 
distinct  from  belhulah,  "a  virgin"  (see  Hebrew  Lexi- 
cons). The  interest  that  attaches  to  this  word  is 
due  to  the  famous  passage  of  Isaias,  vii,  14:  "the 
Alma  .shall  conceive",  etc.  We  can  only  mention 
some  of  the  various  opinions  with  regard  to  the 
mc^aning  of  Alma  in  this  verse.  Slie  is  said  to  be, 
(1)  the  wife  of  Achaz;  (2)  the  prophetess  mentioned 
in  Is.,  viii,  3;  (3)  any  young  married  woman,  who 
on  account  of  the  promised  victory  of  Judah,  could 
at  some  near  date  call  her  child  Immanuel  (God 
with  us);  (4)  metaphorically,  the  Chosen  People; 
(5)  the  Virgin  Mother  of  the  Messiah.  Tliis  last  view 
is  the  one  adopted  by  St.  Mattliew,  i,  23,  and  after 


him  by  Christian  tradition.  (See  Emmanuel;  Mes- 
siah.) 

CoNDAMiN,  and  other  Commentaries  on  Isaias. 

R.    BUTIN. 

Alma  Redemptoris  Mater  (Kindly  Mother  of  the 
Redeemer),  tiie  opening  words  of  one  of  the  four 
Antiphons  sung  at  Compline  and  Lauds,  in  honour 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  at  various  seasons  of  the  year. 
This  particular  Antiphon  is  assigned  to  that  part  of 
the  year  occurring  between  the  first  Vespers  of  the 
first  Sunday  in  Advent  and  Compline  of  the  2d  of 
February  (on  which  day  it  ceases,  even  if  the  Feast 
of  the  Purification  should  be  transferred  from  that 
day).  It  consists  of  six  hexameter  verses  in  strict 
prosodial  form,  followed  by  versicle,  response,  and 
prayer,  which  vary  for  the  season:  until  Christmas 
Eve  (first  Vespers  of  the  Nativity),  V.  Angelus 
Domini  etc.,  R.  Et  concepit  etc.,  with  the  prayer 
Gratiam  tuam  etc.;  thenceforward,  V.  Post  partum 
etc.,  R.  Dei  Genitrix,  etc.,  and  the  prayer  Deus  qui 
salutis  (Fter7}ce  etc.  The  hexameter  verses  are  cred- 
ited to  Hermann\is  Contractus,  or  Hermann  "the 
Cripple"  (d.  1054),  an  interesting  biographical 
notice  of  whom  may  be  found  in  Duffield,  "Latin 
Hymn  Writers ",  149-168.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Father  Caswall  (Mother  of 
Christ,  hear  thou  thy  people's  cry);  by  Cardi- 
nal Newman,  in  "Tracts  for  the  Times",  No.  75 
(Kindly  Mother  of  the  Redeemer),  and  J.  Wallace 
(Sweet  Mother  of  Our  Saviour  blest).  Caswall's 
translation  is  found  in  the  official  "Manual  of  Pray- 
ers" (Baltimore),  76.  In  the  Marquess  of  Bute's 
"Breviary;  Winter  Part",  176  (Maiden!  Mother  of 
Him  Who  redeemed  us,  thou  that  abidest),  the  un- 
rhymed  hexameter  version  is  very  literal. 

Tlie  Antiphon  must  have  been  very  popular  in 
England  botli  before  and  after  its  treatment  by 
Chaucer  in  his  "Prioresses  Tale",  which  is  based 
wholly  on  a  legend  connected  with  its  recitation  by 
the  "Litel  Clergeon": 

"This  litel  childe  his  litel  book  lerninge, 

As  he  sat  in  the  scole  at  his  prymer, 

He  Alma  redemptoris  herde  singe. 

As   children   lerned    hir   antiphoner; 

And,  as  he  dorste,  he  drough  hym  ner  and  ner, 

And  herkned  ay  the  wordes  and  the  note, 

Till  he  the  firste  vers  coude  al  by  rote." 

Professor  Skeat,  in  his  "Oxford  Chaucer  ",  thought 
that  the  Alma  Redemptoris  here  was  the  sequence 
(cf.  Mone,  Lateinische  Ilymnen,  II,  200): 

Alma  Redemptoris  mater 
Quem  de  coelis  misit  Pater — 

but  subsequently  (cf.  Modern  Philology,  April,  1906, 
"Chaucer's  'Litel  Clergeon'",  for  an  explanation 
of  the  error  and  a  good  treatment  of  many  ques- 
tions related  to  the  Antiphon)  admitted  that  the 
Breviary  Antiplion  was  referred  to  by  Chaucer. 

For  other  hymn.s  or  semiences  fotinded  on  the  Antiphon, 
see  Analecta  Hymnica.  XVII,  149  (De  .S'.  Maria  Salome)  and 
XLVI  (Leipzig,  19051,  200,  201,  No.  1-19  (Alma  redemptoris 
Mater,  omnium  Salus  etc.). 

II.  T.  Henry. 

AlmagTO,  Diego  de,  the  Elder,  date  and  place 
of  birth  not  satisfactorily  established  as  yet,  generally 
considered  a  foundling;  came  to  Panama  in  1514 
with  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila  (D'Avila),  and  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  military  expeditions.  When 
Pizarro,  upon  the  return  of  Andagoya  (1522)  from 
his  voyage  along  the  western  coast  of  Colombia,  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  penetrating  farther  Soutli,  Almagro 
and  Hernando  de  Luque  came  to  liis  assistance  with 
funds,  and  a  partnersiiip  was  formed  (1.524),  leading 
to  a  written  document  executed  in  1.526,  whicli  docu- 
ment both  Almagro  and  Pizarro  certified  by  their 
marks,  neither  of  them  being  able  to  write.     Almagro 


ALMANAC 


327 


ALMEIDA 


followed  after  Piziirro  on  the  latter's  tedious  voyage 
of  exploration  in  1524,  rejoining  him  at  the  end.  In 
one  of  his  landings  Alniagro  lost  an  eye  by  an  arrow- 
shot.  He  went  with  Pizarro  on  the  voyage  of  Io'2(), 
during  which  the  first  tidings  of  Peru  were  obtained 
on  the  Ecuadorian  coast.  He  arranged  to  lca\e 
Pizarro  to  pu.sh  on  farther  South,  while  he  returned 
to  Panama  for  stores  and  reinforcements.  In  this 
manner  he  twice  saved  Pizarro  and  his  followers 
from  starvation,  but  incurred  the  reproach  that,- 
while  his  associate  bore  the  brunt  of  dangers  and 
hardships,  he  led  an  ea.sy  life,  sailing  back  and  forth 
between  Panama  and  the  South.  Almagro  took  no 
part  in  the  action  at  Ca.xamarca  and  the  occupation 
of  Cuzco  (1.532-3.3).  It  was  Pizarro  who  until  l.')3.'i 
took  the  decisive  steps  both  in  America  and  Spain, 
and  performed  all  tlie  remarkable  achievements  that 
characterized  the  coiKiuost  of  Peru.  It  may  be  that 
Pizarro  cunningly  eliminated  .•Vlmagro  from  participa- 
tion in  these  important  transactions,  but  the  latter 
submitted  to  it  with  little  protest  until  1534,  when 
the  landing  of  .\lvarado  on  the  Ecuadorian  coast 
threatened  his  prospects  as  well  as  those  of  Pizarro. 
After  Alvarado  returned  to  Guatemala,  Almagro 
pressed  his  claims  to  a  share  in  the  profits  of  the 
conquest,  and  a  sort  of  settlement  between  him  and 
Pizarro  was  arrived  at  in  1.535,  partly  through  the 
efforts  of  some  of  the  clergy.  In  conseriuence  of  that 
settlement  Almagro  undertook  his  only  extended 
campaign  in  South  America,  the  ill-conducted  and 
unprofitable  journey  to  Chile.  Returning  from  it 
in  the  beginning  of  1537,  he  not  only  claimed  Cuzco 
as  part  of  his  administrative  domain,  but  seized  it 
by  force  of  arms  and  defeated  a  body  of  Spanish 
troops  faithful  to  Pizarro  at  Abancay  (17  April). 
And  thus  began  the  bloody  troubles  among  the 
Spaniards  that  disturbed  Peru  for  nearly  twenty 
years  afterwards.  Hernando  Pizarro  (brother  of 
Francisco)  was  taken  prisoner  by  Almagro,  but  re- 
leased. In  the  course  of  the  hostilities  that  fol- 
lowed Almagro  was  defeated  at  Salinas  near  Cuzco, 
on  the  2()th  of  April,  l.'jSS,  and  was  shortly  after- 
wards executed,  while  a  prisoner.  Almagro  is  usually 
represented  as  a  more  noble  character  than  Pizarro. 
What  can  be  affirmed  is  that  he  was  greatly  his  in- 
ferior in  ability.  More  pleasant  in  intercourse,  care- 
less and  weak  in  many  resijects,  his  whole  career  in 
South  America  was  that  of  an  auxiliary  who  be- 
thought himself  of  his  own  interests  when  it  was  too 
late.  His  conduct  on  the  expedition  to  Chile  showed 
no  great  talent  as  a  leader,  nor  any  of  the  traits  of  a 
chivalrous  nature  with  which  he  is  usually  credited. — ■ 
DiEOO,  THE  YouNT.Eu,  a  natural  son  of  the  preceding 
and  of  an  Indian  woman  from  Panama.  Francisco 
Pizarro  took  considerable  interest  in  young  Almagro, 
keeping  him  near  his  person  at  Lima.  The  chief 
followers  of  the  elder  Almagro,  after  his  execution, 
gathered  around  the  young  man  in  a  conspiracy  to 
put  Pizarro  out  of  the  way,  which  deed  was  con- 
summated 20  June,  1541,  at  Lima,  the  assa.ssins 
assembling  for  the  purpose  at  Almagro's  house. 
After  Pizarro's  death  young  Almagro  was  pro- 
claimed Governor  of  Peru  by  his  party,  but  Cristoval 
Vaca  de  Castro,  the  royal  delegate,  wiis  already  in 
the  field  against  him.  On  the  Ifith  of  September, 
1542,  the  oi)posing  parties  met  at  Chupas,  and  after 
a  long  and  bloody  engagement  the  troops  of  Alm:igro 
were  completely  defeated,  and  their  young  leader 
taken  prisoner.  He  was  shortly  afterwards  executed 
at  Cuzco.  With  him  the  name  of  Almagro  became 
extinct  in  Peru. 

Aside  from  the  earliej^t  reports  on  the  discovery  of  Peru 
enumerated  in  art.  Ataiicam.pa.  the  hfe  of  Almagro  tiie 
Elder  and  his  character  are  treated  at  length  in  most  Spanish 
sources  on  Peru,  from  the  sixteenth  century.  I  merely  refer 
to  CiOMAKA.  Ilinlnrin  lie  Int  Indint  (1553);  Ovirno  y  VAl.nfcs, 
Historxti  genrritl  y  natural  tie  liit  Indmt  (18.50):  ClKZA.  Crtinitn 
del  Peru  anil  (lurrra  de  (/n  Satinat  (MSS.):  GAHrll.ASSO  l)t: 
LA   Veoa.   Comentarioa  realeg  de   lot  Incat,   II.      But   I    would 


refer  more  particularly  to  the  publications  of  document* 
containe*!  m  the  Calecnt'fn  de  Ducumentua  del  Arrhivo  de  Itulias 
(lir>l  and  second  series)  and  to  the  Coteccinn  de  documrnUta 
para  la  hitturia  de  Chile,  by  J.  T.  Mkoina.— .Mo<iern  antliors 
usually  follow  the  lead  of  Pbehcott,  who  has  to  a  great  extent 
followed  UoBEKTSo.N.  The  partiality  for  Almagro  is  marked 
ill  most  sources.  The  voluminous  collection,  Documentor 
niira  la  hintorui  de  E»jnii\a,  contains  few  references  to  Almagro. 
Nahahho  (not  Naharra  as  in  Prescott),  Relacii'm  tumaria 
(MS.S.):  Aci'HTfN  DK  Zaratk,  }li»toria  del  descubrimiento  y 
de  la  ConquUln  del  Peru  (1555):  Hkrhkra,  Hiiitoria  umeral 
de  lo9  hechoa  de  Iva  Caatellanoa  en  laa  iaUta  u  tierra  firme  del 
Mar  Oc'ano   (first   ed.,    1012). 

For  Almagro  the  Younger,  Pedho  Gutikrrkz  de  Santa 
Ci.ARA,  Iliatorta  de  laa  guerraa  civilea  del  Peru  (I,  II,  .Mad- 
rid, 1004)  should  be  cooaulted. 

Ad.  F.  Bandeuer. 

Almanac.     See  Calendar. 

Almaricus.     See  Amalric. 

Almeida,  Johm,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  b.  in  London, 
of  Catholic  parents,  1571;  d.  at  Rio  Janeiro,  24  Sep- 
tember, 16.53.  His  real  name  was  Meade,  but  it 
was  changed  into  Almeida,  because  of  his  Portuguese 
surroimdings.  He  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
of  the  disciples  of  the  Venerable  Joseph  Anchieta, 
the  illustrious  missionary  of  Brazil,  almost  equalling 
him  in  the  rigour  of  his  austerities,  the  character  and 
number  of  his  miracles,  and  the  heroism  of  his  mis- 
sionary exploits.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent, 
some  say  by  his  parents,  to  Viana  in  Portugal.  But 
he  himself  writes  that  he  was  taken  away,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  his  parents,  by  some  one  he  did  not  know, 
lie  was  adopted  by  the  family  of  Benedict  de  Rocha, 
with  whom,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  went  to 
Brazil  to  engage  in  mercantile  pursuits.  He  narrates 
that  on  the  way  out  he  fell  overboard,  but  was,  as 
he  thought,  almost  miraculously  saved.  He  did  not 
continue  in  business,  as  was  intended,  but  began  a 
course  of  .studies  in  a  College  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  became  a  Jesuit.  After 
one  year  of  noviceship,  he  was  sent  to  the  city  of 
Santo  Spirito,  where  he  met  Anchieta,  whom  he 
adopted  as  his  model.  His  life  there  and  up  to  an 
extreme  old  age  reads  like  a  stoiy  of  the  ancient 
Fathers  of  the  Desert.  Whatever  time  could  be 
spared  from  his  active  duties  was  given  up  to 
contemplation,  to  fastings,  watchings,  disciplines, 
and  otiier  austerities.  The  sufferings  he  inflicted 
on  his  body  almost  cause  a  shudder,  yet  singularly 
enough  they  seem  to  have  had  no  effect  upon  his 
liealth,  though  he  continued  thera  almost  to  the  day 
of   his   death.     Hair  shirts,  iron  chains,  and   metal 

Elates  with  sharp  points  almost  covered  his  entire 
ody.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1602  and  spent 
many  years  in  wandering  through  the  forests  to 
reclaim  the  fierce  cannibals  who  lived  there.  He 
always  journeyed  on  foot,  and  no  matter  how  rugged 
the  way  or  how  exhausted  his  strength  he  would  not 
permit  himself  to  be  carried.  His  food  was  what  he 
gathered  as  he  journeyed  from  one  place  to  the 
other.  Some  who  accompanied  him  on  his  missions 
testified  imdcr  oath  that  for  six  or  seven  years 
they  never  saw  him  taste  fish  or  flesh,  or  lie  on  a 
bed,  but  that  he  spent  most  of  the  night  sitting 
or  kneeling  at  prayer,  which  was  not  only  protracted, 
but  almost  bewildering  in  the  multiplicity  of  the 
devotions  he  practised.  Many  miracles  are  as- 
crilx'd  to  him,  and  his  prophetic  utterances  were 
frequent.  Not  only  did  he  pass  unharmed  among 
the  fierce  cannibal  tribes,  but  he  so  won  their  affection 
that  they  did  all  in  their  power  to  prevent  him  from 
Iieing  taken  away  from  them  for  other  mi.ssions. 
He  died  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  Rio  Janeiro,  having 
reached  the  extraordinary  age  of  eighty-two  years, 
despite  his  austerities  and  the  privations  of  his 
missionary  career.  The  news  of  his  approaching 
end  filled  the  city  with  anxiety  and  concern.  "The 
saint  is  dying"  was  heard  on  all  sides,  and  the 
scenes  at  his  ifuneral,  and  the  miracles  that  are  re 


ALMERIA 


328 


ALMS 


corded  as  T\Tought  at   that   time  form  a  chapter  in 
the  colony's  history. 

De  \'asconcf.i.i.os,  Life  of  John  Almeida;  Records  of  the 
English  Province  S.  J.;  Foley,  Gen^rral  etatiMics,  I,  499, 
II  1321,  the  latter,  a  translation  from  Moore's  Hiatory 
of  the  Eneliih  Province,  S.  J.  ,    r    ^ 

1.  J.  Campbell. 

Almeria,  The  Diocese  of,  a  suffragan  see  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Granada  in  Spain.  It  i.s  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Indaletius,  a  disciple  of  St.  James 
the  Greater,  at  I'rci  (Vergium).  Afteralongeclip.se, 
its  episcopal  honour  was  restored  to  this  little  sea- 
port by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1489,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  tlie  conquest  of  Granada.  In  the  meantime 
it  had  acquired  the  .\rabic  name  of  Almeria  (mirror). 
In  1900  its  i5opulation,  all  Catholic,  was  230,000. 
There  were  111)  parish-priests,  32  vicars,  28  canons 
and  prebendaries,  122  churches,  50  chapels,  3  Domini- 
can convents,  and  4  houses  of  female  religious. 

BATT.4NDIER,  .Inn.  pont.  cath.  (Paris,  1905),  211;  Guia 
del  Estado  tcl.  de  Esparla  para  el  aiio  de  1905;  Florez,  Espafia 
Sagrada,  cont.  by  Rl-sco  (Madrid,  1754-1850). 

Almici,  C.^MiLLO,  a  priest  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory,  b.  2  November,  1714;  d.  30  December, 
1779.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory  at  a  very  early  .age  and  de\'oted  himself 
to  the  study  of  theology,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  the 
Holy  Scripture-s,  chronology,  sacred  and  profane 
history,  antiquities,  criticism,  diplomacy,  and  liturgy, 
and  was  held  in  much  esteem  for  his  great  and  wide 
learning.  .Amongst  his  contemporaries  he  was  re- 
garded as  an  oracle  upon  many  subjects,  and  is 
looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  celebrated  theologians 
of  his  order.  Of  the  many  works  he  wrote,  the  prin- 
cipal are: — "  Riflessioni  su  di  un  libro  d\  G.  Febronio  " 
(Lucca,  1766);  "  Critica  contro  le  opere  del  pericoloso 
Voltaire"  (Brescia,  1770);  "  Dissertazione  sopra  i 
Martin  della  Chiesa  cattolica"  (Brescia,  1765)  2  vols.; 
"  Meditations  sur  la  vie  et  les  Merits  du  P.  Sarpi " 
(1765).  The  last  named  is  a  critical  examination  of 
Sarpi's  unreliable  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

HuRTEB,  Nomendntor  (Innsbruck,  1895),  HI,  197;  GlN- 
GUENi:,  Hist.  litt.  de  Vltalie. 

Almond,  John,  Cistercian,  Confessor  of  the  Faith; 
d.  in  Hull  Ca,stle,  IS  April,  1585.  His  name  has  been 
included  in  the  supplementary  process  of  the  Eng- 
lish Martyrs,  and  his  case  is  of  special  interest  as  an 
example  of  the  sufferings  endured  in  the  Elizabethan 
prisons.  He  came  from  Cheshire,  and  had  been  a 
monk  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII;  but  the  name  of 
his  abbey  has  not  been  identified,  nor  his  fate  de- 
termined during  and  after  its  suppression.  The 
long-drawn  sufferings,  however,  amid  which  he  closed 
his  days  are  set  forth  in  a  relation  printed  by  Foley. 
From  this  we  see  that  the  courageous,  patient  old 
priest,  after  many  sufferings  in  prison,  was  left  in 
extreme  age  to  pine  away  under  a  neglect  that  was 
revolting. 

Foley,  Records  S.  J.,  Ill,  247;  Morris,  Troubles  of  our 
Catholic  Forefathers,  III,  321. 

J.    H.  Pollen. 

Almond,  John,  Venerable,  English  priest  and 
martyr,  b.  about  1577;  d.  at  Tyburn,  5  December, 
1612.  He  passed  his  childhood  at  Allcrton  near  Liver- 
pool, where  he  was  born,  and  at  Much-Woolton.  His 
lioyhood  and  early  manhood  were  spent  in  Ireland, 
until  he  went  to  the  English  College,  Rome,  at  the 
age  of  twenty.  He  concluded  his  term  there  bril- 
liantly by  giving  the  "Grand  Act"— a  public  defence 
of  theses  which  cover  the  whole  course  of  philosophy 
and  theology— and  was  warmly  congratulated  by 
Cardinals  Haronius  and  Tarugi,  who  presided.  The 
account  of  his  death  describes  liim  as  "a  reprover 
of  sin,  a  good  example  to  follow,  of  an  ingenious  and 
acute  un(l(^rstanding,  sharp  and  apprehensive  in  his 
conceits  and  answers,  yet  complete  with  modesty, 
full  of  courage  and  ready  to  suffer  for  (^'hrist,  that 
suffered   for   liim."     He   was   arrested   in    the   year 


1608,  and  again  in  1612.  In  November  of  this  year 
seven  priests  escaped  from  prison,  and  this  may 
have  sharpened  the  zeal  of  the  persecutors.  Dr.  King, 
Protestant  Bishop  of  London,  being  especially  irri- 
tated against  Almond'.  He  displayed  to  the  last 
great  acuteness  in  argument,  and  died  with  the 
Holy  Name  upon  his  lips. 

Challoner,  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests;  Pollen, 
Acts  of  English  Martyrs  (London,  1891),  170-194;  Foley, 
Records  S.J.,  V,  viii. 

Patrick  Ryan. 

Almond,  Oliver,  priest  and  writer,  b.  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Oxford.  He  is  believed  by  Foley  to  have 
been  the  brother  of  the  martyr,  the  Ven.  John 
Almond  (q.  v.);  but  Gillow  has  shown  that  this  is 
probably  a  mistake.  Oliver  was  educated  at  the 
English  Colleges  at  Rome  (1582-87)  and  Valla- 
dolid,  and  was  a  missionary  in  England.  He  pre- 
Bented  the  English  College  at  Rome  with  a  precious 
chalice.  Some  of  his  correspondence  is  preserved  in 
the  "Westminster  Archives",  and  he  is  conjectured 
by  Gillow  to  have  been  the  writer  of  a  work  entitled, 
"The  Ilncasing  of  Heresies,  or  the  Anatomic  of  Prot- 
estancie,  written  and  composed  by  O.  A."  (Louvain?) 
1623,  8vo. 

Foley,  Records  S.  J.,  VI.,  153;  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 
Cath.,  1,  27.     Stonyhurst  Mss.  Collectanea,  N.  ii,  73. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Almonry.     See  Aumbry. 

Alms  and  Almsgiving  (Gr.  (Xerifuxrivri,  "pity," 
"mercy"),  any  material  favour  done  to  assist  the 
needy,  and  prompted  by  charity,  is  almsgi\ing.  It 
is  evident,  then,  that  almsgiving  implies  much  more 
than  the  transmission  of  some  temporal  commodity 
to  the  indigent.  According  to  the  creed  of  political 
economy,  every  material  deed  wrought  by  man  to 
benefit  his  needy  brother  is  almsgiving.  According 
to  the  creed  of  Christianity,  almsgiving  implies  a. 
material  service  rendered  to  the  poor  for  Christ's 
sake.  Materially,  there  is  scarcely  any  difference 
between  these  two  views;  formally,  they  are  essen- 
tially different.  This  is  why  the  inspired  WTiter 
says:  "Blessed  is  he  that  considereth  the  needy  and 
the  poor"  (Ps.  xl,  2) — not  he  that  giveth  to  the 
needy  and  the  poor.  The  obligation  of  almsgiving 
is  complementary  to  the  right  of  property  "which  is 
not  only  lawful,  but  absolutely  necessary"  (Encycl., 
Rerum  Novarum,  tr.  Baltimore,  1S91,  14).  Owner- 
ship admitted,  rich  and  poor  must  be  found  in 
society.  Property  enal)les  its  possessors  to  meet 
their  needs.  Though  labour  enables  the  poor  to  win 
their  daily  bread,  accidents,  illness,  old  age,  labour 
difficulties,  plagues,  war,  etc.  frequently  interrupt 
their  labours  and  impoverish  them.  The  responsi- 
bility of  succouring  those  thus  rendered  needy 
belongs  to  those  who  have  plenty  (St.  Thomas, 
Summa  Theol.,  II-II,  Q.  xxxii,  art. "5,  ad  2'"").  For 
"it  is  one  thing  to  have  a  right  to  po.sscss  money, 
and  another  to  ha\e  a  right  to  use  monej'  as  one 
pleases."  How  must  one's  possessions  be  used? 
■The  Church  replies:  Man  sliould  not  consider  his 
external  possessions  as  his  own,  but  as  common  to 
all,  so  as  to  share  them  without  difficulty  when  others 
are  in  need.  Whence  the  Apostle  says:  Command 
the  rich  of  this  world  to  give  with  ease.  This  is  a 
duty  not  of  justice  (except  in  e.xtremo  cases),  but 
of  Christian  cliarity — a  duty  not  enforced  by  human 
law.  But  the  laws  and  judgments  of  men  must  yield 
to  the  laws  and  judgments  of  Christ  the  true  God,  who 
in  many  ways  urges  on  His  followers  the  practice 
of  almsgiving  (Encyclical,  Rerum  Novanim,  14, 
15;  cf.  De  Lugo,  De  Jure  et  JustitiA,  Disp.  xvi, 
§  154).  Scripture  is  rich  in  passages  which  directly 
or  indirectly  emphasize  the  necessity  of  contributing 
towards  the  welfare  of  the  needy.  'J'he  history  of 
the  Church  in  Apostolic  times  shows  that  the  early 
Christians  fully  realized  the  importance  of  this  ob 


ALMS 


329 


ALMS 


ligation.  Community  of  ^oods  (Acts,  iv,  32),  collec- 
tions in  church  (Acts,  xi,  29  sqq.;  I  Cor.,  xvi,  1; 
Gal.,  ii,  10),  the  ministry  of  deacons  and  deaconesses 
were  simply  the  inauguration  of  that  world-wide 
system  of  Christian  duirity  wliich  luis  circuni-scribed 
the  globe  and  added  another  testimony  to  the  Divinity 
of  tliat  Church  whidi  directs  her  ministrations  to- 
wards the  alleviation  of  human  misery  in  every  shape 
and  form  (l.ecky,  Historj-  of  European  Jlorals, 
II,  100,  3d  od..  New  York,  1891).  Tlie  Katlicrs  of 
the  Church  frequently  and  unequivocally  inculcated 
the  necessity  of  alni.-igiving.  To  this  matter  St.  Cj'p- 
rian  devoted  a  complole  treatise  (l)e  Opere  et 
Eleemosyna,  P.  L..  I\',  601  sqq.).  St.  Basil  re- 
counts how  St.  Lawrence  distributed  the  treasures 
of  the  Church  to  the  poor.  Questioned  by  a  jiagan 
governor  regarding  the  treasures  which  he  had 
promised  to  transmit,  Lawrence  pointed  to  the  poor, 
saying:  They  are  treasures  in  whom  is  Christ,  in 
whom  is  faith.  Contrary  to  the  envy  of  the  Arians, 
St.  Ambrose  lauds  the  breaking  and  selling  of  sacred 
vessels  for  the  redemption  of  captives  (De  Officiis 
Ministrorum,  xxviii,  xxx,  P.  L.,  XVI,  141  sqq.). 
The  more  effectively  to  urge  the  precept  of  alms- 
giving, the  lathers  teach  that  the  wealthy  are  Clod's 
stewards  and  dispensers,  so  nuich  so  that  where 
they  refuse  to  aid  the  needy  they  are  guilty  of  theft 
(St.  Basil,  Homil.  in  ilhid  Luca;,  No.  7,  P.  G., 
XXXI,  278;  St.  Gregor\'  of  Nyssa,  De  Pauperibus 
Amandis,  P.  G.,  XLVI,  466;  St.  Chr\-sostom,  in 
Ep.  I  ad  Cor.,  Homil.  10,  c.  3,  P.  G.,LXI,"86;  St.  Am- 
brose, De  Nab.  lib.  unus,  P.  L.,  XIV,  747;  St.  Au- 
gustine, in  Ps.  c.xlvii,  P.  L.,  XXXVII,  1922).  Dis- 
cretion in  almsgiving  is  c()un.scllcd  in  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions:  "Alms  must  not  be  given  to  the  mali- 
cious, the  intemperate,  or  the  lazy,  lest  a  premium 
should  beget  on  vice"  (Const.  Apost.,ii,  1-63;  iii,4-6). 
St.  Cj'prian  asserts  that  adherents  of  other  religions 
must  not  be  e.xcludcd  from  a  share  in  Catholic  charity 
(De  Opere  et  Eleemosyna,  c.  xxv,  P.  L.,  IV,  620). 
After  the  Patristic  epoch  tlie  teaching  of  the  Clnirch 
regarding  almsgiving  did  not  vary  throughout  the 
ages.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  has  admirably  sum- 
marized this  teaching  during  the  medieval  period 
(St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  II-II,  QQ.  xxx- 
xxxiii,  De  Misericordia;  De  Beneficentifi;  De  Elee- 
mosynd).     No  writer  of   modern    times   has  so  ad- 


mirably epitomized   the   position   of   the  Church  as 
X^III  (Encyclicals,  Kerum   Novanim,   15  May, 


Leo 


1891;  Graves  de  Communi,  18  Jan,  1901).  In  so 
much  as  the  obligation  of  almsgiving  is  coextensive 
with  the  obligation  of  charity,  evcrj-one  falls  under 
the  law.  The  donor,  however,  must  be  entitled  to 
dispose  of  what  he  contributes,  because  almsgiving 
usually  implies  that  the  beneficiary  acquires  a  title 
to  whatever  his  benefactor  gives.  Ecclesiastics  are 
bound  in  a  special  way  to  obser\c  the  precept  of 
almsgiving,  because  they  are  constituted  fathers  of 
the  poor,  and  are  besides  obliged  by  their  example 
to  lead  the  laity  to  entertain  correct  views  concern- 
ing the  importance  of  this  duty.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  indigent  of  every  class,  saint  or  sinner,  country- 
men or  foreigners,  friend  or  foe,  have  their  claims 
upon  the  charity  of  those  competent  t  give  alms 
(Proverbs,  xxv,  21 ;  Romans,  xii,  20;  Sylvius,  Summa, 
II-II,  Q.  xxxii,  art.  9;  De  Conninck,  Disp.  xxvii, 
Dub.  0,  No.  70).  The  conjunction  of  genuine  in- 
digence in  the  poor  and  ability  to  minister  relief  in 
the  rich,  is  necessary  to  concrete  the  obligation  of 
almsgiving  (St.  Thomas,  op.  cit.,  II-II,  QQ.  xxxii, 
art.  .5,  ad  ■3'").  Diversity  of  actual  conditions  cir- 
cum.scribing  the  needy,  specify  the  character  of  in- 
digence. Where  the  necessaries  of  life  are  wanting, 
or  where  imminent  peril  threatens  vital  interests, 
indigence  is  extreme.  Wliere  the  ab-sence  of  aid 
leads  to  serious  reverses,  in  goods  or  fortune,  indi- 
gence is  serious  or  pressing.     Where  the  quest  for 


the  necessaries  of  life  involves  considerable  trouble, 
indigence  is  common  or  ordinary.  The  obligation  of 
almsgiving  extends  to  this  triple  indigence.  Script- 
ure and  the  Fathers  speak  indiscriminately  of  the 
poor,  the  needy,  and  the  indigent  without  restricting 
the  obligation  of  almsgiviiig  to  any  particular  species 
of  indigence.  Nearly  all  theologians  adopt  this  view. 
Nevertheless,  the  better  to  determine  tlie  character 
of  this  obligation  in  the  concrete,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  the  character  of  temporalities  in  those  who 
hold  pro|X!rty.  In  the  first  place,  property  neces- 
sary to  maintain  vital  interests  is  indispensably 
necessary.  Property  without  which  vital  interc.-ts 
are  not  jeopardized  is  considered  superfluous  there- 
unto. Pioperty  required  to  maintain  social  prestige, 
i.  e.  to  live  in  keeping  with  one's  position  in  society, 
to  educate  offspring,  to  engage  domestics,  to  enter- 
tain, etc.,  is  considered  equally  indispensable  from  a 
social  standpoint.  Proix-rty  without  which  sociul 
prestige  is  not  endangered  is  reputed  superfluous 
thereunto.  Accordingly,  there  is  never  any  obliga- 
tion of  using  the  necessaries  of  life  for  alm.sgi\  ing, 
becau.se  well-regulated  charity  ordinarily  obliges 
everyone  to  prefer  his  own  vital  interests  to  those 
of  his  neighbour.  The  only  exception  occurs  when 
the  interests  of  society  are  identified  with  tho.se  of 
a  needy  member  (Miiller,  Theol.  Moralis,  II,  tr.,  i, 
I  30,  112).  To  a  neighbour  in  extreme  indigence 
relief  must  be  ministered  by  using  such  commodi- 
ties as  are  superfluous  to  vital  interests,  even  though 
such  should  be  required  for  social  advantages  (.St. 
Thomas,  Sumnui  Theol.,  II-II,  Q.  xxxii,  art.  6;  St. 
Alphonsus  Liguori,  Theol.  Moralis,  III,  no.  31). 
For  charity  demands  that  the  vital  interests  of  an 
indigent  neighbour  should  supersede  personal  ad- 
vantages of  a  nnich  lower  order  (Suarez,  De  Chari- 
tate,  Disput.  vii,  §  4,  no.  3).  The  transgression  of 
this  obligation  involves  a  mortal  sin.  Neverthelc-s 
no  one,  however  wealth}',  is  obliged  to  take  extraor- 
dinary measures  to  assist  a  neighbour  even  in 
direful  straits,  e.  g.  a  wealthy  citizen  is  not  bound 
to  send  a  dying  pauper  to  a  more  salubrious  clime, 
or  to  bear  the  expense  of  a  difficult  surgical  opera- 
tion for  the  betterment  of  a  pauper  (Suarez,  loc.  cit., 
§  4,  no.  4).  Nor  is  a  wealthy  individual  obliged  to 
imperil  his  social  standing  to  aid  a  neighbour  in 
extreme  need  (La  Croix,  Tlicol.  Moralis,  II,  no.  201). 
For  charity  does  not  bind  anyone  to  employ  ex- 
traordinan,'  means  in  order  to  safeguard  his  own 
life  (St.  .Mphonsus,  op.  cit..  Ill,  no.  31).  To  a 
neighbour  in  serious  or  pressing  indigence,  alms 
must  be  given  bj'  using  such  commodities  as  are 
superfluous  in  relation  to  present  social  advantages. 
Nay,  more  likely  in  the  more  acute  forms  of  such 
indigence  those  commodities  which  may  in  some 
measure  tend  to  future  social  advantages  must  be 
taxed  to  succour  this  indigence  (Suarez,  loc  cit., 
no.  5;  De  Conninck,  loc.  cit..  no.  125;  Viva,  in  prop, 
xii,  damnatam  ab  Innoc.  XI,  no.  8).  The  trans- 
gression of  this  obligation  likewise  involves  a  grievous 
sin,  because  well-regulated  charity  obliges  one  to 
meet  the  serious  needs  of  another  when  he  can  do 
so  without  serious  personal  disadvantage  (St.  .M- 
phonsus,  II.  Ap.  tr.,  iv,  no.  19).  In  the  ordinary 
troubles  confronting  the  poor  alms  must  \)C  given 
from  such  temporalities  only  as  are  superfluous  to 
social  requirements.  This  does  not  imply  an  obliga- 
tion of  answering  every  call,  but  rather  a  readiness  to 
give  alms  according  to  the  dictates  of  well-regvdatcd 
charity  (Suarez,  loc.  cit.,  §  3,  nos.  7,  10).  The- 
ologians are  divided  into  two  schools  regarding  the 
character  of  this  obligation.  Those  holding  that  the 
obligation  is  serious  seem  to  espouse  a  cause  in 
harmony  with  the  teaching  of  Scripture  anil  the 
authority  of  the  Fathers  (St.  .Mphonsus,  op.  cit..  Ill, 
no.  32;  Bouquillon,  Institutioncs  Theol.  Moralis 
Specialis,  III,  no.  4S8).     At  all  events,  such  aflluent 


ALMS 


330 


ALMS 


individuals  as  always  fail  to  give  alms  or  harshly 
repel  mendicants  indiscriminately  are  unquestionably 
guilty  of  grievous  sin.  Whoso  is  actually  obliged  to 
relieve  extreme  or  pressing  indigence  must  give  what- 
ever is  necessary  to  ameliorate  existing  conditions. 
It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  determine  what  amount 
must  be  given  as  ahns  to  those  labouring  under  ordi- 
nary indigence.  St.  Alphonsus,  whose  view  in  tliis 
matter  is  shared  by  many  modern  moralists,  holds 
that  an  outlay  corresponding  to  two  per  cent  of 
temporalities  superfluous  to  social  prestige  suffices  to 
satisfy  the  obligation,  because  were  all  concerned 
to  adopt  this  metliod  ordinary  indigence  could  easily 
be  remedied.  At  the  same  time  it  is  not  always 
practical  to  reduce  problems  depending  so  largely  on 
moral  appreciation  to  a  mathematical  basis  (Lehm- 
kuhl,  Theologia  Moralis  (Specialis),  II,  ii,  no.  609). 
Fuitlicrmore,  all  either  contributing  spontaneously 
to  public  and  private  charities,  or  paying  such  taxes 
as  are  levied  by  civil  legislation  to  support  the  in- 
digent satisfy  this  obligation  to  some  extent  (Lehm- 
kuhl,  loc.  cit.,  no.  606).  Physicians,  attorneys, 
artisans,  are  bound  to  render  their  services  to  the 
poor  unless  provision  is  made  for  them  at  public 
expense.  Tlie  extent  of  services  to  be  rendered  and 
the  character  of  the  obligation  binding  thereunto 
depend  on  tlie  kind  of  indigence  and  the  incon- 
venience which  such  ministrations  impose  on  phj-si- 
cians,  attorneys,  or  artisans  (Lehmkuhl,  loc.  cit., 
no.  609).  Thougli  the  notion  of  almsgiving  em- 
bodies the  donation  of  commodities  necessary  to 
lighten  human  misery,  moralists  admit  that  it  is 
sulficient  to  lend  an  object  whose  use  alone  serves 
to  meet  a  neighbour's  need  (St.  Alphonsus,  op.  cit., 
Ill,  no.  31;  Boiquillon.  op.  cit.,  no.  493).  Moreover, 
common  sense  repudiates  almsgiving  to  those  in 
need  simply  because  they  will  not  labour  to  escape 
such  need  (St.  Ambrose,  De  Officiis  Ministrorum, 
XXX,  no.  144).  In  addition  to  its  innate  char- 
acteristics, almsgiving  should  be  vested  with  qualities 
tending  to  garner  fruitfulness  for  giver  and  receiver. 
Hence,  almsgiving  should  be  discreet,  so  as  to  reach 
deserving  individuals  or  families  (II  Thes.,  iii,  10; 
EcchiR.,  xii,  4);  prompt,  so  as  to  warrant  opportune- 
ness (Prov.,  iii,  28);  secret  and  humble  (Matt.,  vi,  2); 
cheerful  (II  Cor.,  ix,  7);  abundant  (Tob.,  iv,  9;  St. 
Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  II-II,  Q.  xxxii,  art.  10). 
The  harvest  of  blessings  to  be  reaped  by  almsgiving 
a  nply  suffices  to  inspire  noble-minded  Christians 
"to  make  unto  themselves  friends  of  the  Mammon 
of  iniquity".  First  of  all,  almsgiving  renders  the 
donor  like  unto  God  Himself  (Luke,  vi,  30,  36); 
nay  more,  it  renders  God  Himself  debtor  to  those 
giving  alms  (Matt.,  xxv,  40  sqq.).  Moreover,  alms- 
giving adds  special  efficacy  to  prayer  (Tob..  iv,  7), 
tends  to  appease  divine  wrath  (Heb.,xiii,  10);  liberates 
from  sin  and  its  pimishment  (Ecclus.,  xxix),  and 
thus  paves  the  way  to  the  gift  of  faith  (Acts,  x,  31). 
Daily  experience  proves  that  those  lending  a  helping 
hand  to  stay  the  miseries  of  the  poor  frequently 
prepare  the  way  for  the  moral  reformation  of  many 
whose  temporal  misery  pales  before  their  spiritual 
wretchedness.  Finally,  almsgiving  tends  to  guard 
society  against  turbulent  passions  whose  fury  is 
often  cliecked  by  almsgiving.  The  various  phases 
of  almsgiving  may  be  reduced  to  two  chief  classes: 
individual  or  transitory,  and  organized  or  perma- 
nent. Such  cases  of  indigence  as  frequently  fall 
under  the  eye  of  sympathetic  observers  constitute 
tlie  subject-matter  of  transitory  almsgiving.  Though 
charity  organizations  have  multiplied  their  sphere  of 
usefuhiess,  special  ca,ses  of  indigence,  more  readily 
ami  elTectually  readied  by  individual  attention,  will 
always  abound.  Moreover,  experience  proves  that 
tlie  loiuliict  and  conversation  of  private  benefactors 
frequently  dispo.se  their  beneficiaries  to  reform  tlT-'r 
wayward  lives  and  become  useful  members  of  t!  ! 


Church  and  State.  For  this  reason  there  will  always 
be  a  wide  field  for  individual  almsgiving.  At  the 
same  time,  many  worthy  poor  people  are  too  sen- 
sitive to  appeal  to  private  persons,  while  many 
undeserving  persons  assume  tlie  rule  of  professional 
mendicants  to  extort  aid  from  those  whose  sym- 
pathy is  easily  moved,  and  whose  purse  strings  are 
loosened  to  answer  every  call.  Moreover,  how  much 
better  to  forestall  than  to  relieve  indigence.  To 
render  the  poor  self-reliant  and  self-supporting  is  the 
noblest  achievement  of  well-regulated  charity.  Sound 
religious  and  secular  education,  means  and  oppor- 
tunities for  labour,  more  than  almsgiving  will  facil- 
itate the  realization  of  this  lofty  object.  This  is  why 
various  organizations  have  been  established  to 
alleviate  the  different  forms  of  corporal  misery. 
To  the  Church  belongs  the  credit  of  taking  the 
initiative  in  promoting  systematized  effort  for  the 
welfare  of  the  needy.  So  abundantly  have  her 
labours  been  blessed  that  her  success  has  evoked 
the  admiration  of  her  sworn  enemies  (Encyclical, 
Rerum  Novarum,  tr.,  18).  The  history  of  yester- 
day and  the  experience  of  to-day  prove  that  the 
Church  is  still  the  poor  man's  friend.  C)rganized 
charit}''  is  fvirthered  by  the  concerted  action  of  per- 
sons in  their  private  capacity  or  by  the  official  pro- 
ceeding of  those  whose  position  binds  them  to  .seek 
the  temporal  well-being  of  all  classes  in  society. 
The  various  corners  of  the  globe  are  studded  with 
institutions  of  divers  kinds,  reared  and  maintained 
by  the  generosity  of  private  parties.  Human 
misery  in  its  various  stages,  from  the  cradle  to  the 
grave,  finds  therein  a  haven  of  consolation  and  rest, 
while  the  prayers  of  inmates,  legion  in  number,  call 
the  blessing  of  Him  who  is  the  Father  of  the  poor, 
upon  the  heads  of  those  whose  liberality  proves  that 
the  charity  of  the  brotherhood  defies  limitation. 
Though  admirable  and  far-reaching  in  its  influence, 
privately  organized  charity  is  incapable  of  effectually 
coping  with  the  divers  forms  of  misery.  This  is  why 
civil  governments  shape  their  legislation  to  make 
provision  for  such  subjects  as  fail  in  their  efforts  in 
the  struggle  for  existence.  Various  institutions  des- 
tined to  provide  for  needy  citizens  of  every  class  are 
conducted  under  State  patronage.  Directors  are  ap- 
pointed, attendants  installed,  visiting  and  inspection 
required,  reports  submitted,  and  appropriations  an- 
nually made  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  such  institu- 
tions. Encouragement  and  opportunity  are  not 
denied  those  disposed  to  ambition,  self-respect,  and 
self-support.  Noteworthy  indeed  are  the  asso- 
ciated charities  inaugurated  by  the  government  to 
promote  organized  charity.  Throughout  cities,  bu- 
reaus are  established,  and  officials  deputed,  to  examine 
the  actual  condition  of  mendicants,  so  as  to  dis- 
criminate between  worthy  and  unworthy  appeals. 
To  this  end  friendly  visiting  is  encouraged.  Prose- 
letyzing  is  discomitenanccd,  .so  much  so  that  in  many 
localities  Catholics  and  non-Catholics  join  hands  in 
the  work  of  organized  charity.  Movements  along 
these  lines  are  to  be  found  in  England,  Scotland, 
France,  Italy,  and  Canada.  Those  best  q\ialified  to 
speak  authoritatively  in  this  matter  are  eloq\ient  in 
tlieir  expression  of  the  good  feeling  between  Catholic 
and  non-Catholic  workers,  and  equally  eloquent  in 
summarizing  the  admirable  results  attained  through 
this  union  of  forces.  These  movements  represent  the 
culmination  of  noblest  effort  to  concrete  almsgiving 
in  its  fulness,  so  that  gi\'ers  themselves  may  share 
in  affection,  sympathy,  and  thoight  with  receivei-s, 
thereby  animating  almsgiving  with  a  human,  nay, 
more,  a  Divine  element,  tending  to  ennoble  the  poor 
in  healing  their  miseiy. 

Scripture: — Exoiius,  xxii,  25;  Lev.,  xix.  9sq.;  Dent.,  xiv,  28 
F".;  XV.  11;  Tobias,  iv.  7;  Prov.,  xi,  2f.:  xxv,  21;  Kccliis.,  iv, 
I  .«n.;  Is.,  Iviii,  7;  Ezech.,  xvi,  40;  xviii.  7  so.;  Dan.,  iv,  24; 
HlMtl..  xxv,  ,'54  .■.q.;  I.uke,  iii,  11;  Arts,  iv,  .'12;  11  Cor.,  viii,  13  sq.: 
ix.  0  aq.;  I  Tim.,  vi,  17  sq.;  Jas.,  ii,  13;  1  John.  iii.  17. 


I 


ALMSHOUSE 


331 


ALOYsnrs 


The  Fathers: — Clement  of-  Alexandria,  Pardauoout.  III. 
vi,  P.  a..  VIII,  603-007;  li)..  .S(roma(a,  II,  xviii,  in  P.  U., 
VIII,  lOlfl-SH;  Cyril  or  Jkrumalem,  CaUchttrt.  XV,  2C., 
in  P.  a..  XXXIII.  907:  EosEuius,  llitt.  Eccl.,  IX,  viii.  in 
P.  G.,  XX.  818.  819;  IUsil.  .SVrmo  dt  EUmwuni,  in  P.  O., 
XXXI.  1154-()7;  Greoorv  Naz..  De  Amarc  Pauperum,  in 
P.  a..  XXXV,  858-910;  Chrvhobtom.  De  Eleemoai/nd,  in 
P.  G.,  XXI.  ;;91-300;  Tertullian.  Apologtticut,  xxxix.  in 
P.  L..  I,  531-539:  St.  Auoustine.  .SVrmo  35,  41.  4L'.  fiO, 
85,  80,  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII.  251  sq.;  St.  Gregory  I.  Morulia. 
XXI.  xix,  in  P.  L.,  LXXVI,  200-208.  The  doctrine  of  (he 
Fathers  concerning  this  matter  is  exposed  by  Guionekert, 
TerluUian  (Paris,  1901);  Scara.melli,  Directorium  Aacetuum, 
IV.339-35e  (tr.,  London,  1897);  Balmes,  ProteatantUm  ami 
Cnthulu-ity  Compared  (UnUimoTe,  1851),  184  sqq.;  Cuthbert, 
Cnlhulur  Ideala  in  .Social  Life  (New  York,  1904),  100  sqn.; 
Gaime.  Caleehism  of  Perarvrrance  (tr..  New  York,  1890),  II. 
600  sqq,;  Ireland.  The  Church  and  Modem  Society  (ChicaKo, 
1897);  ScHAEF.  Hiatoru  of  Ihe  Chrtadan  Church,  II.  374.  375; 
Uhlhorn,  C'Ariaftan  Charily  in  the  Ancit'nt  Church  {New  York, 
1883);  Warner,  .Imfrtain  Chariliea  (New  York,  1894);  Locil. 
Charity  Organization  (Lonilon,  1893);  Potter.  The  Co-apera- 
tiie  Morement  in  Great  Britain  (London.  18S8);  Crai-th.  Prac- 
tical Chriali^in  Sociolvgy  (.New  \nrk.  189C);  The  Chariliea  Re- 
firw  (New  York,  March,  1892;  Feb.,  1895;  Jan.,  1896;  July 
and  Aug..  1897;  Oct.,  1898);  Proceedinga  of  National  Con- 
ferencea  of  Chariliea  and  Correcliont;  Reporta  of  St.  rtnc**n( 
de  Paul  Conferencea;  Beugnet  in  Vic  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris. 
1883).  I.  col.  1244-53.  s.  v.  AumAne:  Many  in  Diet,  de 
thiol,  rath.  (Paris,  1893).  fascicule  IX.  2561  sqq.,  s.  v.  AumDne: 
OZANAM.  Vic  de  Fred.  Ozanam  (Paris.  1882).  iv,  v;  Lefebcre, 
L' organization  de  la  charite  pn'rtV  en  France  (Paris.  1900);  In.. 
Pana  charitable  et  prHoyant  (Paris.  1900);  du  Camp.  La 
chariti  privi'e  it  Paria  (Paris,  1888);  St.  Thomas.  Summa 
Theol.,  II-Il,  QQ..  xxx-xxxiii;  St.  Alphonsus  Liouori.  Theol. 
Mor.,  Ill,  tr.  iii.  dub.  3,  no.  30  sq.;  Suarez.  De  Charitate, 
Di-^p.  vii;  Billuart,  Summa  St.  Thomce,  tract.  De  charitate. 
Diss,  v;  Sporer.  Throl.  Mor.  (Venice.  1716).  I.  tr.  iii.  vi,  52; 
Lavmann,  Theol.  Mor.  (Padua.  1733).  I,  hb.  V.  tr.  iii,  vi; 
Ml  LLER.  Theol.  Mor.  (Vienna.  1899).  lib.  II.  tr.  i.  30  sq.; 
Leiimkuhl.  Theol.  Mor.  {Spec.)  (Freiburg.  1898),  I,  lib.  II. 
ii,  no.  605  .sq.;  Boiquillon.  Inat.  Theol.  Mor.  Specialia 
(Bruges.  1890).  lib.  Ill,  no.  493  sq.;  Ballerini,  Opua  The- 
ologicum  Morale  (Prato.  1899),  II.  tr.  v.  §3.  dub.  3. 

J.\MEs  David  O'Neill. 

Almshouse.  See  Mon.\steries,  Suppuession  of; 
Poor  Laws. 

Alnoth,  Saint,  hermit  and  martyr;  died  c.  700. 
We  know  very  little  of  St.  Alnotlu  Neither  doe.s  he 
appear  to  possess  any  proper  clay.  He  is  mentioned 
in  Jocelyn  s  life  of  St.  Wcrburg  as  a  pious  neatherd 
at  Wecdon  who  bore  with  great  patience  the  ill- 
treatment  of  the  bailiff  placeil  over  him,  and  who 
afterwards  became  a  hermit  in  a  very  lonely  spot, 
where  he  was  eventually  murdered  by  two  robbers. 
On  this  ground  he  was  honoured  as  a  martyr;  and 
there  wa.s  some  concourse  of  pilgrims  to  his  tomb 
at  .^towe  near  Bugbrook  in  Northamptonshire. 

Acta  SS.,  27  February.  Ill;  .Staxtun.  Mcnoloyy  (London, 
1892),  505;  BAiiiNG-GoeLD,  Livca  of  Sainta  (London,  1804), 
II,  448. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Alogl  (d  privative  and  XA705,  "word";  se.  "De- 
niers  of  tlie  Word").  St.  Irena?us  (Adv.  Haer.,  Ill, 
ii,  9)  makes  a  brief  reference  to  persons  who  denied 
the  manifestation  of  the  Paraclete,  and  refused,  in 
consequence,  to  admit  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
wherein  it  is  announced.  He  gives  the  party  no 
name.  St.  Ilippolytus  combated  such  an  error  both 
in  his  Syntagma  and  in  a  sixrial  work  entitled  "In 
Defence  of  the  Oospel  of  John  and  the  .Apocalypse." 
These  works  are  lost,  but  a  good  share  of  their  con- 
tents is  believed  to  have  oeen  preserved  by  St. 
Kpiphanius.  St.  Epiphanius  (Haer.  I.I)  gives  a 
long  accoimt  of  the  party  of  heretics  who  arose  after 
the  C'ataphrj'gians,  Quartodecimaiis,  and  others,  and 
who  received  neither  the  Oosijol  of  .St.  John  nor  his 
Apocalypse.  He  calls  them  Alogi  (deniers  of  the 
Word)  becau.sc,  by  rejecting  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
they  rejected  the  /.oflo.s-  which  was  revealed  in  that 
Gospel.  Playing  on  the  term,  he  observes,  with  a 
touch  of  sarcasm,  that  they  are  well  named,  "alogi", 
i.  e.  "  without  rea.son  ".  Tne.se  heretics  would  seem  to 
answer  to  the  description  of  the  obscure  persons  men- 
tioned by  St.  Irena>us,  and  this  is  in  fact  the  prevalent 
opinion  about  them.  The  Alogi,  accordingly,  may 
be  described  as  a  partj'  which  arose  in  Asia  Minor 


towards  the  end  of  the  .second  century.  They 
doubtle.ss  embodied  a  radical  protest  against  the 
abu.se  which  the  Montanists  made  of  the  promised 
Paraclete,  and  of  the  Paraclete's  outpourings  in 
visions  and  prophecies.  This  would  explain  why 
they  were  led  to  deny  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  which 
foretold  the  coming  of  the  Iioly  Spirit,  and  why 
again  they  refu.sed  all  credit  to  the  Af>ocalyp.se,  which, 
with  its  description  of  the  Heavenly  Jerusalem  and 
of  the  reign  of  a  thousand  years,  fed  the  imagination 
of  the  enthusiasts  of  Phrygia.  The  Alogi  attributed 
these  two  books  to  Cerinthus.  It  is  not  altogether 
clear  that  they  denied,  in  addition,  the  Godhead  of 
the  Son  and  His  eternal  generation.  St.  Kpiphanius 
does,  indeetl,  say  that  they  rejected  the  Loijos 
preached  by  St.  John,  but  he  is  evidently  [x;r- 
plexed  by  their  stupidity  in  attributing  to  Cerin- 
thus a  (lospel  which  w.as  written  against  him.  For 
Cerinthus  taught  that  Christ  was  mere  man,  whereas 
John,  in  this  very  book,  preaches  His  Godhead. 
It  may,  therefore,  well  be  that  the  Alogi  did  not 
reject  the  doctrine  itself  but  only  the  Loqos  form 
under  which  the  doctrine  was  presented  in  the 
Gospel.  And  .St.  Epiphanius  seems  to  imply  as 
much,  "for,"  he  says,  "they  themselves  seem  to 
believe  as  we  do."  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  interest 
of  scholars  attaches  not  so  much  to  their  christology 
as  to  the  biblical  criticism  they  developed.  It  was, 
doubtless,  a  doctrinal  prepossession  which  impelled 
them  to  reject  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  and  the  Apoc- 
alypse. But  they  endeavoured  to  maintain  their 
contention  by  arguments  drawn  from  an  examina- 
tion of  the  })ooks  thcm.selves.  The  Gospel  of  St. 
John  contained,  they  said,  what  was  untrue;  accord- 
ing to  them  it  was  not  in  accord  with  the  other 
Gospels,  mixed  up  the  synoptic  order  of  events,  and 
was,  moreover,  docetic  in  doctrine.  They  made  still 
less  account  of  the  Apocalypse,  which,  they  claimed, 
was  often  unintelligible,  not  to  say  puerile  and  false. 
Apropos  of  .\poc.  ii,  18,  they  asserted  that  there 
was  no  Christian  church  in  Thyatira  at  the  time. 
This  anti-Catholic  movement  has  been  closely 
studied,  since  the  Johannine  question  was  broached 
in  the  last  century,  for  further  light  on  the  position 
and  authority  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  in  the  early 
church. 

St.  Iren.,  Adv.  Haer.,  III.  ii,  9:  Philastrius,  Ilaer.,  I.X; 


St.   Epipii..    Haer.,    LI;   KoRNER.   De  auct.   Can.   .•Ipor.   Joh. 
'  '■}aia  impufinata  (Leipzig.   1751);   Eus.,   Iliat.    Eccl.,    HI, 
28,  I.     Drummond.  The  Character  and  Authorahip  of  the  Fourth 


ab    Aloa 


Goapel  (London.    1903);   Rose.   Alofjea,  aaiatca  et 

Rev,  Bwlique,   VI,    1897;  Zaun,   Geaehichte  dea  neuteatamenti. 

Kanona,    I,    220-262;  Coriwen,    Monarchianiache   Proloae    zu 

den  vier  Evangelicn  m    Teste  urut  Vntersuchuuoen,    \'t»l,    XV, 

No.  I  (Leipzig.  1896);  Harnack.  Lehrbuchdcr  Doymenueichi'hte 

(3rd    ed.,   1894-97),  tr.  Hiatoru  of  Dogma    (189.5-1900).    III. 

14-20. 

Francis  P.  Havey. 

Aloysius  Oonzaga,  Saint,  b.  in  the  castle  of 
C.astigliime.  9  March,  l.iO.S;  d.  21  June,  1591.  At 
eight  he  was  place<l  in  the  court  of  Francesco  de' 
Medici  in  Florence,  where  he  remained  for  two  years, 
going  then  to  .Mantua.  .-Vt  Brescia,  when  he  was 
twelve,  he  came  under  the  spiritual  guidance  of 
St.  Charles  Borromeo,  ami  from  him  received  First 
Communion.  In  1,581  he  went  with  his  f:ither  to 
Spain,  and  he  and  his  brother  were  made  pages  of 
James,  the  son  of  Philip  II.  While  there  he  formed 
the  resolution  of  becoming  a  Jesuit,  though  he  first 
thought  of  joining  the  Di.'icalced  Carmelites.  He  re- 
turned to  Italy  in  l.")S4  after  the  death  of  the  Infanta, 
and  after  much  difficulty  in  securing  his  father's 
cousent,  renounced  his  heritage  in  favour  of  his 
brother.  2  November,  1585,  a  proceeding  wliich  re- 
quired the  approval  of  the  emperor,  as  Castiglione 
was  a  fief  of  the  empire.  He  presented  himself  to 
Father  Claudius  .\cquaviva,  who  was  then  General 
of  the  Society.  25  November.  l.'iS.'i.  Before  the  end 
of  his  novitiate,  he  passed  a  brilliant  public  act  in 


A  AND  a 


332 


ALPHA 


St.  Aloysius  Gonza 


Chilosophy,  having  made  his  philosopliical  and  also 
is  mathematical  studies  before  his  entrance.  He 
had  in  fact  distinguished  himself,  when  in  Spain,  by 
a  public  examination  not  only  in  philosophy,  but  also 
in  theologj',  at  the  University  of  Alcala.  He  made  his 
vows  25  Novem- 
ber, 1587.  Im- 
mediately after, 
he  began  his  theo- 
logical studies. 
Among  his  pro- 
fessors were  Fath- 
ers Vasquez  and 
Azor.  In  1591 
when  in  his  fourth 
year  of  theology 
a  famine  and 
pestilence  broke 
out  in  Italy. 
Though  in  deli- 
cate health,  he 
devoted  himself 
to  the  care  of 
the  sick,  but  on 
the  3d  March  he 
feU  iU  and  died  21 
June,  1591.  He 
was  beatified  by  Gregory  XV  in  1G21  and  canonized 
by  Benedict  XIII  in  1726.  His  remains  are  in  the 
churcli  of  St.  Ignazio  in  Rome  in  a  magnificent  urn 
of  lapis  lazuli  wreathed  with  festoons  of  silver.  The 
altar  has  for  its  centrepiece  a  large  marble  relief  of 
the  Saint  by  Le  Gros. 

Butler.  Lires  of  the  Sainla,  21  June;  Ada  SS.,  21  June; 
Cf.pari,  Life  of  St.  Aloysiue  Gonzaga;  Rodvier,  Les  Saints  de 
la  C.  de  J.  (Paris,  1893). 

J.    F.  X.    O'CONOB. 

AandO  (Alph.\  and  Omega). — Scriptdral. — The 
first  and  tlie  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  em- 
ployed from  the  fourth  century  as  a  symbol  ex- 
pressing tlie  confidence  of  orthodox  Christians  in 
the  scriptural  proofs  of  Our  Lord's  divinity.  This 
symbol  was  suggested  by  the  Apocalypse,  where 
Christ,  as  well  as  the  Father,  is  "the  First  and 
the  Last"  (ii,  8);  "the  Alpha  and  Omega,  the 
first  and  the  last,  the  beginning  and  the  end" 
(cf.,  xxii,  13;  i,  8).  Clement  of  Alexandria  speaks 
of  the  Word  as  "the  Alpha  and  the  Omega  of  Whom 
alone  the  end  becomes  beginning,  and  ends  again  at 
the  original  beginning  without  any  break"  (Strom., 
IV,  25).  Tertullian  also  alludes  to  Christ  as  the 
Alpha  and  Omega  (De  Monogamia,  v),  and  from 
Prudentius  (Cathemer.,  ix,  10)  we  learn  that  in  the 
fourth  century  the  interpretation  of  the  apocalyptic 
letters  was  still  the  same:  "Alpha  et  Omega  cogno- 
minatus,  ipse  fons  et  clausula,  Omnium  qu£e  sunt, 
fuerunt,  qua;que  post  futura  sunt."  It  was,  how- 
ever, in  the  monuments  of  early  Christianity  that 
the  symbolic  Alpha  and  Omega  had  their  greatest 
vogue.  The  earliest  date  at  which  this  symbol 
occurs  is  in  the  year  295,  in  a  dated  inscription  of 
Rome.  In  this  example,  however,  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  Omega  takes  precedence,  and  that  both 
letters  form  part  of  the  inscription,  thus:  "VIRGO 
MOUCnVA  ES(T)  TVS  fi  ET.  A  NVLLINO 
CO.\(S)";  (  .  .  .  died,  a  virgin  Tuscus  and  AnuUi- 
nus  being  consuls). 

The  ([uestion  whether  this  symbol  in  its  regular 
form,  A  and  O,  was  in  use  before  the  Council  of  Nica;a 
(325)  has  not  yet  been  .settled  definitely.  If  so,  it 
wa.s  of  very  rare  occurrence.  In  a  fresco  which  dates 
from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  in  the  "great 
cave"  of  the  catacomb  of  Pnetcxtatus,  A  and  0  are 
found  in  connection  with  the  monogrammatic  cross. 
The  oldest  inscription  in  wliich  the  letters  occur  in 
their  traditional  form  dates  from  301.  From  this 
time  on  they  were  a  favourite  symbol  of  the  orthodox 


Christians  (the  Arians  regarded  it  with  disfavour) 
and  they  are  found  on  the  monuments  in  all  parts 
of  early  Christendom.  The  apocalyptic  letters  were 
represented  either  (1)  alone,  or  (2)  in  connection  with 
human  or  other  figures,  or  (3)  with  other  symbols. 
Examples  of  the  first  class,  to  which  belongs  the  in- 
scription of  364,  are  rare.  The  second  class  also  is 
not  very  numerously  represented;  probably  the  most 
interesting  example  of  it  is  a  panel  of  the  fifth- 
century  door  of  St.  Sabina's  where  A  and  U  are 
carved  on  either  side  of  the  risen  Christ.  Monu- 
ments of  the  third  class,  representing  A  and  0  in 
connection  with  another  symbol,  usually  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ,  are  much  more  common  than  those 
of  tlie  two  former  classes.  The  minuscular  form  w 
is,  in  nearly  all  cases,  represented,  though  some  ex- 
amples of  U  occur  in  the  monuments  of  Africa  and 
Spain.  The  words  "Alpha  and  Omega"  continued 
in  use  in  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy;  also  in  the  ancient 
Irish  Liturgy,  e.  g.  in  the  famous  Communion-hymn 
in  the  Antiphonary  of  Bangor. 

Kraus,  Real-Enci/klopadie,  I,  60-62;  Leclercq  in  Diet 
d'aTcheol.  et  de  lit.,  I,  1-25. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Alpha  and  Omega. — In  Jewlsh  Theology. — 
When  God  passed  before  the  face  of  Moses  on  Sinai 
the  great  Law-giver  of  Israel  called  out:  "Jehova, 
Jehova,  kind  and  merciful  God,  of  long-suffering,  and 
full  of  goodness  and  truth"  [(Ex.,  xxxiv,  6),  in  the 
Douay  Version,  "O  the  Lord,  the  Lord  God,  merciful 
and  gracious,  patient  and  of  much  compassion,  and 
true"].  God's  being  is  fullness  of  goodness  and 
truth — Plenitudo  veri  et  fconi,  J^P^"!.  IPH.  They  are 
foremost  among  God's  moral  attiributes.  They  are 
the  immediate  outcome  of  His  Divine  operations. 
For  God  is  an  infuiitely  pure  spirit.  His  being  is 
Intellect  and  Will.  Truth  is  the  final  object  of  the 
intellect,  and  goodness  is  that  of  the  will.  In  the 
Psalter  they  are  praised  and  invoked  by  the  poet 
with  holy  and  lo\'ing  fondness,  e.  g.  Pss.,  xxiv,  10; 
xxxix,  11,  12;  h-i,  4,  11;  Ixxxiv,  11;  Ixxxv,  15; 
cxvi,  2.  Of  the  two  perfections  truth  and  goodness, 
the  former  ranks  higlier.  Truth  is  the  first  of  all 
perfections.  The  Hebrew  word  for  truth  is  Emeth 
riDN.  It  is  composed  of  three  letters:  .\leph  =Alpha, 
Mem  =  My,  and  Thaw  =  Theta.  The  Aleph  and  the 
Thaw  are  tlie  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet  as  the  .\lpha  ami  Omega  are  of  the  Greek. 
Thus  the  term  Emeth  (trutli)  begins  with  the  first 
letter  of  the  alphabet  and  ends  with  the  last.  This 
led  the  Jewish  sages  to  find  in  this  word  a  mystical 
meaning.  The  Aleph  or  the  first  letter  of  Emeth 
(truth)  denotes  that  God  is  the  first  of  all  things. 
"There  was  no  one  before  Him  of  whom  He  could  have 
received  the  fullness  of  truth.  The  Thaw,  or  last 
letter,  in  like  manner  signifies  that  God  is  the  last  of 
all  things.  There  will  be  no  one  after  Him  to  whom 
He  could  bequeath  it.  Thus  Emeth  is  a  sacred  word 
expressing  that  in  God  truth  dwells  absolutely  and  in 
all  plenitude.  Emeth,  as  the  Jewish  divines  truly 
say,  is  the  signaculum  Dei  essentia  (see  Bu.xtorf's 
Lexicon).  In  Yoma  69b.,  and  Sanh.  64a.,  the  fol- 
lowing is  related:  "The  men  of  the  great  sjmagogue 
prayed  to  God  to  remove  from  the  earth  the  Evil 
Spirit,  as  the  cause  of  all  trouble.  Immediately  a 
scroll  fell  from  heaven  witii  the  word  Truth  written 
thereon,  and  thereupon  a  fiery  lion  came  out  of  the 
sanctuary.  It  was  tlie  spirit  of  idolatry  leaving 
the  cartn".  "This  legend  shows",  says  Hanina 
"that  the  seal  of  God  is  truth".  (Jewish  Encyclo- 
pedia.) 

In  Christian  Usage. — The  manner  of  expressing 
God's  eternity  by  means  of  the  first  and  last  letters 
of  the  alphabet  seems  to  have  passed  from  the 
synagogue  into  the  Church.  In  place  of  the  .\leph 
and  Thaw,  the  .Mpha  and  Omega  were  substituted. 
But  the  substitution  of  the  Greek  letters  for  those 


ALPHABET 


333 


ALPHABET 


of  the  Hebrew  tongue  inevitably  caused  a  portion  of 
the  meaning  and  beauty  in  tlms  designating  God  to 
be  lost.  Tlie  Greek  letters  Alpha  and  Omega  have  no 
relation  to  the  wonl  Truth.  Omega  is  not  the  last 
letter  of  the  word  dXTjOeia  (truth),  as  Thaw  is  of  the 
word  Kineth.  The  sacreil  and  mystical  word  Truth, 
e.\pressing  in  Hebrew,  through  its  letters  Aleph  and 
Thaw,  God's  ab.solute  and  eternal  being,  hau  to  be 
sacrificed.  NTI  or  AU  signify  an  absolute  plenitude, 
or  perfection.  It  is  a  Jewish  .saying  that  the  blessing 
on  Israel  in  Lev.,  xxvi,  .'J-13,  is  complete  becau.se  it 
begins  with  .\leph  and  ends  with  Thaw.  Jehovah's 
absolute  perfection  is  expressed  in  Is.,  xli,  4;  xhv,  0, 
by  the  phra.se,  "  I  am  the  first  and  the  last ".  Plato, 
"  De  Legibus",  IV,  71."),  describes  God  in  the  same 
manner:  dpx^v  re  xal  TeXfvTrjv  Kal  fUaa  rCiv  6vruv 
airivTuv  ex""".  and  quotes  this  plirase  as  a  TaXaiJs 
X47«-  Cf.  also  Josephus.  C.  Apion.,  II,  xxiii.  The 
phrase  fitly  expresses  the  idea  that  God  is  eternal, 
the  beginning  and  end  of  all  things.  The  fourth 
Gospel,  after  stating  that  the  "Word  was  God", 
says,  "and  the  Wort!  dwelt  among  us  full  of  grace 
and  truth".  Grace  stands  for  goodness.  The 
phrase  is  identical  with  Ex.,  xxxiv,  6,  "  full  of  good- 
ness and  trutli".     We  have  here  the  two  great  divine 


attributes.  Truth  and  Goodness,  assigned  to  Christ  in 
all  their  fullness.     What  Moses  has  said  of  God,  the 


Nil 

xc 

KA 

Evangelist  says  of  Christ.  In  the  Apocalyp.se  the 
Afi  taking  the  place  of  ^y^  occur  in  the  first  chapter 
to  designate  God,  i,  8;  but 
in  the  last  two  chapters  to 
designate  Christ  (.Ap.,  xxi, 
(i;  xxii,  13).  It  is  an  argu- 
ment that  its  author  believ- 
ed in  the  divinity  of  Christ. 
In  the  earlier  ages  of  the 
Cliurch  the  A  and  il  were 
u.-ied  a.s  the  monogram  of 
Christ.  These  letters  be- 
came  His  crest.  The  poet 
Prudentius  says,  "  .\lpha 
et  Omega  cognominatus,  ipse  fons  et  clausula  om- 
nium (\\xx  sunt,  fuerunt,  qu:p<iue  post  futura  sunt" 
(Cathemer.,  9  U).  The  All  were  written  under  the 
arms  of  the  cross  within  a  circle  or  triangle.  (Fig.  1). 
Sometimes  the  .V  is  found  on  the  right  and  t\\c  0  on 
the  left  to  indicate  that  in  Christ  the  beginning  and 
the  end  are  joined  into  one.  (Fig.  2).  This  crest  is 
found  on  the  coins  of  the  Empe'rors  Constans  and 
Constantius  (Martigny,  4.'')S-1.')9).  (Fig.  3).  The  early 
Christians  h.id  the  two  letters  engraved  on  their  signet 
rings,  [Fig.  4  (Vigouroux,  Biblical  Lexicon)].  Some- 
times the  .-Mpha  and  the  Omega  are  written  in  the 
nimbus,  or  halo,  of  the   Lamb;    for  instance,  in  the 


paintings  of  the  Catacombs  of  Petrus  and  .Marcellinus, 
third  century.  We  further  find  these  two  letters  in 
frescoes  and  mosaics  of  several  ancient  churclies;  for 
instance,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Fehcitas,  and  in  San  Marco 
in  Rome;  in  the  world-famed  mosaics  of  Ravenna, 
in  Galla  Placidia,  St.  Crisologo,  St.  Vitale.  In  the 
course  of  time  A  and  il  ceased  to  be  used  as  tlie 
monogram  of  Christ  for  church  paintings  and  orna- 
ments. During  the  last  centuries  the  letters  I.  H.  S. 
(see  .■\uBKEVi.\TioNS,  Ecclesiastical)  have  com- 
pletely taken  their  place.  Recently,  however,  on 
tabernacle  <loors  and  antependia  the  older  device  is 
again  met  with. 

LKci.KRcg   A.Ni>  Cabrol  in  Diet,  d'archfoi.   chrit,  et  de  lit.; 

ViGOCHoux  in  Diet,  de  la  Bible;  Wiluanns  in  Corp.  inter,  lat., 

VIII:   Dr.   R0.S.SI.   ln»CT.    ehritt.   urb.   Roma,   I;    Idem   in  Bull. 

di  arch,  criat.  (IS08),  p.  13,  (1869),  p.  13;  Idem,  Roma  solterr. 

C.  VAN  DEN  HlESEN. 

Alphabet,  Christian  Use  of  the. — The  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin  alphabets  have  been  variously  made 
use  of  in  Christian  hturgy.  During  Holy  Week  the 
Hebrew  alphabet  is  sung,  each  of  its  letters  preceding 
one  of  the  verses  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremias  at 
Matins;  having  here,  however,  merely  a  numerical 
value,  they  might  be  replaced  by  Number  One, 
Number  Two,  etc.  The  musical  setting  is  now 
usually  the  same  in  all  churches,  the  most  ancient 
known  at  present  being  that  of  the  Romano- 
Gregorian  Liturgy.  Codex  VII,  aa  3,  of  the  municipal 
library  of  Naples  (twelfth  century)  has  a  melody 
which  varies  with  the  letters;  those  for  verses  x\ii, 
xix,  and  xxi  having  a  simple  form,  those  for  xvi  and 
XX  a  more  elaborate  one;  and,  lastly,  those  for 
verses  xviii  and  x.xii,  a  form  which  is  little  more  than 
a  lengthening  out  of  the  preceding.  The  simple  form 
reappears  most  frequently  in  tlie  MSS. ,  particularly 
in  the  "  Breviarium  secundum  consuetuainem  curise 
romans",  of  the  thirteenth  ccnturj'.  It  was  proba- 
bly about  this  time  that  the  simple  form  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  variety  which  had  hitherto  existed. 

Ali'hadet  op  the  Litter.e  Formats. — The  lit- 
tera  jormatae,  or  letters  commendatorv,  took  their 
name  from  the  seals  that  were  attacfied  to  them; 
indeed,  .Sirmond  quotes  a  Vatican  MS.  where  the 
word  aiiiillala:  occurs  instead  of  jormatot.  In  these 
letters,  the  Greek  alphabet  is  used  in  place  of  numeri- 
cal signs.  In  order  to  prevent  fraud  or  imposture, 
it  was  said  that  the  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Nica;a 
had  formulated  a  decree  to  the  effect  that  the 
lilterct  must  contain  such  a  series  of  letters  as,  on 
addition  of  their  numerical  values,  would  deter- 
mine the  origin  of  the  document.  The  initials  given 
were  those  of  the  Three  Divine  Persons,  n.  T.  A; 
of  the  Poi)e;  of  the  writer  and  recipient  of  the  letter; 
of  the  city  where  it  was  written;  lastly,  the  letter 
of  the  cycle,  and  the  word  AMHN.  Unfortunately, 
the  writers  were  ill-instructe<l;  a  littcra  jormata  of 
the  Church  of  Metz  contains  an  error  of  addition, 
nor  is  this  a  solitary  instance.  The  early  medieval 
collections  of  FormuUe  show  that  mistakes  were 
frequent,  so  that  in  a  short  time  the  means  of  con- 
trol  became   to  all   intents  and   purposes   illusorj'. 

The  Alphauet  in  the  Dedication  of  a  Chvrch. 
—  Both  Greeks  and  Latins  made  use  of  letters  as 
numerical  signs,  but  on  wholly  different  principles. 
Alphabets,  among  the  Latins,  were  of  two  kinds:  the 
systematic,  which  have  arbitrary  values:  and  the 
signs  used  by  land-surveyors  (a(/rim<-n.'iorf.«),  which 
have  fixed  values.  The  land-surveyors  formed  a 
corporation  which  was  entrusted  by  public  and 
private  authority  with  the  measuring  of  properties. 
The  tax  was  levied  in  accordance  witli  the  owner's 
declaration,  but  the  State  came,  in  time,  to  recognize 
the  lo.ss  to  which  it  was  exposed  througli  false  re- 
turns, and  instituted  an  official  survey  and  measure- 
ment of  landed  pro|)erties.  to  be  carried  out  by  oHi- 
cers  appointed  for  the  purpose.     Their  measurements 


ALPHABET 


334 


ALPHONSUS 


however,  which  were  renewed  from  time  to  time, 
inevitably  gave  rise  to  claims  for  revision,  which 
were  handed  in  to  the  equalizers,  who  forwarded 
them  to  the  surveyors  wlio  acted  as  arbitrators. 
The  Roman  Liturgj'  has  preserved  a  rite  which  it  is 
interesting  to  compare  with  the  practice  of  these 
surveyors.  At  tlie  dedication  of  a  church  the 
bishop  writes  two  alphabets  on  the  ground,  one 
Greek  and  the  other  Latin,  with  the  point  of  his 
pastoral  staff,  along  two  lines  of  ashes  laid  in  the 
form  of  a  crux  deciissata  (X).  The  two  alphabets 
start  from  the  e.ast  and  stretch  towards  the  west. 
The  Leonine  Sacramentary  makes  no  mention  of  a 
ceremony  wliich  is  clearly  set  forth  in  the  Gregorian 
Sacramentary:  "Thereupon  the  bishop  shall  begin 
from  the  left-hand  eastern  corner  to  write  with  his 
staff  on  the  pa\enieiit  the  letters  A  B  C,  as  far  as 
the  right-hand  western  corner;  beginning  again  in 
like  manner  from  the  right-hand  eastern  corner, 
he  writes  A  B  C  as  far  as  the  left-hand  western 
corner  of  the  basilica."  At  the  period  mentioned  the 
bishop  was  at  liberty  to  write  either  only  A  B  C 
or  the  whole  alphabet,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  or  twice 
in  Latin.  The  rite,  however,  was  not  in  use  every- 
where; the  sacramentary  published  by  Pamelius, 
the  edition  of  Rocca,  and  a  manuscript  consulted 
by  Dom  Menard,  make  no  allusion  to  it.  Moreover, 
it  could  be  altered  at  pleasure,  since  certain  bishops 
added  the  Hebrew  alphabet  to  the  two  others. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  find  the  origin  of  this 
custom  in  the  rite  for  taking  possession  of  a  heathen 
temple,  a  rite  which  the  faitliful  are  said  to  have 
adopted  and  altered;  but  the  texts  of  Varro  and 
Servius  allow  of  no  such  explanation.  It  must 
rather  be  sought  for  in  the  practice  of  the  land- 
surveyors,  who  used  measures  of  fixed  length  in 
making  their  surveys,  marking  them,  when  neces- 
sary, with  letters  to  which  they  gave  a  special  value 
of  their  own.  These  they  called  cases  lilterarum,  and 
included  the  whole  Greek  and  the  whole  Latin 
alphabet,  the  X  (decussio)  being  the  most  important 
letter  of  their  system.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  liturgical  rite  has  grown  up  out  of  a  practice 
borrowed  from  the  land-surveyors,  though  we  can- 
not say  what  alterations  it  may  have  undergone  in 
passing  from  that  guild  to  the  Church.  In  course  of 
time,  when  the  rite  lost  its  meaning,  a  mystical 
signification  was  attached  to  it.  After  the  ninth 
century  the  reason  for  using  the  two  alphabets  was 
no  longer  understood;  an  English  Pontifical  of  the 
tenth  century  mistakes  the  X  for  the  signum  Christi. 
In  this  way  an  ancient  usage  grew  by  degrees  into 
a  ceremony  supposed  to  be  the  expression  of  a  most 
abstruse  symbolism.  Nor  was  it  only  in  this  rite 
for  the  dedication  of  a  church  that  the  alphabet  was 
cut  down  to  a  mere  ABC.  The  same  curtailment 
is  to  be  seen  on  two  vessels  used  for  baptism,  both 
belonging  to  the  ancient  African  Church.  One, 
which  is  of  terra-cotta,  was  foimd  at  Carthage.  Its 
symbolical  decoration  (cross,  fishes,  A  B  C)  has  a 
special  reference  to  the  neophytes.  The  other,  a 
white  marble  basin,  spherical  in  shape,  was  dis- 
covered not  lone  ago,  in  the  Basilica  of  Dermech, 
near  Carthage.  It  hits  four  ears,  or  handles  (orcillons, 
ansa),  one  of  which  serves  as  a  spout,  while  the  others 
bear  the  letters  A  B  C.  Both  ajipear  to  have  been 
employed  liturgically  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  century. 

The  Gnostic  Ai.phabkt. — Lastly,  the  alphabet 
held  an  important  nlace  in  the  systems  of  several 
Gnostic  sects,  though  the  use  and  meaning  given 
it  by  them  remain  very  difficult  to  determine. 
Certain  aspect.s,  however,  of  the  matter  have  begun 
to  grow  plainer.  It  seems  certain,  for  instance,  that 
the  sounds  ()f  vowels  corresponded  with  those  of  the 
gamut.  When,  therefore,  we  meet  with  vowels 
arranged  in  a  seemingly  meaningless  order,  the  ex- 
planation is  to  be  found  in  substituting  the  sound 


for  the  letter.  The  W  papyrus  of  Leyden  has  given 
us  a  clue  to  these  melodies,  which  may  have  been 
sung  at  the  celebration  of  Gnostic  mysteries  and 
orgies. 

Wagner,  Leclercq,  and  Lkjat  in  Diet,  d'archiol.  chrit.  et  de 
lit.  (Paris,  1904),  I,  1258-88;  Dcchesne,  Ortff.  du  culte  chrHien 
(London,  1903).  409,  417;  Ruelle  and  Poiree,  Le chant  gn09- 
tico-magiqtie  (Solesmes,  1901). 

H.  Leclercq. 

Alphabet,  Hebrew.     See  Hebrew  Liter.\ture. 
Alphabetic  Psalms.     See  Ps.vlms. 
Alphaeus.     See  Bkethrex  of  the  Lord. 
Alphage,  .A.rchbishop  of  Canterbury.     See  Ei^ 

PHEGE,  S.\INT. 

Alphonsus  Llguori,  S.\int,  b.  at  Marianella,  near 
Naples,  27  September,  169G;  d.  at  Nocera  de'  Pagani, 
1  August,  17S7.  The  eighteenth  century  was  not 
an  age  remarkable  for  depth  of  spiritual  life,  yet  it 
produced  three  of  the  greatest  missionaries  of  the 
Church,  St.  Leonard  of  Port  Maurice,  St.  Paul  of 
the  Cross,  and  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori.  Alphonsus 
Mary  Antony  John  Cosmas  Damian  Michajl  Gaspard 
de'  Liguori  was  born  in  his  father's  country  house  at 
Marianella  near  Naples,  on  Tuesday,  27  September, 
1696.  He  was  baptized  two  days  later  in  the  church 
of  Our  Lady  of  the  Virgins,  in  Naples.  The  family 
was  an  old  and  noble  one.  though  the  branch  to  which 
the  Saint  belonged  had  become  somewhat  impover- 
ished. Alphonsus's  father,  Don  Joseph  de'  Liguori 
was  a  naval  officer  and  Captain  of  the  Royal  Galleys. 
The  Saint's  mother  was  of  Spanish  descent,  and  if, 
as  there  can  be  little  doubt,  race  is  an  element  in 
individual  character,  we  may  see  in  Alphonsus's 
Spanish  blood  some  explanation  of  the  enormous 
tenacity  of  purpose  which  distinguishetl  him  from 
his  earliest  years.  "I  know  his  obstinacy",  his 
father  said  of  him  as  a  young  man;  "when  he  once 
makes  up  his  mind  he  is  inflexible".  Not  many  de- 
tails have  come  down  to  us  of  Alphonsus's  childliood. 
He  was  the  eldest  of  seven  children  anil  the  hope  of 
his  house.  The  boy  was  bright  and  quick  beyond 
his  years,  and  made  great  progress  in  all  kinds  of 
learning.  In  addition  his  father  made  him  practise 
the  harpsichord  for  three  hours  a  day,  and  at  the 
age  of  thirteen  he  played  with  the  perfection  of  a 
master.  Riding  and  fencing  were  his  recreations, 
and  an  evenmg  game  of  cards;  he  tells  us  that  he  was 
debarred  from  being  a  good  shot  by  his  bad  sight. 
In  early  manhood  he  became  very  fond  of  the  opera, 
but  only  that  he  might  hsten  to  the  music,  for  when 
the  curtain  went  up  he  took  his  glasses  off,  so  as  not 
to  see  the  players  distinctly.  The  Neapolitan  stage 
at  this  time  was  in  a  good  state,  but  the  Saint  had 
from  his  earliest  years  an  ascetic  repugnance  to 
theatres,  a  repugnance  which  he  never  lost.  The 
childish  fault  for  which  he  most  reproached  himself 
in  after-life  was  resisting  his  father  too  strongly 
when  he  was  told  to  take  part  in  a  drawing-room  play. 
Alphonsus  was  not  sent  to  school  but  was  educated 
by  tutors  under  his  father's  eye.  At  the  age  of  six- 
teen, on  21  January,  1713,  lie  took  his  degree  as 
Doctor  of  Laws,  although  twenty  was  the  age  fixed 
by  the  statutes.  He  said  himself  that  he  Wiis  so 
small  at  the  time  as  to  be  almost  buried  in  his  doctor's 
gown  and  that  all  the  spectators  laughed.  Soon 
after  this  the  boy  began  his  studies  for  the  Bar,  and 
about  the  age  of  nineteen  practised  his  profession 
in  the  courts.  In  the  eight  years  of  his  career  ;u 
ailvocate,  years  crowded  with  work,  he  is  saiil  never 
to  have  lost  a  case.  Even  if  there  be  some  exag- 
geration in  this,  for  it  is  not  in  an  advocate's  power 
always  to  be  on  the  winning  side,  the  tradition  shows 
that  he  w.is  extraordinarily  able  and  successful.  In 
fact,  despite  his  youth,  he  seems  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
scN'cn  to  have  been  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan Bar. 


ALPHONSUS 


335 


ALPHOMSUS 


Alphonsus,  like  so  many  saints,  had  an  excellent 
father  and  a  saintly  mother.  Don  Joseph  de'  Liguori 
had  liis  faults.  He  was  somewhat  worldly  ami  am- 
bitious, at  any  rate  for  his  son,  and  was  rough 
tempered  wlieii  opposed.  Hut  lie  wius  a  nuin  of 
genuine  faith  and  piety  and  staiidess  life,  and  he 
meant  liis  son  to  be  the  same.  Even  when  taking 
him  into  .society  in  order  to  arrange  a  good  marriage 
for  him,  he  wished  Alphonsus  to  put  (iod  first,  and 
every  year  father  and  .son  would  make  a  retreat 
together  in  some  religious  house.  Alphonsus.  as- 
sisted by  di\ine  grace,  thd  not  liisappoint  his  fatlier's 
care.     A  pure  and  modest   boyhood   passed   into  a 


St.  Alphonsds  Liouobi 

manhood  without  reproach.  A  companion,  Bal- 
thasar  Cito,  who  after^vards  became  a  distinguished 
judge,  was  asked  in  later  years  if  Alphonsus  had  ever 
shown  signs  of  levity  in  his  youth.  He  answered 
emphatically:  "Never!  It  would  be  a  sacrilege  to  say 
othenvise."  The  Saint's  confe.s.-a.jr  declared  that  he 
preserved  his  baptismal  innocence  till  death.  Still 
there  was  a  time  of  danger.  Tliere  can  be  little 
doubt  but  that  the  young  .\lphonsus  with  his  high 
spirits  ami  strong  character  was  ardently  attached 
to  his  profession,  and  on  the  way  to  be  spoilt  by  the 
success  and  popularity  which  it  brought.  Abou»  the 
year  1722,  when  he  was  twenty-six  years  old,  he 
Degan  to  go  constantly  into  .society,  to  neglect  prayer 
and  the  practices  of  piety  which  had  been  an  integral 
part  of  his  life,  and  to  take  pleasure  in  the  attention 
with  which  he  was  everj-where  received.  "  Ban- 
quets, entertainments,  tlieatres,"  he  wrote  later  on — 
these  arc  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  but  pleasures 
which  are  filled  with  the  bitterness  of  gall  and  sharp 
thorns.  Believe  me  who  have  experienced  it,  and 
now  weep  over  it."  In  all  this  there  was  no  serious 
sin,  but  there  was  no  high  sanctity  either,  and  God, 
Who  wished  His  servant  to  be  a  saint  and  a  great 
saint,  was  now  to  make  him  take  the  road  to  Damas- 
cus. In  1723  there  was  a  lawsuit  in  the  courts 
between  a  Neapolitan  nobleman,  who.se  name  has 
not  come  down  to  us.  and  the  (Irand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
in  which  property  valued  at  .'jlW.OOO  ducats,  that  is 
to  say,  850O,(K)O",  or  £l(X),tXX).  w.ts  at  stake.  Al- 
phonsus was  one  of  the  leading  counsel;  we  do  not 
know  on  wliich  siile.  When  the  day  came  the  future 
Saint  made  a  brilliant  opening  speech  and  sat  down 
confident  of  victory.     But  before  he  called  a  witness 


the  opposing  counsel  said  to  him  in  chilling  tonea- 
"Your  arguments  are  wasted  breath.  You  have 
overlooked  a  document  which  destroys  your  whole 
case."  "  Wliat  document  is  that?"  said  Alphonsus 
somewhat  piuued.  "  Let  us  have  it."  A  piece  of 
evidence  Wius  lianded  to  him  which  he  ha*l  read  and 
re-read  many  times,  but  always  in  a  sense  the  exact 
contrarj'  of  that  which  he  now  saw  it  to  have.  The 
poor  advocate  turned  pale.  He  remained  thunder- 
struck for  a  moment;  then  said  in  a  broken  voice: 
"  You  are  right.  I  have  been  mistaken.  This  docu- 
ment gives  you  the  case."  In  vain  tho.se  around  him 
anil  even  the  judge  on  the  bench  tried  to  console  him. 
He  was  crusheil  to  the  earth.  He  thought  his  mis- 
take would  be  ascribed  not  to  oversight  but  to  de- 
liberate deceit.  He  felt  as  if  his  career  was  ruined, 
and  left  the  court  almost  beside  himself,  saying: 
"  World,  I  know  you  now.  Courts,  you  shall  never 
see  me  more."  I'or  three  days  he  refu.sed  all  food. 
Then  tlie  storm  subsided,  and  he  began  to  sec  that 
his  humiliation  had  been  sent  him  by  God  to  break 
down  his  priile  and  wean  him  from  the  world.  Con- 
fident that  .some  special  sacrifice  was  required  of  him, 
though  he  did  not  yet  know  what,  he  did  not  return 
to  his  profession,  but  .sixjnt  his  days  in  prayer,  seek- 
ing to  know  God's  will.  After  a  short  mterval  — we 
do  not  know  exactly  how  long — the  answer  came. 
On  28  -Vugust,  1723,  the  young  advocate  had  gone 
to  perform  a  favourite  act  of  charity  by  visiting  the 
sick  in  the  Ho.spital  for  Incurables.  Suddenly  he 
found  himself  surrounded  bv  a  mysterious  light ;  the 
house  seemed  to  rock,  anii  an  interior  voice  said: 
"Leave  the  world  and  give  tliyself  to  Me."  This 
occurred  twice.  Alphonsus  left  the  Hospital  and 
went  to  the  church  of  the  Redemption  of  Captives. 
Here  he  laid  his  sword  before  the  statue  of  Our  Lady, 
and  made  a  solemn  resolution  to  enter  the  eccle- 
siastical state,  and  furthermore  to  offer  himself  as  a 
novice  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory.  He  knew  that 
trials  were  before  him.  His  father,  already  dis- 
pleaseil  at  the  failure  of  two  plans  for  his  son's  mar- 
riage, and  exasperated  at  .Vlphonsus's  present  neg'ect 
of  his  profession,  was  likely  to  offer  a  strenuous 
opposition  to  his  leaving  the  world.  So  indeed  it 
proved.  He  had  to  endure  a  real  persecution  for 
two  months.  In  the  end  a  compromise  was  arri\ed 
at.  Don  Joseph  agreetl  to  allow  liis  son  to  become 
a  priest,  provided  he  would  give  up  his  proposal  of 
joming  tne  Oraton.',  and  would  continue  to  live  at 
home.  To  this  .Uphonsus  by  the  advice  of  his 
director.  Father  Thomas  Pagano,  himself  an  Ora- 
torian,  agreeti.  Thus  was  he  left  free  for  his  real 
work,  the  foimding  of  a  new  religious  congregation. 
On  23  October  of  the  same  year,  1723,  the  Saint  put 
on  the  clcric.il  dress.  In  September  of  the  next  year 
he  received  the  tonsure  and  soon  after  joined  the 
association  of  missionary  secular  priests  called  the 
"Neapolitan  Prop.iganda",  membership  of  which  did 
not  entail  residence  in  common.  In  December,  1724, 
he  received  minor  orders,  and  the  subdiaconate  in 
September,  1725.  On  6  .\pril,  1726,  he  w.as  ordained 
deacon,  and  soon  after  preached  his  first  sermon. 
On  21  December  of  the  same  year,  at  the  age  of 
thirty,  he  w.is  ordained  priest.  For  six  years  he 
laboured  in  and  around  Naples,  giving  missions  for 
the  Propaganda  and  preaching  to  the  lazzaroni  of  the 
capital.  With  the  aid  of  two  laymen,  Peter  Bar- 
barese.  a  schoolmaster,  and  NaRlone,  an  old  soldier, 
both  of  whom  he  converted  from  an  evil  life,  he  en- 
rolled thousands  of  lazzaroni  in  a  sort  of  confra- 
ternity calleti  the  "  .Association  of  the  Chapels  ",  which 
exists  to  this  day.  Then  God  called  him  to  his 
life  work. 

In  .\pril,  1729,  the  .\postle  of  China,  Matthew 
Ripa,  founded  a  missionary  college  in  Naples,  which 
became  known  colloquially  as  the  "Chine.se  College". 
A  few  months  later  .\lpbonsus  left  bis  father's  bouse 


ALPHONSUS 


336 


ALPHONSUS 


and  went  to  live  witli  Hipa,  without,  however,  be- 
coming a  member  of  his  society.  In  his  new  abode 
he  met  a  friend  of  liis  host's,  Fatlier  Thomas  Falcoia, 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  "  Pii  Operarii"  (Pious 
Workers),  and  forineil  with  him  the  great  friendship 
of  liis  life.  Tliere  was  a  considerable  difference  in 
age  between  the  two  men,  for  Falcoia,  born  in  1663, 
was  now  sixty-six,  and  Alphonsus  only  thirty-three, 
but  the  oUl  priest  and  tlie  young  had  kindred  souls. 
Many  years  before,  in  Rome,  Falcoia  had  been  shown 
a  vision  of  a  new  religious  family  of  men  and  wonien 
whose  particular  aim  should  be  the  perfect  imitation 
of  the  virtues  of  Our  Lord.  He  had  even  tried  to 
form  a  branch  of  the  Institute  by  uniting  twelve 
priests  in  a  common  life  at  Tarentum,  but  the  com- 
munity soon  broke  up.  In  1719,  together  with  a 
Father  Filangieri,  also  one  of  the  "Pii  Operarii",  he 
had  refounded  a  Conservatorium  of  religious  women 
at  Scala  on  the  mountains  behind  Amalfi.  But  as 
he  drew  up  a  rule  for  them,  formed  from  that  of  the 
Visitation  nuns,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any 
clear  idea  of  establishing  the  new  institute  of  his 
vision.  God,  however,  intended  the  new  institute 
to  begin  with  these  nuns  of  Scala.  In  1724,  soon 
after  .A.lphonsus  left  the  world,  a  postulant,  JuUa 
Crostarosa,  bom  in  Naples  on  31  October,  1696,  and 
hence  almost  the  same  age  as  the  Saint,  entered  the 
convent  of  Scala.  She  became  known  in  religion 
as  Sister  Maria  Celeste.  In  1725,  while  still  a  novice, 
she  had  a  series  of  visions  in  which  she  saw  a  new 
order  (apparently  of  nuns  only)  similar  to  that 
revealed  to  Falcoia  many  years  before.  Even  its 
Rule  was  made  known  to  her.  She  was  told  to  write 
it  down  and  show  it  to  the  director  of  the  convent, 
that  is  to  Fiilcoia  himself.  While  affecting  to  treat 
the  novice  with  severity  and  to  take  no  notice  of  her 
■^asions,  the  director  was  surprised  to  find  that  the 
Rule  which  she  had  written  down  was  a  realization 
of  what  had  been  so  long  in  his  mind.  He  submitted 
the  new  Rule  to  a  number  of  theologians,  who  ap- 
proved of  it,  and  said  it  might  be  adopted  in  the 
convent  of  Scala,  provided  the  community  would 
accept  it.  But  when  the  question  was  put  to  the 
community,  opposition  began.  Most  were  in  favour 
of  accepting,  but  the  superior  objected  and  appealed 
to  Filangieri,  Falcoia's  colleague  in  establishing  the 
convent,  and  now,  as  General  of  the  "Pii  Operarii", 
his  superior.  Filangieri  forbade  any  change  of  rule 
and  removed  Falcoia  from  all  communication  with 
the  convent.  Matters  remained  thus  for  some  years. 
About  1729,  however,  Filangieri  died,  and  on  8  Octo- 
ber, 1730,  Falcoia  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Castella- 
mare.  He  was  now  free,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Bishop  of  Scala,  to  act  with  regard  to  the  con- 
vent as  he  thought  best.  It  happened  that  Al- 
phonsus, ill  and  overworked,  had  gone  with  some 
companions  to  Scala  in  the  early  summer  of  1730. 
Unable  to  be  idle,  he  had  preached  to  the  goatherds 
of  the  mountains  with  such  success  that  Nicolas 
Guerriero,  Bishop  of  Scala,  begged  him  to  return  and 
give  a  retreat  in  his  cathedral.  Falcoia,  liearing  of 
this,  begged  his  friend  to  give  a  retreat  to  the  nuns 
of  his  Conservatorium  at  the  same  time.  Alphonsus 
agreed  to  both  requests  and  set  out  with  his  two 
friends,  John  Mazzini  and  Vincent  Mannarini,  in 
September,  1730.  The  result  of  the  retreat  to  the 
nuns  was  tliat  the  young  priest,  who  before  had  been 
prejudiced  by  reports  in  Naples  against  the  pro- 
posed new  Rule,  became  its  firm  supporter,  and  even 
obtained  permission  from  the  Bishop  of  Scala  for 
the  diange.  In  1731,  the  convent  unanimously 
adopted  the  new  Rule,  together  with  a  habit  of  red 
and  blue,  the  tratlitional  colours  of  Our  Lord's  own 
dress.  One  branch  of  the  new  Institute  .seen  by 
Falcoia  in  vision  w:us  thus  established.  The  other 
was  not  to  be  long  delayed.  No  doubt  Tliomas 
I'ulcoia  had  for  some  time  hoped  that  the  ardent 


young  priest,  who  was  .so  devoted  to  him.  might, 
under  his  direction,  be  tlie  founder  of  the  new  Order 
he  had  at  heart.  A  fresh  vision  of  Sister  Maria 
Celeste  seemed  to  show  that  such  w.as  'the  will  of 
God.  On  3  October,  1731,  the  eve  of  the  feast  of 
St.  Francis,  she  saw  Our  Lord  with  St.  Francis  on 
His  right  hand  and  a  priest  on  His  left.  A  voice  said 
"This  is  he  whom  I  have  cliosen  to  be  head  of  My 
Institute,  the  Prefect  General  of  a  new  Congrega- 
tion of  men  who  shall  work  for  My  glory."  The 
priest  was  Alphonsus.  Soon  after,  F'alcoia  made 
known  to  the  latter  his  vocation  to  leave  Naples 
and  establish  an  order  of  missionaries  at  Scala.  who 
should  work  above  all  for  the  neglected  goatherds 
of  the  mountains.  A  year  of  trouble  and  anxiety 
followed.  The  Superior  of  the  Propaganda  and  even 
Falcoia's  friend,  Matthew  Ripa,  opposed  the  project 
with  all  their  might.  But  Alplionsus's  director, 
Father  Pagano;  Father  Fiorillo,  a  great  Dominican 
preacher;  Father  Manulio,  Provincial  of  the  Jesuits; 
and  Vincent  Cutica,  Superior  of  the  Vincentians, 
supported  the  young  priest,  and,  9  November,  1732, 
the  "  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer  ",  or  as 
it  was  called  for  seventeen  years,  "of  the  Most  Holy 
SaN-iour",  was  begun  in  a  little  hospice  belonging  to 
the  nuns  of  Scala.  Though  St.  Alphonsus  was 
foimder  and  de  facto  head  of  the  Institute,  its  general 
direction  in  the  beginning,  as  well  as  the  direction 
of  .\lphonsus's  conscience,  was  undertaken  by  the 
Bishop  of  Castellamare  and  it  was  not  till  the  latter's 
death,  20  April,  1743,  that  a  general  chapter  was 
held  and  the  Saint  was  formally  elected  Superior- 
General.  In  fact,  in  the  beginning,  the  young 
priest  in  his  humility  woultl  not  be  Superior  even 
of  the  house,  judging  one  of  his  companions,  John 
Baptist  Donato,  better  fittetl  for  the  post  because 
he  had  already  had  some  experience  of  community 
life  in  another  institute. 

Tlie  early  years,  following  the  founding  of  the  new 
order,  were  not  promising.  Dissensions  arose,  the 
Saint's  former  friend  and  chief  companion,  Vincent 
Mannarini,  opposing  him  and  Falcoia  in  everj'thing. 
On  1  April,  1733,  all  the  companions  of  Alphonsus 
except  one  lay  brother,  Vitus  Curtius,  abandoned 
him,  and  founded  the  Congregation  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  which,  confined  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,  was  extinguished  in  1860  by  the  Italian 
Revolution.  The  dissensions  even  spread  to  the 
nuns,  and  Sister  Maria  Celeste  herself  left  Scala  and 
founded  a  convent  at  Foggia,  wliere  she  died  in  the 
odour  of  sanctity,  14  September,  1755.  She  was 
declared  Venerable  11  August,  1901.  Alphonsus, 
however,  stood  firm;  soon  other  companions  arri\ed, 
and  though  Scala  itself  was  given  up  by  tlie  Fatliers 
in  1738,  by  1746  the  new  Congregation  liad  four 
houses  at  Nocera  de'  Pagani,  Ciorani,  Iliceto  (now 
Deliceto),  and  Caposele,  all  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples.  In  1749,  the  Rule  and  Institute  of  men  were 
approved  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV,  and  in  1750,  the 
Rule  and  Institute  of  the  nuns.  Alphonsus  was 
lawyer,  founder,  religious  superior,  bishop,  theologian, 
and  mystic,  but  he  was  above  all  a  missionary,  and 
no  true  biography  of  the  Saint  will  neglect  to  give 
this  due  prominence.  From  1726  to  1752,  first  as  a 
member  of  the  Neapolitan  "Propaganda",  and  then 
as  a  leader  of  his  own  I'atliers,  lie  traversed  the 
provinces  of  Naples  for  the  greater  part  of  each  year, 
giving  missions  even  in  the  smallest  villages  and 
saving  many  souls.  A  special  feature  of  his  method 
was  the  return  of  tiie  missionaries,  after  an  interval 
of  some  montlis,  to  tlie  scene  of  their  labours  to 
con.solidate  their  work  by  what  w.as  called  the  "  re- 
new.al  of  a  mission."  After  1752  Alphon.sus  gave 
fewer  mis.sions.  His  infirmities  were  increasing,  and 
he  was  occupied  a  good  deal  with  his  writings.  His 
promotion  to  the  episcopate  in  1762  led  to  a  renewal 
of  his  missionary  activity,  but  in  a  slightly  different 


ALPHONSUS 


337 


ALPHONSUS 


form.  The  Saint  had  four  houses,  but,  iluring  liis 
lifetime  it  not  only  became  impossible  in  the  King- 
dom of  Naples  to  get  any  more,  but  even  the  barest 
toleration  for  those  he  had  could  scarcely  be  ob- 
tained. The  cau.se  of  this  Wius  "rcgalism",  the 
omnipotence  of  kings  even  in  matters  spiritual, 
which  was  the  .system  of  government  in  Naples  as 
in  all  the  Bourbon  States.  The  immediate  autlior 
of  what  was  practically  a  lifelong  persecution  of  the 
Saint  was  the  Maniuis  Tanucci,  wlio  entered  Naples 
in  1734.  Naples  had  been  part  of  the  dominions  of 
Spain  since  l'M'.i,  but  in  1708  when  Alphonsus  wius 
twelve  years  old,  it  was  cotujuered  by  .Vustria  during 
the  war  of  the  Sj)ani.sh  Succession.  In  1734,  how- 
ever, it  was  recon(iuercil  liy  Don  Carios,  the  young 
Duke  of  Parma,  great-grandson  of  Louis  XIV,  and 
the  independent  Hourbon  Kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  was  established.  With  Don  Carlos,  or  as  he 
is  generally  called,  Charles  III,  from  his  later  title 
as  King  of  Spain,  came  the  lawyer,  Bernanl  Tanucci, 
who  governed  Naples  as  Prime  Minister  and  Regent 
for  the  next  forty-two  years.  This  was  to  be  a 
momentous  revolution  for  .Vlphonsus.  Had  it  hap- 
pened a  few  years  later,  the  new  C)o\'crnmcnt  might 
nave  found  the  Kedemptorist  Congregation  alreatly 
authorized,  and  as  Tanucci's  anticlerical  policy 
rather  showed  itself  in  forbidding  new  Orders  than, 
with  the  exception  of  tlic  Society  of  Jesus,  in  sup- 
pressing old  ones,  the  Saint  might  have  been  free  to 
develop  his  work  in  comparative  peace.  At  it  was, 
he  was  refused  the  royal  exequatur  to  the  Brief  of 
Benedict  XIV,  and  State  recognition  of  his  Institute 
as  a  religious  congregation  till  the  day  of  his  death. 
There  were  whole  years,  indeed,  in  which  the  Institute 
seemed  on  the  verge  of  summary  suppression.  The 
suffering  which  this  brought  on  .-Vlphonsus.  with  his 
sensitive  and  high-strung  ilisposition.  was  verj'  great, 
besides  what  was  worse,  the  relaxation  of  discipline 
and  loss  of  vocations  which  it  caused  in  the  Order 
itself.  Alphonsus,  however,  was  unflagging  in  his 
efforts  with  the  Court.  It  may  be  he  was  even  too 
anxious,  and  on  one  occasion  when  he  wiis  over- 
whelmed by  a  fresh  refusal,  his  friend  the  Marquis 
Brancone,  Minister  for  Kcdesiastical  Affairs  and  a 
man  of  deep  piety,  said  to  him  gently:  "It  would 
seem  as  if  you  placed  all  your  trust  here  below"; 
on  which  the  Saint  recovereil  his  peace  of  mind. 
A  final  attempt  to  gain  the  royal  approval,  which 
seemed  as  if  at  last  it  had  been  successful,  led  to  the 
crowning  sorrow  of  Alphonsus's  life:  the  division 
and  apparent  ruin  of  his  Congregation  and  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  Holy  See.  Tliis  was  in  1780,  when 
Alphonsus  was  eighty-three  years  old.  But,  before 
relating  the  episode  of  the  "  Kegolamento",  as  it  is 
called,  we  must  speak  of  the  period  of  the  Saint's 
episcopate  which  mtervcned. 

In  the  year  1747,  King  Charles  of  Naples  wished 
to  make  Alphonsus  Archbishop  of  Palermo,  and  it 
was  only  by  the  most  earnest  entreaties  that  he  was 
able  to  escape.  In  1762,  there  was  no  escape  and 
he  was  constrained  by  formal  obedience  to  the 
Pope  to  accept  the  Bishopric  of  St.  Agatha  of  the 
Goths,  a  very  small  Neapolitan  dioce.se  lying  a  few 
miles  ofT  the  road  from  Naples  to  Capua.  Here  with 
30,000  uninstructed  people,  400  mostly  indifferent  and 
sometimes  scandalous  secular  clcrgj',  and  .seventeen 
more  or  less  relaxed  religious  houses  to  look  after, 
in  a  field  so  overgrown  with  weeds  that  they  seemed 
the  only  crop,  he  wept  and  prayed  and  spent  days 
and  nights  in  unremitting  labour  for  thirteen  years. 
More  than  once  he  faced  a-ssassination  immoved. 
In  a  riot  whicli  took  place  during  the  terrible  fainino 
that  fell  upon  Southern  Italy  in  1764,  he  saved  the 
life  of  the  .syndic  of  St.  .\gatha  by  offering  his  own 
to  the  mob.  He  fed  tlie  poor,  instructed  the  ignorant, 
reorganized  his  .seminarj".  reformed  his  convents, 
created  a  new  spirit  in  his  clergy,  banished  scandalous 


noblemen  anil  women  of  evil  life  with  equal  impar- 
tiality, brought  the  study  of  theology  and  especially 
of  moral  theolo^  into  honour,  and  all  tlie  time  was 
begging  pope  alter  pope  to  let  him  resign  his  office 
because  he  w.-ts  doing  nothing  for  his  diocese.  To 
all  his  administrative  work  we  must  add  his  con- 
tinvud  literary  labours,  his  many  hours  of  daily 
pr.ayer,  his  terrible  austerities,  anif  a  stress  of  illne-ss 
which  made  his  life  a  martyrdom.  Eight  times  dur- 
ing liis  long  life,  without  counting  his  last  sickness, 
tlie  Saint  received  the  sacraments  of  the  dying,  but 
the  worst  of  all  his  illne-sses  was  a  terrible  attack  of 
rheumatic  fever  during  his  episcopate,  an  attack 
which  lasted  from  May,  1768,  to  June,  1760,  and 
left  him  paralyzed  to  the  end  of  his  days.  It  was 
this  whicli  gave  St.  Alphonsus  the  bent  head  which 
we  notice  in  the  portraits  of  him.  So  bent  was  it 
in  the  beginning,  that  the  pressure  of  his  chin  pro- 
duced a  dangerous  wound  in  the  chest.  Although 
the  doctors  succeeded  in  straightening  the  neck  a 
little,  the  Saint  for  the  rest  of  liis  life  had  to  drink 
at  meals  through  a  tube.  He  could  never  have  said 
Mass  again  had  not  an  Augustinian  prior  shown  him 
how  to  support  him.self  on  a  chair  so  that  witli  the 
assistance  of  an  acolyte  he  could  raise  the  chalice 
to  his  lips.  But  in  spite  of  his  infirmities  both 
Clement  XIII  (175S-()9)  and  Clement  XIV  (1769-74) 
obliged  Alplionsus  to  remain  at  his  post.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 177,'>,  however,  Pius  VI  was  elected  Pope, 
and  the  following  May  he  permitted  the  Saint  to 
resign  his  see.  ■ 

Alphonsus  returned  to  his  little  cell  at  Nocera  in 
Julv,  177.';,  to  prepare,  as  he  thought,  for  a  speedy 
ami  happy  deatli.  Twelve  years,  however,  still  sep- 
arated him  from  his  reward,  years  for  the  most  part 
not  of  peace  but  of  greater  afflictions  than  any  wtiich 
had  yet  befallen  him.  By  1777,  tlie  Saint,  in  addi- 
tion to  four  houses  in  Naples  and  one  in  Sicily,  liad 
four  others  at  Scifelli,  Frosmone,  St.  Angelo  a  Cupolo, 
and  Beneventum,  in  the  States  of  the  Church.  In 
case  things  became  hopeless  in  Naples,  he  looked  to 
these  houses  to  maintain  the  Bule  and  Institute. 
In  1780,  a  crisis  arose  in  which  they  did  this,  yet  in 
such  a  way  as  to  bring  division  in  the  Congregation 
and  extreme  sutTering  and  disgrace  upon  its  founder. 
The  crisis  arose  in  tliis  way.  From  the  year  1759 
two  former  benefactors  of  the  Congregation,  Baron 
Sarnelli  and  Francis  Maffei,  by  one  of  those  changes 
not  uncommon  in  Naples,  had  become  its  bitter  ene- 
mies, and  waged  a  vendetta  against  it  in  the  law 
courts  which  lasted  for  twonty-four  years.  Sarnelli 
was  almost  openly  supported  by  tlie  all-powerful 
Tanucci,  and  the  suppression  of  tlie  Congregation  at 
last  seemed  a  matter  of  days,  when  on  26  October, 
1776,  Tanucci,  who  had  offended  Queen  Maria  Caro- 
lina, suddenly  fell  from  power.  I'nder  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Marquis  dolla  .Sambuca,  who.  though  a 
great  rcgalist,  was  a  pci-simal  friend  of  the  Saint's, 
there  was  promise  of  better  times,  and  in  August, 
1779,  Alphonsus's  hopes  were  raised  by  the  publi- 
cation of  a  royal  decree  allowing  him  to  appoint 
superiors  in  his  Congregation  and  to  have  a  novitiate 
and  house  of  studies.  The  Oovernment  throughout 
had  recognized  the  good  effect  of  his  missions,  but 
it  wished  tlie  mi.ssionaries  to  be  secular  priests  and 
not  a  religious  order.  The  Decree  of  1779,  however, 
seemed  a  great  step  in  advance.  Alphonsus,  having 
got  so  much,  hoped  to  get  a  little  more,  and  through 
his  friend,  .Mgr.  Testa,  the  Grand  Almoner,  even  to 
have  his  Uule  approved.  He  did  not,  as  in  the  past, 
ask  for  an  exequatur  to  the  Brief  of  Benedict  XIV, 
for  relations  at  the  time  were  more  strained  than 
ever  between  the  Courts  of  Rome  and  Naples;  but 
he  hoped  the  king  might  give  an  independent  .sanc- 
tion to  his  Rule,  provided  lie  waived  all  legal  right 
to  hold  property  in  common,  which  he  was  quite 
prejiared  to  do.     It  was  all-important  to  the  Fathers 


ALPHONSUS 


338 


ALPHONSUS 


to  be  able  to  rebut  tlie  cliarge  of  being  an  illegal 
religious  congregation,  which  was  one  of  the  chief 
allegations  in  the  ever-adjourned  and  ever-impending 
action  by  Baron  Sarnelli.  Perhaps  in  any  case  the 
submission  of  their  Rule  to  a  suspicious  and  even 
hostile  civil  power  was  a  mistake.  At  all  events,  it 
proved  disastrous  in  the  result.  Alphonsus  being  so 
old  and  .so  infirm— he  was  eighty-five,  crippled,  deaf, 
and  nearly  blind — his  one  chance  of  success  was  to 
be  faithfully  .served  by  friends  and  subordinates, 
and  he  was  betrayed  at  every  turn.  His  friend  the 
Grand  Almoner  betrayed  him;  his  two  envoys  for 
negotiating  with  the  Grand  Almoner,  Fathers  Ma- 
jone  and  Cimino,  betrayed  him,  consultors  general 
though  they  were.  His  very  confessor  and  vicar- 
general  in  the  government  of  his  Order,  Father  An- 
drew Villani,  joined  in  the  conspiracy.  In  the  end 
the  Rule  was  so  altered  as  to  be  hardly  recognizable, 
the  very  vows  of  religion  being  abolished.  To  this 
altered  Rule,  or  "Regolamento",  as  it  came  to  be 
called,  the  unsuspecting  Saint  was  induced  to  put 
his  signature.  It  was  approved  by  the  king  and 
forced  upon  the  stupefied  Congregation  by  the  whole 
power  of  the  State.  A  fearful  commotion  arose. 
Alphonsus  himself  was  not  spared.  Vague  rumours 
of  impending  treachery  had  got  about  and  had  been 
made  known  to  him,  but  he  had  refused  to  believe 
them.  "You  have  founded  the  Congregation  and 
you  have  destroyed  it",  said  one  Father  to  him. 
The  Saint  only  wept  in  silence  and  tried  in  vain  to 
devise  some  means  by  which  his  Order  might  be 
saved.  His  best  plan  would  have  been  to  consult 
the  Holy  See,  but  in  this  he  had  been  forestalled. 
The  Fathers  in  the  Papal  States,  with  too  precipitate 
zeal,  in  the  very  beginning  denounced  the  change 
of  Rule  to  Rome.  Pius  VI.  already  deeply  displeased 
with  the  Neapolitan  Government,  took  the  Fathers 
in  his  own  dominions  under  his  special  protection, 
forbade  all  change  of  rule  in  their  houses,  and  even 
withdrew  them  from  obedience  to  the  Neapolitan 
superiors,  that  is  to  St.  Alphonsus,  till  an  inquiry 
could  be  held.  A  long  process  followed  in  the  Court 
of  Rome,  and  on  22  September,  17S0,  a  provisional 
Decree,  which  on  24  August,  1781,  was  made  abso- 
lute, recognized  the  houses  in  the  Papal  States  as 
alone  constituting  the  Redemptorist  Congregation. 
Father  Francis  de  Patila,  one  of  the  chief  appellants, 
was  appointed  their  Superior  General,  "in  place  of 
those",  so  the  brief  ran,  "who  being  higher  superiors 
of  the  said  Congregation  have  with  their  followers 
adopted  a  new  system  essentially  different  from  the 
old,  and  have  deserted  the  Institute  in  which  they 
were  professed,  and  have  thereby  ceased  to  be  mem- 
bers of  the  Congregation."  So  the  Saint  was  cut 
off  from  his  own  Order  by  the  Pope  who  was  to 
declare  him  "Venerable".  In  this  state  of  exclusion 
he  lived  for  seven  years  more  and  in  it  he  died.  It 
was  only  after  his  death,  as  he  had  prophesied,  that 
the  Neapolitan  Government  at  last  recognized  the 
original  Rule,  and  that  the  Redemptorist  Congrega- 
tion was  reunited  under  one  head  (1793). 

.Mphonsus  had  still  one  final  storm  to  meet,  and 
then  the  end.  About  three  years  before  his  death 
he  went  through  a  veritable  "Night  of  the  Soul", 
learful  temptations  against  every  virtue  crowded 
unon  him,  together  with  diabolical  apparitions  and 
illusions,  and  terrible  scruples  and  impulses  to  de- 
spair which  made  life  a  hell.  At  last  came  peace, 
and  on  1  August,  1787,  as  the  midday  Angelus  was 
ringing,  the  Saint  passed  peacefully  to  his  rew-ard. 
He  had  nearly  completed  his  ninety-first  year.  He 
was  declared  "Venerable",  4  May,  1796;  was  beati- 
fied in  1810,  and  canonized  in  1839.  In  1871,  he 
was  declared  a  Doctor  of  the  Church.  "Alphonsus 
was  of  middle  height",  says  his  first  biographer, 
Tannoia;  "his  head  was  rather  large,  his  hair  black, 
and  beard  well-grown."     He  had  a  pleasant  smile, 


and  his  conversation  was  \ery  agreeable,  yet  he  had 
great  dignity  of  manner.  He  was  a  born  leader  of 
men.  His  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and 
to  Our  Lady  was  extraordinarj'.  He  had  a  tender 
charity  towards  all  who  were  in  trouble;  he  would 
go  to  any  length  to  try  to  save  a  vocation;  he  would 
expose  himself  to  death  to  prevent  sin.  He  had  a 
love  for  the  lower  animals,  and  wild  creatures  who 
fled  from  all  else  would  come  to  him  as  to  a  friend. 
Psychologically,  Alphonsus  may  be  classed  among 
twice-born  souls;  that  is  to  say,  there  was  a  definitely 
marked  break  or  conversion,  in  his  life,  in  which  he 
turned,  not  from  serious  sin,  for  that  he  never  com- 
mitted, but  from  comparative  worldliness,  to  thorough 
self-sacrifice  for  God.  Alphonsus's  temperament  was 
very  ardent.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  passions,  using 
the  term  in  the  philosophic  sense,  and  tremendous 
energy,  but  from  childhood  his  passions  were  under 
control.  Yet,  to  take  anger  alone,  though  compara- 
tively early  in  life  he  seemed  dead  to  insult  or  injury 
which  affected  himself,  in  cases  of  cruelty,  or  of  in- 
justice to  others,  or  of  dishonour  to  God,  he  showed 
a  prophet's  indignation  even  in  old  age.  Ultimately, 
however,  anything  merely  human  in  this  nad  dis- 
appeared. At  the  worst,  it  was  only  the  scalTolding 
by  which  the  temple  of  perfection  was  raised.  In- 
deed, apart  from  those  who  become  saints  by  the 
altogether  special  grace  of  martyrdom,  it  may  be 
doubted  if  many  men  and  women  of  phlegmatic 
temperament  have  been  canonized.  The  differen- 
tia of  saints  is  not  faultlessness  but  driving-power, 
a  driving-power  exerted  in  generous  self-sacrifice 
and  ardent  love  of  God.  The  impulse  to  this  pas- 
sionate service  of  God  comes  from  Divine  grace,  but 
the  soul  must  correspond  (which  is  also  a  grace  of 
God),  and  the  soul  of  strong  will  and  strong  passions 
corresponds  best.  The  difficulty  about  strong  wills 
and  strong  passions  is  that  they  are  hard  to  tame, 
but  when  they  are  tamed  they  are  the  raw  material 
of  sanctity. 

Not  less  remarkable  than  the  intensity  with  which 
Alphonsus  worked  is  the  amount  of  work  he  did. 
His  perseverance  was  indomitable.  He  both  made 
and  kept  a  vow  not  to  lose  a  single  moment  of 
time.  He  was  helped  in  this  by  his  turn  of  mind 
which  was  extremely  practical.  Though  a  good  dog- 
matic theologian — a  fact  which  has  not  been  suffi- 
ciently recognized — he  was  not  a  metaphysician  like 
the  great  scholastics.  He  was  a  lawyer,  not  only 
during  his  years  at  the  Bar,  but  throughout  his 
whole  life — a  lawyer,  who  to  skilled  advocacy  and 
an  enormous  knowledge  of  practical  detail  added  a 
wide  and  luminous  hold  of  underlying  principles.  It 
was  this  which  made  him  the  prince  of  moral  theo- 
logians, and  gained  him,  when  canonization  made  it 
possible,  the  title  of  "Doctor  of  the  Church".  This 
combination  of  practical  common  sense  with  extra- 
ordinary energy  in  administrative  work  ought  to 
make  .Alphonsus,  if  he  were  better  known,  particu- 
larly attractive  to  the  English-speaking  nations,  es- 
pecially as  he  is  so  modern  a  saint.  But  we  must 
not  push  resemblances  too  far.  If  in  some  things 
Alphonsus  was  an  Anglo-Saxon,  in  others  he  was 
a  Neapolitan  of  the  Neapolitans,  though  always  a 
saint.  He  often  writes  as  a  Neapolitan  to  Neapoli- 
tans. Were  the  vehement  things  in  his  letters  and 
writings,  especially  in  the  matter  of  rebuke  or  com- 
plaint, to  be  appraised  as  if  uttered  by  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  in  cold  blood,  we  might  be  surprised  and 
even  shocked.  Neapolitan  students,  in  an  animated 
but  amicable  discussion,  seem  to  foreign  eyes  to  be 
taking  part  in  a  violent  quarrel.  St.  Alphonsus  ap- 
peared a  miracle  of  calm  to  Tannoia.  Could  he  have 
Deeii  what  an  Anglo-Saxon  would  consider  a  miracle 
of  calm,  he  would  have  seemed  to  his  companions 
absolutely  inhuman.  The  saints  are  not  inhuman 
but  real  men  of  flesh  and  blood,  however  much  some 


ALPHONSUS 


339 


ALPHONSUS 


hagiographers  may  ignore  the  fact.  While  the  con- 
tinual intensity  of  reiterated  acts  of  virtue  which 
we  liave  called  driving-power  is  what  really  creates 
sanctity,  there  is  anotlier  indispensable  quality.  The 
extreme  ditliculty  of  the  lifelong  work  of  fashioning 
a  saint  consists  precisely  in  this,  that  every  act  of 
virtue  the  saint  performs  goes  to  strengthen  his 
character,  that  is,  liis  will.  On  the  other  hand,  ever 
since  the  Kail  of  Man,  the  will  of  man  has  been  his 
greatest  danger.  It  has  a  tciidciicy  at  every  mo- 
ment to  deflect,  and  if  it  docs  dcHcct  from  the  right 
path,  the  greater  the  momentum  the  more  terriljle 
the  final  crash.  Now  the  saint  hits  a  very  great 
momentum  indeed,  and  a  spoiled  saint  is  often  a 
great  villain.  To  prevent  tlie  ship  going  to  pieces 
on  the  rocks,  it  has  need  of  a  very  res|>onsive  rudder, 
answering  to  the  slightest  pressure  of  Divine  guid- 
ance. The  rudder  is  humility,  which,  in  the  intel- 
lect, is  a  realization  of  our  own  unworthiness,  and 
in  the  will,  docility  to  right  guidance.  But  how  was 
Alphonsus  to  grow  in  this  so  necessary  virtue  when 
he  was  in  authority  nearly  all  his  life?  The  answer 
is  that  (lod  kept  him  humble  by  interior  trials. 
From  his  earliest  years  he  had  an  anxious  fear  about 
committing  sin  which  pa-ssed  at  times  into  scruple. 
He  who  ruled  and  directed  others  so  wisely,  had, 
where  his  own  soul  was  concerned,  to  de|X!nd  on 
obedience  like  a  little  child.  To  supplement  this, 
God  allowed  him  in  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  fall 
into  disgrace  with  the  pope,  and  to  find  himself 
deprived  of  all  external  authority,  trembling  at  times 
even  for  liis  eternal  salvation.  St.  Alphonsus  does 
not  otter  as  much  directly  to  the  student  of  mys- 
tical theology  as  do  some  contemplati\e  saints  who 
have  led  more  retired  lives.  Unfortunately,  he  was 
not  obliged  by  his  confessor,  in  virtue  of  holy  obe- 
dience, as  St.  Teresa  was,  to  write  down  his  states 
of  prayer;  so  we  do  not  know  precisely  what  they 
were.  The  prayer  he  recommended  to  his  Congre- 
gation, of  which  we  have  beautiful  examples  in  his 
ascetical  works,  is  alTective;  the  use  of  short  aspi- 
rations, petitions,  and  acts  of  love,  rather  than  dis- 
cursive meditation  with  long  reflections.  His  own 
prayer  was  perhaps  for  the  most  part  what  some 
call  "active",  others  "ordinary",  contemplation. 
Of  extraordinary  passive  states,  such  as  rapture, 
there  are  not  many  instances  recorded  in  his  life, 
though  there  are  some.  At  three  different  times  in 
his  missions,  while  preaching,  a  ray  of  light  from  a 
picture  of  Our  Lady  darted  towards  him,  and  he 
fell  into  an  ecstasy  Wfore  the  people.  In  old  age 
he  was  more  than  once  raised  in  the  air  when  speak- 
ing of  God.  His  intercession  healed  the  sick;  he 
read  the  secrets  of  hearts,  and  foretold  the  future. 
He  fell  into  a  clairvoyant  trance  at  Arienzo  on  21 
September,  1774,  and  was  present  in  spirit  at  the 
death-bed  in  Rome  of  Pope  Clement  XIV. 

It  was  comparatively  late  in  life  that  Alphonsus 
became  a  writer.  If  we  except  a  few  poems  pub- 
lished in  1733  (the  Saint  was  born  in  1G96),  his  first 
work,  a  tiny  volume  called  "Visits  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament",  only  appeared  in  1744  or  1745,  when 
he  w:vs  nearly  fifty  years  old.  Three  years  later  he 
published  the  first  sketch  of  his  "Moral  Theology" 
m  a  single  quarto  volume  called  "Annotations  to 
Busembaum  ,  a  celebrated  Jesuit  moral  theologian. 
He  spent  the  next  few  years  in  recasting  this  work, 
and  m  1753  appeared  the  first  volume  of  the  "The- 
ologia  Moralis'  ,  the  second  volume,  dedicated  to 
Benedict  XIV,  following  in  17.5.5.  Nine  editions  of 
the  "Moral  Thcologj'"  appeared  in  the  Saint's  life- 
time, those  of  174S,"l753-.5.5,  17,57,  1760,  1703.  1707, 
1773,  1779,  and  17S.5,  the  "Annotations  to  Busem- 
baum" counting  as  the  first.  In  the  second  edition 
the  work  received  the  definite  form  it  has  since  re- 
tained, though  in  later  issues  the  Saint  retracted  a 
number  of  opinions,  corrected  minor  ones,  and  worked 
I.— --2 


at  the  statement  of  his  theory  of  Equiprobabilism 
till  at  last  he  considered  it  complete.  In  addition, 
he  published  many  editions  of  compendiums  of  his 
larger  work,  such  iis  the  "Homo  Apostolicus",  made 
in  1759.  The  ".Moral  Theology",  after  a  historical 
introduction  by  the  Saint's  friend,  P.  Zaccaria,  S.J., 
which  was  omitted,  however,  from  the  eighth  and 
ninth  editions,  begins  with  a  treatise  "De  Con- 
.siientia",  followed  by  one  "De  Legibus".  These 
form  the  first  book  of  the  work,  w'hilc  the  second 
contains  the  treatises  on  Kaith,  Hope,  and  Charity, 
'i'lie  third  book  deals  with  the  Ten  Commandments, 
the  fourth  with  the  monastic  and  clerical  .slates,  and 
the  duties  of  judges,  advocates,  doctors,  merchants, 
and  others.  The  fifth  book  has  two  treatises  "De 
Actibus  Humanis"  and  "De  Peccatis";  the  si.xth  is 
on  the  sacraments,  the  seventh  and  last  on  the  cen- 
sures of  the  Church. 

St.  Alphonsus  as  a  moral  theologian  occupies  the 
golden  mean  between  the  schools  tending  either  to 
laxity  or  to  rigour  which  divided  the  theological 
world  of  his  time.  When  he  was  preparing  for  the 
priesthood  in  Naples,  his  masters  were  of  the  rigid 
school,  for  though  the  centre  of  Jansenistic  disturb- 
ance was  in  northern  Europe,  no  shore  was  so  re- 
mote as  not  to  feel  the  ripple  of  its  waves.  When 
the  Saint  began  to  hear  confessions,  however,  he 
soon  saw  the  harm  done  by  rigorism,  and  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  he  inclined  more  to  the  mild  school 
of  the  Jesuit  theologians,  whom  he  calls  "the  masters 
of  morals".  St.  Ai[)honsus,  however,  did  not  in  all 
things  follow  their  teaching,  especially  on  one  point 
much  debated  in  the  schools;  namely,  whether  we 
may  in  practice  follow  an  opinion  which  denies  a 
moral  obligation,  when  the  opinion  which  affirms 
a  moral  obligation  seems  to  us  to  be  altogether  more 
probable.  This  is  the  great  question  of  "Probabil- 
ism".  St.  Alphonsus,  after  publishing  anonymously 
(in  1749  and  1755)  two  treatises  advocating  the  right 
to  follow  the  less  probable  opinion,  in  the  end  de- 
cided against  that  lawfulness,  and  in  case  of  doubt 
only  allowed  freedom  from  obligation  where  the 
opinions  for  and  against  the  law  were  equal  or  nearly 
equal.  He  called  his  system  Emiiproba'Dilism.  It 
is  true  that  theologians  even  of  the  broadest  school 
are  agreed  that,  w-lien  an  opinion  in  favour  of  the 
law  is  so  much  more  probaole  as  to  amount  prac- 
tically to  moral  certainty,  the  less  probable  opmion 
cannot  be  followed,  and  some  have  supposed  that 
St.  Alphonsus  meant  no  more  than  this  by  his  ter- 
minology. According  to  this  view  he  chose  a  dif- 
ferent formula  from  the  Jesuit  WTiters,  partly  be- 
cause he  thought  his  own  terms  more  exact,  and, 
partly  to  save  his  teaching  and  his  Congregation  as 
far  as  possible  from  the  State  persecution  which  after 
1704  had  already  fallen  so  heavily  os  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  in  1773  was  formally  to  suppress  it.  It 
is  a  matter  for  friendly  controversy,  but  it  seems  there 
was  a  real  difference,  though  not  as  great  in  practice 
as  is  suppcsed,  between  the  Saint's  later  teaching 
and  that  current  in  the  Society.  Al[ihonsus  was 
a  lawyer,  and  as  a  lawyer  he  attached  much  im- 
portance to  the  weight  of  evidence.  In  a  civil  ac- 
tion a  serious  preponderance  of  evidence  gives  one 
side  the  case.  If  civil  courts  could  not  decide  against 
a  defendant  on  greater  probability,  but  had  to  wait, 
as  a  criminal  court  mu.st  wait,  for  moral  certainty, 
many  actions  would  never  be  decided  at  all.  St.  Al- 
phonsus likened  the  conflict  between  law  and  liberty 
to  a  civil  action  in  which  the  law  has  the  onus  pro- 
bnndi,  although  greater  probabilities  give  it  a  ver- 
dict. Pure  probabilism  likens  it  to  a  criminal  trial, 
in  which  the  jury  must  find  in  favour  of  liberty  (the 
prisoner  at  the  \)ar)  if  any  single  reasonable  doubt 
whatever  remain  in  its  favour.  Furthermore,  St. 
Alphonsus  was  a  great  theologian,  and  so  attached 
much  weight  to  intrinsic  probability.     He  was  not 


ALPHONSUS 


340 


ALPHONSUS 


afraid  of  making  up  his  mind.  "I  follow  my  con- 
science", lie  wrote  in  1764,  "and  when  reason  per- 
suades ine  1  make  little  account  of  moralists."  To 
follow  an  opinion  in  favour  of  liberty  without  weigh- 
ing it,  merely  because  it  is  held  by  someone  else 
would  have  seemed  to  Alphonsus  an  abdication  of 
the  judicial  office  with  which  as  a  confessor  he  was 
invested.  Still  it  must  in  fairness  be  admitted  that 
all  priests  are  not  great  theologians  able  to  estimate 
intrinsic  probability  at  its  true  worth,  and  the  Church 
herself  might  be  held  to  have  conceded  something 
to  pure  probabilism  by  the  unprecedented  honours 
she  paid  to  the  .Saint  in  her  Decree  of  22  July,  1831, 
wliich  allows  confessors  to  follow  any  of  St.  Alphon- 
sus's  own  opinions  without  weighing  the  reasons  on 
which  they  were  based. 

Besides"  his  Moral  Theology,  the  Saint  wrote  a 
large  number  of  dogmatic  and  ascetical  works  nearly 
all  in  the  vernacular.  The  "Glories  of  Mary",  "The 
Selva",  "The  True  Spouse  of  Christ",  "The  Great 
Means  of  Prayer",  "The  Way  of  Salvation",  "Opera 
Dogmatica,  or  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent",  and 
"Sermons  for  all  the  Sundays  in  the  Year",  are  the 
best  known.  He  was  also  a  poet  and  musician.  His 
hymns  are  jvistly  celebrated  in  Italy.  Quite  recently, 
a  duet  composed  by  him,  between  the  Soul  and  God, 
was  found  in  the  British  Museum  bearing  the  date  1760 
and  containing  a  correction  in  his  own  handwriting. 
Finally,  St.  Alphonsus  was  a  wonderful  letter-writer, 
and  the  mere  salvage  of  his  correspondence  amounts 
to  1,4.51  letters,  filling  three  large  volumes.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  notice  certain  non-Catholic  attacks 
on  Alphonsus  as  a  patron  of  lying.  St.  Alphonsus 
was  so  scrupulous  about  truth  that  when,  in  1776, 
the  regalist,  Mgr.  Filingeri,  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Naples,  the  Saint  would  not  write  to  congratulate 
the  new  primate,  even  at  the  risk  of  making  another 
powerful  enemy  for  his  persecuted  Congregation,  be- 
cause he  thought  he  could  not  honestly  say  he  "was 
glad  to  hear  of  the  appointment".  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  even  as  a  young  man  his  chief  dis- 
tress at  his  breakdown  in  court  was  the  fear  that 
his  mistake  might  be  ascribed  to  deceit.  The  ques- 
tion as  to  what  does  or  does  not  constitute  a  lie  is 
not  an  easy  one,  but  it  is  a  subject  in  itself.  Al- 
phonsus said  nothing  in  his  "Moral  Theology"  which 
is  not  the  common  teaching  of  Catholic  theologians. 

Very  few  remarks  upon  his  own  times  occur  in  the 
Saint's  letters.  The  eighteenth  century  was  one 
series  of  great  wars;  that  of  the  Spanish,  Polish,  and 
Austrian  Succession;  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  the 
War  of  American  Independence,  ending  with  the 
still  more  gigantic  struggles  in  Europe,  which  arose 
out  of  the  events  of  1789.  Except  in  '45,  in  all  of 
these,  down  to  the  first  shot  fired  at  Lexington,  the 
English-speaking  world  was  on  one  side  and  the 
Bourbon  States,  including  Naples,  on  the  other.  But 
to  all  this  secular  history  about  the  only  reference 
in  the  Saint's  correspondence  which  has  come  down 
to  us  is  a  sentence  in  a  letter  of  April,  1744,  which 
speaks  of  the  passage  of  the  Spanish  troops  who  had 
come  to  defend  Naples  against  the  Austrians.  He 
was  more  concerned  with  the  spiritvial  conflict  which 
was  going  on  at  the  same  time.  The  days  were  in- 
deed evil.  Infidelity  and  impiety  were  gaining 
ground;  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  were  the  idols  of  so- 
ciety; and  the  ancicn  rigimc,  by  undermining  reli- 
gion, its  one  support,  was  tottering  to  its  fall.  Al- 
phonsus was  a  devoted  friend  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 
and  its  long  persecution  by  the  Bom-bon  Coiirts, 
ending  in  its  suppression  in  1773,  filled  him  with 
grief.  He  died  on  the  very  eve  of  the  great  Revo- 
lution which  wa-s  to  sweep  tlie  persecutors  away, 
having  seen  in  vision  the  woes  which  the  French 
invasion  of  1798  was  to  bring  on  Naples. 

An  interesting  series  of  portraits  miglit  be  painted 
of  those   who   play  a   i)art   iu   the  Saint's   history: 


Charles  III  and  his  minister  Tanucci;  Charles's  son 
Ferdinand,  and  Ferdinand's  strange  and  unhappy 
Queen,  Maria  Carolina,  daughter  of  Maria  Teresa  and 
sister  of  Marie  Antoinette;  Cardinals  Spinelli,  Sersale, 
and  Orsini;  Popes  Benedict  XIV,  Clement  XIII, 
Clement  XIV,  and  Pius  VI,  to  each  of  whom  Al- 
phonsus dedicated  a  volume  of  his  works.  Even 
the  baleful  shadow  of  Voltaire  falls  across  the  Saint's 
life,  for  Alphonsus  wrote  to  congratulate  him  on  a 
conversion,  which  alas,  never  took  place!  Again, 
we  have  a  friendship  of  thirty  years  with  the  great 
Venetian  publishing  house  of  Remondini,  whose  let- 
ters from  the  Saint,  carefully  preserved  as  became 
business  men,  fill  a  quarto  volume.  Other  personal 
friends  of  Alphonsus  were  the  Jesuit  Fathers  de 
Matteis,  Zaccaria,  and  Nonnotte.  A  respected  op- 
ponent was  the  redoubtable  Dominican  controver- 
sialist, P.  Vincenzo  Patuzzi,  while  to  make  up  for 
hard  blows  we  have  another  Dominican,  P.  Caputo, 
President  of  Alphonsus's  seminary  and  a  devoted 
helper  in  his  work  of  reform.  To  come  to  saints, 
the  great  Jesuit  missionary  St.  Francis  di  Geronimo 
took  the  little  Alphonsus  in  his  arms,  blessed  him, 
and  prophesied  that  he  would  do  great  ,/ork  for 
God;  while  a  Franciscan,  St.  John  Joseph  of  the 
Cross,  was  w-eil  known  to  Alphonsus  in  later  life. 
Both  of  them  were  canonized  on  the  same  day  as 
the  Holy  Doctor,  26  May,  1839.  St.  Paul  of  the 
Cross  (1694-1775)  and  St.  Alphonsus,  who  were 
altogether  contemporaries,  seem  never  to  have  met 
on  earth,  though  the  foimder  of  the  Passionists 
was  a  great  friend  of  Alphonsus's  uncle,  Mgr.  Cav- 
alieri,  himself  a  great  servant  of  God.  Other  saints 
and  servants  of  God  were  those  of  Alphonsus's  own 
household,  the  lay  brother,  St.  Gerard  Majella,  who 
died  in  1755,  and  Januarius  Sarnelli,  Caesar  Sportelli, 
Dominic  Blasucci,  and  Maria  Celeste,  all  of  whom 
have  been  declared  "Venerable"  by  the  Church. 
Blessed  Clement  Hofbauer  joined  the  Redemptorist 
Congregation  in  the  aged  Saint's  lifetime,  though 
Alphonsus  never  saw  in  the  flesh  the  man  whom  he 
knew  would  be  the  second  founder  of  his  Order. 
Except  for  the  chances  of  European  war,  England 
and  Naples  were  then  in  different  worlds,  but  Al- 
phonsus may  have  seen  at  the  side  of  Don  Carlos 
when  he  conquered  Naples  in  1734,  an  English  boy 
of  fourteen  who  had  already  shown  great  gallantry 
under  fire  and  was  to  play  a  romantic  part  in  his- 
tory. Prince  Charles  Edward  Stuart.  But  one  may 
easily  overcrowd  a  narrow  canvas  and  it  is  better  in 
so  slight  a  sketch  to  leave  the  central  figure  in  soli- 
tary relief.  If  any  reader  of  this  article  will  go  to 
original  sources  and  study  the  Saint's  life  at  greater 
length,  he  will  not  find  his  labour  thro^Ti  away. 

Much  of  the  material  for  a  complete  life  of  St.  Alphonsus 
is  still  in  manuscript  in  the  Roman  archives  of  the  Redemptor- 
ist Congregation  and  in  the  archives  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  The  foundation  of  all  subse- 
quent lives  is  the  Delia  vita  ed  istilulo  del  vencrabile  Alfonso 
Maria  Lipuori,  of  Antony  Tannoi.\,  one  of  the  great  biogra- 
phies of  literature.  Tannoia  was  born  about  1724  and  entered 
the  Redemptorist  Congregation  in  1746.  As  he  did  not  die 
till  180S  (his  work  appeared  in  1799)  he  was  a  companion  of 
the  Saint  for  over  forty  years  and  an  eye-witness  of  much 
that  he  relates.  Even  where  he  is  not  that,  he  may  generally 
be  trusted,  as  he  was  a  Boswell  in  collecting  facts.  His  life 
contains  a  number  of  minor  inaccuracies,  however,  and  is 
seriously  defective  in  its  account  of  the  founding  of  his  Con- 
gregation and  of  the  troubles  which  fell  on  it  in  1780.  Tan- 
noia, also,  through  some  mental  idiosyncrasy,  manages  to  give 
the  misleading  impression  that  St.  Alphonsus  was  severe. 
Tliere  is  a  somewhat  unsatisfactory  French  translation  of 
Tannoia's  work,  Mhtioires  eur  la  vie  ct  la  conorfaalion  de 
S.  Alphonse  de  Limtori  (Paris,  1842.  3  vols.).  The  English 
traiislalion  in  the  Oratory  Series  is  also  rather  inailcquate. 
A  iu  111  r..lrlq;,i,-d  lifo  is  the  \'ii  ,1  hi^litut  ,lr  SuinI  Alphonse- 
i;             ,    ;  ",    in  fiiur  viilnrni>>.  l>v  Cmii.in  M,  \  IM.KCOURT, 

I      IV.,;,.      Til,.    Ctmimm    hlr,    llii.isKiioN.    I.fhrn   drg 

ll     ,:r;  n    ll,-:.  A--',.    ./«,/    /\' iVWl  .'I././l  IVCS    .W/,.H,SII»   ,l/<.ri<l   ,/,■   LigUOH 

(New  'iMik,  ISS-i.  is  Bchiilarlv  and  accurate.  CtnniNAl.  Ca- 
PKiKl.ATno  has  also  written  a  life  of  the  .Saint,  /,n  Vita  diSanf 
Alf.ium  Mnria  de  lAuuuri  (Rome.  ■-'  v<.ls.l.  The  latest  life, 
Bnuriu:.  Hainl  Aljilionse  de  l.iquvri  (Paris,  1900,  2  vols.. 
8vo\  gives  an  e.\tremely  full  antl   picture-stjue  account  of  the 


ALPHONSUS 


341 


ALSACE 


8aint's  life  and  timeA.  This  has  recently  been  translated  into 
Kiiglisli  with  ailditions  and  corrections  (Dublin,  2  vols.,  royal 
8vo);  DuMORTlKR,  Leg  prrmih-ea  Redemjttorigtinea  (Lille,  l8St»). 
and  Le  I'h-e  Anioine-Marie  Tannuin  (Paris,  1902),  contain 
nome  useful  information:  as  does  Ht:nnrTi,  Lo  Spirito  di  S.  Al- 
fonso Maria  de  Liguori,3  ed.  (Home,  isy(i).  The  Saint's  own 
letters  are  of  extreme  value  in  supplementing  Tannoia.  A 
centenary  edition.  Leitrre  di  S.  Alfonso  Maria  de'Liguori 
(Komc,  isS7.  3  vols.),  WHS  publishc.!  by  P.  Kuntz,  C.SS.K., 
director  of  tlie  Roman  archives  of  Ins  Congregation.  An 
English  tranilation  in  live  volumes  is  included  in  the  22  vol- 
umes of  the  .-Vmcricaii  centenary  edition  of  St.  .Mphonsus'a 
ascetical  works  (New  York).  There  arc  many  editions  of  the 
Saint  s  Moral  Theology;  the  best  and  latest  is  that  of  P.  GAUIife, 
C.SS.K.  (Rome,  1905).  The  Saint's  complete  dogmatic  works 
have  been  translated  into  Latin  by  P.  Walter,  C.SS.R.,  5. 
Alphonni  Mariie  de  Litjuori  Kcclesifr  Doctoria  Opera  Dogmatica, 
(New  York.  1903,  2  vols..  -Ito).  See  also  Hab.sai,i..  The  Balancr 
of  Pouer  (I71.'i-S9)  (London.  1901);  Cou-trrTA,  llislon/  of 
the  Kinudom  of  Saplet.  1734-182,5,  2  vols.,  tr.  bv  S.  Hohnkh 
(Edinburgh,  IS.iS);  Von  Kklmont,  Die  Carafa  I'on  Maddnloni 
(Berlin,  18.51,  2  vols.);  Johnston,  The  Napoleonic  Empire  in 
South  Italy.  2  vols,  (t.ondon,  11)04).  Collettas  book  gives 
the  best  general  picture  of  the  time,  but  is  marred  by  anti- 
clerical bios. 

Harold  Castle. 

Alphonsus  Petrus.     Sec  Petrus. 

Alphonsus  Rodriguez  (.'tlso  Ai.onsoI,  Saint,  b.  at 
Segovia  in  Spain,  25  July,  1.532;  tl.  at  Majorca,  31  Oc- 
tober, 1617.  On  account  of  the  siniilarily  of  names 
he  is  often  confounded  with  Fatlier  Rodriguez 
the  autlior  of  "Chri.stian  Perfection",  who  though 
eminent  for  his  holiness  was  never  canonized.  The 
Saint  was  a  Jesuit  lay-brother  who  entered  the  So- 
ciety at  the  age  of  forty.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wool 
merchant  who  had  been  reduced  to  poverty  when 
,\lfon.so  was  still  young.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six 
he  married  Mary  Suarez,  a  woman  of  his  own  station 
in  life,  and  at  thirty-one  found  himself  a  widower 
with  one  surviving  child,  two  others  liaving  die<l 
previously.  From  tliat  time  he  began  a  life  of  prayer 
and  mortification,  altogether  separated  from  tlie 
world  around  him.  On  tlie  deatli  of  his  third  child 
his  thoughts  turned  to  a  life  in  some  religious  order. 
Previous  associations  had  brought  him  into  contact 
with  the  first  Jesuits  who  had  come  to  Spain,  HI.  Peter 
Faber  among  others,  but  it  was  api)arentlv  impossi- 
ble to  carry  out  his  purpose  of  entering  tfie  Society 
as  he  was  without  education,  having  li.ad  only  an 
incomplete  year  in  a  new  college  begun  at  Alcala  by 
Francis  Villanueva.  .\t  the  age  of  thirty-nine  he 
attempted  to  make  up  this  deficiency  by  following 
the  course  at  the  College  of  Harcelona.  but  without 
success.  His  austerities  had  also  undermined  liis 
health.  After  considerable  tlelay  he  w.as  finally 
admitted  into  the  Society  of  Jesus  as  a  lay-brother, 
31  January.  1571.  Distinct  novitiates  had  not  as  yet 
been  established  in  Spain,  and  Alfonso  began  his 
term  of  probation  at  Valencia  or  at  Gandia — tliis 
point  is  a  subject  of  di-spute — and  after  six  months 
was  sent  to  the  recently-founded  college  of  Majorca, 
where  he  remained  in  the  humble  position  of  porter 
for  forty-six  years,  exercising  a  marvellous  influence 
on  the  sanctification  not  only  of  the  members  of  the 
hou.sehold,  but  upon  great  numbers  of  people  who 
cante  to  the  porter's  lodge  for  advice  and  direction. 
.\mong  the  distinguislied  Jesuits  who  came  under 
his  influence  was  St.  Peter  Claver,  who  lived  with  him 
for  some  time  at  Majorca,  and  who  followed  his 
advice  in  asking  for  the  missions  of  South  .Vmerica. 
The  bodily  mortifications  which  he  impcsed  on  him- 
self were  extreme,  the  scruples  and  mental  agitation 
to  which  he  was  subject  were  of  frequent  occurrence, 
his  obedience  ab.solutc,  and  his  absorption  in  spiritual 
things  even  wliile  engaged  on  most  distracting  em- 
ployments, continual.  It  has  been  often  saitl  that 
he  W!us  the  author  of  the  well  known  "  Little  Ofhce 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception",  and  the  claim  is 
made  by  .Megambe,  Southwell,  and  even  by  the 
Fathers  de  Hacker  in  their  Hibliotli^iiue  de  la  Com- 
pagnie  de  Jesus,  .\part  from  tlie  fact  tliat  the 
Brother  had  not  the  requisite  education  for  such  a 


task.  Father  Costurcr  says  positively  that  the  Office 
he  used  wa.s  taken  from  an  old  copy  printed  out  ol 
Spain,  and  Father  Colin  asserts  that  it  existed  before 
the  Saint's  time.  It  may  be  admitted,  however,  that 
through  him  it  wa-s  popularized.  He  left  a  con- 
siderable number  of  MSS.  after  him,  .some  of  wliich 
have  been  published  as  "Obras  Espirituales  del 
LJ.  Alon.so  rtodriguez"  (Barcelona,  188.5,  3  v<j1s,, 
octavo,  com|)lete  collection,  8  vols.,  in  quarto). 
They  have  no  pretensions  to  style;  they  are  some- 
times only  reminiscences  of  domestic  exiiortations; 
the  te.xts  are  often  repeated;  tlie  illustrations  are 
from  every-day  life;  the  treatment  of  one  virtue 
occasionally  trenches  on  anotlier;  but  they  are  re- 
markable for  the  correctness  and  soundness  of  tlieir 
doctrine  and  the  profound  spiritual  knowledge  which 
they  reveal.  They  were  not  written  witli  a  view  to 
publication,  but  put  down  by  the  Saint  him.self  or 
dictated  to  otiiers,  in  obedience  to  a  positive  com- 
mand of  superiors.  He  was  declared  Venerable  in 
1626.  In  1633  he  wa.s  cho.sen  by  the  Council  Oeneral 
of  Majorca  as  one  of  the  special  patrons  of  the  city 
and  island.  In  1760  Clement  XIII  decreed  that  "  the 
virtues  of  the  Venerable  Alonso  were  proved  to  be 
of  a  heroic  degree  ";  but  the  expulsion  of  the  Society 
from  Spain  in  1773,  and  its  suppression,  delayed  his 
beiitification  until  1825.  His  canonization  took 
place,  (i  September,  1887.  His  remains  are  enshrined 
at  Majorca. 

GoLDlE.  Life  of  St.  Alonao  Rodriguez  in  Quarterly  Series 
(London,  1889);  Vie  admirable  de  St.  Alphonse  dapris  les 
Mi-moires  (Paris,  1890);  Souuervooel,  Bibliothiaue  de  la 
V.  de  J.,  VI. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alphonsus  Tostatus.     See  Tostado. 

Alpini,  Phospkuo,  physician  and  botanist,  b.  at 
Marostica,  in  the  Kepublic  of  Venice,  23  November, 
1553;  d.  at  Pailua,  6  February,  1017.  He  studied 
metlicine  at  Padua  from  1574  to  1578,  taking  his 
degree  as  doctor  in  the  latter  year.  After  two  years 
spent  at  Campo  San  Pietro,  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician to  the  Venetian  Consul  in  Kgypt  (l,58ti), 
which  gave  him  a  much  desired  opportunity  of 
pursuing  his  cho.sen  study  of  botany  under  conditions 
more  favourable  than  he  could  find  in  Italy,  aiul  of 
which  he  took  the  fullest  possible  advantage.  On 
his  return  to  Venice,  in  15!StJ,  he  became  pliysician 
to  .Vndre  Doria,  Prince  of  Melfi,  and  was  looked  upon 
in  Oenoa,  where  he  resiiled,  as  the  first  physician  of 
his  age.  Ho  returned  to  Padua  in  1593,  where  he 
filled  the  chair  of  botany  for  many  years.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  meilical  and  botanical  works  in  Latin, 
the  most  important  being  "  De  plantis  .'Kgj'pti  liber" 
(Venice,  l.")92).  It  is  said  that  his  earlier  work,  "  De 
-Medicina  -F^gyptiorum "  (Venice,  1591)  contains  the 
first  mention,  by  a  European  writer,  of  the  coffee- 
plant.  Francis  W.  Grey. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  The  Germ.\n  Imperial  Terri- 
tory so  known,  and  divided  for  State  purposes  into 
three  civil  districts.  Lower  and  I'pper  .\lsace  and 
Lorraine  include  the  two  bishoprics  of  Strasburg 
and  Metz,  which  are  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy 
See.     Christianity  penetrated  this  region  at  an  early 

Eeriod,  partly  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  Roman 
egions,  whose  duty  it  was  to  guard  the  boundaries 
of  the  Empire  against  the  attacks  of  the  Gernian 
hordes,  partly  through  Roman  merchants  who  traded 
with  the  Germans  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
The  first  Hishop  of  Strasburg  of  whose  name  we  are 
historically  certain  is  St.  .\mandu3  (commemorated 
26  October),  who  was  present  at  the  Councils  of 
Sardica  (313)  and  of  Cologne  (.316).  The  Lombard, 
Paul  the  Deacon,  a  contemporary  of  Charlemagne, 
names  St.  Clement  I,  one  of  St.  Peter's  immediate 
successors  at  Rome,  as  first  Hishop  of  Metz.  Prior 
to   the    French    Uevolutiou    the    northern   part   of 


ALSACE 


342 


ALSACE 


Alsace  belonged  to  the  liioeese  of  Speier,  certain 
villages  in  the  west  to  that  of  Metz,  most  of  Upper 
Alsace  to  Basel,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Belfort 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Besani^on.  The  Diocese  of 
Strasburg  embraced  the  rest  of  Alsace,  but  extended 
to  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  including  outside  of 
Alsace  the  deaneries  of  Lahr,  or  Ettenheim,  Uffenburg, 
and  Ottersweier.  The  Diocese  of  Metz  included  dis- 
tricts now  belonging  to  German  and  French  Lorraine, 
to  the  Grand  Duchies  of  Luxemburg  and  Hesse,  to 
the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  and  to  Lower  Alsace.  After 
the  Revolution  the  provisions  of  the  Concordat  as- 
signed tlie  whole  district  between  the  Queich  and 
Lake  Biehler,  with  the  Departments  of  Bas-Rhin, 
Haut-Rhin  and  the  greater  part  of  Mont  Terrible 
(Pruntrut)  to  the  Diocese  of  Strasburg,  and  those  of 
Moselle,  Forets,  and  Ardennes  to  the  Diocese  of  Metz. 
During  the  nineteenth  century  great  changes  were 
brought  about  in  the  boundaries  of  both  dioceses  by- 
agreement  arrived  at  between  the  civil  and  ecclesias- 
tical authorities.  The  civil  districts  of  Upper  and 
Lower  .\lsace  have  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Stras- 
burg since  1S74,  and  that  of  Lorraine  to  Metz. 

Popi'LATiON. — The  census  of  1  December,  1900, 
distributes  the  population  as  in  the  following  table, 
in  which  (A)  represents  Catholics;  (B),  Protestants; 
(C),  Dissidents;  (D),  Jews;  (E),  persons  of  unknown 
religion;  — 

(A)  (B)  (C)  (D)         (E)        (Total) 

^dTtcmI   821,612    304,204     3,192      25,414      319      1,154,741 

D^MMe    4SS,S38      67,874     1,224         6,850        43         564,829 

These  figures,  however,  do  not  include  the  34,367 
soldiers  in  the  Diocese  of  Strasburg,  and  the  44,491 
in  the  Diocese  of  Metz,  who  are  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Army  Bishop  in  Berlin. 

Cathedral  Chapters. — There  is  a  Cathedral  chap- 
ter in  each  of  these  two  dioceses,  which  consists  in 
Strasburg  of  nine,  and  in  Metz  of  eight  actual  irre- 
movable canons  (canonici  titulares),  w^hose  appoint- 
ment i.iust  be  confirmed  by  the  State.  Several 
bishops  of  other  dioceses,  moreover,  nominated  by 
the  Bishops  of  Metz  and  Strasburg  alone,  belong  to 
the  chapters  as  canonici  honoris  causd,  as  well  as 
certain  canonici  honorarii  living  in  the  dioceses, 
thirty-eight  in  Strasburg  at  the  present  time,  and 
twenty-one  in  Metz.  Four  priests,  also,  not  belong- 
ing to  the  diocese,  but  who  have  been  of  service  to  it, 
have  been  made  honorary  canons  by  the  Bishop 
of  Strasburg. 

Diocesan  .Administration. — In  the  administra- 
tion of  the  respective  dioce-ses  the  bi.shops  are  assisted 
by  three  vicars-general  in  that  of  Strasburg,  and  by 
two  in  that  of  Metz  (who  can  only  be  appointed  with 
the  consent  of  the  civil  avithorities),  and  by  seven 
secretaries  in  the  former  diocese  and  three  in  the 
latter. 

Parishes. — The  parishes  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  since 
the  Concordat  of  1801,  have  been  divided  into  two 
cla-sses:  regular  parishes,  whose  incumbents  must 
receive  the  approval  of  the  Government,  and  are 
irremovable;  and  subordinate  parishes,  whose  in- 
cumbents are  appointed  by  the  bishop  only,  and  may 
V)e  removed  by  him.  The  regular  parishes,  again, 
fall  into  two  classes,  according  to  their  respective 
im|)ortance  and  revenues.  In  the  T:)iocese  of  Stras- 
burg there  are  thirty-eight  parishes  of  the  first,  and 
thirty-four  of  the  second  class.  In  Metz  there  are 
sixteen  of  the  first  and  thirty-nine  of  the  second 
da-Hs.  There  are  617  subordinate  pari.shes  in  the 
Diocese  of  Strasburg,  and  .'>1,S  in  the  Diocese  of  Metz. 
In  many  parishes  the  t>riests  are  assisted  by  curates, 
who,  almost  without  exception,  live  in  the  presbytery, 
the  cost  being  paid  to  the  parish  priest  by  the  parish. 
The  curates  tliemselves  are  paid  either  by  the  State, 
^6  are  221   in  the  Diocese  of  Strasburg  "and  1  IS  in 


the  Diocese  of  Metz,  or  by  towns  and  church-cor- 
porations (Kirchenjnbrikcn),  73  in  the  former  diocese 
and  31  in  the  latter.  .Six  holders  of  curacies  in  Stras- 
burg, and  three  in  Metz  have  houses  of  tlieir  own,  and 
enjoy  all  the  rights  of  parish  priests,  with  the  title 
of  resident  vicars.  On  1  January,  1906,  there  were 
in  the  Diocese  of  Strasburg,  besides  the  Bishop  of 
Strasburg,  the  titular  15ishop  of  Paphos  (former 
Coadjutor  of  Strasburg),  the  present  Coadjutor 
(titular  Bishop  of  Erythrsea),  1,245  priests,  all  but 
eleven  of  whom  were  born  in  the  diocese;  in  the 
Dioce-se  of  Metz,  besides  the  bishop,  809  priests, 
793  of  whom  were  born  in  the  diocese,  and  76  else- 
where. 

Stipends. — The  State  pays  the  Bishops  of  Stras- 
burg and  Metz  St,000  (16,000  marks)  each;  the  Co- 
adjutor of  Strasburg  $2,000  (8,000  marks) ;  the  vicars- 
general  $900  (3,600  marks),  and  the  canons  S700 
(2,800  marks).  As  the  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Stras- 
burg, however,  merely  holds  the  office  of  vicar- 
general  as  subsidiary  to  his  other  functions,  he  re- 
ceives only  .$500  (2,000  marks)  in  that  capacity. 
The  president  of  the  Directory  of  the  Church  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession  is  paid  SI, 600  (6,400  marks) 
as  stipend,  and  $400  (1 ,600  marks)  for  his  expenses 
as  representative;  a  clerical  member  $240  (960 
marks);  and  each  of  the  lay  members  $400  (1,600 
marks).  The  Chief  Rabbi  in  Strasburg  receives 
$1,000  (4,000  marks)  as  salary,  and  $300  (1,200 
marks)  for  expenses  as  representative;  each  of  the 
other  chief  rabbis  $1,000  (4,000  marks).  The  State 
pays  Catholic  parish  priests  on  the  following  scale 
(see  classification  of  parishes  given  above); — 

I  class  II  Sub-parishes 

S  S312 


To  the  age  of  35        % 
From  35  to  50 

To  the  age  of  50  500  425 

From  50  to  60  525  450 

550  475 


From  60  to  70 
Over  70 


575 


500 


362 
400 
425 


Curates  paid  by  the  State  receive  .$150  (600  marks). 
The  State  pays,  besides,  $4,650  (18,600  marks)  for 
expenses  of  maintenance  of  the  episcopal  secretaries 
in  Strasburg  and  Metz;  $1,650  (6,600  marks)  in  each 
diocese  for  the  music  and  choir  of  the  cathedral; 
$500  (2,000  marks)  for  the  expenses  of  confirmation 
and  visitation  journeys;  $750  (3,000  marks)  to  the 
Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Strasburg  for  living  expenses; 
$18,750  (79,000  marks)  as  pensions  for  retirement 
and  for  maintenance  of  a  retired  coadjutor;  $15,000 
(60,000  marks)  as  extra  assistance  to  clergymen  and 
their  relatives;  $6,500  (26,500  marks)  as  pay  for 
students  in  the  clerical  seminaries  of  Strasburg  and 
Metz;  $4,500  (18,000  marks)  as  pay  for  students  in 
the  universities,  as  well  as  assistance  to  home  mission- 
schools;  $31,250  (125,000  marks)  in  aid  of  cluirch- 
and  presbytery-building,  the  furnishing  and  adorning 
of  churches,  and  the  like  material  outlay  for  the  sui> 
port  of  Catholic  worship.  The  Government  pays 
.$660,000  (2,636,370  marks)  yearly  as  a  regular  con- 
tribution to  Catholic  worship,  $218,750  (874,969 
marks)  to  the  Protestants,  and  $43,790  (175,170 
marks)  to  the  Jews.  The  Protestant  pastors  draw 
from  the  State  treasury: — - 

Up  to  six  years'  service  $500 

500-^-from  special  church  tax, 

Over   C  5604-$  50 

■■     12  600-1-  100 

"     18  650-1-  150 

"     24  725-1-  175 

"     30  800-1-  200 

The  Rabbi  in  Millhausen  receives  «600  (2,400 
marks),  and  the  other  rabbis: — 


ALSACE 


343 


ALSACE 


In  15  placed 

Up  to  40  years  of  age  $425 

From  40  to  50  475 

••      50  to  00  525 

"       60  to  70  575 

Over  70  years  of  age  600 


In  24  other  places 
t400 
450 
500 
550 
575 


The  civil  district  of  Lower  Alsace  pays  the  Bishop 
of  Strasburg  SI, 000  (4,000  marks)  and  each  vicar- 
general  and  canon  of  the  cathedral  S300  (1,200  marks) 
as  additional  salary. 

Church  T.vxes. — At  the  session  of  the  Provincial 
Diet  in  1901  the  proposal  was  made  on  behalf  of  the 
Government  that  the  increasing  needs  of  tlie  various 
denominations  recognized  by  the  State  slioiild  be  met 
by  means  of  the  assessments,  or  church  taxes,  im- 
posed by  tlie  State.  Only  the  Protestant  churdi 
avithorities,  however,  have  so  far  acted  on  this  recom- 
mendation, so  that  only  the  Protestant  taxpayers 
are  liable  to  these  special  taxes.  They  amounted  (in 
19011)  to  SI7,2IS  (188,870  marks  48  pf.),  ami  are 
applied  to  the  increa.se  of  Protestant  pastoral  stipends 
and  pensions;,  and  the  support  of  widows  and  orphans. 

Kelkiioi's  HorsEs. — Prior  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion there  were  about  100  monasteries  in  Alsace, 
in  addition  to  the  canons  regular  of  Strasburg 
Cathedral,  three  houses  of  canonesses  and  nine  colle- 
giate churches.  The  following  ortiers  laboured  in  the 
country:  .\vigustinians,  Benedictines  (monks  and 
nuns),  Celestincs,  Cistercians  (monks  and  nuns), 
Poor  Clares,  the  Teutonic  Order,  Dominicans  (friars 
and  nuns),  Franciscans  (friars  and  nuns),  Jesuits 
(until  the  suppression  of  the  Society),  Johannitcs, 
Capuchins,  Carthusians,  Premon-stratensians,  the 
Congregation  of  Our  Lady,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
Sisters  of  the  Visitation.  In  the  Diocese  of  Metz 
there  were,  besides  the  cathedral  chapter,  eleven 
collegiate  churches,  three  Augu.stinian  canonries,  nine 
Benedictine,  four  Cistercian,  and  three  Premon- 
stratensian  abbeys.  There  are  now  in  the  Dioce.se 
of  Strasburg  seven  orders  of  men  and  twenty-one 
of  women;  Trappists  at  Olenberg,  near  Reinin- 
gen,  since  1825;  Capuchins  at  Konigshofen  and 
Sidgolsheim  (1888);  Redemptorists  at  Bischenberg 
and  Riedisheira  (1896);  Fathers  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary  at  Zabern  (1900);  Marist  Brothers  at  St.  Pilt 
(as  home  for  the  emcrili);  Brothers  of  Christian 
Doctrine  at  Matzenheim,  Zelsheim,  and  Ehl  (1821); 
Brothers  of  .Mercy  at  Strasburg  (1900);  Trappist 
nuns  at  Ergersheim;  Congregation  of  Our  I.ady 
(of  St.  Peter  Fourier)  at  Strasburg  and  Molsheim; 
Carmelite  nuns  at  .Marienthal;  Congregation  of  Maria 
Reparatrix  at  Strasburg;  Benedictine  nuns  of  the 
Perpetual  .\doration  at  Ottmarsheim;  Benedictine 
nuns  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  Rosheim;  Domini- 
can nuns  at  Colmar;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
at  Strasburg  and  Miilhausen;  Sisters  of  the  Most 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  at  Kienzheim;  Sisters  of 
Divine  Providence  at  Rappoltsweiler;  Sisters  of 
Christian  Doctrine  at  Strasburg;  Sisters  of  Provi- 
dence at  St.  John  of  Bassel;  Sisters  of  Perpetual 
.\doration  at  Baronsweiler;  Sisters  of  Mercy  at  Stra.s- 
burg  (mother-house),  and  in  many  hospitals;  Sisters 
of  the  .Most  Holy  Redeemer  at  Obcrbronn  (mother- 
house),  and  in  many  hospitals  and  individual  founda- 
tions; Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cro.ss  at  Strasburg  (four 
hou.ses),  Colmar,  Sennheim,  and  Still;  Sisters  of  .St. 
Joseph  at  St.  .Marx  near  ( 'iclx-rschweier.  and  at  Ebers- 
nuiiistcr;  Little  .Si.sters  at  Strasburg  and  Colmar; 
Institute  of  St.  .\nthony  at  Strasburg;  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  at  Dauendorf;  Franciscan 
mins  at   Rheinackern  and  Thai. 

In  the  Diocese  of  .Mctz  there  are  now  five  orders 
of  men  and  twenty-one  of  women;  Franciscans  at 
Metz  and  Lubeln  (1SS8);  Redemptorists  at  Teter- 
chen  (1896);  Oblates  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
of  Mary  at  St.  I'lrich;  Fathers  of  the  Congregation 


of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  ol 
Mary  at  Neuscheuern  (1904);  the  Brothers  o( 
Christian  Doctrine  (of  St.  John  Bapti-st  de  La  Salle) 
at  Metz;  Sisters  of  Mercy  (from  Strasburg)  in  many 
hospitals;  Benedictine  nuns  at  Oriocourt;  Sisters  ol 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  at  Metz;  Sisters  of  St.  Christi- 
ana at  .Metz;  Sisters  of  Christian  Doctrine  at  ChSteau- 
Salins;  Dominican  nuns  at  Rettel;  Franciscan  nuns 
at  Metz;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  at  Metz; 
Servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Sey;  Sisters  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  at  P^pinville;  Sisters  of  the  ^'isitalinn 
at  Metz;  Little  .Sistei^  at  Borny;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Redeemer  (from  Nie<lerbronn)  in  hospitals;  Sisters 
of  Hope  at  Metz;  Sisters  of  Christian  Mercy  at  Metz; 
Sisters  of  the  Divine  Motherhood  at  Metz;  Sisters 
of  the  Poor  Child  Jesus  at  Plappeville;  Carmelite 
nuns  at  Metz;  Sisters  of  the  Heart  of  Mar>'  at  Vic; 
Sisters  of  the  Divine  Providence  at  St.  John  of  Basle; 
Vincentian  Sisters  (of  Metz)  at  Metz.  These  orders 
of  women  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  the  educa- 
tion of  girls,  the  care  of  the  sick  and  to  a  contemplat  ive 
life  of  penance. 

Clerical  SEMiN.\niES. — The  Episcopal  Seminarj-, 
together  with  the  Episcopal  University  of  Strasburg, 
consisting  of  faculties  of  theology  and  canon  law, 
with  f)ower  to  confer  academic  degrees,  were  closed 
at  the  French  Revolution.  When,  however,  Napo- 
leon, by  Article  XI  of  the  Concordat,  granted  each 
bishop  permission  to  establish  a  seminarj'  in  h'm 
diocese.  Bishop  Laurine,  who  was  made  Bishop  ol 
Strasburg  in  1802,  immediately  proceeded  to  open 
a  seminary  in  his  cathedral  city  in  the  followine 
year  (1803),  in  which  young  clerics  were  educated 
during  the  course  of  the  nmeteenth  century.  On 
the  5th  of  December,  1902,  Cardinal  Rampolla, 
Secretary  of  State,  and  the  Prussian  envoy  to  the 
Holy  See,  Freihcrr  von  Rotenhahn,  came  to  an  agree- 
ment concerning  the  erection  of  a  Catholic  theological 
faculty  at  the  Kaiser-Wilhelm  University  of  Stras- 
burg, which  was  accordingly  opened  in  October, 
1903,  and  in  which  the  following  subjects  are  taught: 
Preparatory  instruction  in  philosophy  and  theologj-, 
dogmatics,  moral  theology,  apologetics,  church  his- 
tory, Old  and  New  Testament  exegesis,  canon  law, 
pastoral  theology,  ecclesiastical  archaology.  The 
professors  are  chosen  by  the  bishop  and  confirmed 
in  their  appointment  by  the  Emperor;  they  are  ob- 
liged to  make  a  profession  of  faith,  according  to  the 
forms  and  rules  of  the  Church,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Dean,  before  entering  on  their  duties.  The  rules 
wliich  govern  the  Catholic  theological  faculties  at 
Bonn  and  at  Breslau  apply  to  the  Strasburg  faculty 
and  its  members,  in  their  relations  with  the  Church. 
If  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  submit  evidence  that 
a  professor  is  unfit  to  continue  his  functions  as 
teacher  either  lx;cause  of  lack  of  orthodoxy  or  be- 
cause of  conduct  imbecoming  a  elerg^-man,  the  State 
immediately  provides  a  successor,  and  takes  measures 
to  terminate  the  offender's  connection  with  the 
faculty.  Alongside  of  this  theological  faculty  the 
Episcopal  Seminary  continues  to  exist  and  gives  the 
vovmg  st\idcnts  a  parochial  training  and  education 
m  all  branches  pertaining  to  the  exercise  of  the 
priestly  ollice.  The  seminarj',  at  the  present  time, 
IS  managed  by  a  superior,  a  director,  and  three  pro- 
fc-s-sors.  The  cost  of  maintenance  for  tlie  faculty 
falls  exclusively  on  the  State;  the  seven  ordinarj-, 
and  one  extraordinary,  professors  who  lecture  before 
it,  received  in  1906,  $11,875  (47,500  marks)  among 
them,  and  $575  (2,900  marks)  as  extras.  The  clergy 
of  the  Diocese  of  .Metz  are  trained  in  the  seminary 
at  Metz  by  professors  of  the  Bishop's  nomination. 

Episcopal  CiYM\asi.\. — Bishop  Raess  having  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  the  State  supervision  of  the 
Prrparatorj'  Seminaries  at  Strasburg  (Lower  .■\ls;ice) 
and  Zillishcim  (I'piier  .■Vlsace),  which,  up  to  then, 
had  been  wholly  svibject  to  the  diocesan  authorities. 


ALSACE 


344 


ALSACE 


the  two  institutions  were  respect  i\ely  closed,  by  Ober- 
Presicient  MfiUer,  on  the  24th  of  Jane  and  the  17th 
of  July.  1S74.  They  liave  since  been  reopened  (the 
one  :it  Zillisheira  on  the  20th  of  April,  1880;  the  one 
at  Strasburg  on  the  Sth  of  April,  1883),  and  are  now 
known  as  "episcopal  gymnasia."  Both  institutions 
follow  the  curriculum  of  the  higher  go\^ernment 
schools  under  the  super\'ision  of  the  highest  educa- 
tional council  of  .\l.>ace- Lorraine.  The  teachers  are 
appointed  by  the  bisliop,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  council  of  education,  and  must  have  passed  an 
examination  pro  facilitate  docendi  before  the  State 
commission.  Both  have  the  right  to  grant  tlie 
certificates  required  to  be  admitted  to  the  .one-year 
military  service  as  volunteers,  to  such  of  their 
students  as  have  successfully  completed  their  "lower 
second"  class,  that  is  to  say,  a  six-years'  high  school 
course.  In  both  seminaries  the  final  examinations 
of  the  students  of  the  graduating  class  are  conducted 
by  the  class-instructors  under  the  supervision  of 
the  State  school  commission.  Tliey  enjoy,  there- 
fore, the  same  rights  as  the  State  gymnasia.  The 
seminaries  are  maintained  by  the  bishop  from  fees 
amoimting  to  ■S20  (80  marks)  yearly  from  scholars 
in  the  preparatory  class&s  (without  Latin);  and  S30 
(120  marks)  for  those  of  the  gymnasium  classes,  as 
also  from  alms  received  during  Lent.  The  Bishop 
of  Strasburg,  in  virtue  of  extraordinary  powers, 
grants  an  individual  dispensation  from  abstinence 
during  Lent  and  on  all  the  fast  days  during  the  year, 
except  Good  I<>iday,  "on  tlie  express  condition  that 
all  who  avail  themselves  of  it  shall  make  a  special 
offering  on  behalf  of  diocesan  institutions."  These 
alms  amounted  to  S12,864  (,51,453  marks)  for  the 
year  1902-3;  and  $13,455  (53,818  marks)  for  the 
year  1903-4.  During  the  school  year  1904-5  thirty- 
nine  teacliers  lectured  at  the  Episcopal  Gymnasium 
in  Strasburg,  and  twenty-one  at  Zillisheim,  to  565 
and  271  scliolars  respectively.  The  Episcopal  Gym- 
nasium in  the  Diocese  of  Metz,  at  Montigny,  enjoys  all 
the  rights  of  a  State  gymnasium,  which  are  not 
possessed  by  the  higher  episcopal  school  at  Bitsch, 
or  by  the  cathedral  school  of  St.  Arnulf  at  Metz. 

Collections  amonq  the  Faithful. — Six  church 
collections  have  been  made  obligatory  by  the  Bishop 
of  Strasburg;  on  the  Sunday  after  the  Epipliany, 
for  the  African  missions;  on  Good  Friday,  for  the 
Christians  of  the  East;  at  Easter  and  Pentecost,  for 
the  Peter's  Pence;  on  the  feast  of  the  consecration 
of  a  church,  for  the  abolition  of  alternate,  or  common, 
use  of  church  edifices  by  Catholics  and  non-Catholics; 
on  the  Sunday  after  the  feast  of  St.  Odilia,  for  the 
blind  a.sylum  at  Still.  In  addition  to  these,  collec- 
tions are  made  for  the  work  of  the  Childhood  of 
Jesus  (the  ransom  of  heathen  children);  for  the 
spread  of  the  Faith;  for  home  missions  (Society  of 
St.  Francis  de  Sales);  and  for  the  assistance  of 
Catholic  students.  Moreover,  since  State  pensions 
for  retired  priests  are  not  sufficient,  the  priests  of 
the  Diocese  of  Strasburg  have  established  a  supple- 
mentary fund,  which  amounted  in  1902  to  .$4,096 
(16,384  marks);  in  1903,  to  $6,078  (24,315  marks); 
to  SI, 667  (18,667  marks)  in  1904,  and  to  $5,271 
(21,085  marks)  in  1905. 

Elemkn'tary  Education. — An  ordinance,  dated 
18  April,  1871,  and  issued  by  Count  von  Bismarck- 
Bolilen,  Governor-General  of  Alsace,  obliges  every 
child,  on  reaching  the  age  of  six,  to  attend  either  a 
public  or  a  private  school,  unless  equivalent  provision 
shall  1»  made  in  the  family  itself.  School  attend- 
an(;e  continues  to  be  ol)ligaton'  until  the  final  ex- 
amination, which,  for  boys,  takes  place  at  the  age 
of  fourteen,  for  girls  at  thirteen.  The  law  of  12  Feb- 
ruary placed  all  lower  and  higher  education  under 
the  supervision  and  control  of  the  State  authorities. 
"In  all  schools,"  so  runs  the  ordinance  of  the  Im- 
perial Statthalter   (Governor),  dated   16  November, 


1887,  "religion,  morality,  respect  for  the  State  and 
the  laws  sliall  be  inculcated  by  means  of  teach- 
ing and  education."  The  normal  curriculum  of 
elementary  schools  comprises  religion,  German,  arith- 
metic, geometry,  drawing,  history,  geography,  nat- 
ural history,  natural  science,  singing,  carpenti-y, 
and  feminine  handicrafts.  The  following  are  charged 
with  the  local  supervision  of  each  elementary  school: 
the  burgomaster,  the  Catholic  priest,  the  Prot- 
estant pastor,  the  delegate  of  the  Jewish  religion, 
and,  in  parishes  of  more  than  2,000  souls,  one  or  more 
residents  appointed  thereto  by  the  President  of  the 
district.  The  clergy  are  especially  charged  with  the 
supervision  of  the  religious  instruction  given  by  the 
teachers  in  the  schools;  they  have,  besides,  the  right 
of  entering  the  schools  at  all  times.  The  greater 
number  of  puljlic  elementary  schools  are  denomina- 
tional. Most  of  the  masters  are  laymen;  most  of  the 
mistresses,  sisters  of  some  teaching  order.  These 
communities,  whose  members  teach  in  public,  State, 
and  municipal  schools,  also  maintain  private  ele- 
mentary,  intermediate,   and   higher  girls'   schools. 

Art  Monuments. — Alsace-Lorraine  is  rich  in  im- 
portant art  monuments,  the  two  principal  being  the 
world-famous  minster  of  Strasburg  and  the  cathe- 
dral of  Metz.  The  first  was  begun  in  1015,  and 
finished  in  July,  1439,  and  whereas  the  cathedral  at 
Cologne  presents  an  example  of  one  style  Gothic 
work,  the  minster  at  Strasburg  bears  traces  of  many 
styles.  The  crypt  is  early  Romanesque,  the  choir 
and  part  of  the  transept  late  Romanesque,  the  nave 
and  southern  portion  show  the  highest  triumph  of 
Gothic  architecture.  It  is  110  metres  (361  feet) 
long,  and  47  metres  (156  feet)  wide;  the  tower  is 
142  metres  (466  feet)  high.  The  Gothic  cathedral 
of  Metz  was  begun  under  Bishop  Conrad  von  Scharf- 
enberg  (1212-20),  but  was  not  consecrated  until 
1546.  In  the  eighteenth  century  an  Italian  porch 
was  built  at  the  west  end,  but  was  replaced  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  by  one  correspond- 
ing to  the  style  of  the  building  itself.  The  cathedral 
is  122  metres  (400  feet)  long,  30  metres  (98.4  feet) 
wide  in  the  nave,  and  47  metres  (154  feet)  at  the 
transepts.  The  two  towers  are  unfinished.  The 
oldest  church  in  Strasburg  is  the  Romanesque  church 
of  St.  Stephen,  said  to  have  been  built  in  the  twelfth 
century;  the  oldest  in  Alsace,  St.  Peter's  collegiate 
churchatAvolsheim,  which  dates  back  to  the  eleventh. 

Institutions  of  Charity. — In  October,  1899,  a 
charity  organization  was  founded  at  Strasburg,  in 
connexion  with  the  Charity  Society  for  Catliolic 
Germany  (headquarters  at  Freiburg  ini  Breisgau).  It 
has  central  offices  at  Paris  and  Nancy,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  (Euvre  Internationale  de  la  protection 
de  la  jeune  fille  of  Switzerland.  This  organization 
is  the  centre  of  all  the  Catholic  benevolent  societies 
and  institutions  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  Its  object  is 
to  make  inquiries  into  actual  and  prospective  causes 
of  destitution,  and  to  take  special  steps  for  their 
amelioration;  to  impart  information  relating  to  the 
poor,  and  to  charitable  institutions  and  undertakings, 
and  to  disseminate  the  true  principles  of  Cluistian 
charity  by  means  of  lectures  and  pamphlets.  The 
sphere  of  tliese  charitable  societies  includes: — • 
(1)  Creches  for  infants,  witli  protection  and  care  of 
scliool  children  of  both  sexes  during  play  hours.  Of 
these  there  are  two  at  Colmar,  two  at  Miilhausen, 
one  at  Rappoltsweiler,  five  at  Strasburg,  and  one 
at  Thann. — (2)  Orphanages  and  training  scliools  for 
orphan,  deserted,  or  unprotected  cliildren;  22  estab- 
lishments with  3,000  cliildren.— (3)  Institutions  for 
the  reform  of  fallen  women  or  of  those  exposed  to 
moral  dangers;  one  at  Miilhausen  and  two  at  Stras- 
burg.—  (4)  The  sheltering  of  unprotected  or  orphan 
children;  one  society  at  Colmar,  three  at  Strasburg. 
—  (5)  The  providing  of  holiday  colonies  for  delicate 
children,  and  the  fitting  out  of  poor  children  on  special 


ALTAMIRANO 


3^5 


ALTAMURA 


occasions,  such  as  First  Communion;  17  societies. — ■ 
(6)  Homes  for  the  care  of  the  a'wk  and  infirm;  45  with 
4,t21  inmates. — (7)  Asylums  for  idiots,  epileptics, 
and  insane;  7  with  2,330  inmates. — (S)  Asylums  for 
the  blind  and  for  deaf  mutes;  three  with  more  than 
200  inmates. — (9)  I.ying-iii  hospitals  for  poor  women 
at  Colmar,  Masmiinster,  .Miilhau.son,  Kappoltsweiler, 
■Strasburg,  and  Thann. — (10)  t)ut-of-door  care  of  the 
sick  and  poor:  (a)  By  32  .Societies  of  St.  Vincent  de 
I'aul  with  661  members,  who  support  1,300  families. 
A  branch  of  the  St.  Vincent  de  I'aul  Society  is  the 
Society  of  St.  Francis  Kcjiis,  which  provides  needy 
persons  with  the  documents  rcipiircd  for  civil  and 
religious  marriage,  and  effects  the  legitimation  of 
children.  It  exists  in  all  the  parishes  of  Colmar  and 
Miilliaiisen  and  in  Strasburg,  where,  between  1S94 
and  1897,  it  brought  about  152  marriages  between 
Catholics,  48  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  and 
12  between  Protestants.     (6)  Hy  10  ladies'  societies. 

(c)  I5y  Sisters  of  the  Divine  Redeemer  in  23  districts; 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  in  13,  Sisters  of  the  Cross  in  10, 
Sisters  of  Mercy  in  4,   and    Franciscan   nuns  in   1. 

(d)  Uy  means  of  soup  establishments  and  peoples' 
kitchens  in  11  places. — (II)  Care  of  destitute  prison- 
ers at  Colmar  and  Strasburg. — (12)  Employment 
agencies  in  various  places. — (13)  A  peoples'  bureau 
at  Strasburg,  founded  in  connexion  with  the  Peo- 
ple's Society  for  Catholic  Germany,  which  dis- 
tributed without  p.iy  in  one  year  (1904)  informa- 
tion in  333  pamphlets;  113  on  old  age  and  dis- 
ablement insurance,  288  on  accident  insurance,  62 
on  sick  insurance,  308  collections,  437  on  other 
civil  matters,  280  on  penal  matters,  63  on  matters 
of  trvisteeship,  51  on  ta.xation,  24  on  military  matters, 
42  on  matters  relating  to  domestic  service,  308  on 
the  relations  of  landlord  and  tenant,  241  on  matters 
relating  to  inheritance,  220  on  the  duties  of  directors, 
61  on  prices,  307  on  various  matters. — (14)  Protec- 
tion of  girls.  This  society  is  connected  with  the 
International  Catholic  Society  for  the  Protection  of 
Ciirls;  its  object  is  to  a.ssist  with  advice  and  help 
unprotected,  grown-up  girls,  house  servants,  factory 
girls,  shop  girls,  teachers,  and  others,  those,  especially, 
who  are  away  from  home,  and  to  shield  them  from 
dangers  to  faith  and  morals.  Thirty-six  visits  were 
made  to  such  girls  during  1905,  561  letters  received, 
and  765  written;  1,101  domestic  servants  were 
lodged  in  St.  .\rbogast's  Home,  Sti  free,  for  919  days, 
and  57  at  a  reduced  price  for  1,012  days. — (15)  Young 
ladies'  societies,  twenty-four  in  nmnber.  The  mem- 
bers have  use  of  libraries,  are  advised  as  to  savings 
banks  and  insurance  companies;  they  receive  in- 
struction in  sewing,  mending,  ironing,  French,  sing- 
ing, and  are  directed  to  situations. —  (16)  Women  s 
and  mothers'  societies,  nine  in  number.  These  pro- 
vide iissistance  for  the  poorer  members  in  case  of 
sickness,  and  defray  the  burial  fees  in  cases  of  death. 
—  (17)  Societies  with  social  objects  in  eleven  places. 
The  members  receive  free  medical  attendance  and 
medicine,  sick  pay,  and  death  l)ay,  and  .Ma.-i.>;cs  are 
said  for  them  after  death. — (IS)  There  are  Homes 
for  workmen  and  workwomen,  and  students  at 
Colmar,  Frstein,  Oebweiler,  Mulhausen,  Mullerhof 
near  I'rmatt,  Kegisheim,  and  three  at  Strasburg. — • 
(19)  Higher  instruction  for  boys  and  girls  in  23 
schools.  —  (20)  Women's  I'nion;  an  organization  for 
women  for  religious,  social,  scientific,  and  charitable 
purposes.  TlK^e  were  as  many  as  600  members  in 
1906  in  the  Women's  rnion.  the  second  year  after 
its  foundation. — (21)  The  aim  of  the  youths'  and 
men's  societies,  some  of  which  were  founded  200 
years  ago,  but  most  of  which  were  established  within 
the  l:i.st  twenty  years,  is  not  merely  to  protect  and 
strengthen  the. faith  of  their  meniljcrs,  but  to  assLst 
them  in  their  material  interests.  The  first  is  at- 
tained by  means  of  common  worship  and  general 
communiou;  the  second,  in  the  case  of  young  men, 


by  means  of  social  intercourse,  lectures,  the  use  of 
libraries,  athletics,  music,  and  shooting  contests,  in- 
struction in  Cernian,  French,  arithmetic,  drawing, 
bookkeeping,  and  short  hand;  dramatic  performances, 
savings  and  insurance  funds,  assistance  to  the  sick 
and  tliose  doing  military  service,  and  finding  situa- 
tions; for  older  men  by  social  intercourse,  lectures, 
savings,  loans,  insurance  for  sickness  and  death 
funds,  employment  agencies,  legal  protection,  and 
co-operative  societies.  According  to  the  latest  re- 
turns published,  there  were  40  such  youths' societies, 
in  1904,  with  15,300,  and  32  older  men's  societies, 
with  18,346  members.  These  do  not  include  the 
three  Catholic  "Casinos"  in  .Strasburg,  or  these  in 
Hagenau,  Colmar,  and  .Schlettstadt,  or  the  Catholic 
students'  societies  at  the  University  of  Strasburg. 
These  last  are  Franconia,  Merovingia,  .Staufia  (Catho- 
lic Students'  Union  of  the  S.  K.  V.);  Badenia, 
Rappolstein  (Catholic  Students'  Association  of  S. 
C.  v.);  Erwinia  (Catholic  Students'  A.ssociation  of 
the  S.  C.  v.);  Unitas,  Catholic  Science  St\idents' 
Union,  the  Academic  Society  of  St.  Boniface,  the 
Academic  Marian  Congregation,  and  the  Academic 
Conference  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul. — The  following 
societies,  which  are  gradually  becoming  firmly  estal)- 
lislied  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  should  also  be  mentioned: 
the  Society  of  the  Sup]X)rtcrs  of  the  Centrum  (Zent- 
nmisverein),  the  People's  Union  for  Catholic  Ger- 
many, the  Branch  Unions  for  Catholic  schoolmastei-s 
and  mistres.ses.  On  11  March,  1906,  representatives 
of  all  the  "Centre  .Societies"  in  Alsace-Lorraine  met 
at  Strasburg  and  agreed  unanimously  on  the  founda- 
tion of  a  local  Centre  Party.  Statutes  of  incorpora- 
tion were  drawn  up  and  the  working  programme  for 
the  immediate  future  decided  on.  (The  Union  in 
Strasburg  has  1 ,6.50  members,  the  one  in  Mulhausen 
2,000.)  The  People's  Union,  known  as  a  legacy  of 
Windthorst,  whoso  object  is  to  guard  the  common 
people  against  the  dangerous  and  disturbing  influence 
of  .Social  Democracy,  had  42,000  members,  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  in  1906,  22,000  of  whom  were  Alsatians, 
15,000  German-speaking,  and  5,000  French-speaking 
Lorrainers.  Some  600  schoolmasters  are  members  of 
the  Catholic  Masters'  Society,  and  some  490  women- 
teachers  of  the  Catholic  Schoolmistresses'  Society. 

DaB  lieichslnnd  EUtias-Lothrini/t-n,  publi.shetl  by  the  State  ilii- 
rcau  of  the  Ministry  for  Al.'iace-Lorraine  (Strasburg,  1903); 
Claush,  WorUrbuch  ties  Elaata  (Zabcni.  11)04):  Kritbih,  Metz, 
and  McLLER.  Strassbcrg  in  KirchenUx.  (Freiburg.  I89y); 
LandvihaiithalUctat  von  Elaass-Lolhringm  (Strasburg.  ly03  an.] 
190<>);  Verhandlunffcn  des  Land€»au88chu«Bcs  jur  Elsaits- 
Lothnngen,  iiiUunffsherichte  (Strasburg,  1903);  Schi-mnlismus 
des  liistums  ^trassburq,  (1900);  Schematismus  dt'8  liistums 
MeU.  i\90ij);  Gfat'lzf,  I'crordnungfnund  Vcrfuounffmbetrcfjtitd 
dan  nicJcre  Unterrichtsweain  in  Eltngs-Lothrini/tn  (.Stra.tburK. 
1889);  JahreBbericht  dea  bigchi>flirhi-n  Cu^natfiums  an  .St. 
Stephan  zu  ^Iratuburg,  (1005):  Jahretlxrurhl  dra  biarhofluhi n 
Gumnaaiuma  in  Ziltiahcim  (Strasburg.  1905);  Die  kathuliscfun 
WohUfUitigkritannatalU-n  und  Vireine  m  dcr  Diuzeae  titraaaburg 
(Freiburg,  im  lir.  1900). 

Leo  Ehruard. 

Altamirano,  Diego  Francisco,  Jesuit,  b.  at  Ma- 
drid, 26  October,  1625;  d.  Lima,  22  December,  1715. 
He  wrote  "Ilistoria  de  la  provincia  Peruana  de  la 
Compaflfa  de  Jesiis",  the  twelfth  book  only  of  which 
was  published,  in  1.S91,  by  Manuel  Vicente  Ballivian, 
with  a  sliort  biographical  notice  from  the  pen  of 
Torres  Saldamando.  It  was  followed  by  anotlier  by 
Altamirano:  "Breve  noticia  de  las  misiones  de  los 
infieles  que  fione  la  Compailla  de  Jestis  en  esta 
provincia  del  Peril,  en  his  provinci.as  de  los  Mojos", 
also  with  introduction  by  Saldamando.  The  origi- 
nal MS.  of  the  "  Ilistoria'  is  in  the  National  Archives 
at  Lima,  in  a  deplorable  state  of  decomposition. 

Balliman.  Dorumrntoa  hiatiincoa  dr  Kolirvt  (La  Pat,  1891). 

Ai>.  F.  Handelier. 

Altamura    and     Acquaviva,    an    exempt    archi- 

Fre.sbyterate  in   the  province  of    Bari,   in  southern 
taly.     .-Mtamura   was    ileclared  exempt    from  epis- 
copal jurisdiction  by  Innocent  IV  in  1248,  and  again 


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by  Innocent  VIII  (1484-92).  Acquaxava,  a  town 
of  the  Campagna,  was  declared  similarly  exempt  by 
Pius  IX  and  united  with  Altamura,  17  August,  184S. 
Altaiuura  lias  4  parishes  and  a  Catholic  population 
of  19,333;  Acquaviva  lias  one  parish  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  8,527;  tlie  clergj-  number  80. 
li.MTASi)iER,  Ann.  ponl.  UUUo),  338. 

Altar  (in  Liturgy). — In  the  New  Law  the  altar  is 
the  table  on  which  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  is  offered. 
.Mass  may  sometimes  be  celebrated  outside  a  sacred 
place,  but  never  without  an  altar,  or  at  least  an  altar- 
stone.  In  ecclesiastical  history  we  find  only  two  ex- 
ceptions: St.  Lucian  (312)  is  said  to  have  celebrated 
Mass  on  his  breast  whilst  in  prison,  and  Theodore, 
Bisliop  of  Tyre  on  the  hands  of  his  deacons  (Mabil- 
lon,  Praef.  in  3  svec,  n.  79).  According  to  Radulphus 
of  Oxford  (Prop.  2.5),  St.  Sixtus  II  (257-259)  was 
tlie  first  to  prescribe  that  Mass  should  be  celebrated 
on  an  altar,  and  the  rubric  of  the  missal  (XX)  is 
merely  a  new  promulgation  of  this  law.  It  signifies, 
according  to  Amalarius  (De  Eccles.  OfRciis,  I,  xxiv) 
the  Table  of  the  Lord  (mensa  Domini),  referring  to  the 
Last  Supper,  or  the  Cross  (St.  Bernard,  De  Coena 
Domini),  or  Christ  (St.  Ambrose,  IV,  De  Sacram. 
xii;  Aljbot  Rupert,  V,  xxx).  Tlie  last  meaning  ex- 
plains the  honour  paid  to  it  by  incensing  it,  and  the 
five  crosses  engraved  on  it  signify  His  five  wounds. 

Position. — In  the  ancient  basilicas  the  priest,  as 
he  stood  at  the  altar,  faced  the  people.  The  basilicas 
of  the  Roman  Empire  were,  as  a  rule,  law  courts  or 
meeting  jjlaces.  They  were  generally  spacious,  and 
the  interior  area  was  separated  by  two,  or,  it  might 
be,  four  rows  of  pillars,  forming  a  central  nave  and 
side  aisles.  The  end  opposite  the  entrance  had  a 
semi-circular  shape,  called  the  apse,  and  in  this  por- 
tion, which  was  raised  above  the  level  of  the  floor, 
sat  the  judge  and  his  assessors,  while  right  before 
him  stood  an  altar  upon  which  sacrifice  was  offered 
before  beginning  any  important  public  business. 
When  these  public  buildings  were  adapted  for  Chris- 
tian assemblies  slight  modifications  were  made.  The 
apse  was  reserved  for  the  bishop  and  his  clergy;  the 
faithful  occupied  the  centre  and  side  aisles,  while 
between  the  clergy  and  people  stood  the  altar.  Later 
on  the  altar  was  placed,  in  churches,  in  the  apse 
against,  or  at  least  near,  the  wall,  so  that  the  priest 
when  celebrating  faced  the  east,  and  behind  him 
the  people  were  placed.  In  primitive  times  tliere 
was  but  one  altar  in  each  church.  St.  Ignatius  the 
Martyr,  Cyprian,  IrenEBus,  and  Jerome,  speak  of  only 
one  altar  (Benedict  XIV,  De  Sacr.  Missce,  §  1,  xvii). 
Some  think  that  more  than  one  altar  existed  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Milan  in  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose,  be- 
cause he  sometimes  uses  the  word  altaria,  although 
others  are  of  opinion  that  altaria  in  this  place 
means  an  altar.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury we  find  evidence  of  a  plurality  of  altars,  for 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  sent  relics  for  four  altars  to 
Palladius,  Bishop  of  Saintes,  France,  who  had  placed 
in  a  church  thirteen  altars,  four  of  which  remained 
unconsecrated  for  want  of  relics.  Although  there 
was  only  one  altar  in  each  church,  minor  altars  were 
erected  in  side  chapels,  which  were  distinct  buildings 
(as  is  the  custom  in  tlie  Greek,  and  some  Oriental 
Churches  even  at  the  present  day)  in  wliich  Mass 
W!us  celebrated  only  once  on  the  same  day  in  each 
church  (Benedict  XIV,  Ibidem).  The  fact  that  in 
the  early  ages  of  Christianity  only  the  bishop  cele- 
brated .\la.ss,  insisted  l)y  his  clergy,  who  received 
lioly  Communion  from  the  bishop's  hands,  is  tlie  rea- 
son that  only  one  altar  was  erected  in  each  church, 
but  after  the  introduction  of  private  Masses  the 
necessity  of  several  altars  in  each  church  arose. 

.Material  of  Altars. — Although  no  documents 
are  extant  to  indicate  the  material  of  which  altars 
were  made  in  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity,  it 
IB  probable  that  they  were  made  of  wood,  liketliat 


used  by  Christ  at  the  Last  Supper.  At  Rome  such 
a  wooden  table  is  still  preserved  in  the  Lateran  Ba- 
silica, and  fragments  of  another  such  table  are  pre- 
served in  the  church  of  St.  Pudentiana,  on  which 
St.  Peter  is  said  to  have  celebrated  Mass.  During 
the  persecutions,  when  the  Christians  were  forced  to 
move  from  one  place  to  another,  and  Mass  was  cele- 
brated in  crypts,  private  houses,  the  open  air,  and 
catacombs,  except  when  the  arcosolia  were  used  (see 
below.  Form  of  an  Altak),  it  is  but  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  they  were  made  of  wood,  probablj'  wooden 
chests  carried  about  by  the  bishops,  on  the  lid  of 
which  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  was  celebrated.  St. 
Optatus  of  Mileve  (De  Schismate  Donatistarum)  re- 
proves the  Donatists  for  breaking  up  and  using  for 
firewood  the  altars  of  the  Catholic  churches,  and 
St.  Augustine  (Epist.  clxxxv)  reports  that  Bishop 
Maximianus  was  beaten  with  the  wood  of  the  altar 
under  which  he  had  taken  refuge.  We  ha\e  every 
reason  to  suppose  that  in  places  in  which  the  per- 
secutions were  not  raging,  altars  of  stone  also  were 
in  use.  St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  in  the  third  cen- 
tury built  a  vast  basilica  in  Neo-Ca'sarea  m  which 
it  is  probable  that  more  substantial  altars  were 
erected.  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  speaks  of  the  con- 
secration of  an  altar  made  of  stone  (De  Christi 
Baptismate).  Pulcheria,  sister  of  Theodosius  II, 
presented  an  altar  of  gold  to  the  Basilica  of  Con- 
stantinople; St.  Helena  gave  golden  altars  orna- 
mented with  precious  stones  to  the  church  which 
was  erected  on  the  site  where  the  Cross  had  been 
concealed  for  three  hundred  years;  the  Popes  St.  Six- 
tus III  (432-440)  and  St.  Hilary  (461-468)  presented 
several  altars  of  silver  to  the  churches  of  Rome. 
Since  wood  is  subject  to  decay,  the  baser  metals  to 
corrosion,  and  the  more  precious  metals  were  too 
expensive,  stone  became  in  course  of  time  the  ordi- 
nary material  for  an  altar.  Besides,  stone  is  dur- 
able and,  according  to  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  x,  4),  sym- 
bolizes Christ — "And  the  rock  was'  Christ".  The 
Roman  Breviary  (9  November)  asserts  that  St.  Syl- 
vester (314-335)  was  the  first  to  issue  a  decree  that 
the  altar  should  be  of  stone.  But  of  such  a  decree 
there  is  no  documentary  evidence,  and  no  mention 
is  made  of  it  in  canon  law,  in  which  so  many  other 
decrees  of  this  Pope  are  inserted.  Moreo\er,  it  is 
certain  that  after  that  date  altars  of  wood  and  of 
metal  were  erected.  The  earliest  decree  of  a  council 
which  prescribed  that  an  altar  which  is  to  be  con- 
secrated should  be  of  stone  is  that  of  the  provincial 
council  of  Epeaune  (Pamiers),  France,  in  517  (Labbe. 
Concil.  fom.  V,  col.  771).  The  present  discipline  of 
the  Church  requires  that  for  the  consecration  of  an 
altar  it  must  be  of  stone. 

Form  of  an  Altar. — In  the  primitive  times  there 
were  two  kinds  of  altars.  (1)  The  arcosolium  or 
vionumentum  arciuifum,  which  was  formed  by  cutting 
in  the  tufa  wall  of  the  wider  spaces  in  the  cata- 
combs, an  arch-like  niche,  over  a  grave  or  sar- 
cophagus. The  latter  contained  the  remains  of  one 
or  several  martyrs,  and  rose  about  three  feet  above 
the  floor.  On  it  was  placed  horizontally  a  slab  of 
marble,  called  the  iiicnsa,  on  which  Mass  was  cele- 
brated. (2)  The  altar  detached  from  the  wall  in 
the  cubicula,  or  sepulchral  chapels  surrounded  by 
locuH  and  arcosolia,  used  as  places  of  worship  in  the 
catacombs  or  in  the  churches  erected  above  ground 
after  the  time  of  Constantine.  This  second  kind 
of  altar  consisted  of  a  square  or  oblong  slab  of 
stone  or  marble  which  rested  on  columns,  one  to 
six  in  number,  or  on  a  structure  of  masonry  in  which 
were  enclosed  the  relics  of  martyrs.  Sometimes  two 
or  four  slabs  of  stone  were  placed  vertically  under 
the  table,  forming  a  stone  chest.  In  pri\ate  ora- 
tories the  table  was  sometimes  made  of  wood  and 
rested  on  a  wooden  support.  Within  this  support 
were  placed  the  relics  of  martjTs,  and  in  order  to 


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be  able  to  expose  them  to  view,  folding  doors  were 
fixed  on  tlic  front.  Tlie  Liber  I'ontificalis  states 
that  St.  Kelix  I  decreed  that  -Mass  should  be  cele- 
brated on  the  tombs  of  martyrs.  This  no  doubt 
brought  about  both  a  change  of  form,  from  that  of 
a  simple  table  to  that  of  a  chest  or  tomb,  and  the 
rule  that  every  altar  must  contain  the  relics  of 
martyrs.  Isually  the  altar  was  raised  on  steps, 
from  which  the  bisliop  sometimes  preached  (see 
Altar-Steps).  Originally  it  was  made  in  the  shape 
of  an  ordinary  table,  but  gradually  a  step  was  in- 
troduced behind  it  and  raised  slightly  above  it  (see 
AwAit-LKDiiK).  When  the  tabernacle  was  intro- 
duectl  the  mmiber  of  these  steps  was  increased. 
The  altar  is  covered,  at  least  in  basilicas  and  also 
in  large  churches,  by  a  canopy  supported  by  col- 
umns, called  the  ciborium  (see  Altau-Canopy),  upon 
which  were  placed,  or  from  which  were  suspended, 
vases,  crowns,  baskets  of  silver,  as  decorations. 
From  the  middle  of  the  ciborium,  formerly,  a  gold 
or  silver  dove  wiis  suspended  to  serve  as  a  pyx  in 
which  the  Blessed  Sacrament  was  reserved.  Veils 
or  curtains  were  attached  to  the  columns  which 
supported  the  ciborium.  (See  Ai.TAii-CinTAiN.) 
The  altar  was  often  encircled  by  railings  of  wood, 
or  metal,  called  caticelli,  or  by  low  walls  of  marble 
slabs  called  tnmsenmr.  According  to  the  present 
discipline  of  the  Church,  there  are  two  kmds  of 
altars,  the  fi.xed  and  the  portable.  Both  these  de- 
nominations have  a  twofold  meaning,  i.  e.  an  altar 
may  be  fixed  or  portable  cither  in  a  wider  sense 
or  in  the  liturgical  meaning.  A  fixed  altar,  in  a 
wider  sense,  is  one  that  is  attached  to  a  wall,  a  floor, 
or  a  column,  whether  it  be  consecrated  or  not;  in 
the  liturgical  sen.'^e  it  is  a  permanent  structure  of 
stone,  consisting  of  a  consecrated  table  and  support, 
which  mu.st  be  built  on  a  solid  foundation.  A  port- 
able altar,  in  a  wider  sense,  is  one  that  may  Ix;  carried 
from  one  place  to  another;  in  the  liturgical  sense  it 
is  a  consecrated  altar-stone,  sufhcicntly  large  to  hold 
the  Sacred  Host  and  the  greater  part  of  the  base  of 
the  chalice.  It  is  inserted  in  the  table  of  an  altar 
which  is  not  a  consecrated  fixed  altar. 

The  component  parts  of  a  fixed  altar  in  the 
liturgical  sense  are  the  table  (mcnsa),  the  support 
(sd'/x'.s)  and  the  sepulchrum.  (See  ALTAH-CA%nTY.) 
The  table  must  be  a  single  slab  of  stone  firmly  joined 
by  cement  to  the  support,  so  that  the  table  and  sup- 
port together  make  one  piece.  The  surface  of  this 
table  should  Ije  perfectly  smooth  and  polished.  Five 
Greek  crosses  are  engraved  on  its  surface,  one  at 
each  of  the  four  corners,  about  six  inches  from  both 
edges,  but  directly  above  the  support,  and  one  in 
the  centre.  The  support  may  be  either  a  solid  mass 
or  it  may  consist  of  four  or  more  columns.  These 
must  be  of  natural  stone,  firmly  joined  to  the  table. 
The  substructure  need  not,  however,  consist  of  one 
piece,  but  should  in  every  case  be  built  on  a  solid 
foundation  so  as  to  make  the  stnicture  permanent. 
The  support  may  have  any  of  the  following  forms: 
(1)  at  each  corner  a  column  of  natural  stone,  and 
the  spaces  between  the  cohmins  may  be  filled  with 
any  kind  of  stone,  brick,  or  cement;  (2)  the  space 
between  the  two  columns  in  front  may  be  left  ofx;n, 
so  as  to  place  beneath  the  table  (exposed)  a  reliquary 
containing  the  body  (or  a  portion  of  the  body)  of 
a  saint;  (3)  besides  the  four  cohmins,  one  at  each 
corner,  a  fifth  column  may  be  placed  in  the  centre 
at  the  front.  In  this  case  the  Dack,  and  if  desired 
the  sides  also,  may  be  filled  with  stone,  brick,  or 
cement;  (4)  if  the  table  is  small  (it  should  in  every 
case  be  larger  than  the  stone  of  a  portable  altar), 
four  columns  are  place<l  under  it,  one  at  each  corner, 
and,  to  make  up  the  full  length  renuired,  frames  of 
stone  or  other  material  may  be  added  to  each  side. 
These  added  portions  are  not  con.sccratcd,  and  hence 
may  be  constructed  after  the  ceremony  of  conse- 


cration; (5)  if  the  table  is  deficient  in  width,  four 
columns  are  jjlaced  under  it,  one  at  each  corner,  and 
a  frame  of  stone  or  other  material  is  added  to  the 
back.  This  addition  is  not  con.secrated,  and  may 
be  constructed  after  the  consecration  of  the  altar. 
In  the  last  two  cases  the  spaces  between  the  columns 
may  be  filled  with  stone,  brick,  or  cement,  or  they 
may  be  left  oi>en.  In  every  case  the  substructure 
may  be  a  solid  mass,  or  the  interior  may  remain  hol- 
low, but  this  hollow  space  is  not  to  be  used  as  a 
closet  for  storing  articles  of  any  kind,  even  such  as 
belong  to  the  altar.  Neither  the  rubrics  nor  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  prescribe  any  dimen- 
sions for  an  altar.  It  ought,  iiowever,  to  be  large 
enough  to  allow  a  priest  conveniently  to  celebrate 
the  Holy  Sacrifice  upon  it  in  such  a  manner  that 
all  the  ceremonies  can  be  decorously  obser\ed. 
Hence  altars  at  which  solemn  services  arc  celebrated 
require  to  be  of  greater  dimensions  than  other  altars. 
From  the  words  of  the  Pontifical  we  infer  that  the 
high  altar  nnist  stand  free  on  all  sides  {Pontijex 
circuit  sejilies  Uibulam  altuna),  but  the  back  part  of 
smaller  altars  may  be  built  against  the  wall. 

Altau-Candles. — For  mystical  rea.sons  the  Church 

f)rescriljes  that  the  candles  used  at  Mass  and  at  other 
iturgical  functions  be  made  of  bees-wax  (luminaria 
cerca. — .Missale  Rom.,  De  Defectibus,  X,  1;  Cong.  Sac. 
Rites,  4  September,  bSTo).  The  pure  wax  extracted 
by  bees  from  flowers  symbolizes  the  pure  flesh  of 
Cnrist  received  from  His  Virgin  Mother,  the  wick 
signifies  the  soul  of  Christ,  and  the  flame  represents 
His  divinity.  Although  the  two  latter  properties 
are  found  in  all  kinds  of  candles,  the  first  is  proper 
of  bees-wax  candles  only  (Miiller,  Theol.  Moralis, 
bk.  Ill,  tit.  i,  §  27).  It  is,  however,  not  necessary 
that  they  be  made  of  bees-wax  without  any  admix- 
ture. The  paschal  candle  and  the  two  candles  used 
at  Mass  should  be  made  ex  ccrd  apum  saltern  in 
maximd  parte,  bvit  the  other  candles  in  majori 
vcl  nolahili  quantitate  ex  e/iclem  cerd  (Cong.  Sac. 
Rit.,  14  December,  1904).  As  a  rule  they  should 
be  of  white  bleached  wax,  but  at  funerals,  at  the 
office  of  Tenebne  in  Holy  Week,  and  at  the  Mass  of 
the  Presanctified,  on  Good  Friday,  they  should  be 
of  yellow  unbleached  wax  (Ca^rem.  Kpisc).  De 
Herdt  (I,  n°  18;j,  Resp.  2)  says  that  unbleached  wax 
candles  should  be  used  diiring  Advent  and  Lent, 
except  on  feasts,  solemnities,  and  especially  during 
the  exposition  and  procession  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment. Candles  made  wholly  of  any  other  material, 
such  as  tallow  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  10  December,  1857), 
stearine  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  4  September,  1875),  par- 
affin, etc.,  are  forbidden.  The  Cong.  Sac.  Rit.  (7 
September,  1850)  made  an  exception  for  the  mis- 
sionaries of  Oceanica,  who,  on  account  of  the  im- 
possiblify  of  obtaining  wax  candles,  are  allowed  to 
use  sperm  candles.  Without  an  Apostolic  indult  it 
is  not  allowalile,  and  it  constitutes  a  grievous  ofTence 
to  celebrate  Mass  without  any  light  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
7  September,  1850),  even  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
Holy  Viaticum,  or  of  enabling  the  people  to  comply 
with  their  duty  of  assisting  at  M;uss  on  Sundays  and 
holydays  (St.  Lig.,  bk.  Vl,  n.  394).  In  these,  and 
sitnilar  cases  of  necessity  it  is  the  common  opinion 
that  Mass  may  be  celebrated  with  tallow  candles  or 
oil  lamps  (ibid.).  It  is  not  permitted  to  begin  Mass 
before  the  candles  are  lighted,  nor  are  they  to  be 
extinguished  imtil  the  last  Gospel  has  been  recited. 
If  the  candles  go  out  before  the  Consecration,  and 
cannot  be  again  lighted,  most  authors  say  that  Ma.ss 
should  bo  discontinued;  if  this  happens  after  the 
Consecration,  Mass  should  not  be  interrupted,  al- 
though some  authors  s;iy  that  if  they  can  possibly 
Ijc  lighted  again  within  fifteen  minutes  the  celebrant 
ought  to  interrupt  Mass  for  this  space  of  time  (ibid.). 
If  only  one  rubrical  candle  can  Iw  had,  Mass  may 
be  celebrated  even  ex  devolione  (ibid.). 


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Number  of  Candles  at  Mass. — (1)  At  a  pon- 
tifical high  Mass,  celebrated  by  tlie  ordinary,  seven 
candles  are  lighted.  The  seventh  candle  should  be 
somewhat  higher  than  the  others,  and  should  be 
placed  at  the  middle  of  the  altar  in  line  with  the 
other  six.  For  this  reason  the  altar  crucifix  is  moved 
forward  a  little.  In  Requiem  Masses,  and  at  other 
liturgical  services,  e.  g.  Vespers,  the  seventh  candle 
is  not  used.  If  the  bishop  celebrate  outside  his  dio- 
cese, or  if  he  be  the  administrator,  auxiliary,  or  co- 
adjutor, the  seventh  candle  is  not  lighted.  (2)  At 
a. solemn  high  Mass,  i.  e.  when  the  celebrant  is 
jissisted  by  a  deacon  and  subdeacon,  six  candles  are 
lighted.  This  is  not  expressly  prescribed  by  the  ru- 
brics, but  merely  deduced  from  the  rubric  describing 
the  manner  of  incensing  the  altar  (Ritus  celebrandi 
Missam,  tit.  iv,  n.  4),  which  says  that  the  celebrant 
incenses  both  sides  of  the  altar  with  three  swings 
of  the  censer  pruiit  distribuuntur  candelabra.  (3) 
At  a  high  Mass  {missa  cantata),  which  is  cele- 
brated without  the  assistance  of  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon,  at  least  four  candles  are  required  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  12  August,  1854),  although  six  may  be 
lighted.  At  these  Masses  under  (1),  (2),  (3),  the 
two  lighted  candles  prescribed  by  the  Missal 
(Ruhr.  XX)  to  be  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
cross,  are  not  necessary  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  5  Decem- 
ber, 1891).  (4)  At  low  Mass  celebrated  by  any 
bishop,  four  candles  are  usually  lighted,  although  the 
"  Caeremoniale  Episc.  "  (I,  cap.  xxix,  n.  4)  prescribes 
this  numlier  only  for  the  more  solemn  feasts,  and 
two  on  feasts  of  lower  rite.  (5)  At  a  strictly  low 
Mass  celebrated  by  any  priest  inferior  to  a  bishop, 
whatever  be  his  dignity,  only  two  candles  may  be 
used.  (6)  In  a  not  strictly  low  Mass,  i.  e.  in  a  pa- 
rochial or  community  Mass  on  more  solemn  feasts, 
or  the  Mass  which  is  said  instead  of  a  solemn  or 
high  Mass  on  the  occasion  of  a  great  solemnity 
(Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  12  September,  1857),  when  cele- 
brated by  a  priest  more  than  two  candles,  and 
when  celebrated  by  a  bishop  more  than  four  candles 
may  be  used.  At  all  functions  throughout  the  year, 
except  on  Good  Friday  and  Holy  Saturday,  before 
the  Mass  bishops  are  allowed  the  use  of  the  bugia 
or  hand-candlestick.  The  use  of  the  bugia  is  not 
permitted  to  priests,  whatever  be  their  dignity,  un- 
less it  be  granted  by  an  Apostolic  privilege,  either 
personal,  or  by  reason  of  their  being  curial  digni- 
taries. If,  on  account  of  darkness,  a  priest  stands 
in  need  of  a  light  near  the  Missal  he  may  use  a 
candle,  but  the  candlestick  on  which  it  is  fastened 
cannot  have  the  form  of  the  bugia  (Cong.  Sac.  Hit., 
31  May,  1817).  An  oil  lamp  can  never  be  used 
for  this  purpose  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  20  June,  1899). 
At  the  Forty  Hours'  Devotion  at  least  twenty  candles 
should  burn  continuously  (Instructio  Clementina, 
§  6);  at  other  public  expositions  of  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament at  least  twelve  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  8  February, 
1879);  at  the  private  exposition,  at  least  six  (Cong. 
Episc.  et  Reg.,  9  December,  1602).  The  only  bless- 
ings at  which   lighted    candles   are    prescribed   are: 

(1 )  of  the  candles  on  the  feast  of  the  Purification; 

(2)  of  the  ashes  on  Ash  Wednesday;   (3)  of  the  palms 
on  Palm  Sunday. 

Double  Altar.— An  altar  having  a  double  front, 
constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  Mass  may  be 
celebrated  on  both  sides  of  it  at  the  same  time. 
They  are  frequently  found  in  churches  of  religious 
communities  in  which  the  choir  is  behind  the  altar, 
so  that  whilst  one  priest  is  celebrating  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  for  the  community  in  choir,  another  may 
celebrate  for  the  laity  assembled  in  the  church. 

PoRTAnLE  Altah.— It  Consists  of  a  solid  piece  of 
natural  stone  which  must  be  sufficiently  hard  to 
resist  every  fracture.  It  must  be  consecrated  by 
a  bishop  or  other  person  having  facvilties  to  do  so. 
By  virtue   of    Facultates   Extraordinaria;   C,  6,  the 


bishops  of  the  United  States  may  delegate  a  priest. 
It  is  inserted  in,  or  placed  on,  the  table  of  tlie  altar, 
about  two  inches  from  the  front  edge,  and  in  such 
a  manner  that,  by  its  slight  elevation  above  the 
table,  the  celebrant  can  trace  its  outlines  with  his 
hand  and  thus  recognize  its  location  beneath  the 
altar-cloths.  In  general  it  should  be  large  enough 
to  hold  the  Sacred  Host  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
base  of  the  chalice  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  20  March,  1846). 
If  the  altar  is  intended  for  the  celebration  of  Masses 
at  which  Holy  Communion  is  distributed,  it  should 
be  large  enough  to  hold  the  ciborium  also.  Five 
Greek  crosses  are  engraved  on  it,  one  near  each 
corner  and  one  in  the  centre,  to  indicate  the  place 
on  which  the  unctions  are  made  at  the  consecration. 
If  the  cross  in  the  centre  should  be  wanting,  the 
unction  must  not  be  omitted,  but  the  omission  of 
this  unction  would  not  invalidate  the  consecration 
(Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  2  May,  1892).  The  table  and  sup- 
ports on  which  the  portable  altar  rests  may  be  con- 
structed of  any  suitable  material,  wood  or  stone, 
provided  they  have  the  proper  dimensions.  For  the 
portable  altar  the  Greeks  generally  use  the  anti- 
mensium,  a  consecrated  altar-cloth  of  silk  or  linen, 
after  the  manner  of  our  corporals.  When  a  church 
is  consecrated,  a  piece  of  cloth  large  enough  to 
form  several  antimensia  is  placed  on  the  altar.  It 
is  consecrated  by  the  bishop  pouring  wine  and  holy 
chrism  on  it  and  stiffening  it  with  a  mixture  con- 
sisting of  relics  pounded  up  with  wax  or  fragrant 
gum.  It  is  afterwards  divided  into  pieces  about 
sixteen  inches  square,  and  after  the  Holy  Eucharist 
has  been  celebrated  on  them  for  seven  days  these 
pieces  are  distributed  as  occasion  requires  (Neale, 
Holy  Eastern  Church,  I,  187). 

Privileged  Altar. — An  altar  is  said  to  be  privi- 
leged when,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  fruits  of 
the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  a  plenary  indulgence  is  also 
granted  whenever  Mass  is  celebrated  thereon;  the 
indulgence  must  be  applied  to  the  individual  soul  for 
whom  Mass  is  offered.  The  privileged  altar  must 
be  a  fixed,  or  immovable,  altar,  but  in  a  wider  sense, 
that  is,  it  must  be  stationary  or  permanent,  whether 
built  on  a  solid  foundation  or  attached  to  a  wall 
or  column,  even  though  it  be  not  consecrated,  but 
have  merely  a  consecrated  stone  (portable  altar)  in- 
serted in  its  table.  The  privilege  is  annexed  not 
to  the  altar-stone,  but  to  the  structure  itself,  by 
reason  of  the  title  which  it  bears,  that  is,  of  the 
mystery  or  saint  to  whom  it  is  dedicated.  Hence 
if  the  material  of  the  altar  be  changed,  if  the  altar 
be  transferred  to  another  place,  if  another  altar  be 
substituted  for  it  in  the  same  church,  provided  it 
retains  the  same  title,  and  even  if  the  altar  is  dese- 
crated or  profaned,  the  privilege  is  preserved.  To 
gain  the  indulgence,  the  Mass  must  be  a  Mass  of 
Requiem,  whenever  the  rubrics  permit  it.  If,  on 
account  of  the  superior  rite  of  the  feast  of  the  day, 
or  on  account  of  the  Exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament, or  for  other  reasons,  a  Requiem  Mass  can- 
not be  celebrated,  the  indulgence  may  be  gained  by 
celebrating  another  Mass  (S.  C.  Indulg.,  11  April, 
1864).  This  privilege  is  of  two  kinds,  local  or  real, 
and  personal.  It  is  local  or  real  when  it  is  annexed 
to  the  altar  as  described  above.  Hence  whoever 
the  priest  may  be  who  celebrates  Mass  at  such  an 
altar,  the  indulgence  is  gained.  It  is  personal  when 
it  is  inherent  in  the  priest,  so  that  it  does  not  depend 
on  the  altar,  but  on  the  priest  who  celebrates.  Hence 
on  whatever  altar  he  may  celebrate,  whether  it  be 
a  fixed  or  a  portable  one,  and  in  whatever  church 
he  celebrates,  the  altar  he  uses  is  for  the  time  being 
a  pri\'ileged  altar.  On  2  November  every  altar  is 
privileged.  The  bishops  of  the  United  States  have 
the  faculty  (Facultates  Extraordinaria?  C,  fac.  viii) 
of  declaring  privileged  one  altar  in  every  church 
and  public  chapel  or  oratory,  whether  it  be  conse- 


ALTAR 


349 


ALTAR 


crated  or  not,  of  their  dioceses,  provided  this  privi- 
lege had  not  been  previously  granted  to  any  other 
ahar  in  such  cliurcli  under  tlie  same  conditions. 

Sthii'I'I.ni;  of  Altau. — On  Holy  Thursday  the 
celebrant,  having  removed  the  ciborium  from  the 
high  altar,  goes  to  the  sacristy.  He  there  lays  aside 
the  white  vestments  and  puts  on  a  violet  stole,  and, 
accompanied  by  the  deacon,  also  vested  in  violet 
stole,  and  the  subdcacon,  returns  to  the  high  altar. 
Whilst    the    antiplion    "Diviserunt    sibi"    and    the 

Csalm  "Deus,  Ueus  meus"  are  being  recited,  the  celo- 
rant  and  his  assistants  ascend  to  the  predella  and 
strip  the  altar  of  the  altar-cloths,  vasca  of  flowers, 
antipiMuliuni,  and  other  ornament-^,  so  that  nothing 
remains  but  the  cross  and  the  candlesticks  with  the 
candles  extinguished.  In  the  same  maimer  all  the 
other  altars  in  the  church  are  denuded.  If  there 
be  manv  altars  in  the  church,  another  priest,  vested 
in  surplice  and  violet  stole,  may  strip  them  whilst 
the  celebrant  is  stripping  the  high  altar.  The  Chris- 
tian altar  represents  Christ,  and  the  stripping  of  the 
altar  reminds  us  how  lie  was  stripped  of  Ilis  gar- 
ments when  He  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Jews  and 
was  exposed  naked  to  their  insults.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  psalm  "Deus,  Deus  meus"  is  recited, 
wherein  the  Messias  s|)caks  of  the  Koman  soldiers 
dividing  His  garments  among  them.  This  ceremony 
signifies  the  suspension  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  (Gu^'r- 
anger,  The  Liturgical  Year:  Holy  Week).  It  was 
formerly  the  custom  in  some  churches  on  this  day 
to  wash  the  altars  with  a  bunch  of  hyssop  dipped 
in  wine  and  water,  to  render  them  in  some  manner 
worthy  of  the  Lamb  without  stain  who  is  innnolatcd 
on  them,  and  to  recall  to  the  minds  of  the  faithful 
with  how  great  purity  they  should  assist  at  the 
Holy  Sacrifice  ana  receive  Holy  Communion  (Lero- 
Bey,  llistoire  et  .symbolisme  de  la  liturgie).  St.  Isi- 
dore of  .Seville  (De  Ecdes.  OIT.,  I,  xxviii)  and  St.  Kli- 
gius  of  Noyon  (Homil.  VIII,  De  Coemi  Domini)  say 
that  this  ceremony  was  intended  as  an  homage  of- 
fered to  Our  Lord,  in  return  for  the  humility  where- 
with He  deigned  to  wash  the  feet  of  His  disciples. 
Altab-Hki.l. — A  small  bell  placed  on  the  credence 
or  in  some  other  convenient  place  on  the  epistle  side 
of  the  altar.  According  to  the  rubrics  it  is  rung 
only  at  the  Sanctus  and  at  the  elevation  of  both 
Species  (Miss.  Kom.,  Uitus  celebr.,  tit.  \'ii,  n.  8,  and 
tit.  viii,  n.  6)  to  invite  the  faithful  to  the  act  of  ado- 
ration at  the  Consecration.  This  must  be  done  even 
in  private  chapels  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  18  July,  1885). 
It  may  also  be  rung  at  the  "Domine  non  sura  dig- 
nus",  and  again  before  the  distribution  of  Holy 
Communion  to  the  laity,  and  at  other  times  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  place.  When  the  HIesscd 
Sacrament  is  publicly  exposed,  (1)  it  may  or  may 
not  be  rung  at  high  Mass,  and  at  a  low  Mass  which 
takes  the  place  of  the  high  Mass,  celebrated  at  the 
Altar  of  Exposition,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
place.  (2)  It  is  not  rung  at  low  .Masses  at  any  altar 
of  such  church,  but  in  such  cases  a  low  signal  may 
be  given  with  the  bell  at  the  sacristy  door  when  the 
priest  is  about  to  \yes\n  Mass  (Gardellini,  Instr. 
Clem.,  §  16,  4,  5).  (3)  It  is  not  ning  at  high  Mass 
celebrated  at  an  altar  other  than  that  on  which  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  publicly  exposed  (Cong.  Sac. 
Rit.,  31  August,  1867).  It  shoidd  not  be  rung  at 
low  Masses  whilst  a  public  celebration  is  taking 
place,  and  at  any  Mass  during  the  pviblic  recitation 
of  office  in  choir,  if  said  Mass  be  celebrated  at  an 
altar  near  the  choir  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit..  21  Novemlier, 
1893).  It  is  not  rung  from  the  end  of  the  "Ciloria 
in  excelsis"  on  Maundy  Thursday  to  the  beginning 
of  the  "Gloria  in  excelsis"  on  Holy  Saturday.  Dur- 
ing this  interval  the  Memoriale  Rituum  (Tit.  iv, 
}  4.  n.  7)  prcMcrilx>s  that  the  clapper  (crolahi.i)  l)e 
iLse<l  to  give  the  signal  for  the  Angelus.  but  it  is 
nowhere  prescribed  in  the  liturgical  functions.     The 


custom  of  using  the  clapper  on  these  occasions  ap- 
iwars  quite  proper.  The  Cong.  Sac.  Rit.  (10  Sep- 
tember, IS'JS)  when  asked  if  a  gong  may  be  used 
in.stead  of  the  small  bell  answered,  "Negative;  seu 
non  con  venire". 

Ai.T.\ii-HnK.\D  HoxES. — These  are  made  of  wood, 
tin,  britannia,  silver,  or  other  metal.  In  order  that 
the  breads  may  not  become  bent  or  curved,  a  round 
Hat  weight,  covered  if  necessary  with  silk  or  linen, 
and  having  a  knob  on  top,  so  as  to  be  easily  taken 
hold  of,  is  placed  on  the  breads.  The  cover  must 
fit  tightly,  so  that  the  breads  become  neither  damp 
nor  soiled.  The  box  for  the  large  hosts  is  of  suit- 
able dimensions.  A  larger  box  is  employed  for  the 
particles  u.sed  at  the  communion  of  the  laity. 

Alt.\h-Bke.M)S. — Bread  is  one  of  the  two  elements 
alxsolutely  necessary  for  the  sacrifice  of  the  Euchar- 
ist. It  cannot  be  determined  from  the  sacred  text 
whether  Christ  lused  the  ordinarj'  table  bread  or 
some  other  bread  specially  prepared  for  the  occa- 
sion. In  the  Western  Church  the  altar-breads  were 
probably  round  in  form.  Archa-ological  researches 
demonstrate  this  from  pictures  found  in  the  cata- 
combs (.\rmellini,  Lezioni  di  Crist  iana  Archeologia, 
Pars.  II,  v);  and  Pope  St.  Zephyrinus  (a.  d.  201- 
219)  calls  the  altar-bread  "coronam  sive  oblatam 
spherica;  figura;".  In  the  Eastern  churches  they 
are  round  or  square.  I'ormerly  the  laity  presented 
the  flour  from  which  the  breads  were  formed.  In 
the  Eastern  Church  the  breads  were  made  by  con- 
secrated virgins;  in  the  Western  Church,  by  priesta 
and  clerics  (Benedict  XIV,  De  Sacrif.  Mis.sic,  I, 
§  .36).  This  custom  is  still  in  vogue  in  the  Ar- 
menian Church.  The  earliest  documentary  evidence 
that  the  altar-breads  were  made  in  thin  wafers  is 
the  answer  which  Cardinal  Humbert,  legate  of  St. 
Leo  IX,  made  at  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century 
to  Michael  Cerularius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(Eleury,  Hist.  Ecdes.,  LX,  n.  G).  These  wafers  were 
sometimes  very  large,  as  from  them  small  pieces 
were  broken  for  the  Communion  of  the  laity,  hence 
the  word  "particle  "  for  the  small  host;  but  smaller 
ones  were  used  when  only  the  celebrant  communi- 
cated. 

For  valid  consecration  the  hosts  must  be  (1)  made 
of  wheaten  flour,  (2)  mixed  with  pure  natural  water, 
(3)  baked  in  an  oven,  or  between  two  heated  iron 
moulds,  and  they  must  not  be  corrupted  (Miss.Rom., 
De  Defectibus,  III,  1).  If  the  host  is  not  made  of 
wheaten  flour,  or  is  mixed  with  flour  of  another  kind 
in  such  q\iantity  that  it  cannot  be  called  wheat 
bread,  it  may  not  be  used  (ibid.).  If  not  natural, 
but  distilled  water  is  used,  the  consecration  becomes 
of  doubtful  validity  (ibid.,  2).  If  the  host  Ijegins 
to  be  corrupt,  it  would  be  a  grievous  offence  to  use 
it,  but  it  is  considered  valid  matter  (ibid.,  3.)  For 
licit  consecration,  (1)  the  bread  must  Ix!,  at  present 
unleavmcd  in  the  Western  Church,  but  leavened  bread 
in  the  Eastern  Church,  except  among  the  Maronites, 
the  Armenians,  and  in  the  Churches  of  Jerusalem 
and  Alexandria,  where  it  is  vmlcavened.  It  is 
probable  that  Christ  u.-^ed  unleavened  bread  at  the 
mstitution  of  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  because  the 
Jews  were  not  allowed  to  have  leavened  bread  in 
their  houses  on  the  daj-s  of  the  Azymes.  Some 
authors  are  of  the  opinion  that  down  to  the  tenth 
century  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
used  leavened  bread;  others  maintain  that  un- 
leavened bread  was  used  from  the  beginning  in  the 
Western  Church;  still  others  hold  that  unleavened  or 
leavened  bread  was  used  iiulilTercntly.  St.  Thomas 
(IV.  Dist.  xi.  qu.  3)  holds  that,  in  the  beginning, 
both  in  the  East  and  West  unleavened  bread  was 
used;  that  when  the  sect  of  the  Ebionites  arose,  who 
wished  that  the  Mosaic  Law  should  be  obligatory 
on  all  converts,  leavened  bread  was  used,  and  when 
this  heresy  ceased  the  Latins  used  again  unleavened 


ALTAR 


350 


ALTAR 


bread,  but  the  Greeks  retained  the  use  of  leavened 
bread.  Leavened  bread  may  be  used  in  the  Latin 
Church  if  after  consecration  the  celebrant  adverts 
to  the  fact  that  the  host  before  him  has  some  sub- 
stantial defect,  and  no  other  than  leavened  bread 
can  be  procured  at  the  time  (Lehmkuhl,  n.  121,  3). 
A  Latin  priest  travelling  in  the  East,  in  places  in 
which  there  are  no  churches  of  his  rite,  may  celebrate 
with  leavened  bread.  A  Greek  priest  travelling  in 
the  West  may,  under  similar  circumstances,  cele- 
brate with  unleavened  bread.  For  the  purpose  of 
giving  Viaticum,  if  no  unleavened  bread  be  at  hand, 
some  say  that  leavened  may  he  used  (C.  Uttini, 
Corso  di  Scienza  Lit.,  bk.  II,  p.  174,  footnote);  but 
St.  Liguori,  (bk.  VI,  n.  203,  dub.  2)  says  that  the  more 
probable  opinion  of  theologians  is  that  it  cannot  be 
done.  (2)  The  hosts  must  be  recently  made  (Rit. 
RoBi.,  tit.  iv,cap.  i,  n.  7).  The  rubrics  do  not  specify 
the  term  reccnlex  in  speaking  of  the  hosts.  In  Rome, 
the  bakers  of  altar-breads  are  obliged  to  make  solemn 
affidavit  that  they  will  not  sell  breads  older  than  fif- 
teen days,  and  St.  Charles,  by  a  statute  of  the  Fourth 
SjTiod  of  Milan,  prescribed  that  hosts  older  than 
twenty  days  must  not  be  used  in  the  celebration  of 
Mass.  In  practice,  therefore,  those  older  than  three 
weeks  ought  not  to  be  used.  (3)  Round  in  form,  and 
not  broken.  (4)  Clean  and  fair,  of  a  thin  layer,  and 
of  a  size  conformable  to  the  regular  custom  in  the 
Latin  Church.  In  Rome  the  large  hosts  are  about 
three  and  one-fifth  inches  in  diameter;  in  other 
places  they  are  smaller,  but  should  be  at  least  two 
and  three-fourths  inches  in  diameter.  The  small 
hosts  for  the  Communion  of  the  laity  should  be  about 
one  and  two-fifths  inches  in  diameter  (Schober,  S.  Al- 
phonsi  Liber  de  Cceremoniis  Missce,  p.  6,  footnote  9). 
When  a  large  host  can  not  be  obtained  Mass  may  be 
said  in  private  with  a  small  host.  In  cases  of  neces- 
sity, such  as  permitting  the  people  to  fulfil  the  pre- 
cept of  hearing  Mass,  or  administering  Viaticum,  the 
Mass  may  be  also  said  with  a  small  host,  but,  as 
liturgists  say,  to  avoid  scandal  the  faithful  should  be 
advised  (De  Herdt,  II,  n.  137).  As  a  rule  the  image 
of  Christ  crucified  should  be  impressed  on  the  large 
host  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  26  April,  1834),  but  the  mon- 
ogram of  the  Holy  Name  (Ephem.  Lit.,  XIII,  1899, 
p.  686),  or  the  Sacred  Heart  (ibid.,  p.  266)  may  also  be 
adopted.  The  altar-breads  assumed  different  names 
according  as  they  had  reference  to  the  Eucharist  as 
a  sacrament  or  as  a  sacrifice:  bread,  gift  (donum), 
table  (mensa)  allude  to  the  Sacrament,  which  was 
instituted  for  the  nourishment  of  our  soul;  oblation, 
victim,  host,  allude  to  sacrifice.  Before  the  tenth 
century  the  word  "host  "  was  not  employed,  proba- 
bly because  before  that  time  the  Blessed  Eucharist 
was  considered  more  frequently  as  a  sacrament  than 
as  a  sacrifice,  hence  the  Fathers  use  such  expressions 
as  communion  {si/naxis),  supper  (cima),  breaking  of 
bread,  etc.,  but  at  present  the  word  "  host  "  is  used 
when  referring  to  the  Eucharist  either  as  a  sacra- 
ment or  as  a  sacrifice.  In  the  liturgy  it  is  used 
(1)  for  the  bread  before  its  consecration,  "Suscipe 
sancte  Pater  .  .  .  banc  immaculatam  hostiam" 
(Gffertory  of  the  Mass);  (2)  for  Christ  under  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Eucharistic  Species,  "Unde  et  me- 
mores  .  .  .  hostiam  purani,  hostiam  sanctam,  hos- 
tiam immaculatam"  (Mass,  after  the  consecration). 
IJurandus  says  that  the  word  host  is  of  pagan  origin, 
derived  from  the  word  hostio,  to  strike,  referring  to 
the  victim  offered  to  the  gods  after  a  victory;  but 
it  is  al.so  of  biblical  origin,  as  it  represented  the  mat- 
ter, or  victim,  of  the  sacrifice,  e.  g.  "expiationis  hos- 
tiam" (Exod.,  xxix,  36). 

Ai.taei-Canolehticks.— An  altar-candlestick  con- 
sists of  five  narts:  the  foot,  the  stem,  the  knob 
about  the  middle  of  the  stem,  the  bowl  to  receive 
the  drinpings  of  wax,  and  the  pricket,  i.  e.  the  sharp 
point  that  terminates  the  stem  on  which  the  candle 


is  fixed  (Pugin,  Glossary).  Instead  of  fixing  the 
candle  on  the  pricket,  it  is  permissible  to  use  a  tube 
in  which  is  put  a  small  candle  which  is  forced  to  the 
top  of  the  tube  by  a  spring  placed  within  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  11  May,  1878).  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Church  candlesticl<s  were  not  placed  on  the  altar, 
though  lights  were  used  in  the  church,  and  especially 
near  the  altar.  The  chandeliers  were  either  sus- 
pended from  the  ceiling  or  attached  to  the  side 
walls,  or  were  placed  on  pedestals.  When  the  chan- 
deliers were  fed  with  oil  they  were  usually  called 
canthari,  when  they  held  candles  they  went  by  the 
name  of  phari,  although  frequently  these  words 
were  applied  indiscriminately  to  either.  The  lights 
usually  assumed  the  form  of  a  crown,  a  cross,  a 
tree,  etc.,  but  at  times  also  of  real  or  imaginary  ani- 
mals. We  have  no  documentary  evidence  that  can- 
dlesticlcs  were  placed  on  the  altar  during  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  before  the  tenth 
century.  Leo  IV  (847-855)  declared  that  only  the 
relics  of  saints  and  the  book  of  the  Gospels  might 
be  placed  on  the  altar  (Hamel,  De  cura  pastorum). 
No  writer  before  the  tenth  century  who  treats  of  the 
altar  makes  mention  of  candlesticks  on  the  altar,  but 
mention  is  made  of  acolytes  carrying  candlesticks, 
which,  however,  were  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  sanc- 
tuary or  near  the  corners  of  the  altar,  as  is  still 
the  custom  in  the  Eastern  Church.  Probably  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  certainly  in  the  thirteenth, 
lights  were  placed  on  the  altar;  for  Durandus  (Ra- 
tionale, I,  iii,  27)  says  "that  at  both  corners  of  the 
altar  a  candlestick  is  placed  to  signify  the  joy  of 
two  peoples  who  rejoiced  at  the  birth  of  Christ", 
and  "the  cross  is  placed  on  the  altar  between  two 
candlesticks."  The  custom  of  placing  candlesticks 
and  candles  on  the  altar  became  general  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  Down  to  that  time  only  two  were 
ordinarily  used,  but  on  solemn  feasts  four  or  six. 
At  present  more  are  used,  but  the  rubric  of  the  mis- 
sal (20)  prescribes  only  two,  one  at  each  side  of 
the  cross,  at  least  at  a  low  Mass.  These  candlesticks 
and  their  candles  must  be  placed  on  the  altar;  their 
place  cannot  be  taken  by  two  brackets  attached  to 
the  superstructural  steps  of  the  altar,  or  affixed  to 
the  wall  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  16  September,  1865).  Ac- 
cording to  the  "CiBremoniale  Episcoporum"  (I,  xii, 
11),  there  should  be  on  the  high  altar  six  candle- 
sticks and  candles  of  various  sizes,  the  highest  of 
which  should  be  near  the  cross.  If  all  six  be  of  the 
same  size  they  may  be  placed  on  different  elevations, 
so  as  to  produce  the  same  effect;  a  custom,  however, 
has  been  introduced  of  having  them  at  the  same 
height,  and  this  is  now  permissible  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
21  July,  18.55).  On  the  other  altars  of  the  church 
there  should  be  at  least  two  candlesticks,  but  usu- 
ally four  are  used;  on  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament, if  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  not  kept  on  the 
high  altar,  there  should  regularly  be  six.  The  Ro- 
man Missal  (Rubr.  20)  says  also  that  a  third  candle- 
stick and  candle  should  be  placed  at  the  epistle  side, 
and  that  this  extra  candle  should  be  lighted  at  low 
Masses  from  the  consecration  to  the  consumption 
of  the  Precious  Blood.  This  nibric  is  onlv  directive 
(9  June,  1899).  The  third  light  is  not  "placed  on 
the  altar  itself,  but  on  the  credence,  or  on  the  step 
of  the  altar  at  the  place  where  the  altar-lioy  kneels. 
A  bracket  affixed  to  the  wall  may  be  used  for  this 
candlestick  (Ephem.  Lit.,  IX,  34,  1875).  The  can- 
dlesticks may  te  made  of  any  kind  of  metal  or  even 
of  wood,  gilded  or  silvered;  but  on  (lood  Friday 
silvered  ones  may  not  be  used  (Cstrem.  Episc.,  II, 
XXV,  2).  The  candlesticks  destined  for  the  ornamen- 
tation of  the  altar  are  not  to  be  used  around  the 
bier  at  funerals,  or  around  the  catafalque  at  the 
commemoration  of  the  dead  (Hit.  Rom.,  VI,  i,  6), 
during  Mass  or  other  functions,  at  least  on  solemn 
feasts,  they  cannot  be  covered  with  a  cloth  or  veil 


ALTAR 


351 


(Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  12  Septemter,  1S57;  16  September, 
ISC')).  Candelabra  lioUling  several  candles  cannot 
Ix!  used  for  the  candlesticks  prescribed  by  the  Rub- 
rics (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  10  September,  1865). 

Ai.t.vh-Canopy. — Tlie  "Ca-rcnioniale  Episcopo- 
rum"  (I,  xii,  13),  treating  of  the  ornaments  of  the 
altar,  says  that  a  canopy  (Ixitildcliiuiim)  should  lie 
suspended  over  the  altar.  It  should  be  square  in 
form,  sufficiently  large  to  cover  the  Altar  and  the 
predella  on  wliich  the  celebrant  stands,  and  if  it  can 
easily  be  done,  the  colour  of  the  material,  silk  vel- 
vet or  otlier  cloth,  with  whicli  it  is  covered,  should 
vary  witli  the  colour  of  the  ornaments  of  the  altar. 
It  is  eitlier  suspended  from  the  ceiling  by  a  movable 
chain,  so  that  it  may  be  lowered  or  raised  when  nec- 
essary, or  it  may  be  attached  to  tlie  wall,  or  to  the 
reredos  at  the  back  of  the  altar.  It  may  also  be  a 
station:iry  structure,  and  tliis  is  usually  tlie  case  in 
large  churclies,  and  then  it  is  made  of  marble,  stone, 
metal,  or  wood  beautifully  carved  and  overlaid  with 
gold  or  silver,  in  tlie  form  of  a  cupola  erected  on 
tour  pillars.  In  liturgy  it  is  called  the  ciborium 
(ibid.).  The  canopy  or  ciborium  is,  according  to 
the  decision  of  the  Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  to  be  erected 
over  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (23  May, 
1846),  and  over  the  other  altars  of  the  church  (27 
April,  1097),  but  a  contrary  custom  has  so  far  pre- 
vailed that  even  in  Rome  it  is  usually  erected  only 
over  the  high  altar,  and  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Sac- 
rament. The  purpose  of  this  canopy  is  to  protect 
the  altar  from  dust  or  other  matter  falling  upon  it 
from  the  ceiling,  which,  being  usually  very  high, 
cannot  be  conveniently  or  easily  cleaned.  On  sol- 
emn festivals,  or  at  special  solemnities,  a  temporary 
canopy  is  sometimes  placed  over  an  altar  in  or  out- 
side the  church.  The  framework  on  which  such  a 
canopy  is  erected  is  called  the  "altar-herse",  a  word 
probably  derived  from  hearse,  a  frame  covered  with 
cloth,  and  formerly  set  up  over  a  corpse  in  funeral 
solemnities. 

Alt.\r-C.\rds. — To  assist  the  memory  of  the  cele- 
brant at  Mass  in  those  prayers  which  he  sliould  know 
by  heart,  cards  on  which  these  prayers  are  printed 
are  placed  on  the  altar  in  the  middle,  and  at  each 
end.  They  were  not  used  before  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  even  at  present  are  not  employed  at  the 
Mass  celebrated  by  a  bishop,  who  reads  all  the 
prayers  from  the  Pontifical  Canon.  At  the  time 
that  Pius  V  revised  the  .Missal,  only  the  card  at  the 
middle  of  the  Altar  was  used,  and  it  was  called  the 
"Tabella  Secretarum"  (tit.  xx).  Later,  another 
was  added  containing  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  (re- 
cited usually  at  the  end  of  .Mass),  and  placed  on  the 
Gospel  side.  Tor  the  sake  of  symmetry,  another 
containing  the  prayer  "  Deus  qui  humanic  substan- 
tia;", which  is  said  by  the  celebrant  when  he  blesses 
the  cruet  of  water,  and  the  psalm  "  I.avabo",  recited 
at  the  washing  of  the  hands,  W!us  placed  on  the 
Epistle  side.  Only  during  Mass  should  the  cards 
stand  on  the  altar,  the  middle  one  resting  against 
the  cnicifix  or  t:<bernacle,  the  side  ones  against  the 
candlesticks  or  superstnictural  steps  of  the  altar. 
At  any  otlier  lime  they  are  cither  removed  or  placed 
face  downwards  on  the  altar  under  the  altar  cover. 
When  the  Blessed  ."sacrament  is  exposed  outside  of 
Mass,  the  cards  must  be  removc<l  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
20  December,  1804).  If  these  cards  are  fiamed,  the 
frames  should,  as  far  as  possible,  correspond  to  the 
architecture  of  the  altar. 

Ai.TAH-C.VRPETs. — The  sanctuary  and  altar-steps 
of  the  high  altar  are  ordinarily  to  be  covered  with 
carpets.  If  the  sanctuary  floor  lie  marble,  tile,  or 
tessellated  woodwork,  at  least  a  broad  strip  of  car- 
pet should  Iw  placed  before  the  lowest  step  in  plann. 
On  solemn  feasts  particularly,  rugs  of  fine  quality 
are  reserved  for  the  predella  and  altar-steps.  If  the 
whole  sanctuary  and  altar-steps  cannot  be  covered,  at 


least  the  predella  of  the  high  altar,  and  of  the  other 
altars  should  have  a  rug  (Ca;rem.  Episc,  I,  xii,  16). 
Exceptions  to  this  rule  :  (1)  From  the  time  of  strifv- 
ping  the  altars  on  Maundy  Thursday  to  Holy  .Sat- 
urday the  car|)et3  are  removed.  They  are  replaced 
on  Holy  .Saturday  before  the  Mass.  (2)  During  sol- 
emn Requiem  Masses  the  floor  of  the  .sanctuary  and 
the  altar-steps  are  to  be  bare,  although  a  suitable 
nig  may  be  placed  on  the  predella  and,  when  a  bishop 
celebrates,  in  front  of  the  faldstool  (Carcm.  Episc,  II, 
xi,  1).  The  same  authority  mentions  that  the  car- 
pet should  be  of  green  colour,  but  any  may  be  used. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  crosses,  images  of  the 
saints,  emblems,  e.  g.  chalice,  lamb,  etc.,  and  mono- 
grams of  the  Holy  Names,  etc.,  be  not  woven  into 
the  carpets,  for  it  is  unbecoming  and  unseemly  that 
the  figures  of  sacred  things  be  trodden  upon.  These 
remarks  apply  equally  to  marble,  tile,  mosaic,  etc., 
floors. 

ALT.\n-CAViTY. — This  is  a  small  square  or  oblong 
chamber  in  the  body  of  the  altar,  in  which  are  placed, 
according  to  the  "  Pontificale  Romanum"  (De  Kcdes. 
Consecratione)  the  relics  of  two  canonized  martyrs, 
although  the  Ong.  Sac.  Rit.  (16  February,  1900) 
decided  that  if  the  relic  of  only  one  martyr  is  placed 
in  it  the  consecration  is  valid;  to  these  may  be  proj)- 
erly  added  the  relics  of  other  saints,  especially  of 
those  in  whose  honour  the  church  of  the  altar  is 
consecrated.  These  relics  must  be  actual  portions 
of  the  saints'  bodies,  not  simply  of  their  garments 
or  of  otlier  objects  which  they  may  have  u.sed  or 
touched;  the  relics  must,  moreover,  be  authenticated. 
If  the  altar  is  a  fixed  or  immovable  altar,  the  relics 
are  placed  in  a  reliquarj-  of  lead,  silver,  or  gold, 
whicli  should  be  large  enough  to  contain,  besides 
the  relics,  three  grains  of  incense  and  a  small  piece 
of  parchment  on  which  is  written  an  attest  of  the 
consecration.  This  parchment  is  usually  enclosed  in 
a  crystal  vessel  or  small  vial,  to  prevent  its  decom- 
position. The  size  of  the  cavity  varies  to  suit  the 
size  of  the  reliquary.  If  it  is  a  portable  altar  the 
relics  and  the  grains  of  incense  are  placed  immedi- 
ately, i.  e.  without  a  reliquary,  into  the  cavity.  This 
cavity  must  be  hewn  in  the  natural  stone  of  the 
altar.  Hence,  unless  the  altar  be  a  single  block  of 
stone,  a  block  of  natural  stone  is  inserted  for  the 
purpose  in  the  support.  The  location  of  the  cavity 
in  a  fixed  altar  is  (1)  either  at  the  front  or  back  of 
the  altar,  mi<lway  between  its  table  and  foot;  (2)  in 
the  table  (mcnsa)  at  its  centre,  near  the  front  edge; 
(3)  in  the  centre,  on  the  top  of  the  base  or  support 
if  the  latter  Ix;  a  solid  mass.  If  the  first  or  the 
second  location  is  selected,  a  slab  or  cover  of  stone, 
to  fit  exactly  upon  the  opening,  and  for  this  reason 
somewhat  bevelled  at  the  corners,  must  be  provided. 
The  cover  should  have  a  cross  engra\ed  on  the  up- 
per and  nether  sides.  If  the  third  location  is  chosen 
the  table  (mnma)  itself  serves  as  the  cover.  In  a 
portable  altar  the  cavity  is  usually  made  on  the  top 
of  the  stone  near  the  front  edge,  although  it  may  be 
made  in  the  centre  of  the  stone.  This  cavity  is 
called,  in  the  language  of  the  Church,  the sepiilrhriim. 
Ai-tak-Clotils — The  u.se  of  altar-cloths  goes  back 
to  the  early  centuries  of  the  Church.  St.  Optatus 
of  Mileve  says  that  in  the  fourth  century  every 
Christian  knew  that  during  the  celebration  of  the 
Mysteries  the  altar  is  covered  with  a  cloth  (bk.  VI). 
Later  it  became  a  law,  which,  according  to  Gavantua, 
w.T-s  promulgated  by  Boniface  III  in  the  seventh 
century.  The  custom  of  using  three  altar-cloths 
began  probably  in  the  ninth  century,  but  at  present  it 
is  of  strict  obligation  for  the  licii  celebration  of  .M-ass 
(Rubr.  Gen.  .Miss.,  tit.  xx;  De  Defectibus,  tit.  x,  1). 
The  rea-son  of  this  prescription  of  the  Church  is  that 
if  the  Precious  Blood  should  by  accident  be  spilt  it 
might  be  ab.sorbed  by  the  altar  cloths  before  it 
reached  the  altar-stone.     All  authors  liold  it  to  bo 


ALTAR 


352 


ALTAR 


a  grievous  offence  to  celebrate  without  an  altar- 
cloth,  except  in  case  of  grave  necessity,  e.  g.  of 
atToriiing  to  the  faithful  the  opportunity  of  assisting 
at  Sunday  Mass,  or  of  giving  Viaticum  to  a  dying 
person.  To  celebrate  without  necessity  on  two 
altar-cloths,  or  on  one  folded  in  such  manner  that 
it  covers  the  altar  twice,  would  probably  constitute  a 
venial  sin  (St.  Lig.,  bk.  VI,  n.  375)  since  the  rubric  is 
i)rescriptive.  Formerly  the  altar-cloths  were  made 
of  gold  and  silver  cloth,  inlaid  with  precious  stones, 
silk,  and  other  material,  but  at  present  they  must 
be  made  of  either  linen  or  hemp.  No  other  material 
may  be  used,  even  if  it  be  equivalent  to,  or  better 
than  linen  or  hemp  for  cleanUness,  whiteness,  or 
firmness  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  15  May,  1S19).  The  two 
lower  cloths  must  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  table 
(mensa)  of  the  altar,  in  length  and  width  (Ca;rem. 
Episc  I  xii  11)  whether  it  be  a  portable  or  a  con- 
secrated 'fixed  altar  (Ephem.  Lit.,  1893,  VII,  234). 
It  is  not  necessary  that  there  be  two  distinct  pieces. 
One  piece  folded  in  such  manner  as  to  cover  the  altar 
twice  from  the  epistle  to  the  gospel  end  will  answer 
(Ruhr.  Miss.,  tit.  xx).  The  top  altar-cloth  must  be 
single  and  extend  regularly  to  the  predella  on  both 
sides  (ibid.).  If  the  table  of  the  altar  rests  on 
cohmins,  or  if  the  altar  is  made  after  the  fashion  of 
a  tomb  or  sepulchre,  and  is  not  ornamented  with  an 
antipendiura,  the  top  cloth  need  only  cover  the  table 
without  extending  over  the  edge  at  the  sides  (Ephem. 
Lit.,  1893,  VII,  234).  The  edges  at  the  front  and 
two  ends  may  be  ornamented  with  a  border  of  linen 
or  hempen  lace  in  which  figures  of  the  cross,  osten- 
sorium,  chalice,  and  host,  and  the  like  may  appear 
(Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  5  December,  1868),  and  a  piece  of 
coloured  material  may  be  placed  under  the  border 
to  set  forth  these  figures.  Tliis  is  deduced  from  a 
decree  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  12  July,  1892)  which  allows 
sucli  material  to  be  placed  under  the  lace  of  the 
alb's  cuff.  This  border  must  not  rest  on  the  table 
of  the  altar.  Sometimes,  instead  of  attaching  this 
border  to  the  upper  cloth,  a  piece  of  lace  is  fastened 
to  the  front  edge  of  the  altar.  Although  this  is  not 
prescribed,  yet  it  is  not  contrary  to  the  rubrics. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  that  these  cloths  be 
scrupulously  clean.  There  should  be  on  hand  at 
least  a  duplicate  of  the  two  lower  cloths.  The  top 
piece  should  be  changed  more  frequently  according 
to  tlie  solemnity  of  the  feast,  and  therefore  several 
covers,  more  or  less  fine  in  texture,  should  be  con- 
stantly kept  ready  for  tliis  purpose.  When,  during 
the  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  candles  are 
placed  on  the  table  of  the  altar,  another  clean  white 
cloth  should  be  placed  over  the  altar-cloths  to  prevent 
their  being  stained  or  soiled  (De  Herdt,  I,  n.  179). 
We  may  note  here  tliat  the  corporal  and  the  cere- 
cloth cannot  take  the  place  of  the  altar-cloths. 

The  three  altar-cloths  must  be  blessed  by  the 
bisliop  or  someone  who  has  the  faculty,  before  they 
can  be  used  for  the  celebration  of  Mass.  In  the 
United  States  the  faculty  is  granted  by  the  ordinary 
to  priests  in  general  (Facultates,  Form.  I,  n.  13). 
The  formula  of  this  blessing  is  found  in  the  "Rituale 
Romanum",  tit.  viii,  cap.  xxi,  and  in  the  "  Missale 
Roinanum"  among  the  "  Benedictiones  Diverse". 
Symbolically  the  altar-cloths  signify  the  members  of 
Clirist,  that  is,  (iod's  faithful,  by  whom  the  Lord  is 
encompassed  (Pontificale  Rom.,  De  ordinat.  subdia- 
eoni);  or  the  linens  in  which  the  body  of  Christ  was 
wrapped,  when  it  was  laid  in  the  sepulchre;  or  the 
purity  and  the  devotion  of  the  faithful:  "For  the 
fine  linen  arc  the  justifications  of  saints"  (Apoc, 
xix,  8).  Besides  the  three  :dtar  cloths  there  is 
another  linen  cloth,  waxed  on  one  side,  which  is 
called  the  chriamnle  (cere-cloth),  and  with  which  tlie 
table  of  the  con.secraled  altar  (even  if  part  of  it  be 
made  of  bricks  or  other  material,  and  does  not  form 
a  part  of  the  consecrated  altar)  should  be  completely 


covered  (Cnerem.  Episc.,  De  altaris  consecratione). 
It  must  be  of  the  exact  size  of  the  table  of  the  altar, 
and  it  is  placed  under  the  linen  cloths,  the  waxed  side 
being  turned  towards  the  table.  Its  purpose  is  not 
only  to  prevent  the  altar-cloths  from  being  stained 
by  the  oil  used  at  the  consecration,  but  also  to  keep 
the  cloths  dry.  Hence  it  is  advisable  to  have  such  a 
wax  cloth  on  all  altars  in  churches  which  may  be 
accessible  to  dampness.  According  to  the  rubrics, 
this  cloth  is  removed  once  a  year,  that  is,  during  the 
stripping  of  the  altars  on  Maundy  Thursday;  but 
it  may  be  changed  as  often  as  the  altar  is  washed. 
The  cere-cloth  is  not  blessed.  It  cannot  take  the 
place  of  one  of  the  three  rubrical  linen  cloths.  To 
procure  cere-cloths,  melt  the  remnants  of  wax 
candles  in  a  small  vessel.  When  the  wax  is  in  a 
boiling  condition,  skim  off  the  impurities  that  remain 
from  the  soiled  stumps  of  cantlles.  Dip  into  this 
wax  the  linen  intended  for  the  cere-cloth,  and  when 
well  saturated  hang  it  on  a  clothes-line,  allowing  the 
surplus  wax  to  drop  off.  When  the  wax  cloth  has 
hardened,  place  it  Detween  two  unwaxed  sheets  of 
linen  of  like  dimensions.  Iron  thoroughly  witii  a 
well  heated  flat  iron,  thus  securing  three  wax  cloths. 
The  table  on  wliich  tlie  cloths  are  ironed  should  be 
covered  with  an  old  cloth  or  thick  paper  to  receive 
the  superfluous  wax  when  melted  by  the  iron.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  unwashed  linen  when 
dipped  in  wax  shrinks  considerably,  hence  before  the 
cloths  are  waxed  they  should  be  much  larger  than 
the  size  of  the  altar  for  which  they  are  intended. 

Alt.\r-Crucifix. — The  crucifix  is  the  principal 
ornament  of  the  altar.  It  is  placed  on  the  altar  to 
recall  to  the  mind  of  the  celebrant,  and  the  people, 
that  the  Victim  offered  on  the  altar  is  the  same  as 
was  offered  on  the  Cross.  For  this  reason  the  crucifix 
must  be  placed  on  the  altar  as  often  as  Mass  is  cele- 
brated (Constit.,Accepimus of  Benedict  XIV,  16  July, 
1746).  The  rubric  of  the  Roman  Missal  (xx)  pre- 
scribes that  it  be  placed  at  the  midtlle  of  the  altar 
between  the  candlesticks,  and  that  it  be  large  enough 
to  be  conveniently  seen  by  both  the  celebrant  and 
the  people  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  17  September,  1822). 
If  for  any  reason  this  crucifix  is  removed,  another 
may  take  its  place  in  a  lower  position;  but  in  such 
cases  it  must  always  be  visible  to  all  who  assist  at 
Mass  (ibid.).  We  remarked  above  that  a  crucifix 
must  be  placed  on  the  altar  during  Mass.  To  this 
rule  there  are  two  exceptions:  (1)  When  the  Cruci- 
fixion is  the  principal  part  of  the  altar-piece  or 
picture  behind  the  altar.  (We  adviseiUy  say  the 
princijial  part  of  the  altar-piece  or  picture,  for  if  the 
picture  represents  a  saint,  e.  g.  St.  Francis  Xavier 
holding  a  crucifix  in  his  hand,  or  St.  Thomas  kneeling 
before  the  cross,  even  if  the  cross  be  large,  such  a 
picture  is  not  sufficient  to  take  the  place  of  the 
altar-crucifix.— See  Ephem.  Lit.,  1S93,  VII,  4nSV. 
and  (2)  when  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament  is  ex- 
posed. In  both  these  cases  the  regidar  crucifix 
may  be  placed  on  the  altar;  in  the  latter  the  local 
custom  is  to  be  followed  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  2  Septem- 
ber, 1741),  and  if  the  crucifix  is  kept  on  the  altar 
it  is  not  incensed  (29  November,  1738).  From  the 
first  Vespers  of  Passion  Sunday  to  the  unveiling  of 
the  cross  on  Good  Friday,  even  if  a  solemn  feast 
occur  during  tliis  interval,  the  altar-crucifix  is 
covered  with  a  violet  veil  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  16  No- 
vember, 1649),  except  during  High  Mass  on  the 
altar  at  which  Mass  is  celebrated  on  Holy  Thursday, 
when  the  veil  is  of  white  material  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
20  December,  1783),  and  on  Good  Friday,  at  the 
altar  at  which  the  function  takes  place,  when  the 
veil  may  be  of  black  material.  This  is  the  custom 
in  Rome  (.Marlinucci,  Van  der  Stappen,  and  others). 
From  the  beginning  of  the  adoration  of  the  Cross,  on 
Good  I'richiy,  to  the  hour  of  None,  on  Holy  Saturday, 
inclusively,  all,  even  the  bishop,  the  canons   and  the 


ALTAR 


353 


ALTAR 


celebrant,  make  a  simple  genuflection  to  the  cross 
(Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  9  May,  1S;J7;  12  September,  1857). 
At  all  other  times  during  the  year  a  simple  genuflex- 
ion is  made  to  the  cross,  even  when  the  Ulessed 
Sacrament  is  not  kept  in  the  tabernacle,  during  any 
function,  by  all  c.xcopt  the  bishop,  the  canons  of  the 
cathtilnil,  und  the  celebrant  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  30  Au- 
gust. l.SDJ).  The  altar-crucifix  need  not  be  blessed; 
but  it  may  be  blessed  by  any  priest,  by  the  formula 
"|)ro  imaginibus"  (Rituale  Rom.,  tit.  viii,  cap.  xxv). 
It  may  be  well  to  note  that  if,  accortling  to  the  Renais- 
sance style  of  architecture,  the  throne  is  a  permanent 
structure  above  the  tabernacle,  the  altar-crucifix 
may  never  be  placed  under  the  canopy  under  which 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  publicly  cxpo.sed,  or  on 
the  corporal  which  is  used  at  such  exposition  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  2  June,  18S3).  It  is  probable  that  the 
custom  of  placing  a  crucifix  on  the  altar  did  not 
commence  long  before  tlie  sixth  century.  Bene- 
dict XIV  (Dc  Sacrificio  Mis.sx,  P.  I,  §  lit)  holds  that 
this  custom  comes  down  from  the  time  of  the  .\pos- 
tles.  However,  the  earliest  documentary  evidence 
of  placing  a  cross  on  the  altar  is  canon  III  of  the 
Council  of  Tours,  held  in  !iC^7:  "  Ut  corpus  Domini 
in  .\ltan.  non  in  armario,  .sed  sub  crucis  titulo 
componatur".     Mariano  Armelhni  (T^c^ioni  di  Arche- 


pillars  were  surmounted  by  angels  holding  can- 
delabra, in  which  candles  were  Durnt  on  solemn 
occasions.  Probably  the  sanctuary  candelabra  of 
to-day  may  trace  their  origin  to  these. 

ALT.\K-I'Ko.vr.\L.— l"he  frontal  (antipendium,  pal- 
lium allaris)  is  an  appendage  which  covers  the  entire 
front  of  the  altar,  from  the  lower  part  of  the  table 
ijiiieiisa)  to  the  predella,  and  from  the  gospel  corner 
to  that  of  the  epistle  side.  Its  origin  may  probably 
be  traced  to  the  curtains  or  veils  of  silk,  or  of  other 
precious  material,  which  hung  over  the  open  space 
under  the  altar,  to  preserve  the  shrines  of  the  saints 
usually  deposited  there.  Later,  these  curtains  were 
converted  into  one  piece  of  drapery  which  covered 
the  whole  front  of  the  altar  and  was  suspended  from 
the  table  of  the  altar  (Pugin,  Glossary).  The  u.se  of 
a  frontal  which  covers  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
front  of  the  altar  is  forbidden  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
10  September,  1898).  If  the  altar  is  so  placed  that 
its  back  can  be  seen  by  the  people,  that  part  should 
likewise  be  covereil  with  an  antipendium  (Cicrem. 
Kpisc.  I.  iii,  11).  Its  material  is  not  prescribed  by 
the  rubrics.  It  is  sometimes  made  of  precious  metals, 
adorned  with  enamels  and  jewels,  of  wood,  painted, 
gilt,  embossoil.  and  often  set  with  crystals,  or  of 
cloth  of  gold,  velvet,  or  silk  embroidered,  and  ocri 


i^ILVER  ANTEPBSronTM.  StORT  OF  JoHN  TH 


ologia  Sacra')  tells  us  that  the  early  Christians  were 
not  accustomed  to  publicly  expose  the  cross  for  fear 
of  scandalizing  the  weak,  anu  subjecting  it  to  the 
insults  of  the  pagans,  but  in  its  stead  used  symbols, 
e.  g.  an  anchor,  a  trident,  etc.  A  simple  cross, 
without  the  figure  of  Christ,  was  fixed  on  the  top 
of  the  ciboria  which  covered  the  altars. 

Alt.\k-Ciiht.\in. — Formerly,  in  most  basilicas, 
cathetlrals,  and  large  churches  a  large  structure  in 
the  form  of  a  cupola  or  dome  resting  on  four  columns 
was  erected  over  the  high  altar,  which  was  called 
the  riboriiim.  Between  tlie  columns  ran  metal  rods, 
holding  rings  to  which  were  f:ustencd  curtains  which, 
according  to  the  rubrics  of  the  individual  churches, 
were  drawn  around  the  altar  at  certain  parts  of 
Mass.  These  curtains  were  styleil  tiiravela  allaris 
and  were  matle  of  linen,  silk,  gold  cloth,  and 
other  [)recious  stuffs.  In  the  lives  of  many  of  the 
Roman  pontiffs  (Ciregory  IV,  Leo  IV,  Nicholas  I) 
we  reatl  that  they  made  presents  of  such  curtains 
to  the  churches  of  Rome.  When  the  cibaria  over 
the  altar  fell  into  disuse  a  curtain  was  su.spended  at 
the  back  of  the  altar,  called  a  ilossel,  or  dorsal,  and 
two  others,  one  at  each  side  of  it.  They  were  hung 
to  roils  fastened  in  the  wall  or  reredos,  or  rested  on 
four  pillars  erected  at  each  end  of  the  altar.     The 


S.  Maria  del  Fiore,  Florence,  XIV  Ck 


•siuiially  enriched  with  pearls  (Pugin,  Glossary),  but 
it  is  usually  of  the  same  material  as  that  of  the 
sacred  vestment.s.  It  is  evidently  intended  as  an 
ornament  of  the  altar  (Ruhr.  Gen.  Miss.,  tit.). 
Hence  if  the  altar  is  niatle  of  wood  or  marble,  and 
its  front  is  beautifully  painted  or  decorated,  or  if 
the  table  is  supported  by  columns,  and  a  reliquary 
is  placed  under  it,  it  may  be  considered  sufhcicntly 
ornamented,  and  the  antipendium  wouUi  not  be  nec- 
essary; nevertheless,  even  in  such  cases,  on  solemn 
occasions  more  precious  and  elaborate  ones  should 
be  used  (Cicrem.  Episc,  I,  xii,  11).  The  anti- 
pendium may  be  ornamented  with  images,  pictures 
of  Christ,  representations  of  some  fact  of  His  life, 
or  such  as  refer  to  the  Eucliaristic  Mystery,  or  with 
emblems  that  refer  in  some  manner  to  the  Blessed 
Sacr.ament — a  lamb,  a  pelican,  the  chalice  and  host, 
etc.  Pictures  of  the  saint  in  whose  honour  the  altar 
is  dedicatcil  to  God,  and  emblems  referring  to  such 
saint,  may  be  u.sed.  It  is  forbidden  to  ornament  the 
black  antipendium  with  skulls,  cross-bones,  etc. 
(Carem.  lOpisc,  II,  xi,  1).  The  antipendium  may 
be  fastened  to  little  hooks  or  buttons,  which  are  at- 
tached to  the  lower  part  of  the  table  of  the  :dtar, 
or  it  may  be  pinned  to  one  of  the  lower  altar-cloths, 
or  attached  to  a  light  wooden  frame  which  fits  tightly 


ALTAR 


354 


ALTAR 


in  the  space  between  tlie  menm  and  the  predella. 
A  puarci  about  three  inclies  wide  (plinth),  made  of 
wood  suitably  painted,  or  of  polished  metal,  may- 
be plated  at  its  lower  extremity,  resting  on  the 
predella,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  easily  injured 
by  those  who  move  about  the  altar.  Regularly,  tlie 
colour  of  the  antipendium  should  correspond  with 
the  colour  of  the  feast  or  odice  of  the  day  (Cajrem. 
Episc,  I,  xii,  11).  The  Mi.ssal  (Ruhr.  Gen.,  xx) 
says  this  should  be  the  case  quoad  fieri  potest,  by 
which  the  Missal  does  not  imply  that  one  colour 
may  be  used  ad  libitum  for  another,  but  that  the 
more  [ireeious  antipendia  of  gold,  silver,  embroidered 
silk,  etc.,  in  colours  not  strictly  liturgical,  may  be 
used  on  solemn  occasions,  although  they  do  not 
correspond  in  colour  with  the  feast  or  office  of  the 
day  (Van  der  Stappen,  vol.  Ill,  q.  43,  ii).  The  fol- 
lovving  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule:  (1)  When 
the  Hlessed  Sacrament  is  publicly  exposed  the  anti- 
pentlium  must  be  wliite,  whatever  the  colour  of  the 
vestments  may  be.  If,  however,  the  Exposition 
takes  place  immediately  after  Mass,  or  Vespers,  the 
antipemlium  of  the  colour  of  the  Mass,  or  Vespers,  may 
be  retaineil  if  tlie  celebrant  does  not  leave  the  sanctu- 
ary between  the  Mass,  or  Vespers,  and  the  Exposition; 
but  if  on  these  occasions  he  vests  for  the  exposition 
outside  the  sanctuary,  the  antipendium  if  not  white 
must  be  exchanged  for  a  white  one.  (2)  In  solemn 
votive  Masses  the  colour  of  the  antipendium  must 
be  that  of  the  vestments.  In  private  votive  Masses 
{misscE  ledw)  its  colour  corresponds  to  that  of  the 
office  of  the  day.  In  private  votive  Masses  cele- 
brated solemnly,  i.  e.  with  deacon  and  subdeacon, 
or  in  chant  {missce  cantata;)  it  is  proper  that  its  colour 
correspond  with  that  of  the  vestments.  (3)  During 
a  solenm  Requiem  Mass  at  an  altar  in  the  tabernacle 
of  which  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  kept,  the  black 
antipendium  cannot  be  used  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  20 
March,  1869),  but  one  of  a  violet  colour  should  take 
its  place.  The  Ephemerides  Lit.,  (XI,  663,  1897), 
states  that  this  decree  was  revoked  by  a  subsequent 
decree  of  the  same  Congregation,  1  December,  1882. 
It  seems  strange  that  the  former  decree  is  retained 
in  the  latest  edition  of  the  Decrees  of  the  Cong.  Sac. 
Rit.  The  latter  decree  is  an  answer  to  the  question: 
Under  these  circumstances  may  the  antipendium 
and  the  conopceum  (cover  of  the  tabernacle)  be 
black?  The  answer  seems  to  pass  over  the  anti- 
pendium, and  merely  says:  "At  least  the  canopy 
over  the  tabernacle  should  be  of  a  violet  colour". 
The  antipendium  need  not  be  blessed. 

ALT.\n-IIoii.\.s. — On  the  Jewish  altar  there  were 
four  projections,  one  at  each  comer,  which  were 
called  the  horns  of  the  altar.  These  projections  are 
not  foimd  on  the  Christian  altar,  but  the  word 
coniu  ("horn")  is  still  maintained  to  designate  the 
sides  or  corners  of  the  altar.  Hence  cortiu  epistolfe 
and  cormi  cvangelii  mean  the  epistle  and  gospel  side 
of  the  altar  respectively;  comu  anterius  and  cornu 
posterius  evangelii  or  comu  dextcrum  anterius  and  dex- 
Icntm  jmslcrius  mean  respectively  the  anterior  or 
posterior  corner  of  the  altar  at  the  gospel  side. 

Alt.vk-L.v.mp.— In  the  Old  Testament  God  com- 
manded that  a  lamp  filled  with  the  purest  oil  of 
ohvus  should  always  burn  in  the  Tabernacle  of  the 
'Ic-^tuMoiiy  without  the  veil  (Exod.,  xxvii,  20,  21). 
The  Church  prescribes  that  at  least  one  lamp  should 
contuuiuUy  burn  before  the  tabernacle  (Rit  Rom., 
iv,  (i),  not  only  jls  an  ornament  of  the  altar,  but  for 
tlie  purpo,se  of  worship.  It  is  al.so  a  mark  of  honour. 
It  IS  to  remind  the  faithful  of  tlie  presence  of  Christ, 
and  is  a  profession  of  their  love  and  affection.  Mys- 
tically it  signifies  Christ,  for  by  this  material  liglit 
He  is  represented  who  is  the  "true  light  which 
cnliglitcneth  every  man"  (John,  i,  il).  If  the  re- 
sources of  the  church  permit,  it  is  the  rule  of  the 
Cacrem.  Episc.  (1,  xii,  17)  that  more  than  one  light 


should  burn  before  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, but  always  in  uneven  numbers,  i.  e.  three, 
five,  seven,  or  more.  The  lamp  is  usually  suspended 
before  the  tabernacle  by  means  of  a  chain  or  rope, 
and  it  should  hang  sufficiently  high  and  removed 
from  the  altar-steps  to  cause  no  inconvenience  to 
those  who  are  engaged  in  the  sanctuary.  It  may 
also  be  suspended  from,  or  placed  in  a  bracket,  at 
the  side  of  the  altar,  provided  always  it  be  in  front 
of  the  altar  within  tlie  sanctuary  proper  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  2  June,  1883).  The  altar  lamp  may  be 
made  of  any  kind  of  metal,  and  of  any  shape  or  form. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  reputable  theologians, 
it  would  be  a  serious  neglect,  involving  grave  sin, 
to  leave  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  without 
tliis  light  for  any  protracted  length  of  time,  such 
as  a  day  or  several  niglits  (St.  Lig.,  VI,  248).  For 
symbolical  reasons  olive  oil  is  prescribed  for  the  lamp 
burning  before  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
for  it  is  a  symbol  of  purity,  peace,  and  gotUiness. 
Since  pure  olive  oil,  without  any  admixture,  causes 
some  inconvenience  in  the  average  American  climate, 
oil  containing  between  60  and  65  per  cent  of  pure 
olive  oil  is  supposed  to  be  legitimate  material. 
Where  olive  oil  cannot  be  had,  it  is  allowed,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  ortlinary,  to  use  other,  and  as  far 
as  possible  vegetable,  oils  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  9  July, 
1864).  In  case  of  necessity,  that  is,  in  very  poor 
churches,  or  where  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
procure  olive  or  vegetable  oils,  the  ordinary,  ac- 
cording to  the  general  opinion  of  theologians  (Lehm- 
kuhl,  II,  n.  132,  div.  iv,  footnote;  Konings,  Theol. 
Mor.,  II,  n.  1300,  div.  iii)  would  be  justified  to  author- 
ize the  use  of  petroleum.  We  are  of  the  opinion,  how- 
ever, that  there  are  but  few  parishes  that  can  claim 
this  exemption  on  the  plea  of  poverty  Gas  (Ephem. 
Lit.,  IX,  176,  1895)  and  electric  lights  (Cong.  Sac. 
Rit.,  4  June,  1895)  are  not  allowed  in  its  stead. 
The  Cserera.  Episc.  (ibid.)  would  have  three  lights 
bum  continually  before  the  high  altar,  and  one  light 
before  the  other  altars,  at  least  during  Mass  and 
Vespers.  Before  the  Blessed  Saerament,  wherever 
kept,  a  lamp  should  be  constantly  burning.  Our 
bishops  have  the  power  of  granting  permission  to  a 
priest,  under  certain  circumstances,  to  keep  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  in  his  house.  In  such  cases,  by 
virtue  of  Faculty,  n.  24,  Form.  I,  the  priest  may 
keep  It  without  a  light,  if  otherwi.se  It  would  be 
exposed  to  the  danger  of  irreverence  or  sacrilege. 
For  the  same  reason  we  believe  It  may  be  kept  also 
in  the  church  without  a  fight  during  the  night. 

Alt.ir-L.^nter.^i. — Lanterns  are  used  in  churches 
to  protect  the  altar  candles  and  lamp,  if  the  latter 
for  any  reason,  such  as  a  draught,  cannot  be  kept 
lighted  (De  Herdt,  I,  n.  185,  note  1°).  They  are  of 
perforated  metal-work  or  set  with  crj'stals.  They 
are  used  also  to  accompany  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
when  carried  from  one  altar  to  another  in  tlie  church, 
or  when  It  is  carried  as  Viaticum  to  the  sick.  In  the 
former  case  the  lanterns  are  attached  to  the  top  of 
high  staves;  in  the  latter,  a  ring  is  fastened  to  the 
top  as  in  ordinary  lanterns,  and  they  are  carried 
in  the  hand  of  a  cleric  or  an  assistant. 

Alt.\r-Ledoe. — Originally  the  altar  was  made  in 
the  shape  of  an  ordinary  table,  on  wliich  the  crucifix 
and  candlesticks  were  placed.  By  degrees,  behind 
the  altar  a  step  wa.s  introduced,  raised  slightly  above 
it,  for  candlesticks,  flowers,  reliquaries,  and  other 
ornaments.  This  step  was  called  the  altar-ledge. 
Later  the  tabernacle  was  added  as  a  stationary 
appendix  of  the  altar  and  at  its  .sides  and  beliind 
it  other  steps  were  placed.  They  are  sometimes 
calletl  tlegrees  or  gradini.  The  front  of  these  steps 
was  sometimes  beautifully  painted  and  decorated. 
The  gradini  of  Hruncllcschi's  cliurch  of  Santo  Spirito, 
Florence,  display  beautiful  miniature  groups  of  sub- 
jects from  the  Passion  of  Christ. 


ALTAR 


355 


ALTAR 


Altar-Linens. — The  altar-linens  are  the  corporal, 
pall,  purificator,  and  finger-toweb.  Tlie  Blessed  Sac- 
rament and  the  vase  containing  It  must  always  be 
placed  on  a  corporal,  which  must  be  made  of  linen 
(Miss.  Uom.,  Kitus  celebr.  tit.  i,  n.  1)  or  hemp  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  1.5  .May,  ISl'.))  without  any  embillish[[nMl  or 
embroidery,  t'orporals  made  of  muslin  (t'oiig.  .'^ac. 
Rit.,  l.'j  March,  1GG4)  or  cotton  (ibid.,  15  .May,  IM'.)) 
are  forbidden.  The  edges  may  \>c  ornamented  with 
fine  lace,  and  a  cross  may  be  worked  into  it  near 
the  front  edge.  No  cross  is  allowed  in  its  centre 
(De  Herdt,  I,  n.  167),  which  would  necessarily  give 


EccHARisnc  Tower,  Cathkoral  of  Arras,  XIV  Cenicrt 

some  difficulty  when  collecting  the  fragments.  The 
rubrics  do  not  prescribe  its  size.  It  must  be  spa- 
cious enough  to  hold  the  chalice  and  large  host 
used  by  the  priest,  and  al.so  the  cilxirium  containing 
the  smaller  hosts  for  the  Communion  of  the  laity. 
It  should  be  a  square,  at  least  fifteen  by  fifteen 
inches,  or  an  oblong,  fourteen  by  eighteen  inches. 
The  cor|X)ral  must  be  blessed  by  a  bishop,  or  by  a 
priest  having  the  faculty  to  do  so,  before  it  may  be 
used  the  first  time.  It  is  not  blessed  again  after  it 
is  wiislied;  use  at  the  Holy  Sacrifice  docs  not  con- 
stitute a  blessing  (Cong.  .'^ac.  Rit.,  SI  .\ugust,  18G7). 
The  form  of  the  ble.ssing  is  the  "Hencdictio  corpora- 
lium"  found  in  the  Rituale  Romanum  (tit.  viii,  cap. 
xxii)  which  is  not  changed  to  the  plural  even  if  many 
corporals  are  blessed  at  the  same  time  (Cong.  Sac. 
Rit.,  4  Septomt)er,  ISKO).  The  corporal  loses  its 
blessing  when  no  part  of  it  is  sufficiently  large  to 
hold  the  chalice  and  host  together,  and  it  is  forbidden 
to  use  a  torn  or  ripped  corpond  (llartmann,  5  31G, 
n.  6,  b).  When  the  corporal  becomes  unfit  for  use 
I.— 23 


it  should  be  destroyed  by  fire,  and  its  ashes  thrown 
into  the  sacrariuni.  After  the  corporal  has  been 
washed,  bleached,  and  ironed  it  is  folded  into  three 
equal  parts,  both  in  its  lengtli  and  in  its  width,  i.  e. 
the  anterior  part  is  folded  over  the  middle;  then  the 
posterior  part  is  turned  down  over  the  anterior  part; 
after  this  the  part  at  the  priest's  right  is  folded  over 
the  middle,  and  finally  the  part  at  the  priest's  left 
is  folded  over  these.  The  corporal  is  placed  in  the 
burse  in  such  a  manner  that  the  edge  of  the  last 
fold  is  towards  the  oiwning  of  the  burse.  It  is  prob- 
able that  tlie  corporal  was  prescribed  as  early  as 
the  fourth  century.  Originally  it  was  longer  and 
wider  than  the  one  in  use  at  present.  It  covered 
the  whole  table  of  the  altar,  and  was  looked  upon 
as  a  fourth  altar-clotli.  About  the  eleventh  century 
it  began  to  be  curtailed,  and  by  degrees  was  reduced 
to  its  present  size.  Tlie  Carthusians  use  the  cor- 
poral in  its  old  form  (Benedict  XIV,  De  Sacrif. 
Missie,  I,  §  31). 

Driginally  the  pall  was  not  distinct  from  the  cor- 
poral, bccau.se  the  latter  was  so  large  as  to  do  away 
with  the  need  of  a  distinct  pall,  and  the  posterior 
part  of  the  corporal  was  so  arranged  that  it  could 
be  easily  drawn  over  the  host  and  chalice.  When 
the  corporal  was  reduced  to  its  present  size  the 
pall  became  a  distinct  cover  of  the  chalice,  and  is 
called  by  Benedict  XIV  Corporale  quo  calix  tegilur 
(ibid.,  §  34).  Although  prescribed  by  the  ru- 
brics, theologians  hold  that  its  use  does  not  bind 
sub  gravi.  It  may  be  a  single  piece  of  linen  or 
hemp,  or  it  may  consist  of  two  pieces  of  linen  or 
hemp,  between  which  a  piece  of  cardboard  is  inserted 
for  the  sake  of  stiffening  it.  The  upper  side  may 
be  ornamented  with  embroidery  or  painting  in  va- 
rious colours,  or  covered  with  cloth  of  gold,  silver, 
or  silk  of  any  colour  except  black  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
17  July,  1894).  It  may  be  embellished  with  a  cross 
or  some  other  emblem.  The  nether  piece  must  al- 
ways be  of  plain  white  linen  or  hemp  (ibid.)  and  be 
detachable  for  the  purpose  of  washing  it  (ibid.,  24 
November,  1905).  Since  the  pall  was  originally  a 
part  of  the  corporal,  the  blessing  "Benedictio  cor- 
poralium"  is  used  without  change  in  number  or 
words  when  blessing  one  or  more  palls  alone,  or  one 
or  more  palls  with  one  or  more  corporals  (ibid.,  4 
September,  18S0).  Like  the  corporal,  it  is  blessed  by 
a  bishop,  or  by  a  priest  who  has  faculties  to  do  so. 
It  should  be  large  enough  to  cover  the  paten.  If 
the  pall  is  wanting,  a  folded  corporal  may  be  used 
in  its  stead. 

The  purificator  is  a  piece  of  pure  white  linen  or 
hemp  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  23  July,  1878)  used  for  cleans- 
ing the  chalice.  Its  size  is  not  prescribed  by  the 
rubrics.  It  is  usually  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long, 
and  nine  or  ten  inches  wide.  It  is  folded  in  three 
layers  so  that  when  placed  on  tlie  chalice  beneath 
the  paten  its  width  is  about  three  inches.  A  small 
cross  may  be  worked  in  it  at  its  centre  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  little  finger-toweLs  used  at  the  "I.avabo", 
although  this  is  not  prescribed.  It  is  not  blessed. 
It  is  also  called  the  "Mundatory"'  or  "Purificatory". 
The  Greeks  use  a  sponge  instead  of  the  linen  puri- 
ficator. Before  soiled  corporals,  palls,  and  purifica- 
tors  are  given  to  nuns  or  lay  persons  to  be  laimdried, 
bleached,  mended  or  ironed,  they  must  be  first 
wiushetl,  then  rinsed  twice  by  a  person  in  sacred  or- 
ders (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  12  September,  1857).  When 
preparing  soiled  corporals  for  the  altar  a  little  starch 
may  \»  used  to  stiffen  them  and  give  them  a  smooth 
surface.  The  same  may  be  done  with  the  palls. 
The  purificators  are  alwaj-s  prepared  without  starch. 

Finger-towels,  used  at  the  "Lavabo"  and  after 
administering  Holy  Communion,  may  be  made  of  any 
kinil  of  material,  preferably,  however,  of  linen  or 
hemp,  and  of  any  size. 

Altar   of  Our   Lady. — From   the  beginning   of 


ALTAR 


356 


ALTAR 


Christianity  special  veneration  was  paid  to  the 
Mother  of  God,  wliich  in  the  hinguage  of  theology 
is  called  h'ipcniidia.  to  distinguish  the  honour  ren- 
dered to  her  from  that  given  to  the  other  saints.  It 
is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  after  the  main  or  prin- 
cipal altar,  the  most  prominent  is  that  dedicated  in 
a  special  manner  to  tlie  Mother  of  God;  and  to  in- 
dicate tliis  special  preference,  this  altar  is  usually 
placed  in  the  most  prominent  position  in  the  church, 
i.  e.  at  the  right  (gospel)  side  of  the  main  altar.  In 
general  it  signifies  any  altar  of  which  the  Blessed 
Virgin  is  the  titular. 

Altar-Piece. — A  picture  of  some  sacred  subject 
painted  on  the  wall  or  suspended  in  a  frame  behind 
the  altar,  or  a  group  of  statuary  on  the  altar.  In 
the  Middle  Ages,  instead  of  a  picture  or  group,  the 
altar-piece  consisted  in  some  churches  of  embossed 
silver  or  gold  and  enamelled  work  set  with  jewels. 
Sometimes  tlie  picture  was  set  on  the  altar  itself. 
If  the  altar  stood  free  in  the  choir,  and  the  altar-piece 
■was  to  be  seen  from  behind  as  well  as  from  before, 
both  sides  were  covered  with  painting  (Norton, 
Church  Building  in  the  Middle  Ages).  The  decora- 
tive screen,  retable,  or  reredos  is  also  called  an  altar- 
piece.     (See  Altar-Screen.) 

Altar-Protector. — A  cover  made  of  cloth,  baize, 
or  velvet  wliich  is  placed  on  the  table  of  the  altar 
during  the  time  in  which  the  sacred  functions  do  not 
take  place.  Its  purpose  is  to  prevent  the  altar- 
cloth  from  being  stained  or  soiled.  It  should  be  a 
little  wider  tlian  the  table  and  somewhat  longer  than 
the  latter,  so  that  it  may  hang  down  several  inches 
on  each  side  and  in  front.  It  may  be  of  any  colour 
(green  or  red  would  seem  to  be  the  preferred  colours), 
and  its  front  and  side  edges  are  usually  scalloped, 
embroidered,  or  ornamented  with  fringes.  During 
the  divine  services  it  is  removed  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
2  June,  1883),  except  at  Vespers,  when,  during  the 
incensing  of  the  altar  at  the  "Magnificat",  only  the 
front  part  of  the  table  need  be  uncovered,  and  it  is 
then  simply  tiirned  back  on  the  table  of  the  altar. 
It  is  called  the  vesperale,  the  stragulum  or  altar-cover. 
It  need  not  be  blessed. 

Altar-Rail. — The  railing  which  guards  the  sanc- 
tuary and  separates  the  latter  from  the  body  of  the 
church.  It  is  also  called  the  communion-rail  as  the 
faithful  kneel  at  it  when  receiving  Holy  Communion. 
It  is  made  of  carved  wood,  metal,  marble,  or  other 
precious  material,  and  sho\ild  be  about  two  feet  six 
mches  high,  and  on  the  upper  part  from  six  to  nine 
inches  wide.  The  "Ritualc  Romanum  "  (tit.  iv,  cap. 
ii,  n.  l)prescribes  that  a  clean  white  cloth  be  extended 
before  those  who  receive  Holy  Communion.  This 
cloth  is  to  be  of  fine  linen,  as  it  is  solely  intended  as 
a  sort  of  corporal  to  receive  the  particles  which  may 
by  chance  fall  from  the  hands  of  the  priest.  It  is 
usually  fastened  on  tlio  sanctuary  side  and  when  in 
use  is  drawn  over  tlie  top  of  the  rail.  It  should 
extend  the  full  length  of  the  rail,  and  be  about  two 
feet  wide,  so  that  the  communicant,  taking  it  in  both 
hands,  may  hold  it  under  his  chin.  Its  very  purpose 
suggests  tliat  it  is  not  to  be  made  of  lace  or  netting, 
altliough  there  is  notliing  to  forbid  its  having  a  border 
of  fine  lace  or  embroidery.  Instead  of  this  cloth  a 
gilt  paten,  larger  than  the  paten  used  at  the  Altar, 
to  which  a  handle  may  be  attached,  or  a  small  gilt 
or  silver  salver,  or  a  pall,  larger  than  the  chalice  pall, 
may  be  used.  These  latter  are  usually  passed  from 
one  cominvmicant  to  another,  and  wlien  the  last  at 
the  end  of  the  rail  at  the  Gospel  side  has  received 
Holy  Communion  the  Altar-boy  carries  the  paten  to 
the  first  communicant  at  the  Epistle  side.  A  conse- 
crated paten  may  never  be  placed  for  this  purpose 
in  the  liands  of  lay  persons. 

ALTAR-.SfHEEN.— The  Orem.  Epise.  (I,  xii.  n.  H) 
says  that  if  the  High  Altar  is  attached  to  the  wall 
(or  is  not  more  than  three  feet  from  the  wall),  a 


more  precious  cloth,  on  whicli  images  of  Our  Lord, 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  or  of  saints,  are  represented, 
may  be  suspended  above  the  .\ltar,  unless  such  images 
are  painted  on  the  wall.  This  piece  of  embroidered 
needlework,  cloth  of  gold,  or  tapestry  is  called  tlie 
Altar-screen.  It  is  as  wide  as  the  altar,  and  some- 
times even  extends  along  the  sides  of  the  Altar.  Its 
purpose  seems  to  be  to  separate  the  Altar  from  the 
rest  of  the  sanctuary,  and  to  attract  to  the  Altar 
the  eyes  of  those  wlio  enter  the  church.  It  is  called 
the  dossel  or  dorsal,  from  the  French  dos.iicr,  and 
signifies  a  back  panel  covered  with  stuff.  Formerly 
the  stuff  corresponded  in  colour  with  the  other  orna- 
ments of  the  Altar  and  was  changed  according  to 
the  festivals  (Pugin,  Glossary,  s.  v.  "  Dossel  ").  In- 
stead of  the  cloth  a  permanent  or  mo^■able  structure 
was  sometimes  raised  above  the  altar  at  the  back. 
If  permanent  it  consisted  of  three  distinct  parts,  the 
base  which  was  as  long  as  the  table  and  the  steps 
of  the  Altar,  and  reached  to  the  height  of  the  Altai 
table;  above  this  came  the  panel  which  formed  a 
decorative  frame  to  a  picture,  bas-relief,  or  statue, 
and  the  cornice,  consisting  of  a  frieze  and  pediment 
surmounted  by  a  cross.  In  the  eleventh  century  the 
structure  was  usually  made  of  metal,  in  the  tliirteenth 
century  of  stone,  and  from  the  fourteenth  century 
of  wood.  Sometimes  a  folding  door  was  attached 
which  covered  tlie  picture  during  the  year,  and  was 
opened  on  grand  festivals  to  expose  the  picture.  If 
it  was  a  movable  structure,  it  was  made  of  ham- 
mered silver  or  other  precious  material,  supported 
on  the  Altar  itself.  The  face  of  this  structure  which 
looks  towards  the  nave  of  the  church  is  called  the 
"retable",  and  the  reverse  is  called  the  "counter- 
retable".  This  decoration  of  the  altar  was  not 
known  before  the  twelfth  centurJ^  It  should  always 
correspond  to  the  architecture  or  style  of  the  churcli. 
The  best  models  are  found  in  the  churches  of  St.  Syl- 
vester in  Capite,  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  della  Pace 
and  sopra  Minerva,  at  Rome.  When  this  structure 
is  ornamented  with  panels  and  enriched  with  niches, 
statues,  buttre.sses,  and  other  decorations,  which  are 
often  painted  with  brilliant  colours,  it  is  called  a 
"reredos".  Sometimes  the  reredos  extends  across 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  church,  and  is  carried 
nearly  up  to  the  ceiling.  This  decorative  screen, 
retable,  or  reredos  is  also  called  the  altar-piece. 

Altar-Side. — That  part  of  the  altar  which  faced 
the  congregation,  in  contradistinction  to  the  side  at 
which  the  priest  stood  when  formerly  the  latter  stood 
at  the  altar  facing  the  pcoj)le.  In  ceremonials  we 
frequently  find  mention  of  tlic  right  and  left  side  ol 
the  altar.  Before  14SS,  the  epistle  side  was  called 
the  right  side  of  the  altar,  and  the  gospel  side  the 
left.  In  that  year,  Augustine  Patrizi,  Bishop  of 
Pienza,  published  a  ceremonial  in  which  the  epistle 
side  is  called  the  left  of  the  altar,  and  the  gospel 
side  the  right,  the  denomination  being  taken  from 
the  facing  of  the  cross,  the  principal  ornament  of  the 
altar,  not  of  the  priest  or  the  laitv.  This  change  of 
expression  was  accepted  by  St.  Pius  V  and  intro- 
duced into  the  rubrics. 

Altar-Steps. — In  tlie  beginning  altars  were  not 
erected  on  steps.  Those  in  the  catacombs  were  con- 
structed on  the  pavement,  and  in  churdies  they  were 
usually  erected  over  the  confession,  or  spot  where  the 
remains  of  martyrs  were  deposited.  In  the  fourth 
century  the  altar  was  sujiported  by  one  stcji  aisove 
the  floor  of  the  .sanctuarj-.  At  present  the  number 
of  steps  leading  up  to  the'high  altar  is  for  symbolical 
reasons  uneven;  usually  throe,  five,  or  seven,  includ- 
ing the  upper  platform  (prcdclla).  These  steps  are 
to  pass  around  the  altar  on  three  sides.  They  may 
be  of  wood,  stone,  or  bricks,  but  St.  Charles  (Instruc- 
tions on  Ecclesiastical  Building,  xi,  §2)  would  have 
tlie  two  or  four  lower  stops  of  stone  or  bricks,  whilst 
he  prescribes  that  the  prodolla,  on  which  the  celebrant 


ALTAR 


357 


ALTAR 


stands,  should  be  made  of  wood.  The  steps  sliould 
be  about  one  foot  in  breadth.  The  predella  slio\ild 
extend  along  the  front  of  the  altar  with  a  breadth 
of  about  three  feet  six  inclies,  and  at  the  sides  of  the 
altar  about  one  foot.  The  height  of  each  step  ought 
to  be  about  six  inches.  Side  altars  must  have  at 
least  one  step. 

Altau-Stole. — An  ornament,  Iiaving  the  shape  of 
the  ends  of  a  stole,  which  in  the  Middle  Ages  was 
attached  to  the  front  of  the  altar. 

Alt.\k-Sto\e. — .\  solid  piece  of  natural  stone,  con- 
secrated by  a  bishop,  large  enough  to  hold  the  Sacred 
Host  and  chalice.  It  is  inserted  into  or  placed  on 
the  surface  of  a  structure  which  an,swcrs  tlie  purpose 
of  an  altar,  when  the  whole  altar  is  not  consecrated. 
Sometimes  the  whole  table  (mensu)  takes  the  place 
of  tlie  smaller  altar-stone.  It  is  called  a  portable 
altar. 

ALT.\R-ToMn. — K  tomb,  or  monument,  over  a 
grave,  oblong  in  form,  which  is  covered  with  a  slab 
or  table,  havmg  the.  appearance  of  an  altar.  Some- 
times the  table  is  bare,  and  sometimes  it  supports 
one  or  more  recumbent  sculptured  figures.  It  either 
stands  free,  so  that  the  four  sides  are  exposed,  or  one 
side  may  be  attached  to  the  wall,  when  a  canopy 
or  niche  is  often  raised  above  it. 

Alt.\r-V.\se. — Vase  to  hold  flowers  for  the  deco- 
ration of  the  altar.  Tlie  Ca-rem.  Episc.  (I,xii,n.  12) 
says  that  between  the  candlesticks  on  the  altar  may 
be  placed  natural  or  artificial  flowers,  which  are  cer- 
tainly appropriate  ornaments  of  the  altar.  The  flow- 
ers referred  to  are  cut  flowers,  leaves,  and  ferns, 
rather  than  plants  imbedded  in  soil  in  large  flower- 
pots, although  the  latter  may  fitly  be  used  for  the 
decoration  of  the  sanctuary  aroimd  tlie  altar.  If  ar- 
tificial flowers  are  used  they  ought  to  be  made  of 
superior  material,  as  the  word  serico  (ibid.)  evi- 
dently implies,  and  represent  with  some  accuracy 
the  natural  variations.  Flowers  of  paper,  cheap 
muslin,  or  calico,  and  other  inferior  materials,  and 
such  as  are  old  and  soiled,  shoifld  never  be  allowed 
on  the  altar. 

Alt.\r-Vessels. — The  chalice  is  the  cup  in  which 
the  wine  and  water  of  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  is  con- 
tained. It  should  l)e  either  of  gold,  or  of  silver  with 
the  cup  gilt  on  the  inside;  or  it  may  have  a  cup  only 
of  silver,  gilt  on  the  inside;  in  which  cjise  the  biise 
and  stem  may  be  of  any  metal,  provided  it  be  solid, 
clean,  and  becoming  (Miss.  Rom.,  Ritus  celcbr..  tit.  i, 
n.  1).  .\ccordinK  to  the  Roman  .Missal  (De  Defoc- 
tibus,  tit.  X,  n.  1)  it  may  be  also  made  of  utannum  (an 
alloy  of  tin  and  lead),  witli  the  cup  gilt  on  the  in- 
side, but  authors  jiermit  this  only  by  way  of  ex- 
ception in  case  of  extreme  poverty.  Chalices  made 
of  glass,  wood,  copper,  or  brass  are  not  permitted, 
and  cannot  be  consecrated  by  the  bisliop  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  IG  September,  ISC')).  The  ba.se  may  he 
round,  hexagonal,  or  octagonal,  and  should  be  so 
wide  that  there  is  no  foar  of  tlie  clialice  tilting  over. 
Near  the  middle  of  tlie  stem,  between  the  ba.se  and 
the  cup,  there  should  lx>  a  knob,  in  order  that  the 
chalice,  especially  after  the  Consecration,  when  the 
priest  has  nis  thumb  and  index  finger  joined  together, 
may  be  easily  handled.  This  knob  may  !«■  ailnrncd 
witn  precious  stones,  but  care  should  be  taken  tliat 
they  do  not  protrude  so  far  as  to  hinder  the  easy 
handling  of  the  chalice.  The  ba.se  and  cup  may  lie 
embellished  with  pictures  or  emblems,  even  in  relief, 
but  tho.sc  on  the  cup  sliould  lie  about  an  inch  below 
the  lip  of  the  chalice.  Tlie  cup  should  be  narrow 
at  the  bottom,  and  lieeomo  gradually  wider  as  it 
approaches  the  mouth.  The  rounded  or  turned- 
down  lip  is  verj-  unserviceable.  The  height  is  not 
determined,  but  it  should  \x:  at  least  eight  inches. 
P.\TEN'. — The  paten  is  a  ves.sel  of  the  altar  on 
which  the  altar-bread  is  offered  in  the  Holy  Sacrifice. 
It  should  be  made  of  the  same  material  as  the  chalice, 


and  if  it  is  made  of  anything  else  than  gold  it  should 
be  gilt  on  the  concave  side.  Its  edge  ought  to  be 
thin  and  sharp,  so  that  the  particles  on  the  corporal 
may  be  easily  collected.  It  should  not  be  embel- 
lished, at  least  on  the  concave  side,  in  any  manner; 
however,  one  small  cross  may  be  set  near  its  edge 
to  indicate  the  place  on  which  it  is  to  be  kissed  by 
the  celebrant.  Any  sharp  indentation  on  the  upper 
side  prevents  its  being  easily  cleaned.  Those  liav- 
ing  a  plain  surface  throughout,  with  the  gradual 
slight  depression  towards  the  centre,  are  the  most 
serviceable.  Uy  a  decree  of  the  Cong.  Sac.  Kit., 
G  December,  ISGO,  I'ope  Pius  IX  allowed  chalices 
and  patens  to  be  used  which  were  made  of  aluminium 
mixed  with  other  metals  in  certain  proportions  given 
in  the  "  Instructio",  [irovided  the  whole  surface  was 
silvered,  and  the  cup  gilt  on  the  inside,  but  this 
decree  is  expunged  from  the  latest  edition  of  the 
Decrees.  Both  the  chalice  and  the  paten,  before 
they  can  be  used  at  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  must 
be  consecrated  by  the  ordinary,  or  by  a  bishop 
designated  by  him.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  can 
a  priest,  who  has  received  special  faculties  for  doing 
so  from  tlie  Holy  .See,  consecrate  them.  By  virtue 
of  Facultates  Extraordinarix  C,  fac.  vi,  the  bishops 
of  the  United  States  may  delegate  a  simple  priest. 
The  mere  fact  of  celebrating  the  Holy  Sacrifice  with 
an  unconsecrated  chalice  and  paten  can  never  supply 
the  place  of  this  rite,  specially  ordained  by  the 
Church. 

Loss  OF  Consecration. — The  chalice  loses  its 
consecration  when  it  becomes  unfit  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  destined.  Hence  it  becomes  devoid 
of  consecration:  (1)  when  the  slightest  break  or 
slit  appears  in  the  cup  near  the  bottom.  This  is  not 
the  case  if  the  break  be  near  the  upper  part,  so  that 
without  fear  of  spilling  its  contents  consecration 
can  take  place  in  it.  (2)  When  a  verj-  noticeable 
break  appears  in  any  part,  so  that  it  would  be  un- 
liccoming  to  use  it.  (3)  When  the  cup  is  separated 
from  the  stem  in  such  a  manner  that  tlie  parts  could 
not  be  joined  except  by  an  artificer,  unless  the  cup 
was  originally  joined  to  the  stem,  and  the  stem  to 
the  base,  by  means  of  a  screwing  device.  If,  how- 
ever, to  the  bottom  of  the  cup  a  rod  is  firmly  attached 
which  passes  through  the  stem  to  the  base,  under 
which  is  a  nut  used  to  hold  the  different  parts  to- 
gether, then,  if  this  rod  should  break,  tutius  viddur  to 
reconsecrate  it  (Van  der  Stappen,  III,  quajst.  l.\x\'iii). 
(4)  When  it  is  rcgilt  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  14  June,  1845). 
A  chalice  does  not  lose  its  consecration  by  the  mere 
wearing  away  of  the  gilding,  because  the  whole 
chalice  is  consecrated;  but  it  becomes  unfit  for  the 
purpose  of  consecrating  in  it,  for  the  rubric  prescribes 
that  it  be  gilded  on  the  inside.  After  being  regilt. 
the  celebrating  of  Mass  with  the  chalice  cannot  sup- 
ply its  consecration  (St.  Lig.,  bk.  VI,  n.  380).  The 
custom  of  desecmting  a  chalice,  or  other  sacred 
vessel,  by  striking  it  with  the  hand  or  some  instru- 
ment, or  in  any  otlier  manner,  before  giving  it  to  a 
workman  for  regilding,  is  positively  forbidden  (Cong. 
Sac.  Rit.,  23  .\pril,  1.S22).  By  making  slight  repairs 
upon  the  chalice  or  paten  the  consecration  is  not  lost. 
The  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office  in  1874 
decided  that  a  clialice  loses  its  consecration  if  it  if 
emnloved  Ijy  heretics  for  any  profane  use,  e.  g.  foi 
a  (irinking  cup  at  table.  Tlie  paten  loses  its  conse- 
cration: (1)  When  it  is  broken  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  Ijccomes  unfit  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended, e,  g.  if  the  break  be  so  large  that  particles 
could  fall  tlirough  it.  (2)  When  it  liccomcs  battered 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  would  he  unbecoming  to 
use  it.  (3)  When  it  is  regilt.  .\  chalice  which  be- 
comes unserviceable  is  not  to  be  sold,  but  should, 
if  po.ssible,  be  iisetl  for  some  sacred  purpose, 

CiiioHU'M. — The  ciborium  is  an  altar-vessel  in 
which  the  consecrated  particles  for  the  Communion 


ALTAR 


358 


ALTAR 


of  the  laity  are  kept.  It  need  not  necessarily  be 
made  of  gold  or  silver,  since  the  Roman  Ritual  (tit. 
IV,  cap.  i,  n.  5)  merely  prescribes  that  it  be  made  ex 
Holida  deccntique  matcrid.  It  may  even  be  made 
of  copper  provided  it  be  gilt  (Cong.  Sac,  Rit.,  31  Au- 
gust, 1867).  If  made  of  any  material  other  than 
gold,  the  inside  of  the  cup  must  be  gilt  (Cong.  Episc. 
et  Reg.,  2(i  Jvily,  1.588).  It  must  not  be  made  of  ivory 
(ibid.)  or  glass  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  30  January,  1880). 
Its  base  should  be  wide,  its  stem  should  have  a  knob, 
and  it  may  be  embellished  and  adorned  like  the 
chalice  (vide  supra).  There  should  be  a  slight  round 
elevation  in  the  centre,  at  the  bottom,  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  taking  out  of  the  particles  when  only 
a  few  remain  therein.  The  co-ver,  which  should  fit 
tightly,  may  be  of  a  pyramidal  or  a  ball  shape,  and 
should  be  surmounted  by  a  cross.  The  ciborium 
ought  to  be  at  least  seven  inches  high.  It  is  not 
consecrated,  but  only  blessed  by  the  bishop  or  priest 
having  the  requisite  faculties  according  to  the  form 
of  the  "Benedictio  tabernaculi"  (Rit.  Rom.,  tit.  viii, 
xxiii).  As  long  as  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  reserved 
in  it,  the  ciborium  must  be  covered  with  a  veil  of 
precious  material  of  white  colour  (Rit.  Rom.,  tit.  iv, 
i,  n.  5),  which  may  be  embroidered  in  gold  and  silver 
and  have  fringes  about  the  edges.  When  it  does  not 
actually  contain  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  this  veil 
must  be  removed.  Hence,  after  its  purification  at 
Mass,  or  when  filled  with  new  particles  to  be  con- 
secrated, it  is  placed  on  the  altar,  the  veil  cannot  be 
put  on  it.  Even  from  the  Consecration  to  the 
Communion  it  remains  uncovered.  Just  before  plac- 
ing it  in  the  tabernacle  after  Communion  the  veil 
is  placed  on  it.  It  is  advisable  to  have  two  ciboria  as 
the  newly  consecrated  particles  must  ne\-er  be  mixed 
with  those  which  were  consecrated  before.  In  places 
in  which  Holy  Communion  is  carried  solemnly  to  the 
sick,  a  smaller  ciborium  of  the  same  style  is  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  little  pyx  used  for  carrying  Holy 
Communion  to  the  sick  is  made  of  the  same  material 
as  that  of  which  the  ciborium  is  made.  It  must  be 
gilt  on  the  inside,  the  lower  part  should  have  a  slight 
elevation  in  the  centre,  and  it  is  blessed  by  the  form 
"Benedictio  tabernaculi"  (Rit.  Rom.,  tit.  viii,  .xxiii). 
The  ciborium  and  pyx  lose  their  blessing  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  chalice  loses  its  consecration. 

OsTENsoRiUM. — The  ostensorium  (ostensory,  mon- 
strance) is  a  glass-framed  shrine  in  which  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  publicly  exposed.  It  may  be  of  gold, 
silver,  brass,  or  copper  gilt  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  31  August, 
1867).  The  most  appropriate  form  is  that  of  the  sun 
emitting  its  rays  to  all  sides  (Instructio  Clement., 
§  5).  The  base  should  be  wide,  and  at  a  short 
distance  above  it  there  should  be  a  knob  for  greater 
ease  in  handling.  The  ostensorium  must  be  sur- 
mounted by  a  cro.ss  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  11  September, 
1847).  It  should  not  be  embellished  with  small 
statues  of  saints,  as  these  and  the  relics  of  saints  are 
forbidden  to  be  placed  on  the  altar  during  solemn 
Benediction.  At  the  sides  of  the  receptacle  in  which 
the  lunula  is  placed  it  is  appropriate  to  have  two 
statue-s  representing  adoring  angels.  In  the  middle 
of  the  Ostensorium  there  should  be  a  receptacle  of 
such  a  size  that  a  large  Host  may  be  easily  put  into 
it;  care  must  be  taken  that  the  Host  does  not  touch 
the  sides  of  this  receptacle.  On  the  front  and  back 
of  this  receptacle  tliere  should  be  a  crystal,  the  one 
on  the  back  opening  like  a  door;  when  closed,  the 
latter  must  fit  tightly.  The  circumference  of  this 
receptacle  must  cither  be  of  golil  or,  if  of  other  ma- 
terial, it  should  be  gilt,  and  so  smooth  and  polished 
that  any  particle  that  may  fall  from  the  Host  will 
be  easily  detected  and  removed.  The  lunula  must 
be  inserted  and  removed  without  difficulty;  hence 
the  device  for  keeping  it  in  an  upright  position 
should  be  constructed  with  lliis  end  in  view.  The 
oetensorium  need  not  necessarily  be  blessed,  but  it 


is  better  that  it  should  be.  The  form  "  Benedictio 
tabernaculi"  (Rit.  Rom.,  tit.  viii,  xxiii)  or  t lie  form 
"Benedictio  osten.sorii"  (Rit.  Rom.,  in  .\ppendict; 
may  be  used.  When  carried  to  and  from  the  altai 
it  ought  to  be  covered  with  a  white  veil. 

The  lunula  (lunette)  is  made  of  the  same  material 
as  the  ostensorium.  If  it  be  made  of  any  material 
other  than  gold,  it  must  be  gilded  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit., 
31  .-Vugust,  1867).  In  form  it  may  be  either  of  two 
crescents  or  of  two  crj-stals  encased  in  metal.  If 
two  crescents  be  used,  the  arrangement  should  be 
such  that  they  can  be  separated  and  cleaned.  Two 
stationary  crescents,  between  which  the  Sacred  Host 
is  pressed,  are,  for  obvious  reasons,  not  serviceable. 
If  two  crystals  are  used  it  is  necessary  that  they 
be  so  arranged  that  the  Sacred  Host  does  not  in  any 
way  touch  the  glass  (Cong.  Sac.  Rit.,  14  January, 
1898).  The  ostensorium,  provided  it  contains  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  may  be  placed  in  the  tabernacle, 
but  then  it  should  be  covered  witli  a  w'hite  silk  veil. 
(Recent  authors  say  that  since  the  ostensorium  is 
intended  merely  ad  monstrandam  and  not  ad  asser- 
vandam  SS.  Eucharistiam  it  should  not  be  placed 
in  the  tabernacle.)  When  the  Bk.ssed  Sacrament 
is  taken  out  of  the  ostensorium  after  Benediction 
it  may  or  may  not  be  removed  from  the  lunula.  If 
it  is  removed  it  should,  before  being  placed  in  the 
tabernacle,  be  enclosed  in  a  receptacle,  called  the 
repository  (custodia,  rcpositoriuin.  capsula),  which  is 
made  like  the  pyx,  used  in  carrj'ing  Holy  Communion 
to  the  sick,  but  larger,  and  may  have  a  base  with  a 
very  short  stem.  If  the  Blessed  Sacrament  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  crescent-shaped  lunula 
both  It  and  the  lunula  may  be  placed  in  the  same 
kind  of  receptacle,  or  in  one  specially  made  for  this 
purpose,  having  a  device  at  the  bottom  for  keeping 
the  Sacred  Host  in  an  upright  position.  The  latter 
may  have  a  base  and  short  stem,  and  a  door,  which 
fits  tightly,  on  the  back  part,  through  which  the 
lunula  is  inserted.  This  receptacle  is  made  through- 
out of  silver  or  of  other  material,  gilt  on  the  inside, 
smooth  and  polished,  and  surmounted  by  a  cross. 
No  corporal  is  placed  in  it.  If  the  lunula  be  made 
of  two  crystals,  encased  in  metal,  it  may,  when 
containing  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  be  placed  in 
the  tabernacle  without  enclosing  it  in  a  custodia. 
If  the  host  be  placed  before  the  Consecration  in 
the  lunula  made  of  two  crj'stals,  the  latter  must  be 
opened  before  the  words  of  Consecration  are  pro- 
nounced. The  lunula  and  the  custodia  are  blessed 
with  the  form  "BenecL'ctio  Tabernaculi"  (Rit.  Rom., 
tit.  viii,  xxiii)  by  a  bishop  or  by  a  priest  having  the 
faculty.  They  lose  their  blessing  when  they  are 
regilt,  or  when  they  become  imfit  for  the  use  for 
which  they  are  intended.  All  the  sacred  vessels, 
when  not  actually  containing  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, should  be  placed  in  an  iron  safe,  or  other 
secure  place,  in  the  sacristy,  .so  as  to  be  safeguarded 
against  robbery  or  profanation  of  any  kind.  Each 
ought  to  be  placed  in  its  own  case  or  covereil  with 
a  separate  veil,  for  protection  against  dust  and 
dampness. 

Altar-Wixe. — Wine  is  one  of  the  two  elements 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  sacrifice  of  the  Eucha^ 
rist.  For  valid  and  licit  consecration  rinum  dc  vile, 
i.  e.  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape  naturally  and  properly 
fermented,  is  to  be  used.  Wine  made  out  of  raisins, 
provided  that  from  its  colour  and  tivste  it  may  be 
judged  to  be  pure,  may  be  used  (Collect.  S.  C.  de 
Prop.  Fide,  n.  705).  It  may  be  white  or  red,  weak  or 
strong,  sweet  or  dry.  Since  the  validity  of  the  Holy 
Sacrifice,  and  the  lawfulness  of  its  celebration,  re- 
qiiire  absolutely  genuine  wine,  it  becomes  the  serious 
ooligation  of  tlie  celebrant  to  procure  only  purs 
wines.  And  .since  wines  are  frequently  .so  adulter- 
ated as  to  escape  minute  chemical  analysis,  it  may 
be  taken  for  granted  that  tlie  safest  way  of  procur- 


359 


ALTAR 


ing  pure  wine  is  to  buy  it  not  at  second  hand,  but 
directly  from  a  manufacturer  who  understands  and 
conscientiously  respects  the  great  responsibility  in- 
volved in  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  If 
the  wine  is  changed  into  vinegar,  or  is  become  putrid 
or  corrupted,  if  it  w:i.s  pressed  from  grapes  that  were 
not  fully  ripe,  (•■•  if  it  is  mixed  with  such  a  quantity 
of  water  that  it  can  lianlly  be  cuUetl  wine,  its  use 
is  forbidden  (Missale  Kom.,  De  Dcfectibus,  tit.  iv,  1). 
If  the  wine  begins  to  turn  into  vinegar,  or  to  become 
putrid,  or  is  the  unfern>ented  juice  as  pressed  from 
tlie  grape,  it  would  be  a  grievous  offence  to  u.se  it, 
but  it  is  considered  valid  matter  (ibid.,  2).  To  con- 
serve weak  and  feeble  wines,  and  in  ortler  to  keep 
them  from  .souring  or  spoiling  during  transportation, 
a  small  quantity  of  spirits  of  wiiio  (grape  brandy  or 
alcoliol)  may  be  adiled,  provided  the  following  con- 
ditions are  observed:  (1)  The  aildcd  spirit  (alcohol) 
must  have  been  distilled  from  tlie  grape  (ex  gciiimme 
fUix);  (2)  the  quantity  of  alcoluil  added,  together 
with  that  which  the  wine  contained  naturally  after 
fermentation,  must  not  exceed  eighteen  per  cent 
of  the  whole;  (3)  the  addition  must  be  made  during 
the  process  of  fermentation  (S.  Romana  et  I'niv. 
Inquis.,  5  .\ugust,   1896). 

.Vlt.^r.vge. — Krora  the  low  Latin  altaragium, 
which  signified  the  revenue  reserved  for  the  ch.aplain 
(altarist  or  altar-thane)  in  contradistinction  to  the 
income  of  the  parish  priest  (Du  Cange,  Glossariuni). 
At  present  it  signifies  the  fees  received  by  a  priest 
from  the  laity  when  discharging  any  function  for 
them,  e.  g.  at  marriages,  baptisms,  funerals.  It  is 
also  termed  honorarium,  stipend,  stole-fee. 

BiNTERIM.  DenkwurdU/krilcn  (.Mainz.  182,5-33);  Bona, 
Rerum  liluraicirum  tibri  duo  (Turin,  1747-53);  Martknk, 
De  <m(wuM  tCcclesitt  rilihus  (\enice,  17S3);  TillKH.s.  Lrt 
principauz  autt-U  dt's  tytUea  (Paris,  1CS8);  Schmid,  Dcr 
chrullu-he  AlUr  und  m-in  Schmuck  (Katislion,  1871): 
S.  L.  T.,  The  AUar  and  its  Appurtenances,  in  Ameriean  Eccle' 
tiasticat  Rei-iew  (July.  .August.  September,  19041;  Uttini, 
Carso  dl  Scienzi  lAlargica  (BoloRna,  1904);  Lero.skv.  In- 
troduction it  la  lUurgie  (Paris.  1S90);  Bernahd.  Cours  de 
lilurQie  romaine—lM  Mnse  (Paris,  1898),  I;  Nesbitt  in 
Diet,  of  Chris.  .Inliq.  (Hartford.  1880);  Probst  in  Kir- 
chenteT.  (FreiburR  im  Breisgau);  Pastoral  Theologies  of 
Amberoer,  Besoer.  Oa8.sner.  Schuech;  Sciiclte,  Riles 
and  Ceremonies  (.New  York.  1907);  Van  der  Stappe.n,  Sacra 
Liturgia  (Mechlin.   1902),   III. 

A.    J.    SCHI'LTE. 

Altar  (in  the  Greek  Church.) — I.  The  word  altar 
(sometimes  spelled  oltar)  is  used  in  the  Old  Slavonic 
and  Rus.sian  languages  to  denote  the  entire  space 
surrouniling  what  we  know  as  the  altar,  which  is 
included  behind  the  iconostasis.  and  is  the  equivalent 
of  the  Greek  word  ^vfta.  Thus  it  corresponds  in  a 
mea.sure  to  the  sanctuary  of  the  Roman  churches. 
Hence  the  altar  of  the  Russian  Orthodox  or  the 
Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  churches  means  the  sanc- 
tuary-, and  not  merely  the  altar  known  to  Latin 
churches.  The  altar  itself  is  called  in  Old  Slavonic 
and  Russian  prestot,  "the  throne",  in  allusion  to 
Our  Ixjrcl  Who  reigns  there  as  King.  The  altar  of 
the  Greek.s,  using  the  Old  Slavonic  :i.s  their  liturgical 
language,  includes  not  only  the  altar  (prcKlnl)  but 
also  tlie  Uttle  side  altar,  or  prolhc.iis,  where  the 
proskomiile  (or  preparation  of  the  bread  and  wine 
for  Mass)  takes  place,  and  also  the  scats  for  the 
clergy  and  the  throne  or  cathedra  for  the  bi.'ihop.  In 
the  Greek  Church  these  .seats  and  the  bishop's  throne 
are  usually  placed  behind  the  altar  and  on  a  step  or 
elevation  so  that  the  occupants  may  si-e  over  the 
altar. 

II.  The  altar  in  the  Greek  Church  {v  di^ia  rpdirtfa) 
has  remained  practically  unchanged  and  \madonicd. 
The  Greeks,  unlike  the  Latins,  have  placeil  their 
wealth  of  decoration  upon  the  iconostasis  in  front 
of  the  altar.  In  churches  of  the  Latin  Rile  the  altar 
itself  h.as  been  added  to  by  rercdos  and  altar-pieros 
and  the  like;  yet  altars  of  the  older  form  may  still 
be  seen  in  Rome,  in  St.  Peter's,  Santa  Maria  Mag- 


giore,  St.  John  Lateran,  St.  Paul's,  and  other 
churches.  Reside  this  the  Western  Rite  has  usually 
phiced  the  altar  against  the  wall  of  the  church; 
the  Greek  Rite  keeps  it  apart  and  i.solated  so  that 
the  olticiating  clergy  may  pa-ss  around  it.  The 
Roman  altar,  while  rectangular,  is  usually  longer 
in  one  direction  than  the  other;  but  the  Greek  altar 
is  ma<le  square  so  that  every  measurement  is  ef|u.al. 
The  top  |X)rtion  of  a  Greek  altar  should  be  of  wood, 
one  board  at  least.  Herein  it  differs  from  the  Roman 
Rite  which  rccjuires  that  even  a  wooden  altar  should 
have  a  stone  slab  or  "sepulchre"  wherein  are  en- 
clo.sed  the  relics  of  the  saints.  Upon  the  altar  are 
the  candles  which  are  lighted  during  Mass,  the  cross, 
or  more  often  the  crucifix,  which  in  Orthodox 
churches  is  usually  inade  only  in  low  relief,  anil  also 
the  book  of  the  Gospels,  containing  the  various 
Gospels  arranged  for  reading  in  the  Mass  for  the 
various  Sunchiys  and  feast  days  during  the  Greek 
ecclesiastical  year.  The  book  of  the  Gospels  is 
usually  laid  fiat  on  the  altar  until  the  time  when 
the  sacred  elements  are  brought  for  con.secration; 
then  it  is  stood  up  on  edge  in  front  of,  and  almost 
covering  the  tabernacle.  Resides  the  Gospels,  the 
mi.ssal,  or  tixoKiryiov,  is  also  upon  the  altar,  from 
which  the  priests  read  and  intone  the  unchangeable 

Barts  of  the  Mass.  The  tabernacle  containing  the 
lessetl  Sacrament,  reserved  according  to  the  Greek 
Rite,  does  not  always  rest  upon  the  altar.  Often 
these  tabernacles,  beautifully  built,  rest  upon  a 
pillar  or  other  foundation  about  a  foot  or  so  behind 
the  altar.  The  altar  in  the  (ireck  Church,  as  being 
the  place  on  which  the  glory  of  the  Lord  rests,  is 
vested  with  two  coverings.  The  first  is  of  white 
linen  next  to  the  altar  it.self,  and  the  second  or 
outer  covering  is  made  of  rich  broca<le  or  embroidery 
and  is  calleil  the  endyton  (ivStrrii').  Besides  this 
there  is  the  antimension  which  is  usually  placed  on 
every  altar  and  which  contains  the  relics  of  some 
saint.  A  church  and  its  altar  should  be  consecrated 
by  a  bishop,  but  sometimes  it  is  found  impos.sible  or 
inconvenient  to  accomplish  this,  and  so  a  priest  may 
perfonn  the  consecration;  but  he  must  u.se  the 
anlimcn.sion  which  has  been  duly  consecrated  by  the 
bishop  in  almost  the  same  manner  as  an  altar  is 
consecrated. 

The  Greek  consecration  service,  after  the  singing 
of  hymns  and  psalms,  and  the  consecration  of  the 
holy  water  u.setl  in  the  service,  begins  by  the  bishop 
sprinkling  the  altar  with  holy  water.  He  then  pours 
into  the  nail  holes  of  the  altar-board  a  mixture  of 
incense  and  wax,  and  the  priests  then  nail  down  the 
top  board  to  the  stilid  part  of  the  altar.  The  bi.shop 
then  kneels  and  prays  that  the  Holy  Ghost  may 
descend  and  sanctify  the  temple  and  altar.  Then 
begins  the  ablution  of  the  altar.  While  psalms  are 
being  sung  the  bishop  lightly  rubs  the  top  board  of 
the  iUtar  with  soap  in  the  form  of  a  cross  and  pours 
water  on  it,  and  the  priests  take  cloths  and  ruo  the 
altar  dr>'.  Then  the  bishop  takes  retl  wine  mixed 
with  a  drop  or  so  of  rose-water  and  pours  the  mixture 
on  the  altar  in  the  sliape  of  a  cross  and  rubs  it  into 
tlie  wood.  With  some  drops  of  the  same  wine  he 
sprinkles  the  attlimrnsion  <lestincd  for  the  new  altar. 
Then  the  bishop  anoints  the  top  board  and  the  sides 
of  the  altar  with  holy  chrism  and  also  anoints  the 
antimcn.tinn.  In  the  Greek  Cathohc  Church  the 
altar  is  washed  three  times  while  the  p.-i:ilms  are 
being  sung.  Then  begins  the  vesting  of  the  altar. 
First  a  white  linen  covering  is  placed  over  the  altar 
crosswi.se;  and  over  this  first  cover  a  .second  one  of 
brilliant  and  embroidered  material  is  placed,  calletl 
the  cnih/lon.  There  is  then  placed  on  the  altar  a 
fine  large  wrap  or  cloth  called  the  hrileton  (elXi/riK) 
which  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the  burse  of  the 
Latin  Rite,  and  in  it  the  nnlimen.iioii  is  enfolded. 
All  these  are  put  in  place  after  having  been  blessed 


ALTAR 


360 


ALTAR 


and  sprinkled  with  hoi}-  water  wliile  the  appropriate 
Psalins  are  being  chanted.  After  tills  the  church  is 
then  consecrated,  or  it  is  ready  for  consecration. 
Among  the  tireeks  the  altar  is  always  consecrated 
on  Holy  Thursday  or  on  a  Thursday  between  Easter 
and  the  Feast  of  the  Ascension. 

Renacdot.  Coll.  Liturg.Oruntaiium  CFrankfort,  18471,  I, 
164  and   passim,  II,  52-50;    Goar,  Eucholoffion  (Paris,  1G47\ 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Altar  (in  Scripture). — The  English  word  altar, 
if  the  commonly  accepted  etymology  be  adopted— 
alta  ara — does  not  describe  as  well  as  its  Hebrew  and 
Greek  equi\aleiits,  naiO  )mzbid.h  (from  zabhdh,  to 
sacrifice)  and  6\j(Ti.a<rTripiw  (Irom  Bioi,  to  immolate), 
the  purpose  of  tlie  tiling  it  stands  for. 

I  In  the  Old  Test.^ment. — As  soon  as  men  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  offering  sacrifices  to  the  Deity, 
they  felt  the  need  of  places  specially  designed  for 
this  end.  Tliese  primeval  specimens  of  altars  were 
necessarily  most  simple,  very  hkely  consisting  of  a 
heap  of  stones  or  eartli,  suitable  for  the  fire  and  the 
victims.  Some  of  the  megahthic  monuments  left  by 
prehistoric  man  seem  to  have  been  erected  for  this 
purpose.  Probably  of  this  simple  description  were 
the  altars  wliicli  Cain  and  Abel  used  to  ofler  up  their 
sacrifices,  though  Scripture  does  not  mention  in  con- 
nection with  their  names  any  such  monuments; 
such  also  were  the  altars  built  up  by  Noe  after  the 
flood  (Gen.,  viii,  20);  by  Abraham  in  Sichem  (Gen., 
xii,  7),  Bethel  (Gen.,  xii,  8;  xiii,  4),  Mambre  (Gen., 
xiii,  18),  and  at  the  place  where  he  had  been  about 
to  sacrifice  his  son  (Gen.,  xxii,  9);  by  Isaac  and 
Jacob  at  Bersabee  (Gen.,  xxvi,  25;  xlvi,  1),  and  by 
the  latter  in  Galaad  (Gen.,  xxxi,  54).  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  altar  erected  in  the  desert  of 
Sinai  before  the  golden  calf  (Ex.,  xxxii,  5).  During 
tlie  period  of  the  .Judges  and  of  the  Kings,  the  Israel- 
ites, owing  to  their  propensity  to  idolatrous  worship, 
raised  up  altars  to  Baal  and  Astaroth,  even  to  Moloch 
and  Chanios.  No  temple  enclosed  these  altars  or 
those  erected  to  the  one  true  God  by  the  patriarchs; 
they  were  raised  up  in  the  open  air,  and  preferably 
on  the  tops  of  the  hills,  whence  their  name,  "high 
places".  Tlie  Chanaanites'  high  places  were  com- 
monly located  near  large  and  shady  trees,  or  in  the 
woods,  in  the  midst  of  which  a  consecrated  precinct 
was  marked  out,  affording  good  opportunities  for 
the  sacred  debaucheries  accompanying  the  Astaroth- 
worship  wliich  were  so  often  alluded  to  by  the 
Prophets. 

1  .^LTAR  OF  Holocaust. — Modem  critics  affirm  that 
there  existed  in  Israel  different  legitimate  places  of 
worship  before  the  time  of  Josias,  an  assertion, 
however,  which  is  not  to  be  examined  here  as  only 
regulations  concerning  the  altar  come  under  con- 
sideration at  present.  The  earliest  ordinance  on  the 
subject  is  found  in  Ex.,  x.x,  24-26  as  follows:  "You 
shall  make  an  altar  of  earth  unto  me,  and  you  shall 
offer  upon  it  your  holocausts  and  peace  offerings, 
your  sheep  and  oxen,  in  every  place  where  tlie 
meniorv  of  my  name  shall  be:  1  will  come  to  thee, 
and  will  lilcss  thee.  And  if  thou  make  an  altar  of 
stone  unto  me,  thou  shalt  not  build  it  of  hewn  stones; 
for  if  thou  lift  up  a  tool  upon  it,  it  shall  be  defiled. 
Thou  shalt  not  go  up  by  steps  unto  my  altar,  lost 
tliy  nakednes,s  be  discovered."  These  regulations 
fairly  correspond  to  the  practice  liitherto  commonly 
followed,  as  may  be  concluded  from  the  scanty 
indications  furnished  by  the  Iiistorics  of  tlie  patri- 
arelis.  The  Deuteronomic  Law,  while  enforcing  the 
injunction  of  local  unity  of  worship,  repeats,  on  the 
occasion  of  tlie  altar  erected  on  Mount  llobal,  these 
primitive  rules:  "Thou  shalt  build  ...  an  altar 
...  of  stones  .  .  .  not  fashioned  nor  polished" 
(Deut.,  xxvii,  5,  6;  of.  Jos.,  viii,  30,  31).  The  de- 
scription given  in  the  places  cited,  as  well  as  that  of 


the  altar  erected  near  the  Jordan  by  the  Rubenites, 
Gadites,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasses  (Jos.,  xxii), 
which  was  "the  pattern  of  the  altar  of  Yahweh", 
suggests  that  the  altars  there  referred  to  were  large 
constructions  (Jos.,  x.xii,  10).  It  may  well  be  sup- 
posed that  they  were  built  upon  a  mound  and 
reached  by  a  slope  or  even  by  steps.  The  motive, 
indeed,  for  the  rule  of  Ex.,  xx,  26,  had  disappeared 
since  the  priests  had  been  provided  with  breeches 
(Ex.,  xxviii,  42).  There  are  reasons  to  suppose  that 
the  altars  erected  at  Silo  and  the  other  places  of 
worship  before  the  translation  of  the  .Ark  to  Jerusa- 
lem, though  probably  of  smaller  dimensions,  were 
of  the  same  general  description.  These  were  fi.\ed 
altars,  the  splendour  of  which  was  to  be  surpas.sed 
in  the  memory  of  Israel  by  that  of  the  altar  erected 
by  Solomon  in  front  of  the  Temple.  Before  describ- 
ing it,  and  sketcliing  its  history,  it  is  proper  to  gather 
the  different  references  found  in  the  Bible  to  the 
portable  altar  used  during  the  wanderings  of  the 
Hebrews  through  the  wilderness. 

(a.)  Altar  of  Holocaust  of  the  Tabernacle. — Accord- 
ing to  the  prescriptions  of  Ex.,  xxvii,  1-8,  xxxviii,  1-7, 
this  altar  of  holocaust,  constructed  of  setim  w^ood 
(a  kind  of  acacia),  foursquare  in  form,  measured 
five  cubits  square  and  three  in  height;  it  was  covered 
with  plates  of  brass.  At  its  four  upper  comers  were 
four  "horns",  likewi.se  overlaid  with  brass,  which 
probably  served  to  hold  the  flesh  of  the  victims 
heaped  upon  the  altar.  In  the  case  of  sin-offerings, 
the  priest  put  some  of  the  blood  of  the  victim  upon 
these  horns;  they  were  also  a  place  of  refuge,  as  is 
to  be  inferred  from  Ex.,  xxi,  14.  A  grate  of  brass, 
after  the  manner  of  a  net,  extended  to  the  middle  of 
the  altar,  and  under  it  a  hearth.  At  the  four  comers 
of  the  net  rings  had  been  cast;  and  through  these 
rings  ran  two  bars  of  setim  wood  covered  with  brass, 
to  carry  the  altar.  This  indeed  was  not  sohd,  but 
empty  and  hollow  on  the  inside.  Such  expressions 
as  "to  come  down  from  the  altar"  (Lev.,  ix,  22) 
lead  us  to  suppose  that  this  altar  which  was  placed 
at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  (Lev.,  iv,  IS)  was 
usually  set  upon  a  hillock  and  reached  by  a  slope. 
Some  believe  also  that  the  above-described  altar, 
which  was  merely  a  framework,  had  to  be  filled  with 
earth  or  stones,  in  compliance  with  the  regulations 
of  Ex.,  XX,  24,  and  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  being 
injured  by  the  flames  of  the  sacrifices.  The  altar 
served  not  only  for  the  holocausts,  but  also  for  all 
the  other  sacrifices  in  which  a  part  of  the  victim  was 
burnt.  Fire  was  unceasingly  kept  in  the  hearth  for 
the  sacrifices.  When  this  altar  was  built  up,  before 
serving  for  Di\'ine  worship,  it  was  solemnly  conse- 
crated by  an  unction  with  holy  oil  and  by  daily 
anointings  and  aspersions  w'ith  the  blood  of  the  sin- 
offerings  for  seven  days.  For  twelve  days  this  was 
followed  by  daily  sacrifices  offered  by  the  princes  of 
each  tribe;  thenceforth  all  bloody  sacrifices  were 
offered  on  this  altar.  Some  independent  critics, 
remarking  that  this  altar  is  mentioned  in  the  sacer- 
dotal code  only  (cf.  Pentateuch),  and  arguing  from 
the  anomahes  presented  by  tlie  idea  of  the  construc- 
tion in  w-ood  of  a  fireplace  upon  which  a  strong  fire 
continually  burned,  regard  tliis  former  altar  of 
holocaust,  not  as  the  pattern,  but  as  a  projection 
back  to  early  times  and  on  a  smaller  scale,  of  the 
altar  of  Jerusalem. 

(b)  Altar  of  Holocaust  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon.— 
This  is  commonly  known  uniler  the  name  of  "brazen 
altar".  It  was  located  in  the  Temple  court,  to  the 
east  of  the  Temple  proper.  In  form  it  resembled 
the  altar  of  the  tabernacle,  but  its  dimensions  were 
much  larger:  twenty  cubits  in  length,  twenty  cubits 
in  breadtTi,  and  ten  cubits  in  height  (ll  Par.,  iv,  1). 
Ez.,  xliii,  17  suggests  that  it  was  erected  upon  a  base 
enclosing,  according  to  certain  trailitions,  the  rock 
Sakkara  wliich  still  can  be  seen  in  the  llarani  esh- 


ALTAR 


361 


ALTAR 


Sherif.  Tho  whole  structure,  base  and  altar  proper, 
was  entirely  filled  up  with  rocks  and  earth.  A  slope, 
whicli  Tahnudic  traditions  suppose  to  have  been 
broken  three  times  by  several  steps,  led  to  the  top  of 
the  base,  which  was  a  few  feet  wiiler  than  the  altar 
proper,  in  order  that  tlie  priest  might  easily  go 
around  the  latter.  This  altar,  built  up  by  Solomon 
(111  l\.,  viii.  G4),  was  the  object  of  a  new  consecra- 
tion during  A.sa's  reign  (II  Par.,  xv,  8),  which  makes 
us  think  that  some  restoration  had  taken  place. 
Achaz  removed  it  towards  tlie  north,  and  in  its  place 
erected  anotlier,  similar  to  tliat  which  he  had  seen  in 
Dama.scus  (IV  K.,  xvi,  10-1,5).  A  restoration  of 
the  former  oriler  of  tilings  very  likely  occurred  untler 
Ezechias,  although  the  .sacred  text  does  not  mention 
it  explicitly.  Again  polluted  by  Ezechias'  son 
Manasscs,  it  was  later  on  repaired  and  dedicated 
again  to  Yahweh  by  the  .same  jirince  (IV  K.,  xxi,  4,  5; 
II  Par.,  xxxiii,  4,  ii,  1(5).  The  distruction  of  Jeru- 
salem by  the  liabylonian  army  (.')S7)  was  of  course 
fatal  to  Doth  the  Temnle  and  the  altar,  and  to  both 
may  be  applied  tlie  sigh  of  the  author  of  the  Lamen- 
tations: "The  stones  of  the  sanctuary  are  scattered 
in  the  tops  of  every  street". 

(c)  .4/tar  of  h'dlocausl  of  the  Second  and  Third 
Temples. — Tho  Exile  cured  the  Jews'  propen.sity  to 
idolatry;  those  who  came  back  from  Babylon  with 
Zorobabel  took  it  to  heart  to  rebuild  the  altar  as 
soon  as  pos.sible,  in  order  that  tliey  might  start  over 
again  the  public  worship  of  Yahweh.  We  read  the 
account  of  the  reconstruction  in  I  Esd.,  iii,  2-6. 
This  new  altar  was  of  tho  same  form  and  dimensions 
as  the  former,  and  was  probably  likewise  built  with 
unhewn  stones.  Some  twenty  years  later,  the  new 
Temple,  completed  amidst  dilhculties  and  opposition, 
stood  behind  the  altar.  But  the  iJivine  service  was 
poor,  as  we  can  infer  from  the  scanty  documents  of 
that  epoch.  Those  indeed  were  hard  times  for  Israel. 
Nehemias — if,  to  unravel  the  intricate  chronology 
of  the  Books  of  Esdras,  we  admit  that  Nehemias 
preceded  Esdras  to  Jerusalem — spared  no  efforts  to 
re-establish  the  Temple  worship;  but  the  resources  of 
the  .sanctuary  were  scarce,  and  after  his  return  to 
Persia,  the  nriests  fled,  every  man  to  his  own  country 
to  find  a  living;  the  sacrifices,  not  provided  for, 
were  abandonetf,  and  the  altar  alone  remained,  a 
solitary  witness  to  the  misery  of  the  times  (II  Esd., 
xiii,  10).  Better  days  shone  again  with  the  coming 
of  Esdras  (I  Esd.,  viii,  35),  but  the  Persians  were 
costly   protectors.     The   Jews   had   a   sorrowful   ex- 

g;rience  of  this,  especially  when  the  Persian  general 
agoses  imposed  for  seven  years  a  heavy  tax  upon 
every  sacrifice  (Josephus,  Ant.,  XI,  vii,  1).  'The 
reign  of  Antiochus  IV  (Epiphanes)  signalized  itself 
by  new  profanations:  "On  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
month  Casleu,  in  tho  hundred  and  forty-fifth  year 
[of  the  drecian  era],  king  .\ntiochus  set  up  the  abom- 
inable idol  of  desolation  upon  the  altar  of  Ciod " 
(I  .Mach.,  i,  57;  iv,  38).  How  the  tyranny  of  this 
prince  rou.sed  the  zeal  and  courage  of  the  Alachabees 
and  their  followers,  and  how,  through  a  long  and 
hard  struggle,  they  succeeded  in  shaking  the  yoke 
of  the  Seleucides  cannot  be  narrated  here.  Suffice 
it  to  .say  tliat  Judas  Machabeus,  after  having  routed 
.\ntiochus'  army,  "considered  about  the  altar  of 
holocausts  that  had  been  profaned,  what  he  should 
do  with  it.  .\nd  a  good  coun.sel  came  into  their 
minds  to  pull  it  down:  lest  it  shovild  be  a  reproach 
to  them,  because  the  flentiles  had  defiled  it;  so  they 
threw  it  down.  And  they  laid  up  the  stones  in  the 
mountain  of  the  tem|)le  in  a  convenient  place.  .  . 
Then  they  took  whole  stones  according  to  the  law, 
and  built  a  new  altar  according  to  the  former  .  .  . 
anil  on  the  five  and  twentietli  day  of  the  ninth 
montli  ...  in  the  Inmdretl  and  forty-eighth  year, 
.  .  .  they  offered  .sacrifice  according  to  the  law  upon 
the  new  altar  of  holocausts  which  they  had  made " 


(I  Mach.,  iv,  44-53).  The  anniversary  of  this  new 
deification  was  thenceforward  celebrated  by  a  feast, 
ailded  to  the  liturgical  calendar.  The  altar  in  ques- 
tion remained  until  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and 
of  the  Temple  by  the  Romans.  Josephus  and  the 
Talmud  disagree  as  to  the  dimensions  of  the  base. 
Instead  of  being  overlaid  with  plates  of  bra.ss,  hke 
the  brazen  altar  of  Solomon's  Temple,  it  was  covered 
on  the  outside  with  a  solid  plastering  which  might 
be  ea.sily  replaced.  By  tho  horn  of  the  southwest 
corner  there  was  an  outlet  for  the  blood  of  the  vic- 
tims, and  a  hollow  to  receive  libations.  Such  was 
the  altar  at  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.,  v,  23,  24; 
xxiii,  18);  involved  in  the  curse  that  hung  over  the 
Temple  since  the  Saviour's  hust  days,  it  was  wrecked 
with  the  Temple  (a.  d.  70)  by  Titus's  army,  never  to 
be  built  up  again. 

(rf)  Altar  of  incense. — In  the  above  description  not 
a  word  has  been  said  of  the  incense  offenngs  that 
were  part  of  tlie  Yahweh  worship.  There  is  indeed, 
on  the  subject  of  these  offerings  and  the  Temple 
furniture  connected  with  them,  a  noteworthy  diver- 
gence between  the  hitherto  common  opinion  and  that 
of  the  modern  biblical  critics.  The  latter  consider 
the  introduction  of  incense  into  the  Yahweh  worship 
as  an  innovation  of  relatively  recent  date  (Jer.,  vi, 
20);  they  remark  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
passages,  the  origin  of  which  it  is  easy  to  determine, 
the  biblical  writers  speak  only  of  one  altar,  and  that 
incense  in  the  Law  is  supposed  to  be  offered  in  censers, 
of  which  eadi  priest  pos.sesses  one  (Lev.,  xvi,  12,  18- 
20;  x;  Num.,  xvi,  17;  iii,  4-10).  They  argue,  besides, 
from  the  adventitious  character,  the  late  date,  and 
the  priestly  origin,  of  the  so-called  Mosaic  texts 
referring  to  the  altar  of  incense,  as  well  as  from  the 
vacillating  statements  concerning  it  in  the  latest 
sources  of  Jewish  history;  and  tliey  conclude  that 
neither  in  the  tabernacle  nor  in  the  first  Temple  did 
there  exist  an  altar  of  incense.  We  sliall  presently 
give  the  indications  which  the  opinion  heretofore 
considered  as  common  makes  use  of  in  the  description 
of  this  piece  of  tabernacle  and  Temple  furniture. 
The  first  altar  of  incense  constructed  in  the  wilder- 
ness was  foursquare,  niea.suring  a  cubit  in  length, 
as  much  in  breadth,  and  two  cubits  in  height.  Made 
of  setim  wood,  overlaid  witli  the  purest  gold  (hence 
the  name  "golden  altar"),  it  was  encircled  by  a 
crown  of  the  same  material;  it  had  likewi.se  a  golden 
brim,  and,  like  unto  the  altar  of  holocaust,  four 
horns  and  four  rings  of  gokl;  through  the  latter  two 
bars  of  setim  wood,  overlaid  witli  gold,  served  to 
carrj'  the  altar  (Ex.,  xxx.  4).  When  it  had  to  be 
moved,  it  was  covered  with  a  purple  veil  an<l  a  ram- 
skin.  Consecrafeil,  like  the  altar  of  holocaust,  by 
an  unction  of  holy  oil,  this  altar  served  every  morn- 
ing and  evening  for  the  incense  offering  (Ex.,  xxx, 
7-8)  ami  in  certain  ceremonies  for  the  sin-offerings. 
Every  year  during  the  great  Eeast  of  Atonement  it 
was  solemnly  purified  (Lev.,  xvi,  14-19).  In  the 
Temple  of  Solomon,  the  altar  of  incen.se  was  made, 
in  shape  and  dimensions,  similar  to  that  of  the 
tabernacle.  The  material  alone  differed;  instead 
of  setim  wood,  cellar  wood  was  used  in  its  construc- 
tion. According  to  a  document  attributed  to  Jcre- 
niias,  and  quoted  in  II  Mach.,  ii,  5,  the  prophet, 
forewarned  from  on  high  of  the  wreck  of  the  Temple, 
would  have  hidden  tliis  altar  in  a  hollow  cave  on 
Mount  Nebo.  Po.ssibly.  too.  it  was  taken  away  in  tho 
spoils  galliiTcd  by  the  Babylonian  army  that  ran- 
sacked Jenisalcm  (IV  K.,  xxv,  lli-l").  The  fact  is, 
the  second  Temple  was  furnishoil,  like  the  former, 
with  an  altar  of  incense,  dcstroyeil  about  IGS  B.  c, 
bv  .Antiodius  IV  (Epiphanes),  who  broke  it  to  take 
ot'T  the  gold  plating  that  covered  it.  Judas  Macha- 
beus had  a  new  one  made  and  dedicated  at  the  .same 
time  as  the  altar  of  holocaust.  It  is  by  this  altar 
that  the  scene  described  in  Luke,  i,  8-21,  took  place. 


ALTAR 


362 


ALTAR 


Josephus  considered  it  as  one  of  the  three  master- 
pieces contained  in  tlic  Temple;  it  was  probably 
carriuJ  ofT  by  the  Konians,  tliough  no  mention  of  it 
is  made  by  the  Jewish  historian  among  the  pieces  of 
the  Tenipie  furniture  carried  off  by  Titus. 

II.  Alt.\k  in  the  Nkw  Testament. — The  word 
altar  is  in  tlie  New  Testament  frequently  applied 
either  to  the  altar  of  holocaust  or  to  the  altar  of 
incense.  St.  Paul,  from  the  part  of  the  sacrifice 
which  the  ministers  of  tlie  altar  received,  draws  an 
argument  to  prove  that  in  lilie  manner  the  ministers 
of  the  Gospel  should  live  by  the  Gospel  (I  Cor.,  ix, 
13-14).  In  another  place,  from  the  participation  in 
the  victim  offered  at  tlie  altar,  he  argues  that  in  the 
same  way  as  tliose  who  eat  of  the  sacrifice  are  par- 
takers of  the  altar,  so  also  they  that  share  in  the 
flesli  of  the  pagan  victims  are  partakers  of  the  devils 
to  whom  they  are  offered;  hence  he  concludes  that 
to  partake  of  the  table  of  the  Lord  and  of  the  table 
of  devils  wovild  be  blasphemy  (I  Cor.,  x,  21).  In 
conclusion,  a  few  words  about  the  altar  mentioned 
in  the  Apocalyiise.  Its  form  resembled  that  of  tlie 
altar  of  incense;  like  the  latter,  it  was  a  "golden 
altar"  set  up  before  the  throne  of  God  (viii,  3),  and 
adorned  with  four  horns  at  the  angles  (ix,  13).  By 
the  fire  burning  upon  it  stood  an  angel  holding  a 
golden  censer,  "and  there  was  given  to  him  much 
incense",  a  figure  of  the  prayers  of  the  Saints  (viii,  3). 
Under  the  altar  were  the  "  souls  of  them  that  were 
slain  for  the  word  of  God"  (Apoc.,  vi,  9);  they  had 
e\-idently  taken  the  place  of  the  blood  of  the  victims, 
which,  in  the  Old  Law,  was  poured  at  the  foot  of  the 
altar,  and  fulfilled  the  same  office  of  praise  and  atone- 
ment. 

KiTTO,  The  Tabernacle  arid  its  Furniture  (London,  1849); 
Lamy,  De  tabernaculo,  de  sanctA  ciritate  et  templo  (Pari.s,  1720V, 
LiGHTFOOT,  Descriptio  templi  hierosol,  in  Op^  comp.,  I,  549; 
Cramer,  De  aril  exteriore  templi  secundi  (Lyons,  1697);  Well- 
HAUSEN.  Prolegomena  zur  Geschichte  Israels  (Berlin,  1883), 
tr.  Black  and  Menzies,  Proleg.  to  the  History  of  Israel  (Edin- 
burg.  1885):  Vigouroux,  La  Bible  etles  decouvertes  modemes 
(Paris,  1889),  II,  III;  Kennedy  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible: 
Renard  in  ViG.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 
Altax,  History  of  the  Christian. — The  Chris- 
tian altar  consists  of  an  elevated  surface,  tabular  in 
form,  on  which  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  offered. 
The  earliest  Scripture  reference  to  the  altar  is  in 
St.  Paul  (I  Cor.  x,  21);  the  .\postle  contrasts  the 
"table  of  the  Lord"  (rpdireia  Kvplov)  on  which 
the  Eucharist  is  offered,  witli  the  "table  of  devils", 
or  pagan  altars.  Tpdirtfa  continued  to  be  the  favour- 
ite term  for  altar  among  the  Greek  Fathers  and  in 
Greek  liturgies,  either  used  alone  or  with  the  addi- 
tion of  such  reverential  qualifying  terms  as  lepd, 
li.v(7TiKi).  The  lipistle  to  the  Hebrews  (.xiii,  10)  re- 
fers to  the  Christian  altar  as  Bva-iaffTTipioi',  the  word 
by  which  the  Septuagint  alludes  to  Noah's  altar. 
This  term  occurs  m  several  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Ig- 
natius (.\d  Eph.  v;  Magnes.  iv,  7;  Philad.  4),  as  well 
as  in  tiie  writings  of  a  number  of  fourth  and  fifth 
century  Fathers  and  historians;  Eusebius  employs  it 
to  describe  the  altar  of  the  great  church  at  Tyre 
(Hist.  Eccl.,  X,  iv,  44).  Tpdtrt^a,  however,  was  the 
tenn  most  frequently  in  use.  The  word  ^w^is,  to 
designate  an  altar,  was  carefully  avoided  by  tlie 
Christians  of  the  first  age,  because  of  its  pagan  as- 
sociations; it  is  first  used  by  Synesius,  Bishop  of 
Cyrene,  a  writer  of  the  early  fifth  century.  The 
terms  altare,  mensa,  ara,  altarium,  with  or  without 
a  genitive  addition  (as  mensa  Domini),  are  employed 
by  the  Latin  Fathers  to  designate  an  altar.  Ara, 
however,  is  more  commonly  applied  to  pagan  altars, 
though  TertuUian  speaks  "of  the  Christian  altar  as 
ara  Dei.  But  St.  Cyprian  makes  a  sharp  distinction 
between  nrn  and  altare,  [jagan  altars  being  aras  dia- 
boli,  while  the  Christian  altar  is  allnre  Dei  [quasi  vast 
aras  dialmli  acccdere  ad  altare  Dei  fas  sit  (ICp.  Ixv 
cd    Ilarlel,  II,  T22;  P.  L.,  Ep.  Ixiv,  IV,  389)].     Altare 


was  the  word  most   commonly  used  for  altar,  and 
was  equivalent  to  the  Greek  rpdve^a. 

I.  AIatehial  and  Form. — The  earliest  Christian 
altars  were  of  wood,  and  identical  in  form  with  the 
ordinary  house  tables.  The  tables  represented  in 
tlie  Eucharistic  frescoes  of  the  catacombs  enable  us 
to  obtain  an  idea  of  their  appearance.  The  most 
ancient,  as  well  as  the  most  remarkable,  of  these 
frescoes,  that  of  the  Fractio  Payiis  found  in  the 
Capella  Greca,  which  dates  from  the  first  decades  of 


Fresco  of  Altar  in  St.  Cl 


n't's,  Rome,  XI  Century 


the  second  century,  shows  seven  persons  seated  on 
a  semi-circular  divan  before  a  table  of  the  same 
form.  Tabular-shaped  altars  of  wood  continued  in 
use  till  well  on  in  the  Middle  Ages.  St.  Athanasius 
speaks  of  a  wooden  altar  wliicli  was  burned  by  the 
Count  Heraclius  (Athan.  ad  Mon.,  Ivi),  and  St.  Au- 
gustine relates  that  the  Donatists  tore  apart  a  wootlen 
altar  under  which  the  orthodox  Bishop  Maximiaiius 
had  taken  refuge  (Ep.  clxxxv,  ch.  vii,  P.  L.,  XXXIII, 
805).  The  first  legislation  against  such  altars  dates 
from  the  year  517,  when  the  Council  of  Epaon,  in 
Gaul,  forbade  the  consecration  of  any  but  stone 
Altars  (Mansi,  Coll.  Cone,  VIII,  562).  But  this  pro- 
hibition concerned  only  a  small  part  of  the  Christian 
world,  and  for  several  centuries  afterwards  altars  of 
wood  were  used,  until  the  growing  preference  for 
altars  of  more  durable  material  finally  supplanted 
them.  The  two  table  altars  preserved  in  the  churclies 
of  St.  John  Lateran  and  St.  Pudentiana  are  the  only 
ancient  altars  of  wood  that  have  been  preserved. 
According  to  a  local  tradition,  St.  Peter  offered  the 
Holy  Sacrifice  on  each,  but  the  evidence  for  this  is 
not  convincing.  The  earliest  stone  altars  w'cre  the 
tombs  of  the  martyrs  interred  in  the  Roman  Cata- 
combs. The  practice  of  celebrating  Mass  on  the 
tombs  of  martyrs  can  be  traced  with  a  large  degree 
of  probability  to  the  first  quarter  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Tlie  Fractio  Panis  fresco  of  tlie  Capella  Urcca, 
which  belongs  to  this  period  is  located  in  the  apse 
directly  above  a  small  cavity  which  Wilpert  supposes 
(Fractio  Panis,  18)  to  have  contained  the  relics  of 
a  martyr,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  stone 
covering  this  tomb  ser\-ed  as  an  altar.  But  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Eucharist  on  the  tombs  of  martyrs 
in  the  Catacombs  was,  even  in  the  first  age,  the  ex- 
ception rather  than  the  rule.  (See  Arcosolium.) 
The  regular  Sunday  services  were  held  in  the  jirivate 
houses  which  were  the  churches  of  the  period.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  idea  of  the  stone  altar,  the  use  of  which 
aftenvards  became  universal  in  the  West,  is  evidently 
derived  from  the  custom  of  celebrating  the  aniii\er- 
earies  and  other  fea.sts  in  honour  of  those  who  ilied 
for  tlie  I'aith.  Probably,  the  custom  itself  was  sug- 
gested by  the  pa.ssage  in  the  Apocalypse  (vi,  9)  "  I 
saw  under  the  altar  the  souls  of  them  that  were 
slain  for  tlie  word  of  God."     With  the  age  of  peace. 


ALTAR 


363 


ALTAR 


and  especially  under  the  pontificate  of  Pope  Damasus 
(366-384),  basilicas  ana  cliapels  were  erected  in 
Komo  and  elsewhere  in  honour  of  the  most  famous 
martyrs,  and  the  altars,  when  at  all  possible,  were 
located  directly  above  their  tombs.  The  "Liber 
Poutificalis"      at- 

§1  ■  tributes    to    Pope 

)•  lelix  1  (li69-274) 
^a  a  decree  to  tlie  ef- 
BSj  feet  t  li  a  t  M  a  s  s 
should  be  celebrat- 
ed on  the  tombs 
of  t  li  e  martyrs 
(constituU  supra 
memorias  martyr- 
um  missas  cele- 
brare,  "Lib. 
Pont. ",  cd.  Duch- 
esne,  I,  158). 
However  this  may 
be,  it  is  clear 
from  the  testimony  of  this  authority  that  the  cus- 
tom alluded  to  was  regarded  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  as  very  ancient  (op.  cit.,  loc.  cit.,  note  2). 
For  the  fourtli  century  we  liave  abunilant  testimony, 
literarv'  an<l  monumental.  The  altars  of  the  basilicas 
of  St.  Piter  nnd  St.  Paul,  erected  by  Uonstantine, 
were  dircclly  :ibove  the  Apostles'  tombs.  Speaking 
of  St.  llippolytus,  the  poet  Prudentius  refers  to  the 
altar  above  his  tomb  as  follows: — 

Talibus  Hippolyti  corpus  mandatur  opertis 
Propter  ubi  apposita  est  ara  dicata  Deo. 
Finally,  the  translation  of  the  bodies  of  the  martyrs 
Sts.  Gervasius  anil  Protasius  by  St.  Ambrose  to  the 
Ambrosian  basilica  in  Milan  is  an  e\ndence  that  the 
practice  of  ofTering  the  Holy  Sacrifice  on  the  tombs 
of  martyrs  was  long  cstabhshed.  The  great  venera- 
tion in  which  the  martyrs  were  held  from  the  fourth 
century  had  considerable  influence  in  effecting  two 
changes  of  importance  witli  regard  to  altars.  The 
stone  slab  enclosing  the  martyr's  grave  suggested 
the  stone  altar,  and  the  presence  of  the  martyr's 
relics  beneath  the  altar  W!is  responsible  for  the  tomb- 
like under-structurc  known  as  the  cnnfcssio.  The 
use  of  stone  altars  in  the  East  in  the  fourth  century 
is  attested  by  St.  Gregory  of  Ny.ssa  (p.  G.,  XLVI, 
581)  and  St.  Jolm  Chrj'sostom  (liom.  in  I  Cor.,  xx); 
and  in  the  West,  from  the  sixth  century,  the  senti- 
ment in  favour  of  their  exclusive  use  is  indicated 
by  the  Decree  of  the  Council  of  Kpaon  alludeil  to 
above.  Yet  even  in  the  West  wooden  altars  existed 
as  late  as  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  as  we  infer  from 
a  capitulary  of  tliis  emperor  forbidding  the  celebra- 
tion of  Mass  except  on  stone  tables  consecrated  by 
the  bishop  [in  mensis  tapitlcis  ab  episcopis  conscTratis 
(P.  L.,  XCVn,  124)1.  Irom  the  ninth  century,  how- 
ever, few  traces  of  tne  use  of  wooden  altars  are  found 
in  the  domain  of  Latin  Christianity,  but  the  Greek 
Church,  up  to  the  present  time,  pennits  the  employ- 
ment of  wooil,  stone,  or  metal. 

II.  The  C0NFES.S10. — Martyrs  were  Confe.ssors  of 
the  Faith — Christians  who  "confessed"  Christ  be- 
fore men  at  the  cost  of  their  lives — hence  the  name 
conlexnio  was  applied  to  their  last  resting-place,  when, 
as  liappenetl  frequently  from  the  fourth  century,  an 
altar  was  erected  over  it.  Up  to  the  seventh  cen- 
tury in  Home,  as  we  learn  from  a  letter  of  St.  Gregory 
the  Great  to  the  Empress  Constantia,  a  strong  sen- 
timent against  disturbing  the  bodies  of  the  martyrs 
prevailed.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  erection  of  tlie 
early  Roman  basihcas,  no  matter  wliat  the  obstacles 
encountered,  over  tlic  tombs  of  martyrs;  the  church 
was  brought  to  the  martjT,  not  the  martyr  to  the 
church.  The  altar  in  such  cases  was  placetl  above 
the  tomb  with  which  it  was  brought  into  the  closest 
relation  possible.  In  St.  Peter's,  for  instance,  where 
the  body  of  the  Apostle  was  interred  at  a  consider- 


able depth  below  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  basilica, 
a  vertical  shaft,  similar  to  the  luminaria  in  some  of 
the  catacombs,  was  constructed  between  the  .\ltar 
and  the  sepulchre.  Across  this  shaft,  at  some  di.s- 
tance  froni  each  other,  were  two  perforated  plates, 
called  calaracUv,  on  which  cloths  {branded)  were 
placed  for  a  time,  and  aftenvards  highly  treasured 
as  relics.  Put  the  remains  of  St.  Peter,  and  those 
of  St.  Paul,  were  never  disturbed.  The  tombs  of 
botli  Apostles  were  enclosed  by  Constantino  in  cu- 
bical ca.ses,  each  atiorned  witli  a  gold  cross  (Lib. 
Pont.,  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  170).  From  that  date  to 
tlie  present  time,  except  in  1594,  when  Pope  Clem- 
ent VIII  with  Hellarmine  and  some  other  cardinals 
saw  the  cross  of  Constantine  on  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter, 
the  interior  of  their  tombs  has  been  hidilen  from 
view.  Another  form  of  confessio  was  that  in  which 
tlie  slab  enclosing  the  martyr's  tomb  was  on  a  level 
with  the  floor  of  the  sanctuary  {pre.fbyterium).  As 
the  sanctuary  was  clcvatetl  above  the  floor  of  the 
basilica  tlie  altar  could  tlius  be  placed  immediately 
above  the  tomb,  while  the  people  in  the  body  of 
the  church  couKl  approach  the  confessio  and  tlirough 
a  grating  (Jcnestclla  conlessionis)  obtain  a  view  of 
the  relics.  C)ne  of  the  oest  examples  of  this  form 
of  cfinjcssio  is  seen  at  Rome  in  the  Church  of  San 
Giorgio  in  Velabro,  where  the  ancient  model  is  fol- 
loweil  closely.  A  modified  form  of  the  latter  ((ifth- 
eeiitury)  style  of  confessio  is  tliat  in  the  basilica  of 
San  Alessandro  on  the  Via  Nomentana,  about  seven 
miles  from  Rome.  In  this  case  the  sanctuary  floor 
was  not  elevated  above  tlie  floor  of  the  Basilica,  and 
therefore  the  fenestetta  occupied  the  space  between 
the  floor  and  the  table  of  the  altar,  thus  forming  a 
combination  tomb  and  table  altar.  In  the  fencstcUa 
of  this  altar  there  is  a  square  opening  through  which 
bramlea  could  be  placed  on  the  tomb. 

III.  The  Ciboriu.m. — From  the  fourth  century 
altars  were,  in  many  instances,  covered  by  a  canopy 
supported  on  four  columns,  which  not  only  formed 
a  protection  against  possible  accidents,  but  in  a 
greater  degree  served  as  an  architectural  feature  of 
importance.  This  canopy  was  known  as  the  cibo- 
rium  or  legurium.  The  idea  of  it  may  have  been 
suggested  by  memoriie  such  as  those  which  from  the 
earliest  times  protected  the  graves  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul;  when  the  basilicas  of  these  Apostles  were 
erected,  and  their  tombs  became  altars,  the  api)ro- 
priateness  of  protecting-structures  over  the  tomb- 
altars,  bearing  a  certain  resemblance  to  those  which 
already  existed,  would  naturally  suggest  itself.  How- 
e%er  tliis  may  be,  the  dignified  and  beautifully  or- 
namented ciborium  as  the  central  point  of  the  basilica, 
where  all  religious  functions  were  performed,  was  an 
artistic  necessity.  The  altar  of  the  basilica  was 
simple  in  the  extreme,  and,  consequently,  in  itseli 
too  small  and  insignificant  to  form  a  centre  which 
would  be  in  keeping  with  tlie  remainiler  of  the  sacred 
edifice.  The  ciborium  atimirably  met  this  require- 
ment. The  altars  of  the  basilicas  erected  by  Con- 
stantine at  Rome  were  surmounted  by  ciboria,  one 
of  which,  in  the  Lateran,  was  known  as  a  fastigiitm, 
and  is  described  with  some  (.letail  in  the  "  Liber  Pou- 
tificalis" (I,  p.  172,  and  the  note  of  Duchesne  on  p. 
191).  The  roof  was  of  silver  and  weigheil  2,025 
pounds;  the  columns  were  probably  of  marble  or  of 
porphyry,  like  those  of  St.  Peter's.  On  the  front  of 
the  ciborium  was  a  scene  which  about  this  time  be- 
came a  favourite  subject  with  Christian  artists: 
Christ  enthroned  in  the  midst  of  the  Apostles.  All 
the  figtires  were  five  feet  in  height;  the  statue  of 
Our  Lord  weighed  120  pounils,  iuul  those  of  the 
.\postlcs  ninety  povinds  each.  On  the  opposite  side, 
facing  the  ap.se.  Our  Lonl  was  again  represented 
enthroned,  but  surrounded  by  four  Angels  with 
spears;  a  gooil  itlea  of  the  appearance  of  the  .\ngels 
may  be  had  from  a  mosaic  of  the  same  subject  in 


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the  cluirch  of  Sant'  Ajiollinare  Nuovo,  at  Ravenna. 
The  interior  of  the  Laleran  Cibonum  was  covered 
with  gold,  and  from  the  centre  hung  a  chandeher 
(farus)  "of  purest  gold,  with  fifty  dolphins  of  purest 
gold  weighing  fifty  pounds,  with  chains  weighing 
twenty-five  pounds".     Suspended  from  the  arches 


AiTAR  Canopy 

of  the  ciborium,  or  in  close  proximity  to  the  altar, 
were  "four  crowns  of  purest  gold,  with  twenty  dol- 
pliins,  eacli  fifteen  pounds;  and  before  the  altar  was 
a  chandelier  of  gold,  with  eighty  dolphins,  in  which 
pure  nard  was  burned".  Seven  other  altars  were 
erected  in  the  basilica,  probably  to  receive  the  obla- 
tions; Duchesne  notes  the  coincidence  of  the  number 
of  subsidiary  altars  witli  the  number  of  deacons  in 
the  Roman  Church  (Liber  Pont.,  I,  172,  and  note 
33,  191).  Tliis  splendid  canopy  was  carried  away 
by  .\Iaric  in  410,  but  a  new  ciborium  was  erected  by 
the  Emperor  Valentinian  III  at  the  request  of 
Pope  Sixtus  III  (432-440).  Only  fragments  of  a 
few  of  the  more  ancient  ciboria  have  been  preserved 
to  our  time,  but  the  ciborium  of  Sant'  Apollinare  in 
C'lasse,  Ravenna  (ninth  century),  reproduces  their 
principal  features. 

IV.  Ch.vncel. — In  his  description  of  the  Basilica 
of  Tyre  the  historian  Eusebius  says  (Hist.  Eccl., 
X,  iv)  that  the  altar  was  enclosed  "with  wooden 
lattice-work,  accurately  wrought  with  artistic  carv- 
ing", .so  that  it  might  be  rendered  "inaccessible  to 
the  multitude  ".  Tlic  partition  thus  described,  which 
separated  the  prcshyterium  and  choir  from  the  nave, 
wa.s  tlie  canccUus  or  chancel.  In  a  later  age  the  name 
"chancel"  came  to  be  applied  to  the  presbyterium 
itself.  Portions  of  a  number  of  ancient  chancels 
have  been  found  in  Roman  cliurches,  and  from  re- 
constructions made  with  their  help  by  archa-ologists 
a  good  idea  of  the  early  chancel  may  be  obtained. 
Two  of  these  restored  cliancels,  made  from  fragments 
found  in  the  oratory  of  Equizio  and  in  the  Church 
of  San  Lorenzo,  show  the  style  of  workmanship, 
which  con.sisted  of  geometrical  designs.  Chancels 
were  made  of  wood,  stone,  or  metal. 

V.  TiiK  IcoNOSTASis.— Con.stantino  the  Great,  ac- 
oonling  to  the  "Liber  Pontificalis  ",  erected  in  St. 
Peter's,  in  front  of  the  jirrsbytmum,  six  marble 
columns  adorned  with  vine-traceries.  Whether  these 
colimiim  were  originally  connected  by  an  architrave 


is  uncertain,  but  in  the  time  of  Pope  Sergius  III 
(6S7-7U1)  this  feature  existed.  They  seem  to  have 
served  for  no  special  object,  and  tlierefore  were 
probably  uitended  to  add  dignity  to  tlie  presbyterium. 
In  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection  at  Jerusalem,  also 
erectetl  by  Constantine,  tliere  were  twelve  similar 
columns,  corresponding  with  the  number  of  tlie 
Apostles.  Tlie  iconostasis  of  the  Greek  Church  and 
the  rood-screen  of  Gotliic  churches  are  evidently 
traceable  to  this  ornamental  feature  of  the  two 
fourth-century  basilicas.  The  iconostasis,  like  the 
chancel  in  the  Latin  Church,  separated  the  presby- 
terium from  the  nave.  Its  original  form  was  that 
of  an  open  screen,  but  from  the  eighth  centurj-, 
owing  to  the  reaction  against  iconoclasm,  it  began 
to  assume  its  present  form  of  a  closed  screen  decor- 
ated with  paintings.  A  colonnade  of  six  columns 
(seventli  century)  in  the  Cathedral  of  Torcello  gives  an 
idea  of  the  colonnades  in  tlie  Constantinian  basilicas 
referred  to. 

VI.  The  Dove;  Tabernacle. — During  the  first 
age  of  Christianity  the  faithful  were  allowed,  when 
persecution  was  imminent,  to  reserve  the  Eucharist 
in  their  homes.  (See  Arca.)  This  custom  gradually 
disappeared  in  the  West  about  the  fourth  century. 
The  Sacred  Hosts  for  the  sick  were  then  kept  in 
churches  where  special  receptacles  were  prejiared 
for  them.  Tliese  receptacles  were  either  in  the  form 
of  a  dove  whicli  hung  from  the  roof  of  the  ciborium 
or,  where  a  ciborium  did  not  exist,  of  a  tower  (the 
turris  Eucharistica)  which  was  placed  in  an  armarium. 
In  a  drawing  of  the  Xlll-cent.  altar  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Arras  an  arrangement  is  seen  which  is  evidently 
a  reminiscence  of  the  suspended  dove  in  those  coun- 
tries where  the  ciborium  had  disappeared:  the  Eu- 
charistic  tower  is  suspended  above  the  altar  from  a 
staff  in  the  form  of  a  crosier.  The  more  ordinary 
receptacle  for  this  purpose,  up  to  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  the  armarium  near,  or  an  octagon- 
shaped  tower  placed  on  tlie  Gospel  side  of,  the  altar. 
Tabernacles  of  the  latter  kind  were  generally  of 
stone  or  wood  ;  those  of  the  dove  class  of  some 
precious  metal.  Our  present  form  of  tabernacle 
dates  from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

VH.  Consecration. — No  special  formula  for  the 
consecration  of  altars  was  in  use  in  the  Roman 
Church  before  the  eighth  century  (Duchesne,  Chris- 
tian Worship,  tr.  London,  1903,  403  sqq.).  In  sub- 
stance, however,  what  we  understand  by  consecra- 
tion was  practised  in  the  fourth  century.  This 
original  form  of  consecration  consisted  in  the  solemn 
transfer  of  the  relics  of  a  martyr  to  the  altar  of  a 
newly  erected  church.  The  translation  of  the  bodies 
of  Sts.  Gervasius  and  Protasius,  made  by  St.  Am- 
brose, is  the  firet  recorded  example  of  the  kind.  (See 
Ambrosi.oi  B.\silica.)  But  such  translations  of  the 
mortal  remains  of  martyrs  were  at  this  time,  and  long 
afterwards,  of  rare  occurrence.  Relics,  howe^•er,  by 
which  we  must  understand  objects  from  a  martyr's 
tomb  (the  brandea  mentioned  above),  were  regarded 
with  only  a  less  degree  of  respect  than  the  bodies  of 
the  martyrs  tliemsehes,  and  served  as  it  were  to 
multiply  the  body  of  the  saint  (Duchesne,  op.  cit., 
402,  405).  This  reverence  for  objects  lussociated  with 
a  martyr  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of  entombing  sucli 
relics  beneath  the  altars  of  newly  erected  churches, 
until  it  ultimately  became  the  rule  not  to  dedicate 
a  church  without  them.  An  early  example  of  this 
practice  vv.os  the  dedication  of  the  basilica  Komana 
by  St.  Ambrose  with  piqnora  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
brouglit  from  Rome  (Vita  .\mbros.,  by  Paulinus, 
c.  xxxiii).  St.  Gregory  of  Tours  (Lib.  II,  de  Mirae.,  I, 
P.  L.,  LXXI,  Sis)  mentions  the  dedication  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Julian  in  his  episcopal  city  with  relics 
of  that  saint  and  of  another.  Wlien  relics  of  the 
saints  could  not  be  procured,  consecrated  Hosts  and 
fragments    of    the    Gospels    were    sometimes    used; 


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365 


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conccniinp  the  use  of  Iho  foniior  for  this  purpose 
the  ICiiplisli  Synod  of  Calcluil  (Cclicvtli.C'lit'lsca,  HKi) 
riiacic  ;i  rofiuialiou  (can.  22,  in  Wilkins,  Concilia 
AmkIi:!',  London,  17.37,  I,  HiO;  Mansi,  Coll.  Cone, 
XIV,  '.ih.'i).  lip  to  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century 
in  the  Roman  Church  the  .solemn  celebration  of  Ma.s,s 
was  the  only  form  of  dedication.  If,  however,  it  had 
been  decided  to  place  in  the  altar  the  relics  of  a 
martyr,  this  ceremony  preceded  the  first  solemn 
function  in  the  new  edifice.  Duchesne  points  ovit 
(op.  cit.,  40G)  that  the  liturgical  prayers  of  the 
Gelasian  Sacramentary  recited  for  the  consecration 
of  altars  bear  the  unmistakable  stamp  of  the  funeral 
liturgy;  this  fact  is  evidently  attributable  to  the 
custom  of  entombing  relics,  regarded  as  rci)re.senting 
the  bodies  of  the  saints,  at  the  time  of  dedication. 
The  translation  of  relics  was  a  second  solemn  inter- 
ment of  the  saint's  body,  and  hence  the  liturgical 
Crayers  composed  for  such  occasions  appropriately 
ore  tlie  characteristics  of  the  burial  service.  The 
principal  features  of  the  earliest  form  of  consecration 
:n  the  Roman  Church,  as  given  in  the  Gelasian 
Sacramentary,  are  as  follows:  The  bishop  with  his 
clergy,  chanting  the  litany,  first  proceeded  in 
solemn  proce.ssion  to  the  place  where  tlie  relics  were 
kept.  A  prayer  was  then  chanted  and  the  relics 
were  borne  by  the  bishop  to  the  door  of  the  church, 
and  there  placed  in  the  custody  of  a  priest.  The 
bishop  then  entered  the  church,  accompanied  by  his 
imnic<liale  attendants,  and  after  exorcising  the  water 
and  mixing  with  it  a  few  drops  of  chrism,  he  prejiared 
the  mortar  for  enclosing  the  sepulchre.  With  a 
sponge  he  then  washed  the  table  of  the  altar,  and 
returning  to  the  door  he  sprinkled  the  people  with 
what  remained  of  the  holy  water.  After  this  he  took 
the  relics  and  re-entered  the  church,  followed  by  the 
clergy  and  people  chanting  another  litany.  The 
sepulchre  was  then  anointed  with  chrism,  the  relics 
were  placed  therein,  and  the  tomb  sealed.  The 
ceremony  concluded  with  the  solemn  celebration  of 
Mass  (Duchesne,  op  cit.,  40.5-407).  The  Gallican 
liturgy  of  consecration,  unlike  that  of  Rome,  partook 
of  the  character  of  the  liturgy  for  the  administration 
of  baptism  and  confirmation  r.ather  than  that  of  the 
funeral  liturgy.  "Just  as  the  Christian  is  dedicated 
by  water  and  oil,  by  baptism  and  confirmation,  so 
the  altar  first,  then  the  church,  is  con.secrated  by 
ablution  and  unction"  (Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  407-409). 
In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  attempts  were 
made  by  Frankish  liturgists  to  combine  the  two 
liturgies  of  Rome  and  Gaul;  from  the  result  then 
achieved  has  developed  the  actual  consecration  ritual 
of  the  Western  Church.  In  the  Greek  Church  the 
dedication  of  the  altar  was  a  ceremony  distinct  from 
that  of  the  deposition  of  relics;  the  two  functions  were 
ordinarily  performed  on  different  days.  On  the  first 
day  the  table  of  the  altar  was  placed  on  its  support 
of  colunms  by  the  bishop  in  person.  After  this  he 
proceeded  to  the  consecration  which  consisted  of 
washing  the  table,  first  with  baptismal  wafer  then 
with  wme.  The  altar  was  next  anointed  with  chrism 
and  incensed.  The  following  day  the  relics  were 
placed  in  the  sepulchre  with  the  greatest  solemnity. 
Duchesne  calls  attention  to  the  close  resemblance 
between  the  Gallican  and  the  Ryzantine  liturgy  for 
the  consecration  of  altars  (op.  cit.,  410). 

VIII.  OniEVTATioM. — The  custom  of  praying  with 
faces  turned  towards  the  East  is  probably  as  old  as 
Christianity.  The  earliest  allusion  to  it  in  Christian 
literature  is  in  the  second  book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions  (20fl-2.")0,  probably)  which  prescribes 
that  a  church  should  be  oblong  "with  its  head 
to  the  East".  Tert'.illinn  also  speaks  of  churches 
as  erected  in  "high  and  open  places,  and  facing  the 
light  (.■Vdv.  Valent.,  iii).  The  rea.son  for  this 
practice,  which  dirl  not  originate  with  Christian- 
ity, as  given   by  St.   Gregory   of   Nyssa    (De   Orat. 


Dominic,  V.  G.,  XLIV,  1183),  is  that  the  Orient  is 
the  first  home  of  the  human  race,  the  seat  of  the 
earthly  paradise.  In  the  Middle  Ages  additional 
rc:isons  for  orientation  were  given,  namely,  that  Our 
Lord  from  the  Cross  looked  towards  the  West,  and 
from  the  East  He  shall  come  for  the  Last  Judgment 
(I)urand,  Rationale,  V,  2;  St.  Thomas,  Sutiima 
Theol.,  II-II,  Q.  Ixxxiv,  a.  3).  The  existence  of  the 
custom  among  pagans  is  referred  to  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  who  states  that  their  "most  ancient 
temples  lookeil  towards  the  West,  that  people  might 
be  taught  to  turn  to  the  East  when  facing  the  images" 
(Stromata,  vii,  17,  43).  The  form  of  orientation 
which  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  generally  adopted  con- 
sisted in  placing  the  apse  and  altar  in  the  Eastern  end 
of  the  basilica,  A  .system  of  orientation  exactly  the 
opposite  of  this  was  adopted  in  the  basilicas  of  the 
age  of  Constantino.  The  Lateran,  St.  Peter's,  St. 
Paul's,  and  .San  Lorenzo  in  Rome,  as  well  as  the 
Basilicas  of  Tyre  and  Antioch  and  the  Church  of  the 
Resurrection  at  Jcru.salem,  had  their  apses  facing 
the  West.  Thus,  in  these  cases  the  bishop  from  his 
throne  in  the  apse  looked  towards  the  East.  At 
Rome  the  second  Basilica  of  St.  Paul,  erected  in 
3S'J,  and  the  B;isilica  of  San  Pietro  in  V'incoli,  erected 
probably  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century, 
reversed  this  order  and  complied  with  the  rule.  The 
Eastern  apse  is  the  rule  also  in  the  churches  of 
Ravenna,  and  generally  throughout  the  Ea.st. 
Whether  this  form  of  orientation  exercised  any  in- 
fluence on  the  change  of  the  celebrant  from  the  back 
to  the  front  of  the  altar  cannot  well  be  determined; 
but  at  all  events  this  custom  gradually  supplanted 
the  older  one,  and  it  became  the  rule  for  both  priest 
and  people  to  look  in  the  same  direction,  namely, 
towards  the  East  (Mabillon,  Mus;eum  Italicum, 
ii,  9).  Strict  adherence  to  either  form  of  orientation 
was,  necessarily,  in  many  instances  impossible;  the 
direction  of  streets  in  cities  naturally  governed  the 
position  of  churches.  Some  of  the  most  ancient 
churches  of  Rome  are  directed  towards  various 
points  of  the  compass. 

IX.  Ancient  and  Medieval  Alt.vrs. — Few  an- 
cient altars  have  survived  the  ravages  of  time. 
Probably  the  oldest  of  these  is  the  fifth-century  altar 
discovered  at  Auriol,  near  Marseilles.  The  stone 
table,  on  the  front  of  which  the  monogram  of  Christ, 
with  twelve  doves,  is  engraved,  rests  on  a  single 
column.  Similar  in  construction  to  this  are  three 
altars  in  the  confexxio  of  the  Church  of  St.  Ca'cilia 
in  Rome,  which  are  attributed  to  the  ninth  century. 
In  two  sixth-century  mosaics,  of  San  Vitale  and 
Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna,  two  table 
altars  of  wood,  resting  on  four  feet,  are  represented. 
They  are  covered  by  a  long  cloth  which  completely 
hides  the  tables.  Enlart  regards  it  as  probable  that 
the  tables  enclosed  in  the  altars  of  the  Lateran  and 
Santa  Pudenziana  are  similar  in  appearance  (Manuel 
d'arch<5ol.  FranQaise,  I,  Archit.  Relig. ,  note  1). 
Altars  of  the  tomb  type,  like  the  sarcophagi  of  the 
Constantinian  epoch,  offered  a  surface  the  front  of 
which  wiis  well  adapted  to  sculptured  decoration. 
The  earliest  existing  example  of  an  altar  witli  a 
carved  antepcndium,  however,  in  the  Church  of 
Cividale,  dales  from  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century.  Our  Lord  is  here  represented  in  the  centre 
of  the  antependium,  accompanied  by  angels,  while 
the  hand  of  the  Father  apjicars  above  His  head. 
Of  greater  interest  is  the  antependium,  as  well  as 
the  side  panels,  of  the  altar  of  the  Ambrosian  basilica 
in  Milan.  The  front,  over  seven  feet  in  length,  is  of 
gold,  the  back  and  sides  of  silver.  Both  front  and 
back  are  panelled  into  three  compartments,  in  which 
reliefs  from  the  life  of  Christ  and  St.  Ambrose  are 
represented.  The  subjects  of  the  central  panel  'of 
the  front  are  a  Greek  cross,  in  the  centre  of  which 
Our  Lord  is  represented;  in  the  arms  of  the  cross  are 


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866 


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the  symbols  of  the  four  Evangelists,  while  the  re- 
maining spaces  contain  representations  of  the  Apos- 
tles. Crosses  are  represented  on  the  ends  also,  with 
angels  in  various  attitudes.  The  famous  reredos  of 
St.  Mark's,  Venice,  known  as  the  Pala  d'oro,  which 
dates  from  the 
tenth  century,  was 
originally  an  an- 
tependium.  T  o 
the  following 
(eleventh)  century 
belongs  the  splen- 
did golden  ante- 
pendium  presented 
to  the  Cathedral  of 
Basle  by  the  Em- 
FocND  AT  Peror  Henry  II, 
France  now  in  the  Musee 
de  Cluny  at  Paris. 
In  five  column  arcades  the  figures  of  Our  Lord,  the 
Archangels  Gabriel,  Raphael,  and  Michael,  and  St. 
Benedict  are  represented.  Such  costly  antependia  as 
these  were  of  course  rare;  the  material  more  com- 
monly used  was  wood,  with  representations  of  Christ 
or  saints.  A  painted  wooden  panel,  arcaded  ina  man- 
ner very  similar  to  the  antependiura  of  Basle,  is  pre- 
served "in  the  episcopal  museum  of  Miinster  in  West- 
phalia. It  dates  from  the  twelfth  centurj'.  Down  to 
the  tenth  century  the  ciborium  was  in  general  use  as  a 
protection  and  ornamental  feature  of  altars.  The 
ciborium  of  Sant'  ApoUinare  in  Classe,  Ravenna,  which 
belongs  to  the  early  ninth  century,  is,  as  noted  abo\-e, 
essentially  tlie  same  as  tliose  of  the  earlier  period. 
After  the" tenth  century,  however,  except  in  Italy  and 
the  Orient,  where  ciboria  were  always  in  favour, 
(Enlart,  Manuel  d'arch6ologie  frangaise,  i,  742), 
they  were  rarely  employed.  The  best  example  of  a 
ciborium  of  the  early  Gothic  period  is  in  the  Church 
of  Our  Lady  of  Halberstadt,  Germany;  two  other 
Gothic  ciboria  are  in  the  cathedrals  of  Ratisbon  and 
Vienna.  In  Italy  numerous  medieval  ciboria  still 
exist.  The  early  types  of  Christian  altar,  unlike 
those  most  in  vogue  during  the  Middle  Ages,  had  no 
superstructure.  So  long,  indeed,  as  the  bishop's 
throne  occupied  the  centre  of  the  apse  a  reredos 
(retabidum) ,  which  would  conceal  the  bishop  from 
the  congregation,  would  have  been  impracticable. 
By  degrees,  as  we  have  seen,  the  c\istom  was  intro- 
duced, with  the  general  adoption  of  the  Eastern  apse, 
of  tlie  celebrant  facing  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
congregation,  and  it  became  possible  to  introduce  an 
ornamental  panel  at  the  back  of  the  altar  similar  to 
the  antependium.  Probably  the  custom  of  exposing 
relics  on  the  altar,  approved  by  Pope  Leo  IV  (P.  L. , 
CXV,  677),  exercised  some  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  reredos,  and  the  antependium  naturally 
suggested  its  form.  The  reredos  was  introduced 
about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  centurj-.  The 
oldest  existing  example  of  it  is  the  Pala  d'oro  of 
St.  .Mark's,  Venice,  which,  after  reconstruction,  was 
detached  from  the  front  and  placed  at  the  back  of 
the  altar  by  the  Doge  Ordefalo  Faliero,  in  1 105.  The 
Church  of  Kloster-.\eviburg,  near  Vienna,  also  con- 
tains a  beautiful  example  of  a  twelfth-century 
reredos,  with  representations  from  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament.  The  reredos  of  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  cent\iries  was  only  moderately  elevated 
wlien  compared  with  the  style  which  found  favour 
in  the  late  Gothic  and  Renaissance  periods.  The 
practice  of  exhibiting  relics  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
authorized  in  the  ninth  centin-y,  but  not  before  the 
thirteenth  century  were  reliquaries  permanently  kept 
on,  or  more  frequently  l)ehind,  the  altar.  In  the 
latter  case  a  platform  was  specially  con.structcd  for 
the  purpose.  In  some  instances  the  reliquaries  formed 
part  of  the  reredos.  but  the  more  common  arrange- 
ment was  to  place  them  on  a  platform.     This  practice 


of  permanently  exposing  relics  behind  the  altar  in- 
fluenced certain  other  changes  of  importance  with 
regard  to  the  ciborium  and  tlie  confcssio.  The  latter 
feature  now  disappeared;  there  was  no  longer  a  rea- 
son for  its  existence,  since  the  relics  were  provided 
with  a  new  location;  and  the  ciborium  was  modified 
into  a  haldacchino  elevated  above  the  relifpiary  back 
of  the  altar.  An  example  of  this  arrangement,  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  may  be  seen  in  the  chapel  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Denis,  Paris. 
At  first  only  the  altar  of  relics,  usually  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  apse,  was  provided  with  a  reredos,  but  in 
the  course  of  the  fourteenth  centurj"-  the  main  altar 
also  was  similarly  provided.  The  comparative  sim- 
plicity of  the  early  reredos  gradually  j'ielded,  in  tlie 
course  of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  to  the  prevalent  taste  for  richness  of  adorn- 
ment, and  reliquaries  became  of  secondary  considera- 
tion. The  reredos  now  became  a  great  structure, 
reaching  in  many  instances  to  the  vault  of  the 
church,   containing   life-sized  statues   of  Our  Lord, 


Altar  formerly  placed   in  Abbey  Church  of  St. 
Denis,  Paris,  XI  Century 

the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  saints,  besides  a  number 
of  representations  in  relief  of  sacred  subjects.  This 
structure  was  usually  of  wood,  carved  or  painted.  It 
was  connected  with  the  altar  by  means  of  a  predella, 
or  altar-step,  similar  to  the  predella  of  modern  altars, 
for  candelabra,  on  which  the  Apostles  or  other  saints 
were  depicted.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  influence  of  the  Renaissance  effected  an- 
other change  in  the  form  of  the  altar.  Porticoes, 
modelled  after  the  triumphal  arches  of  antiquity, 
with  statues  in  high  and  low  relief,  took  the  place  of 
the  reredos,  and  more  costly  materials,  such  as  rare 
marbles,  were  emploj'ed  in  their  construction.  In 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  especially, 
altars  of  the  Renaissance  style  became  surcharged 
with  ornamentation,  often  in  bad  taste  and  of  in- 
ferior materials. 

Lowrie.  Monummta  of  the  Early  Church  (New  York,  1901); 
Nesbitt  in  Dictionan/  of  Christian  Antiquities  (Lontlon,  1S75- 
80)  8.  v.;  Rock,  flierur/iia  (Ix)niion,  1892);  Enlart,  Archt'oloaie 
jranfaise  (Paris,  1902).  I;  Redsens,  Archeohffie  chri-timnc 
(Paris,  1890);  Kraus,  Renl-EncuklopSdie  dtr  chriMlichcn  Al- 
thcrthumer  (FreiburK.  1882),  I.  34-42:  Realcnriikloplidir  far 
I'rot.  Thrologie  u.  Kirche  (Leipzig.  1896),  I,  391-404;  Probst 
in  Kirehenlei.  (Freiburg.  1882),  I.  ,584-594:  SrMMin.  Der 
ehritllu-he  Altar  u.  srin  Schmuck  (Itati.-ihon.  18711;  MCnzen- 
iiERGEit,    Zur   Kennlniaa    u.  Wiirdiffung    dcr    mittelalterlirhen 


ALTAR 


361 


AlUre  DruUchlandt  (Frankfurt,  1885):  Fledht,  La  Mrue 
(I'uris);  Tiiierh,  /,.«  principaus  a ute(»  ( Paris,  1888);  Corbllt, 
Uitlvirr  de  fEucharitlie   (Paris,    1885). 

Mauuice  M.  Hassett. 

Altai,  PonTAni.K;  Puivileged.     See  Altar. 

Altar,  SiHiri'iNi;  dk  the.     See  Holy  Week. 

Altar  of  the  Rood.     Sec  Holy  Kood. 

Altar-Cover.     See  .\ltar;  .\ltau-Piiotector. 

Altar -Herse.     See  Altar-Caxopv. 

Altar-Thane.     See  Altar. 

Alteserra,  .Vntonjo.     See  Hai'teserre. 

Altmann,  Ble.s.skd,  (he  frieiKl  of  Gregory  VII 
and  .Viisehn,  conspicuous  in  the  contest  of  tlic 
tiuelph.s  and  Cihibellincs,  iis  Bishop  of  l'!i.s.siiu  and 
Papal  Legate.  He  was  born  at  Patlerborn  about 
tlie  beginning  of  the  eleventh  centurj',  presided  over 
tlie  .scliool  there,  was  chaplain  at  the  court  of  Henry 
III,  and  then  became  Bishop  of  Passau.  The 
Hollandists  find  that,  because  of  these  successive 
occupations,  it  is  impossible  to  make  liini  out  a 
lienedictine  monk.  As  a  bishop  lie  was  famous  for 
his  care  of  the  poor,  his  vigour  in  the  reformation 
of  relaxed  mon".stcries,  the  building  of  new  ones, 
and  the  splendour  with  wliich  he  invested  divine 
worship— Henry  IV  liimself  contributing  lavishly 
to  enrich  the  church  of  Passau,  chiefly  through  the 
intervention  of  the  Empresses  .\gnes  and  Bertha, 
his  wife  and  mother— and  finally  for  the  opposition 
which  he  aroused  in  enforcing  Grcgorj-'s  decree  of 
celibacy  of  the  clergy.  With  the  help  of  Henry  the 
recalcitrants  succeeded  in  driving  him  from  his  sec. 
He  was  recalled,  however,  sliortly  after  the  death 
of  Hermann  the  intruder,  at  who.se  death-bed  lie  is 
said  to  have  appeared.  Hermann  l)egged  for  abso- 
lution,, and  asked  not  to  be  buried  as  a  bishop. 
Altmann's  second  possession  of  his  see  lasted  only 
a  short  time.  He  was  again  expelled,  and  died  in 
exile  ten  years  after.  He  was  one  of  the  four  South 
German  bishops  who  sided  with  Gregory,  and  defied 
Henry,  in  refusing  to  take  part  in  the  Diet  of  Worms 
to  depose  the  Pope. 

Acta  SS..  II,  August;  Barisg-Godld,  Lives  o1  the  Sainlt, 
8  August  (London,   1872). 

T.  J.  CAMPBELL. 

Alto,  Saint,  recluse  and  missionary  in  Bavaria, 
c.  7.30.  Alto  has  been  variously  described  as  an 
-\ngIo-Saxon  and  an  Irishman  (Scolus),  but  the 
name  Alt  is  undoubtedly  Irish.  We  know  little  of  his 
life  except  the  broad  facts  that  he  hved  for  some 
time  as  a  liermit,  reclaiming  the  wild  forest-land 
around  him,  and  that  he  afterwards  founded  a 
Benedictine  monastery  in  this  spot,  now  called 
Altomiinster,  in  the  Dioce.se  of  rreising.  having 
previiiusly  obtained  a  grant  of  land  from  King  Pepin. 
>it.  Boniface  is  said  to  have  come  to  dedicate  the 
church  about  tlie  year  750.  .\  charter  still  exists 
bearing  the  subscription  Alto  rcclauxus  [Hauck. 
Kirclicngcschichte  Deutschlands  (1904),  I,  541], 
which  probably  dates  back  to  Alto's  hermit  days. 
We  do  not  know  the  year  of  his  death,  but  he  is 
<'onimemorated  on  9  February.  The  monastery  of 
.Mtoniuiister  suffered  much  from  the  Huns  anil  the 
depredations  of  the  tyrannical  nobles,  but  about  the 
^•car  1000  it  was  restored  again  as  a  Benedictine 
nionastcPi'.  Later  it  was  tenanted  by  Benedictine 
nuns  and  these  at  the  enil  of  the  fifteenth  century 
gave  place  to  a  community  of  Brigittines,  in  whose 
hands  it  still  remains  despite  many  vicissitudes. 

The  only  sketch  of  .^Ito'."*  life  pre.'*er^'e<i  to  us  is  a  docu- 
ment of  the  eleventh  century,  prinlod  in  the  Acta  SS.,  II,  Feh., 
and  in  Man.  (Jrrm.  Scriut.,  XV.  8«;  Maci.kar  in  Dirt.  Chritl. 
Biog..  Sachs  in  Kirchenlez.;  Hi.ndkr.  (jrnrhirhle  tier  bayerischcn 
Briaiilm-KlostcT  (Ilatisbon,  189tj).  L'4U-345. 

Herbert  Thursto.n. 

Alton,  The  Diocese  of.  includes  that  part  of 
Illinois   lying  south  of  the  northern  limits  of   the 


coimties  of  Adams,  Brown,  Cass,  Menard,  Sangamon, 
Macon,  Moultrie,  Douglas,  and  Edgar,  and  north  of 
the  .southern  limits  of  the  counties  of  .Madi.son,  Bond, 
Fayette,  lCtiiiigli;im,  Jasper,  and  Crawford.  It  was 
created  29  July,  1.S.53,  by  the  division  of  the  Diocese 
of  Chicago,  then  embracing  the  whole  state  of  Illinois. 
Tlie  new  see  wa.s  first  located  at  Quincy,  but  was 
transferred.  9  January,  1857,  to  Alton.  Its  Cierman 
Catholic  population  came  largely  from  Cincinnati 
and  settletl  at  (Quincy,  Teutopolis,  and  Germantown. 
Swiss  Catholics  founded  Highland,  and  Alsatians 
.Sainle  Marie.  The  building  of  railroads  brought 
Irish  Catholics  in  growing  numbers.  Caliokia,  Kas- 
kaskia.and  Prairie  du  Hoclier,  which  now  Ix'long  to 
the  Diocese  of  Belleville,  had  been  settled  by  French 
Catholics  at  an  earlier  jieriod.  Prominent  among 
the  lay  Catholics  of  the  early  period  were  Peter  and 
Sebastian  Wise  of  Alton,  Mr.  Slicplierd  of  Jer.sey- 
ville,  .Mr.  Pict|uet  of  Sainte  Marie,  Charles  Koiitt  and 
his  nephew  of  Jacksonville.  Fathers  Ostrop,  Hinsen, 
and  Hickey  were  energetic  missionaries. 

Bishops. — Henry  Dainian  Juncker  (1857-68), 
b.  22  .\ugust,  1809,  at  Fenestrange,  in  German  Lor- 
raine; d.  at  Alton,  2  October,  18C8,  attended  the 
Pont-;\-Mousson  Seminary,  but  emigrated  to  Cin- 
cinnati, where  he  found  an  opiX)rtunity  of  continuing 
his  studies  in  view  of  the  priesthood  to  which  he  was 
raised.  16  March,  1836,  by  Bishop  Purcell.  He 
filled  several  charges  in  Ohio  previous  to  his  con- 
secration, at  Cincinnati  Cathearal,  26  April,  1857, 
by  Archbishop  Purcell.  At  .'Mton  the  bishop  found 
before  him  58  churches,  five  in  course  of  erection; 
30  stations  visited  by  28  priests;  six  young  men 
studying  for  the  ministry;  two  female  academies,  and 
a  population  of  about  50,000.  This  population  was 
made  up  of  old  French  settlers,  some  Kentuckians. 
but  especially  of  Irish  immigrants  driven  away  from 
their  country  by  famine,  and  Germans,  by  political 
disturbances.  In  Illinois  they  were  finding  fertile 
prairies  to  till,  and  railroads  to  build.  Thus  they 
enhanced  the  prosperity  of  the  State,  hitherto  only 
partly  cultivated,  and  depending  on  the  rivers  and 
county  roads  for  its  means  of  communication.  The 
non-Catholic  population  was  not  particularly  hostile. 
Priests  were  very  scarce,  and  vocations  to  the  miiiistrj' 
very  limited.  In  such  an  emergency  the  Bishop 
could  only  look  up  to  Europe  for  help.  In  the  fall 
of  the  same  vear  he  crossed  the  ocean  and  secured 
followers  in  Vrance,  Rome,  Germanj',  and  Ireland. 
After  his  return,  he  enlarged  his  cathedral,  erected 
the  present  Bishop's  House,  encouraged  the  build- 
ing of  churches,  schools,  convents,  and  academics. 
He  attended  the  Second  Plenarj-  Council  and  weM 
to  Rome  (1807)  for  the  Centenarj-  of  the  Holy  Apos- 
tles. His  suljsequent  mi.ssionary  labours  brought 
on  a  severe  sickness,  which  proved  fatal.  He  was 
buried  in  a  vault  under  his  cathedral.  He  was  suc- 
ccedcfl  by  one  of  his  vicars-general,  the  Verj-  Rev. 
Peter  Joseph  Baltes  (1869-86),  elected  24  Septem- 
ber, 1809,  and  consecrated  23  Januarj',  1870,  in  the 
present  Belleville  Cathedral  (built  by  him),  by 
Bishop  I.uers,  of  Fort  Wayne,  while  the  Vatican 
Council  was  in  session.  He  was  born  7  April,  1820, 
in  Ensheim,  Rhenish  Bavaria.  .\t  the  age  of  six 
years  he  emigrated  with  his  parents  to  Oswego, 
\.  V.  He  attended  school  at  Holj'  Cross  College, 
Worcester,  Ma.ss.;  St.  Marj-'s  of  the  Lake,  Chicago; 
and  the  Grand  Seminarj'  of  .Montreal,  where  he  le- 
ceived  ordination,  21  May,  18.53.  His  missioncry 
charges  were  Waterloo  and  Belleville.  At  the  time 
of  the  .Second  Plenarj-  Council  of  Baltimore  (1866) 
he  was  made  vicar-general,  antl  theologian  to  Bishop 
Juncker.  Bishop  Baltes  soon  made  himself  felt  by 
the  indomitable  encrgj-  with  which  he  introduced 
order  and  uniformity  in  matters  of  liturgj-  and  dis- 
cipline. Under  his  administration  was  enacted  the 
sixjcial  law  under  which  most  of  the  church  property 


ALTOONA 


368 


ALTOONA 


is  held  in  Southern  Illinois.  The  burning,  in  the 
early  part  of  1884,  of  the  convent  built  by  him 
while  in  Belleville,  in  which  twenty-seven  lives  were 
lost,  proved  a  severe  shock  to  his  constitution. 
Sickness  prevented  him  from  attending  the  Third 
Plenary  Council.  He  lingered  for  several  months, 
going  to  his  reward  15  February,  1886.  He  was 
buried  side  by  side  with  his  predecessor.  After  a 
vacancy  of  more  than  two  years,  the  Rev.  James 
Ryan,  then  rector  of  St.  Columba's  church, 
Ottawa,  in  tlie  diocese  of  Peoria,  was  appointed, 
27  February,  1888.  At  the  same  time  the  diocese 
was  divided,  the  soutliern  half  being  made  into  the 
new  diocese  of  Belle\-ille.  Bishop  Ryan  was  born  near 
Thurles,  Ireland,  17  June,  1848.  When  seven  years 
old,  he  emigrated  with  his  parents  to  Louisville,  Ky., 
studied  at  St.  Thomas's  and  St.  Joseph's  Colleges, 
Bardstown,  in  that  State,  finished  his  studies  at  Pres- 
ton Park  Seminarj',  Louisville,  and  was  ordained,  24 
December,  1871.  Altera  few  years  of  mission  labours 
and  teaching,  he  followed  Bishop  Spalding  to  Peoria, 
laboured  on  several  missions  and  built  a  number 
of  churches.  He  was  consecrated,  1  May,  1888,  at 
the  Alton  Cathedral,  by  Bishop  Spalding.  He  held 
the  first  synod  of  tlJe  Alton  Diocese,  27  Februarj', 
18S9. 

St.\tistics. — At  present  (1906)  the  diocese  num- 
bers 119  diocesan  priests,  35  religious,  428  sisters, 
143  parishes,  65  parochial  schools,  with  9,000  pupils, 
2  asylums,  witli  110  children,  9  hospitals,  2  prepara- 
tory seminaries,  with  330  students,  23  theological 
students,  2  colleges,  3  academies,  with  380  students. 
Of  late  j'ears  many  immigrants,  Italians,  Poles, 
Slavonians,  and  Lithuanians  have  come  to  the  dio- 
cese, working  in  the  coal  mines  that  are  everywhere 
opening,  and  taxing  the  energy  of  several  of  the 
clergy  to  their  utmost  capacity.  The  population 
of  the  diocese  is  751,107,  of  which  number  75,000 
are  Catholics. 

Shea,  H-Ut.  Cath.  Ch.  in  U.  S.,  IV;  Golden  Jubilee  of  St. 
Boniface's  Church  (Quincv);  Silver  Jubilee  of  Highland;  New 
World,  Christmas  erf.  (Chicago,  1900). 

F.  H.  Z.\BEL. 

Altoona,  Diocese  of,  a  suffragan  see  of  the 
province  of  Pliiladelphia.  The  city  of  Altoona  is 
situated  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Alleghany  moun- 
tains, almost  midway  between  Harrisburg  and  Pitts- 
burgh, and  at  an  elevation  of  1,175  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  name  is  undoubtedly  of  Indian  origin, 
being  formed  from  the  Cherokee  word  AUatoona, 
which  signifies  high  land  of  great  worth.  It  is  a 
little  over  fifty  years  old,  and  is  mainly  the  creation 
of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  whose  vast  workshops, 
employing  about  fourteen  thousand  men,  are  located 
there.  The  population  of  the  city  of  Altoona  is 
(1906)  sixty  thousand,  about  one-fourth  of  which  is 
Catholic.  There  are  in  the  city  four  large  Catholic 
churches  with  flourishing  parish  schools.  St.  John's 
Church  is  used  as  the  pro-cathedral. 

The  Diocese  of  Altoona  was  established  May,  1901. 
It  comprises  the  counties  of  Cambria,  Blair,  Bedford, 
Hvuitingdon,  and  Somerset,  taken  from  the  Diocese 
of  Pittsburgh,  and  the  counties  of  Centre,  Clinton, 
and  Fulton  taken  from  the  Diocese  of  Harrisburg. 
The  area  of  the  diocese  is  6,710  square  miles.  Its 
Catholic  population  (1906),  of  which  a  considerable 
portion  is  made  up  of  various  foreign  nationalities 
employed  in  the  mining  districts  and  the  manufac- 
turing town  of  Johnstown,  is  about  60,000.  Within 
its  narrow  limits  is  the  very  cradle  of  the  Catholic 
Churt'h  in  middle  and  western  Pennsylvania.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  last  century  the  whole  ter- 
ritory was  part  of  the  extensive  parish  of  the 
famous  Russian  convert,  the  prince-pne.st,  Demetrius 
(lallitzin  (().  v.).  This  devoted  missionary  founded 
the  mi.ssion  of  Lorctto  in  Cambria  Comity,  Pa., 
and  made  his  home  there.     He  expended  liis  vast 


fortune  in  the  interests  of  religion.  He  reached 
Loretto  as  early  as  July,  1799,  and  died  there  6  May, 
1840.  A  beautiful  memorial  church  erected  by 
Charles  M.  Schwab  marks  the  lasting  esteem  in 
which  this  distinguished  man  and  noted  missionary 
is  held.  It  was  Father  Gallitzin's  wish  and  prayer 
that  Loretto  should  become  a  bishop's  see.  As 
early  as  1820  he  wrote  to  Archbishop  JIarechal: 
"Several  years  ago  I  formed  a  plan  for  tlie  good  of 
religion,  for  the  success  of  \\hich  I  desire  to  employ 
all  tlie  means  at  my  disposal  when  the  remainder 
of  my  debts  are  paid.  It  is  to  form  a  diocese  for  the 
western  part  of  Pennsylvania.  What  a  consolation 
for  me  if  I  might,  before  I  die,  see  this  plan  carried 
out,  and  Loretto  made  an  episcopal  see,  where  the 
bishop,  by  means  of  the  lands  attached  to  the 
bishopric,  which  are  very  fertile,  would  be  independ- 
ent, and  where,  with  very  little  expense,  could  be 
erected  college,  seminary,  and  all  that  is  required 
for  an  episcopal  establishment."  He  adds  that  "no 
bishop  has  ever  penetrated  to  the  distant  missions 
of  Western  Pennsylvania.  There  are  many  missions 
which  have  never  seen  a  bishop  and  never  will,  at 
least  until  a  bishop  is  establi.shed  on  the  mountains, 
and  one  willing  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  this  charge, 
even  at  his  own  expense,  without  waiting  for  other 
recompense  than  that  which  comes  from  above." 
The  prince-priest's  hopes  were  ne\'er  realized,  though 
an  effort  was  made  when  the  present  diocese  was 
talked  of,  to  have  the  see  at  Loretto  rather  than  at 
Altoona. 

Among  the  many  pioneer  priests  who  have  laboured 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  diocese  may  be  men- 
tioned Father  James  Bradley,  of  Newry,  who  lived  to 
celebrate  his  golden  jubilee  in  the  priesthood;  Fatlier 
Thomas  Hayden,  of  Bedford;  Father  Lemke,  who  was 
a  Prussian  soldier  and  a  convert  from  Lutheranism; 
Father  John  Walshe,  of  Hollidaysburg.  Father 
Lemke  founded  the  mission  and  village  of  Carroll- 
town,  where  at  present  there  is  a  Benedictine  priory. 
Among  the  Catholic  laymen  of  early  days  is  a  family 
of  tlie  Luthers  who  are  said  to  be  direct  descendants 
of  Martin  Luther  and  who  have  given  more  than  one 
member  to  the  priesthood.  The  Collins  family  has 
also  been  prominent  in  advancing  the  interests  of 
religion. 

Next  to  Loretto  in  historical  importance  is  Carroll- 
town,  founded  in  1839,  and  named  after  Archbishop 
Carroll,  the  first  American  bishop.  It  is  said  that  a 
colony  of  French  Trappist  monks  sought  to  estab- 
lish a  house  of  their  order  there  about  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century.  Driven  from  France  during  the 
revolution  of  1791,  a  number  of  the  monks  found  a 
temporary  home  in  Switzerland,  where  they  remained 
until  the  influence  of  the  French  go\ernment  began 
to  be  felt  in  that  country  in  1798,  when  they  were 
again  forced  to  flee.  They  passed  into  Russia,  and 
soon  after  into  Prussia,  and  finally  turned  their 
faces  towards  the  New  World  under  the  guidance 
of  Father  Urban  Guillet.  The  little  party  landed 
in  Baltimore,  4  September,  1803,  and  went  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  future  CarroUtown,  but  failing  to 
make  a  foundation  there,  they  next  proceeded  to 
Adams  County,  Pa.,  and,  leaving  that  place  also, 
they  went  further  west,  finally  settling  down  at 
Florissant,  Mo.  The  first  settler  near  CarroUtown 
was  John  Weakland,  one  of  the  most  powerful  and 
daring  of  men,  and  the  most  famous  Catholic  pio- 
neer of  Western  Pennsylvania.  About  the  year 
1830  he  donated  four  acres  of  ground  for  the  site  of 
a  church,  and  under  the  direction  of  Father  Callitzin 
a  log  church  was  built,  and  dedicated  to  St.  Joseph. 
Bishop  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick  visited  this  church 
and  administered  confirmation  there  16  October,  1832. 
The  first  bishop  of  Altoona.  the  Ut.  Hev.  I'.ugeno 
A.  C.arvey,  was  consecrated  in  St.  Peter's  Cathedral, 
Scranton,  Pa.,  8  September,  1901,  and  was  installed 


ALTRUISM 


369 


ALTRUISM 


in  St.  John's  Pro-Cathedral,  Altoona,  24  Soptombor. 
There  has  been  a  steady  growth  of  the  Catholic 
population,  especially  from  immigration.  Almost 
every  nationality  is  rcprosontcil;  Slavs  and  Italians 
predominate  in  the  mining  districts.  There  are  some 
scattered  Greek  and  Syrian  Catholics  within  the 
limits  of  the  diocese,  who  are  visited  occasionally 
by  priests  of  their  own  nationality.  The  dioce.se 
is  amply  supplied  with  priests,  and  almost  every 
parish  luvs  its  school.  The  relations  of  the  Catholic 
with  the  non-Catliolic  body  are  all  that  could  be 
desired,  the  good  influence  of  the  early  Catholic 
settlers  having  done  much  to  disarm  prejudice. 
Catholics  are  well  represented  in  the  social,  business, 
and  professional   life  of  the  commimity. 

In  the  diocese  there  are  seventy-four  secular  priests 
and  sixteen  regulars;  with  forty  lay  brothers,  members 
of  religious  communities;  about  three  hundred  mem- 
bers of  the  various  sisterhoods,  chiclly  engaged  in 
teaching;  and  thirty  parish  schools  educating  seven 
thousand  children.  The  Franciscan  Brothers  con- 
duct a  college  at  Loretto,  with  an  average  attend- 
ance of  about  one  hundred  students;  the  .Sisters  of 
Mercy  liavo  a  flourishing  academy  at  Cresson,  with 
about  the  same  number  of  young  ladies.  There  is 
a  children's  home  at  Ebensburg,  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  with  about  seventy-five  in- 
mates. 

SiiEEDT,  The  OuarfeWv  (.Mtoonn).  October,  1901,  VII,  203; 
Idkm, '/'Ae  Ofcscrwr.  I'ittsliurgh.  25  Kebruary.  1904;  L.vmbino, 
Hialoru  of  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburgh   (New  York.    1880). 

Morgan  M.  Shekov. 

Altruism,  a  term  formed  by  Augustc  Comte  in 
18.')1,  on  the  Italian  adjective  allrui,  and  employed 
by  him  to  denote  the  benevolent,  jus  contrasted  with 
the  selfish  propensities.  It  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
lish by  George  H.  Lewes  in  1853  (Corate's  Philosophy 
of  the  Sciences,  1,  xxi),  and  popularized  thereafter 
by  expounders  and  advocates  of  Comte's  philosophy. 
Though  used  primarily,  in  a  psychological  sense,  to 
designate  emotions  of  a  reflective  kind,  the  immedi- 
ate consequences  of  which  are  beneficial  to  others, 
its  important  significance  is  ethical.  As  such  it  de- 
fines a  theory  of  conduct  by  which  only  actions  hav- 
ing for  their  object  the  happiness  of  others  pos-sess  a 
moral  value.  Anticipations  of  this  doctrine  are  found 
in  Cumberland's  "  De  Logibus  Natura;"  (1672),  and 
in  Shaftesbury's  "Inquiry  concerning  Virtue  and 
Merit"  (1711).  Comte,  however,  is  tlic  founder  of 
the  Social  Eud;pmonism,  based  on  Positivism,  to 
which  the  name  of  .\ltruism  is  given.  Comte's  sys- 
tem is  both  ethical  and  religious.  Not  only  is  the 
happiness  to  be  found  in  living  for  others  the  su- 
preme end  of  conduct,  but  a  disinterested  devotion 
to  Humanity  as  a  whole  is  the  highest  form  of  relig- 
ious service.  His  ethical  theory  may  be  epitomized 
in  the  following  propositions.  (1)  The  dominion  of 
feeling  over  thought  is  the  normative  jirinciple  of 
human  conduct,  for  it  is  the  affective  impulses  that 
govern  the  individual  and  the  race.  (2)  JIan  is  un- 
der the  influence  of  two  atTective  impulses,  the  per- 
sonal or  egoistic,  and  the  social  or  altruistic.  (3)  A 
just  balance  between  these  two  is  not  possible,  one 
or  other  must  preponderate.  (4)  The  first  condition 
of  individual  and  social  well-being  is  the  subordi- 
nation of  self-love  to  the  benevolent  impulses. 
(5)  The  first  principle  of  morality,  therefore,  is  the 
regulative  supremacy  of  social  sj-mpathy  over  the 
self-regarding  instincts.  To  bring  about  the  reign 
of  altniism  Comte  invented  a  religion  which  sul>sti- 
tuted  for  God  an  alwtraction  called  Humanity.  To 
this  new  supreme  being,  worship  was  to  be  paid,  es- 
pecially in  its  manifestations  and  representatives, 
woman,  namely,  and  the  benefactors  of  the  race. 

The  religious  part  of  Comte's  system  was  never 
acceptable  to  more  than  a  few  of  his  adherents.  It 
was  too  extravagant,  and  as  he  himself  confesses,  it 


transcended  positive  science.  Even  Littr6,  one  of 
the  earliest,  ablest,  and  most  ardent  of  his  followers, 
disavowed  it.  In  England,  it  is  true,  it  has  one  ad- 
vocate of  prominence,  Frederic  Harrison.  Practi- 
cally, however,  it  has  ceased  to  attract  any  attention. 
The  main  defects  of  Comte's  ethical  system  are  those 
that  are  coimnon  to  all  forms  of  Eudainonism:  its 
norm  of  morality  is  relative  and  contingent;  it  pos- 
sesses no  principles  by  which  the  quality  of  its  sub- 
ject-matter, social  happiness,  may  be  defined;  its 
unperative  imposes  no  moral  obligation.  Its  special 
defects  are  mainly  those  of  Positivism,  which  denies 
or  ignores  any  reality  beyond  external  facts,  and  rec- 
ognizes no  law  except  the  successions,  coexistences, 
and  resemblances  of  these  phenomena.  Hence  it  can 
set  Iwfore  us  no  sumrnum  bonum  outside  the  region 
of  sense.  It  confounds  physical  law  with  moral  law, 
the  fact  that  the  affective  faculty  moves  to  action 
sulficing  to  make  it  also  the  norm  of  action.  It, 
moreover,  contracts  the  field  of  morality,  and  im- 
morality !us  well,  by  making  purely  personal  virtue 
or  vice  non-ethical.  The  English  school  of  Altruists 
differs  from  the  French  in  appealing  to  psychology 
for  their  facts,  and  in  interpreting  them  by  the  prin- 
ciples of  evolution.  Comte  based  his  system  on  a 
theory  of  cerebral  phvsiology  borrowed  with  modi- 
fications from  Gall.  Littrd  found  the  origin  of  mo- 
rality in  two  primary  physiological  needs,  nutrition, 
and  reproduction,  and  in  their  transformation  into 
the  conflicting  impulses  of  egoism  and  altruism. 
Both  rejected  the  evolutionary  hypothesis,  and  looked 
with  disfavour  on  psychology.  The  representative 
exponent  of  English  altruism  is  Herbert  Spencer. 
The  leading  features  of  his  system  are  these:  (1)  Con- 
duct becomes  ethical  in  the  latest  stages  of  evolution, 
when  it  iussumes  social  aspects,  when  namely  its  ten- 
dency is  to  raise  the  aggregate  happiness  of  the 
community.  (2)  The  sense  of  duty  originates  in 
egoistic  feelings  of  utility.  But  these  in  tlie  process 
of  evolution  are  modified  by  experience  which  asso- 
ciates personal  happiness  with  social,  political,  and 
religious  well-teing  and  their  sanctions.  These  as- 
sociated experienc(>s  are  recorded  in  the  brain,  and 
by  hereditary  transmission,  and  accumulation  in  suc- 
cessive generations  they  finally  become  certain  fac- 
ulties or  moral  intuitions,  which  we  mistake  for  the 
voice  of  a  superhuman  authority.  (3)  The  conflict 
between  egoism  and  altruism  is  not  to  be  removed 
by  giving  i)reponderance  to  cither,  since  pure  egoism 
and  pure  altruism  are  both  fatal  to  society;  but  by 
compromise  of  their  respective  claims  such  that  the 
final  result  will  be  general  altruism,  as  distinguished 
from  the  altruism  tliat  ministers  to  the  egoistic  sat- 
isfaction of  others  only,  whether  these  others  be  in- 
dividuals, or  the  community  impersonally  conceived. 
(4)  This  reconciliation  can  only  be  reached  when  so- 
ciety is  perfectly  evolved;  when  namely  we  are  so 
constituted  that  our  spontaneous  activities  are  con- 
gruous with  conditions  imposed  by  our  social  envi- 
ronments and  social  relations  are  so  complete  in 
their  adjustments  that  altruism  will  not  be  associ- 
ated with  self-s!icrifice,  nor  egoism  with  disregard 
for  others.  (.">)  Hence  the  distinction  between  Ab- 
solute ICthics  which  formulates  the  behaviour  of  the 
completely  a<lapted  man  in  completely  evolved  so- 
ciety, and  Hel.ative  Ethics  which  enjoins  only  what 
is  relatively  right,  or  Iciust  wrong.  The  former  serves 
as  a  standard  by  which  we  estimate  divergences 
from  right;  the  latter  by  which  we  guide  ourselves, 
as  well  as  we  can,  in  sohing  the  problems  of  real 
conduct.  By  al)solutely  right  conduct  is  understood, 
of  course,  that  which  produces  pleasure  unalloyed 
with  pain;  by  relatively  right  conduct,  that  which 
has  any  painful  concomitants  or  consequences. 

Spencer's  .system  is  eud:rmonistic  and,  therefore, 
subject  to  the  defects  .already  noted.  Moreover,  he 
reduces  the  moral  imperative  to  a  psychological  con- 


ALUMNUS 


370 


ALUNNO 


straint  not  differing  in  kind  from  other  natural  im- 
pulses. At  best,  even  granting  his  evolutionary 
premises,  he  has  only  presented  us  with  tlie  genesis 
of  conscience.  He  has  not  re\ealed  the  nature  or 
source  of  its  peculiar  imperative.  The  fact  that  I 
know  how  conscience  was  evolved  from  lower  in- 
stincts may  be  a  reason,  but  is  not  a  motive  for 
obeying  it.  Lastly,  the  solution  of  the  difficulty 
arising  from  the  conllict  between  egoism  and  altruism 
is  deferred  to  a  future  ideal  state  in  which  egoism, 
thougli  transfigured,  will  be  supreme.  For  the  pres- 
ent we  mvist  be  content  to  compromise,  as  best  we 
may,  on  a  relative  morality.  Spencer's  own  judg- 
ment on  liis  system  may  be  accepted.  "The  doc- 
trine of  evolution",  lie  says  "has  not  furnished 
guidance  to  tlie  extent  I  had  hoped  .  .  .  some  such 
result  might  liave  been  foreseen." 

The  Catholic  teacliing  on  love  of  others  is  summed 
up  in  tlie  precept  of  Christ:  Love  thy  neighbour  as 
thyself.  The  love  due  to  oneself  is  the  exemplar  of 
the  love  due  to  others,  though  not  the  measure  of  it. 
Disinterested  love  of  others,  or  the  love  of  benevo- 
lence, the  outward  expression  of  which  is  beneficence, 
implies  a  union  proximately  based  on  likeness.  All 
men  are  alike  in  this  that  they  partake  of  the  same 
rational  nature  made  to  the  image  and  likeness  of 
their  Creator;  liave  by  nature  the  same  social  apti- 
tudes, inrlinatioiis.  and  needs;  and  are  destined  for 
the  same  final  union  with  God  by  which  the  likeness 
received  through  creation  is  perfected.  By  super- 
natural grace  tlie  natural  likeness  of  man  to  man  is 
exalted,  changing  fellowship  into  brotherhood.  All 
likeness  of  whatever  grade  is  founded  ultimately  in 
likeness  with  God.  Love,  therefore,  whether  of  one- 
self or  of  others  is  in  its  last  analysis  love  of  God,  by 
partaking  of  Wliose  perfections  we  become  lovable. 

The  conflict  between  self-love  and  benevolence, 
wliich  is  inevitable  in  all  systems  that  determine  the 
morality  of  an  act  by  its  relation  to  an  agreeable 
psychological  state,  need  not  arise  in  systems  that 
make  the  ethical  norm  of  action  objective;  the  ethi- 
cally desirable  and  the  psychologically  desirable  are 
not  identified.  Catholic  ethics  does  not  deny  that 
happiness  of  some  kind  is  the  necessary  consequence 
of  good  conduct,  or  that  the  desire  to  attain  or  con- 
fer it  is  la\\-ful;  but  it  does  deny  that  the  pursuit  of 
it  for  its  own  sake  is  the  ultimate  aim  of  conduct. 
Apparent  conflict,  however,  may  arise  between  duties 
to  self  and  to  others,  when  only  mediately  known. 
But  these  arise  from  defective  limitations  of  the 
range  of  one  or  other  duty,  or  of  both.  They  do 
not  inhere  in  the  duties  themselves.  The  general 
rules  for  determining  the  prevailing  duty  given  by 
Catholic  moralists  are  these:  (1)  Absolutely  speaking 
there  is  no  obligation  to  love  others  more  than  self. 
(2)  There  is  an  obligation,  which  admits  of  no  excep- 
tions, to  love  self  more  tlian  others,  whenever  benefi- 
cence to  others  entails  moral  guilt.  (3)  In  certain 
circumstances  it  may  be  obligatory,  or  at  least  a  coun- 
sel of  perfection,  to  love  others  more  than  self.  Apart 
from  eases  in  which  one's  profession  or  state  of  life, 
or  justice  imposes  duties,  these  circumstances  are 
determined  by  comparing  the  relative  needs  of  self 
and  others.  (4)  These  needs  may  be  spiritual  or  tem- 
poral; tlie  need  of  the  community  or  of  the  individ- 
ual; the  need  of  one  in  extreme,  serious  or  ordinary 
want;  the  need  of  those  who  are  near  to  us  by  natural 
or  social  ties,  and  of  those  whose  claims  are  only 
union  in  a  common  humanity.  The  first  class  in 
each  group  has  precedence  over  the  second. 

Catholic  ethics  reconciles  self-love  and  benevolence 
by  suliordinating  both  to  the  supreme  purpose  of 
creation  and  the  providential  ends  of  the  Creator. 
It  toadies  that  acts  of  self-love  may  have  a  moral 
quality;  that  sacrifice  of  self  for  tlie  good  of  others 
may  sometimes  be  a  duty,  and  when  not  a  duty,  may 
oftentimes  be  an  act  of  virtue.     It  distinguishes  be- 


tween precept  and  counsel.  The  Fositivist  can  only 
give  counsel,  and  in  his  effort  by  emphasis  and  ap- 
peal to  sentiment  to  make  it  imperati\e,  he  destroj-s 
all  ethical  proportion.  Because  the  Catholic  doctrine 
does  not  confound  moral  obligations  with  the  perfec- 
tion of  moral  goodness  it  is  often  charged  with  laxity 
by  those  whose  teaching  undermines  all  moral  obli- 
gation. 

CoMTE,  Positive  Polity,  I,  tr.  Bridges  (London,  1875-79); 
Spencer.  Principles  of  Ethics  (London,  1892-93);  Stephen, 
Science  of  Ethics  (London,  1882);  Sidgwick,  Methods  of  Ethics, 
IV,  iii,  and  passim  (5  ed.,  London,  1893);  Mahtineau,  I'ypes 
of  Ethical  Theories,  I  (3  ed..  Oxford,  1898);  Caird,  The 
Social  Philosophy  of  Comte  (Glasgow,  1885):  Aquinas.  Summa 
Theotogica,  Ila-IIM  QQ.  25  and  26  (Basle,  1485:  Paris.  1861); 
RiCKABY,  Aquinas  Ethicus,  loc.  cit.;  Costa-Rosetti.  Philoso- 
phia  Moralis,  Thesis  99;  MiNO,  Data  of  Modem  Ethics  Ex- 
amined, 15  (New  York,  1897);  Maher.  Psychology,  5  ed. 
(London,  1903). 

Timothy  Brosnahan. 

Alumnus  (from  Lat.  alo,  "to  nurse",  or  "feed") 
signifies  in  ecclesiastical  usage,  a  student  prepar- 
ing for  the  sacred  ministry  in  a  seminary.  Origi- 
nally the  word  meant  a  child  adopted  with  certain 
restricted  privileges,  or  a  foster-child.  Since  the 
Council  of  Trent,  however,  the  word  hao  become 
equivalent  to  a  seminarian,  and  as  such  is  often 
applied  to  the  students  of  the  ecclesiastical  colleges 
in  Rome.  The  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xxiii,  ch.  18, 
de  Ref.)  required  bishops  to  csta'olish  institutions  for 
the  education  of  students  for  the  priesthood.  For- 
merly, church  candidates  liad  been  educated  in  the 
houses  of  priests,  in  monasteries,  or  in  the  public 
universities.  According  to  the  Council,  such  alumni, 
among  other  qualifications,  should  be  at  least  twelve 
years  of  age  and  able  to  read  and  write,  and  their 
disposition  should  be  such  as  to  give  hope  that  they 
would  adorn  perpetually  the  sacred  ministry.  Chil- 
dren of  the  poor  were  to  be  especially  favoured. 
Besides  philosophy,  theology,  scripture,  and  canor 
law,  they  were  to  study  rites  and  ceremonies,  sa- 
cred eloquence  and  plain  chant.  The  bishop  was 
to  see  that  the  students  heard  Mass  daily,  confessed 
monthly,  and  communicated  as  often  as  advisable. 
On  festival  days  they  were  to  take  part  in  the  cathe- 
dral services.  The  bishop  was  also  exhorted  to  visit 
these  students  frequently,  to  watch  o\-er  their  prog- 
ress in  learning  and  piety,  and  to  remo\e  hindrances 
to  their  advancement.  In  1896,  the  Congregation 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars  laid  down  rules  for  the 
guidance  of  bishops  in  regard  to  "alumni"  who  at- 
tend public  universities,  requiring  especially  that 
they  do  not  associate  too  familiarly  with  the  other 
students,  and  that  they  be  gathered  frequently  for 
spiritual  conferences  and  for  philosophical,  theologi- 
cal, and  historical  discussions.  (See  Seminary,  Ec- 
clesiastical.) 

LuciDi,  De  Visit.  Sac.  Lim.,  I.  Ill  (Rome.  1889);  Lad- 
RENTius.  Inst.  Jur.  Eccl.  (Freiburg,  1903).  471;  Booix,  De 
Episcopo,  H  (Paris,  1889). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Aluiino,  NiccoLo  (real  name  Niccolo  di  Libcratore), 
a  notable  I'mbrian  painter  in  distemper,  b.  c.  1430, 
at  Foligno;  d.  1.502.  He  was  the  son  of  a  painter, 
and  a  pupil  of  Bartolommeo  di  Tomniaso.  His 
master's  assistant  was  Bennozo  Gozzoli,  tlie  pupil 
of  l<ra  Angelico.  The  simple  Umbrian  feeling  in 
his  work  w'as  somewhat  modified  by  this  Florentine 
influence.  His  earliest  known  example  (dated  1458) 
is  in  the  Franciscan  Church  of  La  Diruta,  near 
Perugia.  He  painted  banners  for  religious  proces- 
sions, as  well  as  altarpieces  and  other  iiictures,  died 
a  rich  man,  and  is  supposed  by  Mariotti  to  have  been 
the  master  of  Perugino,  Pinturicchio,  and  Andrea  di 
Luigi.  Some  works  ascribed  to  him  are  thought  to 
be  by  another,  and  contemporary,  Ahmno,  called 
Pesiderato.  A  "Madonna  Enthroned"  is  in  the 
Brera  Gallery  in  Mifan,  and  there  are  alt.arpicces  at 
Perugia,  in  the  Castle  at  San  Severino,  at  Gualdo 


ALVA 


371 


ALVA 


La  Bastia,  and  Foligno.  The  predella  of  the  last, 
which  was  taken  to  Frame  by  Napoleon,  still  re- 
mains in  the  Louvre.  One  of  his  banners  is  in  a 
church  at  Perugia. 

,\i»AMo  Uo.stsi  of  Perugia,  and  S.  Frknfaniclli  Cibo  of 
Hume,  Memoirs,  (187-). 

Augustus  Van  Cleef. 

Alva,  Feunando  Ai-vare/.  de  Toledo,  Ddke  of, 
b.  1508,  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Cas- 
tiliaii  families,  which  boasted  descent  from  the  By- 
zantine emperors;  d.  at  Thoniar,  12  January,  1582. 
From  his  earliest  childhood  the  boy  was  trained  by 
a  severe  discipline  for  his  future  career  as  warrior 
and  statesman.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he  took  part 
in  the  war  against  France;  a  year  later  he  was  in  the 
siege  of  Pavia,  and  in  1527  fought  again.st  the  Turks 
in  Hungary.  He  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  the  Km- 
peror  Charles  V,  and  played  a  great  rule  in  the  numer- 
ous wars  in  which  Spain  was  involved  for  half  a 
century.  His  chief  fame  rests  upon  his  mission  in 
1557  to  the  riotous  Netherlands,  where  the  (iuciix 
had  created  systematic  opposition  to  the  Spanish 
regent,  Margaret  of  Parma.  In  the  Netherlands, 
traditionally  accustomed  to  free  government,  King 
Philip,  though  born  a  Dutchman,  essayed  to  estab- 
lish an  absolutism  such  as  prevailed  in  Spain.  He 
rejected  the  mild  measures  proposed  by  moderate 
counsellors,  and  held  that  a  swift  punishment  should 
be  meted  out  to  this  rebellious  and  heretical  country. 
At  first,  Philip  resolved  to  go  him.>self  to  the  Nether- 
lands, but  towards  tlio  end  of  November  1507,  he 
suddenly  informed  .Margaret  of  Parma  that  he  would 
send  the  Duke  of  .\lva  to  punish  the  guilty  with 
unbending  severity.  The  "iron  duke''  was  to  be 
the  ideal  instrument  for  the  execution  of  this  pur- 
pose. 

The  very  announcement  of  Alva's  coming  spread 
terror  and  consternation.  Prince  William  of  Orange 
and  other  leaders  of  the  Gueux  fled  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. But  the  popular  Counts  of  Kgmond  and 
Hoorne,  through  blind  confidence  or  reckless  courage, 
resolved  to  face  .\lva.  On  22  .-Vugust,  Alva,  accom- 
panied by  a  body  of  select  Spanish  troops,  made  his 
entry  into  Bnissels.  He  immediately  appointed  a 
council  to  condemn  without  trial  those  suspected  of 
heresy  and  rebellion.  On  1  Jime,  1568,  Brussels 
witnessed  the  simultaneous  decapitation  of  twenty- 
two  noblemen;  on  G  June  followed  the  execution  of 
the  Counts  of  Egmond  and  Hoorne.  The  "Council 
of  Blood"  was  the  popular  designation  of  Alva's 
tribunal.  The  Flemings  fled  in  thousands  to  Holland 
and  Zeeland,  where  the  elements  of  the  rebellion 
were  concentrated  under  the  leadership  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange.  In  the  meantime  Al\a  began  a  regular 
campaign  in  the  northern  provinces.  His  victorious 
troops,  whose  banner  was  mscribed  with  the  legend: 
"Pro  lege,  rege,  grcge",  plundered  the  cities  of  Mons, 
Mechlen,  Zutphen,  and  Naarden,  and  left  them 
drenched  in  blood.  In  triumph,  Alva  returned  to 
Bru.ssels.  Potie  Pius  V  bestowed  on  him  a  conse- 
crated hat  ana  sword,  a  present  heretofore  only  given 
to  sovereigns.  In  Antwerp,  the  governor  erected  a 
bronze  statue  in  his  own  honour;  it  represented  Alva 
trampling  under  his  feet  two  allegorical  figiires,  the 
nobility  and  the  people.  The  dictator  had  pro- 
claimed that  the  expenses  of  the  war  must  be  borne 
by  the  Netherlands.  In  consequence,  the  resources 
of  the  people  were  drained  by  taxation.  Notwith- 
standing the  protestations  of  the  States-General  he 
introduced  the  so-called  "tax  of  the  one  hundredth, 
twentieth,  and  tenth  penny".  This  exaction  sur- 
passed all  bounds.  When  on  .31  July  in  Brus.scls 
the  twentieth  and  tenth  penny  were  extorted,  traffic 
and  commerce  came  to  a  standstill.  The  Dutch 
people,  still  for  the  greater  part  Catholic,  felt  them- 
selves outraged  in  their  rights  by  the  "Council  of 
Blood",  and  in  their  inborn  love  of  freedom  by  the 
I.-24 


Spanish  Inquisition.  When  they  saw  their  com- 
merce and  industries  trammelled  by  the  odioiLs  tenth 
penny  tax,  the  hatred  against  the  Spanish  i^gime 
grew  so  manifest  and  widespread,  that  Alva,  although 
victorious  on  the  field  of  battle,  sulTered  an  irremedi- 
able moral  defeat.  The  surprising  conquest  of  the 
little  seaport  of  Brielle  by  the  "Beggars  of  the  Sea" 
was  the  inspiration  that  fanned  anew  the  smouldering 
embers  of  the  rebellion.  Haarlem,  after  a  long  siege, 
capitulated  to  Don  Frederic,  son  of  Alva,  12  July 
1573;  but  this  victory  was  speedily  followed  by  the 
defeat  of  Alkmaar,  which  defended  itself  .so  heroi- 
cally that  the  popular  cry  became:  "From  Alkmaar, 
victory  begiiisl" 

Alva  at  last  realized  that  his  violent  measures 
were  fruitless.  "  God  and  mankind  are  against  me  ", 
he  exclaimed  in  despair.  In  vain  he  begged  the  King 
to  let  him  retire.  His  soft-hearted  successor,  the 
Duke  of  Medina  Cell,  who  passed  througli  the  country 
in  June  1572,  never  really  assumed  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment but  shortly  returned  to  Spain.  The  19  Octo- 
ber, 1573,  Alva  was  definitively  relieved  of  his  office 
and  Wiis  succeeded  by  Don  Luis  of  Requesens.  He 
hastened  from  the  Netherlands,  followed  by  the  curse 
of  its  people.  The  Catholic  councillor  Viglius  testi- 
fied: Tristis  vcnil,  tridior  abiil".  Once  again  in 
Spain  he  still  retained  the  royal  favour,  till  a  love 
affair  of  Don  Frederic  dragged  father  and  son  into 
disgrace.  Alva  remained  in  e.xile  at  his  castle  up 
to  15.S0,  when  the  acknowledged  power  of  his  iron 
hand  was  sought  in  the  war  against  Portugal.  In 
the  short  s|)ace  of  three  weeks  he  completely  sub- 
dued the  Portuguese.  Dissension  broke  out  once 
more  between  Philip  and  Alva;  but  the  Duke  had 
made  himself  so  powerful  that  Philip,  though  sus- 
pecting that  Alva  had  enriched  himself  extraordi- 
narily with  the  spoils  of  war,  and  knowing  that  he 
refused  to  account  to  his  King,  did  not  dare  raise 
a  hand  against  the  first  grandee  of  Spain.  A  short 
time  after  he  died  at  Thomar,  12  January  1582. 
Alva  w;us,  as  even  Motley  in  "The  Uise  of  the  Dutch 
Republic"  (London,  1808,  9,  330),  admits,  "the 
most  successful  and  experienced  general  of  Spain,  or 
of  Europe,  in  his  day.  No  man  had  studied  military 
science  more  deeply,  or  practised  it  more  constantly." 
In  sixty  years  of  military  service  he  was  never  sur- 
prised, never  defeated.  He  excelled  in  slow  and 
prudent  tactics,  deeming  that  nothing  was  so  un- 
certain as  victory.  He  stamls  amongst  the  greatest 
generals  of  history.  Yet  his  greatness  was  confined 
to  the  battlefield.  lie  lacked  the  wisdom  of  govern- 
ing. 

His  tyranny,  however  blameable,  was  exaggerated 
by  the  liatred  of  opposing  parties.  Alva  boasted,  it 
is  said,  that  he  put  to  death  on  the  scaffold  18,(KX) 
Dutchmen;  but  nis  succes.sor,  Requesens,  estimated 
his  executions  at  6,000  (Gachard,  Etudes,  II,  366). 
Motley  paints  him  in  the  blackest  colours,  allowing 
in  his  favour  only  the  excuse  "that  he  was  but  tire 
blind  and  fanatically  loyal  slave  of  his  sovereign" 
(541).  In  reality,  Alva  came  to  the  Netherlands  to 
carry  out  the  royal  orders,  and  save  the  King's 
popularity  by  taking  upon  himself  the  odium  of  tlie 
rigorous  suppression  of  the  rebellion.  Ho  erected 
his  own  statue  in  .Vntwerp,  not  to  glorify  himself, 
but  to  pose  as  the  tyrannous  suppressor  of  the  re- 
bellion. In  order  that  Philip  might  play  the  role 
of  a  bold  sovereign,  he  asked  the  King  to  order  the 
demolition  of  the  statue  (E.  Gos.sart,  Bulletin  de 
I'acaddmie  de  Belgique,  1899,  231-244).  While  we 
deplore  his  tyrannous  method  we  must  give  credit 
to  the  duke's  loyalty.  When  his  personal  dignity 
and  views  were  touched,  he  dared  defy  even  his  King. 
He  was  an  ardent  Catholic,  who  fiercely  served  his 
religion  when  he  combated  heresy  with  fire  and 
sword,  but  who,  as  a  child  of  such  troublous  times, 
unwisely  chose  his  measures.     Notwithstanding  bis 


ALVA 


372 


ALVARADO 


fanaticism  he  boldly  entered  the  campaign  against 
Paul  IV,  and  wlieii  the  King  offered  an  advantageous 
peace  to  the  Pope,  the  L)iil<e  exclaimed  angrily  that 
submission  and  timidity  did  not  agree  with  politics 
and  war.  Alva,  like  his  King,  has  been  blackened 
savagely  by  prejudiced  historians.  As  Jlauren- 
brecher  says,  the  caricatures  of  both  have  their 
origin  in  the  passionate  apology  for  William  of 
Orange.  As  to  Motley's  historical  woik  quoted 
above,  Guizot  remarks  that  "M.  Motley  exhibits  in 
his  u'ork  botli  science  and  passion"  (.Melanges 
biograph.  et  litt^raires,  Paris,  1808).  His  judgment 
of  Alva  is  neitlier  objectively  justified  nor  of  defini- 
tive value.  ,  „  ,       .     .    „  ,  .   ^     . 

Meursius,  Fcrd.  Albanus,  seu  de  Rebus  ejus  m  Belgw  Gestia, 
libri  IV  (Leyden.  1614;  ."Vmsterdam,  1638);  Strada,  De 
Bella  Belaico  (Rome,  U)40),  I-II;  De  Vera  y  Fifcerva, 
Resullas  de  lavUn  de  F.rd  Alvares  de  Toledo  (IM3)  1-Y : 
Vita  Ferd  Tolet'ini,  duels  Albani  (.'^alamanca,  lb09):  Vw  du 
due  d'AVbe  (Paris,  1G9S);  De  Rustant,  Hisloria  de  D.  Ferd. 
Alvarez  de  Toledo,  clamado  el  Grande,  duque  de  Alva  (Madrid, 
1750),  I-il;  Prescott.  History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip  II  (Bos- 
ton 1855)  I-III:  NuYENS,  Geschiedenis  der  Nederlandscke 
beroerten  (Amsterdam.  1865),  I-IV;  Badmstark,  Philip  11. 
Konig  ron  Spnnifn  (Freiburg,  1875);  von  Ranke.  Die  Os- 
manen  und  die  Sp'inische  Monarchie  im  16.  und  27.  Jahrh. 
(Collective  ed..  X.KXV,  XXXVI.  Leipzig.  1877);  Forneron, 
Histoire  de  Philippe  11  (Paris,  1881),  I-IV;  De  Lettenhove, 
Les  HuQuenots  et  les  GueuT  (Bniges,  1883-85),  I-VI;  Blok, 
Geschiedenis  vnn  het  Nederlnndscke  volk  (Groningen.  1896), 
tr  bv  Ruth  Putnam,  III;  Bi.ok,  History  of  the  People  of  the 
Netherlands  Part  III,  The  War  with  Spain  (New  York  and 
London,   1900).  ^  ^ 

GiSBERT  BrOM. 

Alva  y  Astorga,  Pedro  d',  a  Friar  Minor  of 
the  Strict  Observance,  and  a  voluminous  writer  on 
theological  subjects,  generally  in  defence  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception;  b.  at  Carbajales,  Spain,  toward 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century;  d.  in  Belgium, 
1667.  He  took  the  Franciscan  habit  in  Peru.  He 
lectured  on  theology,  was  Procurator-General  of  the 
Franciscans,  in  Rome,  and  Qualificator  of  the  Holy 
Office.  He  was  an  indefatigable  traveller.  His 
principal  opponents  were  the  Dominicans.  His 
polemic  had  such  a  personal  tone  and  was  so  violent 
that  he  was  sent  to  the  Low-Countries.  Two  editions 
of  his  work,  "  Nodus  indissolubilis  de  conceptu  mentis 
et  conceptu  ventris  "  (Madrid,  1661,  1663),  are  on 
the  Inciex  of  prohibited  books.  His  writings  fill 
forty  folio  volumes.  The  most  important  is  his 
"Armentarium  Seraphicum  pro  tuendo  Immacu- 
latiE  Conceptionis  titulo "  (Madrid,  1648).  In  this 
he  collaborated  with  the  laest  theologians  of  the 
Friars  Minor. 

TonssAiNT  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.,  I,  926;  Grammer  in 
Kirchenlex.  s.  v. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Alvarado,  Alonzo  de,  a  Knight  of  Santiago,  b.  at 
Secadura  de  Trasmura,  near  Burgos,  date  unknown; 
d.  15.59.  He  came  to  America,  and  went  to  Peru 
with  Pedro  de  Alvarado  in  1534.  He  was  no  relative 
of  the  latter,  however.  While  charged  by  some 
contemporaries  with  avarice  and  cruelty,  it  is  un- 
deniable that  during  the  trying  period  of  civil  wars 
in  Peru  (about  1537  to  1555)  Alvarado  was  an 
unflinching  and  determined  adherent  to  the  interests 
of  Spain.  He  always  sided  with  those  whom  he 
thought  to  be  sincere  representatives  of  the  crown, 
and  it  was  not  always  profitable  and  safe  to  be  on 
that  side.  Thus,  in  1537,  he  commanded  the  troops 
of  Pizarro's  followers,  when  Almagro  claimed  Cuzco. 
Defeated  and  captured  by  the  latter  at  Abancay, 
after  elTecting  his  escape  under  great  difficulties  as 
well  as  dangers,  and  rejoining  Pizarro,  whom  he 
looked  U|)on  as  the  legitimate  governor  of  Peru, 
he  took  part  iti  all  the  bloody  troul)k's  that  followed, 
always  as  a  prominent  militaiy  leader  and  alwavs 
unsuccessful  when  in  immediate  command.  Still, 
he  was  counted  upon  as  a  main.stay  of  the  Spanish 
cau.se,  and  occupied  a  high  military  position.  When 
Francisco  Hernandez  Giron  raised  the  standard  of 


rebellion  in  1553,  Alvarado  was  put  in  command  of 
the  forces  to  oppose  him.  At  Chuquinga,  in  1554. 
Alvarado  suffered  a  signal  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the 
insurgents.  Overcome  by  melancholy  in  consequence 
of  tliat  last  disaster,  he  pined  away  and  died  five 
years  later.  His  principal  achievement,  however, 
was  the  pacification  of  Chachapoyas  in  northeastern 
Peru,  in  tlie  years  1535  and  1.536,  this  being  tlie  first 
step  taken  from  Peru  towards  the  Amazonian  basin. 
Alvarado  married  in  Spain,  while  on  a  short  \isit, 
in  1544. 

Documentos  ineditos  de  Indias,  Documentos  para  la  historia 
de  Espat^a. — The  former  especially  contains  a  number  of 
papers  embodying  valuable  ilata  on  the  military  career  of 
Alvarado.  In  the  Relaciones  geogrdficas  de  Indias  (IV)  there 
are  data  of  a  biographical  nature,  and  relating  to  the  oc- 
cupation of  Chachapoyas,  mostly  taken  from  the  (as  yet 
unpublished)  third  part  of  the  CrAniea  del  Peru,  by  Peuro 
DE  Cieza. — ClEZA,  Crdnica  del  Pent,  first  part,  in  Historiadores 
primitivos  de  Indias,  by  Vedia  (Madrid,  1854).  II;  Zarate, 
Historia  del  descubrimiento  y  eonquista  del  Peru,  also  in  Vedia's 
Historiadores,  11;  Gutierrez  de  Santa  Clara,  Historia  de 
las  guerras  civilea  del  Peru  (Madrid,  1904-5 — only  three  vol- 
umes published  as  yet);  Diego  Fernandez,  Historia  del 
Peril  (1571);  the  works  of  Gomara,  Oviedo,  Herrera,  etc., 
and  modern  sources. 

Ad.  F.  B.wir>ELiER. 

Alvarado,  Fn.w  Francisco  de,  a  native  of  Mexico, 
where  he  entered  the  Dominican  order  25  July,  1574. 
He  was  vicar  of  Tamazulapa  in  1593.  Nothing  more 
is  known  of  him  as  yet,  except  that  he  wrote  and 
published  at  Mexico,  in  1593,  a  "Vocabulario  en 
Lengua  Misteca",  one  of  the  languages  of  the  present 
state  of  Oaxaca.  In  the  same  year  Fray  Antonio  de 
los  Reyes,  another  Dominican,  also  published  a 
grammar  of  that  language,  and  at  the  same  place. 
It  is  therefore  impossible  to  determine  to  which  of 
these  works  is  due  the  honour  of  having  been  the 
first  in  and  on  the  Mistecan  idiom. 

Davila  Padilla,  Historia  de  la  FundacitSn  y  Discorso, 
etc.  (Madrid,  1596);  Leon  t  Pinelo.  Epitome  (1628);  An- 
tonio, Bibliot.  Hispana  Nova  (Madrid,  1783);  Beristain, 
Biblioteca  hispano-amerieana  (Mexico,  1816);  Ycazbalceta, 
Bibliografia  meiicana  del  Siglo  XVI  (Mexico,  1886);  I.ude- 
wlG,  Literature  of  American  Aboriginal  Languages  (London, 
1858). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de. — Of  the  companions  of 
Cortez,  and  among  the  superior  officers  of  his  army, 
Pedro  de  Alvarado  became  the  most  famous  in 
history.  A  native  of  Badajoz,  son  of  the  commander 
of  Lobon,  he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Order  of 
Santiago  in  reward 
for  his  exploits  in 
Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America.  He 
accompanied  Gri- 
jalva  on  his  ex- 
ploration of  Yu- 
catan and  the 
Mexican  coast  in 
1518,  and  was  the 
chief  officer  of 
Cortez  during  the 
conquest  of  Mex- 
ico. As  such,  he 
was  left  in  com- 
mand of  the  forces 
at  Tenochtitlan,  when  the  conqueror  had  to  move 
against  Pilmfilo  de  Narvaez  in  1520.  During  the 
absence  of  Cortez  it  became  clear  that  the  Mexi- . 
can  Indians,  to  avail  themselves  of  the  weakness 
in  numbers  of  the  Spaniards,  were  preparing  to 
fall  upon  them  before  Cortez  could  return.  To 
forestall  this,  Alvarado,  warned  of  the  character  of  a 
ceremonial  that  was  going  on.  as  preliminary  to  an 
attack  upon  him,  took  the  offensive,  and  dispersed 
the  Indians  witli  some  bloodshed  (the  numbers  have 
been  considerably  exaggerated),  but  this  only  caused 
tlie  Mexicans  to  begin  hostilities  at  once.  Alvarado 
distinguished    himself    by    his    military   ability   and 


Pedro  de   Alvarado 


ALVAREZ 


373 


ALVAREZ 


personal  bravery  during  the  disastrous  sally  of 
Cortoz  from  Mexico  in  July,  l.')20  (.Voc/ie  Triste) 
and  sul)seiiuently  in  tlie  campaign  and  capture  of 
the  Indian  stronghold  (1521).  In  1524  he  conquered 
Ciuatemala,   and    became  Governor  of   the   Spanish 

frovince  into  wliicli  the  territory  was  transformed. 
le  soon  undertook  to  fit  out  expeditions  to  the 
South  Sea  (with  little  result),  and  determined  upon 
following  Pizarro  in  the  conquests  of  western  South 
America.  Sailing  to  the  coast  of  Ecuador  in  15.'54, 
with  a  well-equipped  flotilla,  and  landing  on  the 
Ecuadorian  coast,  he  pushed  on  to  the  plateau  of 
Quito,  to  find  it  heUi  by  Belalcazar  for  Pizarro. 
Bloodshed  appeared  imminent  between  the  rival 
parties.  But  the  arrival  of  Almagro  with  instruc- 
tions from  Pizarro  led  to  negotiations,  as  a  result 
of  which  Alvarado  returned  to  Ciuatemala,  having 
bartered  to  Pizarro  most  of  his  ships,  horses,  and  am- 
munition, as  well  as  most  of  his  men,  against  a  com- 
paratively modest  sum  of  money.  After  his  return 
to  Guatemala,  Alvarado  turned  his  attention  to 
northern  Mexico.  Constantly  quarrelling  with  Cor- 
tez,  he  easily  became  the  tool  of  the  Viceroy  Mendoza. 
He  was  in  almost  unceasing  trouble  witli  his  neigh- 
bour Montejo  about  the  boundaries  of  their  re- 
spective territories.  Wliile  pursuing  the  pacification 
of  Guadalajara,  as  lieutenant  of  Mendoza,  he  was 
killed  in  an  assault  on  the  Indian  camp,  on  the 
rocky  height  of  Nocliiztlan,  24  June,  1.541.  His 
wife,  DoHa  Beatriz  de  la  Cueva,  lost  her  life  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year,  in  the  destruction  of  the 
city  of  Guatemala  by  the  volcano  called  "de  Agua". 
Alvarado  was  not  a  gifted  administrator;  in  fact, 
he  was  more  distinguished  for  clii\alrous  bra^■ery 
than  for  intellectual  gifts.  Physically  very  pro- 
possessing,  brave  to  excess,  he  was  mentally  greatly 
mfcrior  to  Cortez  and  to  NuAo  de  Guzman,  while 
morally  their  superior.  What  is  told  of  the  out- 
bursts of  cruelty  with  which  he  is  charged  cannot 
surprise,  when  the  methods  of  warfare  prevailing 
in  nis  time  are  taken  into  consideration.  He  acted 
under  the  pressure  of  military  necessity,  and  it  is 
always  well  to  test  such  charges  by  inquiring  into 
their  possibility  and  into  the  spirit  of  their  authors. 
In  estimating  his  conduct  in  Soutli  America  we  must 
rememl)er  that  Alvarado  was  utterly  helpless  in  pres- 
ence of  tlie  superiority  of  Pizarro. 

.Mvarado  is  so  intimately  ponnerted  with  the  Conquest 
of  Mexico  that  older  works  on  that  important  event  must  be 
referred  to.  beginning  with  the  reports  on  Gkijalva,  Uvikdo, 
the  letters  of  CouTEz,  Bernal  Diaz  okl  Castillo.  ANimE.s  dk 
Tapia  .\ouilar.  Soarez  Peralta,  and  others.  .\  large  num- 
ber of  valuable  documents  (perhaps  more  important  than  tlie 
"histories")  are  published  in  the  Documcnins  in/tiitog  de 
Irutiaa  ancl  some  in  the  Coh-rruin  de  dncumenloa  para  la  hintoria 
de  Enpiiiia.  Much  important  material  has  also  been  ac- 
cumulated in  the  Documentos  para  la  hititorin  de  M^xiro, 
JoAgcfs  Garcia  Ycazdalceta  (first  series.  II);  Gomara 
anil  Herhera:  Uittoria  de  Miiico,  by  .Vntonio  de  Sons 
and  others,  like  the  Indian  writers,  Tezozomoc  and  Ixtlil- 
xorHiTL,  Diego  Dcran,  and  Juan  de  Tobar,  also  Tor- 
QCEMADA,  Munarchia  Indiana;  V'evtia,  Ilistoria  antiffua  de 
Ali^jrico.  Moiiern  writers  on  the  romiuest  of  Mexico  are 
so  numerous  that  it  is  not  possible  to  enumerate  them. 
Al).   E.   B.\NUEI,IEK. 

Al7arez,  B.\lth.\zar,  a  Spanish  mvstic,  who  was 
the  spiritual  director  of  St.  Tere-^a,  1).  at  Cervera, 
in  Spain,  in  1533,  of  a  noble  family;  d.  at  Belmonte, 
25  July,  1.5S().  Ho  stuiliod  philosophy  and  theology 
in  the  I'niversity  of  Alcalsi.  When  only  eighteen 
years  of  age,  he  was  remarkable  for  his  extraordinary 
habit  of  prayer  and  piety.  His  inclination  was  first 
towards  the  Carthusians,  becau.se  of  their  life  of 
contemplation,  but,  finally,  he  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  at  Alcahl,  in  1555,  fifteen  years  after 
its  foimdation.  The  famous  Father  Bustamente 
was  his  ma.iter  of  novices  and  subjected  him  to  the 
rudest  trials.  In  the  novitiate  of  Simancas  he  met 
St.   Francis  Borgia,  and  llie  strongest  affection  was 


sophical  and  theological  studies  at  .\lcalii  and 


nlulo- 
Avila, 


imder  the  guidance  of  the  Dominicans;  for  as  yet 
tlie  Society  had  no  theologians  of  its  own.  The  con- 
tinual interruptions  of  his  studies  impeded  his 
progress  in  scholastic  theology,  but  he  conqjensated 
for  it  by  the  eminence  he  aciiieved,  tlirough  prayer, 
in  mystical  theology,  which  fitted  him  in  a  remark- 
able degree  for  the  oflice  he  subsequently  held  as 
confessor,  master  of  novices,  rector,  t)roviiuial, 
visitor,  and  as  director  of  persons  far  advanced  in 
the  ways  of  holiness.  He  was  made  a  jiricst  in 
1558,  and,  although  only  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
was  entrusted  with  the  si)iritual  direction  of  St. 
Teresa,  then  belonging  to  the  mitigated  Order  of 
Carmel,  but  who  was  on  the  point  of  founding  the 
Discalced  Carmelites.  Alvarez  not  only  guided  her 
in  matters  of  the  spirit,  but  defended  her  from  her 
critics,  encouraged  her  in  her  work  of  reform,  and 
had  much  to  do  with  framing  the  rules  of  the  new 
Order.  His  direction  continued  for  seven  years. 
The  Saint  declared  that  it  had  been  revealed  to  her 
that  Father  Balthazar  had  reached  a  very  high 
degree  of  |H!rfection.  He  followed  the  usual  method 
of  prayer  for  sixteen  years.  After  that  he  received 
a  special  gift  of  contemplation.  In  1574  he  was 
made  rector  of  Salamanca  and  visitor  of  the 
Province  of  .\ragon,  and,  in  1579,  was  about  to  be 
sent  as  provincial  to  Peru,  but  that  project  was  never 
carried  out.  He  was  well  on  in  life  when  his  method 
of  prayer  was  questioned.  By  some  it  was  looked 
upon  as  a  delusion  of  the  devil.  Alvarez  wa.s  com- 
pelled to  WTite  an  account  of  it  to  the  General  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  Everard  Mercurian,  who  ap- 
proved of  it,  but  discountenanced  it  as  a  general 
practice.  At  the  same  time,  he  expressed  his  esteem 
lor  Father  AUarez  and  employed  him  in  the  most 
responsible  offices.  At  liis  death,  St.  Teresa  had  a 
revelation  of  his  glory  in  heaven. 

Del  Pcente.  Vula  dd  P.  Ballhavir  Alvarez  (tr.  Houix); 
Nieremrero,  Ideas  de  virtud,  348-97;  Alcazar,  Chrono. 
htsl.  de  la  c.  de  J.  en  In  prov.  de  Toledo,  II,  023-34;  De 
Backer,  Bibliothtque  de  la  c,  de  J.,  I,  107, 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alvarez,  Diego,  Spanish  theologian,  b.  at  Medina 
de  Rio-.Seco,  Old  Castile,  about  1550;  d.  at  Traiii, 
Kingdom  of  Naples,  1G35.  He  entered  the  Domini- 
can Order  in  his  native  city,  and  taught  theologj-  for 
twenty  years  in  the  Spanish  cities  of  Burgos,  Trlanos, 
Plasencia,  and  Valladolid,  and  for  ten  years  (1596- 
IGOC)  at  the  Minerva,  in  Rome.  Shortly  after  his 
arrival  in  Rome  (7  November,  1596)  he  presented  to 
Clement  VIII  a  memorial  requesting  him  to  examine 
the  work  "Concordia  liberi  Arbitrii",  by  Ludovicus 
Molina,  S.J.,  which,  upon  its  publication  in  1588, 
had  given  rise  to  bitter  controversy.  Before  the 
Congregation  (Congregatio  de  Auxihis),  appointed 
by  the  Poix)  to  settle  the  dispute,  he  defended  the 
Tnomistic  doctrines  of  grace,  predestination,  etc., 
alone  for  three  years,  and,  thereafter,  conjointly  witli 
Thomas  de  Lemos,  O.P.,  to  whom  he  gave  the  first 
place,  until  the  suspension  of  the  Congregation 
(IGOC).  He  was  appointed.  19  March,  KiOti,  by 
Paul  V.  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Trani,  where  he  pa.ssed 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  Besides  (1)  a  commentary 
on  l.saias,  and  (2)  a  manual  for  preachers,  he  pul>- 
lislied:  (.3)  "Do  auxiliis  divinie  gratiie  et  huniani 
arbitrii  viribus  et  libertate,  ac  legitimd  ejus  cum 
effieacid  oorumdem  auxiliorum  concordiii  libri  Xll" 
(Rome,  1610;  Lyons,  1620;  Douai,  163,5);  (4)  "  Hi- 
siK)nsionum  ad  objectiones  adversus  concordiam  liberi 
arbitrii  cum  divind  pra^scienti.l,  providentifl,  et 
pra>destinatione,  atnjie  cum  efi^icaciA  pra'venientis 
gratiie,  prout  a  S.  Thomii  et  Thomistis  defenditur 
et  cxplicatur,  Libri  IV  (Trani,  1622;  Lyons,  1622); 
(5)  "  De  origine  Pelagiana-  hirresis  et  ejus  prog- 
ressu  et  damnatione  |>er  plurcs  snmmos  pontifices 
et  concilia  factii  Historia  ex  annalibus  Card.  Baronii 
et  aliis  probatis  auctoribus  coUeeta"  (Trani,  1629); 


ALVAREZ 


374 


ALZATE 


(6)  "Responsionum  liber  ultinius  hoc  titulo:  Opus 
prsDclarum  nuiuiuam  hictenus  edituin,  in  quo 
arguincutis  valiilissiiiiis  coucordia  liberi  arbitrii  cum 
diving  pr;rscieiitia,  praxiestinatione,  et  efficacia 
gratis  pricvenientis  ad  meuteiii  S.  Tlionia;  et  omnium 
Thomistarum  contra  eos  <iui  earn  impugnare  volunt 
defenditur  et  explicatur"  (Douai,  1635);  (7)  "Operis 
de  auxiliis  divina;  gratia  et  humani  arbitrii  viribus 
et  libertate,  ac  legitima  ejus  cum  efficacia  eorumdem 
auxiliorum  concordia  summa.  in  IV  libros  distincta" 
(Lyons,  1020;  Cologne,  1621;  Trani,  1625);  (8)  "De 
incarnatione  divini  verbi  disputationes  LXXX,  in 
quibus  explieantur  et  defenduntur,  quae  in  terti4 
parte  summre  theologies  docet  S.  Thomas  a  Q.  1 
ad  24"  (Lyons,  1614;  Rome.  1615;  Cologne,  1622); 
(9)  "Disputationes  theologies  in  primam  secunds 
S.  Thorns,  in  quibus  prscipua  omnia  qus  adversus 
doctrinam  ejusdem  et  communem  Thomistarum 
a  diversis  auctoribus  impugnantur,  juxta  legitimum 
sensum  prsceptoris  angelici  explieantur  et  de- 
fenduntur" (Trani,  1617;  Cologne,  1621). 

EcHARD,  Scriptores  Ordinis  Prtrdicatorum  (Paris,  1721), 
II,  481;  UoHELLi,  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1720),  VII,  1240; 
HnRTER,  Nomenclaior  (Innsbruck.  18921.  I,  203;  H.  Serry, 
Historia  CoTioregationum  de  AuiitiU  (Antwerp,    1709). 

A.  L.  McMahon. 

Alvarez,  Mangel,  educator,  b.  on  the  island  of 
Madeira,  1526;  d.  at  Evora,  30  December,  1582. 
In  1546  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  taught  the 
classical  languages  with  great  success,  and  was 
rector  of  the  colleges  of  Coimbra  and  Evora.  Among 
the  more  than  three  hundred  Jesuits  who  have 
written  text-books  on  different  languages,  he  takes 
the  foremost  place.  His  I^atin  grammar  was  adopted 
as  a  standard  work  by  the  Ratio  Siudiorum,  or  Plan 
of  Studies,  of  the  Jesuits.  Perhaps  no  other  gram- 
mar has  been  printed  in  so  many  editions;  Sommer- 
vogel,  in  his  "  Bibliothcque  de  la  compagnie  de 
J6sus,"  devotes  twenty-five  columns  to  a  list  of  about 
four  hundred  editions  of  the  whole  work,  or  parts  of 
it,  published  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  There 
exist  also  numerous  translations  into  various  lan- 
guages: Bohemian,  Croatian,  Flemish,  French,  Ger- 
man, Hungarian,  lUyrian,  Italian,  Polish,  Spanish. 
An  edition  with  Chinese  translation  appeared  in 
Shanghai  in  1869.  A  very  interesting  edition  is  one 
published  in  Japan  in  1594,  with  partial  tran.slation 
into  Japanese.  An  English  edition,  "An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Latin  Tongue,  or  First  Book  of  Grammar  ", 
appeared  in  1686.  In  many  editions  the  text  of 
Alvarez  is  changed  considerably,  others  are  abridg- 
ments. The  original  work  contains  many  valuable 
suggestions  for  the  teacher.  On  this  account  it  is 
more  than  a  mere  grammar;  it  is  also  a  work  on  the 
method  of  teaching  Latin,  and  gives  an  insight  into 
the  system  of  the  old  Jesuit  colleges.  The  book  was 
the  subject  of  several  controversies.  Even  Jesuits, 
in  the  "Trial  Ratio"  of  1586,  raised  six  objections, 
and  desired,  particularly,  a  better  arrangement  of 
some  parts  and  greater  clearness.  After  the  publica- 
tion of  Latin  grammars  by  De  Condren,  the  Oratorian, 
and  by  Lancelot,  of  Port-Royal,  both  in  French,  the 
work  of  Alvarez  was  frequently  censured,  because  it 
was  written  in  Latin,  and  "presupposed  what  was 
to  be  learnt ".  Still,  there  were  advantages  in  the 
course  followed  by  Alvarez.  To  be  sure,  to  beginners 
everything  was  explained  in  the  vernacular;  but  the 
early  u.se  of  a  grammar  written  in  Latin  accustomed 
the  pupils  to  speaking  and  writing  that  language. 
Without  some  practice  of  this  kind  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  a  language  can  hardly  be  obtained,  and  in 
former  centuries  a  facility  in  speaking  and  writing 
Latin,  which  was  the  universal  language  of  the 
educated  world,  W!i.s  of  the  greatest  importance. 
At  the  present  day  Jesuit  {oUeges  use  modern  gram- 
mars, thereby  accommodating  themselves  to  new 
conditions  and  changed  educational  ideas. 


Emmancelis  Alvari,  De  Institutione  Crammaticti  Libn 
Tres  (A  good  edition  of  tlie  complete  work  is  tliat  published 
in  Paris,  1859);  Schwickerath,  Jesuit  Education  (St.  Louis, 
1904);  SOMMERVOGEL,  liibliothique  de  la  compagnie  de  Jisua 
(Brussels  and  Paris,  1890);  Pachter.  Monumenta  Germania 
Pa:dagogica  (Berlin,  1887);  Schmid,  Geechichte  der  Erziehuna 
(Stuttgart,  1892),  III,  part  I. 

Robert  Schwickerath. 

Alvarez  de  Paz,  a  famous  mystic  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  b.  at  Toledo  in  1560;  d.  at  Potosi,  17  Januarj-, 
1620.  He  entered  the  Society  in  1578,  taught 
theology  and  philosophy  at  Lima,  and  was  Provincial 
of  Peru.  He  acknowledged  to  his  confessor  that, 
during  all  the  distracting  occupations  of  twenty- 
five  years,  his  union  with  God  had  never  been  in- 
terrupted. Sometimes,  during  his  sermons,  he  fell 
into  ecstasy  and  had  to  be  carried  from  the  pulpit. 
The  fame  of  his  sanctity  was  so  great  in  South  Amer- 
ica, that,  when  he  arrived,  in  a  dying  condition,  at 
Potosi,  the  whole  city  came  out  to  receive  his  bless- 
ing. On  the  day  of  his  death  100,000  men  in  the 
silver  mines  stopped  work  to  assist  at  his  obsequies. 
He  is  said  to  have  had  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  it 
is  reported  that  after  his  death  his  body  remained 
incorrupt.  Hurler  says  of  the  three  folio  volumes  of 
his  works:  "Sumnii  sstimantur;  rara  et  cara  sunt". 
His  first  treatise  is  "De  vitA  spirituali  ejusque 
perfectione"  (1608);  his  second,  "De  extermina- 
tione  mali  et  promotione  boni"  (1613);  his  third, 
"De  inquisitione  pacis,  sive  de  studio  orationis" 
(1611).  The  work  has  been  widely  used  in  com- 
pendiums,  extracts,  and  translations.  In  the  opin- 
ion of  a  recognized  authority  on  mysticism,  Father 
Poulain,  S.J.,  writing  in  Vacant,  "his  bent  is  not 
so  much  to  observe  patiently,  as  to  philosophize  and 
display  mucli  erudition.  He  is  the  first  to  use  the 
expression  oratio  affectiva,  implying  a  species  of 
contemplation  or  meditation  in  which  the  affections 
dominate.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  read  St. 
Teresa,  whose  works  were  just  published,  and  he 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  last  representatives 
of  the  ancient  schools  of  mysticism." 

HuRTER,  Nomenclator;  Sommervogel,  Bibliothcque  de  la  c. 
de  J.  I,  252;  Poulain  in  Diet,  de  thcol.  cath.:  Varonea  ilustrea. 
IV. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Al3T)ius,  Saint,  the  bosom  friend  of  St.  Augustine, 
though  yoimger  than  he,  was,  after  studying  under 
Augustine  at  Milan,  conspicuous  at  first  as  a  magis- 
trate in  Rome.  He  abandoned  that  honour  to 
follow  his  master  into  the  Church.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  there  is  no  mention  of  him  as  a  saint  in  the 
ancient  catalogues.  His  name  was  placed  in  the 
Roman  Martyrology  by  Gregory  XIII,  in  1584,  the 
evidence  of  his  sanctity  being  sufficiently  clear  from 
the  account  of  his  life  by  St.  Augustine.  His  con- 
version began  when  Augustine  was  still  a  Manicha-an, 
and  occurred  in  consequence  of  a  discussion  about 
the  folly  of  those  who  give  way  to  sensual  indulgence. 
A  relapse  occurred  subsequently,  when  he  was 
dragged  by  some  friends  to  witness  the  savage  games 
of  the  arena;  but  the  final  step  was  taken  when,  in 
company  with  Augustine,  in  obedience  to  the  voice, 
Tolle,  lege,  he  read  the  text  of  St.  Paul,  A'on  in 
cnmmcx^ationibus,  etc.  Tliey  were  both  baptized  by 
St.  Ambrose,  at  llilan.  After  living  for  some  time 
with  Augustine,  in  the  monastery  of  Hippo,  ho  was 
made  Bishop  of  Tagaste.  This  was  in  the  year  394, 
and  took  place  after  his  return  from  the  Holy  Land, 
where  he  had  seen  St.  Jerome,  lender  his  guidance 
Tagaste  reproduced  the  sanctity,  learning,  monastic 
exactness,  and  orthodoxy  of  Hippo.  The  exact  date 
of  his  death  is  not  known,  but  his  festival  is  kept 
on  15  August. 

Acta  tianctorum,  IS  August;  Butler,  15   August. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Alzate,  Josl^:  Antonio,  b.  at  Ozumba,  Mexico,  in 
1738;  d.  in  1799.     Alzate,  who  was  a  priest,  was  one 


ALZOa 


375 


AMADEO 


of  the  most  zealous  students  of  liberal  sciences  in 
New  Spain  in  the  seventeenth  century.  More  than 
thirty  treatises  on  various  subjects  are  due  to  liis 
pen.  Astronomy,  pliysics,  meteorology,  antiquities, 
metallurgy,  were  among  the  topics  on  wliicli  he 
wrote,  but  he  also  devoted  serious  attention  to  cer- 
tain branches  of  industry.  Thus  the  growing  of  silk 
in  Mexico  wa.s  the  subject  of  several  of  his  jiajjcrs. 
He  wrote  a  dissertation  on  the  use  of  ammoina  in 
combating  mephitic  gases  in  alxuuloned  mines,  and 
also  prepared  maps  of  New  Spain  (.Mexico).  He  was 
fretiuently  opposed,  even  reviled,  at  home,  but  the 
French  .'Vcademy  of  Sciences  made  him  a  correspond- 
ing member,  and  the  viceroj's  of  Mexico  and  the 
archbishops  entrusted  him  with  sundrj'  scientific 
missions.  In  1708  ho  began  the  publication,  at 
Mexico,  of  a  newspaper,  the  "Diario  literario  de 
Mexico".  His  description  of  the  ruins  of  Xochicaico 
is  the  first  notice  published  of  these  interesting  ruins. 
He  also  wrote  a  commentary  upon  the  work  of 
Clavigero  on  aboriginal  Mexico  and  the  natural 
historj'  of  that  country. 

AnnUn  drt  miiaro  niicwniil  de  Mtrico;  BfcniSTAiN  de  Sodza, 
Bibliotec'i     hiMpano-ameru-nn'i     gctcntrional     (Mexico,     1816); 
HuMDOLDT,     V'ucs    Atft     Corddti-rf»    et    monumenta     indi^jhlea. 
Ad    r.   B.\NI)EI.IER. 

Alzog,  JoH.\NN  B.\rTii5T,  a  Catholic  church  his- 
torian, b.  29  June,  ISOS,  at  Uhlau  in  Silesia;  d. 
1  Mi'rch,  1S7S,  at  Freiburg  (Breisgau).  He  was 
educated  at  Hrcslau  and  Bonn,  ordained  a  priest  in 
1834,  made  doctor  of  theology  by  the  I'niversity  of 
Munich  in  1835,  and 
appointed  professor 
at  Posen  m  1830. 
He  defended  with 
ardour  the  Arch- 
bi.shop  of  that  city, 
Martin  von  Dunin 
(q.     v.),    during    liis 

fcrsecution  by  tlie 
'nissian  govern- 
ment, became  vicar- 
capitiilar,  professor 
and  rcgcns  at  Hildes- 
heim  in  18-15,  and 
in  1853  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  chair  of 
("hurch  Hi.story  in 
the  I'niversity  of 
Freiburg  (Breisgau); 
at  the  same  time  he 
was  appointed  an 
ecclesiastical  councillor  (gcistticher  Ral).  He  was 
also  appointed,  at  a  later  date,  member  of  the 
Vatican  preparatory  commission  for  dogmatic  .|ues- 
tions.  In  character  he  was  amiable  and  virtuous. 
His  "Manual  of  Church  History"  went  through 
nine  editions  (1S40-72)  before  his  deatli,  and  was 
translated  into  several  foreign  languages  (Eng.  tr. 
by  Pabisch  and  Byrne,  Cincinnati,  1874,  et  .siep.).  His 
"Patrology"  went  through  four  editions  (186(>-84), 
and  his  edition  of  the  "Oratio  Apologetica"  of 
St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  reached  a  second  edi- 
tion. He  was  also  a  freq\ient  contributor  to  various 
periodicals.  He  wrote  in  the  first  edition  of  Wetzer 
and  Welte's  "  Kirchenlexikon"  (Freiburg,  1854)  the 
article  on  the  office  of  the  church  historian.  He  also 
wrote  (1857)  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  relation  of  (Ireek 
and  Latin  studies  to  Christian  theology-,  and  tlie 
valuable  work:  "Die  deutschen  Plenaricn  ini  15 
und  zu  .\nfangdes  10  Jahrhunderts"  (Freiburg,  1874). 
Hkrgenrotiieb,  in  Kirchmlex..  I.  OGS;  Lauciikrt,  Alio. 
dtuUchc  Binar.,  XLV,  755>-701;  Kraub,  Gfdachlnuirede 
(Freiburg,  1870). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
Alxon,   Emmani'el  Joseph   Marie  d.'    See  Au- 

OVSTINIANS  OF  THE  ASSUMITION. 


JOHANN   AlZOO 


Ama  or  .\mma.  a  Semitic  term  meaning  mother, 
adopted  by  the  Copts  and  the  Greeks  as  a  title  ot 
honour  applied  to  religious  and  to  ladies  of  high  rank. 
In  Coptic  inscriptions,  according  to  Ledercq,  it  ia 
given  to  both  of  these  categories  of  personages.  The 
Greeks  seem  to  have  usecf  it  generally  in  tlie  .same 
sense  as  tlie  Latin  abbalissa  or  abbess.  (2)  Ama 
(amula).  A  vessel  in  which  the  wine  offered  by  the 
people  for  the  Holy  Sacrifice  was  received  (<  )rdo  Uom., 
I,  13).  Po|)e  .\drian  I  (772-795)  presented  to  the 
Church  of  St.  Adrian  ama  una  (Liber  Pont.  I, 
510). 

Lkclercq  in  Did.  d'arch.  chrH.  el  de  lit.,  I.  l.'i00-23;  KhCll 
in  Real.  Enrvlcl.  drr.  chr.  Allerlhamer,  I,  48.  49. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 
Amadeans,  Amadeus.    See  Fhiars  Minor. 

Amadeo  (or  O.modeo),  Giovanni  Antonio,  an 
Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  b.  near  Pavia  in  1447; 
d.  27  August,  1522,  at  Milan.  In  1460  he  was  en- 
gaged as  a  sculptor,  with  his  brother  Prota.sio,  at 
the  famous  Certosa,  near  Pavia.  He  was  a  follower 
of  the  style  of  Bramantino  of  Milan,  and  he  repre- 
sents, like  him,  the  Loiijlianl  dircclion  of  tlie  Renais- 
sance. He  practised  cultiiig  deeply  into  marble,  ar- 
ranging draperies  in  cartaceous  folds,  and  treating 
surfaces  flatly  even  when  he  sculpturetl  figures  in 
high  relicL  Excepting  in  these  technical  points  he 
difTered  from  his  a.s.sociates  completely,  anil  so  far 
surpa.ssed  them  that  he  may  be  ranked  with  the  great 
Tuscan  artists  of  his  time,  which  can  be  said  of  hardly 
any  other  North-Italian  sculptor. 

While  engaged  at  the  Certosa,  he  executed  the 
beautiful  door  leading  from  the  church  into  the 
cloister,  still  known  as  "  tlie  door  of  Amadeo".  It  is 
exquisitely  decorated  in  Bramantesque  style,  reliefs 
of  angels  and  foliage  surround  the  door,  and  in  the 
tympanum  is  a  fine  relief  of  the  Virgin  and  Child, 
lie  also  produced  many  marble  reliefs  for  the  fa- 
(^ades  of  the  tombs  in  the  Certosa.  After  complet- 
ing his  work  in  Pavia,  .\matleo  went  to  Bergamo  to 
desigii  the  tomb  of  .Medea,  ilaughler  of  the  famous 
conaoltierc  Bartholomeo  CoUeoni,  in  (he  CoUeoni 
chapel.  He  returned  to  Pavia  in  October,  1478. 
On  the  death  of  Guiniforfe  Solan  (1481),  Amadeo 
had  been  (emporarily  ai>poin(ed  to  succeed  him  as 
head  architect  of  the  Certosa,  and  was  <  ommissioned 
to  make  a  fresh  design  for  the  facade,  with  the  as.sist- 
ance  of  Benedetto  Briosco,  Antonio  della  Porta,  and 
Stefano  di  Sesto.  But  it  was  not  till  1490,  when  he 
was  confirmed  in  his  office,  that  he  made  the  design 
which  was  accepted,  and  which  was  subsequently  car- 
ried out  by  him  and  his  succe.s.sors.  It  is  not  known 
when  -Vni.ideo  made  the  Borromeo  monuments, 
formerly  in  tlie  church  of  St.  Pietni  in  Gessotc,  at 
Milan,  and  now  in  the  Borromeo  chapel  at  Isola 
Bella,  on  Lago  Maggiore. 

.\bout  1490,  after  an  absence  of  eight  or  nine  years, 
Amadeo  returned  to  his  post  at  the  Certosa  and  re- 
ceived the  contract  for  the  interior,  and  also  for  the 
duomo  of  .Milan,  and,  after  constructing  a  cl.ay  model 
of  (he  favatle,  built  it  without  interruption  up  to  the 
first  corridor.  He  was  joint  archi(ect  of  (he  Certosa 
and  of  the  catheilrals  of  Pavia  and  Mil.an,  until  he 
undertook  (o  crown  (he  la((er  wi(h  a  cupola  in  Go(hic 
form,  which  aroused  much  opposidon  .ind  criticism. 
He  (hen  resigned  his  odier  oliices  and  took  up  liis 
residence  at  .Milan,  where,  assisted  by  his  colleague 
Diilccbuono,  ho  commenced  his  work,  in  1497,  ac- 
cording to  the  accepted  model,  and  carried  it  up  to 
the  octagon.  ,\s  its  solidity  was  then  quesdonetl  by 
Cristoforo  Solari  and  .\ndrea  Fu.sina,  (he  directors 
s(opped  (he  work  (l.')03).  .\f(er  (his  defea(  he  left 
Milan,  widi  his  brodier  .\ndrea,  and  resided  a(  \'enice 
for  several  years,  during  which  he  produced  a  St. 
George  for  a  chapel  in  (he  church  of  La  Caritii,  also 
a  statue  of  Eve.     Many  vexations  weighed  heavily 


AMADEUS 


376 


AMALARIUS 


upon  the  old  artist,  who  (heil  ex  decrepitate,  says 
the  record,  worn  out  not  less  by  adverse  fortune  than 
by  a  life  of  unremitting  labour.  A  leader  among 
North-Italian  sculptors  in  teclinic,  in  facility,  and 
refinement,  he  would  hardly  have  any  rival  even 
among  his  Tuscan  contemporaries,  were  his  style 
free  from  mannerisms,  and  his  standard  of  beauty 
more  elevateil. 

Pekkins,  HUtorical  Handbook  of  Italian  Sculpture,  184-193: 
Scott,  Cathedral  Builders.  373,  378,  379,  Meyers,  Leiicon.  I, 
461;  LtJBKE,  GeschithU  der  Architektur,  I,  217;  Meyer,  Die 
Baukuiut,  II,  11-13.  ^  ^,    ^ 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Amadeus  of  Portugal.     See  Mendez,  Joas  de; 

Franclscaxs. 

Amadeus  of  Savoy.     See  Felix  V,  Antipope. 

Amadia  and  Akra. — This  double  title  designates 
two  Catholic  ilioceses  of  the  Chaldean  Rite  in  Kur- 
distan, Turkey  in  Asia.  The  Diocese  of  Amadia 
existed  originally  under  another  title;  it  received  its 
actual  name  after  the  foundation  of  the  city  of 
Amadia.  In  tlie  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
it  was  subdivided  into  three  dioceses:  Amadia, 
Zakho,  and  Akra.  On  10  June,  1895,  the  Dioceses  of 
Amadia  and  Akra  were  provisionally  united;  the 
bishop  resides  sometimes  in  one,  sometimes  in  the 
other  of  these  two  small  towns,  or  even  in  Araden. 
Amadia  is  tlie  principal  garrison  town  of  the  vilayet 
of  Mossoul,  about  fifty  mUes  north  of  this  city.  It 
has  5,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  2,500  are  Mussulmans, 
Kurds  for  tlie  most  part,  1,900  Jews,  1 ,600  Chaldeans. 
The  Dominicans  of  Mossoul  have  a  summer  resi- 
dence there.  Within  the  limits  of  the  dioce.se  the 
great  majority  of  inhabitants  are  Kurdish  Mussul- 
mans, mingled  with  a  certain  number  of  Jews.  The 
Christians,  all  Chaldeans,  number  6,000,  of  whom 
3,000  are  Catholics  and  3,000  Nestorians.  The 
Catholics  have  14  parishes,  16  churches,  13  priests, 
6  schools  for  boys.  In  Amadia  the  Protestant 
missionaries  have  many  missions  with  schools. 
Akra  is  another  principal  garrison  town  of  the  same 
vilayet  (province).  It  is  beautifully  situated  on 
the  flank  of  Cliindar,  with  4,700  inhabitants,  of  whom 
4,050  are  Mussulman  Kurds,  300  Jews,  250  Chris- 
tians, Chaldeans  or  Jacobites.  The  Chaldeans 
have  a  clmrch  and  school;  the  Jacobites  have  a 
chapel,  hollowed  out  of  the  rock.  Zebhar,  or  Zibar, 
whicli  name  is  sometimes  joined  to  the  episcopal 
title  of  .\kra,  is  another  garrison  post.  In  the  Diocese 
of  Akra  tlie  greater  part  of  the  population  is  com- 
posed of  Kurdish  Mussulmans.  There  are  also  a 
small  number  of  Jews,  some  Jacobites,  some  Chaldean 
Nestorians  grouped  in  the  11  villages,  and,  finally, 
1,000  Chaldean  Catholics.  The  last  have  13  parishes, 
12  churches,  8  priests,  2  schools  for  boys.  The 
above  figures  are  those  given  by  J.  B.  Chabot,  in  his 
"  I'jtat  religicux  des  dioceses  formant  le  patriarcat 
chald(''en  de  Babylone  ",  in  the  "Revue  de  I'Orient 
Chretien"  (Paris,  1896),  I,  449-450.  The  "Missiones 
Catholics"  (Rome,  1895),  612,  gives  the  following 
figures:  .\madia,  2,000  Chaldeans,  15  parishes,  5 
secular  priests,  5  regvilars,  1  school  (at  Araden); 
.Vkra,  2,000  Chaldean  families,  8  churches,  6  priests. 
A.  Battandier,  "  .\nnuaire  pontif.  cathol."  (Paris, 
1901),  269,  indicates  5,000  Chaldeans  for  both  dio- 
ce.ses,  of  whom  1,000  are  for  Akra;  17  parishes,  22 
secular  priests,  4  regulars.  S.  Petrides. 

Amalarius  of  Metz,  a  liturgical  writer,  b.  at 
Metz,  in  tjie  la.st  (luartcr  of  the  eighth  century; 
d.  about  850.  lie  was  formerly  considered  a  ditTer- 
ent  personage  from  Amalarius  of  Tri^ves  (Trier),  but 
of  late,  owing  to  the  researches  of  Doni  Morin,  the 
opinion  seems  to  prevail  that  about  811,  Amalarius 
of  Metz  became  Bishop  of  Treves,  which  diocese  he 
rolitKpiished  after  two  years  to  act  !is  envoy  to 
Constantinople.     Hence    he    is    regarded    as    author 


of  the  works  once  attributed  to  .\malarius  of  Treves. 
He  w;w  for  some  time  a  disciple  of  Alcuin.  After 
returning  to  France  from  Constantinople,  he  would 
appear  to  have  assisted  at  important  synods  held 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Paris.  Later,  he  was  sent 
by  Louis  le  D^bonnaire  as  ambassador  to  Gregory  IV 
at  Rome,  this  being  proljably  his  second  visit  to  the 
Eternal  City.  Later,  he  governed  the  Diocese  of 
Lyons  during  the  exile  of  Agobard,  and  there  tried 
to  introduce  his  new  antiphonarj-,  but  met  with 
strong  opposition  from  the  deacon  Florus.  ^^'llen 
Agobard  was  restored  to  his  see,  both  he  and  Florus 
attacked  the  writings  of  Amalarius  and  succeeded 
in  having  him  censured  at  a  synod  held  at  Kiersy  in 
838  for  his  opinion  concerning  the  signification  of  the 
parts  of  the  divided  Host  at  Mass.  Finally  Amala- 
rius was  involved  in  tlie  theological  contro^'ersies  on 
predestination  raised  by  Gottschalk.  The  date  of 
his  death  has  not  been  determined  with  certainty, 
but  it  must  have  been  shortly  after  the  year  850. 
The  works  of  Amalarius  treat  chiefly  of  liturgical 
subjects.  His  most  important  and  also  his  longest 
treatises  are  entitled  "De  ecclesiasticis  oPiciis"  and 
"De  ordine  antiphonarii".  The  former  is  divided 
into  four  books,  in  which  without  observing  a  strict, 
logical  order  he  treats  of  the  Mass,  the  Office,  differ- 
ent benedictions,  ordinations,  vestments,  etc.,  giv- 
ing an  explanation  of  the  various  formularies  and 
ceremonies  rather  than  a  scientific  exposition  of  the 
liturgy.  The  first  book  explains  the  liturgical  sea- 
sons and  feasts  from  Septuagesima  to  Pentecost  and 
especially  the  ceremonies  of  Holy  Week.  The  second 
book  treats  of  the  times  for  conferring  Holy  Orders, 
of  the  different  orders  in  the  Church  and  of  the 
liturgical  vestments.  The  third  book  contains  a 
few  preliminary  cliapters  on  bells,  the  choir,  etc.,  a 
treatise  on  the  different  parts  of  the  Mass  celebrated 
pontifically  according  to  the  Roman  Rite,  and  some 
chapters  on  special  subjects,  e.  g.  Advent,  the  Mass 
for  the  Dead,  etc.  The  fourth  book  deals  principally 
with  the  Divine  Office,  explaining  its  integral  parts 
and  the  offices  peculiar  to  certain  liturgical  seasons 
or  feast  days,  but  it  contains  a  few  supplementarj 
chapters  on  obsequies  for  the  dead  and  on  subjects 
already  treated.  In  the  "De  ordine  antiphonarii" 
he  explains  the  arrangement  of  the  Divine  Office  and 
the  variations  for  the  different  feasts,  and  considers 
in  particular  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  antiphons 
and  responses;  indeed  in  this  work  he  would  seem 
a  commentator  on  his  own  antiplionary  compiled 
from  the  antiphonaries  of  Rome  and  Jletz,  and  a 
defender  of  his  method  of  composition.  His  "Ec- 
loga;  de  officio  misss"  contains  a  description  of 
pontifical  Mass  according  to  the  Roman  Rite  and  a 
mystical  explanation  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
Mass.  Several  letters  of  Amalarius  dealing  with 
liturgical  subjects  have  also  been  preserved.  Dom 
Morin  denies  the  authenticity  of  the  letter  of  Amal- 
arius in  response  to  certain  questions  of  Charlemagne 
concerning  ba])tism,  as  well  as  the  "Forma  institu- 
tionis  (■:in()nicorum  et  sanctimonialium",  which  is  a 
collection  of  rules  taken  from  the  decrees  of  councils 
and  works  of  the  Fathers,  for  clerics  and  nuns  living 
in  comnnmity.  Unfortunately  his  antiphonary  and 
also  his   "Emliolis"   have  not   been  preserved. 

Amalarius  .seems  to  have  had  a  strong  liking  for 
liturgicid  studies,  a  liking  which  was  stimulated  and 
fostered  by  his  master  Alcuin.  His  tra\els  to  the 
East  gave  him  considerable  information  concernitig 
the  Oriental  ritos,  but  his  stay  in  Rome  appears  to 
have  imbued  him  with  a  deep  love  for  the  Ronuui 
liturgy  and  to  have  greatly  influenced  liis  liturgical 
work.  There  ho  made  a  special  study  of  rul>rics 
and  Roman  customs;  he  inquire<l  diligently  of 
Theodore,  the  archpriest  of  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter, 
concerning  the  formularies  and  ceremonies  there  in 
use,  and  even  sought  to  obtain  copies  of  the  liturgical 


AMALBEROA 


377 


AMALEO 


books  to  bring  to  France.  Living  just  at  this  time 
when  the  liturgy  was  changing,  when  the  fusion  of 
the  Honian  ami  tiallican  uses  was  taking  place,  he 
exercised  a  remarkable  influence  in  introducing  the 
present  composite  liturgy,  which  has  linally  sup- 
planted the  ancient  Roman  Kite.  He  sought  to 
carry  out  the  desire  of  the  Kmporor  to  introduce 
the  Roman  liturgy  in  order  to  obtain  uniformity, 
but  at  the  same  time,  like  Alcuin  and  other  litmgists 
of  his  age,  he  combined  with  the  Roman  whatever 
he  deemed  worth  preserving  in  the  dallican  Rite,  as 
may  be  easily  seen  in  his  commentary  on  his  own 
antiphonary.  The  chief  merit  of  his  works  consists 
in  the  fact  that  they  have  ])reserved  much  accurate 
and  valuable  information  on  the  state  of  the  liturgy 
at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  centurj-,  so  that  a 
comparison  may  easily  be  made  between  it  and  the 
present  liturgy  to  determine  what  changes  have 
occurred  and  to  trace  tlic  <levelopment  that  has  taken 
place.  The  most  serious  defect  in  his  writings  is  an 
excessive  mysticism  which  led  him  to  seek  far- 
fetched and  even  absvu'd  symbolical  origins  and 
meanings  for  liturgical  formulas  and  ceremonies, 
but  the  fault  may  be  in  a  measure  excused  since  it 
was  common  to  all  liturgical  writers  of  that  time. 
He  may  also  have  used  more  literty  in  composing, 
changing,  and  transposing  liturgical  texts  than  ec- 
clesiiistical  authority  in  later  ages  would  permit, 
when  the  ne;^e3sity  of  unity  in  the  liturgy  was  more 
imix-rativcly  felt.  In  spite  of  these  fa\uts  he  exer- 
cised great  influence  on  the  development  of  the 
present  Roman  liturgy  and  his  works  are  very  use- 
ful for  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  Latin  liturgies. 
P.  L..  CV.  815:  XCIX.  8S7;  nrlicles  by  Mohin.  in  the  flr- 
i'u<  Bhiidicline  (1891-y2-94):  Dkbroise  in  Diet,  dnrch.  clirel. 
(Paris,  1904).  I,  13l'3;  Batih  ol.  llUtoru  af  Ihc  Roman  Bn- 
ruiru,  tr.  by  Bayi.ev  (New  York,  1898).  90;  Sthebkh  in 
KircherOez.,  I.  672:  SlRMONn.  Opera  varia  (Paris,  169C),  IV; 
Saiire,  Der  LUurgiker  Amalariue  (Dresden,   1893). 

J.  F.  CiOGGIN. 

Amalberga,  Saint,  otherwise  Amelia,  was  related 
in  some  way  to  Pepin  of  Landen.  Whether  she  was 
sister  or  niece,  the  Hollandists  are  not  sure.  She  was 
married  to  Witger  and  l)ecame  the  mother  of  three 
saints,  Gudila,  Reinelda,  and  Emembertus.  The 
Norman  chroniclers  speak  of  her  as  twice  married, 
which  seems  to  l>e  erroneous.  Nor  are  Pharailda 
and  Krmclrndo  admit  led  by  the  Rollandists  to  have 
been  her  children.  She  and  her  husband  ultimately 
withdrew  from  tlie  world,  he  becoming  a  monk,  and 
she  a  nun.  There  is  very  great  confusion  in  the 
records  of  this  saint,  and  of  a  virgrn  who  came  a 
century  after.  To  add  to  the  difhculty  a  third  St. 
Amalberga,  also  a  virgin,  appears  in  the  twelfth 
century.  The  first  two  are  celebrated  simultaneously 
on  10  July. 

Acta  SS..  Ill,  July.  T.   J.   C.\MPDELL. 

Amalberga,  Saixt,  a  virgin,  very  much  revered 
in  Belgium,  who  is  said  to  have  been  sought  in  mar- 
riage i)y  Charles,  afterwards  Charlemagne.  Con- 
tinually repulsed,  Charles  finally  attempted  to  carry 
her  oil  by  force,  but  though  he  broke  her  arm  in 
the  struggle  he  was  unable  to  move  her  from  the 
altar  before  which  she  had  pro,strated  herself.  The 
royal  lover  was  forced  to  abandon  his  suit,  and  left 
her  in  peace.  Many  miracles  arc  attributed  to  her, 
among  others  the  cure  of  Charles,  who  was  stricken 
with  illness  because  of  the  nidencss  with  which  he 
had  treated  the  saint.  She  died  10  July,  in  her 
thirty-first  year,  five  years  after  Charles  had  as- 
cended the  throne. 

Arl,i  SS..  Ill,  July.  ,„    ,    „ 

T.  J.  CAMPnEI.L. 

Amalec  (.\malecites  in  Douay  Vers.;  or  Amalek, 
.\m  vLKKiTEs)  a  people  remembered  chiefly  as  the 
most  hated  of  all  the  enemies  of  Israel,  and  tradi- 
tionally reputed  amon|;  the  fiercest  of  Bedouin  tribes. 

I.  Orioi.v. — According  to  a  widely  accepted  inter- 


Eretation  of  Gen.,  xxxvi,  10-12,  their  descent  is  to 
e  traced  from  .Amalec,  son  of  Eliphaz  and  grand- 
son of  Esau,  and  ultimately  therefore  from  Abraham; 
which  account  is  credited  by  most  modern  scholars 
in  so  far  as  it  indicates  the  Arabian  origin  of  the 
Amalecites  and  a  racial  affinity  with  the  Hebrews. 
The  Amalec  of  Gen.,  xxxvi,  12,  however,  is  not 
stated  to  be  the  ancestor  of  the  Amalecites,  though 
the  main  purpose  of  the  context,  which  gives  the 
origin  of  various  Arabian  tribes,  favours  that  view; 
but  against  it  is  the  earlier  account  of  Gen.,  xiv, 
which  can  only  be  fairly  interpreted  to  mean  that 
the  Amalecites,  instead  of  being  descended  from 
Abraham,  were  already  a  distinct  tribe  in  his  day, 
when  they  were  defeated  at  Cades  (Kadesh)  by 
Chodorlahomor  (Chedorlaomer),  King  of  the  Klam- 
ites.  This  evidence  of  their  antiquity  would  be 
confirmetl  by  the  more  probable  interpretation  of 
tho.se  who  regard  the  obscure  prophecy  of  Balaam, 
concerning  "Amalec,  the  first  of  the  nations"  aa 
indicating,  not  their  greatne-ss,  but  their  age,  relative 
to  the  other  nations  mentioned  in  the  oracle.  No 
light  on  the  origin  of  the  Amalecites  can  be  gathered 
from  other  than  biblical  sources;  the  Arabian  tra- 
ditions are  late  and  add  nothing  trustworthy  to  the 
biblical  data;  and  though  it  happens  that  nearly 
every  passage  of  Scripture  concerning  their  origin 
is  subjected  by  competent  schohirs  to  different,  and 
at  times,  even  contradictory,  interpretations,  little 
doubt  is  entertained  that  the  Amalecites  were  of 
Arabian  .stock  and  of  greater  antiquity  than  the 
Israelites.  The  belief  in  their  Arabic  descent  is 
confirmed  by  their  mode  of  life  and  place  of  dwelling. 

II.  Seat. — The  Amalecites  were  nomadic  and 
warlike  and  their  name  is  consequently  connected 
in  the  Bible  with  variotis  regions.  Their  original 
home,  however,  as  appears  from  I  K.,  xxvii,  S,  was 
in  the  desert  to  the  south  and  southwest  of  Judea, 
which  stretches  to  the  border  of  Egypt  and  to  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Sinai,  and  is  now  called  Et  Tih;  a  region 
too  arid  for  cultivation,  but  fertile  enough  to  aflord 
excellent  pasture.  This  indication  of  I  K.,  xxvii,  8, 
is  confirmed  by  other  passages.  It  w.as  in  this 
desert,  at  Cades,  that  they  suffered  defeat  from 
Chodorlahomor  (Gen.,  xiv);  here,  farther  to  the 
south,  at  Rapliidim,  near  the  foot  of  Mt.  Sinai,  they 
offered  opposition  to  Moses  (Ex.,  xvii);  here  Satll 
attacked  them  (I  K.,  xv),  and  here  the  last  remnant 
of  them  perished  under  Ezechias  (I  Par.,  iv,  43). 
But  they  were  not  always  confined  to  the  desert; 
they  pushed  farther  north  and  in  Moses's  time  some 
of  them,  at  least,  are  found  within  the  borders  of 
Palestine,  and  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the  Israel- 
ites to  enter  the  country  from  the  south  (Num.,  xiii). 
Twice  our  present  He\)rew  text  shows  them  even 
as  far  north  as  the  territory  of  I^phraim  (Judges,  v, 
14;  xii,  1.5);  but  in  both  ca.ses  there  seems  to  be  a 
faulty  reading  in  the  Hebrew,  which  allows  us, 
therefore,  to  dispense  with  the  habitual  specula- 
tions, based  on  these  texts,  regarding  the  great 
expansion  and  varying  fortunes  of  the  Amalecites 
and  their  puzzling  po.s,se.s.sion  of  Mount  Ephraim. 
(.See  commentaries  of  Moore  and  Lagrange  on 
Judges,  and  Moore's  Hebrew  text  of  Judges  in 
Paul  Ilaupt's  polychrome  Bible.)  Nomads  and 
po.s.se.ssors  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  the  Amalecites 
neces.sarily  came  into  contact,  and  almost  inevitably 
into  conflict,  with  the  Israehtes. 

III.  .\mai,ec  and  Israel  U-vdeu  Moses. — Their 
first  meeting  took  place  in  the  first  year  of  the 
wandering,  after  Lsrael  came  out  of  Egypt,  and  w.is 
of  such  a  nature  that  Israel  then  conceived  a  hatred 
of  the  Am.alecites  that  outlasted  their  extermination 
under  King  Ezechias,  many  centuries  later.  The 
first  encounter  was  at  Rapliidim.  wliere  the  Israelites 
under  Moses  had  encamped  on  their  way  to  Mount 
Sinai;  in  the  desert  home,  therefore,  of   the  Amale- 


AMALEC 


378 


AMALEC 


cites.  Moses,  putting  J'lsue  in  command,  went  up 
to  the  top  of  a  hill,  with  .\aron  and  Hur,  and  it  was 
on  this  occasion  that  the  fortune  of  battle  was  de- 
cided by  "the  rod  of  God"  held  in  the  hands  of 
Moses,  Israel  prevailing  while  his  hands  upheld  the 
rod  .\malec  when  thev  dropped,  the  victory  finally 
going  to  the  Israelites  (Ex.,  xvn).  There  is  little  in 
this  account  of  Kxodus  to  show  why  the  Amalecites 
should  be  singled  out  to  incur  the  special  animosity 
of  the  Israelites,  yet  it  concludes  with  the  decree  of 
Jehovah  that  He  will  destroy  the  memory  of  Amalec 
from  under  heaven,  and  that  His  hand  will  be  against 
Amalec  from  gi^nerat  ion  to  generation.  Amalec,  how- 
ever, was  the  aggressor  (ibid.,  8);  though  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Israelites  had  invaded 
their  country.  The  reason  for  Israel's  hatred, 
which  is  wanting  in  this  historical  account,  may  be 
supplied  from  the  later  (and  hortatory)  account 
given  in  Dent.,  xxv,  where  it  is  incidentally  stated 
that  the  head  of  Amalec's  offending  lay  in  his  cruel 
and  treacherous  attack,  by  which  he  disregarded  the 
laws  of  Bedouin  hospitality,  which  was  an  affront  to 
God  as  well  as  to  man.  Instead  of  showing  ordinary 
humanity  to  the  feeble  stragglers  of  the  Israelite 
army,  "spent  with  hunger  and  labour",  they  ruth- 
lessly slew  them.  Now,  "according  to  the  rules  of 
ancient  Arabian  hospitality,  and  with  some  sense 
of  God,  the  .\malecites  ought  to  have  spared,  and 
indeed,  rather  assisted,  those  who  lagged  behind, 
unfit  for  battle.  That  they  did  the  contrary  was 
inhuman  and  barbarous"  (Dillman).  Cruelty  such 
as  this  was  considered  to  render  a  tribe  unfit  for 
existence;  so  hatred  of  the  Amalecites,  even  unto 
extermination,  was  enjoined  upon  the  Israelites  as  a 
religious  duty.  Even  apart,  however,  from  this 
cruelty,  rivalry  between  the  two  tribes  was  almost 
inevitable,  as  Amalec  could  not  be  expected  to 
regard  with  complacency  Israel's  invasion  of  his 
rich    pasture-lands. 

No  further  molestation  from  the  Amalecites  is 
related  during  the  journey  of  the  Israelites  to  Mt. 
Sinai,  or  their  stay  there,  or  their  march  to  Cades, 
near  ihe  southern  boundary  of  Palestine.  It  was 
from  this  side  that  the  Israelites  first  attempted  the 
entry  into  the  Promised  Land;  and  here  they  again 
encountered  the  Amalecites,  at  the  place  where  the 
ancestors  of  the  latter  had  been  defeated  by  Chodor- 
lahomor.  Israel  had  got  as  far  as  the  wilderness  of 
Pharan  (Paran)  and  from  there  they  sent  spies  into 
Palestine  to  spy  out  the  peoples  there,  with  their 
lands  and  cities.  The  Amalecites  were  found  in  the 
south  of  the  country  and  apparently  at  the  head  of 
a  confederacy  of  different  tribes,  or  nations,  since 
they  soon  led  a  concerted  attack  on  the  Israelites; 
but  the  spies  also  brought  back  reports  of  giants 
living  in  the  land,  in  comparison  with  whom,  they 
said,  "we  were  in  our  own  sight  as  grasshoppers; 
and  .so  we  were  in  their  sight"  {sic  Heb.  text.  Num., 
xiii,  M).  These  stories  of  the  giants  frightened  the 
people  and  "  the  whole  multitude  crying  wept  that 
night",  and  they  began  to  murmur  and  to  wish  they 
had  died  in  Kgypt  or  in  the  wilderness,  rather  than 
be  doomed  by  ttic  Lord  to  undertake  the  conquest 
of  the  land  of  giants.  Mo.ses,  Aaron,  and  Josue  con- 
tended against  their  foolish  rebellious  spirit,  but 
only  gained  their  hatred;  and  the  Lord  then  passed 
on  them  tlie  punishment  of  the  forty  years'  wander- 
ing, decreeing  that  none  of  them  should  enter  the 
Promised  Land.  This  grieving  the  people  exceed- 
ingly, they  determined  to  go  up  into  the  land  and 
attack  the  .\malecites  and  the  Chanaanites.  But 
Moses  forbade  it,  prophesying  evil  because  the  Lord 
was  not  with  them.  They  presumed,  nevertheless, 
to  go  up,  though  Moses  would  not  accompany  them, 
and  they  met  the  fate  foretold;  the  Amalecites, 
with  their  allies,  attacking  them  with  considerable 
slaughter  and  driving  them  as  far  as  Horma  (Num., 


xiv,  4.5).  The  subsequent  history  of  the  Amalecites 
during  the  time  of  Moses  is  obscure.  Their  destruc- 
tion is  foretold  by  Balaam  in  his  famous  oracle 
uttered  on  the  top  of  Phogor,  while  he  viewed  the 
nations  around.  "And  when  he  saw  Amalec  he 
took  up  his  parable  and  said:  'Amalec,  the  first  of 
nations,    thy   latter  end   shall   be   destruction,'  "   a 

f)rophecy  (whatever  be  its  date)  which  shows  at 
east  that  Amalec  once  held  an  important  place 
among  the  Semitic  tribes  or  nations  surrounding 
Israel  (Num.,  xxiv).  The  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy 
is  enjoined  upon  tlie  Israelites  by  Moses  in  a  farewell 
discourse  as  a  sacred  duty.  "When  they  shall  have 
established  peace  with  all  other  peoples,  then  shall 
they  blot  out  the  remembrance  of  Amalec  from  under 
heaven:  see  thou  forget  it  not"  (Deut.,  xxv,  19). 
And  if  this  seem  an  inhuman  command,  let  us  remem- 
ber the  prevailing  sentiment  that  the  Amalecites 
were  "inhuman  and  barbarous;  a  people  with  such 
evil  customs  deserves  no  mercy  " ;  for  it  is  a  question 
of  national  life  or  death.  It  is  plain,  however,  that 
we  are  far  from  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

IV.  Period  of  the  Judges. — Under  Josue, 
Israel,  entering  Palestine  from  the  east,  did  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  Amalecites,  but  was  kept  bu.sy 
with  other  enemies,  whose  territories  they  were 
endeavouring  to  capture.  As  soon,  howe\'er,  as 
the  Israelites  were  well  established  in  Palestine, 
the  old  enmity  became  active  again.  When  Eglon, 
King  of  Moab,  went  up  against  Israel,  he  was  joined 
by  the  Amalecites  and  Ammonites  as  allies,  and 
togetlier  they  subdued  the  Israelites;  and  the 
Israelites  remained  in  subjection  for  fourteen  years 
till,  through  tlie  cunning  and  treachery  of  Aod 
(Ehud)  the  Benjamite,  King  Eglon  met  his  tragic 
death  (Judges,  iii).  Petty  warfare  between  the 
Amalecites  and  the  Israelites  was  incessant  during 
a  good  part  of  the  period  of  the  Judges.  The  Israel- 
ites had  by  this  time  become  an  agricultural  people, 
while  the  Amalecites  remained  Bedouin,  and  made 
frequent  incursions  into  the  land  of  their  enemy  and 
destroyed  their  crops  and  cattle  (Judges,  vi).  On 
one  occasion,  they  accompanied  the  Madianites  on 
an  invasion  of  Palestine,  forming  an  almost  innumer- 
able host;  they  were  unexpectedly  attacked  at 
night  by  Gedeon  and  300  picked  men,  and  through 
panic  (and  perhaps  distrust)  turned  the  sword  on  one 
another  and  fled,  with  Gedeon  in  pursuit  (Judges,  vii). 

V.  S.vuL. — This  defeat  of  the  Amalecites,  it  seems, 
had  the  effect  of  quieting  them  for  many  years,  for 
they  are  not  heard  of  again  till  the  early  days  of 
Saul.  Saul  began  his  reign  by  vigorous  military 
operations,  waging  war,  with  great  success,  against 
"enemies  on  every  side";  among  them,  the  Amale- 
cites, who  had  been  harassing  the  Israelites  (I  K., 
xiv,  48).  Then  came  the  prophet  Samuel  and  re- 
minded Saul  of  Amalec's  old  offence  and  Gotl's 
decree  of  extermination.  The  prophet's  words  made 
it  clear  (xv,  1-3)  that  no  enemy  was  hated  like 
Amalec  and  that  his  extermination  was  regardeil  as 
a  religious  duty,  imposed  by  God.  All,  man,  woman, 
child,  and  beast,  were  to  be  destroyed  and  Israel 
was  to  covet  none  of  Amalec's  possessions  for  spoils. 
Saul  proceeded  to  carry  out  this  injunction,  anil  its 
character  as  special  punishment  upon  the  Amale- 
cites is  emphasized  by  his  mercy  to  the  Cinite  (Ken- 
ites).  Saul  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Amalecites 
to  the  south  of  Palestine  and  smote  them  from 
Hevila  in  the  extreme  east,  to  Sur  near  the  border 
of  I'gypt — a  campaign  of  unusual  magnitude — and 
put  all  to  the  sworil, — men,  women,  and  children — 
except  the  King,  Agag,  whom  he  took  alive,  and  the 
best  of  the  animals,  which  he  reserved  for  sacrifice. 
I'or  this  disobedience  in  sparing  .\gag  and  the  best 
of  the  flocks  and  herds,  Saul  was  rejected  in  the  name 
of  God  by  Samuel  who  hewed  down  .Vgag  in  his 
presence;  from  that  day  his  fortune  changed,  and 


AMALFI 


379 


AMALRIOIANS 


when,  after  Samuel's  death,  Saul  consulted  his  spirit 
in  the  cave  at  l^ndor,  he  was  told  tliat  he  was  re- 
jected because  he  had  not  executeil  tlie  fierce  wratli 
of  God  upon  Ainalec  (Newman's  sermon,  "  Wilful- 
ness tlie  Sin  of  Saul").  It  was  an  Amalccite  who 
clainicil,  untrutlifuUy,  it  seems  (II  K.,  i.with  I  K,, 
xxxi),  to  liave  given  King  Saul  his  deatli-l)low. 
While  still  a  fugitive  from  Saul,  David  was  bringing 
nearer  to  its  climax  the  extermination  of  the  doomed 
race.  He  was  in  the  service  of  Aohis,  King  of  Geth, 
in  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  near  therefore  to 
Amalecite  territory.  Witli  his  own  men,  and  soldiers 
borrowed  from  .Vcliis,  he  raided  the  Anialccites  and 
inflicted  great  .slaugliter,  sparing  not  a  soul  (I  K., 
xxvii).  The  .\malecites  retaliateil,  during  the 
absence  of  Da\id  and  Achis,  by  burning  Siceleg 
(Ziklag),  a  citv  wliicli  .Vcliis  had  given  to  David,  and 
carrying  off  all  its  inhabitants,  including  two  wives 
of  Davitl.  David  pursueil  and  overtook  tlio  enemy 
in  the  midst  of  feast  and  revel,  recovered  all  the  spod 
and  captives,  and  slew  all  the  .\malucitcs  except 
400  yoimg  men  who  escapeil  on  camels  (xxx).  This 
slaughter  broke  the  power  of  tlic  Amalecites  and 
drove  them  back  to  their  desert  home;  there  a 
miserable  renmant  of  them  lingered  on  till  the  days 
of  Ezechias,  tenth  succes.sor  of  David,  when  a  band 
of  oOO  Simeonites  sufficed  to  exterminate,  to  the 
last  man,  Israel's  fiercest  foe  (I  Par.,  iv,  42,  4.3). 
Thus  on  Mount  Seir  was  fulfdlctl  the  doom  passed 
on  them  by  Mo.ses  anil  Balaam  about  six  hundred 
years  earlier.  Their  name  occurs  no  more  except 
m  Ps.  Ixxxii  (reputed  by  many  to  be  of  the  Macha- 
bean  period)  where  the  use  cannot  be  taken  as  an 
historical  datum,  but  is  rather  poetical,  applied  to 
Israel's  traditional  enemies.  The  Egj-ptian  and 
As.syrian  discoveries  have  as  yet  disclosed  no  mention 
of  .\malec.  The  Bible  is  our  only  witness,  and  its 
testimony,  though  sifted  and  questionetl  in  regard 
to  many  details,  particularly  in  tlie  accounts  of  the 
battles  at  Raphidim  ami  Cailes,  and  the  marvellous 
victory  of  Gedeon,  has  been  accepted  in  the  main  as 
a  reliable  account. 

Thomas  in  Vio.,  Did.  de  la  Bible;  Macprersos  in  Hast., 
Diet,  of  the  Bibtt";  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.  Amatek;  Com- 
mentarios,  Dillman  and  Delitzscu  on  Genesis;  Dillman  on 
Numbers. 

John  V.  Fenlgn. 

Amalfl,  The  Archdiocese  of,  directly  depend- 
ent on  the  Holy  See,  has  its  seat  at  Amalfi,  not 
far  from  Naples.  This  was  a  populous  city  be- 
tween the  thirteentli  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
An  independent  republic  from  the  seventh  cen- 
tury until  107.'),  it  rivalled  Pisa  and  Genoa  in 
its  domestic  prosperity  and  maritime  importance. 
A  prey  to  tlie  Normans  who  encamped  in  the  south 
of  Italy,  it  became  one  of  their  principal  posts. 
The  Kmperor  Lothair,  fighting  in  favour  of  Pope 
Innocent  II  against  King  Roger  of  Sicily,  who 
sided  with  the  .\ntipope  .\nacletus,  took  him  prisoner 
in  1133,  assisted  by  forty-six  Pisan  ships.  The  city 
was  sacked,  and  Lothair  claimed  as  part  of  the  booty 
a  copy  of  the  Pandects  of  Justinian  which  was  found 
there.  Hut  the  early  beginnings  of  .\malfi  are  very 
obscure;  it  is  not  known  when  it  was  founded,  or 
when  Christianity  reached  it.  That  it  was  early 
is  a  rea,sonable  conjecture,  considering  the  facilities 
for  communication  with  tlie  Ea.st  which  the  South  of 
Italy  po.s.ses.sed.  The  first  positive  indication  that 
Amalfi  was  a  Christian  community,  however,  is 
supplied  by  Gregory  the  Great,  who,  writing  in  Jan- 
uarj',  .")96,  to  the  Subdeacon  .Vntemius,  his  legate 
and  administrator  in  Campania,  ordered  him  to 
constrain  within  a  mona.stery  Primeniis,  Bishop  of 
Amalfi,  because  he  <lid  not  remain  in  liis  (hoce.se, 
but  roamed  about  (Reg.,  V.  xiv;  cf.  JafTi'',  RR.PP., 
1403).  .\malfi  was  founded  by  Primenus  in  a.  i>.  ,'>96; 
the  regular  list  of  bishops  began  in  8J9;  it  was  raised 


to  an  archbishopric  by  John  XV  in  987.  In  1206, 
after  the  completion  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  .\ndrew, 
the  body  of  the  Apostle  of  that  name,  patron  of 
.Vmalfi,  was  brought  there  from  Constantinople  by 
Pietro,  cardinal  of  Capua,  an  Amalfian.  There  are 
about  30,000  inhabitants.  54  parishes,  and  279  .secu- 
lar priests,  .\malfi  occupied  a  liigh  position  in 
medieval  architecture;  its  cathedral  of  Sanl' Andrea, 
of  the  eleventh  century,  the  campanile,  the  convent 
of  the  Capuccini,  founded  by  Cardinal  Capuanor, 
riclily  represent  the  artistic  movement  prevailing 
in  Southern  Italy  at  the  time  of  the  Normans,  with 
its  tendency  to  Wend  the  Byzantine  style  with  the 
forms  and  sharp  lines  of  the  northern  architecture. 

In  medieval  culture  .\malfi  vindicated  a  worthy 
place  for  herself,  especially  by  flourishing  schools 
of  law  and  matliematics.  Flavio  Gioia,  wlio  made 
the  first  mariner's  compasses  known  to  lOurope,  is 
said  to  be  a  native  of  .Vmalfi.  But  Gioia  was  not  the 
inventor  of  the  compass,  which  was  invented  in  the 
East  and  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Arabs.  In  hon- 
our of  Charles  II,  a  Capetian  king  then  ruling  Naples, 
Gioia  put  a  fleur-de-lis  instead  of  an  N,  to  indicate 
the  north. 

Capei.letti,  /.«  chiese  d'ltalia  (Venice,  18C6),  XX.  601; 
Gams,  Series  epitcop.  Eccles.  calhot.  (Katisbon,  1873);  Pansa, 
Istoria  dell'  aniica  republica  di  Amalfi  (Naples,  1724);  Sciiipa, 
La  CTonaca  Amalfitana. 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Amalric,  AnnoT  of  Citeaux.    See  Albigenses. 

Amalric  I-IV,  Kings  of  Jerusalem.  See  Jeru- 
salem. 

Amalric  of  Bena.    See  Am.\lricians. 

Amalricians  (Lat.,  Almarici,  Amauriani),  an 
heretical  .sect  founded  towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century,  by  Amaury  de  Bi^ne  or  de  Chartres  (Lat., 
Almaricus,  Amatricus,  Amauricus),  a  cleric  and  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Paris,  who  died  between 
1204  and  1207.  The  Amalricians,  like  their  founder, 
profe.s.scd  a  species  of  pantheism,  maintaining,  as  the 
fundamental  principle  of  their  system,  that  God  and 
the  universe  are  one;  that  God  is  evorj'thing  and 
everything  is  God.  This  led  them,  naturally,  to  the 
denial  of  Transubstantiation,  the  confounding  of  good 
and  evil — since  good  and  sinful  acts,  so  called,  are 
equally  of  God— and  to  the  consequent  rejection  of 
the  laws  of  morahty.  They  held,  besides,  peculiar 
views  on  the  Trinity,  distinguishing  three  periods  in 
the  Divine  economy  with  regard  to  man;  the  reign 
of  the  Father,  become  incarnate  in  Abraham,  which 
lasted  until  the  coming  of  Christ ;  the  reign  of  the  Son, 
become  incarnate  in  Mary,  which  had  endured  until 
their  own  time;  and  the  reign  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which,  taking  its  beginning  from  the  dawn  of  the 
fwelftii  century,  was  to  last  until  the  end  of  time. 
I'nlike  tlie  Father  and  the  Son,  the  Holy  Ghost  was 
to  become  incarnate,  not  merely  in  one  individual  of 
mankind,  but  in  everj'  member  of  the  human  race. 
Moreover,  as  the  OKI  Law  had  lost  its  efficacy  at  the 
coming  of  Christ,  so,  in  their  day,  the  law  of  the 
Gospel  was  to  be  supplanted  by  the  interior  guidance 
of  tlie  Holy  Ghost,  indwelling  in  each  human  soul. 
In  con.sequence  of  this  thev  rejected  the  sacraments 
as  obsolete  an<i  useless.  Those  in  whom  the  Holy 
Spirit  had  already  taken  up  His  abode  were  called 
"the  spiritualized",  and  were  supposed  to  be  already 
enjoying  the  life  of  the  Resurrection.  The  signs  of 
this  interior  illumination  were  the  rejection  of  faith 
and  hope,  as  tending  to  keep  the  soul  in  darkness,  and 
the  acceptance,  in  their  place,  of  the  light  of  positive 
knowledge.  It  followed  from  this,  that  in  knowledge 
and  the  acquisition  of  new  truths  consisted  their 
paradi.se;  while  ignorance,  which  meant  adherence 
to  the  old  order  of  things,  was  their  substitute  for 
hell. 

The  .\malricians,  though  including  within  their 
ranks  many  priests  and  clerics,  succeeded  for  some 


AMALRICUS 


380 


AMAT 


time  in  propagating  their  errors  without  being  de- 
tected by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  At  length, 
through  the  efforts  of  Peter,  Bishop  of  Paris,  and  the 
Chevalier  Gudrin,  an  adviser  of  the  king,  to  both 
of  whom  secret  information  of  the  affair  had  been 
given,  the  inner  workings  of  the  sect  were  laid  bare, 
and  the  principals  and  proselytes  were  arrested.  In 
the  year  1210  a  council  of  bishops  and  doctors  of 
the  University  of  Paris  assembled  to  take  measures 
for  the  punishment  of  the  ofTenders.  The  ignorant 
converts,  including  many  women,  were  pardoned. 
Of  the  principals,  four  were  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  life.  Ten  others,  priests  and  clerics,  who 
had  obstinately  refused  to  retract  their  errors,  after 
being  publicly  degraded,  were  delivered  to  the  secular 
authority  and  suffered  the  penalty  of  death  by  fire. 
Five  years  later  (1215)  the  writings  of  Aristotle, 
which  had  been  distorted  by  the  sectaries  in  support 
of  their  heresy,  were  forbidden  to  be  read  either  in 
public  or  in  pri\-ate.  Regarding  the  scope  of  this 
prohibition  see  P.vRis,  University  of. 

Amaury  himself,  though  dead  some  years,  did  not 
escape  the  penalty  of  his  heresy.  Besides  being  in- 
cluded in  the  condemnation  of  his  disciples,  in  the 
council  of  1210  special  sentence  of  excommunication 
was  pronounced  against  liim,  and  his  bones  were  ex- 
humed from  their  resting-place  and  cast  into  uncon- 
secrated  ground.  His  doctrine  was  again  con- 
demned by  Pope  Innocent  III  in  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  (1215)  "as  insanity  rather  than  heresy", 
and  Pope  Honorius  III  condemned  (1225)  the  work 
of  Scotus  Erigena,  "De  Divisione  Naturte",  from 
which  Amaury  was  supposed  to  have  derived  the 
beginnings  of  his  heresy. 

C'HoLLEr  in  Diet  de  theol.  calh.,  s.  v.;  Denifle,  Charlu- 
larium,  I,  70,  107;  B.eumker,  Ein  Traktat  gegen  die  A.  in 
Jakrb.  f.  Phil.  u.  spek.  Thfol.  (1893);  Ueberweg,  Gesch.  d. 
Phil.  (9th  eil.).  II,  222;  De  Wulf,  Hist,  de  la  philosophic 
medievale    (Louvain,    1905J. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Amalricus  Augerii,  a  church-historian  of  tlio 
fourteenth  century,  and  member  of  the  Augustinian 
Order.  He  was  a  doctor  of  the  University  of  Mont- 
pelliei ,  prior  of  a  monastery  of  his  Order,  and  chaplain 
to  Urban  V,  1362.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning, 
especially  in  church  history.  His  chief  work  is  the 
"Actus  Rom.  Pontificum",  extending  in  alphabetical 
order  from  St.  Peter  to  the  year  1321,  and  edited, 
chronologically,  in  Eccard,  "Script,  medii  sevi",  II, 
1641-1824. 

Keller  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Francis  W.  Grey. 

Amandus,  Saint,  one  of  the  great  apostles  of 
Flanders;  b.  near  Nantes,  in  France,  about  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century.  He  was,  apparently,  of  noble 
extraction.  When  a  youth  of  twenty,  he  fled  from 
his  home  and  became  a  monk  near  Tours,  resisting 
all  the  efforts  of  his  family  to  withdraw  him  from 
his  mode  of  life.  Following  what  he  regarded  as 
divine  inspiration,  he  betook  himself  to  Bourgcs, 
where  under  the  direction  of  St.  Austregisile,  the 
bishop  of  the  city,  he  remained  in  solitude  for  fifteen 
years,  living  in  a  celt  and  subsisting  on  bread  and 
water.  After  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  he  was  con- 
secrated in  France  as  a  missionary  bishop  at  the  age 
of  thirty-three.  At  the  request  of  Clotaire  II,  he 
began  first  to  evangelize  the  inhabitants  of  Ghent, 
wlio  were  then  degraded  idolaters,  and  afterwards 
extended  liis  work  throughout  all  Flanders,  .suffering 
persecution,  and  undergoing  great  hardship  but 
acliieving  nothing,  until  the  miracle  of  restoring  to 
life  a  criminal  who  had  been  hanged,  changed  the 
feelings  of  the  people  to  re\-erence  and  affection  and 
brought  many  converts  to  the  faith.  Monasteries 
at  (ihont  and  Mt.  Blandin  were  erected.  They 
were  the  first  monuments  to  the  Faitli  in  Belgium. 
Returning  (o  France,  in  630,  he  incurred  the  enmity 
of  King  l)agol>ert,  whom  he  had  endeavoured  to 
recall  from  a  sinful  life,  and  was  expelled  from  the 


kingdom.  Dagobert  afterwards  entreated  him  to 
return,  asked  pardon  for  the  wrong  done,  and  re- 
quested him  to  be  tutor  of  the  heir  to  the  throne. 
The  danger  of  li\ing  at  court  prompted  the  Saint  to 
refuse  the  honour.  His  next  apostolate  was  among 
the  Slavs  of  the  Danube,  but  it  met  with  no  success, 
and  we  find  him  then  in  Rome,  reporting  to  the  pope 
what  results  had  been  achieved. 

While  returning  to  France  he  is  said  to  have  calmed 
a  storm  at  sea.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Maastricht 
about  the  year  649,  but  unable  to  repress  the  dis- 
orders of  the  place,  he  appealed  to  the  Pope,  Martin  I, 
for  instructions.  The  reply  traced  his  plan  of  action 
with  regard  to  fractious  clerics,  and  also  contained 
information  about  the  Monothelite  heresy,  which 
was  then  desolating  the  East.  Amandus  was  also 
commissioned  to  convoke  councils  in  Neustria  and 
Austrasia  in  order  to  ha\-e  the  decrees  which  had 
been  passed  at  Rome  read  to  the  bishops  of  Gaul, 
who  in  turn  commissioned  him  to  bear  the  acts  of 
their  councils  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff.  He  a\-ailed 
hiinself  of  this  occasion  to  obtain  his  release  from 
the  bishopric  of  Maastricht,  and  to  resume  his  work 
as  a  missionary.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  entered 
into  relations  with  the  family  of  Pepin  of  Landen, 
and  helped  St.  Gertrude  and  St.  Itta  to  establish 
their  famous  monastery  of  Nivelles.  Thirty  years 
before  he  had  gone  into  the  Basque  country  to 
preach,  but  had  met  with  little  success.  He  was 
now  requested  by  the  inhabitants  to  return,  and 
although  seventy  years  old,  he  undertook  the  work 
of  evangelizing  them  and  appears  to  have  banished 
idolatry  from  the  land.  Returning  again  to  his 
coimtry,  he  founded  several  monasteries,  on  one 
occasion  at  the  risk  of  his  life.  Belgium  especially 
boasts  many  of  his  foundations.  Dagobert  made 
great  concessions  to  him  for  his  various  establish- 
ments. He  died  in  his  monastery  of  Elnon,  at  the 
age  of  ninety.     His  feast  is  kept  6  February. 

.Icta  S.S.,  Fel).,  II;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Sainls,  'c  Feb.; 
Maclear  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Amasia  (Amasea),  a  titular  see  and  metropolis  of 
Pontus  in  A.sia  Minor  on  the  river  Iris,  now  Amasiah. 
Its  episcopal  list  dates  from  the  third  century  (Gams, 
I,  442).  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  geographer 
Strabo,  who  has  left  us  a  striking  description  of  his 
native  city,  in  a  deep  and  extensi\e  gorge  over  which 
rose  abruptly  a  lofty  rock,  "  steep  on  all  sides  and 
descending  abruptly  to  the  river".  It  was  famous 
in  antiquity  for  its  rock-cisterns,  reached  by  galleries, 
of  which  some  traces  remain;  also  for  the  tombs  of 
the  ancient  kings  of  Pontus  hewn  in  the  solid  rock. 

Lequien,  Oriens  Christianus  (1740'),  I,  .'J21-5.32;  Van 
Lennep,  Travels  in  Asia  Minor  (London,  1870).  I,  86-106. 

Amastris  (now  Amasserah  or  Samastro),  a  titular 
see  of  Paphlagonia  in  Asia  Minor,  on  a  peninsula 
jutting  into  the  Black  Sea.  Its  episcopal  list  dates 
from  the  third  century  (Gams,  I,  454).  It  is  men- 
tioned by  Homer  (Iliad,  II,  853),  was  a  flourishing 
town  in  the  time  of  Trajan  (98-117),  and  was  of  some 
importance  until  the  seventh  century  of  our  era. 

Leqcien.  Oriens  Christ.  (1740),  I,  561-5G0;  Smith,  Diet, 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  I,  118. 

Amat,  Thaddeu.s,  second  Bishop  of  Monterey  and 
Los  Angeles,  California,  U.  S.,  b.  31  December,  ISIO, 
at  Barcelona,  Spain;  d.  at  Los  Angeles.  California, 
12  May,  1878.  He  joined  the  Lazarists  in  early 
manhood  and  was  ordained  a  priest  at  the  house  of 
that  Congregation  in  Paris,  in  1S3S.  Ho  came  to 
the  United  States  in  183S  and  worked  in  the  missions 
in  Louisiana.  He  was  master  of  novices  in  the 
l.ouses  of  the  Lazarists  in  Missouri  and  Philadelphia 
in  1841-47,  and  on  the  promotion  of  Bishop  Ale- 
many  of  Monterey  to  be  .Archbishop  of  San  Francisco, 
Father  .\mat  was  named  to  succeed  him.  He  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  the  iliocese  in  Rome,  12  March, 


AMATHUS 


381 


AMBO 


1854.  There  were  seventeen  priests  in  the  diocese 
then  to  care  for  the  spiritual  needs  of  a  very  mixed 
population  largely  of  Spanish  origin.  The  opening 
of  the  mining  era  of  the  early  fifties  brouglit  a  large 
accession  of  other  settlers,  and  liishop  Amat,  visiting 
Europe  to  obtain  additional  aid  for  his  diocese, 
brouglit  bacli  Lazarist  priests  and  Sisters  of  Charity 
with  him.  He  wivs  given  permission  by  the  Holy 
See,  in  1.S.59,  to  call  himself  Bishop  of  l.os  Angeles, 
and  changed  his  residence  to  that  city,  lliere, 
under  his  inspiration,  the  Lazarists  opened  St.  Vin- 
cent's College  and  the  Franciscan  Brothers  took 
charge  of  tlie  parochial  schools.  Tlic  Sisters  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  .Mary  were  also  introduced. 
A  serious  spinal  affection  forced  ]5ishop  Amat  to 
ask  for  a  coadjutor  and  his  vicar-general,  the  Rev. 
Francis  Mora,  was  so  consecrated  3  Aug.,  1873.  He 
had  begun  a  new  catlicdral  and  lived  to  si^  it  dedi- 
cated 9  April,  187(3.  Wlien  he  died,  at  the  age  of 
Bixty-seven,  the  progress  of  the  diocese  under  his 
jurisdiction  was  indicated  in  the  increase  to  51  priests, 
32  churches,  l.")  chapels,  and  32  stations,  G  acade- 
mies and  substantial  parochial  schools,  ixsylums,  and 
other  charitable  institutions. 

She.k,  Hi»t.  ../  Cnlh.  Church  in  U.  S.  (New  York.  1904); 
RKisa.  liioa.  I'l/cht.  oi  the  Calh.  Hierarchy  ol  the  U.  S.  (Mil- 
waukee. Wia.,  1898). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Amathus,  name  of  two  titular  sees,  one  in  Syria, 
suffragan  of  Apameia,  with  an  episcopal  list  known 
from  419  to  .536;  the  other  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Cyprus,  whose  episcopal  list  reaches  from  the  fourth 
century  to  787.  The  latter  place  was  one  of  the  most 
ancient  Plicenician  settlements  on  the  i.sland,  and 
long  maintained  the  customs  and  character  of  an 
Oriental  town.  It  was  famous  for  the  worsliip  of 
Aphrodite  and  .\donis,  also  of  the  Tvrian  god  Mel- 
kart.  The  great  wheat-fields  and  ricn  mines  of  the 
Cypriot  city  were  celebrated  in  antiquity  (Ovid, 
ilet.,  X,  220). 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  1. 118;  M.\8  Latrie. 
Triaor  de  chronol.  (I'aris,  1895),  1894. 

Amaury  I-IV,  Kings  of  Jerusalem.  See  Jeru- 
salem. 

Amazones,  (or  Manaos)  Diocese  or,  a  South 
American  diocese,  dependent  on  San  Salvador  of 
Bahia.  Amazonas,  the  largest  of  the  states  of 
Brazil,  lies  south  of  British  Guiana,  Venezuela,  and 
Columbia,  and  between  Peru  on  the  west  and  Pard 
on  the  east.  It  has  an  area  of  732,250  square  miles, 
and  in  1900,  had  a  population  of  only  207,000. 
Manaos.  the  capital,  is  its  chief  port.  Amazonas  was 
once  a  part  of  Pard  but  became  a  state  in  1850. 

Erected  a  see  by  Leo  XIII,  27  April,  1892,  it  has 
350.000  Catholics.  S(H)  Protestants,  24  parishes,  19 
secular  priests,  13  regiilar  priests,  41  churches  or 
chapels,  and  105  Catliolic  schools. 

BattandIeii,    .Inn.    pont.    cnlh.    (1900). 

Ambarach.  Petek  (also  called  Benedictus  and 
Benedetti,  these  names  being  the  equivalents  of  the 
Arabic  ambarak  "blessed"),  a  Maronite  Orientalist, 
b.  at  Ousta,  Syria,  June,  1603;  d.  in  Rome,  25  August, 
1742.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  Maron- 
ite college  in  Rome,  1672-85,  and  on  his  return  to 
Syria  in  tlie  latter  year  was  ordained  priest.  Having 
been  .sent  to  Rome  on  business  concerning  tlie  Maron- 
ite Church,  he  was  requested  by  Cosmo  III  de  Medici 
to  organize  an  Oriental  printing  establisliment  :it 
Florence,  and  then  was  given  the  chair  of  Hebrew 
at  Pisa.  In  1708  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
Shortly  after  this  Clement  XI  appointed  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  comnii.ssion  charged  to  bring  out  a  cor- 
rected edition  of  the  Septuapint.  His  chief  work 
is  an  edition  of  the  .Syriac  works  of  St.  F.phrem  with 
Ijitin  translation,  of  which,  however,  he  had  only 


published  two  volumes  when  death  overtook  him; 
the  third  was  completed  by  Stephen  Assemani. 
SoMMEiivoGEL,  Bib.  dc  la  c.  de  Jitut  (Pariii.  1890).  I,  1295. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Ambition,  the  undue  craving  for  honour.  An- 
ciently in  Rome  the  candidates  for  office  were  ac- 
customed to  go  about  (ambire)  soliciting  votes.  This 
striving  for  popular  favour  was  spoken  of  as  am- 
bitio.  Honour  is  the  manifestation  of  a  certain 
reverence  for  a  person  because  of  the  worth  or  a.s- 
semblage  of  good  qualities  which  that  person  is 
deemed  to  have.  The  excessive  desire  of  distinction 
is  of  course  a  sin,  not  because  it  is  wrong  in  itself 
to  wish  to  have  the  respect  or  consideration  of  others, 
but  because  it  is  a.s.sumed  that  this  quest  is  conducted 
without  proper  regard  to  the  mandates  of  sound 
reason.  This  dcordination  in  the  desire  of,  or  search 
for,  honour  may  come  about  chiefly  in  three  ways. 
(1)  One  may  want  this  exhibition  of  homage  for 
some  merit  which  he  really  docs  not  possess.  (2)  A 
man  may  permit  himself  to  forget  that  the  thing  or 
things,  whatever  they  may  be,  which  are  thought  to 
deserve  the  testimony  of  others,  are  not  his  in  fee 
simple,  but  God's,  and  that  the  credit  therefore  be- 
longs primarily  to  God.  (3)  A  person  may  be  so 
absorbed  in  the  display  of  esteem  for,  or  deference 
towards,  him.self  as  to  fail  to  employ  the  particular 
degree  of  excellence  which  has  evoked  it  for  the  wel- 
fare of  others  (St.  Thomas,  Summa  Tlieol.,  II-II,  Q. 
cxxxi.  Art.  1).  Ambition  as  such  is  not  accounted  a 
mortal  sin;  it  may  become  such  either  because  of  the 
means  it  uses  to  compass  it.s  object,  as  for  instance, 
the  simoniacal  endeavour  to  obtain  an  ecclesiastical 
dignity,  or  because  of  the  hann  done  to  another. 
Ambition  operates  a.s  a  canonical  inifiediment  in  the 
following  circumstances.  Those  who  take  their  ele- 
vation to  a  church  dignity  for  granted,  and,  before 
receiving  the  requisite  formal  enabling  notice  of  it, 
by  some  o\ert  act  demean  themselves  as  if  their 
election  were  an  accomplished  fact,  are  held  to  be 
ineligible.  The  bestowal  of  the  oflice  in  this  case 
is  likewi.se  considered  invali<l.  Tho.se  who  accept  an 
election  brouglit  about  by  an  abuse  of  the  secular 
power  are  also  declared  ineligible  (Corp.  Jur.  Can.  in 
VI  Decret.,  Bk.  I,  tit.  vi,  ch.  v). 

Joseph  F.  Del.any. 

Ambo  (pi.  Ambos,  or  Ambones),  a  word  of  Greek 
origin,  supposed  to  signify  a  mountain  or  eleva- 
tion; at  least  Innocent  HI  so  understood  it,  for  in 
his  work  on  the  Mass  (III,  xx.xiii),  after  speaking 
of  the  deacon  ascending  the  ambo  to  read  the 
Gosix-l,  he  quotes  the  following  from  Isaias  (xl,  9): 
"Get  thee  up  upon  a  high  mountain,  thou  that 
bringest  good  tidings  to  Sion:  lift  up  thy  voice  with 
strength".  And  in  the  .same  connection  he  also  al- 
ludes to  Our  Blessed  Lord  preaching  from  a  moun- 
tain: "  He  went  up  info  a  mountain — and  opening  his 
mouth  he  taught  them"  (.Matt.,  v,  1,  2).  An  ambo 
is  an  elevated  desk  or  pulpit  from  which  in  the 
early  churches  and  biisilic;is  the  Gospel  and  Epistle 
were  chanted  or  read,  and  all  kinds  of  communica- 
tions were  made  to  the  congregation;  and  sometimes 
the  bishop  preached  from  it,  as  in  the  case  of  St.  John 
Chrj'sostom,  who,  Socnites  says,  was  accustomed 
to  mount  the  ambo  to  address  the  people,  in  order 
to  be  more  distinctly  heard  (Eccl.  Hist.,  VI,  v). 
(Originally  there  was  only  one  ambo  in  a  church, 
placed  in  the  nave,  and  provided  with  two  fliglits  of 
steps;  one  from  the  east,  the  side  towards  flic  altar; 
and  the  other  from  the  west.  From  the  eastern 
steps  the  subdeacon,  with  his  face  to  the  altar, 
read  the  Epi.stlcs;  and  from  the  western  stejw  the 
deacon,  facing  the  people,  read  the  Gospels.  The 
inconvenience  of  having  one  ambo  soon  became 
manifest,  and  in  consequence  in  many  cliurdics 
two  ambones  were  erected.     When  there  were  two, 


AMBO 


382 


AMBOISE 


they  were  usually  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
choir,  which  wa-s  separated  from  the  nave  and  aisles 
by  a  low  wall.  An  excellent  example  of  this  arrange- 
ment can  still  be  seen  in  the  church  of  St.  Clement 
at  Rome.  Very  often  the  gospel  ambo  was  provided 
with  a  permanent  candlestick;  the  one  attached  to 
the  ambo  in  St.  Clement's  is  a  marble  spiral  column, 
richly  decorated  with  mosaic,  and  terminated  by  a 
capital  twelve  feet  from  the  floor. 

Ambones  are  believed  to  have  taken  their  origin 


from  the  raised  platform  from  which  the  Jewish 
rabbis  read  the  Scriptures  to  the  people,  and  they 
were  first  introduced  into  churches  during  the  fourth 
century,  were  in  univeral  use  by  the  ninth,  reach- 
ing their  full  development  and  artistic  beauty  in  the 
twelfth,  and  then  gradually  fell  out  of  use,  until  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  wlien  they  were  largely  super- 
seded by  pulpits.  In  the  Ambrosian  Rite  (Milan)  the 
Gospel  is  still  read  from  the  ambo.  They  were 
usually  built  of  white  marble,  enriched  with  carvings, 
inlays  of  coloured  marbles,  Cosmati  and  glass  mosaics. 
The  most  celebrated  ambo  was  the  one  erected  by 
tlie  Emperor  Justinian  in  the  church  of  Sancta 
Sophia  at  Constantinople,  which  is  fully  described 
by  the  contemporary  poet,  Paulus  Silentiarius  in 
his  work  TTfpl  KTia-/xdTwv.  The  body  of  the  ambo 
was  made  of  various  precious  metals,  inlaid 
with  ivory,  overlaid  with  plates  of  repouss6  silver, 
and  further  enriched  with  gildings  and  bronze. 
The  disappearance  of  this  magnificent  example  of 
Christian  art  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  It  was 
probably  intact  down  to  the  time  of  the  taking  of 
Con.stantinople  by  the  Cni.saders  in  1203,  when  it 
wa.s  largely  shorn  of  its  beauty  and  wealth.  In 
St.  .Mark's,  at  Venice,  there  is  a  very  peculiar  ambo, 
of  two  storitw;  from  tlie  lower  one  was  read  the 
Epistle,  and  from  the  upper  one  the  Gospel.  This 
form  was  copied  at  a  later  date  in  what  are  known 
as  "  df)iible-decker  "  pulpits.     Very  interesting  exam- 

I)les  may  be  seen  in  many  of  the  'Italian  basilicas;  in 
?avenna  there  are  a  nuniber  of  the  sixth  century; 
one  of  the  seventh  ut  Torcello;  but  the  most  beautiful 


are  in  the  Roman  churches  of  St.  Clement,  St.  Mary 
in  Cosmedin,  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Ara  Coeli. 

De  Fledry,  La  Mease  (Paris,  1883),  III;  Revue  de  Vart 
Chretien  (Lille,  1887,  1894);  Reusens,  L'archeologie  chri- 
tienne  (Louvain,  1885);  Architectural  Record  (New  York); 
Thiers,  Dissertation  sur  U-s  jubes  (Paris,  1G88);  Kracs, 
Geschichte  der  chriatlichen  Kunat  (Freiburg,  iS94),  1,  233;  Lb- 
CLERCQ  in  Z>ici.  d'arc/ieo/offl«cArf(ienfte  (Paris,  1904),  I.  1330-47. 

Cakyl  Colem.vn. 

Ambo,  In  the  Ru.ssi.vn  .vnd  Greek  Church. — Its 
u.se  has  now  practically  disappeared  in  the  Roman 
Rite  and  the  only  reminder  of  it  in  modem  churches 
is  the  pulpit  or  reading  desk.  Sometimes  two  ambos 
were  used,  from  one  of  which  the  Epistle  was  read 
and  from  the  other  the  Gospel.  Examples  of  these 
may  be  .seen  in  the  church  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome 
and  tlie  cathedral  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice.  In  the 
Russian  Orthodox  Church  the  word  ambo  is  now 
applied  to  two  or  three  semi-circular  steps  leading 
from  the  middle  of  the  soleas  (or  platform  immediately 
in  front  of  the  iconostasis)  to  the  floor  of  the  church. 
These  semi-circular  steps  are  directly  in  front  of  the 
royal  doors  of  the  iconostasis.  In  cathedral  churches 
in  Russia  there  is  also  another  ambo  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  nave,  upon  which  the  bishop  stands 
during  certain  parts  of  the  pontifical  service.  In  the 
Greek  (Hellenic)  Orthodox  Church  the  ambo  is 
more  often  in  the  ancient  style,  but  has  been  removed 
from  the  midtUe  to  the  sides  of  the  church.  The 
Greek  Liturgy,  however,  plainly  shows  that  the  ambo 
was  originally  raised  and  that  it  was  in  the  middle 
of  the  church.  One  of  the  concluding  prayers  of 
the  Greek  Ma.ss  is  the  "prayer  behind  the  ambo" 
(eiiX^  6iri.(T6a.ij.^apos),  which  is  directed  by  the  rubric 
to  be  said  in  front  of  the  royal  doors  outside  of  the 
iconostasis.  In  the  Greek  Catholic  (United)  Church, 
both  in  Slavic  countries  and  the  United  States,  the 
ambo  is  a  table  standing  in  front  of  the  royal  doors 
of  the  iconostasis,  upon  which  there  are  a  crucifix  and 
two  candles.  It.  is  used  as  the  ambo  and  replaces 
the  analogion.  Services  such  as  baptisms,  con- 
firmations, and  marriages  are  performed  at  the  ambo. 
The  Greek  CathoUc  churches  of  Italy  and  Sicily  do 
not  use  the  ambo,  having  apparently  followed  the 
Roman  Rite  in  its  disuse. 

Andrew  J.  Shipm.\n. 

Amboise,  George  d',  French  cardinal,  archbishop, 
and  statesman,  b.  at  Chaumont-sur-Loire  in  14C0;  d. 
at  Lyons,  25  May,  1510.  He  was  one  of  the  promi- 
nent figures  of  the  French  Renaissance.  Nominated 
Bishop  of  Montauban  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he 
did  not  assume  office  till  he  was  twenty-four.  In 
1493,  he  became  Archbishop  of  Rouen.  He  belonged 
to  the  party  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who,  when  he 
became  Louis  XII  (1498)  at  once  made  d'Amboise 
his  prime  minister.  He  was  created  a  cardinal  by 
Alexander  VI,  the  same  year.  As  a  prime  minister 
he  pursued  an  ambitious  foreign  policy,  and  urged 
Louis  XII  to  tlie  conquest  of  Milan;  at  home,  he 
inaugurated  a  firm  and  wise  policy  of  retrenchment 
and  reform,  reducing  the  imposts  one-tenth,  setting 
the  finances  in  order,  and  introducing  needed  im- 
provements into  legislation  and  the  judicial  system. 
As  a  churchman,  he  was  much  less  admirable.  Am- 
bitious to  become  pope  he  strove  by  every  means 
in  his  power  to  compass  this  end  at  the  ilcath  of 
Alexander  VI.  Louis  XII  lent  him  the  prestige  of 
France,  and  C;esar  Uorgia  intrigued  at  Rome  with 
the  Spanish  cardinals  in  his  interest.  In  the  ballot- 
ing he  stood  third  with  thirteen  votes,  Giuliano  doUa 
Rovere  receiving  fifteen,  and  Cardinal  Caraffa  four- 
teen. When  C;rsar  Borgia  retired  from  Rome, 
d'Amboise  suffered  from  the  reaction,  and  was  con- 
tent to  promote  the  election  of  Pius  III.  On  the 
death  of  Pius  he  renewetl  his  elTorts  and,  having 
again  failed,  went  .so  far  as  to  encourage  schism 
between  France  and  Julius  II.  His  plans,  however, 
came  to  naught  through  the  failure  of  the  French 


AMBRONAY 


383 


AMBROSE 


army  in  Italy.  To  conciliate  the  King,  Julius  made 
d'Amboise  "  Legate  a  latere"  for  tlie  wliole  of  France, 
a  most  exceptional  honour.  Cardinal  d'Amboise 
held  his  higli  olhce  in  CImrch  and  State  till  his  death, 
wliicli  took  place  at  the  convent  of  the  Celestiiis  in 
Lyons,  25  May,  1510.  lie  has  a  splendid  tomb  hi 
the  Cathedral  of  Ilouen. 

Lkoknuhk,  Vie  du  cardinal  d'Amboise  (Rouen,  1720); 
MoNriMHD,  Lr  cardinal  G.  d'Amboise,  ministre  de  Louia  Xll 
(I.imow^.  1879);  dAmuoise.  LeUrea  uu  rui  Louia  Xll  (Urus- 
sels,    1712). 

r.    p.    II.WEY. 

Ambronay,  Our  L.\dy  of,  a  sanctuary  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  at  -\mbronay,  France,  regarded  as  one 
of  the  two  cratlles  of  ilcvotion  to  Our  Lady  in  the 
Diocese  of  Belley.  Tlie  original  church  was  fountled 
by  recluses  in  tlie  seventh  century,  antl  having  been 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  w;us  rebuilt  (c.  8U3)  by 
St.  Barnanl  (77S-,S4l2),  together  with  the  famous 
monastery  of  the  same  name.  About  the  middle  of 
the  tliirteenth  century  the  church  was  reconstructcil 
on  a  grander  scale,  and  still  remains,  in  spite  of  the 
ravages  of  1793,  one  of  tlie  most  imposing  monu- 
ments of  the  iliocese,  remarkable  for  its  wiiulows, 
sacristy,  altar,  and  spiral  stairca.se.  The  facade  of 
one  of  the  naves  d.Ues  from  tlie  ninth  century. 

Acta  SS.,  23  Jan.;  Lkroy,  llistoire  dca  pHcrinagca  de  la 
Sainte  Vierge  en  France  (Paris,  1875),  II,  185. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Ambros,  .•Vugust  Wii.helm,  historian  of  music 
and  art  critic,  one  of  tlie  greatest  in  modern  times, 
b.  at  .M;iutli,  near  Prague,  in  IJohemia,  17  November, 
181G;  d.  in  Vienna,  2S  June,  1870.  Altliough  destiiuil 
for  the  profession  of  law,  in  which  he  obtained  tin- 
doctor's  degree,  and  advanced  to  tlie  point  of  bi- 
coming  Councillor  of  State,  he  studied  music  seriou.-lN 
and  under  the  best  auspices.  Ho  was  soon  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  board  of  governors  of  the 
Royal  Conservatory  at  Prague,  and  became  active  as 
a  musical  critic.  At  this  period  of  liis  career  .\nibros 
wrote  several  overtures  for  orchestra  and  a  "Stal>at 
Mater".  As  a  composer  he  reflected  very  stronply 
the  influence  of  Robert  .Schumann.  Lacking  llie 
vital  spark  of  originality,  his  compositions  have  not 
survived  him.  lie  became  generally  known  as  an 
art  critic  through  his  Ijook  "Die  (irenzen  der  .Musik 
und  Poesie  ",  written  in  reply  to  Edward  Hanslick'.s 
Iri'atise  "  Vom  .Musikalisch-Schoncn  ".  The  latter 
a.ssumod  a  materialistic  basis  for  the  art  of  music, 
defining  musical  forms  as  being  nothing  more  than 
"sounding  arabcsque.s ".  Ambros 's  work  defines 
what  can  be  expressed  by  means  of  music,  and  wh:it 
needs  one  of  the  otlier  arts  for  its  manifestation. 
In  this  remarkable  book  the  author  not  only  lays 
down  those  principles  of  Catholic  philosophy  in  the 
light  of  which  he  judges  the  art  works  of  the  past 
and  present,  but  he  also  displays  that  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  architecture,  the  sculpture,  the 
painting,  and  the  literature  of  all  schools  and  nations, 
their  inter-relation  and  common  origin  which  at  once 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  scientific  world.  With 
every  new  work  of  Ambros,  such  as  "Kulturhis- 
torische  Bilder  aus  dem  Musiklelx;n  der  Ccgcn- 
wart  ",  "  Bunte  Blatter"  and  numerous  magazine 
articles,  his  reputation  increased,  until  the  Breslau 
publisher  Leuckart  (now  in  Leipzig)  induced  him  to 
write  a  complete  history  of  music,  .\nibros  em- 
braced witli  alacrity  this  great  opportunity  for,  sus  he 
put  it,  "rendering  a  service  to  science  and  art." 
The  result  was  the  greatest  historical  work  on  the 
art  of  music  in  existence.  Beginning  with  the  music 
of  antiquity  in  the  first  volume,  tlie  second  is  de- 
voted to  the  Middle  Ages,  the  third  to  the  Nethcr- 
land  school,  and  the  fourth  deals  with  Palcstrina 
and  the  transition  to  the  moderns.  This  historj', 
revealing  the  great  artistic  past  of  the  Church,  ap- 
peared at  the  time  of  the  revival  brought  about  by 


the  publication  of  Proske's  "Musica  Divina  ",  and 
gave  tremendous  impetus  to  the  movement.  Pioske 
made  the  treasures  of  polyphonic  art  accessible,  and 
Ambros  told  of  their  origin.  Aside  from  the  perma- 
nent historical  value  of  his  life  work,  Ambros  haa 
rendered  the  Catholic  cause  untold  service  by  vindi- 
cating the  past,  and  by  proclaiming  with  a  powerful 
pen  and  with  vast  erudition  sound  philosop'iic  prin- 
ciples in  the  midst  of  a  well-nigli  all-pervading 
pantheism.  Ambros  died  before  completing  the 
fourth  volume  of  his  history.  Otto  Kade  published, 
in  1882,  a  fifth  volume  consisting  of  musical  illu.s- 
trations  collected  from  the  historian's  literary  re- 
mains, and  W.  Langhans  has  brought  the  history 
up  to  date,  without,  however,  showing  Anibros's 
acumen  or  soundness.  It  should  be  mentioned  that 
Ambros,  while  holding  his  ofiicial  positions  in  Prague 
and,  after  1872,  in  Vienna,  as  an  officer  of  the  De- 
partment of  Justice,  professor  at  the  Conservatory, 
and  private  tutor  to  Prince  Rudolf,  was  given 
leave  of  absence  six  months  in  the  year,  and  pro- 
vided with  the  means  to  enable  him  to  visit  the 
principal  libraries  of  Europe  in  search  of  material 
for  his  great  work. 

RiEMAN.N,  Muaiklexikon;    Koknmcller,  Lerikon  der  kirch- 
lichen  Tonkunat. 

Joseph  Otten. 

Ambrose,  Saint,  Bishop  of   Milan   from   374  to 

397;    1).     probably  .3-10,   .at  Trier,   Aries,   or   1  yons; 

d.  4  .•\pril,  397.     He  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious 

Fathci-s  and  Doctors  of  the  Church,  and  fitly  chosen. 


together  with  St.  Augustine,  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
and  St.  .\thanasius,  to  upliold  the  veiierable'Chair  of 
the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  in  the  tribune  of  St.  Peter's 
at  Home.  The  materials  for  a  biography  of  the  Saint 
are  chiefly  to  lie  found  scattered  through  his  w  ritings, 
since  the  "Life"  written  after  his  death  by  his 
secretary,  Paulinus,  at  the  suggestion  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, is  extremely  disapi>oiiiting.  Ambrose  was 
descended  from  an  ancient  Poman  family,  wliicli,  at 
an  early  [leriod,  had  enibracc<l  Christianity,  and 
numbered  among  its  scions  both  Christian  martyrs 
and  high  officials  of  State.  M  the  time  of  his  birth 
his  father,  likewise  named  .\mbrosius.  w;us  Prefect 
of  Gallia,  and  as  such  niled  the  present  territories 
of  France,  Britain,  and  Spain,  together  with  Tingitaiia 


AMBROSE 


384 


AMBROSE 


in  Africa.  It  was  one  of  the  four  great  prefectures 
of  the  Empire,  and  the  highest  office  that  could  be 
held  by  a  subject.  Trier,  Aries,  and  Lyons,  the  three 
principal  cities  of  the  province,  contend  for  tlie 
honour  of  having  given  birth  to  the  Saint.  He  was 
the  youngest  of  three  children,  being  preceded  by  a 
sister  Alaroellina,  who  became  a  nun,  and  a  brother 
Satyr'us,  who,  upon  the  unexpected  appointment  of 
Ambrose  to  the  episcopate,  resigned  a  prefecture  in 
order  to  live  witli  him  and  relieve  him  from  temporal 
cares.  About  the  year  354  Ambrosius,  the  fatlier, 
died,  whereupon  the"  family  removed  to  Rome.  The 
saintly  and  accomplished  widow  was  greatly  assisted 
in  the  religio\is  training  of  her  two  sons  by  the 
example  and  admonitions  of  her  daughter,  Mar- 
cellina,  who  was  about  ten  years  older  than  Ambrose. 
Marceliina  had  already  received  the  virginal  veil 
from  the  hands  of  Liberius,  the  Roman  Pontiff,  and 
with  another  consecrated  virgin  lived  in  her  mother's 
house.  From  her  the  Saint  imbibed  that  enthusiastic 
love  of  virginity  which  became  his  distinguishing 
trait.  His  progress  in  secular  knowledge  kept  equal 
pace  with  his  growth  in  piety.  It  was  of  extreme 
advantage  to  himself  and  to  the  Church  that  he  ac- 
quired a  thorough  mastery  of  the  Greek  language  and 
literature,  tlie  lack  of  which  is  so  painfully  apparent 
in  the  intellectual  equipment  of  St.  Augustine  and, 
in  the  succeeding  age,  of  the  great  St.  Leo.  In  all 
probability  the  Greek  Schism  would  not  have  taken 
place  had  East  and  West  continued  to  converse  as 
intimately  as  did  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Basil.  Upon 
the  completion  of  his  liberal  education,  the  Saint 
devoted  liis  attention  to  the  study  and  practice  of 
the  law,  and  .soon  so  distinguished  himself  by  the 
eloquence  and  ability  of  his  pleadings  at  the  court 
of  the  praetorian  prefect,  Anicius  Probus,  that  the 
latter  took  him  into  his  council,  and  later  obtained 
for  him  from  the  Emperor  Valentinian  the  office  of 
consular  governor  of  Liguria  and  Emilia,  with 
residence  in  Milan.  "Go",  said  the  prefect,  with 
unconscious  prophecy,  "conduct  thyself  not  as  a 
judge,  but  as  bishop  ".  We  have  no  means  of  ascer- 
taining how  long  he  retained  the  civic  government 
of  his  province;  we  know  only  that  his  upright  and 
gentle  administration  gained  for  him  the  universal 
love  and  esteem  of  his  subjects,  paving  the  way  for 
that  sudden  revolution  in  his  life  which  was  soon  to 
take  place.  This  was  the  more  remarkable,  because 
the  province,  and  especially  the  city  of  Milan,  was 
in  a  state  of  religious  chaos,  owing  to  the  persistent 
machinations  of  the  Arian  faction. 

Bishop  ov  Mil.\n. — Ever  since  the  heroic  Bishop 
Dionysius,  in  the  year  355,  had  been  dragged  in 
chains  to  liis  place  of  exile  in  the  distant  East,  the 
ancient  chair  of  St.  Barnabas  had  been  occupied  by 
the  intruded  Cappadocian,  Auxentius,  an  Arian  filled 
with  bitter  hatred  of  the  Catholic  Faith,  ignorant  of 
the  Latin  language,  a  wily  and  violent  persecutor  of 
his  orthodox  subjects.  To  the  great  relief  of  the 
Catholics,  the  death  of  the  petty  tyrant  in  374  ended 
a  bondage  which  had  lastetl  nearly  twenty  years. 
The  bishops  of  the  province,  dreading  the  inevitable 
tumults  of  a  popular  election,  begged  the  Em- 
peror Valentinian  to  appoint  a  successor  by  im- 
perial edict;  he,  however,  decided  that  the  election 
must  take  place  in  the  usual  way.  It  devolved  upon 
Ambro.se,  therefore,  to  maintain  order  in  the  city  at 
this  perilous  juncture.  Proceeding  to  the  basilica 
in  which  the  disimitcd  clergy  and  people  were  as- 
sembled, he  began  a  conciliatory  discourse  in  the 
interest  of  peace  and  modrr:\tion,  but  was  inter- 
rupted by  a  voice  (according  to  Pauliiuis,  the  voice 
of  an  infant)  erj'ing,  "Ambrose,  Bishop".  The  cry 
was  instantly  repeated  by  the  entire  assembly,  and 
Ambrose,  to  his  surprise  and  dismay,  was  unani- 
mously pronounced  elected,  tjuite  apart  from  any 
supernatural  intervention,  he  was  the  only  logical 


candidate,  known  to  the  Catholics  as  a  firm  believer 
in  the  Nicene  Creed,  unobnoxious  to  the  Arians,  as 
one  who  had  kept  aloof  from  all  theological  contro- 
versies. The  only  ditftculty  was  that  of  forcing  the 
bewildered  consular  to  accept  an  office  for  which  his 
previous  training  nowise  fitted  him.  Strange  to  say, 
like  so  many  other  believers  of  that  age,  from  a 
misguided  reverence  for  the  sanctity  of  baptism,  he 
was  still  only  a  catechumen,  and  by  a  wise  provision 
of  the  canons  ineligible  to  the  episcopate.  That  he 
was  sincere  in  his  repugnance  to  accepting  the 
responsibilities  of  the  sacred  ollice,  those  only  have 
doubted  who  have  judged  a  great  man  by  the  stand- 
ard of  their  own  pettiness.  Were  Ambrose  the 
worldly-minded,  ambitious,  and  scheming  individual 
they  choose  to  paint  him,  he  would  have  surely 
sought  advancement  in  the  career  that  lay  wide  open 
before  him  as  a  man  of  acknowledged  ability  and 
noble  blood.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  he  re- 
sorted to  the  questionable  expedients  mentioned  by 
his  biographer  as  practised  by  him  with  a  view  to 
undermining  his  reputation  with  the  populace.  At 
any  rate  his  efforts  were  tmsuccessful.  Valentinian, 
who  was  proud  that  his  favourable  opinion  of  Am- 
brose had  been  so  fully  ratified  by  the  voice  of  clergy 
and  people,  confirmed  the  election  and  pronounced 
severe  penalties  against  all  who  should  abet  him  in 
his  attempt  to  conceal  himself.  The  Saint  finally 
acquiesced,  received  baptism  at  the  hands  of  a 
Catholic  bishop,  and  eight  days  later,  7  December, 
374,  the  day  on  which  East  and  West  annually 
honour  his  memory,  after  the  necessary  preliminary 
degrees  was  consecrated   bishop. 

He  was  now  in  his  thirty-fifth  year,  and  was 
destined  to  edify  the  Church  for  the  comparatively 
long  space  of  twenty-three  active  years.  From  the 
very  beginning  he  proved  himself  to  be  that  which 
he  has  ever  since  remained  in  the  estimation  of  the 
Christian  world,  the  perfect  model  of  a  Christian 
bishop.  There  is  some  truth  underlying  the  ex- 
aggerated eulogy  of  the  chastened  Tlieodosius,  as 
reported  by  Theodoret  (v,  18),  "I  know  no  bishop 
worthy  of  the  name,  except  Ambrose ".  In  him 
the  magnanimity  of  the  Roman  patrician  was  tem- 
pered by  the  meekness  and  charity  of  the  Christian 
saint.  His  first  act  in  the  episcopate,  imitated  by 
many  a  saintly  s\iccessor,  was  to  divest  himself  of 
his  worldly  goods.  His  personal  property  he  gave 
to  the  poor;  he  made  over  his  landed  possessions  to 
the  Church,  making  provision  for  the  support  of  his 
beloved  sister.  The  self-devotion  of  his  brother, 
Satyrus,  relieved  him  from  the  care  of  the  tem- 
poralities, and  enabled  him  to  attend  exclusively  to 
his  spiritual  duties.  In  order  to  supply  tlie  lack  of 
an  early  theological  training,  he  devoted  himself 
assiduously  to  the  study  of  Scripture  and  the  Fathers, 
with  a  marked  preference  for  Origen  and  St.  Basil, 
traces  of  whose  influence  are  repeatedly  met  with  in 
his  works.  With  a  genius  truly  Roman,  he,  like 
Cicero,  Virgil,  and  other  classical  authors,  contented 
himself  with  thoroughly  digesting  and  casting  into  a 
Latin  mould  the  best  fruits  of  Greek  thought.  His 
studies  were  of  an  eminently  practical  nature;  he 
learned  that  he  might  teach.  In  the  exordiiun  of 
his  treatise,  "  Pe  Ofhciis",  he  complains  that,  owing  to 
the  suddeimess  of  his  transfer  from  the  tribimal  to 
the  pulpit,  he  was  compelled  to  learn  and  teach 
simultaneously.  His  piety,  .sound  judgment,  and 
genuine  Catholic  instinct  preserved  him  from  error, 
and  his  fame  as  an  eloquent  expounder  of  Catholic 
do<'trine  soon  reached  the  ends  of  the  earth.  His 
power  as  an  orator  is  attested  not  only  by  the  re- 
peated eulogies,  but  yet  more  by  the  conversion  of 
the  skilled  rhetorician  Augustine.  His  style  is  that 
of  a  man  who  is  concerned  with  tho\ights  rather  than 
words.  We  camiot  imagine  him  wasting  time  m 
turning  an  elegant  phrase.     "He  was  one  of  those". 


AMBROSE 


385 


AMBROSE 


says  St.  Augustine,  "who  speak  the  truth,  and 
speak  it  well,  judiciously,  pointedly,  and  with  beauty 
and  power  of  expression"  (De  doct.  christ.,  iv,  21). 

His  Daily  Likk. — Through  the  door  of  his  cham- 
ber, wide  open  the  livelong  day,  and  crossed  un- 
announced by  all,  of  whatever  estate,  who  had  any 
sort  of  busines-s  with  him,  we  catch  a  clear  glimpse 
of  his  daily  life.  In  the  promiscuous  throng  of  his 
visitors,  the  high  olhcial  who  seeks  his  advice  upon 
some  weighty  affair  of  state  is  elbowed  by  some 
anxious  questioner  who  wishes  to  have  his  doubts 
removed,  or  some  repentant  sinner  who  comes  to 
make  a  secret  confession  of  his  offences,  certain  that 
the  Saint  "would  reveal  his  sins  to  none  but  Clod 
alone"  (Paulinus,  Vita,  xxxix).  lie  ate  but  spar- 
ingly, dining  only  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  and 
festivals  of  the  more  celebrated  martyrs.  His  long 
nocturnal  vigils  were  sf>ent  in  prayer,  in  attending 
to  his  vast  correspondence,  and  m  penning  down  the 
thoughts  that  had  occurred  to  him  during  the  day 
in  his  oft-interrupted  readings.  His  indefatigable 
industry  and  methodical  habits  explain  how  so  busy 
a  man  found  time  to  compose  so  many  valuable 
books.  Every  day,  he  tells  us,  he  offered  up  the 
Holy  Sacrifice  for  his  people  (pro  quibus  ego  nuolidie 
inslaiiro  !<acri ficium ) .  Every  Sunday  his  eloquent 
discourses  drew  immense  crowds  to  the  Basilica. 
One  favourite  topic  of  his  was  the  excellence  of 
virginity,  and  so  successful  was  he  in  persuading 
maidens  to  adopt  the  religious  profession  that  many 
a  mother  refused  to  permit  her  daughters  to  listen 
to  his  worfls.  The  saint  was  forced  to  refute  the 
charge  that  he  was  depopulating  the  empire,  by 
quaintly  appealing  to  the  young  men  as  to  whether 
any  of  them  experienced  any  dilliculty  in  finding 
wives.  He  contends,  and  the  experience  of  ages 
sustains  his  contention  (Dc  Virg. ,  vii)  that  the  popu- 
lation increases  in  direct  proportion  to  the  esteem 
in  which  virginity  is  held.  llis  sermons,  as  was  to 
be  expected,  were  intensely  practical,  replete  with 
pithy  rules  of  conduct  which  have  remained  as 
nousehold  words  among  Christians.  In  his  method 
of  biblical  interpretation  all  the  personages  of  Holy 
Writ,  from  Adam  down,  stand  out  before  the  people 
as  living  beings,  bearing  each  his  distinct  message 
from  God  for  the  instruction  of  the  present  genera- 
tion. He  did  not  write  his  sermons,  but  spoke  them 
from  the  abundance  of  his  heart;  and  from  notes 
taken  during  their  delivery  he  compiled  almost  all 
the  treatises  of  his  that  are  e.xtant. 

Ambrose  and  the  .-Vrians. — It  was  but  natural 
that  a  prelate  so  high-minded,  so  affable,  so  kind  to 
the  poor,  so  completely  devoting  his  great  gifts  to 
the  service  of  Christ  and  of  humanity,  should  soon 
win  the  enthusiastic  love  of  his  people.  Rarely,  if 
ever,  has  a  Christian  bishop  Ijccn  so  universally 
popular,  in  the  Ix'st  sense  of  tliat  much  abused  term, 
as  Ambrose  of  Milan.  This  popularity,  conjoined 
with  his  intrepidity,  was  the  secret  of  his  success  in 
routing  enthroned  iniquity.  The  heretical  Em- 
press Justina  and  her  barbarian  advisers  would 
many  a  time  fain  have  silenced  him  by  exile  or 
assassination,  but,  like  Herod  in  the  case  of  the 
Baptist,  they  "feared  the  multitude".  His  heroic 
struggles  against  the  aggressions  of  the  .secular  power 
have  immortalized  him  as  the  model  and  forerunner 
of  future  Hlldebrands,  Iteckets,  and  other  cham- 
pions of  religious  liberty.  The  elder  Valentinian 
died  suddenly  in  .'J7.5,  the  year  following  the  conse- 
cration of  .-Vnibrose,  leaving  his  Arian  brother  Valens 
to  scourge  the  East,  and  his  oldest  son,  Grjitian, 
to  rule  the  provinces  formerly  presided  o\er  by 
Ambrosius,  with  no  provision  for  the  go\ernment  of 
Italy.  The  armv  seized  the  reins  and  proclaimed  em- 
peror the  son  of  Valentinian  by  his  second  wife.  Jus- 
tina, a  boy  four  years  old.  Gratian  good-naturedly 
acquiesced,   and    assigned   to   his    half-brother    the 


sovereignty  of  Italy,  Illyricum,  and  Africa.  Justina 
had  prudently  concealed  her  Arian  views  during  the 
lifetime  of  her  ortliodo.x  husband,  but  now,  al^etted 
by  a  powerful  and  mainly  (Jothic  faction  at  court, 
proclaimed  her  determination  to  rear  her  child  in 
that  heresy,  and  once  more  attempt  to  Arianize  the 
West.  This  of  necessity  brought  her  into  direct 
collision  with  the  Bishop  of  Milan,  who  had  quenched 
the  last  embers  of  Arianism  in  his  diocese.  That 
heresy  had  never  been  popular  among  the  common 
people;  it  owed  its  artificial  vitality  to  the  intrigues 
of  courtiers  and  sovereigns.  As  a  preliminary  to 
the  impending  contest,  Ambrose,  at  the  re<iuest  of 
Gratian,  who  was  about  to  lead  an  army  to  the  relief 
of  V'alens,  and  wished  to  have  at  hand  an  antidote 
against  tJriental  sophist rv,  wrote  his  noble  work, 
"be  Tide  ad  Gratianum  Augustum  ",  afterwards  ex- 
panded, and  extant  in  five  books.  The  first  passage 
at  arms  between  Ambrose  and  the  Empress  was  on 
the  occasion  of  an  episcopal  election  at  Sirmium, 
the  capital  of  Illyricum,  and  at  the  time  the  resi- 
dence of  Justina.  Notwithstanding  her  efforts,  Am- 
brose was  successful  in  securing  the  election  of  a 
Catholic  bishop.  He  followed  up  this  victory  by 
procuring,  at  the  Council  of  Aquileia  (381),  over 
which  ho  presided,  the  deposition  of  the  only  remain- 
ing Arianizing  prelates  of  the  West.  Palladius  and 
Secundianiis,  Ixitli  Illyrians.  The  battle  royal  be- 
tween Ambrose  and  the  Empress,  in  the  years  :i.S.5, 
386,  has  been  grai)hi(ally  described  by  Cardinal  New- 
man in  his  "Historical  Sketches".  The  question  at 
issue  was  the  surrender  of  one  of  the  basilicas  to  the 
Arians  for  public  worship.  Throughout  the  long 
struggle  .\mbroso  displayed  in  an  eminent  degree 
all  the  qualities  of  a  great  leader.  His  intrepidity  in 
the  moments  of  personal  danger  was  equalled  only  by 
his  admirable  moderation;  for,  at  certain  critical 
stages  of  the  drama  one  word  from  him  would  have 
hurled  the  Empress  and  her  son  from  their  throne. 
That  word  was  never  sfioken.  An  enduring  result 
of  this  great  struggle  with  despotism  Wiis  the  rapid 
development  during  its  course  of  the  ecclesiastical 
chant,  of  which  Ambrose  laid  the  foundation.  Vn- 
able  to  overcome  the  fortitude  of  the  Bishop  and 
the  spirit  of  the  people,  the  court  finally  desisted 
from  its  efforts.  Ere  long  it  was  forced  to  call  upon 
Ambrose  to  exert  hini.self  to  save  the  imperilled 
throne. 

Already  he  had  lx?en  sent  on  an  embassy  to  the 
court  of  the  usurper,  Maximus,  who  in  the  year  383 
had  defeated  and  slain  Gratian,  and  now  ruled  in  his 
place.  Largely  through  his  efforts  an  understanding 
liad  l>een  roa(he<l  between  .Maximus  and  Theodosius, 
whom  Gratian  had  ap|X)inted  to  rule  the  East.  It 
provided  that  Maximus  should  content  himself  with 
his  present  possessions  and  respect  the  territorj'  of 
Valentinian  II.  Three  years  later  Maximus  deter- 
mined to  cross  the  Alps.  The  tyrant  received  .\m- 
broso  unfa\ourablv  and,  on  the  pica,  verj-  honourable 
to  the  Saint,  that  he  refused  to  hold  communion  with 
the  bishops  who  had  compassed  the  death  of  I'ris- 
cillian  (the  first  instance  of  capital  punishment  in- 
flicted for  heresy  by  a  Christian  prince)  drsmis.-ied 
him  summarily  from  his  court.  Shortly  after. 
Maximus  invaded  Italy.  Valentinian  and  his  molhei 
fled  to  Theodosius,  who  took  up  their  cause,  defeated 
the  usurper,  and  put  him  to  death.  At  this  time 
Justina  died,  and  Valentinian,  by  the  advice  of 
Theodosius,  abjured  Arianism  and  placed  him.«elf 
under  the  guidance  of  Ambrose,  to  whom  he  became 
sincerely  attached.  It  was  during  the  prolonged 
stay  of  TheodosiiLS  in  the  West  that  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  epi.sodes  in  the  history  of  the  Church  took 
place:  the  public  penance  inflicted  by  the  Bi.shop 
and  submitted  to  by  the  Emperor.  The  long- 
received  storj',  .set  afoot  by  the  distant  Theodoret, 
which  extols    the   Saint's   firmness  at   the  expense 


AMBBOSE 


386 


AMBROSE 


of  his  equally  pronoiimod  virtues  of  prudence  and 
meekness — that  Ambrose  stopped  the  Emperor  at 
the  porch  of  the  cluirdi  and  publicly  upbraided  and 
humiliated  him— is  shown  by  modern  criticism  to 
have  been  greatly  exaggerated.  The  emergency 
called  into  action  every  episcopal  virtue.  When  tlie 
news  reached  Milan  that  tlie  seditious  Thessalonians 
had  killed  the  Emperor's  officials.  Ambro.se  and  the 
council  of  bishops,  over  which  he  happened  to  be 
presiding  at  the  time,  made  an  apparently  successful 
appeal  to  the  clemency  of  Theodosius.  Great  was 
their  horror,  when,  sliortly  after,  Theodosius,  yield- 
ing to  the  suggestions  of  Rufinus  and  other  courtiers, 
ordered  an  indiscriminate  massacre  of  the  citizens, 
in  which  seven  tliousand  perished.  In  order  to 
avoid  meeting  the  blood-stained  monarch  or 
offering  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice  in  his  presence,  and, 
moreover,  to  give  him  time  to  ponder  the  enormity 
of  a  deed  .so  foreign  to  his  character,  the  Saint, 
pleading  ill-health,  and  sensible  that  he  exposed 
himself  to  tlio  cliarge  of  cowardice,  retired  to  the 
country,  whence  he  sent  a  noble  letter  "wTitten  with 
my  own  hand,  that  thou  alone  mayst  read  it ", 
exhorting  the  Emperor  to  repair  his  crime  by  an 
exemplary  penance.  With  "religious  humility", 
says  St.  Augustine  (De  Civ.  Dei.,  V,xxvi),  Theodosius 
submitted;  "and,  being  laid  hold  of  by  the  discipline 
of  the  Church,  did  penance  in  such  a  way  that  the 
sight  of  his  imperial  loftiness  prostrated  made  the 
people  who  were  interceding  for  him  weep  more  than 
the  consciousness  of  offence  had  made  them  fear  it 
when  enraged  ".  "  .Stripping  himself  of  every  emblem 
of  royalty ",  says  Ambrose  in  his  funeral  oration 
(c.  34),  "he  publicly  in  church  bewailed  his  sin. 
That  public  penance,  which  private  individuals 
shrink  from,  an  Emperor  was  not  ashamed  to  per- 
form; nor  was  there  afterwards  a  day  on  which  he 
did  not  grieve  for  his  mistake."  This  plain  narrative, 
without  theatrical  setting,  is  much  more  honourable 
both  to  the  Bishop  and  his  sovereign. 

Last  Days  of  Ambrose. — The  murder  of  his 
youthful  ward,  Valentinian  11,  which  happened  in 
Gaul,  May,  303,  just  as  Ambrose  was  crossing  the 
Alps  to  baptize  him,  plunged  the  Saint  into  deep 
affliction.  His  eulogy  delivered  at  Milan  is  singu- 
larly tender;  he  courageously  described  him  as  a 
martyr  baptized  in  his  own  blood.  The  usurper 
Eugenius  was,  in  fact,  a  heathen  at  heart,  and  openly 
proclaimed  his  resolution  to  restore  paganism.  He 
reopened  the  heathen  temples,  and  ordered  the 
famous  altar  of  Victory,  concerning  which  Ambrose 
and  the  prefect  .Symmachus  had  maintained  a  long 
and  determined  literary  contest,  to  be  again  set  up 
in  the  Roman  senate  chamber.  This  triumph  of 
paganism  was  of  short  duration.  Theodosiiis  in  the 
spring  of  391  again  led  his  legions  into  the  West,  and 
in  a  brief  campaign  defeated  and  slew  the  tyrant. 
Roman  heathenism  perished  with  him.  The  Em- 
peror recognized  tlie  merits  of  the  great  Bishop  of 
Milan  by  announcing  his  victory  on  the  evening  of 
the  battle  and  asking  him  to  celebrate  a  solemn 
sacrifice  of  thanksgiving.  Theodosius  did  not  long 
survive  his  triumph;  he  died  at  Milan  a  few  months 
later  (.January,  3',).5)  with  Ambrose  at  his  bedside 
and  the  name  of  .\mbrose  on  his  lips.  "  Even  while 
death  was  dissolving  his  body",  says  the  Saint,  "he 
was  more  concerned  about  the  welfare  of  the  churches 
than  about  his  personal  danger".  "I  loved  him, and 
am  confident  that  the  Lord  will  hearken  to  the  prayer 
I  send  up  for  his  pious  poul"  (In  obitu  Theodosii, 
c.  3^).  Only  two  years  elapsed  before  a  kindly 
death  reunited  these  two  magnanimous  souls.  No 
human  frame  could  long  end\ire  the  inccs.sant  activity 
of  an  .Ambrose.  One  instance,  recorded  by  liis 
secretary,  of  liis  extraordinary  capacity  for  work  is 
significant.  He  died  on  Goocl  I'riday.  The  follow- 
ing day  five  bishops  found   difficulty    in  baptizing 


the  crowd  to  which  he  had  been  accustomed  to  ad- 
minister the  sacrament  unaided.  When  the  news 
spread  that  he  was  seriously  ill.  Count  Stilicho, 
"fearing  that  his  death  would  involve  the  destruc- 
tion of  Italy",  despatched  an  embassy,  composed  of 
the  chief  citizens,  to  implore  him  to  pray  God  to 
prolong  his  days.  The  response  of  the  Saint  made 
a  deep  impression  on  St.  Augustine:  "I  have  not  so 
lived  amongst  you,  that  I  need  be  ashamed  to  live; 
nor  do  I  fear  to  die,  for  we  have  a  good  Lord  ".  For 
several  hours  before  his  death  he  lay  with  extended 
arms  in  imitation  of  his  expiring  Master,  who  also 
appeared  to  him  in  person.  The  Body  of  Christ  was 
given  him  by  the  Bishop  of  Vercelli,  and,  "after 
swallowing  It,  he  peacefully  breathed  his  last".  It 
w'as  the  fourth  of  April,  397.  He  was  interred  as  he 
had  desired,  in  his  beloved  basilica,  by  the  side  of  the 
holy  martyrs,  Gervasius  and  Protasius,  the  dis- 
covery of  whose  relics,  during  his  great  struggle  with 
Justina,  had  so  consoled  him  and  his  faithful  ad- 
herents. In  the  year  835  one  of  his  successors, 
Angilbert  II,  placed  the  relics  of  the  three  saints 
in  a  porphyry  sarcophagus  under  the  altar,  where 
they  were  found  in  1864.  The  works  of  St.  Ambrose 
were  issued  first  from  the  press  of  Froben  at  Basle, 
1527,  under  the  supervision  of  Erasmus.  A  more 
elaborate  edition  was  printed  in  Rome  in  the  year 
1580  and  following.  Cardinal  Montalto  was  the  chief 
editor  until  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  as  Sixtus  V. 
It  is  in  five  volumes  and  still  retains  a  value  owing 
to  the  prefixed  "Life"  of  the  Saint,  composed  by 
Baronius.  Then  came  the  excellent  Maurist  edi- 
tion published  in  two  volumes  at  Paris,  in  1686  and 
1690;  reprinted  by  Migne  in  four  volumes.  The 
career  of  St.  Ambrose  occupies  a  prominent  place  in 
all  histories,  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  of  the  fourth 
century.  Tillemont's  narrative,  in  the  tenth  vohmie 
of  his  "Memoirs",  is  particularly  valuable.  The 
question  of  the  genuineness  of  the  so-called  eighteen 
Ambrosian  Hymns  is  of  secondary  importance.  The 
great  merit  of  the  Saint  in  the  field  of  hymnologj-  is 
that  of  laying  the  foundations  and  showing  posterity 
what  ample  scope  there  existed  for  future  develop- 
ment. 

Writings  op  Saint  Ambrose. — The  special  char- 
acter and  value  of  the  writings  of  St.  Ambrose  are  at 
once  tangible  in  the  title  of  Doctor  of  the  Church, 
which  from  time  immemorial  he  has  shared  in  the 
West  with  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine,  and  St.  Greg- 
ory. He  is  an  official  witness  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  his  own  time  and  in  the  preceding 
centuries.  As  such  his  writings  have  been  constantly 
invoked  by  popes,  councils,  and  theologians;  even  in 
his  own  day  it  was  felt  that  few  could  voice  so  clearly 
the  true  sense  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  teaching  of 
the  Church  (St.  Augustine,  De  doctrin^  christ., 
IV,  46,  48,  50).  Ambrose  is  pre-eminently  the  eccle- 
siastical teacher,  setting  forth  in  a  sound  and  edifying 
way,  and  with  conscientious  regularity,  the  deposit 
of  faith  as  made  known  to  him.  He  is  not  the  phil- 
osophic scholar  meditating  in  silence  and  retirement 
on  the  truths  of  the  Christian  Faith,  but  the  stren- 
uous administrator,  bishop,  and  statesman,  whose 
writings  are  only  the  mature  expression  of  his  ofiicial 
life  and  labours.  Most  of  his  writings  are  really  homi- 
lies, spoken  commentaries  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, taken  down  by  his  hearers,  and  afterwards 
reduced  to  their  present  form,  though  very  few  of 
these  discourses  have  reached  us  exactly  as  they  fell 
from  the  lips  of  the  great  bishop.  In  Ambrose  the 
native  Roman  genius  shines  out  with  surpassing  di.s- 
tinclne.ss;  he  is  clear,  sober,  practical,  and  aims  always 
at  persuading  his  hearers  to  act  at  once  on  the  prin- 
ciples and  argvnnents  he  has  laid  down,  which  affect 
nearly  everj'  phase  of  their  religious  or  moral  life. 
"He  is  a  genuine  Roman  in  whom  the  ethico-prac- 
tical  note  is  always  dominant.     He  had  neither  time 


AMBROSE 


387 


AMBROSE 


nor  liking  for  philosophico-dogniatic  speculations. 
In  all  iiis  writings  he  follows  some  practical  purpose, 
ileiice  lie  is  often  content  to  reproduce  what  has  been 
already  treatc<l,  to  turn  over  for  another  harvest  a 
field  already  worked.  He  often  draws  abundantly 
from  the  ideas  of  some  earlier  writer,  Christian  or 
pagan,  but  adapts  these  thoughts  with  tact  and  in- 
teliipence  to  the  larger  public  of  his  time  and  his 
people.  In  formal  |>erfection  his  writings  leave  some- 
thing to  be  desired;  a  fact  that  need  not  surprise  us 
vvlien  we  recall  the  demands  on  the  time  of  such  a 
busy  man.  His  diction  abounds  in  unconscious 
reminiscences  of  classical  writers,  Greek  and  Roman. 
He  is  especiidly  conversant  with  the  writings  of  Ver- 

fil.  His  style  is  in  every  way  peculiar  and  personal, 
t  is  never  wanting  in  a  certain  dignified  reserve; 
when  it  appears  more  carefully  studied  than  is  usual 
with  him,  its  characteristics  are  energetic  brevity 
and  bold  originaUty.  Those  of  his  writings  that  are 
homiletic  in  origin  and  form  betray  naturally  the 
great  oratorical  gifts  of  .\mbrose;  in  them  he  rises 
occasionally  to  a  noble  height  of  poetical  inspiration. 
His  hymns  are  a  suflicient  evidence  of  the  sure  ma.s- 
tery  that  he  possessed  over  the  Latin  language." 
(Hardcnhewer,  Les  o^res  de  lY-glise,  Paris,  1898, 
73(i-7;57;  cf.  Pruner,  Die  Theologie  des  heil.  Ain- 
bro.sius,  Eichstadt,  18G1.)  For  convenience  sake 
his  extant  writings  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 
exegetical,  dogmatic,  a.scetico-moral,  and  occasional. 
The  excgctic;vl  writings,  or  scripture-commentaries 
deal  witli  tlie  story  of  Creation,  the  Old  Testament 
figures  of  ('ain  and  .Vbel,  Noe,  .Vbrahanj  and  the 
patrianhs.  IMias,  Tobias,  David  and  the  Psalms,  and 
otlicr  ,sul)jocts.  Of  his  discourses  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment only  the  lengthy  commentary  on  St.  Luke  has 
reached  us  (Expositio  in  Lucam).  He  is  not  the  au- 
thor of  the  admirable  commentary  on  the  thirteen 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  known  as  "  Ambrosiaster".  Alto- 
gether these  Scripture  commentaries  make  up  more 
than  one  half  of  the  writings  of  .\mbrosc.  He  de- 
liglits  in  the  allegorico-mystical  interpretation  of 
Scripture,  i.  e.  while  admitting  the  natural  or  literal 
sense  he  .seeks  everj'vvhere  a  deeper  mystic  meaning 
that  he  converts  into  practical  instruction  for  Chris- 
tian life.  In  this,  says  St.  Jerome  (Kp.  xli)  "he  was 
a  disciple  of  Origen,  but  after  the  modifications  in 
that  master's  manner  due  to  St.  Hippolytus  of  Rome 
and  St.  H.a.sil  the  (ireat".  He  was  also  influenced  in 
this  direction  by  the  Jewish  writer  Philo  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  mucli  corrupteil  text  of  the  latter  can 
often  be  successfully  corrected  from  the  echoes  and 
reminiscences  met  with  in  tlie  works  of  .\mbro.se. 
It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in  his  use  of  non- 
Christian  writers  the  great  Doctor  never  abandons  a 
strictly  Christian  attitude  (cf.  Kellner,  Der  heilige 
Ambrosius  als  Erkliirer  des  Alten  Testaraentes, 
Ratisbon,  189.3). 

The  most  influential  of  his  ascetico-mor.al  writings 
is  the  work  on  the  duties  of  Christian  ecclesiastics 
(De  odiciis  niinistrorum).  It  is  a  manual  of  Chris- 
tian morality,  and  in  its  order  and  disposition  follows 
closely  tlie  homonymous  work  of  Cicero.  "Never- 
theless", .says  Dr.  Hardenhewer,  "the  antithesis 
between  the  philosophical  morality  of  the  pagan  and 
the  morality  of  the  Christian  ecclesiastic  is  acute 
and  striking.  In  liis  exhortations,  partic\darly, 
Ambro.-ie  betrays  an  irresistible  spiritual  power" 
(cf.  R.  Thamin,  Saint  .\mbroise  ct  la  morale  chr(5- 
tienne  au  miatriOme  siecle,  Paris,  189.")).  He  wrote 
several  works  on  virginity,  or  rather  published  a 
number  of  his  discourses  on  that  virtue,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  the  treatise  "On  Virgins"  ad- 
ilresscd  to  his  sister  Marcellina,  herself  a  virgin  con- 
secrated to  the  divine  service.  St.  Jerome  .says  (Ep. 
xxii)  that  he  w.as  the  most  eloquent  and  exhaustive  of 
all  the  exponents  of  virginity,  and  this  juilgment 
expresses  yet  the  opinion  of  the  Church.  The  gen- 
I.— 25 


uineness  of  the  touching  little  work  "On  the  Fail 

of  a  Consecrated  Virgin  (De  lapsu  virginis  conse- 
crataO  has  been  called  in  question,  but  without  suf- 
ficient rea.son.  Dom  Cierniain  Morin  maintains 
that  it  is  a  real  homily  of  .Vmbrose,  but  like  so  many 
more  of  his  so-called  "  books",  owes  its  actual  form  tc 
some  one  of  his  auditors.  His  dogmatic  writings 
deal  mostly  with  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ  and  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  also  with  the  Christian  sacraments. 
,\t  the  request  of  the  young  Emperor  Gratian  (375- 
3S3)  he  c()m[)osed  a  defence  of  the  true  divinity  of 
Jesus  Clirist  against  the  .\rians,  and  another  on  the 
true  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost  against  the  .Mace- 
donians; also  a  work  on  the  Incarnation  of  Our  Lord. 
His  work  "On  Penance"  was  written  in  refutation 
of  the  rigoristic  tenets  of  the  Novatians  an<l  abounds 
in  useful  evidences  of  the  power  of  the  Church  to 
forgive  sins,  the  necessity  of  confession  and  the 
meritorious  character  of  good  works.  A  special 
work  on  Baptism  (De  Sacramento  regenerationis), 
often  (pioted  by  St.  Augustine,  has  perished.  We 
possess  yet,  however,  his  excellent  treatise  (De  Mys- 
teriis)  on  Baptism,  Confirmation,  and  the  Blessed  Eu- 
charist (P.  L.,  XVI,  -4 17-lGl.'),  addre.s.sed  to  the  newly- 
baptized.  Its  genuineness  has  been  called  in  doubt 
by  opponents  of  Catholic  teaching  concerning  the 
Eucharist,  but  without  any  good  reason.  It  is 
highly  probable  that  the  work  on  the  sacraments 
(De  Sacramentis,  ibid.)  is  identical  with  the  preced- 
ing work;  only,  says  Bardenhewer,  "indiscreetly 
pubhshed  by  some  hearer  of  Ambrose".  Its  e\i- 
dences  to  the  sacrificial  character  of  the  Mass,  and  to 
the  antiquity  of  the  Roman  Canon  of  the  Mass  are  too 
well  known  to  need  more  than  a  mention;  some  of 
them  may  easily  be  seen  in  any  edition  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  (cf.  Probst,  Die  Liturgic  des  vierten 
Jahrhunderts  und  deren  Reform,  Milnster,  1893, 
232-239).  The  correspondence  of  .Ambrose  includes 
but  a  few  confidential  or  personal  letters;  most  of  his 
letters  are  oflicial  notes,  memorials  on  public  affairs, 
reports  of  councils  held,  and  the  like.  Their  his- 
torical value  is,  however,  of  the  first  order,  and  they 
exhibit  him  as  a  Roman  ailministrator  and  statesman 
second  to  none  in  Church  or  State.  If  his  personal 
letters  are  unimportant,  his  remaining  discourscsare 
of  a  very  high  order.  His  work  on  the  death  (378) 
of  his  brother  Satyrus  (De  excessu  fratris  sui  Satyri) 
contains  his  funeral  sermon  on  this  brother,  one  of  the 
earliest  of  Christian  panegj-rics  and  a  model  of  the 
con.solatory  discourses  that  were  henceforth  to  take 
the  place  of  the  cold  and  inept  declamations  of  the 
Stoics.  His  funeral  discourses  on  Valentinian  II 
(392),  and  Theodosius  the  Great  (39.3)  are  considered 
models  of  rhetorical  composition;  (cf.  Villem.ain, 
De  IV'loquence  chrC'ticnne.  Paris,  ed.  1S9I);  they 
are  also  nistorical  documents  of  much  importance. 
Such,  also,  are  his  discourse  against  the  Arian  intru- 
der, Auxentius  (Contra  Auxentium  de  basilicis  tra- 
dendis)  and  his  two  discourses  on  the  finding  of 
the  bodies  of  the  Milanese  martjTS  Ger\'asius  and 
Protasius. 

Not  a  few  works  have  been  falsely  attributed  to 
St.  Ambrose;  most  of  them  are  found  in  the  Benedic- 
tine edition  of  his  WTitings  (reprinted  in  Migne)  and 
are  di.scussed  in  the  manuals  of  patrologj-  (e.  g.  Bar- 
denhewer). Some  of  his  genuine  works  appear  to 
have  been  lost,  e.  g.  the  already  mentioned  work  on 
baptism.  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  31.  8)  is  loud  in  his 
praise  of  a  (now  lost)  work  of  Ambrose  written  against 
those  who  as.sertoa  an  intellectual  dependency  of 
Je.sus  Christ  on  Plato.  It  is  not  improbalilc  lliat  he 
is  really  the  author  of  the  Latin  translation  and  para- 
phra.se  of  Josephus  (De  Brllo  Judaico).  known  in 
the  Middle  Ages  as  Hegesippus  or  Egcsippus,  a  dis- 
tortion of  the  Greek  name  of  the  origmal  author 
(' I (JcrrjTro!) .  Monimsen  denies  (1890)  his  authorship 
of  the  famous  Roman  law  text  known  as  the  "  Lex 


AMBROSE 


388 


AMBROSIAN 


Dei,  sive  Mosaicanim  et  Romanarum  Legum  Col- 
latio",  an  attempt  to  exhibit  the  law  of  Moses  as  the 
historical  source  wlience  Roman  criminal  jurispru- 
dence drew  its  principal  dispositions. 

Edilions  of  lux  Writings. — The  hterary  history  of 
the  editions  of  liis  writings  is  a  long  one  and  may  be 
seen  in  tlie  best  lives  of  Ambrose.  Erasmus  edited 
them  in  four  tomes  at  Basle  (1527).  A  valuable 
Roman  edition  was  brought  out  in  1580,  in  five  vol- 
umes, the  result  of  many  j'ears'  labour;  it  was  begun 
by  Sixtus  V,  while  yet  tlie  monk  Felice  Peretti.  Pre- 
fixed to  it  is  the  life  of  St.  Ambrose  composed  by 
Baronius  for  liis  Ecclesiastical  Annals.  The  excel- 
lent Benedictine  edition  appeared  at  Paris  (1686- 
90)  in  two  folio  volumes;  it  was  twice  reprinted  at 
Venice  (1748-51,  and  1781-82)._  Tlie  latest  edition 
of  the  writings  of  St.  Ambrose  is  that  of  P.  A.  Bal- 
lerini  (Milan,  1878)  in  six  folio  volumes;  it  has  not 
rendered  superfluous  the  Benedictine  edition  of  du 
Frische  and  Le  Nourry.  Some  writings  of  Ambrose 
have  appeared  in  the  Vienna  series  known  as  the 
"Corpus  Scriptorum  Classicorum  Latinorum"  (Vi- 
enna, 1897 — 1907).  There  is  an  English  version  of 
selected  works  of  St.  Ambrose  by  H.  de  Romestin 
in  tlie  tenth  volume  of  the  second  series  of  the  "Se- 
lect Library  of  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers" 
(New  York,  1896).  A  German  version  of  selected 
writings  in  two  volumes,  executed  by  Fr.  X.  Schulte, 
is  foimd  in  the  "  Bibliothek  der  Kirchenvater" 
(Kempten,    1871-77). 

For  exhaustive  bibliographies  see  Chevalier,  Repertoire, 
etc.,  Bw-BMiographie  (2d  eil.,  Paris,  1905),  186-89;  Bar- 
DENHEWER.   Palrologic    (2d   ed.,    Freiburg,    1901).   387-89. 

Dk  Broglie,  Lea  Saints:  St,  Ambroise  (Paris,  1899);  Davies 
in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr.,  a,  v.,  I,  91-99;  Butler,  Lives  of  the 
Saints,  7  Dec;  Forster,  Ambrosius,  Bischof  von  Mailand 
(Halle,  1884);  Ihm,  Sliuiia  Arnbrosiana  (Leipzig,  1890); 
Ferrari,  Introduction  to  Arnbrosiana,  a  collection  of  learnecl 
studies  published  (Milan  1899)  on  occasion  of  the  fifteenth 
centenary  of  his  death.  The  introduction  mentioned  is  by 
Cardinal  Ferrari,  Archbishop  of  Milan. 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Ambrose  of  Camaldoli,  S.\int,  an  Italian  theo- 
logian and  writer,  b.  at  Portico,  near  Florence, 
16  September,  13S6;  d.  21  October,  1439.  His  name 
was  .\mbrose  Traversari.  He  entered  the  Order  of  the 
Camaldoli  when  fourteen  and  became  its  General 
in  1431.  He  was  a  great  theologian  and  writer,  and 
knew  Greek  as  well  as  he  did  Latin.  Tlie.se  gifts  and 
his  familiarity  with  the  affairs  of  the  Cliurch  led 
Eugenius  IV  to  send  him  to  tlie  Council  of  Basle, 
where  .\mbrose  strongly  defended  the  primacy  of 
the  Roman  pontiff  and  adjured  the  council  not  to 
rend  asunder  Christ's  seamless  robe.  He  was  next 
sent  by  the  Pope  to  the  Emperor  Sigismond  to  ask 
his  aid  for  the  pontiff  in  his  efforts  to  end  this  council, 
which  for  five  years  had  been  trenching  on  the  papal 
prerogatives.  The  Pope  transferred  the  council 
from  Basle  to  Ferrara,  18  September,  1437.  In  this 
council,  and  later,  in  that  of  Florence,  Ambrose  by 
his  efforts,  and  charity  toward  some  poor  Greek 
bishops,  greatly  helped  to  bring  about  a  union  of 
the  two  Cliurclies,  the  decree  for  which,  6  July,  1439, 
he  was  called  on  to  draw  up.  He  died  soon  after. 
His  works  are  a  treatise  on  the  Holy  Eucharist, 
one  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  many  lives 
of  saints,  a  history  of  his  generalship  of  the  Camal- 
dolites.  He  also  translated  from  Greek  into  Latin 
a  Life  of  Chrysostoin  (Venice,  1.533);  the  Spiritual 
Wisdom  of  John  Moschus;  the  Ladder  of  Paradise 
ofSt^  John  Climacus  (Venice,  1.531),  P.  G., 
LXXXVIII.  lie  al.so  tran.slated  four  books  against 
the  errors  of  the  Greeks,  by  Manuel  Kalckas,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  a  Dominican  monk  (Ingnlstadt, 
1608),  P.  G.,  C\Al,  col.  13-061,  a  work  known  only 
through  Ambrose's  tran.slation.  He  also  translated 
many  liomilies  of  St.  John  Chrysostom;  the  treatise 
of  the  p.seudo-Dcnis  the  Areopagite  on  tlie  celestial 
hierarchy;    St.   Ba.sil's  treatise  on  virginity;    thirty- 


nine  discourses  of  St.  Eplirem  the  Syrian,  and  many 
other  works  of  the  Fatliers  and  writers  of  the  Greek 
Church.  Dom  Mabillon's  "  Letters  and  Orations  of 
S.  Ambrose  of  Camaldoli"  was  pubhshed  at  Florence, 
1759.  St.  Ambrose  is  honoured  by  the  Church  on 
20  November. 

Hefele.  Hist,  of  Councils  (Edinburgh,  1871-96),  XI, 
313  sqq.,  420,  463;  Man.si,  Colt.  sacr.  conril.  (Venice,  1788. 
1792,  1798),  XXIX,  XXX,  XXXI;  Ehrhari,  in  Krumbacher. 
Geschiehte  der  byzantinischen  Ltterixtur,  2d  ed.  (Munich,  1897). 
111-144. 

John  J.  .k'  Becket. 

Ambrose  of  Sienna,  Blessed,  b.  at  Sienna, 
10  April,  1220,  of  the  noble  family  of  Sansedoni; 
d.  at  Sienna,  in  1286.  When  about  one  year  old, 
Ambrose  was  cured  of  a  congenital  deformity,  in 
the  Dominican  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene.  As 
a  child  and  youth  lie  was  noted  for  his  love  of  charity, 
exercised  especially  towards  pilgrims,  the  sick  in 
hospitals,  and  prisoners.  He  entered  the  novitiate  of 
the  Dominican  convent  in  his  native  city  at  the  age 
of  seventeen,  was  sent  to  Paris  to  continue  his  philo- 
sophical and  theological  studies  under  Albert  the 
Great,  and  had  for  a  fellow-student  there  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas.  In  1248  he  was  sent  with  St.  Thomas  to 
Cologne  where  he  taught  in  the  Dominican  schools. 
In  1260  he  was  one  of  the  band  of  missionaries  who 
evangelized  Hungary.  In  1266  Sienna  was  put  un- 
der an  interdict  for  having  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II,  then  at  enmity  with  the  Holy 
See.  The  Sicnnese  petitioned  Ambrose  to  plead 
their  cause  before  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  and  so  suc- 
cessfully did  he  do  this  that  lie  obtained  for  his  na- 
tive city  full  pardon  and  a  renewal  of  all  her  privi- 
leges. The  Siennese  soon  cast  off  their  allegiance; 
a  second  time  Ambrose  obtained  partion  for  them. 
He  brought  about  a  reconciliation  between  Emperor 
Conrad  of  Germany  and  Pope  Clement  IV.  About 
this  time  he  was  cliosen  bishop  of  his  native  city, 
but  he  declined  the  office.  For  a  time,  he  devoted 
himself  to  preaching  the  Crusade;  and  later,  at  the 
request  of  Pope  Gregory  X,  caused  the  studies  which 
the  late  wars  had  practically  suspended  to  be  re- 
sumed in  the  Dominican  convent  at  Rome.  After 
the  death  of  Pope  Gregory  X  he  retired  to  one  of 
the  convents  of  liis  onler,  wlicnce  he  was  summoned 
by  Innocent  V  and  sent  as  papal  legate  to  Tuscany. 
He  restored  peace  between  Venice  and  Genoa  and 
also  between  Florence  and  Pisa.  His  name  was  in- 
serted in  the  Roman  Martyrology  in  1577.  His  bi- 
ographers exhibit  his  life  as  one  of  perfect  humility. 
He  loved  poverty,  and  many  legends  are  told  of  vic- 
tories over  carnal  temptations.  He  was  renowned 
as  an  apostolic  preacher.  His  oratory,  simple  ratlicr 
than  elegant,  was  most  convincing  and  effective. 
His  sermons,  although  once  collected,  are  not  now 
extant. 

Acta  SS.,  March,  III,  180-251;  Croissant,  Stmopsis  vita 
et  miraculorum  B.  Ambrosii  Srainsis  (Brussels,  1623);  Qvetip 
ET  EcHARD,  S«.  Ord.  Freed.  (Paris,  1719);  Ravnaldus,  .-in- 
nales  (1648),  ad  ann.  1286;  Touron,  Hiatoire  dee  hommes 
illustrcs  de  I'ordre  de  S.  Dominique  (Paris,  1743). 

E.  G.  Fitzgerald. 

Ambrosian  Basilica. — This  basilica  was  erected 
at  Milan  by  its  great  fourth-century  liishop,  St.  Am- 
brose, and  was  consecrated  in  the  year  386.  The 
basilica  in  its  present  form  was  constructed  at  four 
different  periods,  tlirce  of  which  fall  within  the  ninth, 
the  fourtli  in  the  twelftli,  century.  Yet,  although 
the  original  church  luas  disappeared,  a  fairly  good 
idea  of  its  appearance  in  the  time  of  its  founder 
may  be  obtained  from  references  in  tlie  writings  of 
St.  .\mbrose,  supplemented  by  modern  researches. 
The  original  edifice,  like  the  great  cliurches  of  Rome 
of  the  same  epoch,  belonged  to  the  bjusilica  type; 
it  consisted  of  a  central  nave  lighted  from  the  clere- 
story, two  side  aisles,  an  apse,  and  an  atrium.  In- 
vestigations made  in  1804  liave  established  the  fact 


THE  PALA  D*ORO 

rN    TIIK    AMIIKOMAN     flAMlLICA,     MILAJf 


AMBROSIAN 


389 


AMBROSIAN 


that  the  nave  and  the  aisles  of  the  existing  basilica 
correspond  with  those  of  the  primitive  church;  the 
atrium,  however,  which  dates  from  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, i.T  much  more  extensive  than  that  which  it  re- 
placed. The  sanctuary  of  the  basilica  also  was 
enlarged  in  tlic  ninth  century,  and  two  smaller  apses, 
Hanking  a  new  central  apse  of  greater  depth  than 
the  original,  were  erected.  The  altar  occupies  about 
the  same  place  as  in  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose, 
and  the  columns  of  the  ciborium  appear  never  to 
have  been  disturbed;  they  still  rest  on  the  original 
pavement.  The  Ambrosian  basilica,  so  called  even 
during  the  life  of  its  founder,  was  consecrated  under 
circumstances  which  recall  one  of  tlie  most  momen- 
tous episodes  in  the  relations  of  Church  and  State 
in  the  fourtli  century.  On  the  death  of  the  Em- 
peror Gratian  (3S3),  the  Empress  Justina,  in  the 
name  of  her  son,  the  young  Valentinian  II,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  government  of  the  Western  half  of 
the  Empire.  Justina  was  a  zealous  Arian,  and  Milan, 
where  she  took  up  her  residence,  was  militantly  or- 
thodox. As  the  Arians  at  the  time  had  no  place 
of  worship  in  Milan,  the  Empress  demanded  one 
from  Ambrose;  but  the  Bishop  without  a  moment's 
hesitation  refused  to  comply  with  her  wish.  For 
more  than  a  year  Justina  and  her  advisers  endeav- 
oured to  attain  their  object;  but  the  firmness  of  Am- 
brose, who  was  supported  by  the  Catholics  of  Milan, 
brought  all  their  exertions  to  naught.  The  crisis 
in  the  unprecedented  contest  came  during  the  Holy 
Week  of  386.  .Vmljrose  received  an  order  to  depart 
from  the  city;  he  replied  that  he  would  not  desert 
his  flock  unless  forced  to  <lo  so.  He  tlicn  proceeded 
to  officiate  as  usual  at  the  Holy  Week  services  in 
the  new  basilica.  While  these  functions  progressed, 
the  basilica  was  surrounded  by  troops,  with  the  de- 
sign of  seizing  the  Bishop  and  the  church  at  one 
stroke,  but  the  people  refu.sed  to  yielil.  The  doors 
were  closed,  and  for  several  days  St.  Ambrose  and 
the  congregation  endured  a  siege.  The  soldiers,  how- 
ever, were  by  no  means  hostile,  and  many  of  them 
joined  in  the  singing  of  the  hvmns  composed  by  the 
Bishop  for  the  occasion.  Under  these  circumstances, 
practically  abandoned  by  the  soldiers  as  well  as  by 
the  people,  the  Empress  was  forced  to  yield,  and 
peace  was  restored.  For  the  story  of  the  exclusion 
of  Theodosius  from  taking  part  in  the  celebration 
of  the  liturgy,  as  well  as  tlie  submission  of  the  great 
Emperor,  see  AMonosE,  S.iixT. 

After  the  final  victory  of  Ambrose  over  the  Arian 
faction  at  court,  the  people  requested  him  to  con- 
secrate the  bxsilica,  whicli  at  its  opening  had  only 
been  dedicated.  The  Bishop  replied  that  he  would 
do  so,  could  he  obtain  relics  of  martyrs.  This  ol>- 
stacle  was  removed,  St.  Augustine  informs  us  (Con- 
fess., IX,  \ni),  by  the  discoverj'  in  the  Naborian  basil- 
ica of  the  relics  of  Sts.  Gervasius  and  Protasius,  the 
location  of  whose  tombs  was  revealed  to  St.  Ambrose 
in  a  vision.  The  translation  of  these  martyrs'  relics 
to  tlie  new  basilica  was  made  with  the  greatest  so- 
lemnity, and  served  as  the  crowning  triumph  of  the 
ortliodox  over  the  Arians.  In  the  explorations  of 
18G1  the  sarcophagi  which  in  the  fourth  century 
contained  these  relics,  as  well  as  the  sarcophagiis  of 
St.  Ambrose,  were  discovered  in  the  confession  of 
the  basilica.  The  remains  of  all  three  saints  were 
found  in  a  porphyry  sarcophagus  to  which  they  had 
been  transferred,  probably  in  the  ninth  centurj',  by 
Archbishop  .\ngilbert  II  (.S2l-.S.'jO).  Like  his  con- 
temporarj-  and  friend,  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  St.  Am- 
brose adorned  the  walls  of  his  basilica  with  frescoes 
representing  various  scenes  from  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament.  From  the  distich  inscriptions,  com- 
posed by  St.  Anilirose,  accompanying  each  group, 
we  learn  what  subjects  were  depicted.  Noe,  the 
ark,  and  the  dove  recalled  a  favourite  subject  of 
the  catacombs,  though  the  symbolic  meaning  was 


somewhat  different.  Abraham  was  represented  con- 
templating the  stars,  less  numerous  than  his  pos- 
terity were  destined  to  be;  the  same  patriarch  with 
Sara,  in  another  scene,  was  acting  as  host  to  Angels. 
Isaac  and  Uebecca,  two  scenes  from  the  life  of  Jacob, 
and  two  from  that  of  Joseph  formed  part  of  the 
cycle  from  the  Old  Testament.  The  New  Testament 
was  represented  by  five  scenes:  the  Annunciation, 
the  conversion  of  Zaccheus,  the  Ha;morrhoissa,  the 
Transfiguration,  and  St.  John,  reclining  on  the  breast 
of  Our  Saviour.  The  altar  of  the  basilica,  erected 
U!  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  centurj',  is  a  work  of 
rare  merit.  The  famous  brazen  serpent  stands  on 
a  column  in  the  nave,  on  the  left,  and  is  balanced 
by  a  cross  on  the  right.  This  was  brouglit  from 
Constantinople  about  the  year  1001,  by  Archbishop 
Arnolf,  and  placed  in  the  Ambrosian  basilica  under 
the  supposition  that  it  was  the  brazen  serpent  erected 
in  the  desert  by  Moses.  Archaiologists  regard  it  aa 
very  probably  a  pagan  emblem  of  Esculapius. 

Mauuice  M.  Hassett. 

Ambrosian  Chant. — The  question  as  to  what  con- 
stitutes Ambrosian  chant  in  the  sense  of  chant  com- 
posed by  St.  Ambrose  has  been  for  a  long  time,  and 
still  is,  a  subject  for  research  and  discussion  among 
historians  and  archaeologists.  When  the  saint  be- 
came Bishop  of  Milan,  in  374,  he  found  a  liturgy  in 
use  which  tradition  associates  with  St.  Barnabas. 
It  is  presumed  that  this  liturgy,  which  was  brought 
from  Greece  and  SjTia,  included  singing  by  the  cele- 
brant as  well  as  the  spoken  word  and  liturgical  ac- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  that  thcprealer 
part  of  the  chants  now  used  in  connection  with  the 
Ambrosian,  or  Milanese,  rite,  which  are  frequently 
designated  in  the  wider  sense  as  Ambrosian  chant, 
originated  in  sub-sequent  centuries  as  the  liturgy 
was  developed  and  completed.  So  far  no  documents 
have  been  brought  to  light  which  would  prove  that 
the  saint  composed  anything  except  the  melodies  to 
most  of  his  hymns.  Of  a  large  number  of  hymns 
attributed  to  him,  only  fourteen  are  pronounced  with 
certainty  to  be  his,  while  four  more  may  be  assigned 
to  him  with  more  or  less  probability.  Like  any  other 
great  man  who  dominates  his  time,  St.  Ambrose  had 
many  imitators,  and  it  so  happened  that  hymns 
written  by  his  contemporaries  or  those  who  came 
after  him,  in  the  form  which  he  used,  that  is,  the 
Iambic  dimeter,  were  called  "Hyinni  Ambrosiani". 
The  confusion  brought  about  in  the  course  of  time 
by  the  indiscriminate  vi.se  of  this  designation  has 
necessitated  endless  study  and  research  before  it  was 
decided  with  any  degree  of  certainty  which  hjinns 
were  by  .St.  Ambrose  and  which  by  his  imitators. 
As  regards  the  melodies,  it  hius  been  equally  diflicult 
for  archaeologists  to  distinguish  them  and  restore 
them  to  what  was  probably  their  original  form. 

Although  the  opinion  that  the  early  Western 
Church  received  into  her  liturgy,  together  with  the 
psalms  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  melodies  to  which 
they  had  Ix^en  sung  in  the  Temple  and  the  syna- 
gogues, and  that  melismatic  chants,  (those  in  wliich 
many  notes  may  Ix;  sung  to  one  syllable  of  the  text, 
in  contradistinction  to  syllabic  chants,  in  which  there 
is  only  one  note  for  each  syllable)  were  in  use  from 
the  beginning,  has  been  defended  with  plausibility 
by  men  like  Hermesdorf,  Delitzsch,  and,  latelj',  by 
rioudard  (Cantil^ne  Romaine,  1905),  no  direct  con- 
temporary testimony  that  such  was  the  case  has  vet 
been  discovered.  It  is  likely  that  the  florid,  or  melis- 
matic, style  in  which  most  of  our  Gregorian  •pro- 
pria are  written,  and  which  many  authorities  hold 
to  be  of  Hebrew  origin,  found  its  way  into  the  Church 
at  a  much  later  period.  The  literature  at  the  time 
of  St.  .\mbro.se  snows  that  the  Greek  music  was  the 
only  kind  known  to  the  saint  and  his  contem|>ora- 
rics.     St.  Augustine,  who  wrote  his  unfinished  work 


AMBROSIAN 


390 


AMBROSIAN 


"De  Music&"  at  about  the  time  that  St.  Ambrose 
wrote  his  hymns,  gives  us  an  idea  as  to  the  form 
which  the  melodies  must  have  had  originally.  He  de- 
fines music  as  "the  science  of  moving  well  "  {xcientia 
bene movendi)  and  the  Iambic  foot  as  consistmg  "of 
a  short  and  a  long,  of  three  beats".  As  in  the  case 
of  .St.  Ambrose  we  have  poet  and  composer  in  one 
person,  it  is  but  natural  to  suppose  that  his  melodies 
took  the  form  and  rhythm  of  his  verses.  The  fact 
that  these  hymns  were  intended  to  be  sung  by  the 
whole  congregation,  over  which,  according  to  the 
Arians,  the  saint  cast  a  magic  spell  by  means  of  his 
music,  also  speaks  in  favour  of  their  havmg  been 
syllabic  in  character  and  simple  in  rhythm.  For 
several  centuries  it  has  been  held  that  St.  Ambrose 
composed  what  are  now  termed  antiphons  and  re- 
sponsories.  There  is  no  satisfactory  proof  that  such 
is  the  case.  The  fact  that  he  introduced  the  antiph- 
onal  (alternate)  mode  of  singing  the  psalms  and 
his  own  hymns  (each  of  the  latter  had  eight  stanzas), 
by  dividing  the  congregation  into  two  choirs,  prol> 
ably  gave  rise  to  this  opinion.  The  rcsponsory  as 
practised  by  directio^i  of  St.  Ambrose  consisted  in 
intoning  the  verse  of  a  psalm  by  one  or  more  chanters 
and  the  repetition  of  the  same  by  the  congregation. 
Guido  .Maria  Dreves,  S.J.,  F.  A.  Gevaert,  Hugo 
Riemann,  and  others  have  endeavoured  to  show  how 
the  melodies  belonging  to  the  authentic  Ambrosian 
texts  lia\-e  Ijeen  transmitted  to  posterity  and  what 
rhytliinical  and  melodic  changes  they  have  suffered 
inthe  course  of  time  in  different  countries.  Dreves 
first  consulted  the  "Psalterium,  cantica  et  hymni 
aliaque  divinis  officiis  ritu  Ambrosiano  psallendis 
communia  modulationibus  opportunis  notata  Fred- 
erici  [Borromeo]  Cardinalis  Archiepiscopi  jussu  edita. 
Mediolani  apud  hseredes  Pacifici  Pontii  et  Joannem 
Baptistam  Piccaleum  irapressorem  archiepiscopa- 
lem,  MDCXIX"  and  the  complete  Ambrosian  man- 
uscript Hymnary  in  the  Bibliotheca  Trivulziana  in 
Milan,  which  two  works  are  most  likely  to  contain 
the  best  traditions.  The  melodies  as  they  appea,red 
in  these  works  were  then  compared  with  manuscripts 
of  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth 
centuries  at  Naples,  Monza,  Prague,  Heiligen  Kreuz, 
St.  Florian  (Austria),  Nevers  (France),  and  Colding- 
ham  (Scotland),  preserved  by  the  Cistercian  monks, 
who  from  the  foundation  of  their  order  had  used  the 
Ambrosian  hymnary  and  not  the  Roman.  This 
com[)arison  made  it  possible  to  eliminate  the  many 
mclismatic  accretions  and  modifications  received, 
evidently,  at  the  hands  of  singers  who  were  influ- 
enced by  tlie  taste  of  their  times  and  found  the  orig- 
inal melodic  simplicity  unsatisfactory.  As  to  the 
rhythm,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Ambrosian, 
like  all  plain-chant  melodies,  lost  their  rhythm  in 
the  course  of  the  Middle  Ages.  They  were  tran- 
scribed from  the  ancient  neumatic  notation  into 
square  notes  of  equal  length,  the  time  given  to  them 
being  determined  by  the  text  syllables  to  which  they 
were  sung.  Bearing  in  mind  St.  Augustine's  defi- 
nition, and  the  nature  of  Greek  music,  and  also  the 
fact  that  in  St.  Ambrose's  time  accent  had  not  over- 
shadowed quantity  in  poetry,  we  see  that  Dreves  is 
ju.stified  in  his  mode  of  restoring  the  melodies,  at 
least  as  far  as  their  rhythm  is  concerned.  Inasmuch 
as  .all  the  hymns  are  written  in  the  same  metre,  the 
melodies  may  bo,  and  imdoubtedly  have  been,  used 
interchangeably.  The  following  illustrations  will 
give  us  an  idea  of  the  dilTerent  forms  of  the  same 
melody  in  the  various  codices.  The  melody  to  the 
hymn  ".^Eterne  rerum  Conditor",  according  to  the 
above-mentioned  Psalterium  and  the  hymnary  of  the 
Bibliotheca  Trix'ulziana,  we  reprodticc  imdcr  (a). 
Under  (b)  we  will  give  the  same  time  as  it  is  cnn- 
taincd  in  a  codex  of  St.  Florian  dating  from  tlie 
fourteenth  century.  Under  (c)  is  the  same  melody 
08  restored  by  Droves,  stripped  of  its  added  notes, 


and  in  the  rhythmical  form  which  it  probably  had 
originally. 


gis,      Et    tem  -  po  -  rum     das  tem  -  po  - 


Ut    al    -    le-ves       fa  -  sti  -  di-ura. 


The  hymn  "Splendor  paternse  glori.T"  exists  in 
more  dilTerent  forms  than  the  one  which  we  have  con- 
sidered above.  Version  (a)  gives  the  form  of  the  mel- 
ody as  it  reads  in  the  Psalterium;  (b),  as  it  is  in  the 
antiphonary  of  Nevers  of  the  twelfth  century;  (c),the 
version  contained  in  a  codex  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury in  the  National  Library  at  Naples;  under  (d),  as 
it  is  found  in  an  antiphonary  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury in  St.  Florian,  Austria,  and,  finally,  (e)  gives  us 
the  restored  and,  probably,  the  original  form. 


Lux      lu  -  cis      et    fons 


lu  -  mi-nis,  Di  -em  di  -  es    il  •  In  -  mi-nans. 


AMBROSIAN 

^_^_^_  We  next  give  the  five  variants  of  the  hymn  "  Nunc 

^     "      Sancte  nobis  Spiritus",  of  which  (a)  reproduces  the 

melody  as  it  is  in  the  Bibliothcca  Trivulziana;  (b) ,  from 
tlie  codex  of  Nevers;  (c),  the  Coldingham  (thirtceiitli 
century)  version;  (d),  that  of  the  Cistercian  manu- 
script of  Prague  (thirteenth  century);  and  (e)  is  the 
Dreves  restoration. 


-^ =»■ 

Di  -  em       di  -  es         il  -  In   -   mi -nans. 


AMBROSIAN 


392 


AMBROSIAN 


No  -  stro 


sus    pec 


The  melody  to  the  Ambrosian  hymn  "Hie  est  dies 
verus  Dei"  is  of  added  interest  because  it  is  the  one 
to  which  the  Pentecostal  hymn  "Veni  Creator  Spiri- 
tus"  has  always  been  sung.  As  the  Easter  hymn  is 
older  by  several  centuries  than  the  "Veni  Creator 
Spiritus",  the  melody  was  adapted  to  the  latter; 
(a)  is  the  form  it  has  in  the  Psalterium  and  the 
hymnary  of  the  Bibliotheca  Trivulziana;  (b)  gives 
us  the  Nevers  adaptation  of  the  melody  to  the 
"Veni  Creator  Spiritus";  (c)  is  Dreves's  restoration 
of  the  original  form. 


Sane  -  to      se  -  re  -  nus     lu  -  ml  -  ne, 


Quo     di     -     lu    -    It     san-guis    sa  -  cer 


^^^1^ 


Pro  -  bro  -  sa    mun  -  di      cri  -  mi 


Dreves,  Aurelius  Amhrosianus,  Der  Voter  dea  Kirchen- 
gesangea;  Gevaert,  La  melopee  antiqitf  dans  U  chant  de  I'egliae 
laiine;  Julian,  Diet,  of  Hymnology;  Kiemann,  liandbuch  der 
Muaikgeachichte;  Houdahd,  La  CantUhte  Romaine.  La 
Pateographie  MuaicaU  of  the  Benedictines  of  Solesmes,  V 
and  VI  also  offers  instructive  material. 

Joseph  Otten. 

Ambrosian  Hymn,  The.    See  Te  Deum. 

Ambrosian  Hymnography. — The  names  of  St. 
Hilary  of  Poitiers  (d.  367),  who  is  mentioned  by  St. 
Isidore  of  Seville  as  the  first  to  compose  Latin  hymns, 
and  St.  Ambrose,  styled  by  Dreves  "  the  Father  of 
Church-song  ",  are  linked  together  as  those  of  pioneers 
of  Western  hymnody.  The  first  actually  to  compose 
hymns  was  St.  Hilary,  who  had  spent  in  Asia  Minor 
some  years  of  exile  from  his  see,  and  had  thus  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  Syrian  and  Greek  hymns 
of  the  Eastern  Church.  His  "Liber  Hyninorum" 
has  unfortunately  perished.  Daniel,  in  his  "Thesau- 
rus Hymnologicus ",  mistakenly  attributed  seven 
liymiis  to  Hilary,  two  of  which  ("Lucis  largitor 
splendide"  and  "  Beata  nobis  gaudia")  were,  down 
to  the  present  day,  considered  by  hymnologists  gen- 
erally to  have  had  good  reason  for  the  ascription,  until 
Blume  (Analecta  Hymnica,  Leipzig,  1897,  XXVH, 
48-52;  cf.  also  the  review  of  Merrill's  "Latin  Hj-mns" 
in  the  "Berliner  Philologische  Wochenschrift", 
24th  March,  1906)  showed  the  error  underlying  the 
ascription  of  Daniel  and  of  those  who  followed  his 
mistake.  The  two  hymns  are  mentioned  here,  since 
they  have  the  metric  and  strophic  cast  peculiar  to 
the  authenticated  hymns  of  St.  Ambrose  and  to  the 
wellnigh  innimierable  hymns  which  were  afterwards 
composed  on  the  model,  and  often  with  the  inspira- 
tion, of  those  of  the  Saint.  It  may  be  tr\ily  said, 
then,  that  St.  Ambrose,  writing  hymns  in  a  stj-le 
severely  elegant,  chaste,  perspicuous,  clothing  Chris- 
tian ideas  in  classical  phraseology,  and  yet  appealing 
to  popular  tastes,  and  succeeding  in  the  appeal,  had 
indeed  found  a  new  form  and  created  a  new  school 
of  hymnody.  Like  St.  Hilary,  St.  Ambrose  was  also 
a  "Hammer  of  the  Arians",  for  the  combatting  of 
whose  errors  it  was  his  special  distinction  to  have 
composed  hymns.  Answering  their  complaints  on 
this  head,  he  says:  "Assuredly  I  do  not  deny  it.  .  .  . 
All  strive  to  confess  their  faith  and  know  how  to 
declare  in  verse  the  Father  and  the  Son  and  the 
Holy  Ghost."  And  St.  Augustine  (Confessions,  IX, 
vii,  15)  speaks  of  the  occasion  when  the  hymns  were 
introduced  by  Ambrose  to  be  simg  "according  to  the 
fashion  of  the  East".  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636) 
testifies  to  the  spread  of  the  custom  from  Milan 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  West,  and  refers  to  the 
hymns  as  "Ambrosian"  (P.  L.,  LXXXIII,  col.  743). 
In  uncritical  ages,  hymns,  whether  metrical  or  merely 
accentual,  following  the  material  form  of  those  of 
St.  Ambrose,  were  generally  ascribed  to  him  and 
were  called  "Ambrosiani".  As  now  used,  the  term 
implies  no  attribution  of  authorship,  but  rather  a 
poetical  form  or  a  liturgical  use.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  term  will  still  doubtless  be  used  without  implying 
necessarily  a  negation  of  authorship,  in  the  belief 
that  some  may  be  really  the  compositions  of  the 
Saint,  despite  the  calculations  of  the  most  recent 
scholarship,  which  gives  fourteen  hjTiins  certainly, 
three  very  probably,   and   one  probably,   to  him. 

The  rule  of  St.  Benedict  employed  the  term; 
and  Walafridus  Strabo  (P.  L.,  CXIV,  coll.  954,  955) 
notes  that,  while  St.  Benedict  styled  the  hymns  to 
be  used  in  the  canonical  hours  .1  mhro.'^ianon,  the  term 
is  to  be  understood  as  referring  to  hymns  composed 
either  by  St.  Ambrose  or  by  others  who  followed  his 
form;  and,  remarking  further  tliat  many  hymns  were 
wrongly  supposed  to  be  his,  thinks  it  incredible  that 
he  should  have  composed  "some  of  them,  which  have 
no  logical  coherence  and  exhibit  an  awkwardness 
alien  to  the  style  of  Ambrose".  Daniel  gives  no  less 
than    ninety-two    Ambrosiani,   under    the    heading. 


AMBROSIAN 


393 


AMBROSIAN 


however,  of  "S.  Aiiibrosius  et  Ambrosiani  ",  implying 
a  distinction  wliicli  for  the  present  he  cared  not  to 
specify  more  minutely.  The  Maurists  Hniited  the 
number  tliey  would  ascribe  to  St.  Ambrose  to 
twelve.  Biraghi  and  Droves  raise  tlie  ligure  to 
eighteen.  Kaysor  gives  the  four  universally  con- 
ceded to  bo  authentic  and  two  of  the  Aiiihroxiani 
which  have  clainis  to  aulhentiiity.  Chevalier  is 
criticised  minutely  and  elaborately  by  Blume  for 
his  Ambrosian  indications:  twenty  without  reserva- 
tion, seven  "  (S.  .\nibro.sius) ",  two  unbracketed  but 
with  a  "?",  seven  with  bracket  and  question-mark, 
and  eight  with  a  varied  lot  of  brackets,  question- 
marks,  and  simultaneous  possible  ascriptions  to  other 
hymnodists.  Wo  shall  give  hero  first  of  all  the  four 
hymns  acknowledged  universally  as  authentic: 
(1)  ".•Eterno  rerum  C'onditor";  (U)  "Deus  Creator 
omnium";  (3)  "Jam  surgit  hora  lertia";  (4)  "Veni 
Redemptor  gentium".  With  rcsjiect  to  the  first 
three,  St.  .\ugustino  (juotos  from  them  and  directly 
credits  their  authorship  to  St.  Ambrose.  He  ap- 
pears also  to  refer  to  No.  -1  (the  third  verse  in  whose 
fourth  strophe  is:  (leminw  Giga.i  iiiibstanti(e)  when  he 
says:  "This  going  forth  of  our  (liant  [Cliynnlis]  is 
briefly  and  beautifully  hymned  by  Blessed  Am- 
brose. ..."  .-Vnd  Kaustus,  Bishopof  Kiez  (a.  D.  4.').5), 
quotes  from  it  and  names  the  Saint  as  author,  as  does 
also  Cassiodorus  (d.  575)  in  cjuoting  the  fourth  strophe 
entire.  Pope  St.  Cclestine,  in  the  council  held  at 
Rome  in  430,  also  cites  it  as  by  St.  Ambrose.  In- 
ternal evidence  for  No.  1  is  founa  in  many  verbal  and 
phra.sal  correspondences  between  stroplics  4-7  and 
the  "  Ilexacmeron"  of  the  Saint  (P.  L.,  XIV,  col.  255). 
Of  these  (our  hymns,  only  No.  1  is  now  found  in  the 
Roman  Breviary.  It  is  sung  at  Lauds  on  Sunday 
from  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany  to  the  first  Sunday 
in  Lent,  and  from  the  Sunday  nearest  to  the  first  day 
of  October  until  Advent.  There  are  sixteen  trans- 
lations into  English,  of  which  that  bv  Cardinal  New- 
man is  given  in  the  Marquess  of  Bute's  Breviary 
(I,  90).  No.  2  has  eight  English  renderings;  No.  3, 
two;  No.  4,  twenty-four. 

Tlie  additional  eight  hymns  credited  to  the  Saint 
by  the  Benedictine  editors  are:  (5)  "Illiuninans  altis- 
simus";  (6)  " .lEterna  Christi  mtmera";  (7)  "Splendor 
paternje  gloria;";  (8)  "Orabo  mcnte  Dommum"; 
(9)  "Somno  refectis  artubus";  (10)  "Consors  paterni 
luminis";  (11)  "O  lux  beata  Trinitas";  (12)  "Fit 
porta  Christi  pervia".  The  Roman  Breviary  parcels 
No.  6  out  into  two  hymns:  for  .Martyrs  (beginning 
with  a  strophe  not  belonging  to  the  lijTnn  (Chrislo 
■prnjusiim  sanguinem);  and  for  Apostles  {.Ktcnm 
Christi  munera).  The  translations  of  the  original 
text  and  of  the  two  hymns  formed  from  it  amount 
to  twenty-one  in  number.  No.  7  is  assigned  in  the 
Roman  Breviary  to  Monday  at  Lauds,  from  the 
Octave  of  the  Epiphany  to  tlie  first  Sunday  in  Lent 
and  from  the  Octave  of  Pentecost  to  Advent.  It  has 
twenty-five  translations  in  English.  Nos.  9,  10,  11 
are  also  in  the  Roman  Breviary.  (No.  1 1 ,  however, 
being  altered  into  "Jam  sol  recedit  igneus".  It  has 
thirty-three  translations,  in  all,  into  English,  com- 
prising those  of  the  original  text  and  of  the  adapta- 
tion.) Nos.  9,  10,  11,  12  have  verbal  or  nhnisal 
correspondences  with  acknowledged  hymns  uy  the 
Saint.  Their  translations  into  English  are:  f^o.  9, 
fifteen;  No.  10,  nine;  No.  1 1 ,  thirty-three;  No.  12,  two. 
No.  5  has  three  English  translations;  No.  G,  one;  No. 
7,  twenty-five.  No.  8  remains  to  be  considered. 
The  Maurists  give  it  to  the  Saint  with  some  hesi- 
tation, because  of  its  prosodial  niggedness,  and 
because  they  knew  it  not  to  be  a  fragment  (six  verses) 
of  a  longer  poem,  and  the  (apparently)  six-lined 
form  of  strophe  puzzled  them.  Daniel  pointed  out 
(Thes.,  I,  23,  24;  IV,  13)  that  it  is  a  f^ragment  of 
the  longer  hymn  (in  strophes  of  four  Iines\  "  Bis 
temas    horas   explicans ",    and   credits    it     without 


hesitation  to  the  Saint.  In  addition  to  the  four 
authentic  ones  already  noted,  Biraghi  gives  Nos. 
5,  (i,  7,  and  the  following:  (8)  "Nunc  sancte 
nobis  s[)iritus";  (9)  "Rector  potens,  vera.x  Deus"; 
(10)  "Keruni  Deus,  tenax  vigor";  (U)  "Aniore 
Christi  nobilis";  (12)  "Agnes  beata;  virginis";  (13) 
"Hie  est  dies  verus  Dei":  (14)  "Victor  Nabor,  Felix 
pii";  (15)  "Grates  tibi  Jesu  novas";  (Ki)  "Aposto- 
lorum  passio";  (17)  "  Apostolorum  suppaiem";  (IS) 
"Jesu  corona  virginum'  .  This  list  receives  the  sup- 
port of  Droves  (1893)  and  of  Blume  (1901).  The 
beautiful  hymns  Nos.  8,  9,  10  are  those  for  Terce, 
Sext,  None,  respectively,  in  the  Roman  Breviary, 
which  also  a-ssigns  No.  18  to  the  olBce  of  Virgins. 
The  Ambrosian  strophe  has  four  verses  of  iambic 
dimeters  (eight  syllables),  e.  g. — ■ 

iEterne   rerum   Conditor, 
Noctem  diomque  qui  regis, 
Et  temporum  das  tempora 
Ut  allevcs  fastidium. 

The  metre  differs  but  slightly  from  the  rhythm  of 
prose,  is  easy  to  construct  anci  to  memorize,  adapts 
itself  very  well  to  all  kinds  of  .subjects,  olTcrs  suffi- 
cient metric  variety  in  the  odd  feet  (which  may  be 
either  iambic  or  spondaic),  while  the  form  of  the 
strophe  lends  itself  well  to  musical  settings  (as  the 
English  accentual  counterpart  of  the  metric  and 
strophic  form  illustrates).  This  poetic  form  has 
always  been  the  favourite  for  liturgical  hynms,  sis 
the  Roman  Breviary  will  show  at  a  glance.  But  in 
earlier  times  the  form  was  almost  e.xclusively  used, 
down  to  and  beyond  the  eleventh  century.  Out  of 
1.50  hymns  in  the  eleventh-ientury  Benedictine  hym- 
nals, for  example,  not  a  dozen  are  in  other  metras; 
and  the  Ambrosian  Breviary  re-edited  by  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  in  1582  has  its  hymns  in  that  metre  almost 
exclusively.  It  should  bo  said,  however,  that  even 
in  the  days  of  St.  Ambrose  the  cla.ssical  metres  were 
slowly  giving  place  to  accentual  ones,  as  the  work  of 
the  Saint  occasionally  shows;  while  in  subsequent 
ages,  down  to  the  reform  of  the  Breviarj'  under 
I'rban  VIII,  hymns  were  composed  most  largely  by 
accented  measure. 

Ermoni.  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrH.,  gives  a  good  li.^t  of  ref- 
erences. We  may  add  to  his  list  Blume,  H ymnoloijincfie 
Beitrdge,  II,  Rcpertorium  Reperlorii  (Leipzig,  lt)OI).  and 
e>peciaHv  s.  v.  .S(.  Amhrogc,  123-126:  Amer.  Ecclfaiaslwal 
Rrrifw.  Oct.,  189(1,  340-.')73.  for  text  of  No.  1,  with  translation 
and  extensive  commentary ;  t^timmen  out  Maritt-Lnach,  i.I 
(18901,  8()-97.  for  jLtrme  rerum  Condilor;  al.-o  fame.  1.1 1 
(18971.  241-2.53.  for  Splendor  palrma:  gloria;-  al.-^o  same, 
1,1V,  1898.  273-282;  Julian,  Ot<-(.  ol  Uvmnol.  for  condense,!  ac- 
counts of  hymns,  with  first  lines  of  translations  into  KhKiish; 
S<"HLO.s.sER.  Die  Kirche  in  ihren  Liedem  etc.  (FreibiirKl.  for 
transl.  into  German,  with  notes,  of  many  Ambrosiani;  Kayskr, 
Beitrdge  zur  Gesehichte  und  Erkt/irung  dcr  titlcettn  Kirchen- 
hi/mnen  (Paderborn,  1881),  for  life  and  labours  of  tb.e  Saint, 
with  text,  translation,  extended  commentary  on  the  hviuns 
Nos.  1-4  and  0,  7,  in  this  article;  Dii-hlld.  iMttn  Hymns  and 
Hymn  U'ri(.T»  (New  York,  1889),  47-02;  Batiffol,  Hist,  du 
Brninire  Romain  (Paris.  1893),  IfL^-lTS;  Wag.ner  (Boca's 
transl. 1,  OnV/inf  ci  d/-velopprment  du  chant  liturgique  (Tournai, 
1904),  .W.  54;  Danif.l  and  Monf.  are  still  of  much  service  for 
texts  and  notes;  March,  Latin  Hymns  (New  York,  1875), 
for  texts,  grammatical  notes,  and  bymnoloKical  references. 
H.  T.  Henry. 

Ambrosian  Library,  Thk,  one  of  the  famous  li- 
brari<'s(if  tin;  world,  founded  between  l("i03  and  1009 
by  Cardinal  I'edcrigo  Borromeo  at  Milan.  This 
librar>'  is  unique  from  the  fact  that  it  was  not  in- 
tended by  the  Cardinal  to  be  merely  a  collection  of 
books  anil  m.isterpicces  of  art,  btit  was  meant  by 
him  to  include  a  college  of  writers,  a  seminary  of 
s.avanls.  and  a  school  of  fine  arts.  It  is  situated  in 
what  at  that  time  was  nearly  the  centre  of  the  city 
of  Milan,  near  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
The  plans  were  drawn  by  the  architect,  Fabio  Man- 
gone,  and  the  sculptor.  Dionigio  Bus.sola.  Tlie  build- 
ings were  ready  in  1609,  and  became  at  muc,  on 
account  of  their  ample  dimen.sions  and  elegant  dcconi- 
tion,  an  object  of  universal  admiration.    The  following 


AMBROSIAN 


394 


AMBROSIAN 


description,  although  of  the  present-day  building,  is 
an  accurate  one  of  the  original,  as  no  alterations 
have  ever  been  permitted;  e\en  the  floor  of  plain 
tiles,  witli  four  tables  (one  in  each  corner)  and  a  cen- 
tral brazier,  is  left  as  tlie  Cardinal  arranged  it. 

A  plain  Ionic  portico,  on  the  cornice  of  wliich  are 
the  words  BIBLIOTHECA  AMBEOSIANA,  gives  access 
to  a  single  luill,  on  tlie  ground  floor,  seventy-four 
feet  long  by  twenty-nine  feet  broad.  The  walls  are 
lined  with  "bookcases  about  thirteen  feet  high,  sep- 
arated, not  by  columns,  but  by  flat  pilasters,  and 
protected  by  wire  worli  of  an  unusually  large  mesh, 
said  to  be  original.  At  eacli  corner  of  the  hall  is  a 
staircase,  leading  to  a  gallery,  two  feet  and  six  inches 
wide.  The  cases  in  this  gallery  are  about  eight  feet 
and  six  inches  high.  Above  them  again  is  a  frieze 
consisting  of  a  series  of  portraits  of  saints  in  oblong 
frames.  The  roof  is  a  barrel-vault,  ornamented  with 
plaster-work.  Light  is  admitted  through  two  enor- 
mous semicircular  windows  at  each  end  of  the  room. 
A  splendid  view  of  the  interior,  together  with  a 
ground-plan,  may  be  seen  in  Clark's  "The  Care  of 
Books"  (p.  271).  Tlie  arrangement  of  books  was 
consideretl  remarkable  at  that  time,  for  a  contem- 
porary writer  says  of  it,  "  the  room  is  not  blocked  \\ith 
desks  to  wliicli  the  books  are  tied  with  iron  chains 
after  the  fashion  of  the  libraries  which  are  common 
in  monasteries,  but  it  is  surrounded  with  lofty 
shelves  on  which  the  books  are  sorted  according  to 
size"  [Gli  Instituti  Scientifioi  etc.  di  Milano  (Milan, 
1880)  p.   123,  note]. 

The  library  was  open  not  merely  to  members  of  the 
college,  wliich  was  part  of  tlie  endowment,  but  also 
to  citizens  of  Milan  and  to  all  strangers  who  came  to 
study  there;  the  severest  penalties  awaited  those  who 
stole  a  volume,  or  even  touched  it  witii  soiled  hands, 
and  only  the  Pope  himself  could  absolve  them  from 
such  crimes  (Boscha,  "  De  origine  et  statu  bibl. 
Ambros. ",  19;  ap.  Grae\-ius,  "Thes.  ant.  et  hist. 
Itaha;",  IX,  Part  VI;  see  also  the  Bull  of  Paul  V, 
dated  7  July,  1608,  approving  the  foundation  and 
reliearsing  the  statutes,  in  "  Magnum  BuUariura 
Ronianum",  Turin,  1S67,  XI,  511).  The  story  of 
the  gathering  of  the  equipment  of  this  splendid  li- 
brary is  most  interestingly  set  forth  by  the  writers 
cited.  A  digest  will  be  found  in  the  "  CathoUc 
University  Bulletin",  I,   567. 

Cardinal  Borromeo  first  applied  to  his  friends, 
popes,  cardinals,  princes,  priests,  and  religious,  who 
responded  generously.  The  Benedictines  sent  a 
great  number  of  ancient  manuscripts.  The  Cister- 
cians gave  a  code.x  on  Egyptian  papyrus,  containing 
the  "Jewish  Antiquities"  of  Josephus.  Count 
Galeazzo  Arconati  offered  the  autograph  works  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  which  King  James  I  of  England 
could  not  purchase  for  3,000  golden  crowns.  Tlie 
Cardinal  sent  agents  abroad  tliroughout  Europe  and 
the  East.  In  1607  his  secretary,  Grazio  Maria  Grazi, 
was  exploring  tlie  cities  of  Italy,  a  most  notable  pur- 
chase being  tliat  of  the  Pinelli  Library  bought  at 
Naples  for  3,400  pieces  of  gold  and  filling  .seventy 
cases.  Other  agents  gathered  treasures  in  Germany, 
Belgium,  and  France,  bringing  back  an  ample  store 
of  books  and  manuscripts.  Tliey  were  again  dis- 
patclied  by  the  Cardinal  to  Germany  and  to  Venice, 
wliilc  anotlier  agent  was  sent  to  Spain  where  he  was 
forlunale  in  making  splendid  purchases.  Three 
dillcrent  agents  were  sent  by  Canlinal  liorromeo  to 
the  Eiust,  one  of  them  a  converted  ralibi.  By  means 
of  these  agents  tlie  treasures  of  tlie  library  were  vastly 
increased,  Clialdean  books,  Bibles,  treatises  of  astron- 
omy and  mathematics,  manuscripts  in  Turkish, 
Persian,  Armenian,  and  Abyssinian  being  acquired; 
these  were  collected  liy  a  great  expenditure  of  money, 
one  of  the  agents  liaving  spent  in  tlie  service  of  the 
Cardinal  more  money  than  any  monarcli  liad  ever 
uiveii  for  sucli  an  enterprise.     This  particular  agent 


underwent  many  grave  dangers  in  his  quest,  and 
finally  died  of  the  pest  in  Aleppo. 

Tliough  the  .\mbrosian  Library  could  not  rival  the 
Vatican,  nor  the  Laurentiana  at  Florence,  nor  the 
Marciana  at  Venice,  it  enjoyed  a  greater  popularity 
than  those  ever  possessed,  because  it  was  thrown  open 
to  all  students  without  distinction,  a  rare  and  un- 
heard of  tiling  at  that  date.  It  was  practically  the 
first  library  to  offer  facilities  for  reading  or  notetak- 
ing.  Tlie  Cardinal's  liberahty  earned  the  applause 
of  the  learned  men  of  his  day,  and  his  example  was 
soon  followed  in  the  Bodleian  at  Oxford,  the  Angelica 
at  Rome,  antl  later  on  in  the  Mazarine  and  the  Biblio- 
theque  lioyale  at  Paris.  In  1865  a  monument  was 
erected  to  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo,  wlio  died 
30  Sept.,  1631.  The  monument  stands  before  tlie 
gates  of  the  Ambrosian  Library  as  a  lasting  eviiience 
of  the  city's  gratitude  to  tliis  great  patron  of  arts 
and  letters.  It  bears  the  following  simple  bvit 
heartfelt  in,scription:  "  AL  CABDINAL  FEDERICO 
BORKOMEO  I  SUOI  CONCITTADINI  MDCCCLXV  ".  On 
one  side  of  the  pedestal  is  tlie  phrase  from  Manzoni's 
"I  Promessi  Sposi":  "He  was  one  of  those  men 
rare  in  every  age,  who  employed  extraordinary  in- 
telhgence,  tlie  resources  of  an  opulent  condition,  tlie 
advantages  of  privileged  stations,  and  an  unflineliing 
will  in  the  searcli  and  practice  of  higher  and  better 
tilings".  On  tlie  otiicr  side  are  the  words:  "He 
conceived  the  plan  of  tlie  Ambrosian  Library,  wliich 
he  built  at  great  expense,  and  organized  in  1609  with 
an  equal  activity  and  prudence". 

Opicelli,  Monumenta  bioliothecm  Ambrosianw  (Milan,  1618); 
BoscH.E,  De  origine  el  statu  bihliotheaz  AmbrosiaiKF  libri  V 
in  quibus  de  bibliothecw  conditore,  conservatoribua  et  collegti 
Ambrosiani  doctoribus,  ut  de  illustribus  pictoribiis,  aliisque 
artificibus,  et  denique  de  Teditibus  ejusdem  bihliotheca-  agitur  (v. 
in  Thesauro  andqidt.  et  hislor.  Italim,  IX,  6);  Mabillon, 
Museum  Italicum,  I,  11-14;  Tiraboschi,  Storia  delta  tiHeratura 
Italiana,  Tom.  VIII,  lib.  i;  Clark,  The  Care  of  Books  (Cam- 
bridge University  Press,  1901). 

Joseph  H.  McMahon. 

Ambrosian  Liturgy  and  Rite,  the  liturgy  and 
Rite  of  the  Church  of  Milan,  whicli  derives  its  name 
from  St.  Amlirose,  Bisliop  of  Milan  (374-397). 

I.  History. — There  is  no  direct  evidence  that  the 
Rite  was  in  any  way  tlie  composition  of  St.  Ambrose, 
but  liis  name  has  been  associated  with  it  since  the 
eighth  century  at  least,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
in  his  day  it  took  not  indeed  a  final  form,  for  it  has 
been  subject  to  various  revisions  from  time  to  time, 
but  a  form  which  included  the  principal  character- 
istics which  distinguish  it  from  other  rites.  It  is  to 
be  remembered  that  St.  Ambrose  succeeded  tlie 
Arian  Auxentius,  during  whose  long  episcopate,  355 
to  374,  it  would  seem  probable  that  Arian  modifica- 
tions may  have  been  introduced,  thougli  on  tliat 
point  we  have  no  information,  into  a  rite  tlie  period 
of  whose  original  composition  is  unknown.  If,  iis 
would  necessarily  happen,  St.  Ambrose  expunged 
these  hypothetical  unortliodoxies  and  issued  cor- 
rected service  books,  this  alone  would  suffice  to  at- 
tach his  name  to  it.  We  Icnow  from  St.  Augustine 
(Confess.,  IX,  vii)  and  Paulinus  the  Deacon  (Vita  S. 
Ambros.,  §  13)  that  St.  Ambrose  introduced  inno- 
vations, not  indeed  into  the  Mass,  but  into  what 
would  seem  to  be  the  Divine  Office,  at  the  time  of 
his  contest  with  the  Empress  Justina  for  the  Portian 
Basilica  (on  the  site  of  San  Vittore  al  Corpo),  wliicli 
she  claimed  for  the  Arians.  St.  Ambrose  filled  tlie 
church  with  Catliolics  and  kept  them  tliere  niglit  and 
day  until  the  peril  wjis  past.  And  he  arranged 
Psalms  and  liymns  for  tlicm  to  sing,  as  St.  Augustine 
says,  "secunchnn  morcni  orientalium  partium  ne  popu- 
lus  mseroris  tiedio  contabesreret"  (after  tlic  manner  of 
the  Orientals,  lest  the  people  should  languisli  in  cheer- 
less monotony);  and  of  tliis  Panlimis  the  Deacon 
says;  "Hoc  in  tempore  prinium  antiphona?,  hymni. 
et  vigiliu!  in  ecclosia  Mediolanensi  celcbrari  cceperunt 


AMBROSIAN 


395 


AMBROSIAN 


Cujus  celebritatis  devotio  usque  in  hodiemum  diem 
noil  solum  in  eadcm  ecolesia  veruin  per  omne.s  pipiie 
Oci-identis  nrovincias  manet  "  (Now  for  tlie  first  time 
antiphons,  liymns,  and  vicils  began  to  be  part  of  tlie 
observance  of  the  Chun'h  in  Milan,  which  devout 
observance  lasts  to  our  day  not  only  in  that  church 
but  in  nearly  every  province  of  the  West).  From 
the  time  of  St.  Ambrose,  whose  hynms  are  well- 
known  and  whoso  liturgical  allusions  may  certainly 
be  explained  as  referring  to  a  rite  which  possessed 
the  characteristics  of  that  which  is  called  by  his 
name,  until  the  period  of  Charlemagne,  there  is  some- 
thing of  a  gap  in  the  history  of  the  Milanese  Rite, 
though  it  is  said  (Uantii,  Milano  e  il  suo  territorio, 
1,  lib)  that  St.  Siniplician,  the  successor  of  St.  Am- 
brose, addetl  much  to  the  Kite  and  that  St.  Lazarus 
(4.3S— 1.51)  introduced  the  three  days  of  the  Litanies. 
The  Church  of  Milan  underwent  various  vici.ssitudes, 
and  for  a  period  of  some  eighty  years  (570-049), 
during  the  Lombard  conquests,  the  see  was  actually 
removed  to  (lenoa.  Mgr.  Duchesne  and  M.  Lejay 
suggest  that  it  was  during  that  time  that  the  great- 
est Roman  intiueiu'e  was  felt,  and  they  woukl  trace 
to  it  the  adoption  of  the  Roman  Canon  of  the  Mass. 
In  the  eight M-ccntury  numuscript  evidence  begins. 
In  a  short  treati.se  on  the  various  curstis  or  forms  of 
the  Divine  OtHce  u.sod  in  the  Church,  entitled  "Ratio 
de  Cursus  qui  fuerunt  e.\  auctores"  (sic  in  Cott. 
MSS.,  Nero  A.  II,  in  the  British  Museum),  written 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  probably 
by  an  Irish  monk  in  I'Vanoe,  is  found  what  is  perhaps 
the  earliest  attribution  of  the  Milan  use  to  St.  Am- 
brose, though  it  cjuotcs  the  authority  of  St.  Augustine, 
probably  alluding  to  the  passage  already  mentioned: 
"Est  et  alius  cursus  quem  refert  beatus  augustinus 
episcopus  quod  l>eatus  ambrosius  propter  hereticorum 
ordinem  dissimilem  composuit  (piem  in  italia  antea  de 
cantabatur"  (There  is  yet  another  Cursus  which  the 
ble.ssed  Bishop  Augustine  .says  that  the  blessed  Am- 
bro.se  composed  because  of  the  existence  of  a  different 
use  of  the  heretics,  which  previously  u.sed  to  be  sung 
in  Italy).  The  passage  is  quite  ungranunatical,  but 
so  is  tlie  whole  treatise,  though  its  meaning  is  not 
obscure.  According  to  a  not  verj'  convincing  narra- 
tive of  Landulphas  Senior,  the  eleventh-century 
chronicler  of  Milan,  Charlemagne  attempted  to 
abolish  the  Ambrosian  Rite,  a-s  he  or  his  father, 
Pepin  the  Short,  had  abolished  the  (iallican  Rite 
in  France,  in  favour  of  a  (iallicanized  Roman  Rite. 
He  sent  to  Milan  and  caused  to  be  destroyed  or 
sent  beyond  the  mountain,  (juasi  in  exilium  (as  if 
into  exile),  all  the  Ambrosian  books  which  could  be 
fouml.  Eugenius  the  Bishop,  transmontantis  epis- 
copus (transmontane  bishop),  as  Landulf  calls  him, 
l>egged  him  to  reconsider  his  decision.  After  the 
manner  of  the  time,  an  ordeal,  which  reminds  one  of 
the  celebrated  trials  by  fire  and  by  battle  in  the 
case  of  .-Vlfonso  V'l  and  the  Mozarabic  Rite,  was  de- 
termined on.  Two  books,  .\mbrosian  and  Roman, 
were  laid  closed  upon  the  altar  of  St.  Peter's  Church 
in  Rome  and  left  for  three  days,  and  the  one  which 
was  found  open  wsis  to  win.  They  were  both  found 
oiien,  and  it  was  resolved  that  as  C!od  had  shown 
that  one  wa.s  as  acceptable  iis  the  other,  the  Am- 
brosian Rite  should  continue.  But  the  destruction 
had  lieen  so  far  effective  that  no  Ambrosian  books 
could  be  found,  save  one  missal  which  a  faithful 
priest  had  hidden  for  six  weeks  in  a  cave  in  the 
mountains.  Therefore  the  Manualc  was  written  out 
from  memory  by  certain  priests  and  clerks  (Lan- 
dulph,  Chron..  10-13).  Walafridus  Strabo,  who  died 
AblKit  of  Reichenau  in  849,  and  must  therefore  have 
been  nearly,  if  not  quite,  contemporarj'  with  this  in- 
cident, says  nothing  about  it,  but  (I)e  Rebns  Eccle- 
siasticis,  xxii),  speaking  of  various  forms  of  the 
Mass,  says:  "Ambrosius  quocjue  Mediolanensis  epis- 
copus tarn  missu)  ciuani  ca^terorum  dispositionem  ofli- 


ciorum  sua;  ecclesix  et  aliis  Liguribus  ordinavit,  quae  et 
usque  hodie  in  Mediolanensi  tenentur  ecdesia"  (Am- 
brose, Bishop  of  .Milan,  also  arranged  a  ceremonial 
for  the  M:i.ss  and  other  offices  for  his  own  church 
and  for  other  parts  of  Liguria,  which  is  still  observed 
in  the  Milanese  Church). 

In  the  eleventh  century  Pope  Nicholas  II,  who 
in  10(iO  had  tried  to  abolish  the  Mozarabic  Rite, 
wished  also  to  attack  the  Ambrosian,  and  was  aided 
by  .St.  Peter  Damian,  but  he  was  unsuccessful,  and 
Alexander  II,  his  successor,  himself  a  Milanese,  re- 
versed hLs  policy  in  this  respect.  St.  Cregory  VII 
made  another  attempt,  and  Le  Brun  (Explication 
do  la  Me.s.se,  III,  art.  I,  §  8)  conjectures  that  Lan- 
dulf's  miraculous  narrative  was  written  with  a  pur- 
pose about  that  time.  Having  weathered  tliese 
storms,  the  Ambrosian  Rite  had  peace  for  some  three 
centuries  and  a  half.  In  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century  Cardinal  Branda  da  Castiglione,  who  died 
in  1443,  was  legate  in  Milan.  As  part  of  his  plan 
for  reconciling  Philip  Mary  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan, 
and  the  Holy  See,  he  endeavoured  to  .substitute  the 
Roman  Rite  for  the  Ambrosian.  The  result  was  a 
serious  riot,  and  the  Cardinal's  legateship  came  to 
an  abrupt  end.  After  that  the  Ambrosian  Rite  was 
safe  until  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  Rule  of  that 
Council,  that  local  uses  which  could  show  a  pre- 
scription of  two  centuries  might  be  retained,  saved 
Milan,  not  without  a  struggle,  from  the  loss  of  ita 
Rite,  and  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  though  he  made 
some  alterations  in  a  Roman  direction,  was  most 
careful  not  to  destroy  its  characteristics.  A  small 
attempt  made  against  it  by  a  Governor  of  Milan, 
who  had  obtained  a  permission  from  the  Pope  to 
have  the  Roman  Mass  said  in  any  church  which  he 
might  happen  to  attend,  was  defeated  by  St.  Charles, 
and  his  own  revisions  were  intended  to  do  little  more 
than  was  inevitable  in  a  living  rite.  Since  his  time 
the  temper  of  the  Milan  Church  has  been  most  con- 
servative, and  the  only  alterations  in  subsequent 
editions  seem  to  have  been  slight  improvements  in 
the  wording  of  rubrics  and  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  books.  The  district  in  which  the  Ambrosian 
Rite  is  used  is  nominally  the  old  archiepiscopal  prov- 
ince of  Milan  before  the  changes  of  1515  and  1819, 
but  in  actual  fact  it  is  not  exclusively  used  even  in 
the  city  of  Milan  itself.  In  parts  of  the  Si\-iss  Canton 
of  Ticino  it  is  used;  in  other  parts  the  Roman  Rite 
is  so  much  preferred  that  it  is  said  that  when  Cardinal 
Gaisruck  tried  to  force  the  Ambrosian  upon  them 
the  inhabitants  declared  that  they  would  be  either 
Roman  or  Luthenin.  There  are  traces  also  of  the 
use  of  the  Ambrosian  Rite  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Province  of  Milan.  In  1132-34,  two  Axigustinian 
canons  of  Ratislxin,  Paul,  said  by  Baumer  to  be 
Paul  of  Bernricd,  and  Gebehard,  held  a  correspond- 
ence (printed  by  Mabillon  in  his  "  Musa-um  Italicum" 
from  the  originals  in  the  Cathcdnd  Library  at  Milan) 
with  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  and  .Martin,  treas- 
urer of  St.  Ambrose,  with  a  view  of  obtaining  copies 
of  the  books  of  the  Ambrosian  Rite,  so  that  they 
might  introduce  it  into  their  church.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  Emperor  Charles  IV  introduced 
the  Rite  into  the  Church  of  St.  Ambrose  at  Prague. 
Traces  of  it,  mixed  with  the  Roman,  are  said  by 
Iloeyinck  ((ieschichte  der  kirchl.  Liturgic  des  Bis- 
thums  .\ugsburg)  to  have  remained  in  the  diocese 
of  Augsburg  down  to  its  hist  breviarj-  of  1.584,  and 
according  to  Catena  (Canti),  Milano  e  il  suo  terri- 
torio, 118)  the  u.se  of  Capua  in  the  time  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  had  .some  rcsembhance  to  that  of  Milan. 

II.  OniGiN.  — The  origin  of  tlie  Ambrosian  Rite  is 
still  under  discus-sion,  and  at  least  two  conllicting 
theories  are  held  by  leading  liturgiologists.  The  de- 
cision is  not  made  any  the  easier  by  the  absence  of 
any  direct  evidence  as  to  the  nature  of  the  Rite 
before  about   the  ninth  century.     There  are,  it  ia 


AMBROSIAN 


396 


AMBROSIAN 


true,  allusions  to  various  services  of  the  Milanese 
Cliureh  in  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine  and  St.^  Am- 
brose, and  in  the  anonymous  treatise  "  De  Sacra- 
inentis",  which  used  to  be  attributed  to  the  latter, 
but  is  now  definitely  decided  not  to  bo  his;  but 
these  allusions  are  naturally  enough  insufficient  for 
more  than  vague  conjecture,  and  have  been  used 
with  perhaps  equal  justification  in  support  of  either 
side  of  the  controversy.  Even  if  the  rather  improb- 
able story  of  Landulf  is  not  to  be  believed,  the  ex- 
isting manuscripts,  which  only  take  us  back  at  the 
earliest  to  the  period  of  Charlemagne,  leave  the 
question  of  his  influence  open.  This  much  we  may 
confidently  affirm,  that  though  both  the  Missal  and 
the  Breviary  have  been  subjected  from  time  to  time 
to  various  modifications,  often,  as  might  be  expected, 
in  a  Roman  direction,  the  changes  are  singularly 
few  and  unimportant,  and  the  Arabrosian  Rite  of 
to-day  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  represented 
in  the  early  M3S.  Indeed,  since  some  of  these  doc- 
uments come  from  places  in  the  Alpine  valleys,  such 
as  Biasca,  Lodrino,  Venegono,  and  elsewhere,  while 
the  modern  rite  is  that  of  the  metropolitan  cathe- 
dral and  the  churches  of  the  city  of  Milan,  some 
proportion  of  the  differences  may  well  turn  out  to 
be  local  rather  than  chronological  developments. 
The  arguments  of  the  two  principal  theories  are  nec- 
essarily derived  in  a  great  measure  from  the  internal 
evidence  of  the  books  themselves,  and  at  present 
the  end  of  the  controversy  is  not  in  sight.  The 
question  resolves  itself  into  this:  Is  the  Ambrosian 
Rite  archaic  Roman?  Or  is  it  a  much  Romanized 
form  of  the  Galilean  Rite?  And  this  question  is  mixed 
with  that  of  the  provenance  of  the  Galilean  Rite 
itself.  Some  liturgiologists  of  a  past  generation, 
notably  Dr.  J.  M.  Neale  and  others  of  the  Anglican 
School,  referred  the  Hispano-Gallican  and  Celtic  fam- 
ily of  liturgies  to  an  original  imported  into  Provence 
from  Ephesus  by  St.  Irena'us,  who  had  received  it 
through  St.  Polycarp  from  St.  John  the  Divine.  The 
name  Epheaine  was  applied  to  this  liturgy,  and 
it  was  sometimes  called  the  Liturgy  of  St.  John. 
The  idea  was  not  modern.  Colraan,  at  the  Synod 
of  Whitby  in  664,  attributed  the  Celtic  rule  of  Easter 
to  St.  John,  and  in  the  curious  little  eighth-century 
treatise  already  mentioned  (in  Cott.  MS.  Nero  A.  II) 
one  finds:  "Johannes  Evangelista  primum  cursus  gal- 
lorum  decantavit.  Inde  postea  beatus  policarpus  dis- 
cipulus  sci  iohannis.  Inde  postea  hiereneus  qui  fuit 
eps  Lug.lunen.sisGallei.  Tcrtius  ipse  ipsum  cursum  de- 
can  tauerunt  [sic]  in  galleis. "  The  author  is  not  speak- 
ing of  the  Liturgy,  but  of  the  Divine  Office,  but  that 
does  not  affect  the  question,  and  the  theory,  which 
had  its  obvious  controversial  value,  was  at  one  time 
very  popular  with  Anglicans.  Neale  considered  that 
the  Ambrosian  Rite  was  a  Romanized  form  of  this 
Hispano-Ciallican,  or  Ephesine,  Rite.  He  never 
brought  much  evidence  for  this  view,  being  gener- 
ally contented  with  stating  it  and  giving  a  certain 
number  of  not  very  convincing  comparisons  with 
the  Mozarabic  Rite  (Essays  on  Liturgiology,  ed. 
18G7,  171-197).  But  Neale  greatly  exaggerated  the 
Romanizing  effected  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and 
his  essay  on  the  Ambrosian  Liturgy  is  now  some- 
what out  of  date,  though  much  of  it  is  of  great  value 
as  an  analysis  of  the  existing  Rite.  W.  C.  Bishop, 
in  his  article  on  the  Ambrosian  Breviary  (Church  Q., 
Oct.,  18S0),  takes  up  the  same  line  as  Neale  in  claim- 
ing a  Galilean  origin  for  the  Ambrosian  Divine  Of- 
fice.^ But  Duchesne  in  his  "Origines  du  culte  chr^ 
tien"  has  put  forward  a  theory  of  origin  which  works 
out  very  clearly,  though  at  present  it  is  almost  all 
founded  on  conjecture  and  a  priori  reasoning.  He 
rejects  entirely  the  Ephesine  supposition,  and  con- 
siders that  the  Orientali.sms  which  he  recognizes  in 
the  Hispano-Gallican  Rite  are  of  much  later  origin 
than  the  period  of  St.  Irena-us,  and  that  it  was  from 


Milan  as  a  centre  that  a  rite,  imported  or  modified 
from  the  East,  perhaps  by  the  Cappadocian  Arian 
Bishop  Auxentius  (355-374),  the  predecessor  of  St. 
Ambrose,  gradually  spread  to  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Bri- 
tain. He  lays  great  stress  on  the  important  posi- 
tion of  Milan  as  a  northern  metropolis,  and  on  the 
intercourse  with  the  East  by  way  of  Aquileia  and 
lUyria,  as  well  as  on  the  eastern  nationality  of  many 
of  the  Bishops  of  Milan.  In  his  analysis  of  the 
Gallican  Mass,  Duchesne  assumes  that  the  seventh- 
century  Bobbio  Sacramentary  (Bibl.  Nat.,  13,246), 
though  not  actually  Milanese,  is  to  be  counted  as  a 
guide  to  early  Ambrosian  usages,  and  makes  use 
of  it  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  primitive  Rite  be- 
fore, according  to  his  theory,  it  was  so  extensively 
Romanized  as  it  appears  in  the  earliest  undeniably 
Ambrosian  documents.  He  also  appears  to  assume 
that  the  usages  mentioned  in  the  Letter  of  St.  In- 
nocent I  to  Decentius  of  Eugubium  as  differing  from 
those  of  Rome  were  necessarily  common  to  Milan 
and  Gubbio.  Paul  Lejay  has  adopted  this  theory 
in  his  article  in  the  "Revue  d'histoire  et  litt^rature 
religeuses"  (II.  173)  and  in  Dom  Cabrol's  Diction- 
naire  d'arch^ologie  chrdtienne  et  de  limrgie"  [s.  v. 
Ambrosien  (Rit)]. 

The  other  theory,  of  which  Ceriani  and  Magistretti 
are  the  most  distinguished  exponents,  maintains  that 
the  Ambrosian  Rite  has  preserved  the  pre-Gelasian 
and  pre-Gregorian  form  of  the  Roman  Rite.  Dr. 
Ceriani  (Notitia  Liturgis  Ambrosianie)  supports  his 
contention  by  many  references  to  early  writers  and 
by  comparisons  of  ea/lv  forms  of  the  Roman  Ordinary 
with  the  Ambrosian.  Both  sides  admit,  of  course, 
the  self-evident  fact  that  the  Canon  in  the  present 
Ambrosian  Mass  is  a  variety  of  the  Roman  Canon. 
Neither  has  explained  satisfactorily  how  and  when 
it  got  there.  The  borrowings  from  the  Greek  service 
books  have  been  ably  discussed  by  Cagin  (Pal6o- 
graphie  musicale,  V),  but  there  are  Greek  loans  in 
the  Roman  books  also,  though,  if  Duchesne's  theory 
of  origin  is  correct,  some  of  them  may  have  travelled 
by  way  of  the  Milanese-Gallican  Rite  at  the  time  of 
the  Charlemagne  revision.  There  are  evident  Galli- 
canisms  in  the  Ambrosian  Rite,  but  so  there  are  in 
the  present  Roman,  and  the  main  outlines  of  the 
process  by  which  they  arrived  in  the  latter  are  suffi- 
ciently certain,  though  the  dates  are  not.  The 
presence  of  a  very  definite  Pvst-Sanctus  of  un- 
doubted Hispano-Gallican  form  in  the  Ambrosian 
Mass  of  Easter  Eve  requires  more  explanation  than 
it  has  received,  and  the  whole  question  of  provenance 
is  further  complicated  by  a  theory,  into  which  Ceriani 
does  not  enter,  of  a  Roman  origin  of  all  the  Latin 
liturgies,  Gallican,  Celtic,  Mozarabic,  and  Ambrosian 
alike.  There  are  indications  in  his  liturgical  note 
to  the  "Book  of  Cerne"  and  in  "The  Genius  of  the 
Roman  Rite"  that  Mr.  Edmund  Bishop,  who,  as  far 
as  he  has  spoken  at  all,  prefere  the  conclusions,  though 
not  so  much  the  arguments,  of  Ceriani  to  either  the 
arguments  or  conclusions  of  Duchesne,  may  eventu- 
ally have  something  to  say  which  will  put  the  sul>- 
ject  on  a  more  solid  basis. 

III.  E.^RLY  MSS.— The  early  MSS.  of  the  Am- 
brosian Rite  are  generally  found  in  the  following 
forms:  (1)  The  "Sacramentary"  contains  the  Ora- 
Hones  super  Populum,  Prophecies,  Epistles,  Gospels, 
Orationcs  super  Sindoncm,  and  super  Oblata,  the 
Prefaces  and  Post-Comnmnions  throughout  the  year, 
with  the  variable  forms  of  the  Communicantes  and 
Hanc  igilur,  when  tliey  occur,  and  the  solitary  Post 
Sanctus  of  Easter  Eve,  besides  the  ceremonies  of 
Holy  Week,  etc.,  and  the  Ordinary  and  Canon  of  the 
Mass.  There  are  often  also  occasional  offices  usually 
found  in  a  modern  ritual,  such  as  Baptism,  the 
Visitation  and  Unction  of  the  Sick,  the  Burial  of  the 
Dead,  and  various  benedictions.  It  is  essentially  a 
priest's   book,  like  the  Euchologion   of  the  Greeks. 


AMBROSIAN 


397 


AMBROSIAN 


(2)  The  "  Psalter"  contains  tlie  Psalms  and  Canticles. 
It  is  sometimes  included  with  the  "  Manual".  (3)  The 
".Manual"  is  nearly  the  complement  of  the  "Sacra- 
mentary"  and  the  "Psalter"  aa  regards  both  the 
Mass  and  the  Divine  Office.  It  contains:  For  tlio 
Divine  Othce;  the  Luceriiaria,  Antiphons,  Responsoria, 
PsalUnih,  Complcloriu,  Capilula,  Hymns,  and  other 
chanceable  parts,  except  the  Lessons,  which  are 
found  separately.  For  the  Mass:  the  Ingrcsxoe, 
Psalmella,  Versus,  Cantus,  Antiphnna:  ante  and  jiost 
Evantjelittm,  Offertoria,  Conjractoria,  and  Tranxitoria. 
The  "Manual"  often  also  contains  occasional  services 
such  as  are  now  usually  found  in  a  Ritual.  (4)  The 
"Antiphoner"  is  a  .Uanwa/ noted.  (5)  The"Kitual" 
and  (6)  "Pontifical"  have  contents  similar  to  those 
of  Roman  books  of  the  same  name,  though  of  course 
the  early  MSS.  are  less  ample.  The  following  arc 
some  of  the  most  noted  MSS.  of  the  rite.  (I)  Sacra- 
mentaries  and  Missals:  (a)  The  "  Biasca  Sacra- 
mentary";  Bibl.  .\nibros.,  A.  24,  bis  inf.,  late  ninth 
or  early  tenth  century.  Described  by  Dclisle,  "Anc. 
Sacr.",  LXXI,  edited  by  Ceriani  in  his  "Monu- 
menta  Sacra  et  Profana ",  VIII,  the  Ordinary  is 
analyzed  and  the  Canon  given  in  full  in  Ceriani's 
"Notitia  Lit.  .\mbr".  (b)  The  "Lodrino  Sacra- 
mentary";  Bibl.  Ambr.,  A.  24,  inf.,  eleventh  centur\'. 
Delisle,  "Anc.  Sacr.",  LXXII.  (c)  The  "Sacra- 
mentary  of  San  Satiro",  Milan;  treasury  of  Milan 
Cathedral;  eleventh  century.  Delisle,  "Anc.  Sacr.", 
I.XXIII.  (d)  Sacramentary;  treasury  of  Milan 
Cathc<lral;  eleventh  century.  Delisle,  "Anc.  Sacr.", 
LXXIV.  (e)  The  "Sacramentary  of  Armio",  near 
the  Lago  Maggiore;  treasury  of  Milan  Cathedral; 
eleventh    century.     Delisle,      Anc.    Sacr.",    LXXV. 

(f)  Sacramentary  belonging  to  the  Marchese  Trotti; 
eleventh  century.     Delisle,   "Anc.    Sacr.",   LXXVI. 

(g)  .Sacramentary;  Bibl.  Ambros.,  CXX,  sup.,  eleventh 
century.  Uclisle,  "Anc.  Sacr.",  LXXVII.  (h) 
The  "Bergamo  Sacramentary";  library  of  Sant' 
Alessandro  in  Colonna,  Bergamo;  tenth  or  eleventh 
century.  Published  by  the  Benedictines  of  Soles- 
mes,  ".-Vuctarium  Solesmense"  (to  Migne's  Patrolo- 
gia),  "Series  Liturgica",  I.  (i)  Sacramentary; 
treasury  of  Monza  Cathedral;  tenth  century.  De- 
lisle, "Anc.  Sacr.",  LXV.  (j)  "Sacramentary  of 
San  Michele  di  Venegttno  inferiorc"  (near  V'arcse); 
treasviry  of  Monza  Cathedral;  eleventh  century. 
Delisle,  "Anc.  Sacr.",  LXVIII.  These  two  of  Monza 
Cathedral  are  more  fully  described  in  Frisi's  "Memorie 
storiche  di  Monza",  III,  7.5-77,  82-84.  (k)  "Missale 
Ambrosianum",  of  Bedero  (near  Luino);  Bibl.  Ambr.,. 
D.,  87  inf.;  twelfth  century.  Note<l  by  Magistretti  in 
"Delia  nuovaedizionc  tipica  del  messale  Ambrosiano". 

(2)  Antiphoner:  " Antiphonarium  Ambrosianum"; 
British  .Museum,  .\(ld.  MSS.,  34,209;  twelfth  century; 
published  by  the  Benedictines  of  Solesmes,  with  a 
ccmplete  facsimile  and  200  pages  of  introduction  by 
Dom  Paul  Cagin,  in  "  Paldographie  musicale",  V,  VI, 

(3)  Manuals:  (a)  ".Manual  of  Lodrino;"  Bibl.  Ambr., 
SH.  IV,  44;  tenth  or  eleventh  century.  Imperfect. 
Described  by  .Magistretti,  "  Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb.", 
II,  IH.  (b)  ".\Ianuale  .\mbrosianum "  belonging  to 
the  .Marchese  Trotti;  tenth  or  eleventh  century.  Im- 
perfect. Miigi.stretti,  ".Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb.",  II,  19. 
(c)  "Manuale  Ambrosianum";  Bibl.  Ambr.,  CIII, 
sup. ;  tenth  or  eleventh  century.  Imperfect.  Magis- 
tretti, ".Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb."|  II,  20.  (d)  "Manuale 
Ambrosianum";  from  the  Church  of  Cemusco  (be- 
tween Monza  and  Lecco);  Bibl.  Ambr.,  I,  Ho,  sup.; 
eleventh  centurj'.  Magistretti,  "Mon.  Vet.  Lit. 
Amb.",  II.  28.  (e)  ".Manuale  Ambrosianum";  from 
the  Church  of  San  Vittore  al  Tcafro,  Milan;  Bibl. 
Ambr.,  .\,  1,  inf.;  twelfth  century.  Magistretti, 
"Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb.",  II,  22.  (f)  "Manuale  Am- 
brosianum"; from  the  Church  of  Brivio  (near  the 
Lecco  end  of  the  Lake  of  Como);  Bibl.  Ambr.,  I,  27, 
sup.;  twelfth  century.     Magistretti,  "Mon.  Vet.  Lit. 


Amb.",  II,  30.  (4)  Rituals:  (a)  "Liber  Monachomm 
S.  Ambrosii";  Bibl.  Ambr.,  XCVI,  sup.;  eleventh  cen- 
tury. Magistretti,  "Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb.",  II,  33, 
79-93.  (b)  "Rituale  Ambrosianum",  from  the 
Church  of  S.  Laurentiolus  in  Porta  Vercellina,  .Milan; 
Sacrar.  .Motrop.,  H.  62;  thirteenth  century.  .Magis- 
tretti, "Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb.",  II,  37,  143-171.  (c) 
Beroldus  Novus";  Chapter  Library,  Milan;  thirteenth 
century.  .Magistretti,  "Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb.",  17, 
94-142.  (d)  "Asti  Ritual";  Bibl.  Mazarine,  .'j2.'); 
tenth  century.  Described  by  Gastou6  in  "  Ha,sscgiia 
Gregoriana",  1903.  This,  though  from  the  old  jirov- 
ince  of  Milan,  is  not  Ambrosian,  but  has  bearings  on 
the  subject.  (5)  Ceremonial:  "Calendarium  et  Or- 
dines  Ecdesiu;  Ambrosianie";  Beroldus;  Bibl.  .Vinbr., 
I,  1,58,  inf.  twelftli  century.  Publislied  by  Magis- 
tretti, 1894.  (6)  Pontificals:  (a)  "Pontificale  .Mcdio- 
lanensis  Eeclesia;";  Chapter  Library,  Milan;  ninth 
century.  Printed  by  Magistretti,  "Mon.  Vet.  Lit. 
Amb.",  I.  (b)  "Pontificale  Mediolanensis  Eecle- 
sia'"; Chapter  Library,  Milan;  eleventh  century. 
Magistretti,  "  Mon.  Vet.  Lit.  Amb.",  1, 27.  (c)  "  Ordo 
Ambrosianus  a<l  Consecrandam  Ecclesiam  et  Al- 
tare;"  Chapter  Library,  Lucca;  eleventh  century. 
Printed  by  Mercati,  "Studi  e  tcsti"  (of  the  Vatican 
Librarj'),  7.  Some  editions  of  the  printed  Ambrosian 
service-books:  Missals:  (Pre-Borromean)  147.5,  1482, 
1486,  1488,  1494,  1499,  1505,  1515,  1522,  1548.  1.560; 
(St.  Charles  Borromeo)  1594;  (F.  Borromeo)  1009- 
18;  (Monti)  1640;  (Litta)  1669;  (Fed.  Visconti) 
1692;  (Archinti)  1712;  (Pozzobonelli)  1751,  1768; 
(Fil.  Visconti)  1795;  (Gaisruck)  1831;  (Ferrari)  1902. 
Breviaries:  (Pre-Borromcan)  1475,  1487,  1490,  1492, 
1507,  1513,  1522,  and  many  others;  (St.  Charles 
Borromeo),  1582,  1588;  (Pozzobonelli)  17(iO;  (Gais- 
ruck) 1841;  (RomiUi)  1857;  (Ferrari)  1896,  1902. 
Rituals:  n.  d.  circ,  1475  (a  copy  in  Bodleian),  1045, 
1736,  1885.  Psalters:  1486,  1555.  Ceremonials: 
1619,  1831.  Lectionary:  1660?  Litanies:  1494, 
1546,  1667.  The  editions  of  the  Missals,  1475,  1751, 
and  1902;  of  the  Breviaries,  1582  and  1902;  of  the 
Ritual,  1645;  both  the  Psalters,  both  the  Ceremonials, 
theLectionary,  and  Litanies  a  re  in  the  British  Museum. 
IV.  The  LiTntGic^L  Year. — The  Liturgical  Year 
of  the  Ambrosian  Rite  begins,  as  elsewhere  in  the 
West,  with  the  First  Sunday  of  Advent,  but  that 
Sunday,  as  in  the  Mozarabic  Rite,  is  a  fortnight 
curlier  than  in  the  Roman,  so  that  there  arc  six 
Sundays  in  Advent,  and  tlie  key-day  of  the  begin- 
ning of  Advent  is  not  St.  Andrew's  (30  Noveiiil)cr) 
but  St.  Martin's  Day  (11  November),  which  begins 
the  Sanctoralc.  The  rule  of  this  key  also  ditters. 
The  Roman  is:  "  Adventus  Domini  celebratur  semper 
die  Dominico,  qui  propinquior  est  festo  S.  Andrea; 
Apostoli",  which  gives  a  range  from  27  November 
to  3  Decemlx:r.  The  Ambrosian  is:  "Adventus  Dom- 
ini inchoatur  Dominica  proxima  post  Festum  S. 
Martini",  that  is  to  say,  from  12  November  to  18 
November.  If,  as  in  1906,  St.  Martin's  Day  falls 
on  a  Sunday,  the  Octave  is  the  first  Sunday  of  Ad- 
vent; whereas  in  the  Roman  Rite  if  St.  Andrew's 
Day  falls  on  a  Sunday,  that  day  itself  is  Advent 
Sunday.  The  Fcriac  of  Advent  continue  until  the 
Fcrice  de  Eiccplato  liegin.  These  days,  which  some 
say  must  have  been  originally  dc  Expedalo,  a  quite 
unnecessary  supposition,  and  on  which  the  ordinary 
sequence  of  the  Psalter  is  interrupted  and  certain 
proper  [isalms  and  antiphons  are  said,  occur  a<(ord- 
ing    to    the   following   rule:  "Officium    in   Advcniu 

Croprium  quod  de  Exceptato  dicitur  semper  cele- 
ratur  in  hac  hebd.  VI  Adv.  nisi  dies  Nativitatis 
Domini  incident  in  fer.  Ill,  vel  IV;  tunc  de  Excep- 
tato fit  in  helxl.  V  Adv."  So  that  there  must  be 
two  and  there  may  be  seven  of  these  days.  Clirist- 
mas  Eve  is  not  ex.actly  counted  as  one  of  them, 
though,  if  it  falls  on  a  weekday,  it  has  the  proper 
I>8alms  and  antiphons  of  that  Ftria  de  Exceptalo.     If 


AMBROSIAN 


398 


AMBROSIAN 


it  falls  on  a  Sunday,  .is  in  1905,  that  is  not  one  of 
the  six  Sundays  of  Athent,  the  last  of  which  is  the 
Sunday  before,  but  the  antiphons  of  the  sixth  Sun- 
day are  used.  On  the  sixth  Sunday  of  Advent  the 
Annunciation  (de  htcarnationc  D.  \.  J.  C.)  is  cele- 
brated, for,  since  no  fLxed  festivals  are  kept  during 
Lent  or  Easter  Week,  it  cannot  be  properly  cele- 
brated on  2.5  March,  though  it  is  found  there  in  the 
Calendar  and  has  an  Office  in  the  Breviary.  On 
this  Sunday  there  are  two  Masses,  mm  de  Adventu 
et  altera  de  'incarnaiione.  This  day  may  be  compared 
with  the  Mozarabic  feast  of  the  Annunciation  on 
18  December,  which  is  the  Roman  Expedatio  Partus 
B.  M.  V.  Christmas  Day  has  three  Masses,  in  Node 
SanctA,in  Atirord,  and  in  Die,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite, 
and  the  festivals  which  follow  Christmas  are  included 
in  the  De  Tempore,  tliough  there  is  a  slight  discrep- 
ancy between  the  Missal  and  Breviary,  the  former 
putting  the  lesser  feasts  of  January  which  come  be- 
fore- the  Epiphany  in  the  Sanclorale,  and  the  latter 
including  all  day.s"  up  to  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany 
in  the  Tenipor'alc,  except  9  January  (The  Forty 
Martyrs).  The  day  after  the  Epiphany  is  the  Chris- 
tophoria,  the  Return  from  Egypt.  The  Sundays  after 
the  Epiphany  vary,  of  course,  in  number,  six  being, 
as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  the  maximum.  The  second 
is  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus.  Then  follow 
Septuagesima,  Sexagesiraa,  and  Quinquagesima  Sun- 
days, on  which,  though  Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  Halle- 
lujah are  used,  the  vestments  are  violet.  There  is 
no  Ash  Wednesday,  and  Lent  begins  liturgically  on 
the  first  Sunday,  the  fast  beginning  on  the  Monday. 
Tlntil  the  time  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  the  liturgical 
Lent,  with  its  use  of  litanies  on  Sundays  instead  of 
Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  the  disuse  of  Hallelujah,  began 
on  the  Monday.  The  title  of  the  Sunday,  both  then 
and  now,  was  and  is  Dominica  in  capite  Quadra- 
gesimce.  The  other  Sundays  of  Lent  are  styled  De 
Samaritand,  De  Abraham,  De  Coeco,  De  Lazaro,  and 
of  course,  in  Ramis  Palmarum  (or  Dominica  Oliva- 
rum).  Tlie  names  of  the  second  to  the  fifth  Sun- 
days are  in  allusion  to  the  subject  of  the  Gospel  of 
the  day,  not,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  to  the  Introit. 
(Cf.  nomenclature  of  Greek  Rite.)  Passiontide  does 
not  begin  \mtil  Holy  Week.  The  day  before  Palm 
Sunday  is  Sahbatum  in  Traditione  Symboli.  This, 
the  Blessing  of  the  Font,  the  extra  Masses  pro  Bap- 
tizatis  in  Ecclesid  Hyemali  on  Easter  Eve  and  every 
day  of  Easter  Week,  and  the  name  of  the  first  Sun- 
day after  Easter  in  albis  depositis  show  even  more 
of  a  lingering  memory  of  the  old  Easter  Baptisms 
than  the  similar  survivals  in  the  Roman  Rite.  Holy 
Week  is  Hebdomada  Authentica.  Maundy  Thursday, 
Good  Friday,  Easter  Eve,  and  Easter  Day  are  named 
as  in  the  Roman  Rite.  The  five  Sundays  after 
Easter,  AscerLsion,  Pentecost,  Trinity  Sunday,  and 
Corpus  Christi  follow,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  but 
the  Triduum  Litaniarum  (Rogations)  comes  on  the 
Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  after,  instead  of 
before.  Ascension  Day.  The  Sundays  after  Pente- 
cost continue  eo  nomine  until  the  Decollation  of 
St.  John  (29  August).  There  may  be  as  many  as 
fifteen  of  them.  Then  follow  either  four  or  five 
Sundays  post  Decollationem  S.  Joannis  Baptistce, 
then  three  Sundays  of  October,  the  third  of  which 
is  Dcdicatio  Ecclesioe  Majoris.  The  rest  of  the  Sun- 
days until  Advent  are  post  Dedicationem. 

The  Calendar  of  the  Saints  calls  for  little  notice. 
There  are  many  local  saints,  and  several  feasts  which 
are  given  in  the  Roman  Calendar  in  late  February, 
March,  and  early  April  are  given  on  otlier  days, 
because  of  the  rule  against  feasts  in  Lent.  Only 
St.  Joseph  and  the  Annunciation  come  in  the  Lenten 
part  of  the  Calendar,  but  the  Mas.sos  of  these  are 
given  on  12  December  and  the  sixth  Sunday  of  Ad- 
vent respectively.  The  days  are  classified  a.s  follows: 
fl)  Solemnitates  Domini.  First  Class:  the  Annvincia- 


tion,  Christmas  Day,  Epiphany,  Easter  Day  with  ita 
Monday  and  Tuesday,  Ascension  Day,  Pentecost, 
with  its  Monday  and  Tuesday,  Corpus  Domini,  the 
Dedication  of  the  Cathedral  or  of  the  local  church, 
Solemnitas  Domini  titularis  propriae  Ecclesicc.  First 
class,  secondary:  the  Feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
Second  class:  the  Visitation,  Circumcision,  Purifica- 
tion, Transfiguration,  Invention  of  the  Cross,  Trinity 
Sunday.  Second  class,  secondary:  the  Name  of  Jesus, 
the  Holy  Family,  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross.  The 
Octaves  of  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter  Day,  Pen- 
tecost and  Corpus  Domini  also  count  as  Solemnitates 
Domini.  (2)  Sundays.  (3)  Solemnia  B.  M.  V.  et 
Sanctorum.  First  class:  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
Assumption,  Nativity  of  St.  John  Baptist,  St.  Joseph, 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  AU  Saints,  the  Ordination  of 
St.  Ambrose,  and  the  Patron  of  the  local  church.  Sec- 
ond class:  other  feasts  of  Our  Lady,  St.  Michael  and 
tlie  Archangels,  and  the  Guardian  Angels,  Decolla- 
tion of  St.  John,  Feasts  of  Apostles  and  Evangelists, 
St.  Anne,  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  the  Holy  Innocents, 
St.  Joachim,  St.  Laurence,  St.  Martin,  Sts.  Nazarius 
and  Celsus,  Sts.  Protasius  and  Gervasiiis.  St.  Stephen, 
St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury.  Second  class,  secondary: 
the  two  Chairs  of  St.  Peter,  the  Conversion  of  St. 
Paul.  (4)  Solemnia  Majora:  St.  Agatha,  St.  Agnes, 
St.  Anthony,  St.  ApoUinaris,  St.  Benedict,  St.  Dom- 
inic, the  Translations  of  Sts.  Ambrose,  Protasius, 
and  Gervasius,  St.  Francis,  St.  Mary  Magdalene, 
Sts.  Nabor  and  Felix,  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Victor, 
St.  Vincent.  (5)  Alia  Solemnia  are  days  noted  as 
such  in  the  Calendar,  and  the  days  of  :>aints  whose 
bodies  or  important  relics  are  preserved  in  any  par- 
ticular church  become  Solemnia  for  that  church. 
(C)  Non-Solemnia  Privilcgiata.  (7)  Kon-Solemnia 
Simplicia.  Feasts  are  also  grouped  into  four  classes: 
First  class  of  Solemnitates  Domini  and  Solemnia; 
second  class  of  the  same;  greater  and  ordinary  So- 
lemnia; non-Solemnia ,  divided  into  pririlegiata  and 
simplicia.  Solemnia  have  two  vespers,  rjon-iSo/emnia 
only  one,  the  first.  The  privilegiatxi  have  certain 
propria  and  the  simplicia  only  the  comnninia.  The 
general  principle  of  occurrences  is  that  common  to 
the  wliole  Western  Church.  If  two  festivals  fall  on 
the  same  day,  the  lesser  is  either  transferred,  merely 
commemorated,  or  omitted.  But  the  Ambrosian  Rite 
differs  materially  from  the  Roman  in  the  rank  given 
to  Simday,  which  is  only  superseded  by  a  Solemnitas 
Domini,  and  not  always  then,  for  if  the  Name  of 
Jesus  or  the  Purification  falls  on  Septuagesima,  Sex- 
agcsima,  or  Quinquagesima  Sunday,  it  is  transferred, 
though  the  distribution  and  procession  of  candles 
takes  place  on  the  Sunday  on  which  the  Purification 
actually  falls.  If  a  Solemne  Sanctorutn  or  a  privi- 
leged non-Solemne  falls  on  a  Sunday,  a  Solemnitas 
Domini,  the  Friday  or  Saturday  of  the  fourth  or 
fifth  week  of  Advent,  a  Feria  de  Exceplato,  witliin 
an  Octave  of  a  great  Feast,  a  Feria  Litaniaritm,  or 
a  Feria  of  Lent,  the  whole  office  is  of  the  Simday, 
Solemnitas  Domini,  etc.,  and  the  Solem7ic  or  non- 
Solemne  privilegiatum  is  transferred,  in  most  cases  to 
the  next  clear  day,  but  in  the  case  of  Solemnia  of 
the  first  or  second  class  to  the  next  Feria,  quncunxpie 
jesto  etiam  solemni  impedita.  A  simple  non-Solemne 
is  never  transferred,  but  it  is  omitted  altogetlier  if 
a  Solemne  of  the  first  class  falls  on  the  same  day, 
and  in  other  ca.scs  of  occurrences  it  is  commemorated, 
though  of  course  it  supersedes  an  ordinary  Feria. 
The  concurrences  of  the  first  Vespers  of  one  feast 
witli  the  .second  of  another  arc  arranged  on  much 
the  same  principle,  the  chief  peculiarity  being  that 
if  a  Solemne  Sanctorum  falls  on  a  Monday  its  first 
Vespers  is  kept  not  on  the  Sunday,  but  on  the  pre- 
ceding Satunlay,  cxccjit  in  .\dvcnt,  when  this  rule 
applies  fvnly  to  Sulrmnia  of  the  first  and  .second  class, 
and  clIuT  .s'(i/(7/i » Id  arc  only  commemorated  at  Sun- 
day Vespers.     The  litwrgical  colours  of  the  Arabro 


AMBROSIAN 


399 


AMBROSIAN 


eian  Rite  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Roman, 
the  most  iraport;iiit  differeiiocs  being  tliat  (except 
when  some  greater  clay  occurs)  red  is  used  on  the 
Sundays  and  Feriw  after  Pentecost  and  the  IJceoUa- 
tion  of  St.  John  until  the  Eve  of  tlie  Dedication 
(third  Sunday  in  October),  on  Corpus  Christi  and  its 
Octave,  and  during  Holy  Week,  except  on  Good 
Friday,  as  well  as  on  the  days  on  which  it  is  used  in 
the  Roman  Rite,  ami  that  (with  similar  except ioiLs) 
green  is  only  used  from  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany 
to  the  eve  of  Septuagcsima,  from  Low  Sunday  to 
the  Friday  before  Pentecost,  after  the  Dedication  to 
Advent,  and  on  feasts  of  abbots. 

V.  The  Dutxe  Offke.  (1)  The  Distribution  of 
the  Psalter. — The  .\mbrosian  distribution  of  the 
Psalter  is  partly  fortnifjhtly  and  partly  weekly. 
Psalms  i  to  cviii  are  divided  into  ten  decurice,  one 
of  which,  in  its  numerical  order,  divided  into  three 
Nocturns,  is  recited  at  Matins  on  the  Mondays,  Tues- 
days, Wednesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Fridays  of  each 
fortnight,  each  Nocturn  being  said  under  one  anti- 
phon.  At  the  Matins  of  Sunday  and  Solemnilatcs 
Domini  and  on  Fence  in  Easter  and  Whitsun  weeks 
and  the  octave  of  Corpus  Christi,  there  are  no  psalms, 
but  three  Old  Testament  canticles,  Isaias  xxvi,  De 
node  rigilald:  the  Canticle  of  Anna  (I  K.  ii),  Con- 
firmatum  est:  and  the  Canticle  of  Jonas  (ii),  Clamari 
ad  Dominum,  or  of  Habacuc  (iii),  Doniine  audivi. 
And  on  Saturdays  the  Canticle  of  Moses  (Exod  xv), 
Cantemu.'!  Domino,  and  half  of  Psalm  cxviii  take  the 
place  of  Decurice  at  the  three  Nocturns.  At  Vesi»rs, 
Psalms  cix  to  cxlvii,  except  cxvii,  cxviii,  and  cxxxiii, 
■which  are  used  elsewhere,  and  cxlii,  which  is  only  used 
in  the  Otiice  of  the  Dead  and  as  Psalmus  Dircctus 
at  I-auds  on  Fridays,  arc  divided  between  the  whole 
se\cn  days  of  each  week  in  their  numerical  sequence, 
and  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 
Psalm  cxviii,  besides  being  used  on  Saturdays,  is 
distributed  among  the  four  lesser  Hours  exactlj'  as 
in  the  Roman  Rite;  Psalm  1  is  said  at  Lauds  everj' 
day  except  Sunday,  wlien  the  Benedicile,  and  Sat- 
urtlay,  when  Psalm  cxvii,  takes  its  place,  and  with 
the  Prcces  (when  those  are  used)  at  Prime  and;Tcrce 
throughout  the  year  and  at  None  during  Lent,  while 
at  the  Prtces  of  Sext  Psalm  liii  is  said,  and  at  those 
of  None  Psalm  Ixxxv,  except  during  Lent.  Psalm 
liii  precedes  Beati  immaculati  at  Prime,  and  Psalms  iv, 
XXX,  1-6,  xc  and  cxxxiii  are  said  daily,  as  in  the  Ro- 
man Rite,  at  Compline.  At  Lauds  a  single  Psalm, 
known  as  Psalmus  Direcius,  differing  with  the  day 
of  the  week,  is  also  said. 

Table  or  Decdruc. 


Noct.  I 

Noct.  II 

Noct.  Ill 

!)«.  IjPa-i.  i-viii 

ix-xii 

xiii-xvi 

1st  wk..  Mon. 

"     2  IVi.  xvii-xx 

XXl-XXV 

xx^•l-x.TX 

••     3|P»s.  xxxi- 

XXXIV-XXXVI 

xxxvii-xl 

••     ••      Wed. 

XXXIU 

"     4 

Vta.  xli-xhii 

xlvii-l 

•'     •■      Thurs. 

••     5 

Pm.  li-liv 

Iv-lvu 

Iviu-lx 

"     "      Fri. 

•■     6 

Pm.  Ixi-Ixiv 

lxv-lx%-u 

Ixviii-lxx 

2d   wk.,  Mon. 

"     7 

Pm.  Ixxi-lxxv 

Ixxvi-lxxvii 

xviii-lxxx 

••     •■      Tuts. 

■•     8 

Pas.  Ixxxi- 
Ixxxiv 

lxxx\--bocxvii 

Ixxxviii-xc 

••     ■•      Wed. 

•■     9 

Pm.  xci-xciii 

xciv-xcvi 

XC\'ll-C 

'•     •'      Thurs. 

•■   10 

Put.  ci-ciii 

civ-cv 

oi-cviii 

••     ••      Fri. 

Table  or  V 

EMPCR    PSALUS. 

Phalmi 

Direct!,  and 

Psalsii  IV 

Vermus. 

Vesper  Psalms 

Ps.  Di. 
Lauds 

Ps.  IV,  Vers. 
Lauds 

Ps.  IV.  Vers. 
Vespers 

Sunday 

cix-cxiii 

exii 

Monday 

CXIV-CVU,  CXIX, 

liu 

2.1  wk.lxxxiii 

viu 

Tuesday 

cxxi-cxxv 

bo,-i 

Ixxxvii 

XIV 

Wednesday 

CXXVl-CXXX 

cxxxi.  cxxxii. 

Ixix 

Ixvi 

XXX 

Thursday 

CXXXIV.  CXXXVI 

cxiii 

Ixu 

xxxvi 

Friday 

cxxxvii-cxli 

cxlii 

cvii 

Ixxvi 

Saturday 

cxliii-cxlvii 

Ixxxix 

Ixxxviii 

xri 

During  Ix;nt  Ps.  xc  is  said  as  Psalmus  Direcius  at 
Vespers,  except  on  Sundays,  Fridays,  and  Saturdays, 
and  the  "Four  Verses  of  a  Psalm"  at  I>auds  on  Sat- 
urdays are  alternately  from  the  twelfth  and  first  i)art3 
of  Ps.  cxviii,  and  on  the  six  Sundays  t lie  "Four  Verses" 
are  from  Ixix,  Ixii,  ci,  Ixii,  Ixii,  Iviii.  During  Lent  also 
the  Vesper  "  Four  Verses"  are  different  for  every 
day,  except  that  there  are  none  on  P'riday,  and  those 
on  the  first  four  Saturdays  are  from  Ps.  xci.  In 
Holy  Week  the  Psalms  at  the  Noctunus  and  at  Vcs- 
I)ers  are  all  proper,  and  there  are  also  proper  Psalms 
during  the  period  from  the  first  Feria  de  Exceptato 
until  the  Circumcision;  and  on  the  Annunciation 
(sixth  Sunday  of  Advent),  Epiphany,  Christophoria, 
Name  of  Jesus,  Ascension,  Corpus  Christi,  the  Dedi- 
cation and  many  .SoUmiiia  Sanctorum,  and  on  many 
other  saints'  days  the  Decurice  are  superseded  by 
Psidms  of  the  Common  of  Saints. 

(2)  0(/icr  DetaiU  of  the  Divine  Office. — Antiphonv, 
similar  in  construction  to  those  in  the  Roman  Hite 
are:  in  Psalmis  et  canticis,  used  as  in  the  Roman 
Rite;  in  Chora,  said  after  the  Lucemarium  on  Sun- 
days, at  the  second  Vespers  of  Solemnia,  or  on  other 
Siiints'  days,  at  first  Vespers,  but  not  on  Feria,  ex- 
cept Saturdays  in  .-Advent;  ad  Cn/ccm, said  on  Solem- 
nilatcs Domini,  on  Sundays,  except  in  Lent,  and  on 
Solemnia.  Hesponsoria  are  constructed  as  in  the 
Roman  Rite,  and  are:  Post  hi/mnum,  said  after  the 
hymn  at  Matins;  Inter  lectiones  at  JIatins;  cum  In- 
fanlibus  or  cum  Pueris  after  the  hymn  at  the  first 
Vespers  of  Solemn ia;  in  Chora,  said  at  Vespers  on 
Sundays,  at  the  second  Vespers  of  Solemnia,  and  at 
the  first  of  Xon-Sotemnia,  after  the  hymn;  in  Ba)>- 
tistcrio,  at  Lauds  and  Vcsix>rs  of  some  Solemnitiites 
after  the  first  Psallcnda,  on  Ferice  after  the  twelve 
Kr/rics,  at  Vesi)ers  after  the  prayer  which  follows 
Maqnifical;  Diaconalia  or  Quadragesimalia,  on  V  ed- 
nesdays  in  Lent  and  on  Ciood  Friday;  ad  Coniu 
AUaris,  at  Lauds  before  the  Psalmus  Direcius  on 
Christmas  Dav,  the  Epiphany,  and  Easter  Eve; 
Gradualia,  said  after  the  liymn  at  I^iids  on  Feriae 
in  Lent.  Luccmaria  are  Hesponsoria  which  begin 
Vespers.  Psallcndce  are  single  verses,  often  from  the 
Psalms,  said  after  the  twelve  Kyries  and  the  second 
prayer  at  Lauds,  and  after  the  prayers  at  Vespers. 
They  are  variable  according  to  the  day,  and  are 
followed  by  either  one  or  two  fixed  Complevda  or 
Complcloria,  which  are  also  single  verses.  P-mlnii 
Dirccti  are  said  at  Lauds  and  .sometimes  at  Vespers. 
They  are  sung  together  bv  both  choirs,  not  antipli- 
onally.  Psalmi  Qiiatuor  V'cr.ius  is  the  name  given 
to  four  verses  of  a  psalm  said  at  Vespers  and  Lauds 
on  weekdays,  after  one  of  the  Collects.  Among  the 
Hymn.t,  besides  those  by  St.  Ambrose,  or  commonly 
attributed  to  him,  many  are  included  bv  other  au- 
thors, such  as  Prudentius,  Venantius  I'ortunatus, 
St.  Gregorj',  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  many  whose 
authorship  is  unknown.  A  considerable  number  of 
well-known  hymns  (e.  g.  ".-Vve  Maris  Stella  ",  "A  Solis 
Ortus  Cardine",  "  Jesu  Redemptor  Omnium,"  "Iste 
Confessor")  are  not  in  the  Ambrosian  Hymnal,  but 
there  are  many  there  wliich  are  not  in  the  Roman, 
and  those  that  are  common  to  both  generally  appear 
as  they  were  before  the  revisions  of  Urban  \ni, 
though  some  have  variants  of  their  own.  Capitula 
arc  short  lessons  of  Scripture  used  as  in  tlic  lioman 
Rite.  .\t  the  Les.ser  Hours  and  Compline  Capitula 
taken  from  the  Epistles  are  called  EpislnUlta: 

(3)  Con-^trurtinn  oj  the  Divine  Office. — (The  con- 
stantly occurring  Dominus  robiiscttm,  etc.,  has  l)een 
omitted  in  this  analysis.)  Matins:  Paternoster;  .Ate 
Maria:  Deus  m  adjiitorium:  Gloria  Palri;  Hallelujah 
or  l.aus  tihi.  (The  Ambrosians  transliterate  Ilalhlu- 
jah  from  Hebrew,  not  from  Creek.  They  also  write 
caelum  not  coelutn  and  seculum  not  .•^aerulum.) 
Hymnj  Respon.':orium:  canticle,  Bcnedictus  es  (Dan. 
iii);   Kipie  eleuion   thrice   Psalms  or  Canticles  of  the 


AMBROSIAN 


400 


AMBROSIAN 


three  Nocturns;  Lessons,  with  Respon.ioria  and  Bene- 
dictions— usually  three  Lessons,  Sundays,  homilies; 
weekdays  from  the  Bible;  saints'  days,  Bible  and 
life  of  saint.  On  Christmas  Day  and  Epiphany  nine 
lessons;  on  Good  Friday,  six;  on  Easter  E\e,  none. 
On  Sundays  and  festivals,  except  in  Lent  and  Ad- 
vent, Te  Deum  follows. — L.^uds  :  Introduction  as 
at  Matins;  canticle,  Benedictus,  Attende  caelum  or 
Clamavi;  Krjrie,  tlirice;  Antiphona  ad  Crucem,  re- 
peated five  or  seven  times,  not  said  on  Perm;  Oratio 
secreta  i;  canticle,  Canlemus  Domino  (Ex.  xv);  Kyrie, 
thrice;  Oralio  secreta  ii;  canticle,  Benedicite,  Confite- 
mini  Domino  (Ps.  cxvii),  or  Miserere  (Ps.  1);  Kyrie, 
thrice;  Oratio  i;  psalms,  Laudate  (Pss.  cxlviii-cl,  cxvi); 
CapUulum;  Kyrie,  thrice.  Psalmus  Directus;  hymn 
(on  weekdays  in  Lent,  Graduale);  Kyrie,  twelve  times. 
On  Sundays  and  festivals,  Psallerida  and  Compkto- 
rium;  on  Ferite,  Respnnsorium  in  Baplisterio;  Kyrie, 
thrice;  Oratio  ii.  On  Sundays  and  Solemnitates  Dom- 
ini, Psallenda  ii  and  Completorium  ii;  on  weekdays 
Psalmi  iv,  versus  and  Completorium;  Kyrie,  thrice; 
Oratio  Hi;  commemorations,  if  any;  concluding  ver- 
sicles  and  responses. — The  Lesser  Hours  (Prime, 
Terce,  Sext,  None):  Introduction  as  at  Matins. 
Hymn;  psalms;  Epislolella;  Responsorium  Breve  (at 
Prime,  Quicunque  vult);  Capitulum;  Preces  (when 
said);  at  Prime,  three  Orationes,  at  other  Hours,  one; 
Kyrie,  thrice;  Benedicamus  Domino,  etc.  (at  Prime 
in  choir  the  Marlyrology,  followed  by  Exidlabunl 
Sancli  etc.,  and  a  prayer);  Fidelium  animce  etc. 
Vespers:  Introduction  as  at  Matins.  On  Sundays 
and  Ferim:  Lucernarium;  (on  Sundays,  Antiphona  in 
choro);  hymn;  Responsorium  in  choro;  five  psalms; 
Kyrie,  thrice;  Oratio  i;  Magnificat;  Oratio  ii;  on  Sun- 
days, Psallenda  i,  and  two  Completoria;  on  Ferioe, 
Responsorium  in  Baplisterio;  Kyrie,  thrice;  Oratio  Hi; 
on  Sundays,  Psallenda  ii,  and  two  Completoria;  on 
Ferim,  Psalmi  iv  versus:  Kyrie,  thrice;  Oratio  iv;  com- 
memorations, if  any.  On  saints'  days;  Lucernarium; 
at  second  vespers  Antiphona  in  choro;  hymn;  Respon- 
sorium in  choro  or  cuin  injanlibus;  psalm;  Kyrie, 
thrice;  Oratio  i;  Psalm;  Oratio  ii;  Magnificat;  Kyrie, 
thrice;  Oratio  Hi;  Psallenda  and  two  Completoria; 
Kyrie,  thrice;  Oratio  iv;  commemorations.  Conclud- 
ing versicles  and  responses. — Compline:  Introduc- 
tion, with  addition  of  Converte  nos,  etc.;  hymn 
(Te  lucis);  Psalms  iv,  xxx,  1-7,  xc,  cxxxii,  cxxxiii, 
cxvi;  Epislolella;  Responsorium;  hhinc  Dimitlis;  Ca- 
pitulum; Kyrie,  thrice;  Preces  (when  said);  Oratio  i, 
Oratio  ii;  concluding  versicles  and  responses;  An- 
tiphon  of  Our  Lady;  Confitcor.  There  are  antiphons 
to  all  psalms,  except  those  of  Compline,  and  to  all 
canticles.  During  Lent,  except  on  Saturdays  and 
Sundays,  there  are  two  lessons  (from  Genesis  and 
Proverbs)  after  Terce;  and  on  Wednesdays  and  Fri- 
days of  Lent  and  on  Ferioe  de  Exceptato  litanies  are 
said  then. 

VI.  The  Mass. — The  Ambrosian  Mass  in  its  pres- 
ent form  is  best  shown  by  an  analysis  pointing  out 
the  differences  from  the  Roman.  As  a  great  part  of 
it  agrees  word  for  word  with  the  Roman,  it  will  only 
be  necessary  to  indicate  the  agreements,  without  giv- 
ing the  passages  in  full.  There  are  a  certain  number 
of  ceremonial  differences,  the  most  noticeable  of 
which  are:  (1)  When  the  deacon  and  sub-deacon  are 
not  occupied,  they  take  up  positions  at  the  north 
and  south  ends  of  the  altar  facing  each  other. 
(2)  The  Prophecy,  Epistle,  and  Gospel  are  said,  in 
Milan  Cathedral,  from  the  great  ambon  on  the  north 
side  of  the  choir,  and  the  procession  thereto  is  ac- 
companied with  .some  .state.  (3)  The  offering  of 
bread  and  wine  by  the  men  and  women  of  the  Scuola 
di  S.  Ambrogio.  (4)  The  filing  past  and  kissing  the 
north  corner  of  the  altar  at  the  OITertory.  (5)  The 
silent  Lavaho  just  before  the  Consecration.  (6)  The 
alMcnce  of  bell-ringing  at  the  IClevation.  In  tlie 
rubrics  of  the  Missal  there  are  certain  survivals  of 


ancient  usage  which  could  only  have  applied  to  the 
city  of  Milan  itself,  and  may  be  compared  with  the 
"stations"  aflixed  to  certain  Masses  in  the  Roman 
Missal  of  to-day.  The  Ambrosian  Rite  supposes  the 
existence  of  two  cathedrals,  the  Basilica  Major  or 
Ecclesia  ^Estiva,  and  the  Basilica  Minor  or  Ecclesia 
Hiemalis.  Lejay,  following  Giulini,  calls  the  Ecclesia 
Major  (St.  Mary's)  the  winter  church,  and  St.  Thecla 
the  summer  church  (Cabrol,  Dictionnaire  d'arch- 
6ologie  chrdtienne,  col.  13S2  sqq.),  but  Ecclesia 
Hiemalis  and  Ecclesia  Major  in  the  "Bergamo  Mis- 
sal", and  Ecclesia  Hie7nalis  and  Ad  Sanctam  Mariam, 
in  all  missals,  are  evidently  contrasted  with  one 
another.  Also  the  will  of  Berengarius  I,  founding 
St.  Rafaele  ((juoted  by  Giulini,  I,  416)  speaks  of  the 
latter  being  near  the  summer  church,  which  it  is, 
if  the  summer  church  is  St.  Mary's.  There  is  also 
assumed  to  be  a  detached  baptistery  and  a  Chapel 
of  the  Cross,  though  mentions  of  these  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  Breviary,  and  in  earlier  times  the 
church  of  St.  Laurence  was  the  starting  point  of  the 
Palm  Sunday  ceremonies.  The  greater,  or  summer, 
church,  under  the  patronage  of  Our  Lady,  is  now 
the  Cathedral;  the  lesser,  or  winter,  cliurch,  which 
stood  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  Piazza  del  Duomo, 
and  was  destroyed  in  1543,  was  under  the  patronage 
of  St.  Thecla.  As  late  as  the  time  of  Beroldus 
(twelfth  century)  the  changes  from  one  to  the  other 
were  made  at  Easter  and  at  the  Dedication  of  the 
Great  Church  (third  Sunday  in  October),  and  even 
now  the  rubric  continues  to  order  two  Masses  on 
certain  great  days,  one  in  each  church,  and  on  Easter 
Eve  and  through  Easter  week  one  Mass  is  ordered 
daily  pro  haplizatis  in  Ecclesia  Hiemali,  and  another, 
according  to  the  Bergamo  book,  in  Ecclesia  Majori. 
The  modern  books  say,  in  omni  ecclesid.  There  were 
two  baptisteries,  both  near  the  greater  church. 

Analysis  of  the  Ambrosian  Mass. 

The  Confiteor. 

V.  In  nomine  Patris,  etc.     R.  Amen. 

V.  Introibo  ad  Altare  Dei.     R.  Ad  Deum  qui  etc. 

V.  Confiteraini  Domino  quoniam  bonus. 

R.  Quoniam  in  sieculum  misericordia  ejus.  Con- 
fiteor, etc.,  Misereatur,  etc..  Indulgent iam  etc.,  as  in 
the  Roman  Rite,  differing  only  in  adding  the  name 
of  St.  Ambrose  to  the  Confiteor. 

V.  Adjutorium  nostrum  etc.      R.  Qui  fecit  etc. 

V.  Sit  nomen  Domini  benedictum. 

R.  Ex  hoc  nunc  et  usque  in  seculum.  (Secreto) 
Rogo  te,  altissime  Deus  Sabaoth,  Pater  sancte,  ut 
pro  peccatis  meis  possim  intercedcre  et  astantibus 
veniam  peccatorum  promereri  ac  pacificas  singulorum 
hostias  immolare. 

Oramus  te,  Domine  etc.,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 
The  "Ingressa",  which  answers  to  the  Roman  In- 
troit.  Except  in  the  Mass  for  the  Departed,  when, 
even  in  the  1475  Missal,  it  is  exactly  the  Roman 
Introit,  it  consists  of  a  single  passage,  generally  of 
Scripture,  without  Psalm,  "Gloria  Patri",  or  repe- 
tition. 

V.  Dominus  vobiscura  etc. 

Gloria  in  Excelsis. — On  the  Sundays  in  Lent  two 
litanies  are  said  alternately  instead.  These  litanies 
strongly  resemble  the  Great  Sjmapte  of  the  Greek 
Rite  and,  like  that,  are  said  by  the  deacon.  One 
has  the  response  "Domine  Miserere",  and  the  other 
"Kyrie  eleison".  A  very  similar  litany  in  the  Stowe 
Missal  (f  IG,  b)  is  called  "Deprecatio  Sancti  Martini 
pro  populo". 

Kyrie  eleison  (thrice). 

V.  Dominus  vobiscum  etc. 

Oratio  super  Populum,  "vel  plures  Orationes". 
The  Collect  or  Collects  for  the  day. 

V.  Dominus  vobiscum  etc. 

The  Prophetical  Lesson,  when  there  is  one,  which 
is  generally  on  Sundays,  "Solemnitates  Domini"  and 


AMBROSIAN 


401 


AMBROSIAN 


"Solemnia",  precpileil  by  a  benediction;  "Prophetica 
(or  Apostolica)  Lei-tio  sit  nobis  salutis  eruditio". 
According  to  the  letters  of  Paul  and  Ciebehard  of 
Ratisbon,  "(!esta  Sanctorum"  sometimes  took  the 
place  of  the  Old  Testament  Lesson.  Passages  from 
the  Acts  and  the  Apocalypse  are  still  used. 

Psalmellus  and  \  ersus. 

The  Epistle,  preceded  by  the  Benediction,  "Apo.s- 
tolica  (loctrina  repleat  nos  gratia  divina". 

Hallelujah.  Versus.  Hallelujah.  t)n  "solemni- 
tates  Domini"  the  first  Hallelujah  is  doubled.  In 
Lent,  on  the  Litany  days,  the  "  Feria;  de  Exceptato" 
and  Vigils,  the  Cantus,  answering  to  the  Uoman 
Tractus,  takes  the  place  of  the  Hallelujahs  and  Versus, 
(•n  some  " Solemnitates  Domini"  there  is  an  "Anti- 
phona  ante  Evangelium"  also.  There  are  no  8e- 
<]uences  in  the  .\mbrosian  Rite.  The  Psalmellus  and 
\ersu3  of  the  Epistle  and  the  Versus  between  Halle- 
lujahs of  the  (iospel  together  make  up  exactly  the 
form  of  a  Roman  Gradual,  and  they  often  agree  with 
those  of  the  Roman  .Missal. 

The  Gospel,  preceded  by  "  Munda  cor  meum  ",  etc., 
as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  with  the  addition  of  "In  no- 
mine Patris,  etc."  at  the  end  of  "  Dominus  sit  in 
corde  meo",  before,  instead  of  after  which  the  Gospel 
is  given  out.  The  Gospel  is  followed  by  "Laus  tibi 
Christe",  and  "  Per  evangelica  dicta  deleantur  nostra 
delicta". 

V.   Dominus  vobiscum,  etc. 

KjTie  eleison  (thrice). 

Antiphona  post  Evangelium. 

Deacon:  "Pacem  habete  '.  R.  "Ad  te  Domine" 
(cf.  the  response  2oi  Kvpu  in  the  Little  SjTiapte 
and  elsewhere  in  the  Constantinopolitan  Rite.  In 
early  Mri.S.  the  form  here  is:  "Pacem  haliete.  V. 
Corrigite  vos  ad  orationem".  R.  "Ad  te  Domine". 
Lejay  considers  that  the  kiss  of  peace  once  came  at 
this  point. 

V.  Dominus  vobiscum,  etc. 

Oratio  super  sindonem.  (This  prayer  may  have 
dropped  out  of  the  Roman  Rite  and  may  account 
for  trie  "Oremus"  with  no  prayer  to  follow  at  this 
point.) 

The  Offertory. 

After  the  Prayer,  the  Priest  receives  the  paten 
with  the  Host  and  offers  it,  saying,  "Suscipe,  clem- 
ent issime  Pater  hunc  Panem  sanctum  ut  fiat  l"ni- 
geniti  tui  Corpus,  in  nomine  Patris,  etc."  Laying 
the  Host  on  Uie  corporal  he  pours  into  the  chalice 
wine,  saying:  "De  latere  Christi  exivit  sanguis",  and 
water,  saying:  "Et  aqua  pariter,  in  nomine,  &c." 
Then  he  offers  the  chalice,  sajnng:  "Suscipe  clem- 
enti.-<.-iime  Pater,  hunc  Calicem,  vinum  aqua  mistum 
ut  fiat  I'nigeniti  tui  Sanguis,  in  nomine,  etc."  At 
this  point,  in  .Milan  Cathedral,  the  Chapter  clergy 
all  tile  past  the  north  corner  of  the  altar,  each  ki.>-s- 
ing  the  corner  as  he  passes.  Then  follow  two  prayers 
of  ottering,  addressed  respectively  to  the  Father  and 
to  the  Trinity,  agreeing  in  meaning  with  the  "Sus- 
cipe .Sancte  Pater"  and  "  Suscipe  Sancta  Trinitas"  of 
the  Rotnan  Rite,  but  difTering  altogether  in  language. 
On  .Sundays  and  feasts  of  Our  Lord  and  their  vigils, 
there  is  a  third  prayer,  nearly  agreeing  in  wording 
with  "Suscipe,  Sancta  Trinitas".  Then  extending 
his  hands  over  the  oblation,  he  says:  "Et  suscipe 
Sancta  Trinitas  banc  oblationem  pro  emundatione 
mea;  ut  mundes  et  purges  me  ab  uni\ersis  pecca- 
tonim  maculis,  riuatoinis  tibi  digne  ministrare  mercar, 
Deus  et  clement i.-isiine  Domine". 

He  blesses  the  Oblata,  continuing:  "Renedictio 
Dei  Omnipotentis  Pa  +  tris  et  Fi  +  lil  et  Spiritus+ 
Sancti  copiosa  de  csplis  descendat  super  banc  nostram 
oblationem  et  accepta  tibi  sit  haec  oblatio,  Domine 
sancte,  Pater  omnipotens,  a;tcrne  Deus,  misericor- 
di.ssime  rerum  Conditor". 

[In  the  eleventh-century  MS.  in  the  Chapter  Library 
at  Milan  (No.  1.  d  in  the  list  of  Sacramentaries  given 


above),  the  "Dominus  vobiscum"  after  the  Creed  is 
followed  by  a  prayer:  "Adesto  Domine  supplication- 
ibus  nostris  et  his  muneribus  pra'seiitiam  tuit  ma- 
jestatis  intersere  ut  quod  nostro  servitio  geritur  te 
potius  operante  firmetur  per  omnia,  etc.",  and  there 
are  no  other  Offertory  prayers.]  At  a  solemn  Mass 
the  blessing  of  the  Incense,  and  censing  of  the  altai- 
follow.  The  words  are  exactly  those  of  tlie  Roman 
Rite  until  the  delivery  of  the  thurible  to  the  deacon, 
when  instead  of  "Ascendat  in  nobis"  the  priest  says: 
"Ecce  odor  Sanctorum  Dei:  tanquam  odor  agri  pleni, 
quem  Deus  benedi.xit". 

Then  follows  the  "Offertorium".  In  the  cathe- 
dral of  Milan  there  is  an  interesting  ceremony  at  the 
Offertorj',  probably  a  survival  of  the  early  practice 
of  offerings  "in  kind"  by  the  congregation.  Ten  old 
men  (known  as  the  Vecchioni)  and  ten  old  women, 
who  are  supported  by  the  Chapter,  wear  a  special 
costume  and  belong  to  what  is  called  the  "Scuola 
di  S.  Ambrogio",  bring  offerings  of  bread  and  wine 
to  the  choir  steps  and  deliver  them  to  the  clergy. 
There  is  a  detailed  account  of  this  ceremony  in 
Reroldus  (Ed.  Magistretti,  1894,  52).  The  ins'titu- 
tion  is  mentioned  in  a  charter  of  Bisliop  Ans[)crt 
in  the  ninth  century.  Wickham  Legg  (Ecclcsio- 
logical  Essays,  53)  says  that  these  offerings  are  not 
now  used  at  the  Mass  then  being  said,  but  at  some 
later  one.  He  gives  photographs  of  the  old  men 
and  women  and  a  full  description  of  the  ceremony. 

The  Creed,  preceded  by  "  Dominus  vobiscum",  etc. 
It  is  here  entitled  "Symbolura  Constantinopolita- 
num",  and  differs  not  at  all  from  that  in  the  Roman 
Mass. 

v.  Dominus  vobiscum,  etc. 

Oratio  super  oblata. 

The  Preface.  The  "Sursum  corda"  etc.  is  ex- 
actly as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  though  the  plain  chant 
is  altogether  different.  The  Preface  itself  lias  the 
word  "((uia"  after  "vere",  but  otherwise  begins  as 
in  the  Roman  Rite,  as  far  as  "  JEteme  Deus".  After 
that  comes  a  marked  difference,  for  instead  of  only 
ten  variations,  there  are  proper  Prefaces  for  all  days 
that  have  proper  offices,  as  well  as  commons  of  all 
classes,  and  in  the  final  clauses,  which  varj-,  as  in 
the  Roman,  according  to  the  ending  of  the  inserted 
Proper,  there  are  verbal  differences. 

The  Sanctus,  exactly  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 

The  Canon. 

"Te  igitur"  exactly  as  in  the  Roman  Canon.  In 
the  printed  Missals,  even  before  the  Borromean  re- 
vision, there  is  a  variation  which  comes  after  "lupc 
sancta  sacrificia  illibata",  in  the  Mass  of  Easter  Eve. 
In  the  Bergamo  Missal  it  follows  immediately  after 
the  "Sanctus",  without  the  "Te  igitur"  clause.  It 
is:  "Vere  Sanctus,  vere  benedictus  D.  N.  J.  C.  Fi- 
lius  tuus  qui  cum  Dominus  esset  Majestatis,  descen- 
dens  de  cxlo  formam  servi,  qui  prius  perierat,  sus- 
cepit,  et  sponte  pati  dignatus  est;  ut  eum  quem 
ipse  fecerat  de  morte  liberaret.  Unde  et  hoc  paschale 
sacrificium  tibi  offerimus  pro  his  quos  ex  aqua  et 
Spiritu  Sancto  regencrare  dignatus  es  dans  eis  re- 
niissionem  omnium  peccatorum,  ut  invenires  eos  in 
Christo  Jesu  Domino  nostro.  Pro  quibus  tibi,  Do- 
mine supplices  fundimus  prcces  ut  nomina  eorum 
pariterque  famuli  tui  Papa;  nostri  N.  et  Pontificis 
nostri  N.  scripta  habeas  in  Libro  Viventium.  Per 
eundem,  etc."  This  is  in  the  form  of  a  Post  Sanctus 
of  the  Mozarabic  Rite,  though  it  does  not  agree  ex- 
actly with  any  particular  Post  Sanctus. 

"Memento  Domine"  is  the  same  as  in  the  Roman. 

"Communicantes"  and  "  Hanc  igitur"  are  variable 
on  certain  days,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  but  the  list 
of  saints  differs,  Linus  and  Cletus  being  omitted  and 
Hippolvtus,  Vincent,  Apollinaris,  Vitalis,  Xazarius 
and  Celsus,  Prot:isius  and  (jervasius,  Victor,  Xabor, 
Felix,  and  Calimerius  being  added.  In  the  earlier 
editions  there  were  the  following  additional  names: 


AMBROSIAN 


402 


AMBROSIAN 


Matemiis  Eustorgius,  Dionysius,  Ambrose,  Simpli- 
tian,  Martin,  Eusebius,  Hilarj',  Julius,  and  Benedict. 

"Quam  oblationem  quam  pietati  tuK  offerimus  tu 
Deus  in  omnibus  quirsumus.  etc.",  the  rest  as  in  the 
Roman  Canon.  At  tliis  point  the  Priest  washes  his 
hand,  "nihil  diccns". 

The  next  clauses,  reciting  the  Institution,  differ 
verbally. 

"Qui  pridie  quam  pro  nostra  omniumque  salute 
pateretur  (cf.  tlie  -Maundy  Tliursday  Mass  of  the 
Roman  Rite)  accipicMis  Panem,  elevavit  oculis  ad 
C!e1os  ad  te  Deura  Patrcm  suum  omnipotentem,  tibi 
gratias  agens  benedixit,  fregit,  deditque  Discipulis 
suis,  diceiis  ad  eos:  Accipite  et  manducate  ex  hoc 
omnes:  Hoc  est  enim  Corpus  mcum.  Simili  niodo, 
postquam  cocnatum  est,  accipiens  Calicem,  elevavit 
oculos  ad  cjelos,  ad  te  Deum  Patrem  suum  omnipo- 
tentem: item  tibi  gratias  agens,  benedixit,  tradid- 
itque  Discipulis  suis,  dicens  ad  eos:  Accipite  et  bibite 
ex  eo  omncs:  Hie  est  enim  Calix,  &c.  (as  in  the  Ro- 
man Canon).  Mandans  quoque  et  dicens  ad  eos: 
HsEC  quotiescunque  feceritis  in  meam  commemora- 
tionem  facietis:  Mortem  meam  prsedicabitis,  Resur- 
rectionem  nicara  annuntiabitis,  Adventum  meum 
sperabitis  donee  iterum  de  ca'lis  veniam  ad  vos. " 
It  may  be  noted  that  this  long  ending,  commemorat- 
ing the  Deatli,  Resurrection  and  Second  Coming,  is 
nearly  identical  with  that  in  tlie  "Canon  Dominicus 
Sancti  Gilasi"  in  the  Stowe  Missal  and  has  resem- 
blances to  the  forms  in  several  of  the  West  Syrian  (Ja- 
cobite) anaphora;.  "  Unde  et  memores"  differs  only 
in  reading  " gloriosissimEe "  instead  of  "gloriosa; 
Ascensionis". 

"Supra  quae  propitio"  inserts  "tuo"  after  "vultu" 
and  reads  "justi  pueri  tui  Abel". 

"Supphces  te  rogamus"  reads  "  tremendffi  "  instead 
of  "divina;  Majestatis. " 

"Memento  etiam  Domine"  exactly  agrees  with 
the  Roman  Rite. 

"Nobis  quoque,  minimis,  et  peccatoribus  famulis 
tuis  de  multitudine  misericordise  tuse,"  continuing 
as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  except  for  the  list  of  saints, 
which  adds  a  second  Joannes,  substitutes  .\ndreas 
for  Mattliias,  omits  Ignatius  and  Alexander,  and  adds 
Euphemia,  Justina,  Sabina,  Thecla,  Pelagia,  and 
Catiiarine  (the  MSS.  and  1475  lists  omit  Catharine), 
varying  the  order  a  little.  The  ending  also  differs, 
"benedicis  et  nobis  famulis  tuis  largiter  pra?stas  ad 
augmentum  fidei  et  remissionem  peccatorura  nos- 
trorum:  Et  est  tibi  Deo  Patri  omnipotent!  ex -1- ipso 
et  per-|-ipsum  et  in 4- ipso  omnis  honor  virtus  laus 
et  gloria,  impe+rium,  perpe-(-tuitas  et  po-f-testas  in 
unitate  spiritus  -jancti  per  infinita  secula  seculorum. 
Amen."  The  Fraction  and  Commixture  occur  at 
this  point,  instead  of  after  the  "Pater  Noster"  as  in 
the  Roman  Rite  since  St.  Gregory  the  Great.  The 
priest  breaks  the  Host  over  the  chalice,  saying: 
"Corpus  tuum  frangitur,  Christe,  Calix  benedicitur"; 
then  laying  one  part  on  the  paten,  he  breaks  a  par- 
ticle from  the  other,  saying:  "Sanguis  tuus  sit  nobis 
semper  ad  vitam  et  ad  salvandas  animas,  Deus 
noster".  Then  he  puts  the  particle  into  the  chalice, 
saying:  "Commixtio  consecrati  Corporis  et  Sanguinis 
D.  N.  J.  C.  nobis  edentibus  et  sumentibus  proficiat 
ad  vitam  et  gaudium  sempitcrnum".  Then  follows 
the  "Confractorium",  an  anthem  varying  according 
to  the  day. 

The  Pater  Noster,  introduced  by  the  same  clause 
as  m  the  Roman  Rite,  except  on  Maimdv  Thursday 
and  Easter  Day,  when  different  forms  are  "used.  The 
Embolism  differs  somewhat:  "Libera  nos  .  .  .  et 
interccdente  pro  nobis  Reata  Maria  Gcnitrice  Dei 
ac  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi  et  Sanctis  Apo.stolis 
tuis  Petro  et  Paulo  atque  Andrea  et  Beato  Ambrosio 
Confe-ssore  tuo  atque  Pontifice  una  cum  omnibus 
Sanctis  tuis  .  .  .  ab  onini  perturbatione  securi. 
Pra'sta  per  eum,  cum  quo  beatus  vivis  et  regnas 


Deus  in  unitate  Spiritus  Sancti  per  omnia  secula 
seculorum.     Amen   . 

The"Pax".  The  priest  says:  "  Pax  et  communica- 
tio  D.  N.  J.  C.  sit  semper  vobiscum.  R.  Et  cura 
spiritu  tuo".  The  deacon:  "Offerte  vobis  pacem. 
R.  Deo  gratias".  The  Prayer, "  Domine  Jesu  Christe 
qui  di.xisti,  etc.",  which  differs  from  the  Roman  in 
reading  "pacificare,  custodire  et  regere  digneris  pro- 
pitius".  Then  the  "Pax"  is  given:  "V.  Pax  tecum. 
R.  Et  cum  spiritu  tuo,"  as  in  the  Roman  Rite.  In 
Masses  for  the  Dead  the  "Offerte  vobis  pacem",  the 
prayer,  and  the  giving  of  the  "Pax"  are  omitted, 
and  the  "Agnus  Dei",  differing  from  the  Roman 
form  "pro  defunctis"  only  in  adding  "et  locum  in- 
dulgentiae  cum  Sanctis  tuis  in  gloria"  at  the  end,  is 
said.  The  "Agnus  Dei"  does  not  occur  in  other 
Masses. 

The  Communion.  The  preliminary  prayers  are: 
"Domine  Sancte  Pater  omnipotens,  a?terne  Deus  da 
mihi  hoc  Corpus  Jesu  Cliristi  Filii  tui  Domini  mei 
ita  sumere:  ut  non  sit  mihi  ad  judicium  scd  ad  re- 
missionem omnium  peccatorum  meorum.  Qui  tecum 
vivit,  etc.,"  and  "  Domine  Jesu  Christe  Fill  Dei  vivi", 
which  only  differs  from  the  Roraai  in  reading 
"obedire"  for  "inhaerere".  Then  follows  "Domine 
non  sum  dignus",  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  after  which 
comes  "Quid  retribuam  Domino  pro  omnibus  quae 
retribuit  mihi?  Panem  c;elestem  accipiam  et  nomen 
Domini  invocabo.  Corpus  D.  N.  J.  C.  custodiat 
animam  meam  ad  vitam  a?ternam.  Amen.  Quid 
retribuam,  etc.,"  exactly  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 
Then,  at  receiving  the  Chalice,  "  Prssta,  qujeso, 
Domine,  lit  perceptio  Corporis  et  Sanguinis  D.  N. 
J.  C.  ad  vitam  nos  pcrdiicat  aeternam",  after  which 
"Quod  ore  sumpsimus,  Domine,  pura  mente  capia- 
mus  ut  de  Corpore  et  Sanguine  D.  N.  J.  C.  fiat  nobis 
remedium  sempiternum".  At  the  Ablution:  "Con- 
firma  hoc,  Deus,  quod  operatus  es  in  nobis  et  dona 
Ecclesi^  tus  perpetuam  tranquillitatem  et  pacem". 

The  "Transitorium"  (the  Ambrosian  equivalent  of 
the  Roman  "Communio")  and  the  "Oratio  Post 
Communionem"  follow. 

V.  Dominus  vobiscum,  etc. 

Kyrie  eleison  (thrice). 

V.  Benedicat  et  exaudiat  nos  Deus.     R.  Amen. 

V.  Procedamus  cum  pace.     R.  In  nomine  Christi. 

V.  Benedicamus  Domino.     R.  Deo  Gratias. 

Then  follow  "Placeat  tibi"  (slightly  varied),  the 
Blessing  and  the  Last  Gospel  as  in  the  Roman  Rite. 

The  present  form  from  the  "Pax"  onward  dated 
from  the  revision  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and  ap- 
pears for  the  first  time  in  print  in  1594.  In  1475, 
1560,  etc.,  the  form  was  as  follows: 

V.  Pax  et  communicatio  D.  N.  J.  C.  sit  semper 
vobiscum. 

R.  Et  cum  spiritu  tuo. 

V.  Offerte  nobis  pacem.  R.  Deo  gratias.  Pax  in 
ca-lo,  pax  in  terra,  pax  in  omni  populo  pax  sacer- 
dotibus  ecclesiarum  Dei.  Pax  Christi  et  Ecclesise 
mancat  semper  vobiscum. 

Tlien  the  Priest  gives  the  "Pax"  to  the  ser\'er, 
saying  "Habete  vinculum  pacis  et  caritatis  ut  apti 
sitis  sacrosanctis  mysteriis  Dei.  R.  Amen.  Domme 
Sancte  Pater  etc.",  as  at  present.  The  second 
prayer,  "Domine  Jesu  Christe,  etc.",  was  not  used. 
(In  the  early  MSS.  the  giving  of  the  "Pax"  ends 
with  "Offerte  nobis  pacem,  etc.") 

Quid  retribuam,  etc.     Panem  caelestem,  etc, 

Domine,  non  .s>nn  dignus,  etc. 

Corpus  D.  N.  J.  C.  profitiat  mihi  sumenti  et  omni- 
bus pro  quibus  illud  obtuli  ad  vitam  et  gandium 
sempiternum.  Anion.  (This  form  is  found  also  in 
the  Chur  .Missal  of  1589.) 

PriPsta,  qu:rso,  Domine,  ut  perceptio  corporis  et 
sanguinis  D.  N.  J.  C.  qucm  pro  nobis  dignatus  est 
fundcre  ab  omni  nos  pcccati  macula  purget  et  ad 
vitam  perducat  aeternam.     Per  eundem,  etc. 


AMBROSIANS 


403 


AMBROSIANS 


Quid  retribuam,  etc.     Calicem  salutaris,  etc. 

Uomine  non  sum  dignu.s,  etc. 

Corpus  et  Sanguis  D.  N.  J.  C.  f)ropitius  sit  mihi 
sumenti  et  omnibus  pro  quibiis  illud  ootuli  ad  vitam 
et  gaudiam  sempiternam.     Per  eundem,  etc. 

Deo  grutias.       Deo  Gratias. 

Accepta  Cliristi  niuiicra  sumamus  Dei  gratia,  non 
ad  judicium  sed  ad  sjdvandiis  animas,  Dcus  noster. 
Agnus  Dei,  qui  tollis  jieccata  nuindi,  miserere  nobis. 
Gloria  Patri,  etc.  Sicut  erat,  etc.  Agnus  Dei,  qui 
tollis  peccata  mundi,  suscipe  doprecationem  nostram. 
Agnus  Dei  qui  tollis  peccata  mundi,  dona  nobis 
pacem. 

Quod  ore  sumpsimus,  etc.,  as  at  present. 

Confirma  hoc,  Deus,  etc.,  as  at  present. 

Placeat  tibi,  etc. 

The  eleventh-century  MS.  (No.  1-d  in  list  above), 
quoted  in  the  Solesmes  edition  of  the  Bergamo  book, 
does  not  contain  any  more  at  the  "  Pax"  and  "  Com- 
munion "  than  "  Pax  et  Communicatio,  etc."  "  Of- 
ferte  vobis  pacem."  "Oratio  post  communionem." 
"  Dominus  vobiscum,  etc."  "Quod  ore  sumpsi- 
mus, etc." 

VII.  The  Occasion.^l  Seuvices. — Of  tlic  ser\'iccs 
in  the  Ritual  and  Pontifical  there  is  not  much  to  say. 
The  ceremonies  of  Baptism  differ  in  their  order  from 
those  of  the  Roman  Rite.  The  Ambrosian  order  is: 
remmciation;  ephphatha;  sufHation;  unction;  exor- 
cism and  second  sulilation;  signing  with  the  Cross; 
delivery  of  the  salt;  introduction  into  the  church; 
Creed  and  Lord's  Pniyer;  declaration  of  faith;  Bap- 
tism, for  which  the  rubric  is:  Ter  occiput  mergit  in 
aqua  in  crucis  formam  (and,  as  Legg  points  out,  tlie 
Ambrosians  boa.st  that  their  baptism  is  always  bv 
immersion);  litany;  anointing  with  chrism;  dcli\- 
erj'  of  white  robe  and  candle;  dismissal.  A  great 
part  of  the  wording  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  Ro- 
man. The  order  of  the  Unction  of  the  Sick  shows 
the  progress  of  Roman  influcme  in  modern  times. 
The  service  at  present  used  differs  very  little  except 
at  one  point  from  that  given  bv  Magistretti  (Mon. 
Vet.,  II,  70,  91,  147)  from  early  "MS.S.,  and  from  the 
form  in  the  undated  printed  Uitual  of  the  late  fif- 
teenth century,  but  tlie  difference  at  that  point  is 
no  less  than  the  introduction  of  tlie  Roman  manner 
and  words  of  anointing.  The  old  Ambrosian  Rite 
was  to  anoint  the  sick  person  on  the  breast,  the 
hands,  and  the  feet,  with  the  words:  "I'ngo  te  oleo 
sanctificato,  more  militis  unctus  et  preparatus  ad 
luctam  aerias  possis  catervas.  Operare  creatura  olei, 
in  nomine+Dei  Patris  omnipotenlis+ct  Filii-|-et 
Spiritus  Sancti,  ut  non  lateat  spiritus  immundus  nee 
in  membris  nee  in  medullis  nee  in  ulla  compagine 
membronim  Inijus  hominis  [vet  mulieris]  scd  operctur 
in  eo  virtus  Christi  Kilii  Altissimi  qui  cum  a'terno 
Patri.  .  .  .  Amen."  Then,  "Quiilquid  percasti  per 
cogitationom  cordis  [peroperationem  raanuum  vel  per 
ingressum  pedum]  parcat  tibi  Deus.  Amen."  The 
fifteenth-centurj-  printed  Ritual  varies  the  first 
anointing.  Instead  of  "Quidquid  pcccasti",  it  reads, 
"Per  istam  unctionem  et  cri.sti  sacratissiniam  pas- 
sionem  si  quid  peccasti,  etc.",  the  other  two  being 
a.s  in  the  older  books.  The  Unijo  tc,  etc.,  is  repeated 
with  each.  A  somewhat  similar  form,  but  shorter, 
with  the  anointing  of  the  five  senses  and  reading 
Unqimux  for  Vnqo,  is  given  in  Marl.  M.S.  2990,  an 
early  (ifteenth-centurj-  North  Italian  fragment,  and 
in  the  Venetian  printed  pre-Tridcntine  Rituals,  a 
form  verj'  like  the  last  (but  reading  I'nqo)  with  the 
same  anointings  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  is  given  as 
the  rite  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Venice.  This  form, 
or  something  very  like  it,  with  the  seven  anointings  is 
found  in  the  Asti  Ritual  dcscrilx-d  by  Ciiustoud.  In 
the  modern  .\mbrosian  Ritual  tlie  Roman  seven 
anointings  and  the  fnmi,  f'er  istam  unclinnrin,  etc., 
are  taken  over  Ixidily  and  the  Unqo  tc  h.as  disap- 
peared. The  differences  in  the  Order  of  Matrimony 
I.— 26 


are  very  slight,  and  the  other  contents  of  the  Ritual 
call  for  no  special  remark.  In  the  ninth-century 
Pontifical  published  by  Magistretti  the  consecration 
of  a  church  includes  the  solemn  entry,  the  writing 
of  the  AliVturium,  with  the  cambutta  (that  Gaelic 
word,  caw  baia,  crooked  staff,  which  is  commonly 
u.sed  in  (Jallican  books),  the  blessing  and  mixture  of 
salt,  watsr,  ashes,  and  wine,  the  sprinkling  and 
anointing  of  tlie  church  and  the  altar,  the  blessing 
of  various  utensils,  and  at  the  end  the  deposition  of 
the  relics.  The  order  given  by  Mercati  from  an 
eleventh-century  .MS.  at  Lucca  differs  from  the 
ninth-century  form  in  that  there  is  a  circumambu- 
lation  and  sprinkling,  with  the  signing  of  the  cross 
on  the  door,  the  writing  of  an  alphabet  per  pariitem 
and  the  making  of  three  crosses  on  each  wall  with 
chrism,  before  the  entrj',  and  there  is  no  dei'osition 
of  rolics.  There  are  also  considerable  differences  of 
wording.  The  ordinations  in  the  ninth-century  M.S. 
are  of  the  same  mixed  Roman  and  Gallican  type, 
but  are  less  <lovcloped  than  those  of  the  modern 
Roman  Pontifical. 

Ckkian'I.  Sotitia  Liturgite  Ambrosiana-  ante  sa-rulum  Xt 
medium  uMilun,  Isy.'j):  Preface  to  MAGisTKHTrrs  Munumcnta 
VftcrU  Liturf/iu;  Aml/rusuintr,  (.Milan,  1897):  l*t,  I;Kdltion  of 
the  Biaaca  SucraTumtnry  in  Vol.  VIII  of  Monuimntu  Sncra 
et  Profatui  ex  Coiliribua  prccgertim  liiblioOuca  Ambrosiana-; 
Magihtrktti.  La  lUurgia  delta  chieaa  di  Mitano  net  secolo  iV 
(Milati.  1899);  Munitmenta  Veterig  Lituraui  Ambrasuina, 
Pi.  Ill  (.Milan,  IHUT-lgO.'-.l;  CWin  nuava  Edizione  tipica  det 
Messate  Ambroaiano  (.Milan,  lfl02);  Berotdua,  aite  tccteaia 
Ambrosuinir  l:,ileiulnrium  el  ordinea,  tac.  Xll  (Milan.  1894); 
Cacin'.  Antiplwruirium  Ambrvaianum  du  muaee  Bntunni^ue, 
XII"  »i(V/e,  in  \'ol.  V,  VI.  of  Paliographit  muatcate,  par  lea 
Bennlictina  de  Soleamra  (Sole.«ine«,  ISBfi.  1900);  MtncATl,  Ordo 
Ambroaianua  ad  Conaecrondum  Eceleaiam  et  Allare,  in  Stiidi  e 
Teati  (of  the  Vatican  Library),  (Rome,  1802):  Pi.  Vll;  Co- 
LOMllo,  Gti  inni  det  breviario  Ambroaiano  (^lilan.  1897); 
Lbjay,  articles  Atnbroaien  (/?i7),  I.tyAY  in  Dietionnaire  d'nr- 
cIlMogie  cliriiienne  (Paris,  1904),  and  in  Diet,  de  thevt.  ehret. 
(Pans.  1900);  articles  in  Reiue  dhiatoire  et  de  lutmlure 
r.tigeuaea  (1897).  II;  RU  romain  et  rU  gatticcn:  „r.„i,u:  el 
dale  du  rit  oillienn  (1902).  VII;  Rit  ambtoaien;  Probst.  I.u 
abendtdndiache  Meaae  vom  fanften  bta  zum  aehttn  Jahrhumlirt 
(Miinster  in  W.,  1896);  Duchesne.  Originta  du  culle  thitiun 
(Paris.  1902).  tr.  (S.  P.  C.  K.,  I^ndon.  1904);  B.Xi'mer.  0<»- 
ehielUe  dea  Brevu-ra  (Freiburg,  1895);  Neai.e.  The  Ambroatim 
Liturgii,  in  Eaaaita  on  EUurgiologv  (London,  1807):  W.  C 
Bishop.  Tlie  Amhroai^jn  Breriaru.  in  Chureh  Q.,  Oct..  1886: 
Legg,  Eccleaiologieit  Eaaaya  (London.  1905);  GllLlNi,  Mevtorit 
apeltante  alia  atoria  di  Milarw  ^(Milan  1854-57);  Catena, 
Ctiieae  e  rili  [di  Milano),  in  Cantu,  Milano  e  it  auo  tcmtorio 
(Milan,  18-H);  (Jrancoi-as,  t.ta  ancicnnca  tiluraiea  (Pans. 
1097);  Le  IIhcn,  Ezpticalion  de  ta  Meaae  (Paris,  1715);  Ger- 
nERT.  erlltion  of  the  St.  Gallen  triple  sacramcntarj',  Gela.*^ian, 
Gregorian,  anrl  Ambrosian  (now  lost),  in  Monumcnta  Vrleria 
Liluraia:  Allemannira  (St.  Blaise,  1777);  Mazzvchelli, 
Oaacrvazionf  inlortw  at  aaggio  atoriea  critieo  aopra  it  rtlv  am- 
broaiftno  (Milan,  1S2S);  MAltxfe.s'E,  Ex  antiquia  Eecteaife  rtUbua 
(l^assani,  1788);  Mitratohi,  Anli/fuilatea  Italice  medii  <i-ti, 
diss.  Ivii  (Milan,  1738-42);  LUurgia  Romana  velua  (Venice, 
1748);  Mabillon.  Muaixum  llaticum  (Paris.  1687);  Delisle. 
Mi-moire  aur  d'anciena  Sacrementairca,  in  M&moirea  de  t'Inatit. 
Nat.  deFrancc,  Acad,  dea  inarript.,  etc..  Vol.  XXXII  (Paris, 
1880);  Fri.si,  Mrmorie  atoriclie  di  Mimza  (Milan.  1794);  E. 
Bishop,  Tlie  Geniua  of  the  Roman  RUe  (Ijjndon);  Lilurgieat 
Xole.  in  Kuypers.  Bonk  of  Cemr  d'ambridBe,  1902);  On  the 
enrti,  Texta  of  the  Roman  Canon,  in  Joumtd  of  1  htotogieat 
Sttuliea,  July,  1903;  IIOvnck.  G<»rAi<-A/f  d,r  kirehUchrn  l.iturgie 
d.a  Bialhuma  Augalmrg  (.^ugsbiirK,  1889);  Neai.e  ani>  FoRBE.t, 
The  .Incirnl  Liluriiiea  of  the  (Inllieon  Chureh  (Burntisland. 
1855^;  Gastoue,  f'n  rituet  note  de  la  proiinee  de  Milan  du 
.V*  aieete,  in  Raaaegna  Gregoriana,  1003. 

Henry  Jenner. 

Ambrosians. — St.  Ambrose  cannot  be  counted 
among  the  founders  of  religious  orders,  although, 
like  all  gre.it  Doctors  of  the  Church,  he  took  a  deep 
interest  in  the  monastic  life,  and  closely  watched  its 
beginnings  in  his  diocese.  He  himself  made  pro- 
vision for  the  wants  of  the  monks  who  lived  in  a 
monaster}'  outside  the  walls  of  the  episcopal  city 
under  the  guidance  of  one  of  his  priests,  as  .St.  .Au- 
gustine tells  us  in  his  "Confessions".  Not  all  these 
monks,  however,  were  equally  a  cause  of  pleasure  to 
him;  SariiKitian  and  Barbatian.  indeed,  who  be- 
longed to  their  community,  gave  him  great  anxiety 
by  their  evil  conduct  and  their  errors.  Virginity, 
moreover,  w:is  but  little  in  honour  among  the  women 
of  Milan  at  the  time  that  St.  Ambrose  was  called 


AMBROSXANS 


404 


AMBR03IANS 


to  rule  the  Church  there,  but  his  exhortations  so 
overcame  tliis  indifference  tliat  the  Milanese  virgins, 
now  grown  to  be  nunu'rous  and  fervent,  formed  the 
favourite  portion  ol  liis  iloclc,  and  widows  strove  to 
equal  them  in  piety.  Many  of  tliese  holy  women 
limited  themselves  to  tlic  obligations  imposed  by  a 
chaste  life,  and  shared  the  lives  of  their  families  in 
all  other  ways;  others,  however,  withdrew  alto- 
gether from  their  families  and  from  the  world,  to 
live  under  the  guidance  of  a  superior  a  life  of  pov- 
erty and  mortification  filled  with  the  praises  of  God, 
with  meditation  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the 
exercise  of  various  worlcs  of  Christian  charity.  It 
was  to  one  of  sucli  associations  of  virgins  who  took 
the  instructions  of  the  holy  Bishop  as  their  rule  of 
life  that  St.  Marcellina,  the  sister  of  St.  Ambrose, 
belonged.  These  teachings  have  been  summed  up 
in  certain  treatises  of  his  which  have  come  down 
to  us,  namely,  in  his  three  books  "De  virginibus  ", 
his  one  book  "De  viduis,"  and  those  "De  virgini- 
tate",  "De  institutione  virginis",  "De  exhortatione 
virginitatis",  and  "De  lapsu  virginis  consecratre" 
(P.  L.,  XVI,  187-389).  St.  Ambrose  is,  in  fact, 
the  one  Father  who  has  written  most  concerning 
virginity.  His  writings,  and  the  example  of  what 
was  taking  place  at  Milan,  did  much  to  foster  voca- 
tions to  virginity  and  the  formation  of  those  com- 
munities which  were  later  to  grow  into  monasteries 
of  women.  The  whole  movement,  indeed,  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  in  the  Christian  life  of  the 
second  half  of  the  fourth  century.  These  holy 
women,  while  waiting  to  have  rules  for  the  religious 
life  specially  written  for  them,  contented  themselves 
with  the  Bible,  with  certain  treatises  of  the  Fathers 
concerning  their  state,  and  certain  traditions  con- 
cerning the  practical  ordering  of  their  lives.  Some 
of  these  rules  unquestionably  dated  back  to  the  holy 
Doctors  who  had  presided  over  the  formation  of  the 
earliest  communities,  so  that  it  becomes  easy  to 
understand  the  influence  which  St.  Ambrose  ex- 
ercised over  the  beginnings  of  the  religious  life 
among  women. 

Th'5  Order  of  St.  Ambrose  was  the  name  of  two 
religious  congregations,  one  of  men  and  one  of 
women,  founded  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Milan  dur- 
ing the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  under 
the  patronage  and  invocation  of  St.  Ambrose. 
(a)  The  cradle  of  the  first  was  a  wood  near  Milan, 
where  three  noble  Milanese,  Alexander  Grivelli, 
Antonio  Petrasancta,  and  Albert  Besuzzi,  sought  a 
retreat  from  the  world.  Other  solitaires,  and  even 
priests,  joined  them,  and  Gregory  XI  gave  them 
the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  with  certain  special 
constitutions  (1.375).  Thenceforward  they  had  a 
canonical  existence,  and  took  the  name  of  "Fratres 
Sancti  Ambrosii  ad  Nemus  ".  Their  habit  consisted 
of  a  tunic,  scapular,  and  hood,  of  a  chestnut  colour, 
and  they  elected  their  own  prior,  who  was  subse- 
quently instituted  by  the  Archbishop  of  Milan.  The 
priests  of  the  congregation  devoted  themselves  to 
preaching  and  to  the  labours  of  the  apostolic  minis- 
try; they  were  not,  however,  allowed  to  accept  the 
charge  of  a  parish.  In  matters  of  liturgy  they  all 
followed  the  Ainbrosian  Rite.  Various  monasteries 
were  founded  on  these  lines,  whose  sole  bond  of 
union  was  a  community  of  customs,  and  which 
Eugenius  IV  merged  into  one  congregation,  in  1441, 
under  the  name  of  "Congregatio  Sancti  Ambrosii 
ad  Nemus",  with  the  original  house  as  its  centre. 
The  general  chapter  met  everj'  three  years,  and 
elected  the  prions,  whose  term  of  oH^ice  was  for  the 
same  period.  The  rector,  or  superior-general,  had 
two  visitors  to  as.sist  him.  Their  di.scipline  had 
become  relaxed  in  the  time  of  St.  Charles  Horromeo, 
who  succe-ssfuUy  undertook  their  reform  (1.579).  In 
l.')89  Sixtus  V  united  the  monasteries  of  the  "Broth- 
ers of  the  Apostles  of  the  Poor  Life",  also  known 


as  "Apostolini",  or  "Brothers  of  St.  Barnabas",  to 
the  Congregation  of  St.  Ambrose.  Their  houses 
were  situated  in  the  Province  of  Genoa  and  in  the 
March  of  Ancona;  the  order  had  been  founded  by 
Giovanni  Scarpa  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
After  this  union,  which  was  confirmed  by  Paul  V 
in  1606,  the  congregation  added  the  naine  of  St. 
Barnabas  to  its  title,  adopted  new  constitutions,  and 
divided  its  houses  into  four  provinces,  two  of  the 
houses,  St.  Clement's  and  St.  Pancras's,  being  in 
Rome.  Ascanio  Tasca,  and  Michele  Mulozzani,  each 
of  whom  was  superior-general,  have  left  several 
works,  as  have  Zaccaria  Visconti,  and  Francesco- 
Maria  Guazzi.  Another  member  of  the  order, 
Paolo  Fabulotti,  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  "De 
potestate  papse  super  concilium"  (Venice,  1613),  of 
which  there  have  been  several  editions.  Various 
Ambrosians,  moreover,  have  received  the  title  of 
Blessed,  namely:  Antonio  Gonzaga  of  Mantua, 
Filippo  of  Fermo,  and  Girardo  of  Monza.  The  order 
was  dissolved  by  Innocent  X  in  1650.  (6)  The  Nuns 
of  St.  Ambrose  (Ambrosian  Sisters)  wore  a  habit  of 
the  same  chestnut  colour  as  the  Brothers  of  St. 
Ambrose,  followed  the  Ambrosian  Liturg;  ,  and  con- 
formed to  their  constitutions  without,  however,  being 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  superiors  and  general 
chapters,  Si.xtus  IV  having,  at  their  request,  given 
the  nuns  this  canonical  standing  in  1474.  Their 
monastery,  built  on  the  top  of  Monte  Varese,  near 
Lago  Maggiore,  was  under  the  invocation  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Mount.  Their  foundress  ^\as  the 
Blessed  Catarina  Jlorigia,  or  of  Palanza,  who  first 
led  a  solitary  life  on  this  spot,  and  is  commemorated 
6  April.  Several  of  her  original  companions  died 
in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  namely:  the  Blessed  Juliana 
of  Puriselli,  Benedetta  Bimia,  and  Lucia  Alciata. 
Our  Lady  of  the  Mount  was  their  one  monastery. 
The  nuns  long  maintained  their  fervour,  and  were 
held  in  high  esteem  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  The 
Annunciat;B  of  Lombardy  are  also  called  "  Nuns  of 
St.  Ambrose",  or  "SLsters  of  St.  Marcellina",  and 
were  founded,  in  1408,  by  three  young  women 
of  Pavia — Dorothea  Morosini,  Eleonora  Contarini, 
and  Veronica  Duodi — who  were  under  the  direction 
of  the  Benedictine,  Beccaria.  Their  houses,  scat- 
tered throughout  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  were  united 
into  a  congregation  by  St.  Pius  V,  under  the  Rule  of 
St.  Augustine.  The  mother-house  is  at  Pavia.  It 
is  the  residence  of  the  prioress-general,  who  is  elected 
every  three  years,  by  the  general  chapter  of  the  con- 
gregation. Mother  Joanna  of  Parma,  who  entered 
the  Order  in  1470,  did  more  than  anyone  else  towards 
giving  it  a  definite  organization.  The  nuns  lived 
in  cloister,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops. 
One  of  their  number  was  St.  Catharine  Fieschi 
Adorno,  who  died  14  September,  1510. 

The  Oblates  op  St.  Ambrose  and  of  St. 
Charles. — St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of 
Milan,  early  realized  the  assistance  which  the  various 
religious  orders  would  be  to  him  in  the  reform  of  his 
diocese  in  compliance  with  the  injunction  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  The  help  of  the  Barnabites, 
Somaschi,  and  Theatines  was,  therefore,  cnlistcil  by 
him,  and  he  entrusted  the  management  of  his  semi- 
nary to  the  Jesuits,  who  were  great  favourites  of 
his,  though  he  found  himself  subsequently  obliged 
to  take  it  from  them.  These  various  auxiliaries, 
however,  great  as  was  their  devotion,  were  not  sulli- 
ciently  at  his  disposal  to  supply  all  the  needs  con- 
nected with  the  government  of  a  vast  diocese.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  Archbishop,  in  order  to  fill  this  gap, 
decided  to  found  a  diocesan  religious  society  whose 
members,  all  priests,  or  destined  to  become  priests, 
should  take  a  simple  vow  of  obedience  to  their 
bishop.  Such  a  society,  in  fact,  already  existed 
at  Brescia,  under  the  name  of  "Priests  of  Peace". 
St.  Charles   endeavoured,   without   success,   to   win 


AMBROSIANS 


405 


AMBROSIANS 


over  the  canons  of  his  cathedral  to  his  idea,  but 
had  more  success  with  the  "  Priests  of  tlie  Holy 
Crown",  who  served  the  basilica  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre and  lived  in  community.  His  exhortations  to 
his  clergy  during  tlie  synodal  meetings  led  certain 
men  of  good  will  to  fall  in  with  liis  views,  and  he  was 
able  to  install  thetn  in  tlie  church  of  tlie  Holy  Sepul- 
chre and  the  adjoining  buildings,  10  August,  1578, 
giving  them  the  name  of  "Uljlates  of  St.  Am- 
brose". Tlieir  community  was  endowed  with  the 
revenues  of  certain  diocesan  benefices,  and  witli  a 
portion  of  the  properties  belonging  to  the  Congrega- 
tion of  tlie  llumiliati,  which  liad  just  been  dissolved 
by  the  Holy  See.  The  rules  by  which  the  new  con- 
gregation were  to  be  gox-erned  were  submitted  by 
their  .uithor  to  St.  Phili])  Neri  and  to  St.  Felix  of 
Cantalico,  tlio  latter  of  whom  persuaded  him  not  to 
impose  the  vow  of  poverty,  and,  in  their  definite 
form,  received  the  approbation  of  Ciregory  Xlll. 
It  was  to  be  the  duty  of  the  Oblates  to  assist  the 
archbishop  in  the  government  and  administration 
of  the  diocese,  to  fill  all  such  offices  as  he  shoidd 
entrust  to  them,  to  go  on  missions  to  the  most 
abandoned  places,  to  serve  vacant  parislies,  to 
manage  semmaries,  colleges,  and  Christian  schools, 
to  give  retreats,  and,  in  a  word,  to  devote  them- 
selves to  the  whole  work  of  the  ministry  in  com- 
pliance with  the  orders  and  wishes  of  the  bishop. 
They  were  divided  into  two  bodies,  one  remaining 
attaclied  to  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  the 
other  labouring  in  tlie  city  and  diocese.  These 
latter  formed  si.K  groups,  or  associations,  under  the 
direction  of  a  responsible  superior.  The  first,  taking 
for  their  model  tlie  metliod  followed  at  Rome  by 
St.  Philip  and  his  priests  of  the  Oratory,  made  their 
basilica  a  veritable  centre  of  pious  and  charitable 
life,  tlie  cITect  of  which  was  felt  throughout  the  city. 
Their  work  was  directed  by  St.  Charles  himself, 
who  was  glad  to  stay  among  them,  sharing  their 
manner  of  life,  and  taking  part  in  their  exercises  and 
in  their  tasks,  nor  is  his  memoiy  so  kept  in  honour 
anywhere  as  in  this  house.  He  was  wont  to  say 
that  of  all  the  institutions  which  he  had  created 
that  of  the  Oblates  was  the  one  he  held  most  dear, 
and  on  which  he  set  the  greatest  value.  The  Oblates 
of  tlie  Holy  Sepulchre,  moreover,  established,  for 
their  own  assistance,  a  confraternity  of  lay  Oblates, 
composed  of  magistrates  and  prominent  men,  who 
bound  themselves  to  visit  the  sick  and  the  poor, 
to  teach  the  ignorant,  to  reconcile  enemies,  and  to 
defend  the  Faith.  The  "Company  of  the  Ladies 
of  the  Oratory,"  also  founded  by  them,  aimed  at 
fostering  the  practice  of  a  serious  Christian  life 
among  women  of  the  world.  They  further  under- 
took the  management  of  the  diocesan  seminary,  and 
of  the  colleges  established  by  their  holy  founder; 
they  preached  the  Gospel  in  the  country  districts, 
and  even  journeyed  into  the  mountains  in  search 
of  heretics.  St.  Charles  was  preparing  to  establish 
them  in  the  famous  sanctuary  of  Our  Lady  of  liho, 
the  very  year  of  his  death  (1.5S4).  The  first  Oblates 
belonged  to  the  best  of  the  Milanese  clergj',  among 
whom  learning  and  virtue  wer'-j  always  held  in 
honour.  The  archbishops  of  Milan  fostered  the 
growth  of  the  institution  by  all  the  means  in  their 

Cower,  and  it  soon  numbered  two  hundreil  mem- 
crs.  Cardinal  Frederic  Horromco  caused  their  con- 
stitutions to  be  printed  in  lOl.'i,  nor  did  tliey  cease 
to  labour  in  the  service  of  the  diocese  until  their 
dispersion  by  Napoleon  I  in  ISIO.  The  Oblates  of 
Our  I>ady  of  Rho,  however,  escaped  attention,  and 
were  left  unmolested.  They  were  reorganized  by 
Mgr.  Romilli,  under  the  name  of  "Oblates  of 
St.  Charles",  in  1SI8,  and  reinstated  in  their  house 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  community  is  now,  as 
in  the  past,  one  of  learned  and  virtuous  priests.  One 
of  their  number,  Ballerini,  died  Patriarcn  of  Antioch, 


after  having  governed  the  Church  of  Milan;  another, 
Ramazotti,  was  Patriarch  of  Venice  (18G1).  Several 
Oblates,  moreover,  have  become  known  by  their 
theological  and  historical  writings.  The  following 
may  be  mentioned:  Ciiovanni  Stupano  (d.  1.580),  au- 
thor of  a  treatise  concerning  the  powers  of  the 
Church's  ministers,  and  of  the  Pope  in  particular; 
Martino  Honacina  (d.  1031),  one  of  the  foremost 
moralists  of  his  age,  whose  theological  works  have 
been  several  times  republished,  and  who  died  sud- 
denly on  his  way  to  fill  the  position  of  Nuncio  of 
Urban  VIII  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor;  Giussano, 
one  of  the  best  biographers  of  St.  Charles;  Sormano 
and,  esixjcially,  his  contemporary,  Sassi  (Saxius, 
d.  1751),  who  succeeded  Muratori  as  librarian.  It 
is  to  him  that  we  owe  the  edition,  in  five  volumes, 
of  the  homilies  of  St.  Charles,  a  history  of  the  arch- 
bishops of  Milan,  and  a  treatise  on  the  journey  of 
St.   Harnabas  to  that  city. 

The  Oul.vtks  outside  of  Italy. — The  example 
of  St.  Charles  was  followed,  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, by  Mgr.  Pie,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  by  Mgr. 
Martin,  Bishop  of  Paderborn.  The  former  founded 
a  society  of  priests  on  the  lines  of  the  Milanese 
Oblates,  and  with  a  similar  mission,  to  whom  he  gave 
the  name  of  "Oblates  of  St.  Hilary",  the  patron 
saint  of  his  diocese  (18.50).  The  latter  called  his  new 
society  the  "Congregation  of  the  Priests  of  Mary." 
The  most  famous  society  of  Oblates,  however,  out- 
side of  Italy,  is  that  of  the  Oblates  of  St.  Charles, 
in  London,  founded  by  Cardinal  Wiseman.  The 
religious  orders  established  in  his  diocese  did  not 
seem  to  him  to  answer  adequately  to  modern  con- 
ditions, nor  were  they  wholly  at  his  disposal.  The 
priests  of  the  Oratory,  gathered  round  Faber  and 
Newman,  showed  him,  however,  what  may  be  looked 
for  from  one  of  these  diocesan  societies  wlien  di- 
rected by  a  man  of  ability.  Manning  was  at  that 
time  at  the  Cardinal's  disposal,  and  it  was  to  him 
that  the  duty  was  entrusted  of  founding  the  new 
society,  and  of  drawing  up  its  rules.  Manning  took 
the  Oblates  of  Milan  as  liis  pattern,  and  gave  his 
priests  the  title  of  "Oblates  of  St.  Charles".  The 
rules  which  he  prcscril>ed  for  them  were  practically 
those  drawn  up  by  St.  Charles  for  his  disciples, 
adapted  to  English  conditions,  and  were  approved 
by  the  Holy  See  in  1857  and  in  1877.  Wi.seman 
installed  his  Oblates,  with  their  superior  and  founder, 
at  the  church  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels,  Bays- 
water,  on  Whit  Monday  of  the  latter  j'ear.  Before 
long  they  had  created  other  missions  or  religious 
centres  in  the  diocese  of  Westminster,  and  had  their 
full  share  in  the  movement  of  conversions,  which  was 
then  taking  place  in  England.  Nor  did  the  opposi- 
tion of  Errington,  Wiseman's  coadjutor,  and  of  the 
Westminster  chapter,  hinder  the  advance  of  the 
society,  though  the  Cardinal  found  himself,  indeed, 
under  the  necessity  of  withdrawing  them  from  his 
seminary  at  .St.  Edmund's,  where  he  had  placed 
them.  The  staff  of  this  house  had  supplied  Manning 
with  some  of  his  best  subjects,  among  others  with 
Herbert  Vaughan,  who  was  to  succeed  liiin  at  West- 
minster. Under  Manning's  direction,  the  Oblates 
devoted  themselves  to  various  apostolic  labours  in 
London,  nnd  in  other  missions  in  the  two  dioceses 
of  Westminster  ami  Southwark.  They  have  founded 
in  London  elementary  sclioiils,  a  higher  school  for 
boys,  and  tlic  College  of  St.  Charles,  which  is  now  a 
training  college.  They  have  had  a  hou.se  in  Rome 
since  ISO!;  in  1807  Pius  IX  appointed  the  supe- 
rior, Father  O'Callaghan,  rector  of  the  English 
College,  thus  giving  the  Oblates  the  means  of  exer- 
cising a  greater  influence  on  the  clergj-.  The  Arch- 
confraternity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Manning's  favourite 
devotion,  with  its  centre  at  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels, 
has  grown  largely  under  their  direction.  Manning 
governed  the  Bayswater  community  from   1857  to 


AMBROSIASTER 


406 


AMELIA 


1868.  He  lield  that  the  mission  of  the  Oblates  was 
to  revive  the  EngUsh  secular  clergy  by  taking  part 
in  its  life  and  in  its  labours,  and  thus  setting  them 
an  example.  Their  community  life  helps  them  to 
sanctify  themselves  by  the  practices  of  an  approved 
rule;  they  devote  themselves  to  ecclesiastical  studies, 
but  more  especially  to  ascetical  and  mystical 
theology,  which  enables  them  to  give  pious  souls  an 
enlightened  guidance;  tliey  undertake  all  the  tasks 
entrusted  to  them  by  the  archbishop,  whose  mis- 
sionaries they  are,  and  to  whom  they  owe  complete 
obedience.  .        ,., . 

(I)  Tli-LEMONT.  Mcmoires  pour  servir  A  Vhist.  eccUsiast. 
des  six  premiers  sierles.  X.  102-109,  229-231;  B.M'nard, 
Hisloire  de  Saint  Ambroiae  (Paris,  1872),  149-192,  513-519; 
(II)  Heltot,  Hisl.  des  ordres  rehg.  et  milit.  (Pans,  1792), 
IV  56-68'  HElMnucHER,  Die  Orden  und  Kongregat.  der 
KatholUch.  Kirehe  (Paderborn,  1896),  488,  489,  510,  511; 
Cesar  Tettamentios,  EcctesicB  el  Parthenonia  Beatm  Mance 
de  Monte  suprn  Varesium  plena  hislnria  et  descriplia  (Milan, 
1655);  (III)  Barth.  Rossi,  De  origine  et  proqressu  rongrC' 
galioriis  Oblatorwn  Sanctorum  Ambrosii  et  Caroli  (Milan, 
1734);  Acla  Ecclesice  mediolanensis  a  Carolo  ejriscopo  condita 
(Milan,  1549),  S26  seq.;  Sancli  Caroli  Borrommi  homilioe, 
I  286-296-  IV,  271-281;  Sylvain,  Hisloire  de  Saint  Charles 
Borromee  (Lille.  1884),  III,  79-106;  Helyot,  ut  supr.,  VIII, 
29-37-  HEiMBLirnER,  itt  supr.,  II,  336-338.  (IV)  Badnard, 
Hisloire  du  Cardinal  Pie  (Paris.  1886),  I,  432  sq.;  see,  also, 
the  various  biographies  of  Cardinals  Wiseman  and  Manning; 
The  Religious  Houses  of  the  United  Kingdom  (London,  1887); 
C&nstiiutiones  Conitregationis  Anglicance  Oblatorum  Sancti 
Caroli  (London,  1877). 

J.  M.  Besse. 

Ambrosi  aster,  the  name  given  to  the  author  of  a 
commentary  on  all  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  with  the 
exception  of  that  to  the  Hebrews.  It  is  usually 
pviblished  among  the  ^\■orks  of  St.  Ambrose  (P.  L., 
XVH.  4.5-508).  Before  each  Epistle  and  its  inter- 
pretation a  short  prologue  is  found  which  sets  forth 
purpose  and  context.  In  the  commentaries  the  text  is 
given  by  sections;  and  for  each  portion  a  natural  and 
logical  explanation  is  furnished.  All  in  all  the  com- 
mentary is  an  excellent  work.  Some  modern 
scholars  believe  it  the  best  that  was  written  before 
the  sixteenth  century.  Its  teaching  is  entirely 
orthodox,  with,  perhaps,  the  sole  exception  of  the 
author's  belief  in  the  millennium.  The  Latin  text 
of  the  Pauline  Epistles  differs  considerably  from 
the  Vulgate.  According  to  all  appearances  it  was 
taken  from  the  version  known  as  the  "Itala".  Ref- 
erence to  the  Greek  text  is  rarely  found;  in  fact  the 
writer  seems  to  be  ignorant  of  the  Greek  language. 
The  author  hardly  ever  seeks  a  hidden  or  mystic 
sense  in  the  text;  hence  it  becomes  evident  how 
widely  the  commentary  differs  in  character  from  the 
exegetical  works  of  St.  Ambrose.  In  his  interpreta- 
tions of  Scriptural  works  St.  Ambrose  is  not  much 
given  to  research  into  the  natural  and  literal  meaning. 
Generally  he  is  in  quest  of  a  higher  allegoric  or  mystic 
sense.  And  althougli  he  distinguishes  between  the 
literal  and  the  higher  signification,  still  it  is  the  latter 
principally  that  he  tries  to  bring  out.  Not  so  with 
Ambrosiaster.  The  natural  and  logical  sense  is  the 
only  object  the  writer  has  in  view.  As  to  the  time 
when  the  commentary  was  written,  there  are  many 
indications  which  point  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
century.  Of  the  heresies  or  sects  referred  to,  none 
antedates  that  period.  The  persecution  of  the 
Emperor  Julian  (301-36.3)  is  spoken  of  as  a  recent 
occurrence.  Finally  Pope  Damasus  (366-384)  is 
mentioned  as  actually  presiding  (hodie)  over  the 
destinies  of  the  Church.  It  is  quite  likely  that  the 
writer  lived  in  Rome;  his  reference  to  the  primacy 
of  St.  Peter  and  the  power  wielded  by  Pope  Damasus 
would  suggest  the  idea.  The  identification  of  the 
writer  however  is  not  so  easy.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  the  commentary  was  commonly  ascribed  to 
St.  Ambrose.  The  first  doubts  as  to  his  authorship 
were  raiserl  by  Eriismus  in  the  sixteenth  century; 
Bince  that  iJeriod  the  author  has  been  known  as 
Ambrosiaster    (Pseudo-Ambrosius).     Scholars    have 


suggested  a  great  variety  of  names.  St.  Augustine, 
in  quoting  a  passage  from  the  commentary,  attributes 
it  to  St.  Hilary;  hence  some  writers  believed  that 
either  St.  Hilaiy  of  Poitiers,  or  St.  Hilary  of  Pavia, 
or  the  schismatic  deacon  Hilary  of  Rome  was  meant. 
Others  sought  the  writer  in  St.  Remigius,  in  the 
Pelagian  Bishop  Julian  of  ^clanum,  in  the  African 
writer  Tyconius,  in  the  schismatic  priest  Faustinus 
of  Rome,  or  in  the  converted  Jew  Isaac  of  Rome. 
Most  of  these  views  are  mere  conjectures,  or  directly 
opposed  to  the  facts  known  about  the  writer.  The 
more  recent  opinion  is  that  the  author  of  the  com- 
mentaries is  also  the  author  of  the  pseudo-Augustinian 
"Qua>stiones  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti  ".  Accord- 
ing to  a  suggestion  made  by  Dom  Germain  Morin, 
O.S.B.,  and  adopted  by  A.  Souter,  the  author  of 
these  commentaries  was  a  distinguished  layman  of 
consular  rank,  by  the  name  of  Decimus  Hilarianus 
Hilarius. 

Souter,  .4  Shidy  of  Ambrosiaster  (Cambridge  University 
Press,  1905);  Bardenhewer,  Patroloqie  (Freiburg,  1901), 
382,  387;  Nirschl,  Patrologie  (Mainz,  1883),  II. 

Francis  J.  Schaefer. 

Ambrosius-ad-nemus.     See  Ambrosi.\j<s. 

Ambulatory,  a  cloister,  gallery,  or  alley;  a  shel- 
tered place,  straight  or  circular,  for  exercise  in  walking; 
the  aisle  that  makes  the  circuit  of  the  apse  of  a  church. 
The  central  eastern  apse  of  a  church  was  often  en- 
circled by  a  semicircular  ai-sle,  called  the  ambulatory. 
Of  these  ambulatories  there  are  three  species:  (I)  the 
ambulatory  with  tangential  chapels;  (2)  the  ambula- 
tory without  chapels;  (3)  variants  of  the  above.  By 
far  the  most  common  type  is  that  in  which  the 
chapels  radiate  to  the  north-east,  east  and  south-east. 
An  ambulatory  without  radiating  chapels  is  so  rare 
in  Romanesque  work  that  supposed  examples  should 
be  regarded  as  doubtful.  Sometimes  there  is  a  rec- 
tangular ambulatory,  as  in  the  Romsey  eastern 
chapel.  Ambulatories  are  constructed  either  on  the 
inside  or  outside  of  a  building,  or  in  a  public  thorough- 
fare wholly  or  partially  under  cover,  or  entirely  open 
to  the  sky,  and  are  used  only  to  walk  in.  The  term 
is  sometimes  applied  to'  a  covered  way  round  a  build- 
ing, such  as  the  space  between  the  columns  and  cella 
of  a  peripteral  temple,  or  around  an  open  space  as 
the  cloisters  of  a  monastic  church,  as  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa,  or  the  atrium  of  an  ancient  ba.silica, 
e.  g.  that  of  St.  Ambrose  at  Milan.  The  term  can 
be  used  as  an  equivalent  of  either  cloister  or  atrium. 

Longfellow,  A  Cyclopedia  of  Works  of  Architecture  in 
Italy,  Greece,  and  the  Levant  (New  York,  1895);  Gwilt,  En- 
cyclopedia of  Architecture  (London,  1881);  Bond,  Gothic 
Architecture  in  England  (London,   1905). 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Amelia,  The  Diocese  of,  comprises  seven  towns  in 
the  province  of  Perugia,  Italy,  and  is  under  the  im- 
mediate jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  The  Christian 
origin  of  this  Umbrian  mountain  town  is  w-rappod  in 
mystery.  The  Bishopric  of  Amelia  appears  on  the 
pages  of  liistory  relatively  late.  Ughelli  mentions 
an  Orthodolphus,  Bishop,  about  the  year  344.  He 
mentions  also  Stephen,  of  whom  there  is  no  trace  in 
liistory.  Flavius,  Bishop  of  Amelia,  seems  to  have 
been  present  at  a  synod  held  at  Rome,  14  November, 
465,  by  Pope  Hilary.  Ughelli  goes  on  to  enumerate 
Tiburtius,  Martinianus,  and  then  a  Sallustino  iircsont 
at  a  synod  held  in  502  under  Pope  Synunacluis. 
Still  further  according  to  Tghelli,  in  the  fifth  century 
there  was  a  Bishop  of  Amelia  by  name  Sincerus. 
The  BoUandists,  however,  show  that  the  date  of  his 
episcopate  is  uncertain;  there  is  question  even  of  his 
very  existence  (June,  III,  17).  A  Bishop  of  Amelia 
appears  in  649  at  the  pro^^ncial  synod  held  by 
Pope  Martin  at  the  Lateran.  The  city  of  Amelia  had 
great  political  importance  during  the  eighth  century, 
when  between  the  opposition  of  the  iconocl.-ist 
Byzantine  emperors  and   the   conquering   Lombard 


AMELIUS 


407 


power  in  the  centre  of  Italy  the  temporal  power  of 
the  popes  grew  from  day  to  day.  There  are  20  par- 
ishes, 31  secular  priests,  43  regular  priests,  78  churches 
and  chapels.     '1  he  population  is  19,500. 

Ughele.i.  Iliilin  Sacra  (Venice,  1TJ2):  Oai-pelletti.  Le 
chuat  d'ttalia  (Venice.  180G):  Ciams,  Series  epUcoporum  Eccle- 
9pr  catholicat  (liatisboD,  1873);  Kitoui,  Scavi  d'Amrtia 
(Konie,  1881). 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Amelius,  Gentilianus.    See  Neo-Pl.\ton-ism. 

Amelote,  Dkm.s,  b.  at  Saintes,  1609;  d.  in  Paris, 
7  October,  1G7S.  He  was  ordained  in  1G31,  was  a 
Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  member  of  the  French 
Oratory.  His  French  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (4  vols..  IGlid-'O)  was  highly  valued  and  often 
reprinted.  His  other  Scriptural  works  are  mostly 
extracts  from  his  New  Testament  edition.  As  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  the  Jansenists,  he  wrote 
"  Defensio  Constitutionum  Innocentii  XI  et  Alex- 
andri  VII". 

HoRTER.  NomenclatoT,  II,  14G;  Ingold  in  Via.,  Did.  de  la 
bible  (Paris,   1895). 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Amen. — The  word  A  men  is  one  of  a  small  number  of 
Hebrew  won.ls  wliicli  have  teen  imjx)rted  unchanged 
into  the  liturgy  of  the  Church,  projiUr  samiiorem 
aucloritaUm  ;is  St.  .\ugustiiie  expresses  it,  in  virtue 
of  an  exceptionally  sacred  example.  "So  frequent 
was  this  Hebrew  word  in  the  mouth  of  Our  Sanour", 
observes  the  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  "  that 
it  ple;ised  the  Holv  Ghost  to  have  it  perpetuated  in 
the  Church  of  God"  In  point  of  fact  St.  Matthew 
attributes  it  to  Our  Lord  twenty-eight  times,  and 
St.  Jolin  in  its  doul)led  form  twenty-six  times.  As 
regards  the  etymology,  .\men  is  a  derivative  from 
the  Hebrew  verb  aman  (px)  "  to  strengthen "  or 
"confirm". 

ScKiPTURAL  Use. — I.  In  the  Holy  Scripture  it 
appears  almost  invariably  as  an  adverb,  and  its 
primary  use  is  to  indicate  that  the  speaker  adopts 
for  his  own  what  \v..\s  already  been  said  by  another. 
Th\is  in  Jer.,  xxviii,  0,  the  prophet  represents  him- 
self as  answering  to  IIanaiii:is's  prophecy  of  happier 
days;  "Anion,  the  Lord  perform  the  words  which 
thou  hast  firopliesicd ".  And  in  the  imprecations  of 
Deut.,  xxvii,  14  sqq,  we  read,  for  example:  "  Cursed 
be  he  that  honourcth  not  his  father  and  mother, 
and  all  the  people  shall  say  Amen".  From  this, 
some  liturgical  use  of  the  word  appears  to  have 
developed  long  before  the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Thus  we  may  compare  I  Paralipomenon,  xvi,  36, 
"  Bleissed  be  the  Lord  God  of  Israel  from  eternity; 
and  let  the  people  .say  Amen  and  a  hymn  to  God", 
with  Ps.,  cv,  48,  "Blessed  be  the  Lord,  the  God  of 
Israel  from  everlasting:  and  let  all  the  people  sav: 
so  be  it"  (cf.  also  II  Esdras,  viii,  6),  these  last  words 
in  the  Septuagint  being  represented  by  y^yotro,  y^votTo, 
and  in  the  Vulgate,  which  follows  the  Septuagint 
hy  fiat,  fiat:  but  the  Massoretic  text  gives  "Amen, 
Alleluia".  Talmudic  tradition  tells  us  that  Amen 
w;us  not  said  in  the  Temple,  but  only  in  the  syna- 
gogues (cf.  h'dersheim.  The  Temple,  p.  127),  but  by 
this  we  probably  ouglit  to  understand  not  that  the 
.saying  .\men  was  forbidden  in  the  Temple,  but  only 
that  the  respoiise  of  the  congregation,  being  delayed 
until  the  end  for  fear  of  interrupting  the  exceptional 
.solemnity  of  the  rite,  demanded  a  more  extensive 
and  impressive  formula  than  a  simple  Amen.  The 
fan\iliarity  of  the  usage  of  .saying  Amen  at  the  end 
of  all  prayers,  even  before  the  Christian  era,  is  evi- 
denced by  Tobiiis,  ix,  12. — II.  A  second  use  of  Amen 
most  common  in  the  New  Testament,  but  not  quite 
unknown  in  the  Old,  has  no  reference  to  the  words 
of  any  other  person,  but  is  simply  a  form  of  aflirma- 
tion  or  confirmation  of  the  speaker's  own  thought, 
sometimes  introducing  it,  sometimes  following  it. 
Itfi  employment   as  an   introductory  formula  seems 


to  be  peculiar  to  the  speeches  of  Our  Saviour 
recorded  in  the  Cios|jels,  and  it  is  noteworthy 
that,  while  in  the  Synoptists  one  Amen  is  used, 
in  St.  John  the  word  is  invariably  doubled.  (Cf. 
the  double  Amen  of  conclusion  m  Num.,  v,  22, 
etc.)  In  the  Catholic  (i.  e.  the  Keinis)  tians- 
lation  of  the  Gos|X!ls,  the  Hebrew  word  is  for  the 
most  part  retained,  but  in  the  Protestant  "Author- 
ized \crsion"  it  is  rendered  by  "Verily".  When 
Amen  is  thus  used  by  Our  Lord  to  introduce  a  state- 
ment He  seems  especially  to  make  a  demand  upon 
the  faith  of  His  hearers  in  His  word  or  in  His  power; 
e.  g.  John,  viii,  58,  "Amen,  Amen,  I  say  unto  jou, 
before  Abraham  was  made,  I  am".  In  other  parts 
of  the  New  Testament,  especially  in  the  Kpistles  of 
St.  Paul,  Amen  usually  concludes  a  prayer  or  a  dox- 
ology,  e.  g.  Rom.,  .\i,  36,  "To  Him  be  glory  for  ever. 
Amen."  We  also  find  it  sometimes  attached  to 
blessings,  e.  g.  Rom.,  .xv,  33,  "  Now  the  God  of  peace 
be  with  you  all.  Amen";  but  this  usage  is  much 
rarer,  and  in  many  apparent  instances,  e.  g.  all  those 
appealed  to  by  Abbot  Cabrol,  the  Amen  is  really  a 
later  inter[M)lation. — III.  Lastly  the  common  |  rac- 
tice  of  concluding  any  discourse  or  chapter  of  a  sub- 
ject with  a  doxology  ending  in  Amen  seems  to  have 
led  to  a  third  distinctive  use  of  the  word  in  which 
it  appears  as  nothing  more  than  a  formula  of  conclu- 
sion— finis.  In  the  best  Greek  codices  the  book  of 
Tobias  ends  in  this  way  with  Amen,  and  the  Vulgate 
gives  it  at  the  end  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel.  This  seems 
to  be  the  best  explanation  of  Apoc,  iii,  14:  "These 
things  saith  the  .\men,  the  faithful  and  true  witness 
who  is  the  beginning  of  the  creation  of  God".  'I he 
Amen  who  is  also  the  beginning  would  tlms  suggest 
much  the  same  idea  as  "I  am  Alpha  and  Omega"  of 
Apoc,  i,  8,  or  "The  first  and  the  last"  of  Apoc,  ii.  S. 
LiTtiRoicAL  Use. — The  emplojTnent  of  Amen  in 
the  synagogues  as  the  people's  answer  to  a  prayer 
said  aloud  bv  a  representative  must  no  doubt  have 
been  adopted  in  their  own  worship  by  the  Christians 
of  the  .ViKJstolic  age.  This  at  least  is  the  only  natural 
sense  in  which  to  interpret  the  use  of  the  word  in  I 
Cor.,  xiv,  16,  "  Else  if  thou  shall  ble,ss  with  the  spirit, 
how  shall  he  that  holdcth  the  place  of  the  unlearned 
say  Amen  to  thy  blessing?"  (iriis  ipet  t6  d^jjv  fVi 
TTJ  aij  evxapurrta)  where  t4  ifii]v  seems  dearly  to 
mean  "the  customary  Amen".  In  the  beginning, 
however,  its  use  seems  to  have  been  limited  to  tlie 
congregation,  who  made  answer  to  some  public 
prayer,  and  it  was  not  spoken  by  him  who  olTered 
the  prayer  (see  von  der  Goltz,  Das  Gebet  in  der 
iiltesten  Christcnlieit,  p.  160).  It  is  perhaps  one  of 
the  most  reliable  indications  of  the  early  data  of  the 
"Didache",  or  "Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles", 
that,  although  several  short  liturgical  fornmUc  are 
embodied  in  this  document,  the  word  Amen  occurs 
but  once,  and  then  in  company  with  the  word  mara- 
natha,  aiiparently  as  an  ejaculation  of  the  assembly. 
As  regards  these  liturgical  formuhc  In  the  "Didache", 
which  include  the  Our  Father,   we  may,   however, 

Eerhaps  suppose  that  the  Amen  w;is  not  written 
ccause  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  after  the  dox- 
ology those  present  would  answer  Amen  as  a  matter 
of  course.  Again,  in  the  a|x>crj'phal  but  early  "  Acta 
Johannis"  (ed.  Bonnet,  c.  xciv,  p.  197)  we  find  a  series 
of  short  prayers  s(X)ken  by  the  Saint  to  which  the 
bystanders  regularly  answer  Amen.  But  it  cannot 
have  been  very  long  before  the  Amen  was  in  many 
cases  added  by  the  utterer  of  the  prayer.  We  have 
a  noteworthy  instance  in  the  prayer  of  St.  Polycarp 
at  his  martyrdom,  A.  D.  155,  on  which  occasion  we 
are  expre-s-sly  told  in  a  contemporary  document  that 
the  e.\cc\itioners  waited  until  Polycarp  comjilotcil 
his  prayer,  and  "pronounced  the  word  Amou". 
l)efore  Ihey  kindled  the  fire  bv  which  he  perislied. 
We  may  fairly  infer  from  this  tliat  before  the  middle 
of  the  second  centurj-  it  had  become  a  famiUar  prac- 


AMEN 


408 


AMKN 


tice  for  one  who  prayed  alone  to  add  Amen  by  way 
of  conclusion.  This  usage  seems  to  have  developed 
even  in  public  worship,  and  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fourth  century,  in  the  earliest  form  of  the  liturgy 
which  alTords  us  any  safe  data,  that  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  we  find  that  in  only  three  instances  is 
it  clearly  indicated  that  Amen  is  to  be  said  by  the 
congregation  (i.  e.  after  tlie  Trisagion,  after  the 
"Prayer  oi  Intercession",  and  at  the  reception  of 
Communion);  in  the  eight  remaining  instances  in 
which  Amen  occurs,  it  was  said,  so  far  as  we  can 
judge,  by  the  bishop  himself  who  offered  the  prayer. 
From' the  lately-discovered  Prayer  Book  of  Bishop 
Serapion,  which  can  be  ascribed  with  certainty  to 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  we  should  infer 
that,  with  certain  exceptions  as  regards  the  anaphora 
of  the  liturgy,  every  prayer  consistently  ended  in 
Amen.  In  many  cases  no  doubt  the  word  was  noth- 
ing more  than  a  'mere  formula  to  mark  the  conclusion, 
but  the  real  meaning  was  never  altogether  lost  sight 
of.  Thus,  tliough  St.  Augustine  and  Pseudo- 
Ambrose  may  not  be  quite  exact  when  they  interpret 
Amen  as  re'rum  est  (it  is  true),  they  are  not  very 
remote  from  the  general  sense;  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  on  the  other  hand,  the  word  is  often  rendered 
with  perfect  accuracy.  Thus,  in  an  early  "Ex- 
positio  .Mi.s.s:e"  published  by  Gerbert  (Mon.  Lit. 
Alem,  II,  276),  we  read:  "Amen  is  a  ratification  by 
the  people  of  ,what  has  been  spoken,  and  it  may  be 
interpreted  in  our  language  as  if  they  all  said:  May 
it  so  be  done  as  the  priest  has  prayed  ". 

General  as  was  the  use  of  the  Amen  as  a  conclusion, 
there  were  for  a  long  time  certain  liturgical  formulae 
to  which  it  was  not  added.  It  does  not  for  the 
most  part  occur  at  the  end  of  the  early  creeds,  and  a 
Decree  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  (n.  3014,  9  June, 
1853)  has  decided  that  it  should  not  be  spoken  at 
the  end  of  the  form  for  the  administration  of  baptism, 
where  indeed  it  would  be  meaningless.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  Churches  of  the  East  Amen  is  still 
commonly  said  after  the  form  of  baptism,  sometimes 
by  the  bystanders,  sometimes  by  the  priest  himself. 
In  the  prayers  of  exorcism  it  is  the  person  exorcised 
who  is  expected  to  say  "  Amen",  and  in  the  conferring 
of  sacred  orders,  when  the  vestments,  etc.,  are  given 
to  the  candidate  by  the  bishop  with  some  prayer  of 
benediction,  it  is  again  the  candidate  who  responds, 
just  as  in  the  solemn  blessing  of  the  Mass  the  people 
answer  in  the  person  of  tlie  server.  Still  we  cannot 
say  that  any  uniform  principle  governs  liturgical 
usage  in  this  matter,  for  when  at  a  High  Mass  the 
celebrant  blesses  the  deacon  before  the  latter  goes 
to  read  the  Gospel,  it  is  the  priest  himself  who  says 
Amen.  Similarly  in  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  and 
in  the  Sacrament  of  Extreme  Unction  it  is  the  priest 
who  adds  Amen  after  the  essential  words  of  the 
.';acramental  form,  although  in  the  Sacrament  of 
Confirmation  this  is  done  by  the  assistants.  Further, 
it  may  be  noticed  that  in  past  centuries  certain  local 
rites  seem  to  have  shown  an  extraordinary  predilec- 
tion for  the  use  of  the  word  Amen.  In  the  Mozarabic 
ritual,  for  example,  not  only  is  it  inserted  after  each 
clause  of  the  long  epist^opal  benediction,  but  it  was 
repeated  after  each  petition  of  the  Pater  Noster. 
.\  similar  exaggeration  may  be  found  in  various 
portions  of  the  Coptic  Liturgy. 

Two  special  instances  of  the  use  of  Amen  seem  to 
call  for  separate  treatment.  The  first  is  the  Amen 
formerly  spoken  by  the  people  at  the  close  of  the 
great  Prayer  of  Consecration  in  the  liturgy.  The 
second  is  that  which  was  uttered  by  each  of  the 
faithful  when  he  received  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ.  (1)  Amen  njtcr  the  Consecration. — With 
regard  to  what  we  have  ventured  to  call  the  "great 
Prayer  of  Consecration"  a  few  wonls  of  explanation 
are  necessary.  There  can  bo  no  doubt  that  by  the 
Christians  of  the  earlier  ages  of  the  Church  the  precise 


moment  of  the  conversion  of  the  bread  and  wine 
upon  the  altar  into  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ 
was  not  so  clearly  apprehended  as  it  is  now  by  us. 
They  were  satisfied  to  believe  that  the  change  was 
WTOught  in  the  course  of  a  long  "prayer  of  thanks- 
giving" (Ei5xapi(rria) ,  a  prayer  made  up  of  several 
elements — preface,  recitation  of  the  words  of  institu- 
tion, memento  for  living  and  dead,  invocation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  etc. — which  prayer  they  nevertheless 
conceived  of  as  one  "action"  or  consecration, 
to  which,  after  a  doxology,  they  responded  by  a 
solemn  Amen.  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  this 
aspect  of  the  liturgy  the  reader  must  be  referred  to 
the  article  Epiclesis.  It  must  be  sufficient  to  say 
here  that  the  essential  unity  of  the  great  Prayer  of 
Consecration  is  very  clearly  brought  before  us  in  the 
account  of  St.  Justin  Martyr  (.\.  D.  151)  who,  de- 
scribing the  Christian  liturgy,  says:  "As  soon  as  the 
common  prayers  are  ended  and  they  (the  Christians) 
have  saluted  one  another  with  a  kiss,  bread  and  wine 
and  water  are  brought  to  the  president,  who  receiv- 
ing them  gives  praise  to  the  Father  of  all  things  by 
the  Son  and  Holy  Spirit  and  makes  a  long  thanks- 
giving [evxapiaTLaf  iirl  iroKi]  for  the  olessings  which 
He  has  vouchsafed  to  bestow  upon  them,  and  when  he 
has  ended  the  prayers  and  thanksgiving,  all  the  peo- 
ple that  are  present  forthwith  answer  with  acclama- 
tion 'Amen'  ".  (Justin,  I  Apol.,  Ixv,  P.  G.,  VI, 428). 
The  existing  liturgies  both  of  the  East  and  the  West 
clearly  bear  witness  to  this  primitive  arrangement. 
In  the  Roman  Liturgy  the  great  consecrating  prayer, 
or  "action",  of  the  Mass  ends  with  the  solemn 
doxology  and  Amen  which  immediately  precede  the 
Pater  Noster.  The  other  Aniens  which  are  found 
between  the  Preface  and  the  Pater  Noster  can  easily 
be  shown  to  be  relatively  late  additions.  The 
Eastern  liturgies  also  contain  Amens  similarly  inter- 
polated, and  in  particular  the  Amens  which  in  se\eral 
Oriental  rites  are  spoken  immediately  after  the  words 
of  Institution,  are  not  primitive.  It  may  be  noted 
that  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  ques- 
tion of  Amens  in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  acquired  an 
adventitious  importance  on  account  of  the  contro- 
versy between  Dom  Claude  de  Vert  and  Pere  Lebrun 
regarding  the  secrecy  of  the  Canon.  It  is  now  com- 
monly admitted  that  in  the  primitive  liturgies  the 
words  of  the  Canon  were  spoken  aloud  so  as  to  be 
heard  by  the  people.  For  some  reason,  the  explana- 
tion of  which  is  not  obvious,  the  Amen  immediately 
before  the  Pater  Noster  is  omitted  in  the  solemn  Mass 
celebrated  by  the  Pope  on  Easter  day.  (2)  Amen 
after  Communion. — The  Amen  which  in  many 
liturgies  is  spoken  by  the  faithful  at  the  moment  of 
receiving  Holy  Communion  may  also  be  traced  back 
to  primitive  usage.  The  Pontificale  Romanum 
still  prescribes  that  at  the  ordination  of  clerics  and 
on  other  similar  occasions  the  newly-ordained  in 
receiving  Communion  should  kiss  the  bishop's  hand 
and  answer  Amen  when  the  bishop  says  to  them: 
"May  the  Body  of  Our  Lord  Josus  Christ  keep  thy 
soul  unto  everlasting  life"  (Corpus  Domini,  etc.). 
It  is  curious  that  in  the  lately-discovered  Latin  life 
of  St.  Melania  the  Yovuiger,  of  the  early  fifth  century, 
we  are  told  how  the  Saint  in  receiving  Coramimion 
before  death  answered  .■\men  and  kissed  the  hand  of 
the  bishop  who  had  brought  it  (see  Cardinal  Ram- 
polla,  Santa  Melania  Giunioro,  1905,  p.  257).  But 
the  practice  of  answering  .\nion  is  older  than  this. 
It  ajipcars  in  the  Canons  of  Mippolytus  (No.  I4())  and 
in  the  Egyptian  Church  (Irdcr  (p.  101).  Further, 
Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  xliii)  tells  a  story  of  the 
heretic  Novatian  (e.  250),  how,  at  the  time  of  Com- 
munion, instead  of  Amen  he  made  the  people  say 
"I  will  not  go  back  to  Pope  Cornelius".  Also  we 
have  evidently  an  echo  of  the  same  practice  in  the 
.\cts  of  .St.  Perpetua,  .\.  n.  202  (Armitage  Robinson, 
St.   Perpetua,   pp.   08,  SO),  and  probaljly  in  Tertul- 


l:i>  U.niT'liidn  IW        »'.M  from         80  llr.'»ii»U'h  Ut 


AMENDK 


409 


AMERICA 


lian's  phrase  about  the  Christian  profaning  in  the 
amphitheatre  tlie  Ups  with  whidi  henad  spoken  Aincn 
to  greet  the  All-Holy  (De  Spect.,  xxv).  But  nearly 
all  the  Fathers  supply  illustrations  of  the  practice, 
notably  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (Catech.,  v,  IS, 
P.  G.,  XXIII,  1125). 

Other  Uses. — Finally,  we  may  note  tliat  the 
word  Amen  occurs  not  infrequently  in  early  Christian 
inscriptions,  and  tliat  it  was  often  introduced  into 
anatheniiis  and  gnostic  s[>ells.  Moreover,  as  the 
(ireek  letters  which  form  Amen  according  to  their 
numerical  values  total  99  (a  =  l,  iu=40,  »)  =  8,  i'=.50), 
this  number  often  appears  in  inscriptions,  especially 
of  Egyptian  origin,  and  a  sort  of  magical  efficacy 
seems  to  have  been  attributed  to  its  sjTiibol.  It 
should  also  be  mentioned  that  the  word  Amen  is  still 
employed  in  the  ritual  both  of  Jews  and  Mohamme- 
dans. 

By  far  the  most  satisfactory  account  of  the  use  of  Amen 
in  the  early  Clirislian  centuries  is  that  Riven  by  Cadhol,  tsub 
verba  in  his  Diet,  d'antiq.  chret.,  I.  l.'>54-73.  The  various  other 
BibUcal  and  theoloccicat  tiictionaries  treat  the  matter  some- 
what imperfectly.  See,  liowever.  Kraus,  Real-encyclopltdic, 
8.  v.;  ViGOfRoux  in  DUt.  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.:  ScllMlD  in  Kireheii- 
Ur..  s.  v.;  Hkrzo«-Hauck.  Real-encyclopitdie  fur  prot.  Theol. 
u.  Kirrhe  under  Lituraigrhe  Formeln.  A  useful  account  is 
that  of  TtiALHOFKR,  Liturffik  (Freiburg,  1SS31,  I,  512  snq. 
Sec  also  Hogg  in  Jewith  Q.  Rev..  IX,  l-2f),  189(1,  and  the 
Jewish  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.  Among  the  older  books,  Wkrn- 
DORF,  De  .Amen  liturffico  (Wittonbere.  1779)  deser%'es  notice, 
a.s  also  Lkhruv.  /-<j  Mease  (Paris,  1777),  VIII;  Vert,  Explica- 
tion  des  ciri*moniea  (Paris,  1720);  Hon'a,  Rerum  liturgicarum 
(Rome,  1777),  III,  275;  Georgius,  Lilurg.  Rom.  pontif. 
(Rome,  17411,  HI  v,  n.  9. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Amende  Honorable,  an  obsolete  form  of  honorary 
satisfaction,  customary  in  the  Church  in  France  as 
late  as  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  performed  at 
the  bidding  of  the  ecclesiastical  judge,  and  within 
the  precinct  of  his  court,  tliough  at  one  time  it  could 
be  enforced  at  the  church  door  or  in  some  other  pul)- 
lic  place.  It  was  ordinarily  inflicted  only  on  con- 
demned criminals,  who  appeared  stripped  to  the 
shirt,  barefoot  and  bareheaded,  with  candle  in  hand, 
and  begged  pardon  of  God,  tlie  king,  and  of  justice. 

Andre-Wagner,  Diet,  de  droit  can..  3d.  ed.,  I,  93,  94. 
Thomas  J.  Shah  an. 

Amerbach,  Veit,  b.  at  Wembdingcn  in  1503;  d.  at 
Ingolstadt,  13  Sejrt.,  1.557,  humanist,  convert  from 
Lutheranism  to  tlie  Catliolic  Church.  Educated 
at  Eichstatt  and  Wittenberg,  he  taught  philosophy, 
law.  Oriental  languages,  and  I.vitlieran  theology  at 
the  latter  place,  where  ho  lived  in  daily  intercourse 
with  Luther,  Melancthon,  and  other  leaders  of  the 
new  movement.  It  was  here  that  he  came  to  recog- 
nize the  novelty  and  falsity  of  the  Luthenm  doctrines, 
and  the  truth  of  tlie  Church's  teaching.  After  much 
controversial  correspondence  with  Slclancthon,  ho 
left  Wittenberg  in  1513,  and  was  received,  with  his 
wife  and  children,  into  the  Catholic  Clmrch.  The 
Prince  Bishop,  Maurice  von  Ilutten,  made  him 
profc.s,sor  of  rhetoric  at  F.ichstiitt.  A  year  later,  he 
went  to  Ingolstadt,  as  professor  of  philosophy,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death.  He  is  counted  among 
the  great  humanists  of  his  age,  and  wrote  a  large 
number  of  learned  works,  such  as:  "Conimnntaria 
on  Cicero  and  Horace",  the  former  of  whom  appears 
to  Ix;  his  favourite  author;  ".\ntiparadoxa  ",  whence 
many  details  of  his  life  and  sti:dies  are  derived,  and 
"Tres  Epistohr ",  concerning  the  ecclesiastical  con- 
troversies of  the  period. 

DuLLINOCR.  Die  Rrform/ititin.  ihre  innere  Entxrirtcflttnn  und 
Wtrkunpen  (Ralisbon,  1S40).  I.  15.')-100;  UUs,  Die  Cmrerli- 
trn  teit  der  Reformation  (Freiburg,  18011).  1.  233-235. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

America,  also  called  the  Western  Continent  or 
the  New  World,  consists  of  three  main  divi.sions: 
North  .Vmerica,  Central  .\merica,  and  South  .\merica. 
The  first  of  these  extends  from  (about)  70°  to  15° 
north  latitude.     Central  America  forms  an  isthmus 


running  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  narrowing 
to  a  strip  of  thirty  miles  in  width  at  Panama;  tliis 
isthmus  extends  from  15°  to  8°  north  latitude,  where 
it  connects  with  the  western  coast  of  Soutli  America. 
South  .\merica  begins  in  latitude  12°  north,  terminat- 
ing in  latitude  55°  south.  Hence  North  America 
approximately  extends  over  3,800  English  miles 
from  north  to  south.  South  America  4,500,  and 
Central  .America  constitutes  a  diagonal  running  be- 
tween the  two  larger  masses,  from  north-west  to 
soutli-east  and  is  appro.ximately  a  thousand  miles 
in    length. 

.■\s  the  object  of  tliis  article  is  to  compile  the  data 
which  will  help  the  reader  to  appreciate  the  Christian 
settlement  and  civilization  of  America,  we  omit  liere 
the  geography,  geology,  and  other  topics  usually 
treated  in  general  encyclopedias  and  confine  our- 
selves to  the  etlmograpliy  and  colonization  of  the 
Americas.  The  so-called  aborigines  of  America  are, 
with  exception  of  the  li^squimaux,  generally  regarded 
as  belonging  to  one  and  the  same  branch  of  the 
human  family,  physically  as  well  as  ethnically. 
From  the  physical  standpoint  they  have  been  classi- 
fied with  tlie  type  calknl  Jlongohan,  but  since  <loubts 
have  arisen  as  to  tliu  existence  of  such  a  type,  it  is 
safer  to  state  that,  anthropologically,  the  American, 
and  especially  the  North  .Vmerican  Indians,  resem- 
ble some  of  the  most  easterly  .\siastic  trilx's  more 
clo.sely  tlian  any  other  group  of  the  human  family. 
The  South  .Vmerican  Indian  is  more  nearly  allied  to 
the  nortliern  tlian  to  any  extra-American  stock.  .\s 
to  the  E.squimaux,  his  skull  is  decidedly  of  an  .Arctic 
type,  corresponding  in  that  respect  to  Asiatic  and 
even  European  peoples  living  inside  of  the  .Xrctie 
circle.  But  these  generalizations  may  have  to  be 
modified,  with  the  rapid  strides  anthropologj-  is 
making  in  the  field  of  detailed  anil  local  investigation, 
and  it  will  hereafter  be  advisable  to  consider  the 
characteristics  of  every  linguistic  stock  (and  even 
of  its  subdivisions)  by  them.selves,  allowing  for 
changes  wrought  in  the  physical  condition  by  di- 
versity of    environment  after  long  residence. 

Di.sTRiBUTioM  OF  Adorigi.nal  Pqpulatio.vs. — The 
distribution  of  the  -Vmerican  population  at  the  time 
of  Columbus  is,  of  course,  not  known  from  personal 
observation,  but  it  may  be  approximately  recon- 
structed from  information  gathered  after  .Vmerica 
began  to  be  visited  by  Europeans.  The  Esquimaux 
held  most  of  the  Arctic  belt,  whereas  the  so-called 
Indian  swayed  the  rest  of  the  continent  to  its  south- 
ernmost extremity.  The  population  was  not  ne:irly 
as  numerous  as  has  long  been  thought,  even  where 
it  was  most  dense,  but  there  are  no  materials  for 
even  an  approximate  estimate.  The  great  northern 
and  western  plains  were  not  settled,  although  there 
are  traces  of  pre-Columbian  permanent  abodes,  or 
at  least  of  some  settlements  made  during  a  slow 
shifting  along  the  streams;  tribes  prejnng  upon  the 
buffalo  roamed  with  that  quadruped  over  the 
steppes.  The  north-west,  on  the  Pacific,  was  more 
densely  inhabited  by  tribes  who  subsisted  by  fisliing 
(.salmon),  limited  agriculture,  and  hunting.  This 
was  also  the  ca.se  along  the  Mississippi  (on  botli  banks) 
and  in  the  timbered  basin  of  the  .Vlleghanies,  along 
the  .Vtlanlic  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Florida, 
wlierea.s  southern  Texas  was  sparsely  inhabited,  and 
in  parts  but  temporarily,  as  the  bufTalo  led  the 
Indian  on  its  southward  wanderings.  The  aboriginal 
population  of  California  was  not  large  and  hvcd 
partly  on  sea-fooil.  The  great  northern  plateau 
of  Mexico,  with  the  mountains  along  the  Uio 
Grantle,  was  too  arid  and  consequently  destitute  of 
means  of  subsistence,  to  allow  permanent  occupation 
in  numbers;  but  the  New  Mexican  Pueblos  formed  a 
group  of  sedentary  inhabitants  clustering  along  the 
Rio  Grande  and  scattered  in  the  mountains  .as  far 
as  Arizona,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  roving  Indians, 


AMERICA 


410 


AMERICA 


some  ol  whom,  however,  like  the  Navajos,  had 
turned  to  land-tilHng  also,  on  a  modest  scale.  The 
same  conditions  may  be  said  to  have  obtained  ia 
Arizona.  Western  Slexico  presented  a  similar  as- 
pect, modified  by  a  different  climate.  While  there 
are  within  the  area  of  the  United  States  tribes  that 
in  tlic  fifteenth  century  displayed  a  higher  degree  of 
culture  tlian  their  surroundings  (the  Natchez,  for 
instance,  and,  in  development  of  ideas  of  govern- 
ment and  extension  of  sway,  the  Iroquois)  tlie  culture 
of  the  Indian  seems  to  liave  reached  its  highest  degree 
in  Central  Mexico  and  Yucatan,  Guatemala  and 
Honduras,  and,  we  may  add,  Nicaragua.  It  is  as  if 
the  tribal  wanderings  "from  north  to  south,  which 
sometimes  took  other  directions,  had  been  arrested 
by  the  narrowing  of  the  continent  at  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  While  the  abundance  of  natural  re- 
sources invited  man  to  remain,  geographic  features 
compelled  him,  and  thus  arose  Indian  communities 
that  excelled  in  culture  the  Indians  in  every  other 
part  of  the  continent.  South  of  Panama,  nature 
was  too  exuberant,  and  the  territory  too  small,  to 
favour  similar  progress;  hence  the  Indians,  while 
still  quite  proficient  in  certain  arts,  could  not  com- 
pare with  their  northern  neighbours.  In  South 
America  the  exuberance  of  tropical  life  north  of  the 
Argentine  plains,  was  as  unfavourable  to  cultural 
growth  as  barrenness  would  have  been.  Hence  the 
Amazonian  basin,  Brazil,  the  Guyanas,  and  \'ene- 
zuela,  as  well  as  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Andes 
in  general,  were  thinly  inhabited  by  tribes,  few  of 
wliich  had  risen  above  the  stage  of  roving  savages. 
On  the  western  slope  of  the  Andes,  in  Colombia,  the 

Eopulation  was  somewhat  more  dense  and  the 
ouses,  although  still  of  wood  and  canes,  were  larger 
and  more  substantially  reared.  Sedentary  tribes  of 
a  lesser  degree  of  culture  also  dwelt  in  nortliern 
Argentine,  limited  in  numbers  and  scattered  in  and 
between  savage  groups.  The  highest  development 
attained  by  man  in  South  America  before  its  dis- 
covery was  along  the  backbone  of  the  Andes  from 
latitude  1.5°  north  to  near  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn, 
or  l'.3°  south.  This  was  also  the  case  on  the  Pacific 
shore  to  latitude  20°  south,  beginning  at  2°  south. 
In  this  zone  the  cultural  growth  of  the  Indian  at- 
tained a  level  equal  in  many  ways,  superior  in  some, 
inferior  in  others  (as  for  instance  in  plastic  work  in 
stone),  to  the  culture  of  the  most  advanced  tribes  of 
Yucatan  and  Central  America.  The  tribes  of  Chile 
were  comparatively  numerous  and  fairly  advanced, 
mostly  given  to  land-tillage  and  hunting;  the  Pata- 
gonians  stood  on  a  lov.'er  level,  and  the  people  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  were  perhaps  on  the  lowest  round 
of   the   scale   of    humanity    in    America. 

Pre-Columbian  Politic.vl  Conditions. — Not  even 
the  most  advanced  among  the  American  Indians 
had  risen  to  the  conception  of  a  Nation  or  State;  their 
organization  was  merely  tribal,  and  their  conquests 
or  raids  were  made,  not  with  the  view  of  assimilating 
sul)jectod  enemies,  but  for  booty  (inclutling  females, 
and  human  victims  for  sacrifice),  or,  at  best,  for  the 

Surpose  of  exacting  tribute  and  assistance  in  warfare, 
[ence  America  w.os  an  irregular  checker-board  of 
tribes,  independent  and  always  autonomous,  even 
when  overawed  or  overpowered  by  otliers.  Those 
tribes  wliose  sway  was  most  extensive  when  America 
was  discovered  were:  in  North  .Vmerica,  tlie  Iroquois 
league  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  New  York;  they 
had  organized  for  the  purpose  of  plunder  and  devas- 
tation and  were  just  then  extending  their  destructive 
forays;  in  central  Mexico,  the  confederacy  of  the 
tribes  of  Mexico,  Tezcuco,  and  Tlacopan;  in  Yucatan 
the  Maya,  although  these  do  not  seem  to  have 
agglomerated  so  as  to  form  leagties,  except  tem- 
porarily; in  ."^outli  .\merica  the  Muysca  or  Chibcha 
of  central  Coloinl)ia.  and,  in  Peru,  tlie  Inca.  It  has 
not  yet  been  established,  however  that  the  Inca  had 


confederates,  or  if  they  belonged  to  the  class  of 
sedentary  tribes  that  then  overran  large  expanses 
of  territory,  either  alone  or  with  the  aid  of  subjugated 
tribes.  Traces  of  confederacies  appeared  on  the 
Peruvian  coasts  among  the  .sedentary  clusters  that 
were  partly  wiped  out  by  the  Inca  not  a  century 
previous  to  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards.  Of  the 
sedentary  Indians  that  held  or  overawed  a  consider- 
able extent  of  territorj'  by  their  owti  single  efforts, 
the  various  independent  groups  of  Guatemala  and  the 
Tarascans  in  western  central  Mexico  were  the  most 
conspicuous.  In  North  America  the  Muskogees,  the 
Natchez,  the  Choctaws,  and,  further  north,  the 
Dahcotalis  and  Pawnees  displayed  considerable  ag- 
gressive power. 

Aboriginal  Social  Conditions. — The  system  of 
social  organization  was  the  same  in  principle  through- 
out the  entire  continent,  differences  being,  as  in  gen- 
eral culture,  in  degree,  but  not  in  kind.  The  clan, 
or  gens,  was  the  imit,  and  descent  was  sometimes  in 
the  male,  sometimes  in  tlie  female,  line.  But  the 
clan  system  had  not  everywhere  fully  developed; 
the  prairie  tribes  of  North  America,  for  instance, 
were  not  all  composed  of  clans.  Various  cau.ses  have 
been  assigned  for  this  exception,  but  no  satisfactory 
explanation  has  as  yet  been  suggested.  The  general 
characteristics  of  American  Indian  society  were: 
communal  tenure  of  lands,  no  hereditary  estates, 
titles,  or  offices,  and  segregation  antl  exclusion  of  the 
different  clusters  from  each  other.  Definite  bound- 
aries nowhere  divided  one  cluster  from  another; 
uninhabiteil  zones,  or  neutral  belts,  intervened  be- 
tween the  settlements  of  the  tribes;  where  the  popu- 
lation was  denser,  the  belt  was  narrower,  though 
still  devoid  of  villages.  Civil  and  mihtarj'  adminis- 
trations were  merged  into  each  other,  and  behind  and 
above  botli,  though  partly  occult,  the  power  of 
religious  creed  and  ceremonial  determined  every 
action.  The  shamans  or  sorcerers,  by  means  of 
oracular  utterances  and  magic,  were  the  real  leaders. 
These  so-called  priests  also  had  their  organization, 
the  principles  of  wluch  were  the  same  all  over  primi- 
tive America,  as  they  are  the  same  to-day.  Esoteric 
societies,  based  upon  empirical  knowledge  and  its 
apphcation  to  spiritual  and  material  wants,  consti- 
tuted the  divisions  and  classifications  of  the  wizards. 
Whosoever  practiced  the  rites  and  artifices  held  in- 
dispensable for  religious  end.;,  ^N-ithout  belonging  to 
one  or  the  other  of  these  clusters  of  official  magicians, 
exposed  hiinself  to  dire  chastisement.  Such  were 
and  are  the  cliief  features  of  religious  organization 
among  the  more  advanced  tribes;  the  lesser  the  degree 
of  culture,  the  more  imperfect  the  system  and  the 
less  complicated  in  detail. 

Religion  op  the  Aborigines. — Animism  is  the 
principle  underlying  the  creed  of  the  Indian  every- 
where, and  Fetisliism  is  its  tangible  manifestation. 
Monotheism,  the  idea  of  a  personal  and  all-creating 
and  ruling  God,  nowhere  existed  among  the  Indians. 
The  whole  world  was  pervadeil  by  a  spiritual  essence 
whicli  could  at  will  take  individual  sliape  in  special 
localities.  Tlie  Indian  feels  liimself  surrountled 
everywliere  by  numberless  spiritual  agencies,  in 
presence  of  wliich  he  is  helpless,  and  whicli  he  feels 
constrained  incessantly  to  propitiate  or  appease. 
Tills  fear  underlies  the  system  of  his  magic  and  gives 
the  wizard  a  hold  upon  him  which  he  cannot  shake 
off.  His  every  action  is  therefore  preceded  by  prayer 
and  offerings,  tlie  latter  are  sometimes  ciuite  com- 

Clicated.  .Vmong  his  fetishes,  there  is  little  or  no 
ierarchic  grailation  of  idols.  Plienomena  that  seem 
to  exert  a  greater  influence  upon  man  than  others  are 
the  objects  of  a  more  elaborate  cult,  but  they  are  not 
.supposed  to  act  beyond  their  sphere.  Thus  there 
was  and  is  no  sun-worship  as  commonly  belie\ed. 
The  sun,  as  well  as  the  moon,  is  looked  upon  as  a 
heavenly  body  which  is  the  abode  of  powerful  (but 


AMERICA 


411 


AMERICA 


not  all-powerful)  spirits;  in  many  tribes  little  atten- 
tion is  paiil  to  them.  Historic  deities  also  arose 
among  tliem  as  tlie  result  of  belief  in  mighty  wizards 
whose  spirit  dwelt  in  their  fetishes.  Sacrifices  were 
made  to  the  fetishes,  and  the  most  precious  objects 
offered  up,  human  victims  being  looked  upon  as  the 
most  desirable.  Kven  tlie  practice  of  scalping  was 
ba.sed  upon  tlie  belief  that,  by  securing  that  part  of 
the  enemy's  body  nearest  to  the  brain,  the  captor 
came  into  possession  of  the  mental  faculties  of  the 
deceased,  and  thus  adiled  so  much  more  to  his  own 
mental  and  physical  power.  Anthropophagy,  or 
cannibalism,  so  wiilely  distributed  through  the 
tropics,   rested  on  the  same  conception. 

.\iH)HiGiNAL  Laws  and  Languages. — The  Indian 
had  no  written  laws.  Custom  ruled;  the  decisions 
of  the  tribal  councils  and  oracular  utterances  deter- 
mined the  questions  at  issue.  The  council  was  the 
chief  authority  in  tem[X)ral  matters;  the  chiefs 
exeeuteil  its  aecrees,  wliich  were  first  sanctioned, 
or  modified,  by  the  oracles  of  the  shamans.  There 
was  no  writing,  no  letters,  but  some  of  the  more  ad- 
vanced tribes  used  pictographs,  by  means  of  which 
they  could,  to  a  limited  extent,  record  historic 
events,  preserve  the  records  of  tribute,  and  represent 
the  calendars,  both  astronomical  (in  a  rude  way) 
and  ritual.  The  knotted  strings,  or  yi/i/jpus,  of  Peru 
were  a  more  imperfect  metliod,  ancl  tlieir  use,  in  a 
simpler  form,  was  much  more  extended  than  is 
generally  thought.  The  aboriginal  languages  of 
America  are  di\-ided  into  stocks,  and  again  sub- 
divided into  dialects.  The  number  of  these  stocks 
is  becoming  gratlually  reduced  as  a  result  of  pliilologi- 
cal  study.  Tliere  is  an  aflinity  between  some  of  the 
idioms  of  western  North  America  and  some  of 
eastern  .\sia,  but  further  than  that  resemblances  do 
not  go.  It  is  safer  to  follow  the  exami)le  set  by 
Hrinton  and  to  subdivide  the  -American  idioms  into 
geographical  groups,  each  of  which  embraces  a  cer- 
tain number  of  stocks.  There  is,  however,  an  ob- 
jection to  this  plan  in  that  in  some  cases  one  stock 
is  scattered  and  disi>ersed  over  more  than  one 
geographic  section.  There  are,  for  instance,  indica- 
tions that  the  Shoshones  of  Oregon,  the  Pimas, 
Opatas,  Yaqui  of  .\rizona  and  Sonora,  and  the  Mexi- 
cans (.\ztecs,  Tezcucans,  etc.)  and  a  part  of  the 
Indians  of  Nicaragua  belong  to  one  linguistic  family, 
which  is  thus  represented  both  among  the  North 
Pacific  and  Central  groups. 

Leaving  aside  the  Eskimo,  whose  langiiage  may 
be  chi.s.scd  as  specifically  Arctic,  the  most  important 
groups  arc:  in  IJritish  America  the  Athapascans,  or 
TinniS;  tlie  Navajos,  or  DinnC',  in  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico,  with  tlieir  relatives  the  Apaches  or  N'd(S: 
the  Algonquins.  ranging  from  Nova  Scotia  in  the 
north-east,  on  the  .Vtlanlic,  to  New  York  Bay  in  the 
south,  and  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri 
Uiver  in  the  west,  across  the  ba.sin  of  the  Great 
Lakes;  of  these  Indians  the  Arapahoes,  Blackfeet, 
Cheyennes,  Chippeways,  Delawares,  Sacs  and  Foxes, 
and  Shawnees  are  the  most  generally  known.  Many 
tribes  of  this  group  (like  those  of  New  England  for 
instance)  are  practically  extinct  :  the  Iroquois  in 
northern  New  York,  embracing  the  Ilurons,  Eries, 
Cherokees,  etc.;  the  Muskogees,  comprising  the  tribes 
along  the  southern  .\tlantic  coast  to  part  of  Florida; 
the  Catawbas.  Natchez,  and  .some  of  the  Indians  of 
Florida  and  Coahuila  in  Mexico;  the  Pawnees,  Da- 
kotas,  and  Kiowas,  mostly  Indians  from  the  plains 
and  of  the  watershed  west  of  the  Mi.>isi.ssippi;  in  the 
West,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  north  Pacific  group 
extends  from  Alaska  to  southern  California.  The 
Yumas  are  scattered  from  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado 
through  portions  of  .Arizona,  and  a  branch  of  them  is 
Rai<l  to  live  in  the  Mexican  State  of  Oaxaca.  The 
Pueblos  of  New  Mexico  and  .Arizona  are  looked  upon 
as  a  separate  linguistic  cluster  also.     Of  the  great 


Shoshone  group  mention  has  already  been  made. 
Mexico  further  contains  a  number  of  clusters  hn- 
guistieally  distinct,  like  the  Taoascans,  the  Otomis, 
the  Totonacos,  Zapotecos,  Mijes,  Mi.xtecos,  Mayas, 
Zenilales,  some  of  which  have  been  grouped  into  one 
family.  The  Maya,  for  instance,  embrace  some  of 
the  more  highly  developed  tribes  of  Guatemala,  and 
the  Iluaxtecos  of  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  far  to  the 
north  of  Yucatan.  The  farther  south  we  go,  the 
more  indefinite  become  linguistic  classifications  for 
the  reason  that  the  material  at  hand  has  not  been 
sufficiently  investigated,  and  also  that  there  is, 
especially  in  regard  to  South  America,  much  ma- 
terial still  to  be  collected.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
the  idioms  of  the  Isthmus  can  hardly  be  regarded  as 
classified.  A  number  are  recognized  as  apparently 
related,  but  that  relationship  is  but  imperfectly  un- 
derstood. In  South  America,  we  here  merely  men- 
tion the  Chibchas,  or  Muyscas,  of  Colombia,  the 
extensive  Arawak  stock,  and  the  Caribs,  the  former 
widely  scattered,  the  latter  limited  to  Venezuela, 
the  Orinoco,  and  Guyana.  Of  the  idioms  of  Ecuador 
little  is  known  except  that  the  Quichua  language  of 
Peru  (mountains)  may  have  supplanted  a  number 
of  other  languages  before  the  Spanish  conquest. 
South  of  the  tjuichua  the  great  Aymard  stock  oc- 
cupies the  central  jilateau,  but  in  primitive  times  it 
extended  much  farther  north.  In  Brazil,  the  Tupi 
(Guarani)  and  Tapuya  were,  on  the  coast,  the  most 
widely  diffu.sed  languages.  We  may  further  men- 
tion the  idioms  of  Chile  which  may  form  one  family, 
the  tribes  of  the  Gran  C'haco  (of  wliich  the  Calchaquis 
were  the  most  ailvanced),  and  the  unclassified 
idioms  of  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  This 
sketch  of  the  distribution  of  American  languages 
cannot  here  be  carried  into  greater  detail.  American 
linguistics  are  constantly  progressing,  and  much  of 
what  now  appears  well  established  is  liable  to  be 
overthrown  in  the  future. 

Ohigin  of  the  AnoKiGiNAL  Races. — The  question 
of  the  origin  of  the  Indians  is  as  yet  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture. Affinities  with  Asiatic  groups  have  been 
observed  on  the  north-western  and  western  coast  of 
North  America,  and  certain  similarities  between  the 
Peruvian-coast  Indians  and  Polynesian  tribes  seem 
striking,  but  decisive  es'idence  is  still  wanting.  The 
numberless  hypotheses  on  the  origin  of  the  primitive 
Americans  that  have  floodetl  literature  since  the  days 
of  Columbus  have  no  proper  place  here.  The  exist- 
ence of  man  in  America  during  the  glacial  period  is 
still  a  matter  of  research.  Neither  is  there  any  proof 
of  the  coming  of  Christian  missionaries  in  jire- 
Columbian  times.  There  may  be  indications,  but 
these  lack,  so  far,  the  support  of  documentary  en- 
dence.  If,  however,  we  consider  Greenland  iis  an 
island  belonging  to  the  North  American  Continent, 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  America  in  the 
tenth  century  of  our  era.  The  tale  of  the  voyage  to 
"Vinland"  attributed  to  a  Bishop  Jon,  or  John,  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  rests  on  slender  foundations. 
In  regard  to  the  visits  of  Asiatics  to  the  west  coast 
of  -America,  nothing  is  known,  the  Fu-Sang  tale 
hax-ing  long  ago  been  shown  to  apply  to  the  Japanese 
archipelago.  Martin  Beliaim  placed  on  his  map  of 
1492  a  note  according  to  which  seven  Portuguese 
bishops  in  the  ninth  century  fled  from  the  Moors 
to  a  western  island  calleil  .Vntilia  and  there  fouiuled 
seven  towns.  Other  than  this,  there  is  no  authority 
for  the  story.  Finally,  there  is  the  tale  of  Atlantis, 
told  by  Plato  in  his  "Tinueus"  and  liis  "Critias", 
which  is  efjually  unsupported.  Though  the  subject 
of  much  speculation,  no  trace  of  a  submerged  conti- 
nent, or  part  of  the  .American  Continent,  of  which  the 
.Antilles  would  be  the  remnant,  has  so  far  been  dis- 
covered. The  attempts  to  establish  traces  of  the 
.Atlantis  catastrophe  in  the  folklore  of  Central  Amer- 
ican tribes  liave  met  with  indifferent  success. 


AMERICA 


412 


AMERICA 


Origin  of  the  N.v.mk  Ciiven  to  the  New  World. 
—The  name  "America"  is  the  outcome  not  so  much 
of  an  accident  as  of  an  incident.  For  nearly  a  century 
after  Columbus,  the  Spaniards  who  had  the  first 
right  to  baptize  the  continent,  having  been  its  first 
European  occupants,  persisted  in  calling  their  vast 
American  possessions  tlie  "Western  Indies".  That 
name  was  justifiable  in  so  far  as  the  discovery  occurred 
while  they  were  in  search  of  Asia.  The  belief  that 
America  was  a  part  of  that  continent  was  dispelled 
only  by  Balboa's  journey  across  the  Isthmus  in  1513. 
Six  years  previous  to  that  feat,  however,  the  name 
A  merica  had  been  applied  by  some  German  scholars 
to  the  New  World.  It  was  not  done  with  the  object 
of  diminishing  the  glory  of  Columbus,  nor  of  enforc- 
ing the  claims  of  other  explorers,  but  simply  in  igno- 
rance of  the  facts.  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a  Florentine 
pilot,  first  in  the  service  of  Spain,  then  of  Portugal, 
and  again  in  Spanish  employ,  had  made  at  least 
two  voyages  to  the  Western  seas.  It  is  not  the 
purpose  here  to  discuss  the  voyages  Vespucci  claimed 
to  have  made  to  the  American  coast,  or  that  ha^■e 
been  attributed  to  him.  For  these  still  some\\hat 
enigmatic  tales,  and  the  documents  relating  thereto, 
see  Vespucci,  Amerigo.  It  suffices  to  state  that 
at  least  some  of  his  letters  were  published  as  early 
as  1504.  As  in  one  of  them  his  first  voyage  is  placed 
in  1497-98.  and  he  there  claims  to  have  touched  the 
American  Continent,  it  would  give  him  the  priority 
over  Columbus  (a  claim,  however,  Vespucci  never 
advanced).  It  is  easily  seen  how  the  perusal  of  these 
reports  might  induce  scholars  living  remote  from 
the  Peninsula  and  America,  to  attribute  to  him 
the  real  discovery  of  the  New  World  and  to  sug- 
gest that  it  should  be  named  after  him.  Out 
of  a  chapel  founded  by  St.  Deodatus,  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  in  what  is  now  French  Lorraine,  a 
college  had  sprung  up  at  Saint  Di^,  Vosges,  in  the 
ele\-enth  century.  Among  its  professors  was  Martin 
Waldseerauller(Hylacomylus,)who  occupied  the  chair 
of  cosinograpliy.  Struck  by  tlie  alleged  date  of 
1497  for  Vespucci's  first  trip  to  the  new  continent, 
he  concluded  that  to  the  Florentine  belonged  the 
honour  of  the  first  discovery,  and  that  the  New  World 
should  hence  be  named  after  him.  So  when,  in  1507, 
a  printing-press  was  established  at  Saint  Di6,  through 
the  efforts,  chiefly,  of  the  secretary  of  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  he  published,  together  with  Mathias  Ring- 
mann,  professor  of  Latin,  a  geographical  work  of  small 
compass,  entitled  "  Cosmographiffi  Introductio", 
in  which  he  inserted  the  following  passage:  "I  do  not 
see  why  it  may  not  be  permitted  to  call  this  fourth 
part  after  Americus,  the  discoverer,  a  man  of  saga- 
cious mind,  by  the  name  of  Amerige — that  is  to  say, 
the  land  of  Americus — or  America,  since  both  Europe 
and  Asia  have  a  feminine  form  of  name,  from  the 
names  of  women".  This  suggestion  might  have 
had  no  further  consequence,  had  not  the  name  of 
America  been  placed  on  a  map  published  by  Hyla- 
comylus  in  the  same  year,  whether  to  designate  only 
that  part  the  discovery  of  which  was  credited  to 
Vespucci,  or  the  whole  continent  as  far  as  known, 
IS  not  certain.  As  the  " Cosmographia;  Introductio" 
was  a  geographical  treatise  it  was  gradually  accepted 
by  cosmographers  outside  of  Spain,  although  Las 
Casas  protested  against  tlie  name  America,  as  a 
misnomer  and  a  slur  on  the  fame  of  Columbus. 
Foreign  nations  successively  adopted  the  name 
proposed  by  WaldseemiiUer.  Even  Spain  finally 
yielded,  substituting  "America"  for  "Occidental 
Indies"  and  "New  World"  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  As  far  as  known,  Vespucci 
him.solf  took  no  interest  in  the  u.se  of  the  name 
America.  He  never  laid  any  claim  to  being  the 
first  discoverer  of  the  new  continent,  except  as  far  as 
the  (doubtful)  date  of  his  first  voyage  seems  to  do  so. 
He  was  a  personal  friend  of  Columbus  as  long  as  the 


latter  lived,  and  died  (1512)  with  the  fame  of  having 
been  a  useful  and  honourable  man.  Neither  can 
WaldseemiiUer  be  charged  with  raslily  giving  Ves- 
pucci's name  to  America.  More  blame  for  not  in- 
vestigating the  matter  with  care,  and  for  blindly 
following  a  suggestion  thrown  out  by  WaldseemiiUer, 
attaches  to  subsequent  students  of  cosmography  like 
Mercator  and  Ortehus,  especially  to  the  latter,  for 
he  had  at  liis  command  the  original  Spanish  docu- 
ments, having  been  for  a  time  royal  cosmographer. 
An  attempt  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  name  to  some 
obscure  Indian  tribe,  said  to  have  been  called  AmeT- 
riquCfhas  met  with  no  favour. 

Colonization  of  America.  I.  Spanish. — The 
European  nations  which  settled  the  American  Conti- 
nent after  its  discovery  by  Columbus,  and  exerted 
the  greatest  influence  on  the  civilization  of  the  New 
World,  were  principally  five.  They  rank,  in  point  of 
date,  as  follows:  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  England, 
Holland.  Sweden  made  an  attempt  at  colonization, 
but,  as  the  Swedish  colony  was  limited  to  a  very 
small  fraction  of  the  area  of  eastern  North  America 
and  endured  not  more  than  seventeen  years,  it  need 
only  be  mentioned  here.  Russian  colonization  of 
Alaska  and  the  Danish  occupation  of  one  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  may  also  be  pa.ssed  over  as  unimportant. 
Spain  began  to  colonize  the  larger  Antilles  in  1493. 
The  rapidity  \\'ith  which  she  explored  and  conquered 
the  territories  discovered  was  amazing.  Not  sixty 
years  after  the  landing  of  Columbus  Spanish  colonies 
dotted  the  continent,  from  northern  Mexico  as  far 
south  as  central  and  southern  Chile.  Not  only  were 
they  along  the  coast,  but  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America  they  were  scattered  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  and  in  South  America  from  the  Pacific  shore 
eastward  to  the  crest  of  the  Andes  and  to  the  La 
Plata  River.  Vast  unsettled  stretches  of  land  inter- 
vened between  the  colonies  in  many  sections,  but 
these  sections  could  be,  and  were,  traversed  from 
time  to  time,  so  that  intercourse  could  be  kept  up. 
The  entire  northern  coast  of  South  America  was  under 
Spanish  sway,  and  explorations  had  been  carried  on, 
approximately,  as  far  as  lat.  42°  north  along  the 
Pacific;  in  the  interior  as  far  as  lat.  40°;  the  southern 
United  States  had  been  traversed  beyond  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Georgia  taken 
possession  of  along  the  Atlantic  shore.  The  whole 
Pacific  coast,  from  lat.  44°  to  the  southern  extremity 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  was  already  known,  settled  in 
places,  and  frequently  visited,  and  wliile  the  Orinoco 
River  had  been  explored  both  from  its  mouth  and 
from  the  west,  expeditions  from  Venezuela  penetrated 
to  the  Amazon  and  explored  the  whole  length  of  its 
course  from  the  side  of  Ecuador.  These  extraordi- 
nary achievements  were  accomplished  by  a  nation 
that,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
counted,  so  far  as  we  can  estimate,  not  ten  millions 
of  people. 

Such  extraordinary  acti\'ity,  energy  and,  it  cannot 
be  denied,  in  many  cases  sagacity  also,  was  the  out- 
come of  the  character  of  the  Spanish  people  and  of 
their  formation.  In  the  first  place,  the  Spaniards 
are  a  much  mixed  race.  Since  the  times  of  Roman 
domination,  nearly  every  people  of  any  conset|uencc 
that  overran  Europe  (Huns  and  Northern  Germans 
excepted)  occupied,  for  a  while  at  least,  parts  of 
Spanish  soil,  and  left  traces  of  (heir  presence  in 
language,  customs,  and,  in  some  cases  (the  Visigoths) 
in  laws  and  organization.  Southern  in\aders  from 
Africa,  the  Moors,  had  still  further  contributed  to 
the  mixture.  Defence  of  the  Spanish  soil  and, 
particularly,  salvation  of  the  Christian  faith,  the 
people's  dearest  patrimony,  against  these  Mohamme- 
dan conquerors,  liad  made  of  the  Spaniards  al>o\e  all 
a  warrior  people.  But  seven  centuries  of  incessant 
warfare  neither  fashioned  a  very  tendor-heartcd  race 
nor  contributed  to  enrich  the  country.     Spain  had 


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rOLYGI.oT  rS.XLTER,  GENO.\,  1516  (REFERENCE  TO  COLUMUt.S'S 
niSCOVERY  OF  .\MERICA) 

ORIGINAL    IN    CULLEUE    LIURARY,    WOODSTOCK,    UD, 


J 


AMERICA 


413 


AMERICA 


once  been  rich  in  precious  metals,  but  the  Romans 
impoverished  the  land  by  draining  the  mines.  Still 
the  tradition  remained,  and  with  the  tradition  the 
longing  for  a  return  of  the  golden  age.  Until  the 
discovery  of  America  Europe  looked  to  the  far  Ea.st 
for  llie  wealth  tliat  was  denied  to  it  by  nature. 
When  tlio  discovery  of  the  Antilles  revealed  the  ex- 
istence of  gold,  Spain  neglected  the  Ea.st,  and  turned 
her  eyes  to  tlie  West.  The  fever  for  gold  seized  all 
who  could  emigrate,  and  the  desire  for  gold  and 
silver  became  a  powerful  incenti\e  to  seek  and  grasj) 
the  wealth  of  the  New  World.  The  tliirst  for  gold 
wiis  neither  more  nor  less  intense  in  the  sixteenth 
century  than  it  is  now,  but  it  was  directed  to  much 
vaster  regions.  Furthermore,  the  jirecious  metaLs 
were  found  among  i)eoples  to  whom  they  were  of  no 
commercial  value,  much  less  standards  of  wealth. 
To  deprive  the  Indian  of  gold  and  silver  was,  to  him, 
a  mucli  less  serious  matter  than  to  deprive  him  of  his 
gathered  maize  or  any  otlier  staple  food.  The 
earliest  periods  of  Spanish  colonization  were  spent 
in  attempts  to  establish  a  modus  I'ivcmti  with  the 
aborigines  and,  like  all  epochs  of  that  kind,  proved 
disastrous  to  the  weaker — namely,  to  the  Indian. 
Doubts  as  to  whether  the  natives  were  human  beings 
or  not  were  soon  dis]5osetl  of  by  a  royal  decree  assert- 
ing their  essential  human  nature  and  certain  rights 
necessarily  flowing  therefrom.  They  were,  however, 
(and  justly,  too)  declared  to  be  minors  who  required 
a  stage  of  tutelage,  before  they  might  be  made  to 
assume  the  duties  and  riglits  of  the  white  jiopulation. 
Before  practically  reaching  this  conclusion,  one  which 
once  for  all  determined  tlie  condition  of  the  Indian  in 
most  South  American  Republics,  and  partly  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  much  experimenting 
had  to  be  done. 

The  primitive  condition  of  man  in  the  New  World 
was  a  problem  which  European  culture  four  centuries 
ago  was  not  yet  capable  of  solving.  While  in  Spain 
the  old  communal  rights  of  the  original  components 
of  the  realm  were  for  a  long  time  maintaineci,  and  a 
sort  of  provincial  autonomy  prevaileil,  which  acted 
as  a  cheek  upon  growing  absolutism,  Spanish  America 
was  from  the  outset  a  domain  of  the  crown.  Discoverj', 
by  land  and  sea,  and  colonization  wore  under  the 
excliLsive  control  of  the  monarch;  only  with  his 
permission  explorations  could  be  made,  and  settle- 
ments established.  Personal  initiative  was  thus 
placed  ostensibly  under  a  wholesome  control,  but  it 
w;is  also  unfavourably  hampered  in  many  instances. 
Not  so  much,  however,  in  the  first  century  after 
Columbus  as  in  the  two  following  centuries.  The 
royal  patronage,  at  first  indispensable,  resulted  in 
securing  for  Spanish  interests  an  unjust  ascendancy 
over  those  of  the  colonists.  It  was  often,  and  not 
improperly,  contended  that  the  Creoles  were  in  a 
worse  [X)sition  than  the  Indians,  the  latter,  as  special 
wards  of  the  Ciovernment  of  Spain,  enjoying  more 
jirotection  and  privileges  than  the  Spanish  Americans. 
The  latter  complained  particularly  of  the  injustice  of 
jissigning  all  lucrative  otfices  to  native  Spaniards, 
to  tlie  exclasion  of  Creoles.  It  insured  the  home 
Government  a  strong  position  in  the  colonies,  but 
only  too  often  its  administration  was  entrusted  to 
men  unfit  for  the  positions  through  want  of  practical 
acquaintance  with  country  and  people.  It  is  true 
that  the  system  of  rcsidcncia ,  or  final  account  at  the 
expiration  of  the  terms  of  ofhce.  and  the  visila,  or 
investigation  with,  sometimes,  discretionary  faculties, 
were  a  check  upon  abuses,  but  by  no  means  sufhcient. 
A  code  of  laws  for  the  Indies,  as  Spain  called  its 
American  possessions  for  a  long  time,  had  been  in 
contemplation  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
centurj',  but  it  only  became  a  fact  at  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth.  Much  of  the  delay  wjis  occasioned  by 
the  enormous  number  of  royal  Decrees  on  whicli 
legislation  had  to  be  based.     These  Decrees  continued 


to  be  promulgated  as  occasion  demanded,  along  with 
the  Code,  ana  they  bear  testimony  to  the  solicitous 
attention  given  by  the  Spanish  monarchs  to  the  most 
minute  details  in  their  trans-oceanic  p<)s.sessioiLs.  It 
was  a  so-called  paternal  autocracy,  well  intended, 
but  most  unfavourable,  in  the  end,  to  the  free  de- 
velopment of  the  individual  and  of  the  colonies  in 
general. 

In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  Spain 
definitively  clo.sod  its  colonies  to  the  outer  world, 
the  mother-country  excepted,  and  even  the  inter- 
course with  that  was  severely  controlled.  It  was  a 
suicidal  measure,  and  thereafter  the  American 
colonies  began  to  decline,  to  the  great  detriment  of 
Spain  itself.  Still,  it  should  not  be  overlooked  that 
the  measure  had,  to  a  great  extent,  been  forced  upon 
Spain  by  the  unrelenting  attacks  of  other  nations 
upon  her  colonies  and  her  commerce  with  them,  in 
times  of  peace  as  well  as  in  war.  Instruction  and 
education  were  almost  completely  under  the  control 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  Secular  institutions  of 
learning  sprang  up  late,  although  the  Jesuits  had 
taken  the  initiative  in  that  direction.  Considering 
the  means  at  hand,  much  was  done  to  study  the 
geography  of  the  new  continent,  its  natural  history, 
and  other  branches  of  science.  In  the  eighteenth 
centurj'  scientific  explorations  were  made  on  a  large 
scale.  Previous  to  that  time,  such  investigations 
were  mostly  due  to  individual  efforts,  especially  by 
ecclesiastics.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  however, 
Philip  the  Second  sent  to  Mexico  his  own  physician 
Hernandez  to  study  specially  the  medicinal  and  ali- 
mentary plants  of  that  country.  Nutritive  plants 
were  imported  from  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as 
domestic  animals,  and  it  is  to  the  Spaniards  that  the 
planting  and  cultivation  of  fruit  and  shade  trees  in 
South  America  is  due.  But  all  these  improvements 
did  not  satisfy  the  legitimate  aspirations  of  Spanish- 
Americans,  for  they  were  made  for  the  benefit  of  the 
native  Spaniards.  Add  to  this  a  vacillating  and 
heavy  system  of  taxation  that  weighed  almost  ex- 
clusively on  the  Creoles,  heavy  custom-house  duties, 
stringently  exacted,  and  the  arbitrary  conduct  of 
odicials,  high  and  low,  and  we  are  not  surprised  that 
the  colonies  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  af- 
forded by  the  weakening  of  Spain  during  the  Napo- 
leonic period  to  secure  their  independence.  The 
exploitation  of  the  abundant  mines  of  precious  metals, 
discovered  every^vhere  in  consequence  of  Spanish 
exploration,  was  carried  on  in  the  sixteentli  and 
.seventeenth  centuries  according  to  methods  that 
were  certainly  progressive,  though  the  mines  began 
to  give  out.  At  the  same  time,  in  the  great  mining 
centres,  the  Creoles  became  so  rich  that  luxury  and 
corruption  rapidly  spread  amongst  them.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  treasure  went  to  I'.urope  without 
any  profit  for  Spanish  America.  The  statement  that 
forced  labour  in  the  mines  diminished  the  numbers  of 
the  Indians  is  greatly  exaggerated.  Individual  and 
local  abuses  are  uncleniable,  but  the  system  estalv 
lished  after  the  sad  exiieriences  of  the  first  colonists 

F roved  wise  and  salutary  when  properly  carried  out. 
n  general,  the  Indian  |x>licy  of  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment was  based  upon  the  idea  that  the  Indian 
should  in  time  supply  the  labour  needed  in  the  colon- 
ies; it  was  a  policy  of  solicitous  preservation  and 
slow  patient  education  through  the  agency  of  the 
Catholic  Church. 

II.  PoRTUO.rESE. — As  Spain  was  securing  its 
foothold  in  the  New  World,  Portugal  was  rapidly 
pushing  forward  in  the  path  of  exploration.  The 
outcome  was  rivalrj*  l)etween  the  two  nations  and 
disputes  about  the  rights  and  limits  of  discoverv'. 
Both  crowns,  Portuguese  and  Spanish,  appealed  to 
the  Pope,  who  accepted  the  task  of  arbitrator.  His 
verdict  resulted  in  establishing  a  line  of  demarcation, 
the  right  of  discovery  on  one  side  being  allotted  to 


AMERICA 


414 


AMERICA 


Spain,  on  the  other  side  to  Portugal.  The  papal 
Bulls  from  1493,  while  issued,  according  to  the  time,  in 
the  form  of  grants  by  Divine  rights,  are  in  fact,  acts 
of  arbitration.  The  Pope  (Alexander  VI)  had  not 
sought,  but  iBerely  accepted  by  request  of  the  parties, 
the  office  of  umpire,  and  his  decisions  were  modified 
several  times  before  both  claimants  declared  them- 
selves satisfied.  The  methods  of  colonization  pur- 
sued by  the  Portuguese  were  in  the  main  similar  to 
those  of  Spain,  with  the  difference  that  the  Portuguese 
inclined  more  to  utilitarianism  and  to  commercial 
pursuits.     Again,  the  territory  discovered  and  occu- 

Cied  (Brazil)  was  dilficult  uniformly  of  access, 
eing  mostly  covered  by  vast  forests  and  furrowed 
by  gigantic  watercourses,  not  always  favourable  to 
the  penetration  of  the  interior.  Therefore  the  Portu- 
guese reached  the  interior  much  less  rapidly  than  tlie 
Spaniards,  and  confined  their  settlements  mostly  to 
the  coast.  Tlie  Indian  population,  thinly  scattered 
and  on  a  much  lower  level  of  culture  than  the  seden- 
tary natives  in  parts  of  Spanish  America,  was  of 
little  service  for  the  exploitation  of  the  vast  and 
almost  impenetrable  land.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeentli  century,  Brazil  became  Spanish,  only  to 
be  conquered  by  the  Dutch.  The  domination  of  the 
latter  left  no  permanent  stamp  on  the  country,  as 
it  was  brouglit  to  a  close  th.irty  years  after  its  begin- 
ning. During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  tlie  Portuguese  were  the  most  dangerous 
neighbours  of  the  Jesuit  missions,  in  the  Amazonian 
Basin  as  well  as  in  Paraguay.  Tlieir  policy  of  en- 
slaving the  Indians  caused  the  ruin  of  more  than  one 
mission,  and  it  was  only  with  great  effort  that  the 
little  Jesuit  state  of  Paraguay,  so  beneficial  to  the 
aborigines,  for  a  time  held  its  own.  The  separation 
of  Brazil  from  Portugal  was  due  more  to  political 
disturbances  in  the  latter  country  than  to  other 
causes.  An  empire  was  created,  with  a  scion  of  the 
royal  house  of  Portugal  at  its  head.  It  is  chiefly 
to  the  last  Emperor,  Pedro  II,  that  Brazil  owes  its 
interior  development,  and  to  him  was  due  tlie  eman- 
cipation of  the  slaves.  The  Federal  Republic  since 
created  has  had  to  contend  against  many  difficulties. 
III.  French. — The  French  occupied  three  regions 
of  the  New  World:  (1)  Eastern  Canada,  (2)  Louisiana 
and  the  Mississippi  Valley,  (3)  some  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  and  Guiana  in  eastern  South  America. 
The  Antilles  (Hayti,  Martinique,  Guadeloupe,  etc.), 
became  French  in  the  course  of  the  incessant  piratical 
warfare  carried  on  against  Spain  from  the  sixteenth 
century.  Guiana  as  a  French  possession  was  the 
fruit  of  European  wars  and  treaties.  Neither  of  the 
last  two  French  colonies  have  exerted  any  marked 
influence  on  American  civilization.  The  French 
occupation  of  a  part  of  Hayti  had  more  serious  conse- 
quences. _  The  uprising  of  the  negroes  on  that  island 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  negro  republic,  an 
isolated  phenomenon  in  the  annals  of  American  his- 
tory. The  French  occupation  of  Canada  lasted  two 
centuries,  that  of  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  a  little 
more  tlian  one,  and  was  of  the  highest  importance  in 
the  exploration  of  the  North  American  Continent. 
It  is  to  the  French  wo  owe  the  earliest  acquaintance 
with  tliese  regions.  French  colonization  was  different 
from  Spanisli,  inasmuch  as  it  was  attempted  on  a 
smaller  scale  and  witli  less  dependence  on  the  home 
Government.  Like  Spanisli  and  Portuguese  coloni- 
zation, however,  it  was  essentially  Catholic.  The 
attempts  to  found  French  Huguenot  settlements  in 
Brazil,  I'lorida,  and  Georgia  in  the  sixteenth  century 
all  failed;  in  Brazil  becau.se  of  mismanagement;  in 
the  latter  countries  because  of  tlie  Spanisli  conquest. 
French  colonization  began  on  the  tiaiiks  and  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Lawrence.  Tlie  first  colonizers 
were  venturesome  mariners  who  afterwards  applied 
to  tlie  crown  for  authority  as  well  as  for  aid  and 
military  assistance.     But  it  was  personal  initiative 


that  laid  the  foundation.  Strange  as  it  may  seem, 
Catherine  de  Medicis  gave  more  support  to  Protestant 
than  to  Catholic  undertakings.  Political  rea-sons  on 
her  part,  chiefly  the  desire  to  supplant  Spain  in  its 
American  possessions,  dictated  this  anomalous  policy. 
The  French  settlements  remained  comparatively 
few,  and  hugged  the  shores  of  the  Saint  Lawrence, 
occupying  points  of  the  Lake  basin  and  i.solated 
posts  among  the  Indians  and  on  the  seaboard.  The 
necessity  of  military  protection  and  the  limited 
immigration  led  to  a  governmental  organization  of 
the  colony  controlled  by  the  crown,  but  for  tlie  most 
part  indifferently  supported.  The  French  people 
had  little  confidence  in  the  future  of  a  domain  that 
promised  only  furs  and  wood,  showed  no  traces  of 
precious  metals,  and  where  the  climate  was  as  for- 
bidding as  its  Indian  inhabitants.  It  is  likely  that, 
owing  to  the  antipathy  against  the  Canadian  enter- 
prise prevailing  at  court,  Canada  would  have  been 
abandoned  had  not  two  pertinent  reasons  pre\ailed: 
one,  the  secret  hope  of  checking  the  growing  influence 
of  England  on  the  new  continent,  and  of  e\entually 
annexing  the  English  colonies  in  North  America; 
the  other,  the  missionary  labour  of  the  Jesuits.  Both 
went  hand  in  liand,  for  while  the  Jesuits  were  true 
to  their  religious  mission,  they  were  none  the  less 
Frenchmen  and  patriotic.  They  soon  discovered 
that  the  key  to  the  political  and  military  situation 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Iroquois  Indians,  or  Six 
Nations,  and  that  tlie  European  power  that  gained 
their  permanent  friendship  would  eventually  secure 
the  balance  of  power.  To  induce  the  Iroquois  to 
become  Christians  and  thereby  allies  of  France,  the 
Jesuits  spared  no  sacrifice,  no  martyrdom,  no  efforts. 
Had  the  rulers  of  France  been  as  sagacious  as  those 
of  Spain  in  their  appreciation  of  the  Jesuit  missions, 
and  had  they  adequately  supported  them,  the  out- 
come might  have  been  favourable.  But,  while  both 
countries  were  equally  autocratic,  the  French  govern- 
ment was  as  unsystematic  and  careless  in  Canada 
as  the  Spanish  was  careful  and  methodical  in  ad- 
ministering its  American  possessions.  The  few 
governors,  like  Frontenac,  capable  of  controlling 
the  situation  were  poorly  assisted  by  the  mother- 
country,  and  inefficiency  too  often  alternated  \\itli 
good  administration.  Even  military  aid  was  sparingly 
granted  at  the  most  critical  periods.  It  is  true, 
however,  that  the  moral  and  material  decay  of  France, 
and  her  exhausting  wars,  may  be  urged  in  excuse  of 
this  neglect.  The  result  was  the  establishment  in 
the  French  possessions  of  a  sparse  population, 
scattered  over  so  vast  a  territory  that  communication 
was  frequently  interrupted.  That  population,  with 
the  exception  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  official  centres 
at  Quebec  and  Montreal,  where  social  conditions  were 
partly  modelled  on  those  of  the  motherland,  was 
rude  and  uneducated  by  reason  of  its  isolation, 
though  individually  hardy  and  energetic,  and  their 
dispersion  throughout  such  a  vast  territory  pre- 
vented joint  effort.  The  missionaries  had  their 
hands  too  full,  in  attending  to  the  Indian  missions,  to 
serve  adequately  the  wants  of  the  colonists,  wlio, 
moreover,  from  the  nature  of  their  occupations, 
were  often  compelled  to  lead  an  almost  migratory 
life.  Thanks  to  the  efforts  of  a  trader  and  of  a 
Jesuit,  the  connection  between  the  Lakes  and  the 
Mississippi  was  established  in  the  latter  )jart  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  After  the  establishment  of 
French  settlements  in  Louisiana  and  Illinois,  the 
English  colonies  were  encompas.scd  by  a  semi-circle 
of  French  possessions.  La  balle  did  for  tlie  mouth 
of  the  Mississijnii  Kivcr  and  part  of  Texas  what 
Champlain  had  clone  for  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  Law- 
rence. Individual  cntcrpri.se  began  to  make  sig- 
nificant approaches  to  the  Spanish  outposts  in 
northern  Mexico,  The  conduct  of  France  in  its 
North  American  dominions  towards  other  European 


X-         yo'hiT^Ar^yH^    H     l/fL^  t^.riir>v  ^i-f^  .  X^ut^r>»    flic*,     S/>»''*'»*'^ 


LETTKR  OF  ALEXANDER  VI,  DATED  23  JUNK,   1403,  TO  BERNARD  BOIL.  O.S.B. 


AMERICA 


415 


AMERICA 


nations  was  of  course  euided  largely  by  European 
political  conditions,  and  the  Canadians  more  than 
once  anticipated  the  outbreak  of  international 
warfare.  To  a  certain  extent  the  l''rcnch  imitated 
the  Indian  policy  of  Spain  by  utilizing  the  resources 
afforded  by  friendly  Indian  tribes,  but  these  were 
always  fickle  and  unstable.  In  the  north,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Arctic  zone,  the  main  element  of 
stability  —agriculture — played  but  a  .secondary  role. 

While  the  occupation  of  the  Missi.ssippi  bsLsin  by 
FreuL'h  colonists  should  have  proved  an  element  of 
strength  to  the  French  in  Canada,  it  turned  to  their 
dis.idvantage  in  the  end.  The  incomparably  more 
abundant  resources  of  southern  latitudes  in  a  moist 
climate  formed  such  a  contnust  with  the  cold,  north- 
ern dominion  that  the  tendency  to  neglect  the  latter 
grew  stronger.  When  Voltaire  pronounced  himself 
in  favour  of  the  Louisiana  colony,  a  marked  leaning 
to  abandon  Canada  made  itself  manifest  in  France. 
The  concentrated  power  of  the  English  colonics, 
assisted  by  England's  naval  supremacy,  rendered 
voluntary  abandonment  unnecessary. 

IV.  En'olish. — The  methods  of  English  coloniza- 
tion in  .-Vmerica  are  so  widely  known,  and  its  literature 
is  so  extensive,  that  the  matter  may  here  be  treated 
with  comparative  brevity.  While  in  the  southern 
Atlantic  States  discoveries  and  settlements  were 
made  with  the  assent  of  the  Crown,  under  its  patron- 
age, and  mostly  by  enterprising  members  of  the 
nobility,  the  northern  sections.  New  England 
especially,  were  colonized  through  personal  initiative. 
There  was  no  desire  for  independence,  though  politi- 
cal, and  especially  religious,  autonomy  were  the 
ideals  of  tne  Puritan  colonists.  That  religious 
autonomy  has  usually  been  regarded  as  sj-nonjiuous 
with  religious  liberty.  Hut  it  took  long  j-ears  of 
strvignle  and  experimenting  before  the  latter  became 
established  in  New  England.  The  English  system 
of  colonial  expansion  depended  mucn  more  on 
individual  enterprise  than  the  Spanish;  but  there 
was  much  l&ss  regard  for  authority  unless  the  latter 
was  represented  by  law.  English  colonization  was 
more  akin  to  the  Portuguese  in  its  commercial 
tendency,  and  superior  to  the  French  in  the  faculty 
of  combining  and  organizing  for  a  given  purpose. 
Independence  of  character  was  an  heirloom  of  north- 
ern origin  in  general,  respect  for  law  a  specifically 
English  tradition.  There  Is  no  doubt  that  the 
influence  of  New  England  has  greatly  contributed 
to  the  remarkable  growth  of  the  United  States. 
The  unparalleled  rise  and  expansion  of  the  United 
States  was  due  chiefly  to  personal  initiative  in  the 
beginning,  that  afterwards  voluntarily  submitted 
to  the  rcfuiirements  of  organization,  and  to  a  political 
and  (subseciuently)  religious  tolerance  which  opened 
the  country  to  all  outside  elements  thought  to  be 
beneficial.  The.se  features,  however,  were  not  so 
much  due  to  the  ICnglish  as  to  the  American  character 
that  developed  after  the  North  American  colonies 
had  achieved  their  independence,  and  the  Northern 
and  Southern  types  of  the  people  came  into  closer 
contact.  There  was  a  marked  contrast  between  the 
position  assumed  by  the  Catholic  Church  towards 
the  Indians  and  the  attitude  of  Protestantism. 
The  former,  as  soon  as  the  administration  of  the 
Spanish  dominions  in  America  began  to  a.ssume  a 
character  of  stability,  instituted  concerted  efforts 
for  the  education  and  civilization  of  the  Indians. 
The  introduction  of  the  printing-press  in  Mexico 
(about  l.")3(i)  was  brought,  about  specially  to  promote 
Indian  education.  The  clergj-,  particularly  the 
regular  orders  (Franci.scans,  Dominicans,  and  others, 
and  later  on,  on  a  still  larger  scale,  the  .lesuits), 
l)e<'ame  not  only  teachers,  but  the  protectors  of  the 
natives.  It  was  the  aim  of  the  Church  (in  harmony 
with  the  crown)  to  preserve  the  Iiulian  and  defend 
him   frcm    the   inevitable  abuses   of  lesser  officials 


and  of  settlers.  Hence,  in  Spanish  America  the 
Indian  has  held  his  own  more  than  anywhere  else, 
and  has  come  to  be  a  moderately  useful  element. 
Attempts  at  creating  Indian  comnmnities  under  the 
exclusive  control  of  ecclesiastics  proved  very  suc- 
cessful until  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  when  all 
the  beneficial  results  were  irretrie\ably  lost.  The 
efforts  of  Protestants  were  mostly  individual,  and 
received  little  or  no  support  from  the  State.  From 
the  English  stand[X)int,  the  Indian  wiis  and  is  looked 
upon  as  an  obstruction  to  civilization,  and  the  ex- 
pediency of  his  removal,  forcible  or  otherwise,  hiis 
dictated  a  policy  sometimes  completely  at  variance 
with  the  principles  of  forl)carance  and  toleration  so 
loudly  proclaimed.  But  it  must  also  be  acknowl- 
edged that  the  Indian  himself  is  largely  at  fault. 
His  extreme  conservatism  in  refusing  to  adopt  a 
mode  of  life  consistent  with  progress  exasperates, 
and  provokes  aggressive  measures  on  the  part  of, 
the  whites.  The  cause  of  this  conser%-atism  lies 
largely  in  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Indian,  as  yet 
imperfectly  understood. 

V.  The  Nf.ouo. — The  negro  has  assimilated  him- 
self much  better  than  the  American  aborigine  to  post- 
Columbian  conditions.  Though  his  condition  of  life 
was  for  centuries  deplorable,  and  though  we  absolutely 
condemn  slaverj*  in  every  form,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  it  was  for  the  negro  a  useful  school,  in  which 
he  w!is  slowly  introduced  to  civilized  life  and  became 
acquainted  with  ideas  to  which  the  Indian  has 
remained  a  stranger.  Of  the  negro  republic,  Hayti, 
we  have  already  spoken.  The  complete  emancipation 
of  the  coloured  race  in  the  United  States  has  presented 
to  the  people  of  that  countrj'  a  problem  which  still 
awaits  its  solution. 

The  Era  ok  .\Mf;nic.\N  I.vdepexdence. — The 
emancipation  of  the  American  colonies  from  Euro- 
pean control  changed  the  political  configuration  of  the 
continent,  both  north  and  south.  Of  the  British  pos- 
sessions in  North  America  as  they  existed  in  177Gonly 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  still  belongs  to  the  British 
crown.  The  other  colonies  have  become  the  United 
States  of  America.  Spanish  America  severed  its 
connection  with  the  mother-country  and  has  been 
divided  into  the  republic  of  Mexico,  the  Central 
American  republics  of  Cuatemala,  Honduras,  San 
Salvador.  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  Leon,  and  Panama; 
the  Antillean  republics  of  Hayti,  Santo  Domingo, 
and  Cuba,  and  the  .South  American  republics  of 
Venezuela,  Colombia,  Brazil,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia, 
Paraguay,  the  Argentine,  and  Chile.  Jamaica  re- 
mains a  British  possession;  Porto  Rico  is  a  posses- 
sion of  the  United  States.  The  Lesser  Antilles  still 
belong  to  the  powers  which  owned  them  prior  to 
177().  namely:  England,  France,  Holland.  Denmark, 
and  .Sweden.  On  the  continent,  England  possesses 
British  Honduras  and  British  Guiana;  Holland, 
Dutch  Guiana,  or  Surinam;  and  France,  French 
Guiana  or  Cayenne.  Changes  like  these  in  the  politi- 
cal aspect  of  a  continent  might  be  expected  to  have 
had  considerable  influence  on  the  status  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  which  is  so  intimatelv  related  with  the 
history  of  civilization  in  the  New  \Vorld.  Neverthe- 
less, tlie  independence  of  the  European  colonies  has 
not  greatly  affected  the  position  of  the  Church  in 
America.  In  the  United  States  the  Church  h.as 
flourished  under  the  republican  form  of  government. 
In  Spanish  America  the  new  conditions  have  affected 
the  Church  more  markedly,  and  not  always  bene- 
ficially. The  lack  of  stability  in  the  political  con- 
ditions of  Spanish  American  States  has  so  often  in- 
fluenced the  deportment  of  their  governments  towards 
the  Church  that  sometimes  persecution  has  resulted, 
as  in  Mexico.  Attempts  to  give  to  the  Indian  a 
share  in  the  government,  for  which  he  was  not  pre- 
pared, have  in  .some  instances  not  only  loosened  the 
tics   that   bound   him   to  his  former  protector  and 


AMERICA 


416 


AMERICA 


teacher,  the  Church,  l)iit  liave  also  fostered  a  racial 
desire  to  return  to  primitive  uncivilized  conditions. 
Happily,  the  material  development  of  many  of  these 
countries  has  counteracted  these  tendencies,  and 
to  a  considerable  extent  holds  them  in  check  to-day. 
The  break  with  Spain  brought  the  Spanish  American 
clergy  into  direct  relations  with  the  Holy  See,  and 
has  proved  greatly  advantageous  to  religion.  The 
regular  orders,  especially  the  Jesuits,  have  suffered 
in  some  Spanish  American  countries.  In  Mexico 
they  have  been  oflicially  suppressed,  but  such  ex- 
treme measures  last  only  as  long  as  their  authors 
remain  in  power. 

We  have  not  sufficient  data  to  determine  the  Catho- 
lic population  of  .\merica.  Even  in  the  United  States 
the  number  usually  given,  "about  14,000,000",  is 
a  conjecture  more  or  loss  accurate.  Spanish-.4meri- 
can  peoples  may  be  classed  as  at  least  officially 
Catholics.  The  same  applies  to  the  Indians,  but 
the  numbers  of  the  aborigines  are  but  very  imper- 
fectly ascertained.  Still  we  shall  probably  not  go 
far  astray  if  we  assume  that  nearly  one-half  of  the 
population  of  America  are  Catholics  at  least  in  name. 
The  United  States  of  America  alone  contain  fourteen 
archbishoprics,  eighty-nine  bishoprics,  and  two 
vicariates-Apostolic.  The  remainder  of  America 
divides  into  150  dioceses,  54  of  which  are  seats  of 
metropolitans.  There  are  to-day  two  American 
cardinals:  James  Gibbons,  Archbishop  of  Baltimore 
(created  in  1886),  and  Joaquim  Arcoverde  de  Albu- 
querque Cavalcanti,  Archbishop  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Brazil  (created  in   1905). 

(For  the  achievements  of  the  famous  Catholic 
missionaries  and  explorers  in  the  New  World,  see 
articles  under  their  respective  names.  The  alleged 
pre-Columbian  discovery  is  also  treated  in  a  separate 
article.) 

Only  general  works  on  American  ethnography  and  linguistics 
can  tind  place  here.  The  literature  on  these  subjects  embodied 
in  monographs  lands  place  in  the  articles  on  Indian  tribes, 
languages,  and  in  the  biographical  articles.  The  great  collec- 
tion of  special  monographs  initiated  by  the  late  Major  Powell, 
under  the  title  of  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  (Washing- 
ton) now  embraces  some  twenty-five  volumes,  and  their  con- 
tents are  not  restricted  to  North  American  topics.  This 
collection  should  be  carefully  consulted.  The  Dominican 
Fray  Gregorio  Garcia  presented  more  fully  than  any  of  his 
predecessors,  and  in  the  form  of  an  inquiry  into  the  origin  of 
the  Indians,  a  general  "  aper<;u "  of  American  ethnography, 
with  references  to  linguistics  The  first  edition  of  the  Orig'en 
de  los  Indiaa  appeared  at  Madrid  in  1G07,  and  a  second  edition 
was  published  by  Barcia  in  1729,  much  enlarged.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  a  number  of  works  on  cosmography  contain 
notices  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  American  aborigines, 
but  the  information  is  scanty  and  mostly  procured  at  second- 
hand (except  on  Spanish  America).  The  compilation  of 
I/iPKZ  DE  Vela.sco  from  1571-74,  Geografla  y  descnpcion 
universal  de  las  Indias  (Madrid,  1894),  was  made  without 
critical  judgment  and  is  superficial.  In  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  great  work  of  Cobo,  Historia  del  Nueio  Mundo 
(16.')3,  but  printed  only  at  the  end  of  the  past  century)  is 
highly  important  for  the  ethnology  of  Spanish  America:  the 
book  of  de  IIoorn,  De  Originibus  Americanis,  is  mostly  con- 
troversial. The  rare  work  of  the  Rabbi  Manasse  ben  Tsrael 
on  the  Aborigines  of  the  Neiv  Continent  is  devoted  to  establish- 
ing the  descent  of  the  Indians  from  the  Hebrews,  and  James 
Adair's  History  of  the  Ameriean  Indians  (London,  1775)  even 
improves  upon  his  Jewish  predecessor,  as  does  Boudinot,  An 
Enquiry  into  the  Language  of  the  American  Indians  (Trenton, 
181G).  While  such  books  are  dedicated  to  the  expounding  of 
a  favourite  theory,  they  embrace  a  more  extensive  field  of 
scattered  data,  and  are  not  limited  to  specific  tribes  or  regions. 
Systematic  investigation  of  American  ethnography  and  linguis- 
tics was  begun  in  the  pa-st  century  (Paris,  1724).  It  was  soon 
seen  that  real  progress  could  be  made  only  by  special  researcli 
and  a  division  of  the  whole  field.  So  linguistics  were  separated 
from  ethnography  as  early  as  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  1773-S2  Court  de  Gi:;Br.LiN  published  the 
ijtai  sur  Irs  Rapports  des  Mots,  in  nine  volumes,  at  Paris. 
About  the  same  time  the  Aubate  Hervah  wrote  the  Idea  del 
Umverso  (21  volumes,  Ccsena,  1778-81).  the  22d  volume  of 
which  (Foligno,  1792)  gives  a  catalogue  of  the  languages 
known  at  the  time,  philologic  dissection,  polyglot  vocubularv. 
arithmetics  (numerals),  etc.  Vater'h  Mithridoles  (1809-17) 
continued  the  work  begun  by  Adeluno  in  ISOfi  under  the 
same  title.  n  1815  he  published  also  I.intiuarum  lotius  orbis 
Index  Alphabrtinis  quorum  Grammatieam  I.eiiea.  etc  (lier- 
lin  IHl.'i),  nCerinan  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1847. 
I/Urratur  drr  (jrnmmalxkrn,  Lenca  und  W Orlrrsommlungen  nller 
bpraclum    der    hrde    (2d    edition,    Ucrlin,    1847)        In    IS'Ci 


Adrien  Balbi  published  Atlas  Elhnographique  du  Globe 
(Paris,)  in  which  the  then  known  American  languages  are 
classified  and  tabulated.  Not  as  complete  as  the  preceding 
works,  but  still  of  a  general  character  are:  Worslev,  .4  View 
of  the  American  Indians  (London,  1828):  McCrLi.oH.  Jr., 
Researches,  etc.  (1829):  Pickering,  Remarks  on  tite  Indian 
Languages  of  North  America  (Philadelphia,  1830).  With  the 
rapid  increase  of  material  in  modern  times,  general  works  on 
American  languages  became  more  and  more  hazardous  and 
monographic  treatment  of  special  subjects  and  groups  are, 
very  properly,  taking  their  place.  This  is  also  true  of  American 
ethnography.  Systematic  study  of  this  branch,  including, 
of  course,  linguistics,  was  begun  in  the  United  States  by  limit- 
ing it  to  tribes  or  groups.  By  degrees  it  has  been  combined 
with  practical  observation.  Albert  Gallatin,  A  Synopsis 
of  the  Indian  Tribes  wuhin  the  United  States.  East  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  in  the  British  and  Russian  possessions  of  Norm 
America  (Cambridge,  1836)  was  the  first  to  initiate  this  sys- 
tematic study:  the  Archiologia  Americana  (Worcester.  1820, 
Cambridge.  1836)  and  the  Transaetiojis  of  the  American  Ethno- 
logical Society  (New  York,  1845  and  1848)  contain  the  early 
results  of  the  improved  method  of  stud,v.  The  works  of 
Schoolcraft,  especially  the  Historical  and  Statistical  Informa- 
tion respecting  the  Histcni,  Condition,  and  Prospects  of  the 
Itulian  Tnbes  of  the  United  States  (Philadelphia,  1851-55) 
extended  the  field.  On  Mexico,  the  work  of  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografl-i  de  las  Lenguas  y  Carta  etnogruflca  de  Mexico  (Mexico. 
18G4)  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  general  work  extant,  and 
Alcide  d'Orbigny.  L'homme  amCricoin  (Paris,  18139)  has 
treated  of  the  Indians  of  the  vast  South- American  regions  and 
of  their  idioms,  as  far  as  was  possible  in  his  time.  American 
anthropology  as  a  whole,  is  treated  in  but  few  works.  Waitz, 
Anthropologic  der  Naturrolker;  Pe.schel,  Volkerkunde  (Leipzig, 
1877,  4th  edition;  English  tr.  London  and  New  York.  1876); 
and  Ratzel,  History  of  Mankind  (English  tr.  London.  1896 
and  1898);  Anthropogeographie  (Stuttgart.  1889  and  1891) 
show  a  lack  of  practical  acquaintance  with  the  countries  and 
peoples  they  describe.  The  most  important  recent  general 
works  on  the  American  aborigines  are:  Morgan,  Systems  of 
Consanguinity  and  Affinity  in  the  Human  Family  (Washington, 
1871):  Ancient  Society  (New  York,  1878);  and  especially 
Brinton,  The  American  Race  (New  York,  1891).  Thestudent, 
as  well  as  the  general  reader  will  do  well,  however,  to  check 
these  comprehensive  works  by  a  perusal  of  the  constantly 
growing  mono^aphic  literature  on  the  various  groups  and 
tribes  of  American  Indians. 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

America,  Pre-Columbian  Discovery  of. — Of 
all  the  alleged  discoveries  of  America  before  the  time 
of  Columbus,  only  the  bold  voyages  of  exploration  of 
the  fearless  Vikings  to  Greenland  and  the  American 
mainland  can  be  considered  historically  certain.  Al- 
though there  is  an  inherent  probability  for  the  fact  of 
other  pre-Columbian  discoveries  of  America,  all  ac- 
counts of  such  discoveries  (Phoenician,  Irish,  Welsh, 
Chinese)  rest  on  testimony  too  vague  or  too  unrelia- 
ble to  justify  a  serious  defence  of  them.  For  the 
oldest  written  evidence  of  the  discovery  of  Greenland 
and  America  by  the  Northmen  we  are  indebted  to 
Adam,  a  canon  of  the  Church  of  Bremen,  who  about 
1067  went  to  Bremen  where  he  devoted  himself  \-ery 
earnestly  to  the  study  of  Norse  history.  Owing  to 
the  vigorous  missionary  activity  of  Archbishop  Adal- 
bert of  Bremen  (1043-72),  this  "  Rome  of  the  North  " 
offered  "the  best  field  for  such  work,  being  the  much 
frequented  centre  of  the  great  northern  missions, 
which  were  spread  over  Norway  and  Sweden,  Ice- 
land and  Greenland".  Moreover,  Adam  found  a 
most  trustworthy  source  of  information  in  the  Danish 
King,  Sven  Estrithson,  who  "preserved  in  his  mem- 
ory, as  though  engraved,  the  entire  history  of  the 
barbarians"  (the  northern  peoples).  Of  the  lands 
discovered  by  the  Northmen  in  America,  Adam  men- 
tions only  Greenland  and  Vinland.  The  former  he 
describes  as  an  island  in  the  northern  ocean,  about  as 
far  from  Norway  as  Iceland  (five  to  seven  days),  and 
he  expressly  states  that  envoys  from  (ireenland  and 
Iceland  hai  come  to  Bremen  to  ask  for  preachers  of 
the  Gospel.  The  Archbishop  granted  their  retiiiest, 
even  giving  the  Grccnlanders  assurances  of  a  speedy 
visit  in  person.  Adam's  information  concerning 
Vinland  was  no  less  trustworthy  than  his  knowledge 
of  Greenland.  According  to  him  the  land  took  its 
name  from  the  excellent  wild  grapes  that  aboimded 
there.  Gniin  also  flourished  there  without  cultiva- 
tion, as  King  Sven  and  his  subjects  exjiressly  a.ssured 
him.  Adam's  testimony  is  of  tlic  highest  importance 
to  us,  not  only  as  being  the  oldest  written  account  of 


AMERICA 


417 


AMERICA 


Norse  discoveries  in  America,  but  also  because  it  is 
entirely  independent  of  Icelandic  writings,  and  rests 
directly  on  Norse  traditions  which  were  at  the  time 
still  recent.  Tlie  second  witness  is  Ari  Thorgilsson 
(d.  1148),  the  oldest  and  most  trustworthy  of  all  the 
historians  of  Iceland.  Like  Adam,  Ari  is  conscien- 
tious in  citing  the  sources  of  his  information.  His 
authority  was  his  uncle,  Thorkel  Gelisson,  who  in 
turn  was  indebted  for  the  details  of  the  discovery 
and  settlement  of  Greenland  to  a  companion  of  the 
discoverer  himself.  Krom  his  undo,  Ari  learned  tlio 
name  of  the  discoverer,  tlie  origin  of  the  name  of  the 
country,  the  date  of  settlement,  and  other  welcome 
details  iis  to  tlie  degree  of  civilization  among  the 
people  inhabiting  Greenland  before  the  advent  of  the 
Nortlimcii.  The  di-scoverer  was  Eric  the  Red,  who 
named  the  icy  coasts  Greenland,  to  induce  his  Ice- 
lanilic  countrymen  to  colonize  the  land.  As  to  the 
date,  .\ri  learned  that  it  was  the  fourteenth  or  fif- 
teenth winter  before  tlie  formal  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into  Iceland  (1000),  i.  e.  9S5  or  9.S(i.  Ari's 
information  witli  respect  to  the  civilization  of  the 
earlier  population  of  Greenland  is  of  peculiar  impor- 
tance, giving  as  it  does  a  glimp,se  of  conditions  in 
Vinland.  Besides  traces  of  human  habitation,  Kric 
and  his  companions  found  in  Greenland  the  remains 
of  leather  canoes  and  stone  implements.  "  From 
this",  concludes  .\ri,  "it  may  be  inferred  that  this 
was  once  the  dwelling  place  of  the  same  people  who 
inhabited  Vinland,  and  were  called  by  the  Green- 
landers  Skndin'/s".  Ari  in  his  "Book  of  Settle- 
ments" (Landndinab(')k),  as  well  as  in  his  "Book  of 
Icelanders",  goes  into  detail  concerning  the  discovery 
and  colonization  of  Greenland,  h'.it  mentions  the  dis- 
covery of  Vinland  only  incidentally  in  connection  with 
the  genealogy  of  the  famous  Icelandic  merchant 
Thorlinn  Karlsefni,  who  "found  Vinland  the  Good". 
In  the  Kristni  saga  and  Snorri's  Kings'  saga  (c.  11.50), 
the  discovery  of  Vinland  is  attributed  in  almost  iden- 
tical words  to  Leif,  son  of  Eric  the  Red.  On  his 
homeward  journey  from  Norway,  near  Greenland, 
where  he  had  been  commissioned  by  King  Olaf  of 
Norway  to  preach  the  Catholic  Kaith,  he  found  Vin- 
land the  Good.  As  Leif  on  the  same  voyage  rescued 
some  shipwrecked  mariners  from  certain  death,  he 
was  surnamed  "the  Lucky".  It  is  quite  significant 
that  Vinland  the  Good  is  everywhere  spoken  of  as  of  a 
country  universally  known  and  needing  no  further 
explanation. 

These  historical  data  were  happily  completed  in  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century  by  a  geographer,  prob- 
ably Nicholas,  Abbot  of  Tliingeyre  (d.  11.59).  Ac- 
cording to  him,  south  of  Greenland  lies  Ilelluland, 
next  is  .Markland,  and  from  there  it  is  not  a  great  dis- 
tance to  Vinland  the  Good.  Leif  the  Lucky  first  dis- 
covered Vinland  and  then  coming  upon  merchants  in 
peril  of  death,  he  rescued  tliem  by  the  grace  of  God. 
He  introduced  Christianity  into  Greenland,  and  it 
made  such  progress  that  a  diocese  was  erected  in 
Gardar.  It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  this 
took  place  about  1125.  \Vc  also  learn  from  the  well- 
informed  geographer  that  Thorfinn  Karlsefni,  set- 
ting out  later  to  seek  Vinland  the  Good,  came  to  a 
countrj'  "where  this  land  was  supposc<l  to  be",  but 
was  unable  to  explore  and  colonize  Vinland  sis  he  had 
wished.  It  should  be  expressly  noted  that  the  geog- 
rapher speaks  of  only  two  voyages  to  Vinland,  the 
accidental  discovery  of  Leif,  and  Thorfinn 's  \oyage 
of  exploration;  also  that  in  addition  to  ^'inland  he 
mentions  two  other  lands  lying  to  the  .south  of  Green- 
land, which  he  calls  respectively  Ilelluland  anil  Mark- 
land.  The  accounts  just  cited  constitute  the  oldest 
historical  records  of  the  Norse  discoveries  in  Green- 
land and  .\nierica,  and  have  been  for  the  greater  part 
overlooked  by  earlier  scholars,  even  by  Win.sor.  Tlicy 
were  first  given  prominence,  and  justly  so,  by  Storm 
and  Reeves.     Although  containing  but  brief  allusions 


to  Vinland,  they  still  bear  evidence  to  a  consistent 
unanimous  tradition  throughout  the  North  reaching 
back  to  the  eleventh  century  and  giving  proof  posi- 
tive that  Eric  the  Red  in  98.5  or  9S0  di.scovered  and 
colonized  Greenland,  that  his  son  Leif,  returning  from 
Norway  to  Greenland  where  he  was  to  iiitniduce 
Christianity,  discovered  Vinland  the  Good  (1000), 
that  Thorfinn  Karlsefni  later  attempted  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Vinland,  but  after  an  unsuccessful  engagement 
with  the  natives  was  obliged  to  desist,  that  tlicsi"  dar- 
ing voyages  brought  to  light  two  other  countries  ly- 
ing south  of  Greenland,  Markland  and  Ilelluland.  In 
addition  to  these  earliest  records,  three  sagas  come  up 
for  consideration  inasmuch  as  they  give  detailed 
accounts  of  the  important  discoveries  made  by  the  old 
Vikings.  If  wo  consider  the  age  of  the  MSS.  through 
which  it  has  come  down  to  us  (or  that  now  represent 
for  us  the  original),  the  most  important  of  these  sagas 
is  the  Karlsefni  saga  in  "Hauk's  Book"  (i:iO,5-35); 
next  King  Glaf's  saga  in  the  Flatey-book  (c.  1.387); 
the  third  is  tlie  saga  of  Eric  the  Red  in  a  MS.  dating 
from  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  A  com- 
pari.son  of  tliose  three  sagas  sliows  that  the  Thorfinn 
Karlsefni  saga  agrees  with  the  saga  of  Kric  the  Red 
in  all  important  points,  but  difTers  substantially  from 
the  King  Olaf  saga  as  found  in  the  Flatey-book.  Ac- 
cording to  the  first  two  sagxs  Vinland  was  discovered 
by  Leif,  a  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  while  on  his  homeward 
voyage  from  Norway  to  fulfil  the  commission  of  King 
Olaf  to  preach  Christianity  in  Greenland.  According 
to  the  Olaf  saga  the  glory  of  having  discovered  Amer- 
ica belongs  to  Biarni,  son  of  Herjulf,  who  was  be- 
lieved to  have  discovered  Vinland,  Markland,  and 
Ilelluland  as  early  as  985  or  98G  on  a  voyage  from 
Icelaml  to  Greenland.  As  already  observed,  the 
Olaf  .saga  is  directly  opposed  Ixjtli  to  the  account  of 
the  twelfth-century  geographer,  who  distinctly  states 
that  Leif  discovered  Vinland,  and  to  the  Kristni  and 
Snorri  sag;i3  containing  the  same  statement,  with  the 
additional  information  that  it  was  during  a  voyage 
from  Norway  to  Greenland  whither  he  had  been  sent 
by  King  Olaf  to  preach  Christianity.  Unfortunately 
the  Olaf  saga,  preserved  in  MS.  only  in  the  Flatey- 
book,  was  first  used  to  narrate  the  discoverj'  of  Amer- 
ica by  the  Northmen.  This  saga  represents  the  ol<I 
Northmen  sailing  the  Atlantic  with  a  confidence  to  be 
envied  by  the  most  experienced  captains  of  to-day, 
the  leaders  of  seven  different  expeditions  finding, 
apparently  without  difficulty,  the  l)ui5ir  (huts)  of 
Leif.  This  uncritical  narrative,  to  which  reference  is 
constantly  made,  has  long  helped  to  discredit  the  dis- 
covery of  .\mcrica  by  the  N'orthmen.  What  a  con- 
trast is  ofTered  in  the  soIkt  and  direct  account  in  the 
sagas  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefni  and  of  Eric,  the  former 
of  which  is  preserved  in  twenty-eight  MSS.  The  first 
attempt  to  find  Vinland  after  its  accidental  discovery 
by  Leif  failed  utterly.  The  second  and  last  resulted 
after  many  difficulties  in  the  discoverj'  of  a  land  which 
from  its  products  might  \>e  the  Vinland  of  Leif,  but 
no  mention  is  made  of  Leif 's  ImfSir.  The  rules  of  his- 
torical criticism  have,  accordingly,  given  precedence 
to  the  Thorfinn  and  Eric  sagas,  but  it  must  not  be 
overlooked  that  the  Olaf  .saga  mentions  in  additiim 
tliree  lands  discovered  to  the  south-west  of  Greenlaml, 
of  which  the  first  was  stony,  the  second  wooded,  and 
the  third  rich  in  the  vine.  They  were  therefore 
named  resiiectively  Ilelluland,  Markland,  and  \in- 
land.  The  same  saga  also  records  a  futile  attempt  to 
colonize  Vinland.  Taking  as  a  basis  the  more  de- 
tailed and  historically  trustworthy  account  given  in 
the  sagas  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefni  and  of  Eric  the  Red, 
the  voyages  to  Vinland  may  be  thus  briefly  summa- 
rized. In  the  year  999,  Leif,  son  of  Eric  the  Red, 
set  out  from  Grcenl.and  to  Norway.  His  course, 
though  too  far  to  the  south,  at  last  brought  Leif  to 
his  destination  and  he  entered  the  service  of  Olaf 
Trj'ggvason,   King  of  Norway.     Having   been  con- 


AMERICA 


418 


AMERICA 


verted  to  Catholicism  while  at  court,  the  daring  mar- 
iner was  sent  baclc  to  Greenland  by  Olaf  in  the  year 
1000  in  order  to  co-ojjerate  with  the  priests  of  the  ex- 
pedition in  propagating  the  Faith.  On  his  return 
journey  Leif  was  cast  on  the  shores  of  a  hitherto 
unknown  land  where  he  found  the  vine  and  wheat  in 
a  natural  state,  besides  masur  wood  suitable  for  build- 
ing purposes.  The  sailors  took  with  them  samples 
of  all  these  products.  Steering  north-east  they  at 
last  reached  Greenland.  In  the  winter  of  1000-1 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  Greenland.  At  the 
same  time  measures  were  taken  to  find  the  newly-dis- 
covered Vinland.  Thorstein,  Leif's  elder  brother, 
took  charge  of  the  undertaking,  and  was  joined  by 
twenty  companions.  They  did  not  reach  their  goal, 
and  weary  and  exhausted  returned  to  Greenland 
after  roaming  over  the  sea  for  months.  In  1003 
Thorstein's  widow  Gudrid,  with  her  second  husband, 
the  rich  Iceland  merchant  Tliorfinn  Karlsefni,  under- 
took a  new  expedition  to  find  and  colonize  Vinland, 
which  seemed  so  promising  a  country.  The  starting 
place,  which  lay  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
Godthaab,  was  the  manor  of  Gudrid,  whose  praises  are 
sung  in  the  saga.  About  one  hundred  and  fifty  took 
part  in  the  expedition,  among  them  two  children  of 
Eric  the  Red— Thorwald  and  the  virago  Freydi,  who 
was  accompanied  by  her  husband  Thorward.  The 
voyage  began  propitiously.  The  first  land  encoun- 
tered was  remarkable  for  long  flat  stones  and  was  con- 
sequently called  Helluland,  i.  e.  stone  land.  After  a 
journey  of  two  days,  another  land  was  sighted, 
unusually  ricli  in  timber,  and  was  named  accordingly 
Markland,  i.  e.  Woodland.  After  a  long  ^•oyage  in  a 
southerly  direction  they  reached  a  third  country, 
where  they  landed.  Here  two  "swift  runners"  whom 
Leif  had  received  as  a  gift  from  Olaf,  after  a  long 
search  found  grape-clusters  and  wheat  growing  wild. 
To  reach  the  desired  spot,  Karlsefni  steered  south. 
As  the  vine  land  seemed  well  adapted  for  purposes 
of  settlement,  huts  were  forthwith  erected.  There- 
upon the  natives  came  to  trade  with  the  new-comers. 
The  Vikings  took  special  note  of  the  fact  that  they 
used  boats  made  of  skins.  Unfortunately  friendly 
relations  were  soon  broken  off.  A  bellowing  steer 
bursting  from  the  woods  struck  such  terror  into  the 
Skrselings  that  they  took  to  their  boats  and  hastily 
departed.  In  place  of  peaceful  trading,  the  Skra?- 
lings  now  thronged  about  in  great  numbers  and  they 
engaged  in  a  bloody  combat,  in  which  the  Icelander 
Thorbrand  fell.  Only  after  heavy  losses  did  the 
Skraelings  retreat.  Karlsefni,  fearing  fresh  misfor- 
tunes, abandoned  his  first  settlement  and  attempted 
to  found  a  new  colony  more  to  the  north.  The  col- 
onists were  free  from  hostile  attacks,  but  internal 
dissensions  broke  out  and  the  undertaking  was  given 
up  entirely  in  the  svimmer  of  1006.  On  his  return  trip 
to  Greenland  Karlsefni  again  visited  Markland.  Of 
five  Skr;elings  whom  he  encountered  there,  three 
escaped,  a  man  and  two  women,  but  two  children 
were  captured,  carried  away,  and  taught  to  speak 
Icelandic.  Karlsefni  with  his  wife  Gudrid,  who  later 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  and  his  three  year  old  son 
Snorri,  the  first  child  l)orn  of  European  parents  on  the 
mainland  of  America,  was  successful  in  reaching 
Greenland.  His  companion  15jarni  and  his  crew  were 
driven  by  storms  from  tlicir  course,  their  worm-eaten 
vessel  sank,  and  only  half  of  the  crew  escaped  to  Ire- 
land, where  they  related  the  heroic  act  of  Bjarni,  who 
Bacrificcd  his  life  for  a  younger  comrade.  Tlie  an- 
cient Icelandic  historical  .sources  say  nothing  of  fur- 
ther attempts  at  colonization. 

The  last  historical  notice  of  Vinland  relates  to  the 
year  1121.  "  Bisliop  Eric  .set  out  from  Greenland  to 
find  Vinland"  and  "  Hishop  l>ic  was  searching  for 
Vinland";  such  are  the  meagre  statements  foimd  in 
the  Iceland  iinnals.  Lyschander,  in  his  Greenland 
nhronicle,  is  the  first  to  give  a  i)oetic  expansion  of  this 


story  (1G09).  He  represents  Bishop  Eric  as  bringing 
"both  emigrants  and  the  Faith"  to  Vinland.  As 
Torfceus  (Torfesson)  in  his  "Historia  Vinlandis  an- 
tiquoe"  (1705)  and  Rafn  in  various  works  presented 
similar  views,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  surprise  that  men 
finally  came  to  speak  of  a  bishopric  in  Vinland  and 
of  the  fruitful  work  of  Bishop  Eric  as  of  facts  estab- 
lished beyond  doubt.  In  reply  to  such  statements, 
emphasis  must  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  sources  say 
merely  that  Eric  set  out  in  search  of  Vinland,  but  that 
they  are  silent  as  to  his  success,  not  even  reporting 
that  he  found  Vinland  again.  Nevertheless,  those 
who  uphold  the  theory  of  a  permanent  colonization  of 
Vinland  urge  numerous  arguments  in  support  of  their 
position,  many  of  w-hich  were  long  considered  incon- 
trovertible, as  for  instance  the  Norman  tower  near 
Newport,  Rhode  Island.  This,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
is  merely  the  ruin  of  a  windmill  built  by  Governor 
Arnold  (c.  1670).  The  runic  inscription  on  Dighton 
Rock, so  often  misinterpreted,  proves  no  more.  The 
inscription  is  merely  Indian  picture  wTiting  such  as  is 
frequently  found  far  to  the  south.  In  answer  to 
arguments  based  on  Mexican  manuscripts,  sculptures, 
and  other  remains  to  prove  the  pre-Columbian  exis- 
tence of  Christianity  in  America,  careful  critical  re- 
search reveals  the  fact  that  all  the  evidence  presented 
is  unreliable.  The  worship  of  the  cross  practised 
in  Mexico  and  Central  America  does  not  prove  the 
Christianization  of  pre-Columbian  America,  either 
by  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle,  or  by  Irish  monks,  or  by 
the  Northmen.  This  is  clearly  proved  by  the  fact 
that  the  cross  is  found  as  a  religious  symbol  among 
pre-Christian  peoples.  When  opponents  of  this  \iew 
point  to  the  martyrdom  of  Bishop  John  of  Ireland, 
the  answer  is  that  Bishop  John  (d.  1066)  met  his  death 
not  in  Vinland  the  Good,  but  in  the  land  of  the  Wends 
as  I  have  elsewhere  proved  from  original  historical 
sources.  There  is  a  twofold  error  in  the  statement 
that  a  valuable  cup  of  Vinland  masur  wood  is  men- 
tioned among  the  tithes  of  the  diocese  of  Gardar 
dating  from  1327.  First,  this  {ciphus  de  nucc  ultra- 
marina)  was  not  part  of  the  tithes  of  the  Greenland 
diocese  of  Gardar,  but  of  Skara,  a  Swedish  diocese; 
second,  this  goblet  was  not  of  masur  but  of  cocoanut. 
Nor  are  the  arguments  drawn  from  the  amount  and 
the  character  of  the  tithes  leWed  in  the  diocese  of 
Gardar  for  the  Crusades  more  convincing.  They  are 
partly  based  on  a  faulty  computation  wliich  estimates 
the  tithes  at  triple  their  real  amounts,  and  partly  on  a 
mistaken  conception  of  conditions  in  Greenland.  .\s 
the  sources  testify  and  modern  excavations  have 
shown,  the  Northmen  of  Greenland,  as  w-ell  as  their 
Icelandic  cousins,  were  active  cattle  breeders,  and 
raised  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  so  that  they 
miglit  easily  pay  their  tithes  in  calf-skins.  And 
lastly,  the  story  related  by  Zeno  the  Younger,  of  a 
fisherman  having  seen  Latin  books  in  the  library  of 
the  King  of  Estotiland  can  no  more  be  considered 
historical  than  the  rest  of  Zeno's  romance.  It  is  a 
fiction,  hke  the  island  of  Estotiland  itself  and  Plato's 
Atlantis.  The  history  of  Vinland  ends  with  the  year 
1121,  but  trustworthy  accoimts  of  Markland  extend 
to  a  later  date.  The  Iceland  annals  of  1347  have  the 
following  record:  "There  came  a  Greenland  ship  to 
Straumsfjord;  the  .sail  was  set  for  Markland.  but  it 
was  driven  hither  (Iceland)  over  the  sea.  There  was 
a  crew  of  eighteen  men".  The  object  of  the  voyage 
is  not  mentioned,  but  the  most  probable  conjecture 
is  that  the  ship  was  bound  for  the  forest  land  to  ol)- 
tain  wood,  in  which  Greenland  was  entirely  deficient. 
But  whatever  the  unfortunate  sailors  .sought  on  the 
shores  of  Markland,  it  is  an  undoubteil  fact  that  in 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  Marklaml  had 
not  been  forgotten  by  the  people  of  Icclaml,  who 
spoke  and  wrote  of  it  as  a  country  generallv  known. 
History  is  silent  as  to  later  voyages  to  Helluland, 
but  the  role  played  by  the  Lauil  of  Stone  is  all  the 


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419 


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more  important  in  legend  and  song,  in  wliicli  its  situa- 
tion clianges  at  will.  The  Helluland  of  history  lav  to 
the  south  of  western  Greenland,  but  the  poetic  llel- 
luland  was  located  in  north-eastern  (ireenlanil.  To 
reconcile  both  views,  Bj6rn  of  Skard/a  ilevised  his 
theory  of  two  llellulands,  the  greater  in  north-eastern 
Greenland  aiul  the  smaller  to  tlie  south-west  of  Green- 
land. Uafn  arbitrarily  located  greater  Helluland  in 
Labrador  and  the  lesser  island  in  Xewfoundlaml.  His 
authority  caused  this  arbitraiy  decision  to  lind  a  wide 
acceptance,  and  in  tliis  way  the  site  of  \'inland  was 
laid  unduly  far  to  the  stjuth. 

I'or  the  api)roxiniate  determination  of  the  geograph- 
ic;il  position  of  Helluland,  Markland,  and  Vinland, 
we  find  many  clues  in  the  original  historical  sources. 
"To  the soutn of  Greenland  lies  Helluland;  then  comes 
Markland,  from  which  tlie  distance  is  not  great  to 
Vinland  the  Gootl  wliich  .some  believe  to  be  an  exten- 
sion of  -Vfrica.  If  tliis  be  true,  then  an  arm  of  the  sea 
must  separate  Vinland  and  Markland  ".  If  we  except 
the  rash  conjecture  as  to  Vinland's  connection  with 
.\frica,  this  view  of  the  old  twelfth-cent urj'  Icelandic 
geographer  corresponds  to  the  details  of  the  histor- 
ical sagas  concerning  the  situation  of  these  lands  with 
respect  to  Greenland  and  one  another.  The  sagas, 
however,  contain  otlier  clues.  A  detail  in  the  Olaf 
.saga  with  rcgartl  to  the  po.sition  of  the  sun  at  the  time 
of  the  winter  solstice  formerly  led  many  to  believe 
that  the  position  of  N'inland  could  be  definitely  de- 
termined. .\s  a  matter  of  fact  the  statement  that 
"  on  the  shortest  day  of  winter  the  sun  was  up  between 
<7/W<ir.v/aLlr  and  (la'iimilnsln'iSr"  is  too  vague  to  permit 
an  exact  determination  of  the  position.  Only  this 
may  be  deduced  witlx  certainty,  that  Vinland  lay 
south  of  49°  north  lat.,  a  po.sition  that  might  easily 
he  identified  with  the  situation  of  central  Newfound- 
land or  the  corresp<mding  .section  of  Canada.  To 
determine  with  accuracy  the  |iosition  of  Vinland,  it 
must  be  recalled  that  the  members  of  Thorfinn's  great 
expetlition  were  looking  for  the  region  wliere  Leif  hail 
found  the  vine  growing  wild.  With  this  puqiose  in 
\new,  they  sailed  along  the  coast  of  America,  and  dis- 
cos'ered  first  a  land  which  impressed  them  on  account 
of  its  long  flat  stones.  They  called  it  Helluland. 
Taking  into  consideration  the  starting  point  of  tlie 
voyage,  its  length  and  direction,  one  may  well  agree 
with  Storm  that  the  present  Labrador  is  the  Helluland 
of  the  saga,  without,  however,  absolutely  <lenying  the 
claims  of  the  northern  peninsula  of  Newfoundland. 
Setting  out  from  Helluland,  after  two  runs  of  twelve 
hours  each,  the  daring  mariners  came  to  a  land  re- 
markable for  its  wealth  of  timber,  which  they  reached 
"with  the  help  of  the  north  wind".  The  direction 
and  length  of  the  voyage,  as  well  as  the  name  Mark- 
land  (Woodland),  point  to  Newfoundland,  which  is 
distinguished  by  its  dense  forests.  The  third  land 
encountered  after  siiiling  for  a  long  time  in  a  south- 
erly direction  did  not  reveal  at  first  the  desired  grape 
clusters.  Hut  further  exploration  of  the  land  ly- 
ing towards  the  south  had  on  the  second  or  third  day 
the  wished-for  result.  Vinland  the  Good  should 
therefore  be  located  in  the  northern  part  of  the  \ine 
belt,  or  almost  4i>°  north  lat.  Nova  Scotia  (inclusive 
of  Cape  Breton  Island)  seems  to  satisfy  best  the  re- 
quirements of  the  saga.  Wild  grapes  anil  Indian 
nee  {:izanin  aquatica).  which  is  probablv  meant  by 
the  wild  wheat  of  the  Northmen,  all  growing  in  a  nat- 
ural state,  are  repeatedly  mentioned  by  eye\vitne.«.ses 
as  characteristic  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  region  about 
the  May  of  St.  Lawrence,  e.  g.  by  Jacnues  Carticr 
(153-1)  ami  Nicholas  Denys  (c.  1650).  Tliorfinn  was 
prevented  from  settling  Vinland  by  the  onslaught  of 
the  Skni'lings.  The  sagjis  give  a  vivid  picture  of  tlie 
first  encounter  with  these  wild  dark-skinned  men,  re- 
markable for  their  uncomely  hair,  large  eyes,  ami  higli 
cheek  bones.  Opinions  differ  widely  as  "to  the  ethno- 
graphic classification  of  these  Skra?lings,  some  main- 
1.-27 


taining  that  they  were  Eskimo,  while  others  un- 
hesitatingly class  them  as  Indians.  The  express 
mention  of  skin  boats,  coupletl  with  the  circumstance 
that  the  Markland  Skrajlings  were  most  probably 
Kskiino,  seems  to  support  the  theory  that  there  were 
lOskimo  in  \'inland  (Nova  Scotia)  at  that  period. 
They  may  have  allied  themselves  with  neighbouring 
Indians  against  the  Norse  invaders.  A  definitive 
determination  of  the  po.sition  of  Vinland,  Markland, 
and  Helluland  depends  on  the  discovery  of  Norse 
ruin.s,  runic  stones,  or  other  ancient  remains  from  the 
time  of  the  Vikings.  Unfortunately,  in  spite  of  the 
efforts  of  Horsford  and  other  champions  of  the  North- 
men, such  remains  have  not  yet  been  found,  and  it  is 
not  unreasonable  that  those  who  tleny  a  permanent 
Norse  colonization  should  lay  stress  on  this  absence 
of  Norse  remains  to  prove  that  Northmen  did  not 
succeed  in  establishing  a  permanent  colony  on  the 
American  mainland.  The  case  is  quite  different 
with  Greenlaiiil,  where  for  some  centuries  there  ex- 
isted flourishing  Norse  colonies.  Numerous  ruins  of 
churches,  monasteries,  and  farm-buildings,  together 
with  miscellaneous  remains,  enable  us  to  recognize 
clearly,  even  to-tlay,  the  position  and  character  of  the 
colonies  of  Greenlanil. 

First  as  to  the  location  of  the  colonies,  ancient 
documents  are  unanimous  in  speaking  of  an  eastern 
and  a  western  colony,  of  which  the  first  was  by  far 
the  more  important.  The  "east  settlement",  as 
the  name  seeens  to  suggest,  was  formerly  sought  on 
the  east  coast  of  Greenland.  Even  after  tlie  re- 
.searclics  of  Graah  (182S-:51)  and  Holm  (1880-85), 
Nordenskiold  held  fast  to  this  view.  It  is  true  tliat 
even  he  during  his  most  successful  journey  of  investi- 
gation (ISKJ)  did  not  find  the  ruins  he  expected  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  but  this  in  no  way 
shook  his  conviction.  He  simply  declared  that  the 
old  Norse  settlements  had  disappeared,  leaving  no 
traces.  As  to  the  ruins,  so  plentiful  on  the  western 
coast,  which  lie  himself  had  visited,  he  held  that  they 
did  not  date  back  to  the  ancient  Northmen,  but  were 
of  later  origin.  This  dogmatic  assertion  shook  the 
foundation  of  the  view  just  then  gaining  ground, 
namely,  that  both  eastern  and  western  settlements 
were  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  What 
proof  was  there  that  the  many  ruins  of  Greenland, 
so  various  in  construction,  owed  their  origin  to  the 
ancient  Northmen?  Was  it  right  to  ascribe  the  re- 
markably well  preserved  stone  buildings  to  tlie  \i- 
king  period,  or  did  only  the  confused  heaps  of  ruins 
belong  to  that  time?  The  preliminary  data  for 
solving  this  question  are  furnished  by  Gudmundsson 
in  his  careful  researches  into  the  "Private  Dwellings 
in  Iceland  during  the  Saga  Period".  With  the  help 
of  the  original  authorities,  the  Danish  scholar  Bruun 
and  his  learned  collaborators  were  enabled  to  pro- 
duce proof  (189-J)  that  the  numerous  ruins  of  Green- 
land in  the  neighbourhood  of  Julianehaab  really  dated 
from  Norse  times,  and  that  in  consequence  the  ea-st- 
em  settlement  of  the  .saga  was  in  reality  located  on 
the  western  coast  of  Gre'cnland.  Starting  fmm  these 
investigations,  as  thorough  as  they  were  interesting. 
Finnur  Jonsson,  a  Dane,  with  the  aid  of  the  original 
sources,  was  able  conclusively  to  reconstruct  in  all 
cs.sential  particulars  the  ancient  topography  of  Green- 
land and  represent  it  by  means  of  a  map.  This  chart 
of  Jonsson's  shows  in  the  \-icinity  of  Julianehaab  the 
ruins  of  117  churches  and  manors,  large  and  small. 
The  most  remarkable  are  the  episcopal  See  of  Gardar 
and  the  manor  of  Erie  the  Red,  renowned  in  the  saga 
as  the  Brattahlid.  The  western  settlement  was 
situated  within  the  limits  of  the  present  Godthaab, 
and  is.  as  a  matter  of  fact,  much  farther  west.  God- 
thaab lies  in  51°  30'  west  of  Greenwich,  while  Julian- 
ehaab is  approximately  46°.  The  less  numerous 
ruins  of  the  western  district  have  not  been  thorouglily 
explored  as  yet   but  almost  all  their  fjords  have  been 


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420 


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determined,  and  the  results  obtained  by  archaeolog- 
ical research  up  to  the  present  time  are  in  full  accord 
with  the  original  sources,  especially  with  the  circum- 
stantial account  of  Ivar  Bardsson  (c.  1350),  who  for 
many  years  administered  the  Church  of  Greenland  as 
the  representative  of  the  Bishop  of  Gardar. 

Archaeological  investigations,  taken  in  conjunction 
with  ancient  Norse  legends,  give  evidence  not  only  of 
the  location  of  the  settlements,  but  of  the  number  of 
churches,  monasteries,  and  manors,  the  approximate 
numbers  of  the  Norse  population,  their  pursuits  and 
mode  of  life.  As  to  the  churches,  which  average  in 
length  from  fifty  to  sixty-five  feet,  and  in  breadth 
twenty-six,  and  "are  built  of  large,  carefully  selected 
stones,  tiie  Gripla,  an  old  northern  chorography, 
fragments  of  which  have  come  down  to  us,  records 
twelve  in  the  eastern  settlement,  and  four  in  the 
western.  In  a  Hst  dating  from  the  year  13U0  the 
number  of  the  former  remains  unchanged,  but  the 
number  of  churches  in  the  western  colony,  which  had 
been  previously  overrun  by  the  Eskimo,  was  reduced 
to  three,  and  in  Ivar's  list  (c.  1370)  is  given  as  one, 
that  of  Steinesness,  for  a  time  the  seat  of  "  a  cathe- 
dral and  an  episcopal  residence".  This  statement 
of  Ivar  has  given  rise  to  the  inference  that  there  were 
two  dioceses  in  Greenland,  Gardar  and  Steinesness. 
According  to  the  conjecture  of  Torfaeus,  only  Eric, 
the  missionary  bishop,  who  in  1121  set  out  for  Vin- 
land,  had  a  cathedral  in  Steinesness.  Greenland 
had  but  one  bishopric,  that  of  Gardar,  and  it  had 
this  [as  is  expressly  stated  in  the  "  King's  Mirror  ",  one 
of  the  principal  sources  (c.  1250)]  only  because  it  was 
so  far  removed  from  other  dioceses.  Had  it  been 
nearer  to  other  countries,  it  would  have  been  "  the 
third  part  of  a  diocese".  There  were  but  two  mon- 
asteries in  Greenland,  one  of  the  Canons  Regular  of 
the  Order  of  St.  Augustine  dedicated  to  Sts.  Olaf  and 
Augustine,  and  a  convent  of  Benedictine  nuns.  The 
Dominican  monastery  fantastically  described  by 
Zeno  the  Younger  (1558)  never  existed  in  Greenland. 
During  the  most  flourishing  period  the  number  of 
manors  in  Greenland  amounted  to  280,  190  in  the 
eastern  and  90  in  the  western  settlement.  As- 
suming that  each  manor  had  an  average  of  ten  to 
fifteen  inhabitants,  we  have  a  sum  total  of  2800-4200 
souls,  which  is  probably  near  the  truth.  Dwelling 
house,  shed,  and  stable  were  single  story  buildings. 
Generally  the  buildings  for  horses,  cows,  sheep,  and 
goats  were  not  adjoining.  The  chief  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants  were  cattle  breeding  and  the  chase. 
The  Kjokkenmoddings  which  are  often  to  be  found  to 
a  height  of  over  three  feet  in  front  of  dwellings,  prove 
that  the  ancient  Northmen  were  fearless  in  the  pur- 
suit of  large  game.  In  these  heaps  of  bones  and  ashes, 
the  greater  part  of  the  remains  are  those  of  seals. 
There  are  traces  of  the  following  domestic  animals: 
a  species  of  small  horned  cattle  {bos  taurus),  goats 
(capra  hircus),  sheep  {ovis  aries),  small  horses  {equus 
caballus)  and  well-developed  dogs  (canis  familiaris). 
Of  the  other  animals  native  to  Greenland,  the  bone 
piles  show  traces  of  the  polar  bear  (ursus  maritimus), 
the  walrus  {trichechus  rosmarus),  three  species  of  seal 
(erignathus  barbatus,  phoca  vUulina,  and  phoca  joe- 
lida)  and  especially  the  hooded  .seal  {cystophora  cris- 
tata).  It  is  not  surprising  then  that  the  crusade  tax 
levied  on  the  inhabitants  of  Greenland,  who  had  no 
currency,  consisted  of  cattle  hides,  seal  skins,  and 
the  teeth  of  whales.  Gronlandice  decima  this  was 
termed  in  a  letter  of  Pope  Martin  IV  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Trondhjem  (4  March,  1282):  "Non  per- 
cipitur  nisi  in  bovinis  et  phocarum  coriis  ac  dentibus 
et  funibus  balenarum."  In  perfect  accord  with  this 
is  Ivar  Bard.sson'8  emphatic  mention,  not  only  of 
the  white  bears  and  white  falcons  found  everywhere 
in  great  abundance,  but  more  particularly  of  the  herds 
of  cowH,  sheep,  and  goats,  which  were,  next  to  the 
fisheries,  the  Greenlanders' principal  Bource  of  income. 


Cattle  raising  and  the  chase  caused  the  inhabitants 
to  explore  their  icy  country  on  all  sides.  To  quote 
from  the  "King's  Mirror",  "the  people  have  often 
attempted  in  various  places  to  scale  the  highest 
rocks  to  obtain  an  extensive  view,  and  see  whether 
they  could  find  a  place  free  from  ice  and  suitable  for 
habitation.  Such  a  region,  however,  could  not  be 
discovered,  except  those  parts  already  built  up  which 
stretched  a  long  distance  along  the  coast.  They  found 
both  mountain  ridges  and  valleys  coated  with  ice". 
The  daring  Greenlanders  not  confining  their  atten- 
tion to  the  interior  showed  a  remarkable  acquain- 
tance with  the  ice-bound  ocean  and  the  peculiarities 
of  the  coast.  According  to  the  "King's  Mirror" 
the  ice  of  the  sea  is  eight  to  ten  feet  thick,  and  is  as 
flat  as  though  it  were  frozen  in  that  very  place.  As 
the  ice  extends  a  journey  of  four  or  five  days  from 
land,  and  farther  towards  the  east  and  northeast  than 
south  or  southwest,  anyone  wi.shing  to  reach  land 
must  sail  towards  the  west  and  southwest,  until  he 
has  pas.sed  all  places  where  there  is  a  possibility  of 
finding  ioe,  and  then  .set  sail  landward.  From  the 
smootTi  ice  rise  icebergs  ''like  a  high  cliff  from  the 
sea",  not  joined  to  the  rest  of  the  ice  bui,  separate. 
All  well-to-do  peasants  in  Greenland  had  large  and 
small  boats  for  fishing.  NorSrseta,  probably  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  present  Upernivik,  was  accounted 
especially  favourable  for  seal  fishing.  Here  too  col- 
lected "  all  the  driftwood  that  floateil  across  from  the 
inlets  of  Markland".  How  far  to  the  northwest  the 
hardy  fishers  pushed  their  voyages  we  learn  from  a 
runic  stone  venerable  for  its  age,  which  was  discov- 
ered in  1824  and  taken  to  the  National  Museum  of 
Copenhagen.  It  was  set  up  by  three  Northmen, 
25  April,  1135,  on  the  island  of  Kingittorsuaq  (72'^ 
55' north  lat.).  In  the  summer  of  1266  a  point  even 
farther  north  was  reached  by  the  polar  expedition 
of  which  Haldur,  a  Greenland  priest,  gives  an  account 
to  Arnold,  his  former  colleague,  then  court  chaplain 
to  Magnus,  King  of  Norway.  On  their  northern 
voyage  these  men  found  traces  of  Skra>lings  only  in 
the  Kr6ksfjar5arhei3i,  and  the  opinion  thenceforth 
prevailed  "  that  it  must  be  the  shortest  way  for  them 
(the  Skra>lings)  to  go,  no  matter  where  they  came 
from.  Thereupon  the  priests  sent  a  sliip  towards 
the  north  in  order  to  have  investigations  made  with 
regard  to  the  conditions  north  of  the  most  distant 
region  which  they  had  yet  visited".  Driven  by  a 
southern  gale,  the  ship  sailed  northward  from 
KroksfjaraarheiSi.  "right  into  the  bay  (hafsbotnin, 
i.  e.  bay  of  the  sea,  seems  to  correspond  with  Mel- 
ville Bay)  and  then  they  lost  sight  of  the  whole  land, 
both  the  southern  stretch  of  the  coast  and  the 
glaciers".  On  the  return  voyage,  a  three  days'  sail 
brought  them  to  a  place  where  they  found  traces  of 
Skrselings  who  had  visited  islands  soiith  of  Snaefjall. 
"After  that  they  sailed  south  to  Kr6ksfjarSarhci3i.  a 
good  day's  rowing,  St.  James's  day".  They  there 
took  an  observation  which  even  to-day  can  serve  as 
an  approximate  indication  of  latitude.  "It  froze", 
they  say,  "  there,  then  at  nights,  but  the  sun  shone 
both  night  and  day,  and  it  was  no  higher  when  it  was 
in  the  south  than  that  when  a  man  laid  himself  cross- 
wise in  a  six-oared  boat,  stretched  out  against  the 
railing,  then  the  shadow  of  the  railing  which  was 
nearest  to  the  sun  fell  on  his  face;  but  at  midnight  it 
was  as  high  as  it  is  at  home  in  the  colony,  when  it  is 
in  the  northwest.  Then  they  travelled  home  to  Gar- 
dar". These  statements  formerly  led  to  the  belief 
that  Kr*')ksfjari3arhci(ii  should  bo"  sought  for  about 
75°  north  lat .  on  the  other  side  of  Baliin  Bay.  Lat- 
terly Thalbitzer  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
"heifle"  was  situated  on  the  western  coast  of  Green- 
land. At  all  events  the  Vikings  clearly  penetrated 
much  farther  north  th.an  Upernivik  (73°  n.  lat.). 

The  Northmen  of  Greenland  c\])lorcd  also  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  country  during  the  eleventh,  twelfth 


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421 


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and  thirteenth  centuries.  On  one  of  these  voyages 
of  exploration  in  1194  they  reached  SvaibarSr  or 
.Svall)ar5i.  According  to  Storm's  investigations  this 
island  is  thought  to  be  Jan  Mayeii  or  Spitzbergen. 
Almost  a  hundred  vears  later  (iL'.Sj)  two  priests,  sons 
of  Helge,  nameil  Aldabrand  and  Thorvald,  discov- 
ered, over  against  Iceland,  a  new  country  (the  Diinen 
Islands).  These  voyagers  are  rightly  called  the  pre- 
cursors of  Nordenskii)ld.  inasmuch  as  like  him,  ttiey 
set  out  from  Denmark,  and  reached  the  eastern  coast 
of  (Ireenland  (not  Newfoimdland).  These  and 
similar  discoveries  of  skilled  Norse  from  the  eleventh 
to  tlie  fifteenth  centuries  made  it  po.ssible  long  before 
C'oluml)Us,  to  draw  so  perfect  a  map  of  that  part  of 
.America,  known  as  (ireenland,  but  a  cartographer  to 
whom  Nordenskiold  showed  such  a  chart  declared 
emphatically  that  it  must  be  a  forgery  of  I  lie 
nineteenth  century.  The  first  .scholar  who  inserted 
the  daring  Norse  discoveries  in  .Vmerica  in  Ptolemy's 
map  of  the  world  was  Claudius  Clavus  Niger  (Swart). 
a  Dane,  who  left  two  maps  and  two  geograiihical  des- 
criptions of  the  northern  countries  of  Kurope  in 
which  (ireenland  appears  as  a  peninsula  of  the  conti- 
nent. The  first  chart  with  subjoined  description  is 
preserved  in  the  precious  Ptolemy  MS.  of  (Cardinal 
Filiaster  of  1427,  now  in  the  city  Ubrary  of  Nancy  in 
France.  In  this  MS.  the  learned  cardinal  expressly 
says  of  the  eighth  chart  of  Europe:  "Ptolemy  makes 
no  mention  of  these  lands  (Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Greenland)  ami  he  seems  to  have  liad  no  knowleilge 
of  them.  Hence  a  certain  Claudius  C>'mbricus  has 
described  these  northern  parts,  and  represented  them 
in  charts".  This  precious  cartographic  treasure  has 
been  preserved  only  in  the  Ptolemy  codex  of  Nancy. 
Both  chart  and  description  have  long  been  known 
and  often  reproduced.  The  second  description  and 
the  second  map  have  come  down  in  various  manu- 
scripts, but  separated  from  each  other.  The  chart 
with  its  strikingly  correct  representation  of  Green- 
land was  a  riddle  to  cartographers  from  the  time  of 
its  discovery,  inasmuch  as  it  contains  many  names  of 
rivers  and  promontories  which  in  no  wise  correspond 
with  the  statements  found  in  ancient  Norse  sources. 
Only  recently  have  the  Danish  scholars  Hjornbo 
and  Petersen  succeeded  in  solving  this  riddle.  In 
two  mathematical  MSS.  of  the  Ilofbibliothck  at 
Vienna  they  found  the  long  lost  description  of  the 
secoml  chart  of  Claudius  Clavus,  from  wliioh  it  appears 
that  Clavus  (b.  l.'5S,S)  was  once  in  (ircciilaml.  and 
that  the  fantastic  names  on  his  chart  are  iiktcIv  the 
words  of  an  old  Danish  folk  song,  of  wliicli  the  follow- 
ing is  a  literal  translation: 

There  lives  a  man  on  Greenland's  stream, 
And  Spieldcbodli  doth  he  be  named; 
More  has  he  of  wliite  herrings 
Than  he  has  of  pork  that  is  fat. 
From  the  North  drives  the  sand  anew. 

As  Clautlius  Clavus  u.setl  the  names  of  tlie  runes  to 
designate  places  in  Iceland  and  the  orilinal  numerals, 
fumla,  (the  first),  etc.,  on  the  map  of  Eastern  Europe, 
so  for  Greenland  he  made  use  of  the  words  of  the 
stanza  quoted  above,  i.  e.  Thar  (there)  boer  (lives) 
eeynh  (a)  manli  (man)  etc.,  to  designate  the  succes- 
sion of  promontories  and  rivers  which  seemed  to 
him  most  worthy  of  note.  From  Claudius  Clavus  the 
strange  names  were  adopted  by  the  cartographers 
Nicholas  Germanus  and  Ilenricus  Martellus.  While 
Nichol.as  Germanus  in  his  first  copies  retained  the 
correct  location  of  (ireenland  (west  of  Iceland  an<l 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula),  in  his  later  works  he 
transferred  (ireenland  to  the  Scandinavian  peninsula 
and  east  of  Iceland.  On  his  small  charts  of  the  world 
he  completed  Ptolemy's  map  by  first  giving  to  Green- 
land its  correct  position,  but  afterwards  he  placed 
it  in  northern  Europe  and  located  north  of  (ireenland 
the  visula  glaciatis  or  insula  gtaciei  (Iceland).     Both 


representations  of  Greenland  were  used  by  Martin 
VVald.seemuller.  The  erroneous  map  of  Nicholas  Ger- 
manus he  borrowe<l  fn)m  the  Ulm  edition  of  Ptoleray, 
which  is  ba.sed  on  tlie  Wolfegg  parchment  MS.  of 
Ptolemy,  and  presented  it  in  his  great  wall  chart  of  the 
world  (1507),  ".Vmerica's  certificate  of  baptism". 
The  correct  map  appeared  in  conjunction  with  the 
marine  map  of  (Janerio  on  the  first  large  marine  map 
ever  printed,  the  "Carta  Marina"  of  151G.  Inconse- 
quence of  the  wide  circulation  of  the  world  chart  of 
1.^07  (1000  copies,  the  only  one  of  which  now  extant 
is  that  discovered  by  myself  in  Schloss  Wolfegg)  the 
faulty  representation  is  found  in  countless  later 
charts.  Henricus  Martellus,  whoso  fine  manu.script 
of  Ptolemy  was  executed  in  Florence  some  thirty 
years  after  Nicholas  Germanus,  has  given  the 
correct  representation  of  Claudius  Clavus  in  his 
charts  of  the  northern  countries.  This  correct 
map,  however,  first  obtained  a  wider  circulation 
through  the  often  over-estimated  Zeno  map  of  1558. 
In  spite  of  its  manifest  inaccuracies — for  example  the 
younger  Zeno  represents  the  floating  icebergs  on  the 
great  northern  map  of  Olaf  Magnus  (1539)  as  islands, 
to  which  he  even  a.ssigns  names — the  Zeno  map  has 
been  dofended  even  in  recent  times  as  an  original  map 
of  the  Zeni.  dating  from  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  Since  the  successful  clearing  up  of  the 
mysterious  Gn^enland  names,  and  the  iliscovery  of 
Wald.seemuller's  chart  (Carta  Marina,  151G),  lost  for 
three  centuries,  wliich  likewise  shows  the  configur.a- 
lion  of  parts  of  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America, 
the  last  champions  of  Zeno  must  admit  that  the  long 
celebrated  Zeno  chart  is  merely  a  compilation  of  the 
younger    Zeno    (1558). 

While  Claudius  Clavus  visited  Norse  Greenland  in 
person  and  was  the  first  to  make  a  strikingly  correct 
map  (c.  1420)  he  himself  was  never  in  Ilelluland, 
Markland,  and  Vinland,  and  consequently  diii  not 
introduce  them  into  liis  fifteenth-century  Ptolemy 
map  of  the  northern  countries.  As  a  result  these 
countries  were  not  represented  in  the  editions  of  Ptol- 
emy's map  of  the  world  published  in  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  On  a  Catalonian  marine 
map  (portulana)  dating  from  the  fifteenth  centurj'. 
ho%vever,  we  fintl  a  large  rectangular  island  named 
Ilia  Verde,  and  to  the  .south  of  it  a  smaller  island 
almost  circular  named  Brazil,  which  have  been 
rightly  conjectured  to  be  (ireenland  and  Markland 
(tlie  wooded  land)  respectively.  On  a  sea  chart  di.s- 
covered  by  me  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  of  Paris 
there  is  likewi.se  to  the  north-west  an  island  termed 
"  Insula  viridis,  de  aua  fit  mentio  in  geographia ", 
and  south  of  it  the  above  mentioned  circular  island. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  on  his  great  map  of  the 
world  (1507)  Waklsocmullcr  sets  down  a  viridix  in- 
sula north-west  of  Ireland.  On  the  corresponding 
section  of  the  "  Carta  Marina"  of  151G  there  is  no  trace 
of  the  eiridis  insula  but  the  round  island  Brazil  ap- 
pears. These  divergences  in  cartographic  represen- 
tations arise  from  dilTerences  in  conception  of  the 
territories  discovered.  The  discoverers  took  the 
bodies  of  land  they  encountered  for  islantls.  a  \iew 
which  is  also  reflected  on  the  sea  charts  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  When  the  attempt  was  made  to  apportion 
these  islands  to  the  three  then  known  continents, 
Europe,  A.sia,  and  -\frica,  the  fact  that  Svalbarflr,  i.  e. 
Jan  Mayen  or  Spitzbergen  had  been  discovered  in  the 
twelfth  century  became  of  decisive  importance,  for 
by  this  di.scovery  the  theory  that  (ireenland  was  in 
.some  way  connected  with  the  European  mainland 
was  apparently  confirmed.  This  opinion  was  based 
on  the  fact  that  reindeer,  arctic  foxes,  and  other  mam- 
mals which  were  found  in  Greenland,  are  not  met  with 
on  islands,  unless  they  were  brought  there.  Since 
this  was  not  the  ca.se  in  Greenland  it  was  inferred  that 
these  animals  must  have  migrateil  there  from  some  con- 
tinent.    This  conclusion  received  support  from  the  ice 


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422 


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fields  which  covered  the  more  congelatum.  So  men 
arrived  at  the  conviction  that  there  existed  a  land 
connection  between  Greenland  and  Bjarnieland  or 
north-western  Russia.  Being  uninhabited,  this  was 
called  Ubygdear  or  the  "uninhabited  land".  Ac- 
cordingly Hjarmeland  is  described  as  follows  in 
the  above  mentioned  geographical  description  of  the 
twelfth  century:  "Uninhabited  lands  extend  as  far 
north  as  Greenland".  A  similar  statement  occurs 
in  a  thirteenth-century  account:  "To  the  north  of 
Norway  is  Finmarken  whence  the  land  extends  north- 
east and  east  as  far  as  Bjarmeland  which  is  tributarj' 
to  the  Rus.sian  king.  From  Bjarmeland  the  land 
stretches  northward  through  unknown  regions  up  to 
the  borders  of  Greenland".  Finally  the  author  of 
the  "Historia  Norwegife"  (thirteenth  century)  sums 
up  what  was  known  of  Greenland  in  tlie  following 
noteworthy  sentences:  "Some  sailors  wishing  to  re- 
turn from  "Iceland  to  Norway  w-ere  driven  by  adverse 
winds  into  tlie  icebound  regions.  At  last  they 
landed  between  Greenland  and  Bjarmeland  in  a 
country  wliicli,  according  to  their  report,  has  men  of 
remarkable  size,  and  in  the  land  of  the  virgins  who 
conceived  by  drinking  water.  Greenland  is  sep- 
arated from  them  by  rocks  covered  with  ice;  it  was 
discovered,  colonized,  and  converted  to  the  Catholic 
faith  by  Icelanders;  it  is  the  western  extremity  of 
Europe,  and  extends  almost  to  the  African  islands". 
These  words  and  others  of  similar  import  account 
both  for  the  correct  representation  of  Claudius  Clavus 
who  himself  visited  Greenland,  as  well  as  the  faulty 
map  of  Nicholas  Germanus  who  pursued  his  geo- 
graphical and  cartographical  studies  in  Florence 
about  1470.  The  recollection  of  Greenland  was  kept 
aUve  by  charts  and  geographical  descriptions  even 
at  the  time  when  all  commimication  witli  the  Norse 
colonies  had  been  broken  off.  The  eighteen  sailors 
who  were  driven  in  1347  from  Markland  to  Iceland 
proceeded,  according  to  Icelandic  records,  across 
Norway  to  Greenland.  There  seems  at  that  time  to 
have  been  no  longer  any  direct  communication  be- 
tween Iceland  and  Greenland.  Intercourse  was  still 
kept  up  between  Bergen  and  Greenland  by  the  royal 
merchantman,  the  "Knorr",  but  only  at  irregular 
intervals.  In  the  year  1346,  according  to  Icelandic 
annals,  the  "Knorr"  was  in  good  condition,  and 
"laden  with  a  rich  cargo,"  returned  to  Bergen  from 
Greenland,  wliich  from  1261  had  been  like  Iceland 
under  Norwegian  rule.  Not  until  1355  ditl  the  vessel 
undertake  its  next  voyage  to  Greenland.  For  this 
journey  extraordinary  provisions  were  made  and  a 
formal  expedition  fitted  out.  The  purpose  of  the 
undertaking  is  said  to  have  been  the  "preservation 
of  Christianity"  in  Greenland  which  could  only  be 
attained  by  means  of  a  conflict  with  the  Sknelings 
(Eskimo).  It  cannot  be  exactly  ascertained  when 
the  "Knorr'  returned,  but  it  was  proljably  about 
1363  or  1364,  as  about  this  time  Ivar  Bardsson  who 
for  many  years  administered  the  diocese  of  Gardar, 
makes  his  appearance  in  Norway. 

We  can  gather  from  the  original  sources  how  the 
Northmen  had  gradually  to  retire  before  the  advanc- 
ing Eskimo.  The  first  colli.sicm  took  place,  accord- 
ing to  the  "Historia  Norwegia;"  (thirteenth  century) 
in  nortli  Greenland.  The  passage  (accortling  to 
Thalbitzer)  reads  as  follows  in  literal  translation: 
"Beyond  the  Greenlanders  toward  tlie  nortli  the 
hunters  came  across  a  kind  of  people  called  the  Skro-- 
lings;  when  they  are  wounded  alive  tlicir  wounds 
become  white,  without  any  i.ssue  of  blood,  but  the 
blood  scarcely  ceases  to  stream  out  of  them  when  they 
are  dead.  They  have  no  iron  whatever  and  use 
whale  teeth  for  missile  weapons,  and  sharp  stones  for 
knives".  In  the  chart  of  Claudius  Clavus  (1427),  ac- 
conlingly  we  find  the  Careli,  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Greenlan<l.  and  the  accompanying  description  is  as 
follows:  "Tenent  autem  .septentrionalia  eius  (Gron- 


landiae)  Careli  infideles,  quorum  regio  extenditur 
sub  polo  septentrionah  vensus  Seres  orientales,  quare 
polus  [polar  circle]  nobis  septentrionalis  est  eis  meri- 
dionalis  [in]  gradibus  60"  (The  north  of  Greenland  is 
occupied  by  the  pagan  Careli  whose  country  extends 
from  the  North  Pole  toward  the  eastern  Seres; 
therefore  the  northern  polar  circle  is  to  us  north,  to 
them  soutli  in  tlie  00th  degree  of  latitude).  It  is  in- 
teresting to  knowtliat  in  this  very  part  of  Greenland 
near  the  Umanak  fjord,  there  now  exists  a  tradition 
among  the  Eskimo  concerning  a  battle  on  the  ice 
between  Eskimo  and  Northmen.  The  Northmen 
were  the  attacking  party,  but  the  Eskimo  were  vic- 
torious. Thalbitzer  gives  the  tradition  according  to 
Rink  (Eskimoiske  E\'entyr  og  Saga,  Copenhagen. 
1860):  "The  Norsemen  had  pursued  some  little  girls 
who  had  been  out  to  fetch  water.  These  girls  came 
running  home  and  shouted  'they  are  attacking 
us'.  The  Greenlanders  fled  and  hid  themselves  be- 
tween the  heaps  of  stones,  yet  the  Norsemen  man- 
aged to  get  hold  of  some  of  them  and  maltreated 
them.  The  Greenlanders,  however,  by  means  of 
artifice,  lured  their  enemies  out  on  the  slippery  fjord 
ice,  where  they  could  not  stand  firmly,  and  thus  the 
Skra'lings  succeeded  in  overcoming  them  one  at  a 
time  and  killed  tliem  all".  In  the  course  of  the  four- 
teenth century  the  Eskimo  of  Greenland  advanced 
farther  southward.  About  1360  the  western  colony 
fell  into  their  hands.  Ivar  Bardsson,  an  eye-witness, 
related  how,  under  commision  of  the  royal  governor, 
he  had  taken  part  in  an  expedition  to  drive  the  Es- 
kimo from  the  western  settlement.  But  no  human 
being  either  Christian  or  lieatlien  was  found.  Cattle 
and  sheep  ran  wikl.  Having  put  them  on  shipboard 
they  returned  home  (Gardar).  In  1397  the  Icelandic 
annals  report  a  new  attack:  The  Skra^lings  assaileil 
the  Greenlanders,  killing  eighteen  men,  capturing 
and  enslaving  two  boys.  Undoubtedly  the  many 
shipwrecks  wliich  took  place  at  this  time  hastened 
the  catastrophe.  The  government  ship  went  down 
north  of  Bergen.  Moreover  in  1.392  "  a  great  plague  " 
visited  the  whole  of  Norway.  In  1393  Bergen  was 
conquereil  and  pillaged  by  the  Germans  who  took 
with  them  all  ships  and  anchors.  After  this  we  hear 
of  no  more  voyages  of  the  "Knorr"  to  Greenland. 
The  last  record  in  the  Icelandic  annals  of  the  landing 
of  a  foreign  vessel  in  Greenland  is  found  under  the 
date  1406.  It  was  not  till  four  years  later  that  the 
ship  which  had  been  driven  by  storms  to  Greenland 
reached  Norway.  To  the  same  period  belongs  a 
marriage  certificate  given,  19  April,  1409,  by  a  priest 
in  Gardar.  Soon  afterwards  tlie  final  catastrophe 
must  have  befallen  the  eastern  settlements.  Ac- 
cording to  the  letter  of  Pope  Nicliolas  V  (c.  1448)  to 
the  bishops  of  Iceland,  the  Cliristians  of  Greenland 
were  attacked  by  the  heathens  of  the  neighbouring 
coasts,  and  the  country  was  laid  waste  with  fire  and 
swortl,  but  all  persons  who  were  fit  to  become  slaves 
were  made  captives.  The  approximate  date  of  the 
invasion  is  obtained  by  the  mention  of  "thirty  years 
ago"  (1418).  The  efTorts  of  Nicholas  V  were  un- 
fortunately without  success,  as  appears  from  the  let- 
ter of  .\lexander  VI  dated  in  tlie  first  year  of  his 
pontificate  (1492-93).  The  inhabitants  were  de- 
prived of  rehgious  ministration;  there  was  no  longer 
either  bishop  or  priest  and  a  great  part  of  the  popula- 
tion returned  to  paganism.  Those  who  remained 
true  to  tlie  Faith  possessed  as  a  memorial  of  Catliolic 
times  only  the  corporal  on  which  a  hundred  years 
before  the  Lord's  Body  had  been  consecrated  by  the 
last  priest.  Once  a  year  this  cor]>oral  was  exposeil 
for  veneration.  The  date  "a  hundred  years  ago", 
is  not  entirely  accurate,  even  if  we  agree  with  Storm 
in  taking  the  last  priest  to  mean  the  last  resident 
bishop.  The  statement  that  "for  eighty  years  no 
flOuropean]  ship  had  landed  on  llie  coasts  of  (ireen- 
iand  "  is  not  positively  made.     Bjornbo  and  Petersen 


AMERICAN 


42:i 


AMERICAN 


inform  us  of  a  jovimey  to  (ireenland  hitherto  unknown. 
Iti  the  text  intendett  to  accompany  his  second  map 
of  (ireenland  Clavus  expressly  states:  "  Grolanilie 
insulo  chersonesus  dependet  a  terrS.  inaccessibili  a 
parte  septentrioiiif)  vel  iKiiotA  propter  glaciem.  Ven- 
mnt  tamen  KareU  infideles,  ut  vidi,  in  Grolandiam 
cum  copioso  excrcitu  ()Uottiilie.  et  hoc  absque  dubio 
ex  altera  parte  pnVi  si'ptciitrionulis".  (The  penin- 
sula of  the  island  of  (Ireenland  |)rojects  from  a  lan<l 
inaccessible  from  the  Nortli  or  unknown  on  account 
of  the  ice.  However,  the  pagan  Careli,  as  I  have 
witnessed,  invade  Creenlaml  every  day  with  a  nu- 
merous army,  and  no  doubt  come  from  the  other  side 
of  the  polar  circle.)  Clavus,  therefore,  seems  to  have 
been  one  eye-witne.<s  of  the  last  hostile  attacks  wliich 
finally  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  eastern 
.settlement,  which  was  the  hust  Norse  colony  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  true  that  many  attempts  were  still  made 
to  con\'ey  a.ssistance  to  the  hard-pressed  Norse  set- 
tlers, particularly  by  the  jiredecessor  of  the  last  Cath- 
olic .Vrclibishop  of  Trondhjem.  Eric  Walkendorf 
(d.  1.")2lM.  but  all  came  to  naught.  So  the  last  de- 
scendants of  the  old  Vikings  were  left  to  their  own 
resources  anil  were  gradually  absorbed  by  native 
Eskimo  population. 

Hkkveh.  The  Findina  of  Winflaml  the  Good  (London, 
1890);  ItEYWooD,  DocumenUi  st'Ucta  e  tobulario  aecrelo  Wuicana 
Utonic,  18931;  .A.damus  Ukemkn.sis,  Adami  Gttta  llamma- 
burgmsu  KccUair  Pontificum  ex  rtccneione  LapiH-nbergi, 
ed.  Waitz  (Hanover.  1874);  Griintaruli  huiloritke  Mindet- 
miTTkrr  (Copenhagen,  1838-45);  Kafn,  AnttquilaUa  Amert- 
canct  (Copenhagen,  1837);  SroHM,  Ulanditke  Annaler  imIlU 
IS7S  (Chri.'itiaiiia,  1888);  Monummta  Hustorica  Norwegur 
(Christiania,  1888);  Eiriks  Saga  Raudoa  (Copenhagen,  1891); 
.4r«  lalendingubiik,  ed  JiSs-saoN  (Copenhagen,  1887),  ed. 
UoLTilER  (Halle,  a.  S.,  1892);  Werlauff,  Sumbotir  ad  Geogra- 
phi'im  medii  wi'i  ex  numumenlia  latandicis  (Copenhagen, 
1821);  .\NnERSON,  America  not  Discovered  by  Columbttg  with 
a  bihliography  of  the  pre-Ct)lumbian  discoveries  of  America 
by  Watson,  4th  e<i.  (Chicago,  ISOP;  De  Koo,  Ilietory  of 
Ameriai  before  Columbus  (I'liilailclphia,  1900),  a  most  com- 
plete account  of  all  more  or  less  probable  discoveries  of  America 
before  Columbus;  Herdekmann.  .Imcrica  before  Columbus 
in  Li.  S.  Cath.  IRst.  Soc.  Historical  Records  arid  Studies  (New 
York,  1901),  II;  Winsor,  Narratiie  atul  Critical  llisloru  of 
America  (Boston.  18SIJ-89);  Lucas,  The  Annals  of  the  Vnnages 
of  the  Brothers  \iccol(>  and  Antonio  Zeno  (London,  1898); 
KisKE.  The  Discovery  of  America.  2  vols.  (Boston,  1902), 
small  eihtion  of  1  vol.  (Boston,  19aj);  .Stobm.  Sludier  over 
I'inUimta  reiscme  Vinlands  geogrnphi  og  ethnografi  (Copen- 
hagen, 1888);  abri.lged  Knglish  edition  .S7i«/»f»  on  tAc  Vinland 
Voyages  (Copenhagen.  1889);  Om  Zcniemes  reiser  in  Xorske 
aeogr.  selskabstarboy  (Christiania,  1891);  S ye  Eftcrretninger  om 
drt  Gamle  Gmntand  m  Hist.  Tidskrilt  (Christiania,  1892); 
Fischer.  Die  Entdeckumjrn  der  Sormannen  in  Amrrika  (Frei- 
burg. 1902),  tr.  SOULSBY,  The  Discoveries  of  the  Norsemen  in 
.\merica  (London  1903),  with  rich  literary  details  concerning 
the  works  of  Humboldt,  dc  Costa,  Horaford,  Nordenski<iUl. 
Maurer,  Storm,  Harrisse,  Kuije  etc.;  HEnnERMANN,  The 
Sorthmen  in  .America  in  llisloncal  Records  and  Stttdies  (New 
York,  1903),  III,  Part  1:  FlsniER,  The  Tithes  of  the  Crusades 
inGreenland  1270-82,  ibid.  (New  Y'ork,  1904),  III,  Part  II; 
Bjornbo  oi;  Petersen,  Cbtwtius  Claiiss^m  Su-art  (Copenhagen. 
1904);  Thai-DITzer,  The  Eskimo  Language  with  an  historical 
introiiuction  about  the  Ka-it  Kskimo  in  Meddelelser  um 
GronlamI  (Copenhagen,  1904),  XXXI;  Skrtrlingrme  i  .Mark- 
Ittnd  og  Gronland,  deres  Sprog  og  \ationatitet  in  Danske  Viilens 
kab.  Srlsk.  Forhandl.  (1905);  JoNSsoN,  Gronland  gamle  Tojkhj- 
ro/i  efter  KUdeme  in  Meddelelser  (Copenhagen,  1S99).  XX; 
NiEi-sEN,  Nordmcendog  Skralinger  i  Vinland  in  Sorske  G.  S. 
Aarb.  (1905). 

Joseph  Fischeh. 
American  OoUefre,  The,  in  Kdme. — The  American 
College  in  Rome,  or  to  give  the  Icg.il  title,  "The 
.\nierican  College  of  the  Koman  Catholic  Church  of 
the  I'nited  .States,  Rome,  Italy",  owes  its  existence 
chiefly  to  Archbisliop  Hughes,  of  New  York,  and 
.■\rchbishop  Kenrick  of  Baltimore,  who  wore  the 
most  conspicuous  sup[)orters  of  I'ius  IX  in  found- 
ing at  Rome  this  institution  which  h;us  done  so  much 
for  half-a-century  to  preserve  and  propagate  Roman 
traditions  and  maintain  unity  liotween  the  l^ee  of 
Peter  and  the  Church  in  the  l'nito<l  .States.  When 
a  numl)er  of  American  bisho[is  went  to  Rome  in 
18,54  to  be  present  at  the  proclamation  of  the  Dogma 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  they  expressed  to 
Pius  IX  the  desire  to  see  an  American  college  es- 
tablished   that   should    take   rank    with    the   other 


national  colleges  in  that  city.  Bishop  Michael  O'Con- 
nor, of  Pittsburg,  an  alumnus  of  the  Propaganda, 
seconded  the  elTorts  of  the  leading  prelates  already 
mentioned,  and  .six-cially  pressed  the  matter  on  the 
attention  of  the  Pontiff.  In  his  reply  to  the  letter 
of  the  archbishojis  and  bishops  composing  the  First 
Provincial  Council  of  New  York,  Pitis  IX  proposed 
the  establishment  of  a  North  American  College  in 
Rome.  Arclibishop  Hughes,  who  had  long  fostered 
this  idea,  immediately  wrote  to  the  other  archbishoiM 
of  the  I'nited  States  and  to  his  suffragans,  extollii;g 
the  Pope's  design  and  asking  their  advice  its  to  th.e 
best  method  of  putting  it  into  execution,  and  of  pro- 
curing the  means  neccs-sarv  to  support  the  college 
when  established.  In  the  Eighth  Provincial  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore  held  from  May  6  to  May  10,  ISo.?, 
it  was  resolved  to  ap|X)int  a  committee  of  three 
bishoi)s  to  re|>ort  on  the  subject  of  the  American 
College.  Bishop  O'Connor,  of  Pittsburg,  Bishop  Neu- 
mann, of  Philadelphia  and  Dr.  Lynch,  Administrator 
of  Charleston,  were  appointed.  It  was  sub.sequently 
agreetl  that  the  Pojic  should  be  asked  to  select  three 
bishops  as  a  committee  to  carry  out  the  idea;  that 
the  .\rclihislioi)  of  Baltimore  should  act  as  promoter 
until  their  appointment,  and  that  an  active  and  ex- 
I)erienced  clergyinan  should  lie  sent  to  Rome  to  make 
the  necessary  preparations.  Pius  IX  became  so  in- 
terested in  the  project  that  he  offered  to  purchase  and 
prei-ent  a  suitable  building  for  the  purpose,  while  the 
American  bishops  would  furnish  it  and  procure  the 
funds  necessary  for  its  maintenance.  In  18,57,  the 
Pojx;  bought  for  S42,(MK),  the  old  Visitation  Convent 
of  the  rmilt;\,  then  occupied  by  soldiers  of  the  French 
g:irrison  in  Rome.  The  free  use  of  it  in  perpetuity 
was  accorded  to  the  American  bishops.  By  reason 
of  its  military  occupation  the  building  was  in  bad 
condition.  On  12  December,  18,58,  the  Archbishop 
of  New  York  ordered  a  general  collection  in  all  the 
churches  of  his  diocese  to  procure  funds  for  the  nec- 
essary repairs  and  for  the  furnishing  of  the  college. 
The  peojile  were  most  generous  in  their  contribu- 
tions, and  the  other  American  archbishops  and  bishops 
co-operated  so  liljcrally  that  in  a  short  time  the  sum 
of  nearly  S50,0(X)  was  collected.  Repairs  were  im- 
mediately begun  on  the  building,  and  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing it  was  fit  for  occupancy.  On  the  Sth  of  De- 
ceml)er,  l.S,59,  the  college  was  formally  opened  with 
thirteen  students  who  had  for  some  time  been  wait- 
ing in  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  for  this  event. 
On  the  day  of  tlie  opening  of  tlie  college,  Monsignor 
Bedini,  Secretary  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda,  consecrated  the  marble  altar  of  the 
college  chawl,  and  on  the  twelfth  of  the  same  month 
the  feast  of  Our  I-ady  of  Guadaloiipe,  to  whom  one 
of  the  side  altars  is  dedicated,  he  celebrated  Pontifical 
Miuss  in  the  college  church.  On  the  feast  of  St. 
P'rancis  do  Sales,  29  Januarj',  IStiO,  Pius  IX  visited 
the  college.  To  commemorate  this  event,  a  tablet 
bearing  the  following  inscription  was  put  up:  "On 
.lanuarv  29,  18(i(J,  the  feast  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales, 
Pius  IX,  the  Sujireme  Pontiff,  father  and  founder 
of  the  American  College,  s;iid  Mass  in  this  building, 
fed  the  alumni  with  the  heavenly  banquet,  visited 
the  college,  and  deigned  to  give  audience  to  all  ". 
His  Holiness  was  assisted  on  the  occasion  by  Bishop 
David  Bacon,  of  Portland,  Maine,  and  by  Monsignor 
Goss,  of  Liverixxil. 

The  Kev.  Bernard  Smith,  O.S.B.,  professor  in  the 
Propiiganda  College,  and  aftervvards  an  abbot,  wjis 
apix)intcd  temjKirary  rector  of  the  college,  until  the 
appointment,  in  March,  18()0,  of  the  Rev.  William 
(icorgc  McCloskey,  who  was  then  an  assistant  at  the 
Church  of  the  Nativity,  New  York  City,  and  later 
Bishop  of  Ix>uisville.  During  the  administration  of 
Father  McCloskey  the  college  flourished,  the  number 
of  students  incrciusing  rapidly  from  thirteen  to  fifty, 
of  whom  six  came  from  New  York,  four  from  Newark. 


AMERICAN 


424 


AMERICAN 


two  from  Brooklyn,  five  from  Philadelphia,  and  the 
remainder  from  the  New  England  States,  the  South, 
and  the  West.  The  first  ordination  of  an  alumnus 
to  the  priesthood  was  on  the  11th  of  June,  1862,  in 
the  Church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  by  Cardinal  Pat- 
rizzi.  The  finance.s  of  the  college  were  not,  however, 
on  a  sound  basis;  tlie  rector,  therefore,  in  1866,  ap- 
pealed for  aid  to  the  American  bishops  assembled  in 
the  second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore.  The  ap- 
peal was  successful,  for  Archbishop  Spalding,  who  as 
Delegate  of  the  Holy  See,  con\oked  and  presided  at 
the  Council,  in  his  letter  promulgating  its  decrees, 
commended  the  college  to  the  good  will  of  the  bishops. 
In  consequence,  the  Rev.  George  H.  Doane,  a  clergy- 
man of  the  Diocese  of  Newark,  was  appointed  by  the 
bishops  to  collect  funds  for  the  college.  After  mak- 
ing a  tour  of  the  country,  he  succeeded  in  collecting 
Sl.'iO,000,  which  at  once  placed  the  college  on  an 
excellent  financial  footing. 

During  the  \'atican  Council,  the  American  prelates 
in  Rome  decided  that  the  property  of  the  college 
should  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Propaganda.  With  regard  to  the  burses 
or  scholarships  founded,  it  w^as  agreed  that  when 
they  were  vacant,  one-half  of  the  proceeds  should 
go  to  the  college  and  the  other  half  to  the  diocese  to 
which  the  burse  belonged.  There  are  now  (1906) 
thirty-five  burses  founded  in  the  college.  The  Rev. 
Dr.  McCloskey  was  made  Bishop  of  Louisville,  Ken- 
tucky, in  1868,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Francis  Silas  Chatard,  who  remained  rector 
until  12  May,  1878,  when  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Vincennes,  Indiana.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Louis  Hostlot, 
vice-rector  of  the  college,  succeeded  Dr.  Chatard,  and 
remained  in  office  tiU  his  death,  1  February,  1884. 
Then  for  a  time  the  Rev.  Dr.  Augustin  J.  Schulte 
governed  the  college,  until  the  election  of  the  Rev. 
Dennis  J.  O'Connell,  D.D.,  now  Rector  of  the 
Catholic  University  at  Washington.  He  resigned  in 
July,  1895,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  W^illiam 
H.  O'Connell,  D.D.,  who  became  Bishop  of  Port- 
land, Maine,  in  1901.  The  Right  Rev.  Monsignor 
Thomas  F.  Kennedy,  of  Philadelphia,  succeeded  him. 
Under  Dr.  Kennedy's  rectorship  property  adjoining 
the  college  was  purchased,  in  November,  1903,  at  a 
cost  of  850,000.  His  predecessor.  Dr.  William  H. 
O'Connell,  had  purchased  for  S20,000  the  Villa 
Santa  Catarina,  at  Castel  Gandolfo,  as  a  simimer 
residence  for  the  students.  At  the  present  time 
(May,  1906)  their  mnnber  is  one  hundred  and  fif- 
teen, the  largest  number  the  college  has  ever  had. 
The  college  has  an  Alumni  Association  in  the  United 
States  comprising  two  hundred  and  se\enty-fi\e 
members,  out  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  students  who 
ha\'e  been  ordained  priests  in  the  college.  This  asso- 
ciation made  a  contribution  of  825,000  to  the  fund 
for  the  recent  acqtiisition  of  new  property  by  the 
college.  Besides  the  late  Archbishop  Corrigan,  of 
New  York,  the  following  American  prelates,  who 
arc  still  living,  studied  theology  in  the  college: 
Archbishops  Farley,  of  New  York;  Moeller,  of  Cin- 
cinnati; O'Connell,  of  Boston;  Bishops  Richter,  of 
Grand  Rapids;  Burke,  of  St.  Jo.seph,  Mo.;  Horst- 
mann,  of  Cleveland;  McDonnell,  of  Brooklyn;  Hoban, 
of  Scranton;  Hooker,  of  Jaro,  P.  I.;  Dougherty,  of 
Nucva  Segovia,  P.  I.;  Morris,  Coadjutor,  of  Little 
Rock.  Archbishop  Riordan,  of  San  Francisco,  and 
Archbishop  Seton,  as  well  as  Bishops  Byrne,  of 
Nashville,  Keiley,  of  Savannah,  O'Connor,  of  New- 
ark, N.  J.,  and  Northnip,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  are 
partially  indebted  to  this  institution  for  their  train- 
mg  in  theology.  By  his  brief,  Ubi  primnm,  25  Oc- 
Ui\)PT,  1884,  Leo  XIII  rai.sed  the  American  College  to 
the  rank  of  a  Pontifical  College.  The  administration 
of  the  college  is  controllc<l  by  a  board  composed  of 
the  archbishons  of  Baltimore,  Boston,  New  York, 
»nil  Philadelphia.     Its  internal  management  and  dis- 


cipline are  entrusted  to  the  rector,  who  is  assisted  by 
the  vice-rector  and  by  the  spiritual  director.  The 
students  attend  the  lectures,  and  are  subject  to  the 
academic  regulations,  of  the  Urban  College  of  Propa- 
ganda. The  curriculum  of  the  last-named  institu- 
tion comprises  a  two-years'  course  in  philosophy  and 
a  four-years'  course  in  theology.  Supplementary 
lectures  are  given  in  the  American  College  on  the 
subjects  treated  in  Propaganda. 

The  most  interesting  incident  in  the  history  of  the 
American  College  was  the  attempt  of  the  Italian 
government,  after  the  taking  of  Rome,  to  seize  the 
college  property.  Italian  statutes  of  15  August, 
1866,  and  of  7  July,  1867,  confiscated  to  the  State 
the  property  of  religious  corporations.  A  law  of 
1873  applied  the  general  law  to  the  City  of  Rome. 
The  Propaganda  had  for  ten  years  contended  in  the 
courts  that  these  laws  did  not  apply  to  its  property; 
but  the  highest  Italian  court  on  the  29th  of  Janu- 
ary, 1884,  decided  the  case  in  favour  of  the  State. 
Cardinal  McCloskey  and  Archbishop  Corrigan,  his 
coadjutor,  wrote  a  joint  letter  on  the  3d  of  March, 
1884,  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  Chester 
A.  Arthur,  begging  him  to  "ask  tlie  King  of  Italy 
for  a  stay  of  proceedings,  if  it  be  not  possible  further- 
more to  exempt  the  institution  as  virtually  American 
property  from  the  operation  of  the  law ".  Arch- 
bishop Corrigan,  who,  for  a  long  time,  was  secretary 
of  the  board  of  bishops,  having  charge  of  the  affairs 
of  the  American  College,  sent  special  letters  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Frelinghuysen,  who  wrote 
on  the  5th  of  March,  1884,  to  Mr.  Astor,  the  Ameri- 
can Minister  at  Rome,  urging  him  to  use  his  influence 
with  the  Italian  government  to  save  the  college 
property  because  "although  technically  the  Ameri- 
can College  is  held  by  the  Propaganda,  it  is  virtually 
American  property,  and  its  reduction  would  be 
attended  with  the  sacrifice  of  interests  almost  ex- 
clusively American".  The  efforts  of  President  Ar- 
thur, Secretary  Frelinghuysen,  and  Mr.  Astor,  sug- 
gested and  urged  by  the  cardinal  and  his  coadjutor, 
saved  the  college;  and  on  the  2Sth  of  March,  1884, 
Mr.  Astor  sent  a  telegram  from  Rome,  announcing 
that  the  college  had  been  exempted  from  the  effect 
of  the  Italian  statutes  of  confiscation. 

Compiled  from  documents  given  to  the  author  by  the  late 
Archbi-;hop  Corrigan.  See  also  Annual  Reports  of  the  Aiumni 
Association. 

Henry  A.  Brann. 

American  College, The,  xv  LoDV.\iN,an  institution 
for  tlio  (■duration  of  priests.  Its  official  title  is  "The 
American  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
the  Bles.sed  Virgin  Mary".  It  was  founded  in  1857, 
with  the  cordial  support  of  the  Belgian  hierarchy,  by 
two  American  bishops,  the  Rt.  Rev.  M.  J.  Spalding, 
then  Bishop  of  Louisville,  Ky. ,  later  Archbishop  of 
Baltimore,  and  the  Rt.  Rev.  P.  P.  Lefevre,  Adminis- 
trator of  the  Diocese  of  Detroit,  Mich.  Its  purpose 
was,  on  the  one  hand,  to  enable  American-born  stu- 
dents to  pursue  thorough  courses  of  theology  in 
Europe,  while  familiarizing  themselves  with  the  hin- 
guages,  usages,  and  customs  of  the  t)ld  World;  on 
the  other  hand,  to  afford  young  men  of  various  Euro- 
pean nationalities  an  easy  means  of  ijreparation  for 
the  work  of  the  ministry  in  America,  thus  jircscnting 
to  the  bishops  an  opportunity  of  adopting  well-trained 
subjects  for  their  several  dioceses.  Originally,  the 
college  was  established  only  for  the  instruction  of  stu- 
dents in  elementar)'  and  advanced  theology.  They 
were  supposed  to  liave  studied  philosophy,  either  in 
America  or  in  one  of  the  preparatory  seminaries  of 
Europe.  The  actual  scope  of  the  college  is  some- 
what wider.  In  October,  1906,  a  faculty  oi  phi- 
losophy was  organized  providing  a  two-years'  course 
for  students  who  have  successfully  completed  their 
classical   studies. 

Although  the  bishops  mentioned  above  took  the 


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425 


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initiative  in  establishing  the  college,  its  field  of  action 
has  by  no  means  been  confined  to  their  two  dioccstM. 
The  co-operation  of  all  the  dioceses  of  tiie  United 
States  has  been  rciiuestcd,  and  several  ecclesiastical 
provinces  situated  in  British-American  territory  have 
taken  part  in  tlie  work.  These  include  the  Archdio- 
cese of  Victoria,  H.  C,  with  tlic  siitTragan  see  of  New 
Westminster,  and  tlio  .Archdiocese  of  Port  of  Spain, 
Trinidad,  witli  tlie  sutTragan  see  of  Roseau.  Among 
the  American  bishops  who  enjoy  s|)ecial  rights  in  con- 
nection witli  the  college  arc  tlio.se  who  have  donated 
to  its  fund  the  sum  of  SI, 000,  becoming  thereby 
Patrons  of  the  Cnllcge.  To  them  the  constitutions 
approved  by  the  Holy  See  in  ISO.'j  accord  precedence 
in  the  matter  of  sending  students  to  the  college,  as 
also  in  tlie  adoption  of  its  graduates  for  their  dio- 
ceses. In  the  event  of  the  college  being  closed,  they 
wo\ild  have  certain  claims  upon  its  property.     The 


patronal  dioceses  are  at  present  seventeen  in  numtx^r: 
Detroit,  Louisville,  Natchez,  Oregon  City,  Baltimore, 
Nesqually,  Victoria,   B.  C,   Hartford,  Buffalo,  Port 


of  Spain,  New  Orleans,  Richmond,  Newark,  Leaven- 
worth, Helena,  Belleville,  and  Tucson.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  set  a  valuation  upon  the  property  held 
at  present  by  the  college.  It  may,  however,  be 
safely  stated  that  since  its  foundation  SUO.OOO  hiis 
been  expended  in  the  purchase  of  ground  and  in  the 
erertion  of  buildings  which  provide  ample  accom- 
modation for  150  students.  As  it  was  found  im- 
practicable for  the  bishops  patrons  to  e.xert  per- 
manent and  effectual  control  of  the  college  by  their 
collective  action,  the  Third  Plenarj'  Council  of  Balti- 
more resolved  to  appoint  a  committee  of  three 
bishops  duly  qualified  to  rejiresent  the  American 
hierarchy  in  the  management  of  the  college.  The 
members  of  the  committee  are  at  present  the  Right 
Rev.  C.  P.  Maes  (Covington),  Cliairman;  Most  Rev. 
P.  W.  Riordan  (San  Kranci.sco);  Right  Rev.  J.  L. 
Spalding  (Peoria).  The  rector  of  the  college  is  also 
subject,  as  regards  both  spiritual  and  temporal 
administration,  to  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda. 
This  Congregation  appoints  the  rector  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  committee  of  l>isho|>s  and  after 
consultation  with  the  college  faculty;  and  gives  him 
ample  authority  in  the  matter  of  ordaining  students. 
His  annual  report  on  the  condition  of  the  college 
must  be  sent  to  Propaganda  as  well  as  to  the  com- 
mittee of  bishops. 

\s  to  the  courses  followed  by  the  students,  that 
of  advanced  theology  has  Ijcen  taken,  from  the  first, 
by  students  sulficiently  well  trained  to  try  for  the 
degrees  given  at  Louvain.  Of  the.se,  Bi.shop  Riorilun 
and  Bishop  Spalding  were  made  licentiates  of  theology 
in  1S65  and  18(50.  Most  of  the  students,  however, 
take  the  elementary  course  of  theologj'  which,  until 
1877,  was  given,  partly  at  the  Catholic  University 
and  partly  at  the  college,  by  professors  appointed  by 
the  rector.  The  course  having  been  abolished  at  the 
university  in  1877,  the  -students  were  allowed  to 
follow  the  lectures  given  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  on 
such  subjects  as  were  not  treated  in  the  college, 
namely,  moral  theology  (in  part),  and  Holy  Scripture. 
In  1898  the  Belgian  hierarchy,  at  the  request  of  the 
committee  of  .\merican  bishops,  established  a  full 
course  of  elementary  theology  at  the  university, 
which  is  now  followed  by  the  students  of  the  Ameri- 
can College,  and  by  tlio.se  of  various  other  seminaries 
and  religious  communities.  Certain  branches,  how- 
ever, such  as  piLstoral  theology,  liturgy,  sacred  elo- 
quence, and  modern  languages,  are  taught  at  the 
college  by  profes,sors  l)clonging  to  the  institution. 

From  its  foundation  to  the  present  day,  the  college 
has  given  four  archbishoiw  to  the  hierarchy  of  the 
Church:  Charles  John  Segliers  (Oregon  City),  il.  ISXIi; 
Francis  Jan-ssens  (New  Orleans),  d.  1S97;  P.  W. 
Riordan  (San  Francisco);  B.  Orth  (Victoria,  B.  C.); 
and  eleven  bishops,  namely:  A.  Junger  (Nesqually), 


d.  1895;  J.  Lemmens  (Vancouver  Island),  d.  1897; 
J.  B.  Brondel  (Helena),  d.  1903;  A.  J.  Glorieux 
(Boise);  C.  P.  Maes  (Covington);  J.  L.  Spalding 
(Peoria);  A.  Van  de  Vyver  (Richmond);  T.  Meer- 
schaert  (Oklahoma);  J.  J.  O'Connor  (Newark);  \Vm. 
Stang  (Fall  River);  Joseph  J.  Fo.x  (fireen  Bay). 
It  has  sent  GGl  priests  to  America,  506  of  whom  are 
living  and  who  are  distributed  as  follows  in  the 
various  provinces:  Baltimore,  25;  Boston,  35;  Chi- 
cago, 69;  Cincinnati,  122;  Dubuque,  19;  Milwaukee, 
31;  New  Orleans,  05;  New  York,  01;  Oregon  City, 
68;  Philadelphia,  25;  St.  Ix)uis,  74;  St.  Paul,  20; 
San  Francisco,  4;  Santa  F6,  23;  Victoria,  B.  C,  16; 
Port  of  .Spain,  4.  There  were  72  students  entered 
on  the  rolls  of  the  college  in  1906;  62  in  advanced 
or  elementary  theology,  and  10  in  philosophy. 

The  college  has  had  four  rectors  since  its  inception, 
namely:  the  Very  Rev.  P.  Kindekens,  1857-60;  the 
Right  Rev.  Mon.signor  J.  De  Neve,  1860-91;  the 
Right  Rev.  Monsignor  Willemsen,  who  held  the  office 
from  1891  to  189S,  when  the  present  incumbent,  the 
Very  Rev.  J.  De  Becker,  xssumed  the  charge.  During 
the  ill  health  of  Monsignor  De  Neve  the  Right  Rev. 
Mon.signor  Dumont  acted  as  pro-rector  from  1871 
to  1S73,  and  the  Rev.  J.  Pulsers  from  1873  to  1881. 
Moreover,  since  the  approval  of  the  constitution  of 
the  college  by  tlie  Holy  See  in  1895,  and  the  exact 
definition  of  the  duties  of  a  vice-rector,  this  office  has 
been  held,  first,  by  the  Very  Rev.  Wm.  Slang,  D.D. 
(1895-99),  now  Bishop  of  Fall  River,  and  by  the  Rev. 
P.  Masson,  who  is  also  [irofessor  of  pastoral  theologj-, 
liturgy,  and  sacred  eloquence.  Tnere  are  21  pro- 
fessors who  give,  at  the  University  and  at  the  College, 
the  lectures  attended  by  all,  or  some  of  the  students. 

Am.  Eccl.  Rev..  March,  1897;  Oraiion  /unibrc  de  Mir: 
Jean  de  Neve  (l.ouvain,  IS98);  LEglise  auzEtaUUnu  (I.0U- 
vaiii,  1901);  I.e  College  Amrricain  el  sun  actum  au  point  de  iu« 
Icontimique  (Mons.  1905.  three  pamphlets  by  J.  De  Bkcker); 
Ammcun  Coll^ae  HulUlin  (Ixjuvain,  1903-07);  Anntuiire  de 
lUuivtrsili  CaOului<ie  0900). 

J.  A.  M.  DE  Becker. 

American  College,  The  South,  in  Rome  flegal 
title.  CoLLEGio  Pio-L.\tino-Americano  Pontificio). 
— The  Rev.  Ignatius  Victor  Eyzaguirre,  after  hav- 
ing spent  many  years  in  Chile,  his  native  countr)-, 
in  different  works  for  the  salvation  of  souls,  went 


South  .Xmeripan  College.  Home 

to  Rome,  in  18.i7,  and  proposed  to  the  Pope  the 
erection  of  a  college  for  students,  from  "Latin" 
American  countries,  i.  e.  where  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  languages  are  spoken.  Pius  IX,  who 
had  been  .\postolic  Delegate  in  Chile,  grantc<l  letters 
of  approbation,  and  urged  the  bisho|is  to  send  stu- 
dents and  to  help  the  foundation  by  procuring  funds 
for  the  maintetiance  of  the  seminarj-.  Father  Kyza- 
guirre  went  back  to  South  .\tiierica,  collected  some 
money,  and  relurnefl  to  Rome  with  a  few  students. 
He  rented  a  small  house  for  these  students  and  some 
otiiers  who  arrived  later.  They  were  fifteen  in  all. 
Pius  IX  ordered  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 
to  direct  the  new  college,  and  they  oix>ne<l  the 
college  on  21  November,  1858.  In  December,  18.")9, 
Pius  IX  helped  to  purchase  a  larger  house,  belonging 


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to  the  Dominicans,  near  their  Church  of  the  Minerva. 
He  also  bought  with  liis  own  money  a  villa  and  a 
vineyard  for  the  use  of  the  college,  and  made  Mon- 
signor  Eyzaguirre  protonotary-apostolic.  Towards 
the  beginning  of  1800  he  sent  this  prelate  back  to 
South  America  as  ablegate  of  the  Holy  See,  to  urge 
the  bishops  again  to  co-operate  on  a  larger  scale  in 
procuring  the  necessary  means  for  the  support  of 
the  college.  At  the  same  time  he  himself  contributed 
a  large  sum  of  money  to  the  new  house.  During 
the  year  1S64  Pius  IX  sent  to  the  college  a  great 
variety  of  boolis  from  his  own  private  library, 
ordered  a  new  chapel  to  be  erected  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, and  furnished  it  with  magnificent  vestments, 
and  on  the  21  November,  the  sixth  anniversary  of 
its  foundation,  visited  the  college  in  person.  For 
all  this  and  many  other  favours  he  is  considered 
the  principal,  if  not  the  first,  founder  of  the  South 
American  College.  The  number  of  students  con- 
tinually increasing,  the  superiors  had  to  look  for 
another  dwelling.  Through  the  assistance  of  His 
Eminence  Cardinal  Sacconi,  protector  of  the  college, 
part  of  the  old  novitiate  of  the  Jesuits,  on  the 
Quirinal,  which  since  the  year  1848  had  been  used 
for  a  French  military  hospital,  was  secured,  the 
house  near  the  Minerva  sold,  and  the  new  residence 
occupied  on  IS  April,  1867,  the  feast  of  the  Patronage 
of  St.  Joseph,  to  whom  the  college  had  been  dedi- 
cated. As  the  centenary  of  the  martyrdom  of 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  occurred  in  this  year,  many 
South  American  bishops  visiting  Rome  brought  new 
students,  and  the  number  reached  fifty-nine.  After 
the  festivities  of  the  centenary  Pius  IX,  almost  un- 
announced, went  to  the  new  college,  assisted  at 
an  "academy",  and  allowed  his  name  to  be  added 
to  its  legal  title,  making  it  "Collegio  Pio-Latino- 
Americano".  In  1870  the  bishops  attending  the 
Vatican  Council  increased  the  number  of  students 
to  eigiity-two.  In  1871,  the  Italian  government 
having  expelled  the  Jesuits  from  the  small  part  of 
the  novitiate  they  occupied,  acceded  to  the  request 
of  the  Brazilian  Emperor  and  permitted  the  South 
American  College  to  remain  where  it  was  until  a 
suitable  house  should  be  found.  The  new  rector, 
the  Rev.  Agostino  .Santinelli,  S.J.,  bought  a  new 
site  in  the  Prati  di  Castello,  not  far  from  the  Vatican, 
and  near  the  Tiber.  The  foundation  stone  was 
blessed  on  29  June,  1884,  by  the  protector,  Cardi- 
nal Sacconi,  in  presence  of  a  large  assemblage, 
among  whom  was  the  Most  Rev.  Father  Peter  Beclcx, 
General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  then  living  in  the 
American  College.  The  work  of  building  began  im- 
mediately, and  Father  Santinelli,  putting  into  execu- 
tion the  plans  for  a  grand  college  he  had  fostered  for 
very  many  years,  saw  the  splendid  building  finished 
in  1887-88.  During  this  last  year  the  new  liouse 
received  ninety  students,  but  it  can  accommodate 
more  than  120.  It  has  a  splendid  chapel,  an  as- 
sembly hall  with  a  capacity  for  400  persons,  a  very 
spacious  dining  room  for  the  students,  and  several 
small  apartments  for  American  bishops  visiting 
Rome.  It  was  here  that  the  first  General  Council 
of  r,atin  America  (28  May— 9  July,  1899)  was  held. 
There  were  present  fifty-three  prelates,  archbisliops, 
and  bishops,  of  whom  twenty-nine  took  up  their 
quarters  in  the  college,  together  with  their  secre- 
taries and  servants.  The  solemn  opening  took  place 
in  the  college  chapel,  and  all  the  sessions  wore  hold 
there.  In  the  same  chapel  on  20  March,  lOO.'i,  the 
("ardinal  Protector,  Joseph  C.  Vivos  y  Tuto.  solemnly 
t)ubhshcd  the  Apostolic  Constitution  "Sedis  Apos- 
tohca'.  providam'',  by  which  His  Holiness  granted 
tlie  title  of  "Pontifical"  to  the  college  and  com- 
mitted its  direction  in  prrpctmim  to  the  Society  of 
JcsiLs.  This  constitution,  wliich  had  boon  solicited 
by  I  lie  bi.shops  during  the  council,  and  promised  by 
1.01)  XIII,  has  been  completed  and  given  by  Pius  X; 


it  fixes  the  fundamental  rules  of  the  college  already 
tested  by  so  many  years  of  experience,  and  on  this 
acco\int  it  is  recognized  as  the  Bull  of  foundation 
of  the  college.  There  were  104  alumni  present  at 
the  ceremony  besides  many  others;  the  Very  Rev. 
Aloysius  Caterini,  S.J.,  Provincial  of  the  Roman 
Province,  accepted  the  charge  in  the  name  of  the 
General  of  the  Society,  absent  through  sickness. 
The  college,  during  its  existence  of  nearly  fifty  years, 
has  seen  twenty-five  of  its  former  students  made 
archbishops  or  bishops  in  their  native  countries, 
besides  many  others  created  doctors  in  philosophy, 
theology,  and  canon  law.  The  influence  of  all  these 
upon  the  development  of  religion  has  been  immense. 
A  number  of  the  seminaries  and  one  ecclesiastical 
university  in  Latin  America  have  taken  their  pro- 
fessors exclusively  from  the  alumni  of  the  college. 
Finally,  in  1906,  the  high  tribute  of  etteem  was 
paid  the  college  by  the  Holy  See,  in  the  choice, 
from  amongst  the  students  formed  within  its  walls, 
of  the  first  cardinal  of  Latin  America:  Monsignor  Joa- 
quin Arcoverde  de  Albuquerque-Cavalcanti,  Arch- 
bishop of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil.         P.  X.  Vella. 

American  Party.     See  Know-Nothingism. 

American  Protective  Association,  The,  usually 
known  as  "the  A.  P.  A.",  a  secret  proscriptive  so- 
ciety in  the  LTnited  States,  which  became  a  disturb- 
ing factor  in  most  of  the  Northern  States  during  the 
period  1891-97.  Its  purpose  was  indicated  clearly 
enough  by  its  open  activity  in  arranging  lectures  by 
"ex-priests",  distributing  anti-Catholic  literature  and 
opposing  the  election  of  Catholics  to  public  offices. 
Of  the  A.  P.  A.  ritvial  and  obligations  there  was 
frequent  publication  during  the  years  1893-94,  now- 
divulged  by  spies,  and  now  admitted  by  ex-members. 
What  purports  to  be  a  full  exhibit  of  these  oaths 
may  be  found  in  the  "Congressional  Record",  31  Oc- 
tober, 1893,  in  the  petition  of  H.  M.  Youmans  for 
the  unseating  of  Representative-in-Congress  William 
S.  Linton.  These  oaths  bound  members  "at  all 
times  to  endeavour  to  place  the  political  positions 
of  this  government  in  the  hands  of  Protestants  to 
the  entire  exclusion  of  the  Roman  Catholics"  etc. 
The  first  Council  of  the  A.  P.  A.  was  established 
13  March,  1887,  at  Clinton,  Iowa.  The  founder  was 
Henry  F.  Bowers,  a  lawyer  of  that  town,  a  Mary- 
lander  by  birth,  and  then  in  his  sixtieth  year.  The 
order  seems  to  have  spread  slowly.  Its  first  out- 
cropping in  local  politics  occurred  in  1891  at  Omaha, 
Neb.,  where  it  endorsed  the  Republican  ticket  and 
swept  the  town  (heretofore  Democratic)  by  a  large 
majority.  The  A.  P.  A.  seems  to  have  moved  down 
the  Missouri  river  from  Omaha.  In  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas City  was  its  first  conspicuous  base.  After  the 
fall  election  of  1892,  a  delegation  representing  the 
A.  P.  A.  of  Kansas  City  asked  Governor-elect  Stone 
to  blacklist  all  Catholics  when  making  appointments. 
"Your  association",  replied  Governor  Stone,  "is  un- 
democratic and  un-American,  and  I  am  opposed  to 
it.  I  haven't  a  drop  of  Know-Nothing  blood  in  my 
veins".  The  following  cities  are  among  the  more 
important  which  were  generally  regarded  as  under 
A.  P.  A.  political  dominance  during  all,  or  a  portion, 
of  the  period  of  1893-90:  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  Rock- 
ford  (111.),  Toledo,  Duluth,  Saginaw,  Louisville;  and, 
to  some  extent,  Detroit,  St.  Louis,  and  Denver.  In 
New  York  its  principal  activity  was  at  Buffalo  and 
Rochester.  Pennsylvania  (where  the  so-called 
patriotic  societies  were  numerous),  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island  were  also  overrun, 
politically,  by  the  new  order.  It  was  particularly 
militant  in  California.  If  we  except  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  the  A.  P.  A.  made  but  little  impre-ssion 
in  the  South,  althovigh  there  were  mild  outcroppings 
in  Georgia  and  Texas. 

The  most  interesting  aspect  of  the  movement,  the 


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427 


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course  and  methods  of  its  early  growth,  the  condi- 
tions and  provocations,  if  any.  wliicli  gave  it  siu-ii  a 
widespread  and  iiuinerovis  following  are  precisely  the 
xs[wcts  which  are  most  hidden,  and  most  dillicult  to 
delerniine.  A  marked  loosening  of  party  ties  in 
1S!)J,  and  the  hard  times  and  industrial  unrest  of 
1893  undoubtedly  assisted  the  A.  I'.  A.  movement. 
Its  founder,  Henry  F.  Howers,  informs  the  writer 
that  the  coming  of  Monsignor  Satolli,  i)apal  delegate, 
was  the  greatest  single  stimulus  the  movement  re- 
ceived. Capital  was  also  made  out  of  parochial- 
school  questions,  then  nmch  current  in  the  [)ublic 
press,  the  Faribault  .system  in  Minnesota,  the  Ed- 
wards law  in  Illinois,  and  the  Heiuiett  law  in  Wiscon- 
sin. From  Boston  a  "Committee  of  One  Hundred" 
flooded  the  press  and  the  legislatures,  from  l.SS.s  to 
1892,  with  "anti-Komanist"  documents.  Writing  in 
"The  Century  .Magazine"  for  March,  1.S94,  the  Uev. 
Washington  (iladden  tells  us  that  the  A.  P.  A. 
movement  began  operations  in  each  locality  where 
it  spread  by  "the  furtive  distribution  of  certain 
documents  calculated  to  engender  fear  and  distrust 
of  the  Catholics".  t)f  these  documents  there  were, 
he  says,  two:  one  purporting  to  be  instructions  to 
Catholics,  apparently  bearing  the  signature  of  eight 
prelates  of  the  Catholic  Church;  and  the  other,  the 
famous  "papal  bull",  or  encyclical,  calling  for  the 
ma.s3acre  of  the  Protestants  "on  or  about  the  feast 
of  St.  Ignatius  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  1893".  The 
A.  P.  A.  movement  began  to  develop  a  press  early 
in  1893;  and  in  1894  seventy  A.  P.  A.  weeklies  were 
in  existence.  Nearly  all  of  these  were  publications 
of  very  limited  circulation,  few  of  them  printing,  ex- 
cept around  election  time,  more  than  a  thousand 
copies.  They  used  "  plate  matter"  and  kept  "stan<l- 
ing"  several  columns  of  reading  defamatory  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  such  as  alleged  Jesuit  and  Cardinal 
oatlis,  "canon  law",  and  a  list  of  luiauthenticated 
"ipiotations"  ascribed  to  Catholic  sources.  What 
Ignatius  Donnelly  said  in  the  course  of  his  discu.ssion 
with  "Prof."  Sims  aptly  applied  to  this  matter: 
"I  want  to  say,  my  friends,  that  I  do  not  believe  in 
some  of  the  authorities  ipioted  by  the  professor 
[Sims];  I  doubt  their  authenticity.  When  he  comes 
up  here  and  admits  that  the  A.  P.  .\.  organization 
sent  out  an  encyclical  of  the  Pope  that  was  bogus 
and  published  documents  which  were  forgeries,  he 
casts  doubt  on  every  tlocument  he  may  produce. 
False  in  one  thing,  fal.se  in  all".  Very  naturally, 
Catholic  citizens  vigorously  opposed  the  A.  P.  A., 
and  everj'where  had  the  l)cst  of  the  battle  in  the 
open  forum.  Their  press  was  unremitting  in  its  as- 
sault upon  the  new  movement.  Public  meetings  and 
anti-.\.  P.  \.  lectures  and  pamphlets  were  among 
the  means  employed.  Here  and  there  associatinns 
were  formed  for  purpo.ses  of  defence;  and  in  many 
places  the  council  meetings  of  the  A.  P.  A.  were 
systematically  watched,  and  lists  of  the  members 
procured  and  circulated.  I'nder  the  stress  of  public 
discussion  the  secret  movement  was  at  a  di.sadvan- 
tiige,  and  time  and  a;^ain  A.  P.  A.  leader>4  confessed 
the  desirability  of  di.scarding  their  .secret  i7iethods 
and  coming  out  in  the  open,  and  also  casting  aside 
the  intolerant  features  of  their  movement. 

Professor  .Johnston,  explaining  in  "The  American 
Encyclopedia  of  Politics"  the  failure  and  sudden  col- 
lapse of  the  American  party  after  18.54,  says:  "The 
existence  of  a  secret  and  oath-lx)und  party  was  al- 
ways an  anachronism  in  an  age  and  a  covmtrj'  where 
free  jxilitical  discussion  is  assured".  This  al.so  was 
tnie  of  the  A.  P.  A.  Expressions  of  disapproval  of 
the  Pi..  P.  A.  were  evokea  from  prominent  men  in 
public  life,  such  as  dovemor  Peck  of  Wisconsin,  (Gov- 
ernor .Mtgeld  of  Illinois,  Senators  Vilas,  Hoar,  Vest, 
and  Hill,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  and  Speaker  Hender- 
son. Democratic  conventions,  and  in  some  instances 
Republican   conventions,  denounced   the  movement 


by  resolution.  The  A.  P.  A.  reached  its  high  tide 
in  1894.  President  Traynor,  in  the  "  North  American 
Keview"  (June,  189()),  says  that  twenty  ineml^ers 
of  the  Fifty-fourth  Congress  (1.89.5-97)  were  members 
of  the  order,  and  "one  hundred  were  elected  by  it 
and  went  back  on  it".  Traynor  also,  in  this  connec- 
tion refers  to  the  A.  P.  A.  as  "so  dominant  before, 
and  .so  insignificant  after  election".  He  claimed  for 
it  (June,  1.S9U)  a  memljership  of  2,.5(H),0(J0,  and 
threatened  that  should  the  old  parties  refuse  to  en- 
dorse its  e.s.sential  principles,  "it  is  absolutely  cer- 
tain to  put  up  an  indcfx^ndent  presidential  ticket". 
On  the  other  hand,  Profes.sor  Walter  Sims,  at  first 
an  A.  P.  A.  lecturer  and  afterwards  the  founder  of 
a  rival  organization,  sf)eaking  in  Minneapolis  in  1895, 
said:  "It  is  a  great  bugaboo.  .  ,  .  There  is  not  a 
membership  in  the  I'nited  States  of  120,000,  but 
they  call  it  a  million".  The  truth  lay  somewhere 
between  the  calculating  boiistfulncss  of  Traynor  and 
the  resentful  disparagement  of  Sims.  There  is  no 
retison  to  think  that  in  its  palmiest  days  the  A.  P.  A. 
could  count  on  its  roster  of  membershi])  over  a  mil- 
lion voters.  Numerically,  it  never  equalled  the  old 
American  party  of  18.54-.57,  which  once  had  five 
I'nited  States  senators  and  twenty-three  congress- 
men wearing  its  livery. 

Unlike  the  Know-N'othing  movement,  the  .\.  P.  A. 
did  not  form  a  distinct  [larty.  Its  |)olitical  activity 
consisted  in  capturing  Republican  primaries  and  con- 
ventions, and  promoting  local  candidacies.  Also 
unlike  the  Know-Nothing  party,  it  invite<l  and  ad- 
mitted to  memlx!rsliip  thousands  of  foreign-born 
persons.  In  southeastern  Michigan  the  strongest 
element  in  the  A.  P.  A.  were  Anglo-Canadians;  in 
Milwaukee,  the  (lennans  |)redomiiiated;  and  in  Min- 
neapolis, Scandinavians.  Few  men  of  any  promi- 
nence in  public  life  wi-re  members  of  the  A.  P.  A., 
although  it  undoubtedly  initiated  a  number  of  mayors 
and  sheriffs  throughout  tlie  West;  with  the  exception 
of  Governor  William  ( ).  Bra<lley,  of  Kentucky,  and 
Representative-in-C<ingrcss  William  S.  Linton,  of 
Michigan,  no  men  of  higher  than  local  olficial  dig- 
nity openly  acknowledged  fealty  to  the  order.  In 
1895  the  A  P.  A.  was  overthrown  in  the  earliest 
stronghold,  Saginaw,  .Mich.,  and  in  189()  its  defeat 
here  was  further  emphasized  by  the  failure  of  Re|> 
resentative-in-Congre.ss  Linton  to  secure  a  re-election. 
The  Bryan  wave  cleared  Omaha  and  the  Nebraska 
field  of  A.  P.  A-ism,  and  in  Toledo  "(loldcn  Rule" 
Jones  deprived  it  of  its  last  local  citadel,  in  1S97. 
The  A.  P.  A,  national  organization  made  a  spasmodic 
effort  to  prevent  the  nomination  of  William  McKin- 
ley  in  189li,  and  when  the  futility  of  this  elTort  was 
apparent  the  plan  was  to  secure  recognition  in  the 
Republican  national  platform  for  one  or  more  of  the 
principles  of  the  order,  preferably  for  that  opposing 
appropriations  to  sectarian  institutions.  This  also 
failed.  President-elect  McKinley's  appointment 
(March,  1897)  of  a  Catholic  (Judge  McKenna,  of 
California)  in  his  first  cabinet  probably  Ix'st  illus- 
trates the  subsequent  estimate  that  the  Republican 
leaders  had  of  the  importance  of  the  A.  P.  A.,  or  of 
the  necessity  of  being  regardful  of  its  resentments; 
and  although  this  act  of  the  new  administration,  as 
well  as  the  appointment  of  Bellamy  Storer  to  an 
important  diplomatic  mission,  and  of  Terence  V. 
Powderly  as  Commissioner  of  Immigration,  <lrew 
forth  bitter  protests  from  the  prescriptive  leaders, 
there  was  not  a  ripple  of  antagonism  in  cither  house 
of  Congress  or  in  any  of  thi'  great  n(>wsp;q>er  organs 
of  the  party.  It  may  have  been  that  many  Repub- 
lican leaders  rather  enjoyed  the  discomfiture  of  the 
A.  P.  A.,  in  ^new  of  the  swaggering  tone  its  followers 
had  iussumed  in  its  more  prosix>rous  days.  For  not 
a  few  prominent  Republicans,  like  .Senators  Hoar  and 
Hawley,  Thomas  B.  Reed,  Levi  P.  Morton,  and  John 
Sherman,  hud  been  made  the  targets  of  its  bitter  at- 


AMERICANISM 


428 


AMICE 


tack  and  innuendo.  la  fact,  it  seems  probable  that 
during  tlie  years  1894-9(5,  the  A.  P.  A.  was  consid- 
erably more  of  a  vexation  to  the  leaders  of  the  Re- 
publican party  than  to  the  prelates  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  loss  of  prestige  due  to  these  several 
notable  discomfitures  in  national  politics  told  on  the 
membership  of  the  A.  P.  A.  Its  councils  failed  to 
meet,  its  state  organizations  fell  into  desuetude,  and, 
although  it  prcser\ed  its  national  organization  by 
elections  up  to  1900,  its  historj-  may  be  said  to  have 
closed  for  all  purposes  of  general  mterest.  H.  F. 
Bowers  was  re-elected  its  national  president  m  1S98, 
an  office  which  he  still  holds  (1906).  Although  the 
A.  P.  A.  had  a  platform  calling  for  not  a  few  changes 
in  the  laws,  and  in  the  policies  of  government,  it 
failed  to  establish  any  of  its  demands,  or  to  bring 
into  our  history  any  new  departure  in  statecraft. 
I'pon  two  matters  only  did  the  A.  P.  A.  leave  a 
record,  though  a  rather  ineffective  one,  in  Congress. 
It  joined  in  the  opposition  prevalent  for  a  time  against 
further  grants  of  federal  money  to  the  Catholic  In- 
dian schools;  and  it  sought  to  prevent  the  accept- 
ance by  Congress  of  the  Marquette  statue,  presented 
by  the  State  of  Wisconsin  to  the  nation,  pursuant 
to  a  law  of  Congress. 

Hoar,  Autobiography  (New  York,  1904),  II,  278;  Hub- 
bard in  TheAretia,X,7&;  Robinson  in  Am.  Journal  of  Politics, 
V  504-  Gladden  in  The  Centura  Magazine,  XXV,  289;  Spald- 
ing in  N  Am  Review,  CLIX,  278;  Tratnor  in  JV.  Am.  Review, 
ibid.,  67;  CLXII,  658. 

Humphrey  J.  Desmond. 

Americanism.     See  Testem  Benevolenti.e. 

Amherst,  Francis  Kerril,  D.D.,  Bishop  of 
Northampton;  b.  at  London,  21  March,  1819;  d. 
21  August,  1883.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  William 
Kerril  Amherst,  of  Parndon,  County  Essex,  Esquire, 
and  of  iMary  Louisa,  daughter  of  Francis  Fortescue 
Turville,  of  Bosworth  Hall,  County  Leicester,  Es- 
quire. He  was  sent  to  Oscott  College  in  1S30,  and 
after  eight  years  left  it  with  no  intention  of  enter- 
ing the  ecclesiastical  state.  He  returned  to  Oscott, 
however,  in  1841,  and  was  ordained  priest  by  Cardi- 
nal (then  Bishop)  Wiseman,  6  June,  1846.  Shortly 
after,  he  joined  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  but 
returned  to  Oscott  once  more,  in  1855,  to  be  pro- 
fessor. After  eleven  months  in  this  position  he  was 
appointed  to  tlie  mission  of  Stafford,  and  thence, 
on  Bishop  Wareing's  resignation,  to  the  See  of 
Northampton.  He  was  consecrated  4  July,  1858. 
He  was  appointed  Assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne 
8  June,  1862.  He  resigned  his  see  in  1879,  owing  to 
ill  health,  and  the  following  year  was  translated  to 
Sozusa.  He  died  at  his  residence,  Fieldgate,  Kenil- 
worth,  County  Warwick,  21  August,  1883. 
GiLLow,  Bibl.  Diet,  of  Eng.  Catholics,  I,  28. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Amias,  John,  Venerable,  an  English  Martvr;  b.  at 
Wakefield;  d.  at  York,  16  March,  1589.  He  exer- 
cised the  trade  of  a  cloth-merchant  in  Wakefield 
until  the  death  of  his  wife,  when  he  divided  his 
property  among  his  children,  and  became  a  priest 
at  Reims  in  1,581.  Of  his  missionary  life  we  know 
little;  he  w;is  arrested  at  the  house  of  a  Mr.  Murton 
in  Lanca-shire,  taken  to  York,  and  tried  in  company 
with  two  other  martyrs,  Dalby  and  Dibdale.  An- 
thony (Dean)  Champney  was  present  at  their  execu- 
tion, of  which  he  has  left  an  account  in  his  history. 
Other  accounts  note  that  he  went  to  death  "as 
joyfully  as  if  to  a  feast ".  He  was  declared  Venerable 
in  1880. 

Ciialloner;  Foley,  Records  S.J.,  iii,  739;  Pollen,  Acta 
»f  English  Martyri  (London,  1891),  331. 

Patrick  Ryan. 

Amice,  a  short  linen  cloth,  square  or  oblong  in 
shape  and,  like  the  other  sacerdotal  vestments,  need- 
ing to  be  blessed  before  use.  The  purpo.se  of  this 
vestment,  which  is  the  first  to  be  put  on  by  the  priest 


in  vesting  for  the  Mass,  is  to  cover  the  shoulders,  and 
originally  also  the  head,  of  the  wearer.  Many  of  the 
older  religious  orders  still  wear  the  amice  after  the 
fashion  which  prevailed  in  the  Middle  Ages;  that  is 
to  say,  the  amice  is  first  laid  over  the  head  and  the 
ends  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  shoulders,  then  the 
other  vestments  from  the  alb  to  the  chasuble  are 
put  on,  and  finally,  on  reaching  the  altar,  the  priest 
folds  back  the  amice  from  the  head,  so  that  it  hangs 
around  the  neck  and  over  the  chasuble  like  a  small 
cowl.  In  this  way,  as  will  be  readily  understood, 
the  amice  forms  a  sort  of  collar,  effectively  protecting 
the  precious  material  of  the  chasuble  from  contact 
with  the  skin.  On  leaving  the  sanctuary,  the  amice 
is  again  pulled  up  over  the  head,  and  thus  both  in 
coming  and  going  it  serves  as  a  head-covering  in  heu 
of  the  modern  berretta.  Tliis  method  of  wearing  the 
amice  has  fallen  into  desuetude  for  the  clergy  at 
large,  and  the  only  surviving  trace  of  it  is  the  rubric 
directing  that,  in  putting  it  on,  the  amice  should  for 
a  moment  be  laid  upon  the  head  before  it  is  adjusted 
round  the  neck.  The  subdeacon  at  his  ordination 
receives  the  amice  from  the  hands  of  the  bishop,  who 
says  to  him  "  Receive  the  amice,  by  which  is  signified 
the  discipline  of  the  voice"  (castigatio  vocis).  This 
seems  to  have  reference  to  some  primitive  use  of  the 
amice  as  a  sort  of  muffler  to  protect  the  throat.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  prayer  which  the  clergy  are 
directed  to  say  in  assuming  this  vestment  speaks  of  it 
as  galeam  salutis,  "  the  helmet  of  salvation  against 
the  wiles  of  the  enemy",  thus  emphasizing  the  use 
as  a  head  covering.  Strictly  speaking,  tlie  amice, 
being  a  sacred  vestment,  ought  not  to  be  worn  by 
clerics  below  the  grade  of  subdeacon. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  the  amice  we  are  confronted 
by  the  same  difficulty  which  meets  us  in  the  case 
of  most  of  the  other  vestments,  viz.  the  impossibility 
of  determining  the  precise  meaning  of  the  expressions 
used  by  early  writers.  The  word  amictus,  which  is 
still  the  Latin  name  for  tliis  vestment,  and  from  wliich 
our  word  amice  is  derived,  seems  clearly  to  be  used 
in  its  present  sense  by  Amalarius  at  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth  century.  He  tells  us  that  this  amict'us  is 
the  first  vestment  put  on,  and  it  enfolds  the  neck 
(De  Eccles.  Offic,  II,  xN-ii,  in  P.  L.,  CV,  1094).  We 
may  also  probably  feel  confidence  in  identifying  with 
the  same  vestment  the  anagolagium  spoken  of  in  the 
first  Ordo  Romanus,  a  document  which  belongs  to  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century  or  earlier.  Anagolagium 
seems  to  be  merely  a  corruption  of  the  word  aiiabolium 
(or  anaholadium),  which  is  defined  by  St.  Isidore  of 
Se\nlle  as  a  sort  of  linen  wrap  used  by  women  to 
throw  over  their  shoulders,  otherwise  called  a  sitidon. 
There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  this  last  was  a 
liturgical  garment,  hence  we  must  conclude  that  we 
cannot  safely  trace  our  present  amice  farther  back 
than  the  above-mentioned  reference  in  the  first 
Roman  Ordo  (P.  L.,  LXVIII,  940).  It  is  curious 
that  this  anagolagium,  though  it  was  also  worn  by 
the  papal  deacon  and  subdeacon.  was  put  on  by  the 
Pope  over,  not  under,  the  alb.  To  this  day  the  Pope, 
when  pontificating,  wears  a  sort  of  second  amice  of 
stripcil  .'^ilk  called  a  fanon,  which  is  put  on  after  the 
alb  and  subsequently  folded  back  over  the  upper  part 
of  the  chasuble.  The  amice,  moreover,  in  the 
Ambrosial!  Rite  is  also  put  on  after  the  alb.  At  what 
date  the  amice  came  to  be  regarded  as  an  indispensa- 
ble part  of  the  priest's  hturgical  attire  is  not  quite 
clear;  for  both  Bishop  Theodulph  of  Orleans  (d.  821) 
and  Walafrid  Strabo  (d.  849)  seem  to  ignore  it  under 
circumstances  in  which  we  shouki  certainly  have 
expected  it  to  be  mentioned.  On  the  other  hand, 
tlie  "  Admonitio  Synodalis  ",  a  document  of  uncertain 
date,  but  commonly  referred  to  the  ninth  century 
(see,  however.  Revue  b^nC-dictine,  1892,  p.  99),  dis- 
tinctly enjoins  that  no  one  must  say  Ma.ss  without 
amice,    alb,    stole,    maniple    and     cnasuble.     Early 


AMICO 


429 


AMIENS 


liturgical  writers,  such,  e.  g.  as  Rabanus  Maurus, 
were  inclineil  to  regard  tlie  amice  as  tlerived  frotn 
the  epliod  of  tlie  Jewish  priest  liood,  but  modern 
authorities  are  unanimous  m  rejecting  tliis  theory. 
They  trace  the  origin  of  tlie  amice  to  some  utihtarian 
purpose,  though  there  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  whether  it  was  in  the  beginning  a  neck  cloth 
introduced  for  reasons  of  seemliness,  to  hide  the  bare 
throat;  or  again  a  kerchief  which  protected  the  richer 
vestment  from  the  perspiration  so  apt  in  southern 
climates  to  stream  from  the  face  and  neck,  or  per- 
haps a  winter  muffler  protecting  the  throat  of  those 
who,  in  the  interests  of  church  music,  had  to  take 
care  of  their  voices.  Something  may  be  said  in 
favour  of  each  of  these  views,  but  no  certain  conclu- 
sion seems  to  bt!  possible  (see  Hraun,  Die  priester- 
lichen  Gewander.  p.  5).  The  variant  names,  humer- 
ale  (i.  e.  ".sliouUler  cloth",  Germ.  Schuttcrtuch), 
superhumerale,  anagntogium,  etc.,  by  which  it  was 
known  in  early  times  do  not  help  us  much  in  tracing 
its  history. 

As  in  case  of  the  alb,  so  for  the  amice,  linen  woven 
from  the  fibre  of  flax  or  hemp  is  the  only  permissible 
material.  A  little  cross  must  be  sewn  to,  or  worked 
upon  the  amice  in  the  middle,  and  this  the  priest 
is  directed  to  Idss  in  putting  it  on.  .\pproved  au- 
thorities (e.  g.  Thalhofer,  Liturgik,  I,  864)  direct  that 
the  amice  ought  to  be  at  le;ust  32  inches  long  by 
24  inches  broad.  A  shght  lace  edging  seems  to 
be  permitted  by  usage  in  case  of  amices  intended 
for  use  on  festal  occasions,  and  the  strings  may  be 
of  white  or  coloured  silk  (Barbier  de  Montault, 
Costume  Eccl.,  II,  231).  In  the  Middle  Ages  when 
the  amice  was  turned  back  over  the  chasuble,  and 
thus  exposed  to  view,  it  was  commonly  ornamented 
by  an  "apparel",  or  strip  of  rich  embroidery,  but  this 
practice  is  no  longer  tolerated. 

Braun,  Die  pruaUrtichm  Gewlinder  (FreiburR.  1897).  1-15. 
supplies  by  far  the  best  historical  account,  with  appropriate 
illu-strations;  ItoHAUi.r  de  Klki'RY.  La  Mcsge,  VII.  al-w 
gives  (Jrawinffs  of  ancient  amicey;  THrB.sTO.N  in  Thr  Month 
(Sept.,  1898).  205  sqq.  See  aI.so  the  works  mentioned  above 
in  the  biblioRraphy  of  .\lb;  GitiK,  The  Holy  Sacrifice  of 
the  Maas,  (tr..  rit.  Louis.  Mo.,  1902),  273-277,  which  supplies 
a  full  account  of  the  .•^ymboli.Hm  attributed  to  this  and  other 
ve-stments  by  medieval  liturgists. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Amico,  .\.VTO.vio,  canon  of  Palermo,  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal historian  of  Syracuse  and  Messina  (d.  1641).  He 
wrote  also  on  the  royal  house  and  the  admirals  of 
Sicily.  Among  his  works  is  a  "Brevis  et  exacta 
narratio  ....  Sicilia;  regum  annales  ab  anno  1060 
usque  ad  pnesens  sa;culum"  (Giraud,  liihl.  Sacr.,  I, 
438). — Ber\-.\rdino  (d.  1.590),  a  Neapolitan  Fran- 
ciscan, prior  of  his  convent  at  Jerusalem,  and  author 
of  a  "Trattato  delle  piante  ed  imniagini  do'  sacri 
edifizi  in  Jerusalemme  "  (Rome,  1609;  2d  cd.,  Flor- 
ence, 1620),  of  value  for  the  appearance  of  the  Holy 
Places  in  the  sixteenth  centiir\'.  The  tirawings  are  by 
Callot  (VioouROUX,  Diet,  ilc'la  liible,  I,  483). 

Tho.m.^s  J.  Sh.\h.\n. 

Amico,  Fu.*.NCESCo,  one  of  the  gre«tcst  theologians 
of  his  time,  b.  at  Cosenza,  in  Naples,  2  April,  1.578. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  159(5.  P"or  twenty- 
four  years  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Naples, 
Aquila,  and  Gratz,  and,  for  five  years,  chancellor  in 
the  academy  of  the  last  named  place.  To  his  emi- 
nent .science  he  united  a  profound  humility.  He  was 
scholastic  in  his  method,  adapting  his  treatises  to 
a  four  years'  course  of  teaching.  He  wrote  "  De 
Deo  Uno  et  Trino";  "De  Natuni  Angclomni";  "  De 
Ultimo  Fine";  "  De  Fide,  Spe,  et  Charitate";  "  De 
Justitiii  et  Jure",  which  was  prohibited,  l.S  Juno, 
1651  "donee  corruiahir", on  account  of  three  proposi- 
tions in  it,  which  Alexander  VII  and  Innocent  XI 
objected  to.  The  corrected  edition  of  1649  was  per- 
mitted. He  wrote  also  on  the  Incarnation,  and  the 
sacraments.     In  a  complete  edition,  it  is  said,  in 


the  preface,  that  "his  doctrine  is  according  to  St. 
Thomas,  and  is  brief,  clear,  subtle,  and  solid." 

HuRTER,  Somenclator,  I,  384;  de  Backer,  BMiolhique 
de  la  c.   de  J..  I.  280. 

T.  J.  C.\MPBELL. 

Amida  (l)i.\RnEKiR),  The  Diocese  of  (.\rmenian 
Rite)  in  Mesopotamia,  Asiatic  Turkey. — The  founda- 
tion of  the  city  of  Aniida  has  been  wrongly  attributed 
to  Tigranes  I,  or  Tigranes  III  (the  Great),  Kings  of 
Armenia;  it  has  been  identified  with  either  Tigraiio- 
certe  or  Dikranagiierd.  It  got  from  the  (!reeks  and 
the  Romans  the  name  of  Amida,  and  Ls  known  in 
Turkish  as  Kara-.\mid,  i.  e.  "Amida  the  Black." 
but  goes  more  generally  by  its  Arabic  name  of  Diar- 
bekir  (Land  of  tlie  Virgin).  The  town  rises  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  75  miles  from  its  source 
anil  about  9(X)  miles  from  the  mouth  of  that  river. 
An  interior  citadel  overlooks  the  double  enclosure 
of  the  town  with  its  seventy-two  towers,  and  dates 
back  undoubtedly  to  the  Armenian  epoch;  it  was 
repaired  by  Valens  (.\.  d.  364-378)  and  was  finished  bv 
Anasta.sius  I  (491-518).  In  this  citadel  is  the  old 
Byzantine  church  of  St.  John,  now  used  for  Mu.ssul- 
man  worship,  and  known  as  Olou  Djarai,  the  Long 
Mos(iue.  In  638,  Aniida  was  taken  by  the  Arabs 
who  called  it  Diarbekir.  Later  on  it  pa.s.sed  under 
Persian  domination.  Since  1514  it  belongs  to  the 
Ottoman  empire  and  is  the  chief  city  of  the  vilayet 
of  the  same  name.  It  has  about  35,000  inhabi- 
tants, of  whom  20,000  are  Mussulmans  (.Arabians, 
Turks,  Kurds,  etc.),  2,300  Catholics  (Chaldeans, 
Armenians,  Syrians,  Melchites,  Latins),  8,500  Gre- 
gorian Armenians,  9(K)  Protestant  Armenians.  9.')0 
Jacobite  Syrians,  900  Orthodox  Greeks,  and  300 
Jews.  Diarbekir  posses.scs  an  Armenian  Catholic 
bishop,  a  SjTian  Catholic  bishop,  a  Syrian  Jacobite 
bishop,  a  Chaldean  Catholic  archbishop,  and  a  Greek 
Orthodox  metropolitan  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  The  Latin  Mission  of 
Diarbekir,  founded  by  P^re  Jcan-Baptiste  de  Saint 
Aignan  (1667),  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  French 
Capuchins  during  nearly  a  century  and  a  half.  Its 
founder  converted  (1671)  the  Nestorian  Bishop 
Joseph,  with  whom  Innocent  XI  inaugurated  (1681) 
the  series  of  the  Chaldean  Catholic  patriarchs.  The 
mission  suffered  much  during  the  French  Revolution. 
In  1803,  at  the  death  of  the  last  French  Capuchin, 
it  was  entrusted  to  Italian  religious.  In  1841,  Span- 
ish missionaries  took  charge  of  it,  but  eventually  it 
pa.s-sed  again  into  the  hands  of  Italian  missionaries. 
The  Capuchin  Fathers  direct  a  school  for  boys. 
Near  them  the  I'ranciscan  nuns  of  Lons-le-Saunier 
have  opened  (since  1882)  a  school  for  girls.  .\n 
American  Protestant  mission,  working  especially 
among  the  .\rmenians,  keeps  up  three  schools;  two 
for  boys  and  one  for  girls.  Besides  these  foreign 
establishments  Diarbekir  possesses  fifty-four  others. 
The  Turks  have  4  mearesses,  3  secondary  and 
33  elementary  scho<ils,  one  of  which  is  for  girls. 
The  Ciregorian  Armenians  have  5  elenientarj'  schools, 
one  of  which  is  for  girls.  The  Cathohc  Armenians 
have  an  elementary  school  for  boys,  the  Catholic 
Chaldeans  3  elementary  schools,  one  of  which  is  for 
girls.  The  Catholic  Syrians  have  an  elementary 
school  for  bovs,  and  tlie  Israelites  an  elementary 
school   for  girls.  S.   PetridLs. 

Amideus  of  Amidei.    See  Servites. 

Amiens,  Diocese  of  (.\mbi.\num)  comprises  the 
department  of  the  Sonime.  It  was  a  suffragan  of  the 
.\rchdioce.se  of  Reims  during  the  old  regime,  of  Paris 
from  1S02  to  1822.  and  of  Reims  again,  since  1S22. 
Abb<5  Duchesne  denies  any  value  to  the  legend  of 
the  two  Saints  Finnin.  honoureii  on  the  first  and 
twenty-fifth  of  September,  as  the  first  and  third 
Bishops  of  .Amiens.  The  legend  is  of  the  eiglith 
century  and  full  of  incoherences.     Even  on  the  sup- 


AMIOT 


4.30 


AMMON 


position  that  a  St.  Firniin.  native  of  Pampeluna,  was 
raartjTeii  during  tiie  persecution  of  Diocletian,  it  is 
certain  tliat  tlie  first  bisliop  known  to  liistory  is 
St.  Eiilogius,  wlio  defended  tlie  divinity  of  Clirist  in 
tlie  councils  held  liuring  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century.  Among  the  bishops  of  Amiens  are  counted: 
Jes.se.  wlio  played  an  important  part  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  "and  was  deposed  under  Louis  tlie 
Pious;  William  of  Macon,  at  tlie  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  called  the  greatest  jurist  of  the  University 
of  Paris';  Jean  de  Lagrange,  known  as  the  Cardinal  of 
Amiens  (d.  1401.').  who  figured  prominently  in  the 
great  Schism;  the  Franciscan  monk,  Francois  Faure, 
preacher  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV,  who  converted 
to  Catholicism  the  Duke  de  Montausier  and  James  II, 
the  future  King  of  England;  Bombelles,  ambassador 
to  Venice  under  Louis  XVI,  who  after  the  Revolu- 
tion, became  a  priest,  and  was  Bishop  of  Amiens 
froni  1819  to  1822.  The  cathedral  (thirteenth 
century)  is  an  admirable  Gothic  monument,  and 
was  made  the  subject  of  careful  study  by  Ruskin  in 
his  "  Bible  of  Amiens".  The  nave  of  this  cathedral 
is  considered  a  type  of  the  ideal  Gothic.  The  church 
of  St.  Acheul,  near  Amiens,  and  formerly  its  cathe- 
dral, was,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  the  home  of  a 
very  important  Jesuit  novitiate.  The  beautiful 
churches  of  St.  Ricquier  and  Corbie  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  the  great  Benedictine  abbeys  and  homes 
of  learning  founded  in  these  places  in  570  and  662. 
The  Diocese  of  Amiens,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1905, 
counted  537,848  inhabitants,  60  cures,  or  parishes; 
609  succursaks,  or  mission  churches,  and^49  vicari- 
ates, with  salaries  formerly  paid  by  the  State. 

Gallia  Christiana  (Vetus,  1C50),  II,  110-554;  Midland, 
Acles  de  I'Egliae  d'Amiens  (Amiens,  1848);  Corblet,  Hagio- 
graphie  du  diocHe  d'Amiens  (1869-76). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Amiot,  Joseph  Maria,  a  missionary  to  China,  b. 
at  Toulon,  8  February,  1718;  d.  at  Pekin,  8  or  9 
October,  1793.  He  v/as  admitted  into  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  1737.  Sent  to  China  as  a  missionary  in 
1740,  he  soon  won  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the 
Emperor  Kien  Long,  whose  language,  the  Tatar,  he 
spoke  fluently.  His  thorough  mastery  of  this  tongue 
as  well  as  the  Chinese,  and  his  extensive  knowledge 
of  physics,  literature,  history,  mathematics,  and 
music,  enabled  him  to  give  to  the  European  world, 
in  a  voluminous  correspondence,  much  striking  and 
curious  information  concerning  the  Chinese.  He 
made  a  special  study  of  their  music.  Most  of  the 
important  works  of  Amiot  are  found  in  the  collec- 
tion: "M^moires  concernant  I'histoire,  les  sciences, 
les  arts,  les  moeurs  et  les  usages  des  chinois,  par 
les  missionaires  de  Pekin"  (Paris,  Nyon  ainc,  1776- 
89).  He  composed  a  Tatar-Manchu  grammar  and 
dictionary  in  French,  and  a  chronological  table  of 
the  Chinese  Emperors  from  the  sixty-first  year  of  the 
Empire  to  1769.  There  are  also  articles  from  his  pen 
on  the  weights  and  measures  of  the  Chinese,  their 
military  science,  music,  language,  teaching  of  their 
books,  the  geography  and  climate  of  their  country, 
as  well  as  historical  treatises  on  the  migrations  of 
the  Tatar-Tourgouths.  These  and  other  works,  and 
where  they  can  be  found ,  are  noted  by  Sommervogel 
in  liis  "  Bibliothfique  de  la  Compagnie  de  J6sus",  I, 
294  sqq. 

SoM-MERVOQEL,  /rf«  hommea  utiles;  Vie  et  Testament  du 
R.  P.  Amiot  membre  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus  missionaire 
en  Chine,  1718-93  (Paris,  1881);  Feti»,  Biogr.  des  mmiciens; 
Les  missions  Catholiqucs  (1895),  VII,  496. 

Joseph  M.  Woods. 

Amisus,  a  titular  see  of  Pontus  in  Asia  Minor.  It 
wa«  a  rich  commercial  centre  under  the  kings  of 
Pontus.  a  royal  residence  and  fortress  of  Mithridates, 
and  included  in  its  territory  the  dwelling  place  of  the 
fabled  Amazons. 

Lkqijikn,  Oriens  Christinnus  (1740).  I,  533-536;  Smith, 
Oict.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Qeogr.,  1,  Vi'Z. 


Ammanati,  Gi.\como.     See  Piccolomini. 

Ammen,  Da.viel,  .American  naval  officer  and 
autliur,  b.  in  Brown  County,  Ohio,  15  May,  1820; 
d.  in  Washington.  D.  C,  11  July,  1898.  His  father, 
a  soldier  of  the  war  of  1812,  migrated  to  Ohio  from 
N'irginia.  He  was  appointed  midshipman,  7  July, 
1834,  and  ordered  to  W^est  Point,  where  he  studiecl 
for  tliree  months,  under  his  brother  Jacob  Ammen, 
later  a  brigadier  general  in  the  United  States  AiTny. 
.After  serving  at  sea  for  several  years,  he  was  sent 
to  the  Naval  School,  then  near  Philadelphia.  He 
was  appointed  lieutenant  4  November,  1849,  and 
became  rear  admiral  11  December,  1877.  During 
the  Civil  War,  he  was  engaged  in  blockade  duty 
with  Admiral  Dupont's  fleet.  He  was  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks  from  1  May,  1869,  to 
1  October,  1871,  and  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Navi- 
gation from  1  October,  1871,  until  his  retirement, 
4  June,  1878.  He  devoted  much  time  to  work  on 
harbour  defences,  and  designed  the  ram  Katahdin, 
also  the  "  -Ammen  balsa ",  or  life-raft,  used  in  the 
navy.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  member  of  a 
commission  to  examine  and  report  on  the  feasibility 
of  constructing  a  canal  through  Nicaragua.  Tlie 
commission  reported  in  favour  of  the  Nicaraguan 
route,  which  he  strongly  advocated.  In  1879  he 
was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  a  congress  in  Paris  to  dis- 
cuss Isthmian  canal  questions.  He  also  served  on 
the  board  for  tlie  location  of  the  new  Naval  Ob- 
servatory. After  his  retirement  he  purchased  a 
farm  twelve  miles  from  Washington,  at  a  station 
named  in  his  honour  Ammendale,  the  seat  of  tlie 
Normal  School  of  the  Brotliers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  where  through  his  generosity  St.  Josepli's 
cliurch  was  built.  Among  his  works  are  "The 
Atlantic  Coast"  (New  York,  1883);  "Recollections 
of  Grant"  (1885);  "The  Old  Navy  and  the  New" 
(autobiographical)  (Philad.,  1891);  "  Country  Homes 
and  Their  Improvements";  "Fallacies  of  the  Inter- 
oceanic  Tran.sit  Questions",  and  various  contribu- 
tions to  current  literature.         Milton  E.  Smith. 

Ammon  (Egyp.  Amun  or  Amen,  "the  hidden  one". 
Heb.  'AnuJn,  Gr.  Afi/iu^).  The  supreme  divinity  of 
the  Egyptian  pantheon.  He  was  originally  only  the 
chief  god  of  tlie  city  of  Thebes,  but  later  his  worship 
became  predominant  in  Egypt  and  extended  even  to 
Lybia  and  Ethiopia.  Thebes,  however,  always  re- 
mained the  centre  of  his  worship,  whence  it  was 
called  Nc  Amun,  "the  city  of  Amun",  Heb.  A'o'- 
'Amdn  (Nah.  iii,  8,  Heb.  text),  and  the  god  himself 
is  designated  by  Jeremias  (xlvi,  25,  Heb.  text)  as 
'Am6n  min  No',  Ammon  of  No,  i.  e.  Thebes.  Am- 
mon was  worshipped  under  several  names  witli 
different  attributes.  As  Ammon-Ra,  he  was  the 
sun-god,  with  his  chief  temple  at  Thebes;  as 
Khem  or  Min,  he  was  the  god  of  reproduction; 
as  Khnum,  he  was  the  creator  of  all  things,  "the 
maker  of  gods  and  men".  In  the  latter  character 
he  was  represented  with  the  head  of  a  ram,  the  animal 
sacred  to  him,  or  simply  with  ram's  horns;  imder 
this  form  Ammon  was  best  known  to  classical  writers, 
who  always  attribute  horns  to  him.  The  chief 
temple  of  Khnimi  was  in  the  oasis  of  Ammon  (now 
Siwali),  where  Alexander  the  Great  worshipped  him. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  identified  Ammon  witli 
Zeus  or  Jupiter  (Zeus  Ammon,  Jupiter  Ammon), 
wlience  the  name  Diospolis,  City  of  Zeus,  given  to 
Thebes  by  the  Greeks. 

Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (London, 
1897);  ViQounoux,  I,a  Bible  et  les  dccour.  mod.  Bth.  eil., 
(Paris.  1896),  II,  513  sqq.;  PlEliRET,  Diet,  d'archi'ologie  fgupt., 
;i5,  270,  519. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Ammon,  Saint  sometimes  called  Amun  or  Amus, 

b.  about  :!.')0;  an  Egyi)tian  who,  forced  into  niarriage 

when  twenty-two  years  old,  persuaded  liis  wife  on  the 

bridal  night  to  pronounce  a  vow  of  chastity,  which 


CATHEDRAL  Ol"  NUTKli  UAME,  AMIENS 


AMMONIAN 


431 


AMMONITES 


they  kept  faithfully,  though  living  together  for 
eighteen  years;  at  the  end  of  tliis  time  he  became 
a  Jierniit  in  the  desert  of  Nitria,  and  she  formed  a 
congregation  of  religious  women  in  her  own  house. 
Nitria,  to  which  Animon  betook  liimself,  is  a  moun- 
tain surmounted  by  a  desolate  region,  seventy  milos 
south  of  Alexandria,  beyond  Lake  Mareotis  (wliicli 
Palladius  calls  Maria).  At  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  there  were  fifty  monasteries  there  inhabited 
by  5,000  monks.  St.  Jerome  called  the  place  "The 
City  of  God  ".  As  to  w  hethcr  Amnion  wjis  the  first 
to  build  a  monastery  there,  autliorities  disagree,  but 
it  is  certain  that  the  fame  of  his  sanctity  drew  many 
anchorites  aroimd  liim,  who  erected  cells  not  only 
on  the  mountain  but  in  the  adjacent  desert.  St. 
Anthony  came  to  visit  him  and  induced  him  to 
gather  his  scattered  solitaries  into  monasteries. 
When  Amnion  died  at  about  the  age  of  62  Anthony, 
though  thirteen  days'  journey  distant,  saw  his  soul 
entering  heaven.  He  is  honoured  on  4  October. 
Acta  6'S.,   II.  October;  Botler,  4  October. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Ammonian  Sections. — Divisions  of  tlie  four  Gos- 

Eels  imlkatiil  in  the  margin  of  nearly  all  Greek  and 
atin  .\I.'>.'^.  Tliey  are  about  1105  in  number;  355 
for  St.  Mattliew,  Xio  for  St.  Mark,  343  for  St.  Luke, 
and  232  for  St.  John;  the  numbers,  however,  vary 
slightly  in  different  MSS.  I'ntil  recently  it  was  com- 
monly" liolieved  that  these  divisions  were  de\-ised  by 
Ammonius  of  Alexandria,  at  the  l)Ogiiming  of  the 
third  century  (c.  L'20),  in  connection  with  a  Har- 
mony of  tlie  Gospels,  now  lost,  which  he  compo.sed. 
He  divided  the  four  Gospels,  it  was  said,  into  small 
numbered  sections,  which  were  similar  in  content 
where  the  narratives  are  parallel,  and  then  wrote  the 
sections  of  the  three  last  Gospels,  or  simply  the  sec- 
tion numbers  with  the  name  of  tlie  respective  evan- 
gelist, in  parallel  columns  opposite  the  corresponding 
sections  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  whicli  lie  had 
chosen  as  the  basis  of  his  Harmony.  Of  late,  how- 
ever, the  view  has  obtained  among  scholars  that  the 
work  of  Ammonius  was  restricted  to  what  Euse- 
bius  states  concerning  it  in  his  letter  to  Carpianus, 
namely,  that  lie  jilaced  the  parallel  passages  of  the 
last  three  Gospels  alongside  the  text  of  St.  Matthew, 
and  the  sectioas  liitherto  credited  to  Ammonius  are 
now  ascribetl  to  Lusebius  (a.  d.  265-340).  At  any 
rate  the  Harmony  of  Ammonius  suggested  to  Euse- 
bius,  as  he  liimself  tells  us  (loc.  cit.),  the  idea  of 
drawing  up  ten  tables  (Kaj-iws)  in  which  the  sections 
in  question  were  ?->  classified  as  to  show  iit  a  glance 
where  each  Gospel  agreed  with  or  differed  from  the 
others.  In  tlie  first  nine  tables  he  placed  in  parallel 
columns  tlic  numbers  of  the  sections  common  to  the 
four,  or  three,  or  two,  evangelists;  namely:  (1) 
Matt.,  Mark,  Luke,  John;  (2)  Matt.,  Mark,  Luke;  (3) 
Matt.,  Luke,  John;  (4)  Matt.,  Mark,  John;  (5)  Matt., 
Luke;  (6)  Matt.,  Mark;  (7)  Matt.,  John;  (8)  Luke, 
Mark;  (9)  Luke,  John.  In  the  tenth  he  noted  suc- 
cessively the  sections  special  to  each  evangelist.  The 
usefulness  of  these  tables  for  the  purpose  of  reference 
and  comparison  soon  brought  them  into  common  u.se. 
and  from  the  fifth  centur\-  the  .Xnimonian  sections, 
with  references  to  the  Eu.scbian  tallies,  were  indicated 
in  the  margin  of  the  MSS.  (It  neetl  hardly  be  said 
that  our  cliapters  and  verses  were  not  then  in  exist- 
ence; the  first  date  from  the  thirteenth,  the  latter 
from  the  sixteenth  centurj'.)  Opptisite  each  section 
was  written  its  number,  and  underneath  this  the 
number  of  the  Eu.'M.'bian  table  to  be  consulted  in  or- 
der to  find  the  parallel  texts  or  text;  a  reference  to 
the  tenth  table  would  of  course  show  that  this  sec- 
tion was  proper  to  that  evangelist.  These  marginal 
notes  are  reproduced  in  several  editions  of  Tis- 
chendorf's  New  Testament. 

P.  G..  XXII.  1274-92;  P.  I...  XXIX.  528-542;  Buboon. 
The   Latt   Ttceive    Vrr»t»  of  St,  Mark  (Oxford  and   London, 


1871).  126  »q.;  295  aq.  Goillian,  The  Ammonian  Sections 
(Oxford.  1890).  241  aq.:  Leoe-ndre  in  Via..  Did.  de  la  BihU 
(Paris.  18951.  I.  493;  II.  2051;  Herzoo.  Rral-Encyclop.,  II. 
404;  IV.  425;  (Jhki.ort.  PruUgum.  Titchmdurj.,  S.  T.  Gntce 
(Leipzig.  1894).  143.  14.'.;  Zah.n,  Hinlnluny  in  ./u«  Neue  Tttta- 
m<n(l-' e.l..  Uipilg,  1900!.  II.  183.  194;  GuKOORY.  TtJtkritlk 
lira  .V.  T.  (Leipzig.  1902>.  II.  801  »q. 

E.  Bechtel. 

Ammonites. — Origin  and  Race. — The  Ammonites 
were  a  race  very  clo.sely  allied  to  the  Hebrews.  One 
use  of  tlieir  name  itself  in  tlie  liible  indicates  the 
ancient  Hebrew  belief  of  this  near  relationship,  for 
they  are  called  liin'dmmi  or  "Son  of  my  people", 
meaning  that  that  race  is  regarded  as  descended  from 
Israel's  nearest  relative.  This  play  of  words  on  the 
name  .\mmon  did  not  arise  from  the  name  it.self, 
but  presupposes  the  belief  in  the  kinship  of  Israel 
and  Ammon.  The  name  Amman  itself  cannot  be 
accepted  as  proof  of  this  belief,  for  it  is  obscure  in 
origin,  derived  perhaps  from  the  name  of  a  tribal 
deity.  A  strong  proof  of  their  common  origin  is 
found  in  the  .\mmonite  language.  No  Ammonite 
inscription,  it  is  true,  has  come  down  to  us,  but  the 
Ammonite  names  that  have  been  preserved  belong  to 
a  dialect  very  nearly  akin  to  the  Hebrew;  moreover, 
the  close  blood  relationship  of  Moab  and  Ammon 
being  admitteil  by  all,  the  language  of  the  Moabite 
Stone,  almost  Hebrew  in  form,  is  a  strong  witness  to 
the  racial  allinity  of  Israel  and  Amnion.  This 
linguistic  argument  vindicates  the  behef  that  Israel 
always  entertained  of  his  kinship  with  the  .\m- 
monites.  The  belief  itself  has  foimd  expression  in 
an  unmistakable  manner  in  Gen.  xix,  where  the 
origin  of  .Vninion  and  his  brother,  Moab,  is  ascribed 
to  Lot,  the  nephew  of  Abraham.  This  revolting 
narrative  has  usually  been  considered  to  give  literal 
fact,  but  of  late  years  it  has  been  interpreted, 
e.  g.  by  Eather  Lagrange,  O.P.,  as  recording  a  gross 
popular  irony  by  which  the  Israelites  expressed  their 
loathing  of  the  corrupt  morals  of  the  iloabites  an<l 
Ammonites.  It  maybe  tloubted,  however,  that  such 
an  irony  would  be  directed  against  Lot  him.self. 
Other  scholars  see  in  the  very  depravity  of  these 
peoples  a  proof  of  the  reality  of  the  Biblical  storj' 
of  their  incestuous  origin.  Ktlmologists,  interpret- 
ing the  origin  from  the  nephew  of  Aoraham  by  the 
canons  usually  foimd  true  in  their  science,  hold  it 
as  indicating  that  the  Israelites  are  considered  the 
older  and  more  powerful  tribe,  while  the  Ammonites 
and  Moabites  are  regarded  as  offshoots  of  the  parent 
stem.  The  character  of  Genesis,  which  at  times 
seems  to  preserve  popular  traditions  rather  than 
exact  ethnology,  is  taken  as  a  confirmation  of  this 
position.  But  it  is  not  denied,  at  any  rate,  thai 
the  Hebrew  tradition  of  the  near  kinship  of  Israel. 
Amnion,  and  Moab  is  correct.  .\ll  three,  forming 
together  a  single  group,  are  classified  as  belonging  to 
the  Arama-an  branch  of  the  Semitic  race. 

Theik  CofXTKY  AND  CIVILIZATION. — The  Am- 
monites were  .settled  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  their 
territory  originally  comprising  all  from  the  Jordan 
to  the  wilderness,  anil  from  the  River  Jabbok  south 
to  the  River  .\mon  (Jud..  xi,  13-22)  which  later  fell 
to  the  h)t  of  Reuben  and  Gad.  "It  was  accounted  a 
land  of  giants;  and  giants  formerly  dwelt  in  it,  whom 
the  Ammonites  called  Zomzommims"  (Deut.  ii.  20). 
of  whom  was  Og.  King  of  Basan,  who  perished 
before  the  children  of  Israel  in  the  days  of  Mo.ses 
(iii).  The  Ammonites  were,  however,  a  short  time 
before  the  invasion  of  the  Hebrews  under  Josue. 
driven  aw.iy  by  the  .Vmorites  from  the  rich  lands 
near  the  Jordan  and  retreatctl  to  the  mountains  and 
valleys  which  form  the  eastern  part  of  the  district 
now  known  as  EI-Belka.  They  still  continued  to 
regard  their  original  tcrriton,'  as  rightfully  theirs,  and 
in  later  times  regained  it  and  held  it  for  a  consider- 
able period.  Their  land,  in  general,  while  not  very 
fertile,  was  well  watered  and  excellent  for  pasture. 


AMMONITES 


432 


AMMONITES 


Jeremiah  speaks  of  Amnion  glorj'ing  in  her  valleys  and 
trusting  in  lier  treasures  (Jer.,  xlix).  Her  chief  city, 
Rabbath,  or  Rabbath-Ammon,  to  distinguish  it  from 
a  city  of  t lie  same  name  in  Moab,  lay  in  the  midst  of 
a  fertile  and  well  tilled  valley.  It  was  the  royal 
city;  in  the  time  of  David  it  was  flourishing  under 
a  wealthy  king  and  was  weU  fortified,  though  it 
succumbed  before  the  attack  of  Joab,  his  general 
(II  K.,  xi-xii).  Later  rebuilt  by  Ptolemy  II  (Phila- 
delphus)  and  called  after  him  Philadelphia,  it  still 
retains  something  of  its  original  name,  being  known 
at  present  to  the  Arab.s  as  Amman.  Its  ruins  to-day 
are  among  the  most  imposing  beyond  the  Jordan, 
and  are  said,  despite  the  many  vicissitudes  of  the 
city,  to  lend  light  and  vividness  to  the  already  vivid 
narrative  of  Joab's  assault.  The  Ammonites  had 
many  other  cities  besides  Rabbath  (see  Jud.,  xi,  3.3, 
and  II  K.,  xii,  31).  but  their  names  have  perished. 
They  indicate,  at  least,  a  considerable  degree  of 
civilization  and  show  that  the  .\mmonites  should  not 
be  placed,  as  is  sometimes  done,  almost  on  the  plane 
of  nomads.  In  religion  they  practised  the  idolatries 
and  abominations  common  to  the  Semitic  races 
surrounding  Israel;  their  god  was  called  Milcom, 
supposed  to  be  another  form  of  Moloch.  They  seem 
with  the  Moabites  to  have  been  held  in  special  loath- 
ing by  the  Hebrews.  No  man  of  either  race,  even 
when  converted  to  the  religion  of  Jehovah,  was 
allowed  to  enter  the  Tabernacle;  nor  his  children, 
even  after  the  tenth  generation  (Deut.,  xxiii). 

Ammon  and  Israel. — This  distinction  against  his 
nearest  relatives  was  due  to  the  treatment  accorded 
by  them  to  Irsael  during  the  march  to  Palestine, 
when  Israel  was  struggling  towards  nationhood. 
The  Hebrews  had  no  intention  of  taking  the  land 
of  the  children  of  Lot,  either  of  Moab  or  of  Ammon 
and  were  expressly  warned  against  it;  this  special 
friendliness  and  recognition  of  consanguinity  ob- 
tained no  return  from  either,  who  refused  provisions 
to  the  Israelites  and  hired  Balaam,  who  was  an 
Ammonite,  or  at  least  dwelt  among  the  Ammonites, 
to  curse  the  host  of  Israel;  though,  as  is  well  known, 
Balaam  was  forced  to  deliver  instead  a  blessing 
(Deut.,  xxiii,  4,  .5;  Num.  xxii-xxiv).  For  this  lack  of 
brotherly  spirit,  the  ban  was  put  upon  the  Ammonites; 
but  no  attempt  was  made  to  seize  their  land,  the 
Israelites  turning  aside  when  they  reached  the 
border  of  the  Ammonites.  The  stretch  of  land  along 
the  Jordan,  however,  to  which  they  laid  claim,  was 
taken  from  the  .\morites  who  had  dispossessed  them. 
Half  the  land  of  Ammon,  too,  is  said  to  have  been 
assigned  by  Moses  to  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Jos.  xiii,  25); 
but  there  is  no  record  of  its  alienation  from  the 
Ammonites,  which  moreover  would  be  in  contradic- 
tion with  the  divine  command  already  mentioned. 
It  appears  to  have  been  territory  from  which  they 
wore  already  driven.  Shortly  after  the  death  of 
Josue,  when  the  Israelites  were  established  beyond 
the  Jordan,  the  Ammonites  allied  themselves  with 
the  Moabites  under  King  Eglon  in  a  successful  attack 
upon  Israel;  but  the  Moabites  were  in  turn  defeated 
and  a  long  peace  set  in  (Jud.  iii,  30).  Later,  after  the 
judgeship  of  Jair,  the  Hebrews  were  simultaneously 
attacked  by  the  Philistines  from  the  southwest  and 
the  Ammonites  from  the  east.  Gad  especially, 
who.se  dwelling  was  east  of  the  Jordan,  sulTered  from 
the  incursions  of  the  Ammonites  which  continued 
eighteen  years;  but  the  victorious  enemy  pushed 
beyond  the  Jordan  and  laid  waste  the  country  of 
Juda,  Benjamin,  and  Ephraim  (Jud..  x).  At  this 
crisis,  Israel  was  in  terror;  but  a  deliverer  was  raised 
up  in  the  person  of  Jephte,  who  was  chosen  leader. 
The  .\mmonites  demanded  the  ccs.sion  of  tlie  territory 
beyond  the  Jordan,  from  the  Anion  to  the  Jabbok, 
of  which  they  had  been  dispossessed;  but  Jephte 
refused  since  the  Israelites  had,  three  hundred  years 
previously,  taken  the  land  from  the  Amorites  anil  not 


from  the  .\mmonites;  he  boldly  carried  the  war  into 
the  invaders'  country,  and  completely  defeated  them, 
taking  as  many  as  twenty  cities  (Jud.,  xi,  33).  By  the 
time  of  Saul,  the  Ammonites  had  again  grown  to 
great  power  and  under  their  King  Naas  (Nahash) 
had  laid  siege  to  Jabes  Galaad.  Saul  had  been 
chosen  king  by  Samuel  only  one  month  before  and 
his  election  was  not  yet  ratified  by  tlie  people;  but 
as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  siege,  he  summoned  a 
large  army  and  defeated  the  Ammonites,  inflicting 
hea\^  loss  (I  K.,  xi).  This  victory  established  him 
in  the  monarchy.  Further  operations  by  Saul 
against  the  Ammonites  are  mentioned  without  detail 
(xiv,  47),  as  likewise  the  kindness  of  Naas  to  David 
(II  K.,  X,  2),  probably  before  his  accession.  David 
signalized  the  beginning  of  his  reign  by  military 
exploits  and  is  said  to  have  dedicated  to  the  Lord 
the  spoils  of  Ammon  (viii,  11);  however,  there  is  no 
mention  of  a  war,  which  seems  inconsistent  with  the 
friendliness  of  David  to  Hanon,  the  successor  of 
Naas  (x,  2).  David's  proffer  of  friendship  to 
Ammon  was  suspected  and  rejected  and  his  ambassa- 
dors maltreated.  War  ensued.  The  Ammonites 
were  joined  by  the  Syrians,  and  both  were  attacked 
and  routed  by  Joab,  David's  leading  general.  The 
next  year  Joab  again  invaded  the  territory  of  the 
Ammonites  and,  pursuing  them  as  far  as  Rabbath, 
laid  siege  to  the  royal  city.  It  was  during  this 
siege  that  the  incident  of  David  and  Bethsabee 
happened,  which  resulted  in  David  sending  the  faith- 
ful Urias  to  his  death  at  Rabbath  and  incurring  the 
deepest  stain  upon  his  character.  When  Joab  had 
reduced  the  city  to  the  point  of  surrender,  he  sent 
for  David  who  came  and  reaped  the  glory  of  it,  trans- 
ferred the  king's  massive  crown  to  his  own  head, 
sacked  the  city  and  slaughtered  its  inhabitants;  and 
did  likewise  to  all  the  cities  of  the  Ammonites  (x-xii). 
The  power  of  tlie  Ammonites  was  now  broken, 
Ammon  apparently  becoming  a  vassal  of  Israel; 
later,  towards  the  end  of  David's  reign,  another  son 
of  King  Naas,  either  through  lack  of  spirit  or 
genuine  humanity,  heaped  kindness  upon  David, 
when  the  distressed  old  king  was  at  war  with  his 
son  Absalom  (xvii).  Some  of  the  Ammonites  seem 
to  have  enrolled  themselves  in  David's  service;  one 
is  mentioned  among  his  thirty-seven  most  valiant 
warriors  (xxiii,  37).  No  hostilities  are  narrated  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Solomon;  he  chose  Ammonite  women 
as  his  wives,  worshipped  their  god  and  built  a  high- 
place  in  his  honour  (III  K.,  xi),  which  Josias  de- 
stroyed (IV  K.,  xxiii,  13).  When  Solomon  died 
and  his  kingdom  was  divided,  the  Ammonites  re- 
gained their  independence  and  allied  themselves  with 
tlie  Assyrians,  joining  with  them  in  an  attack  on 
Gilead  by  which  their  territory  was  increased. 
Their  barbarous  cruelty  on  this  occasion  called  forth 
the  denunciation  of  Amos,  who  foretold  the  destruc- 
tion of  Rabbath  (Amos,  i,  13).  During  the  Assyrian 
invasion  under  Theglathphalasar,  when  their  neigh- 
bours, the  Reubenites  and  the  Gaddites,  were  carried 
into  captivity,  they  regained  some  of  their  old  terri- 
tory along  the  Jordan  (IV,  K..  xv,  29;  Jer.,  xlix,  1-6). 
In  the  time  of  Josaphath,  King  of  Judah,  when  the 
Israelites  were  greatly  weakened,  the  Ammonites 
put  themselves  at  the  head  of  a  confederacy  of  na- 
tions for  the  subjugation  of  Israel;  but  suspicions 
awakening  among  tlie  allies,  they  turned  to  destroy- 
ing one  another  and  Israel  miraculously  escaped 
(II  Par.,  XX,  23).  Afternearly  one  hundred  and  hfty 
years,  Joatham,  King  of  Judah,  ventured  an  attack 
upon  the  Ammonites,  conquering  them  and  subject- 
ing them  to  a  yearly  tribute  (II  Par.,  xxvii),  which, 
liowever,  was  enforced  for  only  three  years.  But 
the  doom  of  the  Hebrew  monarcliy  was  approaching 
and  the  .\mmonites  had  a  part  to  play.  With  others 
of  the  surrounding  nations,  they  were  employed  by 
Nabuchodonosor,  King  of  Babylon,  to  overrun  the 


AMMONIUS 


433 


AMORRHITES 


kingdom  of  Judah  (IV  K.,  xxiv);  and  wlien  the  fall 
finally  came,  it  was  the  king  of  the  Ammonites  who 
sent  assassins  into  Judea  to  murder  the  go\enu)r 
who  had  gathered  together  the  remnant  of  Judah 
(IV  K.,  xxv;  Jer.,  xl.  14).  After  the  return  the  old 
hatred  is  still  seen  to  live  (II  Ksd.,  iv).  In  the  time 
of  Judas  Machabeus,  the  Ammonites  are  still  a  strong 

Eeople,  and  the  great  leader  had  to  fight  many  battles 
efore  he  conquered  them  (I  Mach.,  v).  No  further 
mention  of  them  occurs  in  biblical  times;  Justin 
Martyr  refers  to  them  as  a  numerous  people  in  his 
day,  out  in  the  course  of  the  next  century  they  vanish 
completely  from  the  view  of  history. 

Hike  liictionnru a  :4  II^>^[^(;s.  VluouRorx;  JewUh  Encyelo- 
pmtia;  Di:Lrr/sfii.  Dili. man,  Uhivku.  (jUay,  CommentarifS 
{Numbt-ra);    I.agkangk,  Historical  Method. 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Ammonius  Saccas.    See  Neo-Platonism. 

Amorbach,  former  Benedictine  abbey  in  Lower 
Franconia  (liavaria),  about  twenty-five  miles  south 
of  .Vschaffenburg.  It  was  founded  in  tlie  early  part 
of  tlie  eiglith  century  by  St.  Pirmin,  wlio  had  been 
called  to  tliat  region  by  Count  Rut  hard  to  preacli 
the  Gospel.  The  Saint,  with  his  disciple  .Vmor,  first 
took  up  his  abode  at  what  is  now  called  Amor- 
bnmnen,  but  later  built  an  abbey  near  by,  in  the 
Oden  forest,  in  tlie  valley  of  the  Mudau,  a  tributary 
of  the  Main.  Tlie  alibey,  which  was  con.secrated  in 
734,  became  the  centre  of  Christianity  and  civilization 
in  the  Oden  forest.  The  town  of  Amorbach,  which 
in  1900  had  2,173  inhabitants,  grew  up  about  its 
walls  and  its  monks  not  only  labourecl  in  the  neigh- 
bouring districts  but  also  penetrated  into  northern 
Germany,  where  they  aiileci  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Saxons.  Several  of  the  first  bishops  of  Venlen,  the 
scene  of  the  mi.ssionary  activity  of  tliese  monks,  were 
former  abbots  of  .\morbach.  In  the  early  days  of  its 
history  the  abbey  received  generous  gifts  from  Charles 
Martel  and  liis  sons.  Pepin  united  it  to  the  Diocese 
of  VViirzburg,  though  in  modem  times  it  was  tran.s- 
ferred  to  JIainz.  It  suffered  much  in  the  tenth 
century  from  the  invasion  of  the  Huns,  and  later,  in 
l.i21,  during  the  Peasants'  War,  and  in  1631,  from 
the  Swedes.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  abbey 
buildings  and  the  beautiful  church,  long  famous  for 
its  organ,  were  rebuilt.  Amorbach  was  suppressetl  in 
1803  and  pas.sed  into  the  possession  of  the  house  of 
Leiningen.  In  1816,  the  town  and  abbey  came 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Bavaria. 

Gropp,  .£(««  mille  anjwnim  monaat.  B.  M.  V.  in  Amorlmrh 
(Frankfort,  17.3(i);  Himiedrand,  Amorbach  u.  der  itstl.  Oiien- 
veaUi  (Aschaffcnburg,  1883);  Stamminger  in  Kirchenlex. 

H.  M.  Brock. 

Amorios  (also  Amorium),  a  titular  see  of  Phrygia 
in  Asia  Minor,  now  known  as  Hergan  Kaleh.  It  was 
a  see  as  early  as  43 1 . 

LEyciEN,  Oricns  Christ.  (1740),  I,  853  sq.;  Gams,  I,  447. 

Amorrhites,  a  name  of  doubtful  origin  and  mean- 
ing, used  to  ile.signate  an  ancient  people  often  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  by  many  sup- 
posed to  be  derivetl  from  a  word  akin  to  the  Hebrew 
vimfrand  to  mean  "mountaineers",  "  highlanders"; 
but  'Amir  is  ''summit",  not  "mountain".  The 
name  is  much  older  than  any  part  of  tlie  Bible  and 
even  much  older  than  the  Hebrew  people  itself;  the 
attempt,  then,  to  fix  its  meaning  by  Hebrew  usage 
and  the  local  habitation  of  the  .\morrliites  in  Hebrew 
times  can  only  be  regarded  as  niisdirectcil  elTort. 
That  some  of  the  .Vmorrhites,  thou.sands  of  years 
after  the  name  came  to  be  u.sed,  dwelt  in  mountains 
can  no  longer  be  judged  as  serious  proof  that  Amor- 
rhite  means  highlander;  its  signification  .still  remains 
obscure.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  nevertheless,  that  the 
Amorrhites  of  biblical  and  pre-biblical  times  have 
usually  been  found  in  mountamous  districts,  although 
those  best  known  are  the  Amorrhites  of  the  Jordan 


Valley,  whose  sway,  however,  extended  to  the  moun- 
tains east  of  the  Jordan. 

I.  ExTE.NT. — In  application,  the  name  has  a  wider 
and  narrower  extent  m  the  Bible,  varying  in  a  man- 
ner the  reason  for  which  cannot  often  be  discovered. 
(1)  At  times  it  seems  conterminous  with  Chanaanite, 
and  designates  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Land  of 
Chanaan  before  the  advent  of  Israel.  Thus  the 
Prophet  .\mos  calls  Palestine  the  land  of  the  Amor- 
rhite,  anil  the  race  which  Israel  cast  out  was  the 
.Vmorrhite  (ii,  9,  10);  this  u.sage  prevails  also  in 
Gen.,  xlviii,  22,  and  Jos.,  xxiv,  15,  18.  The  .same 
may  be  gathered  from  various  passages  where  certain 
Chanaanitish  races  or  tribes  have  at  one  time  a 
specific  name  and  at  another  are  classed  as  .\morrhite; 
thus,  the  inhabitants  of  Gabaon  are  called  indiffer- 
ently Ilevites  and  .-Vmorrhites  (Jos.,  xi,  19;  II  Kings, 
xxi,  2),  and  of  Jerusalem,  either  Jebusites  or  Amor- 
rhites (Jos.,  XV,  63,  xviii,  28;  Judges,  i,  21,  and 
Jos.,  X,  5,  6,  and  Ezeoh.,  xvi,  3).  The  Amorrhites  of 
Gen.,  xiv,  13,  are  Hethites  (Hittites)  in  (ien.,  xxiii, 
and  the  Philistines  are  likewise  deemed  Amorrhites 
(I  Kings,  vii,  14).  While  the  name  therefore  seems 
applicaole  to  all  the  non-Israelitish  peoples  of 
Chanaan,  it  is  to  bo  noted  that  it  generally  has  a 
le-sser  extension  than  Chanaanite,  and  the  .Vmorrhites 
themselves  arc  sometimes  regarded  as  onlv  a  branch 
of  the  Chanaanile  family  {(Jen.,  x,  16).  (2)  Another 
usage  distinguishes  sharply  between  Chanaariites  and 
.Vmorrhites,  putting  both  on  a  level  as  tribes  thvelling 
with  several  others  in  Palestine,  the  Amorrhites, 
when  located,  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  central 
and  southern  Palestine  (Deut.,  i,  7,  19,  27,  44; 
Gen.,  xiv,  7,13;  xv,  21 ;  Jos.,  x,  5,  12,  xxiv,  8;  Ex.,  iii, 
8,  etc.).  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Amorrhites 
at  any  stage  of  their  history  occupied  the  coa.st 
lands.  (3)  .Vgain,  the  name  is  appLed  to  the  race 
dwelling  on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan, 
from  the  .\rnon  to  Mt.  Ilermon,  and  extending  east- 
ward to  Jazer  and  Ile.sebon  (Num.,  xxi,  13,  24,  32; 
Deut.,  iii,  8,  9),  comprising  the  territory  of  Sehon, 
King  of  Ile.sebon,  and  Og,  King  of  Basan  (Bashan). 
which  later  constituted  the  entire  possessions  of  the 
Hebrews  east  of  the  Jordan. 

These  variations  in  the  biblical  use  of  the  term 
Amorrhite — as  ilesignating  all  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Palestine,  or  only  one  part  or  tribe  dwelling  in  the 
mountainous  districts  of  the  centre  and  south,  or, 
finally,  those  east  of  the  Jordan — are  found  often 
side  by  side,  and  cannot  easily  be  accounted  for;  it 
is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  application  to 
all  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine  generally  occurs  wlieii 
it  is  question  of  the  idolatrous  rites  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants,  or  when  they  are  viewed  together  as  a 
people  doomed  for  their  iniquities  to  be  supplanted 
by  the  Israelites,  in  which  cases  the  Amorrhites  may 
be  taken  as  the  most  fitting  type,  though  they  are 
but  part  of  the  population  and  in  reality  confined  to 
the  districts  implied  by  the  other  u.ses  of  the  term. 
The  name  of  the  .-Vmorrhite  also  lingered  in  Hebrew 
tradition  as  representative  of  gigantic  stature  and 
warlike  character,  and  is  likely  to  be  employed  wlicji 
the  writer  is  thinking  of  the  ancient  inliabitants  as 
Israel's  foes  in  battle  (Deut.,  ii,  11,  20;  iii,  11,  13), 
while  precisely  the  same  population  under  peaceful 
conditions  is  called  Chan.aanite.  It  has  been  noted 
by  upholders  of  the  documentary  theory  that  the 
writer  of  the  Elohistic  document  seems  to  u.se  both 
terms  as  coextensive.  This  is  the  usual  account  of 
the  variations,  and  it  is  noteworthy  for  the  view  of 
Amorrhite  history  which  it  embodies;  yet  it  may 
well  be  that  the  name,  instead  of  being  first  the  name 
of  a  southern  or  trans-Jordanie  tribe  and  extended 
in  time  to  many  various  peoples,  is  on  the  contrary 
a  survival  of  an  ancient  usage  for  all  the  inhabitant^ 
of  Palestine  anil  bordering  countries.  .\s  early  as 
3800  B.  c,  some  believe,  the  Babylonians  called  Syria 


434 


AMORT 


and  Palestine  the  land  of  the  Amorrhite.  Centuries 
later  (1400  h.  c).  in  the  Tol  cl-Amarna  tablets,  the 
name  is  applied  to  the  inland  country  north  and 
north-east  of  Palestine;  lOgyptian  inscriptions  use  the 
term  for  the  same  territory,  but  extend  it  to  the 
countries  eastward  as  far  as  the  Orontes.  In  ninth- 
century  Assyrian  inscriptions  northern  and  southern 
Palestine  are  included  under  the  name.  The  term, 
then,  may  originally  or  verj'  early  have  been  applied 
to  all  tliis  territory-";  or  more  likely  it  was  used  first 
to  designate  tlie  country  north  of  Palestine  and  later 
extended  south  and  oast.  If  these  .\morrhites  of  the 
north,  however,  are  to  be  considered  one  in  race  with 
the  Amorrhites  of  tlie  Hible,  no  hght  has  yet  been 
shed  upon  their  migrations  into  central  and  southern 
Palestine  or  beyond  tlie  Jordan.  For  tlie  present, 
that  part  of  their  history  rests  in  obscurity,  though 
conjectures  are  plentiful. 

II.  Race. — Tiie  close  relationship  of  the  Amorrhite 
with  the  races  or  tribes  usually  classed  as  Chanaan- 
itish  is  asserted  in  Gen.,  x,  15,  16,  and  implied  in  the 
numerous  passages  where  Amorrliite  is  used  in  place 
of  Chanaanite,  Jebusite,  or  a  cognate  name.  That 
these  tribes  are  Semitic  in  origin  is  doubted  by  many, 
but  their  language,  religion,  and  institutions  are  un- 
questionably Semitic.  The  Amorrhite  is  represented 
as  the  fourth  .son  of  Chanaan.  son  of  Ham.  Sayce 
tries  to  connect  thetn  with  a  North  African  Hamitic 
race,  the  Libyans,  mainlj'  on  the  strength  of  the 
facial  resemblance  he  discovers  between  them  in  one 
Egyptian  sculpture  of  the  time  of  Rameses  III. 
This  resemblance  is  not  elsewhere  borne  out  and  in 
any  case  must  be  considered  a  precarious  foundation 
for  such  an  hypothesis.  No  details  have  come  down 
to  us  which  will  enable  us  to  distinguish  the  Amor- 
rhites from  their  kinsfolk  (see  Chan,\.a.n),  except 
that  they  seem  to  have  been  remarkable  for  their 
stature,  strength,  and  wickedness.  They  dwelt  in 
walled  cities  and  were  warlike  in  spirit. 

III.  Amorrhites  and  Israel. — Though  a  very 
ancient  race,  the  Amorrhites  have  left  but  a  shght 
mark  on  history  in  pre-biblical  times.  They  were  not 
the  original  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  though  the  time 
and  circumstances  of  their  advent  are  unknown. 
They  first  appear  in  the  Bible  as  inhabitants  of 
southern  Palestine,  where  they  are  defeated  by 
Chodorlahomor  and  his  allies  (Gen.,  xiv,  7).  The 
Israelites  find  tliem  in  the  same  region  when  they 
attempt,  contrary  to  the  divine  command,  to  enter 
Palestine  from  the  south  and  are  repulsed  (Num., 
xiii  and  xiv).  About  this  period  certain  tribes  of 
Amorrhites  gain  possession  of  the  land  east  of  the 
Jordan;  so  there  the  Israelites  next  come  in  contact 
with  the  Amorrhites  and  ask  permission  of  Sehon, 
their  king,  to  pass  through  his  dominions,  promising 
to  do  no  damage  and  to  pay  for  whatever  they  take 
on  the  way.  The  request  being  refused,  war  follows. 
Sehon  is  defeated  and  slain,  antl  the  Israelites  take 
possession  of  his  territory  from  the  Arnon  to  the 
Jeboc.  Crossing  the  Jeboc,  they  inflict  the  same  fate 
upon  Og,  King  of  Basan,  and  his  territory  (Num.,  xxi; 
Deut.,  ii  and  iii).  These  lands,  which  were  awarded 
to  the  tribes  of  Ruben  and  Gad  and  the  half-tribe 
of  Manasses,  extended  from  the  Arnon  as  far  north 
as  Mount  Hermon  (Deut.,  iv,  4(>-49).  When  Josue 
had  cros.sed  tlie  Jordan  and  with  divine  aid  had 
gained  several  signal  victories,  fear  fell  upon  the 
neighbouring  .\morrhites.  The  inhabitants  of  Ga- 
baon  (Gibeon),  an  Amorrliite  city,  yielded  to  Josue, 
which  enraged  tlieir  brethren.  They  were  accord- 
ingly attacked  and  besieged  by  a  confederation  of 
Amorrhite  kings  (the  five  kings  of  Jerusalem,  Heb- 
ron, Jerimoth,  Lacliis,  and  Hglon),  and  .sent  to  Josue 
for  aid.  Josue,  coming  to  their  rescue,  put  the 
Amorrhites  to  flight,  cut  them  olT  in  great  numbers, 
captured  and  slaughtered  the  five  .Vmorrliite  kings 
and  hung  their  bodies  upon  trees  till  the  evening 


(.los.,  x).  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Josue  com- 
manded the  sea  and  moon  to  stand  still  (for  various 
opinions  on  this  passage,  see  Josue).  This  victory 
secured  to  Israel  the  tenure  of  Palestine.  The 
Amorrhites  were  not  driven  ovit  of  Palestine  nor 
exterminated.  Many  of  them  intermarried  with  the 
Hebrews  and  contaminated  them  by  their  idolatries 
and  vices  (Judges,  iii;  I  Esd.,  ix).  In  the  time  of 
Solomon,  and  even  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias,  they  are 
still  distinguished  from  their  conquerors,  but  are 
finally  merged  into  the  general  population  of  Pales- 
tine. 

S.VYCE  in  H.^ST.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  Amorrhites  and 
Chanaan:  Jastrow,  ibid.,  V,  72,  s.  v.  Races  of  the  Old  Testament; 
Jewish  Encyclopedia,  a.  v.;  Sayce,  Races  of  the  Old  Testament; 
Legendre  in  Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible. 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Amort,  EusEBius,  philosopher  and  theologian,  b. 
at  Bibermiihle  in  Bavaria,  15  November,  1692;  d.  at 
Polling,  5  February,  1775.  He  was  educated  by 
the  Jesuits  at  Munich  and  at  an  early  age  joined  the 
Canons  Regular  in  the  convent  of  Polling,  wliere  he 
spent  most  of  liis  life  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy, 
theology,  and  canon  law,  a  tireless  student  in  many 
departments  of  ecclesiastical  lore,  and  an  investigator 
of  natural  phenomena.  He  was  foremost  among 
the  German  theologians  of  the  eighteenth  century  as 
a  guide  and  an  inspirer  of  ecclesiastical  youth,  and 
may  be  considered  a  model  of  hfelong  devotion  to 
all  the  sciences  that  befit  an  ecclesiastic.  As  early 
as  1722  he  founded,  and  with  some  interruptions 
carried  on  for  several  years,  an  influential  review, 
"  Parnassus  Boicus,  oder  Neueroffneter  Musenberg". 
.\n  academy  formed  by  him  at  Polling  became  in 
time  the  model  on  which  was  based  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Munich.  He  spent  the  years  1733-35 
at  Rome,  whence  he  returned  to  Bavaria  enriched 
with  precious  knowledge  acquired  by  intense  study 
in  the  libraries  of  the  Eternal  City  and  by  intercourse 
with  many  learned  men.  Thenceforth  he  counted 
among  liis  correspondents  such  scholars  as  Benedict 
XIII  and  Benedict  XIV,  Father  Concina,  Cardinals 
Leccari,  GalU,  Orsi,  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori,  and  others. 
For  a  period  of  forty  years  his  pen  was  never  idle, 
and  from  it  unceasingly  poured  forth  learned  volumes 
and  brochures  filled  with  rare  and  choice  learning 

It  has  been  truly  said  that  his  seventy  volumes, 
if  distributed  in  an  orderly  collection,  would  resemble 
a  general  encyclopedia.  As  a  philo.sopher,  he  is  best 
known  by  his  solid  work  "  Pliilosophia  PoUingana" 
(.\ugsburg,  1730)  and  by  his  "  Wolfiana  Judicia  de 
philosophia  et  Leibnitiana  physicfi,''  (Frankfort,  1736). 
As  a  dogmatic  theologian  and  Christian  apologist  he 
won  applause  by  his  "  Demonstratio  critica  rehgionis 
cathoUciE  nova,  modesta,  facilis  "  etc.  (Venice,  1744), 
written  to  promote  the  reunion  of  the  Protestant 
sects  with  the  Catholic  Church,  and  by  his  "  De 
origine,  ])rogressu,  valore  et  fructu  indulgentiarum 
accurata  notitia  historica,  dogmatica,  critica" 
(-■Vugsburg,  1735).  His  most  extensive  work,  "Theo- 
logia  eclectica,  moralis  et  scholastica ",  published 
at  Augsburg  (1752)  in  four  folio  volumes,  and  later 
at  Bologna  (1753)  in  twenty-four  octavo  volumes, 
merited  the  honour  of  a  revision  by  Benedict  XIV. 
He  wrote  also  "Theologia  moralis  inter  rigorem  et 
laxitatem  media"  (Augsburg,  1239),  "  Ethica  Chris- 
tiana" (.Vugsburg,  1758),  and  other  moral  treatises. 
St.  Ali>honsus  Liguori  admired  lus  theological  pru- 
dence, and  Gury  calls  him  a  "  probabilista  moderatus 
doctrind  et  sapientiii  clarus";  others  (e.  g.  Toussaint) 
accu.se  him  of  an  inclination  to  rigorism  in  practice. 
He  translated  into  Latin  the  "  Dictionnaire  des  cas 
de  conscience"  of  Pontas  (Venice,  1733),  but  modi- 
fied its  Gallican  tone  and  rigoristic  views. 

Of  his  canonical  works  the  most  important  is  lus 
"Vetus  Disciplina  canonieorum  et  regularium" 
(Venice,  1748),  "Elementa  juris   canonici  veteris  et 


AMOS 


435 


AMOS 


modemi"  (Ulm,  1757),  botli  valuable  for  their 
wealth  of  historical  material.  In  the  latter  he  de- 
feiuls  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  against  the  attacks 
of  contemporary  jurists  and  statesmen.  Tlie  be.st 
known  of  nis  works  is  entitled  "  l)e  revelationibus, 
visionibus  et  apparitionibus  i)rivatis  regidie  tutie  ox 
Scriptur.l,  Conciliis,  Sanctis  Patribus  ahi.squo  optimis 
auctoribus  coUectie,  explicata>  atque  exeniplis  illus- 
trata)"  (Augsburg,  1741).  It  was  directed  against 
the  "Mystic  City  of  God",  the  famous  work  of  the 
Spanish  Franciscan  nun,  Maria  tie  Agreda,  and 
brought  him  into  conflict  witli  several  of  her  Fran- 
ci.scan  defenders.  This  learned  scholar  found  time 
to  prepare  for  the  people  a  number  of  tlevotional 
works.  His  prayer-books.  "  Kurz  und  (!ut "  and 
"  HreWer  eines  guten  Christen",  went  through  many 
editions.  He  also  compiled  select  lives  of  the  saints 
and  wrote  a  German  treatise  (Venice,  17.iO)  on  the 
invocation  of  the  .saints,  besides  a  smaller  and  a 
larger  catechism.  In  the  discussions  waged  during 
the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  centurj'  concerning 
the  authorsliip  of  the  "Do  Imitatione  Christi" 
Amort  stood  forth  as  an  ardent  supporter  of  the 
claims  of  Thomas  A  Kempis,  though  his  seven  works 
on  the  subject,  praised  for  their  "rare  learning  and 
judicious  temper",  failed  to  silence  the  Henedictine 
champions  of  Jean  Gersen.  The  more  important 
are:  "Scutum  Kempense"  (Cologne,  172,5);  "Plena 
et  succincta  informatio  de  statu  totius  controversia;" 
(.\ugsburg,  1725),  and  "Certitudo  moralis  pro  Th. 
Kempensi"  (Ratisbon,  1704).  On  his  portrait  by 
Jungwirth  was  engraved  "  Litterarum  maxime  sacra- 
rum  per  Bavariam  restaurator  eximius".  The 
visitor  to  Bibermiihle  may  now  contemplate  a  marble 
monument  erected  in  honour  of  a  theologian  in  whom 
industry,  erudition,  critical  skill,  and  piety  were 
united  in  a  high  degree. 

De  Fkller,  Uinnr.  Univ.  (Pari.s  1845).  Ill,  45;  We-ster- 
UAYR.  in  Kirchcnhi..  I,  754-757;  Tolssai.nt,  in  Diet,  de 
Ihiol.  cath..  I,  1115-17;  Hut.  pulil.  BliiUrr.  I.XXVl,  107; 
HuRTER,  Nomenclator  (Innsbruck,  1895),  III,  liOl;  Baader, 
Dat  geUhrte  Bayern  (Nuremberg,  1804).  I.  20. 

Thomas  J.  Shah.\n. 

Amos.  I.  Name. — -The  third  among  tlic  Minor 
Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  is  called,  in  the 
Hebrew  Te.xt,  "  'Amos."  The  spelling  of  his  name 
is  different  from  that  of  the  name  of  Isaias's  father, 
'"AmOi;";  whence  Christian  tradition  has,  for  the 
most  part,  rightly  distinguished  lK>tween  the  two. 
The  prophet's  name,  Amns,  has  been  variously  ex- 
plained, and  its  exact  meaning  is  still  a  matter  of 
conjecture. 

II.  Life  and  Times. — According  to  the  heading 
of  his  book  (i,  1)  Amos  was  a  herdsman  of  Thecua, 
a  village  in  the  Southern  Kingdom,  twelve  miles 
south  of  Jerusalem.  Besicles  this  humble  avocation, 
he  is  also  spoken  of  in  vii,  14,  as  a  simple  dresser 
of  sycamore-trees.  Hence,  as  far  as  we  know,  there 
is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  view  of  most  Jewish 
interpreters  that  Amos  was  a  wealthy  man.  Thecua 
was  apparently  a  shepherd's  to«-n,  and  it  was  while 
following  his  flock  in  the  wilderness  of  Juda,  that, 
in  the  reigns  of  OzijLS  and  Jeroboam,  God  called  him 
for  a  sjxjcial  mission;  "Go,  prophesy  to  My  people 
Israel"  (vii,  15).  In  the  eyes  of  the  humble  shep- 
herd this  must  have  appeared  a  most  difficult  mis- 
sion. .\i  the  time  when  the  call  came  to  him,  he 
was  "not  a  prophet,  nor  the  son  of  a  prophet" 
(vii,  14),  which  implies  that  he  had  not  yet  entered 
upon  the  prophetical  office,  and  even  that  he  had 
not  attended  the  schools  wherein  young  men  in 
training  for  a  prophet's  career  bore  the  name  of 
"the  sons  of  a  prophet". 

Other  reasons  might  well  cause  Amos  to  fear  to 
accept  the  divine  mission.  He,  a  Southerner,  was 
bidden  to  go  to  the  Xorthem  Kingdom,  Israel,  and 
carry  to  its  people  and  its  leaders  a  message  of  judg- 
ment to  which,  from  their  historical  circumstances, 
I.— 28 


they  were  particularly  ill-prepared  to  listen.  Its 
ruler,  Jeroboam  II  (c.  781-741  B.  c),  had  rapidly 
conquered  .Syria,  .Moab,  and  Ammon,  and  thereby 
extended  his  dominions  from  the  source  of  the 
Orontes  on  the  north  to  the  Dead  .Sea  on  the  south. 
The  whole  northern  empire  of  .Solomon  thus  practi- 
cally restored  had  enjoyed  a  long  period  of  peace 
and  security  marke<l  by  a  wonderful  revival  of 
artistic  and  commercial  development.  .Samaria,  its 
capital,  had  Ix-en  adorned  with  splendid  and  sul>- 
stantial  buildings;  riches  had  been  accumulated  in 
abundance;  comfort  and  luxury  had  reached  their 
highest  standard;  so  that  the  Northern  Kingilom 
had  attained  a  material  prosperity  unprecedented 
since  the  disruption  of  the  empirfe  of  Solomon.  Out- 
wardly, religion  was  also  in  a  most  flourishing  con- 
dition. The  sacrificial  worship  of  the  God  of  I.srael 
was  carried  on  with  great  pomp  and  general  faith- 
fulness, and  the  long  enjoyment  of  national  pro.s- 
perity  was  popularly  regarded  as  an  undoubted  token 
of  the  Lord's  favour  towards  His  iieople.  It  is  true 
that  public  morals  had  gradually  been  infected 
by  the  vices  which  continued  success  and  plenty 
too  often  bring  in  their  train.  Soci.il  corruption  and 
the  oppression  of  the  poor  and  helpless  were  verj' 
prevalent.  But  the.se  and  similar  marks  of  public 
degeneracy  could  \yc  readily  excusetl  on  the  plea 
that  they  were  the  necessary  accompaniments  of 
a  high  degree  of  Oriental  civilization.  Again,  reli- 
gion was  debased  in  various  ways.  Many  among 
the  Israelites  were  satisfie<l  with  the  mere  otTeriiig 
of  the  sacrificial  victims,  regardless  of  the  inward 
dispositions  required  for  their  worthy  presentation 
to  a  thrice-holy  God.  Others  availed  themselves  of 
the  throngs  which  attended  the  sacred  festivals 
to  indulge  in  immoderate  enjoj-ment  and  tumultuous 
revelry.  Others  again,  carried  away  by  the  freer 
a.ssociation  with  heathen  peoples  which  resulted 
from  conquest  or  from  commercial  intercourse.  e\en 
went  so  far  as  to  fuse  with  the  Lord's  worship  that 
of  pagan  deities.  Owing  to  men's  natural  tendency 
to  oe  satisfied  with  the  mechanical  performance  of 
religious  duties,  and  owing  more  particularly  to  the 
great  pronencss  of  the  Hebrews  of  old  to  adopt  the 
sensual  rites  of  foreign  cults,  so  long  as  they  did  not 
give  up  the  worship  of  their  own  God,  the.se  irregu- 
larities in  matters  of  religion  did  not  appear  ol)- 
jectionable  to  the  Israelites,  all  the  more  so  liecause 
the  Lord  did  not  punish  them  for  their  conduct. 
Yet  it  wsis  to  that  most  prosperous  people,  thoroughly 
convinced  that  God  was  well-pleased  with  them, 
that  Amos  was  sent  to  deliver  a  stem  rebuke  for  all 
their  misdeeds,  and  to  announce  in  God's  name  their 
forthcoming  ruin  and  captivity  (vii,  17). 

.\inos's  mission  to  Irsael  was  but  a  temporarj' one. 
It  extended  apparently  from  two  years  before  to  a 
few  years  after  an  earthquake,  the  exact  date  of 
which  is  unknown  (i,  1).  It  met  with  strong  op- 
position, especially  on  the  part  of  Amasias,  the  chief 
friest  of  the  royal  sanctuary  in  Bethel  (vii,  10-13). 
low  it  came  to  an  end  is  not  known;  for  only  late 
and  untrustworthy  legends  tell  of  Amos's  martjTdom 
under  the  ill-treatment  of  Amasias  and  his  son. 
It  is  more  probable  that,  in  compliance  with  Ania- 
sias's  threjitening  order  (vii,  12),  the  prophet  with- 
drew to  Juda,  whore  at  leisure  he  arranged  his 
oracles   in   their   well-planned   disposition. 

III.    .■VvAI.YSia    OK     pHOPHETirAI.     WlilTINO. — The 

book  of  .\mos  falls  naturally  into  three  parts.  The 
first  opens  with  a  general  title  to  the  work,  giving 
the  author's  name  and  the  general  date  of  his  minis- 
try (i,  1),  and  a  text  or  motto  in  four  poetical  lines 
(i,  2),  describing  under  a  fine  image  the  Lord's  power 
over  Palestine.  This  part  comprises  the  first  two 
chapters,  and  is  m.ide  up  of  a  series  of  oracles  against 
Damascus,  Gaza,  Tyre,  Kdom.  .\mmon,  Moab,  Juda, 
and,  finally,  Israel.     Each  oracle  begins  with  the  same 


AMOS 


436 


AMOS 


numerical  formula:  "For  three  crimes  of  Damascus 
[or  Gaza,  or  Tyre,  etc.,  as  tlie  case  may  be],  and 
for  lour,  I  will  not  revoke  tlie  doom";  it  next  sets 
forth  tlie  chief  indictment;  and  finally  pronounces 
the  penalty.  The  heathen  nations  are  doomed  not 
because  of  their  ignorance  of  the  true  God,  but 
because  of  their  breaches  of  the  elementary  and 
unwritten  laws  of  natural  humanity  and  good  faith. 
As  regards  Juda  and  Israel,  they  will  share  the  same 
doom  because,  although  they  were  especially  cared 
for  by  the  Lord  who  drew  them  out  of  Egypt,  con- 
quere"d  for  them  the  land  of  Chanaan,  and  gave  them 
prophets  and  Nazarites,  yet  they  have  committed 
the  same  crimes  as  their  pagan  neighbours.  Israel 
is  rebuked  more  at  lengtli  than  Juda,  and  its  utter 
destruction  is  vividly  described. 

The  second  part  (chaps,  iii-vi)  consists  of  a 
series  of  addresses  which  expand  the  indictment 
and  the  sentence  against  Israel  set  forth  in  ii,  6-16. 
Amos's  indictment  lje:irs  (1)  on  the  social  disorders 
prevalent  among  the  upper  classes;  (2)  on  the  heart- 
less luxury  and  self-indulgence  of  the  wealthy  ladies 
of  Samaria;  (3)  on  the  too  great  confidence  of  the 
Israelites  at  large  in  their  mere  external  discharge 
of  religious  duties  which  can  in  no  way  secure  them 
against  the  approaching  doom.  The  sentence  itself 
assumes  the  form  of  a  dirge  over  the  captivity  which 
awaits  the  unrepenting  transgressors,  and  the  com- 
plete surrender  of  the  country  to  the  foreign 
enemy. 

The  third  section  of  the  book  (chaps,  vii-ix,  86.), 
apart  from  the  historical  account  of  Amasias's  op- 
position to  Amos  (vii,  10-17),  and  from  a  discourse 
(viii,  4-14)  similar  in  tone  and  import  to  the  ad- 
dresses contained  in  the  second  part  of  the  prophecy, 
is  wholly  made  up  of  visions  of  judgment  against 
Israel.  In  the  first  two  visions — the  one  of  devour- 
ing locusts,  and  the  other  of  consuming  fire — the 
foretold  destruction  is  stayed  by  divine  interposi- 
tion; but  in  the  third  vision,  that  of  a  plumb-line, 
the  destruction  is  permitted  to  become  complete. 
The  fourth  vision,  like  the  foregoing,  is  symbolical; 
a  basket  of  summer  fruit  points  to  the  speedy  decay 
of  Israel;  while  in  the  fifth  and  last  the  prophet 
beholds  the  Lord  standing  beside  the  altar  and 
threatening  the  Northern  Kingdom  with  a  chastise- 
ment from  wliich  there  is  no  escape.  The  book  con- 
cludes with  God's  solemn  promise  of  the  glorious 
restoration  of  the  House  of  David,  and  of  the  won- 
derful prosperity  of  the  purified  nation  (ix,  8c-15). 

III.  Literary  Fe.-itures  of  the  I5ook. — It  is 
universally  admitted  at  the  present  day  that  these 
contents  are  set  forth  in  a  style  of  "high  literary 
merit".  This  literary  excellence  might,  indeed,  at 
first  sight  appear  in  strange  contrast  with  Amos's 
obscure  birth  and  humble  shepherd  life.  A  closer 
study,  however,  of  the  prophet's  writing  and  of  the 
actual  circumstances  of  its  composition  does  away 
with  that  apparent  contrast.  Before  Amos's  time 
the  Hebrew  language  had  gradually  passed  through 
several  stages  of  development,  and  had  been  culti- 
vated by  several  able  writers.  Again,  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  prophecies  of  Amos  were  de- 
livered exactly  as  they  are  recorded.  Throughout 
the  book  the  topics  are  treated  poetically,  and  many 
of  its  literary  features  are  best  accounted  for  by 
admitting  that  the  prophet  spared  no  time  and  labour 
to  invest  his  oral  utterances  with  their  present 
elaborate  form.  Finally,  to  associate  inferior  culture 
with  the  simplicity  and  relative  poverty  of  pastoral 
life  would  lie  to  mistake  totally  the  conditions  of 
Eastern  society,  ancient  and  modern.  For  among 
the  Hebrews  of  old,  jis  among  the  Arabs  of  tlie 
present  day,  the  sum  of  book-learning  was  neces- 
sarily small,  and  proficiency  in  knowledge  and 
oratory  was  chiefly  dependent  not  on  a  professional 
education,  but  on  a  shrewd  observation  of  men  and 


things,  a  memory  retentive  of  traditional  lore,  and 
the  faculty  of  original  thought. 

IV.  Authorship  and  Date. — Apart  from  a  few 
recent  critics,  all  scholars  maintain  the  correctness 
of  the  traditional  view  which  refers  the  book  of 
Amos  to  the  Judean  prophet  of  that  name.  They 
rightly  think  that  the  judgments,  sermons,  and 
visions  which  make  up  that  sacred  writing  centre 
in  a  great  message  of  doom  to  Israel.  The  con- 
tents read  like  a  solemn  denunciation  of  the  in- 
curable wickedness  of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  like 
a  direct  prediction  of  its  impending  ruin.  The  same 
scholars  regard  likewise  the  general  style  of  the  book, 
with  its  poetical  form  and  striking  simplicity, 
abruptness,  etc.,  as  proof  that  the  work  is  a  literary 
unit,  the  various  parts  of  which  should  be  traced 
back  to  one  and  the  same  mind,  to  the  one  and  holy 
prophet,  whose  name  and  period  of  activity  are  given 
in  the  title  to  the  prophecy,  and  whose  authorship 
is  repeatedly  affirmed  in  the  body  of  the  book 
(cf.  vii,  1,  2,  4,  5,  8;  viii,  1,  2;  ix,  1,  etc.).  To  con- 
firm the  traditional  view  of  Jews  and  Christians  in 
regard  to  authorship  and  date,  the  two  following 
facts  have  also  been  brought  forth:  first,  ao  was  to 
be  expected  from  a  shepherd  like  Amos,  the  author 
of  the  prophecy  uses  throughout  imagery  drawn 
mainly  from  rural  life  (the  wagon  loaded  with  shea\es, 
the  young  lion  in  its  den  growling  over  its  prey,  the 
net  springing  up  and  entrapping  the  bird,  the  rem- 
nants of  tlie  sheep  recovered  liy  the  shepherd  out  of 
the  lion's  mouth,  cattle-driving,  etc.);  in  the  second 
place,  there  is  a  close  agreement  between  the  state  of 
the  Northern  Kingdom  under  Jeroboam  II,  as  de- 
scribed by  Amos,  and  that  of  the  same  Kingdom  as  it 
is  made  known  to  us  in  the  fourth  book  of  Kings 
and  the  ])rophecy  of  Osee  which  is  commonly  ascribed 
to  the  same  (the  eighth)  century  B.  c.  It  is  true  that 
Amos's  authorship  of  numerous  passages,  and  notably 
of  ix,  8c-15,  has  been  and  is  still  seriously  questioned 
by  some  leading  critics.  But  in  regard  to  most,  if 
not  indeed  to  all  such  passages,  it  may  be  confidently 
affirmed  that  the  arguments  against  the  authorship 
are  not  strictly  conclusive.  Besides,  even  though  the 
later  origin  of  all  these  passages  should  be  conceded, 
the  traditional  view  of  the  authorship  and  date  of  the 
book  as  a  whole  would  not  be  materially  impaired. 

V.  Religious  Teachings  of  Amos. — Two  facts 
contribute  to  give  to  the  religious  doctrine  of  Amos 
a  special  importance.  On  the  one  hand,  his  prophe- 
cies are  wellnigh  universally  regarded  as  authentic, 
and  on  the  other,  his  work  is  probably  the  earliest 
prophetical  writing  which  has  come  down  to  us. 
So  that  the  book  of  Amos  furnishes  us  with  most 
valuable  information  concerning  the  beliefs  of  the 
eighth  century  B.C.,  and,  in  fact,  concerning  those 
of  some  time  before,  since,  in  delivering  the  Divine 
message  to  his  contemporaries,  the  prophet  alwaj's 
takes  for  granted  that  they  are  already  familiar 
with  the  truths  to  which  he  appeals.  Amos  teaches 
a  most  pure  monotheism.  Throughout  his  book 
there  is  not  so  much  as  a  reference  to  other  deities 
than  the  God  of  Israel.  He  often  speaks  of  "the 
Lord  of  Hosts ",  meaning  thereby  that  God  has 
untold  forces  and  powers  at  His  command;  in  other 
words,  that  He  is  omnipotent.  His  descriptions  of 
the  Divine  attributes  show  that  according  to  his 
mind  God  is  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  all  things 
in  heaven  and  on  earth;  He  governs  the  nations 
at  large,  as  well  as  the  heavenly  bodies  and  the 
elements  of  nature;  He  is  a  personal  and  righteous 
God  who  punishes  the  crimes  of  all  men,  whether 
they  belong  to  the  heathen  nations  or  to  the  chosen 
people.  The  prophet  repeatedly  inveighs  against 
the  false  notions  which  his  contemporaries  had  of 
God's  relation  to  Israel.  He  does  not  deny  that  the 
Lord  is  their  God  in  a  special  manner.  But  he 
argues  that  His  benefits  to  them  in  the  past,  instead 


AMOVIBILITY 


4.37 


of  being  a  reason  for  them  to  indulge  with  security 
in  sins  hateful  to  God's  holiness,  really  increase  their 
guilt  and  must  make  them  fear  a  severer  penalty. 
He  does  not  deny  tliat  sacrifices  should  be  offered 
to  the  Divine  Majesty;  but  lie  most  emphatically 
declares  that  the  mere  outward  offering  of  tliem  is 
not  pleasing  to  God  and  cannot  jjlacate  His  anger. 
On  the  day  of  the  Lord,  that  is  on  the  day  of  retribu- 
tion, Israelites  who  shall  be  found  guiltj'  of  the  same 
crimes  as  the  heathen  nations  will  be  held  to  ac- 
covmt  for  them  severely.  It  is  true  that  Amos  argues 
in  a  concrete  manner  with  his  contemporaries,  and 
that  consequently  he  does  not  fonnulate  abstract 
principles.  Nevertheless,  his  book  is  replete  with 
trutlis  which  can  never  become  superfluous  or  ob- 
solete. 

Finally,  whatever  view  may  lie  taken  of  the  au- 
thorship of  the  concluding  jwrtion  of  the  book  of 
Amos  (i.\,  8c.-15),  the  Messianic  bearing  of  the 
passage  will  be  readily  admitted  by  all  who  believe 
m  the  existence  of  the  supernatural.  It  may  also 
be  added  that  this  Messianic  prophecy  is  worded  in 
a  maimer  that  offers  no  insuperable  objection  to  the 
traditional  view  which  regards  Amos  as  its  author. 

For  reference  to  Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament,  gee 
Bibliography  to  Aqgeus;  receut  Commentaries  on  Amos  by 
Trochon  (1886);  K.nadknbaukr  (188G);  Ohelli  (Eng.  tr., 
18931;  Pillion  (1890);  Driver  (1898);  Smith  (1890);  Mit- 
chell (2d  ed.,  I9(X));  Nowack  (2d  ed.,  1903);  Marti  (1903); 
HOBTON   (1904). 

F.  E.  GlOOT. 

Amovibility,  a  term  applied  to  the  condition  of 
certain  ecclesiastics  in  regard  to  their  benefices  or 
offices.  While  it  is  true  that  holders  of  so-called 
perpetual  or  irremovable  dignities  can  in  certain 
specified  cases  be  deprived  of  their  offices,  yet  the 
term  "amovibility"  is  generally  restricted  to  such 
as  are  removable  at  the  will  of  the  bishop.  Such 
are  most  of  the  rectors  of  churches  in  the  United 
States  and  England,  as  also  in  general  and  every- 
wlicre  those  who  have  charge  of  succursal  churches 
or  are  parish  assistants.  Under  the  head  of  remov- 
able dignitaries,  canonists  generally  class  also  vicars- 
general,  archde;icons,  and  rural  deans.  Such  an  office 
or  benefice  is  designated  mainiaU',  as  opposed  to  tilnlare 
or  j>ernetuwn.  The  interpretation  of  amovibility  has 
cau.sed  considerable  controversy.  Many  canonists 
have  argued  that  because  the  possessor  of  an  office 
hoULs  it  ad  nulum,  he  can  therefore  l)e  deprived  of  it 
witliout  cause.  Otherwise,  they  declare,  the  word 
amovibility  would  have  no  meaning.  They  note  as 
exceptions,  however,  to  this  power  of  the  bishop,  cases 
in  wiiich  he  acts  from  open  hatred,  or  injures  the  good 
name  of  the  ecclesiastic,  or  damages  tlie  parish. 
Likewise,  they  say,  if  the  person  remo\ed  were  not 
given  another  office,  lie  could  have  recourse  to  a  supe- 
rior authority,  as  this  would  be  eciuivalent  to  injurmg 
his  good  name.  These  canonists  also  add  that  the 
bishop  would  sin  if  he  removed  an  ecclesiastic  with- 
out cause,  as  his  action  would  be  without  a  proper 
motive,  and  because  frequent  changes  are  neces- 
sarily detrimental  to  churches.  Other  canonists 
seem  to  maintain  for  removable  rectors  (see  Rector; 
Pahish  Priest)  practically  the  same  rights  as  to 
perpetuity,  which  are  possessed  by  irremovable  ec- 
<lesi;istics.  Perhaps,  however,  the  difference  Ix^tween 
these  opinions  is  little  more  than  verbal.  Amovi- 
bility must  not  be  confounded  with  arbitrary  re- 
moval, which  the  Church  has  always  condemned. 
It  is  opposed  rather  to  the  perpetual  tenure  of  those 
benefices,  for  removal  from  which  the  canons  require 
a  cause  expressly  named  in  law  and  a  formal  canon- 
ical process  or  trial.  But  there  may  Ix;  other  very 
grave  caascs  that  justify  a  removal  besides  those 
named  in  the  canons.  Nor  does  it  follow  that,  l)e- 
cause  a  regular  canonical  process  is  not  to  \m  ob- 
served, all  formalities  are  to  be  neglected  in  the 
removal  of  rectors  who  hold  their  office  ad  nutum 


episcopi;  there  are  also  extra-judicial  forms  which 
are  practically  equivalent  to  a  canonical  process. 

A  removable  rector  is,  therefore,  one  who  may  \jc 
removed  without  cause  expressed  in  law,  but  not 
without  a  just  cause;  one  who  may  be  removed 
without  canonical  process,  but  not  without  certain 
presented  formalities,  which  are  really  judicial, 
though  "extra-judicial"  as  regards  the  canons. 
Since,  however,  removable  ecclesiastics  have  no 
strict  and  perpetual  right  to  their  offices,  any  re- 
vocation made  by  the  superior  ad  nulum  is  valid, 
though  it  might  Ijc  gravely  illicit  and  reversible. 
In  such  cases  recourse  may  be  had  to  a  superior 
authority,  although  an  ordinary  appeal  in  the  strict 
sense  is  barred.  In  the  United  States  the  method 
of  procedure  is  laid  down  principally  in  tlie  Second 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1800)  and  the  Uoman 
Instructions  "QuamvLs"  of  1878  and  "Cum  Magno- 
pere"  of  1.S.S4. 

Wehnm,  Jus.  Deer..  II  (Rome,  1899);  SsiiTii,  Ulcm.  «/ 
Eccl.  Law,  I  (New  York.  1895);  The  New  Procedure  (New 
York.  1897);  Craibhon.  .\fan.  Jur.  Can.,  I  (Paris,  1889); 
BoDLX,  De  Farocho  (Pari'*.  1880). 

WiLLiAii  Windsor  Fan.vi.ng. 

Amoy,  The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  in  China, 
created  in  1S83,  and  entrusted  to  the  care  of  the 
Dominicans.  It  includes  the  island  of  Formosa,  with 
neighbouring  small  islands.  The  native  population  is 
about  4,.500,OfX),  of  which  2,000,000  are  in  Formosa. 
The  Catholics  number  3,930  (in  Formosa  1,014). 
There  are  11  European  and  8  Chinese  priests,  32 
churches  or  chapels,  3  orphanages,  and  13  schools 
with  242  pupils. 

Hattandieh,  -Inn.  pont.  cath.  (Paris.   1905),  344. 

Ampere,  Axdke-Marie,  physicist  and  mathema- 
tician, b.  22  January,  1775,  at  Lyons,  I'Vance;  d.  at 
Marseilles,  10  June,  1836.  His  father  was  a  prosper- 
ous and  educated  merchant,  his  mother  charitable 
and  pious,  while  he  himself  combined  the  traits  of 
both.  The  mathematical  tent  of  his  mind  showed 
itself  very  early.  Before  he  knew  his  letters  and 
numbers  he  is  said  to  have  [x-rformed  complex  arith- 
metical computations  by  means  of  pebbles  and  beans. 
His  childhood  days  were  spent  in  the  village  of 
Poleymieux-le.s-Mont-dX)r,  near  Lyons.  His  father 
began  to  teach  him  Latin,  but,  on  discovering  the 
boy's  thirst  for  mathematical  knowledge,  he  provided 
him  with  the  necessary  books.  It  was  not  long  be- 
fore he  had  mastered  the  elements  of  his  chosen 
study,  so  that  his  father  was  obliged  to  take  the  boy 
of  eleven  to  the  library  at  Lyons,  where  he  asked  for 
the  works  of  Bernouilli  and  Euler.  On  being  in- 
formed that  these  books  were  written  in  Latin,  and 
that  he  would  need  a  knowledge  of  the  calculus,  he 
resumed  the  study  of  the  one  and  applied  himself  to 
that  of  the  other,  and  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks  was 
able  to  take  up  the  serious  perusal  of  difficult  treatises 
on  applied  mathematics.  During  the  revolution  his 
father  returned  to  Lyons,  in  1793,  expecting  to  te 
safer  in  the  city.  After  the  siege,  however,  he  fell  a 
victim  and  was  executeil.  This  death  was  a  great 
shock  to  the  delicate,  sensitive  boy,  who  for  more 
than  a  year  was  in  a  state  bordering  on  idiocy. 
From  this  he  was  suddenly  aroused  by  the  reading  of 
two  works:  J.  J.  Rousseau  s  " Letters  on  Botany  "and 
Horace's  "Ode  to  Licinius",  which  led  him  to  the  im- 
mediate study  of  plants  and  of  the  classic  poets.  In 
1799  he  married  Julie  Carron,  who  lived  only  five 
years  longer,  leaving  a  son  who  afterwards  tecame  a 
writer  of  great  literary  merit.  Am|x"Te  was  obliged 
to  teach  in  order  to  supiwrt  liiniself  and  family.  M 
first  he  gave  private  lessons  in  Lyons;  later,  in  1801, 
he  left  his  wife  and  child  to  take  the  chair  of  physics 
at  the  I'cole  Centrale  in  Bourg.  There  he  wrote  the 
article  that  attracted  the  attention  of  Lalandc  and 
Delambre:  "  Considerations  sur  la  th<?orie  math(?ma- 
tiquo  du  jeu  ".     In  this  he  attacks  and   solves  the 


AMPHIBALUM 


438 


AMPHILOCHIUS 


problem  of  showing  tliut  tlie  chances  of  the  gambler 
are  always  against  him.  It  is  noted  for  its  elegant  and 
polished,  though  simple,  application  of  the  calculus 
of  probabilities.  Tlie  favourable  appreciation  of  his 
work  by  men  like  Delanibre  resulted  in  his  call  to  Lyons 
and  later,  in  1805,  to  tlie  Ecole  Polytechnique  at  Paris, 
where,  in  1S09,  he  rose  to  the  position  of  Professor  of 
Analysis,  and  was  made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  and  where  his  work  alternated  between 
mathematics,  physics,  and  metaphysics.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  articles  on  calculus,  on  curves, 
and  other  purely  mathematical  topics,  as  well  as  on 
chemistry  and  light,  and  even  on  zoology.  Ampere's 
fame,  however,  rests  on  his  remarkable  work  in 
electro-dynamics.  It  was  on  11  September,  1820, 
that  an  academician,  returning  from  Geneva,  re- 
peated before  the  Academy  the  epoch-marking  ex- 
periments of  the  Danish  savant  Oersted.  A  wire 
through  which  an  electric  current  passes  was  shown 
to  deflect  a  magnetic  needle,  causing  it  to  place  itself 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  current.  The 
connexion  between  electricity  and  magnetism  \yas 
indicated  by  these  experiments,  and  the  foundation 
was  laid  for  the  science  of  electro-magnetics.  Only 
a  week  later,  on  the  18th  of  the  same  month,  Ampere 
demonstrated  before  the  Academy  another  remarkable 
fact:  the  mutual  attraction  or  repulsion  of  two  parallel 
wires  carrying  currents,  according  as  the  currents  are 
in  the  same  or  in  opposite  directions.  This  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  science  of  electro-dynamics. 

Ampdre  continued  his  experiments,  published  the 
results  in  1822,  and,  finally,  developed  his  "Mathe- 
matical Theory  of  the  Phenomena  of  Electro-dyna- 
mics" in  1830.  In  1821  he  suggested  an  electric 
telegraph,  using  separate  wires  for  every  letter.  His 
final  work,  published  after  his  death,  was  the  am- 
bitious "Essai  sur  la  philosophie  des  sciences,  ou 
exposition  analytique  d'une  classification  naturelle 
de  toutes  les  connaissances  humaines  ".  His  predi- 
lection for  philosophic,  psychological,  and  metaphysi- 
cal speculation  was  very  marked.  His  arduous  task 
as  teacher,  together  with  the  engrossing  functions  of 
a  government  official — he  was  Inspector-General  of 
the  University — prevented  him  from  devoting  him- 
self more  to  the  work  of  the  experimenter.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Institute  of  France,  the  Royal 
Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  the  Academies 
of  Berlin,  Stockliolra,  Brussels,  and  Lisbon,  and  other 
scientific  societies.  In  1872  Madame  Chevreux  edited 
his  "Journal  and  Correspondence".  In  1881  the 
Paris  Conference  of  Electricians  honoured  his  memory 
by  naming  the  practical  unit  of  electric  current  the 
ampire.  His  religious  life  is  interesting.  He  says 
that  at  eighteen  years  he  found  three  culminating 
points  in  his  life,  his  First  Communion,  the  reading 
of  Thomas's  "Eulogy  of  Descartes",  and  the  taking 
of  the  Bastille.  His  marriage  to  the  pious  Julie 
Carron  was  secretly  performed  by  a  priest,  her  family 
refusing  to  recognize  the  competency  of  the  "con- 
stitutional" clergyman;  this  fact  impressed  him  very 
deeply.  On  the  day  of  his  wife's  deatli  he  wrote 
two  verses  from  the  Psalms,  and  the  prayer,  "O  Lord, 
God  of  .Mercy,  unite  me  in  Heaven  with  those  whom 
you  have  permitted  me  to  love  on  earth  ".  Serious 
doubts  harassed  him  at  times,  and  made  him  very 
unhappy.  Tlicn  he  would  take  refuge  in  the  read- 
ing of  the  Bible  and  tlie  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
"Doubt",  ho  says  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  "is  the 
greatest  torment  that  a  man  suffers  on  eartli ".  His 
death  took  place  at  Marseilles,  in  his  sixty-second  year. 

Ampf.re.  Juumal  el  corrcspondance  (Paris,  1872);  Sainte 
Hkdvk  und  I.lTTiili  in  Rcvut  de»  Deux  Mondea  (13  Feb..  1887); 
bliHie  d  Amph-r.  in  (taUrie.  del  conlemnoraina  illustres.  Vol.  X, 
traiiBlution  Ijy  Aiiaijo  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Smithsonian 
Inntitulion  (\Va»liington.  1872);  LAHTHE-MENAaKii,  in  Lea 
Conlrmpormni,  IM  (Paris);  Galwev,  Ampl-re'a  iStrugglc  mth 
Doubt  m  The  Catholic  World.  XXXVII,  418. 

William  Fox. 


Amphibalum.     See  Ch.i.suule. 

Amphilochius  of  Iconium,  a  Christian  bishop  of 
the  fourth  ccnturj',  son  of  a  Cappadocian  family  of 
distinction,  b.  perhaps  at  Cajsarea,  c.  339  or  340; 
d.  probably  some  time  between  394  and  403.  His 
father  was  an  eminent  lawyer,  and  his  mother  Livia 
remarkable  for  gentleness  and  wisdom.  He  was 
probably  first  cousin  to  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  and 
was  brought  up  in  the  peculiarly  religious  atmos- 
phere of  the  Christian  aristocracy  of  his  native 
province.  He  studied  for  the  bar,  practised  at 
Constantinople,  but  soon  retired  to  lead  a  religious 
life  in  the  vicinity  of  his  friend  and  relative,  the 
"theologian"  of  Nazianzus.  He  was  soon  drawn 
within  the  circle  of  St.  Basil's  influence,  and  seems 
to  have  been  for  a  while  a  member  of  ihe  Christian 
"City  of  the  Poor"  that  Basil  had  built  at  Casarea. 
Early  in  374  he  was  bishop  of  the  important  see  of 
Iconium,  probably  placed  there  by  Basil,  whom  he 
continued  to  aid  in  Cappadocian  ecclesiastical  affairs 
until  Basil's  death  (379).  Thenceforth  he  remained 
in  close  relations  with  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  and 
accompanied  him  to  the  Synod  of  Constrntinople 
(381),  where  St.  Jerome  met  and  conversed  with  him 
(De  Vir.  111.,  c.  133).  In  the  history  of  theology  he 
occupies  a  place  of  prominence  for  his  defence  of  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  against  the  Macedonians 
(q.  v.).  It  was  to  him  that  St.  Basil  dedicated  his 
work  "On  the  Holy  Spirit".  He  wrote  a  similar 
work,  now  lost.  We  know,  however,  that  he  read 
it  to  St.  Jerome  on  the  occasion  of  their  meeting  at 
Constantinople.  His  attitude  towards  Arianism  is 
illustrated  by  the  well-known  anecdote  concerning 
his  audience  with  Theodosius  and  his  son  Arcadius. 
When  the  Emperor  rebuked  him  for  ignoring  the 
presence  of  his  son,  he  reminded  him  that  the  Lord 
of  the  universe  abhorreth  those  who  are  ungrateful 
towards  His  Son,  their  Saviour  and  Benefactor.  He 
was  very  energetic  against  the  Messalians  (q.  v.),  and 
contributed  to  the  extirpation  of  that  heresy.  His 
contemporaries  rated  him  very  high  as  a  theologian 
and  a  scholarly  writer.  Not  to  speak  of  his  ad- 
mirers and  friends  already  mentioned,  St.  Jerome 
says  (Ep.  70)  of  the  Cappadocian  triad  (Basil, 
Gregory,  and  Amphilochius)  that  "they  cram  their 
boolts  with  the  lessons  and  sentences  of  the  philoso- 
phers to  such  an  extent  that  you  cannot  tell  which 
you  ought  to  admire  most  in  them,  their  secular 
erudition  or  their  scriptural  knowledge".  In  the 
next  generation  Theodoret  described  him  in  very 
flattering  terms  (Hist.  Eccl.,  IV, x;  V,xvi),and  he  is 
quoted  by  councils  as  late  as  787.  His  only  genuine 
extant  work  is,  according  to  Bardenhewer  (Pa- 
trologie,  p.  249),  the  "Epistola  Synodica",  a  letter 
against  the  Macedonian  heresy  in  the  name  of  the 
bishops  of  Lycaonia,  and  probably  addressed  to  the 
bishops  of  Lycia  (Goldhom,  S.  Basil.,  0pp.  Sel. 
Dogm.,  630-635).  The  spurious  "Iambics  to  Se- 
leucus"  offer  an  early  and  important  catalogue  of 
the  canonical  writings;  other  spurious  fragments, 
current  under  his  name,  are  taken  from  scriptural 
discourses,  dogmatic  letters  and  controversial  writ- 
ings (P.  G.,  XXXIX,  13-130). 

Fessler-Jungmann,  Instil.  Patrolog.,  I,  GOO-604;  Lights 
FOOT  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biagr.,  I,  103-107. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Amphilochius  of  Sida  (Side),  in  Pamphylia,  a 
bisliiip  (if  llic  first  half  of  the  fifth  century,  member 
of  the  I'ciuncil  of  ICphosus  (431),  where  he  vigorously 
opposed  the  Messalians  and  subscribed  to  the  con- 
denmation  and  deposition  of  Nestorius.  He  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  equally  firm  at  a  later  period. 
Even  if  he  did  not  assist  at  the  "Robber  Council" 
of  E])hesus  (449),  he  showed  great  sympathy  for 
Dioscorus  of  Alexandria  at  the  Coimcil  of  Chalcedon, 
and  consented  with  reluctance  to  his  condemnation. 
Ho  subscribed  to  the  "tomus"  of  Pope  Leo,  and  the 


AMPHORA 


439 


AMPULLAE 


canons  of  Clialcedon,  although  hiter  he  wrote  to 
the  ICmperor  Leo  (458)  tliat  he  did  not  acknowledge 
tlie  authority  of  that  council.  Photius  quotes  (Hihl. 
Cod.,  230)  Eulogiu.s  of  Alexandria  (579-G07)  in  evi- 
dence of  a  later  acceptance  and  .subscription  by 
Aniphilochius.  Only  one  brief  letter-fragment  has 
reached  us  (I'.  C,  LXXVII,  1515-16). 

LlonTFOOT  in  Diet,  o/  Chrint.  Bw,/r.,  I,  107. 

Thom.vs  J.  Sh.vhan. 

Amphorae,  vessels  generally  made  of  clay,  and 
furnislieil  with  ears  or  handles.  Ainphoru'  were  used 
for  various  purposes,  but  especially  for  liolding  wine. 
Several  monuments  of  the  catacomb  of  St.  Calixtus 
contain  representatio:is  of  amphora".  A  fragment 
of  one  of  tliese  represent.s  a  boat  witli  sails  attached 
to  a  trident,  and  a  cargo  consisting  of  two  amphora;; 
on  the  prow  a  dove  is  perched,  with  the  usual  olive 
branch.  A  fresco  al.so,  of  the  catacomb  of  Fontianus, 
represents  a  boatman  on  the  Tiber  with  a  cargo  of 
amphonc.  Hoth  representations  evidently  allude  to 
the  calling  of  tlie  decea-sed;  the  dove  in  the  former 
case  with  the  brandi  of  olive  is  a  symbol  expressing 
the  belief  that  the  dece:isod  was  already  in  possession 


house  given  to  Father  Anselm  Bolton  by  Lady  Anne 
Fairfax.  This  house  was  taken  over  by  Dr.  Brewer, 
President  of  the  Congregation,  30  July,  1802.  The 
conununity,  since  leaving  Uieulouard  in  Lorraine, 
where  its  members  had  joined  with  Spanish  and 
Cassinese  Bene<lictines  to  form  the  monasterj'  of 
St.  Lawrence,  liad  been  successively  at  Acton  Biir- 
nell,  Tranmere,  Scholes,  Vernon  Hall,  and  Parbold 
Hall,  under  its  superior  Dr.  Marsh.  On  its  migra- 
tion to  Ampk'fortfi  Lodge,  Dr.  Marsh  remained  at 
Parbold  and  Father  Appleton  was  elected  the  first 
prior  of  tlie  new  monastery.  Shortly  afterwards 
Parl)ol(l  was  broken  up  and  the  boys  of  the  scliool 
there  transferred  to  .\mpleforth.  The  priory  was 
erected  into  an  abbey,  in  1890,  by  the  Hull  "Diu 
quidem";  and  has  an  important  and  flourisliing  col- 
lege attache<l  to  it.  The  Bisliop  of  Newport,  Dr.  Hed- 
ley,  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  its  alumni,  ils 
well  iis  its  present  superior.  Abbot  Smith.  The  mon- 
astery was  finished  m  1897.  "It  is",  says  Almond 
"a  tall,  spacious  building  of  four  stories  and  a  biise- 
ment,  joiticd  to  the  old  monastery  by  a  cloister.  It 
is  of  great  architectural  beauty.     The  whole  of  the 


Mktai,  Ampulla  in  Monza  (Sixth  Century) 


of  everlasting  peace.  Fragments  of  amphora;  have 
been  found  in  the  cataconil)s,  one  of  which,  now  in  the 
Lateran  museum,  is  inscribed  witli  the  words:  "Vivas 
in  Deo".  The  handleof  anamphora  in  the  Kircherian 
Museum  at  Rome  has  the  monogram  of  Christ.  Tlie 
same  monogram,  engraved  between  two  palms,  ap- 
pears on  the  neck  of  an  amphora  discovered  in 
excavations  on  the  Via  Xazionale,  at  Rome.  Alto- 
get  lier  about  sixty  of  tlicse  utensils  have  been  found 
inscribed  with  emblems  peculiar  to  the  Christians. 
A  few  of  the  most  interesting  of  this  categorj',  con- 
taining the  monogram,  belong  to  the  collection  of 
amphora-  found  in  the  cellar  of  the  house  of  SS.  John 
ana  Paul  on  the  Coelian. 

Leclebcq  in  Diet,  d'archiol.  chrH.  et  de  lit.,  I,  IG82-1712. 
Maurice  M.  H.vssett. 

Ampleforth.THE  Ahhev  of,  in  the  County  of  York- 
shire, LngUuul,  belongs  to  the  Knglish  Congregation 
of  Benedictines  and  has  a  lineal  continuity  with  the 
pre-Refomiation  abl)ey  of  Westminster  through 
Father  Sebert  Buckley,  last  surviving  monk  of  that 
community.     The  present  abbey  was  founded  in  a 


basement  is  taken  up  by  the  monastic  library,  con- 
sisting of  some  30,000  volumes,  many  of  them  of 
extreme  rarity.  The  refectory,  lecture  halls,  and  the 
abbot's  rooms  are  on  the  first  floor;  above  are  the 
cells  of  the  monks,  forty-eight  in  all.  The  public 
rooms  are  on  the  scale  of  the  larger  abl>eys  of  pre- 
Reformation  times".  According  to  the  English 
"Catholic  Directory"  for  1900,  there  are  fifteen 
priests  in  the  abbey;  but  there  arc  a  number  of 
dependent  missions  served  by  monks  of  the  com- 
munity. The  titular  abbacies  of  Westminster  and 
York  and  the  Cathedral  priories  of  Durham,  Worces- 
ter, Chester,  and  Rochester  are  attached  to  the 
abbey. 

AL.MOND,  The  llittory  of  .impteiorth  Abbey. 

Fr.^nois  Aveling. 

Ampullae. — .\mong  the  smaller  objects  discovered 
in  the  catacombs  are  a  number  of  fragments  of  ves- 
sels ordinarily  used  for  domestic  purposes.  Some  of 
tlieso  fragments  are,  probably,  portions  of  the  drink- 
ing cups  u.sed  in  the  celebration  of  the  funeral  a'jajx\ 
or  banquet,  while  others  again  are  the  remains  of 


AMPURIAS 


440 


AMRAH 


vases  which  contained  the  unguents  that  the  Chris- 
tians, like  the  Jews  and  tlie  pagans,  often  interred 
with  the  dead.  A  third  class  of  vessels,  ordinarily 
referred  to  as  blood-ampulla;,  has  been  the  subject 
of  considerable  speculation  by  archaeologists.  Por- 
tions of  these  vessels  have  been  found  in  the  cement 
employed  to  enclose  certain  graves  in  the  catacombs. 
Their  peculiarity  consists  in  the  sediment  of  dark 
red  colour  they  contain,  from  which  they  derive  the 
name,  blood-ainpulUe,  on  the  theory  that  the  sedi- 
ment is  the  remains  of  the  blood  of  a  martyr.  This 
theory  was  for  a  time  rather  generally  accepted,  and 
the  presence  of  a  blood-vase  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  marks  of  a  martyr's  tomb.  Martigny,  how- 
ever, in  the  second  edition  of  his  "Diet,  des  an- 
tiquit&s  chr^tiennes"  (Paris,  1S77),  expressed  him- 
self as  dissatisfied  with  the  proofs  put  forward  by 
its  supporters.  Professor  Kraus,  also,  in  a  work  de- 
voted to  this  subject,  pronounced  against  the  un- 
conditional acceptance  of  the  blood  theory.  The 
reasons  for  this  conclusion  are  as  follows:  (1)  the 
so-called  blood-ampulke  have  been  found  on  tombs 
of  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century,  a  time  when 
the  era  of  persecution  was  long  over;  (2)  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ,  which  in  practically  all  cases  indi- 
cates the  age  of  Constantine,  is  frequently  repre- 
sented on  tombs  containing  blood-ampuUse;  (3)  a 
fifth  of  the  tombs  with  ampullae  of  this  class  contained 
the  remains  of  children  under  seven,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  admit  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  martyrs  were 
mere  infants;  (4)  a  chemical  analysis  made  at  Green- 
wich of  the  contents  of  sixty  ampuUte  has  shown 
that  the  sediment  contains  a  quantity  of  oxide  of 
iron  twenty,  or  more,  times  greater  than  would  have 
existed  in  blood. 

These  results  of  later  investigation  are  wholly  neg- 
ative, and  the  theories  advanced  in  place  of  that 
formerly  accepted  are  by  no  means  satisfactory. 
Kraus  regards  vessels  of  this  class  as  having  been, 
as  a  rule,  receptacles  for  holy  water;  in  six  instances, 
however,  he  thinks  it  probable  that  they  contained 
blood.  The  Bollandist  Victor  De  Buck  conjectures 
that  the  wine  left  after  the  celebration  of  Mass  was 
placed  in  them,  but  this  view  is  not  borne  out  by 
the  Greenwich  analysis.  Leclercq  concludes  his  re- 
searches in  this  matter  by  calling  attention  to  the 
fact  that  ampulte  have  been  found  on  Jewish  tombs 
fastened  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  Christian  ceme- 
teries, in  the  catacombs  of  the  Vigna  Randanini  and 
the  Via  Labicana.  In  relation  to  this  subject  two 
decisions  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  are  of 
interest.  The  first  of  them,  given  10  April,  1668, 
states  that  the  palm  on  a  tomb,  and  the  blood-vase 
(uos  illorum  sanguine  tinclum)  are  evidences  of  a 
martyr's  grave.  The  second  decision,  dated  10  De- 
cember, 1863,  is  formulated  in  substantially  the  same 
terms  {Phialae  ....  sanguine  tinctce).  These  decrees 
require  no  modification,  even  at  the  present  time; 
but  it  is  now  necessary  to  determine  by  chemical 
analysis  whether  the  content  of  a  vase  is  really  blood 
or  not.  The  term  ampulla  was  applied  also  to  the 
vessels  of  terra-cotta,  metal,  or  glass  in  which  the  holy 
oils  were  kept  (Optat.  Mil.,  Contra  Donatist.,  II,  19; 
ampulla  chrismatis).  The  "Sainte  Ampoulle"  used 
at  the  consecration  of  the  kings  of  France  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Reims  was  an  object  of  great  rever- 
ence in  medieval  France  (see  Kkimk),  and  was  pop- 
ularly believed  to  have  been  brought  from  Heaven 
by  a  dove  at  the  baptism  of  Clovis  (496).  In  the 
Cathedral  of  Monza  are  preserved  several  of  the  am- 
pulla; sent  to  Queen  Theodolinda  by  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great;  they  contained  oil  from  the  tombs  of  the 
most  famous  Roman  martyrs.  This  custom  of  ob- 
taining ampulhe  filled  with  oil  from  the  lamps  at  the 
shrines  of  martyrs  was  generally  ob.served  in  the 
Middle  Ages;  those  from  the  tomb  of  St.  Mennas  in 
Egypt,  brought  to  Europe  by  pilgrims,  are  especially 


numerous.  Ampullae  usually  bore  the  image  or  sym- 
bols of  the  saint  from  whose  tomb  the  oil  was  ob- 
tained. 

Kraus,   Die  Blutampidlen  der  roem.   KaUikomben   (Frank- 
fort, 18fJ8);    Leclercq  in  Diet,    d'arch.  chrct.  I,  1747-78. 
M.\URICE  M.   Hassett. 

Ampurias  (or  Castelsardo  and  Tempio),  The 
Diocese  of. — An  Italian  diocese  in  Sardinia,  suf- 
fragan of  Sassari.  The  Right  Rev.  Antonio  Maria 
Contini,  b.  6  Nov.,  1S39,  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Ogliastra,  26  Sept.,  1882,  and  transferred  to  this  dio- 
cese, 16  Jan.,  1893.  Ampurias  was  erected  in  1113; 
Civita,  now  Tempio,  in  304  by  St.  Simplicius.  Civita 
was  united  to  Ampurias  by  Julias  II  in  1506.  Later 
the  see  was  transferred  to  Terranuova.  Gregory  XVI 
suppressed  the  cathedral  there  by  the  Bull  "Quamvis 
aqua",  26  Aug.,  1839,  and  raised  the  Collegiate 
Church  of  St.  Peter,  in  Tempio,  to  a  cathedral,  unit- 
ing Tempio  and  Ampurias,  so  that  one  bishop  should 
govern  both.  The  see  was  vacant  from  1854  to 
1871.  Ampurias,  or  Castelsardo,  has  11,200  Catho- 
lics, 8  parishes,  25  secular  priests,  5  seminarists,  34 
churches  or  chapels.  Tempio  has  26,200  Catholics, 
17  parishes,  44  secular  priests,  6  seminarists,  71 
churches   or   chapels. 

Battandier,  Ann.  ponl.  cath.  (1906);  Gams,  Striea  episc. 
Ecclesiw  cathol.  (Ratisbon,  1873);  Martini,  Storia  eccUs. 
ddla  Sardinia  (Cagliari,  1839),  IV,  349. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Amra,  The  name  of  certain  ancient  Irish  elegies 
or  panegyrics  on  native  saints.  The  most  famous 
of  these  which  have  reached  us  is  known  as  the  Amra 
of  Coluimb  Cille  (Columbkille).  It  was  printed  with 
a  translation  by  O'Beirne  Crowe  in  1871  from  the  im- 
perfect text  in  the  Leadhar  na  h'Uidhre;  also  in  his 
edition  of  the  "  Liber  Hymnorum  "  by  Professor  Atkin- 
son, and  in  his  "Goidelica"  by  Whitley  Stokes,  from 
an  imperfect  text  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  These 
editions  may,  however,  be  considered  as  superseded 
by  the  Bodleian  text  (Rawlinson  B.  502)  edited,  with 
a  translation,  for  the  first  time  (Rev.  Celt.,  vols.  XX- 
XXI)  by  Stokes.  According  to  the  traditional  ac- 
count this  eulogy  was  composed  about  the  year  575 
by  Dalian  Mac  Forgaill,  the  chief  oUamh  of  that 
time,  in  gratitude  for  the  services  of  St.  Columbkille 
in  saving  the  bards  from  expulsion  at  the  great 
assembly  of  Druim  Cetta  in  that  year.  "The  Amra 
is  not",  says  Stokes,  "as  Professor  Atkinson  suf>- 
posed,  a  fragment  which  indicates  great  antiquity." 
Strachan,  however,  on  linguistic  grounds,  assigns  it  in 
its  present  form  to  about  the  year  800  (Rev.  Celt., 
XVII,  14).  Stokes,  too,  seems  to  favour  this  view 
(ibid.,  XX,  16).  But  linguistic  grounds  are  a  some- 
what unstable  foundation,  and  Strachan  adds  "per- 
haps something  more  may  be  learned  from  a  pro- 
longed study  of  this  and  other  such  as  the  Amra 
Senain  and  the  Amra  Conroi."  Dalian  was  the 
author  of  the  former,  "held  in  great  repute",  says 
Colgan,  "on  account  of  its  gracefulness",  and  also  of 
another  Amra  on  Conall  of  Ineskeel  in  Donegal, 
with  whom  he  was  buried  in  one  grave. 

Douglas  Hyde,  A  Literary  History  of  Ireland  (New  York, 
1899),  405,  40G. 

Arthur  Ua  Clerigh. 

Amrah. — Central  Syria  has  preserved  for  us  an 
unequalled  series  of  Christian  monuments.  From 
an  early  period,  the  insecurity  of  a  land  overrun, 
at  intervals,  by  armies  or  by  brigands,  has  driven 
the  inhabitants  away  from  a  soil,  the  very  fertility 
of  which  has  made  it  the  prey  of  armed  nomads. 
The  scarcity  of  wood  suggested  to  architects  the 
possibility  of  a  form  of  construction  in  which  stone 
alone  should  be  used,  and  blocks,  placed  with  won- 
derful skill  and  science,  should  obviate  the  need  of 
woodwork.  This,  indeed,  explains  the  long  endur- 
ance of  buildings  which  have  suffered  little  at  the 
hands  of  time  and  not  much  more  from  earthquakes. 


AMRAPHEL 


441 


AMSTERDAM 


The  Syrian  liouses  in  the  region  of  Hauran  were 
inhabited,  from  the  third  century  to  the  seventh, 
by  the  upper  and  raitidle  classes  of  the  jxipulation. 
A  house  of  this  kind  in  perfect  preservation  is  still 
to  be  seen  at  Anirah.  It  is  a  huge  dwelling  built 
round  three  sitles  of  a  eourtyaril.  The  chief  room 
is  a  great  hall  running  to  the  height  of  two  stories. 
Kach  of  the  bedrooms  on  the  giound  floor,  which  were 
three  in  number,  had  a  kind  of  small  dais  covered 
by  a  higldy  ornamented,  semicircular  canopy,  and 
forming  an  alcove.  A  closet,  adjoining  the  room, 
had  cupboards  all  round  it,  taken  out  of  the 
thickness  of  the  walls,  and  divided  by  slabs  of 
stone. 

The  house  at  Amrah  had  a  story  which  was  reached 
by  an  exterior  staircase.  The  floor,  which  serves  as 
ceiling  to  the  ground  floor,  is  made  of  flagstones 
resting  on  arches  or  on  corbels  fastened  to  the  wall, 
and  the  stone  doors  turn  on  stone  hinges.  In  this 
house,  i\s  in  other  Syrian  houses,  a  large,  central 
hall  was  the  most  honourable  part  of  the  dwelling, 
where  family  meetings  were  held,  and  the  stranger 
who  was  allowed  to  enter  it  was  as  greatly  favoured 
as  the  guest  whom  a  Roman  admitted  to  his  (ire- 
side.  At  the  present  tlay  this  house  ha.s  foimil  care- 
takers among  the  natives  them.selves.  It  was  found 
suitable  for  a  quick  and  inexpensive  fitting-up,  and 
the  sheikh  of  the  village  of  Douma  has  made  it  his 
home.  The  women  and  children  (the  harem)  live 
exclusively  in  the  upper  story,  the  sheikh's  admin- 
istrative functions  are  carried  on  in  the  grouiul- 
floor  rooms,  while  the  great  hall  has  been  kept  for 
its  ancient  uses. 

VoGiE,  Syne  CcntraU  (Paris,  1865);  DE  BEYLtE,  Vhabita- 
tion  byzantine  (Paris,  1902). 

H.  Leclercq. 

Amraphel,  King  of  Sennaar  (Shinar),  or  Baby- 
lonia, one  of  the  four  Mesopotamian  kings — the 
other  three  being  .\rloch.  King  of  Pontus  (Kllasar); 
Choilorlahomor,  King  of  Klam,  and  Thadal  (Tedal), 
King  of  Nations  (Goijim) — who,  according  to  the 
fourteenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  jointly  invaded 
Chanaan  and  defeated  the  five  kings  of  the  Plains, 
capturing  Lot  and  his  family,  together  with  a  rich 
booty.  On  their  way  home  they  were  assailed  and 
routed  in  a  single  night  by  Abraham  and  his  318  men 
in  the  vale  of  Save  (Siddim),  near  the  Dead  Sea. 
Among  the  rescued  prisoners  were  Lot  and  his 
family.  Abraham,  furthermore,  while  on  his  way 
back  from  his  victorious  attack,  was  met  by  Melchise- 
dech,  the  High-Priest  of  El-Elion,  at  Jerusalem,  who 
celebrated  Abraham's  victory  by  a  thanksgiving 
offering  of  bread  and  wnne,  taking  from  him,  as  his 
sacerdotal  share,  the  tenth  part  of  the  booty.  To 
Biblical  scholars  and  theol<igians  the  personality  of 
Amraphel  is  of  considerable  interest,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  he  has  been  long  ago  identified  by  the 
majority  of  Assyriologists  and  Biblical  critics  with 
the  great  Babylonian  king,  Hammurabi,  the  sixth 
monarch  of  the  first  Babylonian  dynasty,  who  reigned 
about  2250  n.  c.  This  ruler's  famous  Code  of  Laws, 
the  oldest  code  of  laws  in  the  workl,  was  discovered 
in  1901-2,  in  Susa,  the  ancient  capital  of  Elam,  by 
the  Trench  archa-ological  expedition,  and  was  for  the 
first  time  deciphered  and  translated  by  the  French 
Dominican  scholar.  Father  Scheil.  of  Paris. 

The  identity  of  .\mraphel  and  Hammurabi  is  now 
unanimously  accepted  by  As-syriologists  and  Biblical 
critics.  Phonetically,  the  two  names  are  identical. 
The  variants  of  the  secon<l  form  are  .Ammi-rabi, 
Ammurapi,  and  Hammum-rabi,  etc.  Hamniu.  or 
Ammu.  was  in  all  probability  the  name  of  a  god,  as 
it  is  found  in  many  compound  names  such  as  Smnu- 
hammu,  Jasdi-hammu.  and  Zimri-hammu.  The  cle- 
ment rabi  is  very  common  in  Babylonia,  and  it 
means  "great";  the  full  name,  consequently,  means 
"The  god  .\mmu  is  great",  on  the  same  analogy  as 


names  like  Sin-rabi,  Samas-rabi,  and  many  others. 
According  to  Dr.  Lindle,  followed  by  Sayce  and 
others,  thename  was  also  pronounced  Ammurabi,  and, 
as  Dr.  Pinches  was  the  first  to  point  out,  the  form 
Ammu-rapi  is  also  met  with  by  the  side  of  Hammu- 
rabi, and  like  many  of  the  Baoylonian  kings  of  that 
period  he  was  deified,  being  addresseil  as  Uu-Ammu- 
rabi  or  Aminuratti-ilu,  i.  e.  "Ammurabi  the  god", 
ilu  being  the  emiivalent  of  the  Hebrew  El,  which 
means  "god".  Now  Ammurabi-ilu  or  Ammurapilu 
is  letter  for  letter  the  .\mraphel,  or  Amrapel,  of  Gene- 
sis. According  to  another  hypothesis,  suggested 
by  Dr.  Husing,  the  I  at  the  end  of  the  form 
"Amraphel"  is  superfluous,  for  he  would  join  it  to 
the  next  word,  and  read:  ".Aind  it  came  to  pass  in  the 
days  of  Amraphel.  as  Arioch  king  of  EUasar  was  over 
Slunar,  that  Chodorlahomer  ..."  Another,  and 
according  to  Dr.  Pinches  perhaps  more  likely,  ex- 
planation is  that  this  additional  letter  I  is  due  to 
a  faulty  reading  of  a  variant  writing  of  the  name, 
with  a  polyphonous  character  having  the  value  of 
pit,  as  well  as  bi,  which  form  may,  in  fact,  still  be 
found.  But  whichever  hypothesis  we  adopt,  tlie 
identity  of  Amraphel  and  Hammurabi  is  phonetically 
beyond,  dispute. 

The  political  situation  presupposed  in  Gen.,  xiv, 
reflects,  furthermore,  with  a  remarkable  degree  of 
probability,  tlie  condition  of  the  times  of  Hammu- 
rabi's reign.  The  leader  of  the  force  and  the  suzerain 
to  whom  the  Chanaanitish  princes  were  subject,  was 
a  king  of  IClam.  Ehim,  therefore,  must  have  been 
the  predominant  power  at  the  time,  and  the  Baby- 
lonian king  must  have  been  its  va.ssal.  The  narra- 
tive, nevertheless,  is  dated  in  the  reign  of  the  Baby- 
lonian king,  and  not  in  that  of  the  I'iing  of  Elam, 
and  it  is  to  the  reign  of  the  I'.abylonian  king  that 
the  events  described  in  it  are  attached.  Babylonia, 
however,  was  not  a  united  country;  there  was  an- 
other king,  Arioch  of  EUa.sar,  who  diviiled  with  the 
Amraphel  of  Sennaar  the  government  of  it,  and,  like 
Amraphel,  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Elam. 
Finally,  the  "nations"  (joi/im),  whoever  they  were, 
were  also  subject  to  Elam,  as  well  as  the  distant 
province  of  Chanaan.  If  we  turn  our  glance  to  the 
political  condition  of  Hammurabi's  times  and  period, 
we  shall  find  that  the  contemporary  monuments  of 
Babylonia  are  in  perfect  accord  with  the  .situation 
presupposed  by  Gen.,  xiv. 

OcssANl  in  New  York  Review  (Aug. -Sept.,  1906),  204- LM3, 
with  full  bibliography. 

G.VBRIEL  OuSS.\NI. 

Amsterdam,  the  capital,  and  second  resitlcntial 
city  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  lies,  in  a 
semi-circle,  on  the  Ij  (Wye),  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  Zuidcrsee,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ainstel,  and 
is  joined  to  the  North  .Sea  by  the  Nordseck  Canal, 
constructed  between  1865  and  1S79.  An  estimate  in 
1S99  gave  the  population  as  510,853,  with  120,701 
Catholics  and  59,060  Jews;  that  of  1906  gives  a  total 
of  548,000,  with  over  122,000  Catholics. 

The  origin  of  the  city  dates  from  the  year  1204, 
when  Gijsbrecht  II,  Lord  of  the  Amstel,  built  a 
fortress  on  this  spot.  A  considerable  settlement 
soon  grew  up  around  it,  which,  in  1296,  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Count  of  Holland.  In  1301,  it 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city,  and  grew  prosiwrous 
through  the  influx  of  large  mnnbers  of  merchants 
from  Brabant  and  Flanders.  The  Church  life,  also, 
of  the  city  developed  on  a  large  scale;  at  the  end  of 
the  fiftixMith  century  there  were  more  than  twenty 
monasteries  in  it,  only  one  of  which,  however,  the 
B^guinage,  hius  survived  the  storm  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  its  original  form.  Of  the  churches  and 
chapels,  the  so-called  "Holy  Room"  is  the  most 
famous,  as  the  scene  of  a  great  sacramental  miracle, 
the  "Miracle  of  .\msterdam".  It  w!is  a  place  re- 
sorted to   by  countless   pilgrims,  among   others  by 


AMSTERDAM 


442 


AMSTERDAM 


the  Emperor  Maximilia",  and  the  street  which  led 
to  it  is  still  known  as  the  "Holy  Way". 

The  Reformation  found  an  early  entrance  into 
Amsterdam.  In  1535  occurred  the  bloody  rising 
of  the  Anabaptists,  and  in  1566  the  destruction 
of  holy  images.  The  city  long  remained  true,  how- 
ever, to  the  Catholic  cause,  despite  the  lapse  of  the 
Netherlands  into  apostasy.  It  was  only  in  157S 
that  the  Calvinists  gained  the  upper  hand,  drove 
out  the  officials  who  were  loyal  to  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment, and,  in  1579,  joined  the  Utrecht  Union, 
which  stipulated  in  its  fourteenth  article  that  no 
other  public  exercise  of  religion  except  the  reformed 
should  be  allowed.  The  city  authorities  of  Am- 
sterdam, however,  were,  in  the  interests  of  their 
trade  with  Catholic  nations,  more  tolerant  in  the 
enforcement  of  this  regulation  than  most  of  the 
cities  of  the  Netherlands.  Certain  orders,  such  as 
the  Franciscans  and  the  Jesuits,  were  able,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  prevailing  toleration,  to  remain  there 
for  a  long  time,  practically  unmolested,  and  even,  in 


offices  of  State.  Negotiations  were,  indeed,  opened 
at  Rome  for  the  conclusion  of  a  Concordat,  and 
Amsterdam  was  to  have  been  made  a  bishopric, 
but  the  Calvinistic-Orangist  party  were  able  to 
prevent  the  execution  of  the  Concordat.  The  situa- 
tion, however,  improved  imder  William  II.  The 
new  Constitution  of  1848  brought  the  Catholics 
complete  liberty,  and  equality  with  the  Protestants, 
while  the  year  1853  witnessed  the  restoration  of  the 
Catholic  hierarchy,  by  which  Amsterdam  became  a 
deanery  subject  to  the  Diocese  of  Haarlem.  Catho- 
lic progress  has  kept  pace  since  then  with  that  of  the 
city,  which  has  once  more  risen  to  be  the  chief 
mercantile  city  of  the  Netherlands  and  one  of  the 
most  important  in  Europe.  The  Catholics,  who, 
in  1817,  were  44.000,  had  risen,  in  1865,  to  over 
68,000. 

Amsterdam  has  eighteen  Catholic  parishes;  the 
most  important  churches  being:  the  Romanesque 
Byzantine  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  with  its  three 
towers;    the   Gothic   churches   of   the   Most   Sacred 


Cttobch  op  St.  Nicbolas,  Amsterdam 


the  pl.ague  which  raged  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  openly  to  administer  the  consolations 
of  religion  to  tlie  (Jatholic  faithful.  Amsterdam,  in- 
deed, was  at  this  period  rising  to  the  position  of  tlie 
first  trading  city  of  the  world,  a  rise  due  to  the  fall 
of  Antwerp  in  1585,  the  blockade  of  the  mouths  of 
the  Scheldt,  and  a  series  of  glorious  battles  with 
England.  The  city  became,  on  the  contrary,  less 
tolerant  under  the  influence  of  the  Jansenists.  In 
16()()  the  public  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  was 
forbidden,  on  which  account  the  churches  dating  from 
that  period  have  the  outward  appearance  of  private 
houses.  The  religious  houses  which  still  existed  in 
1708  were  done  away  with,  and  their  cliurclics  closed. 
It  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  Catholics  gained  any  considerable  measure  at 
religious  liberty,  which  was  chiefly  due  to  the  found- 
ing by  Napoleon  of  the  Kingdom  of  Holland,  of 
which  Amslcrdain  became  the  capital,  1808-10. 
The  fall  of  the  Napoleonic  dynasty  and  the  accession 
of  William  I  meant  the  practical  cessation  of  this 
Ulx.Tly,  and  Catholics   were  debarred   from  all   the 


Heart  of  Jesus  and  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception;  the  church  of  St.  Willibrord,  with  its 
se\on  towers,  the  largest  in  the  country;  and  the 
Jesuit  Church  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  on  the  Krijt- 
berg.  The  following  orders  of  men  have  houses  in 
Amsterdam:  the  Jesuits,  who  also  conduct  a  classical 
college;  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Redemp- 
torists,  Augustinians,  and  Brothers  of  Mercy;  of 
women,  among  others,  the  IV'guines,  whose  convent 
dates  from  the  fourteenth  century;  the  Franciscan 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Tilburg,  Dominican 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Daughters 
of  Mary  and  Joseph,  anil  others.  The  most  notctl 
Catholic  benevolent  institutions  are  the  orphanage 
for  boys  ami  girls,  the  St.  Bernard's  almshouse  for 
old  men  and  women;  that  of  St.  Nicholas,  for  eirls; 
of  St.  Aloysius,  for  abandoned  orphans,  "Our  Dear 
Lady's  Hospice"  (liospital  and  polyclinic);  a  second 
hospital,  the  Catholic  Juniorate  for  the  Diocese  of 
Haarlem,  St.  James's  almshouse  for  old  people,  etc. 
The  following  Catholic  societies  should  also  be  men- 
tioned:   the    Netherlands   Catholic    People's    Union, 


AMULA 


443 


AMULETS 


St.  Joseph's  Journeymen's  Union,  the  Saint  Vincent's 
Society,  tlie  Catholic  Guild  (for  master-workmen), 
the  "  r'aith  and  Science"  I'nion,  which  possesses  a 
library  of  over  4,000  volunies;  the  St.  Hubert's 
Society,  which  supports  a  home  for  girls,  the  St. 
Willibrord's  Society,  for  the  distribution  of  good 
books,  etc.  Amsterdam  lias  tliree  t'atholic  daily 
papers,  and,  among  lier  famous  Catholic  citizens, 
we  may  name  Holland's  greatest  poet,  Vondel;  in 
later  times,  Father  Roothan,  (Jeneral  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  from  1829  to  ISfiS;  the  poet  and  historian 
Alberdingk  Thijm,  and  the  architect  Cuypers. 

Waoknaah,  Amsterdamgchr  fffgrhiefifni««fn  (Amsterdam, 
1701-94);  Van  ukk  Vyvkh,  Gvschu-dkundige  heschrijvmi/  dvr 
stud  Amalirdam  (il)i(l.,  1844);  WlTKAMl'.  Amnlinlum  in 
tchtUtH  (ibi.l,.  lS59-(i;!l;  I'kh  Gouv,  A  mtUlixlttmia  ulji^l.. 
1880-9U;  Nierlandui  Calh.ilu-a  (is.sue.l  bv  the  Hintiops  of 
the  NetherlantlH.  Ulrechl,  1888;  with  an  Appen.iix:  Amstelo- 
flamun  Sacrum.  !-54>;  HitKi)n:.s  and  others,  AmnU-rdam  in 
de  zcventimde  eeuw  (The  HnRue,  1897-1900);  Ai.lauI).  Dc 
Sint  Franci«cuH  Xaveriug-Kerfc  of  dc  Krijtberg  te  Amsterdam 
(2(i  e<i.,  Amsterdam,  1904);  Ilet  Jaarbockje  van  Alberdingk 
Thijm  (annual). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Amula.     See  Am.\. 

Amulet  (dr.,  ^uXoKTiipioK;  Lat.,  amukta),  an  ob- 
ject fjoiicrally  inscribed  with  mysterious  formula' 
and  used  l^y  pagans  as  a  pn)tcctiiin  against  various 
maladies,  as  well  as  witchcraft.  Phny  (XXIX,  4,  19) 
is  the  earliest  writer  who  mentions  amulets  (t'enefici- 
orum  amuteta).  The  derivtition  of  the  word  is  doubt- 
ful, but  it  probably  comes  from  the  -Vrabic  hamala, 
'•  to  carry",  amulets  being  borne  on  the  person.  The 
Oriental  peoples  were  especially  addicted  to  super- 
stitious practices,  and  with  their  ab.sorption  into  the 
Roman  Kmiiire  the  use  of  amulets  became  equally 
common  in  the  West.  Following  the  example  of 
Moses,  who  sought  to  turn  the  minds  of  the  Jews  from 
the  superstitious  emblems  to  which  they  were  ac- 
customed in  I-gypt,  by  substituting  for  them  symbols 
of  an  elevating  character,  the  Church,  while  forbid- 
ding amulets,  permitted  the  use  of  emblems  which 
would  remind  the  bearers  of  some  doctrine  of  Chris- 
tianity. Thus  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Pa;d., 
HI,  :5)  recommended  the  u.se  of  such  symbols  as  the 
fish,  the  dove,  and  the  anclior  on  seals  and  rings. 
A  devotional  medal  of  leail,  attributed  to  the  fourth 
century,  represents  a  martyr  extended  on  a  gridiron; 
one  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century  bears  the  monogram 
of  (Jhrist  and  a  cro.ss  between  the  letters  A  and  U; 
while  a  third  represents  the  sacrifice  of  Abraham,  ami 
on  the  reverse  a  father  ofTering  his  son  before  the 
con/essu)  of  a  martyr.  Tope  St.  fircgory  the  Great 
sent  the  Lombard  queen,  'Theodolinda,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  birth  of  her  son,  two  phi/lactcrin,  one  of 
which  contained  a  fragment  of  the  wood  of  the  True 
Cross,  the  other  a  .sentence  of  the  Gospel.  The 
custom  of  carrying  portions  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
as  phylacteries  is  mentioned  by  St.  Jerome  and 
St.  John  Chrysostom  (St.  Jerome,  in  Matt.,  iv,  24; 
St.  John  Chrys.,  in  Matt.,  hom.,  73).  Hut,  es- 
pecially from  the  fourth  century,  when  imperial 
favour  brought  large  numbers  into  the  Church, 
superstitious  abuses  in  the  use  of  devotional  emblems 
became  so  common  that  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
were  obliged  freouently  to  inveigh  against  the  use  of 
amulets.  The  Council  of  Laothcea  (latter  half  of 
fourth  century)  prohibited  ecclesiastics  from  mak- 
ing amulets  and  made  the  penalty  for  wearing  them 
excommunication  (canon  36).  St.  John  Chrj-.sustom, 
preaching  at  .Vntioch,  denounced  as  a  .species  of 
idolatry  the  wearing  of  amulets,  which  .seems  to  have 
been  common  among  his  auditors.  St.  Augustine 
also  denounced  the  numerous  charlatans  wlio  dis- 
pensed charms,  and  a  collection  of  canons  made  by 
St.  Ca;.sarius  of  Aries  (d.  542),  formerlv  suppo.sed  to 
have  been  canons  of  the  Fourth  Councd  of  Carthage, 
imposed  the  penalty  of  excommunication  on  tlio.se 
who   patronized  augurs   (can.  89;  see   Hcfele,  Con- 


ciliengesch.,  II,  76).  From  one  of  the  sermons 
(P.  L.,  XXXIX,  2272)  of  St.  Ciesarius  it  appears  that 
the  dispen.sing  of  amulets  was  a  regular  profession; 
each  disease  had  its  appropriate  anmlet.  These  and 
similar  superstitious  practices  survived  to  some  ex- 
tent, in  one  form  or  another,  through  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  their  suppression  has  always  been  a  difficulty 
with  which  tlie  Church  ha-s  had  to  cope.  The  most 
ancient  Christian  amulet  known,  from  Hoirut,  is 
attributeii  to  the  .second  century.  It  is  made  of  gold 
and  has  a  ring  by  which  it  was  attached  to  the  neck. 
The  inscription  on  it,  which  is  of  more  than  ordinary 
interest,  reads:  "  I  exorcise  thee,  Satan  (O  cross 
purify  me)  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  the  living  God, 
that  thou  mayest  never  leave  thy  abode.  Pro- 
nounced in  the  hou.se  of  her  whom  I  nave  anointed". 
Leclercq  sees  in  this  invocation  proofs  "  (1 )  of  belief 
in  the  virtue  of  the  sign  of  the  cro.ss  to  put  demons 
to  flight,  (2)  of  the  conferring  of  extremes  unction, 
(3)  ami  of  the  use  of  exorcisms",  whereof  we  have 
here  a  formula.  A  favourite  Christian  amulet  in  tlie 
Orient  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  bore  on 
one  side  the  image  of  Alexander  the  Great.  St.  John 
Chrysostom,  in  one  of  liis  /Vntioch  instructions 
(.Vd  lUuMiin.,  Cat.,  II,  5),  censures  the  use  by 
('hristians  of  amulets  with  the  portrait  of  the  Mace- 
donian coiujueror.  Several  amulets  of  this  class, 
in  the  Cabinet  of  Medals  at  Paris,  show,  on  one  side, 
Alexander  in  the  character  of  Hercules,  and,  on  the 
other,  a  shc-a-ss  with  her  foal,  a  scorpion,  and  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ.  An  amulet  in  the  Vatican 
Library  with  the  picture  of  Alexander,  bears  on  the 
reverse  the  montjgram  of  Our  Lord.  Magic  nails, 
also,  with  inscriptions  were  interred  with  tlie  dead; 
one  of  them  for  Christian  use  has  the  legend  "ter 
dico,  ter  incanto,  in  signv  Ueo  et  signv  Salomonis  et 
signv  de  nostra  Art(e)  mix".  The  Gnostics  were 
especially  notable  for  their  employment  of  amulets; 
the  names  found  most  fretiuently  in  their  invocations 
are  Atlonai,  Sabaoth,  Jao,  Michael,  Raphael,  Souriel 
(Uriel),  and  Gabriel. 

LEcLEKcg  in  Did.  darch.  chret.  (Paris,  1905),  I,  1783- 
1859;  Krahs,  RealenciiklopMit:  (FrciburK,  1882),  I,  49-51; 
Pl-UMPTRK  in  Dicl.Chrisl.  Aniig.  (London,  1875).  I.  78.  sqq.; 
Realcncyklopiidic  fiir  prot.  Theologie  w.  Kirche  (Leipzig,  189(3), 
I.  407-J70. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Amulets,  Use  and  Abuse  of. — The  origin  of  the 
word  amulet  does  not  seem  to  have  been  definitely 
established.  (See  Amulet.)  The  thing  itself  h:w 
been  used  as  a  safeguaril  against  mishap  or  ilanger, 
or  witchcraft,  and  invoked  as  a  guarantee  of  success  in 
enterprises.  Among  the  Greeks  it  was  variou.sly 
known  under  the  designations  phi/laderion,  pcriamma, 
and  periapton,  whilst  to  the  .Vrabians  and  Persians  it 
was  familiar  as  talisman,  possibly  derivable  from  the 


Mkual,  IV  Century 


later  Greek,  telesma.  Amulets  have  had  quite  a 
general  vogue  among  all  peoples  of  all  times  and  have 
been  characterized  by  a  bewildering  variety  as  to 
material,  shape,  and  method  of  employment.  Can-ed 
stones,  bits  of  metal,  figures  of  gods,  .strips  of  paper, 
or  parchment  bearing  enigmatic  phrases,  blessings, 
anil  maledictions  have  done  ser\'ice  in  this  way. 
Among  the  Kgj-ptians  the  primacy  among  amulets 
was  held  by  the  scarab.  Tliis  was  commonly  a  gem 
made  in  the  form  of  a  beetle,  and  curiously  engraved 


AMYCL^ 


444 


AMTCLiE 


upon  one  side  with  many  devices.  Among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  amulets"  seem  to  have  been  largely 
employed  as  a  defence  against  certain  evil  powers  to 
whom  they  attributed  no  inconsiderable  part  in  the 
government  and  control  of  the  world. 

The  Jews,  so  far  as  escape  from  this  superstition 


Medal,  IV  Century 


was  concerned,  enjoyed  an  advantage  not  possessed 
by  the  pagan  peoples  of  antiquity.  They  had  tlie 
knowledge  of  the  true  God,  and  the  Mosaic  law, 
which  gave  such  minute  directions  for  the  govern- 
ment of  their  religious  and  social  life,  contained  severe 
proliibitions  of  magic  and  divination.  That  never- 
theless, even  in  patriarchal  times,  they  were  not 
altogether  free  from  tliis  contamination  seems  fairly 


Byzantine  Med 


deducible  from  some  passages  in  Genesis,  xxxi,  19, 
XXXV,  4.  Later  on  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  through 
their  contact  with  the  Egyptians  and  Babylonians, 
amongst  whom  the  use  of  amulets  was  widespread, 
they  had  recourse  to  talismans  in  many  ways. 
Whether  the  tephillin,  that  is,  the  small  leathern 
pouches  containing  passages  of  the  law,  and  later 
ktiovvn  as  phylacteries,  were  regarded  as  amulets  at 
all  times,  is  not  susceptible  of  determination  from 
tlie  references  to  them  in  the  Pentateuch.  In  the 
beginning,  at  any  rate,  they  do  not  appear  to  have 
had  any  such  purpose;  subsequently,  however,  they 
unquestionably  were  employed  as  such,  as  is  proven 
by  the  Targum  (Canticle  of  Canticles,  viii,  3)  as 
well  as  Buxtorf  (Synagoga  Jud.,  ed.  1737).  There 
is  no  doubt  but  that  some  of  the  ornaments  used  in 
the  apparel  of  Jewish  women  were  really  amulets. 
This  seems  to  be  the  proper  interpretation  of  the 
phrase  "little  moons"  which  occurs  in  Isaias,  iii,  18, 
a.s  well  as  the  "earrings"  mentioned  in  verse  20  of 
the  same  chapter.  This  superstition  dominated 
even  more  strongly  the  Jews  of  post-Biblical  times, 
partly  as  a  result  of  their  freer  intercourse  with  other 
people,  aiul  partly  because  of  the  extreme  formalism 
of  their  religious  fife.  The  Talmud  contains  evidence 
of  this. 

The  reliance  placed  upon  amulets,  like  other 
form.s  of  superstition,  grew  out  of  popular  ignorance 
and  fear.  With  tlie  coming  of  the  Christian  religion 
llierefore,  it  was  destined  to  disappear.  It  would 
have  been  too  much,  however,  to  have  expected  the 
victory  of  Christianity  in  this  matter  to  have  been  an 
eiuiy  and  instantaneous  one.     Hence  it  is  intelligible 


that  in  the  newest  converts  from  paganism  there 
remained  a  disposition,  if  not  to  cling  to  the  forms 
they  had  of  necessity  abjured,  at  all  events  to  attrib- 
ute to  the  Christian  symbols  of  worsliip  something 
of  the  power  and  value  of  the  amulets  with  whicli 
they  were  so  generously  supplied  in  heathenism. 
From  the  beginning  the  Church  was  on  the  alert  to 
detect  the  first  signs  of  this  abuse  and  set  her  face 
sternly  against  it.  Thus,  for  instance,  we  find  the 
Council  of  Laodicea,  in  the  fourth  century,  after 
forbidding  the  clergy  to  be  sorcerers,  conjurers,  etc., 
or  to  make  amulets,  deciding  that  those  who  wear 
amulets  are  to  be  excommunicated.  Epiphanius 
{Eipositio  fold  Catholiccc,  c.  24)  witnesses  pointedly 
to  the  prohibition  by  the  Church  of  amulets.  Ob- 
jects dear  to  Christian  piety,  such  as  in  the  early 
days  the  representation  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the 
Lamb,  palms,  relics  of  the  martyrs,  and  in  later 
days,  pictures  of  the  saints,  medals,  Agnus  Deis,  etc., 
were  venerated  in  a  relative  sense.  They  were,  in 
the  mind  of  the  Church,  in  no  wise  thought  to  have 
any  latent  power  or  divinity  in  them,  or  to  be  calcu- 
lated to  assure,  as  of  themselves,  to  their  possessors, 
protection  against  harm  or  success  in  undertakings. 
The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV)  is  at  some  pains  to 
formulate  the  authoritative  teaching  of  the  Church 
with  regard  to  the  honour  paid  to  images  of  Christ, 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  Saints.  It  does  not 
deal  professedly  with  the  subject  of  amulets,  but 
the  words  in  which  it  sets  forth  its  mind  upon  the 
worship  of  images  describe  with  a  peculiar  apposite- 
ness  the  attitude  of  the  Church  towards  all  that  array 
of  pious  objects,  approved  or  tolerated  by  her,  which 
have  so  improperly  been  stigmatized  as  amulets. 
"The  Holy  Synod  commands  that  especially  are 
images  of  Clirist,  of  the  Virgin  Mother  of  God  and  of 
the  other  Saints  to  be  had  and  kept  in  churches: 
and  that  due  honour  and  veneration  be  accorded  to 
them:  not  because  it  is  believed  that  any  divinity  or 
virtue  is  in  them  for  wliich  they  are  to  be  revered;  or 
that  anything  may  be  asked  from  them;  or  that  any 
confidence  can  be  placed  in  the  images  as  was  done  of 
old  by  the  Gentiles  .  .  .  but  because   the   honour 


Byzantine  Medal 

which  is  exhibited  to  them  is  referretl  to  the  proto- 
types which  they  represent ",  etc.  Thus  they  are 
sharply  and  definitively  difterentiateil  from  the 
amulets  and  talismans  of  popular  superstition 
whether  of  antiquity  or  of  a  later  period. 

HfiDNKii,     Amulitorum     hisloria     (Halle,      1710);   Emelk, 
Utber  Amulete  (Mainz,    1827). 

Joseph  V.  Delany. 

Amyclse,  a  titular  see  of  Peloponnesus  in  Greece, 
in  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Hellas,  a  suffragan  of 


AMYOT 


445 


ANABAPTISTS 


Corinth,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  a  Latin  see  known 
to  the  French  rulers  of  Achaia,  as  Micles,  or  Nicies, 
afterwards  united  with  the  sees  of  Veligosti  and 
Ixsondari  (Megalopolis).  It  was  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient towns  of  Cireece,  and  said  to  have  been  the 
home  of  Tyndarus  antl  of  Castor  and  Pollux  (Amy- 
cla;i  fratrcs).  It  is  mentioned  by  Homer  (Iliad,  II, 
584).  It  was  situated  quite  close  to  Sparta  in  a 
fertile  and  wooded  distnct,  not  far  from  the  river 
Eurotas. 

I.EQriKN.  Oriena  Chrinlianua  (1740),  II,  228-229,  III, 
)0.31-;)2;  .Smith.  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  I,  127-128. 

Amyot,  J.\cQUES,  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  Grand 
Almoner  of  France,  and  man  of  letters,  b.  30  Octo- 
ber, 1.513;  d.  0  February,  1593.  He  studied  in  Paris 
at  the  C'oll(>ge  de  France,  where  he  earned  his  li\ing 
by  performing  menial  .services  for  his  fellow  students. 
Although  naturally  slow,  his  uncommon  diligence 
enabled  him  to  a<-cumulate  a  large  stock  of  classical 
and  general  knowlctlge.  lie  took  his  degree  of 
Master  of  .\rts  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  A  .secretary 
of  State  engaged  him  a.s  tutor  to  his  children  and 
recommended  him  to  Marguerite  d'Angouleme  the 
only  sister  of  Francis  I.  He  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  I'niversity  of 
Bourges.  During  the  ten  years  in  which  he  held 
this  position,  he  translated  into  French  the  Cireek 
novel  "Thea^enes  and  Chariclea"  and  several  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives".  Francis  I,  to  whom  these  works 
were  dedicated,  conferred  upon  their  author  the 
abbey  of  Hellozano.  After  the  death  of  Francis  I 
Amyot  accompanied  the  French  ambassador  to 
Venice,  and  later  went  to  Rome.  Cardinal  de 
Tournon,  whose  favour  he  had  won,  sent  him  with 
a  letter  from  Henry  II  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  On 
his  return  the  king  named  him  tutor  to  his  two 
younger  sons.  He  now  finished  the  translation  of 
Plutarch's  "Lives",  and  afterwards  undertook  that 
of  Plutarch's  "Morals",  which  he  finished  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  IX.  Tlie  latter  made  him  Bishop 
of  Auxerre,  Grand  Almoner  of  France,  and  Curator 
of  the  University  of  Paris.  Notwithstanding  his 
success,  Amyot  did  not  neglect  his  studies;  he  re- 
vised all  his  translations  with  great  care.  His  trans- 
lation of  Plutarch  is  the  basis  of  North's  English 
translation,  the  source  of  Shakespeare's  three  Roman 
plays.  During  his  closing  years,  France  was  the 
prey  of  civil  war.  Happening  to  be  at  Blois  when 
the  Guises  were  murdered,  Amyot  was  falsely  ac- 
cused of  having  connived  at  the  assassination.  This 
charge  greatly  afflicted  the  aged  Bishop  It  is  the 
general  opinion  of  scholars  that,  by  his  translation 
of  Plutarch,  Amyot  contribvited  greatly  to  the  re- 
finement of  the  French  language,  flis  style  is 
always  simple,  charming,  picturesque,  and  pithy. 
Amyot 's  works  are:  translations  of  Heliodorus  (1547) 
and  of  Diodorus  Siculus  (15.54),  "Amours  pastorales 
de  Daphnis  et  Chlo6"  (1559),  "Vies  des  hommes 
illustres  do  Plutarque"  (1565-75),  "ffiuvres  morales 
de  Plutarque"  (1572). 

C.  F.  A.  DE  BL^ONikREA,  Essai  8ur  Amyot  (Paris,  1851); 
Sainte  Beuve,  Causeriea  du  Lundi,  IV, 

Jean  Le  Bars. 

Anabaptists  (Gr.  ivi..  again,  and  /Sairrifoi,  baptize; 
rebaptizcrs),  a  violent  and  extremely  radical  body  of 
ecclesiastico-civil  reformers  which  first  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  1521  at  Zwickau,  in  the  present  kingdom 
of  Saxony,  and  still  exists  in  milder  forms. 

1.  Name  and  Dof-rniNAL  PiuNrii'LE.s. — The  name 
Anabaptisls,  etymologically  applicable,  and  some- 
times applied  to  all  Christian  denominations  that 
practise  re-baptism  is,  in  general  historical  usage, 
restricted  to  those  who,  denying  the  validity  of  infant 
baptism,  became  prominent  during  the  great  reform 
movement  of  the  sixteenth  centurj'.  The  designa- 
tion was  generally  repudiated  by  those  to  whom  it 
was  applied,  as  the  discussion  did  not  centre  around 


the  question  whether  baptism  can  be  repeated,  but 
around  the  question  whether  the  first  baptism  was 
valid.  The  distinctive  principles  upon  which  Ana- 
baptists generally  agreed  were  the  following:  (1)  They 
aimed  at  restoring  what  they  claimed  to  have  been 
primitive  Christianity.  This  restoration  included 
the  rejection  of  oaths  and  capital  punishment  and 
the  abstention  from  the  exerci.se  of  magistracy. 
(2)  In  a  more  consistent  manner  than  the  majority 
of  Protestant  reformers,  they  maintained  the  abso- 
lute supremacy  and  sole  sufficiency  of  the  canonical 
Scriptures  as  a  norm  of  faith.  However,  private  in- 
spiration and  religious  sentiment  played  an  important 
role  among  them.  (3)  Infant  baptism  and  the 
Lutheran  doctrine  of  jiLstification  by  faith  alone  were 
rejected  a.s  without  scriptural  warrant.  (4)  The 
new  Kingdom  of  (!od,  which  they  purposed  to  found, 
was  to  be  the  reconstruction,  on  an  entirely  different 
basis,  of  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil  society.  Com- 
munism, including  for  some  of  them  the  community 
of  women,  was  to  be  the  underlying  principle  of  the 
new  state. 

II.  Onir.iN  AND  HiSTOiiY. — ^The  question  of  the 
validity  of  baptism  appears  in  two  great  phases  in 
ecclesiastical  historj-.  The  first  controversy  raged 
at  an  early  date  (third  and  fourth  centuries)  and  re- 
garded the  minister  of  the  sacrament  (baptism  con- 
ferred by  heretics).  It  was  at  a  much  later  date  tliat 
the  second  discussion  originated,  in  which  the  sub- 
ject of  infant  baptism  was  the  point  controverted. 
In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the  Petrobrus- 
ians  rejected  infant  baptism  and  they  and  many  sub- 
sequent medieval  heretics  (Henricians,  Waldenses, 
Albigen.scs,  and  Bohemian  Brethren)  held  views  re- 
sembling in  some  respects  the  tenets  of  the  Ana- 
baptists. There  is,  however,  little  if  any  historical 
connection  between  the  Anabaptists  and  those 
earlier  sects.  Luther's  principles  and  ex.  mples  exer- 
cised more  influence  over  the  new  movement. 
Private  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  however, 
and  inward  teaching  by  the  Holy  Ghost  could  be 
claimed  by  any  individual,  and  logically  led  to  the 
extreme  Anabaptist   views. 

(a)  Anabaplism  in  Saxon;/  and  Thuringia  (1521- 
25). — Nicholas  Storch,  a  weaver  (d.  1525),  and 
Thomas  Miinzer,  a  Lutheran  preacher  (c.  1490-1525), 
together  with  the  otlier  self-styled  "Prophets  of 
Zwickau"  made,  at  the  Reformation,  the  first  attack 
on  infant  baptism.  The  doctrines  of  the  absolute 
equality  of  all  men  and  complete  community  of 
goods  and  the  resulting  disturbances  soon  brought 
them  into  conflict  with  the  civil  authorities  of 
Zwickau.  Storch,  before  any  repressive  measures 
were  taken  against  him,  left  with  two  associates  for 
Wittenberg  (1521),  where  he  continued  his  preach- 
ing, ftirlstadt  was  soon  gained  over  to  the  cause. 
The  combined  agitation  of  Carlstadt  and  Storch  at 
Wittenberg,  and  Carlstadt's  iconoclastic  proceedings 
forced  Luther  to  leave  the  Wartburg  and  appear  on 
the  scene.  He  preached  against  the  new  apostles 
with  such  vehemence  that  they  had  to  leave  the  city. 
Storch  until  his  death  at  Munich  travelled  through 
Germany,  spreading  his  doctrines,  especially  in 
Thuringia  (1522-24)  where  he  was  one  of  the  princi- 
pal instigators  of  the  Peasants'  War.  Munzer  re- 
jected infant  baptism  in  theory,  but  retained  it  in 
practice.  He  was  expelled  from  Zwickau  (1521)  and 
went  to  Bohemia,  where  he  had  but  little  success  as 
a  propagandist.  In  1525  he  came  as  preacher  to 
Alsteclt  (Electoral  Saxony)  and  married  a  former 
mm.  He  was  soon  surrounded  by  a  large  following, 
introduced  a  German  religious  service  and  attacked 
Luther  as  well  as  the  then  existing  order  of  things. 
His  sojourn  at  MilhlhaiLsen  (Thuringia),  which  w.is 
interrupted  by  a  journey  through  the  south  of 
(Jermany,  was  equally  successful.  Henrj-  Pfeifer, 
an  apostato  monk,  who  became  his  co-labourer  at 


ANACLETXTS 


446 


ANACLETUS 


Aluhlhausen,  had  prepared  the  ground  for  the  new 
gosix?l.  Miinzer  and  Pfcifer  became  absolute  mas- 
ters of  the  city,  and  crowds  of  peasants  and  burghers 
who,  discontented  witli  prevaiUng  conditions,  flocked 
around  them,  pillaged  and  devastated  the  surround- 
ing country.  To  quell  the  insurrectionary  move- 
ment John,"the  Elector  of  Saxony,  Philip,  Landgrave 
of  Hesse,  and  Henry,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  united  their 
forces  and  attacked  the  peasants,  led  by  Munzer  at 
Frankenhausen  (1525).  The  insurgents  were  utterly 
defeated,  .\fter  the  liattle  Munzer  was  disco\ered 
at  p>ankenhausen  in  a  bed  in  which  he  had  hidden, 
and  was  delivered  up  to  the  executioner.  He  re- 
ceived the  sacraments  of  the  Catholic  Church  before 
his  death,  while  his  associate  Pfeifer,  still  impenitent, 
underwent  the  death   penalty   (1525). 

(6)  The  Su-iss  Anabaplist  Movement  (1523-25). — 
Like  Luther,  Zwingli,  the  originator  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Switzerland,  soon  found  more  radical  com- 
pel itore.  In  1525  some  of  his  associates  separated 
from  him  and  preaclied  rebaptism  and  communism. 
The  party  found  two  capable  leaders  in  John  Denk 
and  Balthasar  Hubmaier.  Its  following,  recruited 
especially  from  the  working  classes,  became  con- 
siaerable,  not  only  in  Switzerland,  but  also  in  south- 
ern Germany  and  Austria.  Augsburg,  Nuremberg, 
and,  at  a  later  date,  Strasburg  became  the  chief 
centres  of  the  mo\'ement.  Resistance  to  its  spread 
came  from  two  sources.  The  Anabaptists'  teaching 
added  substantially  to  the  causes  of  the  Peasants' 
War  which  broke  out  (1524)  in  the  very  territory 
where  the  Anabaptists  had  carried  on  their  propa- 
ganda. As  a  consequence  the  defeat  of  the  peasants 
(1525)  meant,  to  a  great  extent,  the  dispersion  of  the 
Anabaptists.  On  the  other  hand,  some  town  coun- 
cils as  that  of  Zurich  (1526)  decreed  the  severest  pen- 
alties against  their  adherents.  Still  in  spite  of  defeat 
and  constant  repression,  the  sect    continued  to  live. 

(f)  The  Aruibaptists  in  MUnder  (1533-35).— The 
spread  of  the  Anabaptists  in  lower  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands  must  largely  be  ascribed  to  the 
activity  of  Melchior  Hofmann,  a  widely  travelled 
furrier.  The  arrival  of  some  of  his  disciples (Melchior- 
ites)  at  Munster  in  Westphalia  (1533-34)  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  most  extraordinary  period  in  the 
history  of  the  Anabaptists  and  the  city  of  Munster. 
In  the  latter,  Bernard  Rothmann  a  chaplain,  and 
KnipperdoUinck  a  cloth-merchant,  had  already  suc- 
ceeded in  diffusing  Lutheran  ideas.  They  joined  the 
Anabaptist  movement,  of  which  John  Matthys  or 
Matthiessen,  a  former  baker,  and  John  Bockelsohn  or 
Bockold,  a  Dutch  tailor  (more  generally  known  as 
John  of  Leyden),  became  two  great  local  represen- 
tatives. KnipperdoUinck  w-as  elected  burgomaster 
(February,  1534)  and  the  city  passed  under  the  com- 
plete and  unrestricted  control  of  the  partisans  of 
rebaptism.  Munster,  instead  of  Strasburg,  was  to 
become  the  centre  of  the  projected  conquest  of  the 
world,  the  "New  Jerusalem",  the  founding  of  which 
was  signalized  by  a  reign  of  terror  and  indescribable 
orgies.  Treasures  of  literature  and  art  were  de- 
stroyed; communism,  polygamy,  and  community  of 
women  were  introduced,  llothmann  took  unto  him- 
self four  wives  and  John  of  Leyden,  sixteen.  The 
latter  was  proclaimed  King  of  the  "New  Sion", 
when  Francis  of  Waldeck,  Bishop  and  temporal 
lord  of  the  city,  had  already  begun  its  siege  (1534). 
In  June,  L535,  the  defence  became  more  and  more 
hopeless,  and  John,  as  a  last  means  of  escape,  deter- 
mined upon  .setting  fire  to  the  city.  His  plan  was 
frustrated  by  the  unexpected  capture  of  the  town 
by  the  besiegers  (24  June,  1.535).  The  King,  his 
lieutenant  KnipperdoUinck,  and  his  chancellor 
Krechting  were  seized,  and  after  .six  months'  im- 
prisonment and  torture,  expcutcd.  As  a  terrible 
warning,  (heir  bodies  were  suspended  in  iron  cages 
from  the  tower  of  St   Lambert  s  church. 


III.  Results.  The  Aruibaptists  in  England. — Along 
with  the  fanatic  element,  there  was  always  in  the 
Anabaptist  party  a  more  pacific  current  represented 
especially  by  its  Swiss  adherents.  The  effect  of  the 
fall  of  Munster  and  of  the  determined  repression 
of  Anabaptists  by  Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Zwing- 
lians  alike,  was  the  very  pronounced  and  ultimately 
complete  elimination  of  the  violent  features  of  the 
movement.     Menno    Simonis,    formerly    a    Catholic 

Criest,  who  joined  the  party  in  1536,  exercised  a 
eneficent  influence  in  that  direction.  The  verj- 
name  Anabaptists  was  superseded  by  others,  particu- 
larly that  of  Mennonites.  It  is  under  the  latter 
designation  that  the  Anabaptists  e.xist  to-day, 
principaUy  in  Holland,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States.  Another  result  of  the  capture  of  Miinster 
seems  to  have  been  the  appearance  of  Anabaptists 
in  England,  where  they  come  into  frequent  notice 
shortly  after  this  time  and  continue  to  be  mentioned 
during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
Their  following  there  was  in  all  probability  largely 
composed  of  Dutch  and  German  refugees.  The 
penalties  of  death  and  banishment  enforced  against 
them  prevented  the  sect  from  acquiring  importance. 
The  Anabaptists'  teaching  respecting  infant  baptism 
was  adopted  by  the  English  and  American  Baptists 
(See  B-VPTisTs). 

Kerssenbroch,  Anabaptistiri  iuroris  monasterium  inditam 
Westpkalue  metropolim  evertentis  historica  narratio.  ed.  Detmer 
(Miinster,  1899,  1900):  Cornelius,  Geschichte  des  miinsteri- 
schen  Aufruhrs  (Leipzig.  1855,  I860):  Janssen,  Geachichte  des 
deittschm  Volkes  (Freiburg  and  St.  Louis,  Mo..  1897),  11,  231- 
238,  394-410,  557-571,  III,  109-121.  326-351,  tr.  Hist,  of 
the  German  People  (St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  London,  1900,  1903), 
in,  256-263,  IV,  87-117,  217-222,  291-310,  V,  150-165.  449- 
485:  Newman,  A  History  of  Anti-Pedobaptism  from  the  Rise  of 
Pedobapiism  to  A.  D.  1609  (Philadelphia,  1897),  with  extensive 
bibliography,  395-406:  Idem,  A  History  of  the  Baptist  Churches 
in  the  United  Stales  (New  York,  1894),  in  Amer.  Church  Hist. 
Series,  II,  1-56:  Bax,  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Anabaptists  (London, 
1903):  BuHRAGE,  A  History  of  the  Anabaptists  in  Switzerland 
(Philadelphia,  1905);  Tumbclt,  Die  Wiedertaufer  (Leipzig, 
1899). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Anacletus,  Saint  and  Pope,  was  the  second  succes- 
sor of  St.  Peter.  Whether  he  was  the  same  as  Cletus, 
who  is  also  called  Anencletus  as  well  as  Anacletus,  has 
been  the  subject  of  endless  discussion.  Irenjeus,  Euse- 
bius,  Augustine,  Optatus,  use  both  names  indifferently 
as  of  one  person.  TertuUian  omits  him  altogether. 
To  add  to  the  confusion,  the  order  is  different. 
Thus  Irena^us  has  Linus,  Anacletus,  Clement; 
whereas  Augustine  and  Optatus  put  Clement  before 
Anacletus.  On  the  other  hand,  the  "Catalogus 
Liberianus",  the  "Carmen  contra  Marcionem"  and 
the  "Liber  Pontificalis ",  all  most  respectable  for 
their  antiquity,  make  Cletus  and  Anacletus  distinct 
from  each  other;  while  the  "Catalogus  Felicianus" 
even  sets  the  latter  down  as  a  Greek,  the  former  as 
a  Roman.  Among  the  moderns,  Hergenrother 
(Hist,  de  I'dglise,  I,  542,  note)  pronounces  for  their 
identity.  So  also  the  BoUandist  De  Smedt  (Dissert., 
vii,  1).  DoUinger  (Christenth.  u  K.,  315)  declares 
that  "they  are,  without  doubt,  the  same  person"; 
and  that  "the  'Catalogue  of  Liberius'  merits  little 
confidence  before  230."  Duchesne,  "  Origines  clir6- 
tiennes",  ranges  himself  on  that  side  also;  but  Jung- 
mann  (Dissert.  Hist.  Eed.,  I,  123)  leaves  the 
question  in  doubt.  The  chronology  is,  of  course,  in 
consetiuence  of  all  this,  very  imdetermined,  but  Du- 
chesne, in  his  "Origines",  says  "we  are  far  from  the 
day  when  the  years,  months,  and  days  of  the  Pontifi- 
cal C:italogue  can  be  gi\on  with  any  guarantee  of 
exactness.  But  is  it  necessary  to  be  exact  about 
popes  of  whom  wo  know  so  little?  We  can  accept 
the  list  of  Irena>us,  Linus,  Anacletus,  Clement, 
Evaristus,  Alexander,  Xystus,  Telesphorus,  Hygimis, 
Pius,  and  Anicetus.  Anicetus  reigned  iort;iinly  in 
154.  That  is  all  we  can  .say  with  assurance  about 
primitive  pontifical  chronology."    That  he  ordained 


AMACLETUS 


447 


ANAESTHESIA 


a  certain  number  of  priests  is  nearly  all  we  have  of 
positive  record  about  liiiu,  but  we  know  he  died  a 
martyr,  perhaps  about  91. 

AcUt  SS.,  July,  III;  lIUHOF.NBaTHKR,  Iliat.  de  Kglitie.  I; 
JuNGMANN,  IHaseTt.  lliitt.  KccL,  1;  Dk  Smkdt,  Duiaert.,  I; 
DucMKsNE,  Originta  chrtlicnnta;  BuTLKii,  Lives  of  the  Satnta, 
13  July. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Anacletus,  II,  the  title  whioli  was  taken  by  Car- 
dinal I'iptro  I'ierleonc  at  tlie  CDnlcsUnl  papal  election 
of  the  year  11:50.  Tlio  date  of  his  iiirtli  is  uncertain; 
(I.  J.')  January,  1  l^i'^.  Though  llic  I'ierlconi  were  con- 
ceded to  be  one  ot  the  wealtliiest  and  most  powerful 
senatorial  families  of  Rome,  and  though  tiiey  had 
stanchly  supported  the  Popes  throughout  tlie  fifty 
years'  war  tor  reform  and  freedom,  yet  it  was  never 
forgotten  that  they  were  of  Jewish  extraction,  and 
had  risen  to  \vealtli  and  power  by  usury.  The 
Cardinal's  grandfather,  named  Leo  after  Pope 
Leo  IX,  who  baptized  him,  was  a  faitliful  adlierent 
of  Gregory  VII;  Leo's  son,  Peter,  from  wliom  the 
family  acquired  the  appellation  of  Pierleoni,  became 
leader  of  the  faction  of  tlie  Uoman  nobility  which  was 
at  enmity  witli  the  Frangipani.  His  marble  cotiin 
may  still  be  seen  in  tlic  cloisters  of  St.  Paul's,  witli 
its  pompous  inscription  extolling  liis  wealth  and 
numerous  offspring,  llis  attempt  to  install  his  son 
as  Prefect  of  Rome  in  II 10,  though  favoured  by  the 
Po[)e,  had  been  resisted  by  the  ojiposite  party  with 
riot  and  bloodshed.  His  second  son,  the  future  Anti- 
pope,  was  destined  for  the  Church.  After  finishing 
nis  education  at  Paris,  he  became  a  monk  in  the 
monjistery  of  Cluny,  but  before  long  lie  was  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Pope  Paschal  II  and  created 
Cardinal-Deacon  of  SS.  Cosmas  and  Damian.  He 
accompanied  Pope  Gelasius  on  his  flight  to  France, 
and  was  employed  by  successive  pontiffs  in  important 
affairs,  including  legations  to  France  and  England. 
If  we  can  believe  his  enemies,  he  disgraced  his  high 
office  by  gross  immorality  and  by  his  greed  in  tlie 
accumulation  of  lucre.  Whatever  exaggeration  tlicre 
may  be  as  to  other  charges,  tliere  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  wsus  determined  to  buy  or  force  his  way  into 
the  Papal  Chair.  When  Honorius  lay  on  his  death- 
bed, Pierleone  could  count  upon  the  votes  of  thirty 
cardinals,  backed  by  the  support  of  the  mercenary 
populace  and  of  every  noble  family  in  Rome,  except 
the  Corsi  and  the  Frangipani.  The  pars  sanioi- 
of  the  Sacred  College  numbered  only  sixteen,  headed 
by  the  energetic  Chancellor,  Haymaric,  and  the  Cardi- 
nal-Hisliop  of  Ostia.  These  sqiiadronisH,  as  they 
would  have  been  called  in  later  days,  resolved  to 
rescue  the  papacy  from  unworthy  hands  by  a  coup 
d'dat.  Though  in  a  hopeless  minority,  they  had  the 
advantage  that  four  of  their  number  were  cardinal- 
bishops,  to  whom  tlie  legislation  of  Nicholas  II  had 
cntnisted  the  leading  part  in  the  election.  More- 
over, of  tlie  commission  of  eight  cardinals,  to  which, 
in  apprehension  of  a  schism,  it  was  decided  to  leave 
the  election,  one  of  them  being  Pierleone,  five  were 
opposed  to  the  ambitioiLs  aspirant.  To  secure 
liberty  of  action,  they  removed  tlie  sick  Pontiff  from 
the  Lateran  to  St.  Clregory's,  near  the  towers  of  the 
Frangipani.  Honorius  dying  on  the  night  of  13  Feb- 
niary,  they  buried  him  hurriedly  the  next  morning, 
and  compelled  the  reluctant  Cardinal  of  San  Ciior^io, 
Gregory  Papareschi,  under  threat  of  excommunica- 
tion, to  accept  the  pontifical  mantle.  He  took  the 
name  of  Innocent  II.  Later  in  the  day  the  party 
of  Pierleone  a.ssembled  in  the  Church  of  St.  ilark 
and  proclaimed  liim  Pope,  with  the  name  of  .Anacle- 
tus II.  Both  claimants  were  consecrated  on  the 
same  day,  '2'.\  Febniarj',  Anacletus  in  St.  Peter's  and 
Innocent  in  Sta.  Maria  Nuova.  How  fliis  schism 
would  have  been  healed,  had  the  decision  been  left 
to  the  canonists,  is  hard  to  say.  Anacletus  had  a 
strong  title  in  law  and  fact.     The  majority  of  the 


cardinals  with  the  Bishop  of  Porto,  the  Dean  of  the 
Sacred  College,  at  their  nead,  stood  at  his  side.  Al- 
most the  whole  pooulace  of  Rome  rallied  around  him. 
His  victory  seeniecl  complete,  when,  .shortly  after,  the 
Frangipani,  abandoning  what  apjieared  to  be  a  lost 
cause,  went  over  to  him.  Innocent  souglit  safety  in 
flight.  No  sooner  had  ho  arrived  in  France  than  his 
alTairs  took  a  favourable  turn.  "Expelled  from  the 
City,  he  was  welcomed  by  the  world",  says  St. 
Bernard,  whose  inlhience  and  exertions  .secured  for 
him  the  adhesion  of  practically  the  entire  Christian 
world.  The  .Saint  states  his  reasons  for  deciding  in 
favour  of  Innocent  in  a  letter  to  the  Bisliops  of 
Aquitaiiie  (Op.  cxxvi).  They  may  not  be  canonically 
cogent;  but  they  satisfied  his  contemporaries.  "The 
life  and  character  of  our  Pope  Innocent  are  above 
any  attack,  even  of  his  rival;  while  the  other's  are 
not  safe  even  from  his  friends.  In  the  second  place, 
if  you  compare  the  elections,  that  of  our  candidate 
at  once  has  the  advantage  over  the  other  as  being 
purer  in  motive,  more  regular  in  form,  and  earlier  in 
time.  The  last  point  is  out  of  all  doubt;  tlie  other 
two  are  proved  by  the  merit  and  the  dignity  of  the 
electors.  You  will  find,  if  I  mistake  not,  that  this 
election  was  made  by  the  more  discreet  part  of  those 
to  whom  the  election  of  the  Supreme  Pontiff'  belongs. 
There  were  cardinals,  bishoiw,  priests,  and  deacons, 
in  sufficient  number,  according  to  the  decrees  of  tlie 
Fathers,  to  make  a  valid  election.  The  consecration 
was  performed  by  the  Bishop  of  Ostia,  to  wlioni  that 
function  specially  belongs.  Meanwhile  Anacletus 
maintained  his  popularity  in  Rome  by  the  lavish 
expenditure  of  his  accumulated  wealth  and  the 
plundered  treasures  of  the  clmrehcs.  His  letters  and 
those  of  the  Romans  to  Lothair  of  Germany  remain- 
ing unanswered,  he  secured  a  ^■aluable  confederate 
in  Duke  Roger  of  Apulia,  wlio.se  ambition  he  .satislicd 
by  tlie  gift  of  royalty;  on  Christmas  Day,  1130,  a 
cardinal-legate  of  Anacletus  anointed  at  Palermo 
the  first  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  a  momentous  event 
in  the  history  of  Italy.  In  the  spring  of  113.3,  the 
German  King  conducted  Innocent,  whom  two  great 
synods,  Reims  and  Piacenza,  had  proclaimed  the 
legitimate  Pope,  to  Rome;  but  as  he  came  accom- 
panied by  only  2,(J00  horse,  the  Antipope,.safe  witliin 
the  walls  of  Castle  St.  Angclo,  looked  on  undismayed. 
Unable  to  open  the  way  to  St.  Peter's,  Lotliairand 
his  queen  Richenza,  on  4  June,  received  the  im|ierial 
crown  in  the  Lateran.  Upon  the  Em])eror's  depart- 
ure Innocent  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Pisa,  and 
for  four  years  his  rival  remained  in  undisturbed 
po.sscssion  of  the  Eternal  City.  In  11.37  Lothair, 
having  finally  vanquished  the  insurgent  Holiciistau- 
fens,  returned  to  Italy  at  tlie  head  of  a  forniidable 
army;  but  since  the  main  purpose  of  the  expedition 
was  to  punish  Roger,  the  conquest  of  Rome  was 
entrusted  to  the  nii.ssionary  labours  of  St.  Bernard. 
The  Saint's  eloquence  was  more  effective  than  the 
imperial  weaiions.  When  Anacletus  died,  the  prefer- 
ence of  the  Romans  for  Innocent  was  so  pronounced 
that  the  Antipope,  Victor  IV,  whom  the  party  chose 
as  his  successor,  soon  came  as  a  penitent  to  St. 
Bernard  and  by  him  was  led  to  the  feet  of  the  Pope. 
ThiLS  ended,  after  eight  years  of  duration,  a  schism 
which  threatened  serious  disaster  to  the  Church. 

Liber  f'lmtif.  cl.  DuriiF..sxK  II,  379-383,  also  prxf.  xxxi. 
xxxvi:  H.uio.sus,  Ann.  Keel.,  nd  ann.  1130-38.  pnaaim; 
Gregorovhs.  Oeach.  drr  SUtdl  linm.  (StuttEnrt.  1800).  IV. 
393  «|(i.j  ViiN-  Iti-.lTMONT,  Gcachichle  d.  Shiill  Rom.,  (Herlin. 
18117).  11,  40S-411;;  Hefki-k,  Concilimatachiclitc,  LM  eil..  V. 
400  sqq.,  438,  439;  Vaca.ndaiid,  St.  Bernard  et  le  Hchiame 
d'Anaclet  II  m  France,  in  Rev.  dei  queet.  Aia(.,  Jan.,  1888,  ami 
his  Vie  de  St.  Bernard  (Paris,  18971.  I.  280  sqq. 

Jajies  F.  Loughlin. 

Anaesthesia  (from  Greek  d,  privative,  and  alaSitirtt, 
feeling),  a  term  in  medicine,  and  the  allied  sciences, 
signifying  a  state  of  insensibility  to  external  im- 
pressions, consequent  upon  disease,  or  induced  arti- 


ANAONI 


448 


ANAGNI 


ficially  by  the  employment  of  certain  substances 
known  as  ana-sthetics,  or  by  hypnotic  suggestion. 
In  diseases  of  tlie  central  nervous  sj'stem,  anaes- 
thesia is  a  common  symptom.  Usually  it  is  limited 
in  extent,  involving  a  "definite  area  of  the  skin  surface. 
Its  limits  can  be  traced  by  the  distribution  of  certain 
nerves.  In  funct  ional  diseases  of  the  nervous  system, 
usually  spoken  of  a.s  hysterical  or  neurotic,  there  may 
be  what  is  called  amputation  anaesthesia,  that  is, 
loss  of  feeling  abruptly  limited  by  a  line  such  as 
would  be  followed  in  an  amputation,  but  not  ac- 
cording to  the  distribution  of  nerves  to  the  part. 
In  both  functional  and  organic  nervous  diseases 
anesthesia  may  occur  in  conjunction  with  hyper- 
a?sthesia  and  pancsthesia  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 
Complete  anaesthesia  occurs  in  persons  suffering 
from  catalepsy,  or,  occasionally,  in  those  who  are  in 
a  trance.  Artificial  anaesthesia  by  the  use  of  drags 
or  the  inhalation  of  vapours  only  came  into  general 
use  during  tlie  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
but  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  its 
practice  is  very  ancient.  Homer  mentions  ne- 
penthe, "an  antidote  to  grief  and  rage  inducing 
oblivion  to  all  ills ".  Herodotus  relates  that  the 
Scythians  inhaled  a  kind  of  hemp  to  produce  in- 
sensibility. Dioscorides  alludes  to  the  employrnent 
of  mandragora  to  produce  anaesthesia  when  patients 
are  cut  or  burnt.  Pliny  refers  to  the  effect  of  the 
odour  of  mandragora  as  causing  sleep  if  it  was  taken 
"before  cuttings  and  puncturings  lest  they  be  felt". 
Lucian  speaks  of  mandragora  as  used  before  the  ap- 
plication of  the  cautery.  Galen  has  a  short  allusion 
to  its  power  to  paralyze  sense  and  motion.  Isidorus 
is  quoted  as  saying:  "A  wine  of  the  bark  of  the  root 
is  given  to  those  about  to  undergo  operation  that 
being  asleep  they  may  feel  no  pain." 

The  first  mention  of  anaesthesia,  in  comparatively 
modern  times,  is  connected  with  the  name  of  I^gone 
da  Lucca,  who  was  born  a  little  after  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century.  He  had  discovered  a  soporific 
which,  on  being  inhaled,  put  patients  to  sleep  so  that 
they  were  insensible  to  pain  during  the  operations 
performed  by  him.  The  drug  he  employed  is  also 
knowTi  to  have  been  mandragora.  There  are  men- 
tions of  antesthetics  in  the  literary  works  of  practi- 
cally every  century  since  that  time.  Boccaccio  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  in  the  story  of  Dioneus,  gives 
an  account  of  tlie  effects  of  an  anaesthetic  mixture 
which  "being  drunk  would  throw  a  person  asleep 
as  long  as  the  doctor  judged  it  necessary  ".  In  the 
fifteenth  century  William  Bullein  described  a  con- 
coction of  an  herb  which  "  bringeth  sleep,  and  casteth 
man  into  a  trance,  until  he  shall  be  cut  out  of  the 
stone  ".  In  the  16th  century  Shakespeare,  as  will  be 
remembered  from  "Romeo  and  Juliet,"  refers  four 
tim&s  to  the  an;psthetic  plant  under  the  name  of 
mandrake,  and  twice  under  the  name  of  mandragora. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  Thomas 
Middleton  wrote  of  "the  pities  of  old  surgeons  who 
cast  one  asleep,  then  cut  the  diseased  part  ".  Be- 
fore this  Du  Bartas  described  the  surgeon  as 
"bringing  his  patient  in  a  senseless  slumber  before 
he  put  in  u.se  his  violent  engines  ".  Notwithstanding 
this  continuity  of  tradition,  very  little  was  generally 
known  about  the  use  of  ana-sthetics,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  their  effects  were  rather  uncertain. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
task  of  finding  a  reliable  anxsthetic  was  taken 
seriously.  In  1800  Sir  Humphrev  T)a\y  described 
the  effects  of  nitrous  oxide,  or  laughing  gas,  in  allay- 
ing pain  or  toothache.  He  suggested  its  employ- 
ment in  surgery.  Ether  began  to  attract  attention 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  used 
by  inhalation  in  England,  for  relief  of  asthma,  and 
by  Dr.  Warren,  of  Boston,  in  the  treatment  of  the 
later  stages  of  con.sumption.  In  1818,  Faraday 
proved  that  the  inhalation  of  the  vapour  of  ether 


produced  anjEsthetic  effects  similar  to  those  of  nitrous 
o.xide.  This  fact  was  also  demonstrated  by  the 
American  physicians,  Godman,  in  1822;  Jackson,  in 
1833;  and  Wood  and  Bache,  in  1834.  The  first 
practical  use  of  anaesthesia,  however,  was  delayed 
until  December,  1844,  when  Horace  Wells,  a  dentist, 
of  Hartford,  Conn.,  had  a  tooth  extracted  while 
under  tlie  influence  of  nitrous  oxide,  or  laughing  gas. 
He  resolved  to  make  dentistry  painless  by  this 
means,  but  was  deterred  from  pursuing  the  project 
by  an  unfortunate  failure  in  experiments  in  Boston. 
About  two  years  later  Dr.  William  Morton,  also  a 
dentist  of  Boston,  made  use  of  the  vapour  of  ether 
for  anesthesia  in  the  extraction  of  teeth.  Subse- 
quently he  employed  it  in  cases  requiring  se\-ere 
surgical  operations,  with  complete  success.  In  about 
two  months  the  news  of  his  discovery  reached  Eng- 
land, and  before  the  end  of  1846  operations  on 
anaesthetized  patients  were  performed  in  London. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1847,  Sir  James  Y. 
Simpson,  tlie  distinguished  surgeon  and  obstetrician 
of  the  LIniversity  of  Edinburgh,  employed  ether  to 
allay  labour-pains.  In  November,  1847,  Simpson 
announced  his  discovery  that  chloroform  was  as 
effective  an  anesthetic  as  ether,  and  lacked  many  of 
its  inconveniences.  Ives,  in  Connecticut,  had  used 
chloroform  for  difficult  breathing  in  1832.  After 
Simpson's  announcement  it  came  to  be  used  especially 
in  England,  and  on  the  Continent,  and  even  in 
America,  as  the  favourite  anesthetic,  though  ether 
continued  to  be  employed  here  to  a  considerable 
degree.  A  series  of  investigations,  in  the  last  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  showed  that  chloroform 
had  a  much  greater  mortality  than  ether,  and  now 
the  latter  has  replaced  it  almost  entirely  for  an- 
esthetic purposes.  Other  substances,  such  as  the 
cliloride  of  ethyl  and  bromide  of  ethyl,  have  also 
been  employed.  Recent  years  have  seen  the  de- 
velopment of  local  anesthesia  to  replace  general 
anesthesia  for  minor  operations.  It  has  been  de- 
monstrated that  even  extensive  operations  can  be 
performed  without  causing  pain,  by  the  injection  of 
cocaine  and  similar  substances  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  site  of  the  operation,  or  into  the  ner\'es  lead- 
ing to  the  part.  Spinal  anesthesia,  which  is  a  form 
of  local  anesthesia,  consists  in  injecting  substances 
into  the  spinal  cord  which  paralyze  all  the  sensory 
nerves  from  the  parts  below  the  point  of  injection. 
For  a  time,  about  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  centurj', 
it  was  very  popular,  but  it  proved  to  have  many  in- 
conveniences and  some  serious  results,  and  was  not 
always  reliable.  General  anesthesia  always  in- 
volves some  risk.  Even  in  the  most  careful  hands 
deaths  occasionally  occur.  Usually  the  fatal  termi- 
nation comes  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  anesthetic,  and  seems  to  be  at  least 
partly  due  to  shock.  It  is  impossible  to  foresee  such 
fatalities,  and  they  occur  not  infrequently  in  the 
young  and  apparently  strong  and  vigorous.  It  is 
important,  therefore,  that  clergymen  should  take 
due  precautions  by  advising  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  before  anesthesia,  even  though  it 
may  be  but  for  a  slight  operation.  Surgeons  should 
warn  patients  of  the  risks,  even  though  they  are  but 
slight,  since  the  reassurance  from  the  due  perform- 
ance of  Christian  duties  will  usually  make  the 
patient  more  composed,  and  less  subject  to  the  in- 
fluence of  shock. 

FoY.  Ancesthetica,  Ancient  and  Modem  (London.  1889): 
Mork-Maddkn,  Notes  on  the  probable  emploifment  of  Anrrsthet' 
irs  in  ancu-nt  times  in  Ireland;  Dublin  Journal  of  Medieal 
^cietiee  (December,  1874):  BlOELOw,  Anfesthtsia  and  other 
Addresses  (Beaton,  1894). 

James  J.  Walsh. 

Anagni,  The  Diocese  of. — An  Italian  diocese  in 
the  province  of  Rome  under  the  immediate  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Holy  See.     It  comprises  ten  towns.     The 


ANALOGY 


449 


ANALOGY 


church  in  Anagni  claims  an  Apostolic  ori^n.  Anagni 
as  a  bishopric  appears  in  history  in  the  hfth  century. 
Felix  its  bishop  \v!is  present  at  the  Lateran  Synod 
held  in  487  (Mansi.  VII,  1171),  and  Tortunatu-s  was 
amongst  those  who  signed  the  Acts  of  the  Synod  of 
499  (Mommsen,  M.  (.).  H.  Auct.,  Ant.,  Xll,  400). 
In  later  centuries  the  Bishopric  of  .\nagni  attained 
great  iin[K)rtancc  because  its  occupants  received 
special  consideration  from  the  popes.  Zachary 
of  Anagni  was  the  legate  of  Nicholas  I  at  the  Synod 
held  in  Constantinople  in  851  to  decide  as  to  the 
validity  of  the  election  of  Photius  to  the  patriarchate. 
In  891)  Stephen  of  Anagni  became  Pope.  Anagni 
gave  four  poiws  to  tlie  Church,  all  related  to  one 
another:  Innocent  III  (1198-1210);  (Iregory  IX 
(1227-41);  Alexander  IV  (1254-01);  Uoniface  VIII 
(1294-130:?).  St.  Thomas  Hecket  in  his  flight  was 
received  at  Anagni  by  the  canons,  and  a  chapel 
erected  to  him  in  the  ba,sement  of  the  cathedral  at 
the  request  of  Henry  II  of  England,  is  now  used  as  a 
place  of  sepulture  for  the  canons.  Boniface  VIII 
was  violently  attacked  at  Anagni  by  Ciuillaume 
Nogaret  and  Sciarra  Colonna,  emis-saries  of  Philippe 
le  Bel.  Various  privileges  ha\e  been  conferred  on 
the  diocese  and  the  canons  by  different  popes.  The 
cathedral  has  several  rich  ecclesiastical  reli<'s,  such 
as  chests  and  vestments.  There  are  31,200  Catho- 
lics, 26  parishes,  59  secular  priests,  52  regulars,  45 
seminarists,  .'iO  churches  or  chapels. 

An'agni,  Council  of  (1160).  At  this  council, 
surrounded  by  his  cardinals  and  bishops,  Alexan- 
der III  solemnly  excommunicated  the  Emperor 
Frederick  (Barbaros.sa),  the  Pfalzgraf  Otto,  and  their 
followers,  and  renewed  the  excommunication  of  the 
Antipope  Octavian  (Victor  III).  The  Emperor's 
subjects  were  declared  absolved  from  their  oath  of 
allegiance. 

l'i:iiKi.i.i,  Ilnlui  Sarrn  (Venice.  1722>.  I.  30.');  Gams,  5<ti>» 
Eputcoporum  Ecct.  cathol.  (Itatisl)on.  1873),  6t>3:  CAi-lT.i.i.KTn, 
Le  chitse  d'ltalia  (Venice.  1866),  VI.  171;  Lxbrr  Pontif.  (eti. 
Duchesne),  II,  403;  Heff.le,  Concilimofarh.  V,  93. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Analogy,  a  philosophical  term  used  to  designate, 
first,  a  property  of  things;  .secondly,  a  process  of  rea- 
soning. We  have  here  to  consider  its  meaning  and 
use:  I.  In  Physic.\l  .*.nd  Natuh.vl  Sciences;  II.  In 
Metaphysics  .vnd  Schol.vstic  Philosoi'hy;  III.  In 
Theodicy;  IV.  In  Relation  to  the  Mysteries  of 
Faith. 

I.  .-Vnalogy  in  Physic.1L  and  Natural  Sciences. 
— .\s  a  property,  analogy  means  a  certain  similarity 
mixed  with  diflference.  This  similarity  may  be 
founded  entirely  or  chiefly  upon  a  conception  of  the 
mind;  in  this  sense  we  say  that  there  is  amdogy  be- 
tween the  light  of  the  sun  and  the  light  of  the  mind, 
between  a  lion  and  a  courageous  man,  between  an 
organism  and  society.  This  kind  of  analogy  is  the 
source  of  metaphor.  The  .similarity  may  be  founded 
on  the  real  existence  of  .similar  properties  in  objects 
of  different  species,  genera,  or  classes;  tho.sc  organs, 
for  instance,  are  analogous,  which,  belonging  to 
beings  of  different  species  or  genera,  and  differing  in 
structure,  fulfil  the  .same  phy.siological  functions  or 
h;ive  the  same  connections.  .\s  a  process  of  reason- 
ing, analogy  consists  in  conchuiing  from  some 
analogical  properties  or  similarity  under  certain  a.s- 
pccts  to  other  analogical  properties  or  similarity 
under  other  .aspects.  It  was  by  such  a  process  that 
Franklin  passed  from  the  analogv'  between  the  effects 
of  lightning  and  the  effects  of  electricity  to  the 
identity  of  their  cause;  Cuvier.  from  the  analogy  be- 
tween certain  organs  of  fossils  and  tlie.se  organs  in  ac- 
tual species  to  the  analogy  of  the  whole  organism; 
that  we  infer  from  the  analogy  between  the  organs 
and  external  actions  of  animals  and  ourown,  the  exist- 
ence of  consciousness  in  tliem.  .■\nalogical  rea.soning 
is  a  combination  of  inductive  and  deductive  reason- 


ing ba.sed  on  the  principle  that  "analogical  properties 
con.sidered  as  similar  involve  similar  consequences  ". 
It  is  evident  that  analogical  rea.soning,  as  to  its  value, 
depends  on  the  value  of  the  analogical  property  on 
which  it  rests.  Ba.sed  on  a  mere  conception  of  the 
mind,  it  may  suggest,  but  it  docs  not  prove;  it  cannot 
give  conclusions,  but  only  comparisons.  Based  on 
real  properties,  it  is  more  or  less  conclusive  according 
to  the  numl>ur  ami  significance  of  the  similar  prop- 
erties and  according  to  the  fewne.ss  and  insigiuficarico 
of  the  dissimilar  [)roperties.  From  a  strictly  logical 
point  of  view,  analogical  reasoning  can  furnish  only 
probable  conclusions  and  hypotheses.  Sudi  is  the 
ca.se  for  most  of  the  theories  in  physical  and  natural 
sciences,  which  remain  hypothetical  so  long  as  they 
are  merely  the  result  of  analogy  and  have  not  been 
verified  directly  or  indirectly. 

II.  .\nalogy  i.v  Metaphysics  and  Schola.stic 
Philosophy.  Analogy  in  metaphysics  and  Scholas- 
tic philosophy  was  carefully  studied  by  the  School- 
men, especially  by  the  P.seudo-Dionysius,  Albertus 
Magnus,  and  St.  Thomas.  It  also  may  be  considered 
either  as  a  property  or  as  a  process  of  reasoning.  .\s 
a  metaphysical  property,  analogy  is  not  a  mere  like- 
ness between  diverse  objects,  out  a  proportion  or 
relation  of  object  to  object.  It  is,  therefore,  neither 
a  merely  equivocal  or  verbal  coincidence,  nor  a  fully 
univocal  participation  in  a  common  concept;  but  it 
partakes  of  the  one  and  the  other.  (Cf.  St.  Thomas, 
Sumnia  Theol.,  I,  (J.  xiii,  a.  5,  10;  also,  Q.  vii,  De 
potentiii,  a.  7.)  We  may  di.stinguish  two  kinds  of 
analogy:  (1)  Two  objects  can  be  said  to  be  analogous 
on  account  of  a  relation  which  they  have  not  to  each 
other,  but  to  a  third  object:  e.  g.,  there  is  analogy 
between  a  remedy  and  the  appearance  of  a  person, 
in  virtue  of  whicli  the.sc  two  objects  are  said  to  be 
healthy.  This  is  ba.sed  upon  the  relation  which  each 
of  them  has  to  the  person's  health,  the  former  as  .a 
cause,  and  the  latter  as  a  sign.  Tliis  may  be  calleil 
indirect  analogy.  (2)  Two  objects  again  are  analo- 
gous on  account  of  a  relation  which  they  have  not  to 
a  third  object,  but  to  each  other.  Remedy,  nourish- 
ment, and  external  appearance  are  termed  healthy 
on  account  of  the  direct  relation  they  bear  to  the 
health  of  the  person.  Here  health  is  the  ba.sis  of  the 
analogy,  and  is  an  example  of  what  the  Schoolmen 
call  summum  analogatum.  (Cf.  St.  Thomas,  ib.) 
This  second  sort  of  analogy  is  twofold.  Two  things 
are  related  by  a  direct  proportion  of  degree,  distance, 
or  measure:  e.  g.,  0  is  in  direct  proportion  to  3,  of 
which  it  is  the  double;  or  the  healthiness  of  a  remedy 
is  tlirectly  related  to,  and  directly  measured  by,  the 
health  which  it  produces.  This  analogy  is  called 
analogy  of  proportion.  Or,  the  two  objects  are  re- 
lated one  to  th.e  other  not  by  a  direct  proportion,  but 
hy  means  of  another  and  intermediarj'  rehition:  for 
instance,  6  and  4  are  analogous  in  this  sense  that  6 
is  the  double  of  3  as  4  is  of  2,  or  6  :  4  ::  3  : 2.  The 
analogy  between  corporal  and  intellectual  vision  is 
of  this  sort,  because  intelligence  is  to  the  mind  what 
the  eye  is  to  the  body.  This  kind  of  analogy  is  b:ised 
on  the  proportion  of  proportion;  it  is  called  analogy 
of  proportionality.  (Cf.  St.  Thomas,  Q.  ii,  De  verit., 
a.  11;  Q.  xxiii,  De  verit..  a.  7,  ad  9^). 

III.  .\nalooy  as  a  Method  in  "Theodicy. — .\s 
human  knowledge  proceeds  from  the  data  of  the 
senses  directed  and  interpreted  by  reason,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  man  cannot  arrive  at  a  perfect  knowle<lge 
of  the  nature  of  God  which  is  essentially  spiritual  and 
infinite.  Vet  the  various  elements  of  perfection, 
dependence,  limitation,  etc.,  which  exist  in  all  finite 
beings,  while  they  enable  us  to  prove  the  existence  of 
God.  furnish  us  also  with  a  certain  knowleilge  of  His 
nature.  For  dependent  beings  must  ultimately  rest 
on  something  non-dependent,  relative  beings  on  that 
which  is  non-relative,  and,  even  if  this  non-dependent 
and  non-relalive  Being  cannot  be  conceived  directly 


ANALYSIS 


450 


ANALYSIS 


in  itself,  it  is  necessarily  conceived  to  some  extent 
through  the  beings  whicli  depend  on  it  and  are  re- 
lated to  it.  It  is  not  an  Unknown  or  Unknowable. 
It  can  be  known  in  dilTcrent  ways.  We  remark  in 
finite  things  a  manifold  dependence.  These  things 
are  produced;  they  are  produced  according  to  a  cer- 
tain plan  and  in  view  of  a  certain  end.  We  must 
conclude  that  tliey  have  a  cause  wliich  possesses  in 
itself  a  power  of  etliciency,  e.\emplarity,  and  finality, 
with  all  the  elements  which  such  a  power  requires: 
intelligence,  will,  personality,  etc.  This  way  of  rea- 
soning is  called  by  the  Schoolmen  "the  way  of 
causality"  (via  causalitatis).  (Cf.  Pseudo-Dion.,  De 
Div.  Nom.,  c.  i,  §  6,  in  P.  G.,  Ill,  595;  also,  St.  Thoma.s, 
Summa  Theol.,"!,  Q.  iii,  a.  3;  Q.  xiii,  a.  12.)  When 
we  reason  from  the  effects  to  the  First,  or  Ultimate, 
Cause,  we  eliminate  from  it  all  the  defects,  imperfec- 
tions, and  limitations  which  are  in  its  effects  just 
because  they  are  effects,  as  change,  limitation,  time, 
and  space.  This  way  of  reasoning  is  "the  way  of 
negation  or  reraotion"  (via  negalionis,  remotionis). 
(Cf.  Pseudo-Dion.,  ibid.;  also,  St.  Thomas,  Summa 
Theol.,  I,  QQ.  iii-xiii,  a.  1;  C.  Gent.,  lib.  I,  c.  xiv.) 
Finally,  it  is  easily  understood  that  the  perfections 
affirmed,  in  these  two  ways,  of  God,  as  First  and 
Perfect  Cause,  cannot  be  attributed  to  Him  in  the 
same  sense  that  they  have  in  finite  beings,  but  only 
in  an  absolutely  excellent  or  supereminent  way  (via 
eminentiw,  eicellentite).  (Cf.  Pseudo-Dion.,  Div. 
Nom.,  c.  i,  §  41,  in  P.  G.,  Ill,  516,  590;  c.  ii,  §§  3,  S, 
in  P.  G.,  Ill,  646,  689;  St.  Thomas,  ibid.) 

What  is  the  value  of  our  knowledge  of  God  ac- 
quired by  such  reasoning?  According  to  Agnos- 
ticisui  tliis  attribution  of  perfections  to  God  is  simply 
hiipossible,  since  we  know  them  only  as  essentially 
limited  and  imperfect,  necessarily  relative  to  a  cer- 
tain species  or  genus,  while  God  is  the  essentially 
Perfect,  the  infinitely  Absolute.  Therefore  all  that 
we  say  of  God  is  false  or  at  least  meaningless.  He 
is  the  Unknowable;  He  is  infinitely  above  aU  our 
conceptions  and  terms.  Agnosticism  admits  that 
these  conceptions  and  names  are  a  satisfaction  and 
help  to  the  imagination  in  thinking  of  the  Unthink- 
able; but  on  condition  that  we  remember  that  they 
are  purely  arbitrary;  that  they  are  practical  symbols 
with  no  objective  value.  According  to  Agnosticism, 
to  tliink  or  say  anytliing  of  God  is  necessarily  to  fall 
into  Anthropomorphism.  St.  Thomas  and  the 
Schoolmen  ignore  neither  Agnosticism  nor  Anthropo- 
morphism, but  declare  botli  of  them  false.  God  is 
not  absolutely  unknowable,  and  yet  it  is  true  that 
we  cannot  define  Hhn  adequately.  But  we  can  con- 
ceive and  name  Him  in  an  "analogical  way".  The 
perfections  manifested  by  creatures  are  in  God,  not 
merely  nominally  (equivoce)  but  really  and  positively, 
since  He  is  their  source.  Yet,  they  are  not  in  Him 
as  they  are  in  the  creature,  with  a  mere  difference  of 
degree,  nor  even  with  a  mere  specific  or  generic  differ- 
ence (univoce),  for  there  is  no  common  concept  in- 
cluding the  finite  and  the  Infinite.  They  are  really 
in  Ilim  in  a  supereminent  manner  (eminenter)  which 
is  wholly  incommensurable  with  their  mode  of  being 
in  creatures.  (Cf.  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  I, 
Q.  xiii,  a.  5,  6;  C.  Gent.,  lib.  I,  c.  x.xii-xxxv;  in 
I  Sent.  Dist.,  xiii,  Q.  i,  a.  1,  ad  4'"".)  We  can  con- 
ceive and  express  these  perfections  only  by  an 
analogy;  not  by  an  Jinalogy  of  proportion,  for  this 
analogy  rests  on  a  participation  in  a  common  con- 
cept, and,  as  already  said,  there  is  no  element  common 
to  the  finite  and  the  Infinite;  but  by  an  analogy  of 
proportionality.  These  perfections  are  really  in  God, 
and  they  are  in  Him  in  the  .same  relation  to  His 
mfinitc  es-sence  that  they  arc  in  creatures  in  relation 
to  their  finite  nature.  (Cf.  St.  Thomas,  Summa 
iheol.,  I,  Q.  IV,  a.  .3;  Q.  xiii,  a.  5;  Q.  ii,  De  verit., 
all,  in  Corp.  ad  ■>"";  ibid.,  xxiii,  a.  7,  ad  g"™.) 
We  must  allirm,  therefore,  that  all  perfections  are 


really  in  God,  infinitely.  This  infinitely  we  cannot 
define  or  express;  we  can  say  only  that  it  is  the 
absolutely  perfect  w'ay,  which  does  not  admit  any 
of  the  Umitations  wliich  are  found  in  creatures. 
Hence  our  conception  of  God,  though  very  positive 
in  its  objective  content,  is,  as  represented  in  our 
mind  and  expressed  in  our  words,  more  negative 
than  positive.  We  know  what  God  is  not,  rather 
than  what  He  is.  (Cf.  St.  Thomas,  Sunama  Theol., 
I,  Q.  iii,  the  whole  question;  Q.  xiii,  a.  2,  3, 
5,  12;  Q.  ii,  De  veritate,  a.  1,  ad  9»",  ad  10»"'.) 
Such  a  conception  is  evidently  neither  false  nor 
meaningless;  it  is  clearly  inadequate.  In  a  word, 
our  conception  of  God  is  a  human  conception  and 
it  cannot  De  other.  But  if  we  necessarily  represent 
God  in  a  human  way,  if  even  it  is  from  oiu-  human 
nature  that  we  take  most  of  the  properties  and  per- 
fections wliich  we  predicate  of  Him,  we  do  not  con- 
ceive Him  as  a  man,  not  even  as  a  perfected  man, 
since  we  eliminate  from  those  properties,  as  attributes 
of  God,  all  hniits  and  imperfections  wliich  in  man 
and  other  creatm-es  are  a  very  part  of  their  essence. 

IV.  Anaxogy  in  the  Knowledge  of  the  Mys- 
teries OF  F.UTH.  The  Fathers  of  the  Chuicli  always 
emphasized  the  inability  of  the  human  reason  to 
discover  or  even  to  represent  adequately  the  mys- 
teries of  faith,  and  insisted  on  the  necessity  of 
analogical  conceptions  in  their  representations  and 
expressions.  St.  Thomas,  after  the  Pseudo-Dionysius 
and  Albertus  Magnus,  has  given  the  theory  of 
analogy  so  applied  to  the  mysteries  of  faith.  (Cf. 
St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  I,  Q.  i,  a.  9;  Q.  xxii,  a.  1; 
In  Librum  Boethii  De  Trinitate  Expositio.)  The 
Vatican  Coimcil  set  forth  the  Catholic  doctrine  on 
the  point.  (Cf.  Const.,  Dei  Filius,  cap.  iv;  cf.  also 
Cone.  Coloniense,  1S60.)  (1)  Bejore  Revelation, 
analogy  is  unable  to  discover  the  mysteries,  since 
reason  can  know  of  God  only  what  is  manifesteil  of 
Him  and  is  in  necessary  causal  relation  with  Him  in 
created  tilings.  (2)  In  Revelation,  analogy  is  neces- 
sary, since  God  cannot  reveal  the  mysteries  to  men 
except  through  conceptions  intelhgible  to  the  human 
mind,  and  therefore  analogical.  (3)  After  Revelation, 
analog}'  is  useful  to  give  us  certain -knowledge  of  the 
mysteries,  either  by  comparison  with  natural  things 
and  truths,  or  by  consideration  of  the  mysteries  in 
relation  with  one  another  and  with  the  destiny  of 
man. 

PsEUDo-DioNTsros,  Opera  Omnia;  St.  Thomas,  Summa 
Theol.,  I,  QQ.  iii,  iv,  xiii;  Contra  Gent.,  lib.  I,  xxix;  II,  ii; 
QucFst.  disp.,  De  verit,  QQ.  ii.  xxiii;  De  potentid,  Q.  vii;  hi 
Boet.  De  Trinitate,  expositio;  De  Regnon,  Etudes  de  thiologie 
positive  8ur  la  S.  Trinity  (Paris,  1898);  Granderath,  Con- 
atitutiones  dogmatica'  S.  CEcumenici  Concitii  Vaticani  (Freiburg 
im  Br..  1892):  Hontheim,  I nstitutiones  Theodicece  (ibid., 
1893):  De  la  Barre,  La  vie  du  dogme  eatholique  (Paris,  1898); 
Chollet  in  Diet,  de  theol.  cath.  s.  v.:  Sertillanges,  Agnostic 
cisme  ou  anthropomorphisms  in  Rev.  de  philosophie,  1  Feb.,  and 
1  .\ug.,  1906;  Gardair,  L'Etre  Divin  in  Rev,  de  phil.,  July, 
1906. 

G.  M.  Sauvage. 

Analysis  (a.vi  =  "up"  or  "  back  ",  and  Xitiv,  "to 
loose")  means  a  separation;  it  is  the  taking  apart 
of  that  which  was  united,  and  corresponds  exactly 
to  the  Latin  form  "resolution"  (re -(-solvere).  Its 
opposite  is  synthesis  (avv,  "together",  and  TiBivai, 
"to  put",  hence,  a  "putting-together",  a  "composi- 
tion"). According  to  this  etymology,  analysis,  in 
general,  is  the  process  by  which  anything  complex  is 
resolved  into  simple,  or,  at  least,  into  less  complex 
parts  or  elements.  This  complex  may  be:  (1)  Con- 
crete, that  is,  an  individual  substance,  quality  or 
process,  in  eitlier  the  physical  or  the  mental  order; 
(2)  .\bstract  and  ideal;  incapable,  therefore,  of  exist- 
ing apart  from  the  mind  that  conceives  it. 

(1)  In  the  case  of  a  concrete  object,  we  must  dis- 
tinguish three  degrees  of  analvsis.  Sometimes  a 
real  separation  or  isolation  is  effected.  To  resolve 
a  chemical   compound    into  its  elements,  or  white 


AN  AN 


451 


ANAPHORA 


light  into  tlie  elementary  colours,  to  dissect  an  organ- 
ism, to  take  a  macliine  to  pieces,  is  to  proceed  analyt- 
ically. Hut  frequently  actual  isolation  is  iiniwssible. 
Tims  the  factors  of  a  movement  or  of  a  psychological 

Frocess  cannot  be  set  apart  and  studied  separately, 
f  tlie  process  occura  at  all,  it  must  l>c  a  complex  one. 
We  may,  however,  reach  an  analytical  result  by 
means  of  ditTerent  successive  syntheses,  i.  e.  by 
variations  in  the  grouping  of  the  elements  or  cir- 
cvunstances.  In  order  to  ;Lscertain  the  individual 
nature  of  any  determined  element,  factor,  or  cir- 
cmiLstance,  it  is  maintained  in  the  state  of  per- 
manency, while  the  accompanying  elements,  factors, 
or  circumstances  are  eliminated  or  changed;  or,  on 
the  contrary,  it  may  Ik;  eliminated  or  modified,  while 
the  others  remain  constant.  The  four  methods  of 
induction  belong  to  this  form  of  analysis.  It  is 
also  in  a  large  measure  the  method  of  jwychological 
experiment  and  of  introspective  analysis.  Finally, 
it  may  be  impossible  to  effect  any  real  dissociation 
of  a  concrete  tiling  or  event,  either  because  it  cannot 
bo  reached  or  controlled,  or  liecause  it  is  past.  Then 
mental  dis.sociatioii  and  aljstraction  are  used.  In  a 
complex  object  the  mind  considers  separately  some 
part  or  feature  which  cannot  in  reality  be  sejiarated. 
Analogy  and  comparison  of  such  cases  with  similar 
instances  in  which  dissociation  has  been  effected  are 
of  great  value,  and  the  results  already  ascertained 
are  applied  to  the  case  under  examination.  This 
occurs  freqviently  in  physical  and  jisychological 
sciences;  it  is  also  the  metliod  used  by  the  historian 
or  the  sociologist  in  the  study  of  events  and  in- 
stitutions.— (2)  When  the  complex  is  an  idea, 
analysis  consists  in  breaking  it  up  into  simpler  ideas. 
We  are  in  the  abstract  order  and  must  rcmam  therein; 
conse<|uently,  we  do  not  take  into  consideration  the 
extension  of  an  idea,  that  is,  its  range  of  applicability 
to  concrete  things,  but  its  intension,  or  connotation, 
that  is,  its  ideal  contents.  To  analyze  an  idea  is  to 
single  out  in  it  other  ideas  whose  ideal  complexity, 
or  whose  connotation  is  not  so  great.  The  siime  must 
be  said  of  analytical  reasonmg.  Tlie  truth  of  a 
proposition  or  of  a  complex  statement  is  analytically 
demonstrated  by  reverting  from  the  proposition 
itself  to  higher  principles,  from  the  complex  state- 
ment to  a  more  general  truth.  And  this  applies  not 
only  to  mathematics,  when  a  given  problem  is  solved 
by  showing  its  necessarj'  connection  with  a  proposi- 
tion already  demoiLstrated,  or  with  a  self-evident 
a.xiom,  but  also  to  all  the  .sciences  in  which  from  the 
facts,  the  effects,  and  the  conditioned  we  infer  the 
law,  the  cause,  and  the  condition.  Principle,  law, 
cause,  nature,  condition,  are  less  complex  than  con- 
clusion, fact,  effect,  action,  conditioned,  since  these 
are  concrete  applications  and  further  determinations 
of  the  former.  A  physical  law,  for  instance,  is  a 
simplified  expression  of  all  the  facts  which  it  governs. 
In  one  word,  therefore,  we  may  characterize  analysis 
as  a  process  of  resolution  and  regression;  synthesis, 
as  a  process  of  composition  and  progression. 

The  confusion  that  has  existed  and  still  exists  in 
the  definition  and  use  of  the  teniis  analysis  and 
synthesis  is  due  to  the  diverse  natures  of  the  com- 
plexes which  have  to  be  analyzed.  Moreover,  the 
same  object  may  be  analyzed  from  different  points 
of  view  and,  consequently,  with  various  results.  It 
is  especially  important  to  keep  in  mind  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  connotation  and  the  denota- 
tion of  an  idea.  As  the  two  vary  in  inverse  ratio, 
it  is  dear  that,  in  an  idea,  the  subtraction  of  certain 
connotative  elements  implies  an  increase  in  ex- 
tension. Hence  connotative  analysis  is  necessarily 
an  extensive  synthesis,  and  rice  rcrsd.  Thus,  if  my 
idea  of  a  child  is  that  of  "a  human  being  under  a 
certain  age",  by  connotative  analysis  I  may  omit 
the  last  determination  "under  a  certain  age";  what 
remains  is  less  complex  than  the  idea  "child",  but 
I.-29 


applies  to  a  greater  number  of  individuals,  namely: 
to  all  human  beings.  In  order  to  restrict  the  ex- 
tension to  fewer  individuals,  the  connotation  must 
be  increased,  that  is,  further  determinations  must  be 
added.  In  the  same  manner,  a  fact,  when  reduced 
to  a  law,  either  in  the  physical,  the  mental,  or  tin- 
historical  order,  is  reduced  to  something  which  luc- 
a  greater  extension,  since  it  is  assumed  to  rule  all 
the  facts  of  the  same  nature,  but  the  law  is  less  com- 
plex in  connotation,  since  it  does  not  share  the  in- 
dividual characters  of  the  concrete  events. 

The  necessity  of  analysis  comes  from  the  fact  that 
knowledge  begins  with  the  perception  of  the  con- 
crete j'.nd  the  individual,  aim  that  whatever  is  con- 
crete is  complex.  Hence  the  mind,  unable  to  dis- 
tinctly grasp  the  whole  reality  at  once,  must  divide 
it,  and  .study  the  parts  separately.  Moreover  the 
innate  tendency  of  the  mind  towards  unification  and 
classification  leatls  it  to  neglect  certain  aspects,  ^o 
as  to  reach  more  general  truths  and  laws  whose 
range  of  application  is  larger.  The  relative  useful- 
ness of  analysis  and  sjmthesis  in  the  various  sciemcs 
tiepends  on  the  nature  of  the  problems  to  be  solved, 
on  the  knowledge  already  at  hand,  on  the  mind's 
attitude,  and  on  the  stage  of  development  of  the 
science.  Induction  is 'primarily  analytic;  deduction, 
primarily  synthetic.  In  proportion  as  a  natural 
science  becomes  more  systematic,  i.  e.  when  more 
general  laws  are  forniulated,  the  synthetic  process 
is  more  freely  used.  Previous  analysis  then  enables 
one  to  "compose",  or  deduce  future  experience. 
Where,  on  the  contrary,  the  law  has  to  be  dis- 
covered, observation  and  analysis  are  dominant,  al- 
though, even  then,  synthesis  is  indispensable  for 
the  verification  of  hypotheses.  Some  sciences, 
such  as  Euclidean  geometry,  proceed  syntheti- 
cally, from  simple  notions  and  a.xioms  to  more 
complex  truths.  Analysis  has  the  advantage  of 
adhering  more  strictly  to  the  point  under  investiga- 
tion; synthesis  is  in  danger  of  going  astray,  since 
from  the  same  principle  many  different  conclusions 
may  be  drawn,  and  a  multitude  of  real  or  possible 
events  are  governed  by  the  same  law.  For  this  same 
reason,  however,  sjTithesis,  in  certain  sciences  at 
least,  is  likely  to  prove  more  fruitful  than  analysis. 
It  also  has  the  advantage  of  starting  from  that  wliicli 
has  a  natural  priority,  for  the  conditioned  prcsu|>- 
pises  the  condition.  When  the  result  is  already 
known,  and  the  relation  between  a  principle  and 
some  one  conclusion  thus  iuscertained,  synthesis  is 
a  great  help  in  teaching  others.  In  synthesis  the 
strictness  of  logical  reasoning  is  required.  Accura<  y 
and  exactness  in  the  olwervation  of  phenomena, 
attention  to  all  their  details,  the  power  of  mental 
abstraction  and  generalization  are  qualities  indis- 
pensable in   the  analj'tic  process. 

The  literature  of  uiialyniH  include.'*  all  works  on  lofcic  and 
on  the  methods  of  the  sciences*.  We  give  only  (tome  few 
references.  Dugai.d  Stewart,  Phitottophy  of  'the  Human 
Mind,  V.  II,  iv.  §  .3;  Wundt,  l^iaik  (2d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1895). 
II,  i;  DrilA.MKI.,  Dfli  m/ihodra  dans  leg  acienccti  de  raisunncmtnt 
(Paris.  lH6S-73>;  Bai.v.  Umir.  V.  11,  Indiiftion  (2d  cd..  Lon- 
don, 1873);  UonF.RTSON.  art.  Amili/tia  in  Encyclopardia  llrilan- 
nica,  9th  wl. — On  psychological  analvsi.s,  see.  among  others, 
KoYCE,  Oullinci  of  I'suchology,  iv.  5}  40-47  (New  York,  lUo:i). 
C.  A.  DUBR.\Y. 

Anan.     See  C.vr.mtes. 

Anaphora  (dr.,  ava<popi,  offering,  sacrifice),  a 
liturgical  tcmi  in  the  (ireek  Kite.  It  is  variou.sly 
used  in  the  liturgies  of  the  Greek  Orient  to  signify 
that  part  of  the  service  which  corresponils  sub- 
stantially to  the  Latin  Canon  of  the  Mass.  It 
also  signifies  the  offering  of  Kucharistic  bread;  the 
large  veil  (.see  .\f.h)  that  covers  the  same,  and  the 
procession  in  which  the  offering  is  brought  to  the 
altar  (Mrightman). — 1.  In  the  Greek  Kite  the  .\iia- 
plioras  are  numerous,  while  in  the  Koman  Kite  the 
Canon  of  the  Mass  is  from  time  immemorial  uuitC 


ANARCHY 


452 


ANARCHY 


invariable.  The  Greek  Anaphora  is  substantially  of 
apostolic  origin,  though  in  its  present  form  it  dates 
from  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century  when  St.  Basil  the  Great  and  St.  John 
Chrysostom  (respectively)  shortened  the  liturgy  that 
until  tlien  was  \'ery  long  and  fatiguing.  The  terra  is 
of  much  importance,  given  its  antiquity,  for  the 
demonstration  of  the  sacrificial  character  of  the  Holy 
Mass  (see  Cabrol,  1911-13;  Probst,  240,  325).— 
2.  In  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church  the  Offertory  is  a 
more  deliberate  and  impressive  ceremony  than  in  the 
Roman  Rite.  Tlie  priest  accompanied  by  the  deacon 
and  the  acolytes  and  censer-bearers,  goes  to  the 
prothesis  (a  small  side  altar  where  the  proskomide  is 
performed)  and  they  solemnly  bring  the  blessed 
bread  and  wine  tlirough  the  small  diaconal  door  of  the 
iconostasis  and  proceed  to  the  centre  of  tlie  church 
or  at  least  directly  in  front  of  the  royal  doors,  wliere, 
turning  to  the  people  and  holding  the  sacred  gifts  in 
their  hands  they  pray  successively  for  the  eccle- 
siastical and  secular  authorities.  In  the  Greek 
Orthodo.x  Church  prayers  are  said  for  the  emperor 
or  king,  the  Holy  Synod,  and  the  various  church 
dignitaries.  In  the  Greek  Catholic  Church  these 
prayers  are  said  for  tlie  Pope,  the  Archbishop, 
JEmperor,  King,  etc.,  using  the  same  words.  Tlie 
priest  and  deacon  then  proceed  solemnly  to  the 
altar  bearing  the  Sacred  Elements  through  the  royal 
doors.  This  part  of  the  Greek  Mass  is  called  tlie 
Great  Entrance.  After  the  paten  and  chalice  have 
been  placed  on  the  altar  the  priest  completes  tlie 
Offertory  with  this  prayer:  "Receive  also  tne  prayer 
of  us  sinners  and  cause  it  to  approach  Thy  Holy 
Altar,  and  strengthen  us  to  present  gifts  and  spiritual 
sacrifices  unto  Thee  for  our  sins  and  the  ignorances 
of  the  people,  and  count  us  worthy  to  find  grace 
before  Thee;  that  our  sacrifice  may  be  acceptable 
unto  Thee;  and  that  the  spirit  of  Thy  grace  may  rest 
upon  us  and  upon  these  gifts  presented,  and  upon 
all  Thy  people".  (See  Consecration;  Mass;  Prep- 
ace;  Greek  Rite.) 

Many  of  the  Oriental  Anaphoras  may  be  read  in  Renatjdot, 
Liturgiarum  Orientalium  CoUectio  (Frankfort  ed.,  1847);  Goar, 
Euchoiogium,  sive  Rituale  Grn-carum  (2d  ed.,  Venice,  1730); 
J.  A.  AssEMAMi,  Codez  Liturgicus  (Rome,  1754).  Cf.  also 
Lebrun,  Explication  liUerale,  etc,,  de  la  Messe  (hihge,  1781); 
Neale,  a  HUtory  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church  (London,  1850), 
I.  461;  Brightman,  Liturgies,  Eastern  and  Western  (Oxford, 
1906),  passim:  Probst,  Liturgie  der  drei  ersten  christl.  Jahrhun- 
derte  (Tubingen,  1870);  Renz.  Gesch.  des  Mess-Opferbegriffs 
(Freising,  IBOl).  I,  311-524;  Diet,  d'arch.  chrft..  I,  1898-1919; 
Parrino,    La    Messa  Greca,    (Palermo,    1904)35. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Anarchy. — (d privative,  and  ipxv,  rule);  anarchy 
means  an  absence  of  law.  Sociologically  it  is  tlie 
modern  theory  which  proposes  to  do  away  with  all 
existing  forms  of  government  and  to  organize  a 
society  which  will  exercise  all  its  functions  without 
any  controlling  or  directive  authority.  It  assumes 
as  its  basis  that  every  man  has  a  natural  riglit  to 
develop  all  his  powers,  satisfy  all  liis  passions,  and 
respond  to  all  liis  instincts.  It  insists  that  the  in- 
dividual is  the  best  judge  of  liis  own  capacity;  tliat 
personal  interest,  well  understood,  tends  to  improve 
general  conditions;  that  each  one  recognizes  tlie  ad- 
vantage of  justice  in  economic  relations;  and  that 
mankind,  in  tlie  man,  is  right  in  what  it  does.  As 
a  human  being  is  a  free,  intelligent  agent,  any  re- 
straint from  without  is  an  invasion  of  his  rights  and 
must  be  set  down  as  tyranny.  Proudhon  (1809-6.')), 
whose  writings  are  diffuse,  obscure,  and  paradoxical, 
IS  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  system;  but  Diderot 
IS  claimed  by  some,  and  also  the  association  of  the 
Enrages,  or  II iherlUtci  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Accordmg  to  Proudhon,  "anarchy  is  order"  and, 
borrowing  from  J.  J.  Rousseau,  ''^man  is  naturally 
pood,  and  only  institutions  are  bad".  Also  accord- 
ing to  him,  "all  property  is  theft".  As  crime  is 
mostly  committed  against  property,  abolishing  one 


is  preventing  the  other.  Criminals  are  not  to  be 
punished,  but  treated  as  lunatics,  or  sick  men. 
There  are  to  be  no  rulers  in  Church  or  State;  no 
masters,  no  employers.  Religion  is  to  be  eliminated, 
because  it  introduces  God  as  tlie  basis  of  authority, 
and  degrades  man  by  inculcating  meekness  and  sub- 
mission, thus  making  him  a  slave  and  robbing  him 
of  his  natural  dignity.  Free  love  is  to  take  the  place 
of  marriage,  and  family  hfe,  with  its  restraints,  is  to 
cease. 

To  the  objection  that  men  cannot  live  together 
without  society,  both  because  of  the  implied  contra- 
diction in  such  a  claim,  and  because  of  the  social 
instinct  in  man,  the  answer  is;  We  do  not  destroy 
society,  but  exclude  authority  from  it.  ."Vnarchy 
supposes  an  association  of  individual  sovereigns  act- 
ing independently  of  any  central  or  coercive  power. 
It  aims  at  a  society  in  which  all  the  members  are 
federated  in  free  groups  or  corporations  according 
to  the  professions,  arts,  trades,  business,  etc.,  wliich 
happen  to  suit  the  fancy  of  each,  so  that  not  only 
will  all  be  co-proprietors  of  everything — land,  mines, 
machines,  instruments  of  labour,  means  of  produc- 
tion, exchange,  etc. — but  everyone  will  thus  be  able 
to  follow  liis  own  individual  bent.  Moreover,  as  all 
are  united  in  a  harmony  of  interests,  all  will  labour 
in  unison  to  increase  the  general  welfare,  just  as  is 
done  in  business  corporations,  in  which  union  is 
based  on  mutual  advantage,  and  is  free  from  all 
pressure  from  without. 

As  to  the  means  to  be  employed  to  bring  about 
this  ideal  condition,  opinion  is  divided,  some  holding 
for  the  evolutionary,  some  for  the  revolutionary 
method;  the  former  proposing  to  realize  their  Utopia 
by  the  means  now  at  tlieir  disposal,  chiefly  universal 
suffrage;  wliile  the  latter  are  determined  to  effect 
it  at  once  by  violent  metliods.  In  tliis  respect  tlie 
first  class  shades  off  into  collective  socialism,  the 
second  remaining  pure  anarchists.  Both,  however, 
differ  from  socialism  on  one  very  important  point. 
For  while  agreeing  with  anarchists  in  the  desirability 
of  abohsliing  all  existing  institutions,  sociahsm  aims 
at  what  it  calls  "socialized  society".  It  postulates 
a  central  power  wliich  will  assign  occupations,  dis- 
tribute awards,  and  supervise  and  direct  the  collective 
interests.  It  absorbs  the  indi\'idual  in  favour  of  the 
State;  anarchy  does  the  very  opposite.  Generally 
speaking,  also,  socialism  reprobates  violent  methods 
and  seeks  its  end  by  gradual  evolution  from  present 
conditions.  Its  public  alienation  from  anarchical 
methods  is  evidenced  in  its  treatment  of  the  Russian 
Bakounin,  wlio  was  conspicuous  for  his  actiWty  in 
tlie  French  Revolution  of  1848,  and  who,  when 
handed  over  to  Russia,  escaped  from  Siberia  and 
fomented  the  Ru.ssian  disorders  of  1869,  chiefly 
through  his  agent  Netschaieff,  and  was  finally  asso- 
ciated with  Cluseret  and  Richard  in  the  atrocities 
of  the  French  Commune  of  1871.  In  1868  he  had 
established  the  International  Alliance  of  Social 
Democracy,  and  endeavoured  to  unite  it  wWh  tlie 
International  Association  of  Workingmen  founded 
by  the  socialist  Marx  in  1S64.  The  coalition  was  of 
short  duration.  A  violent  schism  began  at  the 
Congress  of  the  Hague,  in  1872,  and  then  the  party 
of  anarchy  may  be  said  to  have  begun  as  a  distinct 
organization.  Bakounin  subsequently  organized  tlie 
Fid&ation  Jurassietuie.  He  issued  a  paper  calleil  t  he 
Avant  Garde,  but  nothing  much  was  done  until  the 
founding  of  La  R(vollc  by  Elis6e  Reclus  and  Kropot- 
kin. 

The  principles  of  anarchy  were  again  repudiated 
in  the  Socialist  Congress  of  Paris  in  1<SS1  (from  wliich 
the  anarchists  were  expelled)  and  in  congresses  at 
Zurich,  in  1893,  and  at  Hamburg  and  London,  in 
1897.  It  was  in  the  sixth  Congress  of  the  Marxists, 
held  in  Geneva  in  1863,  that  the  distinctive  term 
of    Anarchist    was  applied  to  an  autonomous  seo 


ANASTASIA 


45.i 


ANASTASIA 


tion  of  that  Convention.  But  how  far  the  theories 
and  practice  of  eacli  run  into  those  of  the  other  is 
didicuh  to  determine.  For,  independently  of  oflicial 
proiioiiiuftiients  by  the  various  congresses,  the  lines 
of  domarcation  between  tlie  two  movements  are  not 
iinfrequuiitly  obscure.  Thus,  acconhng  to  some 
writers,  anardiists  may  be  cla.ssified  first  as  extreme 
Individuahsls;  those,  namely,  who  regard  the  in- 
tervention of  the  State  as  a  "nui.sance" — such  is 
the  tenn  employed — which  is  to  be  reduced  as  soon 
as  possible  to  a  minimum.  This  was  the  position 
of  Ilcrlicrt  Spencer  and  .Vuberon  Herbert,  who  would 
pr()l)al)ly  liave  re.sented  being  placed  in  the  category 
of  anarchists.  Spencer's  doctrine  about  the  mini- 
mizing of  govcrnmont  authority  was  borrowed  from 
(loo<lwin's  "rulitiial  Justice"  (1793).  A  second 
class  Miiglit  l)e  dcscribetl  as  Expectant.s;  those  who 
are  willing  to  admit  a  central  control  until  public 
opinion  is  sulhcicntly  educated  to  dispense  with  it. 
William  Morris  left  tlie  Social  Democrats  when  he 
found  himself  drifting  in  that  direction.  Finally 
there  are  the  Universal  Negatives,  or  Nihilists,  wlio 
believe  in  tlie  assassination  of  rulers  and  in  other  vio- 
lent manifestations  of  hatred  of  present  conditions. 
The  first  so-called  scientific  exposition  of  this  nihilistic 
anarcliism  -seems  to  have  been  made  by  the  eminent 
French  geographer  lClis(''e  Hcclus  antl  the  Ru.ssian 
Prince  Kropotkin,  who  built  it  into  a  definite  system, 
though  a  similar  claim  is  made  for  Hess,  wlio  in  1843 
publislicd  two  volumes  on  "  Philosophic  der  That 
uiid  Siizialismus".  Griin  and  Stern  also  formulated 
their  tlieories  about  the  .same  time.  The  publication 
of  the  lifvoltc  by  Heclus  and  Kropotkin  was  immedi- 
ately followcil  by  frightful  acts  committed  by 
avowed  anarchists,  both  in  Europe  and  .Vmerica, 
not  only  the  assassination  of  rulers — the  murder  of 
McKinley  is  an  instance — but  tlie  throwing  of  bombs 
in  legislative  halls,  the  wrecking  of  churches,  the 
killing  of  the  police,  as  in  Chicago,  etc.  This  was 
the  propaganda  by  acts  which  had  been  advocated 
by  Bakounin;  but  both  Reclus  and  Kropotkin  pro- 
tested that  their  conception  of  anarchy  did  not 
contemplate  such  excesses.  Whether  tiiey  .spoke 
the  truth  or  feared  public  execration  must  be  left  to 
each  one  to  juilge.  It  was  only  after  the  attempted 
a.ssa.s.sination  of  the  Emperor  William,  in  1878,  that 
the  Cierman  Socialists,  Bebel  and  Liebknechf,  de- 
cbired  against  anarchy.  In  France,  at  the  present 
time,  the  party  that  has  not  only  suppressed  the 
Church,  but  is  clamouring  for  the  suppression  of  the 
army  and  preaching  revolt  to  the  soldiers,  ridiculing 
the  idea  of  patriotism  and  demanding  the  aboHtion 
of  national  frontiers,  are  anarcliists.  but  at  the  same 
time  they  .seem  to  affiliate  with  the  Socialist  party 
now  in  control  of  the  Government.  Whether  it  is 
sympathy  or  a  design  to  let  anarchy  do  the  work 
of  destruction  on  which  .socialism  is  to  build  up  its 
future  State,  is  not  a  subject  of  controversy,  at  least 
among  con.servative  Frenchmen.  It  is  m  France 
tliat  anarchy  at  the  present  time  is  showing  its  hand, 
and  exercising  the  greatest  power,  though  it  is  not 
known  by  its  distinctive  name.  But  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  where  socialism  professes  atheism  it  is 
already  anarchy. 

Thus  far  the  anarchists  seem  to  have  no  central 
organization;  but  they  publish  14  papers  in  French, 
though  not  all  of  them  are  printed  in  France;  2  in 
English,  one  in  London,  and  the  other  in  New  York; 
3  in  (ierman;  10  in  Italian;  4  in  Spanish;  1  in  Hebrew; 
2  in  Portuguese  and  Bohemian;  1  in  Dutch.  As  there 
is  no  compact  organization,  and  as  their  principles 
are  often  admitted  by  those  who  arc  not  avowed 
anarchists,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  form  an  exact 
idea  of  their  actual  numbers. 

The  root  of  all  this  evil  is  the  apostasy  from 
Christianity,  so  marked  in  some  countries,  and  the 
acceptance,   or  influence,   of  atheism.     Once  given 


that  there  is  no  God,  it  immediately  becomes  unjust 
and  impossible  for  anyone  to  e.xact  obedience  and 
submission  from  anyone  else.  If  there  is  no  (iod, 
tliere  can  be  no  master.  The  anarchist  conclusion 
is  logical.  Likewi.se,  all  the  commandments  of  God 
are  necessarily  abrogated,  and  the  claim  that  a  man 
has  a  ripht  to  satisfy  all  his  propensities  and  pa.ssions 
stands  ju.stified.  There  can  be  no  family,  no  Slate, 
no  Church,  no  .society  of  any  kind.  The  individual  is 
to  bo  tlie  centre  and  determining  power  of  everything, 
anil  it  is  their  cult  of  the  individual,  originating  in  the 
egoism  of  the  philosophy  of  Hegel,  and  perhaps 
culminating  in  Nietzsche,  with  his  atrocious  "  super- 
man ",  which  has  been  the  means  of  accelerating  the 
spread  of  anarchical  tloctrines.  The  distorted  con- 
ceptions of  liberty  of  thought,  liberty  of  the  press, 
liberty  of  .speech,  liberty  of  conscience,  which  are 
claimed  as  rights,  and  are  regarded  as  e.s.sential  in 
modern  civilization,  no  matter  to  what  extravagance 
they  may  be  carried — even  to  the  propagation  of  the 
most  re\'olutionary  anil  immoral  (loctrines — have 
magnified  the  imirortance  and  sacredness  of  the 
individual  until  he  has  become  a  law  unto  him.self 
in  ethics  and  religion,  and  is  practically  persuaded 
of  his  absolute  independence  of  his  Creator  in  his 
conduct  of  life.  In  much  of  the  literature  of  the 
day  there  exists  almost  an  iilolatry  of  human  power, 
no  matter  with  how  much  crime  it  is  associated. 
Again,  the  methoil  of  education  in  some  countries, 
which  absolutely  debars  even  the  mention  of  the 
name  of  God  from  the  schools,  and  which  admits  no 
reUgious  instruction,  or  only  an  ethical  code  without 
sanction  or  authority,  could  not  fail  to  develop 
a  generation  of  anarchists.  Their  fathers  have  some 
memories  of  religion  and  a  sense  of  obligation  cling- 
ing to  them;  the  rising  generation  will  have  none. 
Finally,  the  excessive  accumulation  of  wealth  in  the 
hands  of  a  few  by  sujjposedly  ilishonest  methods, 
and  its  alleged  use  in  corrupting  legislatures  to 
perpetuate  abuses,  furnish  material  for  unprincipled 
demagogues  to  arouse  the  worst  passions  of  tlie 
multitude.  Moreover,  e\en  if  the  condition  of  the 
jKior  is  not  as  bad  as  formerly,  the  contrast  with  the 
luxury  of  the  rich  is  sufficient  to  excite  cupidity  and 
anger,  while  tlie  absence  of  religious  motives  makes 
poverty  and  suffering  not  only  insupportable,  but, 
m  the  eyes  of  the  victim.s,  unnecessary  and  unjust. 
The  theory  of  anarchy  is  against  all  reason. 
Apart  from  tlie  fact  that  it  runs  coimter  to  some  of 
the  most  cherished  instincts  of  humanity,  as,  for 
instance,  family  life  and  love  of  country,  it  is  evident 
that  society  without  authority  coiJd  not  stand  for 
a  moment.  Men  whose  only  purpose  would  be  to 
satisfy  all  their  inclinations  are  by  the  verj-  fact  on 
the  level  of  the  animal  creation.  The  methods  they 
already  employ  in  the  pro.secution  of  their  designs 
show  now  the  animal  instincts  ouickly  assert  them- 
selves. The  only  remedy  of  tiic  disorder  is  e\i- 
dently  a  return  to  right  reason  and  the  practice  of 
religion;  and,  as  a  protection  for  the  future,  the 
inculcation  of  Christian  morality  in  the  education 
of  youth. 

Hakolnin.  Dieu  rl  Vltat  (Paris,  1895);  Pbocdhon,  (Eurrti 
(Paris.  l.SoU;  Hf.rzkn,  De  I  autre  rite;  Tchemchkwsky. 
L'fconomie  politique  jimi-e  liar  la  science;  ELIsfen  Heclu.s, 
Evolution  el  Revolution  (IVri.s,  1891);  Spkncer,  The  Individual 
V8.  the  .S^I//■,•  Kmile  Gautikk,  Propos  anarchislea;  Ileures  de 
travail;  Kkopotkin,  Aui  jeunes  gcna;  Parole  d'un  ri-volte; 
Tucker,  hutaul  <>/  a  Book  (New  York,  1893);  Ely,  The  /xifcor 
Movcmml  in  America  (Ixjnilon.  1890);  Kerki'P.  .1  Uialury  of 
Socitiliani  (London,  1S02);  Revua  dea  Dcur  Mondea  (Nov.  15, 
18B3). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 
Anastasia,  Saint,  Chttrch  op.  See  Rome. 
Anastasia,  .Smxt,  mautvu. — This  saint  enjoys  the 
distinction,  uni(]ue  in  the  Roman  liturg}',  of  having 
a  special  commemoration  in  the  second  .\lass  on 
ChristnuLs  tlay.  This  .Mass  was  originally  celebrated 
not  in  honour  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  but  m  cominenv 


ANASTASIOPOLIS 


454 


ANASTASIUS 


oration  of  this  martyr,  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century  her  name  was  also  inserted  in  the  Ro- 
man canon  of  tlie  Mass.  Nevertlieless,  she  is  not 
a  Roman  saint,  for  slie  suffered  martyrdom  at  Sir- 
inivmi,  and  was  not  venerated  at  Rome  until  almost 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  It  is  true  that  a  later 
legend,  not  earlier  than  the  si.xth  centurj-,  makes 
.■\nastasia  a  Roman,  though  even  in  this  legend  she 
did  not  suffer  martyrdom  at  Rome.  The  same 
legend  connects  her  name  with  that  of  St.  Chrj-sog- 
oaus,  likewise  not  a  Roman  martjT,  but  put  to 
death  in  Aquileia,  though  he  had  a  church  in  Rome 
dedicated  to  his  honour.  According  to  this  "Passio  ", 
Anastasia  was  the  daughter  of  Pra>textatus,  a 
Roman  rir  illustris,  and  had  Chrysogonus  for  a 
teacher.  Early  in  tlie  persecution  of  Diocletian  the 
Emperor  summoned  Chrysogonus  to  Aquileia  where 
he  suffered  martyrdom.  Anastasia,  haying  gone  from 
Aquileia  to  Sirmium  to  visit  the  faithful  of  that 
place,  was  beheaded  on  the  island  of  Palmaria,  25 
December,  and  her  body  interred  in  the  house  of 
Apollonia,  which  had  been  con\-erted  into  a  basilica. 
The  whole  account  is  purely  legendary,  and  rests  on 
no  historical  foundations.  All  that  is  certain  is  that 
a  martyr  named  Anastasia  gave  her  life  for  the 
faith  in  Sirmium,  and  that  her  memory  was  kept 
sacred  in  that  church.  The  so-called  "Martyrolo- 
gium  HieromTuianum "  (ed.  De  Rossi  and  Duchesne, 
Acta  SS.,  2  November)  records  her  name  on  25  De- 
cember, not  for  Sirmium  alone,  but  also  for  Con- 
stantinople, a  circumstance  based  on  a  sejiarate 
storj'.  According  to  Theodorus  Lector  (Hist.  Eccles., 
II,  65),  during  the  patriarchate  of  Gennadius  (458- 
471)  the  Ijody  of  the  martyr  was  transferred  to  Con- 
stantinople and  interred  in  a  church  which  had 
hitherto  been  known  as  "Anastasis"  (Or.  'Kvi.aTa.ai.%, 
Resurrection);  thenceforth  the  church  took  the  name 
of  .\nastasia.  Similarly  the  cultus  of  St.  Anastasia 
was  introduced  into  Rome  from  Sirmium  by  means 
of  an  already  existing  church.  As  this  church  was 
already  quite  famous,  it  brought  the  feast  of  the 
saint  into  especial  prominence.  There  existed  in 
Rome  from  the  fourtli  century,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Palatine  and  above  tlie  Circus  Maximus,  a  church 
which  had  been  adorned  by  Pope  Damasus  (366- 
384)  with  a  large  mosaic.  It  was  known  as  "titulus 
Anastasiie",  and  is  mentioned  as  such  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Roman  Council  of  499.  There  is  some  un- 
certainty as  to  the  origin  of  this  name;  either  the 
church  owes  its  foundation  to  and  was  named  after 
a  Roman  matron  Anastasia,  as  in  the  case  of  several 
other  titular  churches  of  Rome  (Duchesne),  or  it 
was  originally  an  "Anastasis"  church  (dedicated  to 
the  Resurrection  of  Christ),  such  as  existed  already 
at  Ravenna  and  Constantinople;  from  the  word 
".\nastasis"  came  eventually  the  name  "titulus 
Anastasia;"  (Grisar).  Whatever  way  this  happened, 
the  church  was  an  especially  prominent  one  from 
the  fourth  to  the  sixth  century,  being  the  only  titu- 
lar church  in  the  centre  of  ancient  Rome  (see  Rome, 
E.\HLY  CuniSTi.^N),  and  surrounded  by  the  monu- 
ments of  the  city's  pagan  past.  Within  its  jurisdic- 
tion was  the  Palatine  where  the  imperial  court  was 
located.  Since  the  veneration  of  the  Sirmian  martyr, 
Anastasia,  received  a  new  impetus  in  Constantinoijle 
during  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century,  we  may 
easily  infer  that  the  intimate  contemporary  relations 
between  Old  and  New  Rome  brouglit  about  an  in- 
creiuse  of  devotion  to  St.  Anastasia  at  the  foot  of 
the  Palatine.  At  all  events  the  insertion  of  her 
name  into  the  Roman  Canon  of  the  .M:i.ss  towards 
the  end  of  the  fifth  centurj-,  and  the  celebration  of 
the  second  .Miiss  on  Chrisimas  day  in  her  honour 
during  the  sixth  century,  show  that  .she  then  occupied 
a  unique  position  among  tlie  .saints  publicly  vener- 
ated at  Rome.  Thenceforth  the  church  on  the  Pala- 
tine is  known  as  "titulus  sancta;  Anastasia-",  and 


the  martyr  of  Sirmium  became  the  titular  saint  ot 
the  old  fourth-century  basilica.  Evidently  because 
of  its  position  as  titular  church  of  the  district  in- 
cluding the  imperial  dwellings  on  the  Palatine  this 
church  long  maintained  an  eminent  rank  among  the 
churches  of  Rome;  only  two  churches  j)receded  it 
in  honour:  St.  John  Lateran,  the  mother-church  of 
Rome,  and  St.  Mary  Major.  This  ancient  sanctuary 
stands  to-day  quite  isolated  amid  the  ruins  of  Rome. 
The  commemoration  of  St.  Anastasia  in  the  second 
JIass  on  Christmas  day  is  the  last  remnant  of  the 
former  prominence  enjoyed  by  this  saint  and  her 
church  in  the  life  of  Christian  Rome. 

DuFouRCQ,  Etude  sur  les  Gesta  Martyrum  Tomains,  121  sqq., 
137  sqq.  (Paris,  1900);  Acta  SS.,  Oct..  XII,  513  sqq.;  Ddchesne, 
Sainte  Anaatasie;  Notes  sur  la  topographic  de  Rome  au  moyen- 
dge,  N.  Ill,  in  Melanges  d'archeol.  et  d'hist.,  V*II,  3S9  sqq. 
U8S7);  Grisar,  5.  Anastasia  di  Roma,  in  Analecta  Romano, 
I,  595  sqq.;  Butler,  Lives,  25  Dec. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Anastasiopolis,  name  of  four  ancient  episcopal 
.sees  located  respectively  in  Galatia  (suffragan  of 
Ancyra),  in  Phrygia  (suffragan  of  Laodicea),  in  Caria, 
and  in  Thrace  (Gams,  441,  446,  448). 

Mas  Latrie,  Tresor  de  chronol.  (Paris,  ISg^i),  1985;  Le- 
qniE.N,  Oriens  Christ.   (1740).  I,  4S.5-486,  824-825,  913-914. 

Anastasis.     See  Resurrection. 

Anastasius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  a.  d.  559, 
distinguished  for  his  learning  and  austerity  of  life, 
excited  the  enmity  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  by 
opposing  certain  imperial  doctrines  about  the  Body 
01  Christ.  He  was  to  be  deposed  from  his  see 
and  exiled,  when  Justinian  died;  but  Justin  II  car- 
ried out  his  uncle's  purpose  five  years  later,  and 
another  bishop,  named  Gregory,  was  put  in  his  place; 
on  the  death  of  that  prelate,  in  593,  Anastasius 
was  restored  to  his  see.  This  was  chiefly  due  to 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  who  interceded  v\\\h  the 
Emperor  iMaurice  and  his  .son  Theodosius,  asking  that 
Anastasius  be  sent  to  Rome,  if  not  reinstated  at 
Antioch.  From  some  letters  sent  to  him  by  (!regorj% 
it  is  thought  that  he  was  not  sufficiently  vigoious 
in  denouncing  the  claims  of  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople to  be  universal  bi.shop.  He  died  in  598, 
and  another  bishop  of  the  same  name  is  said  to  have 
succeeded  him  in  599,  to  whom  the  translation  of 
Gregory's  "Regula  Pastoralis"  is  attributed,  and 
who  is  recorded  as  having  been  put  to  death  in  an 
insurrection  of  the  Jews.  Nicephorus  (Hist.  Eccl., 
XVIII,  xliv)  declares  that  these  two  are  one  and  the 
same  person.  The  same  difficulty  occurs  with  re- 
gard to  certain  Sermons  de  orthodoxd  fide,  some  as- 
scribing  them  to  the  latter  Anastasius;  others  claim- 
ing that  there  was  but  one  bishop  of  that  name. 

Acta  SS..  21  April;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  21  April; 
MicHACD,  Biog.  Univ.;  Venables  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog. 

T.  J.  C.\MPBELL. 

Anastasius  I,  S.unt,  pope,  a  pontiff  who  is  re- 
membered cliiefly  for  his  condemnation  of  Origcn- 
ism.  A  Roman  by  birth,  he  became  pope  in  399. 
and  died  within  a  little  less  than  four  years.  .Among 
his  friends  were  .\ugustine,  and  Jerome,  and  Paulinus. 
Jerome  speaks  of  h.iin  as  a  man  of  great  holiness  who 
was  rich  in  his  poverty.  It  was  during  the  time  of 
the  barbarian  invasions. 

Acta  SS.,  Ill,  September;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints, 
27  September. 

T.  J.  C.\1IPBELL. 

Anastasius  II,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  elected 
24  Nov.,  496;  d.  16  Nov..  498.  His  congratulatory 
letter  to  Clovis,  on  the  occasion  of  the  hitter's  con- 
version, is  now  deemeil  a  forgery  of  the  seventeenth 
century  (J.  Kavet.  Uibl.  de  l'6c.  des  Chartres,  1SS5. 
XLVI.  258-59).  He  insisted  on  the  removal  from 
the  diptychs  of  the  name  of  .Vcacius.  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  but  recognized  the  validity  of  liis 
sacramental  acts,  an  attituile  that  displeased  the  Ro- 
mans.    He  also  condcnmed  Traducianism. 


ANASTASIUS 


455 


ANATHEMA 


P.  L..  CXXVIII.  439-450;  Lib.  Pont.  (e<i.  Duchesne),  I,  258; 
tlKMMCR  in  Dill,  de  Thtol.  Calh..  I.  1103-04;  Thiel,  Epitl. 
Rum.  Punt.  (1808),  II.  82-85,  014-15. 

Anastasius  III,  Pope,  the  one  hundred  and 
twpnty-tliird  occupant  of  the  Holy  See,  elected 
.September,  911;  d.  November,  913.  He  was  a 
lioriiaii,  being  the  son  of  a  certain  Lucian.  Hi.s 
reipii  wxs  marked  with  iiioiloration,  but  beyond  tills 
hi.storj'  gives  no  <iotails  of  his  life,  except  that  he 
was  active  in  dotenniniiiK  tlic  ecclesiastical  divisions 
of  (lermany.  He  succeeded  Scrgiiis  III  (904-911), 
and  reigned,  at  most,  about  two  years  and  two 
months. 

/'.  I...  CXXXI.  1181;  jAKi-fc,  Regeata  Pont.  Rom.  I,  448; 
II,  "Oil;  HoKFKii,  Biour.  unit'.,  1,  477. 

Anastasius  IV,  Pope,  crowned  12  July,  1153; 
(1.  in  Rome,  3  December  of  the  following  year.  It 
was  during  his  pontificate  and  owing  to  his  exertions 
that  the  Pantheon  was  restored,  lie  also  granted 
special  privileges  to  the  Order  of  the  Hospitallers  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  He  is  diiefly  known  for  liis 
attitude  towards  Frederick  IJarbarossa  and  recogni- 
tion of  Wichmann  !»s  Bishop  of  Magdeburg  by  which 
he  terminated  an  ecdesiiistieal  quarrel.  His  extant 
works  consist  of  some  letters  and  a  treatise  on  the 
Trinity. 

/'.  C  CI.XXXVIII.  985;  Jakkk.  RR.PP..  II,  89-102;  719- 
201.  7.59;  Wattericb,  Pont.  Rom.  Vita  (1802),  II,  321,  322. 

Anastasius,  S.unt,  once  a  magician,  became  a 
eonxert  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  Wiis  martyred  in  028. 
He  was  a  soldier  in  the  army  of  Chosroes  when  that 
monarch  carried  the  Cross  from  Jerusalem  to  Persia. 
The  occasion  prompted  him  to  a.sk  for  information; 
then  he  left  the  army,  became  a  Christian,  and  after- 
w arils  a  monk  in  Jerusalem.  His  Persian  name,Mag- 
undat,he  clianged  to  Anastasius.  After  seven  years 
of  the  most  exact  monastic  oteervance,  ho  was  moved, 
as  he  thought,  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  go  in  que-st  of 
martyrdom  and  went  to  Ca>sarca,  then  subject  to 
the  Persians.  Reproaching  his  countrymen  for 
their  magic  and  fireworship,  botli  of  which  he  had 
once  practised,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  cruelly  tor- 
tured to  make  him  abjure,  and  finally  carried  down 
near  the  Euphrates,  to  a  place  called  Rarsaloe,  or 
Bcthsaloe,  according  to  the  Bollandists,  where  his 
sufferings  were  renewed  wliile  at  the  same  time  the 
highest  lionours  in  the  service  of  King  Chosroes  were 
promised  him  if  he  would  renounce  Christianity. 
I'inally,  with  seventy  others,  he  was  strangled  to 
death  and  decapitated,  22  Januarj-,  628.  His  body, 
which  was  thrown  to  the  dogs,  but  was  left  untoudied 
by  them,  was  carried  thence  to  Palestine,  afterwards 
to  Constantinople,  and  finally  to  Rome. 

Acta  SS.,  3  Jan.;  Bctler,  Livet    of  the  Saintt,  22  Jan. 
T.  J.  Campbell. 

Anastasius  Apocrisiarius.     Sec  Maximus,  S.iint. 

Anastasius  of  Saint  Euthymius.  See  John 
Dam  vscknk.  Saint. 

Anastasius  Sinaita,  Saint,  a  Creek  ecclesiastical 
writer,  \t.  at  .\lexandria  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh 
cent\ir>';  d.  after  7(XJ.  He  was  ablx)t  of  the  monas- 
terj-  iif  Mt.  Sinai,  and  so  active  an  opponent  of  the 
Monophysites,  .Monothelites,  and  Jews  that  he  was 
known  as  "the  new  Moses".  His  principal  work  is 
the  "Hodegos"  ('OSiryis),  or  "Ciuidc",  written  in 
defence  of  the  Catholic  Faith  .igainst  the  attacks 
of  the  aforementioned  heretics.  It  was  a  popular 
manual  of  controversy  among  the  meflieval  Creeks. 
The  (1.5-4)  "Questions  and  Answers  on  Various  Theo- 
logical matters"  attributed  to  him  are  in  part 
spurious.  He  al.so  wrote  a  "Devout  Introduction 
to  the  Hexaemeron"  in  twelve  Ixioks,  the  first  eleven 
of  which  have  reached  us  only  in  a  Latin  tninslation. 
These  and  other  minor  writings  are  found  in  .Migne 
'P.G.    LXXXIX).     Le    Quien    attributed    to    him. 


without  sufficient  reason,  the  "Antiquorum  Patnim 
Doctrina  de  Verbi   Dei  Incarnatione ". 

Bardeniiewer,  Patrologie  (1902),  512,  482;  KumpfuCller, 
De  .inatlatio  tiinaM  (WUrzburg,  1805);  Krumuaciier,  Gttch. 
d.  h„z.  Lit.  (2.1  <-I.\  p.  04. 

Tho.m.\s  J.  Shahan. 

Anathema  (Cir.  dfd$efia,  or  ifiiri/jia,  literally  placed 
on  high,  suspendetl,  set  aside),  a  term  formerly  indicat- 
ing offerings  made  to  the  divinity  which  were  sus- 
pended from  tlie  roof  or  walls  of  temples  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  exposed  to  view.  Thus  anathema 
according  to  its  etymology  signifies  a  thing  offered  to 
God.  The  word  anathema  is  sometimes  used  in  this 
sen.se  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments:  In  Judith,  xvi, 
23,  it  is  saidtliat  Judith,  having  taken  all  tlie  arms 
of  Holofernes  which  the  people  had  given  him.  and 
the  curtain  of  his  bed  which  she  herself  had  Ijrought, 
offered  them  to  the  Lord  as  an  anathema  of  oblivion. 
In  II  .Mach.,  ix,  IG,  .\iiliochus  promises  to  adorn  with 
iirecious  gifts  (anathemata)  tlie  temple  he  has  pil- 
laged; and  in  Luke,  xxi,  5,  mention  is  made  of  the 
temple  built  of  precious  stones  and  adorned  with 
rich  gifts  (anathemata).  As  odious  objects  were  also 
exposed  to  view,  e.  g.  the  head  of  a  criminal  or  of 
an  enemy,  or  his  arms  or  s|X)ils,  the  word  anatliema 
came  to  signify  a  thing  hated,  or  execrable,  devoted 
to  public  abhorrence  or  destruction.  "To  under- 
stand the  word  anathema",  says  Vigouroux,  "we 
should  first  go  back  to  the  real  meaning  of  htrcm 
of  which  it  is  the  equivalent.  Ilcrem  conies  from 
the  word  haram,  to  cut  off,  to  separate,  to  curse, 
and  indicates  that  which  is  cursed  and  condemned 
to  be  cut  off  or  exterminated,  whether  a  person  or 
a  thing,  and  in  consequence,  that  which  man  is  for- 
bidden to  make  u.se  of."  This  is  the  sense  of  anath- 
ema in  the  following  pas.sage  from  Deut.,  vii,  26: 
"Neither  shall  thou  bring  anything  of  the  idol  into 
thy  house,  lest  thou  become  an  anathema  like  it. 
Thou  shalt  detest  it  as  dung,  and  shalt  utterly  abhor 
it  as  uncleanness  and  filth,  because  it  is  an  anatli- 
ema." Nations,  individuals,  animals,  and  inanimate 
objects  may  become  anathema,  i.  e.  cursed  and  de- 
voted to  destruction.  It  was  thus  that  the  people  in- 
habiting the  Promised  Land  were  anathematized  as 
Mo.ses  says  (Deut.,  vii,  1,  2):  "When  .  .  .  the  Lord 
thy  God  shall  have  delivered  them  to  thee,  thou  shalt 
utterly  destroy  them."  When  a  people  was  anathe- 
matized by  the  Lord,  they  were  to  be  entirely  exter- 
minated. Saul  was  rejected  by  God  for  ha\  ing  spared 
Agag,  King  of  the  Amalecites,  and  the  greater  jiarl  of 
the  booty  (I  K.  xv,  9-23).  Anyone  who  spared  any- 
thing belonging  to  a  man  who  nad  been  declared 
anathema,  became  himself  anathema.  There  is 
the  story  of  Achan  who  had  charge  of  the  spoils 
of  Jericho  :  "The  anathema  is  in  the  midst  of 
thee,  O  Israel:  thou  canst  not  stantl  Ix-fore  thy 
enemies  till  he  be  destroyed  out  of  thee  that  is  de- 
filed with  this  wickedness."  Achan,  with  his  family 
and  herds,  was  stoned  to  death.  Sometimes  it  is 
cities  that  are  anathematized.  When  the  anathema 
is  rigoroiLs  all  the  inhabitants  are  to  lie  extermi- 
nated, the  city  burned,  and  permission  denied  ever 
to  rebuild  it,  and  its  riches  offered  to  Jehovah.  This 
was  the  fate  of  Jericho  (Jos.,  vi,  17).  If  it  is  less 
strict,  all  the  inliabitants  are  to  l>e  put  to  death, 
but  the  herds  may  be  divided  among  the  victors 
(.Jos,,  viii,  27).  The  obligation  of  killing  all  inhabi- 
tants occasionally  admits  of  exceptions  in  tlic  (■;i.-;e  of 
young  girls  who  remain  captives  in  the  hands  of  the 
con(|uerors  (Num.,  xxxi,  18).  The  severity  of  the 
anathema  in  the  Old  Testament  is  explained  by  the 
necessity  there  was  of  pre.ser\'ing  the  Jewish  people 
and  protecting  them  against  the  idolatry  profes.sed 
by   tlie   neighbouring  pagans. 

In  tli(^  .\ew  Testament  anathema  no  longer  entails 
de;itli,  but  the  loss  of  goods  or  e\chision  from  the 
society  of  the  faithful.     St.  Paul  freiiuently  uses  this 


ANATHEMA 


456 


ANATHEMA 


word  in  the  latter  sense.  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans (be,  3)  he  says:  "For  I  wished  myself  to  be 
an  anathema  from  Christ,  for  my  brethren,  who  are 
my  kinsmen  according  to  the  flesh",  i.  e.  "I  should 
wish  to  be  separated  and  rejected  of  Christ,  if  by 
that  means  I  would  procure  the  salvation  of  my 
brethren."  And  again,  using  the  word  in  the  same 
sense,  he  says  (Gal.  i,  9):  "If  any  one  preach  to  you 
a  gospel  besides  that  which  you  have  received,  let 
Iiim  be  anathema."  But  he  who  is  separated  from 
God  is  united  to  the  devil,  which  explains  why  St. 
Paul,  instead  of  anathematizing,  sometimes  delivers 
a  person  over  to  Satan  (I  Tim.,  i,  20;  I  Cor.,  v,  5). 
Anathema  signifies  also  to  be  overwhelmed  with  male- 
dictions, as  in  I  Cor.,  xvi,  22:  "If  any  man  love  not 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  let  him  be  anathema."  At 
an  early  date  the  Church  adopted  the  word  anathema 
to  signify  the  exclusion  of  a  sinner  from  the  society 
of  the  faithful;  but  the  anathema  was  pronounced 
chiefly  agaiast  heretics.  All  the  counciLs,  from  the 
Council  of  Nicuii  to  that  of  the  Vatican,  ha,\e  worded 
their  dogmatic  canons:  "If  any  one  says  .  .  .  let 
him  be  anatliema".  Nevertheless,  although  during 
the  first  centuries  the  anathema  did  not  seem  to 
differ  from  the  sentence  of  excommunication,  begin- 
ning with  the  sixth  century  a  distinction  was  made 
between  the  two.  A  Council  of  Tours  desires  that 
after  three  warnings  there  be  recited  in  chorus 
Psalm  cviii  against  the  usurper  of  the  goods  of  the 
Church,  that  he  may  fall  into  the  curse  of  Judas,  and 
"that  he  may  die  not  only  excommunicated,  but 
anathematized,  and  that  he  may  be  stricken  by  the 
sword  of  Heaven".  This  distinction  was  intro<iuced 
into  the  canons  of  the  Church,  as  is  proved  by  the 
letter  of  John  VIII  (872-82)  found  in  the  Decree 
of  Gratian,  (c.  Ill,  q.  V,  c.  XII):  "Know  that  Engel- 
trude  is  not  only  under  the  ban  of  excommimication, 
which  separates  her  from  the  society  of  the  brethren, 
but  under  the  anathema,  which  separates  from  the 
body  of  Christ,  which  is  the  Church."  This  dis- 
tinction is  found  in  the  earliest  Decretals,  in  the 
chapter  Cion  non  ab  homine.  In  the  same  chapter, 
the  tenth  of  Decretals  II,  tit.  i,  Celestine  III  (1191- 
98),  speaking  of  the  measures  it  is  necessary  to  take 
in  proceeding  against  a  cleric  guilty  of  theft,  homi- 
cide, perjury,  or  other  crimes,  says:  "If,  after  hav- 
ing been  deposed  from  office,  he  is  incorrigible,  he 
should  first  be  excommunicated;  but  if  he  perseveres 
in  his  contumacy  he  should  be  stricken  with  the 
sword  of  anathema;  but  if  plunging  to  the  depths 
of  the  abyss,  he  reaches  the  point  where  he  despises 
these  penalties,  he  should  be  given  over  to  the  .secu- 
lar arm."  At  a  late  period,  Gregory  IX  (1227-41), 
bk.  V,  tit.  xxxix,  ch.  lix,  Si  qucm,  distinguishes  minor 
excommunication,  or  that  implying  exclusion  only 
from  the  sacraments,  from  major  excommunication, 
implying  exclusion  from  the  society  of  the  faithful. 
He  declares  that  it  is  major  excommunication  which 
is  meant  in  all  texts  in  which  mention  is  made  of 
excommunication.  Since  that  time  there  has  been 
no  difference  between  major  excommunication  and 
anathema,  except  the  greater  or  less  degree  of  cere- 
mony in  pronouncing  the  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion. 

Anathema  remains  a  major  excommunication 
which  is  to  be  promulgated  with  great  solemnity. 
A  formula  for  this  ceremony  was  drawn  up  by 
Pope  Zachary  (741-52)  in  the  chapter  Debcnt  duo- 
decim  sacerdolcx,  Cause  xi,  quest,  lii.  The  Roman 
Pontifical  reproduces  it  in  the  chapter  Ordo  excom- 
municandi  el  absohendi,  distinguishing  three  sorts 
of  excommunication:  minor  excomnmnication,  for- 
merly incurred  by  a  person  holding  communication 
with  anyone  under  the  ban  of  excommunication; 
niajor  excommunication,  pronounced  by  the  Pope 
in  reading  a  sentence;  and  anatlienia,  or  the  penalty 
incurred  by  crimes  of  the  gravest  order,  and  solemnly 


promulgated  by  the  Pope.  In  passing  this  sentence, 
the  pontiff  is  vested  in  amice,  stole,  and  a  violet 
cope,  wearing  his  mitre,  and  assisted  by  twelve 
priests  clad  in  their  surplices  and  holding  lighted 
candles.  He  takes  liis  seat  in  front  of  the  altar  or 
in  some  other  suitable  place,  and  pronounces  the 
formula  of  anathema  which  ends  with  these  words: 
"Wherefore  in  the  name  of  God  the  All-powerful, 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  of  the  Blessed  Peter, 
Prince  of  the  Apostles,  and  of  all  the  Saints,  in  virtue 
of  the  power  which  has  been  given  us  of  binding  and 
loosing  in  Heaven  and  on  earth,  we  deprive  N — 
himself  and  all  his  accomplices  and  all  his  abettors 
of  the  Communion  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Our 
Lord,  we  separate  him  from  the  society  of  all  Chris- 
tians, we  exclude  him  from  the  bosom  of  our  Holy 
Mother  the  Church  in  Heaven  and  on  earth,  we  de- 
clare him  excommunicated  and  anatliematized  and 
we  judge  him  condemned  to  eternal  fire  with  Satan 
and  his  angels  and  all  the  reprobate,  so  long  as  he 
will  not  burst  the  fetters  of  the  demon,  do  penance 
and  satisfy  the  Church;  we  deliver  him  to  Satan  to 
mortify  his  body,  that  his  soul  may  be  saved  on 
the  day  of  judgment."  Whereupon  i.ll  the  assist- 
ants respond:  "  Fiat,  fiat,  fiat.  "  The  pontiff  and  the 
twelve  priests  then  cast  to  the  ground  the  lighted 
candles  they  have  been  carrying,  and  notice  is  sent 
in  writing  to  the  priests  and  neighbouring  bishops 
of  the  name  of  the  one  who  has  been  excommimi- 
cated  and  the  cause  of  his  excommunication,  in 
order  that  they  may  have  no  communication  with 
him.  Although  he  is  delivered  to  Satan  and  his 
angels,  he  can  still,  and  is  even  boimd  to  repent. 
The  Pontifical  gives  the  form  for  absolving  him  and 
reconciling  him  with  the  Church.  The  promulgation 
of  the  anathema  with  such  solemnity  is  well  calcu- 
lated to  strike  terror  to  the  criminal  and  bring  him 
to  a  state  of  repentance,  especially  if  the  Church 
adds  to  it  the  ceremony  of  the  Maranatha. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
xvi,  22,  St.  Paul  says,  "If  any  man  love  not  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  let  him  be  anathema,  maranatha," 
which  means,  "The  Lord  is  come. "  But  commenta- 
tors have  regarded  this  expression  as  a  formula  of 
excommunication  very  severe  among  the  Jews.  This 
opinion,  however,  is  not  sustained  by  Vigouroux, 
"Diet,  de  la  Bible"  (s.  v.  Anathhne).  In  the 
Western  Church,  Maranatha  has  become  a  verj'  solemn 
formula  as  anathema,  by  which  the  criminal  is  ex- 
communicated, abandoned  to  the  judgment  of  God, 
and  rejected  from  the  bosom  of  the  Church  until 
the  coming  of  the  Lord.  An  example  of  such  an 
anathema  is  found  in  these  words  of  Pope  Silverius 
(536-38):  "If  anyone  henceforth  deceives  a  bishop 
in  such  a  manner,  let  him  be  anathema  maranatha 
before  God  and  his  holy  angels."  Benedict  XIV 
(1740-58 — De  Synodo  dicece-sana  X,  i)  cites  the 
anathema  maranatha  formulated  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo  against  those  wlio  were 
guilty  of  the  crime  of  high  treason:  "He  who  dares 
to  despise  our  decision,  let  him  be  stricken  witli 
anathema  maranatha,  i.  e.  may  he  be  damned  at 
the  coming  of  the  Lord,  may  he  have  his  place  with 
Judas  Iseariot,  he  and  his  companions.  Amen." 
There  is  frequent  mention  of  tliis  anathema  maran- 
atha in  the  Bulls  of  erection  for  abbeys  and  otlier 
establishments.  Still  the  anathema  maranatha  is  a 
censure  from  which  the  criminal  may  be  absolved; 
although  he  is  delivered  to  Satan  and  his  angels,  the 
Church,  in  virtue  of  the  Power  of  the  Keys,  can  receive 
him  once  more  into  the  communion  of  the  faitliful. 
More  than  tliat,  it  is  with  this  purpose  in  view  that 
she  takes  such  rigorous  meiisures  against  him,  in 
order  that  by  the  mortification  of  liis  body  his  soul 
may  be  sa\ed  on  the  hist  day.  Tlie  Church,  ani- 
mated by  the  spirit  of  God,  does  not  wish  the  death 
of  the  sinner,  but  rather  tliat  he  be  converted  and 


ANATHOTH 


457 


ANATOMY 


live.  This  explains  why  the  most  severe  and  ter- 
rifying formulas  of  excommunication,  containing  all 
I  lie  rigours  of  the  Maranatha  have,  as  a  rule,  clauses 
like  this:  Unless  he  Ijecomes  repentant,  or  gives  sat- 
isfaction, or  is  corrected. 

VioouRODX  in  Dut.  ile  la  Bible,  a.  v.  Analhhne;  Vacant  in 
Diet,  lie  thiol.  cath.,i<.  v.  .\nathhne  ;  \'oN  ScHKttER  in  Kirchm- 
Irx..  IM  <hI.,  1,  7U4-798;  Hknedict  XIV,  De  Sunodo  Diaceaand, 
X,  I. 

Joseph  N.  Gionac. 

Anathoth,  (ms.sibly  i)lur:d  of  Anath,  a  feminine 
Chaldean  deity,  worsliippcil  in  Chanaan  [Enc. 
Bib.  s.v,  Anath;  La«ran{;e,  "Junes"  (Paris,  1903), 
62-63].  (1)  .'Vnathoth  is  identified  with  Anata, 
about  two  ami  a  half  niile.s  north-east  of  Jerusalem, 
and  everything  favours  that  identification;  around 
Anata  are  found  the  names  of  the  villages  mentioned 
in  Isaias,  x,  28.  From  its  height  (2235  ft.),  Anata, 
whidi  .seems  to  have  been  fortified  m  the  past,  com- 
niauds  a  fine  but  desolate  view  east  and  south-east; 
the  north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Lower  Jordan 
are  visible  acro.ss  the  hills  of  the  wiklerness.  Be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  .\natti  ri.se  the  heights  of  the 
Scupus  (Mesarif).  where  Titus  and  his  legions  en- 
camped when  l)esii'ging  Jerusalem.  On  tho.se  heiglits 
is  built  the  village  of  El  'Tsawiyeh  (2390  ft.), 
perhaps  the  Lai.sa  mentioned  witli  .\nathoth  in 
Isaias,  x,  30  (Buld,  Geograpliie  des  alien  Paliistina. 
17.'>).  Anathoth  is  reckoned  among  the  Ixivitical 
cities  of  Benjamin  (Jos.,  xxi,  18;  1  Par.,  vi,  60). 
Abiezer,  one  of  Da\nd's  valiant  men,  was  from  tliat 
city  (11  K..  xxiii,  27),  which  had  also  given  to  David 
one  of  his  first  followers  in  the  jxTson  of  Jehu  (I  Par., 
xii.  3).  There  Abiathar  the  priest,  had  lands,  to 
which  he  was  banislied  by  Solomon,  suspicious  of 
the  understanding  between  liis  brother  .\donias  and 
.\biathar  (III  K.,  ii,  26).  (.)iu'  liundicd  and  twenty- 
eight  men  of  .Vnathoth  returned  from  Hal)yl<>n.  accoril- 
ing  to  the  list  in  I  E.sd.  (Ezra),  ii,  23  and  II  Esdr. 
(Neh.),  vii,  27.  But  its  chief  interest  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  was  the  home  of  Jeremias'  family  (Jer.,  i,  1 ; 
xxix,  27;  xxxii,  7-9).  But  there  he  also,  "the  type 
...  of  the  incomparable  One",  experienced  tliat 
"no  prophet  is  accepted  in  his  own  country"  (Jer., 
xi,  21-23).  (2)  One  of  the  sons  of  Bechor  (Uecher  in 
the  genealogy  of  Benjamin)  I  Par.,  vii,  8.  (3) 
One  of  the  subscribers  to  the  covenant  [II  Esd. 
(Neh.).  X,  19]. 

C'liEVNK,  Jeremiah,  hit  Life  and  Timet  (1888),  21-22;  BuHl., 
Cri>uraphie  Jet  alien  Palattina  U89ti),  175;  Smith,  The  Ilitlori- 
ral  Oeographv  of  the  llolu  Ixind,  (12lli  e<l.  New  York,  1900), 
253  n.  4;  31S,  sqq.;  H^dekkr-Uenziueb,  Palattina  und 
■Syrien,  (6th  ed.  Leipzig,  1004),  88. 

Edward  Aubez. 

Anatolia,  S.\jnt,  Virgin  and  Martyr  in  the  time 
of  Dccius,  wa.s  put  to  death  in  the  city  of  Thynnn, 
or  Thurium,  or  Thora.  About  tlie  identity  of  the 
place  there  is  considerable  discu.ssion  among  the 
critics.  She  was  living  in  retirement  with  her  sister 
when  the  persecution  was  raging,  and  was  sought 
in  marriage  by  a  youth  named  Aurelius.  That  she 
was  actually  espoiLsed,  the  Bollandists  doubt.  On 
the  point  of  yielding  bccau.se  of  the  solicitations  of 
her  sister  Victoria,  she  was  strengthcneil  by  the 
vision  of  an  angel.  Banisliwi  to  Thora  she  was  do- 
noimced  as  a  Christian.  The  executioner  Audax 
shut  her  up  in  a  room  with  a  venomous  .serpent,  but 
seeing  that  no  liarm  wius  done  to  her  lie  hini.self  pro- 
fes.sed  the  faith  and  died  a  martyr.  Anatolia  was 
put  to  death  by  the  sword.     Her  feast  is  kept  9  July. 

Acta  SS,.  July,  II.  T.  J.  CAMPBELL. 

Anatolius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  T,aodirea  in  Syria, 
d.  2S3:  a  fcircniost  .sohular  of  his  day  in  the  phy.sical 
sciences  and  in  Aristotelean  [ihilosophy.  There  arc 
fniginents  of  ten  books  on  aritlunetic  written  by  him, 
and  also  a  treatise  on  the  time  of  the  I'a.srlial  cele- 
bration.    A  very  curious  story  is  told  by  Eusebius 


of  the  way  in  which  Anatolius  broke  up  a  rebellion 
in  a  part  of  Alexandria  known  as  the  Bruchium.  It 
was  lield  by  the  forces  of  Zenobia,  and  being  strictly 
beleaguered  by  the  Romans  was  in  a  state  of  starva- 
tion. The  saint,  who  was  living  in  the  Bruchium  at 
the  time,  made  arrangements  with  the  besiegers  to 
receive  all  the  women  and  children,  as  well  as  the  old 
and  infirm,  continuing  at  the  same  time  to  let  as 
many  as  wished  profit  by  the  means  of  escaping.  It 
broke  up  the  defence  and  the  rebels  surrendered. 
It  W!is  a  patriotic  action  on  the  part  of  the  saint, 
as  well  iis  one  of  great  benevolence,  in  saving  so  many 
innocent  victims  from  death.  In  going  to  Laodicea 
he  was  seized  by  the  people  and  made  bishop. 
Whether  his  friend  Eusebius  had  died,  or  wlictlicr 
they  both  occupied  the  see  together,  is  a  matter  of 
much  discussion.  The  question  is  treated  ut  length 
in  the  Bollandists.  His  feast,  like  that  of  his  name- 
sake the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  is  kept  on  3 
July. 

Acta  SS.,  I,  July;  Michadd,  Biog.  Univ,;  Bahino-Gould, 
Lives  of  the  Sainlt  (London,  1872), 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Anatolius,  Saint,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Younger.  The  lieretic 
Dioscurus  had  favoure<l  his  appointment  a.s  patri- 
arch, hoping  for  his  support ,  but  he  found  in  Anatolius 
a  determined  enemy,  who  in  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
condemned  him  and  his  followers.  How  he  died  is 
disputed,  but  it  would  appear  that  the  heretics  put 
him  to  death.  Baronius  says  this  occurred  in  458 
after  eight  years  in  the  patriarchate.  The  great 
annalist  condemns  him  in  a  somewhat  violent  man- 
ner, for  conniving  with  Dioscurus  for  his  appointment 
to  the  .see;  for  demanding  in  contravention  of  the 
statutes  of  Nica>a,  tlie  supremacy  of  Const;intiMo])le 
over  Antioch  and  Alexandria;  for  insincerity  in  o|)pcis- 
ing  a  new  formula  of  tloctrine;  for  declaring  that 
Dioscurus  was  not  condemned  at  Ephesus,  on  accoimt 
of  the  faith;  for  removing  the  meritorious  jEtius 
from  the  archidiaconate,  and  naming  the  unworthy 
Andrew;  for  weakness,  if  not  connivance  in  dealing 
with  the  heretics.  All  of  these  serious  accusations 
are  discussed  by  the  Bollandists,  who  give  a  verdict 
in  favour  of  AnatoliiLs.  He  is  held  by  thein  to  he  a 
true  Catholic,  a  .saint,  and  a  prophet.  The  Pope 
blamed  him,  not  for  error  but  becau.se  he  permitted 
himself  to  Ix;  con.sccrated  by  a  schismatic.  One 
entliusiastic  biographer  narrates  that  his  miracles 
and  his  combats  e(|ual  in  number  the  sands  of  the 
sea.  He  was  born  at  Alexandria,  and  before  becoming 
patriarch  distinguished  liimself  at  Ephesus  against 
Nestorius,  and  at  Const:mtiiiople  against  Eutyclies, 
though  the  profession  of  faith  which  he  drew  up  was 
rejected  by  the  papal  legates.  When  he  w!»s  in 
danger  of  death  he  was  restored  to  healtli  by  St. 
Daniel  the  Stylite,  who  came  to  Constantinople  to 
see  him.     His  feast  is  kept  3  July. 

Aria  SS.  3  July;  .Smith  in  Diet,  of  Chritt,  Biog.;  Hekoen- 
RoTllEU,  flitl.  dc  I'tfjlite,  II. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Anatomy  (dr.,  draro^ij)  literally,  cutting  up,  or 
dissection;  now  used  to  signify  tlie  science  of  the 
form  and  structure  of  living  bemgs.  It  is  a  depart- 
ment of  biology  that  is  divided  into  animal  and 
vegetable  anatomy.  Animal  anatomy  is  further 
divided  into  comparative  anatomy,  that  is,  the 
study  of  different  animals  for  purposes  of  compari.son, 
and  six-cial  anatomy  which  studies  the  form  and 
stnicture  of  a  single  animal.  This  last  embraces  the 
departments  of  embrj'ologj',  the  study  of  the  forma- 
tion of  living  l)eings,  and  morphology,  the  study  of 
tlie  form  and  stnicture.  Kurlher  important  divisions 
are:  phy,siological  anatomy,  the  study  of  parts  in 
relation  to  their  fimctions;  surgical  or  tojxigraphical 
anatomy  which  considers  the  relations  of  different 
parts,   and    pathological   anatomy    which    tre;»ts   of 


ANATOMY 


458 


ANATOMY 


the  changes  brought  on  by  disease,  in  various  organs 
or  tissues. 

HisTORv:  Greek  and  Latin  Period. — Anatomical 
knowledge  had  its  beginnings  verj'  early  in  tlie  history 
of  the  race.  Animal  sacrifices  led  to  a  knowledge  of 
animal  anatomy  wliich  was  readily  applied  to  man. 
The  art  of  embalming  also  necessitated  a  knowledge 
of  the  position  of  blood  vessels  and  certain  organic 
relations.  Even  Homer  u.sed  many  terms  which 
indicate  a  mucli  deeper  knowledge  of  human  struct- 
ures than  might  be  expected  thus  early.  The  first 
real  development  of  anatomy  as  a  science,  however, 
did  not  come  until  the  time  of  Hippocrates  of  Cos, 
about  400  n.  c.  The  Grecian  Father  of  Medicine 
knew  the  bones  well,  probably  because  of  the  ready 
opportunities  for  their  study  to  be  found  in  tombs, 
but  did  not  know  the  distinction  between  veins  and 
arteries,  and  uses  the  term  apr-qpla  in  reference  to 
the  trachea.  He  used  the  term  nerve  to  signify  a 
sinew  or  tendon.  Until  the  time  of  Aristotle,  about 
330  B.  c,  no  additions  were  made  to  anatomical 
knowledge.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  this 
Grecian  philosopher  frequently  dissected  animals. 
His  description  of  the  aorta  and  its  branches  is 
surprisingly  correct.  This  is  the  first  time  in  the 
history  of  anatomy  that  the  word  aorta,  Greek 
iopTTi,  a  knapsack,  was  used.  His  knowledge  of  the 
nerves  was  almost  as  little  as  that  of  Hi]5pocrates, 
but  he  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  internal 
viscera,  and  he  distinguishes  the  jejunum  or  empty 
portion  of  the  small  intestine;  the  ca?cum,  or  blind 
gut,  so  called  because  it  is  a  sort  of  cul-de-sac;  the 
colon,  and  the  sigmoid  flexure.  The  word  rectum  is 
the  literal  translation  of  his  description  of  the  straight 
process  of  the  bowel  to  the  anus.  A  contemporary 
of  Aristotle,  Praxagoras  of  Cos,  was  the  first  who 
distinguished  the  arteries  from  the  veins  and  spoke 
of  tlie  former  as  air  vessels  because  after  death  they 
always  contained  only  air. 

All  of  this  knowledge  had  been  gained  from  dis- 
sections of  animals.  It  was  at  Alexandria  in  the 
beginning  of  tlie  third  century  before  Christ  that 
two  Greek  philosophers,  Herophilus  and  Erasis- 
tratus,  made  the  first  dissections  of  the  human  body. 
None  of  their  writings  have  come  down  to  us.  We 
know  what  they  discovered,  however,  from  the  refer- 
ences to  them  made  by  Galen,  Oribasius,  and  other 
medical  wTiters.  Erasistratus  discovered  the  heart 
valves  and  called  them,  from  their  forms,  sigmoid 
and  tricuspid.  He  studied  the  convolutions  of  the 
brain  and  recognized  the  nature  of  nerves  which  he 
described  as  coming  from  the  brain.  He  seems  even 
to  have  appreciated  the  difference  between  nerves 
of  motion  and  sensation.  There  is  a  claim  that  he 
discovered  the  lymph  vessels  in  the  mesentery  also. 
Herophilus  applied  the  name  of  twelve  incli  portion 
of  the  intestine  to  the  part  which  has  since  been  called 
the  duodenum.  He  described  the  straight  venous 
sinus  within  the  skull  which  is  still  sometimes  called 
by  his  name.  He  is  also  said  to  have  given  the  name 
of  calamiLs  scriptorius  to  the  linear  furrow  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  fourth  ventricle. 

Nearly  three  himdred  years  passed  before  another 
great  name  in  anatomy  occurred,  namely,  that  of 
Celsas,  who  saw  the  dilTerence  between  the  trachea 
and  the  cesophagus,  described  the  size,  positions, 
and  relatioixs  of  the  diaphragm  as  well  as  the  relations 
of  the  various  organs  to  one  another,  and  added 
much  to  tlie  knowledge  of  the  lungs  and  the  heart. 
He  knew  most  of  the  minute  points  in  osteology  with 
almost  modern  thoroughness.  The  sutures  ant'l  most 
of  the  foramma  of  the  .skull  and  the  upper  and  lower 
jaw-bones  with  the  tcetli,  he  describes  very  perfectly. 
He  mentions  many  small  holes  in  the  nasal  cavities 
anil  evidently  knew  tlie  ethmoid  bone.  He  even 
seemed  to  liave  distinguished  the  semi-circular 
canals  of  the  car.     After  Celsus,  who  lived  during 


the  half-century  before  Christ,  the  next  important 
name  is  that  of  Galen,  who  was  born  about  a.  d.  130. 
Galen  was  not  only  an  investigator  but  a  collator  of 
all  the  medical  knowledge  down  to  his  time.  His 
work  was  destined  to  rule  anatomical  science  down 
to  Vesalius  and  even  beyond  it,  that  is,  for  nearly 
fourteen  hundred  years.  Galen's  osteology  is  almost 
perfect.  His  knowledge  of  muscles  was  more  in- 
complete, but  it  was  far  beyond  that  of  any  of  his 
predecessors.  He  did  not  add  much  to  the  previous 
knowledge  with  regard  to  blood  vessels,  though  he 
made  the  cardinal  demonstration  that  in  living 
animals  arteries  contained  not  air  but  blood.  His 
description  of  the  veins  and  arteries,  however,  is 
rather  confused  and  here  his  knowledge  is  most 
imperfect.  His  additions  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
nervous  system  are  very  important.  He  described 
the  falx  and  exposed  by  successive  sections  the 
ventricles  and  the  choroid  plexus.  In  general,  his 
description  of  the  gross  anatomy  of  the  brain  is 
quite  advanced. 

Medieval  Period. — ^^Vith  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  and  the  incursions  of  the  barbarians  there 
came  an  end  for  at  least  five  or  six  ceiituries  to  all 
anatomical  study.  The  first  signs  of  a  reawakening  of 
interest  in  anatomy  after  this  long  sleep  showed  them- 
selves at  the  famous  medical  school  at  Salernum. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  even  during  the  tenth  century 
Salernum  had  a  reputation  as  the  best  place  for 
invalids  with  ailments  that  could  not  be  cured 
elsewhere.  Many  of  the  distinguished  nobility  and 
members  of  reigning  families  found  their  way  down 
to  this  little  town  and  its  reputation  soon  attracted 
medical  students.  There  is  a  tradition  connecting 
the  rise  of  the  school  at  Salernum  with  the  Benedic- 
tine monks  whose  great  monastery  of  Monte  Cassino 
was  not  far  aw-ay.  Definite  details  are,  however, 
lacking.  In  the  ele\-enth  century  the  medical 
courses  at  Salernum  began  to  l^e  regularly  organized. 
At  the  beginning  of  tlie  twelfth  century  regulations 
for  the  first  State  examinations  in  medicine  were 
made.  Anatomy  was  a  required  subject,  but  was 
studied  by  means  of  the  pig  which  was  thought  to  be 
closely  related  to  man  in  anatomical  structure. 
Curiously  enough  this  animal  is  now  reassuming  a 
place  in  medicine  as  a  favourite  subject  for  research 
and  instruction  in  embryology. 

About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
Frederick  II  made  it  a  rule  that  the  students  at  Saler- 
num should  be  present  at  one  human  dissection  at 
least  each  year.  About  this  time  the  other  rising 
universities  of  Europe  took  up  the  serious  study  of 
anatomy  and  proved  successful  ri\-als  to  Salermun. 
Montpellier  was  one  of  the  earliest  to  make  a  name 
for  itself,  but  both  Paris  and  Bologna  were  not  far 
behind.  At  Paris  before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  famous  Hermondaville  was  giving  a 
series  of  demonstrations  on  human  cadavers  that 
attracted  students  from  all  over  Europe,  and  William 
of  Salicet,  at  Bologna,  attracted  quite  as  much 
attention.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  he 
made  many  human  dissections,  and  there  is  a  definite 
tradition  of  his  having  made  a  medico-legal  autopsy 
on  the  body  of  a  nobleman  in  order  to  determine 
whether  death  was  due  to  poisoning.  This  fact  of 
itself  would  seem  to  show  that  this  was  not  an  un- 
usual procedure,  since  if  William  were  not  accus- 
tomed to  seeing  bodies  dissected  frequently  he 
would  scarcely  be  trusted  as  an  expert  in  determining 
the  presence  or  absence  of  poison. 

It  is  very  commonly  accepted  that  there  was  an 
interruption  in  the  development  of  anatomical 
knowledge  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteentli 
century  because  of  a  papal  decree  forbidding  dis- 
section. The  statement  that  such  a  decree  wa^ 
promulgated  is  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  history 
of  medicine  published  in  English,  and  has  been  made 


ANATOMY 


459 


ANATOMY 


much  of  in  books  on  the  supposed  opposition  of 
science  and  religion.  'I'liere  was  no  such  decree, 
however,  and  tlic  declaration  that  the  development 
of  anatomy  was  iiiterfere<l  with  by  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  is  fomulod  on  nothing  more  substantial 
than  a  misunderstanding  of  the  purport  of  a  decree 
of  I'opc  Boniface  Vlll.  In  the  year  i:{()()  this  Pone 
i.ssued  the  Hull  "De  Sepulturis".  The  title  of  tlie 
Hull  runs  as  follows:  "  I'ereons  cutting  \ip  the  bodies 
of  the  dead,  barbarously  cooking  thcni  in  order  that 
the  bones  being  separated  from  the  flesh  may  be 
carried  for  burial  into  their  own  countries  are  by  the 
ver>'  fact  exconnnunicated."  The  only  possible 
explanation  of  the  misunderstanding  that  tlie  B\ill 
forbade  dissection  is  that  some  one  read  only  the 
first  part  of  the  title  and  considered  that  as  one  of 
the  methods  of  preparing  bones  for  study  in  anatomy 
was  by  boiling  them  in  order  to  be  able  to  remove 
the  flesh  from  them  eiusily,  that  this  decree  forbade 
such  practices  thereafter. 

The  first  authoritative  liistory  in  which  this  inter- 
pretation of  the  Hull  api>cared  \v!vs  the  "Histoire 
litl(5raire  de  la  l''rance  ,  a  work  originally  Lssued 
by  the  Honeilictines  of  Saint-Maur.  but  continued 
by  the  momlici-s  of  the  Institute  of  France,  and  it  is 
in  one  of  the  volumes  of  the  continuation  that  the 
declaration  with  regard  to  the  interniption  of  ana- 
tomical studies  by  dis,section  is  made.  Not  oidy 
the  Hull  itself  did  not  forbid  dissection,  but  a  review 
of  the  history  of  anatomy  just  after  its  issuance 
shows  that  it  was  not  misinterpreted  so  as  to  hamper 
anatomical  progress.  Within  the  decade  after  the 
date  of  the  Hull,  Mondino  began  to  perform  at 
Bologna  the  series  of  public  dis.sections  of  human 
bodies  on  which  w;us  founded  his  text-book  of  anat- 
omy. This  was  to  be  the  authority  on  this  subject 
for  the  next  two  centuries  in  Europe.  It  is  some- 
times said  that  Mondino  dissected  only  a  few  bodies, 
but  Guy  de  Chauliae,  him.self  a  distinguished  anatom- 
ist later  in  the  fourteenth  centurj-,  declares  that 
Mondino  dissected  human  bodies  a  number  of  times 
(muUolies  is  his  word).  In  i:U9  there  is  the  record 
of  a  criminal  prosecution  for  body-snatching  at 
Bologna,  and  it  is  dear  that  a  nunil)er  of  such  events 
had  happened  before  the  criminal  courts  were  ap- 
l>ealcd  to  in  the  matter.  M  this  time,  according  to 
the  statutes  of  the  university,  teachers  of  anatomy 
were  bound  to  make  a  di.s.section  if  the  students 
supplied  the  body.  De  Renzi  says  there  was  a  rage 
for  ilis-iection  at  this  period  ami  many  bodies  were 
yearly  stolen  for  the  purpose.  In  Venice  where 
there  was  no  medical  .school  the  authorities,  in  1308, 
ordained  that  one  di.ssection  everj'  year  should  be 
made  for  the  benefit  of  phy.sicians  of  the  city.  In 
Hologna  a  regular  allowance  of  wine  was  made  by 
the  municipality  to  the  students  and  others  who 
should  be  present  at  dis.sections,  and  every  student 
was  required  to  see  at  least  one  dissection  of  a  human 
body  during  his  medical  course.  Twenty  students 
were  to  be  present  at  the  dissection  of  male,  ami 
thirty  at  that  of  female  subjects,  the.se  being  rarer, 
ami  manifestly  a  good  opportunity  for  jx-rsonal 
inspection  was  provideil. 

ILcser  in  his  History  of  Medicine"  says  that  it  is 
an  error  to  think  that  Boniface's  Hull  forbade  dis- 
section since  the  practice  was  carried  on  without  let 
or  hindrance  under  ecclcsia.stical  authorities  who 
universally  presided  over  the  universities  of  that 
day.  Hipser  tiuotes  Corradi  who,  in  his  sketch  of 
the  teaching  of  anatomy  in  Italy  during  the  Midille 
Ages,  also  denies  that  the  Hull  of  the  jiope  mentioned 
hamixsrcd  the  progress  of  anatomical  study  or  teach- 
ing in  any  way.  Pagel  in  his  sketch  of  the  history 
of  medicine  at  the  end  of  the  Middle  .\ges  says  that 
Hcrtucci  who  died  in  1X47,  and  .Vrgelafa  who  died 
towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  were  both 
in  a  position  to  make  public  demonstrations  in  di.s- 


section becau.se  of  the  example  that  had  been  set  by 
Mondino.  They  also  performed  regular  dissections 
for  purpo.ses  of  investigation  ancl  used  human  cada- 
vers rather  than  the  bodies  of  animals  as  had  been 
the  ca.se  before,  (luy  de  Chauliae,  the  father  of 
modern  surgery,  attended  the  di.s.sections  at  Hologna 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  and  on 
his  return  to  the  .south  of  Krance  encouraged  the 
practice  there.  He  was  the  surgeon  to  three  p<ipes 
iluring  the  time  the  popes  were  at  Avignon,  yet  in 
his  book,  written  while  he  was  a  member  of  the 
papal  household,  he  in.sists  on  the  necessity  for  the 
dissection  of  human  bodies  if  any  definite  progress 
in  surgery  is  to  be  made,  and  he  proposed  to  have 
the  botlies  of  executed  criminals  given  over  to  medical 
.schools  and  physicians  for  this  purpo.se.  This  fact 
alone  would  seem  to  decide  definitely  that  there 
was  no  papal  regulation,  real  or  supposed,  forbidding 
the  practice  of  human  di.s.section  at  this  time.  Haas 
in  his  "Outlines  of  the  History  of  Medicine"  shows 
that  dissections  were  not  unusual  in  Italy,  and  were 
also  known  at  other  Kuropean  universities.  The 
bodies  of  criminaLs  who  hail  been  executeil  were  used 
for  this  pMr|X)se  at  Prague  and  aLso  at  Montpellier. 

Just  before  the  beginning  of  the  .sixteenth  century 
there  are  two  names  worth  mentioning  in  the  liLstory 
of  anatomy.  They  are  those  of  Zerbi,  who  traced  the 
olfactory  nerves  and  ri(iii;iii/cd  their  function,  and  of 
Achilini,  who  first  described  the  small  bones  of  the 
ear,  nientionetl  the  orifices  of  Wharton's  ducts, 
and  described  .somewhat  in  detail  the  ileocecal 
valve  and  other  hitherto  not  well-known  portions 
of  the  intestines.  .Vnother  distinguished  name  is 
that  of  Bercnger  of  Carpi,  who  did  most  of  his  work 
at  Bologna  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  declared  that  he  had  tli.ssected  more  than  one 
hundred  human  bodies.  In  Berenger  is  to  be  found 
the  first  hint  of  modern  anatomy.  His  commen- 
taries on  Mondino's  work  show  how  much  he  added 
to  that  teacher's  instruction.  He  was  the  first  to 
mention  the  appendix,  and  also  to  indicate  the  site 
of  the  opening  of  the  common  bile  duct  into  the 
intestine.  He  added  much  to  the  knowledge  pre- 
viously held  with  regard  to  the  organs  of  generation 
and  pointed  out  the  im|)ortant  distinction  between 
male  and  female,  that  the  chest  has  greater  capacity 
in  the  former  and  the  pelvis  in  the  latter.  He 
discovered  the  arj'lenoid  cartilages  in  the  larynx  ami 
gave  the  first  good  descrijition  of  the  thymus  gland. 
His  di.s.secti(>iis  of  the  eve  and  of  the  ear  made 
anatomical  knowledge  of  tfie.sc  structures,  also,  much 
more  definite. 

MoDEK>!  -Xn'.vto.mv. — The  time  was  evidently  ripe 
for  the  coming  of  the  great  father  of  modern  anatomy, 
Vesalius.  He  was  a  Fleming,  educated  originally  at 
the  University  of  Louvain,  where  he  acquireil,  besides 
his  classical  studies,  a  taste  for  scientific  investigation. 
He  went  to  Paris  to  .study  under  Dubois,  better  known 
by  his  Latin  name  of  Sylvius.  Though  the  Sylvian 
fi.ssure  is  named  after  him,  Dubois  did  not  accom- 
plish very  much  original  work.  The  ilemonstrations 
were  always  made  on  dogs,  but  Vesalius  eke<l  out 
his  knowledge  by  stuilving  human  bones  from  the 
cemeteries  at  Paris.  Ironi  Paris  Vesalius  went  to 
Padua  where  he  became  profes,sor  of  anatomy  when 
only  twenty-one.  After  teaching  at  Padua  for  some 
years  ho  was  invited  to  give  courses  in  anatomy  at 
Hologna  which  was  then  a  papal  city,  .\fter  a  time 
Pisa  also  CiUled  him  to  a  prt>fe.ssorship  anil  he  seems 
to  have  lectured  succes.slvely  in  each  of  these  imi- 
versities  for  several  years.  .\t  the  age  of  twenty- 
eight  he  had  completeil  his  book  "  De  Fabrica  Cor- 
poris Humani"  which  w.as  forever  to  remain  a  clas.sic 
of  anatomical  knowletlge.  There  were  very  few 
portions  of  the  human  body  on  which  Vesalius  did 
not  throw  new  light.  His  new  additions  to  anatomi- 
cal knowledge  are  so  numerous  that  they  cannot  even 


ANATOMY 


460 


ANATOMY 


be  mentioned  briefly  here.  Besides  the  new  infor- 
mation he  conveyed  there  was  a  still  more  important 
feature  of  Vesaliiis's  work.  His  methods  definitely 
did  away  with  the  old  dependence  on  authority  in 
anatomy  whicli  hail  for  so  long  made  men  cling  to 
Galen,  and  prevented  progress.  After  the  prelimi- 
nary opposition  on  the  part  of  the  over-conservative, 
his  discoveries  proved  an  incentive  to  many  younger 
men  who  proceeded  to  carry  liis  methods  into  the 
investigation  of  every  part  of  the  body.  The  story 
often  repeated  that  he  was  hampered  in  his  researches 
by  the  Inquisition  and  by  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties has  no  foundation  in  fact. 

Contemporary  with  him  were  Eustachius,  whose 
memory  is  perpetuated  in  the  name  of  the  Eustachian 
tube  which  he  first  described  in  detail,  Fallopius,  who 
corrected  certain  minor  mistakes  of  Vesalius  with 
regard  to  the  bones  and  the  muscles,  but  who  will  be 
kno-mi  for  his  discovery  of  the  uterine  appendage 
which  bears  liis  name,  and  finally  Columbus,  who 
succeeded  Vesahus  and  corrected  certain  details 
of  his  description  of  the  heart  and  its  appendages, 
tracing  the  course  of  the  blood  from  the  right  to  the 
left  side  of  the  heart,  so  that  he  has  often  been  claimed 
as  the  original  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  Columbus  was  afterwards  called  to  Rome 
to  be  the  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Papal  Uni- 
versity. Eustachius  was  for  some  years  before  this 
physician  to  the  Pope  and  also  a  professor  in  this 
University.  Italy  continued  to  be  for  centuries  the 
most  fruitful  field  of  anatomical  investigation.  Fal- 
lopius was  succeeded  by  Fabricius  who  is  perhaps 
best  known  as  the  professor  under  whom  Harvey, 
the  English  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  made  liis  anatomical  studies  in  Italy.  Har- 
vey's discovery  was  not  published  until  1628,  though 
he  had  known  it  for  nearly  ten  years  before  that.  In 
the  meantime  ,\selli  at  Pa\-ia,  in  1622,  had  described 
the  lacteal  vessels  in  the  mesentery. 

Outside  of  Italy  the  distinguished  anatomists  are 
rare.  Servetus  who  was  burnt  by  Calvin,  in  1553, 
for  his  errors  with  regard  to  the  Trinity  in  his  book 
on  that  subject,  gave  an  astonishingly  clear  descrip- 
tion of  the  lesser  or  pulmonic  circulation.  Tliis 
was  published  nearly  a  century  before  Harvey's 
work  on  the  circulation.  The  most  important  work 
done  outside  of  Italy  was  accomplished  by  Steno,  or 
Stensen,  who  demonstrated  the  duct  of  the  parotid 
gland,  described  the  lachrymal  glands,  and  gave 
clear  notions  as  to  the  ovaries.  Besides  tliis  he 
demonstrated  that  the  heart  was  a  muscle  and  not 
the  seat  of  the  emotions  that  it  had  hitherto  been 
considered.  He  became  a  convert  to  CathoUcity, 
and  eventually  a  Catholic  bisliop.  Though  he  was 
a  Dane  his  work  was  done  in  the  Netherlands,  the 
second  centre  of  the  anatomical  interest  in  Europe. 
Here  during  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century 
Bartholin,  Swammerdam,  and  Bla?s  made  important 
discoveries.  Bartholin's  name  is  perpetuated  in  the 
glands  described  by  him;  while  the  latter  two  called 
attention  to  tlie  existence  of  valves  in  the  veins.  In 
llie  second  half  of  tlie  century  Ruysch,  in  Amster- 
dam, first  employed  injections  for  anatomical  study, 
while  Brunner  and  Peyer  described  their  glands  in 
the  small  intestine.  Some  important  work  was 
done  in  England  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Wharton  studied  the  glands  of  the  mouth; 
Glis-son  studied  the  liver  and  especially  the  capsule 
wliich  has  since  borne  his  name,  and  Willis,  after 
whom  the  arterial  circle  at  the  base  of  the  brain  is 
named,  made  successful  investigations  of  the  brain 
and  nerve.  The  main  current  of  advance  in  anatomy, 
however,  still  remained  in  Italy.  Malpighi's  work 
is  the  greatest  of  the  centurj',  with  the  possible  ex- 
ception of  Harvey's  discovery.  Malpighi  described 
the  movements  of  the  blood  corpuscles,  the  structure 
of  bone  and  of  the  teeth,  the  Mulpighian  layer  in  the 


skin,  and  the  Malpighian  bodies  in  the  spleen  and  kid- 
ney. He  also  did  work  in  botany,  in  which  the 
Englishman,  Grew,  was  his  rival.  A  great  con- 
temporary in  microscopic  work  was  Leeuwenhoeck, 
who  discovered  the  corpuscles  in  milk  and  in  blood, 
and  also  had  some  idea  of  the  cellular  nature  of  the 
skin. 

The  eighteenth  century  saw  the  rise  of  another 
great  series  of  Italian  anatomists.  Four  names  are 
especially  distinguished.  Those  of  Lancisi,  who 
combined  clinical  and  anatomical  knowledge;  Xal- 
salva,  famous  for  liis  work  on  the  ear;  Santorini, 
who  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  the  face  and 
its  appendages,  and  Morgagni  whose  main  work  was 
concerned  with  morbid  anatomy,  but  who  also  added 
to  knowledge  in  normal  anatomy.  In  France, 
Winslow  hke  Steno,  a  Dane,  and  hke  liim,  also,  a 
convert  to  Catholicism,  wrote  the  first  treatise  of 
descriptive  anatomy  foimded  on  observation  alone, 
and  began  the  series  of  text-books  which  made  this 
century  famous.  Haller,  the  first  great  German 
anatomist,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  this  cen- 
tury. His  contributions  to  anatomy,  with  wonderful 
engravings,  represent  a  distinct  ad\dnce  in  the 
methods  of  studying  and  teaching  anatomy.  Two 
distinguished  contemporaries  in  Germany  were 
Meckel  who  discovered  the  diverticulum  and  Lieber- 
ktihn  after  whom  the  glands  are  named.  In  Great 
Britain,  the  Hunters,  William  and  John,  did  excellent 
work  in  this  century,  and  Hewson  contributed  not  a 
little  to  comparative  anatomy. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
most  important  name  is  that  of  Bichat,  who  unfortu- 
nately was  cut  off  at  the  beginning  of  his  thirties 
when  giving  promise  of  being  the  greatest  anatomical 
genius  that  ever  lived.  In  England,  the  Monros  at 
Edinburgh,  and  Sir  Charles  Sell,  famous  for  his 
differentiation  of  the  nerves  of  motion  and  sensation, 
did  excellent  work.  The  important  advances  in 
anatomy,  however,  in  this  century  were  destined  to 
be  made  with  the  microscope.  Schwann  discovered 
that  all  animal  tissues  were  made  of  cells  and  thus 
opened  up  a  new  outlook  in  anatomy.  Not  long 
after.  Max  Schultze  demonstrated  that  all  cellular 
material,  plant  or  animal,  was  composed  of  proto- 
plasm. Following  these  up,  Virchow,  studying 
morbid  anatomy  rather  than  normal  tissues,  still 
did  much  to  advance  anatomical  knowledge.  The 
teacher  of  Schwann  and  Virchow,  Johann  Miiller, 
though  not  as  illustrious  as  either  of  his  great  dis- 
ciples, is  the  man  to  whom  Germany  owes  the  in- 
troduction of  methods  of  investigation  that  were  to 
be  so  fruitful  for  the  medical  sciences  during  the 
next  half  century.  Miiller  and  Schwann  were  botli 
Catholics,  and  Schwann  continued  his  work  in  the 
Cathohc  Universities  of  Louvain  and  Li^ge  creating 
special  interest  in  anatomical  studies  in  these  places. 
At  Louvain  the  biological  journal  of  the  University, 
La  Cellule,  has  proved  tlie  medium  for  the  publication 
of  many  important  anatomical  advances,  especially, 
towards  the  end  of  the  century,  of  some  of  the  work 
of  Ramon-y-Cajal  who  added  so  much  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  brain  anatomy.  There  are  many  other 
names  that  deserve  mention  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Such  men  as  KoUiker,  Retzius,  Henle,  Corty, 
Deiters,  Richard  Owen,  Goodsir,  Huxley,  Billroth, 
and  Waldeycr  cannot  be  omitted  from  any  aiiequate 
account  of  this  period. 

An.vtomy  in  .\mehic.\. — The  first  courses  in  human 
anatomy  in  .Vmerica  were  offered  in  New  York  City 
by  Drs.  John  Bard  and  Peter  Middleton,  about  1750, 
and  at  nearly  the  same  time  by  Dr.  Thomas  Cadwal- 
lader  in  Phil.idelphia.  In  1762  Dr.  Shippen  gave 
anatomical  lectures  in  Philadelphia,  ami  in  1765, 
with  Dr.  Jolm  Morgan,  lie  organized  a  school  of 
medicine  as  a  department  of  what  is  now  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.     Medical  schools  were  founded 


ANAXAGORAS 


461 


A1«0HIETA 


at  Columbia  College,  New  York,  in  1768;  at  Harvard 
in  1783;  Dartinoutli,  I7B7;  I'niversity  of  Maryland, 
1807;  Yale,  IHIO;  Brown,  1811;  Transylvania  Uni- 
versity, Lexington,  Ky.,  1817.  Until  the  last  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  centurj'  verj'  little  more  than  the 
training  of  medical  students  for  their  work  as  general 
practitioners  was  accomplished  in  the  anatomical 
departments  of  American  medical  schools.  Certain 
names,  as  those  of  the  elder  Warren,  Isaac  Wistar, 
William  IIiinuT,  deserve  to  be  nientionetl. 

Tlic  important  names  in  the  development  of  anat- 
omy in  America  are  concerned  more  with  compara- 
tive than  with  human  anatomy.  Cope  and  .\Iarsh, 
Agassiz  ami  Leidy,  made  names  for  themselves  that 
were  known  all  over  the  world.  Ilarri.son  .\llen, 
Thomas  Dwight,  and  Charles  Minot,  with  J.  A.  Ryder 
n'pn'sent  in  their  various  departments  discoveries  of 
no  little  importance.  In  brain  anatomy  there  has 
iH'cn  some  exrcllont  work  from  Burt  Wilder,  E.  A. 
Spitzka,  Llcwellys  Barker,  and  W.  C.  Spiller.  In 
general,  however,  the  period  of  successful  investiga- 
tion into  anatomical  proljlems  seems  to  be  only  just 
opening  up.  Definite  arrangements  for  the  carrjnng 
on  of  original  research  are  now  generally  recognized 
as  necessary  appendages  of  university  anatomical 
departments  and  much  can  be  expected  in  the  very 
near   future.     (See    Bo.nif.vce    VIII.) 

DcPONY.  Medicine  in  the  Middle  Aget  (Cinn..  1889);  PuscH- 
MAN.N*.  ilintory  of  Mediad  Education  (Ix>ndon,  1891);  Corradi, 
Anatomia  m  Italia  nrt  medio  no  (I'aiiuu,  1873):  Medici 
Sruola  anatomtca  dt  Bologna  (1857);  Foster.  History  of 
Fhyaiology  (CainbridKe,  1901 1;  Wal-sh,  The  Popes  in  the 
History  of  Medicine,  in  the  Messenger,  Uclober,  1903;  Keen, 
Sketch  of  the  Early  History  of  Practical  Anatomy  (Phila.,  1874); 
and  The  Phitailelphia  School  of  Anatomy  (Phila..  1875); 
HARnKKN.  Anatomi/  in  America  (Bulletin  of  the  tJniversity 
of  Wisconsin,  1905,  Mndi.«on,  \Vi.«.).  See  also  standard 
Histories  of  ^Ie<licine  by  Sprengel.  De  Kenzi,  Darenbero, 
Ha88,  H.esER,  Pagel.  and  Pushuan. 

Thomas  D.  Merrigan. 

Anazagoras.    See  Ioni.^n  School. 

Anaximander.     See  Ionian  School. 

Anazarbus,  a  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Cilicia 
(Lesser  .\rmenia),  sufTragan  of  Antioch,  known  also 
to  the  ancients  as  Nova  Troas,  to  the  crusaders  as 
Naversa,  and  to  the  Arabs  as  Ain-Zarba.  Councils 
were  held  there  in  431  and  435. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  ami  Roman  Geogr.,  I,  139:  I.eqdik.v, 
Oriens  Christ.  (1740),  III,  tai-032. 

Afiazco,  Pedro  de,  b.  at  Chachapoyas  (Peru)  in 
1.5.')0;  il.  at  .Asuncion,  Paraguay,  1605.  His  father  was 
Pedro  do  Afiazco,  a  Spanish  captain,  companion  of 
Belalcazar  in  the  conquest  of  Ecuador;  ana  through 
him,  it  is  said,  the  first  notice  of  the  "Dorado"  of 
Ciuatavitd  reached  the  Spaniards  in  Ecuador.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-two  Ailazco  became  a  Jesuit.  In  1577 
he  was  sent  to  Juli,  on  Lake  Titicaca.  Thence  he 
p!i.s,setl  to  the  Chaco  tribe  among  the  Abipones 
and,  in  1,')!)3,  to  Paraguay,  where  he  died.  He  was 
an  indefatigable  missionary  and  a  zoaloas  student  of 
Indian  languages.  Highly  respectable  authorities, 
like  Gonzalez  l):ivila  and  Ix)zano,  credit  him  with 
having  comjio.setl  grammars,  "doctrines",  and  cate- 
chisms in  nine  dilTerent  Indian  languages  of  South 
America. 

Davii.a,  Teatro  eclrntistico  de  la  primiiiva  Iglesia  de  las 
fmJins  oecidentales  (Madrid,  1049);  TxjZANO,  Descripcitin  del 
gran  Chaeo  (Cordova,  1733);  Menoircri*-,  Diccionario:  ToRRr-s 
Saii.amani.o,  Antiguos  Jrsuil'is  (I.iina,  1882);  Relnciones 
grogroliras  de  Indias  (Madrid,  1S97,  Apnemlix),  IV.  None  of 
.•Xnazco's  linguistic  works  have  been  published,  and  it  is  to  bo 
feared  tlrnt  must,  if  not  all,  of  his  niatiuscripls  arc  lost. 

Ad.  F.  Bandelieu. 

Ancarano,  Jacobtjs.    See  Jacobus  de  Tehamo. 

Anchieta,  Joseph,  a  famous  Jesuit  missionary, 
commnnly  known  as  the  Apostle  of  Brazil,  b.  on 
the  Islaiul  of  Tenerife,  in  1.5,33,  of  noble  family; 
d.  in  Brazil,  1.597.  .\fter  studying  at  Coimbrn,  he 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 


and  when  a  novice  nearly  ruined  his  health  by  liis 
excessive  austerity,  causing  an  injury  to  the  spine 
which  made  him  almost  a  hunchback.  He  was  sent 
to  the  New  World,  with  no  idea  of  making  him  a 
mi.ssionary,  but  in  the  hope  of  restoring  his  shattered 
health.  lie  roachc<l  Brazil  in  1553,  and  laboured 
there  among  the  colonists  and  savage  natives  for 
forty-four  years.  His  first  work  was  teaching  Latin 
to  some  of  the  junior  members  of  the  Society  and  to 
a  certain  numlx^r  of  externa.  Very  likely  it  was  the 
first  classical  school  in  America.  He  was  a  perfect 
master  of  Latin,  Castilian,  and  Portuguese,  and 
quickly  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  native  tongue, 
in  which  he  composed  a  grammar  and  dictionary 
as  well  as  two  books  of  religious  iiLst ruction,  to  assist 
the  missionaries  in  the  work  of  converting  the  natives. 
He  was  a  poet,  and  wrote  canticles  whicli  immediately 
became  very  popular  among  the  natives  and  Portu- 
guese. To  eflect  a  reformation  of  morals,  he  com- 
posed and  directed  a  drama  which  was  acted  in  the 
o|X!n  air  at  Bahia.  IJy  means  of  interludes  in 
Brazilian  the  Indians  were  able  to  grasp  its  mean- 
ing. This  also  was  possibly  tlie  first  attempt  at 
dramatic  art  in  the  New  World.  Though  not  a 
priest,  he  accompanied  the  missionaries  on  their 
apostolic  journeys,  and  on  one  occasion  remained 
a  willing  hostage  among  the  wild  Tamuins  who 
were  waging  a  fierce  war  against  the  settlers;  twice 
he  w;is  on  the  ix)int  of  being  killed  and  eaten. 
During  his  captivity  he  Ls  said  to  have  composed 
a  poem  of  nearly  five  thou.sand  verses,  and,  as  there 
were  no  means  of  putting  it  on  paper,  he  committed 
it  to  memory,  and  wrote  it  out  after  he  returned 
to  the  colony.  It  was  during  the  last  military 
operations  to  suppress  the  Tamuin  uprising  that 
he  was  recalled  from  the  expedition,  and  ordained 
a  priest  by  Peter  Ix-itano,  the  first  bishop  who 
arrived  in  Brazil.  Apart  from  his  supernatural 
gifts,  he  was  remarkable  for  his  captivating  ck- 
quence  and  gracefulness  of  speech.  He  had  a  fair 
knowledge  of  medicine,  wliidi  he  made  use  of  in 
helping  his  Indians,  and  he  displayed  an  unusual 
skill  in  the  details  of  business  when,  later  in 
life,  he  was  called  to  the  oflfice  of  rector  and 
provincial. 

But  it  is  chiefly  as  a  thaumaturgus,  as  a  daring 
missionary,  and  as  a  man  of  extraordinary  holiness, 
that  Anchieta  is  remembered.  It  is  narrated  of  him 
that  the  birds  of  the  air  came  at  his  call;  the  wild 
beasts  of  the  forest  submitted  to  his  caresses;  the 
waters  of  the  sea  formed  a  wall  about  him  while  he 
was  praying;  the  touch  of  his  garments  restored 
health  to  the  sick.  He  posses.sed  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
and  frequently  described  events  that  were  occurring 
at  great  distances.  Though  coastantly  suffering 
from  bodily  infirmities,  he  undertook  the  most  la- 
borious missions,  and  thus  at  times  seemed  to  have 
a  supernatural  power  to  do  without  sleep  or  rest. 
The  districts  which  he  evangelized  were  always  the 
most  exhausting  and  dangerous.  His  power  over 
men,  botli  savage  and  civilized,  was  irresistible. 
His  prayer  was  constant,  and  he  was  seen  fre<iucntly, 
though  unaware  of  it  himself,  surrounded  by  a 
d:izzling  light.  He  was  almost  absolutely  without 
any  earthly  possessions,  and  went  barefoot  on  his 
apostolic  expeditions.  I'jven  before  he  was  a  priest 
he  was  entnisted  with  the  investigation  of  houses 
of  the  Society;  and  when  he  could  be  spared  from 
his  missions,  tie  w.as  made  rector  of  the  College  of 
St.  Vincent,  and,  sul)sc(|ucnlly.  Provincial  of  Brazil, 
rclinquisliing  this  |)Ost  only  when  his  failing  strength 
made  it  impassible  for  him  to  fulfil  its  duties.  '1  he 
IH'oplc  <l:imoured  for  his  canonization,  and  he  was 
declared  \'enerable  by  the  Church.  The  process  of 
his  beatification  is  now  being  considered. 

Compendia  de  Ui  vfe/o  de  el  aptistol  de  el  Brazil,  V,  P.  J.  de 
Anchieta  (Xercs  de  la  Fr.,  1677),  translated  by  Balthazar 


ANCHOR 


462 


ANCHORITES 


Anchieta;  Simon  de  Vasconcpllos.  Vila  do  veTter.  padre 
J.dr  jlncAi«(a  (Lisbon,  16721;  Life  of  Anchiela  in  Oralorian 
Serift  (London.   1849);  Chetineau-Joi.y,   Hist,  of  .S.   J..    II, 


119  (Paris.  1851). 


T.  J.  Campbell. 


Anchor  (\s  symbol),  The. — The  anchor,  because 
of  its  great  importance  in  navigation,  was  regarded 
in  ancient  times  an  a  symbol  of  safety.  The  Cliris- 
tians,  therefore,  in  adopting  tlie  anchor  as  a  symbol 
of  hope  in  a  fiiliiro  existence,  merely  gave  a  new  and 
higher  signification  to  a  familiar  emblem.  In  the 
teachings  of  Christianity  the  virtue  of  hope  occupies 
a  place  of  great  importance;  Christ  is  the  unfailing 


Fragment  of  Epita 


COMB    OF    DoMITILLA 


hope  of  all  who  believe  in  Him.  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul, 
and  several  of  the  early  Fathers  (Cabrol,  Diet, 
d'arch.  chr^t.,  col.  2000)  speak  in  this  sense,  but 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  for  the  first  time  con- 
nects the  idea  of  hope  with  the  symbol  of  the  anchor. 
The  writer  says  that  we  have  "Hope"  set  before  us 
"as  an  anchor  of  the  soul,  sure  and  firm"  (Heb.,  vi, 
19-20).  The  hope  here  spoken  of  is  obviously  not 
concerned  with  earthly,  but  with  heavenly  things, 
and  the  anchor  as  a  Christian  symbol,  consequently, 
relates  only  to  the  hope  of  salvation.  It  ranks 
among  the  most  ancient  of  Christian  symbols.  The 
well-known  fragment  of  the  inscription  discovered 
in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Domitilla,  which  De  Rossi 
reads  (sepulc)rum  {Ftavi)orum  contains  the  anchor, 
and  dates  from  the  end  of  the  first  century.  During 
the  second  and  third  centuries  the  anchor  occurs 
frequently  in  the  epitaphs  of  tlie  catacombs,  and 


particularly  in  the  most  ancient  parts  of  the  ceme- 
teries of  Sis.  Priscilla,  Domitilla,  Calixtus,  and  the 
Ccemi-lcrium  majiix.  About  seventy  examples  of  it 
have  been  found  in  the  cpnietery  of  Priscilla  alone, 
prior  to  the  fourtli  century.     In  the  oldest  of  these 


(second  century)  the  anchor  is  found  associated  with 
such  expressions  as  pax  tecum,  pax  libi,  in  pace,  thus 
expressing  the  firm  hope  of  the  authors  of  these  in- 
scriptions that  their  friends  have  been  admitted  to 
Heaven.  The  anchor  is  also  found  in  association  with 
proper  names  formed  from  the  Latin  or  the  Greek 
term  for  hope — spes,  iXirh.  St. 
Ambrose  evidently  had  this 
symbol  in  mind  when  he  wrote 
(In  Ep.  ad  Heb.,  vi):  "As  the 
anchor  thrown  from  a  ship  pre- 
vents this  from  being  borne 
about,  but  holds  it  securely,  so 
faith,  strengthened  by  hope," 
etc. 

V.\Rious  Forms  of  the  An- 
chor.— Different  forms    of    the 
anclior  appear  in   the    epitaphs  Anchor,    Cross   and 
of    the    catacombs,     the     most  Fishes 

common    being    that    in    which 

one  extremity  terminates  in  a  ring  adjoining  the  cross- 
bar while  the  other  ends  in  two  curved  branches  or 
an  arrowhead.  There  are,  however,  many  devia- 
tions from  this  form.  In  a  number  oi  monuments 
of  Sts.  Calixtus  and  Priscilla  the  cross-bar  is  wanting, 
and  in  others  the  curved  branches  are  replaced  by  a 
straight  transversal.  These  departures  from  regu- 
larity do  not  appear  to  have  any  especial  signifi- 
cance, but  the  cruciform  anchor  marks  an  interesting 
symbolic  development.  The  rare  appearance  of  a 
cross  in  the  Christian  monuments  of  the  first  four 
centuries  is  a  well-known  peculiarity;  not  more  than 
a  score  of  examples  belong  to  this  period.  Yet, 
though  the  cross  is  of  infrequent  occurrence  in  its 
familiar  form,  certain  monuments  appear  to  represent 
it  in  a  manner  intelligible  to  a  Christian  but  not  to  an 
outsider.  The  anchor  was  the  symbol  best  adapted 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  one  most  frequently  em- 
ployed. One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  dis- 
guised crosses,  from  the  cemetery  of  St.  Domitilla, 
consists  of  an  anchor  placed  upright,  the  transverse 
bar  appearing  just  beneath  the  ring.  To  complete 
the  symbol,  two  fishes  are  represented  with  the 
points  of  the  curved  branches  in  their  mouths.  A 
real  cross,  standing  on  a  sort  of  pedestal  to  the  right 
of  this,  is  sufficient  indication  that  the  author  of  the 
figures  intended  a  symbolic  cross  in  this  instance 
(Cabrol,  loc.  cit.,  fig.  557).  Of  even  greater  interest 
in  this  connection  is  the  representation  of  a  cross- 
anchor  with  two  fishes  suspended  from  the  cross- 
beam, also  found  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Priscilla. 
There  can  scarcely  be  any  doubt  that  the  author  of 
this  and  similar  representations  intended  to  produce 
a  symbolic  picture  of  the  crucifixion:  the  mystic  Fish 
(Christ)  on  the  suggested  cross  (the  anchor).  To 
the  same  category  of  symbols,  probably,  belongs  the 
group  of  representations  of  the  dolphin  and  trident. 
The  anchor  as  a  symbol  is  found  only  rarely  in  monu- 
ments from  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  and 
early  in  the  fourth  century  it  had  disappeared. 

KiRscH,  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrct.,  col.  1999. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Anchorites  (amx>^p^t^,  I  withdraw),  also  hermits 
(iprifurai,  desert-dwellers,  Lat.,  cremita-),  in  Christian 
terminology,  men  who  have  sought  to  triumph  over 
the  two  unavoidable  enemies  of  human  salvation, 
the  flesh  and  the  devil,  by  depriving  them  of  the 
assistance  of  their  ally,  the  world.  The  natural  im- 
pulse of  all  earnest  souls  to  withdraw  temporarily 
or  forever  from  the  tumult  of  social  life  wa.s  sanc- 
tioned by  the  exain{)lcs  and  teachings  of  Scripture. 
St.  John  15apti.st  in  tlie  desert  and  Our  Lord,  with- 
drawing ever  and  anon  into  .solitude,  were  oxaini)les 
which  incited  a  host  of  holy  men  to  imitate  them. 
Since  these  men  despised  and  shunned  the  world, 
it  cannot  surprise  us  that  the  world  answered  with 
corresponding  contempt.     The  world  is  an  imperious 


ANCIENT 


463 


ANCONA 


tyrant,  and  thoroughly  selfish;  niggardly  in  its  grati- 
tude to  those  lofty  souls  whose  lives  are  entirely  de- 
voted to  its  betterment  without  regard  to  its  praise 
or  censure.  It  pursues  as  rebels,  and  derides  as  fools, 
those  who  shake  off  its  yoke  and  scatter  to  the  winds 
its  riches,  honours,  and  pleasures.  In  its  extreinest 
isolation,  the  life  of  the  Christian  anchorite  is  no 
Nirvana.  The  .soul  occupied  with  divine  thoughts 
freed  from  all  ilistracting  cares  leads  an  existence 
most  consonant  to  man's  rational  nature,  and  con- 
.-iiiiucntly  productive  of  the  highest  type  of  happi- 
ne.-is  obtainable  on  this  earth.  Moreover,  no  matter 
how  deeply  the  hermit  buries  himself  in  the  thicket 
or  wilderness,  he  is  always  within  ea.sy  reach  of  the 
call  of  charity.  Kirst  of  all,  kindred  spirits  will  seek 
him  out.  Ilundreils  of  cells  will  cluster  about  his; 
his  experience  will  be  invoked  for  the  drawing  up 
of  rules  of  order  and  for  .spiritual  guidance;  in  short, 
his  hermitage  is  gradually  transformed  into  a  mon- 
astery, his  solitary  hfe  into  the  cenobitic.  If  he 
again  longs  for  solitude,  and  plunges  deeper  into  the 
desert,  the  same  process  will  begin,  as  we  sec  in 
the  case  of  St.  .\nthony  of  Eg\-pt.  Furthermore, 
though  these  saintly  men  have  tiirown  off  the  yoke 
of  the  world,  they  remain  subject  to  the  authority 
of  the  Church,  at  whose  command,  in  critical  times, 
they  have  issued  forth  from  their  retirement,  hko 
fresh  reserve  forces,  to  strengthen  the  dispirited  ranks 
of  her  spiritual  army.  Thus  did  .\ntliony  (-'.S(}-,'556) 
come  to  .\lexandria  on  the  appeal  of  .Vthanasius; 
thus  did  the  sons  of  Benedict,  and  Homuald,  and 
Bruno,  and  Bernard,  do  yeomen's  work  in  the  medie- 
val struggle  with  barbarism.  Indeed,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  point  out  a  single  great  champion  of 
Christian  civiUzation  who  was  not  trained  to  the 
spiritual  combat  in  the  wilderness. 

The  chief  resorts  of  the  earliest  of  these  fugitives 
from  human  society  were  the  vast  deserts  of  Kgypt 
ami  Syria,  whose  caves  and  tombs  soon  housed  an 
incredible  number  of  Christian  ascetics.  The  first 
attempts  at  self-discipline  by  tliis  untutored  host 
were  sometimes  crude,  and  tinctured  with  Oriental 
fanaticism;  but  before  long  the  authority  of  the 
Church  and  the  wise  maxims  of  great  spiritual 
masters,  notably  Pachomius,  Hilarion,  and  Basil, 
fashioned  them  into  a  well  disciplined  army,  with 
distinct  aims  and  methods.  Soon  the  rule  obtained, 
that  those  only  should  be  authorized  to  live  solitary 
lives  who  had  previously  spent  a  time  of  probation 
in  a  monastery,  and  had  Dcen  permitted  by  their 
abbot  to  withdraw.  Between  the  monks,  who  lived 
and  worked  in  common  (the  so-called  cenobites)  and 
the  hermits,  who  pa,ssed  their  lives  in  absolute  soli- 
tude, there  were  many  gradations.  Some  lived  in 
separate  cells  and  met  only  for  prayer,  some  for 
meals,  some  only  on  Sundays.  The  strangest  form 
of  asceticism  was  that  adopted  by  the  Stylitcs  (q.  v.), 
men  who  lived  for  years  on  the  tops  of  high  columns, 
from  which  they  exhorted  and  instructed  the  awe- 
stricken  populace.  CViming  to  more  modern  times, 
canonists  distinguish  four  different  species  of  Hermits: 
(1)  Those  who  have  taken  the  three  monastic  vows 
in  some  religious  oriler  approved  by  the  Church. 
Such  are  the  Hermits  of  St.  .\ugustine,  the  Hermits 
of  St.  Jerome,  etc.  (2)  Those  who  live  in  conmion 
with  a  form  of  life  approved  by  the  bishop. 
{'■i)  Tho.se  who  without  vows  or  community  life 
adopt  a  peculiar  habit  with  the  approval  of  the 
bishop,  and  by  him  are  deputed  to  the  service  of  a 
churcli  or  oratorj'.  (1)  Those  who,  without  any 
ecclesiastical  authority,  adopt  the  "habitus  eremiti- 
cus"  and  live  under  no  rule.  To  obviate  possible 
abu.ses  on  the  part  of  this  last  cla.s.s  of  hermits,  the 
Holy  See  has  at  different  times  i.ssued  stringent  leg- 
islation, which  may  be  read  in  Benedict  XlV  "lie 
Sj-n.  Diocc."  VI,  iii,  6,  or  in  Ferraris,  "  Bibliotheca", 
J.  v.  "Eremita".  James  F.  Louohlin. 


Ancient  of  Days,  a  name  given  to  God  by  the 
Prophet  IJaniel,  vii,  9,  13,  22,  in  which  he  contra.sts 
His  eternal  powers  with  the  frail  existence  of  the 
empires  of  the  world.  It  is  from  these  descriptions 
of  the  Almighty  that  Christian  art  derived  its  gen- 
eral manner  of  representing  the  first  person  of  the 
Holy  Trinity.  Ancient  of  Days  is  expressed  in 
Aramaic  by  'At!q  i/omin;  in  the  tlreek  Scptuagint  by 
iraXaiis  Tjfupuf,  and  in  the  \'ulgate  by  Antu/nuii 
dicrum.  A.  J.  Maas. 

Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians.     See  Hibkr.nians. 

Ancilla  Dei. — In  early  Christian  inscriptions 
the  title  anciltu  Dei  is  often  given  to  a  deceased 
woman.  From  the  meaning  attached  to  this  term 
in  the  Middle  Ages  it  has  sometimes  been  as.sunied, 
without  .sufficient  proof,  that  the  persons  .so  qualified 
in  the  first  a^c  of  Christianity  were  consecrated 
virgins.  The  mscriptions  containing  this  formula 
are  of  two  clas.ses:  one,  in  which  it  is  merely  stated 
that  a  given  person  was  ancilla  Dei;  the  other, 
from  which  it  is  clear  that  this  title  was  sometimes 

fiven  to  persons  who  certainly  were  not  religious, 
t  is  with  the  latter  cla-ss  that  we  are  concerned. 
The  former  class  is  the  more  numerous,  but  one  of 
the  latter  is  quite  explicit.  This  informs  us  that  a 
certain  monument  was  erected  by  a  husband  to  his 
wife,  whom  he  styles  Dei  ancilla — "  (Laur)cntius 
Rufine  coiugi  Dei  anci(lla;)  .  .  ."  (De  Uossi,  Roma 
Sott.,IlI,p.  11,  n.  4).  In  a  Roman  inscription  of  the 
first  quarter  of  the  si.xth  century  a  certain  Guttes  is 
referred  to  iis  ancilla  Dei,  and  it  is  further  stated 
that  she  was  nonnes — "in  presence  of  the  nun  Guttes, 
a  handmaid  of  God"  (sub  prescntia.  nonnes  Guttes 
ancille  Dei).  This  reference  proves  that  even  in 
the  sixth  centurj',  ancilla  Dei  was  a  title  not  peculiar 
to  religious;  the  author  regarded  it  as  neccssarj'  to 
state  explicitly  that  she  was  nonnes  (Cabrol,  Diet, 
d'areh.  chriit.,  1992).  From  the  pontificate  of  St. 
Gregorj'  the  Great  (500-1)04),  however,  only  nuns, 
as  a  rule,  were  qualified  by  this  title:  "aneillas  Dei 
quas  vos  Grxci  lingua  monastrias  dicitis"  (Greg. 
M.  Ep.,  vi,  23). 

Leci.ercq  in  Diet,  d'archiol.  chrit.,  col.  1973;  De  Rossi, 
Roma  Solleranea  (Rome,  18G4-77). 

Maurice  M.  H.\ssett. 

Ancona,  Ciuiaco  d',  an  Italian  antiquarj',  whose 
family  name  was  PizzicoUi,  b.  at  Ancona  about  1391; 
d.  about  1455  at  Cremona.  During  voyages  of  com- 
merce throughout  the  Orient  he  collected  a  great 
store  of  inscriptions,  manuscripts,  and  other  anliijui- 
ties,  returning  in  142G  after  having  visited  Rhodes, 
Beirtjt,  Damascus,  Cyprus,  Mitylene,  Thessalonica, 
and  other  places.  He  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
Kugenius  I\  ,  Cosmo  de' Medici,  and  the  Visconti  of 
Milan.  In  1443  he  visited  Morca  in  Greece,  where 
he  copied  inscriptions  mentioned  in  the  correspond- 
ence of  Filelfo,  Traversari,  Leonardo  Aretino,  and 
others.  He  is  accounted  the  best  equipped,  most 
learned,  and  accurate  worker  in  the  province  of  epig- 
raphy during  the  period  of  the  Renaissance.  His 
accuracy  in  copying  ancient  inscriptions  is  said  by 
De  Ro.ssi  (op.  cit.  below,  377)  to  be  "the  chief  credit 
and  undying  glory  of  Ciriaco".  Most  of  his  manu- 
scripts have  lieen  lost;  those  published  after  his 
death  arc  "Itinerarium"  (Florence,  1742);  "Epi- 
grammata  repcrta  per  IlljTicum  a  Kyriaco  Anconi- 
tano"  (Rome,  1(>()4),  the  latter  very  rare.  Mazzu- 
chelli  mentions  other  works  in  liis  "Scrittori  d'ltalia'' 
(s.  v.). 

TiRABOSCHI.  Sliiria  delta  LfU.  llat.,  VI,  5.  For  an  ex- 
haustive account  of  Ciriaco'.s  travels  and  cpiKrapliical  labours 
see  De  RofWl.  Inscriplionet  Chrisl.  Urbis  Roma,  VII  sac. 
antiquioTca  (Konin,    ISSS),    II,   356-87. 

Thom.\s  Walsh. 
Ancona  and  TTmana,   an  Italian  diocese  in   the 
Archdiocese  of  Ancona,  comprising  ten  towns  in  the 
province   of   Ancona.     It   is   an   importart   seaport 


ANCREN 


464 


ANCYRA 


town,  favourable  for  commerce  between  the  East 
and  Italy,  across  the  Adriatic.  Ancona  must  have 
had  a  Christian  community  within  its  walls  at  a  very 
early  dat«.  Kxca\atioiis  made  in  the  village  of 
Varano,  near  Ancona.  have  brought  to  light  a  sepul- 
chral stone  with  a  Christian  inscription.  The  char- 
acter of  the  writing  of  the  epitaph  shows  that  it 
belongs  to  the  end  of  the  third  century,  and  we  are 
justified  in  believing  that  the  church  at  Ancona 
did  not  possess  catacombs,  but  an  open  burial  place. 
For  the  purjiose  of  proving  the  existence  of  a  well- 
organized  Christian  community  before  the  time  of 
Constantine,  Harnack  [IJie  Mission,  etc.,  (Leipzig, 
1902),  501,  502]  advances  arguments  that  seem  per- 
fectly legitimate.  Eusebius  says  (VI,  43)  that  the 
Roman  Bishop  Cornelius,  in  the  year  250,  held  a 
synod  of  sixty  Italian  bishops  against  Novatian.  It 
may  be  assumed  that  the  jurisdiction  of  Rome  as  a 
metropolitan  see,  about  the  year  250,  embraced  not 
less  than  two  hundred  bishoprics,  since  all  the  bishops 
of  a  given  territory  did  not  attend  the  synods.  It 
follows  that  Christians  were  found  in  all  the  more 
important  cities,  amongst  which,  of  course,  was  An- 
cona. The  city  is  under  the  protection  of  two 
saints,  Primianus  and  Cyriacus,  e\idently  very  an- 
cient, but  their  rank  and  the  time  they  flourished 
are  uncertain.  In  the  year  462,  Mark  of  Ancona 
came  to  the  sjTiod  held  under  Pope  Hilary;  and  in 
465,  to  the  new  synod  convoked  by  the  same  Pope 
came  Philippus  Numanatie.  The  two  sees  were 
united  in  1422,  at  the  time  of  Pope  Martin  V.  From 
an  archaeological  point  of  view,  besides  the  place  of 
sepulture  mentioned  above,  the  cubicuhim  of  the 
veteran  Flavins  Eventius,  ■ndth  a  singular  inscrip- 
tion and  a  magnificent  mosaic  of  the  fourth  century, 
is  worthy  of  mention,  as  is  also  the  sarcophagus  of 
Flavins  Gorgonius,  comes  ■privatarum  largitiomim. 
(count  of  the  emperor's  private  largess) ,  of  the  same 
century.  There  is  also  an  "Evangelium  Sancti  Mar- 
ceUini",  in  uncial  characters,  of  the  seventh  centurj', 
preserved  in  the  Chapter  library.  The  Cathedral  of 
Ancona,  dedicated  to  St.  Cyriacus,  and  standing  in 
the  highest  part  of  the  city,  is  in  a  style  of  architec- 
ture that  has  felt  the  direct  influence  of  Oriental 
art.  It  was  finished  in  the  eleventh  century  and 
has  a  cupola  with  a  quadrangular  base  Uke  St.  Fosca 
on  the  Venetian  lagoons  and  St.  Anthony  at  Padua. 

Ancona  contains  37  parishes;  85  churches,  chapels, 
and  oratories;  101  secular  priests;  30  seminarians;  15 
regular  clergy;  8  lay  brothers;  70  religious  (women); 
50  confraternities;  4  schools  for  boys  (400  pupils);  5 
schools  for  girls  (250  pupils).     Population  81,662. 

UoHELLi,  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1721).  I.  324;  Cappelletti, 
;.(■  chiese  d'llalia  (Venice,  1866).  VI,  9;  Oams,  Serifs  episco- 
porum  Ecclesiw  catholica  (Ratisbon,  1873),  664;  Ciaharini, 
Sommario  delta  alorifi  d' Ancona  (Ancona,  1867);  Mahonics, 
De  Ecclesia  c(  episcopig  anconitania  commentarius  in  quo 
Vqhelliana  series  emendatur,  continiiatur ,  illustratur  (Rome, 
17.59);  Peruzzi,  Storia  d' Ancona  dalla  jondazione  all  anno 
1832  (Pesaro,  1835);  Speciali,  Notizie  istoriche  de'  santi 
proletlori  delta  ciUi  d' Ancona,  dei  cittadini  che  con  la  loro  sanlilh 
I'hanno  illuslrata,  delta  di  lei  caltedrale  e  vescori  delta  cxtth 
(Venice,  1759);  a.  v.  Ancona,  in  Diet,  d'arch.  el  de  Hi.  (Pans, 
1905);  Ventdri,  Sloria  deW  arte  Italiana  (Milan,  1901-02),  I, 
50;  II,  360. 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Ancren  Riwle,  or  REOtrLA  Inclusarum,  is  the 
name  given  to  a  thirteenth-century  code  of  rules  for 
the  life  of  anchoresses,  which  is  sometimes  called 
"The  Nuns'  Rule".  In  Mid<lle  English  the  word 
ancren  was  used  for  solitaries,  or  anchorites  of  both 
sexes;  but  in  this  case  it  refers  only  to  ladies  who  had 
left  the  world  and  were  established  in  a  secluded 
place,  in  order  to  lead  a  life  devoted  to  the  practices 
of  religious  observance.  Of  the  text  of  this  ''Riile" 
several  copies  are  extant  in  the  English  libraries. 
One  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  C'ambridgc  (MS.  402), 
is  entitled  ''Ancren  WissC-"  and  is  thought  by  .some 
to  be  an  abridgment,  or  adaptation,  of  the  Latin 
tract  of  Simon  of  Ghent  who  was  Bishop  of  Salisbury 


(12S7-1315).  The  British  Museum  possesses  five 
copies,  three  of  which  were  collated  for  the  printed 
edition  published  for  the  Camden  Society  by  the 
Rev.  James  Morton  in  1852.  Besides  publisliing  the 
old  Norman-English  version,  Mr.  Morton  gave  a 
modern  EngUsh  version  or  translation  which  was 
reprinted  ina  small  volumein  1905.  Mr.  Morton,  in  his 
introduction,  has  given  many  reasons  for  rejecting  the 
notion  that  the  Enghsh  version  is  a  translation  of 
Simon  of  Ghent's  tract,  and  considers  that  the 
Museum  Cott.  MS.,  Cleopatra  C.  vi,  is  probably  the 
original  Enghsh  version  of  the  "Ancren  Riwle". 
Moreover,  in  the  opinion  of  many  experts,  the 
curious  .\nglo-Saxon  language  in  which  the  code  of 
rules  is  written  seems  to  require  an  earlier  date  than 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  centurj'.  It  is  thought 
probable  that  the  real  author  of  the  httle  book  is 
Bishop  Richard  Poore,  who  held  the  see  of  Salisbury 
from  1217  to  1229,  when  he  was  translated  by  the 
Pope  to  Durham.  It  is  right,  however,  to  mention 
the  fact  that  some  writers  consider  that  the  time  of 
the  composition  of  the  "Rule"  must  be  put  at  a 
Liter  date.  Although  there  is  nothing  whatever  in 
the  work  to  warrant  the  assumption,  it  has  usually 
been  taken  for  granted  that  it  was  composed  for  the 
nuns  who  dwelt  at  Tarrent  in  Dorsetsliire.  Bishop 
Poore  was  born  in  that  place,  and  a  sister  of  his  is 
said  to  have  become  a  nun  in  that  convent.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  the  Bishop,  for  some 
reason,  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  ".second  founder" 
of  the  convent  and  that  in  his  last  sickness  he  jour- 
neyed to  Tarrent  and  died  there  in  1237. 

The  "Ancren  Riwle"  contains  many  interesting 
details  of  the  Ufe  led  by  the  solitary  ladies  for  whom 
it  was  written.  Although  the  "ancress"  was  alone 
in  the  strict  sense,  that  is,  she  inhabited  her  cell  or 
cells  alone,  except  for  the  "maiden"  or  servant  who 
attended  to  her  wants,  still,  in  this  case,  there  were 
three  or  more  of  these  solitary  ladies  living  under  the 
same  roof.  "I  know  not",  says  the  author  of  the 
rule,  "any  anchoress  that  with  more  abundance,  or 
more  honour,  hath  all  that  is  necessary  to  her  than 
ye  three  have".  We  also  learn  that  the  convent,  or 
house,  of  these  ladies  was  adjoining  the  church,  and 
that  through  windows  in  the  cells  of  each  they  were 
enabled  to  practise  their  devotions  and  to  follow 
the  ser\-ices  and  especially  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  as  well 
as  pay  their  hom.age  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  hang- 
ing over  the  altar.  The  daily  Ufe  and  work  of  the 
nmis,  according  to  tliis  rule,  is  simplicity  itself. 
After  having  begun  the  day  by  a  visit  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  the  sisters  were  instructed  to  fall  on  their 
knees  before  their  crucifixes  and  occupy  themselves 
with  salutations  to  Our  Saviour  represented  before 
their  eyes  on  tlie  Cross.  They  were  then  to  salute 
Our  Bles-sed  Lady  with  "five  aves",  before  beginning 
the  Hours  of  her  Office,  which  were  to  be  followed 
by  a  Litany  and  the  Office  for  the  Dead.  Tlie  day 
was  mostly  occupied  by  prayer.  The  author  admits 
that  this  and  the  keeping  of  "  the  ten  old  Command- 
ments" constitute  a  hard  fashion  of  life,  but  adils 
that  "nothing  is  ever  so  hard  that  love  doth  not 
make  it  tender  and  soft  ami  sweet ". 

M.SS,— C.  C.  C.  Cambridge,  M.S.  402:  H.  Museum,  Cott. 
MSS.  Nero  xiv;  Titus  D,  xviii;  Cleop.  C,  vi;  Vit,  E.  vii.  Printed: 
— Ancren  Riwle,  e<l.  and  tr.  MoHTox  (Camtien  Soc.  1852; 
De  la  More  Press  reprint,  19051. 

Francis  .\idan  Gasqi'et. 

Ancyra,  the  modem  Angora,  a  titular  .see  of 
Galatia  in  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of  Laodicea.  It 
was  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Midas,  was  a 
chief  place  of  the  Gidlic  conquerors  of  Asia  Minor 
(c.  277,  B.  c),  and  in  imperial  times  a  centre  of 
great  commercial  importance.  It  is  also  famous  for 
the  oflicial  record  of  tlie  .\cts  of  .Vugnstus,  known  as 
the  "Monumentum  .Vncyranum",  .an  inscription  cut 
in  marble  on  the  walls  of    an  ancient  temjJe,  sev- 


f  Cplilllf  £|.|||  ff . 


^! 


ANCYRA 


465 


ANDERDON 


eral  times  copied  and  edited  since  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Tlie  ruins  of  Ancyra  furnish  to-day  vahiable 
bas-rehefs,  inscriptions,  and  other  architectural  frag- 
ments. Its  episcopal  list  is  given  in  (ianis,  "Series 
episc.  ICccl.  oath.";  also  tliat  of  anotlier  Ancyra  in 
I'hrj'gia  Pacatiana. 

Smith.  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  I,  1.3.3;  Lequikn, 
Orirnt  Chritl.  (1740).  1.  455-474;  Babklev,  ^1  Ride  Ihroutih 
Atui  Mxnor  and  Armenia  (London,   1891),   103. 

Ancyra,  CouNcii,'*  of. — Three  councils  were  held 
ill  tlio  I'orincr  capital  of  Galatia  (now  Angora)  in  Asia 
.Minor,  tluring  the  fourth  century.  The  first,  an 
orthodox  ploiiarj'  .<ynod,  was  held  in  314,  and  its 
twenty-five  disciplinary  canons  constitute  one  of  the 
most  important  documents  in  the  early  history  of 
the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance. 
Nine  of  tliem  deal  with  conditions  for  the  reconciha- 
tionof  the/ap.si',-  the  others,  with  marriage,  alienations 
of  church  projicrty,  etc.  The  synod  of  358  was  a 
Semi-.\rian  conciliahulum,  presiiled  over  by  Hasil 
of  Ancyra.  It  condemned  the  grosser  Arian  blas- 
phemies, but  set  forth  an  equally  heretical  doctrine 
in  the  propo.sition  that  the  Son  was  in  all  things 
similar  to  the  Father,  but  not  identical  in  substance. 
In  375,  Arian  bishops  met  at  Ancyra  and  deposed 
several  bishops,  among  them  St.  Gregory  of  Njissa. 

Mansi,  Coll.  Cone.  {1739).  II.  513;  II,  2G5:  Hkfklk,  Con- 
cilimoeich.,  I,  219-242;  BackHAM,  Telts  of  the  Canonf  of  An- 
cyra. in  Sliuiia  Bibl.  Eccl.  (18911,  III.  139— 21G.  Cf.  BeI/- 
i.EV  (on  .\ncyra)  in  Mem.  de  I'Acad.  det  Inter.  (1774), 
XXXVII,  381-418. 

Thomas  J.  Sn.ui.oj. 

Andalusia. — This  appellative  is  derived  from 
Al-.Andaliis,  the  name  given  by  the  Arabs  to  the 
portion  of  Spain  subject  to  their  dominion.  Accord- 
ing to  the  opinion  of  D.  Eduardo  Saavedra,  the  name 
was  applied  after  the  battle  of  Las  Naves  in  1212 
(when  the  Sierra  Morena  became  the  dividing  line 
between  the  Christian  and  the  Moorish  pos.sessions) 
to  the  territory  under  the  control  of  the  Moors,  the 
limits  of  which  were  approximately  the  same  as 
those  of  the  present  Andalusia.  This  country  is 
situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Iberian  peninsula, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  provinces  of 
Hadajoz  and  New  Castile,  on  the  south  by  the  Medi- 
terranean Sen  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  tlie  ea.st 
by  the  provinces  of  Albacete  and  Murcia,  and  on  the 
west  by  Portugal.  Its  total  area  is  about  33,950 
square  miles,  and  the  number  of  its  inhabitants, 
according  to  the  latest  census  (verified  in  1900), 
3,433,693.  The  principal  mountain  ranges  that 
traverse  this  section  are  Sierra  Moreiia  in  the  north. 
Sierra  Nevada  in  the  south,  and  Sierra  Almagrera  and 
Sierra  de  Oador  to  the  east.  The  largest  rivers  are 
the  Ciuadalquivir,  the  Guadalete,  Rio  Tinto,  the 
Guadalmedina,  and  the  Genii,  a  tributary  of  the 
Guadalquivir.  The  climate  in  general  is  temperate, 
the  .section  bordering  directly  on  the  sea  being  hot. 
The  soil  is  very  fertile  in  almost  all  the  level  countrj-, 
especially  in  the  flat  arable  land  around  Cordova  and 
Seville,  and  in  the  wide  open  plain  of  Granada;  it 
is  poor  in  other  sections,  Ijecause  of  the  scarcity  of 
water — as  in  certain  parts  of  the  province  of  Cadiz — 
or  l)Coau.se  of  innate  properties  of  the  soil — ;»s  in  Alpu- 
jarras.  The  most  important  products  are  cereals, 
olives,  beet-root,  and  sugar-cane  in  the  low  lands; 
grapes,  figs,  oranges,  and  pomegranates  in  the  i'o<7a.s 
(irrigated  lands).  The  oils  of  Cordova  and  Seville, 
and  the  wines  of  Jerez  and  Malaga  are  famous;  also 
the  raisins  of  Malaga.  Much  attention  is  given  in 
Cordova  and  Seville  to  the  breeding  of  fine  horses, 
and  these  provinces  are  also  famous  for  their  breed 
of  bulls. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  in  Andalusia  two 
archbishoprics:  Seville  and  Granada;  and  five  bish- 
oprics: Cadiz,  Cordova,  Jaen.  Malaga,  Almeria,  and 
Guadix.  The  military  department  is  represented  by 
a  capitania  general,  with  headcjuarters  at  Seville  and 


eight  stations,  one  in  each  province.  The  judiciary 
is  divided  into  two  districts  (aiidienciax  territoriales), 
that  of  Seville  and  that  of  Granada;  the  political  and 
administrative  department  is  divided  into  eight 
provinces,  each  named  from  its  cai)ital:  Seville, 
Cadiz,  Huelva,  Cordova,  Jaen,  Malaga,  Granada, 
and  Almeria.  The  Andalusians  speak  a  dialect  of 
the  Spanish  langu:ige,  the  chief  diiference  being  the 
pronunciation  of  the  letter  h,  giving  s  the  sound  of  z, 
and  c  the  sound  of  s  (in  the  syllables  re,  ci),  and  the 
suppression  of  the  final  .s.  Many  strangers  visit 
Andalusia  everj'  year,  especially  in  the  spring,  at- 
tracted by  the  beauty  of  its  many  liistoric  monu- 
ments— pre-eminently,  the  cathedral  and  Alcazar  of 
Seville,  the  cathedral  of  Cordova,  and  the  Alhambra 
— and  also  by  the  typically  national  character  of  the 
Holy  Week  services  at  Seville,  and  of  Corpus  Christi 
at  Granada.  Fairs  of  great  local  interest  are  held  in 
both  cities  in  the  week  following  these  services. 

Andalusia  was  inhabited  in  early  historic  times  by 
a  people  of  Iberian  origin;  the  '1  urdetani  occupied 
what  are  now  the  provinces  of  Seville  and  Muelva; 
the  Tiirduli,  Jaen,  Cordova,  and  part  of  Granada; 
the  Hilstuli,  Malaga,  and  the  coast  of  Granada;  and 
the  Hastetani,  Jaen,  Guadix,  Baza,  and  Almeria. 
To  this  region,  called  Tarshish  in  the  Bible  and 
Tartessos  by  Greek  writers,  the  Phccniciaius  came, 
about  the  year  1100  b.  c,  settling  in  what  is  now 
Cadiz,  and  later  spreading  to  Malaga,  Adra,  and 
Jete,  all  three  celebrated  for  their  deposits  of  salt. 
The  Cartliaginians  succeeded  the  Plioenicians  in 
power,  and  ruled  over  almost  the  whole  of  Andalusia 
until  their  expulsion  by  the  Romans.  Under  the 
Roman  dominion  Andalusia  formed  a  part  of  Farther 
Spain  (Hi.ipania  Ulterior)  during  the  Republic,  and 
an  independent  province,  called  Boetica,  in  the  time 
of  the  Empire.  With  the  Germanic  invasion  came 
the  Vandals,  who  established  themselves  here,  to  \>e 
followed  by  the  Visigoths  when  the  Vandals  passed 
over  into  Africa.  When  Athanagild  called  the  Byzan- 
tines to  his  aid,  he  gave  them  as  a  compensation  the 
most  southerly  portion  of  Andalusia,  but  Leovigild, 
Suintila,  and  Sisebiit  succeeded  in  reuniting  it  to  the 
monarchy  of  the  Visigoths.  Under  the  rule  of  the 
Emirs,  subordinates  of  the  Caliph  of  Damascus,  and 
in  the  time  of  the  Caliphate  of  Cordova,  Andalusia 
was  tlie  centre  of  the  political  life  and  literary  and 
artistic  culture  of  the  Arab  people.  At  the  downfall 
of  the  Caliphate  (1030),  it  was  subdivided  into  eleven 
independent  states,  some  extremely  small:  Cordova, 
Seville,  Carmona,  Maron,  Arcos,  Niebla,  Huelva, 
Malaga,  Ronda,  Granada,  and  Almeria.  The  Al- 
moravides  (1086-1129)  and  the  Almohades  (1129- 
1272)  subjugated  all  this  territory  to  their  dominion. 
^'erdinand  III,  the  Saint,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  reconquered 
Jaen,  Cordova,  and  Seville,  leaving  to  the  Arabs  only 
the  kingdom  of  Granada,  which  compri.sed  the  greater 
part' of  the  present  provinces  of  Malaga,  tiranada, 
and  Almeria.  Finally,  after  a  war  whic-li  lasted  nine 
years.  Ferdinand  and  Lsabclla,  the  Catholic,  ob- 
tained possession  of  Granada,  entering  the  capital 
city  in  triumph,  2  January,  1492.  Andalusia  has 
produced  many  illustrious  men  in  science,  art,  letters, 
and  the  profession  of  arms.  It  will  be  sufficient  to 
mention  the  philosopher  Francisco  Suarez,  the 
ascetic  writer  Fray  Luis  de  Granada,  the  painter 
Murillo,  and  El  Gran  Capitan,  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova. 

.Sanchez  y  Casado,  Elementoa  de  peografla  eomparada 
(Ma.lri.l.  1894);  Kiepert.  I.rhrbueh  der  alien  Geographir 
(Berlin.  1RS9);  Gcerra  k  Hinojosa.  Hitloria  de  la  dominacion 
de  lot  puehloa  (jermtinieot  en  Etpai\a  (Ma«tri<l.  1890^;  SiMONfrr. 
Deteripeinn  del  rrino  de  Granada  bajo  la  dominaciiin  de  lot 
Xatentat  (Madrid,  18G1).  For  the  .\rab  conquest  9ce  Codera 
and  ISaavedra. 

EouAnDo  DE  Hinojosa. 

Anderdon,  William  Henry,  English  Jesuit  and 
writer,  b.  in  London,  England,  26  December,  1816; 


ANDERLEDY 


■466 


ANDERSON 


d.  28  July,  1890.  After  three  years  at  King's  Col- 
lege, London,  he  matriculated  at  Oxford,  when  about 
nineteen,  and  entered  Balliol.  Soon  after,  he  won  a 
scholarship  at  University  College  and  took  a  degree 
in  1840.  He  received  Anglican  ordination,  became 
Vicar  of  Withyam,  and  in  1846  of  St.  .Margaret's, 
Leicester.  In  1850  he  was  received  into  the  Church 
in  Paris  by  Father  de  Ravignan.  Ordained  at  Oscott 
by  Bishop  I'Uathorne  in  1853,  he  was  appointed  a 
lecturer  at  Ushaw  College  and  afterwards  preacher 
and  confessor  at  the  llniversity  Church  in  Dublin. 
During  his  stay  in  Ireland  the  Franciscan  convent 
of  Drumshambo  was  founded,  mainly  through  his 
efforts.  In  1856  he  was  called  to  London  by  his 
uncle.  Cardinal  .Manning,  whose  secretary  he  re- 
mained till  he  joined  the  Jesuits  in  1872.  From 
1875  to  1889  he  li\ed  in  Manchester,  doing  excellent 
work  as  preacher,  spiritual  guide,  and  writer. 

Father  Anderdon  began  his  literary  apostolate  by 
writing  Catholic  tales:  "Bonneval,  a  Story  of  the 
Fronde"  (1857),  "Owen  Evans,  the  Catholic  Crusoe" 
(1862),  ".\fternoons  with  the  Saints"  (1863),  "In 
the  Snow,  Tales  of  Mt.  St.  Bernard"  (1866).  All 
these  stories,  save  the  first,  went  through  nine  or 
ten  editions,  and  were  translated  into  German  and 
French.  Other  valuable  works  from  his  pen  are 
"Fasti  Apostoliei"  (1882),  "Evenings  with  the 
Saints"  (1883),  and  "Britain's  Early  Faith"  (1887). 
His  controversial  writings  are  the  very  best  of  the 
kind,  his  method  being  to  understate  rather  than  to 
exaggerate.  Among  his  works  the  best  known  are: 
"Is  Ritualism  Honest?"  "Controversial  Papers" 
(1878),  "Luther's  Words  and  the  Word  of  God" 
(8th  thousand,  1883),  "Luther  at  Table",  "What 
sort  of  a  man  was  Luther?"  (13th  thousand,  1883), 
"What  do  Catholics  Really  Believe?",  "Confession 
to  a  Priest"  (1881). 

His  newspaper  work  displayed  a  fine  sense  of 
irony  in  treating  the  polemics  of  the  day.  He  was 
ever  busy  writing  for  the  "Weekly  Register",  the 
(English)  "Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart",  the 
"Xaverian",  "Merry  England ",  the  "Month",  the 
"Irish  Monthly",  and  other  serial  publications.  His 
last  works  were  "The  Old  Religion  of  Taunton" 
(1890);  and  "Five  Minutes'  Sermons",  the  latter 
completed  only  in  part  when  he  heard  the  Master's 
summons. 

Letters  and  Notices  of  the  English  Province  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  (Sept.  and  Dec,  1890);  Sommervogel,  Bibliothcque 
de  la  compagnie  de  Jesus  (Supplement,  1898). 

EDW.A.RD  SpILLANE. 

Anderledy,  Anthony  Maria,  General  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  b.  in  Berisal,  Canton  Valais,  Switzer- 
land, 3  June,  1819;  d.  at  Fiesole,  Italy,  18  January, 
1892.  He  entered  the  Society  at  Brieg  in  1839  and, 
after  his  novitiate,  taught  the  classics  at  the  college 
of  Freiburg,  where  he  was  admired  as  a  finished 
Latin  scholar.  When  the  Jesuits  were  expelled 
from  Switzerland  in  1848,  young  Anderledy,  with 
nearly  fifty  others  came  to  the  United  States.  He 
wa.s  sent  to  St.  Louis  to  complete  his  studies,  and 
was  ordained  priest  there,  29  Sept.,  1848,  by  Arch- 
bisliop  Kenrick.  Father  Anderledy  was  appointed 
naslor  of  the  German  congregation  of  Green  Bay, 
Wisconsin,  where  he  devoted  himself  with  great 
energy  to  his  flock  for  two  years.  Ho  w:is  recalled 
to  Germany  in  1850,  and  assigned  to  one  of  the 
missionary  bands  of  the  German  Province.  In  1853, 
he  Wiis  chosen  to  be  rector  of  the  students  of  the 
Societv  in  Cologne.  He  accom])anied  them  to 
Paderborn  and  remained  in  charge  of  their  studies 
until  1859,  when  he  was  appointed  Provincial  of  the 
German  Province.  During  l''atlier  Anderledy 's  term 
of  oflice,  which  lasted  six  years,  he  purdwised  the 
splenclid  medieval  abbey  of  Maria-Laach  where  he 
cwtablished  the  province-house  of  higher  studies.  In 
1865,  he  was  sent  to  Maria-Laach   as   professor  of 


mora!  theology.  In  1870,  he  was  called  to  Rome 
and  made  Assistant-General  of  the  Society,  for  the 
GeriTian-speaking  provinces.  Father  Anderledy  was 
elected  Vicar-General,  with  the  right  of  succession 
to  the  venerable  Father  Beckx  in  1SS3,  by  delegates 
from  the  whole  Society,  a.ssembled  in  Rome.  On  the 
death  of  Father  Beckx,  in  1SS7,  Father  Anderledy 
assumed  all  the  duties  of  (ieneral  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  He  edited  and  published  a  new  edition  of 
Renter's  "  Neo-Confessarius "  which  he  enriched 
with  valuable  notes.  In  his  administration  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  Father  Anderledy  was  remarkable 
for  great  firmness  of  character. 

P.  H.  Kelly. 

Anderson,  Henry  J.wies,  scientist  and  educator, 
b.  in  New  York  City,  6  February,  1799;  d.  at  Lahore, 
India,  19  October,  1875.  He  graduated  at  Cohmibia 
College  in  1818,  and  afterwards  studied  medicine  at 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York. 
He  did  not  practise  long,  but  devoted  himself  to 
scientific  and  literary  pursuits.  When  twenty-si.x 
years  old  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy  in  Columbia  College.  He  retained 
this  chair  for  twenty-five  years,  and  in  1860  became 
emeritas  professor.  In  1848  he  accompanied  as 
geologist,  the  Ignited  States  Dead  Sea  exploration 
expedition  commanded  by  Captain  William  F. 
Lynch,  L'.  S.  N.  The  following  year,  while  abroad, 
he  became  a  convert  to  the  Catholic  Faith  and  was 
ever  after  one  of  its  most  zealous  adherents.  He 
joined  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  and  when 
the  Particular  Council  of  New  York  was  instituted 
in  1856  he  was  made  its  president.  When  the  Su- 
preme Council  was  organized  in  1860,  he  was  chosen 
its  head.  To  his  example,  influence,  and  labours  the 
Society  in  New  York  City  is  greatly  indebted  for  its 
subsequent  success.  The  New  York  Catholic  Pro- 
tectory was  founded  and  built  under  his  inspiration. 
Pope  Pius  IX  received  him  in  Rome  se^■eral  times, 
and  made  him  a  Knight  Commander  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  in  recognition  of  his  merits 
and  zeal  for  religion.  He  was  organizer  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Catholic  Union,  having  for  its  special 
objects  the  defence  of  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See, 
and  the  promotion  of  the  Faith.  In  the  Spring  of 
1875  he  went  to  Lourdes  and  Rome  as  a  pilgrim, 
and  later  on  travelled  to  Australia,  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  On  his 
homeward  journey,  by  way  of  India,  where  he  ac- 
complished an  ascent  of  one  of  the  Himalayan  peaks, 
he  was,  soon  after  reaching  Lahore,  stricken  with  a 
malignant  disease  which  proved  fatal.  His  body 
was  brought  to  New  York,  and  buried  19  March, 
1876,  in  a  vault  vmder  the  Church  of  the  Madonna, 
which  he  had  been  instrumental  in  building,  at 
Fort  Lee,  New  Jereey.  His  rec|uiem  was  sung  in 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  and  Cardinal  McCloskey,  in 
the  sermon,  said:  "I  remember  to  have  heard  from 
the  lips  of  a  distinguished  O.xford  scholar  that  lie 
had  never  met  a  man  of  greater  learning  tempered 
with  such  humility."  His  principal  writings  were 
early  contributions  to  the  New  York  "(Quarterly 
Review"  and  to  mathematical  journals,  and  in  1848 
and  1849  two  geological  reports  by  him  on  the  Dead 
Sea  Expedition,  "Geological  Reconnais.sance  of  Part 
of  the  Holy  Land,"  were  published  by  the  U.  S. 
government.  Thom.\s  F.  Meehan. 

Anderson,  Lionel  Albert,  an  English  Dominican 
b.  about  1()20;  d.  21  October,  1710.  The  son  of  a 
Lincolnsliire  gentleman,  he  sutTered  much  for  his  faith. 
He  became  a  convert,  entered  the  order  of  St.  Dominic 
at  Paris  in  1638,  was  ordained  priest  in  1665,  and 
returned  to  London,  where  he  was  known  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Munson.  He  was  later  accused 
by  Titus  Oates  of  being  a  cons))irator  against  the 
King  and  Parliament,  was  indicted  for  being  a  pries. 


ANDERSON 


467 


ANDERTON 


rontrary  to  the  law  of  England,  was  tried  and  con- 
domncu  to  deatli  at  the  Old  bailey,  in  1679  or  IbSO, 
by  the  notorious  Scroggs.  He  was  pardoned  by 
Charles  II,  after  undergoing  a  year's  iiiipritionnient 
in  Newgate,  and  was  exiled  for  life.  In  lCS(i,  after 
a  visit  to  the  Holy  Land,  he  returned  to  England 
with  a  free  pardon  from  James  II,  fled  with  that 
king  to  the  Continent  in  lOSS,  returned  again  to 
England  in  1G98,  and  died  at  the  patriarchal  age 
of  91. 

CiiLLow,  Bibt.  Diet,  of  Enol.  Calholict,  I,  29;  Paluer, 
Obituary  Noticte  of  Dominicans. 

Thom.^  J.  Shahax. 

Anderson,  Patrick,  a  Scotch  Jesuit,  b.  at  Elgin  in 
Morayshire  in  1.575;  el.  in  London,  24  September, 
1024.  He  was  the  nephew  of  Dr.  John  Leslie,  Bishop 
of  Ko.ss,  a  faithful  adiicrent  of  Mary  t^ueen  of  Scots, 
and  her  ambassador  at  the  French  Court.  After 
completing  his  education  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgli,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Rome,  in 
1,597,  and  in  due  time  acquired  a  reputation  as  a 
linguist,  mathematician,  lihilosopher,  and  divine.  In 
l(iU9  he  was  appointed  to  the  Scotch  mi.ssion,  where 
his  labours  were  highly  successful  and  his  hairbreadth 
escapes  from  the  pursuivants  truly  marvellous.  He 
left  Scotland  for  Paris  to  meet  his  superior,  Fatlier 
James  Gordon,  late  in  1611.  Father  Antlerson  un- 
dertook to  supply  the  great  dearth  of  missionaries  in 
his  native  countrj'  by  collecting  nearlj'  one  hundred 
youths  in  Scotland,  all  of  them  most  eager  to  serve 
(!od  and  the  Church.  In  1615  he  became  the  first 
Jesuit  Rector  of  the  Scots  College  in  Rome,  founded 
fifteen  years  before  by  Pope  Clement  \'III.  Return- 
ing to  Scotlanil  he  was  soon  after  betrayed  by  a 
pretended  Catholic,  and  committed  to  the  Tolbooth 
jail,  Edinburgh,  where,  in  the  daily  expectation  of 
torture  and  death,  he  displayed  the  heroic  intrepidity 
of  a  true  martyr.  He  was  finally  set  at  liberty  on 
the  petition,  it  is  supposed,  of  the  French  Ambassa- 
dor, who  requested  to  have  him  for  his  confessor. 

Father  Anderson  has  left  us  some  valuable  and 
interestmg  letters  relating  to  his  missionary  labours 
in  Scotland;  these  letters  may  be  found  in  part  in 
the  London  ".Month"  for  I)cceml>er,  1876.  No  one 
w:is  l)ctter  f|ualified  to  bear  witness  to  the  state  of 
the  Church  in  Scotland  during  the  reign  of  James 
the  First.  In  162.3  he  published  "The  Ground  of 
the  Catholicke  and  Roman  Religion  in  the  Word 
of  God  ",  a  work  which  shows  that  he  had  carefully 
studied  the  scriptural  argument  for  the  Catholic 
Faith.  While  imprisoned  in  Edinburgh  he  also 
compiled  the  "Memoirs  of  the  Scotch  Saints" 
formerly  in  manuscript  at  the  Scots  College  in 
Paris. 

Lfltrra  of  Fathrr  Patrick  .Arulrrton,  lGll-20.  in  loiters  and 
A'o/icr»  (Uochaniplon.  -Nov.,  lS(i7).  98-M9:  Oi.ivkr.  Co/frrti'orn 
ioKcardn  xtlitatratina  the  fiioffraphy  of  the  Scotch.  EnoUih  and 
Irith  Mrml-crt  of  the  Societu  of  Jcius  (I-omlon.  1S45);  FoRBfks- 
I.KITII.  Sarrntivea  of  Scottish  Catholics  under  Mary  Stuart  ami 
J.imes  17  (new  etl..  Lonilon.  1S.S91.  pp.  317-340;  J.  F.  S.  Gor- 
don. The  Catholic  Church  in  Scottaml  (1874),  SKJ.  517;  Diction- 
ary of  National  liioijraphy,  V;  Catholic  Directory  (1S5.5). 

Edwahd  p.  Spillane. 

Anderson, William.    Sec  Richardson-,  Willi.am. 

Anderton,  Jamks,  an  English  Catholic,  b.  1557; 
d.  lOls.  He  belonged  to  the  well-known  Catholic 
family  of  Loslock  Hall,  Lancashire,  and  inherited 
extensive  estates  there  from  his  parents,  Christopher 
and  Dorothy  .\nderton.  In  15S2  he  married  Mar- 
garet, daugliter  of  Edward  Tyldesley  of  Tyldesley 
and  Morleys,  and,  following  his  father's  profession  of 
the  law,  succeeded  him  in  1.592  jis  Prothonotary  of 
the  Duchy  Court  at  Lancaster.  Both  his  mother 
and  wife  remaine<l  faithful  to  the  Church,  but  James 
himself  .seems  to  have  foUoweil  his  father's  example, 
and  temporized  so  far  as  to  attach  his  name  to  an 
address  {161.S)  for  the  "di.sarming  of  recusants"  and 
to  perform  other  oHicial  duties  repugnant  to  a  true 
I  -  .TO 


Catholic.  He  died  about  1618.  Father  John  Clark, 
rector  of  Lidgc  College,  in  his  eulogy  of  Father  Henr>' 
Holland,  S.J.,  makes  the  erroneous  statement  thai 
James  Anderton,  under  the  pseudonym  "John  Bren- 
ley,  priest",  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  work 
entitled  "The  Protestant's  Apologie ",  an  assertion 
that  has  been  accepted  generally.  It  hiis  been 
shown,  however,  that  the  works  of  "John  Brereley. 
priest",  were  from  the  pen  of  Father  Lawrence  An- 
derton, S.J.,  a  nephew  of  James,  who.  however,  is 
thought  to  iiave  slieltered  the  press  with  which  the 
work  was  printed. 

UiLLow,  liibl.  Diet,  of  English  Catholics. 

Thom.\s  Walsh. 

Anderton,  Robert,  Venerable,  an  English 
priest  and  martyr,  b.  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  about  1.560; 
d.  25  .\pril,  15.S6.  He  matriculated  at  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford,  in  1578.  He  afterwards  went 
abroad,  was  converted,  and  then  entered  the  college} 
at  Reims  in  1.580.  It  was  there  that  he  and  .Mars- 
den  began  that  companionship  which  was  not  broken 
even  in  death.  Having  completed  their  course,  they 
set  sail  for  England,  but  were  overwhelmed  in  :i 
storm.  They  prayed  that  they  might  die  on  land 
rather  than  on  sea,  and  their  prayer  was  grante<l. 
Driven  ashore,  they  were  at  once  seized  and  shortly 
after  tried  and  condemned.  They  now  pleaded  thai 
they  had  not  tran.sgres.sed  the  statute,  as  they  had 
been  cast  on  shore  perforce.  This  led  to  their  being 
summoned  to  London,  where  they  were  examined 
upon  the  celebrated  "bloody  question",  whether 
they  would  fight  against  the  Pope,  even  if  tlic  quarrel 
were  for  purely  religious  causes.  Though  they  ac- 
knowledged Elizabeth  as  their  lawful  queen  in  all 
temporal  matters,  they  would  not  consent  to  the 
required  test.  The  sentence  was  then  confirmed, 
and  a  proclamation  was  published  explaining  their 
guilt.  They  were  taken  back  and  executed  near 
the  place  where  they  had  l)een  cast  ashore,  being 
hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered. 

CnALLONFR.  Memoirs;  Pollen,  .\cts  of  English  Martyrs 
(18911,  60-82. 

Patrick  Ryax. 

Anderton,  Roger,  a  Catholic  lajTtian,  son  of 
Christopher  Anderton  of  Lostock,  brother  of  James 
and  uncle  of  Lawrence  Anderton.  His  name  often 
appears  on  the  Recusant  Rolls  of  Lancaster,  and  of 
his  numerous  family  four  became  nuns.  For  a  long 
time  it  w;is  customary  to  attribute  to  him  the  au- 
thorship of  the  works  written  by  his  nephew  Law- 
rence, under  the  name  of  "John  Brereley,  priest" 
and  by  other  hands,  although  they  seem  to  have 
been  merely  edited  by  him,  and  printed  at  a  secret 
press  maintained  and  protected  by  different  mem- 
bers of  the  Anderton  family.  A  list  of  these  publi- 
cations is  among  the  Blundell  of  Crosby  MS.S. 
Roger  Anderton  is  thought  to  have  re-established 
this  press  at  Birchley  after  the  inquisition  post- 
mortem of  James  Anderton  of  Lostock  and  the 
seizure  of  his  books.  He  is  said  to  have  died  in 
1640. 

GiLLOW,  Biographical  Diet,  of  Engl.  Catholics. 

Thosias  Walsh. 

Anderton,  Thomas,  an  English  Benedictine,  b.  in 
Lancashire  in  1611;  d.  9  Octolxjr,  1671.  He  was 
the  sixth  son  of  William  Anderton,  F,.sq.,  of  Euxton. 
Lancaster,  and  Isaliol,  daughter  of  William  Hancock 
of  Pendle  Hall,  Lower  Highani,  Lancaster.  Both 
his  parents  remained  faithful  to  the  Church  in  spite 
of  persecution.  Thomas  made  his  profession  in 
1630,  at  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Edmund, 
in  Paris,  and  in  1636  was  ordained  priest,  and 
successively  became  Novice-Master,  .SulvPrior,  and, 
in  1640,  I'rior  of  St.  Edmund's.  In  1641  he  was 
Definitor,  and  in  1657  secretary  to  the  chapter. 
From  1661  to  1666  he  was  Prior  of  St.  Benedict's 


ANDLAW 


468 


ANDRADA 


monastery,  at  Saint  Malo,  and  again  Prior  of  St.  Ed- 
mund's, in  Paris,  from  1G6S  to  1669.  Sent  out  on 
the  English  mission,  lie  died  at  Saxton  Hall  in  York- 
shire. He  left  a  "History  of  the  Iconoclasts  during 
the  Reign  of  the  Emperors  Leo  Isauricus,  Con.stantin 
Copronimus,  Leo  IV,  Constantin  and  Irene,  Leo  the 
Armenian,  Michael  Balbus,  Theophilus,  Michael  III, 
and  Theodora"  (1671).  Thomas  Walsh. 

Andlaw,  Heinrich  Bernhard,  Freiherr  von, 
a  famous  Catholic  statesman  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  b.  20  .-Vugust.  1S()2,  at  Freiburg  im  Breisgau; 
d.  3  May,  1871.  His  chief  sphere  of  activity  was 
in  Baden,  but  he  took  part  in  the  general  movement 
of  German  Catholicism.  He  was  the  younger  son 
of  Baron  Konrad  Karl,  Frhr.  von  Andlaw-Birseck, 
■who  had  emigrated  from  Switzerland  and  entered 
the  Austrian  service,  and  who,  after  the  union  of 
Breisgau  with  Baden  (1806),  worthily  filled  official 
and  ministerial  positions  in  the  latter  State.  The 
son  received  a  good  state-school  education,  studied 
at  Landshut  and  Freiburg,  served  for  a  short  time 
as  an  officer  of  dragoons,  travelled  in  France  and 
Italy,  and  was  then  received  into  the  Baden  service 
as  a  councillor  in  a  department  of  the  State.  He 
remained  tlicre,  however,  only  until  the  year  1830, 
when  he  withdrew  to  his  estate  of  Hugstetten,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Freiburg,  and  acted  thencefor- 
ward, until  the  day  of  his  death,  as  an  independent 
in  politics.  In  1835  the  landed  nobility  of  Murg 
elected  him  to  the  Lower  House  of  the  Baden 
legislature,  of  which,  except  for  two  short  intervals, 
he  remained  a  member  until  his  sixtieth  year. 

What  especially  characterized  Andlaw  among  the 
many  contemporary  leaders  of  German  Catholicism 
was  the  charm  of  his  knightly  bearing,  his  manly, 
honest  faith,  the  tone  of  his  discourse,  and  the 
rich  music  of  his  voice.  He  has  been  rightly  called 
the  German  Montalembert.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  he 
lacked  the  Frenchman's  youthful  fervour,  on  the 
other,  he  was  a  more  profound  statesman,  who 
thought  in  true  statesmanlike  fashion  not  only  in 
matters  affecting  the  local  administration  of  his 
own  State  but  in  those  connected  with  the  national 
policy  of  Germany.  For  this  reason  he  deserves 
to  be  less  completely  forgotten  by  the  present  gen- 
eration. There  is  some  ground  for  this  in  the  fact 
that  Andlaw  never  found  an  opportunity,  as  head 
of  a  State  government,  to  put  his  views  into  practice. 
He  experienced  an  invincible  aversion  to  Baden 
methods  of  government  both  before  and  after  the 
Revolution  of  1848,  to  the  bureaucratic  as  well  as 
to  the  liberal-constitutional.  Twice,  in  1848  and 
in  1856,  he  went  so  far  as  to  move  the  impeach- 
ment of  the  leading  ministers.  It  was  under  these 
conditions  that  he  set  out,  with  the  Catholics  of 
his  country,  "from  Egypt  to  the  land  of  liberty." 
He  renounced  all  attempts  at  direct  offensive  action 
against  the  Baden  government,  and  sought  to  perfect 
the  reorganization  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany  and 
to  assure  their  participation  in  the  politico-ecclesi- 
astical affairs  of  the  fatherland  on  the  basis  of 
the  common  law  and  along  the  lines  of  modern 
parliamentary  methods.  In  these  two  things  he 
beheld  a  guarantee  for  the  future  social  and  political 
transformation  of  Germany.  He  devoted  himself 
especially  to  societies  and  to  charitable  undertak- 
ings. He  was  four  times  president  of  the  Catholic 
Congress:  at  Linz  in  18,50,  at  Munich  in  1861,  at 
Trier  in  1865,  and  at  Fulda  in  1870.  The  centre 
of  his  activity  remained  till  the  end  in  Baden, 
where,  since  18.37,  he  had  been  helpful  in  all  politico- 
ecclesiastical  matters  to  Archbishop  von  Vicari, 
whom  he  held  in  high  honour.  It  was  this  devo- 
tion which  moved  the  chairman  of  the  First  Catholic 
Congress  at  Mainz  (184S)  to  hail  .Andlaw  as  "pre- 
eminently a  man  of  action  and  conflict,  at  a  time 


when  few  Germans  dare  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the 
Church".  His  writings  are:  "  Ueber  die  Stiftungen 
im  Grossherzogtum  Baden"  (Freiburg,  1845); 
"Offenes  Sendschreiben  an  Dr.  J.  B.  v.  Hir.scher 
zur  Abwehr  gegen  dessen  Angriffe  auf  die  katho- 
lischen  Vereine"  (Mainz,  1850);  "  Uer  Aufruhr  und 
Umsturz  in  Baden,  als  eine  natiirliche  Folge  der 
Landesgesetzgebung "  (4  sections,  Freiburg,  1850); 
"  Offenes  Sendschreiben  iiber  politischc  und  reli- 
giose Freiheit  an  dem  Grafen  Theodor  v.  Scherer" 
(Freiburg,  1861);  "Offenes  Sendschreiben  an  Herrn 
Dr.  Joh.  von  Kuhn  iiber  die  Frage  der  '  freien  katho- 
lischen  Universitat' "  (Frankfurt,  1863);  "Die 
badischen  Wirren  im  Lichte  der  Landesverfassung 
und  Bundesgesetze"  (Freiburg,  1865);  "Gedanken 
meiner  Musse"  (in  two  parts;  a  portion  of  the  first 
part  published  in  1859;  the  whole  work,  at  Freiburg, 
in  1860,  1865). 

Literary  and  biographical  notices  concerning  Andlaw, 
of  a  very  superficial  character,  are  to  be  found  in  Badische 
Biografim,  I  (1875).  Binder  in  Kirchenlei.,  2d  edition. 

Martin  Spahn. 

Andleby,  William,  Venerable,  martyred  at  York 
4  July,  1597.  He  was  born  at  Ettop  in  York- 
shire of  a  well-known  gentle  family.  At  twenty- 
five  he  went  abroad  to  take  part  in  the  Dutch  war 
(see  Armada,  Spanish),  and  called  at  Douay  to 
interview  Dr.  Allen,  whom  he  attempted  to  confute 
in  argument.  Next  day  he  recognized  that  Allen 
was  right,  w.os  converted,  and  eventually  became  a 
priest.  Mention  is  found  of  his  having  served  at 
Mr.  Tyrwhitt's,  in  Lincolnshire,  and  also  of  his  hav- 
ing succoured  the  Catholic  prisoners  in  Hull  block- 
house. "His  zeal  for  souls  was  such  as  to  spare  no 
pains  and  to  fear  no  dangers.  For  the  first  four 
years  of  his  mission  he  travelled  always  on  foot, 
meanly  attired,  and  carrying  with  him  usually  in  a 
bag  his  vestments  and  other  things  for  saying  Mass; 
for  his  labours  lay  chiefly  amongst  the  poor,  who 
were  not  stocked  with  such  things.  Afterwards, 
humbly  yielding  to  the  advice  of  his  brethren,  he 
used  a  horse  and  went  somewhat  better  clad.  Won- 
derful was  the  austerity  of  his  life  in  frequent  watch- 
ings,  fastings,  and  continual  prayer,  his  soul  so 
absorbed  in  God  that  he  often  took  no  notice  of 
those  he  met;  by  which  means  he  was  sometimes 
exposed  to  suspicions  and  dangers  from  the  enemies 
of  his  faith,  into  whose  hands  he  at  last  fell  after 
twenty  years'  labour  in  the  vineyard  of  the  Lord" 
(Challoncr).  He  was  condemned  for  his  priestly 
character,  and  suffered,  as  stated  above,  with  three 
laymen,  John  Abbot,  Thomas  Warcop,  and  Edward 
Fulthrop.  Patrick  Ryan. 

Andorra.     See  Urgel. 

Andrada,  Alonso,  biographer  and  ascetic  writer, 
b.  at  Toledo,  Spain,  1590;  d.  at  Madrid,  20  June, 
1672.  Before  entering  the  Society  of  Jesus  (1612) 
he  read  philosophy  in  Toledo,  was  afterwards  rector 
of  Plasencia  and  minister  in  foreign  countries.  In 
his  declining  years  he  wrote  some  thirty-four  volumes 
on  different  Dubjects,  some  worthy  of  note  for  their 
learning,  excellence  of  doctrine,  and  pleasing  style, 
which  to  some  extent  conceal  his  carelessness  and 
excessive  simplicity.  He  is  chiefly  known  as  the 
continuator  of  Nuremlicrg's  "Varones  Ilustres", 
biographies  of  distinguished  members  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  His  "Gufa  de  la  Virtud  6  Imitacion  de 
Nuestra  Sefiora"  deserves  special  mention. 

Antonio.  Bihliotheca  Nova;  Sommervogel,  Biblioth^que 
delacie.deJ., 1,317. 

Nazario  Perez. 

Andrada,  Antonio  de,  the  pioneer  missionary 
and  explorer  of  Thibet  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
b.  at  Oleiros,  Portugal,  1580;  d.  at  Goa,  19  March, 
1634.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1596. 
From  1600  to  1624  he  was  the  cliief  missionary  in 


ANDRADA 


469 


ANDREA 


the  Indies.  In  1624,  after  almost  incrcilible  hanl- 
uliips  lie  succeeded  in  iK'netrating  into  Thibet. 
Kindly  received  by  the  head  sovereign  of  the  coun- 
try, Andraila  returned  to  Agra  for  other  workers 
like  hiniself,  an<l  on  his  return  to  Thibet  cstab- 
lislied  a  niissionarj'  centre  at  Chaiiarangue.  Recalled 
to  Goa  to  act  its  .superior  of  the  Indies,  he  died  there, 
poisoned  for  the  Faith.  .Xndrada  ha.s  given  in  letters 
to  his  superiors  and  others  a  graphic  anil  accurate 
account  of  his  <iiscoveries  and  labours.  These  have 
been  pulilished  in  Spani.sh  and  French  and  are  iii- 
cor[>orated  in  the  works  of  P.  J.  Darde,  S.J.,  "  His- 
toire  de  ce  qui  s'est  pa.s,s6  en  Kthiopie"  (Paris,  1628), 
and  "  Histoiro  de  ce  qui  s'est  pvumi  au  royaume  du 
Thibet"   (Paris,   1629). 

80MMKRVOOEI.,  Biblwthi'que  de  la  compagnie  de  Ji^aua,  I, 
col.  330.  331;  Alehamui,  Mca-lee  ilualrea,  438;  Franco, 
Imogen  de  virtiule  em  o  noviciado  de  Lisboa,  375-418. 

Joseph  M.  Woods. 

Andrada,  Thoma.s.    See  Thomas  of  Jesus. 

Andrada  de  Payva,  Dieoo,  a  celebrated  Portu- 
picse  theologian  of  the  .sixteenth  century,  b.  atCoim- 
bra,  26  July,  1.">2.S;  d.  1  December,  1575,  at  Lisbon. 
.\fter  tinishing  his  course  at  the  University  of  Coim- 
bra,  he  received  Holy  Orders,  and  remained  a.s 
profes.sor  of  theology.  So  great  was  his  reputation 
that  King  Sebastian  appointed  him  theologian  at 
the  Council  of  Trent,  1561.  Here  he  merited  the 
special  thanks  of  the  Pope  by  an  able  work  in  defence 
of  the  papal  authority.  Wlule  at  the  council  he  wrote 
his  "  Decern  libri  orthodoxaruni  explicationum  " 
(Venice,  1564,  1.594;  Cologne,  1564,  1574)  against 
the  work  of  Chemnitz,  "Theologiie  Jesuitarum 
pnecipua  capita".  In  this  bcHik  he  discusses  and 
defines  the  chief  points  of  doctrine  attacked  by  the 
heretics.  Chemnitz  answered  by  his  well-known 
"  Kxamen  Cone.  Trid.",  in  reply  to  which  .\ndraila 
produced  his  best  work,  "  Defensio  Tridentin;r  fidei 
Cath."  (Lisbon,  1578  and  1595).  He  published  also 
three  volumes  of  sermons  in  Portuguese.  Andrada 
de  Payva  had  not  only  a  grasp  of  theological  ques- 
tions which  won  for  iiim  an  important  position 
among  sixteenth-century  theologians,  but  he  was 
also  so  clear  and  convincing  in  the  exposition  of  his 
arguments  that  he  proved  an  admirable  apologist, 
and  it  was  matter  of  regret  that  his  untimely  death 
preventeil  the  completion  of  his  great  work,  the 
'■  Defensio  Trid.  fidei."  This  had  progre.s.sed  as  far 
as  the  fifth  session,  inclusive  of  tlic  tloctrine  upon 
the  Immaculate  Conception  in  defence  of  which  it 
marshalled  an  imposing  array  of  authorities. 

HcRTER,  Nomenciator;    Tocswaint  in  Dirt,  de  Ihi-ol.  cath. 
Arthur  J.  McC.\ffray. 

Andrtf  (Andrea-s),  Bernard,  native  of  Toulouse, 
Austin  friar,  poet  laureate  of  England,  and  chronog- 
rapher  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII  (14S.5-1.509).  He 
was  tutor  to  Prince  Arthur,  and  probably  had  a 
share  in  the  education  of  Henry  VIIl.  He  was  also 
a  tutor  at  Oxford,  and  seems  to  have  been  blintl. 
His  "Historia  Henrici  Septimi"  was  edited  (18.5S) 
by  .Mr.  Junies  Gairdner,  who  says  of  Andr<;'s  chronicle 
of  events  to  the  Cornish  revolt  of  1497  that  it  is 
valuable  "only  as  one  of  the  very  few  sources  of 
contemporary  information  in  a  particularly  obscure 
period'.  His  writings  are  mostly  in  Latin,  and 
l)etray  in  a  marked  and  typical  way  the  influence  of 
the  contemporary  Renaissance,  both  as  to  thought 
and  diction. 

For  .\ni)iik's  Life  of  Ilenry  VII,  nee  J.  Gairdner.  MemoriaU 
of  llrnnj  VII  in  RoUt  Seriet  (Ix>n.lon.  IMS);  Ioem,  in  Did. 
of  .V.i(.  liuiir..  I.  398,  .39(1;  C'.ARniNKH  uml  Mti.i.lN<;ER,  Introd. 
to  the  Stwiy  of  Englieh  llittory  (4th  eil.,  10031.  303.  304. 

Thom.\s  J.  Shaha-V. 

Andrtf,  Yves  M.arie,  mathematician,  b.  22  May, 
1675,  at  Cliateaulin,  in  Lower  Brittany;  d.  at  Caen, 
•25  February,  1764.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
in   1693.     Although   distinguished   in   his  scholastic 


studies,  he  was,  on  account  of  his  Gallicanism,  Carte- 
sianism,  and  Jansenism,  assigned  to  scientific  studies 
and  made  royal  professor  of  mathematics  at  Caen 
where  he  remainea  for  thirty-nine  years.  A  literary 
essay  on  "The  Beautiful"  won  him  ^reat  fame,  and 
is  considered  a  classic.  During  his  lifetime  the 
Society  was  suppres-sed,  and  the  philosophical  and 
religious  errors  which  ho  could  not  exjire-ss  as  a 
Jesuit  were  ofxMily  cs|X)used  when  he  was  secularized. 
He  condcnini'il  his  former  associates  for  tlieir  action 
against  Cardinal  de  Noailles,  and  was  a  strong  anti- 
ritraniontane.  He  was  intimately  a.ssociatea  with 
MalebraiRhc,  and  kept  up  an  extensive  correspond- 
ence with  him.  White  in  the  Society  his  Gallicanism 
and  JaiLsenism  made  it  impossible  to  appoint  him  to 
any  respoiLsible  office.  lie  obstinately  refused  to 
change  his  views.  On  the  suppression  of  the  Society 
he  withdrew  to  the  Canons  Regular  of  Caen,  and 
the  Parliament  of  Rouen  provided  him  with  a  pen- 
sion. Although  his  best  work  by  far  is  his  "Essay 
on  the  Beautiful",  there  is  considerable  ability  in 
his  "Traits  de  I'homnie".  He  wrote  a  poem  on  the 
"Art  of  Conversation ",  which  was  translated  into 
English  in  1777.  Several  posthumous  works  were 
published,  among  which  wius  one  with  the  curious 
title,  "  .Man  as  a  Static  Machine;  a  Hydraulic  Ma- 
chine; a  Pneumatic  .Machine;  and  a  Chemical  Ma- 
chine". Though  the  work  was  never  found,  it  is 
pretty  certain  that  he  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Malebranche  ". 
Victor  Cousin  had  much  to  do  with  publishing  the 
posthumous  letters  of  I'ather  Andrd,  to  whom  we 
owe  as  many  as  eighteen  works,  some  of  them  in 
folio,  on  metaphysics,  hydrography,  optics,  physics, 
civil  and  military  architecture,  along  with  treatises 
on  literary  subjects,  sermoiLS,  catechetical  instruc- 
tions, etc. 

MiciiACD,  Biog.  Univ.:  Qu^rard;  De  Backer,  Bibliolhiaut 
de  la  c.  de  J.,  1,  152-154. 

T.  J.  Ca.mpbell. 

Andrea,  Giovanni  d',  canonist,  b.  at  Mugello,  near 
Florence,  about  1275;  d.  i:i48.  He  was  educated  by 
his  father  and  at  the  L'niversity  of  Bologna  where 
he  afterivards  became  professor  of  canon  law,  after 
having  taught  at  Padua  and  Pisa.  His  period  of 
teaching  extended  over  forty-five  years.  Trithemius, 
Baldus,  Forster,  and  Bcllarmin  pay  him  the  highest 
tributes  and  on  his  death  during  the  plague  in  1348 
he  is  said  to  have  been  interred  in  the  church  of  San 
Domenico  at  Bologna.  His  career  is  summed  up 
in  the  epitaph:  Rabbi  Doclorum,  Lux,  Ceruior,  nnr- 
maque  mnrum.  His  works  are  "  Glossarium  in  VI 
decretalium  librurn "  (Venice  and  Lyons.  1472); 
"  tdossarium  in  Clementinas;  Novella,  sive  Commen- 
tarius  in  dccretales  epistolaa  Gregorii  IX  "  (Venice, 
1581);  "  Mercuriales,  sive  commentarius  in  regulas 
sexti;  Liber  de  lauilibus  S.  Hieronjini;  Additamenta 
ad  speculum  Duraniii  "  (1347). 

ScllKHER  in  Kirchenlex..  9.  v.  TlIOM.^S   WaLSH. 

Andrea  Dotti,  Blessed,  b.  12.56,  in  Borgo  San 
Sepolcro,  Tuscany,  Italy;  d.  there  31  .Vugust,  1315. 
He  was  of  noble  parentage,  being  the  orother  of 
Count  Dotto  Dotti,  made  captain  of  the  archers 
of  the  body-guard  of  Philip  the  Fair.  Andrea  grew 
up  as  many  other  noblemen  of  his  time,  but  was  ever 
distinguished  for  eminent  piety  as  well  as  for  courage 
in  the  field.  In  1278  St.  Philip  Beniti  delivered  a 
sermon  at  the  opening  of  the  general  chapter  of  his 
order  in  Borgo,  and  young  Dotti  was  so  stnick  by 
the  eloquence  and  sanctity  of  the  man  that  he  at 
once  a.sKed  to  be  admitted  to  the  Servile  Order. 
He  was  received  by  the  General,  and  by  reason  of  his 
piety  and  brilliant  attainments  was  soon  after  or- 
tlained  to  the  priesthood.  His  zeal  manifested 
it.self  principally  in  preaching  and  penance.  He 
filled  various  positions  of  honour  in  the  Order,  con- 
verted Blesseil  Bartholomew,  and  by  his  charity  and 
zeal  won  over  to  the  Order  a  hirge  number  of  hermits 


ANDREA 


470 


ANDRES 


living  at  Vallucola.  Many  visions  were  vouchsafed 
him,  and  he  wortccd  a  great  many  duly  authenticated 
miracles.  After  long  years  of  preaching,  he  retired 
into  a  hermitage  and  renewed  his  penances,  and 
died  there.  He  was  buried  in  a  church  of  his  native 
town.     Pius  VH  authorized  his  cult. 

Annul.  Ord.  Serv.  B.  M.  ViTg.  (Florence,  1729);  I,  i,  4; 
Soulier,  Vie  de  iSt.  Philippe  Beniti  (Paris,  ISSO;  tr.  London, 
1886). 

Augustine  McGinnis. 

Andrea  Pisano,  or  da  Pisa  (the  name  by  which 
Andrea  da  Pontadera  is  known),  an  Italian  sculptor 
and  architect,  b.  1270;  d.  1349.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Giovanni  Pisano,  and  first  learned  the  trade  of  a 
goldsmith,  which  was  of  benefit  to  him  in  his  later 
work.  He  is  said  to  have  helped  his  master  on  the 
sculpture  for  St.  Maria  della  Spina,  in  Pisa,  and  to 
have  worked  on  St.  Mark's  and  the  Doge's  palace,  at 
Venice,  before  he  went  to  Florence.  Here  he  acliieved 
the  one  work  indisputably  his;  the  first  of  the  three 
bronze  doors  for  the  baptistery  of  the  Duomo  at 
Florence,  the  one  on  the  south  side.  He  spent  years 
on  it  before  it  was  finally  .set  up  in  1336.  The  date 
1330  on  the  door  refers  to  the  wax  model  and  not  to 
the  casting.  The  door  has  a  number  of  quatrefoil 
panels,  eight  containing  only  a  single  figure,  while 
the  others  have  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist.  Pisano's  mature  style  was  due  to  the 
influence  of  Giotto.  After  Giotto  died,  Pisano  built 
two  stories  of  niches  above  Giotto's  work  on  the 
Campanile,  quite  possibly  from  Giotto's  designs. 
From  1347  to  1349  he  was  chief  architect  of  the 
duomo  of  Orvieto,  which  was  designed  and  begun 
by  Lorenzo  Maitani  Andrea  Pisano  had  two  sons, 
Nino  and  Tommaso,  who  were  also  sculptors,  but 
his  most  distinguished  pupil  was  Andrea  da  Clone, 
who  is  known  as  Orcagna. 

Lasinio,  Le  tre  parte  del  Batiatero;  Reymond,  La  Sculpture 
Florentine. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Andreas  I,  King  of  Hungary.     See  Hungary. 

Andreas  of  Ratisbon,  or  Regensburg,  historian 
of  the  later  fourteenth  and  earlier  fifteenth  century. 
All  that  is  known  concerning  him  is  gathered  from 
the  scanty  particulars  given  in  his  works.  He  was 
ordained  priest  at  Eichstiitt  in  140,5,  and  joined  the 
Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  at  Ratisbon  in  1410, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  historical  studies.  His 
principal  works  are  "  De  statu  urbis  Ratisbon.  an- 
tiquo  et  de  variis  Hseresibus ",  the  "  Chronicon 
Generale",  and  the  "Chronicon  de  Ducibus  Bava- 
riae",  to  1439,  which  gained  him  the  title  of  the 
"Bavarian  Livy",  and  which  he  afterwards  trans- 
lated into  German,  and  continued  to  1452.  He  is 
the  principal  forerunner  of  the  famous  Bavarian  his- 
toriographer,  Aventinus. 

HuRTER,  Nomniclator,  IV,  701;  LoRENZ,  Deulschlands  Ge- 
echicktsquellen   (Berlin,    1886);  Stamminger  in  Kirchenlex. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Andreis,  Felix  De,  first  superior  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Mis.sion  (Lazarists)  in  the  United  States 
and  Vicar-General  of  upper  Louisiana,  b.  at  Demonte, 
in  Piedmont,  Italy,  13  December,  1778;  d.  at  St. 
Louis,  Missouri,  U.  S.,  15  October,  1820.  After 
making  his  preparatory  studies  in  his  native  place 
he  entered  tne  novitiate  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission,  at  Mondovi,  1  November,  1797,  and  was 
ordained  priest  at  Piacenza,  14  August,  1801.  When 
only  four  years  a  priest  he  conducted  the  retreats 
for  those  about  to  be  ordained.  His  constitution 
was  not  robust  and  in  1806  he  was  sent  to  Monte 
Citorio,  the  hou.se  of  the  Congregation  in  Rome 
that  seemed  least  likely  to  be  affected  by  the  rigorous 
religious  persecutions  of  the  time,  which  for  a  while 
drove  Pius  VII  from  Rome.  Here  Father  De 
Andreis  was  constantly  engaged  from  1810  to  1815 
in  giving  missions,  and  retreats  for  the  clergy  or  the 


Very  Rev.  Felix  De  Andreis,  C.  M. 


seminarists.  He  also  gave  many  missions  in  the 
suburbs  of  the  city.  When  the  religious  houses  in 
Rome  were  suppressed,  the  Propaganda  students 
attended  his  lectures  on  theology.  It  was  no  unusual 
thing  for  him  to  preach  four  times  a  day  on  different 
subjects.  In 
view  of  later 
events,  it  is 
worthy  of  reflec- 
tion that  Father 
De  Andreis  at 
this  time  received 
such  a  convic- 
tion that  he 
was  destined  to 
a  mission  involv- 
ing the  need  of 
English  that  he 
resolutely  mas- 
tered that  lan- 
guage. In  1815 
Feather  Dubourg, 
Apostolic  Admin- 
istrator of  the 
Diocese  of  Louis- 
iana (which  tlicn 
e.xtended  along 
both  sitles  of  the 
Mississippi  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Canadian  Lakes)  ar- 
rived in  Rome  to  secure  priests  for  that  immense 
vineyard.  As  soon  as  he  knew  of  Father  De  An- 
dreis he  applied  to  Father  Sicardi,  his  superior,  to 
let  him  go  to  Louisiana,  and  when  the  latter 
declaretl  it  impossible,  as  his  place  could  not  be 
filled,  he  exposed  the  situation  to  Pius  VII,  who 
appointed  the  young  priest  to  this  mission.  In 
company  with  five  others,  Father  De  .\ndreis  em- 
barked from  France,  12  June,  1816,  and  reached 
Baltimore,  26  July.  They  remained  there  at  St. 
Mary's  Seminary,  as  guests  of  Father  BrutS  until 
3  September,  and  then  started  on  a  tedious  journey 
to  the  west  arriving  at  Louisville,  19  November, 
where  at  Bishop  FTaget's  suggestion  they  remained 
in  his  seminary  of  St.  Thomas  at  Bardstown  until 
Bishop  Dubourg  should  arrive.  Father  De  Andreis 
taught  theology  and  laboured  at  improving  his 
English.  Bishop  Dubourg  reached  there  with 
tliirty  priests,  29  December,  1817,  and  they  went 
to  St.  Louis  in  1818.  There  the  Congregation  had 
its  first  establishment.  Father  De  Andreis  had  charge 
of  two  schools,  one  for  religious  students,  another 
for  seculars,  established  by  Bishop  Dubourg.  Land 
for  a  seminary  was  given  at  "  The  Barrens  ",  a  colony 
eighty  miles  south  of  St.  Louis,  in  Perry  County, 
and  when  the  bishop  allowed  liis  residence  to  be 
used  for  a  novitiate,  Father  De  Andreis  became 
master  of  novices.  Exhausted  by  the  hardships  of 
missionary  work,  he  died,  after  a  short  life  of  forty- 
two  years,  greatly  esteemed  for  sanctity.  The  proc- 
ess of  his  canonization,  begun  in  St.  Louis  in  1900, 
was  completed  in  August,  1902,  when  the  evidence 
was  presented  to  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  at  Rome. 
HosATl.  Life  of  Ihe  Veru  Her.  Felix  De  Andreis,  CM.  (St. 
Louis,    1900). 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Andres,  Juan,  a  Spanish  canonist,  b.  at  Xativa, 
or  San  Felipe,  in  Valencia.  Of  Moorish  extraction, 
he  became  a  Christian  in  1587  and  entered  the  priest- 
hood. On  the  fall  of  Granada  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic  invited  him  to  labour  in  that  city  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Moors.  He  wrote  a  translation  in 
Spanish  of  the  Koran  and  a  work  entitled  "Confu- 
sion de  la  secta  mahoinctana"  (Seville,  1537).  It 
is  a  work  frequently  quoted  against  Mohammedan- 
ism. The  English  version  is  by  Joshua  Notstock 
(London,     1652).     According     to     Fuster,    Andres 


|H  ,1  ,W    '  '1      1  111.    !■  \ 


1    I   •,      I        WPKl. A    li>AXii) 


ANDREW 


471 


threats   aiul    persecution,  to   establish    the   l''aith 

Andrew,  Saint. — The  name  Andrew  (Gr.,  dvSpela,  Palestine.    Wlien  (lie  .Vpostles  went  forth  to  preacli  to 

nianliiiod.  or  valour),  like  other  CIreek  names,  aj)-  the  na(  ions,  .Vndrew  seems  to  have  taken  an  important 

pears  to  have  been  eonunon  among  the  Jews  from  part,   but    unfortunately   we   have   no   certainty   as 

the  second  or  third  century  n.  c.      St.  Andrew,  the  to  the  extent  or  place  of  his  labours.     Eusebius  (H. 

.•\l)Ostle,  son  of  Jonah  or  John  (Matt.,  xvi,  17;  John,  i,  K.,   Ill,    1,   in    i'.  (1.,   XX,   col.    216),    relying,  ap- 

•12).  wius  born  in  Hetlisaida  of  Galilee  (John,  i,  41).    He  parently,    upon     Origen,    iiiisigns     Scytliia     a.s     his 

was  brother  of  .^imon  Teter  (.Matt.,  X,  2;  John,  i,  40).  mission"    field:     'A^Spias     di     [dXiixei']     ttiv     '^KvOlav; 

Hoth  wenni.sliermen  (Matt.,  iv,  18;  Mark,  i,  IG),  and  while  St.  (iregory  of  Nazianzus  (Or.   33,   in   P.  G., 

at  the  beginning  of  Our  Lord's  public  life  occupied  the  XX.Wl,  col.  228)  mentions  Kpirus;  St.  Jerome  (Ep. 

.siime  house  at  Capluirnaum  (Mark,  i,  21,  29).     Krom  ad    Marcell.,   P.    L.,    XXII,   col.    589)    Achaia;    and 

the  fourth  (iospel  we  learn  that  Andrew  was  a  disciple  Theodoret  (on   Ps.   cxvi,  P.   G.,   LXXX,  col.    1805) 

of  the  Baptist,   whose  testimony  first  led  him  and  Hellas.     Probably   these   various  accounts  are   cor- 

John  the  Evangobst    to   follow  Jesus   (John,  i,  35-  rect,  for  Nicephorus   (H.  E.,  II,  39,   P.  G.,  CXLV, 


10).  .Xndrewat  once 
recognized  Jesus  as 
t  he  .Messias,  and  has- 
tened to  introduce 
(o  Him  his  brother, 
IVter  (John,  i,  41). 
Thenceforth  the  two 
brothers  were  dis- 
ciples of  Christ.  On 
a  subsequent  occa- 
sion, prior  to  the 
final  call  totheapi.^- 
tolate,  they  w  n 
called  to  a  closii- 
companionship,  and 
then  they  left  all 
things  to     follow 


Jesus  (Luke,  v,  11; 
Matt.,  iv,  19,  20; 
Mark,  i,  17, 18).  Fi- 
nally Andrew  was 
cliosen  to  l)C  one 
of  the  Twelve;  and 
in  the  various  lists 
of  Apostles  given  in 
the  New  Testament 
(Matt.,  X,  2-4; 
Mark,  iii,  16-19; 
Luke,  vi,  14-16; 
Acts,  i,  13)  he  is  al- 
w  ays  numbered 
among thefirst  four. 
(See  Ai'OSTLEs.) 
The  only  other  ex- 
plicit reference  to 
Iiim  in  the  Synop- 
tists  occurs  in  Mark, 
xiii,  3,  where  we  are 
told  he  joined  with 
Peter,    James.     an<l 

John  in  putting  the  question  that  led  to  Our  Lord's  Nero,  on  30  November,  .k.  d.  00;  and  both  the  f-alin 
great  eschatological  discourse.  In  addition  to  this  and  Greek  Churches  keep  30  November  as  his  feast, 
scanty  information,  we  learn  from  the  fourth  CiO,s-  St.  Andrew's  relics  were  translated  from  PatnetoCon- 
pel  that  on  the  occlusion  of  the  miraculous  feed-  stantinople,  and  de|H)silcd  in  llie  church  of  the  Apos- 
uig  of  the  five  thousand,  it  was  Andrew  who  said:  ties  there,  about  .\.  D.  .357.  When  Constantinople  wjus 
"There  is  a  boy  here  who  has  five  barley  loaves  and  taken  by  the  French,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
two  fishes:  but  what  are  these  among  so  many?"  teenth  century.  Cardinal  Peter  of  Capua  brought 
(John,  vi,  8,  9);  and  when,  a  few  days  before  bur  the  relics  to  Italy  and  placed  them  in  tlie  cathedral 
Lord's  death,  certain  Greeks  asked  Philip  that  they  of  .Vnialfi,  where  most  of  them  still  remain  (I'ghelli, 
might  see  Jesus,  Philip  referred  the  matter  to  .\n-  Italia  .Sacra,  VTI).  St.  .\ndrew  is  honoured  as  their 
drew  as  to  one  of  greater  authority,  and  then  both  told  chief  patron  by  Russia  and  Scotland. 
Christ  (John,  xii,  20-22).     Like  the  majority  of  the        „  . 

Twelve,  Andrew  is  not  named  in  the  Acts  except  in  x-n^^'S" li'^'xn^i"')  r^T"*.;  ^Z"^  '5  JT',  ?-}p  "J"'' 

*u      1-  A      r  xi        i         *i  I  *i  J  f  Ai       II     *  IJI.S— IH,     LuiTT    Miraculorum   A.  Andrea   Apostoti  in   /*.    L., 

the  list  of  the  Apostles,  where  the  order  of  the  hrst  i.x.XI,  inl.  I2r,i-(14;  Ann  Andrea  rt  Maithai  (or  Maithia}  in 

four  is  Peter,  John,  James,  Andrew;  nor  have  the  Tis<iikni)orj-s  Acta   A itotiolorum  Apocrypha:   Actn  I'eiri  rt 

F.ni<ltlp<!    or    AnocnKm«p   nnv    iTinntinn    nf   liini         From       ■^nilrea-,  in  Tl'trllKNDnnvs  .-Iporn/l/PW'  AlHlcrypha'    LfS    iKtilt 

cnisiies  or  Apocaij-pe  anj  mention  oi  mm.     l  rom  iiM„n.li,ie,.  XIII.  08j-r.9O  (7th  «!..  Har-lc-Duc.  is.n\  Ut- 

what    we  know  of  the  .\postles  generally,  we  can,  of  sius.    DU   anokryphm    Apnnteluetchiehlen    u.    ApoatclUoendm, 

course,  supplement  somewhat  tliese  few  details.     As  1.  543  aq.  (Bruaswick,  1887). 
one  of  the  'I'welve,  Andrew  was  admitted  to  the  clos-  J.  Mac  Rory. 


St.  Anuh 


UoLci  (l(i4(j),  I'lTTi   Gallery 


col.  860),  relying 
upon  early  writers, 
states  that  Andrew 
preached  in  Cappa- 
docia,  Galatia,  and 
Hithyiiia.then  in  the 
!:iii.l  of  the  anthro- 
jHipliagi  and  the  Scy- 
thian deserts,  after- 
wards in  Hyzantium 
itself,  wliere  he  ap- 
pointed St.  Stachys 
as  its  first  bishop, 
and  finally  in 
Thrace,  Macedonia, 
Thessaly.  and  Acha- 
ia. It  is  generally 
agreed  that  he  was 
crucified  by  order 
of  tile  Roman  Gov- 
ernor, .Egeas  or 
.(Egeatcs,  at  Patra; 
in  Achaia,  and  that 
he  W!is  l)Ound,  not 
nailed,  to  the  cross, 
in  order  to  prolong 
his  sufferings.  The 
cross  on  which  he 
.s  u  tT  e  r  e  d  is  com- 
monly held  to  have 
Ix-cn  the  decussate 
(TOSS,  now  known 
a  s  ,S  t.  Andrew's, 
tliough  the  evidence 
for  this  view  seems 
to  be  no  older  than 
the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. His  mar- 
tyrdom took  place 
during  the   reign  of 


ANDREW 


472 


ANDREW 


Andrew,  Saint,  a  martyr  of  the  Faith  in  Lampn 
sacus,  a  city  of  Mysia,  in  the  persecution  of  Deeius. 
He  and  two  companions  were  brought  before  the 
proconsul  and  interrogated  about  their  behef.  One 
of  the  tliree,  Nichomachus,  presumptuous  and  over 
confident,  unfortunately  apostatized  under  torture. 
Andrew  and  his  companion  Paul,  after  having  under- 
gone the  sufferings  of  the  rack,  were  thrown  into 
prison.  Meantime  a  girl  of  sixteen,  named  Dionysia, 
who  had  reproached  Nichomachus  for  his  fall,  was 
seized  and  tortured,  and  then  subjected  to  the  ap- 
proaches of  three  libertines,  but  was  protected  by 
an  angel.  In  tlie  morning,  Andrew  and  Paul  were 
taken  out  and  stoned  to  death.  As  they  lay  in  the 
arena,  Dionysia,  escaping  from  her  captors  and  hurry- 
ing to  the  place  of  execution,  asked  to  be  slain.  She 
was  carried  away  by  force,  and  suffered  death  by 
the  sword.  The  feast  of  these  martyrs  is  kept  on 
15  May. 

Acta  SS.,  Ill,  May;  Butler,  Lives  of  (he  Saints,  15  May. 
T.  J.  Campbell. 

Andrew  Avellino,  Saint,  b.  1521  at  Castronuovo, 
a  small  town  in  Sicily;  d.  10  November,  1608.  His 
baptismal  name  was  Lancelotto,  which  out  of  love 
for  the  cross  he  changed  into  Andrew  when  he  en- 
tered the  Order  of  Theatines.  From  his  early  youth 
he  was  a  great  lover  of  chastity.  After  receiving 
his  elementary  training  in  the  school  of  Castronuovo, 
he  was  sent  to  Venice  to  pursue  a  course  in  the 
humanities  and  in  philosophy.  Being  a  handsome 
youth,  his  chastity  was  often  exposed  to  danger  from 
female  admirers,  and  to  escape  their  importunities 
he  took  ecclesiastical  tonsure.  Hereupon  he  went 
to  Naples  to  study  canon  and  civil  law,  obtained 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  and  was  ordained 
priest  at  the  age  of  twenty-six.  For  some  time  he 
held  the  office  of  lawyer  at  the  ecclesiastical  court  of 
Naples.  One  day,  while  pleading  the  cause  of  a 
friend,  a  lie  escaped  his  lips  in  the  heat  of  argument. 
When,  soon  afterwards,  his  eyes  fell  upon  the  passage 
in  the  Bible,  "The  mouth  that  belieth  killeth  the 
soul"  (Wis.  i,  11),  he  felt  deep  remorse,  renounced 
his  profession  as  ecclesiastical  lawyer  and  for  some 
time  devoted  himself  entirely  to  holy  meditation  and 
other  spiritual  exercises.  The  Archbishop  of  Naples 
now  commissioned  him  to  reform  a  convent  at  Na- 
ples, which  by  the  laxity  of  its  discipline  had  become 
a  source  of  great  scandal.  By  his  own  example  and 
his  untiring  zeal  he  restored  the  religious  discipline 
of  the  con\'ent  liut  not  without  many  and  great  dif- 
ficulties. Certain  wicked  men  who  were  accustomed 
to  have  clandestine  meetings  with  the  nuns  became 
exasperated  at  the  saint's  interference,  and  one  night 
he  was  assaulted  and  severely  wounded.  He  was 
brought  to  the  monastery  of  the  Theatines  to  re- 
cuperate. Here,  however,  he  resolved  to  devote  him- 
self entirely  to  God  and  he  entered  the  Order  of 
Theatines,  which  had  but  recently  been  founded  by 
St.  Cajetan.  On  the  vigil  of  the  Assumption  he  was 
invested,  being  then  thirty-five  years  of  age.  After 
completing  his  novitiate,  he  obtained  permission  to 
visit  the  tombs  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Martyrs  at 
Rome,  and,  upon  his  return  was  made  master  of 
novices.  After  holding  this  office  ten  years  he  was 
elected  superior.  His  holy  zeal  for  strict  religious 
discipline,  and  for  the  purity  of  the  clergy,  as  well  as 
his  deep  humility  and  sincere  piety  induced  the  Gen- 
eral of  his  Order  to  entrust  him  with  the  foundation 
of  two  new  Theatine  houses,  one  at  Milan,  the  other 
at  Piacenza.  By  his  efforts  many  more  Theatine 
houses  rose  up  in  various  dioceses  of  Italy.  As  su- 
perior of  some  of  these  new  foundations  he  was  so 
successful  in  converting  sinners  and  heretics  by  his 
prudence  in  the  direction  of  souls  and  by  his  elo- 
quent preaching,  that  numerous  disciples  thronged 
around  him,  eager  to  be  under  his  spiritual  guidance. 
One  of  the  most  noteworthy  of  nis  disciples  was 


Lorenzo  Scupoli,  the  author  of  that  still  popular  book 
"The  Spiritual  Combat".  St.  Charles  Borromeo  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Avellino  and  sought  his  advice 
in  the  most  important  affairs  of  the  Church.  Though 
indefatigable  in  preaching,  hearing  confessions,  and 
visiting  the  sick,  AveUino  still  had  time  to  write 
some  ascetical  works.  His  letters  were  published 
in  1731,  at  Naples,  in  tw'o  volumes,  and  his  other 
ascetical  works,  three  years  later  in  five  volumes. 
On  10  November,  1608,  when  beginning  the  Holy 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  he  was  stricken  with  apoplexy, 
and  after  devoutly  receiving  the  Holy  Viaticum,  died 
the  death  of  a  saint  at  the  age  of  eighty-eight.  In 
1624,  only  sixteen  years  after  his  death,  he  was  be- 
atified by  Urban  VIII,  and  in  1712  was  canonized  by 
Clement  XL  He  is  venerated  as  patron  by  Naples 
and  Sicily  and  invoked  especially  against  a  sudden 
death.  His  earthly  remains  lie  buried  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Paul  at  Naples. 

Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  10  Nov.;  Baring-Gould, 
Lives  of  the  Saints  (London,  1877);  Schmid  in  Kirchenlex., 
Stabler,  Heiligen-Lexiktn  (Augsburg,   1858),  1,   193. 

Michael  Ott. 

Andrew  Bobola,  Blessed,  Martvr,  b.  of  an 
old  and  illustrious  Polish  family,  in  the  Palatinate  of 
Sandomir,  1590;  d.  at  Jan6w,  16  May,  1657.  Having 
entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Wilna 
(1611),  he  was  ordained  in  1622,  and  appointed 
preacher  in  the  Church  of  St.  Casimir,  Wilna.  After 
making  his  solemn  vows,  2  June,  1630,  he  was  made 
superior  at  Bobruisk,  where  he  wrought  wonders  by 
Ills  preaching  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
devotion  during  an  epidemic  of  the  plague.  In  1636 
he  began  his  work  in  the  Lithuanian  missions. 
During  this  period  Poland  was  being  ravaged  by 
Cossacks,  Russians,  and  Tatars,  and  the  Catholic 
Faith  was  made  the  object  of  the  concerted  attacks 
of  Protestants  and  schismatics.  The  Jesuits,  in 
particular,  had  much  to  endure.  Bobola's  success 
in  converting  schismatics  drew  upon  him  the  rage 
of  those  high  in  authority,  and  the  adherents  of  the 
Greek  Pope  decided  to  centralize  their  forces  in 
Polesia.  A  Catholic  nobleman  of  this  province 
offered  the  Jesuits  a  house  at  Pinsk,  and  here  Father 
Bobola  was  stationed.  The  schismatics  vainly 
endeavoured  in  every  manner  to  hinder  him  in  the 
exercise  of  his  apostolic  duties,  extending  their 
persecutions  to  attacks  upon  liis  person.  On  16  May, 
1657,  he  was  seized  by  two  Cossacks  and  severely 
beaten.  Then  tying  liim  to  their  saddles,  they 
dragged  him  to  Janow  where  he  was  subjected  to 
incredible  tortures.  After  having  been  burned,  half 
strangled,  and  partially  flayed  alive,  he  was  released 
from  suffering  by  a  sabre  stroke.  His  body  was 
interred  in  the  collegiate  church  of  the  Society  at 
Pinsk,  where  it  became  the  object  of  great  veneration. 
It  was  later  transferred  to  Polosk,  where  it  is  still 
held  in  honour,  even  by  the  scliismatics.  Father 
Bobola  was  declared  Blessed  by  Pius  IX  in  1853, 
and  his  feast  is  kept  by  the  Society  of  Jesus,  23  May. 

Bonk  in  Kirchenlex.:  Acta  SS.,  10  May;  de  Buck,  Essai 
historique  sur  le  Bienh.  Andrd  Bobola  (Brussels,  1S53). 

F.  M.  Rddoe. 

Andrew  Corsini,  Saint,  of  the  illustrious  Corsini 
family,  b.  in  Florence,  in  1302;  d.  1373.  Wild  and 
dissolute  in  youth,  he  was  startled  by  the  words  of 
his  mother  about  what  had  happened  to  her  before 
his  birth,  and,  becoming  a  Carmelite  monk  in  his 
native  city,  began  a  life  of  great  mortification.  He 
studied  at  Paris  and  Avignon,  and,  on  his  return, 
became  the  Apostle  of  Florence.  He  was  regarded 
as  a  prophet  and  a  thaumaturgus.  Called  to  the 
See  of  Fiesoli,  he  fled,  but  was  discovered  by  a  child, 
and  compelled  to  accept  the  honour.  He  redoubled 
his  austerities  as  a  bishop,  was  lavish  in  his  care  of 
the  poor,  and  was  sought  for  everywhere  as  a  peace- 
maker, notably  at  Bologna,  whither  he  was  sent  as 


ANDREW 


473 


ANDREW 


papal  legate  to  heal  the  breach  between  the  nobility 
and  the  [jeoplc.  After  twelve  yeai-s  in  the  episcopaty, 
he  died  at  the  ago  of  seventy-one,  and  miracles  were 
80  niultiplietl  at  liis  tieath  that  Kugenius  I\'  permitted 
a  public  cull  immediately;  but  it  was  only  in  1629 
that  Urban  VIII  canonized  him.  His  feast  is  kept 
on  4  February. 

Butler,  Lire«  of  the  SairUa,  4  February. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Andrew  of  Caesarea,  Bishop  of  that  see  in  Cappa- 
docia,  as.sif;iu'd  by  Kiumbacher  to  the  hrst  half  of 
the  .sixth  century,  though  he  i.s  yet  variously  placed 
by  others  from  the  hfth  to  the  ninth  century.  His 
principal  work  is  a  commentaiy  on  the  Apocalypse 
(P.  G.,  CVI,  21o-4oS,  1387-94),  im[)ortant  as  the 
first  commentary  on  the  book  that  has  come  down 
to  us,  also  as  the  source  from  which  most  of  its  later 
commentators  liave  drawn.  This  writer  differs  from 
most  of  the  Byzantine  commentators  by  reason  of 
his  extensive  acquaintance  witli  early  patristic 
literature. 

Apollinaire  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  bible  (Paris,  1895);  Krcm- 
BAciiER,  Geich.  derbyzant.  Lit.  (2d  ed.,  Munich.  1S97).  129-131. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Andrew   of  Constantinople.      See  Andrew  op 

RlliiliKS. 

Andrew  of  Crete,  Saint  (sometimes  called 
Aiulrcas  in  English  biography),  theologian,  homilist, 
hyninographer,  b.  at  Damascus  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  century;  d.  4  July,  740  (or  720),  on 
which  day  his  fc;ist  is  celebrated  in  the  Greek  Church. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  repaired  to  Jeru-salem,  en- 
tered a  monastery,  was  enrolled  amongst  the  clerics 
of  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  (whence  he  is  also 
commonly  styled  Andrew  of  Jerusalem),  rose  to 
some  distinction,  and  was  finally  sent  by  Theodore 
in  685  to  felicitate  the  Kmpcror,  Constantme  Pogona- 
tus,  on  the  holding  of  the  Sixth  General  Council. 
His  embas-sy  fulfilled,  he  remained  at  Constantinople, 
received  deaconship.  again  distinguished  himself, 
and  was  finally  appointed  to  the  metropolitan  see  of 
Gortyna,  in  Crete.  At  first  an  opponent  of  the 
Monothelite  her-^sy,  he  nevertheless  attended  the 
conriliithutum  of  712,  in  which  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  were  abolished,  but  in  the  following  year 
amended  his  course,  and  thenceforth  occupied  him- 
self in  worthy  functions,  preaching,  composing 
hymns,  etc.  As  a  preacher,  his  twenty-two  pub- 
lished and  twenty-one  unpublished  discourses,  re- 
plete with  doctrine,  history,  unction,  Scriptural 
quotation,  poetic  imagination,  dignified  and  har- 
monious phraseology,  and  rhetorically  divided  in 
clear  and  precise  fashion,  justify  his  assignment  to 
the  front  rank  of  ecclesi;istical  orators  of  the  Byzan- 
tine epoch.  A  list  of  forty  of  his  discourses,  together 
with  twenty-one  edited  sermons,  is  given  in  P.  G., 
XCVII,  801-1304.  His  sermon  on  St.  James, 
"brother  of  the  Lord",  was  published  in  1891,  thus 
making  his  published  discourses  twenty-two. 

He  is  principally  interesting  to  us,  however,  as  a 
hyninographer — not  so  much  for  the  great  mass, 
the  thematic  variety,  or  the  disputable  excellence 
of  his  work,  as  for  the  reason  that  ne  is  credited  with 
the  invention  (or  at  least  the  introduction  into 
Greek  liturgical  .services)  of  the  canon,  a  new  form 
of  hymnody  of  which  we  have  no  intimation  before 
his  time.  While  it  may  indeed  \>c  "the  highest 
effort  of  Greek  hyinnody"  (as  the  Hev.  H.  L.  Ben- 
nett styles  it),  its  effects,  doubtless  unforeseen  by  its 
inventor,  were  not  entirely  satisfactory,  as  it  gradu- 
ally supplanted  the  forms  of  hvmnody  previously  in 
use  in  the  Tropoloijion  (Greek  I'rayer  Book).  \Vhilo 
the  new  form  was  thus  brought  into  use  by  Andrew 
and  w.Ts  zealously  cultivated  by  the  great  Greek 
hymnographers,  he  himself  did  not  attain  to  any 
verj'  high  degree  of  excellence  in  the  many  canons 
he  composed,  his  style  being  rugged,  diffuse,  and 


monotonous,  from  the  viewpoint  of  modern  hym- 
nologists.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  took  his 
invention  as  their  model  in  composition  were  not 
wanting  in  atTectionate  tributes.  They  styled  him 
the  "radiant  star",  the  "splendoroussun";  for  them 
his  style  is  elevated  in  thought,  pure  in  form,  sweet 
and  harmonious  in  diction.  Thus,  too,  while  liis 
"Greek  Canon",  whoso  immense  length  of  2,50 
strophes  has  passed  into  a  proverb  with  the  Greeks, 
has  been  criticized  for  its  length,  its  subtilties,  its 
forced  comparisons,  it  still  receives  the  tribute  of 
recitation  entire  on  the  Thursday  of  the  fifth  week 
(with  us,  the  fourth)  of  Lent,  and  the  four  parts 
into  which  it  is  divided  are  also  severally  assigned 
to  the  first  four  days  of  the  first  week. 

His  hymn(>gnii>hic  lalwiurs  were  indeed  immense, 
if  we  may  credit  absolutely  all  the  attributioiLs  made 
to  him.  Nine  canons  are  a.ssigned  to  him  in  the 
"Theotocarion"  of  the  monk  Nicodemus.  Of  these, 
however,  six  are  in  regular  acrostic  form,  a  literary 
(or  perha|)s  mnemonic)  device  wholly  foreign  to  his 
authenticated  compositions.  The  remaining  three 
have  too  great  regularity  of  rhythm  to  1)0  fairly 
ascribed  to  him,  as  liis  work  is  not  conformed  wholly 
to  the  elaborate  rhythmical  inductions  propounded 
by  Cardinal  Pitra  as  rules  for  the  canon.  Here  it 
may  be  said,  by  way  of  parenthesis,  that  a  canon 
as  printed  in  the  liturgical  l)ooks  is,  for  economical 
reasoas,  so  condensed  in  form  that  its  poetical  units, 
the  troparia  or  strophes,  appear  like  ordinary  prose 
paragraphs.  These  trojxiria,  however,  yield  to  analy- 
sis, and  are  seen  to  coiLsist  of  clauses  or  phrases 
separated  by  ca-suras.  Some  hymnologists  look  on 
them  as  illustrations  merely  of  modulated  i)roso;  but 
Cardinal  Pitra  considers  the  clauses  as  truly  metrical, 
and  discovers  sixteen  rules  of  prosodical  govern- 
ment. The  prosodical  quantity  of  syllables  seems  to 
Ije  disregarded  (a  feature  of  tlie  evolution  of  Latin 
hymns  as  well),  although  the  number  of  the  syllables 
is  generally  equal,  while  accent  pl.ays  a  great  part 
in  the  rhythm.  These  tro/xiria  are  built  up  into  an 
ode,  the  first  Iroparion  being  a  hirmus,  a  strophe 
which  becomes  a  type  for  those  following  in  respect 
to  melody,  tone  (or  mode)  and  rhythmic  structure. 
The  odes,  in  turn,  are  built  up  into  canons,  and  are 
usually  eight  in  number  (theoretically  nine,  the 
second  being  usually  omitted,  although  the  numera- 
tion remains  unaltered).  A  hymn  of  two  odes  is 
called  a  diodion;  of  three,  a  triodion  (the  common 
form  for  Lenten  Offices,  whence  the  name  of  "Trio- 
dion" for  the  Lenten  Oflice  Book).  The  /lirmu.s,  a 
troparion  indicating  the  Greek  tone  or  mode,  which 
then  prevails  throughout  the  canon,  may  be  bor- 
rowed by  a  different  canon  if  this  be  in  the  same 
tone.  It  should  be  added  that  the  Greek  tones  do 
not  correspond  with  the  Latin  in  their  octaves. 
Some  of  St.  Andrew's  odes  have  more  than  one 
hirmuK;  thus,  in  the  Great  Canon  the  second  and 
third  odes  have  each  two;  the  Long  Canon  (180 
strophes)  in  honour  of  Sts.  Simeon  and  Anne  the 
Prophetess,  has  three  in  the  first,  second,  third,  sixtli, 
and  eighth;  two  in  the  fifth,  .seventh,  and  ninth; 
and  four  in  the  fourth.  Altogether,  the  sufficiently 
authentic  work  of  St.  Andrew  furnishes  no  fewer 
than  one  hundred  and  eleven  hirmi:  a  fertility  beyond 
that  of  any  other  hynmographer. 

To  return  to  the  canon.  In  addition  to  the  nine 
already  referred  to  as  wrongly  ascribed  to  him, 
fifteen  others,  as  yet  unpublished,  are  jierhaps  too 
hastily  a-ssigned  to  him.  Leaving  all  these  aside, 
however,  we  have  the  following  in  the  first  tone: 
(a)  on  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus,  still  sung  on  the 
Friday  l)efore  Palm  Sunday,  at  the  ajmdeipnon  (the 
after-supi)er  service,  corresponding  to  our  Com- 
pline); (li)  Conception  of  St.  Anne  (9  Dec.);  (c)  the 
JIachabean  martyrs  (1  Aug.);  (d)  St.  Ignatius  of 
Antioch   (2  Dec).     The  titles  affixed  will  serve  to 


ANDREW 


474 


ANDREW 


indicate  the  variety  of  themes.  In  addition  to  these, 
ten  other  canons  and  four  triodia  furnish  illustra- 
tions of  his  work  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
Authentic,  and  the  second  and  fourth  plagal  tones. 
He  is  also  credited  witli  the  authorship  of  many 
idiomela  (short,  detaclicd  troparia,  somewhat  similar 
to  our  antiphons),  found  in  the  offices  of  thirteen 
feasts  of  the  Greek  calendar,  usually  as  doxasticha 
and  aposiicha  at  Lauds  and  Vespers,  and  in  pro- 
cessional and  vesperal  stichera.  (The  word  idiomela 
is  variously  interpreted  as  suggesting  that  each 
idiomelon  has  its  own  proper  melody,  or,  under- 
standing mclox  poetically,  rhythm.  Sometimes  irfi'o- 
mda  are  comljined  in  a  series,  and  are  then  called 
.stichera  idiomela;  Ijut  in  this  case  they  seem  to  pre- 
serve no  structural  similarity  or  affinity,  and  have 
been  compared  to  irregular  verses  in  English.) 

P.  G..  XCVII,  789-1444;  Petit  in  Diet,  d'arch.  ctirct.  et  de 
lit.,  s.  v.;  Marin  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath..  s.  v.;  Neale,  Hi/mns 
of  the  Eastern  Church,  for  translations  of  portions  of  ttie  Great 
Canon  and  Idiomela. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Andrew  of  Lonjumeau,  Dominican  missionary 
and  papal  amljassador,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Paris; 
died  c.  1253.  He  first  appears  in  the  company  of 
missionaries  sent  to  the  East  by  Blessed  Jordan  of 
Saxony  in  1228.  On  this  journey  he  gained  great  pro- 
ficiency in  several  Oriental  languages.  When  Baldwin 
II  gave  over  the  Crown  of  Thorns  to  King  Louis  IX, 
.Andrew  was  commissioned,  together  with  the  Domini- 
can James  of  Paris,  to  bear  the  sacred  treasure  to 
France.  But  on  reaching  Constantinople,  they  were 
asked  by  the  barons,  who  ruled  in  the  vacancy,  to 
carry  the  relic  to  the  Venetians,  to  whom  it  had,  in 
the  meantime,  been  sold.  Both  set  out  about  Christ- 
mas, 1238.  At  Venice  Andrew  rernained  behind  in 
custody  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns  and  James  hastened 
to  King  Louis  for  further  instructions.  Were  the  lat- 
ter willing  to  guarantee  two  hundred  thousand  pounds 
of  gold,  the  impoverished  Venetians  were  ready  to  dis- 
po.se  of  the  relic.  In  1239  the  two  Friars  had  reached 
Troyes  with  the  Crown.  From  that  place  King 
Louis  carried  it  on  his  shoulders  to  the  newly  built 
chapel  at  Aix.  In  1245  Andrew  was  sent  as  papal 
ambassador  by  Innocent  IV  to  the  Oriental  schis- 
matic patriarchs,  to  induce  them  to  imite  with  the 
See  of  Rome.  Contrary  to  all  expectation  he  found 
them  orthodox  as  is  evident  from  their  joint  letter  to 
the  Pope,  as  given  in  Raynaldus  (Ann.  EccL,  ad  an. 
1247).  Andrew  was  probably  the  bearer  of  this 
letter  to  the  Holy  Father.  On  his  journey  to  the 
patriarchs  Andrew  halted  to  treat  with  the  Mogul 
Khan  Baiothnoi,  and,  after  his  death,  with  Ercoltai. 
Though  this  diplomatic  mission  utterly  failed,  as 
Bernard  Guidonis  expre.ssly  declares  (Chronicon, 
ad  an.  1248)  we  have  the  testimony  of  subse- 
quent missionaries  to  show  that  many  converts  were 
made  to  the  Faith.  Andrew  died  some  time  after 
1253,  for  that  year  he  was  active  as  missionary  in 
Palestine.  The  Franciscan,  Rubruquis,  in  his  work 
on  Oriental  customs,  declares  that  everything  he 
had  heard  from  Andrew  on  the  subject,  was  fully 
borne  out  by  his  own    pcr.sonal   observations. 

QiETiF  AND  EcHARD,  &S.  Ord.  Pra:d.,  I,  140;  Tocron, 
Ilommea  iltus.  de  lordre  de  S.  Dominique,  I,  157-105;  Chapo- 
•iiN,  /,(;»  princea  tranfais  du  moyen  dge  et  I'ordre  de  Saint 
Dumnujue,  m  L'Ann(c  Dominicaine,  1901;  Morand,  Histoire 
lie  la  .Samte  Chapelle  royale  du  Palain,  1.3  sqq.;  MicnKl,,  Lea 
munont  lalxnes  en  Orient,  in  Im  Corresvondance  Catholique, 
1894— 9o. 

Thomas  M.  Schwertner. 

Andrew  of  Rhodes  (.sometimes,  of  Colossus), 
tlicologian,  d.  1410.  He  was  a  Greek  by  birth, 
and  born  of  schismatic  parents.  In  early  youth  he 
had  no  opportunitic^s  for  education,  but  afterwards 
devoted  himself  to  Latin  and  Greek,  and  to  thcologj-, 
especially  the  questions  in  dispute  between  the 
Latin  and  Greek  Churches.     The  study  of  the  early 


Fathers,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  convinced  him  that, 
in  the  disputed  points,  truth  was  on  the  side  of  the 
Latin  Church.  He  therefore  solemnly  abjured  liis 
errors,  made  a  profession  of  faith,  and  entered  the 
Dominican  Order  about  the  time  of  the  Western 
Schism.  He  led  thenceforth  an  apostolic  life.  He 
was  especially  earnest  in  his  efforts  to  induce  his 
fellow-Greeks  to  follow  in  his  footsteps  ami  reunite 
with  Rome.  In  141.3  he  was  made  .\rchbishop  of 
Rhodes.  The  Dominican  biographer,  Eeliard.  credits 
him  with  having  taken  an  active  part  in  tlie  twentieth 
session  of  the  Council  of  Constance  (1414-18). 
Others  maintain  that  there  is  here  a  confusion  with 
Andrew  of  Colaczy,  in  Hungary.  At  the  Council  of 
Basle,  he  delivered  an  oration  in  the  name  of  the 
Pope  (Mansi,  XXIX,  468-481).  He  took  part  in 
the  Council  of  Ferrara-Florence,  and  was  one  of  the 
six  theologians  appointed  by  the  Papal  Legate, 
Cardinal  Julian,  to  reply  to  the  objections  of  the 
Greeks.  He  proved  that  it  was  fully  within  the 
province  of  the  Church  to  add  the  Filioque  to 
the  Creed,  and  tliat  the  Greek  Fathers  had  been  of 
the  same  opinion.  After  the  close  of  the  Council 
trouble  arose  between  the  Latins  and  Greeks  in 
Cyprus;  the  latter  accused  the  former  of  refusing  to 
hold  communion  with  them.  Andrew  was  sent 
thither  by  Eugene  IV,  and  .succeeded  in  establishing 
peace.  He  also  succeeded  in  overcoming  the  local 
forms  of  the  Nestorian,  Eutychian,  and  Monothelite 
heresies.  The  heretical  bishops  abjiu'ed  and  made  a 
profession  of  faith  at  a  synod  held  at  Nicosia;  some 
of  the  prelates  went  afterwards  to  Rome  to  renew 
their  profession  before  the  Holy  See.  There  are 
preserved  in  the  Vatican  manuscript  copies  of  his 
treatise  on  the  Divine  essence  and  operation,  com- 
piled from  the  commentaries  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  addressed  to  Cardinal  Bessarion, also  a  little  work 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  in  reply  to  a  letter  of  Mark 
of  Ephesus  against  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
Roman  Church   (P.  G.,  CL,  862). 

QuETip  AND  EcHARD.  SS.  Ord.  Pro'd.,  I,  801;  Hefele, 
Concilienff.,  VII,  472,  681,  et  al.;  Schmidt,  in  Kirchenlcx., 
I.  835;  TouRON,  Hommes  ill.  de  Vordre  de  S.  Dominique,  s.  v.; 
Hurter,  Notnenclator  (2d  ed.),  II.  821;  see  Bzovius,  Ann. 
Eccl.  ad  an.  14SS,  §8,  and  IIergenrother  (ed.)  The 
Mystagogia  of  Photius,  146  sqq. 

J.  L.  FiNNERTY. 

Andrew  the  Scot,  S.\int,  Archdeacon  of  Fiesole, 
b.  probably  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century; 
d.  about  877.  St.  Andrew  and  his  sister  St.  Britlget 
the  Younger  were  born  in  Ireland  of  noble  parents. 
There  they  seem  to  have  studied  under  St.  Donatus, 
an  Irish  scholar,  and  when  the  latter  decided  to  make 
a  long  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  places  of  Italy,  Andrew 
accompanied  him.  Donatus  and  Andrew  arrived 
at  Fiesole  when  the  people  were  assembled  to  elect 
a  new  bishop.  A  heavenly  voice  indicated  Donatus 
as  most  worthy  of  the  dignity,  and  being  consecrated 
to  that  office,  he  made  Andrew  his  archdeacon.  Dur- 
ing the  forty-seven  years  of  his  episcopate  Andrew 
served  him  faithfully,  and  he  was  apparently  en- 
couraged by  Donatus  to  restore  the  church  of 
St.  Martin  a  Mensola  and  to  found  a  monastery  there. 
Andrew  is  commended  for  his  austerity  of  life  and 
boundless  charity  to  the  poor.  He  died  shortly  after 
his  master  St.  Donatus;  and  his  sister  St.  Bridget  is 
believed  to  have  been  miraculoasly  conducted  from 
Ireland  by  an  angel  to  assist  at  his  death-bed. 
After  St.  "Andrew's  holy  death,  Bridget  led  the  life 
of  a  rec^luse  for  some  years  in  a  remote  spot  among 
the  Apennines.  St.  Andrew  is  commemorated  on  22 
August. 

.■Ida  SS.,  Feb.,  I  (St.  Bridget).  .A.ug.,  IV  (.SV.  \n,lrnr\  On,. 
IX  (St.  Donatus):  Colqan,  .Acta  Sanctorum  llil>, ',  ; ,  ,  i  <mu  im, 
1()45),  I,  2,38;  O'Hanlon.  I.ires  of  Irish  .s',i,«/.s  ,lh,l.;  n  isn/,. 
VIII:  Lanioan,  Eccleaiastieal  llistory  .)/  /rc/.ijN/  i  1  'uiMni,  IsJJi. 
Ill,  280-284;  Pdccinelli,  Vita  del  li.  Andna  ,1,  .s,,./i.i  ,1  l..i- 
ence,  1B70);  Stokss,  Six  Monlha  in  the  .lyi.  nfums  (lAJiidon 
1892),  227-278. 

Hekbekt  Thurston. 


ANDREWS 


475 


ANERIO 


Andrews,  William  Eusebii's,  editor  and  author, 
b.  lit  Norwich,  Knglaiid,  6  December,  1773;  d.  Lon- 
don, 7  Ajiril,  KS37.  His  parents,  wlio  were  eonvert.s 
to  CatlioHeity,  were  of  Imniblc  station  and  he  en- 
tered tlie  printing  oHiee  of  the  "Norfolli  Clironich'" 
as  an  apprentice.  He  rose  to  be  editor  of  tlie  paper, 
wliich  post  he  held  from  1799  to  1S13.  In  1S13  he 
went  to  London  to  devote  liiinself  to  advancing  the 
Catliohe  cause  by  means  of  the  press,  and  in  July 
of  that  year  he  established  "The  Orthodox  .Journal 
and  Catliolic  Monthly  Intelligencer".  He  was  nia- 
tiiially  aided  by  Bishop  Milner,  but  in  l.SJO  lie  was 
obliged  to  suspend  publication.  During  this  period 
lie  began  the  |)ublica(iou  in  (Ua.sgow  of  a  weekly 
pamphlet,  "The  t'atholic  Vindicator",  but  pecvmiary 
liL^ises  compelled  him  to  abandon  it  after  one  year. 
W  ilh  the  assistance  of  Bishop  Milner  he  establishe<l 
in  December,  1.S20.  a  weekly  newspaper,  "TheC'ath- 
i)li<-  Advocate  of  Civil  and  Religious  Liberty",  which 
was  discontinued  nine  months  later.  In  January, 
1.SJ2,  two  periodicals  were  establi-shed,  one,  "The 
Catholic  Miscellany",  devoted  to  Catholic  interests, 
with  a  nominal  editor,  but  under  the  control  of 
Andrews;  the  other,  "The  People's  Advocate",  ex- 
clusively political,  under  his  avowed  editorship.  The 
"Advocate"  lived  only  seven  weeks,  and  after  two 
months  the  sole  editorship  of  the  other  devolved  on 
Andrews.  He  continued  it  luider  serious  financial 
stress  until  June,  1823,  when  it  passed  into  other 
hands.  The  same  year  he  revived  the  "Orthodox 
Journal"  and  continued  it  for  several  months.  In 
.September,  1824,  he  established  a  weekly  paper, 
"The  Truth  Teller",  which  lasted  for  twelve  months, 
and  was  afterwards  continued  as  a  pamphlet,  but 
linally  discontinued  in  1829  through  lack  of  sup- 
port. "The  Truth  Teller"  is  notable  for  the  vigour 
with  which  it  assailed  O'Connell. 

It  would  seem  that  his  zeal  for  starting  Catholic 
papers  makes  him,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  re- 
sponsible also  for  the  inception,  2  April,  1,S25,  of 
"The  Truth  Teller",  New  York's  first  distinctly 
Catholic  paper.  There  is  no  direct  information  ex- 
tant now  as  to  the  details  of  his  connection  with 
the  New  York  paper,  or  whether  the  idea  wa.s  to 
have  it  as  a  sort  of  local  edition  of  the  London  pub- 
lication. The  first  six  issues,  however,  bear  the  im- 
print of  "William  E.  Andrews  &  Co."  a.s  the  pub- 
lishers. Then  the  name  of  the  publishing  firm  is 
changed  to  (ieorge  Pardow  and  William  Dennian, 
without  any  reason  being  assigned,  fieorge  Pardow 
was  an  English  Catholic,  and  .so  was  Denman,  both 
having  emigrated  to  .N'ew  York  a  few  years  before. 
In  the  early  i.ssues  of  the  New  York  "Iruth  Teller" 
there  are  constant  references  to  the  work  of  Andrews 
in  London,  showing  an  intimate  relationship,  but 
never,  however,  giving  any  positive  statement  as  to 
a  business  connection.     (See  C.\tholic  Press.) 

.\ndrews  again  revived  the  "Orthodox  Journal", 
which  he  sub.sequently  continued  as  "The  British 
Liberator",  and  later  as  "Andrews's  Constitutional 
Preceptor".  From  1.S32  to  1834  he  issued  as  a 
weekly  paper,  ".\ndrcws's  Penny  Orthodo.x  Jour- 
nal", and  in  1836  ".\ndrews's  W'eekly  Orthodox 
.lournal",  which  after  three  months  became  "The 
London  and  Dublin  Orthodox  Journal".  H  was 
(■ontinued  after  his  death  by  his  .son.  In  1S26  An- 
drews had  established  a  society  known  as  "The 
I'riends  of  Civil  and  Religious  Liberty",  which  in  a 
little  more  than  a  year  distributed  nearly  .500,000 
tracts.  This  .society  was  the  parent  of  the  "Metro- 
(tolitan  Tract  Society"  and  many  similar  organiza- 
tions. In  addition  to  his  editorial  labours,  Andrews 
wrote:  "The  Catholic  School  Book"  (1814);  "The 
Historical  Narrative  of  the  Horrid  Plot  and  Con- 
spiracy of  Titus  Oatcs"  (1816);  "The  .Ashton  Con- 
troversy", eighteen  pamphlets  (1822-23);  "A  Crit- 
ical and  Historical  Review  of  Fox's  liook  of  Martyrs" 


(3  voLs.,  1S24-26);  an  abridgment  of  "Plowden's 
History  of  Ireland";  "The  Catholic's  Vade  Mecum"; 
"Popery  Triumphant"  (a  satirical  pamphlet);  "The 
Two  Systems";  and  edited  "The  End  of  Religious 
Controversy",  by  Dr.  .Milner  (1818). 

Orlluiiloi  Journal',  Xpr A.  1K37;  IIcBKNUETH.  Life  of  Dr.  Mil- 
ntr  (Dublin,  ISGUJ;  Fla.naoan,  Hittorjj  of  Die  Church. 

Thomas  Gwkney  Taafke. 

Andria,  Dioce.se  ok,  comprises  three  towns  in 
the  Province  of  Pari  and  one  in  the  Province  of 
Potenza,  Archdiocese  of  Trani,  Italy.  Information 
!is  to  the  Christian  origin  of  Andria  is  impo.ssible  to 
find.  Tradition  a.ssigns  to  it  an  Englishman.  St. 
Richard,  as  bishop,  chosen  by  Pope  (jelasius  1,  about 
492.  The  Bishopric  of  Andria  dates  very  probably 
from  the  time  of  Gelasius  II,  elected  Pope  in  1118. 
The  name,  however,  of  Richard  is  genuine,  as  a 
Richard  of  .Andria  was  present  at  the  ICleventh 
(Ecumenical  Council  (Third  Lateran,  1179)  held  under 
Pope  .\l(xander  III.  The  first  Bishop  of  Andria 
known  to  history  is  mentioned  in  the  Translation  of 
St.  Nicholas  Pilgrim,  celebrated  in  Trani  in  1143,  but 
it  does  not  give  his  name.  In  .\ndria,  as  in  all  the 
principal  cities  of  Apulia,  there  are  many  artistic 
remains.  Worthy  of  mention  is  the  Castel  del 
Monte  near  Andria.  .Andria  has  1.5  parishes,  2(X) 
secular  priests,  6  regulars,  41  .seminarists,  53  churches 
or  chapels.     There  are  101, 0(X)  inhabitants. 

CAi-PEi.i.fnTi.  Le  chiene  ditaliu  (Venice,  1806),  XXI.  77; 
CiAMS.  Series  episcoporum  eccle»iir  ealholicte  (llatisbon.  1873), 
848;  O'Uiiso,  .S/orifl  delta  ciU^  di  .\ndria  dalla  sua  orifrine  gino 
al  1S41  (.Naples,  1842);  Vkxtiiu,  Sloria  dclV  arte  Sazionale 
(Milan,  190.3);  Bkhtaci.  CitsUl  del  Monle  el  Us  archilcctes 
franrais  de  Irmpereur  Fridfrie  II  (Paris,  1897). 

JoH.\  J.  a'  Becket. 

Anemone.     See  Pl.\.\ts  i.\  the  Bible. 

Anemurium,  now  Estenmure,  a  titular  see  of 
Cilicia,  situated  in  antiquity  on  a  high  blufT  knob  that 
marks  the  southernmost  \nnnt  of  .\sia  Minor,  op- 
posite Cj-prus.  The  ruins  of  its  theatres,  tombs,  and 
walls  are  still  visible. 

S.MITII.  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  I,  136;  Mas  Lathik, 
Trisor  de  cArono;.  (Paris,  1895),  1985;  DcLADRIEB,  Ui»t.  arm. 
des  croiaades,  I.  xix.  xxiv. 

Anerio,  Felice,  an  eminent  Roman  composer,  b.  c. 
1560;  d.  c.  1630.  From  1575  he  was  for  four  years  a 
boy-soprano  in  the  Papal  Choir,  studying  under  the 
celebrated  master  Nanini.  His  first  appointment 
was  as  choirmaster  of  the  l'>nglish  College  in  Rome, 
and  his  next  a  similar  one  under  Cardinal  Aldobran- 
dini.  In  1594  he  succeeded  Palest rina  as  composer 
to  the  Papal  Choir,  a  post  created  specially  for 
Palestrina,  and  which  cciused  with  Anerio's  death. 
Several  of  his  compositions,  e.  g.  an  "Adoramus  Te, 
Christe"  and  a  "Stabat  .Mater",  for  three  choirs, 
pas.sed  for  a  long  time  as  Palestrina's  work.  Ane- 
rio's compositions  (which  are  very  numerous)  are 
characterized  by  originality  and  fine  artistic  feeling. 
Many  were  printed  during  the  period  1585-1622. 
We  may  mention  "  First  Book  of  Hymns,  Canticles 
and  Motets  for  eight  voices"  fVenice,  1596),  dedi- 
cated to  Pope  Clement  VIII,  which  was  followed 
later  by  a  second  volume,  "Three  Books  of  Spiritual 
Madrigals  for  Five  Voices",  "Two  Books  of  Spirit- 
ual Concerts  for  Four  Voices".  But  a  large  pro- 
portion of  them  exist  only  in  manuscript,  and  are 
preserved  in  various  Roman  libraries,  especially  in 
that  of  the  Roman  College. 

KoRNMi  I.I.BR.  Lei.  der  kirchl.  Tonkunst;  Riemann,  Diet. 
of  Musir:  CuovK.  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musicians;  Naumann, 
Geschiehle  der  Musik. 

J.  A.  VoLKER. 

Anerio,  Oiovanni  Franxesco,  b.  in  Rome  c.  1567; 
d.  c.  1620.  He  spent  four  years  as  a  chorister  at  St. 
Peter's,  under  Palestrina.  He  was  in  turn  choir- 
master to  Sigismund  III  of  Poland,  1609,  and  at 
the  cathedral  of  Verona,  1610;  but  he  soon  after 
went  to  Rome  as  musical  instructor  at  the  Scmi- 
nario  Romano,  and  from   1613  to  16'20  was  choir- 


ANFOSSI 


476 


ANGEL 


master  at  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  de'  Monti.  In 
1616  he  took  holy  orders.  Anerio  was  among  the 
first  Italian  composers  to  use  the  eighth  note,  or 
quaver,  and  its  subdivisions.  He  left  a  large  num- 
ber of  works,  embracing  all  the  usual  forms  of  sacred 
music,  the  Ust  of  wliich  may  be  found  in  Vogel's 
"WeltHche  Vokalmusik  Italiens"  and  Eitner's 
"Quellen-Lexikon."  A  peculiarity  of  his  was  the 
use  of  fantastic  titles  for  liis  collections  such  as 
"Ghirlanda  (U  Sacrc  Rose"  (Rome,  1619);  "Selva 
armonica"  (Rome,  1617);  "  Diporte  musicaU"  (Rome, 
1617).  He  also  arranged  Palestrina's  celebrated 
"Missa  Papie  Marcelli"  for  four  voices,  making  it 
more  practicable  than  in  its  original  form  of  a  six- 
voice  mass.  His  style  is  partly  based  on  tlie  tratli- 
tions  of  the  sixtcentli  century,  partly  on  the  inno- 
vations of  the  seventeenth  wluch  introduced  solos 
with  a  figured  bass. 

RiEMANN,  Dirt,  of  Music;  Grove,  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musi- 
cians; Naum.^nn',  Geschichte  der  Musik. 

3.  A.  VOLKER. 

Anfossi,  FiLippo,  an  Italian  Dominican,  b.  at 
Taggia,  in  tlie  province  of  Genoa;  d.  in  Rome,  14 
May,  1825.  Pius  VII  on  his  return  to  the  Stat«s  of 
the  Church  appointed  him  Vicar-General  of  the  Or- 
der of  Preachers  and  later  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace,  1SI5-25.  In  this  quality  he  carried  on  the 
negotiations  with  Lamennais  regarding  the  correc- 
tions to  be  made  in  his  "Essai  sur  1' indifference" 
(Paris,  1821-23).  He  was  among  the  most  ardent 
defenders  of  tlie  Roman  Church  against  the  various 
forms  of  Gallicanism  represented  by  Seipione  de 
Ricci,  Vincento  Palmieri,  and  Guillaume  de  la  Lu- 
zerne. Among  his  published  works  are:  "Diie.sa 
della  boUa  '  .\uctorem  fidei' in  cui  si  trattano  le 
maggiori  questioni  che  hanno  agitate  in  questi  tempi 
la  chiesa"  (Rome,  1810  and  1S16);  "  Motivi  per 
cui  il  Padre  Filippo  Anfossi  Domenicano  ha  ereduto 
di  non  potere  adorare  alle  quattro  proposizioni  gal- 
hcane"  (Rome,  1813);  "L'unione  politico-religiosa 
considerata  nei  suoi  rapporti  coUa  civile  societil " 
(Rome,  1822). 

Hdrter,  NoTnenclator,  III,  753. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Ange  de  Saint  Joseph,  French  missionary  friar  of 
the  Order  of  Discalced  Carmelites,  b.  at  Toulouse, 
1636;  d.  at  Perpignan,  1697.  He  wrote  works  on 
Oriental  pharmaceutics.  His  family  name  was  Jo- 
seph de  la  Brosse.  In  1662  he  took  up  the  study 
of  Arabic  in  the  convent  of  San  Pancrazio  in  Rome, 
under  Celestino  h  San-Liduvina,  brother  of  the  great 
Orientalist  Golius;  in  1664  he  was  sent  to  the  East 
as  missionary,  and  while  visiting  Smyrna  and  Ispa- 
han was  instructed  in  Persian  by  Balthazar,  a  Portu- 
guese Carmelite.  He  passed  ten  j'ears  in  Persia  and 
Arabia,  acting  as  prior  at  Ispahan  and,  later,  at 
Basrah.  On  the  capture  of  the  latter  place  by  the 
Turks,  he  went  to  Constantinople  and  succeeded  in 
gaining  for  his  mission  the  protection  of  the  Sultan, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  French  ambassadoi'. 
He  was  recalled  to  Rome  in  1679,  and  in  1680  was 
made  superior  of  missions  in  Holland,  England,  and 
Ireland,  where  he  spent  many  years.  He  was  Pro- 
vincial in  his  order  at  the  time  of  his  death.  His 
writings  arc:  "  Pharmacop<ria  Persica,  ex  idiomate 
persico  in  latinum  conversa"  (Paris,  1681).  Hyde 
(Biographia  Britannica,  cited  by  Langl^s,  Bi- 
ographie  universcUe)  asserts  that  the  credit  for 
this  work  really  belongs  to  PiNre  Matthieu.  Another 
work  by  P6re  .Vnge  de  .Saint  Joseph,  which  is  praised 
by  Bernier,  I'^lis  de  la  Croix,  and  Chardin  is  "Ga- 
zophylacium  lingua;  Persarum"  (.\msterdam,  1684), 
a  grammar  with  a  dictionary  in  Latin,  Italian,  and 
French. 

Mahtialih  a  kco.  Joanne-Baptibta,  liihi.  Script.  Carmrl. 
ticulcentorum;  Nlc^RON,  Mtmoirct,  XXIX,   1!0. 

Thomas  Walsh. 


Ange  de  Sainte  Rosalie,  a  French  genealogist  and 
friar  of  the  house  of  the  Petits-Peres  of  the  Dis- 
calced .\ugustinians,  b.  at  Blois,  1655;  d.  in  Paris, 
1726.  His  real  name  was  Francois  Vaffard.  After 
making  his  religious  profession  in  1672,  he  filled 
many  important  offices  in  the  houses  of  his  order, 
and  finally  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  geneal- 
ogy, contributing  extensively  to  the  "Grande  dic- 
tionnaire  historique"  of  Mor^ri.  From  the  mate- 
rials collected  by  P^re  Anselme  and  Caille  de  Fourny 
he  prepared  the  "Histoire  g^n^alogique  et  chrono- 
logique  de  la  maison  royale  de  France  et  des  grands- 
officiers  de  la  couronne",  which  was  left  unfinished 
at  his  death,  but  completed  by  Pdre  Simplicien,  his 
collaborator.  The  latter  also  prepared  three  addi- 
tional volumes.  His  other  works  include  "L'Etat 
de  la  France",  edited  in  1749  by  the  Benedictines 
of  Saint-Maur,  with  a  supplementary  volume  on  tlie 
coronation,  the  armorial  bearings,  and  prerogatives 
of  the  kings  of  France. 

Giraud,  Bib.  Sac.  ThOMAS   WaLSH. 

Angel  (Latin  angehis;  Greek  iyyeXo!-,  Hebrew, 
"]N?D,  from  the  root:  "]S7,  means  "one  going"  or 
"one  sent":  messenger).  The  word  is  used  in  Hebrew 
to  denote  indifferently  either  a  divine  or  human 
messenger.  The  Septuagint  renders  it  by  (S77CX0! 
which  also  has  both  significations.  The  Latin  ver- 
sion, however,  distinguishes  the  divine  or  spirit- 
messenger  from  the  human,  rendering  the  original 
in  the  one  case  by  angetus  and  in  the  other  by 
legatus  or  more  generally  by  nuntius.  In  a  few  pass- 
ages the  Latin  version  is  misleading,  the  word  angelus 
being  used  where  nuntius  woiUd  have  better  expressed 
the  meaning,  e.  g.  Is.,  xviii,  2;  xxxiii,  3,  6.  It  is  with 
the  spirit-messenger  alone  that  we  are  here  concerned. 
We  have  to  discuss  the  meaning  of  the  term  in  the 
Bible,  the  offices  and  names  assigned  to  the  angels, 
the  distinction  between  good  and  evil  spirits,  the 
divisions  of  the  angelic  choirs,  the  question  of  angelic 
appearances,  and  the  development  of  the  scriptural 
idea  of  angels.  The  angels  are  represented  through- 
out the  Bible  as  a  body  of  spiritual  beings  intermedi- 
ate between  God  and  men;  "Thou  hast  made  him 
(man)  a  littl"  less  than  the  angels"  (Ps.,  viii,  6). 
They,  equally  with  man,  are  created  beings;  "praise 
ye  Him,  all  His  angels:  praise  ye  Him,  all  His  hosts 
.  .  .  for  He  spoke  and  they  were  made.  He  com- 
manded and  they  were  created"  (Ps.,  cxlviii,  2,  5; 
Col.,  i,  16.  17).  That  the  angels  were  created  was 
laid  down  in  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215). 
The  decree  "Firmiter"  against  the  Albigenses  de- 
clared both  the  fact  that  tTiey  were  created  and  that 
men  were  created  after  them.  This  decree  was  re- 
peated by  the  Vatican  Council,  "Dei  Filius".  We 
mention  it  here  because  the  words:  "He  that  liveth 
for  ever  created  all  things  together"  (Ecclus.,  xviii,  1) 
have  been  held  to  prove  a  simultaneous  creation  of 
all  tilings;  but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  "together" 
{ximid)  may  here  mean  "eqvially",  in  the  sense  that 
all  things  were  "alike"  created.  They  are  spirits; 
the  wTiter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  says:  "Are 
they  not  all  ministering  s]iirits,  sent  to  minister  to 
them  who  shall  receive  the  inheritance  of  sahation?" 
(Heb.  ,i,  14).  It  is  as  messengers  tliat  they  most  often 
figure  in  the  Bible,  but,  as  St.  Augustine,  and  after 
him  St.  Gregory,  expresses  it:  angelus  cat  nomen 
officii  and  expresses  neither  their  essential  nature  nor 
tlieir  essential  function,  viz:  that  of  attendants 
upon  God's  throne  in  that  court  of  heaven  of  which 
Daniel  has  left  us  a  vivid  picture:  "I  beheld  till 
thrones  were  placed,  and  the  Ancient  of  Days  sat: 
His  garment  was  white  as  snow,  and  tlie  hair  of  His 
head  like  clean  wool:  His  throne  like  flames  of  fire: 
the  wheels  of  it  like  a  burning  fire.  A  swift  stream 
of  fire  i.s.sued  forth  from  before  Him:  thousands  of 
thousands  ministered  to  Him,  and  ten  thousand 
times  a  hundred  thousand  stood  before  Him:  the 


ANGEL 


477 


ANGEL 


judgment  sat  and  the  books  were  opened"  (Dan.,  vii, 
9.  10;  cf.  also  Ps.,  xivi,  7;  oii,20;  Is.,  vi,  etc.).  This 
function  of  the  angehc  host  is  expressed  by  tlie 
word  "assistance"  (Job,  i,  6;  ii,  1),  and  our  Lord 
refers  to  it  as  their  perjxjtual  occupation  (Matt.,  xviii, 
10).  More  than  once  we  are  told  of  seven  angels 
whose  siwcial  function  it  is  thus  to  "stand  before 
(iod's  throne"  (Tob.,  xii,  15;  Apoo.,  viii,  2-5).  The 
same  thouglit  may  be  intended  by  "the  angel  of 
His  presence"  (Is.,  Ixiii,9),  an  expression  which  also 
occurs  in  the  pseuilo-cpigraphical  "Testaments  of 
the  Twelve  Patriarchs  ". 

But  these  glimiKses  of  life  beyond  the  veil  are  only 
occasional.  The  angels  of  the  Bible  generally  a|>- 
pear  in  the  rule  of  God's  messengers  to  mankind. 
They  are  His  instruments  by  whom  He  conununi- 
cates  His  will  to  men,  and  in  Jacob's  vision  they  are 
depicted  as  ascending  and  de.scending  the  ladder 
which  stretches  from  earth  to  heaven  while  the 
Eternal  Father  gazes  upon  the  waiulcror  below.  It 
was  an  angel  who  foimd  Agar  in  the  wilderness 
(Gen.,  -xvi);  angels  drew  Lot  out  of  Sodom;  an  angel 
announces  to  Gideon  that  he  is  to  save  his  people; 
an  angel  foretells  tlie  birth  of  Samson  (Judges,  xiii), 
and  the  angel  Gabriel  instructs  Daniel  (Dan.,  viii,  16), 
though  he  is  not  called  an  angel  in  either  of  these 
pas.sagps,  but  "the  man  Gabriel"  (ix,  21).  The 
.same  licavenly  spirit  announced  the  birth  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist  and  the  Incarnation  of  the  lledeemer, 
while  tradition  ascribes  to  him  both  the  mes.sage  to 
the  shepherds  (Luke,  ii,  9),  and  the  most  glorious 
mi.ssion  of  all,  that  of  strengthening  the  King  of 
Angels  in  His  Agony  (Luke,  xxii,  43).  The 
spiritual  nature  of  tlie  angels  is  manifested  very 
clearly  in  the  accoimt  which  Zacharias  gives  of  the 
revelations  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  ministry  of 
an  angel.  The  prophet  depicts  the  angel  as  speak- 
ing "in  him".  He  seems  to  imply  that  he  was  con- 
scious of  an  interior  voice  which  was  not  that  of 
God  but  of  His  me.s.senger.  The  Massoretic  text, 
the  Septuagint.  an<l  the  Vulgate  all  jigree  in  thus 
describmg  the  commimications  made  by  the  angel 
to  the  prophet.  It  is  a  pity  that  the  "Revised 
Version"  should,  in  apparent  defiance  of  the  above- 
named  texts,  obscure  this  trait  by  persistently  giving 
the  rendering:  "the  angel  that  talked  with  me" 
instead  of  "within  me  "  (cf.  Zach.,  i,  9,  13,  14;  ii,  3; 
iv,  5;  v,  10).  Such  apijeaninces  of  angels  generally 
last  only  so  long  as  tlie  deliverj'  of  their  message 
re<iuircs,  but  frequently  their  mission  is  prolonged, 
and  they  are  represented  as  the  constituted  guardians 
of  the  nation  at  some  particular  crisis,  e.  g.  during 
the  Exodus  (Exod.,  xiv,  19;  Baruch,  vi,  6).  Similarly 
it  is  the  common  view  of  the  Fathers  that  by  "the 
prince  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Persians"  (Dan.,  x,  13; 
X,  21)  we  are  to  understand  the  angel  to  whom  was 
entrusted  the  spiritual  care  of  that  kingdom,  and 
we  may  perhaps  see  in  the  "man  of  Macedonia" 
who  apix-ared  to  St.  Paul  at  Troas,  the  guardian 
angel  of  that  countrj'  (Acts,  xvi,  9).  The  Septuagint 
(Dciit.,  xxxii,  8),  has  preser\'ed  for  vis  a  fragment  of 
information  on  this  head,  though  it  is  difficult  to 
gauge  its  exact  meaning:  "When  the  Most  High 
divided  the  nations,  when  He  scattered  the  children 
of  .\<lani.  He  established  the  bounds  of  the  nations 
according  to  the  number  of  the  angels  of  God". 
How  large  a  part  the  ministry  of  angels  played,  not 
merely  in  Hebrew  theology  but  in  the  religious  ideas 
of  other  nations  lus  well,  appears  from  the  expression 
"like  to  an  angel  of  God'.  It  is  three  times  u.sed 
of  David  (II  K.,  xiv,  17,  20;  xix,  27).  and  once  by 
Achis  of  Geth  (I  K.,xxlx,9).  It  is  even  applied  by 
Esther  to  A.ssuerus  (Esther,  xv.  IG),  and  St.  Stephen's 
face  is  said  to  have  looked  "like  the  face  of  an  angel" 
as  he  stood  before  the  Sanhedrin  (.\cts.  vi,  15). 

Throughout  the  Bible  we  find  it  repeatedly  im- 
plied tliat  each  individual  soul  has  its  tutelary  angel. 


Thus  Abraliam,  when  sending  his  steward  to  seek 
a  wife  for  Isaac,  says:  "He  will  send  His  angel 
Ijofore  thee"  (Gen.,  xxiv,  7).  The  words  of  the  nine- 
tieth Psalm  which  the  devil  quoted  to  our  Lord 
(.Matt.,  iv,  (i)  are  well  known,  and  Judith  accounts 
for  her  heroic  deed  by  saying:  "As  the  Lord  liveth, 
His  angel  hath  lx.-cn  my  keeper"  (xiii,  20).  These 
passages  and  many  like  them  (Gen.,  xvi,  6-32; 
Osee,  xii,  4;  III  K.,xix,  5;  Acts,  xii,  7;  Ps.,  xxxiii,  8), 
though  they  will  not  of  themselves  demonstrate  the 
doctrine  that  every  individual  has  his  appointed 
guardian  angel,  receive  their  complement  in  our 
Saviour's  words:  "See  that  you  despi.se  not  one  of 
these  little  ones;  for  I  say  to  you  that  their  angels 
in  Heaven  always  see  the  face  of  My  Father  Who  is 
in  Heaven"  (Matt.,  xviii,  10),  words  which  illus- 
trate the  remark  of  St.  Augustine:  "What  lies 
hidden  in  the  Old  Testament,  is  made  manifest  in 
the  New".  Indeed,  the  book  of  Tobias  seems  in- 
tended to  teach  this  truth  more  than  any  other,  and 
St.  Jerome  in  his  commentary  on  the  above  words 
of  our  Lord  says:  "The  dignity  of  a  soul  is  so  great, 
that  each  has  a  guardian  angel  from  its  birth." 
The  general  doctrine  that  the  angels  are  our  ap- 
pointed guardians  is  considered  to  be  a  point  of 
faith  [cf.  Mazzella,  De  Deo  Creante  (Rome,  1S.S0), 
447-474J,  but  that  each  individual  member  of  the 
human  race  has  his  own  individual  guardian  angel 
is  not  of  faith;  the  view  has,  however,  such  strong 
support  from  the  Doctors  of  the  Church  that  it 
would  te  rash  to  deny  it  (cf.  St.  Jerome,  suj/ra). 
Peter  the  Lombard  (Sentences,  lib.  II,  dist.  xi)  was 
inclined  to  think  tliat  one  angel  had  charge  of  several 
individual  human  beings.  St.  Bernard's  beautiful 
homilies  (xi-xiv)  on  the  ninetieth  Psalm  breathe 
the  spirit  of  the  Church  without  however  deciding 
the  question.  The  Bible  represents  the  angels  not 
only  as  our  guardians,  but  also  as  actually  interced- 
ing for  us.  The  angel  Raphael  (Tob.,  xii,  12)  says: 
"1  offered  thy  jiraycr  to  the  Lord"  [cf.  Job,  v,  1 
(Septuagint),  and  x.xxiii,  23  (Vulgate):  Apoc,  viii,  4]. 
The  Catliolic  cult  of  tlie  angels  is  thus  thoroughly 
scriptural.  Perhaps  the  earliest  explicit  declaration 
of  it  is  to  be  found  in  St.  .Ambrose's  words:  "We 
should  pray  to  the  angels  who  are  given  to  us  as 
guardians"  (De  Viduis,  ix);  (cf.  St.  Aug.,  Contra 
Faustum,  xx,  21).  An  undue  cult  of  angels  was 
reprobated  by  St.  Paul  (Col.,  ii,  18),  and  that  such 
a  tendency  long  remained  in  the  same  district  is  evi- 
denced by  Can.  35  of  the  Synod  of  Laodicea  (Hefele, 
Historv  of  the  Councils,  ii,  317). 

As  Divi.NE  Age.vts  Govkrn-ixg  the  World. — 
The  foregoing  passages,  especially  those  relating  to 
the  angels  who  have  charge  of  various  districts, 
enable  us  to  understand  the  practically  unanimous 
view  of  the  Fathers  that  it  is  the  angels  who  put 
into  execution  God's  laws  regarding  the  physical 
world.  The  Semitic  Mief  in  genii  and  in  spirits 
which  cause  good  or  evil  is  well  known,  and  traces 
of  it  are  to  be  found  in  the  Bible.  Thus  the  pesti- 
lence which  devastated  Israel  for  David's  sin  in 
numbering  the  people  is  attributed  to  an  angel 
whom  David  is  said  to  have  actually  seen  (II  K., 
x.xiv,  1.5-17,  and  more  explicitly,  I  Par.,  xxi,  14-18). 
Even  the  wind  rustling  in  the  tree-tops  was  regarded 
as  an  angel  (II  K.,v,  23,  24;  I  Par.,  xiv,  14, 15).  This 
is  more  explicitly  stated  with  regard  to  the  pool  of 
Probatica  (John,  v,  1-4),  though  there  is  some  doubt 
about  the  textj  in  that  pas.sage  the  disturbance  of 
the  water  is  said  to  be  due  to  the  periodic  visits  of 
an  angel.  The  Semites  clearly  felt  that  all  the 
orderly  harmony  of  the  universe,  as  well  as  interruiv 
tions  of  that  harmony,  were  due  to  God  as  their 
originator,  but  were  carried  out  by  His  ministers. 
This  view  is  strongly  marked  in  the  "Book  of  Jubi- 
lees" where  the  heavenly  host  of  good  and  evil 
angels  is  ever  interfering  in  the  material  universe 


ANGEL 


478 


ANOEL 


Maimonides  (Directorium  Perplexorum,  iv  and  vi) 
is  quoted  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  (Summa  Theol., 
I,  Q.  1,  3)  as  liokliiig  tliat  the  Bible  frequently  terms 
the  powers  of  nature  angels,  since  they  manifest  the 
omnipotence  of  dod  (cf.  St.  Jerome,  In  Mich.,  vi,  1, 
2;  P.  L.,  iv,  col.  1206).  Though  the  angels  who 
appear  in  the  earlier  works  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
strangely  impersonal  and  are  overshadowed  by  the 
importance  of  the  message  they  bring  or  the  work 
they  do,  there  are  not  wanting  hints  regarding  the 
existence  of  certain  ranks  in  the  heavenly  army. 
After  Adam's  fall  Paradise  is  guarded  against  our 
First  Parents  by  clierubim  who  are  clearly  God's 
ministers,  thougli  nothing  is  said  of  their  nature. 
Only  once  again  do  the  cherubim  figure  in  the  Bible, 
viz.'  in  Ezechiel's  marvellous  vision,  where  they  are 
described  at  great  length  (Ezech..  i),  and  are  actually 
called  cherubim  in  Ezechicl,  x.  The  Ark  was  guarded 
by  two  cherubim,  but  we  are  left  to  conjecture  what 
they  were  like.  It  has  been  suggested  with  great 
probability  that  we  have  their  counterpart  in  the 
winged  bulls  and  lions  guarding  the  Assyrian  palaces, 
and  also  in  the  strange  winged  men  with  hawks' 
heads  who  are  depicted  on  the  walls  of  some  of  their 
buildings.  The  seraphim  only  appear  in  the  vision 
of  Isaias,  vi,  6.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of 
the  mystic  seven  who  stand  before  God,  and  we 
seem  to  ha\e  in  them  an  indication  of  an  inner 
cordon  that  surrounds  the  throne.  The  term  arch- 
angel only  occurs  in  St.  Jude  and  I  Thess..  iv,  15; 
but  St.  Paul  has  furnished  us  with  two  other  lists 
of  names  of  the  heavenly  cohorts.  He  tells  us 
(Ephas.,  i,  21)  that  Christ  is  raised  up  "above  all 
principality,  and  power,  and  virtue,  and  dominion"; 
and,  writing  to  the  Colossians  (i,  16),  he  says:  "In 
Him  were  all  things  created  in  heaven  and  on  earth, 
visible  and  invisible,  whether  thrones  or  dominations, 
or  principalities  or  powers."  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
he  uses  two  of  these  names  of  the  powers  of  dark- 
ness when  (ii,  15)  he  talks  of  Christ  as  "despoiling 
the  principalities  and  powers  .  .  .  triumphing  o^•er 
them  in  Him.self  ".  And  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable 
that  only  two  verses  later  he  warns  his  readers  not 
to  be  seduced  into  any  "  religion  of  angels  ".  He 
seems  to  put  his  seal  upon  a  certain  lawful  angelology, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  warn  them  against  indulging 
superstition  on  the  subject.  We  have  a  hint  of  such 
excesses  in  the  Book  of  Enoch,  wherein,  as  already 
stated,  the  angels  play  a  quite  disproportionate  part. 
Similarly  Josephus  tells  us  (Bell.  Jud.,  II,  viii,  7) 
that  the  Essenes  had  to  take  a  vow  to  preserve  the 
names  of  the  angels.  We  have  already  seen  how 
(Dan.,  X,  12-21)  various  districts  are  allotted  to 
various  angels  who  are  termed  their  princes,  and 
the  same  feature  reappears  still  more  markedly  in 
the  Apocalj'ptic  "angels  of  the  seven  churches", 
though  it  is  impossible  to  decide  what  is  the  precise 
signification  of  the  term.  These  seven  Angels  of 
the  Churches  are  generally  regarded  as  being  the 
Bishops  occupying  these  sees.  St.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen  in  his  address  to  the  Bishops  at  Constantinople 
twice  terms  them  "Angels",  in  the  language  of  the 
Apocalypse.  The  treatise  "De  Ccelesti  Hierarchiil  ", 
which  is  ascribed  to  St.  Denis  the  Arcopagite,  and 
whidi  exercised  .so  .strong  an  influence  upon  the 
Scholastics,  treats  at  great  length  of  the  hierarchies 
and  orders  of  the  angc'ls.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  this  work  was  not  duo  to  St.  Denis,  but  nuist 
date  .some  centuries  later.  Though  the  doctrine  it 
contains  regarding  tlie  choirs  of  angels  has  been 
received  in  the  Church  with  extraordinary  unanim- 
ity no  proposition  touching  the  angelic  hierarchies 
IS  binding  on  our  faith.  The  following  passages  from 
St.  Gregory  the  Groat  (Hoin.  34,  In  Evang.)  will 
give  us  a  dear  irlea  of  the  view  of  the  Church's  doctors 
on  I  he  point :  "  We  know  on  the  authority  of  Scrii)ture 
tliat   there  are  nine  orders  of  angels,  viz.,  Angels, 


Archangels,  Virtues,  Powers,  Principalities,  Domina- 
tions, Thrones,  Cherubim,  and  Seraphim.  That  there 
are  Angels  and  Archangels  nearly  every  page  of  the 
Bible  tells  us,  and  the  books  of  the  Prophets  talk  of 
Cherubim  and  Seraphim.  St.  Paul,  too,  writing  to 
the  Ephesians  enumerates  four  orders  when  he  says: 
'above  all  Principality,  and  Power,  and  Virtue, 
and  Domination';  and  again,  writing  to  the  Colos- 
sians he  says:  'whether  Thrones,  or  Dominations,  or 
Principalities,  or  Powers  '.  If  we  now  join  these  two 
lists  together  we  have  five  Orders,  and  adding  Angels 
and  Archangels,  Cherubim  and  Seraphim,  we  find 
nine   Orders   of   Angels." 

St.  Thomas  (Summa  Theol.,  I,  Q.  cviii),  following 
St.  Denis  (De  Ccelesti  Hierarchia,  vi,  vii),  divides 
the  angels  into  three  hierarchies  each  of  w'hich  con- 
tains three  orders.  Their  proximity  to  the  Supreme 
Being  serves  as  the  basis  of  this  division.  In  the 
first  hierarchy  he  places  the  Seraphim,  Cherubim,  and 
Thrones;  in  the  second  the  Dominations,  Virtues,  and 
Powers;  in  the  third,  the  Principalities,  Archangels, 
and  Angels.  The  only  Scriptural  names  furnished 
of  individual  angels  are  Raphael,  Michael,  and 
Gabriel,  names  which  signify  their  respective  attri- 
butes. Apocryphal  Jewisli  books,  such  as  the  Book 
of  Enoch,  supply  those  of  I'riel  and  Jeremiel,  while 
many  are  found  in  other  apocryphal  sources,  like 
those  Milton  names  in  "Paradise  Lost  ".  (On  super- 
stitious use  of  such  names,  see  above  and  Hefele, 
loc.  cit.)  The  number  of  the  angels  is  frequently 
stated  as  prodigious  (Dan.,  vii,  10;  Apoc,  v,  11;  Ps., 
Ixvii,  18;  Matt.,  xxvi,  53).  From  the  use  of  the 
word  host  (Sabaoth)  as  a  sjmonym  for  the  heavenly 
army  it  is  hard  to  resist  the  impression  that  the 
term  "Lord  of  Hosts"  refers  to  God's  Supreme 
command  of  the  Angelic  multitude  (cf.  Deut.,  x.xxiii, 
2;  xxxii,  43,  Septuagint).  The  Fathers  see  a  refer- 
ence to  the  relative  numbers  of  men  and  angels  in 
the  parable  of  the  hundred  sheep  (Luke,  x\',  1-3), 
though  this  may  seem  fanciful.  'The  Scholastics, 
again,  following  the  treatise  "  De  Ccelesti  Hierarchia  " 
of  St.  Denis,  regard  the  preponderance  of  numbers 
as  a  necessary  perfection  of  the  angelic  host  (cf. 
St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  I,  Q.  1,  3). 

Good  and  B.\d  Angels. — The  distinction  of  good 
and  bad  angels  constantly  appears  in  the  Bible,  but 
it  is  instructive  to  note  that  there  is  no  sign  of  any 
dualism  or  conflict  between  two  equal  principles, 
one  good  and  the  other  evil.  The  conflict  depicted 
is  rather  that  waged  on  earth  between  the  Kingdom 
of  God  and  the  Kingdom  of  the  Evil  One,  but  the 
latter's  inferiority  is  always  supposed.  The  exist- 
ence, then,  of  this  inferior,  and  therefore  created, 
spirit,  has  to  be  explained.  The  gradual  develop- 
ment of  Hebrew  consciousness  on  this  point  is  very 
clearly  marked  in  tlie  inspired  writings.  The  ac- 
count of  the  fall  of  our  First  Parents  (Gen.,  iii)  is 
couched  in  such  terms  that  it  is  impossible  to  see 
in  it  anything  more  than  the  acknowledgment  of 
the  existence  of  a  principle  of  evil  who  was  jealous 
of  the  human  race.  The  statement  (Gen.,  \\,  1) 
that  the  "sons  of  God"  married  the  daughters  of 
men  is  explained  of  the  fall  of  the  angels,  in  Enoch, 
vi-xi,  and  codices  D,E,F,  and  A  of  the  Septuagint 
read  frequently,  for  "sons  of  God",  ol  iS^^eXoi  tou 
Seou.  Unfortunately,  codices  B  and  C  are  defect i\e 
in  Gen.,  vi,  but  it  is  probable  that  they,  too,  read 
oi  a77c\oi  in  this  passage,  for  they  constantly  so  render 
the  expression  "sons  of  God";  cf.  Job,  i,  6;  ii,  1; 
xxxviii,  7;  but  on  the  other  hand,  see  Ps.,  ii,  1; 
Ixxxviii,  7  (Septuagint).  Philo,  in  commenting  on 
the  passage  in  his  treatise  "Quod  Deus  sit  immuta- 
bilis  ",  i,  follows  the  Septuagint.  For  Philo's  doc- 
trine of  Angels,  cf.  "  De  Vita  Mosis",  iii,  2;  "  De 
Somniis ",  VI;  "  De  Incorrupta  Manna",  i;  "Do 
Sacriiiciis  ",  ii;  "Do  Lege  AllegoricA",  1,  12;  III,  73; 
and  for  the  view  of  Gon.,  vi,  1,  cf.  St.  Justin,  Apol.. 


ANGEL 


479 


ANGEL 


ii,  5.  It  should  moreover  he  noted  that  the  He- 
brew word  nephilini  rendered  gigantes,  in  vi,  4,  inay 
meun  "fallen  ones".  The  Fathers  generally  refer 
it  to  the  sons  of  Seth,  the  chosen  stock.  In  I  K.,  xix, 
9,  an  evil  spirit  is  said  to  possess  Saul,  though  this 
is  probably  a  metaphorical  expression;  more  e.xplicit 
is  111  K.,  xxii,  19-'J3,  where  a  spirit  is  depicted  as 
appearing  in  the  midst  of  the  heavenly  army  and 
offering,  at  the  Lord's  invitation,  to  lie  a  lying  spirit 
ill  the  mouth  of  Achab's  false  prophets.  We  might, 
witli  tlie  Schohistics,  explain  this  as  malum  ■pa-inr, 
wliicli  is  actually  caused  by  (iod  owing  to  man's 
fault.  A  truer  exegesis  wouUl,  however,  dwell  on 
the  purely  imaginative  tone  of  the  whole  episode; 
it  is  not  so  much  the  mould  in  which  the  message  is 
ciLst  as  the  actual  tenor  of  that  mes.sage  which  is 
meant  to  occupy  our  attention. 

The  picture  afforded  us  in  Job,  i  and  ii,  is  equally 
imaginative;  but  Satan,  jHjrhaps  the  earliest  indi- 
vidualization of  the  fallen  Angel,  is  presented  as  an 
intruder  who  is  jealous  of  Job.  lie  is  clearly  an 
inferior  being  to  the  Deity  and  can  only  touch  Job 
with  (lod's  permission.  How  theologic  thought 
advanced  ;us  the  sum  of  revelation  grew  appears 
from  a  comparison  of  II  K.,xxiv,  l,with  I  Paral.,  .x.\i, 

I.  Whereius  in  the  former  pas.s;ige  David's  sin  was 
said  to  be  due  to  "the  wrath  of  the  Lord"  which 
"stirred  up  David",  in  the  latter  we  read  that 
"Satan  moved  David  to  number  Israel".  In  Job.  iv, 
18,  we  seem  to  find  a  tlefinite  declaration  of  the  fall: 
"III  His  angels  He  found  wickedness."  The  Septua- 
gint  of  Job  contains  some  instructive  passages  re- 
garding avenging  ansels  in  whom  we  are  perhaps 
to  see  fallen  spirits;  thus  xxxiii,  23:  "If  a  thousand 
deatlwlealing  angels  should  Ix;  (against  him)  not 
one  of  them  sliall  wound  him";  and  xx.xvi,  14:  "If 
their  souls  should  l>erish  in  their  youth  (through 
rashness)  yet  their  life  shall  Ije  wounded  by  the 
angels";  and  xxi,  I.t:  "The  riches  unjustly  accumu- 
lated shall  be  vomited  up,  an  angel  shall  drag  him 
out  of  his  house;"  cf.  Prov.,  xvii,  11;  Ps.,  xxxiv,  5.  G; 
Ixxvii,  49,  and  especially,  Kcclus.,  xxxi.x,  33,  a  text 
which,  as  far  as  can  Ix;  gathered  from  the  present 
state  of  the  MS.,  was  in  the  Hebrew  original.  In 
some  of  these  passages,  it  is  true,  the  angels  may  be 
regarded  ius  avengers  of  Ciod's  justice  without  there- 
fore being  evil  spirits.  In  Zach.,  iii,  1-3,  Satan  is 
called  the  adversary  who  pleads  before  the  Lord 
against  Jesus  the  High  Priest.  Isaias.  xiv,  and 
Ezech..  xxviii,  are  for  the  Fathers  the  loci  classici 
regarding  the  fall  of  .Satan  (cf.  TertuU.,  adv.  Marc., 

II,  X);  and  Our  Lord  Him.self  has  given  colour  to 
this  view  by  using  the  imagerj'  of  the  latter  passage 
when  s;iyine  to  Ilis  Apostles:  "I  saw  Satan  like 
lightning  falling  from  hejiven"  (Luke,  x,  18).  In 
New  Testament  times  the  idea  of  the  two  spiritual 
kingdoms  is  clearly  established.  The  devil  is  a 
fallen  angel  who  in  his  fall  has  drawn  multitudes  of 
the  heavenly  host  in  his  train.  Our  Lord  terms  him 
"the  Prince  of  this  world"  (John,  xiv,  30);  he  is 
the  tempter  of  the  human  race  and  tries  to  involve 
them  in  his  fall  (Matthew,  xxv,  41;  II  Peter,  ii, 
4;  K|)hes.,  vi,  12;  II  Cor.,  xi,  14;  xii,  7).  Christian 
imagerv  of  the  devil  as  the  dragon  is  mainly  derived 
from  the  .^fxjcalypse  (ix,  II-I.t;  xii,  7-9),  where  he 
is  termed  "the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit",  "the 
dragon",  "the  old  .serpent",  etc.,  and  is  represented 
a-s  having  actually  been  in  combat  with  the  Arch- 
angel Michael.  The  similarity  between  scenes  such 
as  thi"sc  and  the  early  Babylonian  accounts  of  the 
struggle  U'twccn  Merodach  and  the  dragon  Tianiat 
is  verj-  striking.  Whether  we  are  to  trace  its  origin 
to  vag\ie  reminiscences  of  the  mighty  saurians 
which  once  peopled  the  earth  is  a  moot  question, 
but  the  curious  reader  may  consult  Boussct,  "The 
.\nti-christ  Legend"  (tr.  by  Keane,  London,  1890). 
The  translator    haa    prefixed    to    it  an    interesting 


discussion  on  the  origin  of  the  Babylonian  Dragon- 
Myth. 

The  term  A-ngel  in  the  Septuagint. — We  have 
had  occasion  to  mention  the  Septuagint  version 
more  than  once,  and  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  indicate 
a  few  pas.sages  where  it  is  our  only  source  of  informa- 
tion regarding  the  angels.  The  liest  known  passage 
is  Is.,  ix,  (),  where  the  Septuagint  gives  the  name  of 
the  Messias  as  "the  Angel  of  great  Counsel".  We 
have  already  drawn  attention  to  Job.  xx,  15,  where 
the  Septuagint  reads  ".\ngel"  instead  of  "God", 
and  to  xxxvi,  14,  where  there  seems  to  be  question 
of  evil  angels.  In  ix,  7,  Septuagint  (B)  adds:  "He 
hath  devi-sed  hard  things  for  His  Angels";  but  most 
curious  of  all,  in  .\1,  14,  where  the  Vulgate  and 
Hebrew  (v,  19)  say  of  "liehemoth":  "He  is  the 
beginning  of  the  ways  of  tiod,  he  that  made  him 
shall  make  his  sword  to  approach  him  ",  the  Septua- 
gint reatls:  "He  is  the  beginning  of  God's  creation, 
made  for  His  .\ngcls  to  mock  at",  and  exactly  the 
same  remark  is  made  about  "  Leviathan",  xii,  24. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  Septuagint  generally 
renders  the  term  "soils  of  God"  by  "angels",  but 
in  Dcut.,  xxxii,  43,  the  Septuagint  has  an  addition 
in  which  both  terms  appear:  "Uejoice  in  Him  all 
ye  heavens,  and  adore  Him  all  ye  angels  of  God; 
rejoice  ye  nations  with  His  people,  and  magnify  Him 
all  ye  Sons  of  God."  Nor  does  the  Septuagint  merely 
give  iLS  these  additional  references  to  the  aiifiels; 
it  sometimes  enables  us  to  correct  difficult  i)assages 
concerning  them  in  the  Vulgate  and  Massoretic  text. 
Thus  the  difficult  EUm  of  MT  in  Job,  xii,  17, 
which  the  Vulgate  renders  by  "angels",  becomes 
"wild  beasts"  in  the  Septuagint  version.  The  early 
ideas  as  to  the  jxirsonality  of  the  various  angelic 
appearances  are,  as  we  have  seen,  remarkably  vague. 
.\t  first  the  angels  are  regarded  in  quite  an  imper- 
sonal way  (Gen.,  xvi,  7).  They  are  God's  vice- 
gerents and  are  often  identified  with  the  Author  of 
their  message  (Gen.,  xlviii,  1.5-16).  But  while  we 
read  of  "the  Angels  of  God'  meeting  Jacob  (Gen., 
xx.xii,  1)  we  at  other  times  read  of  one  who  is  termed 
"the  .\ngel  of  God  "par  cicrllence,  e.  g.  Gen.,  xxxi,  1 1. 
It  is  true  that,  owing  to  the  Hebrew  idiom,  this  may 
mean  no  more  than  "an  angel  of  God",  and  the 
Septuagint  renders  it  with  or  without  the  article 
at  will;  yet  tlie  three  visitors  at  Mambre  seem  to 
have  teen  of  different  ranks,  though  St.  Paul  (Heb., 
xiii,  2)  regarded  them  all  as  equally  angels;  as  the 
story  in  Gen.,  xiii.  develo|)s,  the  speaker  is  always 
"the  Lord".  Thus  in  the  account  of  the  Angel  of 
the  Lord  who  visited  Gideon  (Judges,  vi),  the  \isitor 
is  alternately  sjioken  of  as  "the  Angel  of  the  Lord" 
and  as  "the  Lord".  Similarly,  in  Judges,  xiii,  the 
Angel  of  the  Lord  appears,  and  l>oth  .\lanue  anu  Ins 
wife  exclaim:  "  We  shall  certainly  die  because  we  have 
seen  God."  This  want  of  clearness  is  particularly 
apparent  in  the  various  accounts  of  the  Angel  of  the 
Exodus.  In  Judges,  vi,  just  now  referred  to,  the 
Septuagint  is  very  careful  to  render  the  Hebrew 
"Lord"  by  "the  Angel  of  the  Lord";  but  in  the 
story  of  the  Exodus  it  is  the  Lord  who  goes  Ix-fore 
them  in  the  pillar  of  a  cloud  (Exod.,  xiii,  21),  and  the 
Septuagint  makes  no  change  (cf.  also  Nimi.,  xiv,  14, 
and  Xeh.,  ix,  7-'20).  Vet  in  Exod.,  xiv,  19,  their 
guide  is  termed  "the  .\ngcl  of  God".  When  we  turn 
to  Exod.,  xxxiii,  where  God  is  angry  with  His  jx-ople 
for  worshipping  the  golden  calf,  it  is  hard  not  to  feel 
that  it  is  God  HiiiLself  who  has  hitherto  been  their 
guide,  but  who  now  refuses  to  accompany  them  any 
longer.  God  offers  an  angel  instead,  but  at  Moses's 
petition  He  sjij-s  (14),  ".My  face  shall  go  Ixjfore 
thee",  which  the  Scptiuigint  resicLs  by  oPtos.  though 
the  following  verse  shows  that  this  rendering  is 
clearly  impossible,  for  .Moses  objects:  "If  Thou  Thy- 
self dost  not  go  before  us,  bring  us  not  out  of  this 
place."     But  what  does  God  mean  by  "my  face"? 


ANGEL 


ANGEL 


Is  it  possible  that  some  angel  of  specially  high  rank 
is  intended,  as  in  Is.,  Ixiii,  9  (cf.  Tobias,  xii,  15)? 
May  not  this  be  what  is  meant  by  "the  angel  of 
God"  (cf.  Num.  xx,  16)? 

That  a  process  of  evolution  in  theological  thought 
accompanied  tlie  gradual  unfolding  of  God's  revela- 
tion need  hardly  be  said,  but  it  is  especially  marked 
in  the  various  views  entertained  regarding  the  per- 
son of  the  Giver  of  the  Law.  The  Massoretic  text 
as  well  as  the  ^'ulgate  of  Exod.,  iii  and  xix-xx 
clearly  represent  the  Supreme  Being  as  appearing 
to  Moses  in  the  bush  and  on  Mount  Sinai;  but  the 
Septuagint  version,  while  agreeing  that  it  was  God 
Himself  who  gave  the  Law,  yet  makes  it  "the  angel 
of  the  Lord"  who  appeared  in  the  bush.  By  New 
Testament  times  the  Septuagint  view  has  prevailed, 
and  it  is  now  not  merely  in  the  bush  that  the  angel 
of  the  Lord,  and  not  God  Himself,  appears,  but  the 
angel  is  also  the  Giver  of  the  Law  (cf.  Gal.,  iii,  19; 
Heb.,ii,2;  Acts,  vii,  30).  The  person  of  "the  angel 
of  the  Lord"  finds  a  counterpart  in  the  personifica- 
tion of  Wisdom  in  the  Sapiential  books  and  in  at 
least  one  passage  (Zach.,  iii,  1)  it  seems  to  stand  for 
that  "Son  of  Man"  whom  Daniel  (vii,  13)  saw 
brought  before  "the  Ancient  of  Days".  Zacharias 
says:  "And  the  Lord  showed  me  Jesus  the  high  priest 
standing  before  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  and  Satan 
stood  on  His  right  hand  to  be  His  adversary". 
Tertullian  regards  many  of  these  passages  as  preludes 
to  the  Incarnation;  as  the  Word  of  God  adumbrating 
the  sublime  character  in  which  He  is  one  day  to 
reveal  Hiniself  to  men  (cf.  adv.  Prax.,  xvi;  adv. 
Marc,  II,  27;  III,  9;  I,  10,  21,  22).  It  is  possible, 
then,  that  in  these  confused  views  we  can  trace 
vague  gropings  after  certain  dogmatic  truths  regard- 
ing the  Trinity,  reminiscences  perhaps  of  the  early 
revelation  of  which  the  Protevangelium  in  Gen.,  iii, 
is  but  a  relic.  The  earlier  Fatliers,  going  by  the 
letter  of  the  text,  maintained  that  it  was  actually 
God  Himself  who  appeared.  He  who  appeared  was 
called  God  and  acted  as  God.  It  was  not  unnatural 
then  for  Tertullian,  as  we  have  already  seen,  to  regard 
such  manifestations  in  the  light  of  preludes  to  the 
Incarnation,  and  most  of  the  Eastern  Fathers  fol- 
lowed the  same  line  of  thought.  It  was  held  as 
recently  as  1S51  by  Vandenbrceck,  "  Dissertatio  The- 
ologica  de  Theophaniis  sub  Veteri  Testamento " 
(Louvain). 

But  the  great  Latins,  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine, 
and  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  held  the  opposite  view, 
and  the  Scholastics  as  a  body  followed  them.  St.  Au- 
gustine (Sermo  vii,  de  Scripturis,  P.  G.,  V)  when 
treating  of  the  burning  bash  (Exod.,  iii)  says:  "That 
the  same  person  who  spoke  to  Moses  should  be 
deemed  both  the  Lord  and  an  angel  of  the  Lord,  is 
very  hard  to  understand.  It  is  a  question  which 
forbids  any  rash  assertions  but  rather  demands  care- 
ful investigation.  .  .  .  Some  maintain  that  he  Ls 
called  both  the  Lord  and  the  angel  of  the  Lord  be- 
cause he  was  Christ,  indeed  the  prophet  (Is.,  ix,  6, 
Septuagint  Ver.)  clearly  styles  Christ  the  'Angel 
of  great  Counsel.'  "  The  saint  proceeds  to  show  that 
sucli  a  view  is  tenable  (hough  we  must  be  careful  not 
to  fall  into  Arianism  in  stating  it.  He  points  out, 
however,  that  if  we  hold  that  it  was  an  angel  who 
appeared,  we  must  explain  how  he  came  to  be  called 
"tlie  Lord,"  and  he  proceeds  to  show  how  this  might 
be:  "Elsewhere  in  tlie  Bible  when  a  prophet  speaks 
it  is  yet  said  to  be  the  Lord  who  speaks,  not  of  course 
because  the  prophet  is  the  Lord  but  because  the 
Ix)rd  is  in  the  prophet;  and  so  in  the  same  way  when 
the  Lord  condescends  to  speak  thro\igh  the  mouth 
of  a  prophet  or  an  angel,  it  is  the  same  as  when  he 
speaks  by  a  prophet  or  apostle,  and  the  angel  is 
correctly  termed  an  angel  if  we  consider  him  him- 
self, but  cfiually  correctly  is  he  termed  'the  Lord' 
because  God  dwells   in   him."     He  concludes:   "It 


is  ttie  name  of  the  indweller,  not  of  the  temple." 
And  a  little  further  on:  "It  seems  to  me  that  we 
shaU  most  correctly  say  that  our  forefathers  recog- 
nized the  Lord  in  the  angel,"  and  he  adduces  the 
authority  of  the  New  Testament  writers  who  clearly 
so  understood  it  and  yet  sometimes  allowed  the  same 
confusion  of  terms  (cf.  Heb.,  ii,  2,  and  Acts,  vii,  31-33). 
The  saint  discusses  the  same  question  even  more 
elaborately,  "  In  Heptateuchum,"  lib.  vii,  54,  P.  G., 
Ill,  558.  As  an  instance  of  how  convinced  some 
of  the  Fathers  were  in  holding  the  opposite  view, 
we  may  note  Theodoret's  words  (In  Exod.):  "The 
whole  passage  (Exod.,  iii)  shows  that  it  was  God 
who  appeared  to  him.  But  (Moses)  called  Him  an 
angel  in  order  to  let  us  know  that  it  was  not  God 
the  Father  whom  he  saw — for  whose  angel  could  the 
Father  be? — but  the  Only-begotten  Son,  the  Angel 
of  great  Counsel"  (cf.  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.,  I,  ii,  7; 
St.  Irenaeus,  Hrer.,  iii,  6).  But  the  view  propounded 
by  the  Latin  Fathers  was  destined  to  li\e  in  the 
Church,  and  the  Scholastics  reduced  it  to  a  system  (cf. 
St.  Thomas,  Quaist.,  Disp.,  De  Potentia,  vi,  8,  ad 
S""");  and  for  a  very  good  exposition  of  both  sides 
of  the  question,  cf.  '^  Revue  biblique,"  1S94,  232-247. 

Angels  in  Babyloxian  Literature. — The  Bible 
has  shown  us  that  a  belief  in  angels,  or  spirits  inter- 
mediate between  God  and  man,  is  a  characteristic  of 
the  Semitic  peoples.  It  is  therefore  interesting  to 
trace  this  belief  in  the  Semites  of  Babj-lonia.  Ac- 
cording to  Sayce  (The  Religions  of  Ancient  Egypt 
and  Babylonia,  Gifford  Lectures,  1901),  the  en- 
grafting of  Semitic  beliefs  on  the  earliest  Suraerian 
religion  of  Babylonia  is  marked  by  the  entrance  of 
angels  or  sukallin  into  their  theosophy.  Thus  we 
find  an  interesting  parallel  to  "the  angel  of  the 
Lord"  in  Nebo,  "the  minister  of  Merodach"  (ibid., 
355).  He  is  also  termed  the  "angel"  or  interpreter 
of  the  will  of  Merodach  (ibid.,  456),  and  Sayce  ac- 
cepts Hommel's  statement  that  it  can  be  shown 
from  the  Minean  inscriptions  that  primitive  Semitic 
religion  consisted  of  moon  and  star  worship,  the 
moon-god  Athtar  and  an  "angel"  god  standing  at 
the  head  of  the  pantheon  (ibid.,  315).  The  Biblical 
conflict  between  the  kingdoms  of  good  and  evil 
finds  its  parallel  in  the  "spirits  of  heaven"  or  the 
Igigi — who  constituted  the  "host"  of  which  Ninip 
was  the  champion  (and  from  whom  he  received  the 
title  of  "chief  of  the  angels")  and  the  "spirits  of  the 
earth",  or  Annuna-Ivi,  w-ho  dwelt  in  Hades  (ibid., 
355).  The  Babylonian  sukalli  corresponded  to  the 
spirit-messengers  of  the  Bible;  they  declared  their 
Lord's  will  and  executed  his  behests  (ibid.,  361). 
Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  more  than  messen- 
gers; they  were  the  interpreters  and  vicegerents  of 
the  supreme  deity,  thus  Nebo  is  "the  prophet  of 
Borsippa".  These  angels  are  even  termed  "the 
sons"  of  the  deity  whose  vicegerents  they  are;  thus 
Ninip,  at  one  time  the  messenger  of  En-lil,  is  trans- 
formed into  his  son  just  as  Jlerodach  becomes  the 
son  of  Ea  (ibid.,  496).  The  Babylonian  accounts  of 
the  Creation  and  the  Flood  do  not  contrast  very 
favourably  with  the  Biblical  accounts,  and  the  same 
must  be  said  of  the  chaotic  hierarchies  of  gods  and 
angels  which  modern  research  has  revealed.  Perhaps 
we  are  justified  in  seeing  in  all  forms  of  religion 
vestiges  of  a  primitive  nature-worship  which  has  at 
times  succeeded  in  debasing  the  purer  revelation,  and 
which,  where  that  primitive  revelation  has  not  re- 
ceived successi\'e  increments  as  among  the  Hebrews, 
results  in  an  abundant  crop  of  weeds. 

Thus  the  Bible  certainly  sanctions  the  idea  of 
certain  angels  being  in  charge  of  sjxjcial  districts 
(cf.  Dan.,  X,  and  above).  This  belief  persists  in  a 
debased  form  in  the  Arab  notion  of  Genii,  or  Jinns, 
who  haunt  particular  spots.  A  reference  to  it  is 
perhaps  to  be  fovind  in  Gen.,  xxxii,  1,  2:  "Jacob  also 
went  on  the  journey  he  had  begun:  and  the  angels 


ANGELA 


481 


ANGELA 


of  God  met  him:  And  when  ho  saw  them  he  said: 
These  are  the  camps  of  God,  and  lie  called  the  name 
of  that  place  Mahanaim,  that  is,  'Camps.'"  Recent 
explorations  in  the  Arab  district  about  Petra  have 
revealed  certain  precincts  marked  off  with  stones  as 
the  abiding-places  of  angels,  and  the  nomad  trilxjs 
frequent  them  for  prayer  and  sacrifice.  Tlicse  places 
bear  a  li;inie  which  corresponds  exactly  with  the 
"  Mahanaim"  of  the  above  passage  in  Genesis  fcf.  La- 
grange, Religions  S(5miti(|ues,  184,  and  Kobert.son 
Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  44.')).  Jacob's  vision 
at  Bethel  (Gen.,  xxviii,  12)  may  perhaps  come  under 
the  same  category.  Suffice  it  to  say  tliat  not  every- 
thing in  the  llible  is  revelation,  and  that  the  object 
of  the  inspired  writings  is  not  merely  to  tell  us  new 
tniths  but  also  to  make  cle;irer  certain  truths  taught 
us  by  nature.  The  modern  view,  which  tends  to 
regard  everything  B:il)ylotiian  jis  alxsolutely  primitive 
and  which  .sccnis  to  think  that  because  critics  adix 
a  late  date  to  the  Biblical  writings  the  religion  therein 
contained  must  also  be  late,  may  be  seen  in  Haag, 
"Th^ologie  Biblique"  (.339).  This  writer  sees  in  the 
Biblical  angels  only  primitive  deities  debased  into 
demi-gods  oy  the  triumphant  progress  of  Mono- 
theism. 

Angels  in  the  Zen-d-Avest.\. — Attempts  have 
also  been  made  to  trace  a  connection  between  the 
angels  of  the  Bible  and  the  "great  archangels"  or 
"  Amesha-Spentas"  of  the  Zend-Avesta.  That  the 
Persian  domination  and  the  Babylonian  captivity 
exerted  a  large  influence  upon  the  Hebrew  concep- 
tion of  the  angels  is  acknowledged  in  the  Talmud  of 
Jerusalem,  Rosch  Haschanna,  .56,  where  it  is  said 
that  the  names  of  the  angels  were  introduced  from 
Babylon.  It  is.  however,  by  no  means  clear  that  the 
angelic  beings  who  figure  so  largely  in  the  pages  of 
the  Avesta  are  to  be  referred  to  the  older  Persian 
religion  of  the  time  of  Cyrus  and  not  rather  to  the 
Neo-Zoroastrianism  of  the  Siussanides.  If  this  be 
the  case,  as  Darmesteter  holds,  we  should  rather 
reverse  the  position  and  attribute  the  Zoroastrian 
angels  to  the  influence  of  the  Bible  and  of  Philo. 
Stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  similarity  between  the 
Biblical  "seven  w-ho  stand  before  God"  and  the 
seven  Amesha-Spentas  of  the  Zend-Avesta.  But 
it  must  be  noted  that  these  latter  are  really  six,  the 
number  seven  is  only  obtained  by  counting  "their 
father,  Ahura-Mazda,"  among  them  as  their  chief. 
Moreover,  these  Zoroastrian  archangels  are  more 
abstract  than  concrete;  they  are  not  individuals 
charged  with  weighty  missions  as  in  the  Bible.  A 
good  examination  of  the  whole  question  is  to  be 
found  in  "Rev.  Biblique"  (January  and  April,  1904); 
and  for  the  similar  view  entertained  by  de  Harlez 
see  "Rev.  Bibl.,"  (1.89G),  169. 

Anc.els  in  the  New  Te.stament. — Hitherto  we 
have  dwelt  almost  exclusively  on  the  angels  of  the 
Old  Testament,  whoso  visits  and  messages  have  been 
by  no  means  rare;  but  when  we  come  to  the  New 
Testament  their  name  appears  on  every  page  and 
the  number  of  references  to  them  ecjuals  those  in 
the  GId  Dispensation.  It  is  their  privilege  to  an- 
nounce to  Zachary  and  Mary  the  dawn  of  Redemp- 
tion, and  to  the  shepherds  its  actual  accomplisn- 
ment.  Gur  Lord  in  His  discourses  talks  of  them  as 
one  who  actually  .saw  them,  and  who,  whilst  "con- 
versing amongst  men",  was  yet  receiving  the  silent 
unseen  adoration  of  the  hosts  of  heaven.  lie  de- 
scribes their  life  in  heaven  (Matt.,  xxii,  30; 
Luke,  XX,  3());  He  tells  us  how  they  form  a  bodv- 
guard  round  Ilim  and  at  a  word  from  Him  would 
avenge  Him  on  His  enemies  (.Matt.,  xxvi.  .53); 
it  is  the  privilege  of  one  of  them  to  assi.st  Him  in 
His  .Agony  and  sweat  of  Blood.  More  than  once  He 
speaks  of  them  as  auxiliaries  and  witnes.ses  at  the 
final  judgment  (Matt.,  xvi,  27),  which  indeed 
they  will  prepare  (ibid.,  xiii,  39-^9);  and  lastly,  they 


are  the  joyous  witnesses  of  His  triumphant  Resur- 
rection (ibid.,  xxviii,  2).  It  b  easy  for  sceptical 
minds  to  see  in  these  angelic  hosts  the  mere  play  of 
Hebrew  fancy  and  the  rank  growth  of  superstition, 
but  do  not  the  records  of  the  angels  who  figure  in 
the  Bible  supply  a  most  natural  and  harmonious 
progression?  In  the  oixjning  page  of  the  sacred 
story  the  Jewish  nation  is  cho.sen  out  from  amongst 
others  as  the  depositary  of  God's  promise;  as  tlie 
peojjle  from  who.so  stock  He  would  one  day  raise  up 
a  Redeemer.  The  angels  appear  in  the  course  of  this 
chosen  people's  history,  now  as  God's  messengers, 
now  as  that  jxsople's  guides;  at  one  time  they  are 
the  bestowers  of  God's  law,  at  another  they  actually 
prefigure  the  Redeemer  Whose  divine  purpose  they 
are  helping  to  mature.  They  converse  with  His 
prophets,  with  David  and  Elias,  with  Daniel  and 
/acnarias;  they  slay  the  hosts  camped  against  Israel, 
they  serve  as  guides  to  God's  servants,  and  the  last 
prophet,  .Malachi,  bears  a  name  of  peculiar  signifi- 
cance: "the  Angel  of  Jehovah."  He  seems  to  sum 
up  in  his  very  name  the  previous  "ministry  by  the 
hands  of  angels  ",  as  though  God  would  thus  recall 
the  old-time  glories  of  the  Exodus  and  Sinai.  The 
Septuagint,  indeed,  seems  not  to  know  his  name  as 
that  of  an  individual  prophet  and  its  rendering  of  the 
opening  verse  of  his  prophecy  is  peculiarly  solemn: 
"  riie  burden  of  the  Word  of  the  Lord  of  Israel  by 
the  hand  of  His  angel;  lay  it  up  in  your  hearts." 
All  this  loving  ministry  on  the  part  of  the  angels  is 
solely  for  the  sake  of  the  Saviour,  on  Whose  face  they 
desire  to  look.  Hence  when  the  fullness  of  time  was 
arrived  it  is  they  who  bring  the  glad  message,  and 
sing  "Gloria  in  oxcelsis  Deo."  They  guide  the  new- 
born King  of  Angels  in  His  hurried  (light  into  ICgypt, 
and  minister  to  Him  in  the  dct:ert.  His  .second  com- 
ing and  the  dire  events  that  must  precede  lliat,  are 
revealed  to  His  chosen  servant  in  the  island  of  I'atmos. 
It  is  a  question  of  revelation  .again,  and  conscc|uently 
its  ministers  and  messengers  of  old  appear  once  more 
in  the  sacretl  story  and  tlie  record  of  God's  revealing 
love  ends  fittingly  almost  as  it  had  begun:  "I,  Jesus, 
have  sent  Mv  angel  to  testify  to  you  these  things 
in  the  churclics"  (Apoc,  xxii,  16).  It  is  ea.sy  for 
the  student  to  trace  the  influence  of  surrounding 
nations  and  of  other  religions  in  the  Biblical  ac- 
count of  the  angels.  Indeed  it  is  needful  and  in- 
structive to  do  so,  but  it  would  be  wrong  to  shut 
our  eyes  to  the  higher  line  of  development  which 
we  have  shown  and  which  brings  out  so  strikingly 
the  marvellous  unity  and  harmony  of  the  whole 
divine  storv  of  the  Bible.     (See  Gu.\hdia.v  Angel). 

In  addition  to  worka  montione<l  aliove.  see  St.  Tiiosiar. 
Summii  Thevl.,  I.  QQ.  50-04,  an<l  IW-IU;  Scarez.  De 
Anqelis,  lib.  i-iv;  Dirt.  Valhol.,  s.  v.  "Angcs"  (Paris,  1904-0); 
BAnEll.l.K,  Le  ctJle  dee  antjra  ft  t'^poqtt^  deg  p&rs  de  iegtiw; 
Rev.  ThomUle  (March,  1000):  David.son  in  Hasti.\o.s,  D\ct.  of 
the  Bible:  Vacant  in  Vir...  Diet,  de  la  Bihle;  Oswald,  Anotlolo- 
gie  (I'adorborn.  1889);  Hoswei.i.,  The  Erolutwn  of  the  AnoeU 
ami  Drmunn  in  Chritticn  Theology:  Open  Court  Rnirw,  1900; 
Angelt  and  MinUtera  of  Gnier:  Am.  Calh.  (JuaTlerly.  1888; 
Bibliotheea  Sancta  (Andover,  1844,  708;  1845.  108).  Dkach, 
Apocalypse  de  S.  Jean  (Paris.  1873);  Holziiauser.  L'ftietoire 
dee  eept  <lnee  de  I'fotiee  catholique,  tr.  De  Wuilleret..  3  cd. 
(Paris,  1872). 

Hugh  Pope. 
Angela  Merici,  S.vimt,  foundress  of  the  Trsulines, 
b.  21  .\larili,  1  171,  at  Desenzano,  a  small  town  on  the 
southwestern  shore  of  Lake  Garda  in  Lonibardy; 
d.  27  January,  1.540,  at  Brescia.  She  was  left  an 
orphan  at  the  age  of  ten  and  together  with  her  elder 
sister  came  to  the  home  of  her  uncle  at  the  neigh- 
bouring town  of  ."^alo  where  they  led  an  angelic  life. 
When  her  sister  met  with  a  sudden  death,  without 
being  able  to  receive  the  last  sacraments,  young 
Angela  was  much  distressed.  She  became  a  tertiary 
of  St.  Francis  and  greatly  increased  her  prayers  and 
mortifications  for  the  repose  of  her  sister's  soul.  In 
her  anguish  and  pious  simplicity  she  prayc<l  God  to 
reveal  to  her  the  condition  of  her  deceased  sisten 


ANGELA 


482 


ANGELI 


It  is  said  that  by  a  vision  slie  was  satisfied  that  her 
sister  was  in  the  conijiany  of  the  saints  in  heaven. 
When  slie  was  twenty  years  old,  lier  uncle  died,  and 
she  returned   to  her"  paternal   home  at   Desenzano. 
Convinced  that  the  great   need  of  her  times  was  a 
better  instruction  of  young  girls  in  the  rudirnents  of 
the    Christian    re- 
ligion, she  convert- 
ed lier  home  into 
a  school  where  at 
stated  intervals 
she  daily  gathered 
all  the   little  girls 
of  Desenzano  and 
taught    them    the 
elements  of  Chris- 
tianity.    It  is   re- 
lated that  one  day, 
w  hile  in  an  ecstasy, 
she  had  a  vision  in 
which    it   was    re- 
\ealed  to  her  that 
she  was  to   found 
an    association    of 
\  irgins  who  were  to 
devote   their  lives 
to     the     religious 
St.  Axgkla   de  Merici  training  of   young 

girls.  The  school 
she  had  established  at  Desenzano  soon  bore  abun- 
dant fruit,  and  she  was  invited  to  the  neighbouring 
city,  Brescia,  to  establish  a  similar  school  at  that  place. 
Angela  gladly  accepted  the  in\itation.  In  1524, 
while  making  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  she 
became  suddenly  blind  when  she  was  on  the  island 
of  Crete,  but  continued  her  journey  to  the  Holy 
Places  and  was  cured  on  her  return  while  praying 
before  a  crucifix  at  the  same  place  where  she  was 
struck  with  blindness  a  few  weeks  before.  When, 
in  the  jubilee  year  152.5,  she  had  come  to  Rome  to 
gain  the  indulgences,  Pope  Clement  VII,  who  had 
heard  of  her  great  holiness  and  her  extraordinary 
success  as  a  religious  teacher  of  young  girls,  invited 
her  to  remain  in  Rome;  but  Angela,  who  shunned 
publicity,  returned  to  Brescia.  Finally,  on  the  25th 
of  November,  1535,  Angela  chose  twelve  virgins  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  order  of  the  Ursulines  in 
a  small  house  near  the  Church  of  St.  Afra  in  Brescia. 
Ha\ing  been  five  years  superior  of  the  newly-founded 
order,  slie  died.  Her  body  lies  buried  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Afra  at  Brescia.  She  was  beatified  in  1768, 
by  Clement  XIII,  and  canonized  in  1807,  by  Pius  VII. 
Her  feast  is  celebrated  31  May. 

Heimbucher,  Orden  uml  Konqreoationen  (Paderborn,  1S96), 
1.  511  sqq.;  Seebibck,  llerrlichkeit  der  kalholischen  Kirche 
(Innsbruck,  1900);  Guerin,  Les  pctiU  Bollandistes  (Paris), 
111,  326  sqq.;  Bullarii  Romani  Conlinuntio,  VII,  pt.  I;  her 
biography  has  been  written  in  French  by  Bauthors  (Abbe- 
ville. 1894);  at  Notre  Dame  il'Alet  (1885);  Pastel  (Paris, 
1878);  in  German  by  an  Ursuline  (Innsbruck,  1893);  by  an 
Ursulme  (Paderborn,  1892);  in  Italian  by  Girelli  (Brescia, 
18<1);  by  Salvatoki    (Rome,  ISO"). 

Michael  Ott. 

Angela  of  Foligno,  Blessed,  Umbrian  penitent  and 
iiiystnal  wnlor.  She  was  born  at  Foligno  in  Umbria, 
in  1248,  of  a  rich  family;  d.  4  January,  1.309.  Mar- 
ried at  an  early  age,  she  loved  the  world  and  its 
pleasures  and,  worse  still,  forgetful  of  her  dignity 
and  duties  as  wife  and  mother,  fell  into  sin  and  led 
a  disorderly  life.  But  Cod,  having  in  His  mercy 
msnired  her  with  a  deep  sorrow  for  her  sins,  led  her 
little  by  httlc  to  the  height  of  perfection  and  to  the 
understanding  of  the  deepest  mysteries.  Angela  has 
herself  recorded  the  history  of  her  conversion  in  her 
admirable  "Book  of  Visions  and  Instructions", 
which  contains  seventy  chapters,  and  which  was 
written  from  Angela's  dictation  by  her  Franciscan 
confessor,    Kutlicr   Arnold   of    Foligno.     Some   time 


after  her  conversion  Angela  had  placed  herself  under 
the  direction  of  Father  Arnold  and  taken  the  habit 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis.  In  the  course 
of  time  the  fame  of  her  sanctity  gathered  around  her 
a  number  of  Tertiaries,  men  and  women,  who  strove 
under  her  direction  to  advance  in  holiness.  Later 
she  established  at  Foligno  a  community  of  sisters, 
who  to  the  Rule  of  the  Third  Order  added  the  three 
vows  of  religion,  without,  however,  binding  them- 
selves to  enclosure,  so  that  they  might  devote  their 
time  to  works  of  charity.  Angela  at  last  passed 
away,  surrounded  by  her  spiritual  children.  Her 
remains  repose  in  the  church  of  St.  Francis  at  Foligno. 
Numerous  miracles  were  worked  at  her  tomb,  and 
Innocent  XII  approved  the  immemorial  ^•eneration 
paid  to  her.  Her  feast  is  kept  in  the  Order  on  the 
30th  of  March.  Bl.  Angela's  high  authority  as  a 
spiritual  teacher  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
Bollandus,  among  other  testimonials,  quotes  Maxi- 
milian Sandaeus,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  who  calls 
her  the  "  Mistress  of  Theologians  ",  whose  whole  doc- 
trine has  been  drawn  out  of  the  Book  of  Life,  Jesus 
Christ,  Our  Lord. 

The  life  of  Blessed  Angela  has  been  written  by  Mariano 
OF  Florence  and  Mark  of  Lisbon  in  their  chronicles;  also 
by  Jacobii-li,  Vite  de'  Sand  €  Beati  dclV  Umbiia,  and  Wad- 
ding, Annates  Minonim.  These  writers  have  principally 
derived  their  information  from  her  Book  of  VUiotis  and  In- 
structions. The  editio  princeps  of  this  book,  known  as  the 
Theology  of  the  Cross  (Paris,  1598)  remains  the  chief  source 
for  her  life  and  teaching.  B.  Angetce  de  Futgineo  Visiontinv 
et  Jnstructionum  Liber  (reprinted  Cologne,  IGOl)  was  re- 
edited  by  Bollandus,  Acta  Sanctorum,  I,  Jan.,  186-234; 
by  Lammertz,  with  German  tr.  (Cologne.  1851);  and  Faloci 
PuLlGNANi  (Foligno,  1899);  the  English  translation  by 
Cruik.hhank  (Derby,  1872)  has  been  lately  re-issued  (New 
York,  1903).  See  also  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the 
Three  Orders  of  St.  Francis  (Taunton,   1887),   I.  536-554. 

Paschal  Robinson. 
Angeli  (or  Angelis),  FnANCESco  degli,  missionary 
to  Ethiopia,  b.  at  Sorrento,  Italy,  1567;  d.  at  Colela  in 
Ethiopia,  21  October,  1628.  He  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  1583.  After  two  years  (1602-04)  spent 
in  the  mission  of  the  Indies,  he  went  to  Ethiopia, 
the  field  of  his  future  evangelical  labours.  Of  a 
gentle  and  cheerful  disposition,  the  Abyssinians  called 
liini  "the  man  who  was  always  cheerful".  Angeli 
stood  high  in  the  favour  of  two  successive  Kings  of 
Ethiopia.  Although,  owing  chiefly  to  the  opposition 
of  the  schismatical  monks,  he  was  unsuccessful  in 
con^■erting  the  people  and  bringing  about  the  re- 
union of  the  Abyssinian  Church  with  that  of  Rome, 
he  converted  a  large  number  of  the  schismatics, 
among  them  the  brother  of  the  King  and  many  lords 
of  the  court.  For  five  years  Angeli  preached  the 
Gospel  among  the  Agazi,  a  half-schismatic  and  half- 
idolatrous  people  tributary  to  Ethiopia.  Conver- 
sions were  numerous,  and  he  founded  a  church  and 
school.  He  translated  many  religious  works  into 
the  language  of  these  people.  The  most  important 
of  them  was  the  commentary  of  Maldonatus  on  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke. 

CORDARA,  Hist.  Soc.  Jes.,  par.  VI",  lib.  IV,  no.  106,  164; 
lib.  IV,  no.  126,  207;  lib.  VII,  no.  165,  390;  Santaoata, 
Istor.  delta  Provincia  di  Napoli.  Ill,  66,  190,  216.  477;  IV, 
95,  277;  Sotwel,  Bibl.,  212;  Sommervogel,  I,  386. 

Joseph  M.  Woods. 

Angeli,  Giuolamo  degli,  an  eminent  pioneer  mis- 
sionary of  Japan;  b.  at  Ciustro-Giovanni,  Sicil.v,  15(i7; 
d.  4  December,  1623.  He  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1585,  and  in  1002  began  his  apostolate  in 
Japan,  remaining  there  :tfter  tlie  publication  of  the 
edict  exiiclliiu;  all  missionaries  from  the  country. 
An  indefatii;:il)lc  wurkcr,  he  was  the  first  missionary 
to  penetrate  the  hitiicrto  unknown  realms  of  Yezo, 
Jasu,  and  Cai.  Angeli,  after  making  many  converts 
to  Christianity,  seeing  that  his  neophytes  were  cruelly 
persecuted  because  of  his  presence  among  them  and 
his  preaching,  gave  him.self  up  to  the  authorities. 
Condemned  to  death  he  underwent  martyrdom  by 
fire,  in  the  public  square  of  Yezo. 


ANGELIC 


483 


ANQELIOO 


Histoire  de  cr  qui  •'<«<  vattt  au  Japan  .  .  .  traduit  par  le  Cliristlikc,  and  Vasari  says  tliat  he  prefaced  liis  paint- 

P.  Morin    S.y.  a'aris    1625);   Relanunc  del  rtano  di    Yrzo  j        ^      praver.     His  technical  eiiuiijnient  was  sonie- 

OtomeandMcssma.  1025);  SoMMERVoaEL,/<iWu>(A..\  III.  3S«^;  J-       ;,',;'     .,^   ,^.._    ,,.,,, .r.l    fnr  nn    irtUt  with    hia 

(•harifvoix     Histoire  du  Jaiiun   (Pans,    1754),   IV   anil    V;  "  iKit    >lcni Icr,  :us   was  nalural  lor  an   arilnt.\MUl   ni8 


,  Varunts  Iluetrea,  2d  e<l..  I,  413, 

Joseph  M.  Woods. 
Angelic  Doctor.     See  Thom.\s  Aquin.v.s,  S.mnt. 
Angelic  Salutation.     See  Hail  Mary. 
Angelical  Hymn.     See  (Ilouia  is  Kxcelsis  Dko. 


V,  Fia  ('iiu\ariiii  ami  hi.'- 


lll•f:imlill^;^.  his  work  beiiiK  rather  thin,  dry,  and  hard. 
His  spirit,  lidwcviT,  glorified  liis  paintings.  His  noble 
holy  figures,  his  beautiful  angels,  human  but  in  form, 
robed  witli  the  hues  of  the  sunrise  and  sunset,  and 
liis  supremely  earnest  saints  and  martyrs  are  jier- 
meated  with  the  siiicerest  of  religious  feeling.  His 
Angelicals,  I'hk,  a  coiigrpgatioii  of  women  early  training  in  miniature  and  illumination  had  its 
fouiulod  ut  Miliiii  al)oiit  \'iMt  by  Countess  Luigia  iiiHuenoe  in  his  more  iiiiixjrtant  works,  with  their 
Torclli  of  Guastalla  (d.  1.5.59)  for  "tlie  protection  and  robes  of  golden  embroidery,  their  decorative  arraiige- 
rec-lamation  of  girls.  Under  the  direction  of  .Saint  ments  and  details,  and  pure,  brilliant  colours.  As  for 
.'Vntonio  Zaccaria,  founder  of  tlie  Barnabitcs,  they  the  early  studies  in  art  of  Fra  An^elico,  nothing  is 
adopted  the  Kule  of  St.  .\ugusliMe,  and  ol)tainod  tlie  known.  His  painting  shows  the  influence  of  the 
approbation  of  Paul  111  (l.'):ill.  J'lieir  garl)  wa.s  Siiimese  school,  and  it  is  thought  he  may  have  studied 
that  of  tlie  Dominicans,  and  e;uli  was  addressed  as  under  Gherardo,  Stamina,  or  Lorenzo  Monaco. 
"Angelica",  instead  of  tlie  customary  "Sister"  or  On  account  of  the  struggle  for  the  jxintifical  throne 
"Mother".     Not  being  cloistered,  they  assisted  flie     between  CireKory  .\II,  Benedict   XUl,  and  Alexan- 

•     •  ■  •■      '  ■,.■.,.-•        ,  .  ■    (brother,  being  adherents 

of  the  first  named,  li.ad 
in  H09  to  leave  Fie- 
sule,  taking  refuge  in 
the  convent  of  their 
order  established  at 
J'oligno  in  Unibria. 
The  pest  devastating 
that  place  in  1414, 
the  brothers  went  to 
Cortona,  where  they 
spent  four  years  and 
tiien  returned  to  Fie- 
sole.  There  Fra  An- 
gelico  remained  for 
sixteen  years.  He  was 
thin  invited  to  Flor- 
iicr  to  decorate  the 
III  \v  (Convent  of  San 
Mirco  which  had  just 
li.di  allotted  to  his 
I  Ut,  and  of  which 
(  n^iiio  de'  Medici  was 
1  munificent  patron. 
\i  Cortona  are  found 
-nine  of  his  best  pic- 
tures. It  was  at  Flor- 
niie,  however,  where 
he  spent  nine  years, 
that  he  painted  his 
most  imix)rtant  works. 
In  144.>,  Poix;  Kugen- 
ius  I\'  invited  Fra 
Aiigelico  to  Rome  and 
gave  him  work  to  do 
in  the  Vatican,  where 
he  painted  for  him  and 


Barnabites  in  their  missionary  work  until  abiLsc 
arose,  and  one  of  the 
Angelicals  set  herself 
up  as  a  prophetess.  In 
1557  they  were  clois- 
tered, and  in  \i>'2h 
their  statutes  were  re- 
\ised  by  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  and  con- 
firmed by  Urban  VIIl. 
During  the  political 
disturbances  early  in 
the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury tlieir  foiindati(iii> 
were  dest  roved  and 
the  congregation  dis- 
appeared. The  Insti- 
tute of  the  Ciuastall- 
ines  also  foiinde<l  by 
the  Countess  Torelli  is 
still  in  existence. 

Stahi.  iu  Kirchenli  r,; 
Ro.»*.HlGNOl.l,  Vita  e  I  ir/ti 
delta  cmteasa  di  GuasUdl'l 
etc.  (Milan,  lUStl). 

F.   M.   RlDGE. 

Angelico,  Fiia,  a 
famous  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  1>. 
near  Ciustello  di  Vic- 
chio  in  the  province 
of  MugcUo,  Tuscany, 
138~;d.  atUonie,  14.55. 
He  was  christened 
Guido,  and  his  father's 

name  being   Pietro   he  Pa*.  Anobuoo 

was  known  :us('iuidi>,  or 

Guidolino,  di  Pietro,  but  his  full  appellation  to-day  is  for  his  successor,  Pope  Nicholas  \'.  the  frescoes  of  two 
that  of  "  Bles.sed  Fra  .\ngelico  Giovanni  da  Fie-  chajjels.  That  of  the  r<j/</)f//rt  <W  .Safrnmcn/o,  in  the 
sole".  He  and  his  sup|X),sed  younger  brother,  Fra  Vatican,  was  destroyed  later  by  Paul  III.  Eugeniiis 
BenedettodaFiesole.orda  .Mugello,  joined  tlieorderof  IV  then  asked  him  to  go  to  Orvieto  to  work  in  the 
Preachers  in  1407,  entering  tlie  l)<iininican  convent  at  chapel  of  the  Madonna  di  San  Drizio  in  the  cathedral. 
Fiesole.  Giovanni  w;i.s  twenty  years  old  at  the  time  This  work  he  began  in  1447,  but  did  not  finish,  return- 
thc  brothers  began  their  art  careers  as  illustrators  of  ing  to  Rome  in  the  autumnof  thatyear.  Much  later 
m:uiuscripts,  and  Fra  Benedetto,  wliiiliad  considerable  the  chapel  was  finished  by  Luca  Signorelli.  Po|ie 
talent  as  an  illuminator  and  miniaturist,  issuiiposed  to  ICugenius  is  said  to  have  offered  the  painter  the  place 
have  xssiste<l  his  more  celebrated  brother  in  his  famous  of  Archbishop  of  Florence,  which  tlirough  modesty 
frescoes  in  the  convent  of  San  Marco  in  Florence,  and  devotion  to  his  art  he  decUned.  At  Rome,  be- 
Fra  Benedetto  was  superior  at  San  Domenico  at  siiles  his  great  paintings  in  the  chapels  of  the  Vati- 
Fiesole  for  .some  years  before  his  death  in  1448.  Fra  can,  he  executed  .some  beautiful  miniatures  for  choral 
Angelico,  who  during  a  residence  at  Foligno  had  come  books.  He  is  buriinl  in  Rome  in  the  church  of  Santa 
under  the  influence  of  Giotto  whose  work  at  Assisi  Maria  sopra  Minerva. 
was  within  ea.sy  reach,  soon  graduated  from  the  ilhi-         Among  the  thirty  works  of  Fra  Angelico  in  the 


mination  of  missals  and  choir  books  into  a  remark- 
ably naive  and  inspiring  maker  of  religious  paintings, 
who  glorified  the  quaint  naturalness  of  his  types 
with  a  peculiarly  pious  mysticism.     He  was  convinced 


cloisters  and  chapter  hou.se  of  the  convent  of  San 
Marco  in  Florence  (which  has  been  converted  into  a 
national  museum)  is  notal>le  the  famous  "Cruci- 
fixion", with  tlie  Saviour  between  the  two  thieves 


that  to  picture  Christ  perfectly  one  must  needs  bo    surroundeii  by  a  group  of  twenty  saints,  and  with 
I.— 31 


ANOELO 


484 


AN6EL0 


bust  portraits  of  seventeen  Dominican  fathers  below. 
Here  is  shown  to  the  full  the  mastery  of  tlie  painter 
in  depicting  in  tlie  faces  of  the  monks  the  emotions 
evoked  by  the  contemplation  of  heavenly  mysteries. 
In  the  Uffizi  Gallery  are  "The  Coronation  of  t)ie 
Virgin",  "The  Virgin  and  Cliild  \\-ith  Saints",  "  Nam- 
ing of  John  the  Baptist",  "The  Preaching  of  St. 
Peter",  "The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Mark",  and  "The 
.Adoration  of  tlie  Magi",  while  among  the  examples 
at  the  Florence  .\cademy  are  "The  Last  Judgment", 
"Paradise",  "The  Deposition  from  the  Cross",  "The 
Entombment",  scenes  from  the  lives  of  St.  Cosmas 
and  St.  Damian,  and  various  subjects  from  the  life 
of  Christ,  .-^t  Fiesole  are  a  "Madonna  and  Saints" 
and  a  "Crucifixion".  The  predella  in  London  is  in 
five  compartments  and  shows  Christ  with  the  Banner 
of  the  Resurrection  surrounded  by  a  choir  of  angels 
and  a  great  tlirong  of  the  blessed.  There  is  also 
there  an  ".Adoration  of  the  Magi".  At  Cortona  ap- 
pear at  the  Convent  of  San  Domenico  the  fresco 
"The  Virgin  and  Child  with  four  Evangelists"  and 
the  altar-piece  "Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints", 
and  at  the  baptistry  an  "  Annunciation  "  with  scenes 
from  the  life  of  the  Virgin  and  a  "Life  of  St.  Dom- 
inic". In  the  Turin  Gallery  "Two  Angels  kneeling 
on  Clouds",  and  at  Rome,  in  the  Corsini  Palace, 
"The  Ascension",  "The  Last  Judgment",  and  "Pen- 
tecost". At  the  Louvre  in  Paris  are  "The  Corona- 
tion of  the  Virgin",  "The  Crucifixion",  and  "The 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Cosmas  and  St.  Damian".  Berlin 
has,  at  the  Museum,  a  "  Last  Judgment",  and  Dublin, 
at  the  National  Gallery,  "The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Cos- 
mas and  St.  Damian".  At  Madrid  is  "The  Annun- 
ciation", in  Munich  "Scenes  from  the  Lives  of  St. 
Cosmas  and  St.  Damian",  and  in  St.  Petersburg  a 
"Madonna  and  Saints".  Mrs.  John  L.  Gardner  has 
in  the  art  gallery  of  her  Boston  residence  an  "As- 
sumption "  and  a  "  Dormition  of  the  Virgin  ".  There 
are  other  works  at  Parma,  Perugia,  and  Pisa.  At 
San  Marco,  Florence,  in  addition  to  the  works  al- 
ready mentioned  are  "Madonna  della  Stella",  "Cor- 
onation of  the  Virgin",  "Adoration  of  the  Magi", 
and  "St.  Peter  Martyr".  The  Chapel  of  St.  Nicho- 
las in  the  Vatican  at  Rome  contains  frescoes  of  the 
"Lives  of  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Stephen",  "The 
Four  Evangelists",  and  "The  Teachers  of  the 
Church".  In  the  gallery  of  the  Vatican  are  "St. 
Nicholas  of  Bari",  and  "Madonna  and  Angels". 
The  work  at  Orvieto  finished  by  Signorelli  shows 
Christ  in  "a  glory  of  angels  with  sixteen  saints  and 
prophets". 

Bryan,  Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Enffravera;  Edgecombe- 
Halfy,  Fra  Angetico. 

AuGu.STtJS  Van  Cleef. 

Angelo  Carletti  di  Chivasso,  Blessed,  moral 
theologian  of  the  order  of  Friars  Minor;  b.  at  Chivasso 
in  Piedmont,  in  1411;  and  d.  at  Coni,  in  Piedmont, 
in  1495.  From  his  tenderest  years  the  Blessed 
Angelo  was  remarkable  for  the  holiness  and  purity 
of  his  life.  He  attended  the  University  of  Bologna, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Civil  ancl 
Canon  Law.  It  w.as  probably  at  the  age  of  thirty 
that  he  entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor.  His 
virtues  and  learning  soon  gained  the  confidence  of 
his  brethren  in  religion,  and  he  was  four  times  chosen 
to  fill  the  office  of  vicar-general  of  that  branch  of 
the  order  then  known  as  the  Cismontane  Observance. 
In  1480  the  Turks  under  Mahomet  II  took  possession 
of  Otranto,  and  threatened  to  overrun  and  lay  waste 
the  "bel  naese".  Blessed  Angelo  was  appointed 
Apostolic  Nuncio  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV,  and  commis- 
sioned to  preach  the  holy  war  against  the  invaders. 
The  death  of  Mahomet  and  the  ultimate  retirement 
of  the  Turkish  forces  from  the  Italian  peninsula  were 
evidences  that  God  favoured  his  mission.  Again, 
in  1491,  he  was  appointed  Apostolic  Nuncio  an(i 
Commissary  by  Innocent  VIII,  conjointly  witl\  tlio 


Bishop  of  Mauriana,  the  purpose  of  their  mission 
being  to  take  active  steps  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
the   heretical   doctrines  of  the   Waldenses. 

But  it  was  perhaps  by  his  writings  tliat  Blessed 
Angelo  rendered  the  greatest  service  to  religion. 
His  works  are  given  by  Wadding  in  the  latter's 
"Scriptores  Ordinis  Minorum".  By  far  the  most 
noted  of  these  is  the  "Summa  de  Casibus  Con- 
scientiae",  called  after  him  the  "Summa  .\ngelica". 
The  first  edition  of  the  "Summa  Angelica"  appeared 
in  the  year  1476,  and  from  that  year  to  tne  year 
1520  it  went  through  thirty-one  editions,  twenty-five 
of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at 
Munich.  The  "Summa"  is  divided  into  six  hundred 
and  fifty-nine  articles  arranged  in  alphabetical  order 
and  forming  what  would  now  be  called  a  dictionary 
of  moral  theology.  The  most  valuable  and  most 
important  of  these  articles  is  the  one  entitled 
"Interrogationes  in  Confessione".  It  serves,  in  a 
way,  as  an  index  to  the  whole  work.  Judging  the 
character  of  the  work  of  Bl.  Angelo  as  a  theologian 
from  this,  his  most  important  contribution  to  moral 
theology,  one  is  impressed  with  the  gravity  and 
fairness  that  characterized  his  opinions  throughout. 
Besides,  the  "Summa",  being  written  "pro  utilitate 
confessariorum  et  eorum  qui  cupiunt  laudabiliter 
vivere",  is  a  most  valuable  guide  in  matters  of  con- 
science and  approaches  closely,  in  the  treatment  of 
the  various  articles,  to  casuistic  theology  as  this 
science  is  now  understood,  hence  the  title  of  the 
work,  "Summa  de  Casibus  ConscientiiE ".  Bene- 
dict XIII  approved  the  cult  that  had  for  long  been 
paid  to  Bl.  Angelo,  especially  by  the  people  of 
Chivasso  and  Coni.  The  latter  chose  him  as  their 
special  patron,  while  his  feast  is  kept  on  12  April 
throughout  the  order  of  Friars  Minor. 

Leo,  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  three  Orders  of 
St.  Fra-iicis  (tr.  Taunton,  188C);  Scherer  s.  v.  in  Kirchenlei. 
See  also  Wadding.  Annales  Minorum,  1472.  n.  viii,  1478,  n. 
viii,  1479,  n.  xiv,  1481,  n.  i-\,  1484.  n.  .xliv,  1495,  n.  ii. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Angelo  Clareno  da  CingoU,  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  so-called  Spiritual  Franciscans,  b.  at  Fossom- 
brone,  about  1247;  d.  at  Santa  Maria  d'Aspro, 
15  June,  1337.  He  entered  the  order  in  1262,  or 
thereabouts.  Believing  that  the  rule  of  St.  Francis 
was  not  being  observed  and  interpreted  according  to 
the  mind  and  spirit  of  the  Seraphic  Father,  he  re- 
tired to  a  hermitage  with  a  few  companions  and 
formed  a  new  branch  of  the  order  known  as  the 
"Clareni".  By  the  Bull  of  Sixtus  IV,  "  Dominus 
Noster  Jesus  Christus",  the  "Clareni"  were  united 
to  the  main  body  of  the  order  and  placed  under  the 
obedience  of  the  Minister  General.  The  influence  of 
the  prophetical  writings  of  Joachim  of  Floris.  a 
Calabrian  abbot,  on  Angelo  and  his  followers,  and 
in  fact  on  the  "Spirituals"  generally  of  the  thir- 
teenth centurj-,  cannot  be  overrated.  They  all 
looked  forward  to  the  time  when  the  religious  orders, 
whose  laxity  had  been  occasioned  in  great  measure 
by  the  general  looseness  of  the  times,  would  be  re- 
stored to  their  former  discipline  under  a  jmpa 
angel iciis  and  a  new  order  of  Friars.  But  the  num- 
ber of  Angelo's  followers  was  small;  and  his  so-called 
reform  brought  upon  himself  in  particular,  and  the 
"Clareni"  in  general,  the  suspicious  disfavour  of  tiie 
Friars  Minor  who  were  not  prcjiaretl  to  follow  the 
extreme  inlcrprclation  of  the  rule  of  St.  Francis 
which  .\ngfl(i  liuil  adopted.  .Viigclo  became  in  con- 
sequence little  Ijctter  than  a  homeless  and  persecuted 
wanderer,  travelling  tlirougli  Greece.  Armenia,  and 
the  different  provinces  of  Italy  until,  in  1311,  he  came 
to  .V\ignon  to  answer  the  charge  of  heresy  that  had 
been  l)rought  against  him.  He  was  finally  acquitted 
after  a  tedious  and  searching  examination.  In  1.337 
he  retired  to  the  little  hermitage  of  Santa  Maria 
d'.Vspro,  in  the  diocese  of  Marsico  in  Basilicata.  wiiere 


ANGELOPOLI 


4So 


ANGELS 


he  ilieil  in  tlie  odour  of  sanctity  on  the  loth  of  June 
of  the  same  year.  Angelo  (Jhireno  is  the  author,  at 
Iciust  in  great  part,  of  the  "Chronica  septeni  tribu- 
lationuni  Orilinis  Minoruni",  whicli  records  the  perse- 
cutions suffered  by  the  "Spirituals",  beginning  witli 
tlie  innovations  made  iluring  St.  Francis'  sojourn  in 
tlie  East,  and  continuing  under  Klias,  Crescent ius, 
and  Honaventure.  This  work  is  characterized  by 
heroic  endurance;  but  is  tinged  with  bias  and  bitter- 
ness. .Vnotlier  work  of  .\ngelo's  that  deserves 
mention  is  the  "  Dechiratio  regula;  Minorum." 

Acl.i  SS.,  Julv,  III.  .■■>(iil-r)7ll;  Kmil.l-:.  Anhif  jiir  LiUeralur 
nwl  KinhrnafsihMlf  (/.■»  Millrlallerii,  (lierlin,  1S85),  I,  507- 
.'•,(■.«:  iissiijll,  108-r>4,  L'49-3^7;  (ls.s7i  111.  .>«-r.L>:i:  IV, 
1-190:  Tocco,  I.iresia  nel  medio  evo  U'I'ti m.-,  IsMi;  \V  kh- 
hlNG,  AnnaUa  Minorum.  1289.  ct  pasKif:i:    I  i  m  mi  •.-.  i  I, r. .„,.., 

II.  Hemadini  .Uiuitani.  (Uoiiic.   1902i  -I   'i,    i n.i  h,   /■'■!! 

rdar  zur  Srktn»je»chichte  (his  Miltelaltrrt  iMuiii.l,,  Is'.lin,  i.i. 
II.  417;  Jkilkh  in  Kirchtnki.,  •..  v.  Spirilmiten. 

Stephen  M.  Donov.\n. 

Angelopoli.     See  Tl.\8cal.\. 

Angels,  K.vriLY  Chuistiam  Hei're.se\tatioxs  ok. 
— .\iigi'ls  were  seldom  represented  in  Christian  art 
before  Constantino.  The  oldest  fresco  in  which  an 
angel  appears  is  the  Annunciation  scene  (second 
century)  of  the  cemetery  of  St.  Priscilla.  A  third- 
century  painting  of  the  same  subject  wjis  discovered 
by  Wilpert  in  the  cemetery  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Mar- 
cellinus;  in  both  representations  the  Archangel  (ia- 
briel  is  depicted  in  human  form,  robed  in  tunic  and 
pallium.  The  "flood  Angel"  (angelus  bomi.i)  of 
the  fourth-century  syncretistic  fresco  representing 
the  judgment  of  Vibia  is  also  depicted  in  human 
form,  dressed  as  a  sacred  personage.  The  winged 
angel,  for  which  abundant  scriptural  references  could 
be  adduced,  does  not  apjwar  in  pre-Constantinian 
Christian  art,  for  the  reason,  pronably,  that  such 
figures  might  too  readily  recall  certain  favourite 
subjects  of  classic  art.     .\nother  fact  worthy  of  note 


angel  (Cabrol,  Diet.  d'.\rch.  Chr6t.,  col.  L'IKi  sqq.). 
The  oldest  existing  examples  of  winged  angels  are 
seen  in  some  bas-reliefs  of  Carthage  and  a  representa- 
tion on  ivorj'  of  St.  .Michael,  botli  attributed  to  tlie 
fourth   century.     Tlie  latter,  part  of   a  dijjtyrli  in  ilie 


in  this  regard  is  that  angels  in  this  first  jieriod  of 
Christian  art  are  never  represented  unless  historically 
neces-sary,  as  in  the  Annunciation  scenes  referred  to 
— and  not  always  even  then.  In  a  third-century 
fresco  of  the  Hebrew  children  in  the  furnace,  for 
instance,  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Priscilla,  a  dove  takes 
the  place  of  the  angel,  while  a  fourth-century  rep- 
resentation of  the  same  subject,  in  the  cccnu'terium 
majus,  substitutes  the  hand  of  God  for  the  heavenly 
messenger.  From  the  reign  of  Constantino  a  new 
type  of  angel,  with  wings,  appears  in  Christian  art. 
The  four  angels  with  spears  on  the  ciborium  of  the 
Lateral!  Basilica  (Lib.  Pont.,  I,  172)  were  i)robably 
of  this  order.  This  innovation  was  evidently  sug- 
gested liy  the  "Victories",  and  similar  figures  of 
cla.ssic  art;  but  the  danger  of  idolatrous  .suggestion 
in  such  figures  wsis  now  remote,  and  historic  art, 
which  gradually  replaced  .symbolic,  demanded  angels 
with  wings.  Certain  (inostic  sculptures  seem  to  mark 
the  transition  from  the  classic  Victory  to  the  winged 


British  Museum,  shows  the  Archangel  Michael  stand- 
ing on  thcuppersteps  of  an  architectonically  adorned 
doorway,  with  a  staff  in  one  hand  and  a  globe  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross  in  t  ho  ot  her.  The  figtire  is  admiral  ily 
executed.  A  second  development  in  the  artistic  con- 
ception of  angels  is  marked  in  the  Annunciation  scene 
(fifth  centurj')  depicted  on  the  triumphal  arch  of  St. 
.Mary  .Major's.  Inlike  the  same  subject  in  the  cata- 
combs, the  Angel  Gabriel  is  .soaring  through  the  air  to- 
wards Mary,  who  isseated  in  the  midst  of  attendant 
winged  angels.  From  the  fifth  centurj-  angels  became 
a  favourite  subject  in  Christian  art,  no  longer  merely 
as  figures  demanded  to  complete  a  historical  scene,  but 
very  often  as  attendants  on  Our  Lord  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  The  mosaic  of  St.  Mary  Major's  mentioned 
above,  as  well  as  two  mosaics  of  St.  .\pollinare  Nuo\o 
and  St.  Vitale  (sixth  century),  Ravenna,  are  ex- 
amples of  angels  in  this  character.  Tlie  Arch- 
angels Michael  and  Gabriel  dressed  in  the  militan,- 
chlamys  and  bearing  military  standards  inscribed 
with  the  word  .If/i'o.s  (holy)  are  represented  in  mosaics 
at  St.  A|M)llinarc  in  Cla.sse,  liavenna.  The  llierarchia 
c(r/c.s(i.s  of  pseudo-Dionysius  exercised  an  important 
influence  on  the  artistic  conception  of  angels  from 
the  sixth  centurj'.  Prior  to  that  time,  it  is  true,  a 
distinction  was  made  between  different  categories 
of  the  angelic  host,  but  now  the  relations  of  angels 
to  God  were  represented  in  the  East  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  various  grades  of  court  functionaries  ren- 
dering their  homage  to  the  Emperor. 

Ciri.rs  oi'  Anop;ls. — Earlj'  Christian  literature,  like 
early  Christian  art,  contains  few  references  to  angels. 
This  fact  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  circum- 
stances of  the  time,  for  with  the  popular  belief  in  a 
multitude  of  deities  it  was  necessarj'  to  laj'  particular 
emphasis  on  the  unity  of  God.  An  otiicial  cult  in 
honour  of  the  angels  in  the  first  centuries  of  Chri.s- 
tianity  would  have  made  imminent  the  danger  of 
their  being  regarded  as  inferior  divinities.  AVilne.ss 
the  vagaries  of  Gnosticism.  Still,  there  is  sufhcient 
evidence  to  show  that  the  relations  of  angels  to  God 
were  not  excluded  from  Christian  teaching.  Justin 
MartjT  (.\pol.,  I,  vi)  states  that  the  "host  of  CSood 
angels"  was  held  in  the  greatest  veneration,  and  his 
contemporarj',  .\thenagoras,  refers  to  the  duties  of 
angels  "whom  Ciod  appointed  to  their  several  posts, 
to  occupy  them.selves  almut  the  elements,  and  the 
heavens,  and  the  world"  (Legatio,  x).  In  the 
fourth  centurj'  we  find  Eusebius  of  (Vsarea  distin- 
guishing accurately   between  the  cult   rendered   to 


ANGELS 


486 


ANGELUS 


angels  and  the  worship  paid  to  God  (Demonstratio 
evang.,  Ill,  3),  and  St.  Ambrose  recommended 
prayers  to  them.  Kroni  the  fifth  centurj',  churclies 
were  frequently  dedicated  to  the  angels;  Umbria 
was   especially  noted  in  this  respect,  and  in  the  East 


Angels,  VI  Cestdrt,  Mosaic  in  San  Vitale,  Ravenna 


churches  erected  in  honour  of  St.  Michael  were 
numerous.  In  the  most  ancient  litanies  the  Arch- 
angels Michael  and  Gabriel  are  invoked  after  the 
persons  of  the  Trinity  and  immediately  before  the 
Blessed  Virgin. 

DiDRON.  Iconographie  des  anges,  in  Annales  arch.  (1858"). 
XVIII  33-48;  Marbiott,  in  Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.,  I,  83; 
Leclehcq.  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrit.,  I,  2079. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Angels  of  the  Churches. — St.  John  in  the 
Apocalypse  is  shown  seven  candlesticks  and  in  their 
midst  the  Son  of  Man  holding  seven  stars  (Apoc,  i, 
13,  20).  The  candlesticks  represent  the  seven 
Churches  of  Asia;  the  stars,  the  angels  of  those 
Churches.  He  is  bidden  to  write  to  the  respective 
angels  of  tho.se  Churches  and  distribute  to  each  his 
meed  of  prai.se  or  blame.  Origen  (Hem.,  xiii  in  Luc, 
and  Horn.,  x.x  in  Num.)  explains  that  these  are  the 
guardian  angels  of  tlie  Churches,  a  view  upheld  by 
Dean  Alford.  But  St.  Epiphanius  (Hser.,  xxv)  ex- 
plicitly rejects  tins  view,  and,  in  accordance  with  the 
imagery  of  the  passage,  explains  it  of  the  bishops. 
The  comparison  of  a  teacher  to  a  star  is  quite  Scrip- 
tural (Dan.,  xii,  3).  St.  Augustine's  reason  for  in- 
terpreting angels  of  the  Churches  as  the  prelates 
of  the  church  is  that  St.  John  speaks  of  them  as 
falling  from  their  first  charity  winch  is  not  true  of 
the  angels  [Ep.,  xhii  (al.  clxii),  n.  22]. 

Hugh  Pope. 

Angelas. — Present  Usage. — The  Angelus  is  a 
short  practice  of  devotion  in  honour  of  the  Incarna- 
tion repeated  three  times  each  day,  morning,  noon, 
and  evening,  at  the  sound  of  the  bell.  It  consists 
essentially  in  the  triple  repetition  of  the  Hail  Mary, 
to  which  in  later  times  have  been  added  three  intro- 
ductory versicles  and  a  concluding  versicle  and 
prayer.  The  prayer  is  that  which  belongs  to  the 
antiphon  of  Our  Lady,  "Alma  Redemptoris,"  and 
its  recitation  is  not  of  strict  obligation  in  order  to 
gain  the  indulgence.  From  the  first  word  of  the 
three  versicles,  i.  e.  Angcbi.f  Domini  niintiavit 
Marioe  (The  angel  of  the  Lord  declared  unto  Mary). 
the  devotion  derives  its  name.  The  indulgence  of 
100  days  for  each  recitation,  with  a  plenary  once  a 
month,  was  granted  by  Benedict  XIII,  14  September, 
1724,  but  tlie  conditions  prescribed  have  been  some- 
what modified  by  Leo  XllI,  3  April,  1884.  Origi- 
nally it  w.os  necessary  that  the  Angelus  should  be 
said  kneeling  (except  on  Sundays  and  on  Saturday 
evenings,  when  the  rubrics  prescribe  a  standing  pos- 
ture), and  also  that  it  should  be  said  at  tlie  sound 
of  the  l>ell;  but  more  recent  legislation  allows  these 
conditions  to  be  dispen.sed  with  for  any  suiricient 
reason,  provided  the  prayer  be  said  approximately 
at  the  proper  hours,  i.  e.  in  the  early  morning,  or 
about  the  hour  of  noon,  or  towards  evening.  In  this 
case,  however,  the  whole  Angelus  as  connnonly 
printed  has  to  l)c  recited,  but  tliose  who  do  not 
know  the  prayers  Ijy  heart  or  who  are  unable  to 
read  them,  may  say  five  Hail  Marys  in  their  place. 


During  paschal  time  the  antiphon  of  Our  Lady, 
"Kegina  ca-li  la>tare,"  with  versicle  and  prayer,  is 
to  be  substituted  for  the  Angelus.  The  Angelus  in- 
dulgence is  one  of  those  which  are  not  suspended 
during  the  year  of  Jubilee. 

History. — The  history  of  the  Angelus  is  by  no 
means  easy  to  trace  with  confidence,  and  it  is  well 
to  distinguish  in  this  matter  between  what  is  certain 
and  what  is  in  some  measure  conjectural.  In  the 
first  place  it  is  certain  that  the  Angelus  at  midday 
and  in  the  morning  were  of  later  introduction  than 
the  evening  Angelus.  Secondly  it  is  certain  that 
the  midday  Angelus,  which  is  the  most  recent  of 
the  three,  was  not  a  mere  development  or  imitation 
of  the  morning  and  evening  devotion.  Thirdly, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  practice  of  saying 
three  Hail  Marys  in  the  evening  somewhere  about 
simset  had  become  general  througliout  Europe  in 
the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  that  it 
was  recommended  and  indulgenced  by  Pope  John 
XXII  in  1318  and  1327.  These  facts  are  admitted 
by  all  writers  on  the  subject,  but  when  we  trj'  to 
push  our  investigations  further  we  arc  confronted 
with  certain  difficulties.  It  seems  needless  to  dis- 
cuss all  the  problems  involved.  We  may  be  content 
to  state  simply  the  nearly  identical  conclusions  at 
which  T.  Esser,  O.  P.,  and  the  present  writer  have 
arrived,  in  two  series  of  articles  published  about 
the  same  time  quite  independently  of  each  other. 

The  Evening  Angelus. — Although  according  to 
Father  Esser's  view  we  have  no  certain  example  of 
three  Hail  Marys  being  recited  at  the  sound  of  the 
bell  in  the  evening  earlier  than  a  decree  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Synod  of  Gran  in  the  year  1307,  still  there 
are  a  good  many  facts  which  suggest  that  some  such 
practice  was  current  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Thus 
there  is  a  vague  and  not  very  well  confirmed  tradi- 
tion which  ascribes  to  Pope  Gregory  IX,  in  1239, 
an  ordinance  enjoining  tliat  a  bell  should  be  rung 
for  the  salutation  and  praises  of  Our  Lady.  Again, 
there  is  a  grant  of  Bishop  Henry  of  Brixen  to  the 
cliurch  of  Freins  in  the  Tyrol,  also  of  1239,  which 
concedes  an  indulgence  for  saying  three  Hail  Marys 
"at  the  evening  tolling".  Tliis,  indeed,  has  been 
suspected  of  interpolation,  but  the  same  objection 
cannot  apply  to  a  decree  of  the  Franciscan  Cieneral 
Chapter  in  the  time  of  St.  Bona  venture  (12G3  or 
1269),  directing  preachers  to  encourage  the  people 
to  say  Hail  Marys  when  the  Complin  bell  rang. 
Moreover,  these  indications  are  strongly  confirmed  by 
certain  inscriptions  still  to  be  read  on  some  few 
bells  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Further  back  than 
this  direct  testimonials  do  not  go;  but  on  the  other 
hand  we  read  in  the  "Regularis  Concordia",  a  mo- 
nastic rule  composed  by  St.  Aethelwold  of  Winchester, 
c.  97.5,  that  certain  prayers  called  the  ires  orationes , 
preceded  by  psalms,  w-ere  to  be  said  after  Complin 
as  well  as  before  Matins  and  again  at  Prime,  and 
althougli  there  is  no  express  mention  of  a  bell  being 
rung  after  Complin,  there  is  express  mention  of  the 
bell  being  rung  for  the  tres  orationts  at  other  hours. 
Tliis  practice,  it  seems,  is  confirmed  by  German  ex- 
amnlos  (Martene,  De  Antiq.  Eccles.  Ritibus,  IV, 39), 
and  as  time  went  on  it  became  more  and  more  def- 
initely associated  with  three  separate  peals  of  the 
bell,  more  especially  at  Bee,  at  St.  Denis,  and  in 
the  customs  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine 
(c.  g.  at  Barnwell  Priory  and  elsewhere).  We  have 
not  in  these  earlier  examples  any  mention  of  the 
Hail  Mary  (q.  v.),  which  in  England  first  became 
familiar  as  an  antiphon  in  tlie  Little  Office  of  Our 
Lady  about  the  beginning  of  tlie  eleventh  century 
(The  Montli,  November,  1901),  but  it  would  be  the 
most  natural  thing  in  the  world  tliat  once  the  Hail 
Mary  had  become  an  everj-day  prayer,  this  should 
for  the  laity  take  tlie  place  of  the  more  elaborate 
Ires   orationes    recited    by    the    monks;    just    as  in 


ANQELUS 


487 


ANGELUS 


the  case  of  the  Rosary,  ono  hundred  and  fifty  Hail 
Marys  were  substituted  for  tlie  one  hundred  and 
fifty  psahiis  of  the  Psalter.  Moreover,  in  tlie  Fran- 
ciscan decree  of  St.  Honaventure's  time,  referred  to 
above,  tliis  is  precisely  what  we  find,  viz.,  that  the 
laity  in  general  were  to  be  induced  to  say  Hail  Marys 
when  the  hell  rang  at  Complin,  during,  or  more 
probably  after,  the  otiice  of  the  friars.  A  special 
appropriateness  for  the.se  greetings  of  Our  Lady  wius 
found  in  the  belief  that  at  this  very  hour  she  wa,s 
saluted  by  the  angel.  Again,  it  is  noteworthy  that 
some  monastic  customals  in  si)eaking  of  the  (res- 
oraliones  expres.sly  prescribe  the  observance  of  the 
rubric  about  standing  or  kneeling  according  to  the 
season,  which  rubric  is  insisted  upon  in  the  recitation 
of  the  .\ngehis  to  this  day.  From  this  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  .^ngelus  in  its  origin  was  an  imitation 
of  the  monks'  niglit  i)rayers  and  that  it  had  probably 
nothinjj  directly  t<i  do  with  the  curfew  bell,  rung 
as  a  signal  for  the  extinction  of  fires  and  lights. 
The  curfew,  however,  first  meets  us  in  Normandy 
in  1061  and  is  then  spoken  of  as  a  bell  which  svnn- 
moned  the  people  to  say  their  prayers,  after  which 
summons  they  should  not  again  go  abroad.  H  any- 
thing, therefore,  it  seems  more  probable  that  the 
curfew  was  grafted  upon  this  prmiitive  prayer-bell 
rather  than  vice  versa.  If  the  curfew  and  the  An- 
eelus  coincided  at  a  later  period,  as  apparently  they 
aid  in  some  cases,  this  was  probably  accidental. 

The  Mohnmno  Ancelus. — This  last  suggestion 
about  the  tres  oraliones  also  offers  some  explana- 
tion of  the  fact  that  shortly  after  the  recital  of  the 
three  Hail  .Marys  at  evening  had  become  familiar, 
a  custom  established  itself  of  ringing  a  bell  in  the 
morning  and  of  saying  the  Ave  thrice.  The  earliest 
mention  .seems  to  be  in  the  chronicle  of  the  city  of 
Parma,  13IS,  though  it  w!\s  the  town-bell  which 
w!is  rung  in  this  case.  Still  the  bishop  exhorted  all 
who  heard  it  to  say  three  Our  Fathers  and  three 
Hail  .Marj's  for  the  prescrxation  of  peace,  whence 
it  was  called  "the  peace  bell  ".  The  same  designa- 
tion was  also  applieil  elsewhere  to  the  evening  bell. 
In  spite  of  some  ditiiculties  it  seems  probable 
enough  that  this  morning  bell  was  also  an  imitation 
of  the  monastic  triple  i)eal  for  the  trcs  oraliones 
or  morning  prayers;  for  this,  as  noted  above,  wjis 
rang  at  the  morning  office  of  Prime  as  well  as  at 
Complin.  The  morning  .■Vve  Maria  .soon  became  a 
familiar  custom  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  not 
excepting  Englanil,  and  was  almost  as  generally  ol)- 
served  as  that  of  the  evening.  Bvit  while  in  I'ngland 
the  evening  Ave  Maria  is  enjoined  by  liisluip  .lolm 
Stratford  of  Winchester  as  early  as  1321.  no  formal 
direction  as  to  the  morning  ringing  is  found  l)efore 
the  instniction  of  Archbishop  .-Vrundel  in  1399. 

The  Midday  Anoehs. — This  stiggests  a  much 
more  complicated  problem  which  cannot  be  ade- 
quately discussed  here.  The  one  clear  fact  which 
seems  to  result  alike  from  the  statutes  of  several 
German  Synods  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, as  also  from  books  of  devotion  of  a  somewhat 
later  date,  is  that  the  midday  ringing,  while  often 
spoken  of  as  a  peace  bell  and  formally  commended 
by  Louis  XI  of  Franco  in  1475  for  that  sjwcial  ol)- 
ject,  was  closely  associatetl  with  the  veneration  of 
the  Passion  of  Christ.  At  first  it  appears  that  this 
midday  bell,  e.  g.  at  Prague  in  13,S(),  and  at  Mainz 
in  1423,  wius  only  rung  on  Fridays,  but  the  custom 
by  degrees  exten<led  to  the  other  davs  of  the  week. 
In  the  lOnglish  Ilnrcc  and  the  CJerman  )lortuhis  Animw 
of  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centurj-  rather 
lengthy  prayers  commemorating  the  Pa.ssion  are  pro- 
vided to  be  sai<l  at  the  midday  tolling  of  the  bell 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  three  Aves.  Later  on 
(c.  l.'>7.5),  in  sundry  books  of  devotion  (e.  g.  Coster's 
Thesaunis),  while  our  modem  .^ngelus  versiclcs  are 
printed,  much  as  we  say  them  now,  though  niimis 


the  final  prayer,  an  alternative  form  commemorating 
our  Lord's  death  upon  the  cross  is  suggested  for 
the  noontide  ringing.  These  instruct ioiLs.  which  may 
already  be  found  translated  in  an  English  MS.  written 
in  1.570  (MSS.  Harleian  2327),  suggest  that  the 
Resurrection  should  be  honoured  in  the  morning,  the 
Pitision  at  noon,  and  the  Incarnation  in  the  evening, 
since  the  times  correspond  to  the  hours  at  whidi 
these  great  Mysteries  actually  occurred.  In  some 
prayer-books  of  this  epoch  difTerent  devotions  are 
suggested  for  each  of  the  three  ringings,  e.  g.  the 
Regina  Cieli  for  the  morning  (see  Esser,  784),  Pas- 
sion prayers  for  noon  and  our  present  versides  for 
sundown.  To  some  such  practice  we  no  doubt  owe 
the  substitution  of  Ucgiiia  Co-li  for  the  Angelus  dur- 
ing paschal  time.  This  substitution  wxs  recommended 
by  .Vngelo  Rocca  and  Quarti  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Our  present  three  versicles 
seem  first  to  have  made  their  appearance  in  an 
Italian  catechism  printed  at  Venice  in  1,500  (Es.ser, 
789);  but  the  fuller  form  now  universally  adopted 
cannot  be  traced  back  earlier  than  1612.  He  it 
noted  that  somewhat  earlier  than  this  a  practice 
grew  up  in  Italy  of  saying  a  "  He  profundis"  for  the 
holy  souls  inunediately  after  the  evening  Angelus. 
Another  custom,  also  of  Italian  origin,  is  that  of 
adding  three  Cilorias  to  the  Angelus  in  thank.sgiving 
to  the  Blessed  Trinity  for  the  privileges  bestowed 
upon  our  Lady.     (See  also  H.\il  JI.vhy.) 

KssKK,  Daa  Ave  Maria  l.iiHten,  in  the  Hwiorisches  Jahr- 
buch,  X.XIll,  22-51,  247-2()9,  775-82.')  (1902);  Thiiiston, 
Our  Popular  Devotions,  in  The  Month,  November  and  Decem- 
ber, 1901,  4S3-499.  597-G16;  January  and  May,  1902,  (il  and 
518;  January,  1904,  57-07;  Hocdiniion,  L'Anuelua,  in  tlie 
Rfvue  ilu  clerai-  franfais  (1902),  X.XXI.  24-29;  Fai.k,  Zur 
Getchichte  dea  Ave  Maria,  etc.,  in  Dcr  KathoHk,  April,  190.3. 
333;  Stimmm  aua  Maria-Loach,  September,  1003,  3Wi;  Hknkv, 
in  Diet,  d'arch.,  I,  2008-78;  BKinii:KK,  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  calh., 
I.  1278-81.  Of  older  accounts  may  be  mentioned  lloccA, 
De  Campania  Commentariua  (Rome,  1012);  Gerberon.  Dia- 
aertaliun  aur  I'angelua  (Pari.i,  107,'));  TBOMnKLLl.  Maria-  .Sanr- 
tiaaima  Vita,  etc..  Uian.  IX  (BoloKim.  1701);  Acta  SS..  Octo- 
ber, VII.  1109-13;  BRlncETT.  Our  l^di/'a  Dowru  (3d  ed. 
Lonilon.  1890),  210-218,  and  482;  Waterton,  Pietaa  Mariana 
BriUmnica,  144;  UocK,  Church  of  our  Fathera  (2d  ed.  Lon<ion. 
1904),  III.  245-250.  For  the  .■^ngelu.i  induJKences  see  Moc^ 
cllEolANl,  CoUcctio  Indulti*mtiarum  ((iuaraccni,  1897),  107- 
172;  Behingek,  Lea  indulgences.  Part  II.  183  sqq.;  The 
American  Kcclesiaatical  Review,  Nov.  1902,  542-545. 

Hekbeut  Thuuston. 

Angelus  Bell. — The  triple  Hail  Mary  recited 
in  the  evening,  which  is  the  origin  of  our  modern 
Angelus,  was  closely  as.sociated  with  the  ringing  of 
a  bell.  This  bell  seemingly  belonged  to  Complin, 
which  was  theoretically  said  at  sundown,  thotigh  in 
practice  it  followed  closely  upon  the  afternoon  oflice 
of  Vespei^.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  all 
save  a  few  exceptional  cases,  the  tolling  of  the  Ave 
bell  was  distinct  from  the  ringing  of  curfew  (igni- 
tegiuni);  the  former  taking  place  at  the  end  of  Com- 
plin and  iicrhare  coinciding  with  the  prayers  for 
peace,  said  in  choir;  the  latter  being  the  signal  for 
the  close  of  day  and  for  the  general  bed-time.  In 
many  places,  lioth  in  ICngland  and  France,  the  cur- 
few bell  is  still  nmg,  and  we  note  that  not  only  is 
it  rang  at  a  relatively  late  hour,  varj-ing  from  S  to 
10,  but  that  the  actual  peal  liusts  in  most  cases  for  a 
notable  ]>criod  of  time,  being  prolonged  for  a  hun- 
dred strokes  or  more.  Where  the  town-U'U  and  the 
bells  of  the  principal  church  or  monasterj'  were  dis- 
tinct, the  curfew  wius  generally  nmg  upon  the  town- 
bell.  Where  the  church-bell  served  for  both  pur- 
po.ses,  the  .\ve  and  the  curfew  were  probably  rung 
upon  the  same  bell  at  difTerent  hours.  There  is  a 
great  lack  of  records  containing  any  definite  note  of 
time  regarding  the  ringing  of  tlie  .\ve  bell,  but  there 
is  at  least  one  clear  example  in  the  ca.se  of  Cropreily, 
Oxfordshire,  where  in  1.512  a  betiuest  was  m;ide  to 
the  churchwardens  on  condition  that  they  should 
"toll  dayly  the  .\vees  bell  at  six  of  the  dok  in  the 
mornyng,  at  xii  of  the  clok  at  noone  and  at  fouro 


ANGELUS 


4SS 


ANGELUS 


of  the  clok  at  aflornoonc"  (North,  Church  Bells 
of  Lhicoliishire,  10'.)).  ."Vt  the  same  time  it  seems 
clear  that  in  the  fa.se  of  cathedral  churches,  etc., 
where  the  Ollicp  \\  a.s  .said  iu  choir,  the  interval  between 
Complin  and   the   (anticipated)   Matins  of  the  next 


day  was  not  very  great;  at  any  rate,  at  some  seasons 

of  the  year.     Under  these  circumstances  the  three 

interrupted  peals  of  the  Ave  bell  probably  served  as 

a  sort  of  introduction  to  the  continuous  tolling  of  the 

curfew    which     preceded    Matins.     This    would    be 

sufficient   to   account  for  certain   clear  traces  of  a 

connection   in   some   localities    between   the   curfew 

and    the   recital   of    the   three   evening   Aves.     For 

instance,  the   poet  Villon   (fifteenth    century)  must 

clearly  be  thinking  of  the  curfew,  when  he  writes: 

J'oy  la  cloche  de  la  Sarbonne 

Qui  toujours  li  neuf  heures  sonne 

Le  salut  que  I'ange  pr^dit. 

Again,  if  there  were  no  such  connection,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  explain  why  some  of  the  Reformation 
bishops  like  Hooper  did  their  best  to  suppress  the 
tolling  of  the  curfew  as  a  superstitious  practice. 
Still  the  attempt  was  not  successful.  Long  before 
this,  in  1.538,  a  Protestant  Grand  Jury  in  Canterbury 
had  presented  the  parson  of  St.  Peter's  church  for 
superstitious  practices,  complaining  of  the  "tolling 
of  the  Ave  bell  after  evening  song  done"  (Stahl- 
schmidt.  Church  Bells  of  Kent,  358),  but  this  could 
hardly  have  been  the  curfew. 

In.scription.s  on  Angblus  Bells. — Many  circum- 
stances point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ringing  of  the 
Angelus  in  the  fourteenth  and  even  in  the  tliirteenth 
century  must  have  been  very  general  (see  The  Month, 
Jan.,  1902,  09-70,  and  Jan.,  1904,  60-63).  The  num- 
ber of  bells  belonging  to  those  two  centuries  which 
still  survive  is  relatively  small,  but  a  considerable 
proportion  bear  inscriptions  which  suggest  that  they 
were  originally  intended  to  serve  as  Ave  bells.  In 
the  first  place,  many  bear  the  words  Ave  Maria;  or, 
as  in  the  ca.se  of  a  bell  at  Helfta,  near  Eisleben,  in 
Germany,  dated  1234,  the  whole  sentence:  Ave 
Maria,  gratia  -plena,  Dominus  tecum.  Bells  with 
thi.s  Ave  Maria  inscription  are  also  numerous  in 
England,  though  in  ICngland  the  Angelus  bells  seem 
in  a  very  large  mmiber  of  in.stances  to  have  been  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Gabriel.  These  Gabriel  inscriptions  take 
various  forms.  For  example:  Dulcis  inslar  mellis 
campana  vocor  Gabrielis  (I  am  sweet  as  honey, 
and  am  called  Gabriel's  bell).  In  which  very  com- 
mon inscription  the  second  word  is  often  si.sto,  or 


cisto;  the  true  reading  is  perhaps  dulcissimi  mellis. 
Or  again:  Ecce  Gabrielis  sonat  hcec  campana  fidelis 
(Behold  this  bell  of  faithful  Gabriel  sounds); 
or  Minsi  de  calls  nomen  habeo  Gabrielis  (I  bear 
the  name  of  Gabriel  sent  from  heaven),  or  Missus 
vera  pie  Gabriel  fert  Iceta  Marice  (Gabriel  the  mes- 
senger bears  joyous  tidings  to  holy  Mary).  We  can 
liartUy  be  wrong  in  regarding  these  bells  as  Angelus 
lulls,  for  in  the  Diocese  of  Lincoln  alone  we  find 
nineteen  of  the  surviving  medieval  bells  bearing  the 
name  of  Gabriel,  while  only  six  bear  the  name  of 
Michael,  a  much  more  popular  patron  in  other  re- 
spects. In  France,  the  Ave  Maria  seems  to  have 
been  the  ordinary  label  for  Angelus  bells;  but  in 
Germany  we  find  as  the  most  common  inscription 
of  all,  even  in  the  case  of  many  bells  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  words  O  Rex  Gloriw  f'eni  Cum  Pace 
(O  King  of  Glory,  Come  with  Peace);  as  for  instance, 
one  of  the  bells  of  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgau,  dated 
12.58.  To  explain  the  popularity  of  this  inscription 
we  have  to  remember  that  according  to  medieval 
tradition  the  Annunciation  took  place  at  evening. 
It  was  then  that  the  Prince  of  Peace  t'^ok  flesh  and 
ihvelt  among  us.  Moreover  in  Germany,  the  Nether- 
l:uuls  and  in  some  parts  of  France  the  Angelus  bell 
wa.s  regularly  known  as  the  "Peace  bell",  and  pro 
/iiirc  schlagen  (to  toll  for  peace)  was  a  phrase  popu- 
larly used  for  ringing  the  Angelus. 

M.VNNER  OF  RiNGixG. — With  regard  to  the  manner 
of  ringing  the  Angelus  it  seems  sufficient  to  note 
that  the  triple  stroke  repeated  three  times  with  a 
pause  between  seems  to  have  been  adopted  from  the 
very  beginning.  In  the  fifteenth-century  constitu- 
tions of  Syon  monastery  it  is  directed  that  the  lay 
brother  "shall  toll  the  Ave  bell  nine  strokes  at  three 
times,  keeping  the  space  of  one  Pater  and  Ave  be- 
tween each  three  toUings ".  Again  a  fifteenth-cen- 
tury bell  at  Erfert  bears  the  words:  Cum  icr  reboo, 
pie  Christiferam  ter  avelo  fWhen  I  ring  thrice, 
thrice  devoutly  greet  the  Mother  of  Christ).  Still 
earlier,  the  statutes  of  Wells  Cathedral,  in  1331, 
direct  that  "three  strokes  should  be  struck  at  three 
several  times  upon  the  great  bell  in  quick  succes- 
sion", and  this  shortly  before  curfew.  Similarly,  at 
Lerida  in  Spain,  in  130S,  the  bishop  directs  that 
"after  Complin  and  as  the  shades  of  night  are 
falling"  the  bell  is  to  be  pealed  three  times  with  in- 
tervals between  (Villanueva,  Viage,  XVI,  323),  while 
the  faithful  are  directed  on  hearing  the  bell  to  fall 
on  their  knees  and  recite  the  Ave  Maria. 

Otto,  Glockenkunde,  (2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1884);  Wordswohth, 
Noleson  Medieval Servu-es  {hondon,  1898);  BERTHELfc.  Ennuittti 
campanairea  (Montpellier,  1903);  Raven,  Church  Bells  of 
Suffolk  (London,  1890);  Stahlschmid,  The  Church  Bells  of 
Kent  (London,  1887);  Downman,  Ancient  Church  Bells  in  Enn- 
land  (London,  189());  North,  Church  Bells  of  Lincolnshire 
(Lincoln,  1882);  Bergsek,  Zur  Glockenkunde  ThUringens  (Jena, 
1896);  Id.,  Die  Glocken  des  Herzogtum  Sachs.-Meiningen,  (Jena. 
1899);  Effman,  Die  Glocken  der  Sladt  Freiburg  in  der  Schwciz 
(Strasburg,  1899);  Liebeskind,  Die  Glocken  des  Neust&dtcr 
Kreises  (Jena,  1005);  The  Month,  Jan.,  1902,  Jan.,  1904; 
Raven,  The  Bells  of  England,  Lord,  1907. 

Hebbeut  Thurston. 

Angelus  Silesius  (Johannes  Scheffler),  convert, 
poet,  controversialist,  the  son  of  a  Lutheran  Polish 
nobleman,  b.  in  Breslau  in  1624;  d.  9  July,  1677. 
He  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  and 
medicine,  in  Padua,  in  1648,  became  court  physician 
to  the  prince  of  Oels,  in  Silesia,  was  received  into 
the  Catholic  Church  in  1653,  taking  at  confirmation 
the  name  of  Angelus,  to  which  he  added  the  sur- 
name Silesius  (Silcsian),  by  which  name  he  is  known 
in  the  history  of  literature.  In  1601  he  was  ordained 
priest  and  retired  to  the  monastery  of  the  Knights 
of  the  Cross  in  Breslau,  where  ho  died.  His  fortune 
he  gave  to  pious  and  charitable  institutions.  With 
the  .Icsuits  Spec  and  Balde,  he  was  one  of  the  few 
distinguished  poets  that  Germany  produced  in  an  age 
of  poetical  barrenness  and  debased  taste.     lie  pub- 


ANGER 


4sy 


ANGERS 


lished,  in  1657,  the  two  poetical  works  on  which  his 
fame  rests.  "The  Soul's  Spiritual  DtHght"  (Heilige 
Seelenlust)  is  a  collection  of  more  than  two  hundred 
religious  songs,  many  of  them  of  great  teauty,  wliich 
have  found  their  way  not  only  into  Catliolic,  but 
even  into  Protestant  hymn  books.  "The  Clierubic 
Pilgrim  "  (Der  Cherubmisolie  Wandersmanii)  is  a 
collection  of  over  .si.\tecn  liundrcil  rhymed  couplets, 
full  of  deep  rcli);i()us  thought  expressed  iiicpigraiiinia- 
tic  form.  .\  small  numlier  of  these  couiilcis  .seem 
to  savour  of  (juietism  or  pantliei.sm.  They  ought  to 
be  interpreted  in  an  orthodox  sense,  for  Angclu.s 
Silesius  was  not  a  pantheist.  His  prose  writings  are 
orthodox;  "The  Cherubic  Pilgrim"  wjia  published 
with  the  ecclesiastical  linprimntnr,  and,  in  his  pref- 
ace, the  author  himself  explains  his  "paradoxes" 
in  an  orthodox  sense,  ami  repudiates  any  future 
pantheistic  interpretation.  In  1<J63  he  began  the 
publication  of  his  fifty-five  controversial  tracts 
against  the  various  Protestant  sects.  Of  these,  he 
afterwards  selected  thirtv-nine  which  he  published 
in  two  folio  vols,  under  the  title  of  " Ecclesiologia ". 
LlNDEM.\NN,  Angelua  Silfsiua  (Freiburg.  187C);  Sklt- 
UANN,  Anijetua  Silesius  und  aeine  Myvtik  (Breslau,  1870); 
Rosenthal  (ed.)  complete  works  (llatisbon,  1862). 

B.  GULDNEH. 

Anger,  the  desire  of  vengeance.  Its  ethical  ra- 
tin;;  dipciuls  upon  the  quality  of  the  vengeance  and 
the  iiu:intity  of  the  passion.  When  the.sc  are  in 
conformity  with  the  prescriptions  of  balanced  rea- 
son, anger  is  not  a  sin.  It  is  rather  a  praiseworthy 
thnig  and  justifiable  with  a  proper  zeiJ.  It  be- 
comes sinful  when  it  is  sought  to  wreak  vengeance 
upon  one  who  has  not  de-served  it,  or  to  a  greater 
extent  than  it  has  been  deserved,  or  in  conflict  with 
the  dispositions  of  law,  or  from  an  improper  motive. 
The  sin  is  then  in  a  general  sense  mortal  as  being 
opposed  to  justice  and  charity.  It  may,  liowever, 
be  venial  becau.se  the  puni.shment  aimed  at  is  but 
a  trifling  one  or  because  of  lack  of  full  deliberation. 
Likewise,  anger  is  sinful  when  there  is  an  undue  ve- 
hemence in  the  passion  itself,  whether  inwanlly  or 
outwardly.  Ordinarily  it  is  then  accounted  a  venial 
sin  unless  the  excess  be  so  great  as  to  go  coimter 
seriously  to  the  love  of  God  or  of  one's  neighbour. 

St.  Thomas,  Summa  Thtol.  (ed.  Turin.  lS8.->). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Angers,  I)iooe.se  of  (Andcqnnim') ,  comprises  the 
tcrriton,'  embraced  in  the  department  of  Maine  and 
Loire.  It  w:is  a  sutTragan  see  of  the  -Archdiocese  of 
Tours  under  the  old  r('(!;ime  as  well  as  under  the 
Concordat  The  first  Hishop  known  in  history  is 
Defensor,  wlio,  when  present  in  372,  at  the  election 
of  the  Hishop  of  Tours,  made  a  determined  stand 
against  the  nomination  of  St.  Martin.  The  legend 
concerning  the  earlier  episcopate  of  a  certain  Aux- 
ilius  is  connected  with  the  cycle  of  legends  that 
centre  alxjut  St.  Kirmim  of  Amiens  and  is  contra- 
dicted by  Angevin  tradition  anterior  to  the  tliir- 
fcenth  century.  Among  the  illustrious  names  of 
the  Diocese  of  Angers  during  the  first  centuries  of  its 
existence  are  those  of  St.  ilaurilius,  disciple  of  St. 
Martin,  and  at  an  earlier  period  hermit  of  t'halonnes, 
who  made  a  vigorous  stand  against  idolatrj-,  and 
died  in  427;  Tlialassius,  consecratetl  bishop  in  4.53, 
who  has  left  a  brief  but  vahuible  compendium  of 
canon  law,  consisting  of  the  decisions  of  the  councils 
of  the  province  of  Tours;  St.  Albinus  (sixth  centurj-); 
St.  Licinius  former  Count  of  Anjou,  and  bishop 
during  the  early  part  of  the  seventh  centurv.  As 
for  the  tradition  that  St.  Renatus,  who  had  been 
raised  from  the  dead  by  St.  .Maurilius,  was  Hishop 
of  Angers  for  some  time  shortly  before  4.50,  it  Ijiises 
its  clauns  to  credibility  on  a  late  life  of  !<t.  Maurilius 
written  in  90.5  by  the  deacon  Archinald,  and  circu- 
lated under  the  name  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  it 
seems    to    have    no    real    foundation.     Among   the 


BishoDS  of  Angers  in  modern  times  were  Cardinal  de 
la  Baluo  (1467)  confined  by  Louis  XI  in  an  iron 
cage  (1409-80)  for  his  negotiations  with  Charles  the 
Bold;  the  Jaasenist ,  Henri  Arnauld  (1649-9.'});  Mon- 
signor  Kreppd  (1S70-91),  who  had  a  .seat  in  the 
Clianiber  of  Deputies,  and  warmly  defended  religious 
interests;  .Mousignor  Mathieu  (1893-96),  now  cardinal 
of  the  Curia  and  member  of  the  Krcneh  Academy. 

The  cathedral  of  St.  Maurice,  a  majestic  structure 
without  side  aisles,  dates  from  the  twelfth  century 
and  exhibits  tlic  characteristic  type  of  .Angevin  or 
Plantagenet  architecture.  Diu-ing  the  Middle  Ages 
Angei-s  was  a  flourishing  monastic  city  with  six  great 
moniisleries:  St.  .Aubin  founded  by  KingChildcbcrt  I ; 
St.  Serge  by  Clovis  II;  St.  Julien,  St.  Nicholas  and 
Ronceray,  founded  by  Count  Fouhjues  Ncrra.  and 
All  Saints,  an  admirable  structure  of  the  twelfth 
century.  In  1219  Pope  Callixtus  II  went  in  person 
to  Angers  to  assist  at  the  second  con.secration  of 
the  church  attached  to  the  abbey  of  Ronceray. 
Tlie  Diocese  of  Angers  includes  Fontevrault,  an  alV 
l>ey  founded  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  centurj'  by 
Robert  d'Arbrissel  but  which  did  not  survive  the 
Revolution.  The  cloister  aiul  the  old  abbey  church 
containing  the  tombs  of  the  four  Plantagenets  have 
great  archasological  \-alue.  Tlie  ruins  of  St.  Maur 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  great  Benedictine 
abbey  of  that  name.  In  1244,  a  university  wiis 
founded  at  Angers  for  the  teadiing  of  canon  and 
civil  law.  In  1432  faculties  of  theologj',  medicine, 
and  art  were  adde<l.  This  university  was  divided 
into  six  "nations",  and  survived  up  to  tlic  time  of 
the  Revolution.  In  consecjuence  of  the  law  of  187.5, 
giving  liberty  in  the  matter  of  liigher  education, 
Angers  again  became  the  seat  of  a  Cathohc  univer- 
sity. The  Congregation  of  the  Good  Sliejilierd  (Bon 
Pasteur),  which  has  houses  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
lias  its  mother-house  at  .Angers  by  virtue  of  a  papal 
brief  of  1835.  Berengarius,  the  lieresiarch,  con- 
demned for  his  doctrines  on  the  Holy  Eucharist, 
was  Archdeacon  of  Angers  about  1039,  and  for  some 
time  found  a  protector  in  the  person  of  Eusebius 
Bruno,  Bishop  of  Angers.  Bemier,  who  played  a 
great  role  in  the  wars  of  La  Vendue  and  in  the  ne- 
gotiations that  led  to  the  Concordat,  was  cur6  of 
St.  Laud  in  Angers.  At  the  close  of  1905  the  Dio- 
cese of  Angers  comprised  514,0.58  inhabitants,  37 
cures  or  parishes  of  the  first-class,  377  parishes  of 
tlie  second-class  and  129  vicariates  with  salaries  for- 
mcrlv  paid  by  the  State. 

Gniiia  cliriatiana  (Vetus,  1050),  II,  110-154;  Tresvacx, 
Hiatoin  de  I'fglw  et  du  dioci*e  d'Anga-a  (Paris.  1858). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Angers,  U-vivehsity  of. — The  University  of 
Angers  is,  probably,  a  development  of  the  cathedral 
.school  of  that  city.  Early  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury this  school  became  famous  under  the  direction 
of  Marbodus,  aftenvanls  Bishop  of  Rennes.  ami  of 
Ulger,  afterwards  Hishop  of  Angers,  both  piipils  of  the 
renowned  canonist,  Fuloert  de  Chartres.  It  was  en- 
larged in  1229  Ijy  an  influx  of  students,  many  of  them 
Englishmen,  from  the  University  of  Paris,  who 
.sought  in  .Angers  a  shelter  from  the  direct  control 
of  the  King  of  France.  (See  Pauis,  Univehsitv  of.) 
.Angers  then  Ix-camc  a  centre  for  the  study  of  civil 
law,  ami  a  xtuilium  ycnrratc,  although  it  was  officially 
recognized  as  .such  only  in  1337,  by  an  episco|)al 
ordinance.  It  received  in  1364  from  King  Charles  V 
a  charter  granting  the  .same  privileges  as  tlio.se  en- 
joyed by  the  University  of  Orleans.  It  was  only 
in  1432  that  a  Bull  of  fCugene  IV  added  the  usual 
faculties  of  theology,  medicine,  and  arts  to  the 
faculty  of  canon  and  civil  law.  This  orsraniza- 
tion  continued  until  the  French  Revolution.  .After 
the  National  .A.ssembly  had  granted  to  all  free<lom 
of  teaching  (1  July.  1.S75),  the  French  bishops  de- 
cided to  found  five  Catholic  universities,  and  .Angers, 


ANGES 


490 


ANGLESEA 


thanks  to  Bishop  Freppel,  was  chosen  for  the  western 
portion  of  France,  including  the  Dioceses  of  Angers, 
Rennes,  La\al,  Le  Mans,  Angouleme,  Tours,  and 
Poitiers.  The  university  then  took  the  title  of 
"Facult^s  Cathohques  de  rOuest  ".  It  comprises  the 
faculties  of  letters,  of  sciences,  and  law,  and  a 
superior  school  of  agriculture,  with  a  teacliing  staff 
of  45  professors  and  from  200  to  300  students,  most 
of  whom  are  laymen  belonging  to  the  faculty  of  law. 
Angers  has  numbered  among  its  faculty  in  the  past 
Monsignor  Sauve,  author  of  numerous  theological 
and  philosophical  works,  Father  Billot,  now  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Gregorian  University  at  Rome,  Father 
Antoine,  author  of  a  remarkable  course  of  social 
economy,  while  it  still  retains  Monsignor  Legendre, 
an  authority  on  biblical  geography,  and  the  dis- 
tinguished novehst,  Ren6  Bazin.  The  University 
publishes  the  "Revue  des  Facult^s  Catholiques  de 
f Quest"  and  a  "Bulletin  des  Facult^s  Cathohques 
de  I'Ouest". 

Rashd.\ll,  The  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(Oxford.  189.5),  II,  148;  Rangeahd,  Histoire  de  iuniversite 
d'Angera  (Angers,  1872);  De  Lens,  L'universite  de  I'Anjou 
(Angers,  1880),  a  continuation  of  Rangeard;  Fournier, 
Leg  atatuts  et privileges  des  universites  fran^-mses  (Paris,  1890- 
92);  Calvet,  The  Catholic  Institutes  of  France  in  Catholic 
University  Bulletin,   Jan.,   1907. 

George  M.  Sauvage. 

Anges,  Notre  Dame  des  (Our  Lady  op  the 
Angels),  a  miraculous  shrine  near  Lurs,  France,  con- 
taining a  crypt  (Sainte  Chapelle)  which  tradition  dates 
back  to  an  early  period.  Archieological  finds,  inscrip- 
tions, and  the  records  left  by  antiquaries  give  evi- 
dence that  this  was  once  the  site  of  a  Roman  colony 
and  a  station  termed  in  ancient  itineraries  Alaunium 
(founded  150  B.  c).  Situated  as  it  was  on  a  Roman 
road  connecting  cities  which  are  believed  to  have  been 
evangelized  at  an  early  period,  Alaunium  probably 
received  the  Faith  at  the  same  time.  There  is  an 
ancient  tradition  to  the  effect  that  one  of  the  imme- 
diate disciples  of  Christ  erected  an  oratory  here  in 
honour  of  the  Mother  of  God,  and  that  it  took 
the  name  Alaunium,  later  contracted  into  Aulun. 
Though  several  chapels  were  built  on  this  site  and 
destroyed,  an  ancient  tablet  sur\'ived  all  calamities. 
On  the  occasion  of  a  cure  wrought  before  tliis  tablet 
(2  August,  1665)  a  choir  of  angels,  it  is  said,  was 
heard  singing;  on  the  repetition  of  the  marvel  the 
following  year  the  name  of  the  shrine  was  changed 
to  Our  Lady  of  Angels,  and  it  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  Recollect  Fathers  of  St.  Francis.  In  1752 
Bishop  Lafiteau  of  Sisteron  instituted  the  feast  of 
the  Relatives  of  Marj',  making  this  sanctuary  a  centre 
of  the  devotion.  In  1791  the  religious  were  expelled, 
and  the  church  despoiled.  On  the  reopening  of  the 
churches  the  pilgrimages  recommenced,  and  still 
continue.  The  most  important  of  them  takes  place 
on  2  August. 

Leroy,  Histoire  des  pclerinages  de  la  Saints  Vierge  en 
France  (Pari.s,  1873),  III,  423  sqq.;  Acta  SS..  2  August. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Angilbert,  Saint,  Abbot  of  Saint-Riquier,  d. 
18  February,  814.  Angilbert  seems  to  have  been 
brought  up  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  where  he 
was  the  pupil  and  friend  of  the  great  English  scholar 
Alcuin.  He  was  intended  for  the  ecclesiastical 
state  and  must  have  received  minor  orders  early  in 
life,  but  he  accompanied  the  young  King  Pepin  to 
Italy  in  782  in  the  capacity  of  primiccrius  palalil,  a 
post  which  implied  much  secular  administration. 
Ill  the  academy  of  men  of  letters  which  rendered 
Chariemagne's  court  illustrious  Angilbert  was  known 
as  Homer,  and  portions  of  his  works,  still  extant, 
show  that  his  skill  in  verse  was  considerable.  He 
was  several  times  sent  as  envoy  to  the  pope,  and  it 
is  charged  against  him  that  he  identified  fiiiiisclf  with 
the  somewhat  heterodox  views  of  Ch.irlcin.igno  in 
the  controversy  on  images.  In  790  he  was  named 
Abbot   of   Centula,   later   known   as   Saint-Riquier, 


in  Picardy,  and  by  the  help  of  his  powerful  friends 
he  not  only  restored  or  rebuilt  the  monastery  in  a, 
very  sumptuoiLs  fashion,  but  endowed  it  with  a 
precious  hbrarj'  of  200  volumes.  In  the  year  800 
he  had  the  honour  of  receiving  Charlemagne  as  his 
guest.  It  seems  probable  that  Angilbert  at  this 
period  (whether  he  was  yet  a  priest  is  doubtful)  was 
leading  a  very  worldly  life.  The  circumstances  are 
not  clear,  but  modern  historians  consider  that  Angil- 
bert undoubtedly  had  an  intrigue  with  Charlemagne's 
unmarried  daughter  Bertha,  and  became  by  her  the 
father  of  two  children,  one  of  whom  was  the  well- 
known  chronicler  Nithard.  This  intrigue  of  Angil- 
bert's,  sometimes  regarded  as  a  marriage,  has  been 
disputed  by  Hdnocque  and  others,  but  is  now  gen- 
erally admitted.  We  should  probably  do  well  to 
remember  that  the  popular  canonizations  of  that 
age  were  very  informal  and  involved  little  investiga- 
tion of  past  conduct  or  virtue.  It  is,  however, 
stated  by  Angilbert 's  twelfth-century  biographer 
that  the  abbot  before  his  death  did  bitter  penance 
for  this  "marriage",  and  the  historian  Nithard,  in 
the  same  passage  in  which  he  claims  ."jigilbert  for 
his  father,  also  declares  that  Angilbert's  body  was 
found  incorrupt  some  years  after  his  burial.  Angil- 
bert has  been  claimed  as  the  aiithor  of  a  fragment 
of  an  epic  poem  on  Charlemagne  and  Leo  III,  but 
the  authorship  is  disputed.  On  the  other  hand, 
Monod  believes  that  he  is  probably  responsible  for 
certain  portions  of  the  famous  Annales  Lauris- 
senses". 

Acta  SS.,  3  Feb.;  Werner  in  Kirchenlex.  s.  v.;  Bouthors, 
Histoire  de  St.  Riquier  (.Abbeville,  1902),  62-86;  Henocque, 
Histoire  de  r.ibbaije  de  St.  Riquier  (Paris,  1880).  I.  95-208,  etc.; 
Wattenbach.  Deutschlands  Geschichtsquellen  (Berlin,  1904),  I, 
191-198;  Monod,  Etudes  critiques  sur  les  sources  de  I'histoire 
carolinffienne  (Paris.  1898).  120-126;  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her 
Invaders  (Oxford.  1899),  VIII.  150-154;  Tracbe,  Karolingische 
Dichtunqen  (Berlin,  1SS8).  55  sqq,;  Hauck,  Kirchengeschichte 
Deutschlands,  II,  174-176;  Althof,  Angilberts  Leben  und 
Dichtungen  (Munden.  1888).  For  Angilbert's  poems  (ed. 
Dummler)  see  the  quarto  series  of  the  Mon.  Germ.  Script. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Angilram,  Bishop  of  Metz.  See  False  Decre- 
tals. 

Angiolini,  Francesco,  a  noted  scholar,  b.  at  Pia- 
cenza,  Italy,  1750;  d.  at  Polotsk,  21  February,  1788. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1765,  and  after 
the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  retired  to  Polotsk. 
Angiolini  has  left  after  him  many  works  that  attest 
his  scholarship.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Polish  gram- 
mar for  the  use  of  Italians;  he  wrote  original  poems 
in  Italian,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  several 
comedies  in  Polish,  and  a  translation  from  the  Greek 
into  Italian  in  three  octavo  \olumes  of  Josephus 
Flavins  (Florence,  Paolo  Fumagalli,  1840-44).  An- 
giolini also  translated  into  his  mother  tongue  the 
Electra,  (Edipus,  and  Antigone  of  Sophocles  (Rome, 
1782).  Other  works  of  Angiolini  are  an  Italian  trans- 
lation of  Thucydides,  incomplete,  and  a  Polish  trans- 
lation of  Sophocles. 

SoMMERvoGEL,  Biblioth.,  I,  391;  Cassani,  Varonea  Iluatree. 
Ill,  268-277. 

Joseph  M.  Woods. 

Anglesea,  The  Priory  of,  Cambridgeshire,  Eng- 
land, wa.s  founded  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  and  St.  Nicholas  for  a  community  of  Austin  Can- 
ons, by  Henry  I.  Dugdale  wjus  unable  to  find  any 
charter  of  foundation;  but  a  deed  cited  by  him  in  an 
appendix,  with  regard  to  the  rights  of  patroiuige  and 
election  ceded  by  Elizabeth  de  Burgh,  Laily  de 
Clare,  to  the  canons  in  13:{:5,  lends  some  support  to 
the  opinion  of  Lcland  and  Speed  that  Ricliard  de 
Clare  was  a  foimder,  or  at  least  a  patron,  of  the 
house,  as  was  also  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March, 
in  the  reipi  of  Henry  V.  Information  with  regard 
to  this  priory  is  scanty.  No  register  is  known.  The 
ruins  are  meagre.  "There  are  some  remains  of  An- 
glesea  Prioiy  in  the  back  part  of  a  mansion-house ", 


ANGLICAN 


491 


ANQLIOAN 


says  Lysons,  "which  has  been  erected  on  its  site, 
apparently  not  more  ancient  than  the  time  of  (Juoen 
Elizabeth;  the  most  remarkable  of  these  remains 
consist  of  a  kind  of  undercroft,  tliirty-six  feet  by 
twenty-two,  with  a  groined  roof  supported  by  clus- 
tered pillars,  now  divided  into  two  rooms;  anil  a 
row  of  arches  supported  bv  brackets  against  a  wall 
on  the  outside  of  the  building".  The  hust  prior  was 
John  Honar,  who  ha<l  a  pension  of  £20  a  year  granted 
to  him  at  the  surrender.  In  'J6,  Hen.  VIII,  the 
revenues  were  returned  at  £124. 19s. 

DooDALE,  MonaMieon  Anglicanum;  LvaoNS,  Magna  Bri- 
tannia {Cambridgeahire). 

Francis  Avelixg. 

Anglican  Orders. — In  tlie  creed  of  the  Catholic 
C'liurcli.  Holy  ()nli'r  is  one  of  the  >Seven  .Sacraments 
instituted  l)y  l  lur  Lord  Je.sus  Christ.  Its  oflice  is 
to  transmit  and  perpetuate  those  mystic  powers  of 
the  priesthood  whereuy  the  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the 
altar  is  consecrated  and  ottered  up  in  sacrifice;  and 
whereby  alone  the  Sacraments  of  Confirmation, 
Penance,  and  Kxtreme  Unction  can  be  validly  ad- 
ministered. Holy  Order  is  in  three  degrees:  those 
of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  the  bishops  pos.sess- 
ing  the  priesthood  in  its  plenitinle.  that  is,  with  the 
power  not  only  to  exercise  this  ministry  personally, 
out  also  to  transmit  it  and  the  diaconate  to  others. 
Thus  the  bishop  is  tlie  only  minister  of  Holy  Oriler, 
and  for  its  valid  ailministration  it  is  essential  that 
he  (1)  should  himself  have  received  a  valid  epi-scopal 
consecration,  and  (2)  should  use  a  rite  ui  which  are 

Ereserveil  all  the  e-ssentials  of  validity  as  instituted 
y  Christ.  To  have  received  or  failed  to  receive 
orders  uniler  these  conditions  is  to  be  within  or  with- 
out the  -Vpostolical  succession  of  the  Catholic  min- 
istry. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  this  doctrine  of  a  priest- 
hood endowed  with  mystical  powers  was  pronounced 
superstitious  by  most  of  the  Protestant  Reformers, 
who,  accordingly,  rejected  Holy  Order  from  among 
the  number  of  their  sacraments.  They  recognized, 
however,  that  from  primitive  times  liownwanls  there 
had  always  been  a  bo<ly  of  clergy  .set  apart  for  the 
pastoral  duties,  and  this  they  desired  to  retain  in 
their  .separated  communions;  in  some  cases  organiz- 
ing it  in  two  degrees  only,  of  presbyters  and  tleacons, 
in  others  of  three  degrees,  which,  in  accordance  with 
ancient  practice,  they  continued  to  designate  by  the 
names  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  Hut  their 
tloctrine  in  regard  to  these  ministers  wxs  that  they 
could  pos.se.ss  no  jwwers  beyond  tho.sc  of  other  men, 
but  only  "authority  in  the  congregation"  to  preach 
and  teach,  to  govern  churches,  and  to  presitle  o\er 
8er\-ices  and  ceremonies;  and  that  the  rites,  of  im- 
position of  hands  or  otherwi.se,  whereby  candidates 
were  inducted  into  the  grades  of  their  ministrj',  were 
to  be  regardeii  merely  as  simple  and  impressive  ex- 
ternal ceremonies  employed  for  the  sake  of  decency 
and  order.  This  view  of  the  Cliristian  ministry  is 
very  distinctly  expres.setl  in  the  public  formularies 
and  private  writings  of  the  continental  Rcfonners. 
In  Kngland  it  w:us  certainly  shared  by  Cr.anmer, 
Ridley,  and  others  who  with  them  presided  over  the 
ecclesiastical  alterations  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
That  the  present  .\nglican  clergj'  are  bishops,  priests, 
and  deacons  in  the  latter  sense  admits  of  no  (lispute. 
Hut  are  they  so  also  in  the  former  and  Catholic  sen.se; 
and  are  they  in  consequence  in  the  true  line  of 
.*\[x)stolical  succession,  and  enilowed  with  all  its 
mystical  powers  o\cr  the  Sacrifice  and  sacraments? 
This  is  the  (question  of  .\ngUcan  orders. 

The  Cn.MiAtTEH  or  Catholic  ()udin.\l.s. — From 
time  immemorial  a  group  of  ordination  rites  have 
been  in  u.se  in  the  Catholic  Church  and  in  tho.se 
Oriental  schisms  which  broke  .away  from  it  in  early 
times,  but  who.se  orders  it  has  always  recognized  as 
valid.     When    these    various    rites    are    compared, 


they  are  found  to  differ  indeed  in  the  text,  but  to  be 
entirely  alike  in  the  essential  character  of  the  "  forms  " 
appointed  to  accompany  the  imposition  of  hands. 
.Ml,  that  is  to  say,  signify  in  appropriate  terms  the 
order  to  be  imparted,  and  supplicate  Almighty  God 
to  bestow  upon  the  candidate  the  divine  gifts  neces- 
sary for  his  state.  In  the  Western  Church,  though 
there  are  traces  of  a  now  obsolete  "form"  anciently 
employed  in  parts  of  Gaul,  the  form  of  the  Roman 
Church  is  the  only  one  that  has  persisteil,  and  it 
quickly  pa-ssed  into  universal  u.se.  This  is  the 
prayer,  Deus  honorum  omnium,  which  can  be  fouml 
m  the  "  Pontificale  Romamim."  Its  earliest  appear- 
ance in  writing  is  in  the  so-called  "  Leonine  Sacra- 
mentary ",  referreil  by  Duchesne  to  the  sixth  cen- 
tury; that  it  should  appear  there  is  proof  positive 
that  it  must  have  been  in  existence  f<jr  .some  time 
previously,  at  least  as  orally  prcsiTvcd,  the  force  of 
which  proof  is  greatly  strengthened  Kv  the  testimony 
to  the  coiLservatisra  of  tlie  Roman  Church  which  we 
have  from  Pope  Innocent  I.  For  this  Pope,  writing 
in  \.  D.  41G,  to  Decentius,  Hisliop  of  Kugubium, 
complains  that  "if  the  priests  of  the  Lord  desired 
to  preserve  ecclesiastical  ordinances  as  they  were 
handeil  down  to  us  by  tlie  Rlessed  .Vpostles,  no 
diversity,  no  variety  would  be  founil  in  the  very 
orders  and  consecrations  them.selves ",  but  adds, 
"Who  iloes  not  know  and  consider  that  what  was 
delivered  to  the  Roman  Church  by  St.  Peter,  the 
Prince  of  the  .Apostles,  and  I'.s  to  thin  dai/  kept  (by  it), 
ought  to  be  ob.served  by  all,  and  that  no  practice 
should  be  substituted  or  added  without  being  sanc- 
tioneil  by  authority  or  precedent."  When  we  trace 
downwards  the  history  of  this  Roman  rite  we  find 
that  the  conservative  principle  enunciatetl  by  St.  In- 
nocent li.is  been  faithfully  followe<l.  Thus  Morinus, 
a  great  authority,  writes.  "We  deem  it  necessary  for 
the  reader  to  know  that  the  modern  Roman  Pontifical 
contains  all  that  w:us  in  the  earlier  Pontificals,  but 
that  the  earlier  Pontificals  do  not  contain  all  that 
is  in  the  modern  Roman  Pontifical.  For  some  things 
have  been  added  to  the  recent  Pontificals,  for  various 
pious  and  religious  reasons,  which  are  wanting  in  all 
the  ancient  cilitions.  .And  the  more  recent  Pontifi- 
cals are.  the  more  these  additions  obtrude  them- 
selves. But  this  is  a  wonderful  antl  impressive  fact, 
that  in  all  the  volumes,  ancient,  more  modem,  and 
contemporary,  there  is  ever  one  form  of  ortlination 
both  ius  regards  words  and  as  regards  ceremony,  and 
the  later  books  omit  nothing  that  was  present  in  the 
oKler.  Thus  the  modem  form  of  ordination  difTers 
neither  in  word  nor  in  ceremony  from  that  usetl  by 
the  ancient  Fathers."  .\niong  the  additions  which 
Morinus  li.as  in  mind  as  having  been  inatle  during 
the  early  Middle  .Ages,  the  tradition  of  the  instru- 
ments, that  is,  of  the  paten  and  chalice  in  the  case 
of  the  priesthooil,  and  that  of  the  book  of  the 
Gospels  in  the  ciuse  of  the  episcopate,  are  the  most 
important.  Indee<l,  these  drew  to  themselves  so 
much  attention  that  for  many  centuries  they  and 
the  words  accompanjnng  them  were  supposed  by 
many  to  be  more  essential  even  than  the  imposition 
of  hands  and  the  prayer,  Dcus  honorum.  Still  there 
was  never  any  danger  that  the  prevalence  of  tliese 
tli«)logical  views  would  affect  the  validity  of  the 
ordinations  given,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
principle  of  never  omitting  anything  was  rigidly 
adliere<l  to. 

The  Origin  of  the  .A.vglican  Succe.ssion. — It 
w.os  this  venerable  ordination  rite,  as  preserved  in 
the  Fnglish  varieties  of  the  Roman  Pontifical,  which 
w.Ts  in  u.se  in  the  country  when  Henrj'  VIII  began  his 
as,saults  on  the  ancient  religion.  He  iliil  not  liimsclf 
venture  to  touch  it.  but  in  the  next  reign  it  wxs  set 
aside  by  Cranmor  and  his  .q.s,sociates  who,  under  the 
rule  of  .Somerset  and  .Northumberland,  were  engaged 
in   remodelling   the  whole  fabric  of  the  Church  of 


ANGLICAN 


492 


ANGLICAN 


England  to  suit  tlieir  extreme  Protestant  concep- 
tions. These  men  pronounced  tlie  ancient  forms  to 
be  utterly  superstitious  and  requiring  to  be  replaced 
by  others  more  in  conformity  with  the  simplicity 
of  the  Gospel.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  Edwardine 
Ortlinal,  which,  under  the  sanction  of  the  Act  of  ISJO, 
was  drawn  up  by  "  six  prelates  and  six  otlier  men  of 
the  realm  learned  in  God's  law,  by  the  King's  Majesty 
to  be  appointeii  and  assigned  ".  Tliis  new  rite  under- 
went some  further  changes  two  years  later,  and  was 
thus  brought  into  the  form  in  which  it  remained  till 
the  year  1662,  when  it  was  somewhat  improved  by 
the  addition  of  clauses  defining  the  nature  of  the 
orders  imparted.  As  the  Ordinal  of  1550  had  no 
lasting  influence  on  the  country,  we  may  disregard 
it  here,  as  we  may  also  disregard,  as  of  less  conse- 
quence, the  rite  for  the  ordination  of  deacons.  In 
the  Ordinal  of  1552  the  "essential  form  ",  that  is,  the 
form  adjoined  to  the  imposition  of  hands,  was,  in 
the  case  of  the  priesthood,  merely  this:  "Receive 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Whose  sins  thou  dost  forgive  they 
are  forgiven;  and  whose  sins  thou  dost  retain  they 
are  retained;  and  be  thou  a  faithful  dispenser  of  the 
Word  of  God  and  of  His  Holy  Sacraments";  and  these 
other  words,  whilst  the  Bible  was  being  delivered, 
"Take  thou  authority  to  preach  the  Word  of  God 
and  to  minister  the  Holy  Sacraments  in  this  Con- 
gregation, where  thou  shalt  be  so  appointed."  In 
the  case  of  the  episcopate  it  was,  ""Take  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  remember  that  thou  stir  up  the  grace 
of  God  wliich  is  in  thee  by  imposition  of  hands,  for 
God  hath  not  given  us  the  spirit  of  fear,  but  of 
power,  and  love,  and  of  soberness";  and  these  others, 
while  the  Bible  was  delivered,  "Give  heed  unto  read- 
ing, exhortation,  and  doctrine.  Think  upon  these 
things  contained  in  this  book.  ...  Be  to  the  flock 
of  Christ  a  shepherd  not  a  wolf;  feed  them,  devour 
them  not;  hold  up  the  weak,  heal  the  sick,  bind 
together  the  broken,  bring  again  the  outcast,  seek 
the  lost.  ..."  The  additions  made  in  1662  were, 
in  the  case  of  the  priesthood  (after  the  words,  "  re- 
ceive the  Holy  Ghost"),  "for  the  office  and  work 
of  a  priest  in  the  Church  of  God  now  committed 
Unto  thee  by  the  imposition  of  our  hands";  and  in 
the  case  of  the  episcopate  (after  the  words,  "Take 
the  Holy  Ghost"),  "for  the  office  and  work  of  a 
bishop  in  the  Church  of  God  now  committed  unto 
thee  by  the  imposition  of  our  hands  ".  By  this  new 
Ordinal  seven  bishops  and  a  number  of  inferior 
clergy  were  made  during  the  last  two  years  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  in  1553  it  was 
discarded,  and  the  Pontifical  resumed,  but  on  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  in  1558  its  use  was  restored, 
and  has  continued  (with  the  addition  of  the  defining 
clauses  since  1662)  down  to  the  present  day.  The 
Anglican  clergy  are  thus  the  creation  of  this  Ordinal, 
and,  primarily,  the  validity  of  their  orders  is  de- 
perident  on  its  sufficiency — that  is,  on  its  sufficiency 
m  its  earlier  form,  for  if  that  be  wanting,  the  Apos- 
tolical succession  must  have  lapsed  long  before  1662, 
and  could  not  be  resuscitated  l)y  the  additions  then 
made.  It  was  on  this  consideration  of  the  character 
of  the  Edwardine  rite  that  the  Holv  See  based  its 
definitive  decree  of  1896.  Still,  for  the  complete 
understanding  of  the  history  of  the  subject  it  is  nec- 
essary to  know  something  of  the  circiunstances  under 
which  .Vrchbishop  Parker  was  raised  to  the  episcopate, 
and  of  tlie  further  defects  which  the  Anglican  suc- 
cession has  been  thought  to  inherit  from  its  relation 
to  the  same.  This  Dr.  Matthew  Parker  was  chosen 
by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  be  her  first  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  The  metropolitan  see  was  then  vacant 
by  the  death  of  Cardinal  Pole,  and  all  the  other  sees 
of  the  kingdom,  with  a  single  exception,  were  vacant 
likewise,  either  because  of  the  death  of  their  previous 
occupants,  or  because  the  bishops  who  survived  were, 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Govenmient,  deprived  for  refusing 


to  conform  to  the  new  order  of  things.  The  Queen 
intended  through  Parker  to  raise  up  a  new  liierarchy, 
but  a  difficulty  confronted  her.  When  consecrated 
himself,  Parker  could  consecrate  his  intended  col- 
leagues; but  how  was  he  to  get  consecrated  liimself? 
None  of  the  CathoUc  bishops  still  living  would  con- 
sent to  perform  the  ceremony,  and  in  default  of  them 
she  had  recourse  to  four  ecclesiastics  of  no  verj'  high 
reputation,  three  of  whom  (William  Barlow,  John 
Scorj",  and  Miles  Coverdale)  had  been  deprived  by 
Marj',  and  the  fourth  (John  Hodgkins)  was  a  turn- 
coat who  had  been  consecrated  sufTragan  Bishop 
of  Betlford  in  15.37  and  had  consistently  changed 
with  every  change  of  the  times.  To  Barlow  was 
given  the  lead,  and  he,  vnth  the  others  as  his  assist- 
ants, consecrated  Parker,  17  December,  1559,  in  the 
private  chapel  at  Lambeth,  using  the  Edwardine 
Ordinal.  Three  days  later  Parker,  with  the  aid  of 
Barlow,  Scory,  and  Hodgkins,  consecrated  four 
others  at  Bow  Church.  Erom  these  ancestors  the 
whole  Anglican  succession  is  sprung.  Was,  then, 
the  consecration  of  Parker  a  vahd  act?  This  is  the 
other  ground  of  dispute  round  which,  as  a  matter 
of  history,  the  controversy  has  gathered. 

The  Practice  of  the  Holy  See. — Apart  from 
exceptional  circumstances,  such  as  arose  in  1896, 
the  Holy  See  does  not  uidulge  in  purely  theoretical 
pronouncements  on  questions  like  that  of  Anglican 
Orders,  but  limits  its  intervention  to  cases  of  practical 
difficulty  that  are  brought  before  it — as  when  persons 
or  classes  of  persons  who  wish  to  minister  at  the 
Church's  altars  have  imdergone  ceremonies  of  ordina- 
tion outside  its  fold.  And  even  in  thus  intervening 
the  Holy  See  is  chary  of  doctrinal  decisions,  but  ap- 
phes  a  common-sense  rule  that  can  give  practical 
security.  Where  it  judges  that  the  previous  orders 
were  certainly  valid  it  permits  their  use,  supposing 
the  candidate  to  be  acceptable;  where  it  judges  the 
previous  orders  to  be  certainly  invalid  it  disregards 
them  altogether,  and  enjoins  a  re-ordination  accord- 
ing to  its  own  rite;  where  it  judges  that  the  validity 
of  the  previous  orders  is  doubtful,  even  though  the 
doubt  be  slight,  it  forbids  their  use  until  a  condi- 
tional ceremony  of  re-ordination  has  first  been  under- 
gone. Such  a  class  of  cases  requiring  its  interven- 
tion arose  when  Queen  Mary  set  to  work  to  draw 
order  out  of  the  chaos  in  which  her  two  predecessors 
had  involved  the  affairs  of  the  Church.  What  w:is 
to  be  done  with  those  who  had  received  Edwardine 
orders?  The  question  was  investigated  at  Rome, 
wliither  the  needful  information  and  documents 
were  sent  by  Pole,  and,  although  we  have  no  record 
of  the  discussion,  it  is  clear  from  what  has  just  been 
said  about  its  kno'mi  principles  of  action  that  the 
Holy  See  judged  these  orders  to  be  invalid,  for  it 
sent  directions  to  Pole  to  treat  them  as  non-existent. 
That  this  was  so  appears  (1)  from  the  letters  of 
Julius  III  and  Paul  IV,  and  the  sense  in  which  they 
were  taken  by  Pole,  for  these  letters  direct  tliat  all 
recipients  of  Edwardine  Orders  shall,  if  acceptetl  for 
the  Church's  ministry,  be  onlained  afresh;  (2)  from 
a  comparison  between  the  Ijdwardine  and  Marian 
registers  which  reveals  several  double  entries  of 
names  of  persons  who  received  first  Edwariline  and 
afterwards  Catholic  ordination;  (3)  from  the  course 
taken  in  punishing  recalcitrant  Edwartline  eccle- 
siastics, in  the  ceremony  of  whose  degradation  no 
account  was  taken  of  their  Edwardine  orders.  And 
the  practice  thus  initiated  during  the  reign  of  Mary 
was  adhered  to  ever  afterwanls,  when  Anglican 
clergj-mcn  came  over  to  the  Catholic  Churcli  and 
sought  admission  into  the  ranks  of  the  priesthood. 
A  list  of  twenty  such  re-ordinations  has  licen  gath- 
ered by  Canon  Estcourt  from  the  "  Douay  Diaries" 
and  otfiers  could  be  gathered  from  the  registers  of 
the  ICnglish  College  at  Rome  and  other  sources.  Nor 
is  the  fact  disputed — save  perhaps  as  regards  a  few 


ANGLICAN 


493 


ANQLICAN 


isolate*!  eases,  the  documentan'  evidence  for  which 
Is  deficient.  Moreover,  Leo  XIII,  in  his  Hull  "  Apos- 
toliciB  Ciine  ",  speaks  of  many  such  ciuscs  as  having 
been  formally  referred  to  the  Holy  See  at  difTerent 
times,  with  the  result  that  the  practice  of  re-ordaining 
was  invariably  observed.  Two  of  the.se  Ciuses  were, 
in  1684  and  170-1,  the  second  of  which  attracted  a 
certain  amount  of  attention.  It  was  that  of  John 
Clement  Gordon,  who  had  received  all  the  .Anglican 
orders,  the  episcopate  includeil,  by  the  Ktlwanline 
rite  and  from  the  hands  of  the  prelates  who  derived 
their  orders  from  the  .\nglican  succession.  The 
decision  was  that,  if  he  would  minister  as  a  priest, 
he  must  receive  the  priesthood  and  all  previous 
orders  afresh. 

ThK  lIlSTOKY  OF  THE  CONTROVER.SY. TllOUgh  SUch 

was  the  practice  sanctioned  by  the  Holy  See  for  deal- 
ing with  .Vnglican  orders  administratively,  the  Holy 
See  did  not,  lus  it  usually  does  not,  publish  the  mo- 
tives of  its  decision.  The  duty  of  vindicating  its 
action  in  regard  to  the.se  orders  was  thus  left  to  the 
zeal  and  intlustry  of  private  theological  writers, 
whose  method  w:us  to  inquire  into  the  facts  as  best 
they  could  antl  apply  to  them  the  same  theological 
tests  as  the  Church  authorities  were  known  to  recog- 
nize. In  this  way  there  came  into  existence  that 
series  of  controversial  treatises  on  either  side  which 
covered  the  whole  period  from  the  begiiming  of  the 
seventeenth  century  to  the  present  day.  Now  that 
the  Holy  Sec  has  given  not  merely  a  final  decision, 
but  one  supporteil  by  the  motives  on  which  it  is 
b:used,  these  ancient  treatises  have  lost  a  good  deal 
of  their  interest.  A  very  brief  account  of  them  may 
therefore  sutlice  here,  but  the  reader  who  requires 
more  may  be  referred  to  the  pages  of  Canon  Estcourt. 
That  the  controversy  did  not  begin  till  early  in  the 
reign  of  James  I  is,  perhaps,  explicable  on  the  grountl 
that  the  first  generation  or  two  of  the  .Anglican  clergy 
were  too  Zwinglian  or  Calvinistic  to  care  about  hav- 
ing .\postolical  succession.  But  in  1.58.S-89  Ban- 
croft, in  a  celebrated  sermon  at  Paul's  Cross,  took 
up  the  higher  ground,  which  was  jiowerfully  main- 
tained a  few  years  after  by  Bil.son  and  Hooker,  the 
pioneers  of  the  long  Une  of  Jacobean  and  Caroline 
divines.  Then  the  writers  on  the  Catholic  side  began 
to  controvert  this  position,  but  in  the  first  instance 
not  very  happily.  The  circumstances  of  Parker's 
consecration  haa  been  shrouded  in  much  secrecy 
and  were  imknown  to  the  Catholic  party,  who  ac- 
conlingly  gave  credence  to  a  piciuant  rumour  called 
"The  Nag's  Head  storj'".  This  was  to  the  effect 
that,  as  no  Catholic  bishop  could  be  got  to  conse- 
crate Parker,  he  and  others,  when  together  at  the 
Nag's  Head  in  Cheapside,  knelt  ilomi  before  Scorj-, 
the  deprived  Bishop  of  Chichester,  who  placed  a 
Bible  on  the  neck  of  each,  saying  at  the  same  time, 
"Receive  the  power  of  preaching  the  Word  of  Ciod 
sincerely";  and  that  this  strange  ceremony  was  the 
fountain-head  of  the  whole  .\nghcan  succession. 
This  story  was  first  published  by  Kelli.'ion  in  1605,  in 
his  '■Reply  to  SutclifTe'',  and  w.is  taken  up  by  some 
other  Catholic  writers  in  the  following  years.  To 
tho.se  .Ma.son  in  his  "  Vindicia;  Ecclesiie  Anglicana;" 
replied  on  the  .\ngUcan  side,  in  161.'S,  and  was  the 
first  to  call  attention,  at  all  events  effectively,  to  the 
entry  in  Parker's  "  Register "  of  his  consecration  on 
17  December,  15.59,  in  the  private  chapel  at  Lam- 
beth. In  the  following  year  (1614)  Archbishop 
.Vbbot,  to  clench  this  statement  of  Ma.son's,  caused 
four  Catholic  priests,  nri.soncrs  in  the  Tower,  to  be 
taken  to  L.ambeth  an<l  there  shown  the  "Register ", 
on  the  genuineness  of  which  they  were  invited  to 
declare.  \i\  inspection  under  such  circumstances 
(for  they  were  all  the  time  under  the  jealous  eyes  of 
seven  Protestant  bishops)  w.os  not  calculated  to 
convince,  and  Ch.ampney,  who  wrote  in  1610,  sug- 
gests, what  was  clearly"  the  general  opinion  of  the 


Catholics  at  the  time,  that  the  entry  in  question  wa.s 
a  forgery.  On  one  or  two  occasions  previously  it 
had  apparent  ly '  been  seen  by  individual  Catholics, 
but  it.s  existence  had  not  become  generally  known 
till  .Ma.son's  book  appeared,  and  then  the  fact  that 
an  appeal  to  it  should  not  have  been  made  by  the 
Anglican  party  till  so  long  aft<."r  the  reputed  date 
of  the  occurrence  .seemetl  to  be  highly  suspicious. 
Nor  will  these  suspicions  appear  unnatural  to  any- 
one who  reflects  on  the  curious  reticence  shown  by 
the  Elizabethan  writers  when  challengeil  to  say  how 
their  Metropolitan  was  consecrated;  such  ;ls,  for 
instance,  was  shown  by  Jewell  in  his  replies  to  Hard- 
ing's direct  intjuiries.  Probably,  however,  the  real 
motiva  of  this  reticence  was  in  the  reputation  of  the 
consecrators  to  whom  Parker  was  clriven  to  have 
recourse;  for  there  can  be  no  question,  to  us  wlio 
know  all  the  lines  of  converging  evidence  that  tell 
in  it.s  favour,  but  that  his  con.secration  did  take 
place  on  the  day  and  in  the  manner  describeil  in  the 
''Register",  and  that  the  latter  was  a  contemporary 
document.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Nag's  Head 
story  is  too  unsupported  by  solid  evidence  and  too 
incredible  in  itself  to  be  accepted  as  historical — • 
although  to  say  this  is  by  no  means  the  same  as 
saying  that  those  who  brought  it  forward  in  the  first 
instance,  or  maintained  it  during  several  generations, 
were  acting  dishonestly.  It  is,  however,  an  error  to 
suppose  that  the  early  Catholic  controversialists 
resteil  their  case  against  .\nglican  orders  exclusively 
on  the  spuriousness  of  the  Lambeth  "Register  "  or 
the  truth  of  the  Nag's  Head  story.  On  thecontran,-, 
although  they  intcnningled  some  proofs  like  those 
mentioned  which  have  had  to  be  abandoned,  it  is 
wonderful  how  sound  was  the  position  they  took  up 
from  the  first  in  their  general  statement  of  the  argvi- 
ment.  Thus  Champney,  the  first  systematic  writer 
on  the  Catholic  side,  directs  his  first  anil  chief  attack 
against  all  orders  conveyetl  by  the  Edwardine  Ordi- 
nal, whether  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI  or  subse- 
quently, and  contests  their  validity  on  the  ground 
of  the  insufficiency  of  the  rite  itself.  Moreover, 
though  inclining,  with  most  of  the  theologians  of  his 
time,  to  liokl  that  other  ceremonies  besiiles  imposi- 
tion of  hands  and  the  words,  "  Receive  the  Holy 
Ghost",  were  essential  to  validity,  he  gives  due 
weight  to  the  contrary  opinion  of  V'asquez,  and  takes 
up  exactly  the  same  jiosition  as  was  afterwards  taken 
up  by  Morinus  in  regard  to  the  jiractical  course  to 
be  followed.  "The  detenninate  matter",  he  says, 
"and  form  of  some  sacraments — and,  among  others, 
of  Holy  Orders,  .  .  .  are  not  -so  clearly  and  dis- 
tinctly declared  in  the  Councils  and  Fathers,  but 
that  various  opinions,  ba.seil  on  weighty  re;isons  and 
authorities,  have  been  held  and  defended  with  good 
prt)bability  of  truth  .  .  .  (But)  the  Church  does  not 
suffer  any  harm  or  loss  (from  this  uncertainty)  be- 
eau.se  she  knows  for  certain  that  she  luis  (m  her 
rites)  the  true  matter  and  form  which  Christ  gave 
to  His  .\postles,  although  no  one  can  define  precisely 
in  what  things  and  words  it  is  contained  .  .  .  pro- 
vided that  there  is  no  omission  of  any  part  (of  the 
rite)  which  the  Church  is  wont  to  use  in  adminis- 
tering her  sacraments,  aiul  in  which  it  is  universally 
agreed  that  the  true  matter  and  fonn  is  contained. 
But  if  anyone  were  obstinately  to  follow  his  own 
opinion,  and  exclude  all  other  things,  actions,  and 
words  in  administering  the  said  sacraments,  save 
such  as  he  liim.self  judges  e.s.sential,  he  wouUl  render 
those  sacraments  untrustworthy,  and  would  in  con- 
sequence be  inflicting  on  the  Cliurch  a  most  .serious 
harm."  It  is  only  when  he  comes  to  treat  of  I'.liza- 
bethan  orders  in  their  relation  to  .\rchbishop  Parker 
that  Champney  alleges  other  grounds  of  invalidity, 
and  he  then  comprises  his  entire  ca.se  against  them 
under  the  following  five  heads — (1)  the  truth  of  the 
Nag's  Head  storj';  (2)  the  spuriousness  of  the  Lam- 


ANGLICAN 


494 


ANGLICAN 


beth  "  Register " ;  (3)  the  want  of  episcopal  charac- 
ter in  Barlow,  Parker's  chief  consecrator;  (4)  the  in- 
security of  the  rite  used,  in  view  of  its  many  omis- 
sions; (o)  the  probability  that  it  does  not  contain 
the  essentials  of  a  vahd  Ordinal.  These  are  the 
same  arguments  wliich  the  subsequent  writers  de- 
bated and  developed,  except  for  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent handling  of  the  fifth,  the  necessity  for  which 
became  apparent  not  long  after  Champney's  time. 
For  Champney,  as  we  have  seen,  though  without 
speaking  too  positively,  contended  for  the  necessity 
of  other  elements  in  the  matter  and  form  than  the 
mere  imposition  of  hands  and  the  words  attached  to 
this.  In  1G55,  however,  Morinus's  epoch-making 
work,  "De  Sacris  Ordinationibus",  appeared,  and 
proved  by  irresistible  documentary  evidence  that  not 
only,  as  was  previously  recognized,  had  imposition 
of  hands  been  all  through  tlie  sole  matter  of  ordina- 
tion, episcopal  and  sacerdotal,  in  the  Oriental  rites, 
but  that  even  in  tlie  Western  rite  it  had  been  so  for 
about  900  j'ears,  the  ceremonies  of  tradition  of  in- 
struments and  of  unction  not  being  found  in  any 
text  of  more  ancient  date,  still  less  that  of  the  second 
imposition  of  hands  in  the  ordination  of  priests. 
The  discovery  of  this  liturgical  fact  necessarily 
influenced  the  .\nglican  controversy,  and  though 
the  Holy  See,  in  its  rigid  adherence  to  the  practical 
rule  indicated  by  Champney,  still  insists  on  the  re- 
tention of  the  other  ceremonies  in  all  Western  ordi- 
nations, the  general  tendency  since  the  publication 
of  Morinus's  work  has  been  to  reject  the  Anglican 
rite  mainly  on  the  ground  of  the  insufficiency  of  the 
"form"  attached  to  the  imposition  of  hands.  On 
these  lines  the  controversy  was  continued  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  Talbot  and 
I^ewgar  on  the  Catholic  side,  and  by  Bramhall, 
Burnet,  and  Prideaux  on  the  Anglican.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  next  century,  in  1704,  the  case 
of  John  Clement  Gordon,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made,  was  taken  before  the  Holy  See 
and  examined.  The  result  was  to  elicit  from  the 
Holy  Office  a  formal  re-affirmation  of  the  necessity 
of  re  ordaining  convert  clergymen;  nor  was  tliis 
decision  motived,  as  an  incorrect  publication  of  the 
decree  by  Le  Quien  suggested,  by  any  acceptance 
of  the  Nag's  Head  story,  but,  as  is  now  known,  by 
the  nature  of  the  Edwardine  rite,  a  copy  of  which 
was  procured  and  specially  examined  by  the  Sacred 
Congregation.  A  few  years  later  the  scene  of  the 
controversy  sliifted  to  France.  The  Abb6  Renaudot 
wrote  a  "  jlcmoire  ",  pubU.shed  in  1720,  in  which  he 
rejected  Anglican  orders  on  the  grounds  of  the  Nag's 
Head  story,  and  of  the  novelty  and  insufficiency  of 
the  -Anglican  rite.  He  was  answered  shortly  after 
by  the  Pdre  Courayer,  whose  works  in  defence  of 
Anglican  orders,  as  coming  from  the  Catliolic  side, 
caused  a  great  sensation  in  England,  where  the  author 
was  held  in  high  favour;  and  later,  when  he  had  to 
leave  France  on  a  charge  of  unsound  doctrine,  he  was 
invited  over  to  tliis  countrj'  and  was  given  a  pension 
by  George  H.  The  principal  answer  to  Courayer 
was  that  of  the  Abb<!  Le  Quien,  whose  "Nullity  des 
ordinations  anglicanes"  appeared  (Paris)  in  1730, 
but  Father  John  Constable,  S.J.,  embodied  a  great 
part  of  it  in  his  "  Cleropliilus  Alethes",  an  English 
work  published  very  shortly  after.  In  the  nineteenth 
century,  with  the  rise  of  the  Tractarian  party,  and 
of  the  more  Catholic  ideas  of  the  priesthood  which  it 
caused  to  prevail,  the  question  of  Anglican  orders 
w-as  felt  to  be  of  vital  importance  for  the  High  Church 
clergy,  and  the  controversy  became  proportionately 
more  acute.  As,  too,  the  principles  of  historical 
evidence  had  by  then  come  to  be  better  understootl, 
and  the  facilities  for  the  study  of  documents  were 
vastly  improved,  a  series  of  works  resulted  which 
has  considerably  advanced  our  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject.    Of  these  the  most  valuable  on  the  Anglican 


side  were  Mr.  A.  W.  Haddan's  edition  of  Bramhall, 
and  his  own  "Apostolical  Succession  in  the  Church 
of  England  ",  Dr.  F.  G.  Lee's  "  Validity  of  the  Holy 
Orders  of  the  Church  of  England  ",  and  more  recently 
Mr.  Denny's  "  .Anglican  Orders  and  Jurisdiction '  , 
the  last  being  perhaps  the  most  complete  work 
that  has  appeared  in  defence  of  these  orders.  On 
the  Catholic  side.  Canon  Estcourt's  "  Question  of 
Anglican  Orders  Discussed"  and  Mr.  W.  A.  Hutton's 
".Vnglican  Ministry"  were  the  most  noticeable. 
The  former,  though  it  errs  in  giving  away  an  im- 
portant argument,  through  misconceiving  the  pur- 
port of  a  decision  of  tlie  Holy  Office,  still  bears  the 
palm  among  CathoUc  treatises  for  its  scholarly  in- 
vestigation of  many  historical  points;  the  latter  is 
chiefly  valuable  for  its  exposition  of  the  broader 
aspect  under  which  Newman  preferred  to  regard 
the  subject. 

Su.MlI.\RY   OF   ArGUAIENTS    ON    ElTHER     SiDE. To 

some  extent  the  proofs  and  disproofs  cast  to  and 
fro  by  the  disputants  have  necessarily  been  indi- 
cated above,  but  it  will  be  well  to  summarize  them 
here  as  a  preliminary  to  an  account  of  the  Bull 
"  Apostolica;  Curs  "  (which  see  also  s.  r.). 

1.  Of  the  Nag's  Head  story  nothing  more  need 
be  said,  as  no  person  of  intelligence  now  believes  in  it. 

2.  Nor  is  there  any  doubt  but  that  Parker  really 
did  undergo  a  ceremony  of  consecration  on  17  De- 
cember, 1559,  at  Lambeth,  in  which  the  Edwardine 
rite  was  employed,  and  the  consecrators  were  Barlow, 
Scory,  Coverdale,  and  Hodgkins.  Machyn's  and 
Parker's  diaries  prove  conclusively  that  a  consecra- 
tion did  then  and  there  take  place.  A  paper  in  the 
State  Paper  Office  (in  which  the  order  of  procedure 
to  be  followed  at  the  consecration  is  drawn  up  by 
a  clerk,  and  Cecil's  and  Parker's  annotations  are 
in  the  margin)  proves  that  they  intended  to  have  a 
consecration  by  bishops  according  to  the  Edwardine 
rite,  whilst  there  was  nothing  to  prevent  them  from 
carrying  their  intention  into  effect.  And  the  Com- 
mission of  6  December,  1559,  issued  to  Kitchen, 
Barlow,  Scory,  Coverdale,  and  Hodgkins,  shows 
that  these,  or  some  of  them,  were  the  prelates  who 
were  to  perform  the  ceremony. 

3.  In  regartl  to  Barlow's  episcopal  character,  the 
AngUcan  case  is  that  (1)  although  there  is  no  record 
of  his  consecration  in  the  "  Archiepiscopal  Register  ", 
this  only  proves  that  the  "Register  "  was  very  negli- 
gently kept;  that  (2)  there  is  no  record  in  this  "  Regis- 
ter "  of  the  consecrations  of  several  other  bishops, 
Gardiner  included,  yet  no  one  doubts  that  these  were 
really  consecrated;  and  that  (3)  it  is  not  conceivable 
that  Barlow  could  have  gone  on  acting  as  bishop  for 
over  twenty  years  without  attention  having  been 
called  by  some  person  or  other  to  liis  want  of  con- 
secration. The  Catholic  writers,  on  the  other  hand, 
point  out  that  it  is  not  merely  the  absence  of  just  a 
single  entry  in  Cranmer's  "  Register  "  which  stands 
against  him,  but  (1)  the  absence  of  an  entire  set  of 
documents  which  should  have  borne  reference  to  his 
consecration  if  it  occurred;  (2)  the  discovery  of  one 
document  which  is  exceptionally  wonled,  and  so 
worded  as  apparently  to  provide  for  the  avoidance 
of  consecration;  (3)  the  views  of  the  non-necessity  of 
consecration  which  Barlow  held  and  expressed; 
(4)  the  difficulty  of  assigning  a  date  when  the  cere- 
mony coukl  have  taken  place;  (5)  and  the  likelihood 
that,  as  the  King  and  Cranmer  are  known  to  have 
shared  his  views,  he  might  have  been  able  to  keep 
his  secret  to  himself  and  pa.ss  as  a  consecrateil  bishop. 
Still  the  Catholic  writers  do  not  maintain  on  these 
grounds  that  it  is  certain  he  was  not  con.secrated,  but 
only  that  it  is  not  certain  that  he  was,  and  hence, 
that  orders  derived  from  him,  as  are  those  of  the 
Anglican  clergy,  must  be  considered  doubtful,  unless 
supplemented  by   a  conditional  ceremony. 

4.  For  the  sutiiciency  of  the  Anglican  Rite,  as  it 


ANGLICAN 


495 


ANOLICAN 


stood  in  the  first  century  of  its  use,  the  defenders 
argue  that,  although  it  may  have  been  undesirable 
to  substitute  this  new  rite  for  tlie  ancient  and  ven- 
erable rite  which  preceded  it,  the  cluinKe  Wiis  within 
the  competence  of  the  Edwardine  and  Klizal)ethan 
authorities,  since  every  national  Church  has  author- 
ity to  select  its  own  rites  and  ceremonies,  as  long 
as  it  eliminates  no  element  which,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  Universal  Church,  is  essential  to  validity.  To 
this  it  is  replied  that  no  evidence  is  forthcoming  to 
show  that  any  such  authority  has  e\cr  been  recog- 
nized in  national  Churches;  that,  on  the  contrarj-, 
though  local  churches  have  at  times  added  further 
prayers  and  ceremonies  to  the  rites  handed  down 
to  them  from  time  immemorial,  they  have,  as  Mori- 
nus  has  told  us,  never  ventured  to  subtract  anything 
that  was  in  previous  use,  fearing  lest  in  so  doing 
they  might  touch  something  which  was  essential. 
To  this  the  defenders  reply  that  at  least  the  Anglican 
rite  has  retained  all  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  Roman 
Ordinal  in  its  earliest  known  form,  as  well  as  in  the 
Eastern  ordinals,  which  the  Holy  See  has  ever  rec- 
ognized as  valid;  and  that  it  nui.<t  be  held  therefore 
to  have  retained  all  that  can  reasonably  be  claimed 
as  necessary.  But  in  the  first  place,  though  the 
course  of  theological  opinion  inclines  to  jvidge  that 
the  tradition  of  instruments  and  other  added  cere- 
monies in  the  modern  Western  rite  might  be  laid 
aside  without  danger  to  validity,  the  Holy  See,  as 
has  been  said,  feeling  that  in  a  matter  of  such  su- 
preme importance  it  is  Ijest  to  follow  an  aljsolutely 
safe  rule,  is  loth  to  tru.st  to  speculative  opinions, 
and  has  always  required  a  conditional  r^ordination 
whenever  any  one  of  the  added  ceremonies  has  been 
omitted.  Moreover,  it  is  not  correct  to  say  that  the 
Anglican  rite  retains  all  those  elements  which  the 
Eastern  and  early  Western  rites  have  in  common. 
For  what  these  have  in  common  (cf.  App.  IV  of  the 
Vindication)  is  imix)sition  of  hands  accompanied  by 
a  prayer  in  which  the  order  to  be  imparted  is  defined 
•either  by  its  accepted  name,  or  by  words  expressive 
■of  its  grace  and  power,  whicli  is  chiefly  the  power  to 
■consecrate  and  offer  up  in  sacrifice  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  under  the  appear- 
ances of  bread  and  wine.  The  original  Anglican  rite, 
on  the  contrary,  contained  no  words  whatever  in 
the  "form"  accompanying  the  imposition  of  hands 
to  define  the  order  to  l)e  imparted.  In  the  rite  for 
the  episcopate  the  consecrating  bishop  saj's,  "Take 
the  Holy  Ghost";  but  he  does  not  say  for  what — 
whether  for  the  office  of  a  bishop,  or  priest,  or  dea- 
■con — so  much  so  that  Dr.  Lingard  could  suggest 
that  it  was  a  form  as  suitable  for  the  admission  of 
:a  parish  clerk  as  for  the  consecration  of  a  bishop. 
And  so,  too,  with  the  priesthood,  though  in  a  some- 
what less  degree.  Kor  here  the  words  of  the  "form" 
are,  "Receive  the  Holy  Cdiost-  whose  sins  thou  dost 
forgive  they  are  forgiven,  ana  whose  sins  thou  dost 
retain,  they  are  retained.  And  be  thou  a  faithful 
■dispenser  of  the  Word  of  God  and  of  His  Holy  Sac- 
raments"; whereas  the  power  to  forgive  sins  does 
not  di-scriminate  between  the  priest  and  the  bishop, 
and  besides  is  only  a  secondary'  and  incidental,  not 
the  primary  and  essential,  function  of  the  priestly 
office.  Still  the  defenders  of  the  Anglican  Ordinal 
have  their  further  rejoinder.  It  is  not  necessary, 
they  contend,  tliat  the  nature  of  the  order  imparted 
should  be  defined  by  the  words  of  the  "form"  taken 
by  itself  alone;  it  is  sufficient  if  the  meaning  of  this 
"form"  is  determined  to  a  definite  sense  by  the  con- 
text, or  other  prayers  and  ceremonies  which  precede 
■or  follow;  and  they  point  out  that  in  the  titles  of 
the  rites — "The  form  of  ordering  Priests"  and  "The 
form  of  consecrating  an  .\rchbishop  or  Bishop" — 
in  the  presentation  of  the  candidates,  and  in  several 
•of  the  prayers,  the  needful  mention  of  the  order  to 
ibe  imparted  is  declared.     Moreover,  they  refer  to  a 


decision  of  the  Holy  Oflice,  9  April,  1704,  in  regard 
to  some  Abyssinian  ordinations,  as  witnessing  ttiat 
the  Holy  See  itself  has  recognized  the  words,  "Take 
the  Holy  Ghost",  to  be  sufficient,  when  said  with 
the  imposition  of  liands,  if  the  remainder  of  the  rite 
Ls  Kufliciently  determinate.  But,  in  the  first  place, 
as  regards  this  .\byssinian  case,  its  nature  has  l^een 
mi.sapnrehended,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  documents 
published  by  Father  Brandi,  in  his  "Roma  e  Can- 
terburj'".  In  the  second  place,  none  of  the  rites, 
ancient  or  modern,  which  the  Holy  See  has  ever 
recognized  lends  any  support  to  this  theory  of  an 
indeterminate  form  determined  by  a  remote  context. 
In  the  third  place,  it  is  contrary  to  the  analogy  of 
all  the  other  Siicraments  and  is  unreasomible  in  itself. 
It  is  as  if,  writes  Cardinal  Segna  (Revue  Anglo- 
Romaine,  29  Kebruarv,  1.S90),  in  a  wedding  cere- 
mony, "the  bride  and  bridegroom  should  stand  at 
the  altar  and  in  many  an  eloquent  phrase  declare 
their  mutual  love,  but  when  the  moment  has  arrived 
for  pronouncing  the  decisive  word  'I  will',  should 
shut  their  hps  in  stubborn  silence."  And  in  the 
fourth  place,  the  remote  context,  instead  of  deter- 
mining the  words,  "Receive  the  Holy  Ghost",  to 
signify  the  bestowal  of  a  true  priesthood,  determines 
them  to  an  exactly  opposite  sense.  It  is  true  that 
the  traditional  names  of  the  three  orders  occur  in 
places,  but,  as  explained  at  the  head  of  this  article, 
these  names  at  the  Reformation  were  often  used  in 
a  sense  from  which  all  notion  of  the  priesthood  and 
its  mystical  powers  had  been  drained  off.  That  this 
was  the  sense  in  which  they  were  intended  by  those 
who  framed  and  authorized  the  Edwardine  rites  is 

f)roved  by  the  statements  of  classical  Anglican  writers 
ike  Hooker,  who  defend  the  retention  of  the  old 
names  on  the  plea  that  "as  for  the  people,  when 
they  hear  the  name  [priest]  it  draweth  no  more  their 
minds  to  any  cogitation  of  .sacrifice  than  the  name 
of  a  senator  or  of  an  alderman  causeth  them  to  think 
upon  old  age,  or  to  imagine  that  every  one  so  termed 
must  needs  Ije  ancient  because  years  were  respected 
in  the  nomination  of  both"  (Eccles.  Pohty,  V,  Ixxviii, 
2).  There  is,  moreover,  the  broad  fact  that,  when 
the  old  and  the  new  rite  are  compared,  it  appears 
that  the  difference  lies  just  in  this:  that  the  framers 
of  the  new  have  cut  out  all  that  in  the  old  gave 
expression  to  the  idea  of  a  mystic  sacerdotium  in  the 
Catholic  sense  of  the  term.  There  is  also  the  con- 
nected fact  tliat  the  introduction  of  the  Edwardine 
Ordinal  was  the  outcome  of  the  same  general  move- 
ment which  led  to  the  pulling  down  of  the  altars  and 
the  s\ibstitution  of  communion  tables,  in  order  that, 
as  Ridley  expressed  it,  "the  form  of  a  table  .shall 
more  move  the  simple  people  from  the  superstitious 
opinions  of  the  Popish  mass  unto  the  right  use  of 
the  Lord's  supper". 

.5.  According  to  Catholic  doctrine,  it  is  necessary 
for  validity  that  the  minister  of  a  sacrament  should 
not  only  employ  a  proper  form,  but  should  also  have 
a  proper  intention.  ThiLS  Pole,  in  his  instnietions  to 
the  Bishop  of  Nor\vich  (which  Leo  XIII  cites  in  his 
Bull  of  condemnation),  tells  him  to  treat  as  not  val- 
idly consecmtcd  those  pretending  bishops  in  whose 
previous  coasecration  ceremonies  "the  form  and  in- 
tention of  the  Church  had  not  Ijeen  observed",  thereby 
implying  that  this  double  defect  was  present  in  the 
Edwardine  consecration.';.  On  this  point  the  defend- 
ers of  .\nglican  orders  urge  that  (1)  to  admit  that 
the  mental  intentions  of  the  minister  can  affect  the 
validity  of  the  Sacrament  is  to  involve  in  uncer- 
tainty all  ordinations  whatever — for  how  are  we  to 
know  what  internal  lapses  or  deflections  from  the 
due  intention  may  not  has'e  been  secretly  made  by 
those  on  whose  acts  the  orders  of  whole  generations 
of  Christian  ministers  have  l)ecn  dcf)endent? — and 
(2)  even  granting  this  doctrine  of  intention,  no  de- 
fect of  due  intention  should  be  imputed  to  the  An- 


ANGLICAN 


496 


ANGLICAN 


glican  prelates  of  any  generation,  since,  according 
to  theologians  like  liellarmine,  even  an  heretical  min- 
ister's intention  is  sufficient  as  long  as  it  is  a  general 
intention  to  do  what  Christ  does  or  His  true  Church 
does,  whatever  tliis  may  be.  But,  it  is  replied,  it 
is  impossible  not  to  recognize  that  the  minister's 
intention  is  an  essential  element.  Why,  for  instance, 
is  there  a  valid  consecration  at  Mass  when  the  priest 
pronounces  the  words,  "This  is  my  Body",  but  no 
valid  consecration  when  he  pronounces  the  same 
words  in  the  presence  of  bread  whilst  reading  from 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel  in  a  community  refectory? 
Still  the  Church  trusts  to  the  Providence  of  God  to 
watch  over  all  such  defective  intentions  as  are  not 
externally  manifested,  and  assumes  that  the  minis- 
ter's intention  is  correct  in  every  serious  adminis- 
tration of  her  own  rites,  even  when  he  is — like  Cran- 
mer,  for  instance — a  person  of  heterodox  opinions. 
Where,  however,  a  defective  intention  is  manifested 
externally,  she  must  deal  with  it,  and  that  is  what 
has  happened  in  respect  to  the  Anglican  ordinations. 
The  rite,  as  has  been  explained,  was  altered  in  Ed- 
ward VI's  time  to  give  expression  to  a  heterodox 
belief  concerning  the  nature  of  Holy  Orders,  and 
was  likewise  ado])ted  in  this  sense  by  the  Elizabethan 
authorities.  When,  then,  they  proceeded  to  admin- 
ister it,  the  only  reasonable  interpretation  of  their 
action  was  that  they  conformed  their  intention  to 
their  rite,  and  hence  that,  from  a  Catholic  point  of 
view,  their  acts  were  invalid  on  a  twofold  ground: 
the  defect  of  the  form  and  the  defect  of  the  intention. 

6.  In  modern  times  the  Anglican  clergy  often  ap- 
peal, as  confirmatory  of  the  above  doctrinal  and 
historical  considerations,  or  even  as  having  an  in- 
dependent value,  to  what  may  be  called  an  experi- 
ential argument.  "It  is  all  very  well",  they  say,  "to 
bring  forward  these  external  arguments  to  discredit 
our  orders.  But  we  have  an  internal  testimony 
which  appeals  to  us  more  powerfully,  namely  our 
intimate  consciousness  of  the  spiritual  benefit  we 
experience  when  we  make  use  of  the  sacraments  of 
which  our  orders  are  the  source  to  us.  If  they  were 
invalid  orders,  how  is  it  conceivable  that  God  should 
so  bless  their  use  to  those  who  have  recourse  to 
them?"  This  is  an  argument  which  no  one  has 
stated  more  forcibly  than  Cardinal  Newman  in  the 
Third  Lecture  of  his  "Anglican  Difficulties",  where, 
too,  the  most  searching  answer  to  it  may  be  found. 
Here  it  will  be  enough  to  say  (1)  that  for  those  w'ho 
bring  it  forward  it  proves  too  much,  since  Wesleyans 
and  others  could  claim  as  much,  and  on  the  same 
grounds,  for  their  own  ordinances,  which  no  one 
supposes  to  be  dependent  for  their  efficacy  on  the 
validity  of  an  Apostolical  succession;  (2)  that  it  con- 
founds the  efficacy  of  a  rite  ex  opere  operate,  or  as 
an  appointed  channel  of  sacramental  grace,  and  its 
efficacy  ex  opere  operantis,  or  as  a  stimulus  to  the 
piety  of  well-disposed  hearts;  (3)  that  the  rule  of 
the  Catholic  Church  is,  while  by  no  means  under- 
valuing the  evidential  power  of  internal  experience, 
to  interpret  this  and  detect  its  true  bearing  by  ap- 
plying the  test  of  her  own  divinely  authenticated 
external  teaching. 

The  Bull  of  Leo  XIII. — From  the  foregoing  ac- 
count it  can  readily  be  understood  why  the  prac- 
tice of  re-ordaining  convert  clergJ^nen  has  subsisted. 
Anglicans,  howe\er,  ha^'e  always  resented  this  prac- 
tice, and  maintained  that  the  Holy  See  could  never 
have  sanctioned  it  had  the  facts  been  properly  pre- 
sented. In  1894  this  contention  was  pressed  upon 
the  notice  of  some  Krench  ecclesiastics  by  some  An- 
glican leaders  who  were  discussing  with  them  the 
prospects  of  corporate  reunion.  The  result  was  that 
the  I'Vench  ecclesiastics  brought  the  matter  to  the 
notice  of  I,eo  XIII,  a.ssuring  him  that  this  impres- 
sion prevailed  among  many  well-disposed  Anglicans, 
who  felt  that  they  were  being  unfairly  treated.     Tlie 


Pope  was  moved  by  what  he  heard,  and  determined 
that  he  would  have  the  whole  question  re-investi- 
gated thoroughly.  Accordingly,  he  selected  eight 
divines  who  had  made  a  special  study  of  the  suljject, 
and  of  whom  four  were  known  to  be  disposed  to  rec- 
ognize Anglican  orders  and  four  to  be  disposed  to 
reject  them.  These  he  summoned  to  Rome  and 
formed  into  a  consultative  commission  under  the 
presidency  of  Cardinal  Mazzella.  They  were  given 
access  to  all  documents  from  the  archives  of  the  Vati- 
can and  the  Holy  Office  which  would  throw  light 
upon  the  points  at  issue,  and  they  were  bidden  to 
sift  the  evidence  on  either  side  with  all  possible 
fulness  and  care.  After  sessions  which  lasted  six 
weeks,  the  Commission  was  dissolved,  and  the  acta 
of  its  discussions  were  laid  before  a  judicial  com- 
mittee of  cardinals.  These,  after  a  two  months' 
study,  in  a  special  meeting  under  the  presidency  of 
the  Pope,  decided  by  a  unanimous  vote  that  Angli- 
can orders  were  certainly  invalid.  After  an  interval 
for  prayerful  consideration  of  this  vote,  Leo  XIII 
determined  to  adopt  it  and  accordingly  published 
his  Bull  "Apostolica;  Cura;"  on  the  ISth  of  Septem- 
ber, 1S96.  In  this  Bull  he  begins  by  exp-essing  his 
affectionate  interest  in  the  English  people  and  his 
desire  for  their  return  to  imity,  and  by  reciting  the 
circumstances  which  had  led  to  the  issue  of  this 
solemn  decision.  He  then  calls  attention  to  the 
action  taken  in  the  same  matter  by  his  predecessors. 
In  the  reign  of  Marj',  when  she  and  Cardinal  Pole 
were  engaged  in  reconciling  the  kingdom,  letters  of 
direction  were  sent  to  the  latter,  which,  as  their 
text  shows,  required  him  to  treat  those  who  had  re- 
ceived orders  by  a  form  other  than  "  the  accustomed 
form  of  the  Church" — a  phrase  which,  says  Pope 
Leo,  can  only  refer  to  the  Edwardine  Ordinal — as 
needing  to  be  ordained  or  consecrated  afresh.  At 
that  time,  then,  the  Holy  See  judged  the  Anglican 
form  to  be  insufficient,  and  that  it  persisted  in  this 
adverse  judgment  is  manifest  from  the  fact  that  for 
more  than  three  centuries  it  has  sanctioned  the 
practice  of  re-ordaining  absolutely  the  holders  of 
orders  obtained  through  this  form;  for  "since  in 
the  Church  it  has  always  been  a  firm  and  established 
rule  that  the  sacrament  of  Order  ought  not  to  be 
repeated,  it  never  could  have  silently  acquiesced  in 
and  tolerated  such  a  custom",  had  it  deemed  the 
Anglican  form  to  be  in  any  way  sufficient.  More- 
over, continues  the  Bull,  the  Holy  See  not  only 
acquiesced  in  the  practice,  but  on  many  occasions 
gave  it  renewed  sanction  by  express  judgments,  to 
two  of  which,  the  second  being  that  of  John  Clement 
Gordon,  it  calls  particular  attention,  repudiating  in 
connexion  with  this  latter  the  allegation  that  the 
rejection  of  Gordon's  previous  orders  had  been  mo- 
tived by  any  other  cause  than  the  character  of  the 
Anglican  rite  (a  copy  of  which  was  procured  and 
examined  by  the  judges),  or  even  that  in  judging 
of  the  rite  the  essential  point  considered  was  the 
omLssion  in  it  of  any  tradition  of  the  instruments. 
This  account  of  the  practice  of  his  predecessors 
forms  the  first  part  of  the  "Apostolicie  Cune",  and 
in  view  of  it  Leo  XIII  obser\cs  that  the  question 
could  not  really  be  considered  still  open.  He  has 
wished,  however,  "to  help  men  of  good  will  by  shew- 
ing them  the  greatest  consideration  and  charity," 
and  he  proceeds  to  expound  the  principles  on  which 
the  Anglican  Rite  is  judged  by  himself,  as  well  as  by 
his  predecessors,  to  lack  the  conditions  of  validity. 
"In  the  examination",  he  says,  "of  any  rite  for  the 
effecting  and  administering  of  Sacraments,  distinc- 
tion is  rightly  made  between  the  part  which  is  cere- 
wonial  and  that  which  is  exucntial,  usually  called  the 
'matter'  and  'form'.  All  know  that  the  Sacraments 
of  the  New  Law,  as  sensible  and  ellicienl  signs  of 
invisible  grace,  ought  both  to  signify  the  grace  which 
they  eflect,  and  effect  the  grace  which  they  signify. 


ANGLICAN 


497 


ANGLICAN 


Although  the  signification  ought  to  be  found  in  the 
■whole  essential  rite,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  'matter' 
and  'form',  it  still  j>ertains  chiefly  to  tlie  'form'; 
since  the  'matter'  is  the  part  which  is  not  deter- 
mined by  itself,  but  which  is  determined  by  the 
'form'.  And  this  appears  still  more  clearly  in  the 
Sacrament  of  Orders,  the  matter  of  which,  m  so  far 
as  we  ha\'e  to  consider  it  in  this  case,  is  the  impo- 
sition of  hands,  wliich  indeed  by  itself  signifies  noth- 
ing definite,  and  is  equally  used  for  several  orders 
and  for  confirmation.  But  the  words  which  until 
recently  were  commonly  held  by  Anglicans  to  con- 
stitute the  proper  form  of  priestly  ordination  — 
namely:  'Receive  the  iloly  Ghost' — certainly  do  not 
in  the  least  definitely  express  the  sacred  Order  of 
Priesthood,  or  its  grace  and  power,  which  is  chiefly 
the  power  'of  consecrating  and  of  otTering  the  tnio 
Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord'  (Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  XXIII,  de  Sacr.  Ord.,  Can.  1)  in  that  sacrifice 
which  is  'no  nude  commemoration  of  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Cross'  {ibid.,  Sess.  XXIII,  de  Sacr.  Miss., 
Can.  3).  .  .  .  The  Siimc  holds  gooil  of  episcopal  con- 
secration. For  to  the  formula,  'Receive  the  Holy 
Ghost',  not  only  were  the  wonls  'for  the  ofllce  and 
work  of  a  bishop'  etc.,  added  at  a  later  period,  but 
even  these,  as  we  shall  presently  state,  must  be  un- 
derstood in  a  sense  different  from  that  which  they 
bear  in  the  Catholic  rite."  In  this  piussage  the  Bull 
sanctions  the  principle  that  a  sacramental  rite  must 
signify  definitely  what  it  is  to  etTcct,  and  that  this 
definite  signification  must  be  in  the  essential  "form", 
or  words  in  proximate  connection  with  the  "matter"; 
also  that,  in  the  case  of  Holy  Order,  what  must  be 
definitely  signified  is,  in  the  ordination  of  priests, 
the  Order  of  the  Priesthood  or  its  grace  and  iwwer, 
and  similarly  in  the  consecration  of  bishops;  the 
grace  and  power  in  each  having  reference  to  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
This  principle  accepted,  it  follows  at  once  that  the 
Anglican  Ordinal,  at  least  as  it  stood  till  1002,  lacks 
the  essential  conditions  of  sufficiency.  But  the  Bull 
further  examines  how  far  the  remainder  of  this  Or- 
dinal, or  the  circumstances  under  which  it  came  into 
being,  can  be  held  to  determine  the  ambiguitj'  of 
the  "essential  form".  And  here  it  sanctions  the 
judgment  which  the  Catholic  writers  had  already 
formed.  "The  historj',"  it  says,  "of  that  time  is 
sufficiently  eloquent  as  to  the  animus  of  the  authors 
of  the  Ordinal  against  the  Catholic  Church;  as  to 
the  abettors  whom  they  associated  with  themselves 
from  heterodox  sects;  and  as  to  the  end  in  view.  .  .  . 
I'nder  a  pretext  of  returning  to  the  primitive  form, 
they  corrupted  the  liturgical  order  in  many  ways  to 
suit  the  errors  of  the  Reformers.  For  this  reason, 
in  the  whole  Ordinal  not  only  is  there  no  clear  men- 
tion of  the  sacrifice,  but  every  trace  of  these  things 
which  had  been  in  such  prayers  of  the  Catholic  rite 
as  they  had  not  entirely  rejected,  was  deliljerately 
removed  and  stnick  out.  In  this  way  the  native 
character — or  spirit,  as  it  is  called — of  the  Ordinal 
clearly  manifests  itself.  Hence,  if,  vitiated  in  its 
origin,  it  was  wholly  insufficient  to  confer  orders, 
it  was  impossible  that  in  the  course  of  time  it  should 
become  sufficient,  since  it  remained  alwaj-s  what  it 
was  (i.  e.  of  vitiated  origin).  .  .  .  For  once  a  new 
rite  has  been  initiated,  in  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  Sacrament  of  Orders  is  adulterated  or  denied, 
and  from  wliich  all  idea  of  consecration  and  sacrifice 
has  been  rejected,  the  formula,  'Receive  the  Holy 
Spirit'  (the  Spirit,  namely,  which  is  infused  into  the 
soul  with  the  grace  of  the  .Sacrament)  no  longer  holds 
good,  and  so  the  words  'for  the  office  and  work  of  a 

Criest  or  bishop',  and  the  like,  no  longer  hold  good, 
ut  remain  as  words  without  the  reality  which  Christ 
instituted."  Likewi.se  in  regard  to  the  defect  of  in- 
tention, the  Bull  endorses  the  judgment  adverse  to 
Anglican  ordination  which  Catholic  writers  had  al- 


ways urged.  "When  anyone  has  rightly  and  sen- 
ously  made  u.se  of  the  due  'form'  and  'matter' 
requisite  for  edecling  or  conferring  the  sacrament, 
he  is  considered  by  that  very  fact  to  do  what  the 
Church  does.  On  this  principle  rests  the  doctrine 
that  a  sacrament  is  truly  conferred  by  the  ministry 
of  one  who  is  a  heretic  or  unbaptize<l,  provided  the 
Catholic  rite  lie  employed.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  rite  be  changed,  with  the  manifest  intention  of 
introducing  anotlier  rite  not  approved  by  the  Church, 
and  of  rejecting  what  the  Cliurch  does,  and  what, 
by  the  iiLstitution  of  Christ,  belongs  to  the  nature 
of  a  sacrament,  then  it  is  clear  that  not  only  is  the 
necessary  intention  wanting  to  the  sacrament,  but 
that  the  intention  is  adverse  to,  and  destructive  of, 
the  sacrament." 

These  are  the  defects  in  the  Anglican  Succession, 
on  the  existence  of  which  the  Bull  bases  its  decision. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  they  are  of  the  most  funda- 
mental kind,  and  are  independent  of  any  defects 
that  may  be  thought  to  arise  out  of  the  omission 
in  the  Ordinal  of  a  tradition  of  the  instniments,  or 
of  the  doubt  about  Barlow's  consecration.  To  ex- 
amine into  the  nature  and  bearing  of  the  latter  when 
a  sufficient  basis  for  a  certain  conclusion  had  l>een 
supplied  by  the  former  would  have  been  a  super- 
fluous task,  and  for  the  same  reason  it  is  unlikely 
that  even  for  the  private  inquirer  these  other  con- 
siderations will  retain  in  the  future  the  interest  they 
had  in  the  past.  At  the  same  time  the  Bull  has  in 
no  way  pronounced  them  to  be  frivolous  or  un- 
founded, as  has  been  suggested.  It  remains  to  give 
the  formal  definition  of  the  Bull,  which  is  in  the 
following  terms:  "Wherefore,  strictly  adhering  in 
this  matter  to  the  decrees  of  the  Pontiffs  Our  Pre- 
decessors, and  confirming  them  most  fully,  and,  as 
it  were,  renewing  them  by  Our  authority,  of  Our 
own  motion  and  certain  knowledge  We  pronounce 
and  declare  that  ordinations  carried  out  according 
to  the  Anglican  rite  have  been  and  are  absolutely 
null  and  void." 

The  publication  of  the  "Apostolica;  Cune"  caused, 
as  w:is  to  be  expected,  much  excitemtnt  in  England; 
nor  did  the  Anglican  party,  for  whose  sake  it  was 
intended,  show  any  disposition  to  accept  either  its 
arguments  or  its  decision.  It  was  deemed,  however, 
to  have  created  a  crisis  sufficiently  serious  to  re- 
quire that  it  should  be  met  by  some  formal  reply. 
Accordingly,  in  the  early  part  of  1897  there  ajv 
peared,  in  both  a  Latin  ana  an  English  edition,  an 
Answer  of  the  .\rchbishops  of  England  to  the  Apo.-;- 
tolic  Letter  of  Poi)e  Leo  XIII  on  English  Ordina- 
tions", which  was  "addressed  to  the  w-fiole  body  cf 
Bishops  of  the  Catholic  Church".  This  answer, 
which  came  to  be  known  by  its  Latin  name  of  the 
"Responsio",  is  a  distinctly  Low-Church  document, 
of  which  the  leading  contention  is  that  the  Pope 
has  misjudged  the  .\nglican  Ordinal  through  failure 
to  recognize  the  right  of  national  Churches  to  re- 
form and  revise  their  own  formulas,  and  by  apply- 
ing to  this  Ordinal  a  false  and  untnistworthy  rule. 
The  tnie  rule  to  which  an  ordinal  should  be  con- 
formed, it  urges,  is  the  nile  of  Holy  Scripture,  and 
it  is  in  this  rule  that  the  Reformers  sought  their 
guidance.  They  found  an  enormous  accretion  of 
saeerdotalist  ideas  embodied  in  the  words  and  cere- 
monies of  the  older  Ordinal,  whercjis,  in  the  New 
Testament,  the  saeerdotalist  conception  of  the  Chris- 
tian ministrj-  wius  altogether  absent.  And,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  found  that  the  aspects  of  the 
Christian  ministry  on  wliich  Our  Lord  and  His  Apos- 
tles had  laid  the  most  stress — those,  namely,  which 
concerne<l  the  pastor's  duty  to  go  forth  in  flis  M:us- 
ter's  name  as  His  steward,  His  watchman.  His 
messenger,  to  tend  the  sheep,  and,  if  neeil  be,  lay 
down  his  life  for  their  sakes,  to  preach  the  word, 
to  convert  sinners,  to  remit  offences  in  the  Church. 


ANGLICANISM 


498 


ANGLICANISM 


to  render  mutual  services  to  one  another,  and  much 
else  of  the  same  kind— were  very  insufficiently  set 
forth  in  the  Pontifical.  Accordingly,  in  drawing  up 
their  new  rite,  thej'  endeavoured  as  far  as  possible 
to  eliminate  the  former  element  and  give  prominence 
to  the  latter,  while  in  tlieir  ''forms"  they  assigned 
to  the  priesthood  the  words  wliich,  according  to  the 
New  Testament,  Our  Lord  used  in  promoting  His 
Apostles  to  this  office,  and  to  the  episcopate  the 
words  of  St.  Paul  which  "were  believed  to  refer  to 
the  consecration  of  St.  Timothy  to  be  Bishop  of 
Ephesus".  Nor,  in  following  precedents  so  lofty, 
could  they  reasonably  be  charged  with  having  en- 
dangered the  efficacy  of  their  rite.  This  is  in  brief 
the  defensive  argument  of  the  "Responsio".  But 
it  also  charges  the  Pope  with  having,  in  his  zeal  to 
condemn  tlie  orders  of  the  Anglican  Church,  over- 
looked the  contradictions  in  which  he  was  involving 
the  position  of  his  own  Church.  In  condemning  the 
Anglican  "forms"  as  wanting  in  definite  significa- 
tion, he  condemned,  by  implication,  the  orders  of 
his  own  Church,  since  the  Roman  Pontifical  in  its 
pre-medieval  text  was  not  a  whit  more  definite  than 
the  Elizabethan  Anglican;  and  in  attaching  the  sac- 
ramental virtue  to  the  imposition  of  hands  and  the 
connected  words  he  was  condemning  by  implication 
his  predecessor,  Eugenius  IV,  who  attached  that 
virtue  to  the  tradition  of  instruments  and  the  words 
connected  therewith,  not  even  making  mention  of 
imposition  of  hands  among  the  requisites.  One 
thing  was  made  clear  by  the  "Responsio",  and  by 
the  other  criticisms  of  the  "Apostolicfe  Curje"  which 
poured  forth  from  the  Anglican  press,  namely,  that 
the  character  of  the  Bull  and  its  arguments  had  been 
greatly  misapprehended.  Hence,  Cardinal  Vaughan 
and  the  English  Catholic  Bishops,  in  the  early  part 
of  1S98,  published  a  "Vindication  of  the  Bull  'Apos- 
toliciB  Curte,'  in  reply  to  a  letter  addressed  to  them 
by  the  Anglican  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York."  In  this  "Vindication,"  after  some  prelimi- 
nary observations  on  the  extrinsic  reasons  which  the 
Bull  had  given  for  its  decision,  attention  is  called 
to  the  false  standpoint  from  which  the  two  Arch- 
bishops had  judged  the  arguments  of  the  Bull.  In 
their  "Responsio"  they  are  mainly  occupied  with 
challenging  the  soundness  of  the  principles  on  which 
the  papal  decision  had  been  based.  They  urge  that 
it  rests  on  a  false  and  unscriptural  conception  of  the 
priesthood,  and  that,  if  for  this  the  more  scriptural 
conception  expounded  by  themselves  had  been  sub- 
stituted, the  decision  must  have  been  different.  But 
this,  the  "Vindication"  points  out,  is  ignoratio  elcn- 
chi.  Of  course  the  Pope  considers  that  the  Catholic 
conception  of  the  priesthood  is  in  conformity  with 
Scripture;  but  that  was  not  the  question  under  con- 
sideration. The  Anglican  grievance  was  that  those 
of  tlieir  clergy  who  came  over  to  us  were  re-ordained; 
and  to  complain  of  this  was  to  contend  that  even 
on  our  principles  their  orders  ought  to  be  recognized; 
while  no  doubt  the  particular  section  of  the  Angli- 
can communion  which  took  most  to  heart  this  prac- 
tice of  re-ordination  was  in  substantial  agreement 
witli  us  as  to  our  conception  of  the  priesthood. 
Hence  the  Holy  See,  in  examining  the  question, 
necessarily  assumed  the  validity  of  its  own  principles, 
and  incjuired  only  if  they  had  been  duly  applied. 
The  "Vindication",  however,  to  facilitate  the  under- 
standing of  the  Pope's  reasons,  sets  itself  to  expand, 
explain,  and  vindicate  by  reference  to  the  facts 
tho.se  points  which  the  Bull,  after  the  manner  of 
legal  documents,  gives  only  in  a  highly  condensed 
form.  It  is  not  neces.sary  here  to  epitomize  the 
"Vindication",  but  mention  may  be  made  of  its 
ptudy  of  the  opinions  in  regard  to  the  Eucharistic 
PrcscMice,  the  Mass,  and  tlie  priesthood  of  Cranmer 
and  his  associates,  as  likewise  of  the  opinions  on  tlie 
eaiue  subjects  expressed  by  a  series  ot  Anglican  di- 


vines during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries, 
which  showed  that  the  tradition  initiated  by  Cran- 
mer persisted. 

The  Authority  of  "AposTOLia«  Cur.e". — The 
question  has  been  raised  whether  the  pronouncement 
of  the  Bull  "  Apostolica;  Curae"  is  or  is  not  to  be  taken 
as  an  infallible  utterance  of  the  Holy  See.  But  even 
if  it  were  not  it  would  not  follow  that  it  can  be  dis- 
regarded, and  its  eventual  withdrawal  confidently 
anticipated.  What  may  be  safely  assumed  is  that 
it  fixes  the  belief  and  practice  of  the  Catholic  Church 
irrevocably.  This  at  least  Leo  XIII  must  have 
meant  to  signify  when  in  his  letter  to  Cardinal 
Richard,  of  5  November,  1896,  he  declared  that  his 
"intention  had  been  to  pass  a  final  judgment  and 
settle  (the  question)  forever"  {alisolute  judicare  et 
penitus  dirimere),  and  tliat  "Catholics  were  bound 
to  receive  (the  judgment)  with  the  fullest  obedience 
as  perpetuo  firmam,  ralam,  irrevocabilem" .  Still, 
as  a  matter  of  speculative  interest,  it  may  be  asked 
whether  the  definition  is  strictly  infallible,  and  the 
answer  may  be  stated  shortly  thus.  It  belongs  to  a 
class  of  ex  cathedrd  utterances  for  wliich  infallibility 
is  claimed  on  the  ground,  not  indeed,  of  the  terms  of 
the  Vatican  definition,  but  of  the  constant  practice 
of  the  Holy  See,  the  consentient  teaching  of  the  theo- 
logians, as  well  as  of  tlie  clearest  deductions  from 
the  principles  of  faith.  To  understand  what  is  meant 
it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  distinction  between 
a  dogma  and  a  dogmatic  fact,  the  former  being  a 
doctrine  of  revelation,  the  latter  a  fact  so  intimately 
connected  with  a  revealed  doctrine  that  it  would  be 
impossible  without  inconsistency  to  assert  the  former 
and  deny  the  latter.  It  may  be  urged  that  the 
Vatican  Council  merely  defined  that  the  Pope  wlien 
speaking  ex  cathedrd  has  "that  infallibility  which 
the  divine  Redeemer  wished  His  Church  to  have  in 
defining  doctrine  of  faitli  and  morals",  without 
going  on  to  define  the  range  of  infallibility  which 
Our  Lord  wished  His  Church  to  have.  But  it  must 
be  remembered  (1)  that  the  Vatican  Council,  had 
it  not  been  forced  to  suspend  its  sittings  by  the  out- 
break of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  intended  to  sup- 
plement this  first  definition  by  others  which  would 
have  gone  into  details  in  regard  to  the  object  of  in- 
fallibility; (2)  that  to  suppose  that  Church  authority 
can  define  a  doctrine  to  be  true,  but  cannot  decide 
whether  it  is  contained  in  or  denied  by  any  particular 
writing — such  as  an  ordination  rite — is  to  suppose 
that  the  power  of  defining  doctrine  is  largely  nuga- 
tory; and  (3)  that  since  the  time  of  Jansenius  there 
has  been  a  practical  consennus  thcologorum  in  holding 
that  infallibility  does  extend  to  dogmatic  facts,  a 
judgment  which  would  undoubtedly  bring  this  Bull 
witliin  tlie  category  of  infallilile  utterances. 

Most  of  the  leading  works  on  Anglican  Orders  have  been 
mentioned  in  the  body  of  thi.s  article,  but  of  recent  date  there 
are  also  the  following:  On  the  Catholic  side,  Barnks.  The 
Pope  and  the  Ordinal  (1898),  a  convenient  collection  of  the 
documents  concerned;  Raynal,  Ordinal  of  Edward  VI  (1870); 
Moves,  articles  in  Tablet  (February-May  and  September- 
December,  1895;  and  February-July,  1897);  Sydnky  F. 
Smith,  Reasons  for  rejecting  Anglican  Orders  (London,  1896); 
Segna,  Breves  Animadversiones  in  Responsionem  Archiepis- 
coporum  Anglicanorum^  ad  Litteras  Apostolicas  Leonis  PP. 
Xlll,  "Apostolica  Curai*'  (1897);  Hrandi,  La  Condanna  delle 
Ordinazioni  Anglicane,  in  La  Civilth  Cattolica,  Ser.  16,  VIII 
(t,r.  in  Am.  Ecc.  Rev.,  XVI,  1897).  On  the  Anglican  side, 
Denny  and  Lacey,  De  Hierarehid  Anglican^  (1895).  written 
with  the  object  of  laying  the  Anglican  case  before  continental 
students;  and  the  Church  Historical  Society's  Treatise  on 
the  Bull  "Apostolica!  Curae"  (1898). 

Sydney  F.  Smith. 
Anglicanism. — A  term  used  to  denote  the  reli- 
gious belief  and  position  of  members  of  the  Estab- 
lislicd  Church  of  ICngland,  and  of  the  communicat- 
iii^;  cliurdics  in  the  Britisli  possessions,  the  T'nitcd 
States,  andclsowliere.  It  includes  (hose  wlio  have  ac- 
cepted the  work  of  the  En^;lisli  Hol'oriiuition  as  em- 
bodied in  the  Church  of  Eii);huid  or  in  tlic  olT.shoot 
Churches  wliich  in  other  countries  have  adhered,  at 


ANGLICANISM 


499 


ANOLIOANISM 


least  substantially,  to  its  doctrines,  its  organization, 
and  its  liturgy.  Apart  from  minor  or  missionary 
settlements,  the  area  in  which  Anglicanism  is  to 
be  found  corresponds  roughly  with  those  portions 
of  the  globe  which  are,  or  were  formerly,  under  the 
British  flag.  Tlie  number  of  Catholics  m  the  world 
is  said  U>  exceed  L'30,000,000  (estimates  by  M. 
Fournier  de  Flaix;  see  Tlie  American  Statistical 
Association  Quarterly  for  March,  189J).  The  number 
belonging  to  the  Greek  and  Ivistern  Churches  is 
about  100,000,000.  The  number  of  .Vnglicans  in  all 
countries  is  something  less  than  2"),000,000.  Thus 
the  relative  proportion  of  those  three  Christian  bodi&s 
which  are  sometimes  grouped  as  being  lOpiscopalian 
in  constitution  may  be  fairly  stated  by  tlie  three 
figures,  2'.i,  10,  2\.  The  growth  of  .Vnglicanism  has 
followed  mainly  upon  the  expansion  of  the  .\nglo- 
Saxon  race.  Its  area  may  be  .said  to  includp.  besides 
the  three  nucleal  countries  (England,  Ireland,  Scot- 
land), six  others,  namely:  the  United  States,  Canada, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  and  India. 
But  the  bulk  of  its  membership,  in  fact  more  th.an 
two-thirds,  is  to  be  fomul  in  iMigland.  In  all  the 
other  countries  of  its  area  it  is  in  a  minority  of  the 
Christian  population.  In  five  of  them  —  Ireland.  .Scot- 
land, the  United  States,  Canada,  and  India  -its  num- 
bers are  considerably  exceeded  by  those  of  tlie 
Catholic  Church.  Its  foreign  mi.s.sions  are  very  gen- 
erously supported,  and  have  extended  their  activity 
far  into  the  heathen  countries.  Tlie  following  table 
is  compileil  from  comparatively  recent  statistics. 
The  numbers  given  are  of  members,  except  when  it 
is  stated  to  be  of  communicants.  The  ratio  of 
communicants  to  members  may  be  anytliing  between 
1  in  3  and  1  in  S. 


ConNTRY 

Total  Christian 
Population 

Number  of  Anglicans 

England 

32,520,075 

Between  13  and  17  millions 
or  2,223,207  communicants 

Ireland 

4,458.775 

581.089 

Scotland 

4,472,103 

134,155      (Epis.      Ch.      of 
Scotland— Year        Book, 

1900) 

United  States 

7fi.303.387 

823.060  communicants 

Canada 

.■.,.!71.(Wl 

680.340 

Australia 

:),77I.'-'.S2 

1.250.673 

NewZkalani. 

77.'.7I9 

315,263 

South  Africa 

l,l.i5.735 

Under    300.000    or   48,4S7 
communicants 

India 

2,923,241 

453, 162 

The  foregoing  statistics  concerning  the  Christian 
population  of  F.ngland  and  lier  dependencies  arc, 
with  the  exception  of  .\ustralia  and  New  Zealand, 
taken  from  the  Census,  1901  (British  lOnipire  Of- 
ficial Year  Book,  which  is  also  to  be  consulted  for 
the  .\nglican  population  of  Ireland,  Canada,  New 
Zealand,  and  India).  The  figures  for  the  Christian 
populations  of  .Vustralia,  in  1901,  and  New  Zealand 
are  given  respectively  in  "Whitaker's  .Vlnianac", 
1906,  which  inchules  0,S.")1  aborigines,  and  the 
"New  Zealand  Year  Hook",  1904,  which  excludes 
the  Maori.s.  The  Christian  population  of  the  United 
States  is  baseil  on  tlie  .Vbstract  of  the  Twelfth  Cen- 
sus, and  that  of  South  .Vfrica  on  the  Kuropean 
population,  1904,  as  contained  in  "Whitaker's  .\1- 
manac",  1906.  For  several  ilecades  there  has  been 
no  return  of  religious  denominations  in  tlie  British 
Government  Census.  The  Church  of  Knglantl  is  pop- 
ularly estimated  to  include  about  17,000,(X)0.  Its 
official  "Year  Book"  (190<)),  which  is  al.so  the  au- 
thority for  the  number  of  communicants  in  the  United 
States  and  South  .\frica,  gives  tlie  number  of  com- 
municants in  F.ngland  as  •J,223,207.  This  multiplied 
by  6  would  give  a  membership  of  13..3.39,21?.  The 
same  authority  gives  the  mnnber  of  baptisms  as  61,).- 
6l'1.  This,  upon  the  usual  multiple  of  L'JJ,  would 
give  a  membership  of  13,860,000.  The  number  be- 
I.— 32 


longing  to  the  Church  of  England  would  thus  seem 
to  be  between  thirteen  and  seventeen  millions.  For 
the  number  of  .Xnglicans  in  Australia  in  1901,  refer 
again  to  "  Wliitaker's  Almanac",  1906. 

Belikfs. — To  form  a  general  idea  of  Anglicanism 
as  a  religious  .system,  it  will  be  convenient  to  sketch 
it  in  rougli  outline  as  it  exists  in  the  Kstablished 
Church  of  lOngland,  bearing  in  mind  that  there  are 
differences  of  detail,  mainly  in  liturgy  and  church- 
government,  to  bo  found  in  the  other  portions  of  the 
.Vnglican  communion.  Tlie  members  of  the  Church 
of  England  are  professed  Christians,  and  claim  to  be 
baptized  members  of  the  Cliurch  of  Christ.  They 
accept  the  Scriptures  as  contained  in  the  Authorized 
Version,  as  tlie  Word  of  God.  They  hold  the  Scrip- 
tures to  be  the  sole  and  supreme  rule  of  faith,  in  the 
sense  that  the  Scriptures  contain  all  things  neces.sary 
to  salvation  and  that  nothing  can  be  required  of 
anyone  as  an  article  of  faith  wliich  is  not  contained 
therein,  antl  cannot  be  proved  thereby.  They  accept 
the  Rook  of  Common  Prayer  as  the  practical  rule  of 
their  belief  ami  worship,  and  in  it  they  use  as  stan- 
dards of  tloctrino  the  tlirce  Creetis — the  .\pcstles',  the 
Nicene,  and  the  .\tlianasian.  They  believe  in  two 
.sacraments  of  the  Gospel,  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  as  generally  necessary  to  salvation.  They 
claim  to  have  .\i)ostolic  succession  and  a  validly 
ordained  ministry,  and  only  persons  whom  they  be- 
lieve to  be  thus  ordained  are  allowed  to  minister  in 
their  churches.  They  believe  that  the  Church  of 
England  is  a  true  and  reformed  part,  or  braiicli.  or 
pair  of  provinces,  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  Christ. 
They  maintain  that  the  Church  of  England  is  free 
from  all  foreign  jurisdiction.  They  recognize  the 
King  as  Supreme  Governor  of  the  Church  and  ac- 
knowletlge  that  to  him  "appertains  the  government 
of  all  estates  whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  in  all 
caiLses. "  The  clergy,  before  being  appointed  to  a 
benefice  or  licensed  to  preach,  subscribe  and  declare 
that  they  "assent  to  the  Thirty-nine  .\rticles,  and 
to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  of  Ordering  of 
Bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  and  believe  the  doc- 
trine of  tlie  Church  of  ICngland  as  therein  set  forth 
to  be  agreeable  to  the  Word  of  God".  One  of  the 
-Articles  (X.W)  thus  subscribed  approves  the  First 
and  Second  Book  of  Homilies  as  containing  "a  godly 
and  wholesome  tloctrine  necessary  for  these  times'  , 
and  adjudges  them  to  be  read  in  churches  "dili- 
gently and  distinctly".  To  tlie.se  general  character- 
istics we  may  aikl  1)y  way  of  corrective  that  while 
the  Bible  is  accepted  much  latitude  is  allowed  as  to 
the  nature  and  extent  of  its  inspiration;  that  the 
Eucharistic  teaching  of  the  Prayer  Book  is  subject 
to  various  and  opposed  interpretations;  that  Apos- 
tolic succession  is  claimed  by  many  to  be  beneficial, 
but  not  essential,  to  the  nature  of  the  Church;  that 
the  .\postles'  Creed  is  the  only  one  to  which  as.sent 
can  be  required  from  the  laity,  and  the  Articles  of 
Religion  are  held  to  be  binding  only  on  the  licensed 
and  beneficed  clergy. 

Chief  Government. — Inside  these  outlines,  which 
are  nece.s.sarily  vague,  the  constitution  of  the  Church 
of  ICnglantl  has  been  largely  determined  by  the  events 
which  attended  its  settlement  under  the  Tudors. 
Before  the  breach  with  Home  under  Menrj'  VIII 
there  was  absolutely  no  doctrinal  difference  between 
the  faith  of  Englishmen  and  the  rest  of  Catholic 
Christendom,  and  ".Anglicanism",  ?s  connoting  a 
separate  or  independent  religious  system,  was  un- 
known. The  name  Ecclc.iia  An(jlicana,  or  English 
Church,  was  of  course  employed,  but  always  in  the 
Catholic  and  Papal  use  of  the  term  as  signifj-ing  that 
part  or  region  of  the  one  Catholic  Church  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Pope  which  w.as  situated  in  Eng- 
land, and  precisely  in  the  .same  way  .as  the  Church 
in  Scotland  was  called  the  ICcclcxia  Scolticana, 
the  Church  in  France,   the  Ecclesia  GaUicana,  ajid 


ANGLICANISM 


500 


ANGLICANISM 


the  Church  in  Spain  the  Erclesia  liispanica.  That 
such  national  or  resional  appellations  were  a  part  of 
the  style  of  the  lioinan  Curia  itself,  and  that  they 
in  no  sense  could  have  implied  any  indication  of  in- 
dependence of  Rome,  is  suificiently  well  known  to 
all  who  are  familiar  with  pre-Reformation  records. 
Pone  Honoriuslll,  in  1218,  in  his  Bull  to  King  Alex- 
ander speaks  of  the  Scottish  Church  {Ecdesia  Scot- 
ticana)  as  "being  immediately  subject  to  the  Apos- 
tolic See"  (Papal  Letters  I,  60),  and  the  abbots  and 
priors  of  England  in  their  letter  to  Innocent  IV,  in 
124G.  declared  that  the  English  Church  {Ecdesia 
Anglicana)  is  "a  special  member  of  the  Most  Holy 
Church  of  Rome"  [Matthew  Paris  (Rolls  Series),  IV, 
531].  In  1413  .\rclibishop  .\rundel,  with  the  assent 
of  Convocation,  affirmed  against  the  Lollards  the 
faith  of  the  Englisli  Church  in  a  number  of  test 
articles,  including  the  Divine  institution  of  the  Pa- 
pacy and  the  duty  of  all  Christians  to  render  obe- 
dience to  it  (Wilkins,  Concilia,  III,  355).  In  1521, 
only  thirteen  years  before  the  breach,  John  Clerk, 
the"  English  .\mbassador  at  Rome,  was  able  to  assure 
the  Pope  in  full  consistory  that  England  was  second 
to  no  country  in  Christendom,  "  not  even  to  Rome 
itself",  in  the  "service  of  God:  and  of  the  Christian 
Faith,  and  in  the  obedience  due  to  the  Most  Holy 
Roman  Church"  (Clerk's  oration,  ed.  Jerome  Era- 
ser). The  first  point  of  severance  was  clearly  one 
of  Erastianism.  When  news  of  the  papal  decision 
against  tlie  divorce  reached  England,  Henry  VIII 
gave  his  assent  to  four  anti-papal  statutes  passed 
in  Parliament  in  the  spring  of  1534,  and  in  November 
the  statute  of  the  Royal  Supremacy  declared  the 
King  to  be  Supreme  Head  of  the  English  Church 
(without  the  limiting  clause  of  1532),  and  an  oath 
was  prescribed,  affirming  the  Pope  to  have  no  juris- 
diction in  the  realm  of  England.  The  actual  ministry 
of  preacliing  and  of  the  sacraments  was  left  to  the 
clergy,  but  all  the  powers  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion were  claimed  by  the  sovereign.  The  Act  of 
Supremacy  required  that  the  King,  as  Supreme  Head 
of  the  Church,  "  shall  have  f uU  power  and  autliority 
from  time  to  time  to  visit,  repress,  redress,  reform, 
order,  correct,  restrain,  and  amend  all  such  errors, 
heresies,  abuses,  offences,  contempts,  enormities 
whatsoever  they  be  which  by  any  manner,  spiritual 
authority  or  jurisdiction  ought  or  may  be  lawfully 
reformed"  (26  Henry  VIII,  i).  The  bishops  were 
made  to  sue  out  their  faculties  from  the  King,  and, 
that  the  meaning  of  this  humiliation  should  be  un- 
mistakal)le,  the  very  form  of  the  license  granted 
them  affirmed  the  plain  Erastian  principle  tliat  the 
Crown  was  the  source  of  their  jurisdiction,  "seeing 
that  all  authority  of  jurisdiction,  and  indeed  juris- 
diction of  all  kinds,  both  tliat  which  is  called  eccle- 
siastical and  that  which  is  secular,  is  originally  de- 
rived from  the  royal  power,  as  from  the  Supreme 
Head  and  foundation,  and  source  of  magistracy 
within  our  Kingdom"  (^Vilkins,  Concilia,  III,  799). 
The  l)ishops  and  clergy  in  convocation  were  forbid- 
den to  make  canons  except  when  the  King,  by  his 
"Letters  of  Bvisiness",  gave  them  permission  to  do 
so,  and  even  then  the  canons  so  made  were  to  have 
elTect  only  when  approved  by  the  King.  Another 
-statute  secured  to  the  Crown  the  absolute  control 
in  tlie  appointment  of  bishops.  The  chapters  were 
bound  luider  penalties  of  Prcemwiire  to  elect  the 
person  named  by  the  King  and  no  other,  and  the 
Arclibisliop  wa-s  bound  under  the  same  shameful 
penalties  to  consecrate  the  person  so  named  within 
twenty  days  after  receipt  of  the  King's  writ  (Sig- 
nilimril)  conunanding  him  to  do  so.  This  enact- 
ment, which  an  Anglican  bisliop  in  recent  times  has 
aptly  described  as  "the  Magna  Charta  of  tyranny", 
remains  in  force  to  the  present  day.  Within  the 
la.st  few  years  the  Law  Courts  have  ruled  that  no 
opposition  to  the  episcopal  confirmation  of  a  person 


nominated  by  the  Crown  can  be  allowed.  Thus  the 
chief  note  of  the  Henrician  -settlement  is  the  fact 
that  Anglicanism  was  founded  in  the  acceptance  of 
the  Royal,  and  the  rejection  of  the  Papal  Suprem- 
acy, and  was  placed  upon  a  fiecidedly  Erastian  basis. 
When  the  Act  of  Royal  Supremacy,  which  had  been 
repealed  by  Queen  Mary,  was  revived  by  Elizabeth, 
it  suffered  a  modification  in  the  sense  that  the  Sov- 
ereign was  styled  "Supreme  Governor"  instead  of 
"Supreme  Head".  In  a  suUsequent  ".\dmonition", 
Elizabeth  issued  an  interpretation  of  the  Royal  Su- 
premacy, to  the  effect  that  she  laid  claim  "to  no 
power  of  ministry  of  divine  offices  in  the  Church". 
At  the  same  time  she  reasserted  in  full  the  claim 
made  by  Henry  VIII  as  to  the  authority  of  the 
Crown  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  and  the  great  re- 
ligious changes  made  after  her  accession  were  carried 
out  and  enforced  in  a  royal  visitation  commissioned 
by  the  royal  authority.  In  1628,  Charles  I,  in  a 
Royal  Declaration  prefixed  to  the  Articles,  stated 
that  it  belonged  to  the  kingly  office  "to  conserve 
and  maintain  the  Church  committed  to  our  charge, 
in  unity  of  religion  and  the  bond  of  peace",  and  de- 
creed that  differences  arising  as  to  the  external  policy 
of  the  Church  were  to  be  -settled  in  Convocation,  but 
its  ordinances  were  to  be  submitted  to  the  Crown 
for  approval,  which  would  be  gi\-en  to  them  if  they 
were  not  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  land.  Arch- 
bishop Laud,  in  1640,  had  a  series  of  canons  drawn 
up  in  Convocation  and  duly  published,  but  this  at- 
tempt at  spiritual  independence  was  speedily  sup- 
pressed. The  indignation  of  Parliament  was  so  great 
that  he  himself  begged  leave  to  withdraw  them,  and 
the  House  of  Commons  passed  a  resolution  unani- 
mously declaring  that  "the  Clergy  in  Convocation 
assembled  has  no  power  to  make  any  canons  or  con- 
stitutions whatsoever  in  matters  of  doctrine,  disci- 
pline or  otherwise  to  bind  tlie  Ciergy  and  laity  of 
the  land  without  the  common  consent  in  Parlia- 
ment" (Resolution,  16  December,  1640).  The  effect 
of  the  legislation  under  Henry  VIII,  revived  by 
Elizabeth,  and  confirmed  in  subsequent  reigns,  has 
been,  as  Lord  Campbell  pointed  out  in  his  famous 
Gorham  judgment,  in  April,  1850,  to  locate  in  the 
Crown  all  that  decisive  jurisdiction  which  before  the 
Reformation  had  been  exercised  by  the  Pope.  Until 
the  year  1833,  the  Crown  exercised  this  supreme 
jurisdiction  through  a  special  body  called  the  Court 
of  Delegates.  Its  members  were  appointed  under 
the  Great  Seal,  and  consisted  of  lay  judges,  with 
whom  might  be  associated  a  number  of  bishops  or 
clergymen.  In  1833  this  Court  was  abolished,  and 
its  powers  w'ere  transferred  to  the  King  in  Council. 
Hence  matters  w-hich  come  under  its  purview  are 
now  decided  by  the  King  upon  the  advice  of  that 
part  of  the  Privy  Council  which  is  known  as  the 
Judicial  Committee.  The  statute  (2  and  3  Wil- 
liam IV,  xcii)  expressly  states  that  its  decisions  are 
final,  and  are  not  subject  to  any  commission  of  re- 
view. It  must  be  observed  that  this  tribunal  does 
not  profess  theoretically  to  decide  articles  of  faith, 
or  to  pronounce  upon  the  abstract  orthodoxy  or 
heterodoxy  of  opinions.  "Its  duty  extends  only  to 
the  consideration  of  that  which  is  by  law  established 
to  be  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England,  upon 
the  due  and  legal  construction  of  her  Articles  and 
fornuilaries"  (Ciorham  decision,  March,  1850).  But 
upon  this  ground  the  Crown  decided  tliat  the  views 
of  Mr.  Gorham,  whoso  notorious  rejection  of  the 
doctrine  of  baptismal  regeneration  had  shocked  his 
bishop  and  scandalized  tlie  Tractarians,  were  "not 
contrary  or  repugnant  to  the  declared  doctrine  of 
the  Church  of  I'.ngland  as  by  law  established".  Nu- 
merous protests  and  appeals  were  made  by  High 
Churchmen,  but  all  attcmjits  to  reverse  the  decision 
were  unavailing,  and  .\Ir.  Gorham  duly  received  in- 
stitution to  the  benefice  which  his  bishop  had  refused 


ANGLICANISM 


501 


ANOLIOANISM 


him.  In  like  manner,  in  1849,  when  vehement  op- 
position was  made  to  the  appointment  of  Dr.  Hami>- 
den  to  the  See  of  Hereforcf,  the  Prime  Minister  of 
the  day  insisted  on  tlie  riglit  of  tlie  Crown,  and  tlie 
Vicar-General  of  the  Ardibisliop  ruled  tliat  no  ex- 
ception could  be  suffered  against  one  wliom  the 
Crown  had  duly  nominated,  and  the  Court  of  Queen's 
Bencli  sustained  liis  ruling.  Tlius,  whatever  views 
or  aspirations  liave  been  lield  theoretically  by  Angli- 
can divines  on  tlie  spiritual  authority  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  the  Uoyal  Supremacy  remaiivs  an  effective 
reality,  and  tiie  Crown,  supported  by  Parliament 
and  the  Law  Courts,  botli  as  to  the  doctrines  wliich 
may  be  taught,  and  the  persons  who  shall  be  put  in 
otiice  to  teach  them,  has  possession  of  the  practical 
and  substantial  control.  It  is  the  characteristic  of 
the  Anglican  Kefornuition  that  the  supreme  ami  far- 
reaching  regulative  jurisdiction  which  was  e.xerci.sed 
by  the  Holy  See  was,  after  the  severance  from 
Rome,  taken  over,  to  all  intents  and  purijosas,  by 
the  Crown,  and  was  never  effectively  entrusted  to 
the  Anglican  Spiritualty,  either  to  the  Primate,  or 
to  the  Episcopate,  or  even  to  Convocation.  As  a 
result,  there  is  to  this  day  the  lack  of  a  living  Church 
Spiritual  Authority  which  has  been  to  the  Anglican 
Church  a  constant  source  of  weakness,  humiliation, 
and  disorder.  In  1904  a  royal  commission  was 
appointed  to  investigate  the  complaints  against  eccle- 
sia-<tical  discipline,  and  in  July,  1906,  it  issued  its 
re|x>rt,  in  which  it  points  out  that  at  no  time  in  the 
ptust  have  the  laws  of  public  worship  been  uniformly 
observed,  and  recommends  the  formation  of  a  Court 
which  while  exercising  the  Royal  Jurisdiction,  would 
be  bounil  to  accept  the  episcopate  on  questions  of 
doctrine  or  ritual.  This,  if  granted,  would  Im;  the 
first  step  towards  the  partial  emancipation  of  the 
Spiritualty  from  the  thraldom  of  the  civil  power,  in 
which  it  has  been  held  for  more  than  three  centuries. 
It  will  be  observed  that  Anglicanism  as  a  religious 
system  is  separable  from  the  doctrine  of  Royal  Su- 
premacy, which  is  an  outcome  of  its  union  with  the 
State,  and  of  the  circumstances  of  the  English  Re- 
formation. In  countries  outside  of  England  and 
Wales  .\nglican  Churches  exist,  and,  it  is  .said,  all  the 
more  prosjxjrously  from  being  untrammelled  by  the 
State  connection.  But  even  in  those  countries  the 
decisive  voice  in  the  government  of  the  Anglican 
Church  is  not  entrusted  to  the  Episcopate  alone,  and 
in  some  of  them  the  lay  power  in  the  synods  has 
made  itself  felt,  and  has  shown  that  it  can  be  as 
really  a  master  as  any  Tudor  sovereign  invested  with 
royal  supremacy.  The  supremacy  of  the  ."Spiritualty 
in  the  domain  of  doctrine,  as  the  .sole  guarantee  of 
tnie  religious  liberty,  is  still  lacking  in  the  Anglican 
system,  and  the  problem  of  supplying  it  remains  un- 
solved, if  not  insoluble. 

norrUIN.^L    AND    LlTURGIC.\I.    FouMUL.MilES. — The 

doctrinal  position  of  the  Anglican  Church,  in  like 
manner,  can  only  be  adequately  studied  in  its  historj-, 
which  divides  it.self  into  a  numl)er  of  stages  or  periods. 
The  first,  or  Henrician,  period  (1534-47)  includes  the 
breach  with  Rome,  the  setting  up  of  an  independent 
national  church,  and  the  tran.sfer  of  the  supreme 
Church  authority  from  the  Papacy  to  the  Crown. 
The  Edwardian  "(1547-.';3)  and  Elizabethan  (l.'j.iS- 
1603)  periods  carried  the  work  of  separation  much 
further.  Both  accepted  the  Henrician  basis  of  re- 
jection of  the  Papacy  and  erection. of  the  Royal  Su- 
premacy, but  built  upon  it  the  admi.ssion  of  the 
doctrinal  and  liturgical  clianges  which  make  up 
mainly  the  Anglican  Refonnation,  and  brought  the 
nation  within  the  great  Protestant  movement  of  the 
sixteentli  centur\'.  Although  the  policy  of  Ilenrj' 
VIII,  after  the  \)reach  with  Rome,  was  ostensibly 
conservative,  and  his  ideal  seemed  to  he  the  main- 
tenance of  a  Catholic  Church  in  England,  minus  the 
Pope,  it  is  incontestable    that  in    other    ways   his 


action  was  in  fatal  contradiction  to  his  professions. 
By  raising  to  power,  and  by  maintaining  m  positions 
of  unique  influence,  his  three  great  agents,  Thomas 
Cromwell,  Thomas  Cranmer,  and  Edward  Seymour, 
all  of  whom  were  always,  and  as  openly  as  they  dared, 
in  sympathy  with  the  Reformation,  Henry  VIll, 
whether  by  intention  or  by  the  indilTerence  of  his 
latter  days,  undoubtedly  prepared  the  way  and 
opened  the  gates  to  the  Protestantism  which  came 
in  under  Edward  and  Elizabeth.  In  1535  he  sent 
agents  to  negotiate  an  agreement  with  the  Reformers 
in  Germany,  and  in  1537  he  was  led  by  Cromwell, 
in  connivance  with  Cranmer,  into  further  negotia- 
tions with  the  Protestant  princes  assembled  at  .'^luul- 
kald.  He  wrote  to  Melanchthon  to  congratulate  him 
on  the  work  whi<-li  he  had  done  for  religion,  and 
invited  him  to  England.  Melanchthon  wxs  unable  lo 
come,  but  in  l.i3S  three  German  divines,  Burkhardt, 
Boyneburg,  and  Myconius,  were  sent  to  London, 
where  they  remained  some  months,  and  held  con- 
ferences with  a  deputed  number  of  the  Anglican 
bishops  and  clergj'.  The  Germans  presented  as  a 
basis  of  agreement  a  number  of  Articles  based  on 
the  Lutheran  Confession  of  Augsburg.  On  the  doc- 
trinal part  of  the.sc  Articles,  the  first  thirteen,  both 
parties  came  to  an  agreement  (Letter  of  Myconius 
to  Cromwell,  8  September,  1538).  On  the  second 
part,  the  "Abuses"  (viz.,  private  Masses,  celibacy 
of  the  Clergy,  invocation  of  .Saints)  the  King  would 
not  give  way,  and  finally  dissolved  the  conference. 
Although  the  negotiations  thus  formally  came  to  an 
end,  the  Thirteen  Articles  on  which  agreement  with 
the  Germans  had  been  made  were  kept  by  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer,  and  afterwards  by  Archbishop 
Parker,  and  were  used  as  test  articles  to  which  the 
preachers  whom  they  licensed  were  required  to  sub- 
scribe. Eventually  they  tecame  the  nucleus  of  the 
Articles  of  Religion  which  were  authorized  under 
Edward  VI  and  Elizabeth.  Hence  the  almost  verbal 
correspondence  lx;tween  these  Articles  and  the  Lu- 
theran Confession  of  Augsburg,  from  which  they  were 
originally  taken.  By  the  death  of  Henry  VIII  ('27 
January,  1547)  the_main  oljstade  to  the  reforming 
influence  was  removed.  With  the  accession  of  Ed- 
ward VI,  who  had  been  brought  up  in  the  reformed 
faith,  with  Seymour,  also  a  Protestant,  omnipotent 
in  the  Council,  and  Cranmer,  now  able  to  show  his 
hand  and  work  his  will,  the  party  of  the  Reformation 
became  po.sscssed  of  lall  the  resources  of  national 
power,  and  during  the  five  years  of  the  reign  (1547- 
53)  remained  triumphantly  in  the  ascendant.  This 
period  witnessed  the  introduction  of  the  great  doc- 
trinal and  liturgical  changes.  One  of  the  cardinal 
principles  of  the  Reformation  which  the  German 
delegates  had  brought  over  in  1538  was  that  "the 
Mass  is  nothing  but  a  Communion  or  .synaxis"  (Tun- 
stall's  Summary,  M.  S.  Clcop.  E.  V.,  209).  Cranmer 
vehemently  upheld  this  conception  of  the  Eucharist. 
One  of  the  first  Acts  under  Edward  VI  was  the  in- 
troduction of  a  new  English  Communion  Service, 
which  was  to  be  inserted  at  the  end  of  the  Ma.ss,  and 
which  required  Communion  to  Ije  given  under  both 
kinds.  This  w.is  soon  after  followed  by  a  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  with  a  Communion  Service  entirely 
taking  the  place  of  the  Latin  Mass.  Cranmer  wjis 
the  chief  author  of  this  lx)ok.  Whether  it  ever  re- 
ceived the  a.ssent  of  Convocation  has  been  que.s- 
tioncd,  but  it  wa,s  approved  by  Parliament  in  1549. 
Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  in  opposing  Cnm- 
mer's  denial  of  the  Real  Presence  and  of  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  M:i.ss,  argued  that  even  certain  p:vs.sages  in  the 
new  Prayer  Book  implied  the  acceptance  of  these  doc- 
trines; whercu|xin  Cranmer  and  his  fellow-reformers 
drew  up  a  new  Prayer  Book,  still  more  Protestant  in 
tone  and  character.  In  it  the  order  of  the  parts  of 
the  Communion  Scr\-ice  was  considerably  altered,  and 
the  passages  used  by  Gardiner  as  apparently  favour- 


ANGLICANISM 


502 


ANGLICANISM 


ing  the  Catholic  doctrine  were  studioiisly  eliminated, 
or  so  duitiged  as  to  preclude  in  future  any  such 
interpretation,  and  all  allusion  to  Altar  or  Sacrifice 
was  carefully  omitted  (Gasquet  and  Bishop,  Ed- 
ward Vi  and  the  liook  of  Common  Prayer,  289). 
In  1552,  this,  the  second  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI, 
was  autho'ized  by  Parliament.  A  new  Ordinal  or 
Order  for  making  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  was 
compiled,  from  which  in  like  manner  all  mention  of 
the  sacrificial  office  of  the  priesthood  was  rigorously 
excluded.  It  was  approved  by  Parliament  in  1552. 
In  1551,  quite  in  harmony  with  this  liturgical  re- 
form, an  Order  in  Council  issued  to  Bishop  Ridley 
required  the  altars  to  be  torn  do^-n,  and  movable 
tables  substituted,  while  a  statement  of  reasons  was 
to  be  made  to  the  people  explanatory  of  the  change, 
namely,  "that  the  form  of  a  table  may  more  move 
and  turn  the  simple  from  the  old  superstition  of  the 
Ma.ss  and  to  the  right  use  of  the  Lord's  Supper". 
By  Royal  Proclamations  and  episcopal  visitations, 
a  multitude  of  Catholic  practices  and  sacramentals, 
such  as  lights,  incense,  holy  water,  and  palms,  were 
suppressed.  These  reforms,  proceeding  tentatively 
but  rapidly,  were  initiated  and  carried  out  mainly 
by  Cranmer  and  his  set,  and  they  reflected  his  beliefs 
and  those  of  his  fellow-reformers.  In  1553,  a  royal 
decree  was  issued  requiring  the  bishops  and  clergy 
to  subscribe  forty-two  Articles  of  Religion  which 
embodied  in  great  part  what  had  been  contained  in 
the  Thirteen  .\rticles  agreed  upon  with  the  Germans. 
The  article  on  the  Eucharist  had  been  significantly 
changed  to  agree,  as  Hooper  attests,  with  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Swiss  reformer,  Bullinger.  In  November, 
1558,  Queen  Elizabeth  succeeded  Queen  Mary,  and 
immediately  proceeded  to  restore  the  work  of 
Henry  VIII  and  Edward  VI.  The  new  settlement 
of  religion  was  based,  not  on  the  First  Prayer  Book 
of  1549,  but  on  the  more  Protestant  one  of  1552. 
The  latter  was  adopted  with  a  few  slight  modifica- 
tions, and  it  remains  for  the  most  part  substantially 
unchanged  to  the  present  day.  The  statement  that 
Pius  IV  offered  to  approve  the  Prayer  Book  is  de- 
void Oi"  all  historical  foundation.  It  has  not  a  vestige 
of  contemporary  evidence  to  support  it.  Camden, 
the  earliest  Anglican  historian  who  mentions  it,  says: 
"I  never  could  find  it  in  any  writing,  and  I  do  not 
believe  any  writing  of  it  to  exist.  To  gossip  with 
the  mob  is  unworthy  of  any  historian"  (History,  59). 
Fuller,  another  Anglican  historian,  describes  it  as 
the  mere  conjecture  "of  those  who  love  to  feign 
what  they  cannot  find".  In  1563  the  Edwardian 
Articles  were  revised  in  Convocation  under  Arch- 
bishop Parker.  Some  were  added,  others  altered  or 
dropped,  and  the  number  was  reduced  to  Thirty- 
eight.  In  1571,  the  XXIXth  Article,  despite  the 
opposition  of  Bishop  Guest,  was  inserted,  to  the 
effect  that  the  wicked  do  not  eat  the  Body  of  Christ. 
The  Articles,  thus  increased  to  Thirty-nine,  were  rati- 
fied by  the  Queen,  and  the  bishops  and  clergy  were 
required  to  assent  and  subscribe  thereto.  During 
the  whole  of  Elizabeth's  long  reign,  the  prevailing 
tone  of  Anglican  teaching  and  literature  was  de- 
cidedly Genevan  and  Calvinistic  (Dr.  Prothero,  Eng- 
lish Hist.  Rev.,  October,  1886).  In  1662  a  reaction 
set  in  agaiast  Puritanism,  and  the  Prayer  Book,  which 
had  been  suppressed  during  the  Commonwealth, 
was  brought  back  and  subjected  to  revision  in  Con- 
vocation and  Parliament.  The  amendments  made 
were  numerous,  but  those  of  doctrinal  significance 
are  comparatively  few,  and  of  a  kind  to  emphasize 
the  Episcopal  character  of  Anglicanism  as  against 
I'resbyterianisni.  The  most  notable  were  the  reinser- 
tion, with  altered  wording,  of  t  he  Black  Rubric  (omit  ted 
by  Elizabeth)  and  the  introduction  in  the  form  of 
the  words,  "for  the  office  of  a  Bishop"  and  "for  the 
office  of  a  Priest",  in  the  Service  of  Ordination. 
The  historic  meaning  and  doctrinal  significance  of  the 


Anglican  formularies  can  only  be  determined  by  the 
candid  and  competent  examination  of  the  evidence 
as  a  whole,  first,  by  the  study  of  the  plain  meaning 
of  the  text;  secondly,  by  the  study  of  the  historical 
setting  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  were 
framed  and  authorized;  thirdly,  by  the  known  be- 
liefs of  their  chief  authors  and  of  those  by  whom 
they  were  accepted;  fourthly,  by  comparison  with 
the  Catholic  pre-Reformation  formularies  which  they 
supplanted;  fifthly,  by  the  study  of  their  sources 
and  the  e.xact  value  of  their  doctrinal  terminology 
as  found  in  the  controversies  of  the  time;  sixthly — 
if  the  examination  is  not  to  be  hopele-ssly  narrow — 
by  the  study  of  the  general  Reformation  in  Europe, 
of  which  the  English  Reformation,  albeit  with  local 
and  national  characteristics,  was  both  a  part  and  a 
result.  Here  it  is  only  possible  to  state  the  conclu- 
sions arising  from  such  an  inquiry  in  briefest  out- 
line. 

Connexion  with  the  Parent  Movement  of 
Refokmation. — ^There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
English  Reformation  is  substantially  a  part  of  the 
great  Protestant  Reformation  upheaval  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  that  its  doctrine,  litjrgy,  and 
chief  promoters  were  to  a  very  considerable  extent 
derived  from,  and  influenced  by,  the  Lutheran  and 
Calvinistic  movements  on  the  Continent.  There  was 
first  of  all  the  living  or  personal  connection.  The 
great  English  Reformers  who  took  the  leading  part 
in  the  work  of  the  Reformation  in  England — Cran- 
mer, Barlow,  Hooper,  Parker,  Grindal,  Scory,  May, 
Cox,  Coverdale,  and  many  others — were  men  who 
lived  and  laboured  amongst  the  Protestants  of  the 
Continent,  and  remained  in  constant  and  cordial 
touch  and  communication  with  them.  (See  Original 
Letters  of  the  Reformation.)  Reciprocally,  conti- 
nental reformers,  like  Peter  l\Lartyr  and  Martin 
Bucer,  were  welcomed  to  England  and  made  pro- 
fessors of  Divinity  at  the  universities.  Others,  like 
John  i  Lasco,  and  Paul  Fagius,  became  the  friends 
and  guests  of  Cranmer.  A  second  bond  was  the 
adoption  of  the  same  essential  doctrines.  The  great 
principles  and  tenets  set  forth  in  the  works  of  Luther, 
Melanchthon,  and  Calvin,  or  Zmngli,  are  reproduced 
with  or  without  modifications,  but  substantially,  and 
often  almost  verbatim  in  the  literature  of  the  Eng- 
lish Reformation.  The  chief  doctrines  which  are 
essentially  and  specifically  characteristic  of  the  Prot- 
estant Reformation  as  a  whole  are  the  following  nine: 
rejection  of  the  Papacy,  denial  of  Church  Infallibility; 
Justification  by  Faith  only;  supremacy  and  suffi- 
ciency of  Scripture  as  Rule  of  Faith;  the  triple  Eu- 
charistic  tenet  [viz.  (a)  that  the  Eucharist  is  a 
Communion  or  Sacrament,  and  not  a  Mass  or  Sac- 
rifice, save  in  the  sense  of  praise  or  commemoration; 
(b)  the  denial  of  Transubstantiation  and  worship  of 
the  Host;  (c)  the  denial  of  the  sacrificial  office  of  the 
priesthood  and  the  propitiatory  character  of  the 
Mass];  the  non-necessity  of  auricular  Confession;  the 
rejection  of  the  invocation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
and  the  Saints;  the  rejection  of  Purgatory  and  omis- 
sion of  prayers  for  the  dead;  the  rejection  of  the 
doctrine  of  Indulgences.  To  these  may  be  added 
three  disciplinary  characteristics  which  are  founded 
on  doctrine:  the  giving  of  Communion  in  both  kinds; 
the  substitution  of  tables  for  altars;  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  monastic  vows  and  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy. 
'These  twelve  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  conti- 
nental Reformation  have  undoubtedly,  though  not 
always  in  the  same  measure,  entered  into  the  fibre 
of  the  English  Reformation,  and  have  all  found  ex- 
pression, more  or  less  emphatic,  in  the  Anglican 
formularies.  Hence  while  the  name  "Protestant" 
is  not  found  in  the  Prayer  Book,  it  is  used  in  the  Cor- 
onation Service  when  the  King  promises  to  main- 
tain "the  Protestant  religion  as  by  law  established". 
It  was  from  the  beginning  popularly  applied  to  the 


ANGLICANISM 


503 


ANOLIOANISM 


Anglican  Wiefs  and  services.  In  the  Act  of  ITnion 
the  Churches  of  Kngland  and  Ireland  are  styled 
"the  Protestant  Kpiscopal  Church",  a  name  still 
retained  by  the  Anglican  Church  in  America.  A 
third  bond  Ijetween  the  Keformation  on  the  Conti- 
nent and  that  which  took  place  in  iMiRhuid  is  to  be 
found  in  the  actual  composition  of  the  formularies. 
The  Anglican  Articles  owe  much,  through  the  Tliir- 
teen  Articles,  to  tlie  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and 
also  to  the  Confession  of  Wiirtemberg.  Notable 
portions  of  the  baptismal,  marriage,  and  confirma- 
tion services  are  derived  from  the  "Simplex  et  Pia 
Delibcratio"  which  was  compiled  by  the  Lutheran 
Ilermuiui  von  VVied,  with  the  aid  of  Hucer  and  Me- 
lanchthon.  That  a  considerable  part  of  the  Anglican 
ordinal  (without  the  distinctive  form  for  each  Order) 
is  found  in  Bucer's  "Scripta  Anglica",  has  been 
pointed  out  by  the  late  Canon  Travers  Smith.  In 
this  triple  bond — personal,  doctrinal,  and  liturgical — 
the  continental  and  Anglican  Reformations  are,  amid 
many  and  notable  dilTerences,  substantially  and  in- 
separably interwoven  ivs  parts  of  one  and  the  same 
great  religious  movement. 

Collation  ok  Formul.\uies. — The  comparison  of 
the  Anglican  Prayer  Book  and  Ordinal  witfi  the  Pre- 
Reformation  formularies  which  they  replaced  leads 
to  a  second  conclusion  which  is  in  harmony  with  the 
above.  On  making  an  analysis  of  what  has  been 
removed,  and  what  has  l)cen  retained,  and  what  has 
been  altered,  it  becomes  immistakably  apparent  that 
the  main  motive  which  determined  una  guided  the 
construction  of  the  new  liturgy  was  tlie  same  as  that 
which  inspired  the  whole  Keformation  movement, 
namely:  the  determination  to  have  the  Lord's  Supper 
regarded  :is  a  Sacrament  or  Communion,  and  not  as  a 
Sacrifice,  and  to  remove  whatever  indicated  the  sac- 
rificial character  of  the  Eucharist,  or  the  Real,  Ob- 
jective Presence,  in  the  Catholic  sense,  in  which 
Christ  is  worshipped  in  the  Host.  The  Catholic  litur- 
gical forms,  missal,  breviary,  pontifical,  were  in 
possession  and  had  Ix-cn  in  actual  use  for  centuries. 
In  making  a  liturgical  reform,  it  was  by  the  neces- 
sity of  the  ca.se  impo.ssible  that  the  changes  made 
should  not  have  reference  to  them,  standing,  as  they 
did,  in  the  relation  of  a  terminus  a  quo  to  a,  terminus 
ad  quern  of  reformation.  If  the  Sarum  Missal,  Brev- 
iary, and  Pontifical  are  placed  side  by  side  with  the 
Anglican  Prayer  Book  and  Ordinal,  and  a  comparison 
made  of  the  corresponding  parts,  the  motive,  drift, 
and  intention  of  the  framers  are  clearly  revealed. 
In  the  Catholic  Pontifical,  in  the  Ordination  services 
there  arc  twenty-four  passages  which  express  with 
clearness  the  Catholic  Sacerdotium,  or  sacrificial 
character  of  the  office  and  work  of  the  priesthood. 
Of  these  not  one  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  Angli- 
can Ordinal.  In  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  alone 
there  are  some  twenty-five  points  in  which  the  sac- 
rificial nature  of  the  Kucharist  anfl  the  Real  Presence 
of  Christ  as  a  Victin\  are  expressed  or  implied.  All 
these  have  been  suppressed  and  eliminated  in  the 
Anglican  Communion  Service,  and  passages  of  a  Re- 
formational  or  non-committal  character  substituted. 
'I'hus,  with  regard  to  no  less  than  forty-nine  places, 
the  new  formularies  l)car  the  mark  of  delilwratc  ex- 
clusion and  of  anti-sacrificial  and  anti-sacerdotal 
significance.  (See  The  Tablet,  London,  12  June, 
1897.) 

De^'elopment  and  Parties. — Although  the  Angli- 
can Articles  and  liturgy  have  been  practically  un- 
changed since  16C2,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  life 
and  thought  of  a  religious  body  like  the  Church  of 
England  should  present  the  note  of  development, 
and  that  such  development  should  eventually  out- 
grow, or  at  least  strain,  the  historic  interpreta- 
tion of  the  fommlaries,  and  the  more  so  because 
there  has  been  no  living  authority  to  adapt  or  re- 
adjust them  to  the  newer  needs  or  aspirations.     The 


development  may  bo  said  to  have  been  guided  by 
three  main  influences.  There  has  been  the  deep- 
seated  attachment  to  the  principles  of  the  Keforma- 
tion in  which  the  Anglican  settlement  was  founded, 
and  the  determination  to  preserve  the  standards  of 
belief  and  worship  then  established.  This  loyalty  to 
the  Protestant  character  of  the  Anglican  Church  has 
produced  the  Low  Church,  or  Evangelical,  school  of 
Anglicanism.  A  second  influence  is  that  of  ration- 
alism, which,  lx>th  in  England  and  in  Germany,  has 
acted  as  a  solvent  of  Protestantism,  especially  in 
the  form  of  destructive  biblical  criticism,  and  which, 
often  in  the  elTort  to  sublimate  religion,  luis  induced 
an  aversion  to  all  that  is  dogmatic,  supernatural,  or 
miraculous.  Its  exponents,  who  are  numerous, 
learned,  and  influential,  are  generally  classed  as  the 
Broad  Church,  or  the  Latitudmarian,  school  of  Angli- 
can religious  thouglit.  A  third  influence  which  has 
made  itself  felt  upon  Anglicanism,  and  one  more 
vital  and  more  jienet rating  and  progressive  than  the 
other  two,  has  Ijeen  that  of  Catholicism,  whether 
as  reflected  in  Catholic  antitiuity  or  as  beheld  in 
the  actual  Catholic  and  Roman  (Church.  The  effect 
of  this  influence  may  be  traced  in  what  has  been 
called  the  historic  High  Church  party.  A  number 
of  Anglican  bishops  and  divines  ux  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  while  bitterly  opposed  to 
Rome,  and  loyally  Protestant,  stood  above  the  pre- 
vailing low  level  of  churchmanship,  and  put  forward 
higher  and  more  philocatholie  views,  in  matters  of 
Church  authority,  belief,  and  worship.  Although 
comparatively  few  in  number,  and  venemently  as- 
sailed by  their  fellow  churchmen,  they  were  destined 
to  serve  as  a  point  d'appui  for  a  subsequent  devel- 
opment. Such  writers  as  Bishop  Andrews  (d.  1626), 
Bishop  Overall  (d.  10191,  Bisliop  Montague  (d.  1641), 
Archbishop  Laud  (d.  1044),  Archbishop  Bramhall 
(d.  10(i3),  Dr.  Tliorndike  (d.  1672),  Bishop  Ken  (d. 
1711),  Dr.  Waterland  (d.  1740),  may  be  regarded  as 
representative  of  this  section. 

Oxford  Move.ment. — In  1833  a  strong  current  of 
popular  opinion  directed  against  the  Anglican  Church 
aroused  in  its  (Icfeuco  the  zeal  of  a  small  band  of 
Oxford  students  and  writers,  who  gradually  gathered 
under  the  informal  leadership  of  John  Henry  Newman. 
Among  these  were  John  Kcble,  C.  Marriott,  Hurrell 
Froude,  Isaac  Williams,  Dr.  Pusey,  and  W.  (i.  Ward. 
Their  object  was  to  make  good  for  the  Anglican 
Church  its  claim  to  the  note  of  Catholicity.  Their 
task  led  them  to  look  both  behind  and  outside  the 
sphere  of  the  Keformation.  By  forming  a  catena  of 
Anglican  Higli  Church  divines  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  on  one  side,  and  a  catena  of  cer- 
tain Fathers  on  the  other,  it  was  hoped  that  a  quasi- 
continuous  chain  of  Catholic  tradition  could  be  made 
to  connect  the  Anglican  Church  of  their  day  with 
Catholic  antiquity.  Translations  of  the  Fathers, 
works  on  liturgy,  the  festivals  of  the  "Christian 
Year",  and  above  all  a  memorable  series  of  "Tracts 
for  the  Times",  conveyed  with  telling  force  the 
newer  and  broader  conceptions  of  churchmanship 
which  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  defenders.  In 
"Tract  90  "  an  attempt  was  made,  somewhat  on  the 
lines  of  Sancta  Clara,  to  show  that  the  Anglican 
Articles  might  in  certain  aspects  be  reconciled  to 
the  teaching  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  result 
was  a  doctrinal  and  devotional  crisis  such  as  Eng- 
land had  not  witnes.sed  since  the  Keformation,  and 
the  Oxford  or  Traetarian  movement,  during  the 
twelve  years  from  Keble's  sermon  on  "National 
Apostasy",  in  1,S33,  to  Newman's  conversion  in  1S45, 
formed  a  historic  epoch  in  the  annals  of  .Vnglicanism. 
The  fact  that  the  work  of  the  movement  was  infor- 
mally a  study  dc  I'^ecUsi/i  brought  both  the  writers 
and  their  readers  more  directly  face  to  face  with  the 
claims  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  A  large  number  of 
those  who  took  part  in  the  movement,  and  notably 


ANGLIN 


504 


ANGLIN 


its  great  leader,  became  Catholics,  while  others,  in 
remaining  Anglicans,  gave  a  new  and  pro-Catholic 
direction  and  impulse  to  Anglican  thought  and  wor- 
ship. It  maj'  be  said  that  in  the  case  of  Newman, 
Oakley,  Wilberforce,  Ward,  and  a  host  of  others,  the 
research  of  the  nature  of  Catholicity  and  the  rule 
of  faith  brought  them  to  realize  the  need  of  the 
living  voice  of  a  Divine  magisterium  (the  regula 
prnxima  fidei),  and  failing  to  find  it  in  the  Anglican 
episcopate,  tlioy  sought  it  where  alone  it  could  be 
found.  Others,  like  Pusey,  Marriott,  Keble,  sought 
what  tliey  called  the  voice  of  the  "Church"  in  the 
inanimate  formularies  (or  regula  remota)  which,  after 
all,  was  merely  adding  the  Fathers,  the  liturgies,  and 
conciliar  definitions  to  the  Scriptures  as  the  area 
over  which  they  still  used,  after  the  manner  of  true 
Protestants,  their  private  judgment.  The  same 
principle  is  always  more  or  less  at  work  and  goes  as 
far  now  as  then  to  sift  those  who  come  from  those 
who  stay.  [If  we  bear  in  mind  that  by  "Church" 
was  thus  meant  the  silent  self-interpreted  formu- 
laries (or  regula  remota),  and  by  "Bishops"  the 
living  magisterium  (or  regula  jrroxima)  sought  in 
Anglicanism,  we  shall  feel  that  there  is  a  great 
truth  contained  in  Pusey's  well-known  saying,  three 
years  after  the  secession  of  Newman:  "I  am  not  dis- 
turbed, because  I  never  attached  any  weight  to 
bishops.  It  was  perhaps  the  difference  between  New- 
man and  me.  He  threw  himself  upon  the  bishops 
and  they  failed  him.  I  threw  myself  on  the  English 
Church  and  the  Fathers,  as  under  God,  her  support" 
(Letter  to  0.  Marriott,  2  January,  1848).] 

Anglican  Revival. — Although  the  Oxford  move- 
ment is  regarded  as  having  come  to  a  close  at  the 
conversion  of  Dr.  Newman  in  1845,  a  large  section 
of  the  Anglican  public  had  been  much  too  profoundly 
stirred  by  its  ideals  ever  to  return  to  the  narrowness 
of  the  religious  horizons  which  were  bounded  by  the 
Reformation.  Its  influence  has  survived  in  the  un- 
ceasing flow  of  converts  to  the  Catholic  Faith,  and 
is  shown  in  the  Anglican  Church  itself  by  that  no- 
table change  of  belief,  temperament,  and  practice 
which  is  known  as  the  Anglican  Revival.  The  last 
fifty  years  have  witnessed  the  development  of  an 
influential  and  growing  school  of  religious  thought 
which,  amid  the  inconsistencies  of  its  position,  has 
steadily  laboured  to  Catholicize  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. It  has  set  up  the  claim,  hopelessly  untenable 
in  the  face  of  historical  evidence,  that  the  Anglican 
Church  is  one  and  continuous  with  the  Ancient 
Catholic  Church  of  the  country,  and  is  an  integral 
portion  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  to-day.  It  pro- 
fesses to  be  able  to  give  to  Anglicans  all  that  the 
Catholic  Church  gives  to  her  members,  save  com- 
munion with  the  Holy  See.  Though  possessing 
neither  the  learning  nor  the  logic  of  the  Tractarians, 
it  exercises  a  wider  and  more  practical  influence, 
and  has  won  the  favour  of  a  large  body  of  the  Angli- 
can public  by  importing  into  the  Anglican  services 
something  of  the  beauty  and  power  which  it  has 
borrowed  from  Catholic  teaching  and  ritual.  At  the 
same  time  it  has  in  many  centres  earned  the  respect 
and  attachment  of  the  masses  by  tlie  exaniple  of 
zeal  and  .self-sacrifice  given  by  its  clergy.  It  was 
natural  that  this  advanced  section  of  the  Anglican 
Church  should  seek  to  ratify  its  position,  and  to 
escape  from  its  fatal  isolation,  by  desiring  some 
scheme  of  corporate  reunion  and  especially  by  en- 
deavouring to  obtain  some  recognition  of  the  validity 
of  its  orders.  With  the  truest  charity,  which  con- 
sists in  the  candour  of  truth.  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  his 
Encyclical  on  Unity,  pointed  out  that  there  can  bo 
no  reunion  except  on  the  solid  basis  of  dogmatic 
unity  and  submission  to  the  divinely  instituted  au- 
thority of  the  Apostolic  Sec.  In  September,  ISOCi, 
after  a  full  and  exhaustive  inquiry,  he  issued  a  Hull 
declaring  Anglican  Orders  to  be  "utterly  null  and 


void",  and  in  a  subsequent  Brief  addressed  to  the 
Archbisliop  of  Paris,  he  required  all  Catholics  to  ac- 
cept this  judgment  as  "fixed,  settled,  and  irrevo- 
cable" ifirmum,  ratum  et  irrevocahile).  The  Anglican 
Revival  continues  to  reiterate  its  claim  and  to  ap- 
propriate to  itself,  wherever  practical,  whatever  in 
Catholic  doctrine,  liturgy,  and  practice,  church  vest- 
ments or  church  furniture,  it  finds  helpful  to  its  pur- 
pose. By  the  Lambeth  judgment  of  1891  it  acquired 
a  public  sanction  for  many  of  its  innovations.  Since 
then  it  has  gone  further,  and  hojds  that  no  authority 
in  the  Church  of  England  can  override  things  which 
are  authorized  by  "Catholic  consent".  It  stands 
thus  in  the  illogical  and  unhistorical  position  of  a 
system  which  is  philocatholic  in  its  views  and  aspi- 
rations, but  hopelessly  committed  to  heresy  and  to 
heretical  communication,  and  built  upon  an  essen- 
tially Protestant  foundation.  Although  to  Catholics 
its  very  claim  is  an  impious  usurpation  of  what  be- 
longs of  right  to  the  Catholic  Church  alone,  it  fulfils 
an  informal  mission  of  influencing  English  public 
opinion,  and  of  familiarizing  the  English  people  with 
Catholic  doctrines  and  ideals.  Like  the  Oxford 
movement,  it  educates  more  pupils  than  it  can  retain, 
and  worlcs  upon  premises  which  cannot  but  carry 
it  in  the  long  run  farther  than  it  is  willing  to  go.  A 
branch  theory  which  is  repudiated  by  the  principal 
branches,  or  a  province  theory  which  is  unknown 
to  the  rest  of  the  provinces,  and  a  continuity  theory 
of  which  more  than  twelve  thousand  documents  in 
the  Record  Office  and  the  Vatican  Library  are  the 
overwhelming  refutation,  cannot  form  a  standing 
ground  which  is  other  than  temporary  and  transi- 
tional. In  the  meantime,  its  work  amongst  the 
masses  is  often  a  species  of  catechumenate  for  Ca- 
tholicism, and  in  all  cases  it  is  an  active  solvent  and 
a  steady  undoing  of  the  English  Reformation. 

WiLKiNs.  Concilia  (London,  1737);  Calendar  of  Stale  Papers: 
Henry  VIII  (London,  1S62  sqq.);  Edward  VI  (IS56  sqq.); 
Elizabeth  (ibid.,  18C3  sqq.);  Phothero,  Setect  Statutes;  Cahd- 
WELL,  Documentary  Annals  (Oxford,  1844);  Cranmer,  Works; 
Gairdner,  History  of  the  English  Church  in  the  XVIth  Cen- 
tury; Di.xoN,  Hist,  of  Churcli  of  England  (London,  1878-1902); 
Wakeman,  introduct,  to  Hist,  of  Church  of  Englarui  (London, 
1897);  Cardwell,  History  of  Conferences  (London,  1849); 
Gibson,  The  Thirty-nine  Articles:  Browne,  Hist,  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles;  Keeling,  Liturgiae  Britannica;  Gasquet  and 
Bishop,  Edward  VI  and  the  Boofc  of  Common  Prayer  (London, 
1891 );  DowDEN,  The  Workmanship  of  the  Prayer  Book;  Bu'.ley, 
Variations  of  the  Communion  and  Baptismal  O/flces;  Brooke, 
Privy  Council  Judgments;  Seckendorff,  History  of  Lutheran- 
ism;  Janssen,  History  of  the  German  People,  V,  VI;  Original 
Letters  of  the  Reformation  (Parker  series):  Zurich  Letters 
(Cambridge,  1842-43);  Benson.  Archbishop  Laud  (I^n- 
don,  1887);  Church,  The  Oxford  Movement  (London  and  New 
York,  1891);  Newman.  Apologia;  Liduon,  Life  of  Pusey 
(London  and  New  York,  1893-94),  III;  Benson,  Life  of 
Archbishop  Benson. 

J.    MOYES. 

Anglin,  Timothy  Wahren,  Canadian  journalist 
and  meml>er  of  Parliament,  b.  in  the  town  of  Clona- 
kilty.  County  Cork,  Ireland,  1822;  d.  3  May,  1896,  in 
Canada.  He  was  educated  in  the  endoweii  school  of 
his  native  corporation.  His  family  was  financially 
ruined  in  the  famine  of  1846-47  and  he  emigrated  to 
the  city  of  Saint  John,  New  Brunswick,  in  1849.  He 
was  gifted  as  a  public  speaker,  l>ut  iiuulo  his  mark  as 
the  most  vigorous  writer  on  the  Catholic  press  in  the 
province.  He  founded  the  "Weekly  I'leeman"  and 
subsequently  the  "Morning  Freeman"  (18,51).  On 
the  question  of  the  total  prohibition  of  the  manufac- 
ture and  sale  of  alcoholic  liquore,  although  a  strong 
advocate  of  temperance,  he  separated  himself  from 
his  political  friends  and  fought  the  measure  which 
he  considered  too  drastic  and  unworkable.  The 
measure  was  carried  by  the  legislature  of  New 
Brunswick,  but  was  repealed  at  its  next  session. 
In  1860  Mr.  Anglin  was  returned  as  representative  of 
the  city  and  county  of  Saint  John,  a  constituency 
from  which  no  Catholic  had  ever  been  elected. 
When   the  scheme  of  confederation  of  the   Britisli 


ANGLO-SAXON 


505 


ANGLO-SAXON 


North  American  provinces  was  mooted,  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  opposition,  because  he  did 
not  believe,  as  was  asserted,  that  tlie  proposed  union 
of  the  provinces  was  necessary  for  tlie  continuance 
of  their  connexion  with  tlie  empire,  and  because 
he  was  convinced  it  must  cause  an  enormous  in- 
crease in  the  rate  of  taxation  in  New  Hrunswick. 
Just  at  this  time  a  small  body  of  men  calling  flicm- 
selves  Kcniaas  appeared  on  the  border  of  the  province 
and  threatened  an  invasion.  Dr.  D.  15.  Kilhmi, 
their  leader,  issued  a  proclamation  inviting  the  anti- 
confederates  to  join  with  them,  overthrow  Hriti.sh 
tyranny,  and  maintain  the  legislative  indeiiendence 
of  the  province.  The  anti-confederates  were  in  no 
way  responsible  for  Dr.  Killam's  invasion  or  procla- 
mation, which  had  the  elTect,  however,  of  raising 
a  no-popery  cry,  and  of  driving  Mr.  Anglin  from 
public  life  for  a  few  years.  When  Canadian  confed- 
eration became  an  accomplished  fact,  Mr.  Anglin 
accepted  the  situation  loyally.  He  consented  to 
become  a  candidate  in  the  comity  of  (lloucester  for 
a  seat  in  the  House  of  ('omnions  of  Canada.  When 
the  McKenzie  government  was  formed,  .Mr.  .Vngliii 
was  chosen  S|x?aker  of  the  Hou.sc  of  Commons,  a 
position  he  held  from  2(j  May,  1S74,  until  31  May, 
1877.  No  one  lent  more  dignity  to  the  high  jKisition 
of  first  commoner  of  Canada  and  his  rulings  were 
never  <iucstionpd,  so  strict  was  his  impartiality. 

Mr.  Anglin  was  a  Canadian  statesman  of  eminence, 
but  he  deserves  a  place  in  historj-  more  particularly 
as  an  able,  fearless,  and  indefatigable  journalist, 
doing  battle  for  the  cause  of  Catnolic  education. 
In  New  Brunswick  the  i.ssue  of  the  greatest  imjior- 
tance  was  the  anti-.separate  school  legislation. 
During  many  years  -Mr.  Anglin,  through  the  coluinns 
of  the  "  Freeman"  and  on  the  floor  of  tlie  Hou.sc  <■! 
Commons,  fought  a  valiant  battle  for  his  co-religion 
ists.  His  efforts,  and  the  exertion  of  tho.sc  «li' 
laboured  with  him  were  so  far  successful  that  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  [jrovince  a  compromise  was  made, 
which  allows  Catholics  to  have  their  own  schools 
and  teachers,  and  to  give  religious  instruction  before 
and  after  school  hours.  This  was  far  from  being 
all  he  would  wish,  but  it  is  much  better  than  the 
utterly  anti-Catholic,  irreligious  system  at  first  in- 
sisted upon  by  the  promoters  of  tlie  law.  Mr.  Ang- 
lin joined  the  editorial  staff  of  "The  Toronto  Cdobc  " 
in  1S.S3,  and  was  editor-in-chief  of  "The  Toronto 
Tribimc",  a  CathoUc  weekly.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
seventy-four.  J.  J.  Curran. 

Anglo-Saxon  Church.  The.  I.  Angi.o-Saxon  Oc- 
cupation 1)1-  HitiTAiN. — The  word  Anglo-Saxon  is 
used  as  a  collective  name  for  those  Teutonic  settlers, 
the  foundation  stock  of  the  English  race,  who  after 
dispossessing  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Hritain  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  remained  masters  of  the 
countr\'  until  a  new  order  of  things  was  created  in 
1066  by  the  coming  of  the  Normans.  Though 
etymologically  open  to  some  objection  (cf.  Steven- 
son's "Asser",  149)  the  term  Anglo-Saxon  is  con- 
venient in  practice,  the  more  so  because  we  do  not 
know  very  much  concerning  the  provenance  of  the 
Low  (lerman  tribes  who  about  the  year  449  began 
to  invade  Britain.  The  Jutes,  who  came  first  and 
occupied  Kent  and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  have  been 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  inhabitants  of 
Jutland,  but  it  has  been  recently  shown  that  this  is 
probably  an  error  (Steven.son,  ibid.,  1G7).  They 
were,  however,  a  Frisian  tribe.  The  Saxons  of  the 
fifth  century  were  better  known  and  more  witlely 
spread,  occupying  the  present  Westphalia,  Hanover, 
and  Brunswick.  The  .Vngles  in  Tacitus's  day  were 
settled  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe  close  to  its 
mouth.  They  seem  to  have  been  nearly  akin  to 
their  then  neighbours,  the  Lombards,  who  after  long 
wanderings  eventually  became  the  masters  of  Italy. 


It  is  curious  to  find  the  great  historian  of  the  Lom- 
bards, Paul  the  Deacon,  describing  their  dress  as 
resembling  that  "  which  the  .■Vnglo-Saxons  are  wont 
to  wear."  In  ICngland  the  Sa.\ons,  after  establishing 
themselves  in   the  south   and   east,  in  the  localities 


Anqlo-Saxon  England 


now  represented  by  Sussex  and  Essex,  founded  a 
great  kingdom  in  the  West  which  gradually  absorbed 
almost  the  whole  country  south  of  the  Thames.  In 
fact,  the  King  of  Wesscx  ultimately  became  the  lord 
of  the  entire  land  of  Britain.  The  Angles,  who 
followed  close  upon  the  heels  of  the  Saxons,  founded 
the  kingdoms  of  Eiust  Anglia  (Norfolk  and  Suffolk), 
Mercia  (the  Midlands),  Deira  (Yorkshire),  and 
Bemicia  (the  country  farther  north).  The  extermi- 
nation of  the  native  inhabitants  w.is  probably  not  so 
complete  as  was  at  one  time  supposed,  and  a  recent 
authority  (Hoilgkin)  has  declared  that  "Anglo-Celt 
rather  than  ,\nglo-Saxon  is  the  fitting  designation 
of  our  race."  But,  although  the  Britons  were  Chris- 
tians, the  survivors  were  in  any  case  too  insignificant 
a  body  to  convert  their  conquerors.  Only  in  the 
extreme  west  and  north,  where  the  Teutonic  m- 
vaders  could  not  penetrate,  did  the  Celtic  Church 
still  maintain  its  succession  of  priests  and  bishops. 
No  effort  seems  to  have  been  nuule  by  them  to  preach 
to  the  Saxons,  and  later  on,  when  St.  -■Vugustine  and 
St.  Lawrence  tried  to  open  up  friendly  relations,  the 
British  Church   held  .severely   aloof. 

II.  Conversion. — Everj-one  knows  the  ston-  of 
the  Roman  Mission  which  first  brought  to  the  Eng- 
lish the  knowledge  of  the  Ciospel.  St.  Gregory's  deep 
comp.i.ssion  for  the  angel-faces  of  some  captive  Angle 
children  in  the  Roman  slave-market  led  in  time  to  tlie 
sending  of  the  monk  St.  .\ugustine  and  his  com- 
panions. They  were  well  received  by  Ethelbert  of 
Kent  who  hail  already  married  a  Christian  wife. 
Augustine  landed  in  Thanet  only  in  597,  but  before 
the  end  of  the  century  most  of  the  Jutes  of  Kent 
hatl  been  converted.  .Vcting  on  instructions  previ- 
ously received,  he  went  to  .-Vrlea  to  receive  episcopal 
consecration.     Frequent    communications    were   ex- 


ANGLO-SAXON 


506 


ANGLO-SAXON 


changed  with  Romp,  and  St.  Gregory  in  601  sent 
Augustine  tlie  pallium,  the  emblem  of  archiepiscopal 
jurisdiction,  directing  him  to  consecrate  other  bishops 
and  to  set  up  his  see  in  London.  This  wa,s  not  then 
possible,  and  Canterbuiy  became  the  mother  church 
of  England.  London,  however,  very  shortly  after- 
wards had  its  church,  and  Mellitus  was  consecrated 
to  reside  there  as  Bishop  of  the  East  Saxons,  while 
another  church  was  erected  at  Rochester  with 
Justus  as  bishop.  On  Ethelbert's  death  in  616  great 
reverses  befell  the  cause  of  Christianity.  Essex  and 
part  of  Kent  apostatized,  but  St.  Lawrence,  the  new 
archbishop,  stood  his  ground.  A  few  years  later  a 
great  advance  was  matle  by  the  marriage  of  the 
powerful  King  Eadwine  of  Northumbria  to  a  Kentish 
Christian  princess.  Paulinus,  a  Roman  who  had 
been  sent  to  help  Augustine,  was  consecrated  bishop, 
and,  accompanying  her  as  her  chaplain,  he  was  able 
to  baptize  Eadwine  in  627,  and  build  the  church  of 
St.  Peter  at  York.  It  is  true  that  a  pagan  reaction 
six  years  afterwards  swept  away  most  of  the  results 
acliieved,  but  even  then  his  deacon  James  remained 
at  work  in  Yorksliire.  Meanwhile  Felix,  a  Bur- 
gimdian  monk  acting  under  orders  from  Canterbury, 
had  gained  over  East  Anglia;  and  Birinus,  who  had 
been  sent  straight  from  Rome,  began  in  634  the  con- 
version of  the  people  of  Wessex.  In  the  North  it 
seemed  as  if  the  Faith  was  almost  extinguished, 
owing  mainly  to  the  relentless  opposition  of  Penda, 
the  pagan  King  of  Mercia,  but  help  came  from  an 
unexpected  quarter.  In  634  the  remnants  of  North- 
umbrian sovereignty  were  soon  grasped  by  St.  Oswald, 
who  had  been  brought  up  in  exile  among  the  Irish 
monks  settled  in  lona,  and  had  there  become  a 
Christian.  When  this  young  prince  had  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  his  enemies  and  established  himself  more 
firmly,  he  summoned  (c.  635)  a  Scottish  (i.  e.  Irish) 
missionary  from  lona.  This  w.as  St.  Aidan,  who  es- 
tablished a  community  of  his  followers  in  the  Island 
of  Lindisfame,  and  thence  evangelized  all  the  land  of 
the  north.  St.  Aidan  followed  the  Celtic  traditions  in 
the  points  in  which  they  differed  from  the  Roman 
(e.  g.  the  keepmg  of  Easter),  but  there  can  be  no 
question  as  to  his  sanctity  or  as  to  the  wonderful 
effects  of  his  preaching.  From  Lindisfarne  came 
St.  Cedd  and  St.  Chad,  two  brothers  who  respectively 
evangelized  Essex  and  Mercia.  To  Lindisfarne  also 
we  are  indebted,  at  least  indirectly,  for  St.  Cuthbert, 
who  consolidated  the  empire  of  Christianity  in  the 
north,  and  for  St.  Wilfrid,  who,  besides  converting 
the  South  Saxons,  the  tardiest  of  the  Teutonic  settlers 
to  receive  the  Gospel,  accomplished  the  great  task  of 
reconciling  the  Christians  of  Northumberland  to  the 
Roirian  Easter  and  to  the  other  institutions  which  had 
the  support  of  papal  authority.  To  sum  up,  it  has 
been  said,  not  inaptly,  that  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  "  the  Roman  planted,  the  Scot  watered, 
the  Briton  did  nothing." 

III.  Development  under  Roman  Authority. — 
Meanwhile  a  great  work  of  organization  had  been 
going  on.  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  a  Greek  monk  who 
had  been  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by 
Pope  Vitalian,  came  to  England  in  669.  He  was 
warmly  welcomed  by  all,  and  in  673  held  a  national 
council  of  the  ICnglish  bishops  at  Hertford,  and  an- 
other in  680  at  Hatfield.  In  these  synods  much  was 
done  to  promote  unity,  to  define  the  limits  of  juris- 
diction, and  to  restrain  the  wanderings  and  mutual 
interference  of  the  clerj^.  What  w.as  still  more  im- 
p(jrtant,  St.  Theodore,  vi.siting  the  whole  of  ]';ngland, 
con.secrated  new  bishops  and  divided  up  the  vast 
dioceses  which  in  many  cases  were  coextensive  with 
the  kingdoms  of  the  heptarchy.  It  seems  to  have 
been  a  conKeq\ience  of  this  la-st  proceeding  that  a 
f(;ud  for  a  while  broke  out  between  Theodore  and 
Wilfrid,  the  latter  being  driven  from  his  See  of 
Kipon    and    appealing   to    Rome.     But   after   some 


tempestuous  years,  marked  alike  by  great  endurance 
and  missionary  zeal  on  Wilfrid's  part,  Theodore  ac- 
knowledged that  he  had  done  grave  wrong  to  his 
brother  bishop.  They  were  reconciled  and  for  the 
short  time  that  remained  worked  together  harmoni- 
ously in  the  cause  of  Roman  order  and  discipline. 
It  would  seem  that  in  the  interests  of  anti-papal  con- 
troversy, a  great  deal  too  much  has  been  made  of  the 
divergent  customs  of  the  Roman  and  Celtic  mission- 
aries. Both  in  Scotland  and  on  the  Continent,  Irish 
Christianity  was  thoroughly  loyal  in  spirit  to  the 
See  of  Rome.  Such  men  as  St.  Cuthbert,  St.  Cedd, 
St.  Chad,  and  St.  Wilfrid  co-operated  heartily  with 
the  efforts  to  preach  the  Gospel  made  by  the  teachers 
sent  from  Canterbury.  The  Celtic  customs  had 
already  received  their  death-blow  in  the  choice  made 
by  the  Noi'thumbrian  King  Oswiu,  when  at  the 
Synod  of  Whitby  (664)  he  elected  to  stand  by  the 
Roman  Key-bearer,  St.  Peter.  In  fact,  after  the  lapse 
of  a  few  years  they  are  no  more  heard  of.  In  the 
eighth  century  the  pope  granted  the  pallium  to 
Egbert,  Bishop  of  York,  and  thus  restored  the  see 
as  an  archbishopric  according  to  a  scheni"  already 
foreshadowed  in  St.  Gregory's  letter  to  Augustine. 
Moreover,  two  very  important  synods  were  held  at 
this  period.  The  one,  in  747,  was  summoned  at  the 
instance  of  Pope  Zacharias,  whose  letter  was  read 
aloud,  and  devoted  itself  to  thorough-going  legisla- 


l>iori«i.s  IN-  England  after  the  Norman  Conquest 

tion  for  the  internal  reform  of  the  clergy.  The  other, 
in  7S7,  was  presided  over  by  the  two  papal  legates, 
George  and  Theophylact,  who  forwariled  to  Pope 
Adrian  a  report  of  the  proceedings,  including  among 
other  things  a  formal  recognition  of  tithes.  In  this 
synod  Lichfield,  through  tlie  influence  of  Offa,  King 
of  Mercia,  who  maile  misleading  representations  at 
Rome,  was  erected  into  an  archbishopric;  but,  sixteen 
years  later,  when  Offa  aiul  Pope  Adrian  were  dead, 
Leo  HI  reversed  the  decision  of  his  predecessor.  It 
hits  been  suggested  that  th(!  institution  of  Peter's- 
pence,  whicli  tiates  from  tliis  iieriod.  was  the  price 
paid  by  Offa  for  Adrian's  coniplaisaiu-e,  but  this  is 
pure  conjecture.     During  the  ninth  century,  in  the 


ANGLO-SAXON 


507 


ANGLO-SAXON 


course  of  which  Wessex  gradually  acquired  a  position 
of  supremacy,  tlie  Danish  incursions  destroyeil  many 
great  seats  of  learning  and  centres  of  nion;istic  dis- 
cipUne,  sucli,  for  instance,  a.s  .Jarrow,  tlie  home  of 
St.  Hede,  and  these  calamities  soon  exercised  a 
disa-strous  etTect  upon  the  lives  iind  work  of  the 
clergy.  Kuig  .\lfred  the  Great  strove  hard  to  put 
things  on  a  better  footing,  anil,  speaking  generally,  the 
devotion  of  secular  rulers  towards  the  papacy  antl  the 
Church   w:us   never   more   conspicuous   than   at   thi.s 

geriod.  To  tliis  age  belongs  tlie  famous  grant  to  the 
hurch  of  a  tentli  of  his  land  by  ICthelwulf,  father  of 
Alfred.  This  had  nothing  directly  to  do  with  tithes, 
but  it  showed  how  completely  the  principle  w;i.s 
recognizetl  anil  how  close  wa.s  the  vniiori  between 
Church  and  State.  The  final  victory  of  .\lfred  over 
the  Danes,  the  treaty  with  (iutlirum  their  leader  at 
Wedniore,  and  the  consequent  reception  of  Chris- 
tianity by  the  invaders,  ilid  much  to  restore  the 
Church  to  happier  conditions.  In  tlic  joint  code  of 
laws  published  by  .Mfretl  ami  Cuthrum,  apostasy  Wius 
declarcil  a  crime,  negligent  priests  were  to  be  fined, 
the  payment  of  Peter's- Pence  was  connnanded,  and 
the  practice  of  heathen  rites  wsus  forbidden.  The 
union  between  secular  and  ecclesiastical  authority  at 
this  time,  and  in- 
deed throughout 
the  whole  of  tlu' 
Anglo-Saxon  period. 
was  verj'  clo.se,  and 
some  of  the  great 
national  councils 
seemed  almost  to 
have  the  character 
of  Church  sjTiods. 
liut  the  clergy, 
while  remaining; 
closely  identitiicl 
with  the  people,  and 
discharging  in  each 
district  the  func- 
tions of  local  state 
officials,  seem  never 
to  have  quite  re- 
gained the  religious 
spirit  whicli  tlie 
period  of  Danish  in- 
cursions had  im- 
paired. Hence,  in 
the  time  of  St. 
Dimstan,   who   was 

Archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  900  to  988,  a 
very  strong  movement  made  it.self  felt  (encouraged 
especially  by  St.  ..Ethelwold  of  Winchester,  and 
St.  Oswald  of  Worcester  and  York),  which  aimed 
at  replacing  the  secular  clergy  by  monks  in  all  the 
more  important  "minsters".  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  at  this  period  the  law  of  celibacy  was 
ill  obser\-ed  by  priests,  and  the  custom  of  marrjTiig 
was  so  general  that  it  .seenieil  to  have  been  impossi- 
ble to  enforce  any  very  severe  penalties  against 
delinquents.  Hence,  great  efforts  were  made  by  the 
three  saints  named  and  by  King  I'^dgar  to  renovate 
and  spiritualize  moniusticism  upon  the  lines  of  the 
groat  Hencdictine  rule,  hoping  thereby  also  to  raise 
the  tone  of  the  secular  clergy  and  to  increiise  their 
influence  for  good.  For  the  same  end  St.  Dunstan 
sought  to  remedy  the  isolation  of  the  English  Church 
not  only  by  intercourse  with  Kr.incc  and  I'landers, 
but  also,  in  the  words  of  Bishop  Stubbs,  "by  estab- 
lishing a  more  intimate  communication  with  tlie 
Apostolic  See".  Henceforth  nearly  all  archbishops 
went  personally  to  Home  for  the  pallium.  These 
efforts  resulted  in  a  distinct  adv;uice  in  general  cul- 
ture, though  England  no  longer  led,  but  w:is  content 
to  follow  the  scholars  of  the  Continent.  Still,  much 
was  gained,   and   when,   after  renewed  invasions,  a 


Danish  dynasty  became  masters  of  England,  "the 
society  which  was  unable  to  withstand  the  arms  of 
Canute,  almost  immeiliately  humanizeil  ami  elevated 
him".  Canute  w;is  a  fervent  convert.  He  made  a 
great  pilgrimage  to  Rome  in  1026-J7.  His  legisla- 
tion was  largely  ecclesia-stical  in  character,  and  he 
insisted  anew  on  the  payment  of  Peler'.s-Pence. 
These  Roman  influences  were  al.so  reinforced  under 
I'Mward  the  Confessor  by  the  appointment  of  .several 
foreigners  to  English  sees  and  Dy  a  great  revival  of 

Cilgriniages  to  Rome.  The  foreigners  were  probably 
oth  more  devout  and  more  capable  than  any  native 
priests  that  were  available.  There  is  nothing  to  show 
that  competent  Englishmen  were  passed  over.  On 
the  contrary,  when  in  1062  papal  legates  again 
visited  ICngland  they  were  responsible  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  one  of  the  greatest  native  churchmen 
of  Anglo-Saxon  times,  St.  Wulstan,  Bishop  of  Worces- 
ter. In  lum.self  "a  faultless  character"  (Diet.  Nat. 
Hiog.,  s.  v.),  he  lived  on  under  Norman  rule,  for 
nearly  thirty  years,  serving  to  perpetuate  the  best 
traditions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  in  the  reor- 
ganized hierarchy  of  the  Conquest. 

IV.  Ecclesiastical  OuoAMz.vriOK. — There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  in  the  Christianizing  of  Britain  the 
monk  came  before 
the  secular  priest, 
the  minster  (mon- 
asterium)  was  prior 
to  tlie  cathedral. 
St.  Augustine  and 
his  CO  111  pan  ions 
were  monks,  be- 
longing seemingly 
to  com  in  unities 
founded  by  St. 
(Ircgory  himself, 
Ihougli  it  would  be 
a  mistake  to  regard 
them  as  identical 
in  discipline,  or  even 
in  spirit,  with  the 
Benedictines  of  a 
Liter  age.  Still 
greater  would  be  the 
error  of  using  mod- 
ern standards  to 
juilge  of  the  monks 
of  t  he  Celt  ic  Church, 
those  rude  but  as- 
cetic ini.ssionaries 
who  established  themselves  in  the  lonely  island  of 
Lindisfarnc,  and  who  in  their  excursions  under 
the  leadersliip  of  St.  Aidan  gradually  built  up 
the  Church  of  Northumbria.  The  early  monastic 
institutions  of  the  West,  both  Roman  and  Celtic, 
were  very  adaptable  and  seem  to  have  been  well 
fitted  for  missionary  efforts;  but  they  were  nev- 
ertheless incapable  of  providing  permanently  for  the 
spiritual  needs  of  a  Christian  population,  as  they 
essentially  supposed  some  form  of  common  life  and 
the  gathering  of  numbers  in  one  monastic  centre. 
As  .soon,  then,  a.s  the  work  of  conversion  had  made 
some  little  progress,  it  became  the  aim  of  the  bishop 
orablK)t — and  under  the  Celtic  system  the  abbot  was 
often  the  religious  sui>erior  of  the  bishop — to  draw- 
young  men  into  intercourse  with  their  community 
and  after  more  or  less  of  instruction  to  ordain  them 
priests  and  send  them  to  dwell  among  the  ix^ople, 
wherever  their  ministrations  were  most  needed,  or 
where  provision  for  their  support  was  most  readily 
offered.  To  a  large  extent  the  parochial  system  in 
England  was  brought  into  being  by  what  may  be 
called  private  chaplaincies  (cf.  Earle,  Land  Char- 
ters, 73).  It  was  not,  as  u.sed  formerly  to  be  main- 
tained, the  creation  of  Archbishop  Theodore  or  any 
one    organizer.     The    gcsith,    or    noble    landowner 


ANGLO-SAXON 


508 


ANGLO-SAXON 


in  any  "township"  (tliis,  of  course,  was  a  rural  di- 
vision) would  build  a  church  for  his  own  private 
convenience,  often  in  contiguity  to  his  own  house, 
and  then  he  would  either  obtain  from  the  bishop  a 
priest  to  serve  it  or,  more  commonly,  would  present 
some  nominee  of 
his  own  for  ordi- 
nation. No  doubt 
the  bishop  him- 
self was  also  ac- 
tive in  providing 
churches  and 
clergy  for  note- 
worthy centres  of 
population.  I  n- 
deed,  Bede  \VTiting 
to  Archbishop  Eg- 
bert of  York  urged 
that  there  ought 
to  be  a  priest  in 
each  township  {in 
singulis  vicis),  and 
to  this  day  the 
parishes  coincide 
with  the  former 
townships  (now 
known  as  "  civil 
parishes"),  or  in 
more  thinly  popu- 
lated districts  with 
a  group  of  town- 
ships. While,  in 
this  way  parishes  came  into  being  out  of  the"  ora- 
tories of  the  lords,  a  strong  effort  seems  to  have  been 
made  by  the  bishops  at  an  early  date  both  to  check 
abuses  and  to  seciu'e  some  definite  provision  of  a 
permanent  nature  for  the  support  of  the  priest.  Tiiis 
often  took  the  form  of  lands  legally  "booked"  to  the 
saint  to  whom  the  church  was  dedicated.  At  first 
the  bishop  seems  to  have  been  seised  of  these  en- 
dowments, as  also  of  the  tithes  and  of  the  general 
contributions  for  ecclesiastical  purposes  known  as 
"Church-shot",  but  soon  the  parish  priest  himself 
acquired,  along  with  fixity  of  tenure,  the  administra- 
tion of  these  emoluments.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
the  general  prevalence  in  England  of  lay  patrons  with 
the  right  to  present  to  benefices  (q.  v.)  is  to  be  traced 
to  the  fact  that  the  parish  church  in  so  many  cases 
originated  in  the  private  oratory  of  the  lord  of  the 
township.  It  is  diflicult  to  decide  at  what  date  the 
organization  of  the  parochial  system  should  be  re- 
garded as  complete.  We  can  only  say  that  the 
Domesday  commission  in  the  reign  of  William  the 
Conqueror  takes  it  for  granted  that  every  township 
had  its  o^\'n  parish  priest.  The  dioceses  which  were 
first  divided  up  with  some  degree  of  adequacy  by 
Archbishop  Theodore  were  further  added  to.  As 
time  went  on,  York,  as  we  ha\e  noticed,  became  an 
archbishopric  under  Egbert,  but  the  province  of 
York  was  always  far  behind  Canterbury  in  the  num- 
ber of  its  suffragans.  On  the  other  hand,  the  recog- 
nition almost  universally  accorded  to  Canterbury, 
and  the  oaths  of  fealty  taken  by  the  bishops  to  the 
archt)ishop  probably  did  much  towards  developing 
the  idea  of  the  national  unity.  At  the  close  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period  there  were  some  seventeen  bish- 
oprics, but  the  numerous  subdivisions,  suppressions, 
translations,  and  amalgamations  of  sees  during  the 
preceding  centuries  are  too  complicated  to  be  de- 
tailed here.  The  matter  has  been  very  fully  dis- 
cussed, in  "English  Dioceses",  by  G.  Hill,  who  gives 
the  following  list  of  bishoprics  in  1006.  I  add  the 
date  of  foundation;  but  in  some  cases,  indicated  in 
brackets,  the  see  was  suppressed  or  transferred  and 
afterwards  refounded.  Canterbury,  ,597;  London, 
604;  Rochester,  604;  York,  (62.'j),  664;  Dorchester 
(634),   870    with  Leicester;    Lindisfarne,  635,  later 


Durham;  Liclifield,  6.56;  Winchester,  Hereford,  669; 
662;  East  Anglia  (Elniham),  673;  Worcester,  680; 
Sherborne,  70.5;  Sussex  (Selsey),  708;  Kamsbury, 
c.  909;  Crediton,  c.  909;  Wells,  c.  909;  Cornwall 
(St.  Germans),  931.  Some  of  these  dioceses  after- 
wards became  more  famous  under  other  names. 
Thus  Ramsbury  was  later  on  represented  by  Salis- 
bury or  Sarum,  which,  owing  to  the  influence  of  St. 
Osmund  (d.  1099),  a  post-Conquest  bishop,  acquired 
a  sort  of  liturgical  primacy  among  the  other  English 
dioceses.  Similarly,  the  sees  established  at  Dordies- 
ter,  Elraham,  and  Crediton  were  after  the  Concjuest 
transferred  to  the  far  more  famous  cities  of  Lincoln, 
Norwich,  and  Exeter.  Otlier  bishoprics  at  one  time 
renowned,  such  as  those  of  Hexham  and  Ripon,  were 
suppressed  or  merged  into  more  important  dioceses. 
At  the  period  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  York  had 
only  one  suffragan  see,  that  of  Lindisfarne  or  Dur- 
ham, but  it  obtained  a  sort  of  irregular  supremacy 
over  Worcester,  owing  to  the  abuse  tliat  for  a  long 
time  the  same  archbishop  had  been  accustomed  to 
hold  the  sees  of  York  and  Worcester  at  once.  Un- 
doubtedly a  large  part  of  the  chopping  and  changing 
which  are  noticed  in  the  delimitation  ot  the  old  Saxon 
dioceses  must  be  attributed  to  the  effects  of  the  Dan- 
ish irruptions.  The  same  cause  is  no  doubt  mainly 
responsible  for  the  decay  of  the  older  monastic  sys- 
tem; though  something  should  also  be  laid  to  the 
charge  of  the  looseness  of  organization  and  the  un- 
due prevalence  of  family  influence  in  the  succession 
of  superiors,  which  in  many  instances  left  to  the 
cloister  only  the  semblance  of  religious  life.  The 
"booking"  of  land  to  these  pretended  monasteries 
seems  in  the  early  period  to  have  become  recognized 
as  a  fraudulent  means  of  evading  certain  burdens  to 
which  the  land  was  subject.  Tlie  prevalent  .system, 
of  "double  monasteries",  in  which  both  sexes  resided 
though  of  course  in  separate  buildings,  the  nuns  under 
the  rule  of  an  abbess,  seems  never  to  have  been 
viewed  with  approval  by  Roman  authorit}-.  It  is 
not  clear  whether  the  English  derived  this  institu- 
tion from  Ireland  or  from  Gaul.  The  best  known 
examples  are  Whitby,  Coldingham,  Bardney,  Wen- 
lock,  Repton,  Ely,  Wimborne,  and  Barking.  Some 
of  the.se  were  purely  Celtic  in  origin;  others,  for  ex- 
ample the  last,  were  certainly  founded  imder  Roman 
influences.  Only  in  the  case  of  Coldingham  have  we 
any  direct  evidence  of  grave  scandals  resulting. 
When,  however,  in  the  tenth  century,  after  the  sub- 
mission of  the  Danes,  the  monasteries  began  to  re- 
vive once  more,  English  monks  went  to  Fleury  which 
had  recently  been  reformed  by  St.  Odo  of  Climy,  and 
the  Fleury  tradition  was  imported  into  England. 
(Eng.  Hist.  Review,  IX,  691  sq.).  It  w;is  the  spirit 
of  Fleury  which,  under  the  guidance  of  St.  Dunstan 
and  St.  jEthelwold,  animated  tlie  great  centres  of 
English  monastic  life,  such  a-s  Winchester,  Worcester, 
Abingdon,  Glastonbury,  Eynsham,  Ramsey,  Peter- 
borough, and  many  more.  We  must  also  remember, 
as  an  explanation  of  the  efforts  made  at  this  time  to 
dislodge  the  secular  canons  from  the  cathedrals,  that 
these  secular  canons  were  themselves  the  suc<'essors, 
and  sometimes  the  actual  progeny,  of  degenerate 
monks.  It  was  felt  tliat  all  sacred  traditions  cried 
out  for  the  restoration  of  a  worthier  clergy  and  a 
stricter  observance.  Even  during  times  of  the  great- 
est corruption  ecclesiastical  authority  never  fully 
acquiesced  in  the  marriage  of  the  .\nglo-Saxon  Mass- 
priests,  though  this  was  undoubtedly  prc\alcnt.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  should  be  remenil)crc<l  that  the 
word  preost  (as  opposed  to  mcasf-prcosi)  of  itself  only 
means  cleric  in  minor  orders,  and  c()n.sc<]uently  every 
mention  of  the  son  of  a  priest  does  not  neces-sarily 
presuppose  a  flagrant  violation  of  the  canons.  To 
the  clergy  in  general,  from  asocial  point  of  view,  great 
privileges  were  accorded  which  tlie  law  fully  recog- 
nized.    The   priest,   or   ma.in-lhiijri,   enjoyed   a   high 


THK   HKWCASTI.K  CROSS   (WKST  SIDK) 


ANGLO-SAXON 


509 


ANGLO-SAXON 


wergeld  (i.  e.  maii-|)rice,  a  claim  for  compensation 
proportionate  to  dignity),  and  an  increased  muridbijrd, 
or  right  of  protection.  He  ranked  as  a  thane,  and 
the  parish  priest  togetlier  witli  tlie  reeve  and  the 
four  best  burghers  of  each  township  attended  the 
hundred-moot  as  a  niatterof  riglit.  On  the  otlier  liand, 
the  clergy  and  their  proi)erty,  at  le;ist  in  later  times, 
were  not  exempt  from  the  public  burdens  conmion  to 
all.  Save  for  the  option  of  the  corsncd,  a  form  of  or- 
deal by  blessed  bread,  the  clergy  were  judged  in  tlie 
ordinarj' tribunals,  and  jrithhorh,  or  tlie  duty  of  find- 
ing a  mmit)er  of  sureties  for  their  keeping  the  peace, 
was  incumbent  upon  them  as  upon  other  men. 


i-o-Saxon  .Stone  Carving  from  Jepb 


V.  KccLEsi  \sTic.<L  Observances. — The  close 
union  of  the  religious  and  social  aspects  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  life  is  nowhere  more  clearly  seen  than  in  the 
penitential  .system.  (>)des  of  penalties  for  moral  of- 
fences, which  were  known  as  Penitentials  and  were 
ascril)ed  to  such  venerated  names  as  Theodore,  Bede, 
and  I'^gbert,  meet  us  from  an  early  period.  The  aj>- 
plication  of  these  codes,  at  least  in  some  imperfect 
way,  lasted  on  until  the  Conquest,  and  the  public 
penance  enforced  upon  the  offenders  seems  almost 
to  have  had  the  effect  of  a  system  of  police.  Closely 
related  with  this  was  the  practice  of  making  confes- 
sion to  the  parish  priest  on  Shrove  Tuesday  or 
shortly  afterwards.  In  cases  of  public  offences 
against  morality,  reconciliation  was  commonly  de- 
ferred at  least  until  Maundy  Tliursday,  at  the  end  of 
Lent,  and  belonged  of  strict  right  to  the  bishop 
alone.  Confession  may  have  Iwen  relatively  infre- 
quent, and  probably  enough  its  necessity  was  only 
recognized  wnen  there  was  question  of  sins  of  a  pal- 


pably grievous  character,  but  it  is  certain  that  se- 
crecy was  respected  in  the  case  of  hidden  sins,  and  that 
absolution  was  given,  at  least  in  the  precatory  form. 
The  earliest  example  of  our  modern  cfedarative  form 
of  alwolution  in  the  West  is  probably  of  Anglo-Saxon 
origin.  Of  the  general  prevalence  of  confession  no 
stronger  proof  can  be  given  than  the  fact  that  the 
term  commonly  u.sed  in  Anglo-Saxon  to  denote  a 
parish  was  HcriHucir  (i.  e.  shrift  shire,  confession  dis- 
trict). Like  tlio  observance  of  certain  appointed 
fasts  and  festivals,  the  obligation  of  confession  was 
made  a  subject  of  secular  legislation  by  the  king 
and  his  Witan.  Another  obligation  enforced  by  le^al 
enactment  in  the  Witena  gemot  (council  of  the  wise 
men)  was  the  Cijricsceal  (i.  e.  church-shot,  church 
dues).  The  nature  of  this  payment  is  not  quite 
dear,  but  it  seems  to  have  consisted  in  the  first  fruits 
of  the  seed-harvest  (cf.  Kemble,  Saxons  in  Eng- 
land, II,  ,5.59).  It  was  apparently  distinct  from 
tithes  and  probably  was  even  older  than  the  forma- 
'11  of  regular  parishes  (Baldwin  Brown,  Arts  in 
I  Illy  Eiig.,  I,  314-31G).  The  payments  of  the 
iiilu'  of  increase  was  first  plainly  enjoined  in  the 
!■  i.':itine  synod  held  at  Cealcliythe  (Chelsea?)  in  787 
and  tlu;  obligation  was  confirmed  in  an  ordinance 
111  .\tliel.staii,  927.  Soul-shot  (saul  sccat),  also  a 
I  ayment  enforced  by  legal  sanction,  seems  to  have 
I '(11  a  due  paid  to  the  parish  church  with  a  view 
In  the  donor's  burial  in  its  churchyard.  The  im- 
I'  itaiice  attached  to  it  shows  how  intimately  bound 
11] ■  with  Anglo-Saxon  religious  conceptions  was  the 
ility  of  prayer  for  the  dead.  The  offering  of  Masses 
I    r  I  lie  dead  is  legislated  for  in  some  of  the  earliest 

■  '  ksiustical  documents  of  the  English  Church  which 
!     vc  lj<'cn  preserved  to  us,  e.  g.  in  the  "Penitential" 

I  hcddore.     The  same  desire  to  obtain  the  prayers 

ilu-  living  for  the  souls  of  the  departed  is  mani- 

ti'd  alike  in  the  wording  of  the  land  charters  and 

III  the  earliest  stone  monuments.     The  cross  erected 

ai   Hewcastle   in  Cumlicrland  about   671,  in   honour 

■  'I  liie  Northumbrian  king  .\lchfrith,  has  a  runic 
iii-cription  asking  prayers  for  his  soul.  Religious 
r. .iiiiimiiities  ;is  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  eighth 
i.iiuiry  lianded  themselves  together  in  associations 
plrilKi'd  to  recite  the  psalter  and  offer  Masses  for  their 
iliTcxsed  members,  and  this  movement  which  spread 
wulcly  in  C'lCrmany  and  on  the  Continent  had  its 

■  Lrin  in  England.  (See  Ebner,  Gebetsverbriider- 
-'in,  .30.)  Similarly  among  secular  persons  guilds 
ir  formed,  the  main  object  of  which  was  to  secure 
I  layers  for  the  souls  of  their  members  after  death 
(Kemble,  Saxons,  I,  511).  For  the  same  purpose,  at 
the  olxsequics  of  the  great,  doles  of  food  were  com- 
monly distributed,  and  slaves  were  manumitted. 
Another  institution  many  times  mentioned  in  the 
later  Anglo-Saxon  laws  is  that  of  Peter's-Pence 
(liom-jeoh,  Uom-pcnnig) .  It  appears  from  a  letter 
of  Pope  Leo  III  (795-816)  that  King  Offa  of  Mercia 
promised  to  send  365  mancusses  yearly  to  Rome  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  poor  and  of  lights,  and  Asser 
tells  of  some  similar  gift  of  Ethelwulf,  the  father  of 
King  Alfred,  to  St.  Peter's.  Not  very  long  after,  it 
seems  to  have  taken  the  form  of  a  regular  tax  col- 
lected from  the  people  and  annually  transmitted  to 
Rome.  This  voluntary  contribution  undoubtedly 
bears  witness  to  a  very  close  union  between  England 
and  the  Holy  See,  and  indeed  this  is  made  clear  to 
us  in  numerous  other  ways.  It  is  Bede  who  directs 
special  attention  to  the  constant  pilgrimages  from 
England  to  the  Holy  City  and  to  the  abdication  of 
kings,  like  Ca-dwalla  and  Ine,  who  resigned  the  crown 
and  went  to  Rome  to  die.  The  prevalence  of  dedi- 
cations to  St.  Peter,  the  generous  gifts  of  such  men 
as  the  Abbot  Ceolfrith,  whose  present  to  the  Pojie, 
the  magnificent  Northumbrian  manuscript  now- 
known  as  the  "Codex  Amiatinus",  is  preserved  to 
this  day,  together  with  the  language  of  several  of 


ANGLO-SAXON 


510 


ANOLO-SAXON 


the  English  sj-nods.  all  point  in  the  same  direction. 
The  fact  was  even  coiniiiented  upon  by  continental 
contemporaries,  and  the  "Gesta  Abbatum  Fontanell- 
ensium-"  (Saint  Vandrille'),  written  c.  840,  speaks 
of  the  "English  wIk.i  ;n.'  always  specially  devoted 
to  the  Apostolic 
See"  (Hauck,  Kir- 
ehengeschichte 
Deutschlands,  I, 
457,  3d  ed.).  We 
have  very  good  evi- 
dence of  the  exist- 
ence in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Church  of 
the  whole  of  the 
present  sacramen- 
tal system,  includ- 
ing Extreme  Unc- 
tion, Holy  Orders, 
and  Matrimony. 
The  Mass  was  the 
centre  of  all  relig- 
ious worship,  and 
the  Holy  Sacrifice 
was  certainly  of- 
fered privately, 
sometimes  as  often 
as  three  or  four 
times  in  the  same 
day  by  the  same 
priest,  but  always 
fasting.  The  at- 
tempt made,  upon 
the  authority  of 
certain  expressions 
of  Abbot  iElfric 
1.  ,....:...  Cross  (SOUTH  siDL)  (^1-    v.).    to    show 

that  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  did  not  believe  in  the  Real  Presence  is 
wholly  illusory.  (See  Bridgett,  Hist,  of  Holy 
Eucharist,  I,  119  sq.).  In  these  matters  of  faith 
and  ritual  England  differs  in  no  substantial  re- 
spect from  the  rest  of  Western  Christendom.  The 
Latin  language  was  used  both  in  the  liturgy  and  in 
the  canonical  liours.  The  books  were  the  Roman 
service  books  without  any  important  additions  of 
native  or  Celtic  growth.  The  principal  foreign  in- 
fluence which  can  be  discerned  is  a  likeness  to  the 
ritual  observances  of  southern  Italy  (e.  g.,  Naples),  a 
peculiarity  to  which  attention  has  been  drawn  on 
many  occasions  by  Edmund  Bishop  and  Dom  Ger- 
main Morin.  It  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
Adrian,  Abbot  of  St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury,  who 
came  to  England  in  the  train  of  Archbishop  Theo- 
dore, had  brought  with  him  the  traditions  of  Monte 
Ca.ssino.  Even  the  coronation  service,  which  began 
by  being  pronouncedly  Celtic,  was  remodelled  alDout 
the  time  of  Eadgar  (973)  in  imitation  of  the  usages 
which  obtained  in  the  coronation  of  the  Emperor  of 
the  West  (Robertson,  Historical  Essays,  203  sq.; 
Thurston,  Coronation  Ceremonial,  IS  sq.).  Hence 
many  interesting  details  of  liturgical  custom,  e.  g. 
the  churchyard  procession  on  Palm  Sunday,  the  dra- 
matic dialogue  beside  the  Sepulchre  on  Easter  eve, 
the  episcopal  benediction  after  the  Pater  Noster  of 
tlie  Mass,  the  multiplication  of  prefaces,  the  great 
O's  of  Advent,  the  communion  of  the  laity  under 
both  species,  etc.,  were  not  peculiar  to  England,  even 
though  in  some  ca-ses  the  earliest  recorded  examples 
are  English  examples.  As  regards  the  veneration  of 
the  saints  and  of  their  relics,  no  Church  was  farther 
removed  than  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  from  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation.  The  praises  of  our 
Ble.s,sed  Lady  are  sung  by  Aldhclm  and  Alcuin  in 
Latin,  and  by  the  poet  Cyiiewulf  (c.  77.';)  in  Anglo- 
faaxon,  in  glowing  verse.  An  Anglican  writer 
(Church    Quarterly    Rev.,    XIV,    286)  has   frankly 


admitted  that  "Mariolatrj'  is  no  very  modem  de- 
velopment of  Romanism — the  Blessed  Virgin  was 
not  only  Dei  Genitrix  and  Virgo  Virginum,  but  in  a 
tenth-century  English  litany  she  is  aildressed  thus: — • 

Sancta  Regina  Mundi,  ora  pro  nobis; 

Sancta  Salvatrix    Mundi,    ora   pro   nobis; 

Sancta   Redemptrix  Mundi,  ora  pro  nobis. " 

The  bodies  of  the  saints,  e.  g.  that  of  St.  Cuth- 
bert,  were  reverently  honoured  from  the  beginning 
and  esteemed  the  most  precious  of  treasures.  Be- 
sides the  feasts  of  Christ  and  Our  Lady,  a  number 
of  saints'  days  were  observed  throughout  the  year,  to 
which  in  a  synod  of  747  the  festivals  of  St.  Gregory 
and  St.  Augustine,  the  true  apostles  of  England, 
were  specially  abided.  Later  secular  legislation  de- 
termined the  number  of  such  feasts  and  prescribed 
abstention  from  servile  work.  All  feasts  of  the 
Apostles  had  vigils  on  which  men  fasted.  Sts.  Peter 
and  Paul's  day  was  celebrated  with  an  octave.  The 
Ordeals,  a  method  of  trial  by  "judgment  of  God", 
though  accompanied  by  prayer  and  conducted  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  clergy,  were  not  ex- 
actly an  ecclesiastical  institution,  neither  were  they 
peculiar  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church. 

VI.  Missions. — Of  the  missionary  enterprise  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  a  more,  detailed  account  must  be 
sought  under  the  names  of  the  principal  missionaries 
and  of  the  countries  evangelized.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  say  here  in  general  that  the  preaching  of  the  Irish 
monks,  of  whom  St.  Columban  was  the  most  cele- 
brated, in  central  and  western  Europe,  was  followed 
and  eclipsed  by  the  efforts  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  in 
particular  by  those  of  the  Northumbrian  St.  Willi- 
brord  and  the  West  Saxon  Winfrith  better  known 
as  St.  Boniface.  St.  Boniface,  to  whom  a  later  age 
gave  the  name  of  the  Apostle  of  Germany,  was 
supported  by  many  followers,  e.  g.  Lull,  Willibald, 
Burchard,  and  others.  The  work  of  e\'angclization 
in  Germany  was  almost  accomplished  in  the  eighth 
century,  the  crowning  effort  being  made  by  St.  Wille- 


P* 

l^^*^"i 

w 

^^■■bH.. 

,',---— 

l^^^S^^JM^^SSP^I 

1 

Cover,  Book  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John 

had  between  772  and  789,  in  the  North,  beside  the 
banks  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser.  These  missionary 
undertakings  were  much  assisteil  by  the  devotion  of 
many  holy  Englishwomen,  e.  g.  Sts.  Walburg,  Lioba, 
Tecla.  and  others,  who  founded  communities  of  nuns 
and  in  this  way  did  much  to  educate  and  Christianize 
the  young  people  of  their  own  sex.  At  a  somewhat 
later  date  another  great  missionary  field  was  pro- 


ANGLO-SAXON 


511 


ANGLO-SAXON 


vided  for  Anclo-Saxon  zeal  in  the  northern  lands  of 
Denmark  and  Scandinavia.  St.  Sigfrid  led  the  way 
under  tlie  protection  of  King  Ohvf  Trygg ve.s.son ,  but 
the  accession  of  King  Canute  to  tlie  tlirone  of  Knghuid 
was  an  important  factor  in  this  new  development. 
Although  not  much  is  known  of  the  history  of  tlie 
mis.sions  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  it  has  lately  been 
shown  by  such  scholars  as  Taranger  and  Freisen, 
alike  from  linguistic  and  liturgical  considerations, 
that  the  impress  of  the  Anglo-Sa.\on  Cluirch  is  every- 
where recognizable  in  the  Christian  institutions  of 
the  extreme  North. 

VII.  LiTKKATUKE  AND  Art. — Both  literature  and 
art  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  intimately  bound 
up  with  the  service  of  the  Church,  and  owed  almost 
all  their  inspiration  to  her  ministers.  In  the  century 
or  more  wliicli  preceded  the  terrible  Viking  raiil  of 
7SM    cxtratjrdinary    [jrogre.sa    waa    made.     Aldhelin, 


e.YpBopvuiis  L»qumiii 
C]cii.va>ewi.\vvesT 

erp.\70R.0lHS 

i;i  cieRi-r.\T«M%  t.>iat  qu\n.e  cics 

NowcRec'Nt'ns  iT>ihi 
qui  ejn  e.ViVo  aeriB.vi.>T  .\iii>it- 
pRopieu  e-v  ucii  now  Mi.^n is 

qtii.v  tWiV  NOW  osait; 
I^espow^^eR(.lNT  u;i[({r  uic\\oi 

eTc^i.veuiiwT  ei 
wow  we  Pewe«>ioKMus  wos 

qiit.v  s.\<r>.VRiTvwtis  cs-\u 


copy  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  now  at  Stonyhurst 
College,  which  was  buried  with  St.  Cuthbert  and 
found  in  his  tomb.  But  this  precocious  development 
of  culture  w.-us,  as  already  explained  above,  terribly 
bliglitcd  by  the  inroads  of  tlie  Danes.  With  the  era 
of  King  Alfred,  hcjwever,  there  are  many  signs  of 
recovery.  His  own  -Vnglo-Saxon  pro.se,  mostly  trans- 
lations, is  conspicuous  for  its  grace  and  freedom,  aI.so 
the  remarkable  work  of  art  known  as  the  Alfred 
jewel  bears  witness,  with  rings  and  other  oljjects  of 
the  .same  epoch,  to  a  very  Tiipli  level  of  technical 
skill  in  goldsmith's  work.  Within  the  centurj'  of 
Alfretl's  death  we  also  find  that  in  this  i)eriod  of 
comparative  peace  and  religious  revival  an  admirable 
scliool  of  calligrapliy  and  ilhiinination  had  grown  up 
which  seems  to  have  liad  its  principal  home  at  Win- 
chester. The  licneilictional  of  St.  yEtliehvold  and 
the  so-called  Mis.sal  of  Robert  of  Juniicges  arc  lamous 


pcVhowoRtpico  pi\-nieiT»oieua> 
frtwp  iwKowoR.\Tiso^c 
tN^O  .vu  itv«-v  wow  qiUV^RO 

l.;lclRL\a^  ctifAcn 
esT  q<.iic|tueniT  enaOicA-r 

mqiiis  seRa>owa^^o>eacl^ 

SeRil.Vliettir  OH">R^^AT^ 

wowuii>t»i;n  iw.veteawuoi 

KIUWC  Cc.i;wouiOMlS  > 
quii.c\vccr»ONtu<T\.hABCS     •:  in* 

.\PR.vlv\oN  triounctus  esTe-tpHoi*" 

ei  7ilO>iciSSU(Uls  »;eRirvow<Mr> 
o-ietio-v  seRu.vncRiT  mow<^usu 
tinoioRitvi-i  iN.verenwuoS. 

Wllo^C]Ult^•^ua^.VlOl^OS  pxrp.et-io 
.VbraIwiv.  qtiicnoRitias  eST-  - 
c^  pRopMe'i.vc  o^oRiui  siiMX 


k 


Gospel  op  St.  John,  foond  in  St.  Cothbeiit's  Tomb 


Bede,  and  .\lcuin  represented  the  high-water  mark  of 
Latin  scliolarship  in  the  Christian  West  of  that  day, 
and  the  native  literature,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  from 
the  surviving  poetry  of  C;pdmon  and  Cynewulf  (if 
the  latter,  as  seems  likely,  is  really  the  author  of  the 
"Christ"  ami  the  "Dream  of  the  Hood")  w;is  of 
unparalleled  excellence.  With  this  high  standard 
the  arts  introduced  from  Rome,  especially  by  St. 
Wilfrid  and  St.  Benedict  Biscop,  seem  to  have  kept 
pace.  Nothing  could  be  more  remarkable  for  grace- 
ful design  than  the  ornamentation  of  the  stone 
crosses  of  Northumbria  belonging  to  this  period,  e.  g. 
those  of  Bewcastle  and  Ruthwell.  The  surviving 
manuscripts  of  the  s.ame  epoch  are  not  less  wonderful 
in  their  way.  We  have  spoken  of  the  copy  of  the 
Bible  written  at  Jarrow  and  taken  to  Rome  oy  Ceol- 
frid  as  a  present  for  the  Pope.  Two  other  equally 
authentic  relics  are  the  Lindisfamc  Gospels  and  the 


MSS.  which  may  be  regarded  as  typical  of  the  period. 
In  literature  also  this  was  a  time  of  great  develop- 
ment, the  inspiring  motive  of  which  was  almost  al- 
ways religious.  Considerable  collections  of  homilies 
are  preserved  to  us,  many  of  them  rhythmical  in 
structure,  which  are  specially  connected  with  the 
names  of  yElfric  and  Wulfstan.  Besides  these  we 
have  a  number  of  manuscripts  which  contain  trans- 
lations, or  at  least  paraphr.a-ses,  of  books  of  Scripture; 
Bcdc's  lii-st  work,  as  is  well  known,  was  to  translate 
into  his  n.ative  tongue  the  fio.spel  of  St.  John,  though 
this  ha.s  not  survived.  Still  more  commonly  Latin 
texts  were  transcribed,  and  an  .\nglo-Saxon  glo.s3 
written  over  each  wortl  as  an  aid  t«  the  student. 
This  was  the  c!i.so  with  the  famous  Lindisfamc  (!os- 
Iiels,  written  and  illuminated  about  the  year  700, 
though  tlie  .\nglo-Saxon  interlinear  fran.slation  was 
oiilj'  added  some  250  years  afterwards.     The  manu- 


AN6L0NA 


512 


ANGOLA 


script,  one  of  the  treasures  of  the  British  Museum, 
is  also  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  interlacetl 
ornament.  This  form  of  decoration,  though  no  doubt 
originally  derived  from  the  Irish  missionaries  who 
accompanied  St.  Aidan  to  Northumbria,  soon  be- 
came a  distinctive  feature  of  the  art  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  It  is  as  conspicuous  in  their  stone  carvings 
(compare  the  early  crosses  mentioned  above)  as  it 
is  in  the  decoration  of  their  manuscripts,  and  it  long 
survived  in  a  modified  form.  In  the  field  of  history, 
again,  we  possess  in  the  so-called  "  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle",  reaching  in  some  manuscripts  from  the 
Saxon  conquest  down  to  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  the  most  wonderful  chronicle  in  the  ver- 
nacular which  is  known  to  any  European  people; 
while  in  the  "Beowulf"  we  have  a  comparatively  late 
transcription  of  a  pagan  Teutonic  poem  which  in 
subject  and  inspiration  is  older  than  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. But  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate  within  nar- 
row limits  even  the  more  important  elements  of  the 
rich  literature  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  Neither 
can  we  describe  the  many  architectural  remains, 
more  particularly  of  churches,  which  survive  from 
before  the  Conquest,  and  wliich,  though  mainly  note- 
worthy for  their  massive  strength,  are  not  by  any 
means  lacking  in  a  sense  of  beauty  or  destitute  of 
pleasing  ornament.  The  ancient  Saxon  tower  of 
Earl's  15arton  church  near  Northampton  may  be 
appealed  to  as  an  illustration  of  the  rest. 

Li.vGARD,  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church 
(London,  1845);  Bl.sHOP,  English  Hagiology,  an  extremely 
valuable  summary,  in  Dublin  Review,  Jan.,  1885;  Haddan 
AND  Stubbs,  Councils  (Oxford,  1871),  III;  Thorpe,  Ancie7it 
Laws  and  Institutes  of  England)  London,  1840);  Id.,  Diplo- 
matarium  Anglicum  (London.  1865);  IvIebermann,  Die 
Gesetze der  Angelsachsen  (Leipzig,  1903),  I;  Schmid,  Die  Gesetze 
der  Angelsachsen  (1858);  Turk,  Legal  Code  of  Alfred  (Boston, 
1893):  Kemble,  Codex  Diplomaticus  (London,  1848);  Id., 
The  Saxons  in  England  (London.  1876);  Birch,  Cartularium 
Anglo-Sax  onicum  (London,  1899);  Robertson,  Historical 
Essays  (Edinburgh.  1876);  Adams  (and  others),  Essays  in 
AngUi-Saion  Law  (Boston.  1876);  Pearson,  History  of  Eng- 
land (London,  1867),  I;  Ramsay,  The  Foundations  of  England 
(London,  1898),  I;  Hunt,  History  of  the  English  Church  to  the 
Conquest  (London,  1899);  Hodgkin,  Political  History  of  Eng- 
land to  wee  (London,  1906);  Plummer  and  Earle,  Two 
Saxon  Chronicles  Parallel  (Oxford,  1899);  Plummer,  Beda 
Opera  Historica  (Oxford,  1896);  Stevenson,  Asser's  Life  of 
King  Alfred  (Oxford,  1904);  Bright,  Chapters  of  Early  Eng- 
lish Church  History  (3d  ed.,  Oxford.  1897);  Earle,  A  Hand- 
book to  the  Land  Charters  (Oxford.  1888);  Chadwick,  Studies 
in  Anglo-Saxon  Institutions  (Cambridge,  1905);  Gee  and 
Hardy,  Documents  Illustrative  of  Eng.  Ch.  Hist.  (London, 
1896);  Makower,  Constitution  of  the  Church  of  England 
(Lonclon,  1895);  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  (London, 
1875).  I.  viii;  Freeman,  The  Norman  Conquest,  I,  II;  also 
in  general  the  works  of  Lappenberg,  Pauli,  and  Palsgrave. 
The  conclusions  of  Lingard  have  been  assailed  from  the 
extreme  Protestant  standpoint  in  several  volunaes  by  Soames. 
Special  subjects. — Ecclesiastical  organization  and  monas- 
ticism. — Brown,  The  Arts  in  Early  England  (London.  1903); 
Hill,  English  Dioceses  (London,  1900);  Articles  by  Bateson 
in  Eng.  Hist.  Rev.,  IX,  690;  X,  712;  Eckenstein,  Women 
under  Monasticism  (Cambridge,  1896);  Stubbs.  Memorials  of 
St.  Dunstan  (Ix)ndon,  1874);  Id..  Registrum  Sacrum  Anglicanum 
(London,  1897);  Searle,  Anglo-Saxon  Bishops  etc.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1899);  Id.,  Onomasticon  Anglo-Saxonicum  (Cambridge, 
1897):  Reichel,  Uise  of  the  Parochial  System  in  England  in 
Exeter  Diocesan  Society  Transactions,  1905. 

The  Heptarchy  etc. — Green,  The  Making  of  England  (Lon- 
don, 1881);  Id.,  The  Conquest  of  England  (London,  1883); 
BnowN,  Theodore  and  WUfrith  (London,  1897);  Id.,  St.  Aid- 
helm  (London,  1903). 

Land  Tenure  etc. — Maitland,  Domesday  Book  and  Beyond 
(Cambridge,  1897);  Ballard,  The  Domesday  Boroughs  (Ox- 
ford, 1904). — Tithes,  etc. — Selborne,  Ancient  Facts  and  Fic- 
tions (I^ondon,  1888);  Piiillimore,  Ecclesiastical  Law  (Lon- 
don,   1895). 

Peters-Pence. — Jensen,  Der  Englische  Peterspfennig  (1903); 
also  in  Tr.  R.  Hist.  Soc,  XV,  N.  S.;  Kaukk.  in  MHanges  U.  B. 
de  RossHlS92);   Moves,  in  Dublin  Review  (1893),  2.55. 

Devotional  Practice.— Rock,  CAurrAo/ Our  Fathers  (2d  ed., 
Ix>ndon.  1004);  Bridgett,  Holy  Eucharist  in  Great  Britain 
ilSH'^"?,'  '**":  '"•■  Our  Lady's  Dowry  (3d  ed..  London, 
!§2?''  5""""'  *''"  Kuypers.  The  Book  of  Cemc  (Cambriilgc, 
1902);  liK^unr,  Tlie  Origins  of  Our  Lady  s  Pr,nner  (Early  Eng- 
lish lext«  .Society,  1897);  Id.,  Feast  of  Our  Uidy's  Conception, 
in  Downsuie  Rrxicw,  April,  1880,  also  reprinted;  Bishop  and 
Moris.  Neapolitan  anil  English  Calendars,  in  Rrx'ur  B^mfdir- 
linr,  Nov.  and  Dec,  1891.  and  Sept.,  1895;  and  in  MolilN. /,*(T 
romu-i«(Marodw>uH,  1893);  Thukhton.  Lent  ami  Holy  Week 
(Ixinrlon,  1904);  Warren,  The  Leofric  kissal  (Oxford.  1SS3); 
tVlLBON,  M*s,al  of   Robert  of   Jumilges    (London,  1896),  and 


other  publications  of  the  Henry  Bradshaw  Soc;  Thurston 
Confession  in  England  before  the  Conquest,  in  The  Tablet,  Feb 
and  March,  1905;  Id..  The  Month,  Nov.,  1896;  Oct.,  1901; 
June  and  July,  1902;  May  and  Dec,    1904;  Dec,   1905. 

Social  Life. — Roeder,  Die  Familie  bei  den  Angelsachsen 
(Halle,  1899);  Larson,  The  Kings  Household  (Madison,  1904); 
LiEBERMANN.  Die  Englischc  Glide  in  Archiv.  f.  d.  Sludium  d. 
neueren  Sprachen  (1896);  Id.,  Ordalien,  in  Siizungsberichte  d 
Akad.  d.  Wissenschaft.  (Berlin,  1896),  II,  829;  Patetta,  Le 
Ordalie  (Turin,  1890). — Anglo-Saxon  Missions. — Bishop.  Eng- 
lish Hagiology.  in  Dublin  Review,  Jan..  1885;  Id.,  St.  Bom- 
face  and  his  Correspondence,  Trans.  Devonshire  Ass.,  VIII 
497  (1876);  Hahn,  iJont/az  und  Lul,  (1883);  Hauck,  A'ircAen- 
geschichte  Deutschlands  (3d  ed.,  1904).  I;  Taranger,  Den  An- 
gelsaksiske  Kirkes  Indfiydelse  paa  den  Norske  (Christ  iania. 
1890);  Freisen,  Manuale  Lincopense  (Halle,  1904). — Litera- 
ture.— Warren,  A  Treasury  of  Eng.  Lit.,  (London,  1906); 
Morley,  H.,  English  Writers.  I,  II;  together  with  various 
Histories  of  Eng.  Lit.,  e.  g.  those  of  Ten  Brink,  T.  Arnold, 
Stopford  Brooke,  Wulcher,  etc.;  and  such  editions  of 
Anglo-Saxon  writers  as  those  of  Prof.  Cook,  of  Yale,  e.  g., 
Cynewulfs  Christ  (New  York,  1900)  and  Poem  of  the  Rood 
(New  York,  1904).  The  text  of  the  various  Anglo-Saxon 
classics  must  be  sought  in  the  editions  of  the  separate  au- 
thors, or  in  such  collective  works  as  Grein's  BMiothek  d. 
Angelsdchs.  Poesie,  and  Wulker,  Bibliothek  d.  Angelsiichs. 
Prosa.  The  Rolls  Series  Text  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle 
(ed.  Thorpe)  is  accompanied  by  a  translation.  Two  other 
specially  useful  works  are  Sweet,  the  Oldest  English  Texts, 
(Early  English  Text  Society,  1885);  Roger,  L'ensrignemcnt 
des  lettres  classiques  d'Ausone  h  Alcuin  (Paris,  1905)),  and 
MacGillivray,  Christianity  and  the  Vocabulary  of  Old  Eng- 
lish (Halle,   1902). 

Art,  etc. — Baldwin  Brown,  The  Arts  in  Early  England 
(London,  1903)  ;  Earle,  The  Alfred  Jewel  (Oxford,  1900); 
liAFiER,  The  Franks  Casket  (Oxford,  1901)  ;  Anderson  and 
Allen,  Early  Christian  Monuments  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh, 
1903);  Warner,  Illuminated  MSS.  at  the  British  Museum 
(London,  1903);  Westwood,  Miniatures  and  Ornaments  of 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Irish  MSS.  (London,  1S68);  Calverley, 
Early  Sculptured  Crosses  (Kendal,  1899):  E.  M.  Thompson, 
English  Illuminated  MSS.  (London,  1895);  Michel,  Histoire 
de  Varl  (Paris,  1905,  I,  118,  511,  737). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Anglona-Tursi,  an  Italian  diocese  comprising 
twenty-seven  towns  and  three  villages  in  the  province 
of  Potenza  and  nine  towns  and  one  village  in  the 
province  of  Cosenza,  Archdiocese  of  Acerenza.  The 
diocese  is  sometimes  called  Tursi  because  to  this 
last-named  city  was  transferred  the  See  of  Anglona, 
after  the  latter's  destruction,  in  the  days  of  Queen 
Johanna  of  Naples.  Mention  of  the  Diocese  of 
Anglona  in  history  is  very  late;  all  knowledge  of  its 
origin  and  ecclesiastical  organization  is  lost  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Only  in  1077  do  we  find  a  Bishop  of 
Anglona,  Simon,  who  was  present  at  the  ceremony 
of  donation  of  some  rich  fields  made  by  Hugo  di 
Chiaromonte  and  his  wife  Ginarga  to  the  celebrated 
Basilian  monastery  of  Sts.  Elias  and  Anastasius 
(Ughelli,  VII,  79).  It  has  40  parishes,  138  secular 
priests,  and  9.3,000  inhabitants. 

Ughelli.  Italia  Sacra  (Venice,  1722).  VII,  68;  Cappelletti, 
Le  chiese  d'ltalia  (Venice.  1866),  XX.  453;  Gams.  Series 
episcoporum  Ecclesite  catholicce  (Ratisbon,  1873),  850;  Poliorama 
Pittoresco  (28  March,  1846). 

E.  BUONAIUTI. 

Angola  and  Congo,  also  known  as  Santa  Cruz 
DE  Reino  de  Angola,  and  as  Sao  Paolo  de  Loanda, 
diocese  of  Portuguese  West  Africa,  suffragan  of 
Lisbon.  Its  territory  was  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
after  1514  was  subject  to  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Grand  Prior  of  the  Order  of  Clirist 
at  Funchal  in  the  Madeira  Islands.  In  l.'59()  it  was 
made  an  episcopal  see  by  Clement  VIII.  The  natives 
(Bantus,  Bundas,  Bushmen,  etc.)  number,  it  is  said, 
2,000,000.  There  are  1,000,000  Catholics,  for  whom, 
according  to  Father  Werner's  figures,  there  are  82 
parishes,  8  churches,  10  chapels,  and  30  priests.  P'or 
those  figures  he  quotes  the  diocesan  reports  to  the 
Propaganda,  in  "  Missiones  Catholicoo",  for  1888. 
The  bishop  resides  at  Loanda,  agrcat  seaport  (14,000), 
witli  a  railway  that  reaches  inland  some  200  miles 
to  Ambaca,  through  a  territory  covered  with  rich 
plantations. 

lUrrANDiER,  Anntuiire  pont.  cath.  (Paris,  190.^).  213; 
Werner,    Orbia     Terr.    Cath.  (Freiburg,    1S90),  52;  Rf.clo*- 


tATIIi;iiU.\I.  ()!•    SI.   I'l.TKk,  .\Nt;<»ll.i;ME 


513 


ANHALT 


Keane,  The  Earth  and  lt»  InhabiUinIt  (New  York.  1900), 
IV,  37-42;  Mahtins,  Portugal  cm  Africa  (Oporto,  1891). 
TuOMA.S  J.  Shah.^.v. 
Angora,  The  Diocese  ok  (.Armenian  rite),  in  Asia 
Minor  (A.siatic  Turkey). — The  Kuropeans  now  call 
.\ngora,  and  the  Turks,  ICnjcuru,  I  lie  ancient  capital  of 
Galatia,  in  A.sia  Minor,  which  was  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  as  Ancyra.  Mitia.s  was  its  legendary 
founder,  and  it  witnessed  the  triumphal  march  of 
.Alexander  the  Great.  Under  the  Seleucid  king, 
.Antiochu.-i  HI  (2JJ-186  B.  c.)  it  lost  temporarily  its 
freeilom.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Galatian  kuigs, 
Dejotarus  and  Amyntas.  When  the  latter  died 
(2.')  II.  ('.),  it  became  a  Roman  city  and  was  very 
flourishing  under  .Augustus.  The  Byzantines  per- 
mitted its  capture  by  the  Persians  in  a.  d.  619;  later 
it  was  often  ravaged  by  the  Arabs,  who  were  in  turn 
dispo.sscssed  by  the  Seldjucids  of  Konia.  Though 
taken  by  the  Crusaders,  its  possession  was  long 
disputed  by  I.slam,  and  it  finally  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Sultan  Jlourad,  in  Vi62.  Since  then  it  has  re- 
iiKiiiud  in  the  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  with  the 
c\ii|)ti()n  of  some  years  after  the  battle  of  2  July, 
14()J.  in  which  Sultan  H.ijazet  was  killetl  by  Timour- 
Leiig  (Tamerlane)  and  his  Mongols,  and  six  months 
in  18.!:{.  when  Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  son  of  tlie  Khe- 
dive Mehemet-Ali,  led  the  Egyptian  troops  as  far  as 
the  Hosphorus.  Though  the  chief  town  of  the 
vilayet,  or  district,  of  the  .same  name,  the  modern 
Angora  no  longer  reminds  us  of  the  glory  of  ancient 
Ancyra.  It  can  show,  however,  besides  a  great 
many  inscriptions,  the  ruins  of  several  Roman 
monuments,  among  them  the  famous  temple  of 
Rome  and  .Augustus,  on  who.se  walls  is  inscribed  in 
marble  the  will  of  .Augustus,  with  the  principal  events 
of  Ills  reign  (Monumentum  Ancyranum).  Ancyra 
was  at  an  early  date  a  Christian  city,  and  counts 
several  martyrs;  the  best  known  are  the  Hisliop  St. 
Clement,  whose  memory  is  preserved  by  a  medieval 
cliurch.  and  the  publican  St.  Theodotus.  Unhappily, 
neither  the  Acts  of  Clement  nor  those  of  Theodotus 
can  claim  liigli  rank  as  historical  documents.  After 
the  persecution  of  Maximinus  (probably  in  .H-i) 
.Ancyra  witnessed  an  important  council  who.se 
twenty-five  canons  are  yet  extant.  Marcellus, 
Metropolitan  of  Ancyra,  was  prominent  in  the 
Arian  controversy,  likewise  his  successor  Basil 
(d.  373).  .Among  the  other  Metropolitans  of  An- 
cyra special  mention  is  due  to  Domitian,  who  took 
part  in  the  Origenist  controversies  during  the  sixth 
centurj'.  The  actual  population  of  Angora  com- 
prises 18,(X)0  Mussulmans.  IG.OOO  Orthodox  Greeks, 
5,000  Catholic  .Armenians,  100  Protestant  .Armenians, 
400  .lews.  The  Orthodox  Greek  community  is 
governed  by  a  metropolitan  and  has  2  churches,  1 
monastery,  2  schools  for  boys,  and  2  for  girls.  The 
Catholic  -Armenian  community  is  organized  as  a 
diocese,  and  has  l  churches,  1  convent  for  men,  1 
for  women,  3  schools  for  boys,  and  1  for  girls.  The 
Gregorian  Armenian  community  is  governed  by  a 
bishop,  and  has  2  churches,  1  monastery,  1  school 
for  boys,  and  1  for  girls.  The  Protestant  Armenians 
have  1  church,  and  form  a  missionary  station  under 
the  -American  Board  of  Commi.ssioners  for  Foreign 
.Mi.ssions,  directed  from  Ca-sarea.  The  little  Latin 
colony,  attracted  by  the  railway,  is  visited  by  the 
.Augustinians  of  the  A.s,sumption,  missionaries  at 
ICski-Chehir.  .Angora  also  possesses  a  prosperous 
rrcnch  establishment  conducted  by  the  Ciiri.stian 
Hnitlicrs.      (See  Ancyha).  J.   P.\ugoike. 

Angouleme  (Rvcomsma),  Dioce.se  of,  comprises 
the  Department  of  the  Charente  in  France,  and  has 
always  been  sufTnigan  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Bor- 
deaux, under  the  old  n^ginie  as  well  as  under  the 
Conconlat.  Its  first  bishop  was  -Ausonius.  ,a  disciple, 
it  is  said,  of  St.  Martial,  concerning  whom  we  have 
two  historical  authorities:  St.  Gregorj'  of  Tours,  who 


held  that  St.  Martial  preached  the  gospel  in  Limoges 
about  the  year  250,  and  the  Limousin  traditions, 
transmitted  or  invented  by  the  chronicler  .Adh(5mar 
de  Chal)aniies,  who  maintained  that  St.  Martial  was 
the  immediate  disciple  of  St.  Peter.  -According  to 
the  latter  opinion  St.  .Ausonius  was  a  bishop  of  the 
first  century;  according  to  the  former,  of  the  third 
century.  We  incline  towards  the  opinion  of  St. 
Gregory.  (See  Limoges.)  St.  Salvius,  honoured 
as  a  martyr  at  Valenciennes,  whom  the  "Gallia 
Christiana"  makes  a  Bishop  of  Angouleme,  was  un- 
doubtedly only  a  missionary  bishop  of  the  eighth 
century.  In  the  list  of  the  Bishops  of  -Angouleme  is 
found  the  name  of  the  poet  Octavien  de  St.  (iclais 
(1-19 1-1.502).  The  religious  monuments  of  the  prov- 
ince of  .Angouinois  are  remarkable  for  their  admirable 
Komano-Byzantine  fa(,-ades.  The  most  beautiful  of 
them  is  St.  Peter's  Cathedral  at  .Angouleme.  The 
memory  of  a  wealthy  and  famous  -August iiiiMii  abbey, 
founded  in  1 122,  is  kept  alive  by  its  ruins  at  (  ouronne, 
near  -Angoulfime.  The  Diocese  of  Angoulftme  (at 
the  end  of  1905),  contained  3.30,.305  inhabitants, 
30  cures  or  first-class  parishes,  332  succursales  or 
second-cla.ss  parishes,  and  6  vicariates  formerly  with 
State  subventions. 

The  page.s  of  Gallia  Chrutiana  (cd.  1720,  II,  975-1030) 
on  the  diocese  of  .\nKOuldmo  are  quite  mediocre.  See  espe- 
cially DtTilK.sxK,  FaalfB  tpUcojmux  de  Vancienne  Gaule  (Paris, 
1900).  II.  (i4-72.  135-137;  Chevaliek,  Topo-bibl.  (Paris, 
1894-99),  157-158. 

Georges  Goyau. 

Angra,  Diocese  of,  the  episcopal  see  of  the 
-Azores,  suffragan  of  Lisbon,  known  as  -Angra  do 
Ileroismo.  created  in  1534  by  Paul  III,  vacant  from 
1()37  to  1671.  It  is  .situated  on  the  island  of  Tcrceira 
and  includes,  besides  that  island,  the  eight  others 
that  form  the  group  of  the  -Azores:  Sao  .lorge,  Gra- 
ciosa,  Fayal,  Pico,  Florcs,  Corvo,  Siio  Miguel,  and 
Santa  Maria.  The  entire  population,  nearly  all 
Catholic,  is  262,073.  There  are  353  priests,  108 
parishes,  41  .succursal,  or  mission,  churches,  and  332 
churches   and    chapels. 

Battandier.  Ann.  Pont.  Cath.  (Paris.  1905).  213;  Werner. 
Orbis  Terr.  Cath.  (FreiburR.  1890).  51;  Tiiomas  ab  Incarnat., 
llUt.  Eccl.  Lusitanitc  (Coimbra,  1757-03). 

Ang^o,  Pedho,  native  of  Burgos  in  Spain,  came 
to  -America  in  1.524  as  a  soldier,  but  joined  the 
Dominican  order  in  1.529.  and  became  a  companion 
of  Las  Casas  in  Guatemala,  Central  America  in  gen- 
eral, and  the  ga-ater  -Antilles  (Santo  Domingo).  He 
was  made  Provincial  of  the  Dominicans  for  Chiapas 
and  Bishop  of  Vera  Paz,  but  died  soon  afterwards, 
in  1.561.  Fray  Pedro  .Angulo  w.as  one  of  the  princi- 
pal figures  of  the  earliest  Indian  Mi.ssions  in  Southern 
Mexico  and  Guatemala,  much  more  imjxirtant,  capa- 
ble, and  successful  than  Las  Ca-sas.  His  devotion  to 
his  work  knew  no  olistacles;  he  visited  tribe  after 
tribe,  lived  and  taught  among  them.  He  was  one 
of  those  who,  perceiving  the  tendency  of  the  Indian 
to  grasp  things  rather  with  the  eye  than  with  the 
ear,  resorted  to  charts  on  which  biblical  subjects 
were  allegoricallv  represented.  These  he  carried 
with  him  througli  the  wilderness  to  use  as  illustra- 
tions for  his  discourses  to  the  natives.  He  was  \ery 
proficient  in  two  Indian  languages,  the  Nahuatl  and 
the  Zutuhil,  and  wrote  several  tracts  on  religious 
subjects  in  the  latter. 

Documents  concerning  Las  Casas,  in  the  Dommentot 
xnMitoa  tie  Indiaa:  the  writings  of  I.as  Ca-sas  himself; 
Rkme-hal.  Uistnria  tie  la  provincia  tie  Guatemala  y  San  Vicente 
lie  Chmpa'  (Madrid.  ir>19).-  Hrasheur  de  HorRHOVRa.  Bily- 
Uttthi-que  mrriciy-tiuntrmttiicnne  (Paris,  1871);  Sqcieu.  Sfo7u>- 
graph  of  Authors  u-hu  have  Written  tyn  the  Languages  of  Central 
America  (New  York,  18G1). 

Ad.  F.  B.vndelier. 

Anhalt,  Vicariate  Apostolic,  comprising  the  ter- 
ritorj'  of  the  CJorman  Duchy  of  -Anhalt,  with  an  area 
of  ,S60  square  miles.  It  contained.  1  December, 
1905,  328,029  inhabitants:   13,493  Catholics,  311,999 


ANICETUS 


514 


ANIMA 


Protestants,  1,460  Jews,  and  1,077  members  of  other 
sects.  The  vicar  apostolic  is  the  Bishop  of  Pa- 
derbom,  who  names  the  pastors  of  the  vicariate. 
There  are  four  parislies:  Dessau,  Bernburg,  Cothen, 
and  Zerbst;  also  three  missions  (filialkirchen)  with 
a  total  of  ten  secular  priests.  The  "Grey  Nuns" 
from  the  mother-house  in  Breslau  are  the  only  re- 
ligious order  in  Anhalt.  They  have  two  establish- 
ments for  visiting  nurses  in  Dessau  and  Cothen,  in 
charge  of  twenty-one  sisters,  and  also  conduct  a 
kindergarten  and  a  school  for  first  communicants 
in  Cothen.  The  public  schools  are  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  State,  yet  the  Church,  with  the  permis- 
sion and  support  of  the  government,  maintains 
sixteen  private  schools  and  fifteen  teachers,  with 
about  nine  hundred  children  in  average  atten- 
dance. Before  the  Reformation,  the  territory  com- 
prised under  the  present  vicariate  apostolic  belonged 
to  the  Bishoprics  of  Meissen,  Brandenburg,  and 
Merseburg.  The  few  Catholics  who  remained  true 
to  their  faith  after  tlie  fall  of  these  dioceses,  received 
little  attention  from  the  Roman  Propaganda,  to 
which  they  were  subject  until  after  1622.  In  1719, 
the  Franciscans  of  the  Saxon  province  of  their  order 
established  a  mission  in  Dessau;  in  1805,  Duke 
Friedrich  Franz  gave  it  a  chapel,  and  in  1807 
permission  to  hold  divine  services  in  public.  A 
mission  was  founded  at  Zerbst  in  1773,  and  at 
Cothen  in  1816.  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Cothen  and  his 
wife  became  Catholics  at  Paris,  24  October,  1825, 
and  established  at  Cothen  in  place  of  the  mission,  a 
congregation  under  the  direction  of  Father  Beckx, 
S.J.  Pope  Leo  XII  raised  this  to  the  dignity  of  a 
parish  (17  May,  1826)  and  placed  it  directly  un- 
der the  Holy  See,  whose  first  representative  was  the 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Saxony,  Papal  Nuncio  at  Munich 
since  1827.  The  Jesuits  remained  in  charge  until 
1848;  since  then  the  parish  has  been  under  secular 
priests  from,  the  Diocese  of  Paderborn.  The  mission 
station  at  Dessau  was  made  a  parish  in  1830;  the  Pa- 
pal Nuncio  established  parishes  2  June,  1859.  in  Bern- 
burg and  Zerbst,  which  were  not  recognized  by  the 
government  of  Anlialt  until  1871,  being  founded  with- 
out its  consent.  By  the  Papal  Brief  of  the  17  March, 
1868,  the  Catholics  of  Anhalt  became  subject  to 
Bishop  Martin  of  Paderborn.  Since  that  time  \vith 
the  approval  of  the  government  of  Anhalt,  the 
Bishop  of  Paderborn  undertakes  the  direction  of 
the  Catholics  of  Anhalt  as  the  "Apostolic  Adminis- 
trator of  the  Catholic  parishes  in  the  district  of 
Anhalt ".  During  the  Prussian  Kulturkampf ,  after 
the  death  of  Bishop  Martin  (16  July,  1879),  the  see 
of  Paderborn  remained  vacant,  the  appointment  of 
the  temporary  vicar  apostolic  was  assigned  to  the 
Nuncio  at  Munich;  Canon  Drobe  of  Paderborn  was 
appointed  Apostolic  Delegate  and  made  Bishop  of 
Paderborn  in  1882  (d.  March,  1891).  His  succes- 
sors were  Simar,  (1892)  atid  Schneider  (1900). 

FntisEN,  Staat  und  katholiacke  Kirche  in  den  deutschen 
liundeastaaUn  Lippe,  etc.,  (Stuttgart,  1900)  II,  1-142. 

Joseph  Lins. 

Anicetus,  Saint,  Pope,  the  Roman  Pontiff  who 
succeeded  Pius  towards  the  year  157,  and  reigned  till 
about  168.  According  to  Duchesne  (Origines)  the 
confusion  of  dates  about  this  period  is  such  that  more 
exact  verification  is  impo.ssible.  While  Anicetus  was 
Pope,  St.  Polycarp,  then  in  extreme  old  age,  came  to 
confer  with  him  (160-162)  about  the  Paschal  contro- 
versy; Polycarp  and  others  in  the  East  celebrating 
the  feast  on  the  fourteenth  of  the  month  of  Nisan, 
no  matter  on  what  day  of  the  week  it  fell;  whereas 
in  Rome  it  was  always  observed  on  Stmday,  and  the 
day  of  the  Lord's  death  on  Friday.  The  matter  w!us 
clisciL'wed  but  nothing  was  decided.  According  to 
l-.ascl)iiLs:  "Polycarp  could  not  per.suade  the  Pope, 
nor  the  Pope,  Polycarp.  The  controversy  was  not 
ended  but  the  bonds  of  charity  were  not  broken"; 


the  Pope  permitting  the  aged  saint  to  celebrate  on 
the  day  he  had  been  accustomed  to  in  the  Church 
of  Smyrna. 

Hegesippus,  the  first  Christian  historian  whose 
writings  are  of  great  value,  because  he  lived  so 
near  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  also  came  to  Rome 
at  this  time.  His  visit  is  recorded  by  most  eccle- 
siastical authors  as  noteworthy,  inasmuch  as  it  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  many  illustrious  men 
repaired  to  Rome  at  that  period,  thus  emphasizing 
very  early  the  supreme  dignity  and  authority  of  the 
Roman  Pontiffs.  Marcion,  Marcellinus,  Valentine, 
and  Cerdo  were  also  at  Rome,  disturbing  the  Church 
by  their  Manichaeism.  Anicetus  suffered  martyr- 
dom in  161,  but  the  dates  vary  between  16,  17,  and 
20  April. 

Acta  SS„  11  April;  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  17  April; 
MicHAUD,  Biog.  Univ.;  Jungmann,  Dissert.  Hist.  EccL;  Mo- 
BERLT  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biogr. 

T.  J.  C.VMPBELL. 

Anima,  College  and  Church  of  the,  in  Rome. — 
S.  Maria  dell'  Anima,  the  German  national  church  and 
hospice  in  Rome,  received  its  name,  according  to 
tradition,  from  the  picture  of  Our  Lady  wnich  forms 
its  coat  of  arms  (the  Blessed  Virgin  between  two 
souls).  It  was  founded  as  early  as  1350,  as  a  private 
hospice  for  German  pilgrims,  and  was  erected  on  its 
present  site  in  1386,  by  Johann  Peters  of  Dodrecht, 
officer  of  the  Papal  Guard,  and  his  \\\ie.  Pope  Boni- 
face IX  granted  it  indulgences  in  1398.  In  1406,  it 
was  raised  by  the  German  colony  to  the  rank  of  a 
national  institution  and  united  with  a  Brotherhood 
governed  by  Provisors  and  a  Congregation.  The  foun- 
dation was  confirmed  by  Innocent  \'H,  who  exempted 
it  from  all  but  papal  jurisdiction,  and  took  it  under 
his  immediate  protection.  In  1418,  it  was  greatly 
enriched  by  the  legacy  of  its  second  founder,  Diedrich 
of  Niem.  The  Popes  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with 
the  exception  of  Sixtus  IV,  showed  it  great  fa\our. 
United,  in  1431,  with  the  CSerman  hospice  of  St. 
Andrew  which  had  been  founded  in  1372,  by  a  priest, 
Nicholas  of  Kulm,  it  became  during  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  the  German  national  and  relig- 
ious centre  in  Rome,  as  well  as  burial  place;  in  short, 
it  became  synonymous  with  the  German  nation  in 
Rome,  and  in  its  remarkable  Community  Book  (un- 
scientifically edited  at  Rome  and  Vienna  in  1875)  the 
most  important  names  may  be  found. 

The  chief  "  Protectors  "  of  this  period  were:  Theo- 
dorich  of  Niem  (1406);  Johann  of  Montmart  (1427); 
Gerhard  of  Elten  (1431);  Johann  Rode  (1431); 
Heinrich  Senftleben  (1450);  Nicolaus  Tungen  (1462); 
Albert  Cock  (1468);  Melchior  Neckau  (1479);  Johann 
Burkhard  of  Strasburg  (1494);  Bcrnhard  Sculteti 
(1503);  Kaspar  Wirt  (1500);  Willielm  of  Encken- 
wort  (1509);  Jakob  Apocellus  (1530);  Martin  Lupi 
(1536);  Peter  Vorstius  (1543);  Jodokus  Hotfilder 
(1548);  Kaspar  Hoyer  (1551);  Alexander  Junius 
(1557);  Johann  Fonck  (1558);  Kaspar  Cropper  (1564); 
Gerhard  Voss  (1584);  Klemens  Stiblindius  (1586); 
Richard  Stravius  (1589).  These  were  followed, 
later,  by:  Lambert  de  Vivardis  (I.V.IS);  Hermann 
Ortenberg  (1602);  Johann  Baptist  Rcinhold  (1614); 
jEgidius  deVivariis  (1619);  Lukas  llolstcnius  (1635); 
Theodorich  Amayden  (1636);  the  two  Gualterii,  and 
the  two  Emerix. 

The  present  church  which  owes  its  Renaissance 
style  to  the  influence  of  Bramante,  was  built  by  Ger- 
man subscriptions,  between  1499  and  1526.  It 
stands  on  the  site  of  the  older  church,  built  between 
1431  and  1499,  and  was  decorated  by  the  great  artists 
of  the  period.  Am<ing  its  treasures  is  the  famous 
Holy  Family  of  Giulio  Romano.  It  is  the  resting 
place  of  the  last  German  l'(ip(\  .Vdrian  VI,  as  well 
as  of  Cardinals  Enckciivort,  (iropper,  Andrew  of 
Austria,  Slusius  and  I  he  Hereditary  Prince  of  Cleve 
(1575).     Although  tlie  Enii)eror  Maximilian  I  took 


ANIMA 


515 


ANIMALS 


the  institution  under  his  special  imperial  protection 
in  lots,  it  fell  off  greatly,  during  the  period  of  relig- 
ious strife;  it  remained  ncvert Ileus's  a  stronghold  of 
(ierman  influence  and  a  refuge  to  all  CJermaiis 
in  need.  After  Sixtus  V,  the  Aninia  grew  in  political 
importance  as  well,  inasmuch  as  during  the  great 
events  that  took  place  in  Germany,  and  during  the 
Thirty  Years  War,  it  came  to  be  looked  upon  by  the 
nation,  the  national  representatives,  and  even  by 
the  popes,  as  a  national  work  of  thanksgiving  and 
supplication  to  God.  The  violent  interference  of  the 
.\mbas.sador  ^iartinitz  in  1697  (confirmed  by  an  edict 
of  Leopold  I  in  1G99),  ushered  in  the  most  eventful 
period  in  the  history  of  the  Anima.  In  1712  the 
Congregation  decided  in  favour  of  Maria  Theresa  and 
against  the  Km|M>ror.  In  1798,  the  French  plundered 
the  church  and  took  possession  of  it  as  the  property 
of  the  French  Republic  (in  behalf  of  Hclgiuni),  but 
were  driven  out  by  the  Xcaiiolitan  troops.  .\n  at- 
tempt on  the  part  of  Xajioleon  to  annex  this  institu- 
tion was  also  defeated.  These  vicissitudes  had  the 
effect  of  gradually  changing  the  house  from  what  its 
original  founders  had  intended  it  to  be  and  of  turning 
it  over,  almost  entirely,  to  Italians.  It  was  only  in 
18.53  that  the  noble  determination  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph  I  restored  it  to  its  former  purpose. 
He  opened  the  institution  to  his  Austrian  subjects, 
and  brought  about  its  reorganization  by  means  of  an 
.\|iost<)lic  Visitation  in  18.59  (Brief  of  1.5  .March"!. 

From  that  time  forward  the  .\nima  has  gradually 
regained  its  old  position,  by  timely  adaptation  to 
moilern  conditions.  Its  field  of  action  is  extending, 
step  by  step,  to  the  bountlaries  of  the  German- 
speaking  peoples.  It  has  been  the  originator  and 
support  of  almost  everj'  new  German  national  under- 
taking in  Rome.  It  possesses  a  special  importance 
as  the  place  where  religious  services  are  held  on  the 
occasion  of  political  or  national  festivals,  as  parish 
church  of  the  German  colony,  and  as  the  centre  in 
Rome  of  national  charitable  associations.  It  is  also 
a  hospice  for  German  pilgrims,  and  the  stopping 
place  of  Gennan  bishops  and  priests  from  Austria, 
Germany,  and  America.  It  acts,  at  the  same  time, 
as  intermediary  for  Austrian  and  Gennan  dioceses 
in  their  relations  with  the  Curia,  and  serves  as  a 
home   for   German-speaking    priests. 

The  Anima,  as  a  college  of  priests,  dates  back  to 
the  year  149(5,  and  was  founded  by  the  well  known 
Master  of  Papal  Ceremonies,  Burkhard  of  .Strasburg. 
As  early  as  the  sixteenth  centurj*  it  consisted  of 
fourteen  chaplains.  No  noteworthy  jjcrsons,  how- 
ever, are  to  l)e  found  among  them,  for  the  reason 
that  they  held  their  positions  for  an  indefinite  term, 
or  even  for  life.  Notwithstanding  numerous  at- 
tempts at  reform,  especially  that  of  1581,  the  moral 
condition  of  the  college  left  much  to  lie  desired. 
The  French  Revolution  destroyed  it,  and,  in  particu- 
lar, eliminated  the  German  elements.  It  was  only 
after  the  restoration  of  18.59  that  the  college  was 
reorganized  (18G3).  The  brief  of  reorganization, 
placed  prominently  in  the  refectorj-,  enjoins  that 
the  memters  of  the  college  "shall  acfpiire  a  better 
and  more  i>erfect  knowledge  of  theological  matters 
in  Rome  and  shall  study  the  transaction  of  ecclesias- 
tical atTairs  in  the  Holy  .See,  so  that  each  may  carry 
to  his  dioce.se  the  methods  of  the  Roman  Curia,  the 
spirit  of  discipline,  and  a  true  knowledge  of  the 
sacred  sciences."  The  two  years'  residence  in  the 
college  affords  special  op]x)rt\inities  for  the  study 
of  canon  law  in  theorj'  at  the  Papal  universities, 
and  in  pnictice  imder  the  higher  church  officials. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  many  students  of  the  Anima 
are  promoted,  on  their  return  home,  to  positions  of 
trust  and  authority  in  their  respective  dioceses. 
The  list  of  deserving  men  who.  since  its  restoration, 
have  gone  forth  from  this  training  school,  no  fewer 
than  300  in  all,  includes  eleven  bishops  and  twenty 
I.— 33 


university  professors.  In  addition  to  the  chaplains, 
whom  the  German  and  Austrian  bishops  appoint  in 
regular  succession,  other  priests  are  admitted  on 
moderate  terms,  so  that  there  are  twenty-one  priests 
now  residing  in  the  house.  The  college  is  governed 
by  a  rector,  who  coiurols  the  spiritual  management 
under  a  Cardinal  Protector  (at  present  H.  E.  Cardi- 
nal Steinhuber),  and  the  temporal,  under  .Austrian 
protection,  assisted  by  a  procurator.  'Hie  first  rector 
was  the  well  known  writer  and  university  professor, 
Alois  Flir,  the  restorer  of  the  institution,  who  died 
in  18.59  as  auditor  of  the  Rota.  He  was  succeetied 
by  Michael  Gassner,  afterwards  Dean  of  Brixen 
(1800-72);  by  Karl  Janig  of  Prague  (187.5-87); 
Franz  DopiX'Ibauer,  now  Bishop  of  l.inz  (1.S.S7-89; 
Franz  Vogl,  now  Bishop  of  Triest  (1889-1902;  and  by 
Protonotary  Jo.seph  Lohningerof  Linz  (since  1902). 

Kehschiiaumkh.  OiBchtchlf  drs  deuUchi-n  S iHiunulhofinzta 
Anima  in  Rum  (Vienna.  ISliS);  Giiais.  S.  Maria  deW  Anima, 
Grazer  Kirclunschmuck  (ISSli;  Stekfens,  Z><i«  dcultrhe 
Nationnl/wspiz  S.  Maria  ddt' Anima  wahrend  des  I'rieatir- 
Jubitdums-Jahrta  l.ius  XIII  (l.mz.  1893):  N.\gi,c.nd  Lang, 
MiUfilunyi-n  aua  di-m  Archiv  dts  dcutachen  Natiunalhost'izea 
S.  Maria  ddV  Anima  (Itolue.  1899);  ScllMlDLl.N,  (JtschirhU 
der  deulschcn  Nationatkirche  in  Horn  iS.  Maria  dt^W Anima 
(Freiburg,  1900  J. 

J.  SCHSIIDLIN. 

Anima  Christi. — This  well-knowTi  prayer  dates  its 
origin  from  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  centurj' 
and  was  enriched  with  indulgences  by  Pope  John 
XXII  in  the  year  1330.  All  the  nianu.scripts  practi- 
cally agree  as  to  the.se  two  facts,  so  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  their  exactness.  In  regard  to  its  author- 
ship all  we  can  say  is  that  it  was,  perhaps,  written 
by  John  XXII.  Of  this  we  are  not  certain,  as  this 
Pope  has  been  falsely  accredited  with  similar  pious 
compositions,  and  a  mistake  could  easily  be  made 
of  confounding  the  one  who  gave  the  indulgence  with 
the  R'al  author.  The  Anima  Christi  was  and  is 
still  generally  believed  to  have  been  coni|X)seil  by 
St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  as  he  puts  it  at  the  beginning 
of  his  "Spiritual  Exercises  and  often  refers  to  it. 
This  is  a  mistake,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  many 
writers,  since  the  prayer  has  been  found  in  a  nuinljer 
of  prayer  books  printed  during  the  youth  of  the 
saint  and  is  in  manuscripts  which  were  written  a 
hundred  years  before  his  birth  (1491).  James 
Mcarns,  tlie  Ihiglish  hjTiinologist,  found  it  in  a 
nianu.script  of  the  British  Mu.=eum  wliich  dates  back 
to  about  1370.  In  the  librarj-  of  .\vignon  there  is 
preserved  a  prayer  book  of  Carilinal  Peter  De  Luxem- 
liourg,  who  died  in  1387,  which  contains  the  Anima 
Christi  in  practically  the  .same  form  as  we  have  it 
to-tlay.  It  has  also  been  found  inscribed  on  one  of 
the  gates  of  the  Alcazar  of  Seville,  which  brings  us 
back  to  the  times  of  Don  Pedro  the  Cruel  (13.50-C9). 
This  prayer  was  so  well  known  and  so  popular  at 
the  time  of  St.  Ignatius,  that  he  only  mentions  it  in 
the  first  edition  of  his  "Spiritual  Exerci.ses",  evi- 
dently supposing  that  the  exercitant  or  reader  already 
knew  it.  In  the  later  editions,  it  was  printed  in  full. 
It  was  by  a.ssuming  that  everj'thing  in  the  book  was 
written  f)y  St.  Ignatius  that  it  came  to  be  looked 
upon  as  his  composition.  All  this  has  been  told  at 
length  by  (!uido  Dreves  (Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach, 
LIV,  493)  and  B.  Baesten  (Pn^cis  Ilistoriques, 
XXXII,  030).  S.  H.  Fkisbee. 

Anima  Mundi.    See  P.vxtheism. 

Animals,  \\'oiiSHii'  of.     See  Idouvtry. 

Animals  in  Christian  Art. — In  Christian  art 
animal  forms  liave  always  occupied  a  place  of  far 
greater  im|)ortance  than  was  ever  accorded  to  them 
in  the  art  of  the  pagan  world.  In  the  early  days 
of  Latin  and  Byzantine  Christianity,  a.s  well  as  in 
the  (H>riod  of  its  full  bloom  in  the  Middle  Ages,  a 
prodigious  number  of  representations  of  animals  is 
found  not  only  in  monumental  sculpture,  but  in  il- 


ANIMALS 


516 


ANIMALS 


luminated  manuscripts,  in  .stained  glass  windows,  and 
in  tapestry  as  well.  Tliree  reasons  may  be  given 
for  this  unexampled  fondness  for  animal  life.  First, 
because  it  atTords  an  easy  medium  of  expressing  or 
symbolizing  a  virtue  or  a  vice,  by  means  of  the  virtue 


Fresco  in  Cr 

or  vice  usually  attributed  to  the  animal  represented. 
Secondly,  because  of  the  traditional  use  of  animal 
forms  as  an  element  of  decoration.  And,  thirdly, 
because  of  that  return  to  the  direct  study  of  nature 
on  the  part  of  the  medieval  designers,  which  included, 
in  one  loving  investigation,  man,  the  lower  animals, 
and  the  humblest  plants.  The  paintings  of  the  first 
period,  as  seen  in  the 
Catacombs,  show  us, 
usually,  the  lamb  ac- 
companying the  Good 
Shepherd,  a  represen- 
tation of  the  Chris- 
tian soul  during  its 
earthly  life.  Birds, 
too,  appear,  either  as 
simple  decorative  ele- 
m  e  n  t  s  transmitted 
from  antique  paint- 
ings, or  u.sed  sym- 
bolically as  in  Noah's 
dove,  symbolical  of  the  Christian  soul  released  by 
death;  the  peacock,  with  its  ancient  meaning  of  im- 
mortality, and  the  phoenix,  the  symbol  of  apotheo- 
sis. The  symbol  of  perhaps  the  widest  distribution 
is  the  Ichthys,  which  since  the  second  century  has 
represented  graphically  the  celebrated  acrostic: 
"Jesous  Christos  Theou  Uios  Soter",  and  so  be- 
comes the 


Carved  Gem,  II  or  III  C 


Carved  Gem,  II  or  III  Centuh 


certain  trace  of  youthful  grace  hints  of  the  coming 
revival. 

After  the  recognition  of  the  Church  by  Constantino, 
the  Apocalypse  is  the  source  from  which  are  derived 
most  of  the  decorative  themes  of  Christian  Art.  The 
lamb  is  now  the  most  important  of  these,  and  its 
meaning  is  either  the  same  as  Ix^fore  or,  more  fre- 
quently perhaps,  it  is  symbolic  of  Christ  the  expia- 


tory victim.  The  dove  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the 
four  animals  that  St.  John  saw  in  Heaven  (Apoc, 
iv,  v,)  are  used  as  personifications  of  the  Four  Evan- 
gelists. Under  the  influence  of  Byzantine  art,  a 
great  variety  of  fantastic  animals,  such  as  dragons, 
birds  with  human  heads, 
winged  lions,  etc.,  en- 
twined themselves  around 
the  decorative  forms  until 
foreign  wars  and  the 
iconoclast  movement 
brouglit  this  period  of  vig- 
orous art  to  an  end. 
During  the  succeeding  Wine,  Loaves  and  Fish. 
three  centuries,  we  find  ^^^^^mwoEucHARLTH 
merely  unimportant  ar-  Centdry 
tistic  manifestations,  and 

it  is  only  in  the  Romanesque  buildings  that  we 
find  new  types  of  animals.  These  are  usually 
either  purely  fantastic  or  composite,  that  is,  made 
up  of  elements  of  different  species  combined  in 
one.  Often,  the  subject  grows  out  of  foliage  forms; 
and  monsters  are  shown  fighting  and  even  de- 
vouring one  another.  In  the  spandreis  of  the  en- 
trance doorways,  around  the  glorified  Christ,  the  lion, 
the  o.x,  the  man,  and  the  eagle  are  shown,  holding 
the  holy  books.  This  is  a  favourite  motif  in  the 
sculpture  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 
Sometimes  the  jaws  of  a  monster  figure  the  entrance 
of  Hell,  into  which  sinners  are  plunged. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  Gothic 
art  affords  the  greatest  number  and  the  best  rep- 
resentations of  animal  forms.  The  great  cathedrals, 
especially  those  of  the  Isle  of  France,  w'here  sculpture 
reached  its  highest  point  of  excellence,  are  a  sort  of 
encyclopedia  of  the  knowledge  of  the  time.  They 
show,  therefore,  examples  of  all  the  then  known  ani- 
mals, that  is,  whether  by  legend  or  experience.  The 
"bestiaries",  popular  treatises  on  natural  history 
which  exhibit  a  curious  admixture  of  truth  and  error, 
are  fully  illustrated  in  the  cathedrals  in  the  stone 
carving  of  the  capitals,  the  parapets,  and  the  tops 
of  the  buttresses,  and  in  the  woodwork  of  the  stalls. 
For  example,  one  readily  recalls  the  beautiful  birds 
of  prey,  the  wild  boars,  and  the  feline  forms  of  the 
towers  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris;  the  birds  covered 
with  draperies,  or  the  elephants  at  Reims;  the  enor- 
mous oxen  of  the  towers  of  Laon  placed  there  in 
memory  of  the  patient  service  of  those  animals  dur- 
ing the  construction  of  the  Cathedral.  With  the 
animals  of  the  country,  domestic  or  wild,  those  of 
remote  parts  of  the  earth,  known  by  a  few  specimens, 
are  also  represented.  Thus  we  find  the  lion,  the 
elephant,  apes,  etc.;  legendary  animals  also,  like  the 
unicorn,  the  basilisk,  the  dragon,  and  the  griffin. 
Imaginary  creatures  are  also  frequent,  and  the  gar- 
goyles alone  display  such  a  variety  of  them  as  to 
make  us  wonder  at  the  fecundity  of  the  artists  of 
the  period.  Viollet-le-Duc  remarks  that  he  does  not 
know,  in  France,  two  gargoyles  alike.  These  unreal 
figures  are,  nevertheless,  given  such  a  semblance  of 
reality  as  to  make  them  appear  faithful  copies  of 
nature.     The  failure  in  modern  times  to  rival  tliese 

firoductions  of  medieval  sculpture,  while  avoiding  a 
iteral  copy  of  them,  but  increases  our  appreciation  of 
their  value.  The  symbolism  which  usually  attaches 
to  the  various  animals  is  derived  for  the  most  part 
from  the  "  bestiaries".  Thus,  for  the  lion,  strength, 
vigilance,  and  courage;  for  the  siren,  voluptousness; 
for  the  pelican,  charity.  The  four  animals  which 
symbolize  the  leading  characteristics  of  each  of  the 
I' our  Evangelists  became  more  and  more  an  acces- 
sory used  to  characterize  the  figure  of  the  Evangelists 
themselves. 

In  the  same  way  many  saints,  when  not  charac 
terized  by  the  instruments  of  their  martyrdom, 
are  accompanied  by  animals  which  identify  them; 


ANIMALS 


517 


ANIMALS 


as,  St.  Roche,  with  a  dog;  St.  Hubert,  with  a  stag; 
St.  Jerome,  witli  a  lion;  St.  Peter,  with  a  cock;  St. 
Paul  the  Meniiit,  with  a  raven,  etc.  The  Bible,  also, 
gives  .>ioine  motives,  as  the  ram  of  Isaac,  the  golden 
calf,  the  brazen  serpent.  The  artistic  value  of  such 
varied  productions,  whether  painted  or  carved,  can- 
not he  too  niucli  praised  or  studied.  With  the  four- 
tceulh  century,  animals  become  less  frcf)uent  in  ico- 
nograpliy.  Tlie  fifteenth  and  si.xteenth  centuries  use 
them  again,  liut  <i)picd  more  clo.sely  from  life,  usu- 
ally of  small  size,  and  without  any  intention  of  sym- 
t)oIism.  One  finds  now  rats,  snakes,  rabbits,  snails, 
lizards,  etc.  With  the  Renaissance,  animals  were 
nearly  banished,  except  as  an  accessory  to  the  hu- 
man figure.  Modern  Christian  art,  being  mostly 
temimrary  revivals  of  one  or  another  period  of  the 
art  of  other  ages,  takes  the  symbols  and  decoration 
of  the  period  under  revival,  without  adding  anything 
new.  The  study  of  animals,  therefore,  though  adding 
much  of  value  and  interest  to  profane  art,  did  not 
produce  any  results  in  church  sculpture  or  painting 
wortli  mentioning. 

NoRTHcoTE  .\.\u  Brownlow,  Ronuj  Sotierraneo  (London, 
1870);  LuBKE,  Hittory  of  Sculpture  (London,  1872);  Babbct 
DE  Jouy.  Lea  mosaiquea  chrHiennea  (Paris.  18(i3^;  Bond, 
Gothic  Architecture  in  England  (London,  1900):  Viollet-le- 
Duc,  Dictionnaire  raiaonni  de  VarchHecture  fran^aiae  tlu  XI 
(lu  XVI  aiicU  (Paris,  1858);  de  Baudot,  La  aculpture  fran^iae 
au  moyen  dge  el  ta  renaiaaance  (Paris,  1885). 

Paul  P.  Cret. 

Animals  in  the  Bible. — The  Bible  makes  no 
prcten.sion.s  to  science;  we  must  not  therefore  expect 
to  meet  in  its  pages  willi  any  kind  of  elaborate 
clas.sification,  whetlier  zoological  or  otherwise.  The 
sacretl  books,  on  the  other  hand,  were  composed  by, 
and  for  a  people  almost  exclusively  given  to  hus- 
banilry  and  pastoral  hfe,  hence  in  constant  com- 
munication with  nature.  To  such  a  people  references 
to  the  animal  worlil.  animal  customs,  etc.,  are  quite 
natural,  and  the  more  animals  abounded  in  the 
countrj'.  the  more  frequent  and  varied  these  allu.sions 
may  be  expected  to  be.  In  point  of  fact,  the  names 
of  a  large  number  of  animals — over  a  hundred  and 
twenty  species — occur  in  the  Scriptures.  A  clo.ser 
examination  of  the  way  in  which  references  to  animals 
are  introiluced,  the  frequency  of  allusions  to  certain 
.species,  and  the  date  of  tiie  documents  in  which  they 
are  found,  may  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  conditions  of 
the  countrj'  at  the  different  stages  of  its  history. 
The  species,  for  instance,  called  in  Hebrew  re'em, 
verj'  probably  the  aurochs,  or  wild  ox.  totally  dis- 
appeared about  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity; 
the  wild  ass,  the  lion,  and  a  few  otliers  long  ago  be- 
came extinct  in  Palestine;  other  .species  are  now  so 
scarce  that  they  could  hardly  afford  a  familiar  sub- 
ject for  illustration.  The  variety  of  animals  spoken 
of  in  the  Bible  is  remarkable;  the  ostrich,  for  in- 
stance, a  denizen  of  the  torrid  regions,  and  the  camel, 
of  the  waterless  districts  aniund  Palestine,  are  men- 
tioned side  by  side  with  the  roebuck  and  deer  of  the 
wcxxly  summits  of  Lebanon.  This  variety,  greater 
prob.'ibly  in  Palestine  than  in  any  other  countrj-  in 
the  same  latitude,  should  be  attnbutcd  to  the  great 
extremes  of  elevation  and  temperature  in  this  small 
country,  rurthennore,  that  the  Palestinian  fauna 
is  not  now  as  rich  as  it  useil  to  be  during  the  Biblical 
times,  must  not  be  wondered  at;  the  land,  now- 
bare,  was  then  well  wooded,  especially  on  the  hills 
east  of  the  Jordan;  hence  the  changes,  .\lthough 
no  rcpilar  classification  is  to  be  .sought  for  in  the 
Bible,  it  is  easy  to  .sec.  however,  that  the  animal 
creation  is  there  practically  di\-idcd  into  four  cla.sses, 
according  to  the  four  different  modes  of  locomotion; 
among  the  animals,  some  walk,  others  fij-,  many  are 
essentially  sw-immcrs,  several  crawl  on  the  ground. 
This  classification,  more  empiric  than  logical,  would 
not  by  anj-  means  satisfy  a  modern  scientist;  it 
must  be  known,  however,  if  we  wish  fairly  to  under- 


stand the  language  of  the  Scriptures  on  the  matters 
connected  therewith.  The  first  class,  the  behemdth, 
or  beasts,  in  the  Biblical  parlance,  includes  all  quad- 
rupeds living  on  the  earlli,  with  the  exception  of  the 
amphibia  and  such  siiiall  animals  iis  moles,  mice,  and 
the  like.  Beasts  are  di\ided  into  cattle,  or  ilomes- 
ticated  (behimdth  in  the  strict  sense),  and  beasts  of 
the  field,  i.  e.  wild  animals.  The  fow-ls,  which  con- 
stitute the  .second  class,  include  not  only  the  birds, 
but  also  "all  things  that  fly",  even  if  they  "go  uiMjn 
four  feet",  as  the  ditTerent  kinds  of  locusts.  Of 
the  many  "living  beings  that  swim  in  the  water" 
no  particular  species  is  mentioned;  the  "great 
whales"  are  set  apart  in  that  class,  while  the  rest 
are  divided  according  as  they  have,  or  have  not,  fins 
and  scales  (Lev.,  xi,  9,  10).  The  reptiles,  or  "creep- 
ing things",  form  the  fourth  class.  References  to 
this  class  are  relatively  few;  however,  it  should  be 
noticed  that  the  "creeping  things"  include  not  only 
the  reptiles  properly  so  called,  but  also  all  short- 
legged  animals  or  in.sects  which  seem  to  crawl  rather 
than  to  walk,  such  as  moles,  lizards,  etc.  From  a 
religious  view-point,  all  these  animals  are  divided  into 
two  classes,  clean  and  unclean,  according  as  they  can, 
or  cannot,  be  eaten.  We  shall  presently  give,  in 
alphabetical  order,  the  list  of  the  animals  whose 
names  occur  in  the  Bible;  whenever  required  for 
the  identification,  the  Hebrew  name  will  be  indicated, 
as  well  as  the  specific  term  used  by  naturalists. 
This  list  will  include  even  such  names  as  griffon, 
lamia,  siren  or  unicorn,  which,  though  generally 
applied  to  fabulous  beings,  have  nevertheless,  on 
account  of  some  misunderstandings  or  educational 
prejudices  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  translators,  crept 
into  the  versions,  and  have  been  applied  to  real 
animals,  (In  the  following  Hst  D.V.  stands  for 
Douay  Version,  A,V,  and  R.V'.  for  Authorized  and 
Revised   Version  respect  ivelj-.) 

Adu.\x. — A  kind  of  antelope  (anlilope  addax) 
with  twisted  horns;  it  vcrj-  probably  corresponds 
to  the  d!shdn  of  the  Hebrews  and  the  pj'garg  of  the 
divers  translations  (Deut..  xiv,  5).  Adder. — .A. 
poi.sonous  snake  of  the  genus  I'lpera.  The  word, 
unused  in  the  D.V.,  stands  in  the  A.V .  for  four  different 
Hebrew  names  of  serpents.  Ant.  (Prov.,  vi,  6; 
XXX,  25). — Over  twelve  species  of  ants  exist  in  Pales- 
tine; among  them  the  ants  of  the  genus  Atta  are 
particularly  common,  especially  the  alia  barbara,  of 
dark  colour,  and  the  alia  struclor.  a  brown  species. 
These,  with  the  pheiclole  megacephnla,  are,  unlike 
the  ants  of  northern  countries,  accustomed  to  laj'  up 
stores  of  corn  for  winter  use.  Hence  the  allusions 
of  the  wise  man  in  the  two  above-mentioned  passages 
of  Proverbs.  A.vtklgpe. — The  worth  first  applied 
as  a  qualification  to  the  gazelle,  on  account  of  the 
lustre  and  soft  expression  of  its  eye.  has  become  the 
name  of  a  genus  of  ruminant  quadrupeds  inter- 
mediate between  the  deer  and  the  goat.  Four 
species  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible:  (1)  the  dtshon 
(I).V.  pj-garg;  Deut..  xiv,  iy),  commonly  identified 
with  the  anlilope  nddni;  (2)  the  fcWif  (Deut.,  xii, 
1.').  etc.;  D.V.  roe)  or  gazelle,  anlilope  dorcas;  (3) 
the  llicV)  (Deut.,  x-iv,  5;  D.V.  wild  goat;  Is.,  li,  20, 
D.V.  wild  ox\  which  seems  to  be  the  Dubale  {anlilope 
bulmlix);  and  (4)  the  ydhmiir  (Deut.,  xiv,  5).  tne 
name  of  which  is  given  bv  the  Arabs  to  the  roebuck 
of  Northern  Syria  and  to  tlie  oryx  (the  white  antelope. 
anlilope  oryx)  of  the  desert.  Ape. — Nowhere  in  the 
Bible  is  the  ape  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  Pales- 
tine. .\pcs  are  mentioned  with  gold,  silver,  ivorj', 
and  peacocks  among  the  precious  things  imported 
by  Solomon  from  Tharsis  (III  K.,  x.  22;  II  Par.,  ix. 
21).  Asp. — This  word,  which  occurs  ten  times  in 
D.V.,  stands  for  four  Hebrew  names:  (1)  Pi'lhcn 
[Deut..  xxxii.  :W;  Job,  xx,  14,  16;  Ps.,  Ivii  (Hebr., 
Iviii).  n;  Is.,  xi,  8].  From  several  allusions  both  to 
its  deadly  venom  (Deut.,  xxxii,  33),  and  to  its  use  by 


ANIMALS 


518 


ANIMALS 


serpent-charmers  [Ps..  Ivii  (Hebr..  Iviii),  5,  6],  it 
appears  that  tlie  cobra  (naja  aspis)  is  most  probably 
signified.  Safely  to  step  upon  its  body,  or  even 
linger  by  the  hole  where  it  coils  itself,  is  manifestly  a 
sign  of  God's  particular  protection  [Ps.,  xe  (Hebr., 
xci),  13;  Is.,  xi,  8].  Sophar,  one  of  Job's  friend.s, 
speaks  of  the  wicked  as  sucking  the  venom  of  pdhin, 
in  punishment  whereof  the  food  he  takes  shall  be 
turned  witliin  him  into  the  gall  of  this  poisonous 
reptile  (Job,  xx,  16,  14).  (2)  'Akhshubh.  mentioned 
only  once  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  namely  Ps.,  cxl 
(Vulg.,  cxx.xix),  4,  but  manifestly  alluded  to  in  Ps., 
xiii,  3,  and  Kom.,  iii,  13,  seems  to  have  been  one  of 
the  most  highly  poisonous  kinds  of  viper,  perhaps 
the  toxicoa,  also  called  cchis  arenicola  or  scytale  of  the 
PjTamids,  very  common  in  Syria  and  North  Africa. 
(3)  ShdMl  is  also  found  only  once  to  signify  a  snake, 
Ps.,  xci  (Vulg.,  xc).  13;  but  what  particular  kind  of 
snake  we  are  unable  to  determine.  The  word  shtihdl 
might  possibly,  owing  to  some  copyist's  mistake, 
have  crept  into  the  place  of  another  name  now  im- 
possible to  restore.  (4)  (phmi  (Is.,  hx,  5),  "the 
nisser",  generallj'  rendered  by  basilisk  in  D.V.  and  in 
ancient  translations,  the  latter  sometimes  calling  it 
regulus.  This  snake  was  deemed  so  deadly  that, 
according  to  the  common  saying,  its  hissing  alone, 
even  its  look,  was  fatal.  It  was  probably  a  small 
viper,  perhaps  a  cerastes,  possibly  the  daboia  zan- 
thina,  according  to  Chejme.  Ass. — The  ass  has 
always  enjoyed  a  marked  favour  above  all  other 
beasts  of  burden  in  Palestine.  Tliis  is  evidenced  by 
two  very  simple  remarks.  While,  on  the  one  hand, 
mention  of  this  animal  occurs  over  a  himdred  and 
thirty  times  in  Holy  Writ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Hebrew  vocabularj-  possesses,  to  designate  the  ass, 
according  to  its  colour,  sex,  age,  etc.,  a  supply  of 
words  in  striking  contrast  with  the  ordinary  penury 
of  the  sacred  language.  Of  these  various  names 
the  most  common  is  h&mor,  "reddish",  the  hair  of 
the  Eastern  ass  being  generally  of  that  colour.  White 
asses,  more  rare,  were  also  more  appreciated  and 
reserved  for  the  u.se  of  the  nobles  (Judges,  v,  10). 
The  custom  was  introduced  very  early,  as  it  seems, 
and  still  prevails,  to  paint  the  most  shapely  and 
valuable  donkeys  in  stripes  of  different  colours.  In 
the  East  the  ass  is  much  larger  and  finer  than  in 
other  countries,  and  in  several  places  the  pedigrees 
of  the  best  breeds  are  carefully  preserved.  Asses 
have  always  been  an  important  item  in  the  resources 
of  the  Eastern  peoples,  and  w'c  are  repeatedly  told 
in  the  Bible  about  the  herds  of  these  animals  owned 
by  the  patriarchs  (Gen.,  xii,  16;  xxx,  43;  xxx\'i,  24, 
etc.),  and  wealthy  Israehtes  (I  K.,  ix,  3;  I  Par.,  xxvii, 
30,  etc.).  Hence  the  several  regulations  brought 
forth  by  Israel's  lawgiver  on  tliis  subject:  the 
neighbour's  a-ss  should  not  be  coveted  (Exod.,  xx,  17); 
moreover,  should  the  neighbour's  stray  ass  be  found, 
it  should  be  taken  care  of,  and  its  owner  assisted  in 
tending  this  part  of  his  herd  (Deut.,  xxii,  3,  4).  The 
ass  serves  in  the  East  for  many  purposes.  Its  even 
gait  and  surefootedness,  so  well  suited  to  the  rough 
paths  of  the  Holy  Land,  made  it  at  all  times  the 
most  popular  of  all  the  animals  for  riding  in  tho.se 
hilly  regions  (Gen.,  xxii,  3;  Luke,  xix,  30).  Neither 
was  it  ridden  only  by  the  common  people,  but  also 
by  persons  of  tlie  highest  rank  (Judges,  v,  10;  x,  4; 
II  K.,  xvii,  23;  xix,  26,  etc.).  No  wonder  therefore 
that  Our  Lord  about  to  come  triumphantly  to  Jeru- 
salem, commanded  Ilis  di.sciples  to  bring  itim  an  ass 
and  her  colt;  no  lesson  of  humility,  as  is  sometimes 
asserted,  but  the  adirmalion  of  the  peaceful  character 
of  His  kingdom  should  be  .>cought  there.  Although 
the  Scripture  speaks  of  "saddling"  the  ass,  usually 
no  saddle  was  used  by  the  rider;  a  cloth  .spread  upon 
the  back  of  the  a.ss  and  fastened  by  a  .strap  was  all 
the  eriuipment.  Upon  this  cloth  the  rider  sat,  a 
Bervaut  usually  walkitig  alongside.     Should  a  family 


journey,  the  women  and  children  would  ride  the 
asses,  attended  by  the  father  (Exo<l.,  iv,  20).  This 
mode  of  travelling  has  been  popularized  by  Christian 
painters,  who  copied  the  eastern  customs  in  their 
representations  of  the  Holy  Family's  fliglit  to  Egj'i^t. 
Scores  of  passages  in  the  Bible  alhule  to  as.ses  carrj-- 
ing  burdens;  the  Gospels,  at  least  in  the  Greek  text, 
speak  of  millstones  run  by  a.sses  (Matt.,  xviii,  6; 
Mark,  i.x,  41;  Luke,  xvii,  2);  Josephus  and  the 
Egj'ptian  monuments  teach  us  that  this  animal 
was  used  for  threshing  wheat;  finally,  we  repeatedly 
read  in  the  O.  T.  of  asses  hitched  to  a  plougli  (Deut., 
xxii,  10;  Is.,  xxx,  24,  etc.),  and  in  reference  to  this 
custom,  the  Law  forbade  ploughing  with  an  ox  and 
an  a.ss  together  (Deut.,  xxii.  10).  From  Is.,  xxi,  7, 
confirmed  by  the  statements  of  Greek  W'riters,  we 
learn  that  part  of  the  cavalrj'  force  in  the  Persian 
army  rode  donkeys;  we  should  perhaps  understand 
from  IV  K.,  vii,  7,  that  the  Syrian  armies  followed 
the  same  practice;  but  no  such  custom  seems  to 
have  ever  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews.  With 
them  the  ass  was  essentially  for  peaceful  use,  the 
emblem  of  peace,  as  the  horse  was  the  symbol  of 
war.  The  flesh  of  the  ass  was  unclean  and  forbidden 
by  the  Law.  In  some  particular  circumstances, 
however,  no  law  could  prevail  over  necessity,  and 
we  read  that  during  Joram's  reign,  when  Benadad 
be.sieged  Samaria,  the  famine  was  so  extreme  in  this 
city,  that  the  head  of  an  ass  w^as  sold  for  fourscore 
pieces  of  silver  (IV  K.,  \-i,  25).  Ass's  Colt. — This  is 
more  specially  the  symbol  of  peace  and  meek  obedi- 
ence (Jolm,  xii,  15).  Ass,  Wild,  corresponds  in  the 
O.  T.  to  two  words,  peri'  and  'arodh.  \Miether 
these  two  names  refer  to  different  species,  or  are,  the 
one.  the  genuine  Hebrew  name,  the  other,  the  Ara- 
maic equivalent  for  the  same  animal,  is  uncertain. 
Both  signify  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  untamable 
animals.  The  wild  ass  is  larger  and  more  shapely 
than  the  domestic  one,  and  outruns  the  fleetest 
horse.  Its  untaraableness  joined  to  its  nimbleness 
made  it  a  fit  symbol  for  the  wild  and  plunder-loving 
Israael  (Gen.,  xvi,  12).  The  wild  ass,  extinct  in 
western  Asia,  still  exists  in  central  A.sia  and  the 
deserts  of  Africa.  Att.^cus  (Lev.,  xi.  22). — Instead 
of  this  Latin  word,  the  A.V.  reads  bald-locust.  .\c- 
cording  to  the  tradition  enshrined  in  the  Talmud, 
the  common  trujcalis,  a  locust  with  a  very  long 
smooth  head  is  probably  signified.  Aurochs,  or 
wild  ox  {urus,  bos  priniigenius),  is  iradoubtedly  the 
rimu  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  and  consequently 
corresponds  to  the  re'cm  or  rim  of  the  Hebrews. 
The  latter  word  is  translated  sometimes  in  oiu'  V.\. 
by  rhinoceros  (Num.,  xxiii,  22;  xxiv,  8;  Deut., 
xxxiii,  17;  Job,  xxxix,  9,  10),  sometimes  by  unicorn 
(Ps.,  xxi,  22;  xxviii,  6;  xci,  11;  Is.,  xxxiv,  7). 
That  the  re'i-m,  far  from  being  unicorn,  w-.as  a  two- 
horned  animal,  is  suggested  by  Ps.,  xxi,  22,  anil 
forcibly  evidenced  by  Deut.,  xxxiii,  17,  where  its 
horns  represent  the  two  tribes  of  Ephraim  and 
Manasses;  that,  moreover,  it  was  akin  to  the  domes- 
tic ox  is  shown  from  such  parallelisms  as  we  find  in 
Ps.,  xxviii,  6,  where  we  read,  according  to  the  critical 
editions  of  tlie  Hebrew  text:  "The  voice  of  Yahweli 
makes  Lebanon  skip  Uke  a  bullock,  and  Sirion  like  a 
young  re'cm";  or  Is.,  x.xxiv,  7:  "And  tlie  rc'im  sliall 
go  down  with  them,  and  the  bulls  with  tlio  mighty"; 
and  still  more  convincingly  by  such  imphcit  ilescrip- 
tions  as  that  of  Job,  xxxix,  9,  10:  "Shall  the  rn/i 
be  willing  to  ser\'C  thee,  or  will  he  .stay  at  thy  crib'? 
Canst  thou  bind  the  rvm  with  thy  thong  to  i)lough, 
or  will  he  break  the  clods  of  the  valleys  after  tliee?'' 
These  references  will  be  very  clear,  the  last  espiciallv, 
once  we  admit  the  re'cm  is  an  almost  untaniable 
wikl  ox,  which  one  would  try  in  vain  to  submit  to 
the  same  work  as  its  domestic  kin.  Hence  there  is 
very  little  doubt  that  in  all  the  above-mentioned 
jilaces  the  word  aurochs  should  be   substituted  for 


ANIMALS 


oil) 


ANIMALS 


rhinoceros  and  unicorn.  The  aurochs  is  for  the 
sacred  fxiets  a  familiar  emblem  of  untamed  strength 
and  ferocity.     It  no  lonper  exists  in  western  Asia. 

H.MiooN,  a  kind  of  ilog-faced,  long-haired  monkey, 
dwcllini  among  ruins  (gen.  Viiniiccplialu.i);  it  was  an 
object  of  worsliip  for  the  ICgj'plians.  Some  deem  it 
to  be  the  "hairy  one"  s|K)ken  of  in  Is.,  .\iii,  21  and 
xx.xiv,  U,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  it  ever  ex- 
isteil  west  of  the  Euphrates.  B.\dokk. — No  mention 
of  the  badger  {mcles  taxus)  is  found  in  the  D.V., 
whereas  the  A.V.  regularly  gives  it  as  the  Knglish 
ci|uivalcnt  for  ti'ib/inh.  The  skin  of  the  U'lhdsh  is 
repeatedly  spoken  of  as  used  for  the  outer  cover  of 
the  tabernacle  and  the  several  jHeccs  of  it.s  furniture. 
The  old  translations,  and  the  D.V.  after  them,  under- 
stood the  word  tAh^ish  to  mean  a  color  (violet;  Ex., 
XXV,  5;  xx\n,  14;  x.xxv,  7,  2.3;  xxxvi,  19;  Num.,  iv, 
10.  2.5;  Ezcch.,  xvi,  10);  but  this  is  a  misrepresenta- 
tion; so  also  is  the  rendering  of  the  .\.\'.;  for  though 
the  badger  is  common  in  Palestine,  yet  the  Hebrew 
name  most  probably  inilicates  the  Jugong  (halicore 
hemprichii  or  liiilicin-  liihrntiicull),  a  very  large 
species  of  the  seal  family  living  in  the  Red  Sea,  the 
skin  of  whicli  is  used  to  the  present  day  for  such 
purpo.ses  as  those  allmled  to  in  the  Hible.  B.vsillsk 
occurs  in  the  D.V.  as  an  equivalent  for  .several  Hebrew 
names  of  snakes:  (1)  Pithcn  (Ps.  xc,  13),  the  cobra; 
had  the  Latin  and  l-^nglisli  translators  been  more 
consistent  they  would  have  renilercd  this  Hebrew 
word  here,  as  in  the  other  places,  bj'  a.sp;  (2)  CiphA' 
and  Ciphe  '6ni  (Prov.,  xxiii,  32;  Is.,  xi.  8;  xiv,  29;  Jer., 
\'iii,  17;  (3)  'I'phe'ih  (Is.,  li.\,  5),  a  kind  of  viper  im- 
po.ssible  to  determine,  or  perhaps  the  echis  arenicola; 
(4)  fljHng  sfirilpli  (Is.,  xiv,  29;  xxx,  6),  a  winged 
.serpent  (?),  possibly  also  a  reptile  like  the  draco 
limhrititus,  which,  having  long  ribs  covered  with  a 
fringe-like  skin,  is  able  to  glide  through  the  air  for 
short  distances.  B.vT. — The  bat,  fourteen  species 
of  which  still  exist  in  Palestine  is  reckoned  among 
unclean  "winged  things"  (Lev.,  xi,  19;  Deut.,  xiv, 
IS).  Its  aboile  is  generally  in  dark  anil  ilesolate 
places  such  as  ruins  and  caverns.  Beau. — The  bear 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible  is  the  urims  si/riacus.  scarcely 
diflerent  from  the  brown  bear  of  Europe.  Since  the 
destruction  of  the  forests,  it  is  now  rarely  seen  south 
of  Lebanon  and  Hermon,  where  it  is  common.  Not 
unfretiuently  met  in  the  Holy  Land  during  the  O.  T. 
times,  it  was  much  dre.aded  on  account  of  its  fero- 
cious and  destructive  instincts;  to  dare  it  was  accord- 
ingly a  mark  of  imconmion  courage  (I  K.,  xvii,  34- 
3(i).  Its  terror-striking  roars  and  its  fierceness, 
especially  when  robbed  of  its  cubs,  are  repeatedly 
alluded  to.  Beast,  Wild. — The  expression  occurs 
twice  in  the  D.V.,  but  much  oftener  in  the  A.V.,  and 
K.V.,  where  it  is  in  several  places  a  .substitute  for  the 
awkward  "beast  of  the  field",  the  Hebrew  name  of 
wild  animals  at  large.  The  first  time  we  reail  of 
"wild  beasts"  in  the  D.V.,  it  fairly  stands  for  the 
Hebrew  worI  ziz  [Ps.  Ixxix  (Hebr.,  Ixxx),  14],  albeit 
the  ".singular  wild  beast"  is  a  clum.sy  translation. 
The  same  Hebrew  word  in  Ps.  xlix.  11,  at  least  for 
consistency's  sake,  should  have  been  remlereil  in 
the  same  manner;  "the  beauty  of  the  field  '  must 
con.scquently  be  corrected  into  "  wild  beast  ".  In  Is., 
xiii,  21,  "wild  beasts"  is  an  equivalent  for  the  Hebr. 
Ciifi/im,  i.  e.  denizens  of  the  tlesert.  This  word  in 
different  places  has  been  transl:ited  in  divers  man- 
ners; demons  (Is.,  xxxiv,  14),  dragons  (Ps.  l.xxiii, 
14:  Jer..  1,  39);  it  po.s.sibly  refers  to  the  hvena.  Bee. 
—  Palestine,  according  to  Scripture,  is  a  land  flowing 
with  honey  (Ex.,  iii,  8).  Its  dry  climate,  its  ricli 
abundance,  and  variety  of  aromatic  flowers,  and  its 
limestone  rocks  render  it  particularly  adapteil  for 
bees.  No  wonder  then  that  honey  bees,  both  wild 
and  hived,  abound  there.  .Ml  the  dilTerent  .species 
known  by  the  names  of  bombux.  noiiiid.  andrenn, 
oamia,    megachile,    anlhophora,    are    widely    spread 


throughout  the  country.  The  hivetl  honey  bee  of  Pal- 
estine, apis  lasciala,  belongs  to  a  variety  sliglitly 
dilTerent  from  ours,  characterized  by  yellow  stripes 
on  the  abdomen.  Wild  bees  are  said  to  live  not 
onlv  in  rocks  [Ps.  Ixxx  (Hebr.,  Ixxxi),  17],  but  in 
hollow  trees  (I  K.,  xiv,  2.')),  even  in  dried  carcasses 
(Judges,  xiv,  8).  Syrian  and  Egyptian  hives  are 
made  of  a  mash  of  clay  and  straw  for  coolness.  In 
O.  T.  times,  honey  wjis  an  article  of  export  (f!en., 
xHii,  II;  Ezech.,  xxvii,  17).  Bees  are  spoken  of  in 
Holy  Writ  as  a  term  of  comparison  for  a  numerous 
army  relentlessly  harassing  tlieir  enemies.  Dcbnrah, 
the  Hebrew  name  for  bee,  was  a  favourite  name  for 
women.  Beetle,  given  by  .^.V.  (Lev.,  xi,  22)  as  an 
equivalent  for  Heljrcw,  (trbi'h.  docs  not  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  context:  "Hath  the  legs  behind 
longer  wherewith  it  hoppeth  upon  the  earth",  any 
more  than  the  bruchus  of  D.V.,  some  species  of 
locust,  the  locuslii  miijratoria  being  verj-  likely 
intended.  Behe.moth,  is  generally  translated  by 
"great  boa.sis";  in  its  wider  signification  it  includes 
all  mammals  living  on  earth,  but  in  the  stricter  .sense 
is  applied  to  domesticated  (quadrupeds  at  large. 
However  in  Job,  xl,  10,  where  it  is  left  untranslated 
and  considereil  as  a  proper  name,  it  indicates  a 
jiarticular  animal.  The  ilescription  of  this  animal 
lias  h)ng  puzzleil  the  commentators.  Many  of  them 
now  admit  that  it  represents  the  hippopotamus,  so 
well  known  to  the  ancient  Egj-ptians;  it  might 
pcssibly  corresixjnd  as  well  to  the  rhinoceros.  Bikd. 
— No  other  cla.ssification  of  birds  than  into  clean  and 
unclean  is  given.  The  Jews,  before  the  captivity, 
had  no  domestic  fowls  except  pigeons.  .\It hough 
many  birds  are  mentionetl,  there  occur  few  allusions 
to  their  habits.  Their  instinct  of  migration,  the 
snaring  or  netting  them,  and  the  caging  of  song 
birtls  are  referred  to.  Bino.  Dyed. — .So  does  the  Eng- 
lish version,  Jer.,  xii,  9,  wrongly  interpret  the  Hebrew 
'('ii/tl,  which  means  beast  of  prey,  sometimes  also 
bird  of  prey.  Bird,  Sixgi.vg. — Tliis  singing  bird  of 
Soph.,  ii,  14,  according  to  the  D.V.,  owes  its  origin  to 
a  mistranslation  of  the  original,  which  most  probably 
should  be  read:  "And  their  voice  -shall  sing  at  the 
window";  unless  by  a  mistake  of  some  scribe,  the 
word  qiJl,  voice,  has  been  substitute<l  for  the  name 
of  some  particular  bird.  BiUD.  Si-eckled,  Hebrew 
fo6/iii(i'  (Jer.,  xii,  9).  A  much  discussed  translation. 
The  interjirctation  of  the  English  versions,  however 
meaningless  it  may  seem  to  some,  is  supported  by 
the  Targuni.  the  Syriac,  and  St.  Jerome.  In  spite  of 
these  authorities  many  moilern  scholars  prefer  to 
use  the  word  hyena,  given  by  the  Se|)tuagint  and 
confirmed  by  Ecclesi:  .sticus,  xiii,  22  as  well  as  by 
the  .■\rabic  (ddbiih)  and  rabbinical  Hebrew  (rcbhiKV), 
names  of  the  hyena.  Bisox.  according  to  several 
authors,  the  re'cm  of  the  Bible.  It  belongs  to  the 
same  genus  as  the  aurochs,  but  being  indigenous  to 
America  (whence  its  name,  bos  americaiius),  and 
specifically  ilitTerent  from  the  aurochs,  cannot  pos- 
siblv  ha\e  been  known  by  the  Hebrews.  Bittern 
(biilliaurus  vulijaris).  a  shy.  solitarj',  wading  bird 
related  to  the  heron  and  inhabiting  the  recesses  of 
.swamps,  where  its  startling,  booming  cry  at  night 
gives  a  frightening  impression  of  desolation.  In  the 
D.V.,  bittern  stands  for  Hebr.  qu'ath  (Lev.,  xi,  IS; 
Is.,  xxxiv,  11;  Soph.,  ii,  14),  although  by  some  in- 
consistency the  same  Hebrew  woril  is  remlered 
Deut.,  xiv,  17,  by  cormorant,  and  Ps.  ci  (Hebr.,  cii), 
7,  by  pelican.  The  pehcan  meets  all  the  require- 
ments of  all  the  pa.ssages  where  (/«'u//i  is  mentioned, 
ami  would  perhaps  be  a  better  translation  than 
bittern.  Blast  certainly,  designates,  Deut.,  xxviii, 
42,  a  voracious  insect;  the  Hebrew  fela^dl,  "chirp- 
ing", suggests  that  the  cricket  w:is  possibly  meant 
and  might  be  .substituted  for  blast.  In  Ps.  Ixxvii 
(Hebr.,  Ixxviii),  40,  blast  stands  for  lUisil,  "the 
destroyer",  perhaps  the  locust  in  its  caterpillar  state, 


ANIMALS 


520 


ANIMALS 


in  which  it  is  most  destructive.  Boar,  Wild. — 
The  only  alhision  to  this  animal  is  found  Ps.  Ixxix 
(Hebr..  Ixxx),  14;  however,  the  -n-ild  boar  was  un- 
doubtedly always,  as  it  is  now,  common  in  Palestine, 
ha^^ng  its  lair  "in  the  woods,  and  most  destructive 
to  vineyards.  Bruchus. — Though  it  occurs  once 
(Lev.,  xi,  22)  as  an  equivalent  for  Hebrew,  '6rbch 
(probably  the  Incusta  niigratoria),  the  word  bruchus 
is  the  repular  interpretation  for  ydeq,  "licker". 
The  Biblical  bruchus  may  be  fairly  identified  with 
the  beetle,  or  some  insect  akin  to  it.  Anyway  the 
ydeq  of  Jer.,  h,  14,  27,  should  have  been  rendered  in 
the  .same  manner  as  everywhere  else.  Bdb.vle, 
antilope  hubalix,  or  alcephatus  bubalis,  which  should 
not  be  confounded  with  the  bubale,  bos  bubalus,  is 
probably  signified  by  the  Hebrew,  lhe'6.  interpreted 
by  the  Douay  translators,  wild  goat,  in  Deut.,  xiv,  5, 
and  wild  ox.  Is.,  li,  20.  It  still  exists  in  Palestine, 
but  was  formerly  much  more  common  than  now. 
Buffalo  {bos  bubalus). — So  does  the  D.V.  translate 
the  Hebrew,  yahmur,  III  K.,  iv,  23  (Hebr.,  I  K.,  v, 
3).  Being  a  denizen  of  marshy  and  swampy  lands, 
the  buiTalo  must  have  been  scarcely  known  by  the 
Hebrews.  Moreover,  its  coarse,  unpleasant  smeUing 
flesh  seems  to  exclude  the  identification  with  the 
animal  referred  to  in  the  above  mentioned  passage, 
where  we  should  probably  read  roebuck.  Buffle. — 
.\nother  word  for  buiTalo,  D.V.,  Deut.,  xiv,  5.  Ac- 
cording to  good  authorities,  the  oryx,  or  white  ante- 
lope, might  be  here  intended,  the  Hebrew  word 
ytthmilr  possibly  meaning,  as  its  Arabic  equivalent 
does,  both  the  roebuck  and  the  oryx.  Bull. — A 
symbol  of  fierce  and  relentless  adversaries  [Ps.  xxi 
(Hebr.,  xxii),  13].  Bullock. — The  bullock,  as  yet 
unaccustomed  to  the  yoke,  is  an  image  of  Israel's 
insubordinate  mind  before  he  was  subdued  by  the 
captivity  (Jer.,  xxxi,  18).  Buzzard  (Hebr.,  ra'ah). — 
Probably  the  ringtail  of  D.V.  and  the  glede  of  A.V. 
(Deut.,  xiv,  13);  possibly,  through  a  scribe's  error, 
might  be  identified  with  the  kite,  da'ah,  of  Lev.,  xi, 
14.  The  buzzard,  three  species  of  wliich  exist  in 
Palestine,  has  always  been  common  there. 

Calf,  one  of  the  most  popidar  representations  of 
the  deity  among  the  Chauaanites.  The  calf  is,  in 
Bibhcal  poetry,  a  figure  for  vexing  and  pitiless  foes 
[Ps.,  xxi  (Hebr.,  xxii),  13].  The  fatted  calf  was  a 
necessary  feature,  so  to  say,  of  a  feast  dinner. 
Camel,  a  prominent  domestic  animal  of  the  East 
without  the  existence  of  wliich  fife  in  the  Arabian 
deserts  would  be  impossible.  It  was  perhaps  the 
first  beast  of  burden  applied  to  the  service  of  man; 
anyway  it  is  mentioned  as  such  in  the  Biblical  records 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham.  It  constituted  a 
great  element  in  the  riches  of  the  early  patriarchs. 
There  are  two  species  of  camel:  the  one-humped 
camel  (camelus  dromcdarius),  and  the  two-humped 
camel  (camelus  bactrianus).  The  camel  is  used  for 
riding  as  well  as  for  carrying  loads;  its  furniture  is 
a  large  frame  placed  on  the  humps,  to  which  cradles 
or  packs  are  attached.  In  tliis  manner  was  all  tlie 
merchandise  of  Assyria  and  Egypt  transported. 
But  the  camel  is  appreciated  for  other  reasons:  it 
may  be  hitched  to  a  wagon  or  to  a  plough,  and  in 
fact  is  not  unfrequently  yoked  together  with  the 
ass  or  the  ox;  the  female  supphes  abundantly  her 
master  with  a  good  milk;  camel's  hair  is  woven  into 
a  rough  dotli  wherewith  tents  and  cloaks  are  made; 
finally  its  flesh,  albeit  coar.se  and  dry,  may  be  eaten. 
With  the  .lews,  however,  the  camel  was  reckoned 
among  tlie  unclean  animals.  Camelop.\rdalu.s, 
occurs  only  once  in  the  D.V.  (Deut.,  xiv,  5),  as  a 
translation  of  zf-mir.  The  word,  a  mere  transcription 
of  the  Latin  and  the  Greek,  is  a  combination  of  the 
names  of  the  camel  and  the  leopard,  and  indicates 
the  giraffe.  But  this  translation,  as  well  as  that  of 
the  A.V.  (chamois).  Is  doubtless  erroneous;  neither 
the  giraffe  nor  the  chamois  ever  lived  in  Palestine. 


The  wild  sheep,  or  mouflon,  which  still  lingers  in 
Cyprus  and  Arabia  Petrala,  is  very  hkely  intended 
C.\NKERWORM.  the  locust  in  its  larva  state,  in  which 
it  is  most  voracious.  So  does  A.V.  render  the  Hebrew, 
gazHm;  the  word  palmerworm,  given  by  the  D.V. 
seems  better.  C.\T. — Mention  of  this  animal  occurs 
only  once  in  the  Bible,  namely  Bar.,  vi,  21.  The 
original  text  of  Baruch  being  lost,  we  possess  no 
indication  as  to  what  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  cat 
may  have  been.  Possibly  there  was  not  any;  for 
although  tlie  cat  was  very  familiar  to  the  Egj'ptians, 
it  seems  to  have  been  altogether  unknown  to  the 
Jews,  as  well  as  to  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians, 
even  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  before  the  conquest 
of  Egypt.  These  and  other  reasons  have  led  some 
commentators  to  believe  that  the  word  cat,  in  the 
above  cited  place  of  Baruch,  might  not  unlikely 
stand  for  another  name  now  impossible  to  restore. 
C.VTTLE. — Very  early  in  the  liistory  of  mankind, 
animals  were  tamed  and  domesticated,  to  be  used  in 
agriculture,  for  milk,  for  their  flesh,  and  especially 
for  sacrifices.  Many  words  in  Hebrew  expressed 
the  different  ages  and  sexes  of  cattle.  West  of  the 
Jordan  the  cattle  were  generally  stall-fed;  in  the 
plains  and  hills  south  and  east  they  roamed  in  a 
half-wild  state;  such  were  the  most  famous  "bulls  of 
Basan".  Cer.\stes  (Hebr.,  shephtphon)  should  be 
substituted  in  D.V.  for  the  colourless  "serpent", 
Gen.,  xhx,  17.  The  identification  of  the  shephtphon 
with  the  deadly  horned  cerastes  (cerastes  hassel- 
quistii  or  vipera  cerastes)  is  evidenced  by  the  Arabic 
name  of  the  latter  (shufjon),  and  its  customs  in  per- 
fect agreement  with  the  indications  of  the  Bible. 
The  cerastes,  one  of  the  most  venomous  of  snakes,  is 
in  the  habit  of  coiling  itself  in  little  depressions  such 
as  camels'  footmarks,  and  suddenly  darting  on  any 
passing  animal.  Chameleon  (Hebr.,  kMt.). — Men- 
tioned Lev.,  xi,  30,  with  the  mole  (Hebr.,  tinshcmcih). 
In  spite  of  the  authority  of  the  ancient  translations, 
it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  tinsht-mith  is 
the  chameleon,  very  common  in  Palestine;  whereas 
the  kMh  is  a  kind  of  large  hzard,  perhaps  the  land 
monitor  {psammosaurus  scincus).  Ch.\mois  {anti- 
lope rupicapra)  is  now  totally  unknown  in  western 
Asia,  where  it  very  probably  never  existed.  The 
opinion  of  those  who  see  it  in  the  Hebrew  zemir 
(Deut.,  xiv,  5)  should  consequently  be  entirely  dis- 
carded (see  Camelopardalus).  Ch.\radrion  (Hebr., 
'inaphah,  Lev.,  xi,  19;  Deut.,  xiv,  18)  would  be  the 
plover;  but  it  rather  stands  here  for  the  heron,  all 
the  species  of  which  (this  is  the  sense  of  the  expression 
"according  to  its  kind"),  numerous  in  Palestine, 
should  be  deemed  unclean.  Cherogrillus  (Lev., 
xi,  5;  Deut.,  xiv,  7),  a  mere  transliteration  of  the 
Greek  name  of  the  porcupine,  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew  shaphan,  translated,  Ps.  ciii  (Hebr.,  civ),  18, 
by  irchin,  and  Prov.,  xxx,  26,  by  rabbit.  As  St. 
Jerome  noticed  it,  the  shaphan  is  not  the  porcupine, 
but  a  very  peculiar  animal  of  about  the  same  size, 
dweUing  among  the  rocks,  and  in  holes,  and  called 
in  Palestine  "bear-rat",  on  account  of  some  re- 
romblance  with  these  two  quadrupeds.  We  call  it 
coney,  or  daman  {hyrax  syriacus).  Its  habit  of 
lingering  among  the  rocks  is  alluded  to,  Ps.  ciii,  18; 
its  wisdom  and  defencclessness,  Prov.,  xxx,  24-26. 
"  It  cannot  burrow,  for  it  has  no  claws,  only  nails 
half  developed;  but  it  hes  in  holes  in  the  rocks,  and 
feeds  only  at  dawn  and  dusk,  always  having  sentries 
posted,  at  the  slightest  squeak  from  which  the  whole 
party  instantly  ili.sappears.  The  coney  is  not  a 
ruminant  (cf.  Lev.,  xi,  5),  but  it  sits  working  its  jaws 
as  if  re-cliewing.  It  is  found  sparingly  in  most  of 
the  rocky  districts,  and  is  common  about  Sinai" 
(Tristram).  Corua  {naja  aspk).  most  hkely  the 
deadly  snake  called  ptihrn  by  the  Hebrews,  found  in 
Palestine  and  Egj'pt  and  used  by  serpent-cliarmcrs. 
Cochineal  {coccus  iticis). — A  hemiptera  homoptera 


ANIMALS 


521 


ANIMALS 


insect  very  common  on  the  Syrian  holm-oak,  from 
the  female  of  which  the  crimson  dye  {kermes)  is 
prcpartHl.  The  complete  name  in  Ilehrew  is  eciuiva- 
lont  to  "scarlet  insect",  the  "insect"  being  not  un- 
frciiuently  omitted  in  the  translations.  Cock, 
Hkn*. — Domestic  poultry  are  not  mentioned  till  after 
the  captiWty.  2^o  wonder,  consequently,  that  the 
three  times  we  meet  with  the  word  cock  in  the  D.V.  it 
is  owing  to  a  misinterpretation  of  the  primitive  text. 
(1)  Job,  xxxviii,  30,  the  word  stkliwi  means  soul, 
heart:  "Who  hath  put  wi.sdom  in  the  heart  of  man? 
and  who  gave  his  .soul  understanding?"  (2)  Prov., 
XXX,  31,  ztirzir  should  be  translated  as  "hero". 
(3)  Is.,  xxii,  17,  where  the  word  gi'hher,  great,  strong 
man.  has  been  rendered  according  to  some  rabbinical 
conceptions.  In  Our  Lord's  time  domestic  poultrj', 
introduced  from  India  through  Persia,  had  become 
common,  and  their  well-known  habits  gave  ri.se  to 
familiar  expressions,  and  affordetl  good  and  easy 
illustrations  (Mark,  xiii.  35;  xiv,  30,  etc.).  Jesus 
Christ  compared  His  care  for  Jerusalem  to  that  of  a 
hen  for  her  brood.  Cock.\tkice. — .A.  fabulous  ser- 
iicnt  supposed  to  be  protluced  from  a  cock's  egg 
nrooded  by  a  serpent;  it  was  alleged  that  its  hissing 
would  drive  away  all  other  serpents,  and  that  its 
breath,  even  its  look,  was  fatal.  The  word  is  used  in 
A.V.  as  the  regular  equivalent  for  Hebrew,  (-ip/ic'onf. 
Colt. — See  .\ss's  Colt  (sup.).  Coney. — See  Chero- 
grillus  (.su/j.).  Cor.vl.  Hebrew,  ram/ilh,  should 
probably  be  substituted,  Job,  xxviii,  18,  for  "emi- 
nent things",  anil  Kzcch..  xx\-ii,  16,  for  "silk"  in  the 
D.V.  The  coral  dealt  with  at  Tyre  was  that  of  the 
Red  Sea  or  even  of  the  Indian  Ocean;  coral  seems  to 
have  been  scarcely  known  among  the  Jews.  CoR- 
MOR.W'T  (Lev..  XI,  17;  Deut.,  xiv,  17),  very  fre- 
(luently  met  with  on  the  coasts,  rivers,  and  lakes  of 
Palestine,  probably  corresponds  to  the  shalak  of  the 
Hebrew,  although  this  name,  which  means  "the 
plunger",  might  be  applied  to  some  other  plunging 
bird.  Cow. — See  Cattle  {sup.).  Crane  (grus  cine- 
rea). — The  word  tloes  not  occur  in  D.V.,  but  .seems 
the  best  translation  of  Hebrew,  'agbt7r,  read  in  two 
passages:  Is.,  xxxviii,  14,  and  Jer.,  viii,  7,  where  its 
loud  voice  and  migratory  instincts  are  alluded  to. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  two  above  indicated 
places  of  D.V.,  where  we  read  "swallow",  should  be 
corrected.  Cricket,  a  good  translation  for  Hebr., 
fe/ofd/,  "chirping",  which  besides  the  feature  sug- 
gested by  the  etymology,  is  described  Deut.,  xxviii, 
42,  as  a  voracious  insect.  See  Blast  (su/).).  Croco- 
dile.—We  do  not  read  this  word  in  any  other  place 
than  Lev.,  xi,  29  (D.V.),  where  it  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew,  c<i6;  the  animal  is,  nevertheless,  oftener 
spoken  of  in  the  Holy  Books  under  cover  of  several 
metaphors:  r/ihab,  "the  proud"  (Is.,  li,  9);  lAnnin, 
"the  stretcher"  (ICzech.,  xxix,  3);  tlwcuathdn  (levia- 
than) [Ps.  Ixxiil  (Hebr.,  Ixxiv),  1-1;  Job,  xl,  20,  xli, 
2,5].  See  Dragon  (inf.).  The  crocodile  (crocodilus 
rulgaris)  is  still  found  in  great  numbers,  not  only  in 
the  upper  Nile,  but  also  in  Palestine.  A  remarkable 
description  of  the  crocodile  has  been  drawn  by  the 
author  of  the  Book  of  Job.  He  depicts  the  dilli- 
culty  of  capturing,  snaring,  or  taming  him,  his  vast 
size,  his  irnpcnctnible  scales,  his  Ha.shing  eyes,  his 
snorting,  and  his  immen.se  strength.  Dreadful  as  he 
is,  the  crocodile  was  very  early  regarded  aiul  wor- 
shipped a-s  a  deity  by  the  KgT|-i)tiaiis.  He  is.  in  the 
Bible,  the  emblem  of  the  people  of  I^gJ7>t  and  their 
Pharao,  sometimes  even  of  all  Israel's  foes.  Cuckoo, 
according  to  .some,  would  be  the  bird  called  in  He- 
brew shAhiiph  (Lev.,  xi.  Id;  Deut.,  xiv,  1,5),  and 
there  reckoned  among  the  unclean  birds.  Two 
species,  the  cuculu.i  cannrus,  and  the  oiytophus  glan- 
dariu.i  hve  in  the  Holy  Land;  however  there  is  little 
probability  that  the  cuckoo  is  intended  in  the  men- 
tioned p.i.ssages,  where  we  should  perhaps  see  the 
shear- water  and  the  various  species  of  sea-gulls. 


Daboia  Zantiiina. — See  Basilisk  (sup.).  Da- 
man.— See  Cheroijrillus  (sup.).  Deer. —  (Hebr., 
'At/i/al).  Its  name  is  frequently  read  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  its  habits  have  afforded  many  allusions  or 
comparisons,  which  fact  supposes  that  tlie  deer  was 
not  rare  in  Palestine.  Its  handsome  form,  its  swift- 
ne.ss,  its  shyness,  the  love  of  the  roe  for  her  fawns, 
are  alhuled  to;  it  .seems  from  Prov.,  v,  19  and  some 
other  imliruct  indications  that  the  words  'difyal  and 
'dijyaUih  (deer  and  hind)  were  terms  of  endearment 
most  familiar  between  lovers.  Demons  (Is.,  xxxiv, 
14). — So  does  D.V.  translate  ^ii/yim;  it  is  certainly 
a  mistake.  The  word  at  issue  is  generally  believed  to 
refer  to  the  hyena  (hycrnn  slriala),  still  found  every- 
where in  caves  and  tombs.  So  also  is  the  word 
"devils"  of  Bar.,  iv,  35.  We  possess  no  longer  the 
Hebrew  text  of  the  latter;  but  it  possibly  contained 
the  same  word;  anyway,  "hyena"  is  unquestionably 
a  far  better  translation  than  the  mere  meaningless 
"devils".  DipsAS. — The  D.V.,  following  the  Vulgate 
(Deut.,  viii,  15)  thereby  means  a  serpent  whose 
bite  causes  a  mortal  thirst;  but  this  interpretation 
seems  to  come  from  a  misunderstanding  suggested 
by  the  Septuagint;  the  original  writer  most  likely 
intended  there  to  mean  "drought",  as  the  A.V. 
rightly  puts  it,  and  not  any  kind  of  serpent.  Dog. — 
The  aog  in  the  East  does  not  enjoy  the  companion- 
ship and  friendship  of  man  as  in  the  western  coun- 
tries. Its  instinct  has  been  cultivated  only  in  so 
far  as  the  protecting  of  the  flocks  and  camps  against 
wild  animals  is  concerned.  In  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages it  roams  in  the  streets  and  places,  of  which  it 
is  the  ordinary  scavenger;  packs  of  dogs  in  a  half- 
wild  state  are  met  with  in  the  cities  and  are  not 
unfrequently  dangerous  for  men.  For  this  reason 
the  dog  h;us  always  been,  and  is  still  looked  upon 
with  loathing  and  aversion,  as  filthy  and  unclean. 
With  a  very  few  exceptions,  whenever  the  dog  is 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible  (where  it  is  mentioned  over 
forty  times),  it  is  with  contempt,  to  remark  either  its 
voracious  instincts,  or  its  fierceness,  or  its  loathsome- 
ness; it  was  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  lust,  and  of 
all  uncleanne.ss  in  general.  As  the  Mohammedans, 
to  the  present  day,  term  Christians  "dogs",  so  diii 
the  Jews  of  old  apply  that  infamous  name  to  Gen- 
tiles. Dove  (Hebr.,  y/inah). — Though  distinguish- 
ing it  from  ti'ir,  the  turtle-dove,  the  Jews  were  per- 
fectly aware  of  their  natural  affinity  and  speak  of 
them  together.  The  dove  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
oftener  than  any  other  bird  (over  fifty  times);  this 
comes  both  from  the  great  number  of  doves  flocking 
in  Palestine,  and  of  the  favour  they  enjoy  among  the 
people.  The  dove  is  first  spoken  of  in  the  record  of 
the  flood  (Gen.,  viii,  8-12);  later  on  we  see  that 
Abraham  offered  up  some  in  sacrifice,  which  would 
indicate  that  the  dove  was  very  early  domesticated. 
In  fact  several  allusions  are  made  to  dove-cotes, 
with  their  "windows"  or  latticed  openings.  But  in 
olden  times  as  well  as  now,  besitles  the  legions  of 
pigeons  that  swarm  around  the  villages,  there  were 
many  more  rock-doves,  "iloves  of  the  valleys",  as 
they  are  occasionally  termed  (Kzech.,  vii,  16; 
Cant.,  ii,  14;  Jer.,  xlviii,  28),  that  fillet!  theeclioesof 
the  mountain  gorges  with  the  rustling  of  their  wings. 
The  metallic  lustre  of  their  plumage,  the  swiftness  of 
their  flight,  their  habit  of  sweeping  around  in  flocks, 
their  plaintive  coo.  arc  often  alhuled  to  by  the  difTercnt 
sacred  writers.  The  dark  eye  of  the  dove,  encircleii 
by  a  line  of  bright  red  skin,  is  also  mentioned;  its 
gentleness  and  innocence  made  it  the  tj-pe  of  trust 
and  love,  and,  most  naturally,  its  name  was  one  of 
the  most  familiar  terms  of  endearment.  Our  Lord 
spoke  of  the  dove  as  a  symbol  of  simplicity;  the  sum 
of  its  perfections  made  it  a  fitting  emblem  for  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Dr.\oon.  a  word  frequently  found  in 
the  tran.slations  of  the  Bible  as  substitute,  so  it 
seems,  for  other  names  of  animals  that  the  translators 


ANIMALS 


522 


ANIMALS 


were  unable  to  identify.  It  stands  indeed  for  several 
Hebrew  names:  (1)  t'hdn  (Job,  xxx,  29;  Is.,  x.\xiv, 
13;  XX.XV,  7;  xliii,  20;  Jer.,  ix,  11;  x,  22;  xiv,  6; 
xlix,  33;  li,  37;  Mich.,  i,  8;  Mai.,  i,  3),  unquestion- 
ably meaning  a  denizen  of  desolate  places,  and 
generally  identified  with  the  jackal;  (2)  Utnnim,  in 
a  few  passages  with  the  sense  of  serpent  [Deut., 
xxxii,  33;  Ps.,  xc  (Hebr.,  xci),  13;  Dan.,  xiv,  22- 
27],  in  others  most  likely  signifying  the  crocodile 
[Ps.,  Ixxiii  (Ilebr.,  lx.xiv),  13;  Is.,  U,  9;  Ezech., 
xxix,  3],  or  even  a  sea-monster  (Ezech.,  xx.xii,  2), 
such  as  a  whale,  porpoise,  or  dugong,  as  rightly  trans- 
lated Lam.,  iv,  3,  and  as  probably  intended  Ps., 
cxlviii,  7;  (3)  liweyathan  (leviathan),  meaning  both 
the  crocotlile  [Ps".,  Ixxiii  (Hebr.,  lx.xiv),  14]  and  sea- 
monster  [Ps.  ciii  (Hebr.,  eiv),  26];  (4)  <;iyyim  (Ps. 
Ixxiii,  14;  Jer.,  1.  39),  which  possibly  means  the 
hyena.  Other  places,  such  as  Esth.,  x,  7;  xi,  6; 
Ecclus.,  XXV,  23,  can  be  neither  traced  back  to  a 
Hebrew"  original,  nor  identified  with  sufficient  proba- 
bility. The  author  of  the  Apocalypse  repeatedly 
makes  mention  of  the  dragon,  by  which  he  means 
"the  old  serpent,  who  is  called  the  Devil  and  Satan, 
who  seduceth  the  whole  world"  (Apoc.  xii,  9,  etc.). 
Of  the  fabulous  dragon  fancied  by  the  ancients, 
represented  as  a  monstrous  winged  serpent,  with  a 
crested  head  and  enormous  claws,  and  regarded  as 
verj'  powerful  and  ferocious,  no  mention  whatever  is 
to  be  found  in  the  Bible.  The  word  dragon,  con- 
sequently, should  really  be  blotted  out  of  our  Bibles, 
except  perhaps  Is.,  xiv,  29  and  xxx,  6,  where  the 
draco  fimbriatus  is  possibly  spoken  of.  See  B.\silisk, 
4  (sup.).  Dromedary. — The  word  so  rendered.  Is., 
Ix,  6,  signifies  rather  a  swift  and  finely  bred  camel. 
Dugong. — See  Badger  (sup.). 

Eagle. — So  is  generally  rendered  the  Hebrew, 
ncshir,  but  there  is  a  doubt  as  to  whether  the  eagle 
or  some  kind  of  vulture  is  intended.  It  seems  even 
probable  that  the  Hebrews  did  not  distinguish  very 
carefully  these  diiTerent  large  birds  of  prey,  and  that 
all  are  spoken  of  as  though  they  were  of  one  kind. 
An}T\-ay,  four  species  of  eagles  are  known  to  live  in 
Palestine:  aquila  chrysactos,  aquila  ncrvia,  aquila 
heliaca,  and  circcstos  gallicus.  Many  allusions  are 
made  to  the  eagle  in  Scripture:  its  inhabiting  the 
dizziest  cliffs  for  nesting,  its  keen  sight,  its  habit  of 
congregating  to  feed  on  the  slain,  its  swiftness,  its 
longevity,  its  remarkable  care  in  training  its  young, 
are  often  referred  to  (see  in  particular  Job.  xxxix, 
27-30).  When  the  relations  of  Israel  with  their 
neighbours  became  more  frequent,  tlie  eagle  became, 
under  the  pen  of  the  Jewish  prophets  and  poets,  an 
emblem  first  of  the  Assyrian,  then  of  the  Babylonian, 
and  finally  of  the  Persian  kings.  Eleph.vnt. — We 
learn  from  Assyrian  inscriptions  that  before  the  He- 
brews settled  in  Syria,  there  existed  elephants  in  that 
country,  and  Tiglath-Pileser  I  tells  us  about  his 
exploits  in  elephant  hunting.  We  do  not  read, 
however,  of  elephants  in  the  Bible  until  the  Macha- 
bean  times.  True,  III  Kings  speaks  of  ivory,  or 
"elephants'  teeth",  as  the  Hebrew  text  puts  it,  yet 
not  as  indigenous,  but  as  importetl  from  Opliir.  In 
the  post-exilian  times,  especially  in  the  books  of  the 
Macliabecs,  elephants  are  frec^uently  mentioned; 
they  were  an  important  element  ni  the  armies  of  the 
Seleiicide-s.  These  animals  were  imported  either 
from  India  or  from  .\frica.  Ericid.s,  a  Latin  name 
of  the  hedgehog,  preserved  in  the  D.V.  as  a  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  word  ifippodh  (Is.,  xiv,  23;  xxxiv,  11; 
Soph.,  ii,  14,  the  word  urcliin  has  been  used)  and 
qippiU  (Is.,  xxxiv,  1.")).  The  above  identification  of 
the  q'lppiKlh  is  based  both  on  the  Greek  rentlering  and 
the  analogy  between  this  Hebrew  wor<l  and  the 
TalriUKlic  (7ti;j/j(i(/;i),  Syriac  (qujdff),  Arabic  (minfiUl) 
and  iCthiopian  (qlnjz)  names  of  the  hedgehog. 
Several  scholars,  however,  discanl  this  identification, 
because    the    hedgehog,    contrary    to    the    qippOdk, 


lives  neither  in  marshes  nor  ruins,  and  has  no  voice. 
The  bittern  meets  all  the  requirements  of  the  texts 
where  the  qippMh  is  mentioned.  It  should  be  no- 
ticed nevertheless  that  hedgehogs  are  far  from  rare 
in  Palestine.  As  to  the  qippoz  of  Is.,  xxxiv,  15,  read 
gippi'idh  by  some  Hebrew  MSS.,  and  interpreted 
accordingly  by  the  Septuagint,  Vulgate  and  the 
versions  derived  therefrom,  its  identity  is  a  much 
discussed  question.  Some,  arguing  from  the  authori- 
ties just  referred  to,  confound  it  with  the  qippodh, 
whereas  others  deem  it  to  be  the  arrow-snake;  but 
besides  that  no  such  animal  as  arrow-snake  is  known 
to  naturalists,  the  context  seems  to  call  for  a  bird. 
Ewe. — The  Hebrew  language,  generally  poor,  shows 
a  remarkable  opulence  when  there  is  question  of  all 
things  connected  with  pastoral  life.  Six  names  at 
least,  with  their  feminines,  express  the  different 
stages  of  development  of  the  sheep.  Its  domestication 
goes  back  to  the  night  of  time,  so  that  the  early 
traditions  enshrined  in  the  Bible  speak  of  the  first 
men  as  shepherds.  Whate\'er  may  be  thought  of 
tWs  point,  it  is  out  of  question  that  from  the  dawn 
of  historical  times  down  to  our  own,  flocks  have 
constituted  the  staple  of  the  riches  of  the  land.  The 
ewe  of  Palestine  is  generally  the  oru  latlcaudata, 
the  habits  of  which,  resembhng  those  of  all  other 
species  of  sheep,  are  too  well  known  to  be  here 
dwelt  upon.  Let  it  suffice  to  notice  that  scores  of 
allusions  are  made  in  the  Holy  Books  to  these  habits 
as  well  as  to  the  different  tletails  of  the  pastoral  life. 
Falcon. — See  HAVvav  (inf.).  F.\llow-Deer  (cer- 
vtis  dama  or  dama  vulgaris),  beheved  by  .some  to  be 
signified  by  Hebrew,  yfihmur.  The  fallow-deer  is 
scarce  in  tlie  Holy  Land  and  found  only  north  of 
Mount  Thabor.  If  it  is  mentioned  at  all  in  the 
Bible,  it  is  probably  ranked  among  the  deer.  Faw.v 
(Prov.,  V,  19),  for  Hebrew,  ydHlah,  feminine  of 
yael  wliich  should  be  regularly,  as  it  is  in  several 
passages,  rendered  by  wild  goat  (ibex  syriacus). 
SeeGo.\T,  Wild  (inf.).  Faun. — An  equivalent  in  D.V. 
(Jer.,  1,  39),  after  St.  Jerome,  for  Hebrew,  'iyyim. 
St.  Jerome  explains  that  they  were  wild  beings, 
denizens  of  deserts  and  woods,  with  a  hooked  nose,  a 
horned  forehead,  and  goat  feet.  He  translated  the 
Hebrew  by  fig-faun,  adding  to  the  original  the 
adjective  ficarii,  possibly  follomng  in  this  the  pagan 
idea  which,  supposing  that  figs  incline  to  lust,  re- 
garded fig-groves  a  well  fitted  abode  for  fauns. 
The  same  Hebrew  word  is  rendered  Is.,  xiii,  22  by 
owls,  and  Is.,  xxxiv,  14,  by  monsters,  which  shows  a 
great  perplexity  on  the  part  of  the  translators.  The 
true  meaning  being  "howlers",  seems  to  point  out 
the  jackal,  called  the  "howler"  by  the  Arabs. 
Flea,  spoken  of  I  K.,  xxiv,  15;  xxvi,  20,  as  tlie  most 
insignificant  cause  of  trouble  that  may  befall  a  man. 
Flock. — The  flocks  of  Palestine  include  generally 
both  sheep  and  goats:  "The  sheep  eat  only  the 
fine  herbage,  whereas  the  goats  browse  on  what  the 
sheep  refuse.  They  pasture  and  travel  together  in 
parallel  columns,  but  seldom  intermingle  more 
closely,  and  at  night  they  always  classify  themselves. 
The  goats  are  for  the  most  part  black,  the  sheep 
white,  dappled  or  piebald,  forming  a  very  marked 
contrast  .  .  ."  (Tristram).  The  shepherd  usually 
leads  the  flock,  calling  the  sheep  by  their  names  from 
time  to  time;  in  his  footsteps  follows  an  old  he-goat, 
whose  stately  bearing  alTords  to  the  natives  matter 
for  several  comparisons;  the  .\iabs,  indeed  to  tliis 
day,  call  a  man  of  stately  mien  a  "he-goat".  The 
shepherd  at  sunset  waters  his  flock,  folds  them 
ordinarily  in  some  of  the  many  caves  found  on  every 
hillside,  and  with  trained  dogs  guards  them  at  night. 
Flv. — Two  Hebrew  words  are  thus  translated: 
(1)  'arObh  is  the  name  of  the  Egj'ptian  fly  of  the 
fourtli  plague;  this  name,  a  collective  one,  though 
tian.slated  by  dog-fly  in  the  Septuagint.  seems  to 
signify  all  kinds  of  ilies.     FUes  are  at  all  times  an 


ANIMALS 


523 


ANIMALS 


almost  insufferable  nuisance;  the  common  house-fly, 
with  the  gnat,  vexes  men,  while  gail-Hies  of  every 
description  tsetse,  cestru,  hippoboscUta ,  tabanus  iiiaro- 
aiiiu.s,  etc..  infest  animals.  (2)  Zehlnilih  is  likewise 
tlie  collective  name  of  the  Palestinian  fly,  but  more 
specifically  of  the  gad-fly.  Thoujih  a  trifle  less 
aniioj-inK  than  in  Kgj'pt,  flies  were,  however,  deemed 
a  plague  severe  enough  in  Palestine  to  induce  the 
natives  to  have  recourse  to  the  power  of  a  special 
god.  Ba'al-zeblulbh,  the  master  of  the  flies,  that 
they  and  their  cattle  be  protected  against  that 
scourge.  Fowl. — This  word  which,  in  its  most 
general  sense,  applies  to  anything  that  flies  in  the 
air  (Gen.,  i,  20,  21),  and  which  frequently  occurs  in 
the  Bible  with  tliis  meaning,  is  also  sometimes  useil 
in  a  narrower  sense,  as,  for  instance.  III  K.,  iv,  23, 
wliere  it  stands  for  all  fatted  birds  that  may  be 
reckoned  among  the  delicacies  of  a  king's  table;  so 
likewi.se  Gen.,  xv,  11  and  Is.,  xviii,  G,  where  it  means 
birds  of  prey  in  general.  In  this  latter  signification 
allusions  are  made  to  their  habit  of  perching  on  bare 
or  dead  trees,  or  of  flocking  togetlur  in  great  num- 
bers. Fo.K. — Thus  is  usually  reudereil  the  Hebrew, 
shii'al,  which  signifies  Ixjth  fox  and  jackal,  even  the 
latter  more  often  than  the  former.  The  fox,  however, 
was  well  known  by  the  ancient  Hebrews,  and  its 
cunning  was  as  proverbial  among  them  as  among  us 
(Ezech..  xiii,  4;  Luke,  xiii,  32).  Fkog. — Though  not 
rare  in  Palestine,  this  wortl  is  only  mentioned  in  the 
O.  T.  in  connection  with  the  .second  plague  of  Egyjit. 
Two  species  of  frogs  are  known  to  live  in  the  Holy 
Land:  the  rana  esculenta,  or  common  edible  frog,  and 
the  hi/la  arbnrea,  or  green  tree-frog.  The  former 
throngs  wherever  there  is  water.  In  -■Vpoc,  xvi,  13, 
the  frog  is  the  emblem  of  unclean  spirits. 

G.vzELLE  (Hebr.,  ^ebi,  i.  e.  beauty)  has  been 
known  at  all  times  as  one  of  the  most  graceful  of  all 
animals.  Several  species  still  exist  in  Palestine. 
Its  ilifferent  characteristics,  its  beauty  of  form,  its 
swiftness,  its  timidity,  the  splendour  and  meekness 
of  its  eye.  are  in  the  present  time,  as  well  as  during 
the  age  of  the  O.  T.  writers,  the  subjects  of  many 
comparisons.  However,  tlie  name  of  the  gazelle  is 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  to  be  found  in  the  Hible;  in  its 
stead  we  read  roe,  hart,  or  deer.  Like  a  few  other 
names  of  graceful  and  timid  animals,  the  word 
gazelle  has  always  been  in  the  East  a  term  of  endear- 
ment in  love.  It  wa-s  also  a  woman's  favourite  name 
(I  Par.,  viii.  9;  IV  K.,  .xii,  1;  II  Par.,  xxiv,  1;  Acts, 
ix,  .36).  Gecko. — Probable  translation  of  the 
'inaqah  of  the  Hebrews,  generally  renilercd  in  our 
versions  by  shrew-mou.se.  for  which  it  .seems  it  should 
be  substituted.  The  gecko,  ptyoilnclijlun  gecko  of 
the  naturalists,  is  common  in  Palestine.  Gier- 
E.\GLE. — So  docs  .\.V.  render  the  Hebrew,  rahdtn 
(Lev.,  xi,  18)  or  rCihamah  (l)eut.,  xiv,  17).  By  the 
gier-eagle,  the  Egj'ptian  vulture  (neophron  percnop- 
teru.'<).  or  Pharao's  hen,  is  generally  believed  to  be 
signifieil.  However,  whether  this  bird  should  be 
really  recognized  in  the  Hebrew,  riihrim,  is  not  ca.sy 
to  decide;  for  while,  on  the  one  hand,  the  resemblance 
of  the  .\rabic  name  for  the  Egj-ptian  \-ulture  with 
the  Hebrew  word  rafu'im  .seems  fairly  to  support  the 
iilentification,  the  mention  of  the  rnhi'im  in  a  list  of 
wading  birds,  on  the  other  hand,  casts  a  serious 
doubt  on  its  correctness.  Giraffe. — See  Camelo- 
PAUDAHs  (sup.).  G.v.\T. — The  same  insect  called 
sciniph  in  Ex.,  viii,  16.  17  and  Ps.  civ  (Hebr.,  cv),  31, 
and  known  under  the  famihar  name  of  mosquito, 
ri(/«x  pipiciis.  is  taken  in  the  New  Testament  as  an 
example  of  a  trifle.  Goat. — Though  the  sacred 
writers  spoke  of  the  ewe  more  frequently  than  of  the 
goat,  yet  with  the  latter  they  were  verj-  well  ac- 
quainteil.  It  w.as  indeed,  especially  in  the  hilly 
regions  e.ist  of  the  Jorilan,  an  important  item  in  the 
wealth  of  the  Israelites.  The  goat  of  Palestine, 
particularly   the  capra  membrica,  aiTords  numerous 


illustrations  and  allusions.  Its  remarkably  long  ears 
are  referreil  to  by  .\mos,  iii,  12;  its  glossy  dark  hair 
furnishes  a  graphic  comparison  to  the  author  of 
Cant.,  iv,  1;  vi,  4;  this  hair  was  woven  into  a  strong 
cloth;  the  skin  tanned  with  the  hair  on  served  to 
make  bottles  for  milk,  wine,  oil,  water,  etc.  The 
kid  was  an  almost  es.sential  part  of  a  feast.  The 
goat  is  menlioneil  in  Dan.,  viii,  5,  as  the  .symbol  of 
the  Maceilonian  empire.  The  grand  Gospel  .scene  of 
the  .separation  of  the  just  and  the  wicked  on  the  last 
day  is  borrowed  from  the  customs  of  the  shepherds 
in  the  East.  Go.\T,  Wii.d,  Job,  xxxix,  1;  I  K., 
xxiv,  3,  where  it  is  an  equivalent  fori/"'  il,  translated, 
Ps.,  ciii  (Hebr.,  civ),  18,  by  hart,  Prov.,  v,  19.  by 
fawn,  is  most  probably  the  ibex  syriacus,  a  denizen 
of  the  rocky  summits  [Ps.  ciii  (Hebr.,  civ),  IS].  It 
was  regarded  as  a  model  of  grace  (Prov.,  v,  19),  and 
its  name,  Jaliel,  Jahala,  w;i.s  frequently  given  to 
persons  (Judges,  v,  6;  I,  Esd.,  ii,  56,  etc.).  Gras.s- 
HOPPER.  is  probably  the  best  rendering  for  the  He- 
brew, liagiib  [Lev.,  xi,  22;  Num.,  xiii,  34  (Hebr., 
xiii,  ,33);  Is.,  xl,  22;  Eccles.,  xii,  5,  etc.],  as  in  the 
.\.V.,if  the  Hebrew  word  be  interpreted  "hopper"  as 
Credncr  suggests;  the  D.Y.  uses  the  word  locust. 
The  grasslioppcr  is  one  of  the  smaller  species  of 
the  locust  tribe.  Griffon. — So  D.V.,  Lev.,  xi,  13 
(whereas  Deut.,  xiv,  12,  we  read  "grvpe")  translates 
the  Hebrew,  ptT^s,  the  "breaker"  wliereby  the  1am- 
mergeyer  or  Deartled  vulture,  gi/ptrtus  t)arl>atus.  the 
largest  and  most  magnificent  of  the  birds  of  prey  is 
probably  intended.  The  opinion  that  the  Hible 
liere  speaks  of  the  fabulous  grilTon,  i.  e.  a  monster 
begotten  from  a  lion  and  an  eagle,  and  characterized 
by  the  beak,  neck,  and  wings  of  an  eagle  and  the 
legs  and  rump  of  a  lion,  is  based  only  on  a  misinter- 
pretation of  the  word.  Griffon-Vultuke,  a  probable 
translation  in  several  cases  of  the  Hebrew,  nfshcr, 
regularly  rendered  by  eagle.  This  most  majestic 
bird  (ipjps  jidvus),  the  type,  as  it  seems,  of  the  cagle- 
headeil  figures  of  A.s,syrian  sculpture,  is  most  likely 
referred  to  in  Mich.,  i,  16,  on  account  of  its  bare  neck 
and  head.  Grvpe,  Deut.,  xiv,  12.  See  Griffon 
(*-u».). 

Haje. — See  Asp  (sup.).  H.tJiE. — Mentioned  Lev., 
xi,  6;  Deut.,  xiv,  7,  in  the  list  of  the  unclean  quad- 
rupeils.  Several  species  live  in  Palestine:  tepus 
si/riacus  in  the  north;  tepus  judccw  in  the  south  and 
the  Jordan  valley,  togetlier  with  tepus  sinaiticus, 
lepus  agi/ptiacu.'i  ami  tepus  isabellinus.  The  state- 
ment of  the  Hible  that  the  hare  "cheweth  the  cud"  is 
a  classical  ilitficulty.  It  should  be  noticed  that  this 
is  not  the  rea.son  why  the  hare  is  reckoned  among 
the  unclean  animals;  but  the  cause  thereof  should 
be  sought  for  in  the  fact  that  though  it  chews  the 
cud,  which  certainly  it  appears  to  do,  it  tloes  not 
divide  the  hoof.  IIart  and  Hind. — Either  the 
fallow-deer,  still  occasionally  found  in  the  Holy 
Land,  or  the  red  deer,  now  extinct,  or  the  deer 
generally.  It  has  afTorded  many  illustrations  to  the 
HibUcal  writers  and  poets,  especially  by  its  fleetness 
(Cant.,  ii,  9;  Is.,  xxxv,  6),  its  surefootedness  [Ps. 
xvii  (Hebr.,  xviii),  34;  Hab.,  iii.  19],  its  affection 
(Prov.,  v,  19),  and  its  habit  of  hiding  its  young 
(Job,  xxxix,  1).  II.WVK  (Hebr..  7i<"f)  is,  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, a  general  denomination  including,  with  the 
falcon,  all  the  smaller  birds  of  prey,  the  kestrel, 
merlin,  sparrow-hawk,  hobbv,  and  others,  most  com- 
mon in  Palestine.  NiGHT-flAWK,  A.V.  for  Hebrew, 
/<'i/iHi«.s,  more  exactly  translated  in  D.V.  by  owl; 
some  bird  of  the  latter  kind  is  indeed  undoubtedly 
intended,  probably  the  bam  owl  (»trij  flatnmea). 
Sparrow-Hawk  (Jalco  nims),  one  of  the  hawks  of 
Palestine,  wi  common  that  it  might  be  regardetl,  ia 
reference  to  the  Hible.  as  the  hawk  par  excellence. 
Hedoehoo. — See  Kricius  (sup.).  Hen. — See  Cock 
(sup.).  Heron. — Mentioned  Lev.,  xi,  19,  in  the 
list  of  unclean  birds,   but  probably  iu   the  wrong 


ANIMALS 


524 


ANIMALS 


place  in  the  D.V.;  heron,  indeed,  should  be  substituted 
for  charadrion.  whereas  in  the  same  verse  it  stands 
for  stork,  as  the  A.V.  correctly  states  it.  Hind. — 
See  Hart  (sup.).  Hippopotamus. — See  Behemoth 
(sup.).  Hobby  (falco  .lubbuteo).  See  Hawk  (sup.). 
Hoopoe. — See  Horp  (inf.).  Hornet  (Hebr.,  ^Ireah; 
vespa  crabro). — One  of  the  largest  and  most  pug- 
nacious wa.sps;  when  disturbed  tliey  attack  cattle 
and  horses;  their  sting  is  very  severe,  capable  not 
only  of  driving  men  and  cattle  to  madness,  but  even 
of  killing  them  (Exod.,  x.xiii,  28;  Deut.,  ^^i,  20; 
Jos.,  xxiv,  12).  Horse. — The  horse  is  never  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  in  connection  with  the  patriarchs; 
the  first  time  the  Bible  speaks  of  it,  it  is  in  reference 
to  the  Egj^Jtian  army  pursuing  the  Hebrews.  During 
the  epoch  of  the  conquest  and  of  Judges,  we  hear  of 
horses  only  with  the  Chanaanean  troops,  and  later  on 
with  the  Phihstines.  The  hilly  country  inhabited  by 
the  Israelites  was  not  favourable  to  the  use  of  the 
horse;  tWs  is  the  reason  why  the  Bible  speaks  of 
horses  only  in  connection  with  war.  David  and 
Solomon  established  a  cavalry  and  chariot  force; 
but  even  this,  used  exclusively  for  wars  of  conquest, 
seems  to  have  been  looked  upon  as  a  dangerous 
temptation  to  kings,  for  the  Deuteronomy  legislation 
forbids  them  to  multiply  horses  for  themselves. 
The  grand  description  of  the  war-horse  in  Job  is  classi- 
cal; it  will  be  noticed,  however,  that  its  praises  are 
more  for  the  strength  than  for  the  swiftness  of  the 
horse.  The  prophet  Zacharias  depicts  (ix,  10)  the 
Messianic  age  as  one  in  which  no  hostilities  will  be 
heard  of;  then  all  warlike  apparel  being  done  away 
with,  the  horse  v.'Wl  serve  only  for  peaceful  use.  Houp 
(Lev.,  xi,  19;  Deut.,  xiv,  18). — The  analogy  of  the 
Hebrew  with  the  Syriac  and  Coptic  for  the  name  of 
this  bird  makes  the  identification  doubtless,  although 
.some,  after  the  example  of  the  A.V.,  see  in  the  Hebrew 
dilkhtphdth,  the  lapwing.  The  Egyptians  worsliipped 
the  houp  and  made  it  the  emblem  of  Horus.  Hyena. 
— This  word  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  English 
translations  of  the  Bible;  it  occurs  twice  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  Jer.,  xii,  9,  and  Ecclus.,  xiii,  22,  being  in  both 
places  the  rendering  for  the  Hebrew  name  rabhud. 
The  hyenas  are  very  numerous  in  the  Holy  Land, 
where  they  are  most  active  scavengers;  they  feed 
upon  dead  bodies,  and  sometimes  dig  the  tombs  open 
to  get  at  the  corpses  therein  buried.  Two  Hebrew 
names  are  supposed  to  designate  the  hyena:  (1) 
fabhAA'.  This  word,  which  has  been  interpreted 
"speckled  bird",  Jer.,  xii,  9,  by  modern  translators 
following  the  Vulgate,  has  been  rendered  by  "holy 
man",  Ecclus.,  xiii,  22.  Despite  the  authorities  that 
favour  the  above  mentioned  translation  of  Jer.,  xii, 
9,  the  consi.stency  of  the  Septuagint  on  the  one  hand, 
and  on  the  other  the  parallelism  in  the  latter  passage, 
in  addition  to  the  analogj'  with  the  Arabic  and  rab- 
binical Hebrew  names  for  the  hyena,  fairly  support 
the  identification  of  the  (abhAA'  with  this  animal. 
(2)  (iyylm,  rendered  in  divers  manners  in  different 
places:  wild  beasts.  Is.,  xiii,  21;  demons.  Is.,  xx,xiv, 
14;  dragons,  Ps.  Ixxiii  (Hebr.,  Ixxiv),  14;  Jer.,  1,  39. 

Ibex. — See  Goat,  Wild  (sup.).  Ibis. — The  word 
occurs  twice  in  the  D.V.  (Lev.,  xi,  17;  Is.,  xxxiv,  11) 
as  an  equivalent  for  y&nsMph;  some  good  authorities, 
however,  though  the  ydnshuph  is  mentioned  among 
wading  birds,  do  not  admit  the  above  identification 
and  think  that  the  Egj'ptian  eagle-owl  (bubo  asca- 
laphus),  which  they  term  great  owl,  is  spoken  of. 
The  ibis  was  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians  as  tlie 
emblem  of  Thot.  Ichneumon. — See  Weasel  (inf.). 
Irchin. — D.V.  Ps.  ciii,  18.     SccCherogrillus  (sup.). 

Jackal. — Frequently  alluded  to  in  Holy  Writ, 
though  the  name  is  read  neitlicr  in  the  D.V.  nor  in  any 
of  the  western  translations,  probably  because  the 
animal,  liowever  common  in  .\frica  and  .south- 
western Asia  is  unknown  in  European  countries. 
The  name   regularly  substituted   for  jackal   is   fox. 


The  jackal  seems  to  be  designated  in  Hebrew  by  three 
different  names:  shiVal,  "the  digger";  'iyyim,  "the 
howlers";  and  tan,  "the  stretcher",  although  we  are 
unable  to  state  the  differences  marked  by  these  three 
names.  Numerous  references  may  be  found  through- 
out the  Bible  to  the  jackal's  bowlings  and  gregarious 
habits.  Jerbo.\. — This  httle  animal,  at  least  four 
species  of  which  abide  in  Syria,  is  nowhere  nominally 
mentioned  in  the  Bible;  it  must,  nevertheless,  veiy 
probably  be  reckoned  among  the  unclean  animals 
indicated  under  the  general  name  of  mouse. 

Kestrel. — A  slender  hawk,  most  likely  one  of  the 
species  intended  by  Lev.,  xi,  16,  for  it  is  very  common 
in  Palestine.  The  remark  of  Job,  xxxix,  26,  strik- 
ingly points  out  the  tinnulus  cenchris,  one  of  the  Pales- 
tinian kestrels.  Kid. — See  Go.\t  (sup.).  Kine. — 
See  C-4TTLE  (sup.).  Kite. — .\s  suggested  bj'  the  anal- 
ogy with  the  Arabic,  the  black  kite  (mihnis  nigrans) 
is  probably  meant  by  Hebr.  da'ah  or  ddyyah  (Lev.,  xi, 
14;  Deut.,  xiv,  13;  Is.,  xxxiv,  15),  interpreted  kite 
in  the  D.V.;  it  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the 
scavenger  birds  of  prey  of  the  coimtry,  and  for  this 
reason,  is  carefully  protected  by  the  v-iUrgers.  Other 
kinds  of  kites,  in  particular  the  milvus  regalis,  are 
common    in    Palestine. 

Lamb. — The  Paschal  Lamb  was  both  a  commemo- 
ration of  the  deliverance  from  the  bondage  in  Egypt, 
and  a  prophetic  figure  of  the  Son  of  God  sacrificed  to 
free  His  people  from  their  slavery  to  sin  and  death. 
See  EwE.  (sup.)  Lami.\  (Is.,  xxxiv,  14). — Is  a  trans- 
lation of  Hebrew,  ItUth;  according  to  the  old  popular 
legends,  the  lamia  was  a  feminine  bloodthirsty  mon- 
ster, devouring  men  and  children.  In  the  above  cited 
place,  some  kind  of  owl,  eitlier  the  screech  or  the 
hooting  owl,  is  very  probably  meant.  Lammer- 
GEYER  (gypcetus  barbatus),  very  hkely  signified  by 
the  Hebrew,  -p&fs,  translated  by  griffon  in  D.V. 
Larus. — Lev.,  xi,'l6;  Deut.,  xiv,  15.  See  Cdckoo 
(sup.).  Horse-Leech  (Prov.,  xxx,  15). — Both  the 
medicinal  leech  and  the  horse-leech  are  frequently 
found  in  the  streams,  pools,  and  wells;  they  often 
attach  themselves  to  the  inside  of  the  lips  and  nostrils 
of  drinking  animals,  thereby  causing  them  much  pain. 
Leop.^rd. — Under  this  name  come  a  certain  number 
of  carnivorous  animals  more  or  less  resembling  the 
real  leopard  (jelis  leopardus),  namely  felis  jubata,  felis 
lynx,  felis  uncia,  etc.,  all  formerly  numerous  through- 
out Palestine,  and  even  now  occasionally  found, 
especially  in  the  woody  districts.  The  leopard  is 
taken  by  the  Bibhcal  writers  as  a  type  of  cunning 
(Jer.,  V,  6;  Osee,  xiii,  7),  of  fierceness,  of  a  conqueror's 
sudden  swoop  (Dan.,  vii,  6;  Hab.,  i,  8).  Its  habit  of 
lying  in  wait  by  a  well  or  a  village  is  repeatedly  alluded 
to.  Levhthan. — The  word  Leviathan  (Hebrew. 
Ihveyathan),  which  occurs  six  times  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  seems  to  have  puzzled  not  a  little  all  ancient 
translators.  The  D.V.  has  kept  this  name.  Job,  iii,  8; 
xl,  20;  Is.,  xxvii,  1;  it  is  rendered  by  dragon  Ps. 
Ixxiii  (Hebr.,  Ixxiv),  14,  and  ciii  (Hebr.,  civ),  26; 
The  word  leviathan  means:  (1)  crocodile  (Job,  xl, 
20  and  Ps.  Ixxiii,  14);  (2)  a  sea-monster  (Ps.  ciii,  26, 
Is.,  xxvii,  1);  (3)  possibly  the  Draco  constellation 
(Job,  iii,  8).  Lion. — Now  extinct  in  Pidestine  and 
in  the  surrounding  countries,  the  lion  was  common 
there  during  the  O.  T.  times;  hence  the  great  number 
of  wonls  in  the  Hebrew  language  to  .signify  it;  under 
one  or  another  of  these  names  it  is  mentioned  a 
hundred  and  tliirty  times  in  the  Scriptures,  as  the 
classical  symbol  of  strength,  power,  courage,  dignity, 
ferocity.  Very  likely  as  the  type  of  power,  it  became 
tlie  ensign  of  the  tribe  of  Juda;  so  was  it  employed 
by  Solomon  in  the  decoration  of  the  temple  and  of 
the  king's  house.  For  the  same  reason,  Apoc.,  v,  5, 
represents  Jesus  Christ  as  tlie  lion  of  the  tribe  of 
Juda.  The  craft  and  ferocity  of  tlie  lion,  on  the 
other  hand,  caused  it  to  be  taken  as  an  emblem  of 
Satan  (I  Pet.,  v,  8)  and  of  the  enemies  of  the  truth 


ANIMALS 


525 


ANIMALS 


(II  Tim.,  iv,  17).  Lizard. — Immense  is  the  number 
of  tliese  reptiles  in  Palestine;  no  less  than  fortjr-four 
species  are  found  there.  Among  tho.se  mentioncil 
in  the  liible  we  may  cite:  (I)  The  Lela'ab,  general 
name  of  the  lizard,  apphed  especially  to  the  common 
lizard,  the  green  lizard,  the  blind  worm,  etc.;  (J) 
the  chOmct,  or  sand-lizard;  (3)  the  fut,  or  d^bb  of 
the  Arabs  (uromaslix  spinipes);  (4)  the  kddh,  the 
divers  kinds  of  monitor  (psammosaums  scincus, 
hi/drosaurus  nilolicus,  etc.);  (5)  the  'SnOqah  or 
gecko;  (6)  the  semamUh  or  stellio.  Locust. — One 
of  the  worst  scourges  of  the  East,  very  often  referred 
to  in  Holy  Writ.  -Vs  many  as  nine  Hebrew  words 
signify  either  the  locust  in  general  or  some  species: 
(1)  Virbih,  probably  the  locusta  niigralnria;  (12)  gazam, 
po-ssibly  the  locust  in  its  larva  state,  the  palmenvorm; 
(3)  Gdbh,  the  locust  in  general;  (4)  chagab,  most 
likely  the  gra.sshopix;r;  (.5)  hdfil,  "the  tlestroyer", 
[K-rhaps  the  locust  in  its  caterpillar  state,  in  which  it 
IS  most  ilestructive;  ((i)  hdrgol,  translated  in  the  D.V. 
ophiomachus;  (7)  ycli<],  the  stinging  locust;  (8) 
(eldfiil  [xjssibly  the  cricket;  and  (9)  sul'dm,  rendered 
by  attacus,  or  bald  locust  (probably  the  truxatis). 
Unlike  other  insects,  locusts  are  most  voracious  in 
everj'  stage  of  their  existence.  Louse. — .\ccording 
to  .some  this  species  of  vermin  was  one  of  the  features 
of  the  third  ICgj'ptian  plague.  It  is  but  too  common 
through  all  eastern  countries. 

Mildew. — .\  word  occurring  a  certain  number  of 
times  in  the  D.V.  as  an  equivalent  for  Hebrew,  hafU, 
which  probably  means  a  kind  of  locust.  Mole. — 
Two  Hebrew  words  are  thus  renderetl.  The  first, 
ttnshcmeth  (Lev.,  xi,  30),  would,  according  to  good 
authorities,  rather  signify  the  chameleon;  with  the 
second,  hnphdrpirMh  (Is.,  ii,  20).  some  burrowing 
animal  is  undoubtedly  intended.  The  mole  of  Sj-ria 
is  not  the  common  mole  of  Europe,  talpa  europaa, 
but  the  mole-rat  (xpalax  tijphlus),  a  Wind  burrowing 
rodent.  Mosquito. — See  Gnat  (xup.).  Moth. — Is 
in  the  D.V.  besides  Is.,  xiv,  11,  where  it  stands  for 
rimmah,  "worms",  the  common  renilering  for  two 
words:  'ash  (Job,  iv,  19),  and  jw.j  (Is.,  li,  8),  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  former  is  uncertain,  whereas 
by  the  latter  the  clothes  moth  is  meant.  Mouflon. 
— See  Chamois,  Camelopardalus  {sup.).  Mouse. — 
This  word  .seems  to  be  a  general  one,  including  the 
various  rats,  dormice,  jerboas,  and  hamsters,  about 
twenty-five  species  of  which  exist  in  the  country. 
Mule. — In  .spite  of  the  enactment  of  the  Law  (Lev., 
xix,  19),  tlie  Israelites  early  in  the  course  of  their 
history  po.sscssed  mules;  these  animals,  in  a  liilly 
region  such  as  the  Holy  Land,  were  for  many  pur- 
poses preferable  to  horses  and  stronger  than  asses; 
they  were  employed  both  for  domestic  and  warhke 
use. 

Ophiom.\chus. — See  Locust  (sup.).  Ortx. — See 
Antelope  (sup.).  Osprev  (Hebr.,  'Oznhjyah). — The 
fishing  eagle,  which  name  probably  signifies  all  the 
smaller  eagles.  Ossikuage. — See  Lammergeyer 
(sup.).  Ostrich. — Still  occasionally  found  in  the 
southeastern  deserts  of  Palestine,  the  ostrich,  if  we 
are  to  judge  from  the  many  mentions  made  of  it,  was 
well  known  among  the  Hebrews.  The  beauty  of  its 
iiluinagc,  its  fleetness,  its  reputed  stupidity,  its 
leaving  its  eggs  on  the  sand  and  hatching  them  by 
the  sun's  heat  are  repeatedly  alluded  to.  Owl. — .\ 
generic  name  under  which  many  species  of  nocturnal 
birds  are  designated,  some  having  a  proper  name  in 
the  Hebrew,  some  others  posse.s,sing  none.  Among 
the  former  we  may  mention  the  httle  owl  (athcne 
pcrsica),  the  Egyjjtian  eagle-owl  (huho  a.icalcphus),  the 
great  owl  of  some  authors,  called  ibis  in  the  D.V., 
the  screech  or  hooting  owl,  probably  the  lilHh  of 
Is.,  xxxiv,  and  the  lamia  of  St.  Jerome  and  the  D.V.; 
the  bam  owl  (stn/x  fUimmca),  possibly  corresponding 
to  the  M/ima^  of  the  Hebrtiws  and  rendered  by  night- 
hawk  in  the  .\.V.;  and  the  qippoz  ol  Is.,  xxxiv,  15, 


as  yet  unidentified.  Ox.^See  Cattle  (sun.).  Ox, 
Wild,  Is.,  li,  20,  probably  antUope  bubaiis.  See 
.•\ntelope  (sup.). 

Palmerwor.m  (Hebr.,  gUzSm). — A  general  word 
for  the  locust,  very  likely  in  its  larva  state.  Pab- 
TRiDiiK. — .Mthough  very  common  in  the  Holy  Land, 
the  partridge  is  mentioned  only  three  times  in  the 
sacred  literature:  I  K.,  xxvi,  20  alludes  to  cha.sing  it 
on  the  mountains;  Jer.,  x\-ii,  11,  to  the  robbing  of 
its  eggs;  Ecclus.,  xi,  32,  to  the  keeping  a  decoy  par- 
tridge. Two  kinds  of  partridges  are  known  to  abide 
in  the  hilly  resorts  of  Palestine;  the  francolin  in- 
habits the  plains,  and  various  sand-grouse  are  found 
in  the  deserts.  Peacock. — The  texts  where  it  is 
.spoken  of  (III  K.,  x,  22;  II  Par.,  ix,  21)  clearly  in- 
clicatc  that  it  w;us  not  indigenous  to  Palestine,  but 
imported,  probably  from  India.  Pelican,  D.V., 
Ps.,  ci  (Hebr.,  cii),  7,  for  Hebr.  qa'dth,  in  other 
places  is  rendered  by  bittern,  for  which  it  might  be 
advantageously  substituted.  Pelicans  are  usually 
found  about  marshes  (Is.,  xxxiv,  11),  and  are  in  the 
habit  of  sitting  for  hours  in  sandy  de-solate  places 
[Ps.,  ci  (Hebr.,  cii),  7;  Soph.,  ii,  14]  after  they  have 
gorged.  PnoiNix  might  possibly  De  read  instead 
of  palmtree  (Hebr.  hdl)  in  Job,  xxix,  18,  where  the 
belief  in  its  immortality  seems  referred  to;  however 
the  sen.se  .adopted  by  D.V.,  after  Vulgate  and  Septua- 
gint,  should  not  be  slighted.  Pigeon. — See  Dove 
(sup.).  Plunger. — See  Cormorant  («wp.).  Porcu- 
pi.NE. — BeUeved  by  some,  on  account  of  a  certain 
analogy  of  the  Hebrew  (jippOtl  with  the  Arabic  name 
of  tliis  animal,  to  be  spoken  of  in  the  Bible.  See 
Ericius  (sup.)  PoRPHVRioN  is  in  Vulgate  and  D.V. 
(Lev.,  xi,  18),  the  equivalent  for  the  Hebrew,  rdlfdm, 
translated  in  the  Septuagint  by  "swan";  in  the 
Greek  version,  porphyrion  stands  for  the  Hebrew, 
linshi'mtth,  interpreted  "swan"  by  the  Latin  and 
English  Bibles.  The  hj'pothesis  that  the  Greek 
translators  used  a  Hebrew  text  in  which  the  two 
words  rdhdm  and  tinshimiih  stood  contrariwise  to 
their  present  order  in  the  Massoretic  text,  might 
account  for  this  difference.  This  hypothesis  is  all  the 
more  probable  because  in  Deut.,  xiv,  17,  porphyrion 
seems  to  be  the  Greek  tran.slation  for  rdhdm.  What- 
ever this  may  be,  whether  the  porphyrion,  or  purjile 
water-hen  (jxirphyrio  anliquorum),  or  the  Egj'ptian 
vulture,  should  be  iilentified  with  the  Tdl)dm  remains 
uncertain.  See  Gibr-eagle  (sup.)  Pygarg  (Deut.. 
xiv,  .5). — This  word,  a  mere  adaptation  from  the 
Greek,  means  "  white-nimped",  a  character  common 
to  many  species,  though  the  antilopc  addax  is  possibly 
signified  by  the  Hebrew  word  dishdn. 

Quail. — Tlic  description  given  Ex.,  xvi,  11-13: 
Num.,  xi,  31,  32;  Ps.,  Ixxvii  (Hebr.,  lxx\'iii)  27-35, 
and  civ  (Hebr.,  cv),  40,  the  references  to  their  count- 
less flocks,  their  low  flying,  their  habit  of  aUghting  on 
land  in  the  morning,  together  with  the  analogy  of 
the  Hebrew  and  .\rabic  names,  make  it  certain  that 
the  common  quail  (cnlumix  vulgaris)  is  intended. 

Rabbit  (Prov.,  x.xx,  26). — A  mistranslation  for 
coney  or  daman.  See  Cheroorillus,  (sup.)  Ram. 
— See  Ewe,  Flock  (sup.).  R.\.ven. — The  Bible  in- 
cludes under  this  genenc  name  a  certain  number  of 
birds  having  more  or  less  resemblance  with  tlic  raven, 
such  as  the  magpie,  the  jay,  etc.  The  raven,  eight 
species  of  which  are  found  in  Palestine,  is  by  far  the 
most  common  of  all  the  birds  of  that  countrj-,  where 
it  is  with  buzzards,  vultures,  dogs,  jack.als,  and 
hyenas,  an  active  scavenger.  Its  plumage  is  glossy 
black,  and  its  habits  are  frequently  aUuiled  to  in 
Holy  Writ,  for  instance  feeding  on  carca.sses,  wander- 
ing for  its  precarious  meals,  picking  out  the  eyes  of 
the  newly-ilropped  or  weakly  animals,  resorting  to 
desolate  places,  etc.  The  raven,  when  no  other 
food  is  nigh,  not  unfrequently  picks  out  grains 
freshly  .sown;  hence  its  surname  of  seed-picker, 
spcrmologos,  which,  later  on  became  a  synonym  for 


ANIMISM 


526 


ANIMISM 


ragamuffin.  This  name,  a|)plied  to  St.  Paul  by  his 
sceptical  listeners  of  Athens,  has  become,  through 
a  mistranslation,  "word-sower"  in  our  Bibles  (Acts, 
x\-ii,  IS).  NiGHT-K.WEN',  the  equivalent  in  Ps.  ci 
(Hebr.,  cii),  7,  of  the  Hebrew  word  translated  Lev., 
xi,  17,  by  screecli-owl,  seems  to  mean  the  blue 
thrush  (p'etroci/neta  cyanea),  a  well-known  solitary 
bird  of  the  coiintiy,  which  is  fond  of  sitting  alone  on 
a  roof  or  a  rock.  Rhinoceros,  Num.,  xxiii,  22, 
stands  for  Hebrew,  re' cm.  and  should  consequently  be 
rendered  by  aurochs.  Ringtail. — So  D.V.,  Deut., 
xiv,  13,  translates  ra'ah,  possibly  substituted  by  a 
scribe's  error  for  da'ah,  and  very  likely  meaning  the 
black  kite  (milvus  tnigrans). 

Satyr. — So  is  the  Hebrew  sair  rendered  Is.,  xiii,  21, 
and  xxxiv,  14,  by  R.V.  (D.V.:  "hairy  one").  The 
same  word  in  Lev.,  x^^i,  7,  and  II  Par.,  xi,  15,  is 
translated  "devils"  in  all  Enghsh  Bibles.  Hair 
usually  signifies  the  he-goat.  In  the  latter  passages 
this  sense  is  clearly  inapplicable;  it  seems  hardly 
applicable  in  the  former.  The  writers  of  Leviticus, 
and  II  Paralipomenon  possibly  intended  some 
representation  of  the  same  description  as  the  goat- 
headed  figures  of  the  Egyptian  Pantheon.  Concern- 
ing the  sa'!r  mentioned  in  Isaias,  no  satisfactory 
explanation  has  as  yet  been  given.  Scarlet. — See 
Cochineal  (sup.).  Sciniph. — See  Gnat  (sup.). 
Scorpion. — Vei-y  common  in  all  hot,  dry,  stony  places; 
is  taken  as  an  emblem  of  the  wicked.  Sea-Gull. — 
Its  different  kinds  are  probably  signified  by  the 
word  translated  larus.  See  Cuckoo  (sup.).  Seal. — 
See  Badger  (sup.).  Se.\-Monster,  Lam.,  iv,  _  3, 
probably  means  such  animals  as  the  whale,  porpoise, 
dugong.  etc.  Serpent. — A  generic  term  whereby 
all  ophidia  are  designated;  ten  names  of  different 
species  of  snakes  are  given  in  the  Bible.  Shrew. — 
So  doesD.V.  translate  the  Hebr.  'Snaqah,  which  how- 
ever means  rather  some  kind  of  lizard,  probably  the 
gecko.  Siren,  Is.,  xiii,  22,  a  translation  for  Hebrew 
tan,  which  indicates  an  animal  dwelling  in  ruins,  and 
may  generally  be  rendered  by  jackal.  No  other 
resemblance  than  a  verbal  one  should  be  sought 
between  tliis  Idn  and  the  fabulous  being,  famous  by 
its  allurements,  called  Siren  by  the  ancient  poets. 
Snail  should  be  read  instead  of  wax,  Ps.,  Ivii  (Hebr., 
Iviii)  9,  to  translate  the  Hebrew,  sMbeliil.  Unlike 
the  snails  of  northern  climates  which  hibernate,  those 
of  Palestine  sleep  in  summer.  The  Psalmist  alludes 
"to  the  fact  that  very  commonly,  when  they  have 
secured  themselves  in  some  chink  of  the  rocks  for 
their  summer  sleep,  tliey  are  still  exposed  to  the  sun 
rays,  wliich  gradually  evaporate  and  dry  up  the 
whole  of  the  body,  till  the  animal  is  shrivelled  to  a 
thread,  and,  as  it  were,  melted  away"  (Tristram). 
Sparrow. — The  Hebrew  word  fippor,  found  over 
forty  titnes,  is  a  general  name  for  all  small  passerine 
birds,  of  which  there  exist  about  a  hundred  and  fifty 
species  in  the  Holy  Land.  Spider. — An  insect  Hving 
by  millions  in  Palestine,  where  several  hundred  species 
have  been  distinguished.  Its  web  affords  a  most 
popular  illustration  for  frail  and  ephemeral  under- 
takings (Job,  viii,  14;  Is.,  lix,  5);  in  three  passages, 
however,  the  translators  seem  to  have  wrongly  written 
spider  for  moth  [Ps.  xxxviii  (Hebr.,  xxxix),  12], 
sigh  [Ps.  Ixxxix  (xc),  9],  and  pieces  (Os.,  viii,  6). 
Stork. — The  Hebrew  word  hfi.fulhah.  erroneously 
rendered  "heron"  by  the  Doiiay  translators,  Lev., 
xi,  19,  alludes  to  the  well-known  affection  of  tlie 
stork  for  its  young.  Several  passages  have  reference 
to  this  bird,  its  periodical  migrations  (Jcr.,  viii,  7), 
its  nesting  in  fir-trees,  its  black  pinions  stretcliing 
from  its  wliite  body  (Zach.,  v,  9;  D.V.,  kite;  but 
the  stork,  hSattlhah,  is  mentionecl  in  the  Hebrew 
text).  Two  kinds,  the  wliite  and  the  black  stork, 
live  in  Pale.stinc  during  the  winter.  Swallow. — • 
Two  words  are  so  rendered:  deror,  "the  swift  flyer", 
which  means  the  diinmey  swallow  and  other  species 


akin  to  it  [Ps.  Ixxxiii  (Hebr.,  Ixxxiv),  4;  D.V., 
turtle;  Prov.,  xxvi,  2;  D.V.,  .sparrow],  whereas  s(2.; 
orsJ?  may  be  translated  by  "swift",  tliis  bird  being 
probably  intended  in  Is.,  xxxviii.  14,  and  Jer.,  viii,  7. 
Swan. — Mentioned  only  in  the  list  of  unclean  birds 
(Lev.,  xi,  18;  Deut.,  xiv,  16).  The  swan  having 
always  been  very  rare  in  Syria,  there  was  little  need 
of  forbidding  to  eat  its  flesh;  by  the  Hebrew  tin- 
shfmeth,  some  other  bird  might  possibly  l)e  designated. 
Swine. — The  most  abhorred  of  all  animals  among 
the  Jews;  hence  the  swineherd's  was  the  most  de- 
grading employment  (Luke,  xv,  15;  cf.  Matt.,  viii, 
32).  Swine  are  very  seldom  kept  in  Palestine. 
Tiger,  Job,  iv,  11  (Hebr.,  l&yish),  should  be  "lion". 
Turtle. — See  Dove  (sup.). 

Unicorn. — See  Aurochs  (sup.).  Urchin,  Soph., 
ii,   14.     See  Ericius   (sup.). 

Viper. — See  Asp  (sup.).  Vulture. — So  does 
D.V.  render  the  Hebrew,  'dyyah,  Lev.,  xi,  14;  Deut., 
xiv,  13;  Job,  xxviii,  7.  As  has  been  suggested  above, 
the  text  of  Job  at  least,  seems  to  allude  to  the  kite 
rather  than  to  the  vulture.  Several  kinds  of  vultures 
are  nevertheless  referred  to  in  the  Bible;  so,  for 
instance,  the  bearded  vulture  (gyptelus  barbatus), 
called  griffon  in  the  D.V.;  the  grilTon-vulture  (gyps 
julvus),  the  Egyptian  vulture  (neophron  percnopterus), 
etc.  In  the  biblical  parlance  vultures  are  oftentimes 
termed   eagles. 

Watermen. — See  Porphtoion  (sup.).  Weasel, 
Lev.,  xi,  29,  must  be  regarded  as  a  general  name, 
probably  designating,  besides  the  weasel  proper,  the 
polecat  and  ichneumon,  all  very  common  in  the 
Holy  Land.  Whale  (Gen.,  i,  21). — TAnnhn 
would  perhaps  be  better  translated  generally  "  .sea- 
monster";  porpoises  and  dugongs  were  certainly 
known  to  the  Hebrews.  Wolf. — Frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures  as  a  special  foe  to  flocks 
(Ecclus.,  xiii,  21;  Matt.,  vii,  15),  and  an  emljlem  of 
treachery,  ferocity,  and  bloodtliirstiness.  Wolves 
usually  prowl  at  night  around  the  sheepfolds,  anil, 
though  fewer  in  numbers  than  jackals,  are  much 
more  harmful.  The  tribe  of  Benjamin,  owing  to  its 
warhke  character,  was  compared  to  a  wolf.  Worm. 
— In  English  the  translation  for  two  Hebrew  words: 
rimmah  [Exod.,  xvi,  24;  Is.,  xiv,  11;  (Job,  vii,  5, 
A.V.)];  and  toW  (Exod.,  xvi,  20,  etc.);  these  two 
Hebrew  words  are  general;  the  former  designates 
particularly  all  living  organisms  generated  and 
swarming  in  decaying  or  rotten  substances;  the 
latter  includes  not  only  worms,  but  also  such  insects 
as  caterpillars,  centipedes,  etc. 

Carpenter,  Scripture  Natural  History  (London,  182S); 
Harris,  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (ed.  Conder,  Loniloii, 
1833-34);  Wood,  Animals  of  the  Bible  (London,  18S31:  Thi.s- 
TRAM,  Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (London,  1883);  7'hr  Fauna 
and  Flora  of  Palestine  (London,  1SS9);  7V»-  .liiimul  Cnnlnm 
in  the  Bible,  in  Aiils  to  the  Student  uf  lfi<    J'i!<U    fl  MriMon,  IS'tsi; 

Hart,  The  Animals  Mentioned  in  Ih'    /'  ' '^      I 1-n,   isnsi; 

\\.K\GnT,  Bible  Plants  and  Animals  ^\  '^'^■\'n,  Is^'.i  ,  I'.oinvur, 
Hierozoicon  (London,  1663,  1712);  I;,  i^i  %  m  i  i  m  n,  llil.lisriic 
N  aluralgcschichte  (Leipzig,  1820);  Sciiegc  and  W  nmiMii.i.KR, 
Biblische  .\rchaologie  (Freiburg,  1887);  Culthera,  Fauna 
biblica  (P-ilerrao,  1880);  Hagen,  Lex.  bibl.  (Paris,  1905),  I; 
Dietionaries  of  the  Bible. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Animism  (Lat.,  Anima,  Soul)  is  the  doctrine  or 
theory  of  tlie  .soul.  In  current  language  the  term 
has  a  twofold  signification:  I.  Philosophical — the 
doctrine  that  the  soul  is  the  principle  of  life  in  man 
and  in  other  living  things.  As  applied  to  man  it 
embodies  the  essence  of  spiritualistic  as  opposed 
to  Materialistic  philosophy.  II.  Ethnological — a 
theory  proposed  in  recent  years  to  account  for  the 
origin  and  dcA-elopment  of  religion.  As  such  it  is 
known  as  the  Soul  or  Ghost-theory  of  religion. 

Philosophical. — For  the  application  of  the 
theory  of  animism  to  living  things  in  general, 
see  Like.  So  far  as  it  is  specially  concerned  with 
man,  animism  aims  at  a  true  knowledge  of  inan's 
nature   and    dignity    by   estaljlishing    the   existence 


ANIMISM 


527 


ANIMISM 


and  nature  of  the  soul,  its  union  with  the  body,  its 
origin  and  duration.  Tliese  problems  are  at  the 
basis  of  our  conscious  existence  and  underlie  all 
our  studies  in  mental  and  moral  life.  The  impor- 
tance of  animism  to-day  is  shown  bccaase  (1)  its 
validity  as  a  theory  luus  lx>cn  questioned;  (2)  a 
school  has  risen  which  treats  psychology  without 
reference  to  the  soul;  hence  the  attempt  at  "psy- 
chology without  a  soul",  e.  g.  Sully,  James,  Murray, 
Davis."  Kiclpp,   HOlTding. 

In  establishing  the  doctrine  of  animism  the  gen- 
eral line  of  reasoning  is  from  elTect  to  cau.se,  from 
phenomena  to  their  subject  or  agent.  From  tlie 
acts  of  mind  and  of  will  manifested  in  individual 
conscious  life,  we  are  forced  to  admit  the  existence 
of  their  .source  and  principle,  which  is  the  human 
soul;  from  the  nature  of  the  activity  is  inferred  the 
nature  of  the  agent.  Schola,stic  philo,soi>liy,  with 
Aristotle  and  the  Christian  Fathers,  vindicates  flie 
true  dignity  of  man  l)y  proclaiming  the  soul  to  be  a 
substantial  and  spiritual  jjrinciple  emlowed  with 
immortality.  The  sold  is  a  substance  l>ecau.se  it 
has  the  elements  of  being,  potency,  stability,  and 
is  the  subject  of  modifieatioiLs — whidi  elements 
make  up  the  notion  of  substance.  That  the  sotd 
is  a  spiritual  substance,  i.  e.  immaterial  and  a  spirit, 
is  inferred  from  its  acts  of  intelligence  antl  of  free- 
will, which  are  performed  without  the  intriiLsic  co- 
oi)erations  of  the  bodily  organs.  By  innnortality 
is  imderstood  in  general  terms  the  future  life  of  the 
soul  after  separation  from  the  body.  The  chief 
erroi-s  are  those  which  contend  (1)  that  the  soul  is 
not  a  substance.  Thus  (a)  some  writers,  e.  g.  Kant, 
hold  that  tlie  soiil  is  not  a  real,  but  only  a  logical,  sub- 

i"ect;  (b)  motlcrn  Pantheism,  seen  especially  in  New 
England  Transcendentalism  (e.  g.  Emerson,  Royce) 
and  the  Neo-Hegelian  school  which  imifies  human 
and  divine  consciousness  (e.  g.  Prof.  T.  H.  Green); 
(c)  the  school  of  .\s.sociationists  (e.  g.  Hvune,  Davis, 
HiitTding,  Sully) ,  who  contend  that  the  soid  is  only 
a  bimdle  or  group  of  sensations;  (d)  those  who 
teach  that  the  soul  is  only  activity,  nothing  more 
OVundt),  or  "a  wave  of  con.sciousness "  (Morgan); 
(e)  the  Agnostic  and  Positivistic  school  (e.  g.  Locke, 
Spencer,  .James,  Prof.  Bowne,  Comtc),  who  aHirm 
that  the  .soul  is  unknown  and  unknowable,  altliovigh 
some  among  them  postulate  it  as  the  subject  of  our 
conscious  states;  (f)  the  materialistic  school  which 
denies  its  existence  altogether  (e.  g.  Tyndall,  Hux- 
ley). 

(2)  That  the  soul  is  neither  spiritual,  nor  immor- 
tal. Modem  Materialism,  Positivism,  and  Agnos- 
ticism have  tried  in  every  way  to  establish  this 
thesis.  Various  theories  of  knowledge  have  been 
proposed,  and  the  discoveries  of  modern  science 
nave  been  cited  in  its  behalf.  Appeal  has  been  ta- 
ken to  psychophysics  and  to  such  facts  as  the  locali- 
zation of  function,  the  correlation  of  thought  to  the 
structure  of  the  brain,  and  the  results  of  cerebral 
lesion.  Theories  of  Monism  (e.  g.  the  double-asix;ct 
theory)  and  of  Parallelism  have  been  advanced 
to  account  for  the  acts  of  mind  and  of  will.  Yet 
animism  as  a  doctrine  of  the  spiritual  sold  remains 
unshattered,  and  the  spiritualistic  philosophy  is 
only  more  strongly  entrenched.  (Cf.  Si'bst.vxce, 
Agnosticism,  Positivissi,  Materiallsm,   Soul,  Im- 

MOI(T.\LITY,     PsYCHOI.OOY). 

ETHNOLOt;ic.\L. — -In  this  sense  animism  is  the 
theory  proposed  by  some  evolutionists  to  account 
for  the  origin  of  religion.  Evolution  assumes  that 
the  higher  civilized  races  are  the  outcome  and  de- 
velopment from  a  nider  state.  This  early  stage 
resembles  that  of  the  lowest  savages  existing  to-day. 
Their  religious  belief  is  known  as  animism,  i.  e.  l)e- 
lief  in  spiritual  beings,  and  represents  the  minimum 
or  rudimentary  dehnition  of^  religion.  With  this 
postulate  as  tlie  groundwork  for  the  philosophy  of 


religion,  the  development  of  religious  thought  can 
be  traced  from  existing  data  and  therefore  admits 
of  scientific  treatment.  The  principle  of  continuity, 
which  is  the  basal  principle  in  other  departments 
of  knowledge,  was  thus  applied  to  religion.  Comtc 
had  given  a  general  outline  of  this  theory  in  his  laW 
of  the  three  states.  According  to  him  the  concci>- 
tion  of  the  primary  mental  condition  of  mankind 
is  a  state  of  "pure  fetishism,  constantly  character- 
ized by  the  free  and  direct  exercise  of  our  primitive 
tendency  to  conceive  all  external  bodies  .soever, 
natural  or  artificial,  as  animated  by  a  life  e.s,sen- 
tially  analogous  to  our  own,  with  mere  ditTcrence 
of  intensity".  Propo.sed  at  a  time  when  evolution 
was  in  the  ascendency,  this  opinion  fell  at  once  under 
the  dominion  of  the  current  conviction.  The  hope 
was  entertained  that  by  a  wider  and  more  com]ilcte 
induction  religion  might  be  considered  as  a  purely 
natural  phenomenon  and  thus  at  last  be  placed  on 
a    scientific    basis. 

The  foundation  of  animism  as  a  theory  of  religion 
is  the  twofold  principle  of  evolution:  (1)  the  anlliro- 
jMjlogical  assumption  that  the  savage  races  give  a 
correct  idea  of  religion  in  its  primitive  state;  (2) 
the  philosophical  assumption  that  the  savage  state 
was  the  cliiklhooil  of  the  race  and  that  the  savage 
mind  should  be  likened  to  a  child  (e.  g.  Lubbock, 
Tylor,  Comte,  Tiele.  Reville,  and  Spencer).  Hence 
the  evolution  of  religious  thought  can  be  traced 
from  existing  data,  viz.  the  beliefs  of  the  lowest 
savages,  and  though  deeply  modified  as  mankind 
rises  in  culture,  yet  it  always  pre.ser\es  an  unbroken 
continuity  into  the  midst  of  modern  civilization. 
This  continuum,  or  common  element,  in  all  religions 
is  animism.  The  importance  of  animism  in  the 
science  of  religion  is  due  to  Tylor,  who  represents 
it  as  a  primitive  philosophy  supplj-ing  at  the  same 
time  the  foundation  of  all  religion.  His  work  en- 
titled "Primitive  Culture",  first  pubhshed  in  l.S6i{. 
is  justly  called  the  "Gospel  of  .-Vnimism".  Animism 
comprehends  the  doctrine  of  souls  and  spirits,  but 
has  its  starting  point  in  the  former.  Dreams  and 
visions,  apparitions  in  sleep  and  at  death,  are  sup- 
posed to  have  revealed  to  primitive  man  his  .sold 
as  distinct  from  his  body.  This  belief  was  then 
transferred  to  other  objects.  .\s  the  human  boily 
was  believed  to  live  and  act  by  virtue  of  its  own 
inhabiting  spirit-soul,  so  the  operations  of  the  world 
seemeil  to  be  carried  on  by  other  spirits.  To  the 
savage  mind,  animals,  plants,  and  all  inanimate 
things  have  souls.  From  this  doctrine  of  souls  arises 
the  belief  in  .spirits.  Spirits  are  of  the  same  nature 
as  souls,  only  separated  from  boilies — e.  g.  genii, 
fairies,  demons — -and  acting  in  different  ways  as 
tutelary  guardians,  lingering  near  the  tomb  or  roam- 
ing about  (Spiritism),  or  incorporated  in  certain  ob- 
jects (Fetishism,  Totemism).  They  appear  to  man 
in  a  more  sulitle  material  form  as  vapour,  or  as  an 
image  retaining  a  likeness  to  the  bodily  shape;  and 
they  arc  feared  by  him.  so  that  he  tries  to  control 
their  influence  by  projiitiation  and  magic  (Sha- 
manism). Thus  unconsciousness,  sickness,  derange- 
ment, trance  were  explained  by  the  departure  of 
the  sovd.  Among  savages  ami  Buddhist  Tatars 
tlie  bringing  back  of  lost  souls  was  a  regular  part 
of  the  sorcerer's  profes.sion.  The  belief  prevails 
among  the  .Vmerican  Indians  that  if  one  wakes  a 
sleeper  suddenly  he  will  die,  as  his  vagrant  soul  may 
not  get  back  in  time.  For  the  Siivage.  as  the  lowest 
of  men,  is  supjiosed  to  be  actuated  by  the  lowest 
of  pa.ssions.  Hence  the  fear-theory  of  reUgion  is 
essential  to  animism. 

Animism  therefore  discovers  human  life  in  all 
moving  things.  To  the  savage  and  to  primitive  man 
there  is  no  distinction  between  the  animate  and  the 
inanimate.  Nature  is  all  alive.  Every  object  is  con- 
trolled by  its  ow^n  independent  spirit.     Spirits  are  seen 


ANIMISM 


528 


ANIMISM 


in  the  rivers,  the  lakes,  the  fountains,  the  woods,  the 
mountains,  the  trees,  tlie  animals,  the  flowers,  the 
grass,  tlie  birds.  Spiritual  existences — e.  g.  elves, 
gnomes,  ghosts,  manes,  demons,  deities — inhabit  al- 
most everything,  and  consequently  almost  everything 
'is  an  objci'i  (if  worship.  The  Milky  Way  is  "  the  path 
of  the  souls  leading  to  the  spirit-land  ";  and  the  North- 
em  Lights  are  the  dances  of  the  dead  warriors  and 
Beers  in  the  realms  above.  The  Australians  say 
that  tlie  .sounds  of  the  wind  in  the  trees  are  the 
voices  of  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  communing  with 
one  another  or  warning  the  li\'ing  of  what  is  to  come. 
The  conception  of  the  human  soul  formed  from 
dreams  and  visions  served  as  a  type  on  which  prim- 
itive man  framed  his  ideas  of  other  souls  and  of 
spiritual  beings  from  the  lowest  elf  up  to  the  highest 
god.  Thus  the  gods  of  the  higher  religions  have 
been  evolved  out  of  the  spirits,  whether  ghosts  or 
not,  of  the  lower  religions;  and  the  beUef  in  ghosts 
and  spirits  was  produced  by  the  savage's  experience 
of  dreams  and  trances.  Here,  it  is  claimed,  we 
have  the  germ  of  all  religions,  although  Tylor  con- 
fesses that  it  is  impossible  to  trace  the  process  by 
which  the  doctrine  of  souls  gave  rise  to  the  belief 
in  the  great  gods.  Originally,  spirits  were  the  appli- 
cation of  human  souls  to  non-human  beings;  they 
were  not  supernatural,  but  only  became  .so  in  the 
course  of  time.  Now,  as  modem  science  shows  the 
belief  in  ghosts  or  spirits  to  be  a  hallucination,  the 
highest  and  purest  religion — being  only  the  elabora- 
tion of  savage  beliefs,  to  the  savage  mind  reasonable 
enough — cannot  be  accepted  by  the  modern  mind 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  supernatural  nor  even 
true.  Such  in  brief  is  the  outline  of  the  theory  by 
which  Tylor  attempts  to  explain  not  only  the  phenom- 
enon but  the  whole  history  and  development  of  re- 
Hgion. 

Tylor's  theory  expresses  two  sides  of  animism, 
viz.,  souls  and  spirits.  Spencer  attempts  to  syn- 
thesize them  into  one,  viz.,  souls  or  ancestor-worship. 
He  agrees  with  Tylor  in  the  animistic  explanation 
of  dreams,  diseases,  death,  madness,  idiocy,  i.  e. 
as  due  to  spiritual  influences;  but  differs  in  present- 
ing one  solution  only;  viz.,  cult  of  souls  or  worship 
of  the  dead.  "The  rudimentary  form  of  all  relig- 
ion", he  writes,  "is  the  propitiation  of  dead  ances- 
tors", or  "ghost  propitiation".  Hence  Spencer 
denies  that  the  ascription  of  life  to  the  whole  of  na- 
ture is  a  primitive  thought,  or  that  men  ever  ascribed 
to  animals,  plants,  inanimate  objects,  and  natural 
phenomena  souls  of  their  own.  Spencer's  theory 
IS  known  as  the  "  Ghost-theory  of  Religion "  and  at 
tlie  present  time  is  generally  discredited  even  by 
evolutionists.  With  Tylor  the  worship  of  the  dead 
is  an  important  subdivision  of  animism;  with  Spen- 
(•er  it  is  the  one  and  all  of  religion.  Lippert  consis- 
tently carries  out  the  theory  of  Spencer  and,  instead 
of  animism,  uses  the  word  Seelenkult.  De  la  Saus- 
saye  says  that  Lippert  pushes  his  view  to  an  extreme 
and  supports  it  with  rich,  but  not  over-ti-ustworthy, 
material.  Schultze  considers  fetishism  and  animism 
as  equally  primitive.  F.  B.  Jevons  rejects  the 
theory  that  all  gods  of  earlier  races  were  spirits  of 
dead   men  deified. 

The  animism  of  Tylor  is  vague  and  indefinite.  It 
means  the  doctrine  of  spirits  in  general,  and  is  best 
expres.sed  by  "Animated  Nature".  Fetishism  is 
a  subordinate  department  of  animism,  viz.  the  doc- 
trine of  spirits  embodied  in,  or  attached  to,  or  con- 
veying influence  through,  certain  animals  or  ma- 
terial objects.  The  animism  of  Tylor  differs  little 
from  the  natur.ilism  of  Heville  or  the  fetishism  of 
De  la  Hialle.  It  accounts  for  the  belief  in  immor- 
tality and  metempsychosis.  It  thus  explains  the 
belief  in  the  passage  of  souls  from  men  to  beasts,  antl 
to  sticks  and  stones.  It  includes  tree-worship  and 
plant-worsliip— c.    g.    the    classic     liamadryad,    the 


tree-worship  of  the  South  .\frican  natives,  the  rice- 
feasts  held  by  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  to  keep  the  rice- 
souls  in  the  plants  lest  by  their  departure  the  crop 
decay.  It  is  the  solution  proposed  for  Manes-wor- 
ship, for  the  Lares  and  the  Penates  among  the  tJreeks 
and  Romans,  where  the  dead  ancestors,  passing 
into  deities,  go  on  protecting  the  family  as  the  dead 
cliief  watches  over  the  tribe.  In  animism  Tylor  finds 
an  explanation  for  funeral  rites  and  customs — 
feasts  of  the  deail,  the  human  sacrifices  of  witiows 
in  India,  of  slaves  in  Borneo;  sending  messages  to 
dead  cliiefs  of  Dahomey  by  killing  capti\es  taken 
in  war,  the  slaughtering  of  the  Pawnee's  hor.se  and 
of  the  Arab's  camel  at  the  graves  of  their  masters, 
placing  food  and  weapons  in,  or  on,  the  tomb — 
customs  which  survive  in  the  practice  of  burning 
paper  messengers  and  placing  stone,  clay,  or  wooden 
substitutes  on  graves  in  China  and  Japan. 

The  general  principles  of  animism  are:  (1)  in  the 
last  analysis  it  is  a  biological  theory,  and  attempts 
to  explain  all  phenomena  through  analogy  with 
biological  phenomena.  To  the  savage,  and  to  prim- 
itive man,  all  moving  things  lived,  and  the  fancy 
which  created  ghosts  or  souls  to  account  for  hu- 
man life  soon  extended  tliis  explanation  to  all 
other  external  objects.  (2)  The  greater  value  it  at- 
taches to  unwritten  sources,  viz.,  folk-lore,  customs, 
rites,  tales,  and  superstitions,  in  comparison  with 
literary  sources.  (3)  That  spiritual  beings  are 
modelled  by  man  on  the  primary  conception  of  his 
own  human  soul.  (4)  Their  purpose  is  to  explain 
nature  on  the  primitive,  cliildhke  theory  that  it  is 
thoroughly  and  throughout  animated  "nature.  (5) 
The  conception  of  the  human  soul  is  the  source  and 
origin  of  the  conceptions  of  spirit  and  deity,  from  the 
lowest  demon  up  to  Plato's  ideas  and  the  highest 
God  of  Monotheism.  (6)  Yet  it  gives  no  unified 
concept  of  the  world,  for  the  spirits  which  pos.sess, 
pervade,  and  crowd  nature  are  individual  and  in- 
dependent. (7)  It  is  without  ethical  thoughts 
and  motives.  Thus  Tylor  holds  as  proved  that 
religion  and  morality  stand  on  independent  grounds; 
that,  while  lower  races  have  a  code  of  morals,  yet 
their  religion — animism — is  unmoral,  and  thus 
the  popular  idea  that  the  moral  go\'erninent  of  the 
universe  is  an  essential  tenet  of  natural  reUgion 
simply  falls  to  the  ground. 

The  followers  of  Tylor  have  pushed  these  prin- 
ciples to  an  extreme  and  appUed  them  with  more 
clearness  and  precision.  The  present  tendency 
of  the  anthropological  school  is  to  begin  with  a  pre- 
religious  stage,  from  which  religious  ideas  slowly 
emerged  and  elaborated  themselves.  Hence  re- 
ligious life  was  preceded  by  a  period  characterized 
by  an  utter  absence  of  religious  conceptions.  Thus 
Tiele  holds  that  animism  is  not  a  religion,  but  a  sort 
of  primitive  philosophy,  which  not  only  controls 
religion,  but  rules  the  whole  life  of  man  in  the  child- 
hood of  the  world.  It  is  a  belief  that  every  living 
tiling — i.  e.  moving  thing — is  for  primitive  man  an- 
imated by  a  thinking,  feeling,  willing  spirit,  dif- 
fering from  the  human  in  degree  and  power  only. 
Religion  did  not  spring  from  animism,  but  its  first 
manifestations  are  dominated  by  animism,  that 
being  the  form  of  thought  natural  to  primitive  man. 
Pfleiderer  teaches  that  belief  in  God  was  formed 
out  of  the  prehistoric  belief  in  spirits,  that  these 
spirits  are  anccstor-s]5irits  and  nature-spirits  found 
everywhere  in  the  primeval  period  of  peoples  sitle 
by  side  with  one  another  and  passing  into  each 
other  in  various  forms  of  combination  without  the 
one  being  able  to  be  referreti  to  the  other,  that  the 
prehistoric  belief  in  spirits  cannot  yet  be  properly 
calleil  religion — it  only  contained  the  germs  of  re- 
ligion. Caspari  teaches  a  pre-animistic  period  in 
the  family  circle  and  holds  that  the  worsnip  of  el- 
ders and  chieftains  was  the  first  religion.     UriutOD 


ANIMISM 


529 


ANIMISM 


says  "the  present  probability  is  that  in  the  infancy 
of  the  race  there  was  at  least  no  objective  expression 
of  rchgioiis  feeling",  and  that  "there  must  have 
been  a  time  in  the  progress  of  organic  forms  from 
some  lower  to  that  highest  mammal,  man,  when  ho 
did  not  have  a  religious  consciousness;  for  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  even  the  slightest  traces  of  it  can  be  discerned 
in  the  inferior  animals".  The  French  school  of 
anthropology  is  distinguished  by  its  outspoken 
alhrisiii  ;ui(l  iii:itiTi:disrii.  Darwm,  Spencer,  and 
l.iilil)oi'k  hiilil  (hat  ])riinilive  man  had  no  idea  of  fiod. 
Linguistic  analysis,  as  Haynes  clearly  proves,  shows 
this  to  be  false.  The  theory  of  animism  has  exerted 
great  iiilhu'iice  on  the  study  of  religions  during  the 
last  twenty  years.  This  is  shown  in  the  animistic 
trend  of  Prof.  Maspero's  study  of  the  ICgyptian  re- 
ligion; in  the  contention  of  the  late  Prof.  W.  Robert- 
son Smith  that  the  religion  and  social  institutions 
of  llie  Semites  are  fiiumlcd  on  Totemisin;  in  the  em- 

C basis  laid  on  the  animism  of  the  ancient  Israelites 
y  Dr.  Stade;  in  the  worship  of  the  dead  and  of  an- 
cestors among  the  Vedic  Indians  and  the  Persians; 
in  the  study  of  soul-worship  among  the  (ireeks, 
by  E.  Rhode.  That  this  influence  was  not  for 
good  is  the  opinion  of  Prof.  Brinton.  who  says  that 
the  acceptance  of  animism  as  a  sulHcient  explanation 
of  early  cults  has  led  to  the  neglect,  in  English- 
speaking  lands,  of  their  profouniler  analysis  antl 
scientific    study. 

Tylor  published  the  third  edition  of  "  Primitive 
Culture"  in  1891,  confident  of  having  proved  the 
evolution  theory  as  to  the  origin  of  our  civilization 
from  a  savage  condition,  the  savage  belief  in  souls 
and  spirits  as  the  germs  of  religion,  and  the  conti- 
nuity of  this  belief  in  its  progressive  forms  of  de- 
velopment up  to  Monotheism.  Yet  the  hope  was 
short-lived.  More  scientific  research  and  severer 
criticism  have  deprived  tliis  theory  of  its  former  wide 
influence.  (1)  The  assumption  that  the  lowest 
savages  of  to-day  give  approximately  a  faithful 
picture  of  primitive  times  is  not  true.  Savages  have 
a  past  anu  a  long  one,  even  though  not  recorded. 
"Nothing  in  the  natural  history  of  man",  writes  the 
Duke  of  .Vrgj'll,  "can  be  more  certain  tlian  that 
morally  and  intellectually  and  physically  he  can 
and  often  does  sink  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level". 
Max  Miiller  assures  us  that  "if  there  is  one  thing 
which  a  comparative  study  of  religions  places  in 
the  clearest  light,  it  is  the  inevitable  decay  to  wliich 
every  religion  is  exposed.  .  .  .  Whenever  we  can 
trace  back  a  religion  to  its  first  beginnings,  we  find 
it  free  from  many  blemishes  that  affected  it  in  its 
later  states".  Even  Tylor  admits  that  animism 
is  everywhere  found  with  the  worship  of  a  great 
Got!,  brinton  holds  that  the  resemblance  of  the 
savage  mind  to  that  of  the  child  is  superficial  and 
likens  the  savage  to  the  uncultivated  and  ignorant 
adult  among  ourselves. 

(2)  It  is  opposed  by  the  Pliilological  and  Myth- 
ological schools.  Thus  Max  Muller  explains  much 
in  animism  by  superstition,  a  poetical  conception 
of  nature,  and  especially  by  personification.  He 
says  that  inanimate  objects  were  conceived  as  active 
powers  and  as  such  were  describeil  as  agents  by  a 
necessity  of  language,  without,  however,  predicating 
life  or  soul  of  tncm;  for  human  language  knows  at 
first  no  agents  except  human  agents.  Hence  an- 
imism was  a  stage  of  thought  reached  slowly,  and 
not  by  sudden  impulses.  "  What  is  classed  as  ani- 
mism in  ancient  .\rj'an  mythology",  he  writes, 
"is  often  no  more  than  a  poetical  conception  of  na- 
ture which  enables  the  poet  to  address  .sun.  moon, 
rivers  and  trees  as  if  they  coidd  hear  and  understand 
his  words.  "  The  same  truth  finds  abundant  illustra- 
tion in  the  P.salms.  "Sometimes,  however,"  ho 
adds,  "  what  is  called  animism  is  a  superstition 
which,  after  having  recognized  agents  in  sun,  moon, 


rivers  and  trees,  postulates  on  the  strength  of  anal- 
ogy the  existence  of  agents  or  spirits  dwelling  in  other 
parts  of  nature  also,  haunting  our  houses,  bringing 
misfortunes  upon  us,  though  sometimes  conferring 
blessings.  These  ghosts  are  often  mixed  up  with 
the  ghosts  of  the  departed  and  form  a  large  chapter 
in  the  hi.story  of  ancient  superstition."  The  ghost, 
or  ancestor,  theory  received  a  fatal  blow  from 
Lang's  ".Making  of  a  Religion",  where  it  is  shown 
that  the  belief  of  the  most  primitive  savages  is  in  a 
High  (iod,  Supreme  God,  and  Moral  God.  Lang 
thus  confutes  Tylor's  contentions:  (a)  that  man 
could  not  have  possibly  started  with  a  belief  in  a 
Supreme  Being;  (b)  that  religion  and  morahty  must 
have  .separate  origins.  Even  in  China,  where  ances- 
tor-worship prevails,  we  find  it  distinct  from  the 
worship  of  gods,  and  there  is  no  trace  of  an  ancestor 
having  ever  become  a  god.  Again,  soul-worship 
and  ancestor-worship  are  not  identical,  and  witn 
many  tribes  much  attention  is  paid  to  conciliating 
the  souls  of  the  dead  where  ancestor-worship  is  un- 
known. Brinton  holds  tlie  former  to  be  older  and 
more  general.  The  aim  is  to  get  rid  of  the  soul,  to 
put  it  to  rest,  or  send  it  on  its  journey  to  a  better 
land,  lest  it  trouble  the  survivors.  Karl  .MulknholT 
maintains  that  folk-lore  has  no  independent  vahie 
and  as  a  .source  of  mythology  is  of  only  secondary 
importance. 

(3)  .Vnimism  is  not  the  sole  and  chief  source  of 
religion.  De  la  Saussaye  says  that  the  belief  of  tlie 
early  Teutons  consisted  only  to  a  small  extent  of 
animistic  ideas  concerning  souls  and  .spirits.  Prof. 
F.  B.  Gummere  teaches  that  in  Teutonic  mythology 
animism  has  not  succeeded  in  annexing  nature- 
mythology.  F.  B.  Jevons  holds  that  the  religious 
idea  is  no  part  of  animism  pure  and  simple,  and  to 
make  the  personal  agents  of  animism  into  super- 
natural agents  or  diWne  powers  there  must  be  added 
some  idea  which  is  not  contained  in  animism,  and 
that  idea  is  a  specifically  religious  idea,  one  which 
is  apprehended  directly  or  intuitively  by  the  relig- 
ious consciousness.  E.  -Mogk.  whose  inclinations  lean 
to  Tylor,  is  yet  constrained  by  a  scientific  mind  to 
recognize  nature-worship  and  the  great  gods  as  origi- 
nal; and  he  warns  the  student  of  Teutonic  mythol- 
ogy that  he  must  not  allow  him.self  to  be  seduced 
into  disregarding  the  fact  that  the  worship  of  the 
God  of  Heaven  is  one  of  the  most  original  elements 
of  the  Teutonic  belief.  De  la  Saussaye  and  Pfleiderer 
hold  that  the  supposition  according  to  wliich  every 
conception  of  an  object — e.  g.  tree,  sun,  moon,  clouds, 
thunder,  earth,  heaven — as  a  living  being  has  an 
animistic  character  is  undemonstrable  and  improb- 
able. They  show  from  Teutonic  mythology  tliat 
the  power  and  beneficent  influence  of  these  objects 
of  nature  and  their  symbolic  conception  belong  to 
another  sphere  of  ideas  and  sentiments  than  that 
of  animism. 

(4)  Prof.  W.  Robertson  Smith  and  Prof.  Frazer 
conclusively  prove  that  the  animistic  religion  of 
fear  was  neither  universal  nor  primitive.  According 
to  Prof.  Frazer,  the  primitive  reason  of  sacrifice  was 
communion  with  (iod.  Even  worship  of  the  dead 
cannot  be  entirely  explained  animistically  as  the 
cult  of  souls,  .\nimistic  conceptions  may  enter 
into  the  worship  of  ancestors  ancf  heroes;  but  other 
ideas  arc  so  e.ssential  that  they  caimot  be  regarded 
merely  ius  modifications  of  soul-worship.  (5)  It  is  not 
primitive  nor  specific.  Prof.  Brinton  says.  "There  is 
no  special  form  of  religious  thought  which  expresses  it- 
self ;us  what  has  been  called  by  Dr.  Tylor  .\nimism,  i.  e. 
the  belief  that  inanimate  objects  are  animated  and 
pos.se.ss  souls  or  spirits.  "  This  opinion,  which  in  one 
guise  or  another  is  common  to  all  religions  and  many 
philo.sophies.  "  is  merely  a  secondary  phenomenon  of 
the  religious  .sentiment,  not  a  trait  cliaracteristic  of 
primitive  faiths  ".     De  la  Saussaye  holds  that  animism 


ANIMUOCIA 


530 


ANNA 


is  always  and  eve^}n^•he^e  mixed  up  with  religion;  it  is 
nowhere  the  whole  of  religion.  Cf.  Anthropology, 
Mythology,  Involution,  Totemism,  Shamanism, 
Fetishism,  Religion,  Spiritism. 

Ladd,  /»  Paychologu  a  Scienccf  in  Amer.  Jour,  of  Psych., 
1894;  Jamus,  Fsychulomi  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1903);  Sully, 
Outlines  of  Psycholofiii  (.New  York,  1892);  Hoffding,  Outlines 
of  Psychology,  tr.  Ix)wndes  (London,  1893);  Driscoll.  The 
Soul  (New  York,  1900);  Ladd,  Psychology;  Descriptive  and 
Erplanatory  (New  York,  1895);  Bowen,  Hamilton's  Meta- 
physics (Bo.ston,  1876);  Bowse.  Metaphysics,  A  Study  of 
First  Principles  (New  York,  1882);  Rickaby,  On  Gad  and  His 
Creahires  (Lomlon,  190(i);  McCosh,  Fundamental  Philosophy; 
Maheh  /'si/r/io/oi;!/ (London,  1905);  Tylok,  Primitive  Culture, 
(2  ed.,  I.oiiiion,  '1891);  TiELE,  Elements  of  the  Science  of  Re- 
lioion\^e\\  York,  1896).  cf.  also  his  article  in  Encyctopoedia 
Britannica;  Mlller,  Lectures  on  the  Origin  of  Religion  (London, 
1878);  Pfleiderer,  Philosophy  and  Development  of  Religion 
(New  York  and  Edinburgh,  1894);  Spencer.  Principles  of 
,^ociolooy  (London,  1876-97);  Driscoll,  Christian  Philosophy; 
God  (New  York,  1903);  De  la  Sadssate,  Manual  of  the  Sci- 
ence of  Rclinion,  tr.  Colyer-Fergusson  (London,  1891); 
LvBBocK,  Oruiin  of  Civilization  (New  York,  1895);  Duke  op 
.•Vrgyll,  Primeval  Man  (New  Y'ork,  1869);  CnoQ,  Lexigue  de 
la  lanijue  .Mgonquine  (Montreal,  1886);  Steinmetz,  Ethno- 
logiscke  Studien  (Levden,  1894);  Brixton,  Religions  of  Primi- 
tive Peoples  (New  York,  1S97);  Baynes.  The  Idea  of  God  and 
the  Moral  Serise  in  the  Light  of  Language  (London,  1895);  Lang, 
The  .Maki'ig  of  a  Religion  (London  and  New  York  1898); 
Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites  (London,  1894); 
Alger,  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  (Phila- 
delphia. 1864);  Jevons,  Introd.  to  Hist,  of  Religion  (London 
and  New  York,  1896);  Schneider,  Die  Naturv<dker  (2  vols.. 
1885-86);  Frazer,  The  Golden  Bough  (London,  and  New 
York,  1900). 

J.  T.  Driscoll. 

Animuccia,  Giov.^.nni,  an  Italian  composer,  b.  at 
Florence  about  1500;  d.  1571.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Claude  Goudimel.  He  was  made  choir-master  at 
the  Vatican  and  retained  this  position  until  his  death. 
He  was  tlie  real  predecessor  of  Palestrina  not  only 
in  office,  but  also  in  his  earnest  endeavours  to  attain 
harmonic  clearness  in  the  midst  of  all  the  devices 
of  cotmterpoint  then  so  much  in  vogue.  He  aimed 
at  perfecting  the  style  of  the  old  Flemish  school  by 
harmonic  fullness,  by  a  more  natural  melodic  progres- 
sion of  the  voices,  and  a  closer  correspondence  of  the 
melody  with  the  text.  His  friendship  with  St.  Philip 
Neri  resulted  in  his  appointment  as  music-master  to 
the  new  society  founded  by  the  Saint.  He  com- 
posed the  first  laudi  for  its  use.  These  Imuii  were 
songs  of  praise  for  several  voices,  and  were  always 
performed  after  the  sermon.  For  the  sake  of  variety, 
Animuccia  composed  single  stanzas  and  later  on  sin- 
gle lines  in  the  shape  of  solos,  concluding  with  a 
powerful  and  effective  chorus.  A  first  volume  of 
them  appeared  in  1.566,  a  second  in  1570.  These 
laudi  proved  to  be  the  germs  of  the  later  oratorio, 
for  from  their  dramatic  tone  and  tendency  the 
oratorio  seems  to  have  been  developed.  In  this 
sense  St.  Philip  Neri  has  been  called  the  "Father  of 
the  Oratorio".  In  addition,  Animuccia  composed 
many  masses,  motets,  psalms,  and  madrigals  of 
which  some  were  published  in  Venice  and  Rome, 
1548-68.  But  his  compositions  which  were  never 
printed  are  far  more  numerous,  and  the  MSS.  of 
them  to-day  are,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel. — Animuccia,  Paolo,  brother  of  Giovanni, 
d.  at  Rome,  1563.  He  was  choir-master  at  the 
Lateran  for  two  years  (1550-52).  He  left  little 
printed  music.  There  is  a  motet  of  his  in  a  collection 
published  at  Venice  (1568),  and  madrigals  of  his 
composition  are  found  in  many  of  the  miscellaneous 
collections  published  between  1551  and  1611. 

Grove,  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musicians;  Rikmann,  Diet, 
of  Music;  KouNMULLER,  Lexikon  dcr  kirchl.  Tonkunst. 

J.  A.  VoLKER. 

Anise  (Matt.,  x-xiii,  23)  has  been,  .since  Wyclif, 
the  rendering  of  ii'iifloi'  in  the  English  Versions, 
But  tliis  is  not  accurate.  The  exact  equivalent  of 
the  plant  iniOou  h  dill  {anethum  gravenlcns),  while 
anise  corresponds  to  the  pimpinella  ani.'ium.  The 
error  in  translation,  liowever,  is  of  no  great  impor- 
tance, botli  plants  belonging  to  the  parsley  family 


(umbellifercE),  and  sharing  many  properties  in  com 
mon.  The  dill  is  an  annual  plant,  "with  finely 
striated  stems,  usually  one  foot  to  one  foot  ami  a 
half  in  height,  pinnate  leaves  with  setaceous  linear 
segments,  and  yellow  flowers"  (Enc.  Bib.).  The 
Jews  used  it  as  a  condiment.  It  is  mentioned  several 
times  in  Rabbinic  hterature,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  question  of  tithes.  Beside  the  articles 
specified  in  the  Mosaic  Law.  the  Rabbis  had,  in  course 
of  time,  subjected  to  tithe  many  other  objects, 
extending  the  prescription  to  all  products  of  the 
earth  that  were  esculent  and  could  be  preserved. 

WuNSCHE,  Neue  Beitrdge  zur  Erlauterung  der  Evangetien  aus 
Talmiid  un4  Midrasch  (Gottingen,  1878),  291-292;  Sihaxz, 
Matthaus-Bvangelium,  469-470;  Zahn,  Ev.  das  Mnlthrius, 
(2d  cd.)  645.  note  75;  Edersheim,  Life  and  T.  of  J.  ^L,  U, 
412;  Nouveau  Larousse  itlustre  (Paris),  s.  v.  Aneth,  .Inw. 
Peucedan;  Ne.stle,  Anise  and  Rue,  in  Expository  Times 
(Aug.,  1904),  528;  Weiss,  Plummer,  Schanz,  on  Luke,  xi.  42. 
Edw'.^rd  Arbez. 

Aniwa  Versions  of  Scripture.  See  Bible,  Ver- 
sions OF  THE. 

Anna. — Sept.  'Avva;  R.  V.  has  Hannah,  which  is 
nearer  the  Hebrew  njH,  graciousness,  from  pn,  Ha- 
ndn,  to  be  gracious.  (1)  Anna  (1  K.,i-ii.  -I),  mother 
of  Samuel,  was  one  of  the  two  wives  of  Elcana,  a  man 
of  Ramah,  a  Zuphite  of  the  hill-country  of  Ephraim. 
As  a  true  woman  of  her  nation,  she  felt  keenly  the 
reproach  of  barrenness,  all  the  more  so  that  her  rival, 
Phenenna,  more  favoured  than  she,  did  not  fail  to 
remind  her  of  her  affliction  (I  K.,  i,  6-7).  On  one 
of  the  family's  pilgrimages  to  Silo,  Anna  made  a  vow 
that,  should  God  bless  her  with  a  son,  she  would  con- 
secrate him  to  His  .service  as  a  Nazarite  (I  K.,  i,  9-11). 
Her  prayer  was  heard,  and  after  weaning  her  son, 
she  brought  liim  to  Heli  in  Silo  (I  K.,  i,  24-28). 
This  generous  fulfilment  of  her  vow  was  amply  re- 
warded (I  K.,  ii,  21).  Anna's  canticle  (I  K.,  ii,  1-10) 
gives  rise  to  questions  similar  to  those  regarding  the 
Magnificat,  to  which  it  has  some  striking  resem- 
blances. Though  a  beautiful  psalm,  it  is  found  in- 
appropriate on  Anna's  lips,  ha\'ing  no  special  reference 
to  her  situation,  beyond  the  quite  general  remark 
in  V.  56.  Unless  v.  lOt  be  taken  as  a  prophecy  of 
the  rise  of  the  monarchy  or  of  the  Messiah  (cf. 
Vigouroux,  Bible  polyglotte,  II,  295  note),  the  can- 
ticle would  be,  whatever  its  more  precise  date, 
posterior  to  establishment  of  the  monarchy.  (2) 
Anna,  wife  of  Tobias,  was,  like  her  husbantl,  of  the 
tribe  of  Nephtali  (Tob.,  i,  1-9).  Together  with  her 
husband  and  son,  also  called  "Tobias,  she  was  taken 
into  captivity  to  Ninive  by  Shahnanaser  (i,  2,  11). 
Her  role  is  quite  secondary  in  the  narrative.  Her 
rather  passionate  nature  serves  to  bring  out  more 
strongly  by  contrast  the  deeply  religious  character 
of  Tobias  (cf.  ii,  19-23  and  the  beautiful  prayer 
whicli  liis  misunderstanding  with  his  wife  brings  on 
the  lips  of  Tobias  iii,  1-6).  Her  sincere  and  solici- 
tous love  for  her  son  is  well  expressed  in  v,  23-28; 
X,  1-7;  xi,  5  (cf.  the  remark  above). 

(3)  Anna  is  carefully  described  by  Luke,  ii,  36-38, 
as  a  prophetess,  daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the  tribe 
of  Aser.  The  biograpliic  notes  gi\-cn  by  Luke  regard- 
ing the  aged  prophetess,  of  whom  legend  knows  that 
she  had  had  Mary  under  her  tutelage  in  the  Temple, 
bring  out  her  great  sanctity.  In  spite  of  her  early 
widowhood,  she  had  never  married  again,  but  had 
devoted  her  life  to  the  service  of  (!otl.  She  answers 
perfectly  the  portrait  of  the  model  widow  of  I  Tim., 
v,  .5-9.  As  .sne  used  to  spend  most  of  her  time  in 
the  Temple,  her  presence  at  the  scene  narrated  in 
Luke,  ii,  25-35,  is  easily  understood.  Hence  her 
prai.se  to  God,  the  subject  of  whicli  was  Jesus,  with 
the  burden  that  He  was  the  longed-for  Rctleemer. 
(4)  .Vnna  is  al.so  the  traditional  name  of  the  mother 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Alary. 

Driver,  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (10  ed.),  174;  Note* 
on  the  Hebrew  Text  of  Samuel  (1890)  on  I  Sam.,  ii,  1,  oQq; 


5.31 


ANNALS 


CoRNiLL,  EM.  in  das  A.  T.  (4th  «!.),  lOfi,  220;  Bf.nsett 
AND  Adenev,  BM.  Intr.  (New  York.  1899);  Kent,  lurael'a 
ttiatoru-al  and  Biographical  Narratives;  Smith,  Samuel  in 
/niemational  Cril.  Com.  (\9CH)  14-17:  Gunkel,  Ausgeuuhlle 
I'salntm  (2  ed.  Uottingen,  1905)  2U5-272. 

Edward  Abbez. 

Anna  Comnena,  Byzantine  historian,  eldest 
dauehtor  uf  Aloxius  Conineniis,  Enif)eror  of  Con- 
stantinople (lOM-lllS).  Slie  was  bom  in  1083, 
and  received,  as  was  tlic  custom  for  Byzantine 
princesses,  an  excellent  education  in  tlie  Greek 
classics,  history,  geography,  niythologj',  and  even 
pliilosophy.  She  was  married  to  Xicci)horus  Bryen- 
niiis,  son  of  a  former  pretender  to  the  imperial  office, 
and  in  1118  joined  in  a  conspiracy  to  place  her  hus- 
band on  the  throne.  Failing  in  her  ambition  she 
retired  with  her  mother,  the  Empress  Irene,  to  a 
monastery  that  the  latter  had  founded,  and  wrote 
there  in  fifteen  books  her  famous  "Alexias"  ('AXtJids). 
It  was  finished  by  1148,  and  describes  the  career  of 
her  father,  from  1069  to  his  death  in  1118;  it  is  thus 
a  continuation  of  her  husband's  "Historical  Ma- 
terials", that  comes  down  to  1079.  The  Princess  is 
the  historian  of  the  fortunes  of  the  fomneni  family. 
Her  own  observations  are  often  valuable  by  reason 
of  her  personal  knowledge  and  the  close  acquain- 
tance with  public  atTaii-s  that  she  owed  to  her  high 
rank,  but  she  also  made  use  of  di])lomatic  correspond- 
ence, the  reports  of  licr  father's  generals  and  soldiers, 
and  the  imperial  archives.  Critics  praise  the  fullness 
and  choice  quality  of  her  historical  information;  she 
seems  to  have  gone  so  far  as  to  utilize  in  her  account 
of  Robert  Guiscard  a  Latin  contemporary  chronicle, 
whicli  was  written  jjrobably  by  the  Archdeacon  of 
Hari.  At  the  same  time  they  point  out  the  panegjTi- 
cal  and  ultra-filial  character  of  her  work,  it  being 
formally  devoted  to  the  fame  and  honor  of  her 
father.  As  a  true  Byzantine  she  looks  on  the  Cru- 
sades only  from  the  narrow  and  selfish  standpoint 
of  Constantinople,  and  detests  soundly  all  Latins. 
The  chronology  is  defective.  She  loves  to  describe 
scenes  of  sjjlendour,  great  state-actions,  audiences, 
and  feasts,  whatever  is  concrete  and  picturesque. 
Nor  is  she  adverse  to  satire,  court  gossip,  and  de- 
traction. Profounder  matters,  financial  military, 
and  constitutional,  escape  her  purview.  Withal, 
however,  Krinnbacher  calls  it  "one  of  the  most  re- 
markable elTorts  of  medieval  Greek  historiography  ", 
the  first  notable  production  of  the  medieval  Greek 
Renaissance  set  afoot  bv  Psellos  and  powerfully 
furthered  by  the  family  of  the  Princess.  She  strains 
in  her  vocabularj'  for  an  .\ttic  elegance,  though  con- 
strviction  and  style  betray  too  often  the  distance 
between  her  and  the  models  (Thucydides  and  Poly- 
bius)  whom  she  aims  at  imitating.  She  avoids,  as 
unfit  for  the  i)en  of  an  historian,  imcouth  foreign 
names  and  vulgar  terms.  Her  studied  precision  in 
the  matter  of  hellenizing  causes  her  p-ages  to  take 
on  a  kind  of  mummy-like  api>earance  when  compared 
with  the  vigorous,  living  Greek  of  contemjxjrary 
popular  intercourse. 

The  .ilerias  was  tirst  edited  by  Poshincs  (Paris,  1G51;) 
P.G.  CXXXI,  39-1244.  The  best  edition  i!<  that  of  the 
Corpus  Scnpl.  Buz..  I  (Bonn,  1839);  II  (1878),  with  a  Latin 
tran."*!.  the  commentary  of  Dcc.\nge,  etc;  Khi'.muachkr, 
Gesch.  d.  binnnl.  Lit.  (2d  ed.,  1902).  pp.  274-279.  He  >peak9 
of  VVai.tek  SioTi'«  Count  Robert  of  I'aris  ax  "a  rather  unlucky 
reproduction"  of  the  Aleriaa.  See  Col.ncitN.  in  .Vcu-  Monthly 
.Vau.(  KS()9).  CXLIV,  Iiti7;  Osteh,  .4nn<i  Cummna  (lUstatt 
1.SC.8,  1,S70.  IS71);  Nelwiann,  CriccA.  Geschichtsschreiber  u.  gr. 
quellen  in  XII.  Jhdt.  (Leipiig,  1888).  17-30;  Chevalier, 
Hipertoire   {.Bio-Bibl.,   2d   ed.),   s.  v.   col.   248. 

Thcmas  J.  Shah.vn. 

Annals,  Ecclesiastical. — The  historical  literature 
of  the  Middle  .\ges  may  be  clius.sed  untler  three  gen- 
eral heads:  chronicles,  annals,  and  lives  of  the  saints. 

Chroxicle.s. — Chronicles  originated  in  ancient 
Greece,  while  annals  are  first  found  among  the  Ro- 
mans. During  the  Middle  Ages  the  term  chronicle 
included  everj'  form  of  historj',  but  the  word  in  its 
L— 34 


earliest  usage  signified  simply  a  chronological  table. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  profane  history,  as  dealt  witli  i>y 
Pagan  historians,  no  longer  appealed  to  Christian 
writers.  History,  as  viewed  from  the  Christian  stand- 
point, took  into  account  only  the  Kingdom  of  God, 
and  to  the  new  generation  the  centre  of  such  history 
was  the  narration  of  the  misfortunes  undergone  l)y 
the  Jewish  nation,  a  subject  ignored  by  Roman 
historians.  Christians  hail  need  of  a  new  general 
history  in  sympathy  with  their  ideal.  It  was  neces- 
sarj',  first  of  all,  to  synchronize  the  dates  of  Chris- 
tian and  profane  chronology,  so  that  an  attempt 
might  be  made  to  combine  the  subject-matter  of  both. 
Thus  it  was  that  chronicles  came  into  existence. 
Sextus  Julius  .\fricanus  (221)  attempted  to  syn- 
chronize the  facts  of  profane  history  with  those  of 
the  Bible,  .\fter  him  Eusebius  (340),  in  his  "  Uni- 
versal History",  continuing  the  class  of  work  origi- 
natcil  by  .\fricanus,  comijileil  a  chronological  table 
in  expository  form,  followetl  by  synchronistic  tables 
reaching  to  325.  This  chronological  narrative,  or 
chronicle,  of  Eusebius  was  the  source  of  all  universal 
chronicles,  both  Byzantine  and  Western.  It  was 
continued  up  to  378  by  St.  Jerome,  and  the  revision 
is  found  at  tlie  beginning  of  all  the  universal  histories 
of  the  Mitldle  .\ges.  It  was  this  chronicle  that  fixed 
forever  the  form  to  be  atlopt«d  in  the  annaUstic 
record  of  events.  Chronicles  were,  as  a  rule,  noth- 
ing more  than  collections  of  dates  without  causal 
connection  or  sjiithesis.  The  genius  of  one  writer, 
St.  .Vugustine,  conceived  an  original  way  of  fusing 
matter  in  a  universal  history,  and  embodied  it  in 
his  treatise  on  "The  Two  Cities".  He  had  no  dis- 
ciples, however,  in  the  Middle  .Vges.  These  early 
chronicles  reviewed  the  facts  of  universal  history, 
and  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  chronicles  of 
the  eleventh  centurj",  wliich  are  merely  local  nar- 
ratives chiefly  conceniing  the  history  of  the  author's 
coimtrj'.  Moreover,  the  chronicles  deal  chiefly  with 
the  past,  and  tliis  distinguishes  them  from  annals 
properly  so  called. 

An"N.\ls. — The  tenn  annals,  though  often  confu.sed 
with  chronicles,  nevertheless  iiulicates  a  dilTerent 
class.  Like  chroni>.les,  they  are  chronological  rec- 
ords, but  taken  tlown  successively,  registering  from 
day  to  day  the  events  of  each  year.  Lliis  gives  an 
idea  of  the  fundamental  distinction  between  annals 
and  chronicles.  C'hroiiicles  are  ortlinarily  compila- 
tions requiring  lengthy  preparatorj'  work,  arranged 
after  a  preconcei\ed  plan,  and  revealing  the  per- 
sonality of  their  author  in  the  conduct  of  the  narra- 
tive. Annals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  original,  and 
are  to  be  consulted  as  sources  at  first  hand.  Being 
written  from  day  to  day,  they  re<iuire  no  effort  of 
composition;  they  reveal  a  succession  of  many  hands, 
anil  leave  an  impression  of  impersonal  labour.  They 
might  well  be  compared  with  our  ilaily  papers,  while 
chronicles  come  nearest  to  our  modern  memoirs. 
The  prototype  of  all  metlieval  annals  is  the  famous 
"Chronographus",  or  Calendar,  of  354,  an  official 
document  of  the  Roman  Empire,  containing  in 
embrj'o  the  annals  of  later  periods.  Besides  an 
official  calendar,  and  other  items,  this  precious  docu- 
ment has  a  record  of  other  consular  annals  up  to 
354,  the  paschal  tables  for  the  hundred  years  suc- 
ceeding 312,  a  list  of  the  popes  up  to  Liberius,  and 
a  universal  chronicle  reaching  as  far  as  338.  Be- 
sides the  consular  annals  drawn  up  at  Ravenna,  anil 
of  great  importance  for  the  fifth  century,  the  p:i.schal 
tables  are  interesting.  in.Tsmuch  as  they  throw  light 
upon  the  origin  of  medieval  annals.  Consular  an- 
nals, and  the  method  of  calculation  according  to  im- 
perial reigns,  were  inilecd  of  necessity  before  the 
ancient  chronological  system  was  abandoned.  But 
once  this  custom  fell  into  disuse,  the  paschal  tables, 
used  to  determine  the  date  of  Easter  and  other 
movable  feasts,  became  the  basis  of  the  chronology 


532 


ANNALS 


of  the  day.  Everj'  church  of  any  importance  pos- 
sessed a  copy,  and"  once  Dionysius  Exiguus  liad  ad- 
mitted the  canon  of  Cyril,  liisliop  of  Alexandria, 
for  calculating  the  dates  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
Bede  hati  in.serted  these  tables  in  his  work  entitled 
"De  ratione  teraporum",  the  influence  exerted  by 
such  tables  increased. 

Origin  of  Annals. — The  use  of  paschal  tables  was 
very  early  pre\alent  in  England,  and  the  custom  of 
making  a  chronological  list  of  events  was  introduced 
into  Gaul  and  Germany  by  Anglo-Saxon  missionaries, 
who  began  their  labours  on  the  continent  during  the 
course  of  the  seventh  century.  In  the  margin  of 
these  paschal  cycles  notes  were  made,  opposite  the 
year,  of  occurrences  and  historical  events  of  which 
it  was  desired  to  keep  a  record.  This  is  the  origin 
of  annals.  Tlie  list  of  popes,  as  given  by  the  "Chron- 
ographus''  of  3.54,  furnishes  a  concrete  example  of 
the  formation  of  annals.  This  list,  dating  back  to 
230,  was  continually  being  filled  out,  and  little  by 
little  it  was  embellished  by  an  account  of  the  chief 
events  of  the  pontificate,  a  list  of  the  works  under- 
taken by  the  various  pontiffs,  their  merits,  details 
of  ecclesiastical  organization,  and  tlie  management 
of  their  finances.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
famous  "Pontificale  Romanum",  more  commonly 
known  under  the  title  of  "Liber  Pontificalis".  In 
imitation  of  this  collection,  there  developed  in  many 
cathedrals  and  abbeys  similar  records,  modelled  on 
the  plan  of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis".  We  may  cite 
as  an  example  the  "  Gesta  episcoporum  Antissiodoren- 
sium"  of  Henry  of  Auxerre  (841),  also  the  greater 
number  of  local  histories  of  abbeys  or  episcopal  sees 
gathered  in  the  eleventh  century  under  such  titles 
as  "Gesta  episcoporum  Cameracensium",  "Gesta 
episcoporum  Leodiensium",  etc.  The  annals  which 
we  found  in  embryo  in  the  "  Chronographus "  and 
the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  do  not  appear  in  a  well- 
defined  form  until  the  Carlovingian  period.  At  least 
no  specimens  have  come  down  to  us  dating  from 
Merovingian  times,  and  we  can  easily  see  why  on 
the  continent  annals  appear  only  towards  the  end  of 
the  eighth  century.  Having  originated  in  England, 
where  the  tables  of  Bede  were  amplified  by  marginal 
annotations  more  copious  as  time  went  on,  these 
rudimentary  annals  were  introduced  every^vhere  by 
the  Anglo-Saxon  missionaries.  Copies  were  soon 
made  of  the  marginal  notes,  and  they  were  passed 
from  hand  to  hand,  and  from  monastery  to  monas- 
tery. Where  copied  separately,  these  notes  formed 
the  general  basis  of  all  medieval  annals.  To  these 
notes  as  a  nucleus  were  added  local  data;  the  dif- 
ferent versions  were  compared  and  arranged  in  chron- 
ological order;  other  annotations  were  made,  of  spe- 
cial local  interest;  lastly,  they  were  filled  out  from 
other  sources.  Some  of  the  earliest  annals  clearly 
betray  their  foreign  source  or  origin.  Thus  the  "An- 
nales  Mo.sellani",  taken  from  the  great  annals  of  the 
monastery  of  Lorsch,  show  at  the  beginning  of  the 
records  for  704-707  names  undoubtedly  Irisli,  prov- 
ing that  the  little  chronicle  "De  temporibus"  of 
Bede  was  in  use  until  708,  when  original  notes  of 
Prankish  origin  appear  for  the  first  time.  Of  great 
interest,  also,  from  this  point  of  view  are  the  annals 
discovered  by  Pertz  in  a  manviscript  of  St.-Germain- 
des-Prfe.  They  begin  with  sliort  annotations  from 
LindLsfarne,  for  the  years  643-604.  Next  in  order 
come  notes  of  Canterbury  for  673-090.  It  appears 
that  Alcuin  took  this  manuscript  from  England  to 
the  court  of  Charlemagne  and  there,  from  782  to 
787,  inserted  yearly  the  names  of  the  different  places 
where  the  Emperor  celebrated  Easter.  To  tliis  prim- 
itive basis  the  monks  of  Saint-Germain-des-Prfe 
added  local  annotations  biv.sed  in  turn  on  ancient 
annals  of  Saint-Donis  reacliing  to  887.  In  conclu- 
sion, names  from  Lindisfarne  are  found  lieading  the 
annals    of     Fulda  and  Corvci.     Tlie  earliest   Carlo- 


vingian annals  are  now  grouped  by  historians  under 
three  principal  heads:  (1)  The  "  Annales  S.  Amandi". 
and  others  derived  from  them;  (2)  The  annals  which 
grew  out  of  the  early  historical  annotations  of  the 
monastery  of  Lorsch;  (3)  The  "Annales  ilurbacen- 
ses".  In  spite  of  the  impersonal  character  of  these 
narratives,  they  show  traces  of  true  Carlovingian  le- 
gitimism, as  well  as  the  loyalty  of  their  authors  to 
the  Austrasian  dynasty.  They  are  not  continuous 
narratives,  and  their  rudimentary  form,  consisting 
of  a  simple  arrangement  of  recollections  in  chrono- 
logical order,  recalls  the  earliest  stage  of  this  class 
of  literature.  In  Belgium  especially  these  early 
annals  were  filled  out  in  various  monasteries,  until 
after  many  alterations  they  formed  the  basis  of  the 
celebrated  Chronicle  of  Sigebert  of  Gembloux  (1112). 
The  Reichsannalen. — Under  Charlemagne  an- 
nals as  a  class  begin  to  appear  in  a  new  form.  These 
narratives  are  without  doubt  anonymous,  but  many 
of  them  bear  a  persona]  stamp,  which  gi\'es  to  the 
whole  a  certain  official  character.  There  now  be- 
comes apparent  in  annals  a  tendency  to  form  a  his- 
tory of  the  kingdom,  written  under  the  inspiration 
of  the  court.  Whence  we  have  the  terni  "Reichs- 
annalen" in  order  to  di.stinguish  the  latter  class 
from  monastic  annals.  The  historian  Ranke  (Zur 
Kritik  friinkisch-deutscher  Reichsannalisten.  Berlin, 
1854)  has  demonstrated  this  official  tendency  es- 
pecially in  connection  with  the  "Annales  Lauris- 
senses  maiores".  These  annals  could  not  have  been 
written  in  the  solitude  of  the  cloister  without  exter- 
nal influence.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  great  internal 
misfortunes  and  dissensions  of  the  kingdom  are  care- 
fully ignored,  so  as  not  to  cast  discredit  on  the  reign- 
ing princes,  the  WTiters  of  these  annals  are  ne\er- 
theless  very  well  informed  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
show  themselves  to  be  fully  in  touch  with  whate\er 
concerns  military  manoeuvres  and  international  af- 
fairs. After  796  the  "Annales  Laurissenses  maiores" 
are  \\Titten  in  an  entirely  different  style,  and  in  the 
form  which  characterizes  them  from  this  time  until 
829  there  is  a  tendency  to  regard  them  as  coming 
in  part  from  the  pen  of  Einhard.  This  is  still, 
however,  a  controverted  question.  As  the  "Reich- 
sannalen" date  only  from  741,  need  was  felt  of  ob- 
taining information  on  the  history  of  the  preceding 
period,  and  with  this  purpose  in  view  (according  to 
the  opinion  of  Waitz)  the  "Chronicon  Universale" 
(see  "Monumenta  Germanic  Historica:  Scriptores", 
XIII,  1-19)  was  drawn  up  about  761.  There  we 
find  extracts  from  the  "Little  Chronicle"  of  Bede, 
diversified  by  matter  borrowed  from  St.  Jerome,  Oro- 
sius,  the  chronicle  of  Fredegarius  and  his  successors, 
the  Gesta  Francorum,  the  chronicle  of  Isidore  of 
Seville,  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  the  ",\nnales 
Mosellani",  and  the  "Annales  Laureshamenses ". 
From  about  this  same  period  data  the  "Annales 
Laurissenses  minores"  (806?),  the  "Annales  Maxi- 
miani"  (710-811)  and  the  "Annales  of  Flavigny" 
(816).  The  "  Reichsannalen  "  were  in  greatest  vogue, 
it  is  now  thought,  during  the  unity  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian empire  under  Charlemagne.  Though  the 
Carlovingian  monarchy  was  divided  by  the  Treaty  of 
Verdvm  (843),  we  find  in  the  now  independent 
provinces  direct  continuations  of  the  "Reichsanna- 
len". In  Germany  the  reigns  of  Louis  the  Pious  and 
his  sons  produced  the  "Annale^i  Fuldenses".  There 
is  no  doubt  that  they  were  written  in  a  monastery, 
and  the  character  of  their  contents  betrays  a  local 
origin,  although  they  pretend  to  review  the  history 
of  the  whole  kingdom.  The  author  must  certainly 
have  lx!cn  in  touch  with  the  court.  The  narrative 
is  objecti\e  and  of  great  value.  For  the  period  from 
711  to  829,  they  draw  upon  the  royal  annals,  from 
714  to  741  on  the  "Annales  Lauri.ssenscs  minores", 
and  from  741  to  823  they  lake  their  inspiration  from 
".\nnaU's   Lithienses",   which   in  turn  have  an  un- 


ANNALS 


533 


ANNALS 


(loubtcdly  official  character.  A  species  of  Reichs- 
aimaleii  is  found  in  the  "Annales  Mettenses".  In 
I'ruicc  also  we  have  continuations  of  the  "Reichs- 
iuiiKilcii".  The  "Annalos  Hertiniani"  begin  to  ex- 
liihit  .S30-S35  a  universal  character.  These  an- 
nals are  almost  the  only  source  of  the  "Chronicon 
de  gestis  Nonnannorum  in  Francia",  and  after  S35 
were  supplemented  by  the  pen  of  I'nidentius  of 
Troycs  {(!  S(il).  They  were  continued  by  Ilincmar 
of  Hcims  tu  SS2.  Later,  these  annals  with  the  "An- 
nales \('(lastini"  passed  into  the  "Chronicon  Vedas- 
tinum",  an  attempt  at  a  general  history  extending 
as  far  as  899.  This  class  of  annals  Wiis  continued 
in  the  tenth  century  by  I'lodoard  of  Reims  (d.  9f)(>), 
who  reviewed  the  chief  events  from  919  to  9G6.  The 
KcichsaMiialcn  were  in  vogue  only  in  those  countries 
that  had  (]n<-e  l)een  part  of  the  Carlovingian  empire. 
l''(ir  I.otharingia  we  must  mention  the  "Chronicle  " 
of  Regino,  Abbot  of  Priim  (d.  91.")),  which  covers 
the  period  between  the  birth  of  Christ  and  906.  The 
work  is  arranged  according  to  the  chronological  list 
of  the  reigns  of  emperors,  and  the  form  resembles 
that  of  the  Reichsannalcn.  Nevertheless,  there  is 
this  difference,  that  Regino  reviews  the  events  of 
the  past  while  the  royal  annals  were  contemporary 
with  the  events  they  recorded.  In  coimtries  which 
were  at  some  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian enii)ire,  or  which  had  never  been  under  the 
sway  of  Charlemagne  and  his  successors,  annals  took 
either  the  form  of  chronicles,  with  pretentions  to  a 
universid  character,  or  were  merely  local  narratives, 
as  those  which  appeared  in  Carlovingian  provinces 
after  the  tenth  and  ele\'enth  centuries. 

Annals  in  It.\ly. — Thus  Italy  is  very  poor  in 
annals,  a  barrenness  which  is  attributed  to  the  lack 
of  speculative  and  theological  interests  in  the  coim- 
try.  It  is  diflictilt  to  give  any  praise  to  such  ex- 
amples as  the  "Chronica  Sancti  Benedicti  Casinen- 
sis",  written  at  Monte  Cassino,  under  the  Abbot 
John  (914-9:54);  the  "Constructio  Farfensis",  a  his- 
tory of  the  foundation  of  the  abbey,  written  at 
Farfa  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century;  an  extract 
from  Paul  the  Deacon  with  continuation,  the  "An- 
drea-  presbyteri  Hergomatis  chronicon",  written  at 
Bergamo  in  877;  and  the  chronicle  of  Henedict  of 
St.  .\ndrew,  at  Mount  Soracte  in  908,  which,  unfor- 
tunately, is  filled  with  legends.  All  these  produc- 
tions, conceived  in  the  annalistic  style,  are  extremely 
barbarous.  The  one  noteworthy  e.xception  is  the 
"Chronicon  Salernitanuin"  of  974,  which  has  some 
claims  to  literary  merit.  The  matter  is  good  despite 
the  lack  of  critical  ability  which  disfigures  the  work. 

In  Sp.mn. — In  Spain  we  find  only  universal  annals 
or  chronicles.  Mention  may  be  made  of  the  "Chron- 
icon" of  Idatius,  Bishop  of  Cialicia  (870),  who  con- 
tinued the  Chronicle  of  St.  Jerome;  and  the  Chronicle 
of  Isidore  of  Seville,  "  De  sex  aetatibus  mundi",  one 
of  the  earliest  types  of  annals,  dated  according  to 
the  Spanish  era,  which  began  thirty-eight  yeiirs  be- 
fore the  Christian  era. 

In  1'",N(;i,ani). — England,  where  annals  based  on 
the  paschal  cycle  had  their  origin,  furni.shed  but  few 
examples  of  this  class,  as  compared  with  France  and 
(Jermany.  Worthy  of  notice  are  the  "Annales 
Cantuarienses"  (018-690);  the  "Historia  Eliensis 
l"ccle-ia'"  (700);  the  paschal  tables  and  chronicle  of 
Mcdc;  the  ".Vnnalcs  Nordhumbrani"  (7IM-80J);  the 
"  .\nnales  I.indisfarnenses"  (."):i'J-99.3) ;  the  "Annales 
Caml>ria>"  (444-1066).  etc.  In  this  country  histori- 
ography proper  begins  only  with  the  Norman  Con- 
rpicst  (1066).  At  that  time  the  authors  of  English 
chronicles  begin  to  be  vastly  superior  to  others  in 
their  adherence  to  fact ,  and  they  evince  a  remarkable 
zeal  for  accuracy  of  information,  and  the  employ- 
ment and  investigation  of  diplomatic  documents. 

In  Ireland. — In  medieval  Irelaml  there  was  "a 
special  class  of  [lersons  who  made  it  their  business 


to  record,  with  the  utmost  accuracy,  all  remarkable 
events,  simply  and  briefly,  without  any  ornament 
of  language,  without  exaggeration,  and  without 
fictitious  embellishment"  (Joyce).  .\s  a  rule  they 
noted  down  only  what  occurred  during  their  own  lives; 
earlier  hapjienrngs  were  regularly  taken  from  pre- 
vious compilations  constructed  on  the  same  plan. 
The  general  accuracy  of  these  records  has  ucen 
tested  and  verified  in  various  ways,  e.  g.  by  their 
references  to  physical  phenomena  of  known  date 
(eclip.ses,  comets),  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
foreign  writers,  their  own  consistency  among  them- 
.selves,  and  the  evidence  of  ancient  niomunents. 
Many  of  the  ancient  Irish  annals  have  disappeared 
and  are  known  ordy  by  name;  not  a  few,  however, 
are  still  extant.  To  a  great  extent  they  were  coin- 
posed  in  the  native  Irish  tongue,  and  they  remain 
yet  important  philological  monuments.  Among  these 
".\nnals"  written  entirely  or  mostly  in  Iri.sh  are  the 
following:  The  "Synchronisms  of  Flann",  principal 
of  the  school  of  \ionasterboice  (d.  1056),  known  as 
"the  .\nnalist"  and  the  most  learned  scholar  of  his 
age  in  Ireland.  This  work  exhibits  in  parallel 
columns  the  succession  and  regnal  years  of  several 
pre-Christian,  foreign  ilynasties,  and  a  carefully 
constructed  series  of  the  Kings  of  Ireland.  It  con- 
tains, also,  parallel  lists  of  the  same  monarehs,  and  the 
provincial  Kings  of  Ireland  and  the  Kings  of  Scotland, 
from  the  time  of  St.  Patrick  to  1119.  This  work, 
composed  in  ehdjorate  Irish  metres,  includes  nearly 
4,000  lines,  and  is  really  annals  or  history  versified, 
a  kind  of  class-book  or  manual  of  general  history  for 
the  use  of  his  pupils  (Hyde).  Imperfect  copies  of 
it  are  preserved  at  Dul)lin  in  the  "  Hook  of  Lecan" 
and  the  "Book  of  Ballymote".  The  ".\nnals  of 
Tigcrnach"  (Teerna),  written  in  Irish  with  an  ad- 
mixture of  Latin,  deal  chiefly  with  the  history  of 
Irelaiul.  lie  was  Abbot  of  Clonmacnoi.se  and  Ros- 
common and  died  in  1088;  it  is  conjectured  by 
M.  d'.Vrbois  de  Jubainville  that  his  annals  (valuable 
but  meagre)  were  ba.sed  on  some  ancient  records 
kept  uninterruptedly  at  Cloiimacnoise  from  544, 
the  year  of  its  foundation.  Tlie.se  annals  were 
edited  by  Whitley  Stokes  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth volumes  of  the  "Revue  Celtique"  (Paris, 
1895-96). 

The  "Annals  of  Innisfallen",  compiled  in  the 
abbey  of  that  name  on  an  island  in  the  Lakes  of 
Killarney,  where  its  ruins  are  still  visible,  written  in 
Irisli  and  Latin,  are  generally  ascribed  to  the  year 
1215,  though  "there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
they  were  commenced  two  centuries  earlier"  (Joyce). 
They  were  later  on  continuetl  to  1318  (O'Conor,  SS. 
Rer"  Ilib..  1825).  The  "Annals  of  Ulster"  were 
written  on  the  Httle  Lsland  of  Senait  MacManus  or 
Belle  Isle  in  Upper  Lough  Enie.  They  deal  almost 
exclu.sively  with  Ireland  from  444  and  were  originally 
compiled  by  Cathal  (Calial)  Maguire,  who  died  in 
1498,  continuetl  to  1541  by  Rory  O'Cassidy,  and  by 
an  anonymous  writer  to  1604.  They  have  been 
edited  and  translated  in  four  volumes  (vol.  I,  by 
W.  M.  Hennessy,  vols.  II-IV  by  B.  MacCarthy, 
Rolls  Series.  London,  1887-1901).  The  ".■\nnals  of 
Loch  Ce"  (Key),  from  an  islaiul  in  Lough  Key.  Ros- 
common, are  written  in  Irish,  and  treat  chiefly  of 
Ireland  (1014  to  1636),  though  English,  Scotch,  and 
continental  happenings  are  noticed.  They  were  edi- 
ted for  the  Rolls  .Series  by  W.  .M.  Hennessy  (London, 
1871).  The  "Annals  of" Connaught"  from  1224  to 
l.'J62  are  written  in  Iri.sh,  and  are  extant  in  m.anuscript 
copies  in  Trinity  College,  and  in  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy,  DubUn.  The  "  .\nnals  of  Boyle  ".  a  famous 
abbey  in  Roscommon,  are  written  in  Irish  and  Latin, 
and  though  very  meagre,  come  down  from  the  re- 
motest period  to  12.53  (O'Conor.  SS.  Rer.  Ilib.  1829). 
There  is  a  vellum  copy  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  "Chronicon  Scotorum"  (Chronicle  of  the  Scots. 


ANNALS 


534 


ANNALS 


or  Irisli),  of  uncertain  origin,  bvit  written  out  in  its 
present  shape  about  I60O  by  the  Irisii  antiquary 
DuaKl  Macl'irbis,  was  edited  and  translated  for  the 
Rolls  Series  by  W.  M.  Hennessy  (London,  1S66). 
The  "Annals  of  Clonniacnoise"  from  a  very  early 
date  to  IKI.s  were  written  originally  in  Irish,  but  are 
now  known  only  in  an  Knglish  translation  made  in 
1627.  They  were  recently  edited  by  Rev.  Denis 
Murphy,  S.J.  (Dublin,  1896).  It  was  only  after  the 
Norman  Conquest  that  exclusively  Latin  annals 
were  written  in  Ireland.  Probably  the  most  ancient 
of  them  are  the  " -Vnnals  of  Multifarnan",  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  to  1224,  edited  by 
Aquilla  Smith  for  the  Irish  Arclijeological  Society 
(Dublin,  1849).  The  same  society  pubhshed  also 
the  Latin  annals  of  John  Clyn  (a  Kilkenny  Francis- 
can) and  Thady  Dowling,  from  the  birth  of  Christ 
to  1348,  "mere  entries  of  names  and  facts".  The 
"Annates  Hiberniie"  of  Christopher  Pembridge, 
from  1162  to  1370,  are  said  to  be  for  that  period 
"the  chief  authority  on  the  affairs  of  the  English 
settlement  in  Ireland"  (ed.  J.  T.  Gilbert,  Rolls 
Series,  London,  1884). 

MoN.\sTic  Ann.\ls. — The  annals  of  the  Carlovin- 
gian  period,  the  Reichsannalen,  and  their  continua- 
tions are  to  be  found  all  through  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  eleventh  century,  however,  there  appeared  a 
new  class  of  annals,  which  it  is  of  importance  to 
describe,  for  they  sprang  from  new  social  conditions. 
By  this  time  the  feudal  system  had  succeeded  the 
former  unity  of  the  Carlovingian  kingdom.  Each 
estate  (fief),  both  lay  and  ecclesiastical,  had  become 
a  little  world  apart,  having  full  charge  of  its  own 
life.  Tlie  political  sense  and  the  sjinpathy  of  com- 
mon interests  disappeared,  and  churches  and  mon- 
asteries busied  themselves  chiefly  with  tlieir  saints, 
their  relics,  and  their  local  interests.  The  conse- 
quences soon  appeared  in  the  province  of  historiog- 
raphy. There  could  now  be  no  question  of  general 
or  universal  history.  Local  history  prevailed,  and 
with  the  exception  of  Germany,  where  the  great 
universal  concept  of  the  Roman  Empire  had  per- 
sisted, and  where  the  great  Chronicles  suffer  no  de- 
fault during  this  period,  other  lands  giA-e  us  chiefly 
monastic  annals  and  local  histories.  Tlie  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  the  episcopal  annals  or  chroni- 
cles, which  review  the  history  of  the  diocese  or  me- 
tropolis. They  are  generally  arranged  after  the  plan 
of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  and  relate  in  connection 
with  each  bishop  or  abbot  the  chief  events  and 
achievements  of  liis  administration  in  chronological 
order.  .Attempts  had  been  made  along  the  same 
line  previous  to  the  eleventh  century;  arriong  the 
most  remarkable  annals  of  this  earlier  period  we 
inay  numtion  the  "Gesta  abbatum  Fontanellen- 
sium'*  (834-845),  the  "Gesta  episcoporum  Metten- 
sium"  of  Paul  the  Deacon  (eighth  century),  the 
"Acta  Vetusta  Abbatum  Fuldensium"  (ninth  cen- 
tury), the  "Gesta  episcoporum  Virdunensium"  (917), 
the  "Gesta  episcoporum  Antissiodorensium"  (ninth 
century),  the  "Gesta  episcoporum  Tungrensium"  of 
Herigerns  of  Lobbes  (980),  the  "Acta  episcoporum 
Ccnomanonsium"  (850-856),  the  "Gesta  episcopo- 
rum Xea])olitanorum"  (ninth  century),  the  "Gesta 
episcoporum  Halbcrstadensium"  (968-994).  Already 
there  arc  genuine  Chronicles,  written  by  a  single 
author  after  a  jireconceived  plan,  with  an  informing 
idea  which  dominates  the  narrati\e,  giving  it  a  per- 
sonal character.  The  form  alone  still  recalls  eariier 
annals.  During  the  eleventh  centuiy  examples  of 
this  cla,ss  were  produced  in  Belgivun:  at  Cambrai 
the  "Gesta  episcoporum  Cameracensium ",  written 
by  a  clerk  of  the  cathedral;  at  Li^ge  the  "Gesta 
episcoporum  Lcodicnsimn".  by  tlie  Canon  An.selni, 
a  work  directly  connected  with  the  chronicle  of 
Herigenm  of  Lobhos.  Tlierc  are,  even  at  tliis  early 
period,  great  annals,  real  chronicles,  cinbodving  di- 


plomas and  acts  of  donation,  with  the  subject-matter 
well  synthesized.  From  this  time  on  it  is  hard  to 
distinguish  between  annals  and  chronicles.  In  ad- 
dition we  come  across  manuscripts,  like  the  "An- 
nates" of  Lambert  of  Hersfeld  (1077-80),  which  are 
in  reality  personal  memoirs.  By  the  side  of  these 
episcopal  chronicles  there  appear  an  immense  num- 
ber of  local  monastic  annals,  which  record  with 
minute  fidelity  things  of  interest  to  the  monastery — 
donations,  misfortunes,  floods,  storms,  transfers  of 
relics,  etc. — a  miscellany  reminding  us  of  the  various 
items  of  our  daily  papere.  Some  of  these  annals 
still  recall  the  far-off  origin  of  this  class  of  literature 
by  their  titles;  thus,  for  example,  the  "Chronicon  Sti. 
Dionysii  ad  cyclos  paschales"  (ele\'enth  and  twelfth 
centuries).  Every  monasteiy  of  any  importance 
possessed  these  collections  of  notes,  the  total  number 
of  which  is  extremely  large.  This  movement  is 
closely  connected  with  the  monastic  revival,  which 
began  in  the  eleventh  centurj'  owing  to  the  Reforms 
of  Cluny.  With  this  religious  awakening  are  con- 
nected two  movements,  one  internal,  the  other  ex- 
ternal, which  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  devel- 
opment of  medieval  historiography.  On  the  one 
hand  we  have  the  Quarrel  of  Investitures  and  on  the 
other  the  Crusades.  P^or  the  Quarrel  of  In\'estitures, 
mention  should  be  made  above  all  of  Lambert  of 
Hersfeld,  already  named,  and  the  celebrated  chron- 
icler Otto  of  Freisingen,  or  Bamberg  (d.  1158).  Son 
of  St.  Leopold  of  Austria,  and  related  through  his 
mother  to  the  line  of  emperors,  Otto  was  invited  by 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  personally,  to  write  the  history 
of  his  times.  It  was  for  Frederick  that  he  composed 
his  "Chronicon",  a  universal  history  in  eight  books, 
filled  with  philosophical  ideas,  and  imitating  "De 
Civitate  Dei"  by  St.  Augustine.  Otto  reached  the 
history  of  his  own  time  (1100-46)  in  the  seventh 
volume.  The  work  was  interrupted  by  his  death, 
and  was  continued  by  Ragewin,  Provost  of  Freis- 
ingen, who  added  four  volumes  (1155-60).  The 
whole  is  remarkable  for  the  maimer  in  which  events 
are  linked  together. 

Anglo-Norm.\n  Chronicles. — To  this  period  be- 
long the  great  Anglo-Norman  chronicles,  which  came 
into  existence  with  the  conquest  of  William  of  Nor- 
mandy. The  principal  .\nglo-Norinan  chronicles 
were  written  by  foreigners,  tlie  Normans  of  France: 
William  of  Jumieges,  who  in  lus  "  Historia  Nor- 
mannorum"  gives  a  r^sum^  of  the  chronicle  of 
Dudan  of  Saint-Quentin  (860-1002)  and  continues 
it  up  to  1135;  Odericus  Vitalis,  the  most  important  of 
all,  who  wrote  a  general  history  of  the  Normans  in 
France,  England,  and  Sicily,  under  the  title  "  His- 
toria Ecclesiastica",  covering  the  period  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  to  1142.  Lastly  we 
have  William  of  Malmesbury  (d.  1148),  who  wrote 
the  history  of  England,  beginning  with  its  Saxon 
origins,  under  the  title  "  De  Gestis  Anglorum "  in 
five  books  (449-1126),  with  a  Supplement,  "Historia 
Novella"  (1126-46).  At  this  time  also  there  ap- 
peared two  great  chronicles,  tlie  "Chrcnica"  of 
Roger  Hoveden  (732-1201)  and  the  "Chronica 
major"  of  Matthew  of  Paris,  beginning  with  the 
creation  and  continuing  up  to  12.59.  During  the  same 
period  the  Crusades  gave  the  impulse  for  a  new  sort 
of  literature,  very  important  from  an  ecclesiastical 
point  of  view.  Tlie  chief  liistorian  of  this  school,  tlie 
author  who  furnishes  vis  the  true  tyj')o  of  this  class 
of  literature,  is  William  of  Tyre,  historian  of  the 
Latin  kingtlom  of  Jerusalem.  Although  based  in 
part  on  tlie  chronicle  of  Albert  of  .\ix  (1121),  his 
history  becomes  entirely  original  on  reaching  the 
Second  Crusade  (1147-48).  The  author  is  extra- 
ordinarily learned,  having  a  knowledge  of  classic 
literature  and  an  acquaintance  with  the  works  of 
Ara'i  historians.  He  was  skilled  in  the  art  of  narra- 
tion, showed  exceptional   talent  in  arrangement  of 


ANNALS 


535 


ANNALS 


his  characters,  and  in  logical  presentation  of  facts. 
His  "Ik'lli  Sacri  liistoria"  is  a  work  remarkable  for 
tlie  times.  In  Spain  the  most  important  Chronicle 
for  the  period  of  the  Crusades  is  the  "Chronica 
Hispaniip"  of  Kodriguez,  Archbishop  of  Toledo 
(1243),  which  is  original  in  the  section  on  the  thir- 
teenth century.  The  Crusades  al.so  gave  birth  to 
two  Other  classes  of  historical  literature:  a  revival  of 
universal  chronicles,  and  the  Clironicles  and  Annals 
■written  in  the  vernacular. 

Univeks.vl  Chhonicle.s. — The  annals  and  chroni- 
■cles  of  the  feutlal  jicriod  put  into  circulation  an 
amount  of  discoiiiiectctl  infonnation,  and  an  attempt 
was  now  made  to  meet  the  need  of  a  new  method  of 
synthesis,  wliicli  was  making  itself  felt.  Universal 
and  general  liistorv,  which  liad  disappeared  at  the 
advent  of  feudalism,  gained  fresh  vigour  during  the 
Crusades,  when  tlie  dilTcrcnt  territories  and  popula- 
tions came  once  more  into  contact  with  each  other, 
and  the  political  horizon  widened  out.  These 
Latin  annals  and  chronicles  bear  a  close  resemblance 
to  one  anotlier  and  rest  for  the  most  part  on  com- 
mon sources.  Patient  toil  has  been  required  to  ilis- 
tinguish  between  the  originals  and  copies.  They 
differ  only  in  the  point  of  departure  of  the  various 
narratives.  The  majority  begin  with  the  Creation 
of  the  World,  .some  with  the  Christian  era.  The 
prototypes  of  these  chronicles  were  universal  annals 
written  in  Germany,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
is  the  "Chronicon"  of  Herman  Contractus,  monk  of 
Reichenau  (d.  1054).  The  author  begins  at  the 
birth  of  Christ  and  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
sources  which  he  has  utilized  and  the  care  exercised 
in  establishing  liis  chronologj'.  This  "Chronicon" 
was  begun  after  the  year  104S  and  stopped  at  1054. 
The  real  fatlier  of  these  universal  annals  of  the 
twelfth  and  tliirteenth  centuries  is  Marianus  Scotus, 
an  Irish  monk,  who  lived  in  Cologne,  and  later  at 
Mainz,  where  he  died  in  1082  or  lO&J.  He  composed 
a  "Chronicon"  covering  the  period  from  the  creation 
to  1082.  Tliis  writer  was  concernetl  chiefly  with  the 
chronologj'  of  events,  in  which  he  wislied  to  correct 
his  predece.ssors.  On  this  point  he  was  highly  es- 
teemeii  iluring  the  Middle  Ages,  and  is  praised  by 
Sigebert  of  Ciembloux  for  his  accuracy.  His  "  Chron- 
icon" hatl  great  vogue  in  England,  where  many 
chroniclers  of  the  twelfth  century  made  use  of  it 
and  wrote  continuations.  This  period  also  jirotluced 
the  "Chronicon",  called  in  some  manuscripts  the 
"Chronographia",  of  Sigebert  of  Gembloux  (d. 
1112),  a  continuation  of  the  chronicles  of  Eusebius 
and  St.  Jerome  from  381  to  the  author's  own  time. 
In  this  work  Sigebert,  a  well-informed  man  of  inde- 
pendent spirit,  follows  the  chronology  of  his  prede- 
cessor Marianus  Scotus,  entleavouring  to  bring  into 
proper  proportion  the  various  parts  of  his  history. 
A  multitutle  of  annals  of  earlier  centuries  were  used 
in  the  preparation  of  this  "  Chronicon ".  Quite  as 
import.ant  ius  the  "Chronicon"  of  Sigebert  is  the 
"Chronicon  I'spergcnsc"  of  Ekkchard  of  .\ura  (d. 
1129?),  one  of  tlie  most  celebrate<l  German  historians 
of  the  Miildle  .-Vges.  Coming  ilown  to  Robert  of 
Auxerre  (d.  1212),  we  find  that  he  marks  the 
transition  between  tlie  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies. His  chronicle,  reaching  from  tlie  Creation  to 
1211.  preserves  the  moderation  of  the  earlier  chroni- 
cles, eliminating  the  tales  and  romances  of  the 
troubadours  and  trouvcres,  who  had  created  a 
legendarj'  literature  that  was  gradually  gaining  in 
influence,  .\lbcric  of  Trois-Eontaines  (d.  about 
1252)  made  a  brave  attempt  to  resist  the  current,  by 
disregariling  romantic  fictions  in  his  "Chronicle" 
(1241),  but  he  admits  without  question  the  fables  of 
Pseudo-Turpin.  In  this  way  these  great  compila- 
tions of  annals  of  the  thirteenth  centurj'  lose  in 
value  what  they  gain  in  volume.  At  this  same  time 
John  of  Colonna  (1298),  an  Italian  Dominican,  wrote 


his  "Sea  of  Histoirie".  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d. 
1261),  also  a  Dominican,  compiled  a  great  encyclo- 
pedia of  annals,  which  is  known  under  the  title  of 
Speculum  Majus".  What  gives  an  encydopetlic 
character  to  this  lengthy  work  is  the  fact  that  the 
author  combines  sacred,  profane,  and  literary  his- 
tory into  a  continuous  narrative.  Too  extensive  to 
come  into  common  use,  tliis  work  of  Vincent  of 
Beauvais  nevertheless  had  great  vogue  through  the 
me<lium  of  the  chronicle  of  Martinus  Polonus  (d. 
1279),  who  arrangeil  a  compendium. 

l.NFLl'E.VCE    OF    THE     Me.N'DICANT    OliDEItS.^ — With 

the  rise  of  the  mendicant  orders,  such  as  the  Domin- 
icans, there  arose  a  new  literature  answering  the  dif- 
ferent needs  of  these  orders.  In  contnust  with  the 
ancient  Benedictines,  who,  being  confined  within  the 
silence  of  their  cloisters,  found  no  interests  outside 
the  nionasterj',  the  Dominican  monks  were  less  con- 
cernetl with  feudal  questions  and  mingled  more  in 
the  life  of  the  people.  The  result  is  that  their  annals, 
while  containing  more  material  of  general  historical 
interest,  show  fewer  charters  and  documents,  and 
care  less  for  the  local  affairs  of  a  province  or  an  es- 
tate. However,  at  this  period  we  notice  the  spread- 
ing intrusion  of  legend  into  this  field  of  literature. 
On  the  other  hand,  beginning  with  Robert  of  Auxerre, 
writers  indicate  their  .sources,  perhaps  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  scholastic  method  of  disputation. 
The  Crusades  also  mark  tlie  point  of  diversion  be- 
tween annals  and  national  chronicles  WTitten  in  the 
vernacular.  It  w;us  for  the  illiterate  people — that 
is  to  say,  the  great  ma-ss  of  the  po|)ulace  wlio  could 
not  imderstand  Latin — that  the  first  chronicles  ami 
armals  in  the  vernacular  were  inteniled.  The  earliest 
of  these  chronicles  were  in  rliyme.  like  the  balla<ls  of 
the  trouveres  and  troubatlours  which  they  were  in- 
tended to  replace.  They  contained  quotations  from 
the  Latin  chronicles  wliidi  were  consulted,  or  of 
which  a  translation  was  attempted.  In  Normandy 
and  in  England  the  most  important  of  these  chroni- 
clers is  Robert  Wace  (1155),  Canon  of  Bayeux  under 
Henry  II  of  Englaml.  He  wrote  the  "Roman  tie 
Brut  ,  a  popular  version  of  the  liistory  of  the  Brit- 
ons, and  the  "Roman  de  Rou",  based  in  part  on 
the  Chronicles  of  William  of  Jumit^ges  and  Odericus 
Vitalis.  Eor  France  mention  may  be  made  of 
Villehardouin  (d.  1213),  who  in  his  "Ckjnqueste  de 
Constantino])le "  re\iewetl  the  liistory  of  the  Second 
Cru.satle;  ami  Joinvillc,  known  for  his  "  Histoire  tie 
Saint  Louys  "  completed  in  1304.  Forthe  Netherlantls, 
we  must  not  omit  Jehan  Froissart  and  his  "  Chroni<)ue 
de  France,  d'Angleterre,  de  Flantlre  et  pays  circon- 
voisins",  one  of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Spain  producetl  the  "Cronica 
general  tie  Espana",  which  goes  as  far  as  1252,  antl 
of  which  the  original  part  begins  with  the  thirteenth 
century.  In  Italy  we  find  the  history  of  Florence 
from  tlie  pen  of  John  Villani,  a  Florentine  citizen, 
antl  a  rival  of  Froissart.  Englantl  has  the  "  Poly- 
chronicon"  of  Ranulph  Higtlen  (1367),  translated 
into  English  by  Jolm  of  Treviso,  with  an  original 
continuation  reaching  to  1387.  Lastly,  beginning 
with  the  fifteenth  ceiiturj-  we  see  for  trie  first  time 
official  historiographers,  among  the  first  of  whom 
was  George  Chiustelain  (tl.  1475).  Tliis  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  motleni  epoch  in  wliich  a  fresh 
orientation  brought  the  historiography  of  the  Middle 
Ages  once  more  into  favour. 

AuTiiou-s  OF  /\js'NALs. — Mctlieval  annals  strictly 
.speaking,  that  is  to  say  collections  in  which  facts  are 
set  tlown  successively  from  tlay  to  tlay,  are  for  the 
most  part  anon^Tnous.  There  can  be  no  question 
of  tliscovering  the  authors  of  these  collections,  for 
often  a  brief  examination  of  the  original  manuscript 
reveals  a  succession  of  many  haiitls.  Furtheniiore.  it 
is  very  often  impossible,  or  at  least  exceedingly  tlilfi- 
cult,  to  dcteriuiue  the  original  home  of  these  ami.d.s. 


ANNAM 


536 


ANNAS 


They  are  verj'  often  called  after  the  name  of  the 
monastery  in  which  the  manuscript  was  found,  e.  g. 
"Annales  Bertiniani",  "  Annales  Sci.  Amandi",  etc. 
Often  the  only  indication  of  the  source  of  these 
Annals  is  the  appearance  of  notes  of  local  interest 
peculiar  to  the  annals  in  question,  inserted  among 
common  material  known  to  have  been  taken  from 
other  sources.  The  repetition  of  notes  concerning  a 
definite  locality  or  region  may  often  lead  to  the  dis- 
coverj-  of  the  place  of  origin.  Undoubtedly  there  are 
exceptions,  and  the  "Annales"  of  Flodoard  and  of 
Lambert  of  Hersfeld,  to  cite  no  others,  do  not  come 
within  this  anonymous  class.  But  there  are  real 
chronicles,  and  even  memoirs,  in  wliich  the  style,  the 
co-ordination  of  material,  revealing  a  personahty,  are 
corroborated  by  indications  of  tlie  author  himself. 
This  is  notably  true  of  the  great  majority  of  chroni- 
cles, and  it  happens  more  than  once  that  great  names 
like  those  of  Herigerus  of  Lobbes,  Anselm  of  Liege, 
Otto  of  Freisingen,  Marianus  Scotus,  and  Sigebert 
of  Gembloux  lend  their  authority  to  these  literary 
productions.  In  annals  and  chronicles  of  a  general 
character  there  is  often  to  be  found  a  section  copied 
from  earlier  sources  foUow-ed  by  original  matter  be- 
ginning with  the  very  time  of  composition.  In  these 
annals  the  part  which  has  been  copied  can  often  be 
traced  verj-  far  back,  and  may  reveal,  in  spite  of  the 
many  disfigurements,  the  original  source  of  this  liter- 
ary production.  This  is  the  case,  for  example,  in  the 
annals  of  the  manuscript  of  Saint-Germain-des-Pres 
discovered  by  Pertz  and  mentioned  above.  In 
chronicles  the  copied  portion  corresponds  almost 
always  to  the  period  previous  to  the  time  when  the 
author  began  to  write  and  that  alone,  as  a  general 
rule,,  has  any  value  as  a  contemporary  document. 
These  points  apply  only  to  annals  properly  so  called, 
and  to  universal  chronicles.  We  have,  obviously, 
historical  collections  which  are  valuable  in  all  their 
parts,  but  for  annals  properly  so  called  the  c;ise  is 
rare,  and  for  chronicles  it  is  true,  in  general,  only  of 
local  chronicles.  These,  in  fact,  are  often  based  on 
documents  which  may  have  perished,  such  as  acts  of 
donation,  deeds,  domestic  memoirs,  information  of  a 
more  particular  character  than  universal  chronicles, 
and  by  far  more  liable  to  destruction. 

Use  of  .\n.v.^.ls  and  Chronicles. — We  have  seen 
that  we  possess  some  chronicles  which  are  of  great 
value  because  they  embody  witliin  the  narrative 
documents  which  it  is  often  impossible  to  find  or 
which  have  disappeared.  These  chronicles,  then, 
perform  the  function  of  a  cartulary.  There  are  an- 
notated cartularies  where  the  various  documents  are 
arranged  in  chronological  order  for  the  reign  of  the 
abbot  or  prince  during  wliich  the  events  took  place. 
This  is  notably  the  case  in  the  "Gesta  .Abbatum 
Lithiensum"  of  Folcuin  of  Saint-Bertin,  a  work  some- 
times called  " Chartularium  Folcuini"  (961).  Epis- 
copal chronicles  also  offer  us  frequent  instances  of 
this  class.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  the  "Gesta 
episcoporum  Cameracensiurn "  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. The  majority  of  these  local  chronicles  repro- 
duce the  tradition,  popular  or  local,  of  the  monastery 
which  they  concern  and  confine  themselves  to  re- 
cording gossip  and  various  kinds  of  information. 
They  often  combine  data  baseil  on  monuments  still 
in  existence,  without  asking  themselves  whether  the 
version  of  these  sources  had  been  tainted  with  leg- 
ends, and  they  did  not  take  the  least  trouble  to  ex- 
amine tlie  origin  and  value  of  their  information.  We 
should  not  be  too  severe  in  passing  judgment  on  these 
works.  Tlie  authors  were  bounded  by  a  limited 
hori/oM,  often  equipped  with  merely  a  rudimentary 
trainmg,  without  the  many  devices  for  facilitating 
labour  furnished  by  science  to-day,  such  as  works 
of  reference  and  indices,  which  constitute,  so  to 
speak,  a  condensed  form  of  knowledge.  Such  chron- 
icles, moreover,  were  often  written   with   the  same 


purpose  as  the  lives  of  the  saints.  Those,  ha\-ing 
a  general  tendency  to  enhance  as  much  as  possible 
the  glory  of  their  hero,  were  nothing  more  than 
panegyrics.  Monastic  chronicles  and  annals  are  not 
free  from  this  tendency,  and  often  begin  with  an 
accomit  of  the  life  of  the  saint  who  founded  the  ab- 
bey, concerning  themselves  more  with  asceticism 
than  with  the  historical  facts  and  events,  which  would 
be  of  such  value  to  us  to-day.  In  conclusion,  the 
first  part  of  these  chronicles,  written  for  the  most 
part  since  the  eleventh  century,  almost  always  re- 
counts legends,  often  based  on  oral  tradition,  but 
sometimes  invented  for  the  purpose  of  embellishing 
the  early  history  of  the  monastery,  and  of  thus  in- 
creasing the  devotion  of  the  faithful.  Prudent  criti- 
cism should  be  applied  to  the  majority  of  these  pro- 
ductions; the  errors  with  which  they  are  tainted 
can  best  be  discovered  by  consulting  the  charters  and 
diplomas  quoted.  Chronology  especially  is  often 
treated  carelessly.  As  far  as  the  annals  are  con- 
cerned, taken  in  their  strictest  sense,  it  is  easily 
understood  how  such  a  thing  could  happen.  As, 
in  the  begirming,  they  w-ere  nothing  but  annotations 
made  in  the  margin  of  the  "Paschal  Cycle",  the 
copyists  were  often  deceived  as  to  the  juxtaposition 
of  chronological  notes  and  historical  events.  This 
material  error  became  later  the  source  of  a  multitude 
of  chronological  mistakes,  which,  passing  from  the 
annals  into  compilations  or  universal  chronicles,  falsi- 
fied history  for  a  long  period.  To  correct  errors  of 
tliis  sort  Marianus  Scotus  wrote  his  chronicle.  Fi- 
nally, these  annals  and  chronicles,  being  above  all 
compiled  works,  were  not  concerned  witli  eliminat- 
ing the  contradictions  that  the  fusion  of  legendary 
and  historical  facts  had  caused.  Thus  Benedict  of 
St.  Andrew,  of  Mount  Soracte,  in  his  "Chronicon" 
accepts  and  reproduces  the  legend  of  Charlemagne's 
voyage  to  the  Orient,  an  episode  which  had  been 
spread  abroad  by  legendary  ballads.  He  inserts  this 
narrative  among  the  historical  data  taken  from  the 
"  Vita  Karoli "  of  Einhard,  and  does  not  seem  to  be 
at  all  chagrined  at  the  contradiction  resulting  from 
this  ju.xtaposition.  It  is  true  that  there  were  in  the 
Middle  Ages  choice  minds,  like  those  of  Herigerus  of 
Lobbes,  Folcuin  of  Saint-Bertin,  Otto  of  Freisingen, 
Sigebert  of  Gembloux,  etc.,  whose  works  prove  them 
to  have  been  lights  of  criticism,  but  unfortunately 
they  are  the  exception.  All  this  class  of  literature — 
annals  as  well  as  chronicles — must  be  controlled  by 
official  documents  and  parallel  sources  of  information, 
it  they  are  to  serve  as  material  for  the  history  of 
the  distant  past. 

Gardiner  and  Mullinger,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
English  History  (London,  3d  ed.,  1894);  Gross,  The  Sources 
and  Literature  of  English  History  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
about  1485  (London,  1900);  Ebert,  Allgcmeine  Geschichte 
der  LittercUur  des  Alittelalters  im  At>endUinde  (Leipzig,  vol.  I, 
2d  ed.,  1889;  vol.  II,  2d  ed.,  1890;  vol.  Ill,  1st  ed.,  1887); 
De  Smedt,  Introduclio  generalis  ad  histori^im  ecctesiasticaTit 
critics  tractandam  (Ghent,  1876);  Wattenhach,  Deutsch- 
lands  Geschichtsquellen  im  Mittelaltcr  bis  zur  Mitte  des  drei- 
zehnten  Jahrhundert  (Berlin,  vol.  I,  7th  ed..  1904;  vol.  II,  6th 
ed.,  1892);  Lorenz.  Deutscklands  Geschichtsquellen  im  Mittel- 
alter  seit  dem  XIII'"'  Jahrhundert  (Berlin,  2d  ed.,  1886-87); 
PoTTHAST,  Bibliotheca  Historica  Medii  J£vi.  Wegweiser  dureh 
die  Geschichtswerke  des  europHischen  Alittelalters  bis  1500 
(Berlin,  1896);  Balzani,  Le  chronache  italiane  net  medio  ei^o 
(Milan,  2d  ed.,  1900);  Molnier,  Les  sources  de  t'hisloire  de 
France  depuis  les  oriffines  jusgu'en  1789  (^Paris,  1901-06); 
M<eller,  Traill  des  iliules  historiques,  wjth  additions  by 
Ch.  Mceller  (Paris,  1892);  Duchesne,  Etude  sur  le  Liber 
Pontificalis  in  the  BibliotMque  des  icolcs  franfaises  d'Athl'nes 
et  de  Rome  (Paris,  18771;  MoNon,  Etlule  criticiue  sur  les 
sources  de  Vhistoirc  earolingicnne  (Paris,  1898);  KunzE,  Ein- 
hard (Berlin,  1899);  Waitz.  Ucber  die  Entwickelung  der  deut- 
schen  Historiographie  im  Mittelaltcr  in  Schmidt's  Zeitschrift 
far  Geschichte,  II,  97-103;  WniEl,,  lieitr/i/ie  zur  Kritik  der 
Annales  Regni  Francorum  und  Annales  qui  dicuntur  Einhardi 
(Strasburg.  1902). 

L.  Van  deu  Essen. 
Annam.     See  CorniN-CniN.\;  Tongkino. 
Annas,  'Ai-ras  (according   to   Blass  and  Wescott- 
Hort, " Ayvas;   Joseplius,  'Avai/os).      Name    (cf.  Heb. 


ANNAT 


537 


ANNATES 


Hanan,  Syr.  Hanftn)  of  same  derivation  as  Han- 
nah (see  Anna).  Annas,  son  of  Seth,  sueceedetl 
(a.  d.  a  or  7)  Joazar  in  the  liigh-priesthood  by  ap- 
pointment of  Quirinius  who  liad  coiiiu  to  Judea  to 
attend  to  the  incorporation  of  Arclielaus's  territory 
into  the  Roman  province  of  Syria  (Josephus,  Ant., 
XVIII,  ii,  1).  After  liis  (U-iMisition  (a.  i>.  lo)  by  V. 
Gratus,  the  high-priest.s  fiillowcd  upon  one  another 
in  rapid  succe.s.sion:    I.smael,  Klea/.ar  (son  of  Annas; 

f)erliaps  tlie  Alexander  of  Acts,  iv,  6,  .■Mexander 
)eing  the  Gra?cized  name  of  Kleazar),  Simon,  until 
we  come  to  Joseph,  called  Caiaphas,  who  knew  how 
to  retain  the  favour  of  the  Roman  authorities 
from  A.  D.  18  to  36  (Josephus,  Ant.,  XV'III,  ii, 
2).  Hut  his  depo.sition  did  not  deprive  Annas  of 
his  influence  which  must  have  remained  con.sider- 
able,  to  judge  by  the  fact  that  besiile  Kleazar.  his 
son,  and  Joseph  Caiaphas,  his  son-in-law  (John, 
xviii,  13),  four  other  sons,  viz.,  Jonathan  (perhaps 
the  John  of  Acts,  iv,  6,  where  D  reads  luyi9af), 
Theophilus,  Matthias,  Annas  (Ananos)  II,  obtained 
the  dignitv  of  high-priests  (Jos.,  Ant.,  XVIII,  iv,  3; 
V.  3;  XI.'>^,  vi,  4;  X.X,  ix,  1).  The  New  Testament 
references  to  Annas  convey  the  same  impres.sion. 
His  name  appears  with  that  of  Joseph  Caiaphas, 
who  was  the  actual  liigh-priest  during  the  ministry 
of  the  Saviour  (Matt.,  xxvi,  3.  57;  John,  xi,  49,  51) 
in  the  elaborate  synchronisms  wherewith  St.  Luke 
introduces  the  public  ministry  of  Our  Lord  (Luke, 
iii,  2).  The  commanding  position  of  the  former 
high-priest  is  attested  also  by  the  prominent  place 
awarded  to  liim  in  Acta,  iv,  6;  here  Annas  is  intro- 
duced as  "the  High-Priest",  whilst  Joseph Caiaphas's 
name  simply  follows  with  those  of  tlie  other  mem- 
bers of  the  high-priestly  race.  Those  fomiulip, 
which  miglit  leave  on  the  reader  the  impres.sion  that 
the  author  considered  Annas  and  Caiaphas  as  dis- 
charging the  functions  of  the  high-priesthood  simul- 
taneously (Luke,  iii,  2),  or  even  tnat  Annas  alone 
was  the  actual  high-priest  (Acts,  iv,  6),  have  given 
rise  to  many  hypotheses^ more  or  less  plausible. 
They  are  to  be  considered  as  not  strictly  accurate, 
but  they  are  a  testimony  to  the  ascendency  of  Annas. 
But  Annas  is  more  than  a  mere  chronological  land- 
mark in  the  hfe  of  the  Saviour;  according  to  our 
common  text  of  Jolm,  xviii,  13-27,  Annas  would 
have  playetl  a  part  at  a  decisive  point  of  the  life  of 
Jesus.  After  His  arrest,  the  Lord  is  brought  di- 
rectly to  Annas,  in  whose  palace  a  kind  of  unofficial, 
preliminary  interrogatorj'  takes  place,  an  episode 
entirely  omitted  by  the  Synoptists.  It  must  be  said, 
however,  that  the  common  text  seems  to  be  here 
in  a  ilisturbed  condition,  as  Maldonatus  had  already 
remarked  (I,  427-428).  If  the  order  of  Syr.  Sin. 
(XVIII  13,  24,  14-15,  19-23,  16-18,  25-27)  be 
adoptetl,  the  succession  of  the  facts  gains  in  clearness 
and  consistency,  though  the  .\nnas  episode  becomes 
altogether  secondary  in  the  narrative.  The  "house 
of  .\nnas",  wealthy  and  imscrupidous.  is  pronounced 
accursed  in  the  Talmud,  together  with  "the  corrupt 
leaders  of  the  priesthood",  who.«e  presence  defiled 
tlie  sanctuary  (i;dersheim,  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus 
the  Messiah  1,263  f.). 

Commmttirifs  on  Luke,  iii,  2,  e.*«pecially  those  of  SciiANZ, 
Pn'MMKB.  Wkis-h.  and  Holtzmann;  on  Acta,  iv,  6,  Knowl- 
im;.  Erponilora  Greek  Tetlament  (New  York.  1900).  II,  anil 
Bl.AJ*.^;  on  John,  ttHH,  12-27.  Cai.mfj*.  Commmtarieg  (Paris. 
19041.  ■119-122;  Zaun,  Einl.  in  dot  .V.  T.  (LeipjiR.  1900).  II. 
509.  510.  524;  Dhummond,  The  .Xulhorthip  and  Character  of 
the  Fourth  O'otpel  (^I-oniion.  19OTI,  4,34-43fi;  .Mofkatt,  The 
Hittorieal  .V.  T.  (Edinhiirnh.  1901).  p.  xl  anil  CiW  win.;  Bui- 
NKAr.  llarmtmu  nf  the  Gosprlt  (New  York.  1S98).  121  .sqq.  or 
Synopte  irantirliaue  (I'ari.t.  19011.  ICw  s<|<i.;  Soiu  hkr,  The 
Jewifh  I'rople  in  the  Time  of  J.  C.  (.Ir.)  Div.  11,  I.  182  •i<iq.,  198, 
and  202-200.  „ 

Edward  Akbez. 

Annat,  FRANfois,  French  Jesuit,  theologian, 
writer,  and  one  of  the  foremost  opponents  of  Jan- 
senism, b.  5  February,  1.590,  at  Rode/.;  d.  in 
Paris.  14  June,  1670.     He  entered  the  novitiate  of 


the  Society  of  Jesus,  16  February,  1607,  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  for  six,  and  of  tneology  for  seven 
years,  in  the  college  of  his  order  at  loulouse,  of 
which  he  was  subse<|uontly  appointed  rector.  Later 
he  filled  the  same  olhce  at  Montpellier.  He  was 
A.ssistant  to  tlie  (jeneral  in  Rome,  and  I'roviiu-ial  of 
Paris.  In  1654  he  was  sent  to  court  as  confessor 
to  Louis  XIV,  and,  after  the  faithful  and  un.sel(isli 
discharge  of  the  responsible  duties  of  this  ollice,  he 
felt  compelled  to  resign,  owing  to  the  illicit  attach- 
ment of  the  King  to  the  Duchesse  de  la  Vallidre. 
He  Ijecame  known  to  the  learned  world,  in  1632, 
by  the  publication  of  a  defence  of  the  Jesuit  doctrine 
of  Divine  grace  against  the  Oratorian  Gibieuf.  In 
1644  he  began  a  series  of  more  lengthy  contributions 
to  the  celebrated  controversy  that  sought  to  recon- 
cile human  freedom  with  Divine  efficacious  grace. 
He  was  prominent  in  defending  Catholic  ortliodoxy 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Port  Royal  theologians, 
and  merited,  in  consequence,  the  notice  of  tlie 
versatile  Pascal,  who  directed  the  last  of  the  "Pro- 
vincial Letters"  against  P6re  Annat.  A  full  de- 
scription of  his  pul)lished  works  may  be  found  in 
Sommervogel's  "  BibliothiViue  do  la  compagnie  de 
Jdsus".  A  complete  edition,  in  three  volumes,  of 
his  writings  appeared  in  Paris,  in  1666,  under  the 
title  "Opuscula  fheologica".     James  J.  Sulliva.v. 

Annates,  the  first  fruits,  or  first  year's  revenue  of 
an  ecclesiastical  benefice  paid  to  the  Papal  Curia 
(in  medieval  times  to  bishops  also).  One  result  of 
the  centralizing  of  ecclesiastical  administration  in  tlie 
Roman  Curia  during  the  course  of  the  thirteenth 
century  was  that  ecclesiastical  Ijenefices  became  more 
and  more  generally  "collated,"  i.  e.  granted,  directly 
by  the  Pope.  This  was  so,  not  only  in  the  case  of 
bishoprics  and  monasteries,  vacancies  which  were 
filled  by  Rome  either  by  direct  appointment  or  by 
papal  confirmation,  but  also  in  the  case  of  smaller 
church  livings  (canonicatcs,  parishes,  etc.).  On  such 
occasions  the  papal  treasury  received  from  the  new 
incumbent  a  certain  tax  derived  from  the  income  of 
the  living.  Since  the  fifteentli  century  this  tax  has 
been  generally  known  as  annates,  a  term  compre- 
hending all  money  taxes  paid  into  the  Apostolic 
Camera  (papal  treasury)  on  the  occasion  of  the 
collation  of  any  ecclesiastical  benefice  by  the  Pope. 
Ciider  this  term  were  included  four  classes  of  pay- 
ments: (1)  the  serfitia  communia,  payable  on  the 
granting  of  bishoprics  or  monasteries,  appointments 
made  in  a  consistory;  these  payments  were  divided 
between  the  cardinals  and  the  papal  treasurj'; 
(2)  the  servitia  mimita,  due  on  like  occasions  to 
various  subordinate  officials  of  the  Curia;  (3)  the 
real  annatw  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  term,  which 
were  paid  on  the  granting  of  a  minor  ecclesiastical 
benefice  by  the  Poix;  outside  of  the  consistorj-;  all 
these  payments  reverted  to  the  Apostolic  Camera; 
(4)  the  so-called  quindcnnia,  payable  everj'  fifteen 
years  by  livings  jx-rmancntly  united  with  some  other 
benefice.  Originally,  however,  in  the  tliirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  nnHo/n-,  orannatia,  signified  only 
the  third  class,  the  taxes  derived  from  lesser  benefices. 
In  their  origin,  therefore,  as  well  as  in  actual  char- 
acter, annates  are  distinct  from  other  money  tributes 
received  by  the  papal  treasurj-,  or  Camera,  from  eccle- 
siastical persons  and  institutions — from  the  census 
paid  by  individual  churches  and  monasteries  in 
recognition  of  their  direct  dependence  on  the  Chair 
of  St.  Peter,  the  pallium  moneys  contributed  by 
an  ardibishop  on  receiving  the  pallium,  the  visita- 
tion tributes  given  by  an  individual  bishop  and 
archbisliop  on  his  regular  visUalio  ad  limina.  Still 
more  arc  annates  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Peter's- 
Pence  accruing  to  the  Papal  Curia  chiefly  from 
the  kingdoms  of  Northern  Europe  (F.ngland.  Den- 
mark, Poland,  etc.)  in  token  of  a  certain  protection 


ANNE 


538 


ANNE 


accorded  by  the  Uoiikhi  Cluirch.and  from  the  feudal 
tribute  due  from  .such  territories  as  stood  in  real 
feudal  relationship  to  Rome  (e.  g.  Naples).  Among 
the  payments  made  to  the  Roman  Curia  in  the 
fifteenth  century  under  the  general  term  of  annates, 
the  oldest  are  the  xervilia  communia  and  the  servitia 
77iinula.  At  a  very  early  period  bishops  who  re- 
ceived episcopal  consecration  in  Rome  were  wont  to 
present  gifts  to  tlie  various  ecclesiastical  authorities 
concernetl.  Out  of  this  custom  there  grew  up  a 
prescriptive  right  to  such  gifts;  in  the  first  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century  a  regular  scale  of  payment 
was  prescribed  for  all  the  dioceses  and  abbeys  liable 
to  this  tax  upon  appointment  or  confirmation  of  their 
prelates.  During  the  thirteenth  century  there  like- 
wise arose  in  many  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches 
the  custom  of  appropriating  for  the  bishops  or  other 
ecclesiastical  ollicials  a  year's  income  from  vacant  ben- 
efices. In  exceptional  cases  some  bishops  received 
from  the  Pope  authority  to  levy  this  annate  on  all 
benefices  in  their  dioceses  falling  vacant  within  a  spec- 
ified period.  In  1306  Clement  V  reserved  for  the  papal 
treasury  a  year's  revenues  from  all  benefices  through- 
out England  and  Scotland  at  that  time  vacant  or 
falling  vacant  within  a  period  of  three  years.  John 
XXII,  in  1316,  made  a  similar  reservation  of  annates 
for  three  years  on  all  ecclesiastical  livings,  with  a 
few  exceptions.  From  this  time  on  the  popes  of 
the  fourteenth  century  were  very  frequently  forced 
to  adopt  these  measures  to  obtain  relief  in  financial 
straits.  Moreover,  after  the  thirteenth  century  the 
annate  was  required  from  benefices  that  had  been 
for  any  reason  whatever  collated  directly  by  the 
Pope.  This  tribute  was  fixed  by  John  XXII  (1316- 
34)  at  half  the  annual  revenue.  At  the  Council  of 
Constance  (1414-18)  and  later,  many  complaints 
were  made  concerning  these  assessments;  and  in 
concordats  made  by  the  popes  with  separate  coun- 
tries the  annates  were  regulated  anew.  In  particular 
it  was  decided  that  annates  on  reserved  benefices 
could  be  paid  to  the  Curia  only  when  the  annual 
income  exceeded  twenty-four  gold  gulden.  With  the 
gradual  transformation  of  the  system  of  benefices,  the 
annates,  strictly  so  called,  disappeared.  To-day  they 
are  levied  only  on  the  occasion  of  new  appointments 
to  dioceses  not  subject  to  Propaganda,  and  after  the 
manner  fixed  by  the  latest  concordats  or  by  the 
papal  documents  (Bvills  of  Circumscription)  that 
legally  establish  a  diocese. 

FERH.tRls,  Prompta  Bibliotheca,  s.  v.  Amwtce  (ed.  1SS4, 
247  sqq.):  Thomassincs,  Velus  ef  nova  eccles.  disciplina. 
Part.  II,  I,  xliv;  Philipps,  Kirchenrecht,  V,  540  sqq.;  Berthier, 
HUtoire  del'cglvse  gallicane,  XIX,  1  .sqq.  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1827); 
KoNiG,  Die  pdpstliche  Kammer  unter  Klemens  V  u.  Johann 
XXII  (Vienna,  1894);  Kirsch,  Die  papstlichen  Annaten  in 
Deutuchland  wiihrenil  ties  14  jahrh.  (Paderborn,  1903),  I; 
lu,,  Die  Finnnzrirtrnltnno  des  Kardinalkollegiums  in  Kirchen- 
gcachichtl.  Si'^.l  .,.  M,,;  .for,  1895),  II,  4;  Haller,  PapsHum 
urul    Kirrh.,  ,       l.ilin,     1903),    I;    GoTTLOB,    Die    Servi- 

tumlaxe  it,,  i       I    '  i  ul  tEart,  1903);  Gohl.KR,  Milleilungen 

Ttnd  Unt'Tsu,  !,.,,,. f.  ,,  ,,,,■,-  d,i8  pdpsttiche  Register — und  Kan- 
zleiwesen  ivt  14.  J,ihrh.,  in  Quellen  und  Forschungen  aus  itat. 
Archircn  (Rome,  1904);  Samaran  et  Mollat,  La  fiscalitS 
prntiftaile  en  France  ait  A'/l'c  siicle  (Paris,  1905). 

J.  P.  I^IRSCH. 

Anne,  Queen.    See  England. 

Anne,  Saint  (Hcb.,  Hannah,  grace),  Ann,  Anne, 
An.va,  the  traditional  name  of  the  mother  of  the 
Ulessed  Virgin  .Mary.  All  our  information  concern- 
ing the  names  anil  lives  of  Sts.  Joachim  and  Anne, 
the  parents  of  Mary,  is  derived  from  apocryphal 
literature,  the  Gosnel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary, 
P.seudo-.Matthew  and  the  ProtnrrimqeUum  of  James. 
Though  the  earliest  form  of  tlie  latter,  on  wliich 
directly  or  mdirectly  the  other  two  .seem  to  be  based, 
goes  back  to  about  a.  d.  1,'>(),  we  can  hardly  accept 
as  beyond  doubt  its  various  statements  on  its  .solo 
authority.  In  the  Orient  the  Protoevangelium  had 
great  authority  and  portions  of  it  were  read  on  the 
feasts  of  Mary  by  the  Greeks,  Syrians,  Copts,  and 


.\rabians.  In  the  Occident,  however,  it  was  rejected 
by  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  until  its  contents  were 
incorporated  by  Jacobus  de  Voragine  in  his  "  Goklen 
Legend"  in  the  thirteenth  century.  From  that 
time  on  the  story  of  St.  .\nne  spread  over  the  West 
and  was  amply  developed,  until  St.  Anne  became 
one  of  the  most  popular  saints  also  of  the  Latin 
Church. 

The  Protoevangelium  gives  the  following  account : 
In  Nazareth  there  lived  a  rich  and  pious  couple, 
Joachim  and  Hannah.  They  were  childless.  Wlien 
on  a  feast-tlay  Joachim  presented  himself  to  offer 
sacrifice  in  the  temple,  he  was  repulsed  by  a  certain 
Ruben,  under  the  pretext  that  men  without  off- 
spring were  unworthy  to  be  admitted.  Whereupon 
Joachim,  bowed  down  with  grief,  did  not  return 
home,  but  went  into  the  mountains  to  make  his 
plaint  to  God  in  solitude.  Also  Hannah,  having 
learned  the  reason  of  the  prolonged  absence  of  her 
husband,  cried  to  the  Lord  to  take  away  from  her 
the  curse  of  sterility,  promising  to  dedicate  her 
child  to  the  service  of  God.  Their  prayers  were 
heard;  an  angel  came  to  Hannah  and  said:  "  Hannah, 
the  Lord  has  looked  upon  thy  tears;  thou  shalt 
conceive  and  give  birth,  and  the  fruit  of  thy  womb 
shall  be  blessed  by  all  the  world".  The  angel  made 
the  same  promise  to  Joachim,  who  returned  to  his 
wife.  Hannah  gave  birth  to  a  daughter  whom  she 
called  Miriam  (ilary).  Since  this  story  is  apparently 
a  rei)roduction  of  tlie  biblical  account  of  the  concep- 
tion of  Samuel,  whose  mother  was  also  called  Hannah, 
even  the  name  of  the  mother  of  Mary  seems  to  be 
doubtful. 

The  renowned  Father  John  Eck  of  Ingolstadt,  in 
a  sermon  on  St.  Anne  (published  at  Paris  in  1579). 
pretends  to  know  even  the  names  of  the  parents  of 
St.  Anne.  He  calls  them  Stollanus  and  Emerentia. 
He  says  that  St.  Anne  was  born  after  Stollanus  and 
Emerentia  had  been  childless  for  twenty  years; 
that  St.  Joachim  died  soon  after  the  presentation  of 
Mary  in  the  temple;  that  St.  Anne  then  marrietl 
Cleophas,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of  Mary 
Cleophai  (the  wife  of  Alphaeus  and  mother  of  the 
Apostles  James  the  Lesser,  Simon  and  Judas,  and 
of  Joseph  the  Just);  after  the  death  of  Cleophas 
she  is  said  to  have  married  Salomas,  to  whom  she 
bore  Maria  Salomae  (the  wife  of  Zebeda;us  and 
mother  of  the  Apostles  John  and  James  the  Greater). 
The  same  spurious  legend  is  found  in  the  writings 
of  Gerson  (0pp.  Ill,  59)  and  of  many  others.  There 
arose  in  the  sixteenth  century  an  animated  contro- 
versy over  the  marriages  of  St.  Anne,  in  which  Baro- 
nius  and  Bellarmin  defended  her  monogamy.  The 
Greek  Men;ca  (25  July)  call  the  parents  of  St.  Anne 
Matlian  and  Maria,  and  relate  that  Salome  and 
Elizabeth,  the  mother  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  were 
daughters  of  two  sisters  of  St.  Anne.  According  to 
Ephiphanius  it  was  maintained  even  in  the  fourth 
century  by  some  enthusiasts  that  St.  Anne  con- 
ceived without  the  action  of  man.  This  error  was 
revived  in  the  West  in  the  fifteenth  centuiy.  (Anna 
concepit  per  osculum  Joachimi.)  In  1077  the  Holy 
See  condemned  the  error  of  Imperiali.  who  taught 
that  St.  .\nne  in  the  conception  and  birth  of  Mary 
remained  virgin  (Benedict  XIV,  De  Festis,  II,  9). 
In  the  Orient  the  cult  of  St.  Anne  can  be  traced  to 
the  fourth  century.  Justinian  I  (d.  565)  had  a, 
church  dedicated  to  her.  The  canon  of  the  Greek 
Office  of  St.  Anne  was  composed  by  St.  Theophanes 
(d.  817),  but  older  parts  of  the  Office  are  ascribeil  to 
Anatolius  of  Byzantium  (d.  458).  Her  feast  is 
celebrated  in  the  East  on  the  25th  of  July,  which 
may  be  the  day  of  the  dedication  of  her  first  cluirch 
at  Constantinople  or  the  anniversarj'  of  the  arrival 
of  her  supposeil  relics  in  Constantinople  (710) 
It  is  found  m  the  oldest  liturgical  document  of  the 
Greek  Church,  the  Calendar  of  Constantinople  (first 


ANNE 


539 


ANNE 


half  of  the  eighth  century).  The  Greeks  keep  a 
collective  fea.st  of  St.  Joachim  ami  St.  Anne  on  the 
9th  of  September.  In  the  Latin  Church  St.  .Vnne 
wa.s  not  venerated,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  .south  of 
I'Vance,  before  the  thirteenth  century.  Her  picture, 
painted  in  the  eighth  cciilurj',  which  was  fouiul  lately 
in  the  church  of  Santa  .Maria  .Vnticjua  in  Home,  owes 
its  origin  to  Hj'zanline  influence.  Her  feast,  under  the 
influence  of  the  "Golilen  Legend",  is  first  found 
(26  July)  in  the  thirteenth  century,  e.  g.  at  Douai 
<in  1291),  where  a  foot  of  St.  .\nne  was  venerated 
(feast  of  translation,  16  September).  It  was  intro- 
duced in  I'^nglanil  by  Urban  VI,  21  November,  1378, 
from  which  time  it  spread  all  over  the  Western 
Church.  It  was  extendeil  to  the  universal  Latin 
Church  in  l.->84. 

The  supposed  relics  of  St.  Anne  were  brought 
from  the  Holy  Land  to  Constantinople  in  710  and 
■«'ere  still  kept  there  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  in 
13.33.  The  tradition  of  the  church  of  .Vpt  in  southern 
France  pretentls  that  the  botly  of  St.  .\nne  was 
brought  to  Apt  by  St.  Lazarus,  the  friend  of  Chri.st, 
was  hidden  by  St.  .Vuspicius  (d.  398),  and  founil  again 
Uuring  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  (feast,  Monday 
after  the  octave  of  Ea.ster);  these  relics  were  brought 
to  a  magnificent  cha|icl  in  1061  (feast,  4  May).  The 
head  of  St.  .•Vnne  was  kept  at  Mainz  up  to  1510, 
when  it  was  stolen  and  brought  to  Diiren  in  Rhein- 
lanil.  St.  Anne  is  the  patroness  of  Brittany.  Her 
■miraculous  picture  (feast,  7  March)  is  venerated  at 
Notre  Dame  d'.^uray.  Diocese  of  Vannes.  Also  in 
Canatla,  where  she  is  tlie  principal  patron  of  the 
province  of  (Juebec,  the  shrine  of  St.  Anne  tie  IJeau- 
pr^  is  well  known.  St.  .Vnne  is  patroness  of  women 
in  labour;  she  is  representeil  holding  the  Blessed 
\'irgin  Marj'  in  her  lap,  who  again  carries  on  her 
arm  the  Child  Jesus.  She  is  also  patroness  of 
miners,  Christ  being  compared  to  gold,  Mary  to 
silver. 

RicKENBACii,  Ruhmeskram  rlcr  h.  Anna  (EiDsiedeln,  1001); 
Stadler,  Heiligenlericon  I,  220. 

Frederick  G.  Holweck. 
Anne,  S.vint,  Sisters  op.    See  Providence,  Sis- 

TEHS  OK. 

Anne  d'Auray,  S.mnte,  a  little  village  three  miles 
from  the  town  of  .\uray  (6,500  inhabitants),  in  the 
Diocese  of  Vannes  (.Morbilian),  in  French  Brittany, 
famous  for  its  sanctuarj'  antl  for  its  pilgrimages,  or 
pardons,  in  honour  of  St.  .\nne,  to  whom  the 
people  of  Brittany,  in  very  early  times,  on  becoming 
Christian,  had  dedicated  a  chapel.  This  first  chapel 
was  destroyed  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century, 
but  the  memory  of  it  was  kept  alive  by  tradition, 
and  the  \-illage  was  still  called  "Keranna",  i.  e. 
"Village  of  .-Vnnc".  More  than  nine  centuries  later, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  (1624- 
25).  St.  .\nne  is  .said  to  have  appeared  .-icveral  times 
to  a  simple  antl  pious  villager,  and  commandeil  him 
to  rebuild  the  ancient  chapel.  The  apparitions  be- 
came so  frequent,  and  before  so  many  witncs.ses, 
that  Sel>astien  de  Rosmadcc,  Bishop  of  Vannes, 
deemed  it  his  duty  to  inquire  into  the  matter.  Yves 
Nicolazic,  to  whom  St.  .Anne  had  appearetl,  and 
numerous  witnesses,  testifieil  to  the  truth  of  events 
which  had  become  famous  throughout  Brittany, 
and  the  Bishop  gave  permi.s.sion  for  the  building  of 
a  chapel.  .Anne  of  .Vustria  and  Louis  XIII  enriched 
the  sanctuary  with  many  gifts,  among  them  a  relic 
of  St.  Anne  brought  from  Jerusalem  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  in  1041  the  Queen  obtained  from  the 
Pope  the  erection  of  a  confraternity,  which  Pius  IX 
raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archconfralernity  in  1S72. 
In  the  meanwhile  pilgrimages  hail  begun  and  be- 
came more  numerous  year  by  year,  nor  did  the 
Revolution  put  a  stop  to  them.  'i"he  chapel,  indeed, 
was  plundered,  the  Carmelites  who  served  it  driven 


out,  and  the  miraculous  statue  of  St.  Anne  was 
burned  at  Vannes  in  1793;  yet  the  faithful  still 
flocked  to  the  chapel,  which  was  covered  with 
ex-votos.  In  ISIO  the  convent  of  the  Carmelites  was 
turned  into  a  ijetil  niinlrwire.  In  1866,  the  Cardinal 
Saint  -Mare  laid  and  l)le.s,sed  the  first  stone  of  the 
present  magnificent  basilica.  Finally,  in  1S08, 
Pius  IX  accorded  to  the  statue  of  St.  .Vnne,  before 
which  many  miracles  had  been  wrought,  the  honour 
of  being  crowned.  St.  .\mie  has  continued  to  be 
the  favourite  pilgrimage  of  Brittany  down  to  the 
present  day — 

C'est  notre  m&re  fi.  tous;  mort  ou  vivant,  dit-on, 
A  Sainte-Anne,  une  fois,  doit  aller  tout  Breton. — 

The  basilica,  which  is  in  Renaissance  style,  is  a 
work  of  art.  The  marbles  of  the  high  altar  are  the 
gift  of  Pius  IX;  many  of  the  bsis-reliefs.  with  the 
statues  of  Nicolazic  and  Keriolet,  are  the  work  of 
the  sculptor  Falguiore.  The  principal  pilgrimages 
take  place  at  Pentecost  and  on  the  26  July. 

Nicol.,  Saint*:'Anne  d'Auray  (Suinte  Anne,   IS'Jl  );   Hkckl, 
Souvenirs  du  ptterinuye  de  Sainle  Anne  (Vannes.    1891). 
A.  FoUHNKT. 

Anne  de  Beaupre,  S.\intb. — Devotion  to  Saint 
Anne,  in  Canada,  goes  back  to  the  beginning  of  New 
France,  and  was  brought  thither  by  the  first  settlers 
and  early  missionaries.  The  hardy  pioneers  soon 
began  to  tiU  the  fertile  soil  of  the  Beauprfi  hillside;  in 
the  region  which  now  forms  the  parish  of  Saint  e 
Anne  de  Beaupr6  the  first  hou.ses  date  from  the  year 
1650.  Nor  was  it  long  before  the  settlers  built  them- 
selves a  chapel  where  they  might  meet  for  Divine 
worship.  One  of  their  number,  the  Sieur  Etienne 
Lessard,  offered  to  give  the  land  required  at  the  spot 
which  the  church  authorities  .should  find  suitable. 
On  13  March,  16.58,  therefore,  the  missionary, 
Father  Vignal,  came  to  choose  the  site  and  to  bless 
the  foundations  of  the  jiroposed  chajiel  which,  by 
general  consent,  was  to  be  dedicated  to  St.  Anne. 
That  very  day  the  Saint  showed  how  favourably 
she  viewed  the  undertaking  by  healing  Louis  C!ui- 
mont,  an  inhabitant  of  Beaupr6,  who  suffered  terribly 
from  rheumatism  of  the  loins.  Full  of  confidence  in 
St.  Anne,  he  came  forward  and  jjlaced  three  stones 
in  the  foundations  of  the  new  building,  whereupon 
he  found  himself  suddenly  and  completely  cureu  of 
his  ailment. 

This  first  authentic  miracle  was  the  precursor  of 
countless  other  graces  and  favours  of  all  kinds. 
For  two  centuries  and  a  half  the  great  wonder-worker 
has  ceaselessly  and  lavislily  shown  her  kindness  to  all 
the  sufferers  who  from  all  parts  of  North  America  flock 
every  year  to  Beaupr^  to  implore  her  help.  The 
old  church  was  begun  in  1670.  antl  used  for  worship 
until  1876,  when  it  was  replaced  by  the  present  one, 
opened  in  October  of  that  year.  This  last  w;is  built 
of  cut  stone,  by  means  of  contributions  from  all  the 
Catholics  of  Canada.  The  offerings  made  by  iiilgrims 
have  defrayed  the  cost  of  fittings  and  decoration. 
It  is  two  hundretl  feet  long,  and  one  hundred  wide, 
including  the  side  chajH'ls.  Leo  XIII  raised  it  to 
the  rank  of  a  minor  basilica  5  May,  1887;  on  19  May, 
1889,  it  w.os  solemnly  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Tasch- 
ereau,  .\rchbishop  of  (Juebec.  It  has  been  served 
by  the  Kedemptorists  since  1878.  On  either  side  of 
the  main  doorway  are  huge  pyramids  of  crutches, 
walking-sticks,  bandages,  and  other  appliances  left 
behind  by  the  cripples,  lame,  and  sick,  who,  having 
prayed  to  St.  Anne  at  her  shrine,  have  gone  home 
healed. 

Relics. — The  canons  of  Carcaasonne,  at  the  request 
of  -Mon.scigneur  de  Laval,  first  Bishop  of  t Juebec,  sent 
to  lieauprd  a  large  relic  of  the  finger-bone  of  .Saint 
Anne,  which  w;is  first  exposed  for  veneration  on 
12  .March,  1070,  and  has  ever  since  been  an  ob- 
ject of  great  devotion.     Three  other  rehcs  of  the 


ANNE 


540 


ANNIBALE 


saint  have  been  added  in  later  times  to  the  treasures 
of  this  shrine.  In  1892  Cardinal  Taschereau  pre- 
sented the  Great  Relif;  to  the  basilica,  the  wrist-bone 
of  St.  Anne.  It  measures  four  inches  in  length,  and 
was  brought  from  Home  by  Mgr.  Marquis,  P.A. 

PiLcuiM.VGE. —  The  pilgrimage  to  Beaupr6  has  not 
always  had  the  unportance  which  it  has  gained  in  our 
time.  Only  in  the  last  (juarter  of  the  nineteenth 
centurj'  did  it  attain  to  the  growth,  organization,  and 
fame  which  now  render  it  comparable  with  the  great 
pilgrimage  to  Lourdes.  Until  1875  the  yearly  num- 
ber of  pilgrims  did  not  exceed  12,000,  but  to  judge 
by  the  heap  of  crutches  left  at  the  saint's  feet,  there 
must  always  have  been  many  marvellous  cures 
wrought  at  Beaupr^.  More  favourable  conditions 
have  made  possible  the  truly  wonderful  growth  of 
these  pilgrimages  of  late  years.  The  strong  impulse 
given  by  Cardinal  Taschereau  and  his  suffragans; 
the  zeal  of  the  Canadian  clergy  in  organizing  parish 
and  confraternity  pilgrimages;  the  many  new  rail- 
ways, and,  particularly,  the  line  between  Quebec  and 
Beaupr6  (21  miles);  the  "Annales  de  la  Bonne 
Sainte  Anne",  more  than  40,000  copies  of  which  are 
published  every  month — all  these  have  combined  to 
favour  the  trend  of  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  Beau- 
pr6.  Moreo\er,  devotion  to  St.  Anne  is  to-day 
more  than  ever  the  devotion  of  the  Canadians. 

The  following  figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
growth  of  the  pilgrimages  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years: — In  1880,  36,000  pilgrims  visited  the 
shrine;  in  1890,  105,000;  in  1900,  135,000;  in  1905, 
168,000. 

Annates  de  In  bonne  Sainte  Anne  de  Beaupri  (1905);  Pi/- 
arinis'  and  Visitors'  Guide  to  the  Good  Sainte  Anne  (published 
by  a  Redemptorist  Father,  in  French  and  English,  1904). 

C.  Leclerc. 

Anne  of  Jesus,  Venerablk.     See  Cahmelites. 

Annecy  (Anneciensis),  Diocese  of,  comprises  the 
Department  of  Haute-Savoie  in  France,  with  the 
exception  of  several  parishes  in  the  cantons  of  Alby 
and  Rumilly,  which  belong  to  the  Diocese  of  Chara- 
b^ry,  and  in  addition,  the  canton  of  Ugenes  (De- 
partment of  Savoie).  It  is  suffragan  to  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Chambery.  From  1535  to  1801  the  bishops 
of  Geneva,  exiled  by  the  Reformation  from  Geneva, 
lived  at  Annecy.  St.  Francis  de  Sales  was  Bishop 
of  .\nnecy  from  1602  to  1622.  From  1801  to  1822, 
Annecy  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Chambery  and 
Geneva,  but  was  made  an  episcopal  see  15  Februarj', 
1822,  by  the  bull  "  SoUicita  catholici  gregis  ".  The 
memory  of  St.  Bernard  of  Menthon,  founder  of  the 
hospice  of  the  Grand  St.  Bernard,  is  still  honoured 
in  the  Diocese  of  Annecy.  St.  Francis  de  Sales  and 
St.  Jane  Frances  de  Chantal  foimded  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Visitation  at  Annecy  in  1610;  at  the  death 
of  its  foundress  the  convents  belonging  to  this  order 
numbered  87.  The  relics  of  these  saints  are  pre- 
served in  the  Church  of  the  Visitation  at  Annecy. 
The  ancient  Benedictine  abbey  of  Talloires,  near  the 
Lac  d'Annecy,  lends  a  certain  picturesqueness  to  the 
scene.  The  Dioce.se  of  Annecy  comprised  (end  of 
1905)  267,496  inhabitants,  29  first  class  parishes,  270 
second  class  parishes,  and  167  vicariates,  formerly 
with  state  subventions. 

MERtir.n,  Souvenire  hist.  d'Annecj/  (Annecy,  1878);  Pettex, 
Statittique  hi»t.  du  dioc.  d'Annecy;  Mem.  de  I'acad.  Sales 
(1880),  II,  119-154;  Poucet,  La  cathfdrale  d'-innecy  et  ses 
tombeaux  (Annecy,  1870);  Ducib,  Elude  »ur  Vorigine  d'Annecy 
(Annecy,  18(53). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Annegam,  Joseph, Catholic  theologian  and  popu- 
lar writer,  b.  13  Octol:)er,  1794,  at  Ostbevern  in 
Westphalia;  (I,  8  July,  1843,  at  the  Lyceum  Ilosianum, 
Hraunsberg,  ICast  Prussia,  where  he  was  professor 
of  church  history.  lie  rendered  great  service  to 
Calholic  literature  and  to  the  cau.se  of  the  Church 
in   Germany   by  his   "Universal   History",   written 


primarily  for  Catholic  youth,  and  published  in  eight 
volumes  in  1827-29.  His  purpose  was  frankly 
Catholic;  the  style  is  often  brilliant,  always  pleasing, 
and  well  suited  to  youthful  readers  and  to  the  general 
public.  The  selection  from  the  mass  of  materials 
and  the  arrangement  are  judicious.  Excellent 
features  of  the  History  are  the  numerous  character 
sketches  of  great  historical  personages  and  the 
chronological  tables.  Succeeding  editors  have  kept 
it  abreast  with  the  advance  of  historical  research, 
and  it  remains  a  standard  work  in  Catholic  families 
in  Germany,  where  it  has  taken  the  place  of  anti- 
Catholic  popular  histories.  Annegarn  was  also  the 
author  of  "  Handbuch  der  Patrologie  "  (1839).  (See 
Buchberger  Kirchliches  Handlexicon,  s.  v.). 

Annegarn,  Allgemeine  W eltgeschichte  (Munster,  1899),  8- 
vols.,  8th  ed.;  Compendium  (1898),  3  vols.,  2d  ed. 

B.  Guldner. 

Annibaldi,  Annibale  d',  theologian,  b.  of  a 
Roman  senatorial  family  early  in  the  thirteenth 
century;  d.  at  Rome,  1  September,  1271.  He 
joined  the  Dominican  Order  at  an  early  age  and  was 
sent  to  Paris  to  complete  his  studies.  Here  he 
formed  an  intimate  friendship  with  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  succeeded  him  as  regent  of  studies  at 
the  Convent  of  St.  Jacques.  After  teaching  in  Paris 
for  some  years,  he  was  called  to  Rome  in  1246  by 
Innocent  IV  to  fill  the  post  of  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace.  He  served  in  this  capacity  under  Alexander 
IV  and  Urban  IV,  the  latter  of  whom  created  him 
Cardinal  in  1262.  When  Clement  IV,  in  1265, 
hantletl  over  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to 
Charles  I  of  Anjou,  Annibale  was  put  at  the  head 
of  the  commission  empowered  to  treat  with  the 
monarch  and  register  his  agreement  to  the  papal 
.stipulations.  The  King  received  the  insignia  of 
investiture  at  Rome  from  the  hands  of  the  Cardinal. 
On  6  January,  1266,  Annibale  anointed  and  sol- 
emnly crowned  Charles  I  in  the  Lateran  Church  at 
Rome,  the  Pope  being  detained  at  Perugia.  During 
the  vacancy  succeeding  the  death  of  Clement  IV, 
Annibale  received  and  treated  with  Philip  III  of 
France  and  Charles  I  at  Viterbo  (1270).  During 
a  papal  mission  at  Orvieto,  the  Cardinal  died,  and, 
by  his  own  request,  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  San 
Domenico.  He  was  held  in  great  esteem  during 
life  for  his  learning  and  virtues.  St.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas dedicated  his  "Catena  Aurea"  to  him.  Anni- 
bale, besides  .several  small  theological  treatises  now- 
lost,  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  "Sentences"  and 
"tjuodlibeta",  which  hasbeenascribed  to  St.  Thomas, 
and  published  with  his  works  even  as  recently  as  the 
Paris  edition  of  1889,  by  J>ette.  A  manuscript  in 
the  Carmelite  monastery  in  Paris  calls  Annibale  a 
Carmelite  who  later  became  a  Cistercian  abbot.  But 
Echard  shows  that  no  man  of  that  name  belonged 
to  either  order  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century. 

QuiTiF  AND  Echard,  SS.  Ord.  Pra-d.,  I,  261;  Tot'RoN, 
Hommes  ilhtstres  de  I'ordre  de  Saint  Dominique,  I,  2(52-1*09; 
EuBEL,  llierarckia  Calholica,  I,  8;  Cattalani,  De  Magislro 
Sacri  Palatii  Apostolici  (Rome,  1751),  57-59;  Duchesne, 
Histoire  de  toujt  les  cardinaui  jran^ais  de  naissance  (Paris. 
1699),  II,  277,  278;  Masetti,  Monumenta  Ordinis  Frmlicatorum 
Antiqua  (Rome,  1864),  I,  301;  Feret,  La  faculli  de  theologie 
de  Paris  au  moyen  dge,  II,  550,  553. 

Thos.  M.  Schwertner. 

Annibale,  Giuseppe  d',  Cardinal,  a  theologian, 
b.  at  Borbona  in  the  Diocese  of  Rieti,  22  September, 
1815;  d.  at  the  same  place,  18  July,  1892.  He  was 
appointed  i)rofessor  in  the  Seminary  of  Rieti  and  later 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese.  He  was  preconized 
Titular  Bishop  of  Caryste  by  Leo  XIII,  12  Aug., 
1881,  wiis  created  Cardinal-Priest  of  Sts.  Boniface 
and  .\lcxis,  11  Feb.,  1SS9,  and  became  Prefect  of  the 
Congregation  of  Iiuliilgcnccs.  His  treatise  on  moral 
tluMildgy  is  entitled  "Sunnnula  theologiie  moralis", 
(Milan,  1881-83).     -Vnother  work,  a  commentary  on 


ANNIUS 


541 


ANNUNCIATION 


the  Constitution,  "Apostoliea?  Sedis"  (Ricti,  1880), 
is  also  valuable  to  tlieologians  and  canonists. 

HuRTFR.  NotnencUxloT,  111,  1448;  Heuonet,  in  I>icl.  de 
Thiol.  Cath..  a.  v. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Annius  of  Viterbo  (Giovanni  Nanni),  arclieolo- 
gi.-i|  and  historian,  b.  at  Viterbo  about  1432;  d. 
13  November,  \M2.  He  entered  tlie  Dominican 
Order  early  in  life  and  won  fame  as  a  preacher  and 
writer,  lie  was  higlily  esteemed  by  Si.xtus  IV  and 
Alexander  VI;  the  latter  made  liim  Master  of  tlie 
Sacred  Palace.  He  was  skilled  in  the  Oriental 
languages,  and  was  so  devoted  a  student  of  chissical 
anti<iuity  that  he  changed  his  name  to  one  that 
reminded  him  of  Home's  Golden  Age.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  may  Ije  mentioned:  (1)  "De  fu- 
turis  Christianoruni  triumnliis  in  Turcos  et  Sara- 
cenos";  a  commentarj'  on  tne  Apocalyixsc,  dedicated 
to  Sixtus  IV,  to  Christian  kings,  princes,  and  gov- 
ernments (Genoa,  1480);  "Tractatus  ile  imperio 
Turcorum"  (Genoa,  1480).  He  is  best  known,  how- 
ever, by  his  "  Antiquitatum  Varianun  ".  17  vols. 
(Venice,  1499,  el  seep.).  In  tliis  work  he  published 
alleged  writings  and  fragments  of  several  pre- 
Christian  Greek  and  Latin  profane  authors,  destined 
to  throw  an  entirely  new  liglit  on  ancient  history. 
He  claimed  to  have  discovered  them  at  Mantua. 
This  work  met  at  once  both  witii  believers  in  the 
genuineness  of  his  sources,  and  with  .severe  critics 
who  accused  him  of  wilful  interpolation,  or  even 
fabrication.  The  spurious  cliaractcr  of  these  "his- 
torians" of  Annius,  whicli  he  publislied  both  with 
and  witliout  conunentaries,  lias  long  been  admitted. 
It  would  appear  that  he  wiis  too  credulous,  and  really 
believed  the  texts  to  be  autlientic.  It  may  be  re- 
called that  Colbert  left  to  the  liibtiothique  Rationale 
at  Paris  a  manuscript  of  tlie  tiiirteentli  centurj', 
supposed  to  contain  fragments  of  tlio  writings  of 
two  of  these  writers,  i.  e.  Berosus  and  M('i;a.-itlienes. 
The  more  important  of  liis  unpulili.shcd  works  are: 
"Volumen  libris  septuaginta  distinctum  dc  anti- 
quitatil)us  ot  gestis  Etruscorum";  "De  corrcctione 
typograpliica  chroniconim";  "  De  dignitate  otficii 
Magistri  8acri  Palatii",  and  lastly,  his  "Chronologia 
Nova",  wherein  he  undertakes  to  correct  the  anach- 
ronisms in  the  writings  of  Eusebius  of  Cffisarea. 

Stahl,    in    Kirchrrtlej.,    I,    860-867;    HcRTER,    Nomencta- 
tOT,  IV,    954-955;  Tocron,  Hommet  ill.  de  Vordre  de  S.  Domi- 
nique, III,  655;  QcfcriF  and  Ecbard,  S.S".  Ord.  Prod.,  II,  4-7. 
Jos.  SCHROEDER. 

Anniversary.    See  Feast. 

Anno,  (or  II.\xno)  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Cologne 
in  l().5o.  When  very  young  he  entered  the  eccle- 
siastical state,  under  the  guidance  of  his  uncle,  a 
canon  of  Baml)erg.  He  had  formerly  adopted  tlie 
profession  of  arms.  His  att;iinnients  Iwth  in  sacred 
and  profane  learning,  as  well  xs  his  unusu.il  virtue, 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  lOmjieror  Hcnrj'  III 
who  called  him  to  his  court.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  man  of  remarkably  handsome  presence  and  of  rare 
eloquence  and  in  a  very  special  way  adapted  for  great 
undertakings.  A  lover  of  right  and  justice,  he  de- 
fended them  fearlessly  in  all  circumstances.  He 
was  made  Archbisliop  of  Cologne,  and  liis  consecra- 
tion was  a  scene  of  unwonted  splendour,  though 
very  frj'ing  to  him,  as  he  accepted  the  olFice  witli  the 

f-eatest  repugnance.  At  the  death  of  Hcnrj-.  the 
mpress  Agnes  made  him  regent  of  tlie  empire, 
and  entrusted  him  with  the  education  of  the  young 
prince,  afterwards  Henrj'  IV,  who  had  already  been 
corruptefl  by  tlie  flatterers  who  surrounded  him. 
The  Archbishop's  strictness  was  soon  found  to  be 
distasteful  to  the  prince,  and  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office  of  regent,  but  the  disorders  which  followed 
on  account  of  the  exactions  and  injustice  of  those 
who  were  attached  to  Heiirj'  became  so  unbearable 


that  in  1072  Anno  sigain  resumed  the  reins  of 
government. 

The  Church  at  that  time  was  torn  by  tlie  schisma 
of  antipoix^i.  Anno  joined  witli  Ilildcbrand  and 
St.  Peter  Damian  in  the  work  of  order  and  refor- 
mation. Hergenrother,  however,  speaks  of  "the  dis- 
content of  the  court  of  ( iermany  because  of  the 
fre<iuent  sharp  reprehensions  addressed  to  the 
iiowerful  Anno  by  Pofje  Nicholas  II"  (Hist,  de 
I'^glise,  III,  283).  It  was  probably  because  of  a 
plea  for  more  [xiwer  to  be  given  to  the  Geriiiaii 
emperors  in  papal  elections.  The  feeling  was  .so 
bitter  in  Germany  tiiat  a  union  was  made  with 
the  bad  elements  of  Italy,  and  an  anti|)ope  in  the 
t)crson  of  Cadalus,  the  Bishop  of  Parma,  was  put 
forward.  The  rightful  Pope,  at  the  time,  was  Alex- 
ander II.  At  a  great  lussembly  held  at  Augsburg  in 
1002,  Anno  pronounced  a  discourse  in  favour  of 
Alexander,  but  wsis  unable  to  obtain  the  adhercme 
of  all  the  bishops.  A  council  at  Mantua  ruled  in 
favour  of  Alexander;  the  Empress  Agnes  had  been 
won  over  by  St.  Peter  Damian-  but  the  influence  of 
Adalbert,  the  .Archbishop  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  and 
others  prevailed  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  separate  CJermany  altogether  from  Cadalus, 
who,  however,  died  four  years  later.  According  to 
Hergenrotlier  (Hist,  de  r('>gliso.  III,  377),  the  auto- 
cratic nepotism  of  prelates,  so  common  then,  was 
shared  by  Anno,  and  he  instances  the  giving  of  the 
Archbishopric  of  Trier  to  his  nephew  Cunon,  who 
because  of  it  was  assa,ssinated  shortly  after  his  ap- 
pointment.  Whether  or  not  this  be  true,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  cares  of  state  did  not  prevent  Anno 
from  fulfilling  his  duty  as  a  bishop.  His  prayer  was 
continuous,  iiis  austerities  extreme,  his  preaching 
incessant,  his  charity  inexhaustible.  He  reformed 
all  the  monasteries  of  his  diocese  and  established  five 
new  ones  for  tlie  Canons  Hegiilar  and  Benedictin&s. 
He  died  4  December,  1075,  and  was  canonized 
shortly  afterwards. 

HEBGENnoTUKK.  //w/.  <U  ii'tjli^r;  Butler,  Livea  of  the 
Sainta,  4  Dec.;  Michaud,  Bioo.  Univ. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Anno  Domini.     See  Chronology,  Christian. 

Annulment.     See  Mahri.vge;  Vows. 

Annulus  Piscatoris  (Ring  of  the  Fisherman). 
See  Ring. 

Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  'Virgin  Mary,  The 
Fact  of  thk.  is  related  in  I.ukc.  i,  20-158.  Tlie 
Evangelist  tells  us  that  in  the  sixth  month  after 
the  conception  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  by  Eliza- 
beth, the  angel  Gabriel  was  sent  from  God  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  at  Nazareth,  a  small  town  in  the 
mountains  of  Galilee.  Mary  was  of  the  house  of 
David,  and  w:is  espoused  (i.  e.  married)  to  Joseph, 
of  the  same  royal  family.  She  had,  however,  not 
yet  entered  the  hou.sehold  of  her  spouse,  but  w;is 
still  in  her  mother's  house,  working,  perhaps,  over 
her  dowTy.  (Bardenhewer,  Maria  VcrK.,  09).  -Vnd 
the  angel  having  taken  the  figure  and  the  form  of 
man,  came  into  the  house  and  said  to  her:  "  Hail, 
full  of  grace  (to  whom  is  given  grace,  favoured  one), 
the  Ix)rd  is  with  thee."  Mary  having  heard  the 
greeting  words  did  not  speak;  she  was  troubled  in 
.spirit,  since  she  knew  not  the  angel,  nor  the  cause  of 
his  coming,  nor  the  meaning  of  the  salutation. 
And  the  angel  continued  and  .said:  "Fear  not,  Marj-, 
for  thou  hast  found  grace  with  God.  Behold  thou 
shalt  conceive  in  thy  womb,  and  shalt  bring  forth  a 
son ;  and  thou  shalt  call  his  name  Jesus.  He  shall 
be  great,  and  .shall  be  called  the  Son  of  the  Most  High; 
and  tlie  Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the  throne  of 
David  his  father;  and  he  shall  reign  in  the  house  of 
Jacob  forever.  And  of  his  kingdom  there  shall  be 
no  end."  The  Virgin  understood  that  there  w:us 
question  of  the  coining  Redeemer.     But,  why  should 


ANNUNCIATION 


542 


ANNUNCIATION 


she  be  electc<l  from  amongst  women  for  the  spleiulid 
tlignity  ol  being  tlic  mother  of  the  Messiah,  having 
vowetl  her  virginity  to  God?  (St.  Augustine). 
Therefore,  not  doubting  the  word  of  God  like  Zachary, 
but  filknl  with  fear  and  astonishment,  .she  said: 
•'  How  shall  this  be  done,  because  I  know  not  man?" 

The  angel  to  remove  Mary's  anxiety  and  to  assure 
her  that  her  virginity  would  be  spared,  answered: 
"Tlie  Holy  Ghost  shall  come  upon  thee  and  the 
power  of  the  Most  High  shall  overshadow  thee. 
Anil  therefore  also  the  Holy  which  shall  be  born  of 
tlice  shall  be  called  the  Son  of  God."  In  token  of 
the  truth  of  his  word  he  made  known  to  her  the  con- 
ception of  St.  John,  the  miraculous  pregnancy  of 
her  relative  now  old  and  sterile:  "And  behold,  thy 
cousin  Elizabeth;  slie  also  has  conceived  a  son  in  her 
qIiI  age,  and  this  is  the  sixth  month  with  her  that  is 
called  barren:  because  no  word  shall  be  impossible 
with  God."  Mary  may  not  yet  have  fully  under- 
stood the  meaning  of  the  heavenly  message  and  how 
the  maternity  might  be  reconciled  with  her  vow  of 
virginity,  but  clinging  to  the  first  words  of  the  angel 
and  trusting  to  the  Omnipotence  of  God  she  saiil: 
•'  Behold  the  handmaid  of  the  Lord,  be  it  done  to 
me  according  to  thy  word." 

Since  1SS9  Holzmann  and  many  Protestant  writers 
have  tried  tci  sliow  that  the  verses  Luke  i,  34,  35, 
containitig  tlie  message  of  conception  through  the 
Holy  Ghost  are  interpolated.  Usener  derives  the 
origin  of  the  "myth "  from  the  heathen  hero  worship; 
but  Harnack  tries  to  prove  that  it  is  of  Judaic  origin 
(Isaias,  \'ii,  1-1,  Behold  a  Virgin  shall  conceive,  etc.). 
Bardenhewer,  however,  has  fully  established  the 
authenticity  of  the  text  (p.  13).  St.  Luke  may  have 
taken  his  knowledge  of  the  event  from  an  older 
account,  written  in  Aramaic  or  Hebrew.  The  words: 
"I'.lessed  art  thou  among  women"  (v.  2S),  are 
spurious  and  taken  from  verse  42,  the  account  of  the 
Visitation.  Cardinal  Cajetan  wanted  to  understand 
the  words:  "because  I  know  not  man",  not  of  the 
future,  but  only  of  the  past:  up  to  this  hour  I  do  not 
know  man.  Tliis  manifest  error,  which  contradicts 
the  words  of  the  text,  has  been  universally  rejected 
by  all  Catholic  authors.  The  opinion  that  Joseph 
at  the  time  of  the  Annunciation  was  an  aged  widower 
and  Mary  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  age,  is  founded 
only  upon  apocryphal  documents.  The  local 
tradition  of  Nazareth  pretends  that  the  angel  met 
Mary  and  greeted  her  at  the  fountain,  and  when  she 
Hed  from  liim  in  fear,  he  followed  her  into  the  house 
an<l  there  continued  liis  message.  (Buhl,  Geogr. 
V.  Pahest.,  1890.)  The  year  and  day  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion cannot  be  determined  as  long  as  new  material 
does  not  throw  more  light  on  the  subject.  The  pres- 
ent date  of  the  feast  (25  March)  depends  upon  the 
date  of  the  older  feast  of  Christmas. 

The  Aimunciation  is  the  beginning  of  Jesus  in  His 
human  nature.  Through  His  mother  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  human  race.  If  the  virginity  of  Mary 
before,  during,  and  after  the  conception  of  her 
Divine  Son  was  always  considered  part  of  the  deposit 
of  faith,  this  was  done  only  on  account  of  the  liistorical 
f.^icts  and  testimonials.  The  Incarnarion  of  the 
Son  of  God  did  not  in  itself  necessitate  this  exception 
from  the  laws  of  nature.  Only  reasons  of  expediency 
are  given  for  it,  chiefly,  the  end  of  the  Incarnation. 
About  to  found  a  new  generation  of  the  ehililren  of 
God,  the  Uedecmer  does  not  arrive  in  the  way  of 
earthly  generations:  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
enters  the  chaste  womb  of  the  Virgin,  forming  the 
humanity  of  Christ.  Many  holy  fathers  (Sts.  Jerome, 
<  ynl  l'.phreni.  Augustine)  say  that  the  coasent 
of  .Mary  w:ls  essential  to  the  redemption.  It  was 
the  will  of  GofI,  St.  Thomas  says  (Smnma,  III- 
A.\.\)  that  Ihe  redemption  of  in:inkind  should 
depend  u|«>n  the  con.sent  of  the  Virgin  Marv  This 
does  not  mean  that  God  in  His  plans  was  bound  by 


the  will  of  a  creature,  and  that  man  would  not  have 
been  redeemed,  if  Mary  had  not  consented.  It 
only  means  that  the  consent  of  Mary  wa.s  foreseen 
from  all  eternity,  and  therefore  was  received  as 
essential  into  the  design  of  God. 

Frederick  G.  Holweck. 

Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Thet 

Fe.\st  of  the.  25  March,  also  called  in  old  calendars: 
Festu.m  Inc.\rx.\tio.\i.s,  Ixitium  Rede.mptio.vis,. 
CoxcEPTio  Christi,  Annunti.vtio  Christi,  An- 
NUNTi.i^Tio  DojiiNic.\.  In  tlie  Orient,  where  the 
part  which  Mary  took  in  the  Redemption  is 
celebrated  by  a  special  feast,  26  December,  the 
Annunciation  is  a  feast  of  Christ;  in  the  Latin  Church, 
it  is  a  feast  of  Mary.  It  probably  originated  shortly 
before  or  after  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (c.  431). 
At  the  time  of  the  Synod  of  Laodicea  (372)  it  was. 
not  known;  St.  Proclus,  Bishop  of  Constantinople 
(d.  446),  however,  seems  to  mention  it  in  one  of  his- 
homilies.  He  says,  that  the  feast  of  the  coming  of 
Our  Lord  and  Sa\aour,  when  He  vested  Himself  with 
the  nature  of  man  {quo  hominum  genus  indutus),  was 
celebrated  during  the  entire  fifth  century.  This 
homily,  however,  may  not  be  genuine,  or  the  words 
may  be  imderstood  of  the  feast  of  Christmas. 

In  the  Latin  Church  this  feast  is  first  mentioned 
in  the  Sacramentarium  of  Pope  Gelasius  (d.  496), 
which  we  possess  in  a  manuscript  of  the  seventh 
century;  it  is  also  contained  in  the  Sacramentarium 
of  St.  Gregory  (d.  604),  one  manuscript  of  which 
dates  back  to  the  eighth  century.  Since  these- 
sacramentaries  contain  additions  posterior  to  the- 
time  of  Gelasius  and  Gregory,  Duchesne  (Origines 
du  culte  Chretien,  118,  261)  ascribes  the  origin  of  this 
feast  in  Rome  to  the  seventh  century;  Probst, 
however,  (Sacramentarien,  264)  thinks  that  it  really 
belongs  to  the  time  of  Pope  Gelasius.  The  tenth 
Synod  of  Toledo  (656),  and  TruUan  Sjaiod  (692) 
speak  of  tliis  feast  as  one  universally  celebrated  in 
the  Catholic  Church. 

All  Christian  antiquity  (against  all  astronomical 
possibility)  recognized  the  25th  of  March  as  the 
actual  day  of  Our  Lord's  death.  The  opinion  that 
the  Incarnation  also  took  place  on  that  date  is  found 
in  the  pseiido  Cyprianic  work  "  De  Pascha  Computus  ", 
c.  240.  It  argues  that  the  coming  of  Our  Lord  and 
His  death  must  have  coincided  with  the  creation  and 
fall  of  Adam.  And  since  the  -n'orld  was  created  in 
spring,  the  Saviour  w-as  also  conceived  and  died 
shortly  after  the  equinox  of  spring.  Similar  fanciful 
calculations  are  found  in  the  early  and  later  Middle 
Ages,  and  to  them,  no  doubt,  the  dates  of  the  feast  of 
the  Annunciation  and  of  Christmas  owe  their  origin. 
Consequently  the  ancient  martyrologics  assign  to 
the  25th  of  March  the  creation  of  .-Vdam  and  the 
crucifixion  of  Our  Lord;  also,  the  fall  of  Lucifer,  the 
passing  of  Israel  through  the  Red  Sea  and  the  immo- 
lation of  Isaac.  (Thurston,  Christmas  and  the 
Christian  Calendar,  Ainer.  Eccl.  Rev.,  XIX,  568.) 
The  original  date  of  this  feast  was  the  25th  of  Marcli. 
Althougli  in  olden  times  most  of  the  churches  kept 
no  feast  in  Lent,  the  Greek  Church  in  the  Trullan 
Synod  (In  692;  can.  52)  made  an  exception  in  favour 
of  the  Annunciation.  In  Rome,  it  was  always 
celebrated  on  the  25th  of  March.  The  Spanish 
Church  transferred  it  to  the  ISth  of  December,  and 
when  some  tried  to  introduce  the  Roman  observance 
of  it  on  the  25th  of  March,  the  18th  of  December  was. 
officially  confirmed  in  tlie  wliole  Spanish  Church 
by  the  tcntli  Synotl  of  Toledo  (656).  This  law  was 
abolished  when  the  Roman  Uturgy  was  accepted  in 
Spain. 

The  church  of  Milan,  up  to  our  times,  assigns  the 
office  of  this  feast  to  tlic  last  Sunday  in  .-Vilvent. 
On  the  25th  of  March  a  Mass  is  sung  in  honour  of  the 
Annunciation.     {Ordo     Arnbrosianus,     1906;  Magis- 


ANNUNCIATION 


543 


ANQUETIL 


tretti,  neroltlus,  13G.)  The  schismatic  Armenians 
now  celebrate  tliis  feast  on  the  7th  of  April.  .Since 
i^pipliany  for  tlieni  is  the  feast  of  the  l)irth  of  Christ, 
tlie  Armenian  Cliuroli  formerly  assifjnetl  the  Annun- 
ciation to  5  January,  tlie  vigil  of  Kpiphany.  This 
feast  was  always  a  holy  day  of  obligation  in  the 
I'niversal  Cliurch.  As  such  it  has  been  abrogalcrl  for 
I'rance  anil  the  French  ilepencleiicics,  for  the  I'nited 
States,  for  England  and  Scotland,  though  not 
for  Ireland.  By  a  decree  of  the  S.  H.  ('.,  2:{  .\pril, 
l,s;).3,  the  rank  of  the  feast  was  raised  from  a  double 
of  the  second  cla.ss  to  a  double  of  the  first  class.  If 
this  feast  falls  within  Holy  Week  or  Easter  Week, 
its  office  is  transferred  to  the  Monday  after  the 
octave  of  Easter.  In  some  tSerman  churches  it 
was  the  custom  to  keep  its  office  the  Saturday 
before  I'alm  Similay  if  the  '2'>th  of  March  fell  in 
Holy  Week.  The  (ireek  Church,  when  the  L'oth  of 
March  occurs  on  one  of  the  three  last  days  in  Holy 
Week,  transfers  the  Annunciation  to  Easter  Monday; 
on  all  other  days,  even  on  Easter  Sunday,  its  office  is 
kept  together  wnth  the  office  of  the  day.  Although 
no  octaves  are  permitted  in  Lent,  the  Dioceses  of 
Lori'lo  and  of  the  Province  of  Venice,  the  Car- 
melites, Dominicans,  Servites,  and  Redemptorists, 
celebrate  this  feast  with  an  octave. 

J\KLL.\KR,  Ueortolot/ie  (Kreil)urg,  1901),  14(j;  IIoi.wkck, 
Fnali  Mariani  (Herder,  1892),  45;  Schhod,  in  Kirchentex., 
VUI.  82. 

Fhederick  G.  Holweck. 

Annunciation,  The  Milit.\hy  Oudehs  of  the. 
See  .Mii.iT  vuv  Okdeus. 

Annunciation,  The  Oudehs  of  the. — I.  Annux- 
ciADKs,  a  iieiiitential  order  founded  by  St.  Jeanne 
de  Valois  (b.  Ut>4;  d.  4  February,  1.30.')),  daughter 
of  Louis  XI  of  France,  anil  wife  of  the  Dulce  of 
Orleans,  later  Louis  XIL  .\fter  the  annulment  of 
I'.er  marriage  with  Louis  XTI  she  retired  to  Hourges, 
where,  overcoming  the  opposition  of  her  confes.sor 
F'athcrOilbert  Xicolai.and  the  coimsellorsof  the  Pope, 
she  succeeded  in  her  design  of  founding  an  order  in 
honour  of  the  .\imimeialion  of  the  Bles.sed  Virgin 
Marj'.  She  herself  composed  the  Rule,  entitled 
"The  Ten  Virtues  of  the  Blessed  Virgin",  the  imita- 
tion of  which  she  i)ri)posed  as  the  aim  of  the  order. 
It  was  confirmed  l)y  .\lexander  VI  (l.')01),and  .S  Octo- 
ber, l.")()_',  the  first  five  members  receiveil  the  veil, 
the  foumlress  herself  taking  solemn  vows  4  June, 
l.')03.  Father  (iaijriel  Kicolai,  whose  name  was 
changed  by  Brief  of  .Mexander  VI  toGabriele  Maria, 
was  constituted  Superior,  and  after  rcvi.sing  the 
constitutions,  presented  them  for  confirmation  to 
Leo  X  (1.517),  who  placed  the  Order  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Order  of  St.  F'rancis.  In  addition 
to  the  triple  vow  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience, 
the  memoers  were  bound  to  the  recitation  of  the 
Office,  the  ob.servance  of  cloistral  rule,  and  the  wear- 
ing of  the  habit.  This  is  grey  with  scarlet  scapular 
and  white  mantle.  Foimdations  were  made  in 
France,  but  tliil  not  sur\-ive  the  Revolution.  During 
its  most  flourishing  period  the  Order  po.sse.s.sed 
fortj'-five  cotivents  in  FVance  anil  Belgium,  of  which 
.several  still  exist  in  the  latter  country.  The  found- 
ress was  canonized  in  1775. 

II.  .\nni'nci.^de.s.  Celestial,  a  religious  order 
for  women  founded  by  Bl.  Mari.a  Vittoria  Fornari 
(b.  l.-)0'.';  d.  1.')  December,  l(il7)  at  Genoa.  The 
death  of  her  husband,  .\ngelo  Strata,  left  her  the  care 
of  .six  children,  and  it  wa.s  only  after  they  h.ad  entered 
the  religious  life  that  she  w.a.s  free  to  carrj-  out  her 
life  work,  for  which  she  hail  been  preparing  by 
retirement  and  the  practice  of  austere  virtue.  Her 
lack  of  temporal  means  for  some  time  caused  her 
director.  I'ather  Bernardino  Zannoni  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  and  the  .Vrchbishop  of  Genoa  to  withhold 
their  consent,  which,  however,  wa.s  finally  obtained 
(1602),  anil  a  convent  was  erected  at  the  expense  of 


one  of  her  companions,  Vincenza  LomcUini.  Father 
Zannoni  drew  up  the  constitutions  for  the  religious. 
Clement  VI II  approved  them  in  1(J04,  placing  the 
Order  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  In  the 
same  year  tim  members  were  receiveil,  each  aiKling 
the  name  -Maria  .Vnnunziata  to  her  baptismal  or 
religions  name,  and  they  made  their  .soliiun  vows 
7  .September,  Kit).").  The  second  foundation  was 
made  in  Kill',  and  the  third  a  little  later  in  Burgundy; 
after  which  the  Order  spread  through  Frame,  Ger- 
many, ami  Denmark.  The  constitutions  were 
confirmed  l)y  Paul  V  (lOLi),  Gregorj'  XV,  and 
Urban  VIII  (Hi:}!).  The  cloister  is  unusually  rigid, 
and  the  members  ilevote  much  of  their  time  to  pre- 
paring vestments  and  altar  linen  for  poor  churdies. 

III.  .\.\Nu.N'ci.\TES  OF  LoMii.\Ki)V,  a  religious  order 
of  lyombardy  known  as  .Vmbrosians,  Sisters  of  St. 
Ambro.se,  or  Sisters  of  St.  Marcellina,  organized  at 
Pa  via  in  140H  by  young  women  from  Venice  and 
Pavia,  under  the  direction  of  Father  Beccaria,  O.S.B., 
for  the  care  of  the  sick,  and  at  a  later  date  placed 
under  the  Rule  of  .St.  .\ugustine.  The  constitutions, 
providing  for  a  prioress-general  assisted  by  three 
visitors,  were  approved  by  Nicholas  V  but  atnended 
by  Pius  V.  Eventually  each  convent  became  sub- 
ject to  the  ordinary  of  its  own  diocese.  Among  the 
many  saints  belonging  to  this  Order  is  St.  Catherine 
Fieschi  of  Genoa. 

IV.  Ahchconfr.vternity  of  the  Annunci.\tion, 
established  in  14(10  in  Rome  in  order  to  provide 
dowries  for  poor  girls.  During  the  pontificate  of 
Pius  II  it  was  connected  with  the  Dominican  Church 
of  the  Minerva  in  w'hich  was  built  later  the  beautiful 
chapel  of  the  .Vnmmciation.  At  an  earlier  period 
the  Pope  himself  iiresided  at  the  annual  ceremonies 
held  25  March,  and  presented  with  his  own  hand 
the  documents  entitling  the  recipients  to  the  dower. 
This  association  has  received  large  bequests,  and 
benefits  on  an  average  four  lumilred  persons  yearly. 
The  money  gift  is  now  twenty-five  scudi  (S25.00)  for 
those  about  to  marry,  and  fifty  for  those  entering  a 
religious  order. 

V.  .Vn'nunziata,  a  name  by  which  the  Servites 
are  sometimes  known,  their  chief  monastery  at 
I'lorence,  Italy,  being  deilicated  to  the  .Ajinunciation. 

B.\CKli  in  KirchenleT,;  Acta  .S.S..  -t  Feb.;  Spinoi.a.  Vita 
delta  Ten.  Maria  Vittoria  (Ciuiioa  1049);  \'ictor.  Tableau  de 
Pari«,  II,  1184;  i\i:h\OT,  Hint,  des  ordres  mona9tiquc8,  relif/ieux, 
etc.  (Paris,  1714);  Touron.  Ili«t,  dvs  hommca  illuatres  de  I'ordre 
de  SI.  Dominique  (Paris,  1746)  III,  435. 

F.  M.  RuDOE. 

Annus  Sanctus.    See  Juiulee  Year. 

Anointing.  See  Baitism;  Co.nfirmatiox;  Ex- 
Ti'.E.Mi-;  I.mtion;  Order. 

Anquetil,  Louis-Pierre,  a  French  historian,  b. 
in  Paris.  21  Feb.,  1723;  d.  6  Sept.,  ISOG.  He  entered 
the  Congregation  of  Sainte-Genevidve  when  seventeen 
anil  became  a  priest.  He  taught  theologj'  ami  letters 
there;  then  became  director  of  the  seminary  at 
Reims,  and  wrote  a  history  of  that  city,  his  first 
historical  work.  In  1759  he  became  prior  of  the 
abbey  of  La  Roe,  in  .\njou.  and  soon  after  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  college  of  Scnlis,  which  be- 
longed to  his  order.  Here  he  wrote  his  "Histoire 
de  la  Ligue".  In  17(iC  he  obtained  a  priory  at 
CliAteau-Renard  and  abandoned  teaching.  Auout 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  he  became  curi5  of  La 
Villette  near  Paris.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror 
he  was  imprisoned  for  some  time  at  Saint  Lazare 
where  he  workeil  on  his  "  HLstoire  I'niverselle". 
When  releaseil  after  9  Thermidor  he  finished  it. 
His  last  work,  "Histoire  de  France",  states  in  the 
preface  that  .\nquctil  midertook  it  at  Napoleon's 
request.  It  reveals  the  weakening  of  his  powers  by 
old  age.  .\uguslin  Thierry  (tjuatri^mc  let  t  re  sur 
I'llistoirc  de  F'rance)  calls  the  work  "cold  and 
colourless"  and  says  .\nquetil  compares  unfavour- 


ANSALDI 


544 


ANSCHAR 


ably  with  the  French  historians  M^zeray,  Daniel,  and 
Velly,  altlioxigh  he  admits  that  he  could  freely  grasp 
the  manners  and  spirit  of  a  past  age  when  he  studied 
them  in  their  original  sources.  Anquetil's  works 
are:  1.  "M(5moire  servant  de  r^ponse  pour  le  sieur 
Delaistre,  libraire  ;\  Reims,  contre  le  sieur  Anquetil" 
(Reims,  1758);  2.  "  Ahnanach  de  Reims"  (1754); 
3.  "  Ksprit  (ie  la  Ligue,  ou  Histoire  politique  des 
troubles  de  la  Fronde  pendant  le  XVP  et  le  XVIP 
sidcle"  (1767,  3  vols.);  4.  "Vie  du  mardchal  de 
Villars,  ^crite  par  lui-meme",  followed  by  "Journal 
de  la  Gourde  1724  k  1734"  (1787);  5.  "Louis  XIV, 
sa  Cour  et  le  Regent"  (1789);  "Precis  de  I'Histoire 
universelle"  (1797);  "Histoire  de  France  depuis  les 
Gaules  jusqu'^  la  fin  de  la  monarchie"  (1805); 
"Notice  sur  la  vie  de  M.  Anquetil-Duperron ". 
This  was  his  brotlier,  a  notable  Orientalist,  his 
junior  by  eight  years,  who  died  one  year  before 
him. 

Qd^rahd,  La  France  litteraire. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 
Ansaldi,  C.\sto  Innocenzio,  theologian  and 
archaeologist,  b.  at  Piacenza,  in  Italy,  7  March,  1710; 
d.  at  Turin,  in  1780.  In  1726  he  entered  the  Domin- 
ican Order  at  Parma,  where  he  pursued  his  prepara- 
tory studies,  and  in  1733  was  a  student  of  the  Minerva 
College  at  Rome,  where  he  attached  liimself  to  Cardi- 
nal Orsi.  In  1735  he  tauglit  philosophy  at  Santa 
Caterina  in  Naples,  and  the  following  year  received 
tlie  cliair  of  metaphysics  at  tlie  University.  The 
King  of  Naples  created  a  chair  of  theology  for  him 
in  l737,  which  he  retained  till  1745.  From  1745  to 
1770  he  tauglit  successively  at  Brescia,  Ferrara,  and 
Turin.  In  the  latter  city  he  tauglit  for  twenty  years 
witli  great  success  and  repute.  He  was  averse  to  the 
scholastic  method  and  therefore  had  serious  trouble 
witli  the  authorities  of  the  Order,  which  was  finally 
smoothed  over  by  Cardinal  Quirini  and  Bene- 
dict XIV.  His  publislied  works  fill  several  volumes, 
and  have  ever  been  prized  for  a  combination  of 
theological  and  historical  erudition.  Most  of  them 
are  directed  against  the  anti-Christian  tendencies  of 
his  day.  His  most  important  works  are:  "Patri- 
arehre  Josephi,  .^Egypti  olim  proregis,  religio  a  crim- 
inationibus  Basnagii  vindicata"  (Naples,  1738), 
vol.  XIII  in  tlie  "Raccolta  d'opuscoli  di  P.  Caloger^" 
(Venice,  1741);  "De  traditione  principiorum  legis 
naturalis"  (Brescia,  1743;  Oxford,  1765);  "De  Ro- 
mana  tutelarium  deorura  in  oppugnationibus  urbium 
evocatione  liber  singularis"  (Brescia,  1742;  Venice, 
1753,  1761,  Oxford,  1765);  "De  martyribus  sine  san- 
guine" (Milan,  1744;  Venice,  1756,  in  the  "Thesaurus 
antiquitatum  sacrarum"  of  Ugolini),  a  valual^le 
anti-Dodwellian  dissertation  on  the  sufferings  of  the 
primitive  Christians;  "Herodiani  infanticidii  vin- 
diciie"  against  those  who  impugned  its  historicity 
(Brescia,  1746);  "De  authenticis  .sacrarum  Scriptu- 
rarum  lectionibus"  (Verona,  1747),  a  very  learned 
and  solid  work  in  favour  of  the  accuracy  of  the 
P'athers  in  q\ioting  Scripture;  "De  baptismate  in 
Spiritu  Sancto  et  igni  commentarius  sacer  philologico- 
criticus"  (.Milan,  1752);  "De  Theurgia  deque  tlicurgi- 
cis  a  divo  Paulo  memoratis  commentarius"  (Milan, 
1761);  "  Riflessioni  sopra  i  mezzi  di  perfezionare  la 
filosfia  morale"  (Turin,  1778),  with  a  biography  of 
the  autlior;  "  De  porfectione  morali"  (Turin,  1790); 
"  I'ru'lectiones  theologicx  de  re  sacramentaria " 
(Venice,  1792);  His  controversy  witli  France.sco 
Zanotti  in  defence  of  Maupertuis's  apology  (Berlin, 
1719j  for  Christian  morality,  as  superior  to  tliat  of 
the  Stoics,  was  celebrated  in  tlie  eighteenth  century. 
He  also  compiled:  "Delia  necessitil  e  veritii  della 
ri-ligione  naturale  c  rivelata"  (Venice,  17.55),  a  col- 
lection of  evidences  and  admissions  from  the  works 
of  celebrated  non-fat  holies.  His  brother,  .ilso  a 
Kominican,  Carlo  Agostino,  wrote  a  work  (Turin, 
1705)  on  the  large  number  of  the  Christians  before 


Constantine;  another  brother,  Pietro  Tomniaso, 
wrote  an  excellent  dissertation  on  the  divinity  of 
Christ  (Florence,  1754). 

HuRTER,  NomencUiior  (2d  ed.),  Ill,  64-67. 

Thos.  M.  Schwertner. 

Ansaloni,  Giordano  (sometimes  called  Giordano 
DI  San  Stefano),  b.  at  San  Angelo  in  Sicily  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century;  d.  in  Japan,  17  November, 
1634.  Having  entered  the  Dominican  Order  and 
completed  his  studies  at  Salamanca,  he  was  sent  in 
1625,  together  with  many  otliers,  as  a  missionary 
to  the  Philippine  Islands.  Whilst  serving  as  chap- 
lain in  a  hospital  for  Chinese  and  Japanese  at  Manila 
he  had  occasion  to  master  these  languages.  In  1631 
he  offered  to  go  to  Japan  and  arrived  at  the  out- 
break of  the  persecution  in  1632.  Disguised  as  a 
bonze  he  travelled  over  the  land  administering  the 
rites  of  religion.  He  was  seized  4  August,  1634,  and 
subjected  to  tortures  that  lasted  seven  days.  Not 
the  least  of  his  sufferings  was  his  enforced  presence 
at  tlie  beheading  of  his  companion,  Thomas  of 
St.  Hyacinth,  and  sixty-nine  other  Christians.  On 
18  November  he  was  suspended  till  dead  from  a 
plank  with  his  head  buried  in  the  grouna.  Whilst 
detained  in  Mexico,  on  his  way  to  the  Philippine 
Islands,  he  wrote  in  Latin  a  series  of  lives  of  Domin- 
ican saints  after  a  similar  work  by  Hernando  del 
Castillo  and  left  at  ManUa  an  unfinished  treatise  on 
Chinese  sects  and  idols. 

Qdetif  and  Echard,  5S.  Ord.  Prad..  II,  478;  Alvarez  del 
Manzano,  Compendio  de  la  reseila  biogrdfica  de  los  religiosos 
de  la  Provincia  de  Santisimo  Rosario  de  Filipinaa  (Manila, 
1895),  122  sqq. 

Thos.  M.  Schwertner. 

Anschar  (or  Ansgarius),  Saint,  called  the  Apostle 
of  the  North,  was  b.  in  Picardy,  8  September.  801; 
d.  5  February,  865.  He  became  a  Benedictine  of 
Corbie,  whence  he  passed  into  Westphalia.  With 
Harold,  the  newly  baptized  King  of  Denmark  who 
had  been  expelled  from  his  kingdom  but  was  now 
returning,  he  and  Autbert  went  to  preach  the  Faith 
in  that  country  where  Ebbo,  the  Archbishop  of 
Reims,  had  already  laboured  but  without  much 
success.  Anschar  founded  a  school  at  Schleswig, 
but  the  intemperate  zeal  of  Harold  provoked  an- 
other storm  which  ended  in  a  second  expulsion,  and 
the  consequent  return  of  the  missionaries.  In  the 
company  of  the  ambassadors  of  Louis  le  D^bonnaire, 
he  then  entered  Sweden,  and  preached  the  Gospel 
there.  Although  the  embassy  had  been  attacked  on 
its  way  and  had  ajiparently  abandoned  its  mission, 
Anschar  succeeded  in  entering  the  country,  and  was 
favourably  received  by  tlie  king,  who  permitted  him 
to  preach.  The  chief  of  the  royal  counsellors, 
Herigar,  was  converted,  and  built  the  first  church  of 
Sweden.  Anschar  remained  there  a  year  and  a  half, 
and  returning  was  made  bishop  of  the  new  see  of 
Hamburg,  and  appointed  by  Gregory  IV  legate  of 
the  northern  nations.  He  revived  also  the  abbey 
of  Turholt  in  Flanders,  and  established  a  school 
there.  In  845  Eric,  the  King  of  Jutland,  appeared 
off  Hamlnirg  with  a  fleet  of  600  vessels,  and  de- 
stroyed the  city.  Anschar  was  for  some  time  a  fugi- 
tive and  was  deprived  ahso  of  his  Flemish  possessions 
by  Charles  the  Bald,  but  on  the  accession  of  Louis 
the  German  was  restored  to  his  see.  The  bishopric 
of  Bremen  wliich  had  been  the  See  of  Leudric,  his 
enemy,  was  at  the  same  time  united  to  Hamburg, 
but  tiiough  the  arrangement  was  made  in  847  it  was 
not  confirmed  by  the  Pope  until  857,  and  Anschar 
was  made  the  first  archbishop.  Meantime  he  made 
frequent  excursions  to  Denmark,  ostensibly  in  the 
quality  of  envoy  of  King  Louis.  He  built  a  church 
at  Scfileswig  and  afterwards  went  as  Danish  am- 
bassailor  to  his  old  mission  of  Sweden.  King  Olaf 
regarded  him  with  favour,  but  the  question  of  per- 
mitting him  to  preach  was  submitted  to  the  oracles, 


ANSE 


545 


ANSEGISUS 


which  are  said  to  liave  eiven  a  favourable  aaswer. 
It  WHS  probably  clue  to  the  prayers  of  the  Kaint.  A 
church  was  built  and  a  |)rie.st  established  there. 
Ill  854  we  find  him  back  in  l)<'nin:irk.  where  he  suc- 
ceeded in  changing  the  enmity  of  King  Eric  into 
frioiKlship.  Kric  liad  expelled  the  jiricsts  who  had 
been  left  at  Schleswig,  but  at  the  rei|iu>.st  of  Anschar 
recalled  them.  The  saint  built  another  church  in 
Jutland  and  introduced  the  use  nf  bells,  which  the 
jnigans  regarde<l  xs  iii.strument.s  of  magic.  He  also 
induced  the  king  to  mitigate  tlie  horroi-s  of  the  slave- 
trade.  He  was  eminent  for  his  piety,  mortification, 
and  observance  of  the  monastic  rule.  He  built 
hospitals,  ransomed  captives,  sent  immense  alms 
abroad,  and  regretted  only  that  he  had  not  been 
fomid  worthy  of  martyrdom.  Though  he  wrote 
several  works,  verj-  little  of  them  remains.  He  had 
added  devotional  phrases  to  the  psalms,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Fabricius,  in  his  Latin  Library  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  are  an  illustrious  monument  to  the 
jjiety  of  the  holy  prelate.  He  had  also  compiled  a 
life  of  St.  Willehad,  first  Hisho|)  of  Bremen,  and 
the  preface  which  he  wrote  was  consiilercd  a  master- 
piece for  that  age.  It  is  published  by  Fabricius 
among  the  works  of  the  historians  of  Hamburg. 
Some  letters  of  his  are  also  extant.  He  is  known  in 
(iermany  as  St.  Seharies  and  such  is  the  title  of  his 
collpgiate  church  in  Bremen.  Another  in  Hamburg 
under  the  same  title  was  converted  into  an  orphan 
a.sylum  by  tlie  Lutherans.  All  of  his  success  as  a 
missionary  he  ascribed  to  the  piety  of  Louis  le 
IX'bonnaire  and  the  apostolic  zeal  of  his  predecessor 
in  the  work,  Kbbo,  .Xnhbishop  of  Reims,  who,  how- 
ever, as  a  matter  of  fact,  had  failed. 

Acta  SS..  I,  Feb.;  MiciiAiu.  liiofj.  r'ntr.;  Hf.rgenrother, 
Kirchenu-  (.1904)  II,  ISO-Sl;  BcTLtii,  Lms  oj  the  Saints, Z  Feb. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Anse,  Councils  of. — Several  medieval  councils 
were  held  in  this  French  town  (near  Lyons).  That 
of  994  decreed,  among  other  disciplinary  measures, 
abstinence  from  .servile  labour  after  three  o'clock 
(None)  on  Saturdav,  i.  e.  the  ob.servance  of  the 
vigil  of  Sunday.  The  council  of  102.5  was  heltl  for 
the  purptjse  of  .settling  a  conflict  between  the  monks 
of  Cluny  and  tlie  Bishop  of  Macon,  who  complained 
that,  though  their  monastery  was  situated  in  his 
diocese,  the  monks  had  obtained  ordination  from 
the  .Xrchbishop  of  Vienne.  St.  Odilon  of  Cluny  was 
present  anil  exhibited  a  papal  privilege  exempting 
liis  monastery  from  the  episcopal  jurisdiction  of 
Macon.  But  the  fathers  of  the  council  cau.sed  to  be 
read  the  ancient  canons  ordaining  that  in  every  coun- 
try the  abbots  and  monks  should  be  subject  to  their 
own  bishop,  and  declared  null  a  privilege  contrary  to 
the  cai\ons.  The  .Vrchbishop  of  Vienne  was  required 
to  ajxilogize  to  the  Bishop  of  Mdcon.  In  1076  a 
council  was  held  for  the  purp<i.sc  of  furthering  the 
ecclesiastical  reforms  of  St.  Gregory  VII.  At  the 
council  of  1100,  Hugues.  .Vrchbishop  of  Lyons,  de- 
manded from  the  assembled  fathers,  among  whom 
W!us  St.  .Vnselm  of  Cantcrlnirs-,  a  sub.sidy  for  the 
expen.ses  of  the  journey  that,  with  the  Pope's  permis- 
sion, he  was  about  to  make  to  Jeni.salem.  In  1112 
the  Catholic  Faith  and  investitures  were  the  subjects 
of  conciliar  decrees. 

Manmi,  Coll.  Cone.  XIX-XXI;  La  Mi'He,  Ui»t.  dwcr'tainc 
de  Lyon  (1G71);   Hefelk,   Concaimiirtch..  IV  (1873). 

Thom.vs  J.  Shahan. 

Ansegiaus,  Archbishop  of  Sens,  d.  2.')  November, 
879,  or  SSiJ.  He  was  a  Benedictine  monk,  Abliot 
of  St.  Michael's,  at  Bcauvais,  and  in  S71  became 
Archbishop  of  .Sens,  .\fter  Charles  the  Bald  was 
crowned  Emperor  by  Pope  John  VIII,  he  asked  the 
Pope  to  ai)poiiit  Ansegisus  papal  legate  and  primate 
over  ('laul  and  Ciemiany.  With  a  papal  legate  of 
French  nationality,  amicably  (lispo.sed  towards  the 
EmiX!ror,  Charles  the  Bald   thought  he  could  more 


easily  extend  his  influence  aa  emperor  over  those 
countries.  The  Po[je  yielded  to  the  wish  of  Charles, 
but  when  the  bishops  !us.scmble<l  at  the  Synod  of 
Ponthion  were  askecl  to  acknowledge  the  primacy 
of  .ViLsegisus  they  protested,  especially  Iliiicmar, 
Archbishop  of  Reims,  against  what  tliey  considered 
an  infiingcinent  on  their  rights.  Tliough  AiLsegisus 
retained  the  title,  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  ever 
exercised  the  [Mwers  of  Primate  of  France  and 
Germany. 

ScllMlD  in  KirchenUz.,  I,  886;  Hefele,  Concilumsesch., 
IV,  Slti  Hqq.;  Gkrorek,  Geachichte  der  Carolinoer  (Freiburg, 
1848),  II,  130  8qq. 

Michael  Ott. 

Ansegisus,  Saint,  b.  about  770,  of  noble  parent- 
age ;  d.  20  July,  K.V.i,  or  834.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Foiitaiielle 
(also  called  St.  Vandrille  after  the  name  of  its  founder) 
in  the  diocese  of  Rouen.  St.  (lirowald,  a  relative  of 
An.segisus,  was  (hen  .Vbbot  of  Fontaiielle.  From  the 
beginning  of  his  monastic  life  St.  Ansegisus  mani- 
fested a  deep  piety  united  with  great  learning,  and 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Abbot  St.  Girowald 
he  was  entrusted  by  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  with 
the  government  and  reform  of  two  monasteries, 
St.  Si.xtus  nea-  Reims  and  St.  Memius  (St.  Mange) 
in  the  diocesa  of  Chaloiis-sur-Marne.  Under  the 
direction  of  St.  Ansegisus  these  two  monasteries  soon 
regained  their  original  splendour.  Charlemagne, 
being  much  pleased  with  the  success  of  An.segisus, 
appointed  him  Abbot  of  Flay,  or  St.  Germer,  a 
monastery  in  the  Diocese  of  lieauvais,  the  buildings 
of  which  were  threatening  to  fall  into  ruins.  At  the 
same  time  ('haileiiiagne  made  An.segisus  supervisor 
of  royal  works  under  the  general  direction  of  Abbot 
Einhard.  Under  the  management  of  Ansegisus  the 
structures  of  the  monastery  of  Flay  were  comp.letely 
renovated,  monastic  discipline  was  restored,  and  the 
monks  were  instructe<l  in  the  .sacred  and  the  profane 
sciences.  Louis  le  Dr'-bonnaire  esteemed  Ansegisus 
!is  highly  as  his  father  Charicmagne  had  done  and, 
seeing  how  all  monasteries  flourished  that  had  at 
one  time  been  umler  the  direction  of  Ansegisus,  he 
put  him  at  the  head  of  the  monastcrj'  of  Luxeuil  in 
the  year  817.  This  monaster\-  was  founded  by 
St.  Columban  as  early  as  .WO  antl,  during  the  .seventh 
and  the  first  half  of  the  eighth  centurj',  was  the  most 
renowned  monastery  and  school  of  Christendom. 
Of  late,  however,  its  discii)line  had  grown  lax. 
Having  restored  this  monastery  to  its  former  splen- 
dour, he  w!Ls  in  823,  after  the  death  of  Abbot  Einhard, 
transferred  as  abbot  to  the  monasterj'  of  Fontanelle, 
where  he  had  spent  the  early  days  of  his  monastic 
life.  He  immediately  applied  liimself  with  vigour 
to  restore  monastic  fervour  by  piotis  exhortations 
and,  most  of  all,  by  his  own  edifying  example. 
Some  learned  and  saintly  monks  whom  he  invited 
from  Lu.xeuil  to  Fontanelle  a.ssisted  him  in  his  great 
work  of  reform.  Haiul  in  hand  with  a  reform  of 
discipline  came  a  love  for  learning.  The  library  was 
enriched  with  valuable  lx)oks,  such  as  the  Bible, 
some  works  of  St.  Ambro.se.  St.  Augustine,  St.  Jerome, 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  St.  Bede,  etc.  The  most 
learned  of  the  monks  were  ])ut  to  writing  original 
works,  while  the  others  occupied  themselves  with 
transcribing  valuable  old  lH)oks  and  manuscripts. 
In  a  short  time  the  librarj'  of  Fontanelle  became  one 
of  the  largest  in  Europe  and  acquired  great  renown 
for  accuracy  of  transcribing  and  lx;auty  of  writing. 
A  dormitory,  a  refectorj',  a  chapter-house,  a  library, 
and  other  new  structures  were  erected  at  Fontanelle 
by  .St  An.segi.sus.  On  account  of  his  great  learning 
and  pnidence  he  was  often  sent  as  legate  to  distant 
countries  by  Louis  le  l)(5bonnaire.  The  many  and 
costly  presents  whicli  he  received  as  legate  from 
foreign  princes  he  distributed  among  variovis  monas- 
teries.    While    Abbot    of    P'ontaneTle    he    WTOte    a 


ANSELM 


546 


ANSELM 


"Constitutio  pro  monachis  de  victu  et  vestitu'  ,  in 
whicli  lie  determines  exactly  how  much  food,  what 
articles  of  dress,  etc.,  the  monks  were  to  receive  from 
the  different  landed  properties  of  the  monasterj-. 
The  work  which  maile  the  name  of  Ansegisus  re- 
nowned for  all  times  is  his  collection  of  the  laws  and 
decrees  made  by  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  and  liis 
son  Louis  le  D"(5bonnaire.  These  laws  and  decrees, 
being  divided  into  articles  or  chapters,  are  generally 
called  "Capitulars".  Ansegisus  was  the  first  to  col- 
lect all  these  "Capitulars"  into  the  four  books  en- 
titled "Quatuor  Libri  Capitularium  Regum  Franco- 
rum".  The  first  and  the  second  book  contained  all 
"Capitulars"  relating  to  church  affairs,  while  the 
third  and  the  fourth  books  had  all  the  "Capitulars" 
relating  to  state  affairs.  It  was  completed  in  the 
year  827.  Shortly  afterwards  it  was  approved  by  the 
Church  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  and  remained 
for  a  long  time  the  official  book  on  civil  and  canon 
law.  Shortly  before  his  death  Ansegisus  was  at- 
tacked by  paralysis  which  ended  his  holy  and  useful 
life  on  20  July,  833  or  834.  His  earthly  remains  lie 
buried  in  the  Abbey  of  Fontanelle,  where  his  feast 
is  celebrated  on  20  July,  the  day  of  his  death. 

Lechxer.  Martyrologium  des  Benediktiner  Ordens  (Augs- 
burg, 1855);  Stadler,  Heiligen  Lexikon  (Augsburg.  ISoS).  I, 
234;  Gesta  abbal.  Fontanell.  in  D'.\chery.  SpicUeg.,  1st  ed.,  II, 
279  aaa  ,  and  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  (Scriptores),  II,  2S3  sqq.; 
Mabillox,  Acta  SS.  ord.  S.  Bened.  (Sasc,  IV),  IV  (I),  630  sqq.; 
ZlEGELBArER,  Hist.  Rci  Lit.  Bened.,  IV,  216.  259.  The 
Capilularia  were  first  edited  by  Baluze  (Paris,  1677-SS); 
for  a  new  and  critical  edition  see  BoRETirs.  in  Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.  (Leges.  Sect.  II),  Capitularia  regum  Francorum  (Han- 
over, 18S3,  1890,  1897),  I-II;  the  second  volume  is  by  Bore- 
Tirs  AND  Khause.  The  Pertz  edition  (op.  cit..  Leges,  I, 
2.56  sqq.)  is  found  in  P.  L.,  XCVII,  4S9  sqq.;  Schmid  in 
Kirchenlex. 

Michael  Ott. 

Anselm,  Nicholas.     See  Ascelin. 

Anselm,  S.atnt,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Doctor 
of  the  Church,  b.  at  Aosta,  a  Burgundian  town  on  the 
confines  of  Lombardy,  1033-34;  d.  21  April,  1109. 
His  father,  Gundidf .  was  a  Lombard  who  had  become 
a  citizen  of  Aosta,  and  his  mother,  Ermenberga,  came 
of  an  old  Burgundian  family.  Like  many  other 
saints,  Anselm  learnt  the  first  lessons  of  piety  from 
his  mother,  and  at  a  very  early  age  he  was  fired  with 
the  love  of  learning.  In  after  life  he  still  cherished 
the  memories  of  cliildliood,  and  his  biographer, 
Eadmer,  has  preserved  some  incidents  whicli  he  had 
learnt  from  the  saint's  own  lips.  The  cliild  had 
heard  his  mother  speak  of  God,  Who  dwelt  on  high, 
ruling  all  things.  Living  in  the  mountains,  he  thought 
that  Heaven  must  be  on  their  lofty  summits.  "And 
while  he  often  revolved  these  matters  in  his  mind, 
it  chanced  that  one  night  he  saw  in  a  vision  that  he 
must  go  up  to  tlie  summit  of  the  mountain  and  has- 
ten to  the  court  of  God,  the  great  King.  But  before 
he  began  to  ascend  the  mountain,  he  saw  in  the  j^lain 
through  which  he  had  passed  to  its  foot,  women,  who 
were  the  King's  handmaidens,  reaping  the  corn;  but 
they  were  doing  this  very  negligently  and  slothfuUy. 
Then,  gricvitig  for  their  sloth,  and  rebuking  them,  he 
bethought  him  that  he  would  accuse  them  before 
their  Lord  and  King.  Thereafter,  having  climbed 
the  mountain  ho  entered  the  royal  court.  There  he 
found  the  King  with  only  his  cupbearer.  For  it 
seemed  that,  as  it  was  now  Autumn,  the  King  had 
sent  his  household  to  gather  the  harvest.  As  the 
boy  entered  he  was  called  by  the  Master,  and  drawing 
nigh  he  sat  at  his  feet.  Then  with  cheery  kindliness 
he  was  asked  who  and  whence  he  was  and  what  he 
was  seeking.  To  these  questions  he  made  answer  as 
well  as  he  knew.  Then  at  the  Master's  command 
some  moist  white  liread  was  brought  him  by  the  cu|v 
bearer  and  he  feasted  thereon  in  his  presence,  where- 
fore when  morning  came  and  he  brought  to  mind  the 
things  he  had  .seen,  tis  a  simnle  and  innocent  child  he 
Jaclieved  that  he  liad  truly  been  fed  in  heaven  with 


the  bread  of  the  Lord,  and  this  he  publicly  atfirmea 
in  the  presence  of  others".  (Eadmer,  Life  of  St. 
Anselm,  I,  i.)  Eadmer  adds  that  the  boy  was  beloved 
by  all  and  made  rapid  progress  in  learning.  Before 
he  was  fifteen  he  sought  admission  to  a  monastery. 
But  the  abbot,  fearing  the  father's  displeasure,  re- 
fused him.  The  boy  then  made  a  strange  prayer. 
He  asked  for  an  illness,  thinking  this  would  move 
the  monks  to  jaeld  to  his  wishes.  The  illness  came, 
but  his  admission  to  the  monastery  was  still  denied 
him.  None  the  less  he  determined  to  gain  his  end 
at  some  future  date.  But  ere  long  he  was  drawn 
away  by  the  pleasures  of  youth  and  lost  his  first  ardour 
and  his  love  of  learning.  His  love  for  his  mother  in 
some  measure  restrained  him.  But  on  her  death  it 
seemed  that  his  anchor  was  lost,  and  he  was  at  the 
mercy  of  the  waves. 

At  this  time  his  father  treated  him  with  great 
harshness;  so  much  so  that  he  resolved  to  leave  his 
home.  Taking  a  single  companion,  he  set  out  on 
foot  to  cross  Mont  Cenis.  At  one  time  he  was  faint- 
ing with  hunger  and  was  fain  to  refresh  his  strength 
TOth  snow,  when  the  servant  found  that  some  bread 
was  still  left  in  the  baggage,  and  Anselm  regained 
strength  and  continued  the  journey.  After  passing 
nearly  three  years  in  Burgundy  and  France,  he  came 
into  Normandy  and  tarried  for  a  while  at  Avranches 
before  finding  his  home  at  the  Abbey  of  Bee,  then 
made  illustrious  by  Lanfranc's  learning,  .\nselm 
profited  so  well  by  the  lessons  of  this  master  that  he 
became  his  most  familiar  disciple  and  shared  in  the 
work  of  teaching.  After  spending  some  time  in  this 
labour,  he  began  to  think  that  his  toil  \iould  have 
more  merit  if  he  took  the  monastic  habit.  But  at 
first  he  felt  some  reluctance  to  enter  tlie  Abbey  of  Bee, 
where  he  would  be  overshadowed  by  Lanfranc, 
After  a  time,  however,  he  saw  that  it  would  profit 
him  to  remain  where  he  would  be  surpassed  by  others. 
His  father  was  now  dead,  ha\'ing  ended  his  days  in 
the  monastic  habit,  and  Anselm  had  some  thought  of 
living  on  his  patrimony  and  relieving  the  needy. 
The  life  of  a  hermit  also  presented  itself  to  him  as  a 
third  alternative.  Anxious  to  act  with  prudence, 
he  first  asked  the  adWce  of  Lanfranc,  who  referred 
the  matter  to  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen.  This  prel- 
ate decided  in  favour  of  the  monastic  life,  and 
Anselm  became  a  monk  in  the  Abbey  of  Bee.  This 
was  in  1060.  His  life  as  a  simple  monk  lasted  for 
three  years,  for  in  1063  Lanfranc  was  appointed 
Abbot  of  Caen,  and  Anselm  was  elected  t  o  succeed  him 
as  Prior.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  date  of  this 
appointment.  But  Canon  Poree  points  out  that 
Anselm,  writing  at  the  time  of  his  election  as  Arch- 
bishop (1093),  says  that  he  had  then  lived  thirty- 
three  years  in  the  monastic  habit,  three  years  as  a 
monk  without  preferment,  fifteen  as  prior,  and  fif- 
teen as  abbot  (Letters  of  Anselm,  III,  vii).  This 
is  confirmed  by  an  entry  in  the  chronicle  of  the  Abbey 
of  Bee,  which  was  compiled  not  later  than  1136 
Here  it  is  recorded  that  Anselm  died  in  1109,  in  the 
forty-ninth  year  of  his  monastic  life  atid  the  seventy- 
sixth  of  his  age,  having  been  three  years  a  simple 
monk;  fifteen,  prior;  fifteen,  abbot;  and  sixteen, 
archbishop  (Por<;e,  Histoire  de  I'abbaye  de  Bee 
III,  173).  At  first  his  promotion  to  the  office  va- 
cated by  Lanfranc  gave  offence  to  some  of  the  other 
monks  who  considered  they  had  a  better  claim  than 
the  young  stranger.  But  Anselm  overcame  their 
opposition  by  gentleness,  and  ere  long  had  won  their 
affection  and  obedience.  To  the  duties  of  prior  he 
added  those  of  teacher.  It  was  likewise  dming  this 
period  that  he  composed  some  of  his  philo,>-ophical 
and  theological  works,  notably,  the  ".Moiiologium" 
and  the  "  Proslogivun  ".  Besides  giving  good  counsel 
to  the  monies  imder  his  care,  he  foimd  time  to  com- 
fort others  by  his  letters.  Rememl)ering  his  attrac- 
tion for  the  solitude  of  a  hermitage  we  can  hardly 


ANSELM 


547 


ANSELM 


wonder  that  he  felt  oppressed  by  this  busy  Ufe  and 
longed  to  lay  aside  his  office  and  give  himself  up  to 
the  delights  of  contemplation.  But  the  Archbishop 
of  Kouoii  bade  him  retain  his  office  and  prepare  for 
yet  greater  burdens. 

This  advice  was  prophetic,  for  in  1078,  on  tlic 
death  of  Herhiin,  founder  and  first  Abbot  of  Bee, 
Anselm  was  elected  to  succeed  him.  It  wjis  with 
difficulty  that  the  monks  overcame  his  reluctance  to 
accept  the  ofiicc.  His  biographer,  Kadiiicr,  gives  us 
a  picture  of  a  strange  scene.  The  Al)l)<)t-clect  fell 
prostrate  l>efore  the  brethren  and  with  tears  be- 
sought them  not  to  lay  this  burden  on  him,  while 
they  prostrated  themselves  and  earnestly  begged 
him  to  accept  the  office.  His  election  at  once  brought 
Anselm  into  relations  with  England,  where  the  Nor- 
man abbey  had  several  possessions.  In  the  first 
year  of  his  office,  he  visited  C'anterbury  where  he  was 
welcomed  by  Lanfranc.  "The  converse  of  Lanfranc 
and  Anselm",  says  Professor  Freeman,  ".sets  before 
us  a  remarkable  and  memorable  pair.  The  lawyer, 
the  secular  scholar,  met  the  divine  and  the  philos- 
opher; the  ecclesiastical  statesman  stood  face  to  face 
with  the  saint.  The  wisdom,  conscientious  no  doubt 
but  still  hard  and  worldly,  which  could  guide  churches 
and  kingdoms  in  troublous  times  was  met  bj'  the 
boundless  love  which  took  in  all  God's  creatures  of 
whatever  race  or  species"  (History  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,  IV,  442).  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
one  of  the  matters  discus.sed  on  this  occasion  related 
to  a  Sa.xon  archbishop.  Klphage  (.I'^lfheah),  who  had 
been  put  to  death  by  the  Danes  for  refusing  to  pay 
a  ran.som  which  would  iin|)overish  his  people.  Lan- 
franc doubted  his  claim  to  the  honours  of  a  martyr 
since  he  did  not  die  for  the  Faith.  But  Anselm 
solved  the  difficulty  by  saying  that  he  who  died  for 
this  lesser  reason  would  nuich  more  be  ready  to  die 
for  the  Faith.  Moreover,  Christ  is  truth  and  justice, 
and  he  who  dies  for  truth  and  justice  dies  for  Christ. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  .\nsolm  first  met  Eadmer, 
then  a  young  monk  of  Canterbury.  At  the  same 
time  the  saint,  who  in  his  childhood  was  loved  by  all 
who  knew  him,  and  who,  :us  Prior  of  Bee,  had  won 
the  affection  of  those  who  resisted  his  authority,  was 
already  gaining  the  hearts  of  Knglishinen.  His  fame 
had  spread  far  and  wide,  and  many  of  the  great  men 
of  the  age  prized  his  friendship  and  sought  his  coun-sel. 
Among  these  wxs  William  the  Conqueror,  who  de- 
sired that  Anselm  might  come  to  give  him  consolation 
on    his   death-bed. 

When  Lanfranc  died,  William  llufus  kept  the  See 
of  Canterbury  vacant  for  four  years,  seized  its  reve- 
nues, and  kept  the  Church  in  England  in  a  state  of 
anarchy.  To  many  the  .^blxit  of  Bee  seemed  to  be 
the  man  best  fitted  for  the  archbishopric.  The  gen- 
eral desire  was  so  e\'ident  that  Anselm  felt  a  reluc- 
tance to  visit  England  lest  it  should  appear  that  he 
was  seeking  the  office.  .\t  length,  however,  he 
yielded  to  tiie  entreaty  of  Hugh,  Earl  of  Chester  and 
came  to  England  in  1092.  Arriving  in  Canterbury 
on  the  eve  of  the  NatiWty  of  the  Ble,ssed  Virgin,  he 
was  hailed  by  the  people  as  their  future  archbishop; 
but  he  hastened  away  and  would  in  no  wise  consent 
to  remain  for  the  festival.  At  a  private  interview 
with  the  King,  who  received  him  Kindly,  he  spoke 
freely  on  the  evils  by  which  the  land  was  made  deso- 
late. Anselm's  own  affairs  kept  him  in  England  for 
some  months,  but  when  he  wished  to  return  to  Bee 
the  King  objected.  .Meanwhile  the  people  made  no 
secret  of  their  desires.  With  the  King's  pomii.ssion, 
prayers  were  offered  in  all  the  churches  that  God 
would  move  the  King  to  deliver  the  Church  of  Canter- 
bury by  the  an[x>intment  of  a  pxstor,  and  at  the 
request  of  the  l)ishops  .\n.selm  drew  up  the  form  of 
prayer.  The  King  fell  ill  early  in  the  new  year  (1093), 
and  on  his  sick-bed  he  was  moved  to  repentance. 
The  prelates  and  barons  urged  on  him  the  necessity 
L— 35 


of  electing  an  archbishop.  Yielding  to  the  manifest 
desire  of  all  he  named  Anselm,  and  all  joyfully  con- 
curred in  the  election.  Aaselm,  however,  firmly 
refu.sed  the  honour,  whereupon  another  scene  took 
place  still  more  strange  than  that  which  occurred 
when  he  was  elected  aljlwit.  He  Wius  dragged  by 
force  to  the  King's  bedside,  and  a  pastoral  staff  was 
thrust  into  his  closed  hand;  he  was  borne  thence  to 
the  altar  where  the  "Te  Deum"  was  sung.  There 
is  no  rciison  to  suspect  the  sincerity  of  this  resistance. 
Naturally  drawn  to  contemplation,  Anselm  could 
have  little  liking  for  such  an  office  even  in  a  period 
of  peace;  still  less  could  he  desire  it  in  those  stormy 
days.  He  knew  full  well  what  awaited  him.  The 
King's  repentance  passed  away  with  his  sickness, 
and  An.selm  soon  saw  signs  of  trouble.  His  first 
offence  was  his  refusal  to  consent  to  the  alienation  of 
Church  lands  which  the  King  had  granted  to  his 
followers.  Another  difficulty  arose  from  the  King's 
need  of  money.  Although  his  see  was  impoverished 
by  the  royal  rapacity,  the  Archbishop  was  expected 
to  make  his  majesty  a  free  gift ;  and  when  he  offered 
five  hundred  marks  they  were  scornfully  refused  as 
insufficient.  As  if  these  trials  were  not  enough, 
Anselm  had  to  bear  the  reproaches  of  some  of  the 
monks  of  Bee  who  were  loath  to  lose  him;  in  his  letters 
he  is  at  pains  to  show  that  he  did  not  desire  the  office. 
He  finally  was  consecrated  Archbisho])  of  Canterburj', 
4  December,  1093.  It  now  remained  for  him  to  go 
to  Rome  to  obtain  the  pallium.  But  here  was  a 
fresh  occasion  of  trouble.  The  Antipope  Clement 
was  disputing  the  authority  of  Urban  II,  who  had 
been  recognized  by  France  and  Normandy.  It  does 
not  appear  that  the  English  King  was  a  partisan  of 
the  .'Vntiiiopo,  but  he  wished  to  strengthen  his  own 
position  oy  ;i.s.scrting  his  right  to  decide  between  the 
rival  claimants.  Hence,  when  Anselm  asked  leave 
to  go  to  the  Pope,  the  King  said  that  no  one  in  Eng- 
land sho\ild  acknowledge  either  Pope  till  he,  the  King, 
had  deciilcd  the  nuitter.  The  .\rcnbishop  insisted  on 
going  to  Vo\>v  I'rban,  whose  authority  he  had  already 
acknowledged,  and,  as  he  had  told  the  King,  this 
was  one  of  the  conditions  on  which  alone  he  would 
accept  the  archbishopric.  This  grave  question  was 
referred  to  a  coimcil  of  the  realm  held  at  Rockingham 
in  March,  109.5.  Here  Anselm  boldly  asserted  the 
authority  of  Urban.  His  speech  is  a  memorable 
testimony  to  the  doctrine  of  papal  supremacy.  It 
is  significant  that  not  one  of  the  bishops  could  call 
it  in  question  (Eadmer,  Historia  Novorum,  lib.  I). 
Regarding  Anselm's  l>elief  on  this  point  we  may  cite 
the  frank  words  of  Dean  Hook:  "Anselm  was  .sunply 
a  papist;  He  believed  that  St.  Peter  was  the  Prince 
of  the  .\postles;  that  as  such  he  was  the  source  of  all 
ecclesiastical  authority  and  power;  that  the  pope  was 
his  successor;  and  that  consequently,  to  the  pope  was 
due,  from  the  bishops  and  metropolitans  as  well  as 
from  the  rest  of  mankind,  the  obedience  which  a 
spiritual  suzerain  has  the  right  to  expect  from  his 
vassals"  [Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbun,-. 
(London.  lS()0-75),  II,  1S,3]. 

William  now  sent  envoys  to  Rome  to  get  the  pal- 
liimi.  They  found  Urban  in  possession  and  recog- 
nized him.  Walter,  Bishop  of  .Albano,  came  back 
with  them  as  legate  bearing  the  pallium.  The  King 
pubhcly  acknowledged  the  authority  of  Urban,  and 
at  first  endeavoured  to  get  .\n.sclm  deposed  by  the 
legate.  Eventually  a  reconciliation  was  occasioned 
by  the  royal  difficulties  in  Wales  and  in  the  north. 
Tlie  King  and  the  -Vrchbishop  met  in  peace,  .\nsclm 
would  not  take  the  pallium  from  the  King's  hand; 
but  in  a  solemn  service  at  Canterbury,  on  10  June. 
109.'),  it  was  laid  on  the  altar  by  the  legate,  whence 
.\nselm  took  it.  Fresh  trouble  arose  in  1097.  t)n 
returning  from  his  ineffectual  Welsh  campaign 
William  brought  a  charge  against  the  .\rchbishop 
in  regard  to  the  contingent  ho  had  furnished  and 


ANSELM 


548 


ANSELM 


required  him  to  meet  this  cliarge  in  the  King's  court. 
Ansehn  dechncd  ami  asked  leave  to  go  to  Rome. 
This  was  refused,  but  after  a  meeting  at  Winchester 
Anselm  wa.s  told  to  be  ready  to  sail  in  ten  days.  On 
parting  with  tlie  King,  the  Archbisliop  gave  iiim 
his  blessing,  which  WiUiam  received  with  bowed 
head.  At  St.  Omcr's  Anselm  confirmed  a  multitude 
of  persons.  Cliristmas  was  spent  at  Cluny,  and  the 
rest  of  the  winter  at  Lyons.  In  the  spring  he  resumed 
his  journey  and  crossed  Mont  Cenis  with  two  com- 
panions, all  travelling  as  simple  monks.  At  tlie 
monasteries  on  their  way  they  were  frequently  asked 
for  news  of  Anselm.  On  his  arrival  in  Rome  he  was 
treated  with  great  lionour  by  the  Pope.  His  case 
was  considered  and  laid  before  the  council,  but  noth- 
ing could  be  done  beyond  sending  a  letter  of  remon- 
strance to  William.  During  his  stay  in  Italy  Anselm 
enjoyed  the  hospitality  of  the  Abbot  of  Telese,  and 
passed  the  summer  in  a  mountain  village  belonging 
to  this  monastery.  Here  he  finished  liis  work,  "  Cur 
Deus  Homo",  wliich  he  had  begun  in  England.  In 
October,  1098.  Urban  held  a  council  at  Bari  to  deal 
with  the  difTiculties  raised  by  the  Greeks  in  regard 
to  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Here  Anselm 
was  called  by  the  Pope  to  a  place  of  honour  and  bid- 
den to  take  the  cliief  part  in  the  discussion.  His 
arguments  were  afterwards  committed  to  writing  in 
his  treatise  on  this  subject.  His  own  case  was  also 
brought  before  this  council,  wliich  would  have  ex- 
communicated William  but  for  Anselm's  intercession. 
Both  he  and  his  companions  now  desired  to  return 
to  Lyons,  but  were  bidden  to  await  the  action  of 
another  council  to  be  held  in  the  Lateran  at  Easter. 
Here  Anselm  heard  the  canons  passed  against 
Investitiu'es,  and  the  decree  of  excommunication 
against  the  offenders.  Tliis  incident  had  a  deep 
influence  on  his  career  in  England. 

While  still  staying  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lyons, 
Anselm  heard  of  the  tragic  death  of  William.  Soon 
messages  from  the  new  king  and  chief  men  of  the 
land  summoned  him  to  England.  Landing  at  Dover, 
he  hastened  to  King  Henry  at  Salisbury.  He  was 
kindly  received,  but  the  question  of  Investitures 
was  at  once  raised  in  an  acute  form.  Henry  re- 
quired the  Archbishop  liimself  to  receive  a  fresh 
investiture.  Anselm  alleged  the  decrees  of  the  recent 
Roman  council  and  declared  that  he  had  no  choice 
in  the  matter.  The  difficulty  was  postponed,  as  the 
King  decided  to  send  to  Rome  to  ask  for  a  special 
exemption.  Meanwhile,  Anselm  was  able  to  render 
the  King  two  signal  services.  He  helped  to  remove 
the  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his  marriage  with  Edith, 
the  heiress  of  the  Saxon  kings.  The  daughter  of 
St.  Margaret  had  sought  shelter  in  a  convent,  where 
she  had  worn  the  veil,  but  had  taken  no  vows.  It 
was  thought  by  some  that  this  was  a  bar  to  marriage, 
but  Anselm  had  the  case  considered  in  a  coimcil  at 
Lambeth,  where  the  royal  maiden's  liberty  was  fully 
established,  and  the  Archbishop  himself  gave  his 
blessing  to  the  marriage.  Moreover,  when  Robert 
landed  at  Portsmouth  and  many  of  the  Norman 
nobles  were  wavering  in  their  allegiance,  it  was  An- 
Bclra  who  turned  the  tide  in  favour  of  Henry.  In 
the  meantime  Pope  Paschal  had  refused  the  King's 
request  for  an  exemption  from  the  Lateran  decrees, 
yet  Henry  persisted  in  his  resolution  to  compel 
Anselm  to  accept  investiture  at  his  hands.  The 
revolt  of  Robert  de  Bellesme  put  off  the  threatened 
rupture.  To  gain  time  the  King  sent  another  em- 
bassy to  Rome.  On  its  return,  Anselm  was  once 
more  required  to  receive  investiture.  The  Pope's 
letter  was  not  made  public,  but  it  was  reported  to 
be  of  the  same  tenor  as  his  previous  reply.  The 
envoys  now  gave  out  that  the  Pope  had  orally  con- 
sented to  tlie  King's  request,  but  could  not  say  so  in 
writing  for  fear  of  ofTeiiding  otiicr  sovereigns. 
Friends  of  Anselm  who  had  been  at  Rome,  disputed 


this  assertion.  In  this  crisis  it  was  agreed  to  send 
to  Rome  again;  meanwhile  the  King  would  continue 
to  invest  bishops  and  abbots,  but  Anselm  should 
not  be  required  to  consecrate  them. 

During  tliis  interval  Anselm  held  a  council  at 
Westminster.  Here  stringent  canons  were  passed 
against  the  evils  of  the  age.  In  spite  of  the  com- 
promise about  investiture,  Anselm  was  required  to 
consecrate  bishops  invested  by  the  King,  but  he 
firmly  refused,  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  his 
firmness  was  taking  effect.  Bishops  gave  back  the 
staff  they  had  received  at  the  royal  hands,  or  refused 
to  be  consecrated  by  another  in  defiance  of  Anselm. 
When  the  Pope's  answer  arrived,  repudiating  the 
story  of  the  envoys,  the  King  asked  Anselm  to  go 
to  Rome  liimself.  Though  he  could  not  support 
the  royal  request  he  was  willing  to  lay  the  facts  be- 
fore the  Pope.  With  this  understanding  he  once 
more  betook  himself  to  Rome.  The  request  was 
again  refused,  but  Henry  was  not  excommunicated. 
Understanding  that  Henry  did  not  wish  to  receive 
liim  in  England,  Anselm  interrupted  his  homeward 
journey  at  Lyons.  In  this  city  he  received  a  letter 
from  the  Pope  informing  him  of  the  excommuni- 
cation of  the  counsellors  who  had  ad\ised  the  King 
to  insist  on  investitures,  but  not  decreeing  anything 
about  the  Kng.  Anselm  resumed  his  journey, 
and  on  the  way  he  heard  of  the  illness  of  Henrj''s 
sister,  Adela  of  Blois.  He  turned  aside  to  visit  her 
and  on  her  recoverj'  informed  her  that  he  was  re- 
turning to  England  to  excommunicate  her  brother. 
Slie  at  once  exerted  herself  to  bring  about  a  meeting 
between  Anselm  and  Henry,  in  July,  1105.  But 
though  a  reconciliation  was  effected,  and  Anselm 
was  urged  to  return  to  England,  the  claim  to  invest 
was  not  relinquished,  and  recourse  had  again  to 
be  made  to  Rome.  A  papal  letter  authorizing 
Anselm  to  absolve  from  censures  incurred  by  break- 
ing the  laws  against  investitures  healed  past  of- 
fences but  made  no  provision  for  the  future.  At 
length,  in  a  council  held  in  London  in  1107,  the 
question  foimd  a  solution.  The  lung  relinquished 
the  claim  to  invest  bishops  and  abbots,  while  the 
Church  allowed  the  prelates  to  do  homage  for  tlieir 
temporal  possessions.  Lingard  and  other  writers 
consider  this  a  triumph  for  the  King,  saying  that 
he  had  the  substance  and  abandoned  a  mere  form. 
But  it  was  for  no  mere  form  that  this  long  war  had 
been  waged.  The  rite  used  in  tlie  investiture  was 
the  symbol  of  a  real  power  claimed  by  the  English 
kings,  and  now  at  last  abandoned.  The  victory 
rested  with  the  Archbishop,  and  as  Schwano  says 
(Kirchenlexicon,  s.  v.)  it  prepared  the  way  for 
the  later  solution  of  the  same  controversy  in  Ger- 
many. Anselm  was  allowed  to  end  his  days  in 
Eeace.  In  the  two  years  that  remained  he  continueil 
is  pastoral  labours  and  composed  the  last  of  his 
writings.  Eadmer,  the  faitliful  chronicler  of  tlicse 
contentions,  gives  a  pleasing  picture  of  his  peaceful 
death.  The  dream  of  his  childhood  was  come  true; 
he  was  to  climb  the  mountain  and  taste  the  brcail 
of    Heaven. 

His  active  work  as  a  pastor  and  stalwart  cham- 
pion of  the  Church  makes  Anselm  one  of  the  chief 
figures  in  religious  history.  The  sweet  influence  of 
his  spiritual  teacliing  was  felt  far  and  wide,  and  its 
fruits  were  seen  in  many  lands.  His  stand  for  the 
freedom  of  the  Church  in  a  crisis  of  medieval  history 
had  far-reaching  effects  long  after  his  own  time. 
As  a  writer  and  a  tliinker  he  may  claim  yet  higher 
rank,  and  his  influence  on  the  course  of  philo.sophy 
and  Catholic  theology  was  even  deeper  anil  more 
enduring.  If  he  stamls  on  the  one  hand  with  tireg- 
ory  VTl,  and  Innocent  III,  and  Thomas  Hecket, 
on  the  otlier  he  may  claim  a  place  beside  .-Vthanasius, 
-Vugustine,  and  Thomas  .-Vqumas.  His  merits  in  the 
field  of  theology  have  received  official  recognition; 


ANSELM 


549 


ANSELM 


lie  li:is  been  declared  a  Doctor  of  the  Church  by 
Cleiiioiit  XI,  1720,  and  in  the  office  read  on  his  feast 
<l:iy  (21  April)  it  is  said  tliat  his  works  are  a  pattern 
for  all  theologians.  Yet  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
liis  position  is  generally  appreciated  by  students  of 
divinity.  In  some  degree  his  work  has  been  hidden 
by  the  fabric  reared  on  his  fountlations.  His  books 
were  not  adopted,  like  tliose  of  Peter  Lombard  and 
St.  Thomas,  as  the  usual  text  of  commentators  and 
lecturers  in  tlicologj',  nor  was  he  constantly  cited 
as  an  authority,  like  St.  -Augustine.  This  was  nat- 
ural enough,  since  in  the  next  century  new  methods 
came  in  with  the  rise  of  the  Arabic  and  Aristotelean 
pliilosophy;  the  "Books  of  Sentences"  were  in  some 
ways  more  fit  for  regular  theological  reading;  .\nselm 
was  yet  too  near  to  have  the  venerable  authority  of 
the  early  Fathers.  For  these  rea.sons  it  may  be 
said  that  his  writings  were  not  properly  appreciated 
till  time  had  brought  in  other  changes  in  the 
schools,  and  men  were  led  to  study  the  history  of 
theology.  lUit  though  his  works  are  not  cast  in  the 
systematic  form  of  t he  "  Summa  "  of  St.  Thomas,  they 
cover  the  whole  field  of  Catholic  doctrine.  There 
an?  few  pages  of  our  theology  that  have  not  been 
illustrated  by  the  labours  of  .A.nselm.  His  treatise 
on  the  procc.s.sion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  has  helped  to 
guide  scholastic  speculations  on  the  Trinity,  his 
"Cur  Dcus  Homo"  throws  a  flood  of  light  on  the 
theology  of  the  .Vtonement.  and  one  of  his  works 
anticipates  much  of  the  later  controversies  on  Free 
Will  and  Predestination.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, a  Spanish  Benedictine,  Cardinal  d'Aguirre, 
made  the  writings  of  Anselm  the  gromulwork  of  a 
course  of  theology,  "  S.  .\nsclmi  Thcologia "  (Sala- 
manca, 1678-81).  Unfortunately  the  work  never 
got  beyond  the  first  three  folio  \olumes,  containing 
the  commentaries  on  the  "  .Monologium ".  In  re- 
cent years  Dom  .\nselm  Ocs<"nyi,  O.S.B.  has  accom- 
plished the  task  on  a  more  modest  scale  in  a  little 
Latin  volume  on  the  theology  of  St.  Anselm,  "De 
Tlicologia  S.  Anselmi"  (Briinn,  1884). 

Besides  being  one  of  the  fathers  of  schola.stic  the- 
ology, .A.nsclm  fills  an  important  place  in  the  his- 
torj'  of  pliilosophic  speculation.  Coming  in  the  first 
phase  of  tlie  controversy  on  Universals,  he  had  to 
meet  the  extreme  Nominalism  of  Roscelin;  partly 
from  this  fact,  partly  from  his  native  Platoni.sm, 
his  Realism  took  what  may  be  considered  a  somewhat 
extreme  form.  It  was  too  soon  to  find  tlie  golden 
mean  of  moderate  Realism,  accepted  by  later  phi- 
losophers. His  position  was  a  stage  in  the  process, 
and  it  is  significant  that  one  of  his  biographers,  John 
of  Salisbury,  was  among  the  first  to  find  the  true 
solution  (Stockl,  History  of  Media;val  Philosophy, 
I.  4-.'5). 

.\nselm's  chief  achievement  in  philosophy  was 
the  ontological  argument  for  the  existence  of  God 
put  forth  in  his  "  Proslogium".  Starting  from  the 
notion  that  God  is  "  that  than  which  nothing  greater 
can  be  thought",  he  argues  that  what  exists  in 
reality  is  greater  than  that  which  is  only  in  the  mind; 
wherefore,  .since  "God  is  that  than  which  nothing 
greater  can  be  thought ",  He  exists  in  reality.  The 
validity  of  the  argument  was  disputed  at  the  outset 
by  a  monk  namcil  Gaunilo,  who  wrote  a  criticism 
on  it  to  which  .\n.selni  replied.  Eadmer  tells  a 
curious  storj'  about  St.  .\nselm's  anxiety  while  he 
was  trying  to  work  out  this  argument.  He  couKl 
think  of  nothing  else  for  days  together.  And  when 
at  last  he  saw  it  clearly.  heWas  filled  with  joy,  and 
made  haste  to  commit  it  to  writing.  The  waxen 
tablets  were  given  in  charge  to  one  of  the  monks, 
but  when  thev  were  wanted  they  were  missing.  .\n- 
selm  managed  to  recall  the  argument;  it  was  written 
on  fresh  tablets  and  given  into  safer  keeping.  But 
when  it  was  wanted  it  was  found  that  the  wax  wius 
broken  to  pieces.     Anselm  with  some  difficulty  put 


the  fragments  together  and  had  the  whole  copied 
on  parchment  for  greater  security.  The  story 
sounds  like  an  allegory  of  tlie  fate  which  awaited 
this  famous  argument,  which  was  lost  and  found 
again,  pulled  to  pieces  and  restored  in  the  course 
of  controversy.  Rejected  by  St.  Thomas  and  his 
f()llf>wers,  it  was  revived  in  another  form  by  Des- 
cartes. After  being  a.ssailed  by  Kant,  it  was  de- 
fended by  Hegel,  for  whom  it  had  a  peculiar  fascina- 
tion; he  recurs  to  it  in  many  parts  of  his  writings. 
In  one  place  he  says  that  it  is  generally  used  by  later 
philosopliei's,  "yet  always  along  with  the  other 
proofs,  although  it  alone  is  the  true  one"  (German 
Works,  XII,  547).  As.sailants  of  this  argument 
should  remember  that  all  minds  are  not  cast  in  one 
mould,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  some  can 
feel  the  force  of  arguments  that  are  not  felt  by 
others.  But  if  this  proof  were  indeed,  as  some 
consider  it,  an  absurd  fallacy,  how  could  it  appeal 
to  such  minds  as  those  of  Anselm,  Descartes,  and 
Hegel?  It  may  be  well  to  a<ld  th:it  the  argument 
was  not  rejected  by  all  the  groat  SiIiohIimcm.  It 
was  accepted  by  Alexander  of  Hales  (.Sununa,  Pt. 
I,  Q.  iii,  memb.  1,  2),  and  supported  by  Scotus. 
(In  I,  Dist.  ii,  Q.  ii.)  In  modern  times  it  is  accepted 
by  Mohler,  who  quotes  Hegel's  defence  with  ap- 
proval. 

It  is  not  often  that  a  Catholic  saint  wins  the  ad- 
miration of  German  philosophers  and  English 
historians.  But  Anselm  lias  this  singular  distinction. 
Hegel's  appreciation  of  his  mental  ])owers  may  be 
matched  by  Freeman's  warm  words  of  praise  for  the 
great  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  "Stranger  as  he 
was,  he  has  won  his  place  among  the  noblest  worthies 
of  our  island.  It  was  something  to  be  the  model 
of  all  ecclesiastical  perfection;  it  was  something  to 
be  the  creator  of  the  theologj"  of  Christendom;  but 
it  was  something  higher  still  to  be  the  very  embodi- 
ment of  righteousness  and  mercy,  to  be  handed  down 
in  the  annals  of  humanity  as  the  man  who  saved  the 
hunted  hare  and  stood  up  for  the  holiness  of  JE\- 
fheah"  (History  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  IV,  444). 

Collections  of  the  works  of  St.  Anselm  were  issued 
soon  after  the  invention  of  printing.  Ocsdnyi  men- 
tions nine  earlier  than  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
first  attempt  at  a  critical  edition  was  that  of  Th. 
Raynaud,  S.J.  (Lyons,  Ifi.'iO),  which  rejects  many 
spurious  works,  e.  g.  the  Commentaries  on  St.  Paul. 
The  best  editions  are  those  of  Dom  Gcrberon,  O.S.B. 
(Paris,  1G75,  1721;  Venice  1744;  Migne,  184.5).  Most 
of  the  more  important  works  have  also  been  issued 
separately;  thus  the  "  Monologium  "  is  included  in 
Hurter's  "Opuscula  S.S.  Patrum"  and  published 
with  the  "Proslogium"  by  Haas  (Tubingen). 
There  are  numerous  separate  editions  of  the  "Cur 
Dcus  Homo"  and  of  Anselm's  "Prayers  and  Medi- 
tations"; these  last  were  done  into  English  by 
Archbi-shop  Laud  (1038),  and  there  are  French  and 
German  versions  of  the  "Meditations"  and  the 
"Monologium".  "Cur  Deus  Homo"  has  also  been 
traiLslated  into  English  and  German;  -see  also  the 
translations  by  Deano  (Chicago,  1903).  For  An- 
selm's views  on  education,  see  Bec,  Abbey  of. 

Tlie  chief  sources  for  Anselm's  life  are  his  own  letters  and 
the  two  biographical  works  of  his  friend,  disciple,  and  serretar.v. 
Eadmer,  monl<  of  Canterbury,  and  Bishop-elect  of  .St.  Andrews. 
Kaomkr's  Uistoria  X tvoriim  may  be  called  the  "Life  and 
Times  of  St.  Anselm";   his   Vita  S.  Antclmi  gives   the  inner 


of  the  works  of  St.  Anselm.  The  second  work  of  Eadmer  has 
been  many  times  reprinted:  an  edition  wa-s  published  by  Nutt 
(London.  ISSIJ),  together  with  Cur  Drut  Homo.  Both  have 
been  e<lited  in  the  Rolla  SrrUs  by  Martin  Rui.k.  Besides, 
there  is  a  brief  account  of  the  miracles  of  St.  Anselm  which  is 
also  ascribed  to  Eadmer.  but  its  authorship  is  doubtful.  Pbnr. 
l{\r.r.y,  in  his  valuable  French  monograph  on  Eadmer,  ha-s 
vindicated  the  veracity  of  the  medieval  chronicler,  whose 
methods  have  much  in  common  with  those  of  the  best  modern 
biographers.  Other  early  writers  on  Anselm.  such  as  John  or 
Sai.isbchy.  add  some  new  details,  but  their  account  of  the 


ANSELM 


550 


ANSELM  E 


Saint  18  largely  drawn  from  Eacimer.  See  also  Rule,  Lije  and 
Timts  of  St.  Anselm  (London,  1883):  Kagev,  Histoire  de  St. 
Amelme  (Paris.  1890);  Idem,  Vie  de  St.  Anselme  (Paris,  1877); 
Idem,  St.  .insehic  Profeaaeur  (Paris,  1890).  German  lives  by 
MoHLER,  in  Oeaammehe  Schriften  (Ratisbon,  1839),  Rymer, 
tr.  (London,  1842),  and  Hasse  (Leipzig,  1843),  Turner, 
abr.  tr.  (London,  1850);  French  lives  by  Remusat 
(Paris,  1853);  Cihrma  (Caen,  1853),  and  Croset-Mouchet 
(Paris,  1859);  Hook,  Lii'ea  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
(London.  1S60-75);  Chdrch  in  The  British  Critic;  Idem, 
Life  of  St.  Anselm  (London.  1873);  Stephens  in  Diet.  Nat. 
Biog.;  Schwane  in  Kirchentcr.;  Bainvel,  in  Diet,  de  thiol. 
cath  (1901)  V,  1327-60;  Allies  and  Raymond-Barker  in 
Catholic  World,  XXXVII  (1883). 

W.  H.  Kent. 

Anselm,  S.unt,  Abbot,  Duke  of  Forum  Julii,  the 
modern  Friuli,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Italy. 
Wishing  to  serve  C!od  in  a  monastery,  he  left  the 
world,  and  in  750  built  a  monastery  at  Fanano,  a 
place  given  to  him  by  Aistulph,  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards, who  liad  married  Anselm's  sister  Gisaltruda. 
Two  years  later  he  built  the  monastery  of  Nonantula, 
a  short  distance  northeast  of  Modena.  He  then 
went  to  Rome  where  Stephen  III  invested  liim 
with  the  habit  of  St.  Benedict  and  appointed  him 
Abbot  of  Nonantula.  Being  very  charitable,  Anselm 
founded  many  hospices  where  the  poor  and  tlie 
feeble  were  sheltered  and  cared  for  by  monks. 
Desiderius,  who  had  succeeded  Aistulph  as  King  of 
the  Lombards  (756-774)  banished  Anselm  from 
Nonantula.  The  seven  years  of  his  exile  the  latter 
spent  at  Monte  Cassino,  but  returned  to  Nonantula 
after  the  capture  of  Desiderius  by  Charlemagne. 
Having  been  abbot  for  fifty  years,  Anselm  died  at 
Nonantula  in  305,  and  the  town  of  that  name  still 
honours  him  as  patron. 

Lechner,  Martyrologiiim  des  Benediktiner-Ordens  (Augs- 
burg, 1855):  Stadler,  Heiligen-Lexikon  (Augsburg,  1858),  I, 
235:  Acta  SS.,  1  March,  263,  891. 

Michael  Ott. 

Anselm  of  Laon  (Anselmit.s  Laudinensis),  d. 
15  .July,  1117,  one  of  the  famous  theologians  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  known  from  his  learning  as  Doctor 
Scholasticus.  He  was  educated  at  the  abbey  of  Bee, 
under  St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  who  made  liim  ac- 
quainted with  the  new  scholastic  theology.  From 
1076  he  taught  for  a  while  with  much  distinction 
at  Paris,  and  co-operated  with  William  of  Cham- 
peaux  in  establisliing  the  university  there.  He  re- 
turned to  Laon  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century 
and  set  up  a  theological  school  which  became  so 
famous  that  Abelard,  then  thirty  years  of  age,  who 
was  teaching  philosophy  at  Paris,  removed  to  Laon 
in  order  to  study  tlieology  under  him.  Anselm's 
chief  work  is  liis  "Glossa  interlinearis",  a  com- 
mentary on  the  whole  Vulgate  (Antwerp,  1634),  one  of 
the  two  chief  exegetical  works  of  tlie  Middle  Ages, 
the  other  being  the  "Glossa  ordinaria"  of  Walafrid 
Strabo.  His  known  writings  are  found  in  Migne, 
P.  L.,  CLXII,  1187-1660. 

Hefele  in  Kirchenhx.,  s.  v.;  Lefevrb  (Evreux,  1904);  Hist, 
Ittt.  de  France.  X,   170. 

Anselm  of  Liege,  a  Belgian  chronicler  of  the 
eleventli  century,  b.  1008;  d.  about  1056.  He  was 
educated  at  the  famous  episcopal  school  of  Lioge, 
and  became  canon  and  dean  of  the  cathedral,  where 
he  enjoved  the  friendsliip  of  the  bisliop,  Wazo.  His 
chronicle,  regarded  as  one  of  the  liest  of  the  period, 
both  for  literary  merit  and  for  liistorical  value,  is 
known  as  the  "Gesta  Episcoporum  Tungrensium, 
Trajectensium,  et  Leodiensium  ',  and  is  a  continua- 
tion of  tlie  earher  woik  of  Heriger,  abbot  of  Lobbes 
(d.  1007)  which  dealt  with  the  first  twenty-seven 
bishops,  from  St.  Maternus  (90)  to  Remaclus  (680). 
Anselm's  work,  written  at  the  request  of  his  god- 
motlier,  tlie  countess  Ida,  Abbess  of  St.  Cecilia  at 
Cologne,  added  tlie  lives  of  twenty-five  more  bishops, 
down  to  Wazo,  of  whom  he  gave  a  very  full  and  par- 
ticular account.  Tlic  hil est  edition  of  tlie  "(iesta" 
U  to  be  found  in  the  ".Monumenta  Germania;  His- 


torica:  Scriptores",  VII,  161-2.34;  also  ibid.,  XIV, 
107-120  (1883).  Anselm's  style  is  clear,  and  his 
zeal  for  church-reform  is  equalled  by  his  critical 
intelligence. 
ScHERER  in  Kirchenlex.,  I,  s.  v.;  Wattenbach,  5th  ed.  II,  145. 
Francis  W.  Grev. 

Anselm  of  Lucca,  The  Elder.  See  Alexander 
II,  Pope. 

Anselm  of  Lucca,  the  Younger,  Saint,  b.  at 
Mantua  c.  1036;  d.  in  the  same  city,  18  March,  1086. 
He  was  nephew  of  .\nselm  of  Lucca,  the  Elder,  wlio 
ascended  the  Papal  tlirone  as  Alexander  II  in  1061. 
In  the  year  1071  Alexander  II  designated  An.selm  as 
Bishop  of  Lucca  and  sent  him  to  Germany  to  take 
investiture  from  Henry  IV.  .Anselm  went  to  Ger- 
many, but  was  loath  to  receive  tlie  insignia  of  spiritual 
power  from  a  temporal  ruler  and  returned  without 
investiture.  In  1073  Gregory  VII,  successor  of 
Alexander  II,  also  appointed  Anselm  Bisliop  of 
Lucca,  but  advised  liim  not  to  accept  his  ring  and 
crosier  from  Henry  IV.  For  some  reason,  ."Vriselm 
accepted  investiture  from  Henry,  but  soon  felt  such 
remorse  that  he  resigned  his  bishopric  aiid  entered 
tlie  Order  of  St.  Benedict  at  Padihrone,  a  monastery 
of  the  Cluniac  Reform,  situated  near  Mantua.  Greg- 
ory VII  ordered  him  to  return  to  his  episcopal  see 
at  Lucca.  Anselm  returned  reluctantly,  but  con- 
tinued to  lead  the  life  of  a  monk  until  his  death. 
Inspired,  like  Gregory  VII,  witli  a  holy  zeal  to  reform 
tlie  clergy,  he  wished  to  impose  stricter  discipUne 
upon  tlie  canons  of  liis  cathedral.  Most  of  the  canons 
refused  to  submit  to  .\nselm's  regulations,  and  in 
1081  he  was  expelled  from  Lucca  with  the  help  of 
the  Emperor  and  his  antipope,  Guibert.  Anselm 
now  retired  to  tlie  castle  of  tlie  Countess  Matilda  of 
Tuscany,  whose  spiritual  ativiser  he  was.  Some  time 
later  he  was  made  Papal  Legate  of  Lombardy  with 
instructions  to  rule  o\-er  all  the  dioceses  which, 
during  tlie  conflict  between  pope  and  emperor, 
had  been  left  without  bishops.  Anselm  was  well 
versed  in  the  Scriptures  and  wrote  some  exegetical 
and  ascetical  works.  In  his  work  "  Contra  Guibertum 
et  sequaces  ejus"  he  shows  the  unlawfulness  of  lay- 
investiture  and  defends  Gregory  against  the  Antipope 
Guibert.  He  also  made  a  collection  of  canons 
which  afterwards  weie  incorporated  into  the  well- 
known  "  Decretum  "  of  Gratian.  Mantua,  the  city 
of  Ills  birth  and  death,  honours  liim  as  its  patron. 

Ranbeck,  .4  Benedictine  Calendar  (London,  1896);  MoN- 
talembert,  Les  moines  d'occiilent  (Paris,  1882),  VI,  473  sqq.; 
GuERiN,  Les  petils  BoUandistes  (Paris),  III,  498;  Lechner, 
Martyrologium  des  Benediktiner-Ordens  (Augsburg,  1855). 

Michael  Ott. 

Anselme,  Antoine,  a  celebrated  French  preacher, 
b.  at  risle-Jourdain  in  the  Comt6  d'Armagnac, 
13  January,  1652;  d.  at  Saint-Sever,  8  August,  1737. 
His  father  was  a  distinguished  surgeon.  Anselme 
studied  at  Toulouse  and  became  a  priest.  As  a 
child  he  was  called  the  "Little  Prophet",  because 
he  would  repeat  with  appropriate  gestures  sermons 
which  he  had  heard  only  once.  The  sobriquet  clung 
to  him  up  to  his  death.  After  his  ordination  he 
preached  in  Toulouse,  and  the  Marquis  de  Montespan 
was  so  delighted  with  his  eloquence  that  he  made 
him  instructor  to  his  son,  the  Alarquis  d'Antin,  and 
brought  him  to  Paris.  Pcre  .\nselme's  eloquent  ser- 
mons there  soon  procured  him  sudi  repute  as  a 
.sacred  orator  that  parishes  wishing  to  secure  him 
had  to  do  so  two  or  three  years  in  advance.  In 
1681  the  French  Academy  chose  him  to  deliver 
before  it  the  panegyric  on  St.  Louis.  Two  years 
later  (1683)  he  preaelied  at  Court.  Mine.de  S^vigii^ 
in  one  of  her  letters  (8  .\pril,  1689)  speaks  in  warm 
praise  of  his  intelligence,  eloquence,  charm,  and 
devotion.  He  became  a  member  of  the  .'Vcadciny 
of  Inscriptions  in  1710.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-five,    in    the    Abbey    of    Saint-Sever    which 


ANSLO 


551 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


Louis  XIV  had  given  him  in  1699.  Father  An- 
selme's  writings  are  some  odes  printed  in  the  "Ke- 
i-ueil  de  rAcacl^mie  des  Jeux  Floraux  de  Toulouse"; 
"Panegyrics  of  Saints  and  Funeral  Orations  at  Paris 
In  1718  '  (3  vols.  8vo.,  with  his  portrait);  "Sermons 
for  Advent,  Lent,  and  Various  Occasions"  (Paris, 
1731,  4  vols.  8vo.  and  6  vols.  I2nio.);  divers  dis- 
■sertations  inserted  in  the  ".Meinoires  de  I'Acad^mie 
(1(S  Inscriptions"  from   1724  to   1729. 

La  Grande   Kncyc.    Ill,    128.  JoHN  J.  a'  BeCKET. 

Anslo,  Rever,  Dutcli  poet  and  convert,  b.  at 
Amsterdam  in  1022;  d.  at  Perugia  in  1669.  His 
parents  were  Meiinonites.  He  was  baptized  on 
the  16th  of  November,  1040,  and  lirought  up  a  mem- 
ber of  the  same  sect.  He  liad  already  gained  fame 
as  a  poet,  and  had  been  rewarded  by  his  native  city, 
with  a  laurel  crown  and  a  silver  tiish,  for  a  poem  m 
honour  of  the  new  town  liall.  A  poem  inscribed 
to  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  a  great  patroness  of 
letters,  entitled  "The  Swedish  Pallas",  brought  him 
a  golden  chain.  In  1651,  he  was  received  into  the 
Catholic  Church,  together  with  forty-three  others,  as 
is  shown  by  MS.  records  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 
(Lit.  annua;  Soc.  Jes.,  in  the  Burgxmdian  Librarj'  at 
Brussels,  VI,  No.  21818b  i°  :HX),  u°  1651).  He  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome,  where  he  became  secretan'  to 
Cardinal  Capponi,  and  received  from  Pope  Inno- 
cent X  a  gold  medal  for  his  poetical  labours.  In 
1655  ho  was  presented  to  Queen  Christina,  to  whom 
he  dedicated  new  poems.  His  collected  works  were 
published  in  1713,  the  finest  being  a  tragedy,  "The 
Parisian  Blood-Bridal"  (De  parj'sche  bloed-brui- 
loff),  dealing  with  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
'liiUM  in  Kirchenlti.:  Id.,  in  tlie  Diet»ctu-  Warande  {\vaaieT~ 
ilami;  Id..  Spirgel  tan  Nederlandtche  LeUirrn  (1-ouvain,  1877, 
11.  HI). 

Fr.\nci.s  \V.  Cirey. 
Anstey,  Thomas  Chisholm,  lawyer  and  politician, 
son  of  one  of  the  first  settlers  in  Tjismania,  b.  in 
London,  England,  1816;  d.  at  Bombay,  India,  12 
.\ugust,  1873.  Educated  at  Wellington  and  the  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  in 
18.39.  One  of  the  earliest  converts  of  the  Oxford 
movement,  he  was  shortly  after  appointed  professor 
of  law  and  jurisprudence  at  Prior  Park  College  near 
Bath,  and  became  an  ardent  champion  of  thp  rights 
and  interests  of  the  Catholics  of  England  and  Ireland. 
Joining  O'Connell's  forces,  he  resigned  his  professor- 
ship and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  politics.  In 
1847  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for 
Youghal,  where  he  was  prominent  in  the  opposition 
to  Lord  I'almerston's  foreign  policy  and  advocated  the 
repeal  of  the  Irish  and  ."scotch  unions  and  the  repeal 
of  the  currency  laws.  He  retired  from  parliamentary 
life  in  18.52  and  in  18.54  was  nominated  -Attorney- 
General  of  Hongkong,  but  in  the  course  of  the  radi- 
cal reforms  he  inaugurated  he  came  into  collision 
with  Sir  John  Bowring  in  1858  and  was  suspended 
from  office.  Anstey's  representations  were  brought 
to  the  attention  of  Parliament  in  18.59  but  he  was 
unable  to  obtain  public  redress,  whereupon  he  re- 
tired to  India  and  took  up  the  practice  of  law  at 
Bombay.  His  success  was  great;  he  filled  a  tem- 
porarj'  vacancy  on  the  bench  in  1805,  but  again  was 
comiielled  to  resign  his  post  on  account  of  the  oppo- 
sition excited  by  his  vigorous  denunciation  of  com- 
mercial abuses  m  the  Bengal  government.  He  then 
returned  to  England  in  1866  and  in  a  tract  entitled 
'' .\  Plea  for  the  I'nrepresented  for  the  Restitution 
of  the  Franchise"  he  advocated  universal  suffrage 
as  a  panacea  for  the  ills  resulting  from  class  legisla- 
tion. In  1867  he  published  an  attack  upon  Dis- 
raeli's Refonn  Act  of  that  year.  In  1808  he  re- 
t\irned  to  Bombay  and  resumed  his  practice  and  on 
bis  death  was  deeply  lamented  by  the  natives,  whose 
causes  he  had  always  forwarded.  He  was  accu.sed  of 
lack  of  moderation  in  his  methods  but  never  of  lack 


of  intelligence  or  honour  in  his  purposes.  Among 
his  numerous  pamphlets  were:  "A  Guide  to  the  Laws 
affecting  Roman  Catholics "  (1842),  and  "The  Queen's 
Svipremacy  considered  in  its  relation  with  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  England"  (1850).  He  also  contributed 
many  articles  to  the  Dublin  Magazine,  just  then 
started  under  the  direction  of  Newman,  O'CJonnell, 
and  Henry  Bagshawe. 

TabUl  (Ixjndon,  16  Aueimt,  1873);  Weekly  Reoisler,  ibid.; 
Hansard,  Parliatnenlary  Debatet  (1847-52). 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Antediluvians  (from  Lat.  on/«  =  before,  and 
diluvium  =  {\ooi\;  people  who  lived  before  the  Flood). 
In  the  Pentateuch. — From  Adam  to  Noe  the 
Bible  enumerates  ten  patriarchs.  A  genealogical 
table  of  them  is  given  (Gen.,  v).  Their  names, 
lifetime,  and  age  at  which  they  begot  their  successors 
are  systematically  stated.  The  modem  theory  of 
the  composition  of  the  Pentateuch  assigns  the  Chap- 
ter in  which  this  table  occurs  to  the  documentary 
.source  commonly  called  the  "Priestly  Code",  or 
by  abbreviation,  P.  (See  Pentateuch.)  In  the 
narrative  of  this  code  the  table  of  the  ten  patriarchs 
is  said  by  critics  to  have  followed  immediately  after 
the  Hexahcmcron  of  chapter  i.  The  account  of  the 
Creation  concluded  or  began,  as  they  maintain,  with 
the  phrase:  "The.se  are  the  generations  of  the  heavens 
and  the  earth"  (Gen.,  ii,  4).  The  list  of  the  patri- 
archs begins:  "This  is  the  book  of  the  generations  of 
.■\dam".  The  thread  of  the  same  narrative  is  said 
to  be  further  continued  in  chapter  vi.  9,  by  means  of 
the  .same  phra.se:  "These  are  the  generations  of  Noe". 
The  intervening  chapters,  critics  hold,  belong  to  an 
older  account  of  the  primeval  time.  Critics  allege 
that  among  the  names  of  the  ten  patriarchs  there 
are  six  that  occur  also  in  the  list  of  the  descendants 
of  Cain.  The  table  of  Cainites  is  given  in  chapter  iv, 
ver.  17-18.  The  si.x  names,  supposed  to  be  the  same 
in  both  registers,  are  Cain  or  Cainan.  Henoch,  Irad 
or  Jared.  Mav-iael  or  Mahilecl.  .Mathusael  or  .MatluLvala, 
and  Lamech.  The  different  manner  in  which  .some 
of  the  names  are  spelleil  in  the  parallel  list  is  held  to 
be  in.significant.  .\s  the  table  of  Cainites  in  chap- 
ter iv  is  assumed  by  critics  to  be  from  an  older  docu- 
ment than  that  of  the  .Vdamites  in  chapter  v,  the 
inference  was  obvious  that  the  names  of  the  latter 
table  were  taken  from  the  former.  For  this  infer- 
ence critics  find  a  support  in  the  meaning  of  the 
names  Adam,  Enos,  and  Cain  or  Cainan.  The  names 
.\dam  and  Enos  mean  "  man  ";  Cain  or  Cainan  means 
"the  one  begotten"  or  "the  son  obtaineil"  cf.  iv,  1. 
Thus  we  would  have  the  parallel  .A.dara-Cain,  Enos- 
Cainan,  namely,  man  and  his  .scion. 

The  Nu.muer  Ten. — In  fixing  upon  the  number 
ten  as  the  number  of  patriarchs  tlie  author  may  have 
followed  some  ancient  anil  perhaps  widely  spread 
tradition.  The  list  of  the  ten  natriarchs  with  their 
abnormally  long  lifetime  resembles  that  of  the  first 
ten  Babylonian  kings  as  rccortled  by  Bcrosus,  Euse- 
bius,  Chron.  Arm.,  I,  i,  t.  XI.X,  col.  107-108.  .Ac- 
cording to  Vigourou.x,  "Dictionnaire  de  la  bible", 
the  tradition  of  ten  ancient  ancestors  is  found  also 
with  other  races;  e.  g.  among  the  Hindus,  with  their 
ten  Pitris  or  forefathers,  comprising  Brahma  and 
the  nine  Bram.idikas;  among  the  ancient  Germans 
and  Scandinavians,  with  their  belief  in  the  ten  an- 
cestors of  Odin,  etc.  But  it  is  equally  possible  that 
the  number  ten  is  simply  due  to  a  systematic  method 
of  computation.  Thus  the  pre-hisloric  age  from 
Adam  to  .\braham  was  to  comprehenii  twenty  gen- 
erations, ten  from  Adam  to  Noe,  and  ten  from  Sem 
to  Thare.  .\  similar  systematic  arrangement  we 
have  in  the  genealogical  table  of  Christ  in  St.  Matthew 
cont;iining  three  times  fourteen  generations.  The 
following  table  contains  the  names  of  the  patriarchs 
with  their  respective  ages  according  to  the  Hebrew 
text,    Septuagint,    and    Samaritan    Bible;    also    the 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


552 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


names  of  the  reign  of  tlic  ten  Babylonian  kings.  The  the  shortness  of  our  Uves  at  present  an  argument 
first  column  gives  the  age  at  which  the  patriarch  that  neither  the  Patriarchs  attained  so  long  a  dura- 
begot  his  successor,  the  second  the  remainder  of  liis  tion  of  life;  for  those  ancients  were  beloved  of  God 
years,  the  tliird  the  total  number  of  liis  years.  The  and  made  by  God  himself;  and  because  their  food 
list  of  Babylonian  kings  is  taken  from  Vigouroux  was  then  fitter  for  the  prolongation  of  life;  and  be- 
(Dict.  de  la  bible) : —  sides  God  afforded  them  a  longer  time  of  life  on 


Hebrew 

Samarftan 

Septdagint 

Sabbs 

Years 
CnTL    Astron'l 

Chaldean 
Kings 

Adam 
Seth 
Enos 
Cainan 
Malaleel 
Jared 
Henoch 
Mathusala 
Lamech 
Noe 
to  the 
Flood 

130 
105 
90 

70 
65 
162 
65 

187 
182 
500 

100 

800 
807 
815 
840 
830 
800 
300 
782 
595 

930 
912 
905 
910 
895 
962 
365 
969 
777 

(950) 

130 
105 
90 
70 
65 
62 
65 
67 
53 
500 

100 

800 
807 
815 
840 
830 
785 
300 
653 
600 

930 
912 
905 
910 
895 
847 
365 
720 
653 

(950) 

230 
205 
190 
170 
165 
162 
165 
167 
188 
500 

100 

700 
707 
715 
740 
730 
800 
200 
802 
565 

930 
912 
905 
910 
895 
962 
365 
969 
753 

(950) 

10 
3 
13 

12 
18 
10 
18 
10 
8 
18 

185     36,000 
55i     10,800 
240J  46,800 
222     43,200 
333     64,800 
185     36,000 
333     64,800 
185     36,000 
148     28,800 
333     64,800 

Alorus 

Alaparus 

Almelon 

Ammenon 

Amegalarus 

Daonus 

Edoranchus 

Amempsinus 

Otiartes 

Xisuthrus 

Total 

1,656 

1,307 

1 

2,242 

120 

2,220  432,000 

As  the  table  shows,  the  original  text  and  its  two 
versions  differ  greatly  in  fixing  the  number  of  years 
from  Adam  to  the  Flood.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible  the 
number  is  1,656,  in  the  Samaritan,  1,307;  in  the 
Septuagint,  2,242.  On  a  closer  examination  it  will 
be  found  that  the  difference  between  the  Hebrew 
text  and  the  Septuagint  is  cliiefly  occasioned  by  the 
systematic  addition  of  100  years  wliich  the  Septua- 
gint has  made  to  the  age  of  six  patriarchs  at  the 
birth  of  their  successors.  Tlie  Samaritan  on  the 
contrary  lias  in  the  case  of  three  patriarchs  deducted 
100  years.  No  reliable  clue  that  we  know  of  has  as 
yet  been  found  for  deciding  which  of  the  computa- 
tions is  the  original.  Presumption  is  on  the  side  of 
the  one  in  the  Hebrew  text  being  the  oldest  text  of 
the  tliree.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Samaritan  has 
the  advantage  that  tlie  lifetime  of  the  three  patri- 
archs Jared,  Methusala,  and  Lamech  has  been 
shortened,  so  that  there  is  a  gradual  decrease  in  the 
number  of  years  of  each  patriarcli  from  Adam  to 
Noe.  In  the  table  of  the  ten  Babylonian  kings  the 
length  of  their  reign  is  calculated  by  means  of  sares. 
Berosus  counts  120  sares.  The  sare  has  an  as- 
tronomical value  of  3,600  years  and  a  ci\al  value  of 
eighteen  and  one-half  years  (Vigouroux,  Diet,  de  la 
bible).  According  to  the  first  estimation  of  the 
sare,  the  total  number  of  years  for  the  ten  kings 
would  be  432,000,  according  to  the  second  2,220. 
The  efforts  made  to  bring  the  sares  or  432,000  years 
of  the  Babylonian  kings,  into  harmony  witli  tlie 
1,656  years  of  the  patriarchs  (e.  g.  by  equating  seven 
Hebrew  days  with  five  Chaldean  years)  have 
yielded  no  satisfactory  result. 

Longevity  of  the  Patri.^rchs. — Various  theories 
have  been  advanced  for  explaining  the  abnormally 
long  lifetime  of  the  patriarchs.  They  may  be 
classified  into  three  groups:  (1)  The  Literal  and  His- 
torical Interpretation. — The  genealogical  table  is  ac- 
cepted as  a  record  of  the  past  and  as  possessing  tlie 
ordinary-  certainty  of  history.  The  ten  patriarchs 
are  held  actually  to  have  lived  the  long  life  assigned 
to  them.  The  object  which  God  intended  by  tliis 
extraordinary  longevity  is  said  to  have  been  the  in- 
crease of  men  on  earth  and  the  preservation  of 
ancient  tradition.  In  answer  to  the  objection  that 
the  system  of  the  human  body  does  not  permit  of 
so  long  a  lifetime,  it  is  argued  that  a  special  jirovi- 
dence  of  God  had  favoured  the  ancients  witli  a  pe- 
culiar organization  and  constitution  of  body,  and 
had  provided  for  them  a  special  kind  of  food  and 
climate.     Thus  already  Joseplius:  "Let  no  one  make 


account  of  their  virtue,  and  the  good  use  they  made 
of  it  in  astronomical  and  geometrical  discoveries, 
etc."  Furthermore  in  corroboration  of  the  Biblical 
account  he  names  as  witnesses  the  historians  Manetho 
tlie  Egyptian,  Berosus  the  Chaldean,  Mochus, 
HestiiBus,  Hieronymus  the  Egyptian,  and  others, 
who  all  bore  testimony  to  the  longevity  of  prime\al 
man.  Ant.,  I,  III,  9.  (2)  The  Metaphorical  Inter- 
prctation. — The  names  of  the  ten  patriarchs  signify 
ten  dynasties  or  tribes.  Each  dynasty  might  have 
comprised  a  succession  of  several  rulers.  The  ex- 
planation is  ingenious.  It  may  be  doubted,  however, 
whether  this  was  the  meaning  of  the  narrator.  By 
naming  the  patriarchs  he  seems  to  have  meant  one 
individual.  For  he  states  the  age  at  which  the 
patriarch  begot  the  son  who  was  to  succeed  liiin. 
Others  argue  that  the  Hebrew  word,  Slianah,  in  the 
list  of  tlie  ten  patriarchs  signifies  the  duration  not  of 
a  year,  but  of  a  month.  But  in  that  case  Enos  begot 
his  successor  when  he  was  eight  years  of  age,  anil 
Malaleel  and  Henoch  begot  theirs  when  they  were 
five.  Others  again,  but  without  sufficient  ground, 
say  that  the  year  is  to  be  taken  as  a  year  of  tliree 
months  from  Adam  unto  ."Vbraham,  of  eight  months 
unto  Joseph,  and  only  after  him  are  we  to  allow  for 
it  the  natural  duration.  (3)  The  Mythical  Interpreta- 
tion.— We  have  already  pointed  out  that  according  to 
the  tlieory  of  the  documentary  composition  of  the 
Pentateuch,  chapter  v  belongs  to  the  original  history 
named  by  the  critics  the  "Priestly  Code".  If  the 
genealogical  dates  recorded  in  that  narrative  are 
examined,  a  gradual  and  systematic  shortening  of 
man's  lifetime  is  distinctly  noticeable.  From  Adam 
to  Noe  the  duration  of  man's  life  ranges  from  500 
to  1,000  years.  From  Sem  to  Tliare  it  ranges 
from  200  to  600  (xi,  10-32).  From  Abraham  to 
Moses,  from  100  to  200.  Abraham  lived  175  years; 
Isaac,  180;  Jacob,  147  (Gen.,  xxxv,  28;  xxv,  7;  xlvii,  28). 
After  that  the  average  human  life  is  70  or  SO  years. 
"And  the  days  of  our  years  in  them  are  three  score 
and  ten  years.  But  if  in  the  strong  they  be  fourscore 
years"  (Ps.,  Ixxxix,  10).  Critics,  moreover,  hold, as 
we  have  seen,  that  according  to  the  original  structure 
of  the  "Priestly  Code"  the  genealogical  table  in 
chaptor  v  immediately  followed  the  account  of  llie 
Creation  in  cliaptcr  i.  If  so,  the  narrative  of  this 
Code  contained  no  mention  of  paradise,  nor  of  man's 
immortality,  fall,  and  punishment.  On  the  other 
liand  it  may  have  been  the  opinion  of  the  author  of 
this  Code  tliat  the  smooth  and  even  course  of  man's 
life,  the  result  of  iiis  continued  state  of  innocence, 


ANTEONATI 


553 


ANTHONY 


contributed  to  the  possibility  of  his  attaining  a 
pretfrnaturally  oki  age.  But  when  this  primordial 
iiiiiocciu'c  was  lost  tlie  duration  of  man's  life  was 
shortened.  Tlius  the  longevity  of  tlie  patriarchs 
would  agree  with  tlie  notion  of  the  primeval  atas 
aurea,  a  fabulous  period  of  innocence  and  happiness. 
Dki-itzsch,  Dh.i.ma.n,  C'oramcntaries  <m  Genesis  (EuinburKh, 
1897).  uiul  by  IhiMMKi.AUKii  (I'liris.  ISim);  SciiANz,  Das  Alter 
dfs  M fiischentjeachtechu  nach  der  hriiinfn  SchriU,  der  ProUirmf- 
schichte  und  der  Vorgeichichte,  in  Bibtische  tStudien,  I,  No.  U 
(Freiburg,  1895). 

C.  VAN  DEN  BlESEN. 

Ante^ati,  F.vmii.v  oi'.     See  Organ. 

Ante-Nicene  Fathers.  See  Fatheiis  op  the 
Chuuiii,  Tino. 

Antependium.    See  Altau,  A ltau- Frontal. 

Antequera.    See  Oaxaca. 

Anterus  (.\nteuos),  Saint,  Poi>e,  (21  November, 
2.3.5-3  Jaiumrj',  236).  We  know  for  certain  only 
that  ho  roigiiod  some  forty  days,  and  that  he  was 
buried  in  tlie  famous  "papal  crj-pt"  of  the  cemetery 
of  St.  C'alixlus  at  Rome  [Xortlicote  and  Brown- 
low,  Roma  Sotterranca,  (London,  1879)  I,  296-.30()]. 
The  "Liber  Pontificulis  "  (ed.  Duchesne  I,  147;  cf. 
xcv-vi)  says  that  he  was  martyred  for  having 
caused  the  .\cts  of  the  martyrs  to  be  collected  by 
notaries  and  deposited  in  tlie  archives  of  the  Roman 
t'hurcli.  Tliis  tradition  seems  old  and  respectable; 
nevertheless  the  best  scholars  maintain  that  it  is  not 
sufficiently  guaranteed  by  its  sole  voucher,  the 
"Liber  Pontificalis ",  on  account,  among  other 
things,  of  the  late  date  of  that  work's  compilation. 
(See  I'ai'acy,  Notaries.)  The  site  of  his  sepulchre 
was  discovered  by  De  Rossi  in  1S54,  with  some 
broken  remnants  of  the  Greek  epitaph  engraved  on 
the  narrow  olilong  slab  that  closed  his  tomb,  an  index 
at  once  of  his  origin  and  of  the  prevalence  of  Greek 
in  tlie  Roman  Church  up  to  tliat  date.  For  the 
"Epistola  Anteri"  attributed  to  him  by  Pseudo- 
Isidore  see  Hinschius,  "  Decret.  P-seudo-IsidoriaiuE  " 
(Leipzig,  1863),  156-160  and  P.  G.,  X,  165-168.  Cf. 
"Liber  Pont",  (ed.  Duchesne),  I.  147. 

TiLLEMONT,  Mcmoirca  (III),  -'78,  ()94;  De  Rossi,  Roma 
SotUrr.,  II,  pi.  Ill,  55-58;  Allard,  llist.  dcB  Persecutions 
(Pari.s,  1880),  II,  198-2(X);  Acta  SS.  (U>13),  Jan.  1,  127. 

Thomas  J.  Sh.^han. 

Anthelmi,  Joseph,  a  French  ecclesiastical  liis- 
torian,  b.  at  Fr(5jus,  25  July,  1648;  d.  in  tlie  same 
city,  21  June,  1697.  Several  of  his  ancestors  had 
occupied  canonries  in  their  native  place,  tlie  history 
and  traditions  of  which  they  had  investigated  and 
preserved.  Joseph,  feeling  himself  called  to  the 
priest hooil,  betook  himself  to  Lyons,  where  he  en- 
tereil  on  tlie  study  of  theology  under  the  celebrated 
Jesuit  Pi^re  Lachaise,  afterwards  confessor  to  Louis 
XIV.  On  being  orilained,  he  returned  to  Provence, 
and  was  soon  made  canon  of  the  Catheilral  of  Fr^^'jus, 
notwithstanding  his  natural  ihslikc  for  a  position  .so 
ill  according  with  his  habits  of  retirement  and  study. 
His  uncles,  Pierre  and  Nicolas,  had  published  a 
work  on  the  former  incumbents  of  the  See  of  Kr^-jus; 
and  following  in  their  footsteps,  Joseph  resolved  to 
devote  himself  especially  to  the  historj'  of  tlie  Church 
in  his  native  land,  beginning  with  his  own  diocese. 
His  first  work  appeared  in  1680,  "  De  initio  ecclesia; 
Forojuliensis  dissertatio  chronologica,  critica,  pro- 
fano-sacra ".  The  learned  but  erring  Pasquicr 
Quesnel,  once  an  Oratorian,  was  tlien  at  the  height 
of  his  reputation,  and  was  agitating  France  on  the 
question  of  the  re.al  author  of  the  "De  vocationc 
gentium",  the  "  Re.sponsiones  pro  .\ugustino  ad 
Capitula  Gallorum"  and  the  "  F.pistola  ad  Denictri- 
adem"  (P.  L.,  LI,  647,  158;  LV,  162).  In  his  opinion 
these  had  been  written  by  St.  Leo  the  Great,  .\gainst 
him  .\nthelmi  now  entered  the  field  on  behalf  of  the 
authorship  of  St.  Prosper  of  .\quitaine.  Tlie  con- 
test was   maintained  with  vigour  by  both  parties, 


their  letters  being  published  in  the  "Journal  des 
Savants ",  in  1689.  Toward  the  close  of  the  same 
year  Anthelmi  vindicated  his  position  by  the  pub- 
lication at  Paris  of  his  work  "  De  veris  operibus  SS. 
Patruin  Leonis  et  Piosperi ".  The  opposition  be- 
tween -Anthelmi  anil  t^uesiiel  burst  out  anew  in  re- 
gard to  the  authorship  of  the  Athanasian  Creed. 
Quesnel  thought  it  the  work  of  Vigilius,  Bishop  of 
Thapsus,  in  .-Vfrica,  who  towards  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century  was  liriven  from  his  see  by  Huneric, 
King  of  the  Vandals,  and  taking  refuge  in  Constan- 
tinople wrote  :ii;:iliist  the  Arians,  Eutychians,  and 
Nestoriaiis,  attributing  his  own  works  to  St.  Augu.s- 
tiiie  and  St.  .Vlhunasius.  Anthelmi,  on  the  contrary, 
inclined  to  the  view  of  Pero  Pithou,  who  attributed 
it  to  St.  Vincent  of  L<5rins;  and  in  1693  he  published 
his  "Nova  de  symbolo  Athanasiano  disquisitio ". 
In  this  work  Anthelmi  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
the  Creed  cannot  be  the  production  of  St.  Athanasius, 
as  it  was  composed  not  earlier  than  the  fifth  century; 
anil  that  its  author  was  a  Gaul.  St.  Vincent  was 
known  to  have  had  the  intention  of  filling  out  at 
length  a  confession  of  faith  in  the  mysteries  of  the 
Trinity  and  the  Incarnation;  this,  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  similarity  of  style  and  expression 
between  the  Athanasian  Creed  and  the  writings  of 
St.  Vincent,  is  tlie  founilation  of  Anthelmi's  argument. 
His  brother,  Charles,  Bishop  of  (ira.s.se,  collected  and 
published  several  other  historical  papers,  the  most 
notable  of  which  was  a  pamphlet,  "On  the  Life  and 
Death  of  St.  Martin  of  lours  ".  In  1694,  Anthelini 
was  made  vicar-general  to  the  Bishop  of  Pamiers; 
but  his  health,  already  impaired  by  a  life  of  severe 
stuily  and  unremitting  labour,  could  not  stand  the 
ailditional  strain  put  upon  it  by  his  new  duties,  and 
he  returned  to  his  native  city  in  a  vain  attempt  to 
recuperate.  Here  he  died  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of 
his  age. 

ToLssAiNT  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cnth.  s.  v.;  Horter,  Nomen- 
claltir,  II,  540. 

Anthemius,  a  Byzantine  official  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  of  high  rank  and  fine  character.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  magistrates  of  his 
day,  noted  for  his  wisdom  and  his  administrative 
ability.  St.  Chrysostom  and  he  entertained  the 
greatest  respect  for  each  other.  Anthemius  was 
Alaijister  Omcioruin  at  the  time  of  the  disturb- 
ances whicii  followed  St.  Chrysostom's  deposition 
(Easter,  404),  and  the  Saint's  enemies  demanded 
troops  from  him  with  which  to  disperse  the  crowd. 
At  first  lie  refused,  but  then  yielded  to  their  importu- 
nities, declaring  that  they  were  responsible  for  the 
consequences  (Pallad.  83).  Anthemius  was  made 
consul  in  405,  and  soon  after  Prefect  of  the  East 
(Cod.  Theod.  Chronol.,  149),  a  position  ho  held  un- 
til 417.  St.  Chrysostom  WTOte  to  him  in  warm 
tenns  (Ep.  cxivii).  The  title  of  Patrician  is  given 
to  him  in  the  law  of  28  April,  406  (Cod.  Theod; 
Chron.  149).  He  was  principal  adviser  to  Theodosius 
the  Younger  (Soc.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  i)  and,  through 
his  daughter's  marriage  to  Procopius,  became  grand- 
father to  the  Emperor  Anthemius.  He  took  part  in 
the  reception  of  the  relics  of  the  Prophet  Samuel  at 
Constantinople  (Chron.  -■Vlex.  714;  Theod.  Lect.  ii, 
64;  Tillemont,  Empereurs). 

JoirN  J.  a'  Becket. 

Anthony,  Saint,  founder  of  Christian  monasticism. 
The  chief  source  of  information  on  St.  Anthony  is  a 
Greek  Life  attributed  to  St.  Athanasius,  to  be  found 
in  any  edition  of  his  works.  A  note  of  the  recent 
controversy  concerning  this  Life  is  given  at  the  end 
of  this  article;  here  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  now  it 
is  receiveil  with  practical  unanimity  by  scholars  as 
a  suljstantially  hi.storical  record,  and  as  a  probably 
authentic  work  of  Athanasius.  Valuable  subsidiary 
information  is  supplied  by  secondary  sources:  the 
".\poplithegmata ",   chiefly    those    collected    under 


ANTHONY 


554 


ANTHONY 


Anthony's  name  (at  the  head  of  Cotelier's  alphabeti- 
cal collection,  P.  G.,  LXV,  7);  Cassian,  especially 
Coll.  II;  Palladius,  "Historia  Lausiaca",  3,  4,  21,  22 
(cd.  Butler).  All  this  matter  may  probably  be  ac- 
cepted as  substantially  authentic,  whereas  what  is 
related  concerning  St.  Anthony  in  St.  Jerome's 
"Life  of  Paul  the  Hermit"  cannot  be  used  for 
historical  purjjoses.  Anthony  was  born  at  Coma, 
near  Heracleopolis  Magna  in  the  Fayum,  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century.  He  was  the  son  of 
well-to-do  parents,  and  on  their  death,  in  his  twentieth 
vear,  he  inherited  their  possessions.  He  had  a  de- 
sire to  imitate  the  life  of  the  Apostles  and  the  early 
Christians,  and  one  day,  on  hearing  in  the  church 
the  Gospel  words,  "If  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  and 
sell  all  thou  hast",  he  received  them  as  spoken  to 
himself,  disposed  of  all  his  property  and  goods,  and 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  religious  exercises. 
Long  before  this  it  had  been  usual  for  Christians  to 
practise  asceticism,  abstaining  from  marriage  and 
exercising  themselves  in  self-denial,  fasting,  prayer, 
and  works  of  Jjiety;  but  this  they  had  done  in  the 
midst  of  their  families,  and  'ivithout  leaving  house 
or  home.  Later  on,  in  Egypt,  such  ascetics  lived 
in  huts,  in  the  outskirts  of  the  towns  and  villages, 
and  this  was  the  common  practice  about  270,  when 
Anthony  withdrew  from  the  world.  He  began  his 
career  by  practising  the  ascetical  life  in  this  fashion 
without  "leaving  his  native  place.  He  used  to  visit 
the  various  ascetics,  study  their  lives,  and  try  to 
learn  from  each  of  them  the  virtue  in  which  he 
seemed  to  excel.  Then  he  took  up  his  abode  in  one 
of  the  tombs,  near  his  native  \'illage,  and  there  it 
was  that  the  Life  records  those  strange  conflicts  with 
demons  in  the  shape  of  wild  beasts,  who  inflicted 
blows  upon  him,  and  sometimes  left  him  nearly  dead. 
After  fifteen  years  of  this  life,  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
five.  Anthony  determined  to  withdraw  from  the 
habitations  of  men  and  retire  into  absolute  solitude. 
He  crossed  the  Nile,  and  on  a  mountain  near  the 
east  bank,  then  called  Pispir,  now  Der  el  Memun,  he 
found  an  old  fort  into  which  he  shut  himself,  and 
lived  there  for  twenty  years  ■nnthout  seeing  the  face 
of  man,  food  being  thrown  to  him  over  the  wall. 
He  was  at  times  visited  by  pilgrims,  whom  he  refused 
to  see;  but  gradually  a  number  of  would-be  disciples 
established  themselves  in  caves  and  in  huts  around 
the  mountain.  Thus  a  colony  of  ascetics  was  formed, 
who  begged  Anthony  to  come  forth  and  be  their 
guide  in  the  spiritual  life.  At  length,  about  the 
year  305,  he  yielded  to  their  importunities  and 
emerged  from  his  retreat,  and,  to  the  surprise  of  all, 
he  appeared  to  be  as  when  he  had  gone  in,  not 
emaciated,  but  vigorous  in  body  and  mind.  For 
five  or  six  years  he  devoted  himself  to  the  instruction 
and  organization  of  the  great  body  of  monks  that 
had  grown  up  around  him;  but  then  he  once  again 
withdrew  into  the  inner  desert  that  lay  between  the 
Nili?  and  the  Red  Sea,  near  the  shore  of  which  he 
fixed  his  abode  on  a  mountain  where  still  stands  the 
monastery  that  bears  his  name,  the  Der  Mar  An- 
tonios.  Here  he  spent  the  last  forty-five  years  of 
his  life,  in  a  seclusion,  not  so  strict  as  at  Pispir,  for 
he  freely  saw  those  who  came  to  visit  him,  and  he 
used  to  cross  the  desert  to  Pispir  with  considerable 
frequency.  The  Life  .says  that  on  two  occasions  ho 
went  to  Alexandria,  once  after  he  came  forth  from 
the  fort  at  Pispir,  to  strengthen  the  Christian  martyrs 
in  the  persecution  of  311,  and  once  at  the  close  of 
his  life  (c.  350),  to  preach  against  the  Arians.  The 
Life  says  he  died  at  the  age  of  a  hundred  and  five, 
and  St.  Jerome  places  his  death  in  350-357.  All  the 
chronology  is  based  on  the  hypothesis  that  this 
date  and  the  figures  in  the  Li'fc  are  correct.  At 
his  own  request  his  grave  was  kept  secret  by  the 
two  disciples  who  buried  him,  lest  his  body  should 
bccorne  an  object  of  reverence. 


Of  his  writings,  the  most  authentic  formulation 
of  his  teaching  is  without  doubt  that  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  various  sayings  and  discourses  put  into 
his  mouth  in  the  Life,  especially  the  long  ascetic 
sermon  (16-43)  spoken  on  his  coming  forth  from  his 
fort  at  Pispir.  It  is  an  instruction  on  the  duties 
of  the  spiritual  life,  in  which  the  warfare  with  demons 
occupies  the  chief  place.  Though  probably  not  an 
actual  discourse  spoken  on  any  single  occasion,  it 
can  hardly  be  a  mere  invention  of  the  biographer, 
and  doubtless  reproduces  St.  Anthony's  actual  doc- 
trine, brought  together  and  co-ordinated.  It  is 
likely  that  many  of  the  sayings  attributed  to  him 
in  the  "Apophthegmata"  really  go  back  to  him,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  stories  told  of  him  in 
Cassian  and  Palladius.  There  is  a  homogeneity 
about  these  records,  and  a  certain  dignity  and 
spiritual  elevation  that  seem  to  mark  them  ■sNith  the 
stamp  of  truth,  and  to  justify  the  belief  that  the 
picture  they  give  us  of  St.  Anthony's  personality, 
character,  and  teaching  is  essentially  authentic.  A 
different  verdict  has  to  be  passed  on  the  writings  that 
go  under  his  name,  to  be  found  in  P.  G.,  XL.  The 
Sermons  and  twenty  Epistles  from  the  Arabic  are 
by  common  consent  pronounced  wholly  spurious. 
St.  Jerome  (De  Viris  111.,  Ixxxviii)  knew  seven  epis- 
tles translated  from  Coptic  into  Greek;  the  Greek 
appears  to  be  lost,  but  a  Latin  version  exists  (ibid.), 
and  Coptic  fragments  of  three  of  these  letters  have 
recently  been  printed  (Journ.  of  Theol.  Studies, 
July,  1906)  agreeing  closely  with  the  Latin;  they 
may  be  authentic,  but  it  would  be  premature  to  decide. 
Better  is  the  position  of  a  Greek  letter  to  Theodore, 
preserved  in  the  ''  Epistola  Ammonis  ad  Theophilum ' ', 
§  20,  and  said  to  be  a  translation  of  a  Coptic  original; 
there  seems  to  be  no  sufficient  ground  for  doubting 
that  it  really  was  written  by  Anthony  (see  Butler. 
Lau.siac  History  of  Pafladius,  Part  I,  223).  The 
authorities  are  agreed  that  St.  Anthony  knew  no 
Greek  and  spoke  only  Coptic.  There  exists  a  mo- 
nastic Rule  that  bears  St.  Anthony's  name,  preserved 
in  Latin  and  Arabic  forms  (P.  G.,  XL,  1065);  it  has 
recently  been  critically  investigated  by  Contzen 
(Die  Regel  des  hi.  Antonius,  Metten,  1896),  with 
the  result  that,  while  it  cannot  be  received  as  having 
been  actually  composed  by  Anthony,  it  probably 
in  large  measure  goes  back  to  him,  being  for  the  most 
part  made  up  out  of  the  utterances  attributed  to 
him  in  the  Life  and  the  "Apophthegmata";  it  con- 
tains, however,  an  element  derived  from  the  spuria 
and  also  from  the  "Pachomian  Rules".  It  was  com- 
piled at  an  early  date,  and  had  a  great  vogue  in 
Egypt  and  the  East.  At  this  day  it  is  the  rule 
followed  by  the  Uniat  Monks  of  Syria  and  Armenia, 
of  whom  the  Maronites.  with  some  sixty  monasteries 
and  1,100  monks,  are  the  most  important;  it  is  fol- 
lowed also  by  the  scanty  remnants  of  Coptic  mona- 
chism. 

It  will  be  proper  to  define  St.  Anthony's  place, 
and  to  explain  his  influence  in  the  historj-  of  Christian 
monachism.  He  probably  was  not  the  first  Christian 
hermit;  it  is  more  reasonable  to  believe  that,  however 
little  historical  St.  Jerome's  "Vita  Pauli"  may  be, 
some  kernel  of  fact  underlies  the  story  (Butler,  op. 
cit..  Part  I,  231,  232),  but  Paul's  existence  was 
wholly  unknown  till  long  after  Anthony  had  become 
the  recognized  leader  of  Christian  hermits.  Nor 
was  St.  Anthony  a  great  legislator  and  organizer 
of  monks,  like  his  younger  contemporary  Pachomius 
for,  though  Pachomius's  first  foundations  were 
probably  some  ten  or  fifteen  years  later  than  An- 
thony's coming  forth  from  his  retreat  at  Pispir, 
it  cannot  be  shown  that  Pachomius  was  directly 
influenced  by  Anthony,  indeed  his  institute  ran  on 
quite  different  lines.  And  yet  it  is  abundantly 
evident  that  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
throughout    Egyjjt,    as   elsewhere,   and   among   the 


ANTHONY 


555 


ANTHONY 


Paclioniian  monks  tliemsclvos,  St.  Anthony  was 
looked  upon  as  the  founder  and  father  of  C'hristian 
nionaehisin.  This  great  position  was  no  doubt  due 
to  his  commanding  personahty  and  high  character, 
riualities  that  stand  out  clearly  in  all  the  records 
of  liira  that  have  come  down.  The  best  study  of 
his  character  is  Newman's  in  the  "Church  of  the 
Fathers"  (reprinted  in  "Historical  Sketches"). 
The  following  is  his  estimate:  "His  doctrine  surely 
was  pure  and  unimpeachable;  and  his  temper  is 
high  and  heavenly,  without  cowardice,  w'lthout 
gloom,  without  formality,  without  self-complacency. 
Superstition  is  abject  and  crouching,  it  is  full  of 
thoughts  of  guilt;  it  distrusts  God,  and  dreads  the 
powers  of  evil.  Anthony  at  least  had  nothing  of  this, 
being  full  of  holy  confidence,  divine  peace,  cheerful- 
ne.ss  anil  valorousness,  be  lie  (as  some  men  may 
iudge)cver  so  much  an  enthusiast "  (op.  cit.,  Anthony 
in  Conflict').  Full  of  enthusiasm  he  certainly  was, 
but  it  did  not  make  him  fanatical  or  morose;  his 
urbanity  and  gentleness,  his  moderation  and  sen.se 
stand  out  in  many  of  the  stories  related  of  him. 
Abbot  Moses  in  (!a.ssian  (Coll.  II)  says  he  had  heard 
Anthony  maintaining  that  of  all  virtues  discretion 
was  the  most  essential  for  attaining  perfection;  and 
the  little-known  story  of  Eulogius  and  the  Cripple, 
preserved  in  the  Lausiac  History  (xxi),  illustrates 
the  kind  of  advice  and  direction  he  gave  to  those  who 
sought  his  guidance. 

Tlie  monasticism  established  under  St.  Anthony's 
direct  influence  became  the  norm  in  Northern  Egypt, 
from  I.ycopolis  (Asyiit)  to  the  Mediterranean.  In 
contradistinction  to  the  fully  ccenobitical  system, 
established  by  St.  Pachomius  in  the  south,  it  con- 
tinued to  be  of  a  semi-eremitical  character,  the  monks 
living  commonly  in  separate  cells  or  huts,  and  com- 
ing together  only  occasionally  for  church  scrvice.s; 
they  were  left  very  much  to  their  own  devices,  and 
the  life  they  lived  was  not  a  community  life  accord- 
ing to  rule,  as  now  understood  (see  Butler,  op.  cit., 
Part  I,  233-238).  This  was  the  form  of  monastic 
life  in  the  deserts  of  Nitria  and  Scete,  as  portrayed 
by  Palladius  and  Cassian.  Such  groups  of  semi- 
indeixjndent  hermitages  were  later  on  called  Lauras, 
and  have  always  existed  in  the  East  alongside  of 
the  Basilian  monasteries;  in  the  West  St.  Anthony's 
monachism  is  in  some  measure  represented  by  the 
Carthusians.  Such  was  St.  Anthony's  life  and  char- 
acter, and  such  his  nMe  in  Christian  historj'.  He  is 
justly  recognized  as  the  father  not  only  of  monas- 
ticism, strictlj'  so  called,  but  of  the  technical  re- 
ligious life  in  every  shape  and  form.  Few  names 
have  exercised  on  the  human  race  an  influence  more 
deep  and  lasting,  more  wide-spread,  or  on  the  whole 
more  beneficent. 

It  remains  to  say  a  word  on  the  controversy  carried 
on  during  the  present  generation  concerning  St. 
Anthony  and  the  Life.  In  1S77  Weingarten  denied 
the  ."^thanasian  authorship  and  the  historical  char- 
acter of  the  Life,  which  he  pronounced  to  be  a  mere 
romance;  he  held  that  up  to  3-10  there  were  no 
Christian  monks,  and  that  therefore  the  dates  of 
the  "real"  Anthony  had  to  be  shifted  nearly  a 
century.  Some  imitators  in  England  went  still 
further  and  questioned,  even  denied,  that  St. 
Anthony  had  ever  existed.  To  anyone  conversant 
with  the  literature  of  monastic  ICgj'pt,  the  notion 
that  the  fictitious  hero  of  a  novel  could  ever  have 
come  to  occupy  Anthony's  position  in  monastic 
history  can  ap|)ear  nothing  else  than  a  fantastic 
I)arailox.  .\s  a  matter  of  fact  these  theories  are 
abandoned  on  all  hands;  the  Life  is  received  as 
certainly  historical  in  substance,  and  as  probably 
by  .\thanasius,  and  the  traditional  account  of  monas- 
tic origins  is  reinstated  in  its  great  outlines.  The 
episode  is  now  chiefly  of  interest  as  a  curious  ex- 
unple  of  a  tlieory  that  was  broached  and  became 


the  fashion,  and  then  was  completely  abandoned, 
all  within  a  single  generation.  (On  the  controversy 
see  Butler,  on.  cit..  Part  1,  215-228;  Part  II,  ix-xi). 
Tlio  Greek  lAfe  i.s  uiiiuiik  llie  work.s  of  .\thanasius  (cti. 
Ben.  1,  ii;  1'.  U.,  XXVI).  \  conlemporary  I.alin  Iriin>liilicin 
is  in  KosWKVDH  V  i/«-  I'alrum  (/'.  /-.,  LXXIII).  unci  nii  i:iii;li»b 
traniiliitiori  by  Kouekthon  in  the  vol.  of  tin;  A'f.-rfjc  anit 
PoKt-N icene  Library  containing  writings  of  .Sr.  .\ihanasus. 
Further  materiaU  have  been  collected  into  a  co-or<linateii 
sketch  by  Tili.kmont  {Mrmoira,  VII).  Ha.nnav'.s  Chrisdan 
Monnstici«ni  (I^ndon,  1903).  contains  some  good  passugcfi 
on  .St.  Anthony  (9.5  m).,  274  nq.).  In  the  BoMuncfist  Acla 
Sanctorum  and  other  Livea  of  the  Saints,  St.  Anthony's  feast 
occurs  on  21  January, 

E.  C.  Butler. 

Anthony,   Saint,   Knights  of.      See   Military 

OliDEItS. 

Anthony,  Saint,  Orders  of,  religious  communities 
or  ortiers  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Anthony  the 
Hermit,  father  of  monasticism,  or  professing  to  follow 
his  rule. 

I.  Disciples  of  St.  Anthony  (.\ntoni.\n's),  men 
drawn  to  his  hermitage  in  the  Thebaid  by  the  fame 
of  his  holiness,  and  forming  the  first  monastic  com- 
munities. Having  changed  his  abode  for  the  sake  of 
solitude,  the  saint  was  again  surrounded  by  followers 
(according  to  Rufinus,  (i.OOO).  living  apart  or  in  com- 
mon. These  he  guided  solely  by  his  word  and 
examnle.  The  rule  bearing  his  name  was  compiled 
from  his  letters  and  precepts.  There  are  still  in  the 
Orient  a  number  of  monasteries  claiming  St.  An- 
thony's rule,  but  in  reality  their  rules  date  no 
further  back  than  St.  Basil.  The  Maronite  .\n- 
tonians  were  divided  into  two  congregations  called 
respectively  St.  Isaiah  and  St.  I'^liseus,  or  St.  An- 
thony. Their  constitutions  were  approved  by 
Clement  XII,  the  former  in  I7-l(),  the  latter  in  1732. 
The  former  has  19  convents  and  10  hospices;  the 
latter,  which  has  been  subdivided,  10  convents  and 
8  hospices  under  the  Aleppo  branch,  and  31  convents 
and  27  hospices  under  tlie  Baladite  branch. 

II.  Antonines  (HosriTAL  Huotheus  of  St.  An- 
thony), a  congregation  founded  by  a  certain  Gaston 
of  Dauphin^;  (c.  1095)  and  his  son,  in  thank.sgiving 
for  miraculous  relief  from  "St.  Anthony's  fire",  a 
disease  then  epidemic.  Near  the  Church  of  St.  An- 
thony at  Saint-Didier  de  la  Mothe  they  built  a 
hospital,  wliich  became  the  central  house  of  the 
ortler.  The  members  devoted  themselves  to  the 
care  of  the  sick,  particularly  those  afllicted  with  the 
disea.se  above  mentioned;  they  wore  a  black  habit 
with  the  Greek  letter  Tnu  (St.  .\nthony's  cross)  in 
blue.  .\t  first  laymen,  they  received  monastic  vows 
from  Honorius  III  (121S),  and  were  constituted 
canons  regular  with  the  Rule  of  St.  .\ugustine  by 
Boniface  V'HI  (1297).  The  congregation  spread 
through  I'rance,  Spain,  and  Italy,  and  gave  the 
Church  a  number  of  distinguished  scholars  and 
prelates,  .\mong  their  privileges  was  that  of  caring 
for  the  sick  of  the  papal  household.  With  wealth 
came  relaxation  of  discipline  and  a  reform  was  or- 
dained (1616)  and  partially  carried  out.  In  1777 
the  congregation  was  canonically  united  with  the 
Knights  of  Malta  but  was  .suppressed  during  the 
F'rcnch  Revolution. 

III.  .-Vntonians,  a  congregation  of  orthodox 
Armenians  founded  during  the  .seventeenth  century 
at  the  time  of  the  persecutions  of  Catholic  .Armenians. 
Abram  .\tar  Poresigh  retired  to  the  Libanus  with 
three  companions,  and  founded  the  mona-sterj'  of  the 
Most  Holy  Saviour  under  the  protection  of  St.  An- 
thony, to  supply  members  for  mi-ssion  work.  A 
secoTnl  foundation  was  mailc  on  Mount  Lebanon,  and 
a  third  in  Rome  (17.")3),  which  w.as  approved  by 
Clement  XIII.  Some  members  of  this  congregation 
took  an  unfortunately  prominent  part  in  the  Ar- 
menian Schism  (1870^0). 

IV.  Coxgreoation  of  St.  Anthony,  in  Flanders, 
founded   in    1015,   and    placed    under    the    rule  of 


ANTHONY 


556 


ANTHONY 


St.  Augvistine  by  Paul  V.  and  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  provincial  of  the  Belgian  Augustinians.  The 
one   nionasterj-   was   called   Castelletum. 

V.  Anton'ians,  Chaldean,  of  the  Congregation  of 
Saint-Hormisdas,  founded  by  Gabriel  Dambo  (1809) 
in  Mesopotamia.  They  have  4  convents  and  several 
parishes  and  stations. 

Bi>si:  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.;  Jeiler  in  Kirchenler.;  Bat- 
T\Nnii  ht.  .Inn.  ponl.  cath.  (Paris,  1899),  271;  Hergenrothjir, 
Kirchrnijesch. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Anthony  of  Padua,  Saint,  Franciscan  Thauma- 
turgist,  b.  at  Lisbon.  1195;  d.  at  Vercelli,  13  June, 
11231.  He  received  in  baptism  the  name  of  Ferdi- 
nand.    Later  writers  of  the  fifteenth  century  asserted 


St.  Anthony  of  Padua 

that  his  father  was  Martin  Bouillon,  descendant  of 
the  renowned  Godfrey  de  liouillon,  commander  of  the 
First  Crusade,  and  his  mother,  Theresa  Tavejra,  de- 
scendant of  Froila  1,  fourth  king  of  Asturia.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  his  genealogy  is  uncertain;  all 
that  we  know  of  his  parents  is  that  they  were  noble, 
powerful,  and  God-fearing  people,  and  at  the  time  of 
Ferdinand's  birth  were  both  still  young,  and  living 
near  the  Cathedral  of  Lisbon.  Having  been  educated 
in  the  Cathedral  school,  Ferdinand,  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  joined  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine, 
in  the  convent  of  St.  Vincent,  just  outside  the  city 
walls  (1210).  Two  years  later  to  avoid  being  dis- 
tracted by  relatives  and  friends,  who  frequently 
came  to  visit  him,  he  betook  himself  with  permission 
of  his  superior  to  the  Convent  of  Santa  Croce  in 
Coimbra  (1212),  where  he  remained  for  eight  years, 
occupving  his  time  mainly  with  study  and  prayer. 
Gifted  with  an  excellent  understanding  and  a  pro- 
digious memory,  he  soon  gathered  from  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  and  the  writings  of  the  Holy  Fathers  a 
treasure  of  theological  knowledge.  In  the  year  1220, 
having  seen  conveyed  into  the  Church  of  Santa  Croce 
the  bodies  of  the  first  Franciscan  martyrs,  who  had 
BufTered  death  at  Morocco,  10  January  of  the  same 
year,  he  too  wa.s  inflamed  with  the  desire  of  martyr- 
<loin,  and  resolved  to  become  a  Friar  Minor,  that  he 
might  preach  the  Faith  to  the  Saracens  and  .sulTer 
for  Christ's  sake.  Having  confided  his  intention  to 
some  of  the  brethren  of  the  convent  of  Ohvares  (near 


Coimbra),  who  came  to  beg  alms  at  the  Abbey  of 
the  Canons  Regular,  he  received  from  their  hands 
the  Franciscan  habit  in  the  same  Convent  of  Santa 
Croce.  Thus  Ferdinand  left  the  Canons  Regular  of 
St.  Augustine  to  join  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor, 
taking  at  the  same  time  the  new  name  of  Anthony, 
a  name  which  later  on  the  Convent  of  Olivares  aLso 
adopted.  A  short  time  after  his  entry  into  the  order, 
Anthony  started  for  Morocco,  but,  stricken  down 
by  a  severe  illness,  which  affected  him  the  entire 
winter,  he  was  compelled  to  sail  for  Portugal  the 
following  spring,  1221.  His  ship,  however,  was 
overtaken  by  a  violent  storm  and  driven  upon  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  where  Anthony  then  remained  for 
some  time,  till  he  had  regained  his  health.  Having 
heard  meanwhile  from  the  brethren  of  Messina  that 
a  general  chapter  was  to  be  held  at  Assisi,  30  May,  he 
journeyed  thither,  arriving  in  time  to  take  part  in  it. 
The  chapter  over,  Anthony  remained  entirely  un- 
noticed. "He  said  not  a  word  of  his  studies",  writes 
liis  earliest  biographer,  "  nor  of  the  ser\'ices  he  had 
performed;  his  only  desire  was  to  follow  Jesus 
Christ  anil  Him  crucified".  Accordingly,  hj  applied 
to  Father  Graziano,  Provincial  of  Coimbra,  for  a 
place  where  he  could  live  in  solitude  and  penance, 
and  enter  more  fully  into  the  spirit  and  discipline 
of  Franciscan  life.  Father  Graziano,  being  just  at 
tliat  time  in  need  of  a  priest  for  the  hermitage  of 
Moiitepaolo  (near  Forli),  sent  him  thither,  that  he 
mi,i;ht  celebrate  Mass  for  the  lay-brethren. 

Wliile  Anthony  lived  retired  at  Montepaolo  it 
happened,  one  day,  that  a  number  of  Franciscan  and 
Dominican  friars  were  sent  together  to  Forli  for 
ordination.  Anthony  was  also  present,  but  simply 
as  companion  of  the  Provincial.  When  the  time  for 
ordination  had  arrived,  it  was  found  that  no  one 
had  been  appointed  to  preach.  Tlie  superior  turned 
first  to  the  Dominicans,  and  asked  that  one  of  tlieir 
number  should  address  a  few  words  to  the  assembled 
bretliren;  but  everyone  declined,  saying  he  was  not 
prepared.  In  their  emergency  they  then  chose 
.\ulliony,  whom  they  thought  only  able  to  read  the 
Missal  and  Breviary,  and  commanded  him  to  speak 
whatever  the  spirit  of  God  might  put  into  his  mouth. 
Anthony,  compelled  by  obedience,  spoke  at  first 
slowly  and  timidly,  but  soon  enkindled  with  fervour, 
he  began  to  explain  the  most  hidden  sense  of  Holy 
Scripture  with  such  profound  erudition  and  sublime 
doctrine  that  all  were  struck  with  astonishment. 
With  that  moment  began  Anthony's  public  career. 
St.  Francis,  informed  of  his  learning,  directed  him 
by  the  following  letter  to  teach  theology  to  the 
brethren: 

"To  Brother  Anthony,  my  bishop  (i.  e.  teacher  of 
sacred  sciences),  Brother  Francis  sends  his  greetings. 
It  is  my  pleasure  that  thou  teach  theology  to  the 
brethren,  provided,  however,  that  as  the  Rule  pre- 
scribes, the  spirit  of  prayer  and  devotion  may  not  be 
extinguished.  Farewell "  (1224).  Before  undertak- 
ing the  instruction,  Antliony  went  for  some  time  to 
Vercelli,  to  confer  with  tlie  famous  Abbot,  Thomas 
Gallo;  thence  he  taught  successively  in  Bologna  and 
Montpellier  in  1224,  and  later  at  Toulouse.  Noth- 
ing whatever  is  left  of  his  instruction;  the  primitive 
documents,  as  well  as  the  legendary  ones,  maintain 
complete  silence  on  this  point.  Nevertheless,  by 
studying  his  works,  we  can  form  for  ourselves  a 
sufTicicnt  idea  of  the  character  of  his  doctrine;  a 
doctrine,  namely,  which,  leaving  aside  all  aritl  specu- 
lation, prefers  an  entirely  seraphic  cliaracter,  corre- 
sponding to  the  spirit  and  ideal  of  St.  Francis. 

It  was  as  an  orator,  however,  rather  than  as  pro- 
fessor, that  Anthony  reapeil  his  richest  harvest. 
He  possessed  in  an  eminent  degree  all  the  good 
qualities  that  characterize  an  eloquent  preacher:  a 
loud  and  clear  voice,  a  winning  countenance,  wonder- 
ful memory,  and  profound  learning,  to  which  were 


ANTHONY 


ANTHONY 


added  from  on  high  the  spirit  of  prophecy  and  an 
extraordinary  gift  of  miracles.  Witli  tlie  zeal  of  an 
apostle  he  undertook  to  reform  the  morality  of  his 
time  by  combating  in  an  especial  manner  the  vices 
of  luxury,  avarice,  and  tyramiy.  Tlie  fruit  of  his 
sermons  was,  therefore,  as  admirable  as  his  elocjuence 
itself.  No  less  fervent  was  lie  in  the  extinction  of 
heresy,  notably  that  of  the  C'utliares  and  the  Patar- 
ines,  wliich  infested  the  centre  and  north  of  Italy, 
and  probably  also  that  of  the  Albigenses  in  the  south 
of  France,  though  we  have  no  authorized  documents 
to  that  etTect.  Among  the  many  miracles  St.  An- 
thony wrouglit  in  the  conversion  of  heretics,  the 
three  most  noted  recorded  by  his  biographers  are 
tlie  following: — The  first  is  that  of  a  horse,  which, 
kept  fasting  for  tlirec  days,  refused  the  oats  placed 
before  him,  till  he  had  knelt  down  and  adored  the 
I  Messed  Sacrament,  which  St.  Anthony  held  in  his 
liands.  Legendary  narratives  of  the  fourteenth 
century  say  this  miracle  took  place  at  Toulouse, 
at  Wadding,  at  Hruges:  the  real  place,  however, 
was  Rimini.  The  second  most  important  miracle 
is  that  of  the  poisoned  food  offered  him  by  some 
Italian  heretics,  which  he  rendered  innoxious  by  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  The  third  miracle  worthy  of  men- 
tion is  that  of  the  famous  sermon  to  the  fishes  on  the 
bank  of  the  river  Brenta  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Padua;  not  at  Padua,  as  is  generally  supposed.  The 
zeal  with  which  St.  Anthony  fought  against  heresy, 
and  the  great  and  numerous  conversions  he  made 
remlered  him  worthy  of  the  glorious  title  of  Malleus 
henlicorum  (Hammer  of  the  Heretics).  Though 
his  preaching  was  always  seasoned  with  the  salt  of 
discretion,  nevertheless  ho  spoke  openly  to  all,  to 
the  ricli  as  to  the  poor,  to  the  people  as  well  as  those 
in  authority.  In  a  .synod  at  Hourges  in  the  presence 
of  many  prelates,  he  reproved  the  Archbishop,  Simon 
(le  Sully  so  severely,  tnat  he  induced  him  to  sincere 
amendment. 

.\ftcr  having  been  Guardian  at  Le-Puy  (1224),  we 
find  Anthony  in  the  year  1220,  Gustos  Provincial  in 
the  province  of  Limousin.  The  most  authentic 
miracles  of  that  period  are  the  following:  Preaching 
one  night  on  Holy  Thursday  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Pierre  du  Queriox  at  Limoges,  he  remembered  he 
had  to  sing  a  Lesson  of  the  Divine  Office.  Inter- 
rupting sudilenly  his  discourse,  he  api)cared  at  the 
same  moment  among  the  friars  in  choir  to  sing  his 
Lesson,  after  which  he  continued  his  sermon.  An- 
other day  preaching  in  the  square  des  creux  f/es 
Arcnes  at  Limoges,  he  miraculously  preserved  his 
audience  from  tlie  rain.  At  St.  Junien  iluring  the 
sermon,  he  predicted  that  by  an  artifice  of  the  devil 
the  pulpit  would  break  down,  but  that  all  should 
remain  safe  and  soimd.  And  so  it  occurred;  for 
while  he  was  preaching,  the  i)ulpit  was  overthrown, 
but  no  one  hurt;  not  even  the  saint  himself.  In  a 
monastery  of  Benedictines,  where  he  had  fallen  ill, 
he  delivered  by  means  of  his  tunic  one  of  the  monks 
from  great  temptations.  Likewise,  by  breathing 
on  the  face  of  a  novice  (whom  he  had  himself  re- 
ceived into  the  order),  he  confirmed  him  in  his 
vocation.  At  Brivc,  where  he  had  founded  a  con- 
vent, he  preserved  from  the  rain  the  maid-servant 
of  a  benefactress  who  was  bringing  some  vegetables 
to  the  brethren  for  their  meagre  repast.  This  is  all 
that  is  historically  certain  of  the  sojourn  of  St. 
Anthony   in   Limousin. 

Regarding  the  celebrated  apparition  of  the  Infant 
Jesus  to  our  .saint,  French  writers  maintain  it  took 
place  in  the  province  of  Limousin  at  the  Castle  of 
■hateauneuf-l.a-Foret,  between  Limoges  and  ICjmiou- 


tiers,  whereas  the  Italian  hagiographers  fix  the  place 
at  Camposanpiero,  near  Padua.  The  existing  docu- 
ments, however,  do  not  decide  the  question.  We 
have  more  certainty  regarding  the  apparition  of  St. 
Francis  to  St.  Anthony  at  the  Provincial  Chapter  of 


Aries,  whilst  the  latter  was  preaching  about  the 
mysteries  of  the  Cro.ss.  .■\fter  the  death  of  St. 
Francis,  3  October,  1220,  .\nthony  returned  to  Italy. 
His  way  led  him  through  La  Provence  on  which 
occasion  he  wrought  the  following  miracle:  Fatigued 
by  the  journey,  Tie  and  his  companion  entered  the 
house  of  a  poor  woman,  who  jjlaced  breatl  and  wine 
before  them.  She  had  forgotten,  however,  to  shut 
off  the  tap  of  the  wine-barrel,  and  to  add  to  this 
misfortune,  the  Saint's  companion  broke  his  glass. 
Anthony  began  to  pray,  and  suddenly  the  ghuss  was 
made  whole,  and  tiie  barrel  filled  anew  with  wine. 
Shortly  after  liis  return  to  Italy,  Anthony  was  elected 
Minister  Provincial  of  Kniilia.  But  in  order  to  de- 
vote more  time  to  preaching,  he  resigned  this  office 
at  the  General  Chapter  of  Assisi,  30  May,  1230,  and 
retired  to  the  Convent  of  Padua,  which  he  had  him- 
self foundcil.  The  last  Lent  he  preached  was  that 
of  1231;  the  crowd  of  people  which  came  from  all 
parts  to  hear  him,  frequently  numbered  30,000  and 
more.  His  last  sermons  were  principally  ciirected 
against  hatred  and  enmity,  and  his  efforts  were 
crowned  with  wonderful  success.  Pennanent  recon- 
ciliations were  effecteil,  peace  and  concord  re-estab- 
lished, liberty  given  to  debtors  and  other  prisoners, 
restitutions  made,  and  enormous  scandals  repaired; 
in  fact,  the  priests  of  Padua  were  no  longer  sufficient 
for  the  number  of  penitents,  and  many  of  these  de- 
clared they  had  been  warned  by  celestial  visions, 
and  sent  to  St.  Anthony,  to  be  guided  by  his  counsel. 
Others  after  his  death  said  that  he  appeared  to  them 
in  their  slumbers,  admonishing  them  to  go  to  con- 
fession. 

At  Padua  also  took  place  the  famous  miracle  of 
the  amputated  foot,  which  Franciscan  writers  attri- 
bute to  St.  Anthony.  A  young  man,  Leonarilo  by 
name,  in  a  fit  of  anger  kicked  his  own  mother.  Re- 
pentant, he  confe.s,sed  his  fault  to  St.  Anthony  who 
said  to  him:  "The  foot  of  him  who  kicks  his  mother 
deserves  to  be  cut  off."  Leonardo  ran  home  and 
cut  off  his  foot.  Learning  of  this,  St.  Anthony  took 
the  amputated  member  of  the  unfortunate  youth 
and  miraculously  rejoined  it.  Through  the  exertions 
of  St.  .\nthony,  the  .Municipality  of  Padua,  15  March, 
1231,  passed  a  law  in  favour  of  debtors  who  could 
not  pay  their  debts.  \  copy  of  this  law  is  still  pre- 
served in  the  museum  of  Padua.  From  this,  as  well 
as  the  following  occurrence,  the  civil  and  religious 
importance  of  tlie  Saint's  influence  in  the  thirteenth 
century  is  easily  understood.  In  1230,  while  war 
raged  in  Lonibardy,  St.  .\nthony  betook  himself  to 
Verona  to  .solicit  from  the  femcious  Kzzelino  the 
lilK'rty  of  the  Guelph  prisoners.  An  apocryphal 
Icgcnil  relates  that  the  tyrant  humbled  himself 
before  the  Saint  and  granted  his  request.  This  is 
not  the  case,  but  what  does  it  matter,  even  if  he 
failed  in  his  attempt;  he  nevertheless  jeopardized  his 
own  life  for  the  sake  of  those  oppressed  by  tyranny, 
and  thereby  showed  his  love  and  sympatliy  for  the 

ficople.  Invited  to  preach  at  the  funeral  of  a  usurer, 
le  took  for  his  text  the  words  of  the  Ciospel:  "  Where 
thy  treasure  is,  there  also  is  thy  heart."  In  the 
course  of  the  .seniion  he  .said:  "That  rich  man  is 
dcail  and  burietl  in  hell;  but  go  to  his  treasures  and 
there  you  will  find  his  heart."  The  relati\es  and 
friends  of  the  decea-sed,  led  by  curiosity,  followed 
this  injunction,  and  found  the  heart,  still  warm, 
among  the  coins.  Thus  the  triumph  of  St.  Anthony's 
missionary  career  manifests  itself  not  only  in  his 
holiness  and  his  numerous  miracles,  but  aL-o  in  the 
popularity  and  subject  matter  of  his  sermons,  since 
lie  had  to  fight  against  the  three  most  obstinate 
vices  of  luxury,  avarice,  ami  tjTanny. 

.Vt  the  end  of  Lent,  1231,  Anthony  retired  to 
Camposanpiero,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Padua, 
where,  after  a  short  time  he  w.as  taken  with  a  severe 
illness.     Transferred   to   Vercelli,   and   strengthened 


ANTHONY 


558 


ANTHROPOMORPHISM 


by  the  apparition  of  Our  Lord,  he  died  at  the  age  of 
thirty-six  years,  on  13  June,  1231.  He  had  lived 
fifteen  years  with  liis  parents,  ten  years  as  a  Canon 
Regular  of  St.  .Vugustine,  and  eleven  years  in  the 
Order  of   Friars  .Minor. 

linniediiitely  after  liis  death  he  appeared  at  Ver- 
celH  to  the  .Vbbot,  Tliomas  Gallo,  and  his  death  was 
also  announectl  to  tlie  citizens  of  Padua  by  a  troop 
of  children,  crying:  "The  holy  Father  is  dead;  St. 
Anthony  is  dead!"  Gregory  IX,  firmly  persuaded 
of  his  sanctity  by  the  numerous  miracles  he  had 
wrought,  inscribed  him  within  a  year  of  his  death 
(Pentecost,  30  May,  1232),  in  the  calendar  of  saints 
of  the  Cathedral  of  Spoleto.  In  the  Bull  of  canoni- 
zation he  declared  lie  had  personally  known  the 
saint,  and  we  know  that  the  same  pontiff,  having 
heard  one  of  his  sermons  at  Rome,  and  astonished 
at  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
called  him:  ".-Vrk  of  the  Covenant".  That  this 
title  is  well-founded  is  also  shown  by  his  several 
works:  "  Expositio  in  Psalmos",  written  at  Mont- 
pellier,  1224;  the  "Serraones  de  tempore",  and  the 
"Sermoncs  de  Sanctis",  written  at  Padua,  1229-30. 
The  name  of  Anthony  became  celebrated  throughout 
the  world,  and  with  it  the  name  of  Padua.  The 
inhabitants  of  that  city  erected  to  his  memory  a 
magnificent  temple,  whither  his  precious  relics  were 
transferreil  in  1263,  in  presence  of  St.  Bonaventure, 
Minister  General  at  the  time.  When  the  vault  in 
which  for  thirty  years  his  sacred  body  had  reposed 
was  opened,  the  flesh  was  found  reduced  to  dust, 
but  the  tongue  uninjured,  fresh,  and  of  a  lively  red 
colour.  St.  Bonaventure,  beholding  this  wonder, 
took  the  tongue  affectionately  in  his  hands  and 
kissed  it,  exclaiming:  "O  Blessed  Tongue  that 
always  praised  the  Lord,  and  made  others  bless 
Him,  now  it  is  evident  what  great  merit  thou  hast 
before  God."  The  fame  of  St.  Anthony's  miracles 
has  never  diminished,  and  even  at  the  present  day 
he  is  acknowledged  as  the  greatest  thaumaturgist 
of  the  times.  He  is  especially  invoked  for  the  re- 
covery of  things  lost,  as  is  also  expressed  in  the 
celebrated  responsory  of  Friar  Julian  of  Spires: 

Si  qua>ris  miracula  .  .  . 

.  .  .  resque  perditas. 

Indeed  his  very  popularity  has  to  a  certain  extent 
obscured  his  personality.  If  we  may  believe  the 
conclusions  of  recent  critics,  some  of  the  Saint's 
biographers,  in  order  to  meet  the  ever-increasing 
demand  for  the  marvellous  displayed  by  his  devout 
clients,  and  comparatively  oblivious  of  the  historical 
features  of  his  life,  have  devoted  themselves  to  the 
task  of  handing  down  to  posterity  the  posthumous 
miracles  wrought  by  his  intercession.  We  need  not 
be  surprised,  therefore,  to  find  accounts  of  his  miracles 
that  may  seem  to  the  modem  mind  trivial  or  incredi- 
ble occupying  so  large  a  space  in  the  earlier  biogra- 
phies of  St.  Anthony.  It  may  be  true  that  some  of 
the  miracles  attributed  to  St.  Anthony  are  legendary, 
but  others  come  to  us  on  such  high  authority  that  it 
is  impossible  either  to  eliminate  them  or  explain 
them  away  o  jyriori  without  doing  violence  to  the 
facts  of  history. 

Tlic  principal  historical  sources  for  the  life  of  St.  Anthony  of 
Pailua  arc  the  following:  In  the  XIII  Centdry: — Kehvai, 
(e.l.i.  l.e(,,rulii  I'rima  Beu  Vita  Antuiuiasima  (Paris,  1904); 
Legemla  Hrcufuia  scu  vita  auctore  anonj/7no  vatde  antiqtio  in  Acta 
SS.  Ill,  I.J  June;  Alenton  (ed.),  Thomas  of  Cei.ano,  Vita 
prima  ,S'.  Franciaci  (Rome,  1906);  Lemmens  (ed.).  DuUogua  de 
vita  aanctorum  /•'/<'.  Minorum  (Rome.  1902);  Alenvon  (ed.), 
Uahthoi.omew  of  Tkent,  Liber  epilogorum  in  geata  ISanctorum, 
HI  MitcrUanea  Anloniami  (Rome,  1902);  Roland  of  Padua, 
De  jactia  in  Miirrhia  Tarriaina,  ed.  MuRAToni  in  Her.  Italic 
.Scnpl  au\un,  1757),  VIII;  Thomas  of  Ecti-ebton,  De  advenlu 
fral.  Atmorum  in  Angliam,  in  Analecta  Franciac.  diuaracchi, 
ISK.'i).  I;  Salimuene  of  Parma,  Chronica  (Parma,  1857); 
RioAULn,  Vita  H.  Antanii,  DAraui.es  (ed.),  (Bordraux,  1899); 
JoBA  (ed.),  Legenda  Itiiimumlina  (Hologna,  188.));  Lemmens 
(eil.).  I^gmda  Florenlina  in  Rumitchc  Quartalachri/t  (Rome, 
1902).  ^ 

In  the  XIV  CENTonr:— Kebval  (ed.),  Lcgenda  "  lienigni- 


taa  "  (Paris,  1904);  Ailditions  dea  manuacrita  h  hi  Icanxda  prima 
in  Sti.  Antonii  de  Padiu'i  vitw  8U(e,  etc.  (Paris.  1904);  Liber 
miraculorum,  in  Anatect.  Franc.  (CJuaracchi,  1S97).  Ill;  Bar- 
THOLOMEO  DA  PisA.  Liber  conformitatum,  in  Aii'dtrln.  Franc. 
(Quaracchi,  1906),  IV';  Paulinus  da  Venezia,  Ai.kn(,on  (ed.), 
S.  Antonii  vita  compendiata  in  MiaceUanea  Antoniana  (Rome, 
1902);  Sabatier  (ed.),  Actus  beati  Frtmciaci  (Paris,  1902). 
For  the  works  of  the  following  centuries,  cf.  Chevalier, 
Repertoire  dea  sources  historiques  du  moyen  dge  (Paris,  1S77-86). 
The  most  exact  biographical  works  of  our  time  are:  Lempp, 
Antonius  von  Padua  in  Zeitachrift  fiir  Kirchengeaehichle  (Gotha, 
1889-92),  XI,  XII,  XIII;  Lepitre,  St.  Antoine  de  Padoue 
(Pari.s  1901)  tr.  Guest  (London,  1902);  La  voii  de  St.  Antoine 
(Paris.  1900-03);  Problhnfa  antoniena;  Palatini,  .S.  Antonii 
di  Padova  dalla  atoria  alia  leggenda  (Reggio  di  Calabria,  1904); 
ScRlNzl.  S.  Antonio  di  Padova  e  it  auo  tempo  (Vincenza,  1906); 
Halva(;nini.  S.  Antonio  di  Padora  e  i  siwi  tempi  (Turin, 
1895);  Kerval,  S.  Antonii  de  Padua  vitte  sua'  (Paris,  1904); 
L' H:oluiion  et  le  developpement  du  merveitleiLr  dans  les  Ugendea 
de  S.  Antoine  de  Padoue  (Paris,  1906);  La  voce  di  S.  Antonio  di 
Roma,  St.  Antonio  di  Padova  secondo  documenti  del  aecolo  XIII 
e  XIV,  1905-06;  Dal-Gal,  5.  Antonio  di  Padova,  taumaturgo 
Franccscano,  studio  dei,  documenti  (Quaracchi,  1906);  Regauld, 
Vita  S.  Antonii,  tr.  Guest  (London,  1904);  Coleridge  (ed.). 
The  Chronicle  of  SI.  Anthony  (London,  1883);  Marianus,  St. 
Anthony  of  Padua  (London.  1898);  Ward,  St.  Anthony,  the 
Saint  of  the  Whole  World  (New  York,  1898);  Stoddard,  T/k 
Wonder  Worker  of  Padua  (Notre  Dame,  Ind.,  1896). 

NicoL.\us  Dal-Gal. 

Anthony  of  Sienna,  a  Dominican  theologian,  so 
called  because  of  his  great  veneration  for  St.  Catha- 
rine of  Sienna,  b.  near  Braga  in  Portugal,  hence 
sometimes  know'n  as  "Lusitanus";  d.  at  Nantes, 
2  January,  1585.  He  studied  at  Lisbon,  Coimbra, 
and  Louvain,  taught  philosophy  for  several  years  in 
the  latter  place,  where  he  was  made  Doctor  of 
Theology  in  1571,  and  put  in  charge  of  the  Dominican 
college  there  in  1574.  He  supported  the  Portuguese 
pretender  Antonio  da  Beja,  and  was  banished  from 
the  Spanish  dominions,  after  which  he  tra\'elled  for 
scientific  purposes  in  Italy,  England,  and  France. 
He  was  one  of  the  collaborators  in  the  Roman  edition 
of  St.  Thomas's  works  (1570-71)  prepared  by  order 
of  St.  Pius  V.  He  published  (Antwerp,  1569)  an 
edition  of  the  "Summa  Theologica"  with  exact  indi- 
cation of  all  authors,  sacred  and  profane,  quoted  by 
the  Saint,  and  (ib.,  1571)  a  similar  edition  of  the 
"Qua?stiones  Disputatse"  and  other  "opuscula"  of 
St.  Thomas.  The  commentary  on  Genesis,  edited 
by  him  two  years  later  at  Antwerp  as  a  work  of 
St.  Thomas,  is  not  authentic.  His  edition  of  the 
Saint's  commentary  on  Machabees,  prepared  at 
Paris  in  1584,  was  published  in  1612  by  Come  Mo- 
relles,  O.P.,  in  the  Antwerp  edition  of  the  works 
of  St.  Thomas.  He  also  brought  out  (Paris,  1585) 
a  "Chronicon"  and  "Bibliotheca  Ordinis  Prisdica- 
turum  ". 

QufeTiF-EcHARD,  SS.  O.P.,  I,  271;  Mandonnet  in  Diet,  de 
Thiol.  Cath.    I,  1447. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Anthony  of  the  Mother  of  God  (A.  de  Olivera), 
a  Spanish  Carmelite,  b.  at  Leon  in  Old-Cjistile; 
d.  1(341.  He  taught  Aristotle's  dialectics  and  natural 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Alcala  de  Ilenares 
(Complutum).  With  the  collaboration  of  his  col- 
leagues, he  undertook  an  encyclopa'dia  intended  for 
students  in  arts  and  philo.sopliy.  This  work,  origi- 
nally styled  "Collegium  Complutense  philosophicum" 
(Alcala,  1624;  other  editions  Fninkfurt,  l(i2il;  Lyons, 
1637,  1651,  16(iS),  w:is  highly  esteemed  by  Tlioiiiists. 
It  was  at  first  a  tre:itise  on  logic;  but  in  the  course 
of  time,  metaphysics  and  moral  philosophy  were 
added,  and  the  work  served  as  an  introduction  to  the 
great  "Course  of  Theology"  of  the  Salmanticenses. 
The  first  three  volumes  of  this  "Course"  are  also 
attributed  to  Anthony. 

Toussaint,  in  Diet.  Thiol.  Cath.,  s.  v.;  Hurter,  Nomtncta- 
tor  I,  376. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Anthropology.     See  M.vn. 

Anthropomorphism,  .^nthuopomorphites.  (S,v- 
fipwTTot.  m;ui,  ;uicl  MOPE'S,  form),  a  term  used  in  its  widest 
sense  to  signify  the  tendency  of  man  to  conceive  the 


ANTICHRIST 


559 


ANTICHRIST 


activities  of  the  external  world  as  the  counterpart  of 
his  own.  A  pliilosophic  system  which  borrows  its 
method  from  this  tendency  is  termed  Philosopliic  An- 
thropomorphism. Tlie  word,  liowever,  lias  been  more 
generally  employed  to  desif^nate  the  play  of  that 
impulse  in  religious  thought.  In  this  sense,  Anthro- 
pomorphism is  the  ascription  to  the  Supreme  Being 
of  the  form,  organs,  operations,  and  general  char- 
acteristics of  human  nature.  This  tendency  is 
strongly  manifested  in  primitive  heathen  religions, 
in  all  forms  of  polytheism,  especially  in  the  classic 
paganism  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  charge  of 
Anthropomorphism  was  urged  again.sl  the  Greeks  by 
their  own  philosopher,  Xeno))lianes  of  Colophon. 
The  first  Christian  apologists  unbraldcd  the  pagans 
for  having  represented  God,  wlio  is  spiritual,  as  a 
mere  magnified  man,  subject  to  hiunan  vices  and 
passions.  Tlie  Bible,  esjiecially  the  Old  Testament, 
abounds  in  anthropomorphic  expressions.  Almost 
all  the  activities  of  organic  life  are  ascribed  to  tlie 
Almighty.  He  .'^peaks,  breathes,  sees,  hears;  He 
walks  in  the  garden;  He  sits  in  the  heavens,  and  the 
earth  is  His  footstool.  It  mu.st,  however,  be  noticed 
that  in  the  Bible  locutions  of  this  kind  ascribe  human 
characteristics  to  God  only  in  a  vague,  indefinite  way. 
He  is  never  positively  dedareil  to  have  a  body  or  a 
nature  the  same  as  man's;  and  human  defects  and 
vices  are  never  even  figuratively  attributed  to  Ilim. 
The  metaphorical,  symbolical  character  of  this  lan- 
guage is  usually  obvious.  The  all-seeing  lOye  signifies 
God's  omniscience;  the  everlasting  Arms  His  omnipo- 
tence; His  Sword  tlie  chastisement  of  sinners;  when 
He  is  said  to  have  repented  of  having  maile  man,  we 
have  an  extremely  forcible  expression  conveying  His 
abhorrence  of  sin.  Tlie  justification  of  this  language 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  truth  can  be  conveyed  to  men 
only  through  the  medium  of  luiman  ideas  and 
thoughts,  antl  is  to  be  expre.s.sed  only  in  language 
suited  to  their  comprehension.  The  limitations  of 
our  conceptual  capacity  obUge  us  to  reproseiil  (Unl 
to  ourselves  in  ideas  that  liave  been  originally  tlrawn 
from  our  knowledge  of  .self  ami  the  objective  world. 
The  Scriptures  themselves  amply  warn  us  against  tlie 
mistake  of  interpreting  their  figurative  language  in  too 
literal  a  sense.  They  teach  that  God  is  spiritual, 
omniscient,  invisible,  omnipresent,  ineffable.  Insist- 
ence upon  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  metaphori- 
cal led  to  the  error  of  the  .Vnthropomorphites. 

Throughout  the  writings  of  the  I'athers  the  spiritu- 
ality of  the  Divine  Nature,  as  well  as  the  inadequacy 
of  liuman  thought  to  comprehend  the  greatness, 
goodness,  and  infinite  perfection  of  Ciod,  is  continually 
emphasized.  At  the  same  time.  Catholic  philosophy 
and  theology  set  forth  the  idea  of  God  by  means  of 
concepts  derived  chiefiy  from  the  knowledge  of  our 
own  faculties,  and  our  mental  and  moral  characteris- 
tics. We  reach  our  philo.sophic  knowledge  of  God 
by  inference  from  the  nature  of  various  forms  of 
existence,  our  own  included,  that  we  perceive  in  the 
Universe.  All  created  excellence,  however,  falls  in- 
finitely short  of  the  divine  perfections,  consetiuently 
our  idea  of  God  can  never  truly  represent  Him  as  He 
is,  and,  becau.se  He  is  infinite  while  our  minds  are 
finite,  the  resemblance  between  our  thought  and  its 
infinite  object  must  always  be  faint.  Clearly,  how- 
ever, if  we  would  do  all  that  is  in  our  power  to  make 
our  idea,  not  perfect,  but  as  worthy  as  it  may  be,  we 
must  form  it  by  means  of  our  conceptions  of  what  is 
highest  and  best  in  the  scale  of  existence  that  we 
know.  Hence,  as  mind  and  personality  are  the 
noblest  forms  of  reality,  we  think  most  worthily  of 
Goil  when  we  conceive  Him  uniler  the  attributes  of 
mind,  will,  intelligence,  personality.  At  the  same 
time,  when  the  theologian  or  philosopher  employs 
these  and  similar  terms  with  reference  to  God,  he 
understands  them  to  be  predicated  not  in  exactly 
the  same  sense  that  they  bear  when  applied  to  man, 


but  in  a  sen.se  controlled  and  qualified  by  the  princi- 
ples laid  down  in  the  doctrine  of  analogy. 

A  few  deeailes  ago  thinkers  and  writers  of  the 
Spencerian  and  other  kindred  schools  seldom  touched 
upon  the  doctrine  of  a  |)ersonal  God  without  designat- 
ing it  Anthropomorphism,  and  thereby,  in  their  judg- 
ment, exehKling  it  definitively  from  the  world  of 
philosophic  thought.  Tliough  on  the  wane,  tlie 
fashion  has  not  yei  entirely  disappeared.  The  charge 
of  Anthropomorphism  can  be  urged  against  our  way 
of  thinking  and  .speaking  of  God  by  those  only  who, 
despite  the  protestation  of  theologians  and  philoso- 
phers, persist  in  a.ssuming  that  terms  are  used  univo- 
cally  of  God  and  of  creatures.  When  arguiuents  are 
offered  to  sustain  tlie  imputation,  they  usually  exhibit 
an  incorrect  view  regarding  the  es.sential  element  of 
personality.  The  gist  of  the  proof  is  that  the  Infinite 
IS  unlimited,  while  personality  es.sentially  involves 
limitation;  therefore,  to  speak  of  an  Infinite  Person 
is  to  fall  into  an  absurdity.  What  is  truly  essential 
in  the  concept  of  personality  is,  first,  individual 
existence  as  opposed  to  indefiniteness  and  to  identity 
with  other  beings;  and  next,  pos.session,  or  intelligent 
control  of  self.  To  say  that  God  is  personal  is  to  say 
that  He  is  distinct  from  the  Universe,  and  that  He 
possesses  Himself  and  His  infinite  activity,  unde- 
termined by  any  necessity  from  within  or  from  with- 
out. This  conception  is  jierfectly  compatible  with 
that  of  infinity.  Wlien  the  agnostic  would  forbid  us 
to  think  of  Gotl  as  personal,  and  would  have  us  speak 
of  Him  as  energy,  force,  etc.,  he  merely  substitutes 
lower  and  more  imperfect  conceptions  for  a  higlier 
one,  without  escaping  from  what  tie  terms  Anthropo- 
morphism, since  these  concepts  too  are  derived  from 
experience.  Besides,  he  ofters  violence  to  human 
nature  when,  as  sometimes  happens,  he  asks  us  to 
entertain  for  an  impersonal  Being,  conceived  under 
the  mechanical  types  of  force  or  energy,  sentiments  of 
reverence,  obedience,  and  trust.  These  sentiments 
come  into  play  only  in  the  world  of  persons,  and  can- 
not be  exercised  towards  a  Being  to  whom  we  deny 
the  attributes  of  personality. 

ANTHUoro.Moui'HiTKS  (At'DiANs),  a  scct  of  Chris- 
tians that  arose  in  the  fourth  century  in  Syria  and 
extended  into  Scythia,  sometimes  called  Audians, 
from  their  founder,  .\udius.  Taking  the  text  of 
Genesis,  i,  27,  literally,  Audius  held  that  God  has  a 
human  form.  The  error  was  so  gross,  and,  to  use 
St.  Jerome's  expression  (Epist.  vi,  Ad  Pammachium), 
so  absolutely  senseless,  that  it  showed  no  \'itality. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  century  it  appeared  among 
some  bodies  of  African  Christians.  Tiie  Fathers  who 
wrote  against  it  dismi.ss  it  almost  contemptuou.sly. 
In  the  time  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  there  were  some 
anthropomorphites  among  the  I'^gyptian  monks. 
He  compo.sed  a  short  refutation  of  their  error,  which 
he  attributed  to  extreme  ignorance.  (Adv.  Anthrop. 
in  P.  G.,  LXXVI.)  Concerning  the  charges  of 
anthropomorphism  preferred  against  Melito,  Ter- 
tullian,  Origen,  and  Lactantius,  see  the  respective 
articles.  The  error  was  revived  in  northern  Italy 
during  the  tenth  century,  but  was  efTectually  su[>- 
pressed  by  the  bishops,  notably  by  the  learned 
katherius,  Bishop  of  Verona. 

St.  Thomas.  C,  Gent.,  I,  x;  III,  xxxviii,  xxxix;  Sumnui 
Thcol.,  QQ.  ii.  iv,  xiii;  Wii.iielm  and  Scannell,  Manual 
of  CaOuHic  Thrnlonu  (London.  1890).  I.  l»k.  II,  I't.  1; 
Shanaiian,  John  fitkr't  /lira  of  God  in  Calli.  Univ.  UiUl..  Ill; 
Maktinf.au.  .1  Sludi/  of  Relioion  (New  York.  18S8).  I,  lik,  II. 
i;  Flint.  Thritm  (New  York.  1903).  Lec't.  Ill;  Theoi.oret. 
Hitt,  Eccl.,  IV,  ix;  ViaoUROux  in  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.; 
St.  Augustine,  De  divers.  quast,»  Ad  JSimpticianum,  Q.  vii; 
De  civ.  Dei,  I,  Q.  ii. 

J.\MES  J.  Fox. 

Antichrist  {ivrlxpivTos).  In  composition  ivrl 
has  various  meanings:  dvrijSafffXeus  denotes  a  king 
who  fills  an  interregnum;  dyrurrpdrriyos,  a  pro- 
pra'tor;  iydinraro!,  a  proconsul;  in  Homer  diT/Ofos 
denotes  one  resembling  a  god  in  power  and  beauty, 


ANTICHRIST 


560 


ANTICHRIST 


while  in  other  works  it  stands  for  a  hostile  god. 
Following  mere  analogy,  one  might  interpret  ivrl- 
XP'(rT0i  as  denoting  one  resembling  Christ  in  appear- 
ance and  power;  but  it  is  safer  to  define  the  word 
according  to  its  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  usage. 

I.  Biblical  Meaning  op  the  Word. — The  word 
Antichrist  occurs  only  in  the  Johannine  Epistles;  but 
there  are  so-called  real  parallelisms  to  these  occur- 
rences in  the  Apocaljnxse  in  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and 
less  explicit  ones  iii  the  Gospels  and  the  Book  of 
Daniel. 

\.  In  the  Johannine  Evistles. — St.  John  supposes 
in  his  Epistles  that  the  early  Christians  are  acquainted 
with  the  teaching  concerning  the  coming  of  Anti- 
christ. "You  have  heard  that  Antichrist  cometh" 
(I  John,  ii,  IS);  "This is  Antichrist,  of  whom  you  have 
heard  that  he  cometh"  (I  John,  iv,  3).  Though  the 
-Apostle  speaks  of  several  Antichrists,  he  distin- 
guishes between  the  many  and  the  one  principal 
agent:  "Antichrist  cometh,  even  now  there  are  be- 
come many  .Vntichrists"  (I  John,  ii,  18).  Again,  the 
writer  outlines  the  character  and  work  of  Antichrist: 
"They  went  out  from  us,  but  they  were  not  of  us" 
(I  John,  ii,  19);  "Who  is  a  liar,  but  he  who  denieth 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ?  This  is  Antichrist,  who 
denieth  the  Father,  and  the  Son"  (I  John,  ii,  22); 
"  And  every  spirit  that  dissolveth  Jesus,  is  not  of 
God;  and  this  is  Antichrist"  (I  John,  iv,  3);  "For 
many  seducers  are  gone  out  into  the  world,  who  con- 
fess not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh:  this  is 
a  seducer  and  an  Antichrist"  (II  John,  7).  As  to 
the  time,  the  Apostle  places  the  coming  of  Anti- 
christ at  "the  last  hour"  (I  John,  ii,  18);  again,  he 
maintains  that  "  he  is  now  already  in  the  world' ' 
(I  John,  iv,  3). 

B.  In  the  Apocalypse. — Nearly  all  commentators 
find  Antichrist  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse,  but 
they  do  not  agree  as  to  the  particular  chapter  of  the 
Book  in  wliich  the  mention  occurs.  Some  point  to 
the  "beast"  of  xi,  7,  others  to  the  "red  dragon"  of 
xii,  others  again  to  the  beast  "  having  seven  heads  and 
ten  horns"  of  xiii,  sqq.,  wliile  many  scholars  identify 
Antichrist  with  the  beast  which  had  "  two  horns,  like 
a  lamb"  and  spoke  "as  a  dragon"  (xiii,  11,  sqq.),  or 
with  the  scarlet-coloured  beast  "having  seven  heads 
and  ten  horns"  (xvii),  or,  finally,  with  Satan  "loosed 
out  of  his  prison,"  and  seducing  the  nations  (xx, 
7,  sqq.).  A  detailed  discussion  of  the  reasons  for  and 
against  each  of  these  opinions  would  be  out  of  place 
here. 

C.  In  the  Pauline  Epistles. — St.  John  supposes  that 
the  doctrine  concerning  the  coming  of  Antichrist  is 
already  known  to  his  readers;  many  commentators 
believe  that  it  had  become  known  in  the  Church 
through  the  writings  of  St.  Paul.  St.  John  urged 
again.st  the  heretics  of  his  time  that  those  who  denied 
the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation  were  faint  images  of  the 
future  great  Antichrist.  The  latter  is  described  more 
fully  in  II  Thess.,  ii,  3,  sqq.,  7-10.  In  the  Church  of 
Thessalonica  disturbances  had  occurred  on  account 
of  the  belief  that  the  second  coming  of  Jesus  Christ 
was  inuninent.  This  impression  was  owing  partly  to 
a  misunderstanding  of  I  Thess.,  iv,  15,  sqq.,  partly  to 
the  machinations  of  deceivers.  It  was  with  a  view 
of  remedying  these  disorders  that  St.  Paul  wrote  his 
Second  lOpistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  inserting  es- 
pecially ii,  3-10.  The  Paviline  doctrine  is  this:  "the 
day  of  the  Lord"  will  be  preceded  by  "a  revolt", 
and  the  revelation  of  the  "man  of  sin".  The  latter 
will  sit  in  the  temple  of  God,  showing  himself  as  if 
he  were  God;  he  will  work  signs  and  lying  wonders 
by  the  power  of  Satan;  he  will  scihicc  "tliose  who  re- 
ceived not  the  love  of  the  truth,  tliat  they  miglit  be 
saved;  but  the  Lord  Jesus  shall  kill  him  with  the 
spirit  of  His  mouth,  and  destroy  him  with  the  bright- 
ness of  His  coming.  As  to  tlie  time,  "  the  mysterj-  of 
iniquity   already   worketh;  only   that   he   who   now 


holdeth,  do  hold,  until  he  be  taken  out  of  the  way." 
Briefly,  the  "day  of  the  Lord"  will  be  preceded  by 
the  "man  of  sin"  known  in  the  Johannine  Epistles  as 
Antichrist;  the  "man  of  sin"  is  preceded  by  "a  re- 
volt," or  a  great  apostasy;  this  apostasy  is  the  out- 
come of  the  "mystery  of  iniquity"  which  already 
"worketh",  and  which,  according  to  St.  Jolm,  shows 
itself  here  and  there  by  faint  types  of  Antichrist. 
The  Apostle  gives  three  stages  in  the  evolution  of 
evil:  -tlie  leaven  of  iniquity,  the  great  apostasy,  and 
the  man  of  sin.  But  he  adds  a  clause  calculated  to 
determine  the  time  of  the  main  event  more  accu- 
rately; he  describes  something  first  as  a  thing  (tA 
KOT^X"").  then  as  a  person  (6  Karix'^"),  preventing 
the  occurrence  of  the  main  event :  "  Only  he  who  now 
holdeth,  do  hold,  until  he  be  taken  out  of  the  way." 
We  can  here  only  enumerate  the  principal  opinions 
as  to  the  meaning  of  this  clause  without  discussing 
their  value:  (1)  The  impediment  of  the  main  event 
is  "the  man  of  sin";  the  main  event  is  the  second 
coming  of  the  Lord  (Grimm,  Simar).  (2)  The  im- 
pedim.ent  is  the  Roman  Empire;  the  main  event  im- 
peded is  the  "  man  of  sin "  (most  Latin  Fathers  and 
later  interpreters).  (3)  The  Apostle  referred  to  per- 
sons and  events  of  his  own  time;  the  Karix''"'  and  the 
"man  of  sin"  are  variously  identified  with  the 
Emperors  Caligula,  Titus,  Nero,  Claudius,  etc. 
(Protestant  theologians  living  after  the  seventeenth 
century).  (4)  The  Apostle  refers  immediately  to 
contemporary  men  and  events,  which  are,  how- 
ever, types  of  the  eschatological  kut^xov,  "  man  of 
sin",  and  day  of  the  Lord;  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, e.  g.,  is  the  type  of  the  Lord's  second  coming, 
etc.   (Dollinger). 

Before  leaving  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  Antichrist, 
we  may  ask  ourselves,  whence  did  the  Apostle  derive 
his  teaching?  Here  again  we  meet  with  various 
answers. — (1)  St.  Paul  expresses  merely  liis  own  view 
based  on  the  Jewish  tradition  and  the  imagery  of 
the  Prophets  Daniel  and  Ezechiel.  This  view  has  been 
advocated  by  several  Protestant  writers.  (2)  The 
Apostle  expresses  the  impression  produced  on  the 
early  Church  by  the  eschatological  teaching  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  opinion  is  expressed  by  Dollinger. 
(3)  St.  Paul  derived  his  doctrine  concerning  Anti- 
christ from  the  words  of  Christ,  the  prophecy  of 
Daniel,  and  the  contemporary  events.  This  opin- 
ion, too,  is  expressed  by  Dollinger.  (4)  The  Apostle 
uttered  a  prophecy  received  through  the  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Catholic  interpreters  have  gen- 
erally adhered  to  this  opinion. 

D.  In  the  Evamjelists  and  Daniel. — After  studying 
the  picture  of  Antichrist  in  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians,  one  easily  recognizes  the  "  man  of 
sin"  in  Dan.,  vii,  8,  11,  20,  21,  where  the  Prophet 
describes  the  "little  horn".  A  type  of  Antichrist  is 
found  in  Dan.,  viii,  8  sqq.,  23,  sqq.,  xi,  21-45,  in  the 
person  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Many  commen- 
tators have  found  more  or  less  clear  allusions  to 
Antichrist  in  the  coming  of  false  Christs  and  false 
prophets  (Matt.,  xxiv,  24;  Mark,  xiii,  6,  22;  Luke, 
xxi,  8),  in  the  "abomination  of  desolation,"  and  in 
the  one  that  "shall  come  in  his  own  name"  (John, 
v,  43). 

II.  Antichrist  in  Ecclesiastical  Language. — 
Bousset  believes  that  there  was  among  the  Jews  a 
fully  developed  legend  of  Antichrist,  which  was  ac- 
cepted and  aniplilicd  by  Christians;  and  that  this 
legend  divt'rgrs  lidiii  and  coiilradicts  in  important 
points  tlu'  concept  ions  found  in  the  Apocalypse. 
We  ilo  not  believe  that  Bousset  has  fvilly  proved  his 
opinion;  his  view  as  to  the  Christian  development  of 
the  concept  of  Antichrist  does  not  exceeil  the  merits 
of  an  ingenious  theory.  We  need  not  here  enter  upon 
an  investigation  of  (iunkel's  work,  in  which  he  traces 
back  the  itiea  of  .Vntichrist  to  the  primeval  dragon  of 
the  deep;  this  view  deserves  no  more  attention  than 


ANTICHRIST 


561 


ANTICHRIST 


the  rest  of  the  author's  mythological  fancies.  What 
then  is  the  true  ecclesiasticiil  concept  of  Antichrist? — 
Suarez  maintains  that  it  is  of  faith  tliat  Antichrist 
is  an  individual  person,  a  signal  enemy  of  Christ. 
This  excludes  the  contention  of  those  who  explain 
Antichrist  either  as  the  whole  collection  of  those  who 
oppose  Jesus  Christ,  or  a.s  the  Papacy.  The  Wal- 
densian  and  Albigensian  heretics,  as  well  as  Wyclif 
and  Hus,  called  the  Pope  by  the  name  of  Antichrist; 
but  the  expression  was  only  a  metaphor  in  their  case. 
It  was  only  after  the  time  of  the  Heformation  that  the 
name  was  applied  to  the  Pope  in  its  proper  sense.  It 
then  passed  ])ra('tically  into  the  creed  of  the  Luther- 
ans, and  has  been  seriously  defended  by  them  as  late 
as  1861  in  the  "  Zeitsolirift  fur  lutlierische  The- 
ologie".  The  change  from  the  true  Church  into  the 
reign  of  .\iitichrist  is  said  to  liave  taken  place  be- 
tween 19  February  and  10  November,  \.  u.  007,  when 
Pope  Boniface  HI  obtaineil  from  the  Greek  emperor 
the  title  "Head  of  -VU  the  Churches"  for  the  Roman 
Church.  An  appeal  was  made  to  Apoc,  xiii,  18,  in 
confirmation  of  this  date,  and  it  was  calculated  from 
Apoc,  xi,  3,  that  the  end  of  the  world  might  be  ex- 
pected A.  D.  18(50.  Cardinal  Bellarinin  refuted  this 
error  both  from  an  exegelical  and  liistorical  point  of 
view  in  "  De  Rom.  Pont.",  HI.  The  indiviilual  per- 
son of  Antichrist  will  not  be  a  demon,  as  some  of  the  an- 
cient writers  believed;  nor  will  he  be  the  person  of  the 
devil  incarnated  in  the  human  nature  of  Antichrist. 
He  will  he  a  human  person,  perhaps  of  Jewish  ex- 
traction, if  the  explanation  of  Gen.,  xlix,  17,  together 
with  that  of  Dan's  omission  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
tribes,  as  found  in  the  .\pocalypse,  be  correct.  It 
must  be  kept  in  mind  that  extra-Scriptural  tradition 
furnishes  us  no  rovealcil  supplement  to  the  Biblical 
data  concerning  .\ntichrist.  While  these  latter  are 
sufficient  to  make  the  believer  recognize  the  "man  of 
sin"  at  the  time  of  his  coming,  the  lack  of  any  addi- 
tional rehable  revelation  should  put  us  on  our  guard 
against  the  day-dreams  of  the  Irvingites,  the  Mor- 
mons, and  other  recent  proclaimers  of  new  revela- 
tions. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  draw  the  reader's 
attention  to  two  dissertations  by  the  late  Cardi- 
nal Newman  on  the  subject  of  Antichrist.  The  one 
is  entitled  "The  Patristic  Idea  of  Antichrist";  it 
considers  successively  his  time,  religion,  city,  and 
persecution.  It  formed  the  eiglity-third  number  of 
the  "Tracts  for  the  Times",  and  has  been  repub- 
lished in  the  volume  entitled  "  Discussions  and  Argu- 
ments on  Various  Subjects"  (London,  New  York,  and 
Bombay,  1899).  The  other  dis.sertation  is  contained 
among  the  Cardinal's  "  Essays  Critical  and  Histori- 
cal" (Vol.  II;  London,  New  York,  and  Bombay, 
1897),  and  bears  the  title  "The  Protestant  Idea  of 
Antichrist." 

In  order  to  understand  the  significance  of  the 
Cardinal's  essays  on  the  question  of  the  -Antichrist, 
it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  variety  of  opinions 
sprang  up  in  course  of  time  concerning  the  nature  of 
this  opponent  of  Christianity.  (1)  Koppe,  Nitzsch, 
Storr,  and  Pelt  contended  that  the  Antichrist  is  an 
evil  principle,  not  embodied  either  in  a  pers<m  or  a 
polity;  this  opinion  is  in  op|>osition  to  both  St.  Paul 
and  St.  John.  Both  Apostles  describe  the  adversary 
as  being  distinctly  concrete  in  form.  (2)  .\  second 
view  admits  that  tlie  Antichrist  is  a  person,  but  it 
maintains  that  he  is  a  person  of  the  past;  Nero, 
Diocletian,  Julian,  Caligula,  Titus,  Simon  Magus, 
Simon  the  son  of  Giora,  the  High  Priest  Ananias, 
Vitellius,  the  Jews,  the  Pharisees,  and  the  Jewish 
zealots  have  been  variously  identified  wnth  the  .Anti- 
christ. But  there  is  httle  traditional  authority  for 
this  opinion;  besides,  it  does  not  appear  to  satisfy 
fully  the  prophetic  predictions,  and,  in  the  case  of 
some  of  its  adherents,  it  is  ba.seil  on  the  suppo.sition 
that   the   inspired   writers  could  not   transcend   the 


limits  of  their  experiences.  (3)  A  third  opinion  ad- 
mitted that  the  Antichrist  must  indeed  ap|x;ar  in  a 
concrete  form,  but  it  identified  this  concrete  form 
with  the  system  of  the  Papacy.  Luther,  Calvin, 
Zwingh,  Melanchthon,  Bucer,  Beza,  Calixtus,  Bengel, 
Michaelis,  and  almost  all  the  Protestant  writers  of  the 
Continent  are  cited  as  upholding  this  view;  the  .same 
may  be  said  of  the  English  theologians  Crantiicr, 
Latimer,  Ridley,  Hoof)er,  Hutchinson,  T>^ldal<•, 
Sandys,  Pliilpot,  Jewell,  Rogers,  Fulke,  Bradford. 
King  James,  and  .Vndrewes.  Bramhall  introduced 
qualifications  into  the  theory,  and  after  this  its 
ascendancy  began  to  wane  among  English  writers. 
Nor  must  it  be  supposed  that  the  Papal-Antichrist 
theory  was  upheUi  Dy  all  Protestants  in  tlie  same 
form;  the  Fal.se  Prophet  or  second  .4pocaylptic  Beast 
is  identified  with  Antichrist  and  the  Papacy  by 
Chytrffius,  .-Vretius,  Fo.xe,  Napier,  Metle,  Jurieii, 
Newton,  Cunninghame,  Faber,  Woodliouse,  and 
Habershon;  the  first  Apocalyptic  Beast  holds  this 
position  in  the  opinion  of  Marlorat,  King  .lames, 
Daubuz,  and  Galloway;  both  Beasts  are  thus  identi- 
fied by  Brightman,  Parens,  Vitringa,  Gill,  Bachniair, 
Fr:i.ser,  Croly,  Fysh,  and  lOlliott. 

After  this  general  survey  of  the  Protestant  views 
concerning  the  Antichrist,  we  shall  be  able  to  ap- 
preciate some  of  Cartlinal  Newman's  critical  remarJcs 
on  the  question. —  (1)  If  any  part  of  the  Church  be 
proved  to  be  antichristian,  all  of  the  Church  is  .so, 
the  Protestant  branch  inclusive.  (2)  The  Papal- 
Antichrist  theory  was  gradually  developed  by  three 
historical  bodies:  the  .\lbigenses,  the  Waldenses.  and 
the  Fraticelli,  between  the  eleventh  and  the  sixteenth 
centuries:  are  these  the  expo.sitors  from  whom  tl:c 
Church  of  Christ  is  to  receive  the  true  interpretati<  n 
of  the  prophecies?  (3)  The  defenders  of  the  Papal- 
-Ajitichrist  theory  have  made  .several  signal  blunders 
in  their  arguments;  they  cite  St.  Bernard  as  identify- 
ing the  Beast  of  the  AjHiealypse  with  the  Pope, 
though  St.  Bernard  speaks  in  the  passage  of  the 
Antipope;  they  appeal  to  the  Abbot  Joachim  as  be- 
lieving that  .-Vnticlirist  will  be  elevated  to  the  Apos- 
toHc  See,  while  the  Abbot  really  believes  that  Anti- 
christ will  overthrow  the  Pope  and  usurp  his  See; 
finallj^,  they  appeal  to  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  as 
as.sertiiig  that  whoever  claims  to  be  Universal  Bishop 
is  Anticnrist,  whereas  the  great  Doctor  really  speaks 
of  the  Forerunner  of  Antichrist  who  was,  in  tl.e 
language  of  his  day,  nothing  but  a  token  of  an  im- 
pending great  evil.  (4)  Protestants  were  driven  to 
the  Papal-.Vntichrist  theorj'  by  the  necessity  of  op- 
posing a  popular  answer  to  the  [wpular  and  cogent 
arguments  advanced  by  the  Church  of  Rome  for  her 
Divine  authority.  (.5)  Warburton,  Newton,  and 
Hurd,  the  advocates  of  the  Papal-.-Vntichrist  theorj-, 
cannot  be  matchetl  against  the  saints  of  the  Church 
of  Rome.  (0)  If  the  Pope  be  Antichrist,  those  who 
receive  ami  follow  him  cannot  be  men  like  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  or  I'Y'iielon,  or  St.  Bernard,  or  St.  I'rancis 
of  Sales.  (7)  If  the  Church  mu.st  suffer  like  Christ, 
and  if  Christ  was  called  Beelzebub,  the  true  Cliurch 
nuist  expect  a  similar  reproach;  thus,  the  Papal- 
Antichrist  theory  becomes  an  argument  in  favor  of 
the  Roman  Church.  (8)  The  gibe,  "If  the  Pope  is 
not  .Vntichrist,  he  has  bad  luck  to  be  so  like  him", 
is  really  another  argument  in  favour  of  the  claims 
of  the  Pope;  since  Antichrist  simulates  Christ,  and 
the  Pope  is  an  image  of  Christ,  Antichrist  must  have 
some  similarity  to  the  Pope,  if  the  latter  be  the  true 
Vicar  of  Clirist. 

luKN.Kts.  .l,/i,rju«  liar.,  IV,  2C;  Adso  (P»ecdo-R.vbanis 
Maiircs),  De  orlu,  lilii  el  moribut  AnlichritU,  P.  L.,  CI.  12,Sit- 
98);  Malvknda,  De  Antichrulo  libri  XI  (Rome,  1004); 
Calmet,  Dusertation  #ur  i'AnUchrist  in  Comment,  sur  i>t. 
Paul:  DiiLLlNHKii,  Chritlml.  u.  Kirche  (1st  ed.),  277.  2S.i. 
etc.;  Bkli.ahmix,  De  Rom.  Pont..  Ill;  I.fawirs.  OpotcUum 
de  .\ nliehritlo;  J.  Crimm, />rr  KaTix<"  den  rirritrn  Thrtmlim- 
itcher-Brirlet  (Stadtamhof,  18G1);  Jimo.  Uetchichle  det  Vroi. 
Ustaniitmus;     liovaaKT,   Oer    Antichriat,    (Gottiogeo,     1896), 


ANTICONCORDATAIRES 


562 


ANTIGONISH 


tr.  by  Keanf.  (1S90>;  Gcnkei.,  Srhopfung  iind  Chaos  (1895), 
221,  sqq.:  Zaun,  liinlritung  (see  Index);  Schurer,  Geschicle 
dea  jndischen  Volkcs,  U,  532;  Newman,  The  Patriatic  Idea  of 
AntichrUl,  Xo.  S.i  of  Tracts  lor  the  Times,  republished  in 
Discussions  and  Arijuments  on  Various  Subjects  (London, 
New  York,  and  Bombay,  1897);  Id.,  The  Protestant  Idea  of 
Antichrist  in  Kssavs  Critical  and  Historical  (London,  New 
York,  and  Bombay,  1897),  II;  Alford,  Greek  Testament; 
Prolegomena  to  Thess.  and  Apoc.  (London,  1856,  1861);  Words- 
worth, On  the  Apocalypse  (London,  1849);  Maitland,  Pro- 
yhetic  Interpretation  (London,  1849);  Clissold,  Apocalyptical 
nterpretation  (London,  1845);  Ellicott,  Comment,  on  Thess. 
(London,  1858);  Jowett,  Excursus  on  the  Man  of  Sin,  in  his 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (Irfjndon,  1859);  Robinson,  Revised  Edi- 
tion of  Rayland's  tr.  of  Neander,  Pflanzung,  etc.  (New  York, 
1865);  Moses  Stuart,  Commentary  on  the  Apoc.  (Andover, 
1845);  Greswell,  Exposition  of  the  Parables  (Oxford,  1834), 
I;  Noves  The  .\pocnhipse  .inalyzed  and  Explained,  in  The 
Christian  Examiner  (.May,  1860).  A.  J.  JIaaS. 

Anticoncordataires.     See  Petite  Eglise,  La. 

Antidicomarianites. — An  Eastern  sect  which 
flouri.shod  al)cnit  ,\.  D.  200  to  -100,  and  which  was  so 
designatetl  a.s  being  the  "opponents  of  Mary".  The 
P^bionites  were  the  first  who  maintained  that  Our 
Lord  was  merely  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  This 
doctrine  became  repugnant  even  to  their  own  ad- 
lierents,  and  it  was  afterwards  modified  so  as  to 
teach  that,  although  Our  Lord  was  born  of  Mary 
through  the  Holy  Ghost,  afterwards  Joseph  and 
Mary  lived  in  wedlock  and  had  many  other  children. 
The  sect  denied  the  formula  "  ever- Virgin  Mary " 
used  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Liturgies.  The  earliest 
reference  to  this  sect  appears  in  TertuUian,  and  the 
doctrines  taught  by  them  are  expressly  mentioned 
by  Origen  (Homilia  in  Lucam,  III,  940).  Certain 
Arians,  Eudocius  and  Eunomius,  were  great  sup- 
porters of  the  teaching.  The  sect  attained  its  great- 
est development  in  Arabia  towards  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  the  name  Antidicomarianites 
was  specifically  applied  to  it  by  St.  Epiphanius  who 
wrote  against  them  in  an  interesting  letter  giving 
the  history  of  the  doctrine  and  proofs  of  its  falsity 
(St.  Epiphanius,  Contra  Haeres.,  Ixxviii,  1033  sqq.). 
Migne,  p.  G.  (Paris,  1862);  Origen,  XIII,  1813;  Idem, 
St.  Epiphanius,  XLII,  699-739. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Antidoron  (Gr.,  ivri,  instead  of;  SUpov,  a  gift; 
i.  e.  a  gift  instead  of).  The  remains  of  the 
loaves  or  cakes  from  wliich  the  various  portions  are 
cut  for  consecration  in  the  Mass,  according  to  the 
fireek  Rite,  are  gathered  up  on  a  plate,  or  salver,  in 
the  sanctuary  and  kept  upon  the  prothesis,  or  side- 
altar,  during  the  celebration  of  the  Mass.  They  are 
usually  cut  up  into  small  fragments,  and,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Mass,  after  the  celebrant  has  retired 
from  the  altar,  the  deacon  (or  in  churches  where 
there  is  no  deacon,  the  priest)  brings  the  salver  out 
through  the  royal  doors  and  standing  in  front  of  the 
ironostasis  gives  to  each  of  the  faithful,  supposed  to 
be  fasting,  a  small  fragment  of  the  blessed  bread 
which  is  taken  and  eaten  by  the  worsliipper  before 
leaving  the  church.  The  giving  of  the  antidoron  is 
regularly  followed  in  the  Russian  Orthodox  and  the 
Greek  (Hellenic)  Orthodox  churches  at  every  Mass, 
and  it  is  an  interesting  sight  to  watch  the  worshippers 
crowding  up  in  lines  to  obtain  the  blessed  bread.  In 
the  Cireek  Oaiholic  churches  of  Austria  and  Hungary 
the  antidoron  i.s  given  only  on  rare  occasions  during 
the  year,  chiefly  on  the  Saturday  in  Easter  week; 
while  among  the  Greek  Catholics  of  Italy  and  Sicily 
It  IS  usually  given  only  on  Holy  Thursday,  the  Feast 
of  the  Assumption,  that  of  St.  Nicolas  of  Myra,  and  at 
ccrtam  week-day  masses  in  Lent;  although  according 
to  some  local  customs  it  is  given  on  other  days.  It 
may  seem  strange  that  the  earliest  historical  reference 
l<)  this  custom  should  be  found  in  the  Western 
( 'hurch.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  1 18th  letter  of  St.  Au- 
gustine to  Januarivis  (now  known  a.s  (he  .54th  letter 
ui  the  new  order.  .See  Migne,  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  200), 
and  in  the  canons  of  a  local  council  in  Gaul  in  the 
seventh    century.     Originally    it    was    a   substitute, 


or  solatium  for  such  of  the  faithful  a.s  were  not  pre- 
pared to  go  to  Communion  or  were  unable  to  get 
to  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  If  they  could  not  partake  of 
the  body  of  Our  Lord  they  had  the  consolation  of 
partaking  of  the  bread  which  had  been  blessed  and 
from  which  the  portions  for  consecration  had  been 
taken.  In  the  Eastern  Church  mention  of  the 
antidoron  began  to  appear  about  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries.  Germanius  of  Constantinople  is  the 
earliest  Eastern  author  to  mention  it  in  his  treatise, 
"The  Explanation  of  the  Liturgy",  about  the  ninth 
century.  Subsequent  to  him  many  writers  of  the 
separated  Eastern  Church  (Balsamon,  Colina,  Pache- 
meros)  have  written  on  the  custom  of  giving  the 
antidoron.  The  usage  to-day  in  the  Orthodox 
Greek  Church,  following  the  Nomocanon,  is  to  employ 
the  fragments  or  unused  pieces  of  the  various  pros- 
phoro',  except  that  from  which  the  agnetz  is  taken, 
for  the  purpose  of  the  antidoron.  The  canonical 
regulations  of  the  Russian  Orthodox  and  Greek 
(Hellenic)  Orthodox  Churches  require  that  the  anti- 
doron should  be  consumed  before  leaving  the  church, 
and  that  it  should  not  be  distributed  to  unbelievers 
or  to  persons  undergoing  penance  before  absolution. 
While  the  rite  still  continues  in  the  East  it  was 
finally  given  up  by  the  Western  Church,  and  now 
only  survives  in  the  Roman  Rite  in  the  pain  bin  it 
given  in  the  French  churches  and  cathedrals  at  High 
Mass,  in  certain  churches  of  Lower  Canada,  and  occa- 
sionally in  Italy,  on  certain  feasts.  A  similar  custom 
also  obtains  among  the  Syrian  Christians  (Christians 
of  St.  Thomas)  of  the  Malabar  coast  in  India. 

Neale,  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church  (London.  1850), 
I.  525;  CoRBLET,  Hist,  de  VEucharistie  (Paris,  1885),  I.  254-255; 
Clugnet,  Dictionnaire  des  noms  liturgiques  (Paris,  1895),  13; 
Parrino,  La  Messa  Greca  (Palermo,  1904),  20;  Charron, 
Les  saintes  liturgies  (Paris,  1904),  70;  Hapgood,  Service 
Book  of  the  Orthodox  Church  (New  York,  1906),  600;  Pravos- 
lavnaya  Encyclopedia  (St.  Petersburg,  1900),  I,  795-796. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Antigonish  (Micmac,  nalagitkooneech,  "where 
the  branches  are  torn  off"),  is  the  shiretown  of  the 
county  of  the  same  name  in  Nova  Scotia.  On  the 
23d  of  August,  1SS6,  it  was  made  the  see  of  one  of 
the  dioceses  constituting  the  ecclesiastical  province 
of  Halifax.  The  first  see  was  Arichat.  The  diocese 
takes  in  the  three  easternmost  counties  of  Nova 
Scotia  proper,  with  the  whole  island  of  Cape  Breton. 
Up  to  1817,  Nova  Scotia  formed  a  part  of  the  Diocese 
of  Quebec;  in  that  year  it  was  erected  into  a  vicar- 
iate, and  the  Right  Rev.  Edmund  Burke  appointed 
vicar  Apostolic.  He  was  succeeded,  in  1827,  by 
the  Right  Rev.  William  Eraser.  On  the  21st  of 
September,  1844,  the  vicariate  was  divided,  and 
two  dioceses  were  formed,  the  sees  being  Halifax  and 
Arichat.  Bishop  Fraser  was  appointed  to  the  latter 
see.  An  alumnus  of  the  Scottish  College  at  Valla- 
dolid,  he  was  a  strong  man,  physically  and  mentally 
fitted  to  play  the  part  of  pioneer  missionary  bishop. 
He  died  4  October,  1851,  and  was  succeeded, 
27  February,  1852,  by  the  Right  Rev.  Colin  Francis 
MacKinnon,  D.D.,  a  graduate  of  Propaganda.  He 
was  a  man  of  apostolic  zeal,  and  of  singularly 
amiable  character.  Failing  health  led  him  to  resign, 
19  January,  1877,  when  his  coadjutor,  the  Right  Rev. 
John  Cameron,  D.D.,  also  a  graduate  of  Propaganda, 
and  consecrated  at  Rome,  22  May,  1870,  became 
administrator  of  the  diocese.  On  his  resigning  this 
charge,  Bishop  MacKinnon  was  made  titular  Arch- 
bishop of  Ainida.  He  died  two  years  later,  26  Sep- 
tember, 1879. 

Within  the  Diocese  of  Antigonish  is  the  historic 
to\vn  of  Louisbourg.  As  fiir  back  as  1C04  French 
priests  were  in  Nova  Scotia,  then  known  as  Acadie, 
or  Acadia.  Between  that  date  and  the  taking  of 
Louisbourg  by  the  English  in  175S,  the  indefatigable 
missionaries  of  France  busied  themselves  with  the 
evangelization  of  the  native  Micmacs.     The  fact  that 


ANTIGUA 


563 


ANTIMENSIUM 


the  whole  tribe  still  hold  fsist  the  faith  preached  to 
them,  despite  the  efforts  iii:ide  from  time  to  time  to 
rob  them  of  it  and  the  piuicity  of  priestly  lalx)urers 
in  the  fifty  years  tliiit  followed  the  fall  of  I.oiiisbourg, 
.'ittests    llio    th<)rougliiics.s    with    whic-li    tlic    early 


TlIK  Cathkdral.  AmiuONI.'.H 

RecoUet  and  Jesuit  Fathers  did  their  work.  Till 
the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  some 
hundreds  of  the  aborigines,  together  with  a  remnant 
of  the  first  Trench  settlers,  known  as  Acadians,  and 
a  few  Irish  families,  made  up  the  Catholic  popula- 
tion of  what  is  now  the  Diocese  of  Antigonish.  In 
1791,  the  first  party  of  Catholic  immigrants  from 
the  Scottish  Highlands  reached  I'ictou  in  two  ships. 
Driven  from  their  native  braes  and  glens  by  the 
rapacity  of  the  landlords,  who  turned  their  ancestral 
holdings  into  sheepwalks,  they  found  new  homes  and 
free  holdings  in  the  wild  woods  of  Nova  Scotia. 
From  this  time  forward  the  tide  of  Scotti-sh  immi- 
gration gathered  strength,  until  it  reached  its  highest 
point  in  1S17.  In  July,  l.S()2,  ab<nit  I..50()  Highland 
S<'Ottish  Catholics  were  settled  along  the  shores  of 
the  (!ulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  For  the  greater  part  of 
the  time  they  were  without  a  priest,  save  for  the 
occasional  visits  of  the  Hev.  Angiis  Hernard  Mac- 
Eachern  afterwards  Hishop  of  Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I., 
who  braved  the  perils  of  the  sea  in  an  open  boat 
to  bring  them  the  consolations  of  religion.  In 
the  same  year  two  priests  came  out  from  Scotland, 
and  these  in  time  were  followed  by  others.  They 
shared  with  their  people  the  hardships  incident  to 
pioneer  life  in  "the  forest  primeval."  Among  the 
priests  who  lal)oured  during  the  first  two  decades  of 
the  nineteenth  centurj'  in  the  territorj'  now  com- 
prised in  the  Diocese  of  .\ntigonisli  were  Abb6  Le- 
jamtel,  among  the  Acadians;  the  IJcvcrends  Alex- 
ander MacDonncl,  William  Chisholm,  and  Colin 
Gnwit.  in  the  Scottish  settlements  on  the  mainland; 
the  Reverend  James  Grant,  an  Irish  priest,  in  An- 
tigonish; the  Reverend  Ale.xander  >IaeDonnell  in 
the  Scottish  settlements  in  Cape  Breton,  and  Father 
Vincent,  founder  of  the  Trappist  Monastery  at 
Tracadie,  among  the  Micmacs  and  Acadians.  The 
last-named,  known  in  the  Gaelic-speaking  com- 
munities as  .1  Sagart  Han,  or  White  Priest,  from  the 
flowing  white  robe  of  his  Order,  which  he  wore  also 
on  his  missionary  journeys,  was  a  man  of  singularly 
I.— 36 


lioly  life.  The  first  .session  of  the  court,  appointed 
in  li)0.")  to  inquire  into  his  title  to  sainthood,  was 
li»l(l  in  June,  190(i. 

.St.  Francis  Xavier's  College,  established  at  Anti- 
gonish in  1855,  and  endowed  with  university  powers 
in  1800,  is  the  chief  .seat  of  learning.  Mt.  St.  Bernard, 
an  academy  for  young  ladies,  conducted  by  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  is  affiliated  to  St.  Francis 
Xavier's.  The  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  have  eight 
other  convents  within  the  diocese;  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  six;  the  Daughters  of  Jesus,  lately  come 
from  France,  four;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Martha,  one. 
The  Trappists,  at  Petit  Clair vaux,  Tracadie,  are  the 
only  religious  order  of  men.  In  1871,  the  Catholic 
population  was  02,&53;  in  1891,  it  was  73,500,  of 
whom  about  42,000  were  Highland  Scotch,  19,000 
French,  11,000  Irish,  and  1,.500  Micmacs.  The 
present  population  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  80,000. 
There  are  101  priests,  including  11  Trappists,  07 
churches  with  resident  pastors,  and  34  missions  with 
churches. 

O'HniKN-  (late  -Archbishop  of  Halifax),  Memoirs  of  Bishop 
Burke  (Ottawa.  1894);  Mac.Millan,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Prince  Eduard  Island  (Quebcc.lBOS):  Brow.n,  His- 
tory of  Cnpe  Breton  (lAilwXon,  1809);  BouRINOT,  Cape  Breton 
and  Us  Memorials  (.Montreal.  1892):  Maci-eod,  History  of  the 
Devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virffin  in  North  America  (Cincinnati, 
1800. — This  work  contains  an  eloquent  chapter  on  the  HiRh- 
land  Scottish  emigration):  Mac(1ii.i.iv«ay.  The  Casket  (files); 
Xarerian,  Golden  JubiUe  Number  (Oct.  1905). 

Alexaxdek  MacDonald. 

AntigTia.     See  Roseau. 

Antimensium,  also  Antiminsion  (Gr.  dn-i^iji'ffioj', 
from  ami.  instc:id  of,  and  mensa,  table,  altar),  a 
consecrated  corporal  of  a  kind  used  only  in  the 
(ireek  Kite.  It  is  called  in  Russian  and  Slavonic 
anlimins,  and  an.swers  substantially  to  the  portable 
altar  of  the  Roman  Rite.  It  consists  of  a  strip  of 
fine  linen  or  .silk,  usually  ten  inches  wide  and  about 
thirteen  to  fourteen  inches  long,  ornamented  with 
the  instruments  of  the  Pa.ssion,or  with  a  representa- 
tion of  Our  Lord  in  the  Sepulchre;  it  also  contains 
relics  of  the  saints  wliich  are  sewn  into  it,  and  certified 
by  the  bishop.  It  is  requirc<l  to  be  placed  on  the 
altar  in  Greek  churches  just  as  an  altar-stone  is 
required  in  the  Latin  churches,  and  no  Mass  may  be 
said  upon  an  altar  of  that  rite  which  has  no  anti- 
mensium. It  is  unfolde<l  at  the  Offertory  quite  like 
the  Latin  corporal.  Outside  of  the  Mass  it  rests  on 
the  altar,  foldetl  in  four  parts,  and  enclosed  in  another 
piece  of  linen  know^l  :is  the  hcilcton.  Originally  it 
was  intendetl  for  missionaries  and  priests  travelling 
in  places  where  there  was  no  con.secrated  altar,  or 
where  there  was  no  bishop  available  to  con.secrate  an 
altar.  The  bishop  consecrated  the  antimensium 
almost  as  he  would  an  altar,  and  the  priest  carried  it 
with  him  on  his  journey,  and  spread  it  over  any 
temporarj-  altar  to  celebrate  Mass.  Originally, 
therefore,  it  stood  literally  for  its  name;  it  was  useil 
instead  of  the  Holy  Table  for  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Ma.ss. 

The  word  anlimensium  is  met  with  for  the  first 
time  about  the  end  of  the  eighth  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  centuries.  The  rapid  adoption  of 
the  object  was  owing  hirgely  to  the  spread  of  Icono- 
cla.sm  and  other  heresies.  In  the  seventh  canon  of 
the  Seventh  General  Council  (787)  it  was  ordered 
that  '■  according  to  ancient  custom  which  we  shoulil 
follow  the  Holy  .Sacrifice  should  only  be  offered  on 
an  altar  con.secrated  by  placing  the  relics  of  the 
.saints  or  of  martjTs  therein"  (Mansi,  XIII,  42S). 
.\s  a  result  of  this  decree  the  use  of  the  antimensimn 
became  quite  general,  because,  owing  to  various 
heresies  and  sciiisms  it  was  doubtful  whether  the 
altar  ii\  mnnberle.ss  churches  had  ever  been  con- 
.secnited  by  a  bishop,  or  whether  that  rite  h;id  ever 
been  canonically  i)erformed;  on  the  other  hand,  all 
were  anxious  to  comply  with  the  canon.     By  the  use 


ANTINOE 


564 


ANTINOMIANISM 


of  the  antimensium,  sucli  as  missionaries  and  travel- 
ling priests  were  using,  the  Holy  Sacrifice  could  be 
offered  on  any  altar,  because  the  antimensium,  at 
least,  had  been  properly  consecrated  and  contained 
the  required  rehcs.  Although  it  was  primarily  in- 
tended for  altars  which  liad  not  been  consecrated  by 
a  bishop,  it  gradually  became  used  for  all  altars  in 
tlie  Greek  Church.  It  was  also  much  used  for  altars 
in  military  camps,  on  shipboard,  and  among  the 
hermits  and  ccnobites  of  the  desert,  where  a  church 
or  a  chapel  was  unknown.  After  the  great  schism 
which  divided  tlie  Eastern  Church  from  the  Holy 
See,  the  antimensium  was  looked  on  as  a  peculiarly 
Greek  religious  article.  The  United  Greeks  have 
also  retained  it,  although,  by  special  regulation  of 
the  Holy  See,  in  its  absence  an  altar-stone  may  be 
used  by  them.  A  Greek  Catholic  priest  may  .say 
Mass  in  a  Greek  church  upon  an  altar-stone,  yet  a 
Latin  priest  may  not  say  Mass  upon  an  antimensium 
in  a  Latin  church,  although  either  may  use  the  anti- 
mensium in  a  Greek  church  (Benedict  XIV,  Imposito 
nobis). 

In  the  Council  of  Moscow  (1675)  the  Russian 
Church  decreed  that  antiraensia  should  be  used  upon 
every  altar,  whether  it  had  been  consecrated  by  a 
bishop  or  not.  The  only  apparent  exception  allowed 
in  the  Russian  Church  is  that  an  antimensium  with- 
out reUcs  may  be  used  upon  the  altar  of  a  cathedral 
church.  The  form  of  consecration  of  the  anti- 
raensia is  almost  the  same  as  that  followed  by  a  bishop 
in  consecrating  an  altar.  Indeed,  they  are  usually 
consecrated  at  the  same  time  as  the  altar,  and  are 
considered  to  share  in  tlie  latter's  consecration;  by 
way  of  exception,  especially  in  the  Russian  Church, 
they  may  be  consecrated  at  another  time.  As 
already  said,  the  customary  material  was  originally 
pure  hnen;  yet,  since  1862,  by  a  decree  of  the  Holy 
Synod  in  Russia,  they  may  be  made  either  of  linen 
or  silk.  They  have  varied  slightly  in  size  and  form, 
but  the  kind  now  used  is  about  the  size  of  those  made 
in  the  twelfth  century.  They  are  often  beautifully 
embroidered,  the  decorations  usually  representing 
Our  Lord  in  the  Sepulchre,  sometimes  with  a  cross 
and  sometimes  with  a  chalice  above  Him;  they 
also  have  the  letters  IC.  XC.  NIKA,  i.  e.  "Jesus 
Christ  conquers",  or  otlier  traditional  devices  worked 
upon  them.  Whenever  a  new  antimensium  is  placed 
upon  an  altar  the  old  one  must  not  be  removed,  but 
must  be  kept  next  to  the  altar  under  the  altar-cloth. 
Usually  the  date  of  consecration  is  worked  upon 
them.  By  a  decree  of  the  Holy  Synod  in  1842,  each 
Russian  church  must  keep  an  exact  register  of  the 
antiraensia  contained  in  it. 

Go\B,  Euchologium.  aive  Rituale  Gnecorum  (Venice,  ed. 
17.30);  Renaudot,  Liturgiarum  Orientatium  Collectio,  I,  181- 
331;  Brightman,  Eastern  Liturgies  (Oxford,  1896),  569; 
Neale,  Ilisloni  of  the  Holu  Eastern  Church  (London,  1850),  I, 
180-187;  PfcTRlDks,  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chret.,  I,  2319-26;  Cldg- 
NET,  Diet,  grec-fran^aia  des  noma  liturgiquea  (Paris,  1895). 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Antinoe  (or  Antinopolis),  a  titular  see  of  the  The- 
baid,  now  Esneh  or  Esench,  a  city  in  Egypt,  built  by 
the  Emperor  Hadrian  A.  D.  132,  in  memory  of  his 
favourite,  Antinous.  Situated  in  the  very  centre 
of  Egypt,  the  city  attracted  more  than  ordinary 
attention,  not  only  by  its  splendour,  but  by  its 
originality,  being  constructed,  as  it  was,  on  the  plan 
of  Roman  and  Greek  cities,  without  any  trace  of 
Egyptian  architecture.  The  topography  of  its  ruins 
is  yearly  growing  less  distinct,  .since  an  European 
industry  set  up  in  the  neiglibourliood  draws  on 
its  antique  materials  a.s  it  miglit  on  some  deserted 
marble  quarry.  After  the  fashion  of  Greek  and 
Aaiatic  cities,  the  city  was  intersected  by  streets 
along  the  sid&s  of  which  ran  porticoes  and  colonnades, 
and  several  of  the  the  streets  were  arched  over. 

Antinoe  played  but  a  small  part  in  the  history 
of  Christianity.     It  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 


subject  to  Thebes,  and  a  good  many  monasteries 
were  founded  in  the  neighbourhood.  Thanks  to  the 
Egyptian  climate,  the  cemeteries  opened  in  recent 
years  have  supplied  the  science  of  Christian  an- 
tiquity with  many  noteworthy  objects.  Roman  and 
Byzantine  burial-places  have  been  found  in  a  won- 
derful state  of  preservation.  The  bodies,  before 
burial,  underwent  a  preparation  very  different  from 
that  in  use  with  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  were 
carefully  dressed;  clothes,  stuffing,  and  a  mask  being 
used  instead  of  mummification,  which  was  no  longer 
practised.  The  bodies,  however,  had  the  appear- 
ance of  mummies.  To  this  manner  of  preparing 
their  dead  we  owe  the  preservation  of  various  per- 
sonal effects  as  well  as  of  stuffs.  The  tomb  of  a 
young  woman  named  Kuphemiaan  (?)  contained  an 
embroidery  case  in  the  folds  of  lier  dress,  and  shoes 
of  red  leather  enriched  with  gold  tracery.  The 
excavations  carried  on  by  M.  A.  Gayet  have  brought 
to  light  objects  which  are  now  in  the  Mus^e  Guiraet 
at  Paris,  such  as  prayer-chaplets,  baskets,  phials, 
boxes  of  wood  and  ivory,  etc.  Papyri  have  also 
been  found  at  Antinoe,  one  of  the  most  int-^resting 
being  the  will  of  Aurelius  CoUuthus. 

Several  ruins  of  some  importance  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Antinoe.  One  of  the  most 
noteworthy  is  that  of  Deir  Abou-Hennys,  where 
there  is  an  underground  church,  ornamented  with 
paintings  of  real  interest,  less  on  account  of  the 
choice  of  subjects  than  for  the  skill  and  taste  which 
they  show  in  a  Coptic  artist  of  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century.  They  represent  scenes  from  the  Gospel, 
with  a  few  drawn  from  the  apocryphal  books,  and 
are  interspersed  with  a  great  number  of  inscriptions, 
most  of  which  are  mutilated  or  undecipherable. 

Leclercq  in  Diet,  d'archeol.  chrH.  et  de  lit.,  I,  col. 
2326-2359;  De  Bock,  Convent  de  Saint  Jean  pria  d'Anlinoe  in 
MateriauT  pour  servir  h  Varch^ologie  de  VEgypte  chretienne 
(St.  Petersburg,  1901);  Gayet,  in  Annates  du  Musee  Ouimet 
(1902),  XXX,  Part  2;  J.  Cledat,  in  Bulletin  de  I'institut  fran- 
(ais  d'archeol,  orien,  (1902),  II. 

H.  Leclercq. 

Antinomies.     See  Ivant,  Philosophy  of. 

Antinomianism  (dirrl.  against,  and  ^4/xos,  law),  the 
heretical  doctrine  that  Christians  are  exempt  from 
the  obligations  of  the  moral  law.  The  term  first 
came  into  vise  at  the  Protestant  Reformation,  when 
it  was  employed  by  Martin  Luther  to  designate  the 
teaching  of  Johannes  Agricola  and  his  sectaries, 
who,  pushing  a  mistaken  and  perverted  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Reformer's  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith  alone  to  a  far-reaching  but  logical  conclusion, 
asserted  tliat,  as  good  works  do  not  promote  salva- 
tion, so  neither  do  evil  works  hinder  it;  and,  as  all 
Christians  are  necessarily  sanctified  by  their  very  vo- 
cation and  profession,  so,  as  justified  Christians,  they 
are  incapable  of  losing  their  spiritual  holiness,  justi- 
fication, and  final  salvation  by  any  act  of  disobedi- 
ence to,  or  even  by  any  direct  violation  of  the  law 
of  God.  This  theory — for  it  was  not,  and  is  not, 
necessarily,  anything  more  than  a  purely  theoretical 
doctrine,  and  many  professors  of  Antinomianism,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  led,  and  lead,  lives  quite  as  moral  as 
those  of  their  opponents — was  not  only  a  more  or 
less  natural  outgrowth  from  the  distinctively  Prot- 
estant principle  of  justification  by  faith,  but  prob- 
ably also  the  result  of  an  erroneous  view  taken  with 
regard  to  the  relation  between  the  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian dispensations  and  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  Doubtless  a  confused  understand- 
ing of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial  precepts  and  the  fun- 
damental moral  law  embodied  in  the  Mosaic  code 
was  to  no  small  extent  operative  in  allowing  the  con- 
ception of  true  Christian  liljerty  to  grow  beyond  all 
rcas(mabk>  bounds,  and  to  take  the  form  of  a  theo- 
retical doctrine  of  unlimited  licentiovisness. 

Altliough  the  term  designating  this  error  carae  into 
use  only  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  doctrine  itself 


ANTINOMIANISM 


565 


ANTIKOMIANISM 


can  be  traced  in  the  teaching  of  the  earlier  heresies. 
Certain  of  the  Gnostic  sects — possibly,  for  example, 
Marcion  and  his  followers,  in  their  antithesis  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  or  the  Carpocratians,  in 
their  doctrine  of  the  inditTerence  of  good  works  and 
their  contempt  for  all  human  laws — held  Antinomian 
or  quasi-Antinomian  views.  In  any  case,  it  is  gen- 
erally understood  that  Antiiiomianism  was  professed 
by  more  than  one  of  the  Gnostic  schools.  Several 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  writings  are  quoted 
m  support  of  the  contention  tliat  even  as  early  as 
Apostolic  times  it  was  found  necessary  to  single  out 
and  combat  this  heresy  in  its  theoretical  or  dogmatic, 
as  well  as  in  its  grosser  and  practical,  form.  The 
indignant  words  of  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistles  to  the 
Romans  and  to  the  Ephesians  (Hom.,  iii,  8,  31,  vi,  1; 
Epli..  V.  6),  as  well  as  tfiose  of  St,  I'eter  in  the  Second 
Epistle  (II  Pet,,  ii,  18,  19),  seem  to  lend  direct  evi- 
dence in  favour  of  this  view.  Forced  into  a  some- 
what doubtful  prominence  by  the  "slanderers"  against 
whom  the  .\postle  found  it  necessary  to  warn  the 
faithful,  persisting  spasmodically  in  several  of  the 
Cinostic  bodies,  and  possibly  also  colouring  some  of 
the  tenets  of  the  Albigenses,  Antinomiamsm  reap- 
peared definitely,  as  a  variant  of  the  Protestant  doc- 
trine of  faith,  early  in  the  history  of  the  German 
Keforniation.  At  this  point  it  is  of  interest  to  note 
the  sharp  controversy  tnat  it  provoked  between  the 
leader  of  the  reforming  movement  in  (lerinany  and 
his  disciple  and  fellow  townsman,  Johannes  Agricola. 
Sehnitter,  or  Schneider,  sometimes  known  as  the 
Magister  Islcbius,  was  born  at  Eisleben  in  1492,  nine 
years  after  the  birth  of  Luther.  He  studied,  and 
afterwards  taught,  at  Wittenberg,  whence,  in  1525, 
he  went  to  Frankfort  with  the  intention  of  teaching 
and  establisliing  the  Protestant  religion  there.  But 
shortly  afterwards  he  returned  to  his  native  town, 
where  he  remained  until  1536,  teaching  in  the  school 
of  St.  Andrew,  and  drawing  considerable  attention  to 
himself  as  a  preacher  of  the  new  religion  hy  the 
courses  of  sermons  that  he  delivered  in  the  Nicolai 
Church.  In  1536  he  was  recalled  to  Wittenberg  and 
given  a  chair  in  the  University.  Then  the  Antino- 
mian controversy,  which  had  really  begvm  some  ten 
years  previously,  broke  out  afresh,  with  renewed 
vigour  and  bitterness.  .'Agricola,  who  w;u5  undoubt- 
edly anxious  to  defend  and  justify  the  novel  doctrine 
of  his  leader  upon  the  subject  of  grace  and  justifica- 
tion, and  who  wished  to  separate  the  new  Protestant 
view  more  clearly  and  distinctly  from  the  old  Cath- 
olic doctrine  of  faith  ami  good  works,  taught  that 
only  the  unregenerate  were  under  the  obligation  of 
the  law,  whereas  regenerate  Christians  were  entirely 
absolved  and  altojjether  free  from  any  such  obliga- 
tion. Though  it  IS  highly  probable  that  he  made 
Agricola  responsible  for  opinions  which  the  latter 
never  really  held,  Luther  attacked  him  vigorously 
in  six  di.ssertation3,  showing  that  "the  law  gives  man 
the  consciousness  of  sin,  and  that  the  fear  of  the  law- 
is  both  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  morality  and  of  divine,  as  well  as  human,  in- 
stitutions"; and  on  several  occasions  .\gricola  found 
himself  obliged  to  retract  or  to  modify  his  Antino- 
mian teaching.  In  1.540  Agricola,  forced  to  this 
step  by  Luther,  who  had  secured  to  this  end  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Elector  of  IJrandenburg,  definitely 
recanted.  But  it  was  not  long  before  the  weari.some 
controversy  was  reopened  by  Poach  of  Erfurt  (15.56). 
This  led  ultimately  to  an  authoritative  and  a  com- 
plete statement,  on  the  part  of  the  Lutherans,  of  the 
teaching  upon  the  subject  by  the  Gemian  Protestant 
leaders,  in  the  fifth  and  si.xth  articles  of  the  "For- 
mula Concordia'".  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori  states 
that  after  Luther's  death  Agricola  went  to  Berlin, 
commenced  teaching  his  blasphemies  again,  and  diecl 
there,  at  the  age  of  seventy-four,  witlioiit  any  sign 
of  repentance;  also,  that  Florinundus  calls  the"  Anti- 


nomians  "Atheists  who  believe  in  neither  God  nor 
the  devil. "  So  much  for  the  origin  and  growth  of  the 
Antinomian  heresy  in  the  Lutheran  body,  .\mong 
the  high  Calvinists  al-so  the  doctrine  was  to  be  found 
in  the  teaching  that  the  elect  do  not  sin  by  the  com- 
mission of  actions  that  in  themselves  are  contrary  to 
the  precepts  of  the  moral  law,  while  the  Anabaiitists 
of  Munster  had  no  scruple  in  putting  these  theories 
into  actual  practice. 

From  Germany  Antinomianism  soon  travelled  to 
England,  where  it  was  publicly  taught,  and  in  some 
cases  even  acted  uimn,  by  many  of  the  sectaries  during 
the  Protectorate  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  The  state  of 
religion  in  England,  as  well  as  in  the  Colonies,  imme- 
diately preceding  and  during  this  troublesome  period 
of  historj'.  was  an  extraordinary  one,  and  when  the 
indeixjndents  obtained  the  upper  hand  there  was  no 
limit  to  the  vagaries  of  doctrines,  imported  or  in- 
vented, that  found  so  congenial  a  soil  in  which  to 
take  root  and  spread.  Many  of  the  religious  contro- 
versies that  then  arose  turned  naturally  u[X)n  the  doc- 
trines of  faith,  grace,  and  justification  which  occupied 
so  prominent  a  place  in  contemporary  thought,  and 
in  these  controversies  Antinomianism  frequently  fig- 
ured. A  large  number  of  works,  tracts,  and  sermons 
of  this  j>eriod  are  extant  in  which  the  fierce  and  intol- 
erant doctrines  of  the  sectaries  are  but  thinly  veiled 
under  the  copious  quotations  from  the  Scriptures 
that  lend  so  peculiar  an  effect  to  their  general  style. 
In  the  earlier  part  of  the  .seventeenth  century.  Dr. 
Tobias  Crisp,  Rector  of  Brinkwater  (b.  1600),  was 
accused,  in  company  with  others,  of  holding  and 
teaching  similar  views.  His  most  notable  work  is 
"Christ  Alone  Exalted"  (1643).  His  opinions  were 
controverted  with  some  ability  by  Dr.  Daniel  ^^'il- 
liams,  the  founder  of  the  Dissenters'  Library,  In- 
deed, to  such  an  extent  were  extreme  Antinomian 
doctrines  held,  and  even  practised,  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  Charles  I,  that,  after  Cudworth's  sermon 
against  the  .\ntinomians  (on  I  John,  ii,  3,  4)  was 
preached  before  the  Commons  of  England  (1647), 
the  Parliament  wjjs  obliged  to  pass  severe  enactments 
against  them  (1648).  Anyone  convicted  on  the  oaths 
of  two  witne.s.ses  of  maintaining  that  the  moral  law 
of  the  Ten  Commandments  was  no  rule  for  Chris- 
tians, or  that  a  believer  need  not  repent  or  pray 
for  pardon  of  sin,  was  bound  publicly  to  retract,  or, 
if  he  refused,  be  imprisoned  until  he  found  sureties 
that  he  would  no  more  maintain  the  same.  Shortly 
before  this  date,  the  heresy  made  its  appearance  in 
America,  where,  at  Boston,  the  Antinomian  opin- 
ions of  Mrs.  Ann  Hutchinson  were  formally  con- 
demned by  the  Newtown  Synod   (1636). 

Although  from  the  seventeenth  century  onward 
Antinomianism  does  not  appear  to  be  an  official  doc- 
trine of  any  of  the  more  important  Protestant  sects, 
at  least  it  has  undoubtedly  been  held  from  time  to 
time  either  by  individual  members  or  by  sections, 
and  taught,  botli  by  implication  and  actually,  by 
the  religious  leatlers  of  several  of  these  bodies.  Cer- 
tain forms  of  Calvinism  may  seem  capable  of  bear- 
ing an  -Vntinomian  construction.  Indeed  it  has  been 
said  that  the  heresy  is  in  reality  nothing  more  than 
"Calvinism  run  to  seed".  Mosheim  regarded  the 
Antinomians  as  a  rigid  kind  of  Calvinists  who,  dis- 
torting tlie  doctrine  of  absolute  decrees,  drew  from 
it  conclusions  dangerous  to  religion  and  morals. 
Count  Zinzendorf  (1700-60),  the  founder  of  the 
Hermhuters,  or  Moravians,  was  accused  of  .-Vntino- 
mianism  by  Bengel,  as  was  William  Huntingdon, 
who,  liowever,  took  pains  to  disclaim  the  imputation. 

Hut  po.ssibly  the  most  noteworthy  instance  is  that 
of  the  Plymouth  Brethren,  of  whom  some  are  quite 
frankly  .\ntinoinian  in  their  doctrine  of  justification 
and  sand ificat ion.  It  is  their  constant  assertion 
that  the  law  is  not  the  rule  or  standard  of  the  life 
of  the  Christian,     Here  again,  as  in  the  case  of  .\g- 


ANTINOMIANISM 


566 


ANTINOMIANISM 


ricola,  it  is  a  tlicoretical  and  not  a  practical  Anti- 
nomianism  that  is  inculcated.  Much  of  the  teaching 
of  the  members  of  tliis  sect  recalls  "the  wildest  va- 
garies of  the  Antinomian  heresy,  while  at  tlie  same 
time  their  earnest  jirotests  against  such  a  construc- 
tion being  put  upon  tlieir  words,  and  the  evident 
desire  of  their  writers  to  enforce  a  high  standard  of 
practical  holiness,  forbid  us  to  foUow  out  some  of 
their  statements  to  wliat  seems  to  be  their  logical 
conclusion."  Indeed,  the  doctrine  generally  is  held 
theoretically,  where  held  at  all,  and  has  seldom  been 
advocated  as  a  principle  to  be  pvit  in  practice  and 
acted  upon.  Except,  as  has  already  been  noted,  in 
the  case  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Miinster  and  of  some 
of  the  more  fanatical  sections  of  the  Commonwealth, 
as  well  as  in  a  small  number  of  other  isolated  and 
sporadic  cases,  it  is  highly  doubtful  if  it  has  ever 
been  directly  put  forward  as  an  excuse  for  licentious- 
ness; although,  as  can  easily  be  seen,  it  offers  the 
gravest  possible  incentive  to,  and  even  justification 
of,  both  private  and  public  immorality  in  its  worst 
and  most  insidious  form. 

As  the  doctrine  of  Antinomianism,  or  legal  irre- 
sponsibility, is  an  extreme  type  of  the  heretical  doc- 
trine of  justification  by  faith  alone  as  taught  by  the 
Reformers,  it  is  only  natural  to  find  it  condemned 
by  the  Catholic  Church  in  company  with  this  fun- 
damentally Protestant  tenet.  The  sixth  session  of 
the  fficumenical  Council  of  Trent  was  occupied  with 
this  subject,  and  published  its  famous  decree  on  Jus- 
tification. Tlie  fifteenth  chapter  of  tliis  decree  is 
directly  concerned  with  the  Antinomian  heresy,  and 
condemns  it  in  the  following  terms:  "In  opposition 
also  to  tlie  cunning  wits  of  certain  men  who,  by 
good  words  and  fair  speeches,  deceive  the  hearts  of 
the  innocent,  it  is  to  be  maintained  that  the  re- 
ceived grace  of  justification  is  lost  not  only  by  in- 
fidelity, in  which  even  faith  itself  is  lost,  but  also 
by  any  other  mortal  sin  soever,  though  faith  be  not 
lost;  thereby  defending  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine 
law,  which  excludes  from  the  Kingdom  of  God  not 
only  the  unbelieving,  but  also  the  faithful  who  are 
fornicators,  adulterers,  effeminate,  abusers  of  them- 
selves witli  mankind,  thieves,  covetous,  drunkards, 
revilers,  extortioners,  and  all  others  who  commit 
deadly  sins;  from  which,  with  the  help  of  Divine 
grace,  they  are  able  to  refrain,  and  on  account  of 
which  they  are  separate  from  the  grace  of  Christ" 
(Cap.  XV,  cf.  also  Cap.  xii).  Also,  among  the  canons 
anathematizing  the  various  erroneous  doctrines  ad- 
vanced by  the  Reformers  as  to  the  meaning  and 
nature  of  justification  are  to  be  found  the  following: 
"Can.  xix.  If  anyone  shall  say  that  notliing  be- 
sides faith  is  commanded  in  the  Gospel;  that  other 
things  are  indifferent,  neither  commanded  nor  pro- 
hibited, but  free;  or  that  the  Ten  Commandments 
in  no  wise  appertain  to  Christians;  let  him  be  anath- 
ema.— Can.  XX.  If  anyone  shall  say  that  a  man 
who  is  justified  and  how  perfect  soever  is  not  bound 
to  tlie  observance  of  the  commandments  of  God  and 
of  the  Church,  but  only  to  believe;  as  if,  forsooth, 
the  Gospel  were  a  bare  and  absolute  promise  of 
eternal  life,  without  the  condition  of  observation 
of  the  commandments;  let  him  be  anathema. — 
Can.  xxi.  If  anyone  shall  say  that  Christ  Jesus 
was  given  of  God  unto  men  as  a  Redeemer  in 
whom  they  should  trust,  and  not  also  as  a  legislator 
whom  tliey  should  obey;  let  him  be  anathema. — 
Can.  xxvii.  It  anyone  shall  say  that  tliere  is  no 
deatlly  sin  but  that  of  infidelity;  or  that  grace  once 
received  is  not  lost  by  any  other  sin,  however  griev- 
ous and  enormous,  save  only  by  that  of  infidelity; 
let   him   be   anathema." 

The  minute  care  with  which  the  thirty-three  canons 
of  tlii.s  sixth  session  of  tlie  Council  were  drawn  up 
iH  evidence  of  the  grave  iin|)ortance  of  the  Question 
of  justification,  as  well  as  of  the  conflicting  doctrine 


advanced  by  the  Reformers  tliem.selves  upon  this 
subject.  The  four  canons  quoted  above  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  the  distinctly  .\ntinomian  theory  of  jus- 
tification that  falls  under  tlie  anathema  of  the 
Church.  That  the  moral  law  persists  in  the  Gospel 
dispensation,  and  that  the  justified  Cliristian  is  still 
imder  the  whole  obligation  of  the  laws  of  God  and 
of  the  Church,  is  clearly  asserted  and  defined  under 
the  solemn  anathema  of  an  (Ecumenical  Council. 
The  character  of  Christ  as  a  lawgiver  to  be  obeyed 
is  insisted  upon,  as  well  as  His  character  as  a  Re- 
deemer to  be  trusted;  and  the  fact  that  there  is 
grievous  transgression,  other  than  that  of  infidelity, 

is   taught  without  the  slightest  ambiguity thus 

far,  the  most  authoritative  possible  utterance  of 
the  teacliing  Church.  In  connection  with  the  Tri- 
dentine  decrees  and  canons  may  be  cited  the  con- 
troversial writings  and  direct  teaching  of  Cardinal 
Bellarmin,  the  ablest  upholder  of  orthodoxy  against 
the  various  heretical  tenets  of  the  Protestant  Refor- 
mation. 

But  so  grossly  and  so  palpably  contrary  to  the 
whole  spirit  and  teaching  of  the  Christian  revela- 
tion, so  utterly  discordant  witli  the  doctrines  incul- 
cated in  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,  and  so 
thoroughly  opposed  to  the  interpretation  and  tra- 
dition from  wliich  even  the  Reformers  were  unable 
to  cut  themselves  entirely  adrift,  was  the  heresy  of 
Antinomianism  that,  wliile  we  are  able  to  find  a 
few  sectaries,  as  Agricola,  Crisp,  Richardson,  Salt- 
marsh,  and  Hutchinson,  defending  the  doctrine,  the 
principal  Reformers  and  their  followers  were  instant 
in  condemning  and  reproliating  it.  Luther  himself. 
Rutherford,  Schluffelburgh,  Sedgwick,  Gataker,  Wit- 
sius.  Bull,  and  Williams  have  written  careful  refu- 
tations of  a  doctrine  that  is  quite  as  revolting  in 
theory  as  it  would  ultimately  have  proved  fatally 
dangerous  in  its  practical  consequences  and  inimical 
to  the  propagation  of  the  other  principles  of  the  Re- 
formers. In  Nelson's  "Review  and  Analysis  of 
Bishop  Bull's  Exposition  ...  of  Justification" 
the  advertisement  of  the  Bishop  of  Salisbury  has  the 
following  strong  recommendation  of  works  against 
the  "Antinomian  folly":  ".  .  .  To  the  censure 
of  tampering  with  the  strictness  of  the  Divine  Law 
may  be  opposed  Bishop  Horsley's  recommendation 
of  the  Harinonia  Apostolica  as  '  a  preservative  from 
the  contagion  of  Antinomian  folly.'  As  a  powerful 
antidote  to  the  Antinomian  principles  opposed  by 
Bishop  Bull,  Cudworth's  incomparable  sermon, 
preached  before  the  House  of  Commons  in  1647, 
.  .  .  cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended. " 
Tliis  was  the  general  attitude  of  the  Anglican,  as 
well  as  of  the  Lutheran,  body.  And  where,  as  was 
upon  several  occasions  the  case,  the  ascendencv  of 
religious  leaders,  at  a  time  when  religion  playetl  an 
extraordinarily  strong  part  in  tlie  civil  and  political 
life  of  the  individual,  was  not  in  itself  sufficient  to 
stamp  out  the  heresy,  or  keep  it  within  due  bounds, 
the  aid  of  the  secular  arm  was  promptly  invoked, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  intervention  of  tlie  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  and  the  enactments  of  the  English 
Parliament  of  1648.  Indeed,  at  the  time,  and  umler 
the  peculiar  circumstances  obtaining  in  New  England 
in  1637,  the  synodical  condemnation  of  llrs.  Hutch- 
inson did  not  fall  far  short  of  a  civil  judgment. 

Impugned  alike  by  the  autlioritative  teaching  of 
the  Catholic  Church  and  by  the  disavowals  and 
solemn  declarations  of  tlic  greater  Protestant  le;ul- 
ers  and  confessions  or  formularies,  verging,  as  it 
does,  to  the  discredit  of  the  teaching  of  Clirist  and 
of  the  Apostles,  inimical  to  common  morality  and 
offering  tiie  grave  possibility  of  becoming  tlangerous 
to  the  established  social  and  political  order,  it  is  not 
surprising  to  find  the  .\ntinomiaii  heresy  a  compar- 
atively rare  one  in  ecclesiiust ic.nl  history,  and,  as  a 
rule,  where  taught  at  all,  one  that  is  carefully  kept 


ANTIOCH 


567 


ANTIOOH 


in  the  background  or  ]>ractically  explained  away. 
There  are  few  who  would  care  to  assert  the  doctrine 
in  so  uneomproniising  a  form  as  that  which  Kobert 
Browning,  in  "Jolianncs  Agricola  in  Meditation", 
with  undoubted  accuracy,  iuscribes  to  the  Lutheran 
originator  of  the  heresy: — 

I  have  God's  warrant,  could  I  blend 

All  hideous  sins,  lus  in  a  cup, 
To  drink  the  niinsled  venoms  up; 

Secure  my  nature  would  convert 
The  drauglit  to  blossomiufc  gladness  fast: 

While  sweet  dews  turn  to  the  gourd's  hurt, 
And  bloat,  and  while  they  bloat  it,  blast, 

As  from  the  first  its  lot  was  cast. 

For  this  rea.san  it  is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to 
determine  with  any  degree  of  precision  how  far  cer- 
tain forms  and  offslioots  of  Calvinism,  Socinianism, 
or  even  Lutheranism,  may  not  be  .susceptible  of 
Antinomian  interpretations;  wliile  at  the  same  time 
it  must  be  remembered  that  many  sects  and  indi- 
viduals holding  opinions  dubiously,  or  even  indu- 
bitably, of  an  .\ntinomian  nature,  would  indignantly 
repudiate  any  direct  charge  of  teaching  that  evd 
works  and  immoral  actions  are  no  sins  in  tlie  ca.se 
of  justified  Christians.  The  shatles  and  gradations 
of  heresy  here  merge  insensibly  tlie  one  into  the 
other.  To  say  that  a  man  cannot  sin  because  he  is 
justified  is  very  much  the  same  tiling  as  to  state 
that  no  action,  whetlier  sinful  in  itself  or  not,  can 
be  imputed  to  the  justified  Christian  as  a  sin.  Nor 
is  the  doctrine  that  gooii  works  do  not  help  in  pro- 
moting the  sanctification  of  an  individual  far  re- 
moved from  the  teaching  that  evil  deeds  do  not 
interfere  with  it.  There  is  a  certain  logical  nexus 
between  these  three  forms  of  the  Protestant  doc- 
trine of  justification  that  would  .seem  to  have  its 
natural  outcome  in  the  assertion  of  .\ntinoniianisni. 
The  only  doctrine  that  is  conclusively  and  officially 
opposed  to  this  heresy,  as  well  as  to  those  forms  of 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  that  are 
so  closely  connected  with  it,  both  doctrinally  and 
historically,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Catholic  dogma 
of  Faith,  Justification,  and    Sanctification. 

DecreUi  Dngmatica  Concilii  Trideritini:  Sess.  VI;  Bellar- 
HlNi-:,  De  Jutlificfitione:  Jutlicium  de  Libra  Concordantice 
Lutheranorum;  Ai.zoo.  Church  History,  III:  Ligcori,  The  His- 
tory of  Iltrenea  (tr.  MuLl.ocil);  Formula  Concordia;  Elwkrt, 
De  Antinomid  J.  Attricotw  htebii;  Hagendach,  A  Tert  Book 
of  thf-  History  of  Doctrinefi;  Bell.  The  Wanderinga  of  the 
Human  Intellect;  Hull,  Opera;  Hall,  Remains;  Sanders. 
Sermons;  Rutherford.  A  Survey  of  the  Spiritual  Antichrist 
openina  the  secrets  of  Familisme  and  Antinomianisme  in  the 
Anti-cnrtstian  Doctrine  of  J.  Sattmarsh;  Gatakkr,  An  Anti- 
dole  af/ninst  Error  Conrerniny  Justification;  Antinomianism 
Discovered  and  Unmasked;  I^axter,  The  Scripture  Gospel 
defemied  .  ,  .  In  ttco  books  .  .  .  The  second  upon  the 
aiulden  reviving  of  Antinomianism;  Fletcher.  Four  Checks 
to  Anlinomianiam;  Cottle,  .In  Account  of  Plymouth  Anli- 
nomiana;  Teulon,  History  and  Teacliing  of  the  Plymouth 
Brethren;  Nelson,  A  Review  and  Analyaia  of  Bishop  Bulla 
Erpotition  .  .  .  of  JuatifUation. 

Francis  Avelino. 

Antioch  ('An-ioxf'a,  Antiochia) ,  TmeChitijch  of. — 
I.  Origin-  a.nd  Histoky  of  thk  City. — Of  the  vast 
empire  conquered  by  .Mexander  the  Great  many 
states  were  formed,  one  of  which  comprised  Syri.a 
and  other  countries  to  the  east  and  west  of  it.  This 
realm  fell  to  the  lot  of  one  of  the  conqueror's  gen- 
erals, Scleucus  Nicator,  or  Seleucus  I,  founder  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Seleucida?.  About  the  year  300  n.  c. 
he  founded  a  city  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Orontes, 
some  twenty  miles  from  the  Syrian  coast,  and  a  short 
distance  below  .^ntieonia,  the  capital  of  his  defeated 
rival  Antigonus.  The  city  which  was  named  An- 
tioch, from  Antiochus  the  father  of  Seleucus,  was 
meant  to  be  the  capital  of  the  new  realm.  It  was 
situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  .Mount  Silpius,  on 
an  agreeable  and  well-chosen  site,  and  stretched 
as  far  as  the  Oronte.s,  which  there  flows  from  east 
to   west.     It  grew  soon   to  large  proportions;  new 


quarters  or  suburbs  were  added  to  it,  so  that  ulti- 
mately it  consisted  of  four  towns  enclosed  by  as 
many  distinct  walls  and  by  a  common  rampart, 
which  with  the  citadel  reached  to  the  summit  of 
.Mount  Silpius.  When  Syria  was  made  a  Roman 
province  by  Pompey  (64  B.  c),  Antioch  continued 
to  be  the  metropolis  of  the  East.  It  also  Ixicaine  the 
residence  of  the  legates,  or  governors,  of  Syria.  In 
fact,  Antioch,  after  Rome  and  Alexandria,  was  the 
largest  city  of  the  empire,  with  a  [Jopulation  of  over 
half  a  million.  Whenever  the  emperors  came  to  the 
East  they  honoured  it  with  their  presence.  The 
Seleucida^  as  well  as  the  Roman  rulers  vied  with 
one  another  in  adorning  and  enriching  the  city  with 
statues,  theatres,  temples,  aqueducts,  public  baths, 
gardens,  fountains,  and  cascades;  a  broad  avenue 
with  four  rows  of  columas,  forming  covered  porticoes 
on  each  side,  traversed  the  city  from  east  to  west,  to 
the  length  of  several  miles.  Its  most  attractive 
pleasure  resort  Wiis  the  beautiful  grove  of  laurels  and 
cypres.ses  called  Daphne,  some  four  or  five  miles  to 
the  west  of  the  city.  It  was  renowned  for  its  park- 
like appearance,  for  its  magnificent  temple  of  .\i)ollo, 
and  ior  the  pompous  religious  festival  held  in  the 
month  of  Augu.st.  From  it  Antioch  was  .sometimcjs 
surnamed  Epidaphnes.  The  population  included  a 
great  variety  of  races.  There  were  Macedonians  and 
Greeks,  native  Syrians  and  Phoenicians,  Jews  and 
Romans,  besides  a  contingent  from  further  Asia; 
many  Hocked  there  because  Seleucus  had  given  to 
all  the  right  of  citizenship.  Nevertheless,  it  re- 
mained always  predominantly  a  Greek  city.  The 
inhabitants  did  not  enjoy  a  great  reputation  for 
learning  or  virtue;  they  were  excessively  devoted  to 
pleasure,  and  universally  known  for  their  witticisms 
and  sarcjism.  Not  a  few  of  their  peculiar  traits  have 
reached  us  through  the  sermons  of  St.  John  (.'hrj-s- 
ostom,  the  letters  of  Libanius,  the  "Mi.sopogon"  of 
Julian,  and  other  litcrarj'  sources.  Their  loyalty  to 
imperial  authority  could  not  always  Ix;  dependc<l 
upon.  In  spite  of  these  defects  there  was  at  all 
times  in  .\ntioch  a  certain  number  of  men,  especially 
in  the  Jewish  colony,  who  were  given  to  serious 
thoughts,  even  to  thoughts  of  religion.  After  the 
fifth  century  .\ntioch  lost  much  of  its  size  and  im- 
portance. It  was  visited  by  frequent  eartlKjuakes, 
by  not  less  than  ten  from  the  second  centuiy  B.  c. 
to  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian 
era.  Twice  it  was  captured  and  sacked  by  the  Per- 
sians, in  .\.  n.  260  and  .5-10.  On  the  latter  occasion  it 
was  almost  completely  destroyed,  but  was  rebuilt 
by  the  Emperor  Justinian  I  (.527-56.5)  on  a  much 
smaller  scale,  and  called  Theopolis.  It  is  .said  that 
no  small  portion  of  his  walls  remained  until  182.5.  a 
specimen  of  the  military  architecture  of  the  sixth 
century.  In  6.38  it  was  taken  by  the  .Mohammedans, 
was  restored  to  the  Byzantine  ICmpire  in  969,  and 
reconcpiered  by  the  Seljuks  in  1081.  From  1098 
until  1268  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Crusaders  and 
their  descendants;  the  Sultan  Bibars  of  Egj'pt  took 
it  in  1268;  and  in  1517  it  came  with  Syria  under  the 
Turkish  ICmpire.  The  former  populous  metropolis 
of  the  East  is  now  the  small  town  of  Antakia  witli 
about  20,000  inhabitants   (see  Aleppo). 

II.  Chkistianity  of  Antioch. — Since  the  city  of 
Antioch  was  a  great  centre  of  government  and  civili- 
zation, the  Christian  religion  spread  thither  almost 
from  the  beginning.  Nicohvs,  one  of  the  seven 
deacons  in  Jerusalem,  was  from  Antioch  (Acts,  vi,  5). 
The  seed  of  Christ's  teaching  was  carried  to  Antioch 
by  some  disciples  from  Cj'prus  and  Cyrene,  who  fled 
from  Jerusalem  during  the  persecution  that  followed 
upon  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen  (Acts,  xi,  19, 
20).  They  preached  the  teachings  of  Jesus,  not  only 
to  the  Jewish  colony  but  al.so  to  the  (ireeks  or  Gen- 
tiles, and  soon  large  nuinl>ers  were  converted.  The 
mother-church   of  Jerusalem   having   heard  of   the 


ANTIOCH 


568 


ANTIOCH 


occurrence  sent  Barnabas  thither,  who  called  Saul 
from  Tarsus  to  Antiocli  (ib.,  22,  25).  There  they 
laboured  for  a  whole  year  with  such  success  that  the 
followers  of  Christ  were  acknowledged  as  forming  a 
distinct  community,  "so  that  at  Antioch  the  disci- 
ples were  first  named  Christians"  (ib.,  26).  Their 
charity  was  exhibited  by  the  offerings  sent  to  the 
famine-stricken  brethren  in  Judea.  St.  Peter  him- 
self came  to  Antioch  (Gal.,  ii,  11),  probably  about 
the  year  44,  and  according  to  all  appearances  lived 
there  for  some  time  (see  Peter,  Saint).  The  com- 
munity of  Antioch,  being  composed  in  part  of  Greeks 
or  Gentiles,  had  views  of  its  own  on  the  character 
and  conditions  of  the  new  religion.  There  was  a 
faction  among  the  disci|)les  in  Jerusalem  which 
maintained  that  the  Gentile  converts  to  Chris- 
tianity should  pass  first  through  Judaism  by  sub- 
mitting to  the  observances  of  the  Mosaic  law,  such 
as  circumcision  and  the  like.  This  attitude  seemed 
to  close  the  gates  to  the  Gentiles,  and  was  strongly 
contested  by  the  Christians  of  Antioch.  Their  plea 
for  Christian  liberty  was  defended  by  their  leaders, 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  received  full  recognition  in 
the  Apostolic  Council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts,  xv,  22-32). 
Later  on  St.  Paul  defends  this  principle  at  Antioch 
even  in  the  face  of  Peter  (Gal.,  ii,  11).  Antioch  be- 
came soon  a  centre  of  missionary  propaganda.  It 
was  thence  that  St.  Paul  and  his  companions  started 
on  their  journey  for  the  conversion  of  the  nations. 
The  Church  of  Antioch  was  also  fully  organized 
almost  from  the  beginning.  It  was  one  of  the  few 
original  churches  which  preserved  complete  the  cata- 
logue of  its  bishops.  The  first  of  these  bishops, 
Evodius,  reaches  back  to  the  Apostolic  age.  At  a 
very  early  date  the  Christian  community  of  Antioch 
became  the  central  point  of  all  the  Christian  inter- 
ests in  the  East.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (,\.  d. 
70)  it  was  the  real  metropolis  of  Christianity  in  those 
countries. 

In  the  meantime  the  number  of  Christians  grew 
to  such  an  extent,  that  in  the  first  part  of  the  fourth 
century  Antioch  was  looked  upon  as  practically  a 
Christian  city.  Many  churches  were  erected  there 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  worshippers  of  Christ. 
In  the  fourth  century  there  was  still  a  basilica  called 
"the  ancient"  and  "  apostolic  ".  It  was  probably  one 
of  the  oldest  architectural  monuments  of  Christianity; 
an  ancient  tradition  maintained  that  it  was  originally 
the  house  of  Theophilus,  the  friend  of  St.  Luke 
(Acts,  i,  1).  There  were  also  sanctuaries  dedicated 
to  the  memory  of  the  great  Apostles  Peter,  Paul,  and 
John.  Saint  Augustine  speaks  (Sermo,  ccc,  n.  5)  of 
a  "basilica  of  the  holy  Machabees"  at  Antioch,  a 
famous  shrine  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixtli  century 
(Card.  Rampolla,  in  "  Bessarione",  Rome,  1S97- 
98,  I-II).  Among  the  pagan  temples  dedicated  to 
Christian  uses  was  the  celebrated  Temple  of  Fortune 
(Tycha;ion).  In  it  the  Christians  of  Antioch  en- 
shrined the  body  of  their  great  bishop  and  martyr 
Ignatius.  There  was  also  a  martyTinm  or  memorial 
shrine  of  Babylas,  a  third-century  martyr  and  bishop 
of  Antioch,  who  suffered  death  in  the  reign  of  De- 
cias.  For  the  development  of  Christian  domestic 
architecture  in  the  vicinity  of  tlie  great  city  see 
De  Voeii^,  "Architecture  civile  et  religieuse  de  la 
Syrie  Centrale"  (Paris,  1865-77),  and  the  similar 
work  of  Howard  Crosby  Butler  (New  York,  1903). 
The  very  important  monastic  architecture  of  the 
vicinity  will  be  described  under  Simeon  Stvlites 
and  Byzantine  Architectuue.  The  Emperor 
Constantine  (306-337)  built  a  church  there,  which 
he  adorned  so  riclily  that  it  was  the  admiration 
of  all  contemporaries  (St.  John  Chrys.,  "Hom.  in 
Ep.  ad  Eph.",  X,  2;  Eas.,  "Vita  Const.",  Ill,  50, 
and  "De  laud.  Const.",  c.  9).  It  was  completely 
pillaged,  but  not  destroyed,  by  Chosroes  in  540. 
The  Church  of  Antiocli  showed  itself  worthy  of  being 


the  metropolis  of  Christianity  in  the  East.  In  the 
ages  of  persecution  it  furnished  a  very  large  quota 
of  martyrs,  the  bishops  setting  the  example.  It  may 
suffice  to  mention  St.  Ignatius  (q.  v.)  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  century;  Asclepiades  under  Septi- 
inius  Severus  (193-211);  and  Babylas  under  Decius 
(249-251).  It  produced  also  a  number  of  great  men, 
who  either  in  writing  or  otherwise  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  service  of  Christianity.  The  let- 
ters of  the  afore-mentioned  St.  Ignatius  are  very 
famous.  Theophilus  (q.  v.)  wrote  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  second  century  an  elaborate  defence  and 
explanation  of  the  Christian  religion.  In  later  ages 
there  were  such  men  as  Flavian  (q.  v.),  who  did 
much  to  reunite  the  Christians  of  Antioch  divided 
by  the  Arian  disputes;  St.  John  Cluysostom  (q.  v.), 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  and  Theodoret, 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Cyrus  in  Syria.  Several  heresies 
took  their  rise  in  Antioch.  In  the  third  century 
IPaul  of  Samosata  (q.  v.),  Bishop  of  Antioch,  pro- 
fessed erroneous  doctrines.  Arianism  had  its  original 
root  not  in  Alexandria  but  in  the  great  Syrian  city, 
Antioch;  Nestorianism  sprang  from  it  through  Theo- 
dore of  Mopsuestia  (q.  v.)  and  Nestorius  (q.  v.)  of 
Constantinople.  A  peculiar  feature  of  Antiochene 
life  was  the  frequency  of  conflict  between  the  Jews 
and  the  Christians;  several  grievous  seditions  and 
massacres  are  noted  by  the  historians  from  the  end 
of  the  fourth  to  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century 
(Leclercq,  Diet,  d'arch.  et  de  liturg.  chr6t.,  I,  col. 
2396). 

III.  P.\triakchate  of  Antioch. — When  the  early 
organization  of  the  Church  was  developed,  the 
Church  of  Antioch,  owing  to  its  origin  and  influence, 
could  not  fail  to  become  a  centre  of  special  higher 
jurisdiction.  Traces  of  this  power  were  seen  in  the 
very  first  ages.  Towards  the  end  of  the  second 
century  Serapion  Bishop  of  Antioch  (q.  v.)  gave 
instructions  on  the  Apocryphal  Gospel  of  St.  Peter 
to  the  Christians  of  Rhossus,  a  town  not  of  Syria  but 
of  Cilicia.  Tradition  has  it  that  the  same  Serapion 
consecrated  the  third  Bishop  of  Edessa,  which  was 
then  outside  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  councils 
held  alwut  tlie  middle  of  the  third  century  in  Antioch 
called  together  bishops  from  Syria,  Palestine,  Arabia, 
and  the  provinces  of  Eastern  Asia  Minor.  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria  spoke  of  these  bishops  as  forming  the 
episcopate  of  the  Orient,  among  whose  members 
Demetrian  of  Antioch  was  mentioned   in  the  first 

Elace.  At  the  Council  of  Ancyra  (314)  presided  over 
y  Bishop  Vitalis  of  Antioch,  about  the  same  coun- 
tries were  represented  through  the  bishops  of  the 
principal  cities.  In  general,  the  Churches  in  the 
"East",  as  tliis  complexus  of  Roman  provinces  was 
known  (cf.  Oriens  Christianus),  gravitated  towards 
the  Church  of  Antioch,  whose  bishop  from  remote 
antiquity  exercised  a  certain  jurisdiction  over  them. 
This  custom  was  sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Nica?a 
(325).  The  Fathers  of  this  assembly  decreed  in  the 
sixth  canon  tliat  the  privileges  of  the  Church  of 
Antioch  should  be  maintained.  According  to  the 
second  canon  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (381) 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Antioch  comprised, 
and  was  restricted  to  the  civil  diocese  of  the  Orient 
(see  Roman  Empire)  which  included  all  the  eastern- 
most provinces  of  the  Kcmuin  Enipirc.  In  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ephe-sus  (431)  the  Bishojis  of  t*ypnis  were  de- 
clared independent  of  Antioch;  and  in  that  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  the  three  provinces  of  Palestine 
were  detached  from  Antioch  and  placed  under  the 
Bishop  of  Jerusalem  (see  Cyprus).  From  the  fore- 
going it  is  evident  that,  while  in  the  early  ages  the 
jurisdiction  of  Antioch  extended  over  the  Christian 
communities  in  the  countries  outside  the  Roman 
Empire,  its  proper  limits  were  Syria,  Palestine,  and 
F^astern  Asia  Minor.  Gradually  it  was  so  restricted 
that  by  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  it  was  con- 


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569 


ANTIOCH 


fined  to  the  northern  part  of  the  civil  diocese  of  the 
Orient  and  the  countries  outside  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. Tlie  title  given  to  the  Bishop  of  Antioch  on 
account  of  this  hicher  jurisdiction  was  that  of 
"Patriarch",  which  lie  held  in  conunoi  with  other 
dignitaries  of  a  similar  rank.  His  jurisdiction  could 
be  exercised  not  only  with  regard  to  the  faithful 
within  his  territory,  but  also  over  the  ordinary  and 
the  metropolitan  bishops  of  his  patriarchate.  It 
seems  worthy  of  mention  here  that  early  in  the  fourth 
century  the  Roman  Church  possessed  at  Antioch 
both  urban  and  rural  properties,  both  in  the  old  and 
the  "new"  parts  of  tlie  city,  and  even  in  the  Jewish 
quarter.  (Liber  Pontif. ,  ed.  Duchesne,  I,  177,  195; 
of.  cxlix  sq.)  The  patriarchate  of  Antioch  lost  much 
of  its  importance  after  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century 
owing  to  many  adverse  circumstances.  The  Bishops 
of  Constantino|ile  (ck  v.),  who  aspired  to  the  first 
rank  in  the  Eastern  Church,  acquired  gradually,  and 
long  niaintainod,  a  controlling  influence  over  the 
Church  of  Antioch.  In  tlie  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century  tlie  Monophysites,  under  Peter  Fullo,  en- 
deavoured to  take  possession  of  the  patriarclial  see. 
After  the  death  of  their  leader  Severus  (53!))  they 
elected  their  own  patriarchs  of  .\ntioch.  During 
the  centuries  that  followed  the  con(juest  of  .Antioch 
by  the  Saracens  (G38),  the  succession  of  orthodox 
incumbents  of  the  patriarchal  see  was  irregular, 
and  they  had  to  suffer  much  from  the  new  conquer- 
ors of  the  city,  who  showed  a  markeil  preference  for 
the  Monopliysite  patriarchs  (see  Moha.mmkdanism). 
When  tlie  Greek  scliisin  (q.  v.;  was  consuniniateU  in 
the  eleventh  century,  the  orthodox  patriarchate  of 
Antioch,  owing  to  traditional  Byzantine  influence,  was 
drawn  into  it,  and  remained  schismatic  despite  re- 
peated efforts  of  the  Apostolic  See  for  a  reunion. 
At  present  the  Clreek  patriarch  resides  in  Damascus, 
the  city  of  Antioch  having  long  since  lost  all  political 
importance.  It  was  not  only  the  Monophysites  who 
dismembered  thus  early  the  (jatriarchate  of  Antioch. 
The  Nestorians  who  emigrated  into  Persia  after  their 
condemnation  at  Epliesus  (431)  soon  became  so 
strong  that  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  their 
bishop,  Baba-us  of  Selcucia,  made  himself  independ- 
ent of  Antioch,  and  established  a  new  patriarchate 
with  its  centre  in  .Seleucia,  afterwards  in  Bagdad. 
Those  SjTians  who  remained  united  with  Rome  (now- 
known  as  the  Chaldanins)  continued  to  acknowledge 
a  patriarch  of  their  own.  He  is  called  Patriarch  of 
Babylonia  and  lives  in  Mosul.  Among  the  other 
oriental  communities  united  with  Rome  there  are 
three  which  have  all  their  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  viz. 
the  Maronites,  the  Melchites,  and  the  Catholic 
Syrians  (see  Greek  Church,  Uni.\t). 

IV.  Latin-  Patriarchate  of  Antioch. — When 
the  crusaders  stook  possession  of  Antioch  in  1098, 
they  reinstated  at  first  the  Greek  patriarch,  then 
John  IV.  About  two  years  aftenvards  the  said 
dignitary  found  that  he  was  unfitted  to  rule  over 
Western  Christians,  and  withdrew  to  Constantinople. 
Thereupon  the  Latin  Christians  elected  (1100)  a 
patriarch  of  their  own,  an  ecclesiastic  by  the  name 
of  Bernard  who  had  come  to  the  Orient  with  the 
crusaders.  From  that  time  Antioch  had  its  Latin 
patriarchs,  until  in  1268  Christian,  the  last  incum- 
bent, was  put  to  death  by  the  Sultan  Bibars,  during 
the  conquest  of  the  city.  The  Greeks  al.so  continued 
to  choo.se  their  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  but  these  lived 

fenerally  in  Constantinople.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
,atin  patriarchs  in  Antioch  extcntled  over  the  three 
feudal  principalities  of  Antioch,  Ede.ssa,  and  Tripolis. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  island  of 
Cyprus  was  added.  In  practice  they  were  far  more 
dependent  upon  the  popes  than  their  predecessors, 
the  Greek  patriarchs.  After  the  fall  of  Antioch 
(1268)  the  popes  still  appointed  patriarchs,  who, 
however,  were  unable  to  take  possession  of  the  sec. 


Since  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  they  have 
been  only  titular  dignitaries.  The  title  of  Latin 
Patriarch  of  Antioch  is  yet  conferred;  but  the  re- 
cipient resides  in  Rome  and  is  a  member  of  the  chai>- 
ter  of  the  basilica  of  St.  Mary  Major. 

V.  Syxods  op  Antioch. — Owing  to  the  special 
position  of  Antioch  many  synods  were  held  there. 
A  belief,  that  some  find  expressed  for  the  first  time 
by  Pope  Innocent  I  (407-117;  .Mansi,  Cone,  III,  1055) 
but  that  others  locate  about  7.S7  (Ilerder,  K.  L.,  I, 
112),  was  current  in  the  past  that  the  Apostles  held 
a  council  in  .\ntioch  (see  Cano.ns,  Apo.stolic).  \Ve 
are  informed  by  this  text  (Pitra,  Jur.  Eccl.  Gr. 
Hist.,  I,  90-93)  that  the  name  of  Christians  was 
formally  assigned  to  the  followers  of  the  Saviour  by 
the  Apostles,  and  that  s|»cial  instructions  were  given 
to  the  Apostolic  missionaries  and  to  their  converts. 
These  canons,  according  to  Cardinal  HergenriJther 
(Herder,  K.  L.,  1.  c),  are  apocryphal,  "a  mere  com- 
pilation from  the  data  of  the  (canonical)  Acts  and 
from  other  writers".  About  the  year  251  a  council 
was  held,  or  i)laniied  to  be  held,  at  Antioch,  on  the 
subject  of  rsovatianisni  (q.  v.)  to  which  Kabius, 
Bishop  of  Antioch,  was  inclined.  The  bishops 
chiefly  interested  in  it,  apart  from  Fabius,  were 
Helenus  of  Tarsus,  Firmilian  of  Cipsarea  in  Cappa- 
docia,  and  Theocritus  of  Ca-sarea  in  Palestine,  who 
invited  ahso  Dionysius  of  Alexandria.  The  matter 
had  no  further  con.se(iuence,  since  Fabius  died 
shortly  afterwards  and  wa.s  succeeded  by  Denietrian, 
whose  views  on  the  reconciliation  of  the  apostates 
were  less  extreme.  Between  the  years  264  and  208 
three  different  synods  were  held  on  account  of  erro- 
neous doctrines  on  the  nature  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
His  relation  to  God,  attributed  to  Paul,  Bishop  of 
Antioch,  and  a  native  of  Samosata.  Bishops  from 
Syria,  Palestine,  Arabia,  Cilicia,  Cappadocia,  Pontus, 
and  Lycaonia  took  part  in  these  deliberations. 
Finally,  in  the  third  synod,  they  deposed  Paul,  con- 
victed him  of  heresy,  and  elected  Domnus  in  his 
place.  Under  the  protection  of  the  Princess  Zenobia 
of  Palmyra,  Paul  was  able  to  maintain  himself  for 
some  time.  He  was  expelled  in  the  end  (272)  by  a 
decree  of  the  Emperor  Aurelian  (270-275). 

Mo.st  of  the  .synods  held  during  the  fourth  century 
reflected  the  struggles  that  followed  upon  the  Arian 
controversy.  The  council  of  330  deposed  the  ortho- 
dox Eustatliius,  Bishop  of  Antioch;  and  for  a  long  time 
the  .see  was  in  pos.se.ssion  of  the  Arians.  In  the  coun- 
cil held  in  340  Athanasius  of  Alexandria  was  deposed, 
and  a  certain  Greeorj-,  from  Cappadocia,  was  conse- 
crated in  his  .stcacT  The  intruder  could  take  pos.ses- 
sion  of  his  see  only  under  a  military  escort.  The 
deposition  of  Athanasius  was  ratified  in  the  sjniod 
of  the  foUowiiiE  year  (341),  which  was  held  on  the 
occasion  of  the  dedication  of  the  "great",  or  "golden" 
church  mentioned  above  as  built  by  Constantine. 
The  twenty-five  disciplinarj'  canons  passed  by  this 
council  were  afterwards  received  by  the  universal 
Church.  The  four  creeds  adopted,  though  not 
heretical,  still  depart  from  the  symbol  of  faith  made 
at  Nica-a.  Several  other  synods  were  held  in  quick 
succession.  In  that  of  344  the  Arian  bishop,  Stephen 
of  Antioch,  was  deposed  for  misconduct.  In  the 
symlx>l  of  faith  adopted  by  this  council  the  Semi-.\rian 
views  found  expression;  at  the  same  time  it  was  di- 
rected against  the  Arians,  the  Sabellians,  but  also 
against  St.  Athanasius.  The  synods  of  358,  361,  and 
362  revealed  and  asserted  the  predominance  of  the 
Arians.  The  Bishop  Eudoxius  condemned  both  the 
orthodox  and  the  .Semi-Arian  views.  A  new  bishop 
was  elected  in  the  person  of  Meletius,  who  was  thought 
by  many  to  be  on  the  side  of  Arianism,  and  the  .\rians 
proclaimed  their  loyalty  to  the  party  in  spite  of 
defections.  At  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Jovian 
(.363)  a  council  was  held  in  Antioch,  at  which  the 
bishops  agreed  to  the  Nicene  faith,  though  they  added 


ANTIOCH 


570 


ANTIOCH 


at  the  end  a  Semi-Arian  declaration.  At  last,  in  378, 
a  large  number  of  Oriental  bishops,  assembled  in 
Antioch,  broke  with  Arianism  altogether.  They 
gave  their  assent  to  the  Nieene  faith  as  it  had  been 
expressed  by  Pope  Damasus  (q.  v.)  and  a  Roman 
synod  in  369;  viz.,  that  the  Father,  and  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost  were  one  substance.  The  synod  held 
in  388  forbade  any  revenge  for  the  death  of  a  bishop 
killed  by  the  heathens;  another  sj-nod  held  in  390 
condemned  the  sect  of  the  Messalians.  The  synods 
of  the  fifth  and  si.xth  centuries  were  usually  concerned 
with  the  theological  controversies  of  the  time.  Thus 
the  council  of  424  decreed  the  expulsion  of  Pelagius 
from  the  city.  Phases  of  tlie  Nestorian  and  Mono- 
physite  controversies  were  dealt  with  in  the  synods 
of  432,447,  451,  471,478,  481,  482,  508,  512,565. 
A  synod  of  the  year  445  rendered  a  decision  in  the 
matter  of  Athanasius,  Bishop  of  Perrha,  accused  of 
misconduct  and  brought  before  the  patriarch  of 
Antioch.  Finalljs  a  synod  held  about  the  year  542 
was  caused  by  the  Origenistic  controversies  in  Pales- 
tine. During  the  period  of  Latin  domination  two 
synods  were  held  at  Antioch.  In  1139  Radulf,  the 
second  Latin  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  was  deposed  for 
having  aspired  to  complete  independence  from  Rome, 
and  for  cruel  treatment  inflicted  on  some  ecclesiastics. 
In  1204  the  Cardinal-Ijegate  Peter  decided  certain 
claims  on  the  principality  of  Antioch  in  fa\'our  of  the 
Count  of  Tripolis,  against  Armenia,  which  was  placed 
under  interdict.  Ecclesiastical  life  in  Antioch  be- 
came all  but  extinct  from  the  time  that  the  city  was 
permanently  taken   by   the   Mohammedans. 

MoMMsEN,  Romiache  Geschichle,  (Berlin,  18S6)  V;  Renan, 
Lea  apolres  (Paris,  1894);  St.  Paid  (Paris,  ISQa);  Abbe 
FoDARD,  Sai7it  Peter  (Eng.  tr.,  New  York,  1892);  Saint  Paul 
(Eng.  tr„  New  York,  1899);  Dollinger,  Christenthum  nnd 
Kirche  (Ratiabon,  1868);  J.  M.  Neale,  The  Patriarchate 
of  Antioch  (posthumous  continuation  of  his  Holy  Eastern 
Church)  (London,  1873);  Treppner,  Das  Patriarchal  von  An- 
tiochien  (Freiburg,  1891);  Stipter,  The  Church  of  Antioch  in 
BMiotheca  Sacra  (1900),  LVII,  (i45-659;  S.  VAn,HE,  L'ancien 
patriarchat  d'Antioche,  in  Echoa  d'Orient,  1899,  216-227; 
C.  Diehi.,  Juslinien  et  la  civilisation  byzantine  au  _  V'/« 
allele  (Paris,  1901);  Harnack,  Mission  und  Ausbreitung 
des  Chrislenthuma  (Leipzig,  1902);  Duchesne,  Hiatoire  an- 
cienne  de  Vcglise  (Pans,  1906);  Idem^  Christian  Worship, 
(Eng.  tr.  London,  1904);  Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Christian 
Church  (London,  1710)  I;  Thomassin,  Discipline  de  I'eglise 
(Bar-le-Duc,  1864)  I;  Binterim,  Denkwurdigkeiten  (Mainz, 
1838)  III;  Philipps,  Kirchenrecht  (Ratisbon,  1857)  II; 
Hefele,  Conciliengesch.  (2d  ed..  Freiburg,  1886)  1. — The 
profane  antiquities  of  Antioch  are  described  in  the  classic 
work  of  Ottfried  Muller,  Antiquitates  Antiochence  (Gottin- 
gen,  1839).  Cf.  R.  Forster,  Antiochi^  am  Orontes  in  Jahrb. 
d.  kaiser,  deulsch.  Inst.  (1897)  XII,  103,  sq..  and  Damiani, 
Antioch  During  the  Crusades,  in  Architologia  (1806)  XV,  234- 
263;  also  Rey,  Recherchea  hiat.  et  geogr.  sur  la  domination  dea 
Latins  en  Orient  (Paris,  1877).  The  medieval  ecclesiastical 
antiquities  of  the  patriarchate  are  dealt  with  in  two  im- 
portant works:  Assemani,  Bihliotheca  Orientalia  etc.  (Rome, 
1719-28),  and  Lequien,  Oriena  Christianus  (Paris,  1740); 
cf.  Streber,  Antiochien  in  Kirchenlex.,  I,  941-962,  and 
Leci.ercq  in  Diet,  d'arch.  et  de  liturg.  chret.,  I,  coll.  2359- 
2427.  Extensive  bibliographies  are  given  in  the  latter  work 
(coll.  2425-26)  and  in  Chevalier,  Rep.  dea  sources  hist.  (Topo- 
Bibl.),  I,  168-170. 

Francis  Schaefer. 

Antioch,  of  Syria. — It  is  difficult  to  realize  that 
in  the  modern  Antakieh  (28,000  inhab.),  we  have 
the  once  famous  "Queen  of  the  East",  which,  with 
its  population  of  more  than  half  a  million,  its  beau- 
tiful site,  its  trade  and  culture,  and  its  important 
military  position,  was  a  not  unworthy  rival  of  Alex- 
andria, the  second  city  of  the  Roman  empire  (cf. 
Josephus,  Bel.  Jud.,  Ill,  2,  4).  Founded  in  300  B.  c. 
by  Seleucus  I  (Nicator),  King  of  Syria,  Antioch  stood 
on  the  Orontes  (Nahrel  Asi),at  the  point  of  junction  of 
the  Lebanon  and  of  the  Taurus  ranges.  Its  harbour, 
fifteen  miles  distant,  was  Seleucia  (cf.  Acts,  xiii,  4). 
The  name  by  which  it  was  distinguished  ['Ai^wxta 
11  Tpis  (or  ^irl)  Ad(pyia,  now,  liet  el  ma,  five  miles  west 
from  Antioch]  came  from  the  ill-famed  sacred 
grove,  which,  endowed  with  the  right  of  asylum, 
and  .so  once,  by  "a  rare  chance",  the  refuge  of  inno- 
cence (cf.  II  Mach.,  iv,  33  sq.),  had  become  the  haunt 


of  every  foulness,  w-hence  the  expression  Daphnici 
mores.  However,  the  vivid  description  of  Antioch's 
immorality,  largely  the  result  of  the  greater  mingling 
of  races  and  civilizations,  may  be  exaggerated;  as 
said  in  another  connexion  [cf.  Lepin,  Jesus  Messie, 
etc.  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1905),  54,  note],  les  brave■^!  gens 
n'oni  pasd'histoire,  a.nd  of  that  class  there  must  have 
been  a  goodly  number  (Josephus,  Bel.  Jud.,  VII,  33; 
Acts,  xi,  21).  The  Jews  had  been  among  the  original 
settlers,  and,  as  such,  had  been  granted  by  the 
founder  here,  as  in  other  cities  built  by  him,  equal 
rights  with  the  Macedonians  and  the  Greeks  (.Jos. 
Ant.,  XII,  iii,  1;  Contra  Ap.,  II,  iv).  The  influence 
of  the  Antiochene  Jews,  li^■ing,  as  in  Alexandria,  under 
a  go\'ernor  of  their  ov.i\,  and  forming  a  large  percent- 
age of  the  population,  was  very  great  (Josephus,  Ant. 
Rom.,  XII,  iii,  1;  Bel.  Jud.,  VH,  iii,  3,  VII,  v,  2; 
Harnack,  Mission  u.  Ausbreitung  d.  Christenthums, 
p.  5,  note  2).  Unknown  disciples,  dispersed  by  the 
persecution  in  which  Stephen  was  put  to  death, 
brought  Christianity  to  Antioch  (Acts,  xi,  19). Cf.  Acts, 
vi ,  5,  w  here  the  author  characteristically  mentions  the 

Flace  of  origin  of  Nicholas,  one  of  the  seven  djacons. 
n  Antioch  the  new  Faith  was  preached  to,  and  ac- 
cepted by  the  Greeks  with  such  success  that  Chris- 
tianity received  here  its  name,  perhaps  originally  in- 
tended as  a  nickname  by  the  witty  Antiochenes  (Acts, 
xi,  26).  The  new  community,  once  acknowledged  by 
the  mother-church  of  Jerusalem  (Acts,  xi,  22  sq.) ,  soon 
manifested  its  vitality  and  its  intelligence  of  the 
faith  by  its  spontaneous  act  of  generosity  toward  the 
brethren  of  Jerusalem  (Acts,  xi,  27-30).  The  place 
of  apprenticeship  of  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
(Acts,  .xi,  26),  Antioch,  became  the  headquarters  of 
the  great  missionaries  Paul  and  Barnabas,  first  to- 
gether, later  Paul  alone.  Starting  thence  on  their 
Apostolic  journeys  they  brought  back  thither  the  re- 
port of  their  work  (Acts,  xiii,  2  sq.;  xiv,  25-27; 
XV,  35  sq.;  xviii,  22,  23).  Acts,  xv  (cf.  Gal.,  ii,  1-10) 
clearly  evidences  the  importance  of  the  Antiochene 
Church.  There  arose  the  great  dispute  concerning 
the  circumcision,  and  her  resolute  action  occasioned 
the  recognition  of  the  "catholicity"  of  Christianity. 
II.  Antioch  of  Pisidia. — Like  its  Syrian  name- 
sake, it  was  founded  by  .Seleucus  Nicator  situated 
on  the  Sebaste  road.  Tliis  road  left  the  high- 
road from  Ephesus  to  the  East  at  Apamea,  went 
to  Iconium  and  then  southeast  through  the  Cilician 
Gates  to  SjTia  (cf.  Acts,  xviii,  23).  The  city  lay  south 
of  the  Sultan  Dagh,  on  the  confines  of  Pisidia,  whence 
its  name  of  "  Antioch-towards-Pisidia"  (Strabo,  XII, 
8).  Definitively  a  Roman  possession  since  Amytas's 
death  (25  B.  c),  Augustus  had  made  it  (6  B.  c.)  a 
colony,  with  a  view  to  checking  the  brigands  of  the 
Taurus  mountains  (II  Cor.,  xi,  26).  Beside  it«  Ro- 
man inhabitants  and  older  Greek  and  Phrygian  pop- 
ulation, Antioch  had  a  prosperous  Jewish  colony 
whose  origin  probably  went  back  to  Antiochus  the 
Great  (223-178  b.  c.)  (cf.  Josephus,  Ant.,  XII,  iii,  3 
sq.),  and  whose  influence  seems  to  have  been  con- 
siderable (cf.  Acts,  -xiii,  45,  50;  xiv,  20  sq.;  Harnack, 
"Die  Mission",  etc.,  p.  2,  note  2  and  ref.).  Acts, 
xiii,  14-52  describes  at  length  the  sojourn  of  St.  Paul 
at  Antioch.  The  epi.sode,  clearly  important  to  the 
writer,  has  been  justly  compared  to  Luke,  iv,  16- 
30;  it  is  a  kind  of  programme-scene  where  Paul's 
Gospel  is  outlined.  A  longer  stay  of  the  mission- 
aries is  implied  in  Acts,  xiii,  49.  On  his  return  from 
Derbe,  St.  Pavil  revisited  Antioch  (Acts,  xiv,  20). 
Two  other  visits  seem  implied  in  Acts,  xvi,  4,  6; 
xviii,  23. 

Blas8,  H.  Wendt,  Holtzmann,  Knowlino,  Knaben- 
baueh,  Rackham,  Knopf,  Com.  on  ^cto;STRABO  (Paris,  1880), 
477-487-494,  638-639.  The  lives  of  St.  Paul,  or  works  on 
the  Apostles  by  Convkeaiie  and  Howson,  Farrar;  Ramsay, 
St.  Paul  the  Traveller  (New  York,  1903),  40-69;  FoUARn,  Le 
Camus,  Clemen  (Giessen,  1904),  II,  126;  Semeria,  Venti- 
rinque  anni  di  atoria  del  criatiani»mo  nascente  (Itome,  1905), 
292  sqq.;  Badeker-Benzinoer,  PaUiatina  u.  Syrien  (6th  ed., 


ANTIOCHENE 


571 


ANTIOCHENE 


LeipziK.  1004X  340-340;  Smith.  Hitt.  Gtoo.oi  the  Holy  Land 
(New  York.  1900),  37.  4(1,  (i47;  DuniKSNK,  nitloire  ancimne 
dr  t'egtuie;  SciliKEK,  The  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesiu 
Chriat;  Harnack.  Die  Misaion  u.  Ausbreituno  des  Christen- 
thumg   in  den   eraten   drei  Jahrhunderten  (l^ipsig,    1902). 

Edwaud  AnuEZ. 

Antiochene  Liturgy.  —  I'lio  family  of  liturgio.s 
oriKiiially  used  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Alitiocli  bcgiii.s 
Willi  tlia't  of  tlio  .Vpostolir  Coiistitutioas;  tlieii  follow 
that  of  St.  James  in  (Ireek.  the  Syrian  Liturpy  of 
St.  James,  and  the  other  Syrian  Aiuiplumis:  The  line 
may  be  further  continued  to  the  Byzantine  Kite  (the 
older  I.ittirgj'  of  St.  Basil  and  the  later  and  shorter 
one  of  St.  John  Chrj'sostom),  and  throiiph  it  to  the 
Armenian  use.  But  the.se  no  longer  concern  the 
Church  of  Aiitioch.  I.  The  Liluniii  of  Ihe  Ajiostolic 
Constitnlioiix. — The  oldest  known  form  that  can  be 
de.scribed  as  a  complete  liturgj'  is  that  of  the  Apos- 
tolic ConstitutioiLs.  It  is  also  the  first  member  of 
the  line  of  Antiochene  uses.  The  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions (q.  V.)  consist  of  eight  books  purporting  to 
have  been  written  by  St.  Clement  of  Rome  (died 
c.  104).  The  first  six  books  are  an  interpolated  edi- 
tion of  the  Didiiscalia  ("Teaching  of  the  Lord's 
Apostles  and  Disciples",  written  in  the  first  half  of 
the  third  century  and  since  edited  in  a  Syriac  version 
by  de  Lagarde,  lS.>t);  the  seventh  book  is  an  equally 
modified  version  of  the  Didnchc  (Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  probably  written  in  the  first  cen- 
tury, and  found  by  Philotheos  Bryennios  in  1SS3) 
with  a  collection  of  prayers.  The  eighth  took  con- 
tains a  complete  liturgy  aufl  the  eighty-five  "Apos- 
tolic Canons".  There  is  also  part  of  a  liturgy  modified 
from  the  Didascalia  in  the  second  book.  It  has  I»cn 
suggested  that  the  compiler  of  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions may  be  the  same  person  as  the  author  of 
the  six  spurious  letters  of  St.  Ignatius  (Pseudo- 
Ignatius).  In  any  case  he  was  a  Syrian  Christian, 
probably  an  ApoUinarist,  living  in  or  near  Antioch 
either  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  centurj'.  And  the  liturg\'  that  he  describes  in 
his  eighth  book  is  that  used  in  Iiis  time  by  the  Church 
of  Antioch,  with  certain  modifications  of  his  own. 
That  the  WTiter  was  an  .\ntiochene  Syrian  and  that 
he  describes  the  liturgical  use  of  his  own  country  is 
shown  by  various  details,  such  as  the  precedence 
given  to  Antioch  (VII.  xlvi,  VIII,  x,  etc.);  his  men- 
tion of  Christmas  (VIII,  xxxiii),  which  was  kept  at 
Antioch  since  about  37.5,  nowhere  else  in  the  East 
till  about  130  (Duchesne,  Origines  du  ciiltc  clir(?tien, 
248);  the  fact  that  Holy  Week  and  Ixnt  together 
make  up  seven  weeks  (V,  xiii)  sis  at  Antioch,  whereas 
in  Palestine  ami  Egypt,  sis  throughout  the  West, 
Holy  Week  was  the  sixth  week  of  I>cnt;  that  the 
chief  source  of  his  "Apostolic  Canons''  is  the  Synod 
of  Antioch  in  enaeniis  (341);  and  especially  by  the 
fact  that  his  liturgy  is  obviously  built  up  on  the  saine 
lines  as  all  the  Syrian  ones.  There  are,  however, 
modifications  of  his  own  in  the  prayers.  Creed,  atui 
Gloria,  where  the  style  and  the  idioms  are  ob\iously 
those  of  the  interpolator  of  the  Didascalia  (see  the 
examples  in  Bright  man,  "  Liturgies",  I.  xxxiii-xxxiv), 
and  are  often  verj'  like  those  of  Pseudo-Ignatius  also 
(ib.,  xxxv).  The  rubrics  are  added  by  the  compiler, 
apparently  from  his  own  observations. 

The  liturgy  of  the  eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  then,  represents  the  use  of  Antioch 
in  the  fourth  century.  Its  order  is  this:  First  comes 
the  "  Mass  of  the  Catechumens".  After  the  readings 
(of  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  the  Epistles,  Acts,  and 
Gospels)  the  bishop  greets  the  people  with  II  Cor., 
xiii,  L3  (The  grace  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  the 
charity  of  fiod  and  the  communication  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  be  with  vou  all).  They  answer:  "And  with 
thy  spirit";  and  he  "speaks  to  the  [X^ople  words  of 
comfort."  There  then  follows  a  litany  for  the 
catechumens,  to  each  invocation  of  which  the  people 
answer  "Kyrie  eleison";  the  bishop  says  a  collect  and 


the  deacon  dismisses  the  catechumens.  Similar 
litanies  and  collects  follow  for  the  Energumens,  the 
Illuininandi  (■^unfi^ti/oi,  [leople  alx)ut  to  Iw  baj)- 
tized)  and  the  public  j)eiiitents,  and  each  time  they 
are  <lismis.sed  after  the  collect  for  them.  The  "Mass 
of  the  Faithful"  begins  with  a  longer  litany  for  vari- 
ous causes,  for  peace,  the  Church,  bishops  (James, 
Clement,  Evodius,  and  Annianus  are  named),  priests, 
deacons,  servers,  readers,  singers,  virgins,  widows, 
orphans,  married  i«"oi)le,  the  newly  bai)ti/ed,  prison- 
ers, enemies,  persecutors,  etc.,  and  finally  "for  every 
Christian  .soul".  .A.fter  the  litany  follows  its  collect, 
then  another  greeting  from  the  bishop  and  the  kiss 
of  peace.  Before  the  Offertory  the  deacons  stand  at 
the  men's  doors  and  the  subdeacons  at  those  of  the 
women  "that  no  one  may  go  out,  nor  the  door  be 
opened",  and  the  deacon  again  warns  all  catechumens, 
infidels,  and  heretics  to  retire,  the  mothers  to  look 
after  their  children,  no  one  to  stay  in  hypocri.sy,  and 
all  to  stand  in  fear  anil  trembling.  The  deacons  bring 
the  offerings  to  the  bishop  at  the  altar.  The  priests 
stand  around,  two  deacons  wave  fans  (^iirioio)  over 
the  bread  and  wine  and  the  Anaphora  (canon) 
begins.  The  bishop  again  greets  the  people  with  the 
words  of  II  Cor.,  xiii,  13,  and  they  answer  as  before: 
"And  with  thy  spirit".  He  says:  "Lift  up  your 
mind."  R.  "We  have  it  to  the  Lord."  ■>^.  "Let  us 
thank  the  Lord."  R.  "Uiglit  and  just."  He  takes 
up  their  word:  "It  is  truly  right  and  above  all  just 
to  sing  to  Thee,  Who  art  truly  God,  existing  before  all 
creatures,  from  Whom  all  fatherhood  in  heaven  and 
on  earth  is  named.  ..."  and  so  the  Eucharistic 
prayer  begins.  He  speaks  of  the  "only  begotten 
Son,  the  Word  and  C!od,  Saving  Wisdom,  first  born 
of  all  creatures.  Angel  of  thy  great  counsel",  refers 
at  some  length  to  the  garden  of  Eden,  Abel,  Henoch, 
Abraham,  .NIelchisedech,  Jol>,  and  other  saints  of  the 
Old  Law.  When  he  has  .said  the  words:  "the  num- 
berless army  of  Angels  .  .  .  the  Cherubim  and  six- 
winged  Seraphim  .  .  .  together  with  thousands  of 
thousand  Archangels  and  myriad  myriads  of  Angels 
unceasingly  and  without  silence  cry  out",  "all  the 
people  together  say:  'Holy,  holy,  holy  the  Lord  of 
Hosts,  the  heaven  and  earth  are  full  of  His  glory, 
blessed  forever,  Amen.'"  The  bishop  then  again 
takes  up  the  word  and  continues:  "Thou  art  truly 
holy  and  all-holy,  highest  and  most  exalted  for  ever. 
And  thine  only-begotten  Son,  our  Lord  and  God 
Jesus  Christ,  is  lioly  .  .  .";  and  so  he  comes  to  the 
words  of  Institution:  "in  the  night  in  which  He  was 
betrayed,  taking  bread  in  His  holy  and  blameless 
hands  and  looking  up  to  Thee,  His  God  and  Father, 
and  breaking  He  gave  to  His  disciples  saying:  This  is 
the  Mystery  of  the  New  Testament;  take  of  it,  eat. 
This  is  My  body,  broken  for  many  for  the  remission 
of  sins.  So  also  Iiaving  mixed  the  cup  of  wine  and 
water,  and  having  blessed  it,  Hegave  to  them  saying: 
Drink  you  all  of  this.  This  is  My  blood  sheii  for 
many  for  the  remission  of  sins.  Do  this  in  memorv 
of  Me.  For  as  often  as  you  eat  this  bread  and  drink 
this  cup,  you  announce  My  death  until  I  come." 

Then  follow  the  Anamimne.sds  ("Remembering 
therefore  His  suffering  and  death  and  resurrection 
and  return  to  heaven  and  His  future  second  com- 
ing .  .  ."),  Ihe  EpiUksis  or  invocation  ("send- 
ing Thy  Holy  Spirit,  the  witness  of  the  sufferings  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  to  this  s;»crifice,  that  He  mav  change 
this  bread  to  the  bodv  of  thy  Christ  and  this  cup  to 
the  blood  of  thy  Christ  .  .  ."),  and  a  sort  of  litany 
(the  great  Intercession)  for  the  Church,  clergy,  the 
Emperor,  and  for  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men, 
which  ends  with  a  doxology,  "and  all  the  people  say; 
Amen."  In  this  litany  is  a  curious  jietition  (after 
that  for  the  Emperor  and  the  army)  which  joins  the 
saints  to  living  people  for  whom  the  bishop  prays: 
"We  al.so  offer  to  thee  for  (inrip)  all  thy  holy  and 
eternally    well-pleasing    patriarclis,    jjrophets.    just 


ANTIOCHENE 


572 


ANTIOCHENE 


apostles,  martjTs,  confessors,  bishops,  priests,  dea- 
cons, subdeacons,  readers,  singers,  virgins,  widows, 
laymen,  and  all  those  whose  names  thou  knowest." 
After  the  Kiss  of  Peace  (The  peace  of  God  be  with 
you  all)  the  deacon  calls  upon  the  people  to  pray 
for  various  causes  whicli  are  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  the  bishop's  litany  and  the  bishop  gathers  up  their 
prayers  in  a  collect.  He  then  shows  them  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  saying:  "Holy  things  for  the  holy"  and 
they  answer:  ""One  is  holy,  one  is  Lord,  Jesus  Christ 
in  the  glory  of  God  the  Father,  etc."  The  bishop 
gives  the  people  Holy  Commimion  in  the  form  of 
bread,  saying  to  each:  "The  body  of  Christ",  and 
the  communicant  "  answers  Amen".  The  deacon  fol- 
lows with  the  chaHce,  saying:  "The  blood  of  Christ, 
chalice  of  life."  R.  "Amen."  While  they  receive, 
the  x.xxiii  Psalm  (I  will  bless  the  Lord  at  all  times) 
is  said.  After  Comm\inion  the  deacons  take  what  is 
left  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the  tabernacles 
(ira<rTo06^ia).  There  follows  a  short  thanksgiving, 
the  bishop  dismi.sses  the  people  and  the  deacon  ends 
by  saying:  "Go  in  peace." 

Throughout  this  liturgy  the  compiler  supposes  that 
it  was  drawn  up  by  the  Apostles  and  he  inserts  sen- 
tences telling  us  which  Apostle  composed  each 
separate  part,  for  instance:  "And  I,  James,  brother 
of  John  the  son  of  Zebedee,  say  that  the  deacon  shall 
say  at  once:  '  No  one  of  the  catechumens,'  "  etc.  The 
second  book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  contains 
the  outline  of  a  liturgy  (hardly  more  than  the  rubrics) 
which  practically  coincides  with  this  one.  All  the 
liturgies  of  the  Antiochene  class  follow  the  same 
general  arrangement  as  that  of  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions. Gradually  the  preparation  of  the  obla- 
tion (Prothcsis,  the  word  also  used  for  the  credence 
table),  before  the  actual  liturgy  begins,  de\'elops 
into  an  elaborate  service.  The  preparation  for  the 
lessons  (the  little  Entrance)  and  the  carrying  of  the 
oblation  from  the  Protliesis  to  the  altar  (the  great 
Entrance)  become  solemn  processions,  but  the  out- 
line of  the  liturgy;  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  and 
their  dismissal;  the  litany;  the  Anaphora  beginning 
with  the  words  "Right  and  just"  and  interrupted  by 
the  Sanctus;  the  words  of  Institution;  Anamimnesis, 
Epiklesis  and  Supplication  for  all  kinds  of  people  at 
that  place;  the  Elevation  with  the  words  "  Holy  things 
to  the  holy";  the  Communion  distributed  by  the 
bishop  and  deacon  (the  deacon  having  the  chalice); 
and  then  the  final  prayer  and  dismissal — this  order  is 
characteristic  of  all  the  Syrian  and  Palestinian  uses, 
and  is  followed  in  the  derived  Byzantine  liturgies. 
Two  points  in  that  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
should  be  noticed.  No  saints  are  mentioned  by 
name  and  there  is  no  Our  Father.  The  mention  of 
saints'  names,  especially  of  the  "All-holy  Mother  of 
God",  spread  considerably  among  Catholics  after  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (4.31),  and  prayers  invoking  her 
under  that  title  were  then  added  to  all  the  Catholic 
liturgies.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  have  pre- 
served an  older  form  unchanged  by  the  development 
that  modifies  forms  in  actual  use.  The  omission  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer  is  curious  and  unique.  It  has  at 
any  rate  nothing  to  do  with  relative  antiquity.  In  the 
"Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles"  (VIII,  ii,  3) 
people  are  told  to  pray  three  times  a  day  "as  the 
Lord  commanded  in  his  Gospel:  Our  Father", 
etc. 

II.  Tfie  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  James.— Oi  the  Anti- 
ochene liturgies  drawn  up  for  actu.al  use,  the  oldest 
one  and  the  original  from  which  the  others  have  been 
derived  is  the  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  James.  The 
earliest  reference  to  it  is  Canon  xxxii  of  the 
Quinisextura  Council  (II  TruUan  a.  d.  G92),  which 
oiiotes  it  as  being  really  composed  by  St.  James, 
the  brother  of  Our  Lord.  The  Council  appeals  to 
this  liturgy  in  defending  the  mixed  chalice  against 
the  Armenians.     St.  Jerome  (died  420)  seems  to  have 


knowTi  it.  At  any  rate  at  Bethlehem  he  quotes  as  a 
liturgical  form  the  words  "  who  alone  is  sinless ' ',  which 
occur  in  this  Liturgy  (Adv.  Pel.,  II,  x.xiii).  The 
fact  that  the  Jacobites  use  the  same  liturgy  in  Syriac 
shows  tliat  it  existed  and  was  well  established  before 
the  Monophysite  schism.  The  oldest  manuscrijjt  is 
one  of  the  tenth  century  formerly  belonging  to  the 
Greek  monastery  at  Messina  and  now  kept  in  the 
University  library  of  that  city.  The  Greek  Liturgy 
of  St.  James  follows  in  all  its  essential  parts  that  of 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  It  has  preparatory 
prayers  to  be  said  by  the  priest  and  deacon  and  a 
blessing  of  the  incense.  Then  begins  the  Mass  of  the 
Catechumens  with  the  little  Entrance.  The  deacon 
says  a  litany  (^KT^«ia),  to  each  clause  of  which  the 
people  answer  "  Kyrie  eleison".  Meanwhile  the  priest 
is  saying  a  prayer  to  himself,  of  which  only  the  last 
words  are  said  aloud,  after  the  litany  is  finished. 
The  singers  say  the  Trisagion,  "Holy  God,  holy 
Strong  One,  holy  Immortal  One,  have  mercy  on  us." 
The  practice  of  the  priest  saying  one  prayer  silently 
while  the  people  are  occupied  with  something  differ- 
ent is  a  later  development.  The  Lessons  follow,  still 
in  the  older  form,  that  is,  long  portions  of  botti  Testa- 
ments, then  the  prayers  for  the  catechumens  and 
their  dismissal.  Among  the  prayers  for  the  cate- 
chumens occurs  a  reference  to  the  cross  (lift  up  the 
horn  of  the  Christians  by  the  power  of  the  venerable 
and  life-giving  cross)  w-hich  must  have  been  written 
after  St.  Helen  found  it  (c.  326)  and  which  is  one  of 
the  many  reasons  for  connecting  this  liturgy  with 
Jerusalem.  When  the  catechumens  are  dismissed, 
the  deacon  tells  the  faithful  to  "know  each  other", 
that  is  to  observe  whether  any  stranger  is  still  present. 
The  great  Entrance  which  begins  the  Mass  of  the 
Faithful  is  already  an  imposing  ceremony.  The  in- 
cense is  blessed,  the  oblation  is  brought  from  the 
Prothesis  to  the  altar  while  the  people  sing  the 
Cherubikon,  ending  with  three  Alleluias.  (The  text 
is  different  from  the  Byzantine  Cherubikon).  Mean- 
while the  priest  says  another  prayer  silently.  The 
creed  is  then  said;  apparently  at  first  it  was  a  shorter 
form  like  the  Apostles'  Creed.  The  Offertorj'  prayers 
and  the  litany  are  much  longer  than  those  in  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions.  There  is  as  yet  no  reference 
to  an  Iconostasis  (screen  di\'iding  the  choir  or 
place  of  the  clergy).  The  beginning  of  the  "Anaph- 
ora" (Preface)  is  shorter.  The  words  of  Institution 
and  .4namimnesis  are  followed  immediately  by  the 
Epiklesis;  then  comes  the  Supplication  for  various 
people.  The  deacon  reads  the  "Diptyclis"  of  the 
names  of  people  for  whom  they  pray;  then  follows  a 
list  of  Saints  beginning  with  "our  all-holy,  immacu- 
late and  highly  praised  Lady  Mary,  Mother  of  God 
and  ever-virgin."  Here  are  inserted  two  hymns  to 
Our  Lady  obviously  directed  against  the  Nestorian 
heresy.  The  Lord's  Prayer  follows  with  an  introduc- 
tion and  Embolismos.  The  Host  is  shown  to  the 
people  with  the  same  words  as  in  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  and  then  broken,  and  part  of  it  is  put 
into  the  chalice  while  the  priest  says:  "The  mi.xing 
of  the  all-holy  Body  and  the  precious  Blood  of  Our 
Lord  and  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ."  Before 
Communion  Psalm  xxxiii  is  said.  The  priest  says  a 
prayer  before  his  Communion.  The  deacon  com- 
municates the  people.  There  is  no  such  form  as: 
"The  Body  of  Christ";  he  says  only:  "Approach  in 
the  fear  of  the  Lord",  and  they  answer:  "Blessed  is 
He  who  comes  in  the  name  of  the  Lord."  What  is 
left  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  taken  by  the  deacon 
to  the  Prothesis;  the  prayers  of  thanksgiving  are 
longer  than  those  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 
The  Liturgy  of  St.  James  as  it  now  exists  is  a  more 
developed  form  of  the  same  use  as  that  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions.  The  prayers  are  longer,  the 
ceremonies  have  become  more  elaborate,  incense  is 
used  continually,  and  the  preparation  is  already  on 


ANTIOCHENE 


.573 


ANTIOCHENE 


the  way  to  become  the  coinpHcated  service  of  tlie 
Byzantine  Prothesis.  There  are  continual  invoca- 
tions of  saints;  but  tlie  essential  outline  of  the  Rite  is 
the  same.  Besides  the  reference  to  the  Holy  Cross, 
one  allusion  makes  it  clear  that  it  was  originally 
drawn  up  for  the  Church  of  Jerusalem.  The  first 
supplication  after  the  Kpiklesis  is:  "WeotTer  to  thee, 
O  Lord,  for  Thy  holy  jjlaccs  which  Thou  hast  glorified 
by  the  divine  appearance  of  Thy  Christ  and  by  the 
coming  of  Thy  holy  Spirit .  especially  for  the  holy  and 
illustrious  Sion,  mother  of  all  churches  and  for  Thy 
holy,  Catholic  and  apostolic  Church  throughout  the 
world."  This  liturgy  was  used  throughout  Syria 
and  Palestine,  that  is  throughout  the  Antiochene 
Patriarchate  (Jerusalem  was  not  made  a  jjatri- 
archal  see  till  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  431)  before  the 
Nestorian  and  Monophysite  schisms.  It  is  possible 
to  reconstruct  a  great  part  of  the  use  of  the  city  of 
Antioch  while  St.  John  Chrysostom  was  preaching 
there  (370-397)  from  the  allusions  and  (luotations  in 
his  homilies  (Probst,  1/iturgie  des  IV.  Jahrh.,  II, 
i,  V,  156,  198).  It  is  then  seen  to  be  practically  that 
of  St.  Jame-s;  indeed  whole  passages  arc  quoted  word 
for  word  as  they  stand  in  St.  James  or  in  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions. 

The  Catechisms  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  were  held 
in  3tS;  the  first  eighteen  are  addressed  to  the  Corn- 
petenlcx  (^MTifi/iewi)  during  Lent,  the  last  six  to 
the  neophytes  in  Master  week.  In  these  he  explains, 
besides  Baptism  and  Confirmation,  the  holy  liturgy. 
The  allusions  to  the  liturgy  are  carefully  veiled  in 
the  earlier  ones  because  of  the  (iisciitlinri  arrnni ; 
they  become  much  plainer  when  he  speaks  to  people 
just  baptized,  although  even  then  he  avoids  quoting 
the  baptism  form  or  the  words  of  consecration. 
From  the.se  Catechisms  we  learn  the  ortler  of  the 
liturgy  at  Jerusalem  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century.  Except  for  one  or  two  unimportant  varia- 
tions, it  is  that  of  St.  James  (Prolist,  op.  cit.,  II.  i,  ii, 
77-106).  This  liturgj'  appears  to  have  been  used  in 
either  language,  Greek  at  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and 
the  chief  cities  where  Greek  was  commonly  spoken, 
Syriac  in  the  country.  The  oldest  form  of  it  now 
extant  is  the  Greek  version.  Is  it  possible  to  find  a 
relationship  between  it  and  other  parent-uses? 
There  arc  a  number  of  very  remarkable  parallel 
passages  between  the  Anaphora  of  this  liturgj'  and 
the  Canon  of  the  Roman  Ma-ss.  The  order  of  the 
prayers  is  dilTerent,  but  when  the  Greek  or  Syriac  is 
translated  into  Latin  there  appear  a  large  number  of 
phrases  and  clauses  that  are  identical  with  ours.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  Rome  and  Syria  originally 
used  the  same  liturgy  and  that  the  much-disputed 
question  of  the  order  of  our  Canon  may  be  solved  by 
reconstructing  it  according  to  the  Syrian  use  (Drews, 
Zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  des  Kanons).  Mgr.  Du- 
chesne and  most  authors,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
disposed  to  connect  the  Galilean  Liturgy  with  that  of 
Syria  and  the  Roman  Mass  with  the  Alexandrine 
use   (Duchesne,   Origines   du   culte  ehr^tien,  54). 

III.  The  S;/riac  Liturgies. — After  the  Monophysite 
schism  and  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  Loth 
Melchites  and  Jacobites  continued  using  the  same 
rites.  But  gradually  the  two  languages  became 
characteristic  of  the  two  sides.  The  Jacobites  used 
only  Syriac  (their  whole  movement  being  a  national 
revolt  against  the  Emperor),  and  the  Melchites,  who 
were  nearly  all  Greeks  in  the  chief  towns,  generally 
used  Greek.  The  Syriac  Liturgy  of  St.  James  now 
extant  is  not  the  original  one  used  before  the  schism, 
but  a  modified  form  derived  from  it  by  the  Jacobites 
for  their  own  use.  The  preparation  of  the  oblation 
has  become  a  still  more  clal>orate  rite.  The  kiss  of 
peace  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the  Anaphora  and 
after  it  this  Syriac  liturgy  follows  the  Greek  one  al- 
most word  for  word,  including  the  reference  to  Sion, 
the  mother  of  all  churches,     liut  the  list  of  saints  is 


modified;  the  deacon  commemorates  the  saints  "who 
have  kept  undefiled  the  faith  of  Nica;a,  Constantinople 
and  Ephesus";  he  names  "James  the  brother  of  Our 
Lord"  alone  of  the  Apostles  and  "most  chiefly  Cyril 
who  was  a  tower  of  the  truth,  who  expounded  the 
incarnation  of  the  Word  of  God,  and  .Mar  James  and 
Mar  Ephraim,  elo<iuent  moutlis  and  pillars  of  our 
holy  (Church."  Mar  James  Ls  Baradai,  through  whom 
they  have  their  orders  and  from  whom  their  name 
(543).  Is  Ephraim  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch  who 
reigned  from  .539-545,  but  who  was  certainly  not  a 
Mononhysitc?  The  list  of  saints,  however,  varies 
considiMahly;  sometimes  they  introduce  a  long  list 
of  their  patrons  (Renaudot,  Lit.  Orient.  Col.,  II,  101- 
103).  This  liturgy  still  contains  a  famous  clause. 
Just  before  the  lessons  the  Trisagion  is  sung.  That 
of  the  Greek  rite  is:  "  Holy  God,  holy  Strong  one,  holy 
Immortal  one,  have  mercy  on  us.  The  Syriac  rite 
adds  after  "holy  Immortal  one"  the  words:  "who 
wast  crucified  for  us."  This  Ls  the  addition  made  by 
Peter  the  Dyer  {yvaipcii!,  Julio),  Monophysite  Patriarch 
of  Antioch  (4.5.S-47I;,  winch  seemed  to  the  Orthodox 
to  conceal  Monophysite  heresy  and  which  was  adopted 
by  the  Jacobites  as  a  kind  of  proclamation  of  their 
faith.  In  the  Syriac  use  a  number  of  Greek  words 
have  remained.  The  deacon  says  oru/wc  koXus  in 
Greek  and  the  people  continually  cry  out  "  Kurilli- 
son",  just  as  they  say  "Amen"  and  "Alleluia"  in 
Hebrew.  Short  liturgical  forms  constantly  become 
fossilized  in  one  language  and  count  almost  as 
inarticulate  exclamations.  The  Greek  ones  in  the 
Syriac  liturgy  show  that  the  Greek  language  is  the 
original.  Besides  the  Syriac  Liturgy  of  St.  James, 
the  Jacobites  have  a  large  number  of  other  Anaphoras, 
which  they  join  to  the  common  Preparation  and 
Catechumen's  Mass.  The  names  of  sixty-four  of 
these  Anaphoras  are  known.  They  are  attributed 
to  various  saints  and  Monophysite  bishops;  thus, 
there  are  the  Anaphoras  of  St.  Basil,  St.  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  St.  Peter,  St.  Clement,  Dioscurus  of 
Alexandria,  John  Maro,  James  of  Edessa  (died  708), 
Severus  of  Antioch  (died  518),  and  so  on.  There  is 
also  a  shortened  Anaphora  of  St.  James  of  Jenisalem. 
Renaudot  prints  the  texts  of  forty-two  of  these 
liturgies  in  a  Latin  translation.  1  hey  consLst  of 
different  prayers,  but  the  order  is  practically  always 
that  of  tlie  Syriac  St.  James  Liturgy,  and  they  are 
really  local  modifications  of  it.  A  letter  written  by 
James  of  Edes.sa  (c.  624)  to  a  certain  priest  named 
Timothy  describes  and  explains  the  Monophysite 
Liturgy  of  his  time  (Assemani,  Bibl.  Orient.,  I,  479- 
486).  It  is  the  Syrian  St.  James.  The  Liturgy  of 
the  Presanctified  of  St.  James  (used  on  the  week 
days  of  Lent  except  Saturdays)  follows  the  other  one 
very  closely.  There  is  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens 
with  the  little  Entrance,  the  Lessons,  Mass  of  the 
Faithful  and  great  Entrance,  litanies,  Our  Father, 
breaking  of  the  Host,  Communion,  thanksgiving,  and 
dismissal.  Of  course  the  whole  Eucharistic  prayer 
is  left  out — the  oblations  are  already  consecrated 
as  they  lie  on  the  Prothesis  before  the  great  En- 
trance (Brightman,  op.  cit.,   494-501). 

IV.  The  Present  Time. — The  Jacobites  in  Syria  and 
Palestine  still  use  the  Syriac  Liturgy  of  St.  James, 
as  do  also  the  Syrian  Uniates.  The  Orthodox  of  the 
two  Patriarchates,  Antioch  and  Jerusalem,  have 
forsaken  their  own  use  for  many  centuries.  Like  all 
the  Christians  in  communion  with  Constantinople, 
they  have  adopted  the  Byzantine  Rite.  This  is  one 
result  of  the  extreme  centralization  towards  Con- 
stantinople that  followed  the  Arab  conquests  of 
Egypt,  Palestine,  and  SjTia.  The  Melchitc  Patri- 
ardis  of  those  countries,  who  had  already  lost  nearly 
all  their  flocks  through  the  Monophysite  heresy, 
became  the  merest  shadows  and  eventually  even  left 
their  sees  to  be  ornaments  of  the  court  at  Constanti- 
nople.    It  was  during  that  time,  before  the  rise  of 


ANTIOCHUS 


574 


ANTIPATRIS 


the  new  national  churches,  that  the  Byzantine 
Patriarch  developed  into  something  very  like  a 
pope  over  the  wliolc  Orthodox  world.  And  he  suc- 
ceeded in  foisting  the  liturgy,  calendar,  and  practices 
of  his  own  patriarchate  on  the  much  older  and  more 
venerable  sees  of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusa- 
lem. It  is  not  possible  to  say  exactly  when  the  older 
uses  were  forsaken  for  that  of  Byzantium.  Theodore 
Balsamon  says  that  by  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century 
the  Church  o"f  Jerusalem  followed  the  Byzantine  Rite. 
By  that  time  Antioch  had  also  doubtless  followed 
suit.  There  are,  however,  two  small  exceptions. 
In  the  island  of  Zakynthos  and  in  Jerusalem  itself 
the  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  James  was  used  on  one  day 
each  year,  23  October,  the  feast  of  St.  James  the 
"brother  of  God".  It  is  still  so  used  at  Zakynthos, 
and  in  1886  Dionysios  Latas,  Metropolitan  of  Zakyn- 
thos, published  an  edition  of  it  tor  practical  purposes. 
At  Jerusalem  even  this  remnant  of  the  old  use  had 
disappeared.  But  in  1900  Lord  Damianos,  the 
Orthodox  Patriarch,  revived  it  for  one  day  in  the 
year,  not  23  October  but  31  December.  It  was  first 
celebrated  again  in  1900  (on  30  December  as  an  ex- 
ception) in  tlie  church  of  the  Theological  College  of 
the  Holy  Cro.ss.  Lord  Epiphanios,  Archbishop  of 
the  River  Jordan,  celebrated,  assisted  by  a  number 
of  concelebrating  priests.  The  edition  of  Latas  was 
used,  but  the  Archimandrite  Chrysostomos  Papado- 
poulos  has  been  commissioned  to  prepare  another  and 
more  correct  edition  (Echos  d'Orient,  IV,  247,  218). 
It  should  be  noted  finally  that  the  Maronites  use  the 
Syrian  St.  James  with  a  few  very  slight  modifications, 
and  that  the  Nestorian,  Byzantine,  and  Armenian 
Liturgies  are  derived  from  that  of  Antioch.  (See 
also  Liturgies,  Easstekn). 

Texts. — XeiTovpylai  twv  ayiwv  -waT^pijiv  'laKiifJov  toO 
iTTo(TTb\ov  Kal  d5e\(t>o$iov,  Bao-iXciou  toC  iieydXov,  'luaffov 
ToO  XpvfToffT^fjulv  (Paris.  1560 — the  textus  receptus),  reprinted 
by  Fkonton  LE  Due,  Bibliothpca  veterum  patruni  (Paris,  1624), 
II,  and  in  a  Venetian  edition  {iv  Ty  SaXaKdrj;,  1645);  Bright- 
man,  Liturgies  Eastern  and  Western  (O.xford,  1896),  I  (Apost. 
Const.,  3-27;  Greels  St.  James,  31-68;  .Syriac  St.  James,  in 
English,  69-110;  St.  Cyril  of  Jer.,  464-470;  St.  John  Chrys., 
470-481;  James  of  Edessa,  490-494;  Presanct.  Lit.  of  St. 
James,  494-501);  Dionvsios  Latas,  'H  Bela.  \siTOVpyla  ttoO 
ayiov  iv56^ov  diroaTbXov  'laKiijfSov  toO  ddeXtpov  dlov  Kal  Trpjj- 
Tov  Updpxov  tCjv  ' l€po<ro\vpiO)v  ^KSode'tffa  p-erd  diard^eojs 
Kal  (TriptiJiffcav  (Zakynthos,  1886);  Neale,  The  Liturgies  of 
S.  Mark.  St.  James,  S.  Clement,  S.  Chrysostcm,  S.  Basil  (Lon- 
don, 1875),  St.  Clement,  i.  e.  Ap.  Const.,  85-108,  Greek  St. 
James,  39-78;  Missale  Syriacum  iuxta  ritum  antiochente 
Sj/rorum  (Rome,  1843 — for  the  Uniats).  The  various 
liturgical  books  used  by  the  Syrian  Uniats  are  published 
at  Beirdt.  Missale  Chaldaicum  iuxta  ritum  ecelesiw  nxitionis 
Maronitarum  (Rome,  1716);  Boderiands,  De  ritibus  baptiami 
et  sacr<e  synaxis  apud  Syros  chriaiianos  receptis  (Antwerp, 
1572,  Syriac  and  Latin).  This  contains  the  Ordo  Communis 
only  of  the  Jacobites,  that  is  their  Mass  of  the  Catechumens, 
the  rubrics  and  parts  of  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful,  not  the 
Anaphora.  The  complete  Jacobite  texts  are  not  published 
(cf.  Brightman,  Iv-lvi). 

Translations. — Thusais:  Liturgiee  sive  missce  SS.  patrum 
lacobi  apostoli  &  fratris  Domini,  Basilii  magni,  loannis  Chrysos- 
(omi  (Paris,  1560),  reprinted  in  the  Bibliotheca  SS.  Patrum 
(Paris,  1575),  etc.;  Renaudot,  Liturgiarum  Orientetlium 
Collectio  (2nd  cd.,  Frankfort,  1847),  IX  (Syriac  St.  James,  1-44, 
Shorter  St.  James,  126-132,  other  Anaphoras,  134-560); 
Brett,  A  Collection  of  the  Principal  Liturgies  (London,  1720); 
Neale,  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church  (London,  1850) 
I,  531-701 ;  Neale  ano  Littledale,  The  Liturgies  of  SS.  Mark, 
James,  Clement,  Chrysostom  ami  Basil  and  the  Church  of 
Malabar  translated  (London,  1868);  Antcnicene  Christian 
Ltlirary  (Edinburgh,  1872),  XXIV;  Probst,  Liturgie  der  drei 
rrslen  chrtstliclum  J ahrhurulrrten  (Tubingen,  1870),  295-318; 
bTORFF,  Du:  griechischen  Liturnien  der  hi.  Jakobus,  Markus, 
Banltus,   und  Chrysostomus    (Kcmpten,    1877),   30-78. 

DUWERTATIONK.— Bcwlcs,  the  introductions  and  notes  in 
Renaodot,  PiionsT,  Hihghtman,  Neale,  Storif  (op.  rit.), 
tUNK,  Du  apottolischrn  Konslitutionen  (Rottenburg.  1.S91); 
Allatius,  Epislola  ad  BarlhiMnm  Nihusium  ,lr  lilur,ii,i  lucnbi 
in  Sli/i/U(CT(£  (Cologne.  I(i53),  17.1-208,  an  atloii.pt  to  pn>vc  that 
the  liturgy  really  was  written  bv  St.  James  Hon  i  limim  litur- 
giarum liltri  Juo  (Turin,  17471,  I.  I."i  .|.|  ;  I  khmix,,  l)is- 
mtisitio  de  S.  Inroln   IMurtiin   (op.   |m.   'i,.n:,  ^      ii.'i'j       l'\'i  mi:k, 

Oriffines  lilurgietf  Mth  ed..  l.on.luu     I  -.  I  ,      I",    11      i, ,yj.'' 

The  Greek  /.tliiriiy  of  .S(.  J(im<»  H.^mluirli,  IMSi,  ri,.,iiMT[ 
Litun/ie    des   IV.   Jnhrhunderts    und    ttirm    li>lt>rm    (..Munslcri 


1893);  Duchesne,  Origines  du  culte  chretien  (2nd  ed.  Paris, 
1898),  55-67:  Drews,  Zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  des  Kanon^ 
in  der  rdmischen  Messe  (Tubingen,  1902). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Antiochus  of  Palestine,  a  monk  of  the  seventh 
century,  said  to  have  been  bom  near  Ancyra  (Asia 
Minor),  lived  first  as  a  solitary,  then  became  a  monk 
and  Abbot  of  the  famous  laura  or  monastery  of  St. 
Saba  near  Jerusalem.  He  witnessed  the  Persian 
invasion  of  Palestine  in  614,  and  the  massacre  of 
forty-four  of  his  companions  by  the  Bedouins.  Five 
years  after  the  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land  by  Chos- 
roes,  Ancyra  was  taken  (619)  and  destroyed  by  the 
Persians,  which  compelled  the  monks  of  the  neigh- 
bouring monastery  of  Attaline  to  leave  their  home, 
and  to  move  from  place  to  place.  As  they  were, 
naturally,  unable  to  carry  many  books  with  them, 
the  Abbot  Eustatliius  asked  his  friend  Antiochus  to 
compile  an  abridgment  of  Holy  Scripture  for  their 
use,  and  also  a  short  account  of  the  martyrdom  of 
the  forty-four  monks  of  St.  Sabbas.  In  compliance 
with  this  request  he  wrote  a  work  known  as  "  Pan- 
dects of  Holy  Scripture"  (in  130  chapters,  mistaken 
by  the  Latin  translator  for  as  many  homihes).  It 
is  a  collection  of  moral  sentences,  drawn  from  Scrip- 
ture and  from  early  ecclesiastical  writers.  He  also 
wrote  an  "  Exomologesis "  or  prayer,  in  which  he 
relates  the  miseries  that  had  befallen  Jerusalem 
since  the  Persian  invasion,  and  begs  the  divine  mercy 
to  heal  the  Holy  City's  many  ills  (P.  L.,  LXXXIX, 
1422-18.56).  These  works  seem  to  have  been  written 
in  the  period  between  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by 
Chosroes  and  its  reconquest  by  the  Emperor  Herac- 
lius  (628).  The  introductory  chapter  of  the  "Pan- 
dects" tells  of  the  martyrdom  referred  to;  its  last 
chapter  contains  a  list  of  heretics  from  Simon  Magus 
to  the  Monophysite  followers  of  Severus  of  Antioch. 
The  book  is  of  special  value  for  its  extracts  of  works 
no  longer  existing;  the  writer  had  an  interest,  then 
uncommon,  in  early  Christian  literature. 

Batiffol  in  Diet,  de  la  Bible  s.  v.;  Vailhe  in  Diet,  de  thcol. 
cath.  s.  v.;  Peters  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.;  Bardenhewer, 
Patrologie,  (2d  ed.  Freiburg,  1901),  505;  Ehrhard.  in  Krum- 
bacher,  Gesch.  d.  byzant.  Litt.,  (2d  ed.  Munich,   1S67),  I,  114. 

Fr.umcis  W.  Grey. 

Antipater  of  Bostra  (in  Arabia)  in  the  fifth 
century,  one  of  the  foremost  Greek  prelates  of  the 
Roman  Orient;  flourished  about  460.  He  was  a 
pronounced  opponent  of  Origen.  Little  is  known 
of  his  life,  save  that  he  was  held  in  liigh  esteem  by 
his  contemporaries,  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  He  is 
rated  among  the  authoritative  ecclesiastical  writers 
by  the  Fathers  of  the  Seventh  General  Council  (787). 
There  have  reached  us,  in  the  acts  of  this  council, 
only  a  few  fragments  of  liis  lengthy  refutation  of  the 
"Apology  for  Origen"  put  together  (c.  309)  by 
Pamphilus  and  Eusebius  of  Ca?sarea.  The  work  of 
Antipater  was  looked  on  as  a  masterly  composition, 
and,  as  late  as  540  was  ordered  to  be  read  in  the 
churches  of  the  East  as  an  antidote  to  the  .spread 
of  the  Origenistic  heresies  (Cotelier,  Monument.  Eccl. 
GriEC,  III,  362).  He  also  wrote  a  treati.se  against 
the  ApoUinarists,  known  only  in  brief  fragments,  and 
several  homilies,  two  of  which  have  reached  us  in 
their  entirety.     His  memory  is  kept  on  13  June. 

The  literary  relics  of  Antipater  are  found  in  P.  O.,  LXXX\'. 
1763-96;  see  also:  Vailhi::  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.,  I.  1440; 
Acta  SS.,  13  June:  Venablks  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr.,  I,  122; 
Baruenhewer,  Patrologie  (2d  ed.  1901),  469. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Antipatris,  a  titular  see  of  Palestine,  whose 
episcopal  list  is  known  from  449  to  451  (Gams,  452). 
It  was  built  by  Herod  the  Great  in  honour  of  liis 
father  Antipatris,  and  is  mentioned  in  Acts,  xxiii,  31. 
"Its  ancient  name  and  site",  says  Smith,  "are  still 
preserved  by  a  Muslim  village  of  considerable  size, 
.  .  .  about  three  hours  north  of  Jaft'a". 


ANTIPHELLOS 


575 


ANTIPHON 


Antiphellos,  now  Antephelo,  or  Andipilo,  a  titu- 
lar scu  of  Lyoia,  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
at  I  lie  lii':i(l  of  a  .small  li:iy;  once  sufTragan  of  Myra. 
Litllf  is  known  of  its  lii.-torj'. 

Smiih.  J)iri.  ../  Gn,k  .iwl  lium,m  Grogr.,  I,  147;  Mas  Latrie, 
TnanriU-  Chrunul.  U'liria,  IS'Jo;,  19S7. 

Antiphon.  —  (From  the  Greek  ivTl<t)<iipov,  sounding 
against,  responsive  sound,  singing  opposite,  alternate 
chant;  Latin,  antiphona;  French,  antiennc.)  As 
at  present  commonly  understood,  an  antiphon 
consists  of  one  or  more  psalm  verses  or  sentences 
from  Holy  Scripture  wliich  are  sung  or  simply  recited 
liilorc  ami  after  each  psalm  and  the  Magnificat 
durini;  Matins  and  Vespers.  The  verse  which  serves 
as  tile  antiphon  text  contains  the  fundamental 
thought  of  the  psalm  to  which  it  is  sung,  and  imhcates 
the  point  of  view  from  which  it  is  to  be  imderstood. 
In  otlier  words,  it  gives  the  key  to  the  liturgical 
and  mystical  meaning  of  the  psalm  with  regard  to 
the  feast  on  which  it  occurs.  In  a  wider  sense  the 
name  antiphon  was  al.so  applied  to  the  Introit,  OfTer- 
tory  and  t'omminiion  of  the  Mass  in  the  early  Church. 
Aiili/ihoiui  ml  Introilum,  i.  e.  the  antiphon  sung  by 
tlie  schota  cantorum  while  the  celebrant  prcparetl 
for  the  Holy  Sacrifice  and  during  his  solemn  entry 
into  the  sanctuary,  has  become  our  i)resent  Introit. 
It  is  saiil  to  have  originato<l  with  Pope  Celestine  I 
(432)  whoonlained  that  the  I'salmsof  David  be  simg 
antiphonally  before  the  l)eginning  of  the  Ma.ss.  The 
verse  .serving  as  the  antiphon  text  would  be  repeated 
on  an  intlependent  melody  after  e\crj'  verse  of  the 
psalm,  whicli  was  smig  to  the  end  in  that  manner  un- 
less the  celebrant  gave  the  signal  to  the  prior  choree 
to  intone  the  doxology,  with  which  the  psalm  ended, 
and  after  which  tlie  litany  or  Kyrle  followed.  Later, 
as  the  preliminary  ceremonies  which  this  elaborate 
performance  was  intended  to  accompany  became 
shorter,  tlie  antiphon  wouki  be  repeated  after  every 
seconil.  third,  or  fourth  verse  of  the  psalm,  before 
and  after  the  Gloria  Patri  ami  after  the  Sicul  erat. 
Since  tlie  Council  of  Trent  the  antiphon  has  been 
sung  in  the  manner  which  is  customary  to-day,  that 
is,  before  and  after  the  psalm.  Of  the  p.salm  it.self, 
originally  sung  complete,  only  one  verse  and  the 
doxology  have  been  retained  for  any  Introit,  so 
that  instead  of  the  p.salm  being  the  main  feature, 
tlie  antiphon  is  now  of  paramount  importance. 
The  present  "Graduale  Romanum"  contains  only 
a  few  examples  of  the  early  manner  of  singing  the 
Introit.  One  of  these  is  the  mode  in  which  the  Xutic 
Dimiith  is  sung  during  the  ceremony  of  distributing 
the  bles.scd  candles  on  the  feast  of  the  Purification 
of  the  Hles.sed  Virgin  Mary.  The  verse,  Lumen 
ad  revelalionem  gentium  etc.,  is  chosen  as  the  antiphon 
text  and  repeated  after  every  verse  until  the  end 
is     reached. 

The  melodies  to  which  the  antiphon  texts  are 
sung,  especially  tho.se  preceding  the  Vesper  psalms, 
are  generally  of  a  simple  character.  Seldom  has 
any  word  two  or  three  notes.  Many  of  the  melodies 
are  entirely  syllabic.  Their  melodic  importance 
consists  in  their  preparing  the  mind  for  the  (billowing 
[isalm  tune,  to  which  they  form  a  sort  of  prelude 
and  of  whose  character  they  partake.  It  has  been 
ascertained  that  there  are  only  forty-.seven  typical 
melodies,  each  one  of  which,  with  slight  melodic 
modilications.  .serves  for  several  different  texts. 
.K  remnant  of  the  custom  of  repeating  the  antiphon 
after  every  psalm  verse  is  found  in  the  different 
endings  of  tlic  psalm  tunes.  Sometimes  one  and 
sometimes  another  of  the  forty-seven  typical  anti- 
plion  melodies  precedes  any  given  p.salm  tune, 
according  to  the  feast  and  the  season.  The  various 
endings  of  tlie  psalm  tunes  were  intended  to  facili- 
tate the  entry  on  the  part  of  the  singers  on  the 
initial  note  of  the  antiphon,  after  ha\Hng  .sung  a  verse 
of    the     psalm.      The    so-called    antiphons    of    the 


Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  "Alma  Redemptoris  Mater", 
"Salve  Regina",  "Ave  Regina  Cceloruni",  and  "  Re- 
gina  CoeU ",  although  originally  sung  in  connexion 
with  psalms,  from  which  they  derive  their  name, 
have  been  sung  as  detached  chants  since  the  year 
1239,  when  Pope  (iregory  IX  ordered  that  one  of 
them,  according  to  the  .sea.son,  be  simg  at  the  end  of 
the  ofhce.  In  a  St.  Gall  MS.  of  the  thirteenth  century 
"  j'Vlnia  Redemptoris  "  and  "  Salve  Regina  "  are  part 
of  the  olfice  for  the  feast  of  the  Annunciation  of 
the  Hles.sed  Virgin.  A  Paris  MS.  of  the  twelfth 
century  a.s.signs  "  .\lma  Redemptoris "  and  "  Ave 
Regina"  to  the  oflice  for  the  feast  of  the  Assump- 
tion. In  a  twelfth  century  antiphonary  in  St.  Peter's 
Basilica  at  Rome,  "Regina  Cieli"  is  assigned  to  the 
octave  of  Easter.  The  melodies  to  these  texts  are 
among  the  most  beautiful  in  the  whole  Gregorian 
repertory.  As  they  were  intended  to  be  sung  by 
the  congregation,  they  are  of  simple  and  graphic 
construction.  They  Lreathe  a  deeply  religious 
spirit  and  are  an  elficacious  means  by  which  to  re- 
veal to  the  singer  the  mystical  contents  of  the  texts 
which  they  musically  interpret.  While  the  four 
antiphons  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 
and  those  occurring  in  the  Mass  have  been  prolific 
texts  for  figured  settings  both  with  the  masters  of 
classic  polyphony  and  with  modern  writers,  those 
preceding  tlie  Vesper  psalms  are  almost  universally 
sung  to  the  Gregorian  melodies. 

Wacinkk,  Einfukruim  in  die  grefjorianutchen  Melodien 
(Freiburff,  1901 );  I[).,  .^ci*m<miunrfe(Freil>urg.  1905):  Gevaert, 
1x9  oriffines  du  chant  liluri/ique  (Ghent,  1890):  Duchesne, 
Christian  Worship  (2d  Kng.  ed.,  London,  1904);  Kienle 
ClwraUchuU  (Freiburg,   1884). 

Joseph  Otten. 
Antiphon  (dyri^oicoy).  In  the  Greek  Church. — 
Socrates,  the  church  historian  (Hi.st.  Eccl.,  VI,  viii), 
says  that  St.  Ignatius,  Hisho])  of  Antioch,  the  third 
in  succession  from  St.  Peter  in  that  .see,  once  had  a 
vision  of  angels  singing  tlie  praises  of  the  Trinity  in 
alternating  hymns,  and  remembering  his  vLsion  he 
gave  this  form  of  singing  to  the  Church  of  Antioch. 
From  there  it  spread  to  all  other  Churches.  In  the 
Greek  Church  the  antiphon  was  not  only  retained 
as  a  form  of  singing,  but  it  was  made  an  integral 
part  of  the  Ma.ss,  and  also  a  part  of  the  liturgical 
morning  and  evening  services.  It  is  especially  known 
as  a  portion  of  the  Greek  Mass,  and  the  divisions  of 
this  portion  arc  known  as  the  first,  second,  and 
third  antiphons.  While  the  choir  is  .singing  alter- 
nately the  versicles  of  the  antiphons  the  priest  at  the 
altar  recites  secretly  the  prayer  of  each  antiphon. 
These  antiphons  come  in  tne  early  part  of  the  Mass, 
after  the  Great  Synapte,  or  litany,  with  which  the  Mass 
opens,  and  they  change  according  to  the  feast  which 
is  cclclirated.  They  usually  consist  of  three  versicles 
and  three  responses,  and  each  closes  with  "Glory  be 
to  the  F'ather",  etc.,  with  the  response  sung  to  it, 
as  well  as  to  "  .\s  it  is  now  ",  etc.  The  Greek  'ilpo\&yioi> 
(an  Office  book  corresponding  to  the  Roman  Breviary) 
gives  the  different  antiphons  for  the  \arious  feast- 
clays  during  the  year.  The  respon.ses  to  the  various 
versicles  are  usually  the  same.  Where  there  are  no 
special  antiphons  appointed  for  the  Sunday,  tlie 
Greek  Orthodox  churches  in  Russia  and  (ircece 
u.sually  sing  Psalm  cii  for  the  first  antiphon,  P.salm 
cxlv  for  the  .second  antiphon  (which  two  are  often 
callcil  the  Typica).  :ind  the  Beatitudes  (Matt.,  v,  3-12) 
for  the  third  antiphon,  singing  the  verses  alter- 
nately instead  of  the  versicles  and  resjionses.  In  the 
Greek  (';itholic  churches  of  Austria,  Hungarj',  Italy, 
and  the  I'nited  States,  where  there  are  no  special 
antiphons  for  the  day.  they  sing  Psalm  Ixv  for  the 
first  antiphon,  to  each  verse  of  which  the  antiphonal 
response  is:  "By  the  prayers  of  the  Mother  of  God, 
O  Saviour,  save  us",  and  Psalm  Ixvi  for  the  second 
antiphon,  to  each  verse  of  which  the  response  is 
"O  Son  of  God,  risen  from  the  dead,  save  us  who 


ANTIPHON 


576 


ANTIPHONARY 


sing  to  thee,  Alleluia  ",  and  Psalm  xciv  for  the  third 
antiphon  with  the  same  antiphonal  responses.  If 
it  be  a  wecktlay,  however,  the  response  to  the  second 
antiphon  usually  is:  "By  the  prayers  of  the  saints, 
O  Sav-iour,  save  us",  wliile  the  response  to  the  third 
antiphon  is,  "O  Son  of  God,  who  art  wonderful  in 
tliy  Saints  save  us  who  sing  to  Thee,  Alleluia". 
The  prayer  of  the  first  antiphon,  recited  secretly 
by  the  priest,  is  for  the  mercy  of  God  upon  the  whole 
people;  that  of  the  second  antiphon  for  the  welfare 
of  the  Church  and  people;  while  the  prayer  of  the 
third  antiphon,  asking  that  the  prayers  of  the 
faithful  may  be  granted,  has  been  incorporated 
bodily  into  the  Anghcan  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
under  the  name  of  "A  Prayer  of  St.  Chrysostom". 

Besides  the  antiphons  of  the  Mass  there  are  also 
the  antiphons  of  Vespers  commonly  called  the 
kathismata,  or  psalms  sung  while  seated,  and  the 
antiphons  of  matins  called  the  anabathmoi,  or  psalms 
of  degrees,  as  well  as  certain  chants  used  on  Holy 
Thursday,  all  of  which  are  sung  antiphonally.  These 
latter  are  not  usually  known  as  antiphons,  but  are 
generally  called  by  their  special  names. 

'QpoXSyiof  rb  ixiya,  (Propaganda  Press,  Rome,  1876);  Char- 
HON,  Les  siiinhs  et  divines  liturgies  dc  I'eglise  grecque  catholique 
orientule  (Beirut  and  Paris,  1904);  Cluqnet,  Dictionnmre  de 
noma  lilurgiqiLts  dans  I'eglise  grecque  (Paris,  1895);  Robertson, 
The  Divine  Liturgies  (London,  1894);  Bjerring,  Otfices  of  the 
Orientnl  Church  (New  York,  1884);  Sbornik  Bogomolcni, 
(Peremysl,  Galicia,  1890),  55-59.    ANDREW  J.  ShiPMAN. 

Antiphon,  In  Greek  Liturgy. — The  Greek  Liturgy 
uses  antiphons,  not  only  in  the  Office,  but  also  in  the 
Mass,  at  Vespers,  and  at  all  the  canonical  Hours. 
Nor  is  this  all;  antiphons  have  their  prescribed  place 
in  almost  every  liturgical  function.  The  essence  of 
antiphonal  psalmody  consists  in  the  alternation  set 
up  between  the  soloists  and  the  choir  in  the  render- 
ing of  a  psalm.  About  the  fourth  century,  alternate 
singing  which  up  to  that  time  had  been  in  use  only 
in  secular  gatherings,  found  its  way  into  meetings  for 
liturgical  worship.  This  does  not,  however,  imply 
that  the  antiphonal  chanting  of  psalms  was  a  novelty 
in  the  fourth  century,  since  it  was  used  in  the  Syna- 
gogue, and  it  is  not  at  all  likely  that  the  Church  would 
have  waited  so  long  before  assimilating  a  practice 
highly  conducive  to  the  due  order  of  public  prayer. 
The  real  novelty  consisted  in  the  introduction  of  a 
more  ornate  melody  into  antiphonal  psalmody. 
The  soloists  chanted  the  text  of  the  psalm,  and  at 
stated  intervals  the  people  broke  in  upon  them  with 
a  refrain.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  speak  of  a 
custom,  which,  Eusebius  tells  us,  was  in  use  in  his 
time.  It  had  come  to  be  no  longer  a  matter  of  an 
interjected  refrain,  foreign  to  the  text  of  the  psalm, 
or  linked  onto  each  verse,  but  of  a  very  short  ending, 
sometimes  a  mere  syllable,  which  the  whole  people 
chanted,  drowning  the  voices  of  the  soloists  and 
finishing  the  word  or  phrase  which  they  had  left 
unfinished.  This  latter  method  seems  to  have  been 
general  in  Syria,  and  had  been  used  by  the  Jews  at 
an  earlier  period.  The  refrain,  a  kind  of  exclamation 
foreign  to  the  context,  recurring  at  stated  intervals, 
consistetl  either  of  one  word,  or  of  two  or  three, 
though  sometimes  of  a  whole  ver.se  or  troparium. 
This  antiphonal  method  was  also  in  use  among  the 
Jews,  and  is  easily  recognizable  in  the  case  of  certain 
psalms.  It  was  this  method  which  the  Church  took 
as  her  own.  St.  Athanasius,  speaking  of  the  place 
of  the  Alleluia  (q.  v.)  in  the  psalms,  calls  it  a  "re- 
frain "  or  a  "  response."  The  Alleluia  is,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  interjectional  refrain  of  most  frequent 
occurrence.  It  is  referred  to  by  TertuUian,  from 
whose  time  onward  this  exclamation  retains  its 
place  in  ecclesiastical  chant.  In  the  Syrian  and 
ICgyptian  liturgies  of  the  fourth  century  its  role  is  a 
prominent  one. 

The  formula  used  as  a  refrain  varied  in  length, 
as  has  been  already  stated,  but  the  general  tendency 


was  probably  towards  brevity.  A  "Canon  of  the 
Antiphons",  published  by  Cardinal  Pitra,  includes 
some  very  concise  formulas,  among  which  the  Alle- 
luia often  recurs.  The  others  are,  as  a  rule,  drawn 
from  the  first  verse  of  their  respective  psalms,  while 
similar  ones  are  interjected  between  the  verses  of  the 
Scripture  canticles.  These  endings  may  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  Roman  litanies:  "Miserere 
nobis",  "  Exaudi  nos,  Domine",  "Te  rogamus,  audi 
nos".  Even  when  the  longer  refrain  took  the  place 
of  the  exclamation,  it  did  not  exceed  at  the  most, 
a  phrase  of  some  fifteen  words,  St.  Athanasius  tells 
us  that  the  custom  was  due  to  a  desire  to  allow  the 
people  a  share  in  the  liturgy,  while  sparing  them  the 
necessity  of  learning  whole  psalms  by  heart,  which, 
indeed,  the  mass  of  them  would  have  been  unable  to 
do.  A  great  many  texts  might  be  quoted  in  the 
Greek  world  alone,  all  showing  that  the  reader  or 
singer  (cantor)  recited  the  whole  psalm,  but  that 
the  response  of  the  crowd  broke  in  upon  the  recita- 
tion at  regular  intervals.  St.  John  Chrj-sostom,  St. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Callimicus,  all  testify  to  this 
custom.  St.  Basil,  in  his  letter  to  the  faithful  of 
Neo-Csesaraea,  writes  as  follows:  "Leaving  to  one 
the  duty  of  intoning  the  melody,  the  others  answer 
him."  The  same  custom  prevailed  at  Constantinople 
in  536  for  the  singing  of  the  Trisagion.  Nor 
should  a  signal  instance  be  passed  over  in  silence,  i.  e. 
the  hymn  of  St.  Methodius  in  his  "Banquet  of  the 
Ten  Virgins  ",  composed  prior  to  the  year  311.  Each 
alphabetical  strophe  sung  by  the  bridesmaid,  Thecla, 
is  followed  by  a  uniform  refrain,  rendered  by  the 
whole  choir  of  virgins. 

The  antiphonal  system  is,  therefore,  found  to  be 
characterized  by  the  interjection  of  a  refrain,  or  of  a 
simple  exclamation.  This  system  did  not  alter  the 
customary  method,  but  merely  added  a  new  and 
accessory  element  to  it.  The  structure  of  the  anti- 
phon thus  consists  of  hymn-like  strophes,  inter- 
spersed with  verses  of  Scripture,  whereas  the  re- 
sponse is  drawn  from  the  psalm  itself.  In  the 
psalmus  responsorius,  moreover,  all  present  take 
up  the  refrain,  while  in  the  case  of  the  antiphon,  the 
hymn-like  strophes  are  rendered  alternately  by  the 
choir.  The  custom  of  calling  alternate  psalmody 
antiphonal  is  probably  due  to  this  fact.  The  hymn- 
writers  found  in  these  strophes  inexhaustible  mate- 
rial for  elaboration,  so  that,  little  by  little,  the  verses 
of  the  psalms  had  to  give  place  to  the  additional 
strophes.  There  exist  examples  of  psalnis  or  groups 
of  psalms  reduced  in  this  way  to  three  or  four  verses, 
and  sometimes,  even  to  a  single  verse. 

Petit  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrct.  I,  2461-88. 

H.  Leclercq. 
Antiphonary  (Lat.  antiphonarium,  antiphonariits, 
antiphonarms  liber,  antiphonale;  Gr.  i.iiTl(t>uvov  anti- 
phon, antiphone,  anthem),  one  of  the  present  liturgi- 
cal books  intended  for  use  in  choro  (i.  e.  in  the  litur- 
gical choir),  and  originally  characterized,  as  its  name 
implies,  by  the  assignment  to  it  principally  of  the  an- 
tiphons used  in  various  parts  of  the  Roman  liturgy. 
It  thus  included  gcnerically  the  antiphons  and  anti- 
phonal chants  sung  by  cantor,  congregation,  and  choir 
at  Mass  (antipli'incirium  M issarum,  OT  gradale)  and  at 
the  canonical  Hours  (anliphanarium  ojjicii);  but  now 
it  refers  only  to  the  sung  iKirtions  of  the  Divine  OHice 
or  Breviary.  Other  l^nglish  equivalents  for  anti- 
phonary are  antiphonar  (still  in  reputable  use)  and 
antiphoner  (considered  obsolete  by  some  English 
lexicographers,  but  still  sometimes  used  in  current 
literature).  In  the  "Prioresses  Tale"  of  Chaucer  it 
occurs  in  the  form  "antiphonere": 

He  Alma  Rcdcmptoris  herde  syngo 
As  children  lerned  hir  antiphonere. 

The  word  Antiphonan/  had  in  the  earlier  Mid- 
dle  .\ges  .sometimes  a   more  general,   sometimes  a 


ANTIPHONARY 


577 


ANTIPHONARY 


more  restricted  meaning.  In  its  present  meaning 
it  haa  also  been  variously  and  insufficiently  defined 
as  a  "Collection  of  antiphons  in  the  notation  of 
Plain  Chant",  and  as  a  liturgical  bool{  containing 
tlie  antiplions  "and  otlicr  chants".  In  its  present 
complete  form  it  contains,  in  plain-cliant  notation, 
the  music  of  all  the  sung  portions  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  immediately  placed  witli  the  te.xts,  with 
the  indications  of  the  inarmer  of  singing  such  por- 
tions as  have  a  common  melody  (such  as  versicles 
and  responses,  the  Psalms,  the  Lessons,  the  Chap- 
ters). But  the  Lessons  of  .Matins  (I'irst  Nocturn) 
in  the  triduum  of  Holy  Week,  styled  "  Lamentations", 
have  a  melody  proper  to  tliemsclves,  wliich  is  not 
therefore  merely  indicated  but  is  placed  immediately 
with  tlie  texts  of  the  Lessons.  Tlie  most  recent 
official  edition  of  the  Roman  antiplionary  is  that 
known  generally  as  the  "  Ratisbon  edition",  and 
commendetl  for  use  in  all  the  churches  of  the 
Catholic  world  by  Pius  IX  and  Leo  XIII.  Its 
title  is:  "  Antiphonariura  et  Psaltcrium  juxta  ordi- 
nem  Breviarii  Romani  cum  cantu  sub  auspieiis  Pii 
IX  et  Leonis  XIII  Pont.  Max.  rcformato.  Cura 
et  auctoritate  S.  Rituum  Congregationis  digestum 
Roma;",  (.\ntiplionary  and  Psaltery  according 
to  tlie  order  of  the  Roman  Breviary,  with  the  chant 
as  reformed  under  tlie  auspices  of  Popes  Pius  IX 
and  Leo  XIII.  .Vrranged  at  Rome  under  tlie  super- 
vision of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites.)  The 
first  of  tlie.se  volumes  to  be  issued  was  that  entitled: 
"Tomus  II.  continens  Horas  Diurnas  Bre\"iarii 
Romani  (Vesperale)",  and  contained  the  antiphons, 
psalms,  hymns,  and  versicles  of  the  Canonical 
Hours  styled  Harm  Diurrur,  i.  e.  Lauds,  Prime, 
Terce,  Sext,  None,  Vespers,  Compline.  It  com- 
prised in  one  volume  what  in  some  editions  had  been 
distributed  in  several,  such  as  the  "  .\ntiphonarium" 
(in  a  very  restricted  sense),  the  "Psalterium",  the 
"Hynmarium",  the  "Responsoriale".  The  Office 
of  Matins  was  di\nded  into  the  other  two  volumes, 
one  of  which  contained  the  invitatories,  antiphons, 
hymns,  etc.,  of  Matins  for  the  Proprium  dc  Tempore 
(Proper  of  the  Season),  and  the  other,  for  the  Com- 
mune Sanctorum  (Common  Office  of  the  Saints) 
and  the  Proprium  Sanctorum  (Proper  Office  of  the 
Saints).  A  brief  study  of  the  divisions  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  Marquess  of  Bute's  translation  into 
English  of  the  Roman  Breviary  will  make  clear 
from  the  above  description  the  general  character 
of  a  complete  Roman  antinhonary.  It  is  proper 
to  adtl  here  that  this  Rati.sDon  edition  has  lost  its 
autlicntic  and  official  character  by  virtue  of  the 
"Motu  proprio"  (22  November,  1903),  and  the 
Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  (8  Jan- 
uary, 1904).  A  new  edition  of  the  liturgical  books 
is  in  preparation,  of  which  the  first  volume  issued 
is  the  "Kyriale".  The  volumes  of  the  Ratisbon 
etlition  are  widely  used  in  Germany,  Ireland,  and 
America.  They  may  still  be  used,  as  it  probably 
will  be  some  years  before  the  complete  Vatican 
edition  (as  it  is  called)  appears.  The  change  from 
the  Ratisbon  to  the  Vatican  edition  is,  however, 
to  be  made  gradually  but  rapidly.  While  the  former 
edition  was  "commended  for  use,  the  latter  is 
"commanded"  for  use.  Into  the  various  rea.sons 
for  the  rejection  by  Pope  Pius  X  of  the  Ratisbon 
edition  and  the  neces.sary  substitution  therefor  of 
the  Vatican  edition,  tliis  is  not  the  place  to  enter. 
It  is  sufficient  and  appropriate  to  say  that  both  the 
texts  and  the  melodies  are  to  be  revused  in  order  to 
bring  them  into  conformity  with  the  results  of  recent 
palaxjgraphic  studies  in  Gregorian  chant. 

In  order  to  show  as  dearly  as  possible  the  exact  po- 
sition of  the  antiphonarj'  (as  the  word  is  now  used) 
amongst  the  liturgical  books,  it  is  proper  to  recall 
that  the  Roman  Missal  contains  all  the  texts  used 
at  Mass;    the  Roman  Breviary,  all  the  texts  used  in 


the  Divine  Office,  or  Canonical  Hours.  While  in 
the  Missal,  however,  the  introits,  graduals,  tracts, 
sequences,  offertories,  communions,  as  well  as  the 
texts  of  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  Sanctus,  Benedic- 
tus,  and  .\gnus  Dei  are  both  read  by  the  celebrant 
and  sung  by  the  choir,  their  notation  is  not  given; 
only  the  accentus,  or  chants,  of  the  celebrant  and 
deacon  Iwive  the  music  furnished  (such  as  the  into- 
nations of  the  Gloria,  the  Credo,  the  chants  of  the 
various  Prefaces,  the  two  forms  of  the  Pater  Noster, 
the  various  forms  of  the  Ite,  or  Benedicamus,  the 
Bles.sing  of  the  Font,  etc.).  The  omitted  chants 
(styled  concentus),  wliich  are  to  be  sung  by  the  choir, 
are  contained  in  a  supplementary  volume  called 
the  "Graduale"  or  "Liber  Gradualis"  (anciently 
the  "Gradale").  In  like  manner,  the  Roman  Brev- 
iary, all  of  which,  practically,  is  meant  for  singing  in 
c/i«ro,  contains  no  music;  and  the  "  Antiphonarium  " 
performs  for  it  a  .serWce  .similar  to  that  of  the  "  Liber 
Gradualis"  for  the  Missal.  Just  as  the  "Liber 
Gradualis"  and  the  "  .-Vntiphonariura"  are,  for  the 
.sake  of  convenience,  separated  from  the  Missal  and 
Breviary  re.siicctively,  .so,  for  the  same  reason, 
still  further  subdivisions  have  been  made  of  each. 
Into  those  of  the  "Graduale"  we  need  not  enter. 
The  "  .\ntiplionarium "  has  been  issued  in  a  com- 
pendious form  "for  the  large  number  of  churches 
in  which  the  Canonical  Hours  of  the  Divine  Office 
are  sung  only  on  Sundays  and  Festivals".  This 
"Antiphonarium  Romanum  compendiose  redactum 
ex  editionibus  typicis"  etc.,  includes,  however,  the 
chants  for  the  Ma.s,ses  of  Christmas,  the  triduum  of 
Holy  Week,  ami  other  desired  Offices,  and  is  issued 
in  a  single  volume,  .\nother  .separate  volume  is 
the  "Vesperal",  wliich  contains  also  the  Office  of 
Compline;  and  of  the  "  Ve.speral"  a  further  com- 
pendium has  been  issued,  entitled  "Kpitome  e.x 
Vesperali  Romano".  All  the  above  volumes  are  in 
the  Ratisbon  edition.  Associated  somewhat  in  sco|x; 
with  the  " -Vntiphonarium "  is  the  "  Direclorium 
Chori",  which  has  been  described  as  furnishing  the 
ground  plan  for  the  antiplionary,  inasmuch  as  it 
gives  or  indicates  all  the  music  of  the  chants  (except 
the  respon.sories  after  the  Lessons),  the  tones  of  the 
ps;dms,  the  brief  responsories,  the  "  Venite  Exsul- 
temus",  the  "Te  Deum",  Litanies,  etc.  The  text 
of  all  the  psalms,  the  full  melody  of  the  hymns, 
and  the  new  feasts  were  added  to  the  "official  edi- 
tion" of  the  "  Directorium"  in  1888. 

The  worti  Antiphonary  does  not  therefore  clearly 
describe  the  contents  of  the  volume  or  volumes 
thus  entitled,  in  which  are  found  many  chants 
other  than  the  antiphon  (technically  so  calletl), 
such  as  hymns,  res|X)nsories,  versicles,  and  responses, 
psalms,  tlie  "Te  Deum",  the  "Venite  Adoremus", 
and  .so  forth.  The  expression  "antiphonal  chant" 
would,  however,  comprise  all  these  different  kinds 
of  texts  and  chants,  since  they  are  so  constructed 
as  to  be  sung  alternately  by  the  two  divisions  of  the 
liturgical  choir;  and  in  this  sen.se  the  word  Antipho- 
nary woulil  be  sufficiently  inclusive  in  its  implication. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  corresponding  volume  for 
the  chants  of  the  M.-uss,  namely  the  "Graduale", 
or  "Liber  Graduahs",  includes  many  other  kinds 
of  liturgical  texts  and  chants  in  addition  to  the 
graduals,  such  as  introits,  tracts,  sequences,  offer- 
tories, communions,  as  well  as  the  fixed  texts  of 
the  "Ordinarium  Missa;",  or  "Kyriale".  It  may 
be  said,  then,  that  these  two  books  receive  the  names 
"Antiphonarium"  and  "Graduale"  from  the  tech- 
nical name  of  the  most  important  chants  inchuled 
in  them.  Fundamentally  all  the  chants,  whether 
of  the  Ma-ss  or  of  the  Divine  Office,  are  sung  antiph- 
onally,  and  might,  with  etymological  propriety, 
be  comprised  in  the  one  general  musical  title  of 
"  .\ntiphonary". 

The   plain-chant   melodies   found   in   the   Roman 


ANTIPHONARY 


578 


ANTIPHONARY 


antiphonary  and  the  "Graduate"  have  received 
the  general  title  of  "  Gregorian  Chant,"  in  honour  of 
St.  Gregory  tlie  Great  (o9U-604),  to  whom  a  wide- 
spread, very  ancient,  and  most  trustworthy  tradition, 
supported  by  excellent  internal  and  external  evidence, 
ascribes  the  great  work  of  revising  and  collecting 
into  one  uniform  whole  the  various  texts  and  chants 
of  the  liturgy.  Doubtless  the  ancient  missal  con- 
tained only  tiio.se  texts  whicli  were  appointed  for 
the  celebr.-int,  and  did  not  include  the  texts  which 
were  to  be  clianted  by  the  cantor  and  clioir;  and  the 
"  Antiphonarium  Misste"  supplied  the  omitted  texts 
for  the  choir  as  well  as  the  cliants  in  which  the  texts 
were  to  be  sung.  The  immense  importance  of  St. 
Gregory's  antiplionary  is  found  in  the  enduring 
stamp  it  impressed  on  the  Roman  liturgy.  Other 
popes  had,  a  medieval  writer  assures  us,  given  at- 
tention to  the  cliants;  and  he  specifies  St.  Damasus, 
St.  Leo,  St.  Gelasius,  St.  Symmachus,  St.  John  I, 
and  Boniface  II.  It  is  true,  also,  that  the  chants 
used  at  Milan  were  styled,  in  lionour  of  St.  Ambrose 
(called  the  "Fattier  of  Church  Song"),  the  Am- 
brosian  Cliant.  But  it  is  not  known  wtiether  any 
collection  of  the  cliants  had  been  made  before  that 
of  St.  Gregory,  concerning  whicli  tiis  ninth-century 
biographer,  Jotm  the  Deacon,  wrote:  Antiphonarium 
centonem.  .  .  compilavit.  The  auttientic  antiphonary 
mentioned  by  the  biograptier  lias  not  as  yet  been 
found.  What  was  its  character?  What  is  meant 
by  cento?  In  the  century  in  whicti  John  ttie  Deacon 
wrote  liis  life  of  the  Saint,  a  cento  meant  the  liter- 
ar>'  feat  of  constructing  a  coherent  poem  out  of  scat- 
tered excerpts  from  an  ancient  auttior,  in  sucti  wise, 
for  example,  as  to  make  ttie  verses  of  Virgil  sing 
the  mystery  of  ttie  Epiptiany.  Tlie  work,  then,  of 
St.  Gregory  was  a  musical  cento,  a  compilation  (cen- 
tonem. .  .  compilavit)  of  pre-existing  material  into 
a  coherent  and  well-ordered  wtiole.  Ttiis  does  not 
necessarily  imply  that  the  musical  centonization  of 
the  melodies  was  the  special  and  original  work  of  ttie 
Saint,  as  tlie  practice  of  constructing  new  melodies 
from  separate  portions  of  older  ones  tiad  already  been 
in  vogue  two  or  three  centuries  earlier  ttian  liis  day. 
But  is  it  clear  ttiat  ttie  cento  was  one  of  melodies 
as  well  as  of  texts?  In  answer  it  might  indeed  be 
said  that  in  the  earliest  ages  of  ttie  Cliurch  ttie  chants 
must  have  been  so  very  simple  in  form  that  they 
could  easily  be  committed  to  memory;  and  that 
most  of  ttie  sub.sequentty  developed  antiphonal 
melodies  could  be  reduced  to  a  much  smaller  number 
of  types,  or  typical  melodies,  and  could  thus  also 
be  memorized.  And  yet  it  is  scarcely  credible  that 
the  developed  melodies  of  St.  Gregory's  time  had 
never  possessed  a  musical  notation,  had  never  been 
committed  to  writing.  What  made  his  antiphonary 
BO  very  u.seful  to  chanters  (as  Jolin  the  Deacon 
esteemed  it)  was  probalily  liis  careful  presentation 
of  a  revi.sed  text  witli  a  revised  melody,  written 
eitlier  in  ttie  characters  used  by  the  ancient  authors 
(as  set  down  in  Boethius)  or  in  neumatic  notation. 
We  know  tliat  St.  Augustine,  sent  to  England  by 
tlie  great  Pope,  carried  with  liini  a  copy  of  the  pre- 
cious antiptionary,  and  founded  at  Canterbury  a 
flourisliing  .school  of  singing.  Tliat  ttiis  antiptionary 
contained  music  we  know  from  the  decree  of  the 
Second  Council  of  Clovestioo  (747)  directing  that  tlie 
celebration  of  ttie  feasts  of  Our  Lord  stiould.  in  res- 
pect to  baptism,  Masses,  and  music  (in  eantilcnic 
modo)  follow  tlie  mettiod  of  ttie  book  "whicli  we  re- 
ceived from  tlie  Roman  Ctiurcli".  Tliat  ttiis  book 
was  the  Gregorian  antiptionary  is  clear  from  the 
testimony  of  lOgljert,  Bishop  of  York  (732-76G), 
who  in  ins  "  De  Institutione  Catliolica"  .speaks  of 
"ui  "-^"''P''"""""'""  and  "Mi.ssale"  which  ttie 
'  ble8.sed  flregory.  .  .  sent  to  us  by  our  teacher, 
bles.sed    Augiistine". 

It  will  be  impossible  to  trace  here  the  progress  of 


the  Gregorian  antiptionary  throughout  Europe, 
wtiicti  resulted  finally  in  tlie  fact  ttiat  ttie  liturgy 
of  Western  I'Jurope,  witti  a  very  few  exceptions,  finds 
itself  based  fundamentalty  on  ttie  work  of  St.  Greg- 
ory, wtiose  labour  comprised  not  merely  ttie  sacra- 
mentary  and  ttie  "  Antiptionarium  Missa;",  but 
extended  also  to  ttie  Di\'ine  Ofliee.  Briefly,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  next  tiiglity  important  step  in  the 
history  of  the  antiphonary  was  its  introduction  into 
some  dioceses  of  France  where  ttie  liturgy  had  been 
Gallican,  witti  ceremonies  related  to  ttiose  of  Milan 
and  witli  chants  develojjed  by  newer  melodies.  From 
ttie  year  754  may  ha  datetl  ttie  ctiange  in  favour  of  ttie 
Roman  liturgy.  St.  Chrodegang,  Bistiop  of  Mctz, 
on  tiis  return  from  an  embassy  to  Rome,  introduced 
the  Roman  liturgy  into  tiis  diocese  and  founded  ttie 
Chant  School  of  Metz.  Subsequently,  under  Ctiarte- 
magne,  French  monks  went  to  Rome  to  study  ttie 
Gregorian  tradition  there,  and  some  Roman  teacliers 
visited  France.  Ttie  interesting  story  of  Ekketiard 
concerning  Petrus  and  Romanus  is  not  now  credited, 
Romanus  being  considered  a  myttiical  personage; 
but  a  certain  Petrus,  according  to  Notker,  was  sent 
to  Rome  by  Charlemagne,  and  finally,  zX  St.  Gall, 
trained  the  monks  in  ttie  Roman  style.  Besides 
Metz  and  St.  Gall,  other  important  schools  of  chant 
were  founded  at  Rouen  and  Soissons.  In  ttie  course 
of  time  new  melodies  were  added,  at  first  character- 
ized by  the  simplicity  of  ttie  older  tradition,  but 
gradually  tjecoming  more  free  in  extended  intervals. 
Witti  respect  to  German  manuscripts,  ttie  earliest 
are  found  in  a  style  of  neumatic  notation  different 
from  ttiat  of  St.  Gait,  wtiite  ttie  St.  Gall  manuscripts 
are  derived  not  directly  from  the  Italian  but  from 
the  Iristi- Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  probable  ttiat  tiefore 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  (at  whicti  period 
the  St.  Gall  notation  began  to  triumph  in  ttie  German 
cliurches)  ttie  Iristi  and  Englisti  missionaries  broiigtit 
witti  ttiem  the  notation  of  ttie  English  antiptionary. 
It  would  take  too  mucti  space  to  record  liere  ttie 
multiplication  of  antiptionaries  and  ttieir  gradual 
deterioration,  both  in  text  and  in  chant,  from  ttie 
Roman  standard.  The  sctiool  of  Metz  began  ttie 
process  early.  Commissioned  by  Louis  ttie  Pious 
to  compile  a  "  Graduate "  and  antiphonary,  Ama- 
larius,  a  priest  of  Metz,  found  a  copy  of  the  Roman 
antiphonary  in  the  monastery  of  Corbie,  and  placed 
in  liis  own  compilation  on  M  when  he  followed  I  tie 
Metz  antiphonary,  R  wtien  tie  followed  the  Roman, 
and  an  I  C  (asking  Indulgence  and  Charity)  wtien 
he  followed  Iiis  own  ideas.  His  changes  in  tlie 
"Graduate"  were  few;  in  ttie  antiptionary,  many. 
Part  of  tlie  revision  wtiich,  together  witti  Elisagarus, 
tie  made  in  ttie  responsories  as  against  ttic  Roman 
mettiotl,  were  finally  adopted  in  the  Roman  an- 
tiphonary. In  ttie  twelfth  century  tlie  commission 
establistied  by  St.  Bernard  to  revise  the  antijilio- 
naries  of  Citeaux  criticized  with  undue  sc\ciity 
ttie  wortv  of  Amalarius  and  Elisagarus  and  wit  hat 
jiroduced  a  faulty  antiphonary  for  ttie  Cistercian 
Order.  Ttie  multipHcation  of  antiptionaries.  tlie 
differences  in  style  of  notation,  ttie  variations  in 
melody  and  occa.sionalty  in  text,  need  not  be  furttier 
described  here.  In  Krancc,  especially,  ttie  multipli- 
cation of  liturgies  sulj.sciiuently  became  so  great, 
ttiat  when  Dom  Gu(5ranger,  in  the  middle  of  ttie  last 
century,  started  the  work  of  introducing  ttie  Roman 
liturgy  into  that  country,  sixty  out  of  eighty  dio- 
ceses had  tticir  own  local  lireviarics.  Of  the  recourse 
had  to  medieval  iiiaiiiiscri|its,  tlie  reproduction  of 
various  antijihonarics  and  graduals  by  Pi^re  Lani- 
billotte,  by  ttie  "Plain  Song  and  Medieval  Music 
Society",  and  especially  by  Dom  Mocqucreau  in 
the  "  PaliSograptiie  Mu.sicale",  founded  eighteen 
years  ago  (wtiicti  tias  already  given  phototypic 
reproductions  of  antiphonaries  of  Einsiedoln.  of 
St.  Gall,  of  Hartker,  of  Montpellier,  of  the  twelfth- 


■no-     B  enedtctce-  forrteC '^ommo- 

ue-nrui-    In  a^quv    doniMio  ■       Yin?TtC' 
/  /^  s  /    y  /  ^^jr  .    /    /   ^    ./^ 


B 


/ 


en  edicinr  j/* 

/    /f"^^    /    '*''_/.  ^'    /  /^-^  /     /  / 
yuh^V  ~Dom\Tio         Benedxctvre   fa.cer^ 

'^    ^      ..^,     /^       r    fi^  J.  tir        .y  V  v^v^ 

do-ceC  x>om  177 1  Jlomiy^^'        $>e-nc-aici 

/   '/    ^   ,     r    "'^  y-'       /    /^  ,/^  /^. 
S^  ^nvrni^e-  I'vproTum    ~oorninO' 

Bcnedictre-  TanctT    ^  hutniteC 


FACSIMILE  PAGE  FROM  ANTIPHONARY  OF  ST.  GREGORY 

VIII    CK.NTUnV,    MONASTERY    OK   »T.    GALL.       FROM    TOE    COLLECTION    Or    LAMBILLOTTE,    1851 


B 


ANTIPHONARY 


579 


ANTIPHONARY 


oentury  monastic  antiphonary  found  in  the  library 
of  the  Chapter  of  Lucta,  whicli,  now  in  course  of 
publication,  illustrates  tlie  duidonian  notation 
that  everywhere  replaccil,  save  in  the  school  of  St. 
Gall,  the  ambiguous  method  of  writing  tlie  neums 
in  campo  ti})i'rto.  as  well  as  the  propo.sed  publication 
in  facsimile  by  tlie  ISciiciliilines  of  .Stanbrook,  of 
the  thirteentli-ceutury  Worcester  antiphonary  (.-l/i- 
tiphonalr  Munasliriim  IViyornicnxc)  it  is  not  necessary 
to  speak  in  detail.  This  appeal  to  early  traililion 
has  resulted  in  tlie  action  of  Pius  X  whicli  has  taken 
away  its  official  .s.anction  from  the  Ratisbon  edition. 
The  Ratisbon  "Graduale",  founiled  on  the  Medicean 
(which  gave  the  chants  as  abbreviated  and  changed 
by  .\nerio  and  Suriano),  and  tlie  "  .\ntiphonariuin" 
(which  was  ba.se<l  on  the  Antiphonale  of  Venice, 
1585,  with  the  respon.sories  of  Matins  ba.sed  on  the 
Antwerp  edition  of  1611),  will  be  replaced  by  the 
chants  as  found  in  the  older  codices. 

That  thew'ord  antiphonarium  is,  orwas,cjuiteela.stic 
in  its  appHcation,  is  shown  by  the  iiitenstuig  remark 
of  Amalarius  in  his  "Liber  de  online  .Viitiphonarii", 
written  in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  centurj'.  The 
work  which  in  Metz  was  called  "  Antiphonarius" 
was  di\'ided  into  three  in  Rome:  "  What  we  call 
'Gradale'  they  style  'Cantatorius';  and  this,  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  ancient  custom,  is  still  bound 
in  a  single  volume  in  some  of  their  churches.  The 
remainder  they  divide  into  two  parts:  the  one  con- 
taining the  responsories  is  called  'Respon.soriale', 
while  the  other,  containing  antiphons,  is  called 
'Antiphonarius'.  I  have  followed  our  custom,  and 
have  placed  together  (mUtim)  the  responsories 
and  the  antiphons  according  to  the  order  of  the  sea- 
sons In  whicn  our  feasts  are  celebratetl"  (P.  L.,  CV, 
1245).  The  word  "cantatory"  explains  itself  as 
a  volume  containing  chants;  it  was  also  called 
"Gradale",  becau.se  the  chanter  stood  on  a  step 
(gradus)  of  the  ambo,  or  pulpit,  while  singing  the 
response  after  the  Epistle.  Other  ancient  names 
for  the  antiphonary  seem  to  have  been  "  Liber 
Officialis"  (Office  Book)  and  "Capitulare"  (a  term 
sometimes  used  for  the  book  containing  the  Epistles 
and  Go.spels).  The  changes  in  the  antiphonary 
resulting  from  the  reform  of  the  Hreviary  ordered  by 
the  Council  of  Trent  and  carried  out  under  Pius  V 
will  be  appropriately  treated  under  "Breviary". 
Finally,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  term  anti- 
phonarium, printed  as  a  title  to  many  volumes, 
18  made  to  cover  a  very  varied  selection  from  the 
complete  antiphonary.  Sometimes  it  means  prac- 
tically a  "Vesperale"  (sometimes  with  Tcrce  added; 
sometimes  with  various  proces.sional  chants  anil 
blessings  taken  from  the  "  Processionale "  and 
"Rituale").  The.se  volumes  meet  the  local  usages 
in  certain  tlioceses  with  respect  to  Church  services, 
and  offer  a  practical  manual  for  the  worshipper, 
excluding  portions  of  the  Divine  Office  not  sung  in 
choir  in  some  places  and  including  those  portions 
which  are  sung.  (See  also  names  of  Antiphonaries, 
as   .\u.M.\oH,   B.vNOOH,   etc.) 

Much  spare  wouM  be  requireti  for  even  a  partially  satis- 
factory hil)lioKraphy,  which  should  comprise  pome  notice  of 
the  publicution  of  froRnientarv  and  of  complete  source.** 
(aniiphoimriet  of  the  Ma.ss  and  of  the  Divine  Office),  the 
commeiitarios  upon  them,  the  discu,'«i»ions  raised  concerning 
them,  and  the  present-day  activity  in  photot>-pic  reproduc- 
tion. Tlie  following  brief  list  may  prove  ser\'iceable.  partly 
because  of  its  indications  of  fuller  bibliographic  information, 
partly  because  of  the  comparatively  easy  accessibility  of  the 
works  mentionefl:  (1)  CVtmplete  works  of  Tommasi  (Thoma- 
sitis).  ed.  Vkzzosi  (Itomc,  1740).  IV,  V.  with  publishe.1  texts, 
editorial  prefaces  and  notes,  and  excellent  index  at  enfl  of 
Vol.  VII:  (J)  ZArcARlA.  liibUnthrcn  Riluali,  (Rome.  1770). 
I.  29  (,\nt.  of  Moss).  Uil  (Ant.  of  Office),  with  many  referencea. 
(3)  MioNK.  /*.  L.,  with  publishc<l  texts.  e<hlorial  prefaces,  and 
notes.  I-XXVIII,  ti:i7-8.iO:  CIV,  320-.M();  CV,  1243-1311;; 
CLXXXII,  1121-32;  LXXII,  57»-(K)«.  (4)  IIotiiam  in 
Dirt,  of  Christ.  Anliq,  with  conrlense*!  presentation  of  the 
general  character  of  an  Ant.  of  Ma.ss  and  an  .\nt.  of  the  Office. 
(5)  Frere,  The  Sftrum  (Jrttduat  orul  the  Orftjorian  AntiphomUe 
Mittarum,  an  excellent  dissertation  extracted  from  the 
L— 37 


OraduaU  SarUburiente  published  for  the  Plainsong  and 
Medieval  Music  .Society  (London,  1895),  101  quarto  pages, 
with  historical  index  and  four  facsimiles,  (li)  The  magniticent 
series  of  the  faUugraphie  Mugicale,  published  (luarterly  (^in 
(luarto)  for  the  last  eighteen  years  under  the  direction  of  its 
founder,  Dom  Mocquereau,  provuled  with  phototypic  reprofiuc- 
tions  of  complete  antiphonaries  with  elabomtc  prefaces 
partly  liturgical  and  partly  musical  in  character  (I  and 
VII  are  out  of  print).  It  contains  also  the  Aiiibrosian  An- 
tiphonary (V,  VI)  of  the  Hritish  Museum  (Codex  Aildit.. 
34,209)  in  plain-song  stiuare  notation,  with  most  extensive 
commentary.  In  ail<lition  to  the  complete  sources  repro- 
liuceti,  the  Palt'oy.  Mua.  contains  also  many  illustrations  of 
fragmentary  character,  as  examples  of  the  various  notations 
an»T  signs  and  letters  used  in  the  evolution  of  the  plain-chant 
notation.  (7)  The  Introduction  Gi-ntrale  of  the  J'uUog.  Mus., 
1,  1.3-17,  contains  a  partial  list  of  publications  (Noua  n'muna 
nullement  la  pretention  d'etre  compteL  la  Hate  aerait  intermiu' 
able  .  .  .)  from  about  the  midille  of  the  nineteenth  century 
down  to  the  year  1889.  with  facsimiles;  and  (8.  9)  a  brief 
list  of  works  published  with  ancient  notation  illustrated,  from 
1708  to  1807.  (8)  .SOU1.1.1ER,  /.€  plain  chant,  huil„ire  el  thlorie 
(Tournai,  1894),  vi,  ix,  xvi,  xviii,  xix.  (9)  Wagner,  tr.  Hour, 
Oriffine  el  dt-veloppement  du  chant  liturffique  juwiu'ii  la  fin  du 
moyen  doe  (Tournai.  1904),  with  history  of  the  musical  evolu- 
tion of  Mass  and  Office,  u  chapter  on  the  Gregorian  contro- 
versy, etc.,  and  a  Supplement  containing  a  tabulated  state- 
ment of  Lea  textea  de  l' Antiphonarium  A/mso-,  313-338.  (10) 
l.EcLElicg  in  Diet,  darch.  chrH.  (I'aris,  1905),  ».  v.  ylntipAo- 
naire  and  AntiphoTUile  dii  gregorien  followed  by  extensive 
bibliography. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Antiphonary,  Gregorhn. — It  is  no  longer  possi- 
ble to  reconstruct  completely  a  primitive  Christian 
antiphonarj';  by  a  careful  study  of  the  text,  how- 
ever, we  can  establish  the  fact  of  its  existence  at  a 
remote  date.  The  extant  historical  texts  permit  us 
to  infer  that  there  have  been,  from  the  very  earliest 
Christian  times,  groups  antl  .series  of  groups  of  anti- 
phons. The  original  collection  of  melodies,  how- 
ever, grew  up  rather  as  the  result  of  changes  and 
combinations  than  of  additions  in  the  strict  sense. 
A  first  and  very  ancient  distinction  .seems  to  be  that 
tirawn  between  "idiomelodic"  antiphon,  or  those 
fitted  with  special  melodies,  and  "automelodic" 
anthems,  ailapted,  by  means  of  certain  variations,  to 
a  common  type  of  melody  more  or  less  frequently 
recurrent  in  tne  collection. 

The  fist  of  melodies  was,  therefore,  limited;  indeed, 
at  the  early  period  in  question,  oral  tradition  may 
well  have  sulliced  to  hand  down  a  certain  number 
of  musical  formulas.  When,  later  on,  the  eccle- 
siastical chants  had  been  co-ordinated,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  provide  them  with  a  notation.  We 
leant,  from  several  texts,  that  from  the  fourth  cen- 
tury onward  the  singers  commonly  u.sed  either  a  book 
or  a  page  bearing  the  notation  of  the  liturgical 
passage  which  they  were  to  sing;  in  many  churches, 
liowever,  about  that  time  they  had  only  the  words 
before  them,  without  the  melody.  The  oldest  trace 
of  this  discipline  is  to  be  found  in  an  Egyptian 
papyrus  belonging  to  the  collection  of  the  .\reh- 
duKe  Rainier.  It  is  ten  inches  wide  by  four  inches 
long  (2G  cm.  x  11  cm.);  the  hamlwriting  points  to  about 
the  year  300.  On  examination,  the  papyrus  proves 
to  have  been  long  in  u.se,  the  fingers  of  the  singers 
having  made  holes  where  thev  held  it.  There  is  no 
great  difficulty  in  reading  it;  tlie  language  used  is  the 
common  Greek.  We  give  the  restored  text  and  the 
translation: 

'  0  f(vin)9(U  iv  Bt)SXe#;i  Kal  dcOTpo^fls  iv  Nofap^T, 
(taT0()t7)<ras  Iv  tj  raXiXoI?,  etSofUv  arttuiov  ii  uvpavov. 
(t<^)  Aaripoi  ipav^teros,  irot^ws  dypavXoOvTf^  ^Oavnaaav. 
(oi))  yopi'W((T6t^et  (\f)oV  66io  t:.j  llarpl,  aWriXouia'  5i{a 
Tiji  Ticji  Koi  Ti()  ayii^i  llnviiaTi.  a\Xr;Xoi/ia,  oXXTjXot/ia, 
aXX7;Xoi)ia 

Tii^i  i.  "EitXf/tTis  6  4710s  'Iwdfre!  i  /3o7rTi<rri)5  i  KtipHat 
lurivoiav  iv  &\if  ry  K6aiuf  (it  i<peaiv  tCiv  duapriuv  iip.u>v. 

— "He  who  was  born  in  Bethlehem,  who  was  reared 
at  Nazareth,  and  who  liveil  in  Galilee.  We  beheld 
a  portent  out  of  heaven.  The  shepherds  who  kept 
watch  wondered  at  sight  of  the  star,  railing  on 
their  knees,   they  said:     Glory  be  to  The   Kather, 


ANTIPHONARY 


580 


ANTIPHONARY 


illeliiia;  Glon-  be  to  Tlie  vSon  and  to  The  Holy  Spirit, 
Alleluia,  Alleluia.   Alleluia." 

"  Tybi  the  .')th  (2(5  Dec).  Great  is  Saint  John  the 
Baptist,  who  preached  penance  in  the  whole  world, 
for  remission  of  our  sins. " 

These  anti|)hons  were,  probably,  connected  with 
the  liturgj'  of  the  Mass;  the  longer  one,  for  the  Feast 
of  the  Epipliany,  which  carried  with  it  the  commem- 
oration of  the  baptism  of  Clirist  by  St.  Jolm  the  Bap- 
tist, was  divided  into  three  parts,  serving  the  pur- 
pose, successively,  of  refrains  to  sections  of  psalms. 
The  shorter  one  was  a  simple  acrostic  and  was  re- 
peated after  each  \erse. 

The  document  just  transcribed  is  now  the  sole 
contemporary  manuscript  of  the  ancient  liturgy. 
For  a  somewhat  less  remote  period  we  possess, 
fortunately,  one  of  very  different  importance, 
namely,  tlie  antiphonary  known  as  the  Gregorian. 

The  attribution  to  Pope  Gregory  I  (590-604)  of 
an  official  codification  of  the  collection  of  antiphons 
occurring  in  the  Divine  Office  has  at  frequent  in- 
tervals, exercised  the  wit  of  the  learned.  At  the  end 
of  the  ninth  century  John  the  Deacon  (d.  c.  882) 
ascribed  to  Gregory  I  the  compilation  of  the  books 
of  music  used  by  the  schola  cantorutn  established  at 
Rome  by  that  pope.  The  statement,  formal  as  it 
was,  left  room  for  discussion.  GoussainviUe  was  the 
first  to  express  (1685)  a  doubt  as  to  the  authenticity 
of  the  Gregorian  antiphonary.  He  was  followed  by 
EUies  du  Pin,  by  Dom  Denys  de  Sainte  Marthe,  and 
by  Casimir  Oudin,  who  added  nothing  noteworthy 
to  the  arguments  of  GoussainviUe.  In  1729,  J. 
Georges  d'Eckhart  suggested  Pope  Gregory  II 
(715-731)  as  the  author  of  a  work  wliich  tradition 
had  for  centuries  ascribed  to  Gregory  I;  his  argu- 
ments were  more  or  less  tri\'ial.  In  1749,  Dominic 
Georgi  took  up  the  defence  of  the  traditional  opinion; 
among  other  arguments  he  brought  forward  a  text 
whose  full  bearing  on  the  point  at  issue  he  hardly 
seems  to  have  grasped.  This  was  a  text  of  Egbert 
of  York  wliich  Georgi  transferred  to  the  end  of  his 
book,  in  the  form  of  a  note,  so  that  it  was  neither 
seen  nor  made  use  of.  When,  three  years  later, 
Vezzozi  again  took  up  the  question,  he  also  over- 
looked this  particular  text,  and  voluntarily  deprived 
himself  of  an  important  argument  in  favour  of  the 
authorship  of  Gregory  I.  In  1772  Gallicioli  followed 
in  the  footsteps  of  Vezzozi,  but  renewed  the  latter's 
concessions  to  the  adversaries  of  Gregory  I,  nor  did 
he  make  any  secret  of  his  surprise  at  the  silence  of 
Gregory  of  Tours,  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  Bede,  con- 
cerning that  pope's  Uturgical  and  musical  labours. 
Being  only  partially  con\'inced,  he  refrained  from 
any  oonclusion,  and  left  the  matter  undecided. 

It  was  reopened  by  Gerbort  in  1774,  and  by 
Zaccaria  in  1781,  the  latter  of  whom  at  last  lit  upon 
the  text  of  Egbert.  Between  1781  and  1890  no  one 
seems  to  have  discussed,  critically,  the  ascription  of 
the  antiphonary  to  any  particular  pope.  Indeed, 
the  question  was  supposed  to  have  been  settled  by 
the  discovery  of  the  antiphonary  itself,  which  was 
said  to  be  none  other  than  the  St.  Gall  MS.  359  of 
the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  containing  an  antiphonary 
between  pages  24  and  158.  This  illusion  passed 
through  various  phases  from  1837  to  1848,  when 
Daiijou,  in  his  turn,  discovered  the  Gregorian 
antiphonary  in  a  MontpcUier  manuscript  of  the 
tenth  or  eleventh  century.  In  1851  the  Jesuit 
Lambillotte  published  a  facsimile  of  the  St.  Gall 
manuscript,  but  the  Gregorian  question  made  no 
real  progress. 

The  discussion  concerning  the  antiphonary  was 
suddenly  revived,  in  1890,  by  a  public  lecture  de- 
livered before  the  Belgian  Academy  on  27  Octo- 
ber, 1899,  by  Monsieur  F.  A.  Gevaert.  The  argu- 
ment of  the  famous  savant  has  been  thus  sum- 
marized by  Horn  Morin:  "The  productive  period  of 


church  musical  art  extends  from  the  pontificate  of 
St.  Celestine  (422-432)  to  about  the  year  700,  anH 
is  divided  into  two  epoclis.  That  of  simple  chant, 
the  latest  development  of  Gripco-Roman  music,  in- 
cludes the  last  years  of  the  Western  Empire,  and  the 
whole  duration  of  the  Gothic  kingilom  (425-563). 
The  second,  that  of  ornate  chant,  coincitles  with  the 
preponderance  at  Rome  of  Byzantine  policy  and  art. 
VVe  meet  with  only  one  name,  throughout  the  latter 
epoch,  with  which  the  creation  of  the  Roman  an- 
tiphonary seems  to  be  connected;  it  is  to  Sergius  I 
(687-701)  that  the  honour  belongs  not  only  of  having 

Cut  the  last  touch  to  the  Roman  Uturgical  collections, 
ut  also  of  having  recast  all  the  ancient  chants  in 
accordance  with  a  uniform  melodic  style,  in  harmony 
with  the  tendencies  and  tastes  of  the  Byzantine 
influence.  Finally,  it  was  most  probably  the  Syrian, 
Gregory  III  (731-741).  the  last  but  one  of  the  Greek 
popes,  who  co-ordinated  and  united  all  the  chants 
of  the  Mass  in  a  collection  similar  to  that  which  his 
predecessor,  Agatho,  had  caused  to  be  compiled  for 
the  anthems  of  the  Day-Hours.  As  to  the  first 
Gregory,  no  e\-idence  prior  to  that  of  John  the 
Deacon  alludes  to  the  part  ascribed  to  him.  But 
there  is  evidence  for  the  popes  of  Greek  origin  who 
lived  at  the  end  of  the  eiglith  century,  notably  for 
Agatho  and  Leo  II.  Indeed,  in  respect  of  the  chant 
of  the  Church,  it  is  very  probable  that  the  great 
pope  took  no  immediate  interest  in  this  part  of 
divine  worship;  much  less  do  the  antiphonary  and 
the  sacramentary  which  bear  his  name  agree  in 
any  way  with  the  ecclesiastical  calendar  of  St.  Greg- 
ory's time;  if  they  are  at  all  rightly  called  Gregorian, 
it  must  be  in  reference  either  to  Gregory  II  (715-731) 
or,  more  probably,  to  his  successor,  Gregory  III,  who 
died  in  741." 

This  theory  called  forth  many  refutations.  Dom 
G.  Morin  set  himself  to  prove  that  the  traditional 
ascription  was  well  founded.  To  this  end  he  drew 
up,  in  clironological  order,  a  kind  of  catena  of  the 
Iiistorical  texts  on  wliich  the  tradition  rested.  In 
addition  to  the  statement  of  John  the  Deacon, 
he  brought  forward  that  of  Walafrid  Strabo 
(d.  840),  whose  meaning  is  perfectly  clear.  These 
texts,  however,  are  of  a  late  date.  The  pre- 
viously mentioned  text  of  Egbert,  Bishop  of  York 
(732-766),  is  nearly  a  hundred  years  earlier. 
In  his  dialogue  entitled  "De  institutione  ecclesias- 
ticA",  and  in  a  sermon  for  the  second  fast  of  the 
fourth  month,  Egbert  formally  ascribes  the  com- 
position of  both  the  antiphonary  and  the  sacra- 
mentary to  Saint  Gregory,  the  author  of  the 
conversion  of  England:  "noster  didascalus  beatus 
Gregorius".  At  a  somewhat  earlier  period,  Aldhehn 
of  Sherburne  (d.  709)  also  bore  witness  to  St.  Greg- 
ory's authorsliip  of  the  sacramentary,  but  said  noth- 
ing concerning  the  antiphonary.  In  another  essay 
Dom  Morin  re\'iewed  critically  all  the  texts  relating 
to  the  antiphonary  known  as  Gregorian.  Though 
mostly  of  a  late  date,  they  owe  to  their  mutual 
agreement  an  appreciable  historical  value.  There 
are,  however,  other  and  more  ancient  texts,  which, 
it  would  seem,  ought  to  close  the  controversy.  Dom 
Morin's  catena  seems  to  end  w-ith  Egbert,  between 
whom  and  St.  Gregory  I  there  was  an  interval  of  at 
least  one  hundred  and  ten  years.  This,  whatever 
an  optimistic  writer  might  bo  led  to  say,  was  no  in- 
considerable space  of  time;  for  an  liistorian  more 
concerned  witti  truth  than  with  fancy  it  was  im- 
possible to  regard  it  as  of  no  importance.  Monsieur 
Gevaert  laid  stress  (1895)  on  the  silence  of  those 
writers  who  might  be  expected  to  supply  the  most 
direct  e\ndence.  The  silence,  as  it  proved,  was  less 
complete  than  had  been  supposecl.  In  the  very 
year  (732)  that  Egbert  was  raised  to  the  See  of  York 
another  prelate,  Acca  of  Hexham,  was  forced  to 
resign  the  olhce  which  he  hail  held  since  709.     Bede 


ANTIPODES 


581 


ANTIPODES 


appears  to  have  been  one  of  Egbert's  friends  from 
that  time,  onward,  which  enables  him  to  inform  us 
(H.  K.,  V,  :iO)  that  Acca  had  learned  tlie  eccle- 
siastical chant  from  a  certain  Maban,  who  luul  ac- 
quired it,  himself,  while  living  in  Kent,  from  the 
successors  of  the  disciples  of  the  lilessed  Pope  Greg- 
ory. Acca  had,  in  fact,  spent  twelve  years  in 
Maban's  school.  If  we  take  732  as  the  last  of  these 
twelve  years,  it  follows  that  the  first  lessons  given 
by  Maban  go  back  to  the  year  720,  at  which  date 
Maban  had  had  time  to  be  trained  by  tlio  successors 
of  the  ilisciples  of  Pope  Gregory.  Gregory-  1 1  became 
pope  in  715;  a  space  of  five  years  is,  evidently,  not 
easy  to  reconcile  with  the  plain  meaning  of  what 
Beae  says.  It  is  true  that,  at  a  stretch,  it  might 
be  understood  thus:  Maban  was  taught  in  Kent, 
between  715  and  720,  by  pupils  trained  on  the  spot 
by  Roman  singers  sent  by  Gregory  II.  But,  apart 
from  the  fact  that  no  such  mission  has  been  ascribed 
to  Gregory  II,  the  words  of  Bede  are  too  plain  to 
permit  this  evasion  of  the  difhculty.  Bede  in  fact 
tells  us  that  the  chant  taught  by  Maban  (about  720) 
was  simply  a  reform  of  the  .same  chant  which  hail 
undergone  certain  changes  by  long  use.  It  is  evi- 
dently impossible,  then,  to  explain  how,  between 
715  and  720.  Maban  could  instruct  .\cca  in  a  chant 
which  had  been  long  in  use,  and  which  had  so  fallen 
away  from  its  purity  as  to  need  reform,  when,  if  its 
promoter  were  Gregory  II,  it  dated,  at  the  earliest, 
from  five  years  previous.  It  seems,  therefore,  as 
though  these  words  of  Bede  were  equivalent  to  an 
early  .\nglo-Saxon  ascription  of  the  ecclesiastical 
chant  to  Pope  Ciregory  I. 

Speaking  of  Putta,  Bishop  of  Rochester  (669-676), 
the  same  historian  says  (H.  E.,  IV,  2):  "lie  was 
above  all  things  skilful  in  tlie  art  of  singing  in  church 
according  to  the  Roman  fashion,  which  he  had 
learned  from  the  disciples  of  the  Bles.sed  Pope  Greg- 
ory". There  can  be  no  doubt  in  this  case,  nor  can 
anyone  but  Gregory  I  be  meant.  Thus  the  gap 
between  St.  Gregory  and  Egbert  (604-732)  becomes 
CTeatly  lessened,  almost,  indeed,  by  a  half,  and 
Bede's  silence  can  no  longer  be  appealed  to  in  con- 
nexion with  the  work  of  St.  Gregory.  E\'idence  for 
his  authorship  of  the  ecclesiastical  chant  is  met  with 
at  a  period  so  near  Gregory's  own  time  that  the 
thesis  is  critically  tenable.  Does  it  follow  that 
St.  Gregory  was,  as  John  the  Deacon  says,  the  com- 
piler of  the  antiphonary?  There  are,  at  least,  good 
reasons  for  thinking  so.  One  last  argument  may  be 
cited  on  his  behalf.  The  series  of  antiphons  in  the 
antiphonary,  intended  to  be  sung  at  the  Communion 
during  Lent,  are  for  the  most  part  taken  from  the 
Book  of  Psalms.  Their  order  reveals  the  idea  that 
governed  the  choice  of  them.  With  certain  excep- 
tions, to  be  referred  to  presently,  the  antiphons 
follow  one  another  in  the  numencal  order  of  the 
Psalms  from  which  they  are  drawn.  The  series  thus 
obtained  begins  on  .Vsh  Wcdnestlay  and  ends  on  the 
Friday  in  Passion  Week,  forming  a  regular  succession 
of  Psalms  from  I  to  XXVI,  except  for  the  inter- 
ruptions caused  (1)  by  intercalations  and  (2)  by 
lacuna-. 

These  intercalations  affect  (1)  the  five  Sundays, 
(2)  the  six  Tliursilays,  (3)  the  Saturday  following 
Ash  Wednesday.  The  exclusion  of  the  Sumlays  is 
explained  by  tiie  adoption  of  a  ferial,  or  week-<Iay, 
sequence;  that  of  the  Thursdays  by  the  .simple  ob- 
servation that  the  Tliur.s<hiys  were  not  included  in 
the  liturgical  .system  for  Ixnt  at  the  period  when 
Ps;ilms  i  to  xxvi  were  diWded  between  the  other 
days  of  the  week.  We  learn  from  the  "Liber 
Pontificalis"  that  it  was  (iregory  II  who  intro- 
duced the  Thursday  of  each  week  into  the  liturgical 
system  of  Lenten  ^Iasses.  Now  it  [iroves  to  be  these 
very  Thursdays  which  interrupt  the  order  that  the 
remaining  days  of  the  week  would  otherwise  show. 


No  more  precise  and  decisive  accumulation  of  proof 
could  possibly  be  wished  for.  We  thus  grasp  the 
chronological  element  at  the  moment  of  its  inter- 
polation into  the  very  heart  of  the  antiphonary. 
Gregory  II — therefore  still  less  Gregory  111 — is  not 
the  original  author  of  tlie  compilation  whereon  he 
has  left  his  mark  by  misunderstanding  the  principle 
wliich  governed  its  original  formation.  Tlie  musicd 
compilation  known  as  the  antiphonary  is  therefore 
not  due  to  Gregory  II,  nor  is  it  from  him  tliat  it 
has  hocoiiie  known  as  the  Gregorian  antiplionary. 
Its  existence  prior  to  his  time  is  proved  by  the 
intercalation  of  the  Thursdays  which  interrupt  the 
continuity  of  an  harmonious  arrangement,  to  which 
Gregory  II  paiil  no  attention,  though  possibly  he 
may  rather  have  wished  to  respect  it  as  a  work 
thenceforward  irreforniable,  as  a  traditional  deposit 
which  he  refused  to  disturb  and  re-order.  It  is  not 
easy  to  say,  or  even  to  convey  an  idea  of,  what  this 
primitive  edition  of  the  antiplionary  may  have  con- 
tained; but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  contained 
in  their  actual  order  the  Lenten  communion-aiiti- 
phons,  and  is  certainly  anterior  to  Gregory  III  and  to 
Gregory  II.  This  fact  alone  proves  the  existence 
of  an  antiphonal  collection,  known  as  the  Gregorian 
antiphonary,  prior  to  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  II. 
Gev.ert,  Le  Chant  Hturuiqiu:  de  I'tylise  latine,  in  the  Bien 
Public  (23.  24  December.  ItWUl;  Dosi  .Morin,  Le  role  de  Sninl 
Grfqoire  le  Grarul  dana  Ui  formation  du  repertoire  mii«ical  de 
Vfglite  latine,  in  the  Hevue  biiudictine  (1890,  p.  62  sqq.;  193- 
2(M:  289-323;  337-309).  .Some  of  these  essays  have  been 
conecte<l  under  the  title  of  Les  v/rit'thUa  oriffineg  du  chant 
nrfgorien  (Marcdsous,  1S95,  octavo;  2J  eil..  1904);  Grihar, 
llat  Gregor  der  Grouse  den  Kirchengceang  rcformirt,  in  Zeit- 
achrift  far  kalhol.  Theol.  (1890);  CJkv.krt,  La  milopH  anluiwe 
dans  le  chant  de  I'l'tiliae  latine  (Ghent,  189.3,  octavo);  Leclkrcq, 
in  the  Diet,  d'arch.  chrli.  s.  v.  antipfumaire  (I,  col.  2440-62). 

H.  Leclehcq. 

Antipodes. — Speculations  concerning  the  rotundity 
of  tlie  earth  and  the  possible  existence  of  human 
beings  "with  their  feet  turned  towards  ours"  were 
of  interest  to  the  Fatliers  of  the  Early  Church  only 
in  so  far  as  they  seemed  to  encroach  upon  the  funda- 
mental Christian  dogma  of  tlie  unity  of  the  human 
race,  and  the  conseouent  universality  of  original  sin 
and  redemption.  Tins  is  clearly  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing passage  of  St.  Augustine  (De  Civitate  Dei, 
xvi,  9):  "As  to  the  fable  that  there  arc  Antipodes, 
that  is  to  say,  men  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth, 
where  the  sun  rises  when  it  sets  on  us,  men  who 
walk  witli  their  feet  opposite  ours,  there  is  no  reason 
for  believing  it.  Those  who  affirm  it  do  not  claim 
to  possess  any  actual  information;  tliey  merely  con- 
jecture that,  since  the  earth  is  suspended  within  the 
concavity  of  the  heavens,  and  there  is  as  much  room 
on  the  one  side  of  it  as  on  the  other,  therefore  the 
part  which  is  beneath  cannot  be  void  of  human  in- 
habitants. They  fail  to  notice  that,  even  should  it 
he  believed  or  demonstrated  that  the  world  is  round 
or  spherical  in  form,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  part 
of  the  e:irtli  opposite  to  us  is  not  completely  covered 
with  water,  or  that  any  conjectured  drj- land  there 
should  be  inhabited  by  men.  For  Scripture,  which 
confirms  the  truth  of  its  historical  statements  by  the 
accomplishinent  of  its  prophecies,  teaches  no  false- 
hood; and  it  is  too  aljsurd  to  sav  that  some  men 
might  have  set  sail  from  this  side  and.  traversing 
the  immense  expanse  of  ocean,  have  propagated 
there  a  race  of  human  lieings  descended  from  that 
one  first  man."  This  opinion  of  St.  Augustine  was 
commonly  held  until  the  progress  of  science,  whilst 
confirming  his  main  contention  that  the  human  race 
is  one,  dissipated  tlie  scruples  arising  from  a  de- 
fective knowledge  of  geography.  A  singular  excep- 
tion occurs  to  us  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  centurj-. 
From  a  letter  of  Pope  St.  Zachary  (1  May,  748), 
addrc.s.sed  to  St.  Boniface,  we  learn  that  the  great 
Apostle  of  Germany  had  invoked  the  papal  censure 
upon   a   certain    missionary   among   tlic   Ba\'arians 


ANTIPOPE 


582 


ANTIVARI 


named  Vergilius,  generally  supposed  to  be  identical 
witli  the  renowned  Ferghil,  an  Irishman,  and  later 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg.  Among  other  alleged  mis- 
deeds and  errors  was  numbered  that  of  holding 
"that  bencatii  the  earth  there  was  another  world  and 
other  men,  another  sun  and  moon".  In  reply,  the 
Pof)e  directs  St.  Boniface  to  convoke  a  council  and, 
"if  it  be  made  clear"  that  Vergilius  adheres  to  this 
"perverse  teaching,  contrarj'  to  the  Lord  and  to  his 
own  soul",  to  "expel  him  from  the  Church,  deprived 
of  his  priestly  dignity".  This  is  the  only  informa- 
tion that  we  possess  regarding  an  incident  which  is 
made  to  figure  largely  in  the  imaginary  warfare  be- 
tween theology  and  science.  That  Vergilius  was 
ever  really  tried,  condemned,  or  forced  to  retract,  is 
an  assumption  without  any  foundation  in  history. 
On  the  contrary,  if  he  was  in  fact  the  future  Arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg,  it  is  more  natural  to  conclude 
that  he  succeeded  in  convincing  his  censors  that 
by  "other  men"  he  did  not  understand  a  race  of 
human  beings  not  descended  from  Adam  and  re- 
deemed by  the  Lord;  for  it  is  patent  that  this  was 
the  feature  of  his  teaching  which  appeared  to  the 
Pope  to  be  "perverse"  and  "contrary  to  the  Lord". 
Instead  of  narrow  censure,  the  Church  and  her 
theologians  deserve  our  highest  esteem  for  having, 
throughout  the  ages,  firmly  upheld  the  important 
doctrine  of  the  universal  brotherhood  of  the  human 
race.  At  the  same  time  we  recognize  that  the  case 
of  the  Irish  monk  who  suffered  the  penalty  of  being 
several  centuries  in  advance  of  his  age  remains  on 
the  page  of  history,  like  the  parallel  case  of  Galileo, 
as  a  solemn  admonition  against  a  hasty  resort  to 
ecclesiastical  censures.  (See  also  Zachaey,  Ver- 
gilius.) 

Barthelemy,  Erreurs  ei  mensonfjes  historiques  (1875),  I,  269- 
285;    Healy,  Ireland's  Ancient  Schools  and  Scholars  569-571, 
(Dublin,  1890);  Gilbert  in  Rev.  des  quest,  sclent.  (Oct.,  1882). 
James  F.  Loughlin. 

Antipope,  a  false  claimant  of  the  Holy  See  in 
opposition  to  a  pontiff  canonically  elected.  At 
various  times  in  the  liistory  of  the  Church  illegal 
pretenders  to  the  Papal  Chair  have  arisen,  and 
frequently  exerci.sed  pontifical  functions  in  defiance 
of  the  true  occupant.  According  to  Hergenrother, 
the  last  antipope  was  Felix  V  (1439-J9).  The 
same  authority  enumerates  twenty-nine  in  the 
following  order: — 
Hippolytus(?),  Ill  century 


Novatian,  251. 
Felix  II,  355-365. 
Ursicinus,  366-367. 
Eulalius,  418-^19. 
Laurentius,  498-50L 
Constantine  II,  767. 
Philip,  VIII  century. 
Anastasius,  855. 
Leo  VIII,  9,56-963. 
Boniface  VII,  974. 
John  XVI,  X  century 
Gregory,  1012. 
Sylvester  III,  1044. 
Benedict  X,  1058. 
Honorius  II,  1061-72. 


Antiprobabilism. 
Antiquity  of  Man 
Antiramism. 
Antisthenes 


Guibert  or  Clement  III, 
lOSO-UOO. 

Theodoric,  1100. 

Aleric,-     1102. 

Maginulf,    1105. 

Burdin  (Gregory  VIII), 
1118. 

Anacletus  II,  1130-38. 

Victor  IV,  1159-64. 

Pascal  III,   1164-68. 

CaUxtus   III,    1168-77. 

Innocent  III,  1178-80. 

Nicholas    V,     1328-30. 

Robert  of  Geneva  (Cle- 
ment VII).  20  Sept., 
1378  to  16  Sept.,  1394. 

Amadeus  of  Savoy  (Fe- 
lix V).  Nov.,  1439  to 
April,  1449. 

See  Prohadilism. 
See  Man. 
Sec  Ramus,  Peter. 
See  Cynic  School  of  Philosophy. 


Antitactae.     Sec  Gnostics. 
Antitrinitarians.     Sec  Socinianism. 
Antivari,  The  .\nriir)iocE8E  of   (Anlibarium),  so 
called   from  its  poKition  opposite   to   Bari   in   Italy, 


the  Catholic  archiepiscopal  see  of  Montenegro. 
By  the  treaty  of  Berlin  (1879)  this  ancient  seaport 
of  Albania  was  adjuilged  to  the  little  inland  prin- 
cipality of  the  Black  Mountain  and  shortly  after 
(1886)  the  Catholic  Archdiocese  was  declared  im- 
mediately subject  U)  the  Holy  See,  and  reheved  of 
its  suffragans  Alessio,  Pulati,  Belgrade,  and  Sappa, 
henceforth  attached  to  Scutari.  The  See  of  An- 
tivari claims  to  date  from  the  fifth  century;  it  was 
certainly  an  episcopal  see  in  the  ninth  and  was 
refounded  in  the  course  of  the  twelfth  century.  In 
the  early  Middle  Ages  Antivari  remained  subject 
to  the  Greek  emperors;  later  it  became  one  of  the 
numerous  little  Dalmatian  republics  that  chose 
their  own  laws  and  rulers,  and  finally  fell  under  the 
sway  of  the  Serb  kings.  Towards  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century  it  sought  union  w-ith  Venice, 
but  fifty  years  later  became  subject  to  Lewis  of  Hun- 
gary, who  lost  it,  in  turn,  to  the  Balza  princes  of 
Teuta,  and  with  these  it  returned  eventually  to  Ven- 
ice (1450).  For  almost  a  century  Antivari  enjoyed 
the  blessings  of  peace  under  Venetian  dominion, 
and  her  commerce  flourished  to  the  highest  degree, 
but  in  1538,  while  Sultan  Selim  II  was  striving 
against  the  Venetians  in  Dalmatia,  the  pasha  of 
Scutari  besieged  Antivari.  After  fierce  combats 
he  was  forced  to  retire,  but  in  1571  through  the 
treachery  of  its  governor,  Dopato,  the  town  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The  conditions  of  capitula- 
tion were  honourable,  but  the  Turks  ceasing  to  re- 
spect them,  one  half  of  the  citizens  went  into  volun- 
tary exile  in  order  to  preserve  their  faith,  while 
the  other  half  embraced  Islam.  Jolm  VIII,  Arch- 
bishop of  Antivari,  who  had  vainly  tried  to  make 
Donato  offer  resistance  to  the  Turks,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  handed  over  to  Ali-Pasha,  commander 
of  the  fleet.  Ali  exhibited  him  everywhere  dressed 
in  Ills  pontifical  vestments  and  put  him  to  death 
after  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (7  Oct.,  1571).  In  1649 
Foscolo,  governor  of  Dalmatia  for  the  Venetian 
Republic,  was  persuaded  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Antivari  and  a  deputation  of  Christians  to  come  to 
their  aid.  His  movements  were  betrayed  to  the 
pasha  of  Scutari,  who  surprised  his  troops  before 
they  could  re-embark,  and  massacred  a  great  num- 
ber. Once  more,  in  1717,  the  Venetian  governor 
of  Dalmatia  tried  to  dehver  Antivari,  but  the  at- 
tempt was  again  fruitless.  At  last,  in  1878,  Prince 
Nicola  of  Montenegro  Wctoriously  entered  the  ancient 
town  and  incorporated  it  with  Montenegro.  The 
city  has  a  population  of  about  8,000,  many  of  whom 
are  Moslems.  It  is  built  on  a  lofty  precipitous 
site  and  offers  now  few  traces  of  its  ancient  grandeur; 
the  streets  are  narrow,  of  a  Turkish  aspect,  and  the 
houses  miserable.  Nevertheless  thirty  monasteries, 
it  is  said,  were  once  found  within  its  walls.  The 
old  castle  is  a  ruin,  but  the  Cathedral  of  St.  George, 
formerly  transformed  into  a  mosque,  is  well  pre- 
served. A  few  miles  outside  Antivari,  near  Cape 
Volinizza,  is  the  Virgin's  Rock,  theme  of  many  a 
national  poet,  whence  in  the  time  of  Sultan  Selim 
(1524—73)  a  young  girl  threw  herself  into  the  sea 
rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The 
population  of  Montenegro  (1906)  is  about  300.000, 
with  some  6,789  Catholics.  There  are  27  churches 
and  chapels,  12  secular  priests,  and  9  religious. 
Until  the  close  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War  (1878) 
the  Catholics  of  Montenegro  were  subject  to  the 
Vicar-.\postolic  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  .A. 
concorilat  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Prince 
of  Montenegro  (18  Aug.,  1886)  now  regulates  the 
status  of  the  Catholics  in  the  principahty.  By  its 
terms  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  is  declared 
free;  the  archbishop  is  chosen  without  interference 
of  the  state,  but  must  be  an  acceptalile  cluiice  (/«t- 
sona  (jrnta);  the  see  is  declared  immediately  subject 
to  the  Pope,  and  the  archbishop  is  to  receive  the  title 


ANTOFOOASTE 


583 


ANTONELLI 


of  "  lUustrissiino  Moiisif^ioru  "  ami  to  enjoy  a  yearly 
pension  of  ."i.OOO  francs.  The  government  also 
pledges  itself  to  keep  yearly  at  its  expense  one 
student  in  the  Propaganda  College  at  Home,  whence 
have  come  for  a  long  time  the  secular  priests  of 
this  territory.  Moreover,  at  the  request  of  the 
Prince  of  Montenegro,  the  riglit  to  the  Old-Slavonic 
Liturgy  was  confirmed  by  the  Holy  See  (originally 
conceded  by  Innocent  IV,  in  1LM<S,  and  renewed 
by  Henedict  XIV  and  Pius  VI).  It  is  in  reality 
the  Roman  Liturgy  translated  into  Old-Slavonic, 
and  in  this  shape  is  m  use  among  eighty  or  a  luindretl 
thousand  Catholic  Slavs  of  Trieste,  tibrz,  Spalato, 
Sebenico,  and  other  Dalmatian  centres.  Until 
lately  it  was  printed  in  the  Cyrillic  alphabet,  but 
since  1890,  at  the  request  of  the  archoishop,  the 
Holy  See  has  permitted  the  use  of  the  (ilagolitic 
alphabet,  to  avoid  similarity  of  usage  with  their 
scliismatic  neighbours.  (See  Cyril  a.\d  Methodius.) 
A  copy  of  the  new  mi.ssal,  printed  at  the  Projjaganda 
press  in  Rome  (Ordo  ct  Canon  Missu'  Shnice,  ISS") 
was  presented  by  Leo  XIII  in  l.sil.'i  to  (he  Prince 
of  Montenegro.  Hy  a  decree  of  the  Congregatit)n 
of  the  Con.sistory  (7  March,  1902)  Antivari  is  iledared 
the  primatial  see  of  Dalmatia,  an  honour  wliich  it 
enjoyed  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century.  The 
present  bishop  is  Monsignor  Simon  Milinovic,  a 
Franciscan,  elected  8  Oct.,  1886. 

Farlati,  llli/r.  Sacr.  (1817).  VII.  190;  Nf.hf.r.  in  Kirchenhx.. 
XI,  22;  Reclus-Keane,  The  Karth  ami  lUi  Inhabitants 
(Europe),  I,  179-182;  Battanuieii,  Ann.  Font.  Cath.  (1903), 

Elis.vbeth  Chkistitch. 

Antofogaste,THE  Vic.\ri.\te  Apostolic  of,  Chile, 
dependent  on  the  Sacreil  Congregation  of  Ecclesias- 
tical .\fTairs.  By  the  treaty  of  Z\  November,  188-1 
between  Chile  and  Bolivia,  the  part  of  the  province 
of  .-Vntofogiuste  which  belonged  to  BoliWa  was  ceded 
to  Chile.  The  population  in  189,5  was  44,085.  of 
which  the  city  of  .\ntofogaste  contained  16,2.53. 
The  area  of  the  vicariate  in  square  miles  is  46,597. 
There  are  six  parishes  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  vncar-apostolic:  Nuestra  Senora  del  Carmen  de 
Tocopilla,  banta  Marfa  Mag<lalcna  de  Cobija,  San 
Jos<5  de  Antofogaste,  San  Felipe  de  Neri  de  Caracoles, 
San  Juan  Bautista  de  Calama,  and  San  Pedro  de 
Atcama.  The  ecclesiastical  vicariate  of  Antofogaste 
antl  that  of  Tarapacd  depend  directly  on  the  Holy 
See,  but  appeals  from  their  vicars  should  come  to  the 
Archbishopric  of  Santiago. 

Iai  I'rovincia  Eccletiastica  Chilena  (Freiburg,  1895). 

Antoine,  P.\nL  G.vbriel,  a  French  theologian, 
b.  at  Lun(5ville,  10  January,  1678;  d.  at  Pont-:V- 
Mous.son,  22  January,  174.3.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  applied  for  admission  into  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
and  was  received  9  October,  1693.  On  the  com- 
pletion of  his  studies  he  taught  "humanities"  for 
several  years,  first  at  Pont-A-Mous-son,  and  then 
at  Colniar.  Returning  to  the  former  city,  he  occu- 
pied the  chair  of  philo.sophy,  and  later  that  of  the- 
ology with  considerable  success,  the  first  edition  of 
his  "Dogmatic  Theology"  appearing  in  1723,  and 
three  years  later  his  "Moral  Thcologj'"  in  three 
volumes.  He  was  afterwards  rector  of  the  College 
of  Pont-il-Mousson,  where  he  died  in  his  sixty-fifth 
year.  His  "Thcologia  universa,  sneculativa  et 
dogmatica",  embracing  the  whole  field  of  schola.stic 
inquiry  met  with  an  enthusiastic  reception,  and  at 
once  stamped  the  author  as  among  the  first  theo- 
logians of  the  age.  It  went  through  nine  editions 
during  his  life,  and  ten  after  his  death.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  clearness  and  .solidity.  Still  more 
flattering  wa.s  the  reception  accorded  tlie  "Thcologia 
nioralis  universa,"  first  published  at  Nancy  in  1720,  in 
duodecimo.  It  has  since  gone  through  sixty  editions 
in  different  countries.  The  Roman  edition  of  1747, 
published    by    Philip   Carbognano,   O.M.,    contained 


several  additions  to  the  original;  among  them, 
chapters  on  Condemned  Propositions,  Reserved 
Ca.ses,  Decrees  of  Benedict  \IV,  etc.  .Antoiiie's 
"Moral  Theology"  was  so  highly  esteemed  by  Bene- 
dict XIV  that  he  prescribed  its  u.se  by  the  students 
of  the  College  of  Propaganda,  and  it  was  likewise 
received  by  many  of  the  bishops  throughout  France 
and  Italy.  Yet,  despite  the  fact  that  it  is  remark- 
able for  three  qualities  .seldom  found  unitetl,  viz. 
brevity,  clearness,  and  completeness,  it  is  no  longer 
a  text-book  at  the  present  clay.  For,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  learned  Gury,  .Vntoine  inclines  too  much 
towarils  the  side  of  severity,  a  judgment  fully  con- 
firmed by  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori  (Homo  A]>.,  xvi, 
108).  Besides  his  theological  works,  .Vntoine  pub- 
lished also  several  ascetical  and  devotional  treatises. 
SoMMERVOGEl.,  BM.  dc  la  c.  de  J.,  e.  v.;  Hurteh,  A'omcn- 
dator,    II,    1289. 

George  F.  Johnson. 

Anton  Ulrich,  Duke  of  Brunswick — LCneburc.- 
WoLFE.vniTTEL,  a  coiivcrt  to  the  Catholic  faith,  b. 
4  October,  1633;  d.  27  March,  1714.  In  168.5,  with 
his  brother  August  Rudolph,  he  became  co-regent 
of  the  duchy,  and  on  the  tatter's  death  (1704)  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne.  He  was  a  very  gifted  and 
well  educated  man,  the  most  .scholarly  prince  of  his 
time,  and,  in  the  historj'  of  German  literature,  ranks 
as  pioneer  in  the  department  of  liistorical  romance. 
He  was  also  an  accomplished  dramatist  and  hyniri- 
writor.  His  bent,  however,  was  toward  the  -study 
of  the  Fathers,  and  the  points  of  variance  between 
Catholics  and  Lutherans.  He  often  conversed  on 
such  subjects  with  theologians  of  both  sides,  among 
them  the  Hildesheini  canon,  Rudolph  May,  and 
Araadeus  Hamilton,  a  Theatine.  He  entered  the 
Church  secretly  10  January,  1710,  but  soon,  in  def- 
erence to  the  advice  of  Clement  XI,  made  public 
his  conversion  in  the  presence  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Mainz.  While  he  safeguarded  officially  the  actual 
ecclesiastical  and  political  conditions  in  his  duchy, 
lie  devoted  himself  earnestly  to  the  interests  of 
Catholicism.  Among  other  works,  he  published,  in 
Latin  and  German,  a  learned  apology  for  his  con- 
version entitled  "Fifty  Motives  for  preferring  the 
Catholic  religion  to  all  others".  It  was  soon  sup- 
pressed, and  is  therefore  a  very  rare  book;  an  Italian 
translation  of  it  was  .sent  to  Clement  XI.  The  Duke 
built  Catholic  churches  in  Brunswick  and  Wolfen- 
biittel,  and  obtained  papal  approval  for  their  ad- 
ministration by  the  Bishops  of  Hildesheini.  In  a 
document  signed  3  February,  1714,  by  his  sons 
August  and  Ludwig,  he  provided  that  in  the  future 
the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  should  be  free 
in  his  State.  Two  of  his  daughters,  Henrietta  and 
Augusta  Dorothea,  followed  his  example,  and  re- 
turned to  the  mother  church. 

Strerer  in  Kirchenlez.;  I,  976,  78;  Rass,  Converlitenbilder, 
IX,  137. 

THOMA.S  J.  Sh.UIAN. 

Antonelli,  Giacomo,  Cardinal,  Secretarj'  of  State 
to  Pius  IX,  b.  at  Sonnino,  in  the  Papal  States,  2  .\pril. 
1806;  d.  in  Rome,  6  November,  1876.  Of  well-to-do 
parents  later  ennobled  by  Gregory  XVI,  he  made  his 
preliminary  studies  at  the  Uoman  Seminarj-.  and 
took  up  the  law  course  at  the  Sapienza,  obtaining  the 
ilcgree  of  Doctor  of  both  Laws  in  his  twenty-first 
vear.  On  entering  the  diplomatic  service  of  the 
Holy  See  lie  wa.s  appointed  by  Gregory  X\'I  suc- 
cessively secular  prelate  (18.30).  referendary  of  the 
superior  law  court,  as.sessor  of  the  criminal  tribunal, 
delegate  to  Orvieto,  Viterbo.  and  Macerata.  canon  of 
St.  Peter's  (m.ade  deacon,  1840).  In  1841  he  was  made 
Minister  of  the  Interior  and  in  184.5  Treasurer  of  the 
Apostolic  Camera.  Pius  IX  on  his  acce.s.sion  to  the 
pontifical  throne  (1846)  made  him  cardinal  with 
the  diaconal  title  of  St.  .\gatlia  alia  Suburra  (1847), 
and  later  the  title  of  St.  Maria  in  Via  latd.     The  Pope 


ANTONELLI 


584 


ANTONIANO 


Cardinal  Giacomo  Antonelli 


created  liini  in  aim  Minister  of  Finance  in  the  first 
nii-isterial  council;  president  of  the  newly-organized 
Council  of  State;  member  of  the  ecclesiastical  com- 
mission for  civil  reform  (February,  1848),  and  premier 
of  his  first  constitiitional  ministry  (10  March,  1848), 
in  wliich  there  was 
a  preponderance  of 
the  lay  element. 
Resigning  tliis  of- 
fice (3  May,  1848) 
to  Coimt  Mamiani, 
who  organized  a 
new  liberal  minis- 
try, Antonelli  be- 
came Prefect  of 
SacredPalaces, 
and  after  the  death 
of  Rossi  arranged 
the  flight  of  the 
Pope  to  Gaeta, 
where  he  was  made 
Secretary  of  State 
and  conducted  the 
negotiations  for  t  he 
restoration  of 
papal  rule.  Re- 
turning to  Rome 
with  the  Pope  (12  April,  1850),  he  retained  the  reins 
of  power  which  he  held  until  his  death,  twenty-seven 
years  later.  His  life  during  this  period  is  inextricably 
bound  up  with  the  history  of  the  reign  of  Pius  IX. 
Until  1870  he  was  practically  the  temporal  ruler 
of  Rome,  being  charged  by  Pius  IX  with  the  care 
of  public  interests,  that  the  Pontiff  might  devote 
himself  more  exclusively  to  his  spiritual  duties. 
It  is  impossible  as  yet  to  form  a  just  estimate 
of  the  works  of  Antonelli,  or  to  reconcile  the 
extravagant  praise  of  his  admirers  with  the  vi- 
tuperations of  his  enemies.  It  must  be  said  that 
he  defended  vigorously  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See, 
won  the  respect  of  princes  and  statesmen  for  his 
diplomatic  ability,  and  showed  himself  fearless, 
braving  alike  public  opinion  and  private  jealousy. 
In  extenuation  of  the  charge  that  his  aim  was  to  a 
large  extent  personal  aggrandizement,  it  must  be 
recalled  that  he  was  a  statesman  rather  than  a 
prelate,  and  that  he  was  not  a  priest,  although  most 
assiduous  in  the  discharge  of  his  religious  duties. 

Dk  Waal  in  Kirchenlex. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Antonelli,  Leon.\rdo,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Sinigaglia, 
G  November,  1730;  d.  23  January,  1811,  nephew  of 
Cardinal  Nicolo  Maria  Antonelli.  During  the  early 
part  of  his  long  diplomatic  career  he  held  among 
other  offices  those  of  canon  of  the  Vatican  Basilica, 
prefect  of  archives  in  the  Castle  of  San  Angelo, 
Secretary  of  the  Sacred  College  and  Assessor  of  the 
Holy  Office.  He  was  created  Cardinal-Priest  of 
St.  Sabina  by  Pius  VI  in  the  consistory  of  24  April, 
1775,  and  later  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College  and  Bishop 
of  Ostia  and  Velletri.  At  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution,  with  a  view  to  preventing  the  suspension 
of  church  services  he  lent  his  support  to  the  vote 
for  the  civil  constitution  of  tlio  French  clergy  decreed 
by  the  National  Ass(.inl)ly  of  I'rance  (12  July,  1790). 
In  addition  to  the  responsible  posts  already  men- 
tioned, he  filled  those  of  grand  penitentiary,  prefect 
of  the  Signature  of  Justice  and  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Index,  and  pro-secretary  of  Briefs.  He 
assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  Concordat,  anil 
was  present  at  the  election  of  Pius  VII  (1800).  whom 
he  later  accompanied  to  Paris  (1804).  He  was 
banished  from  Home  by  tlic  French  (1808)  to  Spoleto 
and  later  to  Sinigaglia,  where  he  died,  leaving  to  the 
Congregation  of  Propaganda  bequests  for  the  suj)- 
port  of  twelve  .\rmenian  students  in  the  College  of 


Urbane.  Though  .Antonelli  has  been  criticized  for 
arrogating  to  the  papacy  too  arbitrary  a  civil  power, 
a  perusal  of  his  letter  to  the  bishops  of  Ireland  re- 
veals a  more  tolerant  spirit  than  is  generally  at- 
tributed to  him.  Possessed  of  a  rich  library,  he  was 
the  friend  and  protector  of  letters,  and  had  as 
hbrarian  the  learned  Cancellieri.  He  also  acquired 
some  fame  as  an  archEeologist. 

Cancellieri,  C'enotaphium  Leonardi  Antonelli  Cardinalis 
(Pesaro,  1825). 

F.  M.  RuDGE. 

Antonelli,  Nicolo  Maria,  Cardinal,  learned 
canonist,  ecclesiastical  historian,  and  Orientalist, 
b.  at  Sinigaglia,  8  July,  1698;  d.  24  September,  1767. 
He  wrote  De  Titulis  Quos  S.  Evarislus  Presbyteris 
Romanits  DUtribuit  (Rome,  1725),  in  defence  of  the 
parochial  character  of  the  primitive  Roman  churches. 
He  also  edited  (and  defended)  the  commentary  of 
St.  Athanasius  on  the  P.salms  (ib.,  1746),  sermons  of 
St.  James  of  Nisibis  (Armenian  and  Latin,  ib.,  1756), 
and  under  the  name  of  Emman.  de  Azevedo,  S..J., 
Velus  Missale  Romanum  Monasticum  Lateranenne 
(ib.,  1752). 

HvRTER,  Nomenclator,  III,  100  sq:  Storia  Lett,  d'ltalia, 
IX,  272-92. 

Thomas  J.  Sh.\h.\n. 

Antoniano,  Giov.wjni,  patrologist,  b.  at  Nime- 
guen,  in  Holland,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century; 
d.  same  place,  in  15S8.  From  his  very  entrance  into 
the  Dominican  Order,  in  his  city,  his  patience,  in- 
dustry, and  inclination  for  patristic  studies,  singled 
him  out  as  a  capable  editor  of  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  then  urgently  called  for  by 
the  learned.  As  Prior  of  Nimeguen  in  1566,  and 
again  in  1587,  he  distinguished  himself  for  his 
learned  and  erudite  sermons  against  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  Protestantism.  He  was  asso- 
ciated in  his  literary  labours  with  Henry  Gravius, 
wliose  pupil  he  was,  and  whom  he  succeeded  as  editor 
of  the  works  of  the  Fathers.  Antoniano  published 
(Cologne,  1537),  with  the  critical  apparatus  of  his 
day,  the  work  of  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  on  the  crea- 
tion of  man  and  the  "He.xameron"  of  St.  Basil  the 
Great,  both  in  the  Latin  translation  of  Dionysius 
Exiguus.  He  also  published  (Cologne,  1560)  the 
writings  of  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  and  (Antwerp, 
1568)  the  letters  of  St.  Jerome. 

QUF.TIF     AND     ECHARD,     SS.     Ord.     Pfffrf.,     II,     283;     MeIJER, 

Dommikaner  Klooater  en  Statie  te  Nejmegen   (1892),  84  sqq. 

Thos.  M.  Schwertner. 

Antoniano,  Silvio,  Cardinal,  writer  on  education, 
b.  31  December,  1540,  in  Rome;  d.  there  16  August, 
1603.  He  was  educated  at  the  LTniversity  of  Ferrara, 
which  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Laws  (1556)  and  appointed  him  professor  of  classical 
literature.  In  1563  Pius  IV  called  him  to  the  chair 
of  belles-lettres  in  the  Sapienza  University,  a  posi- 
tion in  which  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  distin- 
guished churchmen,  especially  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo.  He  resigned  his  chair,  however,  in  1566, 
took  up  the  study  of  theology  under  the  direction 
of  St.  Philip  Neri,  and  was  ordained  priest,  12  June, 
1568.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury Humanism  made  rapid  progress  in  Italy  under 
the  leadership  of  men  like  Sadolet,  Piccolommi,  and 
Valiero.  Sharing  their  enthusiasm.  Antoniano  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  educational  problems, 
and  at  the  instance  of  St.  Charles  Borromco.  wrote 
liis  principal  work  on  the  Christian  education  of 
children.  (Tre  libri  dell'  cducazione  cristiana  de' 
figliuoli,  Verona,  1583.)  Clement  VIII  appointed 
Antoniano  Secretary  of  Papal  Briefs  (1593),  and 
created  him  cardinal.  3  March,  1599.  His  work 
passed  through  several  cilitions  in  Italian  and  was 
translated  into  French  by  Guignard  (Troyes,  18,56; 
Paris,  1873),  and  into  German  by  Kunz  (Freiburg. 


ANTONIAMS 


585 


ANTONINUS 


1888).  Its  principal  features  are  insight  into  the 
mind  of  the  chikl.  synipatliy  with  its  dangers  and 
needs,  and  solicitude  for  its  moral  training.  V'aluable 
suggestions  are  al.so  given  on  physical  culture,  on  the 
education  of  all  chu-i-ses  of  the  people  and  on  the 
preparation  of  teachers  for  their  work.  The  other 
writings  of  .\ntoniano,  many  of  wliicli  have  not  been 
pubUshed,  deal  witli  literary,  historical,  and  liturgical 
subjects.  Their  author  was  one  of  the  compilers  of 
the  Roman  Catechi.sm  and  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission charged  by  Clement  VIII  with  the  revision 
of  the   Hreviarj'. 

Castiomonk,  ISilini  Antoniano  vita  (Rome,  ICIO);  Max- 
zucHELLi,  OU  scrittori  d'ltalia  (Brescia.  1753);  Biographical 
Nketches*  pretixtnl  to  French  anu  German  translations  of  his 
works. 

E.  A.  Pace. 

Antonians.     See  .Vnthonv,  St.,  Orders  of. 

Antoniewicz,  (Botoz),  Ch.\rles,  a  Polisli  Jesuit 
and  missionaiy,  b.  in  Lw6w  (I^emberg),  6  No\eml3er, 
ISO";  d.  14  November,  1.S.52.  He  was  the  son  of 
Joseph  .\ntoniewicz,  a  nobleman  and  lawyer.     His 

f)ious  mother,  Josephine  (Nikorowicz),  attended  to 
lis   early   training   on   their  estate   at    Skwarzawa, 

whither  they  moved  in  ISIS.  After  the  death  of 
his  father  (1823),  Charles  entered  the  University  at 

Lw6w,  to  study  law,  devoting,  however,  much  time 
to  philology;  hence,  besides  Polish,  lie  spoke  fluently 
German,  French,  Italian,  and  English.  Here  he  also 
gathered  material  for  the  history  of  the  .\rmenians 
in  Poland  (his  ancestors  were  .\rmenians),  and  wrote 
Polish  and  (lerman  poetry.  Having  finished  his 
course  in  law  with  the  highest  distinction  (1827),  he 
made  a  tour  through  .Vvistria  and  Koumania.  Dur- 
ing the  Polish  insurrection  of  1S30-31,  he  served 
for  some  time  under  General  Owernicki.  In  1833  he 
married  his  cousin  Sophia  Nikorowicz,  and  .settled  in 
Skwarzawa.  His  happy  marital  life  ended  with 
the  death  of  his  five  children,  followed  shortly  by 
that  of  his  wife.  This  devout  woman  took  the  re- 
ligious vows  on  her  death-bed,  beseeching  her  liiLS- 
band  to  enter  some  order.  His  mother  also  died  as 
a  religious  in  the  Benedictine  Order.  Tliis,  as  well 
as  the  advice  of  his  spiritual  director,  Father  Fretl- 
eric  Rinn,  S.J.,  induced  him  to  seek  admission  to 
the  novitiate  of  the  Jesuits  at  Stani  Wie:5  in  Septem- 
ber, 1,S39,  where  he  took  tlie  solenjn  vows  12  .Sep- 
tember, 1S41.  His  nhilosopliical  studies  were  made 
at  Tarnopol,  where  lie  was  a  colleague  of  the  great 
theologian,  Cardinal  Franzelin.  His  theological 
studies  he  finished  at  Nowy  Sijcz.  He  was  or<lained 
priest  on  10  October,  1844,  by  Bishop  Gutkowski. 
While  yet  a  student,  he  attracted  universal  atten- 
tion by  his  unusual  oratorical  gifts.  I'pon  the  re- 
quest of  Count  d'Este,  Governor  of  Galicia,  the  Pro- 
vincial (Father  Pierling)  appointed  him  missionary 
for  the  Sandee  district,  where  crime  and  lawlessness 
(massacre  of  the  nobility,  184fj)  reigned  .supreme. 
During  seven  months  .\ntoniewicz  gave  over  twenty 
missions,  preaching  over  2(K)  sermons,  (ireat  w:us 
the  success  of  his  apostolic  zeal  and  unremitting  toils. 
His  impaired  health,  however,  compelled  him  to  seek 
a  mountainous  climate  in  spring,  1847.  Having 
recovered,  he  was  assigned  to  St.  Nichohis  in  Lwow, 
as  preacher,  and  as  confessor  for  students.  Wlien  on 
7  May,  1S4S,  tlie  Society  of  Jesus  was  dissolved  in 
Austria,  .■Vntoniewicz  went  to  Silesia  (Graefenlierg), 
returning  incognito,  however,  to  Lw6w  in  1S,tO. 
Being  discovered,  he  left  the  countn,-,  stopping  at 
Cracow,  just  after  the  memorable  conflagration  of 
18  July,  18.50,  to  console  the  grief-stricken  inhabi- 
tants. On  this  occasion  he  delivered  the  famous 
sermon  "On  the  ruins  of  Cracow"  (Na  zgliszczach 
Krakowa).  kt  the  instance  of  Cardinal  Diepenbrock 
he  again  gave  missions  in  Silesia;  there  he  also 
founded  a  house  in  Nissa,  and  was  appointed  its 
first  superior.     At  the  urgent  entreaty  of  Archbishop 


Przyluski,  he  extended  his  missionary  activity  to 
Posen  (18.52).  His  boundless  devotion  and  self- 
sacrifice  during  the  terrible  outbreak  of  cholera  will 
always  he  remembered  ;  for  the  hero,  having  himself 
contracted  this  disea.se,  died  a  victim  of  lirothcrly 
love,  14  Novemlier,  18.52.  In  tlie  church  at  (Ibra, 
where  he  rests,  his  friends  erected  to  his  mciiiory  a 
monument,  surmounted  by  his  bust.  A  terse  Latin 
sketch  tlescribes  his  brief  but  zealous  career.  In 
youth  he  composed  many  charming  poems;  later  he 
gave  preference  to  religious  themes.  He  had  genu- 
ine poetical  talent,  vivid  imagination,  a  facile  pen, 
and  a  captivating  style.  Especially  beautiful  are  his 
"  Wianek  kr/.yzowy  "  (( Jarland  of  the  Cross),  "  Wianek 
majowy"  (Wreath  of  .May),  "  Jan  Kanty,  Sw.Jacek" 
(St.  Hyacinth),  etc.  He  is  the  author  of  many  devo- 
tional works,  and  ranks  high  as  an  ascetic.  These 
works,  though  simple  in  language,  breathe  genuine 
piety,  singular  gravity,  and  tender  emotion;  e.  g. 
"  Czytania  swiateczne  dla  ludu  "  (Festive  Readings 
for  the  Faithful),  "  Sw.  Izydor  Oracz"  (St.  Isidore), 
"  Groby  swietych  polskich  "  (The  Tombs  of  the  Polisli 
Saints), "  Li.sty  w  tlucliu  Bozym  do  przyjaci61 "  (Spirit- 
ual Letters  to  Friends),  and  many  others.  He  is, 
however,  best  known  as  an  orator.  But  his  ability 
cannot  be  judged  by  his  printed  sennons;  his  elo- 
quence was  an  inspired  heart-to-heart  appeal.  He  is 
a  master  when  he  speaks  on  tlio  eternal  mercy,  the 
Victim  of  the  Cross,  or  the  Blessed  N'irgin  Mary.  His 
sermons  were  collected  and  arranged  by  his  fellow- 
Jesuit,  John  Badeni,  and  published  in  four  volumes 
(Cracow,  1893,  2d  ed.),  under  the  title  "Kazania  Ks. 
Karola  .\ntoniewicza".  "  Zbi6r  poezyi  "  (a  collection 
of  poems)  was  likewise  published  in  1898-99  by 
Father  J.  Badeni.  In  the  impossibility  of  enumerat- 
ing here  all  of  his  writings  it  may  be  said  that  he 
composed  over  seventy-six  different  works;  six  lie- 
fore  he  became  a  Jesuit,  and  seventy  as  a  Jesuit, 
twenty-seven  of  which  were  published  after  his  death. 
Ks.  S.  Raracz,  Zi/u'oty  stawnych  Ormian  w  PoUce  (Lem- 
berg.  1856);  Speil,  P.  Karl  Anionu-wicl.  Mutionar  der  Getrll- 
srhaft  Je«u,  ein  Lebensbild  (Breslau,  1875);  Badeni.  /C«.  Karol 
Anton-Uuicz  (Cracow,  189t>);  Pelczar,  Zarys  driejow  kaz- 
nodziejutua  (Cracow,  1890),  II,  320-322;  Kvliczkowski. 
Zarys  dzirjuw  lilrralury  pol.  (I.emberg.  1891),  40!.  404;  Ks. 
Karol  Antoniexuicz,  S,J.,  krotkie  wspomnienie  zycia  i  prac 
w  pulwiekow^  roczaice  jego  zgonu  (Cracow,  1902),  and  many 
minor  sources, 

BOLESLAUS    E.    G6RAL. 

Antonines.     See  .-V-VTHO.N'y,  Saint,  Orders  of. 

Antoninus,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  b.  at 
Florence,  1  March,  1389;  d.  2  May,  14,59;  known 
also  by  his  baptismal  name  Antonius  (.\nthony), 
which  is  found  in  his  autograplis,  in  some  M.SS., 
in  printed  eilitions  of  his  works,  and  in  the  Bull 
of  canonization,  but  which  has  been  finally  rejecteil 
for  the  diminutive  form  given  him  bv  his  affectionate 
fellow-citizens.  His  parents,  Niccolo  and  Tliomas- 
sina  Pierozzi,  were  in  high  standing,  Niccolo  being 
a  notary  of  the  Florentine  Republic.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  (1404)  .\ntoninus  applied  to  Bl.  John  Dom- 
inic, the  great  Italian  religious  reformer  of  the  period, 
then  at  the  Convent  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  in 
Florence,  for  admission  to  the  Dominican  Oriler. 
It  was  not  until  a  year  later  that  he  was  accepted, 
and  he  was  the  first  to  receive  the  habit  for  the 
Convent  of  Fiesole  about  to  be  constructed  by  Bl. 
John  Dominic.  With  Fra  .\ngelico  and  Fra  Barto- 
lommeo,  the  one  to  become  famous  as  a  painter, 
the  other  as  a  miniaturist,  he  was  sent  to  Cortona 
to  make  his  novitiate  under  Bl.  Lawrence  of  Ripa- 
fratta.  Upon  the  completion  of  his  year  in  the 
novitiate,  ne  returned  to  Fiesole,  where  lie  remained 
vintil  1409,  when  with  his  brethren,  all  faithful 
adherents  of  Pope  Gregory  XII,  he  was  constraineil 
by  the  Florentines,  who  had  refused  obedience,  to 
take  shelter  in  the  Convent  of  I'oligno.  .\  few 
years  later  he  began  bis  career  as  a  zealous  promoter 


ANTONINUS 


586 


ANTONINUS 


ot  the  reforms  inaugurated  by  Bl.  John  Dominic. 
In  1414  he  was  vicar  of  the  convent  of  FoHgno,  tlien 
in  turn  sub-prior  and  prior  of  the  convent  of  Cortona, 
and  later  prior  of  the  convents  of  Rome  (Minerva), 
Naples  (Saint  Peter  Martyr),  Gaeta,  Sienna,  and 
Fiesole  (several  times).  From  1433  to  1446  he  was 
vicar  of  the  Tuscan  Congregation  formed  by  Bl. 
John  Dominic  of  convents  embracing  a  more  rig- 
orous disciphne.  During  this  period  he  established 
(1436)  the  famous  convent  of  St.  Mark  in  Florence, 
where  lie  formed  a  remarkable  community  from 
the  brethren  of  tlie  convent  of  Fiesole.  It  was  at 
this  time  also  that  lie  built,  with  the  munificent  aid 
of  Cosimo  de'Medici,  the  adjoining  church,  at  the 
consecration  of  wliich  Pope  Eugene  IV  assisted 
(Epiphany,  1441).  As  a  theologian  he  took  part  in 
the  Council  of  Florence  (1439)  and  gave  hospitality 
in  St.  Mark's  to  the  Dominican  theologians  called 
to  the  council  by  Eugene  IV. 

Despite  all  the  efforts  of  St.  Antoninus  to  escape 
ecclesiastical  dignities,  he  was  forced  by  Eugene  IV, 
who  had  personal  knowledge  of  his  saintly  cliaracter 
and  administrative  ability,  to  accept  tlie  Arclibishop- 
ric  of  Florence.  He  was  con.secrafed  in  the  convent 
of  Fiesole,  13  March.  1446,  and  immediately  took 
possession  of  the  see  over  which  he  ruled  until  his 
death.  As  he  had  laboured  in  the  past  for  tlie  up- 
building of  the  religious  life  throughout  his  Order, 
so  he  lienceforth  laboured  for  it  in  his  diocese,  de- 
voting himself  to  the  visitation  of  parislies  and 
religious  communities,  the  remedy  of  abuses,  tlie 
strengthening  of  discipline,  the  preaching  of  the  Gos- 
pel, the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  poor, 
and  tile  writing  of  books  for  clergy  and  laity.  These 
labours  were  interrupted  several  times  that  he 
might  act  as  ambassador  for  the  Florentine  Repub- 
hc.  Ill  health  prevented  him  from  taking  part  in 
an  embassy  to  the  emperor  in  1451,  but  in  1455 
and  again  in  1458  he  was  at  the  head  ot  embassies 
sent  by  the  government  to  the  Supreme  Pontiff. 
He  was  called  by  Eugene  IV  to  assist  him  in  liis 
dying  liours.  He  was  frequently  consulted  by 
Nicholas  V  on  questions  of  Church  and  State,  and 
was  charged  by  Pius  II  to  undertake,  with  several 
cardinals,  the  reform  of  the  Roman  Court.  When 
his  death  occurred,  2  May,  1459,  Pius  II  gave  in- 
structions for  the  funeral,  and  presided  at  it  eight  days 
later.  He  was  canonized  by  Adrian  VI,  31  May, 
1523. 

The  literary  productions  of  St.  Antoninus,  wliile 
giving  evidence  of  the  eminently  practical  turn  of 
his  mind,  show  that  he  was  a  profound  student  of 
history  and  theology.  His  principal  work  is  the 
"Summa  Theologica  Moralis,  partibus  IV  distincta", 
written  shortly  before  his  death,  which  marked  a 
new  and  very  considerable  development  in  moral 
theology.  It  also  contains  a  fund  of  matter  for  the 
student  of  the  history  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
So  well  developed  are  its  juridical  elements  that  it 
ha.s  been  published  under  tlie  title  of  "Juris  Ponti- 
ficii  et  C^esarei  Summa".  An  attempt  was  lately 
made  by  Crohns  (Die  Summa  tlieologica  des  An- 
tonin  von  Florenz  und  die  Schatzung  des  Weibes 
im  Hexenhammer,  Holsingfors,  1903)  to  trace  the 
fundamental  principles  of  misogyny,  so  manifest 
in  the  "  Witchiiammer"  of  the  German  Inquisitors, 
to  this  work  of  Antoninus.  But  Paulus  (Die 
Verachtung  dor  Frau  beim  hi.  Antonin,  in  His- 
ton.scli-Pohtisclie  Blatter,  1904,  pp.  812-8.30)  has 
shown  more  clearly  than  several  others,  especially 
Hi  '',"''""  writers,  that  this  hypothesis  is  unten- 
able, because  based  on  a  reading  of  only  a  part  of 
the  "Summa"  of  Antoninus.  Within  fifty  years 
after  the  first  appearance  of  the  work  (Venice, 
1477),  fifteen  editions  were  printed  at  Venice,  Spires, 
Nuremberg,  Strasburg,  Lyons,  and  Ba-sle.  Otlier 
editions    appeared    in    the    following    ccnturv.     In 


1740  it  was  published  at  Verona  in  4  folio  volumes 
edited  by  P.  Ballerini;  and  in  1741,  at  Florence  by 
Mamaclii  and  Remedelli,  O.P. 

Of  considerable  importance  are  the  manuals  for 
confessors  and  penitents  containing  abridgments, 
reproductions,  and  translations  from  the  "  Summa " 
and  frequently  published  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teentli  centuries  under  tlie  name  of  St.  Antoninus. 
An  unsuccessful  attempt  has  been  made  to  sliow  that 
he  was  not  the  author  of  the  Italian  editions.  .\t 
tlie  most  it  should  be  granted  that  he  committed  to 
others  the  task  of  editing  one  or  two.  "fhe  various 
editions  and  titles  of  the  manuals  have  caused  con- 
fusion, and  made  it  appear  that  there  were  more 
than  four  distinct  works.  A  careful  distinction 
and  classification  is  given  by  Mandonnet  in  the 
"  Dictionnaire  de  thdologie  catholique".  Of  value 
as  throwing  light  upon  the  home  life  of  his  time  are 
his  treatises  on  Christian  life  written  for  women 
of  the  Medici  family  and  first  published  in  the  last 
century  under  the  titles: — (1)  "Opera  a  ben  vivere 
.  .  .  Con  altri  ammaestramenti  ",  ed.  Father  Palermo, 
one  vol.  (Florence,  1858)  (2)  "Regola  di  vita  cristi- 
ana",  one  vol.  (Florence,  1866).  His  letters  (Leltere) 
were  collected  and  edited,  some  for  the  first  time 
by  Tommaso  Corsetto,  O.P.,  and  published  in  one 
volume,  at  Florence,   1859. 

Under  the  title,  "Chronicon  partibus  tribus  dis- 
tincta ab  initio  munch  ad  MCCCLIX' '  (published 
also  under  the  titles  "Chronicorum  opus"  and  "  His- 
toriarum  opus"),  he  wrote  a  general  history  of  the 
world  with  the  purpose  of  presenting  to  his  readers 
a  view  of  the  workings  of  divine  providence.  While 
he  did  not  give  way  to  his  imagination  or  colour 
facts,  he  often  fell  into  the  error,  so  common  among 
the  chroniclers  of  his  period,  of  accepting  much 
that  sound  historical  criticism  has  since  rejected  as 
untrue  or  doubtful.  But  this  can  be  said  only  of 
those  parts  in  which  he  treated  of  early  history. 
When  writing  of  the  events  and  politics  of  his  own 
age  he  exorcised  a  judgment  that  has  been  of  the 
greatest  value  to  later  historians.  The  history  was 
published  at  Venice,  1474-79,  in  four  volumes  of 
his  "Opera  Omnia"  (Venice,  1480;  Nuremberg, 
1484;  Basle,  1491;  Lyons,  1517,  1527,  1585,  1586, 
1587).  A  work  on  preacliing  (De  arte  et  vero  modo 
prsedicandi)  ran  through  four  editions  at  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  volume  of  sermons 
(Opus  quadragesimalium  et  de  Sanctis  sermonum, 
sive  flos  floruiii)  is  the  work  of  another,  although 
published  under  the  name  of  St.  Antoninus. 

Unedited  chronicle.s  of  the  convents  of  St.  Mark,  Florence, 
and  St.  Dominic,  Fiesole;  Quktif  and  Echard,  55.  Ord. 
Praed.;  TouRON,  Histoire  des  hommes  illustres  de  I'ordre  de 
S.  Dominiqiie;  Maccarani,  Vita  di  S.  Antonino  (Florence, 
1708);  Bartoli,  IstorUi  delV  arnvescovo  S.  AnConino  e  de 
suoi  piu  iUustri  discepoli  (Florence,  1782);  MoRO,  Di  S.  An- 
tonino in  relatione  alia  riforma  cattolica  nel  sec.  XV  (Florence. 
1899):  ScHAUBE,  Die  Qiwllen  der  Weltchronik  des  heiliffen  An- 
toninus (Hirschberg,   1880). 

A.  L.  McM.vHox. 

Antoninus  Pius  (Titus  ^Elius  H.\dri.\nus 
Antoninus  Pius),  Roman  Emperor  (138-161),  b. 
18  September,  A.  D.  86,  at  Lanuvium,  a  -short  distance 
from  Rome;  d.  at  Lorium,  7  March,  161.  Much  of 
his  youth  was  spent  at  Lorium,  which  was  only 
twelve  miles  from  Rome.  Later  on  lie  built  a  villa 
there,  to  which  he  would  frequently  retreat  from  the 
cares  of  the  empire,  and  in  which  he  died,  in  his 
seyenty-fifth  year.  Ilis  early  career  was  that  usually 
followed  by  the  sons  of  senatorial  families.  He 
entered  public  life  while  quite  young  and  after  ex- 
ercising the  office  of  pra^tor,  became  consul  in  120,  at 
the  age  of  thirty-four.  Shortly  after  the  expiration 
of  his  consulate  he  was  selected  by  Hadrian  as  one 
of  the  four  men  of  consular  rank  whom  he  placed 
over  the  four  judicial  districts  into  which  Italy  was 
then  divided.  The  duration  of  this  office  and  its 
character   cannot   be   decided   with   accuracy.     .-Vu 


ANTONINUS 


587 


ANTONmnS 


toninus  was  afterwards  proconsul  in  Asia,  where  his 
remarkable  administrative  qualities  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  Emperor,  who  admitted  him  to  the 
"Consilium  Principis"  on  his  return  to  Rome.  After 
the  death  of  Lucius  -I'^lius  Commodus  Verus,  Hadrian 
adopted  Antoninus  as  his  successor,  on  condition 
that  he,  in  turn,  would  adopt  as  his  sons  and  suc- 
cessors M.  Annius  Verus  (Marcus  Aurelius)  and 
yElius  Lucius  Verus.  On  his  adoption  (2.5  February, 
1.38)  .\ntoninus  changed  his  name  to  Titus  ^Elius 
Hadrianus  .Vntoninus.  He  shared  the  imperial 
power  with  Hadrian  until  the  death  of  the  latter, 
10  July.  13S,  when  he  became  .sole  ruler.  Historians, 
generally  speaking,  are  unanimous  in  their  praise  of 
the  character  of  Antoninus  and  of  the  success  and 
blessings  of  his  reign  (for  a  rather  unfavourable 
estimate,  see  Schiller,  Geschichte  der  rom.  Kaiser- 
zeit,  n,  138).  His  conception  of  the  duties  of  his 
office  was  liigh  and  noble,  and  his  exercise  of  the 
almost  unlimited  power  placed  in  his  hands  marked 
him  as  a  man  thorouglily  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
humanity.  In  his  private  life  and  in  the  manage- 
ment of  his  court  he  followed  true  Stoic  simplicity, 
entirely  removed  from  excess  or  extravagance.  His 
reign  was  unquestionably  the  most  ix'accful  and 
the  most  prosperous  in  the  historj'  of  Kome.  No 
wars  were  undertaken,  except  those  necessary  to 
guard  the  frontiers  of  the  Enipire  against  invasion 
or  to  suppress  insurrections.  The  conflicts  with  the 
Berbers  in  .\frica  and  some  of  the  German  and 
Tauro-Scythian  tribes  on  the  Danube  were  merely 
punitive  expeditions  to  prevent  further  encroach- 
ments on  Roman  soil.  Tlie  short-lived  insurrection 
in  Egypt  and  that  of  the  Jews  in  Armenia  and  Pales- 
tine were  quickly  suppressed.  For  years  the  Pax 
Romana  prevailed  over  the  entire  Empire,  and 
brought  blessings  and  happiness  to  probably 
150,000,000  people,  whose  interests  ana  whose 
safety  were  safeguarded  by  an  army  of  SoO.tXX) 
soldiers.  The  only  extension  of  the  Roman  territory 
in  the  reign  of  .\ntoninus  was  in  Britain,  where  a  new 
wall  was  Duilt  at  the  foot  of  the  Caledonian  moun- 
tains between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  considerably 
farther  north  than  the  wall  of  Hadrian. 

The  internal  peace  and  prosperity  were  no  less 
remarkable  than  the  absence  of  war.  Trade  and 
commerce  flourished;  new  routes  were  opened,  and 
new  roads  built  throughout  the  Empire,  so  that  all 
parts  of  it  were  in  close  touch  with  the  capital.  The 
remarkable  municipal  life  of  the  period,  when  new 
and  flourishing  cities  covered  the  Roman  world,  is 
revealed  by  the  numerous  inscriptions  that  record 
the  generosity  of  wealthy  patrons  or  the  activity  of 
free  burghers.  Despite  tlie  traditional  hostility  of 
Rome  to  the  formation  of  clubs  and  societies,  guilds 
and  oripanizations  of  all  conceivable  kinds,  mainly 
for  philanthropic  purposes,  came  into  existence 
evcrj-where.  By  means  of  these  associations  the 
poorer  classes  were  in  a  sense  insured  against  poverty 
and  had  the  certainty  that  thev  would  receive  decent 
burial.  The  activity  of  the  Emperor  was  not  con- 
fined to  merely  official  acts;  private  movements  for 
the  succour  of  the  poor  and  of  orphans  received  his 
unstinted  support.  The  scope  of  the  alimentary 
institutions  of  former  reigns  w;us  broadened,  and  the 
establishment  of  charitable  foundations  such  as  that 
of  the  "  Puella?  Faustiniana; "  is  a  sure  indication 
of  a  general  softening  of  manners  and  a  truer  sense 
of  humanity.  The  |)criod  was  also  one  of  consiiler- 
able  literary  and  scientific  activity,  though  the  gene- 
ral artistic  movement  of  the  time  was  clecidedly  of 
the  "Rococo"  tj-pe.  The  most  lasting  influence  of 
the  life  and  reign  of  .Vntoninus  was  that  which  he 
exercised  in  the  sphere  of  law.  Five  great  Stoic 
jurisconsults.  Viniilius  Verus.  Salvius  V.alens.  Volu- 
sius  Miccianus,  ITpius  Marcellus,  and  Diavolenus, 
were    the   constant   advisers   of   the   Emperor,  and. 


under  his  protection,  they  infused  a  spirit  of  leniency 
and  mildness  into  Roman  legislation  which  effectu- 
ally safeguarded  the  weak  and  the  unprotected, 
slaves,  wards,  and  orphans,  against  aggressions  of 
the  powerful.  The  entire  system  of  law  was  not  re- 
modelled in  the  reign  of  .\ntoninus,  but  an  impulse 
was  given  in  this  direction  which  produced  the  later 
golden  jieriod  of  Roman  jurisprudence  under  Sep- 
timius  Scverus,  Caracalla,  and  Ale.xamler  Severus. 

In  religion  .\ntoninus  was  deeply  devoted  to  the 
traditional  worship  of  the  Empire.  He  had  none  of 
the  scepticism  of  Hadrian,  none  of  the  blind  fanati- 
cism of  his  successor.  Perhaps  as  a  consequence 
superstition  and  the  worship  of  new  deities  multi- 
plied under  his  administration.  In  his  dealings 
with  the  Christians  Antoninus  went  no  further  than 
to  maintain  the  procedure  outlined  by  Trajan, 
though  the  unswerving  devotion  of  the  Emperor  to 
the  national  gods  could  not  fail  to  bring  the  conduct 
of  the  Christians  into  unfavourable  contrast.  Very 
few  indications  of  the  Emperor's  attitude  towards 
his  Christian  subjects  are  to  be  found  in  contemporary 
documents.  The  most  valuable  is  that  of  the  Chris- 
tian Bishop  Melito  of  Sardes  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles., 
IV,  xxvi,  10).  In  his  ".Vpologj'"  to  Marcus  Aurelius 
he  speaks  of  "letters"  addressed  by  Antoninus 
Pius  to  the  Larissaans.  the  Thessalonians,  the  .Athe- 
nians, and  to  all  the  Greeks,  forbidding  all  tumultuous 
outbreaks  against  the  Cliristians.  The  edict  found 
in  Eusebius  (op.  cit..  IV,  13)  is  now  looked  on  by 
most  critics  as  a  forgerj'  of  the  latter  half  of  the  second 
century.  In  the  past,  Tillemont,  and  in  the  present, 
Wieseler  stand  for  its  genuineness.  "It  speaks  in 
admiring  terms  of  the  innocence  of  the  Christians, 
declares  unproved  the  charges  against  them,  bids 
men  admire  the  steadfastness  and  faith  with  which 
they  met  the  earthquake  and  other  calamities  that 
drove  others  to  despair,  ascribes  the  persecutions  to 
the  jealousy  which  men  felt  against  those  who  were 
truer  worshippers  of  God  than  themselves."  This 
temper  of  mind  was  entirely  in  conformity  with  the 
spirit  of  the  existing  legislation  as  laid  down  by 
Trajan  and  interpreted  by  Hadrian:  that  extra- 
judicial action  on  the  part  of  the  people  against  the 
Christians  should  not  be  tolerated  by  the  authorities. 
The  death  of  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  which 
took  place  in  lo.')  or  156,  shows  how  a  Roman  pro- 
consul, tliough  he  knew  his  duty,  still  permitted 
himself  to  be  swayed  by  popular  clamour.  In  the 
case  of  the  proconsul  Prudens  (Tertull.,  Ad.  Scap.,  ix) 
we  see  how  ineffectual  popular  outcries  were  in  the 
face  of  strong  administration,  and  how  efficiently 
the  interests  of  the  Cliristians  were  safeguarded, 
except  in  the  case  of  actual  evidence  in  an  open 
court.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  per- 
secution did  take  place  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus, 
and  that  many  Christians  did  suffer  death.  The 
pages  of  the  contemporary  apologists,  though  lack- 
mg  in  detail,  are  ample  proof  that  capital  punishment 
was  frequently  inflicted.  Tlie  passive  attitude  of 
Antoninus  had  no  small  influence  on  the  internal  de- 
velopment of  Christianity.  Heresy  was  then  ram- 
pant on  all  sides;  consequently,  in  order  to  strengthen 
the  bonds  of  discipline  and  morality,  and  to  enforce 
unity  of  doctrine,  concerted  action  was  called  for. 
The  tolerant  attitude  of  the  Emperor  made  possible 
a  broad  and  vigorous  activity  on  the  part  of  the 
Christian  bishops,  one  e\ndence  of  which  is  the  insti- 
tution of  s^Tiods  or  councils  of  the  Christian  leaders, 
then  first  held  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  ilcscribcd 
at  some  length  by  Eusebius  in  his  Church  History. 
In  this  way.  it  may  be  .said,  the  Emperor  contributed 
to  the  development  of  Christian  unity. 

The  knon'n  dcUiils  of  the  hfe  of  Antoninujt  Piu?  are  found 
in  the  Scriptorra  ItiaturitT  Au^juatT  (e<t.  Pktkr),  and  in  .\rRE- 
LU's  Virroit.  MfditatitifiK  of  MarcuM  Aurehua.  and  the  source.* 
UHually  found  in  oil  hi.sloriej*  of  the  perioii.  e.  a.  OlimoN.  De- 
clim  and  Fali  of  (At-  Kunuin  Empire  (&a  overarawn,  but  elo- 


AKTONIO 


588 


ANTWERP 


quent  picture  of  the  contemporary  civil  prosperity  of  Rome); 
Allard.  Hialoire  lies  Persiculione  (Pans,  1890);  Neumann. 
(unfiuishc4l)  Account  of  the  Relations  between  the  Imperial 
State  and  Chrislianilu  (Leipzig,  1890);  Renan,  Marc-Auri-le 
(Paris,  1891  );  Lacouh-Gatet,  Antonin  le  Pieux  el  son  temps 
(Paris,  188t>);  .'^M1TH,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biogr.  (Lon- 
don, 1890).  \.  i;iO-212;  Ramsey,  The  Church  and  the  Roman 
Empire  before  .1.  D.  170  (New  York.  1893);  Dill,  Roman 
Society  frum  Xcro  to  Marcus  Aurelius  (New  York,  1905). 

Patrick  J.  Healy. 

Antonio  Maria  Zaccaria,  Saint,  founder  of  the 
Clerks  Regular  of  St.  Paul,  commonly  known  as  the 
Barnabites;  b.  in  Cremona,  Italy,  1502;  d.  5  July, 
15.'59.  While  he  was  still  an  infant  his  father  died, 
leaving  the  care  of  the  child's  education  to  his 
mother,  wlio  taiiglit  him  compassion  for  the  poor  and 
suffering  by  making  him  her  almoner.  After  com- 
pleting the  studies  given  in  the  schools  at  Cremona 
ne  was  sent  to  Padua  for  his  philosophy,  and  in 
1520,  when  he  had  finished  this  course,  began  tlie 
study  of  medicine  in  the  university  at  that  place. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  received  his  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  and  returned  to  Cremona  to 
practise  his  profession.  Three  years  later  he  began 
to  study  theology  and  received  holy  orders  in  1528. 
He  now  devoted  himself  with  renewed  energy  to 
works  of  charity  and  mercy,  visiting  and  consoling 
the  sick  in  hospitals  and  poor-prisons.  The  ministry 
of  preaching  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments 
produced  .such  great  fruit  that  St.  Antonio  was  en- 
couraged to  seek  a  larger  field  for  his  labours  and 
to  carry  out  a  great  project  which  he  had  formed 
for  the  good  of  souls.  He  went  to  the  populous  city 
of  Milan,  of  which  he  was  a  burgess,  and  entered  the 
Confraternity  of  Eternal  Wisdom.  Among  tlie  mem- 
bers of  this  religious  body  he  allied  himself  with  two 
priests,  Fathers  Ferrari  and  Morigia,  and  told  them 
of  his  idea  of  founding  a  congregation  of  secular 
clergy.  Northern  Italy  at  this  period  was  in  a 
deplorable  condition.  Frequent  wars  had  devastated 
the  country.  The  advent  of  the  liUtheran  soldiery 
and  tlieir  contempt  for  everything  Catholic  had 
spread  the  contagion  of  bad  example,  while  famine 
and  plague  followed  in  the  track  of  the  soldiers. 
These  scourges  combined  to  produce  a  state  of 
misery  that  appealed  most  powerfully  to  Antonio 
and  his  associates.  "The  Congregation  of  the 
Regular  Clerks  of  St.  Paid",  St.  Antonio's  work, 
which  began  with  five  members,  was  canonically 
sanctioned  by  Pope  Clement  VII  in  1533.  Their 
rule  bound  them  to  "regenerate  and  revive  the  love 
of  the  Divine  worship,  and  a  truly  Christian  way  of 
life  by  frequent  preaching  and  the  faithful  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments. " 

The  first  superior  of  the  new  congregation  was 
St.  Antonio,  who  soon  became  known  in  Milan  as  an 
apostle.  Besides  giving  conferences  in  churches  to 
ecclesiastics  and  lay  people,  he  went  into  the  streets 
of  the  city  with  crucifix  in  hand,  and  produced  great 
fruit  in  souls  by  preaching  on  the  Passion  and  Death 
of  Christ  and  the  need  of  penance  for  sin.  In  1536 
he  resigned  the  superiorship  to  Father  Morigia  and 
later  went  to  Vicenza  at  the  request  of  Cardinal 
Ritlolfi.  There  he  succeeded  in  reforming  morals 
and  in  l)ringing  two  rehgious  communities  of  women 
to  a  stricter  observance  of  their  rule.  In  the  latter 
labour  he  was  greatly  aided  by  a  congregation  of 
nuns  "The  AngeUcals  of  St.  Paul",  which  he  had 
founded  in  Milan.  He  introduced,  also,  the  devo- 
tion of  the  "Forty  Hours'  Prayer",  in  Vicenza. 
The  last  two  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  Milan. 
He  sought  there  a  more  suitable  church  for  his  Con- 
gregation and  accepted  the  offer  of  the  church  of 
St.  Barnabas,  but  died  before  the  affair  was  ar- 
ranged. From  tliis  church  of  St.  Barnabas,  the 
Congregation  received  the  name  by  whicli  its  mem- 
bers are  commonly  known,  i.  e.  Barnabites.  Worn 
out  by  his  voluntary  penances,  as  well  as  by  his  un- 
tiring labours  of  charity,  he  was  attacked  by  fever 


during  one  of  his  missions.  Knowing  that  this  ill- 
ness was  his  last,  he  had  himself  brought  to  his  native 
city,  Cremona.  There,  in  his  mother's  liouse,  he  re- 
ceived the  last  sacraments  and  peacefully  expired 
at  the  early  age  of  thirty-seven.  His  body  was  found 
incorrupt  27  years  after  his  death.  He  was  de- 
clared Blessed  by  Pope  Pius  IX  in  1S49.  (See 
Barnabites.)  On  15  May,  1897,  he  was  .solemnly 
canonized  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  by  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
His  writings  are:  "Detti  notabili,  raccolti  da  varii 
autori"  (Venice,  1583);  "Constitutiones  ordinis 
clericorum  regularium  "  (not  pubHshed);  "Sermones 
super  prseceptis  Decalogi"  (not  published). 

.  Dubois,  Le  bienh.  Ant.  Maria  Zaccaria,  fondateur  des 
Barnabites  et  des  Angctiques  de  St.  Paul  (Tournay,  1896); 
St.  A.  M.  Zaccaria,  fondateur  des  Barnabites  (Paris  and 
Leipzig,  1897);  Brevi  vite  dei  Santi  (Rome,  1897);  Vita  illus- 
trata  di  S.  Antonio  M,  Zaccaria  fondatore  dei  Bamabite.  e  dtlle 
Angeliche  di  S.  Paolo  (Cremona,  1897);  Jeppa,  Lebensbeschrei- 
bung  des  hi.  Anton  Maria  Zaccaria,  Stifters  der  Bamabaiten 
Germ.  tr.  (Fulda,  1900);  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  und  Con- 
gregationen  der  katholischen  Kirche  (Paderborn.  1897). 

P.\TRicK  H.  Kelly. 

Antonio  of  Vicenza,  Maria,  a  Reformed  Minorite, 
b.  at  Vicenza,  1  March,  1834;  d.  at  Rovigiio,  22  June, 
1884.  After  his  ordination  (1856)  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  scholastic  authors,  especially  of 
St.  Bonaventure  whose  "  Breviloquium  "  he  published 
in  a  new  edition  (Venice,  1874;  Freiburg,  1881). 
He  also  edited  the  "Lexicon  Bonaventurianum", 
(Venice,  1880),  in  which  the  terrainologj"  of  the 
.scholastics  is  explained.  His  contributions  to 
hagiography  include  nineteen  studies  of  the  lives  of 
saints  of  the  Franciscan  Order. 

E.  A.  Pace. 

Antonius,  a  supposed  Latin  Christian  poet  of  the 
third  century,  under  whose  name  tliere  is  printed  in 
Migne  (P.  L.,  V,  261-282)  an  apologetic  poem 
"  Antonii  carmen  adversus  gentes".  Gallandi  at- 
tributed it  to  an  otherwise  unknown  Antonius,  an 
imaginary  contemporary  of  Commodian.  But  Mura- 
tori,  says  Dr.  Bardenhewer,  has  shown  that  the  poem 
belongs  to  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  (351-431).  There 
are  two  critical  editions,  by  Oehler  (Leipzig,  1847), 
and  by  Bursian  (Munich,  1880),  both  of  whom  at- 
tribute it  to  Paulinus  of  Nola. 

Bardenhewer,  Patrologie  (2d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1901)  394. 
Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Antony,  Franz  Joseph,  b.  1790,  at  Munster, 
Westphalia;  d.  there,  1837.  He  received  Holy  Orders, 
and  in  1819  became  choirmaster  at  the  cathedral, 
succeeding  his  father  as  organist,  in  1832.  In 
addition  to  some  songs  he  published  four  choral 
masses,  and  his  erudite  work  "  Archaologisch-litur- 
gisches  Gesangbuch  des  Gregorianischen  Kirclien- 
gesanges"  (1829),  and  "Geschichtliche  Darstelhing 
der  Entstehung  und  VervoUkommnung  der  Orgel", 
1832. 

Kornmuller,  Lct,  der  kirchl,  Tonkunst:  Baker,  Bwgr, 
Diet,  of  Musicians;  Riemann,  Diet,  of  Music. 

J.  A.  VOLKER. 

Antwerp  (Anvers,  Antwerpen,  Spanish  Am- 
B^REs),  a  city  of  Belgium,  in  the  archdiocese  of 
MechUn,  situated  on  the  Scheldt  (Kscaut),  about 
sixty  miles  from  the  sea,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
little  river  Schyn,  once  navigable.  Its  foundation 
was  probably  due  to  some  wandering  Teutonic  tribe; 
the  people  were  certainly  Christian  from  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  century  (Diercx.sen,  Antuerpia 
Christo  nascens  ab  an.  641,  etc.,  Antwerp,  1747-63, 
1773),  as  is  seen  by  the  famous  saints  then  met  with 
in  its  history  as  the  Irisli  virgin  Dympna,  EHgius, 
Amandus  and  Willibrord.  It  was  pillaged  by  the 
Northmen  in  835,  but  soon  arose  from  its  ruins.  In 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  it  appears  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Margraves  of  .\ntwerp,  and  from  that  time 
to  tlie  Frcncli  Revolution  recognized,  through  all 
political   vicissitudes,   no  other  .source  of  authority 


ANTWERP 


589 


ANTWERP 


in  its  various  political  masters.  In  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  the  Dukes  of  Brabant 
favoured  its  development  by  many  privileges, 
poliiical  and  commercial.  In  the  course  of  the 
fourteenth  century  the  Counts  of  Flanders  were  its 
lords  paramount  and  in  the  fifteenth  it  recognized 
the  overlordship  of  the  great  house  of  Hurguudy, 
through  which  relationship  it  eventually  rose  to  its 
highest  prosperity,  when  with  the  rest  of  the  Bur- 

f Indian  inheritance  it  pa.s.scd  under  the  control  of 
mperor  Charles  the  Fifth  (1.017-56).  .\fter  his 
death  there  broke  out  a  long  series  of  sanguinarj' 
conflicts,  partly  religious  and  partly  politico-conuner- 
cial,  resulting  in  the  overthrow  of  Spanish  and  the 
substitution  of  .\ustrian  domination  (1599)  whereby 
the  southern  or  Catholic  provinces  of  the  Low 
Countries  were  enabled  to  preserve  their  faith, 
though  at  a  great  price  from  a  commercial  standpoint. 
The  latter  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  eenturj'  was 
marked  by  nuich  unrest,  owing  to  the  anti-Catholic 
or  Febronian  policy  of  Emperor  Jo.>;cph  11  (I7()5-90). 
During  the  French  Revolution  Antwerp  was  incor- 

f)orated  (1794)  with  France,  and  was  made  by  Napo- 
eon  (lS()4-lii)  the  chief  naval  fortress  of  his  new  em- 
pire. .\ftcr  his  overthrow  it  was  incorporated  (1815) 
with  the  new  Kingdom  of  Holland,  but  cast  in  its 
fortunes  with  Belgium  during  the  revolution  of  1830, 
and  has  risen  since  then  to  the  position  of  a  fore- 
most centre  of  European  commerce  and  industry. 

PopUL.vTioN  .\XD  CoM.MKHCK. — The  population  of 
Antwerp  rose  in  the  sixteenth  eenturj'  (l.'iOO)  to  the 
phenomenal  figure  of  200,0(X).  It  was  tlien  the  Lon- 
don of  the  continent,  and  owed  its  prosperity  to 
various  causes,  among  which  may  be  nientioni'd  the 
decay  of  earlier  commercial  centres  like  Bruges  and 
Venice,  consequent  on  the  discoveries  of  Columbus 
and  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  the  natural  deepening  of 
the  western  entrance  of  the  Scheldt.  I  rom  the 
Middle  Ages  it  had  inherited  a  growing  trade  in  fish, 
salt,  and  oats,  in  English  wool,  and  in  exchanges 
of  all  kinds  with  the  various  states  of  Europe.  But 
now  commercial  products  came  no  longer  by  way 
of  the  .\driatic  and  over  Venice  to  the  wharves  of 
Antwerp,  but  directly  by  .sea;  this  was  especially 
true  of  the  merchandise  of  the  New  World.  Mer- 
chants of  every  nation  flocked  to  Antwerp;  among 
them  the  agents  of  the  Hanseatie  League  and  of  the 
merchant  adventurers  of  England;  it  became  the 
chief  banking  centre  of  Europe.  The  rich  Fuggers 
of  Augsburg  had  a  house  in  Antwerp  whence  tliey 
loaned  large  sums  to  kings  and  cities.  In  those  days, 
it  is  .said,  that  a  thousand  vessels  were  at  times 
anchored  off  the  city,  and  one  hundred  came  and 
went  daily.  Its  fairs  were  no  le.ss  famous  than 
those  of  Nuremberg  and  Novgorod,  and  had  been 
much  frequented  even  in  medieval  times,  for  purposes 
of  barter.  But  this  prosperity  declined  in  the  terrible 
politico-religious  warfare  of  the  last  three  decades 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  finally  extinguished 
as  a  result  of  the  Thirty  Years  War  (lClS-48).  Thir 
Treaty  of  Westphalia,  signed  in  the  latter  year,  con- 
tained a  clause  in  the  interest  of  Holland,  providing 
for  the  clo.sing  of  free  navigation  on  the  Scheldt. 
Thereby  was  closed  also  the  regular  source  of  Ant- 
werp's commercial  and  industrial  greatness.  It  was 
not  until  the  French  Revolution,  or  rather  >mtil  ISOiJ, 
that  an  imimpeded  traffic  was  provided  for  on  the 
broad  smooth-flowing  river  that  rivals  the  Thames 
and  the  Hudson  as  a  creator  of  national  wealth. 

EccLE-siASTiCAL  DEVELOPMENT. — In  the  Middle 
Ages  Antwerp  was  comprised  within  the  see  of  Cam- 
brai.  But  in  1.").59,  at  the  instance  of  Philip  II,  a 
new  arrangement  of  the  episcopal  sees  of  the  Low 
Countries  was  made  by  Paul  IV,  whereby  three 
archiepiscopal  and  fourteen  episcopal  sees  were 
created,  and  all  external  jurisdiction,  however 
ancient     abolished.     Antwerp    became   one   of    the 


six  suffragans  of  Mechlin,  and  remained  such  until 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  This  step  did 
not  meet  with  the  gooilwill  of  the  merchants  of  the 
city,  who  feared  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition 
and  the  costliness  of  an  episcopal  establishment, 
and  urged  the  transfer  of  the  new  sec  to  Louvain, 
where  it  would  be  le.ss  offensive  to  the  non-Catholic 
elements  of  their  city.  The  new  heretical  doctrines 
were  already  deeply  rooted  in  the  city  and  vicinity, 
and  their  representatives  were  of  course  the  chief 
agents  of  the  opposition,  though  certain  Catholic 
monastic  interests  were  ver^'  active,  being  now  called 
on  by  the  Pope  to  provide  for  the  support  of  the  new 
see.  Finally,  the  famous  theologian  Sonnius  (from 
Son  in  Brabant)  was  transferred  from  Bois-le-Duc 
to  .\ntwerp  in  1.509  as  first  bishop  of  the  new  .see, 
and  governed  it  until  his  death  in  1570.  Ten  years 
of  religious  and  political  conflict  elapsed  before 
another  bishop  could  be  appointed  in  the  person 
of  Livinus  Torrentius  (Van  der  Beke)  a  Louvain 
theologian,  graceful  humanist,  and  diplomat.  He 
tlied  in  1595.  The  scholarly  Mirwus  (Le  Mire)  was 
Bishop  of  -Vntwerp  from  1004  to  1611,  and  was  suc- 
ceetlea  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
by  a  series  of  fifteen  bishops,  the  last  of  whom  was 
Cornelius  Nelis,  hbrarian  of  Louvain  University, 
and  Bishop  of  .Vntwerp  from  1785  to  his  death  m 
1798.  Pius  VII  suppre.s.sed  the  see  29  Nov.,  1801, 
by  the  Bull  "Qui  Christi  Domini  vices".  Its  former 
Belgian  territory  now  belunys  to  the  .\rchdiocese  of 
Meclilin,  the  Dutch  portion  to  the  Diocese  of  Breda 
(Foppcns.  llistoria  Episcopatus  .Anluerpiensis,  Brus- 
sels, 1717;  Ram,  Synopsis  actorum  eccl.,  Antwerp, 
Bru.s,sels,  18.56).  Tlie  abbeys  and  convents  of  Ant- 
werp were  long  verj'  famous  centres  of  its  religious 
life.  In  the  twelfth  century  the  Canons  Regular 
of  St.  Norbert  (Premonstratensians)  founded  the 
abbey  of  St.  Michael,  that  became  later  one  of  the 
principal  abbeys  of  the  Low  Countries,  sheltered 
many  royal  guests,  and  eventually  excited  no  little 
cupidity  and  persecution  by  reason  of  its  great 
wealth.  The  Cathedral  of  .\ntwerp  was  originally 
a  small  Premon.stratensian  shrine  known  familiarly 
as  "Our  Lady  of  the  Stump".  Many  other  re- 
ligious orders  foimd  a  shelter  in  Antwerp,  Domini- 
cans, Franciscans  (144G),  Carmelites  (1494),  Car- 
thusians (1632),  likewise  female  branches  of  the 
same.  The  Cistercians  had  two  great  abbej's,  St. 
Sauveur,  founded  in  1451  by  the  devout  merchant, 
Peter  Pot,  and  St.  Bernard,  about  si.x  miles  from 
Antwerp,  founiled  in  1233  (Papebroch,  "  Annales 
.\ntuerpienses",  to  the  year  1600,  ed.  Mertens  and 
Buchmami,  Antwerp,  184(5—18). 

Religious  Conflicts. — The  medieval  religious 
life  of  Antwerp  seems  to  have  been  troubled  by  only 
one  notable  heresy,  that  of  Tanchelin  in  the  twelftn 
centurj'.  But  the  principles  and  doctrines  of  Luther 
and  Calvin  soon  found  .sympathizers  among  the  Ger- 
man, Engli.sh,  and  other  foreign  merchants  and  also 
among  the  citizens.  First  the  .Vnabaiitists  and  then 
the  CalvinLst  field-preachers  attacked  with  a  fierce 
jwrsistency  the  existing  religious  order.  To  the 
religious  differences  were  added  patriotic  feelings 
and  the  hatred  of  Spanish  domination.  Po])uIar 
passions,  nursed  from  many  sources,  exploded  in 
August,  1566,  when  the  splendid  cathedral  that  had 
been  176  years  in  process  of  building  was  sacked  by 
a  Calvinist  mob,  the  .seventy  altars  destroyed,  and 
all  the  works  of  art  it  contained  defaced  or  stolen. 
Similar  scenes  occiuTcd  in  all  the  other  churches 
and  convents  of  .\ntwerp.  The  next  year  Spain 
replied  by  the  .sending  of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  one  of 
the  great  militarj' captains  of  the  age,  who  inaugur- 
ated a  reign  of  terror  that  bore  with  equal  severity 
on  Protestant  and  Catholic,  since  it  interfered  witli 
the  trade  of  the  city  and  vicinity  by  stopping  the 
supply  of  English  wool  for  the  looms  of  I  landers, 


ANTWERP 


590 


ANTWERP 


and  by  intensifying  tlie  religions  and  patriotic  em- 
bitterment  whose  .seeds  had  first  been  sown  by  the. 
Anabaptists  aiul  the  Calvinists.  Henceforth  the 
history  of  Antwerp  (ecclesiastical  and  civil)  is  inti- 
mately bound  up  with  the  story  of  the  Gueux  (Beg- 
gars) resistance  to  the  policy  of  Philip  II  (1556-98). 
The  sack  of  Antwerp  by  the  mutinous  Spanish  troops 
(4  Nov.,  1570),  that  French  troops  attempted  to 
repeat  (1"  Ja"-.  1583)  and  the  famous  siege  of  the 
city  by  Spain's  great  captain  Alessandro  Farnese, 
Duke  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  are  among  the  darkest 
pages  of  the  great  city's  pitiful  story  in  the  last 
decades  of  the  sixteenth  century.  At  a  cruel  price, 
set  rather  by  politics  than  by  religion,  the  Catholic 
faith  had  been  preserved  in  Antwerp,  and  Protestant 
domination  excluded  in  favour  of  Catholic  rule. 
From  1599  to  1621  the  Catholic  Netherlands  were 
governed  by  .\lbert,  Archduke  of  Austria  and  his 
spouse  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip  II.  After  the 
death  of  "the  Archdukes",  Spanish  rule  was  once 
more  made  permanent  in  this  "cockpit  of  Europe" 
until  1714  when,  as  one  result  of  the  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession,  the  government  of  the  Catholic 
Netherlands  again  fell  to  Austria. 

Intellectu.\l  Life. — Amid  religious  and  pol- 
itical conflict  the  Catholic  intellectual  life  of  Antwerp 
never  flagged.  The  city  is  famous  in  the  annals 
of  printing.  In  1492  Thierry  Ma>rtens  printed  at 
Antwerp,  as  a  fly-sheet,  a  Latin  translation  of  the 
letter  of  Columbus  in  which  he  announced  his  dis- 
covery of  the  New  World,  and  in  this  way  probably 
first  made  known  the  great  event  to  the  men  of 
Northern  Europe.  But  it  is  to  Christopher  Plantin 
(d.  L5S9),  and  his  son-in-law  and  successor  Moretus, 
that  the  city  chiefly  owes  its  fame  as  a  centre  of 
book-making  and  distribution.  This  "giant  among 
printers"  organized  the  trade  on  a  basis  hitherto 
unattempted,  began  and  executed  extraordinary 
enterprises,  and  founded  a  house  that  lasted  during 
the  seventeenth  and  the  eighteenth  centuries  in  which 
period  it  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the  sale  of  missals 
and  breviaries  throughout  the  vast  Spanish  domains. 
It  was  the  Plantin  press  that  issued  the  first 
volume  of  the  "Acta  Sanctorum"  (1643),  an  enter- 
prise begun  at  Antwerp  by  the  Jesuit  Heribert 
Rosweyde  (d.  1629),  organized  there  by  his  confrere 
John  Bolland  (see  Bollandists)  and  conducted 
there  until  1778,  when  it  fell  a  victim  of  the  ridic- 
ulous "reforms"  of  Jo.seph  II.  Plantin's  own 
masterpiece  is  the  great  Antwerp  Polyglot  Bible 
in  six  folio  volumes,  the  "  Biblia  Regia"  issued  at 
Antwerp  from  1569  to  1573,  and  really  at  Plantin's 
own  expense.  Besides  the  scholarly  bishops  of 
Antwerp  already  mentioned,  the  city  boasts  of  other 
notable  Catholic  scholars,  the  great  critic  and  savant 
Justus  Lipsius,  and  other  helpers  of  Plantin,  e.  g. 
Kiliaen,  the  Flemish  lexicographer,  and  Ortelius 
and  Mercator,  the  geographers  (Max  Rooses,  Chris- 
tophe  Plantin,  imprimeur  anversois,  Antwerp,  1900). 
In  modern  times  it  is  celebrated  as  the  home  of 
Hendrik  Conscience,  the  immortal  Flemish  novelist, 
and  of  Augustin  De  Backer,  the  erudite  biographer 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

The  P.mnteu.s  of  Antwerp. — In  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  Catholic  faith,  mimicipal 
prosperity,  and  a  certain  large-mindedness  combined 
to  make  Antwerp  a  centre  of  artistic  life  second  to 
none  in  Europe.  It  was  often  called  "the  Florence 
of  the  North",  and  was  well-known  in  medieval 
times  for  its  "Guild  of  St.  Luke"  founded  in  1382, 
and  active  until  the  end  of  the  last  century.  Prom- 
inent among  the  illustrious  artists  of  Antwerp  are 
the  great  portrait  painter  Quentin  Matsys  or  Metsys 
(M6()-1530)  and  Peter  Paul  Rubens  '(1577-1640), 
the  latter  at  once  a  prince  of  painters,  courtier, 
diplomat,  and  Antwerp's  most  distinguished  citizen. 
He  was  also  a  very  devout  Catholic  and  heard  Ma.ss 


daily  before  beginning  his  work.  Other  famous 
artists  were  Van  Dyck,  Jordaens,  Teniers,  the 
Jesuit  Seghers  and  sculptors  like  Luc  Faydherbe 
and  the  Quellins.  In  modern  times  the  genius  of 
the  old  Antwerp  painters  has  revived  in  masters 
like  Wappers,  Leys,  and  others.  Religious  realism, 
rich  and  vivid  colouring,  vigour  of  execution,  mi- 
nuteness of  detail,  abundance  of  ornament  and 
light,  characterize  the  works  of  the  Antwerp  School 
of  painters.  Their  city  has  long  since  become  a 
museum  of  religious  art  unique  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Alps,  and  highly  expressive  of  the  earnest 
spiritual  Catholicism  of  the  once  warlike  burghers, 
now  a  new  race  of  merchant-princes.  The  armies 
of  Jacobin  France  soon  became  masters  of  Antwerp 
(1794)  and  for  the  next  five  years  every  kind  of  ex- 
cess was  committed  there  against  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion. Priests  were  exiled,  even  murdered;  the 
churches  and  convents  were  closed  and  pillaged; 
the  Catholic  hierarchy  abused  and  insulted  in  every 
conceivable  manner;  statues,  paintings,  and  art-works 
of  all  kinds  belonging  to  the  churches  were  sold  at 
public  auction,  and  only  the  overthrow  of  the  Direc- 
tory in  November,  1799  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
prevented  the  demolition  and  sale  of  the  incompar- 
able cathedral  as  mere  stone,  timber,  and  iron. 

English  Catholic  Interest. — The  interest  of 
Catholic  England  in  Antwerp  is  not  a  slight  one, 
apart  from  the  close  commercial  relations  that  ex- 
isted from  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  centurj-  to 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth.  Persecuted  English 
Catholics  often  took  refuge  in  that  city;  thus  English 
Brigittine  nuns  of  the  royal  abbey  of  Syon  House, 
nearly  all  of  them  of  noble  birth,  were  welcomed 
there  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  A  convent  of 
English  Carmelite  nuns  was  founded  there  in  1619, 
and  flourished  until  the  French  Revolution,  when 
the  sisters  returned  to  Lanherne  in  Cornwall  where 
their  convent  still  exists.  Mention  is  made  in  the 
city  annals  of  Gilbert  Curie,  his  wife  Barbara  Mow- 
bray, and  his  sister  Elizabeth  Curie,  devoted  ad- 
herents of  Mary  Stuart,  the  latter,  her  attendant  at 
the  block  (Lingard,  Hist,  of  England,  VI,  vi,403). 
Their  house  at  Antwerp  was  a  shelter  for  persecuted 
Catholics  from  England.  Dying,  Gilbert  Curie 
bequeathed  sixty  thousand  florins  to  the  Scotch 
College  at  Douay.  Another  English  Catholic  res- 
ident at  Antwerp  was  the  famous  Richard  Verstegen, 
a  prominent  religious  publicist,  author  of  the  famous 
"Theatrum  crudelitatis  ha?reticorum "  (Antwerp, 
1586),  with  engravings  designed  by  himself,  a  vi\id 
polemical  account  of  the  sufferings  of  contemporary 
Catholics  for  their  faith,  also  of  several  other  works 
written    in    Flemish. 

Objects  of  Religious  Interest. — The  Cathedral 
(St.  Mary's)  begun  in  1354,  is  said  to  have  been  176 
years  in  process  of  erection.  It  is  cruciform  in  shai^e, 
with  triple  aisles  and  an  ambulatorv'.  Its  dimen- 
sions in  feet  are:  length  384,  breadth  of  nave  171, 
breadth  of  transept  212,  height  130.  The  vaults 
are  supported  by  a  forest  of  columns  (125).  The 
great  northern  tower  is  nearly  400  feet  high  and  was 
compared  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte  to  Mechlin  lace 
hung  aloft  in  mid-air.  Its  organ,  built  in  1891, 
contains  ninety  registers  and  is  said  to  be  the  largest 
in  Belgium.  Among  the  famous  art-treasures  of 
the  cathedr.-il  are  tTie  "Descent  from  the  Cross" 
and  the  "Assumption"  by  Rubens.  It  was  much 
damaged  by  the  Calvinists  in  1506  and  by  the  French 
(1794-98).  Other  imi)ortant  churches  are:  St. 
Charles  Borromeo,  built  1014-21,  and  once  decorated 
with  thirty-six  large  ceiling-frescoes  by  Rubens; 
St.  Jacques  (14!)l-Ui5()),  once  the  favourite  burial- 
place  of  the  wealthy  and  distinpiuishcd  families  of 
Antwerp  and  filled  with  their  monuments  and  chapels, 
including  the  Rubens  chapel;  St.  Paul,  built  by  the 
Dominicans  (1531-71),  since  the  battle  of  Lepanto 


ANUNCIACION 


591 


AOSTA 


(1571)  the  seat  of  a  famous  confraternity  of  the 
Rosary.  There  are  also  churches  dedicated  to  St. 
Andrew,  St.  Augustine,  St.  (ieorge,  Sts.  Micliael 
and  Peter,  and  St.  Joseph.  The  Plant  in-Moret us 
Museum  e.xliibits  the  work-shop  and  residence  of 
that  great  family  of  (•ccle.siastical  printers  (purchased 
in  IJ>76  hy  the  nuinicipality )  cjuite  as  they  were  in 
the  si.xteenth  and  .seventeenth  centuries.  In  the 
various  rooms  may  be  seen  copies  of  old  mi.ssaLs  and 
breviaries,  <()rres|>onilcnce  of  learned  men  (St. 
Charles  liorromeo,  Baronius),  jxirtraits  of  famous 
editors  (.\riius  Montanus,  Justus  Lijxsius)  employed 
by  Plantin  and  Moretus,  drawings  by  Kubens,  en- 
gravings by  famous  masters,  artistic  bindings,  and 
specimens  of  all  the  most  perfect  work  done  for  this 
establishment  of  learned  printers  during  their 
flourishing  period.  Altogether  it  is  a  "unique 
picture  of  the  dwelling  and  contiguous  business 
premises  of  a  Flemish  patrician  at  the  end  of  the 
sixteentli    centurj-". 

The  Catholic  jxipulation  of  Antwerp  and  arrondisse- 
ments  is  :U4,S17  (census,  1900).  '1  he  city  contains 
34  Catholic  churches  and  chapels,  2  Protestant 
churches,  and  2  synagogues.  There  are  7  religious 
orders  of  men  and  30  of  women.  Tlie  chief  educa- 
tional institutions  are  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
Academy  of  Trades,  Normal  School,  Royal  Athen- 
a'um.  College  of  St.  John  Berchmans,  Institute  of 
St.  Xorbert,  College  of  Xotre  Dame  and  Trades 
Institute  of  St.  Ignatius,  both  under  the  Jesuits. 
There  are  in  addition  boarding  schools  and  day 
schools  under  the  following  religious  orders:  I'rsu- 
lines,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady,  Sisters  of  the  Teminck 
Foundation,  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Ladies  of 
Christian  Instruction,  the  Apostolines,  Annunciates, 
Sisters  of  Marj'  and  Sisters  of  the  Heart  of  Mary. 
Among  the  charitable  institutions  are  a  Beguinage; 
a  liouse  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  with  about 
400  inmates;  the  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of 
the  Heart  of  Jesus,  for  the  protection  and  reclama- 
tion of  women.  There  are  orphanages  for  boys 
and  girls,  two  sailors'  homes,  an  asylum  for  the  in- 
sane, a  number  of  hospitals,  e.  g.  St.  Elizabeth's 
with  a  capacity  of  400  and  Stuivenberg  500.  In 
Antwerp  also  is  situated  the  mother-house  of  the 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

Besides  the  work.s  quotetl  in  the  text  sec  G^naro,  Anvera 
ix  travers  Us  lioea:  the  histories  of  Belgium  by  N.vmache, 
PiRKS.NK.  MERTE.V8  and  ToRFs;  Moke,  Lfs  gplendeura  de  t'art 
en  Bflgique:  ItODINSON,  Antwerp:  An  Ilitlorual  SkeUh  (Lon- 
doD.  IU04). 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Anunciacidn,  Frat  Domingo  de  la,  a  Dominican 
missionary,  b.  at  Fuenteovejuna,  1.510;  d.  in  Me.\ico, 
1.591.  In  the  world  his  name  was  Juan  de  Ecija; 
his  father  was  Hernando  de  Ecija.  At  the  age  of 
thirteen  he  asked  to  be  admitted  into  the  Order  of 
St.  Francis,  but 
was  refused.  His 
father  having  died, 
he  emigrated  to 
New  Spain  (.Mex- 
ico) witli  his  elder 
brother,  Hernando 
de  Paz,  who  bo- 
came  secretary  of  the  first  royal  auiiivncia.  Pros- 
perity spoiled  Hernando,  but  the  younger  brother, 
Juan,  kept  aloof  from  the  temptations  of  wealth  and 
ambition,  and  entered  the  Order  of  Dominicans  in 
1531,  or  1532.  He  assinned  the  name  of  Domingo  de 
la  Animciacion,  under  which  he  thereafter  was  known. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  zealous  instructors  of  the 
Mexican  Indians  in  tlie  sixteenth  century.  During 
the  epidemic  of  1545  he  attended  to  the  natives  un- 
ceasingly, regardless  of  him.self,  and  administered  the 
eacraments,  from  .Mexico  as  far  south  as  Oaxaca,  wan- 
dering on  foot  from  village  to  village.     In  1559,  Fray 


SlQ.NATCRE  OF  FraY  DoMINOO 


Domingo,  with  three  other  priesta  and  a  lay  brother, 
all  of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  accompanied  Don 
Tristan  de  Arellano  y  Luna  on  his  disastrous  ex- 
[wdition  to  Florida.  .Shipwrecked,  deprived  of  al- 
most every  resource,  he  sulTered  the  worst.  All  at- 
tempts to  penetrate  inland  failed,  and  the  survivors 
had  to  go  back  as  Ijcst  they  could.  After  his  return 
to  .Mexico  he  contimied  tis  teacher  among  the  Indians, 
but  was  twice  prior  of  the  convent  of  .*^anto  Domingo 
at  the  capital,  once  prior  of  the  convent  of  Piiebla, 
four  times  msister  of  novices,  and  definiilor  in 
various  provincial  councils.  In  15S5  he  became 
blind  antl  died  si.x  years  later,  univei^ally  regretted 
for  his  virtues  and  untiring  devotion  to  tlie  cause  of 
religion  and  education,  chiefly  of  the  Indians.  His 
elder  brother,  Hernando,  finally  induce<l  by  him  to 
abandon  tlie  life  of  di.s.sipation  he  had  l^een  leading, 
also  became  a  Dominican,  and  rose  to  a  high  posi- 
tion in  the  order.  Fray  Domingo  de  la  .4nuiiciaci6n 
has  left,  as  far  as  is  known,  only  one  litcrarj*  monu- 
ment, which  is  very  rare.  It  bears  the  title:  "Doc- 
trina  Xpiana  Breve  y  Compendiosa  &ca  &ca" 
(.Mexico,  1.565),  and  is  a  dialogue  between  master 
and  pupil  on  the  Christian  doctrine,  in  Spanish  and 
Mexican. 

The  bioKraphy  of  Fray  Domingo  is  ba^ed  almost  exclusively 
upon  the  work  of  Fray  AoUHTf.s-  Davila  Padilla:  Hialoria 
de  la  Fundaci('m  y  discorgo  de  la  prmineia  de  Santiago  de  Mixico 
de  la  orden  de  Preduadores  (first  edition,  Madrid,  1506;  second, 
Brussels,  1625;  thinl,  with  a  different  title,  Yalladolid,  1634). 
The  book  is  exceedingly  rare.  That  the  Doctrina  Xpiana 
was  said  to  be  printed  in  1545.  instead  of  1565.  is  an  error 
due  to  Padilla.  That  error  was  repeated  by  Nicolas  A.n- 
TONio,  Biblioteca  ftiepana  A'm-a  (1G70);  by  Leon  y  Pinelo, 
KpUume  de  la  Biblioteca  Oriental  y  Ocndental  (Madrid,  1738), 
II:  and  BtRIftTAl.N  de  Socza,  Biblioteca  hiapano-americana 
aetentrional  (Mexico.  1816).  to  be  finally  corrected  by  Garcia 
YcAZBALCETA,  Bibliogrolia  mericana  del  Siglo  XVl  (Mexico. 
1886).  in    which    book    the    fronti.spipco    of    the    Doetrina  is 

fiven.  with  numerous  data  on  the  life  of  the  author.  On  the 
lorida  mission  see  Documentoa  iniditoa  de  Indiaa;  BrcK- 
ingiiam-Smitii,  Cotecciiin  de  Documentoa  para  la  lliatoria  de 
la  Florida;  CXrdenas  y  Zcano  (pseudonym  for  I-llircia). 
Knaayo  cronoU'igico  para  la  Hiatoria  de  la  Florida;  Ger(jn'i.mo 
DE  Mendieta.  Hiatoria  Ecleaiuatica  indiana  (publistied  by 
Ycazbalceta);  Woodbdry-Lowery,  Spaniah  Settlementa  in 
the  United  Utatea,  I. 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Animciacion,  Fray  Juan  de  la,  b.  at  Granada 
in  Spain,  probably  1514;  d.  1.594.  He  went  to 
Mexico,  where  he  joined  the  August inians  in  1.5.54. 
He  was  several  times  prior  of  the  convents  of  his 
order  at  Mexico  and  Pucbla,  and  twice  definidor. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty.  He  was  also  rector 
of  the  college  of  .San  Pablo.  Fray  Juan  lx?longs  to 
the  class  of  religious  so  numerous  and  .so  little  known, 
or  at  least  considered,  who  in  the  sixteenth  century 
devoted  themselves  with  special  attention  to  the 
literary  and  religious  education  of  the  Indians.     He 

f)ublisfied  in  Mexico  three  books,  which  are  of  at 
east  linguistic  vahie  to-day,  and  were  originally 
useful  for  the  instruction  of  the  aborigines  of  Nahuatl 
stock.  The  earliest,  that  of  the  year  1575,  is  a 
"Doctrina  Cliristiana"  in  Mexican  (Nahuatl)  and 
Spanish.  In  the  same  year  he  published  "Ser- 
mones  para  publicar,  despcdir  la  Bulla  de  la  Sancta 
Cnisada,"  in  Mexican  and  Spanish.  He  was  then 
sub-prior  of  the  convent  of  St.  Augustine  in  Mexico. 
Finally,  in  1577,  there  appeared,  his  "Sennonario  en 
Len^a  Mexicana  .  .  .  con  un  Catecismo  en  lengua 
Mexicana  y  Espafiola,  con  el  Calendario."  Very  few 
copies  of  these  works  are  known  to  exist. 

De  Grijalva.  Crt^ica  de  la  Orden  de  San  Au^juatin,  en  lag 

F-orinciaa  de  la  \ueta  EapaiUi  (Mexico.  1624);  Leon  t 
INE1.0.  Epitome  de  la  BHilioleca  oriental  y  occidental  (edition 
of  17.38;  hrst  ciliiion.  16'28);  Nicolas  Antonio.  Biblioteca 
Ilitpana  Nova  (1670  and  1783);  BfcRisTAiN  DE  SoczA.  Bib- 
lioteca hiapano'amrricana  aetentrional  (Mexico,  181C);  \*caz- 
BALCETA,  Bibliogralla  mexicana  del  Siato  XVl  (Mexico.  1886) 

Ad.  F.  Bandeliek. 
Aod.     See  MoABiTEs. 
Aosta,  The  Diocese  of. — An  Italian  diocese,  suf- 


APACHES 


592 


APARISI 


fragan  of  Turin,  und  comprising  73  towns  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Turin  Althougli  St.  Ursus  is  sometimes  said 
to  have  been  tlic  first  bishop,  this  is  greatly  contro- 
verted. The  first  known,  certainly,  as  such  was  St. 
Eustasius,  whose  name  coupled  with  Aosta  is  signed 
to  a  letter  sent  to  Leo  I  by  the  second  Synod  of 
Milan  (451).  [F.  Savio,  S.  J.  Gli  Antichi  Vescovi  d' 
Italia  (Piemonte),  Turin,  1899,  69-108.]  From  the 
ninth  century  the  list  of  bishops  is  fairly  complete. 
Suppres.sed  in  1802  it  was  re-established  in  1817. 
Aosta  has  82,000  Catholics;  87  parishes,  188  secular 
priests,  24  regulars,  55  seminarists,  566  churches, 
chapels,  or  oratories.  In  the  cathedral  treasury  is  a 
diptych  of  Anicius  Probus,  Roman  consul  in  406, 
which  shows  the  Emperor  Honorius  conquering  the 
hordes  of  Alaric.  It  was  discovered  in  1833.  St. 
.■Vnselm  (1033-1109),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
a  native  of  Aosta.  St.  Bernard  de  Mentlion  (1008), 
Archdeacon  of  Aosta,  founded  the  hospice  on  the 
Alps  named  after  him,  as  a  relief  to  pilgrims  in  the 
passage  of  the  Alps. 

Battandier,    Ann.    Cath.    Pont.,    1906. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Apaches,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  be- 
longing linguistically  to  the  Athapascan  stock  whose 
original  habitat  is  believed  to  have  been  North- 
western Canada.  The  family  spread  southwards  to 
California  and  thence  diffused  itself  over  Texas, 
New  Jlexico,  and  Arizona.  Onate,  in  1598,  is  the 
first  writer  to  mention  Apaches  by  this  name.  The 
Apaclies,  from  tlieir  first  appearance  in  history,  have 
been  noted  for  their  ferocity  and  restlessness.  Op- 
posed to  fixed  abode.s,  they  have  ever  been  a  terror 
to  the  more  peaceably  inclined  red  men. 

The  history  of  Catholic  missionary  effort  among 
the  Apaches  is  a  sad  one.  We  find  Franciscans  at 
work  among  them  as  early  as  1629,  when  Father 
Benavides  founded  Santa  Clara  de  Capo  on  the 
borders  of  the  Apache  country  in  New  Mexico.  Yet, 
though  an  Apache  chief,  Sanaba,  had  been  converted 
to  the  Faith,  we  hear  of  the  tribe  itself  only  as  a 
despoiler  of  the  Christian  Pueblo  Indians.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Jesuit 
missionaries  of  Upper  California  also  came  in  con- 
tact with  the  Apaches.  The  latter  frequently 
harassed  the  reservations  near  the  Arizona  frontier 
with  a  ferocity  which  gained  for  them  the  appella- 
tion of  the  Iroquois  of  the  West.  As  a  means  of 
protecting  their  converts,  the  Jesuits  attempted  to 
convert  the  savage  Apaches,  and  the  celebrated 
Father  Kino  (Kuehn),  cosmographer  and  missioner, 
undertook  the  task.  He  made  such  a  favourable 
impression  on  them  that  they  invited  him  to  dwell 
among  them,  but  his  death  shortly  after  frustrated 
the  design,  and  we  hear  no  more  of  Jesuit  missions 
to  the  tribe.  In  1733,  Father  Aponte  y  Lis,  a  Fran- 
ciscan labouring  on  tlie  Texan  mission,  devoted  his 
best  efforts  to  winning  over  the  Apaches.  He  per- 
suaded the  Spanish  Viceroy  to  lend  material  assist- 
ance, and  finally,  in  1757,  San  Saba  and  San  Luis 
de  Amarillas  were  established;  but  the  nomadic 
Apaches  refused  to  settle  on  reservations,  dosiiite 
the  ellorts  of  Fathers  Terreros,  Santiestelian,  Molina, 
and  other  Franciscans.  Moreover,  the  neighbouring 
Indians  resented  the  attempt  to  domesticate  the 
Apaches  near  their  homes,  and  murdered  several  of 
the  fathers.  Another  mission,  San  Lorenzo  on  the 
Rio  Josd,  founded  in  1761,  was  maintained  for  a  few 
years  by  I'atlicrs  Ximcnes  and  Bafios.  Out  of  some 
3,(XXJ  Apaches  they  induced  about  400  to  settle  at 
the  mission,  and  bajilizcd  80  persons  in  danger  of 
death.  Hones  of  la,sling  results  were  now  enter- 
tained, as  tlie  Apaches  allowed  their  children  to  be 
instructed  and  their  sick  to  be  visited,  but  tlie 
Comanches  destroyed  the  .settlement  in  1769.  Wo 
read  of  no  more  organized  work  among  tlie  Apaches. 
Soon  after  the  United  States  Government  had  ac- 


quired the  southwestern  territories,  it  came  into 
collision  with  the  restless  Apaches,  and  a  relentless 
state  of  war  with  the  tribe  has  existed  practically 
down  to  the  present  day.  In  1870  the  .Apaches  of 
Arizona  were  visited  by  the  Rev.  A.  Jouvenceau,  a 
secular  priest,  but  he  found  no  Christians  among 
them.  A  few  Jicarilla  Apaches,  living  dispersed 
among  the  New  Mexican  settlements,"have  been 
baptized,  but  as  a  tribe  the  Apaches  have  never  been 
Christianized.  Catholic  missionaries  and  Indian 
agents  agree  in  describing  them  at  the  present  day 
as  the  most  savage,  degraded,  and  immoral  of  all 
our  North  American  Indians.  Their  number  is 
estimated  at  5,200,  of  whom  300  have  been  removed 
to  Oklahoma. 

Shea,  Cath.  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New  York,  188G); 
Idem.,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Missions  among  the  Indians  (New  York, 
1855);  Clinch,  California  and  its  Missions  (San  Francisco, 
1904). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Apameia,  a  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Syria,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  whose  episcopal  list  dates 
from  the  first  century  (Gams,  446,  451).  It  was  still 
a  flourishing  place  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  and 
was  known  to  the  Arabs  as  Famieh.  Vast  ruins  of 
a  very  ornamental  character  abound  in  the  vicinity. 
For  another  Apameia  (in  Phrygia)  known  as  Apameia 
Cibotos  (the  Ark)  see  "Bulletin  Critique"  (Paris, 
1890),  XI,  296-297.  There  was  still  another  see 
of  the  same  name  in  Bithynia,  whose  episcopal  list 
is  known  since  the  fourth  century   (Gams,  443). 

Legendhe  in  Vigouroux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (1891),  s.  v.;  De 
Vogue,  La  Syrie  centrale:  Architecture  civile  et  reliffUuse 
(Paris.  1866-67);  Butler,  Architecture  etc.,  in  Northern  Cen- 
tral Syria  (New  York,  1903),  passim. 

Aparisi  y  Guijarro,  Antonio,  parliamentary 
orator,  jurisconsult,  Catholic  controversialist,  and 
Spanish  litterateur,  b.  in  Valencia,  28  Mar.,  1815; 
d.  in  Madrid,  5  Nov.,  1872.  He  was  extremely 
gifted;  of  extensive  knowledge,  brilliant  imagination, 
graceful  and  beautiful  power  of  expression,  and 
exquisite  literary  taste.  As  a  man,  he  was  modest 
kind-hearted,  and  most  charitable,  a  fervent  Catholic 
and  an  ardent  patriot.  In  1839  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and  defended  many  criminal  cases,  winning 
them  in  almost  every  instance.  He  published  poems 
and  articles  in  the  monthly  periodical,  "El  Liceo 
Valenciano"  (1841—42),  in  "La  Restauracion",  a 
Catholic  review  of  Valencia  (1843-44),  and  was 
editor  of  the  newspaper,  "  El  pensamiento  de  Valen- 
cia" (1857-58).  He  contributed  to  "La  Esperanza", 
"La  Estrella",  and  particularly  to  "La  Regenera- 
cion"  (Nov.,  1862,  to  Nov.,  1872),  Catholic  news- 
papers of  Madrid,  being  editor  of  the  last-named  at 
different  times,  and  collaborator  in  the  publication 
of  the  review  "La  Concordia"   (1863-64). 

He  was  sent  as  representative  from  Valencia  to 
the  Cortes  (1858-65),  where,  as  leader  of  the  royalists 
in  the  House  of  Representatives,  he  delivered  many 
eloquent  discourses  against  the  disont.Tilment  laws, 
in  defence  of  Catholic  union,  in  reprobation  of  des- 
poihng  the  Pope  of  his  temjxiral  power,  and  on  other 
vital  questions  touching  tlie  Church  and  Spain.  In 
Paris,  in  lS(j9,  lie  attempted  to  unite  the  royal  families 
of  I.sabel  II  and  Cliarles  of  Bourbon,  and  for  dynastic 
reasons  also  went  to  Paris  and  London  in  1S()9-7I). 
and  took  part  in  the  Carlist  conference  in  Switzerland 
in  April,  1870.  He  took  the  initiative  in  the  fornia- 
tion  in  Paris  of  a  Central  Congress  of  the  Carlist  party. 
In  1860  he  wrote  the  treati.se  "  El  Paiia  y  iN:i]>oleon  ", 
and  later  four  others:  "Los  tres  Orleans"  (IStiO"). 
"  El  Rey  de  ICspana  "  (18(19),  "  La  ciicstioii  dinastica" 
(1869),  and  "  He-itauracinii  "  (1S72),  leaving  unpub- 
lished "El  libro  del  jiueblo".  In  February  or  -March 
of  1870  he  had  an  audience  with  Pius  IX,  who  be- 
stowed on  him  many  marks  of  special  favour.  In 
1S71  he  was  elected  .senator  from  Guipuzcoa.  He 
was   also    made    a    member   of   the    Royal    tJpanisb 


APELLES 


593 


APHRAATES 


Academy,  but  did  not  live  to  take  his  seat.  The 
works  of  Aparisi  were  publislied  in  Madrid  during 
the  years  1873  to  1877,  in  five  volumes,  containin); 
his  biography  as  well  as  poems,  discourses,  [X)litical 
and  academic,  articles  and  treatises,  and  many 
forensic  writings  and  speeches. 

NocEt>AL.  Dun  Antonio  AiHiriai  y  Gui^trro',  diacurao  necro- 
idffico;  CiALlNDo  Y  UK  Vkra.  Apuntea  butordficos  de  Apari*it 
Enciclopedui  hispano-anuricana,   (Barcelona,    1887)   II. 

Cecilio  Uo.mez  Rodeles. 

Apelles,  founder  of  a  Gnostic  sect:  d.  at  an  ad- 
vanced age  late  in  the  second  centurj-.  What  little 
is  known  of  his  life  is  gleaned  chiefly  from  fragments 
of  the  writings  of  his  antagonist  Hhodon,  preserved  by 
Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  xii),  and  from  Tertullian's 
"Prescription  against  Heretics"  (xx.\).  At  Rome 
he  separated  from  Marcion,  whose  most  famous 
pupil  ne  was,  and  went  to  .\lcxantlria.  where  he  met 
the  visionary  Philumene.  whose  utterances  he  re- 
garded as  inspired.  Besides  collecting  her  oracles 
m  a  book  entitled  "  .Manifestations  ",  he  wrote  an 
exten.sive  work,  2iiXXo7i<r/«)i,  an  attack  on  .Mosaic 
tlieology.  The  moral  character  of  .Apelles  is  differ- 
ently estimated  accordinjj  as  one  is  influenced  either 
by  Rhodon's  uneoloured  picture  of  the  aged  heresiarch, 
or  by  the  stories  of  scandals  in  his  early  life  to  which 
Tertullian,   not  without  exaggeration,  refers. 

Harnack,  Oe  Apt'Uia  gnusi  monarchicd  (Leipzig,  1874); 
Idem  in  Telle  umi  Unlerauch.  (Leipzig,  1890),  VI,  iii,  109-120, 
and  ihid.  (new  .series,  Leipzig,  1900).  V,  iii,  93-100;  Bar- 
nENHKWER.  aesch.  der  nllkirch.  Lit.  (Freiburg,  1902),  I,  3-43, 
344;  TiLLEMONT.  Mt-moire,  (Venice,  1732).  II,  282-285, 
610.  fill.  Uareili-e  in  Ci<:<.  <ie  (A^o(.  ca(A.,  I,  1455-57.  HoRT 
in  Diet,  of  Chriet.  Biog.  (London,  1877),  I,  127.  128. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

Aphian  (or  Apian),  S.\int,  an  illustrious  martyr, 
under  the  Emperor  Slaximian,  c.  306.  He  was  only 
eighteen  when  he  entered  the  temple  at  Ctesarea, 
where  the  prefect  I'rbanus  was  offering  sacrifice. 
Seizing  the  outstretched  hand  that  was  presenting 
the  incense,  he  reproached  the  magistrate  with  the 
idolatrous  act.  The  guards  fell  upon  him  furiously 
and,  after  cruelly  torturing  him,  flung  him  into  a 
dungeon.  The  next  day  he  was  brought  before  the 
Prefect,  torn  with  iron  claws,  beaten  with  clubs, 
and  burned  over  a  slow  fire,  and  then  sent  back  to 
confinement.  After  three  days  he  was  again  taken 
from  prison  and  thrown  into  the  sea  with  stones 
tied  to  his  feet.  Eusebius,  an  eyewitness,  declares 
that  an  earthquake  simultaneously  shook  the  city, 
and  that  the  sea  flung  up  his  corpe  on  the  shore. 
He  belonged  to  Lycia,  but  had  withdrawn  to  Cap- 
padocia  liecause  his  parents,  who  were  both  dis- 
tinguished and  rich,  resisted  his  efforts  to  convert 
them  to  Christianity.  St.  Pamphilus  was  at  Csesarea 
at  the  time,  expounding  Holy  Scripture,  and  the 
young  Aphian  was  one  of  his  disciples.  He  lived  at 
the  house  of  Eusebius,  but  gave  no  intimation  of  his 
purpose  to  make  the  public  protest  which  ended  in 
nis  martyrdom.  The  Greeks  refer  to  him  as  the 
brother  of  St.  -Edisius.  In  the  old  martyrologies 
his  feast  was  on  the  fifth,  but  the  BoUandists  pro- 
nounce for  the  second  of  April  as  the  correct  date. 

Acta  SS..  I,  .\pril;  Butler,  Li'im  o/  the  Saints.  2  April. 
T.  J.  Camphell. 

Aphraates  (Or.,  'A^padrijs;  Syr.,  Aphrahat  or 
Pharhaii). — The  long  list  of  Synac  writers  whose 
works  have  come  down  to  us  is  headed  liy  .-Aphraates 
(fourth  ccnturj').  sumamed  the  "Persian  Sage". 
The  few  biographical  data  which  we  pos-scss  of  this 
illustrious  author  are  gleaned  from  liis  own  writings. 
From  these  we  learn  that  he  was  bom  of  pagan 
parents  during  the  last  half  of  the  third  century, 
very  probably  on  the  frontier  region  of  the  Persian 
empire,  .\fter  his  conversion  to  Christianity  he 
embraced  the  religious  life,  and  w.as  later  elevated 
to  the  epi.scopate,  on  which  occjision  he  a.ssumed 
the  Christian  name  of  Jacob.     The  adoption  of  this 


name  subsequently  led  to  a  confusion  of  identity, 
and  for  centuries  the  works  of  .\phraates  were  as- 
cribed to  the  famous  Jacob,  Bishop  of  Nisibis  (d.  a.  d. 
338).  It  was  not  until  the  tenth  century  that  the 
"  Persian  Sage"  was  finally  itlentified  with  .\phraates, 
the  name  under  which  he  is  known  to  modem 
scholars.  .According  to  a  MS.  of  the  Briti.sh  Museum 
dated  a.  d.  1.3(i4  (Orient,  1017)  .Aphraates  was 
"Bishop  of  the  monastery  of  .Mar  Mattai",  on  the 
ea.stern  shore  of  the  Tigris,  near  the  modem  .Mosul 
in  Mesopotamia.  The  ruins  of  this  monasterj'.  now 
called  "Sheikh  Malta",  are  still  to  be  .seen.  It  was 
here  that  he  seems  to  have  spent  most  of  his  life. 
Regartling  the  date  of  his  death,  nothing  is  known. 
Barhebra>us  (Cliron.  Eccles.,  Part  II,  §  10)  informs 
us  that  Pharhad,  or  .Aphraates,  flourished  in  the  time 
of  Papas  I,  the  Catholicus  who  died  in  a.  d.  3.34. 
This  is  in  accord  with  the  data  found  in  our  author's 
writings  which  place  the  period  of  his  literary  act- 
ivitj'  between  a.  d.  337  and  345. 

The  writings  of  .Aphraates  consist  of  twenty-three 
"Demonstrations",  or  homilies  on  moral  and  con- 
troversial topics.  The  first  twenty-two  are  alpha- 
betical, each  beginning  with  one  of  the  Sj'riac  letters 
in  alphabetic  order,  and  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups  according  to  the  time  of  their  composition. 
The  first  ten,  which  were  written  in  a.  d.  337,  treat 
of  (i)  "Faith",  (ii)  "Charity",  (iii)  "Fasting", 
(iv)  "Prayer",  (v)  "Wars",  (vi)  "Monks",  (vii) 
"Penitents",  (viii)  "The  Resurrection",  (ix)  "Hu- 
mility", and  (x)  "Pastors".  The  second  group, 
composed  in  a.  d.  344,  are  entitled,  (xi)  "Circum- 
cision", (xii)  "The  Passover",  (xiii)  "The  Sabbath", 
(xiv)  "  Hortatory",  (xv)  "  Divers  Meats",  (xvi)  "The 
Call  of  the  Gentiles",  (xvii)  "Jesus  the  Messias", 
(xviii)  "Virginity",  (xix)  "The  Dispersion  of  Israel", 
(xx)  ".Almsgiving",  (xxi)  "Persecution",  (xxii) 
"Death  and  the  Latter  Times".  To  this  collection 
is  subjoined  a  twenty-third  "Demonstration",  com- 
posed in  A.  D.  345  and  entitled  "Concerning  the 
Grape  ",  in  reference  to  Isaias,  Ixv,  8.  These  homilies, 
which  arc  also  called  "Epistles"  because  they  are 
in  the  form  of  answers  to  the  queries  of  a  friend, 
constitute  the  earliest  extant  document  of  the 
SjTian  Church,  and  besides  their  linguistic  importance 
are  of  the  highest  value  for  the  Catholic  apologist. 
They  abound  with  precious  information  on  the  most 
important  cjuestions  of  dogmatic  and  moral  theologj', 
liturgj'.  ecclesiastical,  and  even  profane  historj",  and 
are  pregnant  with  important  conclusions  in  favour 
of  the  conformity  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
Church  with  those  of  the  early  Christian  Church  in 
the  fourth  century.  Some  of  these  doctrines  are, 
for  example,  the  perpetual  virginity  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  her  Divine  Maternity,  the  foundation  of 
the  Church  on  St.  Peter,  and  the  existence  of  all  the 
.sacraments  except  matrimony,  which  is  not  men- 
tioned. In  regard  to  the  Holy  Eucharist,  Aphraates 
affirms  that  it  is  the  real  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ. 
In  the  seventh  "  Demonstration  "  he  treats  of  penance 
and  penitents,  and  represents  the  priest  as  a  physi- 
cian who  is  charged  with  the  healing  of  a  man's 
wounds.  The  sinner  must  make  kno«Ti  to  the 
phy.sician  his  infirmities  in  oriler  to  he  healed,  i.  e.  he 
must  confess  his  sins  to  the  priest,  who  is  bound  to 
secrecy.  Because  of  the  numerous  quotations  from 
Holy  NVrit  u.setl  by  .Aphraates,  his  writings  are  also 
very  vidiiablc  for  the  history  of  the  canon  of  Sacred 
Scripture  and  of  exegesis  in  the  early  Mesopotamian 
Church. 

The  cilitio  prlncfps  of  the  Syriac  text  of  the  twenty- 
three  "Demonstrations"  was  issued  by  W.  Wright, 
"The  Homilies  of  Aphraates"  (Lomlon,  1869). 
Since  then  another  edition  of  the  series  of  twenty- 
two  has  been  published  by  the  Benedictine  scholar 
Dom  Parisot  [Graffin,  Patrologia  Syriaca  (Paris, 
1894),  I],  including  a   Latin  version,  and  preceded 


AFHTHARTODOCETiE 


594 


APOCALYPSE 


by  a  leametl  uinl  copious  introduction.  A  German 
translation  of  tlic  whole  work  was  publisheil  by  Bert 
[Gebhardt  and  Harnack,  Texte  und  Untersuchungen 
(Leipzig,  18<SS).  111].  An  English  translation  of 
eight  "Demonstrations",  including  an  historical  in- 
troduction, was  published  by  Dr.  John  Gwynn 
[Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  1898), 
XIII]. 

Sasse,  Prolegomena  in  Aphraatis  sapientis  PerSiF  sermon^s 
homileticos  (Leipzig.  1879);  Forget.  De  vM  el  seriptis  Aphraa- 
lU  (Louvain.  1882);  Wright,  .4  Short  Hislortj  of  St/riac  Lit- 
erature (London,  1894).  31-.33;  Di-val,  La  lilteralure  syritique 
(Paris.  1900),  224-229;  Labovrt,  Le  chrislianxsme  dans 
I  empire  Perse  (Paris,  1904),  32-42  et  passim:  Burkitt,  Earlu 
Chrislinnily  outside  the  Roman  Empire  (Cambridge,  1899), 
Lectures  ii,  iii;  Parisot  in  ViG.,  Diet,  de  In  Bible  (Paris.  1892); 
Idem  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  calk.  (Paris,  1903);  Nestle  in  Herzog, 
Realencyklopadie  (3d  ed.). 

F.  X.  E.  Albert. 

Aphthartodocetae.    See  Monophysitism. 

Aphthonius.     See  Manes. 

Apiarius  of  Sicca,  a  priest  of  the  diocese  of  Sicca, 
in  proconsular  Africa.  Interest  attaches  to  him  only 
because  of  his  appeal  to  Rome  from  his  bishop's 
sentence  of  e.xcommunication,  and  the  consequent 
protracted  parleying  between  Rome  and  Carthage 
about  the  privileges  of  the  African  Church  in  regulat- 
ing its  own  discipline.  In  the  resentment  which  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  the  case  provoked  in  many 
African  bishops  opponents  of  the  Papacy  read  the 
denial  by  the  Church  of  St.  Augustine  of  the  doctrine 
of  Papal  supremacy;  and  thus  the  case  of  Apiarius 
has  come  to  be  the  classical  example  in  anti-Roman 
controversial  works,  illustrating  the  fifth-century 
repudiation  of  Papal  claims  to  disciplinary  control. 

Apiarius,  deposed  by  Urbanus,  Bishop  of  Sicca, 
for  grave  misconduct,  appealed  to  Pope  Zosimus, 
who,  in  view  of  irregularities  in  the  bishop's  proced- 
ure, ordered  that  the  priest  should  be  reinstated, 
and  his  bishop  disciplined.  Chagrined,  perhaps,  at 
the  unworthy  priest's  success,  a  general  synod  of 
Carthage,  in  May,  418,  forbade  appeal  "beyond  the 
seas"  of  clerics  inferior  to  bishops.  Recognizing  in 
what  was  virtually  a  restatement  of  previous  African 
legislation  an  expression  of  displeasure  on  the  part 
of  the  African  bishops,  Pope  Zosimus  sent  a  delega- 
tion to  defend  his  right  to  receive  certain  appeals, 
citing  decrees  believed  by  him  to  have  been  enacted 
at  the  Council  of  Nica?a,  but  which  in  fact  were 
canons  of  the  Council  of  Sardica.  The  African 
bishops  who  met  the  legates,  while  not  recognizing 
these  decrees  as  Nicene,  accepted  them  pending 
verification.  In  May,  419,  was  held  the  sixteenth 
Council  of  Carthage,  and  there  again  the  representa- 
tions of  Zosimus  were  accepted,  awaiting  the  result 
of  a  comparison  of  the  Nicene  canons  as  they  existed 
in  Africa,  in  which  the  decrees  cited  by  the  Pope  had 
not  been  found,  with  those  of  the  churches  of  An- 
tioch,  Alexandria,  and  Constantinople.  By  the  end 
of  the  year  419  Pope  Boniface,  who  had  succeeded 
Zosimus  in  December,  418,  was  informed  that  the 
Eastern  codices  did  not  contain  the  alleged  decrees; 
b\it,  as  the  now  repentant  Apiarius  had  meantime 
been  assigned  to  a  new  field  of  labour,  interest  in  the 
affair  subsided.  The  letter  to  Pope  Boniface,  while 
evidencing  irritation  at  the  arrogance  of  the  legato 
Faustinus,  contains  nothing  incompatible  with  belief 
m  the  Pope's  supremacy. 

Some  four  years  later  Apiarius  relapsed  into 
scandalous  courses,  was  once  more  excommunicated, 
and  again  anpealed  to  Rome.  Pope  Celestine,  who 
had  succeeded  Boniface  in  September,  423,  re- 
iastated  him  and  deputed  the  unwelcome  Faustinus 
to  sustain  this  decision  before  the  African  bishops. 
The  legate's  exasperating  efforts  in  behalf  of  the 
unworthy  priest  were  miserably  thwarted  by  Apia- 
rius's  admi.ssion  of  his  guilt.  Inccn.sed,  in  these 
provoking   circumstances,   by   the   heightened   arro- 


gance of  Faustinus  and  the  misinformed  Pope's 
haste  in  sustaining  Apiarius,  a  number  of  African 
bishops  addressed  to  Celestine  the  famous  letter, 
"Optaremus",  in  which  they  bitterly  resent  the 
insults  of  the  tactless  legate,  and  re(|uest  that  in 
future  the  popes  will  exercise  due  discretion  in 
hearing  appeals  from  Africa  and  exact  from  the 
African  Church  in  such  matters  no  more  than  was 
provided  for  by  the  Council  of  Nicaa.  This  letter, 
with  all  its  boldness,  cannot  be  construed  into  a 
denial  of  the  Pope's  jurisdiction  by  the  Church  of 
Africa.  It  simply  voices  the  desire  of  the  African 
bishops  to  continue  the  enjoyment  of  those  privileges 
of  partial  home-rule  which  went  by  default  to  their 
Church  during  the  stormy  period  when  the  theory 
of  universal  papal  dominion  could  not  be  always 
reduced  to  practice,  because  of  the  trials  which  the 
growing  church  had  to  endure.  But  before  the 
time  of  Apiarius,  as  the  Sardican  canons  referred  to 
attest,  Western  Europe  had  come  to  accept  Rome 
as  a  court  of  last  appeal  in  disciplinary  causes. 
Africa,  too,  was  now  ready,  and  its  readiness  is  shown 
by  the  case  of  Apiarius  as  well  as  by  the  records  of 
like  appeals  to  Rome  to  which  St.  Augustine  him- 
self bears  witness. 

Hefele.  Conciliengesch.,  II,  127,  and  English  tr.,  Bk. 
VIII,  §§  120,  122,  125  (where  numeroiLS  references  are 
fonnd  to  the  documents  contained  in  the  collections  of  Mansi 
and  Hardouin):  Baronius,  Annates,  Eccl.  ad  an.  419, 
§  59  sq.;  TiLLEMONT,  Memoires,  XIII,  292.  295,  323,  notes  83 
and  84  (Venice,  1732);  Bellarmine,  De  Rom.  Pont.,  II, 
xxiv;  Pdller,  The  Primitive  Saints  and  the  See  of  Rome, 
204  sqq.  (3d  ed..  New  York,  1900);  Dublin  Review,  July,  1890, 
96  sqq.  and  July,  1901;  Bbacn  in  Kirchenlex,.  I,  1009-14. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

Apocalypse,  from  the  verb  'aTroKaXiijrroi,  to  reveal, 
is  the  name  given  to  the  last  book  in  the  Bible. 
Protestants  call  it  the  Book  of  Revelation,  the  title 
which  it  bears  in  the  King  James  Version.  Although 
a  Christian  work,  the  Apocalypse  belongs  to  a  class 
of  literature  dealing  with  eschatological  subjects  and 
much  in  vogue  among  the  Jews  of  the  first  century 
before,  and  after,  Christ. 

Adthenticity. — The  author  of  the  Apocalypse 
calls  himself  John.  "John  to  the  seven  churches 
which  are  in  Asia"  (Ap.,  i,  4).  And  again,  "I,  John, 
your  brother  and  your  partner  in  tribulation,  .  .  . 
was  in  the  island,  which  is  called  Patmos,  for  the 
word  of  God"  (i,  9).  The  Seer  does  not  further 
specify  his  personality.  But  from  tradition  we  know 
that  the  Seer  in  the  Apocalypse  was  John  the  Apostle, 
the  son  of  Zebedee,  the  Beloved  Disciple  of  Jesus. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  century  the  Apocalypse 
was  acknowledged  by  the  historical  representatives 
of  the  principal  churches  as  the  genuine  work  of  John 
the  Apostle.  In  Asia,  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis,  one 
of  the  Seven  Churches  of  the  Apocalypse,  acknowl- 
edged the  "Revelation  of  John"  and  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  it  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  IV,  26).  In 
Gaul,  Irenseus  firmly  believes  in  its  Divine  and  Apos- 
tolic authority  (Adversus  Haer.,  V,  30).  In  Africa, 
TertuUian  frequently  quotes  Revelation  without  ap- 

Farent  misgivings  as  to  its  authenticity  (C.  Marcion, 
II,  14,  25).  In  Italy,  Bishop  Hippolytus  assigns  it 
to  the  Apostle  St.  John,  and  the  Muratorian  Frag- 
ment (a  document  about  the  beginning  of  the  third 
centurj')  enumerates  it  along  with  the  other  canoni- 
cal writings,  adding,  it  is  true,  the  apocryphal  Apoca- 
lypse of  St.  Peter,  but  with  the  clause,  qiitim  quidom 
ex  nostris  in  eccU.fid  legi  nohmt.  The  IV^im  Ilala, 
moreover,  the  standard  Latin  version  in  Italy  and 
Africa  during  the  third  century,  contained  the  .\jx)ca- 
lypse.  In  Egypt,  Clement  and  Origen  believed  with- 
out hesitation  in  its  Joannine  authorship.  They  were 
both  scholars  and  men  of  critical  judgment.  Their 
opinion  is  all  the  more  valuable  ius  they  had  no  sym- 
pathy with  the  millennial  teaching  of  the  book. 
They  contented  themselves   with   an  allegorical   in- 


APOCALYPSE 


595 


APOCALYPSE 


terpretation  of  certain  passages  but  nfever  ventured 
to  impugn  its  authority.  Approaching  more  closely 
the  apostohc  age  we  have  the  testimony  of  St.  Justin 
Martyr,  about  the  middle  of  the  sctond  century. 
From  Eusebius,  (Hist.  Eccl.,  IV,  xviii,  S),  as  well  as 
from  his  dialogue  with  the  Jew,  Tryphon  (c.  81),  held 
in  Ephesus,  the  residence  of  the  apostle,  we  know 
that  he  admitted  the  authenticity  of  the  Apocalyjjse. 
Another  witness  of  about  the  same  time  is  Papias, 
Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  a  place  not  far  from  Ephesus. 
If  he  himself  had  not  been  a  hearer  of  .St.  John,  he 
certainly  was  personally  acquainted  with  several  of 
his  disciples  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  39).  His 
evidence,  however,  is  but  indirect.  Aiidreiis,  IJishop 
of  Caesarea,  in  the  prologue  to  his  comment  urj' 
on  the  Apocalypse,  informs  us  tliat  Papias  admitted 
its  inspired  character.  From  the  Apocalyixse  un- 
doubtedly Papias  derived  his  ideas  of  the  mil- 
lenium,  on  which  account  Eusebius  decries  his 
authority,  declaring  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  limi- 
ted understanding.  The  apostolic  writings  which  are 
extant  furnish  no  evidence  for  the  autlienticity  of 
the  book. 

Arguments  against  its  Authenticiti-. — The 
Alogi,  about  a.  d.  200,  a  sect  so  called  because 
of  their  rejection  of  the  logos-doctrine,  denied  the 
authenticity  of  the  Apocalyiise,  jissigning  it  to  Ccrin- 
thus  (Epiphanius,  LI,  ff,  33;  cf.  Iren.,  Adv.  Haer., 
Ill,  11,  9).  Caius,  a  presbyter  in  Rome,  of  about 
the  same  time,  holds  a  similar  opinion.     Eu.sebius 

g notes  his  words  taken  from  his  Disputation:  "Hut 
erinthus  by  me;»ns  of  revelations  which  he  pretended 
were  written  by  a  gre;it  .Vpostlc  falsely  pretended  to 
wonderful  things,  lu^serting  that  after  the  resurrection 
there  would  he  an  earthly  kingdom  "  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill, 
28).  The  most  formidable  antagonist  of  the  author- 
ity of  the  .\pocalypse  is  Dionysius,  Hishop  of  Alex- 
andria, disciple  of  Origen.  He  is  not  opposed  to  the 
supposition  that  Cerinthus  is  the  writer  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse. "For  ",  he  saj-s,  "this  is  the  doctrine  of  Ce- 
nnthus,  that  there  will  be  an  earthly  reign  of  Christ, 
and  as  he  was  a  lover  of  the  body  he  dreamed  that 
he  would  revel  in  the  gratification  of  the  sensual  ap- 
petite ".  He  himself  did  not  adopt  the  view  that 
Cerinthus  was  the  writer.  He  regarded  the  Apoca- 
lypse as  the  work  of  an  inspired  man  but  not  of  an 
Apostle  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  25).  During 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  tendency  to  exclude 
the  Apocalj'pse  from  the  list  of  sacred  books  con- 
tinued to  increase  in  the  Syro-Palestinian  churches. 
Eusebius  expresses  no  definite  opinion.  He  contents 
himself  with  the  statement:  "The  Apocalypse  is  by 
some  accepted  among  the  canonical  books  but  by 
others  rejected"  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  25).  St.  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem  does  not  name  it  amon^  the  canonical 
books  (Catech.  IV,  33-36);  nor  does  it  occur  on  the 
list  of  the  Synod  of  Laodicea,  or  on  that  of  Gregory 
of  Nazianzus.  Perhaps  the  most  telling  argument 
against  the  apostolic  authorship  of  the  book  is  its 
omission  from  the  Peshito,  the  Syrian  Vulgate.  But 
although  the  authorities  giving  evidence  against  the 
authenticity  of  the  .\pocalypse  deserve  full  consid- 
eration they  cannot  annul  or  impair  the  older  and 
unanimous  testimony  of  the  churches.  The  opinion 
of  its  opponents,  moreover,  was  not  free  from  bisis. 
From  tlie  manner  in  which  Dionysius  argued  the 
question,  it  is  evident  that  he  thought  the  book  dan- 
gerous as  occasioning  crude  and  sensual  notions  con- 
cerning the  resurrection.  In  the  West  the  Church 
persevered  in  its  tradition  of  apostolic  authorship. 
St.  Jerome  alone  seemed  to  have  been  influenced  by 
the  doubts  of  the  East. 

The  Apocalypse  compared  with  the  Fourth 
Gospel. — The  relation  lx!tween  the  Apocalypse  and 
the  Fourth  Gosjwl  has  been  discussed  by  authors, 
both  ancient  and  modern.  Some  affinn  and  others 
deny  their  mutual  resemblance.  The  learned  Alex- 
I.— 38 


andrine  Bishop,  Dionysius,  drew  up  in  his  time  a  list 
of  differences  to  which  modern  authors  have  had 
little  to  add.  He  begins  by  observing  that  whereas 
the  Gospel  is  anonymous,  the  writer  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse prefixes  his  name,  John.  He  next  points  out 
how  tne  characteristic  terminology  of  the  Fourth 
Ciospel,  so  essential  to  the  Joannine  doctrine,  is  ab- 
sent in  the  Apocalyp.se.  The  ternLs,  "life",  "light", 
"grace",  "truth",  do  not  occur  in  the  latter.  Nor 
did  the  enideness  of  diction  on  the  part  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse escajie  him.  The  (Jreek  of  tlie  Gospel  lie  pro- 
nounces correct  as  to  grammar,  and  he  even  gives 
its  author  credit  for  a  certain  elegance  of  style.  But 
the  language  of  the  .\ix)calypse  appeared  to  him  bar- 
barous and  disfigured  by  solecisms.  He,  therefore, 
inclines  to  ascribe  the  works  to  different  authors 
(Hist.  Eccl.,  VII,  25).  The  upholders  of  a  common 
authorship  reply  that  these  differences  may  be  ac- 
counted for  by  bearing  in  mind  the  peculiar  nature 
and  aim  of  each  work.  The  Apocalypse  contains 
visions  and  revelations.  In  conformity  with  other 
books  of  the  same  kind,  e.  g.  the  Book  of  Daniel, 
the  Seer  prefixed  his  name  to  his  work.  The  Gospel 
on  the  other  hand  Ls  written  in  the  form  of  an  his- 
torical record.  In  the  Bible,  works  of  that  kind  do 
not  bear  the  signature  of  their  authors.  So  also  as 
regards  the  absence  of  Joannine  ferminologj'  in  the 
Apocalypse.  The  object  of  the  Gospel  is  to  prove 
that  Jesus  is  the  life  and  the  light  of  the  world,  the 
fullness  of  truth  and  grace.  But  in  the  Apocalypse 
Jesus  is  the  conqueror  of  Satan  and  his  kingdom. 
The  defects  of  grammar  in  the  Apocalj'pse  are  con- 
cctlcd.  Some  of  them  are  quite  obvious.  Let  the 
reader  but  notice  the  habit  of  the  author  to  add  an 
apiX)sition  in  the  nominative  to  a  word  in  an  oblique 
case;  e.  g.  iii,  12;  xiv,  12;  xx,  2.  It  further  contains 
some  Hebrew  idioms:  e.  g.  /pxA^^ot  e<iuivalent  to 
ton,  "the  one  that  is  to  come",  instead  of  ia)>\um%, 
i,  8.  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  the 
Apostle  first  came  to  Ephesus  he  was,  probably, 
wtioUy  ignorant  of  the  CJreek  tongue.  The  compara- 
tive purity  and  smoothness  of  diction  in  the  Gospel 
may  be  adequately  accounted  for  by  the  plausible 
conjecture  that  its  literary  composition  was  not  the 
work  of  St.  John  but  of  one  of  his  pupils.  The  de- 
fenders of  the  identity  of  authorship  further  appeal 
to  the  striking  fact  that  in  Ixjth  works  Jesus  is  called 
the  Lamb  and  the  Word.  The  idea  of  the  lamb  mak- 
ing atonement  for  sin  by  its  blood  is  taken  from 
Isaias,  liii.  Throughout  the  Apocalypse  the  por- 
traiture of  Jesus  is  that  of  the  lamb.  Through  the 
shedding  of  its  blood  it  has  opened  the  book  with 
seven  seals  and  has  triumphed  over  Satan.  In  the 
Gospel  Jesus  is  pointed  out  by  the  Baptist  as  the 
"  I^mb  of  God  .  .  .  him  who  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
the  world"  (John,  i,  29).  Some  of  the  circumstances 
of  His  death  resemble  the  rite  observed  in  the  eating 
of  the  paschal  lamb,  the  sjiubol  of  redemption.  His 
crucifixion  takes  place  on  the  selfsame  day  on  which 
the  Pa.ssovcr  was  eaten  (John,  xviii,  2S).  Whilst 
hanging  on  the  cross.  His  executioners  did  not  break 
the  Dones  in  His  body,  that  the  prophecy  might  be 
fulfilled:  "no  Imne  in  it  shall  be  broken"  (John,  xix, 
3G).  The  name  Logos,  "Word",  is  quite  peculiar  to 
the  Apocalyi>se,  Gospel,  and  first  Epistle  of  St.  John. 
The  first  sentence  of  the  (iospel  is,  "In  the  begin- 
ning was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was  with  God, 
and  the  Word  wiis  God".  The  first  epistle  of  St. 
John  begins,  "That  which  was  from  the  beginning, 
which  we  have  heard  ...  of  the  word  of  life".  So 
al.so  in  the  Apocah^psc,  "And  his  name  is  called  the 
Word  of  God  '  (xnx,  13). 

Time  and  Place. — The  Seer  himself  testifies  that 
the  \isions  he  is  about  to  narrate  were  seen  bv  him 
whilst  in  Patmos.  "I  John  .  .  .  was  in  the  island 
which  is  called  Patmos,  for  the  word  of  God  and  for 
the  testimony  of  Jesus"  (i,  9).     Patmos  is  one  of  the 


APOCALYPSE 


596 


APOCALYPSE 


group  of  small  islands  close  to  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  alxiiit  twelve  geographical  miles  from  Ephe- 
sus.  Tradition,  as  Eusebius  tells  us,  has  handed 
down  that  John  was  banished  to  Patmos  in  the  reign 
of  Domitian  for  the  sake  of  his  testimony  of  God's 
word  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  18).  He  obviously  refers  to 
the  passage  "for  the  word  of  God  and  for  the  testi- 
mony of  Jesus"  (i.  9).  It  is  true  that  the  more 
probable  meaning  of  this  phrase  is,  "in  order  to  hear 
the  word  of  God",  etc.,  and  not  "banished  because 
of  the  word  of  God",  etc.,  (cf.  i,  2).  But  it  was  quite 
natural  that  the  Seer  sliould  have  regarded  his  ban- 
ishment to  Patmos  as  prearranged  by  Divine  Provi- 
dence that  in  tlie  solitude  of  the  island  he  might  hear 
God's  word.  The  tradition  recorded  by  Eusebius 
finds  confirmation  in  the  words  of  the  Seer  describing 
himself  as  "a  brother  and  partaker  in  tribulation" 
(i.  9),  Irena'us  places  the  Seer's  exile  in  Patmos  at 
tlie  end  of  Domitian 's  reign.  "Paene  sub  nostro 
sa;culo  ad  finem  Domitiani  imperii"  (Adv.  Haer.,  V. 
4).  The  Emperor  Domitian  reigned  A.  D.  81-96.  In 
all  matters  of  Joannine  tradition  Irenseus  deserves 
exceptional  credit.  His  lifetime  bordered  upon  the 
Apostolic  age  and  his  master,  St.  Polycarp,  had  been 
among  the  disciples  of  St.  John.  Eusebius,  chroni- 
cling the  statement  of  Irenceus  without  any  mis- 
givings, adds  as  the  year  of  the  Seer's  exile  the  four- 
teenth of  Domitian's  reign.  St.  Jerome  also,  without 
reserve  or  hesitation,  follows  the  same  tradition. 
"Quarto  decimo  anno,  secundam  post  Neronem  per- 
secutionem  movente  Doraitiano,  in  Patmos  insulam 
relegatus,  scripsit  Apocalypsim"  (Ex  libro  de  Script. 
Eccl).  Against  the  united  testimony  of  these  three 
witnesses  of  tradition  the  statement  of  Epiphanius, 
placing  the  Seer's  banishment  in  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
A  D.  41 -.54,  appears  exceedingly  improbable  (Hcer., 
h.  12,  33). 

Contents. — (1)  The  Seven  Churches.  Chap,  i,  1- 
3.  Title  and  description  of  the  book.  The  reve- 
lation made  by  Jesus  the  Messias  to  John. —  (i,  4-9). 
Salutation  prefatory  to  the  seven  Epistles,  wishing 
the  churches  the  grace  and  the  peace  of  God  and 
Jesus.  —  (i.  9-20).  The  vision  of  Jesus  as  the  Son  of 
man.  The  portrait  is  taken  from  Dan.,  x,  and  He- 
noch, xlvi.  (if.  the  phrases,  "one  like  the  son  of  man" 
(Ap.,i,  13;  Dan.,x,  16,  and  vii,  13);  "girded  with  gold" 
(Ap.,  i,  13;  Dan.,  x,  5);  "Eyes  like  flames  of  fire" 
(Ap.,  i,  14;  Dan.,  x,  6);  "a  voice  like  that  of  a  mul- 
titude" (.\p.,  i,  15;  Dan.,  x,  6);  "I  fell  down  like  one 
sensele-ss"  (Ap.,  i,  17;  Dan.,  x,  9);  "and  he  touched 
me"  (Ap.,  i,  17;  Dan.,  x,  18);  "hair  white  like  wool" 
(.\p.,  i,  14;  Dan.,  vii,  9;  Hen.,  xlvi,  1). — Chap,  ii, 
1-iii,  22.  The  Epistles,  to  the  seven  Churches.  The 
Churches  are  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamum,  Thya- 
tira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea.  The  Epis- 
tles are  short  exhortations  to  the  Christians  to  remain 
steadfast  in  their  faith,  to  beware  of  false  apostles, 
and  to  abstain  from  fornication  and  from  meat  offered 
to  idols. 

(2)  The  Book  with  the  Seven  Seals.  Chaps,  iv 
and  v.  The  %'ision  of  God  enthroned  upon  the  Cher- 
ubim. The  throne  is  surrounded  by  twenty-four 
elders.  In  the  right  hand  of  God  is  a  scroll  sealed 
with  seven  seals.  In  the  midst  of  the  Cherubim  and 
the  elders  the  Seer  beholds  a  lamb,  "agnus  tamquam 
occisus",  having  on  its  throat  the  scar  of  the  gash 
by  which  it  was  .slain.  The  Seer  weeps  because  no 
one  either  in  heaven  or  on  earth  can  break  the  seals. 
He  is  comforted  on  hearing  that  the  lamb  was  worthy 
to  do  so,  because  of  the  redemption  it  had  WTOught 
by  its  blood.  The  portrait  of  the  throne  is  taken 
from  Ezechiel,  i.  Compare  in  both  accounts  the  de- 
scription of  the  four  beasts.  They  resemble  a  lion, 
an  ox,  a  man,  and  an  eagle.  Their  bodies  are  full 
of  eyes  (cf.  Ap.,  iv,  8;  and  Ex.,  x,  12).  The  twenty- 
four  elders  were  probably  suggested  by  the  twenty- 
(our  courses  of  priests  ininistering   in"  the  Temple. 


The   lamb  slain   for   the   sins   of   mankind   is   from 
Isaias,  liii. 

Chaps,  vi  and  vii.  The  seven  seals  and  the  num- 
bering of  the  Saints.  At  the  opening  of  four  seals, 
four  horses  appear.  Their  colour  is  white,  black, 
red,  and  sallow,  or  green  (x^<>'P'5s=TI3,  piebald). 
Thej'  signify  conquest,  slaughter,  dearth  and  death. 
The  vision  is  taken  from  Zach.,  vi,  1-8.  At  the 
opening  of  the  fifth  seal  the  Seer  beholds  the  martyrs 
that  were  slain  and  hears  their  prayers  for  the  final 
triumph.  At  the  opening  of  the  si.xth  seal  the  pre- 
destined to  glory  are  numbered  and  marked.  The 
Seer  beholds  them  divided  into  two  classes.  First, 
144,000  Jews,  12,000  of  every  tribe.  Then  a  num- 
berless multitude  chosen  from  all  nations  and  tongues. 
Chaps,  viii  and  ix.  After  the  interval  of  about  half 
an  hour,  the  seventh  seal  is  broken;  seven  angels 
issue  forth,  each  one  holding  a  trumpet.  The  sound- 
ing of  the  first  four  trumpets  causes  a  partial  de- 
struction of  the  elements  of  nature.  One-third  of 
the  earth  is  burned,  as  also  one-third  of  the  trees 
and  all  the  grass.  One-third  of  the  sea  becomes 
blood  (cf.  Ex.,  vii,  17).  One-third  of  the  rivers  is 
turned  into  water  of  wormwood.  One-third  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  is  obscured,  causing  one-third 
of  the  day  to  be  dark  (cf.  Ex.,  x,  21).  At  the  sound- 
ing of  the  fifth  trumpet  locusts  ascend  from  the 
abyss.  Their  work  is  to  torment  men  for  five  months. 
They  are  specially  charged  not  to  touch  the  grass. 
Their  shape  is  that  of  horses  (Joel,  ii,  4);  their  teeth 
like  those  of  lions  (Joel,  i,  6);  their  hair  like  the  hair 
of  women.  They  have  the  tails  of  scorpions  where- 
with to  chastise  man.  The  command  over  them  is 
held  by  the  Angel  of  the  Abyss,  named  Abaddon, 
the  destroyer.  At  the  sound  of  the  sixth  trumpet 
the  four  angels  chained  at  the  Euphrates  are  let  loose. 
They  lead  forth  an  army  of  horsemen.  By  the  fire 
which  the  horses  spit  out  and  by  their  tails  which 
are  like  serpents,  one-third  of  mankind  is  killed. 
After  the  sixth  trumpet  there  are  two  digressions. 
(1)  The  angel  standing  on  the  land  and  the  sea.  He 
swears  that  at  the  sound  of  the  seventh  trumpet  the 
mystery  will  be  completed.  He  hands  to  the  Seer 
a  little  book.  When  eaten  by  him  it  is  found  sweet 
to  taste,  but  bitter  when  once  devoured.  Taken  from 
Ezech.,  ii.  8;  iii,  3.  (2)  The  contamination  of  the 
court  of  the  Temple  by  the  heathens.  It  lasts  three 
and  a  half  years.  Taken  from  Dan.,  vii,  25;  ix,  27; 
xii,  7-11.  During  that  time  two  witnesses  are  sent 
to  preach  in  Jerusalem.  They  are  the  two  olive-trees 
foretold  by  Zach.,  iv,  3,  11.  At  the  end  of  their  mis- 
sion they  are  slain  by  the  beast.  They  are  raised  to 
life  after  three  and  a  half  days  (=  years).  The  sev- 
enth trumpet  is  now  sounded,  the  nations  are  judged 
and  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  is  established. 

(3)  The  Divine  Drama.  First  Act.  Chaps,  xii, 
xiii,  xiv.  The  lamb,  the  woman,  and  her  seed;  and 
opposed  to  them,  the  dragon,  the  beast  from  the  sea, 
and  the  beast  from  the  land.  The  main  idea  is  taken 
from  Gen.,  iii,  15.  "I  will  put  enmities  between 
thee  (the  serpent)  and  the  woman,  and  thy  seed 
and  her  seed".  The  woman  is  arrayed  in  heavenly 
splendour;  a  crown  of  twelve  stars  on  her  head, 
and  the  sun  and  the  moon  under  her  feet  (cf.  Gen., 
XXX vii,  9,  10).  She  is  in  travail.  Her  first-born  is 
destined  to  rule  all  the  nation  (Ps.,  ii,  8,  9).  She 
herself,  and  her  other  seed,  are  persecuted  for  three 
and  a  half  years  by  the  great  dragon  who  tries  to 
kill  them,  'riie  great  dragon  is  Satan  (Gen.,  iii,  1). 
He  is  cast  out  of  heaven.  With  his  tail  he  draws 
after  him  one-third  of  the  stars.  Taken  from  Dan., 
viii,  10.  The  fallen  stars  are  the  fallen  angels.  The 
beast  from  the  sea  is  in  great  part  taken  from  Dan- 
iel's description  of  the  four  beasts.  It  ari.ses  from 
the  sea  (Dan.,  vii,  3);  h.as  seven  heads  marked  all 
over  with  blasphemies.  It  had  also  ten  horns,  like 
the  fourth   beast  of  Daniel  (vii,  7);   it  resembled  a 


APOCALYPSE 


597 


APOCALYPSE 


loopiinl.  llie  third  beast  of  Daniel  (vii,  6);  it  had  feet 
like  a  bear,  the  secoiul  beast  of  Daniel  (vii,  r>);  and 
teeth  like  a  lion,  the  first  beast  of  Daniel  (vii,  4).  The 
great  dragon  gives  full  power  unto  the  beiust,  where- 
upon all  the  world  worship  it  (viz.  those  whose  names 
are  not  contained  in  the  book  of  the  lamb).  The 
followers  of  the  beast  have  its  mark  on  their  head 
and  hand.  The  beast  from  the  land  luus  two  horns 
like  a  ram.  Its  power  lies  in  its  art  of  deceiving  by 
means  of  token.s  and  miracles.  Throughout  the  re- 
mainder of  the  book  it  is  called  the  false  prophet. 
Its  office  is  to  ;i,ssist  the  beast  from  the  sea,  and  to 
induce  men  to  adore  its  image.  The  first  act  of  the 
drama  concludes  with  a  promise  of  victory  over  the 
beast  by  the  lamb  of  Clod. 

Second  Act.  Chaps,  xv,  xvi.  The  seven  vials. 
Tliey  are  the  seven  plagues  preceding  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  great  city,  Babylon.  Tliey  were  for  the 
freater  part  suggested  by  tlie  Egj'ptian  plagues. 
he  first  vial  is  pouretl  out  on  the  earth.  Men  and 
bea.sts  arc  sniitten  with  ulcers  (Ex.,  ix.  9,  10).  The 
second  and  tliird  vial  upon  the  seas  and  rivers.  They 
become  blood  (Kx.,  vii,  17-21).  The  fourth  vial  upon 
the  sun.  It  burns  men  to  death.  The  fifth  vial 
Uf)on  the  throne  of  tlie  beiist.  It  causes  great  tlark- 
ness  (Ex.,  x,  11-29).  The  sixtli  vial  upon  the  ICu- 
phrates.  Its  waters  are  dried  up  and  form  a  pa-ssage 
for  the  kings  of  the  East  (Ex.,  xiv).  Tlie  seventh 
upon  the  air.  Storm  and  earthquake  destroy  Baby- 
lon. 

Third  Act.  Chaps,  xvii,  xviii.  The  great  harlot. 
She  is  seated  upon  the  scarlet  beast  with  the  seven 
heads  aiul  ten  horns.  She  is  robed  in  scarlet  and 
decked  with  gold.  On  her  head  is  written :  Mystery, 
Babylon  the  great.  The  kings  of  the  earth  commit 
fornication  with  her.  But  the  day  of  her  visitation 
has  come.  She  is  made  a  desolate  place,  the  habita- 
tion of  unclean  animals  (Is.,  xiii,  21,  22).  Her  fall 
is  lamented  by  the  rulers  and  merchants  of  the  earth. 

Fourth  Act.  Cliaps.  xix,  xx. — The  victory  over 
the  beast  ami  tlie  great  dragon.  A  knight  appears 
mounted  on  a  white  horse.  Ilis  name  is  "The  word 
of  God".  He  defeats  the  bea-st  and  the  false  jirophet. 
They  are  cast  alive  in  the  ]>ool  of  fire.  Their  defeat 
is  foUoweti  by  the  first  resurrection  and  the  reign  of 
Christ  for  a  thousand  years.  The  martyrs  rise  to 
life  and  partake  with  Christ  in  glory  anil  hapjiiness. 
During  these  thousand  years  tlie  great  dragon  is  held 
in  cliains.  At  their  completion  he  is  once  more  set 
at  large  to  torment  the  earth.  He  deceives  the  na- 
tions Gog  and  Magog.  These  two  names  are  taken 
from  Ezech.,  chaps,  xxviii,  xxxix,  where,  however, 
Gog  is  the  king  of  Magog.  .\t  last  he  also  is  cast 
for  all  eternity  in  the  pool  of  fire.  Hereupon  the 
general  judgment  and   the  resurrection   take  place. 

Fifth  Act.  Chaps,  xxi,  xxii.  The  new  Jerusalem 
(cf.  Ez.,  xl-xlviii).  God  dwells  in  the  midst  of  His 
saints  who  enjoy  complete  happiness.  The  new  Je- 
nisalem  is  the  spouse  of  the  lamb.  The  names  of  the 
Twelve  Tribes  and  the  Twelve  Apostles  are  written 
on  its  gates.  God  and  the  lamb  are  the  sanctuary 
in  tills  new  city. 

Epilogue.  Verses  18-21.  The  prophecy  of  the 
book  is  soon  to  be  fulfilled.  The  Seer  warns  the 
reatler  not  to  add  anything  to  it  or  take  away  from 
it  under  pain  of  forfeiting  his  share  in  the  heavenly 
city. 

PunPOSE  OF  THK  BooK. — From  this  cursory  pe- 
rusal of  the  book,  it  is  evident  that  the  Seer  was  in- 
fluenced by  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  more  than  by  any 
other  book.  Daniel  was  written  with  the  object  of 
comforting  the  Jews  under  the  cruel  persecution  of 
.■\ntiochus  Epiphanes.  The  Seer  in  the  .Vixicalypse 
had  a  similar  purpose.  The  Christians  were  fiercely 
persecuted  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  The  danger 
of  apostacy  was  great.  False  prophets  went  about, 
trying  to  seduce  the  people  to  conform  to  the  hea- 


then practices  and  to  take  part  in  the  Crcsar-worship, 
The  Seer  urges  his  Christians  to  remain  true  to  their 
faith  and  to  bear  their  troubles  with  fortitude.  He 
encourages  them  with  the  promise  of  an  ample  and 
speedy  reward.  He  assures  them  that  Christ's  tri- 
umphant coming  is  at  hand.  Both  in  the  beginning 
anil  at  the  end  of  his  book  the  Seer  is  most  emphatic 
in  telling  his  peoi)le  that  the  hour  of  victory  is  nigh. 
He  begins,  saying:  "Blessed  is  he  that  .  .  .  keepeth 
those  things  which  are  written  in  it;  for  the  time  is  at 
hand  "  (i,  3).  He  closes  his  visions  with  the  pathetic 
words:  "He  that  giveth  testimony  of  these  things 
saitli.  Surely  I  come  ((uickly:  Amen.  Come,  Lord 
Jesus".  With  the  coming  of  Christ  the  woes  of  the 
Christians  will  be  avenged.  Their  oppressors  will  be 
given  up  to  the  judgment  and  the  everlasting  tor- 
ments. The  martyrs  that  have  fallen  will  be  raised 
to  life,  that  they  may  share  the  pleasures  of  Christ's 
kingdom,  the  millennium.  Yet  this  is  but  a  prelude 
to  the  everlasting  beatitude  which  follows  after  the 
general  resurrection.  It  is  an  article  of  faith  that 
Clirist  will  return  at  the  end  of  time  to  judge  the 
living  and  the  dead.  But  the  time  of  His  second 
a<lvent  is  unknown.  "  But  of  that  day  and  hour 
no  one  knowelh,  no,  not  the  angels  of  heaven,  but 
the  Father  alone"  (Matt.,  xxiv,  36).  It  would  af>- 
pear,  and  is  so  liekl  by  many,  that  the  Christians  of 
the  Apostolic  age  expected  tliat  Christ  would  return 
during  their  own  lifetime  or  generation.  This  seems 
to  be  the  more  obvious  meaning  of  several  passages 
both  in  the  Epistles  and  Gost)els  (cf.  John,  xxi,  21- 
23;  Thess.,  iv,  1.3-18).  The  Christians  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  Seer  with  them,  appear  to  have  shared  this 
fallacious  expectation.  Their  mistaken  hope,  how- 
ever, did  not  alTect  the  soundness  of  their  belief  in 
the  essenti.al  part  of  the  dogma.  Their  views  of  a 
millennial  perioti  of  corporal  hai)piness  were  equally 
erroneous.  The  Church  has  wiiolly  cast  aside  the 
doctrine  of  a  millenium  previous  to  the  resurrection. 
St.  .\ugustine  has  perhaps  more  than  any  one  else 
helped  to  free  the  Church  from  all  crude  fancies  as 
regards  its  pleasures.  He  explained  the  millennium 
allegorically  and  applieil  it  to  the  Church  of  Christ 
on  earth.  With  tlie  foundation  of  the  Church  the 
millennium  began.  The  first  resurrection  is  the  spir- 
itual resurrection  of  the  soul  from  sin  (De  Civ.  Dei, 
Lib.  XX).  Thus  the  number  1,000  is  to  be  taken 
indefinitely. 

Stuuctl're  of  the  Book  and  its  Literary  Com- 
position.— The  subject-matter  of  the  Apocalypse  re- 
quired a  threefold  division.  The  first  part  comprises 
tlie  seven  exhortatory  letters.  The  leading  idea  in 
the  second  part  is  the  wisdom  of  Christ.  It  is  syni- 
bolizcd  by  tlie  book  with  seven  seals.  In  it  are  writ- 
ten the  eternal  decrees  of  God  touching  the  end  of 
the  world,  and  the  final  victory  of  good  over  evil. 
No  one  except  Jesus,  the  lamb  slain  for  the  sins  of 
the  world,  is  worthy  to  break  the  seals  and  read  its 
contents.  The  third  part  tiescribes  the  power  of 
Christ  over  Satan  and  his  kingilom.  The  lamb  de- 
feats the  dragon  anti  the  beast.  This  idea  is  devel- 
oped in  a  drama  of  five  acts.  In  five  successive 
scenes  we  see  before  us  the  struggle,  the  fall  of  Baby- 
lon the  harlot,  the  victory,  and  final  beatitude.  The 
third  part  is  not  only  the  most  important,  but  also 
the  most  successful  from  a  literary  point  of  view. 
The  drama  of  the  lamb  contains  several  beautiful 
thoughts  of  lasting  value.  The  lamb,  symboHzing 
gentleness  and  purity,  conquers  the  bea.st,  the  per- 
sonification of  lust  ami  cruelty.  The  harlot  signifies 
idolatrj'.  The  fornication  which  the  rulers  ami  the 
natiims  of  the  earth  commit  with  her  signifies  the 
worship  they  pay  to  the  images  of  Ca'sar  and  the 
tokens  of  his  power.  The  second  part  is  inferior  in 
literary  beauty.  It  contains  much  tliat  is  taken  from 
the  old  Testament,  and  it  is  full  of  extravagant 
imagery.     The  Seer  shows  a   fanciful    taste   for  ::]] 


APOCALYPSE 


598 


APOCALTPSE 


that  is  weird  and  grotesque.  He  delights  in  por- 
traying locusts  witli  hair  like  that  of  women  and 
horses  with  tails  like  serpents.  There  are  occasional 
passages  revealing  a  sense  of  literary  beauty.  God  re- 
moves the  curtain  of  the  firmament  as  a  scribe  rolls 
up  his  scrolls.  The  stars  fall  from  the  heavens  like 
figs  from  the  fig-tree  shaken  by  the  storm  (vi,  12-14). 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  Seer  shows  more  love 
for  Oriental  splendour  than  the  appreciation  of  true 
beauty. 

Interpretation. — It  would  be  alike  wearisome 
and  useless  to  enumerate  even  the  more  prominent 
applications  made  of  the  Apocalypse.  Racial  hatred 
and  religious  rancour  have  at  all  times  found  in  its 
vision  much  suitable  and  gratifying  matter.  Such 
persons  as  Mahomet,  the  Pope,  Napoleon,  etc.,  have 
in  turn  been  identified  with  the  beast  and  the  harlot. 
To  the  "reformers"  particularly  the  Apocalpyse 
was  an  inexhaustible  quarry  where  to  dig  for  in- 
vectives that  they  might  hurl  them  against  the 
Roman  liierarchy.  The  seven  hills  of  Rome,  the 
scarlet  robes  of  the  cardinals,  and  the  unfortunate 
abuses  of  the  papal  court  made  the  application  easy 
and  tempting.  Owing  to  the  patient  and  strenuous 
research  of  scholars,  the  interpretation  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse has  been  transferred  to  a  field  free  from  the 
odium  theologicum.  By  them  the  meaning  of  the 
Seer  is  determined  by  the  rules  of  common  exegesis. 
Apart  from  the  resurrection,  the  millennium,  and  the 
plagues  preceding  the  final  consummation,  they  see 
m  his  visions  references  to  the  leading  events  of 
his  time.  Their  method  of  interpretation  may  be 
called  historic  as  compared  with  the  theological  and 
political  application  of  former  ages.  The  key  to  the 
mysteries  of  the  book  they  find  in  chap,  xvii,  8-14. 
For  thus  says  the  Seer:  "  Let  here  the  mind  that  hath 
understanding  give  heed  ". 

The  beast  from  the  sea  that  had  received  plenitude 
of  power  from  the  dragon,  or  Satan,  is  the  Roman 
Empire,  or  rather,  Coesar,  its  supreme  representative. 
The  token  of  the  beast  with  which  its  servants  are 
marked  is  the  image  of  the  emperor  on  the  coins  of 
the  realm.  This  seems  to  be  the  obvious  meaning 
of  the  passage,  that  all  business  transactions,  all 
buying  and  selling  were  impossible  to  them  that  had 
not  the  mark  of  the  beast  (Ap.,  xiii,  17).  Against 
this  interpretation  it  is  objected  that  the  Jews  at  the 
time  of  Christ  had  no  scruple  in  handling  money  on 
which  tlie  image  of  Csesar  was  stamped  (Matt.,  xxii, 
15-22).  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
horror  of  the  Jews  for  the  imperial  images  was 
principally  due  to  the  policy  of  Caligula.  He  con- 
fiscated se\'eral  of  their  synagogues,  changing  them 
into  heathen  temples  by  placing  his  statue  in  them. 
Ho  even  sought  to  erect  an  image  of  himself  in  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem  (Jos.,  Ant.,  XVIII,  viii,  2).  The 
sevcui  heads  of  the  beast  are  seven  emperors.  Five 
of  them  the  Seer  says  are  fallen.  They  are  Augustus, 
Tiberius,  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero.  The  year 
of  Nero's  death  is  \.  D.  68.  The  Seer  goes  on  to  say, 
"One  is",  namely  Vespasian,  a.  d.  70-79.  He  is 
the  sixth  emperor.  The  seventh,  we  are  told  by  the 
Seer,  "is  not  yet  come.  But  when  he  comes  his 
reign  will  be  short".  Titus  is  meant,  who  reigned 
but  two  years  (79-81).  The  eighth  emperor  is 
Domitian  (81-96).  Of  him  the  Seer  has  something 
very  peculiar  to  say.  He  is  identified  with  the  beast. 
He  IS  described  as  the  one  that  "was,  and  is  not,  and 
shall  come  up  out  of  the  bottomleiss  pit"  (xvii,  8). 
In  verse  11  it  is  added:  "And  the  beast  which  was 
and  IS  not:  the  same  also  is  the  eighth,  and  is  of  the 
seven,  and  goeth  into  destruction  ".  All  this  sounds 
like  oracular  language.  But  the  clue  to  its  .solution 
IS  furnished  by  a  popular  belief  largely  spread  at 
the  lime.  The  death  of  Nero  had  been  witnessed 
by  few.  Chiefly  in  the  East  a  notion  had  taken 
hold  of  the  mmd  of  the  (wople  that  Nero  was  still 


alive.  Gentiles,  Jews,  and  Christians  were  under 
the  ilhision  that  he  was  hiding  himself,  and  as  was 
coramonlj' thought,  he  had  gone  over  to  the  Parthians, 
the  most  troublesome  foes  of  the  empire.  From 
there  they  expected  him  to  return  at  the  head  of  a 
mighty  army  to  avenge  himself  on  his  enemies. 
The  existence  of  this  fanciful  belief  is  a  well-attested 
historic  fact.  Tacitus  speaks  of  it:  "Achaia  atque 
Asia  falso  exterritaj  velut  Nero  adventaret,  vario 
super  ejus  exitu  rumore  eoque  pluribus  vivere  eum 
fingentibus  credentibusque"  (Hist.,  II,  8).  So 
also  Dio  Chrysostomus:  koX  v\Jv  (about  a.  d.  100) 
iTf.  irdvres  ^irtdvfiovtTL  ^^v,  ol  Si  TrXetffTot  Kal  otoyrai 
(Orat.,  21,  10;  cf.  Suet.,  "  Vit.  Csss."  s.  v.  Nero,  57, 
and  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  V,  28-33).  Thus  the  con- 
temporaries of  the  Seer  believed  Nero  to  be  alive 
and  expected  his  return.  The  Seer  either  shared 
their  belief  or  utilized  it  for  his  own  purpose.  Nero 
had  made  a  name  for  himself  by  his  cruelty  and 
licentiousness.  The  Christians  in  particular  had 
reason  to  dread  him.  Under  him  the  first  persecu- 
tion took  place.  The  second  occurred  under  Domi- 
tian. But  unlike  the  previous  one,  it  was  not  con- 
fined to  Italy,  but  spread  throughout  the  provinces. 
Many  Christians  were  put  to  death,  many  were 
banished  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  17-19).  In 
this  way  the  Seer  was  led  to  regard  Domitian  as  a 
second  Nero,  "Nero  redivivus ".  Hence  he  de- 
scribed him  as  "the  one  that  was,  that  is  not,  and 
that  is  to  return".  Hence  also  he  counts  him  as  the 
eighth  and  at  the  same  time  makes  him  one  of  the 
preceding  seven;  viz.  the  fifth,  Nero.  The  identifi- 
cation of  the  two  emperors  suggested  itself  all  the 
more  readily  since  even  pagan  authors  called  Domi- 
tian a  second  Nero  {calvus  Nero,  Juvenal,  IV,  38). 
The  popular  belief  concerning  Nero's  death  and 
return  seems  to  be  referred  to  also  in  the  passage 
(xiii,  3):  "And  I  saw  one  of  its  heads  as  it  were 
slain  to  death:  and  its  death's  wound  was  healed". 
The  ten  horns  are  commonly  explained  as  the 
vassal  rulers  under  the  supremacy  of  Rome.  They 
are  described  as  kings  (^affiXets) ,  here  to  be  taken 
in  a  wider  sense,  that  they  are  not  real  kings,  but 
received  power  to  rule  with  the  beast.  Their  power, 
moreover,  is  but  for  "one  hour  ",  signifying  its  short 
duration  and  instability  (xvii,  17).  The  Seer  has 
marked  the  beast  with  the  number  666.  His  pur- 
pose was  that  by  this  number  people  may  know  it. 
"  He  that  has  understanding,  let  him  count  the  num- 
ber of  the  beast.  For  it  is  the  number  of  a  man: 
and  his  number  is  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  ".  A 
human  number,  i.  e.  intelligible  by  the  common 
rules  of  investigation.  We  have  here  an  instance 
of  Jewish  gematria.  Its  object  is  to  conceal  a  name 
by  substituting  for  it  a  cipher  of  equal  numerical 
value  to  the  letters  composing  it.  F'or  a  long  time 
interpreters  tried  to  decipher  the  number  666  by 
means  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  e.  g.  Iren.,  "Adv. 
Ha:'r.",  V,  33.  Their  efforts  have  yielded  no  satis- 
factory result.  Better  success  has  been  obtained 
by  using  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  Many  scholars  have 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  Nero  is  meant.  For 
when  the  name  "Nero  Ca>sar"  is  spelled  with  He- 
brew letters  (nop  111:),  it  yields  the  cipher  666. 
:  =  ^0,  n  =  200,  1  =  6,  3=50,  p=100,  D  =  60,  1=200; 
total.  666. 

The  second  beast,  that  from  the  land,  the  pseudo- 
prophet,  whose  office  w.as  to  assist  the  beast  from  the 
sea,  prohalily  signifies  the  work  of  seduction  carried 
on  by  apostate  Christians.  They  endeavoured  to 
make  their  fellow  Christians  adopt  the  heathen  prac- 
tices and  submit  tlienisclvcs  to  the  cultus  of  the 
CiTsar.  They  arc  not  unlikely  the  Nicolaitans  of  the 
seven  Epistles.  For  they  are  then-  compared  to 
Balaam  and  Jezabel  seducing  the  Israelites  to  idolatry 
and  fornication.  The  woman  in  travail  is  a  j)ersoni- 
fication  of  the  synagogue  or  the  church.     Her  fitstr 


APOCATASTASIS 


599 


APOCATASTASIS 


iborn  is  Christ,  her  other  seed  is  tlie  community  of  the 
faithful. — In  this  interpretation,  of  wliich  we  have 
.given  a  summary,  tliere  are  two  diflii-ulties:  (I)  In 
the  enumeration  of  tlio  emperors  tliiee  are  passed 
•over,  viz.  Cialba,  Otlio,  and  Vitellius.  IJut  this 
•omission  may  be  explained  by  the  .shortness  of  their 
reigns.  Each  one  of  the  three  reigned  but  a  few 
montlis. — (II)  Tradition  assigns  the  Apocalypse  to 
the  reign  of  Domitian.  But  according  to  the  com- 
putation given  above,  the  Seer  himself  a-ssigns  his 
work  to  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  For  if  this  com- 
putation be  correct,  Vespasian  Ls  the  emperor  whom 
ne  designates  !us  "the  one  that  is".  To  this  objec- 
tion, however,  it  may  be  answered  that  it  was  the 
custom  of  a|X)calyptic  writers,  e.  g.,  of  Daniel,  Enoch, 
and  the  Sibylline  books,  to  cast  their  visions  into  the 
form  of  prophecies  and  give  tliem  the  appearance  of 
being  the  work  of  an  earlier  date.  No  hterarj'  fraud 
was  thereby  intended.  It  was  merely  a  peculiar 
style  of  writing  adopted  :is  suiting  tlieir  subject. 
The  Seer  of  the  Apocalypse  follows  this  practice. 
Though  actually  banished  to  Patmos  in  the  reign  of 
Domitian,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  he 
■wrote  as  if  he  had  been  there  and  had  seen  his  visions 
in  the  reign  of  Vespasian  when  the  temple  perhaps 
yet  existed.     Cf.  II,  1,  2. 

We  cannot  conclude  without  mentioning  the 
theory  advanced  by  the  Cierman  scholar  Vischer. 
He  holds  the  Apocalypse  to  have  been  originally  a 
purely  Jewish  composition,  and  to  have  been  changed 
mto  a  Christian  work  by  the  insertion  of  those  sec- 
tions that  deal  with  Christian  subjects.  From  a 
doctrinal  point  of  view,  we  think,  it  cannot  be  ob- 
jected to.  There  are  other  instances  where  inspired 
writers  have  availed  themselves  of  non-canonical 
literature.  Intrinsically  considered  it  is  not  im- 
probable. The  Apocalypse  abounds  in  passages 
which  bear  no  specific  Christian  character  but,  on 
the  contrary,  show  a  decidedly  Jewish  complexion. 
Vet  on  the  whole  the  theory  is  but  a  conjecture. 
(See  also  Apocryph.\.) 

SlMCOX.  Tht  Re^tlalion  of  St.  John  (CambridRe.  1893); 
•Calmfim,  Commentaire  (Paris,  1906);  Semeria.  il  Primo  Sanifue 
Crulinno  (Home.  1901);  Hoi.timanx,  llmul  Cummcntur 
(Leipzig,  1893);  Mommsen,  Froi-inco  of  Ihc  Rumtm  Empire 
(Ix>n(lon,  1886);  Salmon,  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament, 
(LonUoD,  1897):  Cobloy  in  Vic,  Diet,  de  la  Bible. 

C.  VAN   DEN   BlESEN. 

Apocatastasis  (Or.,  awoKariaTaaii;  Lat.,  restitutio 
in  pri.-itinuiii  .sliitum,  restoration  to  the  original  con- 
dition), a  name  given  in  the  hi.story  of  theology  to 
the  doctrine  which  teaches  that  a  time  will  come 
when  all  free  creatures  shall  share  in  the  grace  of 
salvation;  in  a  special  way,  the  devils  and  lost  souls. 

This  doctrine  was  explicitly  taught  by  St.  flregory 
of  Nyssa,  and  in  more  than  one  passage.  It  first  occurs 
in  his  "De  animd  et  resurrect ione "  (P.  G.,  XLVI, 
cols.  100,  101),  where,  in  speaking  of  the  punishment 
by  fire  assigned  to  souls  after  death,  he  compares  it 
to  the  process  whereby  gold  is  rcfineil  in  a  furnace, 
through  being  separated  from  the  dross  with  which 
it  is  alloyed.  The  punishment  by  fire  is  not,  there- 
fore, an  end  in  itself,  but  is  ameliorative;  the  very 
reason  of  its  infliction  is  to  .separate  the  gooil  from 
the  evil  in  the  soul.  The  i)rocc.ss,  moreover,  is  a 
painful  one;  the  sharpness  and  duration  of  the  pain 
are  in  proportion  to  the  evil  of  which  each  soul  is 
guilty;  the  Hame  lasts  so  long  as  there  is  any  evil 
left  to  destroy.  A  time,  then,  will  come,  when  all 
evil  shall  cease  to  be  since  it  has  no  existence  of  its 
ovra  apart  from  the  free  will,  in  which  it  inheres; 
when  every  free  will  .shall  be  turned  to  God,  shall  be 
in  God,  and  evil  shall  no  more  have  wherein  to  exist. 
Thus,  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  continues,  shall  the 
word  of  St.  Paul  be  fultilleti:  Deus  eril  omnia  in 
omnibus  (I  Cor.,  xv,  28),  which  means  that  evil 
shall,  ultimately,  have  an  end,  since,  if  God  be  all  in 
all,  there  is  no  longer  any  place  for  evil  (cols.  104,  105; 


cf.  col.  1.52).  St.  Gregory  recurs  to  the  same  thought 
of  the  final  annihilation  of  evil,  in  his  "Oratio  cate- 
chetica ",  ch.  x.xvi;  the  same  comparison  of  fire 
which  purges  gold  of  its  impurities  is  to  be  found 
there;  so  also  shall  the  power  of  God  purge  nature 
of  that  which  is  j)reteniatural,  namely,  of  evil. 
Stich  purification  will  be  painful,  xs  is  a  suigical 
operation,  but  the  restoration  will  ultimately  be 
complete.  .Vnd,  when  this  restoration  shall  have 
been  accomplished  (r)  els  ri  dpxa'on  diroKaTiaTa<rit 
Tutv  vvi/  iv  Kaxlif  KUfUvtav),  all  creation  shall  give 
thanks  to  God,  both  the  souLs  which  have  had  no 
need  of  purification,  and  those  that  shall  have  needed 
it.  Not  only  man,  however,  shall  be  set  free  from 
evil,  but  the  devil,  also,  by  whom  evil  entcre<l  into 
the  world  (rbn  re  ivBpunrov  t^s  icaKlas  iXevBepwr, 
Kal  airiv  riv  t^j  fcaxfas  tvptTTiv  Iwntvos.  P.  G., 
XLV,  col.  69.)  The  same  teacliing  is  to  be  found  in 
the  "Do  mortuis"  (ibid.,  col.  536).  Bardenhewer 
justly  observes  ("  Pat rologie "  ,  Freiburg,  1901,  p. 
206)  that  St.  Gregory  says  elsewhere  no  less  con- 
cerning the  eternity  of  the  fire,  and  of  the  punishment 
of  the  lost,  but  that  the  Saint  himself  understood 
this  eternity  as  a  period  of  very  long  duration,  yet 
one  which  has  a  limit.  Compare  witn  this  "Contra 
U.surarios"  (XLVI,  col.  4.36),  where  the  sufTering  of 
the  lost  is  spoken  of  as  eternal,  o/uda,  and  "Oral. 
Catechet.",  XXVI  (XLV,  col.  69),  where  evil  is 
annihilated  after  a  long  period  of  time,  tuiKpaU  irepii- 
5ois.  These  verbal  contradictions  explain  why  the 
defenders  of  orthodoxy  should  have  thought  tliat 
St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa's  writings  had  been  tampered 
with  by  heretics.  St.  Germanus  of  Constantinople, 
writing  in  tlie  eighth  century,  went  so  far  as  to  say 
that  those  who  held  that  the  devils  and  lost  souls 
would  one  day  be  .set  free  had  dared  "to  instil  into 
the  pure  and  most  healthful  spring  of  his  [Gregory's] 
writmgs  the  black  and  dangerous  poison  of  the  error 
of  Origen,  and  to  cunningly  attribute  this  fooUsh 
heresy  to  a  man  famous  alike  for  his  virtue  and  his 
learning"  (quoted  by  Photius.  Bibl.  Cod.,  223; 
P.  G.,  CIII,  col.  1105).  Tillemont,  "Mdmoires 
pour  I'histoire  eccl<5.siastique "  (Paris,  1703),  IX,  p. 
602,  incHnes  to  the  opinion  that  St.  Germanus  had 
good  grountls  for  what  he  .said.  We  nuist,  however, 
admit,  with  Bardenlicwer  (loc.  cit.)  that  the  explana- 
tion given  by  St.  Germanus  of  Constantinople  cannot 
hold.  This  was,  also,  the  opinion  of  Petavius, 
"Theolog.  dogmat."  (Antwerp,  1700),  III,  "De 
.\ngelis",    109-111. 

The  doctrine  of  the  itroKaTdixTaais  is  not,  indeed, 
peculiar  to  St.  Gregory  of  Ny.s,sa.  but  is  taken  from 
Origen,  who  seems  at  times  reluctant  to  decide 
concerning  the  question  of  the  eternity  of  punish- 
ment. Ti.xeront  has  well  said  that  in  his  "  De 
principiis"  (I.  vi,  3)  Origen  does  not  venture  to 
assert  that  all  the  evil  angels  shall  sooner  or  later 
return  to  God  (P.  G.,  XI,  col.  168,  169);  while  in  his 
"Comment,  in  Rom.",  VIII,  9  (P.  G.,  XIV,  col.  1185), 
he  states  that  Lucifer,  unlike  the  Jews,  will  not  be 
converted,  even  at  the  end  of  time.  Ekewhere,  on 
the  other  hand,  and  as  a  rule,  Origen  teaches  the 
diroicaT<£<TTair(s.  the  final  restoration  of  all  intelligent 
creatures  to  friendship  with  God.  Tixeront  writes 
thus  concerning  the  matter:  "Not  all  shall  enjoy  the 
same  happiness,  for  in  the  Father's  house  there  are 
many  mansions,  but  all  shall  attain  to  it.  If  Scrip- 
ture sometimes  seems  to  speak  of  the  punishment  of 
the  wicked  as  eternal,  this  is  in  order  to  terrify  sinners, 
to  lead  them  back  into  the  right  way,  and  it  is  always 
possible,  with  attention,  to  discover  the  true  meaning 
of  these  texts.  It  must,  however,  always  be  accepted 
as  a  principle  that  God  does  not  chasten  except  to 
amcnil,  and  that  the  sole  end  of  His  greatest  anger 
is  the  amelioration  of  the  guilty.  As  the  doctor  uses 
fire  and  steel  in  certain  deep-seated  diseases,  so  God 
does  but  use  the  fire  of  hell  to  heal  the  impenitent 


APOCRISIARIUS 


600 


APOCRISIARIUS 


sinner.  All  souls,  all  inttllisent  beings  that  have 
gone  astray,  shall,  therefore,  be  restored  sooner  or 
later  to  God's  friendship.  The  evolution  will  be 
long,  incalculably  long  in  some  eases,  but  a  time  will 
come  when  Gocl  shall  be  all  in  all.  Death,  the 
last  enemy,  sliall  be  destroyed,  the  body  shall  be 
made  spiritual,  the  world  of  matter  shall  be  trans- 
formed, and  there  shall  be,  in  the  universe,  only 
peace  and  unity"  [Tixeront,  Histoire  des  dogmes, 
(Paris,  190.')),  I,  304,  305],  The  palmary  text  of 
Origen  should  be  referred  to  "De  principiis",  III, 
fi,  6;  (P.  G.,  XI,  col.  33.S-340).  For  Origen's  teach- 
ing and  the  passages  wherein  it  is  expressed  consult 
Huet.  "Origeniana",  II,  qu.  11,  n.  16  (republished 
in  P.  G.,  XVII,  col.  1023-26)  and  Petavius, 
"Theol.  dogmat.,  De  Angelis",  107-109;  also  Har- 
nack  ["Dogmengeschichte"  (Freiburg,  1894),  I, 
645,  646],  who  connects  the  teaching  of  Origen  on 
this  point  with  that  of  Clement  of  Alexandria. 
Tixeront  also  writes  very  aptly  concerning  this 
matter:  "Clement  allows  that  sinful  souls  shall  be 
sanctified  after  death  by  a  spiritual  fire,  and  that 
the  wicked  sliall,  likewise,  be  punished  by  fire. 
Will  tlieir  cliastisement  be  eternal?  It  would  not 
seem  so.  In  the  Stromata,  VII,  2  (P.  G.,  IX,  col.  416), 
the  punishment  of  which  Clement  speaks,  and  which 
succeeds  the  final  judgment,  constrains  the  wicked 
to  repent.  In  chapter  xvi  (col.  541)  the  author  lays 
down  the  principle  that  God  does  not  punish,  but 
corrects;  that  is  to  say  that  all  chastisement  on  His 
part  is  remedial.  If  Origen  be  supposed  to  have 
started  from  this  principle  in  order  to  arrive  at  the 
avoKaTiaTaaii — and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  as  well^ 
"  it  is  extremely  probable  that  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria understood  it  in  the  same  sen.se "  (Histoire 
des  dogmes,  I,  277).  Origen,  however,  does  not 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  doctrine  of  the  diro/caTdo-- 
Toffis  as  one  meant  to  be  preached  to  all,  it  being 
enough  for  the  generality  of  the  faithful  to  know 
that  sinners  will  be  punished.  (Contra  Celsum,  VI, 
26  in  P.  G.,  XI,  col.  1332.) 

The  doctrine,  then,  was  first  taught  by  Origen,  and 
by  Clement  of  .\lexandria,  and  was  an  influence  in 
their  Christianity  due  to  Platonism,  as  Petavius  has 
plainly  shown  (Theol.  dogmat.  De  Angelis,  106), 
following  St.  Augustine  "  De  civitate  Dei",  XXI,  13. 
Compare  Janet,  "  La  philosophie  de  Platon "  (Paris, 
1869),  I,  603.  It  is  evident,  moreover,  that  the 
doctrine  involves  a  purely  natural  scheme  of  divine 
justice  and  of  redemption.     (Plato,  Republic,  X,  614''.) 

It  was  through  Origen  that  the  Platonist  doctrine 
of  the  airoKaTddTaais  pas.sed  to  St.  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  and  simultaneously  to  St.  Jerome,  at  least 
during  the  time  that  St.  Jerome  was  an  Origenist. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  St.  Jerome  understands 
it  only  of  the  baptized:  "In  restitutione  omnium, 
quando  corpus  totius  ecclesiffi  nunc  dispersum  atque 
laeeratum,  verus  medicus  Christus  Jesus  sanaturus 
advenerit,  unusquisque  secundum  mensuram  fidei 
et  cognitionis  Filii  Dei  .  .  .  suum  recipiet  locum  et 
incipiet  id  esse  quod  fuerat"  (Comment,  in  Eph., 
iv,  16;  P.  G.,  XXVI,  col.  503).  Everywhere  else 
St.  Jerome  teaches  that  the  punishment  of  the  devils 
and  of  the  impious,  that  is  of  those  who  have  not 
come  to  the  Faith,  shall  be  eternal.  (See  Peta- 
vius, Theol.  dogmat.  De  Angelis,  111,  112.)  The 
".Xmbrosiaster"  on  the  other  hand  seems  to  have 
extended  the  benefits  of  redemption  to  the  devils, 
(In  i;ph.,  iii,  10;  P.  L.,  XVII,  col.  382),  yet  the 
interpretation  of  the  "  .Vmbrosiaster"  on  this  point 
is  not  devoid  of  difFiculty.  [See  Petavius,  p.  Ill; 
also,  Tunnel,  Histoire  de  la  tli^ologie  positive,  depuis 
I'ongine,  etc.  (Paris,  19t)4)  1,S7.] 

From  the  moment,  however,  that  anti-Origenism 
/)revailed,  the  doctrine  of  the  djroKaTdffTairis  was 
definitely  abandoned.  St.  Augustine  protests  more 
-rrongly  than  any  oilier  writer    again.st  an  error  so 


contrary  to  the  doctrine  of  the  necessity  of  grace. 
See,  especially,  his  "  De  gestis  Pelagii",  I;  "In 
Origene  dignissime  detest  at  ur  Ecclesia,  quod  et  iara 
illi  quos  Dominus  dicit  .'terno  supplicio  puniendos, 
et  ipse  diabolus  et  angeli  eius,  post  tempus  licet 
prohxum  purgati  liberabuntur  a  poenis,  et  Sanctis 
cum  Deo  regnantibus  societate  beatitudinis  ad- 
h.Trebunt."  Augustine  here  alludes  to  the  sentence 
pronounced  against  Pelagius  by  the  Council  of 
Diospolis,  in  415  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  col.  325).  He 
moreover  recurs  to  the  subject  in  many  passages  of 
his  writings,  and  in  Book  XXI  "De  Civitate  Dei" 
sets  himself  earnestly  to  prove  the  eternity  of 
punishment  as  against  the  Platonist  and  Origenist 
error  concerning  its  intrinsically  purgatorial  char- 
acter. We  note,  further,  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
dTTOKardo-Tao-is  was  held  in  the  East  not  only  by 
St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  but  al.so  by  St.  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus  as  well;  "  De  .seipso  ",  566  (P.  G.,  XXXVII, 
col.  1010),  but  the  latter,  tliough  he  asks  the  question, 
finally  decides  neither  for  nor  against  it,  but  rather 
leaves  the  answer  to  God.  Kostlin,  in  the  "Real- 
encyklopadie  f iir  protestantische  Theologie  "  (Leipzig, 
1896),  I,  617,  art.  "Apokata stasis",  names  Diociorus 
of  Tarsus  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  as  having 
also  held  the  doctrine  of  cnroKaTiaTaais,  but  cites  no 
passage  in  support  of  his  statement.  In  any  case, 
the  doctrine  was  formally  condemned  in  the  first  of 
the  famous  anathemas  pronounced  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  in  .543;  Harduin,  Coll.  Cone.  Ill, 
284; — Ei'  ris  tt]v  Tepardidt]  diroKaTd^raatv  Trpea^edei^ 
avadtixa  ecrru.  [See,  also,  Justinian,  Liber  adversus 
Originem,  anathemas  7  and  9  (P.  G.,  LXXXVI, 
col.  989).]  The  doctrine  was  thenceforth  looked  on 
as  heterodox  by  the  Church. 

It  was  destined,  nevertheless,  to  be  re^'ived  in  the 
works  of  ecclesiastical  writers,  and  it  would  be  in- 
teresting to  verify  Kostlin's  and  Bardenhewer's  state- 
ment that  it  is  to  be  traced  in  Bar  Sudaili,  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite,  Maximus  the  Confessor,  Scotus 
Erigena,  and  Amalric  of  Bena.  It  reappears  at  the 
Reformation  in  the  writings  of  Denk  (d.  1527), 
and  Harnack  has  not  hesitated  to  assert  that  nearly 
all  the  Reformers  were  apocatastasists  at  heart, 
and  that  it  accounts  for  their  aversion  to  the  tra- 
ditional teaching  concerning  the  sacraments  (Dogmen- 
geschichte, III,  601).  The  doctrine  of  dronaTdaTaais 
viewed  as  a  belief  in  a  universal  salvation  is  found 
among  the  Analiaptists,  the  Moravian  Brethren,  the 
Christadelphians,  among  rationalistic  Protestants, 
and  finally  among  the  professed  I'niversalists.  It 
has  been  held,  also,  by  such  philosophic  Protestants 
as  Schleiermacher,  and  by  a  few  theologians,  Farrar, 
for  instance,  in  England,  Eckstein  and  Pfister  in 
Germany,  Matter  in  France.  Consult  Kostlin,  art. 
cit.,  and  Gr^tillut,  "Expos6  de  theologie  syst^ma- 
tique"  (Paris,  1890),  IV,  603. 

Pierre  B.a.tiffol. 

Apocrisiarius  (Gr.  dirbxpian,  an  answer;  cf.  Lat. 
responsalis,  from  rrsponsuw). — This  term  indicates  in 
general  tlie  ecclesiastical  cnvoj's  of  Christian  antiq- 
uity, whether  permanent  or  .sent  temporarily  on  .spe- 
cial missions  to  high  ecclesiastical  autliorities  or  royal 
courts.  In  the  East  the  patriarchs  had  their  apo- 
erisiarii  at  the  imperial  court,  and  the  metropolitans 
tlieirs  at  the  courts  of  the  patriarchs.  The  popes  also 
frequently  deputed  clerics  of  the  Roni.an  Church  as 
cnvoj's,  either  for  the  adjustment  of  important  ques- 
tions affecting  tlie  Church  of  Rome,  or  to  settle  points 
of  discipline  in  local  dioceses,  or  to  safeguard  the  in- 
terests of  the  Church  in  religious  controversies.  In 
the  letters  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (590-004)  very 
frequent  mention  is  made  of  such  envoys  (resmn- 
salcs).  In  view  of  the  great  importance  attaciiinfc 
to  the  relations  between  the  popes  and  the  imperial 
court  of  Constantinople,  especially  after  the  fall  of 


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601 


APOCRYPHA 


the  Western  Empire  (476),  ami  duiiiif;  the  ^reat 
dogmatic  controversies  in  the  (Irctk  Chmc-h.  these 
papal  representatives  at  Constantinople  took  on 
gradually  the  character  of  permanent  lepites  and 
were  accounted  the  most  important  and  responsible 
among  the  papal  envoys.  The  first  of  these  apoc- 
risiarii  seems  to  have  been  Julianas,  Hishop  of  Cos, 
accredited  by  St.  Leo  the  Cireat  to  the  court  of  Em- 
peror Marcian  (450— 1.">7)  for  a  considerable  period  of 
time  during  the  Monophysite  heresies.  From  then 
until  743,  when  all  relations  between  Rome  and 
Constantinople  were  severed  during  the  iconoclastic 
troubles,  there  were  always,  apart  from  a  few  brief 
intervals,  apocrisiarii  in  Constantinople.  On  ac- 
count of  the  import.ince  of  the  office,  only  capable 
and  trustworthy  members  of  the  Roman  Clergy  were 
selected  for  such  missions.  Thus  Gregory  I,  while 
Deacon  of  the  Roman  Church,  served  in  Hyzantium 
for  several  years  as  apocrisiarius.  .Vt  the  court  of 
the  exarch  at  Ravenna  the  Pope  also  had  a  per- 
aianent  apocrisiarius.  In  turn,  at  lea.st  tluring  the 
reign  of  (iregory  I,  the  archbisliop  of  that  city  had 
a  special  responsalis  at  the  pap.al  court.  From  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne  (d.  SI4)  we  find  apocrisiarii 
at  the  court  of  the  Frankish  kings,  but  they  are  only 
royal  archchaplains  decorated  with  the  title  of  the 
ancient  papal  envoys. 

TiioMASftiNus,  Vetus  el  nova  eccl.  disciplina  circa  beneficia 
<ea.  London,  1700,  I,  569  sqq.)  Ft.  I,  Bk.  II,  cvii-cxi;  Hino- 
JIAM.  Origines  sive  antiquitates  ecclesiaetiar  (ed.  Halle,  1725)  II, 
77  8qq.:  in,  xiii,  art.  G;  Luxakdo,  Das  pUpstliche  Vorde- 
kretalen-Geaandtachaftsrecht    (Innsbruck,    1878). 

J.  P.  KmscH. 

Apocrypha. — The  scope  of  this  article  takes  in 
those  compositions  which  profess  to  have  been  writ- 
ten either  by  Biblical  [Personages  or  men  in  intimate 
relations  with  them.  Such  known  works  as  the  Shep- 
herd of  Hermas,  the  Epistle  of  Harnabas,  the  Didache, 
or  Teaching,  of  the  Twelve  .\postles,  and  the  Apos- 
tolic Canons  and  Constitutions,  though  formally 
apocryphal,  really  belong  to  patristic  literature,  and 
are  considered  independently.  It  has  been  deemed 
better  to  classify  the  Biljlical  apocrypha  according 
to  their  origin,  instead  of  following  the  misleading 
division  of  the  apocrypha  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments. Broadly  speaking,  the  apocrj  pha  of  Jew- 
ish origin  are  coextensive  with  what  are  styled  of  tlie 
Old  Testament,  and  those  of  Christian  origin  with  the 
apocrypha  of  the  New  Testament.  The  subject 
will  be  treated  as  follows:  (1)  Apocrypha  of  Jewish 
origin;  (II)  Apocrypha  of  Jewish  origin  witli  Chris- 
tian accretions;  (ifl)  Apocrypha  of  Christian  origin, 
comprising  (I)  .4pocryphal  Gospels,  (2)  Pilate  litera- 
ture and  other  apocrypha  concerning  Christ,  (.3)  Apoc- 
ryphal Acts  of  the  .\postlcs.  (4)  Apocrj'plial  doctrinal 
works,  (5)  Apocrj'phal  Epistles,  (fi)  Apocrj'phal 
Apocalypses;    (IV)  The  Apocrypha  and  the  Church. 

Na-MK  ash  Notio.v. — Etymologically,  tlie  deriva- 
tion of  .\pocr>'pha  is  very  simple,  being  from  the 
Greek  diriicpi/^os,  hidden,  and  corresponding  to  the 
neuter  plural  of  the  adjective.  The  use  of  the  sing- 
ular, ".Vpocrj-phon",  is  both  legitimate  and  conve- 
nient, wlien  referring  to  a  single  work.  When  we 
would  attempt  to  seize  the  literary  sense  attaching 
to  the  word,  the  task  is  not  so  easy.  It  has  l>een 
employed  in  various  ways  by  early  patristic  writers, 
who  have  sometimes  entirely  lost  sight  of  the  ety- 
mology. Thus  it  has  the  connotation  "uncanoni- 
cal"  with  some  of  them.  St.  Jerome  evidently  aj)- 
plied  the  term  to  all  quasi-scriptural  Iwoks  which 
in  his  estimation  lay  outside  the  canon  of  Holy  Writ, 
and  the  Protestant  Reformers,  following  Jerome's 
catalogue  of  Old  Testament  Scriptures — one  which 
wa-s  at  once  erroneous  and  singular  among  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church — applied  the  title  .\porrj'pha 
to  the  excess  of  the  Catholic  canon  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament over  that  of  the  Jews.     Naturally,  Catholics 


refuse  to  admit  such  a  denomination,  and  we  employ 
"  deuterocanonical "  to  designate  this  literature, 
which  non-Catholics  conventionally  and  improperly 
know  as  the  "  Apocryjjha ".  (.See  Cano.m  of  the 
Old  Te.hta.ment.)  The  original  and  proper  .sen.se  of 
the  term  aimcryphnl  a-s  applied  to  the  pretended 
sacred  books  was  early  obscured.  But  a  clue  to  it 
may  l)e  recognized  in  the  so-called  Fourth  Book  of 
l^sdras,  which  relates  that  Esdias  (Ezra)  by  divine 
inspiration  compo.sed  ninety-four  books.  Of  the.se, 
twenty-four  were  restorations  of  the  sacred  literature 
of  the  Israelites  which  had  perished  in  the  Captiv- 
ity; they  were  to  be  published  openly,  but  the  re- 
maining were  to  be  guarded  in  .secret  for  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  wise  (cf.  l)an.,  xii,  4,  9,  where  the  prophet 
is  bidden  to  shut  up  and  seal  an  inspired  book  until 
an  appointed  time).  Accordingly  it  may  be  accepted 
as  liiglily  ])robable  that  in  its  original  meaning  an 
apocryphal  writing  had  no  unfavourable  import,  but 
simply  denoted  a  composition  which  claimed  a  sacred 
origin,  and  w;us  supposed  to  have  been  hidden  for 
generations,  either  absolutely,  awaiting  the  due  time 
of  its  revelation,  or  relatively,  inasmuch  as  knowledge 
of  it  was  confined  to  a  limited  esoteric  circle.  How- 
ever, the  name  .Vpocryiiha  soon  came  to  have  an  un- 
favourable signification  which  it  still  retains,  com- 
porting both  want  of  genuineness  and  canonicity. 
These  are  the  negati\e  asjjects  of  the  modern  appli- 
cation of  the  name;  on  its  ])ositive  side  it  is  properly 
employed  only  of  a  well  ciefined  class  of  literature, 
putting  forth  .scriptural  or  (piasi-scriptural  preten- 
sions, and  which  originated  in  part  among  the  He- 
brews during  the  two  centuries  preceding  Christ  and 
for  a  space  after,  and  in  part  among  Christians,  both 
orthodox  and  heterodox,  in  the  early  centuries  of  our 
era. 

I.  Apocrypha  of  Jewish  Origin. — Ancient  litera- 
ture, especially  in  the  Orient,  used  methods  much 
more  free  and  elastic  than  those  permitted  by  our 
modern  and  Occidental  culture.  Pseudographic  com- 
position was  in  vogue  among  the  Jews  in  the  two 
centuries  before  Christ  and  for  some  time  later.  The 
attribution  of  a  great  name  of  the  distant  pivst  to  a 
book  by  its  real  author,  who  thus  effaced  his  own 
personality,  was,  in  some  ciises  at  least,  a  mere  lit- 
erary fiction  which  deceived  no  one  except  the  ig- 
norant. This  holds  good  for  the  so-called  "Wisdom 
of  Solomon",  written  in  Greek  and  belonging  to  the 
Church's  sacred  canon.  In  other  cases,  where  the 
assumed  name  did  not  stand  as  a  symbol  of  a  ty|)e 
of  a  certain  kind  of  literature,  the  intention  was  not 
without  a  degree  of  at  least  objective  literary  dis- 
honesty. The  most  important  and  valuable  of  the 
extant  Jewish  apocryplia  are  those  which  have  a 
large  apocalyptic  element;  that  is,  which  profess  to 
contain  visions  and  revelations  of  the  unseen  world 
and  the  Messianic  future.  Jewish  apocalyptic  lit- 
erature is  a  theme  which  deserves  and  has  increas- 
ingly received  the  attention  of  all  interested  in  the 
development  of  the  religious  thought  of  Israel,  that 
body  of  concepts  and  tendencies  in  which  are  fixed 
the  roots  of  the  great  doctrinal  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity itself,  just  as  its  Divine  Founder  took  His 
temporal  generation  from  the  stock  of  orthodox  Ju- 
daism. The  Jewish  apocalypses  furnish  the  com- 
pleting links  in  the  progress  of  Jewish  theology  and 
fill  what  would  otherwise  be  a  gap,  though  a  small 
one,  between  the  advanced  stage  marked  by  the 
deuterocanonical  books  and  its  full  maturity  in  the 
time  of  Our  Lord;  a  maturitj'  so  relatively  perfect 
that  Jesus  could  suppose  as  existing  in  the  popular 
consciousness,  without  teaching  dc  novo,  the  doctrines 
of  future  retribution,  the  resurrection  of  the  l>o<ly, 
and  the  existence,  nature,  and  office  of  angels.  Jew- 
ish apocalyptic  is  an  attempt  to  supply  the  place  of 
Crophecy.  which  had  been  dead  for  centuries,  and  it 
as  its  roots  in  the  sacred  oracles  of  Israel.     Hebrew 


APOCRYPHA 


602 


APOCRYPHA 


prophecy  on  its  luiman  side  had  its  springs,  its  occa- 
sions, and  immediate  objects  in  the  present;  the 
propliets  were  inspired  men  who  found  matter  for 
comfort  as  well  us  rebuke  and  warning  in  the  actual 
conditions  of  Israel's  theocratic  life.  But  when  ages 
had  elapsed,  and  the  glowing  Messianic  promises  of 
the  prophets  had  not  been  realized;  when  the  Jewish 
people  had  chafed,  not  through  two  or  three,  but 
many  generations,  under  the  bitter  yoke  of  foreign 
masters  or  the  constantly  repeated  pressure  of  hea- 
then states,  reflecting  and  fervent  spirits,  finding  no 
hope  in  the  actual  order  of  things,  looked  away  from 
earth  and  fixed  their  vision  on  another  and  ideal 
world  where  God's  justice  would  reign  unthwarted, 
to  the  everlasting  glory  of  Israel  both  as  a  nation 
and  in  its  faithful  individuals,  and  unto  the  utter 
destruction  and  endless  torment  of  the  Gentile  op- 
pressors and  the  unrighteous.  Apocalyptic  literature 
was  both  a  message  of  comfort  and  an  effort  to  solve 
the  problems  of  the  sufferings  of  the  just  and  the 
apparent  hopelessness  of  a  fulfilment  of  the  prophe- 
cies of  Israel's  sovereignty  on  earth.  But  the  inev- 
itable consequence  of  the  apocalyptic  distrust  of 
everything  present  was  its  assumption  of  the  guise 
of  the  remote  and  classic  past;  in  other  words,  its 
pseudonymous  character.  Naturally  basing  itself 
upon  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets,  it  clothed 
itself  fictitiously  with  the  authority  of  a  patriarch 
or  prophet  who  w-as  made  to  reveal  the  transcendent 
future.  But  in  their  effort  to  adjust  this  future  to 
the  historj'  that  lay  within  their  ken  the  apocalyptic 
wTiters  unfolded  also  a  philosophy  of  the  origin  and 
progress  of  mundane  things.  A  wider  view  of  world- 
politics  and  a  comprehensive  cosmological  speculation 
are  among  the  distinctive  traits  of  Jewish  apoca- 
lyptic. The  Book  of  Daniel  is  the  one  book  of  the 
Old  Testament  to  which  the  non-inspired  apocalypses 
bear  the  closest  affinity,  and  it  evidently  furnished 
ideas  to  several  of  the  latter.  An  apocalyptic  ele- 
ment existing  in  the  prophets,  in  Zacharias  (i-vi), 
in  Tobias  (Tobias,  xiii),  can  be  traced  back  to 
the  visions  of  Ezechiel  which  form  the  prototype 
of  apocalj-ptic;  all  this  had  its  influence  upon  the 
new  literature.  Messianism  of  course  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  apocalyptic  eschatology  and  the  idea 
of  the  Messias  in  certain  books  received  a  very  high 
development.  But  even  when  it  is  transcendent  and 
mystic  it  is  intensely,  almost  fanatically,  national, 
and  surrounded  by  fanciful  and  often  extravagant 
accessories.  It  lacks  the  universal  outlook  of  some 
of  the  prophets,  especially  the  Deutero-Isaias,  and 
is  far  from  having  a  uniform  and  consistent  physiog- 
nomy. Sometimes  the  Messianic  realm  is  placed 
upon  the  transfigured  earth,  centring  in  a  new  Je- 
rusalem; in  other  works  it  is  lifted  into  the  Heavens; 
in  some  books  the  Messias  is  wanting  or  is  apparently 
merely  human,  while  the  Parables  of  Henoch  with 
their  pre-existent  Messias  mark  the  highest  point  of 
development  of  the  Messianic  concept  to  be  found 
in  the  whole  range  of  Hebrew  literature. 

Drcmmoni),  The  Jetmth  Messiah  (1877);  Porter,  The 
Message  of  the  Apocalyplic  Writers  (New  York,  1905);  Charles, 
Apocalyptic  Literature,  in  Hastings.  Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Baldens- 
PF.RGER,  Die  mcssianiseh-apokalyplischen  Hoffnungen  des 
Judenthums  (Strasbiirg,  1903);  Bourset,  Die  jiidische  Apok- 
ulyptik  (Berlin,  1903);  Volz,  Jiidiache  Eachatologie  (WUrtem- 
burg,  1903). 

(1)  Jcvnsh  Apocalypses. — (a)  The  Book  of  Henoch 
{Elhlopic).  The  antediluvian  patriarch  Henoch  ac- 
cording to  Genesis  "walked  with  God  and  was  seen 
no  more,  because  God  took  him".  This  walking 
with  God  W!Ls  natiirally  understood  to  refer  to  spe- 
cial revelations  made  to  the  iialriarch,  and  this,  to- 
gether with  the  mysterj'  surrounding  his  departure 
from  the  world,  made  Henoch's  name  an  apt  one  for 
the  purposes  of  apocalyptic  writers.  In  consec|uence 
there  arose  a  literature  attributed  to  him.  It  in- 
fluenced not  only  later  Jewish  apocrypha,  but   has 


left  its  imprint  on  the  New  Testament  and  the  works 
of  the  early  Fathers.  The  canonical  Kpistle  of  St. 
Jude,  in  verses  14,  15,  explicitly  quotes  from  the 
Book  of  Henoch;  the  citation  is  found  in  the  Ethiopic 
version  in  verses  9  and  4  of  the  first  chapter.  There 
are  probable  traces  of  the  Henoch  literature  in  other 
portions  of  the  New  Testament.  Passing  to  the  pa- 
tristic writers,  the  Book  of  Henoch  enjoyed  a  high 
esteem  among  them,  mainly  owing  to  the  quotation 
in  Jude.  The  so-called  Epistle  of  Barnabas  twice 
cites  Henoch  as  Scripture.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Tertullian,  Origen,  and  even  St.  Augustine  suppose 
the  work  to  be  a  genuine  one  of  the  patriarch.  But 
in  the  fourth  century  the  Henoch  writings  lost  credit 
and  ceased  to  be  quoted.  After  an  allusion  by  an 
author  of  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  they 
disappear  from  view.  So  great  was  the  oblivion  into 
which  they  fell  that  only  scanty  fragments  of  Greek 
and  Latin  versions  were  preserved  in  the  West.  The 
complete  text  was  thought  to  have  perished  when 
it  was  discovered  in  two  Ethiopic  MSS.  in  Abyssinia 
by  the  traveller  Bruce  in  1773.  Since,  several  more 
copies  in  the  same  language  have  been  brought  to 
light.  Recently  a  large  Greek  fragment  comprising 
chapters  i-xxxii  was  imearthed  at  Aklimln  in  Egypt. 
Scholars  agree  that  the  Book  of  Henoch  was  originally 
composed  either  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  and  that  the 
Ethiopic  version  was  derived  from  a  Greek  one.  A 
comparison  of  the  Ethiopic  text  with  the  Akhmin 
Greek  fragment  proves  that  the  former  is  in  general 
a  trustworthy  translation.  The  work  is  a  compila- 
tion, and  its  component  parts  were  written  in  Pales- 
tine by  Jews  of  the  orthodox  Hasidic  or  Pharisaic 
schools.  Its  composite  character  appears  clearly 
from  the  palpable  differences  in  eschatology,  in  the 
views  of  the  origin  of  sin  and  of  the  character  and 
importance  of  the  Messias  found  in  portions  other- 
wise marked  off  from  each  other  by  diversities  of 
subject.  Critics  agree  that  the  oldest  portions  are 
those  included  in  chapters  i-xxxvi  and  (broadly 
speaking)  Ixxi-civ.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  work 
is  a  voluminous  one.  But  the  most  recent  research, 
led  by  the  Rev.  R.  H.  Charles,  an  English  specialist, 
breaks  up  this  part  into  at  least  two  distinct  con- 
stituents. Charles's  analysis  and  dating  are:  i- 
xxxvi,  the  oldest  part,  composed  before  170  B.  c; 
xxxvii-lxx,  Ixxxiii-xc,  written  between  166-161 
B.C.;  chapters  xci-civ  between  the  years  134-95 
B.  c;  the  Book  of  Parables  between  94-64  B.  c; 
the  Book  of  Celestial  Physics,  Ixxii-lxxviii,  Lxxxii, 
Ixxix,  date  undetermined.  Criticism  recognizes, 
scattered  here  and  there,  interpolations  from  a  lost 
apocalypse,  the  Book  of  Noe.  Expert  opinion  is 
not  united  on  the  date  of  the  composite  older  portion, 
i.  e.  i-xxxvi,  Ixxi-civ.  The  preponderant  authority 
represented  by  Charles  and  Schiirer  assigns  it  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  century  before  Christ,  but 
Baldensperger  would  bring  it  down  to  a  half  century 
before  ourEra. 

In  the  following  outline  of  contents,  Charles's  an- 
alysis, which  is  supported  by  cogent  reasons,  has  been 
adopted.  The  various  elements  are  taken  up  in 
their  chronological  sequence. — Book  I,  chapters  i- 
xxxvi.  Its  body  contains  an  account  of  the  fall  of 
the  angelic  "Watchers",  their  pimishment,  and  the 
patriarch's  intervention  in  their  history.  It  is  based 
upon  Gen.,  vi,  2:  "The  sons  of  God  seeing  the 
daughters  of  men,  that  they  were  fair,  took  to  them- 
selves wives  of  all  they  chose."  The  narrative  is 
intended  to  explain  the  origin  of  sin  and  evil  in  the 
world  and  in  this  connection  lays  very  little  stress 
on  the  disobedience  of  our  First  Parents.  This  por- 
tion is  rcni;irkal)lc  for  the  entire  absence  of  a  Messiivs. 
— Book  II,  Ixxxiii-xc,  contains  two  visions.  In  the 
first,  Ixxxiii-lxxxiv,  is  portrayed  tlie  dreadful  visi- 
tation of  the  flood,  about  to  fall  upon  the  earth. 
Henoch  suijplicates  God  not  to  annihilate  the  human 


APOCRYPHA 


603 


APOCRYPHA 


race.  The  remaining  section,  under  the  symlx)lism 
of  cattle,  beasts,  and  birds,  sl^etches  tlie  entire  his- 
tory of  Israel  down  to  the  .Messianic  reign. — Hook  HI, 
xci-civ,  cviii.  It  professes  to  give  a  proplietic  vision 
of  the  events  of  the  world-weeks,  centring  about 
Israel.  This  part  is  distinguished  Ijy  insistence  upon 
a  sharp  coiillict  between  tlie  rigliteous  of  the  nation 
and  tlieir  wicked  opponents  both  witliin  and  witliout 
Israel.  They  triumph  and  slay  their  oppressors  in 
a  Messianic  kingdom  without  a  personal  Mcssias. 
At  its  close  occurs  tlie  final  juilgincnt,  which  inau- 
gurates a  blessed  immortality  in  heaven  for  the 
righteous.  For  tliis  purpose  all  the  departed  just 
will  rise  from  a  mysterious  abode,  thougli  apparently 
not  in  the  body  (ciii,  3,  4).  The  wicked  will  go 
into  the  Sheol  of  darkness  and  tire  and  dwell  there 
forever.  This  is  one  of  tlie  earliest  mentions  of 
.Sheol  as  a  hell  of  torment,  preceding  portions  of  the 
book  having  described  the  place  of  retribution  for 
the  wicked  as  Tartarus  and  (ieonnom. —  Hook  IV, 
xxxvii-lxx,  consists  of  three  "Parables".  The  first 
describes  the  secrets  of  heaven,  giving  i>roniinence 
to  the  angelic  hosts  and  their  princes.  The  .se<'ond 
parable  (xliv-lvii)  deals  with  tlie  .Mcssias,  and  is  tho 
most  striking  of  this  roinarkalile  Ixjok.  The  influ- 
ence of  Daniel  is  easily  traceable  hero,  but  the  figure 
of  the  Messias  is  sketched  much  more  fully,  and  the 
idea  developed  to  a  degree  unparalleled  in  pre-Chris- 
tian literature.  Tlie  lUect  One,  or  Son  of  Man,  ex- 
isted before  the  sun  and  stars  were  created,  and  is 
to  execute  justice  upon  all  sinners  who  oppress  the 
good.  For  this  end  there  will  be  a  resurrection  of 
all  Israel  and  a  judgment  in  which  the  .Son  of  .Man 
will  render  to  everyone  according  to  his  deeds. 
Iniquity  will  be  banished  from  the  earth  and  the 
reign  of  the  Messias  will  be  everlasting.  The  third 
parable  (Iviii-lxx)  describes  again  the  happiness  re- 
served for  the  just,  the  great  Judgment  and  the 
secrets  of  nature.  Here  and  there  throughout  the 
Book  of  Parables  the  author  gives  piecemeal  his 
theory  of  the  origin  of  sin.  floing  a  step  further 
back  than  the  fault  of  the  Watchers  of  the  first 
book,  he  attributes  their  fall  to  certain  mysterious 
iiatans.  Hook  V,  Ixxii-lxxviii,  Ixxxix,  l.\xix  (trans- 
posed) may  be  called  the  Book  of  Celestial  Physics, 
or  .\stronomy.  It  presents  a  bewildering  mass  of 
revelations  concerning  tlie  movements  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  given  to  Henoch  by  the  angel  Uriel. 
The  final  chanters  of  the  entire  work,  cv-cvii,  are 
■drawn  from  tlie  lost  Hook  of  Noe. 

(6)  Assumption  of  Moses. — Origen,  "  De  Principiis", 
III,  ii,  1,  names  the  .Assumption  of  Moses — '.VkIXtj^is 
Muucr^us — as  the  book  cited  by  the  Epistle  of  Jude, 
9.  where  there  is  an  allusion  to  a  dispute  between 
Michael  and  Satan  over  the  body  of  .Moses.  Aside 
from  a  few  other  brief  references  in  patristic  litera- 
ture, nothing  more  was  known  of  this  apocrj-phon 
until  the  Latin  .MS.  containing  a  long  portion  of  it 
was  discovered  by  Ceriani  in  the  Ambrosian  Library, 
at  Milan,  and  published  by  him  in  l.StJl.  Its  iden- 
tity with  the  ancient  work  is  established  by  a  quo- 
tation from  the  latter  in  the  .Acts  of  the  Nicene 
Council.  The  Ixiok  purports  to  be  a  series  of  pre- 
dictions delivered  in  written  form  to  the  safe-keeping 
of  Jasue  (Josliua)  by  .Moses  when  the  latter,  in  view 
of  his  approaching  death,  appointed  Josue  as  his 
successor.  The  ostensible  purpose  of  these  deliv- 
erances is  to  confirm  the  Mosaic  laws  and  the  ad- 
monitions in  Deuteronomy.  The  entire  historj'  of 
Israel  is  outlined.  In  a  vehement  and  glowing  .stylo 
the  book  delineates  under  its  prophet ii'  giii.se  the 
impiety  of  Israel's  Hasmonoan  rulers  and  Sadduccan 
priests.  The  historical  allusions  come  down  to  the 
reign  of  an  insolent  monarch  who  is  plainly  Ilerod 
the  Cireat,  and  a  powerful  ruler  who  shall  come  from 
the  West  and  subjugate  the  people — a  reference  to 
the  punitive  expedition  of  Quintilius  Varus,  4  ii.  c. 


But  the  Messias  will  intervene  and  execute  Divine 
wrath  upon  the  enemies  of  the  nation,  and  a  cata- 
clysm of  nature,  which  is  depicted  with  truly  apoc- 
alyptic sublimity,  will  forerun  the  beginning  of  the 
new  era.  Strangely  there  is  no  mention  of  a  resur- 
rection or  a  judgment  of  individuals.  The  book  then 
returns  to  the  doings  of  .Mo.ses  and  Josue.  The  M.S. 
breaks  off  abruptly  at  chapter  xii,  and  the  portion 
cited  by  Jude  must  have  belonged  to  the  lost  con- 
clusion. This  apocalypse  has  willi  solid  reasons  \>een 
assigned  to  the  early  years  after  Herod's  death,  be- 
tween 4  B.  c.  and  a.  d.  10.  It  is  evident  that  neither 
of  Herod's  sons,  Philip  and  Antipas,  had  yet  reigned 
thirty-four  years,  since  the  writer,  hazarding  a  pre- 
diction that  proved  false,  says  that  the  sons  should 
enjoy  shorter  reigns  tlian  their  father.  Thus  the 
latest  possible  date  of  composition  is  fixed  at  A.  D.  30. 
The  author  was  a  Jew,  and  in  all  likelihood  a  i'ales- 
tinian  one.  He  belonged  neither  to  the  Pharisees 
of  the  tyjie  of  Christ's  epoch,  nor  to  the  Sadducees, 
since  he  excoriates  both  alike.  He  must  have  been 
either  a  Zealot,  that  is  an  ultra-Nationalist  and  Mes- 
sianist,  or  a  fervid  Esseiie.  He  wrote  in  Hebrew  or 
Aramaic.  The  Latin  text  is  translated  from  a 
Cireek  version. 

(c)  Hook  oj  the  Secrets  oj  Henoch  (Slavonic 
Henoch). — In  1<S92  attention  was  called  to  Slavonic 
MS.S.  which  on  examination  proved  to  contain  an- 
other Henoch  book  differing  entirely  from  the  Ethio- 
pic  compilation.  "The  Hook  of  the  Secrets  of  He- 
noch" contains  passages  which  satisfy  allusions  of 
Origen  to  which  there  is  nothing  corresponding  in 
the  Ethiopic  Henoch.  The  same  may  be  said  about 
citations  in  the  "Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patri- 
archs". Internal  evidence  shows  that  the  new  He- 
noch was  composed  by  an  Alexandrian  Jew  about  the 
beginning  of  our  Era,  and  in  (!reek.  The  work  is 
sharply  marked  off  from  the  older  book  by  the  ab- 
sence of  a  Messias  and  the  want  of  reference  to  a 
resurrection  of  the  dead.  It  mingles  many  bizarre 
details  concerning  the  celestial  realm,  the  angels,  and 
stars,  with  advanced  ideas  on  man's  destiny,  moral 
excellence,  and  the  punishment  of  sin.  The  patriarch 
is  taken  up  through  the  se^cn  heavens  to  the  very 
throne  of  the  Eternal.  Some  of  the  details  throw  in- 
teresting light  on  various  ol),scure  allusions  in  Holy 
Writ,  such  as  the  sujK'rimposed  heavens,  the  pres- 
ence of  evil  powers  "in  heavenly  places",  Ezecniel's 
strange  creatures  full  of  eyes. 

((/)  Fourth  Book  oj  Esdras. — The  personage  serving 
as  the  screen  of  the  real  author  of  this  book  is  Es- 
dras (Ezra),  the  priest-scribe  and  leader  among  the 
Israelites  who  returned  from  Babylonia  to  JeriLsalem. 
The  fact  that  two  canonical  books  are  associated 
with  his  name,  together  with  a  genuine  literary 
power,  a  profoundly  religious  spirit  pervading  Fourth 
ICsdrius,  and  some  Messianic  points  of  contact  with 
the  Gospels  combined  to  win  for  it  an  acceptance 
among  Christians  unequalled  by  any  other  apoc- 
ryphon.  Both  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers  cite  it  as 
prophetical,  while  some,  as  Ambrose,  were  ardent 
admirers  of  it.  Jerome  alone  is  positively  unfavour- 
able. Notwithstanding  this  widespread  reverence 
for  it  in  early  times,  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
liook  never  got  a  foothold  in  the  canon  or  liturgy 
of  tlie  Church.  Nevertheless,  all  through  the  .Middle 
Ages  it  maintained  an  intermediate  po,sition  between 
canonical  and  merely  human  compositions,  and  even 
after  tlie  Council  of  Trent,  together  with  Third  Es- 
dras, was  placed  in  the  appendix  to  the  official 
edition  of  the  Vulgate.  Besides  the  original  Greek 
text,  which  has  not  survived,  the  book  has  appeared 
in  Latin,  SjTiac,  Armenian,  Ethiopic,  and  .\rabic 
versions.  The  first  and  last  two  chapters  of  the 
Latin  traaslation  do  not  exist  in  the  Oriental  ones 
and  have  been  added  by  a  Christian  hand.  .And 
yet   there  need   be  no  hesitation  in  relegating   the 


APOCRYPHA 


604 


APOCRYPHA 


Fouitli  Book  of  Esdias  to  the  ranks  of  tlie  apocrypha. 
Not  to  insist  on  the  allusion  to  the  Book  of  Daniel 
in  xii,  11,  the  date  given  in  tlie  first  version  (iii,  1) 
is  erroneous,  and  the  whole  tenor  and  character  of 
the  work  places  it  in  the  age  of  apocalyptic  literature. 
Tlie  dominant  critical  dating  assigns  it  to  a  Jew  ^VT\t- 
ing  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  A.  D.  81-96.  Certainly 
it  was  composed  some  time  before  A.  D.  218,  since 
it  is  expressly  quoted  by  Clement  of  Alexandria. 
The  original  text,  iii-xiv,  is  of  one  piece  and  the 
work  of  a  single  author.  The  motive  of  the  book 
is  the  problem  lying  heavily  upon  Jewish  patriots 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.  The 
outlook  was  most  dark  and  the  national  life  seemed 
utterly  e.xtinguished.  In  consequence,  a  sad  and 
anxious  spirit  pervades  the  work,  and  the  WTiter, 
u-sing  the  guise  of  Esdras  lamenting  over  the  ruin 
of  the  first  city  and  temple,  insistently  seeks  to  pene- 
trate the  reasons  of  God's  apparent  abandonment  of 
His  people  and  tlie  non-fulfilment  of  His  promises. 
The  author  would  learn  the  future  of  his  nation. 
His  interest  is  centred  in  the  latter;  the  universal- 
ism  of  the  book  is  attenuated.  The  apocalypse  is 
composed  of  seven  visions.  The  Messianism  of  Fourth 
Esdras  suffers  from  the  discouragement  of  the  era 
and  is  influenced  by  the  changed  conditions  pro- 
duced by  the  advent  of  Christianity.  Its  Messias  is 
mortal,  and  his  reign  merely  one  of  happiness  upon 
earth.  Likewise  the  eschatology  labours  with  two 
conflicting  elements:  the  redemption  of  all  Israel 
and  tlie  small  number  of  the  elect.  All  mankind 
sinned  with  Adam.  The  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras  is 
sometimes  called  by  non-Catholics  Second  Esdras, 
as  they  apply  the  Hebrew  form,  Ezra,  to  the  canonical 
books. 

(f )  Apocalypse  of  Baruch. — For  a  long  time  a  Latin 
fragment,  chapters  Ixxviii-lxxxvii,  of  this  pseudo- 
graph  had  been  known.  In  1866  a  complete  Syriac 
text  was  discovered  by  Monsignor  Ceriani,  whose  re- 
searches in  the  Ambrosian  Library  of  Milan  have  so 
enriched  tlie  field  of  ancient  literature.  The  Syriac 
is  a  translation  from  the  Greek;  the  original  was 
written  in  Hebrew.  There  is  a  close  relation  between 
this  apocalypse  and  that  of  Fourth  Esdras,  but  critics 
are  divided  over  the  question,  which  has  influenced 
the  other  The  probabilities  favour  the  hypothesis 
that  the  Baruch  apocryphon  is  an  imitation  of  that 
of  Esdras  and  therefore  later.  The  approximate 
dates  assie;ned  to  it  range  between  a.  d.  50  and  117. 
The  "Apocalypse  of  Baruch"  is  a  somewhat  artificial 
production,  without  the  originality  and  force  of  Fourth 
Esdras.  It  deals  in  part  with  the  same  problems, 
viz.,  the  sufferings  of  the  theocratic  people,  and  their 
ultimate  triumph  over  their  oppressors.  When  cer- 
tain passages  are  freed  from  evident  Christian  inter- 
I)olations,  its  Messianism  in  general  is  earthly,  but  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  book  tlie  Messias's  realm  tends 
unmistakably  towards  a  more  spiritual  conception. 
As  in  Fourth  Esdras,  sin  is  traced  to  the  disobedience 
of  Adam.  Greater  importance  is  attached  to  the 
law  than  in  the  related  composition,  and  the  points 
of  contact  with  the  New  Testament  are  more  striking. 
The  author  was  a  Pharisee,  but  one  wlio,  wliile 
adopting  a  distinctly  Jewish  view,  was  probably  ac- 
(Hjainted  with  the  Christian  Scriptures  and  freely 
laid  them  under  contribution.  Some  recent  students 
of  the  "Apocalyp.se  of  Baruch"  have  seen  in  it  a 
composite  work,  but  the  majority  of  critics  hold  with 
better  reason  to  its  unity.  The  book  is  lengthy.  It 
speaks  in  the  person  of  Baruch,  the  secretary  of 
Jerernias.  It  opens  with  a  palpable  error  of  chro- 
nology. Baruch  announces  the  doom  of  the  city  and 
temple  of  Jerusalem  of  the  Babylonian  epoch.  How- 
«'ver,  not  the  Chaldeans,  but  angels,  will  bring  about 
the  destruction.  Another  and  pre-existent  Holy 
City  is  reserved  by  God,  since  the  world  cannot  ex- 
ist  without  a  JeriLsalem.     The  artificiality  and   te- 


diousness  of  the  apocalypse  are  redeemed  by  a 
singular  breadth  of  view  and  elevation  of  doctrine, 
with  the  limitation  noted. 

(/)  The  Apocalypse  of  Abraham  has  recently  been 
translated  from  Slavonic  into  German.  It  relates 
the  circumstances  of  Abraham's  conversions  and  the 
visions  thereupon  accorded  him.  His  guide  in  the 
celestial  realms  is  Jael,  an  angel  distinct  from  God,  but 
possessing  divine  powers  in  certain  regards.  The  work 
has  affinities  with  Fourth  Esdras  and  the  "Apoc- 
alypse of  Baruch".  The  origin  of  evU  is  explained 
by  man's  free  will.  The  Elect,  or  Messias,  will  gather 
the  dispersed  tribes,  but  God  alone  will  punish  the 
enemies  of  Israel.  Particularism  and  the  transcend- 
ence of  the  last  cosmic  stage  are  the  notes  of  this 
apocalypse.  Its  data,  however,  are  so  vague  that  it 
is  impossible  to  fix  the  time  of  its  composition, 

(g)  The  Apocalypse  of  Daniel  is  the  work  of  a  Persian 
Jew  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  unique  in  fore- 
telling two  Messia.ses:  one,  the  son  of  Joseph  (Christ), 
whose  career  ends  in  his  failure  and  death;  the  other 
the  son  of  David,  who  will  liberate  Israel  and  reign 
on  earth  gloriously. 

Besides  tlie  works  noted  above  at  the  end  of  the  general 
section  on  Jewish  Apocrypha:  Schurer,  Historic  of  the  Jewish 
People  in  the  Time  oj  Christ,  (Edinburgh,  1886,  tr.  from  the 
German),  III,  div.  II.  Special  for  Book  of  Henoch:  Ch.vrles 
The  Book  of  Enoch  (Oxford,  1893;  tr.  and  commentary); 
ScHODDE,  The  Book  of  Enoch  (1882).  Special  for  Assump- 
tion of  Moses:  Charles,  The  Assumption  of  Moses  (London. 
1897;  Latin  and  English  text  and  critical  prolegomena). 
BuRKiTT,  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Lagrange,  Note9 
sur  le  messianisme  au  temps  de  Ji-sus,  in  the  Revue 
bihlique,  Oct.,  1905. — Special  for  Book  of  the  Secrets  of 
Henoch:  Charles  and  Morfil,  Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch 
(Oxford,  1896;  tr.  and  introduction);  Loisy,  art.  in  Rerue 
d'histoire  et  de  litterature  religieuses,  I,  29  sqci.  (1896). — 
Special  for  Fourth  Esdras:  The  complete  Latin  text  is  best 
edited  in  James  and  Bensly,  Texts  and  Studies  (Cambridge, 
1895),  I,  2d  ed.;  Latin  Bibles  want  the  missing  fragment  in 
vii.  For  English  translations:  Revised  Apocrypha  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible  (Oxford);  Churton,  Vncanonical  and  Apocryphal 
Scriptures  (London,  1884).  For  studies:  Thackeray,  m 
Hast.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Lagrange,  art.  noted  for  As- 
sumption of  Moses,  supra.  Piffard,  Le  IV  Hire  d'Esdras 
(Tournay,  1904;  a  commentary). — Special  for  the  Apocal.vpse 
of  Baruch;  Charles,  The  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  (Lontion, 
1896;  text,  tr.,  and  critical  notes).  Same  art.  in  Hast.. 
Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Lagrange,  article  noted  for  Assumption  of 
Moses,  supra. —  Special  for  Apocal.vpse  of  Abraham:  BoN- 
WETSCH,  German  text  in  Studien  zur  Geschichte  dcr  7'henlogie 
und  der  Kirche  (Leipzig,  1897),  I,  1;  Lagrange,  art.  in  Revue 
Biblique,  Oct.,  1905. — Special  for  Apocal\T>se  of  Daniel: 
Darmesteter,  study  in  Melanges  Renter  (Paris,   1887). 

(2)  Ix'gendary  Apocrypha  of  Jewish  Origin. — (a) 
Book  of  Jubilees  or  Little  Genesis.  Epiphanius,  Je- 
rome, and  others  quote  a  work  under  the  title  "The 
Jubilees"  or  "The  Little  Genesis".  St.  Jerome  testi- 
fies that  the  original  was  in  Hebrew.  It  is  cited  by 
Byzantine  authors  down  to  the  twelfth  century. 
After  that  we  hear  no  more  of  it  imtil  it  was  found 
in  an  Ethiopic  MS.  in  the  last  century.  A  consid- 
erable Latin  fragment  has  also  been  recovered.  The 
Book  of  the  Jubilees  is  the  narrative  of  Genesis  am- 
plified and  embellished  by  a  Jew  of  the  Pharisee 
period.  It  professes  to  be  a  revelation  given  to 
Moses  by  the  "Angel  of  the  Face".  There  is  a  very 
systematic  chronology  according  to  the  years,  weeks 
of  years,  and  jubilees.  A  patriarchal  origin  is  as- 
cribed to  the  great  Jewish  feasts.  The  angelology 
is  highly  developed,  but  the  writer  disbelieved  in 
the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The  observance  of  the 
Law  is  insisted  on.  It  is  hard  to  fix  either  the  date 
or  the  religious  circle  in  which  the  work  arose.  Je- 
rusalem and  the  Temple  still  stood,  and  the  Book 
of  Henoch  is  quoted.  As  for  the  lo\vest  date,  the 
book  is  employed  by  the  Jewish  portion  of  the  "Tes- 
tament of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs".  Estimates  vary 
between  135  ii.  c.  and  A.  D.  00.  Among  the  lost  Jew- 
ish apocrypha  the  one  worthy  of  special  notice  here  is 
(b)  The  Book  of  Jatuus  ami  Mamlires,  and  II  Tim- 
othy, iii,  8,  applies  these  names  to  the  Egyptian 
magicians  who  reproduceil  some  of  the  wonders 
wrought  by  Moses.     The  names  are  not  foiuid  io 


APOCRTPHA 


605 


APOCRYPHA 


the  Old  Testament.  Origen  remarks  that  St.  Paul 
does  not  ciuote  "from  public  writings  but  from  a 
sacred  book  wliich  is  called  Jannes  and  .\Iambres". 
The  names  were  known  to  I'liny,  and  figure  in  the 
Talmudic  tradition.s.  Recently  K.  James  in  the 
"Journal  of  Theological  Studies",  1901,  II,  572-577, 
<"laims  to  have  found  a  fragment  of  this  lost  apoc- 
ryphon  in  Latin  and  ()\d  Knglish  versions. 

(r)  Third  Hook  oj  Esdras. — This  is  also  styleil  by 
non-Catliolics  the  riist  Book  of  Esdms,  since  they 
give  to  the  first  canonical  Esdrine  writing  the  He- 
brew form  Ezra.  Third  Esdras  is  one  of  the  three 
uncanonical  books  appended  to  the  official  edition 
of  the  Vulgate.  It  e.\ists  in  two  of  the  oldest  cod- 
ices of  the  Septuagint,  viz.,  Vaticanus  and  Alexan- 
drinus,  where  it  jirecedes  the  canonical  Esdras.  The 
same  is  true  of  MSS.  of  the  Old  Latin  and  other  ver- 
sions. Third  Esdras  enjoyed  exceptional  favour  in 
the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  being  (luoted  as  Scri|v 
ture  with  implicit  faith  by  the  leading  Oreek  and 
Latin   Fathers   (See  Comely,    Introductio  (ieneralis, 

I,  201).  St.  Jerome,  however,  the  great  minimizer 
of  sacred  literature,  rejected  it  as  apocrj-plial,  and 
thenceforward  its  standing  was  impaired.  Die  book 
in  fact  is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  materials 
taken  from  the  inspired  books  of  Paralipomcnon,  ICs- 
dras,  and  Neheinias.  put  together,  however,  in  great 
chronological  confusion.  AVe  must  suppo.se  that  it 
was  subsec|uent  to  the  above  Scriptures,  since  it  was 
evidently  composed  in  Cireek  and  by  an  Alexandrian 
Jew.  The  only  original  part  of  the  work  is  chapters 
iii-v,  6.  This  recounts  a  contest  between  three 
young  Hebrews  of  the  bodyguard  of  King  DariiLS, 
each  striving  to  formulate  tlio  wi.scst  saying.  The 
victory  is  awarded  to  Zorobabel  (Zerubbabel),  who 
defends  Truth  as  the  strongest  force,  and  the  audi- 
ence shouts:  "Great  is  Truth  and  powerful  above  all 
things!"  (.Uajna  est  Veritas  et  vrwvalibit .)  The  date 
of  composition  is  not  ascertainable  except  within  very 
■wide  limits.  These  are  on  one  side  c.  .300  B.  c,  tlie 
latest  time  assigned  to  Paralipomenon-Esdras-Ne- 
hemias,  and  on  the  other,  c.  .\.  D.  100,  the  era  of 
Josephus,  who  employed  Third  Esdras.  There  is 
greater  likelihood  tnat  the  composition  took  place 
before  our   Era. 

(rf)  Third  Book  of  Machabees  is  the  title  given  to 
a  short  narrative  which  is  found  in  the  Alexandrine 
codex  of  the  Septuagint  version  and  various  private 
MSS  It  givas  an  accoimt  of  an  attempted  desecra- 
tion of  the  Temple  at  Jeru.salem  by  the  Egj-ptian 
king.  Ptolemy  I\'  (Philopator),  after  his  victory  over 
Antiochus  the  Oreat  at  Raphia,  217  B.  c,  and  the 
miraculous  frustration  of  his  endeavour  to  wreak 
vengeance  upon  the  Egj'ptian  Jews  through  a  mas- 
sacre with  elephants.  This  apocryphon  abounds 
in  absurdities  and  psychological  impossibilities,  and 
is  a  very  weak  piece  of  fiction  written  in  Greek  by 
an  Alexandrian  Jew,  and  probably  designed  to  en- 
courage its  countrj-men  in  the  midst  of  persecutions. 
It  rests  on  no  ascertainable  historical  fact,  but  ap- 
parently is  an  extravagant  and  varj-ing  version  of 
the  occurrence  related  by  Josephus,  "  .\gainst  Apion ' ', 

II,  5.  The  date  cannot  be  determined.  Since  the 
book  shows  acquaintance  with  the  Greek  additions 
to  Daniel,  it  cannot  be  earlier  than  the  first  century 
B.  c,  and  could  scarcely  have  found  such  favour 
among  Christiaas  if  compo.scd  later  than  the  first 
century  after  Christ.  The  Sj-rian  Church  was  the 
first  to  give  it  a  friendly  reception,  presumably  on 
the  strength  of  its  mention  in  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions. Later.  Third  Machalx>es  was  admitted  into 
the  canon  of  the  Greek  Church,  but  seems  never  to 
have  been  known  to  the  Latins. 

Scnt'BER,  llUlom  of  Ihr  jFwuh  People  (EdinburRh.  188fi1 
div.  II.  vol.  11.— Specinl  for  Book  of  Jubilws:  Ciiari.es,  The 
Book  of  Jubileea  or  Utile  (irnesit  (I,on.lon.  1892:  text,  trail.'., 
and  criticism);  Schodde,  The  Book  of  JubUeet  (Oberlin.  O., 
1888);    Headlam,     art.     in     Hast.,     Dicl.    ol    the     Bible.— 


Special  for  Hook  of  Jannes  and  Mambres:  Marbhall,  articles 
ill  Hastings.  Diet,  of  the  fltAfc.— Special  for  Third  E«lra»: 
Old  Tettament  in  (ireek,  11  (CambriclKe,  1896.  2d  e<l.,  Cireek 
text)  (Ixindon.  18K4.  tr.);  Thackekw.  Fimt  Book  of  liiuirat; 
Hast.,  Dicl.  of  Ihe  «ii/f.— Speciul  for  Third  Machabees: 
OLl  Tettament,  in  tireek  (2d  cl.,  Cmnliridge,  1899;  (Jr.  text); 
CnCRTON.  The  Uncanonieal  and  .\ pocryphal  Scriptures  ( l.<jn- 
doii.  1884;  tr.);  Kairweatiier  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

(.3)  .'Ipocn/phal  Psalms  and  Prayers. — (a)  Psalms 
oj  Solomon.  This  is  a  collection  of  eighteen  psalms 
compo.scd  in  Hebrew,  and,  as  is  commonly  agreed, 
by  a  Pharisee  of  Palestine,  about  the  time  of  Pom- 
I)ey's  capture  of  Jerusalem,  (53  B.  c.  The  collection 
makes  no  pretensions  to  authorship  by  .Solomon, 
and  therefore  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  apocryphal. 
The  name  of  the  wi.se  king  became  associated  with 
it  later  and  doubtless  was  the  means  of  preserving 
it.  The  spirit  of  these  |jsalms  is  one  of  great  moral 
earnestness  and  righteousness,  but  it  is  the  righteous- 
ness of  the  Pharisees,  consisting  in  the  oljservaiice  of 
the  legal  traditions  and  ceremonial  Law.  The  Has- 
monean  dynasty  and  the  Sadducecs  are  denounced. 
A  .Messianic  deliverer  is  looked  for,  but  he  is  to  be 
merely  human.  He  will  reign  by  holiness  and  justice, 
and  not  by  the  sword.  Free  will  and  the  resurrection 
are  taught.  The  Psalms  of  Solomon  are  of  value  in 
illustrating  the  religious  views  and  attitudes  of  the 
Pharisees  in  the  age  of  Our  Lord.  The  MSS.  of  the 
Septuagint  contain  at  the  end  of  the  canonical  Psalter 
a  short  psalm  (cli),  which,  however,  is  "outside 
the  number",  i.  e.  of  the  Psalms.  Its  title  reads: 
"This  psalm  was  written  by  David  himself  in  addi- 
tion to  the  number,  when  he  had  fought  with  Go- 
liath." It  is  based  on  various  passages  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  ever 
written  in  Hebrew. 

(h)  Prayer  oj  Mnnassrs  (.Manasseh). — .\  beautiful 
penitential  prayer  put  in  the  mouth  of  Manasses, 
King  of  Juda,  who  carried  idolatrous  abominations  so 
far.  The  composition  is  based  on  II  Paralipomcnon, 
xxxiii,  11-13,  which  states  that  .Manasses  was  carried 
captive  to  Babylon  and  there  repented;  while  the 
same  source  (IS)  refers  to  his  prayer  as  recorded 
in  certain  chronicles  which  arc  lost.  I.«amed  opin- 
ion differs  as  to  whether  the  prayer  which  has  come 
down  to  us  was  written  in  Hebrew  or  Greek.  Sev- 
eral ancient  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint  con- 
tain it  as  an  appendix  to  the  P.salter.  It  is  also 
incorporated  in  the  ancient  so-called  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions. In  editions  of  the  Vulgate  antedating 
the  Council  of  Trent  it  was  placed  after  the  books  of 
Paralipoiiionon.  The  Clementine  Vulgate  relegated  it 
to  the  appendix,  where  it  is  still  to  be  found  in  reprints 
of  the  standard  text.  The  prayer  breathes  a  Chris- 
tian spirit,  and  it  is  not  entirely  certain  that  it  is 
really  of  Jewish  origin. 

Old  Tettament.  in  Greek  (Cambridge,  2d  e<l.,  1895-99): 
SciitRER.  Itislory  of  the  Jewish  People  IhdinburRh,  1886)  div. 
II,  vol.  III.— Special  for  IValm.i  of  .Solomon:  Hyi.e  and  Jame.s, 
Psalms  of  Ihe  Pharisees  (Cambri<lge,  1891)  introduction  and 
Eimlish  text;  Jamm  in  Hast..  Did.  of  Ihe  Bible:  Moffat.  The 
Riilhteousness  of  Ihe  Scribes  anil  Pharisees,  in  Erpotilor^  Times 
(1(K)2).  X,  201-200. — Special  for  one  hundred  and  hfty-lirat 
Psalm  and  Praver  of  Mana-sses:  Chcrton,  Uncanonical  and 
A  pocrjiphal  Scriptures,  tr.  ( I^ndon,  1884);  Porter,  art.  Prayer 
of  .Vanassees  in  Hast..  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

(t)  Jewish  Philosophy. — (a)  Fourth  Book  oj  Mach- 
abees. This  is  a  short  philosophical  treatise  on 
the  supremacy  of  pious  reason,  tnat  is  reason  regu- 
lated by  divine  law,  which  for  the  author  is  the  Mo- 
saic Law.  In  setting  up  reason  as  the  master  of 
human  passion,  the  author  was  distinctly  influenced 
by  Stoic  philosophy.  From  it  also  he  derived  his 
four  cardinal  virtues:  prudence,  righteousness  (or 
justice),  fortitude,  temperance;  <pf>6int<"^.  SiKaioavyii, 
ittSptta,  auippoavrri,  and  it  was  through  Fourth 
Machaljees  that  this  category  was  appropriated  by 
early  Christian  ascetical  writers.  The  second  part 
of  tiie  book  e.\hibits  the  sufferings  of  Eleazar  and 


APOCRYPHA 


606 


APOCRYPHA 


the  seven  Machaliean  brothers  as  examples  of  the 
(lorainion  of  pious  reason.  The  aim  of  the  Hellen- 
istic Jewish  autlior  was  to  inculcate  devotion  to  the 
Law.  He  is  unknown.  The  work  was  erroneously 
ascribed  to  Josephus  by  Eusebius  and  others.  It 
appears  to  ha\e  been  produced  before  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  but  its  date  is  a  matter  of  conjecture. 

For  TFiE  text:  Old  Testament  in  Greek.  (Cambridge.  1S94, 
1899)  111'  For  an  English  version:  Churton,  Uncanum- 
cat  and  Apocryphal  Scriptures  (London,  1884);  For  Intro- 
duction: SCHURER,  History  oi  the  Jewish  People  (Edinburgh, 
188C)  div  II,  vol.  Ill;  Fairweather  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible. 

II.  Apocrypha  of  Jewish  Origin  with  Christian 
Accretions. — (a)  Sihylline  Oracles.  See  the  separate 
article  under  this  title,  (b)  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarclis.  This  is  an  extensive  pseudograph,  con- 
sisting of  (1)  narrations  in  which  each  of  the  twelve 
sons  of  Jacob  relates  his  life,  embellished  by  Mid- 
rashic  expansions  of  the  Biblical  data;  (2)  exhorta- 
tions by  each  patriarch  to  the  practice  of  virtues, 
or  the  shunning  of  vices  illustrated  in  his  life;  (3) 
apocalyptic  portions  concerning  the  future  of  the 
twelve"  tribes,  and  the  Messianic  times.  The  body 
of  the  work  is  undoubtedly  Judaic,  but  there  are 
many  interpolations  of  an  unmistakably  Christian 
origin,  presenting  in  their  ensemble  a  fairly  full 
Christology,  but  one  suspected  of  Docetism.  Recent 
students  of  the  Testaments  assign  with  much  prob- 
ability the  Jewish  groundwork  to  the  Hasmonean 
period,  within  the  limits  13.5-6.3  B.C.  Portions 
which  extol  the  tribes  of  Levi  and  Juda  are  interpreted 
as  an  apology  for  the  Hasmonean  pontiff-kings.  The 
remaining  ten  tribes  are  supposed  to  be  yet  in  ex- 
istence, and  are  urged  to  be  faithful  to  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  priestly  and  royal  power.  In  this 
defence  of  the  Machabean  dynasty,  and  by  a  writer 
with  Pharisaic  tendencies,  probably  a  priest,  the 
Testaments  are  unique  in  Jewish  literature.  True, 
there  are  passages  in  which  the  sacerdotal  caste  and 
the  ruling  tribes  are  unsparingly  denounced,  but 
these  are  evidently  later  insertions.  The  eschatology 
is  rather  advanced.  The  Messias  is  to  spring  from 
the  tribe  of  Levi  (elsewhere,  how-ever,  from  Juda); 
he  is  to  be  the  eternal  High-Priest — a  unique  feature 
of  the  book — as  well  as  the  civil  ruler  of  the  nation. 
During  his  reign  sin  will  gradually  cease.  The  gates 
of  paradise  are  to  be  opened  and  the  Israelites  and 
converted  Gentiles  will  dwell  there  and  eat  of  the 
tree  of  life.  The  Messianic  kingdom  is  therefore  to 
be  an  eternal  one  on  earth,  therein  agreeing  with 
the  Ethiopic  Henoch.  The  Testaments  exist  complete 
in  Greek,  Armenian,  Latin,  and  Slavonic  versions. 
Aramaic  and  Syriac  fragments  are  preserved.  , 

(c)  Tlie  Ascension  of  Isaias  consists  of  two  parts: 
(1)  The  Martyrdom  of  Isaias,  in  which  it  is  told  that 
the  prophet  was  sawn  in  tw^o  by  the  order  of  the 
wicked  King  Manasses.  (2)  The  Ascension  proper. 
This  purports  to  be  the  description  by  -Isaias  of  a 
vision  in  which  he  was  rapt  up  through  the  seven 
heavens  to  the  presence  of  the  Trinity,  and  beheld 
the  descent  of  the  Son,  "  the  Beloved  ",  on  His  mission 
of  redemption.  He  changes  his  form  in  passing 
througli  the  inferior  celestial  circles.  The  prophet 
then  sees  the  glorified  Beloved  reaseending.  The 
Martyrdom  is  a  Jewish  work,  saving  some  rather 
large  interpolations.  The  rest  is  by  Christian  hands 
or  perhaps  a  single  WTiter,  who  united  his  apocalypse 
witli  the  Martyrdom.  There  are  tokens  that  the 
ChrLstiari  element  is  a  product  of  Gnosticism,  and 
that  our  work  is  the  same  with  that  much  in  favour 
among  several  heretical  sects  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Analiaticon  ",  or  "Ascension  of  Isaias".  The  Jewish 
portion  is  thought  to  have  appeared  in  the  first  cen- 
tury of  our  era;  the  remainder,  in  the  middle  of  the 
second.  Justin,  TertuUian,  and  Origen  seem  to  have 
iMjen  acquainted  with  the  Martyrdom;  Sts.  Jerome  and 
Epiphunius  are  the  earliest  witnesses  for  the  Ascen- 


sion proper.  The  apocrj'phon  exists  in  Greek,  Ethi- 
opic, and  Slavonic  MSS. 

((/)  Minor  Jewish-Christian  Apocrypha. — Space  wilt 
permit  only  an  enumeration  of  unimportant  speci- 
mens of  apocryphal  literature,  extant  in  whole  or 
part,  and  consisting  (1)  of  Jewish  originals  recast  or 
freely  interpolated  by  Christians,  viz.,  the  "Apoca- 
lypses of  Elias"  (Elijah),  "Sophonias"  (Zephaniah), 
the  "Paralipomenon  of  Baruch";  and  (2)  of  Chris- 
tian compositions  whose  material  was  supplied  by 
Jewish  sources;  the  so-called  "Apocalypse  of  Moses  ", 
the  "Apocalypse  of  Esdras",  the  "Testament  of  Ab- 
raham", the  "Testament  of  the  Three  Patriarchs", 
the  "Prayer  of  Joseph",  the  "Prayer  of  Aseneth", 
the  "Marriage  of  Aseneth",  (the  wife  of  Joseph). 
Probably  with  this  second  class  are  to  be  included 
the  "Testaments  of  Job"  and  "Zacharias",  the 
"Adam  Books",  the  "Book  of  Creation",  the  "Story 
of  Aphikia"  (the  wife  of  Jesus  Sirach).  These  works- 
as  a  rule  appeared  in  the  East,  and  in  many  cases- 
show-  Gnostic  tendencies.  Further  information  about 
some  of  them  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  articles  on 
the  above  personages. 

ScHCRER,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  (Edinburgh.  1886).  div. 
II,  vol.  III. — Special  for  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patri- 
archs: Sinker,  introduction  and  tr.  in  vol.  VIII  of  The  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  1906;  reprint  of  Edinburgh  ed.); 
Charles,  art.  in  Hibberl  Journal  (1905),  III;  also  in  Hast., 
Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Schnapp.  Die  Trstamente  der  zwilf  Pa- 
triarchen  untersucht  (Halle,  1S84). — Special  for  Ascension  of 
Isaias:  Dillman,  .\scensio  Isaur  athiopice  et  latine  (Leipzig,. 
1877);  Robinson    m  H.\st.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

III.  Apocrypha  of  Christian  Origin. — The  termi 
Christian  here  is  used  in  a  comprehensi^-e  sense  and 
embraces  works  produced  both  by  Catholics  and 
heretics;  the  latter  are  chiefly  members  of  the  va- 
rious branches  or  schools  of  Gnosticism,  which  flour- 
ished in  the  second  and  third  centuries.  The  Chris- 
tian apocryphal  writings  in  general  imitate  the  books- 
of  the  New  Testament  and  therefore,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, fall  under  the  description  of  Gospels,  Acts, 
Epistles,  and   Apocalypses. 

(1)  Apocryphal  Go.'^pels.—'The  term  apocryphal 
in  connection  with  special  Gospels  must  be  under- 
stood as  bearing  no  more  unfavourable  an  import 
than  "uncanonical ".  This  applies  to  the  Gospel 
of  the  Hebrews  and  in  a  less  degree  to  that  of  the 
Egyptians,  which  in  the  main  seem  to  have  been 
either  embodiments  of  primitive  tradition,  or  a  mere- 
recasting  of  canonical  Gospels  with  a  few  variations- 
and  amplifications.  It  is  true,  all  the  extant  speci- 
mens of  the  apocrj^phal  Gospels  take  the  inspired 
evangelical  documents  as  their  starting-point.  But 
the  genuine  Gospels  are  silent  about  long  stretches 
of  the  life  of  Our  Lord,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  St. 
Joseph.  Frequently  they  give  but  a  tantalizing 
glimpse  of  some  episode  on  which  we  would  fain  be- 
more  fully  informed.  This  reserve  of  the  Evangelists 
did  not  satisfy  the  pardonable  curiosity  of  many 
Christians  eager  for  details,  and  the  severe  and 
dignified  simplicity  of  their  narrative  left  unappeased 
imaginations  seeking  the  sensational  and  the  mar- 
vellous. When,  therefore,  enterprising  spirits  re- 
sponded to  this  natural  craving  by  pretended  Gospels 
full  of  romantic  fables  and  fantastic  and  striking 
details,  their  fabrications  were  eagerly  read  and 
largely  accepted  as  true  by  common  folk  who  were 
devoid  of  any  critical  faculty  and  who  were  predis- 
posed to  believe  what  so  luxuriously  fed  their  pious 
curiosity.  Both  Catholics  and  Gnostics  were  con- 
cerned in  writing  these  fictions.  The  former  had  no 
other  motive  than  that  of  a  pious  fr;uul.  being  some- 
times moved  by  a  real  thougli  misguided  zeal,  as 
witness  the  autlior  of  the  Pseiido-.Matthew:  Amor 
Chri.'iti  p.st  cui  satisfccimus.  But  the  heretical 
apocryphists,  wliile  gratifying  curiosity,  composed 
spurious  Gospels  in  order  to  trace  backward  their 
beliefs   and    peculiarities    to    Christ    Himself.     The 


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Church  and  the  Fathers  were  hostile  even  towards 
the  narratives  of  orthodox  aiithorsliip.  It  was  not 
until  the  Middle  Ages,  when  their  true  origin  was 
forgotten  even  by  most  of  tlie  loarncil,  that  these 
apocrv'phal  stories  began  to  enter  largely  into  sacred 
legends,  such  as  the  "Aurea  Sacra  ',  into  miracle 
plays.  Christian  art.  and  poetry.  A  comparison  of 
the  least  extravagant  of  these  productions  with  the 
real  Gospels  reveals  the  chiusm  separating  them. 
Though  worthless  historically,  the  apocryphal  Gos- 
pels help  us  to  better  understand  the  religious  con- 
ditions of  the  second  and  third  centuries,  and  they 
are  al.so  of  no  little  value  as  early  witnesses  of  the 
canonicity  of  the  writings  of  the  four  Kvangelists. 
The  quasi-evangelistic  compositions  concerning  Christ 
which  make  no  pretensions  to  be  (iospcls  will  be 
treated  elsewhere.  They  are  all  of  orthodox  origin. 
(See  Agr.\i'h.\.) 

Tasker  in  extra  volume  of  Hast.,  Did.  of  the  Bible;  Tappe- 
HoRN,  Ausserbiblwhe  Nachrichten  (Paderborn,  1885). 

(a)  Apocryphal  Gospels  of  Catholic  Origin. — The 
Proloeimngclium  Jacobt.  or  Injancij  Gospel  of  James, 
purports  to  have  been  written  by  "  James  the  brother 
of  the  Lord",  i.  e.  the  .\postle  James  the  Less.  It 
is  based  on  the  canonical  Gospels  which  it  expands 
with  legendary  and  imaginati\e  elements,  which 
are  sometimes  puerile  or  fant:ustic.  The  birth, 
education,  and  marriage  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  are 
described  in  the  first  eleven  chapters  and  these  are 
the  source  of  various  traditions  current  among  the 
faithful.  They  are  of  value  in  indicating  the  venera- 
tion paid  to  Marj'  at  a  very  early  age.  For  instance 
it  is  the  "  Protoevangelium "  which  first  tells  that 
Mary  was  the  miraculous  offspring  of  Joachim  and 
.4nna,  previously  childless;  that  when  three  years  old 
the  child  was  taken  to  the  Temple  and  dedicated  to 
its  service,  in  fulfilment  of  her  parents"  vow.  When 
Mary  was  twelve  Joseph  is  chosen  by  the  high-priest 
as  her  spouse  in  obedience  to  a  miraculous  sign — 
a  dove  coming  out  of  his  rod  and  resting  on  his  head. 
The  nativity  is  embellished  in  an  unrestrained  man- 
ner. Critics  find  that  the  "Protoevangelium"  is 
a  composite  into  which  two  or  three  documents 
enter.  It  wius  known  to  Origen  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Book  of  James  ".  There  are  signs  in  St.  Justin's 
works  that  he  was  acquainted  with  it,  or  at  least  with 
a  parallel  tradition.  The  work,  therefore,  li;us  been 
ascribed  to  the  second  century.  Portions  of  it  show 
a  familiarity  with  Jewish  customs,  and  critics  have 
surmisetl  that  the  groundwork  was  composed  by  a 
Jewish-Christian.  The  "  Protoevangelium"  exists  in 
ancient  Cireek  ami  SjTiac  recensions.  There  are  also 
Armenian  and  Latin  translations. 

Gospel  of  St.  Matthew. — This  is  a  Latin  com- 
position of  the  fourth  or  fifth  century.  It  pretends 
to  have  been  written  by  St.  .Matthew  and  translated 
by  St.  Jerome.  Pseudo- .Matthew  is  in  large  part 
parallel  to  the  "  Protoevangelium  Jacobi ",  being 
based  on  the  latt«r  or  its  sources.  It  differs  in  some 
particulars  always  in  the  direction  of  the  more 
marvellous.  Some  of  its  data  have  replaced  in  popu- 
lar belief  parallel  ones  of  the  older  pseutlograph. 
Such  is  the  age  of  fourteen  in  which  Mar\'  w.ts  De- 
trothed  to  Jo.seph.  .-V  narrative  of  the  flight  into 
Egypt  is  adorned  with  poetic  wonders.  The  dragons, 
lions,  and  other  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  adore  the 
infant  Jesus.  .\t  His  woril  the  palm-trees  bow  their 
heads  that  the  Holy  Family  may  pluck  their  fruit. 
The  idols  of  Kgypt  are  shattereii  when  the  Divine 
Child  enters  the  land.  The  "Gospel  of  the  Nativity 
of  Marj'"  is  a  recast  of  the  Pseudo-Matthew,  but 
reaches  only  to  the  birth  of  Jesus.  It  is  extant  in  a 
Latin  MS.  of  the  tenth  centurj'. 

Arabic  Gospel  of  the  Injanrij. — The  .\rabic  is  a 
traniilation  of  a  lost  Syriac  original.  The  work  is  a 
compilation  and  refers  expressly   to   the  "  Book  of 


Joseph  Caiphas,  the  High-Priest ",  the  "  Gospel  of 
the  Infancy  ".  and  the  "  Perfect  Gospel  ".  Some  of 
its  stories  are  derived  from  the  Thomas  Go.spel.  and 
others  from  a  recension  of  the  aiwcrj'phal  Matthew. 
However  tliere  are  miracles,  .said  to  have  occurred  in 
Kgypt,  not  found  related  in  any  other  Gospel, 
.spurious  or  genuine,  among  them  the  healings  of  lep- 
ro.sy  through  the  water  in  which  Jesus  had  been 
Wivshed,  and  the  cures  effecletl  through  the  garments 
He  had  worn.  These  have  become  familiar  in  pious 
legend.  So  also  has  the  epi.soile  of  the  robbers  Titus 
and  Dumachus,  into  whose  hands  the  Holy  Family 
fell.  Titus  bribes  Dumachus  not  to  molest  them; 
the  Infant  foretells  that  thirty  years  thence  the 
thieves  will  be  crucified  with  Him,  Titus  on  His  right 
and  Dumachus  on  His  left  and  that  the  former  will 
accompany  Him  into  paradise.  The  apocryphon 
abounds  in  allusions  to  characters  in  the  real  Gospels. 
Lipsius  opines  that  the  work  as  we  have  it  is  a  Catho- 
lic retouching  of  a  Gnostic  compilation.  It  is  im- 
possible to  ascertain  its  tlate,  but  it  was  probably 
composed  before  the  Mohiunmetlan  era.  It  is  very 
popular  with  the  Syrian  Nestorians.  An  originally 
.■\rabic  "History  of  Jo.seph  the  Carpenter"  is  pub- 
lished in  Tischendorf's  collection  of  apocrypha.  It 
describes  St.  Jo.seph's  death,  related  W  Our  Lord 
to  His  disciples.  It  Ls  a  tasteless  and  bomba.stic 
effort,  and  seems  to  date  from  about  the  fourth 
century. 

Gospel  of  Gamaliel. — Dr.  A.  Baumstark  in  the 
Revue  Biblique  (.\pril.  190G,  253  sqq.),  has  given  this 
name  to  a  collection  of  Coptic  fragments  of  a  homo- 
geneous character,  which  were  supposed  by  another 
Coptic  scholar,  Keveillout,  to  form  a  portion  of  the 
"Gospel  of  the  Twelve  Ajjostles"  (<].  v.  inf.).  These 
fragments  have  been  referred  to  a  single  Gospel  also 
by  Lacau,  in  "  Fragments  cFapocriTihes  coptes  de  la 
bibliothoque  nationale  '  (Cairo,  1904).  The  narra- 
tive is  in  close  dependence  on  St.  John's  Gospel. 
The  author  diil  not  pose  seriou.sly  as  an  evangelist, 
since  he  explicitly  quotes  from  the  fourth  canonical 
Gospel.  He  places  the  relation  in  the  mouth  of 
Gamahel  of  .-Vets,  v,  3-t.  Baumstark  assigns  it  to 
the  fifth  centurj'.  The  writer  was  evidently  influ- 
enced by  the  "Acta  Pilati  ". 

The  7  rnn.titus  .Maria'  or  Eranqelium  Joannis  which 
is  written  in  the  name  of  St.  John  the  Apostle, 
and  describes  the  death  of  Mar>',  enjoyed  a  wide 
popularity,  as  is  attested  by  the  various  recensions 
in  different  languages  which  exist.  The  Greek  has 
the  superscription:  "The  Account  of  St.  John  the 
Theologian  of  the  Falling  Asleep  of  the  Holy  Mother 
of  God".  One  of  the  Latin  versions  is  prefaced  by 
a  spurious  letter  of  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis,  ex- 
plaining that  the  object  of  the  work  was  to  counter- 
act a  heretical  composition  of  the  same  title  and 
subject.  There  is  a  basis  of  truth  in  this  statement 
as  our  apocrj-phon  betrays  tokens  of  being  a  Gnostic 
writing  worked  over  in  an  orthodox  interest.  A 
"Transitus  Maria""  is  numbered  among  the  apocry- 
pha by  the  official  list  of  the  "  Decretum  of  Gehisius" 
of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century.  It  is  problematic,  how- 
ever, whether  this  is  to  be  identified  with  our  rec;»st 
Transitus  or  not.  Critics  assign  the  latter  to  the 
end  of  the  fourth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 
The  relation  of  the  Transitus  to  the  tradition  of 
Marj''s  .\ssumption  hxs  not  yet  been  adequately 
examined.  However,  there  is  warrant  for  saying 
that  while  the  tradition  existed  substantially  in 
portions  of  the  Church  at  an  early  perioil,  and  thus 
prepared  the  way  for  the  acceptance  of  mythical 
amplifications,  still  its  later  fonn  and  details  were 
considerably  influenced  by  the  Transitus  and  kindred 
WTitings.  Certainly  the  homilies  of  St.  John  Da- 
mascene, "In  Dormitioncm  Mari;p".  reveal  evidence 
of  this  influence,  e.  g.  the  second  homily,  xii.  xiii, 
xiv.     Going    further    back,     the    "Encomium"   of 


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60S 


APOCRYPHA 


Modestus  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tur>-  (P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  3311),  and  the  I'seudo- 
Dionysius  of  the  fifth  (De  divinis  nominibus,  iii), 
probably  suppose  an  acquaintanee  with  apocryphal 
narratives  of  the  Death  and  As.suniption  of  the  Blessed 
\'irgin.  These  narratives  have  a  common  ground- 
woriv,  tliough  varying  considerably  in  minor  cir- 
cumstances. The  Apostles  are  preternaturally  trans- 
ported from  different  quarters  of  the  globe  to  the 
Virgin's  deatlibed,  those  who  had  died  being  resus- 
citated for  the  purpose.  The  "Departure"  takes 
place  at  Jerusalem,  though  the  Greek  version  places 
Marj-  first  at  Bethlehem.  A  Jew  who  ventures  to 
to)ich  the  sacred  body  instantly  loses  both  hands, 
which  are  restored  through  the  mediation  of  the 
.\postlcs.  Christ  accompanied  by  a  train  of  angels 
comes  down  to  receive  His  mother's  soul.  The  Apos- 
tles bear  the  body  to  Gethsemani  and  deposit  it  in 
a  tomb,  whence  it  is  taken  up  alive  to  Heaven.  (See 
A.ssumption;  .M.\ry.) 

Walker,  Apocn/phal  Goapels,  Acta,  and  Revelations  (Edin- 
iurgh  1873:  Ir.);  The  Ante-Nicene  Fathers.  VIII,  edited  by 
RoBFHTS  AND  DoNALDSON,  tr.:  Bardenhewer,  Geschichtf  der 
allkirchlichen  Lileratur  (Freiburg.  1902),  I  ;  Harn.ack, 
Geschichte  der  altchrittlichen  Lileratur  (Leipsic);  1893,  I, 
isy?  II  1  1904.  2:  Zahn-,  Geschichte  des  Neutestamentlichen 
Kanon  (Leipzig.  1890),  II  ;  Henneke  und  Meyer,  Neutesta- 
mentliche  Apukryphen  (Tubingen,  1904  ;  German  texts  with 
xcholarly  proloEomena)  ;  Tasker.  Apocryphal  Gospels;  Hast., 
Diet,  of 'the  Bible,  extra  volume  (1904);  Lipsros,  art.  Apoc- 
ryphal Goapels  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog. 

(b)  Judaistic  and  Heretical  Gospels. — Gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Origen.  Eusebius,  and  St.  Epiphanius  speak  of  a 
"Ciospel  according  to  the  Hebrews",  which  was  the 
.sole  one  in  use  among  the  Palestinian  Judeo-Chris- 
tians,  otherwise  known  as  the  Nazarenes.  Jerome 
translated  it  from  the  Aramaic  into  Greek.  It  was 
evidently  very  ancient,  and  several  of  the  above- 
mentioned  writers  associate  it  with  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel,  which  it  seems  to  have  replaced  in  the 
Jewish-Christian  community  at  an  early  date.  The 
relation  between  the  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews 
.and  our  canonical  Matthew  Gospel  is  a  matter  of  con- 
troversy. The  surviving  fragments  prove  that  there 
were  close  literal  resemblances.  Harnack  asserts 
that  the  Hebrew  Gospel  was  entirely  independent, 
the  tradition  it  contained  being  parallel  to  that  of 
Matthew.  Zahn,  while  excluding  any  dependence 
■on  our  Greek  canonical  Matthew,  maintains  one 
on  the  primitive  Matthew,  according  to  which  its 
general  contents  were  derived  from  the  latter.  This 
Gospel  seems  to  have  been  read  as  canonical  in  some 
non-Palestinian  churches;  the  Fathers  who  are  ac- 
■quainted  with  it  refer  to  it  with  a  certain  amount  of 
respect.  Twenty-four  fragments  have  been  pre- 
served by  ecclesiastical  WTiters.  These  indicate  that 
it  had  a  number  of  sections  in  common  with  the 
Synoptics,  but  also  various  narratives  and  sayings 
of  Jesus,  not  found  in  the  canonical  Gospels.  The 
surviving  specimens  lack  the  simplicity  and  dignity 
of  the  inspired  writings;  some  even  savour  of  the 
grotesque.  We  are  warranted  in  saying  that  while 
this  extra-canonical  material  probably  has  as  its 
starting-point  primitive  tradition,  it  has  been  dis- 
figured in  the  interests  of  a  Judaizing  Church.  (See 
A<;i<.\i'H.\.) 

Gospel  According  to  the  Egyptians. — It  is  by 
this  title  that  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Hip- 
polytus,  and  Epiphanius  describe  an  uncanonical 
work,  which  evidently  was  circulated  in  Egypt. 
.Ml  agree  that  it  was  employed  by  heretical  sects — 
for  tlie  most  part  Gnostics.  The  scanty  citations 
which  have  been  nrcserved  in  the  Fathers  indicate 
a  tendency  towards  the  Encratite  condemnation  of 
marriage,  and  a  pantheistic  Gnosticism.  The  Gospel 
according  to  the  I'.gyptians  did  not  replace  the 
<'Utionical  records  in  the  Alexandrian  Church,  as 
Hurnack  would  have  us  believe,  but  it  seems  to  have 


enjoyed  a  certain  popularity  in  the  country  districts 
among  the  Coptic  natives.  It  could  scarcely  have 
been  composed  later  than  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  and  it  is  not  at  all  impossible  that  it  re- 
touched some  primitive  material  not  represented  in 
the  canonical  Gospels,  Gospel  of  St.  Peter. — The 
existence  of  an  apocryphal  composition  bearing  this 
name  in  Christian  antiquity  had  long  been  known 
by  references  to  it  in  certain  early  patristic  writers 
who  intimate  that  it  originated  or  was  current  among 
Christians  of  Docetic  views.  Much  additional  light 
has  been  thrown  on  this  document  by  the  discovery 
of  a  long  fragment  of  it  at  Akhmin  in  Upper  Egj'pt, 
in  the  winter  of  1886-87,  by  the  French  ArchiEologi- 
cal  Mission.  It  is  in  Greek  and  WTitten  on  a  parch- 
ment codex  at  a  date  somewhere  between  the  sixth 
and  ninth  century.  The  fragment  narrates  part  of 
the  Passion,  the  Burial,  and  Resurrection.  It  be- 
trays a  dependence,  in  some  instances  literal,  on  the 
four  inspired  Gospels,  and  is  therefore  a  valuable 
additional  testimony  to  their  early  acceptance. 
While  the  apocryphon  has  many  points  of  contact 
with  the  genuine  Gospels,  it  diverges  curiously  from 
them  in  details,  and  bears  evidence  of  having  treated 
them  with  much  freedom.  No  marked  heretical  notes 
are  found  in  the  recovered  fragment,  but  there  are 
passages  which  are  easily  susceptible  of  a  heterodox 
meaning.  One  of  the  few  extra-canonical  passages 
which  may  contain  an  authentic  tradition  is  that 
which  describes  Christ  as  placed  in  mockery  upon  a 
throne  by  His  tormentors.  Pseudo-Peter  is  inter- 
mediate in  character  between  the  genuine  Evangels 
and  the  purely  legendary  apocrj-pha.  Its  composi- 
tion must  be  assigned  to  the  first  quarter  or  the 
middle  of  the  second  centurj'  of  the  Christian  era. 
C.  Schmidt  thinks  he  has  found  traces  of  what  is 
perhaps  a  second  Gospel  of  Peter  in  some  ancient 
papyri  (Schmidt,  Sitzungsberichte  der  kbniglichen 
preuss.  Akademie  zu  Berlin,  1895;  of.  Bardenhewer, 
Geschichte,  I,  397,  399).  Only  one  or  two  quota- 
tions remain  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Philip  mentioned 
by  Epiphanius  and  Leontius  of  Byzantium;  but 
these  are  enough  to  prove  its  Gnostic  colouring. 

Gospel  of  St.  Thomas. — There  are  two  Greek 
and  two  Latin  redactions  of  it,  differing  much  from 
one  another.  A  Syriac  translation  is  also  found.  A 
Gospel  of  Thomas  was  known  to  many  Fathers. 
The  earliest  to  mention  it  is  St.  Hippolytus  (155- 
235),  who  informs  us  that  it  was  in  use  among  the 
Naasenes,  a  sect  of  SjTian  Gnostics,  and  cites  a  sen- 
tence which  does  not  appear  in  our  extant  text. 
Origen  relegates  it  to  the  heretical  writings.  St. 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  says  it  was  employed  by  the 
Manichaeans;  Eusebius  rejects  it  as  heretical  and 
spurious.  It  is  clear  that  the  original  Pseudo- 
Thomas  was  of  heterodox  origin,  and  that  it  dates 
from  the  .second  centurj-;  the  citations  of  Hippolytus 
establish  that  it  was  palpably  Gnostic  in  tenor.  But 
in  the  extant  Thomas  Gospel  there  is  no  formal  or 
manifest  Gnosticism.  The  prototype  was  e\-idently 
expurgated  by  a  Catholic  hand,  who,  however,  did 
not  succeed  in  eradicating  all  traces  of  its  original 
taint.  The  apocryphon  in  all  its  present  forms 
extravagantly  magnifies  the  Divine  aspect  of  the  boy 
Jesus.  In  bold  contrast  to  the  Infancy  narrative 
of  St.  Luke,  where  the  Di\-inity  is  almost  effaced, 
the  author  makes  the  Child  a  miracle-worker  ami 
intellectual  prodig>',  and  in  harmony  with  Docetism, 
leaves  scarcely  more  than  the  ;ip)H'arance  of  humanity 
in  Him.  This  p.seudo-Gospcl  is  unique  among  the 
apocrj'pha,  inasmuch  as  it  describes  a  part  of  the 
hidden  life  of  Our  Lord  between  the  ages  of  five  and 
twelve.  But  there  is  much  that  is  fantastic  and 
offensive  in  the  pictures  of  the  exploits  of  the  Boy 
Jesus.  His  youtlifiil  miracles  are  worked  at  times 
out  of  more  childish  fancy,  as  when  He  formed  clay 
pigeons,  and  at  a  clap  of  His  hands  they  (lew  away  as 


APOCRYPHA 


009 


APOCRYPHA 


(,■».„<•/    0/    .S(.    Barlholomew   among     he   "P,"cnT>ha.  X'^,^  ^^.^^^   j^.fence    of   Jesvis    ...to   stroi.g   .sv  n- 

The' earliest  alh.sion  to  it  is  '"  «  -/."^Jme.^U  patly  a"'!  Practical  belief  in  His  divinity.     Uepori..! 

Recently  scholars  have  brought  to  hghWr.fem^^^^^  ^.^^_y  ^^  ^S^ 

of  it  in  oUl  Coptic  Mbb.  .  Oiie  o    tht.e  unu   a.      .  ^_^^  ^^^_j  ^,^^ 


heretical  Uterature  aloiigwiui  uu,  ...>-...... -^  ^     ^j^^j^   ,j(,d;  enumerates   "L  ,  '  '^  .m'^c 

ssSi  .SSoS-r .  "-r  3i~-.;™;rs:  sr  s,?:.-'T.  StiSI  &i= 


K  J?K.   fitoli   or   "ilo.|jel   of    NKodeinus   ,  j» 


last  in  use  ainong 

which  glorified  the  <  wUor       aUkirchlidum  Lileratur  (Frei 
burn,   190J\.l;   ,"\''JXi^''h     1      1S97.    II.    -'.    19W;     Zah« 


extra 
Biog.       , 
the    fragment 


There   exists 

a  nuerUe  correspondence  consisting  of  a  Pjetended 
Jur   ol   Her  J  to    r,tate    and   M'cr    of    P>/«(e   «<> 


Go»pel    of    St    Ihonja.     '•Y„\;:\;!'^^''"fl'^„,    (New    York. 

Sfv-miCoNKADv/artinrWofl^^^^^^  VarrafifC    o,    ^„.m^-,.   ..,    - „. 

Baumstark,    /fcvuf    "'"'i^'^T-Jlr'"' \„„,,\e^-    KEVEii.i.orT.     with  Christ,  ana  uh   m^^^iif,    ,■,,•„  ,i,p  \i;fi,lp  \ees 

tpal-u;  1905)11.  43  sqt...  156  Kjq. 

(o)  Pilate    Lilevature    and   Other   •4p'"^.W''« J-an- 


1,  judging  f 
nam.     The 


y-  L.  M"-;-^  winch  remain.  "  The  oldest  of  those  pub- 
vTi  lohMieso  the  twelfth  century.  The  relation 
l^'nln  f  o  son  c  Latin  texts  of  the  Acta  Pilat. 
urn       the  t  tic  "Historia  Josephi".     It  may  be  read 


^^^r^;r^nirPi;^™n.ep;~torofitK.ea.  |^:!rTx;n>  X'v;nic;™rh;  hi,;,.lf  t.n^t^ 
Iven  at  Ihe  cost  of  exaggeration  atid  amph  catio  .  'from  he  S>Tiac  documents  in  the  archives  of 
ii^^:"t^«mi^;l:r^ruc(;l;::^/:^    i^aes..  the  metropol.  of  .ast^m  Syna.    The  two 


APOCRYPHA 


610 


APOCRYPHA 


letters  are  accompanied  by  an  introduction  which 
probably  is  an  excerpt  from  the  same  source.  Ac- 
cording "to  this,  Abgar  V,  Toparch  or  King  of  Edessa, 
sufTering  from  an  incurable  disease,  and  having  heard 
the  fame  of  Christ's  miracles  sends  a  courier  to  Je- 
rusalem, bearing  a  letter  to  Jesus,  in  which  he  de- 
clared Him  to  be  a  god,  or  the  son  of  a  god,  and  in- 
vites Him  to  Edessa,  justifying  the  request  partly  by 
his  desire  to  be  cured,  partly  by  his  wish  to  offer  to 
Jesus  an  asylum  against  the  malignant  Jews.  Our 
Lord  replied  as  follows:  "Blessed  art  thou  because 
thou  hast  believed  in  Me  without  seeing  Me.  For 
it  is  written  that  those  who  have  seen  Me,  will  not 
believe  .\Ie;  and  that  those  who  have  not  seen  Me 
will  believe  and  love  Me.  But  as  to  thy  prayer  that 
I  come  to  thee,  it  is  necessary  that  I  fulfil  here  all 
that  for  which  I  have  been  sent,  and  that  after  I 
have  fulfilled  it,  that  I  be  taken  up  to  Him  who  hath 
sent  Me.  But  after  my  taking  up  I  shall  send  thee 
one  of  -My  disciples,  who  will  heal  thy  pains,  and  keep 
life  for  tiiee  and  thine."  Accordingly,  after  the  As- 
cension, "Judas  Thomas",  an  Apostle,  despatches 
to  Ede.s.sa  Thaddeus,  one  of  the  seventy  Disciples, 
who  cures  tlie  King  of  his  disease,  and  preaches 
Christ  to  the  assembled  people.  This,  adds  Eusebius, 
happened  in  the  year  340,  i.  e.  of  the  Seleucid  era; 
corresponding  to  A.  D.  28-29.  The  pleasing  story  is 
repeated  with  variations  in  later  sources.  The 
"Teaching  of  Addai",  a  Syrian  apocryphon  (q.  v. 
infra},  reproduces  the  correspondence  with  additions. 
The  authenticity  of  the  alleged  letter  of  Christ  has 
always  been  strongly  suspected  when  not  absolutely 
denied.  As  early  as  the  si.xth  century  the  Gelasian 
Decretum  brands  this  correspondence  as  spurious.  Its 
legendary  environment  and  the  fact  that  the  Church 
at  large  did  not  hand  down  the  pretended  epistle 
from  Our  Lord  as  a  sacred  document  is  conclusive 
against  it.  As  for  the  letter  of  Abgar,  its  genuine- 
ness was  formerly  favoured  by  many  skilled  in  this 
literature,  but  since  the  discovery  of  the  "Teaching 
of  Addai",  published  in  1876,  the  presumption  against 
the  authentic  character  of  Abgar's  epistle,  owing  to 
the  close  resemblance  of  a  portion  to  passages  in 
the  Gospels,  has  become  an  established  certainty. 
Lipsius,  a  high  authority,  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
Abgar  correspondence  goes  back  to  the  reign  of  the 
first  Christian  ruler  of  Edessa,  Abgar  IX  (179-216), 
and  that  it  was  elicited  by  a  desire  to  force  a  link 
uniting  that  epoch  with  the  time  of  Christ.  (See 
Abgak.) 

See  the  histories  of  Bardenhewer,  Harnack,  Preus- 
-CHEN,.  and  Zahn,  referred  to  in  the  bibUographies  above. 
For  the  Report  of  Pilate  to  the  Emperor,  Harnack,  Ge- 
tchichle  der  allchristlichen  Lileratur  (Leipzig,  1897),  II,  I, 
^04  sqq.,  inserts  the  Greek  and  Latin  text.  The  ancient  texts 
of  these  apocrypha  are  edited  in  Tischendorf's  Evangelia 
Apocrypha  (Leipzig,  1853,  1876);  Translations  of  the  .4 no pAora, 
the  Report  of  Piiate,  of  The  Giving  Up,  of  the  Epistola  ad 
Tiherium,  The  Letter  of  Pontius  Pilate,  are  supphed  in  Walker 
and  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  editions  of  the  apocrypha  previously 
cited.  The  Jlerod-Pilate  (Correspondence  in  English:  Apocry- 
phal Books  of  the  New  Testament,  anon.  (Philadelphia,  1890, 
!90l). — Special  for  the  Abgar  correspondence:  Ante-Nicene 
Fathers  (New  York,  1906;  English),  VIII;  Lipsins,  Die 
Edcssenische  Abgarsage  kritisch  unUrsucht  (Brunswick.  1883); 
WniGHT.  Abgar,  in  Diet,  of  Chris.  Bioq;  Vigourocx,  Ab- 
gar. in  Diet,  de  la  Bible. — Letter  of  Lentulus.  A  brief 
letter  professing  to  be  from  Lentulus,  or  Publius  Lentulus, 
aa  m  some  MSS.,  "President  of  the  People  of  Jerusalem", 
a<ldresse<l  to  "the  Roman  Senate  and  People",  describes 
1  ""i  ^'■"''personal  appearance.  It  is  evidently  spurious, 
both  the  office  and  name  of  the  president  of  Jerusalem  being 
Krossly  unhistorical.  No  ancient  writer  alludes  to  this  pro- 
duction, which  IS  found  only  in  Latin  MSS.  It  has  been  con- 
jecturefl  that  it  may  have  been  composed  in  order  to  au- 
thenticate a  pretended  portrait  of  Jesus,  during  the  Midiile 
Age«.  An  English  version  is  given  in  Cowperh  Apocrm>hal 
eth'^  IsotV  Documents  Relating  to  Christ  (New  York, 

(3)  ApociiypHAL  Acts  op  the  Apostles. — The  mo- 
tive which  first  prompted  the  fabrication  of  spurious 
Act*  of  the  Apostle.s  was,  in  general,  to  give  Apos- 
tolic support  to  heretical  systems,  especially  those  of 


the  many  sects  which  are  comprised  imder  the  term 
Gnosticism.  The  darkness  in  which  the  New  Tes- 
tament leaves  the  missionary  careers,  and  the  ends 
of  the  greater  number  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  meagre 
details  handed  down  by  ecclesiastical  tradition,  left 
an  inviting  field  for  the  exercise  of  inventive  imagi- 
nations, and  offered  an  apt  means  for  the  insidious 
propagation  of  heresy.  The  Jewish-Christian  Church, 
which  early  developed  un-Catholic  tendencies  in  the 
form  of  Ebionitism,  seems  first  to  have  produced 
apocryphal  histories  of  the  Apostles,  though  of  these 
we  have  very  few  remains  outside  the  material  in 
the  voluminous  Pseudo-Clement.  The  Cinostic  Acts 
of  Peter,  Andrew,  John,  Thomas,  and  perhaps  Mat- 
thew, date  from  the  early  portion  of  the  third  cen- 
tury or  perhaps  a  little  earlier.  They  abound  in 
extra\'agant  and  highly  coloured  marvels,  and  were 
interspersed  by  long  pretended  discourses  of  the 
Apostles  which  served  as  vehicles  for  the  Gnostic 
predications.  Though  the  pastors  of  the  Church  and 
the  learned  repudiated  these  as  patently  heretical 
WTitings,  they  appealed  to  the  fancy  and  satisfied 
the  curiosity  of  the  common  people.  Not  only  were 
they  utilized  by  Manicha;ans  in  the  East  and  Pris- 
cillianists  in  the  West,  but  they  found  favour  with 
many  unenlightened  Catholics.  Since  it  was  impos- 
sible to  suppress  their  circulation  entirely,  they  were 
rendered  comparatively  harmless  by  orthodox  editing 
which  expunged  the  palpable  errors,  especially  in  the 
discourses,  leaving  the  miracle  element  to  stand  in 
its  riotous  exuberance.  Hence  most  of  the  Gnostic 
Acts  have  come  down  to  us  with  more  or  less  of  a 
Catholic  purification,  which,  liowever,  was  in  many 
cases  so  superficial  as  to  leave  unmistakable  traces 
of  their  heterodo.x  origin.  The  originally  Gnostic 
apocrjiphal  Acts  were  gathered  into  collections  which 
bore  the  name  of  the  irepiodoi  (Circuits)  or  irpdftis 
(Acts)  of  the  Apostles,  and  to  which  was  attached 
the  name  of  a  Leueius  Charinus,  who  may  have 
formed  the  compilation.  The  Gnostic  Acts  were  of 
various  authorship.  Another  collection  was  formed 
in  the  Prankish  Church  in  the  sixth  century,  prob- 
ably by  a  monk.  In  this  the  Catholic  Acts  have  been 
preserved;  it  is  by  no  means  uniform  in  its  various 
manuscript  representatives.  By  a  misunderstanding, 
the  authorship  of  the  whole,  under  the  title  "  Historia 
Certaminis  Apostolorum",  was  ascribed  to  an  Ab- 
dias,  said  to  have  been  the  first  Bishop  of  Babylon 
and  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles.  The  nucleus  of  this 
collection  was  formed  by  the  Latin  Passiones.  or 
Martyrdoms,  of  those  Apostles  who  had  been  neg- 
lected by  the  Gnostic  Acts,  viz.,  the  two  Jameses, 
Philip  (Matthew?),  Bartholomew,  Simon,  and  Jude. 
The  literature  grew  by  accretions  from  heretical 
sources  and  eventually  took  in  all  the  Apostles,  in- 
cluding St.  Paul.  The  motive  of  these  non-heretical 
apocrypha  was  primarily  to  gratify  the  pious  curios- 
ity of  the  faithful  regarding  the  Apostolic  founders 
of  the  Church;  sometimes  local  interests  instigated 
their  composition.  After  the  model  of  the  Gnostic 
Acts,  which  were  of  Oriental  derivation,  they  abound 
in  prodigies,  and  like  those  again,  they  take  as 
their  starting-point  the  traditional  dispersion  of  the 
Twelve  from  Jerusalem.  Regarding  the  historical 
value  of  tliese  apocryplial  narratives,  it  requires  the 
most  careful  criticism  to  extricate  from  the  mass  of 
fable  and  legend  any  grains  of  historical  truth.  Even 
respecting  the  fields  of  the  -Vpostolic  missions,  they 
are  self-contradictory  or  confused.  In  general  their 
details  are  scientifically  worthless,  unless  confirmed 
by  independent  authorities,  whicli  rarely  happens. 
Much  of  their  apocryphal  matter  was  taken  up  by 
the  offices  of  the  Apostles  in  the  Latin  breviaries 
and  lectionaries,  composed  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries   at   an   extremely   imcritioal   period. 

Lii'sius  in  Dirt,  of  ChriM.  Biog.;  Salmon,  art.  I^iu-ius, 
in  same  work;  Historical  Introduction  to  the  .\'rw  TeslamenI 
(4th  ed.,    1889):    Dcchesne,   Us  anciens  recucils  de  Itgende* 


APOCRYPHA 


611 


APOCRYPHA 


npoaioiiquet;  Coropte-Rendu  of  the  Catholic  ScientiBc  Con- 
gre^  of  Brussels  (Hrussels,  1895). 

(a)  Onostic  Acts  of  the  Aposttex. — Ads  of  St.  Peter. 
There  exist  a  (ireuk  anil  a  Latin  Martyrdom  of  Peter, 
the  latter  attriljuted  to  Pope  Liuu.s,  wliich  from 
patristic  citations  are  recognized  as  the  conclusion 
of  an  ancient  Greek  narrative  entitled  "Act,s,  or  Cir- 
cuits of  St.  Peter".  .-Viiother  MS.,  bearing  the  name 
"Actus  Petri  cum  Simono  ",  contains  a. superior  tran.s- 
lation  with  .several  p:xssages  from  the  original  nar- 
rative preceding  the  Martyrtloin.  The  work  Ijetrays 
certain  tokens  of  Gnosticism,  althougli  it  ha.s  been 

F urged  of  its  grossest  features  by  a  Catholic  reviser, 
t  describes  tlie  triumph  of  St.  Peter  over  Simon 
Magus  at  Home,  anu  the  Apostle's  subsequent 
crucifixion.  Tlie.se  Acts  as  we  liave  them  are  of 
higli  antitiuity,  tliough  it  is  impossible  to  always 
discern  wlietlicr  patristic  writers  are  quoting  from 
them  or  an  earlier  tradition.  Undoubtedly  Com- 
modian  (r.  2oO)  employed  our  extant  Acts  of  Peter. — 
Ads  of  St.  -John.  Tlie  heretical  character  imputed 
to  these  by  certain  Fathers  is  fully  confirmeil  by 
extant  fragments,  which  show  a  gross  Docetisra,  and 
an  unbridled  phantasy.  Doubtless  the  author  inter- 
mingled valuable  Ephesian  tratiitions  with  his  fables. 
There  are  re;i.sons  of  weight  to  regard  the  work  as 
having  been  composed,  togetlier  with  the  .\cts  of 
St.  Peter,  and  probably  those  of  St.  Andrew,  by  a 
single  person,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  secoml  century, 
under  the  name  of  a  disciple  of  St.  Jolm,  called 
Leucius.  Clement  of  .Mcxandria  wxs  acquainted 
with  the  pscudograph.  The  Johannine  Act.s  of  the 
Pseudo-Prochorus  (compare  the  canonical  Acts,  vi,  5) 
arc  a  Catholic  working-over  of  Gnostic  material. — 
Acts  of  St.  Amlrew.  Pseudographic  -Vets  of  St.  An- 
drew are  noted  by  several  early  ecclesiastical  writers, 
as  in  circulation  among  Gnostic  and  -Manichajan  sects. 
The  original  form  has  perished  except  in  a  few 
patristic  quotations.  But  we  possess  three  indi- 
vidual Acts  under  different  names,  which  prove  to  be 
orthodox  recensions  of  an  original  comprehensive 
Gnostic  wliolc.  These  are:  (1)  "The  .\cts  of  .-Vndrew 
and  Matthias"  (or  Matthew  as  given  by  some  au- 
thorities); (2)  "Acts  of  Peter  and  Andrew"  (the 
original  language  of  the  above  is  Greek);  (3)  "The 
Martyrdom  of  the  Apostle  .\ndrcw"  has  come  down 
in  both  Greek  and  Latin  recensions.  The  Latin  text 
is  the  original  one,  and  cannot  be  earlier  than  the 
fifth  century.  It  purports  to  be  a  relation  of  the 
heroic  death  of  St.  Andrew  by  eyewitnesses  who  are 
"presbyters  and  deacons  of  the  Church  of  Achaia". 
It  has  enjoyed  credit  among  historians  in  the  past, 
but  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  its  data.  (See 
Apcstouc  Churches;  A.vdkew,  St.,  Apostle.) — 
The  .\ds  and  Marti/rdom  of  St.  Matthew  are  in  literary 
dependence  on  the  Acts  of  St.  Andrew  (q.  v.,  supra), 
and  hence  the  re;iding  "  Matthew  "  may  be  an  error  for 
"Matthias",  since  evidently  the  companion  of  Peter 
and  .\ntlrew  is  intended.  The  work  exists  in  Greek 
and  a  later  Latin.  There  is  also  a  Coptic-Ethiopic 
martyrdom  legend  of  St.  Matthew.  (See  Matthew, 
St.,  .Vpostle;  Apostolic  Chiirches). — Ads  of  St. 
Thomas.  No  Apostolic  apocrj'phon  has  reached  us 
in  a  completeness  equal  to  that  of  the  Thomas  Acts. 
They  are  found  in  Greek,  Sj-riac,  and  Ethiopic  re- 
censions. Their  Gnostic  traits  pierce  through  the 
Catholic  re-touching;  in  fact,  the  contents  show  a 
conscious  purpo.se  to  exalt  the  dualist ic  doctrine  of 
abstention  from  conjugal  intercourse.  Scholars  are 
much  inclined  to  attribute  the  origin.al  to  a  Syrian 
origin  antl  an  author  who  was  an  ailhcrent  of  Har- 
desanes.  The  signs  point  strongly  to  the  third 
centurj'  as  the  era.  The  translation  of  the  remains 
of  St.  Thomas  to  Edessa  in  232  may  have  furnished 
the  inspiration  for  the  composition.  The  .\cts  relate 
the  prodigies  performed  by  the  .\postle  in  India,  and 
end  with  his  martyrdom  there.  They  are  inter- 
I.— 39 


spersed  with  some  remarkable  hymns;  some  of  real 
literary  beauty  but  with  strong  Gnostic  colouring. 
Recent  researches  have  revealeil  elements  of  truth 
in  the  historical  .setting  of  the  narrative.  The  Acts 
of  St.  Thomas  are  mentioned  by  Epiphanius  and 
Augustine  as  in  u.se  in  dilTerent  heretical  circles. 
St.  Ephrem  of  Syria  refers  to  apocryphal  ThomiLs 
-•Vets  as  in  circulation  among  the  Hardesanites  (see 
Tho.m.\s,  St.,  Apcstle). — .-lets  of  St.  liartholomew. 
We  posse.ss  a  Greek  Martrydom,  dating  in  its  present 
form  from  the  fifth  or  sixth  century;  also  a  Latin 
"  PiLssio  Bartholomx'i".  Both  an:  tamted  with  Nes- 
torianism,  ami  seem  to  have  come  from  a  single  Bar- 
tliolomew  legend.  The  tJreek  text  recounts  the  mar- 
vels by  which  tlie  A|)ostle  overthrew  idolatrj-  and 
converted  a  king  and  his  subjects  in  "  India".  The 
whole  is  a  legendary  tissue.  (See  B.\rtholomew, 
St.,  Apostle). 

Consult  the  works  of  Hardknhewer,  Harnack,  and 
Preubciiex.  also  Zah.v,  given  in  previous  biblioKraphies. 
For  the  oriKinul  text.s:  Lipsirrt  a.n'd  Bo.NNtrr,  Acta  Apostotorum 
.Apncn/phu  (Leipzig,  1891),  Pars  I;  James,  Apocri/pha  .-inec- 
(loln  (C'uiubndKe,  1897),  belonginK  to  the  Cambridge  Texts 
and  Studies  series;  WlilGUT,  .Xpocryphal  .\cta  of  the  ApoiUrs 
(l.oniion.  1871).  contains  an  edition  and  traiulation  of  Syriac 
SlSS.;  I£ng.  translations  are  given  in  Walker,  Apocri/phnl 
aoapel».  etc.  (Kdinburgh,  1873);  Anle-.Vicene  Fathrrt  (.New 
York,  190G),  VIII;  the  magisterial  work  on  the  Apocryphal 
Acts  and  Legends  i.s:  Lipsiuh,  Dw  apohrifphen  .\posUhf- 
echtdtten  und  .ipoaletlegendm  (Brunswick,  1SS3,  1887,  1890), 
exhaustive  and  critical  in  the  liberal  Protestant  spirit.  Tlie 
-same  author  has  contributed  an  article  to  the  Did.  of  Christ 
lUoff.  For  the  points  of  contact  of  the  .\pocr>*phal  Acts 
with  profane  history;  Gutschmid,  DU  Kuniifgruinun  in  dm 
aiwkri/phen  .•ipuati-l(jeachichten,  in  the  liheinitichfs  Museum 
fur  Hilologxt  (1864),  XI.\,  101-183,  380-401.— Special  for 
.\cts  of  St.  Peter:  Chase,  art.  Petrr  (Simon)  in  Hast.,  Dirt, 
of  the  Bible.— Special  tor  Acts  of  St.  John:  Zaun,  Die  ll'on- 
derunffcn  lies  Apostels  Johannes  in  the  Neue  Kirchltcfie  Zcil- 
schrift  (1899),  X.— Special  for  Acts  of  St.  Thomas:  The 
Ethiopic  text  was  edited  by  Mai.an.  Conflicts  of  the  .Apostles 
(London,  1871),  and  rendered  into  the  vernacular  by  Briooe 
(Ixindon,  1899);  Levy,  in  Analecla  BoUandiana  (1899).  XVIII, 
275  .sqti.:  Medlycott,  India  and  the  .Apostle  Thomas;  .4n 
Inquiry  u^ith  a  Critical  Analysis  of  the  Acta  Thoma  (London, 
1905). 

(6)  Catholic  Apocryphal  Ads  of  the  Apostles. — 
Acts  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul.  These  are  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Gnostic  Acts  of  Peter  and  the 
orthodox  Acts  of  Paul.  The  MSS.  which  represent 
tlie  legend  fall  into  two  groups;  (a)  consisting  of  all 
but  one  of  the  Greek  texts,  containing  an  account 
of  tlie  journey  of  St.  Paul  to  Rome,  and  the  martyr- 
dom of  the  two  Apostles;  (b)  composed  of  one  Greek 
MS.  and  a  great  number  of  Latin  ones,  presenting  the 
history  of  the  paxsio  only.  Lipsius  regards  tlie  jour- 
ney section  as  a  ninth-century  addition;  Bartlen- 
hewer  will  have  it  to  belong  to  the  original  docu- 
ment. This  section  begins  with  Paul's  departure 
from  the  island  of  Mileto,  and  is  evidently  based  on 
the  canonical  narrative  in  Acts.  The  Jews  have 
been  aroused  by  the  news  of  Paul's  intended  visit, 
and  induce  Nero  to  forbid  it.  Nevertheless  the 
Apostle  secretly  enters  Italy;  his  companion  is  mis- 
taken for  himself  at  Putcoli  and  beheailed.  In  retri- 
bution that  city  is  swallowed  up  by  the  sea.  Peter 
receives  Paul  at  Rome  with  joy.  The  preaching  of 
the  .\postles  converts  multitudes  and  even  the 
Empress.  Simon  Magus  traduces  the  Christian 
teachers,  anti  there  is  a  test  of  strength  in  miracles 
between  that  magician  and  the  Apostles,  which  takes 
place  in  the  presence  of  Nero.  Simon  essays  a  flig'.it 
to  heaven  but  falls  in  the  Via  Sacra  and  is  dashed  to 
pieces.  Nevertheless,  Nero  is  bent  on  the  destruc- 
tion of  Peter  and  Paul.  The  latter  is  beheaded  on 
the  Ostian  Way,  and  Peter  is  crucified  at  his  request 
heat!  tlownwaril.  Before  his  death  he  relates  to  tlie 
people  the  "Quo  Vadis?"  story.  Three  men  from 
the  East  earn,-  off  the  .\postles'  bodies  but  are  over- 
taken. St.  Peter  is  buried  at  "The  place  called  the 
\'atican ",  and  Paul  on  the  Ostian  Way.  These 
-Acts  are  the  chief  source  for  details  of  the  martyrdom 
of   the   two   great   Apostles.     They   are   also   note- 


APOCRYPHA 


612 


APOCRYPHA 


•worthy  as  emphasizing  tlic  close  concord  between  the 
Apostolic  founders  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  date 
(a.  d.  55)  of  composition  is  involved  in  obscurity. 
Lipsius  finds  traces  of  our  Acts  as  early  as  Hippolytus 
(c.  235),  but  it  is  not  clear  that  the  Fathers  adduced 
empldvod  any  written  source  for  their  references  to 
the  victory  over  Simon  Magus  and  the  work  of  the 
Apostles  at  Rome.  Lipsius  assigns  the  kernel  of 
the  Martyrdom  to  the  second  century;  Bardenhewer 
refers  the  whole  to  the  first  half  of  the  third.  The 
Acts  of  Peter  and  Paul  undoubtedly  embody  some 
genuine  traditions.  (See  Peter,  St.,  Apostle;  Paul, 
St..  .\postle;  Simon  M.\gus). — Acts  of  St.  Paul. 
Origen  and  Eusebius  expressly  name  the  Trpdfeis 
Ilafxou;  Tertullian  speaks  of  writings  falsely  at- 
tributed to  Paul:  "Qitod  fii  Pauli  perperam  inscripta 
legunt."  He  is  cautioning  his  readers  against 
the  tale  of  Thecla  preaching  and  baptizing  her- 
self Hitherto  it  was  supposed  that  he  referred 
to  the  "Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla".  The  "Acta 
Pauli ",  presumed  to  be  a  distinct  composition,  were 
deemed  to  have  perished;  but  recently  (1899)  a 
Coptic  papyrus  MS.,  torn  to  shreds,  was  found  in 
Egypt,  and  proves  to  contain  approximately  com- 
plete the  identical  Acts  of  Paul  alluded  to  by  a  few 
ecclesiastical  writers.  This  find  ha.s  established  the 
fact  that  the  long-known  .Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla 
and  tlie  apocryphal  correspondence  of  St.  Paul  with 
the  Corinthian  Church,  as  well  a.s  tlie  Martyrdom  of 
St.  Paul,  are  really  only  excerpts  from  tlie  original 
Pauline  .\cts.  The  newly-discovered  document  con- 
tains material  hitherto  vmknown  as  well  as  the  above- 
noted  sections,  long  extant.  It  begins  with  a  pre- 
tended flight  of  St.  Paul  from  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  and 
ends  with  his  martyrdom  at  Rome.  The  narrative 
rests  on  data  in  the  canonical  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  but  it  abounds  in  marvels  and  personages 
unhinted  at  there,  and  it  disfigures  traits  of  some  of 
tho.se  actually  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings. 
The  .\cts  of  Paul,  therefore,  adds  nothing  trust- 
worthy to  our  knowledge  of  the  .\postle  of  the 
Gentiles.  Fortunately  the  above-cited  passage  of 
Tertullian  (De  Baptismo,  xvii)  informs  us  of  its 
authorship  and  aim.  The  African  writer  observes 
that  the  pseudo-history  was  the  work  of  a  priest  of 
Asia  Minor,  who  on  the  discovery  of  the  fraud,  was 
deposed  from  an  ecclesia.stical  charge,  and  confessed 
that  he  forged  the  book  out  of  love  for  St.  Paul. 
Experts  ascribe  its  composition  to  the  second  cen- 
tury. It  was  already  known  when  Tertulhan  wrote, 
and  during  the  first  centuries  enjoyed  a  considerable 
popularity,  both  East  and  West.  In  fact  Eusebius 
cla.sses  it  among  the  antilegomeiia,  or  works  having 
locally  quasi-canonical  authority. — Acts  of  Paul  and 
Thecla.  The  early  detachment  of  these  as  well  as 
the  Martyrdom  from  the  Acts  of  St.  Paul  may  be 
accoimted  for  by  ecclesiastical  use  as  festal  lections. 
Despite  Tertullian's  remark  regarding  this  pseudo- 
graph,  it  enjoyed  an  immense  and  persistent  popu- 
larity through  the  patristic  period  antl  the  Uliddle 
Ages.  This  favour  is  to  be  explained  mainly  by  the 
romantic  and  spirited  flavour  of  the  narrative. 
Exceptional  among  the  apocryphists,  the  author 
kept  a  curb  upon  his  fertile  imagination,  and  his 
production  is  distinguished  by  its  simplicity,  clear- 
ness, and  vigour.  It  deals  with  the  adventures  of 
Thecla,  a  young  woman  of  Iconium,  who  upon  being 
converted  by  St.  Paul's  preaching,  left  lier  bride- 
grooin  and  lived  a  life  of  virginity  and  missionary 
activity,  becoming  a  companion  of  St.  Paul,  and 
preaclung  the  Gospel.  She  is  persecuted,  but 
miraculously  escapes  from  the  fire  and  the  savage 
beasts  of  the  arena.  The  relief  into  wliich  abstention 
froiT  the  marriage-bed  is  brought  in  these  Acts 
makes  it  difficult  to  escape  from  the  conclusion  that 
they  have  been  coloured  by  Encratite  ideas.  Never- 
theless the  thesis  of  Lijisius,  sup|)orted  by  Cor.ssen, 


that  a  Gnostic  Grundschrift  untlerlies  our  present 
document,  is  not  accepted  by  Harnack,  Zahn,  Bard- 
enhewer, and  others.  The  apocrj-phon  follows  the 
New  Testament  data  of  St.  Paul's  missions  very 
loosely  and  is  full  of  unhistorical  characters  and 
events.  For  instance,  tlie  writer  introduces  a  journey 
of  the  .Apostles,  to  which  there  is  nothing  analogous 
in  the  Sacred  Books.  However,  there  are  grains  of 
historical  material  in  the  Thecla  story.  A  Christian 
virgin  of  that  name  may  well  have  been  converted 
by  St.  Paul  at  Iconium,  and  suffered  persecution. 
Gutschmid  has  discovered  that  a  certain  Queen  Trj-- 
phena  was  an  historical  personage  (Rheinisches  Mu- 
seum fiir  Philologie,  X,  1864).  (See  Thecla.)— 
Acts  of  St.  Philip.  The  extant  Greek  fragments 
supply  us  with  all  but  five  (10-14)  of  the  fifteen 
Acts  composing  the  work.  Of  these  1-7  are  a  farrago 
of  various  legends,  each,  it  would  seem,  with  an  in- 
dependent history;  S-14  is  a  unit,  which  forms  a 
parasitic  growth  on  the  ancient  but  somewhat  con- 
fused traditions  of  the  missionary  activity  of  an 
Apostle  Philip  in  Hierapolis  of  Phrygia.  Zahn's  view, 
that  this  document  is  the  work  of  an  ill-informed 
Catholic  monk  of  the  fourth  century,  is  a  satisfactory' 
hy]5othesis.  The  largest  fragment  was  first  pub- 
lislied  by  Batifi'ol  in  "  Analecta  Bollandiana",  IX 
(Paris,  1890).  A  Coptic  "Acts  of  Phihp"is  also  to 
be  noted.    (See  Philip,  St.,  Apo.stle.) 

There  are  Latin,  Coptic,  Ethiopic,  and  Armenian 
histories  of  the  missions  and  death  of  St.  James 
the  Greater,  the  son  of  Zebedee.  Lipsius  assigns 
the  Latin  to  about  the  third  century.  Coptic  and 
Armenian  Acts  and  Martyrdom  of  St.  James  the  Less 
depend  mostly  on  the  Hegesippus  tradition,  preserved 
by  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  IV,  xxii).— .4ds  of  St.  Mat- 
thew. The  Apostolic  Acts  of  the  Pseudo-Abdias  con- 
tain a  Latin  "  Passio  Sancti  Mattha?i ",  which  preserves 
an  Abyssinian  legend  of  St.  Matthew,  later  than  the 
Coptic  Martyrdom  noticed  in  connection  with  the 
Gnostic  Acts  of  that  saint.  The  correct  historical 
setting  indicates  that  the  recension  was  the  work  of 
an  Abyssinian  of  the  sixth  century,  who  wished  to 
date  the  establishment  of  tlie  Abyssinian  Church 
(fourth  century)  back  to  the  .Apostolic  times.  How- 
ever, the  kernel  of  the  narrative  is  drawn  from  older 
sources.  The  Abdias  Passio  places  St.  Matthew's  mar- 
tyrdom in  Abyssinia.  (See  M.\tthew,  St.,  Apostle.) 
— Teaching  of  Addai  (Thaddcus).  In  1876  an  ancient 
Syriac  document,  entitled  "The  Teaching  of  Addai, 
the  Apostle",  was  published  for  the  first  time.  It 
proved  to  closely  parallel  the  Abgar  material  de- 
rived by  Eusebius  from  the  Edessa  archives,  and 
indeed  purports  to  have  been  entrusted  to  those 
arcliives  by  its  author,  who  gives  his  name  as  Labubna, 
the  son  of  Senaak.  It  is  full  of  legendary  but  in- 
teresting material  describing  the  relations  between 
Jesus  and  King  .Abgar  of  Edessa.  Thaddeus,  or 
Addai,  one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  is  sent,  after  the 
Resurrection,  in  compliance  with  Christ's  ]iromise.  to 
Abg.ar,  heals  the  ruler  and  Christianizes  ICdcssa  with 
the  most  prompt  and  brilliant  success.  Notable  is 
the  story  of  the  painting  of  ,Jesus  made  at  the  in- 
stance of  Abgar's  envoy  to  the  former.  Since  the 
narrative  of  a  Gaulish  pilgrim  who  visited  Edessa 
about  390  contains  no  allusion  to  such  a  picture, 
we  may  reasonably  conclude  that  the  Teaching  of 
Addai  is  of  later  origin.  Critics  accept  the  period 
between  399-430.  The  Thaddeus  legend  ha.s  many 
ramifications  and  has  undergone  a  number  of  varia- 
tions. There  is  a  Greek  ".Acts  of  Thaddeus",  which 
identifies  Addai  with  Thaddeus  or  Lebbivus,  one  of 
the  Twelve.  (See  .Aboau;  ICdessa). — .4c/s  of  Simoti 
and  Judc.  .\  Latin  Pansio,  wliidi  Lipsius  attributes 
to  the  fourth  or  fiftli  century,  narrates  the  miracles, 
conver.sions.  and  martyrdoins  of  tliese  .Apostles.  It 
it  found  in  tlie  .Vbclias  collect  ion.  The  scene  is  Persia 
and    Babylonia.     It    has   been    recognized    th.at   tha 


APOCRYPHA 


613 


APOCRYPHA 


historical  setting  of  these  Acts  agrees  remarkably 
with  what  is  known  of  tlie  conditions  in  the  Parthian 
enij)ire  in  the  first  century  after  Christ. —  The  Actn 
ol  at.  Banuiixm  :i|)pear  to  have  been  composed  toward 
the  end  of  tliu  filth  century  by  a  Cypriot.  They  are 
ascribed  to  St.  Mark  the  Kvangelist,  and  are  liistor- 
ically  wortliles.s.  They  are  extant  in  tlic  original 
Greek  and  in  a  Latin  version.  The  narrative  is  based 
upon  the  nnitual  relations  and  activities  of  Barna- 
bas, Mark,  imd  Paul,  lus  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. — GcsUi  Matthiir.  This  is  the  latest  of  the 
pseudo-.\cts,  having  been  coiniX)sed  by  a  monk  of 
Treves,  in  the  twelfth  century,  as  a  i)relude  to  an 
account  of  the  translation  of  the  sacred  relic,  and 
the  body  of  St.  Matthias  to  that  city,  and  their  sub- 
.se<iucnt  redisco\eries.  It  pretends  to  liave  tleri\ed 
the  liistory  of  tlie  Apostle  s  career  from  a  Hebrew 
MS.     (See  M.vtthi.vs,  St.,  Apostle.) 

See  the  literature  coiumon  to  the  Gnostic  Acts  above. — 
Special  for  Act.i  of  Peter  unci  Paul;  Chahk,  &Tt.  Peter  (Simon) 
in  Hast.,  Diet,  of  the  Bible. — Special  for  Acts  of  St.  Paul: 
Schmidt,  Acta  Pauli  (LeipziK,  1904).  exhaustive  researches, 
Coptic  text,  and  (Jerm.  trans.:  Dkihkh.  in  Revue  Biblique, 
1904.  443  .'tqq.,  summarizes  contents;  Nav.  Revue  de  VOrient 
rhritten  (1898),  III,  published  a  Syriac  MarHp-dom  of  St.  Paul. 
— Special  for  Acts  of  Paul  and  Tliecla:  Gwi.sN,  Thecla,  in 
Diet,  of  Christ  liiou.:  Rev,  Etuilet  sur  Us  Acta  Pauli  et  Thecla: 
(Paris.  1890):  IIamsev,  The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire 
before  170  A.  D.  (I^ndon.  1893),  375  aqq.;  Holzhev.  Die 
Thefila-Akten.  Ihre  Verbreitunn  uml  Beurteiiung  in  der  Kircfte 
(Ulunich,  1905). — Special  for  the  Teaching  of  Addai;  Phillips, 
The  Doctrine  of  Addai,  the  .Apostle  (London,  1870).  Syriac  and 
English  texts  with  notes;  Tixf.ront,  Lts  oripines  de  VEgliae 
d'tdesse  et  la  lioende  d'Ab^ar  (Paris,  1888). — Special  for 
Acts  of  Simon  and  Jutle:  The  text  of  the  Pa.ssio  is  in  h  abricius, 
Codei  .-Xnocri/phus  Novi  Testamenii  (Hamburg,  1703,  1719). — 
Special  for  .\cts  of  Barnabas:  Braunsberger,  Der  Apostel 
Barnabas  (.Mainz,  1876). 

(c)  Qua.<<i-Apostolic  Acts. — It  must  suffice  to  men- 
tion "  .A.cts  of  St.  Mark  ",  of  Alexandrian  origin,  and 
written  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  centurj-;  ".Vets  of  St. 
Luke  ",  Coptic,  not  earlier  than  end  of  fourth;  "Acts 
of  St.  Timothy ",  composed  by  an  ICphesian  after 
425;  "Acts  of  St.  Titus",  of  Cretan  origin,  between 
400-700;  ".\cts  of  Xanthippe  and  Polyxena",  con- 
nected with  the  legends  about  St.  Paul  and  St.  An- 
drew. 

Se€  Lipstrs,  Die  apokrj/phen  Aposteltjeschichten  (Brunswick, 
1884),  11,  2;  Jameh,  Apocrypha  Anecdota  (Cambridge,  1893). 

(4)  Apocryphal  Doctrinal  Works. — Tcilamentum 
Domini  Xostri  Jesu.  It  was  known  tliat  a  SjTiac 
work  of  this  name  existeil,  and  an  extract  w-as  pub- 
lishctl  in  18,')G.  In  1899  Moiisignor  Kaliniani,  Patri- 
arch of  the  I'niteil  SjTian.s,  published  from  a  late  MS. 
the  Syriac  text,  a  Latin  introduction  and  transla- 
tion. The  work  is  in  two  books.  It  begins  with  an 
apocalj-pse  of  the  approaching  day  of  .-Vntichrist 
alleged  to  have  been  uttered  by  Our  Lord  after  Ilis 
Resurrection.  Between  this  and  the  body  of  the 
work  there  is  a  very  loose  connection,  as  the  main 
portion  represents  Christ  as  enacting,  even  to  small 
details,  laws  for  the  governance  and  ritual  of  the 
Church.  The  writer  places  on  Our  Lord's  lips  de- 
scriptions of  liturgical  obscn-ances  prevalent  in  his 
own  and  earlier  periods.  There  are  evident  points  of 
contact  between  the  Testament  and  the  ancient 
ecclesiastico-liturgical  Canones  Ilippolyti,  .Vpostolic 
Constitutions,  and  .\postolic  Canons.  Monsignor 
Hahmani  assigns  the  Testament  to  the  second  cen- 
turj',  and  pl.aces  the  above  works  in  the  relation  of 
dependence  on  it.  But  critics  unanimously  refuse 
to  accord  a  high  antiquity  to  tlie  Testament,  dating 
it  in  the  fourtli  or  fifth  centurj',  and  inverting  the 
dependence  mentioned.  On  the  ground  tliat  there 
is  no  indication  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  book 
outside  the  Orient,  anil  that  Arabic  and  Coi)tic 
recensions  of  it  are  known.  Dr.  .\.  Baumstark  regards 
the  work  a.s  a  compilation  originating  in  .Monophjsite 
circles,  and  current  in  the  national  Cliurclies  of  tlwit 
sect  in  Syria  and  Kgj'pt.  The  ap()c:ilyi)tic  opening 
has  been  found  in  a  Latin  MS.  of  the  eiglitli  century, 


and  published  by  M.  R.  James,  "Apocrypha  Anec- 
dota'' (Cambridge,  189:j).  The  Preaching  of  Peter 
or  Kerygma  Petri.  Clement  of  .\lexandria  repeatedly 
([uotes  from  a  K-i/pvyna  Mirpov,  concerning  whose 
credibility  he  obviously  h:Ls  no  doubt.  On  the  other 
hand,  Eusebius  classes  it  ;i.s  apocryphal.  A  certain 
"Doctrine  of  Peter",  mentioned  by  a  later  writer, 
w;is  probably  identical  with  the  "  Preaching  ".  From 
the  scanty  remains  of  this  work  we  can  lorm  but  a 
very  imperfect  idea  of  it.  It  spoke  in  St.  Peter's 
name  anil  represented  liim  above  all  as  a  teacher  of 
the  Gentiles.  The  iloctrinal  parts  occur  in  a  frame- 
work of  an  account  of  the  missionary  journeys. 
The  pseudograph  was  probably  suggested  by  tlie 
text,  II  Peter,  i,  5.  A  work  which  was  so  well  ac- 
credited in  the  ilays  of  Clement  of  .\lexaniiria  (c. 
It()-21j),  and  which  was  known  to  the  (inostic  Ile- 
racleon  (c.  lt>0-170),  must  have  come  from  almost 
Apostolic  antiquity.  Scholars  favour  the  hrst 
quarter  of  the  .second  century.  Tlie  fragments  which 
remain  betray  no  signs  of  heterodox  origin.  There  is 
a  Syriac  "  Preaching  of  .Simon  Peter  in  the  City  of 
Roine."^7'«w  Wags  or  Judicium  Petri.  This  is  a 
moralizing  treati.se  ascribed  to  St.  Peter,  ;ind  pre- 
fixed to  the  Didache  (q.  v.).  It  is  of  Jewish-Christian 
origin,  anil  probably  was  based  on  the  so-c;illed 
"  Epistle  of  Barnabas  ". — Preaching  of  Paul.  The  only 
witness  to  this  work  is  the  treatise  "  Dc  Rebaptismo  " 
in  the  pseudo-Cyprian  writings.  According  to  this 
It  represented  Christ  as  confessing  personal  sins,  and 
forced  by  His  mother  to  receive  oaptism. 

For  the  Testanientum:  Rahmani,  Teatamentum  Domini 
Nostri  Jesu  Christi  (.Mainz.  1899):  Fcnk,  articles  in  Der 
Kalhotik  (1900).  1.  1-14:  Theologitche  tjuartalschrxft  (1900). 
LXXXII,  161-174;  Batiffol,  in  Revue  Biblujue  (1900).  253- 
2(X):  Hah.vack,  Vorlaujige  Bemerkungen  zu  dem  jiingst  Synsch 
und  Lateinisch,  publizierten  "  Testamentum  D.  N.  Jesu  Chnstt  " 
(Berlin.  1899);  fjAUMsTARK,  in  Romische  (Junrtalschrifl  (1900), 
1-48:  RiCKABV.  Ritual  in  the  Reign  ol  .Maximin,  in  Am.  Cath. 
(juar.  Review  (1900),  XXV.  For  the  history  of  the  di^cus- 
sion:  Ehrhari),  Die  altchristlirhe  LUeratur  (KreiburK,  1900). 
For  the  Preaching  of  Peter:  The  fragment.s  are  collected  in 
H11.GENFELD.  Novum  Testamentum  extra  Canonem  Receptum 
(Leipzig,  1884),  fasc  1\';  Dohschctz,  Das  Kerugma  Petri 
krUisch  untersueht,  being  XI,  1.  of  Harxack  and  Gedhardt's 
Teite  und  Untersuchungen.  For  minor  studies  consult  the 
histories  of  Bardenhewer,  Har.\ack,  and  Zaun. 

(5)  Apocrgphal  Epistles. — Pseudo-Epistles  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  These  are  all  composed  in  Latin  and 
at  late  dates.  (1)  The  Epistle  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
to  St.  Ignatius  Martyr  fills  but  nine  lines  in  the  Fabri- 
cius  edition  of  the  apocrj'pha.  It  exhorts  to  faith  and 
courage.  There  is  a  reply  from  Ignatius.  ("2)  The 
Epistle  to  the  Messanienses,  i.  e.  the  inhabitants  of 
Messina,  Sicilj',  is  equally  brief;  it  conveys  an  ex- 
hortation to  faith,  and  a  blessing.  (3)  The  Epistle 
to  the  Florentines  wjts  expounded  in  a  sermon  of 
Savonarola,  2.5  October,  1495.  We  have  no  otlier 
testimonj'  of  it.  It  is  four  lines  in  length.— Psfudo- 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The  Pseudo-Clementine  homi- 
lies contain  as  a  preface  two  letters,  the  first  of 
which  purports  to  be  from  Peter  to  James  the  Less, 
beseeching  him  to  keep  his  (Peter's)  preaching  secret. 

(See        CUE.ME.N'TI.VE         PsElDO-WltlTIXr.S.)      Pscudo- 

Epistle-s  of  St.  Paul;  Correspondence  with  the  Corin- 
thians. The  ancient  SjTian  (Edessenc)  Church  re- 
vered as  canonical  a  Third  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
Corinthians,  which  is  accompanied  by  a  letter  fiom 
the  pastors  of  that  Church,  to  which  it  is  an  answer. 
But  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  the 
.Syrian  Church  fell  under  the  influence  of  the  (ireck, 
and  in  conse<|nence  the  spurious  letter  gradually  lost 
its  canonical  status.  It  was  taken  up  by  the  neigh- 
bouring Armenians  and  for  centuries  has  formed  a 
part  of  the  Armenian  New  Testament.  Latin  and 
Greek  writers  are  completciv  silent  about  this  pseudo 
graph,  although  Greek  and  Latin  copies  have  been 
found.  It  was  obviously  suggested  by  the  lost  gen- 
uine Pauline  letter  referred  to  in  I  ("or.  v,  9;vii,  1. 
It  was  composed  by  a  Catholic  presbyter  about  100- 


APOCRYPHA 


614 


APOCRYPHA 


170,  and  is  a  disguised  attack  on  some  of  the  leading 
errors  of  Cinosticism.  This  correspondence  long  had 
an  independent  circulation,  but  recently  it  has  been 
proved  that  the  document  was  incorporated  into  the 
Acts  of  St.  Paul  (q.  v.).—Pseudo-EpiMle  to  the  Laod- 
icean^. In  the  genuine  Epistle  to  the  Colossians, 
Paul,  after  instructing  them  to  send  their  Epistle  to 
Laodicea,  adds:  "read  that  which  is  from  the  Laodi- 
ceans".  This  most  probably  regards  a  circular  letter, 
the  canonical  "Ephesians";  but  it  has  been  held  to 
be  a  lost  letter  to  the  Laodicean  Christians.  The 
apocryphal  epistle  is  a  transparent  attempt  to  supply 
this  supposed  lost  sacred  document.  It  consists  of 
twenty  short  lines  and  is  mainly  made  of  matter 
taken  from  Philippians  and  other  Epistles,  and  pieced 
together  without  sequence  or  logical  aim.  Our  apoc- 
ryphon  exists  only  in  Latin  and  translations  from  the 
Latin,  thougli  it  gives  signs  of  a  Greek  original.  It 
can  hardly  be  the  pseudo-Laodicean  letter  said  by 
the  Muratorian  Fragment  to  have  been  invented  by 
the  heresiarch  Marcion.  Pespite  its  insipid  and  sus- 
picious character,  this  compilation  was  frequently 
copied  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  enjoyed  a  certain 
degree  of  respect,  although  St.  Jerome  had  written 
of  it:  ab  omnibus  exploditur.  (See  L.\odice.\.)  The 
Muratorian  Fragmentist  mentions  together  with 
a  spurious  epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Laodiceans,  one  to 
the  .Alexandrians,  which  was  forged  imder  the  aus- 
pices of  Marcion.  We  have  no  other  certain  knowl- 
edge of  this  apocryphon.  Pseudo-Correspondence  of 
St.  Paul  and  Seneca.  This  consists  of  eight  pre- 
tended letters  from  the  Stoic  philosopher  Seneca, 
and  six  replies  from  St.  Paul.  They  are  identical 
with  a  correspondence  alluded  to  by  Jerome  (de 
Viris  lUustr.,  xii),  who  without  passing  judgment  on 
their  value,  notes  that  they  are  read  by  many. 
These  letters,  therefore,  could  not  have  been  com- 
posed after  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century. 
They  are  based  on  the  early  traditions  of  Seneca's 
leanings  towards  Christianity  and  the  contemporary 
residence  at  Rome  of  Paul  and  the  philosopher.  We 
will  merely  note  tlie  existence  of  a  spurious  Letter  of 
St.  John,  the  Apostle,  to  a  dropsical  man,  healing  his 
disease,  in  the  Acts  of  St.  John  by  the  pseudo- 
Prochorus;  one  of  St.  James,  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
to  Quadratus,  in  Armenian  (Vetter,  Litterarische 
Rundschau,  1896). 

Besides  the  oft-mentioned  works  of  Bardenhewer,  etc.; 
Vetter,  Der  apokn/pke  dritte  Korintherbrief  (Vienna,  1894); 
Harnack,  Vntersuctlungen  iiber  den  apokryphen  Briefwechsel 
der  Korinlher  mit  dem  Apostel  Paulus  (Berlin,  1905);  Id., 
Die  apokryphen  Briefe  des  Paulus  an  die  Laodiceiier  und 
Korinther,  Germ,  trans.  (Berlin,  1905);  Lightfoot,  St.  Paul's 
Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  Philemon  (2d  ed..  London,  1876), 
contains  Latin  text  of  Laodiceans.  For  the  Seneca  Letters: 
Khaus,  Seneka,  in  Theologische  Quartalschrift  (IS67),  XLI; 
Apocryphal  New  Testament,  anon.  (Philadelphia.  1890,  1901); 
Lightfoot,  ,S(.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (3d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 187.3). 

(6)  Christian  Apocryphal  Apocalypses. — Apoca- 
lypse of  the  Testamentum  D.  N.  Jesu  Chrisli.  (See 
the  section  on  the  Testamentum  above.)  The  Apoca- 
lypse of  Mary  is  of  medieval  origin,  and  is  proljably 
merely  the  outcome  of  an  extravagant  devotion.  It 
describes  the  Blessed  Mother's  descent  to  Limbo, 
and  exists  in  (Jreek  MSS.  It  has  been  printed  in 
the  Tischendorf  collection  (Codex  Apocryphus  Novi 
Testamenti). — Apocalypses  oj  St.  Peter.  The  Mura- 
torian Fragment,  written  at  Rome  in  the  latter  part 
of  tlie  .second  century,  names  the  apocalypses  of 
John  and  Peter  side  by  side  as  the  only  ones  received 
in  the  Cliurch,  remarking  that  some  do  not  acknowl- 
edge the  latter.  Tliere  is  abundant  evidence  that  tlie 
Petrine  apocalypse  was  believed  aiithcntic  in  many 
quarters  of  the  early  Church,  and  enjoyed  in  a  cer- 
tain mea.sure  canonical  autliority.  Clen"ient  of  Alex- 
andria, always  credulous  with  regard  to  apocrypha, 
even  honoured  it  with  a  commentary;  Eusebius 
(Hist.   Eccl.,  VI,  xiv,   1),  places   it  almost    on    an 


equality  with  the  antiltyomcna  or  better  class  of 
disp\ited  writings;  Jerome  rejects  it  flatly.  Notwith- 
standing this,  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  fiftli  century 
it  was  publicly  read  in  some  churches  of  Palestine. 
The  few  citations  of  patristic  writers  were  unable  to 
convey  an  idea  of  its  contents,  but  fortunately  a  con- 
siderable fragment  of  this  ancient  document  was 
discovered  at  Aklmiin,  Egypt,  together  with  the 
pseudo-Petrine  Gospel  in  the  language  of  the  original, 
viz.,  Greek.  A  quotation  of  Clement  of  Alexandria 
from  the  recovered  parts  enables  us  to  identify  the 
MS.  with  certainty  as  a  portion  of  the  apocalypse  of 
antiquity.  The  passage  relates  to  a  vision  granted  by 
Clirist  to  the  Twelve  on  a  mountain,  exhibiting  the 
glory  of  two  departing  bretliren,  the  splendour  of 
heaven,  and  a  gruesome  picture  of  hell.  The  lan- 
guage has  a  Jewish-Christian  savour.  The  apocrj'- 
phon  is  attributed  by  critics  to  the  first  quarter  of 
the  second  century,  and  is  therefore  one  of  the  earliest 
specimens  of  non-canonical  literature.  There  exist 
under  the  names  Apocalypse  of  St.  Peter,  Apocalypse 
of  St.  Peter  through  Clement,  Liber  Clementis,  va- 
rious Arabic  and  Ethiopic  recensions  of  a"-  apocalypse 
which  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  ancient  Greek 
one. — The  Apocalypse  of  St.  Paul.  A  prefatory  no- 
tice pretends  that  this  work  was  found  in  a  marble 
case  under  the  house  of  Paul  at  Tarsus,  in  the  reign 
of  King  Theodosius  (a.  d.  379-39.5),  and  upon  in- 
telligence conveyed  by  an  angel.  This  indicates  the 
date  of  the  apocalypse's  fabrication.  It  purports  to 
reveal  the  secrets  seen  by  the  Apostle  in  his  trans- 
port to  the  third  heaven,  alluded  to  in  II  Cor.,  xii,  2, 
and  was  composed  in  Greek.  From  this  Pauline 
apocalypse  must  be  distinguished  a  Gnostic  work  en- 
titled the  "Ascension  of  Paul",  referred  to  by  St. 
Epiphanius,  but  of  which  no  remains  have  survived. 
There  is  a  spurious  "Apocalypse  of  John",  of  com- 
paratively late  origin.  Regarding  the  so-called  Apoc- 
alypse of  St.  Bartholomew  see  Gospel  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

See  the  histories  of  B.\rdenhewer,  Harnack,  Zafin,  cited 
in  the  first  bibliographies.  English  translations  of  the  pseudo- 
Apocalvpses  of  Peter  and  John  are  found  in  Ante-Xieene 
Fathers  (New  York,  1906),  VIII. — Special  for  the  Apocalypse 
of  Peter:  Gebhardt,  Das  Evangrlium  und  die  Apokalypse 
des  Petrus  (Leipzig,  iS93),  texts  of  the  Harnack  and  Geb- 
hardt's  Teite  und  Untersuchungen;  Dieterich.  Nikyia,  Bei- 
trage  zur  Erklarung  der  neuentdeckten  Petrusapokalypse  (Leip- 
zig); SI.MMS,  art.  in  Expositor,  Dec.  1898,  460-471. — Special  for 
Apocalypse  of  Paul:  Tischkn'dorf,  Apocalypses  Apocryphee 
(Leipzig,  1866),  Greek  and  part  of  English;  James,  Apocrypha 
Anecdota  (Cambridge,  1893),  Latin  and  English.  English 
translations  of  the  .\pocalypses  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  John  are 
found  in  Walker,  .\pocryphal  Gospels,  Acts,  and  Revelations 
(Edinburgh,    1873);   Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,   1906), 

Via. 

IV.  The  ApornypH.\  axd  the  Church. — At  a  very 
early  period  orthodox  writers  and,  presimiably,  eccle- 
siastical authorities  found  it  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  the  genuine  inspired  books  and  a  multitude 
of  spurious  rivals — a  fact  which  is  a  verj'  im|)ortant 
element  in  the  formation  of  the  Christian  canon. 
Thus  as  early  as  about  a.  d.  170,  the  author  of  the 
descriptive  Latin  catalogue  known  as  the  "Murato- 
rian Fragment"  mentioned  certain  works  !vs  fictitious 
or  contested.  At  the  same  time  St.  Irentrus  called 
attention  to  the  great  mass  of  heretical  pseudo- 
graphic  writings  {inenarrabili.'i  multitudo  apocryphorum 
et  perperam  scripturarum ,  Adv.,  Har.,  I,  xx).  Un- 
doubtedly it  was  the  large  use  heretical  circles,  es- 
pecially tlie  Gnostic  sects,  made  of  this  insinuating 
literature  which  first  called  fortli  the  animadversions 
of  the  official  guardians  of  doctrinal  purity.  Even 
in  the  East,  already  the  home  of  pscudograpliic  litera- 
ture, Origen  (d.  254)  exhibits  caution  regarding  the 
books  outside  the  canon  (Comment,  in  Mattli.. 
serm.  28).  St.  Athanasius  in  307  fovmd  it  neces.sary 
to  warn  his  flock  by  a  pastoral  epistle  against  Jew- 
ish and  lieretical  apocryplia  (P.  G.,  XXVI.M.3SV 
Another  Greek  Fatlier,  Epiphanius  (312-403)  in 
"  Ha'reses  ",  2C,  could  c()mi)lain  tliat  copies  of  Gnostic 


APODOSIS 


615 


APOLLINARIANISM 


apocrypha  were  current  in  thousands.  Yet  it  must 
be  confessed  that  tlie  early  Fathers,  and  the  (^hurcli, 
during  the  first  three  centuries,  were  more  indulgent 
towards  Jewish  pseudographs  circulating  under  ven- 
erable Old  Testament  names.  The  Book  of  Henoch 
and  the  Assumption  of  Moses  had  been  cited  Ijy  the 
canonical  Kpistle  of  Jude.  .Many  Fathers  admitted 
the  inspiration  of  Fourth  E.s<lras.  Not  to  mention 
the  Shepherd  of  Hcrm;us,  the  .Acts  of  St.  Paul  (at 
least  in  tlie  Theda  jjortion)  and  the  ApocaIy|\se  of 
St.  Peter  were  liiglily  re\eretl  at  this  and  later  pe- 
riods. Vet,  withal,  no  apocrj'phal  work  found  of- 
ficial recognition  in  tlic  Western  Church.  In  447 
Pope  Leo  tlie  tireat  wrote  (jointedly  against  the 
pseudo-apostolic  writings,  "which  contained  the  germ 
of  so  many  errors  .  .  .  they  should  not  only  be  for- 
bidden but  completely  suppres.sed  and  burned" 
(Epist.  XV,  lo).  The  so-called  "Decretum  de  re- 
cipiendis  et  non  reci])iendLs  libris"  is  attributed  to 
Pojx;  Cielasius  (49.5),  but  in  reality  is  a  compilation 
dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  and 
containing  collections  made  earlier  than  (ielasius.  It 
is  an  official  document,  the  first  of  the  kind  we  pos- 
sess, and  contained  a  list  of  39  works  besides  those 
ascribed  to  Leucius,  "disciple  of  the  devil",  all  of 
which  it  condemns  as  apocryphal.  From  this  cata- 
logue it  is  evident  that  in  the  Latin  Church  by  this 
time,  ajxjcryplia  in  general,  including  those  of 
Catholic  origin,  had  fallen  under  the  ecclesiastical 
ban,  always,  however,  with  a  preoccupation  against 
the  danger  of  heterodoxy.  The  Synod  of  Braga,  in 
Spain,  held  in  the  year  .56.3,  anathematizes  any  one 
"who  reads,  approves,  or  defends  the  injurious  fic- 
tions -set  in  circulation  by  heretics".  Although  in 
the  Middle  .\ges  these  condemnations  were  forgotten 
and  many  of  the  p.seudographic  writings  enjoyed  a 
high  degree  of  fa\'our  among  both  clerics  and  the 
laity,  still  we  find  superior  minds,  such  as  Alcuin, 
St.  Bernard,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  pointing  out  their 
want  of  authority.  An  echo  of  the  ancient  condem- 
nations occurs  in  the  work  De  Festis  B.  M.  V.  of 
Benedict  XIV,  declaring  certain  popular  apocrj'pha 
to  be  impure  sources  of  tradition.  (See  Canon  of 
S.ACKED  Scripture.) 

Tappehorn,  AtiaafrbiblUche  Nachrichten  (Podcrbom,  1835). 

George  J.  Reid. 

Apodosis  (Gr.  dir65o<ris,  a  giving  back),  a  usage 
of  the  Cireek  Church  corresponding  .somewhat  to  the 
octave  of  a  feast  in  the  Latin  Chiircli.  For  .several 
days  after  a  great  feast  the  celebrant  turns  back  to 
certain  prayers  of  the  feast  and  repeats  them  in 
commemoration  of  it.  The  last  day  of  such  repeti- 
tion of  the  prayers  of  the  previous  feast  is  called  the 
apmlnsis.  This  time  may  be  longer  or  shorter  than 
the  Latin  octave  of  one  week,  because  great  feasts 
in  the  Greek  Church  are  commemorateil  for  a  longer 
time  than  minor  ones. 

PicTHinfcs.  in  Did.  darch.  chrH.,  I,  2589;  Chahro.v,  Sainlcnet 
dirinrs  lituraua  (Paris,  1904). 

Andrew  J.  Ship.alwj. 

Apollinarianism,  a  Christological  theory,  accord- 
ing to  which  Christ  had  a  human  body  and  a  human 
sensitive  soul,  but  no  human  rational  mind,  the  Divine 
Logon  taking  the  place  of  this  last.  The  author  of 
this  tlieorj',  .VpoUinaris  ("AiroXtKipios)  the  Younger, 
Bishop  of  Laodicea,  flourished  in  the  hitter  half  of 
the  fourth  century  and  was  at  first  highly  esteemed 
by  men  like  St.  .\thanasius,  St.  Basil,  and  St.  Jerome 
for  his  classical  culture,  his  Biblical  learning,  his 
defence  of  Christianity  and  his  loyalty  to  the  Nicene 
faith.  He  a.s.si.stcd  his  father.  .Apollinaris  the  Flder, 
in  reconstnicting  the  Scriptures  on  classical  models 
in  order  to  compensate  the  Christians  for  the  lo.ss  of 
(Ireek  literature  of  which  the  edict  of  Julian  h.ad 
deprived  them.  St.  Jerome  credits  him  with  "in- 
numerable volumes  on  the  Scriptures";  two  apolo- 


gies of  Christianity,  one  against  Porphyry,  and  the 
other  against  Julian;  a  refutation  of  Eunomius,  a 
radical  .\rian,  etc.;  but  all  these  works  are  lost. 
With  regard  to  .Vpollinaris's  writings  which  bear  on 
the  present  theory,  we  are  more  fortunate.  A  con- 
temporary anonymous  book:  "AdversiLs  fraudes 
Apollinaristarum",  informs  us  that  the  Ajjollinarists, 
in  order  to  win  credence  for  their  error,  circulated  a 
number  of  tracts  under  the  approved  names  of  such 
men  as  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  ('H  (tard  lUpot  wlffrtt, 
E.xposition  of  Faith),  Athaiiasius  {repl  <rop(tii(rfujs.  On 
the  Incarnation),  Pope  Julius  ("pl  ttjs  iv  Xpiarf 
ivlmiTos,  On  Unity  in  Christ),  etc.  Following  that 
clue,  Leciuien  (1740),  Caspari  (1879),  and  Dra.seke 
(1K92),  have  shown  that  in  all  probability  the.se  are 
Apollinaris's  writings.  Moreover,  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church  who  wrote  in  defence  of  orthodoxy,  e.  g., 
Athanasius,  in  two  books  against  ApoUinaris;  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen,  in  several  letters;  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
in  his  " 'Amp^TjTiifis  ";  Theodoret,  in  his  "  Ha>retica! 
Fabuhe"  and  "  Dialogues  ",  etc.,  incidentally  give  us 
ample  information  on  the  real  system  of  the  Laodi- 
cean. 

The  precise  time  at  which  .\pollinaris  came  fonvard 
with  his  heresy  is  uncertain.  There  are  clearly  two 
periods  in  the  .\pollinarist  controversy.  Up  to  376, 
either  because  of  his  covert  attitude  or  of  the  respect 
in  whicli  he  was  held,  .Xpollinaris's  name  was  never 
mentioned  by  his  opi)oncnts,  i.  e.  by  individuals  like 
.•Vtlianasius  and  Pope  Damasus,  or  by  councils  like 
the  .Mexandrian  (362),  and  the  Roman  (.376).  From 
this  latter  tlate  it  is  open  war.  Two  more  Roman 
councils,  377  and  381,  and  a  number  of  Fatliers, 
plainly  denounce  anti  condemn  iis  heretical  the  views 
of  .\pollinaris.  He  failed  to  submit  even  to  the  more 
solemn  condemnation  of  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople, 381,  whose  first  canon  entered  Apollinarianism 
on  the  list  of  heresies,  and  he  died  in  his  error,  alxjut 
39'J.  His  following,  at  one  time  considerable  in 
C<m.stantinople,  Syria,  and  Phcrnicia.  hardly  survived 
him.  Some  few  disciples,  hke  Vitalis,  \alentinus, 
Polemon,  ami  Timothy,  tried  to  perpetuate  the  error 
of  the  master  and  probably  are  responsible  for  the 
forgeries  noticed  above.  The  sect  itself  soon  became 
extinct.  Towards  416,  many  retumeti  to  the  mother- 
Church,  while  the  rest  drifted  away  into  Monophys- 
itism. 

Theory. — .\pollinaris  based  his  theory  on  two 
principles  or  suppositions,  one  ontological  or  objec- 
tive, and  one  psychological  or  subjective.  Onto- 
logically,  it  appt^ared  to  him  that  the  union  of  com- 
plete God  witli  complete  man  could  not  be  more  than 
a  juxtaposition  or  collocation.  Two  perfect  beings 
with  all  their  attributes,  he  argued,  cannot  be  one. 
Thev  are  at  most  an  incongruous  compound,  not 
unlike  the  monsters  of  mytholoj^.  Inasmuch  as 
the  Nicene  faith  forbade  him  to  belittle  the  Logos,  as 
Arius  had  done,  he  forthwith  proceeded  to  maim 
the  humanity  of  Christ,  and  divest  it  of  its  noblest 
attribute,  and  this,  he  claimed,  for  the  siike  of  true 
Unity  and  veritable  Incarnation.  Psychologically, 
Apollinaris,  con.sidering  the  r.ition.al  soul  or  spirit  as 
essentially  liable  to  sin  and  capable,  at  its  best,  of 
only  precarious  efforts,  saw  no  way  of  .saving  Christ's 
impeccability  and  the  infinite  value  of  Redemption, 
except  by  the  chmination  of  the  human  spirit  from 
Jesus'  humanity,  and  the  substitution  of  tlie  Divine 
Logon  in  its  stead.  For  the  ccmstructive  part  of  his 
theorj',  .\pollinaris  appealed  to  the  well-known 
Platonic  division  of  human  nature:  body  (dpi.  ituiim), 
soul  (f ux")  4^0705),  spirit  (wOs.  Trvfviia,  xf'i'xil  \oyiK-/i). 
Christ,  he  s:iid,  a.ssumed  the  human  body  and  the 
human  .soul  or  principle  of  animal  life,  but  not  the 
human  spirit.  The  I^gos  Him.self  is.  or  takes  the 
place  of.  the  human  spirit,  thus  becoming  the  rational 
and  spiritual  centre,  the  seat  of  .sclf-consciousne.ss 
and    self-determination.     By     this     simple    device 


APOLLINARIS 


616 


APOLLINARIS 


the  Laodicean  thought  that  Christ  was  safe,  His 
substantial  unity  secure,  His  moral  iminutabihty 
guaranteeil,  aiui"  the  infinite  value  of  Redemption 
made  self-evitient.  And  in  confirmation  of  it  all, 
he  quoted  from  St.  John,  i,  14  "and  the  Word  was 
made  flesh";  St.  Paul,  Phil.,  ii,  7,  "Being  made  in 
the  likeness  of  men  and  in  habit  found  as  a  man", 
and  I  Cor.,  xv,  47  "The  second  man,  from  heaven, 
heavenly".  . 

Doctrine  op  the  Church. — It  is  to  be  found  m 
the  seventh  anathema  of  Pope  Damasus  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  Rome,  :581.  "  We  pronounce  anathema  against 
them  who  say  tliat  the  Word  of  God  is  in  the  human 
flesh  in  heu  and  place  of  the  human  rational  and  in- 
tellective soul.  For,  the  Word  of  God  is  the  Son 
Himself.  Neither  did  He  come  in  the  flesh  to  replace, 
but  rather  to  a.^^surae  and  preserve  from  sin  and  save 
the  rational  and  intellective  soul  of  man."  In 
answer  to  .\pollinaris's  basic  principles,  the  Fathers 
simply  denied  the  second  as  Manichsan.  As  to  the 
first,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  Councils  of 
Ephesus  and  Chalcedon  had  not  yet  formulated  the 
doctrine  of  the  Hypostatical  Union.  It  will  then 
appear  why  the  Fathers  contented  themselves  with 
offering  arguments  in  rebuttal,  e.  g. :  (1)  Scripture 
holds  that  the  Logos  assumed  all  that  is  human — 
therefore  the  TrvtSfm  also — sin  alone  excepted; 
that  Jesus  experienced  joy  and  sadness,  both  being 
properties  of  the  rational  soul.  (2)  Christ  without  a 
rational  soul  is  not  a  man;  such  an  incongruous  com- 
pound, as  that  imagined  by  ApoUinaris,  can  neither 
be  called  God-man  nor  stand  as  the  model  of  Christian 
life.  (3)  What  Christ  has  not  assumed  He  has  not 
healed;  thus  the  noblest  portion  of  man  is  excluded 
from  Redemption.  They  also  pointed  out  the 
correct  meaning  of  the  Scriptural  passages  alleged 
by  ApolUnaris,  remarking  that  the  word  irdp?  in 
St.  John,  as  in  other  parts  of  Holy  Writ,  was  used 
by  sjTiecdoclie  for  the  whole  human  nature,  and 
that  the  true  meaning  of  St.  Paul  (Philippians  and 
I  CorintWans)  was  determined  by  the  clear  teaching 
of  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  Some  of  them,  however, 
incautiously  insisted  upon  the  hmitations  of  Jesus' 
knowleilge  as  proof  positive  that  His  mind  was  truly 
human.  But  when  the  heresiarch  would  have  taken 
them  farther  afield  into  the  very  mystery  of  the 
Unity  of  Christ,  they  feared  not  to  acknowledge 
their  ignorance  and  gently  derided  Apollinaris's 
mathematical  spirit  and  implicit  reliance  upon  mere 
speculation  and  human  reasoning.  The  Apollinarist 
controvensy,  wliich  nowadays  appears  somewhat 
childish,  had  its  importance  in  the  histoiy  of  Christian 
dogma;  it  transferred  the  discussion  from  the 
Trinity  into  the  Christological  field;  moreover,  it 
opened  that  long  hne  of  Christological  debates  which 
resulted  in  the  Chalcedonian  symbol. 

Batiffoi.,  LilUraluTe  c/recque  (Paris.  1898);  VoisiN,  Revue 
d'hisloire  eccl.  (Louvain,  1901);  Dhaseke,  Appollinaris  von 
Ldodicca  (Leipzig,  1892);  Hergenrother — KiRSCH,  Kitchen- 
geechichle  (Freiburg,  1902).  I;  Rainy.  The  Ancient  Catholic 
Church  (New  York  1902);  Hauck-Hehzog,  Realenci/cl.  f. 
J'rol.  Theol.  u.  Kirche  (3cl  ed.)  I,  671—76.  Denzingeh,  £71- 
chiridion  (Wurzburg,  1895);  Petavhis,  DogmaUi  Theologica 
(Paris,  1867);  Tuhmel,  Histoire  de  la  Ihialogie  positive  (Paris, 

J.  F.  SOLLIER. 

ApoUinaris,  Saint,  was  one  of  the  first  great 
martyrs  of  the  Church.  He  was  made  Bishop  of 
Ravenna  by  St.  Peter  himself.  The  miracles  he 
wrought  there  .soon  attracted  official  attention,  for 
they  and  his  preaching  won  many  converts  to  the 
Faith,  while  at  the  same  time  bringing  upon  him  the 
fury  of  the  idolaters,  who  beat  liiin  crucllv  and  drove 
him  from  the  city.  He  was  found  half  dead  on  the 
seashore,  and  kept  in  concc;ilmont  by  the  ('hristians, 
but  was  captured  again  and  compelled  to  walk  on 
burning  coaLs  and  a  second  time  expelled.  But  he 
remained  in  the  vicinity,  and  continued  his  work  of 


evangelization.  We  find  him  then  journeying  in 
the  province  of  .^Emilia.  A  third  time  he  returned 
to  Ravenna.  Again  he  was  captured,  hacked  with 
knives,  had  scalding  water  poured  over  his  wounds, 
was  beaten  in  the  mouth  with  stones  because  he 
persisted  in  preaching,  and  then,  loaded  with  chains, 
was  flung  into  a  horrible  dungeon  to  starve  to  death; 
but  after  four  days  he  was  put  on  board  ship  and 
sent  to  Greece.  There  the  same  course  of  preach- 
ings, and  miracles,  and  sufferings  continued;  and 
when  his  very  presence  caused  the  oracles  to  be 
silent,  he  was,  after  a  cruel  beating,  sent  back  to 
Italy.  All  this  continued  for  three  years,  and  a 
fourth  time  he  returned  to  Ravenna.  By  this  time 
Vespasian  was  Emperor,  and  he,  in  answer  to  the 
complaints  of  the  pagans,  issued  a  decree  of  banish- 
ment against  the  Christians.  ApoUinaris  was  kept 
concealed  for  some  time,  but  as  he  was  passing  out 
of  the  gates  of  the  city,  was  set  upon  and  savagely 
beaten,  probably  at  Classis,  a  suburb,  but  he  lived 
for  seven  days,  foretelling  meantime  that  the  perse- 
cutions would  increase,  but  that  the  Church  would 
ultimately  triumph.  It  is  not  certain  what  was  his 
native  place,  though  it  was  probably  Antioch.  Nor 
is  it  sure  that  he  was  one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples 
of  Christ,  as  has  been  suggested.  The  precise  date 
of  his  consecration  cannot  be  ascertained,  but  lie  was 
Bishop  of  Ravenna  for  twenty-six  years. 
Acta  SS.,  5  July. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

ApoUinaris,  Saint,  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Bish- 
ops of  Valence,  b.  at  Vienne,  453;  d.  520.  He  lived 
in  the  time  of  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians,  and 
unhappily  Valence,  which  was  the  central  see  of  the 
recently  founded  Kingdom  of  Burgundy,  had  been 
scandalized  by  the  dissolute  Bishop  Maximus,  and 
the  see  in  consequence  had  been  vacant  for  fifty 
years.  ApoUinaris  was  of  a  family  of  nobles  and 
saints.  He  was  little  over  twenty  when  he  was  or- 
dained priest.  In  486,  when  he  was  thirty-three 
years  old,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  the  long  vacant 
See  of  Valence,  and  under  his  zealous  care  it  soon 
recovered  its  ancient  glory.  Abuses  were  corrected, 
and  morals  reformed.  The  Bishop  was  so  beloved 
that  the  news  of  his  first  illness  fiUed  the  city  with 
consternation.  His  return  to  health  was  miraculous. 
He  was  present  at  the  conference  at  Lyons,  between 
the  Arians  and  Catholics,  which  was  held  in  presence 
of  King  Gondebaud.  He  distinguished  himself  there 
by  Ills  eloquence  and  learning. 

A  memorable  contest  in  defence  of  marriage 
brought  ApoUinaris  again  into  special  prominence. 
Stephen,  the  treasurer  of  the  kingdom,  was  living 
in  incest.  The  four  bishops  of  the  province  com- 
manded him  to  separate  from  his  companion,  but 
he  appealed  to  the  King,  who  sustained  his  official 
and  exiled  the  four  bishops  to  Sardinia.  As  they 
refused  to  yield,  the  King  relented,  and  after  some 
time  permitted  them  to  return  to  their  sees,  with 
the  exception  of  ApoUinaris,  who  had  rendered  him- 
self particularly  obnoxious,  and  was  kept  a  close 
prisoner  for  a  year.  At  last  the  King,  stricken  with 
a  grievous  malady,  repented,  and  the  Queen  in 
person  came  to  bog  ApoUinaris  to  go  to  the  court, 
to  restore  the  monarch  to  health.  On  his  refusal, 
the  Queen  asked  for  his  cloak  to  place  on  the  suf- 
ferer. The  request  was  granted,  the  King  was  cured, 
and  came  to  beg  absolution  for  his  sin.  ApoUinaris 
was  sixty-four  years  old  when  he  returned  from 
Sardinia  to  Valence,  and  his  people  received  him 
with  every  demonstration  of  joy.  He  ilicd  after 
an  episcopate  of  thirty-four  years,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-seven,  his  life  ending,  as  it  had  begun,  in  the 
constant  exercise  of  the  most  exalted  holiness. 

Acta  SS.,  October,  III. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 


APOLLINARIS 


Gi: 


APOLLONIUS 


ApolUnaria  (Tiik  Elder),  a  Christian  grammarian 
of  tlie  fourth  c-eiitury,  first  at  Hcrj-tus  in  Phcrnicia, 
then  at  Laodicoa  in  Syria.  He  became  a  priest,  and 
was  among  tlie  stanehest  upholders  of  tiie  Council 
of  Nica-a  (325)  and  of  St.  Atliana-sius.  When  Juhan 
the  .\postate  forbade  Christian  professors  to  lecture 
or  coininont  on  the  poets  or  philosophers  of  Greece 
(;!62),  .\|M)llinaris  and  his  .son  bearing  the  same  name, 
both  hiplily  cultivated  and  resourceful,  zealously 
strove  to  replace  the  literary  masterpieces  of  antiquity 
by  new  works  whicli  should  offset  the  threatened 
loss  to  Christians  of  the  advantages  of  poHte  instruc- 
tion and  help  to  win  respect  for  the  Christian  re- 
ligion among  the  lieathens.  According  to  Socrates 
(Hist.  Keel.,  II,  xlvi;  III,  xvi),  the  elder  ApoUinaris 
translated  the  Pentateuch  into  (Ireek  hexameters, 
converted  the  first  two  books  of  Kings  into  an  epic 
poem  of  twenty-four  cantos,  wrote  tragetlies  modelled 
on  Kuripides,  comedies  after  tlie  manner  of  .Menander, 
and  ikIcs  imitated  from  Pintlar.  Sozomen  (Hist. 
Eccl.,  V,  xviii;  VI,  xxv)  .says  nothing  of  the  poetical 
works  of  the  elder  .\polUnaris,  but  lays  stress  on 
those  of  liis  son.  This  improvised  Greek  literature, 
however,  uninspired  by  genius,  ilid  not  sur^ave.  As 
soon  as  Valentinian  I  (364-375)  had  revoked  the  edict 
of  Julian  the  schools  returned  to  the  great  classic 
writers,  and  only  the  memory  of  the  courageous 
efforts  of  ApoUinaris  to  nullify  the  malice  of  Juhan 
survived. 

Kruubacher,  Getch.  d.  bt/iant.  Lilt.,  2(1  ed.;  Godet  in 
ZHcl.  de  Uieol.  cath.,  I,  1505. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

ApoUinaris  Claudius,  Sajnt.  a  Christian  apolo- 
gist, Mishop  of  llierapolis  in  Phrygia  in  the  second 
centurj-.  He  lx;came  famous  for  liis  polemical  trea- 
tises against  tlie  heretics  of  liis  day,  who.se  errors  he 
showed  to  be  entirely  borrowed  from  the  pagans.  He 
wrote  two  books  against  tlie  Jews,  five  against  the 
pagans,  and  two  on  "Truth."  In  177  he  published 
an  elotjuent  "Apologia"  for  the  Christians,  addressed 
to  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  appealing  to  the  Emperor's 
own  experience  with  the  "Thundering  Legion", 
whose  prayei's  won  him  the  victorj-  over  the  (Juadi. 
The  exact  date  of  his  death  is  not  known,  but  it  was 
probably  while  Marcus  Aurelius  was  still  Emperor. 
None  of  his  writings  is  extant.  His  feaat  is  kept 
8  January. 

BcTLbK,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  8  January;  MicnAUD,  Biog. 
Univ.;  VcRSCHAFPEL  in  Diet,  de  thiol  cath.;  SalkoN  io  Diet,  of 
Christ.  Bioor. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

ApoUinaris  Sidonius.    See  Sidoniu.s. 

ApoUonia,  Sai.nt,  a  holy  virgin  wlio  suffered 
martyrdom  in  Alexandria  during  a  local  uprising 
against  the  Christians  previous  to  the  persecution 
of  Decius  (end  of  248,  or  beginning  of  249).  During 
the  festivities  commemorative  of  the  first  millenary 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  tlie  agitation  of  the  heathen 
populace  rose  to  a  great  height,  and  when  one  of 
their  poets  prophesied  a  calamity,  they  committed 
bloody  outrages  on  the  Christians  wliom  the  authori- 
ties made  no  effort  to  protect.  The  great  Dionysius, 
then  Jiishop  of  Alexandria  (247-21)5),  relates  the 
sufferings  of  his  people  in  a  letter  addressed  to  Fa- 
bius.  Bishop  of  Antioch,  long  extracts  from  which 
Eiisebius  has  preserved  for  us  (Hist.  Eccl.,  I,  vi,  41). 
After  describing  how  a  Christian  man  and  woman, 
named  respectively  Metras  and  Quinta,  were  seized 
by  the  seditious  mob  and  put  to  tleath  with  the 
most  crviel  tortures,  and  how  the  houses  of  .several 
other  Christians  were  completely  pillaged.  Dionysius 
continues:  "At  that  time  .\pollonia  tlie  irapWwjj 
rpta^uTK  (I'irgo  pTcubytcrii ,  by  which  he  verj'  prob- 
ably means  not  a  virgin  advanced  in  years,  but  a 
deaconess)  was  held  in  high  esteem.  These  men 
seized  her  also  and  by  repeated  blows  broke  all  her 


teeth.  They  then  erected  outside  the  city  gates  a 
pile  of  fagots  and  threatened  to  burn  her  alive  if 
she  refused  to  repeat  after  them  impious  words 
(either  a  blasphemy  agaittst  Christ,  or  an  invocation 
of  the  heathen  gods).  Given,  at  her  own  recpicst, 
a  little  freedom,  she  sprang  quickly  into  the  lire 
and  was  burned  to  death."  Apollonia  belongs, 
therefore,  to  that  chuss  of  early  Christian  martyrs 
who  did  not  await  the  death  they  were  threatened 
with,  but  either  to  preserve  their  cliastity,  or  becau.se 
confronted  with  the  alternative  of  renouncing  their 
faith  or  suffering  death,  voluntarily  embraced  the 
latter  in  the  form  prepared  for  them.  In  the  honour 
paid  to  her  martyrs  the  Church  made  no  distinction 
Detween  these  women  and  others.  St.  Augustine 
touches  on  this  question  in  the  first  book  of  the 
"City  of  God",  apropos  of  suicide  (De  Civ.  Dei,  I,  20): 
"  But,  they  say,  during  the  time  of  persecution  cer- 
tain holy  women  plunged  into  the  water  with  the 
intention  of  being  swept  away  by  the  waves  and 
drowned,  and  tluLS  preserve  their  threatened  chas- 
tity. Although  they  quitted  life  in  this  wise,  never- 
theless they  receive  high  honour  as  martyrs  in  the 
Catholic  Church  and  their  fe;ists  are  observed  with 
great  ceremony.  This  is  a  matter  on  which  I  dare 
not  pass  judgment  lightly.  For  I  know  not  but 
that  tlie  Church  was  divinely  authorized  throngh 
trustworthy  revelations  to  honour  thus  the  memory 
of  these  Christians.  It  may  be  that  such  is  the  case. 
May  it  not  be,  too,  that  these  acted  in  such  a  manner, 
not  through  human  caprice  but  on  the  command  of 
God,  not  erroneously  but  through  obedience,  as  we 
must  believe  in  the  case  of  Samson?  When,  how- 
ever, God  gives  a  command  and  makes  it  clearly 
known,  who  would  account  obedience  thereto  a 
crime  or  condemn  such  pious  devotion  and  ready 
service?"  The  narrative  of  Dionysius  does  not  sug- 
gest the  slightest  reproach  its  to  tiiis  act  of  St.  Apol- 
lonia; in  liis  eyes  she  was  as  much  a  martjT  as  the 
others,  and  as  such  she  was  revered  in  the  Alexan- 
drian Church.  In  time,  her  feast  was  also  popular 
in  the  West.  A  later  legend  assigned  a  similar 
martyrdom  to  Apollonia,  a  Christian  virgin  of  Rome 
in  the  reign  of  Julian  the  Apostate.  There  wius, 
however,  but  one  martyr  of  this  name,  i.  e.  the  Saint 
of  Alexamlria.  The  Roman  Church  celebrates  her 
memory  on  9  Februarj',  and  she  is  popularly  in- 
voked against  the  toothache  because  of  the  torments 
she  had  to  endure.  She  is  represented  in  art  with 
pincers  in  which  a  tootli  is  held.  There  was  a  church 
dedicated  to  her  at  Rome  but  it  no  longer  exists. 
The  little  square,  however,  in  wliich  it  stood  is 
still  called  "Piazza  Sant'  Apollonia". 

Ada  SS..  Feb..  II.   278  s<iq.;    kiilholik   (18721.   I.  220  Kiq.; 
Bililiolheca  hiffinurnphim  lalina,  e<l.  Boi.la.mi.  (Urussels,  1898). 
10.3   Miq;    Neumann,  Dcr  romigchr    .Stoat    und    die    allprmeine 
Kirche  (I.oip7.ig,    IR90)    I,   2.")2  .«<i'i.;   Bdtler,  LiiM,  0  Feb. 
J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

ApoUonius  of  Ephesus,  anti-Montanist  Greek  ec- 
clesiastical writer,  between  ISO  and  210,  probably  from 
Asia  Minor,  for  he  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
Christian  history  of  Ephesus  and  the  doings  of  the 
Phrj'gian  Montanists.  If  we  may  accept  what  the 
unknown  author  of  "  Prwdestinatus"  says  (I,  26,  27, 
28;  P.  L.,  LIII,  .596),  he  was  a  Bishop  of  Ephesus.  but 
the  silence  of  other  Christian  writers  n^nders  this 
testimony  doubtful.  He  undertook  the  defence  of 
the  Church  against  Montanus,  and  followed  in  the 
footsteps  of  Zoticus  of  Comanus,  Julian  of  Apama'a, 
Solas  of  .\nchialus,  and  .\pollinaris  of  Hierapolis. 
His  work  is  cited  by  Ensebius  (Hist.  l'>cl.,  V,  18), 
and  is  praised  by  St.  Jerome  (De  vir.  ill.,  c.  xl),  but 
hius  been  lost,  and  not  even  its  title  is  known.  It 
seems  certain  tliat  it  showed  the  falsity  of  the  .\Ion- 
tanist  prophecies,  recounte<l  the  unedifying  lives  of 
Montanus  and  his  prophetesses,  also  gave  currency 
to  the  report  of  their  suicide  by  hanging,  and  threw 


APOLLONIUS 


618 


APOLOGETICS 


light  on  some  of  the  adepts  of  the  sect,  including 
the  apostate  Themison  and  the  pseudo-martyr  Alex- 
ander. The  former,  ha\'ing  evaded  martyrdom  by 
means  of  money,  posed  as  an  iimovator,  addressing 
a  letter  to  his"  partisans  after  the  manner  of  the 
Apostles,  and  finally  blasphemed  Christ  and  the 
Cnurch;  the  latter,  a  notorious  thief,  publicly  con- 
demned at  Ephesus,  had  himself  adored  as  a  god. 
We  know  from  Eusebius  that  ApoUonius  spoke  in 
his  work  of  Zoticus,  who  had  tried  to  exorcise  Maxi- 
milla,  but  had  been  prevented  by  Themison,  and  of 
the  martyr-Bishop  Tliraseas,  another  adversary  of 
Montanism.  He  very  probably  gave  the  signal  in 
it  for  the  movement  of  opposition  to  Montanism 
which  the  reunion  of  the  first  synods  developed.  At 
all  events,  he  recalls  the  tradition  according  to  which 
Our  Lord  had  advised  the  Apostles  not  to  go  far 
from  Jerusalem  during  the  twelve  years  immediately 
following  His  Ascension,  a  tradition  known  to  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  from  the  apocryphal  "  Praedicatio 
Petri".  He  moreover  recounts  the  restoration  to 
life  of  a  dead  man  at  Ephesus  by  the  Apostle  St.  John, 
whose  Apocalypse  he  knew  and  quotes.  He  takes 
rank  among  the  opponents  of  Montanism  with  the 
"  Anonymous "  of  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  16,  17), 
with  Miltiades  and  with  ApoUinaris.  Eusebius  (loc. 
cit.)  says  his  work  constituted  "an  abundant  and 
excellent    refutation    of    Montanism".     St.    Jerome 

?ualified  it  as  ''a  lengthy  and  remarkable  volume". 
t  did  not  therefore  pass  unnoticed,  and  must  have 
roused  some  feeling  among  the  Montanists  since  Ter- 
tullian  felt  it  necessary  to  reply  to  it.  After  his  six 
books  Trepl  iKcrria-eus,  in  which  he  apologized  for 
the  ecstasies  into  which  the  Montanist  prophetesses 
fell  before  prophesying,  TertiiUian  composed  a  seventh 
especially  to  refute  ApoUonius;  he  wrote  it  also  in 
Greek  for  the  use  of  the  Asiatic  Montanists. 

Bareille  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  calk..  II.  1507;  Ve.v.veles  in 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Biogr.,  I,  135;  Bardenhewer,  Gesch.  d.  altkirchl. 
Lilt.  (Freiburg.  1902),  I.  525.  For  the  fragments  of  ApoUonius 
see  liouTH,  Reliquiae  Sacroe  (2d  ed.),  I,  4G3-S5. 

Fr.\ncis  W.  Grey. 

ApoUonius  of  Tyana.  See  Neo-Pith.^ggrean 
Philosophy. 

Apologetics,  a  theological  science  which  has  for  its 
purpose  the  explanation  and  defence  of  the  Christian 
religion.  Apologetics  means,  broadly  speaking,  a 
form  of  apologj'.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
adjective,  apoloqelicus ,  which,  in  turn  has  its  origin 
in  the  Greek  adjective,  dTroXo-yijTiKAs,  the  substantive 
being  d7ro\o7(a,  "apology",  "defence".  As  an 
equivalent  of  the  plural  form,  the  variant,  "Apolo- 
getic", is  now  and  then  found  in  recent  WTitings, 
suggested  probably  by  the  corresponding  French  and 
German  words,  which  are  always  in  the  singular. 
But  the  plural  form,  "Apologetics",  is  far  more 
common  and  will  doubtless  prevail,  being  in  har- 
mony with  other  words  similarly  formed,  as  ethics, 
statistics,  homiletics.  In  defining  apologetics  as  a 
form  of  apology,  we  understand  the  latter  word  in 
its  primary  sense,  as  a  verbal  defence  against  a  ver- 
bal attack,  a  disproving  of  a  fal.se  accusation,  or  a 
justification  of  an  action  or  line  of  conduct  wrongly 
made  the  object  of  censure.  Such,  for  example,  is 
the  Apology  of  Socrates,  such  the  Apologia  of  Jolm 
Henry  Newman.  This  is  the  only  sense  attaching 
to  the  terra  as  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, or  by  the  French  and  Germans  of  the  present 
day.  Quite  different  is  the  meaning  now  conveyed 
by  our  English  word,  "  apology  ",  namely,  an  explana- 
tion of  an  action  acknowledged  to  be  open  to  blame. 
The  same  idea  is  expressed  almost  exclusively  by 
the  verb,  "apologize'',  and  generally  by  the  adjec- 
tive, "apologetic'  .  For  this  reason,  the  adoption  of 
the  word,  "Apologetics",  in  the  sense  of  a  .scientific 
vindication  of  the  Christian  religion  is  not  altogether 
a  happy  one.     Some  scholars  prefer  such  terms  as 


"Christian  Evidences",  the  "  Defence  of  the  Christian 
Religion".  "Apologetics"  and  "Apology"  are  not 
altogether  interchangeable  terms.  The  latter  is  the 
generic  term,  the  former  the  specific.  Any  kind  of 
accusation,  whether  personal,  social,  political,  or  re- 
ligious, may  call  forth  a  corresponding  apology.  It  is 
oSy  apologies  of  the  Christian  religion  that  fall 
within  the  scope  of  apologetics.  Nor  is  it  all  such. 
There  is  scarcely  a  dogma,  scarcely  a  ritual  or  dis- 
ciplinary institution  of  the  Church  that  has  not  been 
subjected  to  hostile  criticism,  and  hence,  as  occasion 
required,  been  vindicated  by  proper  apologies.  But 
besides  these  forms  of  apology,  there  are  the  answers 
tliat  have  been  called  forth  by  attacks  of  various 
kinds  upon  the  credentials  of  the  Christian  religion, 
apologies  written  to  vindicate  now  this,  now  that 
ground  of  the  Cliristian  Catholic  faith,  that  has  been 
called  in  question  or  held  up  to  disbelief  and  ridicule. 

Now  it  is  out  of  such  apologies  for  the  foundations 
of  Christian  belief  that  the  science  of  apologetics 
has  taken  form.  Apologetics  is  the  Christian  Apol- 
ogy par  excellence,  combining  in  one  well-rounded 
system  the  arguments  and  considerat  ioruL  of  perma- 
nent value  that  have  found  expression  in  the  va- 
rious single  apologies.  The  latter,  being  answers  to 
specific  attacks,  were  necessarily  conditioned  by  the 
occasions  that  called  them  forth.  They  were  per- 
sonal, controversial,  partial  vindications  of  the  Chris- 
tian position.  In  them  the  refutation  of  specific 
charges  was  the  prominent  element.  Apologetics, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  the  comprehensive,  scientific 
vindication  of  the  grounds  of  Christian,  Catholic  be- 
lief, in  which  the  calm,  impersonal  presentation  of 
underlying  principles  is  of  paramount  importance, 
the  refutation  of  objections  being  added  by  way  of 
corollary.  It  addresses  itself  not  to  the  hostile  op- 
ponent for  the  purpose  of  refutation,  but  rather  to 
the  inquiring  mind  by  way  of  information.  Its  aim 
is  to  give  a  scientific  presentation  of  the  claims  which 
Christ's  revealed  religion  has  on  the  assent  of  every 
rational  mind;  it  seeks  to  lead  the  inquirer  alter 
truth  to  recognize,  first,  the  reasonableness  and  trust- 
worthiness of  the  Christian  revelation  as  realized  in 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  secondly,  the  corresponding 
obligation  of  accepting  it.  While  not  compelling 
faith — for  the  certitude  it  offers  is  not  absolute,  but 
moral — it  shows  that  tlie  credentials  of  the  Christian 
religion  amply  suflSce  to  vindicate  the  act  of  faith  lus 
a  rational  act,  and  to  discredit  the  estrangement  of 
the  sceptic  and  unbeliever  as  unwarranted  and  cul- 
pable. Its  last  word  is  the  answer  to  the  question; 
Why  should  I  be  a  Catholic'?  Apologetics  thus  leads 
up  to  Catholic  faith,  to  the  acceptance  of  the  Catholic 
Church  as  the  divinely  authorized  organ  for  preser\'- 
ing  and  rendering  efficacious  the  saving  truths  re- 
vealed by  Christ.  This  is  the  great  fimdamental 
dogma  on  which  all  other  dogmas  rest.  Hence  apol- 
ogetics also  goes  by  the  name  of  "fundamental  theol- 
ogy". Apologetics  is  generally  viewed  as  one  branch 
of  dogmatic  science,  the  other  and  chief  branch  being 
dogmatic  theology  proper.  It  is  well  to  note,  how- 
ever, that  in  point  of  view  and  method  also  they  are 
quite  distinct.  Dogmatic  theology,  like  moral  theol- 
ogy, addresses  itself  primarily  to  those  who  are  al- 
ready Catholic.  It  presupposes  faith.  Ai)ologetics, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  theory  at  least,  simply  leads 
up  to  faith.  The  former  begins  where  the  latter  ends. 
Apoloj^etics  is  pre-eminently  a  positive,  historical 
discipline,  whereas  dogmatic  theology  is  rather  phil- 
o.sophic  and  deductive,  using  as  its  premi.ses  data  of 
divine  and  ecclesiastical  avithority — the  contents  of 
revelation  and  tlicir  interpretation  by  the  Church. 
It  is  only  in  exploring  and  in  treating  dogmatically 
the  elements  of  natural  religion,  the  sources  of  its 
authoritative  data,  that  dogmatic  theology  comes  in 
touch  with  apologetics. 

.\s  has  been  pointed  out,  the  object  of  apologetics 


APOLOGETICS 


619 


APOLOGETICS 


is  to  give  a  scientific  answer  to  tlie  question.  Why 
Ehoiild  I  be  a  Catholic?  Now  this  question  involves 
two  others  which  are  also  fundamental.  The  one  is: 
Why  should  I  be  a  Christian  rather  than  an  adherent 
of  the  Jewish  religion,  or  the  Mohammedan,  or  the 
Zoroastrian,  or  of  some  other  religious  system  setting 
up  a  rival  claim  to  be  revealed?  The  other,  still 
more  fundamental,  question  is:  Why  should  I  pro- 
fess any  religion  at  all?  Thus  the  science  of  apolo- 
getics easily  falls  into  three  great  divisions:  First,  the 
study  of  religion  in  general  and  the  gromids  of  the- 
istic  belief;  second,  the  study  of  revealed  religion 
and  the  grounds  of  Christian  belief;  third,  the  study 
of  the  true  Church  of  Christ  and  the  grounds  of 
Catholic  Ijelief. 

In  the  first  of  these  divisions,  the  apologist  inquires 
into  the  nature  of  religion,  its  universality,  and  man's 
natural  capacity  to  acquire  religious  ideas.  In  con- 
nection with  this  the  modern  study  of  the  religious 
philosophy  of  uncultured  i>eoples  has  to  1k'  taken 
mto  consideration,  and  the  various  theories  concern- 
ing the  origin  of  religion  present  them.selvcs  for  crit- 
ical discussion.  This  leads  to  the  examination  of  the 
grounds  of  theistic  belief,  including  the  important 
Questions  of  (1)  the  existence  of  a  divine  Personality, 
tne  Creator  and  Conserver  of  the  world,  exercising 
a  special  providence  over  man;  (2)  man's  freedom 
of  will  and  his  corresponding  religious  and  moral 
responsibility  in  virtue  of  his  dependence  on  C!od; 
(3)  the  innnortality  of  the  human  soul,  and  tlie  future 
life  with  its  attendant  rewards  and  punishments. 
(>)upled  with  these  questions  is  the  refutation  of 
monism,  determinism,  and  other  anti-theistic  theo- 
ries. Religious  philosophy  and  apologetics  here 
march  hand  in  hand. 

The  second  division,  on  revealed  religion,  is  even 
more  comprehensive.  After  treating  the  notion, 
possibility,  and  moral  necessity  of  a  divine  revela- 
tion, and  its  discemibility  through  various  internal 
and  external  criteria,  the  apologist  proceeds  to  es- 
tablish the  fact  of  revelation.  Three  distinct,  pro- 
gressive stages  of  revelation  are  set  forth:  Primitive 
Revelation,  Mosaic  Revelation,  and  Christian  Reve- 
lation. The  chief  sources  on  which  he  has  to  rely 
in  establishing  this  triple  fact  of  revelation  are  the 
Sacred  Scriptures.  But  if  ho  is  logical,  he  must  pre- 
scind from  their  inspiration  and  treat  them  provi- 
sionally as  human  historical  documents.  Here  he 
must  depend  on  the  critical  study  of  the  OKI  and 
New  Testaments  by  impartial  scriptural  scholars,  and 
build  on  the  accredited  results  of  their  researches 
touching  the  authenticity  and  trustworthiness  of  the 
sjicred  books  purporting  to  be  historical.  It  is  only 
by  anticipation  that  an  argument  for  the  fact  of 
primitive  revelation  can  be  based  on  the  ground  that 
It  is  taught  in  the  inspired  book  of  Genesis,  and  that 
it  is  implied  in  the  supernatural  state  of  our  first 
parents.  In  the  absence  of  anything  like  contem- 
porarj'  documents,  the  apologist  has  to  lay  chief 
stress  on  the  high  antecedent  probability  of  primi- 
tive revelation,  and  show  how  a  revelation  of  limited, 
but  sufficient  .scope  for  primitive  man  is  compatible 
with  a  very  crude  stage  of  material  and  a>sthetic 
culture,  and  hence  is  not  discredited  by  the  sound 
results  of  prehistoric  archa-ologj'.  Closely  connected 
with  this  question  is  the  scientific  study  of  the  origin 
and  antiquity  of  man,  and  the  unity  of  the  human 
species;  and,  as  still  larger  subjects  bearing  on  the 
historic  value  of  the  sacred  Rook  of  Origins,  the  com- 
patibility wHth  Scripture  of  the  modern  sciences  of 
biologj",  astronomy,  and  geologj'.  In  like  manner 
the  apologist  has  to  content  himself  with  showing 
the  fact  of  Mosaic  revelation  to  be  highly  probable. 
The  difficulty,  in  the  present  condition  of  Old  Testa- 
ment criticism,  of  recognizing  more  than  a  small 
portion  of  the  Pentateuch  as  documentarj'  evidence 
contemporary   with   Moses,  makes  it   incumbent   on 


the  apologist  to  proceed  with  caution  lest,  in  attempt- 
ing to  prove  too  much,  he  may  bring  into  discredit 
what  is  decidedly  tenable  apart  from  dogmatic  con- 
siderations. However,  there  is  sufficient  evidence 
allowed  by  all  but  the  most  radical  critics  to  cslali- 
lish  the  fact  that  Mo.scs  was  the  providential  instru- 
ment for  delivering  the  Hebrew  [jeople  from  Egyptian 
bondage,  and  for  teaching  them  a  system  of  religious 
legislation  that  in  lofty  monotheism  and  ethical  worth 
is  far  superior  to  the  beliefs  and  customs  of  the  sur- 
rounding nations,  thus  affording  a  strong  presumi>- 
tion  in  favour  of  its  claim  to  Ije  revealed.  This  pre- 
sumption gains  strength  and  clearness  in  the  liglit  of 
Messiani<'  propliccy,  which  shines  with  ever  increas- 
ing viihiMie  ami  brightness  through  the  historj'  of 
the  Jewisli  religion  till  it  illumines  the  personality 
of  our  Divine  Lord.  In  this  study  of  Mosaic  revela- 
tion, biblical  archieology  is  of  no  small  service  to  the 
apologist. 

When  the  apologist  comes  to  the  subject  of  Chris- 
tian revelation,  he  finds  him.self  on  much  firmer 
ground.  Starting  with  tlie  generally  recognized  re- 
sults of  New  Testament  criticism,  he  is  enabled  to 
show  that  the  synoptic  (lospels,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  vmdisputed  Kpistles  of  St.  Paul,  on  the  other, 
offer  two  independent,  yet  mutually  corroborative, 
masses  of  evidence  concerning  the  person  and  work 
of  Jesus.  As  this  evidence  endjodics  the  unimpeach- 
able testimony  of  thoroughly  reliable  eye-witnesses 
and  their  associates,  it  presents  a  portraiture  of  Jesus 
that  is  truly  historical.  After  showing  from  the 
records  that  Jesus  taught,  now  implicitly,  now  ex- 
plicitly, that  he  w;is  the  long  expected  Messiah,  the 
Son  of  God  sent  by  His  Heavenly  Father  to  enlighten 
and  save  mankind,  and  to  found  the  new  kingdom 
of  justice.  Apologetics  proceeds  to  set  forth  tlie 
grounds  for  believing  in  these  claims:  (1)  the  sur- 

Fassing  beauty  of  His  moral  character,  stamping 
lim  as  the  unique,  perfect  man;  (2)  the  lofty  ex- 
cellence of  his  moral  and  religious  teaching,  which 
has  no  parallel  elsewhere,  and  which  answers  the 
highest  aspirations  of  the  human  soul;  (3)  His  mir- 
acles wrought  during  His  public  mission;  (4)  the 
transcendent  miracle  of  His  resurrection,  which  He 
foretold  as  well;  (5)  the  wonderful  regeneration  of 
society  through  His  undying  personal  influence. 
Then,  by  way  of  supplementary  proof,  the  apologist 
institutes  an  impartial  comparison  of  Christianity 
with  the  various  rival  religious  systems  of  the  world 
— Brahminism,  Buddhism,  Zoroastrianism,  Confu- 
cianism, Taoism,  Mohanmiedanism — and  shows  how 
in  the  person  of  its  founder,  in  its  moral  and  religious 
ideal  and  influence,  the  Christian  religion  is  immeas- 
urably superior  to  all  others,  and  alone  hiis  a  claim 
to  our  a.ssent  as  the  absolute,  divinely-revealed  re- 
ligion. Here,  too,  in  the  sur\-ey  of  Buddhism,  the 
specious  objection,  not  unconunon  to-day,  that  Bud- 
dliist  idcjis  and  legends  have  contributed  to  the 
formation  of  the  Gospels,  calls  for  a  summarj'  refu- 
tation. 

Beyond  the  fact  of  Cliristian  revelation  the  Prot- 
estant apologist  does  not  proceed.  But  the  Catholic 
rightly  msists  that  the  scope  of  apologetics  should 
not  end  here.  Both  the  New  Testament  records  and 
tho.se  of  the  sub-Apostolic  age  bear  witness  that 
Christianity  was  meant  to  Ix;  something  more  than 
a  religious  philosophy  of  life,  more  than  a  mere  sys- 
tem of  individual  belief  and  practice,  and  that  it 
cannot  be  separated  historically  from  a  concrete 
form  of  social  organization.  Hence  Catholic  a|K)lo- 
getics  ad<ls.  as  a  necessary  sequel  to  the  established 
fact  of  Christian  revelation,  the  demonstration  of  the 
true  Church  of  Christ  and  its  identity  with  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.  From  the  records  of  the 
.\postlcs  and  their  immediate  successors  is  set  forth 
the  institution  of  the  Church  as  a  tnie,  une<iual  so- 
ciety, endowed   with   the  supreme  authority  of  its 


APOLOGETICS 


620 


APOLOGETICS 


Founder,  and  commissioned  in  His  name  to  teach 
and  sanctify  mankind;  possessing  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  visibility,  indefectibility,  and  infallibility; 
characterized  by  the  distinctive  marks  of  unity,  holi- 
ness, catholicit}',  and  apostolicity.  These  notes  of 
the  true  Church  of  Christ  are  then  applied  as  criteria 
CO  the  various  rival  Christian  denominations  of  the 
present  day,  with  the  result  that  they  are  found  fully 
exemplified  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  alone. 
With  the  supplementarj'  exposition  of  the  primacy 
and  infallibility  of  the  Pope,  and  of  the  rule  of  faith, 
the  work  of  apologetics  is  brought  to  its  fitting  close. 
It  is  true  that  some  apologists  see  fit  to  treat  also  of 
inspiration  and  the  analysis  of  the  act  of  faith.  But, 
strictly  speaking,  these  are  not  apologetic  subjects. 
While  they  may  logically  be  included  in  the  pro- 
legomena of  dogmatic  theology,  they  rather  belong, 
the  one  to  the  province  of  Scripture-study,  the  other 
to  the  tract  of  moral  theology  dealing  with  the  theo- 
logical virtues. 

The  history  of  apologetic  literature  involves  the 
survey  of  the  varied  attacks  that  have  been  made 
against  the  grounds  of  Christian,  Catholic  belief.  It 
may  be  marked  off  into  four  great  divisions.  The 
First  division  is  the  period  from  the  beginning  of 
Christianity  to  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire 
(a.  d.  476).  It  is  chiefly  characterized  by  the  two- 
fold struggle  of  Christianity  w-ith  Judaism  and  with 
paganism.  The  Second  division  is  coextensive  with 
the  Middle  Ages,  from  A.  d.  476  to  the  Reformation. 
In  this  period  we  find  Christianity  in  conflict  with 
the  Mohammedan  religion  and  philosophy.  The 
Third  division  takes  in  the  period  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Reformation  to  the  rise  of  rationalism 
in  England  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
It  is  the  period  of  struggle  between  Catholicism  and 
Protestantism.  The  Fourth  division  embraces  the 
period  of  rationalism,  from  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  down  to  the  present  day.  Here  we 
find  Christianity  in  conflict  with  Deism,  Pantheism, 
Materialism,  Agnosticism,  and  Naturalism. 

First  Period,  (a)  Apologies  in  Answer  to  the 
Opposition  of  Judaism. — It  lay  in  the  nature  of 
things  that  Christianity  should  meet  with  strong 
Jewish  opposition.  In  dispensing  with  circumcision 
and  other  works  of  the  Law,  Christianity  had  in- 
curred the  imputation  of  running  counter  to  God's 
immutable  will.  Again,  Christ's  humble  and  obscure 
life,  ending  in  the  ignominious  death  on  the  cross, 
was  the  very  opposite  of  wliat  the  Jews  expected  of 
their  Messiah.  Their  judgment  seemed  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  Christianity  attracted  but 
an  insignificant  portion  of  the  Jewish  people,  and 
spread  with  greatest  vigour  among  the  despised  Gen- 
tiles. To  justify  the  claims  of  Christianity  before 
the  Jews,  the  early  apologists  had  to  give  an  answer 
to  these  difficulties.  Of  these  apologies  the  most 
important  is  the  "Dialogue  with  Trypho  the  Jew" 
composed  by  Justin  Martyr  about  155-160.  He 
vindicates  the  new  religion  against  the  objections 
of  the  learned  Jew,  arguing  with  great  cogency  that 
it  is  the  perfection  of  the  Old  Law,  and  sliowing  by 
an  imposing  array  of  Old  Testament  passages  tliat 
the  Hebrew  prophets  point  to  Jesus  as  the  Messiah 
and  incarnate  Son  of  God.  He  insists  also  that  it 
is  in  Christianity  that  the  destiny  of  the  Hebrew 
religion  to  become  the  religion  of  the  world  is  to  find 
its  realization,  and  hence  it  is  the  followers  of  Christ, 
and  not  the  unbelieving  Jews,  that  are  the  true  chil- 
dren of  Israel.  By  his  elaborate  argument  from 
Messianic  prophecy,  Justin  won  the  grateful  recog- 
nition of  hiter  apologists.  Similar  apologies  were 
compased  by  TertuUian,  "Against  the  Jews"  (Ad- 
versus  Jiida'os,  about  200),  and  by  St.  Cyprian, 
"Three  Book.s  of  Evidences  against  the  Jews"  (abont 
250).  (b)  Apolot/ies  in  Answer  to  Pagan  Oppo- 
ailion. — Of  far  more   serious   moment    to   the  earlv 


Christian  Church  was  the  bitter  opposition  it  met 
from  paganism.  The  polytheistic  religion  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  venerated  for  its  antiquity,  was  in- 
tertwined with  every  fibre  of  the  body  politic.  Its 
providential  influence  was  a  matter  of  firm  belief. 
It  was  associated  with  the  highest  culture,  and  had 
the  sanction  of  the  greatest  poets  and  sages  of  Greece 
and  Rome.  Its  splendid  temples  and  stately  ritual 
gave  it  a  grace  and  dignity  that  captivated  tiie  pop- 
ular imagination.  On  the  other  hand,  Christian 
monotheism  was  an  innovation.  It  made  no  im- 
posing display  of  liturgy.  Its  disciples  w'ere,  for  the 
most  part,  persons  of  humble  birth  and  station.  Its 
sacred  literature  had  little  attraction  for  the  fastid- 
ious reader  accustomed  to  the  elegant  diction  of  the 
classic  authors.  And  so  the  popular  mind  viewed  it 
with  misgivings,  or  despised  it  as  an  ignorant  super- 
stition. But  opposition  did  not  end  here.  The  un- 
compromising attitude  of  the  new  religion  towards 
pagan  rites  was  decried  as  the  greatest  impiety. 
The  Christians  were  branded  as  atheists,  and  as  they 
held  aloof  from  the  public  functions  also,  which  were 
invariably  associated  with  these  false  rites  they  were 
accused  of  being  enemies  of  the  State.  Tlie  Chris- 
tian custom  of  worshipping  in  secret  assembly  seemed 
to  add  force  to  this  charge,  for  secret  societies  were 
forbidden  by  Roman  law.  Nor  were  calumnies  want- 
ing. The  popular  imagination  easily  distorted  the 
vaguely-known  Agape  and  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  into 
abominable  rites  marked  by  feasting  on  infant  flesh 
and  by  indiscriminate  lust.  The  outcome  was  that 
the  people  and  authorities  took  alarm  at  the  rapidly 
spreading  Church  and  sought  to  repress  it  by  force. 
To  vindicate  the  Christian  cause  against  these  at- 
tacks of  paganism,  many  apologies  were  written. 
Some,  notably  the  "Apology"  of  Justin  Martyr 
(L50),  the  "Plea  for  the  Christians",  by  Athenagoras 
(177),  and  the  "Apologetic"  of  TertuUian  (197), 
w'ere  addressed  to  emperors  for  the  express  purpose 
of  securing  for  the  Christians  immunity  from  perse- 
cution. Others  w-ere  composed  to  convince  the  pa- 
gans of  the  folly  of  polytheism  and  of  the  saving 
truth  of  Christianity.  Such  were:  Tatian,  "Dis- 
course to  the  Greeks"  (160),  Theophilus,  "Three 
Books  to  Autolychus"  (180),  the  "Epistle  to  Diogne- 
tus"  (about  190),  the  "Octavius"  of  Minucius  Felix 
(192),  Origen,  "True  Discourse  against  Celsus" 
(248),  Lactantius,  "Institutes"  (312),  and  St.  Au- 
gustine, "City  of  God"  (415-426).  In  these  apolo- 
gies the  argument  from  Old  Testament  prophecy  has 
a  more  prominent  place  than  that  from  miracles. 
But  the  one  on  which  most  stress  is  laid  is  that  of 
the  transcendent  excellence  of  Christianity.  Tliough 
not  clearly  marked  out,  a  twofold  line  of  thought 
runs  through  this  argument:  Christianity  is  light, 
whereas  paganism  is  darkness;  Christianity  is  power, 
whereas  paganism  is  weakness.  Enlarging  on  these 
ideas,  the  apologists  contrast  the  logical  coherence 
of  the  religious  tenets  of  Christianity,  and  its  lofty 
ethical  teaching,  with  the  follies  and  inconsistencies 
of  polytheism,  the  low  ethical  principles  of  its  phil- 
osophers, and  the  indecencies  of  its  mythologj'  and 
of  some  of  its  rites.  They  likewise  show  that  the 
Christian  religion  alone  has  the  power  to  transform 
man  from  a  slave  of  sin  into  a  spiritual  freeman. 
They  compare  what  they  once  were  as  pagans  with 
what  they  now  are  as  Christians.  They  draw  a  tell- 
ing contrast  between  the  loose  morality  of  pagan 
society  and  the  exemplary  lives  of  Christians,  whose 
devotion  to  their  religious  principles  is  stronger  than 
death  itself. 

Second  Period.  Christianity  in  conflict  with 
Mohammedan  Religion  and  Philosophy.  The  one 
dangerous  rival  with  which  Christianity  had  to  con- 
tend in  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion. Within  a  century  of  its  birth,  it  had  torn 
from  Chrietcndom  some  of  its  fairest  lands    and  ex- 


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021 


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tended  like  ii  luic;e  crescent  from  Spain  over  Nortlierri 
Africa,  Kgypt,  Palestine,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Syria, 
to  the  eastern  part  of  Asia  Minor.  The  danger  which 
this  fanatic  religion  offered  to  Christian  faith,  in 
countries  where  the  two  religions  came  in  contact, 
was  not  to  be  treated  lightly.  And  so  wc  find  a 
series  of  apologies  written  to  uphold  the  truth  of 
Christianity  in  the  face  of  Moslem  errors.  Perhaps 
the  earliest  was  the  "Discussion  between  a  Saracen 
and  a  Christian"  composed  by  St.  John  I)ama.scene 
(about  750).  In  this  apology  he  vindicates  the 
dogma  of  the  Incarnation  against  the  rigid  and  fatal- 
istic conception  of  God  taught  by  Mohammed.  He 
also  deinoiLstratos  the  superiority  of  the  religion  of 
Christ,  pointing  out  the  grave  defects  in  Mohammed's 
life  and  teaching,  and  showing  the  Koran  to  be  in 
its  best  parts  but  a  feeble  imitation  of  the  Sacreil 
Scriptures.  Other  apologies  of  a  similar  kind  were 
composed  by  Peter  the  Venerable  in  the  twelfth,  and 
by  Raymond  of  Martini  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Hardly  less  dangerous  to  Christian  faith  was  the 
rationalistic  philosophy  of  Islamism.  The  Arabian 
conquerors  had  learned  from  the  Syrians  the  arts 
and  sciences  of  the  Greek  world.  Tiiey  became  es- 
pecially proficient  in  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy,  for  the  study  of  which  they  erected  in 
every  part  of  their  domam  schools  and  libraries.  In 
the  twelfth  century  .Moorish  Spain  had  nineteen  col- 
leges, and  their  renown  attracted  hundreds  of  Chris- 
tian scholars  from  every  part  of  Europe.  Herein  lay 
a  grave  menace  to  Christian  orthodoxy,  for  the  phil- 
osophy of  Aristotle  as  taught  in  these  schools  had 
become  thoroughly  tinctured  with  Arabian  panthe- 
ism and  rationalism.  The  pecviliar  tenet  of  tne  cele- 
brated Moorish  philosopher  Averroes  was  much  in 
vogue,  namely:  that  philosophy  and  religion  are  two 
independent  spheres  of  thought,  so  that  what  is  true 
in  the  one  may  be  false  in  the  other.  Again,  it  w:is 
commonly  taught  that  faith  is  for  the  masses  who 
cannot  think  for  them.-iolvcs,  but  philosophy  is  a 
higher  form  of  knowledge  which  noble  minds  should 
seek  to  acqviire.  .\mong  the  fundamental  dogmas 
denied  by  the  Arabian  philosophers  were  creation, 
providence,  and  immortality.  To  vindicate  Chris- 
tianity against  Mohammedan  rationalism,  St.  Thomas 
composed  (1261-64)  his  philosophical  "Summa  con- 
tra Gentiles",  in  four  books.  In  this  great  apology 
the  respective  claims  of  reason  and  faith  are  care- 
fully distinguished  and  harmonized,  and  a  systematic 
demonstration  of  the  grounds  of  faith  is  built  up  with 
arguments  of  reason  and  authority  such  as  appealed 
directly  to  the  minds  of  that  day.  In  treating  of 
(iod,  providence,  creation  and  the  future  life,  St. 
Thomas  refutes  the  chief  errors  of  the  Arabian,  Jew- 
ish, and  (ircck  philosophers,  and  shows  that  the  gen- 
uine teaching  of  .\ristotlo  confirms  the  great  truths 
of  religion.  Three  apologies  composed  in  much  the 
same  spirit,  but  Ijclonging  to  a  later  age,  may  be 
mentioned  here.  The  one  is  the  fine  work  of  Louis 
Viv(5s,  "  De  Vcritate  Fidei  Christ  ian:c  I.ibri  V" 
(about  1.530).  After  treating  the  principles  of  nat- 
ural theology,  the  Incarnation,  and  Hcdcmption,  he 
gives  two  dialogues,  one  between  a  Christian  and  a 
Jew,  the  other  between  a  Christian  and  a  Mohain- 
merlan,  in  which  he  shows  the  superiority  of  tho 
Christian  religion.  Similar  to  this  is  the  apology  of 
the  celebrated  Dutch  theologian  Grotius,  "  De  Veri- 
tate  Ileligionis  Christiana-"  (1627).  It  is  in  six 
books.  An  able  treat i.'^e  on  natural  theology  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  demonstration  of  the  tnith  of  Chri.stianity 
base<l  on  the  life  and  miracles  of  Jesus,  the  holiness 
of  His  teaching,  and  the  wonderful  propagation  of 
His  religion.  In  proving  the  authenticity  and  trust- 
worthiness of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  Grotius  appeals 
largely  to  internal  evidence.  The  latter  part  of  the 
work  is  devoted  to  a  refutation  of  paganism,  Juda- 
ism, and  Mohammedanism.     An  apology  on  some- 


what similar  lines  is  that  of  the  Huguenot,  Philip  de 
Mornay,  "De  la  v<Srit(5  de  la  religion  chr6tienne" 
(1.'579).  It  is  the  first  apology  of  note  that  was 
written  in  a  modern  tongue. 

Thihd  Peuiou.  Catholicism  in  coNFi.irr  wrrii 
PHOTK.STANTISM.  The  outbreak  of  Protestantism  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  its  re- 
jection of  many  of  the  fundamental  features  of  Ca- 
tholicism, called  forth  a  mass  of  controversial  apolo- 
getic literature.  It  vnia  not,  of  course,  the  first  time 
that  the  principles  of  Catholic  belief  had  been  ques- 
tioned with  reference  to  Christian  orthodo.\y.  In  the 
early  ages  of  the  Church  heretical  sects,  assuming 
the  right  to  profess  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  the 
spirit  of  Christ,  had  given  occasion  to    St.  Irenicus 

On  Heresies",  Tertullian  "On  Prescription  against 
Heretics,"  St.  Vincent  of  lAnns,  in  his  "Commoni- 
torv'",  to  insist  on  unity  with  the  Catholic  Church, 
and,  for  the  purpose  of  confuting  the  heretical  errors 
of  private  interpretation,  to  appeal  to  an  authorita- 
tive rule  of  faith.  In  like  manner,  the  ri.se  of  heret- 
ical sects  in  the  three  ci^nturics  preceding  the  Ref- 
ormation led  to  an  accentuation  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  Catholicism,  notably  in  Moneta's  "Sum- 
ma contra  Calliaros  et  Waldenses"  (about  122.5), 
and  Toniuemada's  "Summa  de  Eeclesi.l"  (14.50). 
So  to  a  f.ar  greater  extent,  in  the  outpouring  from 
many  sources  of  Protestant  idejis,  it  became  the  duty 
of  the  hour  to  defend  the  true  nature  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  to  vindicate  its  authority,  its  divinely  au- 
thorized hierarchy  under  the  primacy  of  the  Pope, 
its  visibility,  unity,  peqietuity,  and  infallibility,  along 
with  other  doctrines  and  practices  branded  as  super- 
stitions. 

In  the  first  heat  of  tliis  gigantic  controversy  the 
writings  on  both  sides  were  .sharply  polemic,  abound- 
ing in  personal  recriminations,  jiut  towards  the 
close  of  the  century  there  developed  a  tendency  to 
treat  the  controverted  (|uestions  more  in  the  manner 
of  a  calm,  systematic  apology.  Two  worlcs  belong- 
ing to  this  time  are  esi>ecially  noteworthy.  One  is 
the  "  Disputationcs  do  controversiis  Christiana;  Ki- 
dei"  (1.5S1-92),  by  Robert  liellannin,  a  monumental 
work  of  vast  erudition,  rich  in  apologetic  material. 
The  other  is  the  "  Principiorum  I'idei  Doctrinaliuni 
Demonstratio"  (1.579),  bv  Robert  Stapleton,  whom 
Dollinger  pronounced  to  Le  the  prince  of  controver- 
sialists. Though  not  so  erudite,  it  is  more  profound 
than  the  work  of  Hcllarrain.  Another  excellent 
work  of  this  period  is  that  of  Martin  Becan,  "De 
Ecclesia  Christi"  (1633). 

FouiiTH  Period.  CiiuiSTiArnTY  m  contlict  with 
Rationalism. — (a)  From  the  Middle  of  the  Sevcn~ 
tivnth  to  the  Xinrteenth  Century.  Rationalism — the 
setting  up  of  the  human  reason  as  the  source  anil 
measure  of  all  knowable  truth — is,  of  course,  not 
confined  to  any  one  period  of  human  history.  It 
h:us  existed  from  the  earliest  days  of  philosophy. 
But  in  Christian  society  it  did  not  become  a  notable 
factor  till  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  it  asserted  itself  chiefly  in  the  form  of  Deism. 
It  was  a.ssociated,  and  even  to  a  large  extent  iden- 
tified with  the  rapidly  growing  movement  towards 
greater  intellectual  freedom  which,  stinnilated  by 
fruitful  scientific  inquiry,  found  itself  seriously  ham- 
Iiered  bv  the  narrow  views  of  inspiration  and  of  his- 
toric Hilile-interpretation  which  then  prevailed.  The 
Bible  had  been  set  up  as  an  infallible  source  of  knowl- 
edge not  only  in  matters  of  religion,  but  of  history, 
chronology,  and  physical  science.  The  result  was  a 
reaction  again.st  the  very  essentials  of  Christianity. 
Deism  Ijecame  the  intellectual  fashion  of  the  day, 
leading  in  many  cases  to  downright  atheism.  Start- 
ing with  the  principle  that  no  religious  doctrine  is 
of  value  that  cannot  be  proved  by  experience  or  by 
philosophical  reflection,  the  Deists  admitte<l  the  ex- 
istence of  a  God  external  to  the  world,  but  denied 


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622 


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every  form  of  divine  intervention,  und  accordingly 
rejected  revelation,  inspiration,  miracles,  and  proph- 
ecy. Together  with  unbelievers  of  a  still  more  pro- 
nounced type,  tlicy  a,ssailed  the  historic  \alue  of  the 
Bible,  decrying  its  miraculous  narratives  as  fraud 
and  supers!  ition.  The  movement  started  in  England, 
and  in  the  eighteenth  century  spread  to  P^ ranee  and 
Germany.  Its  baneful  influence  was  deep  and  far- 
reaching,  for  it  found  zealous  exponents  in  some  of 
the  leading  philosophers  and  men  of  letters — Hobbes, 
Locke,  Hume,  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  d'Alembert,  Dide- 
rot, Lessing,  Herder,  and  others.  But  able  apolo- 
gists were  not  lacking  to  champion  the  Christian 
cause.  England  produced  several  that  won  lasting 
honour  for  their  scholarly  defence  of  fundamental 
Christian  truths — I^ardner,  author  of  the  "Credibility 
of  the  Gospel  History",  in  twelve  volumes  (1741-,55); 
Butler,  likewise  famous  for  his  "Analogy  of  Religion 
Natural  and  Revealed  to  the  Constitution  of  Nature" 
(17361;  Campbell,  who  in  his  "Dissertation  on  Mir- 
acles" (1766)  gave  a  masterly  answer  to  Hume's 
arguments  against  miracles;  and  Pa  ley,  whose  "Evi- 
dences of  Christianity"  (1794)  and  "Natural  Theol- 
ogy" (1802)  are  among  the  classics  of  English  the- 
ological literature.  On  the  continent,  the  work  of 
defence  was  carried  on  by  such  men  as  Bishop  Huet, 
who  published  his  "Demonstration  Evang^lique"  in 
1679;  Leibnitz,  whose  "Th6odic^e"  (1684),  with  its 
valuable  introduction  on  the  conformity  of  faith  with 
reason,  had  a  great  influence  for  good;  the  Benedictine 
Abbot  Gerbert,  who  gave  a  comprehensive  Christian 
apology  in  his  "  Demonstratio  Verie  Religionis  Ver- 
aeque  Ecclesiae Contra  Quasvis  Falsas "  (1760);  and  ihe 
Abbe  Bergier,  whose  "  Traite  historique  et  dogma- 
tique  de  la  vraie  religion",  in  twelve  volumes  (1780), 
showed  ability  and  erudition. — (b)  The  Nineleenlh 
Century.  In  the  last  century  the  conflict  of  Christi- 
anity with  rationalism  was  in  part  lightened  and  in 
part  complicated  bj^  the  marvellous  development  of 
scientific  and  historic  inquiry.  Lost  languages,  like 
the  Egyptian  and  the  Babylonian,  were  recovered, 
and  thereby  rich  and  valuable  records  of  the  past — 
many  of  them  unearthed  by  laborious  and  costly 
excavation — were  made  to  tell  their  story.  Much  of 
this  bore  on  the  relations  of  the  ancient  Hebrew 
people  with  the  surrounding  nations  and,  while  in 
some  instances  creating  new  difficulties,  for  the  most 
part  helped  to  corroborate  the  truth  of  the  Bible 
Iiistory.  Out  of  these  researches  have  grown  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  and  interesting  apologetic  studies  on 
Old  Testament  history:  Schrader,  "Cuneiform  In- 
scriptions and  the  Old  Testament"  (London,  1872); 
Hengstenberg's  "Egypt  and  the  Books  of  Moses" 
(London,  1845);  Harper,  "The  Bible  and  Modern 
Discoveries"  (London,  1891);  McCurdy,  "History, 
Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments"  (London-New  York, 
1894-1900);  Pinches,  "The  Old  Testament  in  the 
Light  of  the  Historic  Records  of  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia" (London-New  York,  1902);  Abb6  Gainet, 
"La  bible  sans  la  bible,  ou  I'histoire  de  I'ancien  tes- 
tament par  les  seuls  t6moignages  profanes"  (Bar-le- 
Duc,  1871);  Vigouroux,  "La  bible  et  les  d^couvertes 
modernes"  (Paris,  1889).  On  the  other  hand.  Bib- 
lical chronology,  as  then  understood,  and  the  literal 
historic  interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  were 
thrown  into  confusion  by  the  advancing  sciences — ■ 
astronomy,  with  its  grand  nebular  hypothesis;  biol- 
ogy, with  its  even  more  fruitful  theory  of  evolution; 
geology,  and  prehistoric  arctui-ology.  Rationalists 
eagerly  laid  hold  of  these  scientific  data,  and  sought 
to  turn  them  to  the  discredit  of  the  Bible  and  like- 
wise of  the  Christian  religion.  But  able  apologies 
were  forthcoming  to  essay  a  conciliation  of  science 
and  religion.  Among  them  were:  Dr.  (afterwards 
Cardinal)  Wiseman,  "Twelve  Lectures  on  the  Con- 
nection between  Science  and  Revealed  Religion" 
(London,  1847),  which,  though  antiquated  in  i)arts, 


is  still  valuable  reading;  Reusch,  "Nature  and  the 
Bible"  (London,  1876).  Others  more  mouern  and 
up  to  date  are:  Duilhd  de  Saint-Projet,  "Apologie 
scientifique  de  la  foi  chr^tienne"  (Paris,  188.5);  Abl;^ 
Guibert,  "In  the  Beginning"  (New  York,  1904),  one 
of  the  best  Catholic  treatises  on  the  subject;  and 
more  recent  still,  A.  de  Lapparent,  "Science  et  apolo- 
g^tique"  (Paris,  1905).  A  more  delicate  form  of 
scientific  inquiry  for  Christian  belief  was  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  of  historic  criticism  to  the 
books  of  Holy  Scripture.  Not  a  few  Christian  schol- 
ars looked  with  grave  misgivings  on  the  progress 
made  in  this  legitimate  department  of  human  re- 
search, the  results  of  which  called  for  a  reconstruc- 
tion of  many  traditional  views  of  Scripture.  Ration- 
alists found  here  a  congenial  field  of  study,  which 
seemed  to  promise  the  undermining  of  Scripture- 
authority.  Hence  it  was  but  natural  that  the  en- 
croachments of  Biblical  criticism  on  conservative 
theology  should  be  disputed  inch  by  inch.  On  the 
whole,  the  outcome  of  the  long  and  spirited  contest 
has  been  to  the  advantage  of  Christianity.  It  is 
true  that  the  Pentateuch,  so  long  attributed  to  Moses, 
is  now  held  by  the  vast  majority  of  non-Catholic, 
and  by  an  increasing  number  of  Catholic,  scholars 
to  be  a  compilation  of  four  independent  sources  put 
together  in  final  shape  soon  after  the  Capti\ity.  But 
the  antiquity  of  much  of  the  contents  of  these  sources 
has  been  firmly  established,  as  well  as  the  strong 
presumption  that  the  kernel  of  the  Pentateuchal 
legislation  is  of  Mosaic  institution.  This  has  been 
shown  by  Kirkpatrick  in  his  "Divine  Library  of  the 
Old  Testament"  (London-New  York,  1901),  by 
Driver  in  his  "Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the 
Old  Testament''  (New  York,  1897),  and  by  Abie 
Lagrange,  in  his  "M^thode  historique  de  I'Ancien 
Testament"  (Paris,  1903;  tr.  London,  1905).  In  the 
New  Testament  the  results  of  Biblical  criticism  are 
still  more  assuring.  The  attempt  of  the  Tubingen 
school  to  throw  the  Gospels  far  into  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  to  see  in  most  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
the  work  of  a  much  later  hand,  has  been  absolutely 
discredited.  The  synoptic  Gospels  are  now  gener- 
ally recognized,  even  by  advanced  critics,  to  belong 
to  the  years  65-85,  resting  on  stiU  earlier  written 
and  oral  sources,  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  is  brought 
with  certainty  down  to  at  least  a.  d.  110,  that  is, 
within  a  very  few  years  of  the  death  of  St.  John. 
The  three  Epistles  of  St.  John  are  recognized  as  gen- 
uine, the  pastoral  letters  being  now  the  chief  object 
of  dispute.  Closely  connected  with  the  theory  of 
the  Tubingen  School  was  the  attempt  of  the  ration- 
alist Strauss  to  explain  away  the  miraculous  element 
in  the  Gospels  as  the  mythical  fancies  of  an  age  nuich 
later  than  that  of  Jesus.  Strauss's  views,  embodied 
in  his  "Life  of  Jesus"  (1835),  were  ably  refuted, 
together  with  the  false  assertions  and  inductions  of 
the  Tubingen  School,  by  such  Catholic  scholars  as 
Kuhn,  Hug,  Sepp,  Dollinger,  and  by  the  Protestant 
critics,  Ewald,  ileyer,  Wie.seler,  Tholuck,  Luthardt, 
and  others.  The  outcome  of  Strauss's  "  Life  of  Jesus, ' ' 
and  of  Renan's  vain  attempt  to  improve  on  it  by 
giving  it  a  legendary  form  (Vie  de  J&us,  1863). 
has  been  a  number  of  scholarly  biographies  of  our- 
blessed  Lord:  by  Fouard,  "Christ  the  Son  of  God" 
(New  York,  1891);  Didon,  "Jesus  Christ"  (New 
York,  1891);  Ederslicim,  "  I.,ife  and  Times  of  Jesu.-. 
the  Messiah"  (Now  York,  1SU6).  and  otliors. 

Another  field  of  study  which  grew  up  chiefly  in  tlu- 
last  century,  and  has  had  an  influence  in  sh:ipingthe 
science  of  apologetics,  is  the  study  of  religions.  The 
study  of  the  great  religious  systems  of  the  pagan 
world,  and  their  comparison  with  Christianity,  fur- 
nished material  for  a  number  of  specious  arguments 
against  the  independent  and  supernatural  origin  of 
the  Christian  religion.  So,  too,  the  study  of  the 
origin  of  religion  in  the  light  of  the  religious  philos- 


APOLTSIS 


623 


APOPHTHEOMATA 


ophy  of  uncultured  peoples  has  Ijeen  exploited  against 
Cnristian  (theistic  belief)  on  the  unwarranted  ground 
that  Christianity  is  but  a  refinement,  through  a  long 
process  of  evolution,  of  a  crude  primitive  religion 
originating  in  ghost-worship.  Amon^  those  who 
have  distinguishe<l  tlieniselvcs  in  this  branch  of 
apologetics  are  l)<illinger,  wliose  "Heidenthum  und 
Judenthum"  (ISoT),  tr.  "(ientile  and  Jew  in  the  Court 
of  the  Temple"  (London,  ISOfj-O?),  is  a  mine  of 
information  on  the  comparative  merits  of  revealed 
religion  and  the  paganism  of  the  Roman  world;  Abb<5 
de  Broglie,  author  of  the  suggestive  volume,  "Prob- 
l^mes  et  conclusions  dc  I'histoire  des  religions"  (Paris, 
1886);  Hardwick,  "Christ  and  Other  Masters"  (Lon- 
don, 1S75).  Another  factor  in  the  growth  of  apolo- 
getics during  the  last  century  was  the  rise  of  numer- 
ous systems  of  philosophy  tliat,  in  the  teaching  of 
such  men  ivs  Kant,  Fichte,  Hegel,  Schelling,  Cotnte, 
and  Spencer,  were  openly  or  covertly  in  opposition 
to  Christian  belief.  To  counteract  these  systems, 
Pope  Leo  XIII  revived  throughout  the  Catholic 
world  the  teadiing  of  Thomistic  |>hilo.sophy.  The 
many  works  written  to  vinchcaU-  Christian  Theism 
against  Pantheism,  .Materialism,  Positivism,  and  Ev- 
olutionary Monism  have  been  of  great  service  to 
apologetics.  Not  all  these  philosophic  ajwlogies, 
indee(l,  are  scholastic.  They  represent  several  mod- 
ern schools  of  thouglit.  France  has  furnished  a 
number  of  able  apologetic  thinkers  who  lay  chief 
stress  on  the  subjective  element  in  man,  who  point 
to  the  needs  and  aspirations  of  the  soul,  and  to  the 
corresponding  fitness  of  Christianity,  and  of  Chris- 
tianity alone,  to  satisfy  them.  This  line  of  thought 
has  been  worked  out  m  various  ways  by  the  lately 
deceased  0116-Laprune,  author  of  "La  certitude 
morale"  (Paris,  1880),  and  "  Le  prix  de  la  vie" 
(Paris,  1S92);  by  Fonsegrive,  "Le  catholicLsme  et  la 
vie  de  I'esprit"  (Paris,  1899);  and,  in  "L'action" 
(Paris,  1893),  by  IJlondel,  the  founder  of  the  so- 
called  "Immanence  School"  the  principles  of  which 
are  embodied  in  the  spiritual  wTitings  of  Father 
TYrrell,  "Lex  Orandi"  (London,  1903),  "Lex  Cre- 
dendi"  (London,  1906).  The  continued  opposition 
between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism  in  the  last 
centurj-  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  number  of 
noteworthy  apologetic  writings:  Mohler,  "Symbol- 
ism", published  in  (iermany  in  1832,  which  has  gone 
througn  many  editions  in  English;  Halmcs,  "Prot- 
estantism and  Catholicity  Compared  in  their  Effects 
on  the  Civilization  of  Europe",  a  Spanish  work 
published  in  English  in  1840  (Baltimore);  the  works 
of  the  three  illustrious  English  cardinals,  Wiseman, 
Newman,  and  .Manning,  most  of  whose  writings  have 
a  bearing  on  apologetics. 

It  is  out  of  all  the.se  varied  and  extensive  studies 
that  apologetics  has  taken  form.  The  va-stness  of  the 
field  makes  it  extremely  dilhcult  for  any  one  writer 
to  do  it  full  justice.  In  fact  a  complete,  comprehen- 
sive apology  of  uniform  excellence  still  remains  to 
be  written. 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  the  more 
general  treatise.^  on  apologetics  are  as  follows: — 

Catholic  works. — Sciianz.  A  ChriMinn  Apotogy  (New 
York.  1891)  3  vols.  An  improved  edition  of  the  ciriKinnl, 
AfM)U>aie  firs  Christmtums,  was  published  in  KreihurK  (lS9."i) 
anfl  an  augmented  edition  was  in  preparation  in  lOOri. 
PlCARi).  Christmnilj/  or  Afjnosticigmf,  tr.  from  the  Freiich 
by  .Maci  KOD  (London,  IStW);  Dcvivikh.  Chritliiin  A  polo- 
attic:  e.lite<l  anil  augmented  hv  Sa-hia  (Snn  Jo..«<,  190.'i>  2 
vols.;  ed.  in  one  vol.  hv  the  .Most  Kev.  S.  U.  Mes.smkr.  U.D. 
(New  York,  190.11;  FnAYM.mNoc».  .1  Dc/mcn  o/  Chritlinnity. 
tr.  from  the  I'ronoh  by  Joncj*  (London,  ISIIO;;  HKTTlNr.KR, 
Natural  Relwion  (.New  York.  l.S9ni;  RrrraUd  Rrliaion  (New 
York.  1S95).  both  being  adaptalion.s  by  H.  S.  Howokn  of 
Hettinokr's  German  .lp<»//»f/u"  drti  ChrintentnmK  (Freiburg, 
1895-98)  5  vols.:  HtrrriNOKn.  Fundammtnl-Theologir  (Frei- 
burg. 188S):  G«T«KRLKT.  l^hrburh  th-r  Apolitffrtik  (Miinster, 
1895)  3  vols.:  SvltKLL,  A potof/ie  tira  ChriMmtumg  (Pailcrborn, 
1902-5>  2  vols.;  Wkiss.  Apoloaie  rim  ChrulentHtnt  torn 
S-tarulvunktr  drr  Sittr  und  Kultnr  (Freiburg.  1888-89).  5  vols.. 
Frencn  tr.  Apotofjie  dn  chrigtianisme  au  point  de  vue  drit  mtmirt 
U  de  la  civUitaliun  (Paris,  1894):  Uougaud,  Lt  chrittianitme 


et  let  tempa  pri-aenta  (Paris.  1891)  5  vols.;  Lareyrik,  Za 
science  de  la  joi  (La  Chapelle-.Montligeon,  lOOIil;  Kiifitn, 
Encheiridion  Theolouitr  Doomaticw  (jenrralis  (Hrixen.  1893); 
OniOKR.  'fheolo'/ia  Fuudamimtalu  (Freiburg,  1897):  '1'an- 
gCKRV,  St/nopaia  Theolouiig  F undnvientalia  (New  York,  1896). 
Periodicals  valuable  for  apologetic  study  are:  Tlu-  Amvrican 
Catholic  Quarterly;  Amcruan  Eccleaiaatical  Uevu-w;  New 
York  Revuw:  Catholic  World;  Dublin  Revicu;  Innh  Ecrle- 
suiatical  Record:  Irtah  Thcoloiiical  tjuarterty;  Month;  Tablet; 
Rcrue  A potoyctitpie  (Brussels);  Revue  prafitjue  apolot/rtitiue 
(Paris);  Revue  dra  queatiuna  acientifit/uea;  Muaion;  /.«  acience 
catholique;  Annnlea  dc  philoaophie  chritienne;  Etudea  rcligv- 
cuaea;  Revue  Thomiate,  Rt  vue  du  clerye  jranfaia;  Revue 
d'hiatoire  et  de  littcrature  ri-ltyieuae;  Revue  bihlique;  Theulo- 
yiache  Quartalachrift  (Tilbingen);  titimmen  aua  Maria-l^aach. 
Protkhta.nt  Works. —  Hrcck.  Apoloyetica  (New  York. 
1892):  FlsiiKR.  The  Urounda  of  Theiatic  and  Chrialitin  II, lie/ 
(New  York.  1902);  FAinuAmN.  The  I'hiloaophy  of  Ihr  (  hria- 
tiim  Rrltyion  (New  York.  1902);  Mair.  Htudiea  in  the  (  hria- 
tian  Eviitcncea  (iMlinburgh.  1894);  Lutharut.  The  Funda- 
mental Trutha  of  Chriatianity  (Kdinburgh.  1882);  .Sdlci.TZ. 
Outlinea  of  Vhnatian  A iioloi/ctica  (New  York.  190.'j);  How. 
Chriatiiin  Erittencea  Viewed  in  Relation  to  Modern  Thouyht 
(London,  18S8)-  Idem,  A  Manual  of  Chnatian  Erulinrta  (.New 
York,  l,S9(i);  Ii.i.i.sowoiitm.  Reaaon  and  Revrlalwn  (New 
York,  1903).  Many  excellent  apologetic  treatises  are  to 
be  found  in  the  long  series  of  Bampton  Lecturea,  also  in  the 
Gilford,   llutaean,   Baird,   and   Croal  Lecturea. 

Charles  F.  Aikf.n. 

Apolysis  (Gr.,  i.ir6\vatt,  dismissal),  the  dismissal 
blessing  said  by  the  Greek  prie.st  at  the  end  of  the 
Ma.ss,  Matins,  or  Vespers.  It  corresponds  fairly  well 
to  the  Latin  lie.  Missa  eat,  and  is  in  use  in  tfie 
Greek  Church  since  the  days  of  St.  Athana.sius.  .\t 
the  end  of  the  Ma.ss  the  priest  turns  to  the  people 
and  says,  if  it  be  Sunday,  "  He  that  rose  again  from 
the  dead,  Christ  our  true  God,  at  the  intercession  of 
His  immaculate  and  all-blameless  holy  Mother,  by 
the  power  of  the  precious  :ind  life-giving  cross,  by 
tlie  protection  of  the  bodiless  powers  (i.  e.  angels) 
of  Heaven,  at  the  supplications  of  the  glorious 
prophet  John  the  Forerunner  and  Baptist,  the  holy, 
glorious,  and  all-famous  Apostles,  the  holy,  glorious, 
and  victorious  martyrs  (and  then  he  mentions  tlie 
other  saints),  have  mercy  on  us  and  save  us;  for 
He  is  good  and  loveth  man".  If  the  Mass  be  on  a 
week  day  the  apoly.sis  omits  the  opening  wortls  of 
the  blessing,  "He  that  rose  again  from  the  dead", 
as  those  particular  words  are  u.sed  to  commemorate 
Sunday  as  being  the  day  of  the  Resurrection.  There 
is  al.so  a  shorter  form  in  use  after  different  parls 
of  the  Divine  Office,  e.  g.  Prime.  Sext,  None,  etc. 

PKTRlDfcs  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrit.,  I,  2G01;  Cldonet,  Diet.  d,a 
noma  litwgiquea,  18, 

Andrew  J.  Shipm.w. 

Apolytikion  (dTroXuTdciop),  a  dismissal  prayer  or 
hymn  said  or  sung  at  the  end  of  the  Greek  Mass  and 
at  other  times  during  Matins  and  Vespers.  It  was 
originally  sung  at  the  end  of  Vespers,  and  is  very 
much  like  the  Roman  collect  or  post-communicm,  in- 
asmuch as  it  changes  for  each  feast-<lay  of  the  year 
and  connnemorates  the  subject  of  the  feast.  The 
apolytikion  of  Christinas  reads  as  follows:  "Thy 
Nativity.  O  Christ,  hath  ari.sen  on  the  world  as  tlu- 
light  of  knowledge;  for  at  it  those  who  worshipped 
stars  were  taught  by  a  star  to  .adore  Thee,  O  Sun  of 
Righteousness,  and  to  know  Thee,  O  Orient  from 
on  high;  Glory  to  Thee,  O  Lord".  The  one  for  the 
feast  of  the  .\nnunciation  is:  "To-<lay  is  the  crowning 
of  our  .salvation  and  the  manifestation  of  the  -Mystery 
which  is  from  eternity;  the  Son  of  (!od  bccometll 
the  Son  of  tlie  Virgin,  and  Giibriel  announcclh  the 
glad  tiilings  of  grace:  wherefore  let  us  crj*  out  with 
him  to  tlie  Mother  of  God;  Hail,  full  of  grace,  the 
Lord  is  with  thee!" 

Pt;Tnii>i-,s  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrft.,  I,  2602;  Pitra,  llymnoo- 
raphie  de  I  t'yliar  ffrccque,  42;  RoBERTBO.V,  Divine  Ltturyiea 
(London,  1804).  432-451. 

AndHEW  J.  SllirMAN. 

Apopbthegmata  Patnun  (4ir6,  from;  iftSiyyopjit, 
to  cry  out;  juitcr.  fatlipr).  sayings  of  the  I'atliora 
of  the  Desert.  Various  collections  exist  of  aphor- 
isms and  anecdotes  illustrative  of  tlie  spiritual  life, 
of  ascetic  and  mona.-tic  principle,  and  of  Christian 


APORTI 


624 


APOSTASY 


ethics,  attributed  to  the  more  prominent  hermits  and 
monks  wlio  peopled  the  Egyptian  deserts  in  the 
fourtli  centur\-.  Three  or  four  such  collections  in 
Latin  were  edited  by  Rosweyde  (Vita?  Patrum, 
Bks.  Ill,  V,  VI.  VII;  P.  L.,  XXIII),  one  in  Greek 
by  Cotelier  (Ecclesia;  Gra>Cie  Monumenta,  I; 
P.  G.  XV) ,  and  a  Syriac  collection  lately  included 
in  the  editions  of  Anan  Isho's  "Paradise"  by  Bedjan 
(Paris,  1S97),  and  Budge  (London,  1904),  the  latter 
supplying  an  English  translation.  In  all  these  col- 
lections the  great  mass  of  material  is  the  same,  al- 
though differently  disposed,  and  it  is  now  agreed 
that  our  actual  apophthegma  literature  is  Greek, 
though  no  doubt  much  of  it  is  ultimately  of  Coptic 
origin.  The  stages  in  the  growth  of  the  extant  col- 
lections of  "apophthegmata"  may  be  traced  with 
some  certainty.  In  the  course  of  the  fourth  century 
this  or  that  saying  of  the  more  famous  ascetics  was 
repeated  by  their  disciples,  and  thus  circulated. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  these  sayings  and 
anecdotes  were  in  large  measure  authentic,  but  no 
doubt  many  were  attributed  to  ^vrong  persons,  and 
many  more  were  apocryphal  inventions.  These 
single  sayings  tended  to  coalesce  into  groups,  some- 
times as' the  apophthegmata  of  one  Father,  some- 
times as  those  dealing  with  the  same  subject.  Out 
of  these  groups  were  formed  the  great  collections 
which  we  have.  They  are  arranged  on  an  alphabet- 
ical principle,  or  according  to  the  subject-matter. 
Of  such  collections,  that  contained  in  the  fifth  and 
sixth  books  of  Rosweyde 's  "Vitse  Patrum"  is  known 
to  have  existed  before  the  end  of  the  fifth  century. 

As  to  the  character  of  the  apophthegmata  we 
find  that,  while  they  contain  a  certain  grotesque  ele- 
ment, the  general  teaching  maintains  a  high,  level. 
They  cover  the  whole  field  of  the  spiritual  and  re- 
ligious life,  and  are  a  veritable  storehouse  of  ascetic 
lore.  Many  of  them  have  a  primitive  freshness  and 
quaintness,  and  a  directness  that  comes  from  a  deep 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart.  They  almost  always 
possess  a  simple  beauty  that  makes  them  interesting 
and  wholesome  reading,  and  at  times  they  rise  to 
great  mystic  heights.  Along  with  Cassian,  the 
apophthegmata  reveal  to  us  the  well-springs  of 
Christian  spirituality  and  religious  life. 

Where  the  chief  collections  of  Apophthegmata  are  to  be 
found  has  already  been  indicated.  They  have  been  trans- 
lated from  the  Syriac  into  English  by  Budge  in  their  entirety 
(see  above),  and  in  a  well-chosen  selection  by  Hannay,  Wis- 
dom  of  the  Desert  (London,  1904).  The  only  critical  investiga- 
tion into  this  literature  as  a  whole  is  bv  Butler,  Lausiac  His- 
tory of  PaiJodiiis  (Cambridge,  1S98),  Parti,  208-214.  283-285. 

E.  CuTHBERT  Butler. 

Aporti,  Ferrante,  educator  and  theologian,  b. 
at  San  Martino  dell'Argine,  province  of  Mantua, 
Italy,  20  Nov.,  1791;  d.  14  Nov.,  1858,  at  Turin. 
After  liis  ordination  to  the  priesthood  and  a  three- 
years'  course  in  Vienna,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  church  history  in  the  seminary  of  Cremona  and 
.superintendent  of  schools  in  the  same  city.  He 
took  a  special  interest  in  the  education  of  poor  chil- 
ilrcn  and  opened  for  their  benefit  an  infant  school  at 
Cremona  (1827).  The  success  of  tliis  undertaking 
led  to  the  establishment  of  similar  schools  in  various 
cities  of  Italy.  Aporti  visited  each,  encouraged  the 
teachers  and  published  for  their  guidance:  "II 
nianuale  per  le  scuole  infantili"  (Cremona,  18.33), 
and  'Sillabario  per  I'infanzia"  (Cremona,  1837). 
He  also  gave,  in  the  University  of  Turin,  a  course  of 
instruction  on  educational  methods  which  attracted 
a  large  nimiber  of  teachers.  He  received  from  the 
French  Government  the  title  of  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  (1846)  and  from  Victor  I^nmanuel 
the  rank  of  .Senator  (1848).  He  was  called  in  1855 
to  the  rectorship  of  the  University  of  Turin,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  until  shortly  before  his  death. 

Hi  inHos,  Dirl.  de  pi-tlaoogit  (Paria,  1887),  s.  v.;  Nuova 
Knciclopedta  lUiLiana,  e.  v. 

E.  A.  Pace. 


Apostasy  (ifA,  from,  and  <rT(£<ris,  station,  stand- 
ing, or  position).  The  word  itself  in  its  etymo- 
logical sense,  signifies  the  desertion  of  a  post,  the 
giving  up  of  a  state  of  life;  he  who  voluntarily 
embraces  a  definite  state  of  life  cannot  lea\e  it, 
therefore,  without  becoming  an  apostate.  Most 
authors,  however,  distinguish,  with  Benedict  XIV 
(De  Synodo  dioecesana,  XIII,  xi,  9),  between 
three  kinds  of  apostasy:  apostasy  a  Fide  or  perfidup, 
when  a  Christian  gives  up  his  faith;  apostasy  ab 
ordine,  when  a  cleric  abandons  the  ecclesiastical 
state;  apostasy  a  religione,  or  tnonachatus ,  when  a 
religious  leaves  the  religious  life.  The  Gloss  on  title  9 
of  the  fifth  book  of  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX 
mentions  two  other  kinds  of  apostasy:  apostasy 
inobedientice ,  disobedience  to  a  command  given  by 
lawful  authority,  and  iteratio  baptwmatis,  the  repeti- 
tion of  baptism,  "quoniam  reiterantes  baptismum 
videntur  apostatare  dum  recedunt  a  priori  bap- 
tismate".  As  all  sin  involves  disobedience,  the 
apostasy  inobedientice  does  not  constitute  a  specific 
offence.  In  the  case  of  iteratio  baptismatis,  the  of- 
fence falls  rather  under  the  head  of  heresy  and  irreg- 
ularity than  of  apostasy;  if  the  latter  name  has 
sometimes  been  given  to  it,  it  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX  combine  into  one 
title,  under  the  rubric  "  De  apostatis  et  reiterantibus 
baptisma"  (V,  title  9)  the  two  distinct  titles  of  the 
Justinian  Code:  "Ne  sanctum  baptisma  itcretur"  and 
"  De  apost.atis  "  (I,  titles  6,  7),  in  Corpus  juris  civilis 
ed.  Krueger,  (Beriin,  1888) ;  II,  60-61.  See  Miinchen, 
"Das  kanonische  Gerichtsverfahren  und  Strafrecht" 
(Cologne,  1874),  II,  362,  363.  Apostasy,  in  its  strict- 
est sense,  means  apostasy  a  Fide  (St.  Thomas, 
Summa  theologica,  II — II,  Q.  xii  a.  1). 

Apostasy  a  Fide,  or  Perfidi.e,  is  the  complete 
and  voluntary  abandonment  of  the  Christian  religion, 
whether  the  apostate  embraces  another  religion, 
such  as  Paganism,  Judaism,  Mohammedanism,  etc., 
or  merely  makes  profession  of  Naturalism,  Rational- 
ism, etc.  The  heretic  differs  from  the  apostate  in 
that  he  only  denies  one  or  more  of  the  doctrines  of 
revealed  religion,  whereas  the  apostate  denies  the 
religion  itself,  a  sin  which  has  always  been  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  most  grievous.  The  "Shep- 
herd" of  Hermas,  a  work  written  in  Rome  in  the 
middle  of  the  second  century,  states  positively 
that  there  is  no  forgiveness  for  those  who  have 
wilfully  denied  the  Lord.  [Similit.  ix,  26,  5; 
Funk,  Opera  Patrum  apostolicorum  (Tubingen, 
1887),  I,  547).  Apostasy  belonged,  therefore,  to  the 
class  of  sins  for  which  the  Church  imposed  perpetual 
penance  and  excommunication  without  hope  of  par- 
don, leaving  the  forgiveness  of  the  sin  to  God  alone. 
After  the  Deciaii  persecution  (249,  250),  however, 
the  great  numbers  of  Lapsi  and  Libetlatici,  and  the 
claims  of  the  Martyres  or  Confcssores,  who  assumed 
the  right  of  remitting  the  sin  of  apostasy  by  giving 
the  Lapsi  a  letter  of  communion,  led  to  a  relaxation 
of  the  rigour  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  St.  Cyprian 
and  the  Council  of  the  African  Church  which  met 
at  Carthage  in  251  admitted  the  principle  of  the 
Church's  right  to  remit  the  sin  of  apostasy,  even 
before  the  hour  of  death.  Pope  Cornelius  and  the 
council  which  he  held  at  Rome  confirmed  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Synod  of  Carthage,  and  the  discipline 
of  forgiveness  was  gradually  introduced  into  all  the 
Churches.  [Epistohe  S.  Cypriani,  55  et  68;  Cor- 
pus scriptoruin  ccclesiasticorum  latinoruin  (Vienna, 
1871),  III,  ii,  ed.  Ilartel,  624,  666;  Eusebius,  Church 
History,  VI,  xhii,  1,  2].  Nevertheless,  the  Council 
of  Elvira,  held  in  Spain  about  the  year  300,  still 
refused  forgiveness  to  apostates.  [Harduin,  Acta 
Concilionim  (Paris,  1715),  I,  250;  Funk,  Kirchcn- 
(^cscliichtliche  Abhandlungen  und  Untersuchungeu 
(I'adcrliorn,  1897),  I,  155-181;  BatilTol,  Etude3 
il'liistoire    ct    de   tn6ologio    positive    (Paris,    19021. 


APOSTASY 


G25 


APOSTASY 


1st  series,  111-144].  When  the  Roman  Empire  bo- 
came  Christian,  apostates  were  punished  by  depriva- 
tion of  all  civil  rights.  They  could  not  give  evidence 
in  a  court  of  law,  und  could  neither  be(|ueath  nor 
inherit  properly.  To  induce  anyone  to  apostatize 
was  an  otTence  punishable  with  death  [Tlicodosian 
Code,  XVI,  title  7,  De  aposlatis;  title  8,  De  Judceis; 
"Corpus  juris  romani  ante-Justinianjei  "  (Bonn, 
1840),  1521-1607;  Code  of  Justinian  I.  title  7,  De 
aposlatis,  1.  c.  GO,  l)l|.  In  the  .Middle  .\ges,  both 
civil  and  canon  law  dxssed  apostates  with  heretics; 
so  much  so  that  title  9  of  the  fifth  book  of  the 
Decretals  of  Gregorj-  IX,  which  treats  of  apostasy, 
contains  only  a  secondary  provision  concerning 
apostiisy  a  Fide  (iv,  Friedberg,  Corpus  juris  caiionici 
(Leipzig,  1879-81),  II,  790-792],  Boniface  \T1I, 
however,  by  a  provision  which  was  amended  in  the 
sixtli  book  of  the  Decretals  [V,  title  2,  Dc  hardicix, 
13  (Friedberg,  II,  107.^)  ],  merely  cUisses  apostates 
with  heretics  in  respect  of  the  penalties  which  they 
incur.  This  decretal,  which  only  mentions  apostate 
Jews  by  name,  was  applied  indifferently  to  all.  The 
Inquisition  could  therefore  proceed  against  them. 
The  Spanish  Inquisition  wa.s  directed,  at  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  centurj',  cIiieHy  against  apostates,  the 
Maranos.  or  new  Christians,  Jews  converted  by 
force  rather  than  by  conviction;  while  in  1609  it 
dealt  severely  with  the  Moriscos,  or  professedly- 
converted  Moors  of  Spain. 

To-day  the  temporal  penalties  formerly  inflicted 
on  apostates  and  heretics  cannot  be  enforced,  and 
have  fallen  into  abeyance.  The  spiritual  penalties 
are  the  same  as  those  which  apply  to  heretics.  In 
order,  however,  to  incur  these  penalties,  it  is  neces- 
sary, in  accordance  with  the  general  principles  of 
canon  law,  that  the  apostasy  should  be  shown  in  some 
way.  Apostates,  with  all  wiio  receive,  protect,  or 
Ijefriend  them,  incur  excommunication,  reserved 
speciali  modo  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  (Constitution 
.\postolicic  Sedis,  n".  1).  They  incur,  moreover,  the 
note  of  "infamy",  at  least  when  their  apostasy  is 
notorious,  and  are  "irregular";  an  infamy  and  an 
irregularity  which  extend  to  the  son  and  tlie  grand- 
son of  an  apostate  father,  and  to  the  son  of  an  apos- 
tate mother,  should  the  parents  die  without  being 
reconciled  to  the  Church  [Decree  of  Gratian,  Distinc- 
tion L,  xxxii;  V,  tit.  2,  ii,  xv  of  the  sixth  book 
of  the  Decretals  (Friedberg,  1, 191,  II,  1069  and  107.5)]. 
Most  authors,  liowever,  are  of  opinion  that  the  irregu- 
larity affects  only  the  children  of  parents  who  have 
joined  some  particular  sect,  or  who  have  been  jxjr- 
sonally  condemned  by  ecclesiastical  authority 
[Clasparri,  De  sacra  ordinatione  (Paris,  1S93).  if, 
288  and  294;  Lehmkuhl,  Theologia  moralis  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1898),  II,  725;  Wernz,  Jus  dccretalium 
(Rome,  1899),  II,  200;  Ilollweck,  Die  kirchlichen 
Strafgesetze  (Mainz,  1899),  162].  Apostates  are 
debarred  from  ecclesiastical  burial  (Decretals  of 
Gregorj'  I.\,  Bk.  V,  title  7,  viii,  Friedberg,  II,  779). 
Any  writings  of  theirs,  in  which  they  uphold  heresy 
and  schism,  or  labour  to  undermine  the  foundations 
of  faith,  are  on  the  Index,  and  those  who  read  them 
incur  the  excommunication  reserved,  speciali  modo, 
to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  [Constitution  of  Leo  XIII, 
Otficiorum  et  munerum,  25  Januar}',  1S97,  i,  v; 
Vermeersch,  De  prohibitione  et  censurii  librorum 
(Home,  1901),  3d  ed.,  57,  112].  Apostasy  constitutes 
an  imiwdiment  to  marriage,  and  the  aposta.sy  of  hus- 
band or  wife  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  separation  o 
Uwro  et  cohabitatione,  which,  according  to  many 
authorities,  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  may  make 
perpetual  [Decretals  of  Gregorj'  IX,  IV,  title  19,  vi; 
(Fnedl)erg,  II,  p.  722)].  Others,  however,  maintain 
that  this  separation  cannot  be  perpetual  unless  the 
innocent  party  embnices  the  religious  state  [De- 
cretals of  Gregory  IX,  ibitlem,  vii  (Friedberg,  II, 
722).     See  Gasparri,  "Tractatus  canonicus  de  matri- 


monio"  (Paris,  1891),  II,  283;  De  Becker,  '  De 
matrimonio"  (Louvain,  1903),  2d  ed.,  424].  In  the 
case  of  clerics,  apostasy  involves  tlie  loss  of  all 
dignities,  offices,  and  Ixinefices,  and  even  of  all 
clerical  privileges  (Decretals  of  Gregory  IX,  V,  title 
7,  ix,  xiii.     See  HolUveck,  163,  164). 

Apostasy  ah  Ohui.ne. — This,  according  to  the 
present  discipline  of  the  Church,  is  the  aliandon- 
ment  of  the  clerical  dress  and  state  by  clerics  who 
have  received  major  orders.  Such,  at  least,  is  the 
definition  given  of  it  by  most  authorities.  The 
ancient  tliscipline  of  the  Church,  though  it  did  not 
forbid  the  marriage  of  clerics,  did  not  allow  them 
to  abandon  the  ecclesiastical  state  of  their  own  will, 
even  if  they  had  only  received  minor  orders.  The 
Council  of  Chalccdon  threatens  with  e.xconnnunica- 
tion  all  deserting  clerics  without  distinction  (llar- 
douin,  II,  603).  This  discipline,  often  infringed 
indeed,  endured  throughout  a  great  part  of  tlie 
Middle  Ages.  Pope  Leo  IX  decreed,  at  the  Council 
of  Reims  (1049):  "Ne  (juis  monachus  vel  clericus 
a  suo  gradu  apostataret ",  all  monks  and  clerks  are 
forbidden  to  abandon  their  state  (Hardouin,  VI, 
1007).  The  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX,  published  in 
1234,  preserve  traces  of  the  older  discipline  under 
the  title  De  ajmstatis,  which  forbids  all  clerks,  witli- 
out  distinction,  to  abandon  their  state  [V,  title  9, 
i,  iii  (Friedberg,  II,  790-791)  ].  Innocent  III  had 
however,  at  an  earlier  date,  given  permission  to 
clerks  in  minor  orders  to  quit  the  ecclesiastical  state 
of  their  own  will  (Decretals  of  Gregory  IX,  III, 
title  3,  vii;  see  also  x,  Friedberg,  II,  458-460). 
The  Council  of  Trent  did  not  restore  the  ancient 
discipline  of  the  Church,  but  deemed  it  sufficient 
to  command  the  bishops  to  exercise  great  prudence 
in  Ixstowing  the  tonsure,  and  only  laid  the  obliga- 
tions involved  in  the  clerical  state  on  clerks  who 
have  received  major  orders  and  on  those  who  enjoy 
an  ecclesiastical  benefice  (Session  XXIII,  De  ticjor- 
mationc,  iv,  vi).  Whence  it  follows  that  all  other 
clerks  can  quit  their  state,  but,  by  the  verj-  fact  of 
doing  so,  lose  all  the  privileges  of  the  clergj'.  Even 
the  clerk  in  minor  orders  who  enjoys  an  ecclesiastical 
benefice,  should  he  wish  to  be  laicized,  loses  his 
benefice  by  the  very  fact  of  his  laicization,  a  loss 
which  is  to  be  regarded  not  as  the  penalty,  but  as 
the  consequence,  of  his  having  abandoned  the  ec- 
clesiastical state.  These  considerations  suffice,  it 
would  seem,  to  refute  the  opinion  maintained  by 
some  writers  fllinschivis.  System  des  Katholischen 
Kirchenrechts  (Berlin,  1895)",  V,  905],  who  think  that 
a  clerk  in  minor  orders  can,  even  at  the  present 
day,  be  an  apostate  ab  ordine.  This  opinion  is  re- 
jected, among  others,  by  Scherer,  [Handbuch  des 
Kirchenrechtcs  (Gratz,  1886),  I,  313;  Wernz,  II,  338, 
note  24;  Ilollweck,  299]. 

To-<lay,  after  three  ineffectual  notices,  the  apostate 
clerk  loses,  ipso  jaclo,  the  privileges  of  clergj'  [De- 
cretals of  Gregory  IX,  V,  title  9,  i;  title  39,  xxiii, 
XXV  (Friedberg,  II,  790  and  897)].  By  the  very 
fact  of  apost;usj'  he  incurs  infamy,  which,  however, 
is  only  an  infamy  of  fact,  not  one  of  law  im|X)sed  bj' 
canonical  legislation.  Infamj-  involves  irregularity, 
and  is  an  offence  punishable  bj'  the  loss  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal benefices.  Finallj',  should  the  apostate  |x>rsist 
in  his  apost;isy,  the  bishop  maj'  excommunicate  him 
[Constit.  of  Benedict  XIII,  .\postolic»  ccclesi;e  re- 
gimine,  2  May.  1725,  in  Bullarum  amplis-sima  collcctio 
(Rome,  1731)),  XI,  ii,  400]. 

Apostasy  a  Religioxe,  or  Monachatus,  is  the 
culpable  departure  of  a  religious  from  his  monasterj' 
with  the  intention  of  not  returning  to  it  and  of  with- 
drawing him.self  from  the  obligations  of  the  religious 
life.  .V  monk,  therefore,  who  leaves  his  monasterj' 
with  the  intention  of  returning  is  not  an  apostate 
but  a  runawaj',  and  so  is  the  one  who  leaves  it  in- 
tending to  enter  another  religious  order.     The  monks 


APOSTLE 


626 


APOSTLES 


and  hermits  of  the  early  Church  made  no  vow  of 
always  continuing  to  live  the  ascetic  life  upon  which 
they'had  entered.  The  rule  of  St.  Pachomius,  the 
father  of  the  ctenobitical  life,  allowed  the  religious 
to  leave  his  monastery  [Ladeuze,  Histoire  du 
c^nobitisme  pakhomien  (Louvain,  1898),  285]. 
But  from  the  fourth  century  onwards  the  religious 
state  became  perpetual,  and  in  38.5  Pope  Siricius. 
in  his  letter  to  Himerius,  expresses  indignation  against 
religious  men  or  women  who  were  unfaithful  to 
their  proposUum  sanrlitatis  (Hardouin,  I,  848,  849). 
Tlie  Council  of  Chalccdon  decreed  that  the  religious 
who  desired  to  return  to  the  world  should  be  ex- 
communicated, and  the  Second  Council  of  Aries 
called  him  an  apostate  (Hardouin,  II,  602,  603, 
775).  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  numerous  coun- 
cils and  papal  decretals  insisted  on  this  perpetuity 
of  the  religious  life,  of  which  Peter  Damian  was  one 
of  the  great  champions  (Migne,  P.  L.,  CXLV,  674- 
678).  Paul  IV,  at  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
instituted  very  strict  legislation  against  apostates 
by  his  Bull  Poslquam,  dated  20  July,  1558.  These 
provisions  were,  however,  recalled,  two  years  later, 
by  Pius  IV,  in  the  Constitution,  Sedis  apoMnlica;,  of 
3  April,  1560  (Bullarum  amplissima  coUectio  [Rome, 
1745],  IV,  i,  343,  and  IV,  ii,  10). 

As  the  law  stands  to-day,  the  canonical  penalties 
are  inflicted  only  upon  apostates  in  the  strict  sense, 
that  is,  those  professed  with  solemn  vows,  with  whom 
Jesui;  scholastics  are  classed  by  privilege.  Re- 
ligious belonging  to  congregations  with  only  simple 
vows,  therefore,  and  those  with  simple  vows  in  orders 
which  also  take  solemn  vows,  do  not  incur  these 
penalties.  1.  Apostasy  is  a  grave  sin,  the  absolu- 
tion of  which  the  superior  may  reserve  to  himself 
[Decree  "  Sanctissimus "  of  Clement  VIII,  26  May, 
1593,  "Bullarum  ampl.  coUectio"  (Rome,  1756),  V, 
V,  254]  2.  The  religious  is  suspended  from  the 
exercise  of  all  orders  which  he  may  have  received 
during  the  period  of  his  apostasy,  nor  is  this  penalty 
removed  by  his  return  to  his  monastery  [Decretals  of 
Gregory  IX,  V,  title  9,  vi  (Friedberg,  II,  792)]. 
3.  He  is  bound  by  all  the  obligations  laid  on  him  by 
his  vows  and  the  constitutions  of  his  order,  but  if  he 
has  laid  aside  the  religious  habit,  and  if  a  judicial 
sentence  has  pronounced  his  deposition,  he  loses  all 
the  privileges  of  his  order,  in  particular  that  of  ex- 
emption from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary  and  the 
right  of  being  supported  at  the  expense  of  his  com- 
munity (Council  of  Trent,  Session  XXV,  de  regulari- 
bxis,  xix).  4.  The  fact  of  laying  aside  the  religious 
habit  involves  the  penalty  of  excommunication  [III, 
tit.  24,  ii,  of  the  sixth  book  of  Decretals  (Friedberg, 
II,  1065)].  5.  In  several  religious  orders  apostates 
incur  the  penalty  of  excommunication,  even  when 
they  have  not  laid  aside  the  religious  habit,  in  virtue 
of  special  privileges  granted  to  the  order.  6.  The 
apostate  is  bound  to  return  to  his  monastery  as  soon 
as  possible,  and  the  Council  of  Trent  enjoins  bishops 
to  punish  religious  who  shall  have  left  their  monas- 
teries without  the  permission  of  their  superiors,  as 
deserters  (Session  XXV,  de  regnlaribus,  iv).  More- 
over, the  bishop  is  bound  to  take  possession  of  the 
Eerson  of  the  apostate  monk  and  to  send  him  back  to 
is  superior  [Decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Coun- 
cil, 21  September,  1624,  in  "Bullarum  amplissima 
coUectio"  (Rome,  175G),  V,  v,  24S],  In  the  case  of  an 
apostate  nun  who  leaves  a  convent  enjoying  pontifical 
cloister,  she  incurs  the  exconununication  reserved 
simplicitcr  to  the  Sovereign  PontilT  [(."onstitution 
Aposlolicie  Sedin,  n°,  6.  See  Vermeersch,  "  De  re- 
ligiosis  institutis  et  personis"  (Rome,  1902),  I,  200; 
HoUweck,  299;  Scherer,  II,  838.  See  also  Hehesy, 
IniiEci-i-AFirrv,  Ct.Kuir,  Rklk;ious  Oudeks]. 

In  n.l<lition  to  the  wiirks  ulreadv  rcfcrreil  to.  the  older 
ranonintx  may  lie  ci)n»ulte<l,  eHpocinlly  ScHMAi.zcinCiiFn  ami 
RKlFFKNHTrKi  who  in  Ihfir  ro.n,„entarie»  follow  the  order 
of  the  UecrelalK,  at  Book  V,  title  0.     As  modern  canoniiit.H  no 


longer  treat  of  apostasy  under  a  special  heading,  they  must 
be  consulted  where  they  refer  to  orclinations  and  irregularities, 
the  duties  of  the  clerical  state,  the  obligations  of  religious, 
offences  and  penalties,  and,  chiefly,  when  they  write  con- 
cerning heresy.  See  also  Ferraris,  Biblwtheca  Cartonica 
(Home,  1889),  s.  v.  Apostasia;  Beugnet,  in  Diet,  tie  theol.  cath. 
(Pans,  1901):  Amthor,  De  Apostasia  Liber  Stnffulari«  (Co- 
burg,  1833);  Fejer,  Ju^  Eccleaim  Catholicie  adrersue  Apos- 
tatas  (Pesth.  1847);  Schmidt,  Der  Auslritt  aue  der  Kirche 
(Leipzig,  1893):  Scotus  Placentinus,  De  Obligatione  Regu- 
laris  extra  reguiarem  domum  commorantis,  de  Apoatalis  et 
Fugitivis  (Cologne,  1647);  Thomasius,  De  Detertiane  Ordinis 
Ecclesiaatici  (Halle,  1707);  Schmid.  Apostasia  vom  Ordert- 
stande  {Studien  und  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Benediktiner  und 
dem  Cislercienser  Orden  (1886,  VII.  29-42). 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Apostle  (in  Liturgy),  the  name  given  by  the 
Greek  Church  to  the  Epistle  of  the  Mass,  which  is 
invariably  of  Apostohc  origin  and  never  taken,  as 
sometimes  h.appens  in  the  Roman  Rite,  from  the 
Old  Testament.  It  is  also  the  name  of  the  book 
used  in  the  Greek  Church  containing  the  Epistles 
for  each  Sunday  and  feast  day  of  the  whole  year, 
and  from  which  the  anagnostes  (reader)  reads  the 
proper  Epistle  for  the  day  in  the  celebration  of  the 
Mass.  As  now  printed  and  used  in  th'"-  Orthodox 
Greek  Church  in  Constantinople  and  Athens,  and  in 
the  Greek  Catholic  Church  (as  printed  by  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome),  it  contains 
not  only  the  proper  Epistles,  but  also  the  proper 
antiphons  and  prokeimena  for  the  different  days  of 
the  Greek  ecclesiastical  year.     (See  Epistle.) 

Neale,  Hist,  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church  (London,  1850), 
I,  370;  Clugnet  Dicl.  des  noms  liturgiques  (Paris,  189.5)  19. 

Andrew  J.  Shipm.wj. 

Apostle  Spoons. — A  set  of  thirteen  spoons,  usually 
silver,  the  handles  of  which  are  adorned  with  repre- 
sentations of  Our  Lord  (the  Master  spoon)  and  the 
twelve  Apostles.  Anciently  they  were  given  by 
sponsors  as  baptismal  gifts  to  their  godchildren, 
the  wealthy  giving  complete  sets,  others  a  smaller 
number,  and  a  poor  person  a  single  spoon.  The 
Apostles  are  distinguished  one  from  the  other  by 
their  respective  emblems:  St.  Peter  with  a  key. 
sometimes  a  fish;  St.  Andrew  with  a  saltire  cross; 
.St.  James  Major  with  a  pilgrim's  staff  and  gourd; 
St.  John  with  a  chalice;  St.  PhUip  with  a  long 
staff  surmounted  with  a  cross;  St.  James  Minor 
with  a  fuller's  bat;  St.  Thomas  with  a  spear;  St. 
Bartholomew  with  a  butcher's  knife;  St.  Matthew 
with  a  wallet,  sometimes  an  axe;  St.  Matthias  with 
a  halbert;  St.  Thaddeus,  or  Jude,  with  a  carpenter's 
square;  St.  Simon  with  a  saw.  In  some  sets 
St.  Paul  takes  the  place  of  St.  Matthias;  his  emblem 
is  a  sword.  It  is  doubtful  if  these  spoons  were 
much  in  use  before  1500;  the  oldest  one  known  is 
of  the  year  1593,  and  they  first  appeared  .as  a  lie- 
quest  in  the  will  of  one  Amy  Brent  who  bequeathed 
in  1516  "XIII  sylver  spones  of  J'  hu  and  the  XII 
Apostells".  They  are  alluded  to  by  the  dramatists, 
Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson,  Middleton,  Beaumont,  and 
Fletcher.  In  Henry  VIII,  Act  5,  Scene  3,  the  King 
asks  Cranmer  to  be  sponsor  for  the  infant  Elizabeth; 
he  demurs  because  he  is  a  poor  man,  upon  which 
Henry  banters  him  in  these  words:  "Come,  come, 
my  lord,  you'd  spare  your  spoons."  While  these 
apostle  spoons  were  used  on  the  Continent,  especially 
in  Germany  and  Holland,  they  were  never  as  much 
in  vogue  there  as  in  iMiglaiid. 

Cripps,  Old  Enuhsh  I'liUc  (London,  1891);  Buck,  Old 
Plate  (New  York,  1903,  2d  ed.):  Pollen,  Gold  and  Silver- 
smith's Work  (London,  1878). 

Caryl  Coleman. 

Apostles. — Under  this  title  it  may  be  sufficient  to 
.supply  brief  and  essential  information,  I,  on  the 
name  "Apostle";  II,  on  its  various  meanings;  III,  on 
the  origin  of  the  Apo.'itolate;  IV,  on  the  office  of  the 
.\postles  and  the  conditions  required  in  them;  V,  on 
the  authority  and  the  prerogatives  of  the  Apostles; 


APOSTLES 


627 


APOSTLES 


VI,  on  the  relation  of  tlie  Anostolate  to  the  office  of 
bishop;  VII,  on  the  origin  of  the  feasts  of  the  Apos- 
tles. The  reader  will  find  at  the  end  of  this  article 
various  titles  of  other  articles  which  contain  supple- 
mentary information  on  subjects  connected  with  the 
Apostles. 

I.  The  Name. — The  word  "Apostle",  from  the 
Greel<  diroffrAXw  "  to  send  forth  ",  "  to  dispatch  ",  has 
etyrnologically  a  very  general  sense.  'At6<tto\o5 
(.\ix)stlc)  means  one  who  is  sent  forlli,  dispatched — in 
other  words,  who  is  entrusted  with  a  mission,  rather, 
a  foreign  mission.  It  has,  however,  a  stronger  sense 
than  the  word  mesxcn/jer ,  and  means  as  much  as  a 
delegate.  In  the  classical  writers  the  word  is  not 
fre<|uent.  In  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment it  occurs  once,  in  III  Kings,  xiv,  6  (cf.  ibid., 
xii,  24).  In  the  New  Testament,  on  the  contrarj', 
it  occurs,  according  to  Brudor's  Concordance,  about 
eighty  times,  and  denotes  often  not  all  the  disciples 
of  the  Lord,  but  some  of  them  specially  called.  It 
is  obvious  that  our  Lord,  who  six)ke  an  Aramaic 
dialect,  gave  to  some  of  his  di.sciples  an  .\ramaic  title, 
the  Greek  equivalent  of  which  was  "Apostle".  It 
seems  to  us  that  there  is  no  reasonable  doubt  about 
the  Aramaic  word  being  n?!?  Seliah,  by  which  also 
the  later  Jews,  and  probably  already  the  Jews  l)0- 
fore  Christ,  denoted  "those  who  were  despatched 
from  the  mother  city  by  the  rulers  of  the  race  on 
any  foreign  mission,  especially  such  as  were  charged 
with  collecting  the  tribute  paid  to  the  temple  serv- 
ice" (Lightfoot,  "Galatians  ',  London,  189C,  p.  93). 
The  word  ajmxtle  would  be  an  exact  rendering  of 
the  root  of  the  word  seliah,  =  dToo-xAXu. 

II.  V.\Rious  Me.a.vings. — It  is  at  once  evident 
that,  in  a  Christian  sense,  everyone  who  had  re- 
ceived a  mission  from  God,  or  Christ,  to  man  could 
be  called  "Apostle".  In  fact,  however,  it  was  re- 
served to  those  of  the  disciples  who  received  this 
title  from  Christ.  At  the  same  time,  like  other  hon- 
ourable titles,  it  was  occasionally  applied  to  those 
who  in  some  way  reiilizetl  the  fundamental  idea  of 
the  name.  The  word  also  has  various  meanings. 
(a)  The  name  Apoxlk  denotes  principally  one  of 
tlie  twelve  disciples  who,  on  a  solemn  occasion,  were 
called  by  Christ  to  a  special  mission.  In  the  Gos- 
pels, however,  those  disciples  are  often  designated 
by  the  expressions  ot  tta0riTal  (the  disciples)  ol  SJiSiKa 
(the  Twelve)  and,  after  the  treason  and  death  of 
Judas,  even  oi  (vScKa  (the  Eleven).  In  the  Synop- 
tics the  name  Apostle  occurs  but  seldom  with  this 
meaning;  only  once  in  Matthew  and  Mark.  But  in 
other  JKJoks  of  the  New  Testament,  chiefly  in  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  and  in  the  Acts,  this  use  of  the 
word  is  current.  Saul  of  Tarsus,  being  miraculously 
converted,  and  called  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the 
heathens,  claimed  with  much  insistency  this  title 
and  its  rights.  (6)  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(iii,  1)  the  name  is  applie<l  even  to  Christ,  in  the 
original  meaning  of  a  delegate  sent  from  God  to 
preach  revealed  truth  to  the  world,  (c)  The  word 
Apostle  ha.s  also  in  the  New  Testament  a  larger 
mejining,  and  denotes  some  inferior  disciples  who, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Apostles,  preached  the 
Gospel,  or  contributed  to  its  diffusion;  thus  Bar- 
nabas (.\cts.  xiv,  4,  14),  probably  Andronicus  and 
Junias  (Rom.,  xv'i,  7),  Epaphrodftus  (Phil.,  ii,  2.5), 
two  unknown  Christians  who  were  tlclegate<I  for  the 
collection  in  Corinth  (II  Cor.,  vii,  2.3).  We  know  not 
why  the  honourable  name  of  Apostle  is  not  given 
to  such  illustrious  missionaries  as  Timothy,  Titus, 
and  others  who  wovild  equally  merit  it. — 'fhere  are 
some  pa.ssagcs  in  which  the  extension  of  the  word 
Apostle  is  doubtful,  as  Luke,  xi,  49;  John,  xiii, 
16;  H  Cor.,  xi,  13;  I  Thes.,  ii,  7;  Ephcs.,  iii,. 5;  Jude, 
17.  and  perhaps  the  well-known  expression  ".Apostles 
and  Prophets".  Even  in  an  ironical  meaning  the 
word  occurs  (II  Cor.,  xi,5;  xii,  11)  to  denote  pseudo- 

I.— 40 


apostles.  There  is  but  little  to  add  on  the  use  of 
the  word  in  the  old  Christian  literature.  The  first 
and  third  meanings  are  the  only  ones  which  occur 
frequently,  and  even  in  the  oldest  literature  the 
larger  meaning  is  .seldom  found. 

III.  Oric.in  of  the  Ai'ostolate. — The  Gospels 
point  out  how,  from  the  Ix-ginning  of  his  ministry, 
Jesus  called  to  him  some  Jews,  and  by  a  very  diligent 
instruction  and  formation  tnade  them  his  disciples. 
After  some  time,  in  the  Galilean  ministry,  he  selected 
twelve  whom,  as  Mark  (?)  and  Luke  (vi,  13)  say,  "he 
also  named  Apostles."  The  origin  oj  the  Apostolale 
lies  therefore  in  a  special  roeation,  a  format  appoint- 
ment of  the  Lord  to  a  determined  office,  with  con- 
nected authority  and  duties.  The  appointment  of 
the  twelve  Apostles  is  given  by  the  three  Synoptic 
Gospels  (.Mark,  iii,  13-19;  Matthew,  x,  1-4;  Luke,  vi, 
12-16)  nearly  in  the  same  words,  so  that  the  three 
narratives  are  literally  dependent.  Only  on  the  im- 
mediately connected  events  is  there  some  difference 
l)etween  them.  It  seems  almost  needless  to  outline 
and  disprove  rationalistic  views  on  this  topic.  The 
holders  of  these  views,  at  least  some  of  them,  contend 
that  our  Lord  never  appointed  twelve  Apostles,  never 
thought  of  establishing  di.sciples  to  help  him  in  his 
ministry,  and  eventually  to  carry  on  his  work. 
These  opinions  are  only  deductions  from  the  ration- 
alistic principles  on  the  credibility  of  the  Gospels, 
Christ's  doctrine  on  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  and 
the  eschatologj'  of  the  Gospels.  Here  it  may  be 
sufficient  to  observe  (a)  that  the  very  clear  testimony 
of  the  three  .synoptic  (iospels  constitutes  a  strong 
historical  argument,  representing,  as  it  does,  a  very 
old  and  widely-spread  tradition  that  cannot  be  erro- 
neous; (b)  that  the  universally  acknowledged  au- 
thority of  the  Apostles,  even  in  the  most  heated 
controversies,  and  from  the  first  years  after  Christ's 
death  (for  instance  in  the  Jewish  controversies),  as 
we  read  in  the  oldest  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  and  in  the 
Acts,  cannot  be  explained,  or  even  be  understood, 
unless  we  recognize  some  apix)intment  of  the  Twelve 
by  Jesus. 

IV.  Office  and  Conditions  of  the  Apostolate. 
— Two  of  the  sj-noptic  Gospels  add  to  their  account 
of  the  appointment  of  the  Twelve  brief  statements 
on  their  office:  Mark,  iii,  14.15,  "He  appointed 
twelve  to  be  with  him  and  to  send  them  to  herald, 
and  to  have  power  to  heal  the  illnesses  and  to  ciist 
out  demons";  Matthew,  x,  1,  "He  gave  them  power 
over  unclean  spirits  so  as  to  expel  them,  and  to  heal 
every  disease  and  every  illness".  Luke,  where  he 
relates  the  appointment  of  the  Twelve,  adds  nothing 
on  their  office.  Afterwards  (Mark,  vi,  7-13;  Mat- 
thew, X,  5-15;  Luke,  ix,  1-5),  Jesus  sends  the  Twelve 
to  preach  the  kingdom  and  to  heal,  and  gives  them 
verj'  definite  instructions.  From  all  this  it  results 
that  the  Apostles  are  to  be  with  Jesus  and  to  aid 
Him  by  proclaiming  the  kingdom  and  by  healing. 
However,  this  was  not  the  whole  extent  of  their  of- 
fice, and  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  Jesus 
did  not  indicate  to  His  Apostles  the  whole  extent  of 
their  mission,  while  as  yet  they  had  such  imperfect 
ideas  of  His  own  person  and  mission,  and  of  the 
Messianic  kingdom.  The  nature  of  the  Apostolic 
mission  is  made  still  clearer  by  the  sayings  of  Christ 
after  His  Resurrection.  Here  such  passages  as  Mat- 
thew, xxviii,  19,  20;  Luke,  xxiv,  46-49;  Acts,  i,  S, 
21-22  are  fimdamental.  In  the  first  of  these  texts 
we  read,  "Go  ye  therefore  and  make  disciples  all 
the  nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  the  Son.  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  teaching 
them  to  ol)ser\-e  all  I  have  commanded  you".  The 
texts  of  Luke  point  to  the  same  office  of  preaching 
and  testifying  (cf.  Mark,  xvi,  16).  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  and  the  Epistles  WTitten  by  the  Apostles 
exhibit  them  in  the  constant  exercise  of  this  office. 
Everj-where    the    Apostle    governs    the    disciples, 


APOSTLES 


628 


APOSTLES 


preaches  tlie  doctrine  of  Jesus  as  an  authentic  wit- 
ness, and  administers  the  sacred  rites.  In  order  to 
fill  such  an  office,  it  seeing  necessary  to  have  been 
instructed  by  Jesus,  to  have  seen  the  risen  Lord. 
And  these  are,  clearly,  the  conditions  required  by 
the  Apostles  in  the  candidate  for  the  place  of  Judas 
Iscariot.  "Of  the  men,  therefore,  who  have  accom- 
panied us  all  the  time  that  the  Lord  Jesus  went  in 
and  out  among  us,  beginning  from  the  baptism  of 
John  unto  the  day  He  was  received  up  from  us,  of 
these  must  one  become  a  intness  with  us  of  His  Res- 
urrection" (.Acts,  i,  21,  22).  This  narrative,  which 
seems  to  come  from  an  Aramaic  Palestinian  source, 
lilce  many  other  details  given  in  the  earlier  chapters 
of  Acts,  is  ancient  and  cannot  be  set  aside.  It  is 
further  strengthened  by  an  objection  made  to  St. 
Paul:  because  he  was  called  in  an  extraordinary  way 
to  the  Apostolate,  he  was  obliged  often  to  vindicate 
Ills  Apostolic  authority  and  proclaim  that  he  had 
seen  the  Lord  (I  Cor.,  ix,  1).  Instruction  and  ap- 
pointment by  Jesus  were,  therefore,  the  regular  con- 
ditions for  the  Apostolate.  By  way  of  exception, 
an  extraordinary  vocation,  as  in  the  case  of  Paul, 
or  a  choice  by  the  Apostolic  College,  as  in  the  case 
of  Matthias,  could  suffice.  Such  an  extraordinarily 
called  or  elected  ApostJe  could  preach  Christ's  doc- 
trine and  tlie  Resurrection  of  the  Lord  as  an  author- 
itative witness. 

V.  Authority  and  Prerog.\tives  of  the  Apos- 
tles.— The  authority  of  the  Apostles  proceeds  from 
the  office  imposed  upon  them  by  Our  Lord  and  is 
based  on  the  very  explicit  sayings  of  Christ  Himself. 
He  will  be  with  them  all  days  to  the  end  of  ages 
(.Matthew,  xxviii,  20),  give  a  sanction  to  their  preach- 
ing (Mark,  xvi,  16),  send  them  the  "promise  of  the 
Father",  "virtue  from  above"  (Luke,  xxiv,  49). 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles  of  the  New 
Testament  show  us  the  exercise  of  this  authority. 
The  Apostle  makes  laws  (Acts,  xv,  29;  I  Cor.,  vii, 
12  sq.),  teaches  (Acts,  ii,  37  f.),  claims  for  his  teaching 
tliat  it  should  be  received  as  the  word  of  God  (I  Thes., 
ii,  13),  punishes  (Acts,  v,  1-11;  I  Cor.,  v,  1-5),  ad- 
ministers the  sacred  rites  (Acts,  vi,  1  sq.;  xvi,  33; 
XX,  11),  provides  successors  (II  Tim.,  i,  6;  Acts,  xiv, 
22).  In  the  modern  theological  terms  the  Apostle, 
besides  the  power  of  order,  has  a  general  power 
of  jurisdiction  and  mafjistcrium  (teaching).  The 
former  embraces  the  power  of  making  laws,  judging 
on  religious  matters,  and  enforcing  obligations  by 
means  of  suitable  penalties.  The  latter  includes  the 
jiower  of  setting  forth  with  authority  Christ's  doc- 
trine. It  is  necessary  to  add  here  that  an  Apostle 
could  receive  new  revealed  trutlis  in  order  to  pro- 
)K)se  them  to  the  Church.  This,  however,  is  some- 
thing wholly  personal  to  the  Apostles.  (See  Revela- 
tion; Inspiration.) 

Catholic  theologians  rightly  speak  in  their  treatises 
of  some  personal  prerogatives  of  the  Apostles;  a  brief 
account  of  them  may  not  be  superfluous,  (a)  A 
first  prerogative,  not  clearly  inferred  from  the  texts 
of  the  New  Testament  nor  demonstrated  by  solid 
reasons,  is  their  confirmation  in  grace.  Most  mod- 
ern theologians  admit  that  the  Apostles  received  so 
abundant  an  infusion  of  grace  that  they  could  avoid 
every  mortal  fault  and  every  fully  deliberate  venial 
sin- — (b)  Another  personal  prerogative  is  the  univer- 
sality of  their  jurisdiction.  The  words  of  the  Gospel 
on  Apostolic  office  are  very  general;  for  the  most 
part,  the  A]5ostles  preached  and  travelled  as  if  they 
were  not  bound  by  territorial  limits,  as  we  read  in 
the  Acts  and  the  ICpistles.  This  did  not  hinder  the 
Apostles  from  taking  practical  measures  to  properly 
organize  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  the  various 
countries  they  visited. — (c)  Among  these  preroga- 
tives i.s  reckoned  personal  infallibility,  of  course  in 
mat  tern  of  faith  and  morals,  and  only  when  they 
taught  and  ini|x>sed  some  doctrine  as  obligatory.     In 


other  matters  they  could  err,  as  Peter,  in  the  question 
of  practical  intercour.se  with  the  converted  heathens; 
they  might  also  accept  certain  current  opinions,  as 
Paul  seems  to  have  done  with  regard  to  the  time  of 
the  Parousia,  or  Second  Coming  of  the  Lord.  (See 
Jesus  Christ.)  It  is  not  easy  to  find  a  stringent 
scripturistic  demonstration  for  this  prerogative,  but 
reasonable  arguments  suggest  it,  e.  g.  the  impossibil- 
ity for  all  his  hearers  to  verify  and  try  tlie  doctrine 
preached  to  them  by  an  Apostle,  (d)  It  is  a  more 
disputed  question  whether  an  Apostle  writing  on 
religious  matters  would  have,  merely  by  his  Apos- 
tolic office,  the  prerogatives  of  an  inspired  author. 
This  was  asserted  by  the  Catholic  theologian.  Dr. 
Paul  Schanz  of  Tubingen  (Apologie  des  Christen- 
thums,  II)  and  by  some  others,  e.  g.  Jouon  in  "Etudes 
religieuses"  (1904).  Catholic  theologians  almost 
unanimously  deny  it,  e.  g.  Father  Pesch  (De  Inspira- 
tione  SacnT  Scripturae,  1906,  pp.  611-634).  (See 
Inspiration;  New  Testament.) 

VI.  Apostolate  and  Episcopate. — Since  the  au- 
thority with  which  the  Lord  endowed  the  Apostles 
was  given  them  for  the  entire  Church,  it  is  natural 
that  this  authority  should  endure  after  their  death, 
in  other  words,  pass  to  successors  established  by  the 
Apostles.  In  the  oldest  Christian  documents  con- 
cerning the  primitive  Churches  we  find  ministers  es- 
tablished, some  of  them,  at  least,  by  the  usual  rite 
of  the  imposition  of  hands.  They  bear  various 
names:  priests  (jrpe<r/3i5rcpoi.  Acts,  xi,  30;  xiv,  22; 
XV,  2,  4,  6,  22,  23;  xvi,  4;  xx,  17;  xxi,  18;  I  Tun., 
V,  17.  19;  Titus,  i.  5);  bishops  (irrinKoxoi,  Acts,  xx, 
28;  Phil,  i,  1;  I  Tim.,  iii,  2;  Titus,  i.  7);  presidents 
(Trpoio-To/iei-oi.  I  Thes.,  v,  12;  Rom.,  xii.  S.  etc.);  heads 
(17701/Mfi'oi,  Hebrews,  xiii,  7,  17,  24,  etc.);  shepherds 
(iroiju^i/es,  Eph.,  iv,  11);  teachers  (SiSianakoi.,  Acts,  xiii, 
1;  I  Cor.,  xii,  28  sq.  etc  );  prophets  {irpocpTJTai,  Acts, 
xiii,  1;  XV,  32;  I  Cor.,  xii,  28,  29,  etc.),  and  some 
others.  Besides  them,  there  are  Apostolic  delegates, 
such  as  Timothy  and  Titus.  The  most  frequent 
terms  are  priests  and  bishops;  they  were  destined  to 
become  the  technical  names  for  the  "authorities" 
of  the  Christian  community.  All  other  names  are 
less  important;  the  deacons  are  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, being  of  an  inferior  order.  It  seems  clear 
that  amid  so  great  a  variety  of  terms  for  eccle- 
siastical authorities  in  Apostolic  times  several  must 
have  expressed  only  transitory  functions.  From 
the  beginning  of  the  second  centurj'  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  somewhat  later  elsewhere,  we  find  only  three 
titles:  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons;  the  last  charged 
with  inferior  duties.  The  authority  of  the  bishop 
is  different  from  the  authority  of  priests,  as  is 
evident  on  every  page  of  the  letters  of  the  martyr 
Ignatius  of  Antioch.  The  bishop — and  there  is  but 
one  in  each  to^Ti — governs  his  church,  appoints 
priests  who  have  a  subordinate  rank  to  him,  and  are, 
as  it  were,  his  counsellors,  presides  over  the  Euchar- 
istic  assemblies,  teaches  his  people,  etc.  He  has, 
therefore,  a  general  power  of  governing  and  teaching, 
quite  the  same  as  the  modern  Catholic  bishop;  this 
power  is  substantially  identical  with  the  general  au- 
thority of  the  Apostles,  without,  however,  tTie  personal 
prerogatives  ascribed  to  the  latter.  St.  Ignatius  of 
Antiocli  declares  that  this  ministry  holds  legitimately 
its  authority  from  God  through  Christ  (Letter  to  the 
Philadelphians,  i).  Clement  of  Rome,  in  his  Letter 
to  the  Church  of  Corinth  (about  96),  defends  with 
energy  the  legitimacy  of  the  ministry  of  bishops  and 
priests,  and  ])roclaims  that  the  .\postles  establisliod 
successors  to  govern  the  churches  (xlii-xliv).  Wc 
may  conclude  with  confidence  that,  about  the  end 
of  the  second  century,  the  ministers  of  the  churches 
were  everywhere  regarded  as  legitimate  successors 
of  the  Apostles;  this  common  persuasion  is  of  pri- 
mary importance. 

Another  and  more  difficult  question  arises  as  tr 


APOSTLES' 


629 


APOSTLES' 


the  precise  functions  of  those  ministers  who  bear,  in 
the  Acts  and  in  tlie  Epistles,  the  various  above-men- 
tioned names,  chiefly  the  vpiafivrtpot  aiul  the  (irlaKovoi. 
(priests  and  bisho|)s).  (a)  Some  authors  (and  this 
is  the  traditional  view)  contend  that  the  iiTiaKowoi 
of  Apostolic  times  have  the  same  dignity  as  the 
bishops  of  later  times,  and  that  the  wp«rtiuT€poi  of  the 
apostolic  writings  are  the  .same  as  the  priests  of  the 
second  century.  This  opinion,  however,  must  give 
way  before  the  evident  identity  of  bisliop  and  priest 
in  Acts,  XX,  17  and  28,  Titus,  i,  5-7,  Clement  of 
Rome  to  the  Church  of  Corinth,  xliv.  (b)  Another 
view  recognizing  this  synonymous  character  esti- 
mates that  these  officers  whom  we  shall  call  bishops- 
priests  had  never  the  supreme  direction  of  the 
churches  in  Apostolic  times;  this  power,  it  is  main- 
tained, was  exercLsed  by  the  Apostles,  the  Prophets 
who  travelled  from  one  church  to  another,  and  by 
certain  Apostolic  delegates  like  Timothy.  These 
alone  were  the  real  predecessors  of  the  bishops  of 
the  second  century;  the  bishops-priests  were  the 
same  as  our  modern  priests,  and  had  not  the  pleni- 
tude of  the  priesthood.  This  opinion  is  fully  dis- 
cussed and  proposed  with  much  learning  by  A. 
Michiels  (L'originc  do  I'fipiscopat,  Louvain,  1900). 
(c)  Mgr.  BatilTol  (Rev.  bibl.,  189.5,  and  Etudes  d'hist. 
et  de  thfol.  positive,  I,  Paris,  1903)  expresses  the 
following  opinion:  In  the  primitive  churches  there 
were  (1)  some  preparatory  fimctions,  as  the  dignity 
of  Apostles.  Prophets;  (2)  some  Trpea^vrepoi  had  no 
liturgical  function,  but  only  an  honourable  title; 
(3)  the  ivrlvKoiroi,  several  in  each  community,  had  a 
liturgical  function  with  the  office  to  preach;  (4)  when 
the  Apostles  disappeared,  the  bishopric  was  divided: 
one  of  the  bishojw  became  sovereign  bishop,  while 
the  others  were  subordinated  to  him:  these  were  the 
later  priests.  This  secondary  priesthood  is  a  dimin- 
ished participation  of  the  one  and  sole  primitive 
priesthood;  there  is,  therefore,  no  strict  aifference 
of  order  between  the  bishop  and  the  i^riest. — What- 
ever may  be  the  solution  of  this  difficult  question  (see 
BiSHor,  Phiest),  it  remains  certain  that  in  the 
second  century  the  general  Apostolic  atithority  be- 
longed, by  a  succession  universally  acknowledged  as 
legitimate,  to  the  bi.shops  of  the  Christian  churches. 
(See  Apostolic  Succession.)  The  bishops  have, 
therefore,  a  general  power  of  order,  jurisdiction,  and 
magisterium,  but  not  the  personal  prerogatives  of 
the  Apostles. 

VII.  The  Feasts  of  the  Apostles. — The  mem- 
orable words  of  Hebrews,  xiii,  7:  "Remember  your 
presidents  who  preached  to  you  the  word  of  God", 
have  always  echoed  in  the  Christian  heart.  The 
primitive  churches  had  a  profound  veneration  for 
their  deceased  Apostles  (Clement  of  Rome,  Ep.  ail 
Corinth,  v);  its  first  expression  was  doubtless  the 
devotional  reading  of  the  Ajxistolic  writings,  the  fol- 
lowing of  their  orders  and  counsels,  and  the  imita- 
tion of  their  virtues.  It  may,  however,  be  reason- 
ably supposed  that  some  devotion  began  at  the 
tombs  of  the  Apostles  as  early  as  the  time  of  their 
death  or  martyrdom;  the  ancient  documents  are  si- 
lent on  this  matter.  Eeasts  of  the  Apostles  do  not 
appear  as  early  as  we  might  expect.  Though  the 
anniversaries  of  some  martyrs  were  celebrated  even 
in  the  second  century,  as  for  instance  the  anni- 
versary of  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  Bishop  of 
Smyrna  (d.  154-1.56),  the  .Apostles  had  at  this  time 
no  such  commemoration;  the  day  of  their  death  was 
unknown.  It  is  only  from  the  fourth  century  that 
we  meet  with  feasts  of  the  .Apostles.  In  the  Eastern 
Church  the  feast  of  Saint  James  the  Less  and  Saint 
John  was  celebrated  on  the  27th  of  ncccmber,  and  on 
the  next  day  the  feast  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul  (ac- 
cording to  St.  Orcgorj'  of  Nyssa  and  a  Syriac  meno- 
logy).  These  commemonitions  were  arbitrarily  fixed. 
In  the  Western  Church  the  feast  of  Saint  John  alone 


remained  on  the  same  day  as  in  the  Eastern  Church. 
The  commemoration  of  the  martyrdom  of  Saint  Peter 
and  Saint  P:tul  was  celebrated  29  June;  originally, 
however,  it  was  the  commemoration  of  the  translation 
of  their  relics  (Duchesne,  Christian  Worship,  p.  277). 
From  the  sixth  century  the  feiist  of  Saint  Andrew  was 
celebrated  on  the  'MHh  day  of  Novemlxjr.  We  know 
but  little  of  the  fesLsts  of  the  other  .\postles  and  of 
the  secondarj'  fe:usts  €)f  the  great  Apostles.  In  the 
Eastern  Churches  all  these  feasts  were  observed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  For  additional  de- 
tails see  Duchesne,  "(Christian  Worship"  (I.ondnn, 
1903),  pp.  277-283,  and  U.  Zimmerman  in  ("abrol 
and  Leclercq's  Diet,  d'arch^ol.  et  de  lit.  chr6t.  I, 
2631-35.  (See  also  Apostolicity,  Apostolic  Suc- 
cession. Apocryph.^.) 

In  the  absence  of  comprehensive  and  trustworthy  special 
works  on  this  subject  the  reader  may  consult,  apart  frora 
the  works  quoteil  at>ove.  Kencral  historical  treatises  on  the 
New  Testament  am!  the  Apostolic  Age,  e.  p.  the  English 
translations  of  the  works  of  Kouahd.  Tlje  theological  manuals 
De  Ecclffid  usually  supply  much  information  on  these  tiues- 
tions. — ,.\rnong  modern  New-Testament  commentaries  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Rishop  I.iciilTFoOT  (Anglican)  on  Saint 
Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Philippians  and  the  Galatians  (I.ondon. 
189(1).  The  commentaries  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ought 
always  to  be  consulted. — .\niong  the  encyclopedia  articles  on 
these  and  the  cognate  topics,  see  in  KircnenUx.  (2d  ed.,  Frei- 
burg. 1.S82)  Poi.zi..  Apoatel,  and  Sciief-bkn.  ApoaUtlat  und  Epis- 
kopat:  l.E  Camus  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Paris);  ScilMinr  in 
Hauck'h  Real~encyclop(idie  fiir  protcslanluche  Theologie  wid 
Kirche  {'Ad  ed.,  Leipzig);  Gwatktn  in  Hastingh.  Diet,  of  the 
Bible  (Edinburgh.  1904).  s.  v.  Apostle;  especially  the  article  of 
Bainvki,  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.  (Paris,  1901).  I.  1647-00; 
Batifkoi..  VApc>$tolat  in  Revite  Bibliqiu  (1900).  520-32;  Har- 
KKCK.Die  Mitnon  und  Auibreitunff  dea  Christenthums  iheio' 
zig.  1902). 

HoNORfi   COPPIETERS. 

Apostles'  Creed,  a  formula  containing  in  brief 
statements,  or  "articles,"  the  fundamental  tenets  of 
Christian  belief,  and  having  for  its  authors,  according 
to  tradition,  the  Twelve  .\postIes. 

I.  Origin  or  the  Creeu. — Throughout  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  Apostles,  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost,  while  still  under  the  direct  inspira- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost,  composed  our  present  Creed 
between  them,  each  of  the  Apostles  contributing  one 
of  the  twelve  articles.  This  legend  dates  back  to  the 
si.xth  century  (see  Pseudo-.\ugustine  in  Migne,  P.  L., 
XXXIX,  2189,  and  Pirminius,  ibid.,  LXXXIX, 
1034),  and  it  is  foreshadowed  still  earlier  in  a  sermon 
attributed  to  St.  Ambrose  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XVII,  671; 
Kattenbusch,  I,  81),  which  takes  notice  that  the 
Creed  was  "pieced  together  by  twelve  separate 
workmen  ".  About  the  same  date  (c.  400)  Rufinus 
(Migne,  P.  L.,  XXI,  337)  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
the  composition  of  the  Creed,  which  account  he  pro- 
fesses to  have  received  from  earlier  ages  (tratlunt 
majores  nostri).  Although  he  docs  not  explicitly 
assign  each  article  to  the  authorship  of  a  separate 
Apostle,  he  states  that  it  was  the  joint  work  of  all, 
and  implies  that  the  deliberation  took  place  on  the 
day  of  Penteco.st.  Moreover,  he  declares  that  "they 
for  many  just  reasons  decided  that  this  nile  of  faith 
should  be  called  the  Symbol",  which  Greek  word  he 
explains  to  mean  both  indicium,  i.  e.  a  token  or 
p;LSSword  by  which  Christians  might  recognize  each 
other,  and  cottatio,  that  is  to  say  an  offering  made 
up  of  separate  contributions.  A  few  years  be- 
fore this  (c.  390),  the  letter  addressed  to  Pope  Siri- 
cius  by  the  Council  of  Milan  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XVI, 
1213)  supplies  the  earliest  known  instance  of  the 
combination  S'jmbottim  A  postolorum  ("Creed  of 
the  .Vpostles ")  in  these  striking  words:  "If  you 
credit  not  the  teachings  of  the  priests  ...  let 
credit  at  least  be  given  to  the  Symbol  of  the  .\postles 
which  the  Roman  Church  always  preserves  and 
maintains  inviolate."  The  word  Si/mbolum  in 
this  sense,  standing  alone,  meets  us  first  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  in  the  correspondence 
of  St.  Cyprian  and  St.  Firmilian,  the  latter  in  particu- 


APOSTLES' 


630 


APOSTLES* 


lar  speaking  of   the  Creed  iis   the  "Symbol  of  the  Moreover,  as  soon  as  we  begin  to  obtain  any  sort  of 

Trinity ",  and  recognizing  it  as  an  integral  part  of  detailed  description  of  the  ceremonial  of   baptism, 

the  rite  of  baptism  (Migne,  P.  L.,  Ill,  llliS,  1143).  we  find  that,  as  a  preliminary  to  the  actual  immer- 

It  should  be  added,  moreover,  that  Kattenbusch  (II,  sion,  a  profession  of  faith  was  exacted  of  the  convert, 

p.  80,  note)  believes  that  the  same  use  of  the  words  which    exhibits    from    the   earliest    times    a    clearly 

can  be  traced  as  far  back  as  TertuUian.     Still,  in  the  divided  and  separate  confession  of  Father,  Son,  and 

first  two  centuries  after  Christ,  though  we  often  find  Holy  Ghost,   corresponding  to   the  Divine   Persons 

mention  of  the  Creed  under  other  designations  (e.  g.  invoked  in  the  formula  of  baptism.     As  we  do  not 

regula  fidei,  doctrina,   traditio),  the  name  symbolum  find  in  any  earlier  document  the  full  form  of  the 

does  not  occur.     Rufinus  was  therefore  wrong  when  profession  of   faith,   we   cannot   be  sure   that   it   is 

he  declared  that  the  Apostles  themselves  had  "for  identical  mth  our  Creed,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it 

many  just  reasons''  selected  this  very  term.     This  is  certain  that  nothing  has  yet  been  discovered  which 

fact,  joined  with  the  intrinsic  improbability  of  the  is   inconsistent    with    such    a   supposition.     See,  for 


story,  and  the  surprising  silence  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  of  the  Ante-Nicene  fathers,  leaves  us  no 
choice  but  to  regard  the  circumstantial  narrative 
of  Rufinus  as  unhistorical. 

Among  recent  critics,  some  have  assigned  to  the 


example,  the  "Canons  of  Hippolytus"  (c.  220)  or 
the  "Didascalia"  (c.  250)  in  Hahn's  "  Bibliothek 
der  Symbole"  (8,  14,  35);  together  with  the  slighter 
allusions  in  Justin  Martyr  and  Cyprian. 

(2)  Whatever  difficulties  may  be  raised  regarding 


Creed  an  origin  much  later  than  the  Apostolic  Age.  the  existence  of  the  Disciplina  Arcani  in  early 
Harnack,  e.  g.,  asserts  that  in  its  present  form  it  times  (Kattenbusch,  II,  97  sqq.),  there  can  be  no 
represents  only  the  baptismal  confession  of  the  question  that  in  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Hilary,  Au- 
Church  of  Southern  Gaul,  dating  at  earliest  from  the  gustine,  Leo,  the  Gelasian  Sacranientary,  and  many 
second  half  of  the  fifth  century  (Das  apostolische  other  sources  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the 
Glaubensbekenntniss,  1892,  p.  3).  Strictly  construed,  idea  is  greatly  insisted  upon ;  that  according  to  ancient 
the  terms  of  this  statement  are  accurate  enough;  tradition  the  Creed  was  to  be  learned  by  heart,  and 
though  it  seems  probable  that  it  was  not  in  Gaul,  never  to  be  consigned  to  writing.  This  undoubtedly 
but  in  Rome,  that  the  Creed  really  assumed  its  final  provides  a  plausible  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
shape  (see  Burn  in  the  "Journal  of  Theol.  Studies  ",  in  the  case  of  no  primitive  creed  is  the  text  preserved 
July,  1902).  But  the  stress  laid  by  Harnack  on  the  to  us  complete  or  in  a  continuous  form.  What  we 
lateness  of  our  received  text  (T)  is,  to  say  the  least,  know  of  these  formula;  in  their  earliest  state  is  derived 
somewhat  misleading.  It  is  certain,  as  Harnack  from  what  we  can  piece  together  from  the  quota- 
allows,  that  another  and  older  form  of  the  Creed  (R)  tions,  more  or  less  scattered,  wWch  are  found  in  such 
had  come  into  existence,  in  Rome  itself,  before  the  writers,  for  example,  as  Irena;us  and  TertuUian. 
middle  of  the  second  century.  Moreover,  as  we  (3)  Though  no  uniform  type  of  Creed  can  be  surely 
shall  see,  the  differences  between  R  and  T  are  not  recognized  among  the  earlier  Eastern  writers  before 
very  important  and  it  is  also  probable  that  R,  if  the  Council  of  Nicoea,  an  argument  which  has  been 
not  itself  drawn  up  by  the  Apostles,  is  at  least  based  considered  by  many  to  disprove  the  existence  of  any 
upon  an  outline  which  dates  back  to  the  Apostolic  age.  Apostolic  formula,  it  is  a  striking  fact  that  the 
Thus,  taking  the  document  as  a  whole,  we  may  say  Eastern  Churches  in  the  fourth  century  are  found 
confidently,  in  the  words  of  a  modern  Protestant  au-  in  possession  of  a  Creed  wliich  reproduces  with 
thority,  that  "in  and  with  our  Creed  we  confess  that  variations  the  old  Roman  type.  This  fact  is  fully 
which  since  the  days  of  the  Apostles  has  been  the  admitted  by  such  Protestant  authorities  as  Harnack 
faith  of  united  Christendom "  (Zahn,  Apostles' Creed,  (in  Hauck's  Realencyclopiidie,  I,  747)  and  Katten- 
tr.,  p.  222).  The  question  of  the  apostolicity  of  the  busch  (I,  380  sq.;  II,  194  sq.,  and  737  sq.).  It  is 
Creed  ought  not  to  be  dismissed  without  due  atten-  obvious  that  these  data  would  harmonize  very  well 
tion  being  paid  to  the  following  five  considerations: —  with  the  theory  that  a  primitive  Creed  had  been 
(1)  There  are  very  suggestive  traces  in  the  New  delivered  to  the  Christian  community  of  Rome,  either 
Testament  of  the  recognition  of  a  certain  "form  of  by  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  themselves  or  by  their  imme- 
doctrine"  (tuttos  SiSax^s,  Rom.,  vi,  17)  which  moulded,  diate  successors,  and  in  the  course  of  time  had  spread 
as  it  were,  the  faith  of  new  converts  to  Christ's  law,  throughout  the  world. 

and    which   involved    not    only    the   word    of   faith         (4)  Furthermore  note  that  towards  the  end  of  the 

believed  in  the  heart,  but  "with  the  mouth  confession  second   century  we  can  e.xtract  from   the   writings 

made   unto   salvation"    (Rom.,   x,  8-10).     In   close  of  St.  Irenaeus  in  southern  Gaul  and  of  TertuUian 

connection  with  this  we  must  recall  the  profession  in  far-off  Africa  two  almost  complete  Creeds  agree- 

of  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  exacted  of  the  eunuch  (Acts,  ing  closely  both  with  the  old  Roman  Creed  (R),  as 

viii,  37)   as  a   preliminary   to   baptism    (Augustine,  we  know  it  from  Rufinus,  and  with  one  another.     It 

"De  Fide  et  O  peri  bus  ",  cap.  i.x;  Migne,  P.  L.,  LVII,  will  be  useful  to  tran.slate  from  Bum  (Introduction 

205)  and  the  formula  of  baptism  it.self  in  the  name  to  the  Creeds,  pp.  50,  51)  his  tabular  presentation 

of  the  Three  Persons  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  (Matt.,  of  the  evidence  in  the  case  of  Tertullian.     Cf.  Mac- 

xxviii,  19;  and  cf.   the  Didache  vii,  2,  and  ix,  5).  Donald  in  "Ecclesiastical  Review",  February,  1903. 
THE  OLD  ROMAN  CREED  AS  QUOTED  BY  TERTULLIAN  (c.  200). 
Dc  Virg.  Vel..  i  (P.  L.,  II,  889). 

(1)  Believing     in     one    God    Almighty, 
maker  of  the  world, 

(2)  and  His  Son.  Jesus  Christ, 

(3)  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 


Adv.  Prax.,  h  {P.  L.,  II,  156). 

(1)  We  believe  one  only  God, 

(2)  and  the  son  of  God  Jesus  Christ, 

(3)  born  of  the  Virgin, 


(4)  Him  suffered,  dead,  and  buried, 


(4)  crucified    under    Pontius    Pilate,  ,.,  ,  „^ .  , 

(5)  on  the  third  day  brought  to  life  from  (5)  brought  back  to  life, 

the  dead, 

<6)  receive.!  in  heaven,  (6)  taken  again  into  heaven 


De  Pra»scr.,  xiii  and  xxxvi  (P.  L., 
II,  26,  49). 

(1)  I  believe  in  one  God,  maker  of  the 
world, 

(2)  the  Word,  called  His  Son,  Jesus  Christ. 

(3)  by  the  Spirit  and  power  of  God  the 
Father  made  tiesn  m  Mary's  womb, 

and  horn  of  her, 

(4)  fastened  to  a  cross, 

(5)  He  rose  the  third  day. 


(6)  was  caught 


ight 


nto  heaven, 


7)  sitting  now  at  the  right  hand  of  the    (7)  sits  at  the  riglit  hand  of  the  Father,    (7)  sat  at  tiie  rigliit  hand  of  the  Father, 

rather, 

(8)  will  come  to  judge  the  living  and  the    (8)  will  come  to  judge  the  living  and  the    (8)  will  come  with  glory  to  take  the  good 
dead  dead,  into  life  eternal,  and  condemn  the 

wicked  to  perpetual  fire, 
(9)  who  has  sent   from   the  Father  the    (9)  sent  the  vicarious  power  of  His  Holy 
Holy  Ghost.  Spirit, 

(10)  to  govern  believers  [In  this  passage 
articles  9  and  10  precede  8. J 
igh  resurrection  of  the  fleah.  (12)  restoration  of  the  flesh. 


U2)  thi 


APOSTLES' 


G31 


APOSTLES' 


Siicli  a  table  serves  admirably  to  show  how  incom- 
plete is  the  evidence  providetl  by  mere  quotations 
of  the  Creed,  and  how  ca\itiously  it  must  be  dealt 
with.  Had  we  [Kissessed  only  the  "  De  Virfiinibiis 
Velandis",  we  might  have  said  that  the  article  con- 
cerning the  Holy  Ghost  iliil  not  form  part  of  Tcr- 
tullian's  Creed.  Had  tlic  "  De  Virginibiis  Velandis" 
been  destroyed,  we  shoidd  have  declared  that  Ter- 
tuliian  knew  nothing  of  the  clause  "suffered  under 
Pontius  Pilate".     And  so  forth. 

(5)  It  nuist  not  be  forgotten  that  while  no  ex- 
plicit statement  of  the  coiniK)sition  of  a  formula  of 
faith  by  the  .\postles  is  forthcoming  before  the  close 
of  the  fourth  century,  earlier  Fathers  such  as  Ter- 
tuUian  and  St.  Irena;us  insist  in  a  very  emphatic  way 
that  the  "  rule  of  faith  "  is  part  of  the  apostolic  tradi- 
tion. Tertullian  in  particular  in  his  "  Ue  Prxscrip- 
tione",  after  showing  that  by  this  rule  {regtUa 
doctrince)  he  understanils  something  practically  iden- 
tical with  our  Creed,  insists  that  the  rule  Wiis  insti- 
tuted by  Christ  and  delivered  to  us  (tradita)  as  from 
Christ  by  the  .Vjxjstles  (Migne.  P.  L.,  H,  26,  27,  33, 
50).  As  a  conclusion  from  this  eviilence  the  present 
writer,  agreeing  on  the  whole  with  such  authorities 
as  Semeria  and  Batiffol  tliat  we  cannot  safely  afhrm 
the  Apostolic  composition  of  the  Creed,  considers  at 
the  same  time  that  to  deny  the  jwssibility  of  such 
origin  is  to  go  furtlier  than  our  data  at  present  war- 
rant. A  more  pronouncedly  conservative  view  is 
urged  by  MacDonald  in  the  "Ecclesiastical  Review", 
January  to  July,  1903. 

n.  The  Old  Ro.m.\x  Creed. — The  Catechism  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  apparently  assumes  the  Apo.s- 
tolic  origin  of  our  existing  Creed,  but  such  a  pro- 
nouncement has  no  dogmatic  force  and  leaves  opinion 
free.  Modern  ajwlogists,  in  defending  the  claim  to 
apostolicity,  extend  it  only  to  the  old  Roman  form 
(H).  and  are  somewhat  hampered  by  the  objection 
that  if  R  had  been  really  held  to  be  the  inspired 
utterance  of  the  .Apostles,  it  would  not  have  oeen 
modified  at  pleasure  by  various  local  churches 
(Rufinus,  for  example,  testifies  to  such  expansion  in 
the  case  of  the  Church  of  .Aquileia),  and  in  partic- 
ular would  never  have  been  entirely  supplanted  by 
T,  our  existing  fonn.  The  difference  between  the 
two  will  best  be  seen  by  printing  them  side  by 
side. 


T. 


1.  I     believe     in    God     the 

Father  Almighty; 

2.  .\nd  in  Jesus  Chri.st,   His 

only  Son.  our  Ix)rd: 

3.  Who  was  born  of  (de)  the 

Holy  Ghost  and  of  (ex) 
the  Virgin  Mary; 

4.  Crucified     under    Pontius 

Pilate  and  buried; 

5.  The    third    day    He    rose 

again  from  the  dead, 

G.  He  ascended  into  Heaven, 


1.  I 


believe  in  God  the 
Father  Almighty  Crea- 
tor of  hrttven  and  earth; 

2.  And  in  Jesus  Christ.   His 

only  Son,  our   Lord; 

3.  Who  was  conci-ived  by  the 

Holy  Ghost,  born  of 
the  V'irgin  Mary. 

4.  Suffered     under      Pontius 

Pilate,  was  crucified, 
dead,  and  buried: 

5.  He  draeeiuted  into  hill:  the 

third  day  He  rose  again 
from  the  tlead; 

6.  He  ascendol  into  Heaven. 

siltcth  at  the  right 
hand  of  God  the  Father 
Almiaht!/; 

7.  From     thence     He     shall 

come  to  judge  the  liv- 
ing and  the  dead. 

8.  /  belirte  in  the  Holy  Ghost, 


8.  Whence  He  shall  come  to 

judge    the    living    and 
the  dead. 

9.  And  in  the  Holy  Ghost, 

10.  The  Holy  Church, 

11.  The  forgiveness  of  sins; 

12.  The    resurrection    of    the 

body. 

Neglecting  minor  points  of  difference,  which  indeed 
for  their  adequate  discus-sion  would  require  a  study 
of  the  Latin  text,  we  may  note  that  R  iloes  not  con- 
tain  the   clauses   "Creator  of   heaven   and  earth", 


9.  The  Holy  Cn(Ao(ic  Church. 
the  communion  of  tainit 

10.  The  forgiveness  of  sins, 

11.  The    resurrection    of    the 

body,  and 

12.  life  everliulinff. 


"descended  into  hell",  "the  communion  of  saints", 
"life  everlasting",  nor  the  words  "conceived",  "suf- 
fered", "died",  and  "Cathohc".  Many  of  these 
additions,  but  not  quite  all,  were  probably  known 
to  St.  Jerome  in  Palestine  (c.  380. — See  Morin  in 
Revue  Rdnedictine,  January,  1904)  and  about  the 
same  date  to  the  Dalmatian,  Niceta  (Burn,  Xiceta 
of  Remesiana,  1905).  Further  additions  appear  in 
the  creeds  of  southern  Gaul  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next  century,  but  T  probably  assumed  its  final  shape 
in  Rome  it.self  some  time  before  a.  n.  700  (Burn, 
Introduction,  2.39;  and  Journal  of  Theol.  Studies. 
July,  1902).  We  know  nothing  certain  a.s  to  the 
reasons  which  led  to  the  adoption  of  T  in  preference 
to  R. 

III.  Articles  of  the  Creed. — Although  T  really 
contains  more  than  twelve  articles,  it  has  always 
been  customary  to  maintain  the  twelvefold  division 
which  originated  with,  and  more  strictly  applies  to,  R. 
A  few  of  the  more  debated  items  call  for  some  brief 
comment.  The  first  article  of  R  presents  a  diffi- 
culty. From  the  language  of  Tertullian  it  is  con- 
teniled  that  R  originally  omitted  the  word  Father 
and  added  the  word  one;  thus,  "I  believe  in  one 
God  Almighty".  Hence  Zahn  infers  an  underlying 
Greek  original  still  partly  surviving  in  the  Nicene 
Creed,  and  holds  that  the  first  article  of  the  Creed 
suffered  modification  to  counteract  the  teachings  of 
the  Monarchian  heresy.  It  must  suffice  to  say  here 
that  althougli  the  original  language  of  R  may  po.ssi- 
bly  be  Greek,  Zalin's  premises  rcgartling  the  word- 
ing of  the  first  article  are  not  accepted  by  such  au- 
thorities as  Kattenbusch   and   Harnack. 

Another  textual  difficulty  turns  upon  the  inclu- 
sion of  the  wonl  onii/  in  the  second  article;  but  a 
more  serious  cjuestion  is  rai.sed  by  Harnack's  refusal 
to  recognize,  either  in  the  first  or  second  article  of  R, 
any  acknowletlgment  of  a  prc-cxistent  or  eternal 
relation  of  Sonship  and  Fatlierliood  of  the  Divine 
Persons.  The  Trinitarian  theology  of  later  ages,  he 
declares,  has  read  into  the  text  a  meaning  wliicli  it 
did  not  possess  for  its  framers.  And  he  says,  again, 
with  regard  to  the  ninth  article,  that  the  writer  of  the 
Creed  liid  not  conceive  the  Holy  Ghost  as  a  Person, 
but  as  a  power  and  gift.  "No  proof  can  be  shown 
that  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  believed  in  as  a  Person."  It  is  impossible 
to  do  more  here  than  direct  the  reader  to  such 
Catholic  aiiswers  as  those  of  Baumer  and  Blume; 
and  among  Anglicans  to  the  very  convenient  volume 
of  Swete.  To  quote  but  one  illustration  of  early 
patristic  teaching,  St.  Ignatius  at  the  end  of  the 
first  century  repeatedly  refers  to  a  Sonship  which 
lies  beyond  the  limits  of  time:  "Jesus  Christ  .  .  . 
came  forth  from  one  Father",  "was  with  the  Father 
before  the  world  was"  (Magn.,  6  and  7).  While, 
with  regard  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  St.  Clement  of  Rome 
at  a  still  earlier  date  writes:  "As  God  lives,  and  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  lives,  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  the 
faith  and  hoi)e  of  the  elect"  (cap.  Iviii).  This  and 
other  like  passages  clearly  indicate  the  conscious- 
ness of  a  distinction  between  God  and  the  Spirit  of 
Ciod  analogous  to  that  recognized  to  exist  between 
Ciod  and  the  Logos.  A  similar  appeal  to  early 
writers  must  be  made  in  connection  with  the  third 
article,  that  affirming  the  Virgin  Birth.  Harnack 
admits  that  the  words  "conceived  of  the  Holy 
Gho.st"  (T),  really  add  nothing  to  the  "born  of  the 
Holy  Ghost"  (R).  He  admits  con.scqucntly  that 
"at  the  lx>ginning  of  the  second  centurj-  this  belief 
in  the  miraculous  conception  had  Income  an  cstal>- 
lished  part  of  Church  tradition".  But  he  denies 
that  the  doctrine  formed  part  of  the  earliest  Gosiiel 
preaching,  and  he  thinks  it  consequently  impo-ssiblc 
that  this  article  could  have  l:)een  formulated  in  the 
first  centurj'.  We  can  only  answer  here  that  the 
burden  of  proof  rests  with  him,  and  tliat  the  teach- 


APOSTLES 


632 


APOSTLES 


mg  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  as  quoted  by  Swete 
and  others,  points  to  a  very  different  conclusion. 

Rufinus  (c.  400)  explicitly  states  that  the  words 
descended  into  hell  were  not  in  the  Roman  Creed, 
but  existed  in  that  of  Aquileia.  They  are  also  in 
some  Greek  Creeds  and  in  that  of  St.  Jerome,  lately 
recovered  by  Morin.  It  was  no  doubt  a  remembrance 
of  I  Peter,  iii,  19.  as  interpreted  by  Irensus  and 
others,  which  caused  their  insertion.  The  clause, 
"communion  of  saints",  which  appears  first  in 
Niceta  and  St.  Jerome,  should  unquestionably  be 
regarded  as  a  mere  expansion  of  the  article  "holy 
Church".  Saints,  as  used  here,  originally  meant 
no  more  than  the  living  members  of  the  Church 
(see  the  article  by  Morin  in  Revue  d'histoire  et  de 
litt^rature  eccl6siastique.  May,  1904,  and  the 
monograph  of  J.  P.  Kirsch,  Die  Lehre  von  der 
Gemeinschaft  der  Heiligen,  1900).  For  the  rest 
we  can  only  note  that  the  word  "Catholic  ",  which 
appears  first  in  Niceta,  is  dealt  with  separately; 
and  that  "forgiveness  of  sins"  is  probably  to  be  un- 
derstood primarily  of  baptism  and  should  be  com- 
pared with  the  "one  baptism  for  the  forgiveness  of 
sins"  of  the  Nicene  Creed. 

IV.  Use  and  Authority  of  the  Creed. — As 
already  indicated,  w-e  must  turn  to  the  ritual  of 
Baptism  for  the  most  primitive  and  important  use  of 
the  Apostles'  Creed.  It  is  highly  probable  that  tlie 
Creed  was  originally  nothing  else  than  a  profession 
of  faith  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  of  the 
baptismal  formula.  The  fully  developed  ceremonial 
which  we  find  in  the  seventh  Roman  Ordo,  and  the 
Gelasian  Sacramentary.  and  which  probably  repre- 
sents the  practice  of  the  fifth  century,  assigns  a 
special  day  of  "scrutiny",  for  the  imparting  of  the 
Creed  (tradiiio  symboli).  and  another,  immediately  be- 
fore the  actual  administration  of  the  Sacrament, 
for  the  re.dditio  symboli,  when  the  neophyte  gave 
proof  of  his  proficiency  by  reciting  the  Creed  aloud. 
An  imposing  address  accompanied  the  iraditio  and  in 
an  important  article,  Dom  de  Puniet  (Revue  d'His- 
toire  Eccl&iastique,  October,  1904)  has  recently 
shown  that  this  address  is  almost  certainly  the  com- 
position of  St.  Leo  the  Great.  Further,  three  ques- 
tions [intenogationes)  were  put  to  the  candidate  in  the 
very  act  of  baptism,  which  questions  are  themselves 
only  a  summary  of  the  oldest  form  of  the  Creed. 
Both  the  recitation  of  the  Creed  and  the  questions 
are  still  retained  in  the  Ordo  baptizandi  of  our  actual 
Roman  ritual;  while  the  Creed  in  an  interrogative 
form  appears  also  in  the  Baptismal  Service  of  the 
Anglican  "Book  of  Common  Prayer".  Outside  of 
the  administration  of  baptism  the  Apostles'  Creed 
is  recited  daily  in  the  Church,  not  only  at  the  be- 
ginning of  Matins  and  Prime  and  the  end  of  Com- 
pline, but  also  ferially  in  the  course  of  Prime  and 
Compline.  Many  medieval  synods  enjoin  that  it 
must  be  learnt  by  all  the  faithful,  and  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  evidence  to  show  that,  even  in  such 
countries  as  England  and  France,  it  was  formerly 
learnt  in  Latin.  As  a  result  of  this  intimate  asso- 
ciation with  the  liturgy  and  teaching  of  the  Church, 
the  Apostles'  Creed  has  always  been  held  to  have 
the  authority  of  an  ex  cathedrd  utterance.  It  is  com- 
monly taught  that  all  points  of  doctrine  contained 
in  it  arc  part  of  the  Catholic  Faith,  and  cannot  be 
called  in  question  vmder  pain  of  heresy  (St. 
Thomas,  Summa  Theologica,  II-II,  Q.  i,  art.  9). 
Hence  Catholics  have  generally  been  content  to  ac- 
cept the  Creed  in  the  form,  and  in  the  sense,  in 
which  it  has  been  authoritatively  expounded  by 
the  living  voice  of  the  Church.  For  those  Protes- 
tants who  accept  it  only  in  so  far  as  it  rcprescmts  the 
evangelical  teaching  of  the  Apostolic  Ago,  it  became 
a  matter  of  supreme  importance  to  investigate  its 
original  form  and  meaning.  This  explains  the  pre- 
ponderating  amount    of    research    devoted    to    this 


subject   by   Protestant   scholars    as   compared   with 
the  contributions  of  their  Catholic  rivals. 

The  materiats  for  any  profound  study  of  the  history  of  the 
Creeds  must  be  sought  in  the  great  works  of  Caspari,  Un- 
gedruckU  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des  TaufsymboU  (Chrisliania, 
ISBtS);  Hazn,  Bibliolhek  der  Symbole  (3d  ed.,  1897);  Katfen- 
BUSCH.  Daa  Apoatolische  Symbol  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1894-1900): 
and  SwAiNso.N.  The  Nicene  and  Apostles'  Creeds  (1875).  Of 
works  written  by  Catholics  in  English  we  may  mention  two 
papers  by  Da.  J.  R.  Gasqcet,  which  appeared  originally  in 
the  Dublin  Review.  Oct..  1S88,  and  .^pril,  1899,  and  which 
have  since  been  reprinted  in  his  Studies,  1904,  and  secondly 
the  already  quoted  articles  of  Dr.  Alexander  MacDonald 
in  the  (American)  Ecclesiastical  Review,  1903.  In  French 
we  have  the  excellent  little  summary  of  V.  £r.viom,  Le  Si/m- 
hole  des  Apotres  (2d  ed.,  1903).  and  the  articles  by  Mgr.  Ba- 
TIFKOL  and  l'Abbe  Vacant  in  the  Diet,  de  Theologie.  s.  v. 
Apotres.   Symbote    des.     There   was    also   an    interesting 


turn  was  criticised  by  G.  VoisiN  in  the  Revue  d'histoire  ec- 
clesiastique  (April,  1902).  Several  works  have  been  produced 
by  German  Catholics,  notably  DoM  S.  Baumer's  Das  Aposl. 
Glaubensbekenntnis  (Freiburg.  1893)  and  a  small  volume  with 
the  same  title  and  date  by  Father  Cl.  Blume,  S.J.  A  good  but 
early  book  is  that  of  Kr.\.wutzky  (Breslau,  1872).  while  a  later 
and  more  elaborate  study,  still  unfinished,  was  begun  bv 
DoRHoLT,  Das  Taufsymbolum  (Paderborn.  1898).  In  Italian 
we  may  refer  to  G.  Semeria's  Dogma,  315-37;  Gerarchia  e 
Culto  (1902).  The  important  studies  of  DcM  G.  Morin 
have  been  referred  to  above.  Of  non-Catholic  works,  many 
of  great  merit,  the  list  is  extensive.  We  may  refer  particularly, 
pn  the  conservative  side,  to  Burn,  Introduction  to  the  Creeds 
(London,  1897);  Swete,  AposUes'  Creed  (3d  cd„  1899);  and 
the  articles  by  Dr.  Sandat  in  the  Journal  of  Theological 
Studies  (Oct.,  1899.  and  Oct.,  1901).  Among  those  of  more 
radical  tendency  it  will  suffice  to  note  Harnack's  pamphlet, 
translated  by  Mrs.  Humphrey  Ward,  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, July,  1893,  and  the  bold  hypothesis  elaborated  by 
Professor  McGiffert  in  his  volume.  The  Aposties'  Creed, 
1902. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Apostles  of  Erin,  The  Twel^  e. — By  this  designa- 
tion are  meant  twelve  holy  Irishmen  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury who  went  to  study  at  the  School  of  Clonard, 
in  Meath.  About  the  year  520  St.  Finian  founded 
his  famous  School  at  Cluain-Eraird  (Eraird's  Mea- 
dow), now  Clonard,  and  thither  flocked  saints  and 
learned  men  from  all  parts  of  Ireland.  In  his  Irish 
life  it  is  said  that  the  average  number  of  scholars 
under  instruction  at  Clonard  was  3,000,  and  a  stanza 
of  the  hymn  for  Lauds  in  the  office  of  St.  Finian  runs 
as  follows: — 

Trium  virorum  millium, 

Sorte  fit  doctor  humilis; 

Verbi  his  fudit  fluvium 

Ut  fons  emanans  rivulis. 
The  Twelve  Apostles  of  Erin,  who  came  to  study 
at  the  feet  of  St.  Finian,  at  Clonard,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Boyne  and  Kinnegad  Rivers,  are  said  to  have  been 
St.  Ciaran  of  Saighir  (Seir-Kieran)  and  St.  (3iaran  of 
Clonmacnois;  St.  Brendan  of  Birr  and  St.  Brendan 
of  Clonfert;  St.  Columba  of  Tir-da-glas(  (Terryglass) 
and  St.  Columba  of  lona;  St.  Mobhi  of  Glasnevin; 
St.  Ruadhan  of  Lorrha;  St.  Senan  of  Iniscathay 
(Scattery  Island);  St.  Ninnidh  the  Saintly  of  Loch 
Erne;  St.  Lasserian  mac  Nadfraech,  and  St.  Canice 
of  Aghaboe.  Though  there  were  many  other  holy 
men  educated  at  Clonard  who  could  claim  to  be 
veritable  apostles,  the  above  twelve  are  regarded  by 
olcl  Irish  writers  as  "The  Twelve  Apostles  of  Erin '\ 
They  are  not  unworthy  of  the  title,  for  all  were  indeed 
apostles,  whose  studies  were  founded  on  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  as  expounded  by  St.  Finian.  In  the 
hymn  from  St.  Finian's  Office  we  read: — 

Regressus  in  Clonardiam 

Ad  cathedram  lectura;, 

Apponit  diligentiam 

Ad  studium  Scripture. 
The  great  founder  of  Clonard  died  12  Dec.  549, 
according  to  the  "Annals  of  Ulster",  but  the  Four 
Masters  give  the  year  as  548,  whilst  Colgan  makes 
the  date  503.  His  patronal  feast  is  observed  on 
12  December. 

W.  H.  Grattan  Flood. 


APOSTLESHIP 


G33 


APOSTOLIC 


Apostleship  of  Prayer,  The,  a  pious  association 
otherwise  known  as  a  league  of  prayer  in  union  with 
the  Heart  of  Jesus.  It  was  fouiided  at  Vals,  France,  in 
1844  by  Francis  X.  Gautrelot.  It  owes  its  popuhirily 
largely  to  tlie  Uevcrend  Henrj-  Kaiiii6re,  S.J.,  who, 
in  1861,  adapted  its  organization  for  parishes  and 
various  Catliolic  institutions,  and  made  it  known  by 
his  book  "The  A]X).stleship  of  Prayer",  which  has 
been  translated  into  many  languages.  In  1.S79  the 
association  received  its  first  statutes,  apiiroved  l)y 
Pius  IX,  and  in  1S9G  these  were  revised  and  approved 
by  Leo  XIII.  These  statutes  set  forth  the  nature, 
the  constitution,  and  the  organization  of  the  .-Vpostle- 
ship,  as  follows:  Its  object  is  to  promote  the  practice 
of  prayer  for  tlio  mutual  intentions  of  the  members, 
in  union  with  the  intercession  of  Christ  in  heaven. 
There  are  three  practices  which  constitute  three 
degrees  of  membership.  The  first  consists  of  a 
daily  olTering  of  one's  prayers,  good  works,  and 
sufferings,  the  second,  of  daily  recitation  of  a  decade 
of  beads  for  the  special  intentions  of  the  Holy  Father 
reconunended  to  the  members  every  month,  and  the 
third,  of  the  reception  of  Holy  Communion  with  the 
motive  of  reparation,  monthly  or  weekly,  on  days 
assigned.  The  memlx>rs  are  also  urged  to  observe 
the  practice  of  the  Holy  Hour,  spent  in  meditation 
on  the  Passion.  The  moderator  general  of  the 
association  is  the  General  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
who  usually  deputes  his  power  to  an  assistant.  At 
present  the  Reverend  A.  Drive,  S.J..  editor  of  the 
"Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart",  is  the  deputy. 
He  controls  the  organization  by  the  aid  of  the  editors 
of  the  "  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart",  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  At  present  they  number  thirty. 
In  each  country  diocesan  directors  are  appointed 
who  attend  to  the  aggregation  of  new  centres  of  the 
League  and  promote  its  interests  in  their  respective 
territories.  A  centre  may  he  a  parish,  a  pious 
society,  a  religious  community,  a  college,  academy, 
school,  or  any  religioius  or  cliaritable  institution. 
The  priest,  usually  the  pastor  or  chaplain,  in  charge 
of  a  centre  is  known  as  the  Local  Director.  In  order 
to  organize  a  centre,  he  appoints  promoters,  usually 
one  for  every  ten  or  fifteen  members,  who  with  him 
hold  special  meetings,  canvass  for  new  members, 
and  circulate  the  mystery  leaflets  containing  the 
monthly  practices  for  the  members.  To  erect  a 
centre  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  diploma  of  aggre- 
gation which  the  dej)uty  moderator  issues  through 
the  editors  of  the  ".Messengers  of  the  Sacred  Heart" 
in  their  respective  countries.  To  be  a  member  it 
is  sufficient  to  have  one's  name  inscribed  in  the 
register  of  some  local  centre.  There  are  now  over 
62,.500  local  centres  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
about  6,1)8.5  of  which  are  in  the  I'nited  States,  1,S'X) 
in  Canada,  1,000  in  England,  2,000  in  Ireland,  200 
in  Scotland,  and  400  in  .■Vastralia.  The  Association 
numbers  over  2.5,000,000  members,  about  4,000,(X)0 
of  whom  are  in  the  United  States.  In  schools  and 
academies  it  is  usually  conducted  in  a  fonn  suitable 
for  the  pupils,  known  as  the  pope's  militia.  The 
members  are  entitled  to  many  mdulgences. 

Berinoer,  Let  Indulgence;  II.  197  (Paris.  190.i);  Handbook 
of  the  ApoHtleship  of  Prayer  (New  York):  Acta  Sancltr  Sedis 
circa  piam  faderationem  Apo8tota4ut  Orationis  (Toulouse,  1SS8). 

John  J.  Wynne. 
Apostolic.    See   ApasTouaTv;  Church,  Masks 

OF  THE. 

Apostolic  Oamera. — The  former  central  board  of 
finance  in  the  papal  administrative  system,  which  at 
one  time  w.is  of  great  importance  in  the  government 
of  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice.  The  Camera  A}x>stoUca  consists  to- 
day of  the  cardinal-camerlengo,  the  vice-camerlengo, 
the  auditor,  the  general  tre;usurer  (an  office  unoccu- 
pied since  18701  and  seven  cameral  clerics.  Since  the 
States  of  the  Church  have  ceased  to  exist,  and  the 


income  of  the  papal  treasury  is  chiefly  derived  frorc 
Peter's-pencc  and  other  alms  contributed  by  the 
faithful,  the  Camera  has  no  longer  any  practical  im- 
portance as  a  board  of  finance,  for  the  revenue 
known  as  Peter'.s-pence  is  managed  by  a  special  com- 
mission. The  officials  who  now  constitute  the  c:ini- 
cra  hold  in  reality  quiusi-honorarj'  offices.  The  Car- 
dinal-Camerlengo  enters  upon  his  chief  duties  on  the 
occasion  of  a  vacancy  in  the  Holy  See,  during  which 
time  he  is  invested  with  a  portion  of  the  papal  au- 
thority. The  Vice-Camcrlengo,  one  of  the  highest 
prelates  of  the  Roman  Curia,  was  until  1870  governor 
of  Rome,  and  was  charged  with  the  maintenance  of 
peace  and  order  in  the  city;  during  a  vacancy  in 
the  Papal  See  he  is  even  yet  first  in  authority  after 
the  cardinals,  and  entrusted  with  the  surveillance  of 
the  conclave,  to  which  no  one  is  admitted  without 
his  permi-ssion.  The  .\uditor-General  of  the  Camera, 
also  one  of  the  highest  prelates,  was  formerly  the 
chief  judge  in  all  c;uses  concerning  the  financial 
ailministration  of  the  Curia.  Before  1870  he  pre- 
sided over  the  supremo  court,  to  which  the  I  ope 
referred  the  most  important  questions  for  decision. 
The  Treasurer-General  formerly  had  supreme  finan- 
cial control  of  the  whole  income  derived  from  (he 
temporal  possessions  of  the  Church,  as  well  as  the 
rest  of  the  tribute  accruing  to  the  papal  treasury. 
The  College  of  Clerics  of  the  Apostolic  Camera  con- 
sists now  of  seven  members,  though  formerly  the 
number  was  variable.  The  members  of  the  body, 
who  even  to-day  are  chosen  from  among  the  higli- 
est  prelates,  had  formerly  not  only  the  management 
of  the  property  and  income  of  the  Holy  See,  and 
were  consulted  collectively  on  all  important  ques- 
tions concerning  their  .idministration,  but  also  of- 
ficiated as  a  court  in  all  disputes  alTecting  the  papal 
exchequer.  When  Pius  I. \.  after  the  installation  of 
the  various  ministries,  divided  among  them  the  ad- 
ministrative duties,  he  assigned  to  each  cleric  of  the 
Camera  the  presidency  of  a  section  of  the  depart- 
ment of  finance.  Four  of  them,  moreover,  were 
members  of  the  commission  appointed  to  examine 
the  accounts  of  the  Camera.  I  hey  are  entitled  to 
special  places  whenever  the  Pope  appears  in  public 
on  solemn  occasions,  in  the  papal  processions,  and 
in  public  consistories.  At  the  death  of  the  PontitT 
they  take  possession  of  the  .Vpostolic  palaces,  attend 
to  the  taking  of  the  inventories,  and  manage  the 
internal  or  ilomestic  administration  during  the  va- 
cancy. In  the  conclave  they  have  charge  of  all  that 
pertains  to  the  table  of  the  cardinals.  Apart  from 
this,  the  clerics  of  the  Camera  are  now  usually  pro- 
fessors and  canons,  with  regular  ecclesiastical  appoint- 
ments. 

Although  the  Apostolic  Camera  and  the  prelates 
forming  it  have  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  original 
authority,  tliis  body  was  formerly  one  of  the  most 
important  in  the  Curia.  The  character  and  method 
of  their  administration  have  undergone  much  mod- 
ification in  the  past,  being  affected  naturally  by 
general  economical  development,  and  by  the  vicis- 
situdes of  the  States  of  the  Church  and  the  central 
curi.al  administration.  Suice  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century  we  find  a  papal  chamberlain  (cam- 
erarius  domini  papa-)  as  a  regular  member  of  the 
Curia,  entrusted  with  the  financial  management  of 
the  papal  court.  At  that  early  perioil  the  income 
of  the  papal  treasury  came  chiefly  from  many  kinds 
of  census,  dues,  and  tributes  paid  in  from  the 
territory  subject  to  the  Pope,  and  from  churches 
and  monasteries  immediately  dependent  on  him. 
Cencius  Camerarius  (later  Pope  Honorius  III,  12I(>- 
27)  made  in  1 192  a  new  inventory  of  all  these  sources 
of  papal  revenue,  known  as  the  "Liber  Censuum". 
The  previous  list  dated  back  to  Gelasius  I  (492—196) 
and  Gregory  I  (590-<i()4).  and  was  basctl  on  lists  of 
the    incomes    accruing    from    the    patrimonies,   or 


APOSTOLIC 


634 


APOSTOLIC 


lamled  property  of  the  Roman  Church.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  the  Apostolic  Camera  entered  on 
a  new  phase  of  development.  The  collection  of  the 
crusade  taxes,  regularly  assessed  after  the  time  of 
Innocent  111  (119S-1216).  imposed  new  duties  on 
the  papal  treasurj',  to  which  were  committed  both 
the  collection  and  distribution  of  these  assessments. 
Moreover,  during  the  course  of  this  century  the  sys- 
tem of  payment  in  Idnd  was  transformed  into  the 
monetaiy  system,  a  process  considerably  influenced 
by  the  administration  of  the  papal  finances.  The 
servitia  communia  of  bishops  and  abbots  (see  An- 
N.\TEs)  were  regulated  at  fixed  sums.  The  various 
taxes  are  listed  in  their  order  in  P.  K.  Eubel,  "  Hier- 
archia  Catholica "  (Munster,  1898-1901);  the  in- 
come regularly  yielded  by  them  to  the  Curia  is  by 
no  means  small.  To  these  we  must  add  the  annates, 
taken  in  the  narrower  sense,  especially  the  great 
universal  reservations  made  since  the  time  of 
Clement  V  and  John  XXII,  the  extraordinary  sub- 
sidies, moreover,  levied  since  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth centuiy,  the  census,  and  other  assessments. 
The  duties  of  the  Apostolic  Camera  were  thus  con- 
stantly enlarged.  For  the  collection  of  all  these 
moneys  it  employed  henceforth  a  great  number  of 
agents  known  as  collectores.  With  time  the  im- 
portance of  this  central  department  of  finance  be- 
came more  marked.  The  highest  administrative 
officers  were  always  the  chamberlain  {camcrarius) 
and  the  treasurer  {ihesaurarius) — the  former  is  reg- 
ularly a  bishop,  the  latter  often  of  the  same  rank. 
Ne.xt  in  order  came  the  clerics  of  the  Camera  {clerici 
camerw),  originally  three  or  four,  afterwards  as  many 
as  ten.  Next  to  these  was  the  judge  {auditor)  of 
the  Camera.  The  two  first-named  formed  with  the 
clerics  of  the  Camera  its  highest  atiministrative  coun- 
cil; they  controlled  and  looked  closely  to  both  rev- 
enues and  expenses.  In  their  service  were  a  number 
of  inferior  officials,  notaries,  scribes,  and  messengers. 
The  more  absolute  system  of  ruling  the  Church  which 
developed  after  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, as  well  as  the  gradual  transformation  in  the 
financial  administration,  modified  in  many  ways  the 
duties  of  tlie  .\postolic  Camera.  The  Camerarius 
(camerlengo,  chamberlain)  became  one  of  the  high- 
est officers  in  the  government  of  tlie  Papal  States, 
and  remained  so  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  new  methods  of  administration  called 
for  other  officials.  Finally,  in  1870,  on  account  of 
the  loss  of  the  temporal  power,  the  Apostolic  Camera 
ceased  almost  entirely  to  exercise  any  practical  in- 
fluence on  the  papal  administration.  The  Apostolic 
Camera  must  be  distinguished  from  the  treasury  or 
camera  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  presided  over  by 
the  cardinal-camerlengo  {Camcrarius  Sacri  Collegii 
Cardinalium).  It  had  charge  of  the  common  reve- 
nues of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  and  appears  among 
the  curial  institutions  after  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.     It  has  long  ceased  to  exist. 

Bangen,  Die  romische  Kurie,  ifire  gegenwUrtige  Zusammenr- 
iieUung  und  ihr  Geschiif Isgang  (Munster,  1854),  345  sqq.; 
Philu-ps,  KirchenreclU  (Ratisbon,  1864),  VI,  503  sqq.; 
HiNHcHlus,  System  dee  kaUi.  Kirchenrechts,  Part  I,  309  sqq.; 
KoNiG,  Die  pUpgdiche  Kammer  unter  Klemena  V  und  Johann 
XXII  (Vienna,  1894);  Gotti.ob,  Aua  der  Camera  apostotica 
dea  IS.  Jahrh.  (Innsbruck,  1889);  Samaran  and  Mollat, 
La  fitcalite  pontificale  en  France  au  XIV'  siicle  (Paris,  1905); 
Fabre,  Elude  sur  le  Liber  censuum  de  I'ioliae  romaine  (Paris, 
1892);  Le  liber  centuum  de  Viglise  romaine  (Paris,  1889), 
laac.  1-V;  GoLi.ER,  Der  liber  laxarum  der  papsUichen  Kammer 
(ilome.  1905)  taken  from  Quellen  und  Forschungen  aua  itati- 
mischen  Archiven,  VIII;  Kliiscii.  Die  Finamierwaltung  dea 
KardmatkoUeaiuma  im  IS.  und  14.  Jahrh.  (Munster.  1895); 
Baumoahtkn,  Unleraurhungcn  und  Urkunden  uber  die  Camera 
ColUpu  Cardinalium  jlir  die  Xeit  von  121.5-1437  (Leipzig,  1898); 
Du  kalholtache  Kirche  unarrer  Zeit  und  ihre  Dicner,  1:  Rom.  das 
Oberhaupl.  die  KinricMuni}  und  die  Vcrwaltuna  der  Geaammt- 
kvche  (2d  oil.,   .Munich,   1905). 

J.   P.   KmSCH. 

Apostolic  Church.     See  Apostolicity. 
ApostoUc  Churches.— The  epithet  Apostolic  (diroo-- 


toXikAs)  occurs  as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century;  first,  as  far  as  known,  in  the  super- 
scription of  Ignatius's  Epistle  to  the  Trallians  (about 
110),  where  the  holy  bishop  greets  the  Trallian 
Church  iv  diroirToXiAi(r  xapoKT^pi  :  "in  Apostolic  char- 
acter", viz.,  after  the  manner  of  the  Apostles.  The 
word  -Apostolic  becomes  frequent  enough  from  the 
end  of  this  century  on,  in  such  expressions  as  an 
".\postolie  man",  an  "Apostolic  writing",  "Apostolic 
Churches".  All  the  individual  orthodox  churclies 
could,  in  a  sen.se,  be  called  Apostolic  Churches,  be- 
cause they  were  in  some  more  or  less  mediate  con- 
nection with  the  Apostles.  Indeed,  that  is  the  mean- 
ing in  which  TertuUian  sometimes  uses  the  expression 
Apostolic  Churches  (De  Prjescriptionibus,  c.  xx;  Ad- 
versus  Marcionem,  IV,  v).  Usually,  however,  es- 
pecially among  the  Western  writers,  from  the  second 
to  the  fourth  century,  the  term  is  meant  to  signify 
the  ancient  particular  Churches  which  were  founded, 
or  at  least  governed,  by  an  Apostle,  and  which,  on 
that  account,  enjoyed  a  special  dignity  and  acquired 
a  great  apologetic  importance.  To  designate  these 
Churches,  Irenaeus  has  often  recourse  to  ?,  paraphrase 
(Adv.  Ha^r.,  Ill,  iv,  1),  or  he  calls  them  the  "oldest 
Churches".  In  the  writings  of  Tertullian  we  find 
the  expressions  "mother-Churches"  (ecclesice matrices, 
originates),  frequently  "Apostolic  Churches"  (De 
Praescriptionibus,  c.  xxi).  At  the  time  of  the  Christo- 
logical  controversies  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 
some  of  these  Apostolic  Churches  rejected  the  ortho- 
dox faith.  Thus  it  happened  that  the  title  "Apos- 
tolic Churches"  was  no  longer  used  in  apologetic 
treatises,  to  denote  the  particular  Churches  founded 
by  the  Apostles.  For  mstance,  Vincent  of  L^rins, 
in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century,  makes  no  spe- 
cial mention  in  his  "  Commonitorium "  of  Apostolic 
Churches.  But,  towards  the  same  epoch,  the  expres- 
sion "the  Apostolic  Church"  came  into  use  in  the 
singular,  as  an  appellation  for  the  whole  Church, 
and  that  frequently  in  connection  with  the  older 
diction  "Catholic  Church";  while  the  most  famous 
of  the  particular  Apostolic  Churches,  the  Roman 
Church,  took  as  a  convenient  designation  the  title 
"Apostolic  See"  (Vincent  of  L^rins's  Commoni- 
torium, c.  ix).  This  last  title  was  also  given,  though 
not  quite  so  often,  to  the  Antiochian  and  to  tne 
Alexandrian  Church. 

I.  Chicj  Apostolic  Churclies. — It  is  not  possible, 
in  a  summary,  to  give  an  account  of  the  missionary 
labours  of  the  .\postles  and  of  the  foundation  of  Chris- 
tian Churches  by  them.  We  have,  if  not  complete,  at 
least  sufficient,  information  about  the  preaching  and 
the  works  of  St.  Peter  in  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and 
Rome;  of  St.  James  the  Elder  in  Jerusalem;  of  St. 
John  in  Jerusalem  and  Ephesus;  of  St.  Paul  at  An- 
tioch, Iconium,  Lystra,  Derbe,  Troas,  Ephesus,  Phil- 
ippi,Thessalonica,  Berea,  Athens,  Corinth,  and  Rome. 
In  tliese  towns — and  not  all  entitled  thereto  are  in- 
cluded in  the  nomenclature — there  were  Christian 
comnnmities  foimded  by  the  Apostles  that  could  be 
called  Apostolic  Churches.  However,  when  the  writ- 
ers of  the  second  and  the  third  century  speak  of 
Apostolic  Churches,  they  refer  ordinarily  to  some  only 
of  these  churches.  Thus,  e.  g.,  Irena-us  {.\dv.  IlaT., 
Ill,  iii,  2)  mentions  the  Roman  Church,  "the  greatest, 
most  ancient  and  known  to  all,  founded  and  estab- 
lished by  two  most  glorious  Apostles,  Peter  and 
Paul",  the  Church  at  Ephesus,  and  the  Smyrniean 
Church,  where  ho  was  Polycarp's  disciple.  Tertul- 
lian enumerates  others  (Do  Pra>scriptionibus,  c.  xxvi): 
"You  who  are  rightly  solicitous  for  your  salvation, 
travel  to  the  Apostolic  churches.  ...  If  Achaia  is 
not  distant,  you  have  Corinth.  If  you  are  near 
Macedonia,  you  have  Philippi,  you  have  Thessa- 
lonica.  If  you  can  go  to  .\sia,  you  have  Ephesus. 
If  you  are  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Italy,  you  have 
Rome. "  Then  follows  a  splendid  panegyric  of  the  Uo- 


APOSTOLIC 


635 


APOSTOLIC 


man  Church,  the  first  among  the  Apostolic  Churclies 
(see  also  c.  xxii). 

II.  The  AjMUxjitic  Argument  of  Irenaux  and  TerUil- 
lian. — The  oldest  Christian  literature  shows  with 
great  evidence  that  the  first  controversies  amonc 
Christians  were  always  decided  by  texts  of  the  Old 
Testament,  sayings  of  Our  Lord,  and  the  authority 
of  the  Ai)ostles.  Tliis  last  ground  was  very  impor- 
tant in  tlie  c;ise  of  new  questions  on  whicli  there 
existed  no  explicit  teaching  of  Christ.  Tlierefore,  it 
is  easy  to  understand  that  the  Apostolic  Chvirches 
could  not  he  lost  siglit  of  in  such  controversies,  and 
it  may  beef  interest  to  point  out  the  apologetic  argu- 
ment of  Irena'us  and  Tertullian,  which  is  founded  on 
the  preservation  of  the  Apostolic  doctrine  in  the  va- 
rious Apostolic  Churclies.  Irenieiis,  having  exposed, 
In  the  first  two  books  of  his  great  work,  "  Against 
the  Heresies",  the  doctrines  of  the  various  Gnostic 
sects,  and  having  shown  tlieir  intrinsic  absurdity, 
proceeds  in  the  tliird  Ijook  to  refute  them  by  means 
of  theological  arguments,  especially  Scriptural  ones. 
But  before  dealing  with  biblical  proofs,  lie  attempts 
the  other  method  of  convincing  heretics,  namely,  that 
which  consists  in  appealing  to  tlie  Catliolic  tradition 

E reserved  in  the  churches  through  the  succession  of 
ishops.  The  gist  of  liis  reasoning  is:  The  churches 
being  too  numerous,  it  may  be  suHicient  to  examine 
into  the  doctrine  of  one,  viz.,  of  the  Roman  Church, 
or,  at  lea.st,  of  some  of  the  oldest  churches  (III.  ii,  iii). 
He  says:  "Even  if  there  is  a  controversy  about  a 
little  question,  should  we  not  have  recourse  to  the 
most  ancient  churches  in  which  the  Apostles  dwelt, 
and  take  from  them  the  safe  and  trustworthy  doc- 
trine?" (HI,  iv,  1).  Tertullian,  with  his  character- 
istic energy,  takes  up  the  same  argument  in  his  fa- 
mous work  "On  Prescription  Against  Heretics". 
His  general  process  of  reasoning  runs  thus:  Christ 
chose  twelve  Apostles  to  whom  he  communicated 
His  doctrine.  The  Apostles  preached  this  doctrine 
to  the  churclies  they  founded,  and  thence  the  same 
doctrine  came  to  tlie  more  recent  churches.  Neither 
did  the  Apostles  corrupt  Christ's  doctrine,  nor  have 
the  Apostolic  Churches  corruptetl  the  preaching  of 
the  Apostles.  Heresy  is  always  posterior  and,  there- 
fore, erroneous.  "  We  have  to  show, "  he  says  (c.  x.\i), 
"whether  our  doctrine  ...  is  derived  from  Apos- 
tolic teaching,  and  whether,  therefore,  other  doc- 
trines have  their  origin  in  a  lie.  We  are  in  com- 
munion with  the  .\postolic  Churches,  because  we 
have  the  same  doctrine;  that  is  the  testimony  of 
the  truth  (Coinmunicamus  cum  Ecclesiis  ajxistolicis, 
quod  nulla  doctrina  di  versa;  hoc  est  testimonium  veri- 
tatis).  In  Tertulhan's  writings  against  Marcion  (IV, 
v)  we  find  an  application  of  this  apologetic  argu- 
ment. Having  developed  the  historical  argunier.t 
founded  on  the  preservation,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  of 
the  Apostolic  doctrine  in  the  chief  Apostolic  Churches, 
we  must  add  that,  besides  it,  such  writers  as  Irenjcus 
and  others  used  often  also  a  dogmatic  argument 
founded  on  the  necessary  preservation  of  Christian 
truth  in  the  whole  Church  and  in  the  Roman  Church 
in  particular.  The  two  arguments  are  to  be  care- 
fully distinguished. 

III.  Ancient  Statements  Concerning  Relics  of  the 
Apostles  in  Apostolic  Churches. — The  tomb  of  the 
Apostle,  founder  of  the  Church,  was  religiously  ven- 
erated in  .some  of  the  Apostolic  Churches,  ius,  e,  g,.  the 
tombs  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  Rome,  of  St.  John 
at  Ephesus.  A  statement  of  Tertulhan's  has  given 
rise  to  some  curious  questions  concerning  relics 
of  Apostles  preserved  in  the  .Vpostolic  (Churches. 
"Travel"  he  writes  in  "  De  Prirscriptionibus"  (c. 
xxxvi),  "to  the  Apostolic  Churches  in  which  the  seats 
of  the  Apostles  still  occupy  their  places  [a ;»«/  quas  iit- 
soe adhuc  cathedra  ajmstolornm  suis  locis  pr(tsident\.  in 
which  their  authentic  Epistles  are  still  read,  .sounding 
their  voice  and   representing  their  face  [apud   (|uas 


ipsa!  authenticaj  litterae  eorum  recitantur,  sonantes  vo- 
cem  et  repne.sentantes  faciem  uniuscujusque.]  "  The 
words  "authentic  epistles"  might  denote  merely  the 
epistles  in  the  original  text — tlie  Greek  (cf.  TertuU. 
De  Monogomia,  c.  xi);  but  here  it  Ls  not  the  case, 
because  in  Tertulhan's  time  the  Greek  text  of  the 
canonical  book.s  wa.s  still  read  nearly  everywhere, 
and  not  in  the  Apostolic  Churches  only.  We  must 
take  the  emsloloe  aullunticos  to  mean  the  autograplis 
of  some  Epistles  of  the  Apostles.  Indeed  in  later 
times  we  hear  of  recovered  autographs  of  Apostolic 
writings  in  the  controversies  about  tne  Apostolic  ori- 
gin of  some  Churches  or  about  claims  for  metro- 
politan dignity.  So  the  autograph  of  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew  was  said  to  have  been  found  in  Cyprus. 
(See  E.  Nestle,  Einfiihrung  in  das  griechische  Neue 
Testament,  Gottingen,  1899,  29,  30.)  If  the  authvn- 
ticx  epistolw  are  the  Aiiostolic  autograplis,  the  apo.s- 
tolic  seats  (ipsa  adhuc  cathedroe  apostolorum)  mean 
the  seats  in  which  the  Apostles  preached,  and  the 
expression  is  not  metaphorical.  Eusebius  (Hist. 
Eccl.,  VII,  19)  relates  that  in  his  time  the  seat  of 
St.  James  was  as  yet  extant  in  Jerusalem.  On  old 
pictures  of  Apostles  cf.  Eusebius,  ibid.,  VII,  18. 
Whether  6r  not  even  the  oldest  of  these  statements 
are  historically  true  remains  still  a  mooted  question. 
We  regard  it  as  useless  to  record  what  may  be  found 
on  these  topics  in  the  vast  amount  of  matter  that 
makes  up  the  apocryplial  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and 
other  legendary  documents. 

ScHEEBEN,  in  Kirchentei.;  Winckler,  Der  Tradiiionn- 
beffriff  des  U rchrinlenlhuma  but  Tertullian  (Munich,  1897)  ; 
Harnack,  Die  Mission  und  Ausbreitung  des  Christenthums  m 
den  ersten  drei  J ahrhunderten  {LeipnE,  1902);  Duchesne, 
Hisloire  ancienne  de  VifiHse  (Pari-s,  1900),  I.  See  Apos- 
tolic See;  Apostles;  and  special  articles  under  the  names 
of  the  several  Apostles. 

HoNonf;  Coppieteks. 

Apostolic  Church-Ordinance,  a  third-century 
pseudo-Apostolic  collection  of  moral  and  hierarchical 
rules  and  instructions,  compiled  in  the  main  from 
ancient  Christian  sources,  first  published  in  Ethiopic 
by  Ludolf  (with  Latin  translation)  in  the  "Com- 
mentarius"  to  his  "Historia  Ethiopica"  (Frankfort, 
1091).  It  served  as  a  law-code  for  the  Eg^'ptian, 
Ethiopian,  and  Arabian  churches,  and  rivalled  in 
authority  and  esteem  the  Didache,  under  which 
name  it  sometimes  went.  Though  of  undoubted 
Greek  origin,  these  canons  are  preserved  largely  in 
Coptic,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  and  Syriac  versions.  The 
Apostolic  Church-Ordinance  was  first  iiublished  in 
Greek  by  Prof.  Biekell  of  Marburg  (18-13)  from  a 
twelfth-century  Greek  manuscript  discovered  by  him 
at  Vienna  (Geschiclite  des  Kirchenrechts,  Gics.sen, 
1813,  I,  107-13'2).  He  also  gave  the  code  the  name 
"Apostolische  Kirchenordnung"  by  which  it  is  gen- 
erally known,  though  in  English  it  is  usually  called 
as  above,  sometimes  Apostolic  Church-Order,  Apos- 
tolic Church-Directory,  etc.  The  document,  after 
a  short  introduction  (i-iii)  inspired  by  the  "Letter 
of  Barnaba-s  ",  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  of 
which  (iv-xiv)  is  an  evident  adaptation  of  the  first 
six  chapters  of  the  Didache,  the  moral  precepts 
of  whicli  are  attributed  severally  to  the  Apostles, 
each  of  whom,  introduced  by  the  formula  "Jolin 
saj-s  ",  "Peter  says  ",  etc.,  is  represented  as  framing 
one  or  more  of  the  ordinances.  The  second  part 
(xv-xxx)  treats  in  similar  manner  of  the  qualifica- 
tions for  ordination  or  for  the  duties  of  different 
officers  in  the  Church.  The  work  was  compiled  in 
Egj'pt,  or  po.ssibly  in  Syria,  in  the  third,  or,  at  the 
latest,  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth,  centurj-.  Kiink 
assigns  its  compilation  to  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century;  Harnack  to  about  the  year  300.  Who  the 
compiler  was  cannot  be  conjectured,  nor  can  it  be 
determined  what  part  he  had  in  framing  canons  I.*! 
to  :{0.  Duchesne  considers  them  largely  the  com- 
piler's own  work;  Kuiik  thinks  he  drew  upon  at  least 


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(];iG 


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two  sources  now  unknown;  while  Harnatk  iiniler- 
takes  to  identify  by  name  the  now  lost  documents 
upon  which  the  compiler  almost  entirely  depended. 
The  Sahidic  (Coptic)  text  was  published  by  l.agarde 
in  " .^ii^gyptiaca  (Leipzig,  1S83),  and  the  Bohairie 
(Coptic)  by  Tattam  (The  Apostolical  Constitutions, 
or  Canons  of  the  Apostles,  London,  1848).  The 
complete  Syriac  text,  with  English  translation,  was 
published  by  Dr.  Arendzen  in  "Journal  of  Theol. 
Studies"   (October,   1901). 

Harxack,  Tej-te  und  V ntersuchun^en  (Leipzig,  1886),  II, 
5  sq.;  PiTRA,  Juris  ecclesiast.  Gracorum  Hist,  et  Monum, 
(Rome,  1864).  I,  75-SS;  Funk,  Doctrina  Duodecim  Apostolo- 
rum  (Tubingen,  18871.  44  sq..  50  sq.;  Schaff.  Teaching  of 
the  Twelve  Apostles  (New  York.  1885).  127-132,  237-257. 
where  the  dependence  of  the  Apostolic  Church  Ordinance 
(Canons  4-14)  on  the  Didache  is  graphieallv  set  forth;  Bar- 
DENHEWER.  Gesch.  der  altkirch.  Lit.  (Freiburg,  1903),  II, 
262-269;  Patrologie  (ib.,  1901).  141;  Duchesne,  Bulletin 
Critique  (October,  1886),  361-370. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

Apostolic  Constitutions,  a  fourth-century  pseudo- 
Apostolic  collection,  in  eight  books,  of  independent, 
tliough  closely  related,  treatises  on  Christian  dis- 
cipline, worship,  and  doctrine,  intended  to  serve  as 
a  manual  of  guidance  for  the  clergy,  and  to  some 
extent  for  the  laity.  Its  tone  is  rather  hortatory  than 
precepti\e.  for,  though  it  was  evidently  meant  to  be 
a  code  of  catechetical  instruction  and  of  moral  and 
liturgical  law,  its  injunctions  often  take  the  form  of 
little  treatises  and  exhortations,  amply  supported 
by  scriptural  texts  and  examples.  Its  elements  are 
loosely  combined  without  great  regard  for  order  or 
unity.  It  purports  to  be  the  work  of  the  Apostles, 
■\\hose  instructions,  whether  given  by  them  as  in- 
dividuals or  as  a  body,  are  supposed  to  be  gathered 
and  handed  down  by  the  pretended  compiler,  St. 
Clement  of  Rome,  the  authority  of  whose  name  gave 
fictitious  weight  to  more  than  one  such  piece  of  early 
Christian  literature.  The  Church  seems  never  to 
have  regarded  this  work  as  of  undoubted  Apostolic 
authority.  The  TruUan  Council  in  692  rejected  the 
work  on  account  of  the  interpolations  of  heretics. 
Only  that  portion  of  it  to  which  has  been  given  the 
name  "Apostolic  Canons"  was  received;  but  even 
the  fifty  of  these  canons  which  had  then  been  ac- 
cepted by  the  Western  Church  were  not  regarded  as 
of  certain  Apostolic  origin.  Where  known,  however, 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions  were  held  generally  in 
high  esteem  and  served  as  the  basis  for  much  eccle- 
siastical legislation.  They  are  to-day  of  the  highest 
value  as  an  historical  document,  revealing  the  moral 
and  religious  conditions  and  the  liturgical  observ- 
ances of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries.  Their  text 
was  not  known  in  the  Western  Church  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages.  In  1546  a  Latin  version  of  a  text 
found  in  Crete  was  published  by  Capellus,  and  in 
1563  appeared  the  complete  Greek  text  of  Bovius 
and  that  of  the  Jesuit  Father  Torres  (Turrianus)  who, 
despite  the  glaring  archaisms  and  incongruities  of 
the  collection,  contended  that  it  was  a  genuine  work 
of  the  Apostles.  Four  manuscripts  of  it  are  now 
extant,  the  oldest  an  early  twelfth-century  text  in 
St.  Petersburg,  an  allied  fourteenth-century  text  in 
Vienna,  and  two  kindred  sixteenth-century  texts, 
one  in  Vienna,  the  other  in  Paris.  In  its  present 
form  the  text  rejjresents  the  gradual  growth  and 
evolution  of  usages  of  the  first  three  centuries  of 
Christian  Church  life.  The  compiler  gathered  from 
pre-exi.sting  moral,  disciplinary,  and  liturgical  codes 
the  elements  suited  to  his  purpose,  and  by  adaptation 
and  interpolation  framed  a  system  of  constitutions 
which,  while  suited  to  contemporary  needs,  could 
yet  pretend,  in  an  iuicritical  age,  to  Apostolic  origin. 
Thanks  to  recent  textual  studies  in  early  Christian 
literature,  most  of  tlie  sources  of  which  the  compiler 
made  use  are  now  clearly  recognizable.  The  first 
six  Imoks  are  based  on  the  "  Didascalia  of  the  Apos- 
tles", a  lost  treatise  of  the  third  century,  of  Creek 


origin,  which  is  known  through  Syriac  versions. 
The  compiler  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  made 
use  of  the  greater  part  of  this  older  treatise,  but  he 
adapted  it  to  the  needs  of  his  day  by  some  modifi- 
cations and  extensive  interpolation.  Liturgical  evo- 
lution made  necessary  a  considerable  amplification 
of  the  formulce  of  worship;  changes  in  disciplinary 
practice  called  for  a  softening  of  some  of  the  older 
laws;  scriptural  references  and  examples,  intended 
to  enforce  the  lessons  inculcated  by  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  are  more  frequently  used  than  in  the 
parent  Didascalia.  The  seventh  book,  which  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  parts,  the  first  a  moral  instruc- 
tion (i-xxxii)  and  the  second  liturgical  (xxxiii-xlix). 
depends  for  the  first  portion  on  the  early  seconcl- 
century  Didache  or  "Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles", which  has  been  amplified  by  the  compiler 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  Didascalia  was 
amplified  in  the  framing  of  the  first  six  books. 
The  rediscovery  of  the  Didache  in  1873  revealed 
with  what  fidelity  the  compiler  embodied  it,  almost 
word  for  word,  in  liis  expansion  of  its  precepts,  save 
for  such  omissions  and  changes  as  were  made  nec- 
essary by  the  lapse  of  time.  The  fact  that  the 
Didache  was  itself  a  source  of  the  Didascalia 
will  explain  the  repetition  in  the  seventh  book  of 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions  of  matters  treated  in 
the  preceding  books.  The  source  of  the  second 
portion  of  the  seventh  book  is  still  undetermined. 
In  the  eighth  book  are  recognized  many  distinct 
elements  whose  very  number  and  diversity  render 
it  difficult  to  determine  with  certainty  the  sources 
upon  which  the  compiler  drew.  The  eiglith  book 
of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts  thus:  the  introductory  chapters  (i-ii) 
have  for  their  foundation  a  treatise  entitled  "Teach- 
ing of  the  Holy  Apostles  concerning  Gifts",  possibly 
a  lost  work  of  Hippolytus.  The  transitional  third 
chapter  is  the  work  of  the  compiler.  The  last 
chapter  (xlvii)  contains  the  "Apostolic  Canons". 
It  is  the  second  part  (iv-xlvi)  which  presents  diffi- 
culties the  varied  solution  of  which  divides  scholars 
as  to  its  sources.  Recent  studies  in  early  Christian 
literature  have  made  evident  the  kinship  of  several 
documents,  dealing  with  disciplinary  and  liturgical 
matters,  closely  allied  with  this  eighth  book.  Their 
interdependence  is  not  so  clearly  understood.  The 
more  important  of  these  documents  are:  The  "Canons 
of  [pseudo?]  Hippolytus";  the  "Egj-ptian  Church 
Ordinance";  and  the  recently  discovered  Syriac  text 
of  "The  Gospel  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ".  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Hans  Achelis,  the  "Canons  of  Hippolytus", 
which  he  considers  to  he  a  third-century  document 
of  Roman  origin,  is  the  parent  of  the  "Egyptian 
Church  Ordinance",  whence  came,  by  independent 
filiation,  the  Syriac  "Gospel  of  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ",  and  the  eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions. In  this  hypothesis  the  "Canons  of 
Hippolytus",  or  more  immediately  the  "Egyptian 
Church  Ordinance",  and  the  contemporarj'  iiractice 
of  the  Church  would  be  the  source  from  which  the 
compiler  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  drew.  Dr. 
F.  X.  Funk,  on  the  other  hand,  argues  strongly 
for  the  priority  of  the  eighth  book  of  the  latter, 
whence,  through  a  parallel  text,  arc  derived  the  other 
three  documents  which  he  considers  as  fifth-century 
works,  a  conclusion  not  without  its  difficulties  of 
acceptance,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  place  of 
the  "Canons  of  Hippolytus"  in  the  chronology.  If 
the  priority  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  be 
admitted,  it  is  not  cn-<y  fn  identify  the  sources  on 
which  the  compihr  d.iiciHlcd.  For  the  liturgical 
element  (v-xv),  whiih  i>  :iii  rxident  interpolation,  the 
compiler  may  have  l)Oca  jii.spircd  by  the  practice  of 
some  particular  church.  The  Antiochene  "  Di- 
aconica"  was  not  without  some  influence  on  him, 
and  it  may  be  that  he  htul  at  hand  other,  now  lost, 


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637 


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ceremonial  codes.  It  is  not  improbable  that  his 
Liturgy  is  even  of  his  own  creation  and  was  never 
used  m  just  the  form  in  which  he  gives  it.  (See 
Antiochene  Lrrunov.) 

A  .study  of  tlie  sources  of  thi.s  work  sugRcsts  the 
many  needs  wliich  the  compiler  enileavouriMl  to  meet 
in  gathering  together  ami  amplifyinf^  these  many 
treatises  on  doctrine,  discipline,  ami  worship  extant 
in  his  ilay.  The  extent  and  variety  of  his  work  may 
be  suggested  by  a  sununary  of  the  contents.  The 
first  book  deals  with  the  duties  of  the  Christian  laity, 
particidarly  in  view  of  the  dangers  resulting  from 
association  with  those  not  of  the  I'aith.  Vanity  in 
dre.ss,  promi.scuous  bathing,  curiosity  as  to  the  lives 
and  the  books  of  the  wicked  arc  among  tlie  tilings 
condemned.  The  second  book  is  concerned  princi- 
pally with  the  clergy.  The  qualifications,  the  pre- 
rogatives ami  duties  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons 
are  set  fortli  in  detail,  and  their  dependence  and  sup- 
port providetl  for.  This  book  treats  at  length  of  the 
regulation  of  penitential  practice,  of  the  caution  to  be 
observed  in  regartl  to  accused  and  accusers,  of  the 
disputes  of  the  faithful  and  the  means  of  adjusting 
differences.  This  portion  of  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions is  of  special  interest,  as  portraying  the  pen- 
itential discipline  and  the  hierarchical  .system  of  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries.  Here  are  also  a  number 
of  ceremonial  details  regarding  tlie  Christian  iissembly 
for  worship  which,  witli  the  liturgj'  of  tlie  eightli 
book,  are  of  the  greatest  importance  and  interest. 
The  third  book  treats  of  widows  and  of  their  office 
in  the  Church.  A  consideration  of  what  they  shouUl 
not  do  leads  to  a  treatise  on  the  duties  of  deacons 
and  on  baptism.  The  fourth  book  deals  with  chari- 
table works,  the  providing  for  the  poor  and  orphans, 
and  the  spirit  in  which  to  receive  and  dispen.se  the 
offerings  made  to  the  Church.  The  fifth  book  treats 
of  those  suffering  persecution  for  the  sake  of  Christ 
and  of  the  duties  of  Christians  towards  them.  This 
leads  to  a  consideration  of  martyrdom  and  of  idol- 
atry. Liturgical  details  as  to  feasts  and  fasts  follow. 
The  sixth  book  deals  with  the  history  and  tioetrines 
of  the  early  schisms  ami  heresies;  and  of  "The  Law", 
a  treatise  against  Judaistic  ami  heathen  superstition 
and  uiu'lcanne.s.ses.  The  .seventh  book  in  its  first 
|)art  is  cliiefly  moral,  condemning  vices  and  praLsing 
Ciiristiaii  virtues  and  Christian  teacliers.     The  second 

fart  is  compo.sed  of  liturgical  directions  and  fonnuho. 
he  eighth  book  is  largely  liturgical.  Chapters  iii- 
xxvii  treat  of  the  conferring  of  all  orders,  and  in 
connection  witli  the  consecration  of  a  bishop  is  given 
in  chapters  v-xv  the  .so-called  Clementine  Liturgy, 
the  most  ancient  extant  complete  order  of  the  rites 
of  Holy  M.-Lss.  Chapters  xxviii-xlvi  contain  a  col- 
lection of  miscellaneous  canons,  moral  and  liturgical, 
attributed  to  the  various  Apostles,  while  chapter  xlvii 
consists  of  the  eighty-five     Apostolic  Canons". 

The  strikingly  characteristic  style  of  the  many  in- 
terpolations in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  makes 
it  evident  that  the  compilation,  including  the  "Apos- 
tolic Canons",  is  the  work  of  one  individual.  Who 
this  Pseudo-Clement  was  cannot  be  conjectured;  but 
it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  he  is  one  with  the 
interpolator  of  the  Ignatian  Epistles.  As  early  as 
the  middle  of  the  .seventeenth  century,  Archbi.shop 
r.ssher,  recognizing  the  .similarity  of  the  theological 
thoiiglit,  the  peculiar  use  of  Scripture,  and  the  strongly 
marked  hterary  characteristics  in  the  .\postolic 
Constitutions  and  in  both  the  interpolations  of  the 
seven  epistles  of  Ignatius  and  the  six  spurioiis  epistles 
attributed  to  the  Bishop  of  Antioch,  suggested  the 
identification  of  the  Pseudo-Clement  witli  the  P.seudo- 
Igiiatius,  a  view  which  has  won  general  acceptance, 
yet  not  without  some  hesitancy  which  may  not  be 
dispelled  imtil  the  problem  of  the  sources  of  the 
eiglith  book  is  .solved.  Efforts  tending  to  a  further 
identification   of   the   author  of   this   extensive   and 


truly  remarkable  literature  of  interpolations  have  not 
been  succes.sful.  That  he  was  a  cleric  may  be  taken 
for  granteil,  and  a  cleric  not  favourably  disposed  to 
ascetical  practices.  That  he  was  not  rigidly  ortho- 
do.x — for  he  u.ses  the  language  of  Subordinationism  — 
is  also  evitlent;  yet  he  was  not  an  extreme  Arian. 
But  whether  he  was  an  .Vpollinarian ,  as  Dr.  Funk 
would  infer  from  his  insistence  in  denying  the  human 
soul  of  Our  Lord,  or  a  Semi-.\rian,  or  even  a  well- 
meaning  Nica?an  whose  language  reflects  the  unsettled 
views  held  by  not  a  few  of  his  misguided  contem- 
poraries, cannot  be  determined.  For,  whatever  his 
theological  views  were,  he  does  not  seem  to  be  a 
partisan  or  the  champion  of  any  sect:  nor  h.as  he 
any  disciplinary  hobby  which  he  would  foist  on  his 
brethren  in  the  name  of  .\postolic  authority.  Syria 
would  appear  to  be  the  place  of  origin  of  this  work, 
and  the  mterest  of  the  compiler  in  men  and  things 
of  Antioch  would  point  to  that  city  as  the  centre  of 
his  activities.  His  interest  in  the  Ignatian  Epistles, 
his  citation  of  the  Syro-.\Iacedonian  calendar,  his  use 
of  the  so-called  Council  of  .Antioch  as  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  the  "Apostolic  Canons",  and  his 
construction  of  a  liturgy  on  Antiochene  lines  confirm 
the  theory  of  Syrian  origin.  Its  date  is  Ukewi.se  dif- 
ficult to  determine  with  accuracy.  The  earliest  ter- 
minus a  quo  would  be  tlie  Council  of  Antioch  in  311. 
But  the  reference  to  (.'hristm.is  in  the  catalogue  of 
fe.ists  (V,  V.i;  VIII,  33)  seems  to  postulate  a  date 
later  than  37G,  wlien  St.  Epiphanius,  who  knew  the 
Dida.scalia,  in  the  enumeration  of  fea-sts  found  in  his 
work  against  heresies  makes  no  mention  of  the  De- 
cember feast,  which  in  fact  was  not  celebrated  in 
Syria  until  about  378.  If  the  compiler  was  of  Arian 
tendencies  he  could  not  have  written  much  later  than 
the  death  of  Valens  (378).  The  absence  of  refer- 
ences to  either  the  Nestorian  or  the  Monophysite 
heresies  precludes  the  possibility  of  a  date  later  than 
the  early  fifth  century.  The  most  probable  opinion 
dates  tlie  compilation  about  the  year  380,  without 
excluding  the  possibility  of  a  date  two  decades  earlier 
or  later.  (See  C.vnon  L.vw;  Antiochene  Liturgy; 
Clement  of  Rome;  Cano.ns,  Ai>ostolic.) 

Von  Funk,  Die  apostotischcn  Conalitutionen  (RottenburR, 
1891):  Id.,  Daa  Teatamml  des  Jltrm  und  dir  venvimtlUn 
.Schriflen  (Mainz,  1901);  Id.,  in  Theolog.  Quartaltchrill  (189:tl, 
594-fiCG,  in  Ilutoritchet  Jahrburh  (1895).  l-3(i.  473-SOU. 
in  Revue  d'histoire  eccltsumtique  (Louvain),  Oct.,  1901; 
AcHKLls,  Die  Canones  Ilippolyti,  in  Teste  urtd  Unlerauehuni/fn 
(Leipzig,  !891),  VI,  iv.  J40  «iq.:  Lagardk,  Constitutioiug 
Apostulicce  (Leipzig,  1S62):  Pitra,  Juria  eccleaiaiticiOrtrcorum 
Hisloria  el  MonumenUt  (Home.  18(')4),  i.  46  sqq.:  HI  son  • 
The  Cotelier-Clericus  ed.  (Amsterdam.  1724)  i.s  reprinted  in 
P.  G..  I,  509-1150.  An  EnRli.sli  translation  is  given  in  Anle- 
Nieene  Library  (Edinburgli,  1870),  XVII,  (American  ed.  New 
York,  1899),  VU,  385-508.  OLeary,  The  Apatlotic  Con- 
atilutiona  and  ComiUe  Documents  (Ix)ndon,  1900);  Uright- 
MAN,  Liturffies,  haetem  and  WeMem  (Oxford,  1896),  I,  xvii- 
xlvii:  KlF.DF.i.,  Die  Kirchenrcchtsquetlen  des  Patriarchats  Ater- 
andrirn  (Leipzig,  1900);  Bardkniiewer,  Patrologie,  (2d  ed. 
Freiburg,  1901),  .307-14.— Koiii.er.  in  The  Jewish  Enci/- 
ctopedifi,  s.  V.  Didaskalia  aiui  Didache. — See  also  tlie  bib- 
liography appended  to  articles  on  the  cognate  documents 
above  referred  to,  as  nearly  all  the  literature  concerning  them 
enters  into  the  problems  of  their  relationship  with  the  Apos- 
tolic CoNsxrrrTioNH. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

Apostolic  Delegate.    See  Legate. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  The. — Christian  \\Titers  of  the 
first  ami  second  centuries  who  are  known,  or  are  con- 
sidered, to  have  had  personal  relations  with  some  of  the 
Apostles,  or  to  have  been  so  influenced  by  them  that 
their  writings  may  be  held  as  echoes  of  genuine 
Apostolic  teaching.  Though  restricted  by  some  to 
those  who  were  actually  disciples  of  the  .-Apostles, 
the  term  applies  by  exten.sion  to  certain  writers  who 
were  previously  liclieved  to  have  been  such,  and 
virtually  embraces  all  the  remains  of  primitive  Chris- 
tian literature  antedating  the  great  apologies  of  the 
second  centurj',  and  forming  tlie  link  of  tradition 
that  bimis  the.se  latter  writings  to  tho.se  of  the  Xew 
Testament.     The    name    was    apparently    unknown 


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638 


APOSTOLIC 


in  Christian  literature  before  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth ccnturj'.  The  term  Apostolic,  however, 
was  commonly  vised  to  qualify  Churches,  persons, 
writings,  etc.  from  the  early  second  century,  when 
St.  Ignatius,  in  the  exordium  of  his  Epistle  to  the 
Trallians,  saluted  their  Church  "after  the  Apostolic 
manner."  In  1672  Jean  Baptiste  Cotelier  (Cotele- 
rius)  published  his  "SS.  Patrum  qui  temporibus 
apostolicis  floruerunt  opera",  which  title  was  abbre- 
viated to  "Bibliotheca  Patrum  Apostolicorum"  by 
L.  J.  Ittig  in  his  edition  (Leipzig,  1699)  of  the  same 
WTitings.  Since  then  the  term  has  been  universally 
used.  The  list  of  Fathers  included  under  this  title 
has  varied,  literary  criticism  having  removed  some 
who  were  formerly  considered  as  second-century 
writers,  while  the  publication  (Constantinople,  1883) 
of  the  Didache  has  added  one  to  the  list. 
Chief  in  importance  are  the  three  first-century 
Bishops:  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch, 
and  St.  Polycarp  of  Smyrna,  of  whose  intimate 
personal  relations  with  the  Apostles  there  is  no 
doubt.  Clement,  Bishop  of  Rome  and  third  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter  in  the  Papacy,  "had  seen  the 
blessed  Apostles  [Peter  and  Paul]  and  had  been 
conversant  with  them"  (Irenipus,  Adv.  Haer.,  Ill, 
iii,  3).  Ignatius  was  the  second  successor  of  St. 
Peter  in  the  See  of  Antioch  (Eusebius,  Hist.  EccL, 
III,  36)  and  during  his  life  in  that  centre  of  Christian 
activity  may  have  met  with  others  of  the  Apostolic 
band.  An  accepted  tradition,  substantiated  by 
the  similarity  of  Ignatius's  thought  with  the  ideas 
of  the  Johannine  writings,  declares  him  a  disciple  of 
St.  John.  Polycarp  was  "instructed  by  Apostles" 
(Irena-us,  op.  cit..  Ill,  iii,  4)  and  had  been  a  disciple 
of  St.  John  (Eusebius,  op.  cit..  Ill,  36;  V,  20)  whose 
contemporary  he  was  for  nearly  twenty  years.  Be- 
sides these,  whose  rank  as  Apostolic  Fathers  in  the 
strictest  sense  is  undisputed,  there  are  two  first- 
century  writers  whose  place  with  them  is  generally 
conceded:  the  author  of  the  Didache  and  the 
author  of  the  "Epistle  of  Barnabas".  The  former 
affirms  that  his  teaching  is  that  of  the  Apostles, 
and  his  work,  perhaps  the  earliest  extant  piece  of 
uninspired  Christian  literature,  gives  colour  to  his 
claim;  the  latter,  even  if  he  be  not  the  Apostle  and 
companion  of  St.  Paul,  is  held  by  many  to  have 
written  during  the  last  decade  of  the  first  century, 
and  may  have  come  under  direct  Apostolic  influence, 
though  his  Epistle  does  not  clearly  suggest  it. 
By  extension  of  the  term  to  comprise  the  extant 
extra-canonical  literature  of  the  sub-Apostolic  age, 
it  is  made  to  include  the  "Shepherd"  of  Hermas, 
the  New  Testament  prophet,  who  was  believed  to  be 
the  one  referred  to  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.  xvi,  14),  but 
whom  a  safer  tradition  makes  a  brother  of  Pope 
Pius  I  (c.  140-150);  the  meagre  fragments  of  the 
"Expositions  of  the  Di.scour.ses  of  the  Lord",  by 
Papias,  who  may  have  been  a  disciple  of  St.  John 
(Irenajus,  Adv.  Hoer.,  V,  331-334),  though  more 
probably  he  received  his  teaching  at  second  liand 
from  a  "presbyter"  of  that  name  (Eusebius,  Hist. 
Eccl.,  Ill,  .39);  the  "  Letter  to  Diognctus  ",  the  un- 
known author  of  which  affirms  his  disciplcsliip  with 
the  Apostles,  but  his  claim  nm.st  be  takon  in  the 
broad  sense  of  conformity  in  spirit  and  (I'lichiiis. 
In  addition  to  these  there  were  formeriv  JMchulrd 
apocryphal  writings  of  some  of  the  abcive  I'allicis, 
the  "Constitutions"  and  "Canons  of  the  Apostles" 
and  the  works  accredited  to  Dionysius  the  Areopa- 
gite,  who,  thoiigh  himself  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles, 
was  not  the  author  of  the  works  bearing  his  name. 
Though  generally  rejected,  the  homily  of  Pseudo- 
Clenient  (ICpistola  .sccunda  dementis)  is  by  some 
eoMsidcred  as  being  as  worthy  of  a  place  among  the 
Apo.slohc  I'athers,  as  is  its  contemporary,  the  "Shep- 
herd" of  llermas. 
The  period  of  time  covered  by  these  writings  ex- 


tends from  the  last  two  decades  of  the  first  century 
for  the  Didache  (80-100),  Clement  (c.  97),  and 
probably  Pseudo- Barnabas  (96-98),  through  the 
first  half  of  the  second  century,  the  appro.ximate 
chronology  being  Ignatius,  110-117;  Polycarp, 
110-120;  Hermas,  in  its  present  form,  e.  150; 
Papias,  c.  150.  Geographically,  Rome  is  repre- 
sented by  Clement  and  Hermas;  Polycarp  wrote 
from  Smyrna,  whence  also  Ignatius  sent  four  of  the 
seven  epistles  which  he  wrote  on  his  way  from  An- 
tioch through  Asia  Minor;  Papias  was  Bishop  of 
Hierapolis  in  Phrygia;  the  Didache  was  written 
in  Egypt  or  Syria;  the  letter  of  Barnabas  in  Alex- 
andria. Tiie  writings  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  are 
generally  epistolary  in  form,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
canonical  Epistles,  and  were  written,  for  the  greater 
part,  not  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  Christians 
at  large,  but  for  the  guidance  of  individuals  or 
local  churches  in  some  passing  need.  Happily,  the 
WTiters  so  amplified  tlieir  theme  that  they  combine 
to  give  a  precious  picture  of  the  Christian  community 
in  the  age  which  follows  the  death  of  St.  John.  Thus 
Clement,  in  paternal  solicitude  for  the  Churches  com- 
mitted to  his  care,  endeavours  to  heal  a  dissension 
at  Corinth  and  insists  on  the  principles  of  unity  and 
submission  to  authority,  as  best  conduci^•e  to  peace; 
Ignatius,  fervent  in  his  gratitude  to  the  Churches 
which  solaced  him  on  his  way  to  martyrdom,  sends 
back  letters  of  recognition,  filled  with  admonitions 
against  the  prevailing  heresy  and  highly  spiritual 
exhortations  to  keep  unity  of  faith  in  submission  to 
the  bishops;  Polycarp,  in  forwarding  Ignatian  letters 
to  Philippi,  sends,  as  requested,  a  simple  letter  of 
advice  and  encouragement.  The  letter  of  Pseudo- 
Barnabas  and  that  to  Diognetus,  the  one  polemical, 
the  other  apologetic  in  tone,  while  retaining  the  same 
form,  seem  to  liave  in  view  a  wider  circle  of  readers. 
The  other  three  are  in  the  form  of  treatises:  the 
Didache,  a  manual  of  moral  and  liturgical  in- 
struction; the  "Shepherd",  a  book  of  edification, 
apocalyptic  in  form,  is  an  allegorical  representation 
of  the  Church,  the  faults  of  her  children  and  their 
need  of  penance;  the  "Expositions"  of  Papias,  an 
exegetical  commentary  on  the  Gospels. 

Written  under  such  circumstances,  the  works  of 
the  Apostolic  Fathers  are  not  characterized  by  sys- 
tematic expositions  of  doctrine  or  brilliancy  of  style. 
"  Diognetus  "  alone  evidences  literary  skill  and  refine- 
ment. Ignatius  stands  out  in  relief  by  his  striking 
personality  and  depth  of  view.  Each  writes  for  his 
present  purpose,  with  a  view  primarily  to  the  actiial 
needs  of  his  auditors,  but,  in  the  exuberance  of 
primitive  charity  and  enthusiasm,  his  heart  ])oiirs 
out  its  message  of  fidelity  to  the  glorious  Apostolic 
heritage,  of  encouragement  in  present  difficulties, 
of  solicitude  for  the  future  with  its  threatening  dan- 
gers. The  dominant  tone  is  that  of  fervent  tlexotion 
to  the  brethren  in  the  Faith,  revealing  thcdeptli  an<l 
breadth  of  the  zeal  which  was  imparted  to  the  writci-s 
by  the  Apostles.  The  letters  of  the  three  bishops, 
together  with  the  Didache,  voice  sincerest  praise  of  the 
Apostles,  whose  memory  the  writers  hold  in  deep 
filial  devotion;  but  their  recognition  of  the  una|)- 
proachable  superiority  of  their  masters  is  equally 
well  borne  out  by  the  absence  in  their  letters  of  that 
distinctly  inspired  tone  that  marks  the  Apostles' 
writings.  More  abrupt,  however,  is  the  transition 
between  the  unpretentious  style  of  the  Apostolic 
Fathers  and  the  scientific  form  of  the  treati.'ies  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  subsequent  periods.  The  fer\onl. 
piety,  the  afterglow  of  the  day  of  Apostolic  spiritu- 
ality, was  noti  to  be  found  again  in  such  fullness  and 
simplicity.  Letters  breathing  such  sympathy  and 
.solicitude  were  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  early 
Christians  and  by  some  were  given  an  autliorily 
little  inferior  to  that  of  the  Scriptures.  The  I'"i])istU' 
of  Clement  was  read  in   the  Sunday  assemblies  at 


APOSTOLIC 


639 


APOSTOLIC 


Corinth  during  the  second  century  and  later  (Eusc- 
bius,  Hist.  Ecd.,  Ill,  xvi;  IV,  xxiii);  the  letter  of  Hiir- 
nabas  was  simihirly  honoured  at  Alexandria;  Ilornias 
was  popular  throughout  Christendom,  but  particu- 
larly in  tlie  West.  Clement  of  Alexandria  (jvioted 
the  Didache  as  "Scripture".  Some  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Fathers  are  found  in  the  oldest  manuscri|its  of 
the  New  Testament  at  the  end  of  the  canonical 
writings:  Clement  was  first  made  known  thro\igh 
the  "Codex  Alexandrinus";  similarly,  Hennas  and 
Pseudo-Barnabas  are  appended  to  the  canonical 
books  in  the  "Codex  Sinaiticus  ".  Standing  between 
the  New  Testament  era  and  the  literary  efilorescence 
of  the  late  second  century,  these  writers  represent 
the  original  elements  of  Christian  tradition.  They 
make  no  pretension  to  treat  of  Christian  doctrine 
and  practice  in  a  complete  and  scholarly  manner 
and  cannot,  therefore,  be  expected  to  answer  all  the 
problems  concerning  Christian  origins.  Their  si- 
lence on  any  point  does  not  imply  their  ignorance 
of  it,  much  less  its  denial;  nor  do  their  assertions 
tell  all  that  might  be  known.  The  dogmatic  value 
of  their  teaching  is,  however,  of  the  highest  order, 
considering  the  high  antiiiuity  of  the  documents 
and  the  competence  of  the  authors  to  transmit  the 
purest  Apostolic  doctrine.  This  fact  did  not  receive 
its  due  appreciation  even  during  the  period  of  medi- 
eval theological  activity.  The  increa.sed  enthusiasm 
for  positive  theology  which  marked  the  .seventeenth 
century  centred  attention  on  the  Apostolic  Fathers; 
since  then  they  have  been  the  eagerly-(|uestioned 
witnesses  to  the  beliefs  and  practice  of  the  Church 
during  the  first  half  of  the  second  centurj'.  Their 
teaching  is  based  on  the  Scriptures,  i.  e.  the  Old 
Testament,  and  on  the  words  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
His  .\postles.  The  authority  of  the  latter  was  de- 
cisive. Though  the  New  Testament  canon  was  not 
yet,  to  judge  from  these  writings,  definitively  fixed, 
it  is  significant  that  with  the  exception  of  the  Third 
Epistle  of  St.  John  and  possibly  tliat  of  St.  Paul  to 
Philemon,  every  book  of  the  New  Testament  is  quoted 
or  alluded  to  more  or  lass  clearly  by  one  or  another 
of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  while  the  citations  from 
the  "apocrypha"  are  extremely  rare.  Of  equal 
authority  with  the  written  word  is  that  of  oral  tra- 
dition (Eusebius,  Hist.  EccL,  III,  xxxix;  I  Clem.,  vii), 
to  which  must  be  traced  certain  citations  of  the 
"Sayings"  of  Our  Lord  and  the  Apostles  not  found 
in  the  Scriptures. 

Meagre  as  they  necessarily  are  in  their  testimony, 
the  .■Vpostolic  Fathers  bear  witness  to  the  faith  of 
Christians  in  the  chief  mysteries  of  the  Divine  I'nity 
and  Trinity.  The  Trinitarian  formula  occurs  fre- 
quently, if  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  but 
once  obscurely  alluded  to  in  Hermas.  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  Church  was  as  yet  undisturbed 
by  anti-Trinitarian  heresies.  The  dominant  error 
of  the  period  was  Docetism,  and  its  refutation 
furnislies  these  writers  with  an  occasion  to  deal  at 
greater  length  with  the  Person  of  Jesus  Christ.  He 
is  the  Redeemer  of  whom  men  stood  in  need.  Igna- 
tius unhesitatingly  calls  Him  God  (Trail.,  vii;  Eph.,  i, 
and  passim).  The  soteriology  of  the  lOoislIc  to  the 
Hebrews  forms  the  basis  of  their  teaching.  Jesus 
Christ  is  our  high-priest  (I  Clem.,  xxxvi-lxiv)  in 
whose  suffering  and  death  is  our  redemption  (Ignat., 
Eph.,  i,  Magnes.,  ix;  Barnab.,  v;  Diog.,  ix);  whose 
blood  is  our  ransom  (I  Clem.,  xii-xxi).  The  fruits 
of  Redemption,  while  not  scientifically  treated,  are 
in  a  general  way  the  destruction  of  death  or  of  .sin, 
the  gift  to  man  of  immortal  life,  and  the  knowledge  of 
God  (Barnab.,  iv-v,  vii.xiv;  Did.,  xvi;  I  Clem.,  xxiv- 
xxv;  Hernias,  Simil.,  y,  6).  Justification  is  received 
by  faith  and  by  works  as  well;  and  so  clearly  is  tlie 
efficacy  of  good  works  insisted  upon  that  it  is. futile 
to  represent  the  .\postolic  Fathers  as  failing  to  com- 
prehend  the   pertinent   teaching  of   St.    Paul.     The 


points  of  view  of  both  St.  Paul  and  St.  James  are 
cited  and  considered  complementary  (I  Clem.,  xxxi, 
xxxiii,xx.xv;  Ignat.  to  Polyc,  vi).  Good  works  are 
insisted  on  by  Hermas  (Vi.s.,  iii,  1  Simil.,  v,  3),  and 
Barnabas  proclaims  (c.  xi.x)  their  nece.ssity  for  salva- 
tion. The  Church,  the  "Catholic"  Church,  as 
Ignatius  for  the  first  time  calls  it  (Smyrn.,  viii),  takes 
the  place  of  the  chosen  people;  is  the  mysti<-al  body 
of  Christ,  the  faithful  Ijeing  the  members  thereof, 
united  by  onene.ss  of  faith  and  hope,  and  by  a  charity 
which  prompts  to  mutual  assistance.  This  unity 
is  secured  by  the  hierarchical  organization  of  the 
ministry  and  the  due  submission  of  inferiors  to  au- 
thority. On  this  point  the  teaching  of  the  .Apos- 
tolic Fathers  seems  to  stand  for  a  marked  develop- 
ment in  advance  of  the  practice  of  the  .Apostolic 
period.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  familiar  tone 
in  which  episcopal  authority  is  treated  prechules 
the  possibility  of  its  being  a  novelty.  The  Didache 
may  yd  deal  with  "prophets".  .Apostles",  and 
itinerant  missionaries  (x-xi,  xiii-xiv),  but  this  is 
not  a  stage  in  development.  It  is  anomalous,  out- 
side the  current  of  development.  Clement  and  Igna- 
tius present  the  hierarchy,  organized  and  complete, 
with  its  orders  of  bisho[xs,  priests,  and  deacons, 
ministers  of  the  Eucharistic  liturgy  and  administra- 
tors of  temporalities.  Clement's  Epistle  is  the 
philosophy  of  "Apostolicity"  and  its  corollary, 
episcopal  succession.  Ignatius  gives  in  abundance 
practical  illustrations  of  what  Clement  sets  forth  in 
principle.  For  Ignatius  the  bishop  is  the  centre  of 
unity  (Eph.,  iv),  the  authority  whom  all  must  obey 
as  they  would  God,  in  whose  place  the  bishop  rules 
(Ignat.  to  Polyc,  vi;  Magnes.,  yi,  xiii;  Smyrn.,  viii,  xi; 
Trail.,  xii);  for  unity  with  and  submi.ssion  to  the 
bishop  is  the  only  security  of  fuith.  Supreme  in 
the  Cliurch  is  he  who  holds  the  scat  of  St.  Peter  at 
Rome.  The  intervention  of  Clement  in  the  alTairs 
of  Corinth  and  the  language  of  Ignatius  in  speaking 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  the  exordium  of  his  ICpistle 
to  the  Romans  mu.st  be  understood  in  the  light  of 
Christ's  charge  to  St.  Peter.  One  rounds  out  the 
other.  The  deepest  reverence  for  the  memory  of 
St.  Peter  is  visible  in  the  writings  of  Clement  and 
Ignatius.  They  couple  his  name  with  that  of  St. 
Paul,  and  this  effectually  disproves  the  antagonism 
between  these  two  Apostles  which  the  Tubingen 
theory  postulated  in  tracing  the  pretended  dc\(lop- 
nient  of  a  united  church  from  the  discordant  I'ctrine 
and  Pauline  factions.  .Among  the  sacraments  alluded 
to  is  Baptism,  to  which  Ignatius  refers  (Polyc.  ii; 
Smyrn.,  viii),  and  of  which  Hennas  speaks  as  the 
necessary  way  of  entrance  to  the  Church  and  to 
salvation  (Vis.,  iii,  3,  5;  Simil.,  ix,  Iti),  the  way 
from  death  to  life  (Simil.,  viii,  6),  while  the  Didache 
deals  with  it  liturgically  (vii).  The  Eucharist  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Didache  (xiv)  and  by  Ignatius,  who 
uses  the  term  to  signify  the  "flesh  of  Our  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ"  (Smyrn.,  vii;  Eph.,  xx;  Philad.,  iv). 
Penance  is  the  theme  of  Hermas,  and  is  urged  as  a 
necessarj'  and  a  possible  recourse  for  him  who  sins 
once  after  baptism  (\'is.,  iii,  7;  Simil.,  viii,  6,  8,  9,  11). 
The  Didache  refers  to  a  confession  of  sins  (iv,  xiv) 
as  does  Barnabas  (xixV  .An  exposition  of  the  dog- 
matic teaching  of  individual  Fathers  will  be  found 
under  their  respective  names.  The  Apostolic 
Fathers,  as  a  group,  are  found  in  no  one  manuscript. 
The  literary  history  of  each  will  be  found  in  con- 
nexion with  the  individual  studies.  The  first  edition 
was  that  of  Cotelerius,  above  referred  to  (Paris, 
1672).  It  contained  Barnabas.  Clement,  Hennas, 
Ignatius,  and  Polycarp.  .A  reprint  (.Antwerp,  U>9S- 
17(X);  Amsterdam,  1721),  by  Jean  Leclerc  (Clericus), 
contained  much  additional  matter.  The  latest 
editions  are  those  of  the  .Anglican  Bishop,  J.  B. 
I.ightfoot.  "The  .Aix)stolic  Fathers"  (,")  vols..  Lon- 
don, 1889-1890);   abbreviated     edition,     Lightfoot- 


APOSTOLIC 


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APOSTOLIC 


Harmer,  London,  1  vol..  1893;  Gebhardt,  Harnack, 
and  Zahn,  "Patrum  Apostolicorum  Opera"  (Leipzig, 
1901);  and  F.  X.  von  Funk,  "  Patres  Apostolici" 
(2d  ed.,  Tubingen,  1901),  in  all  of  which  abundant 
reference  will  be  found  to  the  literature  of  the  two 
preceding  centuries.  The  last  named  work  first 
appeared  (Tubingen,  vol.  I,  1878,  1887;  vol.  II, 
ISSl)  as  a  fifth  edition  of  Hefele's  "Opera  Patr. 
Apostolicorum"  (Tubingen,  1839;  4th  ed.,  185.5) 
enriched  with  notes  (critical,  exegetical,  historical), 
prolegomena,  indexes,  and  a  Latin  version.  The 
second  edition  meets  all  just  demands  of  a  critical 
presentation  of  these  ancient  and  important  writings, 
and  in  its  introduction  and  notes  offers  the  best 
Catholic  treatise  on  the  subject. 

P.  G.  (Paris.  18571,  I,  II,  V;  Eng.  tr.  in  Ante-Nicene 
Library  (Edinburgh.  1866).  I,  and  American  ed.  (New 
York,  1903),  I,  1-158;  Freppel,  Lea  Ph-es  Apostoliquea  et  leur 
epoque  (Paris,  1885);  Batiffol,  La  litt.  eccl.  grecque  (Paris, 
1901);  Holland,  The  Apostolic  Fathers  (London,  1897); 
Wake,  The  Genuine  Epistles  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  (London, 
1893);  Fleming.  Early  Christian  ^Yitnesses  (London,  1878); 
Cbutwell,  -4  Literary  History  of  Early  Christianity  (London, 
1893),  I,  21-127;  Oxford  Society  of  Historical  Theology, 
The  New  Testament  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers  (Oxford,  1905); 
LiGHTFOOT  in  Diet,  of  Chr.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  for  the  doctrine,  see 
TlXERONT,  Histoire  des  dogmes  (Paris,  1905),  I,  115-163;  Ba- 
RElLLE  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath.  (Paris,  1903).  I,  1634-46;  Bar- 
denhewer,   Geschichte   d.   altkirchl.   Litt.,   I. 

John  B.  Peterson. 

Apostolic  Indulgences.  See  Indulgences,  Apos- 
tolic 

Apostolic  Letters  (Jillerce  apostolicce). — I.  The 
letters  of  the  Apostles  to  Christian  communities  or 
those  in  authority,  i.  e.  the  Pauline  Epistles,  including 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  together  with  the  seven 
Catholic  Epistles  of  the  other  Apostles.  II.  Docu- 
ments issued  by  the  Pope  or  in  his  name,  e.  g.  bulls 
and  briefs. 

F.    M.    RUDGE. 

Apostolic  Majesty,  a  title  given  to  the  Kings  of 
Hiuigary,  and  used,  since  the  time  of  Maria  Theresa, 
by  the  King  himself,  as  also  in  letters  addressed  to 
him  by  officials  or  private  individuals.  The  origin 
of  this  title  dates  from  St.  Stephen,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  received  it  from  Pope  Sylvester  II  in 
recognition  of  the  activity  displayed  by  him  in 
promoting  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
Hungary.  Hartvik,  the  biographer  of  St.  Stephen, 
tells  us  that  the  pope  hailed  the  king  as  a  veritable 
"Apostle"  of  Christ,  with  reference  to  his  holy  labours 
in  spreading  the  Catholic  Faith  through  Hungary. 
The  bull,  however,  of  Sylvester  II,  dated  27  March  of 
the  year  1000,  whereby  the  pope  grants  St.  Stephen 
the  crown  and  title  of  King,  and  which  returns  to  him 
the  kingdom  he  had  offered  to  the  Holy  See  and  con- 
fers on  him  the  right  to  have  the  cross  carried  before 
him,  with  an  administrative  authority  over  bishoprics 
and  churches,  affords  no  basis  for  the  granting  of  this 
particular  title.  Moreo\er,  the  bull,  as  is  clearly 
proved  by  the  latest  researches,  is  a  forgery  of  later 
date  than  1.574.  Pojje  Leo  X  having  conferred  the 
title  of  Defensor  Fidei  on  Henry  VIII  of  England, 
in  the  year  1.521,  the  nobles  of  Hungary,  with  Stephen 
Werboczi,  the  learned  jurist  and  later  Palatine  of 
Hungary,  at  their  head,  opened  negotiations  with 
the  Holy  See  to  have  the  title  of  "Apostolic  Majesty", 
said^  to  have  been  granted  by  Pope  Syh-ester  II 
to  St.  Stephen,  conferred  on  King  Louis  II.  But 
these  negotiations  led  to  no  result.  In  1027,  Ferdi- 
nand 1 1 1  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  title  for  himself, 
but  desisted  from  the  attempt  when  he  found  the 
Primate  of  Hungary,  Peter  Pdzm.lny,  as  well  as  the 
Holy  See  itself,  unwilling  to  accede  to  his  request. 
When,  however,  n«'asuros  were  taken,  in  the  reign  of 
Leopold  I  (10.57-170.5)  to  make  the  royal  authority 
supreme  in  the  domain  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
and  administration,  the  title  "Apostolic  Majesty  " 
came  into  use.     .Maria  Theresa  makes  use  of  the  title 


"  Apostolic  Queen  "  for  the  first  time  in  the  letters 
patent  granted  to  the  imperial  plenipotentiary  sent 
to  the  College  of  Cardinals  after  the  death  of  Bene- 
dict XIV.  In  the  instructions  imparted  to  this 
ambassador  the  hope  is  expressed  that  the  Holy 
See  will  not  withhold  this  title  in  future  from  the 
ruler  of  Hungary.  Pope  Clement  XIII,  on  learning 
of  this  wish  of  Maria  Theresa,  granted  this  title 
motu  proprio  to  the  Queen  and  her  successors,  by 
virtue  of  the  Brief  "Carissima  in  Christo  filia",  of 
19  August,  1758.  The  title  was  thereupon  asso- 
ciated with  Hungary  by  an  edict  of  Maria  Theresa, 
which  prescribed  that  the  title  "Apostolic  King  of 
Hungary  "  should  be  used  for  the  future  in  all  acts, 
records,  and  writings.  Since  then  the  King  of  Hun- 
gary has  borne  this  title,  which,  however,  only 
accrues  to  him  after  his  coronation,  and  does  not 
belong  to  him  before  that  ceremony,  nor  does  it 
extend  to  the  Queen,  or  to  the  heir  to  the  throne, 
the  so-called  rev  jimior,  who  is  crowned  in  the  life- 
time of  the  reigning  monarch.  The  rights  exercised 
by  the  king  in  respect  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Hungary  are  not  connected  with  the  title  "Apostolic 
Majesty",  but  are  exercised  in  virtue  of  the  supreme 
royal  right  of  patronage.      (See  Hung.\ry.) 

Palma,  Tractatus  de  titutis  et  scutis,  quibus  Marin  Theresia 
ut  regma  Hungaria:  utitur  (Vienna,  1774);  Kar.\C80NYI,  The 
Records  concerning  St,  Stephen  and  the  Bull  of  Pope  Sylvester 
(Hungarian — Budapest,  1891);  FRAKNfil,  The  Patronal 
Right  of  the  Kings  of  Hungary  from  St.  Stephen  to  Mana 
Theresia  (Budapest,  1895);  Ferdin-^ndy,  The  Royal  Dignity 
and  Authority  in  Hungary  (Budapest,  1896). 

A.  Aldasy. 

Apostolic  Mission  House.  See  Catholic  Mis- 
sionary Union. 

Apostolic  See,  The  (sedcs  apostolica,  cathedra  apos- 
tolica).  This  is  a  metaphorical  term,  used,  as  hap- 
pens in  all  languages,  to  express  the  abstract  notion 
of  authority  by  the  concrete  name  of  the  place 
in  which  it  is  exercised.  Such  phrases  have  the 
double  advantage  of  supplying  a  convenient  sense- 
image  for  an  idea  purely  Intellectual  and  of  exactly 
defining  the  nature  of  the  authority  by  the  adililion 
of  a  single  adjective.  An  Apostolic  see  is  any  see 
founded  by  an  Apostle  and  having  the  authority  of 
its  founder;  the  Apostolic  See  is  the  seat  of  authority 
in  the  Roman  Church,  continuing  the  .Apostolic  func- 
tions of  Peter,  the  chief  of  the  Apostles.  Heresy  and 
barbarian  violence  swept  away  all  the  particular 
Churches  which  could  lay  claim  to  an  Apostolic  see, 
until  Rome  alone  remained;  to  Rome,  therefore,  the 
term  applies  as  a  proper  name.  But  before  heresy, 
schism,  and  barbarian  invasions  had  done  their  work, 
as  early  as  the  fourth  century,  the  Roman  See  was 
already  the  Apostolic  See  par  excellence,  not  only  in 
the  West  but  also  in  the  East.  Antioch,  Alexaiu\ria, 
and,  in  a  lesser  degree,  Jerusalem  were  called  .Apos- 
tolic sees  by  reason  of  their  first  occupants,  Peter, 
Mark,  and  James,  from  W'hom  they  derived  their 
patriarchal  honour  antl  jurisdiction;  but  Rome  is 
the  .Apostolic  See,  because  its  occupant  perpetuates 
the  apostolate  of  Blessed  Peter  extending  over  the 
whole  Church.  Hence  also  the  title  Apofttoliciis, 
formerly  applied  to  bishops  and  metropolitans,  was 
gradually  restricted  to  the  Pope  of  Rome,  the  Dom- 
nus  Apuslolicus,  who  still  figures  in  the  Litany  of 
the  Saints  at  the  head  of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy. 
The  authoritative  acts  of  the  popes,  inasmucli  as  tliey 
are  the  exercise  of  tlioir  Apostolical  ))owcr,  are  styled 
acts  of  the  Holy  or  Ajiostolii-  .S'c.  The  Sec  is  thus 
personified  as  the  rcpn'scntatixc  of  the  Prince  of  the 
Apostles,  as  in  Pope  Leo  lis  confirmation  of  the 
Sixth  General  Council  (Constantinople,  680-081 ): 
"  Idcirco  et  Nos  et  per  nostrum  oHicium  ha-c  vene- 
randa  Srdcs  .Ajiostolica  his  <iu;v  definita  sunt,  con- 
sentil.  et  lirali  Petri  .Apostoli  aui'toritate  confirmat  " 
(Tlu'icrorc  \\'c  also  and  tlirough  our  oliice  this  vener- 
able .Apostolic  See  give  a-ssent   to    tlie    things   that 


APOSTOLIC 


641 


APOSTOLIC 


have  been  defined,  and  confirm  them  by  the  author- 
ity of  the  Blessed  A|K)stle  Peter.)  It  is  a  fact  wortliy 
of  notice  that,  in  later  times,  all  those  who  wislied 
to  minimize  the  papal  authority,  Protestants,  Galli- 
cans,  etc.,  used  the  term  CurUi  (Roman  Court)  in 
preference  to  "Apostolic  See",  seeking  thus  to  evade 
the  dogmatic  significance  of  the  latter  term.  The 
cathedra  Petri,  the  Chair  of  St.  I'eter,  is  but 
another  expression  for  the  nerlcs  npnstnlica,  cathe- 
dra denoting  the  chair  of  the  toachor.  Hence  the 
limitation  of  papal  infalliliility  to  definitions  ex  ca- 
thedra amounts  to  this:  papal  definitions  can  claim 
inerrancy  or  infallibility  only  when  pronounced  by 
the  pope  as  the  holder  of  the  privileges  granted  by 
Christ  to  Peter,  the  Rock  upon  which  He  built  His 
Church.  The  same  fornuila  conveys  the  meaning 
that  the  pope's  infallibility  is  not  personal,  but  de- 
rived from,  and  coextensive  with,  his  office  of  visible 
Head  of  the  Universal  Church,  in  virtue  of  which  he 
sits  in  the  Chair  of  Peter  as  Shepherd  and  Teacher 
of  all  Christians.  (See  iNFALLiniLiTY.)  From  an- 
cient times  a  distinction  has  been  made  between  the 
Apostolic  See  and  its  actual  occupant:  between 
sedes  and  sedens.  The  object  of  the  distinction  is 
not  to  discriminate  between  the  two  nor  to  subor- 
dinate one  to  the  other,  but  rather  to  set  forth  their 
intimate  coimection.  The  See  is  the  symbol  of  the 
highest  papal  authority;  it  is,  by  its  nature,  perma- 
nent, wherea-s  its  occupant  holds  that  authority  but 
for  a  time  and  in:ismuch  as  he  sits  in  the  Chair  of 
Peter.  It  further  implies  that  the  supreme  author- 
ity is  a  supernatural  gift,  the  same  in  all  successive 
holders,  independent  of  their  personal  worth,  and 
inseparable  from  their  ex-officio  definitions  and  de- 
cisions. The  Vatican  definition  of  the  pope's  in- 
fallibility when  speaking  ex  calhedrd  does  not  permit 
of  the  sense  attached  to  the  distinction  of  sedes  and 
sedens  by  the  Gallicans,  who  claimed  that  even  in 
the  official  use  of  the  authority  vested  in  the  See, 
with  explicit  declaration  of  its  exercise,  the  sedens 
was  separate  from  the  sedes. 

Kf.nrick,  Tlie  Primacy  of  the  Apostolic  See  Vimlicatcd 
(Baltimore.  1855);  Lindsay,  De  Ecclenii  el  Cathedri,  tr. 
(Lonilon,  1877);  Allif.s.  The  Throne  of  the  Fieherman  (Lon- 
don. 1S871;  Murphy,  The  Chair  of  Peter,  3il  ed.  (London. 
1888);  Allnatt.  Cathedra  Petri  (London,  188.3):  Scheeben 
in  Kirchcnlex..  I,  1145;  Wilhei.h  and  Scannell, /I  Manual 
of  Catholic  Theology  (London,  1898). 

J.    WiLHELM. 

Apostolic  Succession. — Apostolicity  as  a  note  of 
the  true  Church  being  dealt  with  elsewhere,  the  ob- 
ject of  the  present  article  is  to  show:  (1)  That  Apos- 
tolic succession  is  found  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  (2)  That  none  of  the  separate  Churches 
have  any  valid  claim  to  it.  (3)  That  the  Anglican 
Church,  in  particular,  has  broken  away  from  Ajxis- 
tolic  unity. 

RoM.\N  CLAm. — The  principle  underlying  the  Ro- 
man claim  Ls  contained  in  the  idea  of  succession. 
"To  succeed"  is  to  be  the  succes.sor  of,  especially 
to  be  the  heir  of,  or  to  occupy  an  official  position 
just  after,  as  Victoria  succeeded  William  IV.  Now 
the  Roman  Pontiffs  come  immediately  after,  occupy 
the  position,  and  perform  the  functions  of  .St.  Peter; 
they  are,  therefore,  his  successors.  We  must  prove 
(a)  that  St.  Peter  came  to  Rome,  and  ended  there 
his  pontificate;  (b)  that  the  Bishops  of  Rome  who 
came  after  him  held  his  official  position  in  the  Church. 
As  soon  as  the  problem  of  St.  Peter's  coming  to 
Rome  passed  from  tlieologians  writing  pro  dnmo  sud 
into  the  hands  of  unprejudiced  historians,  i.  e.  within 
the  last  half  century,  it  received  a  .solution  which 
no  scholar  now  dares  to  contradict;  the  researches 
of  Cicrman  professors  like  A.  Harn;ick  and  Weizs- 
iicker,  of  the  Anglican  Bishop  Liglitfoot,  and  those  of 
archa-ologists  like  De  Rossi  and  l.anciani.of  Duchesne 
and  Barnes,  have  all  come  to  the  same  conchi- 
eion:  St.  Peter  did  reside  and  die  in  Rome.     Begin- 


ning with  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  there 
exists  a  universal  consensus  as  to  Peter's  martyrdom 
in  Rome;  Dionysius  of  Corinth  speaks  for  (jreece, 
IrenaMis  for  Oaul,  Clement  and  Origen  for  Alexandria, 
TertuUian  for  Africa.  In  the  third  century  the  popes 
claim  authority  from  the  fact  that  they  are  St. 
Peter's  successors,  and  no  one  objects  to  this  claim, 
no  one  raises  a  counter-claim.  No  city  boasts  the 
tomb  of  the  Af)ostle  but  Rome.  There  he  died, 
there  he  left  his  inheritance;  the  fact  is  never  ques- 
tioned in  the  controversies  between  East  and  VVest. 
This  argument,  however,  has  a  weak  point:  it  leaves 
about  one  hundred  years  for  the  formation  of  his- 
torical legends,  of  which  Peter's  presence  in  Rome 
may  Ix;  one  just  as  much  as  his  conflict  with  Simon 
Magus.  We  have,  then,  to  go  farther  back  into  an- 
tiquity. About  1.50  the  Roman  presbyter  Caius 
offers  to  show  to  the  heretic  Proclus  the  trophies 
of  the  Apostles:  "If  you  will  go  to  the  Vatican,  and 
to  the  Via  Ostiensis,  you  will  find  the  monuments 
of  those  who  have  founded  this  Church. "  Can  Caius 
and  the  Romans  for  whom  he  speaks  have  been  in 
error  on  a  point  so  vital  to  their  Church?  Next  we 
come  to  Papias  (c.  138-150).  From  him  we  only 
get  a  faint  indication  that  he  places  Peter's  preach- 
ing in  Rome,  for  he  states  that  Mark  wrote  down 
what  Peter  preached,  and  he  makes  him  write  in 
Rome.  Weizsiicker  himself  holds  that  this  inference 
from  Papias  has  some  weight  in  the  cumulative  ar- 
gument we  are  constructing.  Earlier  than  Papias 
is  Ignativis  Martyr  (before  117),  who,  on  his  way  to 
martyrdom,  writes  to  the  Romans:  "I  do  not  com- 
mand you  as  did  Peter  and  Paul;  they  were  Apos- 
tles, I  am  a  disciple",  words  which  according  to 
Lightfoot  have  no  sense  if  Ignatius  did  not  believe 
Peter  and  Paul  to  have  been  preaching  in  Rome. 
Earlier  still  is  Clement  of  Rome  writing  to  the  Co- 
rinthians, probably  in  96,  certainly  before  the  end  of 
the  first  centurj'.  He  cites  Peter's  and  Paul's  martyr- 
dom as  an  example  of  the  sad  fruits  of  fanati- 
cism and  en\-y.  They  have  .suffered  "amongst  us'' 
he  says,  and  Weizsiicker  riglitly  .sees  here  another  proof 
for  our  thesis.  The  (ios|x>l  of  ."^t.  .lolin,  written  about 
the  same  time  as  the  letter  of  Clement  to  the  Corin- 
thians, also  contains  a  clear  allusion  to  the  martyr- 
dom by  crucifixion  of  St.  Peter,  without,  however, 
locating  it  (John,  xxi,  18,  19).  The  veiy  oldest  evi- 
dence comes  from  St.  Peter  himself,  if  he  be  the 
author  of  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  or  if  not,  from 
a  writer  nearly  of  his  own  time;  "The  Church  that 
is  in  Babylon  .saluteth  you,  and  so  doth  mv  son 
Mark"  (l"  Peter,  v,  13).  That  Babylon  stands  for 
Rome,  as  usual  amongst  pious  Jews,  and  not  for  the 
real  Babylon,  then  without  Christians,  is  admitted 
by  common  consent  (cf.  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  "  Judaistic 
Christianity",  London,  189.5,  155).  This  chain  of 
documentary  evidence,  having  its  first  link  in  Scrip- 
ture it.self,  and  broken  nowhere,  puts  the  sojourn  of 
St.  Peter  in  Rome  among  the  best-ascertained  facts 
in  history.  It  is  further  strengthened  by  a  similar 
chain  of  monumental  evitlence,  which  Lanciani,  the 
prince  of  Roman  topographers,  sums  up  as  follows: 
For  the  archaeologist  the  presence  and  execution  of 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  in  Rome  are  facts  established 
beyond  a  shadow  of  doubt,  by  purely  monumental 
evidence!''  (Pagan  and  Christian  Rome,  123). 

St.  Peter's  .Si:cces.sohs  in  Office. — St.  Peter's 
successors  carried  on  his  office,  the  importance  of 
which  grew  with  the  growth  of  the  Church.  In  97 
serious  dis.sensions  troubled  the  Church  of  Corinth. 
The  Roman  Bishop,  Clement,  unbidden,  wrote  an 
authoritative  letter  to  restore  peace.  St.  John  was 
still  living  at  Ephesus,  yet  neither  he  nor  his  inter- 
fered with  Corinth.  liefore  117  St.  Ignatius  of  .\n- 
tioch  addresses  the  Roman  Church  as  the  one  which 
"presides  over  charity  .  .  .  which  has  never  deceived 
any   one,   which   has   taught  others."     St.   IreiUGUS 


APOSTOLIC 


642 


APOSTOLIC 


(180-200)  states  the  theory  and  practice  of  doctrinal 
unity  as  follows:  "Witli  this  Church  [of  Rome]  be- 
cause of  its  more  powerful  principality,  every  Church 
must  agree,  tnat  is,  the  faithful  everywhere,  in  v-liich 
[i.  e.  in  communion  with  the  Koman  ChurchJ  the 
tradition  of  the  Apostles  has  ever  been  preserved  by 
those  on  every  side"  (Adv.  Hiereses,  III).  The  here- 
tic Marcion,  the  Jlontanists  from  Phrj-gia,  Praxeas 
from  Asia,  come  to  Rome  to  gain  the  countenance 
of  its  bishops;  St.  Victor,  Bishop  of  Rome,  threatens 
to  excommunicate  the  Asian  Churches;  St.  Stephen 
refuses  to  receive  St.  Cj'prian's  deputation,  and  sep- 
arates himself  from  various  Churches  of  the  East; 
Fortunatus  and  Felix,  deposed  by  Cyprian,  have  re- 
course to  Rome;  Basilides,  deposed  in  Spain,  betakes 
himself  to  Rome;  the  presbyters  of  Dionysius,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  complain  of  his  doctrine  to  Dionysius, 
Bishop  of  Rome;  the  latter  expostulates  with  him, 
and  he  explains.  The  fact  is  indisputable:  the 
Bishops  of  Rome  took  over  Peter's  Chair  and  Peter's 
office  of  continuing  the  work  of  Christ  [Duchesne, 
"The  Roman  Church  before  Constantine",  Catholic 
Univ.  Bulletin  (October,  1904)  X,  429-450].  To  be 
in  continuity  with  the  Church  founded  by  Christ 
affiliation  to  the  See  of  Peter  is  necessary,  for,  as  a 
matter  of  history,  there  is  no  other  Church  linked 
to  any  other  Apostle  by  an  unbroken  chain  of  suc- 
cessors. Antioch,  once  the  see  and  centre  of  St. 
Peter's  labours,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Monophysite 
patriarchs  under  the  Emperors  Zeno  and  Anastasius 
at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  The  Church  of 
Alexandria  in  Egj'pt  was  founded  by  St.  Mark  the 
Evangelist,  the  mandatary  of  St.  Peter  It  ffovir- 
ished  exceedingly  until  the  Arian  and  Monophysite 
heresies  took  root  among  its  people  and  gradually 
led  to  its  extinction.  The  shortest-lived  Apostolic 
Church  is  that  of  Jerusalem.  In  130  the  Holy  City 
was  destroyed  by  Hadrian,  and  a  new  town,  ^lia 
Capitolina,  erected  on  its  site.  The  new  Church  of 
^Elia  Capitolina  was  subjected  to  Cipsarea;  the  very 
name  of  Jerusalem  fell  out  of  use  till  after  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  (325).  The  Cireek  Schism  now  claims  its 
allegiance.  Whatever  of  Apostolicity  remains  in 
these  Churches  founded  by  the  Apostles  is  owing 
to  the  fact  that  Rome  picked  up  the  broken  succes- 
sion and  linked  it  anew  to  the  See  of  Peter.  The 
Greek  Church,  embracing  all  the  Eastern  Churches 
involved  in  the  schism  of  Photius  and  Michael 
Ca^rularius,  and  the  Russian  Church  can  lay  no 
claim  to  Apostolic  succession  either  direct  or  in- 
direct, i.  e.  through  Rome,  because  they  are,  by  their 
own  fact  and  will,  separated  from  the  Roman  Com- 
munion. During  the  four  hundred  and  sixty-four 
years  between  the  accession  of  Constantine  (323)  and 
the  Seventh  General  Council  (787),  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  Eastern  episcopate  lived  in  schism  for  no  less 
than  two  hundred  and  three  years:  namely,  from  the 
Council  of  Sardica  (343)  to  St.  John  Clirysostom 
(3S".)),  5.')  years;  owing  to  Chrysostom's  condem- 
nation (404-415),  11  years;  owing  to  Acaeius  and  the 
Ihniitimn  edict  (484-519),  35  years;  in  Monothelism 
(lilO-tiSl),  41  years;  owing  to  the  dispute  about 
images  (726-7S7),  61  years;  total,  203  years 
(Duchesne).  They  do,  however,  claim  doctrinal  con- 
nection with  the  Apostles,  sufficient  to  their  mind  to 
stamp  them  with  the  mark  of  Apostolicity. 

The  Anouca-n-  Coxtinuitv  Cl.vim. — The  contin- 
uity claim  is  brought  forward  by  all  sects,  a  fact 
showing  how  essential  a  note  of  the  true  Church 
Apostolicity  is.  The  Anglican  High-Church  party 
asserts  its  continuity  with  the  pro-Reformation 
Chur<4i  in  England,  and  through  it  with  the  Catholic 
Cliurch  of  Christ.  "At  the  Reformation  wo  but 
washed  our  face"  is  a  favourite  Anglican  saying; 
wc  lia\e  to  show  that  in  reality  they  wiished  off  "their 
hi-ad,  and  have  been  a  truncated  {'"hurch  ever  since. 
Ktymologically,  "to  continue"  means  "to  hold  to- 


gether". Continuity,  therefore,  denotes  a  successive 
existence  without  constitutional  change,  an  advance 
in  time  of  a  thing  in  itself  steady.  Steady,  not  sta- 
tionary, for  the  nature  of  a  thing  may  be  to  grow, 
to  develop  on  constitutional  lines,  thus  constantly 
changing  yet  always  the  selfsame.  This  applies  to 
all  organisms  starting  from  a  germ,  to  all  organiza- 
tions starting  from  a  few  constitutional  principles; 
it  also  applies  to  religious  belief,  which,  as  Newman 
says,  changes  in  order  to  remain  the  same.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  speak  of  a  "breach  of  continuity" 
whenever  a  constitutional  change  takes  place.  A 
Church  enjoys  continuity  when  it  develops  along  the 
lines  of  its  original  constitution;  it  changes  when  it 
altere  its  constitution  either  social  or  doctrinal.  But 
what  is  the  constitution  of  the  Church  of  Christ? 
The  answer  is  as  varied  as  the  sects  calling  them- 
selves Christian.  Being  persuaded  that  continuity 
with  Christ  is  essential  to  their  legitimate  status, 
they  have  excogitated  theories  of  the  essentials  of 
Christianity,  and  of  a  Christian  Church,  exactly  suit- 
ing their  own  denomination.  Most  of  them  repu- 
diate Apostolic  succession  as  a  mark  of  the  true 
Church;  they  glory  in  their  separation.  Our  present 
controversy  is  not  with  such,  but  with  the  Anglicans 
who  do  pretend  to  continuity.  We  have  points  of 
contact  only  with  the  High-Churchmen,  whose  lean- 
ings towards  anticjuity  and  Catholicism  place  them 
midway  between  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant 
pure  and  simple. 

ExGL.tND  AND  RoME. — Of  all  the  Churches  now 
separated  from  Rome,  none  has  a  more  distinctly 
Roman  origin  than  the  Church  of  England.  It  has 
often  been  claimed  that  St.  Paul,  or  some  other 
Apostle,  evangelized  the  Britons.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  whenever  Welsh  annals  mention  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  into  the  island,  invariably 
they  conduct  the  reader  to  Rome.  In  the  "  Liber 
Pontificalis "  (ed.  Duchesne,  I,  136)  we  read  that 
"Pope  Eleutherius  received  a  letter  from  Lucius, 
King  of  Britain,  that  he  might  be  made  a  Christian 
by  his  orders. "  The  incident  is  told  again  and  again 
by  the  Venerable  Bede;  it  is  found  in  the  Book  of 
Llandaff,  as  well  as  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle;  it  is 
accepted  by  French,  Swiss,  German  chroniclers, 
together  with  the  home  authorities  Fabius  Ethel  ward, 
Henry  of  Huntingdon,  William  of  Malmesburj',  and 
Giraldus  Cambrensis.  The  Saxon  invasion  swept  the 
British  Church  out  of  existence  wherever  it  pene- 
trated, and  drove  the  British  Christians  to  the  west- 
ern borders  of  the  island,  or  across  the  sea  into 
Armorica,  now  French  Brittany.  No  attempt  at 
converting  their  conquerors  was  ever  made  by  the 
conquered.  Rome  once  more  stepped  in.  The  mis- 
sionaries sent  by  Gregorj'  the  Great  converted  and 
baptized  King  Ethelbcrt  of  Kent,  with  thousands 
of  his  subjects.  In  597  Augustine  was  made  Pri- 
mate over  all  England,  and  his  successors,  down  to 
the  Reformation,  have  ever  received  from  Rome 
the  Pallium,  the  symbol  of  super-episcopal  au- 
thority. The  Anglo-Saxon  hierarchy  was  thoroughly 
Roman  in  its  origin,  in  its  faith  and  practice,  in  its 
obedience  and  affection;  witness  every  page  in 
Bede's  "Ecclesiastical  History".  A  like  Roman 
spirit  animated  the  nation.  Among  the  saints  rec- 
ognized by  the  Church  arc  twenty-three  kings  and 
sixty  queeiLs,  princes,  or  princesses  of  the  dilTcrent 
Anglo-Saxon  dynasties,  reckoned  from  the  seventh 
to  the  eleventh  century.  Ten  of  the  Saxon  kings 
made  the  journey  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter,  and  to 
his  successor,  in  Rome.  Anglo-Saxon  pilgrims  formed 
quite  a  colony  in  proximity  to  the  Vatican,  where 
the  local  topography  (liorgo,  Sassia,  ]'icux  Saxuniiin) 
still  recalls  their  memory.  There  was  an  Ihiglish 
school  in  Rome,  foundecl  by  King  Ine  of  Wcsscx 
and  Pope  Gregory  II  (71.5-731),  and  supported  by 
the    Romescot,    or    Peter's-pence,    paid    yearly    by 


APOSTOLIC 


643 


APOSTOLIC 


everj-  Wessex  family.  The  Romescot  was  made  ob- 
ligatory, by  Edward  the  Confessor,  on  every  monas- 
tery and  household  in  possession  of  land  or  cattle 
to  the  yearly  value  of  thirty  pence. 

The  Xoniian  C'onfiiiest  (lOdli)  wrought  no  change 
in  the  religion  of  ICngland.  St.  Aii.-ielin  of  Canter- 
bury (1093-110'.))  testified  to  the  supremacy  of  the 
Roman  PoiititT  in  his  writings  (in  .Matt.,  .\vi)  and 
by  his  act.s.  When  pressed  to  surrender  his  right 
of  ap|)cal  to  Rome,  he  answered  the  king  in  court: 
"  \'ou  «ish  me  to  swear  never,  on  any  account,  to 
appeal  in  England  to  Blessed  Peter  or  his  Vicar; 
this,  I  say,  ought  not  to  \x  commanded  by  you, 
who  are  a  Christian,  for  to  swear  this  is  to  abjure 
Hlc-isod  Peter;  he  who  abjures  Blessed  Peter  un- 
doubtedly abjures  Christ,  who  made  him  Prince  over 
his  Church."  St.  Thomas  Becket  shed  his  blood 
in  defence  of  the  liberties  of  the  Church  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  Norman  king  (1170).  Gros- 
seteste,  in  the  thirteenth  centurj',  writes  more  for- 
cibly on  the  Pope's  authority  over  the  whole  Church 
than  any  other  ancient  English  bishop,  although  he 
resisted  an  ill-advised  appointment  to  a  canonry 
made  by  the  Pope.  In  the  fourteenth  centurj'  Duils 
Scotus  teaches  at  Oxford  "that  they  are  exconunu- 
nicated  as  heretics  who  teach  or  hold  anjihing  dif- 
ferent from  what  the  Roman  Church  holds  or 
teaches."  In  1411  the  English  bishops  at  the  Sy- 
nod of  I-ondon  condemn  WyditTe's  proposition  "that 
it  is  not  of  necessity  to  salvation  to  hold  that  the 
Roman  Church  is  supreme  among  the  Churches." 
In  1535  Blessed  John  I'isher,  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
is  put  to  death  for  upholding  against  Henry  VIII 
the  Pope's  supremacy  over  the  English  Church.  The 
most  striking  piece  of  evidence  is  the  wording  of  the 
oath  taken  by  archbishops  Ix-fore  entering  into  of- 
fice: "I,  Robert,  .\rchbisho[)  of  Canterburj-,  from 
this  hour  forward,  will  be  faithful  and  oljedient  to 
St.  Peter,  to  the  Holy  Apostolic  Roman  Church,  to 
my  Lord  Pope  Celestine,  and  his  succe.ssors  canon- 
ically  succcecling  ...  I  will,  sa\ing  my  order,  give 
aid  to  defend  and  to  maintain  sigainst  every  man 
the  primacy  of  the  Roman  Church  and  the  royalty 
of  St.  Peter.  I  will  visit  the  threshold  of  the  .\postIes 
everj-  three  years,  either  in  person  or  by  my  deputy, 
unless  I  be  absolved  by  apostolic  ilispensation.  .  . 
So  help  me  God  and  these  Holy  Gospels."  (Wilkins, 
Concilia  .\ngli!P,  II,  199.)  Chief  Justice  Bracton 
(1260)  lays  down  the  civil  law  of  this  country  thus: 
"It  is  to  be  noted  concerning  the  jurisdiction  of 
superior  and  inferior  courts,  that  in  the  first  place 
as  the  Lord  Pope  hiis  ordinarj-  jurisdiction  over  all 
in  spirituals,  so  the  king  has,  in  the  realm,  in  tem- 
porals." The  line  of  demarcation  Ix^twcen  things 
spiritual  and  temporal  is  in  many  cases  blurred  and 
uncertain;  the  two  powers  often  overlap,  and  con- 
flicts are  unavoidable.  During  five  hundred  years 
such  conflicts' were  frequent.  Their  ^erj-  recurrence, 
however,  proves  that  England  acknowledged  the 
papal  supremacy,  for  it  rei)uires  two  to  make  a 
quarrel.  The  complaint  of  one  side  was  always  that 
the  other  encroached  upon  its  rights.  Henrj-  VIII 
himself,  in  153.3.  .still  pleaded  in  the  Roman  Courts 
for  a  divorce.  Had  he  succeeded,  the  supremacy  of 
the  Pope  would  not  ha\c  found  a  more  strenuous 
defender.  It  was  only  after  his  failure  that  he  (|ues- 
tioned  the  authority  of  the  tribunal  to  which  ho  had 
hinu'elf  appealed.  In  1531  he  was,  by  Act  of  Par- 
liament, made  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  English 
Church.  The  bishops,  instead  of  swearing  allegiance 
to  the  Pope,  now  swore  allegiance  to  the  King,  with- 
out any  saving  clause.  Blessed  John  Fisher  was  the 
only  bishop  who  refused  to  take  the  new  oath;  his 
martyrdom  is  the  first  witness  to  the  breach  of  con- 
tinuity between  the  old  English  and  the  new  Angli- 
can Chvirch.     Heresy  stepped  in  to  widen  the  l)reach. 

The  Thirty-nine  Articles  teach  the  Lutheran 
I.— 41 


doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  deny 
purgatorj',  reduce  the  seven  sacraments  to  two,  in- 
sist on  the  fallibility  of  the  Church,  establish  the 
kind's  supremacy,  and  deny  the  pope's  jurisdiction 
in  England.  M;iss  was  abolished,  and  the  Real  Pres- 
ence; the  form  of  ordination  was  so  altered  to  suit 
the  new  views  on  the  priesthood  that  it  became  in- 
effective, and  the  succession  of  priests  failed  as  well 
as  the  succession  of  bishoiw.  (See  Anglica.n  Oit- 
DKHS.)  Is  it  possible  to  imagine  that  the  framers 
of  such  vital  alterations  thought  of  "continuing" 
the  e.xisting  Church?  When  the  hierarchical  frame- 
work is  destroyed,  when  the  doctrinal  foundation  is 
removed,  when  every  stone  of  the  edifice  Is  freely  re- 
arranged to  suit  individual  tastes,  then  there  is  no 
continuity,  but  coUape.  The  old  fa<;ade  of  Battle 
Abbey  still  stands,  also  parts  of  the  outer  wall,  and 
the  old  name  remains;  but  pass  through  the  portal, 
and  one  faces  a  stately,  newish,  comfortable  man- 
sion; green  lawns  and  shrubs  hide  old  foundations 
of  duircli  and  cloisters;  the  monks'  scriptorium  and 
storerooms  still  stand  to  sadden  the  visitor's  mood. 
Of  the  abbey  of  1.5.38,  the  abbey  of  1906  only  keeps 
the  nuisk,  the  diminished  sculptures  and  the  stones — 
a  fitting  image  of  the  old  Church  and  the  new. 

Phe-sent  St.\ge. — Dr.  James  Gairdner,  whose  "His- 
tory of  the  English  Church  in  the  16th  Century" 
lays  bare  the  essentially  Protestant  spirit  of  the 
English  Reformation,  in  a  letter  on  "Continuity" 
(reproduced  in  the  Tablet,  '20  January,  1906),  shifts 
the  controversy  from  historical  to  doctrinal  ground. 
"If  the  country",  he  says,  "still  contained  a  com- 
munity of  Christians — that  is  to  say,  of  real 
believers  in  the  great  gospel  of  sjdvation,  men  who 
still  accepted  the  old  creeds,  and  had  no  doubt 
Christ  died  to  save  them — then  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land remained  the  same  Church  as  before.  The  old 
sj-stem  was  preserved,  in  fact  all  that  was  really 
essential  to  it,  and  as  regards  doctrine  nothing  was 
taken  away  except  some  doubtful  scholastic  prop- 
ositions." (See  Apostolicity;  Peteb,  Saint;  An- 
tioch;  Alexanduia;  Gheek  Chijrch;  Anglicanism; 
Anglican  Orders.) 

Sk-mehia,  Dogma,  gerarchia  e  culto  iwUa  china  primitiva 
(Rome.  1902.  2(1  eil..  1000;  tr.  London.  1900):  Orisar, 
GeschichU  Roma  urul  der  PUpsle  im  Miltrlolter  (Freiburg. 
1901):  UuciiESNE,  EglUea  tcparira  (2il  eti..  Paris,  ISft'i); 
I.INGARD,  Iluit.  and  AntiquUifS  of  the  Anfflo-Saxon  Church 
(l.st  e.l..  Ixjndon,  1845;  reprint,  ibid.  1899);  Anderdon. 
Urilainn  Earli/  Faith  (l^ndon.  1888);  Mackinlat.  Thr 
Alccstcr  Lectures:  Continuity  or  Collapse  (I2th  ed.,  London. 
1900);  MoYKH.  Aspects  of  Anglicanism;  and  answer  to  Gairdnrr, 
Letter  on  Continuity  (London,  1906). 

J.    WiLHELM. 

Apostolic  TTnion  of  Secular  Priests,  The,  an 
a.ssociation  of  secular  priests  who  ob.scrve  a  simple 
rule  embodying  the  common  duties  of  their  state, 
affortl  mutual  assistance  in  the  functions  of  the 
ministry,  and  keep  themselves  in  the  spirit  of  their 
holy  vocation  by  spiritual  conferences.  Its  object 
is  the  sanctification  of  the  secular  clergj-  in  their 
missionary  hvcs  among  the  people.  Its  spirit  is  a 
personal  love  for  Jesus  Christ.  It  was  established 
in  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  \'enerable  Bar- 
tholomew Holzhauser,  and  was  revived  and  reorgan- 
ized in  France  about  forty  years  ago  by  Canon 
Lebcurier,  who  is  still  its  president-general.  One  of 
the  first  acts  of  Pius  X,  20  December,  1903.  was 
to  take  the  Union  under  his  special  protection, 
whilst  increasing  its  indulgences  and  spiritual  favours. 
The  Brief  of  the  Ilolv  Father  (Acta  S.  Sed.,  XXXVI, 
.")94)  recites  the  esta1)lishmcnt  of  the  Union  in  1862, 
and  its  spread  to  a  great  number  of  dioceses  through- 
out the  Christian  world,  in  France,  Belgium,  .Austria. 
Ireland,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Unite<l  States, 
Canaila.  South  America.  .Australia,  and  parts  of  .Asia. 
The  Holy  Father  proclaims  the  fact  that  he  was  a 
member  of  it.  and  had  experienced  its  utility  and 
excellence,  and  admits  the  advantages  derived  from 


APOSTOLIC 


644 


APOSTOLICiE 


It,  even  after  liis  elevation  to  the  episcopate.  The 
brief  goes  on  to  summarize  its  organization.  Pro- 
posing as  it  does  to  all  its  associates  a  uniform  rule 
of  life,  raontlily  reunions  and  spiritual  conferences, 
and  the  submission  of  a  bulletin  regularly  to  the 
superior,  it  strengthens  union  among  the  clergy 
and  unites  by  a  bond  of  spiritual  fraternity  priests 
who  are  scattered  far  apart.  The  dangers  of  soli- 
tude are  removed,  and  there  is  a  concentrated 
effort  on  the  part  of  all  to  attain  the  common  end. 
Each  priest  under  these  conditions  devotes  himself 
to  the  well-being  and  perfection  of  all,  and,  though 
prevented  by  the  cares  of  his  ministry  from  enjoying 
the  advantages  of  living  in  community,  he  does  not 
feel  that  he  is  deprived  of  the  benefits  of  the  rehgious 
family;  nor  are  tlie  counsels  and  assistance  of  liis 
brothers  wanting.  The  brief  then  recites  the  ap- 
proval of  the  institute  by  Leo  XIII  in  Apostolic 
fetters  of  .31  May,  1880,  and  again  in  1887,  when 
he  gave  it  as  a  cardinal-protector  the  Cardinal  Vicar 
of  Rome,  Monsignor  Lucido  Parrocchi.  Then  fol- 
lows a  recital  of  the  indulgences  and  special  privileges 
granted  to  the  priests  who  are  members.  These 
may  be  found  in  B^ringer,  ed.  1905,  II,  450. 

The  means  by  which  the  ends  proposed  are  attained 
are  as  follows:  (1)  The  rule  is  the  bond  of  this  society, 
and  its  vital  principle;  insisting  on  the  fact  tliat  the 
priest  ought  to  study,  love,  and  imitate  Jesus  Christ, 
it  maps  out  the  Hfe  of  the  priests  of  the  Apostolic 
Union,  indicating  to  tliem  the  spiritual  exercises 
and  the  ecclesiastical  study  for  each  day,  each  week, 
each  month,  each  year,  and  counsels  with  regard 
to  the  holy  ministry.  (2)  The  monthly  bulletin, 
which  is  a  kind  of  examination  on  the  principal  exer- 
ci.ses  in  the  rule  of  life.  It  is  so  arranged  that  the 
member  can  indicate  every  day  his  performance 
of  the  duty  imposed.  There  is  a  code  of  signs  em- 
ployed for  tliis  purpose.  The  bulletin  is  sent 
monthly  to  tlie  diocesan  superior,  w'ho  returns  it 
with  his  comments.  This  monthly  bulletin,  marked 
carefully  each  day  and  examined  by  the  superior, 
assures  regularity,  maintains  fervour,  guards  against 
failures  and  diminishes  faults;  it  establishes  the 
spirit  of  order,  self-denial,  obedience  and  humility, 
and  secures  the  benefits  of  spiritual  direction.  (3) 
Reunions  are  more  or  less  frequent  according  to 
circumstances.  Where  the  associates  are  numerous, 
they  are  divided  into  groups,  each  of  which  has  its 
reunion  at  a  central  point.  It  is  quite  a  common 
practice  for  the  members  to  make  a  monthly  retreat 
in  common.  They  also  assemble,  wherever  cir- 
cumstances permit,  once  a  year  to  make  a  retreat  of 
at  least  five  days.  (4)  The  works  of  zeal  supported 
by  the  associates  are  the  recruiting  of  the  clergy 
and  the  nurture  of  ecclesiastical  vocations.  (5) 
The  common  life.  The  Apostolic  Union  favours 
the  practice  of  the  clergy  of  the  same  parish  living 
in  common  wherever  this  can  be  advantageously 
ilone.  The  associates  recite  daily  a  prayer  to  which  is 
attached  a  special  indulgence.  (6)  Organization. 
The  different  diocesan  organizations  canonically 
erected  are  united  under  a  president-general,  who 
has  over  him  a  cardinal-protector.  The  common 
bond  is  simply  the  adoption  of  the  general  rule  of 
the  Union.  Each  diocesan  association  chooses  its 
superior,  and  the  associates  are  bound  to  the  supe- 
rior by  the  practice  of  the  monthly  bulletin.  There 
is  an  organ,  "Etudes  Eccl6siastiques",  which  is  a 
monthly  review  dedicated  to  the  interests  of  paro- 
chial clergy. 

BfelilNGER.  Restr.  aulhent.  ».  Congren.  indulg..  etc.  (19051; 
Etudet  eccUtituliquet;  The  Apottolic  Union  of  Secular  Priests 
adapted  to  the  United  States  (New  York). 

Joseph  H.  McMahon. 
Apostolic    Visitors.     See    Visitors    Apostolic; 

VlSnATIO.N.    CANOSMfAL. 

ApoBtoUcae    Curse,   u   Hull   of    Leo    XIII    issued 


15  September,  1S96,  and  containing  the  latest  papal 
decision  with  regard  to  the  validity  of  Anglican 
orders.  Decisions  had  already  been  given  that  such 
orders  are  invalid.  The  invariable  practice  also  of 
the  Catholic  Church  supposed  their  invalidity,  since, 
whenever  clergymen  who  had  received  orders  in  the 
Anglican  Church  became  converts,  and  desired  to 
become  priests  in  the  Catholic  Church,  they  have 
been  unconditionally  ordained.  In  recent  years, 
however,  several  members  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of 
the  Anglican  Church  set  forth  the  plea  that  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Catholic  Church  in  insisting  on  uncon- 
ditionally ordaining  clerical  converts  from  Anglican- 
ism arose  from  want  of  due  inquiry  into  tlie  validity 
of  Anglican  orders,  and  from  mistaken  assumptions 
which,  in  the  light  of  certain  historical  investigations, 
could  not  justly  be  maintained.  Those,  especially, 
who  were  interested  in  the  movement  that  looked 
towards  Corporate  Reunion  thought  that,  as  a  condi- 
tion to  such  reunion,  Anglican  orders  should  be  ac- 
cepted as  valid  by  the  Catholic  Church.  A  few  Catho- 
lic writers,  also,  thinking  that  there  was  at  least  room 
for  doubt,  joined  with  them  in  seeking  a  fresh  in- 
quiry into  the  question  and  an  authoritative  judg- 
ment from  the  Pope.  The  Pope  therefore  permitted 
the  question  to  be  re-examined.  He  commissioned 
a  number  of  men,  whose  opinions  on  the  matter  were 
known  to  be  divergent,  to  state,  each,  the  ground  of 
his  judgment,  in  writing.  He  then  summoned  them 
to  Rome,  directed  them  to  interchange  writings,  and, 
placing  at  their  disposal  all  the  documents  available, 
directed  them  to  further  investigate  and  discuss  it. 
Thus  prepared,  he  ordered  them  to  meet  in  special 
sessions  under  the  presidency  of  a  cardinal  ap- 
pointed by  him.  Twelve  such  sessions  were  held, 
in  which  "all  were  invited  to  free  discussion".  He 
then  directed  that  the  acts  of  those  sessions,  together 
with  all  tlie  documents,  should  be  submitted  to  a 
council  of  cardinals,  "so  that  when  all  had  studied 
the  whole  subject  and  discussed  it  in  Our  presence 
each  might  give  his  opinion".  The  final  result  was 
the  Bull  "Apostolicse  Curse",  in  which  Anglicari 
orders  were  declared  to  be  invalid.  As  the  Bull 
itself  explains  at  length,  its  decision  rests  on  e.x- 
trinsic  and  on  intrinsic  grounds. 

(1)  The  extrinsic  grounds  are  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  of  the  implicit  approval  of  the  Holy  See  gi\en 
to  the  constant  practice  of  unconditionally  ordain- 
ing convert  clergymen  from  the  Anglican  Church 
who  desired  to  become  priests,  and  in  the  explicit 
declarations  of  the  Holy  See  as  to  the  invalidity  of 
Anglican  orders  on  every  occasion  when  its  decision 
was  evoked.  According  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  to  attempt  to  confer  orders  a 
second  time  on  the  same  person  would  be  a  sacrilege; 
hence,  the  Church,  by  knowingly  allowing  the  prac- 
tice of  ordaining  convert  clergymen,  supposed  that 
their  orders  were  invalid.  The  Bull  points  out  that 
orders  received  in  the  Church  of  England,  according 
to  the  change  introduced  into  the  Ritual  under 
Edward  VI,  were  disowned  as  invalid  by  the  Catho- 
lic Churcli,  not  through  a  custom  grown  up  gradu- 
ally, but  from  the  date  of  that  change  in  the  Ritual. 
Thus,  when  a  movement  was  made  towards  a  recon- 
ciliation of  tlie  Anglican  Cliurch  to  the  Holy  See  in 
the  reign  of  Queen  Mary  (1553-58),  Pope  Julius  III 
sent  Cardinal  Pole  as  Legate  to  England,  with 
faculties  to  meet  the  case.  Those  faculties  were 
"certainly  not  intended  to  deal  with  an  abstract 
state  of  things,  but  with  a  specific  and  concrete 
issue."  They  were  directed  towards  providing  for 
holy  orders  in  England  "as  the  recognized  condi- 
tion of  the  circumstances  and  the  times  demanded." 
The  faculties  given  to  Cardinal  Pole  (8  March,  1554) 
distinguished  two  cla-ssesof  men:  "the  first,  those  who 
had  really  received  sacreil  orders,  either  before  the 
secession  of  Henry  VIII,  or,  if  after  it  and  by  minis- 


APOSTOLIOiE 


645 


APOSTOLIOiE 


tcrs  infected  by  error  and  schism,  still  according  t« 
tlie  acc-usloined  Catholic  Kite;  the  second,  those 
wlio  were  initiated  according  to  tlie  Edwardine 
Ordinal,  who  on  tliat  account  could  bo  ijrotnoted, 
since  they  had  received  an  ordination  that  was 
null."  The  mind  of  Julius  III  appears  also  from 
tlie  letter  (29  January,  1555)  by  which  Cardinal  Pole 
sulxielogated  his  faculties  to  the  Bishop  of  Norwich. 
To  the  same  elTect  is  a  Bull  issued  by  Paul  IV, 
•JO  June,  1555,  and  a  Brief  dated  30  October,  1555. 
The  "Apostolica!  Cura>"  cites  also,  amongst  other 
caiics,  that  of  John  Clement  Gordon  who  liad  re- 
ceived Orders  according  to  the  Edwardine  Ritual. 
Clement  XI  issued  a  Decree  on  17  April,  170-t,  that 
he  should  be  ordained  unconditionally,  and  he 
grounils  his  decision  on  the  "defect  ot  form  and 
intention  ". 

(2)  The  intriasic  reason  for  which  Anglican  Orders 
are  pronounced  invalid  by  the  Bull,  is  the  "defect 
of  form  and  intention".  It  sets  forth  that  "the 
Sacraments  of  the  New  Law,  as  sensible  and  efficient 
signs  of  invisible  grace,  ought  both  to  signify  the 
grace  which  they  etTect,  and  effect  the  grace  which 
they  signify".  The  rite  used  in  administering  a 
sacrament  must  be  directed  to  the  meaning  of  that 
.sacrament;  else  there  would  be  no  reason  why  the 
rite  used  in  one  sacrament  may  not  effect  another. 
^\■hat  etTccts  a  sacrament  is  the  intention  of  ad- 
ministering that  sacrament,  and  the  rite  used  ac- 
cording t«  that  intention. 

The  Bull  takes  note  of  the  fact  that  in  1662  the 
form  introduced  in  the  Edwardine  Ordinal  of  1552 
had  added  to  it  the  words:  "for  the  office  anil  work 
of  a  priest",  etc.  But  it  observes  that  this  rather 
shows  that  the  .\nglicans  themselves  perceived  that 
the  first  form  was  defective  and  inadequate.  But 
even  if  this  addition  could  give  to  the  form  its  duo 
signification,  it  was  introduced  too  late,  as  a  centuiy 
hail  alreatly  elapsed  since  the  adoption  of  the  Etl- 
wartline  Ordinal;  and,  moreover,  as  the  liierarchy 
had  become  extinct,  there  remained  no  power  of 
orilaining. 

Tlie  same  holds  good  of  episcopal  consecration. 
The  episcopate  undoubtedly  oy  tne  institution  of 
Christ  most  truly  belongs  t()  the  Sacrament  of  Orders 
and  constitutes  the  priesthoml  in  the  liighest  degree. 
So  it  conies  to  pass  that,  as  the  Sacrament  of  Orders 
ami  the  true  priesthood  of  Christ  were  utterly  elimi- 
nated from  the  Anglican  rite,  and  hence  the  priest- 
hood is  in  nowise  conferred  truly  and  validly  in  the 
episcopal  consecration  of  the  same  rite,  for  the  like 
rca.son,  therefore,  the  episcopate  can  in  nownse  be 
truly  and  validly  conferretl  by  it;  and  this  the  more 
so  becau.se  among  the  first  duties  of  the  episcopate  is 
that  of  ordaining  ministers  for  the  Holy  Eucharist 
and    Sacrifice. 

The  Pope  goes  on  to  state  how  the  Anglican  Ordinal 
had  been  adapted  to  the  errors  of  the  Keformers,  so 
that  thus  vitiated  it  could  not  be  u.sed  to  confer  valid 
orders,  nor  could  it  later  be  purged  of  this  original 
defect,  chiefly  because  the  words  u.se<l  in  it  had  a 
meaning  entirely  different  from  what  woulil  be  re- 
<|uired  to  confer  the  Sacrament.  The  force  of  this 
argument,  which  is  clear  to  Anglicans  them.selves, 
may  be  applied  also  to  the  prayer  ".\lniightv  God, 
Giver  of  all  good  things"  at  the  beginning  of  tlie  rite. 
Not  only  is  the  proper  form  for  the  .sacrament  lack- 
ing in  the  .\nglican  Ordinal;  the  intention  is  al.so 
lacking.  -Vltliough  the  Church  does  not  judge  what 
is  in  the  mind  of  the  minister,  she  mu.st  pass  judg- 
ment on  what  appears  in  the  external  rite.  Now  to 
confer  a  sacrament  one  must  have  the  intention  of 
doing  what  the  Church  intends.  If  a  rite  be  so 
changed  that  it  is  no  longer  acknowledged  by  the 
Church  as  valid,  it  is  clear  that  it  cannot  be  ad- 
ministered with  the  proper  intention,  lie  concludes 
by  e.xplaining  how  carefully  and  how  prudently  this 


matter  has  been  examined  by  the  Apostolic  See,  how 
tho.se  who  examined  it  with  him  were  agreed  that  the 
question  liad  already  been  settled,  but  that  it  might 
be  rccdiisidered  and  decided  in  the  light  of  the  hitest 
controversies  over  the  (|U('stion.  He  then  declares 
that  ordinations  conducted  with  the  Anglican  rite 
are  null  and  void,  and  iiMplnrcs  those  who  are  not 
of  the  Church  and  who  sccK  ortlers  to  return  to  the 
one  shoepfold  of  Christ,  where  they  will  find  the  true 
aids  for  salvation.  He  also  invites  those  who  are 
the  ministers  of  religion  in  their  various  congrega- 
tions to  be  reconciled  to  the  Church,  a.ssuring  them  of 
his  .syiniiatliy  in  their  spiritual  struggles,  and  of  the 
joy  of  all  the  faithful  when  so  earnest  and  so  disinter- 
ested men  as  they  are  embrace  the  faith.  The  Bull 
concludes  with  the  usual  declaration  of  the  authority 
of  tliis  .\postolic  letter.      (See  Anglican  Ordkus). 

For  the  text  of  the  Bull,  see  Actu  Sancla  Sedis  (Home,  1890), 
XXX,  193-20.3;  Answer  of  the  ArchbMopt  oj  Enulund  to  Iht 
Apostolic  Leltfr  of  Pope  Leo  XI II  on  Enatwh  Ordinations 
(Ixjnilon,  1897);  A  Vindication  of  the  Bull  "ApoiiloliccrCunt", 
by  the  i'ardimil  Arcbttighop  ami  Bighopa  of  the  Province  of 
Westminster,  In  Reply  to  tlie  Letter  of  tlie  Anolican  Arch- 
bishops  of  Canterbury  ami  York  (Ix)ll(lou,  1898);  Sempi.£, 
Anoltcan  Ordinations  (New  York,   190G). 

M.  O'RiORDAN. 

Apostolicse  Sedis  Moderationi,  a  Bull  of  Pius  IX 
(1846-78)  which  regulates  anew  the  system  of 
censures  and  reservations  in  the  Catholic  Church. 
It  was  issued  12  October,  1869,  and  is  practically 
the  present  penal  code  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Al- 
though its  Founder  is  divine,  the  Church  is  composed 
of  members  who  are  human,  with  human  pa.s.sions 
and  weaknesses.  Hence  the  need  of  laws  for  their 
direction,  and  of  legal  penalties  for  their  correction. 
In  the  course  of  centuries  tliesc  penal  statutes  ac- 
cumulated to  an  enormous  extent,  some  confirming, 
some  modifj'ing,  some  abrogating  others  which  had 
been  already  made.  They  were  simphfied  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1545-63).  But  afterwards  new 
laws  h.ad  to  be  enacted,  some  had  to  be  altered,  and 
some  abrogated  as  before.  Thus  these  penal  statutes 
became  again  numerous  and  complicated,  and  a  cause 
of  confu.sion  to  canonists,  of  perplexity  to  moralists, 
and  often  a  source  of  scruples  to  the  faithful. 
Pius  IX,  tlicreforc.  sim])Iific(l  them  again  after  three 
hundred  years  of  accumulation,  by  the  Bull  "'Apos- 
tolica'  Sedis  .Muderationi ".  In  cjuoting  the  more 
solemn  papal  tlccrccs,  the  practice  is  to  entitle  them 
from  their  initial  words.  (See  Bulls  a^d  Bkiefs.) 
The  wortis  of  this  title  are  the  first  words  of  the  docu- 
ment. The  best  general  description  that  can  be  given 
of  this  legislation  is  an  extract  from  itself.  The  fol- 
lowing translation  of  the  introductorj'  pas.sages  of 
the  Bidl  is  not  quite  literal,  but  it  is  faithful  to  the 
sense  of  the  document:  "It  is  according  to  the  spirit 
of  the  .\postolic  See  to  so  regvilate  whatever  has  been 
decreed  by  the  ancient  canons  for  the  -salutary  dis- 
cipline of  the  faithful,  a-s  to  make  provision  by  its 
suiircme  authority  for  their  needs  according  to  al- 
tered times  and  circumstances.  We  have  for  a  long 
time  considered  the  lOcclesiastical  Censures,  which, 
per  moilum  hiUr  scnirntiuc  ijisiujuc  facto  incurrendoe,  for 
the  security  and  discipline  of  the  Church,  and  for  the 
restraint  and  correction  of  licence  in  the  wicked,  were 
wisely  ilecrccd  ami  promulgated,  have  from  age  to 
age  gradually  and  greatly  multiplied,  so  that  some, 
owing  to  altered  times  and  customs,  have  even 
ceased  to  .serve  the  end  or  answer  the  occasion  for 
which  they  were  imposed;  while  doubts,  anxieties, 
anil  scruples,  have  for  that  reason  not  infre<iuently 
troubleil  the  consciences  of  those  who  have  the  cure 
of  .souls  and  of  the  faithful  generally.  In  Our  de.sire 
to  meet  those  difficulties.  We  ordered  a  thorough  re- 
vision of  those  censures  to  be  tnaiic  anil  placed  be- 
fore I's,  in  order  that,  on  mature  consideration.  We 
might  determine  those  of  them  which  ought  to  l>e 
retained  and  observed,  and  those  which  it  would  be 


APOSTOLIC^ 


646 


APOSTOLIC^ 


well  to  alter  or  abrogate.  Sucli  re\'ision  having  been 
made,  having  taken  counsel  with  Our  Venerable 
Brothers  the  Cardinals  General  Inquisitors  in  matters 
of  faith  for  the  Universal  Churcli,  and  after  a  long 
and  careful  consideration,  We,  of  Our  own  accord, 
with  full  knowledge,  mature  deliberation,  and  in  the 
fullness  of  Our  ApostoUc  power,  decree  by  this  per- 
manent Constitution  that  of  all  Censures,  either  of 
Excommunication,  Supervision,  or  Interdict,  of  any 
kind  soever,  wliicli  per  modum  latce  scntentice  ipsoqve 
jaclo  incurrcndce  have  been  hitherto  imposed,  those 
only  which  We  insert  in  tliis  Constitution  and  in  tliat 
manner  in  whicli  We  insert  them,  are  to  be  in  force 
in  future;  and  We  also  declare  that  these  have  their 
force,  not  merely  from  the  authority  of  the  ancient 
canons  coinciding  with  this  Our  Constitution,  but 
also  derive  tlieir  force  altogether  from  this  Our  Con- 
stitution, just  as  if  they  had  been  for  the  first  time 
published  in  it. " 

According  to  those  introductory  passages,  the  Bull 
"ApostoUc*  Sedis"  left  all  canonical  penalties  and 
impediments  (deposition,  degradation,  deprivation 
of  benefice,  irregularity,  etc.)  as  they  were  before, 
except  those  with  which  it  expressly  deals.  And  it 
deals  expressly  with  those  penalties  only,  the  direct 
purpose  of  which  is  tlie  reformation  rather  than  the 
punisliraent  of  the  person  on  wliom  they  are  inflicted, 
namely,  censures  (excommunication,  suspension,  and 
interdict).  Moreover,  it  deals  only  with  a  certain 
class  of  censures.  For  clearness  it  is  well  to  observe 
that  a  censure  may  be  so  attached  to  the  violation 
of  a  law  that  the  law-breaker  incurs  tlie  censure  in 
the  very  act  of  breaking  the  law,  and  a  censure  as 
decreed  binds  at  once  the  conscience  of  the  law- 
breaker without  the  process  of  a  trial,  or  the  formality 
of  a  judicial  sentence.  In  other  words,  tlie  law  has 
already  pronounced  sentence  tlie  moment  the  person 
who  breaks  the  law  has  completed  the  act  of  con- 
sciously breaking  it;  for  which  reason,  censures  thus 
decreed  are  said  to  be  decreed  per  modum  latce  sen- 
tentioe  ipsoque  facto  incurrendae,  i.  e.  censures  of  sen- 
tence pronounced  and  incurred  by  the  act  of  break- 
ing the  law.  But,  on  the  otlier  hand,  a  censure  may 
be  so  attached  to  the  breaking  of  a  law  that  the  law- 
breaker does  not  incur  the  censure  until,  after  a  legal 
process,  it  is  formally  imposed  by  a  judicial  sentence, 
for  wliich  reason  censures  thus  decreed  are  called 
jerendae  sententue,  i.  e.  censures  of  sentence  to  be  pro- 
nounced. Censures  of  this  latter  kind  were  left  out 
by  this  Bull,  and  remain  just  as  they  were  before, 
together  with  those  penalties  above  referred  to,  the 
direct  purpose  of  which  is  punishment.  The  Bull 
"  .\postolica;  Sedis  Moderationi"  deals,  therefore,  ex- 
clusively with  censures  lata;  sententiae.  Now,  how 
has  it  altered  or  abrogated  them?  It  abrogated  all 
except  those  expressly  inserted  in  it.  Those  wliicli 
are  inserted  in  it,  whether  old  ones  revived  or  re- 
tained, or  new  ones  enacted,  bind  throughout  the 
Catholic  Churcli,  all  customs  of  any  kind  to  tlie  con- 
trary notwithstanding,  because  this  Bull  became  the 
source  of  the  binding  power  of  all  and  each  of  them, 
even  of  such  as  might  have  gone  into  disuse  any- 
where or  cverywliere.  The  censures  retained  are  in- 
serted in  the  Bull  in  two  ways:  First,  it  makes  a  list 
of  a  certain  number  of  them;  Second,  it  inserts  in  a 
general  way  all  those  which  the  Council  of  Trent 
cither  newly  enacted,  or  so  adopted  from  older  canons 
as  to  make  them  its  own ;  not  those,  therefore,  which 
the  Council  of  Trent  merely  confirmed,  or  simply 
adopted  from  older  canons. 

We  have  so  far  determined  those  censures  which 
are  in  force  throughout  the  Bull  "Apostolical  Sedis", 
and  wliicli  may  be  taken  as  tlie  common  law  of  the 
Churcli  in  that  sphere  of  its  legislation.  But  one  who 
has  incurred  a  censure  can  be  freed  from  it  only 
through  ab.solution  by  competent  jurisdiction.  .\\- 
though  a  censure  is  merely  a  medicinal  penalty,  the 


chief  purpose  of  which  is  the  reformation  of  the 
person  who  has  incurred  it,  yet  it  does  not  cease  of 
itself  merely  by  one's  reformation.  It  has  to  be 
taken  away  by  the  power  that  inflicts  it.  It  remains, 
therefore,  to  consider  briefly  those  of  tlie  Bull  "  Apos- 
tolicffi  Sedis"  with  respect  to  the  power  by  which 
one  may  be  absolved  from  any  of  them.  They  are 
classified  in  that  respect  by  Pius  IX  in  the  Bull  itself. 
Any  priest  who  has  jurisdiction  to  absolve  from  sin 
can  also  absolve  from  censures,  unless  a  censure  be 
reserved,  as  a  sin  might  be  reserved;  and  some  of  the 
censures  named  in  tlie  Bull  "Apostolicic  Sedis"  are 
not  reserved.  It  may  be  well  to  observe  here  that 
the  absolution  from  sin  and  absolution  from  censure 
are  acts  of  jurisdiction  in  different  tribunals;  the  for- 
mer belongs  to  jurisdiction  in  foro  interno,  i.  e.  in  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance;  the  latter  belongs  to  jurisdic- 
tion in  foro  externa,  i.  e.  without  and  outside  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance.  Some  censures  of  the  "  Apos- 
tolicae  Sedis"  are  reserved  to  bishops;  so  that  bishops, 
within  their  own  juri.sdiction,  or  one  specially  dele- 
gated by  them,  can  absolve  from  censures  so  reserved. 
Some  are  reserved  to  the  Pope,  so  that  not  even  a 
bishop  can  absolve  from  these  without  a  delegation 
from  the  Pope.  Finally,  the  Bull  "Apostolicae  Se- 
dis "  gives  a  list  of  tweh'e  censures  which  are  reserved 
in  a  special  manner  {speciali  modo)  to  the  Pope;  so 
that  to  absolve  from  any  of  these,  even  a  bishop  re- 
quires a  special  delegation,  in  which  these  are  spe- 
cifically named.  These  twelve  censures,  except  the 
one  numbered  X,  were  taken  from  the  Bull  "  In  Coena 
Domini",  and  consequently,  since  the  publication 
of  the  " .4postolic£e  Sedis",  the  Bull  "In  Cccna  Dom- 
ini" (so  called  becau.se  from  1364  to  1770  it  was  an- 
nually published  at  Rome,  and  since  1567  elsewhere, 
on  Holy  Tliursday)  ceased  to  be,  except  as  an  his- 
torical document.  Of  these  eleven  canonical  oiTences, 
five  refer  to  attacks  on  the  foundation  of  the  Cliurch; 
that  is,  on  its  faith  and  constitution.  Three  refer  to 
attacks  on  the  power  of  the  Churcli  and  on  the  free 
exercise  of  that  power.  The  otlier  three  refer  to  at^ 
tacks  on  the  spiritual  or  temporal  treasures  of  the 
Church.  A  few  censures  have  been  enacted  since 
the  Bull  "Apostolicie  Sedis"  was  published.  These 
are  usually  mentioned  and  interpreted  in  the  pub- 
lished commentaries  on  tliat  Bull.  The  commentary 
by  Avanzini  and  Pennacchi  (Rome,  18S3),  the  learned 
editors  of  the  "Acta  Sancts  Sedis",  is  the  most 
complete.  That  issued  (Prato,  1894)  by  the  late 
Cardinal  D'Annibale,  however,  is  of  all  others, 
to  be  recommended  for  conciseness  and  accuracy 
combined. 

See  Censure,  Excommunication,  Interdict,  Sus- 
pension. 

The  text  is  found  in  Ada  Pii  IX  (Rome,  ISTO.  1.  V,  55-72; 
and  frequently  in  manuals  of  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law. 
e.  g.  SiMEONE,  Lezioni  di  Dirilto  Eccl.  (Naples.  1905),  II.  430 
sqq.;  Laurentius.  Institutiones  Juris  Eccl.  (Freiburg,  1903). 
nos.  395-443;  Smith.  Elements  of  Eccl.  Law  (New  York.  1888). 
Ill,  317-26;  Vering,  Lehrbuch  d.  kalhol.  oriental,  und  protcsl- 
anlischen  Kirchenrechta  (3d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1893),  711  sqq.; 
SagmOlleh,  Lehrbuch  dcs  knthol.  Kirchcnrrchts  (Freiburg, 
1900),  (i89  sqq.;  A.  Bcnacina,  Censura-  lata-  ecntenlia  nunc 
Vicentes  (Rome.  1897);  Hii.ahiu.s  a  Sexten,  Tractatus  de 
Censuris  Eccl.  (Freiburg,  1898);  Hergesbother-Hollweck, 
Lehrbuch  des  kathol.  Kichmrcchts  (Freiburg,  1905'),  561  sqq.; 
Instruetio  Pastoralis  Eiiestetlensis  (Freiburg,  1902),  218-26; 
KoNl.NGS,  Comment,  in  Facult.  Apo&tolicas  (New  York,  1893). 
M.    0'RlOHD.\N. 

Apostolicae  Servitutis,  a  Bull  issued  by  Bene- 
dict XIV,  23  February,  1741,  against  secular  pur- 
suits on  tlie  part  of  tlie  clergy.  In  spite  of  many 
proliibitive  laws  of  the  Church  some  ecclesiastics 
had  drifted  into  the  habit  of  occupying  thcinselves 
with  worldly  business  and  pursuits.  Tlie  object  of 
this  papal  i)roliibition  was  to  check  tha*  abuse  among 
tlio  clergy.  It  recalls,  therefore,  and  confirms  tlie 
statutes  made  by  former  Popes  against  sucli  abuses, 
and  also  extends  them  to  such  ecclesiastics  as  might, 
in  order  to  evade  the  penalties  attached,  engage  in 


APOSTOLICI 


647 


APOSTOLICI 


worldly  pursuits  under  the  name  of  lay  persons.  It 
prohibits  ecclesiastics  from  continuing  Dusiness  af- 
fairs begun  by  lay  persons  unless  in  case  of  necessity, 
and  then  with  the  permission  only  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  the  Council  within  Italy,  and  with 
the  permission  of  the  Diocesan  Ordinary  outside  of 
Italy. 

H'ullarium  liened.  XtV  (I'rato.  1844\  I.  315-38;  AxDRfe- 
WA.iNER,  Diet,  de  droit  Canonique,  3il  e<l.  (t'oris,  1901).  s.  v. 
.V.i;i-iv;  I.AUHE.STlus,  InalU.  Jurit  Kcd.  (FreiburK,  1903), 
93;  .S.\GMi'l.LKn,  l^hrbuch  des  Kirchenrerhta  (FreiburK.  1900), 
199;  Vo.N  SCHERER,  Hiindbuch  d.  Kirchrnrechtu  (ISStil.  I.  377; 
Doi.llAG.\RY.  /-*  commrrce  dra  clerca  in  Rev.  dea  acitncea  ecd. 
(Nov.,  1898;  July,  1899). 

M.    O'RiOUDAN. 

ApostoUci,  the  name  of  four  iliflerent  heretical 
bodies.  I.  Heretics  of  the  third  century. — The  sect 
of  the  Kncratiles,  which  sprang  up  in  the  second 
century  in  Syria  ami  Asia  Minor,  with  principles 
borrowed  from  Tatian  or  Marcion,  practised  an 
excessive  asceticism  which  exaggerated  Christian 
morality  and  distorted  the  teaching  of  the  Church. 
Hy  the  third  century  they  had  .split  into  groups  of 
.\postolici,  .\potactici,  and  llj'tlroparastates  or 
-Aquarians,  names  taken  from  their  customs  or 
tenets.  The  .\postolici  .so  styletl  themselves  becau.se 
they  claimed  to  lead  the  life  of  the  .\postles  and  to  be 
derived  from  them.  Hence  they  proscribed  marriage 
and  property-holding  as  evil  things,  admitting  into 
their  Ixidy  no  marrieil  men  or  proix;rty  owners. 
They  lapsed  into  Novatianism,  and  finally  became 
Maniclueans.  Their  names  and  le:iders  are  not 
known.  II.  Heretics  of  the  Thirteenth  and  Four- 
teenth Centuries. — The  sect  of  the  Apostolics,  or  false 
.\postlcs,  was  started  in  1260,  at  Parma,  Italy,  by 
an  ignorant  man  of  low  extraction  named  Gerard 
Segarelli  (also  \mtten  Segalelli,  Sagarelli,  Cicarelli), 
who  strove  to  reproduce  the  life  of  the  Ajwstles. 
He  adopted  a  white  cloak  and  grey  robe,  let  his 
beard  and  hair  grow,  and  wore  the  sandals  and  cord 
of  the  Kranciscans.  He  sold  his  house,  gave  away 
the  price  he  received,  and  traversed  tlie  streets 
preaching  penance  and  A[X)Stolie  poverty.  He  had 
followers  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1287  the  Council 
of  Wurzburg  forbade  them  to  continue  tlieir  mode 
of  life  and  prohibited  the  faithful  from  aiding  them. 
Segarelli  remained  at  Parma,  was  in  prison  for  awhile, 
and  then  in  the  bishop's  palace,  where  he  was  re- 
garded as  an  object  of  amusement.  Tlie  sect 
mcreased,  and  Honorius  IV  (11  March,  1286)  and 
Nicholas  IV  (1290)  condemned  it.  Segarelli  was 
again  imprisoned  in  1294,  escaped,  was  retaken, 
abjured  his  errors,  but  relapsed,  and  the  secular 
authorities  burned  him  at  Parma,  18  July,  1300. 
Dulcin,  a  bold,  mediocre,  and  unscrupulous  man, 
assumed  control  of  the  false  Apostles,  issued  mani- 
festos, and  finally  collecting  his  partisans  withdrew 
with  them  to  the  mountains  of  Vercelli  and  Xovara, 
until  13(J(),  when  Clement  \'  organized  a  crusade 
against  him.  He  w:is  captured,  his  body  broken 
and  delivered  to  tlie  flames,  and  his  disciples  crushed. 
.Some  of  tlic  sect  appeared,  however,  in  Spain,  1315; 
.John  XXII  took  meiusures  against  them  in  1318, 
an<l  they  are  mentioned  by  the  Council  of  Xartonne, 
1371.  Their  chanicteristic  from  the  start  was  a 
ileolaration  of  a  return  to  the  life,  and  especially 
the  poverty,  of  the  Apostles.  Honorius  IV  and 
.Nicholas  IV  charge<l  them  with  violating  a  decree 
of  the  Second  OCcumenical  Council  of  Lyons  in 
founding  a  new  mendicant  order  and  with  heretical 
te;iching.  Dulcin's  tenets  were:  the  imit;itif)n  of 
.\|)ostolic  life;  jioverty  was  to  be  alwohite,  obedience, 
interior;  and  one  engaged  himself,  though  by  no 
vow,  to  live  by  alms.  Dulcin  also  taught  tli;it  the 
course  of  humanity  is  marked  hv  four  periods: 
(1)  that  of  the  Olil  Testament;  (2")  that  of  Je.sus 
Christ  and  the  Apf)stles;  (3)  that  beginning  with 
Popes    Sylvester    and    Constantino,    in    which    the 


Church  declined  through  ambition  and  love  of  riches', 
(4)  the  era  of  Segarelli  and  Dulcin,  to  the  end  of  the 
world.     He    uttered    several    false    prophecies    and 

Crofcssed  liberty  of  thought.  Free  morals  have 
een  imputed  to  this  sect  by  the  FrancLscan  Saliin- 
bene  (Chronica,  117)  and  Bernard  Gui  (Practica 
impiisitionis  heretics;  pravitatis,  339),  but  the 
papal  bulls  are  silent  on  this  head. 

III.  The  .\'ew  Aposlolici  of  the  Twelfth  Cenlurif, 
chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  Cologne,  and  at  Pdrigueux, 
in  France,  permitted  no  marriage,  forbade  the  use 
of  flesh  meat,  because  it  and  similar  products  were 
the  result  of  sexual  intercourse;  they  explained  that 
sinners  (i.  e.  all  who  did  not  belong  to  their  sect, 
in  which  alone  was  to  lie  found  the  tnie  Church) 
could  neither  receive  nor  administer  the  sacraments. 
In  consc<|Uence  they  set  aside  the  Catholic  priest- 
hood and  g;i\e  each  member  of  the  sect  the  power 
to  consecrate  at  his  daily  mealtime  and  so  to  receive 
the  Body  and  Hlood  of  Christ.  Ihey  rejected  infant 
baptism,  veneration  of  the  saints,  prayers  for  the 
dead,  purgatory,  and  disdained  the  use  of  oaths, 
because  all  this  was  not  found  in  the  teaching  of 
Christ  and  the  Apostles.  Their  external  condvict 
was  blameless,  but  notwithstanding  their  reputation 
for  chastity,  their  commimity  life  with  women  was 
a  clear  proof  of  their  decejjtive  and  dangerous  charac- 
ter. Meanwhile  the  people  had  come  to  know  their 
character  and  the  public  aversion  and  disgust  con- 
stantly increased,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cologne,  where  two  members  after  being  given  three 
ilays  for  consideration  were  burned  alive.  St.  Ber- 
nard in  his  sermon  calls  on  civil  authority  to  take 
regular  procedure  against  them. 

IV.  Apoiitolici,  a  branch  of  the  Anabaptists,  which 
practised  poverty,  interpreted  Scripture  hterally, 
and  tleelareil  the  washing  of  feet  necessarj-,  from 
which  they  were  called  also  Pedoniles. 

Vernkt  in  Dicl.  thiol,  cnth.,  s.  v.;  I.imbach,  Hitt.  Inquiait. 
(.Amsterdam.  1072).  338-339.  300-3(13;  Epiphanii's,  Hot., 
I.XI,  in  P.  G..  XLI.  1040  sqq.;  Acgustihe,  Hot.,  XL,  lo 
P.  I..,  XUI,  32;  Urai-x  in  Kirchtnlez..  I,  s.  v. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

ApostoUci  Ministerii,  a  Bull  issued  23  May, 
1724,  by  Innocent  XIII,  for  the  revival  of  eccle- 
siastical discipline  in  Spain.  The  Primate  and 
King  Philip  of  Spain  had  reported  to  the  Pope  that 
the  disciplinaiy  laws  of  the  Council  of  Trent  were 
gnidually  falling  into  disuse.  The  Pope  submitted 
the  matter  to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Coun- 
cil, and  with  its  advice  issued  the  above-mentioned 
Bull.  It  lays  down  rules  for  the  .secular  and  for 
the  regular  clergy  of  Spain,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  leading  points:  (a)  Ton.sure  is  in  no  Ciise  to 
be  conferred  unless  to  meet  the  demands  of  religion, 
and  in  each  case  the  cleric  must  be  a.ssigned  to  some 
clnirch.  (I>)  Seminarists,  lest  their  studies  be  in- 
terfered with,  are  to  attend  the  Cathedral  on  festival 
days  only,  (c)  All  candidates  for  holy  orders  must 
vmdergo  an  examination  and  show  adequate  knowl- 
edge, (it)  The  benefice  or  the  title  for  which  one 
is  ordained  must  be  sufficient  for  his  decent  support, 
and  benefices  of  uncertain  revenue  are  to  be  sup- 
pressed. (<)  Those  who  have  the  cure  of  souls  must 
regularly  instruct  the  faithful  under  their  care,  and 
in  any  cases  where  through  past  laxity  of  discipline 
they  are  not  fit  to  do  it  them.selves,  must  at  their 
own  ex|>en.se  have  it  done  by  others  who  are  capable. 
(/)  Parishes  which  are  so  extensive  that  the  parish- 
ioners cannot  reg\ilarly  attend  Mass  are  to  be  divided, 
according  to  the  discretion  of  the  bishop,  irrespective 
of  the  wdl  of  the  parish  priest;  or  at  least,  a  second 
church  must  be  built  for  their  convenience  within 
the  parish.  (;/)  In  view  of  evils  which  have  arisen, 
the  numlx-r  of  jwrsons  who  receive  the  habit  in 
religio\is  orders  must  never  be  greater  than  the  reve- 
nues of  the  community  are  capable  of  supporting. 


APOSTOLICI 


648 


APOSTOLICITY 


(h)  It  shall  belong  to  tlit'  exoliisive  competence 
of  the  bishops  to  provide  ordinarj'  and  extraordinaiy 
confessors  for  nuns,  (i)  Bishops  are  to  see  that  the 
ritual  and  rubrics  are  carefully  observed.  They 
must  also  correct  such  abuses  as  have  crept  in  with 
regard  to  the  clergy,  secular  or  regular,  celebrating 
Mass  in  private  oratories,  in  the  cells  of  monasteries, 
or  on  portable  altars;  they  must  not  themselves 
celebrate  Mass  in  any  private  chapel  except  in  the 
chapel  of  the  episcopal  residence.  Rules  are  further- 
more laid  down  in  the  Bull,  according  to  which  they 
are  to  conduct  both  criminal  and  civil  causes. 

Butlarium  Mngnum  (ed.  Luxemburg"!,  1740.  part  VII, 
XIII.  6()-65;  CoUeccion  de  los  Concordalos  (Madrid,  1848), 
60-65;  Hergenrotheh,  Archiv.  f.  kath.  Kirchenrecht  (1S63- 
65),  X-XIII,  passim. 

M.  O'RiORDAN. 

Apostolici  Regiminis,  a  Bull  issued  19  December, 
1513,  by  Leo  X.  in  ilefence  of  the  Catholic  doctrine 
concerning  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Its  object 
was  to  condemn  a  two-fold  doctrine  then  infecting 
many  minds:  That  the  soul  of  man  is  of  its  nature 
mortal,  and  that  it  is  one  and  the  same  soul  which 
animates  all  men.  Others,  prescinding  from  the 
teaching  of  revelation,  held  that  doctrine  to  be  true 
according  to  natural  reason  and  philosophy.  Leo  X 
condemned  the  doctrine  in  itself  and  from  every 
point  of  view.  He  refers  to  the  definition  of  the 
Council  of  Vienne  (1311)  published  by  Clement  V 
(1305-14)  which  taught  that  the  soul  is  "really,  of 
itself,  and  essentially,  the  form  of  the  body  "  [Hefele- 
Knopfler,  "Conciliengeschichte  ",  VI,  530-542;  Den- 
zinger-Stahl,  "  Enchiridion  Symb.  et  Definit.",  9th  ed. 
(Freiburg,  1899)  136-137],  and  then  declares  that  it 
is  of  its  own  nature  immortal,  and  that  each  body 
has  a  soul  of  its  own.  This  doctrine  is  clear  from 
those  words  of  the  Gospel,  "  But  he  cannot  kill  the 
soul ",  and  "  he  who  hates  his  soul  in  this  world  pre- 
serves it  for  eternal  life ".  Moreover,  if  the  con- 
demned doctrine  were  true,  the  Incarnation  would 
have  been  useless,  and  we  should  not  need  the  Resur- 
rection; and  those  who  are  the  most  holy  would  be 
the  most  wretched  of  all.  The  Bull  enjoins  on  all 
professors  of  philosophy  in  universities  to  expound 
for  their  pupils  the  true  doctrine  and  refute  the  false 
one.  To  prevent  such  errors  in  future,  the  Bull 
makes  it  obligatory  on  all  ecclesiastics,  secular  and 
regular,  in  holy  orders,  who  devote  their  time  to  the 
study  of  philosophy  and  poetry  for  five  years  after 
the  study  of  grammar  and  dialectic,  to  study  also 
theology  or  canon  law. 

Bullarium  Romanum  (Turin  ed.)  V,  601,  RATNALons,  Ann. 
ecd.  ad  an.  1513.  No.  91;  Denzinger-Stahl,  Enchiridion 
Symb.  et  definit.  (Freiburg,  1899)  173-174;  Hergenrotheh, 
Leonie  XIII  Regesla  (Freiburg,  1884)  1,369,  No.  5838;  Bijrck- 
HARDT,  77tc  Renaissance  in  Italy  (London,  1890)  541-550. 
M.    O'RiORDiVN. 

Apostolicity  is  the  mark  by  which  the  Church  of 
to-day  is  recognized  as  identical  with  the  Church 
founded  by  Jesus  Christ  upon  the  Apostles.  It  is  of 
great  importance  because  it  is  the  surest  indication 
of  the  true  Church  of  Christ,  it  is  most  easily  ex- 
amined, and  it  virtually  contains  the  other  three 
marks,  namely,  Unity,  Sanctity,  and  Catholicity. 
Kithcr  the  word  "  Christian  ",  or  "  Apostolic  ",  might 
be  used  to  express  the  identity  between  the  Church  of 
to-day  and  the  primitive  Church.  The  term  '•  Apos- 
tolic "  is  |)rcferred  because  it  indicates  a  correlation  be- 
tween Christ  and  llu;  Ajmstles,  showing  the  relation  of 
theChurch  both  tdCluist,  t  lie  founder,  and  to  theApos- 
tles,  upon  whom  He  loundod  it.  "Apostle"  is  one  sent, 
a  messenger;  in  the  present  instance.  Apostle  is  one 
sent  by  the  authority  of  Jesus  Chri.st  to  continue  His 
Mission  vipon  earth,  especially  a  member  of  the  origi- 
nal band  of  teachers  known  as  the  Twelve  Apostles. 
Therefore  the  Church  is  called  Apostolic,  because  it 
was  fotinded  by  Jesus  Christ  upon  the  Apostles. 
Apostolicity  of  doctrine   and   mission    is   necessary. 


Apostolicity  of  doctrine  rcnuires  that  the  deposit  ot 
faith  committed  to  the  Apostles  shall  remain  un- 
changed. Since  the  Church  is  infallible  in  its  teach- 
ing (.see  Inf.\llibility),  it  follows  that  if  the  Church 
of  Christ  still  exists  it  must  be  teaching  His  doctrine. 
Hence  Apostolicity  of  mission  is  a  guarantee  of 
Apostolicity  of  doctrine.  St.  Irena?us  (Adv.  Ha>res, 
IV,  xxvi,  n.  2)  says:  "Wherefore  we  must  obey  the 
priests  of  the  Church  who  have  succession  from  the 
Apostles,  as  we  have  shown,  who,  together  with 
succession  in  the  episcopate,  have  received  the  cer- 
tain mark  of  truth  according  to  the  will  of  the 
Father;  all  others,  however,  are  to  be  suspected, 
who  separated  themselves  from  the  principal  succes- 
sion ",  etc.  In  explaining  the  concept  of  Apostolicity, 
then,  special  attention  must  be  given  to  Apostolicity 
of  mission,  or  Apostolic  succession. 

Apostolicity  of  mission  means  that  the  Church  is 
one  moral  body,  possessing  the  mission  entrusted 
by  Jesus  Christ  to  the  Apostles,  and  transmitted 
through  them  and  their  lawful  successors  in  an  un- 
broken chain  to  the  present  representatives  of  Christ 
upon  earth.  This  authoritati\-e  transmission  of 
power  in  the  Church  constitutes  Apostolic  succession. 
This  Apostolic  succession  must  be  both  material  and 
formal;  the  material  consisting  in  the  actual  suc- 
cession in  the  Church,  through  a  series  of  persons  from 
the  Apostolic  age  to  the  present;  the  formal  adding 
the  element  of  authority  in  the  transmission  of  power. 
It  consists  in  the  legitimate  transmission  of  the 
ministerial  power  conferred  by  Christ  upon  His 
Apostles.  No  one  can  give  a  power  which  he  does 
not  possess.  Hence  in  tracing  the  mission  of  the 
Church  back  to  the  Apostles,  no  lacuna  can  be 
allowed,  no  new  mission  can  arise;  but  the  mission 
conferred  by  Christ  must  pass  from  generation  to 
generation  through  an  uninterrupted  lawful  succes- 
sion. The  Apostles  received  it  from  Christ  and 
gave  it  in  turn  to  those  legitimately  appointed  by 
them,  and  these  again  selected  others  to  continue 
the  work  of  the  ministry.  Any  break  in  this  suc- 
cession destroys  Apostolicity,  because  the  break 
means  the  beginning  of  a  new  series  which  is  not 
Apostolic.  "How  shall  they  preach  unless  they  be 
sent?"  (Rom.,  x,  15).  An  authoritative  mission  to 
teach  is  absolutely  necessary,  a  man-given  mission 
is  not  authoritative.  Hence  any  concept  of  Apos- 
tolicity that  excludes  authoritative  union  with  the 
Apostolic  mission  robs  the  ministry  of  its  Divine 
character.  Apostolicity,  or  Apostolic  succession, 
then,  means  that  the  mission  conferred  by  Jesus 
Christ  upon  the  Apostles  must  pass  from  them  to 
their  legitimate  successors,  in  an  unbroken  line, 
until  the  end  of  the  world.  This  notion  of  Apos- 
tolicity is  evolved  from  the  words  of  Christ  Himself, 
the  practice  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  teaching  of  the 
Fathers  and  theologians  of  the  Church. 

The  intention  of  Christ  is  apparent  from  the  pas- 
sages of  Holy  Writ,  which  tell  of  the  conferring  of 
the  mission  upon  the  Apostles.  "As  the  Father 
hath  sent  Me,  I  also  send  you"  (John,  xx,21).  The 
mission  of  the  Apostles,  like  the  mission  of  Christ, 
is  a  Divine  mission;  they  are  the  Apostles,  or  am- 
bassadors, of  the  Eternal  Father.  "  All  power  is  given 
to  Me  in  heaven  and  on  earth.-  Going,  therefore, 
teach  ye  all  nations;  teaching  them  to  observe  all 
things  whatsoever  I  lia\e  commanded  you;  and 
behold  I  am  with  you  all  days,  even  to  the  con- 
summation of  the  world"  (Matt.,  xxviii,  IS).  This 
Divine  mission  is  alv.ays  to  continue  the  same,  hence 
it  must  te  transmitted  with  its  Divine  character  until 
the  end  of  time,  i.  c.  there  must  be  an  unbroken 
lawful  succession  which  is  called  .Vpostolicity.  The 
Apostles  understood  their  mission  in  this  sense. 
St.  Paul,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (x,  S-19), 
insists  upon  the  necessity  of  a  Divinely  established 
mission.     "  How  shall   they  preadi   unless   the.y  be 


APOSTOLICUM 


649 


APOSTOLICUM 


sent?"  (x,  15).  In  lii.s  Icttei-s  to  liis  disciples  Tiino- 
tliy  :iiiil  Titus,  St.  Paul  speaks  of  the  obligation  of 
presi'in  iiig  Apostolic  doctrine,  and  of  ordainnig  other 
ihsiipU's  to  continue  the  work  entrusted  to  the 
Apostles.  "Hold  the  form  of  sound  words,  which 
thou  luust  heard  from  me  in  faith  and  in  the  love 
which  is  in  Christ  Jesus"  (II  Tim.,  i,  13).  "And  the 
things  which  thou  hast  lieard  from  nie  by  many 
witnesses,  the  same  conunend  to  faithful  men,  who 
shall  Ik;  fit  to  teach  others  also"  (II  Tim.,  ii,  2). 
"  Kor  this  cause  left  I  thee  in  Crete,  that  tliou  shouldst 
set  in  order  the  things  that  are  wanting  and  shouldst 
ordain  priests  in  every  city,  as  I  al.so  appointi'd  tliee" 
(Titus,  i,  .5).  Just  luj  the  Apostles  transmitted  their 
mission  by  lawfully  appointing  others  to  the  work 
of  the  ministry,  so  their  successors  were  to  ordain 
priests  to  perpetuate  the  same  mission  given  by 
.lesus  Christ,  i.  e.  an  Apostolic  mission  must  always 
be  maintained  in  the  Cnurch. 

The  writings  of  the  I'^ithers  constantly  refer  to  the 
.\lX)stolic  character  of  the  doctrine  and  mission  of 
the  Church.  See  St.  Polycarp,  St.  Ignatius,  (Kpist. 
ad  Smyrn.,  n.  S),  St.  Clement  of  Ale.\.,  St.  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  St.  Athanasius  (History  of  Arianism), 
TertuUian  (Lib.  de  l'ra?scipt,  n.  32,  etc.).  We  quote 
a  few  examples  w-hich  are  typical  of  the  testimony 
of  the  Fathers.  St.  Irenieus  (.\dv  Hares.  IV,  xxvi, 
n.  2):  "Wherefore  we  must  obey  the  priests  of  the 
Church,  who  have  succession  from  the  Apostles," 
etc. — quoted  above.  St.  Clement  (Ep.  I,  ad.  Cor., 
■12-44):  "Christ  was  sent  by  God,  and  the  Apostles 
by  Christ.  .  .  .  They  appointeil  the  above-named 
and  then  gave  them  command  that  when  they  came 
to  die  other  approved  men  should  succeed  to  their 
ministry."  St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  76,  Ad  Magnum): 
"  Novatianus  is  not  in  the  Church,  nor  can  he  be 
considered  a  bishop,  because  in  contempt  of  Apos- 
tolic tradition  he  Wiis  ordained  by  himself  without 
succeeding  anyone."  Hence  authoritative  trans- 
mission of  [xjwer,  i.  e.  Ajxistolicity,  is  essential.  In 
all  theological  works  the  same  explanation  of  Apos- 
tolicity  is  found,  based  on  the  Scriptural  and  patristic 
testimony  just  cited.  Billuart  (III,  306)  concludes 
his  remarks  on  Apostolicity  in  the  words  of  St.  Je- 
rome. "We  must  abide  in  that  Church,  which  was 
founded  by  the  Apostles,  and  endures  to  this  day." 
Mazella  (De  Reli^.  et  EccL,  3.'j9),  after  speaking  of 
Apostolic  succession  as  an  uninterrupted  substitu- 
tion of  persons  in  the  place  of  the  Apostles,  insists 
upon  the  necessity  of  jurisdiction  or  authoritative 
transmission,  thus  excluding  the  hypothesis  that  a 
new  mi.ssion  could  ever  be  originated  by  anyone  in 
the  i)lace  of  the  mission  bestowed  by  Christ  and 
transmitted  in  the  manner  described.  Billot  (De 
Eccl.  Christi,  I,  243-275)  emphasizes  the  idea  that 
the  Church,  which  is  Apostolic,  must  be  presided 
over  by  bishops,  who  derive  their  ministrj'  and  their 
governing  (xiwer  from  the  Apostles.  Apostolicity, 
then,  is  that  .\postolic  succession  by  which  the 
Church  of  to-day  is  one  with  the  Church  of  the 
Apostles  in  origin,  doctrine,  and  mission. 

The  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  from  St.  Peter, 
the  first  Pontiff,  to  Pius  X,  the  present  Head  of  the 
Church,  is  an  evident  proof  of  its  Apostolicity,  for 
no  break  can  be  shown  in  the  line  of  succession. 
Cardinal  Newman  (Diff.  of  Anglicans,  360)  .says: 
"Say  there  is  no  church  at  all  if  you  will,  and  at  least 
I  shall  understand  you;  but  do  not  meddle  witli  a 
fact  attested  by  mankind."  Again  (393):  "N'o  other 
form  of  Christianity  but  this  present  Catholic  Com- 
munion lias  .-i  pretence  to  resemble,  even  in  the  faint- 
est shadow,  the  Christianity  of  antiquity,  viewed  as  a 
living  religion  on  the  stage  of  the  world;"  and 
again,  (;J!)5):  "The  immutability  and  uninterrupted 
action  of  the  laws  in  (luostion  throughout  the  course 
of  Church  historj-  is  a  plain  note  of  identity  between 
the  Catholic  Church  of^  the  first  ages  and  that  which 


now  goes  by  that  name."  If  any  break  in  the 
A|K>st<)lic  succession  had  ever  occurred,  it  could  i>e 
e:isily  shown,  for  no  fact  of  such  importance  could 
hapiKMi  in  the  historj'  of  the  world  without  attracting 
universal  notice.  Regarding  questioiLs  and  contests 
in  the  election  of  certain  [Kjpes,  there  is  no  real  diffi- 
culty. In  the  few  cases  in  which  controversies  arose, 
the  matter  was  always  settled  by  a  competent  tribu- 
nal in  the  Church,  the  lawful  Pope  was  proclaimed, 
and  he,  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  recei\ed  the 
Apostolic  mission  and  jurisdiction  in  the  Church. 
('lanc(uery.  III  446).  Again,  the  heretics  of  the 
early  ages  and  the  sects  of  later  times  have  attempted 
to  justify  their  teaching  and  practices  by  appealing 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church,  or  to  their 
early  communion  with  the  Catholic  Church.  Their 
apixsal  shows  that  the  Catholic  Church  is  regarded 
as  Apostolic  even  by  those  who  have  separated  from 
her  communion. 

Aiwstolicity  is  not  found  in  any  other  Church. 
This  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  unity  of  the 
Church.  (See  Church,  Unity  of  thk.)  If  there  is 
but  one  true  Church,  and  if  the  Catholic  Church,  as 
hivs  ju.st  been  shown,  is  Apostolic,  the  necessary  infer- 
ence is  that  no  other  Church  is  Apostolic.  (See 
above  quotations  from  Newman,  "Diff.  of  Angli- 
cans", 369,  393.)  All  sects  that  reject  the  Episco- 
pate, by  the  very  fact,  make  Apostolic  succession  im- 
po.ssible,  since  they  destroy  the  channel  through 
which  the  Apostolic  mission  is  transmitted.  His- 
torically, the  beginnings  of  all  these  Churches  can 
be  traced  to  a  period  long  after  the  time  of  Christ 
and  the  Apostles.  Regarding  the  (ireek  Church, 
it  is  sufficient  to  note  that  it  lost  Apostolic  succes- 
sion by  withdrawing  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
lawful  successors  of  St.  Peter  in  the  See  of  Rome. 
The  same  is  to  be  said  of  the  Anglican  claims  to  con- 
tinuity (MacLaughlin,  "Divine  Plan  of  the  Church", 
213;  and,  Newman,  "Diff.  of  Angl.",  Lecture  xii.) 
for  the  very  fact  of  separation  destroys  their  jurisdic- 
diction.  They  have  based  their  claims  on  the  valid- 
ity of  orders  in  the  Anglican  Church  (see  Anglican 
Ohdf.us).  Anglican  orders,  however,  have  been 
declared  invalid.  But  even  if  they  were  valid,  the 
Anglican  Church  would  not  be  Apostolic,  for  juris- 
diction is  essential  to  Apostolicity  of  mission.  A 
study  of  the  organization  of  the  Anglican  Church 
shows  it  to  l>e  entirely  different  from  the  Church 
established  by  Jesus  Christ. 

Wn.HtLM  AM)  .ScANNri.,  Manual  of  Calh.  Theol.,  3cl  o<l. 
(Lonilon  ami  N.  Y..  190(1),  I,  ii;  II,  v:  Nkwman.  Difl.  of 
An{jlu:ans  and  Apologia:  -MArl.ACGnLlN,  The  Dinne  Plan  of 
the  Church  (London,  1901);  Smahii'm,  Poinit  of  Conlrovrrtu 
(New  York.  isrw).  Lecture  IV;  Hcntf.b,  Oullinet  of  Dog- 
malic  Theoloau,  I.  3f..5-.370:  Bii.i.or,  De  Eccl.  ChnMi,  I.  243; 
Mazzei,i.a,  De  licliffione  el  EccL,  550;  Tanqi^ery,  Theolog. 
Fund,,  III.  442;  iluiiTER,  Theoloffitr  Dogmatica  Compendium 
\,  315;  WiL.MEHs.  De  Chritti  Eccl..  570;  Prani.  Pro'lectiunrt 
Doamal.,  I,  239-242;  Moork,  Trarrtt  of  an  Irish  (Imlleman  m 
Search  of  a  Religion  (London.  18.33);  Milncr.  The  End  of 
Religious  Controversy  (lx>ndon,  181.S,  and  many  later  editions). 

TiioM.\s  C.  O'Reilly. 

ApostoUcum  Pascendi  Mtmus,  a  Bull  issued  by 
Clement  XIII,  12  January.  1765,  in  defence  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  again.st  the  attacks  made  upon  it. 
It  relates  that  both  privately  and  publicly  the  So- 
ciety was  the  object  of  much  calumny.  On  the  other 
hanil,  the  Society  w,is  the  subject  of  praise  on  the 
part  of  bishops  for  the  useful  work  its  members  were 
doing  in  their  dioce.ses.  To  confirm  this  approval, 
and  to  counteract  the  calumnies  which  had  been 
spreading  throughout  different  countries,  the  Pope 
confirms  the  Society  as  it  was  originally  constituted, 
approves  its  end.  its  method  of  work,  and  whatever 
.sodalities  its  members  have  under  their  charge. 

liuWirium  Romanum  (.continuation,.  III,  38  .-uiq.;  Uavignan, 
CUment  XIII  cl  CU-ment  .MV  (Paris.  1S54>;  The  JesuiU. 
Their  Foundation  and  History  (Ixjndon.  1879).  II,  210-12; 
De  Villecoukt,  Vit  de  Saint  Liguori,  II,  179.  180. 

M.    O'RiORDAN. 


APOTACTICS 


650 


APPEAL 


Apotactics  (from  Gr.,  d^oTda-o-oMai,  to  renounce), 
the  acllicrcnts  of  a  lieresy  wliich  sprang  up  in  the 
tliinl  centurj'  and  spread  through  the  western  and 
southern  parts  of  Asia  Minor.  What  little  we  know 
of  this  obscure  sect  we  owe  to  the  writings  of  St. 
Epiphanius.  He  tells  us  that  they  called  themselves 
.\potactics  (i.  e.  renunciators)  because  they  scrupu- 
lously renounced  all  private  property;  they  also 
affected  the  name  of  Apostolics,  because  they  pre- 
tended to  follow  the  manner  of  life  of  tlie  Apostles. 
The  saint  regards  them  as  a  branch  of  the  Tatians, 
akin  to  the  Encratites  and  the  Cathari.  "Their 
sacraments  and  mysteries  are  different  from  ours; 
they  pride  themselves  upon  extreme  poverty,  bring 
divisions  into  Holy  Church  by  their  foolish  super- 
stitions, and  depart  from  the  divine  mercy  by  refus- 
ing to  admit  to  reconciliation  those  w-ho  have  once 
fallen,  and  like  those  from  whom  they  have  sprung, 
condemn  marriage.  In  place  of  the  Holj'  Scriptures, 
which  they  reject,  they  base  their  heresy  on  the 
apocryphal  .\cts  of  Andrew  and  Thomas.  They  are 
altogether  alien  from  the  rule  of  the  Church".  .\t 
the  time  when  St.  Epiphanius  wrote,  in  the  fourth 
century,  they  had  become  an  insignificant  sect,  for 
in  refuting  them  he  says:  "They  are  found  in  small 
groups  in  Phrygia,  Cilicia,  and  Pamphylia,  whereas 
the  Church  of  God,  according  to  Christ's  promise, 
has  spread  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  if  marriage 
is  an  unholy  thing,  then  they  are  doomed  to  speedy 
extinction,  or  else  tliey  must  be  born  out  of  wedlock. 
If  they  are  born  out  of  wedlock,  then  they  themselves 
are  impure.  .\nd  if  they  are  not  impure,  although 
bom  in  wedlock,  then  marriage  is  not  impure.  .  .  . 
The  Church  praises  renouncement,  but  does  not 
condemn  marriage;  she  preaches  poverty,  but  does  not 
intolerantly  inveigh  against  tliose  wlio  possess  prop- 
erty inherited  from  their  parents  with  which  they 
support  themselves  and  assist  the  poor;  many  in  the 
cliurch  abstain  from  certain  kinds  of  food,  but  do 
not  look  with  contempt  upon  those  who  do  not  so 
abstain. "  St.  Basil  mentions  these  heretics  in  his 
Epistles.  He  gives  them  the  name  of  ' ATroTaKTirai 
(Apotactites)  and  says  that  they  declared  God's 
creatures  defiled  (inqxiinaiam).  Tliey  are  also  briefly 
mentioned  by  St.  Augustine  and  by  St.  John  Damas- 
cene. They  were  condemned  in  the  Code  of  Theodo- 
sius  the  Great  as  a  branch  of  the  Manichjeans. 
St.  Epiphanius,  H(et.,  in  P.  G.,  XLI,  1040  sqq. 

B.  GULDNER. 

Apotheosis  (Gr.  dinSjfrom,  and  6ebw,  deify),  deifica- 
tion, the  exaltation  of  men  to  tlie  rank  of  gods. 
Closely  connected  with  the  universal  worship  of  the 
dead  in  the  history  of  all  primitive  peoples  was  the  con- 
secration as  deities  of  heroes  or  rulers,  as  a  reward  for 
bravery  or  other  great  services.  "  In  the  same  man- 
ner everj-  city  worshipped  the  one  who  founded  it" 
(Fustel  do  Coulanges,  The  Ancient  City,  III,  v). 
Because  of  the  theocratic  form  of  their  government, 
and  tlie  religious  cliaracter  which  sovereign  power 
assumed  in  their  eyes,  the  peoples  of  the  great  nations 
of  the  Orient— Persia,  Chaldea,  ICgypt — paid  divine 
honours  to  living  rulers.  Hero-worship  had  familiar- 
ized the  minds  of  the  Greeks  with  the  idea  that  a 
man  by  illustrious  deeds  can  become  a  god,  and  con- 
tact with  the  Orient  made  tliem  ready  to  accept  tlie 
grosser  form  of  apotheosis  Ijy  which  divine  honours 
were  olTcred  to  the  living"  (Hoi.ssier,  I. a  religion 
romame,  I,  112).  Philip  of  Macedon  wa.s  honoured 
as  a  god  at  .\mphipolis.  and  his  son,  .\lexander  tlie 
Great,  not  only  claimed  descent  from  the  gods  of 
KgJ'P'.  '>ut  decreed  that  he  should  be  worshipped  in 
the  cities  of  Greece  (Beuriier,  Do  divinis  honoribus 
auos  acceperunt  Alexander  et  succcs.sores  ejus,  p.  17). 
After  his  death,  and  probably  largely  a.s  the  result  of 
the  teaclungof  Kuhemerus.  that  all  the  gods  were 
deified  men,  the  custoiii  of  apotheosis  became  very 
prevalent    among    the    Greeks    (Dollinger,    Heideii- 


thum  und  Judenthum,  314  sqq.).  In  Rome  the 
way  for  the  deification  of  the  emperors  was  prepared 
by  many  historic  causes,  such  as  the  cult  of  the  manes 
or  the  souls  of  departetl  friends  and  ancestors,  the 
worsliip  of  the  legendary  kings  of  Latium,  the  Di 
Indigetes,  the  myth  that  Romulus  had  been  trans- 
jx)rted  to  heaven,  and  the  deification  of  Roman  sol- 
diers and  statesmen  by  some  of  the  Greek  cities. 
Tlie  formal  enrolment  of  the  emperors  among  the 
gods  began  with  Csesar,  to  whom  the  Senate  decreed 
divine  honours  before  liis  death.  Through  politic 
motives  Augustus,  though  tolerating  the  building  of 
temples  and  the  organization  of  priestly  orders  in 
his  honour  throughout  the  pro\-inces  and  even  in 
Italy,  refused  to  permit  himself  to  be  worshipped 
in  Rome  itself.  Though  many  of  the  early  emperors 
refused  to  receive  divine  honours,  and  the  senate,  to 
whom  the  right  of  deification  belonged,  refused  to 
confirm  others,  the  great  majority  of  the  Roman 
rulers  and  many  members  of  the  imperial  family, 
among  whom  were  some  women,  were  enrolled  among 
the  gods.  While  the  cultured  classes  regarded  the 
deification  of  members  of  the  imperial  family  and 
court  favourites  with  boldly  expressed  scorn,  em- 
peror-worship, which  was  in  reality  political  rather 
than  personal,  was  a  powerful  element  of  unity  in 
the  empire,  as  it  afforded  the  pagans  a  common  re- 
ligion in  which  it  was  a  patriotic  duty  to  participate. 
The  Christians  constantly  refused  to  pay  divine  hon- 
ours to  the  emperor,  and  their  refusal  to  strew  in- 
cense was  the  signal  for  the  tleath  of  many  martyrs. 
The  custom  of  decreeing  divine  honours  to  the  em- 
perors remained  in  existence  until  the  time  of  Gratian, 
who  was  the  first  to  refuse  the  insignia  of  the  Sura- 
mus  Pontifex  and  the  first  whom  the  senate  failed 
to  place  among  the  gods. 

Preller,     Rbmische     Mytkologie,     770-796;  Boissier,     /.a 
religion     romaiiie,    I,    109-186;     Marquartit-Mom.msen,    ffti- 
mische-Staatsverwattung,  II,  731-740;  VI,  44.3-455;  Beurlif.r, 
Esaai  eur  le  culte  rendu  aux  empereurs  romnins  (Paris,  1890). 
P.iTRICK   J.    He.\LY. 

Apparitions.    See  Visions. 

Apparitor,  the  official  name  given  to  an  officer 
in  ecclesiastical  courts  designated  to  serve  the 
summons,  to  arrest  a  person  accused,  and,  in  eccle- 
siastico-civil  procedure,  to  take  possession,  physi- 
cally or  formally,  of  the  property  in  dispute,  in  order 
to  secure  the  execution  of  the  judge's  sentence,  in 
countries  where  the  ecclesiastical  forum,  in  its  sub- 
stantial integrity,  is  recognized.  He  thus  acts  as 
constable  and  sheriff.  His  guarantee  of  his  delivery 
of  the  summons  is  evidence  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
summoned  of  his  obligation  to  appear,  either  to 
stand  trial,  to  give  testimony,  or  to  do  whatever 
else  may  be  legally  enjoined  by  the  judge;  his  state- 
ment becomes  the  basis  of  a  charge  of  contumacy 
against  anyone  refusing  to  obey  summons.  The  new 
summary  form  of  procedure,  granted  by  Leo  XIII 
in  1880  to  the  bishops  of  Italy,  provides,  in  arti- 
cle XIV,  for  the  elimination  of  this  officer,  yet  nec- 
essary in  some  ecclesiastical  courts:  "Wherever  for 
the  summons  and  notifications  there  is  not  at  hand 
an  apparitor  of  the  court,  the  defect  may  be  suj)- 
plied  by  designating  a  reliable  person  who  shall 
certify  to  the  fact,  or  by  use  of  the  system  of  registry 
of  lettere,  where  this  prevails,  and  whereby  is  re- 
quired an  acknowledgment  of  delivery,  receipt,  or 
rejection."  This  is  in  force  likewise  in  the  foriii 
of  procedure  appointed  for  the  Church  in  the  United 
States. 

Deer.  Greg.  IX,  Lib.  II,  til.  XXVIII,  de  exec,  sent.;  Santi, 
Prizlecl.  hir.  can.,  ed.  Lkitner  (lliitisbon,  1898);  Pieranto- 
NEl.Li,  Praxis  fori  red.  (Umne,  1SS;5);  Dhoste-Messmeu, 
Canonical  Procedure  (New  York,  1880). 

R.  L.  BUKTSELL. 

Appeal  as  from  an  abuse  {.Ippcl  comme  d'abus) 
was  originally  a  recour.se  to  the  civil  forum  against 
the   usurpation   by   the  ecclesiastical   forum   of   the 


APPEAL 


651 


APPEAL 


rights  of  ciNnl  jurisdiction;  and  likewise  a  recourse 
to  the  ecclesiastical  forum  against  tlic  usurpation 
by  the  civil  forum  of  the  rights  of  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction. Thus  defined,  the  "appeal  as  from  an 
abuse"  was  in  itself  legitimate,  because  its  object 
was  to  safeguard  eiiually  the  rights  botli  of  the  State 
and  of  the  Church.  .\n  abu.se  would  l)e  an  act  on 
either  hand,  witliout  due  authority,  beyond  the  limits 
of  their  respective  ordinary  and  natural  juri.silictioiis. 
The  canons  (can.  "  Dilccto",  in  bk.  VI  of  Decretals, 
"  De  sent,  exconi.",  in  ch.  vi)  did  not  exclude  a  re- 
course to  the  ci\il  authority  when  the  acts  of  an  ec- 
clesiastical judge  invaded  the  domain  of  the  civil 
authority,  especially  .<is  reciprocity  gave  tlie  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority  the  right  to  re])el  with  the  same  weapons 
anv  usurpation  by  the  lay  judge  to  the  ilainage  of  the 
rightji  of  the  Church.  Thus  also  a  recourse  to  the  su- 
preme civil  ruler  w;is  not  deemeil  ami.ss  when  an  ec- 
clesiastical court  undertook  a  cause  belonging  to 
the  competency  of  a  liigher  ecclesiastical  court,  and 
the  ruler  was  asked  (can.  "  Placuit "  in  Decree  of 
(iratian,  Pt.  II,  Q.  I,  ch.  xi)  merely  to  forward  it 
to  the  proper  tribunal  without,  however,  claiming 
to  delegate  to  it  any  jurisdiction.  Perhaps  the  first 
formal  manifestation  of  this  appeal  in  the  legitimate 
sense  occurred  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The 
ecclesiastical  judges  hail  ac<iuireil  a  reputation  for 
greater  learning  and  equity,  and  by  tlie  good  will 
of  the  State,  not  merely  ecclesiastical,  but  many 
civil  cases  of  the  laity  were  ailjudicated  by  them. 
In  1329  complaint  was  brought  to  King  Philip  de 
Valois  by  the  advocate  general,  Peter  de  Cugnidres, 
that  the  civil  tribunals  were  fast  lapsing  into  con- 
tempt, and  were  being  abamlonetl.  The  purport  of 
the  complaint  was  to  restrict  the  competency  of  the 
ecclesiastical  tribunals  to  their  own  legitimate  fields. 
Bickerings  between  the  two  forums  were  henceforth 
frefiuent.  ICven  the  Catholic  states,  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century,  advanced  far  in 
the  way  of  frequent  ruptures  with  the  Church. 
When  the  Protestant  states  in  the  new  revolution 
had  acquired  control  and  supervision  over  the  newly 
reformed  bodies  even  in  their  spiritual  relations,  the 
Catholic  states,  particularly  France,  strove  to  limit 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  xs  far  :us  they  coulil 
without  ciusting  .aside  the  profes-sion  of  the  Catholic 
Faith.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  was  a  serious  ag- 
gression by  France  upon  the  acknowleilged  rights 
of  the  Church  and  of  the  Holy  See.  It  is  in  France 
that  we  find  the  most  flagrant  series  of  encroach- 
ments upon  Church  juristliction,  through  pretence 
of  appeals  as  from  an  abuse,  gradually  tending  to  the 
elimination  of  the  ecclesiastical  forum.  During  the 
se\enteenth  century  the  French  clergy  presented 
frequent  memorials  against  the  encroachments  made 
by  their  kings  and  parliaments  through  constant 
recourse  to  these  "  ap|)eals  as  from  an  al)use",  which 
resulted  in  submitting  to  civil  tribun:ds  questions  of 
definitions  of  faith,  the  proper  administration  of  the 
sacraments,  and  the  like.  This  brought  confusion 
into  the  regulation  of  spiritual  matters  by  encourag- 
ing ecclesiastics  to  rebel  against  their  lawful  eccle- 
siastical superiors.  The  lay  tribunals  undertook  to 
adjudicate  .as  to  whether  the  ministers  of  the  sacra- 
ments hail  a  right  to  refuse  them  to  those  ileemetl 
unworthy,  or  the  right  to  Christian  burial  of  Catho- 
lics dj-ing  impenitent  or  under  Church  cen.surcs; 
whether  interdicts  or  suspensions  were  valid;  whether 
monastic  profes-sions  should  be  annulled;  whether 
the  bishops  permi.ssion  was  necessary  for  preaching; 
whether  a  specified  marriage  was  contrary-  or  not  to 
the  Gospel;  and  also  to  decide  the  justice  of  canonical 
privations  of  benefices.  Many  other  subjects  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  teaching  of  tlie  Church 
were  brought  before  lay  tribunals,  and  unappealable 
decisions  rendered  in  o|)en  contradiction  to  the 
canons,   as  can  easily  be  surmised  both   from  the 


absence  of  theological  knowledge,  and  from  the 
\'isible  animus  shown  in  decisions  that  undertook 
to  subject  the  spiritual  fxjwer  of  the  Church  to  the 
dictates  of  transient  iwlitics.  A  Catholic  govern- 
ment should  respect  the  ecclesiastical  canons.  This 
evil  interference  was  mostly  on-ing  to  courtier- 
canonists  who  flattered  the  secular  rulers  by  dwelling 
uix)n  the  right  of  protection  over  the  Church  will- 
ingly conceded  in  early  tlays  to  the  Christian  Homaii 
Emperors.  It  is  true  that  the  latter  were  occasionally 
called  guardians  of  the  canons,  and  that  they  ofleii 
embodied  these  canons  with  tlie  civil  legislation  of 
the  Empire  (see  Constantinople,  Justinia.n.  Nn- 
Moc.tNo.v).  Tliis  did  not  mean,  however,  that  the 
Emperors  were  the  source  of  the  binding  jxiwcr  of 
the  canons,  which  was  recognized  as  inherent  in 
the  pope  and  bishops  as  successors  to  the  ix)wer  of 
the  .\postles  to  bind  and  loose,  but  that  the  duty 
of  a  CatlK)lic  empire  was  to  aid  in  the  enforcement 
of  the  ecclesiastical  laws  by  the  cixtI  authority. 
The  Churcli  was  recognized  as  autonomous  in  all 
things  of  the  divine  law  and  in  matters  of  ecdesiiu-.ti- 
cal  discipline.  We  find  the  oecumenical  couucil^ 
appealing  to  the  emperors  to  put  into  force  tliiir 
decrees  about  the  Faith,  though  no  one  should  inlir 
from  tliis  that  the  emperors  were  recognized  :i^ 
judges  of  the  faith.  So,  likewise,  when  Justinian 
inserts  ecclesiastical  disciplinary  decrees  in  the 
civil  code  he  ex|)lains  (Novella,  xlii):  "we  have 
thus  decreed,  following  tlie  canons  of  the  holy 
Fathere."  When  rulers  like  Charlemagne  seemed 
to  take  upon  themselves  undue  authority,  insisting 
upon  certain  canons,  the  bishops  claimed  their  sole 
right  to  govern  the  Church.  Even  in  mixed  as- 
semblies of  bishops  and  nobles  and  princes,  the 
bishops  insisted  tliat  the  civil  power  should  not 
encroach  upon  the  rights  of  the  Cliurch,  e.  g.  in  the 
Council  of  Narbonne  (788).  Zaccaria  (Dissert;iz. 
28)  did  not  hesitato  to  recognize,  however,  that  in 
his  day  (the  eighteenth  century),  as  well  as  in 
former  ages,  the  Catholic  rulers  of  Catholic  States, 
in  their  quality  of  protectors  of  the  Church,  might 
receive  a  recourse  from  ecclesiastics  in  ecclcsiasticd 
matters,  in  order  that  justice  might  be  done  them 
by  their  ordinary  ecclesiastical  judges,  not  as  deputies 
of  the  civil  nilers,  but  as  ordinary  judges  in  tlieir 
own  forum.  In  her  concordats  with  Catholic  states 
the  Churcli,  in  view  of  the  changed  circumstances 
of  society,  has  granted  to  several  tnat  the  civil  cases 
of  clerics,  and  such  as  concern  the  property  and  tem- 
poral riglits  of  churches,  as  well  as  Ijenefices  and 
other  ecclesiastical  foundations,  may  be  brought  ite- 
fore  the  civil  courts.  Nevertheless,  all  ecclesiastical 
causes  and  those  which  concern  the  Faith,  the  .sacra- 
ments, morals,  sacred  functions,  and  the  rights  con- 
nected with  the  sacre<l  ministry,  belong  to  the 
ecclesiastical  forum,  both  in  regard  of  persons  and 
of  matter  (cf.  Concordat  with  Ecuador  in  1881).  In 
the  United  States,  as  decreed  by  the  Council  of  Balti- 
more (18.37),  the  church  law  is  that  if  any  ecclesiast ical 
person  or  member  of  a  religious  bodv,  male  or  female, 
should  cite  an  ecclesiastic  or  a  religious  before  a  civil 
court  on  a  question  of  a  purely  ecclesiastical  nature, 
he  sliouUl  know  that  he  falls  under  the  censures 
decreed  by  canon  law.  The  Congregation  of  Propa- 
ganda in  Its  comment  explaine<l  that,  in  mixed  casl^s. 
where  the  persons  may  be  ecclesiastical,  but  the 
things  about  which  there  is  question  may  be  temporal 
or  of  one's  household,  this  rule  cannot  be  enforced, 
especially  in  countries  in  which  the  civil  govern- 
ment is  not  in  the  hands  of  Catholics,  and  where, 
unless  recourse  is  had  to  the  civil  courts,  there  is  not 
the  means  or  the  power  of  enforcing  an  ecclesiastical 
decision  for  the  protection  or  recovery  of  one's  own. 
A  s|x>cial  proviso  was  made  by  Propaganda  for  the 
I'nited  States  (17  .August,  1886),  that  if  a  priest 
should  bring  a  cleric  before  a  civil  tribunal  on  an 


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652 


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ecclesiastical  or  other  question  without  pennission 
from  the  bishop  he  could  be  forced  to  withdraw  tlie 
case  by  the  infliction  of  penalties  and  censures,  yet 
the  bishop  mast  not  refuse  the  permission  if  the 
parties  have  ineffectually  attempted  a  settlement 
before  him.  If  the  bishop  is  to  be  cited,  the  per- 
mission of  the  Holy  See  is  required.  By  a  special 
declaration  of  Propaganda  (6  September,  1886),  a 
cleric's  transfer  of  a  claim  to  a  layman  for  the 
purpose  of  evading  the  censures  is  checked  by  the 
requirement  of  the  consent  of  the  bishop  to  such 
transfer,  if  made  for  the  purpose  of  the  suit.  Justice 
Redfield  (in  vol.  XV,  Am.  Law  Reg.,  p.  277,  quoted 
mth  approval  in  vol.  XCVIII  of  Penn.  Rep.,  p.  213) 
says  in  reference  to  the  United  States  generally:  "The 
decision  of  ecclesiai^tical  courts  or  officers  having,  by 
the  rules  or  laws  of  the  bodies  to  which  they  belong, 
jurisdiction  of  such  questions,  or  the  right  to  decide 
them,  ^^^ll  be  held  conclusive  in  all  courts  of  the  civil 
administration,  and  no  question  involved  in  such  de- 
cisions will  be  revised  or  reviewed  in  the  civil  courts, 
except  those  pertaining  to  the  jurisdiction  of  such 
courts  or  officers  to  determine  such  questions  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  or  the  usage  of  the  bodies  they  repre- 
sent." Justice  Strong,  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States,  in  his  lecture  on  the  "Relations  of  Civil 
Law  to  Church  Policy"  (p.  41),  speaks  of  the  Church  as 
"an  interior  organization  within  a  religious  society", 
and  adds  (p.  42),  "I  think  it  may  be  safely  asserted 
as  a  general  principle  that  whenever  questions  of  dis- 
cipline, of  faith,  of  Church  rule,  of  membership,  or 
of  office,  have  been  decided  by  the  Church,  in  its 
own  modes  of  decision,  civil  law  tribunals  accept 
these  decisions  as  final  and  apply  them  as  made." 
Zaccaria,  Disaertazioni  di  storia  ecclesiaslica  (Rome, 
1841);  Affre,  Traite  des  appels  comme  d'abus  (Paris,  1844); 
Nussi,  Conventionea  inter  S.  Sedem  et  Civilem  Poteatatem 
(Mainz,  1870);  D'AviNO,  Enciclopcdia  delV  ecdeaiaslico  (Turin, 
1878);  ANDRi-WAC3NER,  Diet,  de  droit  canon.  (3d  ed.,  Paris, 
1901),  s.  v.;  Desmond,  Church  and  Law  (Chicago,  1898). 

R.  L.  BURTSELL. 

Appeals. — The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  give 
a  comprehensive  view  of  the  positive  legislation  of 
the  Church  on  appeals  belonging  to  the  ecclesiastical 
forum;  but  it  does  not  treat  of  the  nature  of  the 
ecclesiastical  forum  itself  nor  of  the  rights  of  the 
Church  and  its  supreme  head,  the  pope,  to  receive 
appeals  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  For  these  and 
other  similar  questions  see  Pope,  Primacy,  Coun- 
cils, G.\LLicANisM,   Ecclesiastical  Forum. 

I.  Definition,  Kinds,  and  Effects. — An  appeal 
b  "a  legal  application  to  a  higher  authority  for 
redress  against  an  injury  sustained  through  the  act 
of  a  lower  authority."  The  lower  authority  is  called 
judex  a  quo  (judge  appellee);  the  higher  authority, 
judex  ad  quern  (appellate  jvidge  or  court).  Appeals 
are  judicial  and  extrajudicial.  A  judicial  appeal  is 
one  made  against  such  acts  as  are  performed  by  the 
lower  authority,  acting  in  the  official  capacity  of 
judge  at  any  stage  of  the  judicial  proceedings. 
Hence  a  judicial  appeal  is  not  only  one  taken  from 
a  final  sentence,  but  such  is  also  an  appeal  taken 
from  an  interlocutory  sentence,  viz.  from  a  sentence 
given  by  the  judge  before  pronouncing  the  final 
judgment.  An  extrajudicial  appeal  is  one  made 
against  acts  performed  by  the  inferior  authority 
when  not  acting  as  judge,  such  as  for  instance  a 
bishop's  order  to  build  a  school,  the  election  of  a 
candidate  to  an  office,  and  the  like.  Every  appeal, 
when  admissible,  has  an  cITect  called  devolutive 
(appellalio  in  devolutivo),  consisting  in  this,  that 
through  the  law  there  devolves  on  the  appellate 
judge  the  right  to  take  cognizance  of,  and  also  to 
decide,  the  case  in  question.  Appeals  have  often 
also  a  siLspensivc  cfTect,  which  consists  in  suspend- 
ing the  legal  force  of  a  judgment  or  an  order  so  tliat 
the  judge  a|)pcllce  is  prevented  from  taking  any 
further  action  in  llie  case  unless  his  action  tends  to 


favour  the  appellant  in  the  exercise  of  his  right  of 
appeal. 

II.  Appeals  in  Church  History. — ^The  ri^ht 
of  appeal  is  founded  on  the  law  of  nature,  which 
requires  that  a  subject,  bound  as  he  is  to  abide  by 
the  action  of  a  superior  liable  to  err,  should  be  sup- 
plied with  some  means  of  defence  in  ease  the  latter, 
through  ignorance  or  malice,  should  violate  the 
laws  of  justice. 

Accordingly,  the  sacred  canons  as  early  as  the 
first  oecumenical  council  allow  clerics  who  believe 
themselves  to  have  been  wronged  by  their  bishops 
to  have  recourse  to  higher  authorities  (Council  of 
Nice,  325,  can.  5).  In  the  same  century  and  in  the 
following  centuries  the  same  right  is  insisted  upon 
in  other  councils,  both  local  and  universal.  In  the 
East  mention  of  it  is  made  in  the  councils  of  Antioch 
(341,  c.  6,  11),  and  Chalcedon  (4.51,  can.  9).  In  the 
West  it  is  met  with  in  the  councils  of  Carthage  (390, 
can.  8;  397,  can.  10;  and  398,  can.  66),  Mileve  (can. 
22),  Vannes  (465,  can.  9),  Viseu  (442),  Orleans  (538, 
can.  20).  According  to  these  canons  the  court  of 
appeal  was  that  of  the  neighbouring  bishops  of  the 
provincial  synod;  and  there  is  mention  of  the  metro- 
politan with  the  other  bishops  in  documents  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries  (VIII  (Ecumenical  Coun- 
cil, 868,  c.  26;  Council  of  Frankfort,  794).  But  as 
the  provincial  councils  came  to  be  held  less  fre- 
quently, the  right  of  receiving  appeals  from  any 
bishop  of  a  province  remained  with  the  metropolitan 
alone;  a  practice  which  was  repeatedly  sanctioned 
in  the  Decretals  (c.  11,  X,  De  off.  ord.,  I,  31;  c.  66, 
X,  de  appell.,  II,  28),  and  has  never  since  been 
abandoned.  Though  the  right  of  appeal  was  never 
denied,  it  had  to  be  kept  within  the  proper  bounds 
in  order  that  what  was  allowed  as  a  means  of  just 
defence  should  not  be  used  for  evading  or  putting 
obstacles  to  the  administration  of  justice. 

In  this,  canonical  legislation  followed  several  of 
the  rules  laid  down  in  the  Roman  civil  law  (Corpus 
Juris  Civilis),  e.  g.  those  prescribing  the  limits  of  the 
time  available  for  entering  an  appeal  (Nov.  23,  C.  1; 
c.  32,  X,  De  elect.,  1,  6),  or  finishing  the  case  ap- 
pealed (1,  5,  De  temporibus  .  .  .  appellationum, 
c.  VII,  63).  'The  same  is  true  of  laws  excluding  cer- 
tain appeals  which  are  rightly  presumed  to  be  made 
for  no  other  reason  than  in  order  to  retard  the  execu- 
tion of  a  sentence  justly  pronounced  (1,  un.  C.  Ne 
liceat  in  una  eademque  causS.,  VII,  70;  c.  65,  X, 
De  appell.,  11,28). 

In  several  points,  however,  the  sacred  canons  were 
less  rigorous,  either  by  leaving  more  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  judge  appellee  in  cases  of  laws  intended 
for  his  benefit  or  interpreting  more  liberally  laws 
imposing  strictures  on  the  appellant  in  the  e-xercise 
of  his  right  (c.  2,  De  appell.  Clem.,  II,  12;  1,  24, 
c.  De  appell.,  VII,  62;  1,  un  D.  De  libellis  dimisso- 
riis,  XLIX,  (3).  Moreover,  if  abuses  crept  in,  they 
were  checked  by  the  sacred  canons,  as  appears  from 
the  enactments  of  popes  and  councils  of  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  embodied  in  the  authentic 
collections  of  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici",  in  the 
title  "De  appellationibus".  Thus  we  see,  in  1181, 
the  Third  Lateran  Council  (c.  26,  X,  De  appell.,  II, 
28)  forbidding  subjects  to  appeal  from  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  and  at  the  same  time  preventing  bishops 
and  other  prelates  from  taking  undue  measures 
against  their  subjects  when  the  latter  were  about  to 
use  their  right  of  appeal.  Again,  in  1215,  we  see  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council  (c.  13,  De  off.  ord.,  I,  31) 
insisting  that  appeal  should  not  interfere  with  bishops 
while  taking  legal  action  for  correcting  or  reforming 
morals. 

These  and  other  similar  wise  regulations  were 
enforced  again  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  22,  c. 
7,  De  reform;  c.  3,  De  appell.,  in  6).  Especially  did 
this  council  provide  that  tlie  regular  administration 


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653 


APPEALS 


of  :i  diocese  should  not  suffer  from  appeals.  Thus, 
besides  forbidding  (Sess.  22,  c.  1,  De  ref.)  that  ap- 
peals should  suspend  the  execution  of  orders  given 
for  the  reformation  of  morals  and  correction  of 
abuses,  it  mentioned  explicitly  several  acts  of  pas- 
toral administration  which  were  not  to  be  hani|5ered 
by  appeals  (c.  5,  Sess.  7,  De  ref.;  c.  7,  8e.ss.  21,  l)e  ref.; 
c.  18,  Sess.  24,  Dc  ref.),  and  it  ordained  that  appeals 
should  not  interfere  with  decrees  made  by  a  bishop 
while  visiting  his  diocese  (c.  10,  Se.ss.  24,  De  ref.). 
Moreover,  in  order  to  protect  the  authority  of 
local  ordinaries,  it  prescribed  that  if  cases  of  ap- 
jjeals  of  a  criminal  nature  had  to  be  turned  over  to 
judges  outside  tlie  Roman  Curia  by  ptmtifical  au- 
thority, they  should  be  delegated  to  the  metropolitan 
or  to  the  nearest  bishop  (c.  2,  Sess.  13,  De  ref.). 
Finally,  this  council  provides  that  api^eals  should  not 
cause  minecessary  delays  in  the  course  of  a  trial, 
where  it  forbade  (as  the  Roman  law  had  done)  ap- 
peals from  interlocutory  sentences,  admitting  only 
a  few  necessary  e.xceptions  (c.  I,  Sess.  13,  De  ref.; 
c.  20,  Sess.  24,  De  ref.).  The  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  and  other  pontifical  laws,  framed  for  the 
purpose  of  reconciling  freedom  of  apjical  with  the 
prompt  exercise  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  in  matters 
admitting  of  no  delay,  were  too  important  to  be 
allowed  to  go  into  desuetude,  and  were  embodied 
by  Benedict  XIV  in  his  constitution  "Ad  militantis", 
30  March,  1742. 

After  this  brief  reference  to  the  main  sources  of 
the  laws  concerning  ecclesiastical  appeals — tlie 
"  Corpus  Juris  Canonici  ",  the  "  Corpus  Juris  Civilis  ", 
the  Council  of  Trent,  the  Const.  "Ad  militantis", — 
it  only  remains  to  mention  the  Instruction  of  11  June, 
18S0,  sent  to  the  Italian  hierarchy  by  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  containing 
rules  for  a  sununary  procedure  (also  in  the  matter 
of  appeals)  to  be  used  by  bishops  in  trying  criminal 
cases.  This  same  Instruction  with  a  few  changes 
was  sent  a  few  years  later  by  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Propagantla  to  the  hierarchy  of  the  Lnited 
States  of  North  America.  In  the  following  para- 
graplis  we  shall  refer  to  these  two  documents  by 
calhng  them  respectively  Instr.  Sacra,  and  Instr. 
Cum  mniin(>i)ere. 

III.  I'ltESE.VT  Legislation. — 1.  Persons  possess- 
ing the  right  of  appeal.  The  right  of  appeal  is 
granted  to  all,  except  such  as  are  excludecl  by  the 
law.  The  law  excludes:  (1)  Those  who  have  re- 
nounced their  riglit,  either  expressly,  or  tacitly,  for 
instance  by  not  appealing  withm  the  prescriljcd  time. 

(2)  Those  who  have  been  condemned  in  their  ab- 
sence,  when  such  absence  was  due  to  contumacy. 

(3)  Whoever  has  disregarded  the  rights  granted  by 
the  law  to  his  adversary,  while  the  appeal  of  the 
latter  was  pending.  (4)  Those  against  whom  three 
sentences  (all  in  the  very  s!ime  ciuse)  have  been 
passed.  (5)  Those  who  besides  having  confe.ssed 
their  crime  in  court  have  been  also  fully  convicted 
by  legal  proofs.  (6)  The  party  who  of  liis  own  ac- 
cord chose  to  have  his  case  settled  by  means  of  the 
proof  called  juramentum  litis  dccisorium  (decisive 
oath).  (7)  Excommunicated  persons  are  forbidden 
to  appeal  from  exlrnjudicial  acts;  though,  unlc^s-s  they 
are  rilandi  (sec  Excommumcation),  their  apjx;al 
can  be  admitted  if  in  court  nobody  objects;  and 
moreover,  all,  even  the  vitandi,  are  admitted  when 
their  contention  is  that  their  excommunication  was 
invalid,  and  in  a  few  more  ca.ses  in  which  equity  or 
the  common  good  requires  that  they  should  be 
heard. 

2.  Cases  in  which  appeals  are  admitted — Ap- 
peals are  admitted  in  all  cases  not  excepted  by  the 
law.  The  law  admits  no  appeal:  (1)  When  the 
crime  is  evidently  notorious.  (2)  .Vgainst  an  intcr- 
lociilori/  sentence  or  order,  except  in  the  following 
cases:    (a)     when    the    interlocutory    judgment    is 


equivalent  to  a  final  sentence,  because  it  is  such 
that  a  final  sentence  cannot  be  expected,  for  instance 
when    the   judge   admits    a    perenjptory    exception; 

(b)  when  such  interlocutory  decision  or  onler  takes 
place  during  a  trial  which  admits  no  appeal  from 
its  final  sentence,  as  happens  in  the  ease  of  one  against 
whom    two    sentences    nave    already    been    passed; 

(c)  when,  in  general,  the  injury  is  such  that  it 
cannot  Ix!  remedied  by  the  final  sentence  or  by  an 
appeal  from  the  final  sentence,  as  is  the  case  when 
the  penalty  inflicted  is  such  that  no  further  action 
can  annul  its  elTects.  To  distinguish  the  inter- 
locutory sentences  under  (a)  from  those  under  (b) 
and  (c),  the  former  will  be  called  quasi-final  sen- 
tences, and  the  latter  purely  interlocutory  sentences. 

(3)  From   an    invalid   sentence    (see    below,    7-A). 

(4)  From  sentences  pronounced  ex  injormatA  con- 
scientid.  (.'))  In  cases  settled  by  transaction 
(compromise),  or  decided  by  arbitrators  to  whom 
the  parties  had  of  their  own  accord  referred  the 
settlement  of  their  disputes.  (6)  Whenever  the 
appeal  is  evidently  a  frivolous  one,  being  altogether 
groundless. 

3.  When  appeals  have  a  su.'ipensive  effect.  —  In 
cases  not  excepted  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  the 
general  rule  is  tliat  judicial  appeals,  besides  having 
the  devolutive  effect  common  to  all  appeals,  have 
also  a  suspensive  effect.  Some  authors  hold  the 
same  principle  with  regard  to  extrajudicial  appeals, 
and  base  their  assertion  on  c.  10,  De  appell.,  in 
sexto  (II,  15)  and  on  c.  51,  52,  X,  De  appell.  (II,  2S). 
Others  deny  that  an  extrajudicial  appeal,  as  such, 
has  a  suspensive  effect,  because  it  is  not  an  appeal 
properly  so  called,  but  they  hold  that  it  has  this 
effect  as  a  provocatio  ad  causam  (a  legal  application 
for  a  cause  or  suit).  Hence  extrajudicial  appeal  has 
this  suspensive  effect  only  while  the  cause  or  suit 
is  pending,  that  is,  from  the  time  when  the  appellate 
judge  admits  the  appeal  and  begins  to  examine  the 
case  {Ut  lite  pendente  nihil  innovetur,  Decretals  of 
Gregory  IX,  Book  II,  tit.  10)  But  neither  judicial 
nor  extrajudicial  appeals  have  a  suspensive  effect 
in  cases  expressly  excepted  by  the  law.  Accord- 
ingly:— 

(1)  .\n  appeal  has  no  suspensive  effect  (a)  when 
it  is  taken  from  any  act  which  inflicts  a  censure 
proix?rly  so  called  (viz.,  a  censure  having  the  char- 
acter of  a  medicinal  punishment),  depriving  a  cleric 
of  benefits  of  a  spiritual  character;  (b)  if  the  ap- 
peal is  entered  after  the  censure  has  already  been 
incurred.  Hence  this  prohibition  does  not  ex- 
tend: (a)  to  a  declaration  of  a  censure;  (b)  nor  to 
a  censure  inflicted  as  a  vindicative  punishment;  (c) 
nor  to  a  censure  depriving  a  cleric  of  benefits  of  a 
temporal  character,  such  as  a  suspension  from  his 
right  to  a  salarj-;  (d)  nor,  finally,  to  the  ease  when  the 
censure  either  has  only  been  threatened,  or  it  has 
been  inflicted  conditionally,  and  the  condition  under 
which  it  would  be  incurred  has  not  yet  been  verified. 
(2).  .\n  appeal  has  also  only  a  devolutive  effect 
when  the  judge  appellee  has  acted  in  virtue  of  powers 
granted  to  him  with  the  clause  appellalionc  rcmolii, 
provided  the  case  is  not  one  of  those  expressly  men- 
tioned by  the  law  as  admitting  an  appeal.  In  the.se 
cases  the  appeal  may  have  also  a  sus[>ensive  effect. 
(3).  Appeals  have  no  suspensive  effect  in  the  cases 
laid  down  in  the  Const.  "Ad  militantis"  of  Benedict 
XIV.  With  regard  to  this  document  the  following 
points  are  worthy  of  notice:  (a)  This  constitution 
does  not  contain  new  laws,  but  only  confirms  already 
existing  enactments  and  restores  them  to  their 
former  vigour,  if  olwolete  (§  48).  (b)  In  the  cases 
which  it  enumerates  it  forbids  in  general  that  ap- 
peals should  have  a  suspensive  effect,  but  it  does 
not  do  away  with  the  devolutive  effect,  unless  a 
ca.se.  even  according  to  the  preceding  legislation, 
would  admit  of  no  appeal  at  all  (§  38).      (c)  Not 


APPEALS 


654 


APPEALS 


even  the  suspensive  effect  is  forbidden,  where,  in 
matters  referred  to  in  this  constitution,  the  preced- 
ing legislation  allowed  it.  Thus  it  has  been  au- 
thoritatively declared  that  if  a  bishop,  whetlier  in 
performing  his  diocesan  visitation  or  in  taking 
me;isures  for  correcting  morals  at  any  other  time, 
proceeds  against  a  cleric  judicially,  the  appeals  from 
sucli  judicial  acts  have  a  suspensive  effect  [Decrees 
of  Clement  VIII,  16  October,  1600,  n.  x-iii;  Sacred 
("ongreg.  of  the  Council,  reported  by  Pallottini  (Col- 
lect io  Decretonira  S.  C.  C.  vol.  LI,  Appellatio,  §  I, 
im.  OS  sq.)  ].  Besides  these  universal  laws,  there 
may  be  particular  enactments  forbidding,  with  the 
sanction  of  the  Holy  See,  suspensive  appeals  (Third 
Plenarj'  Council  of  Baltimore,  n.  286). 

4.  The  Appellate  Judge.  (1)  The  appellate  judge 
must  belong  to  a  higher  court  than  that  of  the  judge 
appellee.  Hence  no  appeal  is  possible  from  the 
pope  or  an  oecumenical  council.  From  the  Roman 
Congregations  appeals  properly  so  called  are  not 
admitted.  Again,  one  cannot  appeal  to  a  bishop 
from  his  vicar-general  acting  as  ordinary,  because 
when  acting  as  such  the  vicar-general  is  an  official 
not  judicially  distinct  from  the  bishop;  nor  can  one 
appeal  to  a  metropolitan,  either  from  bishops  exempt 
from  metropolitan  jurisdiction  or  from  bishops  act- 
ing in  virtue  of  powers  conferred  upon  them  only  as 
delegates  of  the  Apostolic  See.  (2)  Moreovei',  an 
appeal  has  to  be  taken  to  the  judge  who  is  imme- 
diately superior  to  the  judge  appellee,  except  when 
this  immediate  superior  is  unable,  physically  or 
morally,  to  receive  the  appeal,  and  also  when  the 
appellant  wishes  to  appeal  to  the  pope's  repre- 
sentative (a  legate,  or  a  nuncio,  or  a  delegate 
apostolic  having  the  power  of  a  legate)  or  directly 
to  the  Holy  See  (that  is,  to  the  Sacred  Congreg.  of 
the  Propaganda,  from  missionary  countries;  to  the 
Sacred  Congreg.  of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Af- 
fairs from  South  America  and  countries  subject  to 
this  Congregation;  and,  from  any  other  country,  to 
the  Congregation  competent  in  the  matter  in  ques- 
tion). However,  the  Holy  See  does  not  always 
admit  appeals  in  cases  not  yet  tried  on  first  appeal 
before  the  metropolitan. 

According  to  this  rule:  (a)  From  a  bishop  and, 
during  the  vacancy  of  a  see,  from  the  vicar-capitular 
or  administrator  the  appeal  has  to  be  made  to  the 
metropolitan,  (b)  From  the  sentence  passed  by 
a  metropolitan  in  second  instance  the  appeal  has  to 
be  made  either  to  the  Holy  See  or  to  its  representative 
as  alx)ve.  The  same  holds  good  for  an  appeal  taken 
from  the  sentence  pronounced  by  a  metropolitan  in 
first  instance,  unless,  by  privilege,  appeal  is  allowed 
to  the  nearest  metropolitan  (Third  Plen.  Council  of 
Baltimore,  n.  316).  In  the  case  of  a  metropolitan 
subject  to  a  patriarch  possessing  patriarchal  rights, 
the  court  of  appeal  from  the  metropolitan  will  be 
the  court  of  the  patriarch,  (c)  From  a  legate  or 
a  papal  representative  having  tlie  power  of  a  legate, 
no  appeal  lies  except  to  the  Holy  See.  (d)  In  the 
case  of  a  sentence  passed  by  a  judge  acting  in  virtue 
of  delegated  jurisdiction,  the  appeal  has  to  be  made 
to  the  judge  by  whom  the  jurisdiction  was  dele- 
gated. 

•").  The  Appeal  itself. — A.  Time.  For  entering  an 
appeal  the  peremptorj  term  of  ten  days  is  allowed, 
after  whicli  term  the  appeal  is  not  admitted.  In 
judicial  cases  the  ten  days  are  counted  from  the  time 
wluMi  the  sentence  was  pronounced,  if  the  party  was 
there  present,  or  from  the  moment  when  tlie  party 
knew  of  it,  if  the  sentence  was  passed  in  his  al)sence. 
Tlie  liuslr.  Sacra  and  Cum  mat/nopere  coimt  the  ten 
d.iys  from  the  moment  when  an  official  written 
notification  of  the  sentence  was  given  to  the  party, 
la  cxirajulicial  cases  the  ten  days  begin  from  the 
time  whi'U  the  appellant  becomes  aware  of  the  wrong 
done    lo    him.— B.   .Manner.     (1)  The   ap|>cal    must 


te  made  in  writing  except  when  a  judicial  appeal 
is  entered  in  court  immediately  after  the  sentence 
has  been  pronounced,  in  whit^h  case  it  may  be  made 
by  word  of  mouth.  (2)  When  the  appeal  is  in 
writing,  it  is  necessary  to  state  who  the  appellant 
is,  from  what  sentence  or  order  he  appeals,  and 
against  whom  the  appeal  is  directed,  iloreover,  it 
is  customary  to  insert  the  names  of  the  judge  ap- 
pellee and  of  the  appellate  judge.  When  the  appeal 
is  made  by  word  of  mouth  it  is  sufficient  to  express 
clearly  the  act  of  appealing  to  a  higher  court  by 
saying,  "I  appeal  ",  or  using  similar  words.  (3)  The 
reason  of  the  complaint  ought  to  be  stated  in  af)- 
peals  from  a  purely  interlocutory  sentence  or  from 
extrajudicial  acts;  out  it  is  not  necessarj'  to  express 
it  in  judicial  appeals  from  final  or  quasi-final  sen- 
tences; the  reason  is  that  in  the  former  case  the 
judge  appellee  may  himself  at  once  modify  or  set 
aside  his  former  decision  or  order,  wh.ereas  in  the 
latter  case  he  is  not  allowed  to  change  his  sentence. 
(4)  The  appeal  ougtit  to  be  interposed  in  the  presence 
of  the  judge  appellee,  unle-ss  the  appellant  is  pre- 
vented by  fear  or  some  other  obstacle  fr^m  having 
access  to  him,  in  which  case  the  appeal  ought  to  be 
interposed  in  presence  of  the  appellate  judge;  and 
should  this  also  be  difficult,  the  appellant  should  go 
before  some  trustworthy  persons,  or  before  a  notarj' 
and  two  witnesses,  and  have  a  document  drawn  up 
with  a  statement  that  the  appellant  has  declared 
his  will  in  their  presence  on  account  of  difficulties 
that  prevented  him  from  going  before  either  of  the 
two  judges.  In  either  case  the  judge  appellee  should 
be  notified  of  the  appeal.  (5)  The  judge  appellee 
must  on  the  appellant's  request  furnish  him  with 
letters  called  Apostoli,  in  which  he  notifies  the 
appellate  judge  that  the  appeal  has  been  duly  en- 
tered, and  with  a  copy  of  all  the  acts  of  the  case, 
to  be  forwarded  by  the  appellant  to  the  appellate 
court.  The  appellant  should  ask  for  these  lettei's 
within  thirty  days  (imless  the  term  was  shortened 
by  the  judge  appellee)  from  the  time  he  became 
aware  of  the  sentence  or  grievance,  and  if  he  fails 
to  do  this  the  law  presumes  that  he  has  renounced 
his  right  to  appeal.  The  appellant  having  received 
these  letters  must  gi\'e  them  to  the  appellate  judge 
within  the  time  established  by  the  judge  appellee. 
This  term  also  is  peremptory,  so  that  if  the  appel- 
lant fails  to  give  them  he  forfeits  his  right  as  before. 
According  to  the  Instr.  Sacra,  art.  39,  and  Cum 
magn.,  art.  38,  as  soon  as  the  appeal  has  been  en- 
tered, the  judge  appellee  has  to  forward  the  entire 
original  acts  of  the  case  to  the  appellate  court.  In 
these  instructions  no  mention  is  made  of  the  A po.st<ili . 
or  letters  containing  the  certificate  of  appeal.  Hence 
the  appellant  is  not  required  to  ask  for  them,  and 
corLsequently  there  can  be  no  question  of  the  per- 
emptory term  of  thirty  days  a\ailable  for  demand- 
ing them,  nor  of  the  next  peremptory-  term  for 
presenting  them.  On  the  other  hand,  in  keeping 
with  the  same  instructions,  the  appellate  judge, 
having  received  the  acts  and  taken  cognizance  of 
the  appeal,  has  to  notify  the  appellant  that  within 
twenty  days  (according  to  the  In.<:tr.  Sacra,  art.  40). 
or  thirty  days  (according  to  the  Instr.  C\im  magn.. 
art.  39)  he  mast  appoint  his  counsel,  to  be  approved 
by  the  same  appeil.'ite  judge;  and  tliis  term  is  per- 
emptory, so  that  it  the  appellant  does  not  make  the 
said  appointment  in  time  the  appellate  judge  will 
formally  jironouncc  the  right  of  appeal  to  be  for- 
feited.— C.  Judgment  on  the  admusailyility  oj  the 
appeal.  The  appellate  judge,  on  receiving  the  said 
documents,  must,  before  trying  the  case,  examine 
whether  the  appeal  is  legitimate;  hence  he  sho\ild 
make  sure:  (a)  that  the  case  is  not  one  of  tho.se 
in  which  appeal  is  not  permitted;  (b)  that  the  ap 
pellant  is  not  one  of  those  |x?rsons  excluded  by  the 
law;   (c)  that  he  has  apjjealed  witliin  the  prescribed 


APPEALS 


655 


APPEALS 


time;  (d)  that  there  arc  sufficient  grounds  for  tlie 
appeal. — D.  Inhibilions.  Once  the  appellate  judge 
has  ascertained  that  the  ap|K'llaiit  has  legitimately 
appealed,  and  that  the  ap|je:il  is  not  one  of  those 
that  have  only  a  devolutive  ctTect,  he  has  the  riglit 
to  send  to  the  judge  ap|x?llee  letters  called  in- 
hibitory, forbidding  him  to  take  further  action  in 
the  case. — K.  AltcrUules.  Finally,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  appellate  judge  to  reverse  what  are  called 
attentates  {aticntdla),  if  there  are  any;  by  which 
term  is  meant  whatever  (in  the  case  of  an  appeal 
having  a  suspensive  cITect)  the  judge  appellee  may 
have  done  preivulicial  to  the  api)eal  during  the  time 
when  his  jurisdiction  was  suspended.  —  F.  Withdrawal 
of  the  appeal.  Prior  to  the  time  when  the  api)ellate 
court  begins  to  try  the  ease,  the  appellant  is  allowed 
by  the  law  to  withdraw  his  ai)peal,  even  if  the  ap- 
pellee does  not  con.sent.  Once,  however,  the  appellate 
court  has  begun  to  try  the  case,  the  appellant  is  no 
longer  free  to  renounce  his  appeal  luilcss  the  appellee 
agrees  to  it. — O.  Juilgment  of  the  case  oil,  appeal. 
The  appellant  having  done  what  is  required  on  his 
part  for  introducing  his  appeal,  the  appellate  judge 
allows  him  a  li.xed  time  for  presenting  whatever  he 
wishes  to  allege  in  his  own  favour,  and  at  the  same 
time  notifies  the  ap|x;llee  of  the  admission  of  the 
appeal  and  of  the  term  granted  to  the  appellant. 
In  this  trial  the  law  tioes  not  allow  new  actions,  that 
is,  claims  which  are  dilTerent  from  the  main  point 
at  issue  in  the  first  instance  and  which  would  rather 
constitute  a  new  controversy  not  yet  tried  by  the 
judge  ap|iellee.  In  an  apixiid  from  a  final  or  quasi- 
final  sentence  the  judge  is  allowed  to  admit  new 
evitlence,  whether  to  prove  what  was  already  alleged 
but  not  sufficiently  proved,  or  to  prove  a  new  allega- 
tion, provided  this  has  a  close  bearing  on  the  main 
|M)int  at  issue  in  the  first  trial  and  is  not  equivalent 
to  a  new  action;  the  same  right  should  be  granted 
to  the  appellee  in  his  reply.  In  an  appeal  from  a 
purely  interlocutory  sentence  new  evidence  is  not 
alloiied,  and  the  court  in  forming  its  decision  must 
confine  itself  to  the  evidence  deduced  from  the  acts 
of  the  first  trial.  The  formalities  to  l)c  ol),served 
in  the  trial  of  the  case  on  ap[)eal  do  not  differ  from 
those  of  the  first  instance.  The  ca.se  ought  to  be 
tried  and  finished  within  one  year  from  the  time 
when  the  appeal  was  interposed,  or  within  two  years 
where  there  is  sufficient  cause  for  delay.  If  the 
appellant  through  his  own  fault  does  not  prosecute 
his  appeal  during  this  time  he  will  !«  considered  as 
having  abandoned  his  appeal.  This  time  fixed  by 
law  cannot  be  shortened  by  the  apiiellate  court 
except  for  some  rea.son  of  common  good,  nor  can 
it  be  extended  except  with  the  consent  of  both 
parties.  The  sentence  by  which  the  second  in- 
stance is  ended  mu.st  contain  a  declaration  as  to 
the  justice  or  injustice  of  the  previous  judgment, 
by  which  declaration  that  judgment  is  confirmed 
or  reversed. 

6.  .Appeals  to  the  Roman  Congreijatinns. — In  ap- 
|»als  to  the  Roman  Congregations,  substantially  the 
same  rules  are  olxserved.  Within  the  peremptory  term 
of  ten  days  the  appellant  must  intor)xi.se  his  appeal 
lx>fore  the  judge  appellee,  who  will  inunodiatelv  send 
the  acts  of  the  process  to  the  ("<)ngreg;ition.  liefore 
the  case  is  discus.sed  in  the  Congregation,  a  judge- 
referee  (ordinarily  one  of  the  cardinals)  is  appointed, 
whose  duty  is  to  report  the  ca-se  to  the  Congregation 
for  decision.  lie  fixes  the  day  when  the  Congrega- 
tion will  consider  and  decide  the  case.  Before  this 
day  comes,  the  judge-referee  and  the  cardinals  re- 
ceive a  summarj-  of  the  acts  of  the  whole  case  to- 
gether with  the  written  defences  prepared  l)y  the 
lawyers  or  procurators  of  the  parties.  Those  lawyers 
and  procurators  are  also  allowed  to  explain  bv  word 
of  mouth  their  written  information.  .\t  tlie  a|>- 
pointed  day  the  case  is  proposed  to  the  Congrega- 


tion, and  decided  by  it,  after  the  cardinals  have  heard 
the  report  of  the  judge-referee.  The  decision  has 
the  force  of  a  judicial  .sentence.  Against  it  there  is 
no  true  appeal;  but  the  Cungregation  grants  another 
means  of  redress  called  bemficium  nova:  audientioe 
(the  Ix'nefit  of  a  new  hearing).  Should,  however,  the 
Congregation  add  to  its  decision  the  words  et  amplius 
(a  clau.se  meaning  that  the  case  should  not  be  pre- 
sented again),  it  is  more  difhcult  to  obtain  a  new 
hearing,  which  is  granted  only  for  new  and  very 
strong  reasons.  Finally,  when  the  time  within  which 
the  petition  for  a  new  hearing  must  be  presented  has 
elapsed  without  the  petition  having  been  made,  or 
when  a  new  hearing  is  not  granted,  the  Congregation, 
on  request  made  by  the  parties,  will  forward  to  them 
a  rescript  containing  an  ofiicial  communication  of 
the  sentence.  Cases  are  sometimes  tried  in  the  Ro- 
man Curia  in  a  simpler  form  (aconomica).  This  is 
done  for  the  sjike  of  the  parties,  whose  expenses  are 
thas  reduced,  since  in  this  kind  of  process  they  are 
not  reijuired  to  have  lawyers,  but  whatever  can  be 
alleged  in  support  of  their  rights  is  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  cardinals  in  a  report  officially  drawn 
up,  and  to  this  report,  in  more  important  eases,  is 
added  the  opinion  of  two  consultors  of  the  Con- 
gregat  ion. 

7.  Meatis  of  redress  available  where  appeals  are 
not  admitted. — A.  Querela  tiullHatis  (Complaint  of 
mdlity).  -Against  a  sentence  which  is  invalid  the 
legal  remedy  is  not  appeal,  which  is  made  only 
against  an  unjust  sentence,  but  the  complaint  of 
nullity.  This  complaint  of  nullity  differs  from  the 
apjMjal  in  the  following  points:  (a)  It  can  be  pro- 
posed within  thirty  years,  nay,  indefinitely,  if  the 
sentence  be  such  tliat  its  enforcement  happens  to 
be  an  occasion  to  sin  (such  as  would  be  the  sentence 
treating  as  valid  a  marriage  contracted  with  an 
impediment  which  cannot  be  removed  by  the  con- 
sent of  the  parties),  (b)  One  is  allowed  to  make 
this  complaint  to  the  same  judge  who  pa.ssed  the 
sentence,  unless  this  judge  has  Ix^en  delegated  for  a 
particular  case,  (c)  It  has  no  suspensive  effect, 
unless  the  nullity  is  evident.  B.  lie.stilutio  in  in- 
tegrum (Restoration  to  the  original  condition). 
When  one  has  failed  to  lodge  an  apj)eal  within  the 
time  prescribed,  and  this  has  hapi)ened  because  it 
was  imfx).ssil)le  for  him  to  act,  the  law  grants  what 
is  called  restitutio  in  integrum.  This  restilutio  is,  in 
general,  that  remedy  by  means  of  which  one  who 
has  suffered  damage,  because  prevented  from  acting, 
is  reinstated  by  a  judge  in  the  condition  in  which 
he  Wius  before  the  damage  took  place.  (See  Com- 
mentators on  the  Decretals.  Itook  I,  title  41.)  C.  Re- 
cursus  (Recourse).  In  all  cases  when  appeals  are 
forbidden,  one  can  make  use  of  the  remedy  called 
recursus.  which,  strictly  speaking,  is  an  act  by  which 
one  petitions  the  Holy  See  to  grant  him  redress  in 
a  case  in  which  the  law  does  not  recognize  the  right 
of  appeal.  This  recourse  differs  from  an  apjieal 
in  the  following  points:  (a)  it  is  an  extraordinary 
remedy;  (b)  it  can  be  granted  only  by  the  Holy 
See;  (c)  it  has  no  suspensive  effect. 

B.\ART,  Legal  FormxUary  (New  York),  nn.  442  sq.;  Droi^te- 
Mks,smf.r,  Canonical  Procedure  in  tHsciplinary  and  Criminal 
Cases  of  Clerics  {New  York),  nn.  105  sq.;  Smith  and  Chf.etham 
(non-Catholic),  A  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities  (Harl- 
foril,  1877).  8.  V.  Appeal:  Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical 
Laic  (New  York.  1893),  1,  nn.  44i  mi.;  II,  nn.  1207  sq.;  Smith. 
The  Sew  Procedure  (New  York,  1888).  nn.  427  sq.;  Andre- 
Waoneh,  Dictionnaire  de  droit  canonique  (Paris,  1901).  s.  v. 
Appeal;  Bonx,  De  ludiciis  Ecclesiasticis  (Pari?.  1800).  II. 
24r):  De  Angei.I.s,  Prtrtectiones  Juris  Canonici  (Rome.  1877- 
91).  Hook  II,  tit.  28:  Fekiiaris,  Bibliolheca  Canonica  (Rome. 
188.5-99),  s.  V.  Appellatio:  CloSAC,  Compendium  I uris  Canonici 
(Quetiec.   1903),   II.  nn.   1013.  !<q.;   Leca,   De  Iiuliciis  Eccles- 


nslicts  (Rome,  1890-1901).   1.  nn.  014  sq.;  Ojirrrl.  Sunopsis 
■  iri.   Pontificii   (Prato,    1904),    I.    "    " 
Pierantoselli,  Praxis  Eon  EccUsiastici  (Rome,  18831.   l.'iC: 


107; 


Reiffenstuei.,  Jus  Canonicum  Universum  (Pans.  1804-70), 
Book  II,  tit.  28. 

Hector  Papi. 


APPEALS 


656 


APPROBATION 


Appeals  in  the  African  Church.    See  Apiarius. 

Appellants.     See  J.vnsenism. 

Appetite  (ad.  to +  pctere,  to  seek),  a  tendency,  an 
inclination,  or  direction.  As  it  is  used  by  modern 
writers,  the  word  appetite  has  a  psychological  mean- 
ing. It  denotes  "an  organic  need  represented  in 
consciousness  by  certain  sensations.  .  .  .  The  appe- 
tites generally  recognized  are  those  of  hunger,  thirst, 
and  sex;  yet  the  need  of  air,  the  need  of  exercise,  and 
the  needof  sleep  come  under  the  definition."  The 
term  appetence  or  appetency  applies  not  only  to 
organic  needs,  but  also  in  a  general  manner  to 
"conations  which  find  satisfaction  in  some  positive 
state  or  result ";  to  "  conative  tendencies  of  all  sorts  ". 
(Baldwin,  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology, 
s.  V.  Appetite,  Appetence.)  For  the  schoolmen,  a/>- 
petitus  had  a  far  more  general  signification,  which  we 
shall  briefly  explain.  (References  are  to  St.  Thomas's 
works.)  Appetite  includes  all  forms  of  _  internal 
inchnation  (Summa  Theol.,  I-II,  Q.  viii,  a.  1; 
Quaest.  disputatae,  De  veritate,  Q.  x.xii,  a.  1). 
It  is  found  in  all  beings,  even  in  those  that  are  un- 
conscious. The  inclination  to  what  is  good  and 
suitable,  and  consequently  the  aversion  to  what  is 
evil — for  the  avoidance  of  evil  is  a  good — are  in- 
cluded in  it.  It  may  be  directed  towards  an  object 
that  is  absent  or  towards  one  that  is  actually  present. 
Finally,  in  conscious  beings,  it  is  not  restricted  to 
organic  needs  or  lower  tendencies,  but  extends  to  the 
highest  and  noblest  aspirations.  Two  main  kinds  of 
appetite  are  recognized  by  the  scholastics;  one 
unconscious,  or  naturalis;  the  other  conscious,  or 
elicilus,  subdivided  into  sensitive  and  rational.  From 
their  very  nature,  all  beings  have  certain  tendencies, 
affinities,  and  forms  of  activity.  The  term  natural 
appetite  includes  all  these.  It  means  the  inclination 
of  a  thing  to  that  which  is  in  accord  with  its  nature, 
without  any  knowledge  of  the  reason  why  such  a 
thing  is  appetible.  This  tendency  originates  imme- 
diately in  the  nature  of  each  being,  and  remotely 
in  God,  the  author  of  that  nature  (Qutest.  disp.,  De 
veritate,  Q.  xxv,  art.  1).  The  appctitus  elicitus 
follows  knowledge.  Knowledge  is  the  possession  by 
the  mind  of  an  object  in  its  ideal  form,  whereas 
appetite  is  the  tendency  towards  the  thing  thus 
known,  but  considered  in  its  objective  reality  (Qua?st. 
disp.,  De  veritate,  Q.  xxii,  a.  10).  But  as  knowl- 
edge is  of  two  specifically  different  kinds,  so  also 
is  the  appetite  (Summa  Theol.,  I,  Q.  Ixxx,  a.  2). 
The  appetitus  sensitivus,  also  called  animalis,  fol- 
lows sense-cognition.  It  is  an  essentially  organic 
faculty;  its  functions  are  not  functions  of  the  soul 
alone,  but  of  the  body  also.  It  tends  primarily  "to 
a  concrete  object  which  is  useful  or  pleasurable ", 
not  to  "the  reason  itself  of  its  appetibility ".  The 
appetitus  ralionalis,  or  will,  is  a  faculty  of  the  spiritual 
soul,  following  intellectual  knowledge,  tending  to  the 
good  as  such  and  not  primarily  to  concrete  olajects. 
It  tends  to  these  in  so  far  as  they  are  known  to 
participate  in  the  abstract  and  perfect  goodness  con- 
ceived by  the  intellect  (Qua-st.  disp.,  De  veritate, 
Q.  xxv,  a.  1).  In  the  natural  and  the  sensitive 
appetites  there  is  no  freedom.  One  is  necessitated 
by  the  laws  of  nature  itself,  the  other  by  the  sense- 
apprehension  of  a  concrete  thing  as  pleasant  and 
useful.  The  will,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  necessitated 
by  any  concrete  good,  because  no  concrete  good 
fully  realizes  tlie  concept  of  perfect  goodness  which 
alone  can  necessarily  draw  the  will.  In  this  is  to  be 
found  the  fundamental  reason  of  the  freedom  of  the 
will  (cf.  Qua-st.  (lisp.,  De  veritate,  Q.  xxv,  a.  1). 
The  .sensitive  appetite  is  divided  into  appetitus  con- 
cupuicibilix  and  appetitux  irri.icihilis,  according  as  its 
object  is  a]>preh('n<led  simply  as  good,  useful,  or 
pleasurable,  or  as  lj(>ing  obtainable  only  with  diffi- 
culty and  by  tlie  overcoming  of  obstacles  (Summa 
Theol.,  I,    Q.    Ixxxi,   a.    5;    q.    Ixxxii,   a.    .'5;    I-II, 


Q.  xxiii,  a.  1;  Quicst.  disp.,  De  veritate,  Q.  xxv, 
a.  2).  AU  tlie  manifestations  of  the  sensitive 
appetite  are  called  passions.  In  the  scholastic 
terminology  this  word  has  not  the  limited  significa- 
tion in  which  it  is  commonly  used  to-day.  There 
are  six  pa.ssions  for  the  concupiscible  appetite:  love 
and  hatred,  desire  and  aversion,  joy  and  sadness; 
and  five  for  the  irascible  appetite:  hope  and  despair, 
courage,  fear,  and  anger  (bumma  Theol.,  I-II,  Q. 
xxiii,  a.  4). 

In  man  are  found  the  natural,  the  sensitive,  and 
the  rational  appetites.  Certain  of  man's  natural 
tendencies  have  in  view  his  own  personal  interest, 
e.  g.  conservation  of  fife,  health,  physical  and  mental 
welfare  and  perfection.  Some  of  them  regard  the 
interest  of  other  men,  and  some  relate  to  God.  Such 
inclinations,  however,  although  springing  immediately 
from  human  nature,  become  conscious  and  deliberate 
in  many  of  their  determinations  (Summa  Theol., 
I,  Q.  Ix,  a.  3,  4,  5).  The  tendency  of  the  various 
faculties  to  perform  their  appropriate  functions  is 
also  a  natural  appetite,  but  not  a  distinct  faculty 
(Summa  Theol.,  I,  Q.  Ixxx,  art.  1,  ad  3;  Q.  Ixxviii, 
art.  1,  ad  3°"').  The  sensitive  appetite  in  man  is 
under  the  control  of  the  will  and  can  be  strengthened 
or  checked  by  the  will's  determination.  This  con- 
trol, however,  is  not  absolute,  for  the  sensitive 
appetite  depends  on  organic  conditions,  which  are 
not  regulated  by  reason.  Frequently,  also,  owing 
to  its  suddenness  or  intensity,  the  outburst  of  passion 
cannot  be  repressed  (Summa  Theol.,  I,  Q.  Ixxxi, 
a.  3;  I-II,  Q.  xvii,  a.  7;  Qusst.  disp.,  De  veritat«. 
Q.  xxv,  a.  4).  On  the  other  hand,  the  sensitive 
appetite  exerts  a  strong  influence  on  the  will,  both 
because  the  passions  modify  organic  conditions  and 
thus  influence  all  cognitive  faculties,  and  because 
their  intensity  may  prevent  the  mind  from  applying 
itself  to  the  higher  operations  of  intellect  and  will 
(Summa  Theol.,  I-II,  Q.  ix,  a.  2;  Q.  x,  a.  3; 
Q.  Ixxvii,  a.  1).  The  theory  of  appetite  has  various 
applications  in  theologj'.  It  affects  the  solution  of 
such  problems  as  man's  desire  for  God,  the  conse- 
quences of  original  sin,  and  the  perfection  of  Christ's 
humanity.  It  is  of  importance  also  in  questions 
concerning  the  natural  moral  law,  responsibility, 
virtue,  and  vice,  the  influence  of  passion  as  a  de- 
terminant of  human  action.  Among  the  medieval 
theologians,  St.  Thomas  held  that  intelligent  ('rea- 
tures  desire  naturally  to  behold  tlie  essence  of  God. 
The  knowledge  which  they  have  of  Him  through  His 
effects  serves  only  to  quicken  their  desire  for  imme- 
diate vision.  Scotus,  while  admitting  this  desire  as 
a  natural  tendency  in  man,  claimed  that  it  could  not 
be  realized  without  the  assistance  of  grace.  The 
discussion  of  the  problem  was  continued  by  the 
commentators  of  St.  Thomas,  and  it  has  been  re- 
vived by  modern  theologians.  Cf.  Sestili,  "De 
natural!  intelligentis  animae  appetitu  intuciidi  divinam 
essentiam"  (Rome,  1896). 

Mahkr,  Psychology  (4th  ed.,  London,  1900):  Mercier. 
Psychologie  (6th  ed..  Louvain,  1903);  Gardaiu,  I^s  passions 
et  la  volonli  (Paris,  1892);  cf.  also  Gardeu.  in  Dicl.  de  thiol, 
calh.,  s.  V.  Appitit. 

C.  A.  DUBBAY. 

Appianus,  Saint.    See  Aphi.\n. 

Approbation,  an  act  by  which  a  bishop  or  other 
lcgi(imate  superior  grants  to  an  ecclesiastic  the 
actual  exercise  of  his  ministry.  The  plenitude  of 
ecclesiastical  power  given  by  Christ  to  Ilis  .Vpostles 
resides  solely  in  the  bisliojis.  From  the  bishop, 
as  the  centre  of  the  Christian  community,  depend 
the  government  and  care  of  souls,  namely,  the  dis- 

Censing  of  doctrine  and  of  the  sacraments.  The 
elpers  with  whose  aid  the  bishop  exercises  his  pas- 
toral ministry  are  the  parish  priests,  their  vicars 
and  co-workers.  These  possess  the  power  by  virtue 
of  the  episcopal  delegation,   transmitted  by  means 


I 


APPROBATION 


057 


APPROBATION 


of  many  acts  differing  one  from  the  other.  Tiie 
permanent  capability  and  the  appointment  to  the 
service  of  the  Churcli  in  general  are  transmitted 
by  means  of  Holy  or<iers.  The  actual  appointment 
to  the  exercise  of  ministry  in  a  determined  sphere 
springs  from  tlie  conferring  of  an  ecclesiastical  office 
which,  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  Church,  is 
recognized  as  a  iiermanent  charge,  ami  hence  slioukl 
not  l)e  given  except  after  a  special  proof  of  fitness 
by  him  wlio  is  invested  therewith.  I'^ven  when  a 
priest,  by  Holy  orders  ami  appointment  to  a  cliarge, 
IS  made  capable  of  the  pastoral  ininistrj'  and  is 
a.-isigncd  to  it,  the  exerci.se  of  the  transmittetl  power 
still  depends  upon  the  will  and  faithfulness  of  tlio 
mandatory;  and  at  the  same  time  otiier  extensive 
variable  circumstances,  v.  g.  the  actual  situation 
of  the  Church  or  the  spirit  of  the  times,  may  deter- 
mine now  an  exlen.sion,  now  a  restriction,  and  at 
times  suspension  or  revocation  of  the  delegated 
power.  l''rom  this  it  follows  that,  besides  orders  and 
the  appointment  to  a  charge,  a  special  act  of  delega- 
tion is  necessary  for  the  actual  exercise  of  the  pa.s- 
toral  ministry.  Hence  the  word  approbation  is 
appropriate  to  keep  the  co-workers  of  the  bishop 
alert,  to  remind  them  of  their  dependence,  to  give 
the  bishop  greater  facility  to  excrci.se  his  right  of 
watchfulness,  ami  to  keep  each  one  within  the  proper 
hmits  of  his  jurisdiction.  The  absolute  necessity 
of  approbation,  especially  for  administering  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance,  was  expressly  decreed  by 
the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII,  XV,  De  ref.), 
so  that,  except  in  the  ca.se  of  imminent  death,  the 
absolution  by  a  priest  not  approved  would  be  in- 
valid. Tliis  approbation  for  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance  is  the  judicial  declaration  of  the  legitimate 
superior  that  a  certain  priest  is  fit  to  hear,  iind  has 
the  faculties  to  hear,  the  confession  of  his  subjects. 
The  (>)uncil  of  Trent,  quoted  above,  decrees:  "Al- 
though priests  receive  in  tlieir  ordination  the  power 
of  absolving  from  sins,  nevertheless  the  Holy  Synod 
ordains  that  no  one,  even  though  he  be  a  regular, 
is  able  to  hear  the  confessions  of  seculars,  not  e\en 
of  priests,  and  that  he  is  not  to  be  reputed  fit  there- 
imto,  unless  he  either  holds  a  parocliial  benefice  or 
is,  by  the  bisliops,  after  an  examination  if  they  shall 
think  it  necessary,  or  in  some  other  wav,  judged 
fit  and  has  obtained  their  approbation,  wliich  shall 
be  granted  gratuitously — any  privileges  and  custom 
whatsoever,  though  immemorial,  to  the  contrary 
notwitlistanding. "  This  is  the  basis  of  the  actvial 
discipline  everywhere.  Suarez  (De  Pten.,  disp. 
xx\'iii,  sect.  3,  tract,  xxi)  .says  that  before  tlie  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  a  parish  priest  by  law  could  validly  and 
lawfully  give  jurisdiction  to  any  priest  who  had 
the  proper  qualifications  of  the  natural  and  divine 
law  to  hear  c()nf<'ssioiis,  without  approbation  or 
jurisdiction  from  tlic  Ijisliop.  The  Council  of  Trent 
withdrew  tliis  by  its  requirement  of  the  approbation 
of  the  bishop.  .\  parish  priest  has  from  his  "paro- 
chial benefice"  the  implied  approbation  of  the  bishop 
anil  ortlinarj'  power  to  hear  the  confessions  of  his 
own  parisliioners,  even  outside  his  parish  or  diocese. 
By  bishop  is  meant  also  his  vicar-gcncral.  or  the 
vicar-capitular  or  administrator  during  the  vacancy 
of  a  see,  also  any  regular  prelate  having  ordinary 
jurisdiction  over  a  certain  territory.  Tiiis  appro- 
bation may  be  given  orally  or  in  writing,  ami  may  be 
given  indirectly,  as  when,  for  instance,  priests 
receive  power  to  choose  in  tlieir  own  diocese  an 
approved  priest  of  another  diocese  for  their  confes.sor. 
Tlie  bishop  may  wrongfully  but  valitlly  refuse  his 
approbation,  without  which  no  priest  may  hear 
confessions.  Approbation  cea.scs  at  the  time  fixed, 
by  revocation  of  the  bishop,  if  attached  to  a  benefice; 
by  the  loss  of  the  benefice;  also  by  censure,  if  inflicted 
publicly;  if  the  cen.sure  is  inflicted  privately,  the 
exercise  of  jurisdiction  is  unlawful  but  valid.     The 


pope  may  grant  this  jurisdiction  to  those  who  have 
the  es.sential  requirements  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
and  to  whomsoever  he  thinks  fit.  A  bishop  may 
grant  it  likewi.se  in  his  own  diocese,  and  superiors 
of  regulars  to  their  subjects.  Hy  custom  an  ap- 
proved priest  absolves  validly  in  any  part  of  the 
diocese  in  wliicli  he  is  approved.  Ai\  approved 
confes.sor  may  hear  the  confessions  of  tho.se  coming 
from  anotlier  diocese  who  come  in  gootl  faith,  and 
not  fraudulently  to  escape  the  reservations  of  their 
own  diocese.  .-\.n  approved  confes.sor  may  absolve 
from  the  ca-ses  "reserved"  in  another  diocese,  but 
not  from  tho.se  re.servetl  in  his  own  tlioce.se.  A  con- 
fessor's jurisdiction  may  be  restricted  to  various 
clas.ses  of  persons,  e.  g.  to  children,  or  to  men,  without 
the  right  to  hear  women.  A  special  appinljation 
is  required  to  hear  nuns  or  women  of  rcliguius  com- 
munities, and  this  extends  with  modifications  to 
all  connminities  of  recognized  sisterhoods.  A  con- 
fes.sor approved  for  one  convent  is  not  presumed 
to  be  approveil  for  all.  A  confessor  having  tem- 
porary juri.sdiction  for  "reserved  cases"  may  con- 
tinue to  exerci.se  it  in  any  case  begun  before  the  lap.se 
of  the  appointed  time.  The  priest  travelling  on 
the  high  seas,  if  he  be  approved  oy  his  own  onlinary, 
may  validly  hear  the  confessions  of  any  of  his  com- 
panions during  the  whole  journey,  even  if  from 
time  to  time  the  vessel  pvit  into  a  port  or  ports  out- 
side tlie  jurisdiction  of  said  ordinary  (S.  C.  Inq., 
4  April,  1900). 

Approbation  given  in  a  general  way  does  not 
cease  at  the  death  of  the  giver.  Approbation  may 
be  made  revocable,  and  restricted  to  a  place,  time, 
and  persons,  according  to  the  judgment  of  a  bishop. 
By  the  decree  quoted  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  regulars 
must  obtain  the  approbation  of  the  bishops  to  hear 
the  confessions  of^  seculars,  even  of  priests.  Tliis 
special  clause  was  in.scrted  to  put  an  eml  to  contro- 
versies that  had  arisen  from  privileges  granted  to  the 
regulars.  In  1215  the  Fourth  I^ateran  Council 
had  decreed  that  all  the  faithful  of  either  sex  who 
had  reached  the  use  of  reason  should  confess  to  their 
own  (parish)  priest  at  least  once  a  year.  If  any 
shoukl  wish  to  confess  to  another  priest,  permission 
should  be  olitained  from  their  own  priest;  otlierwise, 
the  ab.solution  sliould  be  void.  Shortly  after  this 
council  tlif  pop<'s  granted  many  privileges  to  the 
members  of  tlie  Franciscan  and  Dominican  Orders  of 
friars  lately  established,  and  exhorted  the  bishops  to 
allow  them  to  preach  in  public  squares  or  churches 
and  to  hear  confessions  in  their  dioceses.  Dis- 
sensions between  the  friars  and  the  secular  clergy 
brought  from  Honiface  VIII,  in  ll.'90,  an  edict 
requiring  a  request  to  tlie  bishop  that  certain  selected 
friars  should  receive  permission  to  hear  confessions. 
If  the  bishops  refused,  he  by  his  plenarj'  power 
authorized  the  friars  to  hear  confessions  to  the  same 
extent  as  the  pari.sh  priests.  Benedict  XI,  in  130-1, 
increa.sed  this  privilege,  but  Clement  V,  in  1311, 
restricted  the  privileges  to  those  granted  by  Boni- 
face VIII.  At  times  the  dissensions  and  disputes 
in  the  various  countries  of  Europe  between  the 
bishops  and  secular  priests  and  the  friars  be- 
came very  heated.  An  interesting  account  of  the 
extent  of  tliese  controversies  in  Kngland  and  Ireland 
occurs  in  tlie  "Catholic  University  Bulletin"  (.Xiiril. 
190.3,  19.")  sqq.),  which  gives  the  details  of  the  arraign- 
ment of  the  mendicant  friars  by  the  celebrated  Fitz- 
Ualpli,  .\rclibisliop  of  .Vrmagli,  in  1357,  before 
Innocent  VI  at  .\vignon.  The  Council  of  Trent 
undertook  to  remedy  these  troubles  by  restricting 
the  privileges  of  the  regulars,  mainly  in  those  things 
connected  with  the  care  of  souls  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  .sacrainents,  which  it  sought  to  replace 
directly  under  the  control  of  the  bishops,  The 
privileges  of  the  mendicant  friars  had  been  extended 
toother  orders;  in  particular,  to  the  Society  of  Jesus. 


APPROPEIATION 


658 


APPROPRIATION 


During  the  period  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  persecu- 
tion of  Catholics  an  arclipriest  was  appointed  by 
Rome  with  episcopal  authority  to  govern  the  secular 
priests  who  remained  in  Kngland.  By  decree  of 
Urban  VIII,  6  May,  1631,  regulars,  especially  Jesuits, 
were  exempted  from  liis  jurisdiction;  they  derived 
througli  tlieir  own  superiors  authority  from  the 
Pope  to  liear  confessions  and  to  administer  the 
other  sacraments.  Yet  for  elsewhere  Urban  VIII 
insisted  upon  the  legislation  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
as  is  shown  by  his  Bull  of  12  Sept.,  1628:  "We  recall, 
annul  from  all  colleges,  chapters,  religious  societies, 
even  the  Society  of  Jesus,  all  indults  to  hear  confes- 
sions without  examination  by  the  ordinary. " 
In  England  the  claim  was  made  that  the  arclipriest 
was  not  the  ordinary  in  a  canonical  sense.  This 
continued  even  after  the  Holy  See,  in  1623,  had 
appointed  as  vicar  Apostolic  a  bishop  who  should 
have  the  authority  of  an  ordinary.  Finally,  in  1688, 
four  vicars  Apostolic  were  appointed.  By  decree 
of  Innocent  Xll  (Constit.  80,  5  October,  1696)  "all 
regulars,  even  Jesuits  and  Benedictines,  were  to  be 
subject  to  the  vicar  in  wliose  district  they  were, 
for  approbation  with  regard  to  hearing  confessions, 
for  the  cure  of  souls  and  for  all  parochial  offices. " 
Some  doubts  arose  how  far  vicars  Apostolic  should 
be  entitled  to  the  rights  given  to  bishops  by  the 
Covmcil  of  Trent.  Benedict  XIV,  by  liis  Bull  "  Apos- 
tolicum  Ministerium"  drawn  up  for  the  Church 
in  England  (30  May,  1753),  sought  to  put  an  end 
to  these  controversies  by  declaring  that  "the  relig- 
ious in  accord  with  the  regulations  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  must  submit  themselves  to  the  examination 
and  receive  the  permission  of  the  ordinary  to  hear 
confessions  of  the  laity — all  missionaries  both  sec- 
ular and  religious  in  tlie  administration  of  the 
Sacraments  and  parochial  duty  to  be  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction,  visitation,  and  correction  of  their 
respective  vicars  Apostolic". 

Not  a  few  theologians  of  note  still  claim  that 
confessors  belonging  to  the  regular  orders  have 
jurisdiction  from  tlie  pope  over  the  faithful  gen- 
erally in  the  tribunal  of  penance,  the  approbation 
of  the  bishop  having  been  obtained.  These  seem 
to  hold  that  the  approbation  is  mainly  the  declara- 
tion of  the  bishop  that  a  priest  is  fit  to  hear  confessions. 
However,  it  is  well  to  note  the  definition  and  explana- 
tion of  approbation  given  by  Benedict  XIV  in  this 
Bull:  "Approbation  embraces  two  acts  of  which 
tlie  first  is  of  the  intellect  and  the  second  of  the  will. 
It  belongs  to  the  intellect  to  determine  that  the 
examined  priest  is,  because  of  the  proper  and  nec- 
essary knowledge,  fitted  for  the  office  of  hearing 
confessions.  It,  however,  belongs  only  to  the  will 
to  give  the  free  and  full  faculty  to  hear  confessions 
and  to  pass  judgment  upon  him  wlio  is  submitted 
to  the  approver.  The  first  is  done  by  the  examiner 
on  whose  fidelity  and  honesty  he  relies  who  gives 
the  faculty  to  hear  confessions  within  the  district 
a.ssigned  to  him.  Tlie  second  immediately  proceeds 
from  the  superior  himself  to  whom  it  belongs  to  grant 
tlie  faculty"  (§  8).  Regulars  certainly  derive 
their  jurisdiction  over  those  of  their  own  commu- 
nities and  permanent  households  through  their  own 
superiors,  independently  of  the  bishop.  This  privi- 
lege granted  by  the  Holy  See  is  probably  fovmded  on 
the  principle  that  the  superiors  of  regulars,  having 
an  office  or  cliarge  with  the  care  of  souls  annexed, 
should  have  ordinary  jurisdiction  over  their  subjects. 
(See  Religious  Ouders.) 

Bennlicli  XIV  Bullar.  (Prato,  1857);  also  his  De  Synodo 
diacemrui,  IX,  xvi,  7-9;  D'Avino,  Encu-topedia  deW  Erelrsiaa- 
tico  (Turin,  1878);  Fi.kuky,  Iliu.  Ecclea.,  V.  liks.  XXIX- 
XXXI;  Santi.  I'rirlccl.  jiir.  ran.  in  Drcret.  Greg.,  IX.  lil).  Ill, 
tit.  xxxvii;  Scavini,  Thral.  Mor.  Ill,  tract,  x.  ilisp.  i;  Orais- 
HON,  Man.jur.  can..  II,  JJk.  I.  Sect.  2.  p.  2;  Flanaoan,  Hist. 
Churrh  in  Englnnd  (I-omTni.  18.57),  I.  xxi;  Dodd,  }li»t.  Church 
in    England    (London,    1S30);    Laubentius,    /n»(.   jur.    cccl. 


(Freiburg,  190.3),  412-415;  Taotiton,  The  Law  of  the  Church 
(London,  1906),  44-46. 

R.  L.  BUUT.SELL. 

Appropriation,  in  general,  consists  in  the  attri- 
bution to  a  person  or  tiling  of  a  character  or  quality 
which  determines  in  a  special  way  this  person  or 
tiling.  In  theology,  appropriation  is  used  in  speak- 
ing of  the  different  Persons  of  the  Trinity.  It  con- 
sists in  attributing  certain  names,  qualities,  or  opera- 
tions to  one  of  the  Persons,  not,  however,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  others,  but  in  preference  tx)  the 
otliers.  The  quaUties  and  names  thus  appropriated 
belong  essentially  to  all  the  Persons;  yet,  according 
to  our  understanding  of  the  data  of  revelation  and 
our  theological  concepts,  we  consider  some  of  these 
characteristics  or  names  as  belonging  to  one  Person 
ratlier  than  to  anotlier,  or  as  determining  more 
clearly  this  particular  Person.  Thus  we  consider  the 
Father  as  particularly  characterized  by  omnipotence, 
the  Son  by  wi.sdom,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  by  love, 
though  we  know  that  the  three  have  essentially  and 
by  nature  an  equal  omnipotence,  wisdom,  and  love 
(cf.  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theologica,  I,  Q.  xxxix, 
a.  7;  Franzelin,  De  Deo  Trino,  Rouie,  1881, 
Th.  xiii,  216).  Appropriation  is  not  merely  arbi- 
trary; it  is  based  on  our  knowledge  of  the  Trinity, 
which  knowledge  has  its  sources  and  rules  in  Reve- 
lation (Scripture  and  tradition)  and  in  the  analo- 
gies which  our  reason  discovers  between  created 
things  and  persons  and  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity 
as  these  persons  are  represented  in  Revelation.  Of 
necessity,  we  understand  the  data  of  Revelation  only 
under  human  concepts,  that  is,  in  an  analogical  way 
(see  An.vlogy).  It  is,  therefore,  by  their  analogy 
with  creatures  and  created  relations  that  we  con- 
ceive the  different  Persons  of  the  Trinity  and  tlieir 
relations.  Each  Person  of  the  Trinity  is  presented 
to  us  with  a  proper  characteristic  which  is  the  con- 
stitutive element  of  the  personality.  Remarking,  as 
we  do  naturally,  that  among  creatures  certain  attri- 
butes, qualities,  or  operations  are  the  properties  of 
the  person  possessing  such  a  characteristic,  we  con- 
ceive the  Trinity  after  this  remote  suggestion,  though 
in  an  analogical  and  supereminent  way,  antl  we 
appropriate  to  each  Person  of  the  Trinity  the  names, 
qualities,  or  operations  winch,  in  creatures,  are  the 
consequences  or  properties  of  this  characteristic. 
Appropriation,  therefore,  has  its  source  in  revela- 
tion, and  it  has  its  foundation  and  rule  in  the  very 
characteristic  which  constitutes  each  distinct  per- 
sonality in  the  Trinity  and  the  relations  existing 
between  the  essential  properties  of  the  Divine  Nature 
and  this  constitutive  characteristic  of  each  person — 
these  relations  in  God  being  known  by  analogy  with 
the  relations  existing  between  these  same  properties 
and  tills  same  characteristic  in  creatures  (St.  Thomas, 
loc.  eit.;  Franzelin,  loc.  cit.).  Among  the  names 
used  in  speaking  of  the  Persons  of  tlie  Trinity,  the 
name  God  is  often  appropriated  to  the  Father,  the 
name  Lord  to  the  Son,  the  name  Spirit,  in  the  sense 
of  immaterial  substance,  to  the  Third  Person. 
Among  the  Di^'ine  attributes,  eternity  is  appropri- 
ated to  the  Fatlier,  as  source  and  first  principle  of 
all  things;  be;uity  to  the  Son,  Who,  proceeding  by 
way  of  intelligence,  is  the  perfect  image  of  tlie 
F.athcr;  fruition  to  the  Holy  Ghost.  Who  proceeds 
tlirough  love.  Again,  unity  is  appropriated  to  tlie 
Father,  truth  to  the  Son,  and  goodness  to  tlie  Holy 
Ghost.  Among  the  Divine  attrilnitcs  of  action  and 
operation,  omnipotence  is  apiiropriatccl  to  the  F;ithcr. 
witli  all  the  operations  wliich  it  implies,  especially 
creation;  wisdom  and  its  works,  especially  tlic  order 
of  the  universe,  to  the  Son;  and  to  the  Holy  (iliost, 
charity  and  its  works,  especially  sanctitication  (cf. 
Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  n.  2,  3,  etc.,  17,  17). 
Again,  efficient  causality  with  the  production  of  all 
tilings   is    appropriated    to    the   Father;   exemplary 


659 


APSE 


causality  with  the  organization  of  all  things,  to  tlie 
Son;  final  causality  with  the  conservation  and  per- 
fecting of  all  things,  to  the  Holy  Ghost  [cf.  St.  Thoni., 
■' Sumnia  Theol.",  1.  Q.  xxxix,  a.  8;  K.  Dubois,  "  I)e 
Kxeniplarismo  Divino,  "  XII,  §  4  (Rome,  1.S97)].  Aj)- 
propriation  ius  a  theological  nietliml  or  theory  is  of 
comparatively  recent  origin.  Hut  from  tlie  begin- 
ning of  Christianity,  it  was  u.scil  :us  a  sixjntaneous 
expression  of  the  Catholic  conception  of  tlic  Trinity. 
It  has  its  source,  as  ah-cady  said,  in  .Scripture  and 
in  tradition.  In  Scripture  it  is  used  notably  by 
St.  Paul  (cf.  Ephcs.,  i,  3;  iv,  4-6;  Rom.,  xv,  9;  II  Cor., 
i,  3;  xi,  31;  cf.  also,  I  Pet.,  i,  3).  In  tradition  it  is 
expressed  especially  in  the  formulas  of  faith,  or  Sym- 
bols (cf.  Denzinger,  "  Knchiridion  ",  n.  2-13, 17,  47);  in 
liturgy,  and  especially  in  doxologies  (cf.  Dorn  Ca- 
brol,  "Le  livre  de  la  pricrc  anti(iue",  xix,  Poitiers, 
1900);  in  inscriptions  and  pictures  (Fran/.clin,  op. 
cit.;  H.  Marucchi,  "Kldments  d'arch&ilogic  chr6- 
tienne  ",  Uomc,  1900).  As  early  as  tlio  third  century 
with  Origcn,  later  with  St.  (ircgory  of  Ny.ssa,  St.  Basil, 
St.  (Ircgory  Xazian/.cn,  and  others,  the  Greek  Fathers 
speak  of  lh(^  •rXijcrtii,  or  divine  appellations,  though 
it  cannot  \>e  said  yet  tliat  they  furnish  a  theory  of 
appropriation  (I)e  RC-gnon:  Ktudcs  de  thdologio 
positive  sur  la  S.  Trinity.  Etudes  xvii,  xxv,  Paris, 
189S).  Tills  theory  is  established  by  the  Latin 
Fathers  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  especially 
by  St.  Ililarj',  "De  Trinitate  ",  II,  n.  1;  P.  I,.,  t.  X, 
col.  50;  St.  Augvistine,  "  De  Trinitate",  VI,  x,  P.  L., 
t.  XLII,  col.  931;  St.  Leo  the  Great,  "Sermo  de 
Pentecoste  ",  LXXVI,  iii,  P.  L.,  t.  LIV,  col.  405.  In 
the  Middle  .\ges,  the  theory  was  accepted,  com- 
pleted, and  systetnatically  taught  by  the  Schoolmen 
(cf.  St.  Honaventure:  In  I  Sent.  dist. ,  xxxiv,  q.  iii; 
Opera,  Qiiaracchi,  18S3,  t.  l"",  592;  St.  Thom.,  Sum. 
Theol.,  1"  pars.,  Q.  xxxix,  a.  8).  Abelard,  who 
considered  the  appropriated  aualitics  as  l>elonging 
exclusively  to  the  Person  macie  the  subject  of  ap- 
propriation, w;us  condemned  in  the  Council  of  Sens 
(1141)  and  bv  Innocent  II. 

Dk.nzingkb,  'Enchiridion,  n.  .310-323;  St.  Hilary,  De 
Trinitate,  II,  n.  1;  P.  L.,  t.  X,  ool.  50;  St.  .\rr.csTiNF.,  De 
Trinitate,  VI,  x;  P.  L.,  t.  XLII,  col.  931;  Riciiabd  of  St. 
Victor,  Dc  tribua  appropriatis  pmonia,  in  P.  />.,  CXCVI, 
col.  7,  991;  St.  Thomas,  Sum.  Theol..  I.  Q.  .xxxix,  a..  8;  St. 
BoNAvr.NTCHE.  In  I  Sen/.,  dist.  XXXIV,  Q.  iii,  Oporo.  CJuar- 
acchi,  18S3.  t.  l>>:  Petavius.  De  TrinUate.  J,ib.  VlII.  iii.  n.  1 
(Venice.  1737);  Fra.nzeli.n.  De  Deo  Trino  (Itome,  1881).  th. 
xiii;  PAQlrirr,  Di«put<itionea  theoloffic/r.seurommentaria  in, Sum. 
Iheot.  D.  Thnma:  De  Deo  uno  el  Irino  (Quebec.  1893).  disp. 
X.,  1,  a.  2;  He  I{e<inox.  Eludes  de  Ihioloqie  positive  sur  la  S. 
Triniti,  (Paris,  1898);  PoiiLE.  in  Kirchentei..  s.  v.  "  TriniUU  "; 
Chollet,  in  Vacant,  Did.  theol.  cathol.,  s.  v.  Appropriation 
aux  Personnes,  etc. 

George  M.  Saia'age. 

Apse  (hat.,  apsis  or  absis,  Ionic  dr.,  i<f'lf,  an  arch), 
the  semicircular  or  polygonal  termination  to  the 
choir  or  aisles  of  a  church.  A  similar  termination  is 
soinetimes  given  to  tran.-icpts  and  nave.  The  term  in 
ecclesiiustical  architecture  generally  denotes  that  part 
of  the  church  where  the  clergy  are  seated  or  the 
altar  placed.  It  was  so  called  from  being  usually 
domed  or  vaulted,  and  was  so  u.set,!  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  The  term  is  .sometimes  applied  to  a 
canopy  over  an  altar;  a  dome;  the  arched  roof  of  a 
room;  the  bishop's  scat  in  old  churches;  a  reliquarj'; 
a  recess,  semicircular  in  plan,  covered  over  with  a 
vault  in  the  shape  of  a  semi-<lome  or  any  other  de- 
scription of  roof.  The  apse  is  always  solid  below, 
though  generally  broken  by  windows  above.  The 
chevet  is  an  apse,  always  enclosed  by  an  open  scrxjcn 
of  columns  on  the  ground  floor,  and  opening  into  an 
aisle,  which  again  opens  into  three  or  more  ap.sidal 
chapels.  Sometimes  the  apse  is  a  simple  .semicircle; 
out  of  this,  in  some  large  churches,  a  smaller  semi- 
circle springs,  as  Beckct's  crown  at  Canterbury,  and 
as  in  the  cliurches  at  Sens.  Langres.  and  many  others 
in  iMirope.  Sometimes  the  choir  finishes  with  three 
apses — one  to  the  central  aisle  and  one  to  each  side 
I.— 12 


aisle,  as  at  .-^utun.  Sometimes  the  plan  is  a  semi- 
circle, eacli  bay  of  which  has  a  projecting  semicircular 
apse,  forming  a  .sort  of  duster  of  apses,  as  at  Beauvais, 
Troyes,  Tours,  etc.  Tlie  choir  of  late  date  at  Le  Mans 
is  encircled  by  no  less  than  thirteen  apses,  the  centre 
one  being  twice  the  depth  of  the  others,  and  forming 
the  Lady  Chapel.  Large  circular  and  polygonal 
apses  generally  liave  radiating  chapels  witliin,  as  at 
Westminster  .\bbcy.  The  term  apse  was  first  used 
in  reference  to  a  Roman  l)asilica,  of  which  it  was  a 
ch;iractoristic  feature.  There  was  an  apse  in  the 
temple  of  .Mars  I'ltor.  It  is  now  completely  decayed, 
but  in  the  time  of  Sabacco  and  Palladio  tliere 
seem  to  have  been  sufficient  remains  to  justify  an 
attempt  at  restoration.  It  is  nearly  square  in  plan 
(112  feet  by  120).  The  cella  here  is  a  much  more 
important  part  than  is  usual  in  Greek  temples,  ami 
terminates  in  an  ap.se,  which  afterwards  became 
characteristic  of  all  places  of  worship.  In  Trajan's 
basilica  at  one  end  was  a  great  semicircular  ap.se, 
the  back  part  of  which  wius  raised,  being  approacncil 
by  a  .semicircular  range  of  steps.  In  the  centre  of 
this  platform  was  the  raised  seat  of  the  quscstor  or 
other  magi.strate  who  presided.  On  each  side,  upon 
the  steps,  were  places  for  the  as.sessors  or  others 
engagea  in  the  business  being  transacted.  In  front 
of  the  apse  was  placed  an  altar,  where  sacrifice  w;is 
performed  before  commencing  any  important  public 
business. 

In  the  basilica,  when  used  as  a  place  of  Christian 
worship,  dating  from  the  fourth  century,  the  whole 
congregation  of  the  faithful  could  meet  and  partici- 
pate in  the  ceremonies  and  devotions.  The  bishop 
took  the  place  occupied  of  old  by  the  pr.ftor  or 
quirstor;  tlie  presbyters,  the  places  of  the  a.s.sessors. 
Very  little  change  was  needed  to  erect  a  Christian 
altar  on  the  spot  in  front  of  the  ap.se,  where  the 
heathen  had  poured  out  their  libations  at  the  com- 
mencement and  conclu.sion  of  all  important  business. 
The  basilica  of  the  heathen  became  the  ccctcsia,  or 
place  of  a.s.sembly,  of  the  early  Christian  community. 
In  the  church  of  Ibrihm,  in  Nubia,  there  is  the  pecu- 
liarity of  an  internal  apse,  which  became  general  in 
Eastern,  but  less  frequent  in  Western,  churches, 
though  sufficiently  .so  to  make  its  introduction  at 
this  early  |H'riod  worthy  of  notice.  Another  example 
to  make  tliis  early  form  intelligible  is  that  of  the 
church  of  St.  Reparatus,  near  OrWansville  in  .\lgeria, 
the  ancient  Castcllum  Tingitanum.  According  to  an 
inscription  still  existing,  it  was  erected  in  252;  but 
the  second  .apse  seems  to  have  been  ailded  about  the 
year  403,  to  contain  the  grave  of  the  saint.  As  it 
now  stands,  it  is  a  double-ap.sed  basilica,  80  feet  long 
by  52  broatl,  divided  into  five  aisles  and  exhibiting 
on  a  miniature  scale  all  the  peculiarities  of  plan  which 
we  once  fancied  were  not  adopted  until  .some  centuries 
later.  In  this  instance  botli  apses  are  internal,  .so 
that  the  side  aisles  are  longer  than  the  central  one, 
apparently  no  jKirtion  of  them  having  been  cut  off 
for  calcUlica  or  vestries,  as  was  very  often  done  in 
that  age.  At  Parenzo  in  Lstria  there  is  a  basilica 
built  in  the  year  .542,  with  three  aisles  and  an  apse 
at  the  end  of  each.  The  church  at  Torcello,  near 
Venice,  presents  one  of  the  most  exten.sive  and  best 
preserved  examples  of  the  fittings  of  the  apse,  and 
gives  a  better  idea  of  the  mode  in  which  tlie  ap.ses 
of  churches  were  originally  arranged  than  anything 
to  be  found  in  any  other  church,  cither  of  the  same 
age  or  earlier.  The  apse  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Quinide, 
probably  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  centurj',  is  the  most 
singular  as  well  as  the  most  ancient  part  of  the 
church,  and  is  formed  in  a  manner  of  which  no  other 
example  scH'ms  to  be  known.  Externallv.  it  is  two 
sides  of  a  .square;  internally,  a  semicircle;  at  eacli 
angle  of  the  exterior  and  on  each  face  is  a  pilaster, 
fairly  imitated  from  the  Corinthian  order,  and  sup- 
porting an  entablature  that  might  very  well  mislead 


660 


AQUARIANS 


a  Northern  antiquary  to  mistake  it  for  a  pagan 
temple.  The  plan  of  the  church  at  Planes  deserves 
to  be  quoted,  if  not  for  its  merit,  at  least  for  its 
singularity;  it  is  a  triangle  with  an  apse  attached  to 
eacTi  side,  and  supporting  a  circular  part  terminating 
in  a  plain  roof.  As  a  constructive  puzzle  it  is 
curious,  but  it  is  doubtful  liow  far  any  utility  was 
subserved  by  such  a  freak.  The  church  of  Ste-Croix 
at  Mont  Majour  near  Aries  is  a  triapsidal  church,  sup- 
po.sed  to  be  the  only  one  of  its  kind.  Built  as  a 
sepulchral  chapel,  it  is  a  singularly  gloomy  but  appro- 
priate erection.  In  the  Byzantine  style  tlie  apse 
was  retained,  as  in  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  in 
the  old  Byzantine  churches  at  Ravenna,  and  in  several 
churches  on  the  Rliine. 

The  apse  is  almost  universally  adopted  in  Germany, 
and  is  very  common  in  France  and  Italy.  In  differ- 
ent parts  "of  England  there  are  many  churches  with 
semicircular  apses  at  the  east  end,  chiefly  in  the 
Norman  style,  and  some  in  which  this  form  has 
evidently  been  altered  at  a  subsequent  period.  In 
several  cases  the  crypts  beneath  have  retained  the 
form  wlien  tlie  superstructure  has  been  altered. 
The  apse  is  virtually  a  continental  feature  and  con- 
trasts with  the  square  termination  of  English  Gothic 
work.  The  traditional  semicircular  apse,  greatly 
enlarged  and,  in  the  perfected  style,  changed  to  a 
polygonal  plan,  is  the  most  characteristic  eastern 
termination  of  the  larger  French  churches.  The  low 
Romanesque  apse,  covered  with  the  primitive  semi- 
dome  and  enclosed  with  its  simple  wall,  presented 
no  constructive  difficulties  and  produced  no  imposing 
effect.  But  the  soaring  French  chevet,  with  its  many- 
celled  vault,  its  arcaded  stories,  its  circling  aisles,  and 
its  radial  chapels,  taxed  inventive  powers  to  the 
utmost  and  entranced  the  eye  of  the  beholder.  The 
apse  of  St.  Germain-des-Pr6s  (second  quarter  of  the 
twelfth  century)  may  reasonably  be  regarded  as  the 
first  great  Gothic  apse  ever  constructed.  Norwicli 
cathedral  is  perhaps  the  finest  example  of  the  round 
apse  in  England.  The  cathedral  of  Durham,  of 
which  the  nave  and  choir  were  finished  much  as  they 
are  now  seen  about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  had  originally  an  apse;  but  on  account  of 
a  defect;  in  the  masonry  this  was  taken  down  and 
the  present  magnificent  chapel  of  the  Nine  Altars 
substituted  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  apsidal 
form  is  occasionally  met  with  in  England,  as  at 
Lichfield  and  Westminster.  There  is  an  apse  in 
each  arm  of  the  transept  in  the  churches  at  Mel- 
bourne, Gloucester,  Ramsay,  Chichester,  Chester,  Nor- 
wich, Lindisfarne,  Christ  Church  in  Hants,  Tewkes- 
bury, Castle  Acre,  Evesham.  If  the  transept  was 
long,  there  would  sometimes  be  two  apses  on  each 
arm,  as  at  Cluny,  Canterbury,  St.  Augustine's,  and 
St.  Albans. 

Fergussox,  a  History  of  Architecture  in  all  Countries  (Lon- 
don. 1893);  GwrLT,  Encyclopedia  of  Architecture  (London, 
1881);  Ki.KTCiiER,  A  History  of  Architecture  (London,  New 
York.  189<));  Weale,  Diet,  of  Terms  in  Rudimentary  Series 
(London,  1859-93);  Moore,  Development  and  Character  of 
Gothic  Architecture  (London,  New  York,  1899);  Longfellow 
(ed.),  A  Cyclopedia  of  Works  of  Architecture  in  Italy,  Greece, 
and  the  Levant  (New  York,  1895). 

Thom.vs  H.  Poole. 

Apse  Ohapel,  a  chapel  radiating  tangent ially  from 
one  of  the  bays  or  divisions  of  tlie  apse,  and  reached 
generally  by  a  semicircular  passageway,  or  ambula- 
tory, exteriorly  to  the  walls  or  ])iers"  of  tlie  apse. 
In  plan,  the  normal  type  of  the  tangential  chapel  is 
semicircular;  some,  howe\-er,  are  iientagonal,  and 
some  composed  of  a  small  circle,  serving  as  clioir,  and 
part  of  a  large  circle,  as  nave;  some  are  oblong  with 
eastern  apses.  In  England,  sometimes  an  ambula- 
tory connects  the  north  and  south  aisles  of  the  choir, 
and  from  the  ambulatorj'  projects  an  eastern  cliapcl 
or  chapels.  The  eastern  chevet  of  Westminster 
Abbey,   surrounded   by  five  apsidal  chapels,   is   the 


only  complete  example  of  this  feature  in  England. 
The  common  source  of  the  ambulatory  and  radiating 
chai>els  seems  to  have  been  the  church  of  St.  Martin 
of  Tours,  where  originally  there  w-as  a  choir  of  two 
bays,  and  an  apse  of  five  bays,  surrounded  by  a 
single  ambulatory  and  fi\'e  radiating  chapels. 
Altars,  which  had  before  cumbered  the  nave,  could 
now  be  placed  in  the  new  radiating  chapels  of  the 
ambulatory,  which  afforded  the  necessary  access  to 
them.  Each  apsidal  chapel  could  be  treated  as  a 
sanctuary,  to  be  entered  only  by  the  officiating 
priest  and  his  attendants,  and  the  ambulatory  served 
as  the  necessary  nave  for  the  worshippers.  The 
usual  number  of  these  radiating  chapels  is  three. 
Apse  chapels  are  often  found  in  the  cathedrals  of 
the  Benedictine  foundations,  and  occasionally  in 
those  of  the  Cluniac  reform.  St.  Martin  of  Tours, 
St.  Savin,  and  Cluny  have  five-choir  chapels;  Amiens, 
Beauvais  Cologne,  and  I^e  Mans  ha\e  seven  apsidal 
chapels.  No  ambulatory  with  tangential  chapels  is 
older  than  about  a.  d.  900.  The  peri-apsidal  plan 
of  Westminster  Abbey,  commenced  in  10.50  by  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor,  anticipated  Cluny  by  thirty- 
nine  years,  a  plan  which  was  reproduced  at  Gloucester 
in  1089  and  at  Norwich  in  1096.  Radiating  chapels 
are  almost  entirely  a  continental  plan  and  most 
frequently  found  in  French  and  Gothic  structures. 
In  England  the  apse  chapel  is  very  rare,  owing  to 
the  generally  square  termination  of  the  nave.  Traces 
of  an  early  apsidal  treatment  are  fovmd  in  Canter- 
bury Cathedral.  In  continental  churches  the  central 
apse  chapel  was  often  the  Lady-chapel.  In  England 
the  Lady-chapel  was  generally  placed  at  the  side. 
Moore,  Gothic  architecture  (London,  1890):  Bloxam, 
Principles  of  Gothic  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  (11th  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1882):  Bond,  Gothic  Architecture  in  England,  (London, 
1906). 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Apsidiole  (also  written  Absidiale),  a  small  or 
secontlary  apse,  one  of  the  ap.ses  on  either  side  of 
the  main  apse  in  a  triap.sidal  church,  or  one  of  the 
apse-chapels  when  they  project  on  the  exterior  of  the 
churcli,  particularly  if  tlie  projection  resembles  an 
apse  in  shape.  Bond  (Gothic  Architecture  in  Eng- 
land, 16.3)  says  that  the  Norman  plan  of  eastern  limb 
which  the  Norman  builders  brought  over  to  lOngland 
at  the  Conquest,  contained  a  central  apse  flanked 
by  apsidioles. 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Apt,  Council  of,  held  14  May,  1365,  in  the 
cathedral  of  that  city  by  the  archbishops  and  bishops 
of  the  provinces  of  Aries,  Embrun,  and  Aix,  in  the 
south  of  France.  Twenty-eight  decrees  were  pub- 
lished and  eleven  days  of  indulgence  were  granted 
to  those  who  wouUl  visit  with  pious  sentiments  the 
church  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  the  Diocese  of  Apt, 
on  the  feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and 
venerate  there  certain  relics  of  the  .same. 

Mansi,  Coll.  Cone,  XXVI,  445;  Martene,  Thes.  nov.  anecd, 
(1717),  IV,  331-342;  Boze,  Hist,  de  Viglise  d.ipt  (Apt.  1820). 
Thoalvs  J.  Shahan. 

Aquarians  (Gr.,  'TSpoTapd<rTaTai,;  Lat.,  Aqunrii),  a 
name  given  to  several  sects  in  the  early  Church. 
The  Ebionites,  as  St.  Epijihanius  tells  us,  had  an 
idolatrous  veneration  for  water  (aqua),  which  they 
regarded  as  the  source  of  life.  The  Manicha-an  sects 
rejected  the  use  of  wine  as  something  evil.  The 
name,  however,  seems  to  have  been  given  chiefly 
to  the  followers  of  Tatian,  of  w-honi  Thcodoret  speaks 
as  follows:  "Tatian,  after  the  death  of  his  master, 
Justin  the  Martyr,  .set  himself  up  as  the  author  of  a 
heresy.  Among  the  things  he  rejected  were  mar- 
riage, and  the  use  of  animal  food  and  wine.  Tati:m 
is  the  father  of  tlie  .\quarians.  and  of  the  Encnilitcs. 
They  are  called  Hydroparastata",  because  they  olTor 
water  iiiste;id  of   wine  [in   tlic   Eucharist];   and   En- 


AQUAVIVA 


()()1 


AQUILEIA 


cratites  because  they  neither  drink  wine  nor  cat 
animal  food.  From  these  they  abstain  because  llicy 
abhor  them  tus  sometliing  evil.  ..."  They  arc 
mentioned  by  St.  Irena-us  anil  by  Clement  of  .\lex- 
andiia.  St.  .Vugustine  in  liis  "Catalogue  of  Here- 
sies" says:  "The  .\tiuarians  arc  .so  called  because  in 
the  cup  of  the  Sacrament  they  offer  water,  not  that 
wliicli  the  wliole  Church  offers".  St.  John  Chrj's- 
ostom,  arguing  against  the  .Viiuarians,  tleclares  that 
Our  Lord  drarik  wine  after  His  Uesurrection  in  order 
to  prove  that  at  the  institution  of  the  Kucharist  also 
He  had  used  wine.  At  the  time  of  St.  Cyprian  the 
practice  existed  in  some  parts  of  .\frica  of  using  water 
mstcad  of  wine  in  the  celebration  of  tlie  Kucharist. 
He  strongly  condemned  it  in  one  of  his  letters,  as- 
cribing it,  however,  to  ignorance  and  simplicity 
rather  than  to  an  heretical  spirit. 

Ki-iPHANius.  Adr.  Hot.  in  P.  G..  XLI,  432;  Tiieodoret, 
Hirr.  Fab.,  ibid..  LXXXIII,  3SB;  Iren«c8,  Contra  Hirr.. 
iW.,  VII,  1123;  Clkme.nt  of  Alexandria,  Strom.,  ibid., 
VIII,  813;  CiiRVHOSTOM,  In  Matt.,  horn..  Ixxxii,  ibid.,  LVIII. 
740;  Cyprian,  Epitt.,  Ixiii,  in  P.  L.,  IV,  384  sqq.;  AuonsTiNE, 
IletT..  ibid.,  XLII,  42. 

B.  GULDNEB. 

Aquaviva.    See  Acquaviva. 

Aquila,  The  Archdioce.se  of. — An  Italian  archdi- 
ocese in  the  .\bruzzi.  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy 
See.  The  See  of  Forconium  preceded  it,  in  C8(). 
The  Diocese  of  Aquila  was  erected  by  .\lexandcr  IV, 
20  February,  1257.  Pius  VII  joined  to  it  the  sup- 
pressed See  of  Citt:\ducale  in  1818,  and  Pius  IX 
raised  it  to  an  archiepiscopal  see,  2.3  Januarj-,  1876. 
It  has  107,S(M)  Catholics;  Vi't  parishes;  217  secular 
priests;  29  regulars;  130  seminarists;  264  churches 
or  chapels.  .\(iuila  is  on  a  high  mountain,  with 
broad,  straight  streets,  and  fine  churches.  The 
cathedral  is  dedicated  to  Sts.  Maximus  and  George, 
niartvrs.  The  body  of  St.  Bernardinc  of  Sienna,  w-iio 
dietl  m  Aquila,  is  preserved  in  a  church  erected  there 
in  his  honour.  St.  Celestine  V  wa.s  also  buried  there 
in  1296  in  tlie  monastery  of  Collcmaggio,  where  he 
was  made  Pontiff.  Aquila  has  sulTcreil  from  three 
earthquakes,  and  in  that  of  2  Februarj',  1703,  over 
two  tnousand  persons  perished,  eight  hundred  of 
whom  were  in  the  church  of  St.  Dominic,  where 
Communion  was  being  given.  Tlie  priest  was  found 
in  the  ruias,  still  holding  in  his  hand  the  ciborium, 
containing  two  hundred  particles,  perfectly  whole. 

Battandier,  Ann,  pont.  calh.,  190G. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Aquila  and  Priscilla  (or  Prisc.\),  Jewish  tent- 
makers,  who  loft  Koiiu'  (Aquila  w.as  a  native  of  Pon- 
tus)  in  the  Jcwisli  jxTscciition  under  Claudius,  49  or 
.W,  and  settled  in  Corinth,  where  they  entertained  St. 
Paul,  !is  being  of  their  trade,  on  his  first  visit  to  the 
town  (.\cts,  xviii,  1  sqq.).  The  time  of  their  conver- 
sion to  the  Faith  is  not  known.  They  accompanied 
St.  Paul  to  Ephesus  (.\cts,  xviii,  18,  19),  instructed 
the  Alexandrian  .■\pollo,  entertained  the  Apostle 
Paul  at  Ephesus  for  three  years,  during  his  third 
missionarj'  journey,  kept  a  Christian  church  in  their 
house  (I  Cor.,  xvi,  19),  left  Ephesus  for  Rome,  prolv 
ably  after  the  riot  stirred  up  by  the  silversmith 
Demetrius  (.\ets,  xix,  24-40),  kept  in  Rome  also  a 
church  in  their  house  (Rom.,  xvi,  3-5),  but  soon  left 
that  city,  probably  on  account  of  the  persecution  of 
Nero,  and  settled  again  at  Ephesus  (II  Tim.,  iv,  19). 
The  Roman  Martyrology  commemorates  them  on 
8  July.  It  is  not  known  why  Scripture  several  times 
names  Prigcilla  before  .\quila;  the  different  opinions 
are  given  by  Cornely,  (Rom.,  772).  A  number  of 
modern  difficulties  based  on  tlie  frequent  change  of 
residence  of  .\quila  and  Priscilla  are  treated  by 
Cornelv,  (Rom.,  xvi,  3-,5). 

Haqe'n,  Uriron  Biblintm  (Paris,  1005);  Le  Camcs 
in  ViG.,  Diet,  tie  la  Bible  (Paris,  1895);  Kix)88  and  Kaulen 
io  KirchenUj.  (Freiburg,  1882). 

A,  J.  Maas. 


Aquileia,  a  former  city  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
situated  at  tlie  head  of  the  .\driatic,  on  what  is  now 
the  .\ustrian  sea-coast,  in  the  county  of  Gorz,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  .\n.se  and  the  Torre.  It  was  for 
many  centuries  the  .seat  of  a  famous  Western  patri- 
archate, and  as  such  plays  an  important  part  in 
ecclesiastical  history,  particularly  in  that  of  the 
Holy  See  and  Nortlieni  Italy.  The  site  is  now- 
known  as  -Aglar,  a  village  of  1,500  inhabitants.  The 
city  aro.se  (180  u.  c.)  on  the  narrow  strip  between 
the  mountains  and  tlie  lagoons,  during  the  Ulyrian 
wars,  as  a  means  of  checking  the  advance  of  that 
warlike  people.  Its  commerce  grew  rapidly,  and 
when  Marcus  .■Vurelius  made  it  (168)  the  principal 
fortress  of  the  empire  against  the  barbarians  of  the 
North  and  East,  it  rose  to  the  acme  of  its  greatness 
and  soon  had  a  population  of  100,000.  It  wa.s 
pillaged  in  238  by  tlie  Eini>eror  Maximinus,  and  was 
so  utterly  destroyed  in  4.52  by  Attila,  thiit  it  was 
aftenvards  hard  to  recognize  its  original  site.  The 
Roman  inhabitants,  together  with  those  of  smaller 
towns  in  the  neighbourhood,  fled  to  the  lagoons,  and 
so  laid  the  foundations  of  the  city  of  Venice,  .\quileia 
arose  again,  but  much  diminished,  and  was  once 
more  destroyed  (590)  by  the  Lombards;  after  which 
it  came  under  the  Dukes  of  Friuli,  was  again  a  city 
of  the  Empire  under  Charlcniagne,  and  in  the  eleventh 
conturj-  became  a  feudal  jxi-ssession  of  its  patriarch, 
wlio.se  temporal  authority,  however,  was  constantly 
disputed  and  a.ssailed  by  tlic  territorial  nobility. 

Ecci,BSi.\sTiCAL  HisTouY. — -Viicient  tradition  as- 
serts that  the  see  was  founded  by  St.  Mark,  sent 
thither  by  St.  Peter,  previous  to  his  mission  to  .Alex- 
andria. St.  Hermagoras  is  said  to  have  been  its  first 
bishop  and  to  have  died  a  martyr's  death  (c.  70). 
At  the  end  of  the  third  ccnturj-  (285)  another  martyr, 
St.  Helarus  (or  Ililarius)  was  Bishop  of  Aciuileia. 
In  the  course  of  the  fourth  ccnturj-  the  city  was  the 
chief  ecclesiastical  centre  for  the  region  about  the 
head  of  the  Adriatic,  afterwards  known  as  Venetia 
and  Istria.  In  381.  St.  Valerian  appears  as  metro- 
politan of  the  churches  in  this  territory:  his  sj-nod  of 
that  year,  held  against  the  .Brians,  was  attended  by 
32  (or  24)  bishops.  In  time  a  part  of  Western  Illyria, 
and,  to  the  north,  Noricum  and  Rhaetia,  came  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  .\quileia.  Roman  cities  like 
Verona,  Trent,  Pola,  Belluno,  Feltre,  Vicenza,  Tre- 
viso,  Padua,  were  among  its  suffragans  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries.  As  metropolitans  of  such  an 
extensive  terriforj',  and  representatives  of  Roman 
civilization  among  the  O.strogoths  and  Ixinibards. 
the  bishops  of  Aquileia  sought  and  obtained  from 
their  barbarian  masters  the  honorific  title  of  patri- 
arch, personal,  however,  as  yet  to  each  titular  of 
the  sec.  This  title  aided  to  promote  and  at  the  same 
time  to  justify  the  strong  tendency  tow.ards  inde- 
pendence that  was  quite  early  manifest  in  its  rela- 
tions with  Rome,  a  trait  which  it  shared  with  its  less 
fortunate  rival,  Ravenna,  that  never  obtained  the 
patriarchal  dignity.  It  was  only  after  a  long  con- 
flict that  the  popes  recognized  the  title  thus  as- 
sumed by  the  metropolitans  of  .\quileia.  Owing 
to  tlie  acquiescence  of  Pope  Vigilius  in  the  con- 
demnation of  the  "Three  Ch.apters  '.  in  the  Fifth 
GonernI  Council  at  Constantinople  (.">.53)  the  liishops 
of  Northern  Italy  (Liguria  and  ^Emilia)  and  among 
them  those  of  Venetia  and  Istria,  broke  off  coni- 
niiinion  nnth  Rome,  under  the  leadership  of  Mace- 
donius  of  .\quileia  (,')35-55C).  In  the  next  decade 
the  Lombard."!  overran  all  Northern  Italy,  and  the 
patriarch  of  .\quileia  was  obliged  to  fly.  with  the 
treasures  of  his  church,  to  the  little  island  of  Cir.ado, 
near  Trieste,  a  last  remnant  of  the  imperial  possessions 
in  Northern  Italy.  This  political  change  did  not 
affect  the  relations  of  the  patriarchate  with  the 
Apostolic  See:  its  bishops,  wliethcr  in  Lombanl  or 
imperial  territory,  stubbornly  refused  all  invitations 


AQUILEIA 


662 


AQUINO 


to  a  reconciliation.  Various  flTorts  of  tlie  popes  at 
Rome  and  the  exarchs  at  Kavenna,  both  peaceful  and 
otherwise,  met  with  persistent  refusal  to  renew  the 
bonds  of  unity  imtil  the  election  of  Candidian  (006 
or  607)  as  Metropolitan  of  Aquileia  (in  Grado). 
Weary  of  fifty  years'  schism,  those  of  his  suffragans 
whose  sees  lay  within  the  limits  of  the  empire  joined 
him  in  submission  to  the  Apostolic  See;  his  suffragans 
among  the  Lombards  persisted  in  their  schism.  They 
went  further,  and  established  in  Aquileia  itself  a 
patriarchate  of  their  own,  so  that  henceforth  there 
were  two  little  patriarchates  in  Northern  Italy, 
Aquileia  in  Grado  and  Old-Aquileia.  Gradually  the 
schism  lost  its  vigour,  and  by  700  it  was  entirely 
spent;  in  the  synod  lield  that  year  at  Old-Aquileia 
it  was  formally  closed.  It  was  probably  during  the 
seventh  century  that  the  popes  recognized  in  the 
metropolitans  of  Grado  the  title  of  Patriarch  of 
Aquileia,  in  order  to  offset  its  assumption  by  the 
metropolitans  of  Old-Aquileia.  In  succeeding  cen- 
turies it  continued  in  use  by  both,  but  had  no  longer 
any  practical  significance.  The  Patriarchs  of  Old- 
Aquileia  lived  lienceforth,  first  at  Cormons,  and  from 
the  eighth  to  the  thirteenth  century  at  Friuli  (Forum 
Julii).  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century  the 
creation  of  a  new  metropolitan  see  at  Salzburg  added 
to  tlie  humiliation  of  Old-Aquileia,  which  claim.ed 
as  its  own  the  territory  of  Carinthia.  but  was  obliged 
to  acquiesce  in  the  arbitration  of  Charlemagne,  by 
wliich  Ursus  of  Aquileia  (d.  811)  was  obliged  to 
relinquish  to  Amo  of  Salzburg  the  Carinthian  terri- 
tory north  of  the  Drave.  German  feudal  influence 
was  henceforth  more  and  more  tangible  in  the  eccle- 
siastical affau-s  of  Old- -Aquileia.  In  1011  one  of  its 
patriarchs,  John  IV,  surrounded  by  thirty  bishops, 
consecrated  the  new  Cathedral  of  Bamberg.  Its 
influential  patriarch,  Poppo,  or  Wolfgang  (1019-42) 
consecrated  his  own  cathedral  at  Aquileia,  13  JiJy, 
1031,  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  In 
1047,  the  Patriarch  Eberhard,  a  German,  assisted  at 
the  Roman  synod  of  that  year,  in  which  it  was  de- 
clared that  Aquileia  was  inferior  in  honour  only  to 
Rome,  Ravenna,  and  Milan.  Nevertheless,  Aquileia 
lost  gradually  to  other  metropolitans  several  of  its 
suffragans,  and  when  tlie  Patriarchate  of  Grado  was 
at  last  transferred  (1451)  from  that  insignificant 
place  to  proud  and  powerful  Venice,  tlie  prestige  of 
01d-.\quileia  could  not  but  suffer  notably.  In  the 
meantime,  during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  the  Patriarchs  of  Aquileia  had  greatly 
favoured  as  a  residence  Udine,  an  imperial  donation, 
in  Venetian  territory.  In  1348  Aquileia  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake,  and  its  patriarchs  were 
henceforth,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  Metropolitans 
of  Udine.  Since  the  transfer  of  the  patriarchal 
residence  to  Udine  the  Venetians  had  never  lived  in 
peace  witli  the  patriarchate,  of  whose  imperial  favour 
and  tendencies  they  were  jealous.  When  the  pa- 
triarcli  Louis  of  Teck  (1412-39)  compromised  him- 
self in  the  war  between  Hungary  and  \enice.  the 
latter  seized  on  all  the  lands  donatetl  to  the  patri- 
arcliate  by  the  German  Empire.  The  loss  of  his 
ancient  temporal  estate  was  acquiesced  in  a  little 
later  (144.'))  by  the  succeeding  patriarch,  in  return  for 
an  annual  salary  of  .';,000  ducats  allowed  him  from 
the  Venetian  treasury,  llencefortli  only  Venetians 
were  allowed  to  hold  the  Patriarchate  of  .Aquileia. 
Under  the  famous  Domcnigo  (irimani  (Cardinal  since 
1497)  .Vusfian  Friuli  was  added  to  tlie  tcrritoiy  of 
the  patriarchate  wliose  jurisdiction  thus  extended 
over  some  Austrian   dioce.ses. 

Extinction  op  the  Patriarchate. — The  109th 
and  last  Patriarch  of  Aquileia  was  Daniel  Dolfin 
(I)elfino),  coadjutor  since  1714  of  his  predecos.sor, 
Dionigio  Dolfin,  his  successor  since  1734,  and  Cardi- 
nal since  1747.  The  Venetian  claim  to  the  nomina- 
tion of  tlie  Patriarch  of  .\quileia  had  been  met  by  a 


counter-claim  on  the  part  of  Austria  since  tlie  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century  when,  as  mentioned  above, 
Austrian  dioce.ses  came  to  be  included  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  patriarchate.  Finally,  Bene- 
dict XIV  was  chosen  as  arbiter.  He  awarded  (1748- 
49)  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Udine  the  Venetian  terri- 
tory in  Friuli,  and  for  the  Austrian  possessions  he 
created  a  vicariate  .\postolic  with  residence  at  Gorz 
independent  of  the  Patriardi  of  Aquileia,  and  imme- 
diately dependent  on  the  Holy  See,  in  whose  name 
all  jurisdiction  was  exercised.  Tliis  decision  was  not 
satisfactory  to  Venice,  and  in  1751  the  Pope  divided 
the  patriarchate  into  two  archdioceses;  one  at  Udine, 
with  Venetian  Friuli  for  its  territory,  tlie  other  at 
Gorz,  with  jurisdiction  over  Austrian  Friuli.  Of  the 
ancient  patriarchate,  once  so  proud  and  influential, 
there  remained  but  the  parisli  church  of  Aquileia. 
It  was  made  immediately  subject  to  the  Apostolic 
See  and  to  its  rector  was  granted  the  right  of  using 
the  episcopal  insignia  seven  times  in  the  year. 

Neheb  in  Kirchenlex.,  I,  1184-89;  De  Rubeis,  Monum.  Eccl. 
Aquil.  (Strasburg,  1740):  Ughelli.  Italia  Sacra,  I  sqq.;  X,  207; 
Cappelletti,  Chiese  d'ltalia,  VIII,  1  sqq.;  Menzano,  Annali 
del  Friuli  (1858-68);  Paschini,  Sulle  Origini  della  Chiesa  di 
Aquileia  (1904);  Glaschroder,  in  Buchberger's  Kirchl. 
ffant«.  (Munich,  1904),  I,  300-301;  Hefele,  Concilifngeach.U. 
914-923.  For  the  episcopal  succession,  see  Gams,  Series  epis- 
coporum  (Ratisbon,  1873-86),  and  Eubel,  Hierarchia  Cath. 
Medii  JEvi  (Munster,  1898). 

Thomas  J.  Shah.\n. 

Aquileia,  Councils  of. — A  council  held  in  381, 
presided  over  by  St.  Valerian  of  Aquileia,  and  at- 
tended by  thirty-two  bishops,  among  tliem  St.  Phi- 
lastrius  of  Brescia  and  St.  Justus  of  Lyons,  deposed 
from  their  offices  certain  stubborn  partisans  of  Arius. 
This  council  also  requested  the  Emperors  Theodosius 
and  Gratian  to  convene  at  Alexandria  a  council  of 
all  Catholic  bishops  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the 
Meletian  Scliism  at  Antioch,  since  362  the  source  of 
the  greatest  scandal  in  the  Christian  Orient.  The 
council  of  553  inaugurated  the  scliism  that  for  nearly 
a  century  separated  many  churches  of  Northern 
Italy  from  the  Holy  See;  in  it  the  Bishops  of  Venetia, 
Istria,  and  Liguria  refused  to  accept  the  decrees  of 
the  Fifth  General  Council  (553)  on  the  plea  that  by 
the  condemnation  of  the  Three  Chapters  it  had 
undone  the  work  of  the  Council  of  Clialcedon  (451). 
Tlie  Council  of  1184  was  held  against  incendiaries 
and  those  guilty  of  sacrilege.  In  1409  a  council  was 
held  by  Gregory  XII  against  the  pretensions  of  the 
rival  popes,  Benedict  XIII  (Peter  de  Luna)  and 
Alexander  V  (Peter  of  Candia).  He  declared  them 
scliismatical,  but  promised  to  renounce  the  papacy 
if  they  would  do  the  same.  In  1596  Francesco 
Barbaro,  Patriarch  of  Aquileia,  held  a  council  at 
wliich  he  renewed  in  nineteen  decrees  the  legislation 
of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Mansi,  Coll.  Cone.  111,599;  IX,  659;  XII,  H5-U8;  and 
passim;  Chevalier,  Topo-bibtiogr.  (Paris,  1894-99),  189. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  St.     See  Thoaws  Aquinas,  St. 

Aquino,  Sera,  and  Pontecorvo,  The  Diocese  of. 
— An  Italian  iliocese  imiiiodiatoly  subject  to  the 
Holy  See.  It  comprises  29  towns  in  the  province 
of  Caserta  and  7  in  that  of  .\quila.  Aquino  became 
a  bishopric  in  465;  Sora,  in  275,  with  a  regular  list 
of  bi.shops  from  1221;  Pontecorvo,  on  28  June,  1725, 
and  was  immediately  united  to  the  diocese  of  Aquino. 
Sora  was  added  to  these  in  1818  by  Pius  VII. 
Aquino  has  a  jxjpulatioii  of  50,150;  21  parishes, 
77  secular  priests,  55  regulars,  55  seminarists, 
91  churches  and  chapels.  Sora  has  95,200  inhab- 
itants; 44  parishes,  182  secular  priests,  37  regulars, 
189  .seminarists,  220  churches  or  chapels.  Ponte- 
corvo has  12,000  inhabitants;  8  parishes,  30  secular 
priests,  6  regulars,  25  cliurches  or  chapels.  The 
seat  of  the  bishop  is  at  Rocca  Secca.  St.  Constans 
is  the  patron  of  tlie  cathedral.  He  w.as  Bishop  of 
.\tluino  in  .560.     Galeazzo  (Bishop,  1543)  was  one  of 


ARA 


003 


ARABIA 


the  four  judges  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  Filippo 
Filonardo  (bishop,  1608)  became  a  cardinal.  Tlie  poet 
Juvenal  (about  a.  d.  60-140).  the  Koinaii  Kiii- 
peror  Pe.scennius  Niger  (a.  d.  190),  and  the  .\ngelic 
Doctor,  St.  Thomas  (a.  d.  1225),  were  born  at 
Aquino. 

B.\TTANDiF.R,  Ann.  pont.  cath.,  190G. 

Ara  Coeli.    See  Rome,  Churche.s  of. 

Arabia.  .Vrabia  is  tlie  cradle  of  Islam  and,  in 
all  probal)ility,  the  primitive  home  of  the  Semitic 
race.  It  is  a  peninsula  of  an  irregularly  triangular 
form,  or  rather,  an  irregular  parallelogram,  boimded 
on  the  north  by  Syria  and  the  Syrian  desert;  on  the 
.south  by  the  Indian  Ocean;  on  the  east  by  the 
Persian  (Julf  and  Babylonia;  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Red  Sea.  The  length  of  its  western  coast  line, 
.along  the  Red  Sea,  is  about  1,800  miles,  while  its 
breadth,  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  is 
about  600  miles.  Henco  its  size  is  about  one  million 
square  miles  and,  accordingly,  it  is  about  four  times 
as  large  as  the  State  of  Texas,  or  over  one-fourth 
of  the  size  of  the  Unitetl  States,  and  as  large  as 
France,  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland, 
Austria-Hungary,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Servia,  Ruma- 
nia, and  Bulgaria  all  combined. 

The  general  aspect  of  .\rabia  is  that  of  a  central 
table-land  surroundetl  by  a  desert  belt,  sandy  to  the 
west,  south,  and  east,  and  stony  to  the  north.  Its 
outlying  circle  is  girt  by  a  line  of  mountains  low  and 
sterile,  although,  towards  Yemen  and  Oman,  on  the 
lower  .>;outli-\vest  and  lower  south-east,  these  moun- 
tains attain  a  considerable  height,  breadth,  and 
fertility.  The  surface  of  the  midmost  table-land  is 
sandy,  and  thus  about  one-fifth  of  .-Vrabia  is  culti- 
vated, or  rather  two-thirds  cultivable,  and  one- 
third  irreclaimable  desert.  .According  to  Doughty, 
the  geological  aspect  of  .\rabia  is  simple,  consisting 
of  a  founilation  stock  of  plutonic  rock  whereon  lie 
sandstone  and.  above  that,  limestone.  Arabia  has 
no  rivers,  and  its  moimtain  streams  and  fresh-water 
springs,  which  in  certain  sections  are  quite  numerous, 
are  utterly  inadequate,  considering  the  immense 
geographical  area  the  peninsula  covers.  Wadys, 
or  valleys,  are  very  numerous  and  generally  dry  for 
nine  or  ten  months  in  the  year.  Rains  are  infre- 
quent, and  consequently  the  vegetation,  except  in 
certain   portions  of  Yemen,   is  extremely  sparse. 

The  most  commonly  accepted  division  of  .\rabia 
into  Deserta  (desert),  Felix  (happy),  and  Petriea 
(stony),  due  to  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  is  al- 
together arbitrary.  .Vrabic  geographers  know  noth- 
ing of  this  division,  for  they  divide  it  generally  into 
five  provinces:  The  first  is  Yemen,  embracing  the 
whole  south  of  the  peninsula  and  including  Hadra- 
maiit,  Mahra,  Oman.  Shehr,  and  Nejran.  The 
second  is  Hijaz,  on  the  west  coast  and  including 
Mecca  and  Medina,  the  two  famous  centres  of  Islam. 
The  third  is  Tehama,  along  the  same  coast  between 
Yemen  and  Hijaz.  The  fourth  is  Nejd,  which  in- 
cludes most  of  the  central  table-land,  and  the  fifth 
is  Yamama,  extending  all  the  wide  way  between 
Yemen  and  Xejil.  This  di\nsion  is  also  inadequate, 
for  it  omits  the  greater  part  of  North  and  East  .\rabia. 
A  third  and  modern  division  of  .\rabia,  according  to 
politico-geographical  principles,  is  into  seven  prov- 
inces: Hijaz,  Yemen.  Hadramaut.  Oman,  Ha.sa,  Irak, 
ami  Nejd.  .\t  present,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula  and  about  200  miles  of  the  coast 
south  of  the  Ciulf  of  Akaba  which  is  imder  .\nglo- 
Egj-ptian  rule.  Hijaz,  Yemen,  Ha.sa,  and  Irak  are 
Turki.sh  provinces,  the  other  three  being  ruled  by 
independent  .-Vrab  rulers,  called  Sultans,  .\meers,  or 
Imams,  who  to-day  as  of  old  are  constantly  fighting 
among  them.selves  for  control.  .Vden,  the  island  of 
Perim,  in  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mendeb,  and  Socotra 
are  under  English  authority. 

The  fauna  and  flora  of  Arabia  have  not  been  as 


yet  carefully  investigated  and  studied.  The  most 
commonly  known  flora-products  are  the  date-palm, 
of  about  forty  varieties,  coffee,  aromatic  and  medi- 
cinal plants,  gums,  bal.sams,  etc.  The  fauna  is  still 
more  imperfectly  known,  .\mong  the  wilil  animals 
are  the  lion  and  panther  (both  at  present  .scarce), 
the  wolf,  wild  boar,  jackal,  gazelle,  fox,  monkey, 
wiUI  cow,  or  white  antelope,  ibex,  homed  viper, 
cobra,  hawk,  and  o.strich.  The  chief  domestic  ani- 
mals are  the  ass,  mule,  sheep,  goat,  dog,  and  above 
all  the  horse  and  the  camel. 

The  actual  population  of  .-Vrabia  is  a  matter  of 
conjecture,  no  regular  or  official  census  having  ever 
been  undertaken,  .\ccording  to  the  most  modern 
and  acceptable  authorities,  the  population  cannot 
be  les-s  than  eight,  or  more  than  twelve,  millions, 
all  of  whom  are  Mohammedans.  The  personal  ap- 
pearance of  the  Arixh  is  rather  attractive.  He  is, 
as  a  rule,  undersized  in  stature,  dark  in  complexion, 
especially  in  the  South,  with  hair  black,  copious,  and 
coarse;  the  eyes  are  dark  and  oval,  the  nose  aquiline, 
and  the  features  regular  and  well-formed.  The 
ordinary  life  of  the  .■\rabs  is  simple  and  monotonous, 
usually  out-of-doors  and  roving.  They  are  usually 
peaceful,  generous,  hospitable,  and  chivalrous,  but 
jealous  and  revengeful.  In  later  times,  however, 
they  have  greatly  deteriorated. 

MODEKN     ExPLOK.\TIONS     OF     Ar.\BIA. — Up     to     a 

century  and  a  half  ago  our  information  concerning 
Arabia  was  ba-sed  mainly  on  Greek  and  Latin  writers, 
such  as  Herodotus,  Strabo,  Pliny,  Ptolemy,  and 
others.  This  was  meagre  and  imsatisfactory.  The 
references  to  Arabia  found  in  the  Old  Testament  were 
even  more  so.  Hence  our  best  sources  of  informa- 
tion are  Arabic  writers  and  geographers,  such  as 
Hamadani's  "  .Xrabian  Peninsula",  llekri  and  Yaqut's 
geographical  and  historical  dictionaries,  and  similar 
works.  These,  although  extremely  valuable,  con- 
tain fabulous  and  legcndarj'  traditions,  partly  ba.sed 
on  native  popular  legends  anil  partly  on  Jewish  and 
rabbinical  fancies.  The  cuneiform  inscriptions  of 
Assyria  have  also  tlirown  great  and  unexpected  light 
on  the  early  history  of  Arabia.  But  above  all, 
mention  must  be  made  of  the  researches  and  di.s- 
coveries  of  scholars  like  Hal^vy,  Miiller,  Glaser, 
Hommel,  Winckler.  and  others.  The  first  European 
scientific  explorer  of  .\rabia  was  C  Niebuhr,  who, 
in  1761-64,  by  the  order  of  the  Danish  government, 
undertook  an  expedition  into  the  .Arabian  peninsula. 
He  was  followed,  in  1799,  by  Reinaud,  the  English 
agent  of  the  Ea.st  India  Company.  The  Ru.ssian 
scholar  U.  J.  Seetzen  undertook  a  similar  expedition 
in  1808-11.  and  for  the  first  time  copied  several 
South-.\rabian  inscriptions  in  the  district  of  Ilimyar. 
In  1814-10,  J.  L.  Burckhardt,  a  Swiss,  and  probably 
the  most  distinguished  of  .Vrabian  explorers,  made  a 
journey  to  Hijaz  and  completed  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  and  Medina.  Burckhardt 's  information  is 
copious,  interesting,  and  accurate.  Captain  W.  R. 
Wellsted  made  (in  18.'J4-3.'))  a  journey  into  Oman 
and  Hadramaut;  and  Ch.  J.  Cruttonden  completed, 
in  1838,  a  similar  journey  from  Mokha  to  Sana,  copy- 
ing several  South-.Vrabian  inscriptions,  which  Rodiger 
and   Gesenius  attempted   to   decipher. 

Then  came  the  German,  .\dolf  von  Wrede,  who, 
in  1843,  \'isited  Wady  Doan  and  other  parts  of 
H.adramaut,  discovering  anil  copying  an  important 
in.scription  of  five  long  lines.  In  1843  Thom;is 
Jo.sepn  .Vmauil  made  a  very  bold  and  successful 
joumev  from  Sana  to  Marib,  the  capital  of  the  an- 
cient kingdom  of  the  Sabeans,  and  collected  about 
fifty-six  inscriptions.  In  184.")— 18,  fi.  Wallin  travelled 
through  Haj-il.  Medina,  and  Taima,  proceeding  from 
west  to  east.  In  18.53  Richard  Burton,  the  famous 
translator  of  the  ".Arabian  Nights",  undertook  a 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  Meilina,  and,  in  1877  and 
1878,   twice   \-isited   the   land  of  Midian,  in   North 


ARABIA 


664 


ARABIA 


Arabia.  In  1861  a  Jew  from  Jerusalem,  Jacob 
Saphir,  \'isited  Yemen,  where  he  found  several 
Jew^ish  settlements,  and  other  parts  of  Arabia;  while 
in  1862-63,  the  English  ex-Jesuit,  W.  Gifford  Pal- 
grave,  made  his  memorable  tour  from  the  Dead  Sea 
to  Qatif  and  Oman,  visiting  the  great  north-western 
territory  between  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  the  Eu- 
phrates. Hayil.  Medina,  Nejd,  and  practically  the 
whole  of  central  Arabia,  till  then  unknown  to  scholars 
and  travellers.  Colonel  Pelly  visited  central  Arabia 
in  1865,  and  in  1869  Joseph  Hal6\-y,  the  great  French 
Orientalist  and  the  pioneer  of  Sabean  philology,  in 
the  guise  of  a  poor  Jew  from  Jerusalem,  explored 
Yemen  and  south  .\rabia,  copjnng  about  700,  mostly 
very  short,  inscriptions.  He  advanced  as  far  as  the 
South-Arabian  Jof,  the  territory  of  the  ancient 
Mineans.  In  1870-71,  H.  von  Maltzan  made  a  few 
short  trips  from  Aden  along  the  coast,  and  in  1876-78 
Charles  Doughty  made  his  famous  tour  to  Mada  in 
Salih,  Hayil,  Taima,  Khaibar,  Boraida.  Onaiza,  and 
Tayif,  where  he  discovered  several  Nabataean, 
Lihyanian,  or  Tamudic,  Minean  and  so-called  proto- 
Arabic  inscriptions.  In  1877-80  the  Italian  Renzo 
Manzoni  made  three  excursions  to  Sana,  the  Turkish 
capital  of  Yemen.  In  1878-79,  Lady  Anne  Blunt, 
Lord  BjTon's  granddaughter,  together  with  her 
husband,  Sir  Wilfrid  Scawen  Blunt,  made  a  tour 
from  Damascus  through  the  North-Arabian  Jof,  the 
Nefud  desert,  and  Hayil.  In  the  years  1882-84 
the  Austrian  explorer,  Edward  Glaser,  made  his 
first  and  very  fruitful  expedition  to  southern  Arabia, 
wliere  he  discovered  and  copied  numerous  old 
Arabian  inscriptions;  and  in  1883-84  Charles  Huber, 
together  with  Julius  Euting,  the  Semitic  epigraphist 
of  Strasburg,  undertook  a  joint  expedition  to  northern 
Arabia,  discovering  the  famous  Aramaic  inscriptions 
of  Taima  (sixth  century  b.  c).  In  1884-85,  Ed. 
Glaser  made  his  second  journey  to  southern  Arabia 
collecting  several  Minean  inscriptions;  and  in  1887-88 
made  liis  tliird  expedition,  which  proved  to  be  the 
most  successful  expedition  yet  undertaken,  as  far 
as  epigraphical  results  are  concerned. 

The  inscriptions  discovered  and  copied  were  over 
400,  the  most  valuable  among  them  being  the 
so-called  "Dam-inscription",  of  100  lines  (fifth  and 
sixth  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era),  and  the  "  Sirwah 
inscription",  of  about  1,000  words  (c.  550  B.  c). 
His  fourth  expedition  took  place  in  1892-94,  and  was 
fruitful  and  rich  in  Arabic  epigraphy.  Leo  Hirsch, 
of  Berlin,  visited,  in  1893,  Hadramaut,  and  so  did 
Theodore  Bent  and  his  wife  in  1893-94.  In  1896- 
97,  the  distinguished  Arabic  scholar.  Count  Carlo 
Landberg,  visited  the  coast  of  South  Arabia,  making 
special  studies  of  the  modem  Arabic  dialects  of 
those  regions,  besides  other  geographical  and  epi- 
graphical researches.  In  1898-99  the  expedition  of 
the  Vienna  Academy  to  Shabwa  was  organized  and 
conducted  by  Count  Landberg  and  D.  H.  Muller, 
which,  however,  owing  to  several  difficulties  and 
disagreements,  did  not  accomplish  the  desired  re- 
sults. Other  expeditions  have  since  engaged  in  the 
active  \york  of  exploration.  The  results  of  all  the.se 
expeditions  have  been  threefold:  geographical,  epi- 
graphical, and  historical.  These  results  have  opened 
the  way  not  only  to  fresh  views  and  studies  concern- 
ing the  various  ancient  South-.Vrabian  dialects,  such 
as  Minean,  Sabean.  or  Himyarite,  Hadramautic,  and 
Katabanian,  but  have  also  shed  unexpected  light 
on  the  history  of  the  old  Soutli-.Vrabian  kingdoms 
and  djTiasties.  These  same  disco\eries  have  also 
thrown  considerable  light  on  Old  Testament  history, 
on  early  Hebrew  religion  and  worship,  and  on  He- 
brew and  comparative  Semitic  philology. 

An.\m.\  AND  THE  Old  Tkstament.— The  Old 
Testament  references  to  Arabia  are  scanty.  The 
t«Tm  .4ra(;  it.stdf,  as  the  name  of  a  particular  country 
and   nation,   is  found  only  in   later  Old  Testament 


writings,  i.  c.  not  earlier  than  Jeremias  (sixth  cen- 
tury B.  c).  In  older  writings  the  term  Arab  is  used 
only  as  an  appellative,  meaning  "  desert ",  or  "  people 
of  the  dasert",  or  "nomad"  in  general.  The  name 
for  .\rabia  in  the  earliest  Old  Testament  writings  is 
either  Ismael,  or  Madian  (A.  V.,  Ishmael,  or  Midian), 
as  in  the  twenty-fifth  chapter  of  Genesis,  which  is  a 
.significant  indication  of  the  relative  ant'ciuity  of 
that  remarkable  chapter.  The  meaning  of  the  term 
.4ra6  can  be  either  that  of  "Nomad",  or  "the  Land 
of  the  Setting  Sun",  i.  e.  the  West,  it  being  .situated 
to  the  west  of  Babylonia,  which  was  considered  by 
the  Biblical  record  of  Gen.,  xi,  as  the  traditional 
starting  point  of  the  earliest  Semitic  migrations. 
By  the  ancient  Hebrews,  however,  the  land  of 
Arabia  was  called  "the  Country  of  the  East",  and 
the  Arabs  were  termed  "Children  of  the  East",  as 
the  Arabian  peninsula  lay  to  the  east  of  Palestine. 

According  to  the  genealogical  table  of  the  tenth 
chapter  of  Genesis,  Cham's  (A.  V.,  Ham)  first-born 
was  Chush.  Chush  (A.  V.,  Cush)  had  five  sons, 
whose  names  are  identical  with  several  regions  in 
Arabia.  Thus  the  name  of  Sebha — probably  the  same 
as  Sheba,  or  Saba — situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Red  Sea,  occurs  only  three  times  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  second  is  Hevila  in  northern  Arabia,  or, 
as  Glaser  prefers,  in  the  district  of  Yemen  and 
al-Kasim.  The  tliird  is  Regma  (A.  V.,  Raamah), 
in  south-western  Arabia,  mentioned  in  the  Sabean 
inscriptions.  The  fourth  is  Sabatacha,  in  southern 
Arabia,  and  as  far  east  as  Oman.  The  fifth  is  Sa- 
batha  {\.  V.,  Sabtah),  or  better  Sabata,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Hadramaut,  in  South  Arabia.  Regma's 
two  sons,  Saba  and  Dadan  (A.  V.,  Sheba  and  Dedan), 
or  Daidan,  are  also  two  Arabian  geograpliical  names, 
the  first  being  the  famous  Saba  (A.  v.,  Sheba)  of 
the  Book  of  Kings,  whose  Queen  visited  Solomon, 
while  the  second  is  near  Edom  or,  as  Glaser  suggests, 
north  of  Medina.  In  v.  28  of  the  same  Genesiac 
chapter,  Saba  is  said  to  be  a  son  of  Jectan  (A.  V'., 
Joktan),  and  so,  also,  Elmodad,  Asarmoth,  Hevila, 
Ophir  (A.  v.,  Almodad,  Hazarmaveth,  Havilah. 
etc.,  wliich  are  equally  Arabian  geograpliical  names), 
while  in  chapter  xxv,  3,  both  Saba  and  Dadan  are 
represented  as  grandsons  of  Abraham. 

The  episode  of  Sarai's  handmaid.  Agar  (A.  V., 
Hagar),  and  her  son,  Ismael  (A.  V.,  Ishmael),  is 
well  known.  According  to  this,  Ismael  is  the  real 
ancestor  of  the  majority  of  Arabian  tribes,  such  as: 
Nabajoth,  Cedar,  Abdeel,  Mabsam,  Masma,  Duma, 
Massa,  Hadar,  Thema,  Jethur,  and  Cedma  (A.  V., 
Nebaijoth,  Kedar,  Abdeel,  Mibsam,  Mishma,  Dumah, 
Massa,  Hadar,  Tenia.  Jetur.  Naphish,  and  Kedemah, 
respectively).  Equally  well  known  are  the  stories 
of  the  Madianite,  or  Ismaelite,  merchants  who 
bought  Joseph  from  his  brethren,  that  of  the  forty 
years'  wandering  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  over  the 
desert  of  -\rabia,  of  the  Queen  of  Saba,  etc.  In 
later  Old  Testament  times  we  read  of  Nehemiiis 
(.\.  v.,  Nehemiah),  who  sufTered  much  from  the 
enmity  of  an  .\rab  .sheikh,  Gossem  (A.  V.,  Geshem), 
or  better  Gaslimu  or  Gushamu  [Nehemiah  (in  Douay 
Version,  II  E.sdras),  ii.  19;  vi,  6],  and  he  also  enu- 
merates the  Arabs  in  the  list  of  his  opponents  (iv,  7). 
In  II  Paralipomenon  (A..  V.,  Chronicles)  we  are  told 
(xvii,  11)  that  the  Arabians  brought  tribute  to 
King  Josaphat  (A.  V.,  Jchoshaphat).  The  same 
chronicler  tells  us,  also,  how  God  (umished  the 
wicked  Joram  by  means  of  the  Philistines  and  the 
Arabians,  who  were  beside  the  Ethiopians  (11  Paral., 
xxi,  16),  and  how  he  helped  the  pious  Ozias  (.\.  V., 
Uzziah)  in  the  war  against  the  "Arabians  that  dwelt 
in  Gurbaal"  (xxvi,  7).  The  .Arabians  mentioned 
here  are  in  all  probability  the  Nabata;ans  of  northern 
Arabia;  as  our  author  wrote  in  the  second  or  third 
century   B.   c. 

TiiK  Nohth-.Vkabian  Musri  and  the  Old  Testa- 


I 


ARABIA 


0(j.j 


ARABIA 


MENT  MisRAiM. — The  cunpiform  inscriptions  of 
As-syria  have  thrown  consiilerable  light  on  various 
geographical  localities  in  North  Arabia,  having  im- 
portant bearing  on  the  history  of  the  ancient  Hebrews 
ami  on  the  critical  study  of  the  OIJ  Testament. 
The  importance  of  these  new  facts  and  researches 
has  of  late  assumed  very  bewiUiering  proportions, 
the  credit  for  which  immistakably  belongs  to  Winck- 
ler,  Homniil,  and  Cheyne.  It  is  needless  to  say 
tliat  liDWcNcr  ingenious  these  hypotheses  may  appear 
to  be  they  are  not  as  yet  entitled  to  be  received 
without  caution  and  hesitation.  Were  we  to  be- 
lieve, in  fact,  the  elaborate  theories  of  the.se  eminent 
scholars,  a  great  part  of  the  historical  events  of  the 
OKI  Testament  .sliould  be  transferred  from  Kg\'pt 
and  Chanaan  into  Arabia;  for,  according  to  the  latest 
speculations  of  these  scholars,  many  of  the  i)as.sages 
in  the  Old  Testament  which,  until  recentlv,  were 
supposed  to  refer  to  Kgj'pt  (in  Hebrew  .Ui.sratm) 
and  to  Ethiopia  (in  Hebrew,  Kuah)  do  not  really 
apply  to  them  but  to  two  regions  of  similar  names 
in  North  .\rabia,  called  in  the  .\s.syro-Babylonian 
inscriptions  Musri,  or  Musrim,  and  Chush,  respec- 
tively. They  hold  that  partly  by  means  of  editorial 
manipulation  ami  partly  by  rea-son  of  corruption  in 
the  text,  and  in  con.senueiice  of  the  failed  memory 
of  long-forgotten  events  and  countries,  these  two 
archaic  North-.\rabian  geographical  names  became 
transfornietl  into  names  of  similar  .sound,  but  better 
known,  belonging  to  a  different  geographical  area, 
namely,  the  Egyptian  Misraim  and  the  African 
Chush,  or  Ethiopia. 

According  to  tliis  theory,  .-^gar,  Sarai's  handmaid 
(Gen.,  xvi,  1),  was  not  Misrite  or  Egj^itian,  but 
Musrite,  i.  e.  from  Musri,  in  northern  .Vrabia.  Abra- 
ham (Gen.,  xii,  10)  did  not  go  down  into  Misraim,  or 
Egj'pt,  where  he  is  said  to  have  received  from  the 
Pharaoh  a  gift  of  men-.servants  and  handmaids,  but 
into  Misrim,  or  Musri,  in  northern  .\rabia.  Joseph, 
when  bought  by  the  Ismaelites,  or  Madianitcs, 
i.  e.  .■Vrabs,  was  not  brought  into  Eg>'pt  (Misraim), 
but  to  Musri,  or  Misrim,  in  north  .\rabia,  wliich  was 
the  home  of  the  Madianitcs.  In  I  Kings  (A.  V., 
I  Sam.),  XXX,  13.  we  should  not  read  "I  am  a  young 
man  of  Egj'pt  [.Misraim].  slave  of  an  Amalecite", 
but  of  Musri  in  north  .\rabia.  In  III  Kings  (A.  V., 
1  K.),  iii,  1;  xi,  1,  Solomon  is  .said  to  have  married 
the  daughter  of  an  Egj'ptian  king,  which  is  ex- 
tremely improbable;  for  Misrim  in  north  -Arabia,  and 
not  the  Egj'ptian  Misraim,  is  the  countrj- whose  king's 
daughter  Solomon  married.  In  I  Kings  (A.  V.), 
iv,  30,  the  wisilom  of  Solomon  is  compared  to  the 
"wisdom  of  all  the  children  of  the  east  country 
[i.  c.  the  .Vrabians]  and  all  the  wisdom  of  Egj'pt". 
But  the  last-mentioned  country,  they  .say,  is  not 
Egypt  but,  as  the  parallelism  requires,  Madian,  or 
Alusri,  whose  proverbial  wisdom  is  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  III  Kings,  x,  28  sq., 
horses  are  said  to  have  been  brought  from  Egj-pt; 
but  horses  were  very  scarce  in  Egj-pt,  while  very 
numerous  and  famous  in  Arabia.  The  .same  emenda- 
tion can  be  made  in  at  least  a  liozen  more  Old- 
Testament  pas.sages.  The  most  revolutionary  re- 
sult, however,  would  follow  if  we  applied  the  same 
theory  to  the  famous  .sojourn  of  the  Hebrews  in 
Egypt;  for  it  is  self-evident  that  if  the  Lsraelites 
sojourned  not  in  the  Egjiitian  Misraim,  but  in  the 
north  .\rabian  Musri,  and  from  thence  fled  into 
Chanaan,  which  was  nearby,  the  result  to  ancient 
Hebrew  history  and  religion  would  be  of  the  most 
revolutionary'  character.  Similar  emendation  ha.s 
been  applied  with  more  or  less  success  to  the  many 
pas.sages  where  Chush,  or  Ethiopia,  occurs,  such  as 
Gen.,  ii,  13;  x,  6;  Num.,  xii,  1 ;  Judges,  iii,  10;  II  Kings 
(A.  v.,  II  Sam.),  .wiii.  21;  Isa.,  xx,  3;  xlv,  14;  Hab., 
iii,  7;  Vs..  Ixxxvi,  4;  II  Par.  (A.  V.,  Chron.),  xiv,  9; 
xxi,  16,  etc. 


.\nother  important  geographical  name  freciuently 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  all  instances 
referred,  till  recently,  to  .\»syria,  is  Assur  (abl)re\i- 
ated  into  Sur).  .\  country  of  .similar  name  has  also 
been  discovered  in  .Vrabia.  In  this  last  view  Winckler 
and  Cheyne  are  warmly  supported  by  Homniel.  by 
whom  it  was  first  suggested.  Cheyne,  furthermore, 
has  pushed  the.se  identifications  to  such  extremities 
as  to  transplant  the  whole  historical  and  religious 
life  of  Israel  to  the  Nejeb,  the  countrj'  of  Jerameel. 
in  northern  .\rabia.  According  to  him  the  prophets 
Elias,  Eliseus,  Amos,  Osee  (.\.  V.,  Hosea),  Ezechiel 
(A.  v.,  Ezekiel),  Joel,  and  Abdias  (A.  \.,  Obadiah) 
are  all  North-.\rabians;  and  all  the  rest  of  the  prophets 
either  came  from  that  country  or  have  it  constantly 
in  view.  Isai:is  {A.  V.,  Isaiah),  xl-lv,  was,  according 
to  him,  composed  in  northern  Arabia;  Ezechiel  also 
suffered  imprisonment  and  prophesied  there;  and 
hundreds  of  personal  and  geographical  proper  names 
in  the  Old  Testament  are,  according  to  him,  in- 
tentional or  accidental  corruptions  of  Jerameel, 
.\rabia,  and  Nejeb.  However  great  our  appreciation 
of  Winckler's  and  Cheyne's  ingenuity  ami  learning 
may  be,  and  allowing  that  their  theories  are  not 
entirely  lacking  in  plausibility,  yet  they  have  re- 
ceived, so  far,  little  support  and  encouragement  from 
the  majority  of  Biblical  scholars  and  critics.  It  is 
true  that  the  new  theories,  in  some  of  their  applica- 
tions, give  highl}'  satisfactory  results,  but  in  their 
extreme  form  they  are,  to  say  the  least,  premature 
and  ultra-radical. 

E.\ULY  History  of  Arabia  till  the  Rise  of 
Islam. — To  the  historian,  the  earliest  history  of 
Arabia  is  a  blank  page,  little  or  nothing  being  his- 
torically known  ami  ascertaineil  as  to  the  origin, 
niigrationi,  history,  and  political  vicissitudes  of  the 
-Arabian  nation.  Mohammedan  traditions  concern- 
ing the  early  history  of  the  peninsula  are  mostly 
legendan,-  and  highly  coIouhmI,  although  partly  ba.sed 
on  Biblical  data  ami  rabbinical  traditions.  Hardly 
less  unsatisfactorj'  are  the  many  references  found 
in  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  The  mention  of  .Arab 
tribes,  under  the  various  forms  of  Arabi,  Arubu, 
Aribi,  and  po.s.sibly  Urbi,  frequently  occurs  in  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions  as  early  as  the  ninth  centurj' 
n.  c,  and  their  country  is  spoken  of  as  seldom  or 
never  traversed  by  any  conqueror,  and  as  inhabited 
by  wild  and  independent  tribes.  We  read,  e.  g., 
that  in  854  n.  c.  Salmanasar  II  (A.  V.,  Shalnianezer) 
met  in  battle  a  confederation  in  which  was  Gindibu 
the  Arab  with  one  hundred  camels.  A  few  years 
later  Theglathphalasar  III  (A.  V.,  Tiglathpileser) 
undertook  an  expedition  into  Arabia;  and  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  eighth  centurj'  B.  c.  we  find  Assyrian 
influence  extending  over  the  north-west  and  east  of 
the  peninsula.  One  century  later  a  number  of 
-Arabian  tribes  of  inner  Arabia  were  defeated  by 
-Asarhaddon  (A.  V.,  Esarhaddon)  at  Bazu.  -Assur- 
banipal  also  repeatedly  speaks  of  his  various  success- 
ful exi)editions  into  and  conquests  in  the  lands  of 
.Musri,  Magan,  Meluhha,  and  Chush  in  -Arabia.  In 
the  Behistun  inscription  of  the  Persian  king  Darius, 
Arabia  (Arabaya)  is  mentioned  as  a  subject  land. 
The  numerous  South-.Arabian  inscriptions  thus  far 
discovered  and  deciphered  by  Hal6vy,  Winckler, 
I).  H.  Miiller,  Hoinmel,  Ed.  Glaser,  and  others  do 
not  throw  much  light  on  the  early  history  of  Arabia. 
But  the  epi^raphic  evidences  and  the  many  ruins 
still  extant  in  various  parts  of  that  fx>ninsula  un- 
mistakably show  that  a  highly  developed  civilization 
must  have  existed  among  the  ancient  -Arabs  at  a  very 
early  age. 

The  two  most  important  kingdoms  of  ancient 
.Aral>ia  are  that  of  the  Mineans  (the  '3D  of  the  Old 
Testament)  and  that  of  the  Sabeans.  whence  the 
Queen  of  Saba  came  to  pay  her  homage  of  resix>ct  and 
admiration  to  King  Solomon.     A  third  kingdom  was 


ARABIA 


666 


ARABIA 


that  of  Kataban,  a  fourth,  Hadramaut,  as  well  as 
those  of  Iviiiyan,  Raidan,  Habashah,  and  others. 
Tlie  Mincan  Kingdom  seems  to  have  flourished  in 
southern  Arabia  as  early  as  1200  B.  c,  and  from  the 
various  Minean  inscriptions  found  in  northorn  Arabia 
they  seem  to  have  extended  their  power  even  to 
the  north  of  the  peninsula.  Their  principal  cities 
were  Main,  Karnan,  and  Yatil.  The  Sabean,  or  Him- 
yaritic,  Kingdom  (the  Homerita;  of  the  classics) 
Hourislied  either  contemporarily  (D.  H.  Mtiller)  or 
after  (Glaser,  Homniel)  the  Minean.  Their  capital 
city  was  Marib  (the  Mariaba  of  the  Arabian  classics), 
famous  for  its  dam,  the  breaking  of  which  is  often 
mentioned  by  later  Arabic  poets  and  traditions  as 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  fall  of  the  Sabean  power. 
The  Sabeans,  after  two  centuries  of  repeated  and 
persistent  attacks,  finally  succeeded  in  overthrowing 
the  rival  Minean  Kingdom.  Their  power,  howe\'er, 
lasted  till  about  300  a.  d.,  when  they  were  defeated 
and  conquered  by  the  Abyssinians. 

The  Katabanian  state,  with  its  capital,  Taima,  was 
ruined  some  time  in  the  second  century  after  Christ, 
probably  by  the  Sabeans.  Towards  the  beginning  of 
our  Era  the  three  most  prominent  and  power- 
ful Arab  states  were  the  Sabean,  the  Himyarite, 
and  that  of  Hadramaut.  In  the  fourth  century 
the  Himyarites,  aided  by  the  Sassanian  kings  of 
Persia,  appear  to  have  had  a  controlling  power  in 
southern  Arabia,  while  the  Abyssinians  were  absolute 
rulers  of  Yemen.  These,  however,  although  pressed 
by  Himyar  and  temporarily  confined  to  the  Tehamah 
district  (a.  d.  378),  succeeded,  in  525,  with  the  help 
of  the  Byzantine  Emperor,  in  overthrowing  the 
Himyarite  power,  killing  the  king  and  becoming  the 
absolute  rulers  of  South  Arabia.  In  568  the  Abys- 
siniaiLs  were  finally  driven  out  of  Arabia,  and  the 
power  restored  to  the  Yemenites;  tliis  vassal  king- 
dom of  the  Persian  Empire  lasted  until  the  year  634, 
when  it  was  absorbed,  together  with  all  the  other 
Arabian  States,  by  the  Mohammedan  conquest. 

Such  was  the  political  condition  of  southern  Arabia 
previous  to  the  time  of  Mohammed.  Of  central 
Arabia  little  or  nothing  is  known.  In  northern  and 
north-western  Arabia  there  flourished  the  Nabata>an 
Kingdom,  the  people  of  which,  though  Arabian  by 
race,  nevertheless  spoke  Aramaic.  The  Nabatsans 
must  have  come  from  other  parts  of  Arabia  to 
the  North  some  time  about  the  fifth  century  b.  c, 
for  at  the  beginning  of  the  Machabean  period  we 
find  them  already  well  established  in  that  region. 
Shortly  before  the  Christian  Era,  Antigonus  and 
Ptolemy  had  in  vain 'attempted  to  gain  a  footing  in 
Arabia;  and  Pompey  himself,  victorious  elsewliere, 
was  checked  on  its  frontiers.  During  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  jElius  Callus,  the  Roman  Prefect  of 
Egypt,  with  an  army  composed  of  10,000  Roman 
infantry,  500  Jews,  and  100  Nabata?ans,  undertook 
an  expedition  against  the  province  of  Yemen.  He 
took  by  a.ssault  the  city  of  Nejran,  on  the  frontier  of 
Yemen,  and  advanced  sis  far  as  Marib,  the  capital  of 
Yemen,  but,  owing  to  the  resistance  of  the  Arabs  and 
the  disorganization  of  his  army,  which  was  unaccus- 
tomed to  the  heat  of  the  tropical  climate  of  Arabia, 
he  Wiis  forced  to  retreat  to  Egypt  withovit  accom- 
plishing any  permanent  and  effective  conquest. 
Later  attempts  to  confiuer  the  counti-y  were  made 
by  Roman  governors  and  generals  under  Trajan  and 
SeyeriLs,  but  these  were  mostly  restricted  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Syrian  frontiers,  such  as 
Nabatea,  Uosra,  Petra,  Palmyra,  and  the  Sinaitic 
peniasula. 

Another  North-Arabian  kingdom  was  that  of 
Hira._  situated  in  the  nortli-easterly  frontier  of 
Arabia  adjoining  Irak,  or  Babylonia.  Its  kings 
eoverned  the  western  shore  of  the  lower  ICiiijhrates, 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Babylon  down  to  the 
confines  of  Ncjd,  and  along  tlie  coast  of  the  Persian 


Gulf.  It  was  founded  in  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  Era  and  lasted  about  424  years,  i.  e.  till  it 
was  absorbed  by  the  Mohammedan  con(juest.  The 
kings  of  Hira  were  more  or  less  vassal  to  their 
powerful  neighbours,  the  Sassanian  kings  of  Persia, 
jjaying  them  allegiance  and  tribute.  Another  Arabian 
state  was  tliat  of  Ghassan  whose  kings  ruled  o\er  a 
considerable  part  of  north-western  Arabia,  lower 
Syria,  and  Hijaz.  It  was  founded  in  the  first  century 
of  the  Christian  Era  and  lasted  till  the  time  of  Mo- 
hammed. The  Kingdom  of  Ghassan  was  frequently 
harassed  by  Roman  and  Byzantine  encroachments 
and  by  unequal  alliances.  In  both  these  kingdoms 
(i.  e.  Hirah  and  Ghassan)  Christianity  made  rapid 
progress,  and  numerous  Christian  communities,  with 
bishops,  churches,  and  monasteries,  flourished  there. 
(For  Christianity  in  Arabia,  see  below.) 

Another  Arabian  kingdom  was  that  of  Kindah, 
originally  from  Irak,  or  north-eastern  Arabia,  and 
Mesopotamia.  This  rather  short-lived  and  weak 
kingdom  began  about  the  fifth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian Era  and  ended  with  Mohammed,  i.  e.  about  one 
century  and  a  half  later.  Its  power  and  authority 
extended  for  a  time  over  the  whole  northern  section 
of  Nejd  and  as  far  south  as  Oman.  Besides  these 
independent  kingdoms,  various  Arab  tribes,  such  as 
that  of  Koreish,  to  which  Mohammed  belonged, 
Rabeeah,  Qays,  Hawazin,  Tamim,  and  others,  were 
constantly  endeavouring  to  assume  independent 
power  and  authority.  But  their  efforts  and  hopes 
were  finally  and  permanently  shattered  by  the  Mo- 
hammedan conquest,  which  put  an  end  to  all  tribal 
factions  and  preponderances  by  uniting  them  all  into 
one  religious  and  political  kingdom,  the  Kingdom  of 
Islam. 

NiEBUHR,  Travels  Through  Arabia  (tr.,  Edinburgh,  1792); 
Caussin  de  Perceval,  Essai  sur  Vhistoire  des  Arabes  avant 
rislamisme,  etc.  (Paris.  1847);  Sedillot,  Histoire  aynerale  des 
Arabes  (Paris,  1877);  Sprenger.  Die  alte  Geographie  Arabiena 
als  Grundlage  der  EntU'icklungsgeschichte  des  Semitismus 
(Berne,  1875);  Palgrave,  Travels  in  Eastern  Arabia  (London, 
1893):  Hamadani,  Geography  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula  (ed. 
Miiller,  1891);  Wellhausen,  Reste  arabischen  HeidenthuTns 
(Berlin.  1897):  Bekri  and  Yaqut.  Geographical  Dictionaries 
(ed.,  Wiistenfield,  1806-70):  Hommel,  Sudarabi^che  Chresto- 
■mathie  (Munich,  1893),  and  Explorations  in  Arabia,  in  Hli.- 
PRECHT,  Explorations  in  Bible-Lands  during  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (Philadelphia,  1903).  e!13-752;  Glaser,  Die  Abessinier 
in  Arabien  und  Africa  (Munich,  1895),  and  Skizze  der  Geschichte 
und  Geographie  Arabiens  (Berlin.  1890);  Winckler,  vl/torvn- 
talische  Forschungen  (1st  and  2d  series,  1893-98):  Hogarth. 
Unveiling  of  Arabia  (London,  1904);  Brunow,  Die  Provincia 
Arabia  (2  vols,  fol.,  1905):  Margoliouth  in  Hast.,  Diet,  of 
the  Bible,  s.  v.;  Halevy  in  ViG.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v. 

Christianity  in  Arabia. — The  origin  and  pro- 
gress of  Christianity  in  Arabia  is,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  sufficiently  authenticated  historical  docu- 
ments, involved  in  impenetrable  obscurity,  and  only 
detached  episodes  in  one  part  or  another  of  the 
peninsula  can  be  grouped  together  and  studied. 
References  to  various  Christian  missionary  enter- 
prises in  the  north  and  south  of  the  country,  found 
in  early  ecclesiastical  historians  and  Fathers,  such 
as  Eusebius,  Rufinus,  Socrates,  Nicephorus,  Meta- 
phrastes,  Theodoret,  Origen,  and  Jerome,  are  val- 
uable, but  to  be  used  with  caution,  inasmuch  as  a 
lamentable  confusion,  common  to  all  writers  of  that 
time  between  Aralsia  proper  and  India,  or  Abyssinia, 
seems  to  have  crept  into  their  writings. 

Furthermore,  no  proper  discrimination  is  made  by 
any  of  them  among  the  various  traditions  at  their 
disposal.  More  abundant  and  trustworthy  informa- 
tion may  be  gathered  from  Nestorian  antl  Jacobite 
writers,  as  each  of  these  sects  has  had  its  own 
s])here  of  influence  in  the  peninsula,  and  particularly 
in  the  northern  kingdoms  of  I.Iira  and  Ghassan. 
Arabic  historians  (all  of  post-Islamic  times)  are 
very  interesting  in  their  allusions  to  the  same,  but 
are  at  vari:in(c  witli  one  another.  Indigenous 
ccclosiaslical  literature  and  monuments,  except  per- 
haps one  iiLscription  of  tlic  fifth  century  after  Christ 


ARABIA 


667 


ARABIA 


found  by  Glascr,  and  tlie  ruins  of  a  supposed  cluircli, 
afterwards  turned  into  a  lieatlien  temple,  are 
utterly  wanting.  Christianity  in  Arabia  had  three 
main  centres  in  the  north-west,  north-east,  and 
south-west  of  the  iicninsula.  The  first  embraces 
the  Kingdom  of  (Ihassan  (under  Roman  rule), 
the  second  that  of  Uira  (under  Persian  jHiwer),  ami 
the  third  the  kingdoms  of  llimyar,  Yemen,  and  Najran 
(under  Abyssinian  rule).  As  to  central  and  south- 
east Arabia,  such  as  Nejd  and  Oman,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Clirislianity  ma<le  any  advance  there. 

North-Arabian  Christianili/. — According  to  the 
majority  of  tlie  Fathers  anil  historians  of  the 
Church,  the  origin  of  Christianity  in  northern  Arabia 
is  to  be  traced  back  to  the  .\|iostle  Paul,  who  in  his 
Epistle  to  the  (ialatians,  .speaking  of  the  period  of 
time  immediately  following  his  conversion,  says: 
"Neither  went  I  up  to  Jeru.salem  to  them  which 
were  apostles  before  me;  but  I  went  to  .\rabia,  and 
returned  to  Dama.scus"  (Gal.  i,  17).  What  partic- 
ular region  of  .Vrabia  was  visited  by  the  .\|X)stle,  the 
length  of  his  stay,  the  motive  of  his  journey,  the 
route  followed,  and  tlie  things  he  accomplisheil  there 
are  not  specified.  His  journey  may  have  lastetl 
as  long  as  one  year,  ami  the  jilace  visited  may  have 
been  either  the  country  of  the  Nabatirans  or  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  or  better,  as  Harnack  remarks, 
"not  to  the  desert,  but  rather  to  a  district  south  of 
Damascus  where  he  could  not  expect  to  come  across 
any  Jews"  (Expan.sion  of  Christianity,  190.i,  II, 
301).  Jerome,  however,  suggests  that  he  may  have 
gone  to  a  tribe  where  his  mission  was  unsuccessful 
as  regards  visible  results.  Zwemer's  suggestion 
[Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam  (1900),  302-.mS], 
that  the  Koranic  allusion  to  a  certain  Nebi  Salih, 
or  the  Prophet  Salih,  who  is  said  to  have  corne  to 
the  .Vrabs  preaching  the  truth  and  was  not  listened 
to.  and  who,  consequently,  in  leaving  them  said:  "O 
my  people,  I  diil  preach  unto  you  the  message  of  my 
Loru,  and  I  gave  you  good  advice,  but  ye  love  not 
sincere  ailvi.sers"  (Surah  vii),  refers  to  Paul  of  Tarsus 
- — this  theory  need  hardly  be  consiilered. 

In  the  light  of  the  legcml  of  Abgar  of  Edes.sa, 
however,  anil  consiilcring  the  fact  tliat  the  regions 
lying  to  the  north-west  and  north-east  of  Arabia, 
under  Roman  and  Persian  rule  respectively,  were 
in  constant  contact  with  the  northern  Arabs,  among 
whom  Christianity  had  already  made  fa.st  and  steady 
progress,  we  may  reasonably  a.ssume  that  Christian 
missionary  activity  cannot  have  neglected  the  attrac- 
tive mission  field  of  northern  Arabia.  In  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  (ii,  11)  we  even  reail  of  the  presence 
of  Arabians  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  Arabs 
were  quite  numerous  in  the  Parthian  Empire  and 
around  Edes.sa.  The  cruel  persecutions,  further- 
more, which  raged  in  the  Roman  and  Persian  Em- 
pires against  the  followers  of  Christ  must  have  forced 
many  of  these  to  seek  refuge  on  the  safer  soil  of 
nortfiern  .\rabia. 

Chri.ilianily  in  Ghnxsan  and  Xorth-Jf'cst  Arabia. 
■ — The  Kingdom  of  Gha.ssan,  in  north-western  Ara- 
bia, adjacent  to  Syria,  comprised  a  very  exten- 
sive tract  of  territory  and  a  great  number  of  Arab 
tribes  who.se  first  migrations  there  must  have  taken 
place  as  early  as  the  time  of  .\lexancler  the  Great. 
Towards  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  of  the  Chri.s- 
tian  era  the.se  tribes  already  formed  a  confederation 
powerful  enough  to  cau.so  trouble  to  the  Roman 
Empire,  which  formed  with  them  alliances  and 
friendships  in  order  to  counterbalance  the  influence 
of  the  -Mcsopotamian  .\rabs  of  I.Iira,  who  were  uniler 
Persian  rule.  The  kings  of  Ghassan  trace  tlieir  de- 
scent from  the  tribe  of  Azd.  in  Yemen.  Gafahah, 
their  first  king,  dispos-sessed  the  original  ilynasty, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  confirmed  in  his  conquest 
by  the  Roman  governor  of  Syria.  Their  capital 
city  was  Balka  till  the  time  of   the  second  lidritli, 


when  it  was  supplanted  by  Petra  and  Sideir.  .\1- 
though  living  a  nomailic  life  and  practically  inde- 
pendent, with  "no  dwelling  but  the  tent,  no  iiitrench- 
ment  but  the  sword,  no  law  but  the  traditionary 
song  of  their  bards",  the.se  Arabs  were  under  the 
nominal,  but  quite  elTective  control  of  the  Romans 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Pompey.  .Such  Syrian 
Arabs  always  looked  upon  the  Romans  as  their 
best  and  most  powerful  defenders  and  protectors 
against  the  Sa.ssanian  ilynasty  of  Persia,  Dy  which 
they  wore  constantly  oppres.sed  and  molested. 

'I  he  Nabata'an  Kingdom,  which  compri.sed  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  the  sea-coast  to  the  Ciulf  of 
Akaba,  to  Al-llaura,  and  as  far  as  Dama.scus  and 
Ilijaz,  and  which  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  Em- 
pire in  .\.  D.  105,  comprised  also  many  .\rab  tribes 
which  were  for  a  long  time  governeil  by  their  own 
sheikhs  and  princes,  their  stronghold  being  the  country 
around  Bosra  and  Damascus.  These  sheikhs  were 
acknowledged  as  such  by  the  Roman  emperors, 
who  gave  them  the  title  of  phylarch.  The  ever- 
increasing  number  and  importance  of  these  tribes 
and  of  those  living  in  the  Glia.s.sanide  terriforj'  were 
such  that  in  ,'531,  by  the  consent  and  authority  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian,  a  real  .Vrab-Roman  kingtlom 
was  formed  under  the  rule  of  the  kings  of  Ghassan, 
whose  power  and  authority  extended  over  all  the 
Arabs  of  Syria,  Palestine.  Plicenicia  and  north-western 
Arabia.  Another  Syro-.\rabian  Kingdom,  in  which 
Arab  tribes  were  very  numerous,  is  that  of  PahnjTa, 
which  retained  for  a  long  time  its  independence 
and  resisted  all  encroachments.  Under  Oilenathus, 
the  Palmyrene  kingdom  flourished,  and  it  reached 
the  zenith  of  its  power  under  his  wife  and  successor, 
the  celebrated  Zenobia.  After  her  defeat  by  .^ure- 
han  (-72),  Palmyra  and  its  dependencies  became  a 
pro\-ince  of  tlie  Roman  Empire. 

Christianity  must  have  been  introduced  among 
the  Syrian  .Arabs  at  a  very  early  period;  if  not  among 
the  tribes  living  in  the  interior  of  the  Syro-Arabian 
de.sert,  certainly  among  tho.se  whose  proximity 
brought  them  into  continuous  social  and  commercial 
contact  with  Syria.  Rufinus  (Hist.  Ecclcsiastica, 
II,  6)  tells  us  of  a  certain  .Vrabian  Queen,  Mavia.  or 
Maowvia  (better.  Mii'awiyali),  who,  after  having 
reixjatedly  fought  against  the  Romans,  accepted 
peace  on  conilition  that  a  certain  monk,  called  Mo.ses, 
should  be  appointed  bishop  over  her  tribe.  This 
took  place  during  the  reign  of  Valens  (about  374), 
who  was  greatly  inclined  to  .\rianism.  Moses  lived 
a  hermit  life  in  the  de.sert  of  l-^gj-pt,  and  accordingly 
he  was  brought  to  .Vlexandria  in  order  to  be  ordained 
bishop,  as  tlie  Bedouin  queen  required.  The  Bishop 
of  Alexanilria  was  then  a  certain  Lucius,  accused 
of  .\r;anism.  Moses  refusetl  to  be  ordained  by  a 
heretical  bishop,  and  was  so  obilurate  in  his  refusal 
that  it  was  necessary  for  the  emperor  to  bring  from 
exile  a  Cathohc  bishop  and  send  liim  to  the  queen. 

Caussin  ile  Perceval  (Ilistoire  des  Arabes  avant 
l'I.slamisme,  etc.,  II,  21.5)  affirms  that  towards  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  and  during  the 
reign  of  Djabala  I,  Christianity  was  again  preached, 
and  accepted  by  another  .Vrab  tribe.  Sozomenus, 
in  fact,  relates  that  before  the  time  of  Valens  an 
Arab  prince,  whom  he  calls  Zacomc,  or  Zocum,  hav- 
ing olitaincd  a  son  through  the  prayers  of  a  Syrian 
hermit,  embraced  Christianity,  and  all  his  tribe  with 
him.  Leciuien  (Oricns  Chnstianus,  II,  851)  calls 
this  prince  Zaracome  and  places  him  under  the 
reign   of    Constantine  or  of    one   of   his  sons.     No 

firince  of  such  name,  however,  occurs  in  any  .\rabic 
listorian,  although  Caussin  de  Perceval  suggests 
his  identification  with  a  certain  Arcaii.  of  the  tribe 
of  Giafnah,  who  was  in  all  probability  a  prominent 
chief   of   Ghassan. 

.\nother  source  of  Christian  propaganda  among 
the    northern    Arabs    was    undoubtedly    the    many 


ARABIA 


668 


ARABIA 


holy  hermits  and  monks  scattered  in  the  Syro-Ara- 
bian  desert,  for  whom  the  Arab  tribes  had  great 
respect,  and  to  whose  sohtarj'  abodes  tliey  made 
numerous  pilgrimages.  Jerome  and  Theodoret  ex- 
plicitly affinn  that  the  life  and  miracles  of  St.  Hilar- 
lon  and  of  St.  Simeon  the  Stylite  made  a  deep 
impression  on  the  Bedouin  Arabs.  Many  tribes 
accepted  Christianity  at  the  hands  of  tlie  latter 
Saint,  while  many  others  became  so  favourably  dis- 
posed towards  it  that  they  were  baptized  by  the 
priests  and  bishops  of  Syria.  Cyrillus  of  Scythop- 
olis  (sixth  century),  in  his  hfe  of  Saint  Euthymius, 
the  monk  of  Pharan.  tells  the  story  of  the  conversion 
of  an  entire  Arab  tribe  wliich,  towards  420,  had  mi- 
grateil  from  along  the  Euphrates  into  Palestine. 
Their  chief  was  a  certain  Aspebsetos.  He  had  a  son 
afflicted  with  paralysis,  who  at  the  prayers  of  the 
saint  completely  recovered.  Aspebsetos  himself  was 
afterwards  ordained  bishop  over  liis  own  tribe  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  (see  below).  These 
detached  facts  clearly  indicate  that  during  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era, 
Christianity  must  have  been  embraced  by  many 
Arabs,  and  especially  by  the  tribe  of  Ghassan, 
which  is  celebrated  by  Arab  historians  and  poets 
as  being  from  very  early  times  devotedly  attached 
to  Christianity.  It  was  of  this  tribe  that  the  proverb 
became  current:  "They  were  lords  in  the  days  of 
ignorance  [1.  e.  before  Mohammed]  and  stars  of 
Islam."  (Zwemer,  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam, 
304.) 

The  numerous  inscriptions  collected  in  northern 
SjTia  by  Waddington,  de  Vogue,  Clermont  Ganneau, 
and  others  also  clearly  indicate  the  presence  of  Chris- 
tian elements  in  the  Syro-Arabian  population  of  that 
region  and  especially  aromid  Bosra.  In  the  days 
of  Origen  there  were  numerous  bishoprics  in  the 
towns  lying  south  of  the  Hauran,  and  these  bishops 
were  once  grouped  together  in  a  single  synod  (Har- 
nack,  Expansion  of  Christianity,  II,  301).  As  early 
as  the  tliird  century  tliis  part  of  Syro-Arabia  was 
already  well  known  as  the  "mother  of  heresies". 
Towards  the  year  244  Origen  converted  to  the  ortho- 
dox faith  Beryllus,  Bishop  of  Bosra,  who  was  a  con- 
fessed anti- Trinitarian  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  20); 
and  two  years  earher  (242)  a  provincial  synod  of 
Arabia  was  held  in  connexion  with  the  proceedings 
against  Origen,  which  decided  in  his  favour.  This 
great  teacher  in  the  Church  was  also  personally 
known  at  that  time  to  the  Arabian  bishops;  for 
about  the  year  215  he  had  travelled  as  far  as  Arabia 
at  the  request  of  the  Roman  governor,  before  whom 
he  laid  his  views  (Eusebius,  op.  cit.,  VI,  19,  and 
Harnack,  op.  cit.,  301).  In  250  the  same  teacher 
went  to  -Arabia  for  the  second  time  to  combat  certain 
heretics  who  taught  that  the  soul  died  with  the 
body,  but  that  it  would  rise  up  again  with  it  on  the 
Judgment  Day  (Eusebius,  op.  cit.,  VI,  39). 

The  "  Onomasticon  "  of  Eusebius  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Council  of  Nictea  (325)  also  indicate  the  presence 
of  Christians,  during  the  days  of  Eusebius,  in  Arabia, 
along  the  Dead  Sea,  and  around  Qariathaim,  near 
Madaba  (Ilamack,  op.  cit.,  302-303).  At  the  Coun- 
cil of  Xica'a  there  were  present  six  bishops  of  the 
province  of  Arabia:  the  Bishops  of  Bosra,  Philadel- 
phia, JabrucU,  Sodom,  Betharma,  and  Dionysias 
(Wright,  Early  Christianity  in  Arabia,  73;  and 
Harnack,  on.  cit.,  303).  One  tradition  makes  an 
Arabian  bisliop  of  Zanaatha  (Sanaa'.')  attend  Nicaa. 
The  sheikli-bishop  .■Vspeba'tos  was  present  at  the 
Covmcil  of  l'4)hesus  (431),  and  one  of  his  successors, 
Valens  by  name,  became,  in  518,  a  .suffragan  bishop 
of  the  Patriarcliate  of  Jcru.salem  (Duchesne,  Les 
dglises  sC'par^'es,  343).  A  certain  Ivustathius,  called 
"Bishop  of  the  Sarrasins",  assisted  at  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon.  In  458  he  was  still  Bishop  of  Dama.scus. 
At  the  second  Council  of   Ephesus  (449)  tliere  was 


present  another  bishop  of  the  "allied  Arabs", 
named  Au.xilaos.  -Another  .Arabian  bishopric  was 
that  of  the  island  of  Jotabe,  near  the  Gulf  of  -Akabah; 
and  a  Bishop  of  Jotabe,  by  the  name  of  .Anastasius, 
was  present  at  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (536).  -At 
the  First  and  Second  Councils  of  Constantinople  we 
read  of  the  presence  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Bosra, 
whose  authority  is  said  to  have  extended  over  twenty 
churches  or  bishoprics  (.Assemani,  Bibliotheca 
Orientahs,  III,  Part  II,  598  sqq.).  Many  of  these 
Arabian  bishops  were  undoubtedly  infected  with 
Arianism,  and  later  on  with  Monophysitism,  the  latter 
sect  having  been  greatly  favoured  and  even  protected 
by  the  Ghassanide  princes. 

The  above  sketch  clearly  shows  that  Christian  -Arab 
tribes  were  scattered  through  all  Syria,  Phoenicia, 
and  northern  Arabia,  having  their  own  bishops  and 
churches.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  tliis  North- 
-Arabian  Christianity  formed  any  national  Church,  as 
many  of  their  bishops  were  dependent  on  the  Greek 
Metropolitans  of  Tyrus,  Jerusalem,  Damascus,  and 
on  the  Patriarchs  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch. 

Christianity  in  Hira  and  Norlh-East  Arabia. — 
-According  to  -Arabic  writers  and  historians,  the  first 
-Arab  migration  into  Hira  took  place  about  A.  D.  192 
by  the  tribe  of  Tenukh  and  under  the  leadership 
of  its  chief,  Malik  ibn  Fahm.  This  tribe  was  shortly 
afterwards  followed  by  other  tribes,  such  as  those  of 
lyad,  -Azd,  Quda'ah,  and  others,  most  of  whom 
settled  around  -Anbar,  and  who  afterwards  built 
for  themselves  the  city  of  Hira,  not  far  from  the 
modern  Kufa  on  the  Euphrates,  in  southern  Baby- 
lonia. We  know,  however,  that  as  early  as  the  time 
of  -Alexander,  and  towards  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  Era,  northern  and  southern  Mesopotamia 
were  thickly  inhabited  by  Arab  tribes,  who.  about 
the  third  century,  formed  more  than  one-third  of 
its  population.  These  tribes  were,  of  coiu-se,  governed 
by  their  own  chiefs  and  princes,  subject,  however, 
to  Persia. 

Tradition  relates  that  under  one  of  these  princes 
of  Hira,  Imru'ul  Qais  I,  who  reigned  from  288  to  338, 
Christianity  was  first  introduced  into  Hira  and 
among  the  Mesopotamian  -Arabs.  This,  however, 
is  not  correct,  for,  from  the  Sj-riac  -Acts  of  the  -Apos- 
tles -Addai  and  Mari,  and  other  SjTiac  documents, 
we  know  that  Christianity  was  introduced  into 
Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  if  not  at  the  end  of  the 
first,  certainly  towards  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. The  -Acts  of  the  Persian  martyrs  and  the 
liistoryof  the  Cliristian  Church  of  Persia  and  MadSin 
(i.  e.  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon)  unmistakably  show 
that  Christianity,  although  fiercely  persecuted 
and  opposed  by  the  Sassanian  kings  of  Persia,  made 
rapid  progress  in  these  and  the  neighbouring  regions, 
and,  consequently,  the  .Arabs  of  IJira  cannot  have 
entirely  missed  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  new  re- 
ligion. We  know  also  that  during  the  reign  of 
Horrauz  I  (271-273)  several  hunilred  Christian 
captives  were  brought  from  Syria  and  other  Roman 
provinces  into  Irak  and  Babylonia.  -According  to 
Tabari  (ed.  Noldeke,  24),  the  Christians  of  Hira 
were  called  'Ibdil,  or  "Worshippers",  i.  c.  "worship- 

Eers  of  God",  in  opposition  to  "pagans"  (Labourt, 
e  Christianisme  dans  1'  empire  perse  sous  la  djTias- 
tie  sassanide,  1904,  206). 

The  condition  of  tlie  Christian  Church  in  Persia 
and  Mesopotamia  in  the  early  centuries  is  well 
known  to  us  from  the  numerous  .Acts  of  martyrs  and 
other  Syriac  documents  still  extant,  but  that  of  the 
Christian  -Arabs  of  Hira  is  very  obscm-e.  We  know, 
however,  that  towards  the  end  of  the  foiu'th,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth,  century  Christianity 
attained  there  considerable  success  and  popularity. 
Nu'mdn  I,  King  of  Hira,  who  reigned  from  390  to  418, 
is  said  to  have  been,  if  not  a  follower  of  Christ,  cer- 
tainly a  great   protector  of  his  Christian   subjects. 


ARABIA 


069 


ARABIA 


During  liis  reiKn  the  Kingdom  of  Hira  rose  to  great 
power  and  celebrity,  for  his  domain  extended  over 
all  the  Arabs  of  Mesopotamia,  over  Babylonia, 
along  tlie  Kuplirates  down  to  the  Persiati  (iiilf, 
and  as  far  .sovith  as  tlie  islands  of  Bahrein,  lie 
caused  great  an<l  nuiniiiticent  buildings  to  be  erected, 
among  whicli  were  tlic  two  famous  castles  of  Kha- 
warnig  and  Siilir,  celebrated  in  Arabic  poetry  for 
their  unsurpassed  splendour  and  beauty.  The  city 
of  Hira  was  then,  as  afterwanls,  called  after  his  own 
narne,  i.  e.  "the  Hira  of  Nu'mAn",  or  "tlie  city  of 
Nu'm.1n",  and  his  deeds  and  exploits  are  justly 
celebrated  by  .Vrab  writers,  historians,  and  poets. 
Before  and  during  the  reign  of  tliis  prince,  the  Per- 
sian monarchs,  from  Shapor  to  Koljnd.  had  relent- 
lessly persecuted  the  Christians,  ami  tlieir  hatred 
for  the  new  religion  was  naturally  imi^arteil  to  their 
va.ssal  kings  and  allies,  principal  among  whom  was 
Nu'man. 

In  410  St.  Simeon  the  Stylite,  who  was  in  all 
probability  of  Arab  descent,  retired  to  the  Syro- 
Arabian  desert.  Tliere  tlio  fame  of  his  sanctity 
and  miracles  attracted  a  great  many  pilgrims  from 
all  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  anil  northern  Arabia,  many  of 
whom  were  N'u'inan's  subjects.  The  pious  example 
and  eloquent  exliortations  of  the  Synan  hermit  in- 
duced many  of  these  heathen  Arabs  to  embrace 
Christianity,  and  Nu'man  began  to  fear  lest  his 
Christian  subjects  miglit  be  led  by  their  religion 
to  desert  to  the  service  of  the  Romans.  Accordingly, 
he  forbade  all  pilgrimages  to  the  Syrian  saint  and  all 
intercourse  with  the  Christian  Romans,  under  penalty 
of  instant  death.  On  the  night  of  the  issue  of  the 
cthct,  St.  Simeon  is  said  to  have  appeared  to  him 
in  a  dream,  threatening  him  with  death  if  he  did 
not  revoke  the  eilict  and  allow  his  Christian  subjects 
absolute  religious  freedom.  Terrifieil  antl  humbled, 
Nu'nidn  revoked  the  order  and  became  himself  a 
sincere  admirer  of  Christianity,  wliicli  his  fear  of  the 
Persian  King  did  not  permit  liim  to  embrace.  When 
the  change  of  sentiment  tliat  had  taken  place  in  tlieir 
prince  was  publicly  known,  the  Arabs  of  his  kingdom 
are  said  to  have  flocked  in  crowds  to  receive  the 
Christian  faith.  This  memorable  event  seems,  to 
all  appearances,  to  be  historical;  for  it  is  related  by 
Cosmas  tlie  Presbyter,  who  assures  us  that  he  heard 
it  personally  from  a  certain  Roman  general,  An- 
tioclius  by  name,  to  wliom  it  was  narrated  by  Nu'nidn 
him.self  (.\s.semani,  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,  I,  247; 
anil  Wright,  op.  cit.,  77).  Ilamza,  -Vbul-Faraj  of 
Isfahan  (the  author  of  Kitab-al-.\ghiini),  Abulfeda, 
Nuwairi,  Tabari.  .-ind  Ibn  Klialdun  (quoted  by 
Caussin  de  Perceval,  Histoire  des  Arabcs,  etc.,  Ill, 
■J.'M)  relate  tliat  Nu'mAn  abdicated  the  throne  and 
retired  to  a  religious  and  ascetic  life,  although  he  is 
iiowliere  expressly  .said  to  have  become  a  Christian. 
(See  also  J.  K.  .\.s.semani,  Acta  Martyrum  Oriental- 
ium.  II,  and  Bibl.  Orient.,  I,  '270-278.) 

The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  spread  and  success  of 
Christianity  in  Hira  was  the  immoderate  hatred  of 
the  Sas,sanian  monarchs  towards  the  Christians  of 
their  empire  and  the  fierce  persecutions  to  which 
tliesc  were  subjected.  I'jieouraged  and  incited  by 
tliese  .suzerains,  the  princes  of  Hira  persecuted  more 
tliaii  once  their  Cliristian  subjects,  destroyed  their 
cliuri'hes,  and  .sentenced  to  death  their  bishops, 
priests,  and  con,secrateil  virgins.  One  of  thc-ie 
nrinces,  Mundhir  ibn  Imru'ul-CJais,  to  whom  Dim 
Kuwas  .sent  the  news  of  the  massacre  of  the  Christians 
of  Najran,  in  .southern  Arabia,  sacrificed  at  the  altar  of 
the  goddess  Ouzza,  the  Arabian  Venus,  four  hundred 
consecrated  Christian  virgins  (Tabari,  ed.  Niildeke 
171).  His  wife,  however,  was  a  fervent  Christian 
of  tlie  royal  family  of  Gha.ssan,  Hind  by  name.  She 
founded  at  Hira  a  famous  monastery  after  her  own 
name,  in  which  many  Nestorian  patriarchs  and  bish- 
ops resided  and  were  burieil.     Yaqut,  in  his  "Geo- 


graphical Dictionary"  (ed.  Wiistenfeld),  reproduces 
the  dedicatory  in.scription  which  was  placed  at  the 
entrance  of  the  church.  It  runs  as  follows:  "This 
church  was  built  by  Hind,  the  daughter  of  Harith 
ibn  .Vmr  ibn  llujr,  the  nueen  daughter  of  Kings, 
the  motlier  of  King  .\nir  ibn  Mundhir,  the  .servant 
of  Christ,  tlie  mother  of  His  servant  and  the  daughter 
of  His  servants  [i.  e.  her  son  and  her  ancestors,  the 
Cliristian  kings  of  Gha.s.san],  under  the  reign  of  the 
King  of  Kings,  Khosroe  .\noushirwan,  in  the  times 
of  Bishop  Mar  Eplirem.  May  God,  to  Whose  honour 
she  built  this  ciiurch,  forgive  her  sins,  and  have 
mercy  on  her  and  on  her  son.  May  He  accept  him 
and  admit  him  into  His  abode  of  peace  and  truth. 
That  He  may  be  with  her  and  with  her  son  in  the 
centuries  to  come. "  (See  Duchesne,  Les  (^glises 
.s(5par(5es,  3,")0-.'J5 1 . ) 

The  inscription  was  written  during  the  reign  of  her 
Christian  .son,  Ainr  ibn  Mundhir,  who  reigned  after 
his  idolatrous  father,  from  .').J4  to  509.  After  him 
reigned  his  brother  Nu'mdn  ibn  Qabus.  This 
prince  is  said  to  have  been  leil  to  embrace  Christian- 
ity by  his  admiration  of  the  constancy  and  punctual- 
ity of  a  Christian  Syrian  whom  he  had  designed  to 
put  to  death.  "In  a  fit  of  drunkenness  lie  had 
wantonly  killed  two  of  his  friends,  and  when  sober, 
in  repentance  for  his  cruelty  and  in  remembrance 
of  their  friendship,  he  erected  tombs  over  their 
graves,  and  vowed  to  moisten  them  once  every  year 
with  the  blood  of  an  enemy.  One  of  the  first  victims 
intended  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  vow  was  this 
Christian  of  Syria,  who  entreated  the  Mundhir  to 
allow  liim  a  short  space  of  time  to  return  home  for 
the  purpose  of  acquitting  himself  of  some  duty  with 
wliich  he  had  been  entrusted;  the  boon  was  granted 
on  his  .solemn  promise  to  return  at  an  appointed  time. 
The  time  came  and  the  Cliristian  Syrian  was  punctu.il 
to  liis  word,  and  thus  saved  his  life."  (Wright,  op.  cit. 
143,  from  Pococke,  "Specimen  Historia-  Arabuni", 
75).  After  his  conversion  to  Cliristianity,  Qabus 
melted  down  a  statue  of  Venus  of  sohil  gold,  which 
had  been  worshipped  by  his  tribe,  and  distributed 
its  gold  produce  among  the  poor  (Evagrius,  Hist. 
Eccl.,  VI,  xxii).  Following  his  example,  many  Arabs 
became  Christians  and  were  baptized. 

Qabus  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Mundhir  ibn 
Mundhir,  during  whose  reign  paganism  held  sway 
once  more  among  his  subjects,  and  Christianity  was 
kept  in  check.  After  him  reigned  Nu'mdn  ibn 
Mundhir  (.5SO-,')9o),  who,  towards  the  year  594, 
was  converted  to  Christianity.  His  granildaugliter. 
Hind,  who  was  a  Christian  anil  of  exceptional  beauty, 
was  married  to  the  .\rab  poet  'Aili  ibn  Zayd.  He 
saw  lier  for  the  first  time  during  a  Palm  .Sunilay 
procession  in  the  church  of  Hira,  and  became  in- 
fatuated with  her.  Nu'mdn  was  one  of  the  hi.st  kings 
of  his  dynasty  tliat  reigned  at  Hira.  One  of  his  sons, 
Muiulhir  il)ii  S'u'iiian.  lived  in  the  time  of  Mohaniiiied, 
whom  lie  oppo.sed  at  the  head  of  a  Christian  .\rab 
army  of  Bahrein;  but  he  fell  in  battle,  in  033,  while 
fighting  the  invading  .Moslem  army. 

The  Christians  of  llira  professeil  both  the  Nes- 
torian and  the  Monophysite  heresies;  both  sects 
having  had  their  own  bishops,  churches,  and  monas- 
teries within  the  .same  city.  Bishops  of  Hira  (in 
Syriac,  Ilirtha  ilc  Tayyniie,  or  "Hira  of  the  Arabs") 
arc  mentioned  as  jtresent  at  the  various  councils  held 
in  411),  430.  4.S5,  499,  and  b»ii.  Towards  the  year 
730  the  Diocese  of  Hira  was  subdivided  into  three 
dioceses  with  three  distinct  bishops  bearing  the  re- 
.spective  titles  of  Bishop  of  Akula,  Bishop  of  Kufa, 
antl  Bishop  of  the  Arabs,  or  of  the  tribe  of  Ta'lab. 
From  08(>-724.  Georgius.  the  famous  Bishop  of  the 
Arabs,  was  .still  entitled  Bishop  of  the  Tanukhites,  of 
the  Tayyaites,  and  of  the  Akulites.  i.  c.  of  the  tribe 
of  Tanoukh,  of  Tay.  and  of  the  district  of  .\kula 
[.\sseinani,    Bibl.    Orient.,   II,   459,    419;    Lequion, 


ARABIA 


670 


ARABIA 


Oriens  Christianus,  II,  1567,  1585,  and  1597;  Guidi, 
Zeitschrift  f iir  deutsche  morgenlandisohe  Gesellschaft , 
XLIII,  410;  Kyssel,  Georgs  des  Araberbischofs 
Gedichte  und  Briefe,  44;  Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  349-352; 
Cliabot,  Synodicon  Orientale  (1902),  275;  Labourt,  Le 
Christianisme  dans  I'empire  Perse  sous  la  dynastie 
Sassanide  (1904),  206-207,  158,  and  passim]. 

South-Arabian  Christianity:  Himyar,  Yemen  and 
Xajran. — .According  to  Eusebius,  Rufinus,  Niee- 
phorus,  Theodoret,  etc.,  followed  by  Baronius,  Asse- 
mani,  Tillemont,  Lequien,  Pagi,  and  others,  the 
Apostle  Bartholomew,  while  on  his  way  to  India 
(i.  c.  Ethiopia),  preached  the  Gospel  in  Arabia  Felix, 
or  Yemen,  which  was  then,  especially  after  the  ex- 
pedition of  ^lius  Gallus,  a  commercial  country  well 
known  to  the  Romans,  and  in  constant  mercan- 
tile and  political  communication  with  Abyssinia. 
Eusebius  informs  us  that  in  the  second  century 
Pantjenus,  master  of  the  school  of  Alexandria,  in- 
structed the  Indians  (Ethiopians)  in  Christianity, 
and  Jerome  adds  further  that  this  missionary  was 
sent  to  them  by  Demetrius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
in  consequence  of  a  request  made  by  them  for  a 
Christian  teacher.  As  the  names  India  and  Indians 
were  applied  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers  indis- 
criminately to  Parthia,  Persia,  Media,  Ethiopia, 
Libya,  and  Arabia,  it  may  be  reasonably  inferred 
that  the  tradition  in  question  is  at  the  least  vague 
and  indefinite,  although  it  is  universally  admitted 
that  the  India  in  question  is  Etliiopia,  whence 
the  Apostle  may  have  easily  crossed  to  Yemen; 
inasmuch  as  the  Ethiopians  and  the  Himyarites, 
or  Yemenites,  are  both  linguistically  and  etlmograph- 
ieally  the  same  race. 

According  to  Nicephorus,  the  field  of  Pantcenus's 
mission  was  among  the  Jews  of  Yemen,  whom  we  know 
to  have  settled  in  various  centres  of  southern  Arabia 
after  the  ruin  of  the  second  Temple  in  order  to  es- 
cape the  Roman  persecution.  Jerome  adds,  further- 
more, that  Pantjenus  found  among  them  the  Hebrew 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  which  they  had  received  from 
their  first  Apostle,  St.  Bartholomew.  Rufinus, 
Theodoret,  and  Eusebius  assert  that  during  the  reign 
of  Constantine  the  Great  (312-337)  a  Tyrian  philos- 
opher named  Meropius  determined  to  visit  the 
Himyarites  in  Arabia  Felix.  He  was  accompanied 
by  two  of  his  kinsmen  (according  to  some,  lus  two 
sons)  and  other  disciples.  On  their  return  they 
were  captured  as  enemies  and  were  either  slain  or 
made  captives,  for  at  that  time  the  Himyarites  were 
in  a  state  of  warfare.  Two  members  of  the  party, 
however,  named  JDdesius  and  Frumentius  respec- 
tively, were  taken  before  the  King  of  Himyar,  who  be- 
came favourably  dispo.sed  towards  them,  appointing 
the  first  his  cup-bearer,  the  other  custodian  of  his 
treasures.  At  the  death  of  the  king,  the  two  Christian 
Tyrians  determined  to  return  to  their  country,  but 
were  prevented  by  the  queen  regent,  who  requested 
them  to  remain  and  he  the  guardians  of  her  infant 
son  till  he  reached  the  proper  age.  They  obeyed, 
and  Frumentius,  taking  advantage  of  his  power 
'wd  position,  caused  a  search  to  be  made  for  tlie  few 
Cliristians  who,  he  had  heard,  were  scattered  in  the 
Hiniyarite  Kingdom.  He  treated  them  kindly  and 
built  for  them   churches  and  places  of  worship. 

As  soon  as  the  young  king  ascended  the  throne, 
the  two  disciples  returned  to  Tyre,  where  ^lesius 
was  ordained  priest.  Frumentius  went  to  Alexan- 
dria to  inform  the  newly-elected  bishop,  Athanasius, 
of  the  condition  of  Christianity  in  Himyar,  and  begged 
him  to  send  them  a  bishop  and  priests.  Whereupon 
Frumentius  himself  was  consecrated  bishop  and  sent, 
together  with  several  priests,  to  the  Himyarites, 
where,  with  tlie  aid  and  favour  of  the  king,  he  in- 
creased tlie  number  of  Christians  and  brought  much 
proKperily  to  the  Church.  As  Duchesne  remarks 
["Lea  C'glises  siSpar^es"   (1905),  311],   the  elevation 


of  Frumentius  must  have  taken  place  during  the  reign 
of  Constantius,  and  either  shortly  before  340,  or 
shortly  after  346;  for  during  the  interval  Athan- 
asius was  absent  from  Alexandria,  and,  as  the  stay 
of  the  two  Tyrians  at  the  court  of  Hiray^r  cannot 
have  lasted  less  than  fifteen  years,  it  follows  that 
Meropius's  journey  must  have  taken  place  between 
the  years  320  and  325.  The  legentl  of  Meropius 
and  Frumentius,  however,  seems  to  refer  to  the 
evangelization  of  Ethiopia  rather  than  to  that  of 
Himyar,  or,  if  to  that  of  Himyar,  its  conversion  must 
have  been  only  of  an  indirect  and  transitorj'  character. 
To  the  mission  of  Frumentius  may  also  refer  the  tes- 
timony of  two  Arabic  writers  quoted  by  Ouseley, 
(Travels,  I,  369-371;  also  Wright,  Christianity  in 
Arabia,  .33),  according  to  which  the  Arabs  of  Najran, 
in  Yemen,  were  first  converted  by  a  Syrian  Christian 
captured  by  some  Arab  robbers  and  taken  to  their 
country. 

Another  Christian  mission  to  Himyar  took  place 
during  the  reign  of  Constantius  (337-361),  who, 
towards  the  year  356,  chose  Bishop  Theophilus, 
the  famous  deacon  of  Nicomedia  and  a  zealous 
Arian,  to  conduct  an  embassy  to  the  court  of  Himyar. 
The  eloquence  of  Theophilus  so  impressed  the  king 
that  he  became  favourably  disposed  towards  the 
Christians  of  his  realm  and  built  three  churches  for 
them,  one  at  Dhafar  (or  Safar),  another  at  Aden  or  at 
Sanaa,  and  the  third  at  Hormuz,  near  the  Persian 
Gulf.  As  the  aim  of  the  embassy  was  to  ask  the  Iving 
of  Himyar  to  grant  freedom  of  worship  to  the  Roman 
citizens  in  the  Kingdom  of  Himyar,  it  follows  that 
Cliristianity  must  have  attained  there  a  certain  im- 
portance. According  to  Philostorgius,  the  king 
liimself  became  a  Christian,  but  this  is  improbable. 
At  any  rate,  whether  Theophilus  succeeded  in  con- 
verting more  Himyarites  to  the  Christian  faith  or 
whether,  as  Assemani  seems  to  believe,  lie  simply  per- 
verted the  already  existing  Christian  population  to  the 
Arian  heresy  cannot  be  determined.  From  the  facts 
that  the  latest  royal  Hiniyarite  inscription,  couched 
in  pagan  terms,  bears  the  date  of  281,  that  local 
Jewish  inscriptions  date  from  378,  448,  458,  and  467, 
and  that  the  first  Christian  inscription,  discovered 
by  Glaser  and  considered  by  Hommel  the  latest 
Sabean  inscription  (it  opens  with  the  words:  "In 
the  power  of  the  All-Merciful,  and  His  Messiah  and 
the  Holy  Ghost"),  dates  only  as  late  as  542-543 
[Glaser,  Skizze  der  Gescliichte  Arabiens  (1889), 
12  sqq.],  it  does  not  follow  that  Christianity  at  the 
time  of  Theophilus  had  not  attained  any  official 
position  in  Himyar,  although  it  is  undeniable  that 
the  two  prevailing  creeds  were  then  Paganism  and 
Judaism.  Arab  historians,  such  as  Ibn  KluiUikan, 
Y'aqut,  Abulfeda,  Il)ii-al-Athir,  and  especially  the 
early  biographers  of  Mohammed,  unaniniou.>ily  affirm 
that  towards  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  the 
Christian  Era  Christianity  flourished  in  Ilira,  Himyar. 
and  Najran,  and  among  many  tribes  of  the'  North 
and  South,  Quda'ah,  Bahrah,  Tanukh,  Taghlib. 
Tay.  We  are  far,  howe\'er,  from  accepting  all 
these  ecclesiastical  testimonies  concerning  the  origin 
and  developiiient  of  Christianity  in  South  Arabia 
as  critically  ascertained  and  conclusive.  Fictitious 
elements  and  legendary  traditions  are  undoubtedly 
ingredients  of  the  original  narratives,  yet  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  a  certain  amount  of  truth  is  con- 
tained in  them. 

Positive  traces  of  ecclesiastical  organization  in 
southern  Arabia  first  appear  in  the  time  of  the  Em- 
peror.\nastasius  (491-518).  John  Diacrinomenos  (P. 
G.,  LXXXVI,  212)  relates  that  during  this  emperor's 
reign  the  Himyarites,  who  had  become  followers 
of  Judaism  since  the  time  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba, 
or  Saba,  were  converted  to  Christianity,  and  received 
a  bishop,  Silvanus  by  name,  who  was  that  writer's 
own  uncle,  and  at  whose  instance  he  wrote  liis  eccle- 


I 


ARABIA 


071 


A&ABIA 


siastical  history.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  tes- 
timony of  Ibn  Ishaq,  the  earhest  and  most  author- 
itative biograpliiT  of  Mohaninieil  (d.  770),  according 
to  whioli  tlie  first  apostle  of  Cliristianity  in  Yemen 
was  a  poor  Syrian  mason  naineil  I'heniion,  who  with 
a  companion  named  Salih  were  captured  by  an 
Arab  caravan  and  sold  to  a  prominent  Xajranite, 
refers  to  this  Silvanus.  One  of  his  first  converts  was 
a  certain  Abdallah  ibn  Thaniir,  wlio  became  a  great 
miracle-worker  and  thus  succeedeil  in  converting 
the  town  of  Najran  to  the  religion  of  Christ  (Ta- 
bari,  ed.  Noldeke,  178).  .\ccording  to  Hal6vy 
(.Vrchives  des  missions,  VII,  40),  even  at  the  present 
time  there  is  still  a  mo.st^ue  in  Najran  dedicated  to 
this  .\bdallah  ibn  Thamir.  Ibn  Khaldun,  on  the 
other  hand,  a.s.serts  that  as  early  as  the  latter  half 
of  the  third  century,  a  certain  .\bd-Kelal,  son  of 
Uhu-1  .\wail,  who  wa.s  King  of  Himyar  antl  Yemen 
from  1273  to  297.  became  a  Christian  tlirough  the 
teaching  of  a  Syrian  monk,  but,  on  being  discovered 
by  his  people,  was  kille<l  (Caussin  de  Perceval,  His- 
toire  des  .\rabes  avant  I'lslamisme,  III,  234).  .\sse- 
mani,  followed  by  Caussin  de  Perceval,  thinks  that 
Christianity  first  entered  Najran  in  the  time  of  Dim 
Nuwa.s  (sixth  century).  This  king,  he  says,  w.is 
so  alarmed  by  its  advance  that  he  ordereil  a  general 
massacre  of  the  Christians  if  they  refu.seil  to  embrace 
Judaism,  to  whicli  he  and  his  whole  dynasty  belongetl. 
He  identifies  Harith,  or  .\rethas,  the  Christian 
prince  and  martyr  of  Najran,  with  the  above-men- 
tioned .-Vbdallah  ibn  Thamir,  whose  tribe's  name 
was,  according  to  him,  Harith  or  -\rethas.  This, 
however,  is  improbable,  for  at  the  time  of  Dhu  Nuwas's 
acces-sion  to  the  throne,  Christianity  was  already 
flourishing  at  Najran,  with  its  own  bishop,  priests, 
and  churches. 

What  was  the  exact  condition  of  Christianity 
in  southern  .\rabia  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
we  do  not  know;  but  from  the  episotle  of  the  martyrs 
of  Najran  it  clearly  appears  that  its  spread  was  con- 
stant and  steady.  The  principal  anil  most  powerful 
obstacle  to  the  permanent  success  of  Cliristumity  in 
Yemen  was  undoubtedly  tlie  ninnerous  conununities 
of  Jews  scattered  in  that  section  of  the  peninsula, 
who  had  acquired  so  great  a  religious.  |K)litical, 
and  monetary  influence  that  they  threatened  for 
a  while  to  become  the  dominant  ix)wer.  They  had 
their  own  poets  and  orators,  synagogues,  scliools, 
princes,  anil  even  kings.  Their  power  was  constantly 
used  to  keep  in  check  tlie  progress  of  Christianity, 
and  they  were  the  direct  cause  of  the  almost  entire 
annihilation  of  the  Christians  of  Najran.  "Like 
other  religious  communities  which  preach  toleration 
when  oppressed,  tlicy  [the  Arab  Jews]  became 
persecutors  when  tliey  hail  ac(iuiretl  .sovereignty." 
— Margoliouth,  .Mohammed  and  the  Ri.se  of  l.sfam 
(I^)ndon.  190.^),  3().  This  persecution,  which  occurred 
in  .')23.  and  in  which  the  Jews  piled  faggots  and  lit 
fires,  and  the  Cliristians  were  bumetl,  happened 
as   follows. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  centurj',  the 
Kingdom  of  Himyar  and  Y'emen  was  subject  to 
.■Vbyssinian  rule.  Kalib,  King  of  .\by.ssinia.  known 
by  the  Greek  historians  under  the  name  of  Elesbaan, 
or  Hellesthaios.  had  succeeded,  after  a  desperate 
struggle,  in  subjugating  Himyar  to  the  throne  of 
Ethiopia.  Tlmugh  not  a  Christian,  he  was  favourably 
inclined  towards  Cliristianity,  as  he  was  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Romans.  lie  is  said  to  have  vowed 
to  become  a  Christian  in  the  event  of  his  conquering 
Himyar,  a  vow  he  in  all  probability  fulfilled.  Rab- 
iah  ibn  Mudhar.  the  defeated  Himyarite  king,  who, 
like  all  his  predeces,sors  of  the  .same  dynasty,  was  a 
Jew,  was  compelleil  to  seek  shelter  in  Ijira.  and  was 
succeeded  by  a  certain  Yusuf  Dhu  Nuwas,  likewi.se 
a  Jew,  but  vassal  to  the  Negus  of  .\byssinia.  .MKiUt 
the  year  523  (not  JOO,  as  the  majority  of  Arab  his- 


torians believe),  and  as  soon  as  the  victorious  Abys- 
sinian army  had  retraced  its  steps,  Dhu  Nuwas 
revolte<l  against  IClesbaan  and,  instigated  by  the 
Jews,  resolved  to  wreak  his  vengeance  on  the  Chri.><- 
fians.  .\11  who  refu.seil  to  renounce  their  faith  and 
embrace  Judaism  were  put  to  death  without  re-siiect 
to  age  or  sex.  The  town  of  Najran,  to  the  nortii  of 
Y'emen,  and  the  bulwark  of  South-.Vrabian  Christian- 
ity, sulTerwl  the  most.  Dhu  Nuwas  marclied  against 
tlie  latter  city  and,  finding  it  impregnable,  treacher- 
ously promised  the  inhabitants  full  amnesty  in  the 
case  of  their  surrender. 

On  entering  the  city,  Dhu  Nuw^as  ordered  a  general 
ma.ssacre  of  all  the  Christians.  "Large  pits  were 
dug  in  the  neighbourhood  and  filled  witli  burning 
fuel,  and  all  tho.se  who  refu.sed  to  abjure  their  faith 
and  embrace  Judaism,  amounting  to  many  thous- 
ands, including  the  priests  and  monks  of  the  surround- 
ing regions,  with  the  con.secrated  virgins  and  tlie 
matrons  who  had  retired  to  lead  a  monastic  Ufe, 
were  committed  to  the  flames.  The  chief  men  of 
the  town,  with  their  prince,  Arethas  [called  by  -some 
-■Vrabian  writers  .Vbdallah  ibn  Athamir],  a  man 
distinguished  for  his  wis<lom  and  piety,  were  put  in 
chains.  Dhu  Nuw;is  next  .sought  their  bishop,  Paul, 
and  when  informed  that  he  had  been  .some  time  dead, 
he  ordered  his  bones  to  be  disinterred  and  burnt 
and  tlieir  ashes  scattered  to  the  wind.  Arethas 
and  his  companions  were  conducted  to  the  side  of  a 
small  brook  in  the  neighbourhood,  where  they 
were  beheaded.  Their  wives,  who  had  shown  the 
same  constancy,  were  afterwards  dragged  to  a 
similar  fate.  One  named  Ruma,  the  wife  of  the 
chief,  was  brought  with  her  two  virgin  daugliters 
before  Dhu  Nuwa.s;  their  surpassing  lieauty  is  fa\d 
to  have  moved  his  compas.sion.  but  their  constancy 
anil  devotion  provoked  in  a  still  greater  degree  his 
vengeance;  the  daughters  were  put  to  death  before 
the  face  of  their  mother,  and  Ruma,  after  having 
been  compelled  to  taste  their  blood,  shared  their 
fate.  When  he  had  thus  iwrpetrated  the  tragedy 
of  Najran,  Dhu  Nuwas  returned  with  his  army  to 
Sanaa." — Wright,  op.   cit.,   54-.55. 

From  here  Dhu  Nuwas  hastened  to  inform  his 
friends  and  allies,  Kabad,  King  of  Persia,  and  .\\- 
Mundhir,  Prince  of  Hira,  of  the  event,  urging  them 
to  imitate  his  example  and  exterminate  their  Chri.s- 
tian  subjects.  Dhu  Nuwas's  messengers  arrived 
20  January,  524,  at  Hufhu'f  (El-IIassa),  near  the 
Persian  Gulf,  where  Al-Mundhir  was  then  entertain- 
ing an  embas.sy  sent  to  him  by  the  Emperor  Justin 
ami  composed  of  Sergius,  Hishop  of  Rosapha,  the 
priest  .-Vbramos,  and  many  other  ecclesiastics  and 
laymen,  among  whom  was  the  Monophysite  Simeon, 
Hishop  of  Heth-.Vrsam.  in  Persia.  .\l-.\Iundhir 
received  and  commimicated  the  news  of  the  ma.ssacre 
to  tlie  members  of  the  emba.s,sy.  who  were  horrificil. 
.Vccording  to  Ibn  Ishaq.  the  number  of  the  ma.ssacred 
Christians  was  20.0(JO.  while  the  letter  of  the  Hishop 
of  Beth-.Vrsam  said  there  were  427  priests,  deacuiis, 
monks,  and  consecrated  virgins,  and  more  than  4.(KH) 
laymen.  This  Monoplij-site  Bishop  of  Persia,  imme- 
diately after  his  return  to  Hira,  wrote  a  circumstan- 
tial account  of  the  sufferings  of  the  Christians  of 
Najran  and  sent  it  to  Simeon,  .\bbot  of  Gabula.  near 
Chalcis.  In  it  he  asks  to  have  the  news  communi- 
cated to  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  to  the  King  of 
Abys.sinia,  to  the  Bishops  of  .\ntioch.  Tarsus,  Ca-.sarea 
in  Cappadocia,  and  Edes.sa,  and  urges  his  Roman 
brethren  to  pray  for  the  afflicted  Najranites  and  to 
take  up  tlieir  cause.  A  certain  Dhu  Thalcban.  who 
escaped  the  ma.ssacre,  fled  to  the  court  of  Constanti- 
nople and  implored  the  emperor  to  advocate  the 
cau.se  of  his  jx'rsecuted  countrymen.  In  the  mean- 
while the  news  of  the  ma.ssacre  fiad  spread  all  over  the 
Roman  and  Persian  Empires;  for  in  that  s;iine  year, 
John  the  Psalmist,  .-Vbbot  of  the  Monaster}'  of  Beth- 


ARABIA 


672 


ARABIA 


Aphtonios,  wrote  in  Greek  an  elegy  on  the  Najranite 
martyrs  and  their  chief,  Harith.  Bishop  Sergius 
of  Rosapha,  tlie  head  of  the  embassy,  wrot«  also  a 
very  detailed  account  of  the  same  events  in  Greek. 
Even  in  the  Koran  (Surah  Ixxxv)  the  event  is  men- 
tioned, and  is  universally  alluded  to  by  all  subsequent 
Arab,  Nestorian,  Jacobite,  and  Occidental  historians 
and  writers. 

The  news  of  the  massacre  weighed  hea^nly  on 
Elesbaan,  King  of  Abyssinia,  who  is  said  to  have  now 
become  a  very  fervent  Christian.  He  determined 
to  take  revenge  on  Dhu  Nuwas,  to  avenge  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  Christian  Najranites,  and  to  punish  the 
Yemenite  Jews.  Accordingly,  at  the  head  of  seventy 
thousand  men  and  a  powerful  flotilla,  he  descended 
upon  Himyar,  invaded  Yemen,  and  with  relentless 
fury  massacred  thousands  of  Jews.  Dhu  Nuwas, 
after  a  brave  fight,  was  defeated  and  slain,  and 
his  whole  army  routed.  The  whole  fertile  land  was 
once  more  a  scene  of  bloodshed  and  devastation. 
The  churches  built  before  the  days  of  Dhu  Nuwas 
•were  again  rebuilt  on  the  sites  of  their  ruins,  and  new 
bishops  and  priests  were  appointed  in  the  place  of 
the  martyrs.  An  Abyssinian  general,  Esimephffius, 
■was  appointed  King  of  Himyar,  and  during  his  reign 
a  certain  Dhu  Giadan,  of  the  family  of  Dhu  Nuwas, 
attempted  to  raise  the  standard  of  revolt,  but  was 
defeated.  A  few  years  later  the  Himyarites,  under 
the  leadership  of  Abramos,  or  Abraha,  a  Christian 
Abyssinian,  revolted  against  Esimephaeus,  and  in 
order  to  put  down  the  revolution  the  King  of  Abys- 
sinia sent  an  army  under  the  command  of  one  of  his 
relatives,  Arethas,  or  Aryat.  The  latter  was  slain, 
however,  by  his  own  soldiers  who  joined  the  party 
of  Abramos.  A  second  Abyssinian  army  took  the 
field,  but  was  cut  to  pieces  and  destroyed.  Abramos 
became  King  of  Himyar,  and  from  Procopius  we 
know  that  he,  after  the  death  of  Elesbaan,  made 
peace  with  the  Emperor  of  Abyssinia  and  acknowl- 
edged his  sovereignty. 

During  the  reign  of  Abramos  Christianity  in 
South  Arabia  enjoyed  great  peace  and  prosperity. 
"  Pajing  tribute  only  to  the  Abyssinian  crown, 
and  at  peace  with  all  the  Arab  tribes,  Abraha  was 
loved  for  liis  justice  and  moderation  by  all  his  sub- 
jects and  idolized  by  the  Christians  for  his  burning 
zeal  in  their  religion. "  Large  numbers  of  Jews  were 
baptized  who  were  said  to  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity  by  a  public  dispute  between  them  and  St. 
Gregentius,  the  Arabian  Bishop  of  Dhafar.  In  this 
dispute  the  Jews  were  represented  by  Herban,  one  of 
their  most  learned  rabbis,  and  Christ  is  said  to  have 
appeared  in  Heaven.  Many  idolaters  sought  admis- 
sion to  the  Church;  new  schemes  of  benevolence  were 
inaugurated,  and  the  foundations  w'ere  being  laid  for 
a  magnificent  catliedral  at  Sanaa,  where  is  said  to 
have  existed  a  picture  of  the  Madonna,  afterwards 
moved  by  the  Quraishites  and  placed  in  the  Caaba, 
at  Mecca  (Margoliouth,  op.  cit.,  42). 

In  short,  South-Arabian  Christianity,  during  the 
reign  of  Abramos,  i.  c.  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth 
centurj',  "seemed  on  the  eve  of  its  Golden  Age" 
(Zwemer,  Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  Islam,  308).  The 
king  is  also  said  to  have  framed,  with  the  assistance 
of  Bishop  Gregentius,  his  great  friend,  admirer, 
and  counsellor,  a  code  of  laws  for  the  people  of  Him- 
yar, still  extant  in  Greek,  and  divided  in  twenty-three 
sections.  The  authenticity  of  tliis  code,  however, 
is  doubled  by  many,  as  it  is  more  a.scetic  and  monas- 
tic in  character  than  social.  The  whole  career,  in 
fact,  of  St.  Gregentius  and  his  relations  with  Elesbaan, 
Abramos,  and  Herban  are  interwoven  with  legend 
(l)uclicsne,  op.  cit.,  334-330).  In  550,  Abramos's 
glorious  reign  came  to  a  disastrous  end.  According 
to  Arab  historians,  the  event  took  place  in  570,  the 
year  of  Moliamnied's  birtli;  but,  as  Niildeke  has 
ehown,  this  is  simply  an  ingenious  arrangement  in 


order  lo  connect  the  rise  of  Islam  with  the  overthrow 
of  the  Christian  rule  in  Yemen;  for  the  latter  event 
must  have  taken  place  at  least  twenty  years  earlier 
(Tabar,  I,  205).  Abramos's  defeat  is  reported  by  all 
Mohammedan  historians  with  great  joy  and  satisfac- 
tion, and  is  known  among  them  as  the  "Day  of  the 
Elephant ".  Mohammed  liimself  devoted  to  it  an 
entire  surah  of  liis  Koran.  This  defeat  forms  the 
last  chapter  in  the  history  of  South-Arabian  Chris- 
tianity and  the  preface  to  the  advent  of  Moliammed 
and  Islam.     It  was  brought  about  as  follows. 

Towards  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  the 
temple  of  Caaba,  in  Mecca,  had  become,  as  of  old, 
the  Eleusis  of  Arabia.  It  was  sought  and  annually 
visited  by  thousands  of  Arabs  from  all  parts  of  the 
peninsula,  and  enriched  with  presents  and  donations 
of  every  kind  and  description.  Its  custodians  were 
of  the  tribe  of  Quraish,  to  wliich  Mohammed  be- 
longed, and  which  had  then  become  the  most  powerful 
and  illustrious  one  of  Hijaz.  Abramos,  the  Christian 
King  of  Himyar,  beheld  with  grief  the  multitudes  of 
pilgrims  who  went  to  pay  their  superstitious  devo- 
tions to  the  heathen  deities  of  the  Caaba,  and,  in  order 
to  divert  the  attention  and  worship  of  tlie  heathen 
Arabs  to  another  object,  he  resolved  to  build  a  mag- 
nificent church  at  Sanaa.  The  edifice  was  completed, 
and  far  surpassed  the  Caaba  in  the  splendour  of  its 
decorations.  To  attain  his  object,  Abramos  issued  a 
proclamation  ordering  the  pilgrims  to  relinquish  their 
former  route  for  the  shorter  and  more  convenient 
journey  to  the  Christian  church  of  Sanaa.  The  object 
was  attained,  and  the  Quraish  found  themselves  re- 
duced to  a  precarious  financial  and  politico-religious 
condition.  To  avenge  themselves  and  to  depreciate 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Arab  tribes  the  Christian  church  of 
Sanaa  they  hired  a  certain  man  of  the  Kenanah  tribe 
to  enter  the  church  and  defile  it  by  strewing  it  with 
dung,  wluch  was  enough  to  make  the  Arabs  look 
at  the  place  with  horror  and  disgust.  The  desecra- 
tion was  successfully  effected,  and  its  criminal  agent 
fled,  spreading  everywhere  in  his  flight  the  news  of 
the  profanation  of  the  Christian  church.  The  act 
was  a  signal  of  war  and  vengeance,  and  Abramos 
determined  to  destroy  the  tribes  of  Kenanah  and 
Quraish,  and  to  demohsh  the  Caaba.  Acconlingly, 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  accompanied  by 
numerous  elephants,  he  invaded  Hijaz,  defeated  all 
the  hostile  tribes  in  his  way,  and  approached  Mecca. 

The  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Quraish  and  the  guardian 
of  the  Caaba  was  then  the  venerable  .-^bdul-Mutta- 
lib  ibn  Hashim,  the  grandfather  of  Mohammed. 
This  cliief,  at  the  news  of  the  approach  of  the  Him- 
yarite  army,  sought  peace  with  Abramos,  offering 
him  as  a  ransom  jfor  the  Caaba  a  third  part  of  the 
wealth  of  Hijaz;  but  Abramos  was  inflexible.  De- 
spairing of  victory  and  overwhelmed  with  terror, 
the  inhabitants  of  Mecca,  led  by  Abdul-Muttalib, 
took  refuge  in  the  neighbouring  momitains  tliat 
overhung  the  narrow  pass  through  which  the  enemy 
must  advance.  Approaching  the  city  by  way  of 
the  narrow  valley,  Aoramos  and  his  army,  not  know- 
ing that  the  heights  were  occupied  by  the  Quraishites, 
fell  beneath  tlie  numberless  masses  of  rock  and  other 
missiles  incessantly  poured  upon  them  and  their 
elephants  bv  the  assailants.  Abramos  was  ilefeated 
and  compelled  to  retreat.  Ilis  army  was  almost  an- 
nihilated, and  the  king  liimself  returned  a  fugitive 
to  Sanaa,  where  he  died  soon  after,  as  much  of  vexa- 
tion as  of  his  wounds. 

Mohammedan  writers  attribute  the  defeat  of 
Abramos  and  the  victory  of  Quraish  to  supernatural 
intervention,  not  unlike  that  which  defecated  the 
army  of  Sennacherib  under  the  waUs  of  Jerusalem. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  by  the  defeat  of  the  Ilimyarite 
army  Quraish  became  supreme  in  command  and 
authority.  In  the  meanwliile,  Yak.sovnn  and  Ma-s- 
rouq,  sons  of  Abramos,  had  succeeded  him  in  turn, 


ARABIA 


673 


but  their  power  had  so  much  declined  that  they  had 
to  seek  alliance  with  the  Sassanian  kings  of  Persia, 
which  caused  a  general  revolt  in  southern  and  central 
Arabia.  In  568,  two  years  before  Mohaninieii's  birth, 
a  Persian  militarj'  ex|x;dition  invaded  Yemen  and 
Oman  and  brought  the  Christian  Abyssinian  dynasty 
and  that  of  Abramos  to  an  end.  A  tributary  prince 
wa.s  appointeil  over  Hiniyar  by  the  .Sa.ssanian  Kings, 
in  the  i)erson  of  Saif  dhu  Yezen,  a  descendant  of  the 
old  royal  race  of  Hiinyar.  This  prince,  during  the 
reign  of  .Masrouq,  and  at  the  instigation  of  some 
noble  and  rich  Himyarites  who  had  a.ssisted  liim 
with  money  and  all  tlie  means  available,  repaired 
to  Constantinople  and  appealed  to  Mauricivis,  the 
Byzantine  emperor,  for  lussistance  in  delivering 
Himyar  from  the  Aby.ssinian  yoke.  Mauricius  refused 
to  help  him,  on  the  ground  that  the  unity  of  Cliris- 
tian  faith  between  the  Abyssinians  and  the  Byzan- 
tines prevented  liim  from  taking  any  such  action. 
Saif,  disappointed  anil  hopeless,  went  to  Nu'mdn 
ibn  al  Mundhir,  Prince  of  Hira.  This  prince  pre- 
sented Saif  to  Khosroes  Nousliirwan,  King  of  Persia, 
to  wliom  he  explained  the  object  of  his  mission. 
Khosroes  at  fust  was  unwilling  to  unilertake  so 
dangerous  an  enterprise,  but  afterwards,  won  over 
by  tlie  promises  of  Saif  and  the  advice  of  his  min- 
isters, sent  an  army  of  4,000  Persian  soldiers,  ilrawn 
from  prisons,  untler  tlie  command  of  Wahriz  and 
accompanied  by  Saif  himself. 

The  army  advanced  to  Iladramaut,  where  it  was 
joined  by  Saif's  own  adherents,  2,0(X)  strong,  and 
attacked  Masrouq.  who  was  defeated  and  slain  in 
battle.  Saif  was  installed  king  over  Himyar  but 
sul)ject  to  Khosroes  Xousliirwan.  His  first  act  was 
to  expel  from  Himyar  tnost  of  the  Aby.ssinian  res- 
idents, amon^  whom  were  many  Christians.  Sub- 
sequently, Saif  was  murtlered  by  some  Abyssinian 
members  of  his  own  court;  and  after  his  deatli  no 
more  native  Himyarite  princes  were  placed  on 
the  throne.  He  was  succeeded  first  by  Wahriz, 
leader  of  the  Persian  army,  then  by  Zin,  Binegan, 
Chore,  Chosrau.  and  Badhan.  tlie  last  of  whom  was 
the  governor  of  Himyar  at  tlie  time  of  Mohammed's 
conquest  of  .\rabia.  With  the  overtlirow  of  the 
Abyssinian  dynasty  in  the  south,  the  increase  of 
factional  rivalries  between  the  Byzantine  and  the 
Persian  Empires  in  the  nortli,  and  tlic  advent  of 
I.slam,  Christianity  in  .\rabia  came  to  an  end.  It 
must  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  this  violent 
end  came  without  heroic  resistance.  The  famous 
church,  built  by  .\bramos  at  Sanaa,  was  still  in  a 
flourisliing  condition  at  the  time  of  Mohammed,  wlio 
.speaks  of  his  own  visit  to  it,  and  of  listening  to  the 
sermons  of  its  famous  and  eloquent  bishop,  Quss 
ibn  Sa'ida.  The  Christians  of  Najran  successfully 
resisted,  during  tlie  life  of  the  Pronliet,  all  attempts 
at  Islamic  proselytism,  altliougn,  under  'Omar, 
Mohammed's  second  successor  (f);]4-6-44),  they  were 
finally  compelled  to  embrace  Islam;  miuiy  refused 
to  ilo  so  and  were  expellctl.  These  migrated  to  Kufa 
and  Hira,  on  the  Euphrates,  wliere,  towards  the 
end  of  the  eighth  centiirj',  the  Nestorian  patriarch, 
Timotheus  I  (778-820),  appointed  over  them  a 
bishop  with  both  native  and  Nestorian  clergy, 
schools,    and    churches. 

Christianity,  in  tlie  time  of  Mohammed,  under 
one  form  or  another,  must  have  had  also  some 
followers  in  Hijaz,  the  stronghold  of  Islam,  and 
especially  around  Mecca.  Slaves  were  not  infre- 
quently Christian  captives  brought  in  by  the  trading 
.Arabs  in  their  journeys  to  Syria  and  Sle.sopotamia. 
An  .\rab  poet,  quoted  by  Wcllhau.sen  (Skizzen  und 
Vorarbeiten,  IV,  200),  says:  "  Wlience  has  .-M-.-V'sha 
his  Christian  ideas?  From  the  wine-traders  of 
Hira  of  whom  he  bought  his  wine;  they  brought 
them  to  liim."  These  Christian  influences  are 
;       clearly    visible    in    the    Koran.     Among    the    early 


friends  and  followers  of  the  Prophet  were  Zaid,  his 
adopted  son,  who  was  of  Christian  parentage,  and 
many  otliers,  who,  like  the  three  famous  lianif 
(which  is  translated  by  many  as  "hermits", 
"monks",  etc.),  abandoned  Christianity  for  Lslain. 
One  of  these,  Warqa,  is  creilited  by  Moslem  writers 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  Christian  .Scriptures,  and  even 
with  having  translated  some  [xjrtions  of  them  into 
Arabic.  Father  L.  Sheiklio,  S.J.,  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  Beirut,  Syria,  has  made  a  gooil  collec- 
tion of  extracts  from  ante-I.slamic  and  immediately 
Eost-lslamic  .\rabic  poets,  in  which  Christian  ideas, 
eliefs,  and  practices  are  allude<l  to.  (See  "  .\l-.Mash- 
riq"  in  "The  Orient"  of  1905,  also  published  sep- 
arately.) 

At  Medina,  the  Prophet  is  said  to  have  received 
repeated  eniba.ssies  from  Christian  tribes.  His 
treatment  of  the  Christian  Arabs  was  distinctly 
more  liberal  and  courteous  than  that  accorded  by 
him  to  the  .lews.  He  looked  on  the  latter  as  a  dan- 
gerous political  menace,  while  he  regarded  tlie  former 
not  only  ;us  subjects,  but  also  as  friends  and  allies. 
In  one  of  his  supposed  letters  to  the  Bishop  Ka'b 
of  the  tribe  of  Haritli,  to  the  Bishop  of  Najran.  and 
to  their  priests  anil  monks,  we  read:  "There  shall  be 
guaranteed  to  you  the  protection  of  God  and  His 
Apostles  for  the  possession  of  your  churches  and 
your  worship  and  your  monasteries,  and  no  bishop, 
or  priest,  or  monk,  shall  be  molested  ...  so  long 
as  you  remain  true  and  fulfil  your  obligations." 
To  Bishop  Yulianna  ibn  Ruba  and  to  the  chiefs  of 
the  people  of  .\yla  he  wrote:  "  Peace  to  you.  I  com- 
mend you  to  God  besides  Whom  there  is  no  God. 
I  would  not  war  against  you  without  first  writing 
to  you.  Either  accept  I.slam  or  pay  poll-tax.  .\nd 
hearken  to  God  and  His  .-Vpostle  and  to  these  envoys. 
.  .  .  If  you  turn  my  envoys  back  and  are  not  friendly 
to  them,  then  I  will  accept  no  reparation  from  you. 
but  I  will  war  against  you  and  will  take  the  children 
captive  and  will  slay  the  aged.  ...  If  you  will 
hearken  to  my  envoys,  then  sliall  you  be  under  God's 
protection  and  Mohammed's  anil  that  of  his  allies. " 
— W.  A.  Sheild,  Islam  and  the  Oriental  Cluirches 
(1904),  103.  To  the  heathen  .\rabs  he  held  out 
no  compromise;  they  had  either  to  embrace  Islam 
or  die;  but  to  the  Christians  of  his  countrj-  he  always 
showcil  himself  generous  and  tolerant,  although 
the  Mohammedan  traiiition  tells  us  tiiat  on  his  death- 
bed he  changed  his  policy  towards  them  ;ind  is  .said 
to  have  commaniled  tliat  none  but  Moslems  should 
dwell  in  the  land.  In  one  of  his  controversies  with 
the  Christian  tribe  of  Taghlib,  Moliammed  agreed 
that  the  adults  should  remain  Christian  but  the 
children  should  not  be  baptized  (Wellhausen,  op. 
cit.).  The  feelings  between  the  Christian  and  the 
Mohammedan  Arabs  were  so  friendly  at  the  time 
of  the  Prophet  that  many  of  the  latter  sought  refuge 
with  the  former  on  more  than  one  occasion.  Under 
'Omar,  however,  Mohammed's  second  successor, 
tlie  policy  of  Lslam  towards  the  Christians  completely 
changed,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  so-called  "Constitu- 
tion of  'Omar",  wliidi,  though  generally  regarded 
as  spurious,  cannot  be  entirely  disregarded. 

'  Omar's  pohcy  practically  put  an  end  to  Christian- 
ity in  Arabia,  and  certainly  dealt  a  death-blow  to 
the  Christian  religion  in  the  newly  conquered  West- 
Asiastic  provinces.  This  extinction  and  ilis,solution 
was  violent,  but  gradual  in  the  peninsula,  where 
many  Christians,  moved  by  the  wonderful  success 
of  the  Moslem  arms,  abandoneil  their  religion  ami 
accepted  Islam.  Some  preferred  to  pay  the  poll-tax 
and  retain  their  faith.  Others,  Hke  the  Najranites, 
in  spite  of  the  promise  of  Mohammed  that  they 
sliould  Ix!  undisturbed,  were  forced  to  leave  .Xrabia 
and  settled  partly  in  S\Tia  and  partly  near  Kufa, 
in  lower  Mesopotamia  (^fuir,  Historj'  of  the  Caliphate, 
155;    and    Arnold,    Preaching   of    Islam,    44    sqq.). 


ARABIA 


674 


ARABIAN 


The  tribe  of  Taghlib  was  true  to  its  faith,  and  Bar- 
Hebra-us  tells  us  of  two  of  its  chieftains  who  later 
suffered  martyrdom  (Chronicon  Syriacum,  112, 
115).  We  continue  to  hear  for  a  long  time  of  Jaco- 
bite and  Nestorian  bishops  of  the  Arabs,  one  even 
being  IJishop  of  Sanaa,  Yemen,  and  Balirein,  and 
of  the  border  regions  [Bar-Hebrieus,  Chronicon 
Ecclesiasticum,  I,  303;  III,  123,  193;  and  Thomas 
of  -Marga,  Book  of  Governors  (ed.  Budge,  1893), 
II,    44S   sqq.]. 

Under  the  Umayyad  and  Abbasid  Caliphs,  Chris- 
tianity enjoyed,  with  few  exceptions,  great  freedom 
and  respect  throughout  all  the  Mohammedan  Empire, 
as  can  be  seen  from  the  facts  and  data  collected  by 
Assemani  and  Bar-Hebrjeus,  according  to  which 
many  Nestorian  and  Jacobite  patriarchs  from  the 
seventh  to  the  eleventh  centuries  received  diplomas, 
or  firmans,  of  some  sort  from  Mohammed  himself, 
from  Umar,  Ali,  Merwan,  Al-Mansur,  Harounal- 
Raschid,  Abu  Ja'far,  and  others.  (Shedd,  op.  cit., 
239-241;  Assemani,  De  Catholicis  Nestorianis, 
41-43  sqq.;  Bar-Hebraeus,  Chronicon  Ecclesiasticum, 
I,  309,  317,  319,  325;  II,  465,  625;  III,  307,  317,  229, 
433,  etc.;  and  Thomas  of  Marga,  op.  cit.,  II,  123, 
note.) 

In  conclusion,  a  few  words  may  be  said  of  the 
various  sects  and  creeds  to  which  the  Christian 
Arabs  of  the  north  and  of  the  south  belonged,  as 
■well  as  of  their  practical  observance  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  and  duties.  We  have  already  seen 
how  that  part  of  .\rabia  adjacent  to  the  Syrian 
borders  was,  from  the  tliird  century  on,  regarded 
as  the  "mother  of  heresies".  The  religious  and 
political  freedom  of  the  Arab  tribes  opened  the 
door  to  all  creeds,  errors,  and  heresies.  Before  the 
rise  and  spread  of  Nestorianism  antl  Monophysitism, 
the  Arian  heresy  was  the  prevailing  creed  of  the 
Christian  Arabs.  In  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
centuries  Arianism  was  supplanted  by  Nestoriani.sm 
and  Monophysitism,  wliich  had  then  become  the  offi- 
cial creeds  of  the  two  most  representative  Churches 
of  Syria,  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Mesopotamia,  and 
Persia.  Like  the  Arabian  Jews,  the  Christian  Arabs 
did  not,  as  a  rule,  particularly  in  the  times  imme- 
diately before  and  after  Mohammed,  attach  much 
importance  to  the  practical  observance  of  their  re- 
ligion. The  Arabs  of  pre-Islamic  times  were  no- 
torious for  their  indifference  to  their  theoretical 
and  practical  religious  beliefs  and  observances. 
Every  religion  and  practice  was  welcomed  so  long 
as  it  was  compatible  with  Arab  freedom  of  con- 
science and  sensuality;  and,  as  Wellhausen  truly 
remarks,  although  Christian  thought  and  sentiment 
could  have  been  infused  among  the  Arabs  only 
through  the  channel  of  poetry,  it  is  in  this  that 
Christian  spirituality  performs  rather  a  silent  part 
(op.  cit.,  203). 

Arabian  Christianity  was  a  seed  sown  on  stony 
ground,  whose  product  had  no  power  of  resistance 
when  the  heat  came;  it  perished  without  leaving 
a  trace  when  Islam  appeared.  It  seems  strange 
that  these  Christian  Arabs,  who  had  bishops,  and 
priests,  and  churches,  and  even  heresies,  of  their  owm, 
apparently  took  no  steps  towards  translating  into 
their  language  any  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
books;  or,  if  any  such  tran.slation  existed,  it  has 
left  no  trace.  The  same  strange  fact  is  also  true 
in  the  case  of  the  numerous  Jews  of  Yemen  (Mar- 
goliouth,  op.  cit.,  35;  and  Harnack,  Expansion  of 
Chri.stianity,  II,  .300).  Of  these  Emmanuel  Dcutsch 
remarks  that,  "acquainted  with  the  Halachah  and 
Haggada,  they  seemed,  under  the  peculiar  story-lov- 
ing influence  of  their  coimtrymcn,  to  have  cultivated 
the  latter  with  all  its  gorgeous  hues  and  colours" 
[Remains  of  Emmanuel  Dcutsch,  Islam  (New- 
York),  92].  A.s  to  the  Christians,  at  least  the  bishops, 
the   priests,  and    the  motiks  must    have   had   some 


religious  books;  but  as  we  know  nothing  of  their 
existence,  we  are  forced  to  suppose  that  tliese  books 
were  written  in  a  language  which  they  learned 
abroad,   probably  in  Syria. 

Besides  the  Fathers  and  ecclesiastical  writers  nuoted  in  the 
body  of  the  article,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  following  mod- 
ern authorities:  Wright,  Early  Chriatianitii  in  Arabia  U-on- 
don,  1855);  Wellhausen,  Juden  und  Christen  in  Arabien, 
III;  Skizzen  und  Vorarbeilen,  III,  197  sqq;  Noldeke, 
Geschichte  der  Peraer  und  Araber  zur  Zeit  der  haasaniden  aua 
der  arabischen  Chronik  dea  Tabari  (Leyden.  1879);  Caussin 
de  Perceval.  Higtoire  des  Arabes  avant  Mohammet  (Paris, 
1847),  I,  108,  112,  114,  124-128;  II,  47-56,  58,  136,  142,  144, 
200-202,  213-215;  III.  275;  Duchesne,  Les  eglises  ai-paries 
(2d  ed.,  Paris.  1905);  300-352,  Zwemer.  Arabia:  The  Cradle 
of  Islam  (New  York,  1900),  300-313;  Shedd.  Islam  and  the 
Oriental  Churches  (Philadelphia,  1904);  Harnack,  The  Ex- 
pansion of  Christianity  in  the  First  Three  Centuries  (tr.  London, 
1905),  300-304;  Margoliouth,  Mohammed  and  the  Rise  of 
Islam  (London.  1905),  33  sqq.  Among  SjTiac  writers  see: 
Bar-Hebr.eus,  Chronictim  Ecclesiasticum,  ed.  Abbeloos  and 
Lamy  (Louvain,  1874).  II;  Maris.  Amri  et  Sliba  Liber  Turns, 
ed.  GisMONDi,  (Rome,  1896,  1899);  Assemani,  Bibliatheca 
Orienlalis,  III.  pt.  2,  591-610.  and  passim;  Lequien,  Oriens 
Christianus,  II;  Chabot,  Synodicon  Orientale  (Paris,  1902), 
passim;  Labourt,  Le  Christianisme  dans  I'empire  perse  soils 
la  dynastic  sassanide  (Paris,  1904).  See  also  Bahonics, 
Pagi.  and  Tillemont.  On  the  massacre  of  the  Christians  of 
Najran,  see  the  letter  of  Simeon,  Bishop  of  Beth-Arsam,  the 
best  edition  of  wliich  is  given  by  Guidi  in  the  Memorie  del- 
I'accademia dei  Lincei  (Rome,  1880-81,  in  Syriac  and  in 
Italian).  The  Greek  hymn  of  John  the  Psalmist  was  trans- 
lated into  Syriac  by  Paul.  Bishop  of  Edessa  (d.  526).  and 
edited  by  Schroter  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  morgirUan- 
dische  Gesellschaft,  XXXI,  together  with  the  letter  of  James 
OF  Sarug.  See  also  Boissonade,  Anecdota  Grccca,  V,  1, 
Martyrium     Aretha,    and     Acta     SS.,     X,     721.     The     sup- 

Kosed  theological  dispute  between  Gregentius  and  Herhan  ia 
jund  in  Boissonade,  Anecdota  Grceca,  V,  63:  and  P.  G., 
LXXVI,  568. 

Gabriel  Ouss.\ni. 

Arabia,  The  Vicari.\te  Apostolic  of. — Arabia 
formerly  belonged  to  the  mission  of  Galla  (Africa), 
but  was  made  a  separate  prefecture  Apostolic  by 
Pius  IX,  21  Jan.,  1875.  It  was  reunited  to  the  mis- 
sion of  Galla,  then  made  a  vicariate  Apostohc,  by 
Leo  XIII,  25  April,  1888,  under  Monseigneur  Las- 
serre.  The  Capuchin  Fathers  under  Monseigneur 
Lasserre  had  long  been  in  charge  of  the  .A>den  mission, 
together  with  that  of  Somaliland.  The  first  vicar 
Apostolic  brought  to  Aden  a  community  of  French 
Franciscan  sisters,  to  whose  care  the  British  authori- 
ties entrusted  100  Galla  children  rescued  from  Arab 
slave  ships.  With  these  liberated  captives  it  was 
hoped  to  found  a  Catholic  colony  at  some  distance 
inland,  but  circumstances  had,  as  late  as  1906, 
frustratetl  this  and  other  attempts  to  carry  the  Faith 
into  the  interior  of  Arabia.  This  vicariate  Apostolic 
has  12,000,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about  15,000  are 
CathoUcs;  11  missions,  4  churches  or  chapels,  6  sta- 
tions. (For  origins  of  Arabian  Christianity,  see 
Christianity  in  Arabia,  under  Arabia.) 

Battandier,  A7in.  pont,  cath.,  1906;  Piolet,  Miss.  calh. 

Arabia,  Councils  of — In  246  and  247  two  covui- 
cils  were  held  at  Bostra  in  Arabia  against  Ber\llus, 
Bishop  of  the  see,  and  others  who  maintained  with 
him  that  the  soul  perished  and  arose  again  with  the 
body.  Origen  was  present  at  these  synods  and 
con\'inced  these  heretics  of  their  errors  (Eusebius, 
Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  xix;  Baronius,  Ann.  Ecel.  ad  an., 
249,  §§6-8). 

Harnack.  Mission  7ind  Ausbrcitung  des  Chrtstentums  (\902); 
Wright.  Early  Christianity  in  Arabia,  (London,  1855);  Mansi. 
Coll.  Cone.  I,  787. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
Arabian  School  of  Philosophy.— Until  the  eighth 
centurj'  the  Arabians,  although  they  expressed  their 
religious  feelings  in  a  somewhat  mystic  poetry, 
failed  to  give  expression  to  their  thoughts  about 
the  world  around  them,  except  in  so  far  as  those 
thoughts  may  be  said  to  be  expressed  in  the  Koran. 
It  was  only  when  they  caine  in  contact  with  other  civ  - 
ilizations,"not;d)ly  witli  that  of  Persia,  that  their  specu- 
lative and  scientific  activities  were  slinuihitcd  into 
action.  .•\  circumstance  which  favoured  tlic  study  of 
letters  and  pliilosopiiy  was  the  accession  to  tlic  tlironc 


ARABIAN 


G7o 


ARABIAN 


about  A.  D.  750  of  the  Abassides,  an  enlightened  line  of 
Caliphs  WHO  encouraged  learning,  and  patronized  tlie 
representatives,  chielly  Syrian  and  IVrsiaii,  of  foreign 
culture.  The  introduction  of  foreign  ideas  resulted 
first  in  a  twofold  movement  among  the  followers  of 
Mohammed.  There  was  on  the  one  hand  a  movement 
in  the  direction  of  heterodo.xy,  a  kind  of  rationalistic 
questioning  of  the  authority  of  the  Koran,  which  led 
to  the  rejection  of  the  current  anthropomorphism 
and  fatalism.  Tlie  representatives  of  this  move- 
ment were  called  ".Motazilites"  or  " Di.ssiilents ". 
They  were  the  first  heretics  of  Islam.  Opposed  to 
this  movement  was  the  orthodox  current,  tending  to 
emphasize  more  and  more  the  autliorily  of  the  Koran, 
while,  at  the  -same  time,  it  attempted  to  do  this  by 
tlie  aid  of  Greel^  philosophy  and  science.  The  repre- 
sentatives of  thi.s  movement  were  called  the  ".Mota- 
oalliinin  ",  or  "profas.sors  of  the  word".  They  were 
rationalists,  it  is  true,  in  so  far  as  they  fell  back  on 
Cireek  philosophy  for  their  metaphysical  and  physical 
explanations  of  phenomena;  still,  it  was  their  aim  to 
keep  within  the  limits  of  orthodox  belief.  In  this 
they  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  the  first  Schoolmen 
of  Christian  Euro|x;.  In  reaction  again.st  both  the 
"Motazilites"and  ".Motacallimin"  arose  the  "Sufis  ", 
or  "Mystics",  who  flourished  chiefly  in  the  Persian 
portion  of  the  Arabian  Empire.  They  represented 
the  most  extreme  phase  of  protest  against  all  phil- 
osophical inquiry;  they  condenmed  the  use  of  Greek 
philosophy  even  within  the  limits  of  orthodoxy,  and 
taught  that  whatever  truth  there  is  can  be  attained 
by  reverent  reading  of  the  Koran  and  meditation 
on  the  words  of  the  sacred  text.  They  placed  con- 
templation above  observation  and  inquirj',  and  set 
more  value  on  ecstatic  meditation  than  on  the  -study 
of  I'lato  and  .\ristotle.  From  the  conflict  of  these 
divergent  forces  there  arose,  about  the  ninth  century, 
the  tendency  of  tliought  represented  by  the  philoso- 
phers of  Islam.  These  philo.sophers  had  more  in 
common  with  the  Dissidents  and  the  Theologians 
than  with  the  Mystics;  they  made  ample  use  of 
Greek  philo.'iophy,  and  in  their  free  inquiry  into  the 
secrets  of  nature,  in  which  they  soon  outstripped 
the  Greeks  themselves,  they  paid  little  attention  to 
the  authority  of  the  Koran.  For  this  reason  they 
fell  into  disrepute  with  the  rulers  both  in  North 
Africa  and  Spain,  as  well  as  in  the  East,  and  instances 
of  persecution,  exile,  and  death  inflicted  by  the 
Caliphs  on  the  philosophers  of  Islam  were  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  from  the  ninth  century  to  the 
tnirtcenth. 

Taking  its  origin  from  the  neo-Platonic  schools  of 
SjTia  and  Persia,  the  philosophy  of  the  Arabians  was 
at  first  Platonic  in  spirit  and  tendency.  The  Ara- 
bians translated  the  "  Timicus  ",  the  "  Republic  ",  and 
the  "Laws",  and  when,  attracted  by  the  medical 
treatises  of  Galen,  they  were  led  to  the  study  of 
Aristotle,  they  translated  not  only  the  genuine  writ- 
ings of  the  Stagirite,  but  also  the  so-called  "Theolo- 
gia  Aristotelis"  which  wiis  merely  a  compilation 
from  the  "Enneads"  of  Plotinus,  and  the  famous 
"Liber  de  Causis"  which  was  a  compilation  from 
the  "Elements  of  Theology"  of  Proclus.  Thus, 
from  the  beginning,  they  imparted  to  Aristotclean 
teaching  a  neo-Platonic  meaning,  and  even  those 
among  them  who  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  most 
faithful  exponents  of  Aristoteleanism  were  not  en- 
tirely free  from  the  influence  of  tlic  nco-Platonists. 
Plotinus 's  view  of  reality,  as  a  kind  of  pvramid  «nth 
God  at  the  apex  and  material  things  at  the  Iwise,  and 
Proclus's  view  of  hypostatized  imiversals  as  con.stitut- 
ing  a  hierarchy  of  "Causes  ",  mediating  between  God 
and  matter,  came  to  l)e  the  recognize<l  views  in  the 
philosophical  schools  of  Eastern  and  Western  Islam. 

Among  the  mo,st  famous  of  the  Arabian  philoso- 
phers of  the  East  were  Alkendi  or  Alkindi  (d.  about 
the  year  syo),  .\lfarabi  (d.  about  950),  Avicenna,  or 
I.— 43 


Ibn  Sina  (980-1037),  the  astronomer  Alhazeo 
(eleventh  century),  and  Algazel,  or  Gazali  (1059- 
1111).  In  the  West,  that  is  in  Northern  Africa  and 
in  Moorish  Spain,  the  most  celebrated  philosophc/s 
were  Avempace,  or  Ibn  Badslia  (d.  1138),  Abubacer, 
or  Abn  Uekr,  also  called  Ibn  Tofail  (1100-85),  and 
Averrocs,  or  Ibn  Roshd  (irj()-9S).  Of  these  Avem- 
pace, A\icenna,  and  Averroes  were  Ijest  known  to 
the  Scholastics.  Avicebrol,  whom  the  Schoolmen 
regarded  as  an  Arabian,  was  in  reality  a  Jewish 
pliilosophcr  and  iM)ctic  writer  named  SaUnnon  ben 
Gabirol.  The  philosopliy  of  the  Arabians  is  not  dis- 
tinguished by  its  originality;  in  point  of  fact,  it  is 
merely  an  interpretation  of  Greek  nliilosophy  and, 
even  xs  an  interpretation,  adds  little  to  the  inter- 
pretations already  given  by  Plotinus,  Proclus,  Sim- 
Klicius,  and  tlie  Syrian  neo-Platonists.  It  is  Ara- 
ian  only  in  the  sense  that  it  was  written  in  Arabic 
— the  greatest  of  its  representatives,  Avicenna  and 
Averroes,  were  not  natives  of  the  Arabian  peninsula 
at  all.  In  one  respect  only  did  the  Arabians  develop 
tjreek  philosophy,  namely,  in  its  relation  to  medicine, 
and  it  wsis  in  this  regard  that  they  exerted  the  most 
far-reaching   influence   in   Euro|>e. 

Like  the  neo-Platonists  from  whom  they  borrowed 
their  interpretation  of  Aristotle,  the  Arabians  were 
pantheists  or  semi-pantheists.  Aristotle  taught  that 
matter  is  the  eternal  substratum  of  movement;  in 
eternity,  taught  the  Araliian  commentators,  there 
is  no  distinction  l)etween  the  actual  and  the  possible, 
between  the  substratum,  or  subject,  of  movement 
and  the  Mover.  Therefore,  whenever  the  Arabians 
liad  the  courage  of  their  convictions  they  taught 
more  or  less  openly  that  God,  the  First  Mover,  is 
really  the  subject  of  movement,  that  He  and  the 
Universe  are  suletantially  identical.  The  various 
teachers,  however,  compromise  more  or  less  success- 
fully between  philosophical  pantheism  and  the  mono- 
theism of  the  Koran.  With  regard  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  universe,  the  Arabians  taught  that 
Divine  Providence  is  concerned  only  with  the  uni- 
versal, not  with  the  particular.  The  world,  says 
Averrocs,  is  a  city  which  is  governed  from  the  centre 
by  a  ruler  whose  immediate  authority  extends  only 
to  his  own  palace,  but  who,  through  his  sulxjrdi- 
nates,  rules  each  and  everj'  district  of  the  city  subject 
to  his  sway.  This  doctrine  implie<l  the  mediation 
of  numlierless  beings  from  the  Highest  InteUigence 
down  to  the  lowest  material  creature.  From  God, 
Who  is  indeed  the  Author,  though  He  cannot  be 
called  tlie  Creator,  of  the  I'niversc,  there  emanates 
in  the  first  place,  the  First  IntelliKcnce  (akin  to  the 
\6iyos  of  Pliilo),  then  the  Second  Intelligence,  and  so 
on,  down  to  the  lowest  of  all  the  cosmic  intelligences, 
the  intelligence  which  animates  and  directs  the 
sphere  of  the  moon.  Each  of  these  intelligences  is 
incorporated  in,  or  inhabits,  a  heavenly  sphere^ 
hence  the  close  deix-ndcnce  of  nledie^•al  astrologj'  on 
the  Arabians,  and  on  their  immediate  disciples  in 
astronomy,  as,  for  instance,  Roger  Bacon  (q.  v.). 
The  lowest  intelligence,  to  which  reference  has  just 
been  made  (the  intelligence  which  rules  the  sphere 
of  the  moon),  plaj-s  an  important  part  in  the  i)sy- 
cliology  of  the  Arabians.  In  treating  of  intellectual 
knowledge  .\ristotle  (.sec  Ahistotle  .\xn  the  .-Vnis- 
TOTELE.tN  School)  taught  that  in  the  acquisition  of 
ideas  a  twofold  mental  principle  is  involved,  the 
one  active  and  the  other  ptussive.  The  text  of  .Vris- 
totle  lieing  obscure  at  this  point  (Ue  Anima,  Book 
III),  the  c.ommenfators  were  at  a  loss  to  know  what 
the  Stagirite  meant  by  the  "active  intellect". 
The  .\rabians  here,  as  efsewhere,  took  up  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  neo-Platonists.  The  latter  liad  taught 
that  tlie  "active  intellect"  is  something  physically 
distinct  from  the  indiviilual  soul;  an  intelligence, 
namely,  that  is.  .somehow,  common  to  all  men.  The 
Arabians  adopted  this  monopsychisiu  and  made  it 


ARABICI 


676 


ARABISSnS 


part  of  their  psychologj-.  There  is,  they  taught,  but 
one  active  intellect,  and  that  is  common  to  all  men. 
It  resides  in  the  sphere  of  the  moon,  but,  being 
brought,  in  some  way,  into  contact  with  the  indi- 
vidual soul  (which  thereby  "participates"  in  it), 
it  generates  there  the  universal,  abstract,  immaterial, 
idea.  It  was  principally  against  this  doctrine  of  the 
unity  and  separation  of  the  active  intellect  that  the 
.Scliolastics  directed  their  attacks  on  the  Arabians. 
The  Scholastics  objected  to  the  doctrine  on  two 
accounts.  Tiiey  denied  that  it  was  a  tenable  doctrine 
in  psychology,  and  they  denied  that  it  was  a  faithful 
interpretation  of  .\ristotle.  This  is  the  main  conten- 
tion of  Albert  the  Great  and  St.  Thomas,  both  of 
whom  wrote  special  treatises  on  the  unity  of  the 
intellect,  and  on  one  point  at  least  the  most  unsym- 
pathetic critic  of  Scholasticism  agrees  with  them, 
namely,  when  they  argue  that  monopsychism  is  not 
in  keeping  with  the  general  tone  and  spirit  of  Aris- 
totelean  philosophy. 

Another  aspect  of  monopsychism  to  which  the 
Scholastics  did  not  fail  to  call  attention  was  its 
bearing  on  the  question  of  immortality.  The  passive 
intellect,  the  Arabians  taught,  is  material,  and  per- 
ishes with  the  body.  The  active  intellect,  although 
it  is  immaterial  and,  therefore,  imperishable,  is  not 
part  of  the  individual  soul.  There  is  nothing,  there- 
fore, in  man  that  has  the  power  of  resisting  death; 
and  to  say  that  man  is  immortal  because  the  im- 
personal, universal,  intellect  is  immortal  has  no  more 
meaning  than  if  one  were  to  say  that  man  is  im- 
mortal because  the  laws  of  nature  are  immortal. 
This  conclusion  is  frankly  admitted  by  Averroes, 
who  teaches  that  according  to  pliilosophy  the  human 
soul  is  mortal,  although  according  to  theology  it  is 
immortal.  This  admission  of  the  principle  of  two- 
fold truth  (namely,  that  what  is  false  in  philosophy 
may  be  true  in  theology,  and  vice  versa)  shows  more 
clearly  than  anytliing  else  the  inherent  irrecon- 
cilability of  Arabian  pliilosophy  and  Scholasticism. 
The  Scholastic  movement  from  beginning  to  end, 
whatever  may  be  its  deviations  and  aberrations  on 
other  points,  held  steadfastly  to  the  principle  that, 
since  God  is  the  .Author  of  all  truth,  the  truth  of 
reason  and  the  truth  of  revelation  (that  is,  philosophy 
and  theology)  cannot  come  to  any  real  conflict.  The 
beginning  of  the  decline  of  Scholasticism  dates  from 
the  introduction  (from  Arabian  sources)  into  the 
Schools  of  the  principle  of  twofold  truth.  In  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge,  the  Arabians  taught, 
there  is  a  contact  (copulatio,  continualio)  of  the  im- 
personal active  intellect  with  the  individual  passive 
intellect.  The  contact,  indeed,  is  only  momentary. 
The  passive  intellect,  however,  has  a  longing  for  the 
active  intellect,  desires  it,  as  matter  desires  form. 
Hence  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  individual  soul 
towards  a  more  permanent  union  with  the  great 
Impersonal  Intellect,  a  union  that  is  to  be  attained 
by  tlie  practice  of  asceticism  and  the  exercise  of  the 
contemplative  powers  of  the  mind.  In  this  union 
man  becomes  a  saint  and  a  seer,  a  being  divine 
rather  than  human;  in  this  state  of  ecstasy  all  that 
is  ba.se  and  petty  becomes  transformed  into  the 
sublime  and  noble,  until  at  last  man  can  exclaim, 
"I  am  God".  Here  again  one  sees  how  closely  the 
Arabian  reproduces  the  neo-Platonie  doctrine  of 
purification  and  ecstasy.  It  is  only  fair,  however,  to 
add  that  some  of  the  more  faithful  Aristoteleans 
among  the  .\rabians,  such  as  Averroes,  were  content 
to  put  scientific  knowledge  in  the  place  of  ecstatic 
contemplation,  and  thus  succeeded  in  avbiiling  the 
contradictions  implied  in  the  mysticism  of  the  Sufis. 

The  .\rabian  pliilosophy,  as  is  well  known,  exer- 
cised a  profound  influence  on  the  Scholastic  phil- 
osophy of  the  twelfth  and  succeeding  centuries.  It 
\a  not  «o  well-known  that,  even  when  Schol.usticism 
wan  at  \iA  height,   when   Albert   and  Thomas  were 


attracting  attention  by  their  brilliant  exposition  ol 
Aristot«lean  philosophy,  there  was  in  the  very  heart 
of  the  Scholastic  stronghold,  the  University  of  Paris, 
a  group  of  philosophers  who  openly  professed  ad- 
herence to  the  doctrine  of  Averroes.  Aiid  this  coun- 
ter current  of  Averroism  is  traceable  in  the  progress 
of  Scholastic  philosophy  down  to  the  time  of  the 
Renaissance.  Still,  one  must  not  overrate  the  debt 
which  Scholasticism  owes  to  "Arabism",  as  it  was 
called.  The  .\rabians  contributed  in  a  very  large  de- 
gree to  making  .\ristotle  known  in  Christian  Europe; 
however,  in  doing  this,  they  were  but  transmitting 
what  they  themselves  had  received  from  Christian 
sources;  and,  moreover,  the  Aristotle  who  finally 
gained  recognition  in  Christian  Europe  was  not  the 
Arabian  Aristotle,  but  the  Greek  Aristotle,  who  came 
to  Western  Europe  by  way  of  Constantinople.  The 
Arabians,  in  the  second  place,  contributed  to  medie- 
val medicine,  geography,  astronomy,  arithmetic,  and 
chemistry,  but  failed  to  exert  any  direct  influence 
in  philosophy.  They  provoked  discussion,  their 
doctrines  were  the  occasion  of  disputation  and 
controversy,  and  thus,  indirectly,  they  contributed 
to  developing  the  philosophy  of  the  Schools;  but, 
beyond  this  they  cannot  be  said  to  have  contributed 
towards  shaping  the  course  of  Scholastic  thought. 
Indeed  the  whole  spirit  of  Arabian  philosophy — its 
tendency  towards  materialistic  pantheism,  its  doc- 
trine of  the  unity  of  the  intellect,  its  hesitation  on 
the  problem  of  individual  immortality,  and,  above 
all,  its  doctrine  of  the  twofold  truth — must  have 
revealed  at  every  point  of  possible  contact  the  utter 
impossibility  of  a  reconciliation  between  Arabian 
and  Scholastic  Aristoteleanism.  It  is  true  the  School- 
men, or  some  of  them  at  least,  drew  largely  from 
Avicebrol's  "Pons  Vitte";  but,  though  they  did  not 
suspect  it,  their  teacher  in  that  case  was  a  Jew,  not 
an  Arabian.  Indeed  whatever  influence  came  from 
the  Mosque  passed  through  the  Synagogue  before  it 
reached  the  Church.  When  Arabian  works  were 
translated  into  Latin  the  translation  was  often  made 
from  the  Hebrew  translation  of  the  Arabic  text,  and 
the  Jew  was  often  the  only  means  of  interchange  of 
ideas  between  Moorish  and  Christian  Spain.  What- 
ever Scholasticism  owes  to  the  Arabians,  it  owes  in 
equal,  if  not  in  greater  measure,  to  the  Jews. 

MuNK,  Melanges  de  philosophie  juive  et  arabe  .  .  .  (Paris, 
1859);  DiETERlci,  Die  Philosophie  der  Araber  (Berlin,  Leip- 
zig, 1858);  Archiv  f.  Gesch.  der  Phil.,  especially  for  1889 
and  1904;  Ueberweq-Heinze,  Gesch.  der  Phil..  II,  (9th 
ed.,  Berlin,  1905),  234  sqq.;  Turner,  Hist,  of  Phil.  (Bos- 
ton, 1903),  311  sqq. 

William  Turner. 

Arabici,  a  small  sect  of  the  third  century,  whose 
founder  is  unknown,  and  which  is  commonly  named 
from  Arabia,  where  it  flourished,  but  sometimes  also 
Thanatopsychit;e,  from  the  nature  of  the  error.  The 
soul  was  believed  to  perish  with  the  body,  though 
both  soul  and  body  would  be  revived  again  at  the 
day  of  judgment.  The  Arabici  were  misled  not, 
apparently,  by  any  philosophical  speculation  about 
the  nature  of  the  soul,  but  by  their  biblical  exegesis 
of  I  Tim.,  vi,  Ifi,  "Who  only  hath  immortality." 
This  passage,  they  held,  ascribes  undying  life  to  God 
alone,  and  therefore  predudcs  its  unbroken  posses- 
sion by  man.  They  failed  to  distinguish  immortality 
as  it  is  an  essential  attribute  of  Clod  from  the  im- 
parted immortality  which  man  has  from  Him.  The 
error  was  short-lived,  and  the  Arabici,  after  about 
forty  years  of  estrangement,  were  reconciled  to  the 
Church,  through  the  persuasive  mediation  of  Origen, 
at  a  .niiTwil  held  in  250. 

.Ni,  1  iiK,  Ihyi.  Ecd..  V.  25;  EiisEBiua,  Uial.  Eccl,  VI,  37; 
.St.  Ar.iMiM  ,  /)(•  //ar.,  Ixx.xiii;  Pr.ede.st.,  Ha-r.,  Ixxxiii; 
UuDUKiM,  De  Arabicorum  Haresi  (Jena,  1713). 

P.  P.  Havey. 
Arabissus,  a  titular  see  of  .\rmenia,  suffragan  of 


ARAD 


(177 


ARAN 


Melitene;  its  episcopal  list  is  known  from  381  to  692 
(Ciarns,  p.  441). 
I.Kyi  iKN,  Orieru  Chriet.  (1740),  I,  449-450. 

Arad,  a  titular  see  of  Palestine,  said  to  be  identical 
with  the  eminence  of  Tell'  Arad  on  the  way  from 
I'etra  to  Hebron  (cf.  Niinibers,  xxi,  1;  Judges,  i,  16). 
Its  episcopal  list  is  given  in  Lequien. 

l.KQuiEN.  Oriens  CItritl.  (1740),  III,  777-780;  SwrrH,  IHct. 
of  Greek  and  Human  Geoffr.,  1,  h.  v. 

Aran,  The  Mon.\stic  School  of. — The  three 
islands  of  .Xran  stretch  across  the  mouth  of  Galway 
Hay,  forming  a  kind  of  natural  breakwater  again.st 
the  .\tlantic  Ocean.  The  largest  of  the  three,  called 
Aran  Mor,  is  about  nine  miles  in  length,  and  little 
more  than  one  in  average  breadth.  The  bluish-grey 
limestone  of  which  it  is  entirely  composed  is  a.s  hard 
as  marble  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  In  many  places 
it  is  (^uite  bare;  in  others  the  .sandy  soil  affords  a 
precarious  sustenance  for  more  than  three  thousand 
people  who  dwell  upon  the  island,  and  largely  sup- 
plement the  produce  of  their  ariil  fields  by  the  har- 
vest of  the  stormy  seas  around  their  island  home,  to 
which  tliey  cling  in  good  or  bad  times  with  a  passion- 
ate love.  During  three  hundred  years,  from  about 
olH)  to  SOO,  .Vran  Mor  and  its  sister  islands  were  a 
famous  centre  of  sanctity  and  learning,  which  at- 
tracted holy  men  from  all  parts  of  Ireland  to  stmly 
the  science  of  the  saints  in  this  remote  school  of  the 
West.  Before  the  arrival  of  St.  Enda,  Aran  Mor 
and  the  neighbouring  islands  had  long  been  occupied 
by  a  remnant  of  tlie  ancient  Firbolg  race,  who, 
driven  from  tlie  mainland,  built  themselves  ruile 
fortresses  in  the  strongest  points  of  the  islands,  the 
barbaric  ruins  of  which  still  excite  wonder.  Tlieir 
descendants  were  still  pagans  at  the  close  of  the 
fifth  centurj',  when  St.  Enda  first  dared  to  land 
upon  their  shores,  seeking,  like  so  many  of  the 
.saints  of  his  time,  "a  ilescrt  in  the  ocean".  The 
inhabitants  of  the  islands  at  this  time  were  the 
remnants  of  a  great  pre-historic  people,  wliose  works, 
even  in  their  ruins,  will  outlive  the  monuments  of 
later  and  more  civilized  peoples.  Side  by  side  with 
these  magnificent  remains  of  pagan  architecture 
are  now  to  be  seen  tlie  remains  of  the  churclies  anil 
cells  of  Enila  and  his  followers,  making  the  Isles 
of  .Vran  the  most  holy,  a.s  they  are  the  most  interest- 
ing spots,  within  the  wide  bounds  of  Britain's  insular 
enipire. 

"Tradition  tells  us  that  Enda  came  first  across 
the  North  Sound  from  daromna  Island  on  the  coast  of 
Conncmara,  and  landed  in  tlie  little  bay  at  .Aran  Mor 
under  the  village  of  Killeany,  to  which  he  has  given 
iiis  name,  and  near  which  he  founded  his  first  monas- 
tery. The  fame  of  his  austere  sanctity  soon  spread 
througliout  Erin,  and  attracted  religious  men  from 
all  parts  of  the  countrj'.  Amongst  the  first  who 
came  to  visit  Enda's  island  sanctuary  was  the  cele- 
brated St.  Brendan — the  Navigator,  as  he  is  called 
— who  was  then  revolving  in  his  mind  his  great  pro- 
ject of  discovering  tlie  promi.sed  land  beyond  the 
western  main.  He  came  to  consult  Enda,  anil  seek 
his  blessing  for  the  pro.sperous  execution  of  his  daring 
purpose.  Thither,  too,  came  Einnian  of  Clonard, 
liim.self  the  "Tutor  of  the  Saints  of  Erin",  to  drink 
in  heavenly  wLsdom  from  the  lips  of  blessed  Enda, 
for  Enda  seems  to  have  been  the  senior  of  all  the.se 
saints  of  the  second  order,  and  he  was  loved  and 
re\crenced  by  tliein  all  as  a  father.  Clonard  was  a 
great  college,  but  Aran  of  Enda  was  the  greatest 
.sanctuarj-  and  nurserj'  of  holiness  throughout  all  the 
"  land  of  Erin ".  Here,  also,  we  find  Columcille, 
who  had  not  yet  quite  schooled  his  fierj-  spirit  to 
the  patient  endurance  of  injustice  or  insult.  He 
came  in  his  currarh.  with  the  scholar's  belt  and  book- 
satchel,  to  Icani  divine  wisdom  in  this  remote  school 
of  the  sea.     He  took  his  turn  at  grinding  the  corn. 


and  herding  the  sheep,  and  fishing  in  the  bay;  lie 
studied  the  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures,  antl 
learned  from  Enda's  lips  the  virtues  of  a  true  monk 
as  uracti.scil  by  the  .saints  and  Fathers  of  the  de.sert, 
anu  he  saw  it  exemplified  in  the  daily  life  and  godly 
conversation  of  the  blessed  Enda  himself,  and  of  the 
holy  companions  who  shared  his  studies  and  his 
labours.  Reluctantly  did  Columcille  leave  the 
sacred  isle;  and  we  know,  from  a  poem  which  he  has 
left,  how  dearly  he  loved  Aran  Mor,  anil  how  bitterly 
he  sorrowed  when  tlie  "Son  of  (iod"  called  him 
away  from  that  beloved  island  to  preach  bcvond 
the  seas.  He  calls  it  "  .\ran,  the  Sun  of  all  the  West ", 
another  pilgrims'  Home,  under  whose  pure  earth 
he  would  as  soon  be  buried  a-s  nigh  to  the  graves 
of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul.  With  Oalumcille  at  .\ran 
was  also  the  gentle  Ciaraii,  the  "carpenter's  son", 
and  the  best  beloved  of  all  the  disciples  of  lOnda. 
Antl  when  Ciaran,  too,  was  called  away  by  Clod 
to  found  his  own  great  monastery  by  the  banks  of 
the  Shannon,  we  are  told  that  Enda  and  his  monks 
came  willi  him  down  to  the  beach,  whil.st  tlieir 
eyes  were  dim  with  tears  and  .sorrow  filled  their 
hearts.  .Vnd  the  young  and  gentle  Ciaran,  having 
got  liis  abbot's  blessing,  entered  his  currach  and 
sailed  away  for  the  mainlaml.  There  is  indeed 
hardly  a  single  one  of  the  saints  of  the  second  order 
— calleil  the  Twelve  Apostles  of  ICrin — who  did  not 
spend  some  time  in  Aran.  It  was  for  them  the 
novitiate  of  their  religious  life.  St.  Jarlath  of  Tuam, 
nearly  as  old  as  Enda  himself;  St.  Carthach  the 
i;i(lerof  Lismore;  the  two  Sts.  Jervis  of  Glendalough, 
two  brothers;  St.  MacCreiche  of  Corcomorc;  St. 
Lonan  Kerr,  St.  Nechan,  St.  Guigneus,  St.  Papeus, 
St.  Libeus,  brother  of  St.  Enda — all  these  were  there. 
Enda  ilivided  Aran  Mor  into  two  parts;  one  half  to 
be  a-ssigneil  to  his  own  monastery  of  Killeany; 
the  other,  or  western  half,  to  such  of  his  disciples 
as  cho.se  "  to  erect  permanent  religious  houses  on 
the  island".  This,  however,  seems  to  have  been  a 
later  arrangement.  .\t  first  it  is  said  that  he  had 
!.')()  disciples  under  his  own  care,  but  when  the 
establislimcnt  greatly  increased  in  numbers,  he 
divided  tlie  whole  island  into  ten  parts,  each  having 
its  own  religious  house  and  its  own  superior,  while 
he  him.self  retained  a  general  superintendence  over 
them  all.  The  existing  remains  prove  conclusively 
that  there  must  have  been  several  distinct  nion;is- 
teries  on  the  islam!,  for  we  find  separate  groups  of 
ruins  at  Killeany,  at  Kilronan,  at  Kilniurvey,  and 
further  west  at  the  "  Seven  Churches  ".  The  island- 
ers still  retain  many  vivid  and  interesting  tradi- 
tions of  the  saints  and  their  churches.  Fortunately, 
too,  we  have  in  the  surviving  stones  and  inscriptions 
other  aids  to  confirm  the.se  traditions,  and  identify 
the  founders  and  patrons  of  the  existing  ruins.  Tlie 
life  of  Enila  anil  liis  monks  was  very  frugal  and 
austere.  The  day  was  divided  into  fixed  periods 
for  prayer,  labour,  and  sacreil  study.  Each  com- 
munity had  its  own  cliurch,  and  its  village  of  stone 
cells,  in  which  they  slept  either  on  the  bare  grounil 
or  on  a  bundle  of  straw  covered  with  a  rug,  but  always 
in  the  clothes  woni  by  day.  They  assembled  for 
their  daily  devotions  in  the  church  or  oratory  of 
the  saint  under  whose  immetliate  care  they  were 
placed;  silently  they  took  in  a  common  refectory 
their  frugal  meals,  which  were  cookeil  in  a  ciinimon 
kitchen,  for  they  had  no  fires  in  their  cloghauus  or 
stone  cells,  however  cold  the  weather  or  wild 
the  seas.  They  invariably  carried  out  the  monastic 
rule  of  procunng  their  own  food  and  clothing  by 
the  labours  of  their  hands.  Some  fished  around 
the  islands;  others  cultivated  patches  of  oats  or 
barley  in  sheltered  spots  between  the  rocks.  Others 
CTound  it  or  kneaded  the  meal  into  bread,  and 
baked  it  for  the  use  of  the  brethren.  So,  in  like 
manner,  they  spun   and   wove   their  own  garmeats 


ARANDA 


678 


ARATOR 


from  the  undyed  wool  of  their  own  sheep.  They 
could  grow  no  fruit  in  these  storm-swept  islands; 
they  drank  neither  viinc  nor  mead,  and  they  had  no 
flesh  meat,  except  perhaps  a  little  for  the  sick. 
Sometimes,  on  tne  Iiigh  festivals,  or  when  guests 
of  distinction  came  on  pilgrimage  to  the  island, 
one  of  their  tiny  sheep  was  killed,  and  the  bietliren 
were  allowed  to  share — if  they  chose — in  the  good 
tilings  provided  for  the  visitors.  Enda  liimself 
never  tasted  flesh  meat,  and  we  have  reason  to 
beheve  that  many  of  the  monks  followed  their 
abbot's  example  in  this  as  in  other  respects.  Aran 
was  not  a  school  of  secular,  but  of  sacred  learning. 
The  study  of  the  Scriptures  was  the  great  business 
of  its  schools  and  scholars.  They  set  small  store 
indeed  on  points  of  minute  criticism,  their  first 
object  being  to  make  themselves  familiar  with  the 
language  of  the  sacred  volume,  to  meditate  on  its 
meaning,  and  apply  it  in  the  guidance  of  their  daily 
lives. 

CoLGAN,  Acta  Sanctorum,  Vita  St.  Endei;  Bede,  Historia 
Ecclea.,  Ill:  Healy.  Ireland's  Ancient  Schools  and  Scholars 
(2d  ed.).  102;  O'Flahebty,  lar  Connaught,  162;  Four 
Masters,  Annals  of  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland;  Skene,  Celtic 
Scotland,  II. 

JoHX  Healy. 

Aranda,  Council  of,  held  at  Aranda  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Burgos  in  Spain,  in  1473,  by  Alfonso  Carillo, 
Arclibisliop  of  Toledo,  to  overcome  the  ignorance 
and  evil  lives  of  ecclesiastics.  Among  the  twenty- 
nine  canons  of  the  council  is  one  which  says  that 
orders  shall  not  be  conferred  on  those  who  are 
ignorant  of  Latin.  Several  canons  deal  with  clerical 
concubinage,   simony,   clandestine  marriages,  etc. 

Harduin,  Coll.  Cone.  (Paris,  1700-16),  IX,  1501. 

Aranda,  Pedro  Pablo.     See  Jesuits;  Spain. 

Aranda,  Philip,  Jesuit  theologian,  b.  at  Moneva, 
Aragon,  3  February,  1642;  d.  at  Saragossa,  3  June, 
169.5.  He  is  described  by  Father  Michel  de  St. 
Joseph,  in  his  "Bibliographia  Critica",  as  "a  most 
acute  theologian,  eloquent  in  speech,  and  a  most 
practical  and  expert  atlilete  in  the  scholastic  arena". 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1658.  He  taught 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Saragossa.  He  published 
a  treatise  in  1693,  "Ue  Deo  sciente,  pr:edestinante 
et  auxiliante",  which  examines  ably  the  entire  sub- 
ject of  the  scientia  media,  and  solidly  and  subtly 
expounds  and  illustrates  the  questions  of  predestina- 
tion and  grace.  He  explains  the  mind  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, and  "without  difficulty",  it  was  said,  "gave  the 
meaning  of  his  difficult  expressions,  maintaining  that 
they  had  no  reference  whatever  to  predestination"; 
a  word  which  he  contends  was  never,  even  equiva- 
lently,  used  by  the  great  Doctor.  He  adds  an  ap- 
pendi.x  on  why  the  procession  of  the  Second  Person 
is  called  generation.  He  wrote  on  the  Incarnation 
and  Redemption;  on  the  natural  and  supernatural 
operation  of  man;  on  human  acts;  on  good  and  evil; 
and  the  supernatural.  He  wrote  also  a  "Life  of  the 
Servant  of  God,  Isabel  Polaar".  He  was  connected 
with  the  Inquisition  of  Aragon  and  was  synodal 
examiner  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Saragossa.  He  was 
fiercely  attacked  in  a  satirical  work  by  Martin  Serra, 
a  Dominican,  who  declaimed  against  "  the  indifferent, 
headless,  inotficacious  writings  of  certain  theologians, 
especially  tlie  olla  podrida  of  Father  Pliilip  Aranda", 
an  assault  whicli  almost  evoked  an  interdict  against 
the  church  of  the  friar. 

SoMMERvoGEi.,  Bibliothiquc  de  la  c.  de  J.,  I,  505-510;  VIII, 
1683-89. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Ararat.     See  .\nK. 

Arason  Jrfn,  tlie  last  Catholic  bishop  of  Iceland 
before  tlie  inlrodiiclion  of  Protestantism,  b.  14S4; 
d.  7  November,  1. ').">().  He  wjus  consecrated  Hishop 
of  llolar  by  his  archbishop  in  the  Metropolitan  See 


of  Nidaros  (Trondhjem),  in  Norway,  1524.  He  was 
a  typical  Icelander  and  a  man  of  extraordinary 
talents,  though  poorly  versed  in  Latin,  and  openly 
neglectful  of  tlie  law  of  celibacy.  He  was  thoroughly 
devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  Church,  but  was  more 
of  a  war-chief  than  a  bishop.  Christian  III.  King  of 
Denmark,  having  ordered  a  change  of  religion  in 
Iceland,  in  1538,  he  encountered  there  the  opposition 
of  Ogmundur  Pdlsspn,  Bisliop  of  Skdlholt,  as  well 
as  that  of  Arason.  Ogmundur  Palsson,  who  was  old 
and  blind,  was  made  prisoner  by  Kristoffer  Huitfeldt, 
a  royal  leader,  and  taken  to  Denmark,  wlicre  he 
died  in  1542.  His  successors  were  Lutheran  bisliops. 
Tlie  leadership  of  the  Catholics  consequently  de- 
volved on  the  Bishop  of  Holar,  Arason  Jon.  He 
maintained  the  defensive  until  1548,  when  the 
episcopal  see  of  Skalholt  w-as  made  vacant  by  the 
death  of  the  apostate  Gissur  Einarsson.  Then  he 
assumed  the  oiiensive.  in  order  to  rule  the  Diocese 
of  Skdlholt  in  a  Catholic  spirit,  and  to  have  a  Catholic 
appointed  bishop  there.  Marteinn  Einarsson  had 
returned  from  Denmark,  confirmed  as  bishop  by  the 
king,  to  oppose  him;  but  .Xrason  Jon  took  him 
prisoner.  Although  suspended  and  declared  an 
outlaw  by  tiie  king,  Arason  Jon  felt  himself  en- 
couraged by  a  letter  from  Pope  Paul  III  to  continue 
his  efforts  to  extirpate  heresy.  His  energj'  and  his 
zeal  knew  no  bounds.  In  an  attempt  to  capture  his 
greatest  adversary,  Dadi  Gudniundsson,  he  was  liim- 
self taken  prisoner  and  handed  over  to  the  king's 
baihff.  Christian  Skriver.  The  Lutheran  bishop, 
JIarteinn  Einarsson,  was  at  once  set  free,  and  with- 
out awaiting  any  formal  judgment  the  decapitation 
of  Arason  and  two  of  his  sons,  Are  and  Bjorn,  who 
had  been  stanch  allies  of  their  father,  was  agreed  upon. 

Some  fishermen  avenged  the  death  of  their  bishop 
by  killing  Christian  Skriver  and  his  adherents  in  the 
following  year.  Tlie  body  of  Ara.son  was  then  trans- 
ferred, in  triumph,  from  Skdlholt  to  H61ar.  The 
people,  as  a  sign  of  their  veneration  for  him,  elected 
his  son  Jon  as  his  successor.  But  the  election  lacked 
confirmation.  Protestantism,  now  that  Catholicism 
had  no  leader,  met  with  no  open  opposition.  The 
people,  however,  continued  to  cherish  the  faith  of 
their  fathers  for  a  long  time  and  looked  on  Arason 
as  a  national  hero  and  a  martyr.  Five  Lutheran 
bishops  of  Skail,  and  three  of  Holar,  were  descen- 
dants of  his,  and  in  later  times,  among  the  converts 
at  a  Catholic  mission  given  in  Iceland  was  a  W'oman 
descended  from  the  hero  bishop. 

Biskupa  Sogur  (Kjobenhavn,  1S5S):  Islandstce  Annaler 
indtil  1S7S  (Kristiania,  I88S);  Diplomatorium  Islandicum 
(Kjbhvn,  1857-97);  Den  Kalholske  AirA-e  t  Danmark;  Skan- 
dinavisk  Kirketidendes  (Kjbhvn,  1859);  C.  A.  Munch,  Dct 
Norske  Folks  Historic  (Krnia,  1859-63);  Keyser.  Den  norske 
Kirkes  Historic  under  Katholici^men  (Krnia,  1856);  Nissen, 
De  Nordisk  Kirkers  Historic  (lirnia,  1884). 

E.  A.  Wang. 

Arator,  a  Christian  poet  of  the  sixth  century, 
probably  of  Ligurian  origin.  He  studied  at  Milan 
under  tlie  patronage  of  the  Bishop  Laurentius  and 
of  luinodius;  then  went  to  Ravenna  by  the  advice  of 
Partlienius,  nephew  of  Emiodius.  He  took  up  the 
career  of  a  lawyer.  Treated  with  distinction  by 
Tlieodoric  on  account  of  his  oration  in  behalf  of  the 
Dalmatians,  and  protected  by  Cassiodorus,  he  en- 
tered tlie  service  of  the  Gothic  court,  but  resigned  at 
the  time  of  the  struggle  with  Byzantium  (about  536). 
Pope  Vigilius  made  him  Subdeacon  of  the  Roman 
Church.  It  was  tlien  that  he  wTote  in  hexameters 
two  books  "De  Actibus  Apostolonmi ".  He  follows 
tlie  stnr\'  of  the  Acts;  the  first  book,  dedicated  to 
St.  Peter,  concludes  with  Chapter  XII;  tlie  .second, 
dcdic;itcd  to  St.  Paul,  with  tlie  martjTdom  of  the 
two  .\postles.  Many  important  events  are  omittcil, 
others  only  alluded  to.  .\rator  himself  declared 
that  his  aim  was  to  give  the  mvstical  and  moral 
meaning  of  the  book.     .Vccorilingly,  he  often  gives 


ARAUCANIA 


679 


ARAUCANIANS 


stranpe  Interpretations  of  numbers  anil  names.  He 
endeavours  to  praise  St.  Peter  at  the  expen.se  of 
St.  I'aul  and  tlic  other  Apostles.  His  style  and 
versification  are  fairly  correct,  antl  he  cleverly  evades 
the  entanglements  of  symbolism.  Some  of  his 
well-turned  verses  prove  that,  with  another  subject, 
Arator  coulil  have  become  a  vif;orous  writer.  The 
poem  was  very  successful.  \it;ilius  had  the  author 
read  it  in  public  at  the  church  of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula. 
The  reading  lasted  four  ilays,  as  the  poet  had  to 
repeat  many  passages  by  reciuest  of  his  audience. 
His  works  remained  popular  iluring  the  Middle  Ages, 
wlien  they  became  classics.  We  have  also  two 
addre.s.ses  m  di.stichs  written  by  .\rator  to  the  Abbot 
Florianus  and  to  Vigilius,  as  well  as  a  letter  to  Par- 
thenius.  The  two  latter  contain  biographical  de- 
tails.    The  date  of  the  poet's  death  is  unknown. 

K.litiona  :  .\iiNTZE.s-  (Ziitphi-n,  ITI.O):  also  in  P.  L., 
I.XVIII,  03-240;  Hi  iinkh  i  Nii>^i'.  IK.-,0).— ICbkht,  AUncmeine 
Gtschuhte  der  Literatur  tits  MitttUilU-rs  im  Abetuiland  (Leipzig, 
18««),  I,  5H  s<ni. 

Paul  Lejay. 

Araucania,  Prefectuke  ArcsroLic  of,  in  Chile, 
established  by  Leo  XIII  in  1901,  and  confided  to  the 
Capuchins.     It  has  twenty-eiglit  mi-ssionaries. 

li.KTT.lNDIKR,  -Inn.  Pont.  Cath.  (Paris,   1900),  343. 

Axaucanians  (also  Araucans,  Moluches,  Ma- 
piiHKs).  — I'lie  origin  of  the  word  is  not  yet 
fully  ascertained.  A  numerous  tribe  of  warlike 
Indians  in  southern  Chile,  ranging  originally  (in  the 
early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century)  from  36°  S.  lat. 
to  about  42°  S.  lat.,  and  from  the  Andes  in  the  East 
(70°  W.  long.)  to  near  the  coast.  To-day  they  are 
limited  to  something  like  the  North  American  "reser- 
vations" in  the  same  region.  In  1898,  they  were  said 
to  number  73,000,  which  figure  is  probably  exag- 
gerated. But  they  are  one  of  the  most  numerous 
Indian  tribes  surviving,  as  such,  in  America.  When 
first  met  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  centurj',  the  .\raucanians  formed  a  league 
of  clans,  or  aillaragues ,  some  foity  in  number,  scat- 
tered over  four  geographical  ranges  called  by  them 
Butalmapu.  Their  mode  of  government  was,  and  is 
even  now,  very  ruilimentary.  The  so-called  ulmenes, 
or  chiefs,  exercise  little  authority.  In  case  of  imuii- 
nent  danger,  a  war  chief,  or  toqui,  was  chosen  by  a 
general  council,  at  which  the  aillaratfues  would  \x  as 
fully  i-epresented  as  po.ssible.  The  toqui  exercisco  his 
discretionary  authority  as  long  as  a  war  lasts,  or  as 
long  as  he  is  successful,  or  the  medicine-men  supjiort 
him.  The  latter,  who  are  neither  more  nor  less 
than  sorcerers,  or  shamans  are  numerous  among  the 
Araucans  and  wield  great  power  through  their  oracu- 
lar utterances.  When  the  Sp.-mianls  first  came  in 
contact  with  the  Araucanians,  ui  1G.')0,  tlic  latter  were 
a  sedentary  tribe,  dwelling  in  wooden  buildings,  and, 
like  all  Indians,  constantly  in  conflict  with  their 
neighbours.  The  land  was  tilled  on  a  modest  scale, 
chiefly  by  women.  Tlicre  are  no  evidences  that  the 
Araucanians  were  exceptionally  aggressive,  although 
towards  their  northern  neighbours,  the  Purumaucans, 
they  entertained  a  special  enmity.  However,  with  the 
successive  estaljlishment  of  three  Spanish  towns  by 
Valdivia  the  conqueror  of  Chile,  their  apprehensions 
were  arou.sed,  and  hostilities  ensued.  The  first  en- 
counters resulted  unfavourably  for  the  .Araucanians, 
to  whom  the  weapons  and  tactics  of  the  Spaniards 
were  a  surprise.  Hut  they  soon  Ix^gan  to  learn. 
Valdivia  invaded  the  range  of  Arauco,  and  was  com- 
pletely defeated  on  2  Doiember,  1.5.53,  his  force  of 
500  men  annihilated,  and  !iini,self  killed.  The  tactics 
then  made  use  of  by  the  Indians  under  the  leadership 
of  the  toqui  Caupolican  and  a  young  Indian  named 
Lautaro,  showed  military  iiualities  hitherto  unolv 
served  among  the  American  aborigines.  War  with 
the  Araucanians  thereafter  went  on  for  nearly  two 
centuries  with   varj'ing  success,  and   no   impression 


wius  made  upon  the  Indians,  who  displayed  unusual 
grasp,  [lerspicacity,  and  aptitude  for  improvement 
m  everything  relating  to  warfare.  They  soon  made 
use  of  t  he  horse  and  organized  a  cavalry  capable  of 
op|X)sing  the  Spanish  in  the  open  field.  They  also 
made  u.se  of  artillery  in  a  limited  way.  In  the  be- 
ginning, their  weapons  had  been  exceedingly  primi- 
tive. S|)eai-s  or  lances,  with  points  of  hard  wood, 
flint,  wooden  clubs,  and  clubheads  of  stone  consti- 
tuted the  arms  with  which  they  at  first  successfully 
encountered  the  Spanish  soldiers.  While  the  Arau- 
canians made  rapid  progress  in  everything  connected 
with  the  art  of  war,  and  in  this  way  became  formida- 
ble enemies  to  |)eaceable  culture  and  the  de\elopment 
of  the  Christian  nii.ssions,  they  adopted  the  arts  of 
peace  very  slowly  and  imperfectly.  Maintaining  the 
.system  of  rudimentary  social  organization  to  which 
they  were  accustomed,  :md  refractorj'  to  improve- 
ments that  would  have  bettered  their  general  condi- 
tion, they  continued  a  menace  to  everything  around 
them  without  perceiving  that  they  were  being  grad- 
ually enveloped  by  a  culture  intellectually  superior, 
with  which  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  cope.  Sev- 
eral treaties  of  [wace,  or  rather  truces,  were  success- 
ively made,  and  observeil  for  a  number  of  years,  but 
it  was  only  after  1792  that  conditions  became  settled, 
the  Araucanians  continuing  to  occupy  most  of  the 
territory  held  by  them  originally,  and  the  Spanish 
colonies  on  its  outskirts  enjoying  comparative  quiet. 
At  present  these  Indians  maintain  their  autonomy. 
They  preserve  their  original  social  organization, 
polygamy,  and  religious  customs.  Still,  being  sur- 
vivals of  primitive  conditions,  tliey  have  either  to 
disappear  or  to  assimilate  civilization.  Smallpox 
decimated  them  in  1561,  and  other  deleterious  in- 
fluences, like  alcoholism,  thin  their  ranks  slowly 
but  surely. 

The  religious  ideas  of  the  Araucanians  are  the 
pantheisni  and  fetishism  common  to  all  Indians. 
Dread  of  natural  phenomena,  and  especially  of 
volcanic  activity,  so  prominent  in  Chile,  is  the  basis 
of  their  creed.  To  soothe  such  powers,  which  ap- 
pear to  surround  man  and  threaten  him  on  all 
sides,  an  army  of  shamans  is  required,  and  these 
control  the  inner  and  outer  life  of  every  member 
of  the  tribe.  In  the  midst  of  the  almost  incessant 
wars  carried  on  bj'  tliem  for  more  than  two  centuries, 
the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  were  of  little  avail 
The  Jesuits  came  to  Chile  in  1593,  and  twelve  years 
later  ^'ega,  one  of  their  nimiber,  had  already  written 
a  grammar  and  a  dictionary  of  the  Araucanian 
language,  which  is  lost.  In  160()  Valdivia  followed 
with  similar  works  and  a  method  of  confession 
[Dahlmann,  Sprachkunde  und  Mi.ssionen  (Kreiburg, 
1901),  78,79].  The  foundation  of  Jesuit  colleges 
at  Valdivia,  Arauco,  and  elsewhere,  about  1594, 
furnished  a  base  of  operations  for  the  efforts  made 
to  penetrate  the  Araucanian  countrj'.  Neverthe- 
less, in  1845,  only  twelve  missions  existed  on  the 
frontiers  of  what  now  might  be  called  the  Araucanian 
reservation.  A  tribe  so  saturated  as  this  with  fetish- 
ism and  shamanism,  apparently  justified  by  a  long 
series  of  military  successes,  inaccessible  to  progress  in 
any  other  line  than  the  art  of  war,  will  only  Ijecome 
approachable  in  proportion  as  mental  and  moral 
degradation,  resulting  from  isolation,  causes  it  to 
we:iken.  Despite  the  almost  insurmountable  ob- 
stacles which  the  Araucanians  opposed  to  Chris- 
tianizing efforts,  the  Jesuit  missionaries  have  for  three 
centuries  laboured  with  untiring  zeal  to  convert  them. 

The  earliest  dorumentj^  relntine  to  Chile  and  the  .-Vrauca- 
ninns  are  emboilio<i  in  the  Colrccidn  tir  documentoa  para  la 
hUtorin  tie  Chile,  by  Jost  Toribio  .Mf.pina,  publisheil  at 
Suntiatfo.  There  arc  also  ver.v  early  documents  (mostly  re- 
puhhsheil  in  this  collection)  in  the  well-known  Caleccian  de 
documrtiUis  de  Initiafi,  etc.  More  widely  spread  is  the  fame  of 
several  poetical  works  (thoiifch  of  less  poetic  than  historical 
v.ilue),  the  mo.st  conspicuous  of  which  is  the  Araueaivi.  hy 
Al.oNso  i)K  Kkcili.a.     The  lirst  part  of  this  poem  appeare.l  ir 


ARAUJO 


GSO 


ARAWAKS 


Madrid,  1S69;  the  two  parts,  1578,  and  an  addition  by  OsoRlo, 
1597.  Pedro  de  Ona  published  an  inferior  poem,  the  Araitco 
domado,  in  1596.  and  the  Purvn  indomito,  by  Fernando 
Alvarez  de  Toledo,  was  concluded  in  1599.  Finally  Lope 
DE  Vega  also  wrote  an  Arauco  domado,  of  mediocre  value. 
After  that  came  the  linguistic  work  by  the  Jesuit  LuYS  de 
Valdivia:  Arte  y  gramdiica  de  la  len^ita  qiie  corre  en  todo  el 
reyno  de  Chile  (Lima,  1(500),  and  the  works  of  Aloned  de 
OvALLE.  Relacion  vcrdadera  de  las  Paces  que  capitido  con  el 
araucnno  rebelde  el  marques  de  Baides,  etc.  (Madrid,  1642), 
and  Hwldrica  Relacum  del  Reyno  de  Chile  (1646).  The  best 
known  work  from  colonial  times  is  that  of  the  Abbate  Molina; 
Saof/io  sulla  aloriii  civile  del  Chile  (1782),  which  has  been 
translated  into  many  European  languages.  The  great  collec- 
tion entitled  Coleccion  de  hisloriadores  primitivos  de  Chile 
(Santiago),  ed.  J.  T.  Medina,  contains  most  (if  not  all)  of  the 
earlier  writers  on  Chile  and  the  Araucanians.  For  instance: 
(II)  GoNGORA  ilARMoLEJO,  Historia  de  Chile  desde  su  de- 
scubrimienlo  hasta  el  afio  de  1575;  (III)  Pineda  y  Bascuxan 
(from  about  1650),  Cautiverio  feliz  y  razt'm  de  las  guerras 
dilaladas  de  Chile,  IV.  Besides  one  of  the  works  of  Olivares, 
also  Tribaldos  de  Toledo,  Vista  General  de  las  continuadas 
Guerras,  (V),  cf.  Santiago  de  Tesillo,  Guerra  de  Chile 
y  causas  de  su  duracion  (1621-59),  VI;  Marino  de  Lovera, 
Cr6nica  del  Reyno  de  Chile,  IV;  C)livarez,  llistoria  militar, 
civil  y  aagrada  de  Chile  (18th  century)  VI;  Historia  de  la 
Compai\m  de  Jesus  en  Chile  (1736),  XIV  and  XV;  G(5mez 
Vidadrre,  a  contemporary  of  Molina,  Historia  geogrdfica, 
natural  y  civil  de  Chile  (XVI);  Gonzalez  de  Najera,  Desen- 
gaao  y  Reparo  de  la  Guerra  de  Chile  (VIII-IX);  Carvallo 
T  GoYENEcnE,  Descripcion  historian,  geoqrdfica  del  Reyno  de 
ChUe—hom  1796  (XXII-XXIII);  Perez  Garcia,  Historia 
de  Chile. — Among  modern  authors,  Medina,  Los  Aborijenes 
de  Chile  (Santiago,  1892);  Gcevara,  Historia  de  la  CivUiza- 
cidn  de  Araucania  (.Santiago.  1898);  Barros  .Arana,  Historia 
general  de  Chile.  (15  vols.,  Santiago,  1884);  Ignacio  Domeyko. 
Araticania  y  sus  habilantes  (.Santiago,  1845);  Jose  Felix  de 
AiGUSTA,  Gramalica  araucana  (Valdivia,  1903);  Tableau  civU 
et  moral  des  Araucana  {XVl,  Annaleadeavoynoes,  tr.  from  the 
Viagero  universal);  Smith,  The  Araucanians  (New  York,  1855); 
Lenz,  Araukani^che  Mdrchen  (Valparaiso,  1892). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelieh. 

Araujo,  Antonio  de,  a  Brazilian  missionary,  b.  at 
St.  Michael's,  in  the  Azores;  d.  1632.  He  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  Bahia,  and  was  for  nine  years 
Superior  of  the  Missions  of  Brazil.  He  T\TOte  a  cate- 
chism in  the  native  language  of  Brazil.  Southwell 
says  of  it:  "This  catechism,  oegun  by  others  in  Bra- 
zilian, he  augmented  considerably.  It  was  published 
at  Lisbon  under  his  name,  and  is  regarded  as  without 
a  superior  in  the  catechetical  art.  It  was  afterwards 
translated  into  the  native  American  tongue." 

SoMMERVOGEL,  Blbl.  dc  la  c.  de  J.,  I,  507. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Araujo,  Francisco  de,  Spanish  theologian,  b.  at 
Verin,  Gahcia,  1580;  d.  Madrid,  19  March,  1664. 
In  1601,  he  entered  the  Dominican  Order  at  Sala- 
manca. He  taught  theology  (1616-17)  in  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Paul  at  Burgos,  and  in  the  latter  year  was 
made  assistant  to  Peter  of  Herrera,  the  principal 
professor  of  theology  at  Salamanca.  Six  years  later 
he  succeeded  to  the  chair,  and  held  it  until  1648, 
when  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Sevogia.  In  1656 
he  resigned  his  see,  and  retired  to  the  convent  of 
his  order  at  Madrid.  His  writings  are:  Commentary 
on  the  "  Metaphysics"  of  Aristotle  (2  vols.,  Salamanca, 
1617;  2d  ed.,  ibid.,  1631);  "Opuscula  tripartita, 
h.  e.  in  tres  controversias  triplicis  theologiiE  divisa" 
etc.  (Douay,  1633);  a  commentary  in  seven  volumes 
on  the  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas  (Salamanca  and 
Madrid,  163.5-47);  "Variie  et  selectie  decisiones 
morales  ad  stat.  eccles.  et  civil,  pertinentes"  (Lyons, 
1664;  2d  ed.,  Cologne,  1745).  In  the  second  vo'lume 
of  his  commentary  on  the  "Prima  Secundie"  there 
is  a  treatise  on  Predestination  and  Grace,  the  doctrine 
of  which  is  Molinistic.  Martinez  de  Prado  has  proved 
that  this  was  not  written  by  Araujo,  who,  in  a  later 
work,  shows  clearly  his  adherence  to  the  Thomistic 
teaching  on  those  questions. 

QufcTiK-EciiARD,  Script.  Ord.  Prard.,  I,  609;  Martinez 
de  1  RADo,  Metaphyaica.  I,  518;  Nirii.  Antonio.  Bibliotheca 
Hxap.  Nova:  Meyer.  Hist,  cantroveritiarum  de  auiiliit  gratia, 
I,  II,  c.  xxiii,  and  II,  ii,  c.  xvii;  Serry,  Hiat.  rongregationum 
i'  ""."'"'■  I^'  27;  V,  iii,  ii;  Hiikter,  Nomenclator,  II, 
?"':  ''"."'""""'Til.  ft.  Thomas  et  doc&ina  praemotionia  phya- 
I'^i^'V'"'  '***"*'•  •'■'82-588;  Stanonik  in  Kirchenlex.  (2d  ed., 
1882),  I.  1228-1229. 

W.  D.  Noon. 


Arausicanum,  See  Ohanue,  Council  op. 
Arawaks  (also  Aruacas),  the  first  American  aborig- 
ines met  by  Columbus — not  to  be  confounded  witli 
the  Aroacas  or  Arliouaques,  linguistically  allied  to 
the  Chibohas  of  Columbia — an  Indian  stock,  widely 
distributed  over  South  America.  Tribes  speaking 
dialects  of  the  Arawak  language  are  met  with,  in 
and  between  Indianis  of  other  linguistic  stocks,  from 
the  sources  of  the  Paraguay  to  the  northwestern 
shores  of  Lake  Maracaybo  (Goajiros),  from  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes  in  Peru  and  Bolivia  to 
the  Atlantic  coast  in  CSuyana.  The  Arawaks  were 
met  by  Columbus  in  1492,  on  the  Bahamas,  and, 
later  on,  in  Hayti,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  Puerto  Rico. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  and  possibly  for  several 
centuries  previous,  Indians  of  Arawak  stock  occupied 
the  Greater  Antilles.  It  is  not  impossible  that  up  to 
a  certain  time  before  Columbus  they  may  liave  held 
aU  the  West  Indian  Islands.  Then  an  intrusive 
Indian  element,  that  of  the  Caribs,  gradually  en- 
croached upon  the  southern  Antilles  from  the  main- 
land of  Venezuela  and  drove  the  Arawaks  north- 
ward. The  latter  showed  decided  fear  of  their 
aggressors,  a  feeling  increased  by  the  cannibalism 
of  the  Caribs. 

Generally  speaking,  the  Arawaks  are  in  a  condi- 
tion between  savagery  and  agricidture,  and  the  status 
varies  according  to  en\ironnient.  The  Arawaks  on 
the  Bahamas  were  practically  defenceless  against 
the  Caribs.  The  aborigines  of  Cuba  and  Hayti,  en- 
joying superior  material  advantages,  stood  on  a 
somewhat  higher  plane.  The  inhabitants  of  Jamaica 
and  Puerto  Rico,  immediate  neighbours  of  the  Caribs, 
were  ahnost  as  fierce  as  the  latter  and  probably  as 
anthropophagous.  Wedged  in  (after  the  discovery 
of  Columbus)  between  the  Caribs  on  the  South  and 
the  Europeans,  the  former  relentless  destroyers,  the 
latter  startling  innovators,  the  northern  Arawaks 
were  doomed.  In  the  course  of  half  a  century  they 
succumbed  to  the  unwonted  labour  imposed  upon 
them,  epidemics  doing  their  share  towards  ex- 
termination. Abuse  has  been  heaped  upon  Spain 
for  this  inevitable  result  of  first  contact  between 
races  whose  civilization  was  different,  and  whose 
ideas  were  so  incompatible.  Colonization  in  its  be- 
ginnings on  American  soil  had  to  go  through  a 
period  of  experiments,  and  the  Indians  naturally 
were  the  victims.  Then  the  experimenters  (as  is 
always  the  case  in  newly  discovered  lands)  did  not 
at  first  belong  to  the  most  desirable  class.  Columbus 
himself  (a  brilliant  navigator  but  a  poor  adminis- 
trator) contributed  much  to  the  outcome  l:)y  meas- 
ures well  intended,  but  impractical,  on  account  of 
absolute  lack  of  acquaintance  with  the  nature  of 
American  aborigines.  (See  Columbus,  Las  Casas.) 
The  Church  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  fate  of  the 
Antillean  Arawaks.  The  Hieronyniites  and,  later, 
the  Dominicans  defended  their  cause,  and  propa- 
gated Christianity  among  fliem.  They  also  care- 
fully studied  their  customs  and  religious  beliefs. 
Fray  Roman  Pane,  a  Hieronymite,  lias  left  us  a  very 
remarkable  report  on  the  lore  and  ceremonials  of  the 
Indians  of  H.ayti  (published  in  Italian  in  1571,  in 
Spanish  in  1749,  and  in  French  in  1864);  shorter 
descriptions,  from  anonymous,  but  surely  eccle- 
siastical, sources,  are  contained  in  the  "Documentos 
in^ditos  de  Indias".  The  report  of  Fray  Roman 
Pane  antedates  1508,  and  it  is  the  first  purely  ethno- 
graphic treatise  on  American  Indians. 

While  lamenting  the  disappearance  of  the  Indians 
of  the  Antilles,  writers  of  tlic  t"olumbi:in  period  have, 
for  controversial  efTect,  greatly  exaggerated  the  nimi- 
bers  of  these  people;  hence  the  numlicr  of  victims 
charged  to  Spanish  rule.  It  is  not  pos.sible  that 
Indians  constantly  warring  with  each  otlier,  and 
warred  upon  by  an  outside  enemy  like  the  Caribs, 
not  given  to  agriculture  except  in  as  far  as  women 


ARAWAKS 


681 


ARAWAKS 


worked  the  crops,  without  doniestio  animals,  in  an 
enervating  climate,  could  have  been  nearly  as  numer- 
ous as,  for  iiLstance,  Las  Casas  asserts.  The  extermi- 
nation of  the  Antillean  Arawaks  under  Spanish  rule 
has  not  yet  been  impartially  written.  It  is  no  worse  a 
page  of  history  than  many  tilled  with  Knglish  atroci- 
ties, or  than  tho.sc  which  Icll  how  the  North  American 
al)origines  have  been  disposed  of  in  order  to  make 
room  for  the  white  man.  The  Spaniards  did  not, 
and  could  not,  yet  know  the  nature  and  possibilities 
of  the  Indian.  They  could  not  understand  that  a 
race  |ihysically  well-endowed,  but  the  men  of  which 
had  no  conception  of  work,  could  not  be  suddenly 
changed  into  hardy  tillers  of  the  soil  and  miners. 
And  yet  the  Indian  had  to  l)e  made  to  labour,  as 
the  white  population  was  entirely  too  small  for  de- 
veloping the  resources  of  the  new-found  lands.  The 
European  attributed  the  inaptitude  of  the  Indian 
for  physical  toil  to  obstinacy,  and  only  too  often 
vented  his  impatience  in  acts  of  cruelty.  The  Crown 
made  the  utmost  efforts  to  mitigate,  and  to  protect 
the  aborigine,  but  ere  the  period  of  experiments  was 
over  the  latter  had  almost  vanished.  As  already 
stated,  the  Arawaks,  presumably,  held  the  Lesser 
Antilles  also,  until,  previous  to  the  Columbian  era, 
the  Caribs  expelled  them,  thus  separating  the 
northern  branch  from  the  main  stock  on  the  southern 
continent.  Of  the  latter  it  has  been  surmised  that 
their  original  homes  were  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Andes,  where  the  Canipas  (Chunchos  or  Antis) 
represent  the  Arawak  element,  together  with  the 
Shipibos,  Piros,  Conibos,  and  other  trilx-s  of  the 
extensive  Pano  group.  A  Spanish  officer,  Petlro 
de  Candia,  first  discovered  them  in  1538.  The 
earliest  attempts  at  Christianizution  arc  due  to  the 
Jesuits.  They  made,  previous  to  1602.  six  distinct 
efforts  to  convert  the  Chunchos,  from  the  side  of 
Hulinuoo  in  Peru,  and  from  northern  Bolivia,  but  all 
these  attempts  were  failures.  There  are  also  traces 
that  a  Jesuit  had  penetrated  lho.se  regions,  in  15<S1, 
more  as  an  explorer  than  sus  a  missionary.  Notwith- 
standing the  ill-success  accompanying  the  first  ef- 
forts, the  Jesuits  persevered,  and  founded  missions 
among  the  Moxos,  one  of  the  most  southerly  branches 
of  the  Arawaks,  and  also  among  the  Baures.  Those 
missions  were,  of  course,  abandoned  after  1707. 
During  the  past  century  the  Franciscans  ha\c  taken 
up  the  field  of  which  the  Jesuits  were  deprived,  es- 
pecially the  missions  among  the  Pano  or  Shipibo 
tribes  of  the  Beni  region  in  Bolivia.  The  late 
Kather  Rafael  Sanz  was  one  of  the  first  to  devote 
liim.sclf  to  the  difficult  and  dangerous  task,  and  ho 
was  ably  followed  by  Father  Nicolas  Armentia,  who 
Ls  now  IJishop  of  La  Paz.  The  latter  has  also  done 
very  good  work  in  the  Held  of  linguistics.  Missions 
among  the  Cioajiros  in  Columbia,  however,  had  but 
little  success.  Of  late  the  tribe  has  become  more 
approachable.  The  Arawaks  of  the  upper  Amazo- 
nian region  were  probably  met  by  Alonzo  Mercadillo, 
in  1537,  and  may  have  been  seen  by  Orcllana  in 
1538-39.  The  .\rawak  tribes  occupying  almost  ex- 
clusively the  southern  banks  of  the  Amazon,  they 
were  reached  by  the  missionaries  later  than  the  tribes 
on  the  north  bank.  Franciscans  accompanied  Juan 
de  Salinas  Loyola  (a  relative  of  St.  Ignatius)  in 
15(11.  But  the  results  of  these  expeditions  were  not 
pennanent. 

In  the  heart  of  the  Andean  region  the  Friars  of 
the  Order  of  Our  Ladv  of  Mercy  (Mercedarios) 
were  the  first  to  establish  pennanent  mi.ssions. 
Fray  Francisco  Ponce  de  Leon,  "Commander  of  the 
convent  of  the  city  of  Jaen  de  Bracamoros",  and 
Diego  Vaca  de  Vega,  Ciovemor  of  Jaen.  organized  in 
Kilo  an  expedition  down  the  Marailon  to  the  Maynas. 
In  Hilo  thev  founded  the  Mission  of  San  Francisco 
Borja,  whicli  still  exists  as  a  .settlement.  The  first 
baptisms  of  Indians  took  place  22  .\Iarcli,  1620.     The 


year  following.  Father  Ponce  made  an  expedition 
lower  down  the  Amazon,  Ijeyond  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Huallaga  where  ho  came  in  contact  with  the 
Arawak  tribes,  to  whom  he  preached,  and  some  of 
whom  ho  baptized.  The  FranciscaiLs  entered  from 
the  direction  of  Jauja  or  Tarma,  towards  Chancha- 
mayo,  in  1631  and  16.35.  The  first  foundation  was 
at  Quimiri,  where  a  chai^el  was  built.  Two  years 
later  the  founders.  Fathers  Geronimo  Xim^nez  and 
Cristoval  Larios,  died  at  the  hands  of  the  Cainpjis 
on  the  V6r6n6  River.  Work  was  not  interrupted, 
howe\er,  and  three  years  later  (16-10)  there  were  es- 
tablished alx)ut  the  salt-hill  of  Vitoc  seven  chapels, 
each  with  a  .settlement  of  Indian  converts.  But  in 
1742  the  appearance  of  Juan  Santos  Atahualpa  occa- 
sioned an  almost  general  uprising  of  the  aborigines. 
T'ntil  then  the  missions  had  progrc.s.sed  remarkably. 
Some  of  the  most  savage  tribes,  like  the  Conibos, 
became  at  least  partly  reduced  to  obedience,  and 
led  a  more  sedate,  orderly  life.  In  1725  the  College 
of  Ocopa  wa-s  founded.  All  these  gains  (except  the 
College  of  Ocopa  and  the  regions  around  'rarma 
and  Cajamarquilla)  were  lo.st  until,  after  1751, 
Franciscan  missionaries  again  began  to  enter  the 
lost  territory,  and  even  added  new  conquests  among 
the  fiercest  Arawaks  (Cashibos)  on  the  I'cayali. 
Conversions  in  these  regions  have  cost  many  mar- 
tyrs, not  less  than  sixty-four  ecclesiastics  having 
perished  at  the  hands  of  Indians  of  Arawak  stock 
m  the  years  between  1637  and  1706.  Missionary 
work  among  the  Arawaks  of  CJuyana  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Orinoco,  began,  in  a  systematic  man- 
ner, in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  was  carried  on  from  the  Spanish  side  among 
the  Maypures  of  the  Orinoco,  from  the  French  side 
along  the  coast  and  the  Kssequibo  River.  Wars 
between  France,  England,  and  Holland,  the  in- 
different, systemless  ways  of  French  colonization, 
but  chiefly  the  constant  incursions  of  the  Caribs, 
interrupted  or  at  least  greatly  obstructed  the  progress 
of  missions.  Ethnologically  the  Arawaks  vary  in 
condition.  Those  of  Guyana  seem  to  be  partly 
sedentary.  They  call  themselves  Lokonono.  They 
are  well  built.  Descent  among  them  is  in  the  female 
line,  and  they  are  polygamous.  They  are  land- 
tillers  and  hunters.  Their  houses  are  sheds,  ojxjn 
on  the  sides,  and  their  weapons  bows,  arrows,  and 
wooden  clubs.  Their  religious  ideas  are,  locally 
varied,  those  of  all  Indians,  animism  or  fetishism, 
with  an  army  of  shamans,  or  medicine-men,  to  uphold 
it.  Of  the  Campas  and  the  tribes  comprised  within 
the  Pano  group,  about  the  same  may  be  stated,  with 
the  difference  that  several  of  the  tribes  composing 
it  are  fierce  cannibals  (Cashibos  and  Conibos).  It 
must  be  observed,  however,  that  cannibalism  is,  under 
certain  conditions,  practised  by  all  the  forest  tribes 
of  South  .\merica,  .as  well  as  by  the  Aymanl  of 
Bolivia.  It  is  mostly  a  ceremonial  practice  and,  at 
the  bottom,  closely  related  to  the  custom  of  scalping. 

The  "IvCttcrs  of  CoUimbu-*"  contain  the  earliest  informa- 
tion about  the  American  Indian.-^,  and  those  describetl  in  his 
first  letter.  22  I-'ebrilary,  149.3.  were  Arawaks.  The  report 
of  Tray  Roman  Pane  is  found  in  the  work  of  H  krnando  Colon. 
the  Spanish  orieinal  of  which  has  not  yet  been  founil.  but  an 
Italian  version  of  it  was  published  in  I57I.  There  are  several 
eilitions.  (Quotations  above  are  from  Uislorie  del  Siffnor  D. 
Hemaitito  Colomlm.  Nellr  qunh  «'  ha  pnrticolare,  &  vera  reUt' 
twne  delta  vila.  r  de'  fniti  delV  Ammiraglio  D.  Chriatoforo  Colombo 
Sua  Padre  (Venice,  1I17.S1.  the  translation  is  by  Alfonso  Ulloa. 
A  first  Spanish  re-translation  wa-s  published  by  (lonzalez 
Hlirria  in  lliflnrindorm  primiliinit  de  Indwa  (Mailriil.  I749>; 
a  Frenrli  version  bv  the  AbW  Hrasseur  dc  Bourboura  ap- 
pears appeiide^l  to  the  Rclnlian  de«  ehogea  de  Yuetitan  iParus. 
18(i4).  and  there  is  a  secoml  print  in  Spanish  of  recent  date. 
Las  Casas.  UUtorin  de  Ui«  Iwluig  (two  eilitions,  one  in  the 
Dontmrnton  para  la  Uititorui  de  Eapaila)',  lim-iasimn  Hrlaeitin 
de  la  Destrui/eion  de  laa  Irulina  (Seville,  l.').'>2).  numerous  eili- 
tions an<l  translations  into  various  lanKuases;  CinoLAMo 
Uknzoni.  Ilialoria  dr<  Hondo  S uoro  (Venice.  LSCvli;  Ger- 
man translation,  I.ITO;  French,  1.587;  Knulish.  Haekluvt 
.Society,  lliatory  ul  the  New  World  (Uindiin,  1S57).  Other 
sources:   Ovikdo  y  Valdkz,   llutorui  gericrat  \i  natural  de   la* 


ARBIETO 


682 


ARBITRATION 


Indujs  (first  print,  Madrid,  l.'>.3.'>.  comprising  only  the  first 
19  books;  complete  edition.  Madrid,  1851);  Gomara.  His- 
toria  general  de  laa  Imlias  (Madrid,  1553),  many  versions  in 
other  languages;  Herrkra,  Hiaturia  general  de  Ion  hechos 
de  lo8  Caatellanos  &ca.  (Madrid,  1601-15);  other  editions,  and 
more  accessible  ones:  Madrid,  1728-30,  and  Antwerp,  1728,  On 
Missions,  references  are  (mentioning  only  the  most  i>rominent 
sources)  to  Relacwrtes  geogrdficas  de  Indias  (II  and  IV,  Madrid, 
1885  and  1897),  which  contain  elaborate  discussions  of  the 
expefiitions  of  Salinas  Loyola,  and  of  Vaca  de  Vaga,  and 
documents  relative  to  the  ecclesiastics  connected  with  them; 
Cordova  Salinas,  Coronica  de  la  Religufsigima  Provincia  de 
loa  Doce  Apostoloe  del  Pint  (Lima,  1651);  Arriaga,  Ex- 
iirpacidn  de  la  Idolatrla  del  Piru  (Lima,  1621);  Calancha, 
Coronica  moralizda  de  la  orden  de  San  AugusKn  en  el  Piru 
(Lima,  1638,  fnecond  part,  1653);  Documentos  ineditos  de 
Indias,  passim;  C.  Quandt,  Nachricht  von  Surinam  und 
seinen  Einwohnern  (Gorlitz,  1S07).  An  important  vocabu- 
lary of  the  Shipibo  dialect  (Pano  of  the  Beni)  by  Bishop  Ar- 
MENTlA,  has  been  published  in  the  Boletin  de  la  Sociedad  de 
Geografia  de  la  Paz,  It  is  the  most  complete  thus  far  known. 
Literature  on  the  Arawaks  being  so  very  abundant,  many 
works  cannot  be  mentioned  here. 

Ad,  F.  Bandelier. 

Arbieto,  Ignacio  de,  Jesuit,  b.  at  Madrid,  Feb- 
ruary, 1.58.5;  d.  at  Lima,  Peru,  7  August,  1676.  He 
joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1603,  and  was  ordained 
a  priest  at  Lima,  in  1612.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Quito  in  Ecuador,  went 
thence  to  Arequipa,  and  finally  to  Lima,  where  he 
died.  He  taught  (with  interruptions)  for  twenty- 
five  years  in  Peru,  and  spent  his  last  years  in  \^Tit- 
ing  the  "Historia  del  Peru  j'  de  las  fundaciones  que 
ha  hecho  en  61  la  Compafiia  de  Jesus."  The  MS.  is 
at  the  National  Archives  of  Lima,  and  in  a  hopeless 
state  of  decay. 

Leon  t  Pinelo,  Epitome  de  la  biblioteca  oriental  y  occidental 
(Madrid,  1737-38,  2d  ed.);  Nicolas  Antonio.  Bibliotheca 
Hispana  Nova  (Madrid,  1733-38,  2d  ed.);  Torres-Sald.^- 
MANDO,  Antiguos  Jesuitas  del  Peril  (Lima,  1882);  Mendiburu, 
Diccionario  histdrico-biogrdfico   (Lima,   1874),  I. 

Ax>,  F.  Bandelier. 

Arbitration,  in  a  general  sense,  is  a  method  of  ar- 
ranging differences  between  two  parties  by  referring 
them  to  the  judgment  of  a  disinterested  outsider 
whose  decision  the  parties  to  a  dispute  agree  in  ad- 
vance to  accept  as  in  some  way  binding.  The  whole 
process  of  arbitration  involves  the  reference  of  issues 
to  an  outside  party,  investigation,  decision,  accep- 
tance or  enforcement  of  it.  The  condition  «hich  in- 
vites arbitration  is  one  wherein  a  number  of  persons 
of  equal,  or  nearly  equal  power,  disagree  obstinately 
concerning  a  right,  privilege,  or  duty,  and  refiLse  to 
come  to  terms  themselves.  The  underlying  assump- 
tions are  that  the  sense  of  fairness  is  dulled  in  the 
opponents  by  advocacy  of  self-interest,  and  by  ob- 
stinacy, and  that  the  judgment  of  a  capable  disin- 
terested third  party  will  more  nearly  approximate 
justice  and  equity.  The  motive  which  prompts 
appeal  to  arbitration  is  found  finally  in  society's 
desire  to  eliminate  force  as  a  sanction  of  right,  and 
to  introduce  effectively  the  principles  of  the  ethical 
order  into  the  settlement  of  disputes  among  its 
members.  Courts,  rules  of  law  and  procedure  have 
as  purpose  the  protection  of  order  and  justice  by 
compelling  men  to  settle  vital  differences  in  a  peace- 
ful manner.  In  the  main,  society  must  always  trust 
to  the  common  sense,  honour,  and  conscience  of  men 
to  arrange  peacefully  the  differences  which  arise  in 
everydav  life.  When,  however,  differences  of  actual 
or  possible  grave  social  consequences  arise,  wherein 
high  principles  or  great  interests  are  involved,  and 
the  parties  of  themselves  fail  to  agree,  society  at- 
tenipls  to  secure  order  by  creating  institutions  to 
decide  the  situation  according  to  predetermined 
rules  of  law.  The  movement  to  introduce  arbitra- 
tion in  the  settlement  of  disputes  between  labourers 
and  employers  is  an  effort  in  society  to  lift  such  con- 
flicts from  the  plane  of  bnite  force  to  the  level  of 
the  ethical  order;  to  provide  a  rational  method  of 
nettling  such  disputes  aa  fail  to  be  resolved  by  other 
peaceful  means. 

The  IS.1UE.S.— The   issues   which    have   arisen    be- 


tween labourers  and  employers  concern  the  division 
of  profits  in  industrj'  or  the  rate  of  wages,  and  the 
formal  recognition  of  labour  unions,  which  professedly 
claim  a  right  to  have  a  voice  with  the  employer  in 
determining  questions  of  hours,  methods  of  work, 
conditions  of  work,  marmer  of  payment  of  wages, 
etc.  Disputes  generally  concern  the  arrangement 
of  terms  to  govern  future  relations  or  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  terms  of  an  already-existing  labour  con- 
tract. 

The  Parties. — As  a  rule,  the  labour  union  and 
not  the  individual  is  a  party  to  the  industrial  con- 
flict. The  individual  workman  is  in  no  condition 
of  equality  with  his  employer.  Only  a  large  body 
of  labourers  in  an  industry  or  a  factory  is  strong 
enough  to  raise  an  issue  effectively  against  an  em- 
ployer. An  active  and  advanced  minority  of  the 
labouring  class  have  created  labour  unions  which 
undertake  the  care  of  the  interests  of  the  members, 
and  aim  to  deal  on  equal  footing  with  the  employer. 
Where  the  men  in  a  shop  or  factory  are  not  unionized, 
they  may  organize  temporarily  to  enforce  a  demand 
or  resist  a  policy,  but,  generally  speal^ing,  it  is  the 
union  which  is  involved  when  there  is  conflict  be- 
tween employers  and  labourers.  L'ntil  recently  each 
employer,  in  his  individual  capacity,  dealt  with  his 
working  men  or  with  the  union.  In  late  years,  how- 
ever, organizations  of  employers  have  been  built  up 
extensively  and  they  now  tend  to  replace  the  in- 
dividual employer  in  dealing  with  organized  labour. 

The  Place  of  Arbitration. — As  industrial  evolu- 
tion has  been  much  more  rapid  than  the  adjustment 
of  social  institutions,  serious  conflicts  of  interest,  of 
views,  of  principles,  have  arisen  in  the  industrial 
world,  to  arrange  which,  with  final  authority,  we 
have  in  fact  neither  accepted  methods  nor  adequate 
institutions.  The  way  has  thus  been  left  open  to 
permit  the  settlement  of  these  disputes  to  fall  to 
the  level  of  force,  that  is,  of  the  economic  power  of 
the  parties  to  resist.  The  strike  and  the  lockout, 
with  their  accompanying  secondary  phases,  are  the 
last  resort  to  which  industrial  conflicts  are,  by  a  sort 
of  necessity,  referred.  The  penalties  suffered  by 
society  are  found  in  social  disorder,  estrangement, 
widely  felt  disturbance  of  business,  and  enormous 
financial  losses.  In  the  face  of  this  discreditable 
condition,  public  opinion  and  the  enlightened  self- 
interest  of  labourers  and  employers  have  begun  the 
work  of  creating  and  testing  peaceful  methods  by 
which  differences  may  be  anticipated  and  prevented, 
or  if  not  prevented,  settled  in  a  secure,  just,  and  peace- 
ful manner.  In  pressing  forward  towards  the  crea- 
tion of  these  institutions  of  industrial  peace,  society 
is  held  back  to  an  extent  by  traditional  principles, 
settled  views,  established  interests  and  constitutional 
problems.  This  has  tended  to  turn  the  current  of 
effort  towards  non-legal  rather  than  legal  methods  of 
industrial  peace.  Arbitration,  conciliation,  media- 
tion, trade  agreements,  shop  committees,  joint  con- 
ferences, are  some  of  the  institutions  that  have 
resulted.  The  function  of  arbitration  is  best  under- 
stood when  the  institution  is  seen  in  relation  to  the 
whole  industrial  situation  out  of  which  it  springs. 
1. — To  a  great  extent  relations  between  unorganized 
labourers  and  employers  are  peaceful.  If  labovircrs 
ask  only  what  employers  offer,  or  employers  gi\e  all 
that  labourers  ask,  there  is  no  prospect  of  difficulty 
while  such  conditions  endure.  Whether  one  ex- 
plain the  peaceful  relations  referred  to  by  apathy, 
weakness,  or  hopelessness  of  unorganized  labour,  or 
by  the  benevolence  or  tyranny  of  the  employer,  or 
by  their  antagonism  to  the  labour  union,  one  should 
not  overlook  the  fact  that  in  a  very  large  section  of 
the  industrial  field  relations  are  peaceful.  2. — Bela- 
tions  between  employers  and  labour  unions  are  to  a 
considenil>le  extent  peaceful  and  at  times  even  cordial, 
though  without  any  formal  effort  at  definite  antici 


ARBITRATION 


683 


ARBITRATION 


pation  of  trouble.  Whatever  the  explanation, 
whether  the  generosity  of  the  employer  or  the  con- 
servatism of  the  union,  the  relations  between  them  are 
largely  peaceful,  a  fact  which  is  unfortunately  often 
overlooked  by  many  who  speak  of  the  industrial 
situation.  3. — In  another  increasing  class  the  rela- 
tions of  employers  and  labour  unions  are  cordial,  or 
at  least  peaceful,  through  formal,  mutual  understand- 
ings, and  oral  or  written  contracts.  In  these  ciises  the 
accredited  representatives  of  employers  and  of  labour 
unions  meet  in  a  friendly  way,  discuss  all  questions 
bearing  on  the  contract  of  labour,  reach  conclusions, 
and  embody  them  in  some  form  of  definite  under- 
standing to  cover  a  given  [xriod.  In  such  cases 
provision  is  usually  made  for  the  peaceful  settle- 
ment of  unforeseen  minor  disputes.  The  classes 
referred  to  show  that  industrial  jxjace  does  actually 
exist  to  a  considerable  extent  already.  IIowe\er, 
it  still  remains  possible  that  disagreement,  estrange- 
ment, war,  appear  in  any  of  the  classes  referred  to. 
Hence  no  statistical  enumeration  of  the  numljers  of 
employers  and  labourers  who  live  and  labour  peace- 
fully covers  the  whole  situation.  We  lack  still  a 
final  authoritative  institution  which  will  bo  prepared 
to  settle  in  a  peaceful  manner  the  conflicts  that  may 
arise.  The  possibility  of  strike  or  lockout  in  the 
classes  enumerated  being  recognized,  we  may  pro- 
ceed to  consider  employers  and  imions  actually  at 
war.  Assuming  that  the  employer  takes  action 
adverse  to  the  union's  will,  or  vice  versa,  threats  may 
be  made,  compromise  may  be  refused,  war  may  be 
declared,  causing  a  strike,  or  lockout,  with  its  train 
of  varied  evils.  The  contest  is  then  thrown  to  the 
level  of  brute  force,  each  party  depending  on  his  own 
economic  power  to  resist,  and  on  the  expectation  of 
the  harm  that  may  come  to  his  opponent.  In  ad- 
vance of  the  actual  suspension  of  work  and  declara- 
tion of  strike,  or  at  any  time  during  a  strike,  the 
Carties  may  endeavour  either  to  prevent  an  out- 
reak,  or  to  terminate  it,  by  efforts  at  compromise 
among  themselves.  If  thev  fail  to  do  so,  representa- 
tives of  the  public,  of  civil,  of  religious,  of  political 
organizatioas,  may  intervene  to  induce  them  to  come 
to  an  agreement  among  themselves  for  the  sake  of  the 
public.  If  all  such  efforts  fail  of  result,  one  peaceful 
recourse  is  left,  namely,  to  ask  the  parties,  who  of 
themselves  will  not  agree,  to  place  tne  issue  in  the 
hands  of  a  disinterested  tribunal  and  abide  by  the 
decision.  When  this  is  done,  the  process  is  called 
Arbitration.  When  employers  ana  labour  unions 
arrange  the  terms  of  the  labour  contract  formally 
and  for  a  definite  period,  the  process  is  called  Trade 
.\greement,  or  collective  bargaining,  defined  by  the 
Industrial  Commission  as  "the  process  by  which  the 
general  terms  of  the  labour  contract  itself,  whether 
the  contract  be  written  or  oral,  are  determined  by 
negotiation  directly  between  employers  or  em- 
ployers' associations  and  organized  workmen." 

When  differences  of  any  kind  arise,  whether  of 
great  or  of  minor  importance,  if  the  parties  them- 
selves arrange  an  amicable  settlement,  the  process 
is  called  Conciliation,  defined  by  the  Industrial  Com- 
mission as  "the  settlement  by  the  parties  directly, 
of  minor  disputes,  as  to  the  interpretation  of  the 
terms  of  the  labour  contract,  whether  that  contract 
be  an  express  one  or  only  a  general  undcnitanding", 
while  it  IS  further  stated  that  in  EnjjlaiKl  quite  com- 
monly the  term  conciliation  is  applied  to  "the  dis- 
cussion and  settlement  of  questions  lx?tween  the 
parties  themselves,  or  Iwtwccn  their  representatives 
who  are  themselves  actually  interested ".  Trade 
agreements,  iis  a  nile,  provide  for  the  reference  of 
unforeseen  minor  disputes  to  a  board  of  conciliation 
composed  of  representatives  of  both  sides.  The 
intervention  of  outside  partie.f  who  seek  to  induce  the 
opponents  to  arrive  at  a  peaceful  settlement  of  their 
differences,   is  called  Mediation,  defined  by  the  In- 


dustrial Commission  as  "the  intervention,  usually 
uninvited,  of  some  outside  person  or  body,  with  a 
view  to  bringing  the  parties  to  tlie  dispute  together 
in  conciliatory  conferences".  When  there  is  no 
prospect  of  [wace  through  the  action  of  the  parties 
to  the  dispute,  and  they  agree  to  refer  it  to  a  third 
party  or  body  for  judgment,  the  process  is  called 
Arbitration,  defined  by  the  Industrial  Commission 
as  "the  authoritative  decision  of  the  issue  as  to 
which  the  parties  have  failed  to  agree,  by  some  per- 
son or  persons  other  than  the  parties".  Arbitration 
involves,   therefore,    reference   of   issues   to   a   third 

Carty,  investigation,  decision,  action  on  the  decision 
y  the  antagonists.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted 
that  usage  has  not  succeeded  in  establishing  clear 
definitions.  One  may,  liowever,  avoid  confusion  if 
one  will  distinguish  the  following  situations:  (1)  In- 
formal peaceful  relations  between  unions  and  em- 
ployers; (2)  Formal  peaceful  relations  provided  for 
m  trade  agreements  in  advance  of  any  estrangement 
or  difference;  (.3)  After  ditTerences  have  arisen,  all 
efforts  made  by  the  parties  themselves  to  establish 
ix;ace,  whether  before  or  after  a  strike  has  been 
declared;  (4)  Reference  to  outside  parties  of  the 
issues  and  authoritative  decision  by  them;  (5)  In- 
tervention of  disinterested  outsiders,  who  aim  to 
induce  the  contestants  to  arrange  for  peace,  either 
among  themselves  or  tlirough  reference  to  outside 
parties.  To  these  situations  respectively,  excluding 
the  first,  the  terms  trade  agreements,  conciliation, 
arbitration,   mediation,  may   be  applied. 

Limits  of  Aubitkation. — It  would  be  a  mistake 
to  assume  that  arbitration  is  a  panacea.  It  is  not 
necessarily  effective  beyond  the  term  for  which  a 
decision  is  made.  While  the  elements  of  conflict 
remain  in  society  the  possibility  of  dispute  remains 
also.  Hence,  at  best,  arbitration  is  a  makeshift, 
one  of  the  highest  importance  no  doubt,  but  it  docs 
not  eradicate  the  evils  to  which  it  is  applied.  There 
are  certain  issues  between  employers  and  labourers 
which  will  not  be  submitted  to  arbitration;  funda- 
mental rights  claimed  by  each  party  and  held  to  be 
beyond  the  realm  of  dispute.  Thus,  for  instance, 
the  labour  union  will  not  submit  to  arbitration  the 
question  of  the  right  of  the  labourer  to  join  a  union 
or  the  right  of  the  union  to  represent  its  members. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  employer  would  not  submit 
to  arbitration  his  right  to  manage  his  own  business. 
The  Industrial  Conunission  remarks:  "Whether  it  is 
as  wise  ordinarily  to  submit  general  questions  to 
arbitration  as  questions  of  interpretation  is  perhaps 
doubtful.  It  is  certainly  the  case  that  minor  ques- 
tions are  more  often  arbitrated  than  those  of  grejit 
importance  involving  general  conditions  of  future 
labour." 

KiN'Ds  OF  Arbithation.— Arbitration  is  voluntary 
when  it  is  freely  invited,  or  accepted  by  the  parties 
to  the  controversy,  without  reference  to  law,  when 
only  good  faith  is  involved  in  the  acceptance  of  the 
decision.  It  is  compulsory  when  the  civil  law  com- 
pels the  parties  to  the  industrial  conflict  to  submit  to 
the  decision  of  aboard  of  arbitration.  The  law  may 
require  a  legal  boartl  of  arbitration  to  investigate  a 
controversy,  render  a  decision,  and  make  public  a 
report.  The  decision  in  this  case  has  no  binding 
power  and  no  sanction  other  than  that  of  public 
opinion.  The  law  may  provide  a  board  which  the 
ijarties  may  invoke  if  they  wish,  whose  decision  is 
binding  when  both  parties  join  in  request  for  action. 
Arbitration  is  governmental  when  civil  authority 
provides  encouragement,  opportunity,  boards,  of 
which  employers  and  lalxwrers  may  avail  themselves 
in  case  of  dispute.  In  all  such  cases  the  law  may  or 
may  not  confer  ii|X)n  a  l)oard  power  to  administer 
oaths,  to  subpoena  witnesses  and  compel  the  pro- 
duction of  pa[)eni  and  books.  In  nearly  all  forms  of 
arbitration  the  rule  is  to  represent  the  conflicting 


ARBITRATION 


684 


ARBITRATION 


interests  by  equal  luimbers  of  representatives  who 
agree  on  an  umpire  and  thus  complete  the  organiza- 
tion. 

Compulsory  Arbitration. — Sentiment  through- 
out tlie  powerful  industrial  nations  seems  to  be 
unanimous  against  compulsorj'  arbitration,  which 
involves  legal  enforcement  of  decision.  Labour 
unions,  employers,  and  representatives  of  the  public 
generally,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  Europe  as  well, 
agree  in  opposing  it.     The  sentiment  against  it  is 

C.irticularly  strong  in  the  United  States,  as  is  shown 
y  the  amount  of  testimony  collected  by  the  Industrial 
Commission.  Compulsory  investigation  and  decision 
with  publication  of  facts  and  of  decision  is  frequently 
favoured  where  great  interests  are  involved,  as  in 
interstate  commerce,  and  not  a  few  are  found  who 
favour  enforcement  of  decision  where  both  parties 
invoke  arbitration.  New  Zealand  alone  has  at- 
tempted full  compulsory  arbitration.  The  reasons 
alleged  against  compulsory  arbitration  are  numerous. 
It  appears  to  invade  the  property  rights  of  the  em- 
ployer, or  the  personal  liberty  of  the  labourer,  since 
the  former  might  be  compelled  by  law  to  pay  wages 
against  his  will,  and  the  latter  might  be  forced  to 
labour  in  .spite  of  himself.  It  is  difficult  to  make  the 
action  of  compulsory  arbitration  reciprocal,  since  the 
employer  is  more  easily  held  than  the  labour  union, 
unless  the  latter  be  incorporated  and  be  made  finan- 
cially responsible,  a  condition  from  which  the  unions 
usually  recoil.  As  arbitrators  would  not  be  gov- 
erned by  a  rule  of  law,  it  is  feared  that  sympathy 
with  the  weaker  party  might  sway  them,  and  that 
they  would  be  inclined  to  "split  the  difference", 
thereby  ensuring  some  gain  to  labour,  a  prospect 
which,  it  is  said,  might  encourage  strikes  and  prompt 
unreasonable  demands.  It  is  claimed  that  decisions 
unfavourable  to  labourers  would  tend  to  strengthen 
an  already-growing  suspicion  of  govermnent  and  of 
courts.  Furthermore,  the  employer  sees  in  com- 
pulsory arbitration  divided  jurisdiction  in  his  busi- 
ness, interference  of  outsiders  who  lack  technical 
knowledge,  probable  overturning  of  discipline,  and  a 
weakening  of  his  position,  points  that  were  made 
with  some  feeling  against  Cardinal  Manning  in  his 
mediation  in  the  great  Dock  Strike.  Fear  is  ex- 
pressed that  employers  would  be  driven  to  organize 
for  self-protection,  that  they  would  be  inclined  to 
raise  prices,  or  adulterate  products,  in  order  to  offset 
losses  sustained  by  adverse  decisions  of  arbitration 
courts.  There  are  in  addition  constitutional  diffi- 
culties which  in  most  modern  nations  might  make 
the  operation  of  compulsory  arbitration  difficult, 
even  if  the  public  were  to  accept  it.  It  is  urged  in 
favour  of  compulsory  arbitration  that  the  prospect 
of  it  would  inevitably  create  a  more  conciliatory 
attitude  of  mind  in  employer's  and  labourers,  that 
common  fear  of  undesirable  results  would  develop 
the  practice  of  trade  agreement  and  conciliation, 
that  society  would  thereby  gain  finally  legal  guar- 
antee of  industrial  peace,  and  would  be  spared  the 
enormous  losses,  confusion,  and  violence  that  result 
from  strikes.  The  modified  forms  of  compulsory 
arbitration — enforcement  of  decision  when  both 
parties  agree  to  submit  to  arbitration,  and  compul- 
sory arbitration  where  vital  public  interests  are 
immediately  concerned,  as  in  interstate  commerce — 
avoid  many  of  the  objections  and  appear  to  promise 
good  results. 

Voluntary  Arbitration. — That  opposition  to 
compulsory  arbitration  is  directed  against  tlie  com- 
pulsory feature,  and  not  against  arbitration  as  such, 
IS  seen  from  the  practical  sympathy,  and  even  en- 
thusiasm, with  which  voluntarj-  arbitration  is  re- 
ceived. In  the  United  States,  which  may  be  taken 
us  typical,  we  find  organized  labour  speaking  strongly 
in  favour  of  voluntary  arbitration.  It  deplores 
strikes,  provides  careful  scrutiny  and  a  tliorougli  test 


of  feeling  before  permitting  strikes,  and  generally  pro- 
vides for  appeal  to  conciliation  or  arbitration.  Mr. 
Gompers,  President  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labour,  said  before  the  Congress  of  Industrial  Con- 
ciliation and  Arbitration  in  Chicago,  in  1894:  "As 
one  who  has  been  intimately  and  closely  connected 
with  the  labour  movement  for  more  than  thirty 
years  from  boyhood,  I  say  to  you  that  I  have  yet  to 
receive  a  copy  of  a  Constitution  of  any  general 
organization,  or  local  organization,  of  labour  which 
had  not  the  provision  that,  before  any  strike  shall  be 
undertaken,  conciliation  or  arbitration  shall  be  tried; 
and,  with  nearly  twelve  thousand  local  trade  unions 
in  the  United  States,  I  think  that  this  goes  far  to 
show  that  the  organizations  of  labour  are  desirous 
of  encouraging  amicable  arrangements  of  such 
schedules  and  conditions  of  labour  as  shall  tend  to 
peace."  This  is  fully  corroborated  by  the  Industrial 
Commission,  which  said  in  its  report,  six  years  later, 
that  "the  rule  of  local  and  national  trade  unions, 
almost  without  exception,  provides  for  conciliatory 
negotiations  with  employers  before  a  strike  may  be 
entered  upon ".  In  nearly  all  trade  agreements  a 
provision  is  made  for  conciliation  or  arbitration 
whenever  minor  disputes  of  any  kind  arise.  As  to 
employers,  one  should  recall  that  all  employers  who 
stand  in  friendly  relations  w'ith  union  labour,  either 
informally,  or  formally,  in  trade  agreements,  are 
presumptively  favourable  to  arbitration.  The  em- 
ployer who  refuses  to  recognize  or  to  deal  with  the 
labour  union  is  inclined  not  to  favour  arbitration, 
since  it  involves  recognition  of  the  union.  He  may 
be  willing  to  meet  a  committee  of  his  men  and  hear 
complaints,  and  even  grant  demands,  but  his  method 
is  not  that  of  arbitration.  The  following,  from  the 
Principles  of  the  National  Association  of  Manu- 
facturers, adopted  in  1904,  is  typical.  The  Associa- 
tion "favours  an  equitable  adjustment  of  the  differ- 
ences between  employers  and  employees  by  any 
amicable  method  that  will  preserve  the  rights  of 
both  parties",  though  at  the  same  time  the  Associa- 
tion declares  that  it  will  permit  no  interference  by 
organizations.  The  Republican  National  Platform 
of  1896,  as  well  as  the  Democratic,  declared  in  favour 
of  arbitration  in  interstate-commerce  controversies. 
Nothing  on  the  subject  appeared  in  either  platform 
in  1900.  The  Republican  platform  of  1904  contained 
only  an  endorsement  of  President  Roosevelt's  media- 
tion in  the  Coal  Strike  of  1902,  while  the  Democratic 
platform  declared  directly  for  arbitration  without 
qualification.  A  remarkable  expression  of  public 
opinion  in  the  L'nited  States  is  seen  in  the  creation 
of  the  National  Civic  Federation  which  has  held  a 
number  of  national  conferences  in  the  interest  of 
industrial  peace.  Representatives  of  employers,  of 
labouring  men,  of  political  life,  of  churches,  of 
academic  circles,  have  met  in  these  conventions  and 
their  endorsements  of  attempts  to  establish  industrial 
peace,  through  trade  agreements,  conciliation,  and 
vohmtaiy  arbitration,  have  been  unanimous  and 
enthusiastic.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States  has  a  standing  Committee  on 
Labour  and  Capital  whose  duty  it  is  "to  hold  them- 
selves in  readiness  to  act  as  arbitrators  should  their 
services  be  desired  between  the  men  and  their  em- 
ployers with  the  view  to  bringing  about  mutual 
conciliation  and  harmony  in  tlie  spirit  of  the  Prince 
of  Peace".  The  action  of  Cardinal  Manning  in  the 
Dock  Strike  in  London,  in  1SS9,  together  with  his 
great  elTorts  to  establisli  boards  of  conciliation  in 
tlie  London  District;  the  presence  and  activity  of 
Archbishop  Ireland  in  the  National  Civic  Federation: 
that  of  Archbishop  Ryan  in  the  Philadelphia  strike, 
in  1S96;  the  work  of'  Hisliop  tjuigloy  in  the  strike 
of  1899,  in  Buffalo;  of  Hishup  Hurke  in  the  Albany 
strike,  in  1902;  that  of  Bishop  lloban.  of  Scranton, 
in  the  street-car  strike  of   190:?.  and   in    1906;  the 


ARBITRATION 


685 


ARBITRATION 


activity  of  Bishop  Spalding  in  the  anthracite-strike 
commission  in  1902-3;  tlie  strong  public  approba- 
tion given  by  His  Eminence  CiirJinul  (jibbons,  and 
as  well  many  instances  of  successful  activity  by 
clergymen,  all  serve  to  show  tliat  C'atliolic  leaders 
recognize  the  value  of  conciliation  and  arbit ration  in 
promoting  industrial  peace.  In  France,  Utlgium, 
(iermany,  and  Italy  we  find  the  Catholic  attitude 
e<iually  strong.  In  these  countries  the  endorsement 
of  the  organization  of  labour  is  most  empliatic.as  is 
also  the  demand  by  representative  Catliolics  for 
recognition  of  organizations  of  labour,  for  boards  of 
conciliation  and  arbitration,  all  of  whicli  is  in  har- 
mony with  tlie  spirit  and  teaching  of  Leo  XIII, 
who,  in  his  encyclical  on  tlie  condition  of  the  work- 
ing men,  expresses  strong  approval  of  conciliatory 
methods  in  arranging  disputes  between  labour  and 
capital. 

GovERMMENT.\.L  Arbitkation. — The  Government 
of  the  United  States  enacted  laws,  in  18S8  and  1896, 
by  which  pro\ision  is  made  for  mediation,  concilia- 
tion, or  arbitration,  in  interstate-commerce  disputes. 
If  ijoth  parties  join  in  requesting  action,  the  decision 
of  the  board  is  enforceable  in  equity  for  one  year. 
The  law  authorizes  an  investigation,  decision,  and 
publication  of  decision,  whether  or  not  such  action 
IS  invited.  Tlie  only  effect  produced  by  the  law  was 
the  creation  of  the  strike  commission  to  investigate 
the  Pullman  Strike  in  1894.  In  1905  tw'enty-live 
States  of  the  Union  had  made  legal  provision  for 
arbitration,  the  earliest  law  being  that  of  Maryland, 
of  1878.  There  are  four  forms  of  boards:  (1)  Local 
arbitration  without  permanently  constituted  boards, 
found  in  four  States;  (2)  Permanent  district  or 
county  boards,  established  by  private  parties,  found 
in  four  States;  (3)  Arbitration  or  Conciliation 
througli  the  State  Commissioner  of  Labour,  found 
in  five  States;  (4)  State  boards  for  the  settlement 
of  industrial  disputes,  found  in  seventeen  States.  In 
some  States  several  typos  of  institution  may  be 
found.  The  laws  in  tlie  first  group  of  States  are 
practically  dead  letters.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
the  second  group,  with  the  exception  of  Pennsylvania, 
where  some  effect  has  been  produced.  Intervention 
by  State  Commissioners  of  Labour  has  had  but 
moderate  success.  In  only  eight  of  the  seventeen 
States  which  have  State  boards  of  arbitration  have 
real  results  been  accomplished.  These  States  are 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Wis- 
consin, Illinois,  Indiana,  Missouri.  The  records,  for 
instance,  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts  are  repre- 
sentative: 


Disputes, 

Initiation 

of  Board, 

of  Employer, . . . 

of  Union 

of  both 

Preliminary  Action  only, 
Kflect, 

failure 

success 

of  those  settled  — 

by  Conciliation, 

by  Arbitration,. 

Otherwise 

Strikes  in  same  period,.  . 


154 
255 
185 


In  England  the  present  law  dates  from  189(5.  It 
provider  for  the  registration  of  private  boards  of 
conciliation  or  arbitration  by  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  it  permits  the  Board  of  Trade  in  times  of  dispute 
to  investigate  and  mediate,  on  the  request  of  either 
party  to  appoint  a  board  of  conciliation,  or  on  the 
request  of  l)otli  parties  to  create  a  board  of  arbitra- 
tion. In  the  period  of  1S9(>-1903,  requests  for  in- 
tervention were  made  by  employers  in  twenty  cases, 


by  labourers  in  fifty-four  cases,  by  both  jointly  in 
seventy-one  cases,  a  total  of  145.  In  seventeen  cases 
failure  resulted,  while  in  the  same  period  there  were 
4,952  strikes.  In  France  the  present  law  dates  from 
1892.  Either  or  both  parties  to  a  dispute  may  apply 
to  a  local  justice  of  the  peace  who  acts  as  conciliator. 
In  case  of  a  strike,  if  application  is  not  made,  the 
justice  of  the  |>eace  is  retiuired  to  offer  his  services. 
If  efforts  of  conciliation  fail,  arbitration  is  attempted. 
The  entire  proceeding  is  voluntary,  the  only  pressure 
exerted  is  from  the  prospect  of  publishing  the  facts 
and  decisions.  In  the  period  of  1893-1903,  re- 
quests for  intervention  under  the  law  were  made  by 
employers  in  forty-two  cases,  by  labourers  in  782 
Civses,  by  both  jointly  in  thirty-three  cases;  initiative 
wxs  taken  by  the  justice  of  the  peace  in  556  cases. 
Full  procedure  was  liad  in  only  784  cases,  in  342  of 
which  failure  resulted.  During  that  same  period 
tliere  were  5,874  strikes.  The  present  law  of  Belgium 
dates  from  1887.  Boards  are  organized  in  different 
industries,  either  at  the  decree  of  the  king  or  on 
the  request  of  the  commune,  the  employers,  or  the 
labourers.  The  members  of  the  board  are  elected 
legally,  and  the  board  is  rcc|uired  to  meet  at  least 
once  a  year.  Tlie  majority  of  the  boards  already 
created  are  due  to  royal  initiative.  In  the  period  of 
four  years  under  the  action  of  the  law,  but  sixteen 
strikes  out  of  a  total  of  610  were  settled  by  the  labour 
councils.  In  Germany  the  boards  are  called  In- 
dustrial Courts,  the  law  authorizing  their  action 
dating  from  1890.  An  amendment  was  added  in 
1901,  making  the  formation  of  industrial  courts 
compulsory  in  all  cities  of  20,000  inhabitants.  The 
courts  are  composed  of  representatives  of  employers 
and  labourers  in  equal  numbers,  while  the  president 
is  appointed  by  local  authorities.  Conciliation  is 
attempted  in  case  of  disputes;  that  failing,  the  court 
must  investigate,  render  a  decision,  and  publish  it. 
In  1903  there  were  400  courts  in  existence.  Of 
174  applications  for  intervention  made  in  that  year, 
135  came  from  one  side  only;  in  fifty-four  cases  set- 
tlement was  reached  by  conciliation.  Of  decisions 
rendered  in  that  time,  six  were  rejected.  During 
that  year  out  of  a  total  of  1,501  strikes,  fifty-five 
were  brought  to  peaceful  termination.  In  Austria, 
by  the  law  of  1883,  the  factorj-inspectors  are  au- 
thorized to  intervene  in  threatened  or  actual  disputes, 
for  the  sake  of  industrial  peace,  while  a  law  of  1896 
provides  indirectly  for  conciliation  and  arbitration  in 
mining.  Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  Switzerland, 
Canada,  and  Italy  have  legislated  also  in  the  interests 
of  industrial  peace,  by  creating  boards,  and  facilitating 
prevention  or  settlement  of  industrial  disputes. 
New  Zealand  alone  luis  gone  to  the  extent  of  in- 
augurating compulsory  arbitration.  The  present  law 
is  from  1900,  with  amendments  up  to  1904,  the  origi- 
nal law,  however,  dating  from  1S94.  There  are  seven 
industrial  districts  in  which  the  law  provides  for  the 
creation  of  boards  of  conciliation,  while  there  is  one 
supreme  court  of  arbitration  over  all.  The  latter  is 
composed  of  three  memlK-rs.  one  of  whom  is  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court,  the  other  two  being  appointed 
by  tlie  governor  from  nominations  made  by  regis- 
tered trade  unions  and  registered  employers'  asso- 
ciations. The  local  boards  of  conciliation  act  in  all 
cases  submitted  to  them,  and  endeavour  to  effect 
peaceful  settlements.  If  they  succeed,  an  industrial 
agreement  is  made  which  becomes  compulsorj'.  If 
the  parties  fail  to  agree,  the  board  itself  renders  a 
decision,  which  may  be  accepted  or  appealed  from 
— to  the  General  Board  of  .Arbitration — within  one 
month.  If  no  such  action  be  taken  by  the  parties  to 
the  dispute,  the  decision  becomes  compulsorj'.  If 
the  case  comes  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Arbitration, 
its  decision  is  final.  It  appears  that  awards  by  this 
court  of  arbitration  affect  all  employers  engaging 
in  the  industry  affected  after  the  decision  has  been 


ARBITRATION 


686 


ARCA 


Tendered,  and  it  iipplios  to  all  labourers  who  may 
work  for  an  employer  alTected  by  the  decision.  The 
court  may  extend  an  award  to  a  whole  competitive 
field.  The  law  concerning  arbitration  applies  to  all 
employers  potentially,  but  only  to  such  labour 
organizations  as  are  registered.  Registration  is 
voluntarj'.  Hence  compulsory  arbitration  in  New 
Zealand  depends  absolutely  on  the  favourable  atti- 
tude of  organized  labour  towards  it.  In  1904  there 
were  2G6  registered  unions  with  a  membershi])  of 
27,640.  In  seven  years,  under  the  action  of  the 
law,  fifty-four  cases  of  dispute  were  settled  by  boards 
of  conciliation,  and  143  by  the  higher  court.  (See 
also  CoNCiLiATio.N,  Trade  Unions,  Trade  Agree- 
ments, Strikes,  Labour  Legislation.) 

Hatch,  Bulletin  of  the  Unittd  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  60 
(latest  complete  presentation  of  laws  and  facts);  Report  of 
the  Industrial  Commission.  1898-1901,  IV,  VII,  XII,  XVII; 
GiLMAN,  Methods  of  Industrial  Peace  (1904);  Bliss,  Encyclo- 
pedia of  Social  Reform;  Reports  of  National  Civic  Federation, 
and  those  of  Governmental  Boards  of  Arbitration,  in  Europe 
and  America,  contain  valuable  material. 

William  J.  Kerby. 

Arbitration,      International.      See      Intern.*.- 

TIONAL    .\kB1TUATION. 

Arbogast  (Gaelic  Arascach),  Saint,  has  been 
claimed  as  a  native  of  Scotland,  but  this  is  owing  to  a 
misunderstanding  of  the  name  ''Scotia",  which  until 
late  in  the  Middle  Ages  really  meant  Ireland.  He 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century. 
Leaving  Ireland,  as  so  many  other  missionaries  had 
done,  he  settled  as  a  hermit  in  a  German  forest,  and 
then  proceeded  to  Alsace,  where  his  real  name, 
Arascach,  was  changed  to  Arbogast.  This  change  of 
name  was  owing  to  the  difficulty  experienced  by 
foreigners  in  pronouncing  Irish  Christian  names; 
thus  it  is  that  Moengal,  Maelmaedhog,  Cellach, 
Gillaisu,  Gilla  in  Coimded,  Tuathal,  and  Arascach 
were  respectively  transformed  into  Marcellus,  Mala- 
chy.  Gall,  Gelasius,  Germanus,  Tutilo,  and  Arbogast. 
St.  Arbogast  found  a  warm  friend  in  King  Dago- 
bert  II  of  Austrasia,  who  had  been  educated  at 
Slane,  in  Meath,  in  Ireland,  and  was  restored  to 
his  kingdom  on  the  demise  of  King  Childeric  II. 
Monstrelet  authenticates  the  story  of  King  Dagobert 
in  Ireland;  and  the  royal  exile  naturally  fled  to  Slane 
in  order  to  be  under  the  a?gis  of  the  Ard-Righ  (High- 
King)  of  Ireland,  at  Tara.  On  Dagobert's  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Austrasia,  Arbogast  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Strasburg,  and  was  famed  for  sanctity  and 
miracles.  It  is  related  that  the  Irish  saint  raised  to 
life  Dagobert's  son,  who  had  been  killed  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse.  St.  Arbogast  died  in  678,  and,  at 
his  own  special  request,  was  buried  on  the  side  of  a 
mountain,  where  only  malefactors  were  interred. 
The  site  of  his  burial  was  subsequently  deemed 
suitable  for  a  church.     He  is  commemorated  21  July. 

Grattan    Flood,    Irish    Saints;    BoscHitJa    in    Acta    SS. 


in  Romische  Quartalschrift  (1898),  XII,  299-;WS;  Analecta 
Boliand..  XVIII,  195;  BiJbl.  hagioar.  Lat.  (1898),  106,  1317; 
OHanlon,  Lives  of  Irish  Saints.  VII  (21  July);  Wattenbai  h, 
Deutschtands  Geachichlsquellen.  6th  ed.;  Granuidier,  Hist, 
de  l'{oli»e  de  Stratbourg  (1770),  I.  199. 

W.  H.  Grattan  Flood. 

Arbroath,  Abbey  of. — This  monastery  was 
founded  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  (1178)  by 
William  the  Lion,  for  Benedictines,  and  was  col- 
onized by  monks  from  Kel-so.  The  foundation  was 
in  honour  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  martyred 
eight  years  previously,  with  whom  William  had  been 
on  terina  of  personal  friendship.  At  his  death  in 
1214  William  was  buried  in  the  eastern  portion,  then 
just  finished,  of  the  noble  church,  which  was  com- 
pleted in  12.'?3.  It  had  a  choir  of  three  bays  and 
a  nave  of  nine,  with  side  aisles,  two  transepts,  a 
central  and  two  western  towers.  The  moniustery  was 
richly  endowed  by  William  and  his  successors,  and 


by  various  Scottish  barons,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
opulent  in  the  kingdom.  The  monks  constructed 
a  harbour,  and  fixed  a  bell  on  the  Inchcape  Rock 
as  a  warning  to  mariners.  The  last  Abbot  of  Ar- 
broath was  David  Beaton,  Archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drews. After  the  Reformation  the  revenues  were  be- 
stowed on  the  Hamiltons,  the  abbey  being  erected 
into  a  temporal  lordship.  Services  were  held  up  to 
1,590  in  the  lady-chapel,  "stripped  of  its  altars  and 
images".  The  existing  ruins  of  the  church  are  con- 
siderable and  imposing,  but  of  the  conventual  build- 
ings only  a  few  fragments  remain. 

Hay,  History  of  Arbroath  (Arbroath.  1876);  Mackeneie- 
Walcott,  Scoti-M onasticon  (London.  1874);  Liber  S.  Tliomoe 
de  Aberbrothok.  ed.  Cosmo  Innes;  Miller.  Arbroath  and  its 
Abbey  (Edinburgh,  I860):  Gordon,  Monasticon  (Glasgow, 
1868):  Sinclair,  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh, 
1791). 

D.  O.  Hdnter-Blair. 

Arbuthnott,  Missal  of,  a  manuscript  Scottish  mis- 
sal or  mass-book,  written  in  1491  by  James  Sibbald, 
priest  of  Arbuthnott,  in  Scotland,  for  use  in  that 
church.  After  the  Reformation,  it,  together  with 
two  other  MSS.  written  by  the  same  hand,  became 
the  property  of  the  family  of  Arbuthnott,  in  whose 
possession  it  remained  until  1897,  when  it  was  pur- 
chased by  Mr.  Archibald  Coats  of  Paisley,  who  pre- 
sented it  to  the  museum  of  that  town.  The  MS.  is 
written  on  vellum,  in  large  Gothic  characters,  with 
numerous  miniatures,  illuminated  capitals  and  bor- 
ders. It  consists  of  244  leaves,  and  is  complete.  It 
contains  also  a  full-length  painting  of  St.  Ternan,  the 
apostle  of  the  Picts,  and  patron  saint  of  the  church  of 
Arbuthnott.  It  is  of  unique  historical  and  liturgical 
interest,  as  being  the  only  missal  of  the  Scottish  Use 
now  extant.  It  commences  with  a  leaf  of  "Prayers 
before  Mass",  then  follows  a  "Form  of  Excommuni- 
cation" in  Scottish  and  Latin,  succeeded  by  three 
leaves  of  rubrics  and  the  calendar.  The  Mass  itself 
is  mainly  that  of  Sarum  with  some  variations,  and, 
of  the  typical  editions  of  the  Sarum  missal,  that  of 
1498  agrees  most  closely  w'ith  it.  The  Sarum  Rite, 
as  emended  by  St.  Osmund  of  Salisbury  in  the 
eleventh  century,  after  having  been  adopted  in  most 
of  the  English  dioceses,  penetrated  into  Scotland 
early  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  continued  in  use 
there  up  to  the  Reformation.  The  differences  be- 
tween the  Arbuthnott  and  the  Sarum  missals  lie 
chiefly  in  the  Sandorale,  Masses  for  certain  saints 
being  found  in  the  one  which  are  not  in  the  other. 
The  Arbuthnott  missal  contains  also  a  number  of 
Sequences,  not  to  be  found  in  either  the  Sarum,  York, 
or  Hereford  missals,  nor  yet  in  the  MS.  troparium  in 
the  Bodleian  Lilirary  at  Oxford. 

FonnES  (r<l.),  l.ihrr  Ecclcsix  Beati  Terrenani  de  Arbuthnott 
(Burntisland,  1SG4);  Knlendars  of  Scottish  Saints  (Edinburgh, 
1872);  Innes,  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Scotland 
(Aberdeen.  1853):  Spalding.  Of  the  Salisbury  Liturgy  used 
in  Scotland  in  Miscellany  (Edinburgh),  II. 

E.  E.  Green 

Arc,  Joan  of.     See  Joan  of  Auc. 

Area,  a  box  in  which  the  Eucharist  was  kept  by 
the  primitive  Christians  in  their  homes.  St.  Cyp- 
rian (De  lapsis,  xxvi)  tells  of  a  woman  "who 
with  unworthy  hands"  attempted  "to  open  her  bo.x 
in  which  was  the  Holy  (Body)  of  the  Lord  ",  but  was 
unable  to  do  so  because  of  fire  which  issued  there- 
from the  moment  she  touched  it.  (Cum  ((ua'dam 
arcam  suam  in  quo  Domini  sanctum  fuit  matiihus 
immundis  teinptasset  aperire,  etc.)  A  re])rcscnta- 
tion  of  the  Eiicharistic  Area  is  believed  bv  Wilpert 
to  exist  in  a  fresco  of  the  catacomb  of  Sts.  I'eter  and 
Marcellinus.  The  scone  depicts  Christ  seated,  read- 
ing from  an  oiien  roll;  on  His  right  are  three  am- 
phoric, and  on  the  left  a  square  box  filled  with 
loaves,  symbols  of  the  Eucharist.  It  also  signified 
a  receptacle  for  the  olTerings  of  Christians  for  the 


ARCACHON 


687 


ARCAMT7M 


Church    or    tho    poor    (Tert.,    Apol.,  xxxix;    Liber 
Pont  if.,  I,   lo4). 

KnAUH,  Realencydop.,  1,73;  Henry  in  Dict.d'arch.  chrH.,  I, 
2709. 

Maukice  M.  H.\ssett. 

Arcachon,  Our  L.\dy  of,  a  miraculous  image 
vcncratcil  at  .Vrcaclion,  France,  and  to  all  appear- 
ances the  work  ol'  the  thirteenth  century.  Carved 
from  a  block  of  alaba.ster  about  twenty  inches  in 
height,  it  represents  Our  Lady  clad  m  Oriental 
drapery,  holding  the  Divine  Infant  on  her  right 
arm.  l{lc,s.sed  Thomas  lllyricus  of  Osimo  (b.  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century)  a  Franciscan 
who  had  retired  to  the  forest  solitude  of  Arcachon, 
is  .saiil  to  have  foimd  this  statue  on  the  seashore, 
much  battered  by  the  waves.  He  immediately  con- 
structed a  woollen  chapel,  replaced,  a  century  later, 
by  a  spacious  stone  sanctuary,  but  this,  in  turn,  was 
so  menaced  by  the  drifting  sands  of  the  dunes  as  to 
necessitate  the  erection  of  a  new  church  (1723)  on  a 
neighbouring  hill  overlooking  the  Bay  of  .\rcachon. 
The  statue  survived  both  revolutions  and  was 
granted  the  honour  of  a  coronation  by  a  brief  of 
Pius  IX,  15  July,  1870.  Devotion  to  t)ur  Lady  of 
Arcachon  has  spread  far  and  witle,  and  there  are 
continual  pilgrimages  to  her  shrine.  Up  to  1842 
the  church  w'as  surroundetl  only  by  a  few  fishermen's 
huts,  but  with  the  erection  of  villas  and  the  dis- 
covery of  the  s;ilubrious  climate  people  began  to 
flock  thither,  and  it  is  now  the  centre  of  a  flourishing 

city- 

Leroy,  Hiitoire  dea  pHerinages  de  In  Sainte  Vierge  en  France 
(Paris,  1873-75).  II,  .■!97  sqq.;  Delpeuch,  jVo(roi»am«  d'.lrca- 
chon;  Dkjean,  Arcachon  el  «m  environa. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Arcadelt  (also  Arohadf.lt,  Arkadelt,  Harca- 
delt)  Jacob,  a  distinguished  musician,  b.  in  Holland 
at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth,  or  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth,  century;  d.  probably  at  Paris,  between 
1570  and  1575.  He  grew  up  under  the  iiifiucnce  of 
Josquin  and  the  Belgian  school.  He  began  his  career 
as  a  singer  at  the  court  of  Florence.  In  15.39  he  went 
to  Rome  and  became  singing-master  of  the  boys'  choir 
at  St.  Peter's,  and  the  following  year  entered  the 
Papal  choir  as  a  singer.  Here  he  remained  till  1549. 
In  1555,  his  services  having  been  engaged  by  Cardi- 
nal Charles  of  Lorraine,  Duke  of  Cuiise,  he  followed 
liim  to  Paris,  where  he  probably  remained  until  his 
death.  He  is  mentioned,  at  this  period,  as  regius 
tnusicus  (Court  Musician). 

Of  his  numerous  compositions  a  large  proportion 
have  been  published.  Foremost  among  these  are  his 
six  books  of  madrigals  for  five  voices  (V'enice,  1538- 
56),  each  book  containing  at  least  forty  compositions. 
They  are  his  finest  and  most  characteristic  worlcs, 
and"  together  with  three  volumes  of  masses  for  from 
thrtM:-  to  seven  voices  (Paris,  1557),  are  perhaps  his 
rliief  claim  to  lasting  renown.  An  excellent  copy  of 
the  first  four  books  of  the  madrigals,  with  other 
selected  compositions  of  Arcadelt,  is  contained  in  the 
librarj'  of  the  British  Mu.scum.  At  Paris  and  Lyons 
many"  of  his  French  songs  were  published,  including 
"  L'excellence  des  chan.sons  musicalos"  (Lyons,  1572) 
and  "Chansons  franijaises  i  plusieurs  parties" 
(Lyons,  1586). 

He  was  one  of  those  distinguished  musicians  of  the 
Netherlands  who  by  their  efforts  to  advance  their 
art  in  Italy,  both  as  teachers  and  composers,  helped 
to  lay  the  foundations  of  the  great  Italian  school. 

Baker,  Biog.  Did.  of  Muticiam;  Hoefek.  Biog.  univ. 
Grove.  Diet,  of  Miiric  and  Mutiriant:  Riemann,  Diet,  of 
Mttnc:  Naumann,  Geachicbte  der  Muaik. 

J.  A.  VoLKER. 

Arcadiopolis,  a  titular  see  of  .Vsia  Minor.  Its 
epi.scopal  list  (431-879)  is  given  in  Gams  (p.  444); 
there  is  also  in  Gams  (p.  427)  the  episcopal  list  of 
another  see  of  the  same  name  (431-879). 

LtauiEN,  Orient  Chriti.  (1740).  I,  1711-12. 


Arcadi  us.    See  John  Chrysostom,  Saint. 

Arcse,  also  .\hca,  now  Tel,-.\rka,  a  titular  see  on 
the  coast  of  Plurnicia,  between  Tripolis  and  Antara- 
dus,  suffragan  of  Tyre.  Its  episcopal  list  is  giver,  in 
Gams  (p.  434)  from  .364  to  451.  It  was  a  Latin  .see 
during  the  Crusades,  and  now  gives  a  title  to  a  Cireek 
and  a  .Maronite  bishop.  In  anti(|uity  it  was  famous 
for  the  worship  of  .\pnrodite  and  for  a  temple  of  the 
Roman  ICmperor,  -Vlexander  Severus,  who  was  born 
there  in  a  temple  during  a  visit  of  his  parents.  It 
stood  long  sieges  by  the  .Vrab  conquerors  of  Syria, 
in  the  seventh  century,  and  in  the  eleventh  (11)99) 
by  the  Cru.saders  into  whose  hands  it  evenluidly 
fell.  Later  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Mamelukes  after 
they  had  expelled  the  Cliristian  p<jpuIation.  There 
was  another  .Vrca;  in  Cappailocia,  suffragan  of 
Melitene.  Its  episcopal  list  (431-680)  is  given  in 
Gams  (p.  441). 

Lequie.n,  Oriena  Chritt.  (1740),  II,  825,  826.  III.  956; 
Smith.  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  I,  189;  Uurkhardt, 
Syria,  162. 

Thom.\s  J.  Shahan. 

Arcani  Disciplina.  See  Discipline  of  the 
Sbciikt. 

Arcanum,  an  Encyclical  Letter  on  Christian  mar- 
riage, issued  10  I'ebruary,  1880,  by  Leo  XIII.  Its 
scope  is  to  show  that,  smce  family  life  is  the  germ 
of  society,  and  marriage  is  the  basis  of  family  life, 
the  healtliy  condition  of  civil  no  less  than  of  religious 
society  depends  on  the  inviolability  of  the  marriage 
contract.  The  argument  of  the  Encyclical  runs  as 
follows:  The  mission  of  Christ  was  to  restore  man 
ill  the  supernatural  order.  That  should  benefit  man 
also  in  the  natural  order;  first,  the  indi\idual;  and 
then,  as  a  consequence,  human  society.  Having 
laid  down  this  principle,  the  Encyclical  deals  with 
Christian  marriage  which  sanctifies  the  family,  i.  e. 
the  unit  of  society.  The  marriage  contract,  Divinely 
instituted,  had  from  the  beginning  two  properties: 
unity  and  indissolubility.  Through  human  weakness 
and  wilfulness  it  was  corrupted  in  the  course  of  time; 
polygamy  destroyed  its  unity,  anil  divorce  its  in- 
dissolubility. Christ  restored  the  original  idea  of 
human  marriage,  and  to  sanctify  more  thoroughly 
this  institution  He  raised  the  marriage  contract  to 
the  dignity  of  a  sacrament.  Mutual  rights  and 
duties  were  secured  to  hu.sband  and  wife;  mutual 
rights  and  duties  between  parents  and  children  were 
also  asserted:  to  the  former,  authority  to  govern  and 
the  duty  of  training;  to  the  latter,  the  right  to  p.arcntal 
care  anil  the  duty  of  reverence.  Christ  instituted 
His  Church  to  continue  His  mission  to  men.  The 
Church,  true  to  her  commission,  has  always  iisscrteil 
the  unity  and  indissolubility  of  marriage,  the  relative 
rights  and  duties  of  husband,  wife,  and  children; 
-she  has  also  maintained  that,  the  natural  contract 
in  marriage  having  been  raised  to  the  ilignity  of  a 
sacrament,  these  two  are  henceforth  one  and  the 
same  thing  so  that  there  cannot  be  a  marriage  con- 
tract amongst  Christians  which  is  not  a  sacrament. 
Hence,  while  admitting  the  right  of  civil  authority 
to  regulate  the  civil  concerns  and  consequences  of 
marriage,  the  Church  has  always  claimed  exclusive 
authority  over  the  marriage  contract  and  its  essen- 
tials, since  it  is  a  sacrament.  The  Encyclical  shows 
by  the  light  of  histon,-  that  for  centuries  the  Church 
exercised,  and  the  civil  power  admitted,  that  author- 
ity. But  human  weakness  and  wilfulness  began  to 
throw  off  the  bridle  of  Christian  discipline  in  family 
life;  civil  rulers  began  to  disown  the  authority  of 
the  Church  over  the  marriage  tie;  and  rationalism 
sought  to  sustain  them  by  cstabhshing  the  principle 
that  the  marriage  contract  is  not  a  sacrament  at 
all,  or  at  least  that  the  natural  contract  and  the 
sacrament  are  separable  and  distinct  things.  Hence 
arose  the  idea  of  the  dissolubility  of  marriage  and 


ARCH 


ARCH 


divorce,  superseding  the  unity  and  indissolubility  of 
the  marriage  bond.  The  Encyclical  points  to  the 
consequences  of  that  departure  in  the  breaking  up  of 
family  life,  and  its  evil  effects  on  society  at  large. 
It  points  out  as  a  consequence,  that  the  Church,  in 
asserting  its  autliority  over  the  marriage  contract, 
has  shown  itself  not  the  enemy  but  the  best  friend 
of  tlie  civil  power  and  the  guardian  of  civil  society. 
In  conclusion,  the  Encyclical  commissions  all  bishops 
to  oppose  civil  marriage,  and  it  warns  the  faithful 
against  the  dangers  of  mixed  marriages. 

Acta  Sancia  Sedis  (Rome.  1880).  XII,  385-405,  tr.;  Wynne. 
Great  Encyclicals  of  Leo  XIII  (New  York,  1903),  58-82;  and 
Eyre.  The  Pope  and  Oie  People  (London,  1896),  176-206. 
An  excellent  commentary  is  that  of  Mgr,  James  Corcoran, 
in  Am.  Cath.  Quar.  Review  (Philadelphia.  ISSO),  V,  302-32. 
M.  O'RiORD.VN. 

Arch. — A  structure  composed  of  separate  pieces, 
such  as  stone  or  briclis,  having  the  shape  of  truncated 
wedges,  arranged  on  a  cur^-ed  line  so  as  to  retain 
their  position  by  mutual  pressure.  This  method  of 
construction  is  called  arcuated,  in  contradistinction 
to  tlie  trabeated  style  used  in  Greelc  architecture, 
where  the  voids  between  column  and  column,  or 
between  column  and  wall,  were  spanned  by  lintels. 

The  separate  stones  which  compose  the  curve  of 
an  arch  are  called  voussoirs,  or  arch-stones.  The 
lowest  voussoirs  are  called  springers.  The  springers 
usually  have  one  or  both  joints  liorizontal.  The 
upper  surface  of  the  springer,  against  which  the  first 
voussoir  of  the  real  arch  (that  is,  in  which  both 
joints  radiate)  starts,  is  said  to  be  skewbacked;  the 
uppermost  or  central  voussoir  is  called  the  keystone. 
The  under,  or  concave,  side  of  the  voussoir  is  called 
the  intrados  or  soffit,  and  the  upper,  or  convex,  .side, 
the  extrados  of  the  arch.  The  suppo.ts  which  af- 
ford resting  and  resisting  points  to  the  arch  are 
called  piers  and  abutments.  The  upper  part  of 
the  pier  or  abutment  where  the  arch  rests — techni- 
cally, where  it  springs  from — is  the  impost.  The 
span  of  an  arch  is,  in  circular  arches,  the  length  of 
its  chord,  and  generally,  the  width  between  the 
points  of  its  opposite  imposts  whence  it  springs. 
The  rise  of  an  arch  is  the  height  of  the  highest  point 
of  its  intrados  above  the  line  of  the  impost;  this  point 
is  sometimes  called  the  underside  of  the  crown,  the 
highest  point  of  the  extrados  being  the  crown.  If 
an  arch  be  enclosed,  or  is  imagined  as  being  enclosed, 
in  a  square,  then  the  spaces  between  the  arch  and 
the  square  are  its  spandrels. 

FouM.s  OF  Arch. — In  Rome  and  Western  Europe, 
the  oldest  and  normal  type  of  arch  is  the  semi- 
circular. In  this  the  centre  is  in  the  middle  of  the 
diameter.  Where  the  centre  is  at  a  point  above  the 
diameter,  it  is  called  a  stilted  arch.  When  the  arch 
is  formed  of  a  curve  that  is  le.ss  than  a  semicircle  (a 
segment  of  a  circle),  with  its  centre  below  the  diame- 
ter, it  is  called  a  segmental  arch.  Or  if  the  curve 
is  greater  than  a  semicircle  and  has  its  centre  above 
the  diameter,  it  is  called  the  horseshoe  arch.  All 
these  arches  are  struck  from  one  centre.  The  second 
class  is  struck  from  two  centres.  This  arch  is  the 
pointed.  There  are  three  chief  varieties.  The  first 
IS  tlie  equilateral.  In  this  the  two  centres  coincide 
witli  the  ends  of  the  diameter.  The  second,  more 
acutely  pointed,  is  the  lancet.  In  this  the  centres 
are  on  the  line  of  the  diameter,  but  outside  it.  The 
third  is  the  obtuse,  or  drop,  arch.  In  this  the  cen- 
tres are  still  on  the  line  of  the  diameter,  but  inside. 
The  third  class  consists  of  arches  struck  from  three 
centres.  This  is  llu;  three-centred  or  "basket- 
handle"  arcli.  Tlie  fourth  class  consists  of  arches 
struck  from  four  centres.  The  first  variety  is  the 
four-centred,  or  Tudor,  arch.  The  curves  can  be 
struck  in  difTorent  ways,  and  the  long  curves  some- 
times rej>la(f(l  by  straight  lines  witli  a  sliort  curve 
at  the  juncture.  Another  variety  of  arch  struck 
from  three  or  four  centras  is  the  ogee  arcii.     In  this, 


one  or  two  of  the  centres  are  below,  but  the  other 
two  are  above  the  arch.  So  the  two  upper  curves 
of  the  arch  are  concave,  the  two  lower  convex. 

Foiled  arches  have  three  or  more  lobes  or  leaves. 
The  simplest  are  the  round-headed  trefoil;  the 
pointed  trefoil  ;  the  square-headed  trefoil;  which 
goes  by  the  name  of  the  shouldered  arch.  A  tre- 
foliated  arch  is  a  trefoiled  arch  enclosed  in  a  pointed 
arch.  A  trefoiled  arch  is  not  enclosed  in  any  other 
arch.  Besides  the  trefoiled,  there  is  the  cinquefoil 
arch,  with  five  lobes  or  foils,  and  the  multifoiled  arch, 
with  several. 

Flat  Arch. — In  a  flat  arch  the  voussoirs  are 
wedge-shaped,  but  the  extrados  and  intrados  are 
composed  of  straight  lines.  Sometimes,  to  strengthen 
a  flat  or  sliglitly  curved  arch,  the  voussoirs  are 
notched  or  joggled.  Compound  Arches. — If  the 
arch  needs  to  be  unusually  strong,  it  is  better  to 
construct  two  independent  arches,  one  on  the  top 
of  the  other.  Or  it  may  be  constructed  in  three 
separate  rings.  Each  of  these  sub-arches,  or  rings, 
of  which  the  whole  compound  arch  is  composed,  is 
called  an  order.  It  is  a  safer  form  of  arch  than  the 
simple  arch.  This  system  of  concentric  arches  was 
employed  by  the  Romans  early  in  the  sixth  century 
B.  c,  in  the  Cloaca  Maxima  at  Rome;  three  occur 
where  it  enters  the  Tiber.  In  some  compound  or- 
ders the  faces  are  in  the  same  plane.  But  as  a  rule 
tlie  orders  are  successively  recessed,  i.  e.  the  inner- 
most sub-arch,  or  order,  is  narrow,  the  next  above 
it  broader,  the  next  is  broader  still,  and  so  on. 
Semicircul.vr  Arch. — This  arch  is  specially  char- 
acteristic of  Romanesque  architecture.  Gothic  semi- 
circular arches  sometimes  occur  in  the  architecture 
of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  Stilted 
Arch. — By  stilting,  a  narrow  semicircular  arch  can 
be  made  to  rise  to  the  same  le^•el  as  a  broad  arch, 
so  that  the  crowns  may  be  on  the  same  level.  Seg- 
mental Arch. — This  arch  occurs  occasionally  in 
Norman  work.  Horseshoe  Arch. — They  are  not 
uncommon  in  Norman  ribbed  vaults.  They  occur 
in  the  aisled  basilica  of  Diana,  near  the  Euphrates, 
which  has  the  inscription  A.  t>.  540.  In  Eastern 
■work  the  horseshoe  arch  is  frequently  not  round- 
headed,  but  acutely  pointed.  This  facilitates  con- 
struction, as  the  upper  or  more  difficult  portion  of 
the  arch  or  dome  can  then  be  constructed  by  corbell- 
ing and  without  centering,  as  in  many  Indian  domes. 
Pointed  Arch. — Of  the  antiquity  of  the  pointed 
arch  in  the  East  there  can  be  no  question;  in  many 
districts  it  is  as  much  the  normal  form  as  is  the 
semicircular  in  the  Romanesque  of  Europe.  But 
it  does  not  follow  that  the  latter  borrowed  it.  It  has 
probably  been  invented  again  and  again,  as  necessity 
arose.  In  countries  where  there  was  no  timber,  or 
no  tools  to  work  it,  the  natives  had  to  build  shelters 
in  stone.  Frequently  the  only  way  known  of  roofing 
these  was  to  pile  fiat  stones  on  one  another,  i.  e.  with 
horizontal  bed,  not  with  radiating  joints,  each 
course  projecting  a  little  further  inward  as  the  wall 
went  up.  Plainly,  these  walls  would  topple  in  if  a 
semicircular  roof  had  been  attempted,  but  they 
could  be  got  to  stand  if  the  roof  was  built  in  the 
form  of  a  pointed  arch — at  any  rate,  if  the  arch  was 
very  acutely  pointed. 

Although  the  Romanesque  architects  had  solved 
the  greatest  problem  of  the  Middle  Ages,  viz.  how 
to  \ault  througliout  with  stone  a  clcrestoried  church, 
Basilican  in  plan,  without  the  aid  of  the  pointed  arch, 
yet  the  employment  of  the  pointed  arcli  greatly 
facilitated  building  construction.  Next  to  tTie  use 
of  diagonal  ribs  and  flying  buttresses  it  was  the 
greatest  improvement  introduced  into  medieval 
architecture  (Francis  Bond).  Tlie  pointed  arch  is 
stronger  than  any  other  kind  of  arch;  it  has  a  more 
vertical  and  a  loss  lateral  thrust  than  a  semicircular 
one.     It  was  of  the  greatest  use  in  vaulting. 


689 


ARCH 


Q 


— ^- 


© 


® 


® 


@ 


® 


-& — ^ 


® 


-e^c 


Gt, -^-0 


G -•"-"%- 


■e- 


--^- 


-^. 


1.  SEMICIKCI.E 

2.  STILTED  SEMICIRCLE 

3.  SEGMENTAL 

4.  STILTED  SEGMENTAL 

5.  HORSESHOE 

6.  STILTED  HORSESHOE 

7.  POINTED  Etjll LATERAL 


FORMS  OF  THE  ARCH 

8.  POINTED  LANCET 

9.  PoiN  i  I, II  I  ii;  1 1  si; 

10.  POIN  I  1   !■    -I  .  ,\I1.NTAL 

11.  TllUIJ,  I   IN  1  Ki.l) 

12.  KocK-ri;.NTiu;i) 

13.  FOIR-CENTRED 

14.  QL'ASI-FOUR-CENTRED 


15.  OGEE 

16.  OGEE 

17.  TREFOILED 

18.  TREFOILED 

19.  POINTED  ARCH  TRIFOLIATEF 

20.  SHOULDERED  ARCH 


ARCHiEOLOGT 


690 


ARCHANGE 


FoTTR-CENTRED  Arches. — These  arches  are  parts 
of  four  different  circles.  The  position  of  the  centres 
varies  greatly,  and  with  them  the  beauty  of  the  arch. 
Perhaps  the  most  usual  position  is  for  the  upper  and 
lower  centres  of  each  side  of  the  arch  to  be  in  the 
same  vertical  line.  The  four-centred  arch  has  been 
considered  peculiar  to  England;  but  it  was  common 
enough  in  Flanders  at  the  same  time  it  was  in 
England.  Ogee  Arch. — As  the  upper  curves  of 
this  arch  are  reversed,  it  cannot  bear  a  heavy  load, 
and  it  does  not  occur  in  pier  arches.  In  France,  the 
ogee  arch  does  not  seem  to  have  come  into  general 
use  till  late  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  late 
English  Decorated  and  French  Flamboyant  the  ogee 
arch  is  used  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Its  origin  is 
unquestionably  Oriental.  It  is  used  in  India  on  a 
vast  scale  in  those  domes  which  are  constructed  by 
corbelling.  In  England  it  was  not  used  construc- 
tionally,  but  only  decoratively.  The  ogee  arch,  like 
the  pointed  arch,  may  vary  greatly  in  form,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  arch  whose  curve  is  reversed 
to  give  the  upper  part  of  the  ogee,  and  according 
to  the  length  assigned  to  the  upper  curve.  Foiled 
Arch. — Like  the  ogee,  it  is  of  decorative,  not  of 
structural,  value.  The  round-headed,  tref oiled  arch 
is  less  common  than  the  pointed.  The  cinquefoil 
is  usually  later  than  the  trefoil  arch.  Elliptical 
Arches. — It  may  be  doubted  whether  any  true 
ellipitical  arches  ever  occur  otherw-ise  than  acciden- 
tally. The  origin  of  the  arch  is  not  known.  It  was 
largely  used  by  the  Assyrians,  and  by  the  Egyptians 
as  well,  at  a  very  early  date;  but  for  some  unknown 
reason  they  did  not  introduce  it  into  their  greatest 
works.  The  practical  introduction  and  use  of  the 
arch  was  due  to  the  Romans.  The  pointed  arch 
came  into  use  about  the  twelfth  century,  and  was 
destined  to  give  birth  to  a  new  style  of  architecture. 
The  pointed  arch,  whatever  its  origin,  made  its  ap- 
pearance almost  at  the  same  time  in  all  the  civilized 
countries  of  Europe.  As  this  was  immediately  after 
the  first  Crusade,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the 
Crusaders  came  to  know  it  in  the  Holy  Land,  and 
introduced  it  into  their  respective  countries  on  their 
return  from  the  East.  It  was  in  use  among  the 
Saracenic  and  Mohammedan  nations,  and  was  ex- 
tensively employed  in  Asia.  But  exactly  with  what 
nation  in  the  East  the  pointed  arch  originated,  and 
in  what  manner,  are  problems  equally  difficult  to 
solve. 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Archaeology,  Biblical.    See  Biblical  Antiqui- 
ties. 
Archaeology,    Christian.    See    Christian    Ar- 

CH.EOLOGY. 

Archaeology,  The  Commission  op  Sacred,  an 
official  pontifical  board  founded  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  and 
directing  excavations  in  the  Roman  Catacombs  and 
on  other  sites  of  Christian  antiquarian  interest,  and  of 
safeguarding  the  objects  found  during  such  excava- 
tions. At  that  period  Giovanni  Battista  De  Rossi, 
a  pupil  of  the  archa>ologist  Father  Marchi,  had  al- 
ready begim  the  investigation  of  subterranean  Rome, 
and  achieved  results  which,  if  confirmed,  promised 
a  rich  reward.  In  a  vineyard  on  the  Anpian  Way  he 
discovered  (1849)  a  fragtiient  of  a  marble  slab  bear- 
ing part  of  an  inscription,  "NELIVS.  M.VRTYR", 
which  he  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  sepulchre  of 
Pope  Cornelius,  martyred  in  2,'):5,  whose  remains  were 
laid  to  rest  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Callixtus  on  the 
Anpian  Way.  Concluding  that  the  vineyard  in 
winch  the  marble  fragment  was  found  overlay  this 
Catacomb,  he  urged  Pius  IX  to  purcliase  the  vine- 
yard in  order  that  excavations  might  be  made  there. 
The  Pope,  after  listening  to  the  representations  of 
the   young   enthusiast,    said:  "These    are    but    the 


dreams  of  an  archaeologist";  and  he  added  that  he 
had  works  of  more  importance  on  which  to  spend 
his  money.  Nevertheless,  he  ordered  the  purchase 
to  be  made,  and  he  allotted  an  amiual  revenue  of 
18,000  francs  to  be  applied  for  excavations  and  future 
discoveries.  The  Commission  of  Sacred  Arclia-ology 
was  then  appointed  to  superintend  the  application 
of  this  fund  to  labours  in  tlie  Catacombs  and  else- 
where. The  first  meeting  of  this  Commission  was 
held  at  Rome  at  1851,  at  the  residence  of  Cardinal 
Patrizi,  who  presided  over  it  by  virtue  of  his  office, 
and  selected  its  members,  first  amongst  them  being 
the  Sacristan  of  His  Holiness.  Mgr.  Castellani,  whose 
office  up  till  then  included  that  of  the  preservation 
of  sacred  relics.  Mgr.  Vincenzo  Tizzani,  a  distin- 
guished scholar.  Professor  of  History  in  the  Roman 
University;  Marino  Marini,  Canon  of  St.  Peter's; 
Father  Marchi,  S.J.,  and  G.  B.  De  Rossi,  were  the 
first  members.  At  present  it  is  presided  over  by 
the  Vicar  of  His  Holiness,  Cardinal  Respighi,  and 
among  its  members  are  such  well  known  archaeolo- 
gists as  Mgr.  Giuseppe  Wilpert,  Father  Germano, 
C.P.,  Father  Bonavenia,  S.J.,  Orazio  Marucchi, 
Giuseppe  Gatti,  Baron  Rodolfo  Kanzler,  Mgr.  Stor- 
naiolo,  and  P.  Franchi  de'  Cavalieri.  The  work 
achieved  under  its  direction  is  very  extensive.  It 
includes  the  formation  of  the  Museum  of  Catacomb 
Inscriptions  and  Christian  Antiquities  in  the  Lat- 
eran  Palace;  the  enormous  excavations  and  repairs 
in  the  Catacombs;  the  discovery  and  opening  up  of 
several  subterranean  chapels  of  third-century  popes, 
of  St.  Cecilia,  of  the  Acilii-Glabriones,  and  the 
Cappella  Greca ;  the  opening  up  of  many  Catacombs 
now  accessible  to  visitors;  the  publication  of  the 
three  great  volumes  of  De  Rossi's  "  Roma  Sotter- 
anea"  and  liis  "Bulletin  of  Christian  Archaeology ", 
still  issued  as  "Nuovo  Bollettino",  by  his  disciples 
and  successors,  of  the  great  volume  (Italian  and  Ger- 
man) on  "The  Paintings  of  the  Catacombs",  by 
Mgr.  Wilpert,  and  many  other  works  of  a  kindred 
nature.  Under  its  auspices  the  Collegium  Cultorum 
Martyrum,  or  "Association  for  Venerating  the 
Martyrs  in  the  Catacombs, "  and  the  "  Conferences 
of  Christian  Archaeology",  held  now  in  the  Palace  of 
the  Cancelleria,  have  been  created,  and  are  flourish- 
ing. It  also  furnished  pecuniary  assistance  for  the 
excavations  made  beneath  the  ancient  Roman 
Churches  of  San  Clemente  and  Sts.  John  and  Paul, 
which  brought  to  light  very  interesting  underground 
churches  long  lost  to  sight  and  memory.  Much 
of  the  great  interest  felt  to-(.lay  in  Christian  Arch- 
aeology is  to  be  attributed  to  the  outcome  of  the 
labours  of  this  Commission. 

Marucchi,  Giovanni  Battista  De  Rossi,  Cenni  Biografici 
(Rome,  1903):  De  Waal,  in  Die  Katholische  Kirche  unserer 
Zeit  und  ihre  Diener  in  Wort  und  Bild  (Berlin,  1899);  Baum- 
GARTEN,  G.  B.  De  Rossi,  fondatore  dcUa  scienza  di  archtFolopia 
sacra  (Italian  tr.  Bonavenia,  Rome,  1892):  Lfl  gerarchia 
cattolica  (Rome,  1906);  Battandier,  in  Annuaire  pontifical 
(Rome,  1899),  494. 

P.    L.    CONNELL.^N. 

Archange  de  Lyon,  a  preacher  of  the  Capuchin 
order  wliose  name  was  Michael  Desgranges,  b.  at 
Lyons,  2  March,  1730;  d.  at  Lyons,  13  October, 
1822.  He  joined  the  Capuchins  4  March,  1751, 
and  held  the  post  of  lector  in  theology  about  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  centvuy.  In  1789,  having 
preached  against  the  States  General  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  France.  He  returned  in  disguise  to  Lyons 
about  1796  and  became  cur(5  of  the  parish  of  the 
Carthusians  and  on  the  re-establisliment  of  his  order 
at  ChambC'ry  he  resumed  his  montistic  habit  there 
in  1818.  He  devoted  himself  to  preaching  mi.ssions 
and  stations  in  Savoy  and  France  until,  in  1821,  he 
was  able  to  re-open  the  former  convent  of  his  order 
at  Crest  in  Valence.  He  died  at  Lyons  13  October, 
1822.  He  is  regarded  as  the  restorer  of  the  Capu- 
chin order  in   France.     His  works   comprise:  "Dis- 


ARCHANGEL 


691 


ARCHBISHOP 


cours  adress<!  aux  juifs  et  utile  aux  chr<5tiens  pour 
Ics  confiriner  dans  leur  foi"  (Lyons,  17S,S);  "Aper(;u 
nouveau  d'un  plan  dY'ducation  oatholifiue"  (Lyons 
1814);  "  Udllcxions  intdiessantes  sur  le  '(Ifinio  du 
cliristianisnie' "  (Turin,  LSI."));  "Precis  al)i(5g(S  dcs 
veritds,  qui  distinguent  le  culte  <'atholi<nic  de  toutes 
les  sectes  clir^lioiuie.s  ct  avoudcs  par  I'^glise  de 
!■" ranee"  (Lyons,  IS17);  "  Kxpliciition  de  la  lettre 
encyclique  du  pape  Hoiiolt  XIV  sur  les  usures" 
(Lyons,  1822);  "Dissertations  pliilosopliii|ucs,  his- 
tori<iues  et  th^ologiques  sur  la  religion  catholique" 
(Lyons,  lS:5(i).  De  Manne,  "Nouveau  dictionnaire 
des  ouvrages  anonyines,"  attributes  to  him  an  "Essai 
sur  le  jeu  eonsid^rd  sous  le  rapport  de  la  morale  et 
du  droit  naturel"  (Paris,  1835). 
D'Alen^on  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  cath, 

Thom.\s  Walsh. 

Archangel.     See  .\xgkl. 

Archbishop  {^kpx<-tTrl<rKoito^,arch,iepiscopufi).  1. — In 
THE  Catiiomc  Chuuch  an  archbishop  or  metro- 
politan, in  the  present  sense  of  the  term,  is  a  bishop 
who  governs  a  diocese  strictly  his  own,  while  he  pre- 
sides at  the  same  time  over  the  bisliops  of  a  well- 
defined  district  composed  of  simple  dioceses  but  not  of 
provinces.  Hence  none  of  these  sulxirdinate  bishops 
rule  over  others.  These  bishops  are  called  the  suf- 
fragans or  comprovincials.  The  archbishop's  own 
diocese  is  the  archdiocese.  The  se\'eral  dioceses  of 
the  district  form  the  archiepiscopal,  or  metropolitan, 
province. 

Historical  Origin. — Some  wTiters  wTongly  point 
to  .Sts.  Timothy  and  Titus,  the  disciple-s  of  St.  Paul, 
as  to  the  first  archbishops  in  the  Church.  Probably 
they  were  metropolitans  in  the  wider  sen.se  of  the 
term,  one  for  .\sia  Minor,  the  other  for  the  island  of 
Crete.  But  it  remains  impossible  to  a,ssign  the 
exact  date  when  archbisliops,  as  we  now  use  the 
term,  were  first  appointed.  It  is  true  that  metro- 
politans are  mentioned  as  a  well-known  institution 
in  the  Church  by  the  Council  of  Niciea  (325)  in  its 
fourth,  fifth,  and  si.xth  canons,  and  by  the  Council 
of  .\ntioch  (341)  whose  seventh  canon  is  a  classical 
pjissage  in  this  matter.  It  reads:  "The  bishops  of 
everj'  province  must  be  aware  that  the  bishop  pre- 
siding in  the  metropolis  has  charge  of  the  whole 
province;  because  all  who  have  business  come  to- 
gether from  all  quarters  to  the  metropolis.  For  this 
reason  it  is  decided  that  he  should,  according  to  the 
ancient  and  recognized  canon  of  our  fathere,  do  noth- 
ing beyond  wliat  concerns  their  respective  dioceses 
and  the  districts  belonging  thereto",  etc.  l?ut  it 
caimot  be  denied  that  even  at  this  period  the  term 
"metropolitan"  was  used  indiscriminately  for  all 
higher  ranks  alxive  the  simple  episcopate.  It  wius 
thus  applied  also  to  patriarchs  and  primates.  The 
same  mvist  be  said  of  the  term  "archbishop"  which 
does  not  occur  in  the  present  meaning  before  the 
sixth  centurj',  although  the  office  of  archbishop  or 
metropolitan  in  the  stricter  sense,  indicating  a 
hierarchical  rank  above  the  ordinary  bi.shops  but 
below  the  primate  and  patriarch,  was  already  sub- 
stantially the  same  in  the  fifth  century  as  it  is  to-day. 
A  peculiar  condition  obtained  in  .■Africa,  where  the 
archiepiscopal  office  wius  not  attached  to  a  certain 
see,  the  metropolis,  but  where  it  alwaj-s  devolved 
upon  the  senior  bishop  of  the  province,  whatever  see 
he  might  occupy.  He  was  called  "the  first  or  chief 
bishop",  or  also  "the  bishop  of  the  first  or  chief 
see". 

JnRisDicTTOx. — The  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop 
is  twofold,  episcopal  and  archiepiscopal.  The  first 
extends  to  his  own  diocese  exclusively  and  com- 
prises the  rights  and  powers  of  the  fullest  govern- 
ment of  the  diocese,  clergj-  and  laity,  spiritual  and 
temporal,  except  as  re-stricled  by  Church  law.  I'n- 
less  such  restriction  be  clearly  stated  in  law,  the 
I.— 44 


presumption  is  in  favour  of  the  episcopal  authority. 
The  contrary  holds  in  regard  to  the  archiepiscopal 
authority.  It  extends  to  the  province  and  the  suf- 
fragan bishops  only  in  ius  far  as  it  is  explicitly  stated 
in  the  law.  Where  the  law  is  silent,  the  presumption 
is  against  the  archbishop,  lie  it  remembered,  now- 
ever,  that  a  rightfully  established  and  approved  cu.s- 
tom  obtains  the  force  of  law.  Archiepiscopal  juris- 
diction, being  liermanently  attached  to  the  office  as 
such,  is  ordinary  jurisdiction,  not  merely  delegated 
or  vicarious.  It  reaches  immediately  the  suffragan 
bishops,  and  mediately  the  faithful  of  their  dioceses. 
However,  it  has  not  always  been  the  same  eitlier  in 
regard  to  time  or  place.  While  the  metropolitan 
otiice  was  everj'where  the  same  in  character,  tlie 
extent  and  measure  of  its  right  and  power  would  be 
greatly  modified  bj'  local  conditions,  particular  laws 
and  customs,  and  sometimes  by  papal  privileges. 
.\ltliougli  many  of  the.se  rights  are  mentioned  in 
different  places  of  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici,  yet 
there  never  was  a  uniform  law  to  define  them  all  in 
detail.  In  former  times  the  archbishop's  jurisdic- 
tion was  far  more  ample  than  it  is  at  present.  The 
metropolitan  could  confirm,  con.secrate,  and  transfer 
the  bisliops  of  his  province,  accept  from  them  the 
oath  of  allegiance  and  fidelity,  summon  them  singly 
or  collectively  to  his  metropolis  (even  outside  of"^  a 
council)  at  his  pleasure,  cite  the  .suffragans  into  his 
court  in  civil  and  criminal  trials,  give  tliein  leave  of 
absence  from  their  dioceses  and  letters  commendatory 
in  their  travels,  allow  them  to  dispo.se  of  church  prop- 
erty, regulate  the  Church  calendar  of  the  province  by 
fixing  and  announcing  the  date  of  Easter,  administer 
the  surtragan  dioceses  in  ca.se  of  vacancy,  and,  finally, 
receive  ap[X!;ils  lodged  with  him  from  any  part  of  his 
province.  But  this  extensive  power  of  archbishops 
w.as  later  on  greatly  restricted,  especially  in  the  Latin 
Church,  by  several  of  the  popes,  and  lastly  by  the 
Council  of  Trent.  The  charge  made  by  the  Jan- 
senists  that  the  popes  curtailed  the  rights  of  arch- 
bishops in  order  to  increase  and  strengthen  their 
own  claim  of  universal  primacy,  is  best  refuted  by 
the  fact  that  the  metropolitan  authority,  in  its 
struggles  against  encroaching  primates  and  pa- 
triarchs or  rival  metropolitans,  found  no  stronger 
support  than  that  given  by  the  Holy  See.  On  the 
other  hand,  Rome  had  also  to  defend  the  native  or 
acqviired  rights  and  privileges  of  suffragan  bishops 
against  usurping  claims  of  their  metropolitans. 
That  the  Holy  See  did  not  exceed  its  powers  is  further 
proved  by  the  fact  that  the  Council  of  Trent  re- 
stricted tlie  rights  of  metropolitans  even  more  than 
the  popes  had  done.  In  the  Catholic  Churches  of 
Asia  and  Africa  the  former  metropolitan  office  is 
to-day  merged  in  the  iiatriarchal  office.  The  arch- 
bishops under  those  patriarchs  ha\e  no  province  nor 
archiepiscopal  jurisdiction,  but  only  hold  the  rank 
or  archiepiscopal  dignity.  But  in  Austria,  Hungary, 
Houmania,  Servia,  and  Herzegovina  the  Catholics  of 
the  different  Oriental  rites,  Ruthenians,  (ireeks,  and 
Annenians,  still  have  archbishops  in  the  proper  sense, 
who  retain  a  large  portion  of  their  former  jurisdic- 
tion, more  than  those  of  the  Latin  Rite.  Since  the 
Council  of  Trent  the  rights  of  an  archbishop  in  the 
Latin  Church  may  be  described  as  follows:  (1)  In 
regard  to  his  suffragan  bishops  the  metro|x>litan 
may  com|)el  them  to  assemble  in  provincial  council 
even,-  tlirce  years,  and  to  attend  faithfully  to  their 
episcopal  duties,  in  particular  those  of  residing  regu- 
larly within  their  own  diocese,  of  holding  diocesan 
synods,  and  of  maintaining  dioce.san  .seminaries 
(where  clerical  candidates  cannot  otherwise  receive 
an  ecclesiiustical  training).  In  the  provincial  coun- 
cil the  archbishop  is  invested  with  all  the  rights  of  the 
presiding  officer,  but  his  voice  counts  no  more  than 
that  of  any  of  his  suffragans.  Modern  practice  has 
it  also  that  when  the  archbishop's  warning  is  not 


ARCHCONFRATERNITY 

heeded  by  the  delinquent  suffragan,  he  will  not  him- 
self use  compulsory  measures,  e.  g.  censures,  but 
report  the  case  to  Rome.  Only  civil,  not  crimi- 
nal, cases  of  suffragans  come  within  the  competency 
of  the  archbishop.  (2)  Generally  speaking,  the  met- 
ropolitan has  no  direct  jurisdiction  over  the  subjects 
of  his  suffragans.  But  he  acquires  such  jurisdiction 
in  three  ways,  namely:  by  appeal,  by  devolution, 
and  by  the  canonical  visitation.  To-day  arch- 
oishops  cannot  visit  a  suffragan  diocese,  unless  the 
matter  has  been  discussed  and  approved  by  the  pro- 
vincial council.  Matters  of  episcopal  jurisdiction 
will  devolve  upon  the  archbishop  in  certain  cases 
mentioned  in  the  law,  when  the  suffragan  bishop 
neglects  to  do  his  duty,  e.  g.  to  fill  in  due  time  vacant 
benefices  or  parishes,  or  to  absolve  from  excom- 
munication when  the  necessary  conditions  have  been 
complied  with.  This  proceeds  on  the  general  prin- 
ciple that  superiors  ought  to  remedy  the  neglect  of 
their  inferiors  lest  too  great  harm  be  done  to  the 
Church  and  her  faithful  children.  When  a  diocese 
becomes  vacant  the  cathedral  chapter  is  bound  to 
elect  a  vicar-capitular  who  will  act  as  administrator 
of  the  vacant  diocese.  If  such  election  is  not  made 
in  eight  days  the  archbishop  of  the  province  will 
appoint  the  vicar-capitular.  In  the  United  States 
the  archbishop  appoints  an  administrator  of  the 
vacant  diocese  until  Rome  shall  further  provide. 
If  the  archdiocese  becomes  vacant,  the  senior  suf- 
fragan appoints  the  administrator.  An  appeal  or 
recourse,  judicial  or  extrajudicial,  lies  directly,  at 
least  in  the  regular  course  of  ecclesiastical  procedure, 
from  the  bishop  to  his  archbishop,  as  to  the  next 
higher  instance.  Whenever  some  disputed  matter 
is  thus  brought,  according  to  the  law,  from  a  suf- 
fragan diocese  before  the  metropolitan  for  adjudica- 
tion, he  acquires  direct  jurisdiction  over  the  case. 
Appeals  and  recourses  by  the  archbishop's  own  sub- 
jects against  his  judicial  sentences,  or  other  ordinances 
given  in  the  first  instance,  lie  directly,  when  allowed 
by  law,  to  the  Holy  See,  at  least  in  the  absence  of  a 
proper  primate  or  patriarch.  But,  to  expedite  and 
facilitate  matters,  other  ways  are  usually  granted  by 
Rome,  e.  g.  to  appeal  from  the  archbishop  to  his 
senior  suffragan,  as  in  England;  or  to  the  nearest 
other  metropolitan,  as  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Germany;  or  to  a  second  and  special  metropolitic 
court  in  the  same  province  called  Metropoliticum 
as  in  France.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Delegation  in  the  United  States,  cases  from 
the  suffragan  sees  (except  matrimonial  cases)  are 
usually  brought  directly  before  the  delegate  and 
no  longer  before  the  archbishop.  (3)  Archbishops 
also  have  the  right  and  duty  of  compelling,  if  nec- 
essary, the  superiors  of  religious  orders,  even  those 
who  are  otherwise  exempt,  in  charge  of  parishes  or 
congregations,  to  have  the  Gospel  preached  in  such 
parishes  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that,  although 
such  are  by  law  the  rights  of  an  archbishop,  their 
exercise  is  now  seldom  called  for,  so  that  his  more 
prominent  position  is  rather  one  of  honour  and  dignity 
than  of  actual  jurisdiction.  Still,  with  all  this,  it 
remains  necessary  to  distinguish  the  incumbent  of 
a  metropolitan  see  from  the  bearer  of  a  mere  honorary 
title  of  archbishop  (who  never  receives  the  pallium 
and  is  never  called  metropolitan),  often  granted  by 
the  Holy  See  to  prelates  without  an  actual  see  and 
sometimes  to  ordinary  bishops.  By  the  Mohamme- 
dan conquest  nearly  all  of  the  early  metropolitan 
sees  in  Asia  and  Africa  became  extinct.  In  more 
recent  time  some  of  these  were  restored  by  the  popes, 
being  made  residential  sees.  But  the  titles  of  the 
others  are  ronferre<l  as  a  more  honorary  distinction, 
mostly  upon  prelates  of  the  Roman  courts  and 
coadjutor  bi.shops  of  molronolitans.  Besides  the 
powers  of  jurisdiction,  archbishops  also  enjoy  certain 


692  ARCHCONFRATERNITY 

rights  of  honour  within  their  province.  The  fore- 
most among  these  is  the  right  of  wearing  the  pal- 
lium. Before  receiving  the  pallium  from  Rome 
the  archbishop  cannot  exercise  any  metropolitic 
functions  nor  officiate  in  pontifical  vestments  within 
the  province,  unless  by  a  special  privilege  from  the 
Holy  See.  Other  honorary  rights  are:  to  have  the 
processional  cross  carried  immediately  before  him, 
to  wear  the  mozetta  or  short  cape,  to  bless  the 
people,  to  precede  his  suffragans,  and  to  occupy  the 
bishop's  throne,  all  this  anywhere  in  the  province. 
In  the  archiepiscopal  coat  of  arms  the  episcopal  hat 
is  flanked  by  ten  tassels  on  each  side.  His  address 
is  "Your   (His)  Grace",  "Most  Reverend". 

M.^NNER  OF  Appointment. — The  vacancy  of  an 
archiepiscopal  see  is  filled  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  of  an  ordinary  bishopric,  whether  it  be  by  an 
election  properly  so  called,  or  by  a  presentation  or 
nomination,  or  by  direct  papal  appointment.  If 
the  new  archbishop  be  a  priest,  he  will  receive  epis- 
copal consecration;  if  already  a  bishop,  he  will  be 
solemnly  installed  in  the  new  office.  But  it  is  neither 
the  con-secration  nor  the  installation  which  makes 
the  archbishop.  It  is  his  appointment  -o  an  arch- 
diocese. 

Statistics. — There  are  at  present  (1906)  in  the 
Catholic  Church  164  archbishops  with  provinces,  and 
37  with  only  their  diocese  but  no  province,  and, 
lastly,  89  purely  titular  archbishops.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  now  14  provinces,  in  British  Amer- 
ica 9,  in  Cuba  1,  in  the  Philippine  Islands  1.  For  a 
full  description  of  the  present  metropolitan  organiza- 
tion in  the  Catholic  Church,  East  and  West,  see  the 
article  Hierarchy. 

II. — In  the  Eastern  Schismatic  (so-called  Ortho- 
dox) Church  archbishops  are  as  a  rule  only  titular, 
without  any  suffragans,  but  with  their  own  diocese, 
the  same  as  most  of  the  Catholic  metropolitans  in 
the  East.  But  in  the  autocephalous,  or  independent, 
national  churches  of  Austria,  Hungary,  Servia,  Rou- 
mania,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina  the  so-called  arch- 
bishops or  metropolitans  exercise,  in  union  with  the 
autocephalous  synod,  the  highest  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority over  the  Church  of  such  country.  Their 
office,  therefore,  resembles  that  of  a  patriarch. 

III. — ^The  Anglican  Episcopal  Church  has  two 
archbishops  in  England,  one  of  Canterbury,  the 
other  of  York,  both  of  whom  are  invested  with 
primatial  dignity;  and  two  archbishops  in  Ireland, 
one  of  Armagh,  the  other  of  Dublin.  Their  author- 
ity is  similar  to  that  of  Catholic  archbishops.  In 
Scotland  the  Episcopalians  have  no  archbishop;  but 
one  of  the  bishops  is  chosen  by  the  rest  to  act  as 
"  Primus "  without  metropolitan  jurisdiction  (see 
Bishop,  Diocese,  Metropolitan,  Hierarchy,  Pri- 
mate). S.  G.  Messmer. 

Archconfratemity,  a  confraternity  empowered 
to  aggregate  or  affiliate  other  confraternities  of  the 
same  nature,  and  to  impart  to  them  its  indulgences 
and  privileges.  The  prehminary  requisite,  the  con- 
ditions governing  aggregation,  the  ordinary  method 
of  conducting  the  process,  and  a  list  of  the  principal 
archconfraternities  comprehend  the  information  nec- 
saiy  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  general  subject. 

A  preliminary  requisite  to  gain  the  indulgences  is 
the  canonical  erection  of  the  confraternity  to  be 
aggregated.  Canonical  erection  is  the  approval  of 
the  proper  ecclesiastical  authority  which  gives  the 
organization  a  legal  existence.  Archconfraternities 
do  not  erect  confraternities;  they  merely  aggregate 
them.  It  ordinarily  belongs  to  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese  to  erect  confraternities.  In  the  case,  how- 
ever, of  many  confraternities  and  archconfraternities 
the  power  of  erection  is  vested  in  the  heads  of  cer- 
tain religious  orders.  Sometimes,  especially  in 
missionary  countries  or  under  abnormal  conditions, 


ARCHDEACON 


693 


ARCHDEACON 


the  privileges  of  these  heads  of  orders  are  imparted 
to  bishops.  Such  extraordinary  powers  have  been 
eonsiilerably  restricted  within  recent  years.  Tlie 
\icar-general  may  not  erect  confraternities  unless  he 
has  been  expressly  ileleg;Ued  for  the  purpose  by  his 
bishop.  l'"or  the  aggregation  it.self  the  following  are 
the  principal  regulations  to  be  observed  under  penalty 
of  forfeiting  the  indulgences.  .Aggregation,  or  aflilia- 
tion,  as  it  is  al.so  called,  may  be  made  by  tliose  only 
who  have  received  from  the  Ht)ly  See  express  powers 
for  that  purpose.  They  must  make  use  of  a  pre- 
scribed formula.  In  the  same  church  only  one  con- 
fraternity of  the  .same  name  and  purpose  may  be 
aggregated.  The  consent  of  the  bishop  must  be  given 
in  writing.  Hut  in  the  case  of  religious  orders  ag- 
gregating their  own  confraternities  in  their  own 
churches,  the  consent  of  the  bishop  given  for  the 
erection  of  the  hou.se  or  church  of  the  order  is  .suffi- 
cient. The  bishop  must  approve,  but  may  modify 
the  practices  and  regulations  of  the  confraternity  to 
be  aggregated,  except  those  to  which  the  indulgences 
have  been  expressly  attached.  Only  tho.se  in- 
dulgences are  imparted  by  aggregation  which  have 
been  conceded  with  that  provision.  Such  indul- 
gences mu.st  be  enumerated  in  detail,  as  is  usually 
lione  in  the  prescribeel  formula  of  aggregation;  no 
tax  may  be  nnposod  for  aggregation,  not  even  for 
diplomas,  except  the  expenses  requisite  for  paper 
and  postage.  I'or  modifications  of  these  regulations, 
the  laws  of  the  various  archconfraternities  should  be 
consulted. 

Only  the  general  process  of  conducting  the  aggre- 
gation is  given.  If  it  pertains  to  the  bishop  to  erect 
the  confraternity,  then  the  pastor  of  a  church  or 
the  superior  of  a  religious  hou.se  petitions  him  for 
canonical  erection,  giWng  tlie  kimf  of  confraternity 
desired,  its  title,  its  patron  .saint,  tlie  church  and 
locality  where  it  is  to  be  erected,  its  directors,  and 
any  desnations  from  the  ortlinary  rules  of  the  con- 
fraternity in  question,  and  asking  the  consent  of  the 
bishop  for  aggregation  to  the  archconfratemity.  If 
the  erection  pertains  to  the  head  of  a  religious  order, 
then  the  bishop's  consent  to  the  aggregation  is  re- 
quired. In  all  cases  the  information  just  detailed 
must  be  sent  to  the  bishop  anil  to  the  head  of  the 
order  to  insure  the  validity  of  the  process.  FormultP 
embodying  such  essential  information  may  be  ob- 
tained usually  from  the  authorities  in  charge  of  a 
confraternity.  Some  of  the  more  wiilely  known 
archconfraternities  are  tho.se  of  the  Holy  Name,  the 
Hlessed  Sacrament,  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  the 
Precious  Hlood,  the  Holy  Face,  the  Holy  Rosary, 
Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Help,  Sodality  of  the  Blessed 
Heart  of  Mary  for  the  Conversion  of  Sinners,  the 
Cord  of  St.  Francis,  Christian  Doctrine,  Bona  Mors, 
Christian  Mothers. 

U^:RiNGt:R,  Les  Indulgences  (Pari.-*,  1905).  II.  eive.**  the  legisla- 
tion on  tlii.1  subject,  with  a  list  of  the  arohconfraternitiea, 
their  nature  ana  requirements.  an<i  formula'  for  canonical 
erection  ami  for  ajZKfcgatiun.  Moccheqiani,  Collectio  Indul- 
genliarum  (Quaracchi,  1897);  Tachy,  TraUe  de»  Confrmet 
(Haute-Mame,  1898). 

F.  P.  Donnelly. 

Archdeacon  (Lat.  archidiaconus:  Gr.  ipx^SidKom) , 
the  imuriiheiit  of  an  ecclesiastical  ullice  dating  back 
to  anliiiuity,  and  up  to  the  fifteenth  ccnturj'  of  great 
importance  in  diocesan  administration,  partictuarly 
in  the  West.  The  term  does  not  appear  before  the 
fourth  century,  and  is  then  first  met  with  in  the 
histor)'  of  the  Donatist  schism,  written  about  370 
by  Optatus  of  Milevc  (I,  xvi,  ed.  Corp.  Script. 
Kci-1.  Lat.,  XXVI,  18).  However,  as  he  here 
bestows  the  title  on  Ca'cilian,  a  deacon  of  Carthage 
early  in  the  fourth  centurj-,  it  would  appear  that  since 
that  ix>riod  there  wius  an  occasional  use  of  the  name. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  the  l)eginning  of 
the  fifth  century,  the  term  begins  to  ap|X!ar  more 
frequently   both  among   Latin  and  Greek  authors. 


We  also  occasionally  find  other  names  used  to 
indicate  the  office,  e.  g.  4  roD  x'>f>o<>  '^w''  i'aK6i/aiw 
i]yoviui>ot  (Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccl.,  I,  xxvi,  in 
P.  G.,  LXXXII,  981).  The  term  soon  acquired 
fixity,  all  the  more  rapidly  as  the  archidiaconal 
office  l)Ccanio  more  prominent  and  its  duties  were 
more  sharply  defined.  The  beginnings  of  the  archi- 
diaconate  are  found  in  the  first  three  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  immediate  predecessor  of  the 
archdeacon  is  the  diaconus  episcopi  of  primitive 
Christian  times,  the  deacon  whom  the  bi.shop  se- 
lected from  the  diaconal  college  (see  Deacon)  for  his 
personal  service.  He  was  made  an  assistant  in  the 
work  of  ecclesiastical  administration,  was  charged 
with  the  care  of  the  poor,  ami  was  suijervisor  of  the 
other  deacons  in  their  administration  of  church 
pro|)erty.  He  thus  became  the  special  procurator, 
or  aconomus.  of  the  Christian  community,  and  was 
also  entrusted  with  the  surveillance  of  the  sub- 
ordinate clergy.  In  this  early  ])eriod  the  duties  of 
the  diaconus  ipiscopi  were  not  juridically  defined, 
but  were  performed  under  the  direction  of  the  bishop 
and  for  the  time  s|M;cified  by  him.  Beginning  with 
the  fourth  century  this  s|x;cialized  activity  of  the 
diaconux  cpi.scopi  takes  on  gradually  the  character 
of  a  juridical  ecclesiiustical  office.  In  the  round  of 
ecclesiastical  administration  certain  duties  appear 
attached  by  the  law  to  the  office  of  the  archdeacon. 
Thus,  in  the  period  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth 
century  the  archdeacon  is  the  oflicial  supervisor  of 
the  subordinate  dergj',  has  disciplinary  authority 
over  them  in  all  cases  of  wrong-doing,  and  exercises 
a  certain  surveillance  over  their  discharge  of  the 
duties  assigned  them.  It  was  also  within  the  arch- 
deacon's province  to  examine  candidates  for  the 
priesthooti;  he  had  also  the  right  of  making  visita- 
tions among  the  rural  clcrg}-.  It  was  even  his 
duty,  in  exceptional  cases  of  episcopal  neglect,  to 
safeguard  the  interests  of  the  Church;  to  his  hands 
were  entrusted  the  preservation  of  the  Faith  in  its 
primitive  purity,  the  cvistody  of  ecclesiastical  discip- 
line, and  the  prevention  of  damage  to  the  property 
of  the  Church.  The  archdeacon  was,  moreover,  the 
bishop's  chief  confidant,  his  assistant,  and  when  it 
was  necessar)',  his  representative  in  the  exercise  of 
the  manifold  duties  of  the  episcopal  office.  This  was 
especially  the  case  in  the  administration  of  eccle- 
siastical pro|H>rty.  the  care  of  the  sick,  the  visitation 
of  prisoners,  and  the  training  of  the  clergj'.  In  the 
E;ist  there  wius  no  further  development  of  the  archi- 
diaconatc;  but  in  the  West  a  new  stage  was  in- 
augurated with  the  eighth  century.  By  virtue  of  his 
office  the  archdeacon  liecame,  next  to  the  bishop, 
the  regular  organ  of  supervision  and  discipline  in  the 
diocese.  In  this  respect  he  w;is  assigned  a  proper 
and  independent  jurisdiction  (Jurixdiclio  propria)  and 
even  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century  there  was  a  con- 
stant effort  to  increa.se  the  scope  of  this  authority. 
The  great  amount  of  business  to  be  transacted  ne- 
cessitated in  large  dioceses  the  appointment  of  several 
archdeacons.  The  first  bishop  to  introduce  this 
innovation  was  Hcddo  of  Stnisburg,  who  in  774 
divided  his  diocese  into  seven  archidiaconates  {archi- 
diaconaluf!  ruralex).  His  example  was  quickly  fol- 
lowed throughout  Western  Christendom,  except  in 
Italy  where  the  majority  of  the  dioceses  were  so 
small  as  to  need  no  .such  division  of  authority. 
Henceforth  the  archi<liaconux  magnui!  of  the  cathe- 
dral (usually  the  pmvost,  or  prftpo.titus  of  the  chap- 
ter), who.se  duties  chiefly  concerned  the  citv  clergj*,  is 
offset  by  the  archidiaconi  ruralex  placeil  over  the 
deans  {archi prr.ib;itrri  ruralex).  These  archdeacons 
were  generally  priests,  either  canons  of  the  cathedral 
or  provosts  of  the  principal  (collegiate')  churches  in 
small  towns.  The  authority  of  the  archdeacons  cul- 
niinatetl  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  .\t 
that  time  they  exercised  within  the  province  of  their 


ARCHDEACON 


694 


ARCHER 


archidiaconates  a  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction.  They 
made  visitations,  during  which  they  were  empowered 
to  le\'y  certain  assessments  on  the  clergj-;  they  con- 
ducted courts  of  first  instance,  and  had  the  right  to 
punish  clerics  guilty  of  lapses;  they  could  also  hold 
sjTiodal  courts.  Hut  the  archdeacon  was  not  only  a 
iudgi;  he  Wiis  also  prominent  in  ecclesiastical  ad- 
ministration. He  saw  that  the  archpriests  per- 
formed their  duties,  gave  canonical  investiture  to  the 
holders  of  prebends,  and  authorized  incorporation  of 
the  same;  he  supervised  the  administration  of  church 
revenues,  and  kept  in  repair  the  places  of  worship. 
He  could  also  draw  up  the  legal  documents  called 
for  in  the  exercise  of  the  duties  of  his  office  and  the 
performance  of  the  juridical  acts  that  it  entailed. 
It  came  about  frequently  that  the  archdeacons  were 
not  appointed  by  the  bishop,  but  were  chosen  by  the 
cathedral  chapter;  sometimes  they  received  their 
office  from  tlie  king.  After  the  twelfth  century,  on 
account  of  the  vast  extent  of  their  duties,  they  were 
aided  by  various  officials  and  vicars  appointed  by 
themselves.  This  great  authority  proved  in  tirne 
very  burdensome  to  the  clergy  and  brought  with  it 
too  great  a  limitation  of  the  episcopal  authority.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  numerous  synods  began  to  re- 
strict tlie  jurisdiction  of  the  archdeacons.  They  were 
forbidden  to  employ  their  own  special  offlciales  and 
were  prohibited  from  exercising  their  authority  when 
the  bishop  was  present  in  their  territory.  They  were 
also  deprived  of  the  right  of  freely  visiting  the  par- 
ishes of  their  archidiaconate,  of  deciding  important 
points  in  matrimonial  causes,  and  of  passing  sentence 
on  clerics  guilty  of  grave  crimes.  Moreover,  by  the 
creation  of  the  diocesan  office  of  vicar-general,  there 
was  opened  a  court  of  higher  resort  than  that  of  the 
archdeacon,  and  to  it  reverted  the  greater  part  of  the 
business  once  transacted  in  tlie  court  of  the  arch- 
deacon. When  finally  the  Council  of  Trent  (1553) 
provided  that  all  matrimonial  and  criminal  causes 
should  be  henceforth  brought  before  the  bishop 
(Sess.  XIV,  XX,  De  reform.);  that  the  archdeacon 
should  no  longer  have  the  power  to  excommunicate 
(Sess.  XXV,  iii,  De  ref.);  that  proceedings  against 
ecclesiastics  unfaithful  to  their  vow  of  celibacy  should 
no  longer  be  carried  on  before  the  archdeacon  (Sess. 
XXV,  xiv,  De  ref.);  and  that  archdeacons  should 
make  visitations  only  when  authorized  by  the 
bishop,  and  then  render  to  him  an  account  of  them 
(Sess.  XXIV,  iii,  De  ref.),  the  archidiaconate  was 
completely  bereft  of  its  independent  character. 
From  this  time  the  archidiaconatiis  ruralcs  gradually 
disappeared  from  the  places  w'here  they  still  existed. 
The  archidiaconate  of  the  cathedral,  where  the  office 
was  still  retained,  soon  became  practically  an  empty 
title;  the  chief  duties  of  the  incumbent  were  to  assist 
the  bishop  in  his  pontifical  duties  and  to  vouch  for 
the  moral  worthiness  of  candidates  for  ordination. 
Among  Protestants,  the  Anglicans  preserved,  along 
with  the  primitive  ecclesiastical  organization,  the 
office  of  archdeacon  with  its  own  special  jurisdiction. 
In  German  Protestant  parishes,  with  less  congruity, 
the  title  of  archdeacon  was  conferred  on  the  first 
Unlerpfarrer,  or  assistant   pastor. 

KnE.ss,  ErUiuterung  des  Archuluiknnniwesens  (Helmstiidt, 
172.5);  Nei.i.f.r,  De  Archidiaconis  (Trier,  1771);  Peht.sch. 
Von  dem  Ureprung  dcr  Archidiakoncn,  Officiale  und  Viknre 
(Hilde-sheim,  1743);  Sp:t7,,  Dc  archidiaconatibus  in  Germanid 
ac  eccteaid  Colonimti  (Bonne,  1749);  Kranold.  Das  apoa- 
Mitche  Alter  der  Archidiakonnlwarde  (Wittenberg.  1768); 
GRfc*.  Etsai  hialorique  ear  lea  archidiacrea  in  BibKoth.  de  V Ecole 
deacharlea  (1851),  III,  39  sqq.,  215  sqq.;  Thomassinus,  Vc- 
hu  et  nova  ecclea.  diaciplina  (London,  170G)  I,  174  sqq.; 
Schroder.  Die  Enlu-irkclima  dea  Archidiakonala  bia  zum  11. 
Jahrh.  (Munich,  18901;  CIi.assciiroder,  Daa  Archidvikonal 
in  der  Diozeac  Speyer.  in  Archimlisehe  Xrilichri.fi,  N.  F.,  X,  114 
«iq.;  Leuer,  Die  Diakonen  drr  liiachhfe  und  Preabyter,  in 
Stdtz,  hirchenrechtl.  Abhandlungen  (StuttKart.  1905),  nos. 
23.  ^4-  J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Archdeacon,  Richard,  an  Irish  Jesuit,  whose  name 
is  sometimes  given  as  Archdekin  or  Arsdekin,  b.  at 


Kilkenny,  30  March,  1620;  d.  31  Augvist,  1693.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Je.sus,  at  Mechlin,  20  Septem- 
ber, 1C42,  and  taught  humanities,  philosophy,  the- 
ology, and  Holy  Scripture  at  Antwerp  and  Louvain. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  in  English  and  Irish  on  Miracles, 
a  "Life  of  St.  Patrick"  with  a  short  notice  on  Ire- 
land and  the  so-called  prophecy  of  St.  Malachy,  an 
Irish  saint,  and  the  principal  controversies  about  the 
faith.  This  he  called  "Theologia  Quadripartita  ";  it 
was  meant  for  use  chiefly  in  Ireland.  The  book  sold 
very  rapidly,  more  than  a  thousand  copies  having 
been  disposed  of  in  a  few  months.  He  subsequently 
published  it  as  a  "Theologia  Tripartita",  and  in  the 
preface  informs  his  readers  that  he  had  more  time  at 
his  disposal  for  writing  than  he  had  for  the  preceding 
book.  The  "Tripartita"  passed  through  thirteen 
editions.  The  twelfth  edition  contains  the  "Life 
of  Oliver  Plunkett  and  Peter  Talbot ".  The  work  is 
remarkable  for  its  order,  conciseness,  and  lucidity. 
In  spite  of  its  numerous  editions,  beginning  with  the 
year  1671,  it  was  put  on  the  Index  in  1700,  donee 
corrigatur.  Although  at  least  the  Antwerp  edition 
of  1718  was  corrected,  especially  as  regards  the 
peccatum  philosophicum,  and  the  Cologne  edition  of 
1730  was  "revised  and  corrected",  yet  in  the  Index 
of  1900  he  is  still  referred  to  as  an  author  previously 
condemned.  He  left  in  MS.  a  "Theologia  Apos- 
tolica".  Hurter  speaks  of  him  as  audor  gravis  et 
probabilista.  Webb  in  his  "Compendium  of  Irish 
Biography"  (Dublin,  1878)  declares  of  the  treatise 
on  miracles  that  "  it  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
book  printed  in  English  and  Irish  conjointly." 

Hurter,  Nomcnclator,  II,  399;  Sommervogel,  Bibliotht^que 
de  la  c.  de  J.  I,  515.  Ware-Harris,  Writers  and  Antiquities  of 
Ireland  (Dublin,  1764). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 
Archdiocese  ('Apx«5iolKi7(ris,  archidioccesis).  This 
term  does  not  designate  an  ecclesiastical  province, 
but  only  that  diocese  of  the  province  which  is  the 
archbishop's  own,  and  over  which  he  holds  imme- 
diate  and   exclusive   jurisdiction. 

Ferraris,  Biblioiheca  Canonica,  etc;  Wernz,  Jus  Decre- 
talium,  II,  tit.  34;  Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Law,  I; 
Phillips,  Kirchenrecht,  VI;  Silbernagl,  V erfasaung  und  Besh- 
tand  sdmtlichber  Kirehen  des  Orients  (1904);  Concilii  Plenarii 
Bait.  II  Acta  et  Decreta,  tit.  Ill;  Santi,  Prcelectiones  Juris 
Canonici,  t.  I;  Gerarchia  Cattolica  (Roma,  1906). 

Archelais,  a  titular  see  of  Palestine,  twelve  miles 
west  of  the  Jordan.  Its  episcopal  list  is  given  in 
Gams  (p.  453).  Another  town  of  the  same  name,  in 
Cappadocia,  was  founded  by  Archelaus,  the  last  of 
the   Cappaclocian   kings. 

Lequien.  Oriens  Christ.  (1740),  III,  675-676;  Smtth,  IHcl. 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,   I,   193. 

Archelaus  of  Charcar.     See  Manich.eism. 

Archer,  James,  an  English  missionary  priest,  b. 
in  London,  17  November,  1751;  d.  22  .August,  1832. 
While  employed  at  a  public  house  called  "The  Ship", 
in  Turn  Stile,  Lincoln's-lnn-Fields,  where  Catholics 
secretly  assembled  for  Divine  service,  he  attracted  the 
favourable  notice  of  Dr.  Challoner  and  was  sent,  in 
1769,  to  study  at  Douai  College.  He  returned  in 
1780,  after  his  ordination,  to  carry  on  the  mission  in 
the  public  house  where  he  had  formerly  been  cm- 
ployed.  He  was  for  many  years  Vicar-General  of 
the  London  District  and  received  the  papal  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Divinity  at  the  same  time  with  Drs.  Lin- 
gard,  Gradwcll,  and  Fletcher.  His  published  works 
are:  "Sermons  on  Various  Moral  and  Religious  Sub- 
jects" (London,  1787,  1788,  1816);  "Second  Series" 
(London,  ISOl,  1822);  "Third  Scries"  (London. 
1827);  "Sermons"  (London,  1789,  1794,  1817); 
"Sermons  on  Matrimonial  Duties,  etc."  (London, 
18t)4);  "Letter  to  J.  Milner,  Vicar-Apostohc  of  the 
Midland  District  (Being  a  Reply  to  a  letter  in 
which  he  accu.scs  the  author  of  immorality)"  (Lon- 
don, ISIO);  "Sermon  on  Universal  Benevolence, 
— Some  HeHcctions  on  Religious  Persecution  and  the 


ARCHES 


695 


AROHINTO 


alleged   proceedings   at   Nismes"    (2d  ed.,   London, 
1816).     His  portrait  was  engraved  by  Turner  after 
a  painting  by  James  Ramsay  in  182G. 
GiLLow,  Jiibliog.  Diet.  English  CaOiolica. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Arches,  Thk  Counr  op,  so  called  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  anciently  held  in  the  Uhurcli  of  St.  Mary 
le  Bow  (Sancta  Maria  do  Arcubus),  in  Cheapsi<lc, 
wius  tlie  cliiof  and  most  ancient  court  anil  consistory 
of  tlio  jurisdiction  of  tlie  Archbisliop  of  Canterbury. 
Originally  the  judge  of  this  court,  the  official  Prin- 
cipal of  the  .Xrche-s,  tool^  cognizance  of  cauiies  through- 
out the  ecclesiastical  province,  and  by  his  patent 
was  investeil  with  the  right  of  hearing  appeals  from 
the  Dean  of  the  Arches.  This  latter  exercised  juris- 
diction over  a  "peculiar",  consisting  of  thirteen 
Earishes  including  St.  Mary  le  Bow,  within  tlie  diocese, 
ut  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of 
London.  Eventually  tlie  oflice  of  Dean  and  that 
of  Principal  of  the  Arches  became  merged;  and  by 
the  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  of  1874  a  judge 
of  the  provincial  courts  of  Canterbury  and  York 
was  provided,  and  "all  proceedings  hereafter  taken 
bcfdic  the  judge  in  matters  arising  within  the  province 
of  Cantcrbuiy  shall  be  deemed  to  he  taken  in  the 
Arches  Court  of  Canterburj-."  [From  the  Court  of 
Arches  an  appeal  originally  lay  to  the  Pope.  After 
the  Reformation  it  was  transferred  to  the  King  in 
Chancery  (25  Hen.  VIII,  c.  19);  and  later  (2  &  3 
Will.  IV,  c.  92;  3  &  4  Will.  IV,  c.  41)  to  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council.]  Suits  are  con- 
ducted by  means  of  citation,  production  of  libel 
(accusation),  answer  to  libel,  arguments  of  advo- 
cates, and  tlie  judge's  decree.  This  court  exercises 
appellate  jurisdiction  from  each  of  the  diocesan 
courts  within  the  province  of  Canterbury.  It  may 
also  take  original  cognizance  of  causes  by  letters  of 
Request  from  such  c.iurts.  It  latterly  sat  in  the 
hall  belonging  to  the  College  of  Civilians  (Doctors' 
Commons)  until  the  ecclesiastical  courts  were  thrown 
open  to  the  bar  and  to  solicitors  generally,  and  all 
probate  and  divorce  business  taken  away  (1857), 
since  when  it  sits  at  Lambeth  or  Westminster. 

Phii.i.imork,  Ecdeaiaatical  Law  of  the  Church  of  Knaland: 
Renton,  Encyclopedia  of  the  Laxca  of  England;  Report  of 
Ecclraiastical  Courts  Commissioners^   1883. 

Francis  Aveling. 

Archiereus  (Greek,  apxteptis;  Russian,  arkhierei), 
a  (ircck  word  for  bishop,  when  consiilered  as  the 
culmination  of  the  [iriestliood.  It  is  verj'  much  used 
in  the  liturgical  books  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  and 
Greek  Catholic  Churches  for  tho.se  services  which 
correspond  to  the  pontifical  services  of  the  Roman 
Rite.  This  word  must  not  be  confounded  with 
proloiereus  (archpriest),  the  highest  ecclesiastical 
rank  to  which  a  married  priest  may  attain  in  the 
Greek  Church. 

Ci-UGNET,  I>ict.  dea  noma  liturfjiquea   (Paris,  1895)  21. 

.A.NDREW  J.  ShIPMAN. 

Archimandrite  (Gr.  ipx<^<  1  command,  and  pLivipa, 
a  sheepfokl),  in  the  Greek  Rite  the  superior  of  a 
monasten,',  or  of  .several  monasteries.  The  term 
seems  to  have  originated  during  the  fourth  century 
in  the  far  E;ust  (Mesopotamia,  Persia),  and  to  have 
spread  thence  to  I'^gj'pt  and  Asia  Minor.  In  the 
fifth  and  succeeding  centuries  it  occurs  frequently 
in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  also  in  the  acts 
of  councils,  and  was  even  adopted  quite  extensively 
in  the  West  where  it  did  not  disappear  from  occasional 
u.sage  until  the  ninth  century.  Originally  the  archi- 
mandrite seems  to  have  been  only  the  superior  or 
abbot  of  his  own  monastery;  gradually,  liowever, 
he  came  to  exercise  authority  over  a  number  of 
monasteries,  and  by  the  eleventh  century  the  archi- 
mandrites of  .such  monastic  centres  as  Mount  Athos, 
and  Mount  Olympus  in  liithynia.  were  the  equivalent 
of  our   Western   abbots-general.     At   present   there 


are  in  the  Greek  Church  two  kinds  of  archimandrites, 
the  original  monastic  officers  exercising  jurisdiction 
in  their  respective  monasteries,  and  honorary  archi- 
mamlrites  and  welU'ducated  priests  attached  to  the 
chanceries  of  the  great  patriarchates  (e.  g.  Constan- 
tinonle),  or  at  the 
head  of  certain 
branches  of  tem- 
poral a<lminisl  ra- 
tion; in  a  woni, 
not  unlike  the 
Roman  prelates  or 
the  principal  of- 
ficers of  a  Western 
diocese.  It  is  from 
the  ranks  of  these 
quasi-monastic 

Criests  that  the 
ishops  are  often 
selected,  when  not 
taken  directly 
from  the  monas- 
teries. The  archi- 
mandrite is  ap- 
pointed by  ec- 
clesiastical a  u  - 
thority  (patriarch, 
metropolitan, 
bi.shop),  also,  in 
Russia,  by  the 
Holy  Synod,  and 
in  some  monas- 
teries by  election. 
He  has  the  right  a,.„„„,,.„„„,  „.  okku  ....  I)u.,s 
to  wear  a  pectoral 

cro.ss,  the  epigonalion  in  the  celebration  of  Mass,  and 
to  sign  a  cross  before  his  name  after  the  manner  of 
bishops.  The  monastic  archimandrites  have  also 
the  right  to  the  pastoral  stafT,  and  to  a  peculiar  man- 
tle having  four  squares  of  embroidered  cloth  called 
"the  tables  of  the  law".  Their  rights  and  privileges 
ditTer  .somewhat  by  law  or  custom  in  different  parts 
of  the  Greek  Church.  The  u.sual  distinction,  common 
to  all,  is  a  black  veil  tied  about  the  peculiar  iie.ad-gear 
of  the  Greek  ecclesiastic  and  falling  on  the  back. 
Archimandrites  enjoy  the  right  of  (irccedency  among 
other  priests;  among  themselves  this  right  is  regu- 
lated by  the  dignity  of  their  origin;  thus  an  archiman- 
drite of  Constantinople  outranks  those  of  inferior 
episcopal  appointment.  There  is  a  formal  rite  for 
the  appointment  and  creation  of  these  officers,  per- 
fonned  with  more  solemnity  in  the  instalment  of 
monastic  archimandrites.  The  office  is  found  not 
only  in  all  Greek  Churches  subject  to  Constantinople, 
but  also  in  the  Rus.sian,  Bulgarian,  and  other  so- 
called  autocephalous  Churches,  that  once  owed 
allegiance  to  that  patriarchal  see;  it  exists  also 
among  the  Catholic  (Mclchite  or  Uniat)  Greeks. 
It  is  not  known  among  the  -Vrmenians,  Chaldeans, 
Syrians,  Maronites,  Copts,  or  Abyssinians.  An  im- 
portant sur\nval  of  it  m  tlie  West  is  seen  in  Sicily, 
where,  after  the  time  of  Roger  II  (ll.'i0-54),  the 
archimandrite  of  the  great  Basilian  Abbey  of  San 
Salvatore  in  Messina  enjoyed  extensive,  even  quasi- 
epi.scopal,  jurisiliction,  eventually,  however,  be- 
coming a  secular  or  commendatory  abbot  (Ferraris, 
Bil)l.  prompta,  ,s.  v.).  This  Basilian  monastery  was 
suppressed  by  the  Italian  government. 

Parcoirf.  in  Diet,  d'arch.  chrit..  I,  27.30-Gl;  Sll-nERNACi.. 
Verfaaaung  und  uc{jmwartiffer  Beatand  admllicher  Kirchen  dea 
Orients  (llati.>iboii,  1904),  -JO,  138.  and  paaaim:  Praiotlat-naua 
Enci/clopedia,  (.St.  Petersburg,  1900)  I,  43;  Vannutelli,  1^ 
Colonic  llalo-Greche  (Rome,  1890)  114:  IljERRlNa,  0/7i<-f»  of 
the  Oruntal  Church  (New  York,  1884)  12.3-125;  Mari.n.  Us 
Moines  de  Constantinople  (Paris,  1897).  85-90. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman. 

Archinto,  Fii.ippo,  an  Italian  theologian  and  di- 
plomatist, b.  1500  at  Milan  of  the  distinguished  family 


ARCHITECTURE 


696 


ARCHIVES 


of  that  name;  d.  1.55S,  At  the  age  of  twenty  he 
obtained  the  doctorate  in  law,  at  the  University  of 
Padua,  and  revealed  such  talents  for  diplomacy  that 
Paul  HI  named  him  successively  Governor  of  the 
City  of  Rome,  Vice-Chamberlain  Apostolic,  Bishop 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  of  Saluzzo.  He  also 
sent  him  to  preside  in  his  name  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  then  transferred  to  Bologna.  St.  Ignatius 
Loyola  found  in  him  a  powerful  protector,  in  the 
early  years  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  only  his 
death  prevented  his  installation  in  the  archiepiscopal 
chair  of  Milan  to  which  Paul  IV  had  nominated  him. 
His  theological  works  are  "De  fide  et  sacramentis" 
(Cracow,  1545;  Ingolstadt,  1546;  Turin,  1549); 
"Oratio  de  nova  christian!  orbis  pace  habita" 
(Rome,  1544). 

Pai.lavicini,   Histoire  du  concile  de  Trente   (edit.   Migne) 

III,  1122.  Thomas  Walsh. 

Architecture,  Christian.  See  Christl\n  Archi- 
tecture. 

Archives,  Ecclesiastical,  may  be  described  as 
a  collection  of  documents,  records,  muniments,  and 
memorials,  pertaining  to  the  origin,  foundation, 
growth,  history,  rights,  privileges,  and  constitutions 
of  a  diocese,  parish,  monastery,  or  religious  com- 
munity under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church;  the 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  place  or  depository  where 
such  records  and  documents  are  kept. 

The  word  archive  is  derived  from  the  Latin  archium, 
archirum,  post-classical  terms.  Cicero  uses  tabuta- 
rivm,  and  Pliny  tablinum.  Pomponius  Mela  (a.  d.  37- 
54)  seems  among  the  first  to  adopt  archium  in  the 
sense  of  archives  (De  orbis  situ,  hb.  III).  Archivum 
appears  twice  in  Tertullian  (a.  d.  150-2.30).  Archium 
(archivum)  is  a  transliteration  of  the  Greek  'kpxf^ov, 
used  among  the  Greeks  to  express  the  senate-house, 
the  council-house;  the  college  of  magistrates  con- 
vened therein;  the  place  reserved  for  state  papers; 
the  documents  themselves;  and,  finally,  apphed  to 
many  sanctuaries,  which  became  the  depositories 
of  documents  important  enough  to  hand  down  to 
posterity.  Not  only  Greece,  but  also  the  ancient 
civiUzations  of  Israel,  Phoenicia,  Egypt,  and  Rome 
appreciated  the  value  of  preserving  important  records 
and  usually  reserved  for  the  archives  a  part  of  the 
temple,  the  sacredness  of  the  holy  place  guarantee- 
ing, as  far  as  possible,  immunity  from  violation. 
Christian  Rome,  impressed  with  the  reverence  and 
importance  attached  by  Jew  and  Gentile  to  such 
depositories,  and  recognizing  the  need  of  proper  and 
safe  custody  of  the  sacred  vessels  and  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  sought  out  for  this  purpose,  in  the  be- 
ginning, the  home  of  some  worthy  Christian  family, 
and  later,  during  the  persecutions,  some  secret 
chamber  in  the  catacombs.  In  these  primitive  ar- 
chives the  early  Church  placed  the  Acts  of  the 
martyrs.  St.  Clement  (a.  d.  93),  the  fourth  of  the 
Roman  Pontiffs,  appointed  for  Rome  seven  notaries 
to  record  for  future  ages  the  sayings  and  sufferings 
of  the  saints  who  went  to  martyrdom.  Pope  An- 
terus  (235-236)  displayed  such  zeal  for  the  keeping 
of  these  records  of  the  martyrs  as  to  ^vin  for  himself 
a  martyr's  crown  after  but  one  month  in  the  Chair 
of  Peter;  and  tradition  tells  of  the  existence,  even 
in  his  day,  of  archives  in  the  Lateran  Basilica. 

In  the  development  of  the  polity  of  the  Church, 
as  the  first  councils  determined  the  relation  of  clergy 
to  bi,shop,  and  of  bishop  to  bishop,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  a.s.sign  to  a  special  oflicial,  in  a  place  separate 
from  the  depository  lor  the  sacred  vessels,  the  duty 
of  registering  ordinations,  the  i.ssuing  of  dimissory 
letters,  the  recording  of  synodal  and  conciliar  decrees, 
and  the  safe  keeping  of  documents  pertaining  to  the 
administration  and  temporalities  of  the  Churcli. 
This  oflicial  keeper  of  the  archives,  who  became  the 
registrar  of  the  medieval   cathedral,  was  called   in 


Rome  tabularius,  and  in  Constantinople  chartophylax 
(xapTo0i/XoJ).  The  Council  of  Nica;a  (325),  judging 
from  its  sixteenth  canon,  felt  the  need  of  such  a 
church  official.  The  Council  of  Mileve  (402),  in 
Africa,  prescribed  a  matricula,  or  archives,  for 
records  of  ordination,  to  prevent  disputes  about 
seniority  among  the  bishops.  The  famous  canonist, 
Van  Espen,  commenting  on  the  ninth  canon  of  the 
Second  Council  of  Nicaea  (787),  writes  that  in  the 
palace  of  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  were  kept 
the  archives,  called  the  chartophytacium,  in  which 
the  episcopal  laws  and  documents  containing  the 
privileges  and  rights  of  the  church  were  laid  up. 
Frequently,  important  State  papers  and  valuable 
manuscripts  of  profane  Uterature  were  preserved  in 
the  archives  of  the  church;  the  Code  of  Justinian 
was  therein  deposited  by  order  of  the  Emperor. 
The  monasteries  were  quick  to  follow  the  example 
of  the  episcopal  cities  in  the  keeping  of  archives. 
Monastic  archives  owe  much  to  the  introduction  of 
the  scriptorium  (manuscript  room)  with  its  armaria 
(book-chests)  into  Monte  Cassino  by  St.  Benedict 
(529),  and  into  the  monastery  of  Viviers  by  its 
famous  abbot,  Cassiodorus  (531).  The  preservation 
of  the  fragments  of  Greek  and  Roman  classics  now 
extant  is  largely  due  to  the  monasteries,  which  for 
twelve  centuries  from  the  fall  of  the  Western  Em- 

Eire  were  the  custodians,  not  only  of  sacred  codices 
ut  also  of  manuscripts  of  the  ancient  Greek  philoso- 
phers and  the  Latin  rhetoricians.  A  medieval 
monastery  was  often  rich  in  archives,  containing 
rare  manuscripts,  beautiful  chirographs,  paintings, 
precious  metal-ware,  and  documents  pertaining  to 
the  rights  of  a  people,  the  privileges  of  kings,  and 
treaties  between  nations.  The  universities  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  as  Bologna  and  Paris,  products 
of  the  episcopal  schools,  maintained  valuable  ar- 
chives. 

In  1587,  Pope  Sixtus  V  conceived  the  idea  of 
erecting  in  Rome  a  general  ecclesiastical  depository 
to  serve  for  arcliives  for  all  Italy;  the  plan,  however, 
was  not  found  practicable,  and  the  Pontiff  then 
decreed  that  each  diocese  and  religious  community 
should  establish  and  maintain  its  own  local  arcliives. 
The  most  detailed  legislation  with  regard  to  the 
erection,  the  arrangement,  and  the  safe  custody  of 
archives  is  embodied  in  the  Constitution  "Maxima 
Vigilantia"  of  Benedict  XIII  (1727),  the  norm  for 
the  present  discipline  in  this  matter.  As  a  result  of 
mandatory  decrees  of  provincial  and  synodal  coun- 
cils, archives  are  now  found  in  every  well  organized 
centre.  Besides  the  Vatican  archives  and  those  of 
the  various  Roman  Congregations,  there  are:  (1),  the 
archiepiscopal,  or  metropolitan,  archives,  wherein 
are  preserved  the  acts  of  provincial  councils;  docu- 
ments concerning  suffragan  sees;  records  of  conse- 
crations of  bishops;  minutes  of  ecclesiastical  trials, 
of  appeals,  and  of  matrimonial  processes  before  the 
metropolitan  curia,  or  court;  (2),  the  episcopal,  or 
diocesan  archives,  containing  acts  of  synods,  ilocu- 
nients  from  the  Holy  See,  the  minutes  of  the  episco- 
pal curia,  records  of  ordinations  and  matrimonial 
dispensations,  deeds  of  diocesan  property,  and  re- 
ports of  the  spiritual  and  financial  condition  of  every 
parish  in  the  diocese;  (3),  the  parochial  archives, 
maintained  in  each  parish  for  safely  and  securely 
keeping  all  documents  pertaining  to  the  origin  and 
history  of  the  parish,  mandates  and  pastorals  of  the 
bishop,  registers  for  an  accurate  record  of  baptisms, 
confirmations,  marriages  and  deaths,  antl  of  the 
spiritual  condition  of  souls  visited  in  the  parish; 
also  the  books  pertaining  to  the  administration  of 
the  finances  of  the  parish,  with  detailed  inventory 
of  all  clnirch  property.  The  civil  law  usually  con- 
siders parish  registers  as  authentic  public  recorils. 

DuCANGK.  Clossarium  Mfdi(r  et  Injlmtr  iMtiniOitis;  FoR- 
ri:i.LiNi,    Lexu:on    Totiu*    LatiniUttis;  Pomponius    Mela,    De 


AKOmVES 


697 


ARCHPRIEST 


Orbit  Situ  (Leipiig,  1807).  Ill;  Tertdllian  in  P.  L.;  Potter, 
Antiquitiet  of  Greece  (Kdillburgh,  1813);  Uincham,  Chrittian 
Aniiquitiea  (Lomlon.  1840);  Percival,  The  Serm  (Ecumeni- 
cal Counnlt.  Vol.  XIV  of  2d  »eries  of  The  Sicene  and  /'«»/- 
Nicrne  Falhera  (New  York,  1900);  Dighy.  Morea  Culhotici 
(New  York,  1894);  Putnam,  liooka  und  Their  Makers  (New 
York.  1890),  47  siiq.;  Maitland,  The  Dark  Aoet  {Landou,  1890); 
Pelliccia.  I'otity  of  the  Christian  Church,  tr.  by  IlKLl.trrr 
(London,  1883);  llARO.s-irs,  AnnaU;  Ferrahih,  Jiibtiotheca 
prompta,  (1852);  Ll'cidi,  De  Visitatione  (Rome.  1883); 
Van  Espen,  Jus  ecclrs.  (I-ouvain.  1753);  I{avmiinui,  In- 
structio  pastoratis  (FreiliurK.  1902);  EncyclopMie  du  dii' 
neuiUme  si^cte  (Paris.  184(1);  KncyclopMi^  catholi^ue  (Paris, 
1840);  MOhlbauer,  Thesaurus  resol.  S.C.  Concilit  (Munich, 
18721. 

P.  J.  Hayes. 
Archives,  Vatk'an.     See  Vatican  Archives. 
Archives  of  the  Holy  See.    See  Vatican  Ar- 

IIIIVKS. 

Archontics  (from  ipx"',  prince,  ruler),  a  Gnostic 
sect  which  existed  in  Palestine  and  Armenia  about 
the  midille  of  tlie  fourth  century.  St.  E|)iph:iniiis 
seems  to  be  tlie  earliest  Christian  writer  who  spealis 
of  this  strange  sect.  lie  relates  that  a  young  priest 
in  Palestine  named  Peter  had  been  convicted  of 
Gnostic  errors,  deposed  from  the  oflice  of  the  priest- 
hood and  expelled  by  Bishop  Aetius.  lie  fled  into 
tl\at  part  of  .\rabia  where  there  was  a  centre  of  Ebi- 
onitism.  In  his  olii  age,  apparently  but  not  really 
converted,  he  returned  to  Palestine,  where  he  lived 
the  life  of  an  anchorite  in  a  cave  near  Jerusalem  and 
attracted  followers  by  the  aiLsterity  of  his  life  and 
the  practice  of  extreme  poverty.  Shortly  before  the 
deatli  of  the  Ein|)eror  Constantius  {337-.'J(J  1 ) ,  Eu- 
tactus,  coming  from  Eijj'pt,  visited  the  anchorite 
Peter  and  was  imbued  by  him  with  the  doctrines  of 
the  sect  and  carried  them  into  Greater  and  Lesser 
Armenia.  St.  Epiphanius  excommunicated  Peter 
and  the  sect  seems  to  have  died  out  soon  after. 
Following  the  description  of  St.  Epiphanius  in 
giving  a  summarj'  of  the  doctrines  of  the  sect, 
we  find  there  are  seven  heavens,  each  of  whidi 
is  ruled  by  an  Spx""  (prince)  surroimded  by  angels 
begotten  by  him,  who  are  the  jailers  of  the  souls. 
In  the  eighth  heaven  dwells  the  supreme  Mother  of 
light.  The  king  or  tyrant  of  the  seventh  heaven  is 
Sabaoth.  the  god  of  the  Jews,  who  is  the  father  of 
the  Devil.  The  Devil,  dwelling  upon  earth,  rebelled 
against  his  father,  and  opposed  him  in  all  things,  and 
by  Eve  begot  Cain  and  Abel.  Cain  slew  Abel  in  a 
quarrel  about  their  sister,  whom  both  loved.  Tlie 
souls,  which  are  of  heavenly  origin  are  the  food  of 
the  princes  who  cannot  live  witnout  them.  When 
the  soul  has  reached  the  stage  of  Knowledge  {-yvCjaii), 
and  has  escaped  the  baptism  of  the  Church  and  the 
power  of  Sabaoth,  who  is  the  author  of  the  law,  it 
flies  to  each  of  the  heavens,  makes  humble  prayer  to 
its  prince,  and  finally  reaches  the  supreme  Mother 
and  Father  of  all  things,  from  whom  it  h;is  dropped 
upon  the  earth.  Thcodoret  adds  that  it  is  the  prac- 
tice of  some  of  these  heretics  to  pour  oil  and  water 
on  the  heads  of  the  dead,  thereby  rendering  them 
invisible  to  the  princes  and  withdrawing  them  from 
their  (xjwer.  "Some  of  them",  continues  St.  I-Jpi- 
phanius,  "pretend  to  fast  after  the  manner  of  the 
monks,  deceiving  the  siinple,  and  boast  of  having 
renounced  all  property.  They  deny  the  rcsurre<lion 
of  the  lx)dy,  admitting  only  that  of  the  soul;  they 
condemn  baptism  and  reject  the  participation  of  the 
Holy  Mysteries  as  something  introduced  by  the 
tyrant  Sabaoth,  and  teach  other  fables  full  of  im- 
piety." "They  are  addicted",  says  St.  John  Dama- 
scene, "to  a  most  sliamcful  kind  of  lust."  Their 
apocrj'phal  books  were  the  greater  and  !es.ser  "Sym- 
phonia",  the  "Anabatikon  [:issumption]  of  Isaias", 
a  book  called  'AXXo7e>'ei'$,  and  other  iiseudo-propheti- 
cal  writings.  They  rejected  the  Old  Testament,  but 
used  sentences  torn  from  their  context  both  in  tlio 
Old  and  the  N'ew  Testament  to  prop  up  their  heresy. 
St.  Epiphanius  refutes  their  extravagant  doctrines 


at  some  length,  showing  the  absurdity  and  dishonesty 
of  their  abu.se  of  Scripture  texts.  He  writes,  not  with 
the  calm  detachment  of  the  historian,  but  with  the 
zeal  of  the  pastor  who  is  dealing  with  contemporary 
error. 

St.  Epiphanius,  Adv.har.,  P.  G.,  XLI..  077.  699;  Theodore- 
tub,  liar.  Fab.  Comp.,  P.  O.,  I.XXXIII,  361;  St.  John  Da- 
mascene, D(f//tfr*r»iii«, /*.  G'.,  XCIV,  701.       li.  GULDNER. 

Arcbpriest. — Just  as  among  the  deacons  of  the 
bishop's  church  one  stood  out  as  the  special  as.sistant 
and  rci)re.scntative  of  the  bishop,  and,  as  archdeacon, 
actiuired  a  jurisdiction  of  his  own,  -so  do  we  find  since 
the  fourth  century  in  numerous  dioceses  an  arch- 
priest,  or  head  of  the  college  of  presbyters,  who 
aidetl  and  representctl  the  bishop  in  the  discharge 
of  his  liturgical  and  religious  iluties.  As  a  rule, 
and  especially  in  Home,  whence  the  custom  spread, 
the  oklest  of  the  presbyters  was  invested  with  this 
rank;  in  the  Greek  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  his 
a|)pointment  often  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  bishop. 
Hy  the  seventeenth  canon  of  the  Fourth  Synod  of 
Carthage,  the  archpriest  was  also  a.ssociated  with 
the  bishop  as  his  representative  in  the  care  of  the 
poor.  After  the  complete  Christianization  of  the 
Roman  and  Germanic  peoples,  we  meet  in  the  West 
with  another  kind  of  archpriest.  The  spiritual 
needs  of  the  population  scattered  through  the  rural 
districts  niultii)hed  .so  rapidly  that  it  became  impo.s- 
sible  for  the  clergj-  of  tlie  episcopal  city  to  attend 
to  all.  Consequently,  we  .soon  find  the  larger  rural 
centres  equipped  with  their  own  churches,  a  per- 
manent clergy,  and  their  own  sources  of  support. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  hamlets,  and 
of  the  wiilely  scattered  manors  were,  from  the  be- 
ginning, subject  to  these  larger,  or  mother-churches 
{ecclcsia  rusticana,  dioccesana,  varochia),  in  so  far  as 
it  w:is  there  that  they  hearil  Alass  and  received  the 
sacraments.  The  entire  parish  was  known  as 
chrustiaititas  or  plcbs. 

The  archpriest  was  the  fii-st  in  rank  among  priests 
attached  to  such  mother-churches.  He  was  at  the 
head  of  the  local  clergj-,  liad  charge  of  Divine  wor- 
ship, and  supervi-sed  the  duties  of  the  ecclesiastical 
ministry.  He  was,  however,  subject  to  the  arch- 
deacon; several  such  large  rural  communities,  or  par- 
ishes, constituted  an  archidiaconate.  The  private 
chapels,  which  gradually  multiplied  on  the  estates  of 
the  great  landowners  and  to  which  priests  were  at- 
tached, with  the  bishop's  permission,  Avere  not  exempt 
from  the  juri.sdiction  of  the  archpriest.  All  parishion- 
ers were  obliged  to  be  present  at  the  principal  Mass 
on  Sunday  in  the  mother-church  (trcUsia  haplixmalis, 
titulu.s  major).  All  baptisms  took  place  there  ami 
burial  services  were  ticld  nowhere  else.  In  the 
lesser  churches  of  the  territory  (lituli  minores)  there 
were  permitted  only  the  daily  Mass,  the  usual 
devotions,  ami  instruction  in  the  elements  of  Chri.s- 
tian  faith.  The  archpriest  of  the  mother-church 
was  the  head  of  all  the  dergj'  in  his  parish,  and  was 
responsible  for  the  proper  execution  of  their  eccle- 
siastical duties  and  for  their  manner  of  life.  Grad- 
ually, it  came  about,  especially  in  the  Carlovingian 
period,  that  many  tiluli  miiiorcs  became  independent 
parish  churches,  where  all  religious  ceremonies, 
including  Sunday  Mass  and  baptism,  were  performed; 
the  number  of  parishes  was  tlius  notably  increa-sed. 
It  came  about  also  that  when  a  diocese  was  very 
extensive,  the  entire  diocese  was  subdivided  into 
a  number  of  ilistricts  (called  archipresbyterates, 
decanates,  or  christianitates),  over  each  of  wliich 
a  priest  was  placed  as  dean  or  archpriest.  The  use 
of  the  term  arclilprisbylcrale  for  these  tiioccsan 
districts  proves  that  the  former  exten.sive  parishes 
made  a  basis  for  this  division,  though  the  boundarj' 
lines  of  the  new  districts  did  not  necessarily  cor- 
respond with  the  limits  of  the  original  parishes. 
In  many  cases  entirely  new  ecclesiastical  districts 


ABCHPRIEST 


698 


ARCHPRIEST 


were  created,  and  sometimes  several  former  archi- 
presbyterates  were  united.  Sometimes,  also,  atten- 
tion "was  paid  to  the  civil  subdivisions  of  the 
territory  in  question.  The  entire  clergy  of  such  a 
district  constituted  the  rural  chapter,  at  tlie  head  of 
which  was  the  archpriest  or  rural  dean.  It  was 
his  duty,  as  representative  of  the  bishop,  to  supervise 
the  religious  and  ecclesiastical  life  of  the  entire 
territorj'.  He  enforced  tlie  regulations  of  the  bishop 
and  the  decrees  of  diocesan  synods,  and  watched 
over  their  observance;  presented  to  the  bishop  for 
ordination  all  candidates  for  ecclesiastical  office; 
adjusted  minor  differences  among  the  clergy,  and 
made  known  to  the  archdeacon  any  grosser  misdeeds 
of  clergy  or  laity  in  order  tliat  suitable  penance 
might  be  imposed  upon  the  offender.  It  was  cus- 
tomary in  the  Carlovingian  period  that  on  the  first 
of  every  month   the   archpriest   and   the  clergy  of 


vicar,  or  vicar  forane  {vicarii  joranei).  an  office  at 
all  times  revocable.  In  France,  and  in  those  neigh- 
bouring territories  affected  by  the  ecclesiastical 
reorganization  that  followed  the  French  Revolution, 
each  of  the  new  dioceses  was  diviiled  into  deaneries 
whose  limits  were  calculated  to  corrcspontl  with  the 
civil  subdivisions.  In  each  district  the  parish  priest 
of  the  principal  church  was  usually  the  dean.  Ac- 
cording to  actual  ecclesiastical  law  the  di\'ision  of 
a  diocese  into  ileaneries  pertains  to  the  bishop;  he 
may,  if  he  chooses,  combine  .several  such  districts 
and  make  of  them  a  single  larger  one.  Tlie  selection 
of  the  deans  pertains  entirely  to  the  bishop,  though 
in  some  countries  the  rural  chapters  still  retain  the 
right  of  election.  Deans  possess  no  proper  jurisdic- 
tion; they  are  merely  delegates  of  the  bishop  for  the 
performance  of  stated  ecclesiastical  duties.  Their 
principal  duty  is  to  facilitate  relations  between  the 


Arcosolium  with  Frkscoes,  Catacomb  of  St.  Cy 


his  deanery  should  meet  in  common  in  order  to 
discuss  matters  of  importance.  At  a  later  date 
such  meetings  were  called  only  once  or  twice  a  year. 
The  rural  chapter  acquired  in  time  the  right  of 
presentation  to  the  deanery;  it  also  elected  a  camc- 
rariuH  for  the  atlministration  of  certain  common 
funds,  -Mid  a  diffinitoT,  or  assistant  to  the  dean. 
The  union  of  several  such  archipresbyterates  formed 
an  arcliidiaconate,  whose  deans  were  subject  to  the 
archdeacon. 

In  course  of  time,  the  office  of  dean  or  archpriest 
underwent  many  changes.  This  development  was 
not  the  same  in  every  country,  and  to  this  fact 
are  traceable  many  local  differences.  The  Council 
of  Trent  was  content  with  the  establishment  of 
regulations  concerning  the  visitation  of  parishes 
by  the  deans  (Soss.  X.VIV,  cap.  ;J,  De  reform.).  St. 
Cliarles  Horromeo  abolished  the  office  of  dean  in  his 
diocese    and   established   in    its   place    that   of   rural 


clergy  of  their  deanery  and  the  ordinary  (the  bishop), 
to  exercise  a  certain  supervision  over  the  clergy, 
to  visit  tlie  parishes,  and  look  into  the  administration 
of  parochial  duties  by  the  parish  priests.  They  are 
also  wont  to  receive  from  the  bishop  permanent 
faculties  for  the  performance  of  certain  ecclesiastical 
benedictions.  The  duty  of  assisting  the  bishop  at 
pontifical  Mass,  once  incumbent  on  the  archpriest  of 
the  cathedral,  has  devolveil  partly  on  the  dean  of 
the  cathedral  chapter,  and  partly  on  the  auxiliary- 
bishop,  should  there  be  one. 

THOMA8HINU.S,  V ctits  ft  7tova  Ecclfsiw  dUcipHtui  (London, 
1700),  pt.  I.  bk.  II,  iii-vi,  1.  I'L'l  s,|,,.;  SciiMliiT,  Thcmurus 
juris  ecclesiasiici  gcrmauu-i  ( I  IchU-IImt^.  1777^.  Ill,  290  sqq., 
314  Bqq.;  Stutz,  Gcsrhitfilr  ths  l,n;fi!)rhi  ri  Hmffiiuilwrsens 
von  Anfana  bis  Aleia<i<lrr  III  (HorliTi,  1S!|-.);  Imbaht  i.k  i.a 
Toun,  Leg  pnroissce  rurnlea  ilans  rnncienne  France  du  I\'o  au 
XIo  .sit-cle  (Paris,  1900);  SacmCi-lkh,  Die  Knlwieklunu  det 
ArchiprcKhj/lrrats  und  Dikanats  bia  zum  En/Ie  drs  Karolin(jer~ 
rriches  (Tiiliingen,  1898);  Idkm,  Lchrbuch  den  kalhoHnchm 
AtrcAcnr(cA(«  (Freiburg.  1904),  372  «iq.        j    p    I^ihsch 


ARCOSOLIUM 


(3'J'J 


ARDBRACOAN 


Arcosolium. — This  word  is  derived  from  arcus 
"  arcli  "  iiiid  .solium,  a  term  soinetiines  used  by  Latin 
writers  in  the  sense  of  "sarcophagus";  solium  por- 
pht/rctici  marmoris  (Suet.,  Ner.,  50).  The  term 
arcosolium  was  applied  l)y  tlie  primitive  Christians 
to  one  form  of  the  tombs  that  exist  in  the  l{oman 
catacombs.  Thus,  an  inscription  published  by 
Marchi  (.VIon.  dello  arti  prim.,  85),  which  may  still 
be  seen  in  the  courtyard  of  the  Palazzo  Borgho.se, 
states  that  ".'Vur.  Celsus  and  Aur.  Hilarita.s  have 
had  made  for  themselves  and  their  friends  this 
arcosolium,  with  it.s  little  wall,  in  peace."  The 
arcosolium  tombs  of  the  catacombs  were  formed  by 
first  excavating  in  the  tufa  walls  a  space  similar  to 
an  ordinary  loculus  surinoimted  by  an  arch.  After 
this  space  was  cleared  an  oblong  cavity  was  opened 
from  above  downwards  into  that  part  of  the  rock 
facing  the  arch;  a  marble  .«lab  placed  horizontally 
over  the  opening  thus  made  completed  the  tomb, 
which  in  this  way  became  a  species  of  sarcophagus 
hewn  out  of  the  living  rock.  The  horizontal  slab 
closing  the  tomb  was  about  the  height  of  an  ordinary 
table  from  the  ground.  In  some  instances,  as  in 
the  "papal  crypt"  and  the  crypt  of  St.  Januarius, 
the  front  wall  of  the  arco.soliuin  tomb  was  con- 
structed of  masonry.  \  species  of  tomb  similar  in  all 
respects  but  one  to  the  arcosolivun  is  the  so-called 
seputchrum  a  mcnsA,  or  tabl(!-tomb;  in  this  a  rectan- 
gular niche  takes  the  place  of  the  arch.  The  baldac- 
ehino  tombs  of  Sicily  and  Malta  belong  also  to  this 
class;  they  consist  of  a  combination  of  several 
arcosolia.  A  more  ancient  form  of  the  arcosolium 
than  that  described  consisted  of  an  arched  niche, 
excavated  to  the  level  of  the  floor,  in  which  sar- 
cophagi of  marble  or  terra-cotta  containing  the  re- 
mains of  the  deceased  were  placed.  Arcosolium 
tombs  wore  much  in  vogue  during  the  third  century 
in  Rome.  Many  of  the  later  martyrs  were  interred 
in  them,  and  there  are  reasons  to  suppose  that  in 
such  instances  the  horizontal  slabs  closmg  the  tombs 
served  as  altars  on  certain  occasioi:is.  The  arcosolia 
of  the  Roman  cemeteries  were  usually  decorated  with 
symbolic  frescoes,  the  vault  of  the  arch  and  the 
lunette  being  prepared  with  stucco  for  this  purpose. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  an  arco- 
solium adorned  in  this  maimer  may  be  seen  in  the 
catacomb  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Marcellinus;  in  the 
lunette  the  miracle  of  Cana  is  represented  as  a  symbol 
of  the  Eucharist,  while  on  the  arch  a  baptismal 
scene  and  a  symbol  of  baptism — always  a.ssociated 
with  Eucharistic  symbols — are  depicted  on  cither  side 
of  a  veiled  orans.  A  second  excellent  examjile  of  a 
decorated  arcosolium,  in  the  Camrlerium  Majus, 
represents  on  the  arch  our  Saviour  between  two 
praying  figures,  and  in  the  lunette  Maiy  as  an  ornns 
(unique  in  the  catacombs),  with  the  child  Jesus.  (.See 
Catacombs.) 

Kraus,  Rml-Encyklop.,  I,  89,  90;  Leclercq  in  Diet, 
d'arch.  chrH.,  I. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Arculf ,  a  Frankish  Bishop  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventh  century.  According  to  .some,  c.  g.  Alexis 
de  Gourgues  (Le  -saint  Suaire,  P^'rigueux,  1868), 
he  Wiis  Bishop  of  Pi'Tigueux;  but  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  he  was  attached  to  some  monastery. 
St.  Bede  relates  (Hist,  liccles.  Angl.,  V,  15)  that 
Arculf,  on  his  return  from  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land  about  the  year  670  or  690,  was  cast  by  a  tem- 
pest on  the  shore  of  Scotland.  Ho  was  hospitably 
received  by  Adamnan.  the  abbot  of  the  island 
moniistery  of  lona,  to  whom  he  gave  a  detailed  nar- 
rative of  his  travels  in  the  Holy  I>and,  with  specifi- 
cations and  designs  of  the  .sanctuaries  .so  preci.se  that 
Adamnan.  with  aid  from  some  extraneous  .sources, 
wa.s  able  to  produce  a  descriptive  work  in  three  books, 
dealing  with  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  the  principal 
towns  of  Palestine,  and  Constantinople.     Atlamnan 


presented  a  copy  of  this  work  to  Aldfrith  (q.  v.). 
King  of  Northumbria  in  698.  It  aims  at  giving  a 
faithful  account  of  what  Arculf  actually  saw  durmg 
his  journey.  As  the  latter  "joined  the  zeal  of  an 
antiquarian  to  the  devotion  of  a  pilgrim  during  his 
nine  months'  stay  in  the  Holy  City,  the  work  con- 
tains many  curious  details  that  might  otherwise  have 
never  been  chronicled. "  Hcde  makes  some  excerpts 
from  it  (on.  cit.,  V,  c.  xv-xvii),  and  bases  upon  it  his 
treati.se  "be  locis  Sanctis".  It  was  first  edited  by 
Father  Gretser,  S.J.  (Ingolstadt,  1619).  Mabillon 
gives  an  improved  text  in  "  Acta  SS.  Ord  S.  Bened.  ", 
IV,,-)01.'-522,  (reprinted  in  P.  L.,LXXXIII,  779)  and 
by  Delpit,  "  Essai  sur  les  anciens  p^lerinages  il  Jerusa- 
lem" (Paris,  1870). 

ToBLER,  Arculfi  relatio  de  Iccia  aanctis  in  Itinera  term 
aunctoe  (Geneva,  1877);  Levesque,  art.  Arculfe  in  Vio.,  Diet, 
de  la  Bible.  There  i»  an  English  translation  (truncated)  in 
WmauT,  Early  Travel)  in  PaUttitie  (.London,  1848),  1-13. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Ardagh  (High  Field),  an  Irish  diocese  in  the 
ecclesiastical  province  of  .■\rmagh,  takes  its  name 
from  a  town  in  the  parish  and  barony  of  same 
name  in  county  Longford,  province  of  Leinstcr. 
Here,  according  to  Colg;in,  St.  Patrick  baptized 
Maine,  Lord  of  South  Tellia,  in  Longford,  built  a 
church  in  a  place  called  Ardachadh,  which  to  this 
day  is  a  see,  and  consecrated  Mel,  the  son  of 
his  sister  Darerca,  the  bishop  leaving  with  him 
Melchu  (Mel's  brother)  as  co-bishop.  Archbishop 
Healy  accepts  this  statement,  thougli  Lanigan  and 
O'Hanlon  reject  the  co-epi.scopate  of  the  brothers. 
The  church  of  Ardagh  was  founded  in  454  and  is 
justly  held  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  ancient 
in  Ireland.  St.  Mel,  or  Mod,  was  not  only  the 
bishop  of  this  church,  but  also  abbot  of  the  ad- 
joining monastery,  and  is  yet  patron  of  the  diocese. 
Outside  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  a  small  primitive 
church  the  remains  of  which  are  of  cydopean  char- 
acter. The  see  originally  compri.sed  the  country 
of  the  Eiistern  Conmaice.  It  consisted  of  the  terri- 
tory of  the  O'Ferals  and  the  O'CJuinns  in  the  county 
Longford,  called  Annally,  and  the  territory  of 
Muintir  Eolais,  i.  e.  of  MacRannal  (O'Reynolds)  in 
Leitrim.  From  the  death  of  St.  Mel  to  the  coming 
of  the  English  under  Henry  II  (1169)  the  extant 
records  of  episcopal  succession  (for  which  see  Gams, 
Series  episcoporum  Ratisbon,  1873-76)  are  uncer- 
tain, meagre,  and  broken.  St.  Erard,  who  ruled 
over  this  diocese  in  7.54,  having  journej'ed  to 
Koine  with  some  companions,  died  at  Ratisbon, 
of  which  see  he  is  said  to  have  been  bishop.  In 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  several  mem- 
bers of  the  O'Feral  clan  occupied  the  chair  of  St.  Mel. 
The  Diocese  of  Clonmacnoise  was  united  to  that  of 
Ardagh  in  1729,  during  the  episcop.'ite  of  Bishop 
Flynn,  and  so  continues.  The  modern  Diocese  of 
Ardagh  includes  nearly  all  of  Longford,  the  greater 
part  of  Leitrim,  and  portions  of  King's  County, 
vVestmeath,  Roscommon,  and  Sligo.  There  is  a 
cathedral  chapter  of  Ardagh  and  Clonmacnoise,  and 
there  are  forty-one  parishes  in  the  united  dioceses. 
The  seat  of  the  bishop  is  at  Longford,  where  a  fine 
cathedral  and  a  diocesan  seminary  have  been  erected. 
(See  Clonmacnoise.) 

Lewis,  Topniiruphical  Diet,  of  Ireland  (London,  1837); 
Coi.OAN.  Acta  iianrturum  /libcmioe  (Louvain,  1(>45):  Healy, 
f.ifr  and  Writinas  of  .St.  Patriek  (Dublin,  1905).  176;  Lanioan. 
£<•<•/<•».  Hint,  of  Ireland  (I)ul)lin,  1822),  I.  339:  OHani.on, 
Lirca  of  the  Irith  Sainta  (Dublin,  1875),  II,  308;  Monahan, 
Records  of  .•Irdagk  and  Ctanmacnoitc  (Dublin,  1886);  National 
Gazetteer,  1868. 

J.  J.  Ryan. 
Ardbraccan  (Hill  of  Braccan,  or  Brecan),  site 
of  an  ancient  abbey,  now  a  parish  and  village  in  the 
county  Mcath.  Ireland,  three  miles  west  from  Navan. 
.■^rdl)raccan  .\bbey  was  founded  and  governed  by 
St.  Brecan.  He  was  grandson  of  Carthan  Finn,  first 
Christian  prince  of  Thoniond  and  son  of  Eochaidh 


ARDCHATTAN 


roo 


AREOPAGUS 


Balldearg,  also  prince  of  Thomond,  whom  St.  Patrick 
baptized.  Brecan  had  the  gift  of  prophecy.  lie 
died,  Petrie  says,  early  in  the  sixth  centurj'  (but 
Ware  states  not  till  after  650)  and  was  interred  in 
Templebrecan,  a  church  he  founded  in  the  Great 
Isle  of  Arran.  Petrie  copied  the  inscription  on  his 
tombstone  discovered  early  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Tlie  "Martyrology  of  Donegal"  calls  him 
Bi.stiop  of  Ardbraccan;  but  tlie  founder  of  that  see 
was  St.  Ultan,  who  succeeded  him  as  abbot.  Ultan's 
charity  towards  children  was  remarkable.  He 
wrote  "lives  of  Sts.  Brigid  and  Patrick,  and  died  657. 
Tirechiln,  who  succeeded  him,  compiled  the  "  Acts  of 
8t.  Patrick"  received  from  the  hps  of  Ultan.  Be- 
tween tlie  ninth  and  the  twelfth  century  Ardbrac- 
can was  often  pillaged  and  burned  by  Danes  and 
natives.  The  succes.sion  of  abbot-bishops  continued 
till  tlie  English  invasion,  when  abbey  and  town 
declined.  After  the  Synod  of  Kells  (1152)  Ard- 
braccan and  other  small  sees  of  the  kingdom  of 
Meath  were  united  under  the  title  of  Meath,  and  the 
episcopal  residence  was  fixed  there  at  an  early  date. 
Annals  ol  the  Four  Masters,  ed.  by  O'Donovan  (Dublin,  1856); 
Archdall,  Munasticon  Hibernicum  (Dublin,  1786);  Ware- 
Harris,  works  concerning  Ireland  (Dublin,  1739);  Lewis, 
Topogr.  Did.  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1847);  Lanigan,  Eccl.  Hist, 
of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1822);  Cogan,  Diocese  of  Mealh  (Dublin, 
1862). 

J.  J.  Ryan. 

Ardchattan,  The  Priory  of. — An  Argyllshire 
house,  one  of  the  three  in  Scotland  belonging  to  the 
Order  of  Vallis  Caulium,  or  Val  des  Choux  (tlie  Valley 
of  Cabbages),  founded  by  Duncan  Mackoul  about  A.  d. 
12.30  and  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  and 
St.  John  Baptist,  as  were  all  the  houses  of  this  Or- 
der. It  took  its  name  from  Chattan,  one  of  the 
companions  of  St.  Columba,  the  prefix  ard  signifying 
"promontory".  The  local  tradition  is  that  there 
was  a  chapel  on  this  spot  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
Scottish  Cliristianity,  centuries  before  the  monks  of 
Vallis  Caulium  erected  their  priory  and  church.  The 
monastery  was  built  on  a  sheltered  spot  on  the  shore 
of  Loch  Etive,  almost  overshadowed  by  the  stupen- 
dous mass  of  Ben  Cruachan.  Some  time  before  the 
dissolution  of  religious  houses  it  was  incorporated 
into  the  Cistercian  Order,  and  at  the  Reformation 
the  temporalities  were  bestowed  upon  one  of  the 
Campbell  family,  whose  descendants  (tlie  Campbell- 
Prestons  of  Ardchattan)  still  own  the  place.  Parts 
of  the  church,  and  also  of  the  domestic  buildings  of 
the  priory,  still  remain  and  are  actually  utilized  at 
tliis  day — the  only  example  of  this  in  Scotland — as 
the  mansion-house  of  the  present  proprietor. 

Batten,  Beauty  Friorj/,  with  notices  of  the  Priories  of 
Pluscarden  and  Ardchattan  (Grampian  Club,  1877);  Originea 
Parochiales  Scotia  (Edinburgh,  1854);  Ordinate  Conventus 
Vatlii  Caulium  (London,  1900);  .Spottiswood,  Hist,  of  tlie 
Church  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,    1850);    Ardchattan   Charters. 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blair. 
Arden,  Edward,  an  English  Catholic,  executed 
during  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  b.  1542  (?);  d. 
158.3.  He  was  the  iiead  of  a  family  which  had  been 
prominent  in  Warwickshire  for  six  centuries,  ha\"ing 
succeeded  to  the  estates  on  the  deatli  of  his  grand- 
father, Thomas  Arden,  in  1563.  In  1575  he  was 
high  sherifT  of  the  county.  His  father,  William 
Arden,  was  a  second  cousin  of  Mary  Arden,  of  Wilm- 
cote,  the  mother  of  Sliakospcare.  In  158.3,  Arden 
\yas  indicted  in  Warwick  for  plotting  against  the 
life  of  tlie  Queen,  as  were  idso  his  wife,  his  son-in-law, 
John  .Somervillc,  and  I'allier  Hugh  Hall,  a  chaplain 
whom  lie  maintained  in  tlio  disguise  of  a  gardener  at 
his  home.  Park  Hall.  Somervillc,  who  was  said  to 
be  weak-minded,  was  incensed  over  tlie  wrongs  of 
Mary,  (^ueen  of  Scots,  and  openly  uttered  threats 
against  Elizabeth.  He  was  arrested  and  when  put 
on  the  rack  implicated  tlie  others  in  a  conspiracy  to 
assa-ssinate  the  Queen.  They  were  arrested  "and 
Arden  waa  taken  to  London,  where  he  was  arraigned 


in  the  Guildhall,  16  December,  15S.3.  He  was 
convicted,  ciiiefly  on  the  evidence  of  Hall,  and  was 
executed  at  Smithfield,  30  December,  1583.  Somer- 
villc, who  was  also  condemned  to  die  on  the  same 
day,  was  found  strangled  in  his  cell  the  day  before. 
Mrs.  Arden  and  Hall  were  released.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  Arden  was  the  innocent  victim  of  a 
plot.  He  died  protesting  his  innocence  and  declar- 
ing that  liis  only  crime  was  the  profession  of  the 
Catliohc  reUgion.  Dugdale,  quoting  from  Cannlen's 
"Annals  of  Queen  Elizabetli",  attributes  Arden 's 
prosecution  to  tlie  malice  of  Leicester,  whose  dis- 
pleasure he  had  incurred  by  open  criticism  of  the 
Earl's  relations  ^\^th  the  Countess  of  Essex  before 
their  marriage.  He  had  further  irritated  Leicester 
by  disdaining  to  wear  his  Uvery  and  by  denouncing 
him  as  an  upstart.  It  is  supposed  that  Hall  was 
suborned  to  involve  Arden  in  the  alleged  plot. 

Harrison,  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  II,  74;  Gillow,  Diet,  Eng. 
CatJu,  I,  57. 

Thomas  Gaffney  Taaffe. 

Ardfert  and  Aghadoe.    See  Kerry. 

Ardilliers,  Notre  Dame  des  (Lat.  argilla,  Fr. 
arg'de,  colloquial  ardille.  clay),  a  statue,  fountain,  and 
Church  of  Our  Lady  at  Saumur,  France.  In  ancient 
times  the  fountain  was  often  the  scene  of  pagan 
sacrifices.  A  monastery  founded  by  Cliarlemagne 
at  Saumur  was  destroyed  by  the  Normans  and  the 
one  surviving  monk  retired  to  a  cave  near  the  spring 
of  Ardilhers,  a  statue  of  Our  Lady  his  sole  remain- 
ing treasure.  A  small  statue  discovered  near  the 
spring  in  1454  is  believed  to  be  identical  with  the 
one  just  mentioned.  The  miracles  wrought  in  con- 
nection with  this  image  caused  the  erection  of  a 
small  arch  for  it  above  the  spring,  whose  waters  were 
found  to  have  healing  virtues.  A  chapel  was  built 
and  dedicated  (1553)  attaining  magnificent  propor- 
tions as  successive  additions  were  made,  notably  by 
Cardinal  Richelieu.  The  Oratorians  were  placed  in 
charge  (1614).  Devotion  to  Notre  Dame  des  Ar- 
dilliers was  widespread,  and  many  miracles  were 
wrought.  Her  clients  number  such  illustrious  per- 
sonages as  Louis  XIII,  Anne  of  Austria,  Marie  de' 
Medici,  Henrietta  of  England,  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
and  manyotliers.  Mme.  de  Montespan  led  a  hfe  of 
penance  in  a  modest  dwelling  near  the  church.  The 
founders  of  the  Sulpician  Company  went  there  for 
inspiration,  and  the  Ven.  Grignon  de  Montfort  to 
beg  divine  blessings  on  the  institutes  of  the  Fatliers 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Daughters  of  Wisdom 
he  was  about  to  found.  Cities  placed  themselves 
under  the  protection  of  Notre  Dame  des  Ardilliers, 
promising  annual  deputations  of  pilgrims.  During 
the  Revolution  the  churcli  was  despoiled  of  its  treas- 
ures, but  was  not  destroyed,  and  the  image  was  left 
unharmed.  In  1S49  the  ravages  of  time  necessitated 
the  renovation  of  tlie  chapel,  which  had  been  built 
by  Richelieu,  and  pilgrimages  became  more  frequent 
than  ever. 

Leroy,  Ilistoire  des  -pilerinages  de  la  Sainte  Yierge  en  France 
(Paris,  1873-75),  I,  513  sqq.;  AcUi  SS.,  1  May. 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Ardo.     See  Smaragdus. 

Aremberg,  Prince  Charles  d',  Definitor-general 
and  Coiumissaiy  of  the  Capuchins;  d.  at  Brussels 
5  June,  1669.  He  is  the  author  of  "  Flores  Seraphici  ", 
biographies  of  eminent  Capuchins  from  1525  to  1612 
(Cologne  and  Antwerp,  2  vols.,  1640)  and  "Clypeus 
Seraphicus  "  (Cologne,  1643),  a  defence  of  the  "An- 
nates Capucinoruni"  of  Boverius. 

BucHBERGKR,  Kirchl,  Ilandlex.,  I.  321. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
Arenaria.    See  Catacombs. 
Areopagita,    Dionysius.      See    Dionysius    the 
Pskudo-Areopagitb. 
Areopagus    ('Apcios  irdyos),  the   name  of   (1)  the 


AREOPOLIS 


701 


AREVALO 


Hill  of  Mars,  situated  to  the  west  of  and  close  by  the 
Acropolis  at  Atlieiis;  (2)  tlie  court  held  upon  the 
hill.  All  ancient  legend  accounts  for  the  name  of 
the  hill  by  narrating  that  thereon  the  Amazons  had 
offered  sacrifice  to  Ares.  Anotlier  legend  declares 
that  upon  this  mount  Ares  had  been  trieil  for  the 
murder  of  Ilalirrhotius  by  a  court  of  twelve  gods. 
The  latter  legend  was  evidently  suggested  by  the  fact 
that  from  the  earliest  antiijuity  the  Hill  of  Mars  was 
the  seat  of  a  council,  which  had  for  one  of  its  duties 
the  trial  of  certain  criminal  ca.ses.  Hut  the  primary 
purpose  of  the  council  of  the  .\reopagus  was  to  direct 
religious  worship  and  therefore,  incidentally,  to  pa.ss 
judgment  upon  theological  innovations.  It  may  be 
that  the  council  formally  and  judicially  exerci.sed 
this  function  when  St.  Paul  was  brought  before  it; 
but  it  is  more  probable  that  the  event  narrated  in 
Acts,  xvii,  19  sqq.  was  not  a  legal  trial  of  the  Apos- 
tle or  an  authoritative  judpnent  of  his  doctrine. 
Rather,  it  would  .seem  from  the  informal  character 
of  his  introduction  to  the  as.sembly  and  his  abrupt 
quitting  of  it  in  the  midst  of  di.-<order  (ibid.,  xvii, 
32,  33)  that  he  was  conducted  before  the  Areopag- 
ites  upon  the  .sacreil  hill  merely  that  their  curiosity 
might  be  .satisfied  by  seeing  lum  and  hearing  him, 
undisturbeil  by  the  rout  in  the  Agora  below.  Some 
have  thought,  however,  that  St.  Paul,  on  the  occa- 
sion in  question,  was  subjecteil  to  a  formal  trial  on 
the  ground  that  the  Hill  of  Mars  was  too  .sacred  a 
place  to  be  invaded,  and  the  council  too  august  a 
tribunal  to  be  disturbed  except  for  actual  judicial 
proceedings.  At  any  rate  it  seems  certain  that  in 
the  time  of  St.  Paul,  the  council  of  the  Areopagus 
was  clothed  with  judicial  powers  as  considerable  as 
it  had  over  enjoyed,  and  that  among  its  rights  was 
that  of  passing  final  judgment  in  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  religion  of  the  .\thenians.  Before  such 
a  tribunal  St.  Paul  was  doubtless  eager  to  speak, 
and  the  immetliate  result  of  his  address  (ibid.,  xvii, 
22-31)  was  tlie  conversion  of  at  least  one  of  the 
members  of  the  venerable  council. 

The  most  satisfactory  description  of  the  location  and  tho 
council,  as  well  as  of  the  incident,  is  to  be  found  in  Convbeare 
AND  HowsoN,  Life  and  Episties  of  St.  Paul  (London,  1850-52), 
ch.  X. 

James  M.  Gillis. 

Areopolis  (Rabbath-Mo.\b),  a  titular  see  of  Pales- 
tine. Its  episcopal  list  (44<>-,')36)  is  given  in  Gams 
(p.  454).  There  was  anotlier  town  of  the  same  name 
in  Lydia,  Asia  Minor. 

I.EQriKN.  Orirna  Christ.  (1740),  III,  536;  SMrra,  Diet,  of 
Greek  ami  lln,m,n  Oeogr.,  I.  197. 

Arequipa,  The  Diocese  of,  suffragan  of  the  .Arch- 
diocese of  Lima,  Peru,  was  erected  by  Gregorj"  XIII 
1.5  April,  1.577,  at  the  reouest  of  Philip  11,  who  had 
asked  for  three  Peruvian  uioceses  under  royal  patron- 
age. The  population  in  1901  was  3.5,000.  It  has  a 
cathedral  dedicated  to  the  A.ssumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  a  Jesuit  college,  a  hospital,  and  several 
convents.  Arequipa  is  the  second  city  in  Peru. 
It  is  near  the  volcanic  peak  of  the  Andes  called 
Misti,  and  in  IStiS  sufferetl  earthquake  shocks  whicli 
destroyed  most  of  the  buildings  and  killed  GOO  people. 
Arequipa  was  founded  by  Pizarro. 

Battasdieh,  .-Inn.  pont.  cath.,  1900. 

Arethas  of  Osesarea,  b.  at  Patra?.  Greece,  about 
SCO,  w:is,  like  all  the  eminent  men  of  that  time, 
a  dLsciple  of  Photius.  lie  became  .Vrchbishop  of  Ca'- 
sarea  early  in  the  tenth  centurj',  and  is  reckoned 
one  of  the  most  scholarly  theologians  of  the  Greek 
Church.  He  is  the  compiler  of  the  oldest  extant 
Greek  commentary  (xcliolin)  on  the  .\pocalvpse.  for 
which  he  m.-ule  considerable  use  of  the  similar  work 
of  his  predeces.'for.  Andrew  of  CVsarea.  It  wsis 
first  printed  in  1,535  :ts  an  .appenilix  to  the  works 
of  (Kcumenius  and  is  found  in  P.  (i.,  C'VI,  493. 
Dr.   Khrhard  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  he  wrote 


other  Scriptural  commentaries.  To  his  interest  in 
the  earliest  Christian  literature,  caught  perhaps 
from  the  above-named  Andrew,  we  owe  the  Aretluts 
Codex  (Paris,  (ir.  451),  through  which  the  text  of 
the  Greek  Christian  .Apologists  has,  in  great  measure, 
reached  us  (Bardenhewer,  Patrologie,  40).  He  is 
also  known  .is  a  commentator  of  Plato  and  Lueian; 
the  famous  manuscript  of  Plato  (Codex  Clarkianus), 
taken  from  Patmos  to  London,  was  copied  by  order 
of  Areth;is.  Other  important  Greek  manuscripts, 
e.  g.  of  Kuclides,  the  rlulor  Aristides,  and  perhaps 
of  Dio  Chrysost-om,  are  owing  to  him.  Not  a  few 
of  his  minor  writings,  contained  in  a  Moscow  manu- 
script, are  said  still  to  await  an  editor  (see  P.  G.,  loe. 
cit..  787).  Krumbacher  emphasizes  his  fondnes.i  for 
ancient  classical  Greek  literature  and  the  original 
sources  of  Christian  theology,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  he  lived  in  a  "  dark  "  century,  and  was  far  away 
from  any  of  the  few  remaining  centres  of  erudition. 
The  latest  known  date  of  his  life  is  932. 

KRU.MHA<'llEn,  Ofschicfite  dtr  byxttniin.  Litteratur,  2d  e<l. 
(Munich,  1897),  524;  Khhiiahd,  ib.,  131;  Geuharu  and  Hak- 
NACK,  in  Tejte  und  Vnterauchunfjen,  I.  1-2  (Leipzig.  1882). 
3(>-4e;  .Maas,  in  A/(7anffi»  Uraux  (Paris,  1884),  749-7(i(i; 
Wattenbach.  .■inleilunn  zur  arirch.  PaUographie,  3d  cd. 
(1895),  61;  VON  Otto.  W/n  '/.riUilIrr  det  Enhiachoft  Arelhaa. 
in  ZeiUchr.  f.  wUtentichaftl.  Theoloiiit  (1878).  XXI,  539. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Arethusa,  a  titular  see  of  Syria  near  Apameia. 
Its  episcopal  list  (325-G80)  is  given  in  Gams  (p.  430). 
It  was  also  a  Latin  see  for  a  brief  period  dunng  the 
Crusades  (1099-1100).  In  the  time  of  Constantius 
(337-361)  its  Bishop,  Marcus,  destroyed  a  heathen 
temple  which  under  Julian  he  was  ordered  to  rebuild. 
To  avoid  this  he  fled  from  the  city,  but  eventually 
returned  to  save  the  Christian  people  from  paying 
the  penalty  in  his  stead,  antl  underwent  very  cruel 
treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  pagan  mob  (Sozomen, 
Hist.  Keel.,  X,  10).  He  is  .said  to  have  been  the 
author  of  the  Creed  of  Sirmium  (351)  and  is  counted 
by  Tillemont  as  an  Arian  in  belief  and  in  factious 
spirit. 

Lequien,  Orient  Christ.  (1740).  II,  915-816:  SMrrii,  Did. 
of  Grtek  and  Roman  Geogr..  I,  197;  Stokes  in  Did.  of  Chrial. 
Biog.,  Ill,  825;  Tillemont,  Mi-moirea.  etc.,  VII.  307-370. 
Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Arevalo,  Faustino,  a  learned  Jesuit  hjTnnographer 
and  patrologist,  b.  23  July,  1747,  at  Campanario  in 
Estremadura  (Spain);  d.  at  Madrid,  7  Januarj',  1821. 
He  entered  the  Society  in  1701,  but  was  deported 
to  Italy  on  the  occasion  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  from  Spain  (1767).  Here  he  won  the  esteem 
and  confidence  of  Cardinal  Lorenzana,  who  proved 
a  Ma-cenas  for  the  young  Spanish  Jesuit,  bore 
the  exf)enses  of  his  learned  works,  and  made  him 
his  executor.  Art-valo  was  much  esteemed  at  Rome 
and  held  various  offices  of  trust,  among  them  that 
of  "pontifical  hymnographer";  he  was  m.ade  theolo- 
gian of  the  Penitenzieria  (see  CvniA  Romana)  in 
1809,  in  succession  to  the  learned  Muzzarelli.  In 
1815  he  returned  to  Spain,  recalled  by  King  Ferdi- 
nand, entered  the  restored  Society,  and  became 
Provincial  of  Castile  (1820).  His  principal  works 
are:  "Hjminodia  Ilispanica"  (Rome,  17.86),  a  restora- 
tion of  ancient  Spanish  hymns  to  their  original  met- 
rical, musical,  and  grammatical  [x-rfection.  (This 
work  was  much  esteemed  by  Cardinal  Mai  and 
I)om  (ludranger.  Among  the  dissertations  that 
accompany  the  m:iin  work  is  a  curious  one  on 
the  breviary  of  Cardinal  Quignonez.)  "Prudentii 
Carmina"  (l{onie,  178,S-,S9,  2  vols.  4to.);  "Dracoiitii 
Carmina"  (Home,  1791),  the  [xx-ms  of  a  fifth-century 
Christian  of  Roman  Africa;  "Juvcnci  Hi.st(iri:p 
EvaiigeliciC  Libri  IV  (Rome,  1792);  "('alii  Scdulii 
Opera  t)mnia"  (Rome,  1794);  "S.  Isiilnri  lli..~pa- 
lensis  Opera  Omnia  "  (Rome,  1813);  "  Missale  (iothi- 
cum"  (Rome.  1804).  Artjvalo  stands  in  the  front 
rank  of  Spanish  patristic  scholars.     He  shed  great 


AREVALO 


702 


ARGENTINE 


lustre  on  the  Churcli  of  Spain  by  his  vast  learning, 
fine  literary  taste,  and  patriotic  devotion  to  the  early 
Christian   writers  of  his   fatherland. 

SoMMKHvoGEL,  Bibl.  des  ccr.  de  In  cie.  de  Jesus,  I.  530-534; 
BoERO,  Merwlogio,  I,  154-155;  Ami  de  la  Religion,  XXXIV,  28. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
Arevalo,  Rodriguez  Sanchez  de,  a  learned 
Spanish  bishop,  b.  1404,  in  tlie  diocese  of  Segovia; 
d.  4  October,  1470.  After  studying  law  at  Salamanca 
for  ten  years  and  there  graduating  as  Doctor,  he  be- 
came secretary  to  John  II  and  Henry  IV,  Kings  of 
Castile.  They  employed  him  as  envoy  on  various 
missions,  notably  to  the  Holy  See  apropos  of  the 
Council  of  Basle,  wliose  parliamentary  theories  lie 
opposed.  After  the  elevation  of  Calixtus  III,  he 
remained  at  Rome,  became  Bishop  of  Oviedo  in 
Spain,  and  later  commander  of  the  papal  fortress, 
the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  under  Paul  II,  who  trans- 
ferred him  successively  to  tlie  Spanish  sees  of  Zaniora, 
Calahorra,  and  Palencia.  His  writings,  mostly  un- 
edited, are  in  the  Vatican  and  at  Padua,  and  deal 
with  ecclesiastical  and  political  matters.  The  fol- 
lowing have  been  printed:  "Speculum  Vita?  Hu- 
manse"  (Rome,  1468),  a  popular  work,  frequently 
reprinted  in  the  next  two  centuries;  it  treats  of  the 
lights  and  shadows  of  the  various  estates  of  life; 
"Historia  Hispanica",  from  the  earliest  times  to 
1469  (Rome,  1470),  reprinted  in  the  first  volume 
of  A.  Schott's  "Hispania  lUustrata";  "De  Monarchia 
Orbis  et  de  origine  et  differentia  principatus  im- 
perialis  et  regalis"  (Rome,  1521),  in  which  he  as- 
serts for  the  Pope  the  sole  right  to  punish  kings. 
His  bold  reproofs  of  certain  ecclesiastical  dignitaries 
caused  Matth.'Eus  Flaccus  to  put  him  down  as  a 
forerunner  of  Luther,  but  quite  unjustly,  as  Niccolo 
Antonio  has  shown  in  his  "Bibliotheca  Hispanica 
Vetus"  (II,  397,  608,  614). 

8TANONICK  in  Kirchenlex.,  1,  1272;  Fastor.  Gesch.  d.  Piipsle 
I,  392,  .-ind  II,  333,  342.  ThOMAS  J.  ShAHAN. 

Arezzo,  The  Diocese  of,  a  diocese  of  Tuscany,  in 
Italy,  which  is  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See. 
It  has  40  towns  in  the  province  of  .^rezzo,  10  in  that 
of  Sienna,  and  one  in  that  of  Perugia.  It  has  250,000 
Catholics,  330  parishes,  563  secular  priests,  149  regu- 
lars, 145  seminarists,  436  churches  or  chapels.  The 
list  of  bishops  is  sufficiently  regular  from  a.  d.  250. 
Arezzo  is  of  great  antiquity  and  was  one  of  the 
first  cities  of  Italy  to  receive  the  Gospel,  as  tradition 
avers,  from  St.  Romulus,  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Fiesole,  a  disciple  of  St.  Paul.  It  became  a  bishopric 
about  304,  under  St.  Satyrus.  St.  Donatus,  his 
successor,  is  patron  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Peter  the 
Apostle.  The  first  eight  bishops  were  saints.  Clem- 
ent XII,  while  his  nephew.  Cardinal  Guadagni,  was 
Bishop  of  Arezzo,  conceded  to  it  in  perpetuo  archi- 
episcopal  insignia,  the  pallium  and  double  cross. 
The  cathedral  is  an  imposing  Gothic  structure  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  A  more  venerable  structure 
is  Santa  Maria,  of  the  ninth  century,  called  "la 
vecchia  pieve"  (the  old  parish).  Gregory  X,  who 
died  in  Arezzo,  10  January,  1276,  is  buried  in  the 
latliedral.  The  conclave  wliich  elected  his  successor, 
Innocent  V,  was  held  here.  St.  Donatus,  the  patron 
of  Arezzo,  is  also  buried  in  the  cathedral. 

Arezzo  boast-s  many  illustrious  citizens.  Among 
them  are  Vasari,  the  biographer  of  the  Italian 
painters;  Guittone,  one  of  the  oldest  of  Italian  writers; 
C!\iido  Arotino,  author  of  the  "Rlicrology",  who  is 
credited  witli  inventing  the  stave  and  other  musi- 
cal improvoments;  Petrarca;  Pietro  Arctino,  tlie 
licentious  poet;  Leonardo  Aretino,  secretary  of  the 
historian  of  the  republic  of  Tloronce,  and  Concini, 
whom  Marie  de'  Medici  made  a  marshal  of  Franco. 
Micheliingclo  wsus  bom  in  a  csistle  near  Arezzo. 

Arezzo  lias  three  celebrated  sanctuaries:  Alvernia, 
where  St,  Francis  of  Assisi  received  the  stigmata; 
Camaldoli,   where  St.   Romuald  founded    the  order 


of  that  name,  and  Accona,  where  Blessed  Bernardo 
Tolommei  founded  the  Olivetan  Congregation. 

Battandier,  Ann.  calh.  pont.,  1906;    Vast  in   La    Grande 
Encycl.,  s.  v.  Joj,n  J.  a'  Becket. 

Argenson,  Piekre  de  Voyer  d',  called  the 
\'icomte  d'Argcnson,  chevalier,  vicomte  de  Mouz6, 
seigneur  de  Chastres,  was  the  fifth  Governor-General 
of  Canada  (1657-^1),  b.  1626;  d.  1710.  He  belonged 
to  an  ancient  family  of  Touraine  which  has  produced 
many  distinguished  statesmen;  among  others  Marc 
Ren6,  Marquis  d'Argenson,  Louis  XIV's  famous 
lieutenant  of  police.  Pierre  de  Voyer  was  the  fifth 
child  of  Ren6,  count  d'Argenson,  who  filled  many 
important  missions,  and  died  while  ambassador  a"t 
Venice,  in  1651.  At  first  destined  for  the  Church, 
he  received  tonsure  in  1636,  but  adopted  the  career 
of  arms.  He  rendered  important  services  at  the 
sieges  of  Portolongone,  La  Bass^e,  and  Ypres,  at 
the  battle  of  Lens,  and  at  the  siege  of  Bordeaux, 
where  he  received  many  woimds.  Gentleman  in 
ordinary  of  the  king's  bed-chamber,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  office  of  bailiff  of  the  lands  and  duchy  of 
Touraine  in  1643,  in  place  of  the  famous  '•onspirator 
Cinq-Mars.  Appointed  councillor  of  State,  then 
governor  of  Canada,  in  1657,  to  succeed  Lauzon,  he 
arrived  in  Quebec,  11  July,  1658.  He  received  a 
stately  welcome  from  the  Jesuits.  Canada  was  then 
a  prey  to  Iroquois  invasions.  D'Argenson  had  only 
a  hundred  soldiers,  yet  he  inspired  the  colonists, 
and  gave  them  the  example  of  a  bravery  often 
rash.  It  thus  happened  that  the  brave  Dollard  and 
his  companions  were  slain  while  seeking  to  avert 
the  blows  wliich  threatened  the  little  city,  and  that 
the  grand  seneschal,  Jean  de  Lauzon,  perished  ob- 
scurely in  an  ambuscade.  D'Argenson  souglit  to 
draw  around  him  the  children  of  the  Iroquois,  in 
order  to  ha\-e  them  instructed  and  to  keep  them  as 
so  many  hostages.  The  Jesuit  Lemoine  was  sent  to 
negotiate  with  the  barbarians.  D'Argenson,  who 
had  endeared  himself  to  the  colonists  by  promptly 
according  to  them  justice,  in  an  impartial  manner 
and  without  expense,  advised  the  king  to  free  the 
colony  from  tlie  plague  of  bureaucracy  and  to  let 
the  habitants  govern  themselves.  Monseigneur 
de  Laval,  appointed  Vicar-.\postolic  of  Canada, 
arrived  there  in  1659,  during  his  administration. 
Accustomed  to  command,  d'.4rgenson  wished  to 
have  the  law  of  precedence  observed  in  all  ceremonies, 
and  that  the  noblemen  in  his  suite  sliould  rank  above 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries.  This  gave  rise  to  the  fre- 
quent conflicts  between  Church  and  State  during 
the  French  regime.  D'.Vrgcnson  made  the  mistake 
of  ■svishing  to  perpetuate  in  democratic  America 
the  exactions  of  Old  World  etiquette.  Possibly,  too, 
he  was  overindulgcnt  to  the  wishes  of  traffickers  in 
the  sale  of  brandy  to  the  aborigines,  a  practice 
which  resulted  in  grave  disorders.  At  last,  suffering 
from  his  old  wounds,  no  longer  able  to  head  bands 
for  warfare,  dissatisfied  that  F^ ranee  left  him  without 
support,  tired  of  struggling  with  the  bishop,  for  lie 
was  a  devout  churchman,  he  asked  for  his  recall, 
and  returned  to  France  in  September,  1661.  The 
rest  of  his  career  is  little  known.  He  left  important 
letters  and  documents  concerning  the  various  duties 
lie  had  had  to  fulfil,  but  they  were  burned  with  the 
collection  known  as  the  "D'Argenson  Papers"  in 
the  fire  at  the  Biblioth(>que  du  Louvre  in  1871. 
D'Argenson  died  at  an  advanced  ago,  about  1710,  and 
at  his  own  request,  was  buried  at  Mouz(5,  a  village 
near  Loches,  in  Touraine,  of  which  he  was  seigneur. 
Parkman,  Old  Riiiimi  I"  <;n,,„l,i,  11.5-130;  Anselme. 
Ilistoire  g{mialo(tiquc,  \'\,  'OJ;  1  \iii<im,  Ilist.  col.  franc,  au 
Canada,  1.  457-471. -lIKi;  Iwi,  m  \u  :s  w.ix,  Jiauiles  de  la  Nou- 
vclle  France.  II,  302-:!-'.-.;  I'uii^.  /,. »  manuscriu  de  la  liiblio- 
Ihique  du  Louvre  bruli.'<  en  ;,sr;,  41-40. 

J.  Edmond  Roy. 
Argentine    Republic     (Ahc.entina),    a     South 
American    confederation   of   fourteen    provinces,   or 


ARGENTINE 


703 


ARGENTINE 


Seal  ok  AKoii.NTUNE  Rki'uulic 


States,  united  by  a  federal  Constitution  framed  on 
the  same  linos  as  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  provinces  are:  Buenos  Aires, 
Santa  I'Y-,  Entre  Ktos,  Corrientes,  CYjriloba,  San 
Luis,  Santiago  del  Estero,  Mendoza,  San  Juan, 
La  Rioja,  Cata- 
marca,  Tucunuin, 
Salta,  and  Jujuy. 
Each  one  has  it  own 
constitution,  and  its 
own  autonomic  gov- 
ernment. The  fed- 
eral Constitution  was 
promulgated  25  Sep- 
tember, ISGO.  The 
(illicial  name  of  the 
union,  under  the 
federal  Constitution, 
is  "The  Argentine 
Nation".  In  addi- 
tion to  the  fourteen 
conuiionwealths  con- 
stituting the  union, 
there  are  ten  "  na- 
tional territories", 
depending  upon  the 
federal  executive, 
the  government  of 
which  is  entrusted  to  governors  appointed  bv  the  Presi- 
dent with  the  advice  and  consent  of  tlie  Senate. 
Those  territories  are  called  Misiones,  Formosa,  Chaco, 
Los  .\ndos.  La  Pampa,  NeuiuKf-n,  Rto  Negro,  Chubut, 
Santa  Cruz,  and  Tiorra  del  Fucgo.  There  is  also, 
and  this  completes  the  similarity  of  organization 
between  the  .Vrgentine  and  the  American  Union,  a 
"Federal  District",  namely,  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires, 
which  is  also  the  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same  name. 
Geogkaphical  Situation,  .\kea,  Popul.vtion. — 
The  .\rgentine  Republic  is  situated  in  the  .south- 
eastern part  of  South  .-Vmcrica  and  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  BoUvia,  Paraguay,  and  Brazil;  on  the 
east  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  llruguay,  the  River  Plata, 
and  the  .Vtlantic  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  Chile  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean;  and  on  the  west  by  Chile,  from 
wliich  it  is  separated  by  tlie  Cordillera  de  los  Andes. 
Nearly  all  its  area,  roughly  estimated  at  3,000,000 
squarb  kilometres  (about  1,17.">,000  stjuare  miles),  is 
iiuludod  between  21°  30'  S.  lat.  and  54°  52'  S.  lat. 
Witli  tlio  exception  of  a  small  strip  of  land  on  the 
north,  which  is  in  the  tropics,  the  entire  country  is 
within  the  temperate  zone.  From  east  to  west  the 
country  lies  between  52°  and  74°  W.  long. 

According  to  the  last  official  census,  which  was 
taken  10  May,  1895,  the  total  popidation  of  the 
Republic  was  3,945.911,  distributed  as  follows: 
Argentines,  2,950,384;  foreigners,  1,004,527.  The 
male  population  was  given  as  2.088,919;  the  female 
as  1,8(>5,992.  Of  the  foreign  pop\dation,  492,630 
were  Italians;  198,685,  Spaniards;  94,098,  French; 
91.167,  Spanish  .\mericans  (Bolivians,  Chilians, 
I'ruguayans,  and  Paraguayans),  24,725,  Brazilians; 
21, 7NS,  "British;  17,142,  Germans;  12,803,  .\ustrians; 
anil  1,:$S1,  citizens  of  the  United  States  of  .\merica. 
Foreign  immigration  to  the  Argentine  Republic,  be- 
tween 1857  and  1903,  was  as  follows: 


The  immigra 

tion  in 

903 

was: 

Italians 

42,358 

Germans 

1,000 

Spaniards 

21,917 

Swiss 

272 

French 

2,491 

Belgians 

174 

English 

560 

Others 

5,077 

Total 


73,849 


Yf 

A  us 

iMMir.UANTS 

N.VTIONALITIES 

1857- 

-1S60 

20,0' KJ 

Italians 

1,331,536 

1S61- 

-1.S70 

1,")9,570 

Spaniards 

414.973 

1S71- 

-1880 

260,613 

French 

170,293 

1S81- 

-18S)0 

846.568 

English 

35,435 

1891 

-1900 

648, .326 

.Austrians 

37,953 

1901 

-1903 

223,346 

Germans 
Swiss 
Belgians 
Others 

30,699 
25,775 
19,521 
92,238 

2,158,423 


2,158,423 


HisTOKY. — The    territory    of    the    .Argentine    Re- 
public was  origiiudly  inhabited  by  Indian  tribes  of 
fierce  disposition  who  were  "reduced"  to  civilization 
thrciugli  the  Catliolic  religion.     The  mis-sions  founded 
in  tlicsc  Rginns  were  called  "  Reducciones"  (Reduc- 
tions) by  the  Spaniards  to  convey  the  idea  that  these 
establishments    were    intended    to    tame    the    wild 
spirit  of  the  savages  and  "reduce"  them  to  a  con- 
dition   of    relative    civilization.     The    first    Spanish 
establishment  in  the  region  of  the  Rfo  de  la  Plata, 
or  Plate  River,  was  the  fort  called  La  Sancti  Spiritus, 
crertcd    by  Seba.stian    Cabot,  a    Venetian    m    the 
.service  of  Spain,  and  son  of  John  Cabot  the  cele- 
bratecl  navigator  who  cruised  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  North  .\merica.     This  fort  was  erected  in   1526 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Paraiul  and  Carcaraiia  Rivers, 
and  was  garrisoned  with  170  men.     Four  years  later 
it  was  destroyed  by  Timbu  Indians,  who  killed  the 
men,   carried   away   the   women   and   children,   and 
burned  all  the  buildings.     Together  with  the  report 
of  his  trip  to  these  regions  Cal)()t  forwarded  to  Spain 
some  silver  jewels  which  the  Guarani  Indians  had  pre- 
sented to  him;  wlicnce  comes  the  name  of  Rio  de  la 
Plata  (River  of  Silver),  given  to  the  .stream  through 
the  mistaken  idea  that  silver  mines  abounded  on  its 
banks.     In  l.')35  Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza,  a  Spanish 
general  in   the  service  of  Charles   V,   came  with  a 
powerful  expedition  consisting  of  14  ships  and  2,000 
soldiers,  and  on  6  January  hiid  the  foundations  of  a 
city  which  he  called  Santa  Maria  de  Buenos  .Vires. 
Some  time  afterwards  this  settlement  was  attacked 
and  partially  destroyed  by  the  Indians.     The  work  of 
rebuilding  it  was  begun  11  June,  1580,  by  Don  Juan 
de  tiarayi     The  city  of  La  .\sunci6n,  now  the  capital 
of  Paraguay,  was  founded  by  Juan  de  Ayohis,  a  lieu- 
tenant of  Mendoza,  15  August,  l.')36.     T'nderthe  rule 
of  Hernando  .\rias  de  Saavedra,  generally  called  Iler- 
nanilarias,  who  was  born  on  Argentine  soil,  and  had 
been  elected  governor  by  the  .settlers,  the  Jesuits  were 
called  to  civilize  the  Indians.     The  first  Fathers  landed 
at  Salta  in  1586,  and  established  a  college  at  C6rdoba, 
from  which  they  .sent  missionaries  to  all  parts  of  the 
Argentine  territory.     Fathers  Montoya  and  Cataldino 
went  to  Paraguay  and  settled,  in  1610,  at  La  Asun- 
cion.    Seven  years  after  the  landing  of  the  Jesuit 
Fathers,  over  "100,000  Indians  had  been  congregated 
in  four   ilifferent    towns  and  were  engaged  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits  and  useful  arts  and  trades.     They 
built    houses,    hospitals,    and    asylums;    learned    to 
read  and  write,   and  became   acquainted  also  with 
painting,  sculpture,  and  music.     Even  at  this  early 
date  they  hatl  established  a  printing  office  with  type 
made  by  themselves.     In  course  of  time,  this  work 
of   civilization    was    greatly   extended.     The  "Geo- 
grafia  .Vrgentina"  of  Sefiores  Urien  and  Colombo  says 
that  in  or  about  1631  there  were  not  less  than  thirty 
centres  of  population  under  the  rule  of  the  Jesuits. 
V.'M-h  town  had  a  curate  who  was  at  the  same  time 
the  governor,  the  judge,  and  the  spiritual  adviser  of 
the  inhabitants.     But  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
from  the  Spanish  dominions  by  the  Government  of 
Charles  III  put  an  end  to  this  prosperous  condition. 
The  expulsion  took  place  in   Buenos  .Vires,  3  July, 
1767.     Governor  Don   Francisco  de  Paula   Bucarelli 
was  the  official  entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the 
di.sastrous  measure.     On  1  August,  1776,  the  Govern- 
ment of  Spain  derided  to  establish  what  it  called  the 
vice-royalty  of  the  River  Plate,   under   Don   Pedro 
de  Zeb'allos,  the  first  viceroy.     The  last  viceroy  was 


ARGENTINE 


704 


ARGENTINE 


Don  Baltasar  Hidalgo  de  Cisneros  (1809).  The 
revolutionary  movement  which  ended  in  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  coimtry,  began  in  the  Argentine 
territory,  as  everywhere  else  in  South  America,  in 
180S,  at  the  time  of  the  imprisonment  of  King  Ferdi- 
nand of  Spain  by  Napoleon.  The  formal  declaration 
of  independence  was  made,  9  July,  1816.  In  1853, 
after  the  country  liad  passed  through  the  ordeals  of 
several  civil  wars,  a  war  with  Brazil,  and  the  Rosas 
Dictatorship,  the  federal  Constitution  which  is  now 
in  force  (amended  in  1860)  was  framed  and  promul- 
gated. Since  then  the  Argentina  has  prospered  and 
developed  rapidly. 

Sources  of  We.^lth. — The  most  important  factors 
of  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public may  be  grouped  under  three  different  heads: 
agriculture  and  agricultural  industries,  cattle-raising 
and  its  cognate  occupations,  and  commerce.  The 
chief  agricultural  pursuits  are  the  cultivation  of 
wheat,  maize,  linseed,  alfalfa,  sugar  cane,  tobacco, 
and  grapes.     The  whole  area  of  cultivation,  in  1904, 


was  estimated  conservatively  at  7,500,000  hectares, 
or  18,750,000  acres  (Urien  and  Colombo,  "Geografta 
Argentina,"  Buenos  Ayres,  1905).  According  to 
official  information  of  1901,  the  area  of  cultivation 
of  the  different  products  was  as  follows: — 


Acres 

Acres 

Wheat 

8,449,372 

Tobacco 

131,740 

Maize 

3,638,365 

Sugar  cane 

115,000 

Alfalfa 

3,125,000 

Grapes 

110,825 

Linseed 

1,530,000 

The  agricultural  industries  are  chiefly  the  manu- 
facture of  flour,  sugar,  cigars,  wines,  spirits,  and  ales. 
The  exportation  of  flour  in  1901  represented  a  total 
of  71,742  tons,  estimated  at  82,711,208  in  gold. 
Cattle-raising  and  its  cognate  industries  constitute 
the  most  lucrative  business  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public. Nature  has  endowed  Argentina  with  ad- 
vantages for  agricultural  and  pastoral  farming 
hardly  to  be  found  in  any  other  country  of  the 
world. 


Foreign  Trade. — The  foreign  trade  of  the  Argentine  Republic  is  mainly  with  the  countries  enumerated 
in  the  following  table.     The  values  of  this  trade  are  given  in  gold. — 


Imports 

from 

Exports  to 

1904 

1905 

1904 

1905 

§64,517,103 

$68,391,043 

$36,445,139 

844,826,670 

17,109,716 

21,248,202 

30,596,559 

37,594,281 

24,926,278 

29,083,027 

29,522,112 

37,058,221 

9,069,123 

8,727,076 

17,566,034 

20,780,850 

24,473,877 

28,920,443 

10,214,989 

15,717,458 

19,127,902 

20,284,673 

4,344,952 

6,468,941 

6,032,973 

5,328,004 

10,427,012 

13,039,395 

Countries 

Great  Britain 

France 

Germany 

Belgium 

United  States 

Italy 

Brazil 

The  commercial  statistics  of  the  United  States  give  the  trade  with  Argentina  for  five  years,  as  follows 

1901  1902 

Imports  (to  U.  S.)  $8,065,318  .SU, 120,721 

Exports  (from U.S.)  11,537,668  9,801,804 

The  chief  imports  from  Argentina  into  the  United  States  in  1904  were  hides  and  skins,  $4,389,123;  the 
chief  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Argentina  were  agricultural  implements,  $4,996,476;  timber, 
$2,996,912,  and  mineral  oil.  81,868,957. 


1903 

1904 

1905 

$9,430,278 

$9,765,164 

$15,316,492 

11,437,570 

6,902,027 

23,564,056 

Shipping  and  Navig.\tion. — In  1902,  the  reg- 
istered shipping  consisted  of  101  steamers  of  38,770 
tons,  and  151  sailing  vessels  of  38,071  tons;  total, 
252  of  76,841  tons.  In  1904,  the  number  of  ocean- 
going vessels  which  entered  the  port  of  Buenos  Aires 
was  2,072  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  3,896,197 
tons,  as  against  1,842  of  3,461,208  tons  in  1903. 

I.  Public  St.\tus  of  the  Church. — Under  the 
second  article  of  the  federal  Constitution,  "  the 
Federal  Government  supports  the  Roman  Catholic 
Apostolic  Religion".  According  to  the  last  com- 
plete, official  national  census,  referred  to  above,  of 
every  thousand  inhabitants  of  the  country  there 
were  991  Catholics,  2  Jews,  and  7  Protestants  and 
dissenters  of  whatever  kind.  The  total  population 
(3,954,911)  is  distributed  as  follows:  native  Catholic 
population,  2,944,.397,  of  whom  1,449,793  are  male, 
and  1,494,604  female;  foreign  Catliolic  population, 
976,739,  divided  into  617.470  males,  and  359,269 
females.  The  total  Catholic  population  is  3,921,136. 
The  non-Catholic  population  included  26,750  Prot- 
estants, 6,085  Jews,  and  940  other  non-Catholics. 
Tlie  federal  congress  appropriates  every  year  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  money  to  as.sist  the  Church  in  meet- 
ing its  cx|)cnses.  For  the  fi.scal  year  of  1905  these 
appropriations  amounted  to  $857,420  in  the  na- 
tional currency.  Out  of  this  .sum,  8617,420  were 
Ket  aside  for  the  salaries  of  Churcli  functionaries  and 
eccle.sia.sties  of  all  kinds,  and  for  defraying  tlie 
necessary  expen.ses  of  Divine  worship.  The  balance 
(8240,000)  represented  "  subsidies "  to  certain  churches 
in  the  provinces. 


II.  Hierarchy. — The  Argentine  hierarchy  con- 
sists of  the  Archbisliop  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  the 
Bisliops  of  Cordoba,  La  Plata,  Parand,  San  Juan  de 
Cuyo,  Santa  F6,  Salta,  and  Tucumdn.  The  right  to 
appoint  a  bishop  belongs,  of  course,  to  the  Holy  See; 
but  the  federal  Senate  has  the  right,  when  a  vacancy 
occurs,  to  .send  three  names  to  the  President  of  the 
Union  for  transmission  to  Rome,  where  tlie  choice 
is  to  be  made,  if  made  at  all,  out  of  the  three  nominees. 
Each  cathedral  is  provided,  aceortling  to  Spanish 
usage,  with  a  chapter,  i.  e.  a  number  of  canons  and 
ecclesiastical  officials  appointed  by  the  Government 
upon  nomination  of  the  respective  bishops.  There 
is  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  in  each  diocese,  under 
the  control  of  the  bishop,  for  the  support  of  wliich 
an  appropriation  is  made  yearly.  The  Holy  See  is 
represented  at  Buenos  Aires  by  an  Apostolic  inter- 
nuncio, who  ranks  as  the  dean  of  the  diplomatic 
corps.  The  .Argentine  Nation  has  in  Rome  a  cliarg^ 
d'affaires.  Until  lately  the  representation  of  tlie 
Argentine  Republic  at  tlio  Pontifical  Court  was  en- 
trusted to  the  Argentine  representative  in  Paris. 
The  Catholic  .spirit  which  animated  the  framers 
of  the  federal  Constitution  is  forcibly  illustratcil  by 
the  provisions  of  article  76,  wliicli  requires  as  a 
condition  of  eligibility  for  the  position  of  President, 
or  Vice-President,  of  the  Union,  "to  belong  to  the 
Rom;in  Catholic  Apostolic  religion";  and  by  those 
contained  in  clauses  15  and  20,  article  67,  which 
respectively  empower  the  federal  Congress  "  to  pro- 
mote the  conversion  of  the  Indians  to  tlie  Catliolic 
religion ",  and  "  to  admit  into  the  territory  of  the 


ARGENTEXnL 


705 


AROENTRE 


Republic  other  religious  orders  additional  to  those 
now  in  existence".  Article  20  of  the  same  instru- 
ment grants  to  foreigners  the  right  of  freedom  of  wor- 
ship. The  right  of  approval  and  ratification  of 
concordats  and  agreements  with  the  Holy  See,  of 
nomination  for  the  ecclesiastical  positions  of  high 
rank,  and  of  allowing  or  refusing  promulgation  in  tlie 
Argentine  tcriitorj'  to  decrees  of  councils,  or  bulls, 
briefs,  and  rescripts  of  the  Supreme  Pontiff,  arc  re- 
spectively regulated  by  clause  19,  article  07,  and  by 
Clau.ses  8  and  9  of  article  86. 

111.  EccLESi.\STico-CiviL  Legislatiox. — Though 
this  country  is  Catholic,  civil  marriage,  lay  primary 
instruction,  and  purely  municipal  cemeteries  are 
among  its  institutions.  The  civil  marriage  law, 
which  was  passed,  2  Nov.,  1SS8,  ami  went  into  effect, 
1  Dec,  1889,  gives  validity  only  to  marriages  "sol- 
emnized before  the  public  officer  in  charge  of  the 
Civil  Register,  in  his  office,  in  public,  and  before  two 
witnes.ses"  (art.  .'J7).  The  ceremony  may  take 
place  at  the  residence  of  eitlier  the  groom  or  the 
bride,  but  four  witnes.ses  shall  tlien  be  required. 
The  registrar  is  forbidden  (art.  39)  to  prevent  the 
contracting  parties  from  seeking  to  have  "  their  union 
blessed"  immediately  afterwards  by  a  minister  of 
tlieir  religion.  Article  64  of  the  law  declares  that 
the  only  divorce  recognized  and  authorizeil  in  the 
.\rgcntinc  Nation  is  tiie  separation  o  mensd  el  toro, 
without  dissolution  of  the  bonil  of  marriage. 

1\'.  Chuuchk.s  of  Buexo.s  Aires. — The  cathedral 
of  Buenos  Aires  is  a  magnificent  edifice,  erected  on 
the  site  of  the  first  churdi  of  the  settlenient  built  by 
Don  Juan  de  Garay  in  lo80.  This  church  and  all 
the  others  thereafter  built,  depended  upon  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities  of  Paraguay  until  1620,  when 
Pope  Paul  V,  at  the  request  of  King  Philip  III  of 
Spain,  erected  the  Diocese  of  La  Plata  River.  The 
parochial  church  of  Buenos  Aires,  then  an  humble 
structure  of  mud  walls  and  thatched  roof,  was  turned 
into  a  cathedral,  and  put  in  charge  of  Fray  Pedro 
Carranza,  the  first  Argentine  bishop.  Such  repairs 
and  improvements  as  were  possible  at  that  time  were 
made  in  the  building,  and  it  was  solenmly  detlicatcil, 
26  June.  1622.  The  construction  of  the  present 
cathedral  began  in  1791.  It  was  built  on  the  same 
plan  as  most  of  the  Spanish  cathedrals,  and  attracts 
the  attention  of  visitors  on  account  of  the  beauty  of 
its  interior,  and  the  fine  tomb  of  General  San 
Martin,  erected  in  a  chapel  at  the  right  side  of  the 
main  biiildin^.  The  church  and  convent  of  La 
.Merced  are  almost  contemporarj-  with  the  founda- 
tion of  Buenos  Aires.  There  is  no  record  showing 
the  exact  ilate  of  their  construction,  but  there  is 
evidence  that  they  were  in  existence  in  1580,  when 
Juan  de  Garay  founded  in  their  immediate  neighbour- 
hoo(.l,  as  he  said,  the  hospital  which  he  called  Saint 
Martin.  L'ntil  1821  the  convent  was  the  home 
of  the  Fathers  of  Mercy.  The  church  is  now  one  of 
the  most  sumptuous  of  the  city  and  the  centre  of  a 
parish.  The  church  of  St.  Ignatius,  another  noted 
ornament  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  dates  from 
1722.  Its  construction,  begun  in  that  year,  was 
entrusted  to  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Andr(5s  Blanqui  and 
N.  Primoli,  who  brought  expert  architects  from 
Europe  for  that  purpo.se.  Many  rich  citizens,  among 
whom  Don  Juan  Antonio  Costa  was  distinguished  by 
his  liberality,  contributed  large  sums  for  tliis  work. 
This  church  was  the  home  of  the  Jesviits  at  Buenos 
Aires,  until  their  expulsion  from  the  Spanish  do- 
minions in  1767.  The  church  and  convent  of  St. 
Francis  are  still  the  home  of  the  most  ancient  re- 
ligious order  in  the  country;  there  is  evidence  that 
the  Franciscan  Fathers  had  come  to  that  part  of 
South  .\merica  prior  to  1580.  The  church  and  con- 
vent of  St.  Dominic,  still  occupied  by  the  Dominican 
Fathers,  are  also  worthy  of  mention.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  present  church  of  St.  Francis  was  begun 


in  1731.  The  comer-stone  of  the  church  of  St.  Domi- 
nic was  laid  in  1751.  The  convent  of  St.  Francis 
contains  a  rich  and  well  arranged  library  of  more 
than  7,IX)0  volumes,  free  to  all  on  application  to  the 
Fatlier  Superior.  One  of  the  remarlcable  churche." 
of  Buenos  Aires  is  the  church  of  the  Saviour  (El 
Saliatlur)  built  in  1872  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  bunied 
28  Feb.,  1875,  by  a  group  of  "liberals",  and  rebuilt 
in  1884.  .\ttacned  to  tlie  church  is  the  Jesuit 
college.  The  so-called  "Chapel  of  Mount  Carmel" 
(Capilla  del  Carmen),  favoured  by  the  higher  da-sses 
for  the  celebration  of  marriages,  and  ilie  chapel  of  ihe 
Passionist  Fathers  are  counted  among  the  attrac- 
tions of  the  city. 

V.  Education-,  Collegiate  and  Un'iveh.sity. — It 
is  well  known  that  the  Jesuits  were  the  pioneers  of 
progress  ami  public  instruction  in  all  the  vast  region 
which  extenils  on  both  .sides  of  the  River  Plate, 
where  thev  founded  schools  and  novitiates,  and 
propagateif  learning  iis  well  as  Christian  faith.  Their 
college  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  established  at  C6rdoba 
in  1611,  and  completed  in  1613,  soon  became  the 
Coletjio  Mdximo  of  the  Jesuit  province  of  La  Plata, 
which  embraced  what  is  to-day  the  Argentine  Nation 
and  Chile.  This  institution,  where  grammar,  Latin, 
philosopliy,  and  theology  were  taught,  and  whose 
first  rector  was  a  Jesuit,  Father  Alvir,  became,  a 
little  later,  the  Lfniversity  of  C6rdoba,  still  in  exist- 
ence, and  in  the  order  of  time,  the  second  university 
estal>lislied  in  South  America;  the  first  was  that  of 
San  Marcos  at  Lima  (1551).  Public  schooLs  in  the 
Argentine  Republic  as  in  the  United  States  are  ab- 
solutely .secular.  But  the  law  of  public  instruction 
provides  that,  "after  official  liours,  rehgious  instruc- 
tion (Catholic  or  otherwi.se)  may  be  given  to  the 
cliildren  who  voluntarily  remain  in  the  schools  for 
the  purpose  of  receiving  it.  This  religious  instruc- 
tion in  the  pubhc  schools  shall  be  given  only  by 
authorized  ministers  of  the  different  persuasions, 
before  or  after  school  hours". 

VI.  S.VXCTUARV     OF     Ll'JAN    .\N'D    ChRIST    OF    THE 

An'DE.s. — In  the  city  of  Lujiln,  about  two  hours  and 
a  half  by  rail  from  the  federal  capital,  is  the  cele- 
bratcil  shrine  of  Our  Lady  of  Lujdn,  since  16.'i0  a 
centre  of  inten.se  religious  fervour.  It  is  to  be  made 
part  of  tlie  monumental  basilica  of  Lujdn,  still  in 
the  process  of  construction.  When  finished  this  will 
be  one  of  the  most  imposing  buildings  of  its  kind 
in  Spanish  America.  How  closely  interwoven  the 
Catholic  faith  is  with  the  life  and  ideas  of  the  .Ar- 
gentine people  may  be  seen  by  the  monument  known 
as  El  Crixlo  de  los  Andes  (The  Christ  of  the  Andes), 
erected  on  the  summit  of  that  range,  chiefly  by  the 
efforts  of  an  .\rgentine  lady  and  Monsignor  Benevente, 
Bishop  of  San  Juan  de  Cuyo.  It  is  a  colo.ssal  .statue 
of  Our  Lord,  with  a  cross  in  His  left  hand,  and  the 
right  rai.sed  as  if  blc.ssing  tlie  world.  The  statue  is 
made  from  old  bronze  cannon  left  Ijy  the  Spaniards, 
and  is  the  work  of  a  native  .sculptor,  Mateo  Alonso. 
It  .stands  at  14,(XK)  feet  above  tlie  sea-level,  on  the 
line  which  divides  the  .Vrgcntine  Republic  from  Chile, 
and  commemorates  the  arbitration  by  both  nations 
of  the  bounilarj'  question  that  more  than  once  en- 
dangered their  mutual  peace. 

VII.  Nox-C.\THOLic  PopUL.\TioN. — Thc  small  non- 
Catholic  portion  of  thc  population  has  five  Protestant 
houses  of  worship,  as  follows:  one  Anglican  Episco- 
pal, one  Lutheran,  one  Methoihst  Epi.scopal,  one 
Scotch,  and  one  in  which  the  worship  varies  acconl- 
ing  to  the  time  of  day  in  which  it  is  offered.  The 
first  Protestant  cliurch  was  built  in   1829. 

Jose  Ignacio  RonmcuEZ. 

Argenteuil,  Holy  Coat  of.    See  Holy  Coat. 

Argentre,  Chahles  dv  Plessis  d',  b.  16  May,  1673; 
d.  17  October,  1740.  He  entered  the  seminarj'  of 
St.   Sulpicc  at    Paris,  and  studied  theology  at  th? 


ARGONAUTS 


706 


ARGYLL 


Sorbonne;  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1699,  and  was 
made  Doctor  of  Theology  in  1700.  He  held  succes- 
sively the  offices  of  Abb6  de  Sainte  Croix  de  Guin- 
gamp,  Dean  of  Laval,  Vicar-General  of  the  Bishop  of 
Tr6guier  (1707),  and  Royal  Almoner.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  Tulle  in  1723  and  distinguished  himself 
for  beneficence,  interest  in  ecclesiastical  studies,  and 
personal  exercise  of  the  ministry.  Among  his  writ- 
ings are  "Analyse  de  la  foi  divine"  (Paris,  1697); 
"Elementa  Theologica"  (Paris,  1702),  in  which  he 
rejects  Papal  Infallibility  but  defends  that  of  the 
Church  in  the  matter  of  the  condemned  Jansenist 
propositions;  "Lexicon  Philosophicum "  (Hague, 
1706),  a  treatise  on  the  difference  between  the  natural 
and  the  supernatural  order  (Paris,  1707),  "Explica- 
tion das  sacrements  de  I'^glise"  (Tulle,  1734),  and 
other  theological,  scriptural,  and  philosophical  works. 
He  edited  the  theological  works  of  Martin  Grandin 
(Paris,  1710-12)  and  added  several  theological  dis- 
sertations of  his  own,  among  them  one  on  Pope 
Honorius.  He  is  best  known  by  his  "CoUectio 
Judiciorum  de  novis  erroribus  qui  ab  initio  sa?c. 
Xn  [to  1735]  in  Ecclesia  proscripti  sunt  atque 
notati;  Censoria  etiam  judicia  academiarum ", 
3  vols.  (Paris,  1724-36).  This  valuable  collection 
contains  many  documents  relative  to  theological 
controversies  since  the  twelfth  century,  pontifical 
"acta,"  decisions  of  Roman  Congregations,  and  de- 
cisions of  famous  universities  (Oxford,  Paris,  Douai, 
Louvain,  principally  those  of  Paris).  The  latest 
document  quoted  is  dated  1723.  There  is  a  com- 
plete bibliography  of  his  French  and  Latin  works  in 
the  "Mfoioires  de  Tr^voux"  (1734),  I,  223-225. 
Oblet  in  Diet,  de  thiol,  calh.,  I,  1777. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 
Argonauts  of  St.  Nicholas.    See  Military  Or- 

DER.S. 

Argos,  a  titular  see  of  Peloponnesian  Greece,  from 
the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  century,  about  twenty  miles 
south-west  of  Corinth  (Gams,  pp.  430—131).  It  was 
considered  the  oldest  city  of  Greece  and  was  once  the 
head  of  the  Doric  League,  and  in  its  time  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  populous  of  the  Greek  cities.  Argos 
was  famous  in  Greek  antiquity  for  the  worship  of 
Hera  (Juno),  and  her  great  temple,  the  Hera?um 
(fully  excavated  in  1831),  was  considered  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  monuments  of  Greek  architecture. 
In  the  fifth  century,  B.  c,  the  city  was  also  famous 
for  its  temple  of  Apollo,  the  chief  Doric  sanctuary, 
and  as  the  seat  of  celebrated  schools  of  sculpture  and 
music,  especially  of  the  flute.  Its  medieval  history 
is  told  by  Carl  Hopf  (Chroniques  gri-co-romanes, 
Paris,  1873,  XXIX-XXX,  236-242),  and  by  Grego- 
rovius  (Gesch.  der  Stadt.  Athen.,  Stuttgart,  1889,  I, 
364,  and  II  pa-isirn).  In  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries  it  was  the  seat  of  a  diocese,  being 
then  hel<l  succes.sively  by  the  French  Dukes  of  Athens 
and  the  Byzantines;  in  1463  it  passed  under  Ottoman 
rule.     Its  present  population  is  about  10,020. 

I.KQUIKN,  Oriena  Christ.  (1740),  H,  183-180;  III,  897-902; 
Smith.  Did.  of  Greek  and  lioman  Geof/r.,  I,  202-200. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

ArglieUo,  Luis  Antonio,  Governor  of  California, 
b.  at  San  Francisco,  1784;  d.  there  in  1830.  His 
family  was  one  of  the  most  influential  and  distin- 
guished in  the  early  history  of  California.  His 
fatlier,  Don  Jos<5  Darfo  Argiiello,  was  acting  Gov- 
ernor of  California  in  1814-15,  and  Governor  of  Lower 
California  from  1815  to  1822.  In  August,  1806, 
Don  Liiis  succeeded  his  father  !is  Comandante  of 
California  witli  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  He  was 
captain  from  181S,  and  Governor  from  November, 
1822,  to  1825.  Don  Luis  was  the  only  Governor 
during  the  .Mexican  Empire,  and  the  first  native  of 
California  to  hold  that  office.  He  was  also  acting 
governor   under   the   provisional  government   which 


preceded  the  Mexican  Republic.  In  1821  he  con- 
ducted what  is  popularly  known  as  "Argiiello's 
expedition  to  the  Columbia,"  the  most  extensive 
exploration  of  the  North  Country  ever  made  by  the 
Spaniards  in  California.  He  was  hardly  le.ss  popular 
than  his  illustrious  father,  and,  though  in\-olved  at 
times  in  controversies,  he  has  left  a  reputation  for 
honesty,  ability,  and  kindness  of  heart. 

H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of  California,  II  and  III,  where 
nvzmerous  references  are  given.  Clinch,  California  and  its 
Missions,  II. 

Edward  Spillane. 

Argyll  and  the  Isles,  The  Diocese  of. — The 
Diocese  of  Argj-ll,  founded  about  1200,  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  Diocese  of  Dunkeld;  it  included  the 
western  part  of  Dunkeld,  beyond  the  Drumalban 
mountain  range,  together  with  the  Isle  of  Lismore, 
in  which  the  cathedral  was  erected.  The  first  bishop 
was  Harold,  chaplain  of  the  Bishop  of  Dunkeld, 
chosen  on  account  of  his  acquaintance  with  the 
Gaelic  tongue.  The  Diocese  of  the  Isles  included 
the  islands  off  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  formerly 
subject  to  Norway,  and  annexed  to  Jie  Scottish 
Crown  in  1206  under  James  I.  The  Archbishop  of 
Drontheim  continued  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over 
these  islands,  but  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century  the  Hebrides  were  ecclesiastically  separated 
from  the  Isle  of  Man,  wliich  was  subjected  to  the 
province  of  Canterbury  (and  later  to  York).  A  cen- 
tury and  a  half  afterwards  Alexander  VI,  at  the  re- 
quest of  King  James  IV,  united  the  See  of  the  Isles 
and  the  abbacy  of  lona,  which  were  henceforth  held 
by  the  same  person,  the  cathedral  of  the  newly- 
constituted  diocese  being  established  at  lona.  There 
were  thirty  pre-Reformation  Bishops  of  the  Isles, 
the  last  being  Roderick  Maclean,  who  died  in  1553. 
The  last  of  the  sixteen  Bishops  of  Argj'U  was  William 
Cunningham,  who  died  in  1552;  for  his  succes.sor, 
James  Hamilton,  seems  never  to  have  received  con- 
secration. Both  sees  thereafter  remained  vacant  for 
over  three  hundred  years,  until  4  March,  1878, 
Leo  XIII  re-erected  the  Scottish  hierarchy,  the  uni- 
ted diocese  of  Argyll  and  the  Isles  being  included 
among  the  revived  bishoprics.  The  present  diocese 
comprises  the  counties  of  Argyll  and  Inverness,  south 
of  a  line  drawn  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Loch 
Luing  to  the  junction  of  the  counties  of  Inverness, 
Aberdeen,  and  Banff;  also  the  islands  of  Arran  and 
Bute,  and  the  Hebrides.  The  actual  Bishop  (1906), 
the  second  since  the  restoration  of  the  hierarchy,  is 
the  Right  Rev.  George  Smith,  who  was  consecrated 
in  his  pro-cathedral  at  Oban,  in  1S93.  In  his  ex- 
tensive diocese  there  are  only  twenty-three  priests 
on  active  duty,  twenty-two  missions,  and  forty-five 
churches,  chapels,  and  stations.  The  only  religious 
communities  are  three  convents  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Sacred  Hearts.  There  are  seven  Catholic  day-schools, 
and  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  esti- 
mated at  between  12,000  and  13,000  souls.  It  has 
tended  to  diminish  rather  than  to  increase  in  recent 
times,  owing  to  tlic  drain  caused  by  emigration,  and 
also  to  the  depopulation  of  many  districts  of  the 
West  Higlilands,  ihie  to  the  turning  of  large  tracts  of 
land  by  the  proprietors  into  deer  forests.  There  are 
but  two  towns  of  any  size  or  importance  in  the  dio- 
cese, Oban  and  Rothesay;  and  the  only  access  to 
many  of  the  outlying  missions  is  by  sea.  By  a  sin- 
gular contrast,  the  wealthiest  Catholic  landowner  in 
the  kingdom,  the  .Marquis  of  Bute,  has  his  principal 
place  of  residence  (a  palatial  mansion  on  which  liis 
father  is  said  to  have  expended  upwards  of  a  million 
sterling),  in  what  is  probably  the  poorest  diocese  in 
the  British  Lsles. 

Gams,  Scries  rriiacoporum  Eccleaia  catholicae  (Ratisbon, 
1S7.1):  Brady,  The  Episcopal  Succession  (Rome,  1876); 
I''c>K[>iN,  Scolichronicon  (KdinburRh,  1759);  Gordon.  Scoti- 
thronicon    (Glasgow,    1867);   Keith,    Historical    Catalogue    of 


ARQYROPULOS 


707 


ARIANISM 


Ihe  Seottuh  BitKopt  (Edinburgh.  1824);  MOnch.  Chronieon 
Rtoum  Mannia  ft  Intularum  (Cliri.siiania,  1800);  Theineb, 
VeUra  Monummta  ticulorum  it  Utbernarum.  etc.  (Home.  1864). 

D.  O.  Hunter-Ul.mr. 

Argyropulos,  John,  Immunist,  and  translator  of 
.\ristotle,  b.  at  Constantinople,  1416;  <i.  at  Home 
about  1480.  It  is  certain  that  he  was  a  teacher  at 
Padua  in  14154,  although  it  is  not  clear  why  he  re- 
turned to  Constantinople  in  1441.  After  the  con- 
quest of  his  native  city  by  the  Turks  (14.W)  he  joined 
the  band  of  scholars  who  took  refuge  in  Italy.  In 
14.')t)  he  Wiis  .summoned  to  I'lorcncc  by  Cosimo  de' 
Metiici  for  the  [)urpose  of  leaching  (.\ristotelian) 
philosophy  and  instructing  the  youthful  I'lotro  and 
Lorenzo.  In  1471  a  plague  broke  out  in  Florence: 
this  was  the  occasion  of  his  leaving  Florence  for  Rome, 
where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV. 
There  he  continued  his  career  as  teacher,  havmg 
among  his  pupils  many  cardinals  and  bishops  and 
some  distinguished  foreigners,  such  as  Ueuchlin. 
He  died  at  Home;  the  year  of  his  death  is  uncer- 
tain, but  148t)  is  the  most  probable  date.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  contributed  most  to  the  revival 
of  Greek  learning  in  Italy,  .^fter  Manuel  Chryso- 
loras,  he  and  Ccorge  of  Trebizond  and  George 
Gemi'stius  had  the  largest  share  in  making  known 
to  Western  Europe  the  treasures  of  ancient  Greek 
literature.  Like  all  the  other  humanists,  he  was 
somewhat  intemperate  in  his  zeal  for  his  chosen 
subject.  In  his  desire  to  extol  the  excellence  of 
Greek  literature,  he  expre.ssed  his  contempt  for  the 
literature  of  ancient  Home;  he  was  especially  severe 
in  his  criticism  of  Cicero.  His  most  serviceable 
works  are  his  translations  of  many  of  Aristotle's 
works  (published  by  Aldo  Manucci,  l.'518-20)  and 
his  Commentaries  on  the  "Ethics"  and  the 
"Politics"  (published  l.'")41).  He  also  wrote  several 
theological  treatises,  including  one  on  the  "  Procession 
of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (P.  G.,CLVIII,  991  sqq.).  Many 
of  his  works  are  still  in  manuscript. 

TiRABOscHi.  Slorui  delta  Ulleraluru  italiana  (Horence.  180;>- 
13)  VI.  343,  sqq.;  Symonds,  Rcnamancf  in //<i/i/ (New  \orK, 
1883).  210;  Burkiiardt,  DU  CM,irderRenai»mnce  (4th  ed 
Leipzig,  1886).  I.  212  sqq.:  (tr.  London  SJS  7<1  1890). 
Pastor.  HUtory  of  the  Popes  Ur  2d  ed..  London  900).  1\  , 
440;  Giornale  Storuo,  XXVIIl,  92  sqq     and  -V->X1.  404. 

Arialdo,  Saint,  martyred  at  Milan  in  106.5.  for  his 
attempt  to  reform  the  simoniacal  and  immoral  clei^y 
of  that  city.  He  was  of  noble  extraction,  b.  at  Cutia- 
cum  near  Milan,  and  after  his  studies,  at  Laon 
and  Paris,  was  made  a  canon  in  the  cathedral  city. 
For  inveighing  against  abuses  he  was  excommuni- 
cated by  the  bishop  Ciuido,  but  was  immediately  re- 
instated by  Poi>e  .Stephen,  who  bade  him  continue 
the  work  of  reformation.  He  succeeded  m  having 
the  bishop  excommuniiated  because  of  h\B  repeated 
lapses  but  a  riot  ensued,  resulting  in  seriouB  injury 
to^Vrialdo.  Previously  an  attempt  had  been  made 
on  his  life  with  a  ptiisoned  sword.  Later,  when  on 
his  way  to  Home,  he  was  set  upon  by  the  emissaries 
of  Guido  and  slain.  Ten  months  after,  his  body  was 
found  in  Lago  Maggiore  in  a  perfect  state  of  preser- 
vation, and  emitting  a  sweet  odour.  It  was  carried 
with  great  pomp  to  .Milan,  and  exposed  in  the  church 
of  St  .\inbrosc  from  Ascension  to  Pentecost.  It  was 
subsequently  interred  in  the  church  of  St.  Celsiis, 
and  in  the  following  year,  1067,  Alexander  II  de- 
clared him  a  martyr. 

Ada  ss.  Junii.  VII.  T.  J.  Campbell. 

Arianism,  a  heresy  which  arose  in  the  fourth 
century,  and   denied   the   Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Doctrine.— First  among  the  doctrinal  disputes 
which  troubled  Christians  after  Constantine  had 
recognized  the  Church  in  a.  d.  313.  and  the  parent 
of  many  more  during  some  three  centuries,  Ananism 
occupies  a  large  place  in  ecclesiastical  historj-.  It  is 
not  a  modern  form  of  unbelief,  and  therefore  will 
I.— 46 


appear  strange  in  modern  eyes.     But  we  sliall  better 
grasp  its  meaning  if  we  term  it  an  Eastern  attempt 
to  rationalize  the  creed   by  stripping  it  of  mystery 
so  far  as  the  relation  of  Christ  to  God  Wiis  concerned. 
In    the    New   Testament    and    in   Church   teaching 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  ap|X!ars  !is  the  Son  of  God.     This 
name  He  took  to  Himself  (Matt.,  xi,  27;  John,  x,  36), 
while   the   Fourth   Gospel   declares   Him   to   be   the 
Word  (Logos),  Who  in  the  Ix-ginning  was  with  God 
and  w:us  God,  by  Whom  all   things  were  made.     A 
similar   doctrine' is   laid   down   by   St.   Paul,   in   his 
undoubtedly    genuine    Epistles    to    the    Ephesians, 
Colossians,"and  Philippians.     It  is  reiterated  in  the 
Letters   of   Ignatius,   and   accounts   for   Pliny's  ob- 
servation that  Christians  in  their  as.semblies  chanted 
a  hvmn  to  Christ  as  God.     Hut   the  question  how 
the  Son  was  related  to  the  Father  (Hiin.self  acknowl- 
edged on  all  hands  to  \je  the  one  Supreme  Deity), 
gave  rise,  between  the  years  a.  u.  60  and  JDO.  to  a 
numl^er    of    Theosophic    .systems,    called    generally 
Gnosticism,  and  having  for  their  authors  Hasilides, 
Valentinus,    Tatian,   and   other  Greek   speculators. 
Though  all  these  visited  Home,  they  had  no  follow- 
ing in  the  West,  which  remained  free  from  contro- 
versies of  an  abstract  nature,  and  was  faithful  to 
the  creed  of  its  baptism.     InlcUoctual  centres  were 
chiefly  .■Vlexandria  and  .^ntioch,  ICgyptian  or  Syrian, 
and  speculation  was  carried  on  in  Greek.     The  Homan 
Church  held  steadfastly  by  tradition.     Under  these 
circumstances,    when    Gnostic    schools    had    pas.sed 
away  with  their  "conjugations"  of  Divine  powers, 
and"  "emanations"   from  the  Supreme  unknowable 
God  (the  "Deep"  and  the  "Silence"),  all  speculation 
was  thrown  into  the  form  of  an  inquiry  touching 
the  "likeness"  of  the  Son  to  His  Father  and  the 
"sameness"  of  His  Essence.     Catholics  had  always 
maintained  that  Christ  was  truly  the  Son,  and  truly 
God.     They  worshipix>d  Him  with  divine  honours; 
they  would  never  consent  to  separate  Him,  in  idea 
or  reality,  from  the  Father,  Whose  Word,  Reason, 
Mind,  He  was,  and  in  Whose  Heart  He  abode  from 
eternity.     But  the  technical  terms  of  doctrine  were 
not   fully   defined;   and   even   in   Greek   words   like 
essence        (oiala),       substance      (imdaTaa-it)  ,     nature 
(<pvffts),  person  (Trpio-urroi')  bore  a    variety  of   mean- 
ings drawn  from  the  pre-Christian  sects  of  philoso- 
phers,  which  could   not   but   entail   misunderstand- 
ings until  they  were  cleared  up.     The  adaptation  of 
a  vocabulary  employed  by  Plato  and  Aristotle  to 
Christian  truth  was  a  matter  of  time;  it  could  not 
1)6  done  in  a  day;  and  when  accomplished  for  the 
Greek  it  had  to  \>e  undertaken  for  the  Latin,  which 
did   not   lend    itself    readily    to    subtle   yet    neces- 
.sary  distinctions.     That   disputes  should  spring  up 
even  among  the  orthodox  who  all  held  one  faith, 
was  inevitable.     And  of  these  wranglings  t he  rational- 
ist would  take  advantage  in  order  to  substitute  for 
the  ancient  creed  his  own  inventions.     The  drift  of 
all  he  advanced  was  this:  to  deny  that  in  any  true 
sense  God  could  have  a  Son;  as  Mohammed  tersely 
said    afterwards,    "God    neither    begets   nor    is    He 
l)egotten"  (Koran,  cxii).     We  have  learned  to  call 
that    denial    Unitarianism.     It    was    the    ultimate 
scoiie  of  Arian  opposition  to  what  Christians  had 
always  believed.     But  the  Arian.  though  he  did  not 
come  straight  down  from   the  Gnostic,   pursued  a 
line  of  argument  and  taught  a  view  which  the  specu- 
lations of  the  Gnostic  had  made  familiar.     He  de- 
scribed the  Son  .is  a  second,  or  inferior  God,  standing 
midway    lietween    the   First   Cause   and    creatuies: 
as  Himself  made  out  of  nothing,  yet  as  making  all 
things  el.'^e;  as  existing  l)cfore  the  worlds  or  the  ages; 
and  as  arrayed  in  all  divine  perfections  except  the 
one    which    was    their   stay   and    foundation.     God 
alone  w.-js  without  Ix-ginning.  unoriginate;  the  Son 
was  originated,  and  once  had  not  existed.     I'or  all 
that  has  an  origin  must  begin  to  be. 


ARIANISM 


708- 


ARIANISM 


Such  is  the  genuine  doctrine  of  Arius.  Using 
Greek  terms,  it  denies  that  tlie  Son  is  of  one  essence, 
nature,  or  substance  with  God;  He  is  not  consul> 
stantial  (itwovrtos)  with  the  Fatlier,  and  therefore 
not  like  Him,  or  equal  in  dignity,  or  co-eternal,  or 
within  the  real  sphere  of  Deity.  The  Logos  which 
St.  John  exalts  is  an  attribute.  Reason,  belonging 
to  the  Divine  nature,  not  a  person  distinct  from 
another,  and  therefore  is  a  Son  merely  in  figure  of 
speech.  These  consequences  follow  upon  the  prin- 
ciple which  Arius  maintains  in  his  letter  to  Euse- 
bius  of  Nicomedia,  that  the  Son  "is  no  part  of 
the  Ingenerate."  Hence  the  Arian  sectaries  who 
reasoned  logically  were  styled  Anomceans;  they 
said  that  the  Son  was  "unlike"  the  Father.  And 
they  defined  God  as  simply  the  Unoriginate.  They 
are  also  termed  Exucontians  {i^  ovk  bmuv),  because 
they  held  the  creation  of  the  Son  out  of  nothing. 

But  a  view  so  unlike  tradition  found  little  favour; 
it  required  softening  or  palliation,  even  at  the  cost 
of  logic;  and  the  school  which  supplanted  pure 
Arianism  from  an  early  date  affirmed  the  likeness, 
either  without  adjunct,  or  in  all  thing.s,  or  in  sub- 
stance, of  the  Son  to  the  Father,  while  denying  His 
co-equal  dignity  and  co-eternal  existence.  These 
men  of  the  Via  Media  were  named  Semi-Arians. 
They  approached,  in  strict  argument,  to  the  heretical 
extreme;  but  many  of  them  lield  the  orthodox  faith, 
howe\er  inconsistently;  their  difficulties  turned  upon 
language  or  local  prejudice,  and  no  small  number 
submitted  at  length  to  Catholic  teaching.  The 
Semi-Arians  attempted  for  years  to  invent  a  com- 
promise between  irreconcilable  views,  and  their 
shifting  creeds,  tumultuous  councils,  and  worldly 
devices  tell  us  how  mixed  and  motley  a  crowd  was 
collected  under  their  banner.  The  point  to  be  kept 
in  remembrance  is  that,  while  they  affirmed  the 
Word  of  God  to  be  everlasting,  they  imagined  Him 
as  having  become  the  Son  to  create  the  worlds 
and  redeem  mankind.  Among  the  ante-Nicene 
writers,  a  certain  ambiguity  of  expression  may  be 
detected,  outside  the  school  of  Alexandria,  touching 
this  last  head  of  doctrine.  While  Catholic  teachers 
held  the  Monarchia,  viz.  that  there  was  only  one 
God;  and  the  Trinity,  that  this  Absolute  One  existed 
in  three  distinct  subsistences;  and  the  Circuminses- 
sion,  that  Father,  Word,  and  Spirit  could  not  be 
separated,  in  fact  or  in  thought,  from  one  another; 
yet  an  opening  was  left  for  discussion  as  regarded 
the  term  "Son,"  and  the  period  of  His  "generation" 
{•^ivvqais).  Five  ante-Nicene  Fathers  are  especially 
quoted:  Athenagoras,  Tatian,  Theophilus  of  Antioch, 
Hippolytus,  and  Novatian,  whose  language  appears 
to  involve  a  peculiar  notion  of  the  Sonship,  as  though 
It  did  not  come  into  being  or  were  not  perfect  until 
the  dawn  of  creation.  To  these  may  be  added 
TertuUian  and  Methodius.  Cardinal  Newman  held 
that  their  view,  which  is  found  clearly  in  TertuUian, 
of  the  Son  existing  after  the  Word,  is  connected  as 
an  anto(redent  with  Arianism.  Petavius  construed 
the  same  expressions  in  a  reprehensible  sense;  but 
the  Anglican  Bishop  Bull  defended  them  as  orthodox, 
not  without  difficulty.  Even  if  metaiihorical,  such 
language  might  give  shelter  to  unfair  disputants; 
but  we  are  not  answerable  for  the  slips  of  teachers 
who  failed  to  perceive  all  the  consequences  of  doc- 
trinal truths  really  held  by  them.  From  these 
doubtful  theorizings  Rome  and  Alexandria  kept 
aloof.  Origcn  liimself,  who.se  unadvised  speculations 
were  charged  with  the  guilt  of  Arianism,  and  who 
employed  terms  like  "the  second  God,"  concerning 
the  Logos,  which  were  never  adopted  bv  the  Church — 
this  very  Origen  taught  the  eternal  Sonship  of  the 
Word,  and  was  not  a  Semi-Arian.  To  him  the 
Logos,  the  Son,  and  Jesus  of  Nazareth  were  one  ever- 
subsisting  Divine  Person,  begotten  of  the  Father, 
and,  in  this  way,  "subordinate"  to  the  soiirce  of 


His  being.  He  comes  forth  from  God  as  tlie  creative 
Word,  and  so  is  a  ministering  Agent,  or,  from  a  ditfer- 
ent  point  of  view,  is  the  First-born  of  creation. 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (260)  was  even  denounced 
at  Rome  for  calling  the  Son  a  work  or  creature  of 
God;  but  he  explained  himself  to  the  jiope  on  ortho- 
dox principles,  and  confessed  the  Homoousian 
Creed. 

History. — Paul  of  Samosata,  who  was  contem- 
porary with  Dionysius,  and  Bishop  of  Antioch,  may 
be  judged  the  true  ancestor  of  those  heresies  which 
relegated  Christ  beyond  the  Divine  sphere,  whatever 
epithets  of  deity  they  allowed  Him.  The  man  Jesus, 
said  Paul,  was  distinct  from  the  Logos,  and,  in 
Milton's  later  language,  by  merit  was  made  the  Son 
of  God.  The  Supreme  is  one  in  Person  as  in  Essence. 
Three  councils  held  at  Antioch  (264-268,  oi  269)  con- 
demned and  excommunicated  the  Samosatene.  But 
these  Fathers  would  not  accept  the  Homoousian 
formula,  dreading  lest  it  should  be  taken  to  signify 
one  material  or  abstract  substance,  according  to  the 
iLsage  of  the  heathen  philosophies.  Associated  with 
Paul,  and  for  years  cut  off  from  the  Catholic 
communion,  we  find  the  well-known  Lucian,  who 
edited  the  Septuagint  and  became  at  last  a  martyr. 
From  this  learned  man  the  school  of  .\ntioch  drew 
its  inspiration.  Eusebius  the  historian,  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  and  Arius  himself,  all  came  under  Lucian'a 
influence.  Not,  therefore,  to  Egypt  and  its  mystical 
teaching,  but  to  Syria,  where  Aristotle  flourished 
with  his  logic  and  its  tendency  to  Rationalism, 
should  we  look  for  the  home  of  an  aberration  which 
had  it  finally  triumphed,  would  have  anticipated 
Islam,  reducing  the  Eternal  Son  to  the  rank  of  a 
prophet,  and  thus  undoing  the  Christian  revelation. 

Arius,  a  Libyan  by  descent,  brought  up  at  Antioch 
and  a  school-fellow  of  Eusebius,  afterwards  Bishop 
of  Nicomedia,  took  part  (306)  in  the  obscure  Mele- 
tian  schism,  was  made  presbyter  of  the  church 
called  "  Baucalis,"  at  Alexandria,  and  opposed  the 
Sabellians.  themselves  committed  to  a  view  of 
the  Trinity  which  denied  all  real  distinctions  in 
the  Supreme.  Epiphanius  describes  the  heresiarch 
as  tall,  grave,  and  winning;  no  aspersion  on  his 
moral  character  has  been  sustained;  but  there  is 
some  possibility  of  personal  differences  having  led 
to  his  quarrel  with  the  patriarch  Alexander  whom, 
in  public  synod,  he  accused  of  teaching  that  the 
Son  was  identical  with  the  Father  (319).  The  actual 
circumstances  of  this  dispute  are  obscure;  but 
Alexander  condemned  Arius  in  a  great  assembly, 
and  the  latter  fountl  a  refuge  with  Eusebius,  the 
Church  historian  at  Caesarea.  Political  or  party 
motives  embittered  the  strife.  Many  bishops  of 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria  took  up  the  defence  of  their 
"  fellow- Lucianist,  "  as  Arius  did  not  hesitate  to  call 
liimself.  Synods  in  Palestine  and  Bithynia  were 
opposed  to  synods  in  Egypt,  During  several  years 
the  argument  ragctl;  but  when,  by  his  defeat  of 
Licinius  (324),  Constantine  became  master  of  the 
Roman  world,  he  determined  on  restoring  ecclesiasti- 
cal ortler  in  the  ICast,  as  already  in  tlie  West  he 
had  undertaken  to  put  down  the  Doi'.atists  at  the 
Council  of  Aries.     Arius,  in  a  letter  to  the  Nicomedian 

g relate,  had  boldly  rejected  the  Catholic  faith.  But 
onstantine.  tutored  by  this  worldly-mi ntletl  man, 
sent  from  Nicomedia  to  Alexander  a  famous  letter, 
in  which  he  treated  the  controversy  as  an  idle  dispute 
about  words  and  enlarged  on  the  blessings  of  peace. 
The  emperor,  we  should  call  to  mind,  was  only  a 
catechumen,  imperfectly  acquainted  with  Greek, 
much  more  incompetent  in  theology,  and  yet  am- 
bitious to  exercise  over  the  Catholic  Church  a  domin- 
ion resembling  that  which,  as  Pontifex  Maximus,  he 
wielded  over  the  |i:ig:in  worship.  From  this  Byzan- 
tine conccptiim  (l:ili('llcd  in  modern  times  ICrastian- 
isni)   we   must  ilcrive   the   calamities  whicli   during 


I 


ARIANISM 


709 


ARIANISM 


tnnny  liundreds  of  years  set  their  mark  on  the  de- 
velopment of  Christian  dogma.  Alexander  could 
not  give  way  in  a  matter  so  vitally  important. 
.'Vrius  and  his  supporters  would  not  yield.  .V  coun- 
cil was,  therefore,  assembled  at  Nica\i,  in  HithjTiia, 
which  has  ever  been  counted  the  first  (ecumenical, 
and  which  held  its  sittings  from  the  midtlle  of  June, 
32.5.     It  is  commonly  .said  that   Hosius  of  Cordova 

C resided.  The  Pope.  St.  Silvester,  was  represented 
y  his  legates,  and  ;j18  Fathers  attended,  almost 
all  from  the  Kast.  Unfortunately,  the  act-s  of  the 
Council  are  not  prosorvi'il.  The  emperor,  who  was 
present,  paid  religious  deference  to  a  gathering  which 
displayed  the  authority  of  Christian  teaching  in  a 
manner  so  remarkable.  Krom  the  first  it  was  evi- 
dent that  .\rius  cnul  1  not  reckon  upon  a  large  number 
of  patrons  among  the  bishops.  .Mexander  wa-s  ac- 
companied by  his  youthful  deacon,  the  ever-memora- 
ble .\thanasius  who  engaged  in  discussion  with 
the  heresiarch  himself,  and  from  that  moment  be- 
came the  leatier  of  the  Catholics  during  wellnigh 
fifty  years.  The  Fathers  appealed  to  tradition 
against  the  innovators,  and  were  pa-ssionately  ortho- 
dox; while  a  letter  wa.s  receiveti  from  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  declaring  openly  that  he  never  would 
allow  Christ  to  be  of  one  substance  with  God.  This 
avowal  suggested  a  means  of  discriminating  between 
true  believers  and  all  tlio.se  who,  under  that  pretext, 
did  not  hold  the  Faith  handed  down.  .\  creed  wa.s 
drawn  up  on  behalf  of  the  Arian  party  by  Ku.sebius 
of  C.'Bsarea  in  which  every  term  of  honour  and  dig- 
nity, except  the  oneness  of  substance,  was  attributetl 
to  Our  Lord.  Clearly,  then,  no  other  test  save  the 
Homoousian  would  prove  a  match  for  the  subtle 
ambiguities  of  language  that,  then  as  always,  were 
eagerly  adopteil  by  dissidents  from  the  niinil  of  the 
Church.  .A.  formula  had  been  discovered  which 
wouUi  .serve  as  a  test,  though  not  simply  to  be  found 
in  Scripture,  yet  summing  up  the  doctrine  of  St. 
John,  St.  Paul,  and  of  Christ  Himself,  "  I  and  the 
Father  are  one".  Heresy.  a.s  St.  Ambro.se  remarks, 
had  furnished  from  its  own  scabbard  a  weapon  to 
cut  off  its  head.  The  "consubstantial"  was  ac- 
cepted, only  thirteen  bishops  di.s.senting,  and  the.se 
were  speedily  n-duccd  to  seven.  Hosivis  drew  out 
the  conciliar  statements,  to  which  anathemas  were 
subjoineil  against  those  who  should  affirm  that  the 
Son  once  did  not  exist,  or  that  befo.e  He  was  be- 
gotten He  w.as  not,  or  that  He  was  made  out  of 
nothing,  or  that  He  was  of  a  different  substance  or 
essence  from  the  Father,  or  was  created  or  change- 
able. Every  bishop  made  this  declaration  except 
six,  of  whom  four  at  length  gave  way.  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia  withdrew  his  opposition  to  the  Nicene 
term,  but  woulil  not  sign  the  condemnation  of  .\rius. 
By  the  emperor,  who  considered  heresy  as  rebellion, 
the  alternative  proposed  was  subscription  or  banish- 
ment; and,  on  political  grounds,  the  Hishop  of 
Nicomedia  was  exiled  not  long  after  the  coimcil. 
involving  .\rius  in  his  ruin.  The  heresiarch  and  his 
followers  underwent  their  .sentence  in  Illyria. 

But  the.se  incidents,  which  might  seem  to  close 
the  chapter,  proved  a  beginning  of  strife,  and  led 
on  to  tne  most  complicated  proceedings  of  which 
we  read  in  the  fourth  century.  While  the  plain 
.\rian  creed  was  defended  by  few,  those  political 
prelates  who  side<l  with  Eu.sebius  carried  on  a  double 
warfare  against  the  term  "con.substantial",  and  its 
champion,  .Vthana.sius.  This  greatest  of  the  Eastern 
Fathers  had  succeeded  .Mexander  in  the  Egj-ptian 
patriarchate  (.326).  He  was  not  more  than  thirty 
years  of  age;  but  his  published  writings,  antecedent 
to  the  Council,  display,  in  thought  and  precision,  a 
mastery  of  the  issues  involved  which  no  Catholic 
teacher  could  surjia-ss.  His  unblemished  life,  con- 
siderate temper,  and  loyalty  to  his  frienils  made 
him  by  no  means  easy  to  attack.     But  the  wiles 


of  Eusebius,  who  in  328  recovered  Constantine's 
favour,  were  seconded  by  Asiatic  intrigues,  and  a 
period  of  .\rian  reaction  set  in.  Eustathius  of 
Antioch  was  deposed  on  a  charge  of  Sabellianism 
(331),  and  the  Emperor  sent  his  command  that 
Athansisius  should  receive  Arius  back  to  communion. 
The  saint  firmly  declined.  In  33-5  the  heresiarch 
was  absolved  by  two  councils,  at  Tyre  and  Jeru.salem, 
the  former  of  which  deposed  Athanasius  on  false  and 
shameful  grounds  of  personal  mi.-'conduct.  He  was 
banished  to  Trier,  and  his  sojourn  of  eighteen 
montlis  in  those  parts  cemented  Alexandria  more 
closely  to  Home  and  the  Catholic  West.  Mean- 
while, Con.stantia,  the  Emperor's  sister,  had  recom- 
mended .■\rius,  whom  she  thought  an  injured  man, 
to  Constantine's  leniency.  Her  dying  words  alTected 
him,  and  he  recalled  the  Libyan,  exacted  from  him 
a  solemn  adhesion  to  the  Xicene  faitli,  and  ordered 
Alexander,  Bishop  of  the  Imperial  City,  to  give  him 
Communion  in  his  own  church  (336).  Arius  openly 
triumphed;  but  as  he  went  about  in  parade,  the 
evening  before  this  event  was  to  take  place,  he  ex- 
pired from  a  sudden  disorder,  which  Catholics  could 
not  help  regarding  as  a  judgment  of  heaven,  due  to 
the  bishop's  prayers.  His  death,  however,  did  not 
stay  the  plague.  Constant ine  now  favoured  none 
but  Arians;  he  was  baptized  in  his  last  moments 
by   the   shifty   prelate   of   Nicomedia;    and   he   be- 

aueathed  to  his  three  sons  (337)  an  empire  torn  by 
issensions  w'hich  his  ignorance  and  weakness  had 
aggravated. 

Constantius,  who  nominally  governed  the  East, 
was  him.self  the  puppet  of  his  empress  and  the 
palace-ministers.  He  obeyed  the  Eusebian  faction; 
liis  spiritual  director,  Valens,  Bishop  of  Mursa,  did 
what  in  him  lay  to  infect  Italy  and  the  West  with 
.\rian  dogmas.  The  term  "like  in  substance", 
n omoiouxiim ,  which  had  been  employed  merely  to 
get  rid  of  the  Nicene  formula,  Ijecanie  a  watchword. 
But  as  many  as  fourteen  councils,  licld  between  341 
and  360,  in  which  everj'  shade  of  heretical  subterfuge 
found  expression,  bore  decisive  witness  to  the  need 
and  efficacy  of  the  Catholic  touchstone  which  they 
all  rejected.  About  .340,  an  Alexandrian  gathering 
had  defended  its  archbishop  in  an  epistle  to  Pope 
Julius.  On  the  death  of  Constantine,  and  by  the 
influence  of  that  emperor's  son  and  namesake,  he 
had  been  restored  to  his  people.  But  the  young 
prince  ptus-sed  away,  and  in  341  the  celebrated 
Ant iochene  Council  of  the  Dedication  a  second  time 
degraded  Athanasius,  who  now  took  refuge  in  Home. 
There  he  spent  three  years.  Gibbon  quotes  and 
adopts  "a  judicious  observation"  of  Wetstein  which 
deserves  to  be  kept  always  in  mind.  From  the 
fourth  centurj'  onwards,  remarks  the  German 
scholar,  when  the  Eastern  Churches  were  almost 
equally  divided  in  eloquence  and  ability  between 
contending  sections,  that  party  which  sought  to 
overcome  made  its  appearance  in  the  Vatican, 
cultivated  the  Papal  majesty,  conquered  and  estab- 
lished the  orthodox  creed  bv  the  help  of  the  Latin 
bishops.  Therefore  it  was  that  Athanasius  repaired 
to  Rome.  K  stranger,  Gregory,  usurped  his  place. 
The  Roman  Council  proclaimed  his  innocence.  In 
343.  Constans.  who  niled  over  the  West  from  Illyria 
to  Britain,  summone<l  the  bishojis  to  meet  at  Sardica 
in  Pannonia.  Ninety-four  Latin,  seventy  Greek  or 
Eastern,  prelates  began  the  debates;  but  they  could 
not  come  to  terms,  and  the  Asiatics  withdrew,  hold- 
ing a  separate  and  hostile  session  at  Philippopolis 
in  Thrace.  It  luis  been  justly  said  that  the  Council 
of  Sardica  reveals  the  first  symptoms  of  discord 
which,  later  on,  produced  the  unhappy  schism  of 
Eiist  and  West.  But  to  the  Latins  tliis  meeting, 
which  allowed  of  appeals  to  Pope  Julius,  or  the 
Roman  Church,  seemed  an  epilogue  which  com- 
pleted the  Nicene  legislation,  and  to  this  cfTect  it 


ARIANO 


no 


ARIANO 


was  quoted  by  Innocent  I  in  his  correspondence 
with  the  bishops  of  Africa. 

Having  won  over  Constans,  who  warmly  took  up 
his  cause,  the  invincible  Athanasius  received  from 
his  Oriental  and  Serai-Arian  sovereign  three  letters 
commanding,  and  at  length  entreating  his  return 
to  Alexandria  (349).  The  factious  bishops,  Ursacius 
and  Valens,  retracted  their  charges  against  him  in 
the  hands  of  Pope  Julius;  and  as  he  travelled  home, 
by  way  of  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  and  Syria,  the  crowd 
of  court-prelates  did  him  abject  homage.  These  men 
veered  with  every  wind.  Some,  like  Eusebius  of 
Caesarea,  held  a  Platonizing  doctrine  which  they 
would  not  give  up,  though  they  declined  the  Arian 
blasphemies.  But  many  were  time-servers,  indiffer- 
ent to  dogma.  And  a  new  party  had  arisen,  the 
strict  or  pious  Homoiousians,  not  friends  of  Athana- 
sius, nor  willing  to  subscribe  the  Nicene  terms,  yet 
slowly  drawing  nearer  to  the  true  creed  and  finally 
accepting  it.  In  the  councils  which  now  follow 
these  good  men  play  their  part.  However,  when 
Constans  died  (.350),  and  his  Semi-Arian  brother 
was  left  svipreme,  the  persecution  of  Athanasius  re- 
doubled in  violence.  By  a  series  of  intrigues  the 
Western  bishops  were  persuaded  to  cast  him  off 
at  Aries,  Milan,  Ariniinum.  It  was  concerning  this 
last  council  (359)  that  St.  Jerome  w-rote,  "the  whole 
world  groaned  and  marvelled  to  find  itself  Arian  ". 
For  the  Latin  bishops  were  driven  by  threats  and 
chicanery  to  sign  concessions  which  at  no  time 
represented  their  genuine  views.  Councils  were  so 
frequent  that  their  dates  are  still  matter  of  con- 
troversy. Personal  issues  disguised  the  dogmatic 
importance  of  a  struggle  which  had  gone  on  for 
thirty  years.  The  Pope  of  the  day,  Liberius,  brave 
at  first,  undoubtedly  orthodo.x,  but  torn  from  his 
see  and  banished  to  the  dreary  solitude  of  Thrace, 
signed  a  creed,  in  tone  Semi-Arian  (compiled  chiefly 
from  one  of  Sirmium),  renounced  Athanasius,  but 
made  a  stand  against  the  .so-called  "Homoean" 
formula;  of  Ariminum.  This  new  party  was  led 
by  Acacius  of  Cssarea,  an  aspiring  churchman  who 
maintained  that  he,  and  not  St.  C^Til  of  Jerusalem, 
was  metropolitan  over  Palestine.  The  Homoeans,  a 
sort  of  Protestants,  would  have  no  terms  employed 
which  were  not  found  in  Scripture,  and  thus  evaded 
signing  the  "Consubstantial  ".  A  more  extreme  set, 
the  "Anomceans  ",  followed  Aetius,  were  directed  by 
Eunomius.  held  meetings  at  Antioch  and  Sirmium, 
declared  the  Son  to  be  "unlike"  the  Father,  and 
made  tliemselves  powerful  in  the  last  years  of  Con- 
stantius  within  the  palace.  George  of  Cappadocia 
persecuted  the  Alexandrian  Catholics.  Athanasius 
retired  into  the  desert  among  the  solitaries.  Hosius 
had  been  compelled  by  torture  to  subscribe  a  fashion- 
able creed.  When  the  vacillating  Emperor  died 
(361),  Julian,  known  as  the  Apostate,  suffered  all  alike 
to  return  home  who  had  been  exiled  on  account  of 
religion.  A  momentous  gathering,  over  which  Athan- 
asius presided,  in  362,  at  Alexandria,  united  the 
orthodox  Semi-Arians  with  himself  and  the  West. 
Four  years  afterwards  fifty-nine  Macedonian,  i.  c. 
hitherto  anti-Nicene,  prelates  gave  in  their  submis- 
sion to  Pope  Liberius.  But  the  Emperor  Valens,  a 
fierce  heretic,  still  laid  the  Church  waste. 

However,  the  long  battle  was  now  turning  de- 
cidedly in  favour  of  Catholic  tradition.  Western 
bishops,  like  Hilary  of  Poitiers  and  Eusebius  of  Ver- 
cellx'  banislied  to  Asia  for  holding  the  Nicene  faith, 
were  acting  in  unison  with  St.  Basil,  the  two  St.  Gre- 
gories,  and  the  reconciled  Semi-Arians.  As  an  intel- 
lectual movement  the  heresy  hud  spent  its  force. 
Theodosiiis,  a  Spaniard  and  a  Catholic,  governed  the 
whole  Empire.  Athanasius  died  in  373;  but  his  cause 
triumphed  at  Constantinople,  long  an  Arian  city,  first 
by  the  preaching  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  then  in 
the  Second  General  Council  (381),  at  the  opening  of 


which  Meletius  of  Antioch  presided.  This  saintly  man 
had  been  estranged  from  the  Nicene  champions  during 
a  long  schism;  but  he  made  peace  with  Athanasius, 
and  now,  in  company  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
represented  a  moderate  influence  which  won  the 
day.  No  deputies  appeared  from  the  West.  Me- 
letius died  almost  immediately.  St.  Gregory  Na- 
zianzen  (q.  v.),  who  took  his  place,  verj'  soon  resigned. 
A  creed  embodying  the  Nicene  was  drawn  up  by 
St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  but  it-  is  not  the  one  that 
is  chanted  at  Mass,  the  latter  lieing  due,  it  is  said, 
to  St.  Epiphanius  and  the  Church  of  Jerusalem. 
The  Council  became  oecumenical  by  acceptance  of 
the  Pof)e  and  the  ever-orthodox  Westerns.  From 
this  moment  Arianism  in  all  its  forms  lost  its  place 
within  the  Empire.  Its  developments  among  the 
barbarians  were  political  rather  than  doctrinal. 
I'lphilas  (311-388),  who  traaslated  the  Scriptures 
into  Ma?so-Gothic,  taught  the  Goths  across  the 
Danube  an  Homoean  theology;  Arian  kingdoms 
arose  in  Spain,  Africa.  Italy.  The  Gepidae,  Heruh, 
Vandals,  Alans,  and  Lombards  received  a  system 
which  they  were  as  little  capable  of  understanding 
as  they  were  of  defending,  and  the  Catiiolic  bishops, 
the  monks,  the  sword  of  Clovis,  the  action  of  the 
Papacy,  made  an  end  of  it  before  the  eighth  century. 
In  the  form  which  it  took  under  Arius,  Eusebius 
of  Caesarea,  and  Eunomius,  it  has  never  been  revived. 
Individuals,  among  whom  are  Milton  and  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  were  perhaps  tainted  with  it.  But  the 
Socinian  tendency  out  of  which  L^nitarian  doctrines 
have  grown  owes  nothing  to  the  school  of  Antioch 
or  the  councils  which  opposed  Nicaea.  Neither  has 
any  Arian  leader  stood  forth  in  history  with  a  char- 
acter of  heroic  proportions.  In  the  whole  story  there 
is  but  a  single  hero — the  undaunted  Athanasius — 
whose  mind  was  equal  to  the  problems,  as  his  great 
spirit  to  the  vicissitudes,  of  a  question  on  which  the 
future  of  Christianity  depended. 

Eusebius,  Life  of  Constantine;  the  Church  historians, 
Socrates,  Sozomen,  Theodoret;  Philostorgius,  Frag- 
ments;  Epiphanius,  Heresiea;  Athanasius,  Polemical  Tracts; 
Basil,  Against  Eunomius,  and  On  the  Holy  Spirit;  Gheoory 
Nazianzen,  Orations;  Gregory  Nyssen,  Twelve  Books  against 
Eunomius,  and  On  the  Trinity  {all  the  preceding  are  in  Greek); 
Hilary  Pictav.,  On  Faith;  Against  Arians;  On  Hynods  (Lat.); 
Mansi,  Councils  (Lat.);  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  History 
(Lat.):  Petavius,  On  the  Trinity  (Lat.);  Bull  (.\nglican 
bishop),  Defensio  Fidei  Nieenoe  (Lat,  and  tr.  16S5);  Gibbo.n, 
Decline  and  Fall,  xxi.  xxii,  xxvii;  Mohler,  Athanasius  (Mainz, 
1844);  Newman,  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century;  Select  Treatises 
of  St.  Athanasius;  Tracts  Theological  and  Ecclesiastical;  De 
Regnon,  Etudes  .  .  .  sur  .'a  Sainte  Trinite  (Paris,  1898); 
GWATKIN,  Studies  on  Arianism  (London,  1900);  Harnack, 
History  of  Dogma,  II  (tr.);  Alzog,  Hist,  of  the  Church  (tr.). 
WiLLi.\M  Barry. 

Ariano,  The  Diocese  op,  is  in  the  Archdiocese  of 
Beneventum,  comprising  seven  towns  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Avellino,  four  in  that  of  Beneventum,  and 
one  in  the  province  of  Foggia.  Ariano,  a  very 
ancient  town  of  the  Hirpini,  is  built  on  the  hills, 
fifteen  miles  from  Beneventum.  Its  name  is  of 
pagan  origin:  Ora  Jani.  There  are  no  docimients 
that  fix  the  time  of  its  conversion  to  Christianity. 
Beneventum,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourtli 
century,  had  a  bishop,  and  the  Gospel  may  have 
leached  Ariano  from  that  city.  The  Bishop  of 
Beneventum  wiis  one  of  the  nineteen  prelates  who 
were  present  at  the  Synod  of  Rome,  held  in  the 
year  313.  (See  Routt,  Rehquiie  Sacra;,  III,  312,  and 
Harnack,  Die  Mission,  etc.,  501.)  Ariano  was  an 
episcopal  city  from  the  tenth  century  and  perhaps 
before  that  time.  We  find  it  firet  mentionen  in  the 
Bull  of  Pope  John  XIII  (905-972)  to  establish  the 
Archdiocese  of  Beneventum;  it  is  named  as  a  suf- 
fragan see.  The  first  bishop  known  to  have  occupied 
this  see  was  Menardus,  a  native,  not  of  Padua,  as 
Ughelli  believed,  but  of  Poitiers,  which  Vitale  has 
shown.  In  1070,  he  erected  in  his  cathedral  a  marble 
baptistery  on  the  walls  of  which  verses  were  inscribed. 


ARIAS 


711 


ARIBO 


In  fho  foUowinp  yoar  Monardus  was  at  tlip  conseora- 
tion  of  tlic  cliiircli  of  Moiito  Cassiiio  liy  Alexander  III. 
Tradition  lias  a  wholo  sorios  of  bishops  [irior  to  him 
as  is  proved  l>y  a  declaration  of  lOSO  made  in  favour 
of  the  monastery  of  St.  Sofia  in  Honevontum.  This 
diocese  contains  2.'j  parishes;  90  duirchcs,  chapels, 
and  oratories;  125  secular  priests;  30  seminarians; 
3 regular  priests;  2 lay-brothers;  32  religious  (women); 
22  confraternities;  3  girls'  schools  (95  pupils).  Pop- 
ulation 50,100. 

Uqhei.i.i.  Il.ilui  Sacra  (Venice.  17221.  VIII.  212:  C.tPPEl^ 
LCTTI,  /-«  cAiVm  dlliilm  (Vcnioc.  1860).  XIX,  117;  Gamb, 
Seriet  epitcoiiorum  ccWf»i<r  eiilhtilica:  (Katisbon,  1873\  8.  52; 
VlTALE,  Storia  detla  regia  cillti  di  Ariano  e  tua  Jiocrn  (Kome, 
1794).  „ 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Arias,  Fhancis,  writer  of  ascetical  treati.ses,  b.  at 
Seville  in  Spain.  1533;  d.  in  that  place,  15  May.  1605. 
He  was  received  into  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age 
of  twenty-six.  He  was  professor  of  scholastic 
theology  at  Cordova,  of  moral  theology  at  Tripueros, 
rector  of  the  college  in  the  latter  phice  and  also  at 
Cadiz.  His  works  are  "Spiritual  Profit",  "Treatise 
on  the  Rosary",  "Imitation  of  Our  Lady",  "Imita- 
tion of  Christ",  "Mental  Prayer",  "The  Use  of  the 
Sacraments",  "The  Promi.scs  of  God",  "The  Turpi- 
tude and  CJrievousncss  of  Sin".  Most  of  them  have 
been  translated  into  various  languages.  Ilis  life  cor- 
responded with  his  teachings.  He  was  held  in  the 
highest  esteem  by  the  great  master  of  the  spiritual 
life,  John  of  Avila,  and  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  in  the 
"Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life",  recommends 
the  perusal  of  his  works.  He  was  commonly  re- 
garded as  a  saint,  anil  was  remarkable  for  his  gift 
of  prayer  and  his  spirit  of  penance.  Much  of  his 
time  was  devoted  to  the  care  of  negroes,  Moors,  and 
the  inmates  of  hospitals  and  prisons.  From  his 
earliest  youth  his  predilection  for  spiritual  things 
manifested  itself;  his  career  as  a  student  in  Alcala 
was  brilliant,  and  while  a  secular  priest  he  laboured 
as  an  apostle  in  his  native  city  of  Seville.  At  his 
death  it  was  difficult  to  protect  his  body  from  the 
piety  of  the  people,  who  proclaimed  him  a  saint  and 
endeavoured  to  secure  parts  of  his  apparel  as  relics. 

Varonea  lliulrea,  VIII;  Sommervooel,  BMiolhequt  de  la 
c.  de  J.,  I,  540;  Michauu,  Biog.  Univ. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Arias  de  Avila,  Pedro  (also  known  as  Pedrarias 
Davila),  a  Spanish  knight  from  Segovia,  b.  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  centurj-;  d.  at  Leon,  1530. 
He  married  an  intimate  friend  of  Queen  Isabella 
(whence  probably  his  preferment)  and  saw  some 
service  in  Europe.  At  the  age  of  neariy  seventy  years 
he  was  made  commander  (1514)  of  the  largest  Span- 
ish expedition  hitherto  sent  to  America,  and  reached 
Santa  M^rta  in  Colombia  with  nineteen  vessels 
and  1,500  men.  Thence  he  went  to  Darien,  where 
the  discoverer  of  the  South  Sea.  Balboa,  governed. 
Pedrarias  superseded  him,  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
wedlock,  and  afterwards  had  him  jinlicially  mur- 
dered. (See  Balboa.)  In  1519  he  founded  the  city 
of  Panama.  He  was  a  party  to  the  original  agree- 
ment with  Pizarro  and  .\lmagro  which  brought  about 
the  discovery  of  Peru,  but  withdrew  (1526)  for  a 
small  compensation,  having  lost  confidence  in  the 
outcome.  In  the  same  year  he  was  supersetleil  as 
Governor  of  Panama  and  retired  to  Leon  in  Nica- 
ragua, where  he  tiied.  over  eighty  years  old.  He 
left  an  unenviable  record,  as  iv  man  of  unreUable 
character,  cnicl,  and  unscrupulous.  Through  his 
foundation  of  Panama,  however,  he  laid  the  basis 
for  the  discovery  of  South  .Vmerica's  west  coast  and 
the  subseiiuent  conquest  of  Peru. 

Enciho,  Suma  de  Gf,-araphla  (1.519.  1539,  1549);  OviEDO, 
Hiltorin  aenrnil  y  natural  dc  Intlim  (Madrid,  1850);  GoMARA, 
Historui  grnrral  de  I'ltltuluis  (}<{e\hn!iiie\Cnmpo  1553);  Peter 
Martyr  ab  .\noleria.  Knchirulum  de  inaulu  nuprr  rriwrtit 
rimuLiUiur  ineoUirum  morituj  lHa.«le.  1521 );  Dneumenloi  inMi- 
tos   de    Indian;    Herreha.    Hitloria   general  (Madrid,   2d   ed.. 


1726-9). — Every  book  on  Spanish  America  contains,  of  roume, 
at  lea^t  a  pawiinf;  notice  of  Aria..*  de  Avila. — Amonff  later  pub- 
lications see  A.SDAGOYA.  Relacuin  de  toa  Suceaoa  de  Pedrtiri/ia 
DiU'ibi  en  laa  Proyinci/ia  de  Tierra  Firme;  Navarrete.  ColecciAn 
de  toa  i-iajea  i/  deacuhrimimloa  (.Marlrid.  1825),  III.  The 
report  of  -AndaRova  has  been  translated  into  EnKlish  by 
.Markham  and  published  by  the  Ilakluyt  .Society  (Ix>ndon. 
18(V>)  unfler  the  title  Sarrative  of  Proeeedinga  of  Pedrarvia 
Davila.  \  fair  appreciation  of  the  character  of  Anas  de  Avila 
is  to  be  found  in  the  first  volume  of  PRE8(x>Tr,  Hiatory  of  the 


Conqueat  of  Peru. 


Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 


Arias  Montanus,  BENEniorrs,  Orientalist,  ex- 
egetist,  and  editor  of  the  ".\ntwerp  Polyglot  ",  b.  at 
Frejenal  de  la  Sierra  in  Estremadura.  .Spain,  1527; 
d.  at  Seville,  1.59.S.  Passing  through  the  schools  of 
Seville,  he  studied  theology  aiul  the  Oriental  languages 
at  Alcalii,  later  gaining  proficiency  in  the  various 
European  languages  by  means  of  extended  travel. 
He  became  a  clerical  member  of  the  Militarj-  Order 
of  .St.  James,  and  accompanied  the  Bishop  of  .Segovia 
to  the  Council  of  Trent  (1.562)  where  he  won  great 
distinction.  On  his  return  he  retired  to  a  hermitage 
at  .^racena  whence  he  was  summoned  by  Philip  II 
(1568)  to  supervise  a  new  jmlyglot  edition  of  the 
Bible,  witli  tne  collaboration  of  many  learned  men. 
The  work  was  issued  from  the  Plantin  press  (1572, 
8  volumes)  under  the  title  "  Biblia  sacra  he- 
braice.  chaldaice,  graece  et  latine.  Philippi  II  regis 
catholici  pietate  et  studio  ad  sacrosanctic  Ecclesiie 
usum",  several  volumes  l)eing  devoted  to  a  scholarly 
apparatus  bibticus.  Arias  was  responsible  for  a 
large  part  of  the  actual  matter,  besides  the  general 
superintendence,  and  in  obedience  to  the  command 
of  the  king,  took  the  work  to  Kome  for  the  approba- 
tion of  Gregory  XIII.  Leon  de  Castro,  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Salamanca,  to  who.se  transla- 
tion of  the  Vulgate  Arias  had  opposed  the  original 
Hebrew  text,  denounced  Ariius  to  the  Roman,  and 
later  to  the  Spanish  Inquisition  for  having  altered 
the  Biblical  text,  making  too  liberal  use  of  the  rab- 
binical writings,  in  disregard  of  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  concerning  the  authenticity  of  the 
Vulgate,  and  confirming  the  Jews  in  their  beliefs 
by  liis  Clialdaic  paraphrases.  .After  several  jour- 
neys to  Rome,  Arias  was  freed  of  the  charges  (1580) 
and  returned  to  his  hermitage,  refusing  the  episcopal 
honours  offered  him  by  the  King.  He  accepted 
however,  the  post  of  a  royal  chaplain,  but  was  only 
induced  to  leave  his  retirement  for  the  purpose  of 
superintending  the  Escorial  lilirarv'.  and  of  teaching 
Oriental  languages.  He  led  the  life  of  an  ascetic, 
dividing  his  time  l>etween  prayer  and  study.  In 
addition  to  the  works  written  in  connection  with 
the  Polyglot,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is  "Anti- 
quitatum  judaicarum  libri  IX"  (Leyden,  1.593), 
Arias  left  many  commentaries  on  various  books  of 
the  Bible;  also:  "  Humani  salutis  monumenta"  (Ant- 
werp, 1.571);  a  Latin  translation  of  the  "Itinerary' 
of  Benjamin  of  Tudela.  and  other  works  on  widely 
varying  subjects.  He  was  also  celebrated  as  a  poet 
his  "verses  being  chiefly  of  a  religious  nature. 

Ht'HTEK.  .\ommclator  (Inn.sbruck.  1892);  Guili.ereao  in 
Diet,  dc  la  Bible;  IIekele  in  KirchenUi;  Gorria,  Vie  d'Ariat 
Montana  (Brussels.  1842). 

F.    M.    RUDGE. 

Ariassus,  a  titular  see  of  Pamphylia  in  Asia 
Minor,  who.se  episcopal  list  (381— 4o8)  is  given  in 
Gams  (p.  4.50). 

I.EgriEN.  Orirna  Chriat.  (1740),  I,  162;  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Greek  ami  Kaman  (!c„ar..  I.  211. 

Aribert  of  Milan.     See  Heribeut  of  Milan. 

Aribo,  AKCHiiisHor  OF  Mainz,  date  of  birth  un- 
known; d.  6  .\pril.  1032;  son  of  Arbo,  Count  Palatine 
in  Laubcnthal.  and  .\dela,  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant churchmen  of  his  time.  Choosing  an  eccle- 
siastical career,  he  became  successively  deacon  in  the 
church  of  Salzburg,  and  chaplain  to  his  kinsman, 
the  Emperor,  Henry  II,  who  appointed  him  to  the 


ARINDELA 


712 


ARISTIDES 


Archbishopric  of  Main/..  His  con.secration  took 
place  1  October,  1021,  with  great  pomp.  The  fol- 
lowing  year  he  re\-ived  the  famous  Ganciensheim 
controversy  wliich  concernetl  the  rival  claims  of  the 
bishops  of  Hildesheim  and  the  archbishops  of 
Mainz  to  jurisdiction  over  the  convent  of  Gander.s- 
heim,  situated  on  the  boundary  between  the  two 
dioceses,  but  from  time  immemorial  subject  to 
Hildesheim.  Having  advanced  his  claims  without 
success  in  the  sjTiods  of  Frankfort  (1027)  and 
Pohlde  (1029),  Aribo  finall}'  renounced  them  in 
Merseburg  (1030),  admitting  his  error,  and  promising 
future  silence,  -\ribo  figured  prominently  in  the 
politics  of  the  time.  On  the  death  of  Henry  II, 
whicii  brought  the  male  hne  of  the  Saxon  emperors 
to  an  end,  the  spiritual  and  temporal  princes  of  the 
empire  assembled  to  elect  a  new  sovereign,  and  it 
was  Aribo's  candidate  who  was  chosen,  under  the 
title  of  Conrad  II,  and  was  anointed  by  him  in 
Mainz.  The  powerful  discourse  preached  on  this 
occasion  shows  the  d  ep  spirituality  of  Aribo's  na- 
ture. I'nder  Conrad  he  filled  the  office  of  chancellor 
for  Germany  and  Italy.  There  are  records  of  two 
journeys  toRome,  the  first  to  the  Lateran  Council 
(1027)  and  the  second  just  before  his  death. 
He  finished  the  convent  of  Goss  in  Styria  begim 
by  his  father  and  devoted  earnest  efforts  to  the 
rebuilding  and  decoration  of  the  cathedral  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  fire  in  1009.  It  was  Aribo 
who  obtained  for  the  archbishops  of  Mainz  the  right 
of  coinage.  His  internal  administration  of  the  dio- 
cese was  most  energetic  and  capable.  His  zeal  for 
the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  is  e\'idenced  by 
the  Council  of  Sehgenstadt  which  he  convened  in  the 
first  year  of  liis  episcopate  (August,  1022).  Later 
he  practically  reorganized  the  archdiocese.  His  in- 
terest in  education  prompted  him  to  summon 
Ekkehard  IV  of  St.  Gall  to  take  charge  of  the  schools 
of  Mainz.  His  own  intellectual  powers  were  of  no 
mean  order  as  is  manifested  by  Ills  taste  for  poetry 
and  his  own  treatise  on  "The  Fifteen  Gradual 
Psalms",  whence  he  is  termed  in  his  epitaph  suavis 
psalmigraphus.  Aribo's  contemporaries  unite  in 
praise  of  his  character — his  disinterestedness  and 
capability.  Despite  the  brusqueness  of  his  nature 
and  the  severity  of  his  disciphne,  he  enjoyed  the 
confidence  and  respect  of  his  suffragans.  His  moral 
character  has  been  proved  unimpeachable. 

Will  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.;  H.vticK,  Kg.  Deutschl.  Ill,  531; 
Mlller,  Erzbischof  Aribo  von  Maim  (Gottingen.  1881). 

F.  M.  RUDGE. 

Arindela,  a  titular  see  of  Palestine,  whose  episco- 
pal hst  (431-536)  is  given  in  Gams  (p.  454). 
Leqcien,   Orifna   Christ.  (1740),  III.  727-728. 

Ariosto,  LuDovico,  called  "The  Italian  Homer" 
the  son  of  Nicolo  Ariosto,  Governor  of  Reggio,  and 
Daria  Malaguzzi,  b.  at  Reggio  in  Emilia.  8  September, 
1474;  d.  at  Ferrara,  6  Jvme,  1533.  Ludovico  was  the 
eldest  of  ten  children,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
in  1500,  became  head  of  the  family.  When  nine  years 
of  age  he  composed  and  acted  in  the  fable  "Tisbe  ". 
He  gave  five  years  to  the  study  of  law,  and  when 
twenty  years  old  devoted  himself  to  Greek  and  Latin 
authors.  From  1503,  or  thereabouts,  he  was  at- 
tached to  the  court  of  Cardinal  Ippolito  d'Este,  but 
in  1518  he  fell  into  disfavour  witli  his  patron.  The 
Cardinal's  brother,  Duke  Alfonso,  then  employed 
Ariosto  in  various  diplomatic  missions,  in  which  he 
conducted  himself  with  tact  and  skill.  From  1.522 
to  1,525  he  governed  the  district  of  Garfagnana  and 
freed  it  from  the  robber-bands  which  had  infested  it. 
In  1.530,  perhaps,  he  married  a  Florentine  widow, 
Alessandra  Benucci.  Ariosto  WTote  .-iovnctti  and 
canzoni  in  the  style  of  Petrarch,  and  five  comedies, 
of  which  the  earliest,  "  Lu  Ca.ssaria  ".  wa.s  represented 
for  the  first  time  in  1.509,  and  the  latest,  "La  S<olas- 


tica  ",  was  completed  by  his  brother  Gabriel  on  the 
death  of  the  poet.  Of  more  importance  are  his 
seven  Satires  in  terza  riina,  and  extending  from  1517 
to  1531,  giving  much  information  on  his  own  life  and 
laying  bare  the  vices  of  the  time.  The  principal  foun- 
dation of  Ariosto's  glory  is  the  'Orlando  Furioso  ". 
Begun  about  1505,  it  was  published  in  Ferrara, 
21  April,  1516.  Ariosto  continued  to  correct  it, 
and  in  1532  published  the  second,  enlarged  and 
definitive,  edition.  The  poem  was  dedicated  to 
Cardinal  Ippolito.  .\t  first  reading  it  appears  to  be 
a  disconnected  patchwork  of  fragmentarj-  adven- 
tures following  upon  each  other  in  bewildering  vari- 
ety; but  on  close  analysis  it  lecon-.es  ajiparent  that  the 
episodes  are  spun  around  three  principal  incidents: 
Paris  besieged  by  the  Moors,  the  rage  of  Orlando, 
and,  as  the  central  subject,  the  love  and  marriage 
of  Ruggiero  and  Bradamante.  by  which  the  origin 
of  the  house  of  Este  is  accounted  for.  The  subject 
of  the  poem  is  expressed  in  the  opening  lines; — 
Le  donne,  i  cavalier,  I'arme,  gli  amori, 
Le  cortesie,  I'audaci  imprese  io  canto. 
It  is  the  glorification  of  chivalry-  in  all  its  elements, 
and  continues  and  completes  the  "Orlando  Inna- 
morato"  of  Boiardo,  which  had  appeared  in  1495, 
but,  though  the  "Innamorato"  is  its  foundation,  it 
far  surpasses  its  forerunner  in  perfection  of  style  and 
form,  variety  of  incident,  the  gay  and  brilliant  min- 
gling of  the  romantic  and  medieval  with  the  classical, 
and  the  artistic  interweaving  of  the  two  great  cycles 
of  Charlemagne  and  Arthur.  It  has  been  called  "  the 
most  beautiful,  and  varied,  and  wonderful  poem  of 
romances  that  the  literature  of  the  world  can  boast 
of"  (G.  Picciola). 

Ulissi  Guidi,  Annali  delle  edizioni  e  delh  vrrsioni  deW 
O.F.  e  d'altri  labori  at  poema  retotivi  (Bologna,  1801):  G.  J. 
Ferr.^zzi,  Bibliografia  Ariostesca  (Bassano.  1881);  Plo  Rajn.\, 
Le  Fonti  dell'  O.F.;  Jacob  Schcembs.  Ariosla  O.F.  in  der  m- 
glischen  Litteratur  des  Zeilallers  Elizabeth  (Soden,  1898). — The 
most  convenient  Italian  text  of  the  O.F.,  with  note.s.  is  that 
of  GlAclNTO  Casella  (Florence.  1897).  It  contains  .in  ad- 
mirable study  on  the  poem,  as  does  the  edition  de  tuje  (Milan, 
1881)  with  illustrations  by  Dor(5  and  preface  by  Carducci. 
Of  the  three  translations  of  the  poem  into  English,  by  Har- 
rington, Hoole,  and  W.  Stewart  Rose  (London,  1825\  the 
last  mentioned  reproduces  best  the  spirit  and  elegance  of  the 
original 

Joseph  Dunn. 

Aristeas,  a  name  given  in  Josephus  (Ant.  XII,  ii, 
passim)  to  the  author  of  a  letter  ascribing  the  Greek 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  to  six  interpreters 
sent  into  Egypt  from  Jerusalem  at  the  request  of 
the  librarian  of  Alexandria.  (See  Septu.\gint 
Version.) 

Aristides,  a  Christian  apologist  living  at  Athens 
in  the  second  century.  According  to  Eusebius,  the 
Emperor  Hadrian,  during  his  stay  in  Greece  (123- 
127),  caused  himself  to  be  initiated  into  the  Eleu- 
sinian  Mysteries.  A  persecution  of  the  local  Chris- 
tians followed,  due,  probably,  to  an  outburst  of 
pagan  zeal,  aroused  by  the  Emperor's  act.  Two 
apologies  for  Christianity  were  composed  on  the 
occasion,  that  of  Quadratvis  and  that  of  Aris- 
tides which  the  author  presented  to  Hadrian,  at 
Athens,  in  126  (Eus.,  H.  E.,  IV,  iii,  3,  and  Chron 
II,  166,  ed.  Schncne).  St.  Jerome,  in  his  work  De 
vir.  ill.,  XX,  calls  him  philosophii.s  elcqticTitisyimiis, 
and,  in  his  letter  to  Magnus  (no.  LXX).  says  of  the 
"Apologeticum"  that  it  was  contrxtum  phihsopho- 
Tum  sententiis,  and  was  later  imitated  by  St.  Justin 
Martyr.  Ho  says,  further  (De  vir  ill.,  loc.  cit.),  that 
the  "Apology"  was  extant  in  his  time,  and  highly 
thought  of.  Eusebius  (loc.  cit.),  in  the  fotirth  century, 
states  tliat  it  h.ad  a  wide  circulation  among  Christians. 
It  is  referred  to,  in  the  ninth  centun,',  by  Ado,  Arch- 
bishop of  Vienne,  and  Usuard,  monk  of  St.  Germain. 
It  was  then  lost  sight  of  for  a  thousand  years,  imtil, 
in  1878,  the  Mechitarite  monks  of  San  Lazzaro,  at 
Venice,  publi.shed  a  Latin  translation  of  an  .\rmenian 


AKISTOOLES 


713 


ARISTOTLE 


friiemeiit  of  the  "Apolo^"  and  an  Armenian  homily, 
under  tlie  title:  "S.  Aristidis  philosophi  Atheniensis 
sermones  duo."  In  18S9,  Professor  J.  K.  Harris  of 
Cambridge  discovered  a  Syriac  version  of  tlie  wliole 
"Apology"  in  the  Convent  of  St.  Catherine  on  Mt. 
Sinai,  and  translated  it  into  English  (Te.\t.s  and 
Studies,  Cambridge,  1.S91,  I,  i.).  Professor  J.  A.  Rob- 
inson found  that  llie  ".\pology"  is  contained  in  the 
"  Life  of  Uarlaam  and  Josaphat  ",  ascribed  to  St.  John 
Damascene.  Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  re- 
store the  actual  words  of  Aristides  (Henneeke, 
"Texte  u.  Untersuch.",  Leipzig,  189-1,  IV,  iii).  Aa 
to  the  date  and  occasion  of  the  "Apology"  there  are 
differences  of  opinion.  While  some  critics  hold,  with 
Eu.sebius,  that  it  was  presented  to  Hadrian,  others 
maintain  that  it  wiis  written  during  the  reign  of  An- 
toninus Pius  (i:iS-l()I).  The  aim  of  the"  .\pology '' 
is  to  show  tliat  Christians  only  have  the  true  con- 
ception of  (Jod.  Having  aflirmed  that  (jod  is  "the 
selfsame  being  who  first  established  and  now  con- 
trols the  universe",  Aristides  points  out  the  errors 
of  the  Chaldeans,  Creeks,  Egyptians,  and  Jews  con- 
cerning the  Deity,  gives  a  brief  summary  of  Christian 
belief,  and  emphasizes  the  righteo\isiiess  of  Christian 
life  in  contnust  with  the  corrupt  practices  of  paganism. 
The  tone  througfiout  is  elevated  and  calm,  and  the 
reasonableness  of  Christianity  is  shown  rather  by  an 
appeal  to  facts  llian  by  subtle  arguMieiitation.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  during  the  .Middle  .\ges  the 
"Life  of  Barlaam  and  Jo.sai)liat"  had  been  translated 
into  some  twenty  languages,  Englisli  included,  so 
that  what  was  in  reality  the  storj'  of  Buddha  became 
the  vehicle  of  Christian  truth  in  many  nations. 

.\n  lOriKlish  trurishiliDii  of  the  Avology  from  the  Greek 
and  the  tivrmc  te.vis  liv  K.iv,  Ank'-Nicene  FaUiers  (adilitional 
vol..  New  York,  l,S97i;  Doui.ckt,  Revue  de»  ouctliona 
hUtoriquet  (18.S0),  X-WIII;  lOKM,  Annates  de  nhil.  chr/limne 
(1881);  Idkm,  Bullrlin  crilique  (.\S»2);  H a i,i„ //pfcruirn  (1891 ); 
DUCHK.S.VK.  Bulletin  critique  (1891);  Lccah,  Munlh  (1891); 
jAcql'lER,  Univers  Calh.  (1891);  Stokk.s,  Cuntemp.  Review 
(July,  1891);  HiMPF.L  in  Kirc/i«fi/€X.  s.  v.;  Bareille  inDict. 
de  thiol,  calh.  8.  V.  Edward  A.  P.\ce. 

Aristocles  of  Messene.    See  Eclecticism. 

Aristoteleanism.     See  .\iiisroTLE. 

Aristotle,  the  t;rcatestof  heathen  philo.sophers, b.  at 
Sta^ira,  a  (irecian  colony  in  the  Tnraeian  peninsula 
Chalcidicc,  ^84  n.  c;  d.  at  Chalcis,  in  Eut)Oca,  322 
B.  c.  His  father,  Niconiachus,  was  court-phy.sician 
t<i  King  .\myntas  of  Macedonia.  This  position,  we 
have  reason  to  believe,  was  held  untler  various  pred- 
ecessors of  .\myntas  by  .Vristotle's  ancestors,  so  that 
the  profession  of  medicine  w:is  in  a  sense  hereditary 
in  the  family.  Whatever  early  training  .-Aristotle  re- 
ceived was  probably  influenced  by  this  circunist,ance; 
when,  therefore,  at  the  age  of  eighteen  he  went  to 
.Vthens  his  mind  was  idready  deterniined  in  the  di- 
rection which  it  aftcrwartis  took,  the  investig.ation 
of  natural  phenomena.  Prom  his  eighteenth  to  his 
thirty-seventh  year  he  remained  at  .\thens  as  pupil 
of  Plato  and  was,  we  are  told,  distinguished  among 
those  who  gatliercd  for  instruction  in  the  Grove  of 
.•\cademus,  adjoining  Plato's  hou.se.  The  relations 
between  the  renowned  teacher  and  his  illustrious 
pupil  have  formed  the  .subject  of  various  legends 
many  of  which  represent  .Vristotle  in  an  unfavour- 
able light.  No  d<iubt  there  were  divergencies  of 
opinion  between  the  master,  who  took  his  stand  on 
sublime,  idealistic  principles,  and  the  .scholar,  who, 
even  at  that  time,  showed  a  preference  for  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  facts  and  laws  of  the  physical 
world.  It  is  probable  that  Plato  did,  indeed,  declare 
that  .\rist^)tle  nee<led  the  curb  rather  than  the  spur; 
but  we  have  no  rea.son  to  believe  that  there  was  an 
open  breach  of  friendship.  In  f.act,  .Aristotle's  con- 
duct aft<^r  the  death  of  Plato,  his  continued  as.socia- 
tion  with  Xenocrates  and  other  Platonisfs,  and  his 
allusions  in  his  writings  to  Plato's  doctrines,  prove 
that  while  there  were  difTerences  of  opinion  between 


teacher  and  pupil,  there  was  no  lack  of  cordial  ap^ 
preciation,  or  of  that  mutual  forbearance  which  one 
W(i\ild  expect  from  men  of  lofty  character.  Besides 
this,  the  legends,  so  far  as  they  reflect  unfavour- 
ably on  .\ristotle,  are  traceable  to  the  Epicureans 
who  were  known  to  antiiiuity  as  calummators  by 
profession;  ami  if  such  legends  were  given  wide  cir- 
culation by  patristic  writers,  such  as  Justin  Martyr 
and  (iregory  Nazianzen,  the  reason  is  to  be  .sought 
not  in  any  well-grounded  historical  tradition,  but  in 
the  exaggerated  esteem  in  which  Aristotle  was  held 
by  the  heretics  of  the  early  Christian  period. 

After  the  death  of  Plato  (347  B.  c),  .Vristotle  went, 
in  company  with  Xenocrates.  to  the  court  of  Hermias, 
ruler  of  Atarneus  in  Asia  Minor,  whose  niece  and 
adopted  daughter,  Pythisus,  he  married.  In  341, 
Hermias  having  been  murdered  in  a  rebellion  of  his 
subject.s,  .\ristotle  went  with  his  family  to  Mytilene 
and  thence,  one  or  two  years  later,  he  was  summoned 
to  his  native  Stagira  by  King  Philip  of  Macedon,  to 
become  the  tutor  of  .Mcxander,  who  was  then  in  his 
thirteenth  year.  Whether  or  not  we  believe  Plutarch 
when  he  tells  us  that  .\ristotle  not  only  imparted  to 
the  future  worlil-conqueror  a  knowledge  of  ethics 
and  politics,  but  also  initiatcti  him  into  the  most 
profound   secrets   of   philosophy,    we   have   positive 

Croof,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  royal  pupil  profited 
y  contact  with  the  philosopher,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  te.acher  made  prudent  and  beneficial 
use  of  his  influence  over  the  mind  of  the  young  prince. 
It  was  due  to  this  influence  that  Alexander  ])laced  at 
the  dispos;il  of  his  teacher  ample  means  for  the  ac- 
quisition of  books  and  the  pursuit  of  his  scientific 
investigation;  and  history  is  not  wrong  in  tracing  to 
the  intercourse  with  Aristotle  those  singular  gifts  of 
mind  and  heart  which  almost  up  to  the  very  last 
distinguished  Alexander  among  the  few  who  have 
known  how  to  make  moderate  and  intelligent  use  of 
victory.  .About  the  year  335  .Alexander  departed 
for  his  .Asiatic  campaign;  thereupon  Aristotle,  who, 
.since  his  pupil's  accession  to  the  throne  of  Macedonia, 
had  occupied  the  [wsition  of  a  more  or  less  informal 
advi-scr,  returned  to  Athens  and  there  opened  a 
school  of  philosophy.  He  may.  as  Gellius  says,  have 
conducted  a  school  of  rhetoric  during  his  former 
residence  in  the  city;  but  now,  following  the  example 
of  Plato,  he  gave  regular  instruction  in  philo.sophy; 
choosing  for  that  purpose  a  gj-mn.Tsium  dedicated 
to  -AfKillo  Lyceios,  from  which  his  .school  has  come 
to  be  known  as  the  Lyceum.  It  was  also  called  the 
Peripatetic  School  becau.se  it  was  the  master's  cu.s- 
tom  to  discuss  i)roblenis  of  philo.sophy  with  his  pu- 
pils while  walking  up  an<t  down  (VepuroWu)  the 
shaded  walks  (irep(iroToi)  around  the  gj-mna-sium. 

During  the  thirteen  years  (33.')-322)  which  he 
spent  as  teacher  at  the  Lyceum,  .Aristotle  com|x)sed 
tne  greater  number  of  his  writings.  Imitating  the 
example  of  his  master,  he  placed  in  the  hands  of  his 
pupils  "Dialogues"  in  which  his  doctrines  were  ex- 
pounded in  somewhat  jxipular  language.  Besides, 
he  compo.scd  the  several  treatises  (of  which  mention 
will  be  made  below)  on  physics,  metaphysics,  and 
so  forth,  in  which  the  exposition  is  more  tlidactic 
and  the  language  more  technical  than  in  the  "Dia- 
logues". These  writings  .show  to  what  good  u.se  he 
put  the  means  placed  at  his  dis]K)sal  by  .Alexander; 
they  show  in  particular  how  he  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing together  the  works  of  his  predecessors  in  Circek 
philosophy,  and  how  he  spared  neither  pains  nor  ex- 
pense in  [lursuing,  cither  [x-rsonally  or  through  others. 
Ins  investigations  in  the  realm  of  natural  phenomena. 
When  we  read  the  works  treating  of  zoologj'  we  are 
quite  prepared  to  believe  Pliny's  statement  that 
.Alexander  placed  under  .Aristotle's  orders  all  the 
hunters,  fishermen,  and  fowlers  of  the  rov.al  kingdom, 
and  all  the  overseers  of  the  royal  forests, lakes,  jxjnds, 
and  cattle-ranges,  and  when  we  observe  how  fully 


ARISTOTLE 


714 


ABISTOTLE 


Aristotle  is  informed  concerning  the  doctrines  of 
those  wlio  preceded  hiiu,  we  are  prepared  to  accept 
Strabo's  assertion  that  he  was  the  first  who  accu- 
mulated a  great  library.  During  the  last  years  of 
Aristotle's  Ufe  the  relations  between  him  and  his 
former  royal  pupil  became  very  much  strained,  ow- 
ing to  the  disgrace  and  punishment  of  Callisthenes 
whom  he  had  recommended  to  the  King.  Never- 
theless, he  continued  to  be  regarded  at  Athens  as  a 
friend  of  Alexander  and  a  representative  of  the 
Macedonian  dominion.  Consequently,  when  Alex- 
ander's death  became  known  at  Athens,  and  the 
outbreak  occurred  which  led  to  the  Laraian  war, 
Aristotle  was  obliged  to  share  in  the  general  unpop- 
ularity of  the  Macedonians,  and  tlie  charge  of  im- 
piety, which  had  Ijeen  brouglit  against  Anaxagoras 
and  Socrates,  was  now,  with  even  less  reason,  brought 
against  him.  He  left  the  city,  sajdng  (according  to 
many  ancient  aiithorities)  that  he  would  not  give 
the  Athenians  a  chance  to  sin  a  third  time  against 
philosophy.  lie  took  up  his  residence  at  his  country 
house,  at  Chalcis,  in  Euboea,  and  there  he  died  the 
following  year,  322  B.  c.  His  death  was  due  to  a 
disease  from  which  he  had  long  suffered.  The  story 
that  his  death  was  due  to  hemlock  poisoning,  as  well 
as  the  legend,  according  to  which  ne  threw  himself 
into  tlie  sea  "  because  he  could  not  explain  tlie 
tides"  are  absolutely  without  historical  foundation. 

Very  little  is  known  about  Aristotle's  personal 
appearance  except  from  sources  manifestly  hostile. 
There  is  no  reason,  however,  to  doubt  the  faithful- 
ness of  the  statues  and  busts  coming  down  to  us, 
possibly  from  the  first  years  of  the  Peripatetic  School, 
which  represent  him  as  sharp  and  keen  of  counte- 
nance, and  somewhat  below  the  medium  height.  His 
character,  as  revealed  by  his  writings,  his  will  (which 
is  undoubtedly  genuine),  fragments  of  his  letters, 
and  the  allusions  of  his  unprejudiced  contemporaries, 
was  that  of  a  high-minded,  kind-hearted  man,  de- 
voted to  his  family  and  his  friends,  kind  to  his  slaves, 
fair  to  his  enemies  and  rivals,  grateful  towards  his 
benefactors — in  a  word,  an  embodiment  of  tliose 
moral  ideals  which  he  outlined  in  his  ethical  treat- 
ises, and  which  we  recognize  to  be  far  above  the 
concept  of  moral  excellence  current  in  his  day  and 
among  his  people.  When  Platonism  ceased  to  domi- 
nate the  world  of  Christian  speculation,  and  the 
works  of  the  Stagirite  began  to  be  studied  without 
fear  and  prejudice,  the  personality  of  Aristotle  ap- 
peared to  the  Christian  writers  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, as  it  had  to  the  unprejudiced  pagan  writers  of 
his  own  day,  calm,  majestic,  untroubled  by  passion, 
and  undimmed  by  any  great  moral  defects,  "the 
master  of  those  who  know". 

Philosophy. — Aristotle  defines  pliilosophy  in  terms 
of  essence,  saying  that  philosophy  is  "  the  science  of 
the  universal  essence  of  that  whicli  is  actual ".  Plato 
had  defined  it  as  the  "science  of  the  idea",  meaning 
by  idea  what  we  should  call  the  unconditional  basis 
of  phenomena.  Both  pupil  and  master  regard  phi- 
losophy as  concerned  with  the  universal;  the  former, 
however,  finds  the  universal  in  particular  things,  and 
calls  it  the  essence  of  things,  while  the  latter  finds 
that  the  univers,al  exists  npnrt  frnm  particular  things, 
and  is  related  to  them  as  tlicir  prototype  or  exemplar. 
For  .\ristotlc,  therefore,  philosophic  method  implies 
the  ascent  from  the  study  of  particular  phenomena 
to  the  knowledge  of  es.scnces,  wliile  for  Plato  philo- 
sophic metliod  means  tlie  descent  from  a  knowledge 
of  universal  icioas  to  a  contemplation  of  particular 
imitations  of  those  ideas.  In  a  certain  sen.se,  Aris- 
totle's method  is  both  inductive  and  deductive,  while 
Plato's  is  essentially  <leductive.  In  other  words,  for 
Plato's  tendency  to  idealize  the  world  of  reality  in 
the  light  of  intuition  of  a  higher  world,  Aristotle  sub- 
stituted the  scientific  tendency  to  examine  first  the 
phenomena  of  tlie  real  world  aroun  1  iiv  mikI  tliciice 


to  reason  to  a  knowledge  of  the  essences  and  laws 
which  no  intuition  can  reveal,  but  which  science  can 
prove  to  exist.  In  fact,  Aristotle's  notion  of  phi- 
losophy corresponds,  generally  speaking,  to  what  was 
later  understood  to  be  science,  as  distinct  from  phi- 
losophy. In  the  larger  sense  of  tlie  word,  he  makes 
philosophy  coextensive  with  science,  or  reasoning: 
"  All  science  (Siivoia)  is  either  practical,  poetical, 
or  theoretical."  By  practical  science  he  understands 
ethics  and  politics;  by  poetical,  he  means  the  study 
of  poetry  and  the  other  fine  arts;  while  by  theoretical 
philosophy  he  means  physics,  mathematics,  and  met- 
aphysics. The  last,  philosophy  in  the  stricter  sense, 
he  defines  as  "  the  knowledge  of  immaterial  being,  and 
calls  it  "first  philosophy",  "the  theologic  science", 
or  of  "  being  in  the  highest  degree  of  abstraction." 
If  logic,  or,  as  Aristotle  calls  it.  Analytic,  be  re- 
garded as  a  study  preliminary  to  philosophy,  we  have 
as  divisions  of  Aristotelean  philosophy  (I)  Logic; 
(II)  Theoretical  Philosophy,  including  Metaphysics, 
Physics,  Mathematics;  (III)  Practical  Philosophy; 
(IV)  Poetical  Philosophy. 

I.  Logic. — Aristotle's  logical  treatises,  constitut- 
ing what  was  later  called  the  "Organon",  contain 
the  first  systematic  treatment  of  the  laws  of  thought 
in  relation  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  They 
form,  in  fact,  the  first  attempt  to  reduce  logic  to  a 
science,  and  consequently  entitle  their  writer  to  be 
considered  the  foimder  of  logic.  They  are  six  in 
number  and  deal  respectively  with:  (1)  Classification 
of  Notions,  (2)  Judgments  and  Propo.sitions,  (3)  tlie 
Syllogism,  (4)  Demonstration,  (5)  the  Problematic 
Syllogism,  and  (6)  Fallacies,  thus  covering  practically 
the  entire  field  of  logical  doctrine.  In  the  first  treat- 
ise, the  "Categories",  Aristotle  gives  a  classification 
of  all  concepts,  or  notions,  according  to  the  classes 
into  which  the  things  represented  by  the  concepts, 
or  notions,  naturally  fall.  These  classes  are  sub- 
stance, quantity,  relation,  action,  passion  (not  to  be 
understood  as  meaning  merely  a  mental  or  psychic 
condition),  place,  time,  situation,  and  habit  (in  the 
sense  of  dress).  They  are  carefully  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Predicables,  namely,  genus,  spe- 
cies (definition),  difference,  property,  and  accident. 
The  latter  are,  indeed,  cla.s.ses  into  which  ideas  fall, 
but  only  in  so  far  as  one  idea  is  predicated  of  another. 
That  is  to  say,  while  the  Categories  are  primarily  a 
classification  of  modes  of  being,  and  secondarily  of 
notions  which  express  modes  of  being,  the  Predicables 
are  primarily  a  classification  of  modes  of  predication, 
and  secondarily  of  notions  or  ideas,  according  to  (he 
different  relation  in  which  one  idea,  as  predicate, 
stands  to  another  as  subject.  In  the  treatise  styled 
"Analytica  Priora",  Aristotle  treats  the  rules  of 
syllogistic  reasoning,  and  lays  down  the  principle  of 
induction.  In  the  "Analytica  Posteriora"  he  takes 
up  the  study  of  demonstration  and  of  indemonstra- 
ble first  principles.  Besides,  he  treats  of  knowleilge 
in  general,  its  origin,  process,  and  development  up 
to  the  stage  of  scientific  knowledge.  From  certain 
well-known  passages  in  this  treatise,  and  from  his 
other  writings,  we  are  enabled  to  sketch  his  theory 
of  knowledge.  As  was  remarked  above.  Aristotle 
anproaches  the  problems  of  pliilo.sojihy  in  a  scientific 
frame  of  mind.  He  makes  experience  to  be  the  true 
source  of  all  our  knowledij;(\  intellectual,  as  well  as 
.sensible.  "There  is  nothing  in  tlic  intellect  fliat  was 
not  first  in  the  senses"  is  a  fundamental  principle 
with  him,  as  it  was  later  on  witli  (lie  Schoolmen. 
All  knowledge  begins  with  scn.se-ex|)erience.  which, 
of  course,  has  for  its  object  the  concrete,  partimlar. 
changeable  phenomenon.  But  though  intellectual 
knowledge  begins  with  sense-experience,  it  does  not 
end  there,  for  it  has  for  its  object  the  abstract,  uni- 
versal, immutable  essence.  This  theory  of  cognition 
is,  so  far,  summed  up  in  the  principles:  Intellectual 
knowledge  is  essentially  dependent  on  sense-knowl- 


ARISTOTLE 


15 


AKISTOTLE 


eiige,  aiul  intelloctual  knowledge  is,  nevertheless, 
superior  to  sense-knowledge.  How,  then,  docs  the 
mind  pass  from  the  lower  knowledge  to  the  higher? 
How  can  the  knowledge  of  the  scnse-pcrccived  {al<r- 
dririv)  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  the  iiitclligihle 
(voTjri^)?  Aristotle's  answer  is,  that  the  mind  dis- 
covers the  intelligible  in  the  sense-perceived.  The 
minil  does  not,  as  Plato  imagined,  bring  out  of  a 
previous  existence  the  recollection  of  certain  ideas, 
of  which  it  is  reminiled  at  sight  of  the  phenomenon. 
It  brings  to  bear  on  the  phenomenon  a  power  pecul- 
iar to  the  mind,  by  virtue  of  which  it  renders  in- 
telligible e.s.sences  which  are  imperceptible  to  the 
sei\se.s,  because  hidden  under  the  non-essential  qual- 
ities. The  fact  is,  the  individual  substance  (first 
substance)  of  our  sense  experience — (/ii'.s  book,  /Ai.s- 
fable,  thin  house — hijs  certam  individuating  ciuahties 
(its  particular  size,  shape,  colour,  etc.)  which  dis- 
tinguish it  from  others  of  its  species,  and  which  alone 
are  perceived  by  the  senses.  Hut  in  the  same  sub- 
stance, there  is  umlerlj-ing  the  individuating  quali- 
ties, its  general  nature  (whereby  it  is  a  book,  a  table, 
a  house);  this  is  the  secoml  substance,  the  Essence, 
the  Universal,  the  Intelligible.  Now,  the  mind  is 
endowed  with  the  power  of  abstraction,  generaliza- 
tion, or  induction  (.Vristotle  is  not  very  dear  jis  to 
the  precise  nature  of  this  power)  by  which  it  removes, 
.so  to  speak,  the  veil  of  particularizing  qualities  and 
thus  brings  out,  or  leaves  revealed,  the  actually  in- 
telligible, or  universal,  element  in  things,  which  is 
the  object  of  intellectual  knowledge.  In  this  tlieory, 
intellectual  knowledge  is  developed  from  sense-knowl- 
edge in  so  far  as  that  process  may  be  called  a  de- 
velopment in  which  what  was  only  jiotentially  in- 
telligible is  rendered  actually  intelligible  by  the 
operation  of  the  active  intellect.  The  t'niversal  was 
in  re  before  the  human  mind  began  to  work,  but  it 
was  there  in  a  manner  only  potentially  because,  by 
reason  of  the  individuating  qualities  which  enveloped 
it,  it  W!us  only  potentially  intelligible.  Aristotle's 
theory  of  universals.  therefore,  is  that  (I)  The  Uni- 
versal does  not  exist  ajjart  from  the  particular,  as 
Plato  taught,  but  in  particular  things;  (2)  The  Uni- 
versal :us  such,  in  its  full-blown  intelligibility,  is  the 
work  of  the  mi.id,  and  exists  in  the  mind  alone, 
though  it  has  a  foundation  in  the  jxitentially  univer- 
sal e.ssence  which  exists  independently  of  the  mind 
and  outside  the  mind. 

II.  TiiEOHKTic.vL  Philosophy. —  (1)  Metaphysics. 
— Metaphysics,  or,  more  properly.  First  Philo.sophy, 
is  the  Science  of  Being  as  Being.  That  is  to  say, 
although  all  sciences  are  concerne<l  with  being,  the 
other  sciences  are  concerned  only  with  part  of  real- 
ity, while  this  science  contemplates  all  reality;  the 
other  sciences  seek  proximate  and  particular  causes, 
while  this  science  seeks  the  ultimate  ami  universal 
cau.ses;  the  other  sciences  study  being  in  its  lower 
determinations  (quantity,  motion,  etc.),  while  this 
science  studies  Bemg  as  such,  that  is.  in  its  highest 
determinations  (substance,  cause,  goodness,  etc.). 
The  mathematician  claims  that  a  certain  object 
comes  within  the  scope  of  his  science  if  it  is  circular, 
or  square,  or  in  any  other  way  endowed  with  quantity. 
Similarly,  the  |)hysicist  claims  for  his  .science  whatever 
is  endowed  with  motion.  For  the  metaphysician  it  is 
sufficient  that  the  object  in  question  be  a  being.  Like 
the  Inmian  -soul  or  (!od,  the  object  may  be  devoid  of 
quantity,  and  of  all  physical  motion;  yet  .so  long  as  it 
is  a  being,  it  comes  within  the  scope  of  metaphysics. 
The  principal  question,  then,  in  First  Philo.sophy  is: 
What  are  the  ultimate  principles  of  Being,  or  of  re- 
ality as  Being?  Here  .Aristotle  passes  in  review  the 
opinions  of  all  his  predece.s.sors  in  Greek  Philo.sophy, 
from  Thales  to  Plato,  showing  that  each  successive 
answer  to  the  question  just  quoted  was  somehow 
defective.  He  devotes  special  attention  to  the  Pla- 
tonic theory,  according  to  which  ideas  are  the  ul- 


timate principles  of  Being.  That  theory,  he  contends, 
was  introduced  to  explain  how  things  are,  and  how 
things  arc  known ;  in  ootli  respects,  it  is  inadequate. 
To  postulate  the  existence  of  ideas  apart  from  things 
is  merely  to  complicate  the  problem;  for,  unless  the 
ideas  have  some  definite  contact  with  things,  they 
cannot  explain  how  things  came  to  be,  or  how  they 
came  to  be  known  by  us.  Plato  docs  not  maintain 
in  a  definite,  scientihc  way  a  contact  between  ideas 
and  phenomena;  he  merely  takes  refuge  in  expres- 
sions, such  as  participation,  imitation,  which,  if  they 
are  anything  more  tiian  empty  metaphors,  imply  a 
contratliction.  In  a  word,  Aristotle  believes  that 
Plato,  by  constituting  ideas  in  a  world  separate  from 
the  world  of  phenomena,  precluded  the  possibility 
of  solving  by  means  of  ideas  the  problem  of  the 
ultimate  nature  of  reality.  What,  then,  are,  accord- 
ing to  Aristotle,  the  principles  of  Being?  In  the 
metaphy.sical  order,  the  highest  determinations  of 
Being  are  .\ctuality  (^rrtX^x"")  and  Potentiality 
(iivaiut).  The  former  is  perfection,  realization, 
fullness  of  Being;  the  latter  imi>erfection,  incomplete- 
ness, perfectibility.  The  former  is  the  determining, 
the  latter  the  determinable  principle.  Actuality  and 
potentiality  are  above  all  the  Categories;  they  are 
found  in  all  beings,  witli  the  exception  of  the  Sui)reme 
Cause,  in  Wlioni  there  is  no  imperfection,  and,  there- 
fore, no  potentiality.  He  is  all  actuality,  Actus 
Purus.  .\\\  other  beings  are  composed  of  actuality 
and  potentialitv,  a  dualism  which  is  a  general  meta- 
iihysical  formula  for  the  tlualism  of  matter  and  form, 
body  and  .soul,  substance  and  accitlent,  the  soul  ancl 
its  faculties,  passive  and  active  intellect.  In  the 
physical  order,  potentiality  and  actuahty  become 
Matter  and  Form.  To  these  are  to  be  added  the 
Agent  (Efficient  Cause)  and  the  End  (Final  Cause); 
but  as  the  efficiency  and  finality  are  to  be  reduced, 
in  ultimate  analysis,  to  Form,  we  have  in  the  phys- 
ical order  two  ultimate  principles  of  Being,  namely, 
Matter  and  Form.  The  four  generic  causes.  Material, 
Formal,  Elficient,  and  Final,  are  .seen  in  the  case, 
for  instance,  of  a  statue.  The  Material  Cause,  that 
nut  of  which  the  statue  is  made,  is  the  marble  or 
bronze.  The  Formal  Cause,  that  according  to  vhich 
the  statue  is  made,  is  the  idea  existing  in  the  first 
place  as  exemplar  in  the  mhid  of  the  sculptor,  and 
in  the  second  place  as  intrinsic,  determining  cause, 
embodied  in  the  matter.  The  F.tficient  Cau.se.  or 
Agent,  is  the  sculptor.  The  Final  Cause  is  that 
for  the  sake  of  which  (as,  for  instance,  the  price  paid 
the  sculptor,  the  desire  to  please  a  patron,  etc.)  the 
statue  is  made.  .Ml  these  are  true  causes  in  so  far 
as  the  effect  depends  on  them  either  for  its  existence 
or  for  the  mode  of  its  existence.  Pre-.Aristotelean 
philosopliv  either  failed  to  discriminate  between  the 
different  kinds  of  causes,  confounding  the  material 
with  the  ethcient  principle,  or  insisted  on  formal 
causes  alone  as  the  true  principles  of  Being,  or.  rec- 
ognizing that  there  is  a  principle  of  fin.ality,  hesitated 
to  apply  that  principle  to  the  details  of  the  cosmic 
process.  Aristotelean  philosophy,  by  discriminating 
oetween  the  different  generic  cau.ses  and  retaining, 
at  the  .same  time,  all  the  different  kinds  of  causes 
which  played  a  part  in  previous  systems,  marks  a 
true  development  in  metaphysical  speculation,  and 
.shows  itself  a  true  .synthesis  of  Ionian,  Eleatic,  So- 
cratic,  Pythagorean,  and  Platonic  philosophy.  A 
jMiint  which  sliould  be  emphasized  in  the  exix>sition 
of  this  portion  of  Aristotle's  philosophy  is  tlie  doc- 
trine that  all  action  consists  in  bringing  into  actual- 
ity what  was  somehow  potentially  contained  in  the 
material  on  which  the  agent  works.  This  is  true 
not  only  in  the  world  of  living  things,  in  which,  for 
example,  the  oak  is  jiotentially  contained  in  the  acorn, 
but  also  in  the  inanimate  world  in  which  heat,  for 
instance,  is  potentially  contained  in  water,  and  needs 
but  the  agency  of  fire  to  be  brought  out  into  actual- 


ARISTOTLS 


716 


ARISTOTLE 


ity.  Ex  nihiln  nihil  jit.  Tliis  is  the  principle  of  de- 
velopment in  Aristotle's  philosophy  which  is  so  much 
commented  on  in  relation  to  the  modern  notion  of 
evolution.  Mere  potentiality,  without  any  actuality 
or  realization — what  is  called  materia  prima — no- 
where exists  by  itself,  though  it  enters  into  the  com- 
IX)sition  of  all  things  except  the  Supreme  Cause.  It 
is  at  one  pole  of  reality.  He  is  at  the  other.  Both 
are  real.  Materia  prima  possesses  ■what  may  be 
called  the  most  attenuated  reality,  since  it  is  pure 
indeterminateness;  God  po.ssesses  the  highest  ami 
most  complete  reality,  since  He  is  in  the  highest 
grade  of  deterniinateness.  To  prove  that  there  is 
a  Supreme  Cause  is  one  of  the  tasks  of  metaphysics, 
the  Theologic  Science.  And  this  Aristotle  under- 
takes to  do  in  several  portions  of  his  work  on  First 
Philosophy.  In  the  "Physics"  he  adopts  and  im- 
proves on  Socrates's  teleological  argument,  the  major 
premise  of  which  is,  "  Whatever  exists  for  a  useful 
purpose  must  be  the  work  of  an  intelligence".  In 
the  same  treatise,  he  argues  that,  although  motion  is 
eternal,  there  cannot  be  an  infinite  series  of  movers 
and  of  things  moved,  that,  therefore,  there  must  be 
one,  the  first  in  the  series,  which  is  unmoved,  t4  rpw- 
Tor  Kimvv  anlvriTov — primum  movens  immobile.  In  the 
"  Metaphj'sics "  he  takes  the  stand  that  the  actual 
is  of  its  nature  antecedent  to  the  potential,  that, 
consequently,  before  all  matter,  and  all  composition 
of  matter  and  form,  of  potentiality  and  actuality, 
there  must  have  existed  a  Being  Who  is  pure  actu- 
ality, and  Whose  life  is  self-contemplative  thought 
(fiTjcris  voijfffws).  The  Supreme  Being  imparted 
movement  to  the  imiverse  by  moving  the  First 
Heaven;  the  movement,  however,  emanated  from 
the  First  Cause  as  desirable;  in  other  words,  the 
p'lrst  Heaven,  attracted  by  the  desirability  of  the 
Supreme  Being  "  as  the  soul  is  attracted  by  beauty", 
was  set  in  motion,  and  imparted  its  motion  to  the 
lower  spheres  and  thus,  ultimately,  to  our  terrestrial 
world.  According  to  tjiis  theory,  God  never  leaves 
the  eternal  repose  in  which  His  blessedness  consists. 
AVill  and  intellect  are  incompatible  with  the  eternal 
unchangeableness  of  His  being.  Since  matter,  mo- 
tion, and  time  are  eternal,  the  world  is  eternal.  Yet, 
it  is  caused.  The  manner  in  which  the  world  origi- 
nated is  not  defined  in  .Aristotle's  philosophy.  It 
seems  hazardous  to  say  that  he  taught  the  doctrine 
of  Creation.  This  much,  however,  may  safely  be 
said:  He  lays  down  principles  which,  if  carried  to 
their  logical  conclusion,  woukl  lead  to  the  doctrine 
that  the  world  was  made  out  of  nothing. 

(2)  Physics. — Physics  has  for  its  object  the  study 
of  "being  intrinsically  endowed  with  motion",  in 
other  words,  the  study  of  nature.  For  nature  differs 
from  art  in  this:  that  nature  is  essentially  self- 
determinant  from  within,  while  art  remains  exterior 
to  the  products  of  art.  In  its  self-determination, 
that  is  to  say  in  its  processes,  nature  follows  an  in- 
telligent and  intelligible  form,  "  Nature  is  always 
Btriving  for  the  best".  Movement  is  a  mode  of  being, 
namely,  the  condition  of  a  potential  being  actualizing 
itself.  There  are  three  kinds  of  movement,  quanti- 
tive  (increase  and  decrease),  qualitative  (alteration), 
and  spatial  (locomotion).  Space  is  neitlier  matter 
nor  form,  but  the  "first  and  unmoved  limit  of  the 
containing,  as  against  the  contained".  Time  is  the 
measure  of  the  succession  of  motion.  In  his  treat- 
ment of  the  notions  of  motion,  space,  and  time,  .Aris- 
totle refutes  the  I'.leatic  doctrine  that  real  motion, 
real  space,  and  real  siiccession  imply  contradictions. 
Following  ICnipcdocU's  .Aristotle,  al.so,  teaches  that 
all  terrestrial  Ixjilics  are  coini)o.sed  of  four  elements 
or  ra<lical  princi|ilcs,  namely:  fire,  air,  earth,  and 
water.  These  elements  determine  not  only  the  nat- 
ural warmtli  or  moisture  of  bodies,  but  also  their 
natural  motion,  upward  or  downward,  according  to 
the  prci«inilerance  of  air  or  earth.     Celestial  bodies 


are  not  constituted  bv  the  four  elements  but  by 
ether,  the  natural  motion  of  which  is  circular.  The 
Earth  is  the  centre  of  the  cosmic  system;  it  is  a  .spheri- 
cal, stationary  body,  and  around  it  revolve  the 
spheres  in  wliich  are  fixed  the  planets.  The  First 
Heaven,  which  plays  so  important  a  part  in  Aris- 
totle's general  cosmogonic  system,  is  the  heaven  of 
the  fixed  stars.  It  surrounds  all  the  other  spheres, 
and,  being  endowed  with  intelligence,  it  turned 
toward  the  Deity,  drawn,  as  it  were,  by  His  Desira- 
bility, and  it  thus  imparted  to  all  the  other  heavenly 
bodies  the  circular  motion  which  is  natural  to  them. 
These  doctrines,  as  well  as  the  general  concept  of 
nature  as  dominated  by  design  or  purpose,  came  to 
be  taken  for  granted  in  every  pliilosophy  of  nature, 
down  to  the  time  of  Newton  and  Galileo,  and  the 
birth  of  modern  physical  science. 

Psychology  in  Aristotle's  philosophy  is  treated  as 
a  branch  of  physical  science.  It  has  for  its  object  the 
study  of  the  soul,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  principle  of 
life.  Life  is  the  power  of  self-movement,  or  of  move- 
ment from  within.  Plants  and  animals,  since  they 
are  endowed  with  the  power  of  adaptation,  have 
souls,  and  the  human  soul  is  peculiar  only  in  this, 
that  to  the  vegetative  and  .sensitive  faculties,  which 
characterize  plant-life  and  animal  life  respectively, 
it  adds  the  rational  faculty — the  power  of  acquiring 
universal  and  intellectual  knowledge.  It  must  there- 
fore be  borne  in  mind  that  when  Aristotle  speaks 
of  the  soul  he  does  not  mean  merely  the  principle 
of  thought;  he  means  tlie  principle  of  life.  The  soul 
he  defines  as  the  form,  actualization,  or  realization, 
of  the  body,  "the  first  entelechy  of  the  organized 
body  possessing  the  power  of  life".  It  is  not  a  .sub- 
stance distinct  from  the  body,  as  Plato  taught,  but 
a  co-substantial  principle  with  the  body,  both  being 
united  to  form  the  composite  substance,  man.  The 
faculties  or  powers  of  the  soul  are  five-fold,  nutri- 
tive, sensitive,  appetitive,  locomotive,  and  rational. 
Sensation  is  defined  as  the  faculty  "by  which  we 
receive  the  forms  of  sensible  things  without  the  mat- 
ter, as  the  wax  receives  the  figure  of  the  seal  without 
the  metal  of  which  the  seal  is  composed".  It  is 
"a  movement  of  the  soul",  the  "form  without  the 
matter"  being  the  stimulus  which  calls  forth  that 
movement.  The  tuttos,  as  that  form  is  called,  while 
it  is  analogous  to  the  "effluxes"  about  which  the 
Atomists  spoke,  is  not  like  the  efflux,  a  diminished 
object,  but  a  mode  of  motion,  mediating  between 
the  object  and  the  faculty.  Aristotle  distinguishes 
between  the  five  external  senses  and  the  internal 
senses,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  Cen- 
tral sense  and  the  Imagination.  Intellect  {mii) 
differs  from  the  senses  in  that  it  is  concerned  with 
the  abstract  and  universal,  while  they  are  concerned 
with  the  concrete  and  particular.  The  natural  en- 
dowment of  intellect  is  not  actual  knowledge,  but 
merely  the  power  of  acquiring  knowledge.  The 
mind  "is  in  tne  beginning  without  ideas,  it  is  like  a 
smooth  tablet  on  which  nothing  is  written".  All 
our  knowledge,  therefore,  is  acquired  by  a  process 
of  elaboration  or  dcvelo]>nient  of  .sense-knowledge. 
In  this  process  the  intcllccl  exhibits  a  two-fold  pha.se, 
an  active  and  a  pas.sive.  Hence  it  is  customary  to 
speak  of  the  Active  and  Passive  Intellect,  tliimgh  it 
is  by  no  means  clear  what  Aristotle  meant  by  these 
concepts.  The  corruption  of  the  text  in  some  of  the 
most  critical  passages  of  the  work  "On  the  Soul", 
the  mixture  of  Stoic  panthei.sm,  in  the  explanation 
of  the  earlier  commentators,  not  to  speak  of  the  later 
addition  of  extraneous  elements  on  the  part  of  the 
Arabian,  Schola,stic,  and  modern  transcendentalist 
expounders  of  the  text,  have  rendered  it  impossible 
to  say  precisely  what  meaning  to  attach  to  the  terms 
Active  and  Passive  Intellect.  It  is  enough  to  re- 
mark here  that  (1)  according  to  the  Scliolastics, 
Aristotle  understood   both   Active  and   Passive  In- 


ARISTOTLE 


717 


ARISTOTLE 


tellect  to  be  parts,  or  phases,  of  the  individual  mind; 
(2)  accordinK  to  the  Arabians  ami  some  earlier  com- 
mentators, the  first  of  these,  perhaps,  being  Aristocles, 
fie  understood  the  Active  Intelleet  tti  be  a  divine 
Koinething,  or  at  least  something  transcending  the 
individual  mind;  (3)  accoriling  to  some  interpreters, 
the  Passive  Intellect  is  not  properly  an  intellectual 
faculty  at  all,  but  merely  the  aggregate  of  sensations 
out  of  which  ideas  are  made,  as  the  statue  is  made 
out  of  the  marble.  Krom  the  fact  that  the  soul  in 
its  intellectual  operations  attains  a  knowledge  of  the 
abstract  and  universal,  and  thus  transcends  matter 
and  material  conditions,  Aristotle  argues  that  it  is 
immaterial  and  inunortal.  The  will,  or  faculty  of 
choice,  is  free,  as  is  proved  by  the  recognized  volun- 
tariness of  virtue,  and  the  existence  of  reward  and 
punishment. 

(U)  Malhnnatics  was  recognized  by  .\ristotle  as  a 
division  of  philo.sophv.  co-orilina(e  wi(h  physics  and 
metaphysics,  and  is  defined  as  the  science  of  immov- 
able ueing.  That  is  to  say,  it  treats  of  quantitive 
being,  and  does  not,  like  physics,  confine  its  attention 
to  being  endowed  with  motion. 

III.  Practio.\l  Philo.soi'iiy. — This  includes  ethics 
and  politics.  The  starting-point  of  etliical  inquiry  is 
the  question:  In  what  docs  happiness  consist?  Aris- 
totle answers  that  man's  happiness  is  determined  by 
the  end  or  purpose  of  his  existence,  or  in  other  words, 
that  his  happmess  consists  in  the  "good  proper  to 
his  rational  nature".  For  man's  prerogative  is  rea- 
son. His  happiness,  therefore,  must  consist  in  living 
conformably  to  rea.son,  that  is,  in  living  a  life  of  virtue. 
Virtue  is  the  perfection  of  reason,  and  is  naturally 
two-fold,  according  as  we  consider  reason  in  relation 
to  the  lower  powers  (moral  virtue)  or  in  relation  to 
it.self  (intellectual,  or  tlieoretical,  virtue).  Moral 
virtue  is  defined  "  a  certain  habit  of  tiie  faculty  of 
choice,  consisting  in  a  mean  suital)le  to  our  nature, 
and  fixed  by  rea-son,  in  the  manner  in  which  pru- 
dent men  wnuld  fi.x  it".  It  is  of  the  nature  of  moral 
virtues,  tlicrefore,  to  avoid  all  excess  as  well  as  de- 
fect; ba.shfuliiess,  for  example,  is  as  much  opposed 
to  the  virtue  of  modesty  as  sliamelessne.ss  is.  The 
intellectual  virtues  (understanding,  science,  wisdom, 
art,  and  practical  wi.sdom)  are  perfections  of  reason 
it.self,  without  relation  to  the  lower  faculties.  It  is 
a  peculiarity  of  .\ristotle's  ethical  system  that  he 
places  the  intellectual  virtues  above  the  moral,  the 
theoretical  above  the  practical,  the  contemplative 
above  the  active,  the  dianoetical  above  the  ethical. 
.\n  important  constituent  of  happiness,  according  to 
.\ristotle,  is  friendship,  tlie  bond  between  the  indi- 
vitlual  and  the  .social  aggregation,  between  man  and 
tlie  State.  Man  is  essentially,  or  by  nature,  a 
"social  animal",  that  is  to  say,  he  cannot  attain 
complete  happiness  except  in  social  and  political  de- 
pendence on  his  fellow-man.  This  is  the  starting- 
jKiint  of  political  science.  That  the  State  is  not  ab- 
solute, as  Plato  tauglit,  that  there  is  no  ideal  State, 
but  that  our  knowledge  of  political  organization  is 
to  be  accjuireil  by  studying  anil  comparing  different 
constitutions  of  States,  that  the  l)est  form  of  govern- 
ment is  that  whicli  best  suits  the  cliaracter  of  the 
people — these  are  some  of  the  most  characteristic  of 
.\ristotle's  political  <loctrincs. 

IV.  PoETic.vi.  Philosophy. — Under  this  head  came 
.Aristotle's  tlicory  of  art  and  his  analysis  of  the  beau- 
tiful. When  .\ristotle  defines  the  purpose  of  art  to 
be  "  tlie  imitation  of  nature",  he  does  not  mean  that 
tlie  pla.stic  arts  and  poetry  should  merely  copy  nat- 
ural productions;  his  meaning  is  that  as  nature  em- 
bodies the  idea  .so  also  does  art,  but  in  a  higher  and 
more  perfect  fonn.  Hence  his  famous  saying  that 
fKietry  is  "  more  pliilosophical  and  elevatefl  than  his- 
tory". Hence  his  equally  famous  doctrine  that  the 
aim  of  art  is  the  calming,  purifying  {xiOapctt)  and 
ennobling  of  the  affections.     For  this  reason,  he  pre- 


fcTS  music  to  the  plastic  arts  becaiise  it  possesses  a 
higher  ethical  value.  .Aristotle's  conception  of 
beauty  is  vague  and  undefined.  At  one  time  he 
enumerates  order,  symmetrj',  and  limitation,  at  an- 
other time  merely  order  and  grandeur,  as  constitu- 
ents of  the  beautiful.  The.se  latter  qualities  he  finds 
especially  in  moral  beauty.  It  is  im|M)ssible  here  to 
give  an  estimate  of  .Vristotle's  pliilo.sophy  as  a  whole, 
or  to  trace  its  influence  on  subsequent  pliilosophical 
.systems.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  taken  as  a  system 
of  knowledge,  it  is  scientific  ratlier  than  metaphysi- 
cal; its  starting-point  is  observation  rather  than  in- 
tuition; and  its  aim,  to  find  tlic  ultimate  cause  of 
things  rather  than  to  determine  tlie  value  (ethical 
or  aesthetic)  of  things.  Its  infiueiice  extended,  and 
still  extends,  beyonii  the  realms  of  science  and  phi- 
losophy. Our  thoughts,  even  on  subjects  far  removed 
from  science  and  philosophy,  fall  naturally  into  the 
(lategiiries  aii<l  formulas  of  .Ari.stoteleani.sni,  and  (fteii 
find  expression  in  terms  which  Aristotle  invented, 
.so  that  "the  half-understood  words  of  .Aristotle  have 
become  laws  of  thought  to  other  ages". 

The  Aristotki.i:.\.\  School. — The  identity  of  the 
Aristotelean  School  was  preserved  from  the  time  of 
Aristotle's  death  tlown  to  tlie  third  century  of  the 
Christian  era  by  the  succession  of  •Srholarcha,  or 
official  heads  of  the  school.  The  first  of  the.se. 
Theophr.astus.  as  well  ius  his  immediate  sueces.sor 
Sfrato,  devoted  sjjccial  attention  to  developing  Aris- 
totle's physical  doctrines.  I'nder  their  ^idance, 
also,  the  .school  interested  itself  in  the  history  of 
philosophical  and  scientific  problems.  In  the  first 
century  n.  c.  .Andronicus  of  Rhodes  edited  Aristotle's 
works,  and  tliercuflcr  the  school  produced  the  most 
famous  of  its  commciitMt-ors,  .Aristoclc;  of  Messene 
and  Alexander  of  .Aphroilisias  (about  .\.  d.  200).  In 
the  third  century  the  work  of  commentating  was 
continued  by  the  Neo-Platonic  and  Eclectic  philos- 
ophers, the  most  famous  of  whom  was  Porphyry. 
In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  the  chief  commen- 
tators were  John  Philoponus  and  Simplicius,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  teaching  at  .Athens  when,  in  the 
year  .")29.  the  .Athenian  School  w.is  closed  by  order  of 
the  Kmperor  Justinian.  .After  the  close  of  the  .Athe- 
nian Scliool  the  exiled  philo.soiihcrs  found  temporary 
refuge  in  Persia.  There,  as  well  as  in  Armenia  and 
Syria,  the  works  of  Aristotle  were  translated  and 
explained.  Uranius.  David  the  .Armenian,  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  Schools  of  Nisibis  and  Kde.ssa,  and  final- 
ly Honain  ben  Isaac,  of  the  School  of  Bagdad,  were 
especially  active  as  translators  and  commentators. 
It  was  from  the  hust-named  school  that,  about  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the  Arabians,  who  un- 
der the  reign  of  the  .Aba.ssi(lcs.  experienced  a  literary 
revival  similar  to  that  of  Western  ICurope  under 
Charlemagne,  obtained  their  knowle<lge  of  .Aristotle's 
writings.  Meantime  there  hati  been  preserved  at 
Byzantium  a  more  or  less  intennittent  tratlition  of 
Aristotelean  learning,  which,  having  been  represented 
in  successive  centuries  by  Michael  P.sellus,  Photius, 
Arethas,  Niceta-s,  Johannes  Italus.  and  .Anna  Com- 
nena.  obtained  its  highest  dcvclopnient  in  the  twelfth 
century-,  through  the  inducnce  of  Michael  Kphesius. 
In  that  century  the  two  currents,  the  one  coming 
down  through  Persia,  Syria,  .Arabia,  and  Moorisli 
Spain,  and  the  other  from  -Athens  through  Constan- 
tinople, met  in  the  Christian  schools  of  Western 
Euroix>,  especially  in  the  I'niversily  of  Paris.  The 
Christian  writers  of  the  patristic  age  were,  with  few- 
exceptions.  Platonists,  who  regarded  .Aristotle  with 
suspicion,  anil  generally  underrated  him  :us  a  phi- 
losopher. The  exceptions  to  be  found  were  John  of 
Damascus,  who  in  his  "Source of  Science"  epitomizes 
.Aristotle's  "Categories"  and  "Metaphysics",  and 
Porphyry's  "Introduction";  Nemesius,  Bishop  of 
Eme.sa,  who  in  his  "Nature  of  Man"  follows  in  the 
footsteps  of  John  of  Damascus;  and  Boethius,  who 


ARIUS 


718 


ARIUS 


translated  several  of  Aristotle's  logical  treatises  into 
Latin.  These  translations  and  Porphyry's  "  Intro- 
duction" were  the  only  Aristotelean  works  known 
to  the  first  of  the  Schoolmen,  that  is  to  say,  to  the 
Christian  philosopliers  of  Western  Europe  from  the 
ninth  to  the  twelfth  century.  In  the  t%velfth  cen- 
tury the  .Arabian  tradition  and  the  Byzantine  tra- 
dition met  in  Paris,  the  metaphysical,  physical,  and 
ethical  works  of  .Aristotle  were  translated  partly  from 
the  .\rabian  and  partly  from  the  Greek  text,  and, 
after  a  brief  period  of  suspicion  and  hesitancy  on 
the  part  of  the  Church,  Aristotle's  philosopliy  was 
adopted  as  the  basis  of  a  rational  exposition  of  Chris- 
tian dogma.  The  suspicion  and  hesitation  were  due 
to  the  fact  that,  in  the  Arabian  text  and  its  com- 
mentaries, the  teaching  of  Aristotle  had  become  per- 
verted in  the  direction  of  materialism  and  pantheism. 
After  more  than  two  centuries  of  almost  universally 
unquestioned  triumph,  Aristotle  once  more  was  made 
the  subject  of  dispute  in  the  Christian  schools  of 
the  Renaissance  period,  the  reason  being  that  the 
Humanists,  like  the  Arabians,  empha-sized  those  ele- 
ments in  Aristotle's  teaching  that  were  irreconcilable 
with  Christian  doctrine.  With  the  advent  of  Des- 
cartes, and  the  shifting  of  the  centre  of  pliilosophical 
inquiry  from  the  external  world  to  the  internal, 
from  nature  to  mind,  Aristoteleanism,  as  an  actual 
system,  began  to  be  more  and  more  identified 
with  traditional  scholasticism,  and  was  not  studied 
apart  from  scholasticism  except  for  its  historic  in- 
terest. 

Writings. — It  is  customary  to  distinguish,  on  the 
authority  of  Gellius,  two  classes  of  Aristotelean  writ- 
ings: the  exoteric,  which  were  intended  for  the  gen- 
eral public,  and  the  acroatic,  which  were  intended 
merely  for  the  limited  circle  of  those  who  were  well 
versed  in  the  phraseology  and  modes  of  thought  of 
the  School.  To  the  former  class  belonged  the  "  Dia- 
logues", of  which  the  best  known  were  the  "Eude- 
mus",  three  books  on  "Philosophy",  four  books  "On 
Justice",  also  the  treatises  (not  in  dialogue  form) 
"On  the  Good",  and  "On  Ideas",  all  of  which  are 
unfortunately  lost.  Under  this  head  mention  should 
be  made  also  of  the  "Poems",  "Letters",  "Ora- 
tions", "Apology",  etc.,  which  were  at  one  time 
ascribed  to  Aristotle,  though  there  can  be  little  doubt 
of  their  spuriousness.  To  the  class  of  acroatic  writ- 
ings belong  all  the  extant  works  and  also  the  lost 
treatises,  avarotxal  (containing  .anatomical  charts), 
Trepl  ipvTuiv,  and  the  woKiriiai.  (a  collection  of  the 
different  political  constitutions  of  the  Greek  States; 
a  portion,  giving  the  Constitution  of  Athens,  was 
discovered  in  an  Egyptian  papyrus  and  published 
in  1891).  The  extant  works  may  be  arranged  in 
the  following  cla.sses,  with  tlie  Latin  titles  by  which 
they  are  generally  cited: 

Logical  Treatises:  These  were  known  to  the  By- 
zantine writers  as  the  "Organon",  including  (1)  "Cat- 
egoria;";  (2)  "De  Interpretatione";  (3)  "Analytica 
Priora";  (4)  "Analytica  Posteriora";  (5)  "Topica"; 
(6)  "  De  Sophisticis  Elenchis". 

Metaphysical  Treatises:  The  work  commonly  cited 
as  "Metaphysica"  or  "Metaphysics"  was  (or,  at 
least,  a  portion  of  it  was)  entitled  by  .\ristotle  "  First 
Philo.sophy"  (Tpdr-q  0iXoi7o0/a).  "The  title  iMeri.  to 
(pvaixi  was  first  given  it  by  .-Vndronicus  of  Rhodes, 
in  whose  coUeclion,  or  edition,  of  Ari.stotle'.s  works 
it  was  placed  after  the  physical  treatises. 

Physical  Treatises:  (1)  "Physica",  or  "Physica 
Auscultatio",  commonly  called  Physics;  (2)  "De 
CorIo";   CA)  "  Meteorologica". 

Biologiral  and  Zoological  Treatises:  (1)  "Hi.storia; 
Anim.aliimi";  (2)  "  De  Generatione  et  Corruptione " ; 
(3)  "De  Generatione  .\nimalium";  (4)  "De  Partibus 
Animalium". 

Psychological  and  Anthropological  Treatises: 
(1 )  "  De  Anfmil " :  (21  "  De  ^ensu  et  Sensibili " ;  (31  "  Do 


Memoria  et  Reminiscentia";  (4)  "  De  Vitd  et  Morte"; 
(5)  "  De  Longitudine  et  Brevitate  vitae". 

Ethical  and  Political  Treatises:  (1)  "  Ethica  Nico- 
machea";  (2)  "  Politica  ".  The  "Eudemian  Ethics" 
and  the  "  Magna  moralia "  are  not  of  directly  .Aris- 
totelean authorship. 

Poetical  and  Rhetorical  Treatises:  (1)  "De  Poet- 
\ck";  (2)  "De  Rhetorica";  both  of  these  are  genuine 
only  in  parts. 

Of  the  extant  works  some  were  written  in  their 
present  form  and  were  intended  for  finished  scien- 
tific expositions.  Others,  though  written  by  Aris- 
totle, were  intended  merely  for  lecture  notes,  to  be 
filled  out  in  oral  teaching.  Others,  finally,  are  noth- 
ing but  the  notes  jotted  down  by  his  pupils,  and 
were  never  retouched  by  the  m.aster.  This  consid- 
eration, it  is  obvious,  leads  the  student  of  Aristotle 
to  attach  very  different  values  to  different  parts  of 
the  text;  no  one,  for  example,  would  think  of  at- 
taching to  a  citation  from  tlie  First  Book  of  the 
"  Metaphy.sics "  the  same  vahie  as  to  a  quotation 
from  the  Second  Book.  According  to  a  well-known 
story,  first  told  by  Strabo  and  repeated  by  Plutarch 
and  Suidas,  Aristotle's  library,  including  the  manu- 
scripts of  his  own  works,  was  willed  by  him  to 
Theophrastus,  his  successor  as  head  of  the  Peripa- 
tetic School.  By  Theophrastus  it  was  bequeathed 
to  his  heir,  Neleus  of  Scepsis,  .\fter  Neleus's  death 
the  manuscripts  were  liidden  in  a  cellar  or  pit  in  order 
to  avoid  confiscation  at  the  hands  of  royal  book- 
collectors,  and  there  they  remained  for  almost  two 
centuries,  vintil  in  Sulla's  time  they  were  discovered 
and  brought  to  Rome.  At  Rome  they  were  copied 
by  a  grammarian  named  Tyrannion  and  edited  (about 
70  B.  c.)  by  Andronicus  of  Rhodes.  The  substance 
of  this  story  may  be  regarded  as  true;  the  inference, 
however,  that  during  all  that  time  there  was  no 
copy  of  Aristotle's  writings  available,  is  not  war- 
ranted by  the  facts.  It  is  not  implied  in  Strabo's 
narrative,  nor  is  it  in  itself  probable.  One  or  two 
books  may  have  been  lost  to  the  School  until  An- 
dronicus's  edition  appeared;  but  the  same  cannot  be 
true  of  the  whole  Corpus  Aristotelictim.  Androni- 
cus's  edition  remained  in  use  in  the  Peripatetic 
School  during  the  first  few  centuries  of  our  era.  For 
the  various  translations  of  the  text  into  Syriac,  Ara- 
bic, Latin,  etc.,  see  preceding. 

The  standard  edition  of  Aristotle's  works  is  that  of  Bekker 
(5  vols.  Berlin  Academy,  1831-70);  Firmin-Didot  ed.  (5  vols. 
Paris,  1848-69)  gives  the  Greek  text  and  Latin  translation 
in  parallel  columns.  The  best  edition  of  the  (later)  Scholastic 
commentary  on  Aristotle  is  Maitrus,  Arist,  opera  omnia 
(latine)  .  .  .  (Rome,  1868,  and  Paris,  1886);  Grote,  Aristotle 
(London,  1872,  new  ed.  1880);  Siebeck,  Ariatotelea  (Stutt- 
gart, 1902):  T.ALAMO,  I'Aristotelismo  nella  sloria  drlla  filosofia 
(Naples.  1873);  Put,  Aristole  (Paris,  1903);  Zei.leii,  Aris- 
totle and  the  Earlier  Peripatetics  (2  vols.,  London,  1897); 
Ueberweo,  Hist,  of  Phil.  tr.  Morris  (New  York,  1902),  I, 
157  sq.;  Azarias,  Aristotle  and  the  Christian  Church,  in  Esfimis 
Philosophical  (Chicago,  1896);  Turner,  Hist,  of  Phil.  (Boston, 
1903). 

William  Turner. 

Alius,  an  heresiarch,  b.  about  .k.  d.  2.50;  d.  336. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  Libyan  by  descent.  His 
father's  name  is  given  as  Ammonius.  In  306,  Arius, 
who  had  learnt  his  religious  views  from  Lucian,  the 
presbyter  of  Antioch,  and  afterwards  the  martyr, 
took  sides  with  Meletius,  an  Egyptian  schismatic, 
against  Peter,  Bishop  of  .'Mexandria.  But  a  recon- 
ciliation followed,  and  Peter  ordained  Arius  deacon. 
Further  disputes  led  the  lii.shop  to  excommunicate 
his  restless  churchman,  who,  however,  gained  the 
friendship  of  Achillas,  Peter's  succes.sor,  was  made 
presbyter  by  him  in  313,  and  had  the  charge  of  a  well- 
known  district  in  Alexandria  called  Baucalis.  This 
entitled  Arius  to  expound  the  Scriptures  officially, 
and  he  exercised  much  influence  when,  in  318,  his 
quarrel  with  Bisliop  .\lcxandcr  broke  out  over  tlie 
fundamental  truth  of  Our  Lord's  ilivirie  Son.ship  and 
substance.     (See    Aui.anism.)     While    many    Syrian 


ARIZONA 


•lit 


ARIZONA 


prelates  followed  the  innovator,  he  was  eondemned 
at  Alexandria  in  321  by  his  diocesan  in  a  synod  of 
nearly  one  hundred  Kgyptian  and  l,il)yan  bishops. 
Deprived  and  excoinnuiiiicaled,  the  heresiarcli  (fed 
to  Palestine.  He  ad(lres.s('d  a  thoroughly  unsound 
statement  of  principles  to  Ku.scbius  of  Nicomedia, 
who  yet  became  his  lifelong  champion  and  who  had 
won  the  esteem  of  Constant ino  by  his  worldly  ac- 
complishments. In  his  hou.se  the  proscrilied  man, 
always  a  ready  writer,  composed  in  verse  and  prose 
a  defence  of  his  position  which  he  tenned  "Thalia". 
A  few  fragments  of  it  survive.  He  is  also  said  to 
have  pul)lislic(l  songs  for  sailors,  millers,  and  travel- 
lers, in  which  his  creed  was  illustrated.  Tall  above 
the  common,  thin,  a.scetical,  and  severe,  he  has  been 
depicted  in  lively  colours  by  Epiphanius  (Heresies, 
69,  3);  but  his  moral  character  was  never  impeached 
except  doubtfully  of  ambition  by  Theodoret.  He 
must  have  been  of  great  age  when,  after  fruitless 
negotiations  and  a  visit  to  Kgj-pt,  he  appeared  in 
325  at  Nica'a,  where  the  confession  of  faith  which 
he  presented  was  torn  in  pieces.  With  his  writings 
and  followers  he  underwent  the  anathemas  sul)- 
scribed  by  more  than  300  bishops.  He  was  ban- 
ished into  lUyricum.  Two  prelates  shared  his  fate, 
Theonas  of  Marmarica  and  Secundus  of  I'tolemais. 
His  books  were  burnt.  The  Arians,  joined  by  their 
old  Mclctian  friends,  created  troubles  in  .Alexandria. 
lOuspbius  persuaded  C'onstantine  to  recall  the  exile 
by  iiululgont  letters  in  328;  and  the  emperor  not 
only  permitted  his  return  to  Alexandria  in  331,  but 
ordered  Atlianasius  to  reconcile  him  with  the  Church. 
On  the  saint's  refusal  more  disturbance  ensued. 
The  packed  and  partisan  Synod  of  Tyre  deposed 
.\thanasius  on  a  series  of  futile  charges  in  335. 
Catholics  were  now  persecuted;  Arins  had  an  inter- 
view with  Constantine  and  submitted  a  creed  which 
the  emperor  judged  to  be  ortliodox.  Hy  imperial 
rescript  Arius  refjuired  Alexander  of  Constantinople 
to  give  him  Communion;  but  the  stroke  of  Provi- 
dence defeated  an  attempt  which  Catholics  looked 
upon  as  a  sacrilege.  The  heresiarch  died  suddenly, 
and  was  buried  by  liis  own  people.  He  had  winning 
manners,  an  evasive  style,  and  a  disputatious  tem- 
per. But  in  the  controversy  which  is  called  after 
nis  name  Arius  counted  only  at  the  beginning.  He 
did  not  represent  the  tradition  of  Alexandria  but  the 
topical  subtleties  of  Antioch.  Hence,  his  disappear- 
ance from  the  scene  neither  stayed  the  combatants 
nor  ended  the  quarrel  which  he  had  rashly  provoked. 
A  party-theologian,  he  exhibited  no  features  of  gen- 
ius; and  he  was  the  product,  not  the  founder,  of  a 
school. 

SozoMEN.  H.  E.,  1,  CS.  69;  Theodoret.  H.  E.,  1;  SocnATEB. 
//.  E.,  1;  PHlLOftTOHG.,  1;  Athan.,  De  Sj/nodit:  Euseb.,  De 
Vild  Contlantini:  Rchn..  //.  E.,  1;  Travasa.  Vita  di  Ario 
(Venice,  1746);  Gibbon.  XXI;  Newman,  Ariam,  2,3;  Tracts, 
Cauaet  of  Arianism.     Sco  also  Ariam.sm. 

William  Barry. 

Arizona,  said  to  have  been,  probably  in  the 
original  form  of  the  word,  Arizotiac,  and  in  this  form 
a  I'ima  (Indian)  word  of  which  the  meaning  is 
unknown.  With  perhaps  le.ss  probability  there  has 
been  assigned  to  the  word  a  Spanish  origin.  The 
motto  of  .Vrizona  is  Dilal  Deus.  It  is  one  of  the 
continental  territories  of  the  United  States  of  .Amer- 
ica, bounded  on  the  north  by  the  State  of  Utah, 
on  the  south  by  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  on  the 
east  by  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  States  of  California  and  Nevada,  be- 
tween latitude  31"  and  37°,  and  longitude  109°  and 
U.'>°. 

History. — The  region  embraced  in  the  Terri- 
tory w.'is  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Mexico, 
a  portion  in  1848,  by  the  treaty  of  Clu.adalupe 
Hidalgo,  and  the  remainder  in  185-1,  by  the  Gadsden 
treaty.  Until  1863,  this  region  was  part  of  the 
Territory  of  New   Mexico,   and  at   the  time  of  its 


Seal  of  Arizo.va 


acquisition  by  the  United  States,  Indians  were 
almost  the  only  inhabitants  of  this  country,  reputed 
to  be  rich  in  |)rccious  metals.  Among  those  who 
llockeil  to  the  new  domain  were  fugitives  from  jus- 
tice, persons  expelled  by  the  Vigilance  Committee 
of  San  Francisco, 
and  .Mexicans  of  a 
degraded  class. 
The  history  of  the 
early  years  follow- 
ing the  cession  is  a 
sad  record  of  vio- 
lence and 
lawlessness 
the  white 
tants,  and 
p  1  o  r  a  b  1  e 


general 
among 
inhabi- 
of  de- 
Indian 
troubles.  "Murder 
and  other  crimes 
are  committed  with 
impunity",  is  the 
statement  of  Presi- 
dent Buchanan  to 
Congress     in     18.58, 

when  rcjicating  his  recommendation  of  1857  that  a  ter- 
ritorial giivcrnment  be  established,  a  statement  and 
reciinimenilation  which  he  reiterated  in  18.59.  Ex- 
amining the  cau.ses  of  the  Indian  troubles,  the 
traveller,  Raphael  Pumpelly.  contrasts  the  .selfish 
aims  of  the  frontiersmen  with  the  missionary  zeal 
of  the  Jesuits  who  had  formerly  laboured  in  Spanish 
America,  and  their  success  in  elevating  the  condition 
of  the  Indians,  a  success  who.se  limit  "was  always 
determined  by  the  cupidity  of  the  home  government, 
and  of  the  mining  population",  (^uite  contrary  to 
the  fact,  a  report  prevailed  aljout  the  time  of  the 
cession,  that  the  Jesuits  themselves  had  worked 
mines  in  the  region  during  tlic  former  years.  .Al- 
though evil  conditions  continued,  the  Territory  of 
Arizona  was  not  established  by  law  until  1863.  In 
1864  the  new  Territory  was  invailetl  by  the  forces 
of  the  Southern  Confederacy  wliich  were  defeated 
by  volunteer  troops  of  California.  Internal  disorders 
did  not  cease  tm  the  organization  of  a  territorial 
government.  In  1870  the  Tcrritorj'  was  much 
harried  by  Indians,  and  in  1871  its  Governor  declared 
that  "all  the  Arizonians  felt  discouraged".  Even 
in  1882,  President  .Arthur  conveyed  to  Congress  the 
report  of  the  Governor  of  Arizona  that  violence  and 
anarchy  prevailed.  This  condition  was  at  that 
time  largely  attributed  to  "Cow-boys",  and  Indian 
disturbances  were  prevalent  for  some  years  there- 
after. 

Population,  Climate,  Resources,  etc. — The 
Territory's  seat  of  government,  temporarily  estab- 
lished in  1864  at  Prescott,  was,  in  18(57,  fixed  at 
Tucson,  and,  in  1877,  transferred  to  Prescott  again. 
Phcenix  is  the  present  capital.  The  twelfth  United 
States  census,  besides  24,644  Indians,  reports  a 
population,  in  1900,  of  122,931.  By  the  census  of 
1860  the  population  of  .Arizona,  then  a  county  of 
New  Mexico,  appears  to  have  been  only  6,482.  Of 
the  population  in  1900,  there  were  98,698  natives 
and  24,233  foreigners.  Of  negro  descent  there  were 
1,848.  Including  in  the  list  tho.se  who  could  only 
rea<l,  with  those  who  could  neither  read  nor  write, 
25.4  per  cent  of  the  males  of  voting  age  were  illit- 
erate. Of  males  15  years  of  age  and  over.  49.5 
per  cent  were  single,  43.6  per  cent  married,  and 
.7  per  cent  divorced.  Of  females  15  years  of  age 
and  over,  21  per  cent  were  single,  64.8  per  cent 
married  and  1  per  cent  divorced. 

-According  to  the  report  of  the  chief  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  the  highest  temperature  observed 
at  any  weather  station  in  .Arizona  during  the  year 
1903  was  120°,  the  lowest  18°.  Two  stations  report 
each    of    these    extremes.     The    smallest    rain-fall 


ARE 


720 


ABK 


reported  for  tlie  same  year  from  any  station  is  0.80  of 
an    inch,    the    greatest    25.05    inches.     In    October, 

1903,  a  trace  of  snow  is  reported  at  one  station; 
there  is  no  report  of  snow  in  November  at  any  sta- 
tion,  and   for   the   following   six   months,    to   May, 

1904,  inclusive,  the  greatest  fall  reported  is  41.4 
inclies,  two  stations  reporting  only  a  slight  fall 
of  snow.  Agriculture  is  greatly  dependent  upon 
irrigation.  Limited  by  supply  of  water  for  irriga- 
tion the  area  of  farming  land  is  probably  2,000,000 
acres  out  of  72,000,000.  About  40,000,000  acres, 
or  more  than  one-lialf  the  area  of  the  Territory, 
are  available  for  grazing  lands  of  superior  quality. 
Mines  of  gold,  of  silver,  of  copper,  and  of  coal  are 
to  be  found  in  tlie  Territory.  Of  manufacturing 
establishments  there  were  169  in  the  year  1905, 
with  a  capital  of  $14,395,654.  The  value  of  pro- 
ducts was  $28,083,192.  The  value  of  the  products 
of  smelting  and  refining  copper  comprise  81.1  per 
cent  of  the  total  of  all  industries,  and  these,  with 
cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs 
by  steam  railroad  companies,  flour  and  grist-mill 
products,  lumber  and  timber  products,  are  the 
four  leading  industries.  There  are  1,509  miles  of 
railroads.  (See  Council  Memorial  No.  1,  Appendix 
B,  in  The  Revised  Statutes  of  Arizona  Territory, 
1901,  p.  1511.)  The  assessed  valuation  of  taxable 
property  for  the  year  1900  is  stated  to  have  been 
$33,782,465.99. 

Territori.^l  Government. — In  the  same  manner 
as  for  other  Territories  of  the  United  States,  the 
governor  of  Arizona  is  appointed  by  the  President. 
A  legislative  assembly  elected  by  counties  meets 
every  two  years.  There  is  no  female  suffrage  ex- 
cept at  elections  of  school  trustees.  A  Bill  of  Rights 
provides  that  the  civil  and  political  rights  of  no  per- 
son are  to  be  enlarged  or  abridged  on  account  of 
his  opinions  or  behef  concerning  religious  matters. 
It  is  also  provided  by  law  that  no  person  shall  be 
incompetent  to  testify  as  a  witness  on  account^  of 
religious  opinions  or  for  want  of  rehgious  belief. 
An  elaborate  system  of  public-school  education 
is  established  by  law.  There  are  a  university  and 
two  normal  schools  and  more  than  15,000  children 
are  educated  at  the  public  scliools.  (See  above 
cited  Memorial.)  Among  tiie  "powers  and  duties" 
of  boards  of  trustees  of  school  districts,  a  statute 
mentions  the  excluding  "from  school  and  school 
libraries  of  all  books,  pubhcations  or  papers  of  a  sec- 
tarian, partisan  or  denominational  character". 
No  books,  tracts  or  papers  of  a  sectarian  character 
are  to  be  used  in  or  introduced  into  any  public  school, 
nor  "any  sectarian  doctrine  taught  therein".  No 
school  funds  are  to  be  received  by  "any  school 
whatever  under  the  control  of  any  religious  denomi- 
nation". A  teacher  is  subject  to  revocation  _  of 
certificate  or  diploma  "who  shall  use  any  sectarian 
or  denominational  books  or  teach  any  sectarian 
doctrine,  or  conduct  any  religious  exercises  in  his 
school". 

Church  in  Arizona. — In  1850,  New  Mexico, 
having  been  ceded  to  the  United  States,  was  made 
a  vicariate  Apostolic  and  entrusted  to  the  Right 
Rev.  John  B.  Lamy,  formerly  a  priest  of  the  Diocese 
of  Cincinnati.  On  his  arrival,  as  he  stated  to 
the  Propaganda  in  1865  when  referring  to  con- 
ditions liappily  passed  away,  he  found  in  the  vast 
vicariate  twenty  priests,  neglectful  and  extortionate, 
churches  in  ruins,  and  no  schools.  In  1853  New 
Mexico  was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Santa  F6,  and 
Dr.  Lamy  became  its  first  bisliop.  Tlie  territory 
added  to  tlie  national  domain  liy  the  (ladsdcn  treaty, 
in  1854,  wa.s  placed  under  his  juris(Ucli()n.  and  he, 
in  1859,  sent  Verj-  Rev.  J.  P.  Machebn'uf  to  Tucson. 
Until  a  rude  cliapel  could  be  erected  Mass  was  said 
there  in  a  private  house.  In  1863,  two  Jesuit.s 
undertook    the    mission,    and    one   of    these    priests 


"  revived  Catholicity  ",  to  quote  the  words  of  Dr. 
Jolin  Gilmary  Shea,  "  at  the  splendid  old  church  of 
San  Xavier  del  Bac"  (tlie  corner-stone  of  which  seems 
to  liave  been  laid  in  1783),  "long  a  solitary  monu- 
ment in  a  wilderness,  the  neighbouring  inhabitants 
having  been  driven  off  by  hostile  Indians".  During 
tlie  Civil  War  ecclesiastical  affairs  continued  peace- 
ful, and  in  1865  the  bishop  reported  to  the  Propa- 
ganda an  estimated  CatnoUc  population  of  five 
tliousand  in  Arizona,  and  a  great  improvement  in 
ecclesiastical  matters.  In  1868,  Rev.  J.  B.  Salpointe 
was  appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Arizona,  and 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Doryla,  20  June,  1869.  The 
vicariate  Apostolic  was  erected  into  the  Diocese 
of  Tucson  in  1897,  the  Rev.  P.  Bourgade,  afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Santa  F6,  becoming  its  first  bishop. 
The  dioce.se  comprises  the  whole  Territory,  112,920 
square  miles,  with  a  portion,  amounting  to  18,292 
square  miles,  of  New  Mexico.  In  the  diocese  there 
are  25  secular  priests,  11  regular  priests,  21  churclies, 
with  resident  priests,  31  missions  witli  churches,  and 
95  stations,  6  parocliial  and  4  Indian  schools,  the 
total  of  young  people  educated  in  Catliolic  institu- 
tions being  2,000.  The  Cathohc  population  is  about 
40,000.  A  law  of  the  Territory,  passed  in  1903, 
permits  "any  per-son  being  the  archbishop,  bishop, 
president,  trustee  in  trust,  president  of  stake,  over- 
seer, presiding  elder,  rabbi,  or  clergyman  of  any 
cliurch  or  religious  society"  to  become  a  corporation 
sole  "witli  continual  perpetual  succession".  (For 
Arizona  Missions,  see  New  Mexico.) 

Bancroft,  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 18S9),  492-497,  603-S09,  512-516,  520-526,  530-534, 
572,  595-597,  601,  603,  60S,  606  and  c.  xxiii;  Pumpelly. 
Across  America  and  Ama  (New  York,  1870),  III,  29,  30,  34 
sqq.;  Andrews,  The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Time  (New 
York,  1903),  2,  171,  172;  Richardson,  A  Compilation  of  the 
Messages  and  Papers  of  the  Presidents  (1898),  V,  456,  514,  515. 
568:  VIII,  101;  Hough,  American  Constitutions  (Albany. 
1872),  II,  532,  533;  The  Revised  Statutes  of  Arizona  Territory. 
1901  (Columbia,  Missouri,  1901),  Paragraphs  13,  32,  33,  37.  38, 
39,  2538,  2282,  2176,  2130-2271;  Acts.  Resolutions  and  Memo- 
rials of  the  Twenty-second  Legislative  Assembly  of  the  Territory 
of  Arizona.  1903,  no.  41;  Twelfth  Census  of  the  United  Stales. 
Taken  in  the  Year  1900  (Washington.  1901);  Bulletin  SO.  Cen- 
sus of  Manufactures.  IbOB  (Washington,  1906);  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment OP  Agriculture,  Report  of  the  Chief  of  the  Weather 
Bureau.  1903-1904,  Parts  IV,  V  (Washington,  1905);  Shea, 
A  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  from  the  Fifth  Provincial 
Council  of  Baltimore.  ISiS.  to  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of 
Baltimore.  1866  (New  York,  1892),  293,  306,  660-666;  The 
Catholic  Directory.  1906  (Milwaukee.  Wis.). 

Ch-vrles  W.  Slo.^ne. 

Ark  is  a  generic  term  which,  in  the  Bible,  is 
applied  to  two  different  objects:  the  one,  the  refuge 
in  wliicli,  according  to  the  Biblical  narration,  Noe 
was  saved  from  destruction  in  the  Deluge;  the  other, 
a  piece  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple  furniture. 

Noe's  Ark. — Tlie  Hebrew  name  to  designate 
Noe's  .\rk,  the  one  which  occurs  again  in  the  history 
of  Moses'  childhood,  suggests  the  idea  of  a  box  of 
large  proportions,  though  the  autlior  of  Wisdom 
terms  it  a  vessel  (Wisd.,  xiv,  6).  Tlie  same  conclu.sion 
is  readied  from  the  dimensions  attributed  to  it  by 
tlie  Bible  narrative;  three  hundred  cubits  in  lengtli, 
fifty  in  breadth,  and  thirty  in  heiglit.  Tlie  form, 
very  likely  foursquare,  was  certainly  not  very  con- 
venient for  navigation,  but,  as  lias  been  proven  by 
the  experiments  of  Peter  Jansen  and  M.  Vogt,  it 
made  the  .\rk  a  very  suitable  device  for  shipping 
iieavy  cargoes  and  floating  upon  the  waves  witliout 
rolling  or  pitching.  The  Ark  was  constructed  of 
gofer  wood,  or  cypress,  smeared  without  and  within 
with  pitdi,  or  bitumen,  to  render  it  water-tight. 
Tlie  interior  contained  a  certain  number  of  rooms 
distriliuted  among  three  stories.  The  text  men- 
tions only  one  window,  and  this  measuring  a  cubit  in 
height,  but  tliere  existed  possibly  .some  others  to 
give  to  tlie  inmates  of  the  Ark  air  and  light.  A 
door  had  also  been  set  in  the  side  of  tlie  Ark;  God 
siiut  it  from  the  outside  when  Noe  and  his  family 


ARK 


Charms  o    it  ueainst  witchcraft.     Jewish  imd  Anne-       '?^^^%°'     tfkely.  been  framed  after  the  pat  ern  of 
ntn    radit  on  achnitted  M.n.nt  Ararat  as  the  rest  ng    '^.^I'''^'^  Kuf/^  U-er,  or  precious  wood   contammg 


Sr^'iu^  t^li:.  jrCTLy  ti.  ..storian^.  a£    ^ l^r^^^^t^l^^o^^^.^^t.:^ 


tlie  historian,  the  ad-    ing  J /omor  o^  man  .    x^.^-^  j.  ^^>  ^.     j^). 

:^'_:, '^  '„±„,.11v  determined  in  the  sacred  text,  so     the  texi       y  ^^^^  _^^^„   (, 


ABK 


722 


ARK 


dwelling-place  of  God;  hence  we  read  in  scores  of 
passages  of  the  Old  Testament  that  Yahweh  "sitteth 
on  [or  rather,  />//]  the  cherubim".  In  the  last  years 
of  Israel's  history,  the  Je^vish  rabbis,  from  a  motive 
of  reverence  to  God's  holiness,  avoided  pronouncing 
any  of  the  names  expressing  the  Divinity  in  the 
Hebrew  language,  such  as  El,  Elohim,  etc.,  and  still 
less  Yahweh,  the  ineffable  name,  i.  e.  a  name  un- 
utterable to  any  human  tongue;  instead  of  these, 
thej'  used  metaphors  or  expressions  having  reference 
to  the  Divine  attributes.  Among  the  latter,  the 
word  shekinah  became  very  popular;  it  meant  the 
Divine  Presence  (from  shakhdn,  to  dwell),  hence 
the  Di\'ine  Glory,  and  had  been  suggested  by  the 
belief  in  God's  presence  in  a  cloud  over  the  propitia- 
tory. Not  only  did  the  Ark  signify  God's  presence 
in  the  midst  of  his  people,  but  it  also  betokened  the 
Divine  help  and  assistance,  especially  during  the 
warlike  imdertakings  of  Israel ;  no  greater  evil 
accordingly  covild  befall  the  nation  than  the  capture 
of  the  Ark  by  the  enemies,  as,  we  shall  see,  happened 
towards  the  close  of  the  period  of  the  Judges  and 
perhaps  also  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Baby- 
lonian army,  in  587  B.  c. 

(2)  History. — According  to  the  sacred  narrative 
recorded  in  Exodus,  xxv,  10-22,  God  Himself  had 
given  the  description  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  tabernacle  and  all  its  appur- 
tenances. God's  command  was  fulfilled  to  the  letter 
by  Beseleel,  one  of  the  skilful  men  appointed  "to 
devise  and  to  work  in  gold,  and  silver,  and  brass, 
and  in  engraving  stones  and  in  carpenters'  work" 
(Ex.,  xxxvii,  1-9).  Before  the  end  of  the  first  year 
after  the  Exodus,  the  whole  work  was  completed, 
so  that  the  first  month  of  the  second  year,  tlie  first 
day  of  the  month,  everything  belonging  to  the 
Divine  service  could  be  set  up  in  order.  Moses 
then  "put  the  testimony  in  the  ark,  thrusting  bars 
underneath,  and  the  oracle  above";  he  "brought 
the  ark  into  the  tabernacle"  and  "drew  the  veil 
before  it  to  fulfil  the  commandment  of  the  Lord" 
(Ex.,  xl,  18,  19).  On  that  day  God  showed  His 
pleasure  by  filhng  the  tabernacle  of  the  testimony 
with  His  Glory,  and  covering  it  with  the  cloud  that 
henceforward  would  be  to  His  people  a  guiding  sign 
in  their  journeys.  All  the  Levites  were  not  entitled 
to  the  guardianship  of  the  sanctuary  and  of  the  .4rk; 
but  tills  office  was  entrusted  to  the  kindred  of  Caath 
(Num.,  iii,  31).  Whenever,  during  the  desert  Hfe, 
the  camp  was  to  set  forward,  Aaron  and  his  sons 
went  into  the  tabernacle  of  the  covenant  and  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  took  down  the  veil  that  hung  before 
the  door,  wrapped  up  the  Ark  of  the  Testimony  in 
it,  covered  it  again  with  dugong  skins,  \hen  with  a 
violet  cloth,  and  put  in  the  bars  (Num.,  iv,  .5,  6). 
When  the  people  pitched  their  tents  to  sojourn  for 
some  time  in  a  place,  everything  was  set  again  in  its 
customary  order.  During  the  journeys  the  Ark 
went  before  the  people;  and  when  it  was  lifted  up 
they  said:  "Arise,  O  Lord,  and  let  Thy  enemies  be 
scattered,  and  let  them  that  hate  Thee  flee  from  before 
Thy  face!"  And  when  it  was  set  down,  they  said: 
"Return,  O  Lord,  to  the  multitude  of  the  host  of 
Israel! "  (Num.,  x,  33-36).  Thus  did  the  Ark  preside 
over  all  the  journeys  and  stations  of  Israel  during 
all  their  wandering  life  in  the  wilderness. 

As  has  been  said  above,  the  sacred  chest  was  the 
visible  sign  of  God's  presence  and  protection.  This 
appeared  in  the  most  striking  manner  in  different 
circumstances.  When  the  spies  who  had  been  sent  to 
viev/  the  Promised  Land  returned  and  gave  their 
report,  murmurs  arose  in  the  camp,  which  neither 
threatenings  nor  even  the  death  of  tlic  authors  of  the 
sedition  could  quell,  .\gainst  the  will  of  God,  many 
of  the  Lsraelites  went  up  to  the  mountain  to  meet 
the  Amalecites  and  Clmnaanites;  "but  the  ark  of 
the  testament  of  the  Lord  and  Moses  departed  not 


from  the  camp".  And  the  enemies  came  down, 
smote,  and  slew  the  presumptuous  Hebrews  whom 
God  did  not  help.  The  next  two  manifestations  of 
Yahweh's  power  through  the  Ark  occurred  under 
Josue's  leadership.  When  the  people  were  about  to 
cross  the  Jordan,  "  the  priests  that  carried  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  went  on  before  them;  and  as  soon 
as  they  came  into  the  Jordan,  and  their  feet  were 
dipped  in  part  of  the  water,  the  waters  that  came 
down  from  above  stood  in  one  place,  and  swelling 
up  like  a  mountain,  were  seen  afar  off  .  .  .  but 
those  that  were  beneath  ran  down  into  the  sea  of 
the  wilderness,  until  they  wholly  failed.  And  the 
people  marched  over  against  Jericho:  and  the  priests 
that  carried  the  ark  of  the  co\'enant  of  the  Lord, 
stood  girded  upon  the  dry  ground,  in  the  midst  of 
the  Jordan,  and  all  the  people  passed  over  through 
the  channel  that  was  dried  up"  (Jos.,  iii,  14-17).  A 
few  days  later,  Israel  was  besieging  Jericho.  At 
God's  command,  the  Ark  was  carried  in  procession 
around  the  city  for  seven  day.s,  until  the  walls  crum- 
bled at  the  sound  of  the  trumpets  and  the  shouts  of 
the  people,  thus  giving  the  assailing  army  a  free 
opening  into  the  place  (Jos.,  vi,  6-21).  Later  again, 
after  the  taking  and  burning  of  Hai,  we  see  the  Ark 
occupy  a  most  prominent  place  in  the  solemn  assize 
of  the  nation  held  between  Mount  Garizim  and 
Mount  Hebal  (Jos.,  viii,  33). 

Thelsraehtes  having  settled  in  the  Promised  Land, 
it  became  necessary  to  choose  a  place  where  to  erect 
the  tabernacle  and  keep  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant. 
Silo,  in  the  territory  of  Ephraim,  about  the  centre 
of  the  conquered  country,  was  selected  (Jos.,  xviii,  1). 
There,  indeed,  during  the  obscure  period  which  pre- 
ceded the  establishment  of  the  Ivingdom  of  Israel, 
do  we  find  the  "  house  of  the  Lord  "  (Judges,  xviii,  31 ; 
XX,  18),  with  its  High-Priest,  to  whose  care  the  Ark 
had  been  entrusted.  Did  the  precious  palladium  of 
Israel  remain  permanently  at  Silo,  or  was  it  carried 
about,  whenever  the  emergency  required,  as,  for 
instance,  during  warhke  expeditions? — This  point 
can  hardly  be  ascertained.  Be  it  as  it  may,  the  narra- 
tion which  closes  the  Book  of  Judges  supposes  the 
presence  of  the  Ark  at  Bethel.  True,  some  commen- 
tators, following  St.  Jerome,  translate  here  the  word 
Bethel  as  though  it  were  a  common  noun  (house  of 
God);  but  their  opinion  seems  hardly  reconcilable 
with  the  other  passages  where  the  same  name  is 
found,  for  these  passages  undoubtedly  refer  to  the 
city  of  Bethel.  This  is  no  place  to  discuss  at  length 
the  divers  explanations  brought  forward  to  meet 
the  difficulty;  suffice  it  to  say  tliat  it  does  not  entitle 
the  reader  to  conclude,  as  many  have  done,  that 
there  probably  existed  several  Arks  throughout 
Israel.  The  remark  above  made,  that  the  .\rk  was 
possibly  carried  liither  and  thither  according  as  the 
circumstances  required,  is  substantiated  by  what  we 
read  in  the  narration  of  the  events  that  brought 
about  the  death  of  Hefi.  The  Philistines  had  waged 
war  against  Israel,  whose  army,  at  the  first  encounter, 
turned  their  backs  to  the  enemy,  were  utterly  de- 
feated, and  suffered  very  heavy  losses.  Thereupon 
the  ancients  of  the  people  suggested  that  the  Ark  of 
the  Covenant  be  fetched  unto  them,  to  save  them 
from  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  So  the  Ark  was 
brought  from  Silo,  and  such  acclamations  welcomed 
it  into  the  camp  of  the  Israelites,  as  to  fill  with  fear 
the  hearts  of  the  Phihstines.  Trusting  that  Yahweh's 
presence  in  the  midst  of  their  army  betokened  a 
certain  victory,  the  Hebrew  army  engaged  the 
battle  afresh,  to  meet  an  overthrow  still  more  disas- 
trous than  the  former;  and,  what  made  the  catas- 
trophe more  complete,  the  .\rk  of  God  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Pliilistinos  (1  Kings,  iv). 

Then,  according  to  tin-  Biblical  narrative,  began 
for  the  sacred  chest  a  sorii's  of  eventful  peregrinations 
througli  the  cities  of  southern  Palestine,  until  it  was 


ABK 


r23 


ARK 


solemnly  carried  to  Jcnisalem.  And  never  was  it 
returned  to  its  former  place  in  Silo.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  Philistines,  the  taking  of  the  Ark  meant  a 
victory  of  tlicir  (jods  over  the  God  of  Israel.  Tliey 
accorJintly  hrouslit  it  to  Azotus  and  set  it  as  a  trophy 
in  the  teinjile  of  Dagon.  Hut  the  next  morning  tnoy 
found  Dagon  fallen  upon  his  face  before  the  .\rk; 
they  raised  him  up  and  set  him  in  his  place  again. 
Tlie  following  murning  Dagon  again  was  lying  on 
tlie  groimil.  hadly  mutilated.  .At  the  .same  time  a 
cruel  disease  (perliaps  tlie  bubonic  plague)  smote 
the  .-Vzotites,  while  a  terrible  inva.sion  of  mice  afflicleil 
the  whole  surrountling  country.  These  scourges 
were  soon  attributed  to  the  presence  of  the  .Ark 
within  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  regarded  as  a  direct 
judgnunt  from  Vahweh.  Hence  was  it  decided  by 
tlie  assembly  of  the  rulers  of  the  Philistines  that  the 
.\rk  shoulil  be  removeii  from  .Vzotus  an<l  brought 
to  some  other  place.  Carrieil  succes.sively  to  (iath 
and  to  .\ccaron,  the  Ark  brought  with  it  the  same 
scourges  which  had  occasioned  its  removal  from 
.Azotus.  Finallj',  after  seven  months,  on  tlie  sug- 
gestion of  their  priests  and  their  diviners,  the  Philis- 
tines resolveil  to  give  up  their  dreadful  trophy. 

The  Miblical  narrative  acquires  here  a  special  in- 
terest for  us,  by  the  in.siglit  we  get  therefrom  into 
the  religious  spirit  among  the.se  ancient  peoples. 
Having  ma<le  a  new  cart,  they  took  two  kine  that 
had  sucking  calves,  yoked  them  to  the  cart,  and  shut 
up  their  calves  at  home.  And  they  laid  the  .Ark  of 
(!iid  u|)on  the  cart,  together  with  a  little  box  contain- 
ing golden  mice  and  tTie  images  of  their  boils.  Then 
the  kine.  left  to  themselves,  took  their  course  straight 
in  the  direction  of  the  territorj'  of  Israel.  .As  soon 
as  the  Bethsamites  recognized  the  .Ark  upon  the  cart 
that  was  coming  towanls  them,  they  went  rejoicing 
to  meet  it.  When  the  cart  arrived  in  the  field  of  a 
certain  Josue,  it  stood  still  there.  .And  as  there  was 
a  great  stone  in  that  place,  they  split  up  the  wood 
of  the  cart  and  offered  the  kine  a  holocaust  to  Yah- 
weh.  With  this  sacrifice  ended  the  e.\ile  of  the  .Ark 
in  the  land  of  the  Philistines.  The  people  of  Beth- 
sames,  however,  did  not  long  enjoy  its  presence 
among  them.  Some  of  them  inconsiderately  cast  a 
glance  upon  the  .Ark,  whereuiwin  they  were  severely 
punished  by  God;  seventy  men  (the  text  usually 
received  .says  seventy  men  and  fifty  thousand  of  the 
common  people;  but  this  is  hardly  credible,  for 
Bethsames  was  only  a  small  country-  place)  were  thus 
smitten,  as  a  punishment  for  their  boldness.  Fright- 
ened by  this  mark  of  the  Divine  wTath,  the  Beth- 
samites .sent  messengers  to  the  inhabitants  of  Caria- 
thiarim,  to  tell  them  how  the  Philistines  had  brought 
back  the  .Ark,  and  invite  them  to  convey  it  to  their 
own  town.  So  the  men  of  Cariathiarim  came  and 
brought  up  the  .Ark  and  carried  it  into  the  house  of 
.Abinadab,  whose  .son  Eleazar  they  consecrated  to  its 
service  (I  Kings,  vii,  1). 

The  actual  Hebrew  text,  as  well  as  the  Vulgate 
and  all  translations  dependent  upon  it,  intimates 
that  ilie  .\rk  was  witli  the  army  of  Saul  in  the  famous 
expedition  against  tlie  Philistines,  narrated  in  I  Kings, 
xiv.  This  is  a  mistake  probably  due  to  some  late 
scribe  who,  for  theological  reasons,  substituted  the 
"ark  of  God"  for  the  "ephod".  The  (ireek  tran.sla- 
tion  here  gives  the  correct  reading;  nowhere  else, 
indeed,  in  tlie  history  of  Israel,  do  we  hear  of  the  -Ark 
of  the  Covenant  as  an  instrument  of  divination.  It 
may  consequent^  be  safely  affirmed  that  the  .Ark 
remained  in  Cariathiarim  up  to  the  time  of  David. 
It  was  natural  that  after  this  prince  had  taken  Jeru- 
salem and  made  it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  he 
should  <lcsire  to  make  it  also  a  religious  centre.  For 
this  end,  he  thought  of  bringing  thither  the  .Ark  of 
the  Covenant.  In  point  of  fact  the  .Ark  was  undoubt- 
edly in  great  veneration  among  the  people;  it  was 
looked  upon  as  the  palladium  with  which  heretofore 
1.-46 


Israel's  life,  Ixith  religious  and  political,  had  been 
as.soeiated.  Hence,  nothing  could  have  more  suita- 
bly brought  about  the  realization  of  David's  purpose 
than  such  a  transfer.  We  read  in  the  Bible  two 
accounts  of  this  .solemn  event:  the  first  is  found  in 
the  Secoiul  Book  of  Kings  (vi);  in  the  other,  of  a 
much  later  ilate,  the  chronicler  has  cast  together 
most  of  the  former  account  with  some  elements 
reflecting  ideas  and  institutions  of  his  own  time 
(I  Par.,  xiii).  According  to  the  narrative  of  11 
Kings,  vi,  which  we  shall  follow,  David  went  with 
great  pomp  to  Baal-Juda,  or  Cariathiarim,  to  carry 
from  there  the  .Ark  of  God.  It  was  laid  upon  a  new 
cart,  and  taken  out  of  the  house  of  .Abinadab.  Oza 
and  .Aliio,  the  .sons  of  .Abinadab,  guided  the  cart,  the 
hitter  walking  before  it,  the  former  at  its  side,  while 
the  King  and  the  people  that  were  with  him,  dancing, 
singing,  and  playing  instruments,  escorted  the  sacred 
chest.  This  day,  however,  like  that  of  the  coming 
of  the  .Ark  to  Bethsames,  was  to  be  saddened  by 
death.  .At  a  certain  point  of  the  procession,  the 
oxen  slipped;  Oza  forthwith  stretched  out  his  hand 
to  hold  the  .Ark,  but  was  struck  dead  on  the  spot. 
David,  frightened  by  this  accident,  stopped  the  pro- 
cession, and  now  unwilling  to  remove  the  Ark  to 
Jerusalem,  he  had  it  carried  into  the  house  of  a 
Gethite,  named  Obededom.  which  was  probably  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  city.  The  presence  of  the 
Ark  was  a  source  of  blessings  for  tlie  house  to  which 
it  had  been  brought.  This  news  encouraged  David 
to  complete  the  work  he  had  begun.  Three  months 
after  the  first  transfer,  accordingly,  he  came  again 
with  great  solemnity  and  removed  the  Ark  from  the 
house  of  Obededom  to  the  city,  where  it  was  set  in 
its  plaie  in  the  midst  of  the  tabernacle  which  David 
had  pitched  for  it.  Once  more  was  the  .Ark  brought 
out  of  Jerusalem,  when  David  betook  himself  to 
fliglit  liefore  .Absalom's  rebellion.  Whilst  the  King 
stood  in  the  ("edron  valley,  the  people  were  passing 
before  him  towards  the  way  that  leads  to  the  wilder- 
ness. .Anumg  them  came  also  Sadoc  and  .Abiathar, 
bearing  the  .Ark.  Whom  when  David  saw,  he  com- 
mandeil  to  carry  back  the  Ark  into  the  city:  "If  I 
shall  find  grace  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord",  said  he, 
"he  will  bring  me  again,  and  will  .shew  me  both  it 
and  his  tabernacle".  In  compliance  with  this  onler, 
Sadoc  and  .Abiathar  carried  back  the  .Ark  of  the  Lord 
into  Jerusalem  (II  Kings,  xv,  24-Ji)). 

The  tabernacle  whicli  David  had  pitched  to  re- 
ceive the  .Ark  was  not,  however,  to  be  its  hist  dwelling 
place.  The  King  indeed  had  thought  of  a  temple 
more  wort liy  of  tlie  glorj'  of  Yahweh.  .Although  the 
building  of  this  edifice  was  to  be  the  work  of  his 
successor,  David  hiiiKself  took  to  heart  to  gather  and 
prepare  the  mateiials  for  its  erection.  From  the 
very  beginning  of  Solomon's  reign,  this  prince  showed 
the  greatest  reverence  to  the  .Ark,  especially  when, 
after  the  mysterious  dream  in  which  God  answered 
his  request  for  wisilom  by  promising  him  wisdom, 
riches,  and  honour,  he  offered  up  bumt-ofTerings  and 
peace-offerings  before  the  .Ark  of  the  Covenant  of 
Vahweh  (111  Kings,  iii.  lii).  When  the  temple  and 
all  its  aiipurtenances  were  completeil,  Solomon,  be- 
fore the  iledic.ition.  a.s.sembled  the  elders  of  Israel, 
that  they  might  solemnly  convey  the  -Ark  from  the 
place  where  David  had  set  it  up  to  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  Thence  it  was,  most  likely,  now  and  then 
taken  out,  either  to  accompany  military  expeditions, 
or  to  enhance  the  splendour  of  religious  celebrations, 
perhaps  also  to  comply  with  the  ungodly  commands 
of  wicked  kings  However  this  may  be,  the  chron- 
icler tells  us  that  Josias  commanded  the  Levites  to 
return  it  to  its  place  in  the  temple,  and  forbade  them 
to  take  it  thence  in  the  future  (II  Par.,  xxxv,  3). 
But  the  memory  of  its  sacredness  was  soon  to  pjiaa 
away.  In  one  of  his  prophecies  referring  to  the 
Messianic  times,  Jeremias  announced  that  it  would 


ARK 


724 


ARKANSAS 


be  utterly  forgotten:  "They  shall  say  no  more:  The 
ark  of  the  covenant  of  Yahweh:  neither  shall  it  come 
upon  tlie  heart,  neither  shall  they  remember  it, 
neither  shall  it  be  visited,  neither  shall  that  be  done 
any  more"  (Jer.,  iii,  Ifi). 

As  to  what  became  of  the  Ark  at  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  587  B.  c,  there  exist  several  traditions,  one  of 
which  has  found  admittance  in  the  sacred  books. 
In  a  letter  of  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem  to  them  that 
were  in  Egypt,  the  following  details  are  given  as 
copied  from  a  writing  of  Jeremias:  "The  prophet, 
being  warned  by  God,  commanded  that  the  taber- 
nacle and  the  ark  should  accompany  him,  till  he 
came  forth  to  the  mountain  where  Moses  went  up 
and  saw  the  inheritance  of  God.  And  when  Jeremias 
came  thither  he  found  a  hollow  cave  and  he  carried 
in  thither  the  tabernacle  and  the  ark  and  the  altar 
of  incense,  and  so  stopped  the  door.  Then  .some  of 
them  that  followed  him,  came  up  to  mark  the  place; 
but  they  could  not  find  it.  And  when  Jeremias 
perceived  it,  he  blamed  them  saying:  the  place  shall 
be  unknown,  till  God  gather  together  the  congre- 
gation of  the  people  and  receive  them  to  mercy. 
And  then  the  Lord  will  shew  these  tilings,  and  the 
majesty  of  the  Lord  shall  appear,  and  there  shall  be 
a  cloud  as  it  was  also  shewed  to  Moses,  and  he  shewed 
it  when  Solomon  prayed  that  the  place  might  be 
sanctified  to  the  great  God"  (II  Mach.,  ii,  4-8). 
According  to  many  commentators,  the  letter  from 
which  the  above-cited  lines  are  supposed  to  have 
been  copied  cannot  be  regarded  as  possessing  Divine 
authority;  for,  as  a  rule,  a  citation  remains  in  the 
Bible  what  it  was  outside  of  the  inspired  writing; 
the  impossibility  of  dating  the  original  document 
makes  it  very  difficult  to  pass  a  judgment  on  its 
historical  reliability.  At  any  rate  the  tradition  which 
it  embodies,  going  back  at  least  as  far  as  two  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era,  cannot  be  discarded  on 
mere  a  priori  arguments.  Side  by  side  with  this 
tradition,  we  find  another  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse 
of  Esdras;  according  to  this  latter,  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  was  taken  by  the  victorious  army  that 
ransacked  Jerusalem  after  having  taken  it  (IV  Esd., 
X,  22).  This  is  certainly  most  possible,  so  much  the 
more  that  we  learn  from  IV  Kings,  xxv,  that  the 
Babylonian  troops  carried  away  from  the  temple 
whatever  bra.ss,  silver,  and  gold  they  could  lay  their 
hands  upon.  At  any  rate,  either  of  these  traditions 
is  certainly  more  reliable  than  that  adopted  by  the 
redactors  of  the  Talmud,  who  tell  us  that  the  Ark 
was  hidden  by  King  Josias  in  a  most  secret  place 
prepared  by  Solomon  in  case  the  temple  might  be 
taken  and  set  on  fire.  It  was  a  common  belief  among 
the  rabbis  of  old  that  it  would  be  found  at  the  com- 
ing of  the  Messias.  Be  this  as  it  may,  this  much  is 
unquestionable;  namely  that  the  Ark  is  never  men- 
tioned among  the  appurtenances  of  the  second 
temple.  Had  it  been  preserved  tliere,  it  would  most 
likely  have  been  now  and  then  alluded  to,  at  least 
on  occasion  of  such  ceremonies  as  the  consecration 
of  the  new  temi)le,  or  the  re-establishment  of  the 
worship,  both  after  the  exile  and  during  the  Mach- 
abean  times.  True,  the  chronicler,  who  lived  in  the 
post-exilian  epoch,  says  of  the  Ark  (II  Par.,  v,  9) 
that  "it  has  been  there  unto  this  day".  But  it  is 
commonly  admitted  on  good  grounds  that  the  writer 
mentioned  made  use  of,  and  wove  together  in  his 
work,  without  as  much  as  changing  one  single  word 
of  them,  narratives  belonging  to  former  times.  If, 
as  serious  commentators  admit,  the  above-recorded 

Caesage  be  one  of  these  "implicit  citations",  it  might 
e  inferred  thence  that  the  chronicler  probably  did 
not  intend  to  assert  the  existence  of  the  Ark  in  the 
second   temple. 

Catholic  tradition,  led  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  has  considered  the  .\rk  of  the  Covenant  as 
one  of  the  purest  and  richest  .symbols  of  the  realities 


of  the  New  Law.  It  signifies,  in  the  first  .place,  the 
Incarnate  Word  of  God.  "Christ  himself",  says 
St.  Thomas  .\quinas,  "was  signified  by  the  Ark. 
For  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Ark  was  made  of 
setim  wood,  so  also  was  the  body  of  Christ  composed 
of  the  most  pure  human  substance.  The  Ark  was 
entirely  overlaid  with  gold,  because  Christ  was  filled 
with  wisdom  and  charity,  which  gold  symbolizes. 
In  the  Ark  there  was  a  golden  vase:  tliis  represents 
Jesus'  most  holy  soul  containing  the  fulness  of 
sanctity  and  the  godhead,  figured  by  the  manna. 
There  was  also  Aaron's  rod,  to  indicate  the  sacerdotal 
power  of  Jesus  Christ  priest  forever.  Finally  the 
stone  tables  of  the  Law  were  likewise  contained  in 
the  Ark,  to  mean  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  author  of 
the  Law".  To  these  points  touched  by  the  Angel 
of  the  Schools,  it  might  be  added  that  the  Ascension 
of  Christ  to  heaven  after  His  victory  over  death  and 
sin  is  figured  by  the  coming  up  of  the  Ark  to  Sion. 
St.  Bonaventure  has  also  seen  in  the  Ark  a  mystical 
representation  of  the  Holy  Eucharist.  In  like  man- 
ner the  Ark  might  be  very  well  regarded  as  a  mystical 
figure  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  called  by  the  Church 
the   "Ark  of  the  Covenant" — Fcrdcris   Area. 

KiTTO,  The  Tabernacle  and  Its  Furniture  (London,  1849): 
L.^MV,  De  tabemacuto,  de  sanctA  civilate  et  templo  (Paris,  1720); 
LiGHTFOOT,  Works,  Vol.  I.  Dcscriptio  templi  hierosol,:  PoELS. 
Eiamen  critique  de  Vhistoire  du  sancluaire  de  i'arche  (Louvain 
anil  Leyden,  1897);  Vigouroux.  La  Bible  et  Us  dicouvertes 
modemes  (Paris,  1889),  II  and  III. 

Chas.  L.  SotrvAY. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant.     See  Ark. 

Arkansas,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  State  of  Missouri,  on 
the  south  by  the  States  of  Louisiana  and  Texas, 
on  the  east  by  the  States  of  Mississippi  and  Tennes- 
see, and  on  the  west  by  the  State  of  Texas  and  by 
Indian  Territory, 
between  latitude 
33°  and  37°  and 
longitude  89°  and 
95°,  has  an  area  of 
53,335  square  miles. 
The  boundaries  are 
set  forth  with  con- 
siderable particu- 
lanty  in  the  state 
constitution,  with 
which  may  be  com- 
pared the  Act  of 
Congress,  15  June, 
183G,  admitting 
-Arkansas  as  a  state. 
The  motto  of  the 
State    is     Regnant 

populi.  The  name  was  that  of  a  tribe  of  Indians, 
formerly  inhabitants  of  the  region,  a  tribe  also 
known  as  Quapaws  or  Osarks,  and  called  also  Al- 
kansas  by  Illinois  Indians  and  other  Algonquins 
(Charlevoix).  A  resolution  passed  in  1881  by  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  State  refers  to  confusion 
which  had  ari.sen  "in  the  pronunciation  of  the  name 
of  our  State "  and  resolves  "  that  it  should  be  pro- 
nounced in  three  syllables  with  the  final  's'  silent 
the  'a'  in  each  syllable  with  the  Itahan  sound,  and 
the  accent  on  the  first  and  last  syllables". 

The  region  now  included  in  .\rkansas  was  a  portion 
of  the  Louisiana  purchase  from  France  and  ceded 
by  the  treaty  of  1803.  A  census  of  the  "  province 
de  In  Louisiane",  made  in  17PS,  states  the  popuhition 
of  .Arkansas  to  be  1 19.  An  Act  of  Congress,  2(1  March 
1801,  provided  that  .so  much  of  the  ceded  territory 
as  was  north  of  33°  of  north  latitude  .should  be  named 
the  ilistrict  of  Louisiana  and  governed  by  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  Indian;i  Territory.  By  .\ct  of  3  March, 
1805,  the  name  was  changed  to  "Territory  of  Louisi- 
ana" and  a  territorial  government  established. 
This  name  was  changed   to   "  .Missouri "   by  Act  of 


OF  Arkansas 


ARKANSAS 


ARKANSAS 


4  June,  1812,  and  a  temporary  government  estab- 
lished. By  Act  of  2  March,  1819,  all  of  the  territory 
south  of  a  line  hcninniiif;  on  tlie  Mississippi  River 
at  36°  north  latitude,  runiiitif;  thence  west  to  the 
river  St.  rraii(.oi.s,  thence  up  the  same  to  30°  'M.Y 
north  latitude  ami  thence  west  to  the  western  terri- 
torial boundary  line,  was  e.stablisheil  as  a  new 
Territorj'  to  be  Known  as  "the  .^rkansaw  Territory". 

Climate. — ("oiucniinf;  weather  conditions,  the  re- 
port of  the  chief  nf  tlie  Weather  Bureau  states 
the  highest  temperature  observed  at  any  weather 
station  in  Arkansas  during  the  year  1903  to  have 
been  105°,  observed  at  two  stations,  the  lowest  — 12° 
also  observed  at  two  stations.  The  smallest  rain- 
fall reported  for  the  year  i.s  34.48  inches,  the  greatest 
()5  inches.  So  early  as  November,  1903,  there  were 
snowfalls  at  three  of  the  stations,  in  December  at 
all  the  stations  except  one,  in  January,  1904,  at  all 
the  stations  except  three,  in  February,  at  all  except 
four,  no  snow  is  reported  in  March,  and  in  .\pril  a 
trace  is  reported  at  two  stations.  The  greatest  fall 
of  the  sea-son  wius  11.5  inches,  the  least,  0.5  of  an 
inch.  The  reports  of  temperature  are  from  sixty- 
one  stations,  of  rainfall  from  sixty-.six  stations,  and 
of  snowfall  from   thirteen   stations. 

Histon/. — The  Territory  was  visited  during  1819 
by  the  <listiiif;uislicd  botanist,  Thomas  Nuttall. 
Of  the  district  u;itii'((l  by  the  "  Arkansa"  river  which 
in  .-i  generally  .southeasterly  course  flows  througli 
Arkansas,  he  states  that  it  is  scarcely  less  fertile 
than  Kentucky  and  favourable  "to  productions 
more  valuable  and  saleable",  while  "the  want  of 
good  roads  is  scarcely  felt  in  a  level  country  mean- 
dered by  rivers".  .■Vnd  he  remarks  upon  the  "lucra- 
tive employment"  to  be  found  "in  a  coimtry  whidi 
produces  cotton".  Some  of  the  settlers  were  of 
French  Canadian  origin,  among  them  descendants 
probably  of  ten  settlers  who  came  with  the  Chevalier 
de  Tonti,  when,  in  1685,  he  proceeded  up  the  river 
to  the  village  of  the  Arkansas.  In  the  settlement 
on  the  banks  of  the  "Arkan.sa"  river  "a  few  miles 
below  the  bavou  which  communicates  with  White 
river",  Nuttail  found  "  the  sum  of  general  indu-stry 
.  .  .  insufficient"  and  "the  love  of  amu.scinents 
...  as  in  most  of  the  French  colonies  .  .  .  carried 
to  extravagance".  Indeed  this  traveller  comments 
unfavourably  upon  "  the  generality  of  those  who. 
till  lately,  mhabited  the  banks  of  the  Arkansa.". 
.■\nd  "at  the  Cadron"  he  found  that  "every  reason- 
able and  rational  amu.sement  appeared  ...  to  be 
swallowed  up  in  dram-drinking,  jockeying  and  gam- 
bling", while  at  "the  Pecannerie  now-  the  most 
considerable  settlement  in  the  territory  except  .-Xr- 
kansas",  and  settled  by  about  sixty  families,  the 
more  industrious  and  honest  suffered,  from  the  dis- 
honest practices  of  their  indolent  neighbours,  "ren- 
egadoes  from  justice,  who  had  fled  from  honest 
society".  In  contrast  to  a  portion  of  this  indictment 
against  early  territorial  conditions  may  be  mentioned 
the  prohibitory  liquor  laws  of  the  modern  State, 
and  their  rigorous  enforcement  (Digest  of  the  Stat- 
utes, §  }  5093-5148;  The  United  States  in  our  own 
Time,  765).  .\rkansa.s  became  a  State  by  Act  of 
Congress,  15  June,  1836.  The  State  long  continued 
to  be  sparsely  settled.  Colonel  R.  B.  Marcy,  who 
seems  to  liave  visited  .some  portions  of  Arkansas 
so  late  as  1854,  refers  in  "  Army  Life  "  to  the  "sparsely 
scattered  forest  habitations  "  on  the  borders  of  .■Vr- 
kansas  and  Texa.s  "  far  removed  from  towns  and 
villages  and  seldom  visited  by  travellers",  where, 
he  tells  us,  "  the  ideas,  habits  and  language  of  the 
population  .  .  .  are  eminently  peculiar  and  very 
different  from  those  of  any  other  people  I  have 
ever  before  met  with  in  my  travels".  Tlie.se  bor- 
derers seem  to  have  been  generally  illiterate.  .\n<l 
Colonel  Marcy  describes  also  the  interior  .settlements 
of  .\rkansas   and  tho.se  of  Texas  and   southwestern 


Mis,souri  a.s  regions  where  "  the  traveller  rarely  sees 
a  church  or  school-house"  (Army  Life,  386).  While 
yet  "rude  and  thinly  .settled"  (Schouler,  Hist,  of 
V.  S.  of  .Xm.,  VI,  92),  .\rkan.sas  by  ordinance  of  it« 
Convention  on  6  May,  1861,  joined  its  fortunes  with 
those  of  the  other  States  of  the  attempted  .Southern 
Confederacy.  .Vs  in  .Mi.ssouri  .so  in  Northern  .\rkan- 
sas,  guerilla  warfare  followed  during  more  than  a 
year,  .\fterwarils  warfare  in  Arkansas  became  of 
a  more  important  character.  In  1863  Arkan.sas 
Post  was  captureil  by  the  Federal  forces;  there  was 
a  small  engagement  at  .\rkadelphia,  and  engagements 
at  Fayettevule  antl  sixteen  miles  from  I'ort  Smith. 
The  Federal  garrison  of  Helena  and  that  of  Pine  Bluffs 
were  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  Confederate 
forces  during  this  year,  .^t  the  battle  of  Cliicka- 
mauga,  the  First  Arkansas  regiment  lost  forty- 
five  per  cent  of  its  men.  "And  these  los.ses"  it 
is  said  "included  very  few  prisoners".  (Campfire 
and  Battlefield,  484.)  In  June,  1868,  the  State 
was  restored  to  the  Cnion  and  to  representation 
in  Congress,  with  an  agreement  to  peqictuate  uni- 
versal suffrage.  During  the  reconstruction  period, 
Arkansas  wa.s  not  exemj)!  from  sad  experiences 
similar  to  tho.se  of  other  Southern  States.  A  con- 
tested election  in  1872  for  (iovernor  caused  much 
confusion  until  1875. 

Conslitutinn  arul  Government. — By  the  constitution 
of  the  .Slate  the  city  of  Little  Rock  i«  made  the  State 
capital.  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  General 
Assembly  to  meet  every  two  years.  There  is  no 
female  sulTrage.  The  Act  of  Congress  of  1805  which 
has  been  already  mentioned  provides  that  no  law 
of  the  Territory  of  Louisiana  shall  be  valid  "whidi 
shall  lay  any  person  under  restraint  or  disability 
on  account  of  his  religious  opinions,  profession  or 
worship".  .\nd  the  State  constitution  now  in  force 
forbids  any  religious  test  as  qualification  to  vote  or 
hold  office,  and  re<iuires  that  no  one  shall  be  incom- 
petent as  a  witness  on  account  of  religious  belief, 
adding  "but  nothing  herein  shall  be  construed  to 
dispense  with  oaths  or  aflirmations".  "All  men", 
declares  the  constitution,  "  have  a  natural  and  indc- 
fea.sible  right  to  worship  Almighty  God  according 
to  the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences;  no  man  can, 
of  right,  be  compelled  to  attend,  erect  or  support 
any  place  of  worship,  or  to  maintain  any  mini.stry 
against  his  consent.  No  human  authority  can,  in 
any  ca.se  or  manner  whatsoever,  control  or  interfere 
with  the  right  of  conscience,  and  no  preference  shall 
ever  be  given  by  law  to  any  religious  establishment, 
denomination,  or  mode  of  worship  above  any  other.  " 
The  constitution  directs  the  enactment  of  suitable 
laws  to  protect  every  religious  denomination  in  the 
peaceable  enjoyment  of  its  own  mode  of  public  wor- 
.ship.  It  also  ordains  the  maintenance  by  the  State 
of  a  "general,  suitable  and  eflTicient  system  of  free 
schools". 

Edueation. — In  pursuance  of  this  direction  the 
laws  of  the  State  make  elaborate  provisions  for  free 
schools  and  a  "University  of  ArKansas".  (Digest 
of  the  Statutes,  §§  7484-7739.)  No  teacher  is  to 
be  licensed  in  the  public  .schools  "who  does  not  be- 
lieve in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being".  And 
no  teacher  in  these  schools  "snail  permit  sectarian 
books  to  be  used  as  reading  or  text  books  in  the 
school  under  his  care".  The  twelfth  United  .States 
Census  reports  a  school  attendance  in  1900  of  2.30.180 
persons,  of  whom  115.613  were  females.  Including 
m  the  list  those  who  could  only  read  with  those  who 
could  neither  read  nor  write,  20  per  cent  of  the  males 
of  voting  age  were  illiterate. 

Pnpulatinn. — The  population  of  the  State  in  1900 
was  1,311.564  according  to  the  census.  Only  14,289 
persons  were  foreign  bom.  Of  negro  descent  there 
were  366,8,56.  Of  males  fifteen  years  of  age  and 
over,  37.6  per  cent  were  single,  56.1  per  cent  married. 


ARKANSAS 


726 


ARKANSAS 


and  0.3  per  cent  divorced.  0.4  per  cent  being  re- 
ported unknown.  Of  females  fifteen  years  of  age  and 
over,  26  per  cent  were  single,  60.8  per  cent  married 
and  0.6  per  cent  divorced,  0.1  being  reported  un- 
known. 

Business  Statistics. — The  total  assessed  valuation 
of  property  for  1899  was  $189,998,150;  the  State 
indebtedness  on  1  October,  1900,  $1,432,915.95. 
Arkansas  is  chiefly  an  agricultural  State.  Little 
Rock  with  a  population  of  42,036  was  the  only  city 
of  which  the  population  was  estimated  in  1903  to  ex- 
ceed 25,000.  Three  other  cities,  namely,  Fort  Smith 
City,  Hot  Springs  City,  and  Pine  Bluffs  City,  were 
the  only  other  cities  of  which  the  population  exceeded 
8,000.  Being  south  of  37°  of  latitude  the  State 
is  within  "the  cotton  belt",  and  cotton  has  become 
its  principal  crop,  as  Nuttall  seems  to  have  foreseen 
in  1819.  In  1899  the  value  of  the  cotton  crop  was 
$28,053,813,  or  49.4  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  the 
crops  of  the  State.  Of  the  com  crop  the  value 
was  $17,572,170.  Of  potatoes  a  production  is  re- 
ported of  1,783,969  bushels  and  of  tobacco,  831,700 
pounds.  Notwithstanding  the  chief  importance 
of  agriculture,  the  twelfth  census  reports  a  steady 
growth  during  the  period  from  1850  to  1900  in 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries.  The 
six  leading  mechanical  industries  in  1905  were:  (1) 
cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
8team  railroad  companies;     (2)  flour  and  grist  mill 

f)roducts;  (3)  lumber  and  timber  products;  (4), 
umber  planing  mill  products,  including  sashes,  doors, 
and  blinds;  (5)  oil,  cotton  seed,  and  cake;  (6)  print- 
ing and  publishing.  Of  manufacturing  establish- 
ments there  were  1 ,907,  of  which  1 ,344  were  devoted 
to  the  six  leading  industries.  The  amount  of  capital 
employed  in  manufactures  was  $46,306,116,  the 
value  of  products  $53,864,394.  Of  all  manufacturing 
establishments  88.3  per  cent  were,  in  1905,  in  the 
rural  districts.  There  is  a  small  production  of  coal, 
estimated  in  1905  to  amount  to  2,000,000  short  tons, 
one-half  of  which  is  classed  as  semi-anthracite.  The 
railroad  mileage  in  1904  is  reported  to  be  4,126.44 
miles. 

Catholic  Life. — Concerning  the  history  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  the  State,  from  1793  until  1801 
Arkansas  with  all  of  the  territory  included  in  the 
Louisiana  purchase  formed  a  portion  of  the  Diocese 
of  Louisiana  and  Florida.  On  the  cession  to  the 
United  States  Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore  was  in 
1805  appointed  administrator  Apostolic.  "When 
the  decree  of  the  Propaganda  confiding  Louisiana 
to  his  care  reached  Bishop  Carroll",  writes  Dr.  Shea 
(Life  and  Times  of  the  Most  Rev.  John  Carroll),  "it 
was  a  matter  of  great  and  pious  satisfaction  to  him 
to  know  that  there  was  one  priest  in  Louisiana 
whose  virtue  and  ability  were  known  to  him.  .  .  ." 
In  upper  Louisiana  there  was  scarcely  any  priest 
other  than  a  priest  whom  the  historian  mentions. 
Great  disorder  and  relaxation  of  discipline  seems 
to  have  existed  in  various  regions  of  the  vast  dio- 
cese. In  1812  in  answer  to  urgent  appeals  from  Arch- 
bishop Carroll,  the  Rev.  Wm.  DuBourg,  "  a  briUiant, 
able  and  energetic  man",  remarks  Dr.  Shea,  was  ap- 
pointed administrator  Apostolic.  In  1815  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop.  In  1824  Right  Rev.  Joseph  Rosati 
became  coadjutor  with  residence  at  St.  Louis,  and 
to  his  special  care  the  Territory  of  Arkansas  was 
confided.  In  that  year  missionaries  found  at  Little 
Rock  Catholics  who  had  never  seen  a  priest,  and  on 
the  Arkansiis  River  there  were  found  sixteen  Cath- 
olic families  "who  reported  that  Mass  had  twice 
been  olTercd  there".  "Arkansas  Post  was  the  only 
place  after  leaving  New  Madrid  where  there  were 
enough  Catholics  to  maintain  a  priest  "  (Shea,  Hist. 
Cath.  Ch.  in  the  U.  S.).  The  missionaries  were 
perhaps  not  surprised  to  find  great  religious  igno- 
rance among  the  Arkansas  Catliolics,  and  that  for 


mosi  of  those  whom  the  missionaries  met,  the 
celebration  of  Mass  was  "a  wonderful  ceremony" 
(Shea,    op.    cit.). 

In  1826  the  diocese  was  formally  divided,  and 
Bishop  Rosati  made  Bishop  of  the  new  Diocese  of 
St.  Louis,  comprising  the  portion  of  the  diWded 
diocese  north  of  Louisiana.  So  late  as  1830  the 
bishop  wrote,  "  In  Arkansas  Territory  where  there 
are  more  than  two  thousand  scattered  Catholics, 
there  is  not  a  .single  priest".  But  in  1832  one  priest 
had  entered  the  Territory  and  to  his  aid  a  newly- 
ordained  priest  was  sent  in  that  year.  Bishop 
Rosati  died  in  1843.  The  State  of  Arkansas  with 
Indian  Territory  was  erected  into  the  new  Diocese 
of  Little  Rock,  and  the  Rev.  Andrew  Byrne  of  the 
Diocese  of  New  York  was  named  as  its  bishop,  and 
was  consecrated  in  1844.  Despite  all  past  efforts 
Bishop  Byrne  found  that  the  Catholic  population 
of  the  whole  diocese  did  not  exceed  "seven  hundred 
souls  ..."  scattered  in  every  county  in  the  state. 
There  was  only  one  priest.  There  were  two  churches 
loaded  with  debt.  Dr.  Shea  states  that  "the  pre- 
vailing ignorance  and  vice  were  deplorable  and  almost 
insurmountable".  We  recall  what  Cclonel  Marcy 
wrote  concerning  the  inhabitants  of  the  interior  of  the 
State,  "these  people  have  but  little  appreciation  of 
the  sanctity  and  holiness  of  the  principles  inculcated 
by  our  Christian  religion"  (.Army  Life,  387).  In 
the  beginning  of  1861  the  diocese  had  nine  priests 
and  eleven  churches.  On  10  June,  1862,  during  the 
Civil  War,  Bishop  Byrne  died  and  during  the  war 
no  successor  was  appointed.  In  1866  the  Rev.  Ed 
ward  Fitzgerald  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  was  named  as 
bishop.  "He  made  the  sacrifice",  says  Dr.  Shea, 
"and  was  consecrated,  3  February,  1867,  to  find 
but  five  priests  in  the  diocese  and  three  houses  of 
Sisters  of  Mercy". 

Catholic  Religious  Statistics. — In  1891,  the  Indian 
Territory  became  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  and  in  1905 
was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Oklahoma,  and  in 
1906,  the  diocese,  presided  over  by  the  Riglit 
Rev.  Bishop  Fitzgerald,  comprised  only  the  State 
of  Arkansas.  In  the  diocese  there  are  26  secular 
priests  and  34  priests  of  religious  orders,  41  churches 
with  resident  priest,  32  missions  with  churches, 
and  67  stations,  1  college  for  boys  with  60  students, 
8  academies  with  1,006  students,  29  parishes  and 
missions  with  schools  having  1,642  pupils,  2  indu.s- 
trial  schools  with  360  pupils  and  1  orphan  asylum 
with  20  orphans,  the  total  of  young  people  under 
Catholic  care  being  3,109.  The  Catholic  population 
is  about  17,000.  A  law  of  the  state  provides  that 
"lands  and  tenements"  not  exceeding  forty  acres 
"with  the  improvements  and  appurtenances"  may 
be  held  in  perpetual  succession  for  the  use  of  any 
religious  society  for  "a  meeting  house,  bury- 
ing ground,  camp-ground,  or  residence  for  their 
preacher." 

United  Slates  Statutes  at  Large  (Boston,  1848),  II;  (Boston, 
ISfil),  III,  493;  (Boston,  1848),  V,  SO;  Kirby,  A  Digest  oi  the 
Statutes  of  Arkansas,  including  State  Constitution  (Austin, 
Texas.  1904)  Art.  I,  Art.  II,  §§  24,  25,  26,  Art.  Ill,  §  1, 
Art.  V,  §§1,  2,  5,  Art.  XIV,  §  1,  of  Statutes,  §§  7572,  7654. 
6851;  NuTTALi..  A  Journal  of  Travels  into  the  Arkansas  Terri- 
tory (Philadelphia,  1821):  De  Charlevoix,  History  and 
General  Description  of  New  France,  tr.  Shea  (New  York,  1900); 
III.  31;  GAYARRfc,  History  of  Louisiana  {ti ew  Orleans,  1903), 
Appenfiix;  Schouler,  History  of  the  United  States  of  America 
(New  York),  VI:  Wilson,  A  History  of  the  American  People 
(New  York,  1902),  V,  46;  Johnson  and  Others,  Campfire  and 
Battle  Field  (New  York,  1894);  Andrews,  The  United  States  in 
Our  Own  Time:  Marcy,  Thirty  Years  of  Army  Life  on  the  Border 
(New  York.  1.S60);  Twelfth  Cen.sua  of  the  United  States  (1900), 
I,  11.  VI,  \'1I1;  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  Bureau  of 
the  Ccisux.  liullelin  No.  20  (Washington,  1905);  No.  35  (Wash- 
ington, 1906);  No.  45  (Washington,  1906);  Shea,  Life  and 
Times  of  the  Most  Rev.  John  Carroll  (New  York,  1888);  Idem. 
Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Ch.  in  the  U.  S.  (New  York,  1892);  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission,  Sex'enteenth  .\nnual  Report  (Washing- 
ton, 1905):  Van  Oss,  American  Railroads  as  Investments.  548; 
Biennial  Report  .\rkantas  State  Treasurer,  1899-1900  tLittlo 
llock);  Catholic  Directory  (1906). 

Charles  W.  Sloane. 


I 

I 


ARLEOUI 


727 


ARMADA 


Arlegui,  Fray  Josft. — A  Spaniard  from  Biscay, 
first  uttuched  to  the  Franciscan  province  of  Cantubria, 
then  transferred  to  Zacateeas  in  Mexico.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  works  and  treatises  on  theological  sul>- 
jects,  some  of  value  to  the  student  of  Indian  eth- 
noloey.  His  most  important  work  was  the  "Cronica 
de  Zacateeas",  which  was  published  in  1737.  He 
gives  an  account  of  the  missions  in  his  province,  and 
embodies  many  valuable  facts  about  the  aborigines. 
The  book  is  the  main  .source  both  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  Indians  of  Zacateeas,  otherwi.se  hardly  touched  by 
published  documents,  and  of  the  first  attempts  to 
bring  thcui  to  Christianity. 

Crmirii  ,le  h  l-rorinria  de  ZacaUcat,  1737.  Very  rare. 
BfcniHTAiN  i)K  SorzA,  Hiblioteca  Hispano'Ameru.urui  ^rUn- 
trional  (Mexico,  181(>),  I;  Casual  mention  also  in  the  Docu^ 
mentoa  para  la  Ilistoria  de  Mexico,  first  and  second  series  (out 
of  print). 

Ad.  F.  Bandei.iek. 

Aries,  The  Diocese  of.    See  Aix. 

Axles,  The  Synods  op. — The  first  Council  of  .\rles 
was  held  in  .314,  for  the  purpose  of  putting  an  end  to 
the  Donatist  controversy.  It  confirmed  the  findings 
of  the  Council  of  Koine  (318),  i.  e.  it  recognized  the 
validity  of  the  election  of  Ciecilian  of  Carthage,  and 
confirmed  the  cxconununication  of  Donatus  of 
CasiE  Nigrip.  Its  twentj'-two  canons  dealing  with 
various  abuses  that  ha<l  crept  into  ecclesiastical  life 
since  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  (281-30o),  are 
among  the  most  important  documents  of  early 
ecclesiastical  Icgi.-ilation.  A  council  held  in  3.53,  and 
attendeil,  among  others,  by  two  papal  legates,  was 
decidedly  Arian  in  attitude.  The  legates  were 
tempted  into  rejecting  communion  with  .Vthanasius 
and  refused  to  condemn  Arius,  an  act  which  filled 
Pope  Liberius  with  grief.  In  the  synod  of  143  (4.")1.'). 
attended  also  by  bishops  of  ncightiouring  provinces, 
fifty-six  canons  were  fonnulated,  mostly  repetitions 
of  earlier  disciplinary  decrees.  Neophytes  were  ex- 
cluded from  major  orders;  married  men  aspiring  to 
the  priesthood  were  reciuircd  to  promise  a  life  of 
continency,  and  it  was  forbidden  to  consecrate  a 
bishop  without  the  assistance  of  three  other  bishops 
ami  trie  consent  of  the  metropolitan.  A  council  of 
451  held  after  the  clo.se  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
in  that  year,  sent  its  adhesion  to  the  "  Epistola  dog- 
matica"  of  Leo  I,  written  to  Flavian  of  Con.stan- 
tinople.  (See  Eutychianism.)  A  council  was  held 
on  New  Year's  Day,  4.55,  to  settle  the  differences 
that  had  arisen  between  the  Abbot  of  L<^rins  and 
the  Bishop  of  Fr^jus.  Apropos  of  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  archicpiscopal  See  of  Vienne  and  .Vrlcs  a 
council  was  held  in  the  latter  city  in  463.  which  called 
forth  a  famous  letter  from  St.  Leo  I  (Leonis  I,  0pp., 
ed.  Ballerini.  I,  '.HIS;  Hcfolc.  Conciliengeschichte,  II, 
,590).  Between  47.5  and  4S()  another  council  was 
called,  attended  by  thirty  bishops,  in  which  the  pre- 
dcstinationist  teachings  of  the  priest  Lucidus  were 
condemned.  In  524  a  council  was  held  under  the 
presidency  of  St.  Ca>sarius  of  Aries;  its  canons  deal 
chieHy  with  the  conferring  of  orders.  Little  is 
known  of  the  councils  of  554  and  682.  An  important 
council  was  held  in  813,  at  the  instigation  of  Charle- 
magne, for  the  correction  of  abuses  antl  the  re- 
establishment  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  Its  de- 
crees insist  on  a  sufficient  ecclesiastical  education  of 
bishops  and  priests,  on  the  duty  of  both  to  preach 
freouently  to  the  people  and  to  instruct  them  in  the 
Catnohc  Faith,  on  the  obligation  of  parents  to  in- 
struct their  children,  etc.  In  1034  a  council  was  held 
at  Aries  for  the  re-establishment  of  peace,  the  n'stora- 
tion  of  Christian  Faith,  the  awakening  in  the  popular 
heart  of  a  sense  of  divine  goodness  ami  of  .salutarj' 
fear  by  the  consideration  of  past  evils.  In  1236  a 
council  held  under  the  presidency  of  Jean  Baussan, 
Archbishop  of  Aries,  issued  twenty-four  canons, 
mostly   against    the   prevalent    Albigensian    heresy, 


and  for  the  ob.servance  of  the  decrees  of  the  Lateran 
(>)uncil  of  1215  and  that  of  Toulouse  in  1229.  Close 
inspection  of  their  dioce.ses  is  urged  on  the  bi.shops, 
as  a  rcmeily  against  the  spread  of  heresy;  testaments 
are  declared  invalid  unless  made  in  the  presence  of 
the  parish  priest.  This  measure,  met  with  in  other 
councils,  was  meant  to  prevent  testamentary  disposi- 
tions in  favour  of  known  heretics.  In  1251,  Jean, 
.Vrchbishop  of  .Vrles,  held  a  council  near  Avignon 
(('(inciliiim  Insculniium),  among  who.se  thirteen 
canons  is  one  providing  that  the  sponsor  at  baptism 
is  bound  to  give  only  the  white  robe  in  whicli  the 
infant  is  baptized.  In  121)0  a  council  held  by  Flor- 
entin,  Archoishop  of  Aries,  decreed  that  confirma- 
tion must  be  received  fasting,  and  that  on  Sundays 
and  feast  days  the  religious  should  not  open  their 
churches  to  tho  faithful,  nor  preach  at  the  hour  of 
the  parish  Ma.ss.  The  laity  should  be  instructed  by 
their  parish  priests.  The  religious  should  also  fre- 
((uent  the  parochial  .service,  for  the  sake  of  good 
example.  This  council  also  condemned  the  doc- 
trines spreatl  abroad  under  the  name  of  Joachim 
of  Flora.  In  1275,  earlier  observances,  twenty-two 
in  number,  were  promulgated  anew  at  a  Council  of 
Aries. 

Mansi,  CoU.  Cone,  II,  403,  and  passim;  Hkfei.k,  ConcUien- 
gesch.,  I,  201,  052;  II,  298  and  passim;  on  the  British  bishops 
at  the  First  Council  of  Aries  see  The  Munlh  (188,5),  LV,  380 
and  on  its  date  Von  Funk,  Theol.  Quartalschr.  (1890),  LXXII. 
296-304;  also  Duchesnk,  Mfl.  d'arch.  el  dhitt.  de  Vtg.  franr.  de 
Rome  (1890).  X,  040-644:  Trichaud.  llisl.  de  realise  d'Arlei 
(NImes,  Paris,  1857);  Babonids,  Annalea  EccUsiaatici  (1590). 
314;  Mi'NCHEN,  Ueber  das  erale  Condi  rim  Aries  in  Zeilschrift 
phU.-KnIh  Thml.,  IX,  78;  Chevamkr.  Topo-bibl.  (Pans, 
1894-9!)\  I,  2IL'.  2!:!. 

Thomas  J.  Sh.\h.\n. 

Annachanus.  See  Jansenius.  Corneui's;  Lom- 
DAiio,  I'kteu  (Bishop  of  Armagh);  Fitzrai.hh, 
Uichahd. 

Armada,  The  Spanish,  also  called  the  Invincible 
Armada  (infra),  and  more  correctly  La  Armada 
Clrande,  was  a  fleet  (I)  intended  to  invade  England 
and  to  put  an  end  to  the  long  series  of  English  ag- 
gressions against  the  colonies  and  po.ssessions  of  the 
Spanish  Crown;  (II)  it  wjus  however  all  but  de- 
stroyed by  a  week's  fighting  and  a  disjustrous  cruise; 
(III)  this  led  to  the  gradual  decadence  of  the  mari- 
time power  of  Spain;  (IV)  Catholics  upon  the  whole 
supported  the  Armada,  but  with  some  notable  ex- 
ceptions. 

1.  English  PROvocATioN.^At  the  commence- 
ment of  Elizabeth's  reign  (15.58)  Philip  had  been  her 
best  friend.  His  intercession  helped  to  save  lier  life 
after  Wyatt's  rebellion  (15.541.  He  facilitated  her 
accession,  supported  her  against  the  claims  of  Mary 
Stuart,  and  mtervene<l  powerfully  in  her  favour  to 
prevent  French  aid  from  being  sent  to  Scotland. 
VVhen  England  had  emerged  triumphant  at  the 
treaty  of  Edinburgh  (1.5()()),  Elizabeth  sent  him  a 
special  mission  of  thanks,  with  the  Catholic  Lord 
Montague  at  its  head,  to  whom  she  gave  a  dispensa- 
tion from  the  laws  of  England  in  order  that  he 
might  practise  Catholicism  during  the  embassy. 
The  victory  of  Protestantism  l)eing  now  complete, 
greater  coolness  was  .shown.  As  time  went  on  the 
Spanish  ambassador  was  treated  with  disrespect, 
his  house  beset,  visitors  to  his  chaix-l  imprisoned; 
Spanish  ships  were  robbed  with  impunity  in  the 
Cnanncl.  In  1.562  Hawkins  forced  his  way  by  vio- 
lence into  the  forbidden  markets  of  the  West  Indies, 
his  trade  being  chiefly  in  slaves  whom  he  had  cap- 
tured in  West  Africa.  In  1.564  and  1.567  the  same 
violent  me.asures  were  repeated,  but  the  l:u«t  ended 
in  disaster  for  him.  Meanwhile  the  Protestant  party 
in  the  Netherlands  liegan  to  rebel  in  1.566,  and  was 
subsidized  by  England.  In  1.568,  a  Spanish  ship 
having  put  into  Plymouth  with  pay  for  the  whole 
of  the  .Spanish  army  in  Flanders,  the  money  was 
seized  by  the  English  Government.     Hereupon  en- 


ABMADA 


728 


ARMADA 


sued  reprisals  on  both  sides,  trade  was  paralyzed, 
and  war  was  on  the  point  of  breaking  out,  both 
on  the  occasion  of  the  Northern  Rising  (1569)  and 
at  the  time  of  the  Ridolfi  conspiracy  in  1571.  The 
impnident  Spanish  ambassador,  Don  Gerau  Despes, 
was    tlien    expelled    from    England,    Philip    having 

Creviously  dismissed  from  Spain  the  English  am- 
assador,  Dr.  .Mann,  an  apostate  priest,  whose  se- 
lection was  naturally  considered  an  insult.  Whilst 
the  Spanish  fleet  was  fighting  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity against  the  Turks  at  Lepanto  (1572),  Drake 
thrice  sacked  the  almost  defenceless  colonies  on  the 
Spanish  Main,  from  which  he  returned  with  enormous 
booty  (1570,  1571,  1.572-73).  Slightly  better  rela- 
tions between  the  two  countries  ensued  towards 
the  close  of  this  decade,  when  Elizabeth  feared  that, 
with  the  decay  of  Spanish  power  in  the  Netherlands, 
France  might  conquer  that  country  for  herself. 
So  in  1578  a  Spanish  ambassador  was  received  in 
London,  though  at  the  same  time  Drake  was  al- 
lowed to  sail  on  his  great  buccaneering  voyage 
round  the  world.  On  his  return  public  opinion 
began  to  condemn  aloud  the  "master-robber  of  the 
New  World  ",  but  Elizabeth  exerted  herself  warmly 
in  his  favour,  gave  him  the  honour  of  knighthood, 
and  three  years  later,  immediately  before  sending 
her  army  to  fight  the  Spaniards  in  the  Netherlands, 
she  despatched  him  once  more  to  spoil  the  West 
Indies.  It  was  then  that  Drake  "convinced  Spain 
that  in  self-defence  she  must  crush  England  " 
(J.  R.  Seeley,  Growth  of  British  Policy).  Mr. 
Froude  and  the  older  panegyrists  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth frequently  justify  the  English  piracies  as  acts 
of  retaliation  against  the  cruelties  of  the  Inquisition, 
and  maintain  that  Philip  had  given  cause  for  war 
by  encouraging  plots  against  Elizabeth's  throne  and 
life.  The  prime  motive  of  the  Armada,  they  say, 
was  to  overthrow  Protestantism.  But  these  state- 
ments cannot  be  substantiated,  and  are  misleading 
(see  Laughton,  p.  xxii;  Pollen,  The  Month,  Feb- 
ruary, March,  April,  1902).  It  is  true  that  the 
ineffective  attempts  of  Spain  to  shut  out  the  rest 
of  Europe  from  traffic  with  her  colonies  were  unwise, 
perhaps  unjust,  and  acted  as  an  incentive  to  secret 
and  unwarranted  traffic.  But  it  must  also  be  re- 
membered that  trade  monopolies  flourished  in 
England  to  such  an  extent  that  her  pirates  may 
have  taken  to  that  profession  because  honourable 
trading  was  so  much  impeded  (Dasent,  Acts  of 
Privy  Council,  VII,  p.  xviii).  On  the  other  hand, 
one  must  unreservedly  blame  the  cruelties  of  Alva 
and  of  the  Spanish  Inquisitors,  which  much  em- 
bittered the  struggle  when  it  had  once  begun. 

II.  The  Conflict.— Since  July,  1580,  Philip  had 
begun  to  regard  the  English  freebooters  in  a  new 
light.  He  had  then  made  good  by  force  of  arms 
his  claim  to  the  crown  of  Portugal,  by  which  he 
became  lord  over  the  rich  and  widely-stretching 
Portuguese  colonies.  If  he  did  not  soon  bestir  him- 
self to  defend  them,  they  would  be  lost  as  well  as 
robbed.  He  was,  moreover,  now  the  master  of  a 
considerable  fleet.  The  danger  from  the  Turk  had 
been  greatly  diminished.  The  religious  wars  had 
sapped  the  power  of  France.  James  of  Scotland 
had  broken  the  trammels  with  which  Elizabeth  had 
bound  him  during  his  boyhood,  and  he  showed  some 
desire  to  help  his  mother,  (Jueen  Mary,  and  slie 
might  persuade  the  English  Catholics  to  support  the 
army  that  should  be  sent  to  liberate  her.  But 
Philip  arrived  at  his  conclusion  so  very  slowly  and 
silently  that  it  is  hard  to  say  when  he  passed  from 
speculative  approbation  of  war  to  the  actual  deter- 
mination to  tight.  In  April,  May,  and  Jvme,  1587, 
Drake  cruised  off  the  coast  of  Spain  and,  contrary 
to  Elizal>eth's  wish,  attacked  the  Spanish  shipping, 
burnt  the  half-finishe<l  and  unmanned  ships  at 
Cadiz,  and  did  enormous  damage  to  the   Spanish 


navy.  Philip,  at  last  convinced  that  fight  he  must, 
now  began  to  exert  himself  to  the  utmost.  But  his 
inefficiency  as  an  organizer  was  never  more  evident. 
Slow,  inactive,  and  not  only  ignorant  of  the  secret 
of  .sea-power,  but  unwilling  to  admit  that  there  was 
any  special  need  for  expert  advice  and  direction, 
he  wasted  months  on  making  plans  of  campaign 
while  the  building  and  victualling  of  the  fleet  was 
neglected.  The  Spaniards  of  that  day  were  reputed 
the  best  soldiers  in  the  world,  but  in  naval  manann  res 
and  in  the  use  of  heavy  artillery  they  were  far  be- 
hind their  rivals.  The  worst  blunder  of  all  waa 
committed  after  the  death  of  the  Marquess  of  Santa 
Cruz,  Don  Alvaro  de  Bazan  the  elder,  a  veteran 
sailor,  the  only  naval  commander  of  repute  that 
Spain  possessed.  Philip  after  long  consideration, 
appointed  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia  to  succeed 
him.  In  vain  did  the  duke  protest  his  inability 
and  his  lack  of  experience  in  naval  matters.  The 
king  insisted,  and  the  great  nobleman  loyally  left  his 
splendid  castle  to  attempt  the  impossible,  and  to 
make  in  good  faith  the  most  disastrous  errors  of 
leadership.  A  striking  comment  on  the  inefficiency 
of  the  vast  preparations  is  afforded  bj  the  letters  of 
the  papal  nuncio  at  Philip's  court.  He  reports  at 
the  end  of  February,  1588,  that  he  had  been  talking 
with  the  other  envoys  from  Germany,  France,  and 
Venice,  and  that  none  of  them  could  make  out  for 
certain  that  the  fleet  was  intended  to  attack  Eng- 
land after  all,  for  which  they  all  thought  it  far  too 
weak.  Next  month  he  was  reassured  by  one  of 
Philip's  own  councillors — they  felt  sure  all  would 
go  well,  ij  they  once  got  a  footing  in  England  (Vatican 
Archives,  Germania,  CX  sq.,  58,  601.  The  Armada 
left  Lisbon  on  the  20th  of  May,  1588.  It  consisted 
of  about  130  ships,  and  30,493  men;  but  at  least  half 
the  ships  were  transports,  and  two-thirds  of  the  men 
were  soldiers.  It  was  bound  for  Flanders,  where 
it  was  to  join  the  Prince  of  Parma,  who  had  built 
a  number  of  pontoons  and  transports  to  carry  over 
his  army.  But  the  fleet  found  it  necessary  to  put 
back  into  the  harbour  of  Corunna  almost  immediately, 
in  order  to  refit.  The  admiral  was  already  suggest- 
ing that  the  expedition  should  be  given  up.  but 
Philip  continued  to  insist,  and  it  sailed  again  on  the 
12th  of  July,  according  to  the  old  style  then  observed 
in  England.  This  time  the  voyage  prospered,  and  a 
week  later  the  Armada  had  reassembled  at  the 
Lizard  and  proceeded  next  day,  Saturday,  20  July, 
eastwards  towards  Flanders.  Beacon  lights  gave 
notice  of  their  arrival  to  the  English,  who  hurriedly 
put  out  from  Plymouth  and  managed  to  slip  past 
the  Spaniards  in  the  night,  thus  gaining  the  weather 
gauge,  an  advantage  they  never  afterwards  lost. 
The  fighting  ships  of  the  Armada  were  now  ar- 
ranged in  a  crescent,  the  transports  keeping  between 
the  horns,  and  in  this  formation  they  slowly  ad- 
vanced up  channel,  the  English  cannonading  the 
rearmost,  and  causing  the  loss  of  three  of  the  chief 
vessels.  Still  on  Saturday  afternoon,  27  July,  the 
Spaniards  were  anchored  in  Calais  roads,  in  sore  need 
of  refitting  indeed,  but  with  numbers  still  almost 
intact.  According  to  the  best  modern  authorities, 
these  numbers,  wliich  had  been  at  first  slightly  in 
favour  of  Spain,  now  that  the  English  had  received 
reinforcements  and  that  the  Spaniards  had  met  with 
losses,  were  in  favour  of  the  English.  There  were 
about  sixty  warships  in  either  fleet,  but  in  number 
and  weight  of  gims  the  advantage  was  with  the 
English,  and  in  gunnery  and  naval  tactics  there  was 
no  comparison  at  all.  Howard  did  not  allow  his 
enemy  any  time  to  refit.  The  next  night  soine 
fircslups  wore  drifted  into  the  Armada  as  the  tide 
flowed.  The  Spaniards,  ready  for  this  danger, 
slipped  their  cables,  but  nevertheless  suffered  some 
losses  from  collisions.  t)n  the  Monday  following, 
the  great  battle  took  place  off  Gravelines,  in  whicJ) 


ARMAGH 


729 


ARMAGH 


the  Spaniards  were  entirely  outclassed  and  defeated. 
It  says  much  for  llicir  lieroisin  that  only  one  ship 
was  reported  captured;  but  three  sank,  four  or  five 
ran  ashore,  and  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia  took 
the  resolution  of  leading  the  nmeli  damaged  rem- 
nant round  the  north  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and 
80  back  to  Spain.  But  for  that  very  difficult  voyage 
they  had  neither  a  chart  nor  a  pilot  in  the  whole 
fleet.  More  and  more  shi|is  wore  now  lost  in  every 
storm,  and  at  everj'  point  of  danger.  Eventually, 
on  the  13th  of  September,  the  duke  returned  to 
Santander,  having  lost  about  half  his  fleet  and  about 
three-quarters  of   his   men. 

III.  The  Sequkl. — Great  as  were  the  effects  of 
the  failure  of  the  Armada,  they  are  nevertheless 
often  exaggerated.  The  defeat  no  doubt  set  bounds 
to  the  expansion  of  Spain,  and  secured  the  power  of 
her  rival.  Yet  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  this 
change  was  immediate,  obvious,  or  uniform.  The 
wars  of  religion  in  France,  promoted  by  Elizabeth, 
ended  in  weakening  that  country  to  such  an  extent 
that  Spain  seemed  withii\  two  vc;irs  after  the  Armada 
to  be  nearer  to  universal  tlomination  than  ever 
before,  and  this  consununation  was  averted  by  the 
reconciliation  of  Henry  IV  to  Catholicism,  which, 
by  reuniting  France,  restored  the  balance  of  power 
in  Europe,  as  was  acknowledged  by  Spain  at  the 
peace  of  Vervins  in  1.598.  Even  the  change  of  sea- 
power  was  not  immediate  or  obvious.  In  reality 
England  had  always  been  the  sui)erior  at  sea,  as  the 
history  of  Drake  and  his  colleagues  clearly  shows. 
Her  weakness  lay  in  the  smallness  of  her  standing 
navy,  and  her  want  of  adequate  amiiumition.  Spain 
took  so  long  to  attempt  a  readjustment  of  the 
balance  of  sea-power,  tliat  Knglaml  liad  ample  time 
to  organize  and  arm  a  su|ierior  Hcet.  But  Spain, 
thougli  she  failed  at  sea,  remained  the  chief  power 
on  land  and,  having  recognized  her  naval  inferiority, 
strengthened  her  land  defonios  with  such  success 
that  the  depredations  of  the  Engli.sh  in  her  colonies 
after  the  defeat  were  incom|)aral)ly  lass  than  those 
which  had  occurred  before.  Iter  decline  ensued 
because  the  causes  of  the  ilijeal  were  not  remedied. 
Slave-labour,  with  its  attendant  corruptions,  in  the 
colonies,  want  of  organization,  of  development  and 
of  free  government  at  home,  joined  with  grasping 
at  power  abroad — these,  and  not  any  single  defeat, 
however  great,  were  the  causes  of  the  decline  of  the 
great  world-power  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

IV.  Catholic  Co-oi'er.miox. — Among  the  many 
side  issues  wliich  meet  the  student  of  the  history 
of  the  Armada,  that  of  the  co-operation  or  fa\our  of 
the  Pope,  and  of  the  Catholic  party  among  the  Eng- 
lish, is  naturally  important  for  Catholics.  There 
can  be  no  doubt,  then,  that  though  Spanish  pre- 
dominance was  not  at  all  desired  for  its  own  sake 
by  the  Catholics  of  England,  France,  and  Germany, 
or  of  Rome,  yet  the  wide-spread  suffering  and  irrita- 
tion caused  by  the  religious  wars  which  Elizabeth 
fomented,  and  the  indignation  aroused  by  her 
religious  persecution,  and  the  execution  of  Mary 
Stuart,  caused  Catholics  everywhere  to  sympathize 
with  Spain,  and  to  regard  the  Armada  as  a  crusade 
against  the  most  dangerous  enemy  of  the  Faith. 
Pope  Sixtus  V  agreed  to  renew  the  excommunication 
of  the  queen,  and  to  grant  a  large  subsidy  to  the 
Armada,  but,  knowing  the  .slownass  of  Spain,  would 
give  nothing  till  the  ex|iedition  should  actually  land 
m  England.  In  this  way  he  saved  his  million 
crowns,  and  was  spared  the  reproacli  of  having  taken 
futile  proceedings  against  the  heretical  queen.  This 
excommunication  had  of  course  been  richly  deserved, 
and  there  is  extant  a  proclamation  to  justify  it, 
which  was  to  have  been  published  in  England  if  the 
invasion  had  been  successful.  It  was  signed  by 
Cardinal  Allen,  and  is  entitled  "An  Admonition  to 
the   Nobility  and    Laity  of   England ".     It   was   in- 


tended to  comprise  all  that  could  be  said  against 
the  queen,  ana  the  indictment  is  therefore  fuller 
and  more  forcible  than  any  other  put  forward  by 
the  religious  exiles,  who  were  generally  very  reticent 
in  their  complaints.  Allen  also  carefully  consigned 
his  publication  to  the  fire,  and  we  only  know  of  it 
tlin)ui;h  one  of  Elizal)eth's  ubiiiuitous  spies,  who  had 
previously  stolen  a  copy.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
all  tlie  exiles  for  religion  at  that  time  shared  Allen's 
.sentiments,  but  not  so  the  Catholics  in  England. 
They  hatl  always  been  the  most  conser\'ative  of 
English  parties.  The  resentment  they  felt  at  being 
persecuted  led  them  to  blame  the  (lueon's  ministeis, 
but  not  to  question  her  right  to  rule.  To  them  the 
preat  power  of  Elizal>eth  was  evident,  the  forces  and 
mtontions  of  Spain  were  unknown  quantities.  They 
might,  should,  and  did  resist  until  complete  justifi- 
cation was  set  before  them,  and  this  was  in  fact 
never  attempted.  Much,  for  instance,  as  we  know 
of  the  Catholic  clergy  then  labouring  in  England, 
wo  cannot  find  that  any  of  them  used  religion  to 
advance  the  cause  of  the  Armada.  Protestant  and 
Catholic  contemporaries  alike  agree  that  the  English 
Catholics  were  energetic  in  their  preparations  against 
it.  This  being  so,  it  Wiis  inevitalilc  tliat  the  leaders 
of  the  Catholics  abroad  should  lo.sj  inllucnce,  through 
having  sided  with  Spain.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the 
pope  and  all  among  whom  they  lived  had  been  of 
the  same  mind,  it  was  evidently  unjust  to  blame 
their  want  of  political  insight  too  harshly.  In  point 
of  fact  the  change  did  not  come  until  near  the  end 
of  Elizabeth's  reign,  when,  during  the  appeals 
against  the  archpriest,  the  old  leaders,  especially 
the  Jesuit  father  Uobert  Persons,  were  freely  blamed 
for  the  Spanish  alliance.  The  terms  of  the  blame 
were  exaggerated,  but  the  reason  for  complaint  can- 
not be  (U-nicd. 

Tlic  liteniture  tlmt  has*  Rathered  round  the  Armada  ia 
voIuminouM.  and  ha.s  of  course  l)een  largely  influenced  by  the 
national  and  reliRious  prejudices  of  the  contending  nations. 
A  trifle  may  suffice  to  indicate  how  the  wind  has  been  blowing. 
Almost  all  writers  hitherto  have  written  of  the  "  Invincihle  " 
Armada,  thinking;  that  they  were  using  an  epithet  applied 
to  their  tieet  by  the  Spaniards  themselves,  and  one  that  con- 
fessedly betrayeil  Spanish  pride.  Now  it  appears  that  it 
was  only  one  of  the  insults  of  contemporary  English  pam< 
phletecrs.  and  is  not  foimd  in  anv  ccmlemporary  Spanish 
writer.  (Laughton.  p.  xi.t.)  On  the  English  siile  the  most 
representative  of  the  old  school  are  J.  L.  Motley,  Rise  of 
the  Dutch  Republic,  and  J.  .\.  P'noUDK,  History  of  England, 
XII.  and  English  tieamrn  of  the  SCctrenlh  Century.  The 
last  writer  is  notoriously  inaccurate,  hut  the  worst  fault  of 
both  is  their  reliance  upon  coloured,  and  even  grossly  preju- 
diced, evidence.  The  oliler  Spanish  view  is  given  bv  F. 
Strada.  Dc  Bella  Belgico,  and  L.  Cabrera  de  CoRnoBA,  fclipe 
Seguncto,  1G19.  Hut  all  these  writers  have  been  superseded 
by  the  publication  of  English  and  .Spanish  State  papers,  es- 
pecially by  J.  K.  Laughton  and  J.  8.  Corbett.  in  the  publi- 
cations of  the  Navy  Record  Society  (London,  1891'-03). 
I.  II:  and  the  Spani-sn  collections  of  Captain  C.  Fernandez 
DuRo.  Iai  Armidn  Invenciltle  (Madri<l,  1884\  and  Armada 
Eapiulohi.  II,  III  (.Madrid,  1S9(»:  and  Martin  Hume, 
.Spanish  Cnlciuiars.  Still  the  chief  desideratum  at  present 
is  a  more  ample  collection  of  Spanish  papers,  illustrating 
the  whole  naval  war  from  the  beginning.  D.  I>E  Alcedo 
Y  Herrera,  Piratcrias  y  aggressiunes  de  fos  ItUjUsei  en  la 
America  EspaAola  (Madrid.  1882),  contains  little  about  the 
period  under  review.  The  most  scholarly  account  of  the 
hghting  yet  publishecl  is  that  of  an  .American  student,  W.  F. 
Tit.TON,  Die  Katastrophe  der  spnnischen  Armada  (Freiburg, 
1894).  J.  S.  CoRBKTT,  Drake  and  the  Tudor  Navy,  endeavours 
to  reconcile  the  old  English  tra<litions  with  modern  dis- 
coveries, not  always  scicntiiicallv.  For  Papal  and  Catholic 
views  see  J.  A.  v.  IICbner.  Siile  Quint  (^Paris,  1S70.  best 
edition):  T.  F.  Knox,  Letters  of  Cardinal  Allm  (London 
1882). 

J.   11.   POLI.EN. 

Armagh,  The  .Vuchdiocese  of,  founded  by  St.  Pat- 
rick about  445,  as  the  primatial  and  metropohtan 
see  of  Ireland.  The  .\rcndioce,se  of  Armagh  at  pres- 
ent comprises  almost  the  whole  of  the  counties 
Armagh  and  Louth,  a  great  part  of  Tyrone,  and  por- 
tions of  Derry  and  of  Meath.  It  is  divided  into 
fiftv-five  parishes,  two  of  which,  .\rmagh  and  Dun- 
dalk,  are  mensal  parishes  attached  to  the  see.  The 
Diocesan  Chapter,  re-established  in   1856.  consisted 


ARMAGH 


730 


ARMAGH 


in  1906  of  thirteen  members,  including  a  dean,  arch- 
deacon, precentor,  clianeellor,  treasurer,  theologian, 
and  canons.  Diocesan  clergy,  139;  regulars,  39; 
churches  and  chapels,  156;  primary  schools,  227; 
Catholic  population  (1901),  147,358.  The  suffragan 
sees  are  Meath,  .\rdagh,  Clogher,  Derry,  Down  and 
Connor,  Dromore,  Kilmore,  Raphoe. 

St.  Patrick,  having  received  some  grants  of  land 
from  the  chieftain  Daire,  on  the  hill  called  Ard- 
Macha  (the  Height  of  Macha),  built  a  stone  church 
on  the  summit  and  a  monastery  and  some  other 
religious  edifices  round  about,  and  fixed  on  this  place 
for  his  metropolitan  see.  He  also  founded  a  school 
in  the  same  place,  which  soon  became  famous  and 
attracted  thousands  of  scholars.  In  the  course  of 
time  other  religious  bodies  settled  in  Armagh,  such 
as  the  Culdees,  who  built  a  monastery  there  in  the 
eighth  century.  The  city  of  Armagh  was  thus  until 
modem  times  a  purely  ecclesiastical  establishment. 
About  448,  St.  Patrick,  aided  by  Secundinus  and 
Auxilius,  two  of  his  disciples,  held  a  synod  at  Ar- 
magh, of  which  some  of  the  canons  are  still  extant. 
One  of  these  expressly  mentions  that  all  difficult 
cases  of  conscience  should  be  referred  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  and  that  if  too 
difficult  to  be  disposed  of  by  him  with  his  counsellors 
they  should  be  passed  on  to  the  Apostolic  See  of 
Rome.  In  Irish  times,  the  primacy  of  Armagh  was 
never  questioned,  and  for  many  centuries  the  pri- 
mates were  accustomed  to  make  circuits  and  visi- 
tations through  various  parts  of  the  country  for  the 
collection  of  their  dues.  This  wa-s  called  the  "  Cattle- 
cess",  or  the  "Law  of  St.  Patrick".  Beginning  in 
734,  during  the  incumbency  of  Primate  Congus,  it 
continued  till  long  after  the  English  invasion,  but 
ceased  as  soon  as  English  prelates  succeeded  to  the 
see.  Two  kings  gave  it  their  royal  sanction:  Felim, 
King  of  Munster,  in  822,  and  the  famous  Brian  Boru, 
in  1006.  The  record  of  the  latter's  sanction  is 
preserved  in  the  Book  of  Armagh,  in  the  hand- 
writing of  Brian  Boru's  chaplain.  To  add  solemnity 
to  their  collecting  tours,  the  primates  were  in  the 
habit  of  carrying  with  them  the  shrine  of  St.  Pat- 
rick, and  as  a  rule  their  success  was  certain.  These 
collections  seem  to  have  been  made  at  irregular  in- 
tervals and  were  probably  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
up  the  famous  school  of  Armagh,  said  at  one  time 
to  contain  7,000  students,  as  well  as  for  the  restora- 
tion, often  needed,  of  the  church  and  other  eccle- 
siastical buildings  when  destroyed  by  fire  or  plun- 
dered in  war.  The  Irish  annals  record  no  fewer 
than  seventeen  burnings  of  the  city,  either  partial  or 
total.  It  was  plundered  on  numerous  occasions  by 
the  Danes  and  the  clergy  driven  out  of  it.  It  was 
also  sacked  by  De  Courcy,  Fitz-Aldelm  and  Philip 
of  Worcester  during  the  conquest  of  Ulster  by  the 
.^nglo-Norm  ans . 

The  seizure  of  the  primacy  of  Armagh  by  laymen 
in  the  eleventh  century  has  received  great  promi- 
nence owing  to  St.  Bernard's  denunciation  of  it  in 
his  life  of  St.  Malachy,  but  the  abuse  was  not  with- 
out a  parallel  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The 
chiefs  of  the  tribe  in  whose  territory  Armagh  stood 
usurped  the  position  and  temporal  emoluments  of 
the  primacy  and  discharged  by  deputy  the  eccle- 
siastical functions.  The  abuse  continued  for  eight 
generations  until  Cellach,  known  as  St.  Celsus  (1105- 
29),  who  was  intruded  as  a  layman,  had  himself 
consecrated  bishop,  and  ruled  the  see  with  great 
wisdom.  In  1111  he  held  a  great  synod  at  Fiadh- 
Mic-Aengus  at  which  were  present  fifty  bishops,  300 
priests,  and  3,000  other  ecclesiastics,  and  also  Mur- 
rough  O'Brian,  King  of  .southern  Ireland,  and  his 
nobles.  During  his  incumbency  the  priory  of  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul  at  .Vrm.igh  was  Ve-fovmded  by  Imar, 
the  learned  preceptor  of  St.  Malachy.  This  was  the 
first  establishment  in  Ireland  into  which  the  Canons 


Regular  of  St.  Augustine  had  been  introduced.  Rod- 
eric  O'Connor,  monarch  of  Ireland,  afterwards  granted 
it  an  annual  pension  for  a  public  school.  After  a 
short  interval,  Celsus  was  succeeded  by  St.  Malachy 
O'Morgair  (1134-37),  who  later  suffered  many  trib- 
ulations m  trying  to  effect  a  reformation  in  the  dio- 
cese. He  resigned  the  see  after  three  years  and  re- 
tired to  the  Bishopric  of  Down.  In  1139  he  went  to 
Rome  and  solicited  the  Pope  for  two  palliums,  one 
for  the  See  of  Armagh  and  the  other  probably  for 
the  new  iletropolitan  See  of  Cashel.  The  following 
year  he  introduced  the  Cistercian  Order  into  Ireland, 
by  the  advice  of  St.  Bernard.  He  died  at  Clair- 
vaux,  while  making  a  second  journey  to  Rome. 
St.  Malachy  is  honoured  as  the  patron  saint  of  the 
diocese.  Gelasius  succeeded  him  and  during  a 
long  incumbency  of  thirty-seven  years  held  many 
important  .synods  which  effected  great  reforms.  At 
the  Synod  of  Kells,  held  in  1152  and  presided  over 
by  Cardinal  Paparo,  the  Pope's  legate,  Gelasius  re- 
ceived the  pallium  and  at  the  same  time  three  others 
were  handed  over  to  the  new  metropolitan  sees  of 
Dublin,  Cashel,  and  Tuam.  The  successor  of  Gela- 
sius in  the  see,  Cornelius  Mac  ConcaiUe,  who  died 
at  Chamb^ry  the  following  year,  on  a  journey  to 
Rome,  has  been  venerated  ever  since  in  that  locality 
as  a  saint.  He  was  succeeded  by  Gilbert  O'Caran 
(1175-80),  during  whose  incumbency  the  see  suf- 
fered greatly  from  the  depredations  of  the  Anglo- 
Norman  invaders.  William  Fitz-Aldelm  pillaged 
Armagh  and  carried  away  St.  Patrick's  crosier, 
called  the  "Staff  of  Jesus".  O'Caran 's  successor 
was  Thomas  O'Conor  (1181-1201).  In  the  year  after 
his  succession  to  the  see.  Pope  Lucius  III,  at  the  in- 
stance of  Jolm  Comyn,  the  first  English  prelate  in 
the  See  of  Dublin,  tried  to  abolish  the  old  Irish  cus- 
tom accorch'ng  to  which  the  primates  claimed  the 
right  of  making  solemn  circuits  and  visitations  in 
the  province  of  Leinster  as  well  as  those  of  Tuam 
and  Munster.  The  papal  Bull  issued  was  to  the  ef- 
fect that  no  archbishop  or  bishop  should  hold  any 
assembly  or  ecclesiastical  court  in  the  Diocese  of 
Dublin,  or  treat  of  the  ecclesiastical  causes  and  af- 
fairs of  the  said  diocese,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  if  the  latter  were  actuallj'  in 
his  see,  unless  specially  authorized  by  the  Papal  See 
or  the  Apostolic  legate.  This  Bull  laid  the  ground- 
work of  a  bitter  and  protracted  controversy  between 
the  Archbishops  of  Armagh  and  of  Dublin,  concern- 
ing the  primatial  right  of  the  former  to  have  his 
cross  carried  before  him  and  to  trj'  ecclesiastical 
cases  in  the  diocese  of  the  latter.  This  contest, 
however,  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  regard- 
ing the  primacy,  which  did  not  arise  till  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

English  Period  (1215-1539). — As  the  first  Anglo- 
Norman  adventurers  who  came  to  Ireland  showed 
very  little  scruple  in  despoiling  the  churches  and 
monasteries,  Armagh  suffered  considerably  from 
their  depredations  and  the  clergy  were  almost  re- 
duced to  beggarj'.  When  the  EngUsh  kings  got  a 
footing  in  the  country,  they  began  to  interfere  in 
the  election  of  bishops  and  a  contest  arose  between 
King  John  and  the  Pope  regarding  Eugene  Mac  Gil- 
laweer,  elected  to  the  primatial  see  in  1203.  This 
prelate  was  present  at  the  General  Council  of  the  Lat- 
cran  in  1215  and  died  at  Rome  the  following  year. 
The  English  kings  also  began  to  claim  possession  of 
the  temporalities  of  the  sees  during  vacancies  and 
to  insist  on  the  newly-elected  bishops  suing  them 
humbly  for  their  restitution.  Primate  Reginald 
(1247-56),  a  Dominican,  obtained  a  papal  Brief 
uniting  the  county  of  Louth  to  the  See  of  Armagh. 
Primate  Patrick  "O'Scanlan  (1201-70),  also  a  Do- 
minican, rebuilt  to  a  large  extent  the  cathedral  of 
Annngh  and  founded  a  house  for  Franciscans  in 
that    city.     Primate    Nicholas    Mac   Ma-lisu    (1272- 


ARMAGH 


731 


ARMAGH 


1302)  signalized  himself  by  convening  an  important 
assembly  of  the  bishops  and  clergj'  of  Ireland  at 
Tuam  in  I'JOl,  at  which  they  bound  themselves  by 
solemn  oaths  to  resist  tlie  encroachments  of  the 
secular  power.  Primate  Richard  I'itz-Ualpli  (IS-IO- 
60)  contended  publicly  both  in  Ireland  and  Kng- 
land  with  tlie  Mendicant  Triars  on  the  question 
of  their  vows  and  privileges.  .V  contest  regarding 
the  primacy  of  .\rmagh  was  carried  on  intermit- 
tently during  these  centuries  by  the  .Archbishops  of 
Dubhn  and  Ca.shel,  especially  the  former,  sus  the  city 
of  Dublin  was  the  civic  metrojxilis  of  the  kingdom. 
During  the  English  period,  the  primates  rari'lv  visited 
the  city  of  Armagh,  i>referring  to  reside  at  tlie  arch- 
episcopal  manors  of  Dromiskin  and  Termonfechan, 
in  the  county  of  Louth  wliich  was  within  the  Pale. 
During  the  reign  of  Henrv  VIII,  Primate  Cromer, 
being  suspected  of  heresy  by  the  Holy  See,  was  de- 
posed in  favour  of  Robert  Wauchope  (lo39-,51),  a 
distinguished  theologian,  who  a.s,sisted  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  In  the  meantime,  (ieorge  Dowdall, 
a  zealous  supporter  of  Henrj',  had  been  intruded 
into  the  ."^ee  of  .Armagh  by  that  monarch,  but 
on  the  introduction  of  Protestantism  into  Ireland 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  he  left  the  kingdom 
in  disgust.  Thereu]K)n  the  king,  in  15,Vi,  ap|K)inted 
Hugh  (ioodacre  to  the  see.  He  was  the  first  Prot- 
estant prelate  who  assumed  the  title  of  Primate  ami 
enjoyed  the  temporalities  of  the  <liocese.  In  the 
beginning  of  tlie  reign  of  (Jueen  -Mary,  Dowdall 
(1553-58)  was  appointeil  by  the  Pope  to  the  see 
on  account  of  the  great  ze.il  he  hail  shown  against 
Protestantism,  though  at  the  same  time,  he  had 
acted  in  a  .schisniiitical  way. 

Peuiod  of  PERSErrTioN. — After  the  short  incum- 
bency of  Donagh  O'Tighe  (1560-62),  the  see  was 
filled  by  Ricliard  Creagh  (1564-85),  a  native 
of  Limerick.  He  was  arrested  by  order  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  and  imprisoned  by  her  in  the  Tower 
of  London,  where  he  was  tortured  and  maltreated 
and  left  to  languish  in  captivity  for  eighteen  years 
till  his  death.  Edward  Mac  Oauran,  who  succeetled 
him  (1587-94),  was  verj'  active  in  soliciting  aid  from 
the  pope  and  the  king  of  Spain  for  the  Irish  who 
were  then  engaged  in  a  stniggle  for  liberty  of  con- 
science with  the  English  Queen,  .\fter  an  interval 
of  eight  years,  lie  was  succeeded  by  Peter  Lombard 
(1601-25),  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time.  He  remained  in  exile,  in  Rome,  during  the 
whole  twenty-four  years  of  his  incumbency  and 
thus  never  once  visited  his  diocese.  Hugh  Mac  Caw- 
ell,  a  Franciscan,  was  consecrated  abroad  for  the 
see  in  1626,  but  died  before  he  could  reach  it. 
Hugh  O'Reilly,  the  next  primate  (I628-.i3),  %vas 
very  active  in  the  jidlitical  movements  of  his  day. 
In  U>42,  he  summoned  the  lister  bishops  and  clergj' 
to  a  sjmod  at  Kells  in  which  the  war  then  carried 
on  by  the  Irish  w.as  declared  lawful  and  pious.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Confederation  of  Kil- 
kenny and  Wiis  appointed  a  member  of  the  Supreme 
Council  of  twenty-four  persons  who  carrietl  on  the 
government  of  tlie  country  in  the  name  of  King 
Charles  I.  After  the  defeat  and  ileath  of  most  of 
the  Catholic  Irish  chieftains  he  was  electeil  gener- 
alissimo of  the  Catholic  forces  and  jirolonged  the 
heroic  though  hopeless  conflict.  Eilmund  t)'Reilly 
(1657-69)  succeeded  to  the  see,  but  owing  to  the 
difficulties  of  the  time  was  only  able  to  spend  two 
years  in  his  diocese  out  of  the  twelve  of  his  incum- 
bency. He  wa.s  exiled  on  four  different  occa.sions. 
During  the  whole  time  he  spent  in  the  diocese,  he 
was  hiding  in  woods  and  caves  ami  never  had  any 
bed  but  a  cloak  thrown  over  straw.  He  suffered  a 
great  deal  from  the  machinations  of  the  notorious 
Father  Walsh,  the  author  of  the  "Loyal  Remon- 
strance" (1661,  1672)  to  King  Charles  II,  and  dietl  in 
exile  in  France. 


The  next  primate  wa.s  the  Venerable  Oliver  Plun- 
ket  (166iM<l),  the  cau.se  of  who.se  beatification 
is  at  pre-sent  being  promoted.  .Shortly  after  his 
accession  to  the  see,  he  w;ls  obliged  to  defend 
the  primatial  rights  of  .Armagh  against  the  claims 
i)Ut  forward  for  Dublin  by  its  archl)isliop,  Dr.  Peter 
Talbot.  ,\t  a  meeting  of  the  Catholic  clergy  in 
Dublin  in  1670,  each  of  these  prelates  refu.sed  to 
subscribe  subsequent  to  the  other.  Dr.  Plunket 
thereuixjn  wrote  a  work  on  the  ancient  rights  and 
prerogatives  of  his  .see,  published  in  1()72,  under  the 
title  "Jus  Primatiale;  or  the  ancient  Pre-eminence 
of  the  See  of  .-Vrmagh  above  all  the  other  .Arch- 
bishops in  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland,  asserted  by  O 
A.  T.  II.  P".  This  was  replied  to  two  years  later 
by  Dr.  Talbot  in  a  dissertation  styled  "Priniatus 
Dublinensis;  or  the  chief  rea.sons  on  which  the  Church 
of  Dublin  relies  in  the  jMssession  and  prosecution  of 
her  right  to  the  Primacy  of  Ireland".  A  violent 
persecution  stilled  the  controversy  for  some  time 
and  subsequent  primates  a.s.sertea  their  authority 
from  time  to  time  in  Dublin.  In  1719  two  Hriefs 
of  Clement  XI  were  in  favour  of  the  claims  of  Armagh. 
Still  the  matter  wa.s  not  allowed  to  rest  and  Dr.  Hugh 
Mac  .Mahon  felt  compelled  to  write  a  work  treating 
the  subject  exhaustively  in  answer  to  an  anonymous 
pamphlet  published  by  Father  John  Hennessy,  a 
.Jesuit  of  Clonmel.  Dr.  Mac  Mahon'.s  work,  written 
under  great  diliiculties,  appeared  in  1728  under  the 
title  of  "Jus  Primatiale  -Vrmacanum;  or  the  Prima- 
tial Right  of  Armagh  over  all  the  other  .Archbishops 
and  Bishops  and  the  entire  clergj'  of  Ireland,  iLs,serted 
by  H.  A.  M.  T.  II.  P".  This  learned  work  contains 
the  last  word  on  the  subject  and  is  conclusive.  In 
practice,  however,  the  primati.al  right  has  fallen  into 
desuetude  in  Ireland  as  in  every  other  part  of  the 
Church.  In  1679.  Venerable  Oliver  Plunket  was 
arrested  on  a  ridiculous  charge  of  conspiring  to 
bring  20,000  Frenchmen  into  the  country  and  of 
having  levied  moneys  on  his  dcrgj-  for  the  purpose 
of  maintaining  70.(H)0  men  for  an  armed  rebellion. 
After  being  confined  in  Dublin  Castle  for  many 
months,  he  was  presented  for  trial  on  these  and 
other  charges  in  Dundalk;  but  the  jury,  though  all 
Protestants,  refused  to  find  a  true  bill  against  him. 
The  venue,  however,  of  his  trial  w:us  changed  by  his 
enemies  to  London,  where  he  was  tried  by  an  Eng- 
lish jury  before  he  was  able  to  gather  his  witnesses 
and  bring  them  acro.ss,  though  he  made  the  request 
to  the  judge.  The  princijial  witne.s.>ies  .against  him 
were  some  disreputable  priests  and  friars  of  .Armagh 
whom  he  had  censured  and  suspended  for  their  bad 
conduct.  He  was  dragged  on  a  sledge  to  Tyburn 
on  1  Julv,  16S1,  where  he  was  hanged,  drawn,  and 
quartered  in  presence  of  an  immense  multitude.  His 
head,  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  is  in  the 
possession  of  the  Dominican  nuns  of  Drogheda. 

Pe.v.m,  Times. — During  this  trj-ing  [x-riod,  the  pri- 
mates had  to  live  in  the  greatest  obscurity  in  order 
to  disarm  the  malice  of  the  enemies  of  the  Catholic 
clergj'.  Dominic  Maguire  (1().'<.V1707).  a  Domini- 
can, succeedeil  to  the  .see  after  the  death  of  the  Ven- 
erable Oliver  Plunket.  This  primate,  having  to  go 
into  exile  after  the  surrender  of  Limerick  in  1691, 
spent  the  sixteen  years  that  inter\'ened  between  that 
time  and  his  death  in  a  verj'  <lestitute  condition 
In  the  meantime,  the  See  of  .Armagh  was  adminis- 
tered bj'  a  vicar.  Patrick  Donnellj',  a  priest  of  the 
diocese,  who  in  1697  was  appointe<l  Bishop  of  Dro- 
more,  though  retaining  the  administration  of  .Armagh 
for  several  j'ears  afterwanls.  His  name  occurs  in 
the  government  register  of  the  "popish  clergj'"  of 
Armagh,  made  in  1704,  as  the  pretendctl  jKipish 
priest  of  that  part  of  the  parish  of  Newry  that  lies 
in  the  countj'  of  .Armagh.  The  sureties  for  his  good 
conduct  were  Terence  Murphy  of  Lurgan  and  Pat- 
rick 'iuinni.s.se  of   the  s.ime   town.     Altogether  the 


ARMAGH 


732 


ARMAGH 


names  of  nineteen  parish  priests  appear  on  the  reg- 
ister for  the  county  of  Armagh.  From  flie  returns 
made  in  1731  by  the  Protestant  archbisliops  and 
bishops  regarding  tlie  growth  of  popery  in  Ireland, 
we  find  tliat  in  tlie  Diocese  of  Armagh  there  were 
26  Mass-houses.  77  officiating  priests,  5  friaries,  22 
friars,  1  nunnerj'  with  9  nuns,  7  private  chapels  and 
40  popish  scliools.  Owing  to  the  severity  of  the 
laws  tliere  was  no  primate  resident  in  Ireland  for 
twenty-three  years  after  the  flight  of  Primate  Ma- 
guire,  in  1691.  Hugh  Mac  Mahon  (1714-.37),  Bishop 
of  Clogher,  was  at  last  appointed  to  tlie  bereft  see. 
Living  during  the  worst  of  the  penal  times,  the  pri- 
mate was  obliged  constantly  to  wander  from  place 
to  place,  saying  Mass  and  administering  Confirma- 
tion in  the  open  air.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  these 
difficulties  he  has  left  his  name  to  posterity  by  the 
learned  work  "Jus  Primatiale  Armacanum",  written 
by  command  of  the  pope  in  defence  of  the  primatial 
rights  of  .\rmagh.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
Bernard  Mac  Mahon  (1737—17),  then  Bishop  of 
Clogher,  who  is  described  as  a  prelate  remarkable 
for  zeal,  charity,  prudence,  and  sound  doctrine.  He 
also  suffered  considerably  from  the  persecution,  and 
spent  most  of  his  time  in  hiding.  Bernard  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  primacy  by  his  brother,  Ross  Mac  Ma- 
hon (1747-48),  also  Bishop  of  Clogher.  Michael 
O'Reilly  (1749-58),  Bishop  of  Derry,  was  the  next 
primate.  He  published  two  catechisms,  one  in  Irish 
and  tlie  other  in  English,  the  latter  of  which  has  been 
in  use  in  parts  of  tlie  north  of  Ireland  till  our  own 
time.  On  one  occasion  this  primate  and  eighteen  of 
his  priests  were  arrested  near  Dundalk.  He  lived 
in  a  small  thatched  cottage  at  Termonfeclian.  and 
at  times  had  to  lie  concealed  in  a  narrow  loft  under 
the  thatch,  .\nthony  Blake  (1758-86)  was  his  suc- 
cessor. The  persecution  having  subsided  to  a  great 
extent,  he  was  not  hurried  like  his  predecessors,  but 
nevertheless  could  lot  be  induced  to  live  perma- 
nently in  his  diocese,  a  circumstance  which  was  the 
occa-sion  of  much  discontent  among  his  clergy  and 
led  to  a  temporary  susjiension  from  his  duties.  Rich- 
ard O'Reilly  (1787-1818)  was  his  successor  in  the 
primacy.  Having  an  independent  fortune,  he  was 
the  first  Catholic  primate  since  the  Revolution  who 
was  able  to  live  in  a  manner  becoming  his  dignified 
station.  By  liis  gentleness  and  affability  he  suc- 
ceeded in  quieting  the  dissensions  which  had  dis- 
tracted the  diocese  during  the  time  of  his  prede- 
cessor and  was  thenceforward  known  as  the  "  .\ngel 
of  Peace".  In  1793,  he  laid  the  foundation-stone  of 
St.  Peter's  Church  in  Drogheda,  which  was  to  serve 
as  his  pro-cathedral,  one  of  the  first  Catholic  churches 
to  be  built  within  the  walls  of  a  town  in  Ireland 
since  the  Protestant  Reformation.  The  Protestant 
Corporation  of  Drogheda,  wearing  their  robes  and 
carrying  the  mace  and  sword,  appeared  on  the  scene 
and  forbade  the  ceremony  to  proceed,  but  their  pro- 
test was  disregarded. 

MouEH.N  Times.— Patrick  Curtis  (1819-32),  who 
had  been  rector  of  the  Irish  College  of  Salamanca, 
was  appointed  to  the  see  in  more  hopeful  times  and 
lived  to  witness  the  emancipation  of  the  Catholics 
of  Ireland.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  join  the 
Catholic  Association,  and  being  on  friendly  terms 
with  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  whom  he  had  met  in 
Spain  during  the  Peninsular  War,  was  able  to  ad- 
vance considerately  tlie  cause  of  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion. Thomas  Kelly  succeeded  (1832-35).  He  drew 
up  the  statutes  wliidi  are  still  in  use  in  the  diocese 
and  lived  and  died  witli  the  reputation  of  a  saint. 
William  Crolly  succeeded  (183.5-49).  He  was  the 
first  Catholic  iirimate  to  reside  in  .Armagh  and  per- 
form episcopal  functions  there  since  the  per-secution 
began,  and  signalized  himself  by  beginning  the  noble 
cathedral  which  it  luis  taken  more  than  sixty  years 
to  bring  to  completion.     The  foundation-stone  was 


laid  17  March.  1840,  and  before  the  primate's  death 
the  walls  had  been  raised  to  a  considerable  height. 
Paul  Cullen  succeeded  in  1849.  but  was  translated  to 
the  See  of  Dublin  in  1852.  In  1S50  he  pre.sided  over 
the  National  Synod  of  Thurles,  the  first  of  the  kind 
held  in  Ireland  since  the  convention  of  the  bishops 
and  clergj'  in  Kilkenny,  in  1642.  Joseph  Dixon 
(1852-66),  the  next  primate,  held  a  synod  in  Dro- 
gheda in  1854,  at  which  all  the  northern  bishops  as- 
sisted. In  1856,  the  Diocesan  Chapter,  consisting  of 
thirteen  members,  was  formed.  .4rchbishop  Dixon 
resumed  the  building  of  the  cathedral,  but  did  not 
live  to  see  it  finished.  Michael  Kieran  (1S66-69) 
succeeded,  residing  in  Dundalk  during  his  tenure  of 
the  primatial  see.  His  successor,  Daniel  Mac  Gettigan 
(1870-87),  spent  three  years  of  earnest  labour  in 
the  completion  of  the  cathedral,  and  was  able  to 
open  it  for  divine  worship  in  1873.  The  [ircsent 
illustrious  occupant  of  the  see,  Cardinal  Michael 
Logue,  succeeded  to  the  primacy  in  1887.  He  is 
the  first  Primate  of  Armagh  to  become  a  member  of 
the  Sacred  College.  He  has  devoted  himself  for  sev- 
eral years  to  the  task  of  beautifjdng  and  completing 
in  every  sense  the  noble  edifice  erected  by  his  pred- 
ecessors. In  the  building  of  the  sacristy,  librarj-, 
synod-hall,  muniment-room,  the  purcliase  in  fee- 
simple  of  the  site,  and  the  interior  decorations  and 
altars,  he  has  spent  more  than  £50.000  on  what  is 
now  known  as  the  National  Cathedral.  This  great 
temple  was  consecrated  on  24  July,  1904.  Cardinal 
Vincenzo  \'annutelli.  representing  Pope  Pius  X,  was 
present  at  the  consecration. 

Religious  Institutions  in  the  Archdiocese. — 
There  is  a  Franciscan  and  an  Augustinian  friary  in 
Drogheda,  and  the  Dominicans  have  one  founded 
by  Primate  Netterville  in  1224.  They  also  have 
one  in  Dundalk,  estabUshed  originally  at  Carling- 
ford  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Of 
the  modern  congregations,  the  Vincentians  were 
introduced  into  Armagh  by  Primate  Dixon  in  1861, 
to  take  charge  of  the  ecclesiastical  seminary.  The 
Marist  Feathers,  also  at  Primate  Dixon's  request, 
came  to  Dundalk  the  same  year  to  conduct  a  college. 
The  Redemptorists  were  brought  there  by  Primate 
Mac  Gettigan  in  1876.  Primate  Cullen  brought  the 
Irish  Christian  Brothers  to  Armagh  in  1851,  Primate 
Dixon  brought  them  to  Drogheda  in  1857,  and 
Primate  Kieran  to  Dundalk  in  1869.  The  French 
Congregation  of  Christian  Brothers  (de  la  Salle) 
have  schools  in  Dundalk,  Keady.  and  Ardee.  The 
Presentation  Brothers  have  schools  at  Dungannon. 
The  Dominican  Nuns,  invited  to  Drogheda  in  1722 
by  Primate  Hugh  Mac  Mahon,  conduct  a  boarding- 
school  and  a  day-school.  The  Presentation  Nuns, 
who  settled  in  Drogheda  in  1813,  and  in  Portadown 
in  1882,  have  large  poor-schools  in  both  towns.  The 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  also  devoted  to  the  education  of  the 
poor,  came  to  Dundalk  in  1847,  to  Ardee  in  1859, 
and  to  Dungannon  in  1894.  They  also  have  con- 
vents at  Bessbrook  and  Cookstown.  The  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  came  to  Drogheda 
in  1855,  where  they  conduct  an  industrial  school  for 
little  boys  and  an  orphanage  for  girls.  The  Ladies 
of  tlie  Sacred  Heart  were  brought  to  Armagh  by 
Primate  Cullen  in  1850.  There  is  a  missionary 
school  for  girls  attached  to  their  convent.  There  is  a 
convent  of  Poor  Clares  at  Keady,  one  of  St.  Louis  at 
Middletown.  and  one  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  at  Magherafelt,  all  recent  foundations. 
The  .\cadeniy  of  St.  Patrick,  Dungannon,  is  con- 
ducted by  the  diocesan  clergj'.  The  Catholic  Dio- 
cesan Orphan  Society  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
Primate. 

Photestant  .\rchbishops. — Hugh  Goodacre,  the 
first  Protestant  prelate  who  presided  over  the  dio- 
cese, was  an|«)into<l  by  lulward  VI.  in  1552.  He  was 
consecrateil  acconling  to  the  Protestant  ordinal  and 


ARMAGH 


733 


ARMAGH 


survived  liis  consecration  only  three  inontlis.  Adam 
Loftus  (1563-()7).  from  wlioni  the  Irish  Protestant 
liierarchy  claim  to  ilcrivc  their  orders,  wa-s  conse- 
crated by  Huf;li  ('iirwiM,  Arclibisliop  of  Dublin,  ac- 
cording to  the  form  annexed  to  the  second  Hook  of 
Common  Prayer  of  tlie  time  of  Edward  VI.  The 
most  learned  of  the  Protestant  primates  was  James 
Ussher  (IGJ-t-.iO).  whose  most  ini|X)rtant  works  were 
"  Vetcrum  Kpistolarum  lIil)emioarum  Sylloge",  pub- 
lished in  1(582,  and  "  Mrittanicarum  Kcdesiarum 
Antiquitates",  which  appeared  in  IG.'iO.  He  left 
his  valuable  library,  comprising  several  thousand 
printed  books  and  manuscripts,  to  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  his  complete  works  were  published  by 
that  institution  in  twenty-four  volumes  at  the  cost 
of  i:3,0(X).  In  spite  of  his  learning,  this  prelate's 
•character  was  marked  by  a  most  intolerant  spirit  of 
bigotry  against  the  Irish  Catholics.  His  judgment 
against  toleration  of  Papists,  i.  e.  "  to  consent  that 
they  may  freely  exercise  their  rehgion  and  profess 
their  faitli  and  doctrine  is  a  grievous  .sin  ",  was  a  signal 
for  the  renewal  of  persecution  and  led  to  the  Rising 
of  the  Iri.sh  Catlioli.s  in  1041.  John  Hramhall  (ItiOO- 
63),  another  learned  Protestant  divine,  succeeded  U.ss- 
her.  His  works  on  polemic  and  other  subjects  have 
been  published  in  four  folio  volumes.  Narcissus  Marsh 
(1702-1.'J),  another  learned  prelate,  built  the  noble 
library  of  8t.  Sepulchre's  in  Dublin,  which  bears  his 
name,  filled  it  with  a  valuable  collection  of  theological 
and  Oriental  works  and  liberally  endowed  it  for  the 
support  of  a  librarian  and  deputy.  Hugh  Boulter 
(1721-42),  John  Hoadly  (1742-16),  and  George 
Stone  (174f>-64)  are  principally  famous  as  politicians 
and  upholders  of  the  "  10ngli.sh  Interest"  in  Ireland. 
The  first  two  supported  and  promoted  the  penal  laws 
against  the  Catholics,  but  Stone  was  opixi.scd  to 
persecution.  Richard  Robinson,  first  Baron  Rokeby 
(176.5-94),  raised  Armagh  by  his  munificence  from 
extreme  decay  to  a  state  of  opulence  and  embellished 
it  with  various  useful  public  institutions.  He  built 
an  episcopal  palace,  a  [)ublic  library,  an  infirmary, 
and  an  ooservatory.  Lord  John  (ieorge  Beresford 
(1822-62)  was  also  distinguished  by  his  munificence. 
He  restored  Armagh  Cathedral  at  a  cost  of  £34.1K)0 
and  is  said  to  have  spent  £280,000  in  acts  of  public 
lienevolence.  On  his  succes.sor,  Marcus  Gervais 
Beresford  (1862-8,')),  fell  a  large  portion  of  the  task 
of  providing  for  the  future  organization  and  su.s- 
tentation  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
Ireland,  which  was  disestablished  from  1  January, 
1871.  After  the  flight  of  the  Earis  O'Neill  and 
O'Donnell,  large  portions  of  their  forfeited  estates 
were  made  over  to  the  Protestant  see,  which,  together 
with  the  land  previously  belonging  to  the  see  in 
Catholic  times,  made  up  a  total  of  100, .563  acres, 
producing  in  modem  times  a  gross  revenue  for  the 
Protestant  primate  of  £17,670.  By  the  Church 
Temporalities'  Act  of  18.33,  this  Wiis  considerably 
reduced,  and  the  net  income  of  the  see  before  the 
di.sestablishment  was  £12,087.  Since  that  event 
the  primate  receives  an  annual  salary  from  the 
Church  Representative  Bo<ly  of  £2,.5(X),  with  the 
palace  free  of  rent.  The  glebe  lands  belonging  to 
the  eighty-eight  benefices  in  the  dioce.se  comprised 
19,290  .acres.  Since  disestablishment,  about  £9,000 
are  contributed  annually  by  the  voluntary  system 
for  sustentation  funds  anil  about  £,').()(K)  for  various 
other  Church  inirposes.  Before  di.sestablishment, 
the  Irish  Episcopalians  formed  twenty-two  per  cent 
of  the  population  of  the  diocese,  Presbyterians 
seventeen  per  cent,  and  Catholics  sixty-one  per  cent, 
a  proportion  which  has  remained  almost  tlie  same 
ever  since.  The  non-Catholic  jrapulation  in  1901 
was  100,451. 

Stuart,  HiMory  of  Armnoh,  ed.  Ambrose  Coi.f.man  (Dut>- 
lin,  1900);  The  Annnlt  of  thr  Four  ^tarlrrn  (Dublin,  I851-.'"ili), 
VII.  Index  ».  v.  Armngh;  HENSrasr  ani.  MrCARTHY.  .4  n- 
naU   of    VUter,   431-1541    (Dublin,    l.S87-9n;    Ve>.   Oi.ivkr 


Plunket.  Ju*  Primatuilr  Armacnnum  i\(i7'Jt.  I-A.Mr.AN 
Errlrnuintimt  HuU/ru  ul  Irelaiul  (Dublin.  1820).  1-1 V.  pnji- 
tim;  O'Ha.nlon.  Life  of  .>(.  Mulachu  OMurfi'nr  (Dublin, 
185U);  Bhenna.s,  Eccl.  Ilutury  of  /relanrl  (Dublin,  1804). 
paatiim;  Healv,  irttund'K  Anrit-nt  SchuoU  ond  SchoUtra  (Dub- 
lin, 18001,91-105;  i;a.%is.  .Scrus  ipucurorum  rlr.  (1873),  200- 
208,  unci  liiH  continuntor,  Ki'iu.i..  jmimim;  Ma/.u:he  Hradt. 
Kpiaropal  Succeeaion  in  KnoUtrul,  Irrlorvt,  ond  tiruttarul  (Home. 
1870);  Dublin  Vuiirrait!,  Mauitziw  (18.«>-40),  V,  319;  XVI. 
80;  CooTE,  .•I  Surrry  of  Ihr  Counlu  of  Armaqh  (Dublin,  1804); 
Lewih,    TopograpfiictU  Dictionnni  of  Irrlond  (London,    1837). 

I,  00-75;  Joyce,  .4  Social  Hialory  of  Ireland  (London,  1003). 

II,  013,  B.  V.  Armnah:  WARE-llAnnis,  Antiiiuitita  of  Irelnnd 
(Dublin,  1730-45);  AnrnOAl-i.-MoiiAN,  Afonaatiron  Ilihemirum 
(Dublin,  1873);  Mohan,  Mrmoira  of  Moat  Kn:  Dr.  Olixtr 
PlunM  (Dublin,  1801);  Spicilroium  Oaturimae,  1517-1800 
(Dublin,  1874-85).  For  Ibc  Proleatiint  urrhbiBhopn  see 
Cotton,  Fnali  F.cclraia  l/ihrmircr  (Dublin.  1851-78);  Cox, 
llihrmiu  Annlicanii  (London,  1(>8»);  Mai.one,  Church  Ihalurv 
of  Ireland  from  the  Inraaion  to  the  Reformation  (Dublin,  1803); 
Renehan,  Colhcliuna  on  Church  Hiatory  (Dublin,  1801); 
CoMERFORn,  77lf  llialorii  of  Ireland  from  thr  Earlieat  Account 
of  Time  to  the  Invaaion  of  the  Engliah  under  Hmry  II  (Dublin. 
1754);  Coleman,  Ir.  Eccl.  Rec,  VII,  103;  Fitzpatrk  k,  Ir. 
Eecl.  Rec.  XVI,   20,    122;  Moras.   Ir.  Eccl.  Rec.    XII.  385. 

Ambrose  Coleman. 

Armagh,  The  Book  ok,  technically  known  as  Libeh 
Au(D).M.\(H.\Nfs. — A  celebrated  Irish-Latin  manu- 
script preserved  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  It  is  a  vellum,  in  small  quarto,  and  in  a 
fine  state  of  preservation,  with  the  exception  of  the 
commencement,  where  a  few  pages  are  missing.  In 
its  present  condition  it  consists  of  221  leaves  (442 
pages)  with  the  writing  in  double  or,  Iciss  often,  in 
triple  columns.  The  Irish  hand  is  used  throughout, 
but  .some  of  the  initial  letters  arc  in  Greek  character, 
and  some  of  the  letters  are  lightly  coloured  black, 
red,  green,  and  yellow.  The  penmanship  is,  on  the 
whole,  verj-  beautiful,  distinct,  and  uniform.  The 
only  drawings  in  the  mamLscripts  are  four,  repre- 
senting the  symbols  of  the  Evangelists.  Because  of 
the  value  tliat  the  Irish  placed  on  the  Book  of 
Annagh,  it  was  often  richly  bound,  and  encased  in 
shrines  of  artistic  workmanship.  The  Book  of 
Armagh  was  also  known  as  the  "Canon  of  Patrick", 
and  it  was  once  thought  that  it  w;is  the  Patron's 
own  book  and  in  part  the  work  of  Patrick  himself. 
It  was  left  for  Bishop  Charles  Graves,  however,  to 
discover  from  the  erasures  in  the  manuscript  itself, 
and  from  references  in  the  .\nnals  to  names  which 
he  had  pieced  together  from  the  Book  of  Armagh, 
that  the  name  of  the  scribe  of,  perhaps,  the  entire 
work  was  Ferdomnach  of  Armagh,  who  died  in  84.5 
or  .846,  and  that  he  wrote  the  first  part  of  the  Book 
in  the  year  807  or  808. 

The  Book  of  Armagh  is,  in  the  main,  a  transcript 
of  documents  of  a  much  older  period  than  the  Book 
which  has  preserved  them,  and  these  documents  are 
of  inestimable  value  for  the  t-arly  historj'  and  civiliza- 
tion of  Ireland.  Alxive  all,  this  collection  is  valuable 
because  it  contains  the  earliest  writings  that  have 
come  down  to  us  relating  to  St.  Patrick.  The  author 
of  one  of  the  Lives  of  Patrick,  which  the  Book  of 
Armagh  contains,  was  one  Muirchu  Maccu  Machteni, 
who  wrote  at  the  request  of  ■■\cd.  Bishop  of  Sletty. 
The  author  of  the  other  Life  was  Tirechan,  who  wrote, 
we  are  told,  for  Bishop  ITtan  of  Ardbraccan.  Both 
the.se  authors  wrote  at  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  centurj',  and  had  as  their  authorities  even 
older  memoirs.  The  Book  contains  other  mis- 
cellaneous documents  relating  to  St.  Patrick,  and 
gives  considerable  information  on  the  rights  and 
prerogatives  of  the  Sec  of  Armagh.  Among  the 
miscellaneous  contents  may  be  mentioned  the 
"Liber  Angueli"  (so  spelled  in  the  Irish  fiushion  to 
show  that  the  q  was  not  palatalized),  "the  Book  of 
the  Angel",  wherein  an  angel  is  represented  as  en- 
trusting to  St.  Patrick  the  primatial  rights  of  Ar- 
magh; the  Eusebian  Canons,  St.  Jerome's  letter  to 
Damasus,  Epi.stles  of  St.  Paul,  with  prefaces,  chiefly 
by  Pelagius,  Epistles  of  James,  Peter,  John,  and 
Jude;  the  A[K)calyp.se,  the  Gospels  according  to 
Matthew,  Mark,  John,  and  Luke,  and  the  "Lite  of 


ARMAGH 


r34 


ARMAGH 


St.  Martin  of  Tours",  by  Sulpicivis  Severus.  At  the 
bottom  of  folio  16  lertio,  there  is  an  enti^'  whicli  the 
Bcribe  says  was  made  "in  conspectu  I5riani  inipera- 
toris  ScoYorum",  that  is,  in  the  presence  of  Brian 
Borumha,  probably  in  tlie  year  1002. 

St.  Bernard,  writing  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  his 
"Life  of  Malachi",  speaks  of  a  certain  book  which, 
he  says,  was  one  of  the  marks  of  the  primatial  rights 
of  the  See  of  Annagh.  This  was  probably  the 
"Liber  Ardmachanus".  In  such  high  estimation 
was  this  Book  held  that  a  custodian  was  appointed 
for  it  and  in  virtue  of  his  office  he  had,  as  his  re- 
muneration, no  less  than  eight  townlands.  It  was 
probably  one  of  his  functions  to  carry  the  Book 
on  occasions  of  state  and  ceremony.  The  name  of 
the  keeper  (in  Irish,  Maor,  "steward")  became  in 
the  course  of  time  the  family  name  of  the  keeper, 
since  the  office  was  hereditary,  and  they  became 
known  as  mac  (pi.  meic)  Maor.  or,  anglicized, 
Moyre,  Moyer.  The  precious  Book  thus  changed 
hands  frequently,  and  there  is  mention  in  the  records 
that  it  was  once  pawned  as  security  for  a  claim  of 
five  pounds.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  it  passed  from  the  hands  of  the  MacMoyres 
into  the  possession  of  the  Brownlow  family  of  Lurgan. 
with  whom  it  remained  until  1853,  when  it  was 
purchased  for  three  hundred  pounds  by  the  Irish 
antiquarian.  Dr.  Reeves,  and  by  him  transferred,  on 
the  same  terms,  to  the  .Anglican  primate  Beresford, 
who  presented  it  to  the  Library  of  Trinity  College. 
There  is  evidence  to  show  that  the  Book  was  often 
used  when  giving  testimony,  and  that  oaths  were 
sworn,  and  covenants  ratified  on  it.  This  may 
account  for  some  of  the  pages  having  the  appearance 
of  having  been  rubbed  or  touched  frequently. 

The  Irish  of  the  Book  of  Armagh  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  for  the  history  of  the  Irish  language.  It 
is  not  only  one  of  the  very  oldest  monuments  of  the 
Old-Irish,  since  it  is  antedated  only  by  the  frag- 
mentary glosses  in  the  Irish  manuscripts  preserved 
on  the  Continent,  but  it  is  the  earliest  extant  speci- 
men of  a  continuous  narrative  in  Irish  prose.  It 
represents  the  language  of  the  end  of  the  seventh, 
or  of  the  beginning  of  the  eighth,  century.  The 
phonetic  peculiarities  of  the  Irish  of  that  period, 
as  evidenced  in  the  Book  of  Armagh,  are  described 
briefly  by  Whitley  Stokes  and  John  Strachan  in  the 
preface  to  the  second  volume  of  their  "Thesaurus 
Palaeohibernicus",  XIII,  sqq.  This  same  volume 
contains  all  the  Irish  found  in  the  Book  of  Armagh. 

On  the  date  of  the  manuscript,  see  Charles  Graves,  in 
t\\e  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  III,  316  sq.,356  sqq. 
The  manuscript  has  been  described  by  George  Petrie  in 
his  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Uses  of  the  Round  Towers^  of 
Irelund,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  XX, 
330  sqq.  All  the  documents  in  the  Book  relating  to  St.  Patrick 
are  in  Whitley  Stokes's  The  Tripartite  Life  of  St.  Patrick. 
pt.  II,  1887,  and  were  reprinted  by  E.  Hogan,  from  the 
AnaUcta  Bollartdiana.  I  and  11,  under  the  caption  Excerpta 
hibemica  ex  Libra  Armnchano,  in  his  Outlines  of  the  Grammar 
of  Old-Irish  (Dublin,  lilOO).  See  also  Stuart,  Historical  Me- 
moirs of  the  City  of  Armagh,  ed.  Coleman  (Dublin,  1900); 
Betham,  Irish  Antiquarian  Researches,  II.  1827;  Healy, 
Ancient  Schools  of  Ireland  (1st  ed.,  Dublin).  103-105.  A 
critical,  definitive  edition  of  the  whole  Codex,  reproducing  the 
text  "diplomatically",  was  projected  by  the  late  Dr.  Reeves, 
ced  for  immediate  publication  by  Professor 


It 

Gwynn  of  Dublin. 

Joseph  Dunn. 
Annagh,  The  School  op,  seems  to  have  been  the 
oldest,  and  down  to  the  time  of  the  Anglo-Norman 
invasion  continued  to  be  one  of  the  most  celebrated, 
of  the  ancient  schools  of  Ireland.  It  dates,  so  far 
as  we  can  judge,  from  the  very  foundation  of  the  See 
of  Armagli,  for  it  has  always  boon  regarded  as  one 
of  the  primary  duties  of  a  bishon  to  make  due  pro- 
vision tor  the  education  of  his  clergy,  and  as  far  as 
possible  under  his  own  immediate  supervision.  St. 
Patrick  was  certainly  not  the  man  to  neglect  this 
important  duty.  When  the  foreign  clergy  of  various 
grades  who  had  accompanied  the  apostle  to  Ireland 


had  been  all  assigned  to  the  care  of  the  first  churches 
which  he  had  foimded  in  Meath  and  Connaught,  iV 
became  necessary  to  train  native  youth  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Church.  For  this  purpose  Patrick  estab- 
lished a  kind  of  peripatetic  school.  That  is  to  say, 
when  he  found  a  likely  subject  for  the  ministry, 
especially  amongst  the  youthful  bards  cr  brehons, 
he  took  him  into  his  own  missionarj'  train,  wrote  a 
catechism  of  Christian  doctrine  for  him,  and  then 
handed  him  over  to  one  of  his  clerics  to  be  instructed 
in  the  Ordo  of  the  Mass  and  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments.  It  was  the  very  best  thing  that 
could  be  done  at  the  time,  but  it  was,  of  course,  only 
a  temporary  expedient.  Armagh  was  founded 
most  probably  in  457,  that  is,  in  the  twenty-fifth 
year  after  the  founding  of  Trim  as  we  arc  expressly 
told  in  the  "Notes  to  Tirechan".  We  may  fairly 
assume  that  one  of  the  very  first  things  Patrick  did 
was  to  establish  a  school  in  connexion  with  his  own 
cathedral,  for  the  training  of  the  clergy,  and  no  doubt 
he  himself  exercised  a  general  supervision  over  the 
direction  of  the  infant  semina^^^  But  he  was  now 
too  old  to  teach  in  person,  and  so  his  coadjutor  in 
.\rmagh  would  naturally  be  chief  director  of  the 
Cathedral  School.  His  first  coadjutor,  his  nephew 
Sechnall,  died  about  this  time,  or  earlier,  and  Benig- 
nus,  Irish  secretaiy  and  psalm-singer  to  the  saint, 
was  chosen  to  succeed  Sechnall  in  the  office  of  co- 
adjutor; so,  we  may  fairly  assume,  he  became  the 
first  rector  of  the  School  of  Armagh. 

Benignus  was  admirably  qualified  for  the  office. 
There  is  some  reason  to  think  that  his  family  be- 
longed to  the  bardic  order,  and  we  know  that  he 
had  been  trained  by  Patrick  in  sacred  learning 
from  his  early  youth  and  was,  moreover,  well 
versed  in  the  language  and  learning  of  his  native 
land.  Hence,  we  find  that  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary to  the  great  Commission  of  Nine,  which  a  few 
years  before  had  been  constituted  for  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  Brehon  Laws.  He  was  also  chief  singer 
in  the  church  services,  and  to  him  the  original  com- 
pilation of  the  "Book  of  Rights"  has  been  always 
attributed.  No  doubt  the  School  of  .\rmagh  would 
be  primarily  a  great  theological  seminary,  not  only 
for  Patrick's  royal  city  or  see,  but  also  for  students 
from  all  parts  of  Ireland;  for  the  chief  seat  of  eccle- 
siastical authority  should  also  be  the  fountain  of 
sound  doctrine  for  all  the  land.  But  under  such 
a  rector  as  Benignus  we  may  be  sure  that  due 
attention  would  be  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
ancient  language  of  Erin,  and  also  of  her  bardic 
history  and  romantic  tales,  which  were  all  familiar 
to  him  from  his  youth.  Still,  sacred  science  would 
be  the  chief  study  of  Armagh,  and,  above  all,  the 
constant  and  profound  study  of  the  Scripture  would 
be  the  primary  purpose  of  its  scholars.  Their 
theological  studies  were  all  based  on  Scripture,  and 
although  theology  had  not  yet  assimied  the  scien- 
tific form  which  was  given  to  it  by  the  great  scholas- 
tic doctors,  and  which  has  ever  since  been  retained 
ami  brouglit  to  higher  perfection  in  the  Church, 
they  were  careful  to  expound  the  positive  theology 
of  tne  Latin  Fathers,  whose  writings  w-ere  well  known 
in  .\rmagh,  as  we  know,  to  some  extent,  from  the 
"Book  of  Armagh"  itself. 

One  of  the  most  famous  books  at  a  somewhat  later 
period  in  all  the  schools  of  Ireland  and  especially  at 
Armagh,  was  the  "Morals"  of  St.  Oregon,'  the  Great. 
It  is  a  large  treati.se  in  thirty-five  books,  and,  although 
nominally  merely  a  commentary  on  the  Book  of 
Job,  it  is  in  reality  one  of  the  most  beautiful  works 
on  moral  theology  in  its  widest  sense  that  has  ever 
been  penned.  Kvery  verse  of  Job  is  made  the  text 
for  a  homily;  not  a  homily  of  a  formal  character, 
but  a  series  of  moral  reflections  conveyed  in  sweet 
and  touching  language,  in  which  argument  and  ex- 
hortation   arc    very    liappily    blended.     On    Sacred 


f^l-*- 


;"n 


k:'iViEt£i. 


ARMAGNAO 


735 


ARMAGNAO 


Scripture  St.  Jerome  seems  to  have  been  the  best 
authority;  and  we  know,  both  from  the  frapnents  of 
Aileran  the  Wise,  pubhshcd  by  Migne,  and  from  the 
Irish  manuscripts  of  St.  C'oliiinban's  great  mona.stery 
at  Bobbio,  that  our  Irisli  schohirs  were  famihar  with 
nearly  all  his  work.  In  dogmatic  theology  we  do 
not  think  that,  during  the  first  two  centuries  of  their 
history,  the  Celtic  scholars  were  familiar  with  the 
writings  of  St.  .\ugustine  on  "drace".  They  seem 
to  have  derived  their  dogma  from  St.  Hilary  and 
other  writers  of  the  Trench  Church  rather  than  from 
the  great  Father  of  the  .\frican  Church. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  distinguished  teachers 
of  the  School  of  Armagh,  after  the  time  of  St.  Patrick 
and  St.  Benignus,  was  Ciildas  the  Wise.  }Iis  great 
work,  the  "Destruction  of  Britain",  which  is  still 
extant,  shows  that  he  was  a  man  both  of  large  cul- 
ture and  of  great  holiness,  wonderfully  familiar  with 
the  te.Kt  and  applicatidn  of  Sacrcil  Scripture,  and  in 
every  way  qualified  to  rule  the  Scliools  of  .Vrmagh. 
We  know  little  or  nolliing  of  the  writings  of  the  sub- 
sequent teachers  in  the  School  of  -Armagh,  though 
we  have  a  record  of  the  names  of  .several,  with  eulo- 
gies of  their  wi.sdom  and  scholarship.  The  number 
of  English  students  attracted  to  the  Schools  of  Ar- 
magh Dy  the  fame  of  their  professors  was  so  great 
that  in  later  times  the  city  was  divided  into  three 
wards,  or  "thirds",  as  they  were  called:  the  Trian 
Mor,  the  Trian  Mnsnin,  and  the  Trinn  Saxon — the 
last  being  the  English  (|uarter,  in  which  the  crowds 
of  students  from  Saxon-land  took  up  their  abode, 
and  where,  as  we  know  on  the  express  testimony  of 
a  contemporary  writer,  the  Vcneral)le  Bede.  they 
were  received  with  true  Irish  hospitality,  and  were 
all,  rich  and  poor,  supplied  gratuitously  with  food, 
books,  and  education.  Anyone  glancing  at  the 
"Annals  of  the  Four  Masters"  will  find  frequent 
references  made,  from  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, to  the  deaths  of  the  "learned  scribes",  the 
"profes.sors  of  divinity",  the  "wise  doctors",  and 
the  "  moderators  ",  or  rectors,  of  the  School  of  Armagh. 
In  720,  727,  and  749  we  find  recorded  the  deaths  of 
three  of  these  learned  scribes  within  a  very  short 
period.  Their  duty  was  to  devote  them.sclvcs  to  the 
transcription  of  manuscript  books  in  the  Teach- 
screaptra,  or  "Hou.se  of  Writings",  corresponding  to 
the  modern  library.  The  "Rook  of  Armagh",  tran- 
scribed there  a.  d.  807,  shows  how  patiently  and 
lovingly  they  laboured  at  the  wearisome  w-ork,  "as 
if",  says  Miss  Stokes,  "they  had  concentrated  all 
their  brains  in  the  point  of  the  pen".  And  yet, 
during  these  very  centuries,  the  schools,  the  churches, 
and  the  town  itself  sufTered  terribly  from  the  lawle.ss 
men  of  those  days,  especially  the  Danes.  Armagh 
was  burned  no  less  than  sixteen  times  between  the 
years  670  and  1179,  and  it  was  plundered  nine  times, 
mostly  by  Danes,  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies. IIow  it  .survived  during  these  centuries  of 
fire  and  blood  is  truly  marvellous.  In  1020,  for  in- 
stance, we  are  told  by  the  Four  Masters  that  "Ard- 
Macha  was  burned  with  all  the  fort,  without  the 
saving  of  any  hou.se  in  it  except  the  Hou.se  of  Writ- 
ings only,  and  many  houses  were  burned  in  the 
Trians.  and  the  Groat  Church  was  burned,  and  the 
belfry  with  its  bells,  and  the  other  stone  churches 
were  also  burned,  and  the  old  preaching-chair,  and 
the  chariot  of  the  abbots,  and  their  books  in  the 
houses  of  the  students,  with  much  gold,  silver,  and 
other  precious  things".  Yet  the  city  and  schools 
of  St.  Patrick  rose  again  phcenix-like  from  their 
ashes.  In  IKMI,  Imar  O'Hagan.  the  master  of  the 
great  St.  Malachy,  was  ma<le  abbot,  just  two  years 
Before  the  death  of  Malachy's  father,  the  Blci-sed 
Mugron  0'Mon\  who  had  been  "chief  lector  of 
divinitv  of  this  School,  and  of  all  the  west  of  Europe  ". 

Twelve  years  later  we  have  a  record  of  the  death  of 
O'Drugan,  chief  professor  of  Ard-Macha,  "paragon 


of  wisdom  of  the  Irish,  and  head  of  the  council  of 
the  west  of  Europe  in  piety  and  in  devotion  ".  Just 
at  this  time,  in  1137,  the  great  Gelasius.  who  well 
deserved  his  name,  the  (lulla  losa,  or  "  Ser\'ant  of 
Jesu.s",  succeeded  St.  .Malachy  in  the  See  of  Armagh, 
and  in  spite  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the  times  raised 
tlie  .school  to  the  zenith  of  its  splendour.  In  1162 
he  i)reside(l  over  a  synod  of  twenty-six  bishops  held 
at  Claiie,  in  the  County  Kildare,  in  which  it  was 
enacted  that  no  person  should  be  allowed  to  teach 
divinity  in  any  school  in  Ireland  who  had  not,  as  we 
should  now  say,  "graduated"  in  the  School  of  .Ar- 
magh.  To  make  .Armagh  worthy  of  this  pre-eminence 
we  find  that  in  1169,  the  very  year  in  which  the  Nor- 
man adventurers  first  landed  in  Ireland  King 
Uory  O 'Conor  "presented  ten  cows  ever}' year  from 
him.sclf,  and  from  every  king  that  should  succeed 
him  forever,  to  the  professor  of  Ard-Macha,  in  honour 
of  St.  Patrick,  to  instruct  the  youth  of  Ireland  and 
.Mba  in  learning".  The  profes.sor  at  the  time  was 
in  every  way  worthy  of  this  special  endo^vment, 
for  he  was  Florence  O'Gorman,  "head  moderator  of 
this  School  and  of  all  the  Schools  in  Ireland,  a  man 
well  skilled  in  divinity,  and  deeply  learned  in  all  the 
sciences ".  He  had  travelled  twentv-one  years  in 
France  and  England  and  at  his  death,  in  1174,  had 
ruleil  the  Schools  of  Armagh  for  twenty  years.  It 
was  well  for  the  venerable  sage  that  he  died,  in  peace. 
Had  he  lived  four  years  more  he  would  have  seen  the 
sun  of  Armagli's  glory  set  in  darkness  and  blood, 
when  De  Courcy,  anil  De  Burgo,  and  De  Lacy,  year 
after  year,  swooped  down  on  the  ancient  city,  plun- 
dered its  shrines,  and  slaughtered  or  drove  far  away 
its  students,  its  priests,  and  its  professors.  Once 
again  .Armagh  was  made  desolate  by  ruthless  bands, 
and  that  desolation  was  more  complete  and  more 
enduring  than  the  first.  Let  us  hope,  however,  that 
the  proud  cathedral  lately  built  on  Macha's  Height 
gives  promi.se  of  a  glorious  future  yet  in  store  for  the 
ancient  city  of  St.  Patrick,  and  for  its  famous  Schools. 

■Stiaht.  Ilithiru  ijf  Armai/h.  I'.l.  Colkman  (DuWin,  1900); 
IIeai.y,  Life  and  \\'rUin,/a  uj  .SI.  I'ulnck  (Dublin,  190,5): 
In.,  Irelandt  Ancient  Schuoh  and  .s'cAo/arn  (Dublin,  1890): 
Hiry,  The  Life  of  tit.  Patrick  (I.nndon.  190.'"));  Joyck,  A  Social 
Itittorj/  of  Ireland  (I-ondon,  19031:  Abchdall,  Monatticon 
Hibemicum.  ed.  Mokan  (Dublin,  1873). 

John  He.\ly. 

Armagnac,  CiEORnKs  d',  a  French  cardinal  and 
diplomatist,  b.  c.  1.501;  d.  2  June.  158.5.  He  be- 
longetl  to  tlie  illustrious  family  of  Foix  d'Armagnac. 
In  liis  youth  lie  was  the  prot^gd  of  Cardinal  d'Am- 
boise.  The  Duke  of  Alenc^on  intro<hiced  him  to 
Francis  I,  and  in  1.529  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Rodez,  was  ambas.sador  to  Venice  1.536-3S,  took 
part  in  the  war  between  Francis  I  and  Charles  V, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  contributing  to  the 
emperor's  retreat  from  the  south  of  France  (1538). 
In  1.539  the  king  sent  him  as  amba-ssador  to  Rome, 
where  the  cardinal's  hat  was  I>cstowed  \ipon  him 
(1.544).  In  1.5.52  he  wiis  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  king  at  Toulouse,  together  with  Paul 
de  Carrets,  Bishop  of  Cahors.  Eight  years  later  he 
was  raised  to  the  Archbi.shopric  of  Toulou.se,  which 
he  left  in  1.565,  Pius  IV  having  appointed  him  legate 
at  Avignon,  together  with  Cardmal  de  Bourlion. 
In  this  iMisition  Cardinal  d'Armagnac  vigoron.sly 
defended  the  interests  of  the  Church  against  the 
Huguenots  and  brought  about  a  good  understanding 
between  the  (leoiilo  of  Avignon  and  those  of  Orange 
and  Languedoc.  The  pope  showed  his  approval  of 
d'.Armagnac's  admini-stration  by  promoting  him  to 
the  .Arclibisliopric  of  Avignon  (1576).  His  great 
intelligence  and  deep  knowledge  of  men  and  things,  his 
austere  virtues,  and  the  protection  which  he  granted 
to  the  arts  and  sciences  place  him  in  the  first  rank 
of  the  faithful  servants  of  the  Church  in  the  six- 
teenth century. 


ARMELLINO 


736 


ARMENIA 


Ret.  Le  cardinnl  Georget  d'Armngnae  cn-le{iat  4  Avignon 
(1566-83).  d'apres  sa  correapondance:  Annalef  du  midi 
(1898).  129-I.';4.  273-306;  Tamizky  de  Lahroque.  LeUres  in- 
Miles  rfu  rardinat  d'Armagnac,  in  Bev.  hist.,  1876,  II;  Faroes 
in  La  grandc  cnCJ/r.,  Ill,  986. 

Jean  Le  Bars. 

Annellino,  Mariano,  a  Benedictine  historian,  b.  in 
Rome  (according  to  others,  at  Ancona)  in  1657;  d.  at 
FoHgno  in  1737.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  entered 
the  inona.stery  of  St.  Paul  in  Rome,  whence  he  was 
sent  to  Monte  Cassino  to  complete  his  studies.  From 
16S7  to  1695  he  taught  philosophy  at  various  mon- 
asteries of  the  Cassinese  Congregation.  From  1697 
to  1722  he  devoted  himself  to  preaching  and  became 
famous  throughout  Italy  for  his  Lenten  sermons. 
In  1722  Pope  Innocent  XIII  appointed  him  abbot 
of  the  monastery  at  Sienna;  in  1729  he  was  trans- 
ferred as  abbot  to  the  Monastery  of  St.  Peter  at 
Assisi,  and,  in  1734,  to  the  Monastery  of  St.  Felician, 
near  Fohgno.  He  ^Tote  the  "Bibliotheca  Bene- 
dictino-Cassinensis",  a  carefully  compiled  list  and 
sketch  of  all  the  authors  of  the  Cassinese  Congrega- 
tion, and  a  few  other  historical  and  hagiographical 
works  concerning  the  Cassinese  Congregation  of 
Benedictines. 

Hdrter,  Nommdalor  (Innsbruck,  1893),  I,  1212;  Adelunq, 
Supplement  zu  JfFckers  Getehrten- Lexicon  (.Leipzig,  1784),  I, 
1091;  Studien  und  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Benediktiner-Orden, 
VIII,  243;  ZiEGELBAUER,  HiitoTia  rei  literarite  Ordinia  Sancti 
Benedicti.  Ill,  5  37. 

Michael  Ott. 

Armenia,  a  mountainous  region  of  Western  Asia 
occupying  a  somewhat  indefinite  area  to  the  south- 
east of  the  Black  Sea.  Although  the  name  "Ar- 
menia" occurs  twice  in  the  Vulgate,  the  regular 
biblical  designation  of  the  country  is  "Ararat",  a 
name  which  is  doubtless  identical  with  the  "Urartu" 
of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Not  being  delimited 
by  permanent  natural  boundaries,  the  territory  cov- 
ered bj^  Armenia  has  varied  at  different  epochs  of 
the  world's  history,  and  even  as  early  as  the  time 
of  the  ancient  Romans  there  was  recognized  a  Lesser 
as  well  as  a  Greater  Armenia,  the  former  embracing 
a  portion  of  Asia  Minor.  Politically  Armenia  has 
ceased  to  exist,  having  been  partitioned  between 
Turkey,  Persia,  and  Russia,  the  largest  share  being 
possessed  by  Turkey.  The  country  comprises  a  total 
area  of  about  120,000  square  miles  and  consists  in 
the  main  of  an  elevated  plateau  traversed  by  several 
mountain  ranges  which  run  parallel  to  the  Caucasian 
mountains  on  the  north.  A  few  of  the  principal 
peaks,  the  most  noted  of  which  is  Ararat,  the  "holy 
mount",  rise  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
Among  the  important  rivers  that  take  their  rise  in 
Armenia  are  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris,  and  the 
Araxes.  There  are  many  lakes,  chief  among  which 
are  Lake  Sevanga  and  I^ake  Van.  The  latter  is 
seventy  miles  in  length  and  about  twenty-eight  in 
breadth,  and  is  probably  the  "Upper  Sea  of  the 
Nairi"  mentioned  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions. 
The  climate  is  severe,  including  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  There  are  practically  but  two  seasons, 
summer  and  winter,  the  latter  lasting  from  October 
to  May,  and  the  transition  from  one  to  the  other  is 
abrupt.  The  peculiarities  of  the  climate,  among 
which  may  be  noted  a  considerable  degree  of  humidity, 
are  due  in  part  to  the  proximity  of  the  Black  Sea, 
partly  to  the  high  elevation  of  the  region,  most  of  the 
inhabited  localities  being  from  5,000  to  8,000  feet 
above  the  sea  le\el.  Scarcely  any  trees  are  to  be 
found  on  the  .Armenian  mountains,  but  those  planted 
in  the  inhabited  localities  thrive  well.  Grapes  are 
successfully  cultivated  in  the  valleys  and  around 
Lake  Van.  Wheat,  barley,  hemp,  cotton,  and 
tobacco  are  also  raised.  I're-eminent  among  the 
domestic  animals  are  the  horse  and  buffalo.  The 
mountainous  tracts  yield  excellent  pasturage,  and 
in  consequence,  the  rearing  of  live  stock  is  more 


extensively  carried  on  than  agriculture.  On  ac- 
count of  the  various  subjugations  of  the  country  the 
inhabitants  of  Armenia  belong  to  different  races. 
The  native  Armenians  and  Kurds  form  each  about  a 
quarter  of  the  entire  population;  the  Turkish  and 
Turcoman  elements  corLstitute  the  major  part  of  the 
remaining  half.  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Gypsies  are 
scattered  throughout  the  country.  The  Armenians 
themselves,  of  whom  only  about  1,000,000,  or  about 
one-half  of  the  total  number,  live  in  Armenia,  are  a 
commercial   people  par  excellence. 

The  Church  ix  Ar.menia. — I.  Ancient  Politi- 
cal Constitution. — The  name  Armenia  appears  for 
the  first  time  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Darius 
Hystaspis.  Much  obscurity  obtains  as  to  the  deriva- 
tion of  the  word.  Some  would  refer  it  back  to  the 
Vannic  word  Armani-lis,  a  stela,  while  others  would 
connect  it  with  Arman,  a  district  lying  to  the  south 
of  Lake  Van.  Armenia  is  the  name  given  to  a 
mountainous  strip  of  land  situated  in  the  south- 
western portion  of  Asia.  On  one  side  it  touches  the 
Black  Sea,  on  the  other  the  Caspian,  while  on  the 
north  and  on  the  south  it  is  enclosed  respectively  by 
the  Caucasus  and  the  Taurus  Mountains.  Within 
its  confines  is  the  celebrated  Lake  Van.  In  shape 
it  much  resembles  a  quadrangle.  As  far  as  is  known, 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Armenia  were  a  white 
race,  whose  capital,  Dhuspa,  stood  on  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Van.  An  Aryan  race  replaced  it  and 
it  is  from  this  latter  stock  that  the  modem  Armenians 
have  sprung.  They  style  their  ancestors  the  Haik 
and  make  allusion  to  their  country  as  Haisdan. 
They  claim  that  the  father  of  their  race,  Haik,  was 
the  son  of  Thogorma,  whom  in  Genesis  we  find  to  be 
the  third  son  of  Corner.  This  belief  has  given  rise 
to  many  beautiful  legends.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it 
was  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  or  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century  b.  c.  that  this  new  race  took 
possession  of  the  country.  In  number  and  social 
condition  it  was  superior  to  its  predecessor,  but  this 
new  people  also  was  subject  to  the  Medes  and  the 
Persians.  With  the  victory  of  Alexander  the  Great 
over  the  Persians  in  328  B.  c.  Armenia  fell  into 
Greek  hands.  The  Seleucidte  of  Syria,  under  whose 
control  the  land  soon  passed,  allowed  it  the  choice 
of  its  rulers.  When  in  190  b.  c.  the  Romans  over- 
threw Antiochus  the  Great,  Artaxias  and  Zariadris, 
who  were  then  ruling  the  land,  declared  themselves 
kings,  the  former  in  Armenia  proper,  the  latter  in 
Sophene.  Thus  began  the  national  dynasty  of  the 
Arsacides,  which  became  famous  under  Tigranes  the 
First.  Later  the  Romans  and  the  Parthians  made  a 
plaything  of  the  country,  which  soon  chose  as  its 
ruler  Tiridates,  the  brother  of  the  Parthian  king. 
When  the  Arsacides  lost  the  Persian  throne  to  the 
Sassanides  (a.  d.  226)  Armenia  declared  itself  against 
the  new  house  and  there  ensued  a  bloody  combat 
between  the  two  countries,  which  lasted  for  several 
centuries. 

II.  Conversion  to  Christiamity. — The  nature 
and  characteristics  of  the  paganism  which  preceded 
Christianity  in  Armenia  are  practically  unknown  to 
us.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  identify  its  gods 
with  those  of  Greece,  but  all  we  know  are  the  names 
and  the  sanctuaries  of  its  pagan  deities.  Olxscurity 
likewise  shrouds  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  in  the 
country.  Native  liistorians  of  a  rather  late  period 
would  have  us  believe  tliat  .-several  of  the  Apostles 
preached  in  .\nnenia,  and  that  some  of  them,  as 
St.  Bartholomew  and  St.  Thaddeus,  died  there.  A 
popiilar  legend  ascribes  to  the  latter  the  evangelizing 
of  the  land.  Although  tlie  very  ancient  writers  of 
the  country,  .such  ius  Korioun,  Agathangelus,  etc.,  do 
not  even  mention  the  name  of  Thaddeus,  yet  the 
legend,  which  apparently  came  at  a  late  period  from 
a  Greek  source,  h;is  .so  prevailed  that  even  to-day  the 
head  of  the  Armenian  Church  claims  to  be  occupying 


ARMENIA 


737 


ARMEIOA 


the  "throne  of  St.  Thaddeus".  Although  logondary, 
this  tradition  witnesses  that  Christianity  at  a  rather 
early  date  passed  from  Syria  over  into  Armenia. 
The  letter  of  Meriizan  to  I  ionysiiis  of  Alexandria 
(a.  d.  248-265)  confirms  us  in  the  belief  that  Chris- 
tianity had  already  penetrated  into  Armenia  before 
the  time  of  St.  (iregory  tlie  Illuminator.  However, 
it  is  around  St.  Gregory  that  the  story  of  Cliristianity's 
growth  in  Armenia  centres;  for  in  him  Armenia  liad 
its  apostle.  Born  of  the  royal  stock  of  the  Arsacides, 
and  brought  in  early  infancy  to  CVsarea  of  Cappa- 
docia  becau.se  of  a  Persian  persecution  of  the  Ar- 
menians, he  was  there  instructed  in  the  Christian 
Faith.  About  2(51  he  returned  to  Armenia  and  after 
much  persecution  brought  the  king  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  [)eoplc  over  to  Christianity.  Consecrated 
Metropolitan  of  .\rmcnia  (according  to  Cardinal  llcr- 
genrcether)  in  302,  by  Leontius,  Archbishop  of 
Cffsarea,  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Aclitichat. 
Under  his  influence  the  Faith  began  to  spread 
throughout  the  land.  Priests  from  the  Greek  Empire 
aided  him  in  the  work  of  conversion.  When  Chris- 
tianity had  gained  a  good  headway  in  the  country, 
the  metropolitan  turned  liis  attention  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Church.  The  national  language  replaced 
the  Syriac  in  the  liturgy.  To  win  over  tlie  converted 
pagan  priests  more  fully,  he  cho.sc  from  tlieir  sons. 
after  educating  them,  tlie  occupants  of  a  dozen 
episcopal  sees  created  by  himself.  Thus  the  higli 
dignities  were  given  to  the  sacerdotal  families,  which 
retained  them  for  some  time.  The  office  of  cathol- 
icos  or  patriarch  was  for  a  considerable  period  con- 
fined to  the  family  of  St.  Gregory.  A  beautiful 
legend,  lacking,  however,  a  historic  basis,  tells  of  a 
trip  by  him  to  Rome.  His  missionaries  went  as  far 
north  !us  Georgia  and  Albania. 

In  nil  Maximinus  began  war  on  the  struggling 
Church  of  .\rmenia,  but  met  with  many  repulses. 
About  this  time  St.  Gregory  passed  away,  having 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  solitude.  After  his 
death  we  find  the  progress  of  the  infant  Church  stayed 
by  internal  di.ssensions.  At  the  time  apostates  were 
numerous,  and  in  their  eagerness  to  subjugate  the 
country  the  Persians  lent  everj'  encouragement  to 
perversion.  Meanwhile,  successors  filled  tlie  office 
of  metropolitan  once  lield  by  St.  Gregory.  His 
youngest  son,  Aristaces,  took  the  i>ost  of  liis  father 
and  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Nic^a.  In  363  and 
372  the  Armenian  episcopate  took  an  active  part  in 
the  affairs  of  the  Christian  world.  St.  Hasil  of 
CiBsarea  visited  a  great  part  of  Armenia  and  cor- 
rected many  at)uscs.  Led  on  by  his  example,  the 
Catholicos  Nerses  in  the  Synod  of  Aclitichat  (c.  36.5), 
the  first  authentic  Armenian  synod,  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  first  hospitals  and  other  charitable  in- 
stitutions for  the  country.  He  gave  an  impetus  to 
monastic  life  and  promulgated  numerous  laws  on 
marriage  and  the  observance  of  fasts.  These  re- 
forms, showing  a  Greek  influence,  arrayed  against 
the  catholicos  the  king  and  tlie  nobles,  and  thus  we 
meet  the  first  recorded  instance  of  that  spirit  of 
national  independence  and  intolerance  of  foreign 
influence  which  is  so  important  a  factor  in  the  history 
of  the  .\rinenian  Church.  An  anticatholicos  was 
appointed  by  tlie  king,  and  soon  Nerses  died  a  vio- 
lent death.  Tlien  a  fierce  anti-religious  reaction  set 
in.  State  endowments  were  in  part  withdrawn, 
numbers  of  the  clergy  fell  away,  and  charitable 
institutions  were  allowed  to  cnimble  to  ruins. 
Pagan  practices  came  into  use  everj-where  and  the 
Christianity  of  but  a  few  years  before  seemed  to  have 
died  out.  The  vacant  see  of  the  catholicos  was  fille<l 
by  the  king,  and  the  coveted  [xisilion  went  to  lousik, 
of  the  family  of  the  Aghbianos.  rival  to  that  of 
St.  Gregory.  St.  Hiusil  clamoured  for  the  rights  of 
his  Cxsarean  see,  but,  though  supported  by  the  older 
clergy  of  Armenia,  his  claims  were  not  allowed,  and 


the  consecration  of  the  Armenian  catholicos  was  thus 
lost  forever  to  the  Church  of  Ca;sarea. 

The  religious  autonomy  of  the  Armenian  Church 
was  begun  thus.  .Shortly  after  this  event  occurred 
the  death  of  .Manuel  the  .Mamikonian,  which  was  the 
signal  for  Home  and  Persia  to  divide  Armenia  be- 
tween them.  Of  the  country,  which  both  had  lost 
and  recoiK)uered,  and  were  now  parcelling  out  (387) 
four-fiftlis  went  to  Persia.  .\s  a  consequence, 
persecution  was  immediat<?ly  raised  against  the 
('liristian  Church,  and  the  Christians  were  forced  to 
take  to  the  mountains.  The  man  of  the  hour  for 
the  Christian  cause  was  the  catholicos,  Isaac  the 
(Jreat,  the  son  of  Nerses.  .\bout  him  rallied  all 
parties.  Even  during  his  exile  the  people  remained 
attaclicd  to  him.  Honeatli  liis  care  tlie  Armenian 
Chiinli  flourislied  in  spite  of  difficulties,  ecclesiastical 
discipline  wa.s  enforced,  and  the  intellectual  standard 
of  the  people  raised.  His  death  in  439  was  a  great 
lo.ss  to  the  cau.se  of  Christianity  in  Armenia.  The 
Persian  m;usters  continued  to  leave  no  stone  un- 
turned to  stifle  Christianity  and  to  replace  it  by 
Parseeism.  The  Armenians,  however,  remained  con- 
stant in  the  face  of  persecution.  Another  foe  at- 
tacked them,  and  that  was  heresy.  Gnosticism  in 
the  .>;econd  century  and  Paulicianism  in  the  sixth  and 
seventli  centuries  had  adherents  among  the  Ar- 
menians, but  the  chief  heresies  to  be  mentioned  in 
this  connection  are  Nestorianism  and  .Monophysitism. 
The  works  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  Diodorus 
of  Tarsus,  which  were  filled  with  Nestorian  ideas, 
were  translated  into  Armenian,  and  through  them 
endeavours  were  made  to  di.sseminate  the  teachings 
of  Nestorius.  Kabulas  of  Edessa  and  Acacius  warned 
the  bishops  against  these  writings.  A  synod  was 
held  and  two  priests  were  despatclied  to  Constanti- 
nople to  ask  of  Proclus  what  was  tlie  right  position 
in  the  matter.  In  reply  came  the  famous  "Docu- 
ment for  the  Armenians"  which  was  held  in  high 
honour  by  the  Armenian  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
and  which  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  their 
theologj-.  Henceforth  the  Armenians  were  bitter 
opponents  of  Nestorianism.  But  where  Nestorian- 
ism failed,  Monopliysitism  succeeded.  The  Council  of 
Clialce<lon,  which  condemned  that  error,  was  held 
while  the  Armenians  were  fighting  against  the 
Persians'  endeavour  to  crush  out  Christianity.  As 
soon  as  they  heard  of  the  council  and  of  the  action 
it  had  taken,  opposition  aro.se  against  it,  and  the 
charge  of  the  Monophysites  that  Chalcedon  had  but 
renewed  the  Nestorian  error  was  readily  Ijelieved. 
Monophysitism  was  accepted,  and  the  decrees  of 
Chalcedon  rejected.  The  attitude  of  the  Armenians 
in  this  entire  matter  was  dictated  not  so  much  by 
a  love  of  orthodo.xy  as  by  the  desire  of  promoting 
the  welfare  of  their  countrj';  for,  by  recei\nng  Mono- 
physitism, they  hoped  that  Greek  favour  would  be 
gained  and  Persian  domination  more  easily  thrown 
olT.  Writings  were  published  in  Armenia  against 
C'halccdon  and  appeals  were  urged  for  a  return  to 
Apostolic  doctrine.  The  Catliolicos  Papken  in  the 
Synod  of  Vagharchapat  (491)  solemnly  condemned 
in  the  presence  of  the  Armenian,  Iberian,  and  .Al- 
banian bishops  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  Within 
half  a  centurj-,  this  condemnation  was  reaffirmed  by 
the  two  Councils  of  Tvin.  the  second  of  which  was 
held  in  5.52,  and  fixed  11  July,  552,  as  the  beginning 
of  the  Armenian  era.  The  (Sreeks,  having  returned 
to  orthodoxy,  tried  several  times  to  lead  back  the 
Armenians  also  from  Monophysitism.  In  571  the 
Catholicos  John  went  with  part  of  his  clergy  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  diea,  after  making  an  act 
of  fidelity  to  orthodoxy.  This  incident  had  no 
effect  on  Armenia.  When  in  591  the  Greek  em- 
peror Maurice,  having  taken  most  of  Armenia  from 
the  Persians,  in\nted  the  Catholicos,  Moses  I.  to 
convoke  at  Constantinople  the  bishops  and  nobles 


ARMENIA 


738 


ARMENIA 


of  Armenia,  his  request  met  with  a  refusal.  Then 
the  emperor  had  the  Armenian  bishops  in  the 
Roman  territorj'  assemble  and  recognize  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon.  He  chose  for  the  office  of  patriarch 
a  bishop  named  John,  with  residence  at  Avan.  Thus 
in  593  the  Armenian  Church  found  itself  divided  into 
two  sections.  Soon  after  the  Iberians  fell  away, 
with  their  Catholicos  Kiouron  at  their  head,  rejecting 
Monophysitisra  and  the  authority  of  the  Armenian 
patriarch.  For  a  time  the  .Albanians  also  declared 
themselves  independent,  but  soon  came  back.  When 
Heraclius  had  conquered  the  country  and  thus  de- 
prived the  Persians  of  their  control  for  the  second 
time  (629),  he  obtained  from  the  Catholicos  Ezr  the 
condemnation  of  Nestorius  and  all  heretics,  without 
any  mention  being  made  of  Chalcedon.  The  union 
with  the  Greeks  thus  effected  lasted  during  the  life- 
time of  Heraclius.  But  in  the  Synod  of  Tvin  (645) 
Chalcedon  was  again  condemned.  Meanwhile,  the 
Arabs  had  attacked  the  country,  which  fell,  an  easy 
victim,  before  them,  and  so  Armenia,  which  once  had 
its  own  rulers  and  was  at  other  times  under  Persian 
and  Byzantine  control,  passed  into  the  power  of  the 
Caliphs. 

III.  Literature,  Early,  Medieval,  and  Mod- 
ern.— Of  the  literature  of  pagan  Armenia  only  a 
few  fragments  have  come  down  to  us.  The  founda- 
tion of  what  we  know  as  Armenian  literature  must 
therefore  be  sought  in  Christian  times.  Very  rich  in 
itself.  Christian  Armenian  literature  dates  from  the 
invention  of  the  national  alphabet  by  Mesrob.  In 
these  first  years  of  the  fifth  century  were  composed 
some  of  the  apocryphal  works  which,  like  the  "Dis- 
courses" attributed  to  St.  Gregory  and  the  "History 
of  Armenia"  said  to  have  come  from  Agathangelus, 
are  asserted  to  be  the  works  of  these  and  other 
well-known  men.  Connected  with  early  Armenian 
literature  are  the  names  of  such  illustrious  persons 
as  Isaac  the  Great  and  Mesrob,  by  whom  an  im- 
petus was  given  to  the  literature  of  the  country. 
They  translated  the  Bible  from  a  SjTiac  version  and 
revised  their  translation  by  means  of  the  Septuagint 
of  the  Hexapla,  and  the  Greek  text  of  the  New 
Testament.  There  followed  various  other  transla- 
tions which  for  the  most  part  are  of  great  impor- 
tance, since  the  originals  of  many  have  been  lost. 
Of  these  we  may  mention  the  "Homilies"  of  St.  John 
Chrysostom,  two  works  of  Philo  on  "Providence", 
together  with  some  of  his  Biblical  commentaries, 
the  "Chronicle"  of  Eusebius,  and  the  works  of 
St.  Ephrem.  This  early  period  of  Armenian  litera- 
ture also  produced  original  compositions.  Eznik  of 
Kolb  wrote  a  "  Refutation  of  the  Sects",  and  Koroun 
the  "  History  of  the  Life  of  St.  Mesrob  and  of  the 
Beginnings  of  Armenian  Literature".  These  men, 
both  of  whom  were  disciples  of  Mesrob,  bring  to  an 
end  what  may  be  called  the  golden  age  of  Armenian 
literature. 

The  medieval  period  opens  with  comparative 
sterility.  The  first  name  of  importance  is  met  with 
in  the  eighth  century,  that  of  John  Otznetzi,  sur- 
named  the  "Philosopher".  A  "Discourse  against 
the  Paulicians",  a  "Synodal  Discourse",  and  a  col- 
lection of  the  canons  of  the  councils  and  the  Fathers 
anterior  to  his  day,  are  the  principal  works  of  his 
now  extant.  About  the  same  time  appeared  the 
translations  of  the  works  of  several  of  the  Fathers, 
particularly  of  Sts.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  from  the  pen  of  Stephen,  Bishop  of 
Siounik.  It  was  two  centuries  later  that  the  cele- 
brated "History  of  Armenia"  by  the  Catholicos 
John  VI  came  forth,  covering  the  period  from 
the  origin  of  the  nation  to  the  year  A.  d.  925.  A 
contemporary  of  his,  Ananias  of  Mok,  an  abbot  and 
the  most  celebrated  theologian  of  the  time,  com- 
posed a  treatise  against  the  Thondrakians,  a  sect 
imbued   with    .Vlanicheism.     The   name   of  Chosrov, 


Bishop  of  Andzevatsentz,  is  honoured  because  of  his 
interesting  commentaries  on  the  Breviary  and  the 
Mass-Prayers.  Gregory  of  Narek,  his  son,  is  the 
Armenian  Pindar  from  whose  pen  came  elegies,  odes, 
panegyrics,  and  homilies.  Stephen  Asoghik,  whose 
"Universal  History"  reaches  down  to  a.  d.  1004, 
and  Gregory  Magistros,  whose  long  poem  on  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  displays  much  application,  are 
the  last  writers  worthy  of  mention  in  this  period. 

The  modern  period  of  Armenian  literature  can 
well  be  dated  from  the  renaissance  of  letters  among 
the  Armenians  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  Cathol- 
icos Nerses,  surnamed  the  Gracious,  is  the  most 
brilliant  author  in  the  beginning  of  this  period.  Be- 
sides his  poetic  works,  such  as  the  "Elegy  on  the 
Taking  of  Edessa",  there  are  prose  works  including 
a  "Pastoral  Letter",  a  "Synodal  Discourse",  and 
his  "Letters".  This  age  gave  us  also  a  commentary 
on  St.  Luke  and  one  on  the  Catholic  Epistles.  Of 
note,  too,  is  the  Synodal  Discourse  of  Nerses  of 
Lampron,  Archbishop  of  Tarsus,  delivered  at  the 
Council  of  Hromcla  in  1179,  which  is  anti-Monophy- 
site  in  tone.  The  thirteenth  century  gave  birth  to 
Vartan  the  Great,  whose  talents  were  those  of  a  poet, 
an  exegete,  and  a  theologian,  and  whose  "Universal 
History"  is  extensive  in  the  field  it  covers.  Gregory 
of  Datev  in  the  next  century  composed  his  "Ques- 
tion Book",  which  is  a  fiery  polemic  against  the 
Catholics.  The  sixteenth  century  saw  Armenia  in  the 
hands  of  Persia,  and  a  check  was  for  the  time  put  on 
literature.  However,  in  scattering  the  Armenians 
to  all  parts  of  Europe,  the  Persian  invasion  had  its 
good  effects.  They  established  printing  shops  in 
Venice  and  Rome,  and  in  the  following  century  (the 
seventeenth)  in  Lemberg,  Milan,  Paris,  and  elsewhere. 
Old  works  were  republished  and  new  ones  given 
forth.  The  Mechitarists  of  Venice  have  been  the 
leaders  in  this  movement;  but  their  publications,  al- 
though numerous,  have  been  often  uncritical.  Their 
brothers,  the  Mechitarists  of  Vienna,  have  been  like- 
wise active  in  this  work  and  it  is  to  their  society 
that  Balgy  and  Catergian  belong,  two  well-known 
writers  on  Armenian  topics.  Russia,  Constantinople 
and  Etchmiadzin  are  the  other  centres  of  Armenian 
literary  efforts  and  the  last-named  place  is  especially 
worthy  of  note,  imbued  as  it  is  to-day  w-ith  German 
scientific  methods  and  taste.  Looking  back  over 
the  field  of  Armenian  literature,  we  note  a  trait  of 
the  national  character  displayed  in  the  bent  the 
Armenians  have  had  for  singing  the  glories  of  their 
land  in  history  and  chronicles.  Translations  have 
ever  been  an  important  part  of  Armenian  literature. 
Again,  the  standpoint  is  religious,  and  even  history 
seems  to  have  been  written  rather  for  its  doctrines 
than  for  the  facts  themselves.  A  last  feature  is  that 
the  golden  age  came  early  and  with  the  passing  of 
centuries  the  Armenian  writers  grew  fewer  and 
fewer. 

IV.  The  Crusades. — Although  the  native  dynasty 
of  the  Bagratides,  to  which  tlie  Arabs  gave  the  royal 
crown  of  Armenia,  was  foimded  under  favourable 
circumstances,  yet  the  feudal  system  by  gradually 
weakening  the  country,  brought  about  its  ruin. 
Thus  internally  enfeebled,  .\rmeni.a  proved  an  easy 
victim  for  the  Seldjukid  Turks  under  Alp-Arslan 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century.  To  escape 
death  or  servitude  at  the  hands  of  those  who  had 
assassinated  his  relative,  Kakig  II,  King  of  Ani,  an 
Armenian  named  Uoupen  with  some  of  his  country- 
men went  into  the  gorges  of  the  Taurus  Mountains 
and  then  into  Tarsiis  of  Cilicia.  Here  the  Byzantine 
governor  of  the  place  gave  them  shelter.  Soon  after, 
the  members  of  the  First  Crusade  appeared  in  Asia 
Minor.  Hostile  as  they  were  to  tlie  Turks,  and  un- 
friendly to  the  Greeks,  these  Armenian  refugees 
joined  forces  with  the  crusaders.  Valiantly  they 
fought  with  the  Christians  of  Europe,  and  for  their 


ARMENIERSTADT 


739 


ARMENIERSTADT 


reward,  when  Antioch  had  been  taken  (1097),  Con- 
stantine,  the  son  of  Roupen,  received  from  the 
crusaders  the  title  of  baron.  Within  a  century,  the 
heirs  of  Roupen  were  further  rewarded  by  the  grant 
of  a  liinedom  known  a-s  Cihcia  or  I^esser  Armenia, 
to  be  held  as  a  vassal  govertunent  of  the  Holy  See  and 
of  Germany.  This  kept  them  in  touch  with  the 
crusaders.  No  doubt  the  Armenians  aided  in  some 
of  the  other  crusades.  This  kingdom  lasted  till 
1375,  when  the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt  destroyed  it. 

V.  To  THE  Emd  of  the  Seventkknth  Ce.ntury. 
— The  establishment  of  the  Kingdom  of  Lesser 
Armenia  created  more  fre(iuent  n-lations  between 
the  Armenians  and  the  Holy  See.  On  the  occasion 
of  tlie  crowning  of  King  I.eo  II,  the  union  of  the 
.\rmonian  C'hurcli  with  Rome  was  proclaimed  under 
Catholicos  (Iregorj'  VI.  Only  southern  Armenia 
was  affected  by  this.  In  12.51,  however,  there  took 
place  at  Sis  at  the  order  of  Pope  Innocent  IV  a 
council  of  Armenians  to  witness  to  their  belief  in 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  strange  con- 
trast we  find  James  I  refusing  to  send  representatives 
to  the  Council  of  Lyons.  Vet,  when  I'ope  Boni- 
face VIII  began  his  pontificate,  Catholicos  (ireg- 
ory  VII  sent  to  him  an  expression  of  filial  attachment. 
A  little  later  (1307)  a  council  was  held  by  the  .\r- 
mcnians  in  which  the  old  error  of  .Moiiopliysitism  was 
repudiated,  and  two  natures  acknowledged  in  Christ. 
The  bonds  of  union  which  united  Rome  and  .\nnenia 
during  this  period  gave  way  more  or  less  after  the 
fall  of  Lesser  .\rmenia  in  1375.  Harassed  from  with- 
out by  the  Turks,  and  weakened  by  the  internal 
strifes  that  divided  it  into  so  many  independent 
patriarchates,  Armenia  had  after  that  date  but 
spasmodic  relations  with  Rome.  Which  of  the 
patriarchs  during  this  period  remained  united  to  the 
West  is  hard  to  deternune.  Yet,  even  in  the  darkest 
days,  there  were  always  some  .\rmenians  who  re- 
mained attached  to  Rome.  The  Dominican  mis- 
sionaries in  founding  hou.ses  in  .\rmenian  territory 
were  instrumental  in  the  training  of  native  mis- 
sionaries called  the  "L^nited  Brothers",  whose  sole 
aim  was  to  procure  union  with  Rome.  Their 
fotmder,  John  of  Kerni,  went  too  far  in  his  zeal,  so 
that  Pope  Benedict  XII  was  forced  to  have  the 
Armenians  assemble  in  council  in  1342  and  repudiate 
the  errors  ascribed  to  these  monks.  These  cries  of 
unorthodoxy  did  much  to  estrange  .\rmenia  from  tlie 
West.  The  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Basle  (1433) 
asked  the  catholicos  to  attend,  but  the  invitation 
was  not  accepted.  However  in  the  Council  of 
Florence  (1439)  .\rmenia  was  represented,  and  here 
a  last  attempt  was  made  to  bring  about  reunion.  It 
was  at  the  behest  of  Eugenius  IV  that  Catholicos 
Constantine  V  had  despatched  his  delegates.  The 
decree  "  Exultate  Deo",  which  was  to  effect  the  union, 
was  published  in  1439,  containing  among  other  things 
the  Nicene  Creed,  the  definitions  of  Clialcedon,  and 
the  Lette.'  of  Pope  Leo  I.  Meanwhile.  Coi\stanlinQ 
died.  A  few  years  later  a  rent  occurred  in  the  Ar- 
menian Church  which  gave  a  setback  to  the  plan  of 
union.  Armenia  was  divided  into  two  large  juris- 
dictions, that  of  Sis  in  Cilicia  and  that  of  Etchmiad- 
zin  in  Greater  Armenia,  each  with  its  own  catholicos. 
The  latter  of  the  two  patriarchates  was  looked  upon 
as  devoted  to  the  cau.se  of  imion  with  Rome.  Its 
Catholicos,  Stephanos  V,  paid  a  visit  to  the  Eternal 
City,  and  in  ItiSO  Aghob  IV,  just  before  his  death, 
made  a  profession  of  Catholic  faith,  an  example  fol- 
lowed by  many  of  his  successors.  Some  of  the 
patriarchs  of  Sis  were  friendly  to  Rome,  such  as 
Gregory  IX,  while  others  were  hostile. 

Vi.  Catholic  Missions  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century. — The  action  of  Count  Ferriol,  minister 
of  Louis  XIV  at  Stamboul  (1(589-1709),  in  carrj-ing 
ofT  to  Paris  the  Armenian  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  evinced  strong  anti-Catholic  tendencies, 
I.— 47 


served  to  bring  persecution  upon  the  Armenian 
Catholics  in  the  lurkish  Empire,  which  histed  till 
1830.  The  declaration  of  religious  lil)erty  at  that 
time  cau.se<l  the  (.'atholic  missions  in  Armenia  to 
become  more  energetic  than  ever  before.  In  1838, 
Eugene  Bore,  still  a  layman,  founded  at  Tibriz  and 
Ispahan  two  schools  for  Armenians,  which  the  French 
Lazarists  have  since  cimducted.  Within  twenty 
years  this  order  had  tliree  other  mi.ssions.  The 
barefooted  (Carmelites  with  B:igdad  as  their  centre 
are  labouring  for  the  Armenians  in  that  city  and 
Biussorah.  Since  18.50  the  French  Dominicans  have 
been  active  in  the  provinces  of  Mossoul,  Bitlis,  and 
Van.  The  Capuchins  are  also  represented  in  this 
field  and  are  working  with  Diarbekir  as  their  head- 
quarters. Lesser  Armenia  is  a  field  cultivated 
chielly  by  Jesuit  missionaries,  and,  unlike  the  rest, 
their  elTorts  are  confined  to  the  ArmeniaiLs.  The 
Oblate  .Sisters  of  the  Assumption  and  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  from  Lyons  are  effectively  aiding  them 
in  their  work,  in  which  some  31  Fathers  and  Brothers 
are  engaged. 

When  we  come  to  statistics,  we  find  that  out  of  a 
population  of  Armenians  comprising  from  two  to 
three  millions,  approximate  figures  give  to  Prot- 
estantism 40,000  to  50,000,  to  Catholicism  60,000  to 
70,000,  the  rest  to  the  Gregorian  or  non-l'niat 
Church  of  Constantinople.  Of  the  Catholic  Ar- 
menians, the  greater  part  are  under  the  patriarch, 
whose  full  title  is  "the  Patriarch  of  Cilicia  of  the 
Armenians",  and  whose  residence  is  at  Constanti- 
nople. Under  his  jurisdiction  are  3  other  Armenian 
archbishops,  12  bishops,  1  being  at  Alexandria  in 
Egypt,  9  patriarchal  vicars,  one  of  whom  resides  at 
Jerusalem.  In  Rome  there  is  a  titular  bishop  for 
the  .Armenians,  whose  chief  fiinction  is  that  of  ordain- 
ing. The  Armenian  patriarch  is  assisted  in  the 
work  of  tending  to  his  flock  by  a  vicar  who  is  a 
titular  archbishop,  by  an  ecclesiastical  council  com- 
posed of  12  priests,  by  a  civil  council  and  by  two 
other  councils,  one  of  which  is  for  the  national  hospi- 
tal. Directly  under  his  charge  are  3  large  cliurches, 
that  of  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator  at  Leghorn, 
those  of  St.  Blaise  and  St.  Nicholas  at  Rome,  the 
2  seminaries  of  Zmar  and  Rome,  and  finally  the  16 
churches  and  the  16  .schools  of  Constantinople.  In 
the  Armenian  Archbishopric  of  Lemherg  there  are 
about  5,500  faithful,  the  greater  part  being  in  Galicia, 
the  rest  in  Bukowina.  The  religious  orders  among 
the  Armenians  are  of  but  comparatively  recent 
origin  and  are  not  very  prosperous.  The  Mechitarists 
of  Venice,  the  most  flourishing,  have  but  60  priests 
and  some  lay-brothers.  The  Mechitarists  of  Vienna 
are  not  quite  so  numerous.  Among  the  women,  the 
Armenian  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  have 
flourishing  schools  at  Constantinople  an<l  Angora. 

Pktit  in  Dict.de  th^ol.cath.,  n.  v.;   IIkkgknrotiikr.  hirrheU' 

?fsch.:  IssAVERDES'S,  Armcnii  and  the  Armeniins:  Gei./er, 
}ie  Anflinqe  der  armen.  Kirche:  Piolet,  Les  missiont  caihO" 
luiwt  au  XIXe  siMe:  Chamich.  Hiatory  of  Armenia:  NfcVE, 
LArm,'nie  chnticnne  el  la  liUfralure. 

J.\mes  F.  Driscoll. 
Annenierstadt  (Hungarian,  Szamos-Ujvar,  Lat., 
Armcnn/mtis),  a  city  in  the  Transylvanian  county  of 
Szolnok-Doboka,  situated  on  the  upjier  Szamos.  an 
eastern  tributary  of  the  Theiss,  and  the  seat  of  a 
Uniat  Greek  diocese  (Armcnopolis)  that  embraces 
the  northern  part  of  Transylvania;  the  see  is  suf- 
fragan to  the  Archbishop  of  Fogaras  and  Alba  Julia, 
who  resides  at  Blasendorf.  The  city  was  founded 
about  1700  by  Armenians  who  emigrated  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourteenth  century  fr.im  Armenia  and 
settled  first  on  the  banks  of  the  Krim  and  .Moldau. 
In  the  second  half  of  the  .seventeenth  centurv'  they 
moved  to  Transylvania,  and  after  a  two  years'  stniggle 
on  the  part  of  the  Armenian-Catholic  Bishop  .■\ux- 
entius  Verzereskul.  they  were  converted  from  F.uty- 
chianism  to  Catholicism.     By  the  Bull  "Ad  Apoa- 


ARMENTIA 


740 


ARMINIANISM 


tolicam  Sedem"  (26  November,  1853),  the  city 
beoaine  a  diocese.  Tlie  first  bishop  was  Johann 
Alexi  (1854-65);  he  was  succeeded  by  Johann  Vancsa 
(1855-68),  Pavel  (1872-79),  and  Johann  Szabo,  ap- 
pointed in  1879  (b.  16  August,  1836).  The  diocese 
of  Arraenierstadt  contains  about  683,300  inhabi- 
tants; 432,900  Catholics  of  the  Greek-Roumanian 
Rite,  41,100  of  the  Latin  Rite,  and  1,600  of  the  Ar- 
menian Rite.  It  has  one  cathedral,  six  canonicates, 
four  titular  abbeys,  one  formal  provostship,  forty- 
five  deaneries,  490  mother-churches,  391  dependent 
churches  (Filialkirchen) ,  one  monastery  w-ith  four 
monks  (Basilian  Order,  in  Bikszdd),  475  pastors,  25 
chaplains,  one  regular  priest,  eleven  other  ecclesi- 
astics, and  64  clerics.  The  bishop  directs  a  dioc- 
esan academy  with  seven  professors,  one  teachers' 
training  college,  with  four  professors,  one  Armenian- 
Catholic  Ober-GjTnnasium,  and  about  600  public 
schools,  with  38,900  pupils.  The  cathedral  and  the 
episcopal  residence,  architecturally  speaking,  are  in- 
significant, a  far  more  imposing  building  being  the 
principal  Armenian-Catholic  church,  built  in  1792. 
Joseph  Lins. 

Annentia,  Fr.\y  NicolXs,  Bishop  of  La  Paz  (cap- 
ital of  Bolivia,  South  America),  appointed  22  Oc- 
tober, 1901;  b.  at  Bemedo,  diocese  of  Vittoria,  Spain, 
5  December,  1845.  He  was  a  Minorite  and  came 
to  .\merica  as  a  missionary  under  the  guidance  of 
Father  Rafael  Sans,  and  followed  the  footsteps  of 
that  pioneer  in  the  forests  and  on  the  river  courses 
of  the  Reni  region.  He  had,  previous  to  his  coming 
to  South  America,  spent  several  years  in  France,  and 
brought  to  the  mission  field,  besides  devotion  to 
apostolic  duties,  a  solid  fund  of  knowledge  in  physics, 
astronomy,  and  natural  science.  The  savage  and 
cannibal  tribes  lurking  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Beni 
region  were  not  numerous,  but  often  hostile,  and 
had  for  years  been  cruelly  decimated  by  epidemic 
disease  (smallpox).  To  reach  them  he  cut  his  way 
through  almost  impenetrable  woods  from  one  aban- 
doned hamlet  to  another,  exposed  to  the  most  ap- 
palling hardships  from  hunger,  climate,  and  disease. 
He  taught  and  preached  wherever  and  whenever  he 
fell  in  with  Indians,  establishing  and  re-establishing 
missions;  in  this  way  he  gathered  materials  for 
the  geography,  natural  history,  and  anthropology 
of  those  practically  unknown  regions.  It  cost  him 
much  labour  to  have  these  afterwards  published,  and 
his  valuable  books  are,  unfortunately,  extremely  rare 
at  present.  His  principal  publications  are:  "  Diario 
del  Viage  al  Madre  de  Dios,  hecho  por  el  P.  Fray 
Nicolds  Armentia,  en  el  aiio  de  mil  ochocientos 
ochenta  y  cuatro  y  mil  ochocientos  ochenta  y  cinco, 
en  calidad  de  comisionado  para  explorar  el  Madre 
dcDios"  etc.;  usually  bound  with  "  Navegaci6n  del 
Madre  de  Dios"  (La  Paz,  1887);  and  "  Descripcion 
de  la  Provincia  de  los  Mojos,  en  el  Reino  del  Peru" 
(La  Paz,  1888) — the  latter  is  a  Spanish  translation 
of  the  book  of  the  Jesuit  Franz  Xavier  Eder,  "De- 
Bcriptio  Provincial  Moxitarum"  (Buda,  1791).  "  Vo- 
cabulario  del  Idioma  Shipibo  del  Ucayali"  appeared 
in  "  Boletfn  de  la  Sociedad  geogrdfica  de  La  Paz", 
I,  No.  1.  This  is  thus  far  the  most  complete  vocabu- 
lary of  any  of  the  Pano  stock  (see  Au.^waks),  and 
embraces  more  than  3,800  words.  "  Los  Indios  Mose- 
tenes  y  su  lengua"  was  published  at  Buenos  Aires, 
1903. 

Asiile  from  personal  recollections  of  the  writer,  gathered  dur- 
ing years  of  intercourse  with  this  prelate,  there  is  a  short  bio- 
graphical sketch,  by  Lafone  y  Quevedo,  in  Tacann,  Arte, 
vorabuiirio  etc.  (La  Plata,  1902).  with  portrait.  The  works 
cited  in  the  text  contain  many  scattered  notices  of  the  event- 
ful career  of  the  eminent  missionary. 

Ad.  F.  Bandeuer. 
Armidale,   The   Diocese    of,   situated    in    New 
South   Wales  (Australia),  with  its  cathedral  at  Ar- 
midale, 335  miles  north  of  Sydney.     It  is  one  of  tlio 
six  BulTragan  sees  of   the  province  of  Sydney.     Its 


boundary  on  the  north  is  the  Queen.sland  border,  on 
the  east,  the  Diocese  of  Lismore,  on  the  west,  the 
Diocese  of  Wilcannia,  ten  miles  beyond  Walgett. 
and  on  the  south,  the  Dioceses  of  Maitland  and  Bath- 
urst.  Area  of  Armidale  Diocese,  about  85,000  square 
miles.  Armidale  was  not  proclaimed  a  municipality 
till  1863.  Ten  years  before  that  date  (in  1853)  the 
Rev.  Timothy  McCarthy  was  appointed  its  first  resi- 
dent priest.  It  was  then  a  sparsely  populated  agri- 
cultural and  pastoral  district,  where  Catholics  were 
few  and  far  apart.  Father  McCarthy  made  Armi- 
dale his  head-quarters,  and  (says  Cardinal  Moran) 
"his  missionary  district  embraced  all  the  territory 
as  far  as  the  Queensland  border,  and  extended 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  His  periodical  excursions 
lasted  for  three  months.  From  the  Tweed  to  the 
Richmond,  thence  to  the  Clarence  and  on  to  Walclia, 
then  across  the  Liverpool  Plains  to  the  Gwydir.  and 
back  by  way  of  Glen  Innes  and  Tenterfield  to  Armi- 
dale. Such  was  the  route  which  he  traversed  in  the 
discharge  of  his  ordinary  duties."  He  was  after- 
wards transferred  to  the  Carcoar  district  at  a  time 
when  it  was  "in  a  ferment  from  the  violence  and 
lawlessness  of  the  bushrangers.  He  rendered  a  great 
service  alike  to  the  State  and  to  those  unhappy 
outlaws,  many  of  whom  he  succeeded  in  withdraw- 
ing from  their  life  of  sin  and  crime."  He  died  in 
Ireland  in  1879.  Till  1864  all  New  South  Wales 
was  under  the  spiritual  charge  of  the  Bishop  of 
Sydney.  In  that  and  the  following  years  were  cre- 
ated the  present  Dioceses  of  (ioulburn  (1864),  Bath- 
urst  (1865),  and  Maitland  (1867).  Armidale  (says 
Cardinal  Moran)  "was  also  marked  out  for  an  epis- 
copal see",  but  it  was  not  till  1869  that  its  first 
Bishop,  the  Right  Rev.  Timothy  O'Mahony,  was 
appointed.  Till  1887  the  diocese  had  a  vast  and 
unwieldy  area,  and  at  the  time  that  the  new  Bishop 
entered  into  possession  it  had  no  railroad  running 
through  it,  "and  even  the  ordinary  roads  were  few". 
The  first  cathedral  was  a  little  wooden  church  25 
feet  by  18,  replaced  by  a  brick  and  stone  structure, 
opened  in  1872,  and  measuring  102  feet  by  32. 
Bishop  O'Mahony's  stay  in  Armidale  was  embittered 
by  grave  accusations  that  were  fomented  by  a  false 
clerical  friend  and  given  to  the  press  and  public  by 
open  enemies.  He  resigned  his  see  in  1878  and  was 
appointed  auxiliary  bishop  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Toronto,  where  he  died  in  1892.  He  was  succeeded 
by  the  Right  Rev.  Elzear  Torreggiani  (1879-1904), 
an  Italian  Capuchin  who  had  been  on  the  mission 
in  England  and  Wales.  In  Australia,  as  in  Great 
Britain  and  Italy,  Dr.  Torreggiani  always  wore  the 
habit  of  his  order.  His  first  visitation  of  his  strag- 
gling and  difficult  diocese  occupied  three  years.  The 
coast  district  was,  in  1SS7,  erected  into  the  Dio- 
cese of  Grafton  (now  known  as  the  Diocese  of  Lis- 
more). A  portion  of  the  Maitland  diocese  was  at 
the  same  time  added  to  that  of  Armidale.  Dr.  Tor- 
reggiani died.  28  January,  1904.  He  was  succeeded 
by  the  Right  Rev.  Patrick  Joseph  O'Connor,  who 
had  been  his  coadjutor  from  3  May,  1903. 

Statistics  (towards  the  close  of  1905). — Parochial 
districts,  15;  churches,  52;  secular  priests,  22;  reg- 
ulars, 2;  nuns,  144;  secular  teachers,  4;  boarding 
schools  for  girls,  4;  primarv  sclioi.ls,  19;  children  in 
Catholic  schools,  2.510;  Cailuilic  population,  25,540. 

Lkvkv,  lluli-hmson's  AuKtrnl.n,,,,,  E,iriicl,'v<r,lia  (London. 
1S92);  MoR,\N,  Ilistori/  of  Ihf  Callwlu-  Church  in  Auelralami 
(Sydney,  imdated);  Auslratasum  Catholic  Directory  (Sydney, 
190C). 

Henry  W.  Cleahy. 

Arminianism,  the  popular  designation  of  the 
doctrines  held  by  a  party  formed  in  the  early  days 
of  tlie  seventeenth  century  among  the  Calvinista 
of  the  Nctlu-rlands.  The  tendency  of  the  human 
re.i.son  to  revolt  against  Calvin's  ilecrctum  hnrribile  of 
predestination  absolute  and  .salvation  and  damnation 


ARMINIANISM 


741 


ARMINIANISM 


meted  out  without  regard  to  merit  or  demerit  had 
aroused  opposition  in  thinking  minds  from  tlie  first 
promulgation  of  tlie  dogma;  but  wliilst  tlie  fanatical 
wars  of  rchgion  engrossed  tlie  attention  of  the  masses. 
thinl<ing  minds  were  few  and  uniiifhiential.  Calvin's 
reckless  tenets  had  banished  charity  and  mercy  from 
the  breasts  of  his  followers  and  had  everywhere 
aroused  a  fierce  spirit  of  strife  and  bloodshed.  It 
throve  on  paradoxes.  This  unnatural  spirit  could 
not  survive  a  period  of  calm  deliberation;  a  leader 
was  sure  to  rise  from  the  Calvinistic  ranks  who 
should  point  out  the  baneful  corollaries  of  the  Gene- 
van creed,  and  be  listened  to.  Such  a  leader  was 
Jacobus  Arminius  (Jakob  Ilernianzoon),  professor 
at  the  University  of  Leyden.  He  was  born  at 
Oudewater,  South  HoUaiul,  in  1,'>G0.  While  still 
an  infant  he  lost  his  father,  a  cutler  by  trade,  but 
through  the  generosity  of  strangers  ho  was  enabled 
to  perfect  his  education  at  various  universities  at 
home  and  in  foreign  parts.  In  his  twenty-second 
year  the  brilliant  youth,  whose  talents  were  univer- 
sally acknowleilgeil,  was  sent  to  Geneva  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  merchants'  guild  of  Amsterdam,  in  order 
to  imbibe  genuine  Calvinism  at  the  feet  of  Beza.  In 
1586  he  made  a  prolonged  trip  to  Italy,  which  served 
to  widen  his  mental  hqrizon.  Rumours  beginning 
to  spread  that  he  had  fallen  under  the  influence  of 
the  Jesuits,  Suarez  and  Hellarmin,  he  was  recalled 
to  Amsterdam,  was  pronounced  orthodox,  and  ap- 
pointed preacher  of  the  reformed  congregation. 
This  office  he  filled  with  ever  increasing  renown  for 
fifteen  years.  He  had  all  the  qualifications  of  a 
great  pulpit  orator — a  sonorous  voice,  a  magnificent 
presence,  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Scripture, 
which  he  expounded  in  a  clear  and  pleasing  manner, 
dwelling  with  predilection  on  its  ethical  features 
and  avoiding  the  polemical  asperities  characteristic 
of  his  age  and  sect.  Yet  his  later  years  were  fated 
to  be  embittered  by  polemical  strife.  The  revolt 
against  predestination  absolute  was  taking  shape. 
A  professor  at  Leyden  had  alreatly  pronounced 
Calvin's  God  "a  tyrant  and  an  executioner".  The 
learned  layman  Koornhcrt,  in  spite  of  ecclesiastical 
censures,  continued  to  inveigh  successfully  against 
the  dominant  religion  of  Holland;  and  he  had  con- 
verted two  ministers  of  Delft  who  had  been  chosen  to 
argue  him  into  submission,  from  the  supralap.sarian 
to  the  infralapsarian  position.  (See  C.\lvimsm.) 
The  task  of  confounding  the  "heretic"  was  now 
entrusted  to  the  disciple  of  Beza.  Arminius  ad- 
dressed himself  to  the  work;  but  he  soon  began  to 
feel  that  Calvinism  was  repugnant  to  all  the  instincts 
of  his  soul.  More  and  more  clearly,  as  time  went 
on,  his  writings  and  sermons  taught  the  doctrines 
since  associated  with  his  name  and  after  his  death 
embodied  by  his  disciples  in  the  famous  five  propo- 
sitions of  the  "  Hemonst rants".  Tor  the  sake  of 
reference  we  give  the  substance  of  the  "  Remon- 
strantie "  as  condensed  by  Professor  Blok  in  his 
"History  of  the  People  of  the  Netherlands"  (III, 
ch.  xiv). 

"They  (the  Remonstrants)  declared  them.selves 
opposetf  to  the  following  doctrines:  (1)  Predestination 
in  its  defined  form;  as  if  God  by  an  eternal  and 
irrevocable  decision  had  destined  men,  some  to 
eternal  bliss,  others  to  eternal  damnation,  without 
any  other  law  than  His  own  pleasure.  On  the 
contrary,  they  thought  that  God  by  the  same  resolu- 
tion wished  to  make  all  believers  in  Christ  who 
persisted  in  their  belief  to  the  end  blessed  in  Christ, 
and  for  His  sake  would  only  condemn  the  uncon- 
verted and  unbelieving.  (2)  The  doctrine  of  election 
according  to  which  the  chosen  were  counted  as  neces- 
sarily and  unavoidably  ble.s.sed  and  the  outcasts 
necessarily  and  unavoidably  lost.  Thev  urged  the 
milder  doctrine  that  Christ  had  died  for  all  men, 
and  that  belicversi  were  only  chosen  in  so  far  as  they 


enjoyed  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  (3)  The  doctrine 
that  Christ  dieil  for  the  elect  alone  to  make  them 
blessed  anil  no  one  else,  ordained  a.s  mediator;  on 
the  contrary,  they  urged  the  possibility  of  salvation 
for  others  not  elect.  (4)  The  doctrine  that  the  grace 
of  God  affects  the  elect  only,  while  the  reprobates 
cannot  participate  in  this  through  their  conversion, 
but  only  through  their  own  strength.  On  the 
other  hand,  they,  the  'Remonstrants',  a  name 
they  received  later  from  this,  their  '  Remonstrance', 
hold  that  man  'has  no  saving  belief  in  him.self,  nor 
out  of  the  force  of  his  free-will',  if  he  liv(!s  in  sin, 
but  that  it  is  nece.s.sary  that  'he  be  bora  again  from 
God  in  Christ  by  means  of  His  Holv  Spirit,  and  re- 
newed in  understanding  and  alTection,  or  will  and 
all  strength',  since  without  grace  man  cannot  resist 
sin,  although  he  cannot  be  counted  as  irresistible 
to  grace.  (5)  The  doctrine  that  he  who  had  once 
attained  true  saving  grace  can  never  los(!  it  and  be 
wholly  deba.sed.  They  held,  on  the  contrary,  that 
whoever  had  received  Christ's  quickening  spirit 
had  thereby  a  strong  weapon  against  Satan,  sin,  the 
world,  and  his  own  Mesh,  although  they  would  not 
decide  at  the  time  without  further  investigation — 
later  they  adopted  this  too — whether  he  could  not 
lose  this  power  'forsaking  the  beginning  of  his  being, 
Christ.'" 

The  ultra-Calvinists  responded  by  drafting  a 
"Contra-Remonstrantie"  in  the  following  seven 
articles:  (1)  God  had,  after  .Adam's  fall,  reserved 
a  certain  number  of  human  beings  from  destruction, 
and,  in  His  eternal  and  unchangeable  counsel, 
destined  them  to  salvation  through  Christ,  leaving 
the  others  alone  in  accordance  with  His  righteous 
judgment.  (2)  The  elect  are  not  only  the  good 
Christians  who  are  adult,  but  also  the  "chililren  of 
the  covenant  as  long  as  they  do  not  prove  the  con- 
trary by  their  action ".  (3)  In  this  election  God 
does  not  consider  belief  or  conversion,  but  acts 
simply  according  to  His  pleasure.  (4)  God  sent 
His  Son,  Christ,  for  the  salvation  of  the  elect,  and 
of  them  alone.  (5)  The  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Script- 
ures and  in  preaching  spealcs  to  them  alone,  to 
instruct  and  to  convert  them.  (6)  The  elect  can 
never  lose  the  true  belief,  but  tliey  obtain  power 
of  resistance  through  the  Holy  Ghost  active  in  them. 
(7)  This  would  not  lead  them  to  follow  the  dictates 
of  the  flesh  carelessly,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they 
would  go  God's  way,  considering  that  thereby 
alone  could  they  be  saved. 

The  defection  of  the  popular  and  gifted  di\Hne 
was  a  severe  blow  to  the  rigid  Calvinists  and  started 
a  quarrel  which  eventually  threatened  the  existence 
of  the  United  Netherlands.  His  reputation  was 
greatly  enhanced  by  his  heroic  fidelity  to  pastoral 
duty  during  the  plague  of  lOO'J,  and  the  following 
year,  through  the  influence  of  admirers  like  Grotius. 
he  was.  notwithstantling  fierce  opposition,  appointed 
professor  of  thoologj-  at  the  University  of  Leyden. 
His  life  as  professor  w.is  an  unintermittent  quarrel 
with  his  stern  Calvinistic  colleague,  Francis  Gomanis. 
which  divided  the  university  and  the  country  into 
two  hostile  camps.  .Vrminius  did  not  live  to  .see 
the  ultimate  results  of  the  controver-sy,  as  he  died 
of  consumption  in  his  forty-ninth  year,  October. 
1609.  Although  the  principles  of  .Arminius  were 
Kolenmly  condemned  in  the  great  Calvinist  Synod 
held  at  Dordrecht,  or  Dort,  in  1618-19,  and"  the 
"Remonstrant  heresy"  was  rigorously  8uppres.se(l 
during  the  lifetime  of  Maurice  of  Orange,  never- 
theless the  Leyden  professor  had  given  to  ultra- 
Calvinism  a  blow  from  which  it  never  recovered. 
The  controversy  was  soon  transplanted  to  I'.ngland 
where  it  rouseif  the  same  di.s,sensions  as  in  Holland. 
In  the  following  centurj"  it  divided  the  early  Metho- 
dists into  two  parties,  the  followers  of  John  Wes- 
ley   adhering    to    the     Anninian    view,     those    of 


ARMS 


742 


ARNAULD 


George    Whitefield   professing   the   strict   Calvinistic 
tenets. 

Brant,  fjistoria  VUts  Arminii  (Amsterdam.  1724);  revised 
and  ealarijed  by  Mosheim  (Brunswick.  1725);  Nichols,  Life 
of  Arminiui  (London.  1843);  Arminii  opera  theologica  (in- 
complete—Frankfort. 16.35).  tr.  Nichols  (London.  1825-28, 
Buffalo.  1853);  Blok.  History  of  the  People  of  the  Netherlands; 
Cambridge  Modem  History,  III.  xix;  lloGGE  in  Realencyclo- 
padie  fUr  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche;  Grube  m  Kir- 
chenlf.z.;  Brandt.  Historic  rtform-ationis  Belgica:  (La  Haye, 
1726);  Graf,  Bcitrag  zur  Gesch.  der  Syn.  von  Dortrecht  (Basle, 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Anns,  Ecclesiastical.  See  Heraldry,  Eccle- 
siastical. 

Army  Chaplain.     See  Chaplain. 

Arnauld,  Akxaut,  or  Arnault,  a  celebrated 
family,  the  liistory  of  which  is  intimately  connected 
witli  that  of  Jansenism  and  of  Port-Royal.  Though 
originally  of  Auvergne,  the  family  fixed  its  seat, 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  Paris, 
where  several  members  distinguished  themselves  at 
the  Bar.  Antoine  Arnauld  (1560-1619)  was  a  famous 
lawj'er  in  the  Assembly  of  Paris,  and  a  Counsellor  of 
State  under  Henry  IV.  His  fame  rested  on  a  speech 
(1594)  in  favour  of  the  University  of  Paris  and 
against  the  Jesuits,  and  on  several  political  pam- 
phlets. The  best  known  of  his  writings  is  entitled  ' '  Le 
franc  et  veritable  discours  du  Roi  sur  le  r^tablisse- 
ment  qui  lui  est  d^mand^  des  Jfeuites"  (1602).  By 
his  marriage  with  Catherine  Marion  he  had  twenty 
children,  ten  of  whom  survived  him.  Six  of  these 
were  girls,  all  religious  of  Port-Royal,  two  of  whom 
are  especially  famous,  Ang^lique  and  Mere  Agnes. 
Three  of  the  four  sons  achieved  eminence:  Arnauld 
d'Andilly,  Henri,  and  Antoine.  Following  the  order 
of  their  fame,  we  shall  speak  successively  of  Antoine, 
Ang^lique,   d'Andilly,   and   Henri. 

I.  Antoine  Arnauld,  surnamed  the  Great,  b.  in 
Paris,  1612;  d.  at  BriLssels,  8  August,  1694,  was  the 
twentieth  and  last  child  of  tlie  Arnauld  family. 
Bereaved  of  his  father  at  the  age  of  seven,  his  youth 
was  spent  entirely  under  the  influence  of  his  motlier 
and  his  sister  Ang^lique,  and  through  them  of  the 
Abb6  of  Saint-Cyran.  At  their  solicitation  he  gave 
up  the  study  of  law  for  wliich  lie  believed  he  had  a 
decided  vocation,  and  devoted  himself  to  theology. 
He  read  many  of  the  WTitings  of  St.  Augustine,  but  it 
was  through  the  eyes  of  Saint-Cyran.  In  1635,  six 
years  before  the  publication  of  Jansen's  book,  the 
"Augustinus",  he  successfully  maintained  theses  on 
grace,  for  the  bachelor's  degree.  Even  so  early  he 
made  the  distinction  between  the  two  states  of  inno- 
cence and  corrupt  nature;  and  also  spoke  of  the 
efficacy  of  grace  in  itself.  Tliis  was  a  sort  of  prelude 
to  the  book  of  the  Bishop  of  Ypres.  The  yoimg 
bachelor  then  wished  to  enter  the  Sorbonne,  but  Ricli- 
elicu,  who  knew  of  his  connection  with  Saint-Cyran, 
then  a  prisoner  at  Vincennes  (1638),  opposed  liim, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  wait  until  after  the  death  of 
tlie  cardinal  in  1043.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  or- 
dained priest  (1641),  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine,  and 
the  same  year  had  sustained  with  brilliant  success 
his  theses  for  the  doctorate,  in  which  he  showed  tlie 
influence  of  Descartes  and  Saint-Cyran.  Soon  after- 
wards he  assailetl  the  Jesuits,  tlie' champions  of  or- 
tliodoxy.  Father  Sirmond  was  the  first  object  of 
his  attacks  (1641),  which  later  turned  against  tlie 
whole  .Society  in  the  tract  "Tli(5ologie  morale  des 
Jdsuitcs",  a  precursor  of  the  "I.ettrcs  provincialcs" 
(1643).  Shortly  afterwards  appeared  tlie  celebrated 
treatise  "De  la  fr^quentc  Communion".  Arnauld's 
adversary  was  again  a  Jesuit,  Fatlier  de  Sesmaisons, 
who  had  written  a  learned  refutation  of  Saint-Cyran 's 
work  opposing  frequent  Communion.  Arnauld's 
book,  written  at  llie  suggestion  of  Saint-Cyran,  who 
even  reviewed  tlic  manuscript,  stirred  up  a  wliirl- 
wind.  Mi.sled  bv  the  ostentatious  display  of  patristic 
learning,   and   the   affected   zeal   of   tlic   autlior   for 


ancient  discipline  and  the  primitive  purity  of  Chris- 
tianity, serious  readers  allowed  themselves  to  be 
ensnared.  The  public,  moreo^•er,  was  flattered  by 
the  semblance  of  being  appealed  to  as  a  tribunal  on 
the  most  controverted  questions  of  theologj',  all  of 
which  Arnauld  had  taken  into  consideration  when 
he  wrote  the  book  in  French.  The  treatise  found 
warm  partisans  in  all  classes  of  society,  even  among 
the  clergy  themselves.  But  adversaries  were  also 
aroused.  Arnauld  was  attacked,  refuted,  denounced 
to  the  Holy  See.  He  escaped  censure,  but  of  the 
thirty-one  propositions  condemned  in  1690  by  Alex- 
ander VIII  three  were  extracts  taken  almost  word  for 
word  from  Arnauld's  book  summarizing  his  doc- 
trine. The  consequences  of  this  work  were  most 
pernicious.  According  to  the  testimony  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul  there  was  a  noticeable  decrease  in  the 
frequentation  of  the  Sacraments.  By  exacting  a  too 
rigid  preparation  and  a  purity  of  conscience  and 
perfection  of  life  unattainable  by  many  Christians. 
Arnauld  set  up  a  barrier  to  Holy  Communion  that 
kept  many  away.  He  forgot  that  the  reception  of 
the  Eucharist  is  not  the  reward  of  virtues,  but  the 
remedy  for  infirmities,  and  under  the  pretext  of  holi- 
ness he  prevented  the  faithful  from  approaching  the 
source  of  all  holiness.  Meanwhile  the  "Augustinus", 
condemned  by  Urban  VIII  (1641),  was  a  cause  of 
controversy.  Habert,  a  doctor  of  the  faculty  of 
Paris,  denounced  it  from  the  pulpit  of  Notre-Dame, 
and  was  answered  by  Arnauld  in  two  "Apologies  de 
M.  Jansenius",  in  which  he  sustained  the  doctrines 
of  the  Bishop  of  Ypres.  A  little  later  Doctor  Cornet, 
by  selecting  from  the  "  Augustinus  "  five  propositions, 
which  summarized  its  errors,  and  endeavouring  to 
have  them  censured,  aroused  bitter  discussion. 
Arnauld  thereupon  published  his  "Considerations 
sur  I'entreprise",  which  made  it  appear  that  it  was 
the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  himself  that  was  being 
condemned.  This  work  was  followed  by  another 
defence  of  Jansenist  ideas:  "Apologie  pour  Ics  Saints 
Pi'-res  de  I'Eglise,  d^fenseurs  de  la  grace  de  J(?su.s- 
Christ  centre  les  erreurs  qui  leur  sont  impos<^es ". 
In  the  meantime  the  champions  of  Catholic  orthodoxy 
had  prepared  at  Saint-Lazare,  under  the  ej-es  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  an  address  to  Innocent  X 
asking  for  the  condemnation  of  the  five  propositions. 
In  the  Bull  "Cum  Occasione"  the  first  four  were  con- 
demned as  heretical,  and  the  fifth  as  false  and  rash 
(1653).  The  Jansenists  subscribed  to  the  condemna- 
tion of  these  propositions,  understood  accoiding  to 
Calvin's  interpretation,  but  denied  that  this  was  the 
interpretation  of  the  "Augustinus".  According  to 
them  the  Church,  while  infallible  in  passing  judgment 
on  a  doctrine,  ceased  to  be  infallible  when  there  was 
a  question  of  attributing  a  doctrine  to  a  given  per- 
son or  book.  This  was  the  famous  distinction  be- 
tween fact  and  law,  later  so  dear  to  both  parties. 
About  this  time  Picot(5,  a  priest  of  Saint-Sulpico, 
required  of  a  penitent,  the  Due  de  Liancourt,  under 
penalty  of  refusing  him  absolution,  that  he  submit 
to  the  Bvill  of  Innocent  X  and  withdraw  from  all 
intimate  connection  with  the  Jansenists.  Thereupon 
Arnauld,  their  leader,  gave  vent  to  his  indignation 
in  two  "letters  to  a  duke  and  peer"  (Ui.W).  He 
maintained  that  the  Duke  was  obliged  to  condemn 
the  five  propositions,  but  that  he  could  refuse  to 
believe  that  they  wore  found  in  the  "Augustinus". 
On  the  latter  point,  he  said,  there  was  no  duty  towards 
the  pope  save  a  respectful  silence.  These  letters 
drew  do«Ti  upon  his  head  the  wrath  of  the  Theologi- 
cal I'^aculty,  which  censured  the  two  following  propo- 
sitions taken  from  the  letters:  (1)  That  the  five  con- 
demned propositions  are  not  in  the  Augustinus; 
(2)  that  grace  has  ever  been  lacking  to  a  just  man 
on  any  occasion  when  he  committed  sin.  One  hun- 
dred and  thirty  doctors  signed  this  censure,  and 
Arnauld    was    cxchidcd    forcxcT    from    the    I'aciilty 


ARNAULD 


743 


ARNAULD 


Then  Pascal  came  to  his  fiiend's  assistance  and 
wrote,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Montalte,  his  "Pro- 
vincial Letters".  The  first  four  took  up  Arnauld's 
quarrel  and  Jansenism;  eleven  were  devoted  to  at- 
tacks on  the  moral  code  of  the  Jesuits;  and  the  \i\st 
three  reviewed  the  questions  of  Jansenism,  and 
particularly  the  distinction  between  law  and  fact. 
But  the  .\.s.soinJ)ly  of  the  t'lergj',  in  1656,  asserted  the 
Church's  right  of  passing  iiifiiUible  judgment  on 
dogmatic!  facts  iu;  well  !is  faith,  and  the  same  year 
Alexander  VU  published  the  Bull  "  Ad  Sanctam ", 
affirming  with  all  his  authority  tliat  the  five  proposi- 
tions were  drawn  from  the  "Augustinus"  and  were 
condemned  in  the  sense  of  their  author.  As  soon  as 
this  Bull  was  received  by  the  A.sspmbly  of  the  Clergy 
(1057)  it  was  published  in  all  dioceses,  and  a  formu- 
lary of  submission  prepared  for  signature.  The 
Jansenists,  under  the  leadersliip  of  Arnauld,  refused 
to  subscribe.  On  the  intervention  of  Louis  XIV 
they  signed  the  formularj'  with  many  mental  reserva- 
tions, b\it,  claiming  that  it  lucked  authority,  they 
attacked  it  in  many  writings,  either  composed  or 
inspired  by  Arnauld.  Alexander  VII  at  the  request 
of  the  king  and  clergj-  published  a  new  Bull  (161)4) 
enjoining  sulwcription  under  canonical  and  civil 
penalties.  Four  bishops,  among  them  Henri  Ar- 
nauld, of  Angers,  who  dared  to  resist,  were  con- 
demned by  the  pope,  and  a  court  was  appointed  by 
the  king  to  pass  judgment  on  their  action.  Alex- 
ander VTl  died  in  the  interval.  Thereupon  the  four 
dissenters  sent  to  the  French  Clergy  a  circtilar  pre- 
pared by  Arnauld,  denying  to  the  pope,  in  the  name 
of  Galilean  liberty,  the  right  of  judging  the  bishops 
of  the  kingdom.  On  further  consideration,  however, 
they  conformed  exteriorly  to  the  formulary.  Clem- 
ent IX,  desirous  of  putting  an  end  to  these  dissen- 
sions, granted  them  what  is  known  as  the  "Clemen- 
tine Peace",  extending  it  to  all  the  leaders  of  tlie 
sect  in  consideration  of  submission.  This  submis- 
sion, however,  as  the  future  proved,  was  merely 
external.  Arnauld  was  presented  to  the  Nuncio,  to 
Louis  XIV,  and  the  whole  court,  and  was  everywhere 
accorded  the  reception  merited  by  his  talents  and 
learning.  At  this  time  he  composed  in  connexion 
with  Ivicole,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Bossuet,  the 
most  learned  of  his  controversial  works,  entitled 
"La  Perp^tuit^  de  la  foi  de  I'Eglise  catholique  sur 
I'Eucharistie".  This  work,  praised  by  Clement  I.\ 
and  Innocent  XI,  who  congratulated  the  author  upon 
it,  caused  a  scn.sation,  and  struck  a  hea^y  blow  at 
Protestantism.  It  was  soon  followed  by  another: 
"  Renversement  de  la  morale  de  Jfeus-Christ  par  les 
calvinistes ".  Meanwhile  Arnauld,  who  was  still  a 
Jansenist  at  heart,  was  diffusing  his  ideas,  noiseles.sly, 
however,  in  order  to  preserve  peace.  People  flocked 
to  Port-Royal,  and  Arnauld  was  the  centre  of  as- 
semblies which  were  viewed  with  suspicion.  Error 
was  making  considerable  progress,  to  the  alarm  of 
both  religious  and  royal  autliorities.  The  storm  was 
about  to  burst,  but  Arnauld  escaped  it  by  retiring  to 
the  Netherlands  (1G7!I),  where  he  was  obliged  to 
remain  until  his  death  (IfiOl).  During  these  fifteen 
years  his  activity  never  abated.  He  was  constantly 
plying  his  pen,  and  always  in  a  belligerent  spirit.  He 
attacked  the  Protestants;  he  attacked  the  Jesuits; 
he  even  attacked  Malebranche.  His  ".Apologie  du 
clerg6  de  France  et  des  catholiques  d'.-\ngleterre 
centre  le  ministre  Jurieu"  (lOSl)  aroused  the  wrath 
of  that  champion  of  Protestantism,  who  answered  in 
a  monograph  entitled  "  L'Esprit  de  M.  Arnauld". 
The  aged  leader  of  the  Jansenists  refrained  from 
refuting  a  writing  into  which  his  personality  had  been 
draggcil,  and  which  was  nothing  but  a  nuuss  of  coarse 
insults.  He  was  none  the  le.s.s  zealous,  however,  in 
his  attacks  upon  Protestant  ministers  in  an  iiniiien.se 
number  of  treatises.  He  even  attacked  William  of 
Orange.     In  Arnauld's  eyes  Jesuits  were  always  to 


be  treated  as  personal  enemies.  Every  writing  that 
issued  from  the  hand  of  a  Jesuit  furnished  him  an 
occasion  to  denounce  the  Society  to  the  public,  and 
to  publish  a  refutation  if  he  chanced  to  find  in  it  any 
ideas  contrary  to  his  own.  Two  volumes  appeared 
in  1669  and  IC&i  respectively,  entitled  "Morale 
pratique  dcs  Jdsuites  repi6sent<5c  en  pliisieurs  liis- 
toircs  arriv6es  dans  toutcs  les  parties  du  monde". 
Their  author,  de  Pontchdteau,  was  a  solitary  of  Port- 
Royal,  who  was  exceedingly  hostile  to  mi.ssionary 
Jesuits.  Father  Le  Tellicr  replied  in  his  "La  De- 
fense des  nouveaux  chr^tiens  et  des  missionnaires 
de  la  Chine,  du  Japon  et  des  Indcs"  (I(>87).  Ar- 
nauld thereupon  constituted  himself  the  champion 
of  de  Pontchfiteau's  works  and  published  between 
1690  and  1693  five  additional  books.  He  was  work- 
ing on  the  si.xth,  "La  Calomnie",  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  This  work  is  biased  and  full  of  prejudice. 
He  retails  without  reserve  or  moderation,  and  with 
evident  malice,  all  the  differences  and  quarrels  which 
had  arisen  among  men  of  good  faith,  or  between  re- 
ligions communities  engaged  in  the  same  work  with- 
out having  the  limits  of  tlieir  respective  jurisdiction 
clearly  defined.  According  to  .'^mauld  the  Jesuits 
were  always  in  the  wrong,  and  he  relates  with  calm 
credulity  everything  that  the  ill  will  of  their  enemies 
had  attributed  to  them,  without  concerning  himself 
as  to  the  truth  of  these  statements.  Malebranche. 
the  Oratorian,  differed  with  him  on  the  subject  of 
grace,  and  expressed  his  views  in  his  "Trait6  de  la 
Nature  et  de  la  Grace".  Arnauld  attempted  to  stop 
its  publication,  and,  failing,  he  opened  a  campaign 
against  Malebranche  (1683).  Without  attempting 
to  refute  the  treatise,  he  took  up  the  opinion  that 
"we  sec  all  in  God",  laid  down  by  the  philosopher 
in  a  preceding  work,  "Recherche  de  la  v6rit6",  and 
attacked  it  in  "Des  vraies  et  dcs  fau.sses  iddcs". 
Malebranche  objected  to  this  shifting  of  the  question, 
claiming  that  to  bring  before  the  public  a  purely 
metaphysical  problem  to  be  refuteil  and  confounded 
with  the  weapons  of  ridicule  was  unworthy  of  a  great 
mind.  Arnauld  now  showed  no  moderation  what- 
ever, even  going  to  the  point  of  attributing  to  Male- 
branche opinions  which  he  had  never  held.  His 
"Philosophical  and  Theological  Reflections"  on 
the  "Traitd  de  la  Nature  et  de  la  GrSce"  (1685) 
scored  a  triumph  for  the  Jan.-ienist  party,  but  it 
lessened  in  nowise  the  prestige  of  Malebranche.  The 
latter  had  the  advantage  of  moderation,  notwith- 
standing more  than  one  bitter  line  directed  against 
his  antagonist,  and  he  confessed  himself  "weary  of 
furnishing  the  world  a  spectacle,  and  having  the 
'Journal  des  Savants'  filled  with  their  respective 
platitudes".  Nevertheless  the  quarrel  ended  only 
with  the  death  of  Arnauld.  Jansenism  had  not  been 
forgotten,  and  Arnauld  was  to  flie  last  its  zealous, 
untiring  champion.  It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  all 
his  writ  ings  in  its  defence.  The  majority  were  anony- 
mous, so  that  they  might  reach  France  more  e:vsily. 
His  "  New  Defense  of  the  Mons  New  Testament" — a 
version  which  had  emanated  from  Port-Royal — is  the 
most  violent  of  all  his  works.  We  may  also  mention 
the  "Phantome  du  Jans^nisme"  (Ki.SO),  from  which 
the  author  hoped  great  results  for  his  sect.     He  pro- 

Cosed  in  this  work  "  to  justify  the  so-called  Jansenists 
y  slowing  Jansenism  to  Ix!  nothing  but  a  phantom, 
as  there  is  no  one  in  the  Church  who  holds  any  of  the 
five  condemned  propositions,  and  it  is  not  forbidden 
to  di.scuss  whether  or  not  the.-;e  projwsilions  have  been 
taught  by  Jansenius".  On  this  hist  point  Arnauld 
was  always  immovable,  constantly  inventing  new 
subterfuges  to  prevent  hini-self  from  seeing  the  tnith. 
Sainte-Beuve  was  not  wrong  in  writing  (Port  Royal, 
bk.  Ill,  viii)  that  "the  persistence  in  knowing  lx>tter 
than  the  popes  what  they  think  and  define  is  the 
favourite  tncsis  of  the  Janjienists.  Ix-ginning  with  Ar- 
nauld ".    In  1700  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergj*  of  Franct- 


ARNAULD 


744 


ARNAULD 


condemned  this  proposition;  "Jansenism  is  a  phan- 
tom", as  false,  scandalous,  rash,  injurious  to  the 
French  Clergy,  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  to  the  Uni- 
versal Church";  as  "schismatical,  and  favouring  the 
condemned  errors".  Arnauld  died  at  BriLssels,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-two.  Nicole,  who  had  accompanied 
him  into  exile,  had,  by  revising  his  writings,  kept  him 
for  a  time  within  the  bounds  of  moderation,  but 
when  Nicole  was  replaced  by  Father  Quesnel  of  the 
Oratory,  Arnauld  allowed  himself  all  the  extremes  of 
lanu;uage,  and  his  passion  for  polemics  was  given  full 
scope.  He  died  in  the  arras  of  Quesnel,  who  ad- 
ministered Extreme  Unction  and  the  Viaticum,  al- 
though he  had  no  power  to  do  so.  He  was  interred 
privately,  and  his  heart  taken  to  Port-Royal.  Boi- 
leau,  Racine,  and  Santeuil  composed  for  him  epitaphs 
which  have  become  famous.  Arnauld's  w-orks  are 
classed  under  five  heads:  on  belles-lettres  and  phi- 
losophy; on  grace;  controversial  works  against  Protes- 
tants; those  against  the  Jesuits;  on  Holy  Scripture. 
The  mass  of  his  wTitings  is  enormous,  and  seldom 
read  to-day.  There  is  no  pretence  at  style.  He  was 
a  learned  man  and  a  subtle  logician,  but  he  entirely 
ignored  the  art  of  persuading  and  pleasing,  and  his 
erroneous  teachings  mar  his  best  pages.  His  "Gram- 
maire  gen^rale",  and  "Logique"  are  the  works  most 
easily  read. 

II.  Jacqueline-Marie-.\ngelique  Arnauld,  sis- 
ter of  the  preceding,  b.  1591,  d.  6  August,  1661,  was 
the  third  of  the  twenty  children  of  Antoine  Arnauld. 
While  still  a  child  she  showed  great  keenness  of  in- 
tellect and  wonderful  endowments  in  mind,  will,  and 
character.  To  please  her  grandfather  Marion,  the 
advocate,  she  consented  to  become  a  religious,  but 
only  on  condition  that  she  be  made  abbess.  At  the 
age  of  eight  (1599)  she  took  the  habit  of  a  Benedic- 
tine novice  at  the  monastery  of  Saint-Antoine  in  Paris. 
She  was  soon  transferred  (1600)  to  the  Abbey  of 
Maubuisson,  ruled  by  Ang^lique  d'Esti^es,  sister  of 
the  beautiful  Gabrielle  d'Estr^es,  mistress  of  Henry 
IV.  The  child  was  brought  up  in  liberty,  luxury, 
and  ignorance,  and  was  left  entirely  to  her  own  im- 
petuous and  fantastic  impulses.  At  Confirmation  she 
took  the  name  Ang^lique,  in  compliment  to  the  ab- 
bess, and  gave  up  that  of  Jacqueline,  which  she  had 
hitherto  borne.  A  reprehensible  fraud  of  the  Ar- 
naulds  obtained  from  Rome  abbatial  bulls  for  An- 
gi51ique,  then  eleven  years  of  age.  She  was  named 
coadjutrix  to  the  Abbess  of  Port^Royal  (1602)  and 
continued  to  live,  as  she  had  lived  before,  without 
serious  irregularities,  but  also  without  religious  fer- 
vour. Her  days  were  taken  up  with  walks,  profane 
reading,  and  visits  outside  the  monastery,  all  of  which 
could  not  prevent  a  deadly  ennui  which  nothing 
could  dispel.  "Instead  of  praying",  she  tells  us,  "I 
set  myself  to  read  novels  and  Roman  history".  She 
felt  drawn  by  no  call.  Too  proud  to  retrace  her 
steps,  at  the  age  of  .seventeen  she  confirmed  the 
promise  made  at  eight  and,  " bursting  with  spite", 
signed  a  formula  her  father  placed  before  her,  which 
was  to  forge  on  her  forever  the  heavy  chain  of  a 
vocation  imposed  on  her.  A  sermon  preached  by  a 
visiting  Franciscan  (1608)  was  the  occasion  of  her 
conversion.  She  re.solved  to  change  her  mode  of  life 
at  once,  and  to  effect  a  reform  in  her  monastery. 
She  began  with  her.self,  and  determined,  despite  every 
obstacle,  to  follow  the  rules  of  her  order  in  all  their 
rigour.  She  had  infinite  trouble  in  encompassing 
the  reform  of  Port-Royal,  but  she  succeeded,  and 
such  was  the  steadfastness  of  the  young  abbess  that 
she  closed  the  doors  of  the  monastery  to  her  own 
father  and  brothers  despite  their  indignant  protests. 
This  wa-s  the  "day  of  the  grating"  which  remained 
famous  in  the  annals  of  Jansenism.  After  the  reform 
of  Port-Royal,  Mc-re  Ang(;iique  undertook  to  recall 
to  a  regular  life  the  abbey  of  Maubuisson,  six  leagues 
from    Paris,   where  scandals  were  frequent.     .\ng<v 


lique  d'Estrdes,  the  abbess,  led  such  a  life  that  her 
sister  Gabrielle  reproached  her  as  being  "  the  dis- 
grace of  our  house".  It  is  impossible  to  tell  in  a 
few  lines  what  patience,  courage,  and  gentle,  per- 
sistent firmness  were  necessary  to  bring  about  this 
reform.  Mere  .\ng61ique  was  guided  and  sustained 
at  this  time  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales.  She  even 
thought  of  abandoning  the  crosier  to  enter  the  Visi- 
tation Order,  which  the  saint  had  just  founded.  She 
was  one  of  those  characters,  however,  who  yield  be- 
fore those  they  consider  superiors,  but  stand  firm 
and  immovable  in  the  face  of  others.  The  saint 
understanding  her,  gently  diverted  her  from  this 
project.  The  years  that  followed  (1620-30)  were 
the  best  years  for  Port-Royal,  years  of  regularity, 
prayer,  and  true  happiness.  There  were  many  nov- 
ices; the  reputation  of  the  abbey  went  far  and  wide. 
In  1625,  thinking  that  the  valley  of  Port-Royal  was 
unhealthy  for  her  religious,  Mi-re  Ang^lique  estab- 
lished them  all  in  Paris,  in  the  Faubourg  Saint- 
Jacques.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  abbess  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Zamet,  Bishop  of  Langres,  who  had 
reformed  the  Benedictine  .\bbey  of  Tai-d,  near  Dijon, 
and  was  thinking  of  founding  an  order  in  honour  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament.  He  considered  the  fusion  of 
the  two  monasteries  an  opportunity  sent  by  Provi- 
dence. He  broached  it  to  the  abbess,  who  agreed 
to  the  project,  and  together  they  began  the  erection 
of  a  new  monastery  near  the  Louvre.  The  bishop's 
sumptuous  taste,  however,  contrasted  with  the  ab- 
bess's spirit  of  austere  poverty.  Mi"  re  Angdlique, 
being  self-willed  to  the  point  of  falling  ill  when  op- 
posed, wished  to  have  it  built  according  to  her  ideas 
and  to  impose  her  will  on  those  around  her.  She 
was  replaced  as  abbess,  although  it  was  her  sister 
Agnfs  who  was  elected  .4bbess  of  Tard.  Even  when 
second  in  rank  Ang^lique  gave  as  much  trouble, 
when  the  "affair  of  the  Secret  Chaplet"  caused  a 
diversion.  The  "  Secret  Cliaplet "  was  a  term  used 
to  designate  a  mystical  treatise  of  twenty  pages 
composed  by  M6re  .4gnes,  sister  of  Angclique,  in 
which  the  Sacrament  of  Love  was  represented  as 
terrible,  formidable,  and  inaccessible.  This  little 
book  was  disturbing,  on  account  of  the  false  spiritual 
tendencies  it  revealed,  and  it  was  condemned  by 
the  Sorbonne  (18  June,  1633).  For  the  first  time 
Port-Royal  was  looke  1  on  with  suspicion,  as  having 
clouded  the  integrity  of  its  doctrine.  Nevertheless 
an  anonymous  champion  had  issued  a  brochure  in 
apology  of  the  "Chaplet".  which  caused  a  tremen- 
dous scandal.  The  author  was  soon  known  to  be 
Jean  du  Vergier  de  Hauranne,  Abb6  of  Snint-Cyran. 
Mere  .4ng61ique  had  known  the  Abbd  for  ten  years, 
in  the  character  of  a  family  friend,  but  she  felt  no 
sympathy  whatever  with  his  teachings.  From  1633, 
however,  she  took  sides  with  him,  introduced  him 
into  her  community,  and  made  him  the  confessor  of 
her  religious  and  the  oracle  of  the  house.  The 
Bishop  of  Langres  tried  in  vain  to  displace  him.  but 
Angdlique  entrenched  herself  deeper  in  obstinacy. 
This  marks  the  separation  between  Tard  and  Port- 
Royal;  from  this  time,  also,  the  history  of  Mi^re 
Angdlique  is  merged  with  that  of  Jansenism.  Saint- 
Cyran  became  master  of  Port-Royal.  He  took  away 
the  sacraments,  blinded  .souls,  and  subjugated  wills. 
To  dispute  his  ideas  w.is  rci^anled  :is  a  crime  deserving 
of  punishment.  About  the  monastery  were  groupeil 
twelve  men  of  the  world,  most  of  them  of  the  family 
of  .\rnauld,  who  led  a  life  of  penance  and  were  called 
the  "Solitaries  of  Port-Royal".  Further,  M^re  .\n- 
gC'liipic  had  gathered  under  her  crosier  her  five  .sisters 
and  many  <>f  her  nieces.  It  may  be  said  with  truth 
that  tlie  Port-Royal  of  the  .seventeenth  century  was 
her  creation.  With  Saiiil-Cyriui  it  Ix'came  a  centre  of 
alarming  error.  Richelii'U  urulerstood  this,  ,ind  caused 
the  arrest  (15  May,  1(')3,S)  of  the  dangerous  Abb<^, 
and   his   confinement   in    the   prison    at    Vincennes 


ARNAULD 


745 


ARNAULD 


M^re  Ang(''liqiio  became  more  than  ever  attached  to 
her  director,  in  whom  she  saw  one  persecuted  for 
justice'  sake.  At  his  death  (1G43)  slie  found  herself 
without  a  guide,  but  her  perversion  wius  complete. 
She  retired  into  an  atmospnere  of  complete  and  ob- 
durate impassibility,  with  no  thought  but  t^)  bring 
about  the  triumph  of  the  principles  held  by  him 
whom  she  had  honoured  as  :i  lioctor  and  venerated 
almo.st  as  a  martyr.  1  )urinf;  the  following  years,  also, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Hull  i.ssued  by  Innocent  X.  she 
encouraged  by  word  and  by  letters  the  upholders  of 
Jansenism.  She  coniparcd  herself  to  St.  Paula  [X?r- 
secuted  by  the  IVlaf^iaiis.  Far  from  confining  her- 
self within  the  limits  of  her  monastery,  she  threw 
herself  boldly  into  the  struggle.  She  [jropugated  lier 
favourite  ideas;  she  continually  wrote  letters  encour- 
aging some  and  condemning  others,  among  the  latter 
including  even  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  Stronger  than 
all  the  rest  in  the  loftiness  of  her  intelligence  and  the 
firmness  of  her  character.  Mere  Ang^lique  was  a 
leader  of  the  party,  and  a  leader  who  would  die 
sooner  than  surrender.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  she  did 
expire  (G  August,  Ititil)  filled  with  solicitude  for  her 
religious  caused  by  the  signing  of  the  Formulary, 
and  her  own  fear  of  a  "terrible  eternity".  She 
left  various  writings  and  a  collection  of  letters  to 
be  found  in  the  "M<5moires  pour  servir  k  I'histoire 
de  Port-Royal"  (Utrecht,  174J-41).  Her  sister  Ag- 
nds  survived  her  ten  years.  We  owe  to  her  a  work 
entitled  "Image  de  la  religieuse  parfaito  et  impar- 
faite"  (IGOS).  She  resisted  and  suffered  nuich  at 
the  time  of  the  Formulary.  It  was  of  M^re  Agni^s 
and  her  religious  that  De  P6r6fixe,  Archbishop  of 
Paris  said:  "The-se  sisters  are  as  pure  as  angels,  but 
as  proud  as  devils". 

III.  RoBEUT  Arnaui.d  d'Andilly,  b.  15S9,  d.  27 
September,  1G74,  was  the  eldest  of  Antoine  Arnauld's 
twenty  children.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  IG19, 
he  became,  according  to  custom,  head  of  his  family. 
With  him  obstinacy  and  pride  were  hereditary  faults; 
to  these  were  added  excessive  \ehemence  and  ab- 
ruptness of  temper.  It  is  related  that  on  the  "day 
of  the  grating"  lie  flew  into  a  passion  with  his  sister 
Ang^liciue,  even  to  the  point  of  tlircatening  her  and 
calling  her  a  "monster  of  ingratitude  and  a  parri- 
cide", because  she  refused  to  allow  her  father  to 
enter  the  cloister  of  the  monastery.  At  an  early 
period  (1G21)  he  became  a  friend  of  Saint-Cyran.and 
participated  in  all  his  errors.  It  was  not  his  fault 
that  the  Abbess  of  Port -Royal  did  not  give  her  con- 
fidence sooner  to  the  famous  .\bb6.  Like  the  rest  of 
the  family,  he  hated  the  Jesuits  as  personal  enemies, 
because  tliey  were  the  champions  of  orthodoxy.  He 
affected  to  combine  with  a  regular  attendance  at 
court  a  very  ardent  piety.  He  was  in  great  honour 
at  court  and  his  son  Pomponne  became  Minister  of 
State.  He  was  looked  on  with  fa\our  by  the  (Jueen 
Regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  and  had  [wwerful  friends. 
The  Jansenist  party  took  advantage  of  this  to  ob- 
tain the  relea.se  of  Saint-Cyran  from  the  pri.son  of 
Vincennes,  where  he  had  been  confitied  l)y  Kichclicu. 
D'Andilly  tried  to  gain  over  the  Duchesse  d'AiguiUon, 
niece  of  the  Cardinal.  She  went  to  Rueil  to  sec  her 
uncle,  but  the  minister  cut  short  her  prayers  by 
showing  her  the  real  state  of  alTairs.  It  was  D'An- 
dilly who  persuaded  Anno  de  Rohan,  Princc.s.se  do 
Ou6m6n^e,  one  of  his  worldly  friends,  to  enter  Port- 
Royal,  for  to  her  he  played  the  role  of  lay  director. 
On  becoming  a  widower,  he  left  the  court  and  retired 
to  Port-Koyal  des  Champs,  having  Ijeen  preceded 
by  one  of  his  sons,  Arnauld  de  Luzancy  (164(')).  He 
found  three  nephews  already  there:  Antoine  Le 
Maitre,  Le  Maitre  de  Sacv,  and  de  S^ricourt.  For 
thirty  years  he  lived  in  tliis  retreat,  occupied  with 
literary  and  manual  labour.  He  cho.se  to  cultivate 
trees,  and  sent  to  the  queen  monstrous  fruits  which 
Mazarin  laughingly  called  "blessed  fruits".     During 


the  same  period  he  translated  the  Jewish  historian 
Jo.sephus,  the  works  of  St.  Theresa,  and  tlic  lives  of 
the  Desert  Fathers.  He  also  applied  himself  to  poe- 
try, and  according  to  Sainte-Heuve  his  spiritual  can- 
ticles are  unsur[);i.ssed  even  by  the  works  of  tiodeau, 
or  even  of  Corneille,  certaiidy  of  the  Corneille  of  the 
"Imitation".  D'.Xndilly's  letters  and  other  prose 
works  (ho  published  a  collection  of  three  hundred 
letters  in  1G4,5)  are  considered  in  the  same  class  as 
those  of  Voiture  and  even  of  Halzac.  With  regard 
to  the  Formulary,  he  use<l  his  influence  to  avert,  or 
at  least  mitigate,  tlie  persecutions  of  the  religious  of 
Port-Royal.  When,  in  1G.5G,  the  order  came  for  the 
dispersal  of  the  Petites  Kcoles,  i.  e.  the  twenty  or 
thirty  children  whom  the  solitaries  were  rearing  in 
the  pure  doctrines  of  their  sect,  and  the  loneliness 
of  the  solitaries  themselves,  Arnauld  d'Andilly  wrote 
innumerable  letters  to  Anne  of  Austria  and  Mazarin, 
letters  of  submi.ssion,  of  commendation,  of  thanks. 
He  gave  his  word  that  the  orders  would  be  obeyed; 
he  temporized,  and  obtained  respites,  and  although 
he  was  a  factious  spirit,  he  caused,  on  the  whole,  but 
little  apprehension,  and  was  allowed  to  write,  to  plot, 
and  even  to  dogm:itize  at  his  case.  All  these  thmgs, 
dangerous  in  themselves,  in  his  hands  took  on  a  sort 
of  worldly  grace,  as  being  light  and  destitute  of  mal- 
ice. Moreover,  who  would  have  dared  to  disturb  him 
whom  the  queen  had  asked  "if  he  always  loved  her". 
He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-five,  preserving  to  the 
end  his  bodily  and  mental  vigour.  He  reared  three 
sons  and  four  daughters.  We  have  from  his  pen,  in 
addition  to  the  works  mentioned,  translations  of  the 
"Confessions  of  St.  Augustine",  the  "Scala  paradisi" 
of  St.  John  Climacus,  the  "  De  contem|)tu  mundi"  of 
St.  Kuchcrius,  and  the  memoirs  of  his  life.  The  hist 
work  reveals  in  the  author  a  family  vanity  which 
amounts  to  boast  fulness. 

IV.  Henri  AniV.\tn,n,  brother  of  the  preceding,  b. 
in  Paris,  l,'j97;  d.  1G91.'.  He  was  first  destined  for  the 
Bar,  but  was  taken  to  Rome  by  Cardinal  Hcntivoglio, 
and  during  this  ab.sence,  which  lasted  five  years, 
the  court  granted  him  (IG'JI)  the  .\bbcy  of  Saint- 
Nicholas,  in  10.'!7  the  Chapter  of  Toul  offereil  him 
the  bishopric  of  that  city,  and  the  king,  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  Father  Joseph,  confirmed  the  choice. 
He  was  obliged  to  wait  three  years  for  his  Bulls, 
which  were  dehiyed  by  the  difficulties  between  the 
court  and  the  Holy  See.  .\t  the  time  of  the  quarrel 
between  Innocent  \  and  the  Harberini,  Henri  Ar- 
nauld was  sent  to  Rome  as  cliarg(^  d'affaires  of  France. 
He  acquitted  himself  of  this  mission  with  much 
adroitne.-is.  The  pope  could  not  deny  him  the  re- 
turn of  the  cardinals,  who  were  reinstated  in  their 
pos.se.ssions  and  tlignities.  He  returned  from  this 
mission  with  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  most 
politic  prelates  in  the  kingdom.  Being  offered  the 
Bishopric  of  Pt'jrigueux  (1G.'>0),  he  refu.sed,  but  ac- 
cepted that  of  Angers  in  which  was  situated  his  .Vb- 
bcy  of  Saint-Nicholas.  During  his  episcopate  of  forty- 
two  years,  he  showed  less  Christian  prudence  than 
extraordinary  ability  in  the  service  of  the  Jansen- 
ists  and  of  his  family.  Having  once  entered  on  this 
path,  he  conccntrateil  all  his  energies  to  keep  from 
yielding,  and  thus  to  save  his  own  honour  and  that 
of  his  brother  Antoine.  This  involved  him  ai  many 
difficulties,  caused  many  di.s.sensions  in  his  diocese, 
and  resulted  in  the  cloud  which  still  clings  to  his 
name.  His  entrance  into  the  quarrel  amused  by 
Jansenism  was  most  exciting.  When  Louis  XIV 
onlered  the  bishops  to  sign  the  Formularj'  drawn  up 
by  the  /\s.sembly  of  the  Clergj'  in  1G61.  the  Bishop  of 
Angers  wrote  a  letter  to  the  king  .sustaining  the  fa^ 
mous  distinction  of  Nicole  between  "fact"  and 
"law".  The  king  having  shown  marked  displeas- 
ure, the  bishop  wrote  to  the  pope  a  letter  of  the 
same  import,  but  Alexander  VI 1  m.ade  no  repiv. 
The  obstmate  prelate  then  wrote  to  lYrr^fixe,  Arch- 


ARNE  746 

bishop  of  Paris,  to  forestall  the  tempest  which  the 
obligation  of  signing  the  Formulary  would  arouse  at 
Port  Hoy:U.  At  tlie  same  time  he  encouraged  tlie 
religious  to  resist  or  take  refuge  in  subtleties  which 
took  all  sincerity  from  their  submission.  Arnauld 
was  one  of  the  four  prelates  who  in  1665  loftily  re- 
fused to  sign  the  Formulary  of  Alexander  VII,  and 
issued  a  mandate  against  it.  He  was  about  to  be 
cited  before  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal  when  the  pope 
died.  Clement  IX,  successor  to  .Mexander  VII, 
judged  it  preferable  in  the  interests  of  religion  to 
silence  the  whole  affair.  He  accorded  the  Clemen- 
tine Peace  to  this  party,  and  they  insolently  took 
advantage  of  it.  The  bishop  preserved  his  Jansen- 
istic  sentiments  to  the  very  end,  and  did  all  in  his 
power  to  promote  the  spread  of  this  error  in  his  dio- 
cese. He  pursued  with  disfavour,  and  sometimes 
with  vehemence,  the  partisans  of  orthodoxy.  One 
should  read  the  "  Memoires  "  of  Joseph  Grandet,  third 
superior  of  the  Seminary  of  Angers,  to  know  to  what 
a  degree  Jansenism  had  imbued  the  bishop,  who 
otherwise  was  not  deficient  in  good  qualities.  It 
cannot  be  denied  that  he  was  energetic,  austere,  de- 
voted to  his  duty,  and  filled  with  zeal.  In  1652, 
when  the  queen  mother  was  approaching  to  inflict 
punishment  on  the  city  of  Angers,  which  was  in  re- 
volt, the  bishop  appeased  her  with  a  word.  On 
giving  her  Holy  Communion,  he  said:  "Receive, 
Aladame,  your  God,  Who  pardoned  His  enemies  when 
dying  on  the  Cross. "  There  is  still  quoted  a  saying 
of  his,  illustrating  his  love  of  work.  One  day,  on 
being  requested  to  take  a  day  each  week  for  relax- 
ation, he  replied:  "I  shall  willingly  do  so,  if  you 
give  me  a  day  on  which  I  am  not  bishop. "  But 
despite  this  excellent  sentiment  he  remains  one  of 
the  most  enigmatical  figures  of  the  seventeenth-cen- 
tury episcopate.  He  dietl  in  1692.  at  the  ripe  old 
age  of  ninety-five.  The  negotiations  carried  on  by 
him  at  the  Court  of  Rome  and  various  Italian  courts 
have  been  published  in  live  volumes  (Paris,  1745). 

(Eavres  completes  de  measire  Antoine  Arnauld,  docteur  de 
la  miison  H  societe  de  Sorbonne  (Paris-Lausanne,  1775-83); 
Correaponiance  de  Pasquier  Quesnel  (Paris,  1900);  Memoires 
de  mesaire  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly,  ecritea  par  lui~meme 
(Hamburg.  1734);  Memoirea  du  P.  Bapin.  S.J.  (Paris,  1865); 
Hiatoire  du  Janseniame  par  le  P.  Rapin  (Paris,  1861);  Fon- 
taine, Mernoires  pour  servir  h  ihiatoire  de  Port-Royal  (Utrecht. 
1736);  Memoirea  pour  aervir  h  Ihiatoire  de  Port-Royal  et^  A 
la  vie  de  li  Rev^rende  Marie- Angelique  de  Sainte-Magdelcine 
Arnauld,  rtformiirice  de  ce  monaathe  (Utrecht,  1747);  Lettrea 
de  la  Mire  Angeliqwe  Arnauld  (Utrecht,  1762-64);  Du  Fossf;, 
Memoirea  pour  aervir  h  Ihiatoire  de  Port-Royal  (Utrecht.  1739); 
Rivet.  Necrologe  de  I'abbaye  de  Port-Royal  dea  champs,  ordre 
de  Citeaur  (Amsterdam.  1723);  Coloni*,  Bibliothigue  jan- 
ahiiste,  ou  Catalogue  alphabetiqiie  dea  principauT  livres  jan- 
a^nistes  ou  auapecta  de  janaenisme  qui  ont  paru  depuia  la 
naiaaance  de  cette  heresie  (Brussels,  1762);  Sainte-Bedve,  Port- 
Royil  (Paris);  Montlaur,  Angeliqut.  Arnauld  (Paris,  1902); 
Varin,  La  verite  aur  lea  Arnauld  (Paris,  1847);  Letouhnead 
Memoirea  de  Joseph  Grandet,  and  Hiatoire  du  Seminaire  d'An- 
aers  (Paris,  1893). 

A.    FOURNET. 

Ame,  Thomas  Augustine,  an  English  composer, 
b.  12  March,  1710,  at  Tendon;  d.  5  March,  1778. 
Although  of  Catholic  parentage,  he  was  educated 
at  Eton,  and  was  apprenticed  in  a  solicitor's  office 
for  three  years.  In  1740  he  married  Cecilia  Young, 
oldest  daughter  of  Charles  Young,  organist  of  All 
Hallows,  Barking,  a  pupil  of  Geminiani  and  one  of 
the  best  singers  of  her  day.  Arne  wrote  the  music 
for  Thom.son  and  Mallet's  masque  of  "Alfred",  to 
celebrate  the  anniversary  of  the  accession  of  the 
House  of  Hanover.  It  is  in  this  work  the  well  known 
"Rule  Britannia"  occurs.  In  1742  Arne  went  to 
Ireland,  and  during  his  sojourn  there  produced  his 
oratorio  ".\bol"  and  his  operas  "Britannia"  and 
"Comus"  with  great  success.  On  his  return,  he  was 
engaged  again  as  composer  at  Dniry  Lane,  and  in 
174.5,  in  the  same  capacity  at  Vauxhall,  Ranelagh, 
and  Marylebone  Gardens.  The  University  of  Oxford 
conferred  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  on  Arne, 


ARNOBIXJS 


6  July,  1759.  Three  years  after  this,  he  wrote 
"  Artaxerxes",  an  opera  in  the  Italian  manner,  with 
recitative  but  no  spoken  dialogue,  taking  the  text  of 
Metastasio's  "  Artaserse".  In  1764,  Doctor  Arne  pro- 
duced his  second  oratorio,  "Judith".  His  later  pro- 
ductions were  the  music  for  Mason's  tragedies  of 
"Elfrida"  and  "Caractacus",  additions  to  Purcell's 
music  for  "King  Arthur",  and  some  music  for  Gar- 
rick's  ode  for  the  Shakespeare  Jubilee  in  1769.  Ame 
was  buried  in  the  Church  of  St.  Paul,  in  Covent  Gar- 
den. He  was  the  first  to  introduce  female  voices 
into  the  choruses  of  oratorios. 

Grove,  Diet,  of  Music  and  Musiciana;  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet 
of  English  Catholics.  I,  59,  62. 

John  J.  a'  Becket. 

Ami  Thorlaksson,  an  Icelandic  bishop,  b.  in 
Iceland,  1237;  d.  at  Bergen,  1297.  While  a  deacon, 
he  \-isited  Norway,  in  1262,  and  became  a  friend  of 
King  Magnus.  Ordained  priest,  he  was  soon  ap- 
pointed administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Holar,  and 
was  conspicuous  for  his  zeal  regarding  the  law  of 
celibacy.  He  was  assistant  of  the  Bishop  of  Pkalholt, 
in  1267,  and  succeeded  him  in  that  office,  being 
consecrated  in  1269  at  Nidaros  (Trondhjem)  in 
Norway.  On  his  return  to  Iceland,  he  set  about 
organizing  the  ecclesiastical  administration.  Since 
the  regulation  of  the  hierarchy  in  Norway,  in  1152, 
tlie  Iceland  bishops  had  become  suffragans  of  the 
metropohtan  of  Nidaros.  In  1264  Iceland  became 
still  more  dependent  politically  on  the  king  of 
Norway.  Up  to  that  time  Iceland  had  been  a 
republic,  governed  by  the  .A.lthing,  which  was  com- 
posed of  forty-eight  chiefs,  ninety-six  councillors, 
and  an  announcer  of  laws,  wlio  was  president.  At 
the  time  Christianity  was  introduced  many  of  these 
chiefs  built  churches  on  their  lands  and  assumed 
at  the  same  time  ecclesiastical  administration  of 
them.  The  Church  became  identified  with  the 
State.  The  Althing,  the  legislative  assembly  in 
which  the  bishops  had  seats,  made  laws  in  matters 
of  the  church  and  controlled  church  affairs.  Ami 
Thorlaksson,  confronted  with  this  state  of  things, 
protected  the  church  interests,  and  especially  had 
to  fight  for  the  investiture  of  priests  and  the  temporal 
administration  of  the  churches  and  their  efi'ects. 
With  tliis  in  view,  ho  visited  Norway  in  1273,  and 
obtained  some  concessions  from  the  king.  On  his 
return  to  Iceland,  he  proposed  to  the  Althing  (1275) 
a  KristenTct.  i.  e.  Christian  law,  with  which  his  name 
is  particularly  associated.  Some  time  after  this  the 
jus  vatronatus  (the  right  of  patronage)  revived,  and 
the  bishop  made  an  appeal  to  the  arbitration  of  the 
king  and  of  the  archbishop.  Having  arrived  in 
Norway,  in  1297,  for  this  purpose,  he  succeeded  in 
obtaining  the  compromise  that  where  laymen  owned 
more  than  half  of  a  church  they  should  retain  its 
temporal  management,  but  in  every  other  case  the 
bishops  should  have  it.  He  died  the  same  year 
at  Bergen.  Although  he  had  not  obtained  all  the 
rights  of  the  Church,  he  at  least  secured  its  organiza- 
tion and  uniformity,  and,  as  far  as  civil  law  was  con- 
cerned, such  observance  of  the  Laws  as  dependency 
on  the  kings  of  Norway  permitted.  History  regards 
him  as  the  most  influential  and  important  man  of  his 
time  in  Iceland. 

Lorforaamlung  for  Ulami,  1096-1874  (Kjbhvn.  1853-89); 
Maurer,  Udaigt  over  den  nordgermaniake  Retakildra  Hialorie; 
Iliatoriake  Forening  (Krnia,  1878);  sec  also  hterature  on 
Arabon  J(5n. 

E.  A.  Wano. 

Amobius,  a  Christian  apologist,  flourished  during 
the  reign  of  Diocletian  (2S4-.3()5).  St.  Jerome  says, 
in  his  Chronicle,  that  before  his  conversion  Arnobius 
was  a  distinguished  rhetorician  at  Sicca  in  Pro- 
consular Africa,  and  owed  the  gift  of  Christian  faith 
to  a  dream.  To  overcome  the  doubts  of  the  local 
bishop  as  to  the  earnestness  of  his  Christian  belief 


ARNOBIUS 


747 


ARNOLD 


he  wrote  (about  305)  an  apologetic  work  in  seven 
books  tliat  St.  Jerome  calls  (Ue  Vir.  III.,  Ixxix) 
"Adversus  Cietites"  but  is  entitled  "Adversus  Na- 
tiones"  in  the  only  (ninth-centurj-)  manuscript  that 
has  reached  lis.  Arnobius  is  a  vigorous  apologist 
for  the  Christian  Faith,  defends  and  expounds  its 
noble  monotheism  (deus  princepn,  deux  siimmus), 
the  Divinity  of  Christ  and  of  the  Christian  religion, 
proved  by  its  nipitl  dilTusion,  its  incredible  influence 
over  uncivilized  peoples,  and  its  agreement  with  the 
views  of  the  best  pliilosophers.  Apro|>()s  of  the 
Christian  tendencies  of  Plato,  he  has  left  ils  a  veiy 
remarkable  treatise  on  the  nature  of  the  soul  (II, 
14-G2).  Heathen  idolatry  he  refutes  as  filled  with 
contradictions  and  openly  immoral.  His  work, 
especially  Books  III-V,  abounds  with  curious  in- 
formation gathered  from  reliable  sources  (e.  g. 
Cornelius  Labeo)  concerning  the  forms  of  idolatrous 
worship,  temples,  idols,  and  the  Grxco-Horaan 
mythology  of  his  time,  for  which  reason  it  is  much 
esteemed  by  Latin  philologists  and  antiquarians, 
Arnobius  is  more  earnest  in  his  defence  of  Christianity 
than  correct  in  his  tenets.  Thus,  he  holds  the  heathen 
gods  to  be  real  beings,  but  subordinate  to  the  su- 
preme Christian  God;  the  human  soul  is  not  the 
work  of  God,  but  of  an  intermediate  being,  and  is 
not  immortal  by  nature,  but  capable  of  putting  on 
immortality  as  a  grace. 

F.  Sab.eds  (Rome,  1543)  is  the  editio  princrps.  It  is  found 
in  P.  L.,  V.  The  be.st  edition  is  thai  of  .\.  llEiFFERacHEiD, 
Corpua  script,  eccl.  Lat.,  IV  (Vienna,  1875).  See  Hauden- 
HEWEH.  Gench.  d.  allchr.  l.itt.  (I'reiburE,  1903),  II,  404-72, 
and  his  Patroioaie  (ihid.,  1901),  175-77;  Mocle  in  Diet,  of 
Chriit.  BiotT:  167-69;  Ebert,  Alio.  Gesch.  d.  lat.  LiU.  det 
MitUlaUtTt  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1889),  I,  C4-72. 

Thom.\s  J.  Shahan. 

Arnobius  the  Toiinger.     See  Augustine;  Semi- 

PELACI  \\S. 

Arnold,  name  of  several  medieval  personages. — 
AnxoLi)  Amalricus,  Cistercian  monk,  Abbot  of 
Citeaux  (1201),  inquisitor  and  legate  (1204),  Arch- 
bishop of  Narbonne  (1212);  d.  29  September,  122,'>. 
For  a  bibliogra])hy  of  his  alleged  order  to  slay  indis- 
criminately both  Catholics  and  Alliigenses  at  the 
siege  of  B^ziers  (1209)  sec  Chevalier,  "Repertoire" 
(Bio-Bibl.,  I,  319).  The  accusation  has  been  amply 
refuted  by  Ph.  Tamizey  dc  Larroque,  "Revue  des 
quest,  hist."  (Paris,  18(30),  I,  179-186.— Arnold 
OF  Badeto,  Prior  of  the  Dominican  convent  of 
Limoux,  general  inquisitor  at  Toulouse  (1.531),  d. 
1536;  author  of  a  "  Breviarium  de  mirabilibus 
mundi"  (Avignon,  1499),  "  Destructorium  ha-re- 
sum"  (Paris,  1532),  etc. — Arnold  op  Bonneval,  a 
Benedictine  abbey  in  the  diocese  of  Chartres  (1144- 
56),  correspondent  and  biographer  of  St.  Bernard, 
and  author  of  other  works  of  a  spiritual  and  edifying 
character  (P.  L.,  CLXXXIX,  1507-1760).— Arnold 
OF  Cologne,  the  second  master-architect  of  tlie  cathe- 
dral of  Cologne,  successor  of  Meister  Gerhard  (129.5- 
1301),  To  him  and  his  son  John  are  owing  the  up- 
per part  of  the  apse  and  tlie  completion  of  the  choir. 
The  change  from  three  to  five  naves  is  said  to  have 
been  made  by  his  advice.  His  strength  lay  in  the 
thoroughness  and  precision  with  which  he  carried 
out  the  details  of  the  great  architectonic  plan  of  the 
cathedral. — Arnold  of  Corbie,  Abbot  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Monastery  of  .St.  Matthias  near  Trier  (c.  1063), 
author  of  a  treatise  on  the  tnanner  of  calcidating  the 
Easter  festival,  made  a  Latin  metrical  version  of  the 
Book  of  Proverbs,  and  of  a  "Cyclus  Paschalis". — 
Arnold  of  Halberstadt  (996-1023),  one  of  the 
principal  feudal  bishops  of  Oennany,  and  leader  of 
the  imperial  forces  against  Boleslaw  of  Poland. — -Ar- 
nold OP  Harff,  b.  about  1400,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Jillich,  author  of  a  pilgrim's  journey  (1  l!Mi-99) 
to  the  holy  places  and  the  Orient  (ed.  Groote,  I.S60). 
— Arnold  op  H^beck  (d.  1211-14),  a  Benedictine 
abbot,  author  of  an  important  "Chronica  Slavorum" 


(1172-1209)  and  advocate  of  the  papal  cause  in 
the  Ilohenstaufen  conflict  (Michael,  Gesch.  d. 
deutsch.  Volkes  iin  Mittclalter,  III,  374). ^Arnold 
of  Li  beck,  bishop  of  that  see  (1449-66),  a  learned 
canonist,  zealous  prelate,  and  peacemaker,  especially 
(1465)  between  Poland  and  the  Teutonic  Order. — Ar- 
nold OF  MoNTA.NERi,  a  Franciscan,  condemned  for 
his  extreme  ideas  concerning  the  poverty  of  Christ 
and  the  Apostles,  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  (Wadding,  Ann.  Minor.,  VIII, 
245). — .\rnold  (jf  Quedlinburg,  German  chronicler 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  d.  after  1265  (Pottliast, 
Bibl.  Hist.  Med.  Aevi,  2d  ed.,  I,  120).— Arnold  of 
Seleiiofen,  Archbishop  of  Mainz  (1153-()0),  slain  by 
the  rival  municipal  faction  of  the  Meingote  (Kirchen- 
lexikon,  I,  1424).— .Xrnold  of  Tongres  (Luydius,  a 
Lude),  canon  regular,  b,  at  Tongrcs;  d.  1540,  at  Ley- 
den;  dean  (1494)  of  the  faculty  of  arts  at  Cologne, 
profes.sor  of  theologj',  canon  of  the  cathedral  of 
Cologne,  author  of  a  commentary  on  Juvenal,  and 
of  a  work  "Contra  Sacerdotes  Concubinarios".  He 
displeases!  the  humanists  by  his  attitude  in  the 
Reuclil'n  conflict,  and  was  made  the  butt  of  Hutten's 
satire  (Janssen.  Gesch.  d.  dcutschen  Volkes.,  etc., 
I,  111,  18th  ed.;  11,  47,  18th  ed.).— Arnold  op 
ViLi^NUEVA,  see  Viulanueva. — Arnold  op  Voh- 
BURG,  Benedictine  Prior  of  St.  Emmeram  at  Regens- 
burg  (1084),  author  of  a  life  of  St.  Emmeram. 
["  Patrologia  Latina,"  CXLI ;  Wattenbach,  "  Deutsche 
Geschichtsquellen  "  (6th  ed.),  I,  64  sq.]. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Arnold  of  Brescia  (.\rnaldiis,  Arnoldus,  ErnaIi- 
Dus),  b.  at  Brescia  towarils  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century;  d.at«  of  death  uncertain.  If  there  is  any 
truth  in  the  statement  made  by  Otto  of  Freisingen 
that  Arnold  completed  his  stuaies  under  the  direc- 
tion of  .^bel.ard.  he  must  have  gone  to  Paris  about 
1115.  This  would  explain  the  affection  towards  the 
F'rench  master  which  he  showed  later  in  life,  and 
we  could  e;usily  understand  how  it  came  about  that 
Abelard  called  him  to  his  side  after  the  Lateran 
0)uncil  of  1139,  as  St.  Bernard  intimates  he  did. 
In  the  judgment  of  some  critics,  however,  there  is 
not  sufficient  evidence  for  this  first  sojourn  of  Ar- 
nold in  France,  vouched  for  by  Otto  of  Freisingen 
alone,  .\sniring  to  a  perfect  life.  Arnold  at  a  tender 
age  entered  a  convent  of  ciuions  regular  in  his  native 
city  where  he  was  ordained  a  priest  and  appointed 
prior  or  provost  of  his  community.  He  was  fitted 
for  this  high  office  by  the  austerity  of  his  life, 
his  detachment  from  earthly  things,  his  love  of  re- 
ligious discipline,  the  cle.ime-ss  of  his  intellect,  and 
an  originality  and  charm  of  expres,sion  that  he 
brought  to  the  service  of  a  lofty  ideal.  Brescia 
yielded  to  his  powerful  influence,  and  in  the  course 
of  some  years  Arnold  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
reform  movement  then  stirring  the  city.  Precisely 
at  this  time  Brescia,  like  most  other  Lombard  cities, 
was  entering  upon  the  exerci.'ie  of  its  municipal  lib- 
erties. The  government  was  in  the  hands  of  two 
consuls  elected  annually,  but  over  against  their  au- 
thority that  of  the  bishop,  as  principal  landed  pro- 
prietor, still  remained.  Hence  arose  between  the 
rival  forces  inevitable  conflicts  in  which  were  in- 
volvcfl,  together  with  political  p.assions.  the  interests 
of  religion.  The  sight  of  these  conditions  grieved 
.\rnolil  and  prompted  him  to  apply  a  remedy.  By 
constant  dwelling  on  the  eviLs  which  afflicted  botn 
city  and  Church,  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
their  chief  causes  were  the  wealth  of  the  clergy  and 
the  temporid  power  of  the  bishop.  Was  it  not  best, 
therefore,  to  take  drastic  measures  at  once  to  strip 
tlie  nioniisteries  and  bishoprics  of  their  wealth,  and 
transfer  it  to  laymen?  W.os  not  this  the  surest  and 
quickest  methoil  of  satisfying  the  civil  authorities, 
and  of  bringing  back  the  clergy,  by  poverty,  to  the 


ARNOLD 


748 


ARNOLD 


practice  of  evangelical  perfection?  To  reduce  this 
to  a  working  theory.  Arnold  ventured  to  formulate 
the  following  propositions:  "Clerics  who  own  prop- 
erty, bishops  who  hold  regalia  [tenures  by  royal 
grant],  and  monks  who  have  possessions  cannot  pos- 
sibly be  saved.  All  tliese  things  belong  to  the  [tem- 
poral] prince,  who  cannot  dispose  of  them  except  in 
favour  of  laymen. " 

Tlie  welcome  given  such  teachings  by  the  higher 
clergy  may  readily  be  inferred.  Brescia  passed 
through  an  alarming  crisis,  the  various  phases  of 
which,  owing  to  the  brevity  and  obscurity  of  the 
documents  at  our  disposal,  can  be  but  vaguely 
traced.  From  tlie  testimony  of  various  authors, 
however.  Otto  of  Freisingen,  St.  Bernard,  and  John 
of  Salisbury  (supposed  autlior  of  the  "Historia  Pon- 
tificalis"),  the  following  facts  are  ascertained:  a  jour- 
ney made  by  Bishop  Manfred  to  Rome  about  1138; 
an  insurrection  during  his  absence;  the  attempt  of 
Arnold  to  prevent  him  on  his  return  from  taking 
possession  of  his  see  or  temporal  power;  the  appeal 
of  the  rebellious  provost  and  his  condemnation  by 
Innocent  II.  at  the  Lateran  Council,  in  1139.  Silence 
and  exile  were  the  penalties  imposed  on  Arnold,  and 
he  was  forbidden  to  return  to  Brescia  without  the 
express  permission  of  the  sovereign  pontiff.  The 
following  year  (1140)  we  find  Arnold  at  Sens  at  the 
side  of  Abel.ard,  who  was  about  to  make  his  last 
struggle  against  the  champions  of  orthodoxy.  St. 
Bernard  awaited  steadfastly  both  combatants,  whose 
attack  was  turned  to  utter  rout.  In  the  words  of 
the  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  the  "squire"  was  involved 
in  the  downfall  of  the  "knight".  The  sentence 
passed  upon  Abelard  by  the  council  was  confirmed 
by  Innocent  II.  Arnold  fared  no  better,  for  both 
were  condemned  to  perpetual  confinement  in  sep- 
arate monasteries  (Bull  of  16  July,  1140).  This  de- 
cree, however,  was  never  put  into  execution.  While 
Abelard  took  refuge  with  Peter  the  Venerable,  Abbot 
of  Cluny,  ArnoKl  feigned  retirement  to  Mont  Sainte- 
Genevieve  at  Paris,  where,  however,  he  opened  pub- 
lic courses  of  moral  theology.  He  had  but  few 
disciples,  and  these,  according  to  Jolm  of  Sali.sbury, 
were  so  needy  that  they  had  to  beg  their  daily  bread. 
For  that  matter,  however,  this  state  of  affairs  ac- 
corded very  well  with  the  teachings  of  the  new  pro- 
fessor, who  sharply  censured  the  luxury  of  bishops 
and  the  worldly  possessions  of  monks,  and  stigmatized 
wealth  as  the  real  virus  that  was  infecting  the  Church. 
Arnold's  attacks  did  not  stop  here.  He  was  con- 
stantly haunted  by  tlie  memory  of  his  condemna- 
tion, and  pursued  unscrupulou.sly  with  his  taunts 
the  detractors  of  Abelard.  Thus  he  described  the 
Abbot  of  Clairvaux  as  a  man  "  puffed  up  with  vain- 
glory, and  jealous  of  all  those  who  have  won  fame 
in  letters  or  religion,  if  they  are  not  of  his  school". 
Thus  boldly  challenged,  Bernard  took  up  the  gaunt- 
let and  denounced  Arnold  to  Louis  VII  as  "the  in- 
corrigible schismatic,  the  sower  of  discord,  the  dis- 
turber of  the  peace,  the  destroyer  of  unity",  and 
brought  it  about  that  the  "Most  Christian  King 
drove  from  the  kingdom  of  France"  him  whom 
Italy  had  already  exiled. 

.Arnold,  compelled  to  flee,  took  refuge  in  Switzer- 
land and  fixed  his  abode  at  Zurich  in  the  diocese 
of  Constance.  The  Abbot  of  Clairvaux  continued 
active  in  pursuit,  and  some  time  afterwards  (1143) 
we  find  the  exile  in  Bohemia  begging  protection 
from  a  papal  legate  named  Guy.  This  prelate — who 
must  not  be  confounilcd  with  his  namesake,  dis- 
ciple of  Abelard,  and  later  pope — received  him  with 
kindness  and,  touched  by  his  misfortunes,  treated 
him  with  great  friendliness.  This  attitutle  vexed 
St.  Bernard,  who  addressed  to  the  legate  a  dis- 
course on  prudence,  which,  however,  remained  un- 
heeded by  Guy.  There  is  every  rca.son  to  believe 
that  Arnold  had  given  liis  host  pledges  of  sincere 


submission,  for  this  fact  alone  would  explain  liis  re- 
turn to  Italy,  thenceforth  open  to  him.  This,  too, 
explains  the  solemn  abjuration  which  he  made  at 
Viterbo,  before  Pope  Eugenius  III,  in  1 145.  The  pon- 
tiff, on  reconciling  him  with  the  Church,  had  im- 
posed a  fonn  of  penance  then  customary:  fasts,  vig- 
ils, and  pilgrimages  to  the  principal  shrines  of  Rome. 
Unfortimately,  in  the  air  which  .\rnold  was  about 
to  breathe  there  were  floating  the  germs  of  revolt. 
Rome  was  endeavouring  to  re-establish  her  Senate 
to  the  detriment  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes. 
A  movement  so  thoroughly  in  keeping  with  the  ear- 
lier thoughts  and  the  secret  desires  of  the  repentant 
innovator  could  not  but  secure  his  sympathy  and 
e\'en  his  outspoken  support.  It  was  soon  discovered 
that  he  was  vilifying  the  clergy  and  disseminating 
from  the  Capitol  his  plans  for  ecclesiastical  reform. 
The  Curia  became  the  chief  object  of  his  attacks; 
he  depicted  the  cardinals  as  vile  hypocrites  and 
misers  playing  among  Christians  the  role  of  Jews 
and  Pharisees.  He  did  not  even  spare  the  pope. 
Eugenius  III,  whose  gentle  moderation  this  terrible 
reformer  had  but  recently  acknowledged,  was  sud- 
denly transformed  into  the  executioner  )f  the  Church, 
more  concerned  "  with  pampering  his  own  body,  and 
filling  his  own  purse  than  with  imitating  the  zeal  of 
the  Apostles  whose  place  he  filled  ".  In  particular, 
Arnold  reproached  the  pope  for  reljang  on  physical 
force,  and  for  "defending  with  homicide"  his  rights 
when  contested.  Eugenius  III  was  forced  to  leave 
the  Eternal  City,  and  for  some  time  (1146-49)  Ro- 
man democracy  triumphed  under  Arnold  of  Brescia. 
Though  excommunicated  by  the  pope  (15  July, 
114S),  Arnold  did  not  despair  of  his  position.  By 
degrees,  however,  his  revolutionary  programme  took 
on  another  character.  The  abolition  of  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  papacy  was  now  only  the  first 
of  his  demands;  the  second  contemplated  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  spiritual  to  the  civil  power.  Wet- 
zel, one  of  his  disciples,  presumed  to  offer  to  King 
Conrad  III  the  keys  of  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  so 
that  the  German  emperors  might  have  the  future 
disposal  of  the  tiara  and  the  government  of  Rome. 
Arnold's  policy,  at  first  republican,  thus  ended  in 
downright  imperialism.  Frederick  Barbarossa,  how- 
ever, Conrad's  successor,  refused  to  support  the 
schemes  of  the  Roman  agitators.  With  much  clev- 
erness and  tact,  Eugenius  III  won  over  the  emperor 
to  the  cause  of  the  papacy.  Arnold  was  thus  ren- 
dered helpless.  The  senatorial  elections  of  Novem- 
ber, 1152,  had  turned  against  him,  and  marked  the 
beginning  of  his  fall. 

Little  is  known  of  Arnold  during  the  brief  reign  of 
Anastasius  IV  (July,  115.3-December,  1154),  but  the 
election  of  Adrian  IV  was  fatal  to  his  cause.  He 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Odo,  Cardinal-Deacon 
of  St.  Nicholas  in  carccre  Tultiano,  but  was  freed 
by  the  Viscounts  of  Campagnatico,  and  found  for 
some  years  a  safe  refuge  in  their  territory.  They 
"looked  on  him  as  a  prophet"  inspired  by  God. 
However,  as  in  an  agreement  between  .\drian  and 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  the  pope  obtained  tlie  em- 
peror's promise  that  he  would  seize  the  person  of 
Arnold  and  remove  him,  willing  or  unwilling,  from 
the  custody  of  the  Viscounts  of  Campagnatico.  Fred- 
erick did  not  hesitate  to  make  and  keep  this  prom- 
ise, and  accordingly  .Arnold  was  handed  over  to  the 
Curia.  It  is  quite  difficult  to  give  an  exact  account 
of  the  trial  of  .\rnold.  .According  to  the  story 
recorded  by  Gerhoh  de  Reichersperg.  he  was  se- 
cretly removed  from  the  ecclesiastical  prison  and 
put  to  death  by  the  servants  of  the  prefect  of  Rome, 
who  had  suffered  great  injuries  from  the  revolution 
fomented  by  Arnold.  It  is  very  probable,  however, 
that  the  Curia  had  a  larger  share  in  his  condemnation. 
One  annalist  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  pope 
personally  ordered  him  to  be  hangcti.     .Another  writer 


ARNOLDI 


749 


ARNOLOI 


uflirms,  with  more  semblance  of  truth,  that  Adrian 
coiitined  himself  to  deniaiuling  Arnold's  degradation, 
so  that  he  might  be  delivered  over  to  the  secular 
power.  According  to  the  author  of  a  j)oem  recently 
discovered  (and  he  seems  to  be  well  mformed),  Ar- 
nold wlien  brouglit  in  siglit  of  the  gallows  faced  his 
death  courageously.  When  urged  to  recant  his 
teachings,  he  answered  tliat  he  had  nothing  to  with- 
draw, and  waa  ready  to  suffer  death  for  them.  He 
a-sked  only  for  a  brief  respite  to  pray  and  beg  Christ's 
pardon  for  his  sins.  After  a  short  mental  prayer  he 
gave  him.self  up  to  the  executioner,  and  offered  his 
heiul  to  the  noose.  After  hanging  from  the  gallows 
for  a  short  time,  his  body  was  burned,  and  the  ashes 
thrown  into  the  Tiber,  for  fear",  says  one  chron- 
icler, "  lest  the  people  might  collect  them  and  honour 
them  a.s  the  ashes  of  a  martyr". 

"Forger  of  heresies",  "sower  of  schisms",  "enemy 
of  the  Catholic  Faith",  "schismatic",  "heretic",  sucn 
are  the  terms  used  by  Otto  of  Freisingen,  by  the 
author  of  the  "  Histona  Pontificalis",  by  the  .\bbot 
of  Clairvaux,  by  Eugenius  III,  and  Adrian  IV  to 
stigmatize  Arnold.  Given  the  vagueness  of  these 
characterizations,  it  is  not  ea.sy  to  specify  the  dog- 
matic errors  into  which  the  innovator  fell.  Otto  of 
Freisingen  echoes  a  rumour  according  to  which  Ar- 
nold held  offensive  views  on  baptism  and  the  I'Ai- 
charist.  His  contemporaries  (notably  St.  Bernard, 
who  pursued  so  bitterly  the  "squire"  of  Abelard) 
lay  nothing  of  the  kind  to  his  charge.  The  abbot  of 
Clairvaux  in  one  of  his  letters  accuses  Arnold  of 
being  "  an  enemy  of  the  Cross  of  Christ".  But  must 
we  conclude  from  this  that  .\rnold  was  a  follower  of 
Pierre  de  Bruys,  who  condemned  the  adoration  of 
the  Cross?  It  is  much  more  probal)Ie  that  the  words 
of  St.  Bernard  are  to  be  taken  broadly  or  in  a  met- 
aphorical sense.  In  reality  it  was  in  practical  mat- 
ters that  Arnold  showed  himself  inimical  to  the 
teachings  accepted  at  his  time.  He  began  by  con- 
demning the  abuses  occasioned  by  the  wealth  of  the 
churchmen,  an  act  which  in  itself  placed  him  in  the 
class  of  true  reformers;  St.  Bernard  and  Gerhoh  de 
Reichersperg  said  the  same  thing.  But  Arnold  did 
not  stop  at  this;  he  went  so  far  as  to  deny  the  very 
principle  of  proprietary  right  as  claimed  by  the 
('hurcn,  and  thereby  a-ssailed  the  temporal  power  of 
the  papacy.  "  -Ml  earthly  possessions  belong  to  the 
prince;  the  pope  should  relinquish  the  government 
of  Rome;  bishops,  priests,  and  monks  can  own  noth- 
ing without  incurring  the  penalty  of  eternal  damna- 
tion. "  On  all  these  various  points  the  innovator, 
to  say  the  least,  was  plainly  guilty  of  temerity.  .Vnd 
since  he  clashed  with  a  hierarchy  that  was  not  pre- 
pared to  sanction  his  views,  he  ended  by  questioning 
its  authority.  According  to  him,  the  Church  had 
become  corrupt  in  the  persons  of  covetous  and  simo- 
niacal  priests,  bishops,  and  cardinals,  and  was  no 
longer  the  true  Church.  "The  pope",  he  says,  "is 
no  longer  the  real  Apostolicus,  and,  as  he  does  not 
exemplify  in  his  life  the  teachings  of  the  .Apostles, 
there  is  no  obligation  of  reverence  and  obedience 
towards  him. "  The  unworthy  clergy  lose  the  right 
of  administering  the  sacraments,  and  the  faithful 
need  no  longer  confess  to  them.  It  is  sufficient  that 
they  confess  to  one  another.  If  it  be  true,  as  stated 
by  the  anonymous  author  of  the  poem  above  quoted, 
that  .\mold  had  fallen  into  these  errors,  the  schis- 
matical  and  heretical  character  of  his  teachings  re- 
mains no  longer  doubtful.  His  disciples,  i.  e.  those 
whom  the  thirteenth-century  documents  call  the 
Arnoldists,  or  .XrnaUlists,  taught  other  errors  no  less 
serious,  for  which,  however,  Arnold  cannot  justly 
be  heUl  responsible. 

For  the  original  authorities  conceminK  Arnold,  ar«  IlUtoria 
Ponlilicalu  (the  author  of  which  jh  probably  John  of  Sai.is- 
Bl'RY^  in  Man.  Grrm.  Hilt.  (fol..  Hnnover,  1808).  XX.  537. 
838:  Otto  of  Fhkisinokn.  «<•«(<!  FrulrriH  imvrrntnri:  II, 
20-23.  in  Mm.  Orrm.  Hit!.,  XX,  306.  307,  403.  404;  Uun- 


THER,  Lit/urinut,  vernosi  202-348,  in  P.  i.,  CCXII,  389-371; 
Genta  per  imprralortrm  Fridericum  Barbam  Rubeam  in  partibm 
Lombardie  tt  lUilif,  fragment  of  an  anonymouH  p<jein,  pub- 
lished by  K.  MoNACi  in  Archixio  dcUa  tocirtii  rumurui  di  tturia 
patri/i  (Rome,  18781,  I,  400-474;  .Xnnatet  Auuuntani  Minvrci. 
in  Mon.  Uerm.  tliat.,  X,  8;  Bono,  Vita  Ihidrinni  IV,  in 
UucHEM.NK.  l.Uiir  pontiftcalit  (Pans,  1889),  II,  390;  Uttrrt 
Iff  Eutieniua  III,  in  Haku.mub,  AnntiUa  eccUtijutu-i  (ad.  ann. 
1148.  No.  38);  Geriiuii  of  KKlriiF.RHPERG.  De  Inimtiuiitiont 
Antifhrinti,  I,  xlii;  e<l.  SrHEiaEi.liKROER  (187.1),  I,  87-89; 
8t.  Bernard,  Epitt.,  clxxxix,  cxcii,  cxcv,  cxovi,  in  J'.  L., 
CLXXXII,  354-357.  358,  359,  301-362,  303,  304;  Lttltr 
of  Wfttzki..  the  diNciplo  of  Arnold,  and  an  anont/mous 
letter  [possibly  Ahnoi.d'h]  in  MARxfcNE  and  Dcrand,  Vtterum 
Bcriptorum  et  monumrntorum  .  .  .  ampliasivui  rnttectio  (I'arifl, 
1724),  II,  554-557,  309,  400;  Anon.,  CommenUiire  dea  cauf 
hirHiques,  inserted  in  lIiiQuccn»'rt  tiumma  Decreti.  1211-15, 
xxix  of  Cause  23,  quest.  4.  cf.  Tancn*.  Hialoire  dea  tritiunaux 
de  i'lnquviition  (Pans,  1893),  450,  note  2;  Bitonacohso  of 
Mir.AN  (end  of  twelfth  century).  Vita  hcneticonim,  in  P.  L., 
IX'IV,  791-792;  Sciai.ciiiN.  Arnold  von  Ureacia  (Zurich. 
1872);  Benvicenni,  Arnntdu  da  Bretcia,  eondennato  a  morte 
per  ordine  di  papa  Adriano  IV  (Florence,  1873);  Giehe- 
URECiiT,  Arnold  von  Bntcia  (Munich,  1873;  Italian  transla- 
tion by  Odouki,  Brescia,  1877):  de  Castro,  AmaUlo  da 
Breacia  e  la  rirolurione  romana  del  Xllo  areola  (Leghorn,  1875); 
G.  Gaooia,  Amaldoda  Breaeui  (Brescia.  1882);  E.  Vacandard, 
Amauld  de  Brvacia,  in  the  Revue  dea  queat.  hiator.  (Paris.  1884), 
XXXV,  62-114;  cf.  Vie  de  Saint  Bernard  (Paris,  1895),  II, 
235-245,  257,  258,  407-409):  F.  Torro,  Lereaia  nel  medio  evo 
(Florence,  1884),  231-250;  and  Quel  ehe  nun  ei  nelta  Ditina 
Commedia,  o  DonU  e  lereaia  (BoloKna,  1899);  Hausrath, 
Arnold  von  Bretria  (LeipiiK,  1891);  Michele  di  Polo,  Due 
novatori  del  Xllo  aecolo  (Florence,  1894).  79  sqq.;  E.  Couba, 
/  rwstri  proUatanti:  Avanti  la  Riforma  (Florence,  1895),  [,  173 
sq.;  Fechtrui',  Arnold  von  Breacia  in  KirchenUz.,  I,  1419-20; 
DEtrrecn,  Arnold  von  Breacia  in  Re'itencyelopiidie  fur  proleal. 
Theoloaie  und  Kireht  (3d  ed.,  I-eipjig,  1897),  II,  117-122; 
Vernet,  Amaud  de  Breacia  in  Di<:t.  de  th/ol.  cath.  (Paris, 
1903),  I,  1972-75.  For  other  lesa  important  references 
see:  Chevalier,  Repertoire  dea  aourcce  hiat,  du  moyen  t'tge  (2d 
ed..  320,  321). 

E.  Vacandard. 

Amoldi  (or  di  Arnoldo),  Alberto,  an  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  b.  at  Florence,  fourteenth 
century.  In  13G4,  he  made  for  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Bigallo,  in  Florence,  the  colossal  group  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  and  Child  with  two  angels  (at- 
tributed by  an  error  of  Vjisari  to  Andrea  Pisano). 
Arnoldi  worked  at  this  group  from  1359  to  1364. 
As  architect,  he  directed  the  works  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Florence  about  13.58. 

CicooNARA,  Storia  della  acultura;  Peumorks,  Italieniache 
Forachunnen;  Biographie  (/frUrale  (Paris,  180G). 

Thomas  II.  Poole. 

Amoldi,  Bartholomaus,  usually  called  I'singen, 
after  his  birthplace,  an  Augustinian  friar,  teacher 
of  Luther,  and  with  him  inmate  of  the  Augustinian 
monastery  at  Erfurt;  b.  in  H()3;  d.  at  Wiirzburg, 
9  September,  1.532.  He  received  his  master's  de- 
gree in  1491  and  was  promoted  to  the  doctorate  of 
divinity  in  1.514  (Jurgens,  Luther,  I,  4.30,  Leipzig, 
1S4G).  For  thirty  years  he  filled  the  chairs  of 
philosophy  and  theology  at  the  Erfurt  University, 
and  with  Jodocus  Tnittfotter  was  its  most  illustrious 
teacher  (Kampschulte,  Die  I'niversitat  Erfurt,  I,  46, 
Trier,  1S.5S).  He  stood  in  high  repute  for  holiness 
of  life  (OeWette,  I,  19;  Walch,  XXI,  532),  rare  in- 
tellectual endowments,  and  unswerving  loyalty  to 
the  Church  (Krauso,  Helius  Eobanus  Uessius,  I, 
339,  352,  Gotha,  1879).  He  enjoyed  the  favour  of 
the  younger  humanists  (Eoban,  De  laud,  et  pra-con. 
inch  Gymn;us.  lit.  ap.  Erphordiam,  A.  a.  b.  Erph., 
1.507),  wa.s  lauded  as  a  dialectician  and  logician, 
and  was  Luther's  teacher  in  both  these  branches 
(Kolde,  Die  deutscho  Aupnstiner  Congr.,  245,  (5otha, 
1879).  Luther  had  an  alTectionate  regard  for  him 
(DeWette,  I,  38,  2.56;  Walch,  XXI,  .5,52)  and  after 
the  Heidelberg  Disputation  (ilay,  1518)  travelled 
in  his  company  from  Wiirzburg  to  Erfurt,  during 
which  ho  made  ineffectual  efforts  to  wean  him  from 
his  ecclesiastical  allegiance  (ib.,  I,  112).  In  1.521, 
during  the  uprising  of  the  mob  against  the  priest- 
hood and  the  pillaging  of  their  property,  he  boldly 
denounced  the  rioters  from  the  pulpit  (Paulus, 
Der  .\ugusfiner  Monch  Joh.  Iloffmeistcr,  125, 
Freiburg,   1891).     In   1522  he  delivered  a  series  of 


ARNOLFO 


750 


ARNOUDT 


sermons  in  the  cathedral  in  defence  of  the  Church, 
arraigning  the  inactivity  of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  and  predicted  the  revolution  which 
finally  culminated  in  the  Peasants'  War.  His  anti- 
Reformation  attitude  and  utterances  embittered 
I.utlier,  who  now  violently  assailed  his  old  teacher 
(DeWette,  II,  204,  213,  224,  225).  His  removal  to 
Wiirzburg  in  1526,  diet  not  interrupt  his  .activity 
against  the  innovators.  In  1530  he  accompanied 
the  Bishop  of  Wiirzburg  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg. 
Returning,  he  died  at  Wiirzburg. 

Paulus,  Dcr  Augustiner  Bartholomdus  Amoldivon  Usingen 
(Freiburg.  1893);  Hobn,  Chronologia  prnrincice  Rheno-Suevicw 
Ordinis  FF.  Eremitarum  S.  I'.  Augustini,  160  et  sq.;  Fi.oss  in 
Kirchcnlex.,  I.  1429.  1431-34;  Jurgens.  Luiher.  I,  433  sq.; 
Kampschulte.  Die  Vniversitnt  Erfurt,  I,  40;  Lammer.  Vurtri- 
denlinische  kalholische  Theologie,  35;  Ehhard,  Gesch.  des 
Wiederaufblahens  vnasenschaftl,  Bildung,  I.  400  sq.;  Ossinger, 
Biblioth.  A-uyustin.  hist.  crit.  et  chron.  (Ingoldstadt,  177G). 

Henry  G.  Ganss. 

Amolfo  di  Cambio,  sometimes  called  di  Lapo, 
the  principal  master  of  Italian  Gothic,  b.  at  Florence, 
about  1232;  d.  in  the  same  city,  in  the  seventy- 
first  year  of  hi.s  age  probably  in  1300,  during  the 
brief  period  of  Dante's  power.  Who  Amolfo  was 
seems  to  be  scarcely  known,  though  few  architects 
have  left  greater  works  or  more  evidence  of  power. 
According  to  Baldinucci.  Cicognara,  and  Gaye,  the 
father  of  Amolfo  was  called  Cambio,  and  came  from 
Colle,  in  the  Val  d'Elsa.  Arnolfo's  first  appearance 
in  history  seems  to  have  been  among  the  band  of 
workmen  engaged  upon  the  pulpit  in  the  Duomo  of 
Sienna,  as  pupil  or  journeyman  of  Nicolo  Pisano. 
With  him  there  was  a  certain  Lapo,  sometimes 
called  his  father  (Vasari),  sometimes  his  instructor, 
but  who  very  likely  was  only  his  fellow-workman  and 
associate.  The  same  band  of  workmen,  under  the 
same  master,  Nicolo,  worked  also  in  Pisa,  Perugia, 
Cortona,  Orvieto,  and  Rome.  Amolfo  was  thirty 
years  old  when  his  father  died.  He  had  already  at- 
tained high  repute,  having  learned  from  his  father 
whatever  the  latter  could  teach,  and  also  having 
studied  the  art  of  design  under  Cimabue  for  the 
purpose  of  employing  it  in  sculpture.  He  was 
already  considered  the  best  architect  in  Tuscany 
when  the  Florentines  confided  to  him  the  construc- 
tion of  the  outer  circle  of  their  city  walls;  they 
also  erected  after  his  plans  the  Loggia  of  Or  San 
Michele,  their  corn-market,  covering  it  with  a  simple 
roof,  and  building  the  piers  of  brick.  The  year  when 
the  cliff  of  the  Magnoli,  imdermined  by  water, 
crumbled  away  on  the  side  of  San  Giorgio,  above 
Santa  Lucia,  on  the  Via  de'  Bardi,  the  Florentines 
issued  a  decree  that  no  building  should  be  thence- 
forth erected  on  this  perilous  site.  In  this  regulation 
they  followed  Arnolfo's  counsel.  His  judgment  has 
been  proved  correct  by  the  ruin  of  many  magnificent 
houses  and  other  buildings  in  later  times. 

In  1285,  Arnolfo  built  the  Loggia  and  Piazza  of 
the  Priori.  He  also  rebuilt  the  principal  chapel  of 
the  Badia  (abbey)  at  Florence,  with  an  additional 
chapel  on  each  side,  and  restored  the  church  and 
choir  which  had  been  constructed  on  a  much  smaller 
scale  by  Count  Ugo,  the  founder  of  that  abbey.  The 
old  church  was  demolished  later,  in  1625,  and  was 
rebuilt  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross.  For  Cardi- 
nal Giovanni  degli  Orsini.  the  pope's  legate  in  Tus- 
cany, Amolfo  erected  the  campanile  of  the  same 
church,  a  work  highly  appreciated  in  those  times; 
but  the  stonework  of  this  tower  was  not  completed 
until  the  year  1330.  In  the  year  1294,  the  church 
of  Santa  Croce,  belonging  to  the  Friars  Minor,  was 
begun  after  the  designs  of  Amolfo,  in  which  he  gave 
BO  large  an  extent  to  the  nave  and  side  aisles  that 
the  excessive  width  rendered  it  impossible  to  bring 
the  arches  within  the  roof;  he  therefore  judiciously 
raised  arches  from  pier  to  pier,  and  on  these  he  con- 
stracted   the   roofs,    from   which   he   conducted    the 


water  by  stone  gutters  built  on  the  arches,  giving 
them  such  a  degree  of  inclination  that  the  roofs  were 
secured  against  injury  from  damp.  The  novelty 
and  the  ingenuity  of  his  contrivance  were  no  greater 
than  its  utility.  At  a  later  period,  Amolfo  drew  the 
plans  for  the  first  cloister  to  the  old  convent  of  this 
church.  Soon  afterwards  he  superintended  the  re- 
moval of  the  various  arches  and  tombs  (ancient 
monuments  mentioned  by  Boccaccio)  in  stone  and 
marble,  that  surrounded  parts  of  the  external  walls 
of  the  church  of  San  Giovanni,  and  covered  the 
walls  of  the  church  with  block  marble  from  Prato. 
About  the  same  time  the  Florentines  wished  to  erect 
certain  buildings  in  the  upper  Val  d'Arno,  above  the 
fortress  of  San  Giovanni  and  Castel  Franco,  for  the 
greater  convenience  of  the  inhabitants  and  the  more 
commodious  supply  of  their  markets;  they  entrusted 
the  design  of  these  works  also  to  Arnolfo  (1295),  and 
he  so  completely  satisfied  them  that  he  was  elected 
a  citizen  of  Florence.  When  these  undertakings  were 
completed,  the  Florentines  resolved  to  construct  a 
cathedral  in  their  city,  of  such  extent  and  magnifi- 
cence that  human  power  or  industry  should  be  able 
to  produce  nothing  superior  or  mor^^  beautiful. 
Arnolfo  prepared  and  executed  the  model  for  the 
cathedral,  afterwards  known  as  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore,  directing  that  the  external  walls  should  be 
encrusted  with  polished  marbles,  rich  cornices, 
pilasters,  columns,  carved  foliage,  figures,  and  other 
ornaments.  The  cathedral,  as  Arnolfo  planned  it, 
may  be  seen  in  Simone  Memmi's  great  painting  in 
the  Spanish  chapel  in  Santa  Maria  Novella.  In  his 
general  plan  he  incorporated  the  earlier  (cathedral) 
church  known  as  Santa  Reparata,  besides  other  small 
churches  and  houses  which  stood  around  it.  To 
please  the  Signoria  he  also  built  into  the  new  edifice 
the  tower  of  the  Vacca,  or  "Cow",  in  which  hung 
the  great  bell  of  Florence,  that  with  good-natured 
pleasantry  was  so  styled  by  the  Florentines.  To 
accommodate  this  tower  at  the  centre  of  the  building 
was  a  troublesome  business  (Vasari)  but  it  was  so 
skilfully  accomplished  by  "  filling  up  the  tower  with 
good  material "  such  as  flint  and  lime,  and  laj'ing  a 
foundation  of  immense  stones,  that  it  proved  equal 
to  the  support  of  that  enormous  constmction,  the 
cupola,  which  Brunelleschi  erected  upon  it,  and 
which  Amolfo  had  probably  not  even  thought  of 
placing  thereon.  The  cathedral  was  finally  com- 
pleted in  May,  18S6.  Within  a  few  years  the 
cathedral,  the  Palazzo  Publico,  and  the  two  great 
churches  of  Santa  Croce  and  S.-mta  Maria  Novella, 
sprang  up  almost  simultaneously.  The  Duomo  was 
founded,  according  to  some,  in  1294,  the  same  year 
in  which  Santa  Croce  was  begvui;  according  to  others, 
in  1298.  Between  these  two  dates,  in  1296,  Amolfo 
imdertook  the  erection  of  the  Palace  of  the  Signoria, 
the  seat  of  the  Florentine  commonwealth  and  the 
centre  of  all  popular  life.  His  genius  requires  no 
other  evidence  than  these  famous  edifices.  The 
stem  strength  of  the  Palazzo  and  the  noble  lines  of 
the  cathedral  show  how  well  he  knew  how  to  vary 
and  adapt  his  art  to  the  dilTerent  requirements  of 
mimicipal  and  religious  fimctions,  and  to  tlie  neces- 
sities of  the  age.  Amolfo  died  after  he  had  built 
the  Pal.azzo  and  just  as  the  round  api^e  of  the  cathe- 
dral was  approaching  completion.  His  portrait  by 
Giotto  may  be  seen  in  Santa  Croce,  beside  the  princi- 
pal chapel;  he  is  one  of  the  two  men  who  are  speak- 
ing together  in  the  foregroimd,  where  monks  are 
represented  lamenting  the  death  of  St.  Francis. 

HAi.niNUCri,  Del  MigHorc  Firrnze  lUustrnIa,  IV.  9B;  Gate 
Carteggio  dfgli  artisli,  1,  44.5.  44(i;  CiC'OGNAHa,  i^toria  dflla 
srultum:  ScoTr,  Cathedral  liuilders,  224,  291,  313,  325;  Fletch- 
er, A  Ilistory  of  Architecture,  417. 

Thomas  H.  Poole. 

Amoudt  (.4CRNOUDT,  Arnold),  Peteh  Joseph, 
Jesuit    writer    on    spiritual    subjects,    b.    at    Moere 


ARNPECK 


751 


ARNULF 


Belgium,  17  May,  1811;  d.  at  Cincinnati,  29  July, 
1865.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Florissant, 
Missouri,  in  1831.  After  the  usual  course  of  Jesuit 
training,  he  was  appointed  to  teaoli  in  the  colleges 
of  the  Missouri  province  of  the  Society.  While  en- 
gaged in  teaching  he  proved  himself  to  be  a  finished 
Greek  scholar.  IJuring  a  dangerous  illncws,  after  his 
ordination  as  priest.  I'atlier  Arnoudt  bound  himself 
by  vow  to  labo\ir  with  zeal  to  promote  devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  Tpon  his  recovery  he  wrote 
his  great  work  "  De  Imitatione  Sacri  Cordis  Jesu". 
The  M.S.  of  this  work  he  sent  to  Rome  in  IS-IG,  but 
through  some  mishap  it  wiis  mislaid  for  ten  years. 
At  tlie  end  of  that  period,  having  been  approved  by 
Father  General  Roothaan,  the  work  was  publishctl 
"typis  et  sumptibiis  fratrum  Caroli  et  Nicolai 
Benziger",  at  Kinsiedeln,  1,S()8.  It  wa.s  translated 
into  English  by  Father  Fsistr^  and  published  at 
Cincinnati  in  1865.  Translations  were  made  in 
French,  German,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Italian, 
Flemish,  and  Hungarian.  The  French  translation, 
published  at  Bi'san(;on,  piissed  through  eighteen 
editions  between  the  years  1864  and  1887.  Sommcr- 
vbgel  gives  the  titles  of  two  English,  two  Flemish, 
and  four  French  versions  of  Father  Amoudt's  work. 
Father  De  Smet,  the  missionary,  is  authority  for  the 
statement  that  Father  Arnoudt  left  at  his  death 
the  following  MSS. — a  Greek  epic  poem  of  about 
1,200  verses,  a  collection  of  Greek  odes,  and  a  Greek 
grammar,  and  these  ascetical  works:  "The  Glories 
of  Jesus",  "The  Oelight  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus",  and  a  collection  of  spiritual  retreats  entitled 
"The  Abode  of  the  Sacred  Heart". 

Vander.speeten,  Nolire  bioqraphujue  9ur  le  P.  Pitrre 
Arnoudt.  de  la  c.  de  J.  (Tournay.  1873):  De  Smet  in  PrMs 
hittoriques  (1800).  Also  in  the  London  eil.  of  The  Imilalion 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  (18U7)  and  the  Tournay  ed.  (1872)  are 
publi-shed  notices  of  the  author  by  Rif.KSELL  and  Van  dkr 
rloKSTADT  respectively.  Father  Arnouilt's  relativeii  in 
Belgium  have  pre:ierved  forty-si.x  of  his  autograph  letters. 

P.  H.  Kelly. 

Ampeck,  Veit,  a  Bavarian  historian,  b.  at  Lands- 
hut  in  1440;  d.  at  the  same  place  about  the  year 
1505.  He  was  educated  at  .\mberg  and  at  Vienna, 
was  parish  priest  of  St.  Martin's  Church  in  his  na- 
tive city,  and  chaplain  to  Bishop  Sixtus.  He  is 
counted  among  the  fathers  of  Bavarian  history,  and 
is  praised  by  Aventin  as  one  of  his  most  im- 
portant predecessors.  He  wrote  a  "  Chronicon  .\us- 
triacum",  down  to  1488  (Pez,  Script,  rer.  Austr.,  I, 
1165);  "Liber  de  gestis  episcoporum  Frisingcnsium  " 
(Deutinger,  Beitr.  z.  Geseh.  d.  Erzbisth.  Miinch.- 
Freis..  Ill);  and  the  "Chronicon  Baioariorum" 
(Pez,  Thesaurus,  III,  ii,  19  sq.).  This  is  far  superior 
to  his  former  writings,  but  is  itself  equally  surp;vs,sed 
by  the  unpretentious  narrative  of  the  German  ver- 
sion, which  the  compiler  himself  undertook,  and 
carried  ten  years  further. 

.Stamminoek  in  Kirchentex.,  8.  v.;  Wegele,  Geach.  d. 
deulaehen  Hitlorioi/raphie  (Munich,  1885),  1.00-100. 

Fn.vNcis  W.  Grey. 

Amulf  of  Bavaria,  .son  of  Luitpold  of  the  .^gilul- 
fing  family  and  of  Kimigunde.  and  Duke  of  Bavaria 
from  907  to  9^17.  His  reign  fell  in  a  troubled  time. 
The  Magyars  had  begun  their  predatory  incursions 
into  Germany,  in  which  they  destroyed  everj'thing, 
wherever  they  penetrated.  When,  in  the  year  907, 
they  again  advanceil  against  Bavaria  in  larger  num- 
bers than  ever,  the  Margrave  Luitpold  siunmoned  the 
entire  fighting  force  of  his  people  for  the  flefcnce  of 
the  country.  The  Bavarians,  however,  were  com- 
pletely defeated.  5  July,  907,  in  a  battle  in  which 
Luitpold  himself,  nearly  all  the  Bavarian  nobles,  and 
a  number  of  bishops,  were  killed.  The  land  then 
became  an  easy  prey  to  the  barbarians  and  wa.s  ruth- 
lessly devastated.  Ludwig,  King  of  the  Ea.st  Franks, 
withdreiv  to  the  western  division  of  the  empire. 
Under  these  almost  hopeless  conditions  Arnulf,  the 


son  of  Luitpold,  began  his  reign.  He  did  not  lose 
courage,  however,  and  succeeded,  11  Augast,  909, 
in  defe:iting  the  Magyars  on  the  Rott  as  they  were 
returning  from  Swabia.  This  defeat  did  not  prevent 
the  Magyars  from  undertaking  new  plundering  ex- 
peditions in  the  years  directly  following.  But  the 
terrible  foe  was  defeated  in  a  battle  on  the  Inn  not  far 
from  P!us.sau,  in  the  year  913,  by  a  combined  army 
of  the  Bavarians  uniler  Arnulf  :ind  of  theSwabians 
under  Erchanger  and  Bcrclitold,  who  were  the 
brothers  of  Armdf's  mother,  Kunigiuidc.  On  ac- 
count of  a  quarrel  which  broke  out  between  King 
Conrad  and  the  Swabian  dukes,  Arnulf  took  ui>  arms 
against  the  king  in  favour  of  his  uncles.  The  mar- 
riage of  Conrad  with  Kunigimde,  the  mother  of  .Ar- 
nulf and  sister  of  the  .Swaliian  dukes,  did  not  allay 
the  enmity.  .Vrnidf  was  obliged  to  flee  the  countrj', 
but  after  a  Swabian  victory  over  the  followers  of  the 
king  he  returned  to  Bavaria  and  established  himself 
at  Salzburg  and  Regensburg  (Ratisbon).  Conrad 
a<lvanccd  in  91G  against  his  stepson  once  more  and 
defeated  him,  but  was  not  able  to  drive  him  entirely 
out  of  the  country.  In  order  to  put  an  end  to  this 
disorder,  the  German  bishops  helJ  a  synod  in  916  at 
Hohenaltlieim  near  Nordlingcn.  The  synod  threat- 
ened Armdf  with  c.xcomnumication  in  case  he  did 
not  present  himself  by  7  October  before  a  synod  at 
Regensburg.  .Arnulf,  however,  continued  his  strug- 
gle against  Conrad.  He  w:us  eventually  induced  to 
submit  by  Conratl's  succe.'isor,  Henry  I,  but  only 
after  he  was  accorded  the  right  of  independent  gov- 
ernment in  Bavaria,  the  right  of  coinage,  and  the  right 
of  appointment  to  the  bishoprics.  This  agreement 
was  made  in  921 ,  before  Regensburg.  After  receiving 
these  concessions  Arnulf  acknowledged  the  German 
king  as  his  over-lord.  Otherwise,  he  was  an  independ- 
ent ruler  in  his  own  land  and  called  himself  in  his  ofii- 
cial  documents  "  Duke  of  the  Ba\arians  by  the  Grace 
of  Goil".  During  his  struggle  for  the  independence 
of  Bavaria,  Arnulf  hail  confiscated  many  monastic  es- 
tates anil  properties,  and  had  granted  these  lands 
as  fiefs  to  his  nobles  anil  .soldiers.  Many  churches, 
already  grievously  affected  by  the  predatory  incur- 
sions of  the  Magj'ars,  were  in  this  way  completely 
impoverished  anil,  it  appears,  in  some  ca.ses  de- 
stroyed. Only  one  abbot,  Egilolf  of  Nicderaltaicli. 
attenileil  the  Synod  of  Regensburg  in  932.  The 
great  monasteries  of  Benediktbeuern,  Iscn,  Moosburg. 
Niedcraltaich,  Schiiftlarn,  Schliersee,  Tegemsee,  and 
Wessobrunn,  luul  lost  almost  tdl  they  po.ssesscil 
through  Amulf's  confiscations,  which  were  at  times 
countenanceil  by  some  of  the  Gennan  bishops. 
Drakolf,  Bishop  of  Freising,  encouraged  by  the 
examjile  of  the  duke,  appropriated  some  possessions 
of  the  churches  of  Schiiftlarn,  Moosburg,  and  Isen. 
On  account  of  his  confiscations  Arnulf  was  nicknamed 
dcr  Schtimmc  (the  Bad).  Conditions  were,  how- 
ever, decidedly  better  after  the  duke's  submission  to 
King  Ilciiry.  The  Bavarian  bishops  met  in  synod 
at  Regensburg,  14  Januarj-,  932,  and  in  the  summer 
of  the  same  year  they  helil  a  synoil  in  connection 
with  other  territorial  nobles  at  Dingolfing.  An  agree- 
ment was  reachcil  that  the  lanils  wrested  from  the 
monasteries  and  other  religious  houses  should  be 
returned  to  them.  Arnulf  him.self  showed  zeal  in 
rebuilding  the  churches  that  had  been  destroyed. 
Although  the  ileci.sions  of  the  synod  were  never  fully 
carried  out.  the  way  was  prepared  for  better  con- 
ditions and  more  orderly  rule.  Arnulf  died  14 
July,  937,  and  wius  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Em- 
meram  in  Regensburg. 

Canolek.  De  Aniidlo  mate  mato  coffnominato  (Munich. 
1735):  (.iiK-sKliKEcHT.  Grarhichte  der  deutfchm  Kaifrrztit 
(5th  ed..  Leipzig,  issn.  I.  172  son,;  Rikzlkh,  Grschichle 
Hnurmn  ((intha,  1S78).  I,  319  sng.;  Hacck,  Kirchenarichichte 
DrulsMandt  (l.eipiig.  1896).  Ill,  16  »qq..  277  s<i<i.:  Fast- 
linger,  Die  u-irt§ehafltirhe  Bedrutung  der  tm^p-ittchm  Klo^trr 
in  der  Zeil  der  AgilulfingeT  (Freiburg,  1903),   1(12. 

J.    P.    KiRSCU. 


ARNULF 


752 


ARRAS 


Amulf  of  Lisieuz  (LEXo\^EMSIS  or  Luxoviensis), 
in  France,  d.  31  August,  1184.  He  was  educated 
by  his  brotlier,  the  Bishop  of  Seez  (Sagi),  studied 
canon  law  at  Rome,  and  wrote  in  defence  of  Pope 
Innocent  II  a  violent  letter  against  Gerard,  Bishop 
of  Angoulerae  (Muratori,  SS.  RK.  Ital.,  Ill,  423-432), 
a  partisan  of  the  Antipope  Anacletus  II  (Petrus 
Leonis).  In  1141  he  was  raised  to  the  See  of  Lisieux, 
accompanied  Louis  VII  on  his  crusade  (1147),  was 
faithful  to  Alexander  III  during  the  schism,  and 
encouraged  his  brother  bishops  to  defend  the  cause 
of  ecclesiastical  liberty  against  Henry  II  of  England. 
He  was  a  partisan  of  the  king  in  the  conflict  between 
Henry  and  St.  Thomas  Becket,  and  after  the  murder 
of  the  latter  undertook  the  royal  defence  before  tlie 
pope.  In  1181  or  perhaps  a  little  earlier,  he  lost  the 
good  will  of  the  king,  and  for  a  while  that  of  Pope 
Lucius.  He  then  resigned  his  see  because  of  age 
and  feebleness  and  retired  to  the  Abbey  of  St.  Vic- 
tor at  Paris,  where  he  died.  His  writings  include  a 
collection  of  letters,  made  by  himself,  and-  some 
poetry,  and  are  in  P.  L. ,  CC. 

PoTTHAST,  Bibl.  Hist.  Med.  jEvi,  2d  ed.,  I,  121;  Moli- 
NIEB,  Sources  de  I'hist.  de  France  (1902),  II,  n.  1908. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Amulf  of  Metz,  Saint,  statesman,  bishop  under 
the  Merovingiaas,  b.  c.  .580;  d.  c.  640.  His  parents 
belonged  to  a  distinguished  Prankish  family,  and 
lived  in  Austrasia,  the  eastern  section  of  the  kingdom 
founded  by  Clovis.  In  the  scliool  in  which  he  was 
placed  during  his  boyhood  he  excelled  through  his 
talent  and  his  good  behaviour.  According  to  the 
custom  of  the  age,  he  was  sent  in  due  time  to  the 
court  of  Theodebert  II,  King  of  Austrasia  (595-612), 
to  be  initiated  in  the  various  branches  of  the  govern- 
ment. Under  the  guidance  of  Gundulf,  the  Mayor 
of  the  Palace,  he  soon  became  so  proficient  that  he 
was  placed  on  the  regular  list  of  royal  officers,  and 
among  the  first  of  the  king's  ministers.  He  distin- 
guished himself  both  as  a  military  commander  and 
in  the  civil  administration;  at  one  time  he  had  under 
his  care  six  distinct  provinces.  In  due  course  Arnulf 
was  married  to  a  Prankish  woman  of  noble  lineage, 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  Anseghisel  and  Clodulf. 
While  Arnulf  was  enjoying  worldly  emoluments  and 
honours  he  did  not  forget  higher  and  spiritual 
things.  His  thoughts  dwelled  often  on  monasteries, 
and  with  his  friend  Romaricus,  likewise  an  officer  of 
the  court,  he  planned  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Abbey  of  L6rins,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  devot- 
ing  his  life  to  God.  But  in  the  meantime  the  Episco- 
pal See  of  Metz  became  vacant.  Arnulf  was  univer- 
sally designated  as  a  worthy  candidate  for  the  office, 
and  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  that  see  about  611. 
In  liis  new  position  he  set  the  example  of  a  virtuous 
life  to  his  subjects,  and  attended  to  matters  of 
ecclesiastical  government.  In  625  he  took  part  in  a 
council  held  by  the  Prankish  bishops  at  Reims. 
With  all  this  Arnulf  retained  his  station  at  the  court 
of  the  king,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  national 
life  of  his  people.  In  613,  after  tlie  death  of  Theode- 
bert, he,  with  Pepin  of  Landen  and  other  nobles, 
called  to  Austrasia  Clothaire  II,  King  of  Neustria. 
When,  in  623,  the  realm  of  Austrasia  was  entrusted 
to  the  king's  son  Dagobcrt,  Arnulf  became  not  only 
the  tutor,  but  also  the  chief  minister,  of  the  yo\ing 
king.  At  the  time  of  the  estrangement  between 
the  two  kings,  in  625,  Arnulf  with  other  bishops  and 
nobles  tried  to  efTect  a  reconciliation.  But  Arnulf 
dreaded  the  responsibilities  of  the  episcopal  office, 
and  grow  weary  of  court  life.  About  the  year  626 
ho  obtained  the  appointment  of  a  successor  to  tlio 
Kpi.scopal  See  of  Motz;  he  himself  and  his  friend 
Romaricus  withdrew  to  a  solitary  place  in  the  moim- 
tain'i  of  the  Vosges.  There  he  "lived  in  communion 
with  f'lod  until  his  death.  His  remains,  interred  by 
Ttomaricus,   were    transferred    about  a    year  after- 


wards, by  Bishop  Goeric,  to  the  basilica  of  the  Holy 
Apostles  in  Metz. 

Of  the  two  sons  of  Arnulf,  Clodulf  became  his 
third  successor  in  the  See  of  Metz.  Anseghisel  re- 
mained in  the  service  of  the  State;  from  his  union 
with  Begga,  a  daughter  of  Pepin  of  Landen,  was 
born  Pepin  of  Heristal,  the  founder  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian  dynasty.  In  this  manner  Arnulf  was  the 
ancestor  of  the  mighty  rulers  of  that  house.  The 
life  of  Arnulf  exhibits  to  a  certain  extent  the  episcopal 
office  and  career  in  the  Merovingian  State.  The 
bishops  were  much  considered  at  court;  their  advice 
was  listened  to;  they  took  part  in  the  dispensation 
of  justice  by  the  courts;  they  had  a  voice  in  the 
appointment  of  royal  officers;  they  were  often  used 
as  the  king's  ambassadors,  and  held  high  admin- 
istrative positions.  For  the  people  under  their  care, 
they  were  the  protectors  of  their  rights,  their  spokes- 
men before  the  king  and  the  link  uniting  royalty 
with  its  subjects.  The  opportunities  for  good  were  thus 
unlimited;  and  Arnulf  used  them  to  good  advantage. 

Acta  SS.,  Jul.  IV.  423  sq.;  Monum.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script. 
RR.  Meroving.,  II,  426  sq.;  Waitz,  Deutsche  Verfaasungsge- 
schichte  (Berlin,  1882),  II,  pta.  1,  2;  Daiin,  Die  Kdnige  der 
dermanen  (Leipzig,  1895),  VII,  pt.  3;  Halck,  Kircheng. 
Deutschlands  (Leipzig,  1887),  1. 

Francis  J.  Schaefer. 

Arran,  Soijth  Isles  of  See  Argyll  .vnd  the 
Isles. 

Arras  (Atrebatum),  The  Diocese  of,  comprises 
the  Department  of  Pas-de-Calais  in  France.  On  the 
occasion  of  the  Concordat,  the  three  Dioceses  of  Arras, 
Saint-Omer,  and  Boulogne  were  united  to  make 
the  one  Diocese  of  Arras.  It  was  a  suffragan  of 
Paris  from  1802  to  1841,  in  which  year  Cambrai 
again  became  an  archdiocese  and  Arras  returned  to  it 
as  sufTragan.  At  tlie  beginning  of  tlie  sixth  century 
St.  Remi  (Remigius),  Archbishop  of  Reims,  placed 
in  the  See  of  Arras  St.  Vedastus  (St.  Vaast)  (d.  c. 
540),  who  had  been  the  teacher  of  Clovis  after  the  \ic- 
tory  of  Tolbiac.  His  successors,  Dominicus  and  Ve- 
dulphus,  are  both  venerated  as  saints.  After  the 
death  of  the  latter,  the  See  of  Arras  was  transferred 
to  Cambrai,  and  it  was  not  until  1093  that  Arras 
again  became  a  diocese.  Among  tlie  bishops  of  Arras 
are  Cardinal  Antoine  Perrenot  de  Granvelle,  Coun- 
cillor of  the  emperor,  Charles  V,  Bishop  of  Arras  from 
1545  to  1562,  later  Archbishop  of  Malines  and  Viceroy 
of  Naples;  Frangois  Richardot,  a  celebrated  preacher, 
Bishop  of  Arras  from  1562  to  1575;  Monseigneur 
Parisis  (d.  1866),  who  figured  prominently  in  the  politi- 
cal assemblies  of  1848.  Tlie  old  cathedral  of  Arras, 
constructed  between  1030  and  1396,  and  dedicated 
to  St.  Vaast,  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  Gothic 
structures  in  northern  France.  It  was  destroyed 
during  the  Revolution.  Two  famous  relics  were 
long  greatly  venerated  at  Arras:  the  "sacred  manna  ", 
said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  in  371  during  a 
severe  famine,  and  the  "holy  candle",  a  wax  taper 
said  to  have  been  given  to  Bishop  Lambert  in  1105 
by  the  Blessed  Virgin,  to  stop  an  epidemic.  Not 
far  from  Arras,  the  city  of  Saint-Omer,  a  diocese  till 
the  Revolution,  perpetuates  tlie  memory  of  St.  Au- 
domare,  or  Omer,  Bishop  of  Tlidrouanne,  the  apo.stle 
of  the  Morini  in  the  sixth  century.  Its  cathedral, 
a  Gothic  monument  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was 
built  over  the  saint's  tomb.  The  ruins  of  St.  Vaast 
at  Arras,  and  of  St.  Bertin  at  Saint-Omer,  keep  alive 
the  memory  of  two  celebrated  abbeys  of  the  same 
name;  the  Abbey  of  St.  Bertin  (founded  in  the  seventh 
century)  gave  twenty-two  saints  to  the  Church.  The 
Diocese  of  Arras  at  the  end  of  1905  contained 
955,,391  inhabitants,  52  parishes,  690  cluirches  of 
the  second  class,  and  53  vicariates  formerly  with 
state  subventions. 

OnUia  Christiana  (ed.  Nova,  1725),  III,  318-371,  470-471; 

Instrumenta    77-100;     Tf.rnintk,    Essni    historique    et    mono- 


ARRAS 


753 


ARSACIDiB 


graphique    ntr    I'anrunne    cathidraU    d'Arrat    (ibid.,     1853); 
CiiEVALicR,   Topo-bM.    (Paris,    1894-9U).   21'3-220. 

Geokoes  Goyau. 

Arras,  Councils  ok.  In  1025  a  council  was  held 
at  .\rras  against  certain  (Maniclia;an)  lieretics  wlio 
rejected  the  sacranient.s  of  tlie  Church.  The  Catho- 
lic faith  in  the  Ble.s-sed  Eucharist  was  proclaimed 
with  especial  insistence.  In  1097,  two  councils, 
presided  over  by  Lambert  of  Arras,  dealt  with 
questions  concerning  monasteries  and  persons  con- 
secrated  to  Goil. 

M*N»i.  Colt.  Cone.  XIX,  423;  XX,  492:  Acteadt  la  proi-incr 
de  Reima  (1843);  Chevalier,  Topo-bM.  (Pari.i.  1894-99),  224. 
Tho.mas  J.  Sh.vhan. 

Arriaga,  Pablo  Josi:,  S.J.,  b.  at  Verpara,  in  Bis- 
cay, 1564,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  m  1579,  and 
in  1585  went  to  Peru,  where  he  was  ordained.  In 
1588  he  was  ap|x>inted  Rector  of  the  College  of  San 
Martfn  at  Lima,  which  post  he  filled  thrice  in  the 
course  of  twenty-four  years.  He  visited  Europe  in 
1601,  sent  to  Home  by  his  superiors.  Returning  in 
1604,  he  became  Hector  of  the  College  of  Arequipa 
(1612-15).  It  was  during  the  period  from  1604 
to  1622  that  Father  Arriaga  became  identified  with 
the  task  of  uprooting  the  survivals  of  primitive 
idolatry  in  Peru,  and  accompanied  one  of  the  earli- 
est official  visitors,  Father  Fernando  de  Avcndaflo. 
He  also  directed  the  construction  of  a  college  for 
sons  of  Indian  caciques,  and  of  a  house  of  correction 
for  Indian  shamans.  In  1620  he  completed  his  "  E.\- 
tirpacion  de  I'ldolatria  en  el  Peru"  (Lima,  1621). 
The  year  following  he  was  again  sent  to  Europe  on 
a  confidential  mission.  Embarking  at  Portobello, 
the  fleet  to  which  his  vessel  belonged  was  struck  by 
a  fierce  tempest.  The  ship  on  which  lie  had  em- 
barked was,  with  four  others,  beached  and  wrecked. 
After  untiring  efforts  to  comfort  his  fellow-passengers. 
Father  Arrisiga  expired  at  the  helm  of  the  vessel, 
grasping  the  crucifi.x,  whicli  he  had  been  holding  up 
before  his  companions  in  misfortune.  He  deserves 
special  attention  as  one  of  the  most  active  promoters 
and  organizers  of  the  search  for  idolatrous  survivals 
in  Peru  and  of  the  Christian  education  of  the  Indians. 

Anello  OLrv'A,  Hiatoria  del  Peru  y  varonta  inaimua  de  la 
CompaAia  de  Jeaua;  Cai-ancha,  Cordni^xi  moTcAxzada,  I; 
MENOinuR^,  Diccionario  hiatdrico-inogTiifico  del  Peru;  Rela- 
eionea  geogr&flcaa:  Varonea  iiuatrea;  Torres  Saldamando,  Loa 
Antiffuoa  Jeauttaa  del  Peru. 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Arricivita,  Juan,  a  native  of  Mexico  in  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Little  more  is  known  of  his  life 
than  that  he  was  Prefect  and  Commissary  of  the 
College  of  Propaganda  Fide,  at  Quer6taro,  in  New 
Spain  (Mexico),  a  zealous  and  efficient  missionary, 
and  a  highly  esteemed  member  of  the  Franciscan 
Order.  He  deserves  special  mention  as  having  been 
the  author  of  the  second  volume  of  the  "Clironicles 
of  Quer^taro"  (for  first  part  see  Espinosa,  Isidko 
Felis),  a  book  that  is  of  inestimable  value  for  the 
history  of  missions  and  colonization  of  northwestern 
Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California. 

BinisTAlN  DE  SooZA,  Bibliateca  hitpano-americann  aeten- 
trioTuU  (Mexico,  1816).  I;  Criinica  Senilira  u  Apoaldltra  del 
coUffio  de  Propagandd  Fide  de  la  Santa  Cruz  de  (Juerftaro, 
N.   B.,   Seounda   parte     (Mexico.    1792). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Arrighettl,  Nicola,  mathematician,  b.  at  Florence 
and  died  there  in  16.'?9.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
lUti-mleur,  but  chiefly  as  a  mathematician  and  a 
philosopher.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
disciples  of  Galileo,  and  occupied  an  illustrious  place 
in  tne  Florentine  .\cadcmy  and  in  that  of  l)clla 
Crusca.  He  was  one  of  fhaie  who  formed  the 
Platonic  Academy  which  was  le-rstablished  by  the 
Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  and  the  Prince,  afterwards 
Cardinal,  of  Tuscanv.  Arrighetti  pronounced  the 
opening  discourse,  he  undertook  to  translate  the 
Dialogues  of  Plato  into  Tuscan  and  was  so  engaged 


when  he  died.  He  left  a  great  number  of  MSS.  in 
prose  and  verse,  amon^  which  are  some  Cicalate, 
or  serio-comic  compositions  in  vogue  at  the  time, 
on  such  subjects  as  the  tortoise,  the  cucumber, 
pickles,  etc. 

.MlcllACD,  Biograph,  untf.;  Gu^rim,  Dictionnaire  dea  diction' 
nairea. 

T.  J.  Campdell. 

Arrighetti,  Nicolo,  a  professor  of  natural  nhi- 
losdjihv  at  Spoleto,  Prato,  and  Sienna,  b.  at  Florence, 
17  Murcli,  1709;  d.  31  January,  1767.  He  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  31  October,  1724.  He  has  left 
treati.scs  on  the  theory  of  light,  heat,  and  electricity, 
and  also  on  the  causes  of  the  movement  of  mercury 
in  the  barometer.  We  have  also  from  him  a  dis- 
course known  as  "II  Baron  di  Van-Esden;  ovvero 
la  Hepublica  degli  Increduli  da  P.  Michel  Angelo 
Mariiii  deir  Ordine  de'  Minimi,  dall'  Idioma  Franzese 
tradotta." 

.SoMMKiivoGEl..  liiMivthiiiue  de  la  c.  de  J.,  1,581;  Mazzu- 
CHELLi;  Carrara;  Deorcuia,  Notea  bibliog. 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Arrowsmitbi  Edmund.  See  Ed.mund  Arrow- 
smith,  Venerable. 

Arrubal,  Peter.    See  Grace,  Contro\'ersies  ox. 

Arsacidse. — It  was  under  the  Dynasty  of  the 
Arsacids  who  ruled  the  Persian  empire  from  the 
year  256  B.  c.  to  a.  d.  224,  that  Christianity  found 
its  way  into  the  countries  watered  by  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris.  Nestorian  traditions  give  no  verj- 
accurate  information  concerning  the  relations  which 
existed  between  the  Arsacide  kings  and  the  Persian 
Christians.  These,  according  to  Mari  ibn  Sulayman, 
were  excellent,  and  the  churches  enjoyed  profound 
peace  until  the  accession  of  the  Sas.sanid,  Sapor  I. 
Yet  the  same  annalist,  in  the  paragraph  which  he 
devotes  to  Abraham,  one  of  the  early  Persian  pa- 
triarchs, speaks  of  a  persecution  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  in  the  latter's  lifetime  (Mari,  5,  cf.  Amr 
ibn  Matai,  3;  Barhebncus,  Chronicum  ecclesiasti- 
cum,  21).  He  even  knows,  and  other  chroniclers 
repeat  the  statement,  that  the  persecution  in  ques- 
tion was  brought  to  an  end  by  a  miracle.  The  son  of 
the  King  of  Persia,  who  was  epileptic  or  possessed 
by  a  devil,  was  healed  by  Abraham.  The  prince,  in 
order  to  show  his  gratitude,  gave  orders  that  the 
Christians  should  be  allowed  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion.  L'nfortunately,  however,  neither  Mari, 
nor  any  of  those  who  copied  his  account,  gives  us 
the  name  of  the  king  or  of  the  miraculously  cured 
son.  In  any  case,  the  storj'  as  it  stands  is  of  no 
value  whatever.  To-day,  it  stands  demonstrated 
that  the  history  of  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  in 
Persia,  prior  to  tlie  fourth  century,  as  recorded  by 
the  Syrian  chroniclers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  is  purely 
legendary.  They  had  access  to  no  single  serious 
document  relating  to  the  Arsacide  Dynasty,  the  mem- 
ory of  which  haa  been  almost  wholly  blotted  out  of 
Persian  tradition  by  the  Sassanids.  There  were, 
moreover,  very  few  Christians  in  .\ssyria  or  in  Chal- 
dea,  previous  to  the  third  centurj',  and  even  these 
were  not  easily  discriminated  from  the  Jews.  The 
great  Christianizing  mission,  which  began  at  Edessa 
and  which  the  Syrians  associate  with  the  name 
of  the  apostle  Alar^,  had  certainly  not  spread 
so  far  before  the  fall  of  the  Arsacids.  We  must, 
therefore,  perforce  remain  in  ignorance  of  the  nature, 
and  even  as  to  the  existence,  of  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Parthian  princes  and  the  Persian  Chris- 
tians. If,  however,  one  cares  to  form  conjectures 
on  the  subject,  he  should  recall  that  these  monarchs, 
foreigners  in  Persia  properly  so  called  through  their 
origin,  were  very  indifferent  fire-worshipi>ers.  The 
religious  bigotry  which  later  moved  the  Sassanids 
to  persecute  the  Christians,  cannot,  with  any  prob- 
ability, be  attributed  to  the  Arsacids.     We  know,  in 


ARSENIUS 


754 


ARSmOE 


fact,  that  they  always  showed  themselves  tolerant, 
and'  even  fa\ourable,  towards  the  Jews  (Graetz, 
Histoire  des  Juifs,  Bloeh's  French  tr.,  162-177), 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  acted 
in  the  same  manner  towards  the  Christians,  if  they 
ever  came  in  contact  with  them  at  all. 

Liber  TurrUi:  Recensions  of  Mari  ibn  Sutayman,  Amr  ibn 
Malai.  and  Saliba  ibn  Yohnnnan  in  Maris,  Amri  et  faLlB.E, 
De  PalriarcKit  Nestorianorum  commenlana,  ed.  by  (jismondi 
(Rome,  1896-99,  Arabic  text  with  Latin  translation);  Bar- 
HEBRiEDS.  Chronicum  Ecclesiasiicum,  part  II,  ed.  by  Abbeloos- 
L\MY  (Louvain,  1874);  cf.  Westphal,  U ntcrsuchungen  iiber 
die  Quellen  und  die  GlaiihwUrdigkeit  der  Patriarchenchroniken 
(Kirchhain,  1901);  Labodrt,  Le  Christianisme  dans  lempire 
Perse  (Paris,  1904). 

J.  Labourt. 

Arsenius  Autorianos,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, in  the  thirteenth  century;  d.  1273.  He  en- 
tered a  monastery  in  Nicaea,  changing  his  secular 
name  George  for  Gennadius  and  finally  for  Arsenius, 
and  became  the  hegoumenos  (abbot)  of  the  monastery 
without  taking  orders.  On  his  return  from  an  em- 
bassy to  Pope  Innocent  IV  from  John  III  Vatatzes 
in  1254,  he  withdrew  to  a  monastery  on  Lake  Apol- 
lonias  in  Bithynia.  Hither  the  envoys  of  Theodore  II 
Lascaris,  who  had  succeeded  Vatatzes  in  1255,  came 
to  offer  liim  the  patriarchal  throne,  made  vacant  in 
1254  by  the  death  of  Manuel.  His  patriarchate  was 
peaceful  till  the  rise  of  Michael  Palsologus.  Theo- 
dore II  died  in  125S,  entrusting  his  son  John's  mi- 
nority to  George  Mouzalon,  whom  Michael  murdered 
and  supplanted.  Vainly  remonstrating,  Arsenius 
withdrew  to  the  monastery  of  Paschasius  without 
resigning  his  authority.  FaiUng  to  make  liim  either 
act  or  resign,  the  emperor  and  the  court  bishops 
replaced  him  by  Nicephorus  of  Ephesus,  who  died 
after  six  months.  The  recovery  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Greeks  in  July,  1261,  rendered  the  choice  of  a 
patriarch  imperative.  His  partisans  renoniinated 
Arsenius,  whom  the  emperor  accepted,  provided  he 
recognized  the  validity  of  the  orders  conferred  by 
Nicephorus.  Arsenius  agreed  but  refused  to  officiate 
with  the  new  bishops.  On  his  return  he  crowned 
Michael  for  the  second  time  in  St.  Sophia,  reserving 
intact,  as  he  imagined,  the  rights  of  John.  To  make 
sure,  however,  that  John  should  never  succeed  him, 
Michael  destroyed  his  ward's  eyes,  25  Dec,  1261. 
Shocked  at  this  atrocity,  the  patriarch  excommuni- 
cated him  and  demanded  his  absolute  abandonment 
of  the  imperial  throne.  Michael  refused,  and  after 
two  years'  contention  deposed  Arsenius  (May,  1264) 
and  exiled  him  to  the  convent  of  St.  Nicholas  on  the 
island  of  Proconnesus,  where  he  died.  The  adher- 
ents of  Arsenius,  including  the  emperor's  own  kins- 
men, withdrew  from  the  communion  of  the  new 
patriarch,  Germanus,  formerly  Bishop  of  Adrianople. 
The  next  patriarch  undertook,  in  1267,  to  absolve 
the  emperor  from  the  sentence  of  excommunication 
imposed  by  Arsenius.  This  gave  rise  to  the  Arsenian 
schism,  which  lasted  until  April,  1315,  when  it 
finally  yielded  to  the  diplomacy  of  the  Patriarch 
Niphon. 

Petit  in  DicHonnaire  de  Ihiologie  caiholique  (Paris,  1902) 
8.  V.  Ars'ene  Aulorianus;  Natalis  Ai-exander,  Hist.  Eccl. 
(Venice,  1771),  XVI,  viii,  art.  3,  4.  ^   ,,  ^^ 

Mark  J.  McNeal. 

Arsenius,  Saint,  anchorite,  b.  354,  at  Rome; 
d.  450,  at  Troe,  in  Egypt.  Theodosius  the  Great 
having  requested  the  Emperor  Gratian  and  Pope  Da- 
masus  to  find  him  in  the  West  a  tutor  for  his  son 
Arcadius,  they  made  choice  of  Arsenius,  a  man 
well  read  in  Greek  literature,  member  of  a  noble 
Roman  family,  and  said  to  have  been  a  deacon  of 
the  Roman  Church.  He  reached  Constantinople  in 
383,  and  continued  as  tutor  in  the  imperial  family 
for  eleven  years,  during  the  last  three  of  which  he 
also  had  charge  of  his  pupil's  brother  Honorius. 
Coming  one  day  to  see  his  children  at  their  studies, 
Theodosius  found  them  sitting  while  Arsenius  talked 


to  them  standing.  This  he  would  not  tolerate,  and 
caused  the  teacher  to  sit  and  the  pupils  to  stand. 
On  his  arrival  at  court  Arsenius  had  been  given  a 
splendid  establishment,  and  probably  because  the 
Emperor  so  desired,  he  lived  in  groat  pomp,  but 
all  the  time  felt  a  growing  inclination  to  renounce 
the  world.  After  praying  long  to  l)e  enlightened 
as  to  what  he  should  do,  he  heard  a  voice  saying, 
"Arsenius,  flee  the  company  of  men,  and  thou  shall 
be  saved."  Thereupon  he  embarked  secretly  for 
Alexandria,  and  hastening  to  the  desert  of  Scetis, 
asked  to  be  admitted  among  the  solitaries  who 
dwelt  there.  St.  John  the  Dwarf,  to  whose  cell 
he  was  conducted,  though  previously  warned  of 
the  quality  of  his  visitor,  took  no  notice  of  him 
and  left  him  standing  by  himself  while  he  invited 
the  rest  to  sit  down  at  table.  When  the  repast  was 
half  finished  he  threw  down  some  bread  before  him, 
bidding  him  with  an  air  of  indifference  eat  if  he 
would.  Arsenius  meekly  picked  up  the  bread  and 
ate,  sitting  on  the  ground.  Satisfied  with  this  proof 
of  humility,  St.  John  kept  him  under  his  direction. 
The  new  solitary  was  from  the  first  most  exemplary, 
yet  unwittingly  retained  certain  of  hi:,  old  haliits, 
such  as  sitting  cross-legged  or  laying  one  foot  over 
the  other.  Noticing  this,  the  abbot  requested  some 
one  to  imitate  Arsenius's  posture  at  the  next  gather- 
ing of  the  brethren,  and  upon  his  doing  so,  forth- 
with rebuked  him  publicly.  Arsenius  took  the  hint 
and  corrected  himself.  During  the  fifty-five  years 
of  his  solitary  life  he  was  always  the  most  meanly 
clad  of  all,  thus  punishing  himself  for  his  former 
seeming  vanity  in  the  world.  In  like  manner,  to 
atone  for  having  used  perfumes  at  court,  he  never 
changed  the  water  in  w-hich  he  moistened  the  palm- 
leaves  of  which  he  made  mats,  but  only  poured  in 
fresh  water  upon  it  as  it  wasted,  thus  letting  it  be- 
come stenchy  in  the  extreme.  Even  while  engaged 
in  manual  labour  he  never  relaxed  in  his  application 
to  prayer.  At  all  times  copious  tears  of  devotion 
fell  from  his  eyes.  But  what  distinguished  him  most 
was  his  disinclination  to  all  that  might  interrupt 
his  union  with  God.  When,  after  long  search,  his 
place  of  retreat  was  discovered,  he  not  only  refused 
to  return  to  court  and  act  as  adviser  to  his  former 
pupil,  the  Emperor  Arcadias,  but  he  would  not  even 
be  his  almoner  to  the  poor  and  the  monasteries  of 
the  neighbourhood.  He  invariably  denied  himself 
to  visitors,  no  matter  what  their  rank  and  condition, 
and  left  to  his  disciples  the  care  of  entertaining  them. 
His  contemporaries  so  admired  him  as  to  surname 
him  "the  Great". 

See  Acta  SS.  (19  July)  for  his  life  by  St.  Theodore  the 
Studite  (d.  820)  and  another  in  Metaphrastes  (apiWSCRlUM. 
De  probatis  Sanctorum  vitis,  IV,  250);  the  Lives  of  the  Fatju-rs 
of  the  Desert  in  Rosweyde  and  d'Andilly,  or  P.  L.,  LXXIV; 
Marin,  Vies  des  ptres  des  deserts  d'orienl;  Bctler,  Lives 
of  the  Saints.  19  July.  .      ,    „    „ 

A.  J.  B.  VUIBERT. 

Arsinoe,  a  titular  see  of  Egypt,  now  Medinet  el 
Fayum,  capital  of  the  district  of  that  name,  and 
situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  between  the 
river  and  Lake  Mceris,  now  on  the  Bahr-Youssuf, 
about  fifty-two  miles  south-west  of  Cairo.  Its 
episcopal  list  (c.  250-649)  is  given  in  Gams  (p.  461). 
It  is  the  most  famous  of  several  homonymous  cities 
in  Egypt,  greatly  favoured  and  renamed  by  Ptolemy 
II  (284-247  B.  c.)  in  honour  of  his  sister  and  wife 
Arsinoe.  Samaritan  Jews  were  soon  found  there, 
and  ere  long  it  rivalled  .Alexandria  for  the  vineyards 
and  gardens  that  abounded  on  its  soil,  the  most 
fertile  in  Egypt.  It  did  a  brisk  trade  in  cereals  and 
vegetables,  and  was  renowned  for  its  figs  and  roses. 
For  its  piety  towards  the  crocodile  it  was  known  as 
Crocodilopolis,  a  haunt  of  crocodiles.  It  became 
eventually  a  flourishing  centre  of  Christian  life, 
but  in  642  was  betrayed  by  the  Monophysite  Copts 
to  Amru,  the  Arab  lieutenant  of  Mohammed.     As 


ART 


755 


ARTICLES 


the  modern  Fayt^m  (Coptic  <t>-u>ii,  Fiflm,  i.  e.  Lake 
Mceris)  it  is  celebrateil  for  the  discovery  (1877-78) 
of  a  great  many  papyri  manuscripts,  some  of  whicli 
are  important  for  tlic  earliest  Cliristian  history  of 
Egypt;  tliey  are  described  in  the  Hellenic  section  of 
the  reports  of  the  "  Kgj'pt  Kxploration  Fund".  It 
has  several  Coptic  churches  and  Moslem  mosques, 
and  some  manufactures,  especially  of  woollen  stuffs. 
Its  trade  in  rose-water  and  nitre  is  considerable.  The 
population  is  about   26,000. 

Another  Arsinoe  was  located  on  the  Heroopolite 
gulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  a.s  one  of  the  principal 
harbours  of  ancient  Kgypt  carried  on  an  extensive 
trade  with  India  in  silks,  spices,  ivory,  etc.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Exodus,  xiv,  2,  9,  and  Numbers,  xxxiii, 
7,  and  is  said  to  be  identical  with  Argueroud  near 
Suez.  Arsinoe  on  the  west  coast  of  CS,^prus  was  an 
episcopal  see  from  the  fifth  to  the  twclftli  century 
(Gams,  p.  439,  and  Lequicn,  II,  KHi.'i-tiS).  Several 
other  cities  of  the  name  are  mentioned  in  Smith. 

Leqcien.  Orient  Chritl.  (1740),  II.  581-584;  Smith,  Diet, 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  I,   225. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Art,  Christian.     See  Christian  Art. 

Artaud  de  Mentor.     See  Montoh. 

Artemon  (or  Artkmas),  mentioned  as  the  leader 
of  an  Antitrinitarian  sect  at  Rome,  in  the  third 
centurj',  about  whose  life  little  is  known  for  certain. 
He  is  spoken  of  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  V,  28)  as 
the  forerunner  of  Paul  of  Samosata,  an  opinion  con- 
firmed by  the  Acts  of  a  council  held  at  Antioch  in 
201,  which  connect  the  two  names  as  united  in 
mutual  communion  and  support.  Eu.sebius  (loc.  cif.) 
and  Theodoret  (H^r.  Fab.,  II,  4;  V,  11)  describe 
his  teaching  as  a  denial  of  Our  Lord's  Divinity  and 
an  assertion  that  He  was  a  mere  man,  the  falsifica- 
tion of  Scripture,  and  an  appeal  to  tradition  in  sup- 
port of  his  errors.  Both  authors  mention  refuta- 
tions; Eusebius  an  untitled  work,  Theodoret  one 
known  as  "The  Little  Labyrinth",  which  has  been 
attributed  to  a  Roman  priest  Caius,  and  more  re- 
cently, to  Hippolytus,  the  supposed  author  of  the 
Philosophoumena. 

ScnwANE.  in  KircTienlex.,  I,  1451;  Rardenhewer,  Geech. 
d.  allkirchl.  LM.  (Freiburg,  1902),  II.  514. 

Francis  W.  Gret. 
Arthur,  James  (Didacus  Arturus),  a  Dominican 
friar,  and  a  theologian  of  note,  b.  at  Limerick, 
Ireland,  early  in  tlie  seventeenth  century;  d.  (proba- 
bly) 1670.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Dominican 
Order  in  the  convent  of  St.  Stephen  at  Salamanca, 
Spain,  and  taught  theologj'  in  different  convents 
of  his  order,  especially  at  Salamanca,  with  great 
credit  to  himself  and  profit  to  his  numerous  students. 
In  1640  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Coimbra 
as  first  professor  of  theology,  and  lield  this  chair 
until  1642,  when,  on  the  oeca-sion  of  the  separation 
of  Portugal  from  Spain,  lie  was  expelled  for  refusing 
to  take  the  oath  to  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  Ira- 
maculate  Conception.  He  returned  to  tlie  convent 
of  St.  Dominic  in  Lisbon,  where  he  resided  for  many 
years  and  devoted  himself  to  tlie  preparation  of  a 
commentary  on  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas  .-Vquinas. 
The  projected  work  was  to  have  comprised  ten 
volumes,  but  the  death  of  the  learned  writer 
prevented  its  completion.  Only  the  first  volume 
was  ever  printed  (16,'j,'));  the  second  was  completed 
and  never  published.  The  Dominican  liistoriog- 
raphers  Qudtif  and  Echard  give  Februarj-,  1644, 
as  the  date  of  his  death,  but  the  consensus  of  opin- 
ion is  in  favour  of  1670.  He  wa-s  buried  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Dominic,  Lisbon,  Portugal,  where 
he  died. 

Ware,  WrUert  and  AntiquUiet  of  Ireland  (ed.  Ham.i.  1764). 
II.  160:  Antonio,  BMioth.  Hitp.  Nma,  11.  368;  QvtTir 
and  EniARn.  Script.  Ord.  Prad.,  II,  636;  Webb.  Compend.  of 
Iruh  Biog.  (Dublin,  1878),  4;  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog..  11,  135. 

A.  C.  O'Neil. 

I.— 48 


Arthur,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  Catholic  physician 
of  the  .seventeenth  century,  b.  at  Limerick,  l.')93;  d. 
c.  1()6().  Verj'  little  is  known  of  his  career,  the  few 
facts  on  record  being  cliiefly  related  by  liimself  in  a 
genealogical  account  in  Latin  elegiacs,  preserved  in 
the  British  Mu.seum  (Additional  MSS.  31,88.5),  and 
in  a  manuscript  diary  of  considerable  interest,  also 
in  Latin,  which  gives  particulars  of  his  numerou," 
cases.  This  diary  sliows  him  to  have  been  held  in 
the  highest  esteem  as  a  physician.  Arthur  some- 
times called  him.sclf  Thomas  Arthur  Fit/.William, 
his  father's  name  being  WiHiam.  He  was  eilucated 
at  Bordeaux  and  sub.sequently  studied  medicine  in 
Paris.  He  returned  to  Irelaml  in  1019,  and  in  May 
of  that  year  started  to  practise  his  profession  in 
Limerick.  He  succee<led  so  well  that  on  the  in- 
vitation of  various  inlhiential  people  he  settled  in 
Dublin,  in  1624.  When  the  Enghsh  physicians 
failed  to  relieve  Archbishop  Ussher  of  a  serious  com- 
plaint from  which  he  suffered  Arthur  was  summoned 
to  Droglicda  to  take  charge  of  the  case.  With  the 
"  pseudo-primas  .Vrdmachanus  ",  as  he  calls  him,  he 
stayetl  for  some  time  subsequent  to  22  March,  1625, 
and  accompanied  him  to  Lambay  Island  for  the 
cure.  He  was  most  successful,  and  his  reputation 
as  a  .skilful  physician  was  enormously  enhanced  by 
this  ca.se.  He  received  a  fee  of  fifty-one  pounds,  then 
justly  considered  a  munificent  reward.  He  himself 
says  that  the  cure  made  him  famous  among  the 
English,  whom  he  heartily  tlisliked  "  for  the  sake  of 
the  Catholic  religion  ".  In  his  diary  he  mentions 
another  case  for  which  he  was  paid  ten  pounds  by 
the  Marquis  of  Ormonde.  In  his  diary  he  occasion- 
ally alludes  to  the  affairs  of  Ireland  but  only  in  the 
briefest  possible  way.  His  Catholic  feelings  are 
everywhere  .shown.  Among  his  patients  was  Charles 
Fleetwood,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  English  forces 
in  Ireland,  at  whose  request  he  wrote  a  treatise  on 
tlie  disease  from  which  that  soldier  was  sulTering. 
The  only  writer  who  seems  to  have  made  use  of 
Arthur's  manuscript  is  Maurice  Lenihan  in  his 
"History  of  Limenck",  where  one  or  two  epigrams 
are  quoted. 

Tho.mpson,  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.,  II.  136. 

D.  J.  O'DoNOGHtTE. 

Articles  of  Faith  (Greek,  ipBpov;  Latin,  articu- 
lus,  joint),  certain  revealed  supernatural  truths  such 
as  those  contained  in  the  symbol  of  the  Apostles. 
The  terms  were  not  used  by  the  Fathers  or  by  eccle- 
siastical writers  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  St.  Ber- 
nard and  Ricliard  of  St.  Victor  employed  them,  the 
latter  applying  them  to  truths  having  God  for  their 
object  and  so  explicitly  stated  as  to  compel  assent. 
According  to  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  article  of 
faith  is  any  revealed  supernatural  truth  which  is 
distinct  in  itself  from  other  such  truths  but  which 
unites  with  them  to  form  the  organic  whole  of  Chris- 
tian teaching.  Thus  the  articles  of  the  Creed  an- 
nounce truths  which  are  in  themselves  distinct  from 
one  another  but  parts  of  a  complete  summary  of  the 
trutiis  which  have  been  revealed  to  help  us  to  gain  our 
last  end.  They  are  for  Christian  theology  what 
fundamental  principles  are  for  a  science.  Not  every 
revealed  trutli  is  an  article  of  faith,  nor  are  theolo- 
gians agreed  on  what  constitutes  any  truth  an  arti- 
cle of  faith.  Some  would  limit  these  articles  to  the 
contents  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.  Others  say  that 
every  truth  defined  by  the  Church,  or  in  any  other 
manner  explicitly  prot)osed  for  our  belief,  is  an  article 
of  faith.  De  Lugo  describes  them  as  the  principal 
or  primary  truths  which  are  the  basis  of  other  re- 
vealed truths  or  principles.  In  the  Catechism  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (p.  1 ,  c.  1,  q.  4),  the  tniths  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed  are  called  articles  "by  a  sort  of 
simile  frequently  used  by  our  forefathers;  for  as  the 
menil)ers  of  the  body  are  divided  by  joints  (articuli), 
so  also  in  the  profession  of  faith  whatever  is  to  be 


ARTICLES 


756 


ARTS 


believed  by  us  distinctly  and  separately  from  any- 
thing else  we  properly  and  appositely  call  an  arti- 

Macdonald,  The  St/mhol  (New  York,  1903);  Pf,8CH.  Prae- 
Itctionet  Dogmaticoc  (freiburg.  1898),  VIII,  nos.  192.  441,  448, 
439. 

John  J.  Wynne. 

Articles,  The  Organic  ;  a  name  given  to  a  law  regu- 
lating public  worship,  comprising  77  articles  relative 
to  Catliolicism,  and  44  relative  to  Protestantism, 
presented  by  order  of  Napoleon  to  the  Tribunate 
and  the  legislative  body  at  the  same  time  that  he 
made  the.se  two  bodies  vote  on  the  Concordat  itself. 
Together  with  the  Concordat,  the  Organic  Articles 
were  published  as  a  law,  under  the  same  title  and 
the  same  preamble,  8  April,  1802,  and  the  various 
governments  in  France  which  have  since  followed 
one  another,  down  to  1905,  have  always  professed 
to  regard  the  Organic  Articles  as  inseparable  from 
the  Concordat.  Pope  Pius  VH,  however,  as  early 
as  24  Maj^,  1802,  declared  formally,  in  a  consistorial 
allocution,  that  these  articles  had  been  promulgated 
without  his  knowledge,  and  that  he  could  not  accept 
them  without  modification. 

The  Organic  Articles  which  refer  to  Catholicism 
fall  under  four  titles.  Title  I  deals  with  "  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Catholic  Church  in  its  general  rela- 
tions to  the  rights  and  constitution  of  tiie  State." 
In  virtue  of  these  articles,  the  authorization  of  the 
Government  is  necessary  for  the  publication  and 
execution  of  a  papal  document  in  France;  for  the 
exercise  of  ecclesiastical  functions  by  any  representa- 
tive of  the  pope,  for  the  holding  of  a  National  Coun- 
cil or  a  Diocesan  Synod.  Moreover,  the  Council  of 
State,  thanks  to  the  formality  of  the  appel  comme 
rf  abus,  may  declare  that  there  is  abus  in  any 
given  acts  of  the  ecclesiastical  authority,  and 
thus  thrust  itself  into  the  affairs  of  the  Church. 
Title  II  deals  with  the  ministers  of  public  worship, 
whose  powers  it  defines:  the  rules  and  regulations 
of  seminaries  must  be  submitted  to  the  State;  the 
"Declaration  of  1682"  must  be  taught  in  the  semi- 
naries; the  number  of  those  to  be  ordained  must 
be  fixed  yearly  by  the  Government;  the  cvris  of 
important  parishes  cannot  be  appointed  by  the 
bishop  without  the  consent  of  the  State.  Under 
Title  III,  devoted  to  public  worship,  the  legislature 
forbids  public  processions  in  towns  where  there  are 
adherents  of  different  creeds.  It  fixes  the  dress  of 
the  priests,  who  must  be  dressed  "in  the  French 
fashion  and  in  black";  it  prescribes  that  there  shall 
be  only  one  catechism  for  all  the  churches  of  France. 
Article  IV  has  reference  to  the  boundaries  of  dioceses 
and  parishes,  and  to  the  salary  of  ministers  of  re- 
ligion. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  many  of  these 
articles  became  a  dead  letter.  M.  Emile  Ollivier,  in 
his  speech  from  the  tribune.  11  July,  1868,  said:  "It 
would  be  difficult  to  cite  even  one  or  two  that  are 
still  kept;  even  these  are  not  enforced  every  day, 
but  are  only  dragged  from  their  nothingness  and 
obscurity  on  great  occasions,  when  there  is  need  of 
seeming  to  do  something  while  doing  nothing." 
Even  the  Third  Republic  has  never  claimed  the  right 
to  prevent  tlie  bringing  of  papal  documents  into 
France,  to  fix  the  dress  of  the  priests,  to  insist  on 
the  teacliing  of  the  Declaration  of  1682,  and  the 
judgments  Tanquam  ab  abusu,  pronounced  by  the 
Council  of  State  against  the  bishops,  have  always 
been  mildly  platonic. 

The  Organic  .\rticles  as  such  were  the  outcome, 
philosophically  speaking,  of  a  certain  Gallican  and 
Josephist  spirit,  wlierehy  the  State  sought  to  rule 
the  Church.  Historically  speaking,  the  French  Leg- 
islature in  drawing  up  these  articles,  which  limited 
the  scope  of  the  Concordat,  had  set  an  unfortunate 
example,  followed  twenty  years  later  by  the  various 


German  governments,  which  having  in  their  turn 
treated  witli  tlie  Holy  See,  hastened  to  counteract 
their  own  agreements  by  means  of  certain  territorial 
enactments. 

The  law  of  190.5,  which  separated  Church  and 
State  in  France,  abrogated  the  Organic  Articles  at 
the  same  time  that  it  abrogated  the  Concordat.     (See 

CoNCORD,\T  OF   1801.) 

Georges  Goyai:. 
Articles,  The  Thirty-xixe.      See   Anglicanism; 

E.N'GLAXn. 

Artoklasia  (Gr.  iJpTos  =  bread,  KXdu=to  break, 
the  breaking  of  bread).  A  peculiar  service  in  the 
Greek  Church  performed  as  the  concluding  part  of 
Vespers.  Five  loaves  of  ordinary  bread,  a  measure 
of  wine,  and  a  measure  of  oil  are  set  upon  the  analo- 
gion  before  the  iconostasis  in  front  of  the  altar.  These 
are  first  incensed,  and  then  the  priest  taking  one 
of  the  loaves  into  his  hands  blesses  them  as  follows: 
"O  Lord  Jesus  Christ  our  God,  Who  didst  bless  the 
five  loaves  in  the  desert  and  satisfy  therewith  five 
thousand  men,  do  Tliyself  bless  these  loaves  also, 
the  wheat,  the  wine  and  tlie  oil;  multiply  them  in 
tliis  holy  abode  unto  all  the  world;  and  sanctify 
the  faithful  servants  of  Thine  who  may  partake  of 
them.  For  Thou  art  He  who  blesseth  and  halloweth 
and  nourisheth  all  good  things,  O  Christ  our  God, 
and  to  Thee  we  send  up  glory  with  Thine  unoriginate 
Father  and  Tliine  all-holy  and  good  and  life-giving 
Spirit,  now  and  forever,  world  without  end ".  Af- 
terwards the  xxxiii  Psalm  is  said,  ending  with 
tlie  chanting  of  the  eleventh  verse:  "The  ricri  have 
become  poor  and  have  suffered  hunger;  but  they 
that  seek  the  Lord  shall  not  be  deprived  of  any 
good  things",  knd  then  the  people  are  blessed. 
This  office  was  introduced  in  monasteries  where  the 
monks  kept  an  all-night  vigil  and  the  food  was 
necessary  for  them,  but  gradually  it  became  a 
Church  office  for  the  whole  Eastern  Rite.  Origi- 
nally there  was  a  breaking  of  the  bread  and  a 
distribution  of  the  bread  and  wine,  but  that  has 
been  discontinued,  although  the  Greek  rubric  still 
says,  "  Note  that  the  blessed  bread  is  a  preventive 
of  all  manner  of  evils  if  it  is  received  with  faith". 
The  ceremony  of  artoklasia  is  now  seldom  used  in 
the  Greek  Catholic  Church,  since,  in  imitation  of  the 
Roman  Rite,  the  Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment according  to  a  Greek  form  has  taken  its  place. 
Cldonet,  Dirt,  drs  nom»  liturgiques  (Paris,  IS93)  19;  Rob- 
ertson, Divine  it(urjK»- (London,  1894)  56-59. 

Andrew  J.  Shipman 

Artotyristse.    See  Mont.\nists. 

Arts,  Bachelor  of,  a  degree  marking  the  comple- 
tion of  the  traditional  curriculum  of  the  college.  In 
the  medieval  universities,  the  Mastership,  or  Doctor- 
ate, was  the  great  academic  prize.  The  Bachelorship 
does  not  appear  to  have  existed  at  first,  either  at 
Bologna  or  Paris.  It  probably  originated  from  the 
practice  of  employing  the  more  advanced  students 
to  assist  in  teaching  those  wlio  were  younger,  such 
teaching  being  regarded  as  a  preparation  for  the  Mas- 
tership. Before  being  allowed  to  begin  to  teach,  the 
student  had  to  maintain  a  thesis  or  disputation  in 
public.  The  technical  term  for  this  was  "Deter- 
mination ".  To  "determine ' '  meant,  for  the  student , 
to  resolve  questions  in  a  public  disputation  in  order 
to  prove  his  fitness  to  enter  upon  the  second  stage 
of  his  career  for  the  Mastership.  "Determination" 
was  thus  an  imitation  of  "Inception",  which  ad- 
mitted to  the  Mastership,  and  like  the  latter  it  soon 
developed  into  a  mere  academic  ceremony,  examina- 
tions being  held  beforeliand  to  ascertain  the  fitness 
of  the  candidate.  Of  these  there  were  two,  a  pre- 
liminary one,  known  as  "  Responsions  ".  and  a  second 
one,  more  severe,  known    as   Examen   Baccalarian- 


ARTS 


757 


ARTS 


dorum.  In  addition  to  the  disputation,  the  cere- 
mony of  Determination  consisted  in  tlie  student's 
putting  on  the  special  cap  worn  by  those  who  had 
determined",  and  talcing  his  seat  in  their  midst. 
In  the  celebrated  Bull  of  Gregory  IX,  "Parens 
Scientiarum ",  issued  in  1231,  we  find  the  term 
liachi'Uarii  applied  to  those  who  were  pursuing  their 
studies  for  the  Mastership,  while  helping  to  teach. 
The  term  was  very  likely  taken  over  from  the  tiuilds, 
in  which  the  l'"rencli  word  Bachdier  was  applied,  at 
the  time,  to  a  young  man  who  was  an  apprentice. 
The  academic  condition  which  the  word  was  cniploycd 
to  di'sigiiate  involved  the  idea  of  an  apprenticeship  in 
teaching.  The  later  academic  term  liacralaurius 
(spelled  linccalariux  at  first)  was  probably  a  corrupt 
latinized  form  of  the  same  word. 

The  length  of  the  course  in  Arts  in  the  medieval 
universities  varied  considerably  according  to  time 
and  place.  The  statutes  framed  for  the  University 
of  Paris,  in  1215,  by  Robert  de  Cour(^on,  the  papal 
legate,  fixed  the  minimum  length  of  the  course  at 
six  years,  twenty  years  of  age  being  required  for  its 
completion  and  the  reception  of  the  licen.se.  Later 
statutes  fixed  the  minimum  age  for  determination 
at  fourteen  years.  At  Paris  the  time  between  ma- 
triculation and  determination  was  usually  from  one 
to  two  years.  The  tendency  at  Paris,  and  on  the 
Continent,  was  towards  early  determination.  The 
extreme  effect  of  this  tendency  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that  the  Baccalaureate  eventually  disappeared  al- 
together from  Continental  universities.  At  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  was 
towards  late  determination.  At  Paris  the  age  for 
entrance  was  about  thirteen,  and  for  determination 
about  fifteen.  At  Oxford  the  boy  entered  at  about 
the  age  of  fourteen,  and  passed  four  years  before 
being  allowed  to  determine.  The  English  Bachelor 
was  thus  several  years  older  than  the  French  or  Ger- 
man Bachelor.  The  custom  of  late  determination  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  which  was  largely  due  to  the 
development  of  the  Knglish  granunar-scliool  sj-stem, 
furnishes  an  hi.-storicMl  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
the  American  college  graduate  to-day  is  several 
years  older  than  the  French  Bachelor,  or  the  Ger- 
man student  on  finishing  the  (li/mnanium.  American 
colleges  having  adopted  the  English  system  in  this 
respect.  The  studies  leading  to  the  Baccalaureate 
varied  naturally  with  the  length  of  time  required. 
Those  prescribed  at  Oxford  in  1267  were  as  follows: 

1.  The  Old  LoRic;  Porph>Ty.  "IsaRoge".  the 
"Categoria^  "  un<l  "  De  Interpretatione"  of  .\ristotle, 
and  the  "Sex  Principia"  of  Gilbert  de  la  I'orr^c, 
twice;  the  Losical  Works  of  Uoethius  (except 
"Topics",   book    IV).   once. 

2.  The  New  Logic:  Aristotle,  "Priora  Analytica  ", 
"Topica",  "  De  Sophisticis  Elenchis  ",  twice;  "Pos- 
teriora  Analytica  ".  once. 

3.  Grammar:  Priscian.  "  De  Construct ionibus ", 
twice:  Donatus,  "  Barbarismus  ",  once. 

3.  Or.  in  place  of  Grammar.  Natural  Philosophy: 
Aristotle.  "  Physica  ",  "Do  AnimA  ",  "  De  Genera- 
tione  et  Corruptione  ". 

4.  To  have  "responded"  "  De  Sophismatibus" 
for  a  year,  or  to  have  heard  the  "  Posteriora  Analy- 
tica" twice  instead  of  once. 

(Ansley,       "Munimenta     Academica ".     35.      36. 

Rash.iall.    "Universities    of    Europe   in    the    Middle 

Ages",  II.  Pt.  II,  455.1 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  alternative  or  elective 
studies  were  allowed  at  Oxford,  to  some  extent,  at 
this  early  date. 

The  influence  of  the  humanistic  movement  of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  upon  the  A.B. 
curriculum  was  shown  in  the  partial  replacement 
of  the  Aristotelcan  courses  by  the  Latin  and  Greek 
classics,  although  the  theological  controversies  and 
civil  wars  springing  from  the  Reformation  went  far 
towards  neutralizing  the  etTect  of  humanism  upon 
the  univcrsitie-^.  The  Jesuits,  however,  carried  for- 
ward the  movement,  and  were  long  noted  as  the 
leaders   in   classical   education   throughout    Europe. 


The  development  of  the  system  of  "colleges"  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  contributed  greatly  to  pre- 
serve the  effectiveness  and  popularity  of  the  tradi- 
tional Arts  course  in  England.  The  immense  addi- 
tion to  the  stock  of  human  knowledge  in  modern 
times,  together  with  the  multiplication  of  distinct 
branches  of  science  suitable  for  educational  purposes 
have  profoundly  affected  the  B.accalaureate  curricu- 
lum. (Jne  effect  b  seen  in  the  development  of  the 
principle  of  election  of  studies.  In  Germany,  side  by 
side  with  the  Clymnasitim,  there  are  now  the  Heal- 
(pjmnasium  and  the  Reatschule.  In  France,  the 
l.i/cie  offers  a  modern,  as  well  as  a  chissical  curric- 
ulum in  Arts.  Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  in- 
stituted other  curricula  parallel  with  the  ancient 
A.B.  course;  while  in  America  electivism  ranges, 
through  many  gradations,  from  the  system  of  two  or 
more  parallel,  though  fixed  curricula  to  the  extremely 
elastic  .system  of  Harvard,  where  the  student  makes 
up  his  own  curriculum,  by  selecting  the  particular 
studies  he  wills.  Another  effect  of  the  growth  of 
knowledge  is  shown  in  the  substitution  of  text-book 
teaching  for  the  lecture  system  prevalent  dviring  the 
Middle  Ages.  Still  another  elTect,  perhaps,  is  disclos- 
ing itself  in  the  movement  lately  inaugurated  in 
America  for  the  shortening  of  the  Baccalaureate  cur- 
riculum. It  is  no  longer  possible,  during  the  years  in 
college  or  in  the  university,  to  cover  the  whole  range 
of  acquired  knowledge  in  the  liberal  arts,  as  the  en- 
deavour wiis  to  do  in  the  Middle  Ages.  After  leaving 
college,  moreover,  and  finishing  his  professional 
course  in  the  university  or  technical  school,  the 
student  is  apt  to  find  that  there  are  still  years  of 
hard  apprenticeship  awaiting  him  before  he  can 
attain  to  such  a  mastership  in  his  profession  as  will 
enable  him  to  gain  a  respectable  livelihood.  Some 
of  the  largest  American  colleges  now  permit  the 
Baccalaureate  to  be  taken  in  three  years.  (See  also 
Arts,  The  Faculty  of;  Arts,  Master  of;  and  I'ni- 

VF.RSITIE.S.) 

Of  primary  importance  for  the  history  of  the  development 
of  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  and  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  and  Mas- 
ter of  Arts,  are:  Dknifle,  fhartularium  Univirntutis  Paritien- 
tin  (Paris,  1889-97),  and  Enlttrhung  der  Unitertilalen  dtl 
MiUtlnltrrs  bit  zum  1400  (Berlin.  1885);  Zahnckk,  Die 
deulachen  Unirrrtitiitm  im  Mitttlaltcr  (Leipsig,  1857);  Paci^- 
HKN,  Oeschurhte  des  gdehrten  Vnterrichta  auf  dm  deuUchen 
.Schulrn  und  VnivrriiiViten  (I,eip«ig,  1885);  Die  deuUchm 
Vnirerifimtm,  compiled  for  the  Kducational  Exhibit  in  Chi- 
cago. 1803;  AN8TKY.  Munimenta  Academica  (Oxford.  1888); 
Uashdai.i,.  The  Univertitiet  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Aget 
(Oxford.  1895);  Lyte.  Ilistaru  of  the  Univ.  of  Oxford  (London, 
188G);  Mui.l.lNGFR,  Hittoru  of  the  Vniremitji  of  Cambridge 
(Cambridge.  1873-84):  Education  in  the  United  States  (com- 
piletl  for  the  Paris  Exposition,  1886),  I;  Annual  Reportn  of 
the  Comm.  of  Education  (Washington);  The  Educational  Re- 
view. For  the  work  of  the  Jesuits,  .ScnwicKF-nATH,  Jeauii 
Education  (.St.  I^iuis.  1903),  and  HuoHKa.  Loyola  and  the 
Ed.  SjjsU-m  of  the  Jetuils  (New  York.  1892)  arc  the  best  in 
English.  Brother  Azarias.  Educational  Eg»nj/a  and  New- 
man,//tXoncoi  .S*-^(<:Ae»  have  their  value;  as  also  has  Laurie, 
Rite  and  Conetitution  of  UnivertUiee  (London,  18SG). 

J.  A.  Burns. 

Arts,  The  Facultt  of,  one  of  the  four  traditional 
divisions  of  the  teaching  body  of  the  university.  It 
is  impossible  to  fix  the  date  of  the  origin  of  autono- 
mous faculties  in  the  early  medieval  universities,  be- 
cause, as  Denifle  has  observed,  the  division  did  not 
take  place  all  at  once,  or  as  the  result  of  deliberate 
action,  but  came  about  gradually,  as  the  result  of  a 
spontaneous  inner  development.  A.s  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  formation  of  faculties  sprang  from 
the  same  academic  impulse  that  gave  rise  to  the 
universities  themselves.  The  mother  universities 
of  Europe  were  those  of  Paris  and  Bologna.  The 
germ  of  the  University  of  Paris  was  the  voluntary 
i».s.sociation  of  the  teaching  Masters,  after  the  fashion 
of  the  universally  prevalent  guild-formation.  At 
Bologna,  it  was  the  association  of  the  students  that 
gave  rise  to  the  corporate  university.  In  both 
places  it  was  but  natural,  and,  as  it  seems  to  us  now, 
inevitable,  that  the  teachers  in  a  common  field  of 


ARTS 


758 


ARTS 


knowledge  should  gradually  come  to  act  together 
along  the  lines  of  their  identical  interests.  Such 
unions  appear  to  have  been  formed  soon  after  these 
two  universities  came  into  existence,  if  indeed  they 
did  not  exist  before.  Schools  of  arts,  theology,  law, 
and  medicine  had  been  established  throughout 
Europe  previous  to  the  organization  of  the  uni- 
versitias,  and  the  separate  existence  of  such  schools 
foreshadowed  the  division  of  the  university  teaching- 
body  into  faculties.  Although  there  is  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  a  general  association  of  the  Mas- 
ters at  Paris,  about  the  year  1175,  the  first  direct 
proof  of  the  existence  of  faculties  in  the  same 
university  goes  back  only  to  the  year  1213.  The 
four  faculties  then  recognized  were  theology,  arts, 
canon  law,  and  civil  law.  The  term  facutti/  was 
used  at  first  to  designate  a  specific  field  of  knowl- 
edge; but  in  1255  we  find  the  Masters  at  Paris 
using  the  term  in  the  modern  meaning  of  a  imion  of 
the  teachers  in  a  certain  department  of  knowledge. 
The  new  turn  given  to  the  meaning  of  the  word 
was  not  without  significance.  The  centre  of  power, 
the  "jacullas",  had  shifted  from  the  objective  to 
the  subjective  side  of  knowledge.  Henceforth  the 
teacher  was  to  be  the  dominant  influence. 

The  term  Art.5,  in  medieval  academic  usage,  com- 
prehended all  studies  in  the  sphere  of  the  higher  and 
non-professional  intellectual  activity.  The  traditional 
"liberal  arts"  derived  from  the  Romano-Hellenic 
schools,  were  seven  in  number.  They  were  made  up 
of  the  trivium,  embracing  grammar,  rhetoric,  and 
dialectic,  and  the  quadrivium,  or  music,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  and  astronomy.  The  trivium  may  be  said 
to  have  corresponded  to  the  Arts  studies  proper  in  the 
modern  college  course,  and  the  quadiivium  to  the 
science  studies.  While  the  medieval  universities  held 
to  the  traditional  number  of  the  liberal  arts,  they  did 
so  only  in  a  theoretical  way.  New  subjects  were  at 
times  introduced  into  the  curriculum,  and  classified 
as  belonging  to  one  or  other  of  the  seven  arts.  The 
instruction  given  under  the  several  arts  was,  quantita- 
tively as  well  as  qualitatively,  very  unequal.  The 
trivium  generally  formed  the  body  of  the  Arts  curricu- 
lum, especially  up  to  the  A.B.  degree.  After  that, 
more  or  less  of  the  quadrivium  was  given,  together 
with  advanced  courses  covering  the  ground  of  the 
trivium.  Grammar  was  a  wide  term.  Theoretically, 
it  included  the  study  of  the  whole  I^atin  language  and 
literature.  Rhetoric  was  the  art  of  expression,  both 
in  writing  and  speaking.  It  corresponded  to  what  we 
should  now  call,  in  a  broad  sense,  oratory.  Dialectic 
was  the  study  of  philosophy,  including  logic,  meta- 
physics, and  ethics.  In  philosophy,  Aristotle  was 
the  great  authority,  the  Magister,  as  he  came  to  be 
reverentially  called.  Certain  of  his  treatises  had  long 
been  known  throughout  Europe,  and  these,  together 
with  the  logical  works  of  Boethius,  were  called,  in 
school  parlance,  the  "  Old  Logic  ",  in  contradistinction 
to  those  ArLstotelean  treatises  which  became  known 
in  Northern  Europe  only  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
hen<;e  were  designated  as  the  "  New  Logic  ".  The  old 
cloistral  and  cathedral  schools  had  kept  alive  the 
study  of  the  Latin  classics,  and  handed  it  on  to  the 
uriiversities;  but  the  passion  for  dialectic  swept 
aside  the  study  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.  The 
Latin  authors  were  but  little  read,  or  not  at  all; 
the  Greek  classics  were  unlcnown.  It  was  not  until 
the  rise  of  Humanism  in  the  fifteenth  century  that 
the  study  of  the  ancient  literat\ires  of  Rome  and 
Greece  was,  generally  speaking,  made  a  regular  and 
important  part  of  the  university  course  in  Arts. 

The  following  list  includes  the  books  that  were 
to  bo  "read",  or  lectured  on,  by  the  Masters  of  the 
Faculty  of  Arts,  at  Paris  in  1254.  It  covers  the 
period  of  six  or  seven  years  from  entrance,  or  ma- 
triculation, up  to  the  Master's  degree,  and,  were  the 
"disputation.s"    added,    it     might    be    regarded    as 


typical  of  the  Arts  course  in  the  medieval  universities 
generally.  A  specific  date  was  set  for  finishing  the 
"reading"  of  each  book. 


1.  Old  Logic:  Porphyry,  "Isagoge"  (Introduc- 
tion to  the  Categoriae):  Aristotle,  "'Categorise  "  and 
*' Perihermenia";  Boethius,  "  Divisiones  "  and  "  To- 
pica  ".  except  Bk.  IV. 

2.  New  Logic:  Aristotle,  **Topica".  "  Elenchi ", 
"Analvtica  Priora  ",   '' Aualytica   Posteriora  ". 

3.  Ethics:  Aristotle,  "Ethica"  (_ad  Nichomuchum), 
four  books. 

4.  Metaphysics:  Aristotle.  "  Metaphy-ica  ". 

5.  Astronomy:  Aristotle,  "  De  CfX'lo  ",  "Meteora", 
first  Bk. 

6.  Psychology  and  Natural  Philosophy:  Aristotle, 
"Physica",  "  De  Auimalibus  ".  "De  .\ninii  ",  "  De 
Generatioue  ",  "  De  Causis  "  (attributed  at  the  time  to 
Aristotle),  "  De  Sensu  et  ,Sensato '*,  "  De  Somno  et 
Vigilia  ",  "De  Plantis",  "De  Memnri.i  et  Keminis- 
centia  ",  "De  Morte  et  Vitl ",  Costa  Ben  Luca, 
"  De    DiRerentia   Spiritus   et    Animas   '. 

7.  Grammar  and  Rhetoric:  Priscian  Major  (16 
books  of  his  "  Inslitutiones  Grammatica' "),  Priscian 
Minor  (last  two  l)ooks  of  the  same);  Gilbert  de  la 
Porr^e,  "Se,x  Principia'';  Barbarismus  (third  book 
of  Donatus.  "Ars  Major");  Priscian.  "  De  Accentu  ". 

(Cf.  Chartularium  Univ.  Paris,  Part  I,  n.  246.) 

Masters  of  Arts,  like  masters,  or  doctors,  of  other 
faculties,  were  divided  into  regents  and  aon-regents. 
Regents  were  blasters  actually  engaged  in  teaching. 
All  who  received  the  degree  of  Master  in  the  Arts 
course  at  Paris,  had  to  take  an  oath  to  act  as  regents, 
i.  e.,  to  teach,  for  a  period  of  two  years,  unless  dis- 
pensed. The  purpose  of  tliis  statute  was,  partly 
at  least,  to  provide  a  sufficiency  of  teachers  for  the 
Arts  course,  which  usually  included  the  great  ma.ss 
of  the  students  of  the  University,  and  which  was  the 
necessary  gateway  to  the  higher  studies  of  theology, 
law,  and  medicine.  As  the  Master's  degree,  at  Paris, 
could  be  taken  at  twenty  years  of  age,  the  conse- 
quence of  the  regency  rule  was  to  make  the  Faculty 
of  Arts  a  body  of  young  men,  many  of  them  being 
at  the  same  time  students  of  one  of  the  higher  facul- 
ties, or  preparing  to  become  such.  Teaching  in- 
cluded lectures,  disputations,  and  repetitions.  It 
was  long  before  there  w'ere  salaries,  the  Masters 
being  dependent  on  what  they  were  able  to  collect 
as  tuition-fees  from  their  pupils.  The  oatli  re- 
quiring newly  created  Masters  to  teach  for  a  jieriod 
at  the  university  was  abolished  at  Paris  only  in 
1452.  At  Oxford  the  custom  was  continued  for  a 
half-century  later,  and  some  vestiges  of  it  remained 
until  comparatively  recent  times.  The  Privat- 
dozenl  of  the  modern  German  university  represents 
a  development  of  the  medieval  regency  rule. 

At  O.xford  and  Cambridge,  which  have  the  most 
faithfully  adliered  to  the  medieval  archetype,  tlic 
Faculty  of  Arts  still  occupies  a  position  of  pre- 
dominant importance.  At  Oxford,  especially,  the 
Arts  studies  still  furnish  the  materials  for  the  most 
characteristic  type  of  mental  training  given  by  the 
University.  The  A.B.  course  is  followed  by  the  great 
majority  of  the  students,  and  philosophy,  mucli  of  it 
Aristotelean,  is  still  the  backbone  of  the  body  of 
knowledge  for  all  candidates  for  the  Baccalaureate. 
The  Master  of  Arts  at  Oxford  on  taking  his  degree 
becomes  a  member  of  the  Faculty  by  right,  and  a 
member  of  the  governing  body  of  the  University  as 
well.  The  governing  body  consists  of  two  houses,  the 
Congreg.ation  and  the  Convocation,  the  former  includ- 
ing all  resident  Masters  of  Arts,  and  the  latter  those 
who  are  non-resident.  Outside  of  England,  the 
relative  position  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  in  the  uni- 
versity has  been  considerably  altered  since  medieval 
times.  The  promising  development  of  the  Arts 
studies  under  Hmnanism  w:is  checked  in  Northern 
Europe  by  the  absorbing  theological  controversies 
and  civil  wars  which  grew  out  of  the  preaching  of  the 
new  doctrines  by  Luther  and  the  other  reformers. 
The  effect  was  most  evident  in  Germany,  where, 
imtil  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
course   in   Arts,  or    Philosophy,  as  it   had  come  to 


ARTS 


759 


ABTS 


be  called,  was  relegated  to  a  position  of  decided  in- 
feriority. Theology  was  in  the  foreground,  and  it 
became  the  fashion  to  look  upon  the  study  of  tlie 
classics  with  contempt.  With  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, however,  a  new  era  Ixjgan.  I'nder  the  lead  of 
the  new  universities,  Halle  and  Gottingen,  philo- 
sophical studies  grailually  regained  u  place  of  impor- 
tance in  the  universities,  and  during  the  nineteenth 
century  completely  recovered  their  ancient  pres- 
tige. Taking  Cermany  as  a  whole,  the  Faculty 
of  Philosophy  includes  to-day  about  one-fourth  of 
all  the  teachers  in  the  universities.  In  modern 
times  the  development  of  knowledge,  especially  of 
the  sciences,  has,  in  .some  imiversities,  led  to  a 
fundamental  change  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Faculty  of  Arts.  Owing  to  the  multiplication  of 
courses,  the  teachers  in  tlic  Faculty  of  Arts  in  many 
cases  outnumber  tho.se  in  all  the  other  Faculties 
together.  The  dilliculties  arising  out  of  this  condi- 
tion come  not  only  from  tlie  fact  that  the  Faculty 
of  Arts  in  such  c;ises  is  a  larger  body  than  it  formerly 
was,  but  also  from  the  fact  that  its  members  have 
fewer  interests  in  common.  In  the  days  when 
Aristotle  was  the  text-book  for  both  pliilo.sophy 
and  science,  it  was  natural  enough  that  teachers  of 
the  two  branches  should  work  side  by  si<le;  their  co- 
operation was  based  on  both  principle  and  method. 
But  to-day  there  is  often  little  in  common  between 
them,  except  wliat  results  from  the  traditional  as- 
sociation of  their  respective  subjects  under  the  same 
faculty.  In  France,  the  problem  has  been  met  by 
splitting  the  Faculty  of  Arts  into  two  .separate  facul- 
ties, those  of  Letters  and  of  Science.  At  most  of  the 
German  universities  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  has 
remained  intact,  but  the  old  humanistic  group  of 
studies  and  the  mathematical-science  group  receive 
recognition  respectively  as  distinct  departments.  In 
a  few  institutions,  tlie  problem  h;is  boon  solved,  as  in 
France,  by  dividing  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  into 
two  separate  faculties,  or  even  into  three.  In  Ameri- 
can universities  and  colleges  the  Faculty  of  Arts  oc- 
cupies much  the  same  position  as  at  Oxford,  although 
there  is  considerable  diversity  in  the  names  by  which 
it  is  otficially  known.  It  usually  has  under  its 
jurisdiction  the  great  majority  of  profes.sors  and 
students,  and  all  courses  of  study  outside  of  tlio 
purely  professional  and  technical  departments.  In 
some  cases  the  Faculty  has  been  split  up  into  several 
distinct  faculties;  but  in  general  there  has  been  a 
strong  desire  to  adhere  to  the  medieval  tradition 
that  all  cultural  studies,  whether  undergraduate 
or  post-graduate,  whether  in  the  arts  or  in  the 
sciences,  should  be  grouped  together,  the  danger  of 
inefficiency  being  guarde<l  against  usually  by  dividing 
the  Faculty  into  a  number  of  departments,  each  of 
which  controls,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  work 
of  its  instructors  and  students. 

For  bibliography,  eee  Arts,  Bachelor  of. 

J.  A.  Burns. 
Arts,  Master  of,  an  academic  degree  higher  than 
that  of  Bachelor.  The  conferring  of  the  degree  of 
Master  of  Arts,  as  a  title  invested  with  certain 
specific  academic  privileges,  is  closely  connected  in 
origin  with  the  early  history  of  the  University 
of  Paris,  which  was  the  mother-university  in  arts 
as  Bologna  was  in  law.  Originally,  the  degree  meant 
simply  the  right  to  teach,  the  Licenlia  dnccndi,  and 
this  right  could  be  granted,  in  Paris,  only  by  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  name,  or  the 
Chancellor  of  St.  Genevieve.  According  to  the 
Third  Council  of  Lateran,  held  in  1179,  this  Licenlia 
docrndi  had  to  be  granted  gratuitously,  and  to  all 
duly  qualified  applicants.  It  was  the  Chancellor's 
right  to  determine  the  question  of  the  applicant's 
fitness.  But  in  time,  as  the  number  of  candidates 
for  the  degree  increased,  and  the  university  de- 
veloped,  the   ceremony   of   presentation    Ix-fore   the 


Chancellor  liecamo  more  and  more  of  a  formality, 
and  the  responsibility  for  the  fitness  of  the  candi- 
date devolved  upon  his  teacher,  and  his  teacher's 
a.ssociates.  Although,  liowevcr,  the  Chancellor's  li- 
cence un(|uesti()iiably  conferred  the  right  to  tench,  it 
did  not  make  tlie  recipient  a  full  Master.  For  this 
it  w!is  retiuired,  in  addition,  that  the  faculty  in 
which  the  Licenlia  docendi  was  Ki\cii,  should  formally 
recognize  the  recipient  as  a  Miusler,  and  admit  him 
to  a  place  among  themselves.  This  ceremony,  by 
which  the  Licentiate  became  a  full  Master,  was 
known  as  Inciptio.  As  the  term  implies,  the  cere- 
mony involved  a  beginning  of  actual  teaching,  the 
Licentiate  delivering  a  lecture  before  the  faculty. 
Tlie  term  "Commencement",  as  applied  to  gradua- 
tion exercises,  is  but  the  English  eouivalent  of  the 
medieval  Inceptio,  and  was  first  used  at  Cambridge. 
The  ceremony  of  formally  investing  the  young 
teacher  with  the  title  and  insignia  of  a  Master  con- 
sisted in  the  Ijestowal  of  the  hirctta,  or  Master's  cap, 
the  open  book,  and  the  kiss  of  fellowship,  after 
which  he  took  his  seat  in  the  magisterial  chair. 
Half  a  year  or  so  elapsed  between  the  granting  of 
the  Licence  and  the  Inception.  No  examination 
was  required  before  Inception,  the  candidate's  fit- 
ness having  been  tested  lx;fore  the  conferring  of  the 
Licence.  Those  who  received  the  Licenlia  docendi 
from  the  Chancellor  were  admitted  to  Inception  as 
a  matter  of  course.  The  candidate  for  the  Licence 
in  Arts  had  to  pass  two  examinations,  a  preliminary 
one.  conducted  by  the  Chancellor,  and  another  con- 
ducted by  the  faculty  itself.  In  going  to  receive 
the  Licence,  the  candidates  were  arranged  in  the 
order  of  their  academic  standing,  a  custom  which 
developed  into  the  modern  system  of  graduation 
honours.  The  ceremony  wius  conducted  with  great 
pomp.  Part  of  the  proceedings  consisted  in  the 
"Collations",  or  the  giving  of  lectures  by  some  of 
the  candidates.  The  CharluUirium  of  the  University 
of  Paris  gives  the  formula  used  by  the  Chancellor  in 
conferring  the  Licence  as  follows:  "Et  ego  auctoritate 
a]X)stolorum  Petri  ct  Pauli  in  hac  parte  mihi  com- 
ini.ssa  do  vobis  licentiam  legendi,  rcgendi,  disputandi 
et  determinandi  ceterosque  actus  scholasticos  seu 
magistrales  exercendi  in  facilitate  artium  Parisiis  et 
ubique  terrarum,  in  nomine  Patris,  et  Filii.  et  Spiritus 
Sancti.     Amen."     (Chartularium,  II,  App.  679.) 

In  medieval  times,  the  title  of  Master  was  practi- 
cally synonymous  with  that  of  Doctor,  the  former 
being  more  in  favour  at  Paris  and  the  universities 
modelled  after  it,  and  the  latter  at  Bologna  and  its 
derivative  universities.  At  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
a  distinction  came  to  be  drawn  between  the  Faculties 
of  Law,  Medicine,  and  Theolngj'  and  the  Faculty  of 
Arts  in  tliis  respect,  the  title  of  Doctor  being  used 
for  the  former,  and  that  of  Master  for  the  latter.  In 
Germany  "Doctor"  is  exclusively  used,  but  the  Ger- 
man university  diploma  still  frequently  evidences 
the  original  equivalence  of  the  two  titles,  the  recipi- 
ent Ijeing  styled  MagiMcr  Artium  et  Doctor  Phitoso- 
phi<r.  In  France  the  original  practical  ctiuivalence  of 
the  Licentiate  and  the  Mastership,  or  the  Doctorate, 
developed  into  a  distinction  amounting  to  separate 
degrees.  Under  the  present  university  system  in 
France,  the  Bachelor  may  attain  to  the  Licence  in 
Arts  one  year  after  receiving  the  Baccalaureate, 
although  generally  two  years  at  least  are  found 
necessarj'.  .\fter  the  Licentiate,  a  considerable 
period  elapses  before  the  Doctorate  can  be  obtained. 
No  set  time  is  required  for  the  Doctorate,  but  the 
high  .standard  of  qualification  prevents  candidates 
from  applying  for  it  for  several,  and  sometimes  for 
many,  years  after  the  Licentiate  is  received. 

M  Oxford,  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  has  re- 
tained much  the  same  academic  significance  it  had 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  degree  admits  the 
recipient  ipso  jaclo  to  the  Faculty  of  .\rts  and  to  the 


ARTS 


760 


ARTS 


ancient  privilege  of  "Regency",  or  the  right  to 
teach,  though  only  in  the  colleges,  the  university 
professors  being  specially  appointed.  In  American 
universities,  which  followed  here  the  example  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  the  Mastership  was,  until 
1860,  the  only  degree  given  in  Arts  after  the  Bac- 
calaureate and  it  was  usually  conferred  several  years 
after  the  Baccalaureate,  residence  at  the  institution 
meanwhile  not  being  requisite.  In  that  year,  how- 
ever, the  growing  influence  of  German  academic 
ideals  was  evidenced  in  the  introduction,  by  Yale,  of 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  Since  then  one 
university  after  another  has  introduced  this  degree, 
until  at  present,  the  offering  of  a  course  of  study 
and  research  leading  to  the  Doctorate  in  Philosophy, 
has  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  test  of  the  fitness 
of  an  institution  to  be  classed  as  a  graduate  school 
or  university.  Generally  speaking,  a  minimum  of 
three  years'  time  is  required  for  the  degree  after  the 
Baccalaureate,  and  a  thesis  embodying  original  re- 
search on  some  important  subject  is,  as  in  Germany, 
regarded  as  the  most  important  test  of  qualification. 
The  development  of  the  Doctorate  course  in  American 
universities  has  had  important  effects  upon  the  degree 
of  A.M.  It  now  holds  a  middle  place  between  the 
Baccalaureate  and  the  Doctorate,  and  in  order  to  ob- 
tain it  in  the  universities,  a  minimum  residence  of 
one  year  is  required.  The  bringing  together  in  this 
way  of  the  historic  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts  and 
Doctor  of  Philosophy,  although  effected  somewhat  at 
the  expense  of  the  Mastership,  is  an  interesting  phe- 
nomenon pointing  to  the  two  great  university  types 
after  which  the  American  university  has  been 
moulded,  the  relative  positions  of  the  two  degrees 
indicating,  at  the  same  time,  the  predominance  at 
present  of  the  German  over  the  English  type. 

J.  A.  Burns. 

Arts,  The  Seven  Ijberal. — The  expression  artes 
liberales,  chiefly  used  during  the  Middle  Ages,  does 
not  mean  arts  as  we  understand  the  word  at  the 
present  day,  but  those  branches  of  knowledge  which 
were  taught  in  the  schools  of  that  time.  They  are 
called  liberal  (liat.  liber,  free),  because  they  serve 
the  purpose  of  training  the  free  man,  in  contrast 
with  the  artes  illiberales,  which  are  pursued  for 
economic  purposes;  their  aim  is  to  prepare  the 
student  not  for  gaining  a  livelihood,  but  for  the 
pursuit  of  science  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term, 
i.  e.  the  combination  of  philosophy  and  theology 
known  as  scholasticism.  They  are  seven  in  num- 
ber and  may  be  arranged  in  two  groups,  the  first 
embracing  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectic,  in 
other  words,  the  sciences  of  language,  of  oratory, 
and  of  logic,  better  known  as  the  artes  serinocinales, 
or  language  studies;  the  second  group  comprises 
arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  music,  i.  e. 
the  mathematico-physical  disciplines,  known  as  the 
artes  reales,  or  physicoe.  The  first  group  is  considered 
to  be  the  elementary  group,  whence  these  branches 
are  also  called  artes  Iriviales,  or  trivium,  i.  e.  a  well- 
beaten  ground  like  the  junction  of  three  roads,  or  a 
cross-roads  open  to  all.  Contrasted  with  them  we 
find  the  mathematical  disciplines  as  artes  quadriviales , 
or  quarlrivium,  or  a  road  with  four  branches.  The 
seven  liberal  arts  are  thus  the  members  of  a  system 
of  studies  which  embraces  language  branches  as  the 
lower,  the  mathematical  branches  as  the  interme- 
diate, and  science  properly  so  called  as  the  upper- 
most and  terminal  grade.  Though  this  system  did 
not  receive  the  distinct  development  connoted  by  its 
name  until  the  Middle  Ages,  still  it  extends  in  the 
history  of  pedagogy  both  backwards  and  forwards; 
for  while,  on  the  one  hand,  we  meet  with  it  among 
the  cla-ssical  nations,  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
even  discover  analogous  forms  as  forerunners  in  the 
educational    system    of    the    ancient    Orientals,    its 


influence,  on  the  other  hand,  has  lasted  far  beyond 
the  Middle  Ages,  up  to  the  present  time. 

It  is  desirable,  for  several  reasons,  to  treat  the 
system  of  the  seven  liberal  arts  from  this  point  of 
view,  and  this  we  propose  to  do  in  the  present  article. 
The  subject  possesses  a  special  interest  for  the 
historian,  because  an  evolution,  extending  through 
more  than  two  thousand  years  and  still  in  active 
operation,  here  challenges  our  attention  as  surpass- 
ing both  in  its  duration  and  its  local  ramifications 
all  other  phases  of  pedagogy.  But  it  is  equally  in- 
structive for  the  philosopher  because  thinkers  like 
Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  bt.  Augustine  collaborated 
in  the  framing  of  the  system,  and  because  in  general 
much  thought  and,  we  may  say,  much  pedagogical 
wisdom  have  been  embodied  in  it.  Hence,  also,  it 
is  of  importance  to  the  practical  teacher,  because 
among  the  comments  of  so  many  schoolmen  on  this 
subject  may  be  found  many  suggestions  which  are 
of  the  greatest  utility. 

The  Oriental  system  of  study,  which  exhibits  an 
instructive  analogy  with  the  one  here  treated,  is 
that  of  the  ancient  Hindus  still  in  vogue  among  the 
Brahmins.  In  this,  the  highest  object  is  the  study 
of  the  Veda,  i.  e.  the  science  or  doctrine  of  divine 
things,  the  summary  of  their  speculative  and  re- 
ligious writings  for  the  understanding  of  which  ten 
auxiliary  sciences  were  pressed  into  service,  four 
of  which,  viz.  phonology,  grammar,  exegesis,  and 
logic,  are  of  a  linguist ico-logical  nature,  and  can  thus 
be  compared  with  the  Trivium;  while  two,  viz. 
astronomy  and  metrics,  belong  to  the  domain  of 
mathematics,  and  therefore  to  the  Quadrivium. 
The  remainder,  viz.  law,  ceremonial  lore,  legendary 
lore,  and  dogma,  belong  to  theology.  Among  the 
Greeks  the  place  of  the  Veda  is  taken  by  philosophy, 
i.  e.  the  study  of  wisdom,  the  scwnee  of  tdtimate 
causes  which  in  one  point  of  view  is  identical  with 
theology.  "Natural  Theology",  i.  e.  the  doctrine 
of  the  nature  of  the  Godhead  and  of  Divine  things, 
was  considered  as  the  domain  of  the  philosopher, 
just  as  "political  theology"  was  that  of  the  priest, 
and  "mystical  theology"  of  the  poet.  [See  O. 
Willmann,  Geschichte  des  Idealismus  (Brunswick, 
1S94),  I,  §  10.]  Pythagoras  (who  flourished  between 
540  B.  c.  and  510  B.  c.)  first  called  himself  a  philoso- 
pher, but  was  also  esteemed  as  the  greatest  Greek 
theologian.  The  curriculum  \\hich  he  arranged  for 
his  pupils  led  up  to  the  Upbi  \6yos,  i.  e.  the  sacred 
teaching,  the  preparation  for  which  the  students 
received  as  fiadrifiaTiKot,  i.  e.  learners,  or  persons 
occupied  with  the  tiaB'^ixara,  the  "science  of  learn- 
ing"— that,  in  fact,  now  known  as  mathematics. 
The  preparation  for  this  was  that  which  the  disciples 
underwent  as  dKov^fiariKot,  "hearers",  after  which 
preparation  they  were  introduced  to  what  was  then 
current  among  the  Greeks  as  /uouo-ikt;  irai5e/a,  "musi- 
cal education",  consisting  of  reading,  writing,  les- 
sons from  the  poets,  exercises  in  memorizing,  and 
the  technique  of  music.  The  intermediate  position 
of  mathematics  is  attested  by  the  ancient  expression 
of  the  Pythagoreans  /leraixiJ-uv,  i.  e.  "spear-dis- 
tance"; properly,  the  space  between  the  combat- 
ants; in  this  case,  between  the  elementary  and  the 
strictly  scientific  education.  Pythagoras  is  more- 
over renowned  for  having  converted  geometrical, 
i.  e.  mathematical,  investigation  into  a  form  of  edu- 
cation for  freemen.  (I'roclus,  Commentary  on 
Kuclid,  I,  p.  19,  TTjv  trepl  TTjf  yeuficrptav  (ptXoaotpiay 
fli  crxw"  Trai5eios  iXevO^pov  p.eT^<rTTj<rev.)  "lie  dis- 
covered a  mean  or  intermediate  stage  between  the 
mathematics  of  the  temple  and  the  mathematics  of 

Cractical  life,  such  as  that  usi^l  by  surveyors  and 
usiness  people;  he  preserves  the  high  aims  of  the 
former,  at  the  same  time  making  it  the  paliestra 
of  intellect;  he  presses  a  religious  discipline  mto  the 
service  of  secular  life  without,  however,  robbing  it 


ARTS 


761 


ARTS 


of  its  sacred  character,  just  as  he  previously  trans- 
formed physical  theology  into  natural  philosophy 
without  alienating  it  from  its  hallowed  origm 
(Geschichte  des  Idealismus,  I,  19  at  the  end). 
An  extension  of  the  elementary  studies  was  brought 
about  by  the  active,  though  somewhat  unsettled, 
mental  life  which  developed  after  the  Persian  wars 
in  the  fifth  century  B.  c.  From  the  plain  study  of 
reading  and  writing  they  advanced  to  the  art  of 
speaking  and  its  theorj-  (rhetoric),  with  which  was 
combined  dialectic,  properly  the  art  of  alternate 
discourse,  or  the  discussion  of  the  pro  and  con.  This 
change  was  brought  about  by  the  sophists,  particu- 
larly by  Gorgias  of  Lcontium.  They  also  attached 
much  importance  to  manysidedness  in  their  theoreti- 
cal and  practical  knowledge.  Of  Hippias  of  Elis  it 
is  related  that  he  boasted  of  having  made  his  mantle, 
his  tunic,  and  his  foot-gear  (Cicero,  De  Oratore, 
iii,  32,  127).  In  this  way,  current  language  gradu- 
ally began  to  designate  the  whole  body  of  educational 
knowledge  as  cna/ctiral,  i.  e.  ;is  universal,  or  all- 
embracing  (^KVK\ia  vatSfOfiara^  or  fiaff-fi^utra;  iyKVK\ios 
■raiS(la).  The  expression  indicated  originally  the  cur- 
rent knowledge  common  to  all,  but  later  assumed  the 
above-mentioned  moaning,  which  has  also  passed  into 
our  word  enci/clopedia. 

Socrates  having  already  strongly  emphasized  the 
moral  aims  of  education,  Plato  (429-347  B.  c.)  pro- 
tested against  its  degeneration  from  an  effort  to 
acquire  culture  into  a  hcaping-up  of  multifarious 
information  {iroXvirpaytioavt^).  In  the  "Republic" 
he  proposes  a  course  of  education  which  appears  to 
be  the  Pythagorean  course  perfected.  It  begins  with 
musico-gj'mnastic  culture,  by  means  of  which  ho 
aims  to  impress  upon  the  senses  the  fundamental 
forms  of  the  beautiful  and  the  good,  i.  e.  rhythm  and 
form  (ataSriais).  The  intermediate  course  embraces 
the  mathematical  branches,  viz.  arithmetic,  geometry, 
astronomy,  and  music,  which  are  calculated  to  put 
into  action  the  powers  of  reflection  (Siii-oia),  and  to 
enable  the  student  to  progress  by  degrees  from 
sensuous  to  intellectual  perception,  as  he  successively 
masters  the  theory  of  numbers,  of  forms,  of  the 
kinetic  laws  of  bodies,  and  of  the  laws  of  (musical) 
sounds.  This  leads  to  the  highest  grade  of  the 
educational  system,  its  pinnacle  (Spi7ic6s)  so  to  speak, 
i.  e.  philosophy,  which  Plato  calls  dialectic,  thereby 
elevating  the  word  from  its  current  meaning  to 
signify  the  science  of  the  Eternal  as  ground  and 
prototype  of  the  world  of  sense.  Tliis  progress  to 
dialectic  (JioXeitTi/tj;  iropflo)  is  the  work  of  our 
highest  cognitive  faculty,  the  intuitive  intellect 
(wCj).  In  this  manner  Plato  secures  a  psychological, 
or  noetic,  basis  for  the  sequence  in  his  studies,  namely: 
sense-perception,  reflection,  and  intellectual  insight. 
During  the  Alexandrine  period,  which  begins  with 
the  closing  years  of  the  fourth  century  before  Christ, 
the  encyclical  studies  assume  scholastic  forms. 
Grammar,  as  the  science  of  language  (technical  gram- 
mar) and  explanation  of  the  classics  (exegetical 
grammar),  takes  the  lead;  rhetoric  tecomes  an  ele- 
mentary course  in  speaking  and  writing.  By  dia- 
lectic they  understood,  in  accordance  with  the  teach- 
ing of  Aristotle,  directions  enabling  the  student  to 
present  acceptable  and  valid  views  on  a  given  sub- 
ject; thus  dialectic  became  elementary  practical 
logic.  The  mathematical  studies  retained  their 
Platonic  order;  by  means  of  astronomical  poems,  the 
science  of  the  stars,  and  by  means  of  works  on 
geography,  the  science  of  the  globe  became  parts 
of  popular  education  (Strabo,  Geographica,  I, 
1,  21-23).  Philosophy  remained  the  culmination 
of  the  encyclical  studies,  which  bore  to  it  the  relation 
of  maids  to  a  mistress,  or  of  a  temporary  shelter  to 
the  fixed  home  (Oiog.  Laert.,  II,  79;  cf.  the  author's 
Didaktik  als   Bildungslehre,   I,  9). 

Among  the  Romans  grammar  and  rhetoric  were  the 


first  to  obtain  a  firm  foothold;  culture  was  by  them 
identified  with  eloquence,  as  the  art  of  speaking  and 
the  mastery  of  the  spoken  word  based  upon  a  mani- 
fold knowledge  of  things.  In  his  "  Institutiones 
Oratoria;"  Quintilian,  the  first  projenaor  eloquenlia 
at  Rome  in  Vespasian's  time,  begins  his  instruction 
with  grammar,  or,  to  speak  precisely,  with  Latin  and 
Greek  Grammar,  proceeds  to  mathematics  and 
music,  and  concludes  with  rhetoric,  which  com- 
prises not  only  elocution  and  a  knowledge  of  litera- 
ture, but  also  logical — in  other  words  dialectical — 
instruction.  However,  the  encyclical  system  as  the 
system  of  the  liberal  arts,  or  Aries  Bona,  i.  e.  the 
learning  of  the  vir  bonus,  or  patriot,  was  also  repre- 
sented in  special  handbooks.  The  "I.ibri  IX  Dis- 
ciplinarum  of  the  learned  M.  Terentius  Varro  of 
Reate,  an  earlier  contemporary  of  Cicero,  treats  of 
the  seven  liberal  arts  adding  to  them  medicine  and 
architectonics.  How  the  latter  science  came  to  be 
connected  with  the  general  studies  is  shown  in  the 
book  "De  Architectum  ",  by  M.  Vitruvius  PoUio,  a 
writer  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  in  which  excellent 
remarks  are  made  on  the  organic  connection  existing 
between  all  studies.  "The  inexperienced",  he  says, 
"may  wonder  at  the  fact  that  so  many  various 
things  can  be  retained  in  the  memory;  but  as  soon 
as  they  observe  that  all  branches  of  learning  have  a 
real  connection  with,  and  a  reciprocal  action  upon, 
each  other,  the  matter  will  seem  very  simple;  for 
imiversal  science  (^wkXios,  disciplina)  is  composed 
of  the  special  sciences  as  a  body  is  composed  of  mem- 
bers, and  those  who  from  their  earliest  youth  have 
been  instructed  in  the  different  branches  of  knowl- 
edge (ranis  eriiditionibus)  recognize  in  all  the  same 
fundamental  features  {notax)  and  the  mutual  rela- 
tions of  all  branches,  and  therefore  grasp  everything 
more  easily"  (Vitr.,  De  Architecture,  I,  1,12).  In 
these  views  the  Platonic  conception  is  still  opera- 
tive, and  the  Romans  always  retained  the  conviction 
that  in  philosophy  alone  was  to  Ix;  found  the  per- 
fection of  e<lucation.  Cicero  enumerates  the  follow- 
ing as  the  elements  of  a  liberal  education:  geometry, 
literature,  poetry,  natural  science,  ethics,  and  poli- 
tics. (Artes  quibus  liberales  doctrina;  atque  in- 
genux  eontinentur;  geometria,  litterarum  cognitio 
et  poetarum,  atque  ilia  quae  de  naturis  renim,  quse 
de  hominum  moribus,  quse  de  rebus  publicis  di- 
cuntur.) 

Christianity  taught  men  to  regard  education  and 
culture  as  a  work  for  eternity,  to  which  all  temporary 
objects  are  secondary.  It  softened,  therefore,  the 
antithesis  between  the  liberal  and  illil)eral  arts;  the 
education  of  youth  attains  its  purpose  when  it  acta 
so  "that  the  man  of  God  may  be  perfect,  furnished 
to  every  good  work"  (II  Tim.,  iii,  17).  In  conse- 
quence, labour,  which  among  the  classic  nations  had 
been  regarded  as  unworthy  of  the  freeman,  who 
should  live  only  for  leisure,  was  now  ennobled;  but 
learning,  the  offspring  of  leisure,  lost  nothing  of  its 
dignity.  The  Christians  retained  the  expression, 
fiad-fifiaTa  iXevfffpa,  stiidia  liberalia,  as  well  as  the 
gradation  of  these  studies,  but  now  Christian  truth 
was  the  crown  of  the  system  in  the  form  of  religious 
instruction  for  the  people,  and  of  theology  for  the 
learned.  The  appreciation  of  the  several  branches 
of  knowleilge  was  largely  influenced  by  the  view 
expressed  by  St.  Augustine  in  his  little  book,  "  De 
DoctrinA  Christiand".  As  a  former  teacher  of  rhet- 
oric and  as  master  of  eloquence,  he  was  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  Artes  and  had  written  upon  some 
of  them.  Grammar  retains  the  first  place  in  the 
order  of  studies,  but  the  study  of  words  should  not 
interfere  with  the  search  for  the  truth  which  they 
contain.  The  choicest  gift  of  bright  minds  is  the 
love  of  truth,  not  of  the  words  expressing  it.  "For 
what  avails  a  golden  key  if  it  cannot  give  access  to 
the  object  which  we  wish  to  reach,  and  why  find 


ARTS 


762 


ARTS 


fault  with  a  wooden  key  if  it  serves  our  purpose'" 
(De  Doctr.  Christ.,  IV,  U,  26).  In  estimating  the 
importance  of  linguistic  studies  as  a  means  of  in- 
terpreting Scripture,  stress  should  be  laid  upon 
e.\egetical,  rather  than  technical  grammar.  Dia- 
lectic must  also  prove  its  worth  in  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture;  "it  traverses  the  entire  text  like  a 
tissue  of  nerves"  (Per  totura  textum  scripturarum 
coUigata  est  nervorum  vice,  ibid.,  II,  40,  56). 
Rhetoric  contains  the  rules  of  fuller  discussion 
(prscepta  uberioris  disputationis);  it  is  to  be 
used  rather  to  set  forth  what  we  have  understood 
than  to  aid  us  in  understanding  (ibid.,  II,  18).  St. 
Augustine  compared  a  masterpiece  of  rhetoric  with 
the  wisdom  and  beauty  of  the  cosmos,  and  of  history 
— "Ita  quadam  non  verborum,  sed  rerum,  elo- 
quentia  contrariorum  oppositione  seculi  pulchritudo 
componitur"  (De.  Civit.  Dei,  XI,  18).  Mathematics 
was  not  invented  by  man,  but  its  truths  were  dis- 
covered; they  make  known  to  us  the  mysteries 
concealed  in  the  numbers  found  in  Scripture,  and 
lead  the  mind  upwards  from  the  mutable  to  the 
immutable;  and  interpreted  in  the  spirit  of  Divine 
Love,  they  become  for  the  mind  a  source  of  that 
wisdom  which  has  ordered  all  things  by  measure, 
weight,  and  number  (De  Doctr.  Christ.,  II,  39,  also 
Wisdom,  xi,  21).  The  truths  elaborated  by  the 
philosophers  of  old,  like  precious  ore  drawn  from  the 
depths  of  an  all-ruling  Providence,  should  be  ap- 
plied by  the  Christian  in  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel, 
just  as  the  Israelites  used  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
Egyptians  for  the  service  of  the  true  God  (De 
Doctr.  Christ.,  II,  41). 

The  series  of  text-books  on  this  subject  in  vogue 
during  the  Middle  Ages  begins  with  the  work  of  an 
African,  Marcianus  Capella,  written  at  Carthage 
about  A.  D.  420.  It  bears  the  title  "Satyricon 
Libri  IX"  fromsa(i;ra,  sc.  /anx,"a  full  dish".  In  the 
first  two  books,  "Nuptise  Philologi*  et  Mercurii ", 
carrying  out  the  allegory  that  Phoebus  presents  the 
Seven  Liberal  Arts  as  maids  to  the  bride  Philology, 
mythological  and  other  topics  are  treated.  In  the 
seven  books  that  follow,  each  of  the  Liberal  Arts  pre- 
sents the  sum  of  her  teaching.  A  simpler  presenta- 
tion of  the  same  subject  is  found  in  the  little  book, 
intended  for  clerics,  entitled,  "De  artibus  ac  dis- 
ciplinis  liberalium  artium,"  which  was  written  by 
Magnus  Aurelius  Cassiodorus  in  the  reign  of  The- 
odoric.  Here  it  may  be  noted  that  Ars  means  "text- 
book ",  as  does  the  Greek  word  t^x"";;  dif:cip!ina  is 
the  translation  of  the  Greek  /xdOrja-is  or  ixaBriixaTa,  and 
stood  in  a  narrower  sense  for  the  matliematical 
sciences.  Cassiodorus  derives  the  word  liberalis  not 
from  liber,  "free",  but  from  liher,  "book",  thus 
indicating  the  change  of  these  studies  to  book  learn- 
ing, as  well  as  the  disappearance  of  the  view  that 
other  occupations  are  servile  and  unbecoming  a  free 
man.  Again  we  meet  with  the  Artes  at  the  begin- 
ning of  an  encyclopedic  work  entitled  "  Origines, 
sive  Etymologia; ",  in  twenty  books,  compiled  by 
St.  Isidore,  Bishop  of  Seville,  about  600.  The  first 
book  of  this  work  treats  of  grammar;  the  second,  of 
rhetoric  and  dialectic,  both  comprised  under  the 
name  of  logic;  the  thij'd,  of  the  four  mathematical 
branches.     In  books  IV-VIII  follow  medicine,  juris- 

f)rudence,  theology;  but  books  IX  and  X  give  us 
inguistic  material,  etymologies,  etc.,  and  the  re- 
maining books  present  a  miscellany  of  useful  informa- 
tion. Albinus  (or  Alcuin,  q.  v.),  the  well-known 
statesman  and  counsellor  of  Charles  the  Great,  dealt 
with  the  .4 rffis  in  separate  treatises,  of  which  only 
the  treatises  intended  as  guides  to  the  Triviinn  have 
come  down  to  us.  In  the  introduction,  he  finds  in 
Prov.  ix,  1  (Wisdom  hath  built  herself  a  hou.se. 
she  hath  hewn  her  out  seven  pillars)  an  allusion 
to  the  seven  liberal  arts  which  he  thinks  are  meant 
by  the  seven  pillars.     The  book  is  written  in  dia- 


logue form,  the  scholar  asking  questions,  and  the 
master  answering  them.  One  of  Alcuin's  pupils, 
Rabanus  Maurus,  who  died  in  850  as  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz,  in  his  book  entitled  "  De  institu- 
tione  clericorum  ",  gave  short  instructions  concern- 
ing the  Aries,  and  published  under  the  title,  "De 
Ihiiverso  ",  what  might  be  called  an  encyclopedia. 
The  extraordinary  activity  displayed  by  the  Irish 
monks  as  teachers  in  Germany  led  to  the  designation 
of  the  Artes  as  Methodus  Hrjbemi-ca.  To  impress 
the  sequence  of  the  arts  on  the  memory  of  the 
student,  mnemonic  verses  were  employed  such  as 
the    hexameter; 

Lingua,  tropus,  ratio,  numerus,  tonus,  angulus 
astra. 

Gram  loquitur,  Dia  vera  docet,  Rhe  verba  colorat 

Mu  canit,  Ar  numerat,  Geo  ponderat,  Ast  colit 
astra. 

By  the  number  seven  the  system  was  made  popu- 
lar; the  Seven  Arts  recalled  the  Seven  Petitions  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Seven  Gifts  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  Seven  Sacraments,  the  Seven  Virtues, 
etc.  The  Seven  Words  on  the  Cross,  the  Seven 
Pillars  of  Wisdom,  the  Seven  Heaveni  might  also 
suggest  particular  branches  of  learning.  The  seven 
liberal  arts  fomid  counterparts  in  the  seven  mechani- 
cal arts;  the  latter  included  wea\'ing,  blacksmithing, 
war,  navigation,  agriculture,  hunting,  medicine,  and 
the  ars  theatrica.  To  these  were  added  dancing, 
wrestling,  and  driving.  Even  the  accomplishments 
to  be  mastered  by  candidates  for  knighthood  were 
fi.xed  at  seven:  riding,  tilting,  fencing,  WT&stling, 
running,  leaping,  and  spear-throwing.  Pictorial 
illustrations  of  the  Artes  are  often  found,  usually 
female  figures  with  suitable  attributes;  thus  Gram- 
mar appears  with  book  and  rod.  Rhetoric  with 
tablet  and  stilus,  Dialectic  with  a  dog's  head  in 
her  hand,  probably  in  contrast  to  the  wolf  of  heresy 
— cf.  the  play  on  words  Domini  canes,  Dominicani 
— Arithmetic  with  a  knotted  rope.  Geometry  with  a 
pair  of  compasses  and  a  rule.  Astronomy  with  bushel 
and  stars,  and  Music  with  cithern  and  organistrum. 
Portraits  of  the  chief  representatives  of  the  different 
sciences  were  added.  Thus  in  the  large  group  by 
Taddeo  Gaddi  in  the  Dominican  convent  of  Santa 
Maria  Novella  in  Florence,  painted  in  1322,  the 
central  figure  of  which  is  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 
Grammar  appears  with  either  Donatus  (who  lived 
about  A.  D.  250)  or  Priscian  (about  A.  u.  530),  the 
two  most  prominent  teachers  of  grammar,  in  the 
act  of  instructing  a  boy;  Rhetoric  accompanied  by 
Cicero;  Dialectic  by  Zeno  of  Elea,  whom  the  ancients 
considered  as  founder  of  the  art;  Arithmetic  by 
Abraham,  as  the  representative  of  the  philosophy  of 
numbers,  and  versed  in  the  knowledge  of  the  stars; 
Geometry  by  Euclid  (about  300  B.  c),  whose  "Ele- 
ments" was  the  text-book  par  excellence;  Astronomy 
by  Ptolemy,  whose  "Almagest"  Wiis  considered  to 
be  the  canon  of  star-lore;  Music  by  Tubal  Cain 
using  the  haminor,  probably  in  allusion  to  the 
harmoniously  tuned  hammci's  which  are  said  to 
have  sviggestcd  to  Pythagoras  his  theory  of  intervals. 
As  coimterparts  of  the  liberal  arts  are  found  seven 
higher  sciences:  civil  law,  canon  law,  and  the  five 
branches  of  theology  entitled  speculative,  scriptural, 
scholastic,  contemplative,  and  apologetic.  (Cf.  Ge- 
schichte  dcs  Idealisnuis,  II,  Par.  74,  where  the  posi- 
tion of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  towards  the  sciences  is 
discussed.) 

An  instructive  picture  of  the  seven  liberal  arts 
in  the  twelfth  century  may  be  found  in  the  work 
entitled  "  Didasialicum  ",  or  "Eruditio  Didascalici  ", 
written  by  tlie  .\ugustinian  canon,  Hugo  of  St 
Victor,  who  died  at  Paris,  in  1141.  He  w.is  de- 
scended from  the  family  of  the  Counts  Blankcn- 
burg  in  the  Harz  Mountains  and  received  his  educa- 
tion at  the  Augustinian  convent  of  Haramersleben 


ARTS 


763 


ARTS 


in  the  Diocese  of  Halbersladt,  where  he  devoted 
liimself  to  the  liberal  arts  from  1109  to  1114.  In 
his  "Didascalicuin",  VI,  3,  lie  \vrit(>s,  "1  make  hold 
to  say  that  I  never  have  desi)is<.'il  anything  belong- 
ing to  enidition,  but  have  learned  much  which  to 
others  seemed  to  be  trilling  and  foolish.  I  rememlK-r 
how,  as  a  schoolboy,  I  endeavoured  to  ascertain  tlie 
names  of  all  objects  which  I  saw,  or  which  came 
under  my  hands,  and  how  I  formulated  my  own 
thoughts  concerning  them  [prrpendrns  /iVxrc], 
namely:  that  one  cannot  know  the  nature  of  things 
before  having  learned  their  naine^.  How  often  liave 
I  set  myself  as  a  voluntary  daily  task  the  study  of 
problems  [nojihLimata]  which  I  had  jotted  down 
for  the  sake  of  brevity,  by  means  of  a  catchword 
or  two  [dictionibux]  on  the  page,  in  order  to  commit 
to  memory  tlie  solution  and  the  number  of  nearly 
all  the  opinions,  <iuoslions,  and  objections  which  I 
had  learned.  I  invented  legal  cases  and  analyses 
with  pertinent  objections  [dispositiones  ad  inncem 
contrni'ersiis],  and  in  doing  so  carefully  distin- 
guished between  the  methods  of  the  rhetorician,  the 
orator,  and  the  sophist.  I  represented  numbers  by 
pebbles,  and  covered  the  floor  with  black  lines,  and 
proved  clearly  by  the  diagram  before  me  the  differ- 
ences between  acute-angled,  right-angled,  and  obtuse- 
angled  triangles;  in  like  manner  I  ascertained  whether 
a  square  has  the  same  area  as  a  rectangle  two  of 
whose  sides  are  multiplied,  by  stepping  off  the  length 
in  both  cases  [utrohiqiie  prncurrente  podixmo].  I  have 
often  watched  through  the  winter  night,  gazing  at 
the  stars  [horoscopus — not  astrological  forecasting, 
which  was  forbidden,  but  pure  star-study].  Often 
have  I  strung  the  niagada  [Or.  fuiyaSis,  an  instru- 
ment of  20  strings,  giving  ten  tones]  measuring  the 
Ftrings  according  to  numerical  values,  and  stretching 
them  over  the  wood  in  order  to  catch  with  my  ear 
the  difference  between  the  tones,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  gladden  my  heart  with  the  sweet  melody. 
This  was  all  done  in  a  boyish  way,  but  it  was  far 
from  usele.ss,  for  this  knowledge  was  not  burdensome 
to  me.  I  do  not  recall  these  things  in  order  to  boast 
of  ray  attainments,  which  are  of  little  or  no  value, 
but  to  show  you  that  the  most  orderly  worker  is  the 
most  skilful  one  [ilium  incedere  aptixsime  qui  incedit 
ordinate],  unlike  many  who,  wishing  to  take  a  great 
jump,  fall  into  an  abyss:  for  as  with  the  virtues,  so  in 
the  sciences  there  are  fixed  steps.  But,  you  will 
say,  I  find  in  histories  much  useless  and  forbidden 
matter;  why  shoidd  I  busy  myself  therewith?  Very 
true,  there  arc  in  the  Scriptures  many  things  which, 
considered  in  themselves,  are  apparently  not  worth 
acquiring,  but  which,  if  you  compare  them  with 
others  connected  with  them,  and  if  you  weigh  them, 
bearing  in  mind  this  connection  [in  toto  sua  trutinare 
caperii],  will  prove  to  be  necessary  and  useful. 
Some  things  are  worth  knowing  on  their  own  ac- 
count; but  others,  although  apparently  offering  no 
return  for  our  trouble,  should  not  be  neglected, 
because  without  them  the  former  cannot  be  thor- 
oughly mastered  [enucleate  sciri  non  possunt]. 
Learn  evcrj'thing;  you  will  afterwards  discover 
that  nothing  is  superfluous;  limited  knowledge  af- 
fords no  enjoyment  [coarctata  scieniia  jucunda  non 
est]." 

The  connection  of  the  Aries  with  philosophy  and 
wisdom  was  faithfully  kept  in  mind  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  Hugo  says  of  it:  "Among  all  the  de- 
partments of  knowledge  the  ancients  assigned  seven 
to  be  studied  by  beginners,  because  they  found  in 
them  a  higher  value  than  in  the  others,  so  that 
whoever  has  thoroughly  mastered  them  can  after- 
wards master  the  rest  rather  by  research  and  prac- 
tice than  by  the  teacher's  oral  instruction.  They  are, 
as  it  were,  the  best  tools,  the  fittest  entrance  through 
which  the  way  to  philosophic  tnith  is  opene<l  to  our 
intellect.     Hence  the  names  trii-ium  and  quadrivium, 


because  here  the  robust  mind  progresses  as  if  upon 
roads  or  paths  to  the  secrets  of  wisdom.  It  is  for 
tliLS  rea.son  that  there  were  among  the  ancients, 
who  followed  this  path,  so  many  wise  men.  Our 
schoolmen  [scholaxlici]  are  disinclined,  or  do  not 
know  while  studying,  how  to  adhere  to  the  appro- 
priate method,  whence  it  is  that  there  are  many 
who  labour  earnostlv  [sludentes],  but  few  wise  men" 
(Didascalicum,   111, "3). 

St.  Bonaventure  (1221-74)  in  his  treatise  "De 
Reductione  artium  ad  theologiam "  proposes  a 
profound  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  Artes, 
iiK-luding  philosophy;  basing  it  upon  the  method 
of  Holy  Writ  as  the  method  of  all  teaching.  Holy 
Scripture  speaks  to  us  in  three  ways:  by  speech 
(,ser;;io),  by  instruction  (dodrina),  and  by  directions 
for  living  {vila).  It  is  the  source  of  truth  in  speech, 
of  truth  in  things,  and  of  truth  in  morals,  and  there- 
fore equally  of  rational,  natural,  and  moral  philoso- 
phy. Rational  philosophy,  having  for  object  the 
spoken  truth,  treats  it  from  the  triple  point  of  view 
of  expression,  of  communication,  and  of  impulsion 
to  action;  in  other  words  it  aims  to  express,  to  teach 
to  persuade  {eiprimere,  doccre,  movere).  These  ac- 
tivities are  represented  by  sermo  congntus,  verus, 
omatus,  and  the  arts  of  grammar,  dialectic,  and 
rhetoric.  Natural  philosopliy  seeks  the  truth  in 
things  themselves  as  rationcs  seminales,  the  truth  in 
the  mind  as  rationes  inlellecluates,  and  the  truth  in 
God  as  ratioiux  idealen,  and  accordingly  it  is  divided 
into  physics,  mathematics,  and  metaphysics.  Moral 
philosophy  determines  the  rerilax  rj'to  for  the  life  of 
the  individual  as  monnntiea  (liSyos  alone),  for  the 
domestic  life  as  a^conomica,  and  for  society  as  politica. 

To  general  erudition  and  eiu'yclopedic  learning 
medieval  education  has  less  close  relations  than  that 
of  Alexandria,  principally  liecause  the  Trivium  had 
a  formal  character,  i.  e.  it  aimed  at  training  the  mind 
rather  than  imparting  knowledge.  The  reading  of 
classic  authors  was  considered  as  an  appendix  to  the 
Trivium.  Hugo,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  does  not 
undervalue  it,  includes  in  his  reading  poems,  fables, 
histories,  and  certain  other  elements  of  instruction 
(poemata,  fahula,  hisloria,  didaxcaliw  qnwdam).  The 
science  of  language,  to  use  the  expression  of  Au- 
gustine, is  still  designated  as  the  key  to  all  positive 
knowledge;  for  this  reason  its  position  at  the  head 
of  the  Arts  (Artes)  is  maintained.  So  John  of  Salis- 
bury (b.  between  1110  and  1120;  d.  1180,  Bishop 
of  Chartres)  says:  "If  grammar  is  the  key  of  all 
literature,  and  the  mother  and  mistress  of  language, 
who  will  be  bold  enough  to  turn  her  away  from  tlie 
threshold  of  philosophy?  Only  he  who  thinks  that 
what  is  written  and  spoken  is  unnecessary  for  the 
student  of  philosophv"  (Metalogicus,  I,  21). 
Richard  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1173)  makes  grammar  the 
servant  of  history,  for  he  writes,  "All  arts  ser\'e  the 
Divine  Wisdom,  and  each  lower  art,  if  rightly  or- 
dered, leads  to  a  higher  one.  Thus  the  relation 
existing  between  the  word  and  the  thing  required 
that  grammar,  dialectic,  and  rhetoric  should  minister 
to  history"  (Rich.,  ap.  Vincentium  Bell.,  Spec. 
Doctrinale,  XVlI,  31).  The  Quadrivium  had,  natu- 
rally, certain  relations  to  the  sciences  and  to  life; 
this  was  recognized  by  treating  geography  as  a  part 
of  geometrj',  and  the  study  of  the  calendar  as  a  part 
of  astronomy.  We  meet  with  the  development  of 
the  Artes  into  encyclopedic  knowledge  as  early  as 
Isidore  of  Seville  and  Rabanus  Maurus,  especially 
in  the  latter's  work,  "De  I'niverso".  It  was  com- 
pleted in  the  thirteenth  century,  to  which  belong  the 
works  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  1264),  instructor  of 
the  children  of  St.  Louis  (IX).  In  his  "S|>eculura 
Natur.de"  he  treats  of  God  and  nature;  in  the 
"Speculum  Doctrinale",  starting  from  the  Trivium, 
he  deals  with  the  sciences;  in  the  "Speculum  Morale" 
he  discusses  the  moral  world.     To  these  a  continuator 


ARTS 


764 


ARTS 


added  a  "Speculum  Historiale"  which  was  simply  a 
universal  history. 

For  the  academic  development  of  the  AHes  it 
was  of  importance  that  the  universities  accepted 
them  as  a  part  of  their  curricula.  Among  their 
ordines,  or  faculties,  the  ordo  artistamm,  afterwards 
called  the  faculty  of  philosophy,  was  fundamental: 
Universitas  fimdatur  in  artibus  It  furnished  the 
preparation  not  only  for  the  Ordo  Theologorum, 
but  also  for  the  Ordo  Legistarum,  or  law  faculty, 
and  the  Ordo  Physicorurti ,  or  medical  faculty.  Of 
the  methods  of  teaching  and  the  continued  study  of 
the  arts  at  the  universities  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  text-book  of  the  contemporary  Carthusian, 
Gregory  Reisch,  Confessor  of  the  Emperor  Maximil- 
ian I,  gives  us  a  clear  picture.  He  treats  in  twelve 
books:  (I)  of  tlie  Rudiments  of  Grammar;  (II)  of 
the  Principles  of  Logic;  (III)  of  the  Parts  of  an  Ora- 
tion; (IV)  of  Memory,  of  Letter-writing,  and  of 
Arithmetic;  (V)  of  the  Principles  of  Music;  (VI)  of 
the  Elements  of  Geometry;  (VII)  of  the  Principles 
of  Astronomy;  (VIII)  of  the  Principles  of  Natural 
Things;  (IX)  of  the  Origin  of  Natural  Things; 
(X)  of  the  Soul;  (XI)  of  the  Powers;  (XII)  of  the 
Principles  of  Moral  Philosophy. — The  illustrated 
edition  printed  in  1512  at  Strasburg  has  for  appen- 
di.x:  the  elements  of  Greek  literature,  Hebrew, 
figured  music  and  architecture,  and  some  technical 
instruction  (Graecarum  Litterarum  Institutiones, 
Hebraicarum  Litterarum  Rudimenta,  Musicse  Fig- 
urata;  Institutiones,  Architecturae  Rudimenta). 

At  the  universities  the  Artes,  at  least  in  a  formal 
way,  held  their  place  up  to  modern  times.  At 
Oxford,  Qtieen  Mary  (1553-58)  erected  for  them 
colleges  whose  inscriptions  are  significant,  thus: 
"Graramatica,  Litteras  disce";  "Rhetorica  persuadet 
mores";  "Dialectica,  Imposturas  fuge";  "Arithmet- 
ica.  Omnia  numeris  constant";  "Musica,  Ne  tibi 
dissideas";  "Geometria,  Cura  quae  domi  sunt"; 
"Astronomia,  Altiora  ne  quaesieris".  The  title 
"Master  of  the  Liberal  Arts"  is  still  granted  at  some 
of  the  universities  in  connection  with  the  Doctorate 
of  Philosophy;  in  England  that  of  "Doctor  of  Music" 
is  still  in  re;;;ular  use.  In  practical  teaching,  how- 
ever, the  system  of  the  Artes  has  declined  since  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  Renaissance  saw  in  the 
technique  of  style  (eloquenlia)  and  in  its  mainstay, 
erudition,  the  ultimate  object  of  collegiate  educa- 
tion, thus  following  the  Roman  rather  than  the 
Greek  system.  Grammar  and  rhetoric  came  to  be 
the  chief  elements  of  the  preparatory  studies,  while 
the  sciences  of  the  Quadrivium  were  embodied  in 
the  miscellaneous  learning  (eruditio)  associated  with 
rhetoric.  In  Catholic  higher  schools  philosophy 
remained  as  the  intermediate  stage  between  philo- 
logical studies  and  professional  studies;  while  ac- 
cording to  the  Protestant  scheme  philosophy  was 
taken  over  (to  the  university)  as  a  Faculty  subject. 
The  Jesuit  schools  present  the  following  gradation 
of  studies:  grammar,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and,  since 
philosophy  begins  with  logic,  this  system  retains 
also  the  ancient  dialectic. 

In  the  erudite  studies  spoken  of  above,  must  be 
sought  the  germ  of  the  encyclopedic  learning  which 
grew  unceasingly  during  the  seventeenth  century. 
Amos  Comenius  (d.  1071),  the  best  known  repre- 
sentative of  this  tendency,  who  sought  in  his  "Orbis 
Pictus"  to  make  this  diminutive  encyclopedia  (en- 
cyctopadiola)  the  basis  of  the  earliest  grammatical 
in.struetion,  speaks  contemptuously  of  "tho.se  liberal 
arts  so  much  talked  of,  the  knowledge  of  which  the 
common  people  believe  a  master  of  pliilosophy  to 
acquire  thoroughly",  and  proudly  declares,  ''^Our 
men  rise  to  greater  height".  (Magna  Didactica, 
XXX,  2.)  His  school  classes  are  the  following:  gram- 
mar, physics,  mathematics,  ethics,  dialectic,  and 
rhetoric.     In  the  eighteenth  century  undergraduate 


studies  take  on  more  and  more  the  encyclopedic 
character,  and  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  class 
system  is  replaced  by  the  department  system,  in 
which  the  various  subjects  are  treated  simultaneously 
with  little  or  no  reference  to  their  gradation;  in  this 
way  the  principle  of  the  Artes  is  finally  surrendered. 
Where,  moreover,  as  in  the  (hjmnasia  of  Germany, 
philosophy  has  been  dropped  from  the  course  of 
studies,  miscellaneous  erudition  becomes  in  principle 
an  end  unto  itself.  Nevertheless,  present  educa- 
tional systems  preserve  traces  of  the  older 
systematic  arrangement  (language,  mathematics, 
philosophy).  In  the  early  years  of  his  Gymiuisium 
course  the  youth  must  devote  his  time  and  energy 
to  the  study  of  languages,  in  the  middle  years, 
principally  to  mathematics,  and  in  his  last  years, 
when  he  is  called  upon  to  express  his  own  thoughts, 
he  begins  to  deal  with  logic  and  dialectic,  even  if 
it  be  only  in  the  form  of  composition.  He  is  there- 
fore touching  upon  philosophy.  This  gradation 
which  works  its  own  way,  so  to  speak,  out  of  the 
present  chaotic  condition  of  learned  studies,  should 
be  made  systematic;  the  fundamental  idea  of  the 
Artes  Liberates  would  thus  be  revived. 

The  Platonic  idea,  therefore,  that  we  should  ad- 
vance gradually  from  sense-perception  by  way  of 
intellectual  argumentation  to  intellectual  intuition, 
is  by  no  means  antiquated.  Mathematical  instruc- 
tion, admittedly  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  logic, 
could  only  gain  if  it  were  conducted  in  this  spirit, 
if  it  were  made  logically  clearer,  if  its  technical 
content  were  reduced,  and  if  it  were  followed  by 
logic.  The  express  correlation  of  mathematics  to 
astronomy,  and  to  musical  theory,  would  bring  about 
a  wholesome  concentration  of  the  mathematico- 
physical  sciences,  now  threatened  with  a  plethora 
of  erudition.  The  insistence  of  older  WTiters  upon 
the  organic  character  of  the  content  of  instruction, 
deserves  earnest  consideration.  For  the  purpose  of 
concentration  a  mere  packing  together  of  uncorre- 
lated  subjects  will  not  suffice;  their  original  connec- 
tion and  dependence  must  be  brought  into  clear 
consciousness.  Hugo's  admonition  also,  to  dis- 
tinguish between  hearing  (or  learning,  properly  so 
called)  on  the  one  hand,  and  practice  and  invention 
on  the  other,  for  which  there  is  good  opportunity  in 
grammar  and  mathematics,  deserves  attention. 
Equally  important  is  his  demand  that  the  details 
of  the  subject  taught  be  weighed — trutinare,  from 
truiina,  the  goldsmith's  balance.  This  gold  balance 
has  been  used  far  too  sparingly,  and,  in  consequence, 
education  has  suffered.  A  short-sighted  realism 
threatens  even  the  various  branches  of  language 
instruction.  Efforts  are  made  to  restrict  grammar 
to  the  vernacular,  and  to  banish  rhetoric  and  logic 
except  so  far  as  they  are  applied  in  composition. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  useless  to  remember  the  "keys". 
In  every  department  of  instruction  method  must 
have  in  view  the  series:  induction,  based  on  sen- 
suous perception;  deduction,  guided  also  by  percep- 
tion, and  abstract  deduction — a  series  which  is 
identical  with  that  of  Plato.  All  understanding  im- 
plies these  three  grades;  we  first  understand  the 
meaning  of  what  is  said,  we  next  understand  infer- 
ences drawn  from  sense  perception,  and  lastly  we 
understand  dialectic  conclusions.  Invention  has 
also  three  grades:  we  find  words,  we  find  the  solution 
of  problems,  we  find  thoughts.  Grammar,  mathe- 
matics, and  logic  likewise  form  a  systematic  series. 
The  grammatical  system  is  empirical,  the  mathe- 
matical rational  and  constructive,  and  the  logical 
rational  and  speculative  (cf.  O.  Willmann,  Didak- 
tik,  II,  67).  Humanists,  over-fond  of  change,  un- 
justly condemned  the  system  of  the  seven  liberal 
arts  as  barbarous.  It  is  no  more  barbarous  than 
tlie  Gothic  style,  a  name  intended  to  be  a  reproach. 
The  Gothic,  built  up  on  the  conception  of  the  old 


ARTVIN 


765 


ARUNDELL 


basilica,  ancient  in  origin,  yet  Christian  in  character, 
was  misjudged  by  tlie  Keniiissance  on  account  of 
some  excrescences,  and  ol)scured  by  the  additions 
engrafted  upon  it  by  modern  lacli  of  taste  (op.  cit., 
p.  230).  Tnat  tlie  adiievements  of  our  forefathers 
should  be  understood,  recognized,  and  adapted  to 
our  own  needs,  is  surely  to  be  desired. 

Otto  Willmann. 

Artvin,  a  Russian  city  in  tlie  tran.s-Caucasian 
province  of  Kutais,  is  .•iituated  near  Turltish  Armenia 
on  the  left  bunk  of  tlio  Tchoruk,  which  flows  into 
the  Black  Sea.  In  1K94  it  contained  5,900  inhabi- 
tants, mostly  Armenian  and  Turkish.  In  Artvin  and 
vicinity  there  are  nine  Arnienian-Catliolic  churclics, 
four  schools  for  boy.s  and  three  schools  for  girls.  Tlie 
Gregorian  Armenians  liave  five  churches  and  two 
scliools.  The  Armcnian-Catliohi-  Diocese  of  Artvin 
(Artuincnsis  Armenorum)  was  estaliMshcd  in  ISoO  by 
Pius  IX  for  the  I'nited  Armenians  in  sDulljcrn  Ru.ssia, 
and  was  first  suffragan  to  tlie  Metropolitan  of  Con- 
stantinople, afterwards  directly  subject  to  the  Arme- 
nian-Catholic Patriarch  of  Cilicia,  whose  see  is  Con- 
stantinople. Tlie  first  bishop  wasTimotheus  Astorgi 
(1850-58),  who  was  succeeded  bv  Antonius  Halagi 
(1859)  and  Joannes  Haptista  Zacdiarian  (187S).  In 
1878,  Russia  annexed  the  entire  territory  of  this 
diocese  and  united  it  with  Tiraspol.  Up  to  the 
present  time,  Russia  has  prevented  the  appointment 
of  a  bishop  and  is  now  trj'ing  to  cause  an  apostasy 
among  the  Armenians.  The  diocese  of  Artvin  num- 
bers aljout  12,000  Catliolics  of  the  Armenian  Rite;  25 
mission  priests  (of  wliom  23  are  natives);  30  churches 
and  chapels;  22  primary  schools  with  almost  900 
pupils.  The  girls  are  instructed  partly  by  the  .Sisters 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  \'irgin 
Mary.  The  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Artvin  are  subject  to  the  regular  jurisdiction 
of  the  Bishop  of  Tiraspol. 

Joseph  Lins. 

Amndel,  TnoM.\s,  sixtieth  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
burj',  second  son  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Arundel  and 
Warren,  b.  1353;  d.  19  February,  1414.  In  1374, 
while  only  in  his  twenty-second  year,  he  was  pro- 
moted from  the  ardideaconry  of  Taunton  to  tlie 
See  of  Ely.  Made  chancellor,  24  October.  138f>,  he 
was  translated  from  Ely  to  York  in  1388,  and  thence, 
by  papal  provision,  to  Canterbury,  25  September, 
1396,  when  he  resigned  the  chancellorship.  In  the 
second  year  after  his  translation  he  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  King,  Richard  II,  was  attainted  of 
nigh  trea-son,  and  lianished,  together  with  his  brother, 
Richard  Earl  of  .\rundcl,  and  the  Duke  of  Gloucester. 
He  retired,  first  to  France,  then  to  the  papal  court, 
where  he  was  well  received  by  Boniface  IX,  who 
conferred  upon  him  the  Archbishopric  of  St.  Andrews. 
On  the  accession  of  Henrj'  IV,  Roger  Walden,  his 
successor  in  the  primatial  see,  was  declared  a  usurper, 
and  Arundel  restored,  21  October,  1399,  Walden  being 
translated  to  London.  He  is  conspicuous  as  hav- 
ing taken  a  strong  stand  against  the  Lollards 
whose  new  doctrine  he,  in  company  with  the  bishops 
of  the  province,  petitioned  Rome  to  condemn,  and 
on  account  of  his  sturdy  assertion  of  Transubstantia- 
tion  and  the  prerogatives  and  divine  institution  of 
the  Papacy. 

Godwin.  De  Praaulibus  Anglia;  Hook,  Archbiihopa  of 
Canterbury;  Le  Neve,  EccUnatlical  Dignitariet:  I.yndwood 
Provinciau;  Wilkinh,  Concilia. 

F.  AVELING. 

Anindell,  Thomas,  first  Lord  AnrNDELL  op 
Wakdouu,  b.  1560;  d.  at  Oxford,  7  Novemlx>r,  1639. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Matthew  Anindell  of  Wardour 
Castle,  Wiltshire.  The  Anindells  were  a  very  old 
Norman  family  settled  in  Cornwall  and  dating  back 
to  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Thoraas,  first  Lord  Arundell  of  Wardour,  was  grand- 


son of  a  Sir  John  Arundell,  of  the  Anindells  of  Lan- 
heme,  "the  Great  Anindells,"  a  Catholic  branch 
of  the  family.  Sir  John  had  become  a  Catholic 
(Dodd,  Church  History)  through  Father  Corneliin,  a 
native  of  the  neighbouring  town  of  Bodmin.  Owing 
to  his  defence  of  Cornelius,  Sir  John  Arundell  was 
imprisoned  for  nine  years  in  Ely  Palace,  Hol- 
bom.  (Challoner.  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests, 
1803.)  Thomas,  first  Lord  Arundell  of  Wardour, 
called  "the  Valiant,"  was  strongly  adverse  to  the 
Reformers  and  refused  to  attend  Protestant  services. 
Elizabeth  committed  him  to  prison  in  1580.  When 
he  was  freed,  he  travelled,  and  entered  the  Austrian 
service  under  Archduke  Matthias,  brother  of  Em- 
peror Rudolph  II.  He  distinguished  himself  fighting 
against  the  Ottomans  in  Hungary,  and  at  the  siege 
of  Gran,  or  Strigonium,  7  September,  1595,  he  was 
the  first  through  the  breach  and,  scaling  the  tower, 
plucked  the  Crescent  thence  and  planted  in  its  place 
the  Imperial  Standard.  The  Emperor  created  him 
and  liis  posterity  Counts  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
14  December,  1.595.  On  his  return  to  England  the 
peers  decided  that  no  privilege  or  precedence  should 
be  shown  to  his  title.  James  I,  recognizing  Anin- 
dell's  deserts  and  loyalty,  rewarded  him  by  creating 
him  a  peer  witli  the  style  and  title  of  Baron  Anindell 
of  Wardour,  1605.  Charles  I  at  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  forbade  the  new  peer  to  bear  arms,  because 
he  was  a  Catholic,  though  Thomas  had  contributed 
liberally  to  avert  the  danger  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 
Lord  Arundell  of  Wardour  died  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
nine.  His  [xjrtrait,  by  Van  Dyck,  1635,  is  at  War- 
dour. 

Thomas,  second  Lord  Anindell  of  Wardour,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1639.  In  the  trouble  between 
Charles  I  and  the  Parliament,  the  House  of  Commons 
ordered  Anindell's  arrest,  Novemljer,  1641,  but  he 
evaded  capture,  and  when  the  royal  standard  was 
unfurled  at  Nottingham,  22  August,  1642,  he  raised 
a  company  of  horse  and  fought  for  His  Majesty's 
cause.  He  was  wounded  in  battle,  and  died  at 
Oxford.  1643.  His  wife,  the  heroic  Lady  Blanche 
Arundell,  was  the  sixth  dauglitor  of  Edward,  Earl 
of  Worcester,  an  admirable  Catholic,  and  a  discreet 
and  loyal  subject.  She  is  known  by  her  spirited 
defence  of  Wardour  Castle,  Wiltshire,  during  the 
absence  of  her  husband.  With  only  twenty-five 
men  at  her  command,  she  withstood  thirteen  hun- 
dred rebels,  under  Sir  Edward  Hungerford  and 
Colonel  Strode,  for  eight  daj's.  When  obhged  to 
capitulate  she  did  so  on  honourable  terms,  signed 
8  May.  1643.  She  left  the  castle  destitute,  and  was 
provided  with  lodging  at  Salisbury  by  Lord  Hert- 
ford. She  died  at  Winchester,  28  October,  1649, 
and  was  buried  with  her  liusband  at  Tisbury. 

Henry,  third  Lord  Arundell  of  Wardour,  b.  1606; 
d.  1694,  was  the  sole  male  issue  of  Thomas,  second 
Lord,  and  Lady  Blanche  Arundell.  '  When  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title,  in  1643,  his  wife  and  sons  were 
prisoners,  and  Wardour  Castle  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Parliamentary  forces  under  General  Ludlow. 
To  dislodge  them,  he  sacrificed  his  castle  by  spring- 
ing a  mine  under  it.  He  was  subsequently  wounded 
in  several  battles,  his  estates  were  sequestrated,  and 
he  was  forced  to  leave  the  country'.  When  the 
monarchy  was  restored  he  recoverea  his  property 
by  an  expenditure  of  £35.000.  In  1669  he  was 
employed  by  Clifford  in  arranging  the  famous  pre- 
liminaries of  the  secret  treaty  of  Dover  between 
Louis  XIV  and  Charles  II.  But  the  king  whom 
he  had  served  so  well  almost  suffered  him  to  become 
a  victim  of  the  infamous  Titus  Oates,  on  whose 
jierjured  statement  Lord  Arundell  of  Wardour  was 
thrown  into  the  Tower  at  the  instance  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  in  October,  1678,  with  four  other 
Catholic  peers.  During  his  confinement  he  wrote 
some  poems,  which  were  published  under  the  title 


ARZOUN 


76(3 


ASCENDENTE 


of  "Five  Little  Meditations  in  Verse"  (London, 
1679).  After  five  years  of  imprisonment,  during 
which  time  one  of  the  peers,  Stafford,  had  been  be- 
headed, and  another  had  died  in  the  Tower,  Arundell 
and  his  two  remaining  companions  were  released, 
and  their  indictments  annulled,  on  the  ground  of 
perjury.  James  II  made  Arundell  Keeper  of  the 
Pri\-y  Seal,  16S7.  In  16SS  he  presented  an  address 
in  behalf  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  but  he  opposed 
the  admission  of  Father  Petre  into  the  pri\'y  council. 
At  the  Revolution  of  1688  he  retired  from  public 
life.  He  was  praised  for  his  piety  and  for  his  kind- 
ness to  poor  Catholics. 

Diet.  Nat.  Biog.;  Gillow,  Diet,  of  Eng.  Catholics,  I,  67,  68, 
71,   72;  I,  402;  Lingahd,  History  of  England. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Arzoun.     See  Seert. 

Asaph.     See  Psalms. 

Asaph  (or  Asa)  ,  Saint,  first  Bishop  of  the  Welsh 
See  of  that  name  (second  half  of  the  sixth  century). 
No  Welsh  life  of  him  is  extant,  but  local  tradition 
points  out  the  site  of  his  ash  tree,  his  church,  his 
well,  and  his  valley,  Onen  Asa,  Fynnon  Asa,  Llanasa, 
Pantasa.  All  these  sites  are  in  Tengenel,  near  Holy- 
well, indicating  probably  that  the  saint  once  had  a 
hermitage  in  that  neighbourhood.  The  want  of  a 
Welsh  life,  however,  is  in  part  compensated  for  by 
Jocelyn  of  Furness's  life  of  St.  Kentigern,  or 
Mungo,  the  founder  of  the  Diocese  of  Glasgow.  This 
saint  during  his  exile  (c.  545)  betook  himself  to 
Wales,  and  there  founded  the  Celtic  Monastery  of 
Llanelwy  (the  church  on  the  Elwy),  as  the  Welsh 
still  call  the  town  of  St.  Asaph.  Of  the  building 
and  government  of  few  Celtic  monasteries  do  we 
know  so  much  as  about  Llanelwy.  The  church  was 
built  "of  smoothed  wood,  after  the  fashion  of  tlie 
Britons,  seeing  that  they  could  not  yet  build  of 
stone".  The  965  disciples,  of  whom  Asa  was  one, 
were  divided  into  three  groups:  300  of  the  unlettered 
farmed  the  outlying  lands,  300  worked  in  the  offices 
around  the  monastery,  and  365  (the  number  corre- 
sponds to  the  days  of  the  year)  attended  to  the 
divine  services.  Of  these  the  oldest  assisted  Ken- 
tigern in  the  government  of  the  diocese,  and  the  rest 
were  subdivided  into  three  clioirs.  "As  soon  as  one 
choir  had  terminated  its  service  in  church,  immedi- 
ately another  entering  commenced  it:  and  that  again 
being  concluded  another  entered  to  celebrate. "  The 
founder,  after  the  manner  of  other  Celtic  saints,  used 
frequently  to  pray  standing  in  the  icy  cold  river, 
and  once,  havmg  suffered  very  severely  under  this 
hardship,  he  sent  the  boy  Asa,  who  was  then  attend- 
ing him,  to  bring  a  fagot  to  burn  and  warm  him. 
Asaph  brought  him  live  coals  in  his  apron,  and  the 
miracle  revealed  to  Kentigern  the  sanctity  of  his 
disciple.  So  when  the  old  man  was  recalled  to 
Strathclyde,  after  the  battle  of  Ardderyd,  in  573 
(the  only  definite  date  we  have  in  the  life),  Asaph 
was  consecrated  bishop  to  succeed  him,  and  became 
the  first  Welsh  bishop  of  the  see.  The  feast  of  his 
deposition  is  kept  on  1  May,  but  we  possess  no 
further  details  of  his  life,  nor  do  we  know  the  year 
of  his  death. 

JocEMN,  Life  of  S.  Kentigern,  xxiv-xxxi  (ed.  1874),  75-94; 
Thomas,  History  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Asaph  (1874),  1-5. 
J.  H.  Pollen. 

AscaJon,  a  titular  see  of  Palestine  whose  episcopal 
list  (351-9.30  or  40)  is  given  in  Gams  (p.  453).  It  was 
one  of  the  five  chief  cities  of  the  Pliilistines  (Josue, 
xiii,  3).  Its  location,  on  the  .sea-coast  between  Gaza 
and  Jamnia,  made  it  a  stronghold,  and  as  such  it  was 
held  by  the  Arabs  after  their  conquest  of  it  in  the 
seventh  century.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  cru- 
saders, but  was  ilestroyed,  in  1270,  by  Sultan  Hibars, 
and  its  port  blocked  up  to  prevent  the  place  ever 
again   falling   into   Cliri.stian    hands.     Its   extensive 


ruins  still  remain,  and  present  a  scene  of  mournful 
desolation. 

Lequien,  Oriens  Christ.  (1740),  III,  5976,  602;  VioouROOX 
in  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  I,  1060-69;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
linmnv  (liogr.,  I.  -':10:  Oothe,  Die  Ruinen  Ascalonn  in  Zeitsehrift 
,l,«  diulnelun  I'aldslina-Vereins,   II,   180-182;  454-455. 

Ascelin,  Ambassador  of  Innocent  IV  (1243-54) 
to  the  Tatars.  He  entered  the  Dominican  Order, 
probably  at  Paris,  in  1221  or  1222.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  learning  and  a  great  zeal  for  the  sjiread  of 
the  Christian  Faith.  For  these  reasons  he  was  se- 
lected in  1245,  together  with  three  other  Dominicans, 
by  Humbert  de  Romanis,  whom  as  Provincial  of 
France  the  pope  had  ordered  to  select  fit  men  for  the 
embassy  to  attempt  the  conversion  of  the  Sultan 
Melik  Saleh,  then  encamped  in  Persia.  On  the 
authority  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (Speculum  His- 
toriale,  XXI,  40)  who  got  his  information  from  one 
of  the  embassy,  Simon  of  St.  Quentin,  they  met  the 
first  great  army  of  the  sultan,  24  May,  1247.  But 
their  mission  was  unsuccessful,  since  they  did  not 
bring  presents  to  win  the  mercenary  courtiers.  Be- 
sides, Ascelin  refused  to  genuflect  three  times  in 
recognition  of  the  khan's  dignity.  In  consequence 
of  this  the  friars  were  condemned  to  death.  The 
khan  threatened  to  flay  the  leader  of  the  embassy, 
Ascelin,  and  send  his  skin  to  the  pope.  The  death 
sentence  was  remitted  in  July,  1247,  after  several 
months  of  miserable  imprisonment.  At  the  same 
time  the  sultan  relented  sufficiently  to  allow  the 
friars  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  administer  the  sacra- 
ments. This  agreement  was  probably  made  in  the 
hope  of  winning  Louis  IX,  of  whose  military  powers 
Ascelin  often  spoke,  to  participate  in  a  concerted 
onset  of  the  khan  on  the  Mohammedan  troops  then 
blocking  tlie  march  of  the  Tatar  army.  The  em- 
bassy returned  to  Rome  about  Easter,  1248,  bearing 
a  respectful  letter  from  the  sultan  to  the  pope.  No 
proof  can  be  adduced  to  show  that  Ascelin  met  a 
martyr's  death  in  1255  on  another  mission  to  the 
Sultan,  as  Fontana  and  Bzovius  assert.  Bergeron 
(Recueil  d6s  voyages  faits  en  Asie  du  XIP  au  XIV° 
siecle)  gives  a  description  of  the  embassies  of  Ascelin 
and  his  companions. 

TouRON,  Hommes  illustres  de  I'ordre  de  Saint  Dominique,  I 
145-156;  QuETlF  and  Echard,  SS.  Ord.  Prard.,  I,  122;  L'Ann{» 
Dominicnine,  VI,  575  sqq.;  Lavisse,  Histoire  gtn&rale  (Paris, 
1894),    II,  970. 

Thos.   M.   Schwertner. 

Ascendente  Domino,  a  Bull  issued  by  Gregory 
XIII,  24  May,  1584,  in  favour  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
to  confirm  the  Constitution  of  the  Society  and  the 
privileges  already  granted  to  it  by  Paul  III,  Juhus  III, 
Paul  IV,  and  Pius  V.  It  recalls  and  confirms  the 
means  which  St.  Ignatius  had  prescribed  in  order  that 
the  Society  might  attain  the  end  for  which  he  had 
founded  it.  Candidates  have  first  to  make  two 
years'  novitiate;  then  they  take  three  simple  vows. 
Thus  they  cease  to  be  novices,  and  belong  to  the 
body  of  the  Society.  They  are  either  Scholastics 
or  unformed  Temporal  Coadjutors,  according  as  they 
are  destined  for  studies  or  for  domestic  duties  in  the 
Society.  These  simple  vows  are  perpetual  on  the 
part  of  those  who  make  them,  but  on  the  part  of 
the  Society  they  bind  only  so  long  as  the  General 
thinks  fit  to  retain  as  members  of  the  Society  those 
who  have  t.^ken  them.  The  unformed  Temporal 
Coadjutors,  after  some  years,  if  the  General  thinks 
them  fit,  are  admitted  to  the  grade  of  Formed  Tem- 
poral Coadjutors.  But  before  they  become  either 
Professed  or  Formed  Spiritual  Coaiijutors,  the  Scho- 
lastics, having  completed  their  studies,  must  go 
through  a  third  year's  probation.  If  Professed, 
they  take  a  fourth  vow  of  obedience  to  assume  any 
mission  tlie  Pope  may  enjoin  on  them.  Any,  even 
tliose  with  simple  vows  m.ade  at  the  end  of  the  secontl 
year's  novitiate,  who  leave  the  Society  under  any 


TIIK   NATIVITY.  ASCENSION,  AND   ( il.<  )RI  I- KATK  iN.   WITH   ZODIACAL  SIGNS 

(KNU    of    IX    TKNTCRY)     KIIOM    TIIK    I'SAI.TKK    OK    TIIK    KINC     ATII  KI.STA  N    (,  lilt  I  riMI     MISKIM) 


ASCENSION 


767 


ASCETICISM 


pretext  (unless  to  become  Carthusians),  without 
express  permission,  shall  be  regarded  as  apostates, 
and  incur  excommunication.  Tlie  simple  vows 
wliich  tliey  nialce  after  tlieir  novitiate  constitute 
them  religious  in  tlie  true  and  proper  sense  of  tlie 
word,  with  the  consequent  privileges.  Thus  they 
enjoy  the  exemption  of  regulars;  and  tlieir  simple 
vows,  as  solemn  vows  with  otlier  religious,  are  a 
diriment  impediment  to  matrimony,  tliat  is,  a 
marriage  contract  attempted  by  a  .Jesuit  witli  simple 
vows,  even  though  he  be  not  a  priest,  would  be  null 
and    void. 

Inntilutum  Socirtalit  Jem  (Florence,  190.'});  Bullarium  el 
compendium  Priviteffiorum  {Florence,  188(i-9l);  Oswald. 
Commentarium  in  Congt,  Soc.  Jea.  (ed.  3,  Roermond,  1902); 
SuARF.z,  De  Religione,  Op.  Omn.  (Paris,  1877),  XVI,  tract, 
viii,  lib.  Ill,  c.  ix;  tract,  ix,  lib.  I,  c.  i;  tract,  x,  lib.  1,  c.  vi; 
lib.  VI.  c.  ii. 

M.     O'RlOHD.AJST. 

Ascension,  the  elevation  of  Clirist  into  lieaven 
by  His  own  power  in  presence  of  His  disciples  the 
fortieth  day  after  His  Resurrection.  It  is  narrated 
in  St.  Mark,  xvi,  19,  St.  Luke,  xxiv,  .51,  and  in  the 
first  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  tlie  Apostles.  Although 
tlie  place  of  the  Ascension  is  not  distinctly  stated, 
it  would  appear  from  the  Acts  that  it  was  Mount 
Olivet,  since  after  tlie  Ascension  the  disciples  are 
described  as  returning  to  Jerusalem  from  tlie  mount 
tliat  is  called  Olivet,  which  is  nigh  Jerusalem,  within 
a  Sabbath  day's  journey.  Tradition  has  consecrated 
this  site  as  the  .Mount  of  Ascension  and  Christian 
pii'ly  has  memorialized  the  event  by  erecting  over 
the  site  a  basilica.  St.  Helena  built  the  first  me- 
morial, which  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians  in  614, 
rebuilt  in  the  eighth  century,  to  be  destroyed  again, 
but  rebuilt  a  second  time  by  the  crusaders.  This 
the  Mohammedans  also  destroyed,  leaving  only  the 
octagonal  structure  which  encloses  the  stone  said 
to  bear  the  imprint  of  the  feet  of  Christ,  that  is  now 
used  .as  an  oratory.  Not  only  is  the  fact  of  the 
Ascension  related  in  the  pa-ssages  of  Scripture  cited 
above,  but  it  is  also  elsewhere  predicted  and  spoken 
of  as  an  established  fact.  Thus,  in  St.  John,  vi,  63, 
Christ  asks  the  Jews: — "If  then  you  shall  see  the 
Son  of  Man  ascend  up  where  He  was  before?"  and 
XX,  17,  He  says  to  Mary  Magdalen: — "Do  not 
touch  Me,  for  I  am  not  yet  ascended  to  My  Kather, 
but  go  to  My  brethren,  and  say  to  them:  I  ascend  to 
My  Father  and  to  your  Father,  to  My  God  and  to 
your  God."  Again,  in  Ephesians,  iv,  8-10,  and 
I  Timothy,  iii,  16,  the  Ascension  of  Christ  is  spoken 
of  as  an  accepted  fact.  The  language  used  by  the 
Evangelists  to  describe  the  Ascension  must  be  in- 
terpreted according  to  usage.  To  say  that  He  was 
taken  up,  or  that  He  a.scended,  does  not  necessarily 
imply  that  they  locate  heaven  directly  above  the 
earth;  no  more  than  the  words  "sitteth  on  tlie  right 
hand  of  God"  mean  that  this  is  His  actual  posture. 
In  disappearing  from  their  view  "He  was  rai.sed  up 
and  a  cloud  received  Him  out  of  their  sight"  (Acts, 
1,9),  and  entering  into  glory  He  dwells  with  the 
Father  in  the  honour  and  power  denoted  by  the 
Scripture    phrase. 

Martin  in  Vigodroux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible. 

John  J.  Wi-nne. 

Ascension,  Fea.st  of  the,  the  fortieth  day  after 
Easter  Sunday,  commemorating  the  Ascension  of 
Christ  into  heaven,  according  to  Mark,  xvi,  19, 
Luke,  xxiv,  .51,  and  Acts,  i,  2.  In  the  ICastern 
Church  this  feast  w;ia  known  as  ai'd\r)\p(Ti!.  the  taking 
up,  and  also  as  the  Itnauiioi^ivTf.  the  salvation,  denot- 
ing that  by  ascending  into  His  glor\'  Christ  com- 
pleted the  work  of  our  redemption,  'i'he  terms  used 
in  tlie  West,  ascen-iio  and,  occasionally,  a.icen.ta, 
signify  that  Christ  was  raised  up  by  His  own  powers. 
Tradition  designates  .Mount  Olivet  near  Helliany  as 
the  place  where  Christ  left  the  earth.  The  feast  falls 
on  Thursday.     It  is  one  of  the  (ecumenical   feasts 


ranking  with  the  feasts  of  the  Passion,  of  Easter  and 
of  Pentecost  among  the  most  solemn  in  the  calendar, 
li.as  a  vigil  and,  since  the  fifteenth  century,  an  octave 
which  is  set  apart  for  a  novena  of  preparation  for 
Pentecost,  in  accordance  with  the  directions  of 
Leo  XIII.  The  observance  of  this  feast  is  of  great 
antiquity.  .Although  no  documentary  evidence  of 
it  exists  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century, 
St.  Augustine  says  that  it  is  of  Apostolic  origin,  and 
he  speaks  of  it  in  a  way  that  shows  it  was  the  uni- 
versal observance  of  the  Church  long  before  his  time. 
Frequent  mention  of  it  is  made  in  the  writings  of 
St.  John  Chrysostoni,  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  in 
the  Constitution  of  the  Apostles.  The  Pilgrimage 
of  Sylvia  (Perciirhiatio  Elhcriw)  speaks  of  tlie  vigil 
of  this  feast  and  of  the  feiust  itself,  as  they  were  ke[)t 
in  the  Church  built  over  the  grotto  in  Bethlehem  in 
which  Christ  was  born  (Duchesne,  Christian  Wor- 
ship, 491-.515).  It  may  he  that  prior  to  the  fifth 
century  the  fact  narrated  in  the  Gospels  was  com- 
memorated in  conjunction  with  the  feast  of  Easter 
or  Pentecost.  Some  belic\o  that  the  much-disputed 
forty-third  decree  of  the  Council  of  Elvira,  c.  300 
condemning  the  practice  of  observing  a  feast  on  the 
fortieth  day  after  Easter  and  neglecting  to  keep 
Pentecost  on  the  fiftieth  day,  implies  that  tlie  proper 
visage  of  the  time  wsis  to  commemorate  the  Ascension 
along  with  Pentecost.  Representations  of  tha 
mystery  are  found  in  diptyclis  and  frescoes  dating 
as  early  as  the  fifth  century.  Certain  customs  were 
connected  witli  the  liturgy  of  this  fe;ist,  such  as  the 
blessing  of  beans  and  grapes  after  the  Commemora- 
tion of  the  Dead  in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  the  bless- 
ing of  first  fruits,  afterwards  done  on  Rogation  Days 
the  blessing  of  a  candle,  the  wearing  of  mitres  by 
deacon  and  .subdcacon,  the  extinction  of  the  paschal 
candle,  and  triumphal  processions  with  torches  and 
banners  outside  the  churches  to  commemorate  the 
entry  of  Christ  into  heaven.  Rock  records  the 
English  custom  of  carrying  at  the  head  of  the  pro- 
cession the  banner  bearing  the  device  of  the  lion  and 
at  the  foot  the  banner  of  the  dragon,  to  .symbolize 
the  triumph  of  Christ  in  His  ascension  over  the  evil 
one.  In  some  churches  the  scene  of  the  .\scension 
was  vividly  reproduced  by  elevating;  the  figure  of 
Christ  above  tlie  altar  through  an  opening  in  the 
roof  of  the  church.  In  others,  whilst  the  figure  of 
Christ  was  made  to  ascend,  that  of  the  devil  was  made 
to  descend.  In  the  liturgies  generally  the  day  is 
meant  to  celebrate  the  completion  of  the  work  of 
our  salvation,  the  pledge  of  our  glorification  with 
Christ,  and  His  entry  into  heaven  with  our  human 
nature  glorified. 

DocHKSNK,  Chrislian  Worship  (London,  1904);  Nillf.8, 
Katendarium  Utriutque  Eccleti'v  (Innsbruck,  1897).  II.  362- 
374;  Cabboi,.  in  Did.  d'arch.  chrlt.  el  lilurg.;  Butleb,  FeaaU 
and  FatU:  Gu4ranokr,  III,  s.  v. 

John  J.  Wynne. 
Ascetical   Theology.      See    Theology,  Ascbti- 

CAL. 

Asceticism  from  tlie  Greek  iaK^ait,  which  means 
practice,  bodily  exercise,  and  more  especially,  athletic 
training.  The  early  Christians  adopted  it  to  signify 
the  practice  of  spiritual  things,  or  spiritual  exercises 
performed  for  tlie  purpose  of  acquiring  habits  of 
virtue.  .■\t  present  it  is  not  infrequentlv  employed 
in  an  opprobrious  sense,  to  designate  tlie  religious 
practices  of  Oriental  fanatics  as  well  as  those  of  the 
('hristian  saint,  both  of  whom  are  by  some  placed  in 
the  .same  categorj'.  It  is  not  uncommonly  con- 
founded with  austerity,  even  by  Catholics,  but  in- 
correctly. For  although  the  flesh  is  continually 
lusting  against  the  spirit,  and  repression  and  self- 
denial  are  necessary  to  control  the  animal  passions, 
it  would  be  an  error  to  measure  a  man's  virtue  liy 
the  extent  and  character  of  his  bodily  penances.  Ex- 
ternal penances  even  in  the  saints,  are  regarded  with 


ASCETICISM 


768 


ASCETICISM 


suspicion.  St.  Jerome,  \\hose  proneness  to  austerity 
makes  him  an  especially  valuable  authority  on  this 
point,  thus  writes  to  Celantia:  "Be  on  your  guard 
when  you  begin  to  mortify  your  body  by  abstinence 
and  fasting,  lest  you  imagine  yourself  to  be  perfect 
and  a  saint;  for  perfection  does  not  consist  in  this 
virtue.  It  is  only  a  help;  a  disposition;  a  means, 
though  a  fitting  one,  for  the  attainment  of  true  per- 
fection. "  Thus  asceticism,  according  to  the  definition 
of  St.  Jerome,  is  an  effort  to  attain  true  perfection, 
penance  being  only  an  auxiliary  virtue  thereto.  It 
should  be  noted  also  that  the  expression  "fasting  and 
abstinence"  is  commonly  used  in  Scripture  and  by 
ascetic  writers  as  a  generic  term  for  all  sorts  of  pen- 
ance. Neither  shoukl  asceticism  be  identified  with 
mysticism.  For  although  genuine  mysticism  cannot 
exist  without  asceticism,  the  reverse  is  not  true. 
One  can  be  an  ascetic  without  being  a  mystic.  As- 
ceticism is  ethical;  mysticism,  largely  intellectual. 
Asceticism  has  to  do  with  the  moral  virtues;  mysti- 
cism is  a  state  of  unusual  prayer  or  contemplation. 
They  are  distinct  from  each  other,  though  mutually 
co-operative.  Moreover,  although  asceticism  is  gen- 
erally associated  with  the  objectionable  features  of 
religion,  and  is  regarded  by  some  as  one  of  them,  it 
may  be  and  is  practised  by  those  who  affect  to  be 
swayed  by  no  religious  motives  whatever. 

Natural  A.sceticism. — If  for  personal  satisfac- 
tion, or  self-interest,  or  any  other  merely  human 
reason,  a  man  aims  at  the  acquisition  of  the  natural 
virtues,  for  instance,  temperance,  patience,  chastity, 
meekness,  etc.,  he  is,  by  the  very  fact,  exercising  him- 
self in  a  certain  degree  of  asceticism.  For  he  has 
entered  upon  a  struggle  with  liis  animal  nature; 
and  if  he  is  to  achieve  any  measure  of  success,  his 
efTorts  must  be  continuous  and  protracted.  Nor  can 
he  exclude  the  practice  of  penance.  Indeed  he  will 
frequently  inflict  upon  himself  both  bodily  and 
mental  pain.  He  will  not  even  remain  within  the 
bounds  of  strict  necessity.  He  will  punish  himself 
severely,  either  to  atone  for  failures,  or  to  harden 
his  powers  of  endurance,  or  to  strengthen  himself 
against  future  failures.  He  will  be  commonly  de- 
scribed as  an  ascetic,  as  in  fact  he  is.  For  he  is 
endeavouring  to  subject  the  material  part  of  his  na- 
ture to  the  spiritual,  or  in  other  words,  he  is  striving 
for  natural  perfection.  The  defect  of  this  kind  of 
asceticism  is  that,  besides  being  prone  to  error  in 
the  acts  it  performs  and  the  means  it  adopts,  its 
motive  is  imperfect,  or  bad.  It  may  be  prompted 
by  selfish  reasons  of  utility,  pleasure,  sestheticism, 
ostentation,  or  pride.  It  is  not  to  be  relied  upon  for 
serious  efforts  and  may  easily  give  way  under  the 
strain  of  weariness  or  temptation.  Finally,  it  fails 
to  recognize  that  perfection  consists  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  something  more  than  natural  virtue. 

Christian  Asceticism  is  prompted  by  the  desire 
to  do  the  will  of  God,  any  personal  element  of  self- 
satisfaction  which  enters  the  motive  vitiating  it 
more  or  less.  Its  object  is  the  subordination  of  the 
lower  appetites  to  the  dictates  of  right  reason  and 
the  law  of  God,  with  (lie  continued  and  necessary 
cultivation  of  the  virtues  which  tlie  Creator  intended 
man  to  possess,  .\bsolutcly  si)eaking,  the  will  of 
God  in  this  matter  is  discoverable  by  human  reason, 
but  it  is  exphcitly  laid  down  for  us  in  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, or  Decalogue,  which  furnishes  a  com- 
plete code  of  ethical  conduct.  Some  of  these  com- 
mandments are  positive;  others,  negative.  The 
negative  precepts,  "thou  shalt  not  kill",  "thou 
Bhalt  not  commit  adultery",  etc.,  imply  the  repres- 
sion of  the  lower  appetites,  and  consequently  call 
for  penance  and  mortification;  but  they  mtcnd  al.so, 
and  effect,  the  cultivation  of  the  virtues  which  are 
opposed  to  the  things  forbidden.  They  develop 
meekness,  gentleness,  self-control,  patience,  conti- 
nence,   chastity,    justice,     honesty,    brotherly    love. 


magnanimity,  liberahty,  etc.;  while  the  first  three 
which  are  positive  in  their  character,  "  thou  shall 
adore  thy  God",  etc.,  bring  into  vigorous  and  con- 
stant exerci.se  the  virtues  of  faith,  hope,  charity, 
rehgion,  rcvcence,  and  prayer.  Finally,  the  fourth 
insists  on  obedience,  respect  for  authority,  observance 
of  law,  filial  piety,  and  the  hke.  Such  were  the 
virtues  practised  by  the  mass  of  the  people  of  God 
under  the  Old  Law,  and  this  may  be  considered 
as  the  first  step  in  true  asceticism.  For  apart  from 
the  many  instances  of  exalted  holiness  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews,  the  lives  of  the  faithful  followers 
of  the  Law,  that  is  the  main  body  of  the  ordinary 
people,  must  have  been  such  as  the  Law  enjoined, 
and  although  their  moral  elevation  might  not  be 
designated  as  asceticism  in  the  present  restricted 
and  distorted  meaning  of  the  term,  yet  it  probably 
appeared  to  the  pagan  world  of  those  times  verj' 
much  as  exalted  virtue  does  to  the  world  to-day. 
Even  the  works  of  penance  to  which  they  were  sub- 
jected in  the  many  fasts  and  abstinences,  as  well  as 
the  requirements  of  their  ceremonial  observances, 
were  much  more  severe  than  those  imposed  upon 
the  Christians  who  succeeded  them. 

In  the  New  Dispensation  the  binding  force  of  the 
Commandments  continued,  but  the  practice  of 
virtue  took  on  another  aspect,  inasmuch  as  the 
dominant  motive  presented  to  man  for  the  service 
of  God  was  not  fear,  but  love;  though  fear  was  by 
no  means  eUminated.  God  was  to  be  the  Lord 
indeed,  but  He  was  at  the  same  time  the  Father, 
and  men  were  His  children.  Again,  because  of  this 
sonship  the  love  of  one's  neighbour  ascended  to  v. 
higher  plane.  The  "neighbour"  of  the  Jew  was  one 
of  the  chosen  people,  and  even  of  him  rigorous  justice 
was  to  be  exacted;  it  was  an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a 
tooth  for  a  tooth.  In  the  Christian  dispen-sation 
the  neighbour  is  not  only  one  of  the  true  faith,  but 
the  schismatic,  the  outcast,  and  the  pagan.  Love 
is  extended  even  to  one's  enemies,  and  we  are  bidden 
to  pray  for,  and  to  do  good  to,  them  who  revile  and 
persecute  us  and  do  all  manner  of  evil  against  us. 
This  supernatural  love  for  even  the  vilest  and  most 
repellent  representatives  of  humanity  constitutes 
one  of  the  distinctive  marks  of  Christian  asceticism. 
Moreover,  the  more  extended  and  luminous  revela- 
tion of  Divine  things,  coupled  with  the  greater  abund- 
ance of  spiritual  assistance  conferred  chiefly  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  sacraments,  make  the 
practice  of  virtue  easier  and  more  attractive  and 
at  the  same  time  more  elevated,  generous,  intense, 
and  enduring,  while  the  universality  of  Christianity 
lifts  the  practice  of  asceticism  out  of  the  narrow 
limitations  of  being  the  exclusive  privilege  of  a 
single  race  into  a  common  possession  of  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth.  The  .\cts  of  the  Apostles  show 
the  transformation  immediately  effected  among  the 
devout  Jews  who  formed  the  first  comnumities  of 
Christians.  That  new  and  elevated  form  of  virtue 
has  remained  in  the  Church  ever  since. 

Wherever  the  Church  has  been  allowed  to  exert 
her  influence  we  find  virtue  of  the  highest  order 
among  her  people.  Even  among  those  whom  the 
world  regards  as  simple  and  ignorant  there  are  most 
amazing  perceptions  of  spiritual  truths,  inten.se  love 
of  (iod  and  of  all  that  relates  to  Him,  sometimes 
remarkable  habits  of  prayer,  purity  of  life  both  in 
individuals  and  in  families,  heroic  patience  in  sub- 
mitting to  poverty,  bodily  suffering,  and  porsccntioiis; 
magnanimity  in  forgiving  injury,  teiulcr  .solicitude 
for  the  poor  and  afflicted,  though  they  thcm.selves 
may  be  almost  in  the  same  condition;  and  wliat  is 
most  characteristic  of  all,  a  complete  absence  of  envy 
of  the  rich  and  powerful  and  a  generally  undisturbed 
contentment  and  happiness  in  their  own  lot;  while 
similar  results  are  achieved  among  the  wealtliy  and 
great,  though  not  to  the  same  extent.     In  a  word. 


ASCETICISM 


769 


ASCETICISM 


there  is  developed  an  attitude  of  soul  so  much  at 
variance  with  the  principles  and  methods  generally 
obtaining  in  the  pagan  world  that,  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  indeed  tliroughout,  under  the  Old  Law, 
it  W!us  commonly  described  and  denounced  as  folly. 
It  miglit  be  cUissified  as  very  lofty  asceticism  if  its 
practice  were  not  so  common,  and  if  the  conditions 
of  poverty  and  sutTering  in  which  these  virtues  are 
most  frequently  practised  were  not  the  result  of 
physical  or  social  necessity.  Hut  even  if  these  con- 
ditions are  not  voluntarj',  the  patient  and  uncom- 
plaining acceptance  of  tliem  constitutes  a  very  noble 
kinil  of  spirituality  which  easily  develops  into  one  of 
a  higher  kind  and  may  be  designated  as  its  third 
degree,  which  may  be  described  as  follows:  In  the 
New  Law  we  have  not  merely  the  reatlirmation  of 
the  precepts  of  the  Old,  but  also  the  teachings  and 
example  of  Christ  Who,  besides  requiring  obedience 
to  the  Commandments,  continually  appeals  to  Ilis 
followers  for  prf)ofs  of  personal  affection  and  a 
closer  imitation  of  His  life  than  is  po.ssible  by  the 
mere  fulfilment  of  the  Law.  The  motives  and  the 
manner  of  this  imitation  are  laid  down  in  the  Gospel, 
which  is  the  basis  taken  by  ascetical  writers  for  their 
instructions.  This  imitation  of  Christ  generally 
proceeds  along  three  main  lines,  viz.:  mortification 
of  the  senses,  unworldliness,  and  detachment  from 
family  ties. 

It  is  here  especially  that  asceticism  comes  in  for 
censure  on  the  part  of  its  opponents.  Mortification, 
unworldliness,  and  detachment  are  particularly 
obnoxious  to  them.  Hut  in  an.swer  to  their  olijection 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  note  that  condemnations  of 
such  practices  or  aspirations  must  fall  on  IIolv 
Scripture  also,  for  it  gives  a  distinct  warrant  for  all 
three.  Thus  we  have,  as  regards  mortification,  the 
words  of  St.  Paul,  who  .says:  "I  chastise  my  body 
and  bring  it  into  subjection:  lest  perhaps  when  I 
have  preached  to  others,  I  myself  should  become  a 
castaway"  (I  Cor.,  ix,  27);  while  Our  Lord  Ilim.self 
says:  "  He  that  taketh  not  up  his  cro.ss,  and  followeth 
Me,  is  not  worthy  of  Me"  (Matt.,  x,  3S).  Commend- 
ing vmworldliness,  we  have:  "My  kingdom  is  not  of 
this  world"  (John,  xviii,  36);  approving  detachment, 
there  is  the  text,  not  to  cite  others:  "If  any  man 
come  to  Me  and  hate  not  his  fatlier,  and  mother,  and 
wife,  and  children,  and  brethren,  and  sisters,  yea, 
and  his  own  life  also,  he  cannot  be  My  disciple" 
(Luke,  xiv,  26).  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  note, 
however,  that  the  word  "  hate  "  is  not  to  be  taken  in 
its  strict  sense,  but  only  as  indicating  a  greater  love 
for  God  than  for  all  things  together.  Such  is  the 
general  scheme  of  this  higher  order  of  asceticism. 

The  character  of  this  asceticism  is  determined  by 
its  motive.  In  the  first  place  a  man  may  serve  God 
in  such  a  way  that  he  is  wiUing  to  make  any  .sacrifice 
rather  than  commit  a  grievous  sin.  This  disposition 
of  soul,  which  is  the  lowest  in  the  spiritual  life,  is 
necessary  for  salvation.  Again,  he  may  be  willing 
to  make  such  sacrifices  ratlicr  tlian  offend  God  by 
venial  sin.  Lastly  he  may,  when  there  is  no  question 
of  sin  at  all,  be  eager  to  do  whatever  will  make  his 
life  harmonize  with  that  of  Christ.  It  is  this  last 
motive  which  the  higlicst  kind  of  a.sceticism  adopts. 
The.se  three  stages  are  called  by  St.  Ignatius  "the 
three  degrees  of  humility",  for  the  reason  that  they 
are  the  three  steps  in  the  elimination  of  self,  and 
con.sequently  three  great  advances  towards  union 
with  God.  who  enters  the  soul  in  proportion  as  .self 
isr  expelled.  It  is  the  spiritual  state  of  which  St. 
Paul  speaks  when  he  says:  ".And  I  live,  now  not  I; 
but  Christ  liveth  in  me"  (Gal.,  ii.  20).  Other  a.scetic 
writers  describe  them  a.s  states  or  conditions  of  the 
beginners,  the  proficient,  and  the  perfect.  They 
are  not,  however,  to  be  considered  chronologically 
distinct;  as  if  the  perfect  man  had  nothing  to  do 
with   the  methods  of  the  beginner,  or  vice  versa. 


"The  building  of  the  spiritual  edifice",  says  Scara- 
melli,  "is  simultaneous  in  all  its  parts.  Tne  roof  is 
stretched  while  the  foundations  are  being  laid." 
Hence  the  perfect  man,  even  with  his  subhme  motive 
of  imitation,  has  always  need  of  the  fear  of  damna- 
tion, in  order  that,  as  St.  Ignatius  expre.s.ses  it.  if 
ever  the  love  of  God  grows  cold,  the  fear  of  hell  may 
rekindle  it  again.  On  the  other  hand,  the  beginner 
who  has  broken  with  mortal  sin  has  already  started 
in  his  growth  to  perfect  charity.  These  states  are 
al.so  de-scribed  a.s  the  purgative,  illuminative,  and 
unitive  ways. 

It  is  evident  that  the  practice  of  unworldliness,  of 
detachment  from  family  and  other  ties,  must  be  for 
the  greatest  number  not  the  actual  perfonnance  of 
those  things,  but  only  the  serious  disposition  or 
readiness  to  make  such  siicrifices,  in  case  God  should 
require  them,  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact  in  their  ca.se, 
He  does  not.  They  are  merely  affective,  and  not 
effective,  but  none  the  less  they  constitute  a  very 
sul)lime  kind  of  spirituality.  Suolime  as  it  is,  there 
are  many  examples  of  it  in  the  Church,  nor  is  it  the 
exclusi\e  po.ssession  of  those  who  have  abandoned 
tlie  world  or  are  about  to  do  so,  but  it  is  the  possession 
also  of  many  whom  necessity  compels  to  live  in  the 
world,  married  as  well  as  single,  of  those  who  are  in 
the  enjoyment  of  honour  and  wealth  and  of  responsi- 
bility as  well  as  of  those  who  are  in  opposite  con- 
ditions. They  cannot  effectively  realize  their  desires 
or  aspirations,  but  tlieir  affections  take  that  direction. 
Thus  there  are  multitudes  of  men  and  women  who 
though  living  in  the  world  are  not  of  it,  who  have 
no  liking  or  taste  for  worUlly  display,  though  often 
compelled  by  their  position,  social  or  otherwise,  to 
assume  it,  who  avoid  worldly  advancement  or  hon- 
our not  out  of  pusillanimity,  but  out  of  unconcern, 
or  contempt,  or  knowleilge  of  its  danger;  who,  with 
opportunities  for  pleasure,  practise  penance,  some- 
times of  the  most  rigorous  character;  who  would 
willingly,  if  it  were  possible,  give  up  their  lives  to 
v^orks  of  charity  or  devotion;  who  love  the  poor  and 
tlispen.se  alms  to  the  extent  of,  and  even  beyond,  their 
means;  who  have  strong  attraction  for  prayer,  and 
who  withdraw  from  the  world  when  it  is  possible  for 
the  meditation  of  divine  things;  who  frequent  the 
sacraments  assiduously;  who  are  the  soul  of  every 
undertaking  for  the  good  of  tlieir  fellow-men  and 
the  glory  of  God;  and  whose  dominant  preoccupation 
in  the  midst  of  their  own  worldly  cares  and  anxieties 
is  the  advancement  of  the  interest  of  God  and  the 
Church.  Hishops  and  priests  especially  enter  into 
this  categorj'.  Even  tne  poor  and  humble,  who, 
having  nothing  to  give,  yet  would  give  if  they  had 
any  possessions,  may  be  classed  among  such  servants 
of  Christ. 

That  this  asceticism  is  not  only  attainable  but  at- 
tained by  laymen  ser\'es  to  bring  out  the  truth  which 
is  .sometimes  lost  sight  of,  viz..  that  the  practice  of 
perfection  is  not  restricted  to  the  religious  state.  In 
fact,  though  one  may  hve  in  the  state  of  perfection, 
that  is,  be  a  member  of  a  religious  order,  tie  may  be 
surpa.ssed  in  perfection  bv  a  layman  in  the  world. 
Hut  to  reduce  these  sublime  dispositions  to  actual 
practice,  to  make  them  not  only  affective  but  effec- 
tive, to  realize  what  Christ  meant  when,  after  having 
told  the  multitude  on  the  Mount  of  the  blessedness  of 
poverty  of  spirit.  He  .said  to  the  Apostles,  "  Hlessed 
are  you  who  are  poor",  and  to  reproduce  also  the 
other  \nrtues  of  Christ  and  the  .\postles,  the  Church 
has  established  a  life  of  actual  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience.  For  that  purpose,  it  has  founded  re- 
ligious orders,  thus  enabling  those  who  are  desirous 
and  able  to  practise  tliis  higher  order  of  asceticism, 
to  do  .so  with  greater  facility  and  in  greater  .security. 

MoN.\sTic  OH  Rki-Ioiois  .'\.'<cktici.'4M. — The  estab- 
lishment of  religious  orders  was  not  the  result  of  any 
sudden   or   mandatory  legislation   by   the    Church. 


ASCETICISM 


770 


ASCETICISM 


On  the  contrary,  the  germs  of  religious  life  were 
implanted  in  it  by  Christ  Himself  from  the  very 
beginning.  For  in  the  Gospel  we  have  repeated 
in\ntations  to  follow  the  evangelical  counsels.  Hence, 
in  the  first  days  of  the  Church,  we  find  that  particular 
kind  of  asceticism  widely  practised  which  later 
developed  into  the  form  adopted  by  the  Religious 
Orders.  In  the  "History  of  the  Roman  Breviary", 
by  Batiffol  (tr.  Bayley),  1,5,  we  read:  "In  proportion 
as  the  Church  in  extending  itself  had  grown  colder, 
there  had  taken  place  within  its  bosom  a  drawing 
together  of  those  souls  which  were  possessed  of  the 
greatest  zeal  and  fervour.  These  consisted  of  men 
and  women,  alike,  living  in  the  world  and  without 
severing  themselves  from  the  ties  and  obligations  of 
ordinary  life,  yet  binding  themselves  by  private  vow 
or  public  profession  to  live  in  chastity  all  their  life, 
to  fast  all  the  week,  to  spend  their  days  in  prayer. 
They  were  called  in  Syria  Monazonites  and  Parthcnce, 
ascetics  and  virgins.  They  formed,  as  it  were,  a 
third  order,  a  confraternity.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
fourth  century,  we  find  these  associations  of  ascetics 
and  virgins  established  in  all  the  great  Churches  of 
the  East,  at  Alexandria.  Jeru.salem.  Antioch,  Edessa." 
Men  hke  Athanasius,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  John 
Chrysostom,  and  others  wrote  and  legislated  for  them. 
They  had  a  special  place  in  the  church  services  and 
it  is  noteworthy  also  that  at  Antioch  "the  ascetics 
there  formed  the  main  body  of  the  Nicene  or  orthodox 
party".  But  "dating  from  the  reign  of  Theodosius 
and  the  time  when  CathoHcism  became  the  social 
religion  of  the  world,  comes  the  movement  when  a 
deep  cleavage  in  religious  society  manifested  itself. 
These  ascetics  and  virgins,  who,  till  now,  have  mingled 
with  the  common  body  of  the  faithful,  abandon  the 
world  and  go  forth  into  the  wilderness.  The  Church 
of  the  multitude  is  no  longer  a  sufficiently  holy  city 
for  these  pure  ones;  they  go  forth  to  build  in  the 
desert  the  Jerusalem  which  they  crave. "  (Cf.  Du- 
chesne, Christian  Worship.) 

The  time  when  these  foundations  began  is  said  by 
Batiffol  to  be  "  when  Catliolicism  became  the  social 
rehgion".  Pre\nous  to  that,  with  their  pagan  sur- 
roundings, such  establishments  would  have  been  out 
of  the  question.  The  instinct  for  monastic  institu- 
tions was  there,  but  its  realization  was  delayed. 
Those  who  enter  a  religious  order  take  the  three 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  which  are 
considered  here  only  inasmuch  as  they  differentiate 
a  particular  kind  of  asceticism  from  other  forms. 
They  are  called  substantial  vows  because  they  are 
the  basis  of  a  permanent  and  fixed  condition  or  state 
of  life,  and  affect,  modify,  determine,  and  direct  the 
whole  attitude  of  one  who  is  bound  by  them  in  his 
relations  to  the  world  and  to  God.  They  constitute 
a  mode  of  existence  which  has  no  other  purpose  than 
the  attainment  of  the  highest  spiritual  perfection. 
Being  perpetual,  they  ensure  permanence  in  the 
practice  of  virtue  and  prevent  it  from  being  inter- 
mittent and  sporadic;  being  an  absolute,  free,  irrev- 
ocable, and  complete  surrender  of  the  most  precious 
possessions  of  man,  their  fulfilment  creates  a  spiritu- 
ality, or  a  species  of  asceticism,  of  the  most  heroic 
character.  Indeed  it  is  inconceivable  what  more 
one  can  offer  to  God,  or  how  tliese  virtues  of  poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience  can  be  exercised  in  a  higher 
degree.  That  the  observance  of  these  vows  is  a 
reproduction  of  the  manner  of  life  of  Christ  and  the 
Apostles,  and  has,  as  a  consequence,  given  countless 
saints  to  the  Church,  is  a  sufficient  answer  to  the 
accusation  that  the  obligations  they  impose  are 
degrading,  inhuman,  and  cruel,  a  reproach  often 
urged  against   them. 

While  concurring  in  the  practice  of  the  same 
fundamental  virtues,  the  religious  bodies  are  differen- 
tiated from  one  another  by  tlie  particular  object  which 
prompted    their   separate    formation,    namely,  some 


need  of  the  Church,  some  new  movement  which  had 
to  be  directed,  some  rebeUion  or  here.sy  that  had  to 
be  combated,  some  spiritual  or  corporal  aid  that  had 
to  be  brought  to  mankind,  etc.  From  this  there 
resulted  that  besides  the  ob.servance  of  the  three 
main  virtues  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience, 
some  special  virtue  is  cultivated  by  each.  Thus,  in 
the  beginning  of  Christianity,  when  labour  was  con- 
sidered a  badge  of  slavery,  the  great,  the  learned, 
the  noble,  as  well  as  the  humble,  the  ignorant,  and 
the  poor,  filled  the  deserts  of  Egj'pt  and  supported 
themselves  by  manual  labour,  their  withdrawal  from 
the  world  being  also  a  protest  against  the  corruption 
of  paganism.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
Empire  the  Benedictines  taught  the  barbarians 
agriculture,  the  arts,  letters,  arcliitecture,  etc.,  while 
inculcating  the  virtues  of  Christianity;  the  poverty 
of  the  Franciscans  was  a  condemnation  of  the  luxurj' 
and  extravagance  of  the  age  in  which  they  originated; 
the  need  of  protecting  the  faithful  from  heresy  gave 
rise  to  the  Order  of  Preachers;  rebellion  against 
authority  and  defection  from  tlie  Pope  called  for  a 
special  emphasis  on  obedience  and  loyalty  to  the 
Holy  See  by  the  Society  of  Jesus;  the  defence  of 
the  Holy  Land  created  the  Military  Orders;  the 
redemption  of  captives,  the  care  of  the  sick  and  poor, 
education,  missionary  work,  etc.  all  called  into  ex- 
istence an  immense  variety  of  congregations,  whose 
energies  were  directed  along  one  special  line  of  good 
works,  with  the  consequent  development  to  an  un- 
usual degree  of  the  \irtues  which  were  needed  to 
attain  that  special  end.  Meantime,  their  rules, 
covering  every  detail  and  every  moment  of  their 
daily  lives,  called  for  the  practice  of  all  the  other 
virtues. 

In  some  of  the  orders  the  rules  make  no  mention 
of  corporal  penance  at  all,  leaving  that  to  individual 
devotion;  in  others  great  austerity  is  prescribed,  but 
excess  is  provided  against  both  by  the  fact  that  the 
rules  have  been  subjected  to  pontifical  approval  and 
because  superiors  can  grant  exceptions.  Tliat  svicli 
penitential  practices  produce  morbid  and  gloomy 
characters  is  absurd  to  those  who  know  the  light- 
heartedness  that  prevails  in  strict  religious  com- 
munities; that  they  are  injurious  to  health  and  e\'en 
abbreviate  fife  cannot  be  seriously  maintained  in 
view  of  the  remarkable  longevity  noted  among  the 
members  of  very  austere  orders.  It  is  true  that  in 
the  lives  of  the  saints  we  meet  with  some  very  ex- 
traordinary and  apparently  extravagant  mortifico- 
tions;  but  in  the  first  place,  what  is  extraordinarj', 
and  extravagant,  and  severe  in  one  generation  may 
not  be  so  in  another  which  is  ruder  and  more  inured 
to  hardship.  Again,  they  are  not  proposed  for 
imitation,  nor  is  it  always  necessary  to  admit  their 
wisdom,  nor  that  the  biographer  was  not  exaggerat- 
ing, or  describing  as  continual  what  was  only  occa- 
sional; and  on  the  other  hand  it  is  not  forbidden  to 
suppose  that  some  of  these  penitents  may  have  been 
prompted  by  the  Spirit  of  God  to  make  themsehcs 
atoning  victims  for  the  sins  of  others.  Besides,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  these  practices  went  hand 
in  hand  with  tlie  cultivation  of  the  sublimest  \irtues, 
that  tliey  were  for  the  most  part  performed  in  secret, 
and  in  no  case  for  ostentation  and  display.  But 
even  if  there  was  abuse,  the  Church  is  not  responsible 
for  the  aberrations  of  individuals,  nor  does  her  teach- 
ing become  wrong  if  misvmdcrstood  or  misapplied, 
as  might  have  been  done  inadvertently  or  uncon- 
sciously, even  by  the  hohest  of  her  children,  in  the 
exaggerated  use  of  corporal  penance.  The  virtue 
of  prudence  is  a  part  of  asceticism.  The  reformation 
or  abolition  of  certain  orders  because  of  corrujition 
only  empliasizes  the  truth  that  monastic  asceticism 
means  an  organized  effort  to  attain  perfection.  If 
tliat  purpose  is  kept  in  view,  the  order  continues  to 
exist;  if  it  ceases  to  be  ascetic  in  its  hfe,  it  is  abolished. 


ASCETICISM 


771 


ASCETICISM 


A  common  accusation  apaiiist  rclicious  asceticism 
is  that  it  is  synonymous  with  idleness.  Such  a 
charge  ignores  all  past  ami  contemporary  history. 
It  was  the  iuscetic  monks  who  virtually  ereateil  our 
present  civilization.  I)y  teaching  the  barbarian  tribes 
the  value  and  dignity  of  manual  labour;  by  training 
them  in  the  mechanical  arts,  in  agriculture,  in  arclii- 
tecture,  etc.;  by  reclaiming  swamps  and  forests,  and 
forming  industrial  centres  from  wliich  great  cities 
develoix-'d,  not  to  speak  of  the  institutions  of  learning 
which  they  everywhere  established.  Omitting  the 
especially  prominent  instances  now  before  tlie  world, 
namely  the  vast  amount  of  industry  and  toil  implied 
in  the  establisliincnt.  organization,  management,  and 
support  of  tcn<  nf  ihcmsands  of  a-sylums.  hospitals, 
refuges,  and  scliools  in  civilized  lands  by  men  and 
women  who  are  wearing  themselves  out  in  labouring 
for  the  good  of  humanity,  there  are  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  men  and  women  bound  by  vows  and 
practising  religious  asceticism  who,  without  any 
comoensation  to  themselves  except  the  supernatural 
one  of  .-iacrificing  themselves  for  others,  are  at  the 
present  moment  labouring  among  savage  tribes  all 
over  the  world,  teacliing  them  to  build  houses,  till 
their  fields,  work  at  trades,  care  for  their  families, 
while  at  the  same  time  imparting  to  them  human 
learning  in  the  drudgery  of  schools,  and  leading  them 
in  the  way  of  salvation.  Idleness  and  asceticism 
are  conditions  absolutely  incompatible  with  each 
other,  and  the  monastic  institution  where  idleness 
prevails  has  already  lost  its  asceticism  and,  if  not 
swept  away  by  some  special  upheaval,  will  be  abol- 
ished by  ecclesiastical  legislation.  The  precept 
which  St.  Paul  laid  down  for  ordinary  Christians  has 
always  been  a  fundamental  principle  of  genuine 
a.sceticism:  "If  any  man  will  not  work,  neither  let 
him  eat"  (II  Thess.,  iii,  10).  But,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  Church  has  seldom  had  to  resort  to  .such  a 
drastic  measure  as  destruction.  She  has  easily  re- 
formed the  religious  orders  which,  while  giving  her 
many  of  her  most  learned  men  and  illustrious  saints, 
have  been  ever  a  source  of  pride  because  of  the 
stupendous  work  they  have  achieved,  not  only  for 
the  honour  of  God  and  the  advancement  of  the 
Church,  but  in  uplifting  humanity,  leading  it  in  the 
ways  of  virtue  and  hoUne.ss,  and  establishing  institu- 
tions of  benevolence  and  charity  for  every  species  of 
human  suffering  and  sorrow. 

In  apparent  contradiction  with  the  assertion  that 
the  higliest  expression  of  asceticism  is  to  be  found  in 
monastic  life  is  the  fact  that  monasticism  not  only 
exists  in  the  pagan  reUgions  of  India,  but  is  associ- 
ated with  great  moral  depravity.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  show  that  these  Hindu  institutions  are 
merely  travesties  of  Christian  monasteries,  prnbal)ly 
those  of  the  old  Nestorians,  or  the  result  of  primitive 
Christian  traditions.  But  neither  of  these  suppo- 
sitions can  be  accepted.  For,  although,  doubtless, 
Indian  monasticism  in  the  course  of  ages  borrowed 
some  of  its  practices  from  Nestorianism.  the  fact  is 
that  it  existed  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  The 
explanation  of  it  is  that  it  is  nothing  else  than  the 
outcome  of  the  natural  reUgious  instinct  of  man  to 
withdraw  from  the  world  for  meditation,  prayer,  and 
spiritual  improvement,  instances  of  whicii  might  be 
cited  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Hebrews,  and 
among  ourselves  in  the  Brook  Farm  and  other  Ameri- 
can experiments.  But  whether  they  were  merely 
imitations  or  the  promptings  of  a  natural  instinct, 
it  only  goes  to  show,  in  the  first  place,  that  monastic 
eeclu-sion  is  not  unnatural  to  man;  and  .secondly, 
that  some  Divinely  constituted  authority  is  needed 
to  guide  this  natural  propensity  and  to  prevent  it 
from  falling  into  those  extravagances  to  which  re- 
ligious enthusiasm  is  prone.  In  other  words,  there 
must  be  an  acknow^ledged  and  absolute  spiritual 
power  to  legislate  for  it  along  the  lines  of  truth  and 
I.— 49 


virtue,  to  censure  ami  condemn  and  punish  wliat  is 
wrong  in  individuals  and  a.s.sociations;  a  power 
able  to  determine  infaUibly  what  is  morally  right 
ami  wrong.  The  (^athoHc  Church  alone  claims  that 
power.  It  has  always  recopiized  the  ascetic  instinct 
in  man,  has  approved  asstjciations  for  the  cultivation 
of  religious  perfection,  has  laid  down  minute  rules 
for  their  guidance,  has  always  exercised  the  strictest 
surveillance  over  tlicin,  and  has  never  hesitated  to 
aboUsh  them  wlien  they  no  longer  serve< I  the  pur[X).se 
for  which  they  were  intended.  Moreover,  as  genuine 
jusceticism  does  not  rest  .sati.sfied  with  natural,  but 
aims  at  supernatural,  perfection,  and  as  the  super- 
natural in  tlie  New  Dispensation  is  in  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  Catholic  Church,  under  its  guidance  alone 
is  asceticism   secure. 

Jewish  .Asceticism. — Besides  the  ordinary  ob- 
servers of  the  Old  Law,  we  have  the  great  Hebrew 
saints  and  prophets  whose  deeds  arc  recordeil  in 
Holy  Writ.  Tliey  were  a.scetics  who  practised  the 
loftiest  virtue,  who  were  adorned  with  remarkable  spir- 
itual gifts,  and  consecrated  themselves  to  the  service 
of  (!od  and  their  fellow-men.  .Xs  to  the  Schools  of 
the  Prophets,  whatever  they  may  have  been,  it  is  ad- 
mitted that  one  of  the  objects  intended  was  the  prac- 
tice of  \irtue,  and  in  that  respect  they  may  be  re- 
garded as  schools  of  asceticism.  The  Nazarites  were 
men  who  consecrated  themselves  by  a  perpetual  or 
temporary  vow  to  abstain  all  the  days  of  their 
Nazariteship,  that  is,  during  tlieir  separation  from 
the  rest  of  tlie  people,  from  the  u.se  of  wine  and  all 
other  intoxicating  drink,  from  vinegar  formed  from 
wine  or  strong  drink,  from  any  liquor  of  grapes, 
from  grapes  dried  or  fresli,  and  indeed  from  the  use 
of  anything  produced  from  the  vine.  Other  observ- 
ances which  were  of  obligation,  such  as  letting  tlie 
hair  grow,  avoiding  defilement,  etc.,  were  ceremonial 
rather  than  ascetic.  The  Nazarites  were  exclusively 
men,  and  there  is  said  to  be  no  instance  in  the  Old 
Testament  of  a  female  Nazarite.  They  were  a  class 
of  persons  "holy  to  the  Lord"  in  a  special  sense, 
and  made  their  vow  of  abstinence  an  example  of 
self-denial  and  moderation  and  a  protest  against  the 
indulgent  habits  of  the  Chanaanites  which  were  in- 
vading the  people  of  Israel.  Sain.son  and  Samuel 
were  consecrated  by  their  mothers  to  this  kind  of 
life.  It  is  not  certain  that  they  lived  apart  in  dis- 
tinct communities,  like  the  Sons  of  the  Prophets, 
though  there  is  an  instance  of  three  hundred  of  them 
being  found  together  at  the  same  time. 

The  Rk(H.\hites,  whom,  however,  Josephus  does 
not  mention,  appear  to  have  been  a  nomad  tribe, 
distinguished  chiefly  by  their  abstinence  from  wine, 
though  it  is  not  certain  that  other  into.xicants  were 
forbidden,  or  that  such  abstinence  was  prompted  by 
motives  of  penance.  It  may  have  been  merely  to 
prevent  the  culture  of  the  vine  in  order  to  keep  them 
m  their  nomadic  state,  the  better  to  escape  corruption 
from  their  Chanaanitish  neighb<iurs.  There  were  also 
Essenes  who  lived  a  communal  life,  pos.sessed  no 
individual  pn)perty,  affected  an  extreme  simplicity 
in  diet  and  dress,  and  lived  apart  from  great  cities  to 
preserve  themselves  from  contamination.  Some  of 
them  abjured  marriage.  They  devoted  theni.selves 
to  the  sick,  and  for  that  purpose  made  a  special  study 
of  the  curative  qualities  of  herbs  and  boasted  of 
po.ssessing  medical  recipes  hande<l  down  from  Solo- 
mon. Hence  their  name,  Kssenes,  or  Healers. 
Finally  come  the  Phari.sees,  who  were  the  Puritans 
of  the  Old  Law,  but  whose  \irtues  and  austerities  we 
know  to  have  been  often  only  pretence,  although 
there  were,  doubtless,  among  them  some  who  were  in 
earnest  in  the  practice  of  \'irtue.  St.  Paul  describes 
himself  as  a  Pharisee  of  the  Pharisees.  Outside  of 
Judea,  there  were  .said  to  l)e  a  certain  number  of 
.lews,  men  and  women,  living  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Mareotis,  near  Alexandria,  who  mingled  their  own 


ASCETICISM 


ASCETICISM 


.•eligious  observ-ances  with  those  of  the  Egyptians, 
and  who  lived  a  life  of  voluntary  poverty,  chastity, 
labour,  solitude,  and  prayer.  They  were  called 
Therapeutne,  which,  like  Essenes.  means  Healers. 
Rappoport,  in  his  "History  of  Egjypt "  (XI,  29),  .says 
that  a  certain  class  of  the  Egj'ptian  priesthood  led 
a  similar  kind  of  Hfe.  We  know  of  the  Therapeutse 
only  from  Philo.  How  true  his  descriptions  are 
cannot  be  determined. 

Heretical  A.scetici.sm. — In  the  second  century 
of  the  Church  appear  the  Encratites.  or  The  .\uKtere. 
They  were  a  section  of  the  heretical  Gnostics,  chiefly 
Syrians,  who,  because  of  their  erroneous  views  about 
matter,  withdrew  from  all  contact  with  the  world, 
and  denounced  marriage  as  impure.  About  the  same 
period  came  the  Montanists,  who  forbade  second 
marriage,    enjoined    rigorous    fasts,  insisted  on  the 

Cerpetual  exclusion  from  the  Church  of  those  who 
ad  ever  committed  grievous  sin,  stigmatized  flight 
in  time  of  persecution  as  reprehensible,  protested 
that  virgins  should  be  always  veiled,  reprobated 
paintings,  statuary,  militaiy  service,  theatres,  and 
all  worldly  sciences.  In  the  third  century  the 
Manichaeans  held  marriage  to  be  unlawful  and  re- 
frained from  wine,  meat,  milk,  and  eggs;  all  of 
which  did  not  deter  them  from  the  grossest  im- 
morality. The  Flagellants  were  a  sect  that  began 
about  1260.  They  journeyed  from  place  to  place  in 
Italy,  Austria,  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  and  Poland, 
scourging  themselves  to  blood,  ostensibly  to  excite 
the  populace  to  contrition  for  their  sins,  but  they 
were  soon  prohibited  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities. 
They  appeared  again  in  the  fourteenth  centurj',  in 
Hungarj%  Germany,  and  England.  Pope  Clement  VI 
issued  a  Bull  against  them  in  1349,  and  the  Inquisition 
pursued  them  with  such  vigour  that  they  disappeared 
altogether.  They  were  bitter  enemies  of  the  Church. 
The  Cathari  of  "the  twelfth  century  were,  as  their 
name  impUes,  Puritans.  Though  teaching  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Manichaeans,  they  affected  to  live  a  purer 
life  than  the  rest  of  the  Church.  Chief  among  them 
were  the  Waldenses,  or  "Poor  Men  of  Lyons",  who 
accepted  evangelical  poverty  and  then  defied  the 
Pope,  who  suppressed  them.  Although  Protestant- 
ism has  been  incessant  in  its  denunciations  of  asceti- 
cism, it  is  amazing  to  note  how  many  extreme  in- 
stances of  it  the  liistory  of  Protestantism  furnishes. 
The  Puritans  of  England  and  New  England,  with 
their  despotic  and  cruel  laws,  which  imposed  all 
sorts  of  restrictions  not  only  upon  themselves,  but 
upon  others,  are  examples  of  misgiuded  ascetics. 
The  early  Methodists,  with  their  denunciations  of  all 
amusements,  dancing,  theatres,  card-playing,  Sim- 
day  enjoyments,  etc.,  were  ascetics.  The  number- 
less Sociahstic  colonies  and  settlements  which  have 
sprung  up  in  all  countries  are  illustrations  of  the 
same  spirit. 

P.\OAN  Asceticism. — Among  the  Greeks,  we  have 
the  school,  or  quasi-community,  of  Pythagoras,  whose 
object  was  to  extirpate  the  passions,  but  it  was  philo- 
sophic rather  than  religious  in  its  character  and  may 
be  placed  in  the  category  of  Natural  Asceticism. 

UuAiiMiNiCAL  AscETiCLSM. — It  is  frequently  con- 
tended that  an  asceticism  exists  among  the  Brahmins 
of  India  which  in  some  respects  is  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  that  of  Christianity.  It  inculcates  the 
virtues  of  truthfulness,  honesty,  self-control,  obedi- 
ence, temperance,  alms-giving,  care  of  tlie  sick, 
meekness,  forgiveness  of  injuries,  returning  good  for 
evil,  etc.  It  forbids  suicide,  abortion,  perjury,  slan- 
der, drunkenness,  gluttony,  usury,  hypocrisy,  sloth- 
fulness,  and  cruelty  to  animals.  Ten  vows  bind  tlie 
Brahmin  to  tlie  practice  of  .some  of  these  virtues. 
Its  practice  of  penance  is  extraordinary.  Besides 
what  is  left  to  personal  initiative,  the  Laws  of  M.anu 
decree  that:  "the  Bralunin  .sliouUl  roll  himself  on 
the  KTound,  or  stand  during  the  day  on  ti|>-toe,  or 


alternately  stand  and  sit.  In  summer  let  him  ex- 
pose himself  to  the  heat  of  five  fires;  during  the 
rainy  season,  let  liim  Hve  under  the  open  sky;  and 
in  winter  be  dressed  in  wet  clothes,  thus  greatly 
increasing  the  rigour  of  his  austerities. "  Protracted 
fasts  of  the  most  fantastic  character  are  also  en- 
joined. In  all  this,  there  is  no  asceticism.  These 
suicidal  penances,  apart  from  their  wickedness  and 
absurdity,  are  based  on  a  misconception  of  the 
purpose  of  mortification.  They  are  not  supposed  to 
atone  for  sin  or  to  acquire  merit,  but  arc  prompted 
by  the  iilea  that  the  greater  the  austerity  the  greater 
the  holiness,  and  that  besides  hastening  abisorption 
in  the  divinity  they  will  help  the  penitent  to  obtain 
such  a  mastery  over  his  body  as  to  make  it  invisible 
at  will,  to  float  in  the  air,  or  pass  with  lightning 
speed  from  place  to  place.  Being  believers  in  metem- 
psychosis, they  regard  these  sufferings  as  a  means  of 
avoiding  the  punishment  oi  new  births  under  the 
form  of  other  creatures. 

Their  pantheism  destroys  the  very  essential  idea 
of  virtue,  for  tliere  can  be  no  virtue,  as  there  can  be 
no  vice,  where  one  is  a  part  of  the  deity.  Again,  the 
belief  that  there  is  no  reality  outside  of  Brahma 
prevents  the  use  or  abuse  of  creatures  from  having 
any  influence  on  the  righteous  or  unrighteous  con- 
dition of  the  soul.  Finally,  as  the  end  of  existence 
is  absorption  into  Brahma,  with  its  attendant  loss  of 
personality  and  its  adoption  of  an  unconscious  ex- 
istence for  all  future  time,  it  holds  out  no  inducement 
to  the  practice  of  virtue.  The  whole  system  is  based 
on  pride.  The  Brahmin  is  superior  to  all  mankind, 
and  contact  with  another  caste  than  liis  own,  es- 
pecially the  poor  and  humble,  is  pollution.  It  makes 
marriage  obligatory,  but  compels  the  wife  to  adore 
the  husband  no  matter  how  cruel  he  is,  permitting 
him  to  reject  her  at  w-ill;  it  encourages  polygamy, 
approves  of  the  harem,  and  authorizes  the  burning 
of  widows  in  the  suttees  wliich  the  British  Govern- 
ment has  not  yet  succeeded  in  preventing.  It  abhors 
manual  labour  and  compels  the  practice  of  mendicancy 
and  idleness,  antl  it  has  done  nothing  for  the  physical 
betterment  of  the  human  race,  as  the  condition  of 
India  for  many  centuries  clearly  shows.  Its  spiritual 
results  are  no  better.  Its  liturgy  is  made  up  of  the 
most  disgusting,  childish,  and  cruel  superstitions,  and 
its  contradictory  combinations  of  pantheism,  mate- 
rialism, and  idealism  have  developed  a  system  of 
cruel  divinities  worse  than  those  of  pagan  antiquity. 
It  is  consequently  not  real  asceticism. 

Buddhist  Asceticism. — The  ascetical  practices  of 
the  Buddliists  are  monastic  in  their  cliaracter,  the 
devotees  hving  in  communities,  whereas  the  Brah- 
mins are  mostly  solitaries,  though  admitting  pupils. 
The  moral  codes  of  both  sects  resemble  eacli  other 
in  some  respects.  For  the  Buddhists,  there  are  five 
great  duties:  not  to  kill  any  living  creature;  not  to 
steal;  not  to  act  unchastely;  not  to  lie;  not  to  drink 
intoxicating  liquors.  Their  ciglit-fold  path  of  virtues 
is:  right  beliefs,  right  aspinilion,  right  speech, 
right  conduct,  right  means  of  livelihood,  riglit  en- 
deavour, right  memory,  riglit  nunlitation.  The 
cultivation  of  meekness,  both  internal  and  external, 
is  expressly  inculcated.  In  the  monasteries,  con- 
fession of  faults,  but  only  of  external  ones,  is  prac- 
tised, and  great  importance  is  attached  to  meilita- 
tion.  Their  penances  are  comparatively  moder- 
ate. Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  its  glorification  of 
virtue,  this  manner  of  life  cannot  be  regarded  as 
asceticism.  While  holding  itself  inditTerent  to  the 
pantlii'ism  and  other  errors  of  Brahminism,  it  ignores 
God  entirely,  and  is  atheistic  or  agnostic,  admitting 
no  dependence  on  the  I>iviiiitv  and  acknowledging 
no  obligation  of  worsliip,  obedience,  love,  gratitude, 
belief;  con.sec|uently.  eliiiiiiiatiiig  all  virtue.  lU 
avoidance  of  sin  is  purely  utilitarian,  viz.,  to  escape 
its    con.seciuences.     Its    iiltiiiiale    ciul    is   cxtinctioD 


ASCHBACH 


773 


ASCOLI 


in  Nirvana,  tluis  havinp  no  inducement  to  virtue, 
while  it  aecoriis  the  lower  state  of  ."^wurga,  with  its 
sensual  ilelights.  to  those  who  were  helpful  to  the 
BuJdhas.  Like  its  i>redccessor,  its  idea  of  ultimate 
extinction  is  an  extension  of  the  lirahmiiiist  absoriJ- 
tion  and  leads  logically  to  suicide.  It  holds  mar- 
riage in  abhorrence,  and  suppresses  all  legitimate 
desires,  forbidding  all  recreation,  music,  scientific 
pursuits,  etc.  Industrial  occupations  are  regarded 
with  contempt,  and  the  ideal  state  is  beggarv*  and 
idleness.  .\lthough  insisting  U|M)n  celibacy  as  the 
proper  state  of  man,  it  tolerates  polygamy  and 
divorce.  It  speaks  mo.st  complacently  of  Huddha's 
jnany  hundred  wives,  before  his  conversion,  lauds 
the  extensive  seraglio  of  IJimbissasa,  it.s  most  dis- 
tinguished royal  convert,  without  hinting  at  its 
being  any  derogation  from  the  standaRl  of  conduct 
of  a  Buddhist  layman,  while  "the  oHieial  head  of 
Southern  Buddliisin  at  the  present  day.  the  King  of 
Siam,  exerci.ses  without  scruple  the  privilege  of  main- 
taining a  harem"  (.Viken).  It  did  n(jt  abolish 
the  caste  system  except  in  the  monasteries.  Finally, 
"in  the  spread  of  tliis  religion  to  other  lands  it  adopted 
the  idolatrous  and  obscene  worship  of  Nepal;  gave 
its  sanction  to  the  degrading  shamanistic  worsliip  of 
Thibet,  and  is  overlaid  with  the  superstitions  peculiar 
to  China,  MongoUa,  and  Thibet. "  It  is  an  abuse  of 
terms  to  describe  the  practices  of  such  a  creed  as 
asceticism. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  the  difference 
between  false  and  true  asceticism  is  this:  false 
asceticism  starts  out  with  a  wrong  idea  of  the  nature 
of  man,  of  the  world,  of  God;  it  proposes  to  follow 
human  reason,  but  soon  falls  into  folly  and  becomes 
fanatical,  and  sometimes  insane,  in  its  methods  antl 
projects.  With  an  exaggerated  idea  of  the  rights 
and  powers  of  the  individual,  it  rebels  against  all 
spiritual  control  and,  usurping  a  greater  authority 
tlian  the  Chvirch  has  ever  claimed,  leads  its  dupes 
into  the  wildest  extravagances.  Its  historj'  is  one 
of  disturbance,  disorder,  and  anarchy,  and  is  barren 
of  results  in  the  acquisition  of  truth,  or  the  uplifting 
of  the  individual,  and  in  works  of  benevolence  or 
intellectual  progress;  and  in  some  instances  it  has 
been  the  instrument  of  the  most  deplorable  moral 
degradation.  True  asceticism,  on  the  contrary,  is 
guided  by  right  rea,son,  assisted  by  the  light  of 
revelation;  it  comprehends  clearly  the  true  natvire 
of  man,  his  destiny,  and  his  obligations.  Knowing 
that  he  has  not  been  created  in  a  merely  natural  con- 
dition, but  elevated  to  a  supernatural  state,  it  seeks 
to  illumine  his  mind  and  strengthen  his  will  by  super- 
natural grace.  .■Vware  that  he  has  to  control  his 
lower  passions  and  withstand  the  assaults  of  the  evil 
spirit  and  the  seductions  of  the  world,  it  not  only 
permits,  but  enjoins,  the  practice  of  penance,  while, 
by  the  virtue  of  prudence  which  it  inculcates,  it 
prevents  excess.  Instead  of  witlidrawing  him  from 
his  fellow-men  and  inducing  moroscncss  and  pride, 
it  bestows  on  him  joy  and  humility,  inspires  him 
with  the  greatest  love  for  humanity,  and  cultivates 
that  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  which  has,  by  its  works  of 
benevolence  and  charity,  conferred  countless  bene- 
fits on  the  human  race.  In  a  word,  asceticism  is 
nothing  else  than  an  enlightened  method  adopted 
in  the  ob.servance  of  the  law  of  God  thrt>ugh  all 
the  various  degrees  of  service,  from  the  obedience  of 
tlie  ordinary-  believer  to  the  absorbing  devotion  of  the 
greatest  samt,  guiding  each  in  accordance  with  the 
measure  of  grace  imparted  by  the  Spirit  of  Light 
and  Truth. 

.SrARAMr.LLi.  Dirfciorium  Atceticum  (London,  1897);  Doyle, 
Prinnittrt  of  Rrligioiu  Ufr  (I-ondon,  1906);  Lr.  Gacdikh,  Dr 
Prrlrctiont  ViliT  Spiritvilit  (Parw,  1850);  Devine.  ilanwil 
of  AgrrtK'il  Thfotogy  (Ixindon,  1902);  Fox.  Reliifion  and 
Mornlity  ( Npw  York.  1899);  AlKEN.  T)ir  Dllamma  of  Uolama 
<H.i-tim.   1900);  Kodriuuez,  Chritlian  Prrfeetion. 

T.   J.   C.tMPBELL. 


Aschbach,  Joseph,  Rittek  von,  German  historian, 
b.  at  lloclist,  in  IIesse-Na.ssau,  29  April,  1801;  d.  at 
Vienna,  2.5  .■\pril,  1S82.  In  1819  he  began  the  study 
of  theology  and  philosophy  at  the  Iniversity  of  Hei- 
delberg, but  soon  turned  his  attention  to  that  of  his- 
tory, at  the  instigation  of  the  well-known  historian 
Selilo.s.ser.  On  the  completion  of  this  <ourse,  in 
1823,  he  wiis  appointed  instructor  at  tlie  Select  School 
of  Frankfort-on-the-.Main.  In  1842  he  obtained  a 
reputation  as  Professor  of  History  at  the  I'nivcrsity 
of  Bonn,  whence  he  removed  to  Vienna  in  18,53,  to 
fill  the  .same  position.  Within  two  years  he  became 
a  memljer  of  the  Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences,  was 
ennobled  in  1870,  and  retired  from  the  exercise  of 
his  profession  in  1872,  ten  years  prior  to  his  death. 
While  in  Frankfort  he  wrote:  "Geschichte  der 
Westgoten"  (Frankfort,  1827);  "Geschichte  der 
Omajiaden  in  Spanien"  (Frankfort,  1829,  1830; 
2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1860);  "Geschichte  Spaniens  und 
Portugals  zur  Zeit  der  Almaroviden  und  Almo- 
haden"  (2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1833,  1837);  "Geschichte 
der  Heruler  und  Gepiden"  (first  in  Schlosser's 
".\rchiv  fur  Geschichte  und  Literatur"  and  then 
separately,  Frankfort,  183.5);  "Geschichte  Kaiser 
Signumds"  (4  vols.,  Hamburg,  18.38-4.5).  In 
Bonn  he  published,  first,  the  " I'rkundlichc  Ge- 
schichte der  Grafen  von  Wertheim"  (2  vols.,  Frank- 
fort, 1843)  and  then  edited  the  "AUgemeine  Kirchen- 
lexikon"  (4  vols.,  Frankfort  and  Mainz,  1846-51) 
most  of  the  historical  articles  being  from  his  own 
pen.  In  Vienna  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
liistory  of  the  Roman  Emperors,  and  published 
the  interesting,  though  not  always  tenable,  results 
of  his  investigations  in  the  "Sitzungsberiehten  und 
Denkschriften"  of  the  Vienna  .\cademy  of  .Sciences. 
His  "Geschichte  der  Wiener  I'niversitat "  w:is  writ- 
ten to  mark  the  celebration  of  the  fifth  centenary 
of  the  University  of  Vienna.  The  first  volume 
f\'ienna,  186,5)  dealt  with  the  period  from  136.5  to 
1465;  the  second  (Vienna,  1877),  with  the  Viennese 
humanists  of  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I; 
the  third,  which  appeared  after  his  death  (Vienna, 
I.SSS),  brings  the  Instory  down  to  1.565.  His  two 
latest  works  attracted  no  little  attention;  "Die 
frtiheren  A\'anderjahre  des  Conrad  Celtes,  tind  die 
Anfangc  der  von  ihm  errichteten  gelehrten  Sodali- 
tiiten"  (Vienna,  1869);  and,  more  especially,  "  Ros- 
witha  und  Conrad  Celtes"  (Vienna,  1867,  2d  ed., 
1868).  In  this  work,  he  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
the  poem  addressed  to  the  Emperor  Otto  the  CJreat, 
hitherto  attributed  to  the  nun  Roswitha  of  Gan- 
dersheim,  really  originated  in  the  sixteenth  ccnturj' 
and  was  composed  by  the  humanist  Conrad  Celtes. 
The  contention  was,  however,  immediately  and 
effectually  confuted.  Patricius  Schl.^ger. 

Ascoli-Piceno,  The  Diocese  of,  comprising  six- 
teen towns  in  the  Province  of  Ascoli-Piceno,  two 
in  that  of  .\quila,  and  two  in  that  of  Teramo,  Italy. 
It  is  under  the  immediate  jvirisdiction  of  the  Holy 
See.  " A.scoli-Piceno  is  one  of  the  cities  of  Italy  , 
.saj-s  Harnack  (Die  Mission,  etc.,  Leipzig.  .502), 
"which,  because  of  its  importance,  we  may  l>elieve 
has  had  a  Christian  community  and  a  bishopric 
from  the  middle  of  the  third  centurj',  when  at  the 
Synod  held  by  Pope  Cornelius  in  Rome  sixty  bishops 
were  present"  (Lus.,  VI,  xhii).  The  traces  of  this 
bishopric,  however,  do  not  appear  until  the  fourth 
centurj';  St.  Emidius,  martjTed  under  Diocletian; 
Claudius,  present  at  the  Sjmod  of  Rimini  (.•Vrian 
Controversy,. 3.59),  and.  in  the  fifth  century,  Lusentius. 
present  at  the  Synod  of  Milan  which  sent  the  famous 
letter  to  Pope  Leo  I  (440-461 ) ,  were  Bishops  of  A.scoli. 
Worthy  of  note  in  Ascoli.  from  an  artistic  standpoint, 
is  the  baptistery  dating  from  the  twelfth  centur>'.  ( )ne 
of  its  bishops,  Giulio  de'  Medici,  afterwards  lx»came 
Pope  Clement  VII  (1.523-.34).     The  imlitical  iiiitxir- 


ASCOLI 


774 


ASEB 


tance  of  his  pontificate,  during  the  struggle  between 
Charles  V  and  Francis  I  is  well  known.  Ascoli- 
Piceno  contains  167  parishes;  305  churches,  chapels, 
and  oratories;  206  secular  priests ;  150  seminarians;  15 
regular  priests,  6  lay  brothers;  126  religious  (women); 
118  confraternities,  and  a  population  of  120,210. 

Ughelli.  Ilalia  Sacra  (Venice.  1722),  I,  436;  C.\ppELLETri, 
U  chiete  d'ltalia  (Venice,  1866).  VI,  663;  Gams,  Series  epU- 
coporum  Ecclesvr  calholica  (Ratisbon,  1873),  667;  Colucci. 
Aniithith  atcolinne  illustrale  con  varie  dissertazioni  (Fermo, 
1792):  Appiani.  Vila  de  S.  Emidio,  prima  vescovo  e  protettore 
di  Ascoli,  e  martire  con  un  ragguaglio  della  stesaa  ciUii  occa- 
gionato  da  8.  Valentino  jnartire.  suo  diacono,  prima  scriiiore 
delle  geata  del  sanio  (Ascoli,  1832);  Lazzari,  Aecoli  in  pros- 
pettiva  colle  sue  piu  singolari  pitture  sculture  ed  architetiure 
Ascoli,  1724). 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Ascoli,  Satriano,  and  Oirignola,  an  Italian  dio- 
cese, suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Beneventum, 
comprising  six  towns  and  two  villages,  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Foggia.  In  969,  Ausculum  Appulum  appears 
as  an  episcopal  city  amongst  the  suffragan  sees  of 
Beneventum,  but  the  first  bishop  of  whom  we  have 
any  knowledge  is  Maurus,  present  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  Church  of  St.  Angelo  at  Volturno  (1059). 
Cirignola  on  account  of  its  relative  importance,  must 
have  been  formerly  a  diocese,  but  history  is  silent 
in  the  matter.  When  Pius  VII  reorganized  the 
ecclesiastical  provinces  of  the  Neapolitan  Kingdom, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  Concordat  (16  February, 
1818)  with  Ferdinand  I,  King  of  the  two  Sicilies,  he 
restored  Cirignola  to  its  ancient  episcopal  dignity 
and  united  it  i^que  princi paliter  to  the  Diocese  of 
Ascoli.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1905  this  diocese 
contained  11  parishes;  62  churches,  chapels,  and  ora- 
tories; 98  secular  priests;  60  seminariaas;  8  regular 
clergy;  4  lay  brothers;  4(3  religious  (women);  18  con- 
fraternities; 3  girls'  schools  with  an  attendance  of 
140.     Population,  70,115. 

Ughelli,  Il^dia  Sacra  (Venice,  17221,  VIII,  224;  Cappel- 
LETTi,  Le  chiese  dlialia  (Venice,  1866),  XIX,  140;  Gams. 
Series  episcoporum  Ecclesice  catholicas  (Platisbon,  1873),  855; 
KiRiATTO,  Memorie  istoriche  di  Cerignola   (Naples,   1785). 

Ernesto  Buonaiuti. 

Aseity  (Lat.  a,  from,  se,  itself:  ens  a  se)  is  the 
property  by  which  a  being  exists  of  and  from  itself. 
It  will  be  easily  understood  that  this  property  be- 
longs, and  can  belong  only,  to  God.  When  we  look 
for  the  efficient,  exemplary,  and  final  cause  of  all 
things,  of  their  existence,  nature,  and  organization, 
we  come  ultimately  to  a  Being  Who  does  not  depend 
for  His  existence,  realization,  or  end  on  any  cause 
other  than  Himself;  Who  has  within  Himself  His 
own  reason  of  existence,  Who  is  for  Himself  His  own 
exemplary  and  final  cause.  It  is  to  this  very  prop- 
erty of  absolute  independence,  or  self-existence  by 
nature  that  we  give  the  name  of  aseity.  This  notion 
of  aseity  includes,  therefore,  according  to  our  con- 
ception, a  negative  and  a  positive  aspect;  absolute 
independence  and  self-existence,  which  complement 
each  other  and  form  one  single  objective  property. 
(See  God.)  As  is  easily  seen,  the  Catholic  concept 
of  aseity  which  represents  God  as  absolutely  in- 
dependent and  .self-existent  by  nature,  and,  con- 
sequently, all-perfect  without  any  possibility  of 
change  from  all  eternity,  is  altogether  opposed  to 
the  pantlieistic  concept  of  absolute  or  pure  being, 
which  absolute  or  pure  being  evolves,  determines, 
and  realizes  itself  through  all  time.  (See  Panthe- 
ism.) This  quality  of  independence  and  self-ex- 
istence has  always  been  affirmed  of  God  under 
various  names  by  the  Fathers  and  Catholic  theo- 
logians, though  the  word  aseitti  itself  began  to 
be  used  in  theology  only  in  the  Middle  .\gcs.  The 
only  point  disputed  among  the  theologians  is,  whether 
this  property  constitutes  the  very  essence  of  God. 
(See  ATTUI11UTK9,   Divine.) 

St.  Thomas.  .Sumrrui,  I.  QQ.  ii.  iii,  iv:  Petavius,  Theo- 
loaia  Dogm,,  1,  vii;  Gonkt.  Clj/peua  Theol.  Thorn.  (Paris, 
i875).  ^.  tr.  ^    disp.  ii.  a.  I,  5}  1,  4.  6;  Billcaht,  .Sum.  S. 


Thomtr.  (Paris),  I.  diss.  ii.  a.  1,  §§  1,  2.  3;  Franjelin  De  Dee 
(/no  (Rome.  1883).  iii.  arts.  1.2;  Boder.  Natural  Theology, 
in  Stonyhurat  Series,  II.  vii;  Hontheim.  Instil.  Theodic.  (1893), 
viii;  TocssAiNT  in  Diet,  de  th^ol.  cath..  s.  v. 

George  M.  Sauvage. 

Aseneth  (Heb.,  nJDS;  Vulg.,  Aseneth),  the  daugh- 
ter of  Putiphare  (Poti-phera),  priest  of  On.  The 
Pharaoh  of  Egypt  gave  her  to  wife  to  the  Hebrew  Pa- 
triarch Joseph;  and  she  bore  him  two  sons,  Manasses 
and  Ephraim  (Gen.,  xli,  45-50;  xlvi,  20).  In  the  an- 
cient polity  of  the  Egyptians  the  priests  were  second 
in  honour  only  to  the  Pharaoh;  hence  the  I  haraoh 
of  Joseph's  time  gave  him  to  wife  one  of  the  fiist 
princesses  of  the  land.  All  Egyptologists  agree  that 
into  the  composition  of  the  name  Aseneth  there  enters 
the  name  of  the  goddess  Neith,  a  tutelary  deity  ol 
Sais.  Neith  was  considered  as  an  emanation  of 
Ammon,  and  was  associated  with  him  as  the  female 
prin^-iple  in  the  creation  of  the  universe.  Her 
hieroglyph  is  a  shuttle.  The  Greeks  identified  her 
with  Athene.  Some  interpret  Asenath,  "dwelling 
of  Neith ",  others  interpret  the  name,  "servant  of 
Neith",  or  "sacred  to  Neith".  The  name  Aseneth 
has  not  been  found  among  the  monuments  of  Egj'pt; 
but  similar  ones  have  been  found  as  As-Ptah,  As- 
Menti,  As-Hathor,  etc.  In  the  apocryphal  literature 
there  are  many  curious  legends  of  Aseneth. 

Erman,  .Sgypten,  49,  393;  ViGOUHOux.  La  Bible  tt  let 
decourertes  jrwdernes,  6th  ed..  II.  134;  Levesque  in  Did.  de  la 
Bible,  I,  1082-83;  Lieblein,  Diet,  des  noms  hieroglyph\ques, 
193.  241;  BRUG.SCH,  Gesc/iiffcte  .'Egyptens,  248;  de  Lagarde. 
MiUheilungen,  III.  229;  Steindorff,  in  Zeitschrilt  fur  jEgypt. 
Sprache,  XXVII,  41;  XXX.  51;  Hagen,  Lexicon  Biblicum,  I, 
436-437. 

A.  E.  Breen. 

Aser  (Heb.,  Iti'X). — Though  the  form  Aser  uni- 
formly appears  in  the  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and 
Douay  versions,  an  inspection  of  the  original  text 
clearly  shows  that  the  correct  form  of  the  name  is 
Asher.  I.  Aser  was  the  eighth  son  of  Jacob,  bom 
to  him  in  Paddan-Aram.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Zelpha,  the  handmaid  of  Lia,  Jacob's  wife.  His 
name  is  derived  from  the  root  Asher,  to  make  or 
declare  kapp;/.  His  mother  bestowed  this  name  on 
him;  for  she  declared  that  through  her  childbearing, 
"women  will  call  me  blessed"  (Gen.,  xxx,  13) 
In  the  Bible  there  are  recorded  of  Aser  four  sons 
and  one  daughter  called  Sara  (Gen.,  xlvi,  17). 
The  descendants  of  Aser  are  enumerated  (I  Par., 
vii,  30-40). 

II.  One  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  being  de- 
scended from  Aser,  the  son  of  Israel.  Its  tribal 
territory  is  described  in  Josue,xix,  24-31.  It  stretched 
along  the  Mediterranean  Sea  from  Mt.  Carmel  north- 
ward to  the  river  Leontes,  the  modern  Nahr  el- 
Quasimiyeh.  Its  eastern  boimdary  was  an  irregular 
line,  dividing  it  from  Zabulon  and  Nephtali.  Its 
farthest  eastward  boundary  was  the  city  .\halab, 
mo.st  probably  the  modern  El-Djich.  The  land  of 
Aser  held  twenty-two  cities,  with  their  villages; 
but  the  Aserites  did  not  drive  out  the  inhabitants 
of  these  cities,  but  dwelt  among  them.  Tlieir  land 
was  fertile,  as  was  foretold  by  Jacob:  the  bread  of 
Aser  was  fat;  he  yielded  royal  dainties  (Gen.,  xlix, 
20);  he  dipped  his  foot  in  oil  (Deut.,  xxxiii,  24).  The 
niimerous  valleys  of  the  land  are  well  watered  by  the 
wadys  El-Houbeichiyeh,  El-Ezziyeh,  Ez-Zerka,  Ker 
Kera,  El-Kourn;  and  the  rivers  Nal)r  Mefsihoukh, 
Nahr  Semiriyeh,  Nahr  Namin,  and  Nahr  ol-Mouk- 
hatta,  the  ancient  CHson.  Aser's  littoral  was  irregu- 
lar. Its  northern  portion  has  a  mean  width  of  less 
than  two  miles.  At  R;is  en-Naqurah,  the  ancient 
Scala  T>/riorum,  the  mountain  plunges  its  wall  of 
rock  out  to  the  water-lino.  Southward  from  this 
point  the  littoral  broadens  until,  at  Ez-zib  and  on 
southward  to  Saint  Jean  d'.\cre.  it  is  sometimes  more 
than  ten  miles  in  width.  This  great  plain  and  the 
valleys  extending  inland  produced  for  Aser  an 
abundance    of    wheat,    barley,    and    other    cereals. 


ASOAARD 


775 


ASH 


Even  in  llie  prospiil  (Icciulciit  state  of  tlic  land,  the 
region  is  rich  in  ccroals.  The  slopes  of  the  hills,  now 
covered  with  thick  hnishwood,  were,  in  the  days  of 
Israel's  prosperity,  covered  with  olive-trees,  fig-trees, 
and  vines.  The  fertility  of  the  land  gave  rise  to  the 
saying,  that  in  Aser  oil  flowed  as  a  river.  The 
valleys,  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  and  tlie  higli  places 
are  covered  with  Chanaanean,  Jewish,  Byzantine, 
and  later  ruins,  showing  a  sort  of  stratified  succes- 
sion of  the  civilizations  that  have  flourished  in  the 
land.  In  the  liistorj'  of  Israel  the  tribe  of  Aser 
plays  an  luiiniportaiit  part.  When  tlie  first  census 
of  Israel  was  made  at  Sinai,  Aser  nvnnbered  41, ,500 
men  that  were  able  to  go  forth  to  war  (Num.,  i, 
40-41).  Their  chief  was  Phegiel,  the  .son  of  Ochran. 
In  Num.,  xxvi,  47,  this  number  had  grown  to  53,400. 
When  the  warriors  of  the  tribes  of  Israel  came  to 
David  in  Hebron  to  make  him  King  over  Israel, 
there  came  out  of  Aser  40,000  soldiers  [I  Par.  (Chron,), 
xii,  36].  Aser's  offering  for  the  first  altar  dedicated 
by  Moses  in  the  desert  is  recorded  in  Num.,  vii, 
72-77.  In  the  tribe  of  Aser  there  were  four  Levi- 
tical  cities:  Masai,  Abdon,  Helcath,  and  Hohob, 
with  their  suburbs.  When  Zabulon  and  Nephtali 
exposed  their  lives  unto  death  in  war  against  Jabin, 
King  of  Chanaan,  "Aser  dwelt  on  the  seashore,  and 
abode  in  the  havens";  hence  it  is  chided  in  the  Song 
of  Debbora  (Judges,  v,  17).  It  redeemed  itself  some- 
what from  this  reproach  by  marching  with  Ciideon 
against  Madian.  \Vlien  Ezechias  invited  the  men 
of  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel  to  come  to  the 
house  of  the  Lord  at  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  Pass- 
over, some  of  the  tribe  of  Aser  came  (II  Par., 
XXX,  11). — Anna  the  prophetess  was  of  Aser  (Luke, 
ii,  36). 

III.  Aser,  a  frontier  village  of  the  cis-Jordanic 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Manasses;  most  probably 
the  modern  Teiasir. 

IV.  Aser,  an  erroneous  rendering  in  the  Vulgate 
(Ex.,  vi,  24),  of  the  name  Assir,  the  son  of  Core. 
In  the  Vulgate  text  of  I  Par.,  vi,  22,  the  same 
person  is  called  Asir.  A.  E.  Breen. 

Asg^aard  (from  An,  plural  Aeser,  or  in  English, 
"  Ases  " — Norwegian  for  the  gods — and  guard,  "  yard  ", 
i.  e.  enclosure,  garden;  the  Garden  of  the  Gods).  It 
was  the  great  place  where  the  A.ses  and  their  wives, 
the  Asesses  (Norse.  Asynjer),  dwelt  apart,  and  from 
which  they  ruled.  A  bridge  called  Bilra.st  led  to  it. 
In  the  middle  of  A.sgaard  was  a  great  castle  in  which 
was  Odavold,  where  the  gods  (Ases)  held  their  re- 
unions. In  it  were  two  magnificent  halls:  Glads- 
heim,  with  the  throne  Ilildskjolf,  for  Odin,  and  seats 
for  the  Ases;  and  Vingolf,  with  a  throne  for  Frigg  and 
seats  for  the  Asesses.  From  this  heavenly  coimtry 
the  Ases  govern  the  course  of  the  world  and  of  men. 
Odin  reigns  there  as  father  and  head,  who  penetrates 
all,  animates  all;  gives  men  intelligence  and  en- 
thusiasm, and  breathes  into  them  the  desire  for  com- 
bat and  war.  At  his  side  was  his  wife  Frigg,  the  all- 
nourishing  earth,  who  had  Fensal  as  her  abode.  The 
other  principal   dwelling-places  of  the  Ases  in  A.s- 

faard  were  Thrudvang,  or  Thnidheim,  where  dwelt 
'hor,  the  soi\  of  Odin  and  of  Frigg,  and  who  was  the 
thunder,  the  strength,  the  sanctification  of  the  world, 
the  friend  of  men,  the  defender  against  the  evil 
powers,  the  protector  of  agriculture  and  of  family 
life;  Breidabtik,  where  dwelt  Balder  with  his  wife 
Nanna;  Noatum,  the  abode  of  Njord;  Thrynheim, 
that  of  Skad;  Alfheim,  that  of  Frey;  Himinbjorg, 
whence  Ileimdal  protected  the  Ases;  Ydal,  where 
I'll  was;  Gletner,  where  Forsete  lived,  the  most  just 
of  the  A.ses;  Folkvang,  with  the  hall  Sessrj-mner, 
where  Freya  lived,  the  Ascss  of  Love,  and  Scikkva- 
bekk.  the  dwelling  of  Saga.  Moreover,  there  was 
Lidskjalv,  from  which  Odin  .saw  the  whole  universe, 
and  where  there  was  Valaskjalv.  all  covered  with 


silver,  and  the  yet  more  splendid  and  sumptuous  hall, 
Valhal.  Alwve  Asgaard  stretch  the  more  ele\ated 
heavens,  who.se  splendour  culminates  in  Gimle,  an 
unapproachable  and  golden  hall,  more  luminous 
than  the  heaven.  The  site  of  Asgaard  was  placed 
near  the  Don,  which  was  regarded  as  the  boundary 
line  between  Asia  and  Europe.  Hence  Snorrc  de- 
rives the  name  As  from  Asia,  and  imagined  that  the 
Ases  were  inhabitants  of  Asia. 

Snorrk  .Stchi.ahon.  Eddn  (ed.  Amit  Magneantk,  1848-87); 
KimfifsnyiuT  (Kristiana,  1899):  Pkterhfn,  Sord-Uk  M j'thi  litffi 
(ISIB);  li.KxKN,  Nord.  (iiulrlare  (1888);  Munui,  K„i,,.ne 
C!wl,-;ii  Hrltrmnn  (1880);  HuzzE,  ,S/udi>T  mtr  nord.  lium-og 
IIrUr,c,,in,  Opnndehe  (1881-80);  Kkyseii,  D.n  Surtke  hirku 
I/ifitorie  uruler  Katholicismen  {}^6);  ANDKHhON.  A'ame  Mi/lhol- 
v(iil  (CIlicaBo,  187,5);  Stury  Telling  to  Chtldnn  from  Norte 
Mythulugy  (CarneKie  Library.  Pittsburg,  190;i),  lontainH  anno- 
tated list  of  books  in  Englitih  on  Nor«e   Mythology;  IctUtndic 

■'"""■'■  I-"  <•'""''""■  >»8^>-  E.  A.  Wang. 

Ash  Wednesday. — The  Wednesday  after  Quin- 
quagcsima  Sunday,  which  is  the  first  day  of  the 
Lenten  fast.  The  name  dies  ciner-um  (day  of  ashes) 
which  it  bears  in  the  Roman  Mi-ssal  is  found  in  the 
earliest  existing  copies  of  the  tiregorian  Sacra- 
ment ary  and  probably  ilates  from  at  least  the 
eighth  centurj'.  On  this  day  all  the  faithful  ac- 
cording to  ancient  custom  are  exhorted  to  approach 
the  altar  bcl'dre  the  bcfiiniiing  of  Mass,  and  there  the 
priest,  (lipiiiiii;  his  thiunl)  into  ashes  previously 
blessed,  marks  upon  the  forehead — or  in  tlie  case  of 
clerics  upon  the  place  of  the  tonsure — of  each  the 
sign  of  the  cro.ss,  saying  the  words:  "  Remember  man 
that  thou  art  dust  and  unto  dust  thou  shall  return." 
The  ashes  used  in  this  ceremony  are  made  by  burning 
the  remains  of  the  palms  blessed  on  the  Palm  Sunday 
of  the  pre\nous  year.  In  the  ble.ssing  of  the  ashes 
four  prayers  are  used,  all  of  them  ancient,  and  the 
ashes  are  sprinkled  with  holy  water  and  fumigated 
with  incense.  The  celebrant  himself,  be  he  bishop 
or  cardinal,  receives,  either  standing  or  seated,  the 
ashes  from  .some  other  priest,  usually  the  highest  in 
dignity  of  those  present.  In  earlier  ages  a  peni- 
tential procession  often  followed  the  rite  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  ashes,  but  this  is  not  now  pre- 
scribed. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  custom  of  dis- 
tributing the  ashes  to  all  the  faithful  aro.se  from  a 
devotional  imitation  of  the  practice  observed  in  the 
case  of  public  penitents.  But  this  devotional  u.sage, 
the  reception  of  a  sacramental  which  is  full  of  the 
symbolism  of  penance  (cf.  the  cnr  cnnlritum  quasi 
cinis  of  the  "  Dies  Ira?  ")  is  of  earlier  date  than  was 
formerly  supposed.  It  is  mentioned  as  of  general 
observance  for  both  clerics  and  faithful  in  the  Synod 
of  Beiievcntum,  1091  (Man.si,  XX,  739),  but  nearly 
a  hundred  years  earlier  than  this  the  Anglo-Saxon 
honiilist  -Elfric  a.ssumes  that  it  applies  to  all  clas-ses 
of  men.  "We  read",  he  says,  in  the  books  both 
in  the  Old  Law  and  in  the  New  that  the  men  who 
repented  of  their  sins  bestrewed  themselves  with 
ashes  and  clothed  their  bodies  with  sackcloth.  Now 
let  us  do  this  little  at  the  beginning  of  our  Lent  that 
we  strew  ashes  upon  our  heatls  to  signify  that  we 
ought  to  repent  of  our  .sins  during  the  Lenten  fast." 
And  then  he  enforces  this  recommendation  by  the 
terrible  example  of  a  man  who  refu.sed  to  go  to 
church  for  the  ashes  on  Ash  Wednesday  and  who  a 
few  days  after  was  accidentally  killed  in  a  boar 
hunt  (.Elfric,  "Lives  of  Saints",  e<l.  Skeat,  I.  262- 
2t)0).  It  is  po.ssible  that  the  notion  of  penance  which 
was  suggested  by  the  rite  of  Ash  \\  etlne.sday  was 
reinforced  by  tlie  figurative  exclusion  from  the 
.s;icred  mysteries  symbolized  by  the  hanging  of  the 
Ix-nten  veil  before  the  s:inctuary.  But  on  this  and 
the  practice  of  beginning  the  fast  on  Ash  Wednesday 
see  Lent. 

(IlHR  in  Kirchmlez.,  s.  v.  Atchfrmittwoch:  Thurbton.  Ltnt 
and  IhAu  Wrrk  (Ixindon.  1904),  88-99;  Kellner.  Uroriologit 
(Freiburg.  19(XJ),  78;  Duchesne,  Chrittian  Worthip  (tr.  Ix)n- 


ASHBY 


776 


ASHTON 


0011,1903).  438-444;  Gi!6bangkr.  The  Lilurtrical  Year,  Lent: 
Cabroi..  Livre  de  la  priiVf  aniigw  (Paris,  1900).  393;  Rock, 
Church  of  Our  Fathers  (London,  1904),  IV,  73-75;  Kctschker, 
Die  hnligen  Gebrauche  (Vienna,  1843),  91-152. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Ashby,  George,  monk  of  the  Cistercian  Monas- 
tery of  Jervaulx  in  Yorkshire,  executed  after  the 
Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  in  the  year  15.37.  His  name 
is  found  in  several  English  martyrologies,  but  there 
is  the  utmost  uncertainty  as  to  the  right  form  of 
his  name,  and  as  to  the  place  and  mode  of  his  death. 
.'Vfter  the  "Pilgrims"  had  been  persuaded  to  dis- 
perse. Henry  VIII  turned  with  fury  upon  the  mon- 
asteries in  whose  favour  the  rising  had  taken  place, 
and  ordered  liis  soldiers  "to  take  the  abbots  and 
monks  forth  with  violence  and  to  have  them  hanged 
without  delay  in  their  monks  apparel  ...  for  a 
terrible  example  to  others."  Whether  Ashby  suf- 
fered tlien,  or  whether  he  was  executed  in  June, 
when  his  abbot,  Adam  Sedbergh,  was  put  to  death, 
is  uncertain.  Stow  seems  to  allude  to  him  when 
he  says  that  one  .\stbebe  of  JervauLx  died  with  the 
Abbot  of  Sawley,  at  Lancaster,  10  March,  1537.  It 
is  also  possible  that  the  name  may  be  taken  from 
Astleby,  one  of  the  "Pilgrims"  who  is  said  to  have 
visited  Jervaulx.  The  fact  that  one  or  more  monks 
of  the  abbey  were  executed  for  not  embracing 
Henry's  schismatical  measures  is  not  disputed. 

CuDDEN,  Modem  British  Martyrologji  (1838).  71;  Gillow, 
Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  I,  73;  Grey  Friars'  Chronicle  in  the  Monu- 
menta  Franciscana  (Rolls  Series),  ii,  206. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Ashby,  Richard.     See  Thimbleby. 

Ashby,  Thomas,  suffered  at  Tyburn,  29  March, 
1544.  His  name  was  originally  contained  in  the 
process  of  the  English  Martyrs,  as  the  fact  of  his 
execution  for  denying  the  King's  Supremacy  was 
mentioned  by  the  chroniclers  of  the  time  and  from 
them  was  recorded  by  Sander,  though  not  by  other 
Catholic  writers.  The  "Promotor  Fidei"  rejected 
this  as  insufficient,  and  a  somewhat  ambiguous  state- 
ment has  since  been  found  in  the  Grey  Friars'  Chron- 
icle; to  wit,  that  Asliby  was  "  sometime  a  priest  and 
forsook  it. "  Possibly,  therefore,  while  rejecting  the 
Royal  Supremacy,  he  did  not  accept  the  Pope's. 

Stowe's  Chronicle,  586;  Holinshed's  Chronicle  (1586),  II, 
961;  Grey  Friars'  Chronicle  in  the  Monumenta  Franciscana 
(Rolls  Series),  II,  206.  Sander,  Z>e  Schismate  Anqlicano.  201. 
J.  H.  Pollen. 

Ashes. — It  is  not  easy  to  arrive  at  the  funda- 
mental conception  of  the  liturgical  use  of  ashes. 
No  doubt  our  Christian  ritual  has  been  borrowed 
from  the  practice  of  the  Jews,  a  practice  retained  in 
certain  details  of  synagogue  ceremonial  to  this  day, 
but  the  Jewish  custom  itself  needs  explanation.  A 
number  of  passages  in  the  Old  Testament  connect 
a.shes  (e/er  IBS)  with  mourning,  and  we  are  told  tliat 
the  mourner  sat  or  rolled  him.self  in,  sprinkled  his 
head  or  mingled  his  food  with,  "ashes",  but  it  is  not 
clear  whetlier  in  these  passages  we  ought  not  rather 
to  translate  ejcr  as  dust.  The  same  phr.ases  are  used 
with  the  word  ajar  (isy)  which  certainly  means 
du.st.  It  may  be  tliat  the  dust  was  originally  taken 
from  tlie  grave,  in  token  that  the  living  felt  him- 
self one  with  the  dead,  or  it  may  be  that  humiliation 
and  the  neglect  of  personal  cleanliness  constituted 
the  dominant  idea;  for  a  similar  manifestation  of 
grief  was  undoubtedly  familiar  among  Arvan  peo- 
ples, e.  g.  in  Homer  (Iliad,  XVIII,  23).  It  seems 
less  probable  tliat  tlio  cleansing  properties  of  ashes 
(though  this  ;ds<)  has  been  jiroposcd)  are  taken  as 
significant  of  moral  iiurilication.  The  chief  founda- 
tion for  this  la.st  suggestion  is  tlic  Rite  of  the  Red 
Heifer  (Num.,  xix.  17)  in  wliich  the  ashes  of  tlie 
victim  when  mixed  vnihx  water  had  the  ceremonial 
efiicaey  of  purifying  tlie  unclean  (cf.  Heb.,  ix,   13). 

Be  this  a.s  it   may,  Christianity  at   an  earlv  date 


undoubtedly  adopted  the  use  of  ashes  as  symbolical 
of  penance.  Thus  Tertullian  prescribes  that  the 
penitent  must  "live  without  joy  in  the  roughness  of 
sackcloth  and  the  squalor  of  aslies"  (De  PoenitentiS, 
x);  and  many  similar  passages  might  be  quoted  from 
St.  Cyprian  and  other  early  Fathers.  Eusebius  in 
his  accoimt  of  the  apostasy  and  reconcihation  of 
Natalis  describes  him  as  coming  to  Pope  Zephyrinus 
clothed  in  .sackcloth  and  sprinkled  over  with  ashes 
{(XTTobbv  KaTaTra(Tdfievov.  Hist.  Eccles.,  V,  28).  This 
was  the  normal  penitential  garb,  and  in  the  expulsion 
of  those  sentenced  to  do  public  penance,  as  given  in 
early  pontificals,  the  sprinkhng  of  their  heads  with 
ashes  always  plays  a  prominent  part.  Indeed  the 
rite  is  retained  in  the  Pontificale  Romanum  to  this 
day.  With  this  garb  of  penance  we  must  undoubt- 
edly connect  the  custom,  so  frequent  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages,  of  laying  a  dying  man  on  the  ground 
upon  sackclotli  sprinkled  with  ashes  when  about  to 
breathe  liis  last.  Early  rituals  direct  the  priest  to 
cast  holy  water  upon  him,  saying,  "  Remember  that 
thou  art  dust  and  unto  dust  thou  shall  return." 
After  wliich  he  asked:  "Art  thou  content  with  sack- 
cloth and  ashes  in  testimony  of  thy  peiiance  before 
the  Lord,  in  the  day  of  judgment?"  And  the  dying 
man  answered:  "I  am  content."  Ashes  are  also 
liturgically  used  in  the  rite  of  the  dedication  of  a 
church,  first  of  all  to  cover  the  pavement  of  the 
church  upon  which  the  alphabet  is  written  in  Greek 
and  Latin  letters,  and  secondly  to  mix  with  oil  and 
wine  in  the  water  which  is  specially  blessed  for  the 
consecration  of  the  altars.  This  use  of  ashes  is 
probably  older  than  the  eighth  century. 

Kaulen  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.   Asche;  Cabrol,   Lii-re  de  la 
pri&e  antique   (Paris,    1900),   347-348;    Jewish   Encyclopedia, 
s.  V.  Ashes;  Lesetre  in  ViG.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  Cendres. 
Herbert  Thurston. 

Ashley,  Ralph,  Venerable,  martyr,  a  Jesuit  lay- 
brother,  first  heard  of,  it  seems,  as  cook  at  Douay 
College,  which  he  left  28  .A.pril,  1590,  for  the  Eng- 
lish College  at  Valladolid.  Here  he  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  but  after  a  time  returned  to  Eng- 
land because  of  ill-health.  He  fell  in  with  Father 
Tesimond  (Oreenway),  who  eulogizes  very  highly 
the  courage  he  had  displayed  among  the  Dutch 
heretics,  by  wiiom  he  had  been  captured  during  his 
journey.  He  landed  in  England  9  March.  1598, 
and  was  sent  to  serve  Fattier  Edward  Oldcorne. 
Eight  years  later  the  two  were  arrested  at  Hindlip, 
near  Worcester,  and  were  committed  to  tlie  Tower, 
together  with  Father  Garnet,  and  Nichol.is  Owen, 
another  laybrother,  servant  to  Garnet.  The  two 
servants  were  terribly  tortured,  Owen  dying  of  his 
torments,  while  the  reticent  answers  and  trembling 
signatures  of  Ashley's  extant  confessions  bear  elo- 
quent testimony  to  his  constancy.  He  was  ulti- 
mately remanded  witli  OUlcorne  to  Worcester, 
where  they  were  tried,  condemned  and  executed 
together.  7  .\pril,  1606,  giving  an  admirable  ex- 
ample of  heroically  faithful  service. 

Foley.  Records  of  the  English  Province  S.J.  (1878).  IV, 
71;  Morris,  Troubles  of  our  Catholic  Forefathers  (1872),  I, 
162. 

Patrick  Ryan. 

Ashton,  John,  an  early  Jesuit  missionarj'  in 
Maryland,  b.  in  Ireland,  1742;  d.  in  Maryland, 
1814,  or  1S15.  He  was  one  of  the  first  priests  to 
visit  the  Catholics  of  B.altimore.  This  was  between 
the  years  1776  and  1784,  at  which  latter  date  a 
resident  priest,  Father  Charles  Sewall,  was  ap- 
pointed. Tlie  Jesuits  at  that  time  lived  at  White- 
marsh,  about  midway  between  Washington  and 
Baltimore.  The  temporary  church  used  by  Father 
Ashton  in  Baltimore  was  an  unfinished  building,  be- 
gun by  an  Irisliman  named  Fotternll.  It  stood  near 
the  present  siteof  Battle  Monument,  now  the  centre  of 
civic  and  coMimercial  activity.      It  was  I  lie  first  brick 


i 


ASHTON 


ASIA 


building  in  lialtininro.  I'inding  it  iibandonod.  soiiip 
Acadian  refugees  oceiipied  the  upper  portion  which 
was  still  hal)ilal>le.  I'lither  Ashton  said  Mas-s  in 
the  lower  room,  although  the  hogs  whieh  had  taken 
possession  of  it  had  first  to  be  driven  out.  The 
priest  brought  his  vestments  with  him,  and  a  r\ide 
altar  was  erected.  The  fivithful  never  nuinbered  more 
than  forty,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  Acadians  and  a 
few  Irish.  This  is  the  lirst  Baltimore  congregation  of 
which  there  is  any  record.  Kather  Ashton  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  17.59.  He  was  first  employed 
in  the  missions  of  Yorkshire,  England.  Ho  must  have 
Ijeen  a  man  of  bvLsincss  capacity,  as  at  the  assembly  of 
the  clergymen  of  Maryland  and  I'ennsylvania,  which 
convened  at  Whitcniarsh,  in  1784,  he  was  unani- 
mously elected  jirocurator-general,  who.se  duty  it 
was  to  preside  over  the  managoinont  of  the  various 
estates  of  the  clergy.  .Subsci|Ui'ntly,  in  17S8,  he 
was  appointed  to  superintend  the  building  of  (ieorge- 
town  College. 

W'ominlork  Ultera,  III.  56,  57;  Griffith,  Annals  of  Balti- 
more: Camimiki.l,  Catholic  Church  in  Maryland;  Cathedral 
Records  (.Uultimure,  1906). 

T.  J.  Campbell. 

Ashton,  RooEB,  Venerable,  Martyr,  third  son  of 
Richard  .\shton  of  Croston,  in  Lancashire.  He  was 
hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  at  Tyburn,  23  June, 
1592.  His  indictment  is  not  preserved.  Challoner 
says  it  was  for  procuring  a  dispensation  from  Rome 
to  marry  his  second  cousin.  Later  evidence,  while 
confirming  this,  shows  that  it  was  not  the  only  cause. 
In  1585  he  had  gone  to  serve  in  the  Low  Countries 
vmder  the  Earl  of  Leicester  against  the  Spaniards, 
Sir  William  Stanley  having  been  placed  on  guard 
over  the  town  of  Deventer,  which  had  revolted  from 
the  Spaniards,  he,  with  the  assistance  of  Ashton, 
gave  the  town  back  to  Spain  and  went  over  to  their 
side  (29  January,  1,587).  Cardinal  Allen  published  a 
"Defence"  of  this  act  in  the  form  of  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  one  "  R.  A.",  whose  letter  to  the  Cardinal 
is  prefixed,  and  under  these  initials  it  seems  natural 
to  recognize  our  martyr.  Stanley  next  entrusted 
to  Ashton  the  ditlicult  task  of  bringing  over  his 
wife  from  Ireland,  but  she  was  already  under  arrest, 
and  he  is  .said  to  have  then  sent  Asliton  to  Rome. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  1587  he  returned  to  England 
and  was  apprehended  in  Kent  with  the  marriage 
dispensation  already  mentioned.  In  January,  1.588, 
he  was  in  the  Tower,  where  he  lay  till  towards  the 
close  of  the  year,  when  he  was  transferred  to  easier  con- 
finement in  the  Marshalsea.  From  this  he  managed 
to  escape  and  he  fled  to  his  brothers  in  Lancashire. 
He  was  seized  later,  at  Shields  near  Newcastle, 
while  trying  to  escape  over  the  seas.  Transferrccl 
thence  to  Dtirham  and  York,  he  was  tried  and  sen- 
tenced at  Canterbury,  and  died  "very  resolute", 
making  nrofe-ssion  of  his  faith  and  "...  pitied  of 
the  people",  though  the  infamous  Tojidiffe  tried  to 
stir  up  ill-feeling  against  him  by  enlarging  on  his 
services   to   Spain. 

Challoner,  Mitsionan/  Prietlt  (cd.  1874),  I.  100;  Dasknt, 
Acts  ol  I'rivy  Cowicil,  XX,  350,  etc..  anil  a  MS.  rclulion  by 
Richard  Vkrhtkoan  in  ttie  WemtminHer  Archives,  IV,  309. 
For  the  family  cf.  Harleion  MS.S.  l.'J49,  fol.  21;  Alle.n's 
Defence  of  Stanley  (ed.  Heywood.  Clietlmm  Soc.,  1851). 
Patrick  Ryan. 

Asia. —In  the  present  article  it  is  intended  to  give 
a  rapid  survey  of  the  geography,  ethnography, 
political  and  religious  historj-  of  Asia,  and  especially 
of  the  rise,  progress,  and  actual  condition  of  Asiatic 
Christianity  and  Catholicism.  Eor  further  infor- 
mation concerning  the  religious  conditions  of  the 
various  .\siatic  countries,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
special  articles  on  the  subject  in  this  Encyclopedia, 

.\,sia  is  the  largest  of  the  continents,  having 
a  geographical  area  of  about  17.1)00,000  square 
miles,  or  about  one-third  of  the  whole  of  the  dry 
land.     It  is  also  the  oldest  known  portion  of  the  globe. 


the  earliest  known  seat  of  civilization  and,  in  all 
probability,  th(>  cradle  of  the  human  race,  although 
scholars  dilTer  iis  to  whether  the  primitive  home  of 
mankind  should  be  located  in  South-western  Asia, 
and  more  particularly  in  the  Tigri.s-Euphrates  valley, 
as  the  Biblical  tradition  of  Genesis  seems  to  indicate, 
or  rather  in  Central  Asia,  and  more  particularly  in 
the  Indo-Iranian  plateau.  On  the  north,  Asia  is 
bounded  by  the  Arctic  Ocean;  on  the  ea-st,  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean;  on  the  south,  by  the  Indian  Ocean; 
and  on  the  west,  by  Europe,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Creek 
Archipelago,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Red  Sea. 
It  is  imited  with  Africa  by  the  de.sert  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  and  with  Europe  by  the  Caucasian  mountains 
and  the  long  I'ral  range. 

The  physical  features  of  Asia,  owing  to  its  immense 
geographical  area,  are  of  great  diversity.  There 
we  meet  with  the  most  extensive  lowlands,  the  most 
immense  table-lands,  and  at  the  same  time  with  the 
highest  chains  of  mountains,  and  the  most  elevated 
summits  in  the  world.  About  two-thirds  of  its  area 
is  table-land,  and  the  other  third  mountainous 
regions,  some  of  which  are  covered  with  perpetual 
snow.  The  lowland  sections  may  be  appropriately 
divided  into  six  (hstinct  region.*,  namely:  (1)  The 
Siberian  lowland,  which  is  by  far  the  largest,  and 
for  the  most  part  cold,  gloomy,  and  barren;  (2)  the 
Bucharistan  lowland,  situated  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  the  Lake  Aral,  a  wide  sterile  waste;  (3)  the 
Syro-.\rabian  lowland,  partly  sterile  and  partly 
extremely  productive  and  fertile;  (4)  the  Ilinaustan 
lowland,  of  about  5(M),000  square  miles,  comprising 
the  great  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and  verj'  fertile; 
(5)  the  Indo-Chinese  lowland,  including  the  regions 
of  Cambodia  antl  ."^iam;  and  (6)  the  Chinese  lowland, 
extending  from  Peking  as  far  as  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
of  about  220,1)1)0  ,s<|uare  miles,  and  extremely  fertile. 
Asia  is  poor  in  lakes  but  very  rich  in  rivers,  the  most 
fatnous  of  which  are  the  Tigris  and  the  Eiiphrales, 
the  Indus  with  its  many  tributaries,  the  Brahma- 
putra, the  Ganges,  the  Irrawaddy,  the  Salwin, 
the  Me-nam,  the  Me-kong,  the  Hong-Kiang,  the 
Yang-tze-kiang,  the  Hwang-ho,  or  Yellow  River, 
the  Amur,  and  the  many  river-systems  of  Siberia. 
On  account  of  its  v;Lst  extent  and  diversity  of  climate, 
the  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  products  of  Asia 
are  nat\irally  varied,  rich,  and  almost  unlimited. 

Geographically,  Asia  may  be  divided  into  fout 
great  regions:  (1)  Northern  Asia,  or  Asiatic  Russia, 
which  includes  Siberia,  Caucasia,  and  the  Aral- 
Caspian  Basin,  i.  e.  Russian  Turkistan,  the  Turkoman 
country,  Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  the  region  of  the 
upper  ( Ixvis;  (2)  Eastern  Asia,  comprising  China, 
Mongolia,  Korea,  and  Japan;  (3)  Southern  Asia,  com- 
prising India,  Indo-China,  and  Siam;  (4)  South-wes- 
tern Asia,  comprising  the  famous  historic  lands  of 
Persia,  Media,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Mesoiiofamia, 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Phfrnicia,  Palestine,  and  .\rabia. 

Politically,  Asia  is  divided  ;is  follows:  (1)  R\issian 
Empire,  inchiding  Siberia  and  as  far  west  as  the  bor- 
ders of  Turkey,  Persia,  and  Turkistan,  and  as  far 
south  as  the  ("hinese  Empire;  (2)  Chine.se  Empire, 
including  Mongolia,  Manchuria,  and  Tibet;  (3) 
Japanese  Empire;  (4)  India  proper,  or  British  Empire; 
(.5)  Siam;  ((>)  Indo-China,  uncler  French  dominion; 
(7)  Afghanistan;  (8)  Persia;  and  (9)  Asiatic  Turkey, 
which  comprises  all  Irak  and  Mesoi>otamia,  Kurdis- 
tan, Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Arabia.  The 
entire  population  of  Asia  (according  to  the  statistics 
of  1901)  IS  estimated  at  about  800.000,(K)0,  or  more 
than  half  the  entire  population  of  the  earth,  and 
divided  as  follows:  .\siatic  Russia,  24,947,.500;  China. 
330,.829.9fX);  Korea,  9.670.000;  Japan,  46,494,000; 
Indo-China,  15,.590,000;  Siam,  6,320,000;  India. 
302,.»<31 .700;  Afghanistan. 4. .5.50.(H)0;  Persia, 9,000,000; 
Asiatic  Turkey,  including  Arabia,  19.r26,,500. 

Ethnographically,  the  population  of  .\sia  mav  be 


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reduced  to  three  great  groups,  or  races,  viz.:  (1)  the 
Mongolian,  or  Turanian,  to  which  belong  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  whole  Northern  Asia  and  as  far 
south  as  the  plaias  bordering  the  Caspian  Sea,  in- 
cluding China,  Tibet,  the  Indo-Malayan  peninsula, 
Japan,  Korea,  and  the  Archipelago,  making  by  far  the 
largest  part  of  the  population  of  Asia.  The  Mongo- 
lian race  is  characterized  by  its  yellow  skin,  black 
eyes  and  hair  flat  noses,  oblique  eyes,  short  stature, 
with  little  hair  on  the  body  and  face.  (2)  The 
Aryan,  or  Indo-Iranian  group,  to  which  the  great 
majority  of  European  peoples  belong.  It  extends 
over  tlie  whole  of  Southern  and  part  of  Western 
Asia,  embracing  the  Hindus,  the  Iranians,  the 
Medo- Persians,  the  Armenians,  the  Caucasians,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor.  (3)  The  Semitic, 
which  extends  over  the  whole  of  South-western  Asia, 
and  comprises  the  Arabs,  the  Assyro- Babylonians, 
or  Mesopotamians,  the  Syrians,  the  Jews,  and  the 
entire  Mohammedan  population  of  Asiatic  Turkey. 

The  nvmierous  languages  spoken  in  Asia  may  be 
roughly  classified  as  follows:  (1)  The  Turanian 
branch,  to  which  belong  the  Mongolian,  the  Manchu, 
the  Chinese,  the  Japanese,  the  old  Turkish,  and 
Tatar.  (2)  The  Aryan,  or  Indo-Iranian,  to  which 
belong  most  of  the  hundred  and  twenty  languages  and 
dialects  of  India,  especially  the  old  Sanskrit,  the  Ira- 
nian, or  old  Persian,  which  is  the  language  of  the 
Avesta  and  of  the  Acha?menian  inscriptions,  the  Ar- 
menian, the  Georgian,  and  a  considerable  part  of 
modern  Persian.  (3)  Tlie  Semitic  group,  to  which 
belong  the  ancient  languages  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians,  the  various,  but  mostly  extinct,  old 
Chanaanitish  dialects,  the  Hebrew,  the  Phoenician, 
the  numerous  eastern  and  western  Aramaic  dialects, 
known  as  Syriac,  and  represented  nowadays  by  the 
modern  Chaldean  and  neo-Syriac  dialects  iised  by 
the  Nestorians  of  Kurdistan,  Persia,  and  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  finally  Arabic,  which  in  various  forms  and 
dialects  is  spoken  throughout  Arabia  and  by  the 
great  majority  of  the  Mohammedan  populations  of 
Hindustan,  Persia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Syria,  as  well 
as  by  most  of  the  Christians  of  the  two  last-men- 
tioned countries. 

History  of  Asia. — At  what  period  man  first 
made  his  appearance  in  Asia  we  do  not  know,  al- 
though there  have  been  various  and  conflicting 
theories  advanced  as  to  when  that  event  took 
place.  The  general  opinion  now  entertained  by 
scholars  is  that  somewhere  from  the  fifth  to  the 
seventh  millennium  b.  c,  Asia  was  chiefly  peopled 
by  two  great  races,  viz.,  the  Semitic  and  the  Mon- 
golian, or  Turanian.  The  former  occupied  the 
south-western  portion  of  Asia,  that  is  to  say,  the 
lands  lying  on  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Medi- 
terranean and  contiguous  to  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  including  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palestine, 
Arabia,  and  the  extensive  regions  watered  by  the 
Rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  afterwards  composing 
the  two  mighty  empires  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria; 
the  latter  occupied  the  regions  of  Northern  and 
Eastern  Asia,  stretcliing  inward  from  the  coast  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  including  Japan,  China,  and 
tlie  districts  to  the  west  and  south  contiguous  to 
China.  At  about  the  same  period,  some  of  the 
Turanian  tribes  of  Northern  and  Central  Asia  pressed 
their  way  to  the  west,  invaded  Persia,  and  puslied 
as  far  south-west  as  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Babylonia, 
where  they  .soon  overcame  the  native  Semites, 
subjugating  thoin  to  their  rule  and  power,  and 
forcing  upon  them  their  own  Turanian  religion 
and  civilization.  The  existence  and  supremacy 
of  this  Turanian  element  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Tigris-lMiplirates  valley  is  historically  attested 
by  the  old  Babylonian  inscriptions,  by  their  .system 
01  writing,  language,  civilization,  and  governing 
dynasties.     Scholars   have  given   tlie   name   of  Tu- 


ranians, or  Akkadians,  or  better  Sumerians,  to 
this  foreign  invading  element,  and  they  are  all 
agreed  that  their  power  and  authority  remained 
uncontested  for  about  two  thousand  years,  i.  e. 
till  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  millennium  B.  c, 
when  the  native  Semitic  Babylonians,  aided  perhaps 
by  numerous  Semitic  immigrants  from  Arabia 
and  Chanaan  into  Babylonia,  overthrew  the  Su- 
merian  power,  uniting  North  and  South  Babylonia 
into  several  Semitic  confederations,  and,  later  on, 
into  one  united  Semitic  Babylonia. 

At  the  same  time,  various  Semitic  nationalities  be- 
gan to  develop  in  Arabia,  .Mesopotamia,  and  Chanaan. 
Towards  the  first  half  of  the  second  millennium  B.  c, 
Assyrian  power  made  its  first  appearance,  and  suc- 
cessfully contested  with  Babylonia  the  supremacy 
over  Western  Asia.  Towards  1200  b.  c.  the  Israel- 
itish  tribes  invaded  and  settled  in  Chanaan.  In 
60.5  B.  c.  Ninive,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire, 
fell  by  the  hands  of  Nabupalassar,  of  Babylonia,  and 
Cyaxares,  of  Media;  and  with  its  fall  the  powerful 
Assyrian  Empire  came  to  an  end.  Less  than  a 
century  later  Babylon  itself  was  captured  by  Cyrus 
(538  B.C.)  and  the  whole  of  Western  Asia  passed 
under  the  Medo-Persian  power  of  Cyrus,  Cambyses. 
and  Darius  till  the  time  of  the  triumph  of  the  Mace- 
donian army  under  the  command  of  Alexander  the 
Great  (330  b.  c).  After  the  Seleucida",  Western  Asia 
passed  into  the  power  of  the  Parthian,  Arsacid,  and 
Sassanian  dynasties  of  Persia,  and  remained  so  till 
the  advent  and  the  sweeping  triumph  of  the  Moham- 
medan armies  in  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian 
Era.  While  the  Sassanian  kings  held  their  power 
and  authority  over  the  whole  region  east  of  the 
Euphrates,  the  Romans  had  absolute  power  over 
Syria,  part  of  northern  Mesopotamia,  and  Asia  Minor. 
Arabia,  on  the  other  hand,  had  successfully  resisted 
permanent  foreign  encroachments,  and  the  numerous 
tribes  of  that  peninsula  continued  to  be  governed 
by  their  own  sheikhs,  princes,  and  kings.  The 
South  Arabian  kingdoms,  those  of  Yemen.  Himyar, 
Saba,  and  Ma'an,  were  in  continuous  struggle  against 
one  another  and  especially  against  the  Abyssinians 
of  Ethiopia.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century  of  the  Christian  Era  the  Mohammedan  armies, 
having  united  the  numerous  Arab  tribes  into  one 
Mohammedan  Arabia,  crossed  into  SjTia,  Egypt, 
Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  and  Persia.  In  less  than 
fifty  years  the  whole  of  Western  Asia  was  completely 
reduced  by  the  Moslem  armies,  and  remained  so  until 
about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  opening  of 
the  fourteenth  centurj',  when  the  Tatar  and  Mongo- 
lian armies  of  the  terrible  Jenghiz  Khan,  Temur  Lang, 
and  their  successors  swept  over  all  Western  Asia, 
overthrowing  the  Abbasid  dynasty  in  Irak,  and  that 
of  the  Seljuks  in  Asia  Minor.  Soon  after.  Western 
Asia  passed  into  the  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks 
who  have  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  authority 
intact  over  the  same  regions  till  our  own  day. 

The  Mongolian  tribes  of  Northern  Asia  seem  to 
have  grown  as  early  as  the  second  millennium  b.  c, 
into  various  kingdoms  and  nationalities,  such  as 
the  Chinese,  the  Japanese,  the  Tatars,  with  their 
distinct  kingdoms  and  dynasties.  The  history  and 
the  development  of  these  north  and  east  Asiatic 
kingdoms  are,  comparatively  speaking,  of  little 
importance  for  the  international  historj'  of  civilized 
Asia,  inasmuch  as  their  power  and  influence  did  not 
materially  or  permanently  alTect  the  development 
and  the  destinies  of  the  near  East.  Even  the 
Tatar  and  Turcoman  hordes,  who  for  the  last  six 
centuries  have  held  under  their  sway  the  destinies 
of  Western  Asia,  soon  adopted  the  Mohammedan 
religion   and   civilization. 

Unlike  their  European  bretltren,  the  Aryan  tribes 
of  Southern  .\sia  and  Iran  did  not  play  a  \ery  im- 
portant part  in  the  pages  of  history.      Witli  the  f\- 


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ception  of  the  conquest  of  Babylonia  by  tlio  Ira- 
nian conqvipror  Cyrus  and  the  supremacy  of  Sius- 
sanian  dynasties  over  the  eiustern  half  of  Western 
Asia  the  Indo-Iranian  tril)es  of  South  and  west- 
Central  Asia  developed  no  particularly  remarkable 
kingdoms  or  iM)\ver.  The  earliest  event  of  Hindu 
historical  chronology  does  not  date  farther  back 
than  1400  n.  c,  and  possibly  later.  It  is  the  war  of 
the  Mahabharat,  the  story  of  which  is  contained 
in  a  poem  written  al)Out  5(K)  b.  c,  that  forms  a 
part  of  the  epic  literature  of  ancient  India.  The 
accounts  of  antecedent  periods  are  manifestly 
mythical,  and  merely  indicate  the  probability  of 
the  gradual  progress  of  the  conquering  Brahminic 
race  from  west  to  east.  From  that  time  down  to 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  India  was 
governed  by  various  native  and  Mogul  dynasties; 
and  towards  the  beginning  of  thelast  century  it  passed 
into  the  power  of  Kngland. 

Religions  of  Ash. — The  principal  religions  of 
Asia  are:  Brahminism,  Budcihism,  Confucianism, 
Taoism,  Zoroastrianism .  Mohammedanism,  .ludaism. 
and  Christianity.  lirnhminism  is  the  oldest  known 
and  the  prevailing  religious  svstem  of  India,  count- 
ing 21(),(X)0,000  Hindu  adherents.  Buddhism  (from 
Buddha,  "the  wise",  "the  enlightened")  owes  its 
origin  to  Gautama,  otherwise  called  Sah/a  Mxmi 
(i.  e.  the  Sakya  sage"),  who  flourished  towards  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.  c.  It  is  by  far  the 
widest-spread  religion  in  Asia,  coimting  more 
than  400,000,000  adherents,  300,000,000  of  whom 
are  in  China,  where  it  is  the  chief  of  the  three 
recognized  religions.  Its  other  followers  are  found 
in  Siberia,  Korea,  Japan,  and  India  (Ceylon  and 
Burmah).  Reformed  Buddhism  is  a  recent  develop- 
ment in  China  and  Japan,  and  it  plainly  shows  the 
influence  of  Christianity.  Cnnjucinnism  is  one  of 
the  three  chief  religions  of  China,  the  other  two 
being  Buddhism  and  Taoism.  Confucianism  is  a 
system  of  philosophy  rather  than  religion.  It  is 
the  official  religion  of  the  State,  and  the  basis  of  the 
social  and  [xjlitical  life  of  the  Chinese  nation.  Taoism 
is  the  third  recognized  religion  of  China.  It  takes 
its  name  from  that  of  its  foimder,  Laou-tsze,  or 
LSo-tze,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  centurj'  before  the 
Christian  Era.  Taoism  as  a  religious  system  has 
degenerated  from  its  high  original  mysticism  into  a 
system  of  superstitious  olwervances,  and  so  forms 
the  accepted  religion  of  the  lowest  and  most  igno- 
rant class  of  Chinese,  counting  about  100,000.000 
adherents.  It  has  also  many  followers  in  Cochin- 
China  and  Japan.  Zoroastrianism  is  the  religion  of 
the  ancient  Iranians  and  Persians.  Its  founder  was 
Zoroaster,  the  great  prophet  of  Iran,  who  flourished 
towards  the  sixth  century  B.  r.  Once  a  very  power- 
ful religion,  Zoroastrianism  has  almost  vanished 
before  Islamism,  counting  nowadays  only  a  few- 
thousand  followers  in  Persia  and  India. 

MoH.\MMED.\NisM  IN  AsH.  .Mohammedanism,  or 
Islamism,  is  one  of  the  three  great  Semitic  religions, 
the  other  two  being  Judaism  and  Christianity.  No 
accurate  statistics  have  as  yet  tieen  t'lken  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan population  of  the  world.  The  latest 
approved  estimate,  however,  places  the  number  at 
a  little  over  two  hundred  millions.  Of  these,  sixty 
millions  are  in  Africa,  and  most  of  the  rest  in  -■Vsia. 
as  follows:  18,000,(M)()  in  Asiatic  Turkey;  30.0(H).000 
in  China;  60,000,000  in  India  and  Burmah;  31 ,000,(K)0 
in  the  Malay  .\rcliiiwlago;  and  the  rest  in  Persia, 
AfghaiiislriTi.  Cauciisia,  and  Russian  Turkistan. 
In  Ihc  Miii(l:itiao  Kiiig<lom  and  in  the  .Sulii  group  of 
the  I'hilippiMc  Islands  there  are  alx)Ut  3(I0,(KM)  and 
2.")0.(XH)  .Moliamiiicdans  respectively.  The  relations 
of  Mohammedanism  to  ( )riental  Churches  and  Christi- 
anity are  discussed  in  the  article  Mohammed.wism, 
and  in  the  articles  on  the  various  Oriental  Churches. 
(Sec  also  Arabia.) 


Ji'DAisM  IX  A.iia. — Towards  the  twelfth  century 
before  the  Christian  I>a,  we  find  the  Hebrews  per- 
manentlj'  settled  in  Palestine.  The  earliest  known 
Hebrew  migrations  from  Palestine  occurred  during 
the  reign  of  Sargon,  King  of  Assyria  (722-70.5  n.  c), 
who  having  in  722  captured  Samaria,  the  capital  of 
the  norlhcni  Israelitish  kingdom,  transported  27,000 
Samaritan  Hebrews  to  As.syria  and  the  frontiers  of 
Media.  A  century  and  a  half  later,  Nabuchodonosor, 
King  of  Babylon  (60.5-.5(i2  B.  c),  carried  off  from 
Jerusalem  into  Babylonia  .some  twenty  thou.sand 
Jews.  Soon  after  his  capture  of  Babylon,  Cyrus 
allowed  the  Jews  to  return  to  Palestine.  The  jioorest 
class  returned,  but  the  most  prosperous  families 
remained  in  the  land  of  their  exile,  where  they  .soon 
rose  to  great  social  and  financial  prosperity. 
Towards  3,50  n.  r. ,  Artaxerxes  Ochus  deported  to 
Hyrcania  a  group  of  Jews  that  had  revolted.  I^poii 
the  triumph  of  tne  Macedonian  army,  and  under  the 
successors  of  Alexander  the  dreat,  great  numliers 
of  Jews  migrated  into  F.gypt.  .After  the  overthrow 
of  the  last  JewLsh  kingdom,  and  following  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  at 
the  hands  of  the  Romans,  Judaism  at  large  passed 
beyond  the  limits  of  its  ancient  centres  and  began 
to  spread  over  Egypt,  North  .\frica,  and  Western 
.Asia.  During  the  first  five  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Era,  we  find  numerous  Jewish  colonies  scattered  all 
over  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Asia  Minor,  A.s^yria. 
Babylonia,  Media,  and  as  far  as  South  Arabia.  In 
the  last-mentioned  country  they  obtained  political 
supremacy  for  a  while,  under  the  Himyarite  King 
Dhii-Nuwits.  In  .southern  Babylonia,  and  especially 
during  the  Sassanian  dynasty  of  Persia,  they  ac- 
quired great  ascendancy,  with  very  flourishing 
religious  and  educational  centres,  such  as  the  famous 
academies  of  Sura,  Nehardea,  Pumbadita,  and 
Mahuza,  whence  sprang  the  Babylonian  Talmud, 

With  the  advent  of  Islam,  however,  and  the  rapid 
conquests  of  the  Mohammedan  armies,  Judaism 
suffered  greatly  in  Arabia  and  in  all  the  newly 
conquered  provinces.  Its  followers  were  almost 
always  harshly  and  severely  dealt  with  by  the  Mos- 
lems, although  under  the  reign  of  several  Abbasid 
caliphs  they  were  kindly  treated.  The  Byzan- 
tine emperors,  on  the  other  hand,  were  anything 
but  friendly  to  them;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that,  al- 
though in  the  first  three  centuries  of  Christianity  the 
Jews  were  the  first  to  liecomc  Christian  proselytes, 
nevertheless,  the  two  religions  developed  afterwards 
the  most  lamentable  antiigonism  which  lasted  for  a 
great  many  centuries.  Notwithstanding  the  many 
persecutions  to  which  they  had  to  submit,  the  Jews 
nave  preserved  their  racial  and  religious  unify  in  vari- 
ous countries  of  Asia,  where  thev  are  divided  as  fol- 
lows: 6.5,(K)0  in  Asia  Minor;  90,000  in  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine; 70,000  in  Mesopotamia  and  Irak;  60,000  in 
Arabia;  .58,000  in  the  Caucasus;  3.5.000  in  Siberia; 
8,000  in  Ferghana;  9,000  in  Bokhara;  2,000  in 
Khiva;  3.000  in  .\den;  1.5.000  in  British  India;  2,000 
in  Afghanistan;  25,000  in  Persia;  1,000  in  China,  and 
.500  in  various  other  Asiatic  countries,  making  a  total 
of  about  4.50,000,  or  less  than  half  a  million. 

Christianitte'  in  Asia. — Asia  is  the  cradle  and 
the  primitive  home  of  Christianity;  for  it  was  in  its 
extreme  .south-western  borders,  i.  e.  in  Palestine. 
the  home  of  the  chosen  people,  that  the  Founder  of 
Christianity  chose  to  appear,  to  live,  and  to  preach 
the  New  Dispensation.  Soon  after  Jesus'  death. 
His  .Viwstles  and  Disciples  cctively  began  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  world,  and  tradition  tells  us  that 
the  .\p<istles  went  to  different  localities:  some  to 
Palestine,  others  to  Asia  Minor,  some  to  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  others  to  Mesofxitamia,  Armenia,  Baby- 
lonia, Arabia.  Egypt,  Ethiopia,  and  even  as  far  as 
India.  Palestine  and  Syria,  however,  were  naturally 
the  first  recipients    of    the    new    religion,  and   here 


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the  Jewish  communities  furnished  the  first  nucleus 
of  Christian  proselytes.  From  Syria,  Christian 
propaganda  spread  into  Phcenicia  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  through  the  effective  preaching  of  St.  Paul, 
it  penetrated  into  the  principal  cities  of  the  Medi- 
terranean coa.st  and  Asia  Minor,  crossing  the  borders 
of  Asia  and  reacliing  into  the  very  lieart  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  From  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  it 
can  be  conclusively  shown  that  as  early  as  the  second 
half  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  Era,  Christian 
<'omm\mities  existed  in  the  following  Asiatic  cities: 
Jerusalem  (Acts,  passim).  Damascus  (Acts,  ix), 
Samaria  and  Samaritan  villages  (Acts,  viii),  Lydda 
{ix),  Joppe  (ib.),  Saron  (ib.),  Cjesarea  in  Palestine 
■(Acts,  x),  Antioch  in  Syria  (xi),  Tyre  (xxi),  Sidon 
■(xxvii),  Tarsus  (ix,xi,  xv),  Salamina  in  Cyprus  (xiii), 
Paphos  in  Cyprus  (xiii),  Perge  in  Pamphylia  (xiii, 
xiv),  Antioch  in  Pisidia  (xiv),  Iconium  (xiii,  xiv), 
Lystra  (xiv),  Derbe  (xiv),  several  unnamed  localities 
in  Galatia  (Gal.,  i,  I  Peter,  i),  in  Cappadocia  (I  Peter, 
i),  Ephesus  (Acts,  and  Paul's  Epp.),  Laodicea 
(Paul's  Epp.),  Hierapolis  in  Phrj'gia  (Paul's  Epp.), 
Smyrna  (Apoc),  Sardis  (ib.),  Philadelphia  in 
Lydia  (ib.),  Thyatira  in  Lydia  (ib.),  etc.,  and  very 
probably  also  in  Ashdod  in  Philistia,  Seleucia, 
Attalia  in  Pamphylia,  Amphipolis,  Apollonia,  Assus, 
Malta,  and  other  islands  of  the  Mediterranean. 
From  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  the  activity  of  the  early 
Christian  missionaries  spread  north,  south,  east,  and 
■west  through  Edessa,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  Assyria, 
Babylonia,  Media,  Persia,  Arabia,  Ethiopia,  Egypt, 
Africa,  Greece,  Italy,  and  the  West.  As  regards 
Asia,  we  have  historical  evidence  that,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  second  century,  Christian  communities 
were  established  also  in  Edessa,  various  cities  of 
Mesopotamia,  along  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates, 
Melitene,  Magnesia,  Tralles  in  Caria,  Philomelium 
in  Pisidia,  Parium  in  Mysia,  Nicomedia,  Otrus, 
Hierapolis,  Pepuza,  Tymion,  Ardaban,  Apamea, 
Cumane,  and  Eumenea  in  Phrygia,  Ancyra  in  Gala- 
tia, Sinope,  Amastris  in  Pontus,  Debeltum  in  Thrace, 
Larissa  in  Thessalia,  Myra  in  Lycia,  etc.  (See 
Hamack,  Expansion  of  Christianity  in  the  First 
Three  Centuries,  II,  240  sqq.)  From  the  signatures 
of  the  various  Asiatic  bishops  who  assisted  at  the 
Council  of  Nicsa  (325)  we  have  conclusive  evidence 
that  towards  the  year  300,  and  in  fact  considerably 
earlier,  there  existed  in  the  following  Asiatic  pro- 
vinces and  cities  not  only  Christian  communities, 
but  also  well-organized  churches,  dioceses,  and  ec- 
clesiastical centres:  Jerusalem,  Ceesarea,  Samaria- 
Sebaste,  Lydda-Diospolis,  Joppe,  Saron,  Emmaus- 
Nicopolis,  Sichem-Neapolis,  Scythopolis,  Jamnia, 
Azotus,  Ascalon,  Gaza,  Gadara,  Capitolias,  Bethle- 
hem, Anea,  Anim  and  Jattir,  Bethabara,  Sichar- 
Asker,  Batanea,  Pheno,  and  many  other  episcopal 
sees  in  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  Syria,  Palestine,  Arabia, 
Edessa,  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  etc.  In  the  last 
three  mentioned  regions,  in  fact,  we  have  posi- 
tive traces  of  fully  organized  dioceses  and  churches 
as  early  as  tlie  first  half  of  the  third  century,  with 
many  illustrious  saints  and  martyrs. 

In  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  century,  until  the  rise  of  Islam,  Christianity 
became  the  dominant  and  generally  accepted  re- 
ligion of  Western  Asia,  with  the  exception  of  Arabia. 
The  Christian  Church,  however,  was  subject  politi- 
cally to  two  mighty  rival  powers,  the  Roman  anti  the 
Persian.  To  tlie  first  of  these,  the  whole;  of  Pales- 
tine, Syria,  North-w-est  Arabia)  wcst-ICviphratcan- 
Mesopotamia,  and  Asia  Minor,  were  subject;  while 
to  the  latter  belonged  esist-lMiphratean-Mesopotamia, 
rortli-east  Arabia,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Persia,  iind 
Media.  The  endle.ss  rivalry  and  wars  of  these  two 
powers  proved  indeed  fatal  to  the  progress  of  Christi- 
anity and  In  the  permanent  unity  of  the  two  great 
Christian   Churches,   the   Roman    and    the   Persian. 


These  obstacles  notwithstanding,  the  Christian  Church 
of  Persia,  from  its  very  beginning  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century,  was  dependent  on  the  Patri- 
arch of  Antioch  and  consequently  in  communion 
with  Rome,  although  it  had  its  own  metropolitan, 
the  great  Catholicos  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  in  Baby- 
lonia. But  the  Nestorian  and  Monophysite  heresies 
of  the  fifth  century  broke  this  union  asunder.  Nes- 
torianism,  vmable  to  gain  any  permanent  footing  in 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  W'est,  found  a  strong  ally 
and  defender  in  the  Sassanian  kings  of  Persia  and 
in  the  Mesopotamian  Church,  which,  towards  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  had  already  completely 
estranged  itself  from  Antioch  and  Rome,  and  had 
become  an  independent  national  Church,  having 
for  its  ecclesiastical  head  the  great  Catholicos  of 
the  East,  i.  e.  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon.  In  the  mean- 
while, Monophysitism  began  to  rage  in  Sj-ria,  Ar- 
menia, Arabia,  and  Mesopotamia  alike,  forming  thus 
another  independent  heretical  Church.  Soon  after, 
the  Nestorian  and  the  Monophysite  Churches  of 
Western  Asia  prospered  and  developed  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  compete  in  greatness  and  influence  with 
most  Christian  Churches,  the  Roman  excepted. 

With  the  advent  of  Islam,  however,  and  the  rapid 
conquest  of  the  Moliammedan  armies  (seventh 
century),  Christianity  in  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  Per- 
sia, Armenia,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor  suffered  most 
severely.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Mohammed, 
all  these  provinces  fell,  one  after  the  other,  into 
the  hands  of  the  Moslems,  who  threatened,  for  a 
while,  the  entire  extinction  of  Christianity  in  Wes- 
tern Asia.  Thanks,  however,  to  the  tolerant  atti- 
tude of  the  majority  of  the  Umayyad  and  Abbasid 
caliphs  of  Damascus  and  Bagdad  respecti\ely, 
Christianity  in  the  Mohammedan  Empire  rose  gradu- 
ally to  a  new  and  unprecedented  life  and  vigour,  and 
in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  centuries  the  Nestorian 
and  the  Monophysite  Churclies,  but  especially  the 
first,  reached  their  highest  degree  of  prosperity. 
Nestorian  and  Jacobite  theologians,  philosopheis. 
and  men  of  letters  soon  became  the  teachers  of  the 
conquering  Arabs  and  the  pioneers  of  Islamo-Arabic 
science,  civilization,  and  learning.  Nestorian  physi- 
cians became  the  attending  physicians  of  the  court, 
and  the  Nestorian  patriarch  and  his  numerous 
bishops  were  regarded  in  Asia  as  second  to  none  in 
power  and  authority.  From  Western  Asia,  Nes- 
torianism  spread  into  India,  Ceylon,  Socotra,  and 
the  Malabar  coast,  China,  Mongolia,  and  Tatary, 
where  it  soon  became  extremely  infiuential  and  pos- 
sessed numerous  churches  and  well-organized  bishop- 
rics. So  that  as  early  as  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies, the  jurisdiction  of  the  Nestorian  Catholicos 
of  Seleucia  extended  over  Central,  Southern,  west- 
Central,  and  Sovith-western  Asia,  as  far  as  Syria, 
Arabia,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt,  and  had  more  than  two 
hundred  subordinate  bishops  and  metropolitans.  In 
the  meanwhile,  the  Monophysite  Church  held  sway 
in  Syria,  Egypt,  North  Meso])iitamia,  and  Armenia, 
where  it  develoi)e<l  strength,  if  not  equal,  certainly 
not  very  inferior,  to  that  of  the  Nestorian. 

In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  the 
Mongolian  and  Tatar  invasions  and  devastations 
in  Central  and  Western  Asia  put  an  end  to  Arabic 
dominion,  dealing,  at  the  same  time,  a  deadly  blow- 
both  to  the  Nestorian  and  the  Jacobite  Churches, 
and  causing  havoc  and  consternation  among  Asiatic 
Christian.^  in  general.  Hvmdreds  of  thousands  of 
these  Christians  were  massacred,  their  churches  and 
moniisleries  ruined,  and  a  great  number  of  the  waver- 
ing coriipellc<l  to  renoimce  their  faith  and  embrace 
Mohaniinedanism.  The  weakened  condition  of  both 
the  Nestorian  and  Jacobite  Churches  paved  the  way  to 
their  return  to  the  Catholic  I'aith,  and  many  of  their 
patriarchs  and  bisbops  thanks  to  the  incessant  and 
salutary    work    of    the    early    Catholic    Miissionaries. 


;  X',''*<%  <r-   A  ■    s""!  I    ■'  v^^-5  P   yT  •SIS. 4     -"i'  ^  » 


ASIA 


781 


ASIA 


asked  to  be  once  more  united  witli  Rome  lus  of 
old.  Tlie  stream  of  conversions  became  more 
pronounced  and  rapid  during  the  sixtcentli  and 
seventeentli  cciiturios,  and  has  continued  so  till  our 
own  day.  Franciscan,  Dominican,  t"armelit«,  and 
.[(•suit  missions  were  established  all  over  Asia  with 
tlie  result  tliat  a  large  number  of  Nestorians  and 
Monophysitos  have  long  since  renounced  tlieir 
heretical  creeds  and  embraced  Catholicism.  The 
same  gratifying  movement  took  pla<e  in  the  schi.s- 
matii;  (ireek  Cluirch  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  as  well 
as  in  the  Monophysite  Cliurch  of  Armenia. 

Actual  Condition  of  the  Christian  Church. — 
The  history  of  Catholicism  in  Asia  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Asiatic 
Catholic  missions.  The  merit  of  having  first  dis- 
closed to  the  West,  and  to  Rome  in  particular,  the 
mysterious  and  impenetrable  East  :us  well  !is  the 
condition  of  Oriental  Christianity  undoubtedly  be- 
longs to  the  Crusaders.  Profiting  by  this  informa- 
tion, and  ever  solieitous  for  (lie  welfare  of  the  Church 
of  Christ,  tlic  popes  were  the  first  to  seize  the  oppor- 
tunity for  a  Catholic  propaganda  in  the  Far,  as  well 
as  in  the  near  East.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  Innocent  IV,  Gregory  X,  and 
Honorius  II  sent  the  Franciscan  missionaries,  I.,orenzo 
of  Portugal,  Giovanni  Piano  di  Carpine,  Wilhelm 
Ruysbrock  (de  Rubruquis),  Giovanni  of  Cremona, 
and  otliers,  as  their  representative  delegates,  to  the 
great  Mogul,  Kublai  Khan,  on  behalf  of  the  Oriental 
Christians.  In  1300,  tlie  Franciscan,  Giovanni  di 
Montecorvino,  was  sent  by  Benedict  .\I  on  a  similar 
mission  to  China,  where  he  was  sub.seinienlly  ap- 
p<iinted  bishop  with  seven  auxiliary  bishops  by 
Clement  V,  and  where  he  died  in  l.'i30.  In  KilS, 
the  Dominican  Francesco  di  Perugia  wjis  appointed 
Bisliop  of  Sultaniah,  in  Tatary.  by  Pope  John  XXII, 
and  in  i:?21-'2S,  anotlier  Dominican  mi.ssionary,  Gior- 
dano (!atalani,  ac(om]>anicd  by  three  Franciscan  friars, 
made  two  suci'cssful  journevs  to  India,  to  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  to  Ceylon,  and  "to  China.  In  1323,  the 
Franciscan,  Odorico  di  Pordenone,  visited  Ceylon, 
Java,  Borneo,  Khan-Balikh,  Tibet,  and  Persia, 
returning  in  1331  after  having  baptized  more  than 
20,000  pagaas.  In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  the  Franciscan  friars  who  were  appointed 
by  the  popes  as  the  official  guardians  of  the  sanctu- 
aries of  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy  Land,  began  t« 
extend  their  missionary  activity  to  North  Syria, 
North-west  Mesopotamia  and  ICgj'pt,  while  the  Car- 
melites advanced  into  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and 
Persia.  In  1501,  the  Franciscan.  Enrico  of  Coimbra, 
accompanied  the  Portuguese,  Alvarez  Cabral.  into 
Calicut,  Cochin,  Goa,  and  Cranganore;  and  in  1,'>21, 
Catholic  missionaries  first  penetrat<;d  into  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  During  the  years  15-11— If),  St.  Francis 
Xavier  evangelized  India,  the  coasts  of  Malabar  and 
Travancore,  and  Ceylon;  in  1.545  Malacca;  in  1546 
the  Moluccits;  from  1.549-51  Japan,  and  in  1.551, 
while  on  his  way  to  China,  ho  died  after  an  apostolic 
career  not  less  wonderful  and  unique  than  successful 
and  rich  in  results. 

With  the  mission  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  in  India 
and  the  founding  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  there  began 
a  new  era  for  Catholic  missionary  enterprise,  an 
era  of  indomitable  zeal  and  exceptional  success. 
Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  and  Carmelites 
were  now  eagerly  v'j'ing  with  one  another  for  the 
Christianization  of  Asia.  Naturally  enough  the 
numerous  Nestorian,  Jacobite,  Armenian,  and 
Greek  scliismatic  communities  and  churches  scat- 
tered througli  the  Turkish  dominion,  in  .SjTia,  Asia 
Minor,  .Armenia.  Mesopotamia.  Babylonia,  and 
through  Persia  attracted  their  first  attention;  and, 
thanks  to  their  noble  missionary  efforts  and 
their  zeal,  great  numliers  of  schismatic  Orientals 
with    many   of    their   bishops,    priests,    and    monks 


joined  the  Catholic  Church.  Catholic  mi.ssions  and 
schools,  seminaries,  and  churches,  lio.s|)itals.  and 
other  charitable  institutions  were  established  among 
all  these  schismatic  Oriental  Churches  in  Asiatic 
Turkey  and  Persia,  sis  well  jis  among  the  heathen  in 
t^hina,  India,  Korea,  Siam,  Cochin-China,  and  Jiipan. 
Soon  after.  Catholic  dioceses  of  the  Latin  Rite, 
Apostolic  prefectures,  and  Apostolic  delegations  were 
created  and  permanently  established,  with  the 
gratifying  result  that  now,  at  tlie  bcgiiming  of 
the  twentieth  century,  the  Catholic  Church  is  seen 
firmly  established  in  every-  Asiatic  region,  side  by 
side  with  Brahminism,  lluddhism,  Confucianism, 
Mohammedanism,  Judaism,  Nestorianism,  Mono- 
physitism,  the  schismatic  CJreek  Church,  and  Protes- 
tantism. 

The  Oriental  Churches  of  Western  Asia  (Turkey 
and  Persia),  however,  are  for  us  of  particular  interest, 
an  they  re|)resent  old  and  venerable  national  Churches, 
having  tlieir  own  hierarchy,  rites,  liturgical  languages 
and  usages,  and  ecclesiastical  discipline,  which  had. 
as  early  as  the  fifth  centurj',  separated  themselves 
from  the  Church  of  F{ome.  They  represent  what  we 
usually  call  Oriental  Churches,  and  are  divided  as 
follows:  (1)  The  Nestorian  Church,  extending  over 
Babylonia  and  Chaldea,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria, 
Kurdistan,  Persia,  and  the  coast  of  Malabar  in  India. 
(2)  The  Jaeoliite  Church  (Monophysite),  which  ex- 
tends over  Syria,  North-west  Mesopotamia,  Assyria, 
and  Malabar.  (3)  The  Armenian  Church  (Mono- 
physite), which  extends  over  the  whole  of  Armenia, 
Persia,  Asia  Minor,  and  part  of  Syria.  (4)  The 
Maronite  Church,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  Syrian 
Church  and  extends  over  Mount  Lebanon  and  SjTia. 
(5)  The  Greek  Church,  scattered  over  Syria,  Phrc- 
nicia,  and  Asia  Minor.  Another  Cluirch,  generally 
referred  to  as  an  Oriental  Church,  is  the  ('o)itic,  or 
Abyssinian,  which,  being  restricted  to  African  soil, 
must  be  here  omitted.  It  must  be  noted,  however, 
that  each  of  the  above-m(?ntioned  Oriental  Churches, 
the  Maronite  excepted,  which  is  entirely  Catholic,  is 
divided  into  two  independent  branches,  or  Churches; 
the  one  Catholic  and  in  communion  with  Rome; 
the  other  schismatic  and  separated  from  Rome; 
each,  however,  having  its  own  patriarch,  bishops, 
priests,  and  local  churches.  They  may  be  classified 
iis  follows: 

I — Nestorian    Church. 


Schismatic      Nestori-       Catholic       Nestorians, 
ans,  or  simply  Nes-  commonly        called 

torians.  Chaldeans. 

II — Jacobite    Church. 
(Monophysite.) 


Schismatic  Jacobites,         Catholic         Jacobites, 

or   simply    Jacob-  commonly        eallea 

ites.  Catholic        Syrians, 

or    simply    SjTians. 

Ill — Armenian    Church. 

(Monophysite.) 


Schismatic  Armeni-  Catholic       Armenians, 

ans. 

IV — Maronite  Church. 

(AU   Catholic.) 

V — Greek  Church. 

Schismatic      Greeks,         Catholic  Greeks,  eom- 
or  Orthodox  Greek  monly  calle<l  Gra'co- 

Church.  Melcliite  Church,  or 

simply  Melchite. 
The  Catholic  branch  of  each  of  these  Oriental 
Churches,  although  united  with  Rome,  preserves, 
in  common  with  its  sister  schismatic  branch,  its  own 
primitive  original  rite,  liturgj',  and  its  own  ecclesias- 
tical discipline   and   privileges,  the   maintenance  of 


ASIA 


782 


ASIA 


which  has  been  scrupulously  prescribed  and  insisted 
upon  by  the  Roman  pontiffs,  under  penalty  of  sus- 
pension and  exconiniuiiication;  no  clerical  or  lay 
member  being  allowed  to  change  his  rite  without  a 
special  dispensation  of  the  Holy  See. 

Catholicism  in  Asia. — Asiatic  Turkey.  The 
entire  Christian  population  of  Asiatic  Turkey  is 
3,349,882,  of  which  692,431  are  Catholics,  97,370 
Protestants,  and  the  remaining  schismatics.  They 
may  be  classified  as  follows:  Asia  Minor:  6,423 
Cafhohc  Armenians;  193,416  Schismatic  Armenians; 
994.922  Schismatic  Greeks;  2,079  Jacobites;  5,838 
Latins,  and  3,400  Protestants.  Armenia  and  Kur- 
distan: 51,306  Catholic  Armenians;  712,842  Schis- 
matic Armenians;  8,600  Chaldeans;  92,000  Nestori- 
ans;  572  Jacobites;  353,762  Schismatic  Greeks;  2 
Latins,  and  61,256  Protestants.  Mesopotamia: 
36,320  Chaldeans,  13,990  Syrians;  27,754  Jacobites; 
11,670  Catholic  Armenians;  61.590  Schismatic 
Armenians;  1,993  Latins;  340  Greek  Melchites;  9,325 
Schismatic  Greeks,  and  11,194  Protestants.  There 
are  also  308,740  Maronites;  141,219  Melchites;  304,230 
Schismatic  Greeks;  19,459  Catholic  Armenians; 
23,834  Schismatic  Armenians;  1,865  Chaldeans; 
25,632  Syrians;  47,805  Jacobites;  39,034  Latins,  and 
21,520  Protestants  in  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  Syria 
as  far  north  and  west  as  the  Euphrates,  or  a  total  of 
308,740  Maronites;  141,559  Melchites;  1,662,239 
Schismatic  Greeks;  88,858  Catholic  Armenians; 
991,682  Schismatic  Armenians;  46,785  Chaldeans; 
92,000  Nestorians;  39,622  Syrians;  78,210  Jacobites; 
46,867  Latins,  and  97,370  Protestants.  The  popula- 
tion of  Arabia  is  entirely  Mohammedan,  except,  in 
the  sea-port  of  Aden,  where  th-ire  is  an  Apostolic 
vicariate  with  about  1,500  Christians. 

Persia. — There  are  in  Persia  20,000  Chaldeans; 
50,500  Nestorians;  5,035  Catholic  Armenians;  81,654 
Schismatic  Armenians;  200  Latins,  and  about  2,670 
Protestants.  In  Afghanistan  there  is  not  a  single 
Christian  church  or  any  organized  Christian  com- 
munity. 

India. — The  number  of  Catholics  in  India,  includ- 
ing Ceylon,  is  about  2,069,791,  with  4,938  churches 
and  chapels;  105  seminaries  and  colleges;  2,312 
schools;  37  hospitals;  2,190  European  missionaries; 
1  patriarch  (in  Goa);  7  archbishops;  26  bishops;  3 
Apostolic  vicars,  and  3  Apostolic  prefects.  The  num- 
ber of  the  Jacobites  is  about  120,000,  the  Chaldeans 
(independent  of  the  Chaldean  Patriarch  of  Baby- 
lonia, although  formerly  dependent  on  him)  about 
100,000.  The  number  of  Protestants  in  India  is 
about    700,000    (1889). 

China. — The  Catholic  population  of  China  is  about 
820,000,  governed  by  39  Apostolic  vicars  and  2 
Apostolic  prefects,  with  955  European  mis.sionaries, 
having  4,067  churches  and  chapels,  90  colleges  and 
seminaries,  4,067  schools  and  orphan  asylums,  and 
62  hospitals.  The  number  of  Protestants,  in  1900, 
is  given  by  Warneck  as  200.000. 

Korea. — There  are  in  Korea  45,000  Catholics, 
with  1  bishop  and  42  priests;  Protestants  (Metho- 
dists and  Haptists)  7,000. 

Japan. — In  Japan  the  Catholics  number  60,500, 
with  1  archbishop  (Tokio),  3  bishops  (Nagasaki, 
Osaka,  and  Hakodate),  and  about  130  missionary 
priests.  The  numbc^r  of  Protestants  is  about  51), ()()() 
and  that  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Russians,  about 
5,0(X),  with  1  bishop. 

/nrfo-C/nnn.— (French  Colony)  820,000  Catholics, 
with  410  missionary'  priests;  .3,304  churches  and 
chapels;  24  seminaries  and  colleges;  2,349  schools 
and  orphan  asylums,  and  38  ho.spitals. 

Philippine  I.ilaml.i. — (.Xmorican  Colony).  The  en- 
tire population  of  the  Philippine  Lslands  is  cstiruMted 
at  iibout  seven  millions,  of  which  about  (iOO.OdO  are 
wild  tribes  and  pagans,  about  six  millions  Catliolics, 
and     the    rest     Mohammedans    and     pagans.     The 


Catholic  Church  is  go\erned  by  an  Apostolic  delegate, 
1  archbishop,  and  4  bishops  with  numerous  secular 
and  regular  priests. 

Asiatic  Russia. — The  Christian  population  of 
Asiatic  Russia  is  estimated  at  about  fourteen  mil- 
hons,  75,000  of  whom  are  Cathohcs.  and  the  rest 
schismatic  Greeks  (Cirseco-Russian  Churdi). 

All  the  above  statistics  are  only  approximately 
correct,  as  the  warious  censuses  so  far  published  are 
often  doubtful,  contradictory,  and  misleading.  Ac- 
cording to  P.  Pisani  (Vacant,  Dictionnaire  de  th^- 
ologie  catholique,  I,  coll.  2096-2097),  the  entire 
population  of  Asia,  according  to  their  various  re- 
ligions and  creeds,  may  be  appro.ximately  classified 
as  follows: 

I.— Buddhists.  400,000.000;  Brahmins,  200,(H)1),000; 
Mohammedans.  10(1.0(1(1.0011;  other  hcatlicn  rrligions, 
80.000,000;  Christians,  Jll. (1(10.(1(1(1;  tutal,  SdO.dOd.OUO. 

II. — Protestants:  In  Western  .\sia.  ,S.'),OdO;  India, 
817,000;  China  and  Korea,  210,000;  Japan,  50,000; 
total,   1,162,000. 

III.— Catholics:  Asiatic  Russia.  70,000  to  75,000; 
Asiatic  Turkey  and  Persia,  700,000;  India  2,140.000; 
China,  Korea.  Japan,  and  Indo-China,  1,710,000; 
Philippine  Islands,  6,000,000;  total,  10,625,000. 

Gabriel  Oussani. 

Asia  Minor,  tlie  peninsular  mass  that  the  Asiatic 
continent  projects  westward  of  an  imaginary'  line 
nmning  from  the  Gulf  of  Alexandretta  (Issus)  on 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  vicinity  of  Trebizond 
(Trapezus)  on  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  washed  by  three 
great  seas,  the  Euxine  (Black  Sea)  on  the  north, 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  and  the  JEgean  on 
the  west.  It  is  located  between  36°-42°  north  latitude 
and  26°-40°  east  longitude.  The  extreme  length  is 
about  720  miles  and  the  extreme  breadth  about  420, 
though  the  average  is  650  and  300  miles  respectively. 
At  its  extreme  western  limit  it  almost  touches  the 
European  mainland,  from  which  it  is  separated  for 
several  miles  by  the  narrow  straits  of  the  Bosphorus 
and  the  Dardanelles  (Hellespont)  and  by  the  small 
Sea  of  Marmora  (Propontis)  through  which  connect- 
ing waters  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea 
are  brought  into  mutual  contact. 

I.  Name. — In  remote  antiquity  it  had  no  common 
designation,  being  known  variously  after  the  races 
or  kingdoms  that  it  included.  The  term  "Asia" 
was  soon  popularized  by  the  Romans  for  whom  it 
meant  only  the  populous  and  cultivated  western 
sea-board,  organized  by  them  into  a  province, 
together  with  neighbouring  territory  (Mysia,  Lydia, 
Caria,  Phrj-gia)  more  or  less  civilized  after  the  Gra^co- 
Roman  ideas.  The  first  writer  to  use  the  term  Asia 
Minor  is  the  Christian  Orosius  (Hist.,  I,  2,  10),  about 
the  year  400.  The  early  Byzantine  writers  often 
refer  to  it  as  i)  /uKpi.  'Ao-Ja,  "  Little  Asia  ".  In  Byzan- 
tine administration  it  came  soon  to  be  known  imder 
the  somewhat  elastic  name  of  'AraroXi)  or  "rising 
sun",  i.  e.  "the  East".  It  was,  politically  speaking, 
"the  Anatolic  theme",  one  of  the  twenty-nine  prov- 
inces of  the  Byzantine  empire  from  the  seventh 
century  to  the  eleventh  century,  when  it  became  a 
Turkish  land.  Since  then  it  has  become  oHicially 
known  as  Anatolia  (Anadoli,  Natolia,  Nadolia), 
and  as  such  constitutes  an  important  part  of  .\siatic 
Turkey,  is  in  fact  the  chief  political  and  religious 
mainstay  of  the  present  Moslem  constitution  as  far 
as  it  is  based  on  i'onstantinople.  Asia  Minor  is  also 
known  iis  "the  Levant",  a  Western  (Italian  and 
French)  equivalent  for  Anatolia.  This  term  how- 
ever, applies  chiefly  to  the  commercial  and  indus- 
trial centres  of  the  southern  and  western  coasts, 
though  in  ecclesiastical  language  and  history  it  often 
includes  both  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land.  It  was 
only  gradually,  and  in  rcsiionse  to  divers  influences 
and  agencies,   that  under  the  name  of  Asi»   Minor 


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ASIA 


were  included  the  remote  semi-Oriental  territories 
of  Cappadocia  and  Pontas,  Cilicia  and  Lesser  Armenia. 
Outside  of  Konian  law  and  administration  ttieir  only 
element  of  earnest  unity  was  in  the  Christian  religion, 
and  it  is  not  at  all  insignificant  that  the  tirst  cxpres- 
Bion  of  a  sense  of  close  and  solid  relationship  should 
oonie  from  a  Christian  philosopliic  historian,  and 
precisely  at  the  moment  when  the  new  religion 
had  finally  liorne  down  in  town  and  coimtry  all 
forms  of  opposition  and  apathy,  and  filled  with  a 
new  spirit  the  exhauste<l  races  and  now  lifeless  cul- 
ture of  past  ages. 

II.  Geo(;k.\phy. — It  is  an  elevated  plateau, 
ranging  in  its  surfaces  from  two  to  five  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea  level,  from  which  rise  great  moun- 
tain chains  that  run  east  and  west  with  a  certain 
regularity,  while  minor  groups  of  mountains  and 
isolated  i^eaks  of  savage  grandeur  are  widely  scat- 
tered over  the  iminen.se  tabh^-land.  In  extent  Asia 
Minor  covers  alxiut  270.0(K1  s(iuare  miles  and  is 
about  the  size  of  France,  while  in  its  main  physical 
features  it  has  often  been  compared  with  Spain. 
The  mountains  of  the  northern  coast,  or  Pontic 
range,  ri.se  abruptly  from  the  sea  for  a  long  distance, 
are  broken  by  no  good  harbovirs,  and  fall  gradually 
away  towards  the  Bosphonis.  Those  of  the  south- 
ern or  Taunis  range  run  in  an  irregular  line  not  far 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  form  a  natviral  barrier 
between  the  central  highlands  and  the  southern  sea, 
broken  only  by  the  coastal  plains  of  Pamphylia  and 
Cilicia.  Inland,  the  Anti-Tavinis  range  and  isolated 
peaks  lift  their  huge  walls  from  seven  to  ten  thousand 
feet  and  render  difficult  the  intercommunication 
of  the  inhabitants.  Some  of  these  peaks,  like  Mt. 
Arga-us  in  Cappadocia  (13,100)  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  smaller  cones  with  well-preserved  craters 
are  numerous.  There  are  but  few  passes,  usually 
at  a  great  height,  the  most  notable  of  them  being 
the  famous  Gates  of  Cilicia  (Pyla>  Cilicia")  at  the 
easternmost  extremity,  a  narrow  gorge  (3,300)  be- 
tween two  lofty  mountains,  the  only  entrance  from 
the  plains  of  Syria,  and  therefore  at  all  times  the 
road  followed  by  the  Eastern  conquerors  of  Asia 
Minor.  At  the  extreme  west  the  mountains  descend 
gradually  to  the  sea  which  they  pierce  with  ninnber- 
H?ss  headlands  and  projections  tliat  give  rise  to  the 
sj-stem  of  bays  and  inlets  in  which  Asia  Minor  has 
at  all  times  found  its  chief  resources  and  its  most 
attractive  charm. 

Asia  Minor  is  a  rich  field  for  the  geologist.  The 
immense  central  mass  of  Mt.  Arg^us  in  Cappadocia 
is  largely  cretaceous  limestone,  and  elsewhere,  south 
and  west,  calcareous  rocks  abound.  The  rivers 
carry  off  enormous  quantities  of  this  material  which, 
as  it  hardens  to  travertine,  forces  them  to  shift  their 
beds,  petrifies  vegetation,  and  sterilizes  the  surround- 
ings. Igneous  rocks  are  frequent,  and  there  is  still 
abundance  of  the  Proconnesian  and  Phrygian 
marliles  that  once  tem))ted  the  sculptors  and  builders 
of  Pergamus  and  Rhodes.  The  mineral  wealth  is 
very  great,  but  much  neglected.  The  rivers  are 
numerous  and  fall  mostly  into  the  Black  Sea  or  the 
Mediterranean.  Hut  they  are  all  sinuous  and  nar- 
row, and  as  a  nile  very  shallow.  Moreover,  falling 
from  groat  interior  heights,  they  Ijecome  regularly 
torrential  floods  that  carry  away  vast  masses  of 
alluvial  matter,  which  they  de|x>sit  in  the  .sea, 
thereby  filling  up  good  harlxiurs,  converting  into 
lakes  ports  once  open,  and  pushing  their  deltas  so 
far  seaward  that  they  become  a  menace  to  navigation. 
The  lack  of  navigable  rivers  reaching  well  into  the 
interior  has  always  lieen  a  source  of  political  and 
economic  weakness  for  Asia  Minor,  and  is  perhaps 
the  chief  reason  why  in  antiquity  it  never  took  on 
the  character  of  a  great  united  state.  In  later 
times  this  was  much  more  deplorable,  owing  to  the 
niin  of  the  once  excellent  system  of  Roman  roads, 


the  suspicious  and  unprogressive  attitude  of  the 
Turkish  authorities,  ana  the  decay  of  all  the  land- 
improvements  made  by  the  original  native  nices, 
the  Greeks  of  the  coast  and  coastal  valleys,  the  Ro- 
mans of  the  imperial  period,  and  the  Byzantine 
population.  The  interior  plateau  has  an  average  alti- 
tude of  3,.t00  feet ,  and  stretches  north-east  by  south- 
nest  a  distance  of  2.")0  miles  in  length  by  IfiO  in 
breadth.  Much  of  it  is  a  treeless  and  barren  waste 
covered  with  salt  lakes  or  brackish  pools,  and  with 
a  stunted  growth  of  .saline  brush,  wormwood,  sage, 
and  fern.  Yet  it  supports  many  nomadic  and  semi- 
nomadic  tribes  of  Turcomans  and  Yuruks.  who 
wander  at  will  over  the.se  lonely  wastes  and  undula- 
ting downs  in  search  of  pasturage  and  water  for 
their  vast  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  though  in  the 
hot  summer  months  they  seek  the  higher  levels  for 
purer  air  and  the  welfare  of  their  flocks. 

There  are  twenty-six  lakes  on  this  great  plateau, 
some  of  which  compare  favourably  with  the  great 
lakes  of  Switzerland,  both  for  size  and  beauty.  Hot 
medicinal  springs  are  verj'  numerous  and  form  one 
of  the  distinctive  features  of  the  land.  In  general 
the  climate  is  colder  than  that  of  the  European 
peninsulas  wHthin  the  same  degrees  of  latitude,  and 
IS  subject  to  greater  extremes  of  temperature.  One 
cau.se  of  the  great  extremes  of  cold  and  heat  is  the 
general  lack  of  moisture;  that  of  the  clouds  is  inter- 
cepted by  the  tall  mountains,  north  and  south,  while 
the  discharge  of  all  the  rivers  is  only  about  one-third 
of  the  united  volume  of  the  rivers  of  France.  The 
northern  coast,  l)etween  Constantinople  and  Sinone, 
is  exposed  to  the  cold  blasts  of  unimpeded  polar 
winds  and  to  sultry  summer  heats;  on  the  other 
hand,  to  the  north-east  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Cau- 
casus intercept  the  cold  winds  from  the  steppes  of 
Russia  and  permit  the  growth  of  magnificent  forests 
and  of  wild  fruit-trees  in  abundance.  The  western 
coast  hius  a  temperature  somewhat  lower  than  that 
of  Greece,  owing  to  the  atmospheric  currents  de- 
veloped by  the  countless  headlands  and  inlets  of  the 
Ionian  coast.  The  southern  coast,  sheltered  from 
the  no.lh  winds  by  the  Taurus  range,  enjoys  a  warm 
and  genial  climate  comparable  to  that  of  southern 
France,  though  its  summer  is  very  dry.  On  the 
central  plateau  the  climate  is  affected  by  the  eleva- 
tion and  aspect  of  the  land,  but  chiefly  by  the 
scanty  rainfall;  in  some  places  the  blue  sky  remains 
for  six  or  seven  months  unflecked  by  a  single  cloud 
As  a  rule,  the  summer  is  exceedingly  hot  and  the 
winter  equally  cold.  Even  on  the  coast  malaria  is 
endemic,  owing  to  the  stagnant  pools,  swamps, 
and  marshy  tracts  formed  by  the  shifting  of  river 
beds,  inundations,  and  the  formation  of  deltjis. 
Moreover,  the  deforestation  of  the  interior  permits 
the  contaminated   air  of   the   low-lying   pestilential 

Flains  to  be  wafted  freely  over  the  central  plateau, 
n  respect  to  climate  .\sia  Minor  has  greatly  de- 
teriorated since  Roman  antiquitv.  owing  chiefly  to 
the  low-grade  civilization  of  its  Turkish  population 
and  the  utter  inefficiency  of  the  ci^il  administration. 
The  flora  of  Asia  Minor  is  verj-  varied,  apart  from 
the  scanty  vegetation  of  the  inland  plateau.  The 
oak  is  found  there  in  fifty-two  varieties,  half  of 
which  occur  nowhere  else.  On  the  northern  slopes 
of  the  central  plateau  grow  the  walnut,  box.  l)eech, 
ash,  and  other  trees;  the  great  forest  of  .Ajakh-Dagh 
(Sea  of  Trees)  is  120  miles  long  bv  -10  broad,  and 
its  trees  exhibit  generally  a  much  larger  growth 
than  those  of  other  lands  vmder  the  same  latitude. 
There  are  also  great  forests  on  all  the  northern  slopes 
of  the  Black  Sea  ranjies.  On  the  southern  slo]x>s  of 
the  Taurus,  to  an  altitude  of  (i.(X)0  feet,  noble  cedar 
proves  grow  and  tower  above  the  pines,  firs,  and 
junipers,  while  below  them,  gradually  dropping  to 
the  sea,  are  broad  l)elts  of  palm  groves  and  aloes 
and    other   sub-tropical    growths.     In    the    eastern 


ASIA 


784 


ASIA 


Pontic  region  and  elsewhere  the  apple,  pear,  phim, 
and  cherrj'  grow  wild;  indeed,  Asia  Minor  is  said  to 
be  the  native  home  of  these  fruit-trees,  usually 
looked  on  as  of  Western  origin.  Oriental  plane 
and  cypress,  quasi-sacred  sjanbols  of  domestic  com- 
fort and  of  human  sorrow,  are  found  everjT\here. 
In  the  sheltered  southern  valleys  the  vine,  fig,  orange, 
lemon,  and  citron  grow  amid  the  rich  aromatic  shrub- 
ben,-,  and  lend  to  tlie  landscape  the  aspect  of  Sicily 
or  "the  more  favoured  districts  of  southern  France. 
Several  animal  species,  once  indigenous  to  Asia 
Minor,  have  disappeared  with  the  destruction  of  the 
inland  forests.  It  is  thought  that  like  our  domestic 
varieties  of  fruit  trees,  the  sheep  and  the  goat  are 
also  a  gift  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Angora  goat,  famous 
for  its  silky  hair  of  which  tlie  mohair  or  so-called 
"cashmere"  shawls  are  woven,  is  a  Turkish  impor- 
tation of  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  centurj-  (Tchihat- 
cheff)  and  seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients It  is  limited  to  the  district  of  that  name  in 
Galatia,  and  the  flocks,  400,000  to  500,000  head, 
are  very  difficult  to  acclimatize  elsewhere  than  on 
these  high  plateaux;  at  any  other  place  the  quality 
of  the  fleece  quickly  deteriorates.  The  horses  for 
which  Asia  Minor,  particularly  Cappadocia,  was  once 
famous  have  either  disappeared  or  given  way  to 
another  race,  graceful,  active,  and  hardy,  but  in- 
ferior to  the  present  stock  of  SjT-ia  or  Arabia;  there 
are  no  longer  any  large  cattle  of  fine  breed.  The 
one-humped  camel  is  the  chief  means  of  transporta- 
tion, especially  on  the  uplands  and  in  the  remote 
eastern  districts.  Here  he  associates  peaceably 
with  the  horse,  and  can  bear  with  ease  and  security 
a  pack  of  2,50  pounds  over  the  passes  and  rocky 
terraces.  The  introduction  of  the  camel  probably 
dates  from  the  twelfth  century  and  symbolizes 
the  thorough  substitution  of  Oriental  life  for  the 
civilization  of  the  West.  A  small  debased  breed 
of  asses  abounds,  quite  inferior  to  the  fine  donkeys 
of  Syria  or  Egypt.  Mules  are  also  numerous,  as 
pack-animals  and  means  of  transportation;  accord- 
ing to  an  Homeric  tradition  tlie  peninsula  is  the 
original  home  of  the  mule.  [For  a  fuller  account 
of  the  geography  of  Asia  Minor  see  the  classic  work 
of  Vivien  de  Saint  Martin,  quoted  below,  and  Reclus- 
Keane,  The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants  (New  York, 
1S95),  Asia  Minor  (Anatolia),  IV,  241-343.] 

III.  History. — From  time  immemorial  Asia  Mi- 
nor has  been  the  highway  of  nations  crossing  from 
east  to  west,  and  occasionally  reversing  their  course. 
At  the  dawn  of  history,  dimly  seen  Chalybes  are 
working  the  iron  ores  of  the  Caucasus  on  the  Black 
Sea,  and  close  by  are  Iberians,  Colchians  and  other 
tribes.  At  the  other  extremity  Thracian  tribes  are 
flowing  backward  to  their  original  haunts  in  Phrygia 
and  Bithynia,  while  Semitic  peoples  begin  the  his- 
torical life  of  Cappadocia.  From  1500  to  1000  B.  c. 
the  Hittites  overran  the  land  as  far  as  the  Halys 
and  even  as  far  as  Smyrna  and  Ephesus;  sculptures 
and  rock-sanctuaries  (Hoghaz-Keui  in  Cappadocia) 
still  attest  their  presence.  Before  them  Turanian 
peoples  may  have  been  long  settled  on  the  land. 
Inscribed  and  sculptured  rock-surfaces  and  tombs 
in  Lycia  still  puzzle  the  archaeologist,  historian, 
and  pliilologist.  From  all  such  data  it  is  imprac- 
ticable to  reconstnict,  except  in  the  broadest  outline, 
"  the  periods  of  formation  through  which  Asia  Minor 
must  liave  passed  before  it  stands  out  in  the  full 
light  of  history  with  its  division  int<i  numerous  more 
or  less  independent  states,  its  mixed  population, 
its  compHcated  combination  of  religions  and  cultures 
as  different  as  the  races  which  originated  tliein" 
(Itagozin).  The  fable  of  the  Amazon  state  in  the 
Thermodon  valley  seems  to  have  originated  in  tlie 
female  priesthood  of  the  Hittito  nature-godde-ss. 
Mil,  that  the  Greeks  of  the  western  coast  eventually 
chaJiged    into    Artemis    (Diana    of    Ephesus).     The 


modern  discoveries  of  Schliemann  and  Dorpfeld  at 
Hissarlik,  on  the  site  of  ancient  Troy,  go  far  to  con- 
firm the  reality  of  the  main  incidents  in  Homer 
and  the  traditional  date  (1200-1100  B.  c.)  of  the 
siege  and  capture  of  the  city  of  Priam.  But  it  was 
not  the  Argives  of  Agamemnon  who  were  destined 
to  conquer  Asia  Minor  for  the  ideas  of  Hellas.  About 
the  year  1000  b.  r. ,  numerous  Greeks,  fleeing  before 
the  Dorian  invasion  from  the  uplands  of  Epirus  and 
Thessaly,  began  to  move  southward.  Driven  by 
these  rude  warlike  invaders,  they  soon  took  to  the 
open  sea,  and  so  eventually  settled  in  the  islands  of 
the  Archipelago  and  along  the  southern  coast  of 
Asia  Minor  wherever  the  river-mouths  or  the  plains 
offered  tempting  sites  for  trade  and  enterprise. 
They  found  before  them  the  kingdoms  of  Lydia 
and  Caria  with  whose  history  Herodotus  (I,  7-14) 
begins  his  account  of  the  wars  of  the  Greeks  and 
Persians;  for  Asia,  he  says,  with  all  the  barbarian 
triljes  that  inhabit  it,  is  regarded  by  the  Persians  as 
their  own  (ibid.,  I,  4).  Thenceforth,  from  the  ninth 
to  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  it  is  a  long  procession  of 
Greeks  (lonians,  ^olians,  Dorians)  who  descend 
regularly  on  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor  as  traders, 
colonists,  adventurers;  above  all,  men  of  Ionian  race. 
They  build  their  city  and  sanctuarj'  of  Miletus  near 
the  shrine  of  the  Lydian  sun-god;  they  adopt  other 
local  deities,  intermarry  with  the  natives  and  estab- 
lish soon  an  over-sea  Greece  whose  development  is 
the  first  great  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  Western 
mind.  (Sayce,  The  Ancient  Empires  of  tlie  East, 
London,  1884;  Grote,  History  of  Greece.)  The 
earliest  known  coins  (square-punched,  electron) 
are  of  Lydian  origin,  belong  to  the  seventh  century 
b.  c,  and  are  perhaps  a  result  of  the  mercantile 
intercourse  of  Greeks  and  natives.  The  oracle  of 
Delphi  now  attracted  the  Lydian  kings,  "the  first  of 
the  barbarians",  says  Herodotus,  "to  send  presents 
to  that  Greek  temple",  and  so  along  the  lines  of  a 
common  religion  there  sprang  up  an  ever  closer 
intercourse  of  both  races. 

About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  a 
certain  hegemony  over  most  of  the  peninsula  was 
established  by  Cra?sus,  King  of  Lydia,  but  this 
petted  child  of  antique  fortune  was  soon  overthrown 
(548-546  B.  c.)  by  the  Persian  Cjtus,  after  which 
for  two  centuries  the  entire  land  was  an  outlying 
province  of  Persia.  In  those  days  the  exactions  of 
the  "Great  King"  fitted  in  with  the  ambition  and 
patriotism  of  the  Greeks  of  the  mainland  to  bring 
about  sympathetic  wars  in  defence  of  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  and  then  in  defence  of  the  Hellenic  father- 
land (500-449  B.  c).  These  immortal  efforts  of  the 
Greeks  arrested  forever  the  reiieated  overflow  of 
Oriental  arrogance  and  oppression,  and  made  ready 
the  way  for  the  career  of  Alexander  the  Great  who 
was  destined  to  revenge  on  the  Orient  all  the  wrongs, 
supposed  or  real,  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
to  open  the  career  of  European  grandeur  and  prog- 
ress. An  uneasy  and  disturbed  period  followed, 
during  whicli  tlie  Seleucid  successors  of  Alexander 
pretended  to  dominate  from  Antioch  the  rich  and 
easy  prey  of  .-Xsia  Minor  tliat  had  fallen  to  Alexander 
after  tlio'buttU-s  of  llic  Gnuiicu.-J  and  of  Issus  (334-333 
B.  c),  fouglit  respectively  at  either  end  of  the  penin- 
sula. In  tliis  time  arose  the  new  kingdoms  of  Pon- 
tus,  Bithynia,  Cappadocia,  Pergamus,  and  Cilicia 
partly  Greek  and  partly  native,  also  the  interesting 
Celtic  kingdom  of  Galatia  founded  (280  B.  c.)  by 
warlike  adventurers  from  Gaul,  and  so  organized 
by  (hem  that  for  tlie  next  six  or  seven  centuries  it 
bore  the  stamp  of  many  peculiar  Celtic  institutions 
of  their  distant  fatherland.  Greek  art,  that  had 
already  flourished  admirably  in  the  Ionian  islands 
and  niainland  centres  of  the  south  and  south-west, 
now  took  on  a  fresh  development,  forever  connected 
with  the  little  mountainous  kingdom  of   Perg:!mus 


uwMfbuai  a.    JV        ^\.         MX        A   y     J   />-*  ^Vr-iLi-i^         AdniMW  \  ♦o-        \    -^  >  .  -rs^rhukurUiMmr 


Tu.kll        /I  --       , 

A  NO 'I)  K  A 


|UL.»0*TH,  fOW 


ASIA 


7H5 


ASIA 


and  its  Greek  rulers  known  as  the  Attalids,  from 
Attains,  a  favourite  name  of  its  kings.  Then  came 
the  wars  with  republican  Home  (190-t)3  B.  c),  ending 
in  the  latter  year  with  the  defeat  and  death  of  the 
great  Mithradates  VI,  "the  Oriental  tlefender  of 
(ireek  liberties",  whereby  I'ontus  and  IJithynia,  i.  e. 
the  shores  of  the  IMack  Sea,  were  for  a  long  time 
freed  from  the  i>eril  of  Oriental  domination.  In 
general  the  hrst  three  centuries  of  Roman  imperial 
administration  were  a  period  of  peace  and  progress 
for  Asia  Minor.  From  the  fourth  to  the  seventh 
century  the  last  long  conflict  of  Eastern  Rome 
with  Persia  went  on,  the  vicissitudes  of  which  were 
of  no  little  importance  to  the  great  province  across 
which  the  imperial  armies  and  tlie  warriors  of 
Persia  mo\e(l  to  and  fro.  The  annihilation  of 
Persian  ambition  by  Emperor  Heraclius  (a.  d.  610- 
641)  only  shifted  the  source  of  danger;  henceforth 
the  .\rab  and  his  succe.s.sor,  the  Turk,  take  up  the 
continuous  challenge  of  the  Orient,  and  finally  make 
it  good.  Predatory  Arab  invasions  from  672  to  717 
were  repelled  with  vigour  from  Constantinople,  after 
which  for  over  three  centuries  the  land  remained 
subject  to  the  hereditary  Byzantine  rule,  though 
(luring  this  period  almost  endless  conflict  with  the 
.\rab  dynasties  made  the  Christian  buffer-state  of 
.\rmenia  a  scene  of  unutterable  woe.  and  even  Asia 
Minor  was  constantly  menaced  by  the  children  of 
the  Prophet.  In  the  end  the  bravery  and  military 
skill  of  the  Macedonian  emperors  (867-l().")7)  availed 
not  against  the  continuous  pressure  of  fresh  hordes 
from  the  far  East,  and  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century  saw  two  fatal  events,  almost  contempora- 
neous and  intimately  connected,  tlic  final  separation 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churclics  (11)40),  and  the 
conquest  of  .Vsia  Minor  by  Malek  Shah  and  his 
.Seljuk  Turks  (10.'>8-71).  "  After  the  death  of 
Malek  (109'J)  his  children  di.sputed  and  divided  the 
splendid  inheritance  left  by  him.  But  Asia  Minor, 
henceforth  Rilm  (i.  e.  Rome,  the  Turkish  name  of 
all  Byzantine  territory),  did  not  pa.<!S  from  their  con- 
trol; they  set  up  their  thrones  at  Nica^a,  Nicomedia, 
and  eventually  (1097)  at  Iconium  (Koniah).  The 
crusaders  of  the  twelfth  century  usually  took  the 
great  highway  over  Asia  Minor,  either  entirely  into 
t^yria,  or  partly,  to  embark  at  ports  on  the  southern 
coast.  Here  and  there  they  set  up  a  temporarj'  rule, 
but  could  not  sustain  it  against  the  inexhaustible 
multitude  of  the  Turkish  hordes  and  the  treacherj' 
of  the  Greek  emperors.  For  more  than  a  century 
the  Seljuks  ruled  .Vsia  Minor,  until  the  appearance 
of  the  Mongol  hordes  (1235).  The  over-lordship 
of  the  latter  lasted  for  some  sixty  years,  until  about 
1294,  when  the  rule  of  the  Ottoman  Turk  was  in- 
augurated by  the  victories  of  Othman  I,  and  the 
successful  reigns  of  his  three  .sons,  I'rkhan,  Murad  I, 
and  Bajazet  I.  A  ray  of  hope  shone  for  the  Chris- 
tian Byzantines  during  the  thirteenth  century  when 
the  Empire  of  Nicjca  (1204-1330)  held  Bfthynia, 
Lydia.  a  part  of  Phrj-gia  and  the  islands  of  the  Arch- 
ipelago, i.  e.  the  western  region  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
again  in  the  fourteenth  ami  fifteenth  centuries  when 
the  Empire  of  Trebizonil  (1204-1461)  on  the  Black 
Sea  nourished  feebly  the  hopes  of  Greek  Christians 
for  a  return  of  ind('|)endence  umler  the  cross.  But 
Nicjea  fell  and  became  an  outpost  of  Ottoman  con- 
quest, and  Trebizond  scarcely  survived  the  fall  of 
Constantinople  (14.53).  Botli  weak  states  had 
arisen  as  a  protest  against  the  Latin  conquest  of 
Constantinople  (1204),  and  though  they  m.ide  the 
■coast  line  Christian  for  three  centuries,  they  were 
unable  to  loosen  the  grip  of  the  Turkish  hordes  of 
"the  Black  Sheep"  and  others  on  the  table-land  of 
the  interior.  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  the  Genoe.se  and  Venetians  established  a 
commercial  supremacy  along  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor 
and  in  many  of  the  islands.     They  left  permanent 


memorials  in  military  architecture  (since  then  the 
Turks  call  ruins  indiscriminately  "  Djenoves.si  kalessi  * 
or  Genoese  castles),  and  especially  in  the  commercial 
and  maritime  law,  in  bu.sine.ss  relations  anil  methods, 
anil  in  the  class  known  henceforth  as  "Levantines". 
But  the  nnitual  jealousies  and  rivalries  of  the  Italian 
coniiiicrcial  rei>ul)lics.  and  their  predominating 
secular  aims,  prevented  any  serious  attempt  to  oust 
the  Sdjuk  Turk  from  the  high  table-lands  and 
eastern  border.  Ottoman  rule  and  life  spread 
rapidly,  threatened  only  for  a  brief  while  by  a  new 
Mongol  invasion  under  Tamerlane  (138(>-1402), 
and  by  the  disastrous  battle  of  Angora  in  the  latter 
year  (Crea.sy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
new  ed.,  London,  1882).  In  the  end,  however, 
Turkish  fortune  and  courage  prevailed,  and  perma- 
nent dominion  over  the  peninsula  was  secured  to 
the  Osmanli  by  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in 
H.W.  since  which  time  save  for  a  partial  occupation 
by  the  Eg\'i)tian  Mohammed  Ali  (1831-39)  the 
Turk  has  hckl  in  peace  this  richest  jewel  of  Mediter- 
ranean empire.  .\s  a  rule,  the  inland  Turk  has 
care<i  only  for  fresh  pasturage  for  his  flocks.  Ever 
moving  from  i)lace  to  place  with  his  coimtless  sheep 
and  goats  he  has  despised  agricMiUure  and  the  life  of 
towns.  Heedless  of  tlie  future  lie  has  ruined  all  culti- 
vation of  the  land,  alloweil  its  once  perfect  develop- 
ment to  decay  completely,  and  <lriven  the  Christian 
pea-santof  the  Byzantine  age  to  the  mountains  or  the 
sea,  when  he  has  not  imluccd  him  to  adopt,  with  the 
nomad  life,  the  law  of  the  Koran.  It  is  the  low- 
grade  civilization  of  the  steppes  of  Turkestan  made 
permanent  on  the  former  site  of  supreme  Hellenic 
refinement  of  life  and  of  Christian  sublimity  of  teach- 
ing and  virtue.  And  it  is  universally  admitted  that 
only  a  recolonization  from  Europe  can  restore  its 
original  felicitous  conditions.  (Vivien  <le  Saint 
Martin,  "Description  historique  et  gtographique 
de  r.\sie  Mineure",  Paris,  18.")2;  Heyd,  "Geschichte 
des  Levantenhandels",  Stuttgart,  1879,  tr.  into 
French  by  Reynaud,  Paris.   1S80-S6.) 

The  Roman  Province. —  Ender  the  Roman  rule, 
republican  and  early  imperial,  the  numerous  politi- 
cal entities  that  had  spnmg  up  in  Asia  Minor  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  disappeared 
rapidly  and  made  way  for  a  unity  and  efliciency 
of  administration,  a  peace  and  prosperity,  hitherto 
unknown.  The  little  Greek  kingdoms  of  Pergamus 
and  Bithyiiia  were  left  tf)  Rome  by  the  wills  of  their 
last  kings;  Cilicia,  freed  by  Pompey  from  the  pirates 
that  infested  its  waters,  was  only  too  grateful  for 
imperial  protection;  Pontus  alone  was  won  from 
Mithradates  VI  in  a  memorable  war  during  which 
the  Celts  of  Galatia  sided  with  victorious  Rome 
and  reaped  the  reward  of  their  good  fortune  in  gov'- 
enunental  favour.  With  their  kings,  Deiotaarus 
and  AmJ^ltas,  the  line  of  Celtic  rulers  of  A.sia  Minor 
closed;  after  the  <leath  of  Amyntas  (25  B.  c.) 
Galatia  became  a  Roman  province.  The  last  king 
of  Cappadocia  died  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  the 
land  was  forthwith  annexed.  In  this  way  a  practical 
uniformity  of  governtncnt  was  introduced  over  the 
entire  peninsula.  Withovit  doing  violence  to  local 
customs  or  traditions,  the  imperial  government 
a.ssured  to  the  provincials  an  atlministration  at  once 
responsible  and  equitable,  of  swift  and  thorough 
justice,  of  continuous  peace,  easy  comnnmicafion, 
protection  to  life  and  property  and  the  fruits  of  hon- 
est industry.  The  wool-grower  ami  the  weaver  of 
Ancyra,  the  gold-embroiilerer  of  Attalia,  and  the 
sculptor  of  Diana  statuettes  in  Ephe.sus  were  hence- 
forth assured  of  permanent  prosperity,  and  with 
them  all  the  other  callings  and  occupations  of  the 
most  highly  civilized  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
world.  Manufactures  and  industries  increased,  and 
before  the  end  of  the  second  century  .Asia  Minor  had 
touched  the  acme  of  temporal  felicity.     Taxation, 


ASIA 


786 


ASIA 


as  everywhere  in  the  empire,  wa-s  close  and  minute, 
but  not  intolerable.  Oocasionally  the  taxes  were 
remitteil  and  in  periods  of  public  calamity  (earth- 
quakes, inundations)  the  public  treasury  came  to  aid 
the  unhappy  provincials.  The  revenues  of  the  penin- 
sula, deeply  impaired  by  republican  misgovernment, 
the  Mithradatic  wars,  and  the  campaigns  against  the 
pirates,  increased  with  rapidity;  the  fertile  islands  of 
the  archipelago  together  with  Crete  and  Cyprus,  cen- 
turies ago  hellenized  in  polity,  tongue  and  civiUzed 
institutions,  were  bee-hives  of  industry.  Rhodes, 
e.  g.,  was  the  great  workshop  of  Greek  sculptors  who 
continued,  though  in  a  decadent  way,  the  glorious 
traditions  of  the  Ionian  and  Pergamene  ages.  Every 
available  piece  of  ground  on  the  coasts  was  intensely 
cultivated,  as  the  pitiful  wreckage  of  agricultural 
engineering  yet  shows,  while  in  the  interior  the 
plains  of  Galatia  were  covered  with  goats  and  sheep, 
and  those  of  Cappadocia  with  the  finest  breed  of 
horses  known  to  the  ancients.  That  all  the  indus- 
trial virtues  were  highly  cultivated  is  shown  by  a 
list  of  occupations  drawn  from  Christian  inscriptions 
of  the  fifth  century  (Cumont).  They  exhibit  among 
other  callings  oil-dealers,  scribes,  greengrocers, 
potters,  coppersmiths,  skinners,  mariners,  money- 
changers, and  goldsmiths.  In  the  imperial  period 
few  new  cities  were  added  to  the  five  hundred  busy 
urban  hives  of  the  western  coast,  but  Greek  civiliza- 
tion went  hand  in  hand  with  Roman  law  through 
the  interior  and  was  welcomed,  e.  g.  in  the  moun- 
tains of  uncouth  Cappadocia  and  of  rugged  warlike 
Isauria  where  the  Attalids  and  Seleucids  had  never 
been  able  to  acclimatize  it.  For  the  better  adminis- 
tration of  justice  the  land  was  divided  into  a  certain 
number  of  judicial  districts  {conventus  juridici)  and 
assizes  were  regularly  held  in  the  chief  towns  of  the 
same. 

A  certain  unity  of  religion  was  reached  in  the 
worship  of  Rome  and  Augustus,  i.  e.  of  the  dead 
and  later  of  the  living  emperors,  to  whom  temples 
were  built  in  the  metropolitan  cities  (Augusteum, 
CiEsareura),  and  in  the  celebration  of  whose  festivals 
the  Asiatic  provincial  proclaimed  his  gratitude, 
exercised  his  new  Roman  patriotism,  and  felt  him- 
self drawn  nearer,  if  not  to  his  fellow-Asiatics,  at 
least  to  the  marvellous  darling  of  fortune  enthroned 
upon  the  distant  Tiber.  The  man  of  Asia  Minor 
had  long  been  subject  to  Persia  without  revolt,  and 
then  to  the  children  of  the  brilliant  marshals  of 
Ale.xander;  submission  was  natural  to  him,  and  this 
time  it  brought  in  its  train  all  that  was  needed  to 
make  life  perfect  in  so  favoured  a  land,  i.  e.  peace 
and  prosperity.  As  high-priest  of  the  provincial 
department  of  the  imperial  religion  of  Rome  and 
Augustus  his  influence  over  all  religious  nxatters 
was  great.  The  office  seems  at  times  to  liave  been 
closely  identified  with  that  of  the  president  of  the 
em[)eror's  festival,  and  was  the  formal  source  of 
much  of  the  persecution  directed  against  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  province,  especially  during  the  annual 
festival,  when  the  deputies  of  tlie  provincial  cities 
met  at  the  metropolis  and  manifested  their  patriot- 
ism, among  other  ways,  by  denouncing  the  followers 
of  .lesus  for  refusing  to  adore  the  divinity  (numen, 
genius)  of  the  emperor.  An  ideal  picture  of  the 
office,  affected,  however,  by  Christian  institutions 
and  experience,  is  given  by  Julian  the  .\postate 
in  his  famous  letter  to  the  Galatarch  (Ep.,  xlix;  cf. 
Eus.,  Hist.  ICccl.,  VIII,  xiv,  9).  With  the  honour  of 
president  of  the  annual  festival  of  the  emperor  went 
other  distinctions,  a  speci.al  title  (.Xsiarcli,  Bitliyni- 
arcli,  (Jalatarch),  in  addition  to  various  marks  of 
honour.  Only  th<'  ricli  could  protend  to  merit 
it,  for  the  office  carried  with  it  the  right  and  the 
duty  to  defray  the  expenses  of  such  festivals.  But 
there  were  many  to  claim  it,  for  provincial  pride 
w;is  strong  in   Asia  Minor,  and  tlie  rivalry  of  the 


metropolitan  cities  was  very  keen.  The  new  wor- 
ship of  Rome  and  Augustus  was  not  unlike  a  re- 
ligion established  by  law,  though  it  never  interfered 
with  the  older  forms  of  Greek  or  Oriental  worship, 
or  the  numerous  miraculous  asylums,  or  even  such 
individual  careers  as  those  of  ApoUonius  of  Tyana 
or  .\lexander  of  Abonoteichos.  To  the  cities  was 
left  their  ancient  liberty  of  internal  administration, 
the  repartition  of  imperial  assessments,  and  the 
preservation  of  local  order.  Only  the  wealthy 
could  vote  for  the  magistrates,  and  the  time  was 
yet  far  off  when  their  descendants  would  try  in  vain 
to  rid  themselves  of  an  hereditary  dignity  that  in 
the  end  carried  with  it  the  heaviest  of  financial 
burtlens.  Occasionally  the  imperial  government 
looked  into  the  municipal  book-keeping  and  even 
controlled  the  municipal  decrees;  more  frequently 
it  exercised  a  certain  surveillance  over  the  nomina- 
tion of  the  chief  of  police  (eirenarch).  The  pubHc 
safety  was  assured  in  the  early  imperial  times  by  a 
small  army  of  .5,000  auxiliary  troops  in  Galatia, 
and  by  the  Black  Sea  fleet  of  forty  ships  stationed 
at  Trebizond.  In  the  time  of  Vespasian  two  legions 
were  quartered  in  Cappadocia  and  along  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Euphrates.  A  few  soldiers  scattered 
here  and  there  through  the  provinces  served  the 
Roman  magistrates  as  messengers,  sheriffs,  bailiffs, 
and  the  like.  Asia  Minor,  in  which  both  the  senate 
and  the  emperor  exercised,  in  theory  at  least,  a 
co-ordinate  jurisdiction  until  the  end  of  the  tliird 
century,  was  too  contented  and  loyal  to  call  for 
other  troops  than  were  necessary  for  protection 
from  the  foreign  enemy,  or  to  repress  brigandage. 
The  latter  was,  unliappily,  never  quite  suppressed 
in  a  land  well  fitted  for  the  flight  and  concealment 
of  the  lawless.  Up  to  the  time  of  Justinian  certain 
parts  of  Isauria  and  Cilicia  were  the  home  of  bold 
freebooters,  despite  the  ever  tightening  military 
cordons,  the  increase  of  civilization,  and  the  growing 
influence  of  Christian  principles.  There  were  often 
in  municipal  life  lack  of  integrity,  corruption,  and 
waste,  coupled  with  intrigues,  rivalries,  and  factions, 
but  this  is  no  more  than  might  be  expected  amid 
such  unexampled  prosperity,  in  a  land  where  no 
large  political  life  existed,  and  where  climate  and  the 
narrow  municipal  horizon  conspired  to  diminish 
energy  and  magnify  local  and  temporary  interests. 
"The  calm  sea"  says  Momm.sen,  "easily  becomes  a 
swamp,  and  the  lack  of  the  great  pulsation  of  gen- 
eral interest  is  clearly  discernible  also  in  .\sia  Minor". 
A  complete  description  of  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor 
in  the  best  days  of  the  empire,  their  splendour 
and  magnificence,  partly  inherited  and  partly  to 
the  credit  of  Rome,  sounds  to  modern  ears  like 
exaggeration.  Their  ruins,  however,  are  convinc- 
ingly eloquent.  Marble  and  granite,  exquisitely 
and  solidly  worked,  were  the  building  materials  of 
the  countless  temples,  baths,  assembly-rooms, 
gymnasia,  deep-pillared  porticoes  and  colonnades 
that  graced  even  the  smallest  of  its  cities,  and  were 
very  often  the  gifts  of  private  individuals,  who  ex- 
hibited thus  in  their  httle  "fatherland"  (as  the 
Christian  Bishop  .\bercius  calls  his  native  city 
Hierapolis),  a  power  of  self-sacrifice  and  affection 
for  the  public  weal  for  which  no  larger  stage  was 
open.  Countless  art-works  in  marble  and  bronze, 
often  replicas  of  incomparable  Greek  originals 
carried  away  in  the  republican  period,  decorated  the 
public  buildings  and  the  open  squares;  even  these 
copies  seem  at  last  to  have  been  confiscated  by 
Constantine  for  his  now  city  by  the  Golden  Horn. 
Aqueducts  and  reservoirs,  embankments  and  levees, 
saved  and  controlled  the  useful  waters  that  are  now 
the  ruin  of  the  land.  Terraces  built  with  skill  and 
art  multiplied  the  productive  power  of  the  fertile 
soil.  l'>om  the  city  gates  there  radiated  numerous 
long  lines  of  sculptufcd   tombs,   whoso   broken   in- 


ASIA 


787 


ASIA 


scriptions  now  throw  lieht  on  the  rich  and  varied 
life  of  the  antique  world.  In  the  fine  arts  the  cor- 
rect sense  of  the  Greeks  was  tlic  guittc,  but  in  com- 
mercial and  industrial  life  the  Roman  seems  to  have 
been  dominant.  Latin  mercantile  words  are  often 
transliterated  into  Greek,  and  there  are  numerous 
other  evidences  of  clo.se  commercial  intercourse 
with  Italy.  Famous  Greek  teachers  and  phvsicians 
frequented  the  Italian  cities  (Tac,  Ann.,  XII,  61, 
67)  somewhat  as  the  Byzantine  humanist-s  fre(|U(?nted 
those  of  Northern  Italy.  The  great  municipal 
families  and  those  well  established  on  the  vast  es- 
tates of  the  central  table-land  seem  to  have  clung 
to  the  ancestral  .soil  with  more  fidelity  than  wa.s 
shown  elsewhere  in  the  Orient.  Education  of  the 
purely  literary  type  was  universal,  and  to  .some  ex- 
tent provided  for  by  the  cities  and  even  by  the  Im- 
perial government.  We  read  of  principals  and  In- 
ejjectors  of  schools,  of  teachers  of  writing  and  music, 
of  masters  of  boxing,  archery,  and  spear-throwIng,  of 
special  privileges  for  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  gram- 
mar; In  a  word  the  Ideal  education  of  the  Greek 
mainland  as  crystallized  in  the  cla-ssic  writers  and  In 
the  still  vigorous  school  of  .Vthens,  was  in  a  large 
measure  reproduced  in  Asia  Minor.  Homer  and 
the  Greek  classics  were  the  school  books.  The 
chief  result  of  it  all  wius  a  race  of  remarkable  public 
orators  known  as  sophists  or  rhetoricians,  wandering 
academic  lecturers  on  the  glories  of  the  past  or  on 
commonplaces  of  pliilnsophy.  poetry,  and  history. 
Often  bilingual,  they  were  admired  by  the  provincials, 
who.se  favour  they  held  by  flattery  and  sympathy, 
and  by  careful  attention  to  the  mise  en  sctne — voice, 
gesture,  dress,  attitude.  Some  of  them,  like  Dio 
Chrysostom,  exhibit  genuine  native  patriotism, 
but  in  all  of  them  there  echoes  a  hollow  declamatory 
note,  the  best  evidence  of  the  hopeless  character  of 
Greek  paganism,  of  which  they  were  now  the  chief 
theologuins  and  philosophers.  Their  literary  In- 
fluence was  deep  and  lasting,  and  though  they  were 
inimical  to  the  Christian  religion,  this  Influence  may 
yet  be  traced  in  not  a  few  of  the  Greek  Christian 
writers  of  their  own  and  later  times,  .\part  from 
this  class  the  pagan  society  of  .\sia  Minor  seems  to 
have  contributed  but  a  few  great  names  to  the  annals 
of  science  and  literature.  Two  of  them  come  from 
Bithynia,  the  al)ove-mentioned  rhetorician  DIo  Chry- 
sostom, moralist  and  philosopher,  and  .\rrian  of  Nico- 
medla,  historian  of  .Mexander  the  (ireat  and  popular- 
izer  of  Epictetus.  Pergamus  boasts  the  name  of  the 
learned  physician  Galen,  like  his  earlier  fellow-.XslatIc, 
Xenophon  of  Cos,  a  man  of  scientific  attainment,s 
in  his  own  department,  and  also  of  general  philo- 
sophic culture,  but  a  stern  enemy  of  the  Chnstlan 
religion.  Nevertheless,  just  as  Roman  .\sia  Minor 
boasts  of  no  first-cla.ss  cities  like  .\lexandria  or  An- 
tioch,  but  only  of  a  great  many  second  and  third 
class  centres  of  population,  so  in  literature  the  great 
names  are  wanting,  while  general  literary  culture 
and  refinement,  both  of  speech  and  taste,  are  wide- 
spread, and.  In  the  near  western  section,  universal. 
The  cosmopolitan  character  of  imperial  administra- 
tion, the  diffusion  of  education,  the  facility  of  travel, 
and  the  free  use  of  the  two  great  civilized  tongues, 
made  the  man  of  .\sia  Minor,  in  a  certain  .sen.se,  a 
citizen  of  the  world  and  fitteil  him  peculiarly  to  play 
an  important  part  from  the  fourth  century  on  in 
the  spread  of  Christianity  and  the  adaptation  of  its 
idea-s  to  ( inrco-Roman  society.  Indi"e<l,  without 
some  kiunvleilgc  of  the  civilization  that  moulded 
their  youth,  the  Ba.sils  and  the  Gregorys  lose  half 
their  Interest  for  us.  (.Monun.fen.  The  Provinces 
,of  the  Roman  Empire,  New  York,  18S7,  II,  ,'!l.5-i)7; 
Ramsay.  The  Historical  Geography  of  the  Roman 
Empin^.  London.  ISno.) 

Spread  of  Chrislianiti/  in  Aifia  Minor. — As  every- 
where in  the  Roman  empire,  8<<  in  .Vsia  Minor  it  was 
t.— 50 


the  numerous  JewTles  in  which  the  Christian  religion 
found  its  first  adherents.  In  the  last  three  pre- 
Christian  centuries  the  Seleucid  kings  of  Syria  had 
transplanted  from  Palestine  to  Asia  Minor  thousands 
of  Jewish  families  whose  descendants  were  soon 
scattered  along  all  the  coa-sts  and  throughout  a  great 
part  of  the  interior.  On  Pentecost  day  at  Jerusalem 
(.•Vets.  II,  rt.  9,  10)  there  were  present  among  the  disei- 

f)les  "Jews,  devout  men  out  of  every  nation  under 
leaven",  also  representatives  of  Pontus,  Galatia. 
Cappadocia,  kAn.  and  HIthynia  On  his  several 
missionary  journeys,  St.  Paul  visited  many  parts 
of  .\sla  Minor  an<l  established  there  the  first  Christian 
chvirches;  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  chapters 
of  .\ct-s  there  is  a  vivid  and  circumstantial  description 
of  all  the  chief  phases  of  his  Apostolic  activity. 
His  conversion  of  the  Galatians,  in  particular,  hasa 

f)erennial  Interest  for  Western  Christians,  since  at 
Ciust  a  large  [)ortion  of  that  province  was  composed 
of  descendants  of  tho.se  Celt.s  of  Gaul  who  had  settled 
there  in  the  third  century  K.  c.  and  in  St.  Paul's 
time,  and  for  centuries  afterwards,  still  retained 
their  Celtic  si>eech  and  many  Celtic  institutions 
(Lightfoot,  Commentary  on  Galatians,  London, 
1,S96,  l-\rt;  Ramsay,  '1  he  Church  In  the  Roman 
Empire  before  A.  n.  170,  New  York,  189.3,  97-111; 
Idem,  St.  Paul,  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen, 
New  York,  l.SO.S,  130-1,51).  Asia  Minor  was  the 
principal  scene  of  the  labours  of  St.  John;  he  wrote 
Ills  .Apocalypse  on  the  desolate  Island  of  Patmos, 
and  his  Gos()el  probably  at  Ephesus.  He  established 
firmly  in  the  latter  city  a  famous  centre  of  Christian 
life,  and  an  ancient  tradition,  as  old  as  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  (131),  .says  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  spent 
her  last  years  in  the  vicinity  of  Ephesus,  and  passed 
thence  to  her  reward.  From  Ephesus  St.  John 
travelled  much  throughout  Asia  Minor  and  has 
always  been  credited  with  the  first  establishment 
of  many  of  its  episcopal  sees;  the  storj'  of  the  re- 
conversion of  the  young  robber,  touchingly  told  in 
the  "Quis  Dives"  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  exhibits 
the  popular  concept  of  St.  John  in  the  mind  of  the 
average  Christian  of  Asia  Minor  almut  the  year 
2(K).  In  the  "Acts  of  Tlieda"  It  Is  now  recognized 
that  we  have  a  fragment  of  a  life  of  St.  Paul  in  Asia 
Minor,  wTitten  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
though  without  ecclesiiistical  approval,  which  throws 
no  little  light  on  .several  phiuses  of  the  great  Apostle's 
career  but  .slightly  touched  on  In  the  Acts  and  the 
Pauline  Epistles.  St.  Peter,  too,  preached  the 
Christian  Faith  in  Asia  Minor.  His  First  Epistle, 
written  frmii  Rome  (v,  13),  is  addressed  "to  the 
strangers  dispersed  through  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappa- 
docia, .\sla,  and  HIthynia",  i.  e.  in  northern,  western, 
and  central  .\sla  Minor.  That  the  new  religion 
spread  rapidly  is  proved  by  the  famous  passage  In 
the  letter  of  Pliny  (Ep.  x,  97),  Roman  governor  of 
Bithynia,  addres,sed  to  the  Emperor  Trajan  about 
112,  in  which  he  says  that  the  whole  province  is 
overrun  with  the  contagion  of  Christianity,  the 
temples  are  abandoned  and  the  meat  of  the  victims 
unsaleable,  persons  of  evcrj'  age,  rank,  and  condition 
are  joining  the  new  n'liglon.  At  this  period  also 
the  Church  Historj"  of  Eusebius  shows  us  the  ad- 
mirable figure  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch.  of  whose 
seven  letters  five  are  addressed  to  Christian  churches 
of  .\sia  Minor  (Philailelpliia,  Ei>liesus,  Smyrna, 
Tralles,  Miignesia)  and  reveal  an  advanced  stage  of 
Christian  growth.  It  was  at  this  time  that  St 
Polycarp  of  SmjTna  and  St.  Irena>us  of  Lyons  were 
born  in  .Vsia  .Minor,  Ixith  prominent  Christian  figures 
of  the  second  centurj-,  the  latter  being  the  foremost 
ecclesiastical  writer  of  his  period. 

It  is  in  Asia  Minor  that  synods,  or  frequent  assem- 
blies of  Christian  bishops,  first  meet  us  jis  a  working 
ecclesiastical  institution;  even  in  remote  and  uncouth 
Cappadocia  they  were  not  Infrequent  in  the  third 


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centun,'.  It  was  therefore  fitting  that  wlion  tlie 
first  general  council  of  the  Catholic  Cluirch  was  held 
(325)  it  sho\il(l  be  called  together  at  Niciea  (Isnik) 
in  western  Asia  Minor,  amid  a  population  long 
stanchly  Christian.  Of  the  (traditional)  318  bish- 
ops who  attended  that  council  about  one  hundred 
were  from  Asia  Minor;  the  semi-barbarous  Isauria 
sent  fourteen  city  bishops  and  four  rural  bishops 
(chore piscnpi),  while  remote  Cilicia  sent  nine  city 
bishops  and  one  rural  bishop.  Indeed,  the  episcopal 
system  of  Asia  Minor  seems  to  have  been  almost 
completed  by  this  time.  (Ramsay,  Cities  and  Bish- 
opries of  Asia  Minor,  in  Histor.  Geogr.  of  Asia 
Minor,  London,  1890,  104-426.)  In  any  ease,  there 
were  in  that  territory  in  the  fifth  century  some  450 
Catholic  episcopal  sees.  The  institution  of  rural 
bishops  (chorepiscopi)  appears  first  in  Asia  Minor 
(Council  of  Ancyra,  314)  and  seems  to  be  the  origin 
of  the  later  parochial  system.  It  is  in  Asia  Minor 
that  arose,  or  were  fought  out,  nearly  all  the  great 
ecclesiastical  conflicts  of  the  early  Christian  period. 
The  Church  History  of  Eusebius,  first  published 
before  325,  exhibits  the  Christian  bishops  of  Asia 
Minor  during  the  second  and  third  centuries  in  con- 
flict with  semi-Oriental  philosophic  heresies  like 
Gnosticism,  that  developed  under  the  leadership  of 
keen  critical  rationalists  like  Marcion  of  Sinope  on 
the  Black  Sea,  while  the  germs  of  the  great  christo- 
logical  heresies,  e.  g.  Sabellianism,  were  first  nour- 
ished on  the  same  soil.  Here,  too,  met  the  famous 
councils  that  overthrew  these  heresies  (Nicaea  in  325, 
Ephesus  in  431,  and  Chalcedon  in  451).  Internal 
reform  of  the  Christian  Church  was  first  undertaken 
from  Asia  Minor,  where  Montanus,  a  native  of  Phry- 
gia,  began  the  rigorist  movement  known  as  Mon- 
tanism,  and  denounced  the  growing  laxity  of  Christian 
life  and  the  moral  apathy  of  the  religious  chiefs  of 
the  society.  He  claimed  for  himself  and  certain 
female  disciples  the  survival  of  the  early  Christian 
prophetic  gifts,  or  personal  religious  inspiration, 
which  seems  to  have  been  more  frequent  and  to 
have  survived  longer  in  Asia  Minor  than  elsewhere 
(Harnack,  Mission  und  Ausbreitung,  2S7,  402). 
The  immediate  cause  of  the  last  great  pereecution , 
that  of  Diocletian  (284-305),  seems  to  have  been  the 
rapid  growth  of  Christianity  in  all  Asia  Minor, 
particularly  in  the  imperial  capital,  then  located  at 
Nicomedia  (Ismid).  Maximinus  Daza,  the  sym- 
pathetic colleague  in  Egypt  of  the  persecuting 
Galerius  (305-311),  admitted  (Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl., 
IX,  ix)  that  nearly  all  the  Orient  had  become  Chris- 
tian, and  in  this  he  was  merely  the  echo  of  the  dying 
words  of  the  contemporary  Christian  scholar  and 
martyr,  Lucian  of  Antioch,  who  asserted  (Rufin., 
Hist.  Eccl.,  IX,  vi)  that  in  his  time  the  greater 
part  of  the  Roman  world  had  become  Christian, 
even  entire  cities.  Such  a  Christian  city  of  Phrj'gia, 
Eusebius  tells  us  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VIII,  xi,  1),  was  given 
to  the  flames  by  the  pagans  in  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian;  the  inhabitants  perished  to  a  man  with 
the  name  of  Christ  upon  their  hps.  Apropos  of  this, 
Harnack  recalls  (op.  cit.,  p.  466)  the  fact  that  eighty 
years  earlier  Thyatira  in  the  same  province  was  an 
entiri'ly  Christian  city,  tliough  intensely  Montanist 
in  religious  temper.  The  city  of  Apameia  in  the  same 
province  seems  to  have  become  quite  Christian  before 
250.  The  work  of  Cumont  (Inscriptions  Chr6- 
tiennes  de  I'Asie  Mincure,  Rome,  1895)  exhibits 
undeniable  epigraphic  evidence  tliat  Phrygia  was 
widely  Christianized  long  before  the  conversion  of 
Constantine  (312).  The  words  of  Ilenan  (Origines 
du  Cliristianisme,  III,  3(')3,  364)  are  therefore 
eminently  true:  "Thenceforward  (from  a.  d.  112) 
for  three  hundred  years  Phrygia  was  cs.sentially  a 
Christian  laiul.  There  began  tlie  public  profession 
of  Christianity;  there  are  found,  from  the  third 
century,  on  monuments  expose<l  to  the  public  gaze. 


the  terms  Chresliannfi  or  Christianas;  there  the  formu- 
las of  epitaphs  convey  veiled  references  to  Christian 
dognias;  there,  from  the  days  of  Septimius  Severus, 
great  cities  adopt  biblical  symbols  for  their  coins, 
or  ratlier  adapt  their  old  traditions  t«  bibhcal  narra- 
tions. \  great  number  of  the  Christians  of  Ephesus 
and  Rome  came  from  Phrygia.  The  names  most 
frequently  met  with  on  the  monimicnts  of  Phrj-gia 
are  the  antique  Christian  names  (Tniphimus,  Tydii- 
cus,  Tryphenus,  Papias,  etc.),  the  names  special  to 
the  apostolic  times,  and  of  whicli  the  martyrologies 
are  full".  The  Acts  of  the  Christian  Bishop,  Pionius 
of  Smyrna,  a  martyr  of  the  time  of  Decius  (249-251), 
portray  that  city  as  largely  Christian,  and  (with 
exception  of  the  Jews)  entirely  devoted  to  its  rhetori- 
cian-bishop. In  the  fourth  century  Gregory  of 
Nyssa  relates,  apropos  of  Gregory  of  Caesarea  (c. 
213-275),  the  Wonder-worker,  disciple  and  friend 
of  Origen,  that  during  the  thirty-five  or  forty  years 
of  his  episcopal  activity  he  had  Christianized  nearly 
all  Pontus.  It  is  an  unfair  exaggeration  (Harnack, 
475-476)  to  attribute  his  success  to  toleration  of 
heathen  customs,  amusements,  etc.  So  good  a 
Christian  theologian  as  Gregory  of  N}'ssa  could 
relate  this  condescension  of  the  Wonder-worker 
without  perceiving  any  real  sacrifice  of  Christian 
principles  in  faith  or  morals;  some  concessions  there 
must  always  be  when  it  is  question  of  conversions  in 
bulk.  His  "Epistola  Canonica"  (P.  G.,  X,  1019- 
48),  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  venerable  docu- 
ments of  diocesan  legislation,  presupposes  many 
well-established  Christian  commimities,  whose  cap- 
tive ecclesiastics  and  citizens  (c.  260)  spread  the  first 
germs  of  Christianity  among  the  piratical  Goths 
of  the  Black  Sea.  Asia  Minor  was  certainly  the 
first  part  of  the  Roman  world  to  accept  as  a  whole 
the  principles  and  the  spirit  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, and  it  was  not  unnatural  that  the  warmth  of 
its  conviction  should  eventually  fire  the  neighbouring 
Armenia  and  make  it,  early  in  the  fourth  century, 
the  first  of  the  ancient  states  formally  to  accept  the 
religion  of  Christ  (Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  IX,  viii.  2). 
The  causes  of  the  rapid  conversion  of  Asia  Minor 
are  not,  in  general,  dissimilar  to  those  which  else- 
where favoured  the  spread  of  Christianity.  It  may 
be  accepted,  with  Harnack,  that  the  ground  was 
already  prepared  for  the  new  religion,  inasmuch  as 
Jewish  monotheism  was  acclimatized,  had  won 
many  disciples,  and  discredited  polytheism,  while 
on  the  other  hand  Christianity  was  confronted  by 
no  State  religion  deeply  and  inimeniorially  entrenched 
in  the  hearts  of  a  united  and  homogeneous  people 
(the  imperial  worship  being  a  late  innovation  and 
offering  only  a  factitious  unity).  But  much  of  this 
is  true  of  other  parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  it 
remains  certain  that  the  local  opposition  to  the 
Christian  religion  was  nowhere  stronger  than  in  the 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  where  Antoninus  Pius  (138-161) 
had  to  check  the  illegal  violence  of  the  multitude 
(Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl..  IV,  xxxiii);  even  if  we  do  not 
acc?pt  as  genuine  his  rescript  "Ad  commune  Asise" 
(ibid.,  IV,  xix),  it  is  of  ancient  origin  and  exhibits  an 
enduring  Christian  sense  of  intolerable  injustice, 
already  foresliadowed  in  I  Peter,  iv,  3-5,  1.3-19. 
The  literary  opposition  to  Christianity  was  particu- 
larly strong,  as  already  said,  among  the  rhetoricians 
and  granunarians,  i.  e.  among  the  public  teacliers 
and  the  philosophers,  not  to  speak  of  the  pagan 
imperial  priesthood,  nowhere  so  well  organized  and 
favoured  as  in  every  province  of  Asia  Minor.  Lac- 
tantius  tells  us  that  the  last  known  anti-Christian 
pamphleteers  were  both  from  Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor 
(Inst.  V,  2),  Hicrocles,  the  governor  of  the  province, 
and  another  whose  name  he  withholds.  The  principal 
tlieologians  of  Asia  Minor  (Irena-us,  Gregory  the 
Wonder-worker,  Methodius  of  Olympus,  Basil  of 
Neocie.sarea,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus.  and  (iregorj-  of 


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Nyssa)  do  not  JifTor  notably  in  their  concents  of 
the  Cliristian  rehgioii  from  those  of  Syria  or  Kgypt 
or  tlic  West.  It  socins  therefore  quite  incorrect  to 
describe  witli  Ilariiack  the  original  conversion  of 
Asia  Minor  as  a  gradual  and  rather  peaceful  trans- 
formation of  the  native  heathenism  ami  no  real 
extirpation  (keine  Ausrottung,  sondcrn  eine  Umfor- 
mung,  op.  cit.,  46:5).  If  this  were  so,  it  must 
always  remain  a  great  mystery  how  the  Christianity 
of  Asia  Minor  could  jire.sent,  on  the  eve  of  its  political 
triumph,  so  remarkable  a  front  of  unity  in  sound 
doctrine  and  elevate<l  morals  when  its  alleged  original 
pagan  sources  were  so  numerous  and  conflicting, 
so  gross  and  impure. 

Of  the  ecclesiastical  administration  of  Asia  Minor, 
after  the  triumph  of  the  Christian  religion,  but  little 
need  be  said.  Like  the  rest  of  the  Roman  empire 
the  land  was  divided  into  two  administrative  terri- 
tories known  as  "dioceses"  (Or.  iioiicijcreis,  dis- 
tricts to  be  supervised).  They  were  Pontus  and 
.\sia,  respectively  an  eastern  and  a  western  territory. 
In  the  first  were  twelve  civil  provinces,  to  which 
corresponded  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Cap- 
padocia.  Lesser  Armenia,  Pontus,  Polemonium, 
Ilelenopontus,  Galatia,  HithjTiia,  Honorias,  and 
Paphlagonia.  The  dioce.se  of  Asia  included  the 
provinces  of  Asia  (proper),  Hellespont,  Phrygia, 
Lydia.  Caria,  Lycia,  Pamphylia,  Pisidia,  Lycaonia, 
and  the  Cj'clades  or  islands  of  the  -Egean.  By  the 
enil  of  the  fourtli  century  these  eighteen  provinces 
were  subject  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
while  on  the  south-eastern  coast,  Isauria  and  Cilicia, 
with  the  island  of  Cyprus,  were  subject  to  the  patri- 
archate of  .Vntioch,  Cyprus  in  a  restless  and  dis- 
contenteil  way.  All  were  more  easily  reached  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Orontes;  yet  other  reasons,  his- 
torical, national,  and  temperamental,  co-operat<>d 
with  the  ambition  of  the  clergy  of  Constantinople 
to  draw  this  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two 
great  ecclesiastical  spheres  of  influence  in  the  central 
Orient,  whereby  Armenia  was  drawn  within  the 
radius  of  Syro-Antiochene  influence,  to  the  great 
detriment,  later  on,  of  Catholic  unity.  (Duchesne, 
Histoire  ancienne  de  I't'^glise,  Paris,  1900,  I,  433 
s<iq.)  The  ambition  of  the  clergy  of  Constantinople, 
their  jealousy  of  old  Rome,  and  imperial  favour, 
had  won  tliis  pre-eminence  for  the  royal  city.  It 
had  never  evangelized  Asia  Minor;  that  was  done 
from  .Xntioch,  and  in  the  third  century  the  two 
ecclesiastical  exarchates  of  Asia  Minor,  Ca>sarea  in 
Cappadocia  and  Ephesus  in  Asia  proper,  were  subject 
to  the  patriarch  of  the  great  Syrian  city.  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  third  century,  long  before  the 
founding  of  Constantinople  (330),  the  bishops  of 
Asia  Minor  were  wont  to  attend  the  synods  of  An- 
tioch  and  in  turn  that  patriarch  occasionally  presided 
over  the  synods  held  in  Asia  Minor.  It  was  from 
Antioch  that  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor  got  their 
liturgy;  from  them  it  ra<liate<l  to  Constantinople 
itself  and  eventually  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  dreek  Church  (Duchesne,  Origins  of  Christian 
Worship,  Ijondon,  1903,  71).  Once  established, 
however,  the  jurisdiction  of  Constantinople  over 
most  of  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor  remained  un- 
challenged, especially  after  the  Arab  conquest  of 
Syria  (030)  wtien  the  ancient  influence  of  Antioch 
on  eastern  Asia  Minor  disappeared.  Nevertheless, 
the  ecclesiastical  organization  of  .\sia  Minor  was  too 
solidly  rooted  in  popular  life  to  disappear  except 
very  slowly.  If  we  had  complete  lists  of  the  sub- 
scriptions to  the  (Jreek  councils  of  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries,  we  slioultl  know  more  about  the 
survival  of  the  episcopal  .system  and  its  various 
modifications  under  Byzantine  rule.  Ax  it  is,  not 
a  little  light  is  thrown  on  the  medieval  hierarchy  of 
A.sia  Minor  by  a  certain  number  of  catalogues  or 
lists  of  the  patriarchates  with  their  metropolitans 


and  autocephalous  archbishops,  also  of  the  suffragans 
of  the  metropolitans,  which  are  extant  under  tlie 
Latin  namcof  "  Notitiic  Kpiscopatuum"  (ed.  Parthey, 
Berlin,  IStiO).  These  catalogues  were  originally 
known  as  TaKTixd,  .some  of  them  dating  back  to  the 
seventh  or  eighth  century  (IlaXaia  TaKTiKd),  while 
others  underwent  frei(uent  correction,  more  or  less 
scientific  and  thorough,  even  as  late  ius  the  thirteenth 
century  (Krumbacher,  Gesch.  dcr  byzant.  Litteratur, 
2d  ed.,  Munich,  1S97,  4lo,  41(i;  Ram.say,  Hist,  (leogr. 
of  Asia  Minor.  H9.  427).  Together  with  the  gecg- 
raphies  of  Ptolemy  and  Strabo  (the  latter  a  native  of 
Asia  Minor  and  praised  by  Ramsay  for  his  accurate 
and  lucid  work),  the  famous  "Tabula  Peutingeriana" 
(a  fourth-century  map  of  the  imperial  road-.system 
radiating  from  Constantinople),  and  the  "Synec<le- 
mos"  of  Hierocles,  a  sixth-century  account  of  the 
si.xty-four  Byzantine  provinces  ami  their  more  than 
900  cities,  these  episcopal  lists  enable  us  to  follow 
the  contimiity  of  Christian  public  life  in  Asia  Minor 
throughout  the  troubleil  centuries  of  political  and 
economic  decay  that  finally  ended  in  the  olank  horror 
of  Islamitic  shephcrdism.  Krumbacher  notes  in 
these  lists  the  strict  a<llierence  to  ancient  system  and 
the  recurrence  of  original  diocesan  names,  long  after 
they  had  c(!ased  to  correspond  with  the  reality  of 
things,  somewhat  as  the  Roman  Church  yet  continues 
to  use  the  titles  of  extinct  sees  located  in  countries 
now  subject  to  non-Christian  [xjlitical  control. 
The  same  author  treats  (op.  cit.,  passim)  in  detail 
of  the  Byzantine  writers  of  Asia  Minor  during  the 
medieval   period. 

IV.  Phksent  Civil  Co.nditions. — In  the  absence 
of  a  reliable  census  the  population  of  Asia  Minor  is 
variously  given.  Larousse  (189.H)  puts  itat  9.235,0(X), 
of  whom  7,179.000  are  Moslems  and  1.548,000 
Christians.  This  does  not  include  the  small  Greek 
Christian  principalitv  of  Samos  (45.000)  nor  the 
island  of  Cyprus  (210"000)  nor  that  of  Crete  (360,0(H)), 
all  three  being  frequently  counted  as  parts  of  .Asia 
Minor.  Neher  (Kirchentex.,  VII,  775)  puts  the 
total  population  at  10,7.50.0(K).  It  is  mostly  com- 
posed of  Ottoman  Turks  who  still  reproduce  the 
primitive  type,  especially  in  the  interior,  where 
nomadic  tribes,  like  the  Turcomans  and  Yuruks, 
exhibit  the  characteristi-s  of  the  original  Ottoman 
conquerors.  In  general  the  term  "Turk"  is  applied 
to  all  sedentary  Mohammedans  in  A.sia  Minor, 
whatever  be  their  origin;  it  is  also  appUed  to  the 
ofBcials,  descendants  of  Georgian  or  Circassian 
captive  women,  to  the  numerous  immigrants  from 
Bosnia  and  Bulgaria  (Slavs  in  blooil,  but  Moslems 
in  faith),  and  to  the  Albanian  soldiers  settled  in 
Asia  Minor.  Similarly,  the  term  applies  to  Moslem 
<lcscendants  of  Arab  and  negro  slaves.  Some  of 
the  nomailic  tribes  (Yuruks)  are  Mohammedan  only 
in  name,  though  of  ancient  Turkish  descent.  They 
are  generally  known  as  Turcomans  and  Hve  with 
their  flocks  in  their  own  tent'Cncampments,  primitive 
clans  with  no  cohesion;  they  spend  their  lives  in 
transit  from  the  plains  to  the  mountains,  and  vice 
versa,  in  .search  of  pasturage,  water,  and  pure  air. 
With  them  may  be  classed  the  Chingani  or  gypsies, 
wandering  tinkers,  and  horse  dealers.  There  are 
also  other  small  remnants  of  the  original  Turkish 
immigration  that  still  alTect  the  ways  of  their  fierce 
ancestry,  the  .\fshars  and  the  Zeibeks.  from  whose 
ranks  the  government  itraws  its  most  fanatical 
soldiers.  The  Mohammedan  Kurds  of  .\sia  .Minor, 
both  sedentarv  and  nom.ad,  difTer  so  much  in  features 
and  social  habits  from  the  Turks  that  they  are  not 
cla-ssed  with  the  latter;  they  re.semble  much  their 
brethren  of  the  .Armenian  highlands,  are  eWdently 
of  Me<lic  origin,  and  speak  dialects  of  Persian  with 
some  Syriac  and  Armenian  words.  .Around  the  sea- 
board, in  the  numerous  islands  of  the  archipelago 
and   in   the   large  inland   cities  of  Cappadocia   and 


ASIA 


790 


ASIA 


Pontus.  the  Greeks  arc  numerous;  on  the  southern 
coast  anil  in  the  islamls  they  are  in  tlie  vast  majority 
and,  except  poHtically,  are  the  dominant  race  as 
of  old,  being  the  commercial  and  industrial  element. 
Not  a  few  of  the  sedentary  Turks  are  of  Greek  origin, 
descendants  of  voluntary  or  compulsory  apostates; 
on  the  other  hand,  not  a  few  Greeks  isolated  in  the 
interior  yet  speak  Turkish,  a  stigma  of  hated  sub- 
jection that  Greek  patriotism  aims  at  effacing. 
There  are  many  Armenians  in  Asia  Minor,  some- 
times gathered  in  distinct  settlements,  and  again 
scattered  through  the  Turkish  villages;  the  taxes 
are  usually  farmed  out  to  them,  for  which  reason 
they  are  bitterly  hat«d  by  the  Turkish  peasant 
who  complains  of  their  rapacity.  They  retain 
usually  their  native  tongue.  On  the  Persian  frontier 
of  Asia  Minor,  in  some  secluded  valleys,  are  found 
yet  a  few  Nestorians,  descendants  of  those  Syrian 
Christians  who  fled  in  remote  times  to  these  fast- 
nesses either  to  avoid  the  oppression  of  their  Moslem 
masters  in  Mesopotamia  or  before  the  encroach- 
ments of  nomad  tribes. 

V.  Government. — Asia  Minor  proper  is  divided 
into  fifteen  "vilayets"  or  administrative  territories, 
two  separate  sanjaks  (districts),  and  one  principality 
(Samos).  At  the  head  of  each  is  a  "  vali"  or  provin- 
cial governor,  in  whose  council  a  seat  is  given  to  the 
spiritual  head  of  each  of  the  non-Moslem  communi- 
ties. Each  vilayet  is  divided  into  sanjaks  or  districts, 
and  these  are  again  subdivided  into  communal 
groups  and  communes,  presided  over  respectively 
by  officers  known  as  mutessarifs,  kaimakams,  mudirs, 
and  mukhtars.  The  code  is  the  common  law  of 
Islam,  known  as  Nizam,  and  there  is  an  appeal  to 
the  High  Court  at  Constantinople  from  the  civil, 
criminal,  and  commercial  courts  in  each  province. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  conquered  Roman  prov- 
inces the  Arabs  first,  and  then  the  Turks,  retained 
much  of  the  Roman  (Byzantine)  Law,  especially  as 
regarded  their  Christian  subjects,  and  in  so  far  as  it 
did  not  conflict  with  the  Koran  (Amos,  History  of 
the  Civil  Law  of  Rome,  London,  1883).  The  chief 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  are  Smyrna  (300,000),  Trebi- 
zond,  IskanderOn  (Issus,  Scanderoon),  Adana,  Angora 
(Ancyra),  Sivas  (Sebasteia),  Sinope,  Samsiin  (Ami- 
sus),  Koniah  (Iconium),  Kaisariyeh  (Ciesarea  in 
Cappadocia).  Adalia  is  the  largest  seaport  on  the 
southern  coast;  Broussa  (Prusa),  magnificently 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Olympus  in  Bithynia,  is 
the  seat  of  silk  industries,  and  holds  the  tombs  of 
the  early  Ottoman  sultans.  Kaisariyeh  at  the  foot 
of  Mt.  Argaeus,  with  its  memories  of  St.  Basil  the 
Great,  is  one  of  the  world's  oldest  trade-centres, 
recognized  as  such  from  the  dawn  of  history  under 
its  Semitic  name  Mazaca;  it  is  even  now  the  most 
important  commercial  town  in  eastern  Asia  Minor. 
Sivas  in  the  valley  of  the  Kizil-Irmak  (Halys)  is  a 
wheat  centre.  Trebizond  on  the  Black  Sea  justifies 
even  yet  the  foresight  of  its  early  Greek  founders. 
Erzerflm  in  Lesser  Armenia  is  an  important  mountain 
fortress. 

VI.  Communication  and  Education. — There  are 
no  roads  in  the  sen.se  of  our  modern  civilization; 
pack  animals,  including  horses,  have  always  been 
u.sed  by  the  Turks,  both  seilentary  and  nomad,  for 
transportation,  both  of  persons  and  goods.  Recently 
carts  have  come  somewhat  into  use.  There  are 
relays  of  hor.scs  at  interx'als  on  the  main  lines  of 
communication  and  in  the  larger  towns.  A  trans- 
Syrian  railroail  from  Const.mtinople  to  Bagdad  on 
the  Persian  Gulf  has  long  Ijcen  projected.  It  has 
reached  Koniah  and  on  its  way  pas.ses  Ismid  (Nico- 
media)  and  Kskeshir  (Doryla^um).  In  all  there  are 
about  220  miles  of  railway  in  the  vast  peninsula. 
One  of  the  principal  Moslem  schools  is  at  Amasia  in 
Galatia.  The  Greek  comnninities  in  Asia  Minor 
cherish  no  public  duty  more  tlian  that  of  education. 


and  make  many  sacrifices  in  order  to  provide  for 
their  children,  in  primary  and  secondary  schools,  a 
high  grade  of  the  education  they  admire.  It  is  in 
reality  a  genuine  Hellenism  based  on  the  study  of 
the  ancient  classic  writers,  the  history  of  their  ances- 
tors both  peninsular  and  continental,  antipathy  to 
Islam,  a  strong  sense  of  mutual  relationship,  and  a 
vivid  hope  that  they  will  again  be  called  to  the  direc- 
tion of  pubUc  life  throughout  the  peninsula.  There 
is,  however,  a  manifold  opposition  U>  this  modern 
Greek  ideal.  If  it  were  possible  to  bring  about  the 
re-union  of  the  long  separated  Churches  the  ideal 
could  be  notably  furthered. 

VII.  Resources. — .\sia  Minor  is  yet  largely  an 
agricultural  and  pastoral  land.  On  the  high  pla- 
teaux immense  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  are  raised, 
whose  wool  is  used  for  domestic  purposes,  for  export, 
or  for  the  manufacture  of  Turkish  rugs  and  carpets. 
The  silk  manufactures  of  Broussa,  in  the  sixteenth 
century  a  staple  of  Asia  Minor,  have  greatly  decreased. 
Viticulture,  once  the  pride  of  Asia  Minor,  has  almost 
perished.  The  use  of  wine  is  forbidden  by  the  Koran; 
hence  the  grape  is  cultivated  by  the  Turks  only  for 
the  making  of  confections,  and  by  the  Greeks  chiefly 
for  personal  use.  The  wines  of  Chios  anil  Lesbos  and 
Smyrna,  famous  in  antiquity,  are  no  longer  made; 
their  place  is  taken  by  dried   raisins   that  form  a 

Crincipal  article  of  export.  Boxwood,  salt-fish, 
arley,  millet,  wheat,  oil,  opium,  rags,  wool,  and 
cotton,  hides,  galls,  wax,  tobacco,  soap,  liquorice 
paste,  figure  on  the  table  of  exports,  but  not  at  all 
in  the  proportions  becoming  the  natural  advantages 
of  the  land.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  a  few 
mines  and  marble  quarries  are  worked,  but  in  a 
feeble  and  intermittent  way.  The  popular  genius 
is  foreign  to  all  progress,  the  government  is  based 
on  corruption  and  oppression,  and  the  national 
religion  is  eminently  suspicious  and  repressive. 
The  inland  Turk  has  the  reputation  of  honesty, 
kindliness,  hospitality,  but  he  has  no  bent  for  the 
active  and  energetic  Western  life,  loves  dearly  his 
"kief"  or  somnolent  vegetative  repose,  and  is  hope- 
lessly in  the  grasp  of  two  rapacious  enemies,  the 
usurer  and  the  tax-gatherer.  The  Greek  and  the 
Armenian  are  the  dominant  commercial  factors, 
and  are  in  several  ways  equipped  to  wrest  from  the 
Turk  everything  but  political  control  of  the  country. 

VIII.  The  Islands. — Leaving  aside  the  great 
islands  of  Crete  and  Cyprus,  no  longer  under  immedi- 
ate Turkish  control,  it  may  be  noted  that  those  of 
the  Archipelago  form  a  special  administrative  dis- 
trict. Their  number  is  legion;  some  of  them  are 
very  fertile,  others  are  mere  peaks  and  ridges  of 
rock.  They  export  fruit,  some  wine,  raisins,  olive 
oil,  and  mastic,  and  their  sponge  fisheries  are 
very  valuable.  Among  the  islands  famous  in  an- 
tiquity are  Tenedos  near  the  mouth  of  the  Darda- 
nelles, Lemnos  between  the  Dardanelles  and  Mt. 
Athos,  Lesbos,  the  native  place  of  .■Vlcaeus  and  Sappho, 
between  the  Dardanelles  and  Smyrna.  The  island 
of  Icaria  recalls  the  legend  of  Icarus,  and  Patmos 
the  sojourn  of  St.  John  and  the  composition  of  his 
.\pocalypse.  Cos  awakens  memories  of  the  great 
healer  Hippocrates,  and  the  island  of  Rhodes  has  a 
history  seconii  to  none  of  the  small  insular  states  of 
the  world.  Its  strong  fleets  made  it  respected  in 
Greek  antiquity,  and  its  maritime  code  was  taken  over 
by  the  Roman  Law.  Its  bronze  Colossus,  astride 
the  mouth  of  its  harbour,  was  one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  the  world.  For  nearly  four  hundred  years 
it  was  the  home  of  the  Knights  of  St.  .lohn.  and  its 
famous  siege  and  capture  by  Suleiman  I  (1522) 
filled  all  Western  Christendom  with  equal  sorrow 
and  admiration.  Since  1S32  the  island  of  Samos  is 
a  quasi-independent  principality,  and  forms  a  spe- 
cial sanjak  by  itself.  In  the  full  flood  of  ancient 
Ionian  luxury,  art.  and  science,  Samos  was  foremost 


ASIA 


791 


ASIA 


of  the  Hcllonic  colonies  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. 
There  Pytliagorus  was  born,  and  Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra once  rcsiilod  at  Sanios.  In  ancient  times  it  was 
a  favourite  resort  for  those  wearied  of  the  agitated 
life  of   Koine. 

IX.  V'ic.\ni.\TE  Apostolic  ok  Asi.\  Minok. — In 
1818  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Asia  Minor,  founded 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  confided  by  Pius  VI 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Smyrna  as  Administrator 
Apostolic.  Since  then  the  .Vrchbishop  of  Smyrna 
oxerciscs  jurisdiction  over  the  Latin  Catholics  of 
the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor,  a  few  places  excepted. 
Smyrna  itself  is  the  chief  centre  of  Catholicism  in 
the  peninsula.  It  was  founded  as  a  Latin  see  by 
Clement  VI  in  1340,  became  extinct  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  restored  and  elevated  (1818)  to 
the  archiepiscopal  dignity  by  Pius  VII.  Kor  about 
a  century  and  a  half,  from  161 S  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  Jesuits  exercised  with 
success  the  pastoral  ministry  at  Smyrna,  for  many 
ocuturii's  the  chief  re.sort  of  the  once  numerous 
Latin  Christians  (chiefly  Italian  and  French)  known 
as  "  Levantines".  They  were  the  traders,  merchants, 
travellers,  agents  of  all  kinds  in  business  at  the 
various  centres  of  commerce  in  the  islands  and  along 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  which  are  known  as  "Scale" 
to  the  Italians  and  ''  Kchelles"  to  the  French.  Here 
the  famous  "lingua  franca",  or  jargon  of  a  few 
hundred  uninflecteil  Provencal,  Spanish,  and  French 
words,  with  some  Greek  and  Turkish,  was  the  princi- 
pal medium  of  commercial  conununication.  When 
the  Jesuits  first  entered  Smvrna  they  found  there 
some  30,01X)  well  disposed  Christians  and  7,000  to 
8,000  .\rmenians.  Lazarists  and  Capuchins  were 
also  active  at  Smyrna  during  this  period.  The  Latin 
Catholics  of  Smyrna  and  vicinity  are  variously 
estimated  from  lo,400  to  18,000.  There  are  in  the 
city  proper  8  churches  and  8  chapels.  The  parishes 
are  3  in  number  and  the  clergy  61  (19  .secular  priests 
and  4'J  religious,  Franciscans,  Capuchins,  Dominicans, 
Lazarists,  Mechitarists).  There  are  1,5  schools 
(8  for  boys,  7  for  girls),  with  3  boarding-schools  or 
academies  for  girls,  conducted  respectively  by  the 
"Dames  de  Sion",  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  the 
Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  'fhe  orphan 
asylums  number  4,  with  about  1290  orplians.  There 
is  al.so  a  hospital.  Since  1839  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
(87)  and  since  1840  the  Christian  Brothers  have  been 
active  at  Smyrna  in  works  of  charity  and  education; 
the  latter  had  in  their  college  (1901)  I.^.t  pupils. 
The  Lazarists  conduct  a  college  known  as  the  (^ollege 
of  Propaganda,  fountlod  in  1841;  it  has  about  100 
pupils.  The  present  .\rchbishop  of  Smyrna  and 
Administrator  .\postolic  of  A.sia  Minor  is  Monsignor 
Raffaele  Francesco  Marengo,  a  Dominican,  from 
1871  to  1904  parish  priest  of  Galata  (Constanti- 
nople), and  since  1904  Ordinarj'  of  Smyrna.  He 
has  one  suffragan,  the  Bishop  of  Candia,  or  Crete. 
Outside  of  Smyrna,  there  are  very  few  Latin  Catholics 
in  Asia  Minor.  The  "  Mi.s.siones  Catholica'"  for  1901 
gives  the  names  of  16  scattered  mi.ssions.  Since  1880 
tlie  .\,ssumptionist  Fathers  of  Constantinople  and 
the  Oblate  Sisters  of  the  same  congregation  have 
devoted  them.selves  to  missionarj'  work  along  the 
line  of  the  railway  from  |{rous,sa  to  Koniah  (Iconium). 
They  have  opened  8  schools  for  boys  and  7  for  girls, 
in  which  they  care  for  about  1,2(HJ  children.  Their 
services  are  mostly  in  demand  for  the  Latin  Catholics 
engaged  in  business  or  in  the  construction  of  the 
railway.  Moslem  fanaticism  and  Creek  jealou.sy  are 
sources  of  opposition.  In  19(X)  there  were  engaged 
in  charitable  and  educational  work  on  these  tempo- 
rary missiims  100  .\.ssumptionist  Sisters.  The  few 
Catholic  (I'niat)  Creeks  on  the  mainland  have  no 
special  organization  of  their  own  but  are  subject  to 
tne  Latin  Archbishop  of  Smyrna  as  Administrator 
of  the  Vicariate  .\postolic  of  .\sia  Minor.     Formerly 


all  Catholics  in  the  .\rchipelago  (Latin  and  Greek) 
were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Smyrna,  but  since 
14  December,  1897.  there  has  been  a  prefecture 
Apostolic  for  the  island  of  Rhodes,  including  eleven 
other  islands.  In  this  prefecture  the  Catholics 
number  about  360  in  a  population  of  36,(X)0,  and  are 
attended  by  J  Franciscan  missionaries.     They  have 

0  churches  and  chapels,  a  college,  with  60  pupils 
ilirected  by  the  Christian  Brothers,  and  an  academy 
for  girls  (130)  ilirected  by  Franciscan  Tertiaries. 
The  Catholic  (Uniat)  .\rmenians  scattered  through 
the  peninsula  have  their  own  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion dependent  on  Constantinople,  where  the  Porte 
now  recognizes  the  Catholic  Armenian  Patriarch 
of  Cilicia,  since  1867  oflicially  resident  in  the  Turkish 
capital.  He  is  the  successor  of  the  Armenian  arch- 
bishop-primate created  at  Constantinople  in  18.30  by 
the  Holy  See  for  the  benefit  of  the  Uniat  .\rmenians. 
but  ignored  by  the  Porte  until  1867,  when  Pius  IX 
secured  the  recognition  of  the  settlement  just  men- 
tioned. There  are  episcopal  sees  for  the  Catholic 
.■Vrmenians  of  .\sia  Mmor  at  Adana  (3,000),  .Vngora 
(7,000),  Brous.sa  (3,(X»0),  Kaisariveh  or  Cajsarea 
(1,.')IX)),  Melitene  (4,(H)0).  ErzerOm"  (10,000),  Trebi- 
zond  O'i.OOO),  and  Sivas  (3,000).  In  all  these  places 
the  Catholic  Armenians  are  far  outnumbered  by  their 
schismatic  countrymen.  The  Mechitarist  I'athera 
(.\rmcnian  monks)  have  stations  at  Broussa,  Angora, 
and  Smyrna,  als(j  at  .\idin,  the  ancient  Tralles  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ma-aiider,  where  there  are  about 
3,000  Armenian  Catholics  in  a  population  of  40.000 
or  ,50.000.  The  .\rmenian  Catholic  patriarch  at 
Constantinople  has  a  jurisdiction  over  his  people 
(16.000  in  Constantinople),  both  civil  and  ecclesia-s- 
tical,  analogous  to  that  of  the  Greek  Orthodox 
patriarch  and  his  own  schismatic  felln\v-p:itri:ir(h. 
The  CathoHc  .'Vrmenian  clergy  of  Constantinople 
numbered  (1901)  85;  of  these  26  were  Mechitarists 
(10  from  Vienna.  16  from  Venice),  and  9  were  -■Vn- 
tonian  monks.  There  were  5  schools  for  boys  and 
3  for  girls,  with  300  pupils,  2  colleges  and  1  lyceum, 

1  hospital,  1  a.sylum  for  the  insane  and  1  asylum  for 
invalids.  Their  churches  and  chapels  number  16. 
and  the  parishes  13.  The  present  patriarch  is 
Monsignor  Sabbaghi an  (Peter  Paul  XII).  Since  1869 
the  law  of  celibacy,  that  until  then  had  not  been 
observed  by  all  the  Armenian  Catholic  clergy,  has 
been  made  obligatory.  The  "  Missiones  Catholica*" 
for  1901  indicates  the  following  Latin  missionaries 
in  -Vrmenian  centres  of  Asia  Minor.  Jesuits.  Capu- 
chins, Lazarist-s.  and  Trappists  (in  all  about  thirty) 
at  .Vdana,  Frzeriim,  Siviis,  Trcbizond,  and  Kaisariyeh. 

X      fJREEK-ORTHODOX     ChURCH     .\NI)     \i  l.V-r.\I.\T 

Armeni.\n.s. — The  great  majority  of  the  Christians 
of  A.sia  Minor  belong  to  the  so-called  Greek-Orthodox 
or  .schismatic  patriarchate  of  Constantinople.  In 
ecclesiastical  and  ecclesiastico-civil  matters  they  are 
subject  to  the  patriarch  according  to  the  arrangement 
made  on  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (14.53),  variously 
modified  .since  then,  anil  known  as  the  "Capitula- 
tions" (Baron  d'.\vril.  La  protection  des  Chretiens 
dans  le  Levant,  Paris,  1901).  The  power  of  the 
patriarch,  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  regulated 
by  and  divided  with  the  National  .\ssembly  and 
the  (Jreat  Synod  at  Constantinople,  is  extensive. 
Of  the  twelve  metropolitans  who  now  compo.se  his 
council  three  are  from  western  .\.sia  Minor  (Cyzicus, 
Nicomedia,  and  Chalcedon)  and  are  habitually 
resident  in  the  capital,  while  the  other  nine  are 
elective  at  fixed  periods.  These  three,  together 
with  the  metropolitan  of  Heraclea  in  Thrace,  hold 
the  patriarchal  seal  that  is  divided  into  four  parts. 
The  Grcck-t  Irthodox  population,  scattered  through 
the  islands  of  the  .Archipelago  and  along  the  whole 
coast-line  of  .\sia  Minor,  is  said  to  number  about  one 
million;  in  recent  times  it  tends  to  incre.a-se  and  is 
now  commercially  dominant  in  the  greater  part  of 


ASIONGABER 


792 


ASPENDUS 


Asia  Minor.  There  are  several  (ireek  (Basilian) 
monasteries  in  the  peninsula,  six  on  the  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea,  near  Samsun  anil  near  Trebizond.  There 
is  also  one  (Lembos)  near  Smyrna.  In  the  islands  the 
number  is  larger;  there  are  3  on  Cliios,  7  on  Samos, 
2  on  Patmos,  antl  several  in  the  Princes  Island-i 
near  Constantinople.  Cyprus  has  4  and  Crete  50 
(Silbernagl,  58,  59;  Vering,  "  Lehrbuch  des  kathol. 
orient,  und  prot.  Kirchenrechts".  Freiburg,  1893, 
3d  ed.,  623-630;  Petit.  "  Reglements  gen^raux  des 
^glises  orthodoxes  en  Turquie",  in  Revue  de  I'orient 
Chretien,  Paris,  1898;  Neale,  "The  Holy  Eastern 
Church",  I,  London,  1850;  Pitzipios,  "L'Eglise 
orientale",  Rome,  1355).  Non-uniat,  or  schismatic, 
Armenians  have  settled  in  large  numbers  in  various 
parts  of  Asia  Minor,  sometimes  in  the  cities  and 
sometimes  in  their  own  villages,  in  some  places 
among  the  Turkish  populations.  Since  1307  they 
have  had  a  bishop  resident  at  Constantinople,  and 
since  1461  there  has  been  in  that  capital  a  patriarch 
of  the  nation  on  the  same  political  level  as  the 
Greek  patriarch,  recognized  as  the  civil  head  of  his 
people  and  their  agent  in  all  matters  affecting  their 
religion  and  in  many  civil  matters.  Until  1830  this 
schismatic  patriarch  was  recognized  by  the  Porte 
as  the  civil  representative  also  of  the  Catholic  Ar- 
menians. As  stated  above,  it  was  only  in  1867  that 
the  latter  obtained  recognition  of  their  own  patriarch 
in  the  person  of  Monsignor,  afterwards  Cardinal, 
.\nton  Hassoun.  There  are  about  40,000  Armenians 
resident  in  Constantinople,  and  in  Asia  Minor,  as 
already  stated,  their  number  is  quite  large;  of  the 
120  lay  members  who  make  up  the  National  Assem- 
bly representative  of  the  Armenians  at  Constanti- 
nople, one-third  must  be  chosen  from  Asia  Minor. 
They  have  the  following  metropolitan  sees  in  the 
peninsula  (most  of  them  provided  with  suffragans): 
Kaisariyeh,  Nicoraedia,  Broussa,  Smyrna,  Amasia. 
Sivas,  Erzerum,  and  Trebizond.  The  bishops  of  the 
schismatic  Armenians  usually  reside  in  monasteries 
of  their  own  nationality,  which  are  thus  centres  both 
of  national  and  ecclesiastical  life.  (Silbernagl- 
Schnitzer,  Verfassung  und  gegenwartiger  Bestand 
samtlicher  Kirchen  des  Orients,  2d  ed.,  Munich, 
1904,  229-231.)  See  Persecutions,  Early  Chris- 
Ti.vN.  For  details  of  Moslem  education,  see  Turkey. 
For  efforts  of  Protestant  missionaries,  and  their 
influence  on  education,  see  Constantinople;  Tur- 
key. For  details  of  Greek-Orthodox  ecclesiastical 
life  and  organization,  see  Constantinople,  P.\tri- 
ARCH.vTE  of;  and  Greek  Church. 

For  the  general  history  and  de.scription  of  Asia  Minor  the 
reader  may  consult,  besides  the  classical  work  of  de  Saint 
Martin,  the  treatises  of  Tchihatcheff,  L'Asie  Mineure, 
etc.  (Paris,  1853-80),  and  Cuinet,  La  Turquie  d'Asie  (Paris, 
1892-94).  Modern  works  of  travels  in  Asia  Minor:  Leake 
'1824);  AiNSWORTH  (1842);  Hamilton,  Researches  in  Asia 
A/irtor(I^ondon,  1842);  Van  Lennep  (1870);  Barkley  (1891); 
Ramsey,  Impressions  of  Turkey  (London,  1897).  The  rem- 
nants of  Hyzantine  life  in  Asia  Minor  may  be  studied  in  Ham- 
mf.r's  classical  Geschichte  der  Osmanen  (Pesth,  1834);  Krause, 
Die  Byzantiner  dee  MiUelallers  (Halle.  1869);  Bikelas,  La 
Orice  Byamtine  (Paris,  1893);  Burt,  The  Later  Roman 
Empire  (Ixindon.  1889).  For  external  conditions  of  primitive 
Christian  life  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor  read  Ram»ey, 
The  Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia  Minor  (.New  York, 
190.5).  For  the  medieval  period  of  the  Asia  Minor  Churches 
see  I.F.QuiKN,  Oriens  Chrislianus  (Paris,  1740).  and  for  the 
hicrarclufal  lists  Gams,  .Series  evisc.  Eccl.  cath.  (1873-8(5); 
EriiKi..  Ili.rarchia  Catholica  Medii  ^vi  (1898-1802).  For 
iiMjik-rii  Cailjolic  statistics  see  Missiones  Cathotictr  (Propa- 
Kandu.  Home.  1901);  Piolet,  /,e«  missions  ratholiques  fran- 
rawM  nu  XIX'  sitrle  (Paris,  1900);  Missions  d'Asie.  1,  99-115, 
132-149.  For  Protestant  missions  in  Asia  Minor  see  Dwioht. 
TuppER,  AND  Bliks,  Encyclopedia  of  Alissions  (New  York. 
1904),  B.  V.  Turkey.  For  the  ecclesiastical  conditions  of  the 
Crock  Ortho.l.ix  Cliristians.  see,  besides  the  abnve-mentione<l 
works,  llAriiN(n:K,  Das  Okumenusche  Patriarchal  iu  Stimmen 
aua  Maria-lAinch  (1874);  Kli.nERNAOi.-ScnNmER  (op.  cit.); 
MiLAH.  Diis  Kirchenrecht  drr  moryerdiindiscften  Kirche  (Zara, 
1897);  also  the  older  works  of  Heinecciuh,  Abbiht  der  iiltrrm 
urut  neurren  grirch.  Kirche  (LeipziK.  1711);  Kichmann,  Die  lie- 
lin^ncn  des  osmimnisrhen  /ertc/iM  (Berlin.  185.".),  and  Pi.schon  on 
the  conilitiiti.in  of  the  (ireek  Orthodox  Church,  in  Theol.Stwl- 
vn   un-t   Kritihn   ( I.c.pz.K.    l.S(14).      TlKiMAS  J.  SlIAlIAN. 


^  Asiongaber  (Heb.,  naj-JVi'V).  more  properly 
Ezion-geber,  a  city  of  Idumea,  situated  on  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  .lElanitic  Gulf,  now  called 
the  (iulf  of  Akabah.  It  is  mentioned  six  times  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures:  Numbers,  xxxiii,  35;  Deut.,  ii, 
8;  III  K.  (Vulgate),  ix,  26;  x.\ii,  49;  II  Par.  (Chron.), 
viii,  17;  XX,  36.  The  general  site  of  Asiongaber  is 
indicated  in  III  K.,  ix,  26  (I  K.);  but  its  ruins  have 
disappeared,  so  that  its  precise  site  is  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture. The  Children  of  Israel  encamped  in  .Asion- 
gaber in  their  journey  through  the  wilderness  (Num., 
xxxiii,  35).  The  ships  of  Solomon  and  Hiram  started 
from  this  port  on  their  voyage  to  Ophir.  It  was  the 
main  port  for  Israel's  commerce  with  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean. 

Josaphat,  King  of  Juda,  joined  himself  with 
Ochozias,  the  wicked  King  of  Israel,  to  make  ships 
in  Asiongaber;  but  God  disapproved  the  unholy 
alliance,  and  the  ships  were  broken  in  the  port  (II 
Par.,  XX,  37).  A.  E.  Breen. 

Aske,  Robert,  an  English  gentleman,  and  nominal 
leader  of  the  30,000  Northern  Catholics  who  rose  in 
defence  of  the  monasteries  at  the  time  of  tl.eir  disso- 
lution by  Henry  VIII  (1536).  Among  their  requests 
was  the  suppression  of  Lutheran  heretical  books,  the 
punishment  of  heretical  bishops  and  of  the  king's 
evil  advisers,  the  recall  of  liis  anti-ecclesiastical 
legislation,  the  prosecution  of  his  "visitors",  Lee 
and  Layton,  and  the  holding  of  a  parliament  in  the 
North.  Alarmed  at  the  size  of  the  in-surrection,  the 
king  offered  an  unlimited  pardon  and  promised  to 
redress  their  grievances  in  a  parliament  at  York. 
Thereupon  Aske  disbanded  his  army,  which,  how- 
ever, was  soon  again  in  the  field,  wlien  it  was  seen 
that  the  king  would  not  redeem  his  promises.  The 
insurgents  were  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  in 
their  attempts  to  seize  Hull  and  Carlisle.  Most  of 
the  leaders  were  taken  and  hanged  by  scores;  Aske 
was  executed  at  York  in  June,  1537. 

GiLLOw,  Bibl.  Diet,  of  Engl.  Catholics.  I,  75. 

THOM.4S  J.  Shahan. 

Asmodeus,  the  name  of  the  demon  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  Tobias  (iii,  S).  The  name  i.s  most  proba- 
bly derived  from  the  Hebrew  root  noc'.  to  destrov: 
so  that  the  being  would  correspond  to  the  demon 
called  Abaddon,  the  Destroyer,  in  the  Apocalypse, 
ix,  11.  The  Book  of  Tobias  relates  that  the  virgin 
Sara,  the  kinswoman  of  Tobias,  had  been  given 
successively  to  seven  husbands;  but  they  had  all 
been  slain  on  the  night  of  the  nuptials,  before  the 
consummation  of  the  marriage.  From  this  fact,  a 
superstition  had  arisen  that  the  demon  loved  the 
maiden  and  slew  her  husbands  through  jealousy. 
In  the  Greek  text  of  Tobias,  it  is  stated  that  the 
younger  Tobias  himself  was  moved  by  this  super- 
stition. The  inspired  text  in  no  way  approves  the 
superstition.  Ciod  allowed  the  demon  to  slay  these 
men  because  they  entered  marriage  with  unholy 
motives.  The  pious  youth,  Tobias,  acting  under  the 
instructions  of  Raphael,  takes  Sara  to  wife,  and 
Raphael  expels  the  demon.  The  e.xemplary  chastity 
and  temperance  of  Tobias  and  Sara  save  them  from 
the  demon,  and  offer  an  example  for  mankind.  In 
fact,  the  permission  given  by  God  to  the  demon  in 
this  history  seems  to  have  :»s  a  motive  to  clia.sten 
man's  lust  and  sanctify  marriage.  The  Rationalists 
have  vainly  endeavoured  to  set  down  this  history 
as  a  Persian  myth.  For  a  full  refutation  of  their 
theories,  see  Giitberlet,  "Das  Buch  Tobiiis". 

A.  E.  Breen. 

Aspendus,  a  titular  see  of  Pamphylia  in  .Vsia 
Minor,  situated  along  the  Eurymedon,  on  a  lofty  hill 
that  commands  a  view  of  the  distant  sea.  Its 
episcopal  list  (325-7S7)  is  given  in  Gams  (p.  450). 

I.F.QCiKN.  Oriens  Christ.  (1740),  I,  99;  SMrrH,  Diet,  oj 
Christ.  Gcoiir..  1,  241. 


ASPERGES 


793 


ASSAM 


Asperges  (Latin,  axjiergere,  to  wa«h,  sprinkle), 
the  lite  of  sprinkling  the  congregation  with  holy- 
water  before  tlic  principal  Mass  on  Sunday,  so  culled 
from  the  words  intoned  at  the  Ijeginning  of  tlie 
ceremony,  taken  from  Ps.  1,  throughout  the  year  ex- 
cept at  ftaster-tide,  when  Vidi  aquam,  from  Ps.  cxvii, 
is  intoned.  It  precedes  every  other  ceremony  that 
may  take  place  before  the  Mass,  such  as  the  blessing 
of  palms  or  of  candles.  It  is  performed  by  the 
celebrant  priest  wearing  vestments  of  the  liturgical 
colour  of  the  day.  It  is  omitted  when  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  expo.sed,  though  many  rubricists  think 
that  the  sprinkling  of  the  altar  only,  not  of  the  con- 
gregation, should  then  be  omitted.  After  intoning 
the  antiphon  the  pri&st  recites  the  p.salm  Miserere 
or  CimjUcnini,  according  to  the  season,  sprinkling 
first  the  front  and  platform  of  the  altar,  then  himself, 
next  the  ministers  and  choir,  and  lastly  the  congrega- 
tion, usually  walking  through  the  main  part  of  the 
church,  though  he  need  not  go  l)eyond  the  gate  of 
the  .sanctuary  or  choir.  The  ceremony  luus  Ijeen  in 
use  at  least  from  the  tenth  century,  growing  out  of 
the  custom  of  early  antiquity  of  blessing  water  for  the 
faithful  on  Sundays.  Its  object  is  to  prepare  the 
congregation  for  tlie  celebration  of  the  Mass  by  mov- 
ing them  to  sentiments  of  jwnance  and  reverence 
suggested  by  the  words  of  the  fiftieth  psalm,  or  by 
impressing  on  them  that  they  are  about  to  assist  at 
the  sacrifice  of  our  redemption  as  suggested  in  the 
psalm  used  at  Easter  time. 

Wapelhorst,  Comp  Sacr.  Liturgia;  (New  York.  19041.  n.  91. 

John  J.  Wynne. 

Aspersion.     See  Baptism. 

Aspilcueta,  M.\rtin  (also  Azpilcoeta),  generally 
known  ;is  Navarrus,  or  Doctor  Navarrus,  a  famous 
Spanish  canonist  and  moral  theologian;  b.  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Navarre.  13  December,  1491;  d.  at 
Home,  1  June,  1586.  He  was  a  relative  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier,  studied  at  AlcaU  and  in  France,  and  became 
professor  of  canon  law  at  Toulouse  and  Cahors. 
Later,  he  returned  to  Spain  and  occupied  the 
same  chair  for  fourteen  years  at  Salamanca,  and  for 
seven  years  at  Coimbra  in  Portugal.  At  the  age  of 
eighty  he  went  to  Rome  to  defend  his  friend  Bar- 
tolomeo  Carranza.  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  accused  be- 
fore the  Tribunal  of  the  Imjuisition.  Though  he 
failed  to  exculpate  the  Archbishop,  Aspilcueta  was 
highly  honoured  at  Rome  by  several  popes,  and 
wiis  looked  on  as  an  oracle  of  learning  and  prudence. 
His  humility,  disinterestedness,  and  charity  were 
proverbial.  He  reached  the  patriarchal  age  of  95, 
and  is  buried  at  Rome  in  the  national  Clmrch  of 
San  .A.ntonio  de'  Portoghcsi.  Among  other  lives  of 
Aspilcueta  there  is  one  by  his  nephew,  prefixed  to 
the  Roman  edition  of  his  works.  His  "Manuale  sive 
Em-liiridion  Confessariorum  et  Pccnitentium"  (Rome, 
I.iliS)  originally  written  in  Spanish,  was  long  a 
chussical  text  in  the  schooLs  and  in  ecclesiastical 
practice.  In  his  work  on  the  revenues  of  lienefices, 
first  published  in  Spani.sh  (Salamanca,  l.'iCti),  trans- 
lated into  Latin  (1.5t),S),  and  dedicated  to  Philip  II 
and  St.  Pius  V,  he  maintained  that  beneficed  clergj'- 
men  were  free  to  expend  the  fniits  of  their  l>eneficcs 
only  for  their  own  necessarj'  support  and  that  of  the 
poor.  He  wrote  numerous  other  works,  e.  g.  on  the 
Breviary,  the  regulars,  ecclesiastical  property,  the 
jubilee  year,  etc.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was 
printed  at  Rome  in  1.590  (3  vols,  fol.);  also  at  Lyons, 
1.590;  Venice,  1602;  and  Cologne,  1615  (2  vols.  fol.). 
.\  c'om|>endium  of  his  writings  was  made  by  J. 
Castellanus    (Venice.   1.598). 

GiRAijn,  Bihl.  San-..  11,  .1.14-3.36  (gives  Iwt  of  his  writings'!: 
HuRTKR,   Xomenclalor,  (1892).  I,   124-r.>7. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Asa,  The,  i.n  CAHic.\TrnE  of  Chkistian  Beliefs 
AND  Practices. — The  calumny  of  onolatry,  or  ass- 


worship,  attributed  by  TacitiiB  and  other  writers  to 
the  Jews,  was  afterwards,  by  the  hatred  of  the  latter, 
transferred  to  the  Christians  (Tac,  1,  v,  3,  4;  Tert., 
Apol.,  xvi;  "Ad  nationes",  I.  14).  A  sliort  lime  be- 
fore he  wrote  the  latter  of  these  treati.scs  (about  197) 
Tert  ullian  relates  that 
an  apostate  Jew  one 
day  appeared  in  the 
streets  of  Carthage 
carrying  a  figure 
robeil  in  a  toga,  with 
the  ears  and  hoofs  of 
an  a.ss,  and  that  this 
monstrosity  was  la- 
belled: DeusChristia- 
norum  Onoeoetes  (the 
God  of  the  Christians 
begotten  of  an  ass). 
"  \nA  the  crowd  be- 
lieved this  infamous 
Jew  ",  adds  Tert  ul- 
lian (.\d  nationes,  I, 
14).  Minucius  Fehx 
(Octavius,  ix)  al-so 
alludes  to  this  de- 
famatory   accusation 

against  the  Christians.  The  caricature  of  the  Cru- 
cifixion, discovered  on  a  wall  in  the  Palace  of 
the  CiEsars  on  the  Palatine  in  18.57,  which  repre- 
sents a  Christian  boy  worshipping  a  crucified  figure 
with  an  ass's  head,  is'a  pictureil  form  of  this  calumny. 
A  Greek  inscription,  "  .Alexamenos  worshipping  his 
God",  is  .scratched  on  the  caricature.  This  person 
is  generally  held  to  have  been  a  Christian  page  of  the 
palace,  in  the  time  of  the  first  Antonines,  whose 
companions  took  this  means  of  insulting  his  religion. 
Wiinsch,  however,  conjectures  that  the  caricature 
may  have  been  intended  to  represent  the  god  of  a 
Gnostic  sect  which  identified  Clirist  with  the  Egj'p- 
tian  ass-headed  god  T j-phon-Set  h  (Brt'^hier,  Les 
origines  du  crucifix,  15  sqt\.).  But  the  reasons 
advanced  in  favour  of  this  hypothesis  are  not 
convincing.  The  representations  on  a  terra-cotta 
fragment  discovered  in 
1881,  at  Naples,  which 
dates  probably  from  the 
first  centurN',  appear  to 
belong  to  tFie  same  cate- 
gory- as  the  caricature  of 
the  Palatine.  A  figure 
with  the  head  of  an  a.ss 
and  wearing  the  toga  is 
.seated  in  a  chair  with  a 
nill  in  his  hand,  instnict- 
ing  a  number  of  baboon- 
headed  pupils.  On  an 
ancient  gem  the  onoceph- 
alous  teacher  of  two  hu- 
man pupils  is  dre.ssed  in 
the  pallium,  the  form  of 
cloak  peculiar  to  sacred 
personages  in  early  Chris-  Engraved Ge.\i.  Ill Ce.vtort 
tian     art;    and    a    Syrian 

terra-cotta  fragment  represents  Our  Lord,  book  in 
hand,  with  the  ears  of  an  ass.  The  ass  as  a  symbol 
of  heresy,  or  of  Satan,  is  represented  in  a  fresco  of 
the  catacomb  of  Pnetextatus:  Christ,  the  Good 
Shepherd,  is  protecting  His  flock  from  impurity  and 
liere.sy  .symbolizetl  as  a  pig  and  an  ass.  This  rep- 
resentation dates  from  tlie  beginning  of  the  third 
century  (Wilpert,  Pitture  delle  Catacombe,  PI.  51,  1). 
I.EcLERf  g  in  Did.  darch.  chril..  I.  2042  Niq.  (I'arij.  1903). 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 
Assam,  The  Phefecture  Apostolic  of.  in  the  ec- 
clesiastical province  of  Calcutta.  India,  established  in 
1889.     It  is  served  by  the  "Society  of  the  Divine 
Saviour",  whose    mother-house   is  at   Rome.     The 


ASSASSINATION 


"94 


ASSEMANI 


priests  have  a  residence  at  Shillong.  Assam  includes 
tlie  civil  province  of  Assam,  witli  Hhuthan  and  Mani- 
pur.  The  native  population  is  7,000,000.  The  Cath- 
olics number  1,800,  and  are  attended  by  6  secular 
and  10  regular  priests.  There  are  chapels  in  Shil- 
long, Gowliati,  Bondashill,  Railing.  Laitkinsew,  Sil- 
char,  Cheerapoonjee,  Lamin.  and  elsewhere,  in  all  2.5 
chiipels  an  1  19  .stations.  There  are  15  elementary 
schools;  300  pupils,  boys  and  girls;  2  orphanages  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Society  of  the 
Divine  Saviour;  4  charitable  dispensaries,  1  asylum 
for  aged  women,  and  one  small  hospital  at  Shillong. 
The  non-Catholic  sects  number  17,  and  count  18,000 
adherents. 

The  Madras  Catholic  Directory  (Madras,  1906);  Battan- 
DIER,  Ann.  pant.  cath.  C1906)  343. 

Thomas  J.  Shahan. 

Assassination.     See  Homicide. 

Assassins.     See  Crusades. 

Assemani  (Arabic,  Sam'an,  i.  e.  Simeon),  the  name 
of  an  illustrious  Maronite  family  of  Mount  Lebanon, 
Syria,  four  members  of  which,  all  ecclesiastics,  dis- 
tinguished themselves  during  the  eighteenth  century 
in  the  Ea.st  and  in  Europe.  For  their  zeal,  learning, 
and  unbounded  attachment  to  the  Roman  See,  they 
were  held  in  great  esteem  by  the  Popes,  who  con- 
ferred upon  them  many  well-merited  ecclesiastical 
dignities  and  offices.  Oriental,  but  especially  Syriac 
studies  owe  more  to  them  than  to  any  others;  for  it 
was  through  their  researches,  collection  of  manu- 
scripts, and  voluminous  publications  that  SjTiac 
studies,  and  in  general  the  history,  hagiography, 
liturgy,  and  literature  of  the  Oriental  Churches  were 
first  introduced  into  Europe.  Therefore  they  can  be 
justly  regarded,  if  not  as  the  creators,  certainly  as 
the  most  illustrious  pioneers,  of  modern  Oriental 
studies.  In  this  work  they  were  preceded  by  other 
Maronite  scholars,  known  to  Orientalists  under  their 
latinized  names  of  Eehellensis,  Sciadrensis,  Sionita, 
and  Benedictus.  To  these  and  to  the  Assemanis  we 
owe  the  fact  that  the  characters,  vowels,  and  pro- 
nunciation of  Syriac,  first  introduced  by  them  in 
Europe,  were  after  the  so-called  Western  Syriac,  or 
Jacobite  system,  and  not,  as  would  have  been  more 
original  and  correct,  of  the  Eastern  Syriac,  or  Nes- 
torian.  This  anomaly,  however,  is  easily  explained 
by  the  fact  that,  as  the  Western  Syriac  system  is 
the  one  used  by  the  Maronite  Church,  to  which  these 
scholars  belonged,  it  was  but  natural  that  they  should 
adopt  this  in  preference  to  the  other.  The  four 
Assemanis  are  the  following: 

Joseph  Simeon,  b.  in  the  Mountains  of  Lebanon, 
Syria,  1687;  d.  at  Rome,  January,  1768.  In  1703,  he 
entered  the  Maronite  College,  Rome,  to  study  for  the 
priesthood.  Soon  after  his  ordination  he  was  given 
a  post  in  the  Vatican  Library,  and  in  1715-17  sent 
by  Clement  XI  to  the  East  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting Oriental  manuscripts;  he  accomplished  his 
task  successfully,  visiting  Cairo,  Damascus,  Aleppo, 
Mount  Lebanon,  and  especially  the  Nitrian  desert. 
He  brought  tliese  manuscripts  to  Rome,  and  they 
were  placed  by  order  of  the  Pope  in  the  Vatican 
Library,  where  they  formed  the  nucleus  of  its  sub- 
eequently  famous  collection  of  Oriental  manuscripts. 
In  1735-38  he  was  sent  again  to  the  East,  and  re- 
turned with  a  still  more  valuable  collection.  On  his 
return,  he  was  made  titular  Archbishop  of  Tyre  and 
Librarian  of  the  Vatican  Library,  where  he  devoted 
the  rest  of  his  life  to  carrying  out  a  most  extensive 
plan  for  editing  and  publishing  the  most  valuable 
Syriac,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Armenian,  Persian,  Hebrew, 
and  Greek  MSS. ,  trca-sures  of  the  Vatican.  His 
published  works  are  very  numerous,  besides  others 
(about  one  hundred  in  number)  which  he  left  in 
manuscript  fonn.  The  majority  of  these,  however, 
were  destroyed  by  a  fire,  which,  in  17GS,  broke  out  in 


his  Vatican  apartment,  adjacent  to  the  Library.  His 
published  works  are  the  following:  (1)  "Bibliotheca 
Orientalis  Clementino-Vaticana  in  qua  manuscriptos 
codices  Syriacos,  Arabicos,  Persicos,  Turcicos,  He- 
braicos,  .Samaritanos,  Armenicos,  .Ethiopicos,  Grajcos 
^Egyi)tiacos,  Ibericos  et  Malabaricos  .  .  .  Biblio- 
thecse  Vaticanae  addictos  recensuit,  digessit  Josephus 
Simonius  Assemanus"  (Rome,  4  vols.  foL,  1719-28). 
This  gigantic  work,  of  which  only  the  first  four  vol- 
umes appeared,  was  to  comprise  twelve  volumes,  of 
which  the  unpublished  ones  were  as  follows:  Vol.  V, 
"De  Syriacis  sacrarum  Scripturarum  versionibus"; 
Vol.  VI,  "De  libris  ecclesiasticis  Syrorum";  Vol.  VII, 
"  De  Conciliorum  coUectionibus  Syriacis";  Vol.  VIII, 
"Decollectionibus  Arabicis";  Vol.  IX,  "De  Scriptori- 
bus  Groecis  in  Syriacum  et  Arabicum  conversis"; 
Vol.  X,  "De  Scriptoribus  Arabicis  Christiani.s"; 
Vols.  XI  and  XII,  "De  Scriptoribus  Arabicis  Ma- 
hometanis  ".  Considerable  preparation  for  these  un- 
published volumes  was  made  by  the  author,  a  portion 
of  which  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  four  published 
volumes  are  divided  as  follows:  Vol.  I,  "  De  Scriptori- 
bus Syris  orthodoxis";  Vol.  II,  "De  Scriptoribus 
Syris  monophysitis";  Vol.  Ill,  "Catalogus  Ebed- 
jesus  Sobensis"  (of  Nestorian  writers);  Vol.  IV,  "De 
Syris  Nestorianis  ".  (2)  "Ephraemi  Syri  opera  omnia 
qus  extant  gra?ce,  syriace  et  latine,"  six  volumes, 
folio.  The  first  three  volumes  were  edited  by  our 
author,  the  fourth  and  the  fifth  by  the  Maronite 
Jesuit  Mubarak,  or  Benedictus,  and  the  sixth  by 
Stephanus  Evodius  Assemani  (see  below). — (3)  "Ital- 
ics historise  scriptores  ex  bibliothecse  Vaticanae 
aliarumque  insignium  bibliothecarum  manuscriptis 
codicibus  coUegit",  etc.,  four  volumes,  folio  (Rome, 
1751-53). — (4)  "Kalendaria  ecclesis  universae",  etc., 
to  consist  of  twelve  volumes,  of  which  only  the  first 
six  appeared  (Rome,  17.55),  treating  of  "  Slavica  Ec- 
clesia  sive  Graeco-Moscha";  the  other  six,  which  were 
to  treat  of  tlie  Syrian,  Armenian,  Egj'ptian,  Ethio- 
pian, Greek,  and  Roman  saints,  were  partly  prepared, 
but  destroyed  by  fire. — (5)  "De  sacris  imaginibus  et 
reliquiis",  destined  to  comprise  five  volumes.  Parts 
of  the  manuscript  were  saved  and  extracts  from  it 
given  by  Bottarius  (Rome,  1776). — (6)  "Bibliotheca 
juris  Orientalis  canonici  et  civilis",  five  volumes, 
quarto  (Rome,  1762-66). — (7)  "Abraham  Eehellen- 
sis; Clironicon  Orientate",  printed  in  "Scriptores 
Historia?  Byzantinae",  vol.  XVII. — (8)  "Rudimenta 
lingua;  Arabicro"  (Rome,  1732). — (9)  Several  dis- 
sertations, in  Italian,  on  Oriental  Churches,  published 
by  Cardinal  Angelo  Mai  in  his  "Scriptorum  Veterum 
Nova  CoUectio"  (Rome,  1831).  From  two  Maronite 
writers,  viz.,  G.  Cardahi  (Liber  Thesauri  de  arte 
poetica  Syrorum,  pp.  171-183)  and  Mgr.  Joseph  Dibs, 
Archbishop  of  Beirut,  Syria  ("  SpiritusConfutationis", 
etc.,  in  Latin  and  Arabic),  we  learn  that  J.  S.  Asse- 
mani had  in  preparation  four  more  gigantic  works. 
The  first  on  "Syria  vetus  et  nova",  in  nine  volumes; 
the  second  a  "  Historia  Orientalis  ",  in  nine  volumes; 
the  third,  "Concilia  ecclesire  Orientalis",  in  six  vol- 
umes; and  the  fourth  "  Euchologia  seu  Liturgia  eccls- 
sia;  orientalis",  etc.,  in  seven  volumes.  From  his 
"Bibliotheca  juris  Orientalis",  etc.  we  learn  that  our 
author  was:  "  Utriusque  Signaturae  Apostolic;?  Rofcr- 
endarius;  Hibliotlioca'  Vaticanae  Pra^foctus,  Basilica; 
Sancti  Petri  de  I'rlio  Cunonicus;  Sanctie  Romanic  et 
Universalis  Inquisitionis  Consultor";  also  "Sacne 
Poenitentiariie  Apostolicir  Sigillator",  etc.  All  our 
author's  works,  but  especially  his  "  Bibliotheca  Orien- 
t.alis",  which  has  been  till  recently,  and  which  to 
a  groat  extent  is  still,  our  main  guide  on  the  subject, 
needs  tliorough  revision  in  the  light  of  the  many 
newly  discovered  and  edited  Syriac  manuscripts. 

JosKi'iirs  Aloysii's,  brotlier  of  the  preceding,  b.  in 
Tripoli,  Syria,  1710;  d.  at  Rome,  1782.  He  made  his 
tlieological  and  Oriental  studies  in  Rome  and  under 
tlie  care  of  his  illustrious  brother.     He  was  appointi>d 


ASSEMBLIES 


795 


ASSEMBLIES 


by  the  Pope,  first, as  professor  of  Syriac  at  the  Sapienza 
in  Rome,  and  afterwards  professor  of  hturgy,  by 
Heiiodict  XI\',  who  made  him  also  meml)er  of  the 
ucadciny  for  historic  research,  just  founded.  His 
priticipal  works  are:  (1)  "Codex  hturgicus  eeclesia- 
universa'  in  XV  hbros  distributus"  (Rome,  1749-0(i). 

This  vahiablc  work  has  become  so  rare  tliat  a 
bookseller  of  Paris  recently  issued  a  photographic 
impression  of  it.  (2)  "  De  Sacris  ritibus  Di.s.sertatio" 
(Rome,  17.')7).  (3)  "Commentarius  theologico- 
oanonicus  crilicus  de  ccclesiis,  earuni  reverenliiV  et 
asylo  ;il(iue  Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Imperii"  (Rome, 
ITdti);  (1)  "  Disscrtatio  de  unione  et  communione 
ecclcsiastica"  (Rome.  1770);  {.'>)  "  Di.ssertatio  de 
canonibus  jxvnitenlialibus"  (Rome,  1770);  (G)  "  De 
("athohcis  scu  Patriardiis  ("halda-orum  et  Nestorian- 
orum  commentarius  historico-chronologicus",  etc. 
(Rome,  177.5);  (7)  "  De  Synodo  Diocesana  Disser- 
tatio"  (Rome,  1776);  (8)  A  Latin  version  of  Kbed- 
jesus's  "Collcctio  Canonum",  pubhshcd  by  Cardinal 
Mai  in  his  "Scriptoruni  Veterum  Nova  Collectio" 
(pt.  I,  pp.  vii.  viii  and  1-16S;  pt.  II,  pp.  1-208,  etc.). 

.STBPH.\Ntis  EvoDirs,  or  .\\v\v.\u.  titular  .\rchbishop 
of  .\pama>a  in  Syria,  b.  in  Syria  1707;  d.  in  Rome, 
1782;  nephew  of  the  two  preceding  brothers,  and 
prt'fect  of  the  Vatican  Library  after  the  death  of 
J.  S.  .\.ssemani.  His  lifework  was  to  assist  his  two 
uncles  at  the  Vatican  Library.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  His  principal 
works  are:  (1)  the  .sixth  volume  of  "  Kphra>mi  Syri 
opera  omnia"  (see  above);  (2)  "  Hibliothecip  Meilicea- 
I^urentiana!  et  Palatince  codicum  manuscriptorum 
orientalium  catalogus"  (Florence,  1742);  (.'{)  ".\cta 
Sanctorum  .Martyrum  Orientalium  et  Occidentahum" 
(Rome.  1748).  The  first  part  gives  the  history  of 
the  martyrs  who  suffered  during  the  reign  of  the 
Sa.s.sanian  Kings  of  Persia:  Sapor,  Veranes,  and  others; 
(4)  "  Bibliothecse  Apostolica;  Vaticana?  codiouni 
manuscriptorum  catalogus,"  to  be  completed  in  four 
volumes  in  collaboration  with  his  uncle.  J.  A.  .\.sse- 
inani:  Vol.  I,  Oriental  manu.scripts;  Vol.  II.  Greek; 
Vol.  Ill,  Latin;  and  Vol.  IV,  Italian.  The  first 
three  volumes  appeared  in  17.50-69,  but  the  fourth, 
of  which  only  the  first  eiglity  pages  were  printeil, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1768;  (5)  "Catalogo  della 
biblioteca  Chigiana"  (Rome,  1764). 

Simeon,  grand-nephew  of  the  first  and  .second 
Assemanis,  b.  17.52,  in  Tripoli,  Syria;  d.  at  Padua, 
Italy,  1821.  He  made  his  theological  studies  in 
Rome,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-six  visited  Syria  and 
Egypt.  In  1778  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  then 
■went  to  Genoa,  with  the  intention  of  going  to  America, 
but  he  was  prevented.  In  178.5  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  the  .seminary  of 
Padua,  and  in  1807  w.as  transferred  to  the  I'niversity 
of  the  same  city,  to  fill  the  .same  chair.  He  had  many 
admirers  and  friends,  such  as  Cardinal  Borgia,  the 
founder  of  the  Muneo  Bnrgiano  at  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda,  in  Rome,  the  French  Orientalist  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  and  others.  His  works  are:  (1)  "Sag- 
gio  storico  suU  '  origine,  culto,  letteratura.  e  costumi 
<legli  Arabi  avanti  Maonietto"  (Padua,  1787); 
(2)  "Mii.seo  Cufico  Naniano,  illustrato  ",  in  two  parts 
(Padua,  17.S7-8S);  (!})  "Catalogo  dei  codici  mano- 
scritti  orientali  della  biblioteca  Naniana",  in  two 
parts  (Padua,  17S7-02);  (4)  "Globus  civlest is  arabico- 
ruficus  Veliterni  musci  Borgiani  .  .  .  illustratus, 
pra-missfi  de  Arabimi  a-stronomia  dissertatione" 
(Padua,  1790);  (.5)  "Se  gli  Arabi  ebbero  alcuna  in- 
fluenza suir  origine  della  poesia  moderna  in  Imi- 
ropa?"  (1807);  (6)  "Sopra  le  monefe  Aralx>  efligiate" 
<Padua,  1809).  0\ir  author  is  also  well  known  for 
his  masterly  detection  of  the  literarj'  imposture  of 
VcUa,  which  claimed  to  be  a  history  of  the  Saracens 
in  SjTia. 

Mai.  .S'm;i(<irum  Vrlrrum  Norn  CoUeetio.  etr..  Ill,  pt.  II. 
I6*i;  liioiiTaphie  unurrtelle  tmrienne  ft  moilrmr  Inouvelle 
Edition— PariM,    1843).    II.   337-339;    ("ardaiii.   Liber  Ihrtaun 


de  arte  poelicd  Syrorum  (Rome,  1874),  171-183;  Diom.  Liber 
coni utahouis  contra  Biicrrdotem  loaevh  David  (Ueirut,  1870); 
lU.it/oi;-.Si  II  \t  K,  littioufua  Encyc,  1,  150-157,  but  enpeciully 
art.  l>v  .Nh.Mi.K  III  lutu.st  etl.  of  Rvalcncykloltadie  fur  prottntan- 
llnclir  Thi.ilaui'-  uiul  Kirche  (l-ciprig,  18«7).  11.  144-147,  ».  v.; 
I'Aiilsor  III  />!.■(.  </(  Ih'ot.  ailh..  I.,  v.;  I'friT  in  Dirt,  darch. 
ihrit.  •Idr  lit.  .V.  V. 

<'|.M1UIEI.  OrS8.\NI. 

Assemblies  of  the  French  Clergry,  f|uin(iuennial 
representative  meetings  of  the  Clergy  of  France  for 
the  purpose  of  aiiportioning  the  lin:incial  burdens 
laid  upon  the  Church  by  the  kings  of  France,  and 
incidentally  for  other  ecclesiastical  purposes. — The 
Assemblies  of  the  French  (,'lergy  {AxKimhli'cs  du 
Clertji  (/<■  Fninci)  had  a  financial  origin,  to  which, 
for  that  matter,  may  be  traced  the  inception  and  es- 
tabli.shment  of  all  delilwrative  assemblies.  Long 
before  their  establishment,  however,  the  State  had 
undertaken  to  impose  on  the  Church  her  share  of 
the  public  expen.ses.  The  kings  of  France,  power- 
ful, needy,  and  at  times  imscrupulous  men,  could 
not  behold  side  by  side  with  the  State,  or  within  the 
State,  a  wealthy  body  of  men,  gradually  extending 
their  possessions  throughout  the  kingdom,  without 
being  tempted  to  draw  upon  their  coffers  and,  if 
need  were,  to  pillage  them.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
the  Crusades  were  the  occasions  of  frequent  le\ie3 
upon  ecclesiastical  possessions.  The  Dime  Sala- 
dine  (Saladin  Tithe)  was  inaugurated  when  Philip 
Augustus  (1180-122:5)  united  his  forces  with  those 
of  Richard  of  England  to  deliver  Jerusalem  from 
Saladin.  At  a  later  period  the  contributions  of  the 
clergy  were  increa,seci,  and  during  the  reign  of  St. 
Louis  (123.5-70)  we  find  record  of  thirteen  sub- 
sidies within  twenty  years,  while  under  Philip  the 
Fair  (128.5-1314)  there  were  twenty-one  tithes  in 
twenty-eight  years.  It  hius  been  estimated  that 
the  latter  monarch  recei\ed  altogether  from  the 
clergy  the  ecjuivalent  of  400.000,000  francs  in  the 
present  currency  (SSO,0()0,()(M)).  The  modern  era 
brought  no  decrease  in  the  taxes  imposed  on  the 
Church.  Francis  I,  for  example  (1.51.5-48),  made 
incessant  calls  on  the  ecclesi;istical  treasury.  The 
religious  wars  stirred  up  by  Protestantism  furnished 
the  French  kings  with  pretexts  for  fresh  demands 
upon  the  Church.  In  1.560.  the  clergy  held  a  con- 
vention at  Poissy  to  consider  matters  of  Church- 
reform,  an  occiision  made  famous  by  the  controversy 
(CoWique  de  Poi.tsy)  between  the  Catholic  bishops 
and  the  Protestant  ministers,  in  which  the  chief 
orators  were  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  and  Theodore 
Beza.  At  this  assembly  the  Clergy  bound  them- 
selves by  a  contract  made  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
clerical  body  to  pay  the  king  1,600,000  livres 
($320,000)  annually  for  a  period  of  six  years;  they 
also  bound  themselves  to  restore  to  him  certain 
estates  and  taxes  that  had  been  pledged  to  the  Hotel 
de  Ville  of  Paris  for  a  (vearly)  rcnir,  or  revenue, 
of  630,000  livres  (?126.o6o).  In  other  words,  the 
clergy  bound  themselves  to  redeem  for  the  king  in 
ten  years  a  capital  of  7,.56O,0OO  livres  ($1,512,000). 
The  French  monarchs,  instead  of  settling  their 
debts,  made  fresh  loans  biised  on  this  rente,  or 
revenue,  paid  by  the  Church,  iis  if  it  were  to  be 
something  permanent,  .\fter  lengthy  discussions, 
the  clergy  as.sembled  at  Melun  (1.579-80)  consented 
to  renew  the  contract  for  ten  years,  a  measure  des- 
tined to  be  repeated  every  decade  until  the  French 
Revolution.  'I"he  "A.ssemblies  of  the  Clergy"  were 
now  an  established  institution.  In  this  way  the 
Church  of  France  obtained  the  right  of  freely  meet- 
ing and  of  free  speech  just  when  the  meetings  of 
the  States-General  (Elals-Gimrnux)  were  to  be  dis- 
continued, and  the  voice  of  the  nation  was  to  be 
hushed  for  a  period  of  200  years. 

At  a  verj'  early  date,  these  assemblies  adopted 
the  form  of  "organization  which  they  were  to  preserve 
until  the  French  Revolution.     The  election  of  the 


ASSEMBLIES 


796 


ASSEMBLIES 


deputies  forming  the  body  was  arranged  according 
to  ecclesiastical  provinces.  It  was  decided  in  1619 
that  each  province  should  send  four  deputies  (two 
bishops  and  two  priests)  to  the  assemblies  de  con- 
trol held  every  ten  years,  and  two  to  the  assem- 
blies des  comptes  which  met  once  during  the 
interval  of  ten  years.  Under  this  arrangement  an 
assembly  was  convened  every  five  years.  There 
were  two  steps  in  the  election  of  deputies.  First,  at 
the  diocesan  assembly  were  convened  all  holders  of 
benefices,  a  plurality  of  whose  votes  elected  two 
delegates.  These  then  proceeded  to  the  metro- 
politan see,  and  \inder  the  presidency  of  the  metro- 
politan elected  the  provincial  deputies.  Theoreti- 
cally, parish  priests  (cutis)  might  be  chosen,  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  by  reason  of  their  social  station, 
inferior  to  that;  of  abb^s  and  canons,  they  seldom 
had  seats  in  the  assemblies.  The  rank  of  subdeacon 
suflficed  for  election;  the  Abb6  Legendre  relates  in 
his  memoirs  as  a  contemporary  incident  that  one  of 
these  young  legislators,  after  an  escapade,  was 
soundly  flogged  by  his  preceptor  who  had  accom- 
panied him  to  Paris.  The  assemblies  at  all  times 
reserved  to  themselves  the  right  of  deciding  upon  the 
validity  of  procurators  and  the  authority  of  deputies. 
They  wished  also  to  reserve  the  right  of  electing 
their  own  president,  whom  they  always  chose  from 
among  the  bishoDs.  However,  to  conciliate  rival- 
ries, several  were  usually  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency, only  one  of  whom  exercised  that  function. 
Tender  a  strong  government,  withal,  and  despite 
the  resolution  to  maintain  their  right  of  election, 
the  Assemblies  were  unlikely  to  choose  a  person  not 
in  favour  at  court.  We  know  that  during  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV  Harlay  de  Champvallon,  Archbishop 
of  Paris,  was  several  times  president.  Finally, 
Saint-Simon  tells  us  the  royal  displeasure  deprived 
him  of  his  influence  with  the  Clergy,  and  even  short- 
ened his  life.  The  offices  of  secretary  and  "promo- 
tor",  being  looked  on  by  the  bishops  as  somewhat 
inferior,  were  assigned  to  deputies  of  the  second 
rank,  i.  e.  to  priests.  Like  all  other  parliaments, 
the  Assemblies  of  the  French  Clergy  divided  their 
work  among  commissions.  The  "Commission  of 
Temporal  Affairs"  was  very  important  and  had  an 
unusually  large  amount  of  business  to  transact. 
Financial  questions,  which  had  given  rise  to  these 
assemblies,  continued  to  claim  their  attention  until 
the  time  of  the  Revolution.  Beginning  with  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  payment  of  the  rentes  of 
the  Hotel  de  Ville  was  an  item  of  slight  importance 
as  compared  with  the  sums  which  the  Clergy  were 
compelled  to  vote  the  king  under  the  name  of 
do7is  gratuits,  or  free  gifts.  It  had  been  established 
during  the  Middle  Ages  that  the  Church  should 
contribute  not  only  to  the  expenses  of  the  Crusades, 
but  also  towards  tlie  defence  of  the  kingdom,  a  tra- 
dition continued  to  modern  times.  The  religious 
wars  of  the  sixteenth  century,  later  the  siege  of  La 
Rochelle  (1628)  under  Richelieu,  and  to  a  still 
greater  extent  the  political  wars  waged  by  Henry  IV, 
Louis  XIII,  Louis  XIV,  Louis  XV,  and  Louis  XVI 
occasioned  the  levj-ing  of  enormous  subsidies  on  the 
Clergy.  The  following  example  may  serve  as  an 
illustration-,  the  Clergy,  who  had  voted  sixteen 
million  livres  ($3,200,000)  in  1779,  gave  thirty  mil- 
lions more  (86,000,000)  in  1780  for  the  expenses  of 
the  French  Government  in  tlie  war  of  the  American 
Revolution,  to  which  they  added  in  1782  sixteen 
millions  and  in  1785  eighteen  millions.  The  Church 
was  then  to  the  State  what,  under  similar  circum- 
stances, the  Bank  of  France  is  to-day.  The  French 
kings  more  than  once  expressed  their  gratitude  to 
this  body  for  the  services  it  had  rendered  both  mon- 
archy and  fatherland  in  the  prompt  and  generous 
payment  of  large  subsidies  at  critical  moments  when, 
as  now,  money  was  the  sinews  of  war.     It  has  boon 


calculated  from  official  documents  that  during  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  (1715-89)  the  Clergy  paid 
in,  either  for  the  rentes  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville  or 
as  "free  gifts, "over  380  million  livres  ($76,000,000). 
We  may  well  ask  ourselves  if,  with  all  their  preroga- 
tives, they  did  not  contribute  towards  the  public 
expenses  as  much  as  the  rest  of  the  nation.  In  1789, 
when  accepting,  with  all  the  cahiers  or  proposi- 
tions emanating  from  the  Clergy,  the  law  imposing 
on  the  Church  of  France  an  equal  share  of  the  public 
expense,  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Monseigneur  de 
Juign6,  was  able  to  say  that  the  Church  already  con- 
tributed as  much  as  the  other  orders  (nobility,  bour- 
geoisie, and  people);  its  burdens  wovild  not  be  in- 
creased by  the  new  law  that  imposed  upon  all  an  equal 
share  in  contributing  to  the  expenses  of  the  State. 

The  Assemblies  of  the  Clergy  conducted  their 
temporal  administration  in  a  dignified  and  imposing 
manner,  and  with  much  perfection  of  detail.  They 
appointed  for  ten  years  a  receiver-general  {Rece- 
veur-Giniral) ,  in  reality  a  minister  of  finance.  The 
office  carried  with  it  a  generous  salary,  and  for  elec- 
tion to  it  a  two-thirds  majority  was  required.  He 
was  bound  to  furnish  security  at  his  residence  in 
Paris  and  render  a  detailed  account  of  his  manage- 
ment to  the  assembled  Clergy.  In  each  diocese  there 
was  a  board  of  elected  delegates  presided  over  by 
the  bishop,  whose  duty  it  was  to  apportion  the 
assessments  among  the  beneficed  ecclesiastics.  This 
Bureau  diocesain  de  dicimes  (Diocesan  Board  of 
Tithes)  was  authorized  to  settle  ordinary  disputes. 
Over  it  were  superior  boards  located  at  Paris,  Lyons, 
Rouen,  Tours, Toulouse,  Bordeau.x,  Aix,  and  Bourges, 
courts  of  appeal,  whose  decisions  were  final  in  all 
disputes  concerning  the  contributions  of  the  dioceses 
within   their  jurisdiction. 

In  this  way  the  Clergy  had  an  administration  of 
their  own,  independent  of  the  State,  a  very  impor- 
tant privilege  under  the  old  regime.  It  may  be 
added  that  they  knew  how  to  merit  such  a  favour. 
In  the  whole  nation  their  credit  stood  highest;  the 
arcliives  have  preserved  for  us  many  thousands  of 
rental  contracts  made  in  the  utmost  confidence  by 
private  individuals  with  the  Church.  Certain  details 
of  the  ecclesiastical  financial  system  are  even  yet 
worthy  of  study.  It  has  been  said  that  M.  de  Villdle 
introduced  into  France  the  conversion  of  annuities  and 
the  consequent  reduction  of  interest;  as  a  matter  of 
fact  this  was  practised  by  the  Clergy  from  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century  when  they  were  forced  to 
negotiate  loans  in  order  to  furnish  the  sums  demanded 
by  Louis  XIV.  Necker,  a  competent  judge,  com- 
mended the  Clergy  for  the  care  they  took  in  liquidat- 
ing these  debts.  He  also  praised  the  clerical  system 
of  the  distribution  of  taxes,  according  to  which  the 
beneficed  ecclesiastics  throughout  the  kingdom  were 
divided  into  eight  dt  parte ments,  or  classes,  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  apportionment  of  taxes  in  ascending 
ratio,  according  to  the  resources  of  each.  This 
shows  that  even  under  the  old  regime  the  Clergy  had 
placed  on  a  practical  working  basis,  in  their  own 
system  of  revenues,  the  impdt  progressif  or  system 
of  graduated  as.sessment  of  income.  It  may  he  said 
that  the  system  of  administering  the  ecclesiastical 
temporalities  as  developed  by  the  Assemblies  of  the 
Clergy  of  France  was  remarkably  successful.  Pos- 
sibly, they  succeeded  only  too  well  in  maintaining 
the  financial  immunities  granted  the  Church.  These 
tlicy  g.'ive  up  on  the  verge  of  the  Revolution,  when 
tlicy  accepted  the  principle  tliat  the  public  burden 
sho\ild  be  equally  divided  among  all  classes  of  the 
nation,  a  step  they  had  delayed  too  long.  Public 
opinion  had  already  condemned  in  an  irresistible 
manner  all  privileges  whatsoever.  The  Assemblies 
of  I  lie  ClcTgy  did  not  confine  their  attention  to 
tcinporid  nuitters.  Doctrinal  questions  and  spiritual 
matters  held  an  important  place  among  the  subjects 


ASSEMBLIES 


797 


ASSEMBLIES 


discussed  in  them.  Indeed,  the  Colloquy  of  Poissy, 
the  origiiiul  genn  of  the  Assemblies,  wjus  expressly 
convenoil  for  the  discussion  of  Protestantism,  and 
in  opposition  to  schism  and  heresy.  Practically 
every  Assembly,  from  the  first  in  l.'jtiO  to  the  last  in 
1788,  dealt  with  the  problem  of  Protestantism;  it 
may  be  atlded  that  their  attitude  was  scarcely 
favourable  to  liberty  of  conscience.  In  its  turn, 
Jan.senism  received  much  attention  from  these 
Asseml)lies,  which  always  supported  with  great 
loyalty  the  papal  Bulls  that  condemned  this  here.sy. 
Indeed,  some  of  the  severest  measures  against  Jan- 
senism came  from  this  quarter.  The  eighteenth 
century,  with  its  philosophers  and  encyclopanlists, 
brought  the  A.ssemblies  of  the  Clergy  aiixictii's  of 
a  new  and  alarming  character.  They  did  tlicir  l)ost 
to  withstand  the  progress  of  infidelity,  stirred  up 
and  encouraged  Christian  apologists,  and  urgcil  the 
king  to  protect  the  Church  and  defend  the  faith  of 
the  French  |)eople.  They  were  less  successful  in 
this  task  than  in  their  previous  undertakings.  The 
pliil()so|)hical  and  political  movement  wliich  the 
Clergy  had  found  themselves  powerless  to  block, 
wiis  to  involve  even  them  in  tlie  catastrophe  that 
demolished  the  old  regime. 

Among  the  doctrinal  questions  brought  before  the 
Assemblies  of  the  Clergy  particular  note  should  be 
taken  of  the  Four  Articles  voted  on  by  the  famous 
Assembly  of  1G82.  We  know  that  this  A.ssembly 
was  conveneil  to  consider  the  Ri'-gnle,  a  term  de- 
noting the  right  assumed  by  the  I*"rench  kings  during 
the  vacancy  of  a  see  to  appropriate  its  revcmies  and 
make  appointments  to  benefices.  For  centuries, 
even  back  in  the  Middle  Ages,  such  seizure  of  eccle- 
siastical rights  on  the  part  of  the  State  had  given 
rise  to  iniunnerable  abuses  and  depredations.  The 
kings  of  France  had  often  affirmed  that  the  right  of 
Hi  gale  belonged  to  them  in  virtue  of  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Crown  over  all  sees,  even  those  previously 
exempt  from  the  as.sertion  of  this  right.  Under 
Louis  XIV,  these  claims  were  vigorously  enforced. 
Two  prelates.  Pavilion,  Bishop  of  Alet,  and  Caulet, 
Bishop  of  Pamiers,  made  a  lively  resistance  to  the 
royal  pretensions.  The  pope  sustained  them  with 
all  his  authority.  Thereupon  the  king  convoked 
the  famous  Assembly  of  1682,  presided  over  by 
Ilarlay  de  Champvallon,  and  Le  Tellier,  Archbishops, 
respectively,  of  Paris  and  of  Reims.  Bossuet, 
though  firm  in  his  allegiance  to  the  Holy  See,  was 
convinced  of  the  danger  menacing  the  Church,  and 
on  the  9th  of  November,  1681 ,  preached  in  the  church 
of  the  Grands  Augustins  at  Paris  his  celebrated  ser- 
mon "On  the  Unity  of  the  Church".  This  immortal 
masterpiece  of  eloquence  was  so  fortunate  as  to  secure 
the  approbation  of  both  pope  and  king.  Contrary 
to  its  custom,  the  Assembly  ordered  the  discourse  to 
be  printed.  Thereupon,  the  question  of  the  /?<- 
gale  was  quickly  decided  according  to  the  royal 
wish.  A  far  graver  question,  however,  was  laid 
before  the  Assembly  when  Louis  XIV  asked  them 
to  pronounce  upon  the  authority  of  the  pope.  Bos- 
suet, who  felt  the  peril  lurking  in  such  discussions, 
tried  to  temporize  and  requested  that,  before  pro- 
ceeding furtlior,  Christian  tradition  on  this  point  be 
carefully  studied.  This  move  proving  unsuccessful, 
the  Bishop  of  Meaux  stood  out  against  the  (Cialliean) 
propositions  presented  in  the  name  of  the  commission 
by  Choiseul-Praslin,  Bishop  of  Tournai.  Thereupon 
the  propositions  were  turned  over  to  Bos.suet  him.self; 
he  succoo(l(\d  in  eliminating  from  them  the  irritating 
question  of  appeals  to  a  future  council,  a  proposition 
several  time;)  condemned  by  the  Holy  See.  It  was 
then  that  the  Assembly  voted  (19  March,  1682)  the 
famous  "Four  Articles"  that  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

1.  The  pope  has  no  right,  direct  or  indirect,  over 
the  temporal  power  of  kings. 


2.  The  pope  is  inferior  to  the  General  Council, 
and  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance  in  its 
fourth  and  fifth  .sessions  are  still  binding. 

'.i.  The  exercise  of  pontifical  authority  should  bo 
regulated  by  the  ecclcsi:istical  canons. 

4.  Dogmatic  decisions  of  the  pope  are  not  irrev- 
ocable until  they  have  been  confirmed  by  the  judg- 
ment of  the  whole  Church. 

Bossuet,  who  was  drawn  into  the  discussion  in 
spite  of  hinwelf,  and  who  in  all  questions  inclined 
towards  the  least  arbitrary  solution,  wrote  his 
Dejinsio  Dcclamtionin  in  justification  of  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Assembly.  It  was  not  published, 
however,  until  after  his  death.  The  king  ordered 
tlio  "Four  Articles"  to  be  promulgated  from  all  the 
pulpits  of  France.  Iimocent  XI  (107()-89),  not- 
witiistanding  his  dissatisfaction,  hesitated  to  pass 
censure  on  the  publication  of  the  "  Four  Articles  ". 
He  contented  him.self  with  expressing  his  disapproval 
of  the  decision  mailo  by  the  Assembly  on  the  question 
of  the  Ri'gatc,  and  refused  the  papal  Bulls  to  those 
members  of  the  A.ssembly  who  liad  been  selected  by 
the  king  for  vacant  sees.  To  lend  unity  to  the  action 
of  the  Assemblies,  and  to  preserve  their  influence 
during  the  long  intervals  between  these  meetings, 
two  ecclesiastics  were  elected  who  were  thenceforth, 
as  it  were,  the  executive  power  of  the  Church  of 
France.  They  were  known  as  Agents-General 
(Agents-Gmi'raux)  and  were  verj'  important  per- 
sonages under  the  old  regime.  Although  chosen 
from  among  the  Clergy  of  the  second  order,  i.  e.  from 
among  the  priests,  they  were  always  men  of  good 
birth,  distinguished  bearing,  and  quite  familiar  with 
the  ways  of  the  world  and  the  court.  They  had 
charge  of  the  accoimts  of  all  receivers,  protected 
jealously  all  rights  of  the  Church,  drew  attention 
to  whatever  was  prejudicial  to  her  prerogatives  or 
discipline,  and  in  the  parliament  represented  the 
ecclesiastical  authority  and  interest  in  all  cases  to 
which  the  Church  was  a  party.  They  enjoyed  the 
privilege  of  committimux ,  and  were  specially  au- 
thorized to  enter  the  king's  council  and  speak 
before  it  on  ecclesiastical  matters.  On  the  occasion 
of  each  Assembly  these  agents  rendered  an  account 
of  their  administration  in  reports,  se\eral  folio  vol- 
umes of  which  ha\c  been  pulilished  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century  under  the  title  of: 
Rapports  d'agcncc.  The  usual  reward  for  their 
services  was  the  episcopate.  Their  duties  prepared 
them  admirably  to  understand  public  affairs. 
Monseigneur  de  Cic6,  Monseigneur  de  La  Luzerne,  the 
Abb(5  de  Montesquiou,  and  Talleyrand,  all  of  wiiom 

Clayed  important   roles  in    the  Constituent   A.ssem- 
ly,  had  been  in  their  time  Ageiits-(!eneral  of   the 
Clergy. 

The  reader  may  now  judge  of  the  importance  at- 
taching to  the  Assemblies  of  the  Clergj'  under 
the  old  regime.  The  mere  fact  that  they  could  meet 
the  king,  converse  with  him  on  questions  of  finance, 
religion,  administration,  even  of  politics,  and,  when 
necessary,  lay  complaints  before  him,  was  in  those 
days  a  very  great  pri\ilege.  At  a  time  when  the 
public  were  without  a  voice,  the  Nobility  forbidden 
to  a.sseml)le  (enjoying,  indeed,  special  favours,  but 
without  rights;  forming  no  distinct  corjxs,  and  with 
no  ollicial  organ  of  their  interests!,  the  Clergj-  were 
represented,  had  a  voice  in  affairs,  could  defend 
themselves,  attack  their  opponents,  offer  remonstran- 
ces. It  was  a  uni(|ue  position,  and  added  still  more 
to  the  prestige  already  enjoyed  liy  the  first  order  of 
the  nation.  It  was  truly  extraordinary  that  they 
shoukl  have  so  jealously  preserved  the  right  of  voting 
on  their  taxation,  a  right  which  for  three  centuries 
the  people  had  allowed  to  lapse.  It  wsis  an  evidence 
of  grciit  power  when  the  Clergy  could  force  an  alwo- 
lute  monarchy  to  discuss  with  them  grave  questions 
of  finance,  could  vote  freely  on  their  own  contribu- 


ASSER 


798 


ASSES 


fions  and  set  forth  their  demands,  could  seize  the 
occasion  of  their  "free  gifts"  to  draw  to  all  manner 
of  religious  interests  tlie  royal  attention  and  good 
will — in  a  word,  could  practise  the  policy  of  do  ut 
des  (I  give  that  you  may  give),  efficacious  even 
under  a  Louis  XIV.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in 
the  suspension  of  the  meetings  of  the  States-General, 
of  councils  national  or  provincial,  these  Assemblies 
enabled  the  Clergy  to  exercise  a  correctional  sur- 
veillance over  all  the  interests  of  the  Church.  As 
for  the  temporalities,  the  Assemblies  ensured  to  the 
Clergy  an  autonomous  financial  administration  by 
which  they  might  better  defend  themselves  against 
the  menace  of  the  taille,  or  land  tax,  escape  the 
often  odious  interference  of  the  royal  treasury,  re- 
deem the  new  assessments  known  as  the  capitation 
(poll-tax)  of  the  tenth,  the  fiftieth,  and  twentieth — 
all  which  favours  could  be  obtained  only  in  considera- 
tion of  contributions,  of  prompt  authoritative  de- 
cisions. We  have,  indeed,  already  remarked  that 
these  Assemblies  succeeded  all  too  well  in  retaining 
the  ecclesiastical  exemptions  until  1789,  just  before 
the  States-General  were  again  convoked,  when,  yield- 
ing to  the  pressure  of  public  opinion,  and  in  their  own 
interest,  the  Clergy  were  induced  to  relinquish  them. 
In  the  eyes  of  posterity  the  doctrinal  role  of  the 
Assemblies  of  the  Clergy  was  more  striking  than 
their  administration  of  the  ecclesiastical  temporali- 
ties. If  they  were  unable  to  weather  the  storm  that 
laid  low  all  institutions  of  the  old  regime,  it  was  due 
in  great  part  to  the  fact  that  their  share  in  the  inter- 
ests and  life  of  the  people  was  inconsiderable.  By 
defending  ecclesiastical  privilege  with  so  much  heat 
and  constancy  these  Assemblies  appeared  to  be 
occupied  almost  solely  with  clerical  interests.  More- 
over, the  method  of  their  recruitment,  almost  exclu- 
sively from  the  higher  Clergy,  begot  a  temper  of  in- 
difference towards  their  fate  on  the  part  of  the 
curis,  or  parish  priests,  who  were  soon  called  to 
exercise  a  decisive  influence  on  the  course  of  the 
States-General.  Had  the  Assemblies  been  less 
attached  to  the  prerogatives  of  absolute  power, 
even  at  a  time  when  ideas  of  liberty  were  gaining  a 
hold  on  public  opinion  in  France,  they  might  have 
become  what  they  were  qualified  for  by  their  organ- 
ization and  their  operation — a  standing  invitation 
to  a  parliamentary  form  of  government  and  a  prepa- 
ration for  the  same.  The  tardy  stand  taken  by  the 
Assembly  of  1788,  with  its  bold  plea  to  the  King  for 
the  rights  of  the  people  and  for  the  convocation  of 
the  States-General,  came  a  trifle  too  late;  the  effect 
produced  was  lost  sight  of  in  the  general  ferment. 
The  vote  by  which  the  national  parliament  was  as- 
sured of  equal  taxation  for  all  deprived  these  Assem- 
blies of  their  raison  d'etre;  it  was  precisely  for  the 
regulation  of  special  contributions  from  the  Clergy 
that  they  were  established  and  had  been  kept  up. 
Henceforth,  like  the  jiarlemcnts  and  other  bodies 
apparently  detached  from,  or  loosely  connected  with, 
the  life  of  the  nation,  they  were  fated  to  be  merged 
in  its  new  and  larger  unity.  Despite  the  manner  of 
tlieir  ending,  shared  by  so  many  other  institutions 
of  tlie  old  regime,  the  Assemblies  had  been  one  of  the 
ornaments — it  might  be  said,  one  of  the  glories — of 
the  Church  of  France.  During  centuries  of  political 
servitude  they  offered  the  example  of  a  free  parlia- 
ment in  regular  operation;  their  financial  adminis- 
tration was  successful  and  wius  conducted  with 
much  dignity;  in  time  of  war  they  rendered  the  State 
notable  services,  and  some  of  their  meetings  will  be 
always  remembered  for  the  important:  religious  and 
political  discussions  they  provoked.  For  these 
reasons  the  A.ssemblies  fill  a  brilliant  page  in  the 
annals  of  the  French  Clergy,  and  will  merit  at  all 
times  the  attention  of  the  historian. 

ManutrripU  Kn<l  Arrhivri  naticnalrt,  Sh-ie  08.  in  the  Biblio- 
thtquc  NatioDale,  Paria.     The  records  of  the  National  Archiven 


contain  the  authentic  proceedings  (Proc^e-verbaux)  of  the  As- 
semblies. Collection  dea  proceg-verbaux  des  asaembUea  du  clerge 
de  France,  depute  1560.  juagu'a  present  (1767-78,  9  vols.). 
The  later  .\ssemblies  had  each  a  Procfes-verbal  printed  in  one 
folio  volume.  Recueil  dea  actea  el  menunrea  du  cterqe  de  France 
(1771).  I  and  VIII;  Louis  Serbat,  Lea  aaaembliea  du  clergt 
de  France  (Paris,  190G)  1501-1615;  Maury,  in  Rnue  dea  deux 
Murulea  (1878);  Bqurlon,  in  Revue  du  clerge  (1905-06); 
SiCARD,  L'Ancien  clerge  de  France  (Paris,  1893-1903). 

J.   SiCARD. 

Asser,  John  (orAssERius  Menevensis),  a  learned 
monk  of  St.  David's,  Menevia,  b.  in  Pembrokeshire; 
d.  probably,  910.  He  was  educated  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Da\'id's  by  his  kinsman,  Archbishop  Asserius. 
His  repute  for  learning  led  King  Alfred  to  invite 
him  to  liis  court  (about  885).  Asser  required  six 
months  for  consideration.  Illness  at  Winchester 
led  to  his  remaining  there  for  a  year  and  a  half. 
Finally,  on  his  recovery,  as  Alfred  still  urged  his 
request,  Asser  agreed  to  spend  half  of  each  year  with 
liim.  His  first  visit  lasted  eight  months,  and  Alfred 
gave  him  many  presents  on  parting,  including  the 
monasteries  of  Amesbury  and  Banwell.  Later, 
Asser  received  a  grant  of  Exeter,  and  was  made 
Bishop  of  Sherborne,  before  900.  Asser  wrote  a  life 
of  Alfred  (Annales  rer.  gest.  Alfredi  Magui)  in  893. 
The  work  in  question  consists  of  a  chronicle  of  Eng- 
lish history  from  849  to  887,  and  a  pcrson.al  and 
original  narrative  of  Alfred's  career  down  to  the 
latter  date.  The  Welsh  birth  of  the  author  is  indi- 
cated by  his  use  of  Celtic  names,  and  tlie  English 
are  constantly  styled  Saxons.  The  authentic  work 
of  Asser  is  found  only  in  the  edition  of  Francis  Wi.se 
(1722),  printed  from  a  tenth-century  Cottonian  MS. 
(Otho  A,  XII)  which  was  burned  in  1731.  The 
burning  of  the  cakes,  references  to  St.  Neot,  and  to 
Alfred's  founding  the  University  of  Oxford  are  not 
in  Asser's  work,  nor  does  Florence  of  Worcester 
allude  to  them,  although  he  drew  freely  on  that 
work,  without,  however,  any  mention  of  Asser's 
name.  Archbishop  Parker's  edition  of  Asser's 
"Annales"  presents  the  "Life"  with  many  inter- 
polations. A  new  edition  is  announced  by  W.  H. 
Stevenson.  There  are  three  English  translations 
(Giles,  1848;  J.  Stevenson,  1854;  E.  Conybeare,  1900. 
See  Gross,  "Sources",  etc.,  180).  The  authenticity 
of  Asser's  book  has  been  called  into  question.  Pauli 
discusses  the  subject  very  tlioroughly  in  the  intro- 
duction to  his  "King  Alfred"  (Berlin,  1851).  See 
T.  D.  Hardy,  in  the  introduction  to  Petrie  (London, 
1848).  John  J.  \'  Becket. 

Asses,  Feast  of. — The  celebration  of  the  "  Festura 
Asinorum"  in  medieval  and  ecclesiastical  circles  was 
a  pastime  in  which  all,  from  the  dignitaries  in  the 
upper  stalls  of  the  sanctuary  to  the  humblest  among 
the  esclafjardi,  participated.  The  feast  dates  from 
the  eleventh  century,  though  the  source  which 
suggested  it  is  much  older.  This  source  was  the 
pseudo-Augustinian  "Sermo  contra  juda>os,  paganos, 
et  Arianos  de  Symbolo"  (P.  L.,  XLII,  1117),  written 
proljably  in  the  sixtli  century,  but  ascribed  through- 
out the  Middle  ."Vges  to  St.  Augustine  (E.  K.  Cham- 
bers, "The  Medieval  Stage",  II,  52).  For  the  re- 
print of  an  elevcntli-contury  manuscript  which  gives 
the  sermon  in  dramatized  form,  see  iOd<5lost:ind  du 
M^ril,  "Les  Origines  latines  du  tli6;"itre  moderne  ", 
179-187;  and  for  a  complete  history  of  this  manu- 
script, and  the  theatre  that  grew  out  of  it,  "Les 
prophi^tes  du  Clirist",  by  Marius  Sepet  (Paris,  1878). 
riie  original  sermon  is  itself  a  highly  dramatic  piece. 
Tlie  preacher  impersonates  the  Hebrew  prophets 
whose  Messianic  utterances  he  works  into  an  argu- 
ment establishing  the  Divinity  of  Clirist.  Having 
confuted  the  Jews  out  of  the  moutlis  of  their  own 
teachers,  the  orator  addresses  himself  to  the  un- 
be]ic\iiig  Gentiles — "Ecce,  convertimur  ad  gentes." 
The  tcstiiiidiiy  of  Virgil,  Nabuchodonosor,  and  the 
Erythra-an    Sibyl    is   eloquently   set    forth   and    in- 


ASSESSOR 


r99 


ASSESSORS 


ter[>rpti'd  in  favour  of  the  general  thesis.  As  early 
as  the  eleventh  century  this  sermon  had  taken  tlie 
form  of  a  metrical  dramatic  dialogue,  the  stage- 
arrangement  adhering  closely  to  the  original.  Addi- 
tions and  adaptations  wore  gradually  introduced. 
A  Kouen  iiiuiui.script  of  ilic  thirteenth  century  out- 
lined in  l)ui-:iiige  (('ilo.'is:irium,  s.  v.  Festum)  ex- 
hibit.s  twenty-eight  pr(>i)hct.s  as  taking  part  in  the 
play.  After  Terce,  the  rubric  directs,  "let  the  pro- 
cession move  to  the  church,  in  the  centre  of  which 
let  there  be  a  furnace  .  .  .  and  an  idol  for  the 
brethren  to  refuse  to  worship."  The  procession  filed 
into  the  choir.  On  the  one  side  were  seated  Moses, 
Amos,  Isaias,  Aaron  .  .  .  Balaam  and  his  Ass  .  .  . 
Zachary  and  Klizal)cth,  John  tlie  Baptist  and  Simeon. 
The  three  Gentile  prophets  sat  opposite.  Tlie  pro- 
ceedings were  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  .St.  Au- 
gustine, wliom  the  precentor  represented.  Begin- 
ning with  Moses,  the  presiding  dignitary  called  on 
each  of  the  prophets,  who  successively  testified  to 
the  birth  of  the  Messiah.  When  the  Sibyl  had  re- 
cited her  acrostic  lines  on  the  Signs  of  Judgment 
(Du  M^ril,  186),  all  the  prophets  sang  in  unison  a 
hymn  of  praise  to  the  long-sought  Saviour.  Mass 
immediately  followed.  In  all  this  the  part  that 
pleased  the  congregation  was  the  role  of  Balaam 
and  the  Ass;  hence  the  popular  designation  of  the 
"Processus  Proplietarum"  as  "the  Feast  of  the 
Ass ".  The  part  of  Balaam  was  soon  dissociated 
from  its  surroundings  an<l  expanded  into  an  inde- 
pendent drama.  The  Rouen  rubrics  direct  that 
two  messengers  be  sent  by  King  Balaak  to  bring 
forth  the  prophet.  Bahuim  advances  riding  on  a 
gorgeously  caparisoned  ass  (a  wooden,  or  hobby,  ass, 
for  the  rubric  immediately  bids  somebody  to  hide 
beneath  the  trappings — not  an  enviable  position 
when  the  further  direction  to  the  rider  was  carried 
out — "and  let  him  goad  the  ass  with  his  spurs"). 
From  the  Chester  pageant  it  is  clear  that  the  prophet 
rode  on  a  wooden  animal,  since  the  rubric  supposes 
that  the  speaker  for  the  beast  is  "in  asind"  (Thos. 
Wright,  "The  Chester  Plays,"  I,  v).  Then  follows 
the  scene  in  which  the  ass  meets  the  angered  angel 
and  protests  at  length  against  the  cruelty  of  the 
rider.  Once  detached  from  the  parent  stem,  the 
"Festum  .\sinorum"  branched  in  various  directions. 
In  the  Beauvais  thirteenth-century  document,  quoted 
by  the  editors  of  Ducange,  the  "Feast  of  As.ses"  is 
already  an  independent  Trope  with  the  date  and 
purpo.se  of  its  celebration  changed.  At  Beauvais 
the  Ass  may  have  continued  his  minor  role  of  en- 
livening the  long  procession  of  Prophets.  On  the 
fourteenth  of  Januarj',  however,  he  discharged  an  im- 
portant function  in  that  city's  festivities.  On  the 
feast  of  the  Flight  into  Egj-pt  the  most  lieautiful  girl  in 
the  city,  with  a  pretty  cliiid  in  her  arms,  was  placed 
on  a  richly  draped  a.ss,  and  conducted  with  religious 
gravity  to  .St.  .Stephen's  Church.  The  Ass  (possibly 
a  wooden  figure)  was  stationed  at  the  right  of  the 
altar,  and  the  Mass  was  begun.  After  the  Introit 
a  Latin  Prose  was  sung.  The  first  stanza  and  its 
French  refrain  may  ser\'e  as  a  specimen  of  the  nine 
that  follow: — 

Orientis  partibus 

Adventavit  Asinus 

Pulcher  et  fortissimus 

Sarcinis  aptissimus. 

Ilez.  Sire  Asnes,  car  chantez, 
Bello  lK)uche  rechignez, 
Vnus  aurez  du  foin  assez 
Et  dp  I'avoine  a  plantez. 

— "  From  the  Eastern  lands  the  Ass  is  come, 
beautiful  and  very  brave,  well  fitted  to  bear  bur- 
dens. I'd!  Sir  Ass,  and  sing.  Open  your  pretty 
mouth.  Hay  will  be  yours  in  plenty,  and  oats  in 
abundance." 


Mass  was  continued,  and  at  its  end,  apparently 
without  awakening  tlie  least  consciousness  of  its 
impropriety,  the  following  direction  was  observed: 
"In  fine  Missae  sacerdos,  versus  ad  populuni,  vice 
'Ite,  .Missa  Est",  ter  hinhannabit:  populus  vero,  vice 
'Deo  Gratias',  ter  respondebit,  'Hinliam,  hinham, 
hinham.'  " — "  .\t  the  end  of  Mass,  the  priest,  having 
turned  to  the  people,  in  lieu  of  saying  the  'I'e,  Missa 
est',  will  bray  thrice;  the  people  instead  of  replying 
'Deo  Gratias'  say,  'Hinham,  hinham,  hinham. '^" — 
This  is  the  .sole  instance  of  a  service  of  this  nature 
in  connection  with  the  Feiust  of  the  .^ss.  The  Festum 
Asinorum  gradually  lost  its  identity,  and  became 
incorporated  in  tlie  ceremonies  of  the  Deriosuil  or 
united  in  the  general  merry-making  on  tlie  Feast 
of  Fools.  The  "Processus  Proplietarum",  whence 
it  drew  its  origin,  survives  in  the  Corpus  Christi 
and  Whitsun  Cycles,  that  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
modern  English  drama. 

T.  J.  Crowley. 

Assessor  of  the  Holy  Office,  an  official  of  the 
Congri'gatiiin  of  the  liii|uisition.  The  Holy  Office 
is  better  known  as  the  Congregation  of  the  Univer- 
sal Inquisition.  Its  functions  at  present  are  to  watch 
over  matters  connected  with  faith  and  to  examine 
into  the  suspected  tenets  of  persons  or  books.  The 
Ass&ssor  holds  the  office  next  in  dignity  after  the 
Cardinals  of  the  Congregation.  He  is  a  secular  prel- 
ate or  an  honorary  chamberlain  of  the  Pope.  It 
is  his  duty  to  make  the  relation  or  report  of  the 
Holy  Office  in  a  given  case.  When  the  con.sultors 
of    the   Congregation    alone   assemble,  the   Assessor 

E resides  over  them  and  afterwards  lays  their  votes 
efore  the  Cardinal  Inquisitors.  When  the  Congre- 
gation has  reached  a  decision,  the  A.s.ses.sor  commu- 
nicates the  result  to  the  Pope  on  the  same  evening, 
in  case  the  latter  hiis  not  presided  over  the  as.sembly. 
The  Asse.ssor  must  Ije  present  at  all  four  meetings 
of  this  Congregation.  On  Saturday  he  examines 
into  the  matters  laid  before  the  lloly  Ofiice  and 
decides,  together  with  four  other  officials,  whether 
a  vote  of  the  consultors  lie  necessary  in  the  case, 
or  whether  tlie  Cardinals  of  the  Congregation  should 
pass  upon  the  matter  at  once.  On  Monday,- he 
calls  the  consultors  into  council.  He  is  present  on 
Wednesday  at  the  secret  meeting  of  the  Cardinals 
and  on  Thursday  at  the  solemn  session  which  some- 
times takes  place  under  (he  presidency  of  the  Pope. 
The  Assessor  has  also  charge  of  the  Secretariate  and 
sees  that  current  business  is  expedited.  The  office 
of  assessor  is  so  imiiortant  that  it  is  included  among 
the  cardinalitial  appointments;  that  is,  the  only  pro- 
motion considered  proper  for  an  assessor  is  to  raise 
him  to  the  rank  of  cardinal. 

Haart.  The  Roman  Cnurt  (New  York.  1895):  Homphhet 
Vrhr,  rl  Orbit  (London,  1899),  409,  410;  Wkrnz,  Jut  Decret. 
II  (Itoine,  1899). 

WiLu.vM  H.  W.  Fann-ino. 

Assessors,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  are  learned  persons 
whose  function  is  to  counsel  a  judge  with  whom 
they  are  associated  in  the  trial  of  causes.  They  are 
called  assessors  because  they  sit  Iseside  (I.at.  assidere) 
the  judge.  Assessors  are  required  to  examine  docu- 
ments, consult  precedents,  and  in  general  explore 
the  laws  for  points  bearing  on  the  cause  at  i.ssue. 
A  judge  who  is  either  overburdened  with  business 
or  conscious  of  his  inexperience  in  law  cases  may 
voluntarily  associate  assessors  with  himself,  or  they 
may  he  assigned  to  him  by  superior  authority.  As- 
sessors are  exfx;cted  to  lie  men  beyond  suspicion  of 
partiality,  whose  learning  is  conceded.  In  case  of 
an  appeal  against  the  judge's  actions  or  nilings, 
they  are  to  !«  unexceptionable  witnesses.  As  as- 
sessors are  advisers  of  the  judge,  and  not  judges 
themselves,  they  are  not  endowe<l  with  any  juris- 
diction. Neither  do  they  bear  a  public  character, 
but  are  present  at  triab  in  a  private  capacity.     They 


Assicns 


800 


ASSIMILATION 


may,  however,  take  part  in  the  examination  of  the 
accused  or  of  w-itnesses.  Owing  to  their  non-judicial 
character,  laymen  may  be  employed  as  Assessors  in 
spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  matters,  though  by  the 
canons  of  the  Church  they  would  be  incompetent 
as  judges,  even  if  a  cleric  were  joined  with  them  in 
a  judicial  capacity.  As  an  Assessor  is  commonly 
looked  upon  as  restraining  in  some  manner  the  dig- 
nity, if  not  the  jurisdiction,  of  the  judge,  the  Sacred 
Congregations  have  declared  that  a  cathedral  chajj- 
ter  cannot  impose  an  assessor  on  the  Vicar-Capitular 
sede  vacanle. 

Wernz,  Jua  Deer.,  II  (Rome,  1899);  De  Angelis,  Prcel. 
Jut.  Can.,  torn.  ult.  (Paris,  1884);  Reiffenstxjel,  Jus  Can., 
II,  VI  (Paris,  1865). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Assicus,  Saint,  Bishop  and  Patron  of  Elphin,  in 
Ireland,  one  of  St.  Patrick's  converts,  and  his  worker 
in  iron.  In  the  "Tripartite  Life  of  St.  Patrick" 
(ed.  Whitley  Stokes)  we  read:  "Bishop  St.  Assic  was 
Patrick's  coppersmith,  and  made  altars  and  square 
bookcases.  Besides,  he  made  our  saint's  patens  in 
honour  of  Bishop  Patrick,  and  of  them  I  have  seen 
three  square  patens,  that  is,  a  paten  in  the  Church  of 
Patrick  in  Armagh,  and  another  in  the  Church  of 
Elphin,  and  a  third  in  the  great-church  of  Donough- 
patrick  (at  Carns  near  Tulsk)."  St.  Assicus  was  a 
most  expert  metal  worker,  and  was  also  reno^vned  as 
a  beU-founder.  Of  his  last  days  the  foUomng 
graphic  description  is  given  by  Archbishop  Healy: 
"Assicus  himself  in  shame  because  of  a  lie  told  either 
by  him,  or,  as  others  say,  of  him,  fled  into  Donegal, 
and  for  seven  years  abode  in  the  island  of  Rathlin 
O'Birne.  Then  his  monks  sought  him  out,  and  after 
much  labour  found  him  in  the  mountain  glens,  and 
tried  to  bring  him  home  to  his  own  monastery  at 
Elphin.  But  he  fell  sick  by  the  way,  and  died  with 
them  in  the  wilderness.  So  they  buried  the  venerable 
old  man  in  the  churchyard  of  Rath  Cunga,  now 
Racoon,  in  the  Barony  of  Tirhugh,  County  Donegal. 
The  old  churchyard  is  there  still,  though  now  dis- 
used, on  the  summit  of  a  round  hillock  close  to  the 
left  of  the  road  from  Ballyshannon  to  Donegal,  about 
a  mile  to  the  south  of  the  village  of  Ballintra.  We 
sought  in  vain  for  any  trace  of  an  inscribed  stone 
in  the  old  churchyard.  He  fled  from  men  during 
hfe,  and,  like  Moses,  his  grave  is  hidden  from  them 
in  death."  His  feast  is  celebrated  27  April,  as  is 
recorded  in  the  "  Martyrologj'  of  Tallaght"  under 
that  date.  W.  H.  Gratt.vn  Flood. 

Assldeans  (Hebr.,  D'TDn,  chasidim,  saints;  Gr., 
'AiriSorot),  men  endowed  with  grace  (Ps.,  xxxix,  5; 
cxlviii,  14).  They  were  the  maintainers  of  the 
Mosaic  Law  against  the  invasion  of  Greek  customs. 
When  the  Machabees  struggled  against  Antiochus  IV 
(Epiphanes),  the  Assideans  naturally  joined  their 
cause  (I  Mach.,  ii,  42,  43).  However,  not  all  the 
adherents  of  the  Machabees  were  Assideans;  accord- 
ing to  I  Mach.,  vii,  13,  the  Scribes  and  the  Assideans 
sought  to  make  peace  with  the  Syrians,  wliile  the 
other  followers  of  the  Machabees  suspected  deceit. 
Tiiat  this  suspicion  was  well  founded  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  Alciinus,  who  had  been  made 
High  Priest  by  Demetrius  I  (I  Mach.,  vii,  9),  slew 
sixtv  .\ssideans  in  one  day  (I  Mach.,  vii,  16).  Ac- 
cording to  II  Mach.,  xiv,  3,  the  .same  Alcimus  "wil- 
fully defiled  him.self ",  and  later  on  he  testified  before 
Demetrius:  "They  among  the  .lews  tiiat  are  called 
Assideans,  of  whom  Judas  Machabeus  is  captain, 
nourish  wars,  and  raise  .seditions,  and  will  not  suffer 
the  realm  to  bo  in  peace"  (11  Mach.,  xiv,  6).  There 
is  an  opinion  which  maintains  tliat  the  Assideans 
were  identical  with  the  later  Piiarisees. 

Haoen,  Uiicim  BMicum  (Paris,  1905);  Lk.sbtre  in  Vio., 
Diet,  de  la  Bible  (Pant.,  1895);  ScililiER,  Oeschichle  del  juditchcn 
Volket  (3d  eU.,  Leipzig,  1898),  II,  404. 

A.  J.  Maas. 


Assimilation,  Physiological. — In  this  sense  the 
woril  may  be  defined  as  that  vital  function  by  which 
an  organism  changes  nutrient  material  into  living 
protoplasm.  Most  modern  scientists  admit  that 
the  notion  of  assimilation  is  not  e.xliausted  by  the 
eventual  chemical  changes  that  may  take  place. 
Tlieir  definition  of  assimilation,  moreover,  is  most 
frequently  the  true  expression  of  the  reality.  To 
give  but  one  instance,  the  physiologist  Rosenthal 
defines  assimilation  as  the  "  peculiar  property  com- 
mon to  all  cells  of  bringing  forth  from  different 
materials  substances  specifically  similar  to  those 
wliicli  pre-exist  in  tho,se  cells".  But,  in  further 
explaining  the  concept  of  assimilation,  they  fre- 
quently mistake  its  true  nature  and  deny  again  what 
they  conceded  l)efore.  In  other  words,  they  often 
refuse  to  acknowledge  that  food,  in  being  changed 
into  living  substance,  participates  in  properties  which 
in  themselves  are  of  a  nature  totally  different  from 
the  forces  of  inorganic  matter.  Our  reason  for  dis- 
appro\nng  tliis  view  rests  on  the  fact  that,  while 
the  action  of  inorganic  matter  is  essentially  of  a 
transient  nature,  and  passes  from  subject  to  subject, 
the  same  inanimate  matter  acquires  by  the  process 
of  assimilation  the  faculty  "of  acting  on  itself,  of 
developing  and  perfecting  itself  by  its  own  motion,  or 
of  acting  immanently  ".  That  is,  the  action  proceeds 
from  an  internal  principle  and  "does  not  pass  into  a 
foreign  subject,  but  perfects  the  agent."  The 
acti\-ities  implied  in  the  nutrition  of  an  animal 
really  proceed  from  it.  It  spontaneously  moves 
about  and  selects  among  a  thousand  solid  particles 
a  definite  kind  and  quantity  of  food  in  strict  propor- 
tion to  its  own  needs,  and  appropriates  it  in  a  suitable 
manner.  Then,  in  anticipation  of  a  definite  end  to 
be  realized,  it  elaborates  from  the  food  the  chemical 
constituents  to  be  used  for  the  renewal  and  increase 
of  its  protoplasm,  rejecting  the  rest  in  a  suitable 
manner.  Thus  the  entire  action  proceeds  from  the 
animal  and  finally  serves,  or  tentls  to  serve,  no  other 
purpose  than  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  its  proto- 
plasm and  to  give  it  the  total  perfection  of  the  species. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  such  immanent 
actions  belong  to  a  sphere  totally  different  from  the 
transient  actions  of  which  alone  inorganic  matter 
is  capable.  If  inorganic  matter  is  to  act,  it  must 
be  acted  upon,  and  the  reaction  is  mathematically 
equal  to  the  action.  It  is,  therefore,  merely  passive. 
But  organisms  act,  even  if  no  action  is  exerted  upon 
them  from  without;  and  if  an  action  results  from 
stimulation,  the  reaction  is  not  equal  to  the  action, 
nor  is,  in  fact,  the  stimulation  the  adequate  cause  of 
the  action.  In  tliis  acti\-ity,  however,  we  need  not 
assume  a  production  and  accumulation  of  new  mate- 
rial energy.  Tlie  activity  of  the  \ital  princijjle  in  the 
processes  of  assimilation  simply  consists  in  (.lirecting 
the  constant  transformation  of  existing  material 
energy  towards  definite  ends  and  according  to  a 
definite  plan  of  organization.  In  other  words,  the 
algebraic  sum  of  all  the  energy  in  tlie  universe  is 
not  altered  by  the  living  principle.  Nor  are  the 
elements  changed  in  their  nature  and  mutual  action. 
They  require  the  faculty  of  an  immanent  action 
merely  inasmuch  as  they  are  and  remain  parts  of 
li\nng  cells.  Thus,  through  assimilation  tliey  be- 
come subject  to  a  liiglier  principle  which  in  constant 
agreement  witli  their  own  physical  and  chemical 
laws  directs  tliem  towards  the  uniform  perfection  of 
the  entire  organism. 

KosENTHAL,  Allgemeine  Phyiiolofrie  (1901),  392;  Pesch, 
Institttlionea  jnychologica:.  Pars  I,  lib.  I,  144;  Maher,  P»y- 
ckologu    (1895),    510. 

H.    MUCKERMANN. 

Assimilation,  Psychological. — As  applied  to  a 
mental  process,  assimilation  derives  all  its  force 
and  meaning  from  the  analogy  wliich  many  educa- 
tionists have  found  to  exist  between  the  way  in  which 


ASSISI 


SOI 


ASSISI 


food  is  incorporated  into  the  living  tissue  and  tlm 
manner  in  which  truth  is  acquired  l)y  tlie  growing 
mind.  That  education  means  the  assimilation  of 
truth  is  almost  a  commonplace  in  modern  pedagogj-. 
Few,  however,  have  felt  the  full  force  of  the  com- 
parison or  realized  how  completely  the  psychological 
m  this  as  in  other  instances  follows  on  the  lines  of  the 
physiological.  Just  as  the  living  cell  cannot  dele- 
gate the  task  of  iissiniilation,  so  the  mind  cannot  by 
any  contrivance  of  educational  methods  evade  the 
task  of  performing  the  assimilative  proce.-is  for  it.-ielf. 
.\11  that  the  teacher  can  do  is  to  prepare  the  material 
and  to  stimulate  the  mind  of  the  pupil;  the  pupil 
himself  must  perforin  the  final  act  of  acquiring 
knowledge,  namely  the  act  of  incorporating  into  his 
mind  the  truth  presented  to  him.  In  the  second 
place,  the  mind  cannot  take  over  into  its  own  suli- 
stance  a  complex  truth  as  such.  The  truth  must 
hrst  be  broken  up  into  less  complex  component  parts, 
which  are  assimilable  by  the  mmd  in  its  present  con- 
dition of  development. 

I'here  is  little  profit,  for  example,  in  placing  before 
the  pupil  a  finished  essay,  unless  the  pupil  is  taught 
to  'analyze  the  finished  literary  product  into  its  con- 
stituent elements,  and  to  reconstruct  those  elements 
into  a  living  whole.  This,  of  course,  implies  much 
more  than  the  t;isk  of  summarizing  each  paragraph 
and  labelling  it  more  or  less  happily.  When  the 
term  assimilation  is  use<l  with  reference  to  mental 
development,  it  is  well  to  remember  that,  while  it 
originally  referred  to  the  building  up  of  anatomical 
elements,  the.se  elements,  once  constructed,  have  an 
immediate  physiological  bearing.  Each  particle  of 
matter  that  is  lifted  into  the  living  tissue  acquires 
thereby  a  functional  unity,  that  is,  it  is  brought  into 
functional  relation  with  everj'  other  particle  of  the 
organism.  Similarly,  a  truth  once  incorporated  into 
the  mind  sheiLs  it-s  light  on  the  entire  mental  content, 
and  is  in  turn  illumined  by  every  previoiLsly  assimi- 
lated truth.  Acting  on  these  principles,  the  up-to- 
datx-  educationist  insists:  first,  that  each  new  truth 
should  Ije  not  only  an  addition  to  the  stock  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  pupil,  but  also  a  functional  acquisition, 
something  that  stimulates  the  pupil's  mind  to  in- 
crease<l  activity;  secondly,  that  in  every  educational 
endeavour  the  centre  of  orientation  should  be  shifted 
from  the  logical  centre  of  the  body  of  truth  to  be 
imparted  to  the  present  needs  and  capacities  of  the 
growing   mind. 

FortTKR,  Melu-(U  Dictionary/:  Richet,  Dictionnaire  phyt- 
ioLvgiquc:  Gactikr,  Chimie  physiotofjiouf . 

THOMAS  Edward  Shields. 

Assist,  The  Diocese  ok,  is  in  the  civil  province  of 
I'mbria,  Italy.  The  town  of  .\s.sisi  (.4s.si.'{ii/in),  which 
takes  its  name  from  Mount  .\si,  on  wliich  it  is  situated, 
lies  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  province  of  I'mbria. 
about  halfway  between  the  cities  of  Perugia  and 
Foligno.  and  forty-one  miles  north  of  Rome.  The  be- 
ginnings of  .\.ssisian  history  are  involved  in  much  ob- 
scurity; but  in  early  imperial  times  it  had  become  a 
flourishing  municipality  of  no  mean  importance,  and 
lays  claim,  with  some  show  of  truth,  to  being  the  birth- 
place of  the  Latin  poet  Sextus  .\urelius  Propertius. 
The  (iospel  w;us  first  preached  to  the  A.ssisians  about 
the  middle  of  the  third  century  by  St.  Cyspohtus, 
Hishop  of  Hcttona  (ancient  Vcttona),  who  suffered 
martyrdom  under  the  Kmpcror  Maximian.  About 
2'.ir>  iit.  Kufinus  was  appointed  Hishoji  of  Assisi  by 
Pope  St.  Fabian;  suffered  martyrdom  about  '236; 
and  was  succeeded  by  St.  Victorinus.  Both  St. 
Victorinus  and  his  immediate  successor.  St.  Sabinus. 
died  martyrs,  the  latter  being  most  cruelly  beaten  to 
death.  Of  the  bishops  who  occupied  the  See  of 
Assisi  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  one, 
.Aventius,  is  worthy  of  mention.  It  was  this  heroic 
prelate  who  interceded  (.■>4.'))  with  Totila  in  behalf 
of  the  Assi.sians,  and  saved  the  city  from  the  ravages 


of  the  Ostrogothic  army  on  its  way  to  Rome.  In 
succeeding  centuries  mention  is  made  of  several 
Bishops  of  .\ssisi  who  weri-  present  at  general  councils 
of  the  Church.  Thus,  in  0.59,  Aquilinus  was  sum- 
inoneil  l>y  Pope  Martin  I  to  be  present  at  the  Lateran 
Coimcil,  convened  for  the  purpose  of  formulating 
decrees  against  the  Monothelites.  In  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries  As.sisi  fell  under  the  power  of 
the  Lombard  dukes,  and  in  773  wsis  razed  to  the 
gn)und  by  Charlemagne  for  its  determined  resistance 
to  him.  He  restored  it,  however,  and  at  the  same 
time  all  traces  of  Arian  belief  and  Lombard  sympa- 
thies disappeared.  About  the  same  time  the  great 
castle,  or  Kocca  d'A.ssisi,  was  built,  which  stronghold 
made  the  town  thenceforth  a  great  power  in  the 
pohtical  life  of  central  Italy.  Bishop  Hugo,  whose 
episcopate  lasted  from  1030  to  10.30,  transferred  the 
ey)iscopal  chair  to  the  cathedral  of  San  Rufino, 
which  he  himself  raised  over  the  little  oratory  be- 
neath which  the  Saint's  bones  had  rested  for  eight 
centuries.  From  St.  Rufinus  to  the  present  incum- 
bent of  the  See  of  A.ssi.si,  the  Right  Reverend  .Monsig- 
nor  Ambrose  Luddi.  O.P..  the  bishops  of  that  see 
have  numbered  some  ninety-two;  but  of  these  some 
arc  little  known,  and  the  existence  of  others  is  more  or 
less  problematical.  A.ssisi  is  chiefly  famous  as  the 
birthplace  of  St.  Francis.  All  the  places  sanctified 
by  his  presence  have  been  preserved  in  their  original 
state  or  transformed  into  sanctuaries.  Foremost 
among  these  is  the  ba.silica  of  Our  Lady  of  Angels, 
erected  on  the  model  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  through 
the  beneficence  of  Pope  St.  Pius  \'.  which  shelters 
the  famous  little  chapel  of  the  Porziuncula,  the  cradle 
of  the  Franciscan  Order,  where  St.  Francis  received 
the  great  Fcnlono  il'  Assisi,  more  commonly  known 
as  the  Portiuncula  Indulgence.  Within  tliis  basilica 
also  stands  the  tiny  cell  in  which  St.  Francis  died, 
and  which  contains  among  other  things  the  well- 
known  statue  by  Luca  della  Robbia  made  after  the 
Saint's  death  mask.  St.  I'rancis's  remains  now 
repo.se  in  the  patriarchal  basilica  of  San  Francesco, 
erecteil  through  the  exertions  of  Brother  F.lias,  the 
first  .stone  of  which  was  laid  by  dregory  IX,  25  July, 
rJ28.  Consecrated  by  Innocent  I\',  tliis  church  is 
composed  of  three  .sanctuaries,  one  over  the  other, 
and  is  one  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  Italy.  "There  is  nothing  like  it",  says 
Taine.  "  Before  seeing  it  one  has  no  idea  of  the  art 
and  genius  of  the  Middle  Ages."  It  is  difficult  to 
overestimate  the  stimulus  given  to  Italian  art  by  the 
building  of  this  great  double  basilica,  in  the  decora- 
tion of  wliich  the  foremost  painters  of  the  day  were 
engaged,  including  CiinaViue  and  Giotto,  whose 
famous  mystical  frescoes,  illustrative  of  the  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obethence,  adorn  the  lower 
church.  The  recent  revival  of  widespread  interest 
in  all  that  concerns  St.  Francis  has  made  Assisi  the 
goal  of  a  new  race  of  literary  and  artistic  pilgrims. 
The  splendours  and  a.s.sociations  of  the  ba.silicas  of 
San  Francesco  and  Santa  Maria  degli  .-Vngt^li  tend  to 
overshadow  the  other  churches  of  Assisi.  The 
cathedral  of  San  Rufino.  mentione<l  above,  which 
dates  from  IHU,  is  noted  foi  its  beautiful  facade  and 
po.sses.ses  a  font  (the  only  one  in  .X.ssisi)  in  which  not 
only  St.  Francis  and  St.  Clare,  but  the  Emperor 
Frederick  11  was  baptized.  The  Chie.sa  Nuova, 
a  Greek  cross,  surmounted  by  five  cupolas  and 
standing  on  the  .site  of  St.  Francis's  parental  house, 
was  built  at  the  expense  of  Philip  111  of  Spain,  in 
1615.  Santa  Chiara,  a  splenilid  Gothic  church  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  due  to  the  genius  of  Filippo 
di  Campello,  contains  the  remains  of  St.  Clare,  the 
co-foundress  with  St.  Francis  of  the  Poor  Ladies,  or 
Clares,  as  they  are  now  called,  and  daughter  of  Count 
Favorino  Scifi.  an  .\ssisian  noble.  The  convent  of 
St.  Damian's.  in  which  the  holy  abbess  lived,  stands 
without  the  city  and  is  little  changed  since  her  day. 


ASSISTANT 


802 


ASSIZE 


Aside  from  the  churches  and  convents,  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  monuments  in  Assisi  are  the  remains 
of  the  temple  of  Minerva,  a  striking  reminder  of  the 
Roman  period,  and  tlie  renowned  castle  known  as 
the  Kocca  Maggiore,  dating,  as  it  seems,  from  Charle- 
magne's time,  and  affording  a  magnificent  panorama 
of  Assisi  and  its  vicinity.  Tlie  population  of  the 
town  numbers  now  about  3,750. 

Present  St.\tus:  The  Diocese  of  Assisi  now  com- 
prises four  municipalities  in  the  civil  province  of  Peru- 
gia (Umbria),  besides  twenty-si.x  small  hamlets  and 
villages,  each,  with  the  exception  of  Porziano,  having 
its  church  and  resident  priest.  There  are  3  educa- 
tional institutions  for  boys,  with  206  pupils;  and  1  epis- 
copal seminary,  with  28  seminarists.  There  are  64 
secular  priests,  and  125  priests  of  religious  orders; 
while  the  faithful  of  the  diocese  number  28,500. 
There  are  8  monasteries  of  men  and  18  convents  of 
nuns.  The  clmrches,  chapels,  and  oratories  in  the 
diocese  number  190,  with  35  parishes  in  all.  Tlie 
Diocese  of  Assisi  is  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy 
See,  a  privilege  which  it  has  enjoyed  from  remote 
antiquity. 

Cristofani,  Delle  storie  d'Assisi  (Assisi,  1866);  Gordon, 
The  Stori/  of  Assisi  (London,  1903);  De  Costanza,  Disamina 
degli  scrtUori  e  dei  monumenti  riguardanti  S.  Ruftno,  vescovo 
e  martire  di  Assisi  (Assisi,  1797);  Ugheli.i,  lUilia  Sacra 
(Venice,  1722),  1;  Cappei.letti,  Le  chiese  d  Italia  (Venice, 
1866).  V;  Cruickshank,  The  Umbrian  Toums  (London,  1901); 
HuTTON,  The  Cities  of  Umbria  (London,  1905);  Schnuher, 
Franz  von  Assisi  (Munich,  1905);  Thode,  Fram  von  Assisi 
und  die  Anfange  der  Kunst  der  Renaissance  in  Italien  (Ber- 
lin, 1904). 

Stephen  Donovan. 

Assistant  Priest.     See  Priest. 

Assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne  (Assistens 
Throng  Pontificio). — Bishops-assistant  at  the  pon- 
tifical tlirone  are  those  prelatas  who  belong  to  the 
Papal  Chapel  {Capella  Pmitificia),  and  hold  towards 
the  Pope  much  the  same  relation  as  cathedral  canons 
do  to  their  bishop.  At  solemn  functions  these  As- 
sistants, adorned  with  cope  and  mitre,  surround  the 
throne  of  the  Pope,  while  other  bishops  are  not 
privileged  to  be  in  his  immediate  vicinity.  To  this 
College  of  Assistants  belong  ex  officio  all  patriarchs 
and  those  archbishops  and  bishops  to  whom  tlie 
Pope  has  granted  the  privilege  by  brief.  The  Throne- 
Assistants  rank  immediately  after  the  Cardinals. 
They  are  privileged  to  celebrate  Mass  in  private 
oratories  and  to  dispose  of  a  certain  sum  from  their 
episcopal  benefices  in  favour  of  clerics  or  their  own 
relations,  or  to  lay  it  aside  for  their  own  obsequies. 
These  Throne  Assistants  are  always  created  Counts 
of  the  Apostolic  Palace,  and  they  belong  to  the  Pon- 
tifical Family. 

Bangen,  Dif  Romische  Curie  (Munster,  1854);  IIcmphrey, 
Urbs  el  Orbis  (London,  1899),  167. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 
Assize  of  Clarendon,  The. — \  name  improperly 
applied  to  the  Council  lield  at  Clarendon,  25  January, 
1161,  where  Henry  II  required  St.  Thomas  Kecket 
and  the  English  bisjinps  to  subscribe  sixteen  "Con- 
stitutioiLs",  alleging  tlieni  to  l)e  customs  of  the  realm. 
One  gave  into  the  King's  hands  the  custody  of  vacant 
sees  and  abljcys  and  made  election  to  them  de- 
pendent on  ills  license  and  assent.  The  second  and 
seventh  provided  that  tlie  King's  justices  should,  in 
every  suit  to  which  an  ecclesiastic  was  a  party,  deter- 
mine whether  the  cau.se  was  spiritual  or  .secular;  if 
the  former,  that  a  royal  officer  sliould  be  present  in 
the  bishop's  court  where  it  was  tried;  and  that  on 
conviction  the  defendant,  in  a  criminal  action,  should 
be  handed  over  to  the  secular  arm  for  punishment. 
By  tlie  tiiird  no  King's  officer  was  to  be  excom- 
municated, or  his  lands  interdicted,  without  applica- 
tion to  the  Crown.  Tlie  fourth  required  royal  leave 
before  any  Church  dignitary  might  psiss  beyond  sea, 
i.  e.  to  Rome.     The  (ifth  allowed  no  appeals  to  the 


Pope  except  the  King  suffered  them.  .\11  causes, 
however  spiritual,  were  to  be  terminated  in  England. 
(_^f  these  enactments,  the  first  violated  Henry  I's 
Charter,  King  Stephen's  confirmation  of  the  Church's 
liberties,  and  Henry  II's  own  previous  statutes. 
That  one  which  relates  to  "criminous  clerks"  has 
been  variously  interpreted,  but  its  meaning  is  not 
doubtful.  Henry  II  was  aiming  at  a  systematic 
encroachment  on  the  popular  and  religious  juris- 
diction. In  Saxon  times  the  Archdeacon  sat  in 
the  same  court  with  lay  judges.  William  the  Con- 
queror forbade  this  custom  and  established  separate 
"Courts  Christian",  which,  however,  neither  derived 
their  authority  from  the  civil  power  nor  went  by  its 
rules.  They  dealt  with  all  cases  involving  clerics, 
i.  e.  persons  who  had  received  the  tonsure.  They 
could  not  pronounce  a  sentence  of  blood.  Their 
penalties  were  "for  the  salvation  of  souls",  and  the 
most  severe  for  an  ecclesiastic  was  to  be  degraded 
from  his  order.  Abuses  followed  this  milder  juris- 
diction. Henry  II,  it  appears,  was  intent  on  .setting 
up  in  his  kingdom  a  procedure  which  the  old  imperial 
law  exhibited,  and  which  Gratian's  "Decretum" 
quotes  (C.  II,  q.  I;  c.  18,  c.  31).  "Curia  traderet 
puniendos  ",  said  an  edict  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius 
received  into  the  Theodosian  Code,  touching  un- 
worthy clerics.  To  similar  effect  Innocent  III: 
after  degradation,  certain  clerks  were  to  be  given  up 
for  punishment  to  the  secular  power  (Regesta 
Innoc.  Ill,  i,  574;  II,  268;  ed.  Baluze).  But  such  a 
practice  had  never  been  the  English  custom.  St. 
Thomas  argued  that  deprivation  was  penalty  suffi- 
cient, however  grave  the  offence;  and  that  no  man 
ought  to  be  punished  twice,  as  he  would  be  if  the 
civil  magistrate  took  in  hand  the  guilty  party  after 
he  was  condemned.  Henrj'  did  not  affect  to  be 
God's  Vicar  in  spirituals.  Yet  his  constitutions  in- 
fringed the  liberties  which  English  clerks  {clerici) 
had  enjoyed,  as  well  as  sometimes  abused.  By  cut- 
ting off  appeals  to  Rome  he  was  anticipating  the 
Tudor  legislation.  The  Church  courts  were  superior 
to  the  royal  in  matters  of  learning,  procedure,  and 
justice.  Their  popularity  was  not  undeserved.  Ex- 
communication of  great  officers  in  an  age  of  violence 
was  often  the  sole  weapon  against  tyranny.  St. 
Thomas,  in  resisting  the  constitutions,  had  precedent 
on  his  side.  But  Henry  never  can  have  meant  to 
abolish  the  privilegium  jori,  even  where  a  clerk 
had  broken  the  criminal  law.  Such  a  clerk  was  to 
plead  (respcmdere)  before  lay  judges;  to  be  tried, 
condemned,  degraded  in  the  spiritual  court;  and  then 
to  be  chastised  by  royal  authority.  Hence  Alexan- 
der Ill's  hesitation  to  support  the  Archbishop  be- 
comes intelligible.  The  Pope  did,  it  is  true,  in  1166, 
confirm  his  action;  and  in  1176,  when  St.  Thomas 
had  been  canonized,  a  partial  agreement  took  place 
at  Northampton  between  the  King  and  the  Holy 
See,  represented  by  Cardinal  Pietroleone.  Clerks  who 
broke  the  Forest  Laws,  or  held  feudal  tenures,  were 
made  suljject  to  the  lay  courts.  The  Constitutions 
of  Clarendon  were  not  directly  repealed.  But  in 
Magna  Charta  the  first  article  guarantees,  without 
specifying  them  in  detail,  the  liberties  of  the  Church, 
"almost  in  the  form",  .says  J.  A.  Froude,  "in  which 
Becket  himself  would  have  defined  them".  It  may 
be  added  that  the  real  Assize  of  Clarendon,  in  1166, 
laid  down  instructions  for  judges  on  circuit  and  in- 
stituted trial  by  jury,  but  was  altogether  distinct 
from  the  assembly  at  which  St.  Thomas  underwent 
his  great  temptation.  (See  Immunities,  Clerical; 
Thomas  Becket,  St.) 

WiLKiNs,  Leges  Saronum,  321;  Linoard,  Hist.  Eng.,  11; 
Stubbb,  llist.  Appendix  to  Erclesiasl.  Courts  Commission; 
Freeman,  Norman  Conquest;  Froude,  Life  and  Times  of 
Thomns  A  Becket,  in  Short  Studies,  11;  Maitland,  Roman 
Canon  Law  in  Ch.  of  England  (London). 

William  Barry. 


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