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A  CENTURY  OF 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL  DISCOVERIES 


KING  ASSURNASIRPAL 
BRITISH    MUSEUM 


(Page  90) 


Frontispiece 


CENTURY  OF 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL 
DISCOVERIES 

BY  PROFESSOR  A.    MICHAELIS 

UNIVERSITY  OF  STRASSBURG 
TRANSLATED   BY 

BETTINA  KAHNWEILER 


WITH   A  PREFACE   BY 

PERCY   GARDNER,  Lrrr.D. 

LINCOLN   AND   MERTON   PROFESSOR  OF  CLASSICAL  ARCHEOLOGY 
IN   THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  OXFORD 


WITH    ILLUSTRATIONS 


LONDON 
JOHN   MURRAY,  ALBEMARLE   STREET 

1908 


" 


h/ 


3<4 


.\ 


DEDICATED 

IN   LOVE  AND  SINCERITY 

TO  THE  FRIENDS  OF  MY  YOUTH 

AND  MY   FELLOW-STUDENTS 

ALEXANDER  CONZE 

BERLIN,  ITALY,  GREECE 
AND 

EUGEN   PETERSEN 

KIEL,   BONN,  ROME 
AUGUST,    1905 


PREFACE 

A  WORK  by  my  friend,  Professor  Michaelis,  needs 
no  introduction  to  archaeologists,  among  whom 
for  forty  years  he  has  held  a  distinguished  place.  And  it 
should  need  no  introduction  to  English  scholars,  who 
owe  to  the  writer  admirable  works  on  their  treasures, 
the  Parthenon,  and  the  Nereid  Tomb  of  Xanthus,  as 
well  as  a  great  Catalogue  of  the  Ancient  Marbles  in 
English  private  houses. 

In  the  present  book  Professor  Michaelis  gives  an 
account  of  archaeological  discovery  during  the  last 
century.  It  is  a  work  showing  intimate  knowledge  ; 
but  it  is  no  dry  summary ;  rather,  a  record  of  what  the 
writer,  watching  all  with  the  greatest  interest,  learned 
as  the  scroll  of  excavation  and  research  was  gradually 
unrolled.  This  infusion  of  a  personal  element  has  made 
the  book  more  interesting  to  the  reader.  At  the  same 
time  it  has  had  the  effect  of  preventing  the  treatment 
from  being  quite  even  on  all  sides.  Excavation  and 
discovery  which  has  especially  come  under  the  notice 
of  Professor  Michaelis,  and  especially,  as  he  says  in  his 
Preface,  the  work  of  German  explorers  has  been  treated 
of  at  greater  length,  often  with  graphic  details  which 
dwell  in  the  memory.  Other  discoveries  which  he  has 
not  watched  with  the  same  closeness,  or  which  have 
been  published  in  a  form  less  accessible  to  him,  are 
spoken  of,  comparatively,  with  brevity.  In  the  former 


Vlll 


PREFACE 


category  come  the  discovery  of  the  tomb  at  Trysa 
(Giolbaschi)  in  Lycia,  of  which  the  reliefs  are  now  re- 
moved to  Vienna,  and  the  excavations  at  Pergamon, 
which  have  so  greatly  enriched  the  museums  of  Berlin. 
In  the  second  category  come  the  recent  activities  of  the 
British  and  American  schools  at  Athens.  Professor 
Michaelis  has  done  ample  justice  to  the  brilliant  series 
of  English  discoveries  in  Greece  which  began  with  Cockerell 
and  ended  with  Newton.  But  more  recent  excavations 
such  as  those  of  the  British  School  at  Megalopolis  and  in 
Melos,  and  that  of  the  American  School  at  Corinth,  have 
scarcely  come  in  for  their  fair  share  of  notice. 

This  failure  in  complete  impartiality  is  not  to  English 
and  American  readers  a  great  disadvantage.  For  in  the 
"Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,"  the  "Annual  of  the 
British  School  of  Athens,"  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Archaeology,"  they  can  read  full  accounts  of  all  that 
their  countrymen  bring  to  pass  in  Greece.  And  now 
the  very  useful  "  Year's  Work  in  Classical  Studies  " 
gives  every  year  a  summary  of  the  results  reached.  With 
us  it  is  the  French  and  German  discoveries  which  are 
less  well-known  ;  and  thus  the  present  work  will  serve 
well  to  fill  a  gap  in  our  literature. 

Since  the  foundation  of  the  British  School  at  Athens 
in  1883,  and  that  oi  the  American  School  a  little  earlier, 
these  two  institutions  have  become  the  centres  of  con- 
tinuous archaeological  work  on  a  number  of  Greek  sites. 
Among  the  sites  which  have  occupied  English  scholars 
may  be  mentioned  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  Paphos  and 
Salamis  in  Cyprus,  Phylakopi  in  Melos,  and  Praesus  and 
Palaikastro  in  Crete.  Light  won  from  most  of  these 
sites  has  been  thrown  on  the  prehistoric  age  in  Greek 
lands,  rather  on  what  is  really  Hellenic.  It  is  a 
Darwinian  age,  when  the  search  for  origins  seems  to 
fascinate  men  more  than  the  search  for  what  is  good  in 


PREFACE  ix 

itself :  and  the  fact  is  that  our  eyes  are  somewhat  dazzled 
by  the  brilliant  discoveries  of  Schliemann,  Dorpfeld  and 
Evans.  Of  these  we  have  heard  much,  but  strange  to 
say,  there  is  no  book  which  gives  a  comprehensive 
account  of  the  epoch-making  discoveries  at  Olympia. 

The  most  recent  task  of  the  British  School,  the  excava- 
tion of  Sparta,  is  one  which  will  satisfy  every  Philhellene, 
and  we  may  hope  thus  to  be  able  alike  to  verify  and  to 
vivify  phases  of  Greek  history.  The  feat  of  Mr.  Dickins 
in  recomposing  the  colossal  sculptural  group  by  Damo- 
phon  at  Lycosura,  sheds  a  fresh  light  on  the  Macedonian 
age  in  Greece.  Many  other  such  tasks  await  the  students 
of  those  British  Universities  which  still  keep  Classics  in 
the  front  line  of  education. 

The  work  of  the  American  School  has  been  carried  on  ' 
at  Eretria,  Icaria,  and  Thoricus,  and  in  Bceotia.  It  has 
made  a  memorable  excavation  on  the  site  of  the  Argive  v 
Heraeum.  But  it  has  especially  devoted  itself  to  the 
digging  up  of  ancient  Corinth,  a  task  rendered  very  hard 
by  the  depth  of  earth  which  has  accumulated  over  the 
old  city.  Dr.  Hill,  Director  of  the  American  School, 
writes  to  the  translator  of  this  book  :  "At  Corinth  we 
have  found  and  excavated  Peirene,  located  the  Agora 
with  its  long  Greek  and  Roman  colonnades,  identified 
the  famous  old  Doric  temple  as  that  of  Apollo,  found  the 
Theatre,  the  Odeum,  and  the  fountain  of  Glauke,  dis- 
covered in  the  Agora  the  '  Old  Spring,'  a  simple  Greek 
fountain-house  dating  from  about  B.C.  500,  and  near  it 
the  foundations  of  a  small  temple." 

It  would  not  be  suitable  in  this  place  to  write  more 
as  to  English  and  American  discovery  in  Greece  ;  what 
I  have  said  is  intended  only  to  prevent  undervaluing  of 
the  zeal  and  success  of  our  English-speaking  colleagues. 

The  year  1875  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Greek 
excavation.  Up  to  that  time  the  object  of  the  excavator 


x  PREFACE 

had  been,  in  the  first  place,  to  recover  for  the  museums 
of  his  own  country  some  of  the  admirable  works  of  art 
of  ancient  Hellas.  Between  1800  and  1875  untold  riches 
of  art  flowed  into  the  British  Museum,  from  Egypt, 
from  Koyunjik,  from  Athens,  Phigaleia,  Lycia,  and 
Halicarnassus.  The  museums  of  Paris,  Berlin,  Munich 
followed  suit ;  and  if  they  grew  more  slowly  it  was  only 
because  they  were  served  with  less  enterprise.  But 
when  the  Germans  undertook  to  excavate  at  Olympia, 
it  was  stipulated  that  all  that  was  discovered  should 
remain  in  Greece ;  and,  in  fact,  it  has  remained  at 
Olympia  itself.  Nothing  since  discovered  in  Greece, 
in  the  great  excavations  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis,  of 
Delphi,  Delos  and  other  sites,  has  left  the  country. 
Turkey  and  Crete  are  copying  the  laws  of  Greece  in  such 
matters.  All  that  the  western  nations  are  now  allowed 
to  gain  by  work  in  the  East  is  knowledge.  We  have 
reached  the  scientific  stage  of  discovery.  And  since 
knowledge  has  thus  been  put  in  the  place  of  actual  spoil, 
it  is  natural  that  excavation  has  been  conducted  in  a 
more  orderly  and  scientific  way,  find  spots  and  circum- 
stances of  finding  being  recorded  with  great  exactness. 

It  is  necessary  to  confess  that  since  1875  the  share  of 
England  in  the  work  of  discovery  has  diminished,  while 
the  shares  of  France  and  Germany  have  increased. 
The  circumstances  of  the  time  fully  justified  the  removal 
to  London  of  such  remains  as  those  of  Phigaleia  and 
Halicarnassus;  and  all  impartial  persons,  including 
Professor  Michaelis,  allow  that  by  carrying  away  the 
sculpture  of  the  Parthenon,  Lord  Elgin  rescued  what  is 
really  the  property  of  the  civilized  world  from  certain 
injury  and  probable  destruction.  Still,  we  cannot  blame 
Greece  and  Italy  for  being  determined  in  future  to  keep 
the  works  of  art,  the  possession  of  which  constitutes  the 
great  distinction  of  those  countries  in  the  eyes  of  the 


PREFACE  xi 

educated  world.  And  we  must  now  accept  the  changed 
circumstances,  and  do  what  we  can  for  historic  and 
artistic  progress,  without  hope  of  results  in  the  form  of 
works  of  ancient  art  for  our  museums.  We  must  learn 
to  work  for  science,  not  for  reward.  This  fact  throws 
the  more  emphasis  on  what  Professor  Michaelis  has  to 
say  in  his  last  chapter,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important. 
It  is  a  sketch  of  the  recent  scientific  progress  of  archae- 
ology, progress  furthered  as  much  by  methodical  study 
in  museums  and  libraries  as  by  actual  excavation.  The 
sketch  is  by  necessity  brief,  and  of  course  many  of 
Professor  Michaelis'  views  may  be  disputed  ;  but  the 
great  point  is  to  have  an  outline,  however  slight,  drawn 
by  so  experienced  and  so  sane  an  authority,  in  true 
perspective  and  proportion. 

To  the  translator,  as  I  know,  the  work  has  been  a 
labour  of  love,  done  "  for  science,  not  for  reward."  I 
have  read  the  proofs  and  suggested  a  few  alterations. 

P.  GARDNER 


AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 


'  A  RCH^OLOGY  of  the  spade"  and  its  results  form 
-/~\  the  subject  of  this  volume.  By  the  term  archae- 
ology is  meant  the  archaeology  of  art ;  the  products 
of  civilization  in  so  far  as  they  express  no  artistic 
character  will  only  be  mentioned  incidentally.  Thus 
Epigraphy  has  been  excluded,  nor  are  coins  and  gems 
included,  for  they  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  discoveries. 
Another  limitation  is  due  to  the  fact  that  my  own 
studies  have  been  confined  to  Classic  Art,  and  that 
my  knowledge  of  the  art  of  other  lands  has,  for  the 
most  part,  only  come  to  me  at  second  hand.  Hence 
the  difference  in  treatment.  My  main  object  has  been 
to  give  an  account  of  the  rise,  the  diffusion,  and  the 
deepening  of  our  knowledge  of  Greek  art.  No  com- 
prehensive treatment  of  this  interesting  subject  having 
yet  appeared,  I  have  felt  impelled  to  fill  this  gap. 
Although  I  have  not  taken  part  in  any  excavations, 
yet  for  the  last  fifty  years  I  have  followed  the  work 
of  others  with  close  interest  and  have  moreover  fre- 
quently had  opportunities  of  acquiring  direct  knowledge : 
this,  it  seems  to  me,  is  a  qualification  for  the  task. 

The  modest  work  of  the  sheaf-binder  must  follow 
that  of  the  reaper. 

If  most  space  has  been  devoted  to  the  German 
excavations  and  investigations,  it  is  mainly  because  my 
facilities  have  been  greater. 

xiii 


xiv  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

The  readers,  whom  I  am  addressing,  are  not  mainly 
the  archaeologists  by  profession — to  whom  I  hardly  offer 
anything  new— but  rather  archaeological  students,  and, 
above  all,  the  great  circle  of  readers  who  have  preserved 
an  interest  in  and  a  love  for  ancient  art. 

In  this  new  edition,  I  have  made  use  of  many  sugges- 
tions by  friends.  I  am  indebted,  above  all,  to  M.  S. 
Reinach,  Dr.  Borchardt,  and  Dr.  Messerschmidt.  And 

1  wish  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  my  friend  Sidney 
Colvin. 

In  closing  may  I  quote  from  Sir  C.  Newton's  letter, 

2  Feb.,  1877,  in  which  he  expressed  his  thanks  to  the 
Faculty  of  Philosophy  at  Strassburg,  for  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Philosophy :  "  It  is  from  Germany  that  I  always 
sought  that  sound  and  thorough  information  on  every 
branch  of  archaeological   and   philological  study  which 
no  other  country  has  produced  in  this  generation  ;    it 
is  to  Germany  that  I  have  always  looked  for  encourage- 
ment and  for  appreciation  of  labour  which  has  occupied 
me  for  many  years,  and  which  I  now  feel  not  to  have 
been  in  vain." 

A.  MICHAELIS 
STRASSBURG 

February.  1908 


TRANSLATOR'S    NOTE 


I  AM  indebted  to  Professor  Gardner  for  the  suggestion 
to  translate  Professor  Michaelis'  admirable  book. 
Professor  Michaelis  generously  granted  the  desired  per- 
mission, and  it  affords  me  great  satisfaction  to  be  able 
to  lay  the  book  before  English  readers.  The  selection 
of  illustrations  has  been  rather  difficult,  inasmuch  as 
Professor  Michaelis'  horizon  is  so  extended.  Choice 
has  largely  been  confined  to  classic  lands,  and  Mr.  Murray 
has  exercised  great  care  to  procure  the  best. 

May  the  "  Century  of  Archaeological  Discoveries " 
prove  of  service,  as  Professor  Michaelis  desires,  "  to 
archaeological  students  and,  above  all,  to  the  great  circle 
of  readers  who  have  preserved  an  interest  in,  and  a  love 
for,  ancient  art."  May  it  awaken  in  the  student  and 
reader  a  desire  to  see  and  study  glorious  Hellas  ! 

My  sincere  thanks  are  due  to  Professor  Gardner  for 
constant  advice  and  assistance.  Although  his  time  is 
of  utmost  value,  he  has  been  good  enough  to  read  the 
translation  and  help  in  the  selection  of  illustrations. 
For  all  his  kindness  I  can  only  express  my  deep  gratitude. 

B.  K. 


XV 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 

OUR   KNOWLEDGE   OF   ANCIENT   ART   UP   TO   THE  CLOSE 
OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

PACK 

Antiquities  of  Medieval  Rome — Collections  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth, 
and  eighteenth  centuries — Distribution  of  Roman  antiquities — The 
Capitoline  Museum— Winckelmann— Herculaneum— Psestum— The 
Society  of  Dilettanti— Stuart  and  Revett— The  Pioclementi  Museum  I 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   NAPOLEONIC    PERIOD 
The  opening  of  Egypt — Pompeii— The  Musee  Napoleon  .       13 

CHAPTER    III 

HELLAS    REGAINED 

Lord  Elgin  and  British  travellers  in  Greece — /Egina  and  Bassse — The 
British  Museum — Sicily — Aphrodite  of  Melos— Greece  gains  its 
freedom  .  .  -27 

CHAPTER   IV 

THE   SEPULCHRES  OF   ETRURIA   AND   ANCIENT   PAINTING 

The  Roman  Hyperboreans— Eduard  Gerhard — Wall  paintings  in  Etrus- 
can tombs — Greek  vases — The  Alexander  mosaic  and  other  single 
finds— The    Campana   Collection— The   Archaeological   Institute— 
The  Catacombs          .......       56 

xvii 


xviii  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   V 

DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

PAGE 

Egypt-Assyria-Lycia-Charles  Newton— The  Mausoleum— Cnidos— 
Branchidai-Ephesos-Napoleon  III :  The  Rock  Reliefs  in  Asia 
Minor,  Macedonia,  Thasos— Southern  Russia  ....  85 


CHAPTER  VI 

GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

New  aims— Samothrace— Kabeiri— Delos— Olympia — Dodona— Askle- 
pieion  —  Amphiaraion — Eleusis  —  Epidauros  —  Kos  —  Tenos  —  The 
Heraion— ^Egina— Ptoibn— Delphi  .  .  .  .no 


CHAPTER   VII 

ANCIENT    CITIES 

Pompeii— Pergamon— >£gae— Assos— Neandreia— Lesbos — Smintheion 
— Myrina— Magnesia,  Priene — Miletos — Samos — Lycia,  Pamphylia, 
Pisidia — Ephesos — Thera — Lindos  .  .  .  .  159 


CHAPTER   VIII 

PREHISTORY   AND   PRIMITIVE   GREECE 

Geometric   style— Prehistoric   research— Heinrich   Schliemann — Troy, 

Mycenae,  Tiryns— Homeric  art— Crete  .  .  .  .206 

CHAPTER   IX 

SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

Greece  :  Ionian  vases— Tanagra— The  Archaeological  Society  in  Athens 
The  excavations  on  the  Acropolis— Various  Greek  sites— Italy : 
Greek  temples,  old  Ionic  sculpture— Old  Italic  temples— Roman 
discoveries— Pompeii— Boscoreale  — Berthouville  —  Lauersfort— Hil- 
desheim  •••*....  233 


CONTENTS 


xix 


CHAPTER   X 

SINGLE   DISCOVERIES    IN   OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

PAGE 

Egypt,  Abyssinia— Babylonia  — Senjirli  —  Palestine— Persia — Tombs  : 
Cyprus,  Sidon,  Petra,  Nemrud-Dagh,  Sanies,  Gordion — Baalbec — 
Northern  Africa — Spain — The  northern  provinces  ....  259 

CHAPTER   XI 

DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

The  older  Archaeology — Conditions  of  new  views — Stylistic  analysis — 
Examples  of  recent  results  in  sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture — 
Some  final  reflections ...;...  294 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  141 


INDEX 


353 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


KING  ASSURNASIRPAL,  BRITISH  MUSEUM       .          .  Frontispiece 

"  THESEUS,"  FROM  EAST  PEDIMENT  OF  PARTHENON, 

BRITISH  MUSEUM              .....    To  face  page  40 
FROM  EAST  PEDIMENT  OF    PARTHENON,    BRITISH 

MUSEUM           .......,,,,  44 

METOPES  OF     TEMPLE     AT     SELINUS,     PALERMO 

MUSEUM           .......        ,,  46 

FRAN90IS  VASE,  FLORENCE  MUSEUM     .        .        .        ,,        ,,  69 

DEMETOER,  BRITISH  MUSEUM         .        .         .        .        ,,        ,,  100 

PLAN  OF  OLYMPIA          .......  ,  126 

OLYMPIA          .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .       ,,        ,,  127 

NIKE  OF  PAIONIOS,  OLYMPIA  MUSEUM  ...,,,,  128 

EAST  PEDIMENT,  TEMPLE  OF  ZEUS,  OLYMPIA  1 

WEST  PEDIMENT,  TEMPLE  OF  ZEUS,  OLYMPIA  / 

ELEUSINIAN  RELIEF,  ATHENS  MUSEUM          .        .        ,,        ,,  137 

THEATRE  AT  EPIDAUROS        .....        ,,        „  140 

TEMPLE  OF  APHAIA,  ^EGINA           .        .        .        .        ,,        ,,  144 

WEST  PEDIMENT,  TEMPLE,  .<3iGiN  A 


_ 

GLYPTOTHEK.MONICH,,  145 

EAST  PEDIMENT,  TEMPLE, 


PLAN  OF  DELPHI    .......        ,,  150 

ALTAR  FROM  PERGAMON,  BERLIN  MUSEUM    .        .        ,,  ,,         171 

LION  GATE,  MYCENAE     ......        ,,  216 

TIRYNS            .........  218 

TROY               ........        ,,  220 

THRONE  ROOM,  KNOSSOS       .....        ,,  ,,         230 

MAGAZINES  AND  PITHOI,  KNOSSOS         .        .        .        ,,  ,,         231 

PLAN  OF  ACROPOLIS,  ATHENS        .        .        .        .        „  ,,         240 

CORINTH          .....        ...,,,,        245 

THE  ALEXANDER  SARCOPHAGUS,  CONSTANTINOPLE        „  „         276 
THE  CHARIOTEER,  DELPHI  MUSEUM 


AGIAS,  DELPHI  MUSEUM         .        .    1 

LEMNIAN  ATHENE,  DRESDEN  MUSEUM  .        .        .        „        „         317 


A  CENTURY  OF 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL    DISCOVERIES 


OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  ANCIENT  ART  UP  TO  THE 
CLOSE   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

EVEN  if,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the 
taste  of  the  general  public,  in  Germany  at  least, 
became  somewhat  estranged  from  the  study  of  classical 
antiquities,  this  change  of  interest  affected  archaeology 
only  in  a  minor  degree.  For  decades  important  dis- 
coveries followed  one  another  in  the  field  of  ancient  art, 
and  succeeded  in  attracting  even  a  wider  circle ;  in  fact, 
archaeology  may  be  classed  among  the  conquering 
sciences  of  the  nineteenth  century.  For  never  had  such 
eager  and  confident  efforts  been  made  to  win  back  from 
the  earth  her  treasures  of  ancient  art,  and  never  before 
had  the  labour  of  the  spade  been  rewarded  with  so  rich 
and  manifold  a  reward.  The  present  generation  still 
retains  vivid  recollections  of  the  latest  phases  of  this 
activity,  but  it  would  be  unjust  to  forget  the  trials  and 
successes  of  former  generations,  extending  back  to  the 
beginning  of  the  century. 

The  object  of  the  following  pages  is  to  bring  the  work 
of  those  researches  before  the  eyes  of  the  reader.  If  not 
all  the  discoveries  of  the  nineteenth  century,  at  least  all 
important  ones  shall  be  duly  recorded.  But  stress  will 
be  laid  upon  single  discoveries  only  in  so  far  as  they  show 


2        CLOSE   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

definite  progress,  and  advance  our  knowledge  of  ancient 
art.  For  every  discovery  not  only  enriches  science 
with  greater  knowledge,  but  constantly  suggests  new 
problems  for  solution. 

To  explain  this  complete  change  in  our  knowledge 
and  views — in  consequence  of  the  development  and 
change  of  material  during  the  last  century — it  will  be 
convenient  to  give  a  short  outline  of  the  condition  of 
affairs  existing  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
We  must  revert  to  the  era  of  the  Renaissance  and  to 
the  early  times  of  the  rediscovery  of  ancient  art.  Rome, 
in  consequence,  becomes  the  main  object  of  our  pre- 
liminary consideration. 

From  an  old  description  of  Rome,  which  dates  from 
the  age  of  Constantine,  we  learn  that  in  the  first  half  of 
the  fourth  century,  before  Rome  had  been  plundered 
to  enrich  Constantinople  and  devastated  again  and 
again  by  invasions,  the  city  still  possessed  an  almost 
incredible  number  of  public  statues.  Two  colossi  of 
unusual  height  (one  measured  thirty-four  metres)  and 
22  large  equestrian  statues  are  mentioned,  besides  80  gilt 
and  73  chryselephantine  images  of  gods  ;  to  these  may 
be  added  3785  bronze  statues  (those  of  marble  are  not 
even  mentioned).  How  do  these  compare  with  our 
Siegesallee,  or  any  of  our  cities  richest  in  statues  ? 

If,  however,  at  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  (the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century)  we  question  Poggio  Bracciolini, 
one  of  the  chief  representatives  of  the  Renaissance,  he 
laments  that  five  marble  statues  only  remain  of  all  this 
splendour— four  on  the  Monte  Cavallo  and  one  in  the 
Forum.  Only  one  bronze  equestrian  statue  remained 
which  was  supposed  to  represent  Constantine;  the 
learned  Poggio,  however,  more  correctly  recognized  it 
as  one  of  the  earlier  Roman  emperors  (Marcus  Aurelius, 
not  Septimius  Severus,  as  he  assumed).  To  these  may 
be  added  the  impressive  remains  of  buildings  which 


ANTIQUES  OF  MEDIEVAL  ROME      3 

became  the  models  for  the  Renaissance  ;  above  all  the 
Pantheon,  the  Colosseum,  and  the  theatre  of  Marcellus, 
the  massive  vaults  of  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  of  Dio- 
cletian, and  of  Constantine,  remains  of  temples,  columns 
and  triumphal  arches,  etc. 

In  its  architecture  ancient  Rome  still  retained  much 
of  its  grandeur.  But  even  in  plastic  art,  things  were 
not  quite  as  bad  as  we  might  be  led  to  suppose  from 
Poggio's  rhetorical  plaints.  At  this  time  antique  sculp- 
ture had  been  collected  at  three  different  points  in  Rome. 
Some,  in  fact,  had  never  been  covered  by  the  rubbish 
heaps  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

On  the  Quirinal  still  stood,  on  their  late  antique  bases, 
the  great  marble  statues  of  the  Dioscuri  beside  their 
horses,  hence  giving  to  the  mount  the  name  of  Monte 
Cavallo.  Traditional  tales  of  medieval  times  connected 
these  with  the  names  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles,  found  on 
the  pedestals,  and  also  with  a  fountain  and  a  female 
figure,  entwined  by  a  serpent.  At  the  base  of  the  two 
colossi  a  hall  had  been  added  containing  three  statues — 
of  Constantine  and  his  sons — these  had  presumably  come 
from  the  neighbouring  Thermae  of  Constantine.  This 
hall  had  been  used  as  a  Court  of  Justice ;  here,  as  else- 
where, superstition  brought  about  an  association  between 
works  of  former  times  and  judicial  usages.  Lastly,  to 
the  antiques  of  value  on  the  Monte  Cavallo  may  be  added 
two  colossal  reclining  river  gods,  probably  remains  of  a 
huge  fountain  ;  to-day  they  adorn  the  steps  leading  to 
the  Capitol.  These,  with  the  Dioscuri,  came  to  typify 
Rome,  and  these  images  are  rarely  absent  from  old 
pictures  or  plans  of  the  city. 

The  papal  palace  of  the  Lateran  was  surrounded  by 
quite  different  collections.  In  the  spacious  square  stood 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  at  times  looked 
upon  by  popular  traditions  as  that  of  the  knight  or  the 
great  peasant  who,  once  upon  a  time,  by  a  stratagem 


4       CLOSE  OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

took  an  oriental  prince  prisoner  before  the  adjacent  gate, 
and  thereby  saved  Rome.  Again,  at  other  times,  the 
statue  was  identified  as  that  of  Constantine,  the  first 
political  patron  of  Christianity.  This  statue  likewise 
witnessed  judicial  proceedings  in  the  tenth  century  ;  a 
rebellious  official  was  once  hanged  opposite  the  horse,  at 
another  time  the  body  of  an  anti-pope  was  thrown  be- 
neath it.  We  hear  that  another  bronze  of  the  Lateran, 
the  famous  she-wolf,  placed  outside  on  one  of  the  towers 
of  the  palace,  marked  a  common  place  of  execution 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  Hence  an  old  illustration  re- 
presents the  she-wolf  flanked  by  two  amputated  hands. 
The  Thorn  Extractor,  the  Sacrificial  Attendant  (Camillus), 
a  colossal  head  and  a  globe  complete  the  bronze  collection 
of  the  Lateran,  which  survived  the  many  vicissitudes  of 
medieval  times. 

The  Capitol  likewise  possessed  a  collection  of  anti- 
quities in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  Piazza  of  the  Capitol, 
which  formerly  served  as  a  market-place,  stood  the  tomb- 
stones of  the  wife  and  one  of  the  sons  of  Germanicus. 
These  had  been  brought  from  the  Mausoleum  of  Augustus, 
and  contained  a  cavity  used  henceforth  as  the  standard 
measure  for  corn  and  salt.  Upon  the  stairs  leading  to 
the  Capitol  with  its  large  Hall  of  Justice  stood  the  famous 
group  admired  by  Michael  Angelo — that  of  a  horse  torn 
by  a  lion  (now  in  the  upper  court  of  the  Capitoline 
Museum)— -as  an  emblem  of  retributive  justice.  Sentence 
of  death  was  pronounced  here,  and  as  a  rule  carried  out  at 
the  Tarpeian  rock  near  by.  Cola  di  Rienzi  met  his  death 
near  the  lion  group  in  1354.  Reliefs  of  sarcophagi  lined 
the  stairs  as  far  as  the  church  of  Aracoeli.  An  obelisk 
stood  near  the  side  entrance ;  below,  near  the  Forum, 
lay  the  river-god  who  later  as  Marforio  played  a  part  with 
Pasquino  in  the  life  of  the  people  of  Rome. 

Thus  these  three  elevated  sites  recaUed  ancient  sculp- 
ture. There  remained  here  and  there  in  public  places  or 


ANTIQUES   OF   MEDIEVAL    ROME  5 

in  churches  single  works  of  art,  and  to-day  names  of 
streets  still  recall  the  antiques  to  which  they  owe  their 
origin.  But  what  was  this  in  comparison  with  the 
splendour  of  former  times ! 

In  Rome  the  collector's  zeal  began  to  manifest  itself 
during  the  last  decades  of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  had 
appeared  somewhat  earlier,  although  less  successfully,  in 
Florence.  In  1471  Pope  Sixtus  IV,  by  transferring  the 
bronzes  of  the  Lateran  to  the  Capitol,  laid  the  foundation 
of  its  collection,  which  increased  rapidly  and  offered  a 
shelter  especially  to  the  historical  sculpture  of  ancient 
Rome.  Julius  II,  a  nephew  of  Sixtus,  established  in 
1506  the  Belvedere  Court,  in  the  summer  palace  of  the 
Vatican.  Here  such  famous  masterpieces  as  the  Apollo, 
the  Laocoon,  the  Ariadne,  the  Nile,  the  Tiber,  and  the 
Torso  brought  the  aesthetic  aspects  of  ancient  sculpture 
into  prominence.  The  first  to  follow  the  examples  of 
the  popes  were  the  cardinals  (Valle,  Cesi,  Grimani,  Carpi, 
etc.),  followed  later  by  other  distinguished  men.  To  in- 
crease these  valuable  possessions  private  excavations 
were  frequently  undertaken.  In  the  time  of  Paul  III 
the  group  of  the  Bull  and  the  colossal  reposing  Herakles 
were  discovered  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  and  acquired 
by  the  papal  family  of  Farnese. 

Julius  III  was  the  last  pope  to  rear  a  monument  to  his 
humanistic  and  antiquarian  tastes  in  the  Villa  Papagiulio. 
Then  the  ecclesiastical  reaction  appeared.  The  Court  of 
the  Belvedere  was  closed,  cardinals  such  as  Ferdinando 
de  Medici,  Ippolito  d'Este,  Cardinal  MontaUo  (Sixtus  V), 
who  had  furnished  their  villas  as  treasure  houses  of 
antique  art,  became  rare.  The  Medici  acquired  among 
other  treasures  the  Niobe  group.  Instead,  however, 
the  collector's  zeal  had  awakened  in  the  middle  classes ; 
different  members  of  the  Mattei  family  distinguished 
themselves.  Not  only  were  antiques  gathered  in  great 
collections,  but  many  of  the  treasures  that  the  soil  con- 


6       CLOSE   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

tinued  to  yield  were  distributed  throughout  the  city  for 
decorative  purposes  ;  courts,  stairs,  fountains,  galleries, 
and  palaces  were  adorned  with  statues,  busts,  reliefs, 
and  sarcophagi,  applied  in  such  a  manner  as  to  become 
incorporated  in  contemporary  art,  and  thereby  to  gain 
fresh  life. 

The  seventeenth  century  continues  to  be  a  time  of 
eager  searching  and  collecting.  Although  the  Court  of 
the  Belvedere  remains  sunk,  like  a  sleeping  beauty,  in 
oblivion,  and  its  great  treasures  hidden  behind  wooden 
stable  doors,  yet  no  reigning  pope  is  now  without  a 
cardinal  nephew,  who  is  a  collector.  In  consequence, 
the  palaces  of  the  Aldobrandini,  Borghese,  Ludovisi, 
Barberini,  Pamfili,  Chigi,  etc.,  are  uninterruptedly  being 
filled  with  antiques.  Cardinal  Ludovico  Ludovisi  de- 
monstrated the  astonishing  power  at  the  disposal  of  a 
cardinal  nephew,  when  he  formed  within  a  year,  1622-3, 
a  collection  of  more  than  300  antiques — and  what 
a  collection!  Perhaps  the  finest  collection  Rome  has 
ever  seen,  comprising  Greek  originals  such  as  the  Dying 
Gaul  and  the  group  of  Gauls  belonging  to  it.  It  was 
difficult  to  compete  with  the  all-powerful  papal  families, 
but  the  Giustiniani  of  Genoa,  for  example,  succeeded  in 
establishing  three  important  collections  within  a  short 
time  in  their  palace  in  the  city  near  the  Pantheon  and  in 
their  two  villas  near  the  Lateran  and  outside  the  Porta 
del  Popolo.  Pope  Innocent  X  (whose  features  Velasquez 
has  perpetuated  in  a  masterly  portrait)  founded  about 
the  middle  of  the  century  the  new  Capitoline  Museum, 
and  the  learned  Jesuit  father,  Athanasius  Kircher  of 
Fulda,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  valuable  collection  of 
Italian  antiquities  in  the  palace  of  his  order,  the  Collegium 
Romanum. 

During  two  centuries  untold  antiquities  had  been 
gathered  in  Rome,  while  outside  of  Rome  very  little  was 
recorded.  On  the  other  hand,  Rome  had  begun  early  to 


ANTIQUES   OF    MEDIEVAL    ROME  7 

distribute  her  treasures.  Venice,  Paris,  Madrid,  Munich, 
and  Prague  had  acquired  some  Roman  antiquities  ;  and 
Florence  had  begun  to  remove  to  the  banks  of  the  Arno 
the  most  famous  statues  of  the  Villa  Medici.  f 

But  this  centrifugal  movement  gained  even  greater 
strength  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  Roman  families 
were  impoverished  more  and  more,  and  prized  their  in- 
herited treasures  only  as  a  means  of  bettering  their 
finances.  The  Giustiniani  began,  the  Chigi  and  Albani 
followed.  The  courts  of  Madrid  and  Dresden  had  been 
the  chief  purchasers,  but  soon  wealthy  Englishmen  ap- 
peared on  the  scene,  and,  with  the  aid  of  art  dealers, 
formed  small  or  large  collections,  which  in  the  seclusion 
of  their  country  houses,  were  practically  withdrawn  from 
view,  and  afforded  neither  pleasure  nor  profit  to  the  lover 
of  art.  Other  treasures  followed  their  owners  into  foreign 
lands,  the  Farnese  antiques  were  removed  to  Naples,  and 
those  of  the  Medici  to  Florence. 

In  this  manner  acquaintance  with  antique  sculpture 
was  extended  beyond  Rome.  However,  Rome  ran  the 
danger  of  losing  her  old  supremacy.  To  forestall  this 
danger  the  Capitoline  Museum  was  enlarged,  enriched, 
and  newly  opened  in  the  year  1734,  chiefly  the  work  of 
the  two  popes  Clement  XII  and  Benedict  XIV  and  their 
energetic  advisers.  A  generation  later  the  only  private 
collection  formed  during  the  century  was  added  to  it, 
the  collection  in  the  villa  of  Cardinal  Albani.  Its 
spacious  halls  had  been  tastefully  adorned  with  carefully 
selected  works  of  art. 

This  nearly  completes  the  list  of  antiques  accessible  to 
Winckelmann,  when  he  came  to  Rome  in  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  to  combine  the  hitherto  unor- 
ganized material  for  his  "  History  of  Art."  The  material 
offered  was  entirely  from  Roman  collections.  But 
what  did  these  collections  contain  ?  A  few  original  works 
of  late  Greek  times,  such  as  the  group  of  the  Gauls  and 


8       CLOSE   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

the  Laocoon  ;  a  number  of  characteristic  reliefs,  statues 
and  busts  of  the  Roman  Empire— all  the  others  were  not 
originals,  but  Roman  copies  of  Greek  works,  of  the  most 
different   periods.     The   major   part   was   the   work   of 
artisans,  in  which  it  is  hard  to  trace  the  character  and 
charm  of  the  originals.    Even  the  famous  Apollo  Belve- 
dere is  only  distinguished  from  others  by  the  comparative 
excellence  of  the  reproduction.    All  these  were  scattered 
in  the  most  diverse  places,  and  frequently  hidden  in 
obscure  nooks  and  corners,  so  as  to  render  a  comparative 
study   exceedingly   difficult.    Nor   had  the   records   of 
ancient  writers  on  art  been  collected  or  sifted,  but  had  to 
be  gathered  from  all  corners  ;    there  only  existed  for 
artists  a  catalogue  of  artists  by  Junius.     If  we  consider 
all  this  we  forget  the  imperfections  in  Winckelmann's 
"  History  of  Art,"  and  are  moved  with  amazed  admiration 
for  the  ardent  zeal  and  penetrating  artistic  insight  that 
enabled  the  Brandenburg  shoemaker's  son  to  discern 
with  a  seer's  eye  the  true  nature  of  things  and  their 
historical  relations  through  the  specious  and  distorting 
medium  of  appearances,  and  out  of  such  materials  to  rear 
an  edifice  destined  to  endure  for  many  years. 

Winckelmann  was,  however,  able  to  look  beyond  the 
Roman  horizon  at  two  points.  The  treasures  recovered 
at  Herculaneum  were  now  most  jealously  guarded  at  the 
)  royal  palace  of  Portici.  As  is  well  known,  after  the  first 
excavations  in  1711— -to  which  the  "  Herculanerinnen  " 
in  Dresden  belong— orders  were  given  prohibiting  further 
work.  Not  till  1738  did  the  Government  resume  ex- 
cavations, which  were  continued  for  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  until  1766.  In  the  discovery  of  the  "Villa 
dei  papiri,"  in  1753,  the  climax  was  reached.  Not  only 
the  library  of  the  owner,  who  had  been  greatly  interested 
in  Epicurean  philosophy,  was  discovered,  but  also  about 
one  hundred  works  of  plastic  art,  bronze  as  well  as  marble 
busts  and  statues.  Although  these  again  were  only 


HERCULANEUM— P^STUM— GREECE  9 

copies  of  earlier  works,  they  offered  new  aspects  through 
the  hitherto  unexampled  number  of  bronze  figures 
found,  thereby  forcibly  indicating  how  inadequately 
the  bronze  of  the  originals  had  been  rendered  in  the  usual 
marble  copies.  Again  the  vast  number  of  antique 
bronze  utensils  that  were  found  furnished  a  glimpse  of 
the  wealth  of  beautiful  form  with  which  the  handicrafts 
adorned  the  whole  life  of  an  ancient  city — even  a  second 
or  third  class  provincial  town. 

Wall  paintings  offered  entirely  new  problems  for  in- 
vestigation; not  only  purely  decorative  designs,  but 
large  pictures  as  well.  For  Rome  had  presented  little  in 
this  respect :  some  obliterated  remnants  in  the  so-called 
Thermae  of  Titus  (more  correctly  Nero's  "  Golden  House  ") 
and  the  Aldobrandini  Nuptials.  In  this  respect  the 
antiquities  of  Herculaneum  offered  impressions  and 
solutions  of  great  variety,  thereby  widening  the  limited 
horizon  of  our  knowledge  of  Rome. 

These  new  discoveries  soon  became  accessible  to  many 
through  the  medium  of  a  series  of  plates.  One  thing, 
however,  Herculaneum  could  not  offer — a  complete 
picture  of  an  ancient  city.  The  covering  of  ashes, 
hardened  to  stone,  had  become  too  compact,  and  only 
permitted  examination  of  single  portions  of  the  ancient 
city,  and  the  bringing  forth  of  its  treasures  to  the  light  of 
day  as  from  a  mine. 

Winckelmann  was  able  to  go  a  step  beyond  Naples 
southward  to  Paestum  and  its  ancient  temples.  Al- 
though visible  to  all  eyes,  they  had  only  recently  been 
discovered.  He  found  himself  here,  for  the  first  and 
only  time  in  his  life,  on  Greek  soil,  and  saw  Greek  archi- 
tecture. With  his  clear  vision  and  warm  sensibility, 
he  conceived  at  once  the  radical  difference  between  Greek 
and  Roman  architecture,  and  what  he  perceived  here  in 
one  province  of  Greek  art  enlightened  him  in  others.  For 
the  first  time  the  grave  creations  of  earlier  Greek  art, 


io     CLOSE   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

great  in  their  simplicity,  entered  the  realm  of  historical 
aesthetics. 

In  Goethe's  "  Italian  Journey  "  we  recognize  the  same 
overwhelming  impression  on  his  visit  to  Psestum,  of 
another,  until  then,  only  dimly  conceived  world.  Above 
all,  in  Sicily,  which  Winckelmann  never  visited,  Goethe 
felt  strongly  the  Greek,  even  Homeric,  influence  of  his 
surroundings. 

The  Greek  world  of  art  was  then  already  beginning 
to  reveal  itself.  About  the  middle  of  the  century  Asia 
Minor  and  Greece  entered  the  horizon  of  cultivated  people. 
In  both  cases  the  search  had  been  instituted  by  English- 
men. In  the  time  of  Charles  I,  Lord  Arundel  had  fixed 
his  gaze  on  Greece,  and  kept  resourceful  agents  busy  ac- 
quiring Greek  sculpture  for  his  collection.  This  un- 
fortunately experienced  many  vicissitudes,  until  finally 
the  greater  part  of  it  found  its  way  to  Oxford.  A  century 
later,  in  1733,  some  learned  men  in  London  founded  the 
"  Society  of  Dilettanti,"  at  first  merely  to  unite  travellers 
for  the  discussion  of  their  recollections  of  Italy  and  the 
other  countries  of  the  "  grand  tour  "  ;  soon,  however,  to 
lend  aid  to  serious  undertakings.  To  the  Society  of 
Dilettanti  belonged  nearly  all  the  collectors,  who  had  of 
late  been  purchasing  antiquities  in  Rome  to  embellish 
their  country  houses. 

James  Dawkins  and  Robert  Wood,  both  members  of 
the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  made  known  about  the  middle 
of  the  century  the  great  ruins  of  Palmyra  and  Baalbec — 
those  great  Oriental-Roman  creations  of  the  second  and 
third  centuries  A.D.,  and  made  them  accessible  to  the 
art-loving  and  learned  world. 

More  important  still  about  this  time  were  the  results 
of  an  expedition  undertaken  in  England  to  rediscover 
Athens.  Athens  had  been  practically  lost  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  In  the  year  1674  occurred  the  visit  of  the 
French  ambassador  to  Turkey,  the  Marquis  de  Nointel, 


ATHENS    AND    IONIA  n 

to  whom  we  owe  the  so-called  Carrey  drawings  ;  and  in 
1676  took  place  the  voyage  of  the  Lyons  physician, 
Jacques  Spon  and  his  friend  George  Wheler,  fortunately 
in  time  to  rescue  most  valuable  records,  which  otherwise 
would  have  perished  in  the  unfortunate  bombardment  of 
the  Acropolis  by  the  army  of  Morosini  in  1687. 

Again  Athens  vanished  into  darkness,  until  in  1751 
the  painter  James  Stuart  and  the  architect  Nicolas 
Revett  arrived  there,  and  remained  three  years,  taking 
careful  measurements  and  drawings  of  the  sculpture  and 
architecture,  which  till  then  had  never  been  accu- 
rately examined.  Many  things  remained  in  those  days 
which  have  since  disappeared  (as  the  Ionic  Temple  by 
the  Ilissos,  the  Monument  of  Thrasyllos  by  the  Acropolis, 
etc.) ;  others  were  in  a  far  better  state  of  preservation 
than  to-day.  The  Athenian  enterprise  of  Stuart  and 
Revett  was  the  most  eventful  and  important  of  all  ex- 
peditions so  far  undertaken,  and  would  have  been  of 
far  greater  significance  had  not  the  publication  of  their 
great  work,  the  "  Antiquities  of  Athens,"  been  so  ex- 
cessively long  delayed.  Of  the  two  volumes  dealing 
with  Athens,  the  first  appeared  in  1790,  and  the  second 
not  till  1816.  It  was  not  surprising  that  the  Dilettanti, 
who  had  subsidized  the  publication,  became  impatient, 
and  in  1764  sent  out  the  "  Ionic  "  expedition  at  their 
own  expense.  Besides  Revett,  the  scholar  Richard 
Chandler  and  the  excellent  draughtsman  William  Pars 
were  added  to  its  number.  We  owe  to  them,  besides 
supplementary  notes  on  Athens,  the  first  survey  of  the 
remains  of  temples  on  the  Ionic  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
(Samos,  Priene,  Miletos)  considerably  extending  our 
knowledge  of  Ionic  architecture.  The  Doric  ruins  of  the 
temples  of  ^Egina  and  Sunium  became  likewise  known. 
Thus  the  "  Antiquities  of  Ionia "  supplemented  the 
older  publication  in  a  most  desirable  manner,  their 
volumes  appearing  in  comparatively  quick  succession 


12     CLOSE   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

(1769  and  1797),  and  almost  eclipsed  all  interest  in  the 
former. 

Winckelmann,  who  passed  away  early  in  life,  was  not 
permitted  to  see  the  promised  land  of  Greek  art  as  re- 
vealed here  by  English  energy.  But  his  authority  was 
so  compelling  that  the  following  generation  preferred 
to  remain  with  him,  rather  than  advance  with  the  newly 
acquired  knowledge.  Winckelmann 's  "  History  of  Art " 
remained  for  a  long  time  the  canon  for  all  knowledge 
and  criticism  of  Greek  Art,  although  it  was  quite  evident 
that  it  had  originated  on  Italian  soil,  and  betrayed 
certain  limitations  due  to  the  almost  exclusive  use  of 
Roman  material.  But  how  many,  at  that  time,  were 
there  whose  glance  reached  beyond  ?  Again  the  power 
of  the  Roman  spirit  prevailed  completely  when  the 
Vatican  Museum  was  formed  by  the  two  popes  Clement 
XIV  and  Pius  VI.  The  Pioclementi  Museum  was  a 
splendid  enlargement  of  the  old  court  of  the  Belvedere. 
The  best  that  could  be  acquired  by  purchase,  gift,  or 
excavation,  in  Rome  and  the  surrounding  country,  was 
gathered  in  these  famous  galleries,  their  buildings  keeping 
pace  with  their  ever-increasing  wealth. 

The  Museum,  begun  in  1770,  was  completed  in  1792, 
when  its  first  catalogue  was  published.  The  most 
eminent  Italian  archaeologist — Ennio  Quirino  Visconti — 
issued  this  superb  volume,  produced  by  papal  munificence. 
It  practically  occupied  the  same  position  in  regard  to  an- 
tique sculpture  as  Winckelmann 's  life-work  in  the  his- 
tory of  art.  The  Vatican  Museum  seemed  destined  to 
furnish  a  brilliant  close  to  the  archaeology  founded  on 
Italian  sources.  This  position  it  still  maintains  to-day, 
and  if  the  general  public  looks  upon  it  as  the  noblest 
of  all  museums  of  antiquities,  it  only  proves  the  quiet 
tenacity  with  which  the  tradition  of  Winckelmann  con- 
tinues to  exist. 


II 

THE    NAPOLEONIC    PERIOD 

THE  man  who  impressed  his  great  personality  upon 
the  decades  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  greatly  influenced 
archaeology,  so  that  we  may  speak  of  that  period  as  the 
Napoleonic.  This  influence  was  directed  into  three 
distinct  channels  :  the  scientific  opening  of  Egypt,  the 
excavations  of  Pompeii,  and  the  foundation  of  the 
Muse*e  Napoleon. 

Egypt  had  in  former  times  only  rarely  been  visited  by 
travellers;  of  whom  Richard  Pococke,  1737-8,  may  be 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  most  distinguished. 

Of  Egyptian  art  only  some  single  statues  were  known, 
which  had  mainly  been  recovered  in  Rome  and  found 
shelter  in  the  Capitol ;  the  splendid  lions,  which  older 
visitors  to  Rome  may  still  remember  adorning  the  steps 
of  the  Capitol,  some  Ptolemies,  and  a  statue  of  the  mother 
of  Rameses  II,  the  latter  indeed  of  the  brilliant  period 
of  the  New  Kingdom.  To  these  may  be  added  some 
reliefs,  numerous  scarabaei,  finally  some  obelisks  with 
hieroglyphics.  This  formed  nearly  all  the  material  on 
which  Winckelmann  was  able  to  base  his  appreciation 
of  the  art  of  the  Egyptians.  Georg  Zoega  soon  after 
devoted  serious  attention  to  the  obelisks.  He  was  the 
profoundest  archaeologist  of  the  generation  following 

13 


I4  THE   NAPOLEONIC    PERIOD 

Winckelmann,  and,  like  him,  a  son  of  the  North,  who  had 
drifted  to  Rome.     For  the  first  time  an  accurate  repro- 
duction of  hieroglyphics  was  offered  in  his  erudite  book, 
so  that  it  was  possible  to  recognize  broadly  differences 
of  date,  and  thereby  Zoega  was  able  to  demonstrate  that 
hieroglyphics  had  not  ceased  with  the  Persian  conquest 
of  Egypt,  as  had  heretofore  been  believed.     Zoega  further 
made    a    distinction    between    pictorial    and    phonetic 
symbols,  and  established  therein  one  of  the  chief  pecu- 
liarities   of    Egyptian    writing.     Finally    he    confirmed 
Barthelemy's  observation  that  the  so-called  cartouches — 
a  kind  of  linear  frame  of  oblong  form — contained  the 
names  of  kings,  the  well-known  starting-point  for  Cham- 
pollion  in  deciphering  hieroglyphics.     In  consequence  of 
this  and  Zoega's  investigation  of  Coptic — the  latest  de- 
velopment of  the  old  Egyptian  language — Egyptology 
had  advanced  as  far  as  possible  without  a  more  extended 
knowledge  of  the  monuments  themselves. 

Zoega's  work  appeared  in  1797,  about  the  time  that 
Bonaparte — then  twenty-eight  years  of  age — after  his 
successful  campaign  in  Italy,  concluded  the  Peace  of 
Campo  Formio.  He  thereupon  began  in  secrecy  pre- 
parations for  his  campaign  in  Egypt,  aimed  at  England's 
Indian  possessions.  Men  of  science  were  added  by  the 
young  general  to  this  expedition,  to  investigate  the  en- 
chanted world  of  the  Nile,  its  life,  nature,  and  art,  in  all 
directions. 

For  the  first  time  since  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great 
a  campaign  became  at  the  same  time  an  expedition  for 
scientific  purposes.  Bonaparte  departed  from  Toulon 
19  May,  1798.  Desaix,  who  was  not  much  his  senior, 
joined  him,  coming  from  Civitavecchia.  In  spite  of  the 
pursuit  of  the  English  fleet,  they  succeeded  in  landing  at 
Alexandria  on  i  July,  and  the  army  advanced  rapidly 
along  the  edge  of  the  desert  to  Gizeh,  where,  on  21  July, 
under  Bonaparte's  leadership,  the  great  victory  was 


THE    EXPEDITION    TO   ^GYPT  15 

gained  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyramids  over  the  Mamelukes. 
The  army  entered  Cairo  the  following  day,  and  ten  days 
later,  in  consequence  of  Nelson's  destruction  of  the  French 
fleet  at  Aboukir  (i  August),  found  itself  completely  cut 
off  from  home.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  the  Egyptian 
Institute  was  founded  in  Cairo,  to  undertake  the  scientific 
investigation  of  the  country.  Among  its  most  distin- 
guished members  may  be  counted  Dolomieu,  the  minera- 
logist, and  Denon. 

Dominique  Vivant  Denon  was  at  that  time  fifty-one 
years  of  age,  and,  although  considerably  older  than  the 
two  leaders  of  the  campaign,  he  equalled  them  in  activity 
and  energy.  He  was  not  a  scholar,  but  an  artist.  A  life 
of  varied  experience  had  led  him,  partly  in  a  diplomatic 
capacity,  to  Frederick  the  Great,  to  Voltaire  at  Ferney, 
to  Catherine  II,  and  to  the  Court  of  Naples  ;  the  former 
favourite  of  Madame  Pompadour  later  entered  into  re- 
lations with  Robespierre,  and  finally  with  Bonaparte's 
wife  Josephine.  He  was  just  the  man  to  pursue  artistic 
investigations  in  the  train  of  the  army.  Hardly  had 
he  arrived  in  Cairo  when  he  felt  irresistibly  drawn  to  the 
Pyramids.  He  spent  the  night  at  Gizeh,  and  the  follow- 
ing morning  he  hurried  to  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  and 
penetrated  to  its  interior.  The  great  Sphinx  near  by 
stimulated  him  at  once  to  considerations  of  style.  As 
an  experienced  draughtsman  he  recorded  all  his  im- 
pressions rapidly  on  paper,  here,  as  throughout  the  ex- 
pedition. Denon,  whom  Bonaparte  had  assigned  to  the 
army  of  Desaix,  found  in  him  a  lively  appreciation  of  art. 
Desaix  had  been  commissioned  to  pursue  Murad  Bey  and 
his  troops  up  the  Nile.  The  description  of  Denon 's 
journey  affords  us  an  admirable  picture  of  this  adven- 
turous expedition.  Denon,  always  on  horseback,  proved 
an  indefatigable  draughtsman.  At  times  he  is  inter- 
rupted by  skirmishes  with  the  Mamelukes;  at  times 
studying  the  old  ruins,  again  his  pencil  is  fascinated  by 


16  THE   NAPOLEONIC    PERIOD 

the  magic  of  the  landscape  or  the  strange  scenes  of  daily 
life;  then  again  he  is  absorbed  in  the  study  of  hiero- 
glyphics. 

The  Pyramid  of  Sakkara  offered  something  quite 
novel  with  its  ascending  steps.  At  Dendera,  a  longer 
stay  made  it  possible  to  study  there  the  extensive  re- 
mains of  the  late  period.  The  small  temple  of  Hathor, 
in  good  condition,  but  half  buried ;  the  larger  temple, 
not  so  well  preserved,  but  rich  in  decorations  ;  the  famous 
representations  of  the  Zodiac — all  these  marvels  were 
now  revealed  to  the  artistic  eye  of  Denon.  The  ex- 
tensive ruins  of  Thebes  could  only  be  inspected  hastily, 
as  the  stay  there  was  disturbed  by  serious  fighting,  but 
Denon's  attention  had  been  attracted  by  the  remains  of 
the  colossus  of  Rameses,  three  metres  high.  The  temple 
of  Horos  at  Edfu  offered  the  first  glimpse  of  a  complete 
sanctuary,  though  again  only  of  the  times  of  the  Ptolemies. 

Thus  the  expedition  continued  up  the  river  as  far  as 
Assuan  (Syene)  and  the  first  cataract.  At  Elephantine 
there  still  remained  the  charming  sanctuary,  surrounded 
by  columns,  of  Amenhotep  III,  and  as  it  was  destroyed  in 
1822,  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  it  exclusively  to  the  French 
expedition.  The  island  of  Philae,  in  consequence  of  its 
situation  and  its  ruins,  offered  a  brilliant  ending  to  the 
expedition.  The  farthest  point  reached  is  recorded  here, 
in  an  inscription  dated  3  March,  1799, thus  immortalizing 
this  event.  The  return  journey  down  the  Nile  was  now 
undertaken,  but  frequently  interrupted  by  skirmishes. 
Only  at  Thebes,  the  hundred-gated,  was  a  more  prolonged 
stay  made,  and  the  widely  scattered  remains  of  the  old 
capital  could  be  studied  more  closely.  The  colossi  of 
Memnon,  already  famous  in  antiquity,  formed  the  chief 
object  of  interest,  and  Denon  thought  he  recognized 
therein  the  images  of  Egyptian  princesses. 

Thus  passed  the  first  scientific  expedition  into  the 
inner  realm  of  the  Pharaohs.  At  Cairo  the  Institute 


THE    EXPEDITION    TO    EGYPT  17 

displayed,  for  many  years,  striking  activity,  shared  alike 
by  scholars,  officers,  and  engineers,  gathering  valuable 
material.  Antiquities  which  could  be  secured  without 
great  difficulties  were  brought  together  there.  Excava- 
tions were  not  undertaken,  but  observation  and  the  zeal 
for  collecting  was  perforce  confined  to  gathering  objects 
which  lay  exposed  or  came  to  light  by  accident,  such  as  the 
Rosetta  stone,  discovered  during  the  building  of  fortifi- 
cations. Its  inscription  rendering  the  same  text  in 
hieroglyphics,  Demotic,  and  Greek,  materially  aided  in 
the  deciphering  of  Egyptian  monuments.  In  other 
respects  the  collection  of  antiquities  consisted  of  twenty- 
seven  works  of  sculpture,  chiefly  fragments  of  statues, 
but  including  some  sarcophagi.  The  fate  of  this  collection 
was  strange. 

After  Bonaparte  had  returned  to  France  in  October, 
1799,  and  his  successor  Kleber  had  been  assassinated, 
14  June,  1800,  the  French  found  themselves  compelled 
to  evacuate  Egypt  in  1801.  The  surrender  of  all  these 
works  of  art  to  England  was  the  condition  of  peace  most 
unwillingly  complied  with.  They  found  their  way  to 
the  British  Museum,  instead  of  to  Paris.  But  the  results 
of  their  scientific  investigations  remained  to  the  French. 
An  editorial  staff  in  Paris  was  busily  engaged  for  years 
in  compiling  and  publishing  the  numerous  volumes  of  the 
"  Description  de  I'Egypte"  which  constituted  for  many 
years  the  main  source  of  our  knowledge  of  the  land  of  the 
Nile.  The  volumes  dedicated  to  antiquity  for  the  first  time 
took  into  consideration  the  architecture  of  Egypt  in  its 
grandeur  and  simplicity,  which  till  then  had  been  unknown. 
Sculpture  and  painting  appeared  as  supplementary  arts 
in  the  service  of  architecture.  Egyptian  art  had  not 
yet  been  divided  into  different  periods,  and  the  illustra- 
tions given  here  belonged  almost  exclusively  to  the  late 
ages.  Denon  had,  however,  correctly  distinguished 
three  different  kinds  of  hieroglyphics  (sunk,  slightly 


18  THE   NAPOLEONIC    PERIOD 

raised,  en  creux),  though  chronologically  not  correctly 
arranged.  The  contemplation  of  Egyptian  art  amid 
Egyptian  surroundings  and  nature  formed  the  main 
result  obtained  by  the  three  years'  expedition.  A  truly 
historical  interpretation  was  reserved  for  later  times. 


With  the  excavation  of  Pompeii  the  Napoleonic  period 
won  for  itself  another  great  distinction.  But  here  it 
was  not  Napoleon  who  took  the  initiative,  but  other 
members  of  his  family,  his  favourite  sister  in  particular, 
the  beautiful,  clever,  and  ambitious  Caroline. 

The    excavation    of    Herculaneum    (p.    8)    had    been 
abandoned  in  1766  in  consequence  of  the  insurmountable 
difficulties  offered  by  the  thick  layer  of  hardened  ashes 
and  pumice  stones.     Pompeii  now  took  the  place  of 
Herculaneum,  as  in  1748  its  ruins  had  been  accidentally 
discovered.    The  deposit  over  Pompeii,  as  is  well  known, 
is  far  less  difficult  to  deal  with.     At  first  these  attempts 
were  only  intermittent  trials,  in  the  south-east  near  the 
amphitheatre,  and  in  the  north-west  in  the  remains  of 
a  villa,  which  was,  of  course,  at  once  declared  to  be  the 
villa  of  Cicero,  as  from  one  of  his  letters  it  was  known 
that  he   possessed   a  country   seat   there.     Only   after 
Herculaneum  had   been   definitely   abandoned,   in   the 
early  sixties,  was  work  continued  there  more  seriously. 
In  the  south-western  part  of  the  city  excavations  were 
begun  in  the  quarter  of  the  theatres  ;    the  two  theatres 
and  the  three-cornered  Forum,  with  its  remains  of  early 
temples,  the  sanctuaries  of  Isis  and  the  supposed  temple 
of  jEsculapius  (Zeus  Milichios).     Besides  these,  a  second 
large  villa  appeared  adjoining  the  villa  of  Cicero,  which 
received  the  name  of  Arrius  Diomedes,  the  model  of  a 
town  villa  or  summer  residence.     Thus  this  work  con- 
tinued slowly  and  deliberately  for  thirty  years— four, 
eight,  or  at  most  thirty  workmen  being  employed.    When 


EXCAVATIONS    AT    POMPEII  19 

the  Emperor  Joseph  II  visited  the  excavations  in  1769 
he  expressed  himself  frankly  in  regard  to  the  Neapolitan 
indolence,  without,  however,  producing  any  effect.  Be- 
sides, the  evil  custom  prevailed  of  burying  houses  again 
after  they  had  been  robbed  of  their  spoil.  But  even 
after  this  ceased,  the  excavations  still  continued  to  bear 
the  stamp  of  careless  working.  Indifference  prevailed 
as  to  architecture  and  as  to  the  remains  as  a  whole ; 
only  what  could  be  carried  off  and  placed  in  the  museum 
excited  interest.  In  this  manner  paintings  were  sawn 
out,  bronzes  and  implements  carried  off,  the  bare  walls 
and  their  decorations  left  to  decay.  Finally  during  the 
last  decade  of  the  century  political  events  stopped  all 
work. 

Thus  matters  stood  in  Pompeii  when  towards  the  end 
of  1798  the  King  of  Naples  transferred  his  residence  to 
Palermo,  and  the  Parthenopean  republic  was  founded  in 
Naples  under  the  guidance  of  the  French  General  Cham- 
pionnet.  He  was  personally  interested  in  the  excavation 
of  Pompeii ;  some  houses  excavated  at  that  time  still 
bear  his  name  to-day.  They  are  toward  the  south  near 
the  theatres,  and  with  several  storeys  tower  above  the 
steep  south  slope  of  Pompeii.  The  return  of  the  Bour- 
bons caused  a  short  interruption,  but  in  1806  Napoleon 
made  his  eldest  brother,  Joseph,  the  most  insignificant 
and  indifferent  of  the  brothers,  King  of  Naples.  The 
king  had  no  scientific  interests,  but  his  minister,  Miot, 
was  more  active.  He  induced  the  able  Neapolitan 
scholar,  Michele  Arditi,  to  form  new  plans  for  the  exca- 
vations. According  to  these  the  State  was  to  acquire 
the  entire  site  of  Pompeii,  and  the  excavations  were  to 
be  carried  on  according  to  well-conceived  plans,  beginning 
at  two  points  in  the  north-west,  not  as  heretofore  to  be 
made  in  a  haphazard  fashion  by  working  here  and  there. 
Finally  greater  sums  of  money  were  to  be  available, 
500  ducats  a  month  (£900  a  year),  so  as  to  make  it  possible 


20  THE   NAPOLEONIC   PERIOD 

to  employ  a  larger  force  of  150  workmen.     With  this 
plan  a  firm  foundation  was  laid  for  the  work. 

When  in  1808  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  transferred  to 
the  throne  of  Spain,  and  succeeded  by  his  brother-in-law, 
Joachim  Murat,  as  King  of  Naples,  these  plans  received 
a  great  impetus.  The  wife  of  the  latter,  Queen  Caroline, 
exhibited  a  keen  interest  in  the  Pompeian  excavations, 
and  proved  this  by  appearing  frequently  at  Pompeii,  and 
stimulating  the  workmen  to  greater  efforts.  She  fre- 
quently spent  entire  days,  during  the  great  heat,  at  the 
excavations,  to  encourage  lazy  workmen,  and  to  reward 
them  in  the  event  of  success.  The  funds  were  increased, 
so  as  to  make  the  employment  of  six  hundred  men  pos- 
sible. The  Street  of  Tombs  was  next  uncovered,  forming 
a  complete  and  solemn  picture,  greatly  impressing  the 
beholder  even  to-day.  For  the  first  time  a  complete  out- 
line of  an  ancient  market-place  and  its  surroundings  could 
be  obtained ;  the  market,  enclosed  and  inaccessible  to 
wheeled  traffic,  was  surrounded  by  a  colonnade,  filled 
with  monuments,  with  the  great  temple  in  the  back- 
ground, and  beyond  the  arcades  were  other  temples  or  public 
buildings ;  among  the  principal  being  the  stately  Basilica. 
Constant  and  increased  eff orts  were  thus  crowned  by 
important  results.  The  Queen  did  not  withhold  generous 
assistance  ;  the  French  architect,  Fr.  Mazois,  received 
from  her  1500  francs  while  preparing  his  monumental 
work  on  Pompeii.  Even  in  those  days  careful  pre- 
parations were  made  in  advance  for  the  visits  of  dis- 
tinguished guests.  While  the  Congress  of  Vienna  was 
in  session  in  the  autumn  of  1814,  the  Queen  had  been 
expected  to  appear,  although  in  vain.  In  April,  1815, 
Prince  Achilles  came  with  the  King  of  Westphalia,  who 
had  in  the  meanwhile  lost  his  kingdom  ;  and  in  June 
King  Ferdinand  again  entered  Naples. 

The  Bourbon  regime  continued  the  work,  and  its  most 
important  achievement  was  the  connection  of  the  two 


MUSEUM    OF   ANTIQUES    IN    PARIS  21 

different  points  of  the  excavations  at  the  Street  of  Tombs 
and  the  Forum.  The  climax  of  these  efforts  was  formed 
by  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Augusta,  and  the  baths  near 
the  Forum — illustrating  graphically  the  baths  of  antiquity. 
But  the  old  Neapolitan  indolence  soon  returned,  and 
Pompeii  sank  once  more  into  a  long  sleep.  What  had 
been  gained  during  the  time  of  the  French  remained 
always  of  importance  ;  an  insight  into  a  Roman  pro- 
vincial town  showing  different  centres  of  traffic,  and  ex- 
hibiting elegance  in  her  wealth  and  artistic  surroundings. 
Herculaneum  may,  on  the  whole,  have  been  wealthier 
and  more  refined  in  the  arts,  but  Pompeii  first  enabled 
us  to  construct  a  picture  of  an  entire  city.  This  appeared 
at  first  as  a  uniform  and  complete  whole,  and  it  was  not 
realized  at  once  that  what  had  been  termed  Pompeian 
chiefly  belonged  to  the  later  and  decadent  period  of 
Pompeii.  This  historical  point  of  view  only  prevailed 
later ;  in  the  meantime,  the  beautiful  works  of  Mazois, 
Gau,  Zahn,  Ternite,  as  well  as  the  more  popular  ones  of 
William  Gell  and  others,  fully  prepared  the  public  for 
Bulwer's  novel,  "  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,"  in  1834. 


In  the  establishment  of  the  great  museum  in  Paris 
Napoleon  took  a  more  personal  part,  its  origin  dating 
even  further  back  than  the  Egyptian  campaign. 

As  far  back  as  the  Renaissance  the  French  capita 
and  its  neighbourhood  had  made  use  of  antiques  for 
decorative  purposes.    To  mention  only  the  foremost  o 
these  :    Francis  I  possessed,   besides  bronze  copies  01 
antiques,  the  "  Diana  with  the  Hind,"  for  which  Henry  IV 
formed  in  the  Louvre  the  "Salle  des  Antiques."  Louis  XIV 
acquired  the  "  Germanicus  "  and  the  "  Jason  "  from  the 
Villa  Montalto  (p.  5).     But  these  antiques  were  scattered 
to  adorn  the  royal  palaces  of  Fontainebleau,  St.  Cloud, 
and  Versailles  ;    and  the  palaces  of  the  Louvre  and  the 


22  THE   NAPOLEONIC   PERIOD 

Tuileries  had  their  share.  With  these  competed  the 
Palais  Cardinal  (Richelieu)  in  Paris  and  the  Chateau 
d'Ecouen  of  the  Montmorency  family.  This  collection  of 
sculpture  was,  however,  greatly  overshadowed  by  the 
"Cabinet  des  Medailles  "  in  Paris  with  its  coins,  gems,  and 
bronzes,  a  collection  of  the  first  importance. 

It  is  to  the  credit  of  Napoleon  that  he  created  a  new 
art  centre  in  Paris  for  antique  sculpture.  In  supple- 
menting his  Egyptian  campaign  with  scientific  work 
he  followed  the  admirable  example  of  Alexander  the 
Great ;  now  in  acquiring  antiquities  he  followed  the  less 
praiseworthy  custom  of  Roman  generals,  who  pillaged 
conquered  countries  and  transferred  the  captured  trea- 
sures to  Rome.  The  youthful  conqueror  of  1796  must 
certainly  have  had  this  example  in  his  mind  while 
making  the  conditions  of  the  truce  at  Bologna,  23  June, 
for  Article  VIII  reads  as  follows  :  "  Le  Pape  livrera  a  la 
Republique  Fran9aise  cent  tableaux,  bustes,  vases  ou 
statues,  au  choix  des  commissaires  qui  seront  envoyes  a 
Rome,  parmi  lesquels  objets  seront  notamment  compris 
le  buste  en  bronze  de  Junius  Brutus  et  celui  en  marbre  de 
Marcus  Brutus,  tous  les  deux  places  au  Capitole,  et  cinq 
cents  manuscrits  au  choix  desdits  commissaires."  Charac- 
teristic of  the  republican  is  the  prominence  given  to  the 
busts  of  the  expeller  of  kings  and  the  murderer  of  Caesar. 
In  vain  the  pope  resisted ;  this  severe  condition  was  re- 
corded in  the  Treaty  of  Tolentino  in  February,  1797.  The 
antiques  selected  were  the  choicest  of  those  contained  in 
the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican  and  in  the  Hall  of  the  Muses  ; 
the  Capitol  suffered  the  loss  of  about  a  dozen  of  its  finest 
statues,  among  them  the  "Dying  Gladiator"  and  the 
"  Thorn  Extractor."  But  even  this  did  not  suffice ;  under 
threadbare  pretexts  private  collections  became  involved, 
especially  that  of  the  Duke  of  Braschi,  a  relative  of  the 
pope,  and  the  rich  viUa  of  Cardinal  Albani  (p.  7).  The 
entire  collections  6f  antiquities  were  confiscated;  517 


MUSEE   NAPOLEON  23 

pieces  packed  into  288  cases  awaited  on  the  shores  of  the 
Tiber  transportation  to  Paris.  In  consequence  of  ne- 
gotiations, however,  only  70  antiques  shared  this  fate. 
Those  selected  were,  of  course,  not  the  least  valuable. 

In  November,  1801 — the  i8th  of  Brumaire  of  the  IXth 
year — just  two  years  after  the  coup  d'etat,  the  Musee 
Central  in  the  Louvre  was  opened  with  117  objects. 
Two  years  previously  Visconti,  who  in  the  meantime 
had  been  one  of  the  consuls  of  the  Roman  republic,  had 
removed  to  Paris,  and  devoted  during  the  two  following 
decades  his  brilliant  scientific  attainments  to  the  museum 
there  and  to  French  archaeology.  He  also  drew  up  the 
catalogues  of  the  rapidly  growing  museum.  But  the 
actual  guiding  spirit,  here  as  well  as  in  Egypt,  was  Denon. 
He  accompanied  the  army,  and  decided  on  the  works  of 
art  to  be  carried  off.  Florence  had  to  yield  her  Venus  de 
Medici,  Venice  the  four  bronze  horses  on  St.  Mark's, 
Mantua  the  famous  busts  of  Euripides  and  of  "Vergil," 
Verona  the  Augustus  Bevilacqua,  Modena  and  Turin 
minor  works.  At  the  Louvre  one  gallery  of  antiques  after 
another  was  opened,  just  as  the  Belvedere  had  expanded 
into  the  Museum  Pioclementi.  The  entire  Borghese 
collection,  which  Napoleon  had  bought  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  Prince  Camillo  Borghese,  was  incorporated  in  1806. 
Very  soon  German  antiquities  were  added,  in  all  twenty 
or  thirty  objects ;  the  "Praying  Boy  "  in  Berlin  led  the  way 
for  the  "  Victory  of  the  Brandenburg  Gate,"  an  Athene 
from  Cassel,  the  alleged  sarcophagus  of  Charlemagne 
from  the  Cathedral  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  others.  In 
Vienna  Denon  selected,  in  1809,  twenty-four  objects 
from  the  collection  of  antiquities,  among  which  the  only 
valuable  one  was  the  alleged  Amazon  sarcophagus  of 
Ephesos.  The  precious  cameos  of  the  Imperial  House 
had  fortunately  been  carried  in  time  into  security  in 
Hungary.  Numerous  catalogues  recorded  the  constantly 
growing  acquisitions  of  the  museum  and  the  addition  of 


24  THE   NAPOLEONIC   PERIOD 

new  buildings.  In  the  year  1815  its  numbers  reached 
384.  Free  admission  granted  to  the  public,  the  establish- 
ment of  a  foundry  for  reproduction  of  the  sculpture  at 
the  museum,  the  preparation  and  publication  of  great 
collections  of  engravings,  all  contributed  to  increase  the 
magnificence  and  usefulness  of  the  Musee  Napoleon,  and 
to  drown  the  voices  of  those  who  took  exception  to  the 
manner  in  which  most  of  the  treasures  had  been  gathered. 
How  incensed  the  educated  public  would  have  been  if, 
in  the  conditions  of  the  Peace  of  Frankfort  in  1871,  a 
demand  had  been  made  for  the  Venus  of  Melos  and  some 
of  the  more  important  paintings  in  the  Salon  Carre* ! 

The  department  of  antiquities  in  the  Musee  Napoleon 
bore  an  entirely  Roman  character.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Ludovisi  collection,  the  different  Roman  col- 
lections had  yielded  their  best,  but  the  effect  produced  in 
Rome  by  numberless  works  of  art  offered  for  contem- 
plation, amid  ancient  surroundings,  could  not  be  attained 
elsewhere.  If  the  unique  treasures  of  Naples  could  have 
been  acquired  the  museum  would  have  gained,  in  regard 
to  bronzes  and  paintings,  a  great  advantage  over  Rome. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  classical  period  of  Greek  art 
was  represented  by  many  copies  of  different  degrees  of 
excellence,  the  Hellenistic  period,  and  to  some  extent 
Roman  art,  by  such  excellent  originals,  that  we  can  under- 
stand Visconti's  point  of  view,  when  he  states  that  antique 
art  retained  the  same  high  level  from  the  time  of  Phidias 
to  that  of  Hadrian.  It  was  the  first  attempt  to  replace 
the  aesthetic  theory  of  Winckelmann  and  of  his  followers 
by  another. 

To  grasp  the  historical  impossibility  of  this,  one  need 
only  reflect  a  moment.  Six  centuries  rilled  with  migra- 
tions of  races,  of  constant  changes  in  political  and  civilizing 
influences,  but  art  retaining  always  the  same  height,  as  if 
floating  above  the  clouds  !  The  great  name  of  Visconti 
produced  this  iUusion.  The  Musee  Napoleon  became  the 


MUSEE   NAPOLEON  25 

training  school  for  the  archaeologists  of  those  days,  for 
them  Napoleon's  Court  archaeologist,  Visconti,  was  the 
oracle.  Friedrich  Thiersch,  who  was  then  studying  the 
antiquities  in  Paris,  became  for  Germany  the  apostle  of 
this  unhistorical  theory. 

With  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  in  1815  his  brilliant 
creation  fell.  It  was  only  just,  that  what  had  been  ac- 
quired by  martial  law  should  now  be  returned  to  their 
original  owners  by  martial  law.  The  Secretary  of  State, 
Cardinal  Consalvi,  maintained  the  claims  of  Rome ; 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington  en- 
deavoured successfully  to  break  the  resistance  of  the 
French  commission,  especially  of  Denon.  The  Vatican 
received  its  property  almost  intact ;  although  it  showed  a 
petty  spirit  that  the  Tiber  statue  had  to  see  his  old  comrade 
the  Nile  return  alone  to  the  shores  of  the  Tiber.  The  ex- 
penses of  the  return  journey  were  so  enormous  that  the 
papal  authorities  were  only  able  to  meet  them  with  sub- 
stantial aid  from  England.  For  the  same  reason  the  heirs 
of  Cardinal  Albani  contented  themselves  with  bringing 
back  only  four  of  the  seventy  objects  carried  off,  the 
others  were  sold  at  auction  in  Paris,  and  were  either 
returned  to  the  Louvre,  or  went  to  the  Glyptothek  in 
Munich.  In  the  Capitoline  Museum  a  special  gallery 
was  opened  for  the  restored  marbles,  where  they  were 
grouped  around  the  "  Dying  Gladiator."  Only  the 
Borghese  collection  was  acquired  by  purchase  and  re- 
mained in  Paris,  forming  the  nucleus  of  the  present 
Musee  Royal.  Visconti  published,  in  1817,  its  first  cata- 
logue and  his  last  work  ;  he  died  the  following  year. 

The  Musee  Napoleon  was  the  last  magnificent  example 
of  a  museum  exhibiting  a  Roman  character.  It  marked 
the  end  of  the  old  system  of  conducting  museums.  The 
Napoleonic  empire  had  represented  itself  as  the  heir  of 
the  Roman  Caesars.  Philology  and  Ancient  History  had 
also  for  centuries  cultivated,  in  a  one-sided  manner,  Rome 


26  THE   NAPOLEONIC   PERIOD 

and  Roman  literature.  But  at  this  moment  the  History 
of  Rome  was  receiving  a  magnificent  revival  at  the  hands 
of  Barthold  Georg  Niebuhr.  On  the  horizon,  however,  the 
splendour  of  another  dawn  was  visible.  Simultaneously 
with  the  Roman  Musee  Napoleon  the  British  Museum 
in  London  was  developing  as  the  most  illustrious  centre 
of  Greek  art. 


Ill 

HELLAS    REGAINED 

IT  naturally  follows  from  their  old  affinity  of  race 
and  their  mental  characteristics  that  the  Italians 
and  French  would  feel  more  drawn  toward  Roman  an- 
tiquity and  its  expression  in  art  than  toward  the  Greek. 
For  a  long  time  Greek  literature  had  only  been  accessible 
to  these  nations  from  Roman  translations  or  adaptations, 
and  the  language  of  the  Church  fostered  the  Latin 
language  as  well,  while  the  German  schools  and  uni- 
versities, partly  under  the  influence  of  Protestant 
theology,  adhered  to  the  study  of  Greek.  Thus  it  came 
about  that  when  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
intellectual  magnetic  needle  pointed  more  and  more 
toward  Greece,  as  the  central  land  of  antiquity,  Germany 
took  the  foremost  place  in  the  reorganization  of  archae- 
ology, in  the  Greek  humanistic  spirit. 

The  leaders  in  Germany  were  Friedrich  August  Wolf, 
August  Bockh,  Gottfried  Hermann,  and  Immanuel  Bek- 
ker ;  in  England  appeared  at  the  same  time  Richard 
Porson  and  Peter  Paul  Dobree,  while  in  France  Jean 
Fran£ois  Boissonade  and  a  Greek  residing  there,  Adaman- 
tios  Koraes,  distinguished  themselves.  As  in  Germany, 
so  in  England,  Greek  formed  part  of  the  general  education, 
and  was  partly  the  cause  which  now  led  many  British 
travellers  to  Greece  instead  of  Italy  ;  soon,  however, 
political  difficulties  experienced  by  British  travellers  in 
the  Italy  of  the  French  increased  this  tendency.  At  the 

27 


28  HELLAS    REGAINED 

end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  among  travellers  and 
collectors  may  be  mentioned  Richard  Worsley  and 
Edward  Daniel  Clarke.  The  time  in  England  was  noted 
in  archaeological  literature  by  the  appearance  of  the 
second  volume  of  "  The  Antiquities  of  Athens  "  (1790), 
dealing  with  Athens  and  the  Acropolis ;  of  the  "Museum 
Worsleianum"  (1794)  and  the  last  volume  of  the  "An- 
tiquities of  Ionia  "  (1797). 

Stimulated  by  these  new  studies,  an  enterprise 
was  set  on  foot  at  the  beginning  of  the  century 
which  was  to  prove  of  the  utmost  importance.  Lord 
Elgin,  then  hardly  thirty  -  three  years  of  age,  a 
member  of  an  old  Scottish  family,  was  in  1799  sent  as 
British  ambassador  to  Constantinople.  His  friend,  the 
architect  Thomas  Harrison,  aroused  by  the  study  of  the 
above-mentioned  books,  had  requested  him  to  send 
plaster  casts  of  certain  sculptures  and  of  an  Ionic  corner 
capital,  known  to  be  of  irregular  form.  This  modest 
request  fell  on  fruitful  soil,  and  the  young  earl  conceived 
the  plan  of  rendering  to  British  art  the  most  far-reaching 
services,  by  having  drawings  and  casts  made.  The  re- 
quest to  Pitt  for  Government  aid  failed,  a  fact  which  can 
easily  be  understood  if  the  warlike  condition  of  affairs 
is  realized.  Lord  Elgin  was  thus  thrown  entirely  upon 
his  own  resources.  W.  R.  Hamilton,  his  extremely 
active  secretary,  who  later  became  President  of  the 
Geographical  Society,  succeeded  in  gathering  in  Italy  a 
complete  staff  of  artists  :  the  painter  Tita  Lusieri,  the 
draughtsman  Fedor,  a  Calmuck,  the  architects  Balestra 
and  Ittar,  and  two  workers  in  plaster.  While  the  am- 
bassador proceeded  directly  to  Constantinople,  these 
artists  went  to  Athens,  arriving  in  May,  1800,  but  were 
prevented  from  working  by  difficulties  raised  by  the  local 
authorities.  On  the  Acropolis  they  were  merely  allowed 
to  draw,  and  this  only  after  paying  daily  £5  for  admission  ; 
the  citadel  still  remained  a  fortress.  The  artists  thus 


LORD    ELGIN    AT   ATHENS  29 

lost  quite  nine  months.  Ultimately  the  death  of  Kle"ber 
occurred,  which  made  England's  negotiations  in  Egypt 
and  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  possible  (p.  17),  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  the  British  ambassador  to  Turkey 
gained  greater  influence. 

Lord  Elgin,  in  May,  1801,  made  use  of  the  favourable 
condition  of  affairs  to  secure  for  his  artists  free  access 
to  the  Acropolis  and  permission  to  erect  scaffoldings  and 
take  casts  there.  But  the  extortions  of  the  greedy  Turks 
did  not  by  any  means  cease.  Lord  Elgin  convinced  him- 
self of  all  this  by  visiting  Athens,  and,  while  impressed 
with  the  great  beauty  of  the  monuments,  recognized  at 
once  the  danger  to  which  they  were  constantly  exposed 
by  wilful  destruction  and  by  being  scattered  and  reck- 
lessly bestowed  on  strangers.  Lord  Elgin  bought  and 
demolished  two  houses  near  the  Parthenon  ;  in  the  first 
was  found  a  rich  harvest  of  the  pediment  statues  ;  in  the 
second,  however,  there  was  nothing  ;  all  had  already 
been  consigned  to  the  limekiln. 

This  experience  and  similar  observations  of  Philip 
Hunt,  the  chaplain  of  the  Embassy,  who  spent  far  more 
time  in  Athens  than  in  Constantinople,  induced  Lord 
Elgin  to  secure  a  new  firman  permitting  his  artists  not 
only  to  put  up  scaffoldings  and  take  casts,  but  also  to 
take  measurements  and  to  search  for  the  foundations  of 
buildings  and  for  inscriptions ;  besides  this  "  no  one  should 
interfere  in  case  they  wished  to  remove  some  stones 
having  inscriptions  or  figures  upon  them." 

This  last  statement  gave  the  undertaking  quite  a  new 
direction.  Hunt  knew  how  to  interpret  these  words 
in  the  proper  manner.  By  means  of  bakshish  in  the 
form  of  English  goods,  he  received  permission  from  the 
governor  to  remove  one  of  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon. 
This  permission  had  been  granted  more  than  ten  years 
before  to  the  French  ambassador,  Count  Choiseul- 
Goufner,  in  reference  to  the  removal  of  a  slab  of  the  frieze. 


3o  HELLAS    REGAINED 

Lord  Elgin's  first  success  induced  him  to  have  his 
firman  extended,  so  as  to  gain  permission  to  remove 
other  sculptures  of  the  temple.  This  formed  the  beginning 
of  the  widely  discussed  operations  in  the  citadel,  where 
300  to  400  workmen  were  kept  busy  for  a  year  carrying 
off  the  decorative  sculpture  of  the  Parthenon.  This  spoil 
consisted  of  a  dozen  figures  of  the  pediments,  fifteen 
metopes  and  fifty-six  slabs  of  the  frieze.  The  latter 
were  chiefly  collected  from  the  ground  around  the  temple 
or  found  among  the  houses  ;  the  statues  of  the  pediments 
were  removed  without  necessarily  injuring  the  archi- 
tecture ;  the  metopes,  however,  could  only  be  detached 
after  destroying  the  cornice  above  them — a  proceeding 
deserving  the  severest  censure.  It  was  impossible  to 
remove  without  vandalism  a  column  from  the  eastern 
porch  of  the  Erechtheion  and  a  maiden  from  the  Caryatid 
porch,  which  was  replaced  by  a  clumsy  pillar.  As  it  was 
said,  "Quod  non  fecerunt  Gothi,  fecerunt  Scoti"  On  the 
other  hand,  parts  of  the  frieze  from  the  Temple  of  Nike 
and  some  single  sculpture  from  the  lower  city  of  Athens 
were  practically  saved  by  their  removal  from  destruction 
or  loss.  The  exploitation  was  completed  by  a  number  of 
plaster  casts  from  the  Theseion,  and  a  rich  collection  of 
drawings. 

All  this  had  been  accomplished  when  Lord  Elgin  was 
recalled  in  1803  and  returned  home  via  Athens.  Lusieri, 
who  remained  as  his  agent,  was  soon  enabled  to  send  off 
this  precious  load,  in  200  cases,  filling  several  ships. 
The  brig  Mentor  was  wrecked  off  stormy  Cape  Malea,  but 
skilled  divers  from  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
succeeded  in  recovering,  in  the  course  of  three  years,  all 
the  treasures.  What  remained  in  the  care  of  Lusieri 
was  seized  by  the  French,  when  in  1807  Turkey  declared 
war  on  England,  and  taken  by  them  to  the  Piraeus.  The 
want  of  opportunity  for  shipment,  England's  command 
of  the  sea,  and  the  speedy  declaration  of  peace  saved  the 


LORD    ELGIN    AT   ATHENS  31 

statues  from  the  fate,  which  had  befallen  the  French 
treasures  in  Egypt,  of  falling  into  the  enemy's  hands 
(p.  17).  Not  till  1812  was  Lusieri  able  to  dispatch  the 
last  eighty  cases  to  England. 

Against  the  questions  whether  Lord  Elgin  was  justified 
in  using  his  official  position  to  further  a  private  enter- 
prise, whether  Hunt's  interpretation  of  the  firman  was 
correct,  and  whether  the  workmen  always  exercised 
the  greatest  care  and  skill,  we  may  set  the  con- 
sideration that  these  precious  sculptures  were  spared 
from  damage  and  destruction,  and  withdrawn  from  the 
injuries  inflicted  on  the  Acropolis,  and  in  particular  on 
the  western  front  of  the  Parthenon  by  two  bombardments 
about  twenty  years  later.  We  can  only  ask  here  whether, 
in  consequence  of  Lord  Elgin's  action,  science  has  been 
promoted  or  retarded,  and  the  answer  cannot  be  doubtful. 
Only  since  these  valuable  remains  have  been  secured  from 
the  indifference  and  covet ousness  of  the  Turks,  placed  in 
safety  and  exhibited  in  an  easily  accessible  spot,  have 
these  masterpieces  of  the  school  of  Phidias  gained  an 
influence  over  the  development  of  archaeology,  and  es- 
tablished a  fixed  standard  or  scale  for  the  contemplation 
of  the  history  of  Greek  art  which  they  would  never  have 
exercised  in  the  then  remote  Athens,  in  the  enclosure  of 
a  Turkish  fortress,  at  the  inaccessible  height  of  the  pedi- 
ments, or  scattered  and  hidden  in  many  secret  places. 
The  history  of  Greek  art  would  for  another  half-century 
or  longer  have  lacked  the  important  stimulus  given  by  the 
Elgin  marbles  in  London.  Science  therefore  has  every 
reason  to  feel  grateful  to  Lord  Elgin. 


Work  continued  at  Athens,  for,  as  Lord  Arundel  (p.  10) 
had  expressed  it,  "  to  transplant  old  Greece  to  England  " 
seemed  now  the  desire  of  many.  While  the  architect, 


32  HELLAS    REGAINED 

William  Wilkins,  was  studying  Athenian  architecture,  a 
number  of  travellers  were  preparing  to  study  the  country 
of  Greece  scientifically.  The  chief  among  these  was 
Captain  William  Martin  Leake,  as  he  then  was.  He  was 
present  at  the  shipwreck  of  the  Mentor  (p.  30),  and  lost 
on  that  occasion  all  his  papers,  which  contained  a  detailed 
description  of  his  travels  in  Asia  Minor.  He  again  re- 
turned to  Athens  in  1804,  to  travel  on  the  Greek  mainland, 
in  the  employ  of  the  British  Government.  He  thus  be- 
came the  founder  of  the  scientific  geography  of  Greece. 
Simultaneously  there  travelled  in  Greece  the  loquacious 
Edward  Daniel  Clarke,  the  thoughtful  antiquary  Edward 
Dodwell,  accompanied  by  the  Italian  draughtsman 
Pomardi,  and  the  dry  but  indefatigable  William  Gell. 
Their  guide  was  Pausanias,  the  describer  of  Greece  in  the 
age  of  the  Antonines,  as  he  had  been  in  earlier  days  for 
Spon  and  Chandler.  But  the  eyes  of  the  present  travel- 
lers were  more  free  and  open  to  appreciate  present  con- 
ditions as  well  as  the  remains  of  the  past  which  were  un- 
folded before  them  in  surprising  number  and  diversity. 
The  remains  of  prehistoric  architecture  in  the  Argolid 
impressed  them  most  forcibly.  Tiryns  was  discovered 
with  its  cyclopean  walls  of  huge  blocks,  one  towering 
above  another,  with  subterranean  galleries  and  arched 
vaults,  as  yet  of  enigmatical  character.  Mycenae,  the 
citadel  of  the  Atreidse,  appeared,  with  the  Lion  Gate  and 
the  famous  Beehive  Tomb  or  Treasury  of  Atreus,  in 
which  experimental  excavations  had  been  made  by  Lord 
Elgin's  representative.  These  travellers  had  no  thought 
of  carrying  on  excavations.  Thus  there  appeared  from 
the  darkness  of  antiquity  the  first  palpable  remains  of 
the  sites  hallowed  by  Homeric  poetry  and  primeval 
legends.  From  the  very  ancient  walls  of  Mycenae  and 
Tiryns  interest  was  naturally  extended  to  the  numberless, 
and  at  times  excellently  preserved,  city  walls  of  later 
times,  scattered  all  over  Greece.  To  these  may  be  added 


DISCOVERIES    IN    GREECE  33 

the  beautiful  ruins  of  Corinth,  ^Egina,  Bassse,  near  Phi- 
galia,  until  then  hardly  investigated.  These  remains  of 
consummate  architecture  induced  the  Society  of  Dilet- 
tanti to  organize  in  1812  and  1813  a  new  expedition  to 
Asia  Minor  and  Attica,  about  the  time  of  Napoleon's 
campaign  to  Russia,  with  Gell  as  its  chief,  accompanied  by 
the  architects  John  P.  Gandy  and  Francis  Bedford.  Their 
"  Unedited  Antiquities  of  Attica  "  appeared  in  1817,  soon 
after  the  publication  of  the  second  volume  of  "  Anti- 
quities of  Athens,"  in  which  the  sanctuaries  of  the  Eleu- 
sinian  Mysteries  and  the  group  of  Temples  at  Rhamnus 
mark  a  great  advance  in  our  knowledge  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture. 

Other  British  architects  were  working  at  Athens  along 
the  same  lines.  C.  R.  Cockerell  and  J.  Foster  met  Lord 
Byron  there  in  1810.  Technical  questions  were  of  ab- 
sorbing interest,  in  view  of  the  unparalleled  technical 
perfection  found  in  all  the  details  of  the  buildings  on  the 
Acropolis.  Thus  Cockerell  began  measuring  the  Doric 
column  to  ascertain  its  exact  entasis,  which  had  already 
been  observed  by  Wilkins.  This  entasis  is  a  slight  expan- 
sion of  the  outlines,  which  in  the  columns  of  the  Parthenon, 
having  a  diameter  in  the  lowest  drum  of  1-90  metre, 
amounts  only  to  17  millimetres  on  each  side,  and  is  of  vast 
importance  in  giving  life  to  the  outline.  In  September, 
1810,  these  two  young  men,  who  were  still  in  the  early 
twenties,  were  joined  by  a  group  of  older  men,  who  had 
met  in  Rome,  and  there  decided  to  come  to  Greece.  These 
were  two  Danish  scholars,  Peter  Oluf  Bronstedt  and  his 
brother-in-law  Koes,  the  Livonian  Baron  Otto  Magnus 
von  Stackelberg,  an  antiquary,  and  a  man  of  fine  artistic 
taste  ;  the  Nuremberg  architect  Baron  Haller  von  Haller- 
stein,  and  the  Suabian  amateur  Linkh,  of  Canst  at  t.  These 
men  were  soon  united  in  close  bonds  of  friendship,  which 
developed  into  a  special  intimacy  between  the  two 
architects,  Haller  and  Cockerell. 
D 


34  HELLAS    REGAINED 

All  had  the  same  ambitions,  but  tried  to  realize  them 
in  diverse  ways.  Stackelberg  and  the  two  Danish 
scholars  visited  Asia  Minor,  while  the  two  Germans  and 
the  two  Englishmen  went  to  ^gina  in  April,  1811,  to 
examine  the  ruins  of  the  supposed  Temple  of  Zeus. 
Having  established  their  quarters  in  a  cave  near  the 
ruins,  they  found  a  head  with  a  helmet,  near  one  of  the 
pediments,  while  taking  measurements  and  decided  to 
pursue  these  traces.  Thirty  workmen  were  then  en- 
gaged, and  a  great  number  of  fragments  were  found  during 
sixteen  days'  labour.  From  these  fragments  it  was 
possible  to  restore  later  fifteen  statues,  five  of  the  eastern 
and  ten  of  the  western  pediments.  The  fortunate  dis- 
coverers acquired  the  entire  treasure  from  the  city  of 
££gina  for  the  sum  of  £30  to  £40.  The  inhabitants  of 
^Egina  evidently  rated  the  marble  fragments  only  accord- 
ing to  their  value  for  the  limekiln.  These  valuable  frag- 
ments were  conveyed  to  Athens  en  route  for  Zante,  at 
that  time  the  trade  centre  in  these  regions,  but  soon  they 
were  removed  to  Malta,  and  placed  under  English  pro- 
tection, in  consequence  of  the  warlike  condition  of  affairs 
there.  Their  public  sale  had  previously  been  fixed 
in  Zante  for  November,  1812.  France  and  England 
tried  to  acquire  them  ;  the  latter  had  given  unlimited 
powers  to  its  representative,  who,  however,  made  the 
mistake  of  going  to  Malta,  while  the  sale  was  in  Zante. 
In  consequence  the  Crown  Prince  Louis  of  Bavaria  was 
able  to  acquire  them  for  the  comparatively  low  price  of 
£6000,  and  thereby  to  secure  a  firm  foundation  for  the 
Glyptothek  he  had  planned. 

Thorvaldsen  was  chosen  to  restore  and  reconstruct  these 
fragments.  Although  this  restoration  long  enjoyed  great 
fame,  yet  critical  study  and  strict  comparisons  have  re- 
vealed failures  in  a  scheme  carried  on  without  scientific 
advice.  The  detailed  description  of  the  excavations 
recently  undertaken  by  Furtwangler,  and  his  reconstruc- 
tion therefrom,  will  be  considered  in  another  chapter  (VI). 


35 

jWhen  these  discoveries  were  made  they  increased  our 
knowledge  in  two  directions.  Firstly,  it  was  shown  that 
pediment  groups,  of  which  the  only  examples  then  known 
were  those  of  the  Parthenon,  formed  the  decoration  not 
exclusively  of  larger  temples,  as  was  then  supposed,  but 
that  small  temples  possessed  the  same  decorations  at 
either  end.  The  subject  of  the  newly  discovered  group 
referred  to  Homeric  poetry,  to  the  battles  before  Troy. 

Secondly,  the  composition  of  the  group  was  of  unex- 
pected severity,  in  a  style  presenting  older  characteristics 
than  the  Attic,  and  distinctly  different  ones.  It  was 
Doric  art  appearing  here  for  the  first  time.  It  seemed 
so  entirely  strange  that  the  sculptor  Martin  Wagner,  who 
had  made  the  fortunate  purchase  for  his  prince,  was  re- 
minded of  Egyptian  art.  This  suggestion  has  been  re- 
peatedly made  since  in  regard  to  newly  discovered  archaic 
Greek  art. 

The  travellers,  the  two  Englishmen  and  the  two 
Germans,  were  still  followed  by  good  fortune.  From 
^Egina  they  crossed  over  to  the  Peloponnese.  In  the 
south-east  corner  of  Arcadia  they  reached,  in  July,  1811, 
the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassae,  near  the  town  of  Phigalia, 
which  is  spoken  of  among  the  natives  as  "near  the 
columns "  ('?  TOV?  (rrvXov?).  The  temple  is  distin- 
guished by  its  exceptionally  fine  position.  It  is  situated 
high  in  a  mountainous  region,  commanding  an  extended 
view  toward  the  south  over  rich  Messene,  with  Mount 
Ithome  as  a  central  point,  and  the  sea  far  beyond.  To 
this  must  be  added  the  different  peculiarities  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  temple,  the  unusual  ground-plan  ;  the 
use  made  of  Ionic  half-columns  in  a  Doric  temple,  etc. 
There  was  abundance  of  work  for  the  architects  Haller, 
Cockerell,  and  Foster. 

While  searching  among  a  heap  of  blocks  they  came  upon 
a  fox's  earth,  and  continuing  their  search  they  found  a  slab 
of  a  frieze,  which  had  served  as  its  lair.  Yet  another 


36  HELLAS    REGAINED 

Temple  with  sculpture!  Excavations  were  not  per- 
mitted, but  after  their  success  at  jEgina  these  friends 
did  not  despair  of  attaining  their  aim.  The  Prussian 
painter  Georg  Gropius,  who  lived  at  Athens  as  the 
Austrian  vice-consul,  had  joined  this  circle  of  friends, 
and  began  negotiations  with  the  governor  of  the  Morea, 
Veli  Pasha,  at  Tripolitza.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining 
permission  to  excavate,  by  promising  him  half  the  treasure 
found. 

With  this  message  Gropius  joined  his  friends  at  Andrit- 
zena  in  July,  1812.  Cockerell  was  absent,  as  he  had 
gone  to  Sicily,  but  instead  Stackelberg  had  joined  the 
three  travellers,  Haller,  Foster,  and  Linkh.  Thus  a 
party  of  fourteen  persons  ascended  these  lofty  summits, 
on  which  they  pitched  their  tents  and  huts  built  of 
branches.  The  settlement  was  called  the  "  Franks' 
Town  "  (<j>payKOV7rd\i$).  The  number  of  workmen  em- 
ployed varied  from  60  to  120.  Haller  took  charge  of  the 
excavations,  while  Stackelberg  acted  as  draughtsman. 
Great  activity  was  developed  on  this  elevated  site,  fre- 
quently interrupted  by  visitors,  wandering  musicians, 
or  festivals  ;  even  acquaintance  with  robbers  was  not 
lacking. 

The  search  for  a  pediment  group  proved  vain,  evidently 
the  Temple  had  not  possessed  any.  The  reward  of  two 
months'  labour  consisted  (besides  some  fragments  of 
metopes)  of  thirty  metres  of  frieze,  out  of  which  it  was 
possible  to  reconstruct  twenty-three  slabs. 

The  difficulty  now  arose  of  settling  with  Veli  Pasha. 
He  had  heard  of  the  discovery  of  silver  treasures.  Some 
freshly  broken,  coarse-grained  marble  had  given  rise  to 
this.  Great  was  his  disappointment  when  one  of  the 
slabs  was  sent  to  him  for  inspection.  There  was  nothing 
for  him  to  do  but  act  the  art-lover  and  admire  the  work- 
manship of  the  tortoises,  for  which  he  mistook  the  great 
round  shields  of  the  warriors.  Under  these  circumstances 


BASS.E  37 

it  was  not  difficult  to  buy  from  the  pasha  his  share,  and 
permission  to  transfer  the  marbles,  for  the  moderate  sum 
of  £400,  particularly  as  his  recall  was  imminent. 

The  laborious  task  of  removing  these  heavy  blocks  and 
countless  fragments  over  mountains  without  roads  to 
the  sea,  was  accomplished  in  spite  of  great  difficulties 
with  the  authorities,  and  they  were  transferred  to  Zante, 
like  the  ^Eginetan  marbles.  All  had  been  placed  on  ship- 
board, except  a  very  curious  Corinthian  capital,  the  only 
one  in  the  temple,  when  the  soldiers  of  the  new  pasha 
arrived  to  prevent  the  departure.  In  this,  however,  they 
did  not  succeed,  but  the  travellers  had  to  witness  the 
wilful  destruction  of  the  capital  by  the  Turks,  and  there- 
fore it  is  only  known  to  us  from  drawings.  Martin 
Wagner  saw  the  sculptures  in  Zante,  while  concluding 
the  purchase  of  the  ^Eginetan  statues,  and  made  drawings 
of  them,  which  he  published  later  to  the  great  displeasure 
of  their  discoverers.  Their  sale  took  place  in  1814.  The 
British  ambassador  was  present  this  time,  and  obtained 
the  frieze  for  £15,000,  almost  three  times  the  price  paid 
for  the  ^Eginetan  marbles. 

Science  was  greatly  enriched  by  the  discovery  of  Bassae. 
The  complicated  ground-plan  of  the  temple,  which  had 
evidently  been  built  in  reference  to  an  older  sanctuary  ; 
the  strange  form  of  the  Ionic  columns  to  which  the 
Corinthian  capital  had  belonged,  the  oldest  one  known  ; 
the  combination  of  the  three  styles  of  architecture  in  one 
temple,  was  so  extraordinary  as  to  excite  the  utmost 
curiosity,  particularly  as  its  builder,  Iktinos,  the  Athenian, 
had  laid  down  a  canon  for  architecture  in  erecting  the 
perfect  building  of  the  Parthenon.  The  frieze  likewise 
presented  great  problems.  It  had  been  on  the  inner 
walls  of  the  main  apartment  of  the  temple  above  the 
Ionic  columns  —  how  had  it  received  its  light  ?  This 
question  of  the  lighting  of  the  temples,  the  nature  of  the 
so-called  hypaethral  temples,  thus  became  one  of  the 


38  HELLAS    REGAINED 

questions  of  the  day,  not  to  disappear  for  many  decades. 
All  possible  and  impossible  technical  solutions  were 
offered  and  eagerly  discussed,  until  finally,  thanks  to  a 
thorough  investigation  of  Dorpf  eld's  (1891)  the  conviction 
now  prevails  that  lighting  an  interior  from  a  brilliant 
upper  light  was  quite  foreign  to  a  Greek  temple  ;  there 
is  no  question  at  Bassae  of  a  covered  apartment,  but  of  an 
open  court,  such  as  has  been  proved  to  have  existed  in  other 
temples,  e.g.  Didymaion  near  Miletos.  But  the  frieze 
demanded  an  explanation  as  well.  Its  frequent  Attic 
suggestions,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  style  inclining  to 
greater  severity,  have  not  yet  received  a  satisfactory 
explanation.  Stackelberg,  who  devoted  great  care  to 
the  study  of  the  frieze,  and  gradually  published  his  studies, 
sought  to  discover  its  author  in  Alkamenes,  the  most 
talented  of  the  pupils  of  Phidias.  Very  few  have  been 
able  to  accept  therein  a  solution  of  the  riddle. 


The  finds  of  ^Egina  and  Bassae  were  happily  placed  in 
Munich  and  London,  but  what  had  in  the  meantime  be- 
come of  Lord  Elgin's  acquisitions  ? 

Lord  Elgin  was  recalled  in  1803.  On  his  return 
journey  he  stopped  in  Rome  to  submit  drawings  of  his 
sculptures  to  Canova,  and  request  him  to  undertake 
their  restoration.  But  Canova  gained  a  name  for  great 
penetration  and  insight  by  declining  and  declaring  it 
"not  permissible  to  restore  works  of  such  supreme  im- 
portance." 

With  this  declaration  an  entirely  new  standard  was 
given  to  the  art-criticism  of  the  time,  rather  foreign 
to  that  then  existing  in  Italy.  The  advice  was  too 
novel  to  be  accepted  everywhere  at  once,  but  posterity 
has  justified  it.  Archaeologists  will,  in  consequence, 
forgive  Canova  many  softening  transformations  of  the 
antique  spirit.  Against  all  international  law  Lord 


THE    ELGIN    MARBLES  39 

Elgin  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French  on  his  return 
voyage,  and  kept  in  prison  for  three  years.  He  offered 
at  once,  while  in  prison,  his  collection  to  the  British 
Government,  but  without  avail.  What  indeed  had  be- 
come of  these  cases  ?  When  Elgin  returned  home  in  1806 
he  had  to  seek  them  in  many  ports  to  which  the  different 
ships  had  carried  them,  and  with  difficulty  secured  a 
shelter  for  them.  Before  the  cases  had  even  been 
opened,  their  unknown  contents  received  the  bitterest 
criticism  from  Richard  Payne  Knight,  the  then  acknow- 
ledged art  oracle  of  England.  He  declared  the  sculptures 
of  the  Parthenon  to  be  the  work  of  artisans,  and  partly  of 
Roman  times.  The  influence  of  the  entire  Society  of 
Dilettanti  supported  Payne  Knight.  To  counteract  this 
spiteful  stupidity  Lord  Elgin  undertook  to  exhibit  his 
treasures  publicly. 

Only  a  few  grasped  the  significance  of  this  revelation, 
and  no  one  with  deeper  conviction  or  with  greater  en- 
thusiasm than  the  young  painter  Benjamin  Robert  Hay- 
don.  How  the  contemplation  of  the  Athenian  marbles 
inspired  him  is  best  revealed  in  his  autobiography.  This 
occurred  in  1808.  The  painter  David  Wilkie,  Haydon's 
friend,  had  received  a  ticket  of  admission,  and  called  to 
take  him  there. 

"  To  Park  Lane  then  we  went,  and  after  passing  through 
the  hall,  and  thence  into  an  open  yard,  entered  a  damp, 
dirty  pent-house,  where  lay  the  marbles  ranged  within 
sight  and  reach.  The  first  thing  I  fixed  my  eyes  on  was 
the  wrist  of  a  figure  in  one  of  the  female  groups,  in  which 
were  visible,  though  in  a  feminine  form,  the  radius  and 
ulna.  I  was  astonished,  for  I  had  never  seen  them  hinted 
at  in  a  female  wrist  in  the  antique.  I  darted  my  eyes 
to  the  elbow,  and  saw  the  outer  condyle  visibly  affecting 
the  shape  in  nature.  I  saw  that  the  arm  was  in  repose 
and  the  soft  parts  in  relaxation.  That  combination  of 
nature  and  idea  which  I  had  felt  was  so  much  wanting  for 


4o  HELLAS    REGAINED 

high  art  was  here  displayed  to  midday  conviction.  My 
heart  beat !  If  I  had  seen  nothing  else  I  had  beheld 
sufficient  to  keep  me  to  nature  for  the  rest  of  my  life. 
But  when  I  turned  to  the  Theseus,  and  saw  that  every 
form  was  altered  by  action  or  repose — when  I  saw  that  the 
two  sides  of  his  back  varied,  one  side  stretched  from  the 
shoulder  blade  being  pulled  forward,  and  the  other  side 
compressed  from  the  shoulder  blade  being  pushed  close 
to  the  spine,  for  he  rested  on  his  elbow^— and  when,  turn- 
ing to  the  Ilissos,  I  saw  the  belly  protruded  from  the 
figure  lying  on  its  side — and  again  when  in  the  figure  of  the 
fighting  metope  I  saw  the  muscle  shown  under  the  one 
armpit  in  that  instantaneous  action  of  darting  out,  and 
left  out  in  the  other  armpit  because  not  wanted — when 
I  saw,  in  fact,  the  most  heroic  style  of  art  combined  with 
all  the  essential  detail  of  actual  life,  the  thing  was  done  at 
once  and  for  ever. 

"  I  shall  never  forget  the  horses'  heads — the  feet  in 
the  metopes !  I  felt  as  if  a  divine  truth  had  blazed 
inwardly  upon  my  mind,  and  I  knew  that  they  would  at 
last  rouse  the  art  of  Europe  from  its  slumbers  in  the  dark- 


Haydon  spent  three  months  drawing  from  the  sculp- 
tures, and  then  expressed  his  opinion  in  these  words  : 

"  I  saw  that  the  essential  was  selected  in  them,  and  the 
superfluous  rejected— that  first,  all  the  causes  of  action 
were  known,  and  then  all  of  those  causes  wanted  for  any 
particular  action  were  selected— that  thin  skin  covered 
the  whole,  and  the  effect  of  the  action,  relaxation,  pur- 
pose or  gravitation  was  shown  on  the  skin.  This  ap- 
peared, as  far  as  I  could  see  then,  to  be  the  principle. 

"  I  consider  truly  that  it  is  the  greatest  blessing  that 
ever  happened  to  this  country,  their  being  brought  here." 

But  others  did  not  share  these  thoughts.     Disapproval 


THE    ELGIN    MARBLES  41 

continued  in  influential  circles,  and  the  Greek  gods  re- 
mained almost  without  recognition  in  the  foggy  city  on 
the  Thames.  In  spite  of  all  this,  Lord  Elgin  refused 
offers  made  to  him,  the  first  coming  from  the  Mus6e 
Napoleon.  In  1811  he  began  negotiations  with  the  House 
of  Commons,  but  they  failed.  A  new  opponent  now 
arose,  and  one  of  the  most  dangerous.  In  the  spring  of 
1811  appeared  Lord  Byron's  "  Curse  of  Minerva,"  a 
result  of  his  stay  in  Athens.  And  in  the  summer  of  the 
following  year,  in  "  Childe  Harold  "  he  poured  out  the 
vials  of  his  wrath  on  the  Scot,  the  Pict,  the  temple-robber. 
All  conspired  against  the  Athenian  strangers,  who  wan- 
dered from  place  to  place  begging  for  shelter.  When,  in 
1814,  the  Frieze  of  Bassae  arrived  in  London,  Payne  Knight 
raised  his  voice  anew  in  praise  of  these  reliefs,  in  contrast 
to  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon. 

The  true  appreciation  of  the  latter  came  first  from 
foreigners — excepting  Haydon  and  a  few  of  his  friends. 
The  Crown  Prince  Louis  of  Bavaria  came  in  the  summer 
of  1814  to  London,  from  the  Peace  Congress  in  Paris,  and 
was  so  impressed  with  the  beauty  of  the  Athenian  marbles, 
as  to  deposit  a  sum  for  their  purchase  with  his  bankers  in 
case  England  should  refuse  to  reconsider  her  decision. 
Visconti,  the  foremost  archaeologist  of  the  time,  soon 
followed.  He  was  the  first  to  devote  serious  study  to 
this  collection.  His  unqualified  praise  was  extremely 
disconcerting  to  the  opponents.  Lord  Elgin,  who  in  the 
meantime  had  incurred  financial  difficulties,  thought  the 
moment  opportune  to  offer  his  treasures  for  sale  to  the 
British  nation,  for  whom  he  had  originally  acquired  them. 

Delays  were  caused,  rather  to  Lord  Elgin's  advantage, 
by  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  the  Hundred  Days, 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  the  proroguing  of  Parliament. 
In  the  meantime  not  only  had  Visconti  delivered  two 
addresses  before  the  Academy  of  Paris,  which  Lord  Elgin 
iiad  printed  at  once,  but  Canova  appeared  in  London  in 


42  HELLAS    REGAINED 

November,  1815 — he  had  been  engaged  in  Paris  with  the 
restitution  of  the  stolen  art  treasures  (p.  25).  The  un- 
reserved recognition  he  accorded  to  the  Athenian  works 
of  art  finally  silenced  their  opponents  and  enemies.  The 
remarkable  spectacle  was  now  witnessed  in  February, 
1816,  of  a  Parliamentary  commission  sitting  for  a  fort- 
night, as  an  Areopagus  of  art,  calling  witnesses  and  ex- 
perts to  judge  the  masterpieces  of  Phidias.  Payne 
Knight  still  rated  the  statues  of  the  pediment  no  higher 
than  the  frieze,  while  sculptors  (e.g.  Flaxman)  and  painters 
valued  them  above  most,  if  not  above  all  other,  antique 
works.  In  consideration  of  Payne  Knight  and  his  dis- 
tinguished patrons  Haydon  had  not  been  called. 

Finally,  on  June  the  7th,  1816,  the  purchase  of  the  entire 
collection  for  £35,000  was  confirmed  by  a  sparsely  at- 
tended Parliament  against  a  feeble  protest  of  the  Liberals 
(for  this  had  also  become  a  party  question).  Lord  Elgin 
had  renounced  all  definite  demands.  This  sum,  somewhat 
grudgingly  conceded,  hardly  covered  his  bare  expenses, 
and  if  the  loss  of  interest  is  considered,  he  was  hardly 
reimbursed  for  half  his  loss.  Some  apology  was  offered 
for  the  persecution  to  which  he  had  been  so  longjpxposed 
by  nominating  him  as  Trustee  of  the  British /Museum. 
A  still  greater  honour  is  the  indissoluble  uiAi  of  his 
name  with  the  "  Elgin  Marbles."  W 

These  treasures  were  acquired  for  the  British  Museum. 
This  had  grown  since  1753  from  very  modest  beginnings, 
but  as  a  National  Museum  and  not  as  a  Crown  Collection, 
like  nearly  aU  other  great  collections  of  antiques.  Its 
gradual  rise  is  marked  by  the  following  acquisitions  :  an 
important  collection  of  painted  Greek  vases  of  Southern 
Italy  formed  by  the  British  ambassador  at  Naples, 
William  Hamilton  (1772) ;  the  spoils  of  Egypt  in  1801 
(p.  17) ;  the  important  Roman  collection  acquired  from 
Charles  Townley,  1805 ;  and  finally  the  Frieze  of  Bassae 
purchased  in  1814.  The  Museum  rose  now,  at  once,  to 


THE    ELGIN    MARBLES  43 

the  rank  of  foremost  importance  with  the  acquisition  of 
the  Elgin  Marbles.  In  consequence  of  the  great  value 
of  these  additions,  it  so  far  surpassed  the  Mus6e  Na- 
poleon, which  was  already  being  dispersed,  and  the 
Roman  museums  as  to  relieve  it  for  ever  of  all  fear  of 
losing  this  position. 

When  finally  these  Athenian  sculptures,  freed  from  the 
"  Curse  of  Minerva,"  took  their  permanent  place  in  the 
National  Museum,  they  soon  became  popular,  the  frieze  in 
particular.  The  cows  of  the  Athenian  hecatomb  excited 
the  admiration  of  English  cattle-breeders ;  a  riding- 
master  decided  to  bring  his  pupils,  in  preference  to  giving 
them  a  riding  lesson,  so  that  they  might  contemplate  for 
an  hour  these  riders,  who  sat  in  so  masterly  a  manner  on 
their  bare-back  horses. 

Across  the  Channel  also  the  fame  of  these  treasures 
rapidly  extended.  Quatrem£re  de  Quincy  came  in  1818 
from  Paris,  a  highly  esteemed  veteran  of  archaeology,  who 
only  quite  recently  had  published  his  learned  studies  on 
Phidias  and  the  chryselephantine  art.  In  his  letters  to 
Canova,  the  most  eloquent  testimony  of  the  incipient 
change  <$f  taste,  with  him  as  with  Haydon,  the  conviction 
prevails,  and  is  repeatedly  expressed,  of  having  received 
an  entirely  new  revelation.  He  compares  the  statues  to 
the  most  famous  antiques,  and  always  in  favour  of  the 
former.  But  to  him  of  greater  importance  still  is  the 
composition  as  a  whole,  a  unique  group  of  original  works 
of  the  highest  rank,  revealing  unity  in  rich  variety.  In 
some  respects  he  absolutely  agrees  with  Haydon.  For  he 
says  :  "  The  bodies  show  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
anatomy  of  the  bones  such  as  is  nowhere  else  exhibited. 
Firm  lightness  and  genuine  strength  are  thus  attained  at 
the  same  time.  These  bodies  can  move,  they  seem  to  be 
moving."  Moreover,  the  partly  firm,  partly  soft  flesh, 
the  muscles,  now  strained,  now  relaxed,  the  elastic  skin 
everywhere  adapting  itself  to  them,  and  that  play  of 


44  HELLAS    REGAINED 

countless  delicate  movements  of  the  surface  which, 
though  inexpressible  in  words,  appeals  immediately  to 
the  senses,  true  to  every  detail  and  filled  with  life.  "  Never 
have  I  seen  anything  of  its  kind  so  much  alive  as  the 
horse's  head.  It  ceases  to  be  sculpture  ;  the  mouth 
neighs,  the  marble  lives,  one  thinks  one  sees  it  move. 
And  the  river-god,  he  looks  as  if  he  would  rise,  he  is  rising, 
and  we  are  surprised  that  he  is  still  lying  there." 

To  Quatremere  the  drapery  appears  equally  admirable. 
Nothing  of  that  supposed  stiffness  or  austere  severity, 
but  here  again  an  inexhaustible  wealth  of  imagination 
and  spontaneous  life.  The  folds  cling  lightly  and  deli- 
cately to  the  bodies,  or  blown  by  the  wind  float  behind  in 
mighty  curves,  or  again  they  envelop  the  body  in  huge 
folds,  forming  an  endless  variety  of  single  rich  motives. 
"  The  charm  of  these  draped  figures  is  as  that  of  the 
Graces.  It  is  the  despair  of  those  who  continually  ask  for 
its  cause."  "E  bella  perche  e  bella  "  is  the  simple  reason, 
and  the  expert  will  never  know  more  than  the  layman. 

Thus  the  great  art  critic  was  influenced  by  these 
originals.  The  sculptor  Dannecker  was  only  able  to 
judge  of  them  by  casts  sent  by  Hay  don,  and  wrote  as 
follows  :  "  For  me,  it  is  the  highest  and  greatest  I  have 
ever  beheld  in  art.  They  are  as  if  modelled  on  nature, 
and  yet  I  have  never  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  such 
nature." 

The  Sage  of  Weimar  had  to  content  himself  with  draw- 
ings, but  these  influenced  him  so  strongly  that  he  ex- 
pressed a  desire  to  go  to  England  instead  of  Italy  (for 
"  there  alone  were  united  law  and  gospel  ").  And  he 
conceived  a  plan  for  a  society  of  German  sculptors,  who 
were  to  make  the  British  Museum  their  regular  place  for 
study.  It  was  touching  to  hear  an  old  man  of  seventy, 
in  whose  mental  development  Italy  had  always  played  so 
important  a  part,  call  himself  "  happy  to  have  lived  to  see 
this." 


INFLUENCE    OF   THE    ELGIN    MARBLES        45 

Taste  became  completely  revolutionized.  The  land 
of  the  Greeks,  which  Winckelmann  had  sought  in  spirit, 
now  lay  open  before  the  eyes  of  all  who  had  eyes  to  see. 
Welcker  wrote  :  "  The  history  of  art  has  a  new  focus,  and 
has  found  for  ever  the  correct  standard  of  the  main  pro- 
portions." If  the  Elgin  Marbles  had  remained  in  the 
Turkish  fortress  at  Athens,  would  this  conclusion  have 
been  reached  so  soon  ?  The  Glyptothek  in  Munich, 
opened  by  King  Louis  in  1830,  was  the  only  museum  to 
compare,  even  distantly,  with  the  British  Museum.  For 
here  also  original  works  of  Greek  art  gave  distinction  to 
the  collection.  But,  inasmuch  as  the  royal  collection 
retained  from  the  beginning  the  historical  point  of  view 
which  continued  to  influence  the  arrangements  of  the 
Glyptothek,  in  this  respect  the  Munich  collection  em- 
phasizes even  in  a  greater  degree  than  the  British  Museum 
the  motive  which  should  govern  the  future  of  all  museums: 
a  visible  representation  of  the  development  of  ancient  art. 


More  precise  explorations  of  the  Greek  West  were  now 
planned  at  Athens.  These  regions  had  in  earlier  times 
exceeded  the  mother  country  in  wealth  and  importance. 
The  Greek  remains  of  Lower  Italy,  scattered  along  an 
extensive  coastline,  had  so  far,  with  the  exception  of 
Paestum  (p.  9),  attracted  little  interest.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  century  the  architect  William  Wilkins — whom  we 
have  already  seen  at  Athens — decided  to  go  there,  and 
published  in  1807  his  investigations  in  a  great  work, 
"  Antiquities  of  Magna  Graecia."  He  was  followed  in 
1812  by  Cockerell,  who  had  chosen  Sicily  for  his  inquiries 
(p.  36).  Of  all  Greek  countries  Sicily  is  the  one  richest 
in  temple  ruins.  Girgenti,  the  ancient  Akragas,  offers 
the  most  striking  ones  to  the  beholder,  for  no  less  than 
seven  temples,  in  very  different  states  of  preservation,  it 
is  true,  attract  the  architect.  Cockerell  began  here. 


46  HELLAS    REGAINED 

The  ruins  of  the  enormous  Temple  of  Zeus  tempted  him 
to  design  a  reconstruction.  New  facts  and  problems  pre- 
sented themselves,  as  in  the  closed  wall  with  half-columns 
instead  of  the  customary  open  row  of  columns  ;  the 
equally  abnormal  construction  of  the  cella  wall,  with  its 
projecting  pilasters  and  the  remains  of  colossal  giants 
supporting  the  entablature,  the  original  position  of  which 
was  only  determined  with  great  difficulty.  In  a  supple- 
mentary volume  to  a  new  edition  of  the  "  Antiquities  of 
Athens,"  in  1830,  Cockerell  tried  to  solve  some  of  these 
problems. 

The  ruins  of  Selinus,  the  westernmost  Greek  city  on 
the  south  coast  of  Sicily,  are  less  conspicuous,  for  the 
Carthaginian  devastations  in  409  had  been  more  thorough. 
Notwithstanding  this,  on  two  elevations  flanking  the 
former  harbour,  the  remains  of  at  least  seven  temples  have 
been  found,  two  of  which,  usually  designated  as  B  and  C, 
date  from  very  early  times — it  was  at  first  supposed  from 
the  end  of  the  seventh  century.  In  the  winter  of  1822-3 
the  English  architects  Samuel  Angell  and  William  Harris 
excavated  here,  and  the  latter  died  of  the  treacherous 
fever.  Everything  showed  an  unusual  and  archaic  plan  ; 
the  great  length  of  seventeen  columns  and  a  width  of 
six  columns ;  toward  the  east  a  double  cross  row  of 
columns  instead  of  the  usual  single  one ;  finally  the 
Pronaos  was  without  columns,  but  had  a  special  chamber 
behind  the  cella  ;  all  these  had  never  as  yet  been  found 
in  Attic  or  eastern  Greek  architecture.  Special  interest 
was  evoked  by  the  fragments  of  the  very  ancient  metopes, 
three  of  which  it  proved  possible  to  reconstruct  out  of 
32, 45,  and  48  fragments  respectively  (Perseus  and  Medusa, 
Herakles  and  the  Kerkopes,  and  a  Quadriga). 

But  this  heavy  archaic  sculpture  aroused  less  interest 
than  the  many  traces  of  original  colouring,  which  gave 
rise  to  the  question  of  the  painting  of  sculpture.  This 
again  led  to  the  question  of  the  painting  of  architecture, 


THE    POLYCHROME    IN    ARCHITECTURE        47 

which  at  once  attracted  great  attention.  This  question 
was  eagerly  studied  the  following  winter  by  the  architect 
Jacques  Ignace  Hittorf,  born  at  Cologne,  but  now  working 
in  Paris.  He  travelled  to  Sicily  accompanied  by  his 
pupils  Ludwig  Zanth  and  Wilhelm  Stier.  The  coloured 
architecture  of  the  Norman  remains  in  Sicily  may  have 
influenced  Hittorf,  but,  be  this  as  it  may,  he  soon  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  all  Greek  architecture  had  been 
coloured.  This  consideration  he  tried  to  demonstrate  in 
his  "  Architecture  antique  de  la  Sicile,"  1826-30,  and 
later  in  1851,  in  an  enlarged  form  in  "  Architecture  poly- 
chrome chez  les  Grecs."  Gottfried  Semper,  who  had 
travelled  in  the  South  in  1830-2,  had,  in  the  meantime, 
after  a  careful  examination  of  the  ruins,  arrived  at  the 
same  conclusions,  and  expressed  the  view  that  painting 
had  completely  covered  Greek  architecture.  This  was 
contrary  to  earlier  traditions,  and  excited  the  most  ani- 
mated discussions.  Many  observations  of  Hittorf 's  and 
Semper's  have  in  fact  succumbed  to  more  critical  examin- 
ations, and  the  a  priori  aesthetic  claim,  that  the  existence 
of  colour  on  some  buildings  must  necessarily  imply  that 
all  architecture  had  been  coloured,  has  been  refuted  by 
convincing  evidence.  In  historical  questions  of  this 
nature,  only  facts  can  decide,  not  theories.  But,  in 
spite  of  all  this,  the  suggestions  of  Hittorf  and  Semper 
acted  as  a  great  stimulus,  and  their  assertions  only  re- 
quired certain  qualifications.  Subsequent  investigations 
have  provided  these,  and  to-day  it  is  as  certain  that  Greek 
architecture  did  not  lack  painting  as  it  is  that  its  use  was 
limited  by  material,  local  custom,  and  the  taste  of  the 
times. 

In  Sicily  later  investigations  have  to  be  taken  into 
account,  made  by  Dorpfeld,  Borrmann,  and  their  com- 
panions (1881),  of  coloured  terra-cotta  slabs,  which  had 
covered  certain  upper  parts  of  the  buildings.  These 
colours,  burnt  into  the  terra-cotta,  were  practically  in- 


48  HELLAS    REGAINED 

destructible,  and  here  the  more  sombre  tints  of  yellow, 
red,  and  black  have  been  preserved,  corresponding 
probably  to  those  of  the  rest  of  the  building,  in  contrast 
to  the  light  blue  and  red  on  the  glowing  marble  of  the 
monuments  of  Attica. 

The  investigation  of  Greek  buildings  in  Sicily,  begun 
by  foreigners,  was  continued  most  successfully  by 
natives.  The  Duke  of  Serradifalco,  supported  by  the 
young  architect  Saverio  Cavallari,  proved  an  enlightened 
patron  of  art.  Among  the  new  finds  of  greatest  import- 
ance were  two  half  and  four  complete  metopes,  both  of 
the  temples  on  the  eastern  hillside  at  Selinus.  The  nude 
parts  of  the  female  figures  of  the  four  metopes  of  the 
Heraeon  were  of  marble,  while  the  rest  was  worked  in  tufa 
(with  various  traces  of  colour),  thereby  exhibiting  an 
entirely  new  technique  in  coloured  sculpture,  nearly  re- 
lated to  the  painting  of  terra-cotta.  About  the  same 
time  in  1828  the  young  Duke  de  Luynes,  with  the  archi- 
tect F.  J.  Debacq,  investigated  the  ancient  remains  of 
temples  at  Metapontum,  the  old  Achaean  city  on  the  Gulf 
of  Tarentum,  rising  out  of  marshy  and  fever-breeding 
surroundings,  "  anticamera  del  diavolo"  In  reference  to 
the  above  question,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  mention  a 
spout  of  earthenware  with  an  expressive  lion's  head,  on 
which  the  colours  are  well  preserved. 

All  these  eager  researches  in  the  Greek  West  formed  a 
most  valuable  supplement  to  the  investigations  in  Attica 
and  the  Peloponnese.  The  architecture  of  the  earlier 
periods  had  become  more  intelligible  ;  the  Doric  style 
in  particular,  which  had  a  parallel  development  in  the 
West  and  the  East;  many  peculiarities  were  noted  on 
which  at  first  the  student  had  been  inclined  to  base  hasty 
generalizations. 

The  eye  had  to  be  trained  to  appreciate  the  fact  that 
Greek  art  can  be  many-sided,  even  in  so  uniform  a  creation 
as  the  Doric  temple  seems  to  be.  It  proved  wisest  not  to 


THE    APHRODITE   OF   MELOS  49 

construct  premature  theories  or  systems  which  might 
obstruct  a  clear  view  into  the  diversity  of  phenomena, 
but  to  observe  facts  quietly,  and  to  keep  an  open  eye  for 
the  true  historical  development. 


Greece  had  meanwhile  sunk  back  into  her  Turkish 
repose.  The  members  of  that  international  circle  of 
friends  to  whom  we  owe  the  discovery  and  the  harbouring 
of  the  sculptures  of  ^Egina  and  Bassae  had  left  Athens. 
Cockerell  and  Foster  had  returned  to  England,  the  former 
developing  extensive  professional  activity,  the  latter 
living  quietly  in  Liverpool.  Stackelberg  had  been  taken 
prisoner  by  pirates  in  1813,  and  was  rescued  after  great 
sacrifices  by  his  friend  Haller  von  Hallerstein.  Haller 
died  of  fever  in  Thessaly  in  1817.  Stackelberg  and 
Linckh  had  meanwhile  gone  to  Rome  to  live,  and  were 
joined  there  by  Brondsted.  In  Greece,  the  discovery  of 
the  Aphrodite  of  Melos  was  the  only  archaeological  event 
to  interrupt  the  calm. 

This  was  an  instance  of  an  accidental  find,  the  romantic 
details  of  which  are  still  shrouded  in  darkness.  In  spite 
of  an  eager  search,  in  all  manner  of  records,  it  has  been 
impossible  to  obtain  all  the  data,  and  they  seem  practically 
irrecoverable,  as  important  documents  have  disappeared. 
The  circumstances  are  as  follows  :  In  one  of  the  early 
months  of  1820  the  peasant  Georgios  of  Melos  found  the 
statue  of  the  Aphrodite  in  several  pieces.  Some  French 
officers  inspected  the  statue,  among  them  the  afterwards 
famous  navigator,  Dumont  d'Urville ;  the  French  agent  at 
Brest  informed  David,  the  French  consul  at  Smyrna,  of 
the  find.  He  again  informed  the  ambassador  at  Con- 
stantinople, the  Marquis  de  la  Riviere,  who  offered  to  buy 
the  statue  of  which  he  had  heard  so  much. 

In  the  meantime  a  Greek  priest  had  bought  the  statue 
of  the  Commune  of  Melos  to  present  it  to  an  influential 


5o  HELLAS    REGAINED 

personage  at  Constantinople.  He  had  bought  it,  but  it 
had  not  yet  been  paid  for,  when  in  May,  the  Secretary  of 
the  French  Legation,  de  Marcellus,  appeared  at  Melos, 
and  acquired  the  statue  from  the  commune  for  the  trifling 
sum  of  550  to  750  francs,  and  carried  it  off  at  once.  The 
priest  protested  at  Constantinople,  and  the  commune 
was  thereupon  fined  7000  piastres,  but,  on  the  representa- 
tions of  the  ambassador,  this  sum  was  reduced.  Some 
more  fragments  were  collected  in  Melos  in  November,  and 
the  entire  collection  was  presented  to  the  King,  Louis 
XVIII,  who  handed  it  over  to  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre. 
The  statue  was  put  in  place  there  in  May,  1821.  Prob- 
ably with  a  view  to  economize  the  precious  Parian  marble, 
the  statue  is  made  in  several  pieces  and  joined  in  the 
manner  customary  in  works  of  later  times.  The  body 
is  made  in  two  pieces ;  strangely  enough  the  joining  does 
not  take  place  where  the  nude  and  the  drapery  meet,  but 
cuts  across  the  folds  of  the  drapery  in  an  ugly  manner. 
A  separate  piece  had  been  inserted  in  the  right  hip.  The 
arms  had  been  fixed  on,  but  only  a  portion  of  the  left 
upper  arm  and  the  hand  holding  an  apple  had  been 
found.  These  are  so  inferior  in  workmanship  to  the 
great  beauty  of  the  body  as  to  suggest  a  later  restoration. 
Below,  near  the  left  foot,  the  plinth  shows  in  its  entire 
depth  a  slanting  contact  surface  which,  according  to  the 
evidence  of  the  former  director  of  the  Louvre,  Count 
Clarac,  was  joined  to  a  block  of  marble  of  slightly  different 
grain.  This  had  extended  under  the  slightly  raised  foot 
of  the  statue,  and  bore  on  its  face  the  inscription  of  the 
artist  (the  three  first  letters  are  missing,  but  can  be 
restored  with  certainty),  Alexandros  of  Antioch,  on  the 
Maeander,  a  city  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century.  Judging  by  the  character  of  the  letters  the 
date  of  the  inscription  would  fall  about  100  B.C.  On  the 
upper  surface  of  the  block  there  is  a  square  dowel-hole, 
into  which  fitted,  according  to  a  sketch  by  an  amateur 


THE    GREEK    INSURRECTION  51 

taken  in  Melos,  a  youthful  herm  of  mediocre  work,  which 
was  transferred  to  Paris  from  Melos  with  the  statue. 
Unfortunately  the  important  block  with  the  inscription 
disappeared  early — since  Clarac  (1821)  no  one  has  seen  it 
— a  fact  which  has  given  rise  to  the  most  varied  theories, 
not  yet  settled  to-day.  No  serious  doubt  can  be  enter- 
tained that  the  statue  is  the  work  of  Alexandros. 
To  him  is  due  the  addition  of  the  tasteless  herm  (a 
restored  copy  by  the  French  sculptor  Claude  Tarral 
makes  this  evident),  and  of  the  apple  (Greek  fJifjXov), 
an  emblem  of  the  island  of  Melos  ;  on  the  other  hand  we 
are  indebted  to  him  for  the  excellent  reproduction  of  the 
body  and  head  of  a  superb  original,  probably  of  the  time 
of  Scopas. 

The  illuminating  beauty  of  the  original  conception 
visible  here,  and  the  excellence  of  the  work  in  the  main 
parts  of  the  body  (the  drapery  is  less  well  done,  and  the 
back  quite  unfinished),  attained  rapidly  for  the  "  majestic 
woman  of  Melos  "  a  distinguished  position,  and  secured 
it  with  entire  justification.  There  is  hardly  another 
antique  statue, -with  the  exception  perhaps  of  the  Hermes 
of  Olympia,  which  has  acquired  so  immediate  and  so 
lasting  a  popularity. 

The  Greek  insurrection  had  broken  out  shortly  before 
the  Melian  had  been  placed  in  the  Louvre.  Twice  was 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens  bombarded,  first  in  the  winter  of 
1821-2  by  Voutier  and  the  Philhellenes,  and  five  years 
later  by  the  Turks  under  Reshid  Pasha.  The  west  front 
of  the  Parthenon  was  greatly  damaged  by  artillery  fire, 
and  the  Erechtheion  was  shattered  by  shells  and  lost 
another  Caryatid.  Since  1825  Ibrahim  Pasha  had  occu- 
pied the  Morea,  until  a  sudden  change  was  brought  about 
by  the  unexpected  naval  victory  of  Navarino.  In  1828 
a  French  army  under  Maison  entered  the  country  again, 
as  in  Egypt,  accompanied  by  a  scientific  staff.  The  first 
map  of  the  peninsula  was  prepared  from  an  accurate  survey, 


52  HELLAS    REGAINED 

and  the  natural  conditions  thoroughly  examined,  as  well 
as  the  relics  of  art  and  civilization. 

An  excavation  undertaken  at  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at 
Olympia  in  May  and  June,  1829,  proved  specially  pro- 
ductive of  results.  The  French  consul  Fauvel  had  dis- 
covered its  scanty  remains  in  1787,  and  these  were  again 
recognized  by  the  English  geographer  Leake  in  1801. 
During  a  six  weeks'  campaign  the  architect  Abel  Blouet 
and  the  archaeologist  J.  J.  Dubois  sought  for  the  back  and 
front  of  the  temple.  Although  no  traces  of  pediment 
statues  were  found,  they  came  upon  some  of  the  Herakles 
metopes,  above  all,  the  splendid  one  representing  the 
hero  struggling  with  the  Cretan  Bull. 

Partly  the  heat  and  partly  the  strict  orders  of  the 
tyrannical  President  Kapodistria  soon  put  an  end  to 
these  excavations,  for  a  patriotic  Greek  had  informed 
against  the  strangers.  The  Museum  of  the  Louvre  was, 
nevertheless,  enriched  by  a  few  reliefs  exhibiting  an 
entirely  new  style,  and  differing  from  the  Attic,  ^Eginetan, 
and  Selinuntine,  testifying  to  the  great  diversity  of  Greek 
plastic  art.  The  observations  made  in  Sicily  in  regard  to 
the  polychromy  of  Greek  sculpture  were  again  confirmed 
by  the  traces  of  vivid  colour  still  visible  on  these  reliefs. 

The  new  King  of  free  Hellas,  the  Bavarian  Prince  Otto, 
landed  at  Nauplia  in  February,  1833.  The  Turks  at  once 
evacuated  the  Athenian  Acropolis  to  make  room  for  a 
Bavarian  garrison.  The  fortress  was  to  be  abolished  on 
the  citadel,  which  was  to  be  used  only  for  archaeological 
studies.  It  was,  in  fact,  threatened  for  a  time  by  artists. 
The  Bavarian  architect,  Leo  von  Klenze,  restored  some 
columns  of  the  Parthenon  with  wretched  patchwork, 
and  the  Prussian  architect  Karl  Friedrich  Schinkel  even 
conceived  the  idea  of  building  a  royal  palace  on  Athene's 
rock  with  the  Parthenon  gracing  the  royal  court.  A  more 
useful  work  was  the  clearing  away  of  houses  and  rubbish 
from  the  Acropolis,  and  the  opening  up  of  the  approach 


THE    APOLLO   OF   TENEA  53 

to  the  Propylaea,  labours  which  were  executed  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  active  scholar  Ludwig  Ross, 
who  had  been  appointed  Conservator  of  Antiquities. 
He  and  his  colleagues,  the  architects  Edward  Schaubert 
and  Christian  Hansen,  succeeded  in  making  a  genuine 
restoration  by  rebuilding  the  small  Temple  of  Athene  Nike 
on  its  towerlike  eminence  above  the  entrance  to  the 
citadel  in  1835  ;  the  blocks  had  to  be  picked  singly  out 
of  the  Turkish  bastion  erected  against  Morosini  (p.  n). 
Many  valuable  hidden  fragments  were  discovered  during 
the  general  clearance,  numerous  inscriptions  on  stone  of 
great  value  to  art  and  history,  and  many  fragmentary 
pieces  of  sculpture,  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  in  particular, 
among  these  an  exceptionally  well-preserved  slab  of  the 
group  of  the  gods  of  the  east  frieze. 

Ross  unfortunately  felt  in  1836  forced  to  resign  his 
position,  to  the  great  loss  of  archaeology. 

This  was  transferred  to  Kyriak6s  Pittakes,  an  in- 
dustrious and  faithful  worker,  but  a  man  lacking  in 
culture,  and  a  petty  guardian  of  the  treasures  confided 
to  his  care.  He  continued  clearing  the  Acropolis,  and 
piled  the  sculptures  gathered  one  above  another  in  the 
Turkish  cisterns  ;  he  rebuilt  some  of  the  walls  of  the 
Erechtheion,  and  restored  the  Caryatid  porch,  and  below 
the  Propylaea  he  constructed  a  rather  clumsy  flight  of 
steps.  But,  with  these  exceptions,  his  interest  consisted 
only  in  the  publication  of  newly-found  inscriptions. 
These  epigraphic  interests  were  of  paramount  importance 
to  the  Archaeological  Society,  formed  in  the  Parthenon  in 
April,  1837,  about  the  same  time  as  the  foundation  of  the 
University.  Almost  three  decades  passed  before  the 
Society  undertook  any  archaeological  work.  It  was  owing 
to  an  accident  that  the  most  remarkable  discovery  of 
sculpture  occurred  in  this  period,  that  of  the  very  archaic 
so-called  Apollo  of  Tenea.  This  came  soon  after  into  the 
possession  of  the  Austrian  Minister  Prokesch  von  Osten, 


54  HELLAS    REGAINED 

who  seven  years  later  handed  it  over  to  the  Glyptothek 
in  Munich.  In  the  meantime  foreigners  again  had  de- 
voted themselves  to  archaeological  work.  The  English 
architect  F.  C.  Penrose,  in  connection  with  G.  Knowles, 
began  in  1846-7  to  survey  the  Parthenon  and  Propylaea 
with  incomparable  accuracy.  Penrose's  minute  measure- 
ments created  the  greatest  interest,  inasmuch  as  he  con- 
firmed the  horizontal  curves  of  the  steps  and  entablature 
of  the  Parthenon,  which  had  first  been  observed  by  his 
countryman  J.  Pennethorne  in  1837. 

About  the  same  time  the  French  architect  A.  Paccard 
was  engaged  on  a  restoration  of  the  Parthenon,  which  he 
intended  to  be  used  in  connection  with  a  great  work 
on  this  temple  and  its  sculpture,  undertaken  by  Count 
Leon  de  Laborde,  but  unfortunately  early  abandoned. 
The  architect  J.  M.  Tetaz  undertook  similar  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  Erechtheion,  without,  however,  solving 
the  riddle  of  this  building. 

While  Englishmen  and  Frenchmen  were  actively  en- 
gaged on  the  Acropolis,  and  the  Germans  L.  Ross  and 
H.  N.  Ulrichs  were  eagerly  travelling  in  Greek  lands — 
Ross  in  particular  opened  to  science  the  Greek  Islands  as 
far  as  Rhodes  and  Cyprus — great  activity  was  exerted 
behind  the  scenes,  in  diplomatic  circles,  by  the  protecting 
powers,  Russia,  England,  and  France.  The  minister  of 
the  latter,  the  old  Philhellene,  Piscatory,  succeeded 
finally  in  September,  1846,  in  establishing  a  French  School 
in  Athens,  with  the  object  of  investigating  the  language, 
the  history,  and  the  antiquities  of  Greece  on  the  spot. 

Some  years  passed  before  any  remarkable  results  were 
attained.  The  directorate  at  first  was  hardly  conscious 
of  its  aim,  but  the  many  journeys  undertaken  by  its 
members  brought  about  a  more  general  knowledge  of 
their  surroundings.  Great  sensation  was  caused  by  the 
work  undertaken  by  a  pupil  of  the  school,  Ernest  Beule, 
l852-3,  afterwards  Minister  of  the  Interior,  who  un- 


THE   FRENCH   SCHOOL   IN    ATHENS  55 

covered  parts  below  the  stairs  of  the  Propylaea.  The 
remains  of  a  late  stairway  were  recognized  by  the  archi- 
tect Titeux,  which  again  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  lower 
gate,  the  "  porte  Beule  "  ;  which  at  first  was  attributed 
to  the  period  of  Pericles,  but  subsequent  investigations 
proved  it  to  consist  rather  of  patchwork  of  the  times  of 
the  Antonines.  Beule*'s  book  on  the  Acropolis  appeared 
in  1853,  an(i  holds  a  place  midway  between  popular  and 
scientific  treatment.  As  distinguished  co-workers  and 
observers  there  appeared  early  Le"on  Heuzey  and  Georges 
Perrot ;  Heuzey's  book  on  Olympus  and  Acarnania 
appeared  in  1860,  and  was  the  first  scientific  achievement 
of  the  French  School. 

We  shall  meet  both  men  again  later. 


The  first  half  of  the  century  had  opened  to  science  the 
Greek  countries  in  Europe,  and  the  foundations  for  new 
investigations  had  been  laid.  Archaeology  gained  time 
in  the  pause  between  the  excavations  to  study  what  had 
been  acquired,  and  to  join,  in  the  meantime,  as  best  it 
could,  the  fragments  into  a  whole. 


IV 

THE   SEPULCHRES   OF   ETRURIA   AND 
ANCIENT   PAINTING 

A  RCHITECTURE  and  sculpture  formed  almost  ex- 
jTlL  clusively  the  subjects  of  the  two  preceding  chapters ; 
painting  has  only  incidentally  been  considered  in  speaking 
of  the  wall  paintings  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii 
<'  (p.  9).  As  examples  of  art,  these  represent  mainly 
*  the  Roman  Empire,  to  which  period  they  chiefly  owe 
their  origin.  It  is  only  in  considering  the  subjects 
that  any  suggestion  of  Greece  is  obtained,  as  these 
consist  chiefly  of  Greek  myths,  and  in  rare  cases  only 
are  these  pictures  connected  with  Greek  paintings  of 
which  we  have  literary  knowledge,  as,  for  example, 
the  small  relief-like  composition  illustrating  the  Marsyas 
myth  after  a  painting  by  Zeuxis. 

The  publications  on  Greek  vase  painting  during  the 
early  decades  of  the  century,  chiefly  of  the  finds  in  Lower 
Italy,  had  not  been  important,  and  frequently  incorrect 
copies  had  been  made.  The  collection  of  vases  acquired 
in  Naples  by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  sold  to  the 
British  Museum  in  1772  (p.  42),  probably  influenced  the 
Wedgwood  factory,  so  that  "  Greek,"  "  Etruscan,"  and 
even  "  Pompeian  "  vases  became  the  fashion.  But  all 
scientific  appreciation  of  Greek  painting  and  its  develop- 
ment became  lost  in  a  maze  of  fantastic  and  amateurish 
dreams  only  concerned  with  the  subjects  represented, 

56 


ETRURIA  57 

and  finding  mysterious  meaning  therein,  as  these  re- 
sponded to  the  prevailing  taste  for  a  medley  of  religious 
and  pseudo-scientific  romanticism  in  the  manner  of 
Creuzer. 

A  change,  however,  came  from  a  direction  where  it  was 
least  expected.  Greek  painting  had  its  resurrection  on 
the  "  barbaric  "  soil  of  Etruria,  instead  of  on  Greek  soil, 
and  Rome  became  the  place  of  observation. 

Stackelberg  had  again  settled  in  Rome  in  1816  to 
mature  there,  with  liberal  assistance  and  amid  stimu- 
lating environment,  the  results  of  his  investigations  made 
on  Greek  soil,  especially  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassae. 
He  soon  formed  a  close  friendship  with  his  Pylades, 
August  Kestner,  the  fourth  son  of  Goethe's  Lotte,  who 
lived  in  Rome  as  a  Hanoverian  diplomatist.  He  was  a 
man  of  strong  artistic  tendencies,  and  an  eager  collector. 
After  some  years  these  two  were  joined  by  Eduard 
Gerhard  of  Posen,  considerably  younger,  but  an  able 
pupil  of  Bockh,  and  influenced  by  Creuzer.  He  had  first 
come  to  Italy  in  consequence  of  an  affection  of  his  eyes 
in  1820,  and  experienced  always  a  great  longing  to  return 
thither.  This  wish  was  gratified  in  1822.  At  that  time 
Niebuhr,  the  regenerator  of  Roman  history,  was  Prussian 
minister  at  the  Papal  court,  the  second  of  a  distinguished 
line  (Humboldt,  Niebuhr,  Bunsen),  so  that,  according 
to  a  witty  remark  of  Ampere,  Prussia  was  not  represented 
at  the  Papal  court,  but  Science  at  Ancient  Rome  ! 

Niebuhr  was  able  to  secure  Gerhard  for  his  contem- 
plated "Description  of  the  City  of  Rome."  But  still 
more  far-reaching  were  the  results  of  the  friendship 
Gerhard  formed  with  Stackelberg  and  Kestner ;  this 
came  about  through  Brondsted,  Stackelberg's  companion 
in  Greece,  who  was  some  years  in  Rome  as  Danish  charge* 
d'affaires.  When  in  1823  the  gifted  but  unmethodical 
Theodor  Panofka  of  Silesia  joined  this  circle,  the  friends 
united  as  the  Roman  Hyperboreans ;  they  read  together 


58  THE   SEPULCHRES   OF   ETRURIA 

Pausanias  or  Sophocles,   or  investigated  the  scattered 
antiquities  of  Rome  and  the  surrounding  country.     The 
four  Hyperboreans  were  of  very  different  types.     Kestner 
was  not  greatly  interested  in  scientific  research,  but  felt 
inspired  by  all  that  was  beautiful  and  elevating.     Stackel- 
berg  had  the  most  artistic  temperament,  with  an  in- 
clination toward  mysticism,  and  was  a  delicate,  almost  too 
elegant  draughtsman.     Panofka's  imagination  acted  as 
a  stimulus  to  his  companions,  and  attracted  a  wider 
circle  about  him,  particularly  Frenchmen,  who  were  de- 
lighted by   his  jeux  d'esprit.     Gerhard   was   the   most 
thoroughly  learned  and  scientific  of  the  four.     Although 
the  impartiality  of  his  scientific  conclusions  was  some- 
what impaired  by  the  premature  adoption  of  a  system, 
yet  his  clear  insight  into  the  demands  of  science,  com- 
bined with  energy  and  executive  ability,  were  of  the 
greatest  importance.     He  gained  people  and  means  for 
his  aims,  and  knew  how  to  use  both  to  the  greatest 
advantage.     It  was  Gerhard  particularly  who  realized 
with  amazement  the  vast  wealth  of  pictorial  and  plastic 
evidence  of  antiquity,  which  perhaps  Zoega  alone  had 
studied  before  him.     This  was  greatly  augmented  when 
the  hardly  known  treasures  of  Naples,  Magna  Graecia,  and 
Sicily  were  added  to  those  of  Rome.     The  few  monu- 
ments illustrated  in  the  popular  books  of  Millin  and  Hirst, 
or  even  in  the  still  rather  scanty  scientific  literature,  as 
the  works  of  Visconti  and  Zoega,  could  not  compare  with 
the  abundance  awaiting  publication.     Thus  through  the 
newly  gained  knowledge  were  realized  "the  boundless 
possibilities    of    an    expansion    of    the    archaeological 
material,"  or,  as  Gerhard  put  it  in  an  epigram  :    monu- 
mentorum  artis  qui  unum  vidit  nullum  vidit,  qui  milia 
vidit  unum  vidit.     Here,  above  all,  a  remedy  had  to  be 
found. 

This  came  about  in  a  twofold  manner.     It  first  became 
necessary  to  ascertain  by  trustworthy  and  correct  cata- 


ETRURIA  59 

logues  what  antiquities  the  museums  contained.  Gerhard 
undertook  the  task  alone  for  the  Vatican,  and  with 
Panofka  that  of  the  less-known  museum  at  Naples.  The 
second  and  more  difficult  task,  as  it  required  good 
draughtsmen,  was  the  collecting  and  publishing  of  illus- 
trations, to  extend  the  then  existing  narrow  range  of 
vision.  In  Berlin,  where  the  museum  was  fast  being 
completed,  Gerhard  was  able  to  raise  funds  for  the  publi- 
cation of  unedited  drawings.  He  also  induced  the  firm 
of  Cotta  to  undertake  a  great  work  originally  designed 
to  contain  500  folio  plates,  the  "  Antike  Bildwerke," 
which,  unfortunately,  through  no  fault  of  Gerhard's, 
was  interrupted  before  one-third  of  the  scheme  was  com- 
plete. Many  weak  points  in  Gerhard's  scientific  attain- 
ments became  evident :  the  exclusive  interest  for  the 
subject-matter  of  works  of  art,  particularly  mythological, 
and  his  preference  for  less  well-known  styles,  e.g.  often 
for  quite  shapeless  terra-cottas,  which  at  any  rate  could 
hardly  receive  the  reproach  of  being  "  only  beautiful." 
But  his  main  thought  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  ;  he  aimed 
at  securing  a  new  and  broader  foundation  for  archaeology  ! 


Gerhard  first  learned  to  know  Etruria  in  1824,  while 
these  plans  were  growing  and  gradually  developing. 
During  the  previous  century  the  land  of  the  old  Etruscans 
had  fallen  into  ill  repute  among  antiquaries,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  extravagant  efforts  of  a  narrow  clique  of 
local  patriots  called  the  "  Etruscheria,"  who  tried  to 
represent  their  country  as  a  model  of  perfection  in  ancient 
times.  The  flood- tide  of  this  movement  had  long  passed, 
and  two  respected  scholars,  Giuseppe  Micali  and  Fran- 
cesco Inghirami,  were  at  the  time  engaged  in  studying 
the  antiquities  of  Etruria  and  placing  them  in  a  correct 
perspective.  The  unexpected  wealth  of  the  country  in 
works  of  art,  both  in  private  and  public  possession, 


60  THE   SEPULCHRES    OF    ETRURIA 

nevertheless  greatly  surprised  Gerhard.  There  were  two 
classes  of  art  work  peculiar  to  old  Etruria,  which,  although 
insignificant  and  frequently  inartistic  in  themselves, 
excited  his  interest  in  consequence  of  the  subjects  treated 
of  :  metal  mirrors  with  incised  designs  on  the  back,  and 
the  more  or  less  cubical  cinerary  urns,  frequently  adorned 
with  mythological  reliefs  and  coloured  decoration.  He 
collected  many  drawings  of  both  classes,  and  of  the  former 
many  originals,  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

In  the  year  1827  something  quite  novel  was  added  to 
these  two  classes   of  not  unknown   but   little   noticed 
monuments.     In  Corneto,   the  ancient  Tarquinii,   were 
discovered  in  several  newly  opened  sepulchral  chambers 
richly  coloured  mural  paintings.     This  news  was  not  long 
in    reaching    Rome.     Gerhard    was    in    Germany,    but 
Stackelberg  and  Kestner,  joined  by  the  Bavarian  architect 
J.  H.  Thuermer,  went  there  together,  and  devoted  several 
weeks  to  copying  in  coloured  drawings  the  richly  painted 
walls  of  the  four  sepulchral  chambers.     The  largest  of 
these — the  "  grotta  dal  cor  so  delle  bighe" — was  assigned  to 
Stackelberg  as  the  most  experienced  draughtsman.     The 
publication  of  the  forty-four  large  plates  was  unfortu- 
nately abandoned  soon  after  its  beginning  through  the 
same   negligence    which    prevented   the    completion    of 
Gerhard's  "  Antike  Bildwerke,"  although  the  drawings 
already  had  been  placed  on  stone.     In  a  roundabout 
manner  the  original  coloured  plates  have  come  into  the 
possession   of  the   Archaeological   Art   Institute   of  the 
University    of    Strasburg,    but    only    very    inadequate 
copies  have  appeared.     These   paintings   did  not  long 
remain   unique.     At   Corneto   other  grottos   were   soon 
found  with  wall  paintings,  and  similar  tombs  were  opened 
at  Chiusi,  Veii,  and  later  at  Cerveteri  and  Orvieto.     A 
long  series  of  mural  paintings  was  thus  gradually  dis- 
covered, setting  forth  the  development  of  this  branch  of 
Etruscan  art  in  tolerably  complete  sequence  from  the 


ETRUSCAN    PAINTINGS  61 

beginning  of  the  sixth  to  that  of  the  fourth  century. 
Various  peculiarities  and  a  certain  coarseness,  to  which 
strongly  marked  naturalism  may  be  added,  recalling 
the  "  verismo  "  of  the  Tuscan  art  of  the  quattrocento,  may 
be  considered  original.  These  qualities  attracted  at- 
tention mainly  to  the  Etruscan  elerhent  in  these  paintings, 
especially  as  the  love  of  portraying  scenes  of  daily  life 
excluded  all  thought  of  the  mythical  subjects  of  Greek 
art.  But  it  gradually  became  evident  that  Greek  models 
and  Greek  suggestions  were  the  true  root  of  Etruscan  art. 
This  conviction  was  all  the  more  important  as  practically 
nothing  remains  to  us  of  pure  Greek  wall  painting.  Thus 
an  insight  was  gained  into  the  development  of  Greek 
painting,  though  only  reflected  from  an  Etruscan  mirror. 
But  the  more  closely  the  accounts  of  Greek  painting  were 
examined,  and  the  more  insight  into  its  character  was 
gained,  the  more  evident  it  became  that  for  about  two 
centuries  the  chief  stages  in  its  development  actually 
repeated  themselves  in  this  collateral  Etruscan  branch. 
The  Etruscan  tombs  thus  illuminated  an  obscure  chapter 
of  Greek  art.  The  light  was  soon  to  become  more  brilliant. 


While  the  Roman  Hyperboreans  still  continued  to 
explore  with  success,  Gerhard  planned  a  new  scientific 
organization,  in  connection  with  the  art-loving  and 
generous  Duke  de  Luynes.  When  the  latter  joined  this 
circle  on  his  Italian  journey  in  1825,  Gerhard  aimed  at 
nothing  less  than  establishing  an  international  association 
of  all  archaeologists,  which  should  publish  a  scientific 
journal  and  great  works  on  the  monuments.  The  centre 
was  to  be  in  Paris.  In  consequence  of  many  obstacles 
this  plan  fell  through  and  appeared  to  be  abandoned. 
Gerhard,  however,  was  not  the  man  to  give  up  anything 
once  recognized  as  useful  and  important.  Since  Stackel- 
berg's  departure  in  1828  he  had  remained  with  Kestner 


62  THE   SEPULCHRES   OF   ETRURIA 

alone  in  Rome,  and,  in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  he  held  fast 
to  the  idea,  and  utilized  the  Italian  journey  of  the  Crown 
Prince  Friedrich  Wilhelm  of  Prussia  in  1828  in  such  a  way 
that  under  his  patronage  and  with  Bunsen's  co-operation 
the  foundation  of  "  the  Institute  for  Archaeological 
Correspondence  "  was  decided  on  in  Rome  on  Winckel- 
mann's  birthday  (9  December),  1828.  The  five  founders, 
who  called  the  first  meeting  of  the  new  society  on  21  April 
(the  birthday  of  Rome),  1829,  were  Bunsen,  at  the  time 
Prussian  minister,  Gerhard,  Kestner,  Carlo  Fea  (whose 
career  extended  back  to  Winckelmann's  time),  and 
Thorvaldsen,  a  former  pupil  of  Zoega.  This  is  hardly 
the  place  to  pursue  the  history  of  this  institution,  which 
during  thirty  years  exercised  as  a  private  organization 
the  greatest  influence  on  archaeological  science  through 
its  regular  publications,  its  meetings,  and  the  dissemina- 
tion of  appeals  and  suggestions.  The  ablest  scholars 
of  all  countries  belonged  to  the  Institute,  but  Gerhard 
remained  its  life  and  soul,  and  was  henceforth  regarded 
as  the  true  organizer  of  archaeology.  As  Director  of  his 
institution  he  knew  how  to  guard  against  dangers  which 
arose  in  various  forms. 

A  propitious  fate  placed  a  most  precious  gift  in  the 
cradle  of  the  newly  born  Institute.  Again  the  tombs 
of  Southern  Etruria  were  opened  and  disclosed,  besides 
mural  paintings,  a  great  number  of  painted  earthen 
vessels,  which  we  habitually  designate  by  the  Italian 
name  vases.  For  a  long  time  painted  vases,  some  even 
with  Greek  inscriptions,  had  been  known.  Southern 
Italy  in  particular  had  produced  great  numbers  from  its 
tombs  (p.  42).  Apulia  became  specially  noted  for  dis- 
coveries of  superb  vases  at  Canosa,  Ruvo,  and  other 
places.  In  the  year  1828,  about  the  time  the  first  mural 
paintings  were  discovered  at  Corneto,  there  were  found 
at  Vulci,  on  the  property  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  Prince  de 
Canino,  for  the  first  time  graves  containing  painted  vases. 


VASES    FOUND    AT   VULCI  63 

The  first  discoveries  were  kept  secret,  but  soon  the  ex- 
tensive necropolis  of  the  ancient  town  of  Vulci  was  un- 
covered by  its  fortunate  possessors  in  a  search  for  vases. 
The  success  was  almost  incredible.  Gerhard  arrived  at 
once  on  the  site,  and  a  statement  which  he  sent  in  May, 
1829,  to  the  Prussian  Official  Gazette  gives  a  vivid  de- 
scription. 

"  In  the  course  of  a  search  for  the  hidden  finds  which 
I  have  mentioned,  there  was  revealed  on  a  desolate  stretch 
of  land  six  miles  long  between  the  small  towns  of  Canino 
and  Montalto  an  extensive  Etruscan  burial  place,  perhaps 
that  of  ancient  Vulci.  Insignificant-looking  grottos  lying 
more  or  less  near  the  surface  were  filled  with  the  most 
beautiful  Greek  vases,  many  of  them  painted.  At  many 
different  points  of  this  extensive  site  excavations  have 
been  carried  on  constantly  and  successfully.  Two  other 
owners  besides  the  Prince  de  Canino  share  in  the  interest, 
Sig.  Candellor  and  Sig.  Feoli,  but  the  prince  being  the 
largest  landowner  has  the  greatest  share.  Besides  the 
shepherds  in  this  neighbourhood  one  hundred  workmen 
have  been  employed  daily  in  excavating  under  his 
personal  supervision  since  last  November.  As  a  result 
of  these  excavations  there  have  been  daily  found  a  great 
number  of  painted  vessels  and  bowls,  many  in  perfect 
condition,  others  were  repaired  on  the  spot.  Your  cor- 
respondent, who  speaks  as  an  eye-witness,  can  never 
forget  the  wonderful  spectacle  when  he  first  beheld  from 
the  hill  of  Campomorto  (the  site  belonging  to  Sig.  Feoli) 
the  numerous  excavations  scattered  over  the  neighbouring 
plain  on  all  sides,  with  the  huge  tumulus  (La  Cucumella) 
in  the  centre.  On  closer  examination  his  astonishment 
only  increased.  The  various  bands  of  labourers,  who 
had  come  from  distant  parts,  chiefly  from  the  Abruzzi 
and  Romagna,  were  distributed  under  foremen  from 
their  own  provinces  ;  and  three  tents  formed  the  central 
point,  into  which  poured  the  incessant  stream  of  newly 


64  THE    SEPULCHRES    OF    ETRURIA 

found  vases  or  vase  fragments  still  covered  with  damp 
soil. 

"Attempts  were  made  at  once  to  put  the  fragments  to- 
gether, in  the  tent  occupied  daily  by  the  prince  and  his 
family ;  these  were  then  sent  to  Musignano,  the  prince's 
country  house,  and  handed  over  to  experienced  restorers. 
Their  work  continued  day  and  night ;  your  correspondent 
was  greatly  surprised  to  see  one  morning  two  beautiful 
large  vases  restored,  which  he  had  seen  in  fragments  at 
the  excavations  the  previous  afternoon.  The  prince  de- 
voted all  his  time  to  the  remarkable  discoveries  on  his 
property,  which  yielded  in  a  few  months  one  of  the  finest 
collections  of  vases  known  to  us.  The  study  of  these 
extraordinary  discoveries  and  monuments  proved  suf- 
ficiently fascinating  to  induce  him  to  undertake  their 
interpretation." 

The  gentle  irony  implied  in  these  last  words  alludes 
possibly  to  the  fact  that  the  Prince  de  Canino,  at  the 
inspiration  of  his  chaplain  Padre  Maurizio,  thought  he 
recognized,  for  instance,  on  a  drinking  bowl,  instead  of 
Dionysos,  who  is  crossing  the  sea  in  a  ship  with  masts 
hung  with  vines,  Noah  the  discoverer  of  wine.  The  name 
of  the  potter  Exekias  was  declared  to  be  the  Hebrew 
Ezekiel,  and  some  cracks  that  had  been  caused  by  bad 
firing  in  the  glaze  were  looked  upon  as  hieroglyphics 
dating  probably  from  the  time  of  the  flood. 

The  general  report  made  by  Gerhard  in  regard  to 
this  entire  find  in  a  publication  of  the  Institute  in  1831, 
the  "  Rapporto  Volcente,"  became  famous  as  a  model  of 
a  concise,  complete,  and  lucid  report,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  the  science  of  antique  painted  vases.  This 
new  class  of  monuments  played  for  a  long  time  so  im- 
portant a  part  in  archaeology  that  satire  of  the  "Institute 
dei  vasi  "  and  of  the  "  science  des  pots  casses  "  was  not 
lacking.;§Nor  has  it  quite  subsided  to-day;  or  has  it 
again  revived  ? 


GREEK    VASES  65 

How  did  these  apparently  insignificant  objects  of 
decorative  art  attain  such  great  importance  ? 

It  was,  in  the  first  place,  the  great  insight  we  gained 
into  the  perfection  of  the  handicrafts  in  antiquity,  such 
as  had  caused  the  greatest  astonishment  at  the  discovery 
of  Herculaneum.  But  if  it  was  a  question  then  of  the 
refined  bronzework  of  Hellenistic  times,  here  Attic 
pottery  was  found  in  its  elegant  simplicity.  Of  forms  a 
great  variety  existed,  so  that  these  could  be  divided  into 
many  classes,  according  to  their  uses.  There  were  vases 
for  storing,  mixing,  pouring,  and  drinking  wine.  Each 
class  can  be  subdivided,  and  the  gradual  development  of 
each  can  be  accurately  followed. 

But  what  stamps  these  vessels  with  their  special 
character  is  their  indissoluble  combination  of  the  greatest 
utility  with  the  simplest  form,  with  the  form  best  adapted 
to  its  purpose.  It  is  as  if  they  were  copied  from  nature. 
A  Greek  vase  appears  as  a  perfect  organism,  and  has  not 
a  trace  of  the  arbitrariness  which  too  often  characterizes 
modern  handicrafts.  If  anywhere  the  words  may  here 
be  applied  : 

"  DCS  Korpers  Form  ist  seines  Wesens  Spiegel ; 
Durchdringst  du  sie,  lost  sich  des  Ratsels  Siegel"  * 

But  the  pictorial  representations  on  these  vessels, 
even  more  than  their  form,  offered  to  archaeologists  of  all 
nationalities  rich  material  for  scientific  investigations  ; 
indeed,  in  accordance  with  the  tendency  which  prevailed 
in  the  science  of  the  day,  this  aspect  was  at  first  the  most 
prominent.  The  new  knowledge  acquired  from  mytho- 
logical representations  was  indeed  very  great.  Not  only 
did  long-familiar  myths  appear  in  a  new  guise,  so  that 
their  gradual  development  became  intelligible,  or  that  older 
and  lost  forms  could  be  traced,  but  not  a  few  new  myths 
appeared  unexpectedly,  and  as  very  popular  ones,  for 

*  The  form  of  a  body  reflects  its  inner  being ;  apprehend  it,  and 
the  riddle  is  solved. 


66  THE   SEPULCHRES    OF   ETRURIA 

which  literary  evidence,  if  it  existed  at  all,  had  been 
meagre  or  even  misleading.  Thus  the  department  of 
science  known  as  the  mythology  of  art  attained  entirely 
new  significance  and  scope.  Not  only  Gerhard  (p.  59), 
but  all  the  classical  archaeology  of  the  day,  depended  on 
mythology.  Only  gradually,  and  at  first  only  by  single 
individuals,  were  these  numerous  representations  valued 
as  giving  us  a  closer,  and  at  times  a  most  attractive  insight 
into  the  daily  life  of  the  Athenians. 

Gerhard,  in  his  "  Rapporto  Volcente,"  laid  stress  upon 
a  third  point  of  view  by  noting  the  importance  of  this 
new  material  in  connection  with  the  history  of  antique 
painting.  The  history  of  earlier  painting  is  essentially 
the  history  of  painting  on  clay  ;  the  most  ancient  repre- 
sentatives of  the  class  ,of  •n-ivouceg  are  such  painted  clay 
tablets  as  those  which  covered  the  walls  of  some  ancient 
tombs  at  Cerveteri.  Gerhard's  critical  eye  distinguished 
four  main  groups  in  vase  painting  which  followed  one 
another  consecutively,  the  oldest  an  "  orientalized  "  style ; 
a  silhouette  style  of  black  outline  drawing  upon  a  red 
background ;  red  figures  on  a  black  background  with 
many  variations  ;  to  which  finally  may  be  added  a  style, 
not  found  in  Etruria,  but  frequently  in  Lower  Italy 
(Apulia  and  Lucania),  of  painting  in  many  and  varied 
colours  which  developed  from  the  red-figured  style.  This 
division  still  exists  to-day,  although  we  have  learned 
to  mark  distinctions  closely,  and  our  knowledge  of  older 
styles  has  vastly  increased.  But  a  fourth  most  important 
question  demanded  an  answer.  Was  it  possible  to  con- 
sider these  painted  vases,  found  in  Etruscan  tombs,  as 
a  product  of  Greek  painting,  and  to  trace  with  their  aid 
the  history  of  its  development  ?  In  spite  of  Greek  style, 
Greek  subjects,  and  Greek  inscriptions,  this  was  not 
at  once  admitted  by  all.  At  that  time,  in  Greece  proper, 
only  single  finds  of  vases  had  been  made,  and  most  of 
these  were  only  published  by  Gerhard  in  1837  from  Stackel- 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   VASES  67 

berg's  posthumous  writings.  It  was  indeed  merely  local 
patriotism  of  single  Italian  scholars  that  declared  in 
favour  of  Etruscan  origin.  But  had  these  vases  originated 
from  Greek  settlers  in  Etruria,  or  had  they  been  ex- 
ported from  Greece  ?  (The  first  to  think  of  Athens  was 
Karl  Otfried  M  tiller.)  These  and  similar  questions  were 
eagerly  discussed,  and  received  a  great  variety  of  answers. 
The  enlightening  word  on  this  subject  came  finally  from 
the  philologist  Gustav  Kramer  (1837).  He  was  staying 
in  Rome  on  account  of  his  studies  on  Strabo,  and  had 
become  connected  with  the  Archaeological  Institute. 
Judging  from  the  palaeographic  characters  of  the  in- 
scriptions, he  ascribed  the  "  orientalized  "  vases  to  the 
Corinthians  ;  the  black  and  red  figured  vases  to  the 
Athenians ;  he  even  thought  it  possible  to  trace  the 
origin  of  the  so-called  pictorial  style  of  vases  of  Lower 
Italy  to  Athens.  Kramer  encountered  a  great  deal  of 
opposition,  for  archaeologists  did  not  consider  him  a 
competent  judge.  His  opinions  were  only  fully  justified 
seventeen  years  later  by  Otto  Jahn,  who  re-examined 
them  critically  in  the  introduction  to  his  "  Beschreibung 
der  Miinchener  Vasensammlung  "  in  1854,  except  that 
Jahn,  with  most  of  his  colleagues,  removed  the  home  of 
the  pictorial  style  of  vases  from  Athens  to  Lower  Italy. 
According  to  the  knowledge  of  Greek  palaeography  of 
those  times  Jahn  felt  himself  justified  in  assuming  the 
following  chronology  for  the  vases  :  the  black-figured 
style,  to  judge  from  the  lettering,  belonged  to  a  period 
extending  to  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
and  the  red-figured  style  must  have  existed  for  a  long 
time  beside  it.  Their  origin  in  consequence  dated  from 
before  the  Persian  Wars  (480).  The  "  severe  "  style 
reigned  supreme  in  the  fifth  century  ;  the  "  free  "  style 
came  in  toward  the  end  of  that  century,  and  prevailed 
during  the  fourth  century. 
These  suggestions  indicate  sufficiently  the  interest 


68  THE   SEPULCHRES   OF   ETRURIA 

excited  in  the  archaeological  world  by  the  finds  of  Vulci. 
But  after  all  it  was  merely  a  modest  handicraft,  and  could 
not  satisfy  the  longing  for  the  contemplation  of  the  great 
Greek  art  of  painting.  This  desire  was  finally  gratified 
by  the  discovery  of  the  great  mosaic  of  Alexander  the 
Great  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  found  in  the  "  Casa  del 
Fauno  "  in  Pompeii.  It  was  not  an  actual  painting,  to 
be  sure,  only  a  presumably  Alexandrian  copy  in  mosaic  ; 
but  the  composition  offered  an  excellent  model  of  a 
battle  scene,  inasmuch  as  a  general  view  of  the  entire 
action  had  not  been  attempted  (it  never  can  make  a 
clear  picture),  but  the  decisive  moment  is  chosen  and 
clearly  expressed  of  the  meeting  of  Alexander  and  the 
Great  King.  No  beholder  can  doubt  as  to  the  following 
defeat.  It  is  a  picture  in  the  grand  style ;  Goethe  has 
well  rendered  the  impression  it  makes  in  words  written 
shortly  before  his  death  :  "  The  comments  of  our  con- 
temporaries and  of  posterity  will  not  suffice  to  criticize 
correctly  such  consummate  art,  but  after  all  examination 
and  contemplation  we  shall  be  forced  to  return  to  simple 
and  pure  admiration." 

While  at  the  end  of  the  third  and  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  decades  Italy  offered  such  important  results  to 
Archaeology,  only  a  few  single  finds  were  recorded  there 
during  the  next  decades.  Alessandro  Fran£ois  (1796- 
1857)  belonged  to  a  group  of  men  who,  with  the  greatest 
energy  and  success,  carried  on  excavations  in  Tuscany. 
In  Etruria  he  had  worked  in  numerous  burial  grounds, 
and  during  ten  years  he  explored  the  old  sites  along  the 
Maremma  coast  for  Noel  des  Vergers,  the  son-in-law  of 
the  French  publisher  Firmin  Didot.  With  extraordinary 
skill  and  sure  method  he  succeeded  in  discovering  a  site, 
or  in  determining  the  locality  of  a  necropolis  (e.g.  at  Pisa 
and  at  Volterra).  His  two  greatest  discoveries  concern 
the  last-named  province  of  antique  painting.  In  a  grave 
near  Chiusi,  the  old  Etruscan  capital  Clusium,  he  found 


JALYDONIAN 
BOAR  HUNT 

JAMES  AT  THE 
FUNERAL  OF 
PATROKLOS 


?ELEUS,THETIS, 

AND  THE  GODS 


\CHILLES 
PURSUES 

TROILOS 

VNIMAL  SCENES, 
SPHINXES.ETC. 


Photo,  W.  A.  Mansell  &•  Co. 

VASE  BY   KLITIAS  AND   ERGOTIMOS 
FRAN9OIS    VASE    FROM    CHIUSI,    FLORENCE 


To  face  page  69 


THE    FRANgOIS    VASE  69 

in  1844  a  superb  example  of  the  antique  potter's  art  and 
of  painting  on  clay,  but  its  countless  fragments  and  sherds 
were  scattered  throughout  the  tomb.  It  is  now  known 
as  the  Francois  Vase,  after  its  discoverer,  and  forms  one 
of  the  chief  treasures  of  the  Etruscan  Museum  in  Florence, 
and  although  it  was  recently  shattered  again  by  an  act  of 
wanton  barbarity,  it  has  been  once  more  almost  perfectly 
restored. 

To  appreciate  the  trials,  sorrows,  and  joys  under 
which  this  find  was  made  and  secured,  one  must  read  this 
excellent  man's  report.  This  great  vase,  about  two  feet 
high,  forms  our  best  example  of  an  early  Attic  style,  till 
then  little  known,  dating  from  about  the  time  of  Solon, 
and  marking  the  transition  from  the  Corinthian  to  the 
black-figured  style.  It  thus  filled  a  great  gap  in  the 
history  of  vase  painting,  and  the  many  bands  surrounding 
the  body  of  the  vase  offered  a  surprising  number  of  care- 
fully executed  mythological  representations.  These  en- 
lightened us  as  to  many  important  contemporary  works 
of  art,  as  the  so-called  chest  of  Kypselus  and  the  throne 
of  Apollo  at  Amyklai  near  Sparta,  both  of  which  are  only 
known  to  us  from  the  descriptions  of  Pausanias.  By 
placing  the  painted  Attic  pottery  alongside  of  the  wooden 
Corinthian  chest  and  the  Ionic  stonework  of  Laconia  it 
becomes  very  evident  how  all  over  Greece,  during  the 
first  half  of  the  sixth  century,  a  need  was  felt  of  ex- 
pressing the  great  wealth  of  mythological  subjects  in 
a  permanent  and  artistic  manner  in  every  branch  of  art. 
And  as  in  the  epos  single  poems  were  gathered  to  form 
great  epics,  so  here  single  mythical  representations  were 
collected  in  a  great  series. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  in  1857,  Frangois  with  Noel 
des  Vergers  discovered  at  Vulci  a  great  tomb  with  rich  and 
varied  paintings.  A  patch  of  soil  which  afforded  nourish- 
ment to  a  row  of  oaks  surrounded  by  barren  rocks  led  him 
to  suspect  the  presence  of  an  ancient  site.  The  pictures 


70  THE   SEPULCHRES    OF    ETRURIA 

of  this  "grotta  Frangois"  have  become  famous,  because 
they  represent  bloody  scenes  from  heroic  Etruscan  legends 
placed  side  by  side  with  similar  scenes  from  Greek  legends. 
Only  after  Otto  Jahn  had  read  and  interpreted  the  Etrus- 
can inscriptions  of  the  former  half  was  this  fully  under- 
stood. Thus  appeared  Macstrna  (Mastarna),  the  Servius 
Tullius  of  the  Romans,  with  his  associates  Caile  and  Avle 
Vipinas  (Vibenna),  and  the  names  well  known  in  Roman 
royal  legends  were  not  missing  of  Tanchvil  (Tanaquil)  and 
Cneve  Tarchnu  Rumach  (Gnaus  Tarquinius  of  Rome). 
For  a  time  these  pictures  remained  quite  unique  in  their 
connection  with  Etruscan  legends,  but  later  similar  ones 
were  found. 

Another  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  Greek 
painting  was  offered  by  Rome  in  1848,  when  a  small 
house  was  demolished  in  the  Via  Graziosa  on  the  Es- 
quiline.  A  long  painted  wall  became  visible  which  had 
retained  its  decoration  in  colour  for  about  1900  years. 
Red  columns  painted  so  as  to  suggest  perspective  formed 
a  sort  of  gallery,  and  looking  between  the  columns  the 
eye  perceived  an  extensive  landscape  with  scenes  from 
the  Odyssey  depicted.  These  extended  from  the  ad- 
venture with  the  Lsestrygonians  to  the  descent  into  Hades. 
A  landscape  composition  of  such  extent,  the  illusion  of 
a  view  seen  through  a  merely  painted  gallery,  the  changing 
scenes  of  the  wanderings  of  Odysseus — all  this  was  new, 
and  for  a  time  awaited  the  clue  by  which  its  place  in  the 
history  of  painting  could  be  assigned  to  it — a  clue  which 
was  ultimately  found  in  consequence  of  other  discoveries 
and  careful  researches  (Chap.  VII).  But  a  very  different 
discovery,  taking  us  back  to  remote  antiquity,  was  made 
in  April,  1836,  at  Cerveteri,  the  old  Etruscan  Caere.  The 
arch-priest  Regulini  and  General  Galassi  had  the  good 
fortune  to  discover  a  tomb  of  peculiar  formation  as  well 
as  of  extraordinary  contents.  A  long  passage  vaulted 
with  overhanging  horizontal  layers  of  stone  clearly  in- 


REGULINI-GALASSI    TOMB  71 

dicated  great  antiquity,  and  the  rich  utensils  of  bronze, 
silver,  and  gold  likewise  bore  the  same  early  character. 
Their  forms  and  designs  suggested  Oriental  influence  or 
Oriental  models.  The  Phoenicians  were  thought  of  by 
those  who  remembered  their  old  activity  in  trade,  de- 
scribed hi  the  Homeric  poems,  and,  as  some  individual 
articles  corresponded  to  some  described  in  Homer,  the 
Regulini-Galassi  tomb  attained  great  importance.  For 
men  hoped  to  gain  therefrom  a  picture  of  Homeric  art. 
Such  a  picture,  however,  has  had  to  be  readjusted  in  the 
light  of  the  discoveries  of  Schliemann  and  his  successors 
(Chap.  VIII).  The  entire  contents  of  this  tomb  were 
transferred  to  the  Etruscan  Museum  at  the  Vatican, 
opened  during  this  year  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI,  where 
he  collected  a  great  part  of  the  objects  obtained  during 
the  last  decade  in  Etruria. 

Important  additions  were  also  made  in  the  department 
of  sculpture.  About  this  time  a  well-preserved  portrait 
statue  was  found  on  the  property  of  the  Antonelli  family, 
near  Terracina,  and  presented  by  the  owner  to  Pope 
Gregory  XVI  in  1839.  Sophocles  was  soon  recognized 
as  the  subject.  It  is  the  noblest  portrait  statue  that  has 
come  down  to  us  from  antiquity,  a  wonderful  character- 
study  of  the  favourite  tragedian  of  Periclean  Athens, 
standing  midway  between  the  ideal  presentation  of  the 
likeness  of  Pericles  and  the  naturalistic  treatment  of  the 
Demosthenes  statue.  The  Pope  found  in  the  Sophocles 
a  worthy  motive  for  the  establishment  of  an  extensive 
museum  for  antiques  in  the  Lateran  palace,  and  added 
to  this  collection  a  huge  mosaic  of  athletes,  which  already 
had  been  discovered  in  1824  m  the  Thermae  of  Caracalla. 
Hardly  less  important  was  the  discovery  in  Trastevere 
in  1849  °f  tne  statue  of  an  athlete,  which  after  some 
hesitation  was  recognized  as  the  Apoxyomenos  of  Lysip- 
pos.  This  good  copy  offered  for  the  first  time  an  example 
of  the  art  of  Lysippos,  and  for  a  long  time  remained  the 


72  THE   SEPULCHRES   OF   ETRURIA 

standard  for  a  close  study  of  this  last  great  master  and 
law-giver  in  Greek  plastic  art.  The  statue  holds  a 
prominent  place  in  the  Braccio  nuovo  of  the  Vatican. 

At  the  same  time  that  new  papal  museums  were  thus 
being  founded  and  older  ones  were  being  enlarged,  Rome 
witnessed  the  formation  of  one  of  the  richest  private 
collections  of  the  nineteenth  century.  This  is  of  sufficient 
interest  to  be  spoken  of  here,  though  new  discoveries 
formed  only  a  minor  part  of  it.  Giovanni  Pietro  Cam- 
pana  belonged  to  a  well-to-do  Roman  family  of  the  middle 
class,  which  had  since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
managed  the  Roman  pawnbroker's  shop,  the  Monte  di 
Pieta.  Giampietro  was  the  third  of  the  family  to  fill  this 
office.  He  was  only  twenty-five  years  old,  and  had 
hardly  finished  his  studies  when  Pope  Gregory  XVI 
called  upon  him  to  take  charge  of  this  institution,  which 
was  deeply  encumbered  with  debt.  He  fulfilled  all  ex- 
pectations, for  in  a  short  time  he  succeeded  in  making  it 
the  most  important  deposit  bank  in  Rome.  Campana 
had  occasion  to  indulge  his  passion  for  collecting  an- 
tiquities even  during  his  youth,  having  inherited  a  small 
collection  from  his  grandfather  Giampietro  (a  favourite 
of  Pope  Pius  VI),  and  a  collection  of  coins  from  his  father 
Prospero.  He  was  enabled  to  indulge  his  taste,  as  he 
inherited  a  large  paternal  fortune  and  gathered  his 
treasures  into  a  small  villa  near  the  Lateran.  But  now 
in  his  new  position  Campana's  collections  increased 
rapidly.  Although  rarely  accessible,  they  had,  even  in 
the  thirties,  gained  a  reputation.  From  mere  collecting 
he  soon  proceeded  to  undertake  excavations  of  his  own. 
Those  undertaken  at  Ostia  in  1834  proved  unsuccessful, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  uncovered,  in  1840,  in  the 
Vigna  Condini,  near  the  Tomb  of  the  Scipios  a  large 
Columbarium,  of  the  early  times  of  the  Empire.  During 
the  winter  of  1842-3  Campana  found  at  Veii  a  tomb  of 
the  greatest  antiquity,  containing  the  oldest  known 


THE   CAMPANA   COLLECTION  73 

Etruscan  wall  paintings.  On  Monte  Abatone,  near  Cer- 
veteri,  the  ancient  Caere,  he  found  in  1845  a  less  im- 
portant tomb.  His  greatest  success  was  soon  attained 
on  this  spot.  During  the  year  1850  there  was  discovered 
the  so-called  "  grotto  dei  rilievi"  (a  large  tomb  chamber, 
displaying  in  its  painted  reliefs  an  abode  of  the  living  with 
correct  copies  of  household  furniture  and  utensils),  as 
well  as  the  so-called  "  Lydian  sarcophagus,"  a  great 
painted  terra-cotta  sarcophagus  representing  a  bed  upon 
which  rested  a  couple,  in  extremely  archaic  style.  This 
fine  example  of  Etruscan  terra-cotta  was  long  kept  hidden, 
but  in  1856  similar  valuable  finds  were  made  in  the 
painted  clay  tablets  which  had  adorned  another  tomb 
at  Cerveteri  (p.  66).  The  baked  clay  had  preserved  the 
colours  of  the  paintings  from  exposure  to  the  damp,  to 
which  wall  paintings  are  usually  subject.  At  Cerveteri, 
Campana  acquired  a  great  profusion  of  vases,  among 
them  unique  specimens  of  a  class  till  then  unknown 
(Caeretan  vases) ;  their  Ionian  origin  was  only  recognized 
later  (Chap.  IX).  To  the  products  of  his  own  excava- 
tions he  added  purchases  made  in  all  parts  of  Italy  ; 
e.g.  Campana  bought  of  the  Duke  of  Syracuse,  the  brother 
of  the  Neapolitan  "  re  Bomba"  the  products  of  his  ex- 
cavations at  Cumae — this  collection  contained  the  "  queen 
of  vases,"  a  hydria  with  representations  of  the  Eleusinian 
divinities  in  coloured  and  gilt  relief.  Even  Greece 
contributed  to  the  Campana  collection. 

In  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  a  museum  of  amazing 
diversity  developed.  The  marbles,  numbering  500, 
consisted  chiefly  of  the  ordinary  Roman  work  with  a 
few  good  examples,  a  beautiful  Niobe  relief  being  one  of 
the  best.  Campana  had  unfortunately  adopted  the 
wretched  Roman  custom  of  restoring  arbitrarily  broken 
statues  and  reliefs,  and  finally  covering  the  whole  with 
a  dull  white  paste  (Gnaccarini  paste).  The  restorations 
were  executed  by  the  sculptor  Filippo  Gnaccarini,  who 


74  THE   SEPULCHRES   OF    ETRURIA 

later  acted  with  the  same  wilfulness  in  the  Torlonia 
Museum.  In  consequence  of  his  work  the  marbles  lost 
all  artistic  charm  and  scientific  value. 

Of  great  interest  was  the  collection  of  Roman  terra- 
cotta reliefs,  published  by  Campana  himself,  and  hence 
retaining  the  name  of  the  "  Campana  reliefs."  These 
were  Roman  works  for  decorative  purposes  executed  on 
Hellenistic  models.  Their  trustworthiness  and  genuine- 
ness may  here  again  be  doubted,  as  Campana  owned  a 
pottery ;  for  restorations  of  broken  originals  under- 
taken there  resulted  frequently  in  worthless  pasticci  or 
complete  forgeries.  The  skilful  restorer  Pennelli,  who  is 
known  to  have  taken  part  in  other  forgeries,  was  actively 
engaged  here,  and  later  accompanied  the  Campana 
collection  to  Paris. 

Besides  the  terra-cotta  reliefs  there  were  a  great 
number  of  restored  terra-cotta  figurines;  in  all,  the 
collection  contained  about  1900  terra-cottas.  During 
excavations  in  Etruria  and  Lower  Italy  there  were 
discovered  3800  vases,  many  of  extraordinary  value, 
including  fine  examples  of  all  the  then  known  and  many 
unknown  classes.  Everything  was  represented  here  in 
vast  numbers  ;  there  were  600  bronzes,  460  glass  vessels, 
nearly  1600  gold  jewels  or  trinkets,  gems,  and  selected 
coins,  the  two  latter  classes  containing  many  extraordi- 
nary works. 

Collecting  continued  thus  at  a  rapid  pace.  During  the 
fifties  a  new  passion  arose  :  collecting  Italian  works  of 
art  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of  modern  times.  It  did  not 
take  long  to  gather  1000  paintings  from  the  thirteenth 
to  the  seventeenth  century,  of  course  with  high-sounding 
names  attached.  These  filled  a  large  house  in  the  Via 
del  Babuino.  About  700  pieces  of  majolica,  chiefly  of 
the  coarser  kind,  supplemented  the  collection  of  paintings. 

All  these  treasures,  excepting  the  "  Campana  reliefs," 
were  kept  hidden.  The  owner,  who  had  in  the  meantime 


THE   CAMPANA   COLLECTION  75 

been  made  a  marquis,  only  allowed  a  few  chosen  friends 
or  highly  recommended  strangers  to  view  his  collections, 
and  then  only  in  parts.  For  instance,  Heinrich  Brunn, 
the  Secretary  of  the  German  Archaeological  Institute,  who 
had  assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  catalogue  of  vases, 
remained  long  in  ignorance  of  the  existence  of  the  Etrus- 
can terra-cotta  sarcophagus  and  the  painted  terra-cotta 
reliefs  (p.  73) ;  the  large  collection  of  paintings  only 
became  known  in  1857,  a^ter  tne  great  catastrophe  had 
overtaken  the  collector. 

The  passion  for  collecting  had  enticed  Campana  to 
outrun  his  fortune.  His  position  as  manager  of  a  great 
bank  had  enabled  him  to  take  gradually  £125,000  from 
the  bank,  at  first  with  the  consent  of  those  in  authority, 
and  by  giving  as  security  for  £4500  part  of  his  valuable 
collection,  and  later  by  simply  depositing  his  notes. 
According  to  well-informed  persons  this  was  all  done  in 
perfectly  good  faith,  as  he  thought  the  great  value  of  his 
collections  sufficient  to  cover  all  loans.  The  collections 
had  been  valued  by  the  official  archaeologist  Pietro  Ercole 
Visconti  at  £200,000.  In  order  to  obtain  some  relief  from 
his  increasing  financial  distress,  Campana  began  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifties  to  negotiate  in  different  quarters  for 
the  sale  of  his  collections,  and  began  preparing  catalogues, 
which,  however,  in  consequence  of  carelessness  only 
appeared  in  1858.  These  negotiations  had  not  yet  had 
any  results,  when  suddenly  in  October,  1857,  Pope  Pius  IX 
issued,  from  Bologna,  threatening  warnings  against 
fraudulent  administrators  of  public  funds  ;  soon  after 
his  return  to  Rome  investigations  were  undertaken  at 
the  "Monte  di  Pieta,"  which  resulted  in  the  marquis 
going  to  prison  on  the  25th  of  November.  A  fortnight 
after  this  event  I  reached  Rome,  and  found  the  city  still 
greatly  excited,  and  discussions  still  continuing.  In  the 
following  year  Campana  was  condemned  to  the  galleys, 
but  in  January,  1859,  ^ie  was  pardoned,  but  exiled.  It 


76  THE   SEPULCHRES   OF   ETRURIA 

took  a  number  of  years  to  dispose  of  the  great  Campana 
collection,  which  had  been  confiscated.  In  February, 
1861,  Russia  obtained  part  of  the  sculpture,  including 
the  Niobe  relief,  some  of  the  bronzes,  and  518  vases — 
some  of  great  value— for  £26,000.  To  express  his  satis- 
faction at  the  sale,  so  at  least  it  was  said  in  Rome,  the 
Pope  added  the  beautiful  hydria  from  Cumae  (p.  73). 
After  long  delay  Napoleon  III  decided  to  purchase  the 
remains  of  the  collection  for  about  £175,000.  It  came 
to  Paris  as  the  Musee  Napoleon  III,  and  the  Louvre 
came  into  possession  of  the  valuable  Etruscan  collection 
of  glass  vessels,  gold  jewels,  terra-cottas,  the  Campana 
reliefs,  about  300  marbles,  and  finally  3400  vases,  which, 
when  added  to  this  already  fine  collection,  raised  it  to 
a  position  of  foremost  importance.  Minor  pieces  or 
collections  were  disposed  of  to  smaller  museums.  Finally 
single  and  not  unimportant  groups  of  vases  reached  the 
museums  of  Florence,  Brussels,  and  Geneva.  The 
collector  survived  his  fall  more  than  twenty  years,  and 
finally  died  in  1880  in  poverty  in  Rome,  where  he  had 
long  been  forgotten. 

Most  of  the  single  finds  mentioned  above  (p.  68) 
were  first  interpreted  in  the  publications  of  the  Archaeo- 
logical Institute.  For  about  twenty  years  German, 
Italian,  and  French  scholars  shared  in  this  work  under 
the  guidance  of  the  German  Secretaries,  and  with  financial 
aid  from  the  Prussian  >  Government  and  the  Duke  de 
Luynes  (p.  61),  until  in  the  troubled  year  of  1848  the 
French  section  abandoned  its  activity,  leaving  the  work  of 
the  Institute  to  the  two  other  nations.  This  became  more 
and  more  the  centre  of  archaeological  activity  in  Rome, 
not  only  in  consequence  of  its  publications  and  its  weekly 
meetings,  but  also  on  account  of  its  constantly  growing 
and  important  library.  This  proved  of  the  greatest 
advantage  to  the  younger  German  scholars  who  came  to 
Rome  from  the  end  of  the  thirties  onwards  for  the  purpose 


THE    ARCHAEOLOGICAL    INSTITUTE    IN    ROME      77 

of  serious  study.  They  had  been  prepared  in  archaeology 
at  the  German  universities,  where  Welcker  was  teaching 
at  Bonn,  Karl  Otfried  Miiller  at  Gottingen,  and  Gerhard 
at  Berlin ;  and  in  the  secretary  of  the  Institute,  Emil 
Braun,  they  found  a  gifted,  if  not  a  strictly  scientific, 
leader.  Braun,  however,  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognize 
the  importance  of  archaeological  experience,  such  as  had 
been  gained  by  Jahn,  Brunn,  Stephani,  Wieseler,  Stark, 
and  others.  When,  therefore,  in  1856,  after  the  most 
critical  years,  Heinrich  Brunn  took  the  place  of  Braun, 
the  study  of  archaeology  had  fully  developed  at  the 
German  universities,  in  consequence  of  the  teaching  of 
this  older  generation,  and  the  crowd  of  ragazzi,  who 
soon  came  pouring  in,  found  under  Brunn's  leadership 
the  Institute  a  sort  of  archaeological  university.  The 
great  usefulness  of  the  Institute  was  further  increased  by 
more  liberal  assistance  on  the  part  of  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment and  by  some  travelling  studentships.  But  its 
activity  was  by  no  means  exhausted,  either  in  the  train- 
ing of  young  archaeologists  or  in  the  publication  of  its 
regular  journals  (Monumenti,  Annali,  Buttettini),  for  it 
assumed  again  the  two  tasks  which  it  had  in  a  sense  taken 
as  a  legacy  from  Gerhard  (p.  58). 

It  was  of  primary  importance  to  resume  the  cataloguing 
of  the  scattered  antiquities.  In  Rome  this  task  was 
undertaken  chiefly  by  pupils  of  the  Institute  ;  Benndorf 
and  Schone  catalogued  the  Lateran  Museum ;  Schreiber 
the  Ludovisi  collection ;  Matz  and  von  Duhm  the 
scattered  antiques  in  Rome,  and  at  a  later  date  Amelung 
and  Petersen  worked  at  the  Vatican.  At  Naples,  Helbig 
catalogued  the  paintings,  and  Heydemann  the  collection 
of  vases.  The  numerous  museums  of  Northern  Italy 
were  described  by  Diitschke,  and  those  of  Florence  by 
Amelung. 

In  Athens,  Kekule"  undertook  the  Theseion  and  Heyde- 
mann the  smaller  collections,  while  members  of  the  French 


78  THE   SEPULCHRES    OF   ETRURIA 

School  helped  in  this  arduous  task,  Collignon  cataloguing 
the  vases,  Martha  the  terra-cottas,  and  de  Ridder  the 
bronzes.  In  Munich  Jahn  catalogued  the  collection  of 
vases,  and  Brunn  the  Glyptothek  ;  in  Berlin  scientific 
catalogues  were  issued  by  Gerhard,  Friedrichs,  Wolters, 
Conze,  and  Furtwangler,  and  in  St.  Petersburg  by  Ste- 
phani.  The  sculptures  of  Spain  were  described  by 
Hiibner,  and  the  scattered  "  Marbles  of  Great  Britain  " 
by  Michaelis. 

These  labours,  requiring  the  utmost  industry  and 
patient  self-denial,  supplemented  the  work  of  the  spade. 
It  is  owing  probably  to  the  German  character  and  to  the 
scientific  training  given  at  the  German  universities,  that 
this  work  was  carried  on  mainly  by  Germans  (for  the 
same  reasons  the  laborious  work  of  providing  the  appa- 
ratus criticus  for  editions  of  the  classics  is  chiefly  in 
German  hands) ;  but  to  Gerhard's  example  and  to  the 
work  of  the  Institute  great  credit  is  due.  Thus  the 
French  who  take  an  active  part  in  this  work  are  pupils 
of  the  French  School  at  Athens,  while  the  Italians,  who 
for  a  long  time  lacked  the  opportunities  of  such  a  train- 
ing, seldom  undertook  such  work.  Rare  exceptions  are 
presented  by  Giuseppe  Valentinelli  (Venice),  Giovanni 
Jatta  (Ruvo),  and  Antonio  Sogliano  (Pompeii). 

England  goes  its  own  way.  The  British  Museum, 
however,  provides  excellent  catalogues  of  sculpture, 
coins,  and  vases,  among  which  those  of  the  collections  of 
coins  prepared  by  Poole,  Head,  and  others,  maintain  a 
position  of  the  first  rank. 

Another  series  of  great  undertakings  of  the  Institute 
had  already  been  indicated  by  Gerhard.  He  had  recog- 
nized the  great  importance  of  collecting  representations, 
as  complete  as  possible,  of  similar  works  of  art.  He 
personally  undertook  the  Etruscan  mirrors  ;  the  great 
number  of  Greek  vases  made  a  selection  necessary ; 
a  collection  of  drawings  was  all  that  it  was  possible  to 


"CORPUS    INSCRIPTIONUM    GR^CARUM "      79 

undertake  at  first  in  regard  to  the  Etruscan  cinerary 
urns. 

The  model  afforded  by  the  "  Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Gr&carum"  which  had  been  followed  by  the  more 
methodical  preparatory  work  for  the  Latin  inscriptions, 
made  it  apparent  how  essential  such  collections  are. 
Brunn  again  began  with  new  material,  the  collection  of 
Etruscan  cinerary  urns,  and  as  soon  as  the  Institute 
was  transformed  into  an  institution  of  the  German 
Empire  in  1874,  and  was  possessed  of  greater  means,  new 
enterprises  were  undertaken  ;  Reinhard  Kekule",  with  the 
co-operation  of  Hermann  von  Rohden  and  Franz  Winter, 
published  a  collection  of  ancient  terra-cottas ;  the  Roman 
sarcophagi  were  undertaken  by  Friedrich  Matz,  and  after 
his  early  death  continued  by  Carl  Robert.  Alexander 
Conze,  with  others,  published  the  Attic  Grave  Reliefs, 
a  work  executed  as  a  commission  from  the  Vienna 
Academy.  The  choice  in  the  class  of  monuments  fre- 
quently depended  on  finding  a  capable  and  willing  worker. 
Great  numbers  of  all  classes  of  monuments,  statues, 
busts,  as  well  as  vases,  still  remain  unpublished. 

The  series  of  publications  undertaken  by  this  Institute, 
however,  shows  that  these  undertakings  are  impossible 
without  extensive  means  and  a  staff  of  workers  eager  to 
work  and  willing  to  make  sacrifices.  Until  now  the 
Institute  has  pursued  its  way  alone,  but  it  does  not  seek 
any  monopoly  ;  other  institutions  and  other  nations  will 
find  a  great  field  where  all  may  co-operate.  Paul  Arndt, 
with  a  number  of  fellow-workers,  has  in  the  meantime 
prepared  a  photographic  collection  of  sculpture. 

It  may  be  added  here  that  the  Archaeological  Institute 
in  Rome  has  been  the  cradle  for  the  study  of  Roman 
epigraphy,  which  has  now  become  so  flourishing.  These 
studies  were  first  introduced  at  the  Institute  by  Count 
Bartolommeo  Borghesi,  and  under  his  patronage  Olaus 
Kellermann  devoted  himself  to  these  studies.  Later 


8o  THE   SEPULCHRES    OF    ETRURIA 

Theodor  Mommsen  and  Wilhelm  Henzen  undertook 
those  epigraphic  studies  and  journeys  which  culminated 
in  the  "Corpus  Inscriptionum  Latinarum"  That  it 
was  possible  to  carry  this  out  so  perfectly,  under  the  able 
guidance  of  Mommsen,  is  again  owing  to  the  deep  pene- 
tration and  tenacious  energy  of  Eduard  Gerhard,  who 
never  tired  of  exhibiting  his  plans  to  the  Berlin  Academy, 
and  finally  carried  off  the  victory  after  long  resistance. 

The  labour  and  the  completion  of  this  great  work  had 
gathered  together  for  half  a  century  a  great  number  of 
young  workers — the  Roman  part  had  since  the  death 
of  Henzen  been  carried  on  by  Christian  Hiilsen — and,  as 
is  well  known,  this  monumental  work  completely  re- 
modelled the  study  of  Roman  antiquities. 


The  Roman  nobleman  Giambattista  de  Rossi  had  taken 
an  active  part  in  the  Roman  Institute  since  1850,  and 
also  in  the  preparatory  work  of  the  "  Corpus";  he  became 
acquainted  with  Mommsen  and  Henzen  about  that  time. 
The  main  subject  of  his  studies  was  Christian  Archaeology, 
a  subject  which  the  Institute  had  excluded,  so  as  to  avoid 
all  unpleasant  encounters  with  the  authorities  of  the 
Vatican.  It  will  suffice  to  indicate  here  the  entirely  new 
sphere  opened  for  this  branch  of  archaeology,  through 
de  Rossi's  rediscovery  of  the  Roman  catacombs. 

The  catacombs,  the  subterranean  resting-places  (Cce- 
meteria)  of  Roman  Christians  of  the  first  three  centuries, 
scattered  in  great  numbers  about  the  city,  had  since  the 
sixteenth  century  been  the  object  of  research  and  investi- 
gations. In  1632  there  had  already  appeared  the  "  Roma 
sottenanea"  by  Antonio  Bosio  of  Malta,  a  work  em- 
bodying the  labour  of  thirty  years.  But  an  unlucky 
star  had  guided  these  earlier  efforts.  The  graves  of 
famous  martyrs  and  saints  had  never  been  reached, 
although  of  many  it  was  known  in  what  catacombs  they 


ROMAN    CATACOMBS  81 

\\vrc  interred,  and  that  they  had  received  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages  the  veneration  of  many  pilgrims  and  be- 
lievers. 

One  of  the  most  famous  burying-places  had  been  a 
catacomb  on  the  Appian  Way,  which  had  been  known 
as  the  one  containing  the  tomb  of  Pope  Sixtus  II,  who  was 
martyred  in  258,  and  was  sometimes  designated  as  that  of 
St.  Cecilia,  or  of  Callixtus,  who  had  laid  out  this  extensive 
place.  It  had  generally  been  sought  for  near  the  church 
of  San  Sebastiano,  where  there  had  evidently  been  cata- 
combs, but  no  trace  could  be  found  of  the  graves  of  these 
saints.  And  this  was  the  case  everywhere.  Until  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  our  knowledge  of  the 
catacombs  was  confined  to  the  ordinary  passages  with 
the  simple  wall  niche  and  their  occasional  extension  and 
decorated  grave  chambers. 

During  the  year  1841  Pope  Gregory  XVI  gave  the 
supervision  of  the  catacombs  to  the  learned  Jesuit 
Giuseppe  Marchi,  who  seriously  undertook  their  investi- 
gation. He  at  once  exploded  the  erroneous  belief  that 
the  early  Christians  had  used  old  pozzuolana  quarries 
for  burying-places,  by  proving  that  the  catacombs  had 
never  been  made  in  the  soft  soil  of  the  pozzuolana  earth, 
but  had  always  been  found  in  tufa,  and  that  here  also  old 
quarries  had  not  been  used,  but  that  the  complex,  narrow 
passages  running  frequently  at  right  angles  had  been 
solely  prepared  as  a  resting-place  for  the  dead.  But 
Marchi  proved  only  the  forerunner  of  a  greater  man,  and 
one  who  had  accompanied  him  on  all  his  expeditions 
— the  young  de  Rossi.  He  towered  far  above  his  leader, 
having  a  broader  horizon,  greater  sagacity,  and  more 
clear-sighted  penetration. 

A  thorough  study  of  the  books  of  early  medieval  pil- 
grims (among  which  the  itinerary  of  the  convent  of 
Einsiedeln  is  famous  and  of  great  importance)  in  con- 
nection with  a  systematic  study  of  early  Christian  and 


82  THE   SEPULCHRES    OF    ETRURIA 

ecclesiastical  literature,  gave  him  a  new  and  entirely 
different  conception  of  the  situation  and  relative  position 
of  catacombs.  He  thus  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
Catacomb  of  Sixtus  was  to  be  sought  nearer  the  city  than 
San  Sebastiano.  He  tried  to  cover  the  surrounding 
country  carefully  in  his  investigations,  and  was  finally 
rewarded  in  1849  by  finding  a  broken  marble  slab  on 
which  the  words  "  nelius  martyr "  were  still  visible. 
From  literature  Rossi  had  learned  that  the  martyr 
Cornelius,  who  had  been  killed  in  251,  must  lie  in  a 
division  of  the  Catacomb  of  Sixtus,  and  had  received 
special  veneration.  He  hoped  thus  to  gain  a  definite 
clue.  On  the  strength  of  this  discovery  the  young  scholar, 
then  twenty-seven  years  old,  urged  Pope  Pius  IX  to 
purchase  the  Vigna,  where  the  fragment  had  been  dis- 
covered, and  received  from  the  Pope  the  commission  to 
continue  his  researches  and  investigations. 

Thus  opened  those  brilliant  discoveries  which  led  every 
year  to  new  chapters  in  Christian  Archaeology.  It  soon 
became  evident  that  during  the  fourth  century,  after  the 
Christian  religion  had  been  established,  Pope  Damasus, 
to  regulate  the  constantly  increasing  number  of  pilgrims 
who  for  centuries  visited  the  tombs  of  martyrs,  built  wide 
staircases  in  great  walled  shafts,  thereby  ruthlessly  de- 
stroying graves  of  the  more  insignificant  dead,  so  as  to 
lead  the  pilgrims  straight  to  the  graves  of  the  saints  or 
chief  martyrs.  These  underground  apartments  received 
their  light  and  air  by  specially  constructed  air  shafts  rest- 
ing on  great  arches.  In  the  earlier  excavations,  by  chance 
such  a  shaft  had  never  been  reached,  but  on  meeting  a 
wall  in  a  narrow  passage  it  was  concluded  that  the  end 
of  the  subterranean  burying-ground  had  been  reached. 
If  one  of  these  walls  had  been  demolished,  de  Rossi's  dis- 
covery would  have  been  made  centuries  earlier. 

The  first  great  tomb-chamber  to  be  entered  by  de  Rossi 
was  that  of  St.  Cornelius,  and  to  complete  the  circum- 


DE    ROSSI  83 

stantial  evidence,  there  was  found  here  the  left  half  of 
the  broken  slab  with  the  letters  "  Cor''  which  had  formed 
the  first  part  of  the  name,  and  the  beginning  of  the  title, 
"  ep "  (iscopus).  De  Rossi  knew  from  the  books  of 
pilgrims  that  this  chamber  was  some  distance  from  the 
tomb  of  St.  Sixtus.  An  eager  search  now  began  in  the 
narrow  passages  extending  to  the  height  of  several 
storeys,  and  all  these  had  to  be  cleared  of  their  debris. 
The  grave  of  St.  Eusebius  was  first  discovered.  Finally 
the  scrawled  inscriptions  increased  on  the  walls  to  which 
pious  pilgrims  had  confided  their  hopes  and  aspirations. 
The 'expectations  of  the  lucky  finder  were  greatly  raised, 
when  near  a  door  he  came  upon  three  invocations  to 
"  Sustus."  The  door,  in  fact,  led  to  the  main  entrance 
of  the  Sixtus  Catacomb,  as  it  had  been  arranged  in  the 
third  quarter  of  the  fourth  century  by  Pope  Damasus. 
The  main  tomb  was  found  in  the  background,  but  greatly 
damaged ;  in  simple  niches  about  the  sides  were  the  graves 
of  eleven  Roman  bishops  of  the  third  century,  the  outside 
marble  tablets  bearing  the  names  in  Greek,  the  former 
official  language  of  the  Roman  Church,  without  recording 
other  distinction  or  papal  dignity.  In  the  corner,  to  the 
left  of  the  tomb  of  Sixtus,  a  little  gate  led  out  of  the  so- 
called  papal  chamber  into  the  adjacent  chapel  of  Cecilia. 
The  saint's  grave  niche  was  vacant,  for  in  817  Paschalis  I 
had,  as  the  times  grew  more  disturbed,  transferred  the 
corpse  to  the  church  of  St.  Cecilia  at  Trastevere,  where 
a  statue  by  Stefano  Maderna  shows  the  martyr  in  the 
position  in  which  she  had  been  found.  Byzantine  paint- 
ings of  the  sixth  and  eighth  centuries  on  the  walls  of  the 
vault  in  the  catacombs,  testify  to  the  veneration  accorded 
this  saint  during  the  centuries  of  pilgrimages.  There  is 
still  to-day  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  22  November,  an  im- 
pressive ceremony  in  the  subterranean  chapel,  which  has 
been  cleared. 
Thus  passed  the  beginning  of  de  Rossi's  researches  in 


84  THE  SEPULCHRES   OF  ETRURIA 

the  catacombs.  Those  hours  will  ever  remain  a  delightful 
memory  to  every  hearer,  in  which  the  able  and  dis- 
tinguished discoverer — on  whose  lips  dwelt  Peitho — 
related  his  recent  discoveries  and  his  future  aims.  During 
the  following  years  he  continued  to  give  accurate  accounts 
of  what  had  been  attained. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book  to  give  a  more  de- 
tailed account  of  the  arrangement  of  the  catacombs  and 
their  decorations,  and  much  less  to  enter  into  the  dis- 
cussion as  to  their  interpretation.  Nor  do  we  wish  to 
enter  here  into  the  development  of  the  investigations  of 
the  catacombs  ;  how  one  catacomb  was  carefully  ex- 
amined after  another,  and  how  gradually  our  knowledge 
of  the  paintings  in  the  catacombs  has  extended.  It  is 
sufficient  to  remember  here  the  labours  of  Joseph  Wil- 
pert.  But  Christian  Archaeology  will  always  revere 
Giambattista  de  Rossi  as  its  founder. 


DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

RICHARD  LEPSIUS,  whose  earlier  studies  had 
been  concerned  with  the  Italian  dialects,  took 
part  temporarily  during  the  thirties  in  the  work  and 
direction  of  the  Archaeological  Institute.  While  in 
Paris  the  young  scholar  had  already  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  which  had  now 
become  intelligible  in  consequence  of  Champollion's 
great  discovery.  Bunsen  greatly  desired  to  include 
Egyptian  monuments  in  the  research  work  of  the  Archaeo- 
logical Institute,  and  urged  Lepsius  to  continue  his 
studies  in  this  field.  Lepsius,  in  fact,  began  his  Egyptian 
work  in  1837  with  a  revision  of  Champollion's  interpre- 
tation, making  great  advance  in  the  method.  He  thus 
entered  upon  the  path  whereon  he  attained  his  greatest 
success. 

No  important  progress  had  been  made,  apart  from  the 
reading  of  hieroglyphics,  in  the  study  of  Egyptian  monu- 
ments since  the  Napoleonic  expedition  (p.  14).  The 
Franco-Tuscan  expedition  sent  out  under  Champollion 
and  Rosellini  in  1828  had  in  the  course  of  a  year  (October, 
1828,  to  September,  1829)  gathered  considerable  material, 
and  Champollion  inaugurated  a  great  advance  in  the 
knowledge  of  Egyptian  history  by  the  reading  of  in- 
scriptions, the  copying  of  which  had  formed  the  main 
object  of  the  undertaking.  The  expedition  had  pene- 

85 


86  DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

trated   beyond  Philae  (p.  16)  to  Abu    Simbel  with    its 
rock  giants,  and  had  gone  as  far  as  Wadi  Haifa. 

Champollion,  finally,  had  recognized  the  great  disparity 
between  the,  until  then,  greatly  overrated  sculptures  of 
the  Ptolemaic-Roman  sculptures  (e.g.  Dendera)  and  the 
genuine  Egyptian  monuments  of  the  time  of  the  Rames- 
sids.  In  the  domain  of  art,  however,  little  had  been 
gained  showing  important  new  results.  The  Ramesseum 
had  been  recognized,  the  royal  tombs  at  Thebes  had  been 
entered,  and  the  significance  of  the  colossi  as  images  of 
Amenhotep  III  (p.  16)  had  been  established.  The 
tombs  of  Beni  Hassan,  with  their  simple  Protodoric  type 
of  column,  excited  the  greatest  interest ;  Champollion 
believed  that  he  discovered  therein  the  prototype  of  the 
Doric  column  of  the  Greeks.  For  he  became  convinced 
that  Greek  art  had  developed  strictly  in  conformity  to 
Egyptian  art.  In  spite  of  all  this,  a  wide  field  still  re- 
mained for  research  work,  particularly  if  equipped  with 
means  and  permission  to  carry  on  excavations,  as  these 
had  only  taken  place  to  a  very  moderate  extent  in  former 
expeditions.  Thanks  to  the  great  influence  at  the  com- 
mand of  Alexander  von  Humboldt  and  Bunsen,  Lepsius 
was  able  to  enter  upon  his  work  now,  for  means  had  been 
secured  from  King  Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV  (a  man  more 
given  to  forming  plans  than  to  executing  them)  for  an 
extensive  scientific  expedition  to  Egypt,  lasting  three 
years,  1843-5.  Lepsius,  hardly  thirty-two  years  old, 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  expedition,  accompanied 
by  a  staff  of  architects  and  draughtsmen,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  Erbkam.  It  was  not  simply  a  question, 
as  heretofore,  of  inquiry  and  of  carrying  off  that  which 
lay  openly  before  all  eyes,  but  a  question  of  research 
work  and  the  use  of  the  spade  when  necessary.  The 
great  length  of  time  planned  was  to  preclude  all  haste ; 
thus,  for  instance,  six  months  were  devoted  to  Memphis 
and  its  tombs,  seven  months  to  the  extensive  ruins  of 


LEPSIUS    IN    EGYPT  87 

Thebes,  and  a  month  to  the  Island  of  Philae  and  its  en- 
virons. With  the  exception  of  the  Pyramids  of  Beni 
Hassan,  only  monuments  of  the  New  Kingdom  or  of  the 
later  periods  had  been  examined.  The  discovery  of 
numerous  monuments  of  the  Old  Kingdom  was  the  first 
great  result  obtained  by  the  Prussian  expedition.  The 
number  of  the  most  obvious  witnesses  of  this  brilliant 
period,  the  Pyramids,  increased  to  67  ;  of  the  Mast  abas, 
a  style  of  tomb  until  then  unknown,  130  were  discovered. 
Although  Champollion  had  only  reluctantly  acknowledged 
the  great  antiquity  of  Egyptian  art,  our  knowledge  of  it 
now  extended  back  into  the  fourth  millennium.  In 
Amenemhet  III  it  was  possible  to  recognize  the  con- 
structor of  Lake  Moeris  in  the  Fayum,  the  great  basin 
regulating  the  Nile ;  to  examine  his  pyramids  and 
structures — which  Lepsius  mistakenly  identified  with  the 
famous  Labyrinth — and  to  investigate  the  plans  for 
damming  the  river.  Later,  in  Upper  Egypt,  where  the 
river  becomes  narrow,  the  Nilometer  of  the  same  king 
appeared,  indicating  the  height  of  the  Nile,  at  that  time, 
as  about  seven  metres  higher  than  to-day.  In  Middle 
Egypt  appeared  the  later  tombs  of  the  Old  Kingdom,  the 
rock  tombs  (for  instance,  Kom-el-achmar ),  and  farther  south 
the  later  tombs.  The  Ramesseum  and  the  rock  tomb  of 
Rameses  II  were  carefully  investigated  in  the  scattered 
ruins  of  Thebes,  and  still  further  south  the  rock  temple 
of  Abu  Simbel  with  its  colossi. 

The  expedition  did  not  halt  at  the  frontiers  of  Egypt, 
but  penetrated  to  Ethiopia  beyond  Khartum,  and  even 
Sinai  did  not  remain  unexplored. 

This  much  as  to  the  extent  of  the  expedition.  Its 
results  were  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  history  of  the 
country.  As  permanent  guides  numerous  cartouches 
with  names  of  kings  were  collected  for  the  publication  of 
the  "Book  of  Kings"  in  1858.  The  figure  of  the  revolution- 
ary King  Amenhotep  IV  was  first  dimly  recognized  at 


88  DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

Tell-el-Amarna.  Our  historical  knowledge  also  enhanced 
our  comprehension  of  the  history  of  art ;  for  the  great 
epochs  of  Egyptian  art,  from  the  Old  Kingdom  down  to 
the  times  of  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Romans,  only  now 
appeared  in  a  clear  light.  Architecture,  in  connection 
therewith,  was  for  the  first  time  critically  examined  by 
experts.  The  reliefs  covering  the  walls  and  the  inscrip- 
tions were  eagerly  copied,  squeezes  and  drawings  were 
taken,  all  yielding  valuable  information  as  to  language, 
religion,  and  the  conditions  of  daily  life. 

It  is  not  asserting  too  much  to  state  that  in  consequence 
of  this  expedition  Egyptology  gained  a  new  and  an  en- 
tirely changed  foundation.  The  results  attained  were 
soon  rendered  accessible  by  the  great  illustrated  work 
which  formed  a  collection  of  documents,  and  by  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Egyptian  Museum  in  Berlin. 


The  art  of  Assyria  appeared  on  our  horizon  for  the  first 
time  almost  at  the  moment  that  Lepsius  and  his  friends 
were  investigating  Egypt.  From  Mosul,  the  chief  town 
in  this  region,  the  eye  scans  the  vast  region  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  whereon  are  scattered  in  many  places 
irregular  earth-hills.  Earlier  travellers — Kinneir,  Rich, 
and  Ainsworth — had  already  recognized  in  these  hills 
(flat  at  the  top  with  steep  and  frequently  broken  edges) 
the  sheltering  coverings  of  ruins,  and  the  site  of  old 
Nineveh  had  even  been  conjectured  in  the  group  of  hills 
of  Kuyunjik  and  Nebi  Yunus  (the  grave  of  Jonah) 
opposite  Mosul. 

The  credit  of  seriously  beginning  investigations  be- 
longs to  Paul  Emile  Botta,  who  had  been  French  consul 
in  Mosul  since  1842  ;  the  famous  Oriental  scholar, 
Julius  Mohl  of  Paris,  was  his  learned  friend  and  patron. 
The  excavations  undertaken  by  Botta  at  Kuyunjik  were 
fruitless.  But  after  overcoming  serious  difficulties  with 


EXCAVATIONS  AT  KHORSABAD      89 

local  authorities  and  the  Pasha  of  Mosul  he  undertook 
excavations  at  Khorsabad,  ten  miles  further  north,  near 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  plain,  and  his  efforts  were 
crowned  with  great  success  (1843-4).  Upon  massive 
terraces  there  appeared  the  vast  palace  which  King  Sar- 
gon  erected  after  the  conquest  of  Babylon  in  710  as  a 
summer  palace  or  Versailles ;  the  name  of  the  site  was 
Dur  Sarukin  (the  hill  of  Sargon).  Great  courts  with 
entrance  gates  were  uncovered,  stately  halls,  a  maze  of 
passages  and  rooms  ;  one  part  of  the  palace  contained 
a  threefold  harem  and  remains  of  a  terrace-tower  which 
had  served  as  a  sanctuary.  The  entrance  gates  were 
guarded  by  huge  bulls  and  lions  ;  the  brick  walls  were 
partly  covered  with  reliefs  in  alabaster  representing 
chiefly  scenes  of  the  royal  life,  or  they  were  partly  covered 
with  decorative  friezes  of  coloured  enamelled  tiles. 
A  new  vista  was  opened  here.  Botta  immediately 
tried,  as  may  readily  be  understood,  to  find  shelter  for 
the  sculptures,  and  sent  them  as  soon  as  possible  to 
Basra,  whence  they  were  conveyed  to  Havre  in  1846. 
Paris  was  safely  reached  in  February,  1847  »  among  the 
sculptures  were  a  pair  of  the  large  portal  figures.  In 
the  autumn  of  1843  the  draughtsman  Flandin  joined 
Botta,  and  the  two  worked  together,  publishing  their 
results.  But  the  architectural  investigation  of  this 
important  ruin  still  left  much  to  be  desired.  The  French 
consul  Victor  Place  and  the  architect  Felix  Thomas 
tried  some  years  later  to  fill  this  gap,  1851-5.  Their 
searching  investigations  succeeded  in  reconstructing  this 
palace  on  paper,  and  thus  casting  a  clear  light  on  the 
peculiarities  of  Assyrian  architecture.  The  English 
traveller  and  journalist  Austen  Henry  Layard  felt 
tempted  to  try  his  luck  in  consequence  of  Botta's  great 
results.  Means  were  offered  him  by  Sir  Stratford 
Canning,  British  ambassador  at  Constantinople.  In 
1845  Layard  chose  as  the  site  of  his  campaign  the  great 


9o  DISCOVERIES    IN   THE   EAST 

rubbish  mound  of  Nimrud,  eighteen  miles  south  of 
Kuyunjik,  which  had  attracted  his  attention  on  his 
former  journeys.  Remains  of  the  old  city  of  Calah  were 
soon  discovered  there.  The  first  excavations  were 
carried  on  under  constant  difficulties,  arising  from  ill- 
disposed  authorities,  superstitious  fanatics,  and  thievish 
neighbouring  tribes.  Nor  did  these  difficulties  cease 
the  following  year ;  such  discoveries  as  that  of  the 
gigantic  human  head  of  a  bull  created  the  greatest 
excitement  in  the  entire  province. 

The  work,  however,  had  sufficiently  advanced  to 
allow  the  first  shipment  to  London  to  be  made  during 
the  summer  of  1846,  a  gift  to  the  British  Museum  from 
Sir  Stratford  Canning.  The  museum  now  accorded  some 
financial  aid,  so  that  excavations  could  be  resumed  in  the 
autumn,  although,  unfortunately,  without  the  aid  of  a 
draughtsman.  As  many  pieces  were  too  badly  injured 
or  broken  to  permit  transportation,  Layard  had  to  come 
to  the  rescue  again.  No  architect  was  on  the  spot, 
therefore  little  is  known  to  us  of  the  architecture  of  the 
ruins  of  Nimrud.  The  second  shipment  of  sculpture  took 
place  in  December,  and  with  it  ended  the  investigation 
of  Nimrud.  The  palaces  found  here  closely  resembled 
those  at  Khorsabad.  The  alabaster  wall  coverings, 
with  their  rows  of  reliefs,  were  here  found  still  in  position 
or  in  the  ground  as  they  had  fallen,  and  again  the  same 
gigantic  animal  figures  formed  the  support  of  the  portals. 
But  all  was  larger,  more  impressive,  and  bore  a  more 
vigorous  character,  the  sculpture,  as  well  as  the  well- 
preserved  colours.  These  ruins  extended  more  than  a 
century  and  a  half  further  back,  as  far  as  the  reign  of 
King  Assurnasirpal,  who  was  the  first  of  the  great  Assyrian 
conquerors.  He  had  built  in  the  years  875-68  the 
"  North-western  Palace  "  uncovered  by  Layard.  There 
foUowed  the  "Central  Palace,"  built  by  his  son  Sal- 
manassar  II,  on  which  Layard  also  worked  ;  of  particular 


LAYARD'S    EXCAVATIONS  91 

interest  was  the  "  black  obelisk,"  giving  an  illustrated 
chronology  of  thirty-one  years  of  the  king's  reign.  The 
remains  of  the  unfinished  "  South-western  Palace  "  with 
its  reliefs  are  of  later  date,  and  resemble  in  style  those  of 
Khorsabad ;  the  palace  had  been  designed  about  670 
by  Asarhaddon.  This  entire  rich  collection  found  its 
way  to  the  British  Museum,  and  with  Layard's  great 
publication  and  popular  description  helped  materially  to 
direct  general  interest  to  Assyrian  art. 

But  Layard  did  not  rest  there.  In  1849,  being  com" 
missioned  by  the  British  Museum,  he  undertook  work  on 
the  hills  of  Kuyunjik,  where  earlier  attempts  had  not 
been  successful,  although  trial  excavations  in  1847  had 
shown  some  good  results.  Layard  now  continued  these 
excavations  on  an  extensive  scale  until  1850.  Again 
his  efforts  were  crowned  with  success,  and  these  results 
again  went  to  the  British  Museum.  He  disclosed  this 
time  the  latest  period  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  the  seventh 
century,  from  which  date  the  palace  ruins  of  Nineveh. 
King  Sanherib  and  his  grandson,  Asurbanipal  (Sardana- 
palus),  were  the  chief  representatives  of  this  period. 
Judging  from  outward  appearance  the  representations 
were  very  much  the  same  as  on  the  two  other  sites,  but 
a  new  and  more  animated  spirit  pervades  these  sculptures, 
an  attempt  to  abandon  the  old  fetters  and  formalities. 
Such  a  work  as  the  lioness  mortally  wounded  in  the  spine, 
which,  although  her  hindquarters  are  already  paralysed, 
lifts  his  head  and  shoulders  for  a  last  roar,  is  far  above  all 
the  creations  of  the  older  Assyrian  sculpture.  The  ex- 
traordinary phenomenon  is  witnessed  here  of  an  art  which 
for  centuries  had  conformed  to  the  most  rigid  rules 
suddenly  rising  before  its  end  to  a  more  vivid  conception 
and  interpretation  of  the  life  about  it.  It  was  not  sur- 
prising that  an  explanation  of  this  anomaly  was  sought 
for,  and  it  was  assumed  that  Ionian  influences  had  here 
rejuvenated  ancient  Assyrian  art.  It  is,  however,  to  be 


92  DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

questioned  whether  the  plastic  art  of  the  lonians,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  had  already  attained 
this  strength. 

These  Assyrian  discoveries,  made  in  the  forties, 
opened  a  view  of  the  court  art  of  a  secluded  empire, 
showing  distinctly  the  consecutive  stages  of  development 
during  three  centuries.  Its  influence  extended  as  far  as 
Cyprus,  where  in  1845  Ludwig  Ross  discovered  an  image 
of  King  Sargon  on  a  relief  stele.  Assyrian  art  belongs  to 
the  last  pre-Christian  millennium,  and  is,  therefore,  far 
later  than  the  Egyptian,  but  yet  is  old  enough  to  raise 
the  question  whether  any  light  can  be  obtained  from 
Assyria  to  solve  the  obscure  question  of  the  origin  and 
style  of  Homeric  art.  Adrien  de  Longperier  pursued 
this  path,  and  later  Heinrich  Brunn. 

Since  Chandler's  "  Ionian  "  expedition  in  1764  Asia 
Minor  had  frequently  been  visited  by  several,  especially 
by  travellers,  but  they  had  either  been  guided  by 
geographical  considerations  or  had  searched  for  the 
"seven  churches  of  the  Revelation."  Not  until  the 
journeys  undertaken  by  Charles  Texier  at  the  instance 
of  the  French  Government  in  1833-7  did  archaeological 
interests  again  become  prominent.  A  number  of  build- 
ings and  plans  of  cities  were  drawn,  unfortunately  often 
so  carelessly  that  later  investigations  revealed  the  un- 
trustworthiness  of  Texier's  great  publications.  The 
Doric  Temple  at  Assos,  a  city  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
Troad,  offered  some  novelties  to  the  history  of  art. 
The  primitive  style  of  the  architecture,  with  equally 
ancient  reliefs  upon  epistyle  and  metopes,  all  hewn  out 
of  the  brittle  trachyte  of  the  neighbourhood,  created 
great  interest.  After  the  reliefs  had  been  acquired  by 
the  Louvre,  through  the  efforts  of  Raoul-Rochette,  many 
voices  assigned  them  to  the  very  beginning  of  Greek 
sculpture.  The  American  architect  Joseph  Thacher 
Clarke,  who  in  1881-3  re-examined  the  entire  city  of 


EXCAVATIONS    AT   ASSOS  93 

Assos,  at  the  instance  of  the  Archaeological  Institute  of 
America,  became  convinced  of  the  contrary,  and  after 
examining  the  ground-plan  of  the  temple,  ascribed  it 
to  a  period  near  the  time  of  Pericles.  An  instructive 
example,  showing  that  correct  conclusions  cannot  always 
be  definitely  attained  by  the  exclusive  study  either  of  ar- 
chitecture or  archaeology.  To-day  few  will  doubt  that 
we  have  to  deal  with  a  peculiar  provincial  style  of  the 
sixth  century.  As  the  most  important  archaeological 
achievements  of  Texier's  journey  may  be  mentioned  the 
great  temple  site  of  Aizani  (for  a  time  supposed  to  be 
Hellenistic,  until  recognized  as  of  the  time  of  Hadrian), 
the  Temple  of  Augustus  at  Ancyra,  and  the  rock-reliefs 
at  Boghas  Koi  and  Nymphid.  These  soon  formed  the 
object  of  more  thorough  investigations  (p.  106).  Another 
French  expedition  carried  on  by  Philippe  Lebas  in  1843-4 
proved  of  less  importance  as  regards  Asia  Minor.  Partly 
in  consequence  of  political  affairs  its  results  remained 
quite  fragmentary  ;  only  parts  of  the  work,  which  had 
been  planned  on  a  great  scale,  were  ever  published. 

The  event  which  contributed  most  to  our  knowledge 
of  Asia  Minor  during  these  years  was  what  may  be  termed 
the  discovery  of  Lycia.  This  Alpine  peninsula,  pro- 
jecting into  the  sea,  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  had 
in  consequence  of  its  mountainous  character  not  been 
easily  accessible.  Only  along  its  coast  had  it  been  visited, 
where  Myra,  the  place  where  St.  Paul  landed,  had  excited 
interest.  Older  descriptions  of  travel,  as  those  of  Clarke, 
Ludwig  Mayer,  and  Beaufort,  only  suggested  enough  of 
the  peculiar  charm  of  Lycian  works  of  art  to  arouse  a 
desire  for  more  accurate  knowledge.  Charles  Fellows, 
however,  was  hardly  influenced  by  these,  when  he  became 
the  actual  discoverer  of  Lycia.  As  the  son  of  a  wealthy 
banker  without  any  vocation,  he  had  early  begun  to 
travel,  and  since  1832  had  spent  several  years  in  Italy 
and  Greece.  In  the  spring  of  1838  he  went  to  Smyrna, 


94  DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

and  thence  started  on  a  three  months'  journey,  which 
led  him  north  by  way  of  Pergamon  and  Troy  to  Con- 
stantinople, thence  across  country  to  Adalia,  and  then 
by  Lycia,  Caria,  and  Lydia,  back  to  Smyrna.  He  knew 
nothing  of  the  earlier  travellers,  wrote  his  journal  without 
preconceptions,  and  with  a  tolerably  practised  pencil 
sketched  what  he  saw.  Only  after  his  return  to  London, 
when  he  reported  his  journeys  and  exhibited  his  sketches, 
did  he  realize  the  great  number  of  new  things  he  had  seen 
and  experienced.  The  greatest  interest  was  excited  by 
the  drawings  from  Lycia,  which  exhibited  funereal 
monuments  cut  out  of  the  rock  or  standing  free.  Both 
displayed  a  striking  imitation  in  stone  of  wooden  archi- 
tecture. The  decoration  in  reliefs  of  many  of  these 
tombs  was  also  remarkable.  The  frieze  of  the  so-called 
Harpy  Tomb  of  Xanthos  appeared  of  marked  importance, 
although  painfully  modernized  in  Fellows's  drawings. 

This  unexpected  success  decided  Fellows  to  return  in 
the  autumn  of  1839,  as  s°on  as  his  report  had  been 
printed  ("  Asia  Minor  "),  with  the  purpose  of  investi- 
gating Lycia  more  thoroughly.  He  was  accompanied 
by  the  draughtsman  George  Scharf,  born  in  London, 
the  son  of  a  Bavarian  artist.  This  second  journey, 
during  the  spring  of  1840,  with  a  stay  of  four  months  in 
Lycia,  greatly  enriched  our  knowledge  of  this  remote 
country,  with  its  numerous  and  extensive  ruins  of  cities. 
Its  tombs,  which  are  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  at  times 
represent  wooden  structures,  at  times  the  fa£ades  of 
Ionic  temples ;  its  reliefs  are  partly  very  ancient  and 
partly  represent  a  later  style  carried  out  in  a  distinctive 
character.  The  Harpy  Tomb,  in  particular,  which  was 
now  more  correctly  drawn,  distinctly  suggested  certain 
works  of  art  in  which  Ionian  influence  was  conjectured, 
and  offered  in  its  representations  an  interesting  problem. 
The  copy  of  a  wooden  structure  aroused  anew  the  question 
of  the  relation  of  wood  construction  to  Greek  architecture. 


FELLOWS    IN    LYCIA  95 

To  these  may  be  added  inscriptions  in  peculiar  characters 
and  a  strange  tongue,  which  offered  difficult  problems 
to  the  philologist.  Fellows  returned  home  with  good 
results,  and  reported  all  in  a  new  book  "  Lycia,"  to  which 
some  of  Scharfs  drawings  were  added.  The  latter's 
larger  drawings  were  presented  in  1844  by  Fellows  to  the 
British  Museum.  Some  plates  among  these  clearly 
showed  traces  of  colour  on  some  of  the  monuments. 

These  new  reports  greatly  stimulated  the  desire  to 
acquire  the  most  important  sculptures  of  Xanthos  for 
the  British  Museum.  Negotiations  were  begun  with 
Turkey,  and  a  carelessly  prepared  expedition  was  set 
on  foot,  which  certainly  would  have  failed,  had  not 
Fellows  offered  his  services,  and  with  his  knowledge  of 
Turkish  affairs  surmounted  the  main  difficulties.  In 
January,  1842,  he  led  the  work  of  the  sailors  placed  at 
his  disposal  by  the  British  Navy.  He  succeeded  in 
lowering  the  reliefs  from  the  Harpy  Tomb,  which  was 
eight  metres  high,  without  further  injuring  it.  The 
chief  find,  however,  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  great 
substructure  of  freestone,  where  torsos  of  statues  and 
four  different  relief  friezes  were  found,  with  pediment 
reliefs  and  Ionic  architectural  remains,  all  belonging  to 
one  building,  at  first  known  as  the  "  Ionic  Monument  of 
Victory,"  but  which  we  now  term  the  "  Nereid  Monu- 
ment." Even  the  sailors  acquired  a  lively  interest  in 
their  work.  They  returned  one  day  saying  they  had 
found  something  very  strange,  a  relief  of  "  the  parson 
and  his  clerk."  It  was  part  of  a  besieged  fortress, 
representing  a  warrior  looking  down  from  a  tower,  leaning 
forward,  while  below  him  another  warrior  was  visible, 
thus  suggesting  to  the  sailors  the  church  service. 

Fellows  and  the  naval  officers  lived  in  a  hut,  which 
with  its  flat  timber  roof  and  airy  portico  supported  by 
wooden  columns  had  exactly  the  appearance  of  an  ancient 
Lycian  structure.  A  visitor,  then  Lieutenant  and  later 


96  DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

Admiral  T.  A.  B.  Spratt,  gives  a  graphic  description  of 
the  life  there  :  "  Whilst  we  were  there,  these  sculptures 
were  daily  dug  out  of  the  earth,  and  brought  once  more 
to  view.  The  search  for  them  was  intensely  exciting, 
and,  in  the  enthusiasm  of  the  moment,  our  admiration 
of  their  art  was,  perhaps,  a  little  beyond  their  merits. 
As  each  block  of  marble  was  uncovered  and  the  earth 
carefully  brushed  away  from  its  surface,  the  form  of  some 
fair  Amazon  or  stricken  warrior,  or  an  eastern  king  or  a 
besieged  castle  became  revealed,  and  gave  rise  to  many 
a  pleasant  discussion  as  to  the  sculptor's  art  therein 
displayed,  or  the  story  in  the  history  of  the  ancient 
Xanthians  therein  represented — conversations,  which  all 
who  took  part  in  them,  will  ever  look  back  upon  as  among 
the  most  delightful  in  their  lives.  Often,  after  the  work 
of  the  day  was  over  and  the  night  had  closed  in,  when  we 
had  gathered  round  the  log  fire  in  the  comfortable  Turkish 
cottage  which  formed  the  headquarters  of  the  party,  we 
were  accustomed  to  sally  forth,  torch  in  hand,  Charles 
Fellows  as  cicerone,  to  cast  a  midnight  look  of  admiration 
on  some  spirited  battle  scene  or  headless  Venus,  which 
had  been  the  great  prize  of  the  morning's  work."  Within 
a  short  time  a  great  deal  was  thus  acquired ;  eighty-six 
cases  were  packed  and  sent  with  great  difficulty  to  the 
distant  coast  to  be  placed  there  on  a  warship,  and  thus 
taken  to  London.  But  even  this  did  not  suffice.  With 
the  inadequately  equipped  expedition  it  had  been  im- 
possible to  remove  the  great  block  covering  the  Tomb 
of  Payava  (Horse  Tomb).  In  consequence  another 
and  better-equipped  expedition  was  sent  out  in  1843-4, 
the  leadership  of  which  Fellows  again  assumed.  A 
numerous  staff  accompanied  him,  the  draughtsman 
George  Scharf,  the  architect  Rohde  Hawkins,  besides 
others  to  make  plaster  casts  of  such  monuments  as  could 
not  well  be  removed.  Finally  twenty-seven  cases  were 
shipped  containing  the  new  finds  :  the  two  large  tombs 


THE    NEREID    MONUMENT  97 

of  Payava  and  Merehi  (Chimaera  Tomb),  several  friezes, 
among  which  the  one  giving  a  graphic  representation  of 
cock-fights  in  a  poultry-yard  is  of  special  interest,  and 
lastly  a  number  of  casts  of  rock-reliefs  in  very  remote 
places. 

In  the  Lycian  Room  the  British  Museum  acquired  a 
department  quite  unique  and  only  overshadowed  by 
the  proximity  of  the  Elgin  Marbles,  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  reliefs  of  Giolbashi  in  Vienna  (Chap.  VII) 
quite  unrivalled  in  the  world. 

In  more  than  one  aspect  Lycian  art,  the  chief  monu- 
ments of  which  date  from  Cyrus  to  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  suggests  problems  and  offers  solutions  to  the 
history  of  Greek  art.  Great  light  is  thrown  here  upon 
Ionic  art  in  Asia  Minor.  Unfortunately  these  monu- 
ments were  not  exhibited  in  the  museum  in  a  manner 
corresponding  to  their  importance ;  they  were  crowded, 
and  objects  which  should  have  been  together  were 
separated,  thus  making  a  study  of  them  most  difficult. 
Moreover,  nothing  was  done  for  their  publication.  The 
Museum  did  not  devote  a  new  volume  to  them  in  its 
"Ancient  Marbles";  the  architectural  drawings  of  Rohde 
Hawkins  have  disappeared.  Scharf's  drawings  remained 
a  long  time  unused  in  the  archives  of  the  museum ;  no 
publication  of  the  chief  monument,  the  Nereid  Tomb, 
appeared  for  thirty  years,  and  the  record  then  under- 
taken was  a  private  enterprise. 

Some  public  recognition  was  accorded  to  Fellows.  He 
refused  a  remuneration  with  the  words,  reflecting  on 
Lord  Elgin,  that  he  was  not  a  dealer  in  stone;  the 
reward  he  desired,  an  expression  of  thanks  on  the  part 
of  Parliament,  was  withheld  (the  distinction  appeared 
too  great),  but  the  Queen  knighted  him.  In  May,  1845, 
he  became  Sir  Charles,  and  in  the  following  October  there 
already  was  a  Lady  Fellows. 


98  DISCOVERIES    IN   THE    EAST 

At  the  same  time  as  the  Assyrian  and  Lycian  sculptures, 
other  valuable  remains  from  Asia  Minor  reached  the 
British  Museum,  evidence  of  a  noble  and  pure  Greek 
art.  In  the  autumn  of  1841,  when  Fellows  went  to 
Constantinople  to  remove  some  of  the  difficulties  in 
connection  with  his  Lycian  plans,  he  found  on  the  list 
of  demands  made  by  Great  Britain  to  the  Porte  a  wish 
to  remove  some  of  the  reliefs  built  into  the  fortress  walls 
of  Budrun  (the  ancient  Halicarnassos).  Fellows  looked 
upon  this  as  "  an  unreasonable  request,"  and  by  re- 
linquishing it  he  secured  acquiescence  in  the  Lycian 
demands.  But  the  plan  was  by  no  means  abandoned  in 
consequence  of  his  action. 

The  objects  in  question  were  twelve  relief  tablets,  built 
for  decorative  purposes  into  the  fortress  wall  of  a  castle, 
erected  by  the  Knights  Hospitallers.  These  had  greatly 
aroused  the  curiosity  of  travellers,  as  in  all  probability 
they  were  the  remains  of  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world, 
the  neighbouring  Mausoleum.  Even  to  enter  a  Turkish 
fortress  was  most  difficult  (particularly  one  as  strongly 
fortified  as  Budrun),  so  that  taking  stones  out  of  its  walls 
appeared  almost  an  impossibility.  But  the  word  im- 
possible did  not  exist  in  the  vocabulary  of  the  energetic 
representative  of  Great  Britain  at  the  Sublime  Porte, 
the  same  Sir  Stratford  Canning  who  had  helped  Layard 
in  his  undertaking  at  Nimrud  (p.  89).  He  succeeded  in 
overcoming  all  difficulties  after  three  years,  and  received 
in  1846  a  firman  giving  him  permission  to  remove  the 
slabs.  This  was,  of  course,  carried  out  at  once.  The 
work  lasted  a  month,  and  in  the  same  year  the  remains 
of  the  Amazon  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum  were  added  to 
the  Lycian  treasures  in  the  British  Museum.  This 
addition  created  great  interest.  So  when  shortly  after 
this  Frau  Sibylla  Mertens-Schaffhausen,  a  great  lover  of 
art,  discovered  a  well-preserved  similar  slab  in  the  sum- 
mer-house of  the  Villa  d'Negro  at  Genoa,  and  had  plaster 


CHARLES   THOMAS    NEWTON  99 

copies  of  it  taken,  the  officials  of  the  British  Museum 
recognized  without  difficulty  a  piece  of  the  same  frieze, 
which  may  have  been  taken  thither  centuries  ago  by  a 
Knight  of  St.  John.  The  prospect  of  recovering  more 
of  these  scattered  pieces  must  have  appeared  most  en- 
ticing. 

This  thought  fascinated  one  of  the  officials  at  the 
museum,  Charles  Thomas  Newton,  then  thirty  years 
old,  a  man  combining  great  learning  and  a  keen  sense 
for  art  with  a  quiet,  persistent  energy.  He  studied 
Halicarnassos  thoroughly  with  a  view  of  definitely  es- 
tablishing the  site  of  the  old  Tomb  of  Mausolos,  and  at 
last  his  aim  appeared  within  reach.  He  arranged  to 
be  sent  in  1852  to  Mytilene  as  vice-consul,  and  from 
there  he  also  acted  temporarily  as  consul  in  Rhodes. 
According  to  the  directions  of  the  Foreign  Office  seven 
years  of  diplomatic  service  in  the  Levant  were  to  be 
combined  with  the  task  of  contributing  new  acquisitions 
to  the  British  Museum.  Already  on  his  outward  journey 
Newton's  hopes  were  raised  on  seeing  a  beautiful  Amazon 
in  the  small  museum  at  Constantinople ;  it  obviously 
belonged  to  the  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum.  Some  other 
fragments  were  discovered  walled  into  houses  in  Rhodes. 
But  it  was  not  till  1855  that  Newton  entered  for  the  first 
time  the  castle  of  Budrun.  A  pair  of  large  lions  caught 
his  eye  at  once,  built  into  the  walls  on  the  side  of  the  sea, 
and  evidently  belonging  to  the  Mausoleum.  The  time  for 
action  had  now  come.  The  ambassador,  who  had  become 
Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  acquiesced  willingly  in 
Newton's  undertakings,  which  were  a  continuation  of 
his  own  former  plans.  The  fortunate  turn  of  events  in 
the  Crimean  War  (Sevastopol  had  fallen)  helped  to 
second  the  demands  of  the  British  ambassador.  In  the 
meantime  Newton  had  uncovered  in  Constantinople  the 
serpent  column  on  the  Atmeidan,  the  remains  of  a  Pan- 
hellenic  offering  from  the  spoils  of  Plataea.  Two  German 


ioo  DISCOVERIES    IN   THE    EAST 

scholars  living  in  Constantinople,  Otto  Frick  and  P.  A. 
Dethier,  were  thus  enabled  to  discover  and  decipher  the 
dedicatory  inscription  thereon. 

While  the  firman  of  the  Porte  was  delayed,  Newton 
occupied  his  time  in  a  search  for  the  Mausoleum,  and 
finally  decided  on  exactly  the  same  spot  which  had  been 
fixed  upon  thirty  years  previously  by  the  English  archi- 
tect T.  L.  Donaldson.  But  only  on  New  Year's  Day, 
1857,  was  the  ground  first  broken.  Nine  months  of 
laborious  and  exciting  work  brought  forth  a  number  of 
precious  marbles,  among  them  innumerable  fragments, 
out  of  which  the  statues  of  Mausolos  and  Artemisia  were 
reconstructed  ;  further  a  colossal  torso  of  a  rider  dressed 
as  a  Persian  ;  four  slabs  of  the  east  frieze  belonging  to  the 
side  where  Scopas  worked,  three  of  these  fitted  to  one 
another.  The  art  of  Scopas,  Timotheos,  Leochares,  and 
Bryaxis  appeared  here  far  more  brilliantly  than  one  would 
have  anticipated  from  the  friezes  already  in  London. 
One  of  the  chief  works  of  Greek  plastic  art  of  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century  was  regained  in  so  far  as  we  may 
hope  to  gain  anything  of  the  kind ;  and  eventually 
through  Newton's  energy  all  the  fragments  were  gathered 
into  the  British  Museum,  including  those  in  Genoa, 
Constantinople,  and  Rhodes.  So  many  and  important 
remains  had  been  found  of  this  marvellous  Ionic  structure, 
that  the  architect  P.  Popplewell  Pullan,  who  had  in  the 
meantime  arrived,  tried  to  undertake  a  reconstruction, 
a  task  for  which  he  was  hardly  qualified. 

But  even  these  great  results  did  not  satisfy  Newton. 
The  following  winter  he  went  over  to  Cnidos  and  un- 
covered, in  the  deserted  ruins  of  this  old  and  prosperous 
metropolis,  probably  for  the  first  time  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy,  the  plan  of  a  Greek  city.  The  greatest 
treasure,  however,  was  the  marvellous  statue  of  the  seated 
Demeter,  which  adequately  represents  the  brilliant 
Praxitelean  period  of  Attic  art.  To  this  was  added  the 


Photo,  If.  A.  M 'an sell  &  Co. 


DKMETER 
BRITISH    MUSEUM 


To  face  page  100 


.889001*1 


STATUES    FROM   THE    DIDYMAION  101 

following  summer,  by  a  fortunate  accident,  the  discovery 
of  the  Doric  monument  remotely  situated  on  the  coast 
overlooking  the  battlefield  where  in  394  Konon  overcame 
the  Lacedaemonian  fleet.  The  huge  crouching  lion  of 
Pentelic  marble,  which  had  crowned  the  monument, 
was  a  very  welcome  find,  but  the  embarking  of  so  huge 
a  block  occupied  a  full  month.  As  a  final  achievement 
Newton  took  all  the  seated  statues  which  had  lined  the 
nonal  Way  on  the  south  of  Miletos  from  the  harbour 
of  i  anormos  to  the  sanctuary  of  Apollo  Philesios,  the 
Didymaion.  Ten  seated  statues  and  two  lions,  by  their 
position  suggesting  Egyptian  temple  avenues,  testified 
to  the  glorious  period  of  Miletos  before  the  Ionian  Revolt, 
the  time  when  the  capital  of  Ionia  maintained  a  close 
connection  with  the  land  of  the  Nile. 

After  having  acted  as  consul  in  Rome  for  a  year, 
Newton  returned  in  1861  to  the  British  Museum  and 
assumed  the  management  of  its  Greek  and  Roman 
antiquities.  He  could  claim  that  in  consequence  of  his 
work  in  Asia  Minor  the  department  of  sculpture  had 
been  more  extensively  enriched  than  by  any  other 
undertaking  since  the  times  of  Lord  Elgin.  Nor  did 
Newton  allow  any  opportunity  for  acquiring  new  treasures 
to  escape.  The  following  example  clearly  illustrates  this. 
In  the  year  1862  a  statue,  shattered  into  many  fragments, 
had  been  found  in  Vaison  (Vaucluse),  the  ancient  Vasio. 
On  the  advice  of  an  expert. the  owner  applied  to  the 
Museum  in  Paris  in  October,  1868,  and  when  refused 
there  offered  it  to  the  British  Museum,  with  the  result 
that  Newton  merely  answered  he  would  inspect  it  at 
his  earliest  opportunity.  However,  nothing  happened, 
and  the  owner  renewed  his  offer  again  to  both 
Museums,  25  July,  1869,  this  time  enclosing  a  small 
photograph. 

Paris  again  declined  on  31  July  ;  but  in  consequence 
of  the  importance  of  the  statue  Newton  announced  at 


102  DISCOVERIES    IN   THE    EAST 

once  his  approaching  visit.  He  writes  :  "I  took  my 
portmanteau  and  went  over  to  France."  The  purchase 
was  concluded  in  a  few  hours,  and  on  n  August  Newton 
was  able  to  write  to  the  owner  that  the  British  Museum 
was  willing  to  pay  25,000  fr.  (£1000).  The  subject  of 
this  rapid  purchase  proved  to  be  the  Polykleitan  Dia- 
dumenos,  with  which  we  first  became  acquainted  in  this 
copy.  The  gradual  purchases  of  the  Farnese  collection 
in  Rome,  of  the  Blacas  collection,  and  the  chief  objects 
in  the  Pourtales  collection  in  Paris,  together  with  two 
Castellani  collections  in  Rome,  at  a  total  expense  of 
£100,000,  not  only  increased  this  department  in  the 
museum,  but  added  greatly  to  the  collections  of  gold, 
gems,  bronzes,  and  vases.  Newton  also  promoted  foreign 
excavations,  or  secured  their  results  for  the  museum. 
He  secured  in  1859  from  Biliotti  and  Salzmann  in  Rhodes 
the  valuable  collection  of  antique  vases,  which  they  had 
excavated  on  the  ancient  site  of  Kameiros.  The  naval 
officers  R.  Murdoch  Smith  and  E.  A.  Porcher  had  with 
great  success,  in  1860,  explored  the  district  of  ancient 
Cyrene,  and  found  a  number  of  Hellenistic  and  Roman 
sculptures,  and  in  the  Cyrenaic  town  of  Benghazi,  the 
British  consul  George  Dennis,  to  whom  we  owe  one  of  the 
most  delightful  books  on  Etruria,  had  been  actively 
collecting  for  the  museum.  The  architect  Pullan  con- 
tinued his  researches  on  different  temples  on  the  west 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  (Teos  and  Smintheion),  and  uncovered 
in  1866  a  number  of  reliefs  at  Priene,  at  first  incorrectly 
attributed  to  the  frieze  of  the  Temple  of  Athene  Polias, 
dedicated  by  Alexander  the  Great.  They  actually 
belong  to  a  later  decoration  from  within  the  temple. 
These  fragments  also  came  to  the  British  Museum. 
But  the  most  important  accessions  were  the  result  of 
another  enterprise.  As  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
ancient  world,  the  Temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesos  ranked 
beside  the  Mausoleum.  It  had  been  rebuilt  in  great 


TEMPLE   OF   ARTEMIS   AT    EPHESOS         103 

splendour  after  the  fire  of  Herostratos  in  356.  In  the 
marshy  soil  all  traces  of  the  temple  had  been  lost,  even 
its  exact  locality  was  uncertain.  The  architect  J.  T. 
Wood  was  sent  in  1863  by  the  British  Museum  and  the 
Society  of  Dilettanti  in  search  of  it,  and  after  many  years 
of  weary  effort  he  located  it  in  1869  below  the  hill  of 
Ayasoluk,  exactly  where  the  geographer  Heinrich  Kiepert 
had  indicated  it  thirty  years  earlier.  There  followed 
five  years  of  most  laborious  investigations  (to  1874)  in 
the  swamp  six  metres  below  the  present  surface.  It  may 
have  been  partly  in  consequence  of  these  unfavourable 
circumstances,  partly  of  inadequate  preparations,  but 
unhappily  there  can  be  no  question  of  the  fact  that  the 
excavations  have  only  partly  attained  their  object,  and 
essentially  bear  the  stamp  of  careless  working.  The 
mighty  pieces  of  architecture  covered  with  reliefs,  which 
have  reached  the  British  Museum,  are  indeed  of  the 
greatest  importance.  The  drums  of  columns  with  most 
beautiful  sculptured  reliefs,  remains  of  the  columnce 
ccelatce  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and,  above  all,  the  remains 
of  columns  with  similar  decorations  of  an  earlier  temple, 
of  the  time  of  Crcesus,  justified  the  great  admiration  they 
aroused.  This  decoration  on  columns  was  novel,  and 
the  comparison  offered  by  the  consummate  art  of  the 
fourth  century  with  the  archaic  of  the  sixth  century  was 
most  instructive.  But  the  effort  of  raising  these  huge 
pieces  of  sculpture  from  such  a  depth  led  to  an  utter  dis- 
regard of  the  plan  of  the  temple  as  a  whole,  a  problem 
which  was  never  correctly  solved.  Since  then  this  site — 
British  property — has  remained  a  desolate  waste.  A 
recent  visitor  expressed  himself  thus  :  "  What  does  it 
look  like  to-day  ?  One  shudders  at  the  desolate  heap 
of  rubbish  which  meets  the  eye.  It  fills  a  ditch  several 
hundred  yards  long,  a  picture  of  utter  neglect.  Better 
to  have  left  it  covered  than  create  such  damage."  This 


104  DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

decidedly  is  going  too  far,  in  view  of  what  we  have  ac- 
quired by  Wood's  labour  and  the  gain  these  treasures  have 
been  to  the  British  Museum.  England  must  have  felt  in 
honour  bound  to  resume  these  excavations  and  carry 
them  out  with  all  the  technical  skill  acquired  of  late 
years.  It  is  therefore  most  gratifying  that  the  British 
Museum,  under  the  efficient  and  energetic  guidance  of 
Cecil  Smith,  has  resumed  this  laborious  task  so  long 
neglected.  May  the  results  bring  the  desired  solutions. 

The  enterprises  undertaken  and  promoted  by  Newton 
have  the  same  significance  for  the  art  of  the  fourth  century 
as  the  older  discoveries  of  ^Egina  and  Bassse  and  the 
acquisition  of  the  sculptures  of  Pericles  have  for  the  fifth 
century.  The  statues  of  the  Didymaion  and  the  old  re- 
mains of  columns  of  the  Artemision  at  Ephesos,  together 
with  the  Lycian  Harpy  Tomb,  date  back  to  the  sixth 
century.  In  consequence  of  the  energy  of  Fellows  and 
Newton  the  British  Museum  has  triumphantly  retained 
its  old  position  as  the  treasure-house  of  the  most  re- 
markable collection  of  Greek  sculpture. 

Newton's  activity  becomes  the  more  significant  if 
compared  with  the  quiet  at  the  British  Museum,  in  his 
department,  since  he  left  in  1888,  and  only  of  late  has 
some  activity  again  been  shown.  Newton  was  at  the 
same  time  the  organizer  of  scientific  archaeology  in 
England ;  in  former  times  the  study  of  numismatics 
had  been  carried  on  there  almost  exclusively,  although 
in  a  very  creditable  manner,  by  Poole,  Head,  and  their 
colleagues.  Newton  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies  in  1879, 
and  of  the  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund  in  1882  ;  and 
took  part  in  establishing  the  Archaeological  School  in 
Athens  in  1885.  He  exercised  his  office  as  curator  of  the 
treasures  at  the  British  Museum  with  the  most  magnani- 
mous generosity  to  all,  including  foreigners,  a  generosity 
which  should  be  the  model  for  all,  but  unfortunately 


PERROT'S    GALATIAN    EXPEDITION          105 

is  not  always  found,  even  in  some  departments  of  the 
British  Museum. 


From  another  source  researches  were  undertaken  about 
this  time  in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor.  Napoleon  Ill's 
interest  in  the  history  of  Caesar  helped  to  advance  a 
number  of  scientific  enterprises.  Thus  in  1861  Georges 
Perrot,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  students  of  the 
French  School  in  Athens,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a 
"  Galatian  expedition."  Its  main  object  was  the  com- 
plete excavation  and  reading  of  the  account  of  his  govern- 
ment drawn  up  by  the  Emperor  Augustus,  which  both  in 
Latin  and  Greek  versions  covered  the  walls  of  the  Temple 
of  Augustus  and  Roma  at  Ancyra  (now  Angora).  The 
architect  E.  Guillaume  and  the  photographer  Jules  Delbet 
accompanied  Perrot.  Busbeke  had  discovered  and  copied 
the  Latin  text  of  the  "  Monumentum  Ancyranum  "  more 
than  three  hundred  years  before,  and  later  travellers  had 
partly  copied  the  Greek.  Large  fragments  of  this  very 
important  record  were  now  uncovered.  But  of  greater 
importance  for  archaeology  was  the  expedition  undertaken 
by  Perrot  and  his  companions  into  the  neighbouring 
Cappadocia  to  re-examine  the  rock-reliefs  at  Boghas- 
Koi  which  Texier  had  seen  and  noted.  A  strange  un- 
Greek  art  was  disclosed  here,  rather  suggestive  of  Meso- 
potamian  designs,  but  at  the  same  time  independent.  In 
Northern  Asia  Minor  these  rock-reliefs  frequently  appear 
as  far  as  the  neighbourhood  of  Smyrna  where  the  "  Kara- 
bel  "  (black  stone)  of  Nymphio,  a  warrior  image,  had 
already  attracted  the  attention  of  Texier.  But  quite 
different  again  is  the  so-called  Niobe  on  the  Sipylos,  an 
old-Phrygian  image  of  Cybele.  In  these  rock-reliefs 
we  come  in  contact  with  the  art  of  a  very  ancient  Asian 
people,  which  apparently  developed  under  the  influence 
of  the  Hittites  of  Northern  Syria.  But  it  remained 


106  DISCOVERIES    IN    THE    EAST 

doubtful  whether  we  were  to  suppose,  as  many  have 
done  since  the  publication  of  William  Wright's  "  Empire 
of  the  Hittite.  "  in  1884,  that  the  political  rule  of  this 
nation,  or  merely  its  civilizing  influence,  extended  over 
the  whole  of  Asia  Minor.  Excavations  carried  on  in  the 
autumn  of  1906  by  Hugo  Winckler  (Berlin)  have  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  Boghas-Koi  was  indeed  the  capital 
of  the  Empire  of  the  Hittites.  Clay  tablets,  forming  an 
enormous  body  of  archives,  in  Hittite  and  Babylonian 
characters,  promise  some  solution  for  the  problems  of 
the  prehistoric  times  of  Asia  Minor.  Remains  of  walls 
and  of  sculpture  (lions)  may  attract  further  excavators. 
Other  plans  of  Napoleon  III  included  a  Macedonian  ex- 
pedition, with  which  Leon  Heuzey,  a  colleague  of  Perrot's, 
and  the  architect  Honore  Daumet  were  commissioned 
by  the  emperor.  The  study  of  the  battlefields  of  Phar- 
salos,  of  Philippi,  and  of  Pydna  was  its  main  object. 
But  Heuzey  with  great  thoroughness  extended  his  task 
so  as  to  include  a  number  of  monuments  in  Thrace  as 
well  as  different  architectural  sites.  Among  the  latter 
were  noted  the  remains  of  an  extensive  villa,  until  then 
unknown,  of  Hellenistic  times,  near  Palatitza  in  Southern 
Macedonia.  The  co-operation  of  the  architect  proved 
most  efficient.  A  grave  relief  of  two  women  from 
Pharsalos  proved  of  interest  in  consequence  of  its  archaic 
character.  Excellent  publications  appeared  showing  the 
results  of  both  expeditions. 

Mention  must  be  made  here  of  the  journey  to  Thasos 
made  by  the  Paris  academician  E.  Miller,  in  1864. 
Although  it  was  undertaken  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  in- 
scriptions, excavations  enriched  the  Louvre  with  two 
choice  pre- Attic  works  of  Ionic  art :  the  frieze  of  an  altar 
dedicated  to  the  Nymphs  and  Apollo  of  delicate  archaic 
style,  nearly  related  to  the  Harpy  Tomb,  and  the  extra- 
ordinarily well-finished  grave  relief  of  Philis.  This 
shows  in  a  marked  degree  the  "  pastoso  "  style,  as  repre- 


EXCAVATIONS    IN    SOUTHERN    RUSSIA        107 

sented  by  the  relief  of  Pharsalos,  in  which  Brunn  seeks 
to  find  the  peculiarities  of  the  relief  work  of  Northern 
Greece.  It  is  in  any  case  a  peculiarly  skilful  variety  of 
the  Ionic  style. 


The  most  northern  territory  opened  during  this  period 
to  our  science  is  the  land  of  the  Scythians  in  Southern 
Russia.  Upon  archaeological  explorations  there  the 
Russian  Government  expended  great  sums.  These  aimed 
chiefly  at  uncovering  the  graves  of  Scythian  kings  or 
chieftains,  forming  artificial  hills  in  the  Crimea  near 
Kertch  or  beyond  the  straits  in  the  peninsula  of  Taman 
or  again  near  the  Dnieper.  The  French  emigrant  Paul 
Dulrux,  who  had  entered  the  Russian  service  and  took  a 
keen  interest  in  antiquities,  opened  in  1830  the  Kul  Oba 
(hill  of  ashes)  near  Kertch,  and  disclosed  for  the  first  time 
the  wealth  of  gold  treasures  in  these  tombs  of  rulers. 
Below  the  great  earth-hill  was  found  hidden  a  sepulchral 
chamber  of  masonry,  which  had  a  wooden  ceiling  after 
the  fashion  of  Scythian  houses.  The  body  of  the  chief 
and  the  walls  of  the  tomb  showed  traces  of  garments 
decorated  with  gold ;  the  rich  decorations  of  the  grave 
were  completed  by  a  gold  shield  and  a  gold  scabbard 
(with  the  name  of  the  artist  Pornacho  inscribed  on  it), 
both  with  reliefs,  and  a  large  amphora  of  electron  (a 
mixture  of  silver  and  gold).  The  kings'  tombs  on  the 
Dnieper  were  only  examined  considerably  later  by  the 
Russian  archaeological  commission  under  the  scientific 
guidance  of  Ludolf  Stephani.  In  accordance  with  the 
literary  evidence  of  Herodotus  on  the  tombs  of  the  Scy- 
thian rulers,  which  in  the  main  proved  correct,  some  of 
the  largest  hills  were  opened,  among  a  vast  number  lying 
between  Ekaterinoslav  and  Alexandrovsk  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river. 

On  opening  the  "Meadow  Tomb"  near  the  village  of 


io8  DISCOVERIES    IN   THE    EAST 

Alexandropol  in  1862-3  it  was  found  that  the  grave  had 
been  opened  and  robbed  at  some  former  time.  The 
same  was  found  to  be  the  case  in  the  large  hill  of  Kurgan 
near  Nikopol  in  1862-3,  although  the  robber  had  here 
been  overtaken  by  disaster,  for  in  a  passage  was  found 
a  body  with  a  lamp  near  the  treasures.  The  gold  decora- 
tions of  a  broad  quiver  (gorytos)  and  a  scabbard  as  well 
as  a  silver  amphora,  all  decorated  with  reliefs  of  Greek 
workmanship,  were  the  main  objects,  but  besides  these 
were  many  trinkets  of  gold.  In  the  sepulchral  chamber 
of  the  wife  of  the  ruler  a  painted  wooden  coffin  presented 
an  artistic  novelty. 

Where  did  this  art  originate  ?  In  the  tombs  of  the 
Crimea  numerous  Attic  vases,  many  of  great  beauty, 
testify  to  the  active  commercial  intercourse  existing 
between  Athens  and  the  land  of  the  Scythians.  An 
Athenian  vase  painter,  Xenophantos,  who  apparently 
had  settled  in  Pantikapaion  (Kertch),  also  suggests  a 
transference  of  Attic  art  in  this  manner.  The  subject 
of  his  painting,  a  somewhat  fantastically  elaborated 
"  Hunt  of  Darius,"  indicates  the  taste  of  a  rather  barbaric 
public.  One  felt  inclined  to  attribute  the  main  objects 
found  in  the  graves  to  the  same  influence,  the  great  and 
small  vessels  in  gold,  silver,  and  electron,  and  the  splendid 
gold  trinkets.  Greek  art  forms  had  here  been  combined 
with  the  national  Scythian  objects,  and  with  surprising 
accuracy  the  characteristic  life  of  the  ancient  Cossacks 
had  been  grasped  and  rendered.  We  see  the  Scythians 
at  war  ;  they  talk  together,  they  stretch  their  bows, 
a  painful  dental  operation  is  rendered  or  a  wounded  leg 
bandaged.  Again  we  find  them  on  the  steppes  engaged 
in  leashing  together  or  breaking  in  their  horses.  Every 
movement  is  copied  from  life.  The  Greek  objects  besides 
these  show  mannerism  and  a  somewhat  lifeless  style,  and 
indicate  at  times  misconceptions,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  true  they  present  remarkably  fine  and  pure  decorative 


SOUTHERN    RUSSIA  109 

effects  and  images  of  animals.  An  accurate  copy  of  the 
head  of  the  Parthenos  on  gold  plaques  clearly  indicates 
a  connection  with  Athens,  and  it  is  probable  that  these 
objects  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  may  have  been 
imported  from  Attica.  But  a  mixed  Attic-Scythian  art 
was  represented,  and  was  largely  practised  in  the  land 
of  the  Scythians  either  by  Greeks  or  by  Scythians  who  had 
had  their  training  in  Greece  (e.g.  Pornacho).  After 
Athens,  Ionia  may  also  claim  a  share  in  the  beauty  of 
this  splendid  art,  a  beauty  which  forgers  have  tried  to 
imitate.  The  "Tiara  of  Saitaphaines "  is  still  in  the 
memory  of  all.  These  great  treasures  form  the  pride  of 
the  collection  of  antiquities  at  the  Hermitage  in  St.  Peters- 
burg. As  regards  the  golden  jewels,  no  other  collection 
can  compete  with  it.  The  great  publi cation,  "  Anti- 
quit6s  du  Bosphore  Cimme*rien,"  issued  by  imperial 
munificence,  and  the  reports  of  the  Archaeological  Com- 
mission of  St.  Petersburg  have  served  to  make  these 
treasures  known  in  a  worthy  manner. 


VI 

GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

THE  flood  of  archaeological  discoveries  continued 
almost  without  intermission  to  the  beginning  of 
the  sixties,  finally  with  Newton's  discoveries  in  Asia  Minor 
attaining  a  height  that  recalled  the  beginning  of  the 
century.  A  pause  now  intervened,  interrupted  only  now 
and  then  by  single  discoveries. 

In  1862  Ernst  Curtius  and  the  architects  Karl  Botticher 
and  Heinrich  Strack  undertook  a  journey  to  Athens  with 
the  object  of  studying  its  antiquities.  Curtius  devoted 
his  attention  to  the  Pnyx  and  its  topographical  problems. 
Botticher  directed  his  studies  to  the  buildings  on  the 
Acropolis,  while  Strack  began  excavating  the  completely 
buried  Theatre  of  Dionysos. 

In  the  following  spring  there  was  discovered  near  Rome, 
at  Prima  Porta,  the  ancient  Saxa  Rubra,  where  Con- 
stantine  gained  dominion  of  the  world,  the  villa  of  the 
Empress  Livia,  with  landscape  paintings  on  the  walls 
and  a  statue  of  her  consort,  the  most  authentic  portrait 
of  Augustus,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  courtly  sym- 
bolism displayed  on  the  cuirass  and  the  vivid  traces  of 
colour,  excited  the  greatest  interest.  Rome  also  offered 
something  new  of  the  times  of  Augustus.  In  1861 
Napoleon  III  secured  from  the  dethroned  royal  family 
of  Naples  the  Villa  Farnese  on  the  Palatine,  and  he 
commissioned  the  Roman  architect  Pietro  Rosa  with 
the  excavation  of  the  imperial  palaces  as  far  as  they  lay 

no 


SINGLE   DISCOVERIES  in 

within  its  limits.  These  excavations  proved  of  the 
greatest  importance  for  our  knowledge  of  the  Palatine 
buildings,  of  the  Flavian  Palace  in  particular.  A  most 
gratifying  discovery  was  made  just  before  the  close  (1869) 
by  the  uncovering  of  a  part  of  the  house  of  Livia  or  of 
Germanicus,  situated  lower  and  in  consequence  better 
preserved.  Three  vaulted  chambers  have  retained  their 
mural  paintings,  more  delicate  and  lovely  and  of  greater 
originality  than  anything  Herculaneum  or  Pompeii  can 
show.  The  great  significance  of  this  discovery  was  only 
revealed  later  on. 

Thus  the  seventh  decade  was  not  wholly  lacking  in 
discoveries — apart  from  those  mentioned  at  the  end  of 
the  last  chapter,  which  were,  for  the  most  part,  only 
published  later — but  yet  a  check  was  perceptible.  Hence 
the  question  arose  :  What  had  so  far  been  attained  ? 
How  far  was  our  archaeological  material  enriched  in 
consequence  of  these  numerous  discoveries  ?  And  what 
had  science  gained  thereby  ? 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  archaeology  had  worked 
almost  entirely  with  Roman  material.  Now  nearly  all 
the  countries  surrounding  the  Mediterranean — the  entire 
Greek  region  from  Sicily  to  Asia  Minor — were  included 
in  our  consideration,  and  rendered  available  for  scientific 
examination  by  means  of  travels,  investigations,  and 
excavations.  Pompeii  and  Etruria  had  been  added ; 
and  Egypt  and  Assyria  had  extended  our  horizon  beyond 
the  classical  lands. 

Greek  art,  which  now  became  known  not  only  in  copies, 
but  in  its  original  forms,  occupied  the  central  point  of 
scientific  investigation,  and  the  outlines  of  its  develop- 
ment could  now  be  clearly  traced.  A  faint  ray  of  light 
had  been  thrown  by  Mycenae  into  prehistoric  times,  the 
contents  of  the  Regulini-Galassi  tomb  (p.  70)  helped  to 
illustrate  Homeric  art,  the  rock-reliefs  of  Asia  Minor,  to 
which  belonged  the  supposed  Niobe  of  Sipylos  mentioned 


H2  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

by  Homer  (p.  105),  belonged  likewise  to  prehistoric  times. 
True  Greek  art,  on  the  other  hand,  was  supposed  to  begin 
only  about  600,  when  the  names  of  Greek  artists  first 
appear.  But  from  that  period  until  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  three  centuries  of  Greek  art  could  clearly  be 
traced. 

Doric  architecture  was  represented  by  numerous 
temples  both  in  the  west  (Sicily  and  Psestum)  and  in 
Greece  proper.  Examples  of  the  Ionic  style  were  less 
numerous,  and  of  early  times  in  particular  none  were 
known,  so  that  the  Temple  of  Athene  at  Priene,  of  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  regarded  as  the  normal 
type  of  temple.  Nevertheless,  these  materials  sufficed  for 
the  gifted  Gottfried  Semper  to  establish  the  fundamental 
points  of  the  development  of  architecture,  and  to  dis- 
tinguish their  chief  periods  ;  while  Karl  Botticher,  a 
logical  and  systematic  thinker,  but  lacking  in  the  historic 
sense,  reconstructed  by  a  brilliant  effort  of  abstraction 
the  Doric  temple  before  our  eyes  in  its  entirety,  in  the 
strict  co-ordination  of  its  parts  and  in  its  relation  to  the 
ritual  conditions. 

It  is  entirely  owing  to  the  discovery  of  vases  that  we 
had  gained  any  definite  knowledge  of  Greek  painting. 
These  paintings  on  vases  have  been  compared  to  the 
delicate  rays  of  the  moon,  as  contrasted  with  the  bright 
sunlight  of  the  great  Greek  painting,  for  ever  lost  to  us. 
It  is  true  these  products  of  a  handicraft  can  never  re- 
place those  masterpieces,  but  the  firm  hand  and  the 
delicate  perception  in  these  modest  works  breathe  a  more 
truly  Greek  spirit  than  the  late  work  at  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii,  and  they  place  us  more  closely  in  touch  with 
the  original  artist  than  any  description  in  ancient  litera- 
ture. Thus  they  offered  suggestions  to  the  imagination 
in  helping  to  reconstruct  a  picture  of  the  great  beauty 
lost.  And  artists  with  a  classical  training  like  the 
brothers  Riepenhausen,  united  with  so  sympathetic  a 


SCULPTURE   OF   THE   SIXTH   CENTURY      113 

master  in  science  as  Friedrich  Gottlieb  Welcker,  recon- 
structed in  drawings  the  mural  paintings  at  Delphi  of 
the  great  Polygnotos. 

Etruscan  mural  pictures  gave  us  some  faint  indication 
of  the  progress  of  style  of  Greek  painting.  The  great 
mosaic  of  Alexander  found  at  Pompeii  indicated  for  the 
first  time,  although  in  the  coarser  material  of  mosaic, 
the  pictorial  treatment  of  historical  events  in  the  grand 
style.  Furthermore,  the  constant  finds  of  Pompeian 
paintings  greatly  extended  our  knowledge  of  the  mytho- 
logical treatment  of  subjects. 

In  plastic  art  the  gain  was  greater.  The  oldest  metopes 
of  Selinus,  and  perhaps,  too,  the  frieze  of  Assos,  seemed 
to  take  us  farther  back  than  the  sixth  century,  and  indi- 
cated, if  not  a  primitive,  at  least  a  very  archaic  art. 
The  heavily  proportioned  statues  from  the  Sacred  Way 
at  Didymaion,  the  archaic  reliefs  on  the  drums  of  the 
Artemision  at  Ephesos,  the  frieze  of  the  Lycian  Harpy 
Tomb,  in  which,  for  all  its  limitations,  an  awakening 
charm  is  already  faintly  seen,  all  these  illustrated  the 
art  of  the  sixth  century  in  different  directions.  The 
distinction  formerly  made,  in  architecture,  between  the 
Doric  and  Ionic  styles  now,  in  consequence  of  these  new 
impressions,  began  to  be  applied  to  sculpture  as  well. 
Such  was  the  distinction  in  the  art  of  the  fifth  century 
between  the  ^Eginetan,  the  few  Olympian,  and  the  later 
Selinuntine  sculptures  on  the  one  hand — and  the  Athenian 
and  Phigalian  masterpieces  on  the  other ;  we  were  only 
beginning  to  know  plastic  art  of  the  "  lofty  style."  In 
a  similar  manner  the  finds  at  Halicarnassos,  at  Ephesos, 
at  Cnidos  helped  to  illustrate  the  art  of  sculpture,  which 
had  been  transplanted  to  Asia  Minor.  The  Apoxyomenos 
and  the  Sophocles  completed  the  chain.  New  points  had 
been  gained  by  which  comparative  study  was  promoted, 
which  enriched  the  picture  of  the  development  of  sculpture 
unfolding  before  our  eyes.  A  whole  series  of  "  Histories 


ii4  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

of  Greek  Sculpture  "  began,  either  awakening  or  strength- 
ening prejudices,  as  if  the  history  of  Greek  art  were  con- 
fined to  plastic  art.  This,  in  consequence,  came  so  much 
into  the  foreground,  that  the  sense  of  the  indissoluble 
union  of  the  three  arts  was  gradually  lost. 

The  series  of  new  discoveries  ended,  as  has  been  said, 
with  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Doubts  were  ex- 
pressed constantly  in  regard  to  the  Venus  of  Melos, 
whether  she  had  not  better  be  placed  in  the  fourth  or  even 
in  the  fifth  century ;  for  she  seemed  too  good  for  the 
Hellenistic  period.  The  less  we  knew  of  this  period  the 
less  ability  we  felt  inclined  to  ascribe  to  it.  For  here  a 
great  gap  remained  in  our  knowledge,  all  the  more  keenly 
felt  as  literature  offered  next  to  no  assistance.  Credit 
must  be  given  to  Wolfgang  Helbig  for  having  started 
new  investigations ;  he  had  studied  at  the  University  of 
Bonn  as  a  contemporary  of  Ritschl  and  Jahn.  The 
catalogues  he  undertook  in  1868  of  the  mural  paintings 
of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  led  him  to  further  investiga- 
tions, which  he  published  fully  in  1873.  The  main  point 
upon  which  he  laid  stress  was  that  these  paintings, 
although  executed  in  Roman  times,  can  with  rare  ex- 
ceptions be  traced  to  Hellenistic  art,  and  this  they  repro- 
duce in  more  or  less  weakened  or  distorted  copies.  Roman 
art,  he  maintained,  differed  from  the  above,  and  fre- 
quently was  coarsely  realistic.  To  prove  his  results 
Helbig  undertook  a  long  series  of  single  investigations, 
which  may  be  designated  as  the  first  attempt  at  a  History 
of  the  Civilization  of  the  Hellenistic  age.  With  this  a 
new  basis  had  been  established  for  our  knowledge  of  late 
Greek  art  and  of  painting  in  particular.  The  general 
view  at  first  obscured  the  differences,  but  the  way  had 
been  prepared  for  assigning  new  discoveries,  which 
soon  followed  to  their  proper  sphere.  On  the  other  hand, 
Roman  art  had  to  yield  "  Pompeian  painting  "  to  Hellen- 
ism, and  had  to  be  prepared  for  further  restrictions. 


TRAINING   OF    ARCHAEOLOGISTS  115 

A  new  generation  undertook  the  task  of  scientifically 
working  over  these  new  discoveries.  In  Germany  three 
leading  representatives  of  the  older  generation  were 
called  away  during  the  sixties  :  Gerhard,  Welcker,  and 
Jahn.  Otfried  Muller  had  already  died  in  Greece  in  1840. 
Heinrich  Brunn  remained  active  at  the  Archaeological 
Institute  in  Rome,  training  his  younger  colleagues, 
until  called  to  Munich  in  1865,  when  he  surrendered  his 
Roman  post  to  Helbig.  For  the  constantly  growing 
number  of  chairs  of  Archaeology  founded  at  the  German 
universities,  it  was  possible  to  find  able  young  men  who 
had  gained  their  archaeological  training  at  the  Institute. 
This  thorough  preparation  of  the  teacher  and  the  ex- 
tended teaching  of  archaeology,  even  at  the  smaller 
German  universities,  gave  German  science  a  preponder- 
ance for  some  time,  as  was  even  admitted  by  foreigners. 
Many  foreigners,  particularly  Greeks,  came  to  the 
German  universities.  The  French  School  at  Athens  under 
Amede'e  Daveluy  and  Emile  Burnouf  remained  very 
quiet ;  only  in  Paris  was  there  any  archaeological  activity 
in  France.  England  had  not  yet  organized  the  study  of 
archaeology ;  Cambridge  only  later  established  the  first 
chair.  Italy  took  part  only  in  isolated  cases,  and  then 
chiefly  in  connection  with  the  Archaeological  Institute  ; 
gradually,  however,  the  first  indications  appeared  of  the 
prehistoric  researches  which  developed  quite  apart  from 
and  independently  of  classical  archaeology,  rather  in  con- 
nection with  natural  science  and  the  history  of  civilization 
(Chap.  VIII).  The  interest  of  the  Greeks  was  almost 
entirely  absorbed  by  Epigraphy  and  Numismatics. 


The  new  trend  of  archaeological  science  affected  exca- 
vations likewise.  What  had  been  discovered  up  to  the 
time,  apart  from  Pompeii,  were  single  objects  or  single 
structures ;  even  Newton's  undertaking  bore  this  char- 


n6  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

acter,  except  at  Cnidos,  where  the  ground-plan  of  the 
entire  city  was  uncovered.  Frequently  the  discoveries 
were  brought  about  by  accident,  as  the  burial  sites  in 
Southern  Etruria.  For  the  future  it  became  desirable 
to  undertake  extensive  plans  only  after  careful  and 
scientific  preparations  had  been  made,  and  to  carry  them 
out  exhaustively.  The  co-operation  of  well-trained 
architects  and  those  familiar  with  ancient  architecture 
was  needed  ;  for  many  of  the  past  undertakings  showed 
a  great  lack  of  these.  Alexander  Conze  was  the  first 
to  recognize  and  to  remedy  this  defect.  Conze,  a  pupil 
of  Gerhard,  had,  after  finishing  his  studies,  in  1856-7, 
undertaken  a  voyage  to  the  most  northern  islands  of  the 
Archipelago  (Samothrace,  Imbros,  Lemnos,  and  Thasos) 
and  to  Lesbos,  with  a  view  of  filling  a  gap  in  the  ^Egean 
cruise  of  Ludwig  Ross.  This  journey  was  most  eventful, 
though  excavations  were  not  undertaken  ;  indeed,  such 
an  idea  was  still  rare.  From  the  castle  hill  of  Mytilene 
he  looked  over  to  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor,  where,  the 
Crimean  War  being  now  over,  Turkish  soldiers  were  rov- 
ing about  in  bands,  and  making  the  country  inaccessible 
for  scientific  research,  particularly  by  a  single  individual. 
After  having  published  his  description  of  the  islands, 
Conze  went  to  Rome  and  met  Newton.  Newton  was 
just  then,  in  1859,  exhibiting  in  the  Palazzo  Caffarelli, 
occupied  by  the  Prussian  Legation,  his  drawings  and 
photographs  of  the  Mausoleum,  and  his  other  discoveries 
of  Asia  Minor.  He  then  had  succeeded  where  Conze  had 
believed  it  impossible.  The  importance  of  what  had 
been  acquired,  the  conversations  with  the  happy  dis- 
coverer, the  remembrance  of  the  many  sites  he  had  to 
leave  unexplored,  all  this  combined  to  leave  Conze  no 
peace. 

After  an  extensive  journey  over  Greece — Conze  and 
the  writer  of  this  book  were  the  first  to  receive  travelling 
studentships  of  the  Archaeological  Institute — and  years 


SYRA    AND   SAMOTHRACE  117 

spent  in  teaching  at  Gottingen  and  Halle,  Conze  was 
called  in  1869  to  the  University  of  Vienna,  where  greater 
prospects  were  opened  to  him.  The  study  of  archaeology 
was  completely  neglected  in  Austria  ;  had  not  Metternich 
in  his  day  forbidden  membership  in  the  Archaeological 
Institute,  of  which  he  himself  was  Ehrenprasident 
(president  en  Fair,  as  he  jestingly  said)  ?  Besides  or- 
ganizing the  archaeological  studies  at  the  university, 
and  travelling  in  Austria  to  view  its  Roman  remains, 
Conze  undertook  the  task  of  arousing  a  wider  interest  in 
archaeological  questions. 

In  the  year  1872,  for  instance,  he  gave  a  lecture  on 
"  two  Greek  islands,  Syra  and  Samothrace."  Syra,  as 
the  centre  in  the  Cyclades,  inherited  the  once  im- 
portant trade  of  the  neighbouring  island  of  Delos  ;  while 
the  sanctity  of  the  latter  had  during  the  last  fifty  years 
passed  over  to  Tenos,  with  its  Evangelistria.  So  the 
remote  Samothrace  with  its  mystery  cult  had  yielded  its 
place  to  the  convents  of  Athos,  the  "  sacred  mountain  " 
of  Oriental  Christianity.  Both  islands  were  within  the 
sphere  of  Austrian  trade  and  Austrian  politics.  In 
alluding  to  this  Conze  closed  with  the  following  words  : 
"  It  is  to  be  hoped  the  ban  will  soon  be  raised  which  closes 
this  remarkable  and  little-known  island,  with  its  important 
monuments.  The  authoritative  word  may  be  uttered  any 
day."  The  demand  was  not  in  vain.  The  Government 
on  its  own  initiative  requested  Conze  to  supply  a  scheme 
for  excavations,  which  he  was  eventually  commissioned 
to  execute  with  two  architects  from  Vienna,  the  pains- 
taking Alois  Hauser  and  the  gifted  George  Niemann  of 
Hanover.  Thus  the  important  co-operation  of  architects 
was  secured.  To  these  a  photographer  was  added. 

Newton  had  already  made  use  of  photography,  although 
it  was  not  developed  as  it  is  to-day ;  but  it  proved  indis- 
pensable for  all  future  undertakings.  A  man-of-war  was 
placed  by  the  Government  at  their  disposal,  so  that  in 


n8  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

May  and  June,  1873,  excavations  were  carried  on  in 
Samothrace  for  six  weeks.  These  were  so  successful 
that  in  the  autumn  of  1875  a  second  expedition  was 
undertaken  for  two  months.  Besides  Conze  and  Hauser, 
Otto  Benndorf,  then  of  Prague,  was  among  the  workers. 
Samothrace  is  a  rough,  rocky  island,  somewhat  remote 
and  rarely  visited  by  ships.  On  it  are  very  few  level 
plains,  even  of  moderate  extent.  Since  Conze 's  visit  in 
1863  the  French  vice-consul  Champoiseau  had  excavated 
and  collected  two  hundred  fragments  of  a  large  female 
statue  at  Kaballa,  a  city  situated  opposite,  and  these 
had  been  sent  to  Paris.  A  beautiful  statue  of  Nike  had 
from  these  fragments  been  pieced  together,  and  at  first, 
strange  to  say,  it  was  classed  as  "  a  mediocre  decorative 
figure  of  a  late  period."  Wilhelm  Frohner  in  1869  was  the 
first  to  recognize  its  great  worth.  The  statue  had  been 
found  not  far  from  the  spot  where  the  Austrian  expe- 
dition had  begun  work.  Beyond  the  ancient  city  walls 
of  old  Samothrace  lay  the  ruins  of  the  Sanctuaries  of  the 
Mysteries,  situated  upon  two  irregular  tongues  of  land 
between  deeply  cut  river-beds.  During  the  excavations 
in  1873  the  chief  finds  were  two  buildings  of  unusual  plan. 
The  "  Marble  Temple  "  of  the  third  century  B.C.  seemed 
to  anticipate  in  a  singular  manner  with  its  transept,  its 
raised  "  choir  "  and  rounded  apse  the  ground-plan  of  the 
Christian  Basilica.  Within  the  "  choir "  a  deep  pit, 
going  down  to  the  rock,  suggested  the  bloody  sacrifices  of 
the  mysteries  and  initiative  rites.  Not  less  peculiar  was 
the  moderately  large  round  structure,  characterized  as  of 
two  storeys  and  closed  all  around,  apparently  a  meeting- 
place  of  the  initiated.  Fragments  of  a  dedicatory 
inscription  indicated  Arsinoe,  the  daughter  of  the  first 
Ptolemy  and  wife  of  King  Lysimachos  (d.  281)  as  its 
foundress.  The  finding  in  1875  of  a  gateway,  founded 
by  Ptolemy  II,  completed  this  group  of  buildings, 
which  dated  from  the  times  of  the  early  Ptolemies. 


THE   NIKE   OF   SAMOTHRACE  119 

Near  the  Marble  Temple  another  building  appeared,  an 
older  and  far  simpler  Temple  of  the  Mysteries  of  the 
fourth  century,  with  a  similar  pit  for  sacrifices,  pre- 
sumably the  temple  for  which,  according  to  an  ancient 
authority,  Scopas  worked.  Finally  there  ran  along  the 
side  of  the  place  of  the  Mysteries  a  long  colonnade,  the 
first  example  of  what  was  soon  to  be  recognized  as  a 
regular  feature  of  all  Hellenistic  groups  of  buildings. 

Although  single  discoveries  of  the  excavations  were 
important,  it  was  of  far  greater  significance  that  here 
an  entire  ground-plan,  the  complex  of  a  complete  group 
of  buildings  devoted  to  the  mysteries,  had  been  uncovered. 
All  these,  with  the  exception  of  the  older  temple,  belonged 
to  the  first  half  of  the  third  century,  and  were  probably  a 
new  foundation  by  different  members  of  the  Ptolemaic 
house.  This  gave  us  our  first  knowledge  of  Hellenistic 
architecture.  A  number  of  distinctive  single  features 
were  observed,  and  the  picturesque  arrangement  of  the 
entire  plan  suggested  in  a  vivid  manner  the  Pompeian 
landscape  paintings,  and  thus  illustrated  an  important 
feature  of  Hellenistic  art.  If  the  yield  of  sculpture  had 
been  insignificant — the  remains  of  the  pediment  figures 
of  the  Marble  Temple  indicated  a  facile  decorative  talent 
— the  neighbouring  limekilns  offered  the  sad  solution. 
Another  discovery  compensated  for  this,  and  to  Benndorf 
in  particular  we  owe  its  scientific  explanation.  Near  the 
end  of  the  long  colonnade  on  the  site  where  Champoiseau 
had  found  the  fragments  of  the  statue  an  eager  search  was 
continued,  and  besides  some  further  fragments  of  the 
statue,  many  blocks  of  the  base  were  found,  which  when 
fitted  together  formed  the  prow  of  a  warship.  Thus  the 
Nike  had  stood  on  a  ship,  exactly  as  after  the  decisive 
naval  victory  off  the  Cyprian  Salamis  in  306 — which  had 
shattered  the  empire  of  Alexander  into  four  independent 
kingdoms — Demetrios  Poliorketes  had  a  Nike,  standing 
on  a  ship,  stamped  on  his  coins.  So  exactly  do  they 


120  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

correspond  that  one  is  forced  to  conclude  that  the  Nike 
of  Samothrace  was  dedicated  by  Demetrios  after  his 
victory.  Thus  a  most  important  work  of  art  was  re- 
covered from  early  Hellenistic  times,  as  spirited  in  com- 
position as  it  is  masterly  in  the  execution  of  the  superb 
drapery.  The  discoverers  informed  Champoiseau  of 
their  find,  and  all  the  fragments  were  transported  to 
Paris.  The  statue  was  completed  and  placed  on  the 
prow  of  the  ship.  On  the  occasion  of  the  Czar's  visit  in 
1896  it  was  placed  in  position  above  the  escalier  Daru ; 
a  position  offering  the  most  brilliant  decorative  effect, 
even  if  not  allowing  any  detailed  study  of  this  superb 
work. 

A  complete  record  was  published  of  the  Austrian 
excavations.  Photography  was  used  here  for  the  first 
time,  not  only  at  the  excavations,  but  for  the  publi- 
cation. Newton  still  had  lithographs  made  of  his 
photographs  ;  here  the  latter  themselves  were  incor- 
porated in  the  book.  Another  innovation  was  supplied 
by  the  architects.  Whereas,  with  few  exceptions  in 
the  past  and  frequently  even  now,  the  architects  deem 
it  sufficient  to  present  reconstructions  of  the  buildings 
with  characteristic  details,  here  all  the  important  blocks 
were  accurately  figured  with  their  technical  peculiarities. 
Only  by  such  careful  and  conscientious  proceeding  does 
it  become  possible  to  test  the  reconstructions  and  to 
study  the  peculiarities  of  different  periods  and  different 
schools  of  architecture,  on  the  technical  as  well  as  on  the 
formal  side.  The  important  position  accorded  to  the 
architects  proved  a  great  gain,  and  indicated  the  method 
to  be  observed  in  future  undertakings. 

The  Sanctuary  of  Samothrace  had  been  dedicated  to 
the  "  great  gods "  the  Kabeiri  and  their  mysteries. 
Mention  may  here  be  made  of  another  smaller  sanctuary 
of  the  Kabeiri  uncovered  west  of  Thebes,  by  the  German 
Archaeological  Institute  of  Athens,  1887-8.  Upon  careful 


DELOS  121 

examination  several  different  building  periods  could  here 
be  distinguished.  Of  the  oldest  temple,  dating  back  to 
the  sixth  century,  only  a  part  of  an  apse  remained, 
recalling  the  one  at  Samothrace.  The  second,  a  Hellen- 
istic temple,  showed  a  double  apartment  instead  of 
a  cella,  as  in  the  temples  at  Selinus  ;  in  the  inner  apart- 
ment was  found  the  broad  basis  of  the  statues  of  the  gods. 
Behind  the  temple  lay  a  walled  court  containing  a 
sacrificial  pit ;  this  was  not  accessible  from  the  temple, 
but  had,  like  the  transept  of  the  temple  at  Samothrace, 
doors  on  two  sides.  Again  it  became  evident  that 
parts  of  a  sanctuary  may  be  "  hypaethral,"  that  is,  open 
to  the  sky  (p.  37).  The  latest  remodelling  of  Roman 
times  on  the  whole  preserved  the  earlier  plans,  only 
changing  the  cella  and  entrance  hall  in  the  customary 
manner.  The  great  mass  of  potsherds  testified  to  the 
popularity  of  the  cult ;  their  rather  coarse  and  humorous 
style  of  painting  formed  a  characteristic  contrast  to  the 
contemporary  Attic  painting.  These  representations  of 
Kabeiros  and  his  son  with  Bacchic  surroundings  illustrate 
an  interesting  chapter  in  mythology. 


While  the  Austrians  were  gathering  laurels  in  Samo- 
thrace, the  French  School  at  Athens  undertook  a  similar 
task  :  to  explore  Delos,  the  birthplace  of  Apollo,  the 
smallest  of  the  Cyclades,  but  in  consequence  of  the 
cult  of  the  god,  and  later  as  the  centre  of  Greek  mari- 
time trade,  always  of  the  greatest  importance.  The 
island  with  bare  Mount  Kynthos  towering  above  it,  pre- 
sented a  picture  of  the  most  abject  desolation,  not  the 
natural  barrenness  of  Samothrace,  but  the  desolation 
following  devastation  by  human  hands,  and  the  curse 
which  Christianity  early  laid  on  the  sacred  island  of  the 
Hellenes.  Not  a  tree,  not  a  house,  nor  even  a  little 
church,  only  a  lonely  veteran  who  acted  as  guardian, 


122  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

while  a  few  goats  and  pigs  foraged  in  the  morass  of  the 
"  Sacred  Lake."  Thus  I  found  the  island  in  1860.  The 
site  of  the  sanctuary  was  known  by  a  heap  of  rubbish, 
the  town  indicated  by  the  theatre  on  the  slope  of  the 
hillside,  and  higher  up  the  mountain  a  short  rock  passage 
paved  with  large  slabs  offered  a  problem  to  be  solved. 

Stuart  and  Revett  had  made  an  imperfect  plan  of  the 
site  and  drawings  of  the  remains  of  the  Doric  hall  of 
Philip  V,  of  the  end  of  the  third  century,  while  the 
Expedition  du  Moree  had  not  added  much.  Albert 
Lebegue,  a  member  of  the  French  School,  recognized  in 
1873  in  the  rock  grotto  in  all  probability  an  extremely 
ancient  sanctuary  of  Apollo.  But  the  work  still  awaited  a 
competent  hand. 

This  was  effected  in  1876  when  the  energetic  Albert 
Dumont  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  French  School, 
and  in  a  friendly  way  competed  with  the  recently  founded 
German  Archaeological  Institute.  He  gave  a  stimulus  to 
greater  efforts  and  higher  aims.  He  fixed  his  eye  at 
once  upon  Delos,  and  with  sound  judgment  chose  among 
the  many  excellent  pupils  of  the  School  in  Athens, 
Theophile  Homolle,  then  only  twenty-eight  years  old, 
to  go  to  iTelos  in  1876  and  reconnoitre.  Homolle  re- 
turned with  definite  plans.  He  began  his  first  campaign 
in  May,  1877,  with  the  modest  sum  of  1300  francs  (£52) 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  School  for  excavation 
purposes  by  the  Society  of  French  Architects.  The 
Sanctuary  of  the  Delian  Apollo  was  first  uncovered. 
Work  continued  at  the  Temple  of  Apollo  for  three  years, 
1877-9,  an(i  during  that  time  the  entire  precincts  were 
excavated.  Of  foremost  importance  were  the  very 
numerous  inscriptions,  some  of  these  instructing  us  in 
regard  to  matters  of  art,  while  next  may  be  mentioned 
a  great  number  of  marble  statues,  throwing  new  light  on 
the  relation  of  the  Ionic  sculpture  of  the  sixth  century  to 
the  rough-seated  statues  of  Miletos  (p.  101).  The  statue 


DELOS  123 

dedicated  by  Nikandra  of  Naxos  looks  as  if  hewn  out 
of  a  log  ;  it  represents  the  draped  figure  in  its  most 
primitive  form ;  the  flying  Nike  of  Archermos,  or  fash- 
ioned on  his  model,  shows  a  daring  flight  of  the  imagina- 
tion still  hampered  on  the  formal  side.  Other  female 
statues  indicate  the  gradual  advance  in  posture  and 
drapery.  Besides  these  archaic  works,  fragments  of 
later  groups  were  not  lacking.  In  these  Furtwangler 
soon  (1882)  recognized  the  akroteria  of  the  Temple  of 
Apollo,  built  about  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

During  these  first  three  years  Homolle  had  no  assistance 
from  any  architect.  In  consequence  not  much  attention 
had  been  paid  to  architecture,  and  no  general  ground-plan 
was  made  of  the  excavations.  Radet  gives  the  following 
description  :  "At  the  end  of  1879  tne  uncovered  founda- 
tion wall  extended  over  the  country  in  disconnected 
masses,  intersected  by  a  chaos  of  ditches  and  heaps  of 
rubbish.  It  was  impossible  to  recognize  their  form, 
extent,  or  connection." 

In  the  meantime,  not  only  the  work  on  Samothrace, 
but,  above  all,  the  excavations  at  Olympia  (p.  125)  had 
demonstrated  the  necessity  of  architectural  assistance 
at  such  undertakings.  Thereupon  Homolle  resumed  his 
work  in  1880,  accompanied  by  the  able  architect  Henri 
Paul  N£not,  who  later  built  the  new  Sorbonne.  From 
their  newly  gained  starting-point  they  tried  to  follow 
the  surrounding  walls  of  the  sacred  precinct,  and  came 
upon  numerous  buildings  crowded  together  within  it : 
sanctuaries,  treasuries,  the  peculiar  so-called  "  Hall  of 
the  Bulls,"  of  all  of  which  N£not  published  plans  and 
sketches.  He  also  made  the  first  plan  of  the  previous 
excavations.  We  do  not  know  why  this  path,  so  happily 
begun,  was  soon  abandoned.  Homolle  continued  his 
investigations  twice  more  in  1885  an<i  in  1888,  the  second 
time  in  conjunction  with  the  architect  Demierre.  For 
the  rest,  the  excavations  were  entrusted  by  the  new 


GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

director,  the  distinguished  epigraphist  Paul  Foucart,  to 
the  youthful  and  keen  pupils  of  the  School,  who,  however, 
were  hardly  sufficiently  trained  for  the  task.  Thus 
there  were  actively  engaged  in  1881  Amedee  Hauvette, 
in  1882  Salomon  Reinach,  in  1883  Pierre  Paris,  in  1886 
Gustave  Fougeres,  in  1889  Georges  Doublet,  in  1892 
Joseph  Chamonard,  in  1893  with  Edouard  Ardaillon,  in 
1894  the  latter  and  Louis  Couve.  Not  only  did  they  all 
add  to  our  knowledge  of  the  sacred  precinct  and  its 
complex  plan  of  the  temples  for  the  Roman  worshippers 
of  Mercury  and  the  Asiatics  who  adored  Serapis,  but 
also  to  that  of  the  city  with  its  theatre  and  many  public 
and  private  buildings,  and  finally  the  harbour  with  its 
quays,  warehouses,  and  market-places.  Thus,  with  the 
help  of  inscriptions  both  the  sacred  and  secular  Delos 
appear  tolerably  clear  before  our  eyes. 

The  acute  Couve,  who  died  young,  was  the  happy  dis- 
coverer of  the  Polykleitan  Diadumenos,  found  in  excellent 
preservation.  Owing  to  the  constant  change  in  the  leader- 
ship there  was  no  fixed  plan  of  the  excavation,  and  this 
frequently  led  to  a  repeated  working  over  of  the  same 
ground.  Though  we  possess  a  general  survey  of  the  site 
by  Nenot,  and  an  archaeological  map  of  the  island  by 
Ardaillon  and  Convert,  we  have  no  architectural  pictures 
of  Delos  with  all  its  structures,  which  would  be  most 
instructive  in  regard  to  Hellenistic  architecture.  Whether 
it  still  can  be  produced  remains  very  doubtful.  Let  us 
therefore  be  grateful  to  the  engineer  Henri  Convert  for 
plans  of  a  number  of  private  dwellings  which  had  been 
uncovered,  by  Couve.  These  houses  date  from  the  time 
between  the  end  of  the  war  against  Perseus  (168)  and  the 
double  destruction  of  Delos  by  Mithridates'  general 
Archelaos  in  88  and  by  pirates  in  69 ;  it  was  the  time 
when  the  island  enjoyed  its  greatest  commercial  activity, 
when  Greeks,  Syrians,  Egyptians,  and  Romans  all  met  as 
competitors.  Therefore  in  the  plans  of  houses  we  find 


OLYMPIA  125 

Greek  and  Roman  types  side  by  side,  offering  an  interest- 
ing picture  of  the  transition  period  when  Hellenism  was 
on  the  decline,  and  the  empire  of  the  Romans  in  the 
ascendant. 

The  excavations  at  Delos  have  been  recently  resumed 
(1902).  The  Duke  de  Loubat,  one  of  those  patrons  of 
art  of  whom  France  may  be  proud,  combining  great 
insight  with  splendid  devotion,  has  on  the  advice  of 
Perrot  granted  50,000  francs  (£2000)  yearly  for  this  work. 
Under  the  guidance  of  F.  Diirrbach  and  A.  Jarde",  and  the 
assistance  of  Convert,  a  general  clearing  of  a  great  part 
of  the  field  of  excavation  has  taken  place.  The  excava- 
tion of  the  magazines  along  the  harbour  has  been  under- 
taken, and  rubbish  has  been  extensively  cleared  away. 
The  "  House  of  Kerdon,"  the  workshop  of  a  sculptor,  has 
offered  interesting  material.  We  may  expect  almost  with 
certainty  that  the  gap  left  after  the  earlier  fifteen  years' 
work  will  now  be  creditably  filled. 


Before  the  excavations  at  Delos  had  been  commenced 
the  newly  created  German  Empire  began  to  execute  a 
long-cherished  plan  on  the  Greek  mainland — to  clear  of 
rubbish  the  sacred  precinct  at  Olympia.  Winckelmann 
had  already  dreamed  of  this.  Blouet's  excavations 
(p.  52)  had  proved  the  great  value  of  such  an  undertaking, 
and  Ernst  Curtius  in  a  lecture  in  Berlin  in  1852  had  tried 
to  arouse  enthusiasm  for  it.  But,  when  during  the  follow- 
ing year  Ludwig  Ross  opened  a  subscription  in  Germany, 
the  meagre  result  was  only  787  marks  (£39  75.).  It  was 
only  after  the  establishment  of  the  German  Empire  in 
1871  that  extensive  plans,  requiring  large  means,  could 
be  carried  out.  It  was  again  Ernst  Curtius,  who  had  in 
the  meantime  been  called  to  Berlin  and  occupied  Ger- 
hard's chair,  who  now  turned  to  Olympia  and  combined 
this  with  other  plans.  The  Archaeological  Institute  had 


126  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

in  1871  been  placed  on  a  firmer  basis  as  a  Prussian  State 
institution  ;  now  in  1873  it  was  transformed  by  the 
Reichstag  into  an  institution  of  the  German  Empire, 
and  at  the  suggestion  of  Curtius  a  branch  was  established 
in  Athens.  The  imperial  confirmation  came  the  following 
year,  and  Curtius  was  sent  at  once  to  Athens  to  arrange 
with  the  Greek  Government  the  conditions  on  which  the 
German  Empire  was  to  acquire  the  privilege  of  exca- 
vating the  Altis,  the  sacred  precinct  of  Olympia.  As  the 
Greek  Government  prohibits  the  export  of  antiques,  the 
German  Empire  renounced  all  claims  except  in  case  of 
duplicates  being  found ;  thereby  giving  a  magnanimous 
example  of  carrying  on  a  costly  enterprise  under  the 
supervision  of  a  Greek  ephor,  simply  in  the  interest  of 
science.  Narrow-minded  critics  of  this  contract  were 
not  wanting  in  Germany,  and  curiously  enough  it  was 
fully  a  year  before  the  representatives  of  the  people  in 
Athens  consented  to  this  disinterested  agreement. 

Its  realization  began  in  1875,  but  its  execution  was 
not  entrusted  to  the  recently  established  Athenian 
Institute,  which  would  have  required  assistance,  but 
the  supervision  remained  in  Berlin  in  the  hands  of  Ernst 
Curtius  and  the  architect  Friedrich  Adler. 

The  work  occupied  six  winters,  1875-80.  The  German 
Empire  spent  600,000  marks  (£30,000)  upon  it,  and  the 
Emperor  William  bore  the  expenses  of  the  last  winter. 
Gustav  Hirschfeld,  with  the  assistance  of  Adolf  Botticher, 
began  work  on  the  Temple  of  Zeus  in  1875.  A  late  wall 
was  discovered  into  which  many  pieces  of  sculpture  had 
been  built,  and  in  consequence  received  the  name  "  the 
longer  the  better."  Georg  Treu  in  1877  succeeded 
Hirschfeld  as  director,  Karl  Purgold  undertook  the  in- 
scriptions, and  at  times  Rudolf  Weil  and  Adolf  Furt- 
wangler  were  actively  engaged. 

The  architectural  work  was  undertaken  by  Richard 
Bohn,  and  later  by  Wilhelm  Dorpfeld,  who  gained  his 


OLYMPIA  127 

first  laurels  here.  The  task  contemplated  was  the  com- 
plete uncovering  of  the  Altis,  and  this  was  systematically 
carried  out.  Nothing  was  superficially  worked,  but 
each  spot  and  each  building  received  careful  attention. 
Each  detail  was  carefully  noted,  and  all  the  finds  were 
systematically  arranged,  so  as  to  afford  a  general  view 
for  eventual  reconstruction  ;  preservation  and  arrange- 
ment involved  reconstruction,  quite  a  new  and  salutary 
proceeding.  In  the  case  of  pieces  of  sculpture  which 
were  shattered  into  countless  fragments,  the  position 
of  each  piece  and  the  depth  of  the  debris  above  it  were 
noted,  and  in  not  a  few  instances  the  latter  gave  a  de- 
cisive indication  of  the  age  of  an  architectural  monument. 
According  to  the  current  chronology  the  finds  dated 
from  the  eighth  century  B.C.  to  the  close  of  ancient  history 
and  beyond ;  thus  extending  over  a  thousand  years. 
Down  in  the  lowest  stratification  masses  of  unpretending 
votive  offerings  of  clay  and  bronze  were  found.  They 
cast,  however,  an  entirely  new  light  on  the  origin  of  plastic 
art.  Until  then,  it  was  generally  believed  that  Greek 
art  had  developed  with  the  representation  of  the  gods  ; 
now,  however,  it  was  proved  that  the  portrayal  of  the 
everyday  life  of  men  and  animals,  of  the  artist's  actual 
environment,  based  entirely  upon  observation,  stood 
at  the  beginning  of  the  development.  The  need  of  an 
embodiment  in  human  form  of  the  gods  came  only  later 
with  a  desire  for  a  house  of  the  gods,  a  temple.  The  oldest 
temple  at  Olympia,  the  Heraion,  was  discovered  in  close 
proximity  to  these  early  votive  offerings.  This  structure 
proved  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  history  of  archi- 
tecture, inasmuch  as  it  illustrated  most  vividly  the 
relation  of  the  original  wooden  construction  to  the  later 
of  stone  (Chap.  XI).  The  old  construction  of  sun-dried 
bricks  used  in  connection  with  wood,  elucidated  by 
modern  usage,  was  incorporated  in  the  history  of  archi- 
tecture. 


128  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

Beside  the  long  and  low  Temple  of  Hera  appeared  the 
vast  Temple  of  Zeus,  the  age  of  which  has  been  greatly 
discussed,  but  in  consequence  of  certain  details  must  be 
placed  in  the  post-Persian  times  of  the  fifth  century.  In 
contrast  to  its  colossal  blocks  of  conglomerate,  hard  as 
steel,  and  its  huge  drums  of  columns  which  earthquakes 
have  scattered  upon  the  ground,  the  marble  Parthenon, 
appears  delicate,  almost  too  elegant.  The  Doric  style 
of  architecture  was  exhibited  here  in  its  full  vigour,  more 
even  than  at  Passtum. 

The  pediment  groups  caused  great  surprise,  as  they 
were  gradually  reconstructed  from  hundreds  of  smaller 
or  larger  fragments.  As  the  chryselephantine  statue  of 
Zeus  in  the  temple  was  known  to  have  been  the  work  of 
Phidias,  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  the  other  sculptural 
decorations  must  be  the  work  of  his  pupils.  Tradition 
had  indicated  Alkamenes,  the  most  brilliant  pupil  of 
Phidias,  as  the  creator  of  the  West  pediment  and  the  same 
tradition  assigned  the  East  pediment  to  Paioriios,  so 
that  he  also  had  to  be  sought  in  the  same  school.  It  was 
found,  however,  impossible  to  assign  the  metopes — 
fragments  of  all  twelve  had  been  found — and  still  less, 
to  assign  the  pediments  to  the  school  of  Phidias,  as  known 
by  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon.  After  numerous 
discussions  it  became  evident  that  we  had  to  deal  here 
with  an  entirely  different  school.  And  again,  a  second 
fact  had  to  be  considered.  At  Christmas,  1875,  an 
original  work  was  found  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
Paionios.  It  was  the  great  Nike,  floating  through  the 
air,  while  her  feet  rested  lightly  on  an  eagle  ;  she  had 
stood  on  a  base  7  metres  high  (23  feet)  overlooking  the 
Altis.  This  bold  conception  hardly  corresponded  to  the 
work  of  a  pupil  of  Phidias,  and  not  by  any  means  to  the 
tranquil  character  of  the  East  pediment,  traditionally 
ascribed  to  the  same  Paionios.  Here  was  a  new  problem, 
which  Adolf  Kirchhoff  appears  to  have  solved  from  the 


Photo,  British  I'hoto  Co. 


NIKE  OF   PAIONIOS,   OLYMPIA 


To  face  page  iaS 


TEMPLE    OF   ZEUS    AT   OLYMPIA  129 

philological  side.  The  inscription  on  the  Nike  indicated 
Paionios  as  the  maker  of  the  akroteria  on  the  temple. 
It  was  apparently  through  supposing  this  to  refer  to  the 
pediment  groups,  instead  of  the  figures  of  Nike  on  the 
summits  of  the  gables,  that  tradition  came  to  represent 
Paionios  as  the  creator  of  the  East  pediment  group. 
Why  the  West  pediment  should  have  been  attributed  to 
Alkamenes  has  never  been  explained  ;  some  have  thought 
of  an  older  Alkamenes  of  pre-Periclean  times  (Chap.  XI), 
to  whom  then  probably  both  pediments  would  have  to 
be  assigned.  But  this  theory  also  presents  great  diffi- 
culties. 

Paionios  was  a  native  of  the  Thracian  coast,  and  the 
home  of  the  older  Alkamenes,  according  to  a  doubtful 
report,  was  Lemnos.  Thus  Brunn  conceived  the  idea  of 
seeking  a  North  Greek  school  of  art  in  the  work  of  the 
Temple  of  Zeus.  Kekule  advanced  the  theory  of  Magna 
Graecia  and  Sicily,  where  the  artist  Pythagoras  created  a 
school.  Furtwangler  put  forward  a  claim  for  Paros,  and 
Robert  even  suggested  Kolotes,  the  Parian  companion 
and  assistant  of  Phidias.  Others,  knowing  the  temple 
to  have  been  built  by  the  Elian,  Libon,  attributed  the 
sculptures  to  Elian  artists,  some  of  whose  names  have 
come  down  to  us.  Argos  has  also  been  suggested.  Only 
a  few,  such  as  Flasch,  still  held  to  their  Attic  origin. 

Through  the  Olympian  finds  another  problem  was 
revived.  According  to  a  twofold  tradition  Phidias 
either  died  in  prison  (438)  after  the  Parthenon  had  been 
completed,  or  migrated  to  Elis  to  make  the  chrysele- 
phantine statue  for  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia. 
Until  recently  the  latter  version  was  accepted,  and  the 
duration  of  the  building  of  the  temple  extended.  Certain 
finds,  however,  indicated  definitely  that  the  building 
must  have  been  finished  by  the  year  456.  Thereupon 
Loschke  urged  the  less-accredited  theory  :  if  Phidias 
died  in  438  he  could  only  have  worked  at  Olympia  be- 

K 


i3o  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

fore  the  building  of  the  Parthenon,  447-438 ;  his  activity 
there  would  then  naturally  follow  the  completion  of  the 
temple  and  fall  in  the  fifties.  This  brilliant  conjecture 
was  widely  accepted,  although  serious  difficulties  were 
raised,  partly  owing  to  the  dubious  source  of  the  tradition, 
and  partly  in  regard  to  the  legal  proceedings.  It  was 
maintained  that  the  masterpiece  of  Phidias  was  probably 
made  later  for  the  temple,  to  take  the  place  of  a  smaller 
and  older  statue.  One  may  to-day  still  say  of  this 
question  :  grammatici  certant  et  adhuc  sub  judice  Us  est, 
although  the  scales  are  descending  more  and  more  to  the 
older  and  more  accredited  tradition. 

The  date  of  the  Nike  of  Paionios  is  equally  uncertain  : 
does  she  belong  to  the  middle  of  the  century  ?  or,  ac- 
cepting Pausanias'  view,  shall  we  identify  the  statue  with 
the  proud  monument  erected  by  the  Messenian  exiles  to 
commemorate  their  share  in  the  conquest  of  the  island 
Sphakteria  (425)  ?  A  better-preserved  copy  of  the  head 
of  this  Nike,  recognized  as  such  by  Amelung,  has  rather 
severe  features,  leading  many  to  adopt  the  earlier  date, 
which  I  hardly  consider  justified. 

The  authority  of  Pausanias,  the  old  travellers'  guide 
of  the  Antonine  age,  had  been  rarely  called  in  question 
until  the  Olympian  excavations,  and  was  indeed  bril- 
liantly confirmed  thereby  as  far  as  the  actual  facts  were 
concerned,  but  proved  less  reliable  as  regards  the  informa- 
tion he  gathered  from  literature  or  from  ciceroni.  His 
account  of  the  artists  of  the  temple  pediments  has  already 
been  mentioned ;  in  regard  to  the  Nike  of  Paionios  he 
relates  the  twofold  tradition.  In  a  unique  manner  he 
mentions  and  describes  each  figure  of  the  East  pediment 
group  representing  the  preparation  for  the  chariot  race 
of  Pelops  and  Oinomaos.  The  exact  number  described 
by  Pausanias  has  been  found,  although  in  one  case 
Pausanias  described  a  kneeling  female  as  a  male  figure. 
Considering  that,  in  addition  to  this,  the  form  of  the 


1 


HERMES   OF    PRAXITELES  131 

pediment,  the  size  and  attitudes  of  the  figures,  and  finally 
the  unfinished  condition  of  the  back  of  the  statues  pro- 
vided most  important  clues  to  their  position,  it  might 
be  expected  no  doubt  could  exist  as  to  the  position 
of  the  thirteen  statues  and  eight  horses.  Indeed,  it  is 
quite  certain  that  the  five  upright  figures  occupied  the 
centre,  the  two  reclining  figures  fit  into  the  corners  of 
the  pediments,  and  the  two  four-horse  chariots  occupied 
the  intermediate  space ;  therefore  only  2x3  statues 
remain  doubtful.  And  yet  more  than  a  dozen  different 
reconstructions  of  these  have  been  made !  Important 
questions,  such  as  the  relative  significance  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  find,  of  technical  characteristics,  and 
of  the  symmetry  necessary  for  the  pediment,  played  a 
part  beyond  the  object  itself,  and  afforded  discussions 
for  years,  until  now  Treu's  arrangement  has  received 
nearly  unanimous  approval,  although  certain  advan- 
tages of  other  groupings  are  not  to  be  denied. 

This  long  digression  in  connection  with  the  Temple  of 
Zeus  aims  at  showing  how  every  new  discovery  not  only 
extends  our  knowledge,  but  frequently  creates  doubts 
where  we  until  then  imagined  ourselves  to  be  tolerably 
certain  ;  how  in  consequence  new  problems  arise,  which 
stimulate  science  and  widen  the  scope  of  inquiry.  A  new 
discovery  may  at  times  appear  as  a  step  backwards,  at 
least  as  a  loss  of  certainty,  but  in  every  case  it  brings 
about  a  methodical,  and  later  a  positive,  advance. 

The  latter  is  the  case  with  the  brilliant  discovery  at 
Olympia  of  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles,  the  only  original 
work  of  art  we  possess  of  a  Greek  artist  of  the  first 
rank,  an  artistic  revelation  in  its  marvellous  technical 
perfection.  When  the  divine  youth — found  exactly  on 
the  spot  described  by  Pausanias,  and  on  the  whole  well 
preserved — had  been  cleaned  of  the  protecting  clay,  no 
one  could  doubt  that  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  had  been 
found.  And  yetjthe  copies  we  had  known,  or  thought 


132  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

we  knew,  of  works  of  this  master  were  so  different  that 
at  first  the  thought  arose  that  we  were  not  dealing  with 
the  famous  Praxiteles,  but  with  a  grandson  of  the  same 
name. 

But  this  did  not  last  long.  The  statue  at  Olympia  soon 
became  the  chief  object  in  our  study  of  Praxiteles,  and 
shed  light  in  all  directions ;  thus,  for  example,  the 
"  Antinous  "  of  the  Belvedere,  whose  place  had  till  then 
been  sought  for  in  vain,  was  now  brought  into  relation 
to  it. 

The  clear  and  distinct  view  obtained  of  the  Altis  at 
Olympia  in  consequence  of  the  excavations  carried  on 
there,  affords  a  striking  picture  of  a  Greek  religious  and 
festal  site.  While  at  Delos  the  sacred  precinct  is  thickly 
crowded  with  buildings  of  all  kinds,  on  the  right  and  left 
surrounded  by  the  town,  and  toward  the  west  extending 
to  the  harbour,  the  Altis  is  situated  in  the  plain,  not  near 
any  neighbouring  settlement.  To  the  north  the  hill 
of  Kronos  towers  above  it,  to  the  west  is  the  turbulent 
Kladeos,  and  the  southern  boundary  is  formed  by  the 
broad  Alpheios.  The  plain  was  so  spacious  as  to  afford 
ample  room  beside  the  Temple  of  Zeus  for  the  Heraion, 
the  Pelopion,  the  Metroon,  and  for  innumerable  votive 
offerings.  Many  of  the  bases  with  inscriptions  have  been 
recovered,  forming  valuable  records  of  the  history  of 
artists.  The  Peloponnesian  schools  were  well  represented, 
above  all  the  family  of  Polykleitos,  for  several  generations. 
To  the  north  the  area  was  bounded  by  a  terrace  with  a 
series  of  treasuries,  in  which  the  different  Greek  states 
stored  their  treasures  and  offerings  to  the  Olympic  Zeus. 
The  treasury  of  the  Megarians  yielded  the  most  ancient 
attempt  at  a  pediment  group  in  relief.  The  round 
structure  of  the  Philippeion  to  the  west  had  contained 
the  statues  of  the  Macedonian  royal  family,  and  showed 
the  intrusion  of  monarchical  influences.  Toward  the 
east  the  "  Echo  Colonnade "  formed  the  boundary, 


MUSEUM    AT   OLYMPIA  133 

one  of  the  oldest  examples  of  a  device  which  came  more 
and  more  into  favour  for  enclosing  a  precinct.  To  the 
south,  Roman  structures — among  them  a  Triumphal 
Arch — have  crowded  out  the  more  ancient  buildings. 
Numerous  buildings  extended  outside  of  the  walls  of 
the  Altis,  along  the  Kladeos,  as  the  Gymnasium,  the 
Palaestra,  the  great  guest-house  called  the  Leonidaion, 
and  many  sanctuaries.  To  the  south  the  Bouleuterion, 
consisting  of  three  different  parts,  excited  special  interest; 
the  Stadion  extended  toward  the  east  far  into  the  plain, 
and  here  lay  the  Hippodrome  now  completely  washed 
away  by  the  Alpheios. 

The  leaders  of  the  excavations  have  in  a  most  exem- 
plary manner  preserved  all  that  was  uncovered,  a  duty 
frequently  neglected.  The  visitor  to-day  can  gain  a 
clear  view  of  the  whole,  so  long  as  there  are  no  inun- 
dations of  the  river  and  rampant  vegetation  does  not 
destroy  and  re-cover  the  scene.  Only  recently  the 
generosity  of  a  Bremen  art-lover,  Karl  Schutte,  has 
permitted  two  columns  of  the  Heraion  to  be  carefully 
reconstructed  under  the  supervision  of  Georg  Kawerau, 
thus  helping  us  to  form  a  clearer  picture  of  this  very 
ancient  temple.  A  small  museum  designed  by  Adler,  and 
established  by  M.  Syngros,  contains  all  the  sculpture, 
bronzes,  terra-cottas,  and  architectural  fragments ;  rooms 
are  also  provided  for  students.  All  would  be  well  if  only 
the  Hermes  were  not  here.  To  the  Museum  at  Olympia 
rightly  belongs  all  the  sculpture  which  had  its  origin  at 
Olympia,  as  the  Nike  of  Paionios  and  the  pediment  groups 
of  the  Temple  of  Zeus.  The  Hermes  was  certainly  not 
made  in  Olympia  by  Praxiteles,  and  owes  its  place  there 
to  an  accident  unknown  to  us.  It  is  a  work  of  such  ex- 
ceptional merit  that  only  Athens,  probably  its  place  of 
origin  and  its  spiritual  home,  is  the  right  and  worthy 
place  for  it.  A  cast  would  suffice  for  Olympia.  May  it 
be  possible  to  set  aside  all  petty  considerations  which 


134  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

prevent  the  transfer  of  the  Hermes  to  Athens.  Pre- 
liminary reports  on  the  excavations  were  published  from 
the  beginning  of  the  work,  and  after  its  completion  a 
great  authoritative  publication  appeared,  in  which, 
besides  Curtius  and  Adler,  participated  the  architects 
Dorpfeld,  Borrman,  Graber,  Graf,  and  the  archaeologists 
Treu  and  Furtwangler. 


It  was  only  natural  that  the  Greeks  should  wish  to 
take  an  active  part  in  these  investigations  relating  to 
their  own  antiquity.  Their  first  undertaking  at  Dodona 
had  been  rather  strange.  The  situation  of  the  oracle  near 
Dramesso,  south  of  Yanina,  had  been  recognized  as  far 
back  as  1830  by  T.  L.  Donaldson.  Leake,  however, 
expressed  doubts  as  to  this  view,  and  when  in  1858 
Gaultier  de  Claubry,  a  pupil  of  the  French  School, 
recognized  Donaldson's  discovery,  it  remained  unknown. 
A  Polish  engineer,  Sigismund  Mineyko,  commissioned 
by  the  province  of  Yanina,  began  in  1875  excavations 
near  Dramesso,  and  definitely  established  the  site  of  the 
famous  oracle  by  inscriptions  and  other  finds.  The  ex- 
cavations were  continued  until  February,  1876,  yielding 
rich  art  treasures.  A  banker  of  Epirus  (Ambrakia), 
Constantinos  Karapanos,  living  in  Constantinople,  se- 
cured a  firman  which  annulled  the  permission  granted 
by  the  province  ;  but  he  had  a  representative,  Lekatzas, 
digging  for  five  months,  without  meeting  with  any  success. 
Thereupon  he  bought  at  Yanina  antiques  from  various 
sources,  part  of  the  objects  found  by  Mineyko  and  his 
companions,  although  by  no  means  the  most  important 
ones.  In  consequence  of  these  purchases,  and  while 
disguising  the  true  circumstances,  Karapanos  represented 
himself  in  a  publication  as  the  discoverer  of  Dodona. 
The  theatre  and  temple  mentioned  by  Donaldson  were, 
of  course,  ignored.  But  the  votive  offerings  of  bronze 


GREEK    ARCHAEOLOGICAL    SOCIETY  135 

appear  all  the  more  important.  Some  of  these  correspond 
so  exactly  with  others  found  at  Olympia  and  Delphi  that 
one  cannot  fail  to  recognize  that  these  offerings  must  have 
been  made  in  certain  establishments  for  distribution  to 
the  different  cult  centres.  Part  of  the  collection  re- 
tained by  Mineyko  has  recently  been  acquired  for  the 
Berlin  Museum,  thus  supplementing  the  valuable  an- 
tiquities of  Dodona. 

Of  great  significance  about  this  time  was  the  work  of 
the  Greek  Archaeological  Society  (p.  53).  Until  now  the 
Society  had  only  modestly  undertaken  minor  tasks. 
Now,  however,  in  1876,  it  began  to  uncover  on  the  south 
slope  of  the  Acropolis  the  sanctuary  of  Asklepios,  which, 
as  we  have  since  learnt,  was  established  in  420  as  a  branch 
to  the  cult  of  Asklepios  at  Epidauros. 

A  considerable  number  of  votive  reliefs  with  charac- 
teristic sculptures  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  were 
found,  representing  the  healing  divinity,  at  first  as  a 
physician  standing  holding  a  rod,  and  in  the  later  reliefs 
as  an  enthroned  god  with  serpent  and  sceptre,  sur- 
rounded by  his  votaries.  However,  for  want  of  a  com- 
petent architect,  the  general  survey  of  the  older  and  later 
temples,  the  altar,  the  colonnade,  and  the  spring  re- 
mained obscure,  and  only  years  later  received  careful 
elucidation  at  the  hands  of  Dorpfeld. 

Dorpfeld,  who  had  been  the  soul  of  the  new  methods 
of  preservation  at  the  excavations  at  Olympia,  settled, 
after  the  completion  of  this  great  work  in  1882,  in  Athens. 
He  was  connected  with  the  German  Archaeological 
Institute,  and  soon  became  one  of  its  permanent  secre- 
taries. His  great  proficiency,  his  experience,  his  gener- 
osity in  placing  his  vast  learning  at  the  disposal  of 
others,  made  him  soon  the  favourite  adviser  of  the  Archaeo- 
logical Society,  whose  technical  surveys  he  usually 
executed.  This  proved  of  the  utmost  advantage  to 
Basileios  Leonardos  when  he  began  to  excavate  the 


136  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

Amphiaraion  for  the  society  in  1884-7.  Opposite  to 
Eubcea,  in  the  district  of  the  ancient  Oropos,  lay  the 
site  where,  according  to  the  legend,  the  seer  Amphiaraos, 
on  the  return  of  the  "  Seven  against  Thebes,"  was  swal- 
lowed by  the  earth  and  rescued  from  his  pursuers. 
An  oracle  had  been  established  there  and  early  finds  had 
indicated  the  spot.  Leonardos  began  work  here  and 
found  the  sanctuary.  Before  this  small  temple,  beyond 
the  river-bank,  stood  an  altar  dedicated  to  five  divinities, 
a  palpable  example  of  an  altar  belonging  to  several 
deities  so  common  in  antiquity.  Structures  were  found 
specially  designed  for  festivals,  and  of  interest  was  a 
theatre,  which,  though  not  a  large  one,  was  remarkable 
as  being  found  in  so  isolated  a  place.  It  may  have 
served  not  only  for  scenic  performances,  but  as  a  general 
gathering  place  for  other  occasions.  In  any  case,  certain 
well-preserved  peculiarities  of  the  stage,  recorded  in 
inscriptions,  became  of  importance  in  view  of  the  in- 
quiries soon  to  be  made  regarding  the  Greek  stage  and 
its  uses. 

The  means  of  the  Archaeological  Society  had  now 
considerably  increased ;  it  also  possessed  an  able  and 
energetic  leader  in  Panagiotes  Evstratiades,  so  that  it 
was  no  longer  satisfied  with  small  undertakings,  but 
took  in  hand  two  very  important  excavations  :  Eleusis 
and  Epidauros. 

The  sanctuary  of  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  was  no 
longer  virgin  soil.  Gell  and  his  companions  (p.  32) 
had  sketched  the  general  outlines  of  the  sacred  precinct. 
Charles  Lenormant  had  in  the  year  1859  made  some 
excavations  during  the  journey  which  ended  his  life  in 
Athens.  His  son  Frangois  later  published  these  results. 
These  were,  however,  quite  overshadowed  by  the  dis- 
covery in  the  same  year  of  the  great  relief  during  the 
building  of  a  school  near  the  former  small  Temple  of 
Triptolemos.  This  soon  gained  a  famous  place  in  early 


ELEUSINIAN   RELIEF,   ATHENS 


To  face  page  137 


ELEUSIS  137 

Attic  art  as  the  Eleusinian  Relief.  Its  subject  is  the 
"  sending  forth  "  of  Triptolemos  by  the  two  great  god- 
desses Demeter  and  Persephone  with  the  seed-corn, 
the  blessing  of  the  husbandmen.  Under  the  guidance 
of  Demetrios  Philios,  and  with  the  constant  advice  of 
Dorpfeld,  thorough  excavations  were  begun  here  in 
1882,  and  continued  until  1890.  Behind  the  sacred 
precinct  rises  the  low  but  steep  castle-hill,  and  before  it 
is  the  expanse  of  the  beautiful  bay,  along  the  shore  of 
which  came  the  torchlit  processions  of  the  mystce  to 
the  sanctuary  of  Eleusis.  Within  the  walled  precinct 
the  chief  building  was  the  Telesterion  or  Temple  of  the 
Mysteries,  differing  from  ordinary  temples  in  its  square 
form.  Excavations  revealed  within  rows  of  steps  on  all 
four  sides  ;  while  in  the  middle  columns  were  disposed 
in  rows  to  support  an  upper  storey.  Careful  examination 
of  the  pillars,  their  size  and  material  and  their  disposi- 
tion, revealed  different  stages  of  construction.  For  the 
mysteries  of  the  Peisistratan  period  a  very  much  smaller 
building  had  sufficed.  The  Periclean  structure  designed 
by  Iktinos,  the  architect  of  the  Parthenon,  was  thrice 
the  size  of  the  earlier  one.  Ascending  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  structure  was  a  broad  flight  of  stairs  on  either 
side,  opening  into  a  wide  passage  hewn  out  of  the  rock. 
It  has  been  ascertained  that  for  the  front,  if  not  for  all 
three  sides,  a  colonnade  had  been  planned,  but  only 
executed  much  later,  about  300 — the  only  decoration 
on  the  exterior  of  this  enclosed  building.  If  not  all  the 
secrets  of  the  hall  have  been  revealed  to  us,  our  knowledge 
of  it  has  been  greatly  extended. 

Well-preserved  walls  of  sun-dried  bricks  take  us  back 
to  very  ancient  times  ;  in  consequence  of  their  having 
been  early  covered  with  debris  and  earth,  they  escaped 
the  damp,  and  were  thus  protected,  affording  an  example 
of  that  rarely  seen  method  of  building  (p.  127).  F. 
Noack  discovered  this  ancient  construction  at  Eleusis 


138  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

(1905-6)  and  continued  the  investigation.  Among  the 
earliest  remains  may  be  mentioned  the  Pluto  grotto, 
a  small  sanctuary  cut  into  the  rock  ;  within  it  a  well- 
preserved  and  extraordinarily  handsome  youth's  head 
was  found,  with  an  abundance  of  hair,  related  in  style  to 
the  so-called  Vergil  bust.  Benndorf  and  Furtwangler 
recognized  therein  with  great  probability  the  Eleusinian 
chthonic  god  Eubouleus,  whose  image  is  ascribed  by  an 
inscription  found  about  the  same  time  to  no  less  an 
artist  than  Praxiteles.  A  second  masterpiece  of  the  great 
artist  to  be  placed  beside  the  Hermes !  To  many  this 
seemed  too  great  a  piece  of  good  fortune,  and  they  pre- 
ferred to  see  Triptolemos  in  the  newly  discovered  head. 

The  two  entrance  gates  to  the  sacred  precinct  showed 
curious  combinations  of  different  periods  of  art.  The 
outer  gate,  probably  of  the  late  Attic  period,  simply 
copied  the  central  part  of  the  Athenian  Propylaea,  an 
instance  among  many  of  the  poverty  in  architectural 
invention  of  the  times.  The  inner  gate,  a  foundation  of 
Appius  Claudius  Pulcher,  of  the  time  of  Cicero,  is  more 
characteristic,  and  combines  features  of  the  Hellenistic 
period  in  its  Corinthian  capitals  with  ornate  garlands  and 
corner  figures  representing  griffins. 

On  the  whole,  Eleusis  offered  a  perfect  picture  of  a 
cult-site  arranged  only  for  the  mysteries,  not  as  uniform 
in  style  as  Samothrace,  but  of  importance  inasmuch  as 
it  permits  us  to  follow  the  development  for  centuries 
of  this  most  famous  sanctuary  of  the  mysteries  of  the 
Greek  world. 

The  sanctuary  of  Asklepios  at  Epidauros  is  again  quite 
different.  The  Archaeological  Society  began  excavating 
there  in  1881  ;  the  French  expedition  had  in  1829  es~ 
tablished  the  general  outlines  of  the  extensive  plan. 
These  new  excavations  were  under  the  supervision  of 
Panagiotes  Kavvadias,  a  pupil  of  Brunn,  and  at  the  time 
still  an  ephor  of  the  society.  Later,  in  1885,  Kavvadias 


EPIDAUROS  139 

became  Director  in  chief  of  the  Royal  Museums  and 
Antiquities  and  the  head  of  all  Greek  excavations,  but 
his  interest  in  Epidauros  continued,  and  until  recent 
times  these  excavations  have  had  his  special  care.  The 
reward  proved  great ! 

The  Hieron  of  Asklepios,  one  of  the  most  important 
cult-sites  of  the  healing  divinity,  is  situated  about  eight 
miles  inland  from  Epidauros.  The  elevated  level  plateau 
must  have  been  considered  most  salubrious,  as  the 
sanctuary  developed  into  a  much -frequented  health 
resort.  Numerous  inscriptions  found  there  furnish  strange 
evidence  of  the  superstitious  trust  which  the  suppliants 
reposed  in  the  miraculous  cures  of  a  priesthood  to  whom 
rational  medicine  was  entirely  alien.  The  arrangement 
of  the  sanctuary,  of  course,  had  to  correspond  with  the 
requirements  of  a  health  resort.  The  enclosed  precinct 
was  here  also  approached  by  Propylaea,  and  contained 
a  temple  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century. 
Remains  of  pediment  sculptures  have  been  found,  and 
inscriptions  assign  these  to  Timotheos,  showing  us  works 
of  this  distinguished  artist's  youth.  The  delicate  motives 
of  drapery  afforded  great  scope  to  his  genius.  Later  he 
worked  on  the  Mausoleum.  The  innumerable  bases  of 
votive  offerings,  which  surrounded  the  temple  and  altar, 
testified  to  the  great  veneration  the  god  of  Epidauros 
enjoyed.  Long  halls,  some  even  of  two  storeys,  served 
as  sleeping-places  for  those  who  had  come  to  consult  the 
god,  and  awaited  healing  in  their  sleep.  A  peculiar 
building  of  enigmatical  character  was  the  Tholos  or 
Thymele,  a  round  structure  with  two  concentric  series 
of  columns.  Its  subterranean  passages  were  arranged 
like  a  labyrinth,  and  their  significance  has  never  been 
fully  explained.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  snake 
of  Asklepios  was  kept  there.  The  Tholos,  which  was 
several  decades  in  construction,  remains  for  us  one  of 
the  oldest,  if  not  the  oldest,  round  structure  of  the  kind 


140  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

in  Greek  architecture.  The  Corinthian  capital  found 
here  is  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of  what  later  became 
its  normal  development.  Although  the  Tholos  is  not 
a  large  building,  it  displays  in  the  plastic  ornaments  of 
its  later  portions  a  technical  perfection  which  surpasses 
even  the  Erechtheion  at  Athens.  Tradition  mentions 
Polykleitos  as  the  architect,  certainly  not  the  famous 
sculptor  in  bronze  of  the  fifth  century,  but  a  younger 
member  of  that  family  of  artists.  But  was  this  Poly- 
kleitos, as  seems  very  probable,  the  first  designer  of  the 
plan,  or  was  he  the  later  artist  who  designed  the  Corin- 
thian columns  and  the  delicate  decorations  of  the  interior? 
Some  new  discoveries  may  bring  complete  certainty. 

Adjoining  the  sacred  precinct  other  extensive  buildings 
(chiefly  of  Roman  times)  were  added  for  gymnastic 
exercises  or  for  the  entertainment  of  guests.  There 
was,  for  instance,  a  stadion,  but  the  most  remarkable 
feature  of  the  Hieron  was  the  beautiful  theatre,  situated 
in  a  hollow  of  the  hill  a  short  distance  from  the  temple. 
The  well-preserved  tiers  of  seats  of  the  spacious  audi- 
torium had  been  known  since  the  work  of  the  French 
expedition,  and  fully  confirmed  the  fame,  which  ancient 
tradition  attributes  to  this  second  work  of  Polykleitos 
as  the  most  beautiful  and  harmoniously  designed  theatre 
in  Greece.  Kavvadias  also  excavated  the  orchestra 
with  its  approaches  and  the  remains  of  the  stage  ;  against 
all  expectation  the  orchestra  proved  circular,  whereas 
those  previously  known  were  semicircular  or  in  the  shape 
of  a  horseshoe.  Enough  remained  of  the  stage  to  permit 
a  reconstruction  of  the  side  ramps  leading  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  proskenion.  The  theatre  at  Epidauros 
became  the  starting-point  for  Dorpfeld's  investigations 
of  the  Greek  theatre,  which  have  held  the  attention  of 
scholars  for  the  last  twenty  years.  It  may  be  taken 
for  granted  that  originally,  during  the  classic  times  of 
the  Attic  drama,  both  chorus  and  actors  used  the  orchestra 


THE   THEATRE    At    EPIDAUROS  141 

for  acting,  and  that  the  background  was  formed  by  a 
small  players'  booth  with  low  roof,  not  a  raised  stage. 
Discussions  still  continue  unabated,  whether  the  stone 
proskenion  in  the  existing  theatres — none  of  which  date 
back  to  the  times  of  Sophocles  or  Euripides — belonged 
to  such  players'  booth,  or,  after  the  chorus  disappeared, 
may  rather  have  been  a  raised  stage.  The  question, 
in  any  case,  became  of  such  importance  as  to  cause  a 
thorough  examination  of  the  ruins  of  theatres.  While 
twenty  years  ago  few  theatres  but  those  of  the  Roman 
type  were  known  to  us,  to-day  we  know  more  than  a 
dozen  genuine  Greek  theatres.  Archaeologists  of  all 
nationalities  have  taken  part  in  these  investigations. 
Only  the  following  theatres  need  be  mentioned  :  Mega- 
lopolis, Mantineia,  and  Sikyon  in  the  Peloponnese ; 
at  Athens  ;  at  Eretria  in  Eubcea  ;  at  Priene,  Magnesia, 
and  Pergamon  in  Asia  Minor.  Again  a  systematically 
worked  find  has  suggested  great  problems,  and  their 
study  has  resulted  in  numerous  discoveries. 


But  a  word  must  be  added  here  on  the  hardly  less 
famous  sanctuary  on  the  island  of  Kos,  the  home  of 
Hippokrates.  Excavations  were  carried  on  during  1902-4 
by  Rudolf  Herzog  and  the  architects  Gustav  Hecht  and 
Ernst  Wagner,  with  means  provided  by  the  German 
Empire,  the  Government  of  Wiirtemberg,  the  German 
Archaeological  Institute,  and  some  private  patrons  as 
the  manufacturer  Ernst  Sieglin  of  Stuttgart.  The 
sanctuary  was  situated  not  far  from  the  city  of  Kos, 
on  a  mountainous  height,  on  the  site  earlier  recognized 
by  the  epigraphist  R.  Paton.  The  original  sanctuary 
consisted  of  a  stately  altar,  an  ancient  temple,  a  spring, 
and  some  cypresses.  Finally  during  the  third  century 
a  Hellenistic  design  with  three  terraces  was  carried  out. 
Below  was  an  extensive  "  sacred  market-place "  sur- 


142  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

rounded  by  colonnades;  above  it  is  the  old  cult-site, 
but  enlarged  and  with  many  additions,  as  a  new  Ionic 
temple.  A  broad  and  high  staircase  led  from  here  to 
the  new  marble  Doric  temple  above,  which  seemed  to 
dominate  its  entire  surroundings  ;  the  remains  of  the 
sacred  cypress  grove  perhaps  forming  the  background. 
On  either  side  of  the  temple  and  behind  it  were  buildings 
with  colonnades  containing  probably  rooms  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  invalids.  The  whole  gives  an 
excellent  idea  of  a  model  structure  in  the  Hellenistic 
style,  for  here,  not  as  at  Samothrace,  nearly  all  traces 
of  earlier  foundations  had  been  obliterated. 

By  the  side  of  the  Asklepios  sanctuary  at  Kos  may  be 
placed  the  very  ancient  sanctuary  of  Poseidon  on  the 
island  of  Tenos ;  excavated  by  the  Belgians,  Hubert 
Demoulin,  1902-3,  continued  by  Paul  Graindor  in  1905. 
The  temple,  with  architectural  accessories,  some  works 
of  art,  and  numerous  inscriptions,  testifies  to  the  popu- 
larity of  the  cult  of  Poseidon  and  Amphitrite,  and  this 
has  its  modern  counterpart  in  the  Evangelistria,  whither 
for  the  past  eighty  years  pilgrimages  have  been  constant. 

The  American  School  founded  in  Athens  in  1882  now 
contemplated  another  task.  The  ancients  looked  upon 
the  Heraion  at  Argos  as  one  of  the  oldest  Doric  temples  in 
Greece.  It  was  situated  about  four  miles  from  Mycenae, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  plain  of  Argos.  This  very 
ancient  temple  was  consumed  by  fire  in  423  ;  a  new 
temple  was  immediately  erected,  for  which  Polykleitos, 
the  most  famous  artist  of  Argos,  made  a  chryselephantine 
statue  of  Hera  to  rival  the  Olympian  masterpiece  of 
Phidias.  The  site  of  the  sanctuary  had  long  been  es- 
tablished ;  some  trial  excavations  made  in  1854  by 
Alexandros  Rhizu  Rangabe  at  the  request  of  Ludwig 
Ross  for  the  "  787  Olympian  marks  "  (p.  125),  and  directed 
by  K.  Bursian  had  only  insignificant  results.  In  1892 
the  American  School,  under  the  direction  of  Charles 


THE    HERAION    AT    ARGOS  143 

Waldstein,  began  work  there.  Unfortunately  the  re- 
mains of  the  older  temple,  on  the  upper  terrace,  were  so 
fragmentary  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  ascertain  with 
certainty  its  ground-plan  ;  it  would  appear,  however, 
as  if  this  temple  (though  it  is  a  fantastic  assumption  to 
date  it  far  back  in  the  second  millennium)  had  preserved 
more  faithfully  than  other  temples  in  the  East  the  form 
of  the  Homeric  house  (Chap.  VIII).  More  extensive 
were  the  remains  of  the  Later  Temple ;  however,  not 
a  great  deal  of  it  was  discovered,  most  blocks  having 
probably  disappeared  as  building  material  in  the  neigh- 
bouring villages  of  the  plain.  The  remains  of  sculptural 
decorations  of  the  temple  are  the  most  valuable  ;  they 
are  undoubtedly  of  the  school  of  Polykleitos,  as  those 
of  the  Parthenon  are  of  the  school  of  Phidias.  They 
teach  us  how  great,  even  then,  was  the  influence  of  Attic 
art  upon  that  of  the  Peloponnese. 

The  results  achieved  by  the  excavations  carried  on  in 
1902  by  Furtwangler,  Thiersch,  and  the  architect  E. 
Fiechter  on  the  island  of  ^Egina  were  great  and  unex- 
pected. In  1811,  when  the  pediment  groups  were  dis- 
covered, excavations  of  the  entire  temple  were  not 
carried  out,  and  with  the  exception  of  some  minor  work 
of  Stais  in  1894,  none  had  since  been  undertaken.  The 
new  Bavarian  excavations  supported  by  the  Prince  Regent 
Luitpold  aimed  first  at  completing  the  statues  found 
years  ago  ;  then  extended  beyond  this,  greatly  adding  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  entire  sanctuary. 

With  exemplary  thoroughness  its  history  has  now  been 
traced  through  three  consecutive  stages  of  development. 
A  new  name  for  the  temple  was  also  recovered.  The 
temple  had  at  first  been  looked  upon  as  of  Zeus  Pan- 
hellenios,  the  most  famous  sanctuary  on  the  island,  a 
forged  inscription  intended  merely  as  a  joke  being  taken 
so  seriously  that  Cockerell,  one  of  the  discoverers,  in 
1860  still  maintained  it.  As  early  as  1837  Ludwig  Ross 


I44  ANCIENT   CITIES 

had  shown  this  inscription  to  be  a  forgery,  and  tried  to 
prove  by  another  inscription  that  the  temple  was 
Athena's,  a  view  Stackelberg  had  expressed  in  1826,  and 
Mustoxydes  in  1831.  Furtwangler  recently  proved  that 
this  also  is  untenable.  As  the  name  of  the  Cretan 
and  jEginetan  goddess  Aphaia  has  appeared  on  numer- 
ous inscriptions  the  temple  is  now  claimed  for  that 
divinity.  It  has  been  found  on  an  archaic  building 
block  where  an  incised  inscription  records  the  building 
of  a  house  (of/co?)  and  an  altar  to  the  goddess.  This 
new  name  has  gained  universal  approbation.  If  I 
still  entertain  doubts  as  to  its  correctness,  my  justifi- 
cation rests  on  a  reliable  and,  as  I  believe,  faultless 
record  which  states  that  the  cult  of  Aphaia  at  ^Egina 
was  founded  in  a  sanctuary  of  Artemis,  which  would 
not,  by  any  means,  exclude  Aphaia  from  enjoying 
even  greater  popularity  than  the  chief  goddess,  and  that 
she  possessed,  besides  an  altar,  a  special  house  (which, 
according  to  ancient  usage,  means  a  house  to  contain  the 
numerous  votive  offerings  dedicated  to  her).  However 
this  may  be,  the  pediment  groups  refer  neither  to  Aphaia 
nor  to  Artemis,  but  celebrate  the  victory  of  Salamis,  and 
the  name  of  the  temple  is  fortunately  not  of  importance 
in  their  interpretation. 

The  excavations  yielded  a  number  of  fragments  for  the 
Munich  pediment  groups.  Not  only  these  additions,  but 
an  accurate  examination  of  those  already  in  Munich  and 
of  Thorvaldsen's  restoration  led  Furtwangler  to  an 
entirely  new  arrangement  of  the  pediment  groups. 
Thorvaldsen's  and  Martin  Wagner's  old  restoration  had 
long  been  known  to  be  incorrect.  A  series  of  examina- 
tions, in  which  Karl  Friedrichs,  Heinrich  Brunn,  Adrian 
Prachow,  Konrad  Lange,  Leopold  Julius,  and  Bruno 
Sauer  had  taken  part,  seemed  to  give  as  a  final  result  a 
strictly  symmetrical  composition,  a  battle  scene,  for  the 
West  pediment.  The  action  here  centred  in  a  fallen 


t 


£Y* 


TEMPLE    AT   ^GINA  145 

warrior  in  the  middle,  lying  at  the  feet  of  Athene.  The 
group,  composed  of  twelve  figures,  formed  a  complete 
whole,  and  it  was  this  which  pre-eminently  seemed  to 
distinguish  the  composition  from  earlier  ones.  Only 
five  figures  of  the  East  pediment  were  found,  and  it  was 
assumed  that  it  contained  a  similar  composition  with 
slight  diversities.  Brunn  proved  as  early  as  1867  that 
the  latter  showed  a  higher  form  of  art  than  the  West 
pediment  (Chap.  XI).  Furtwangler's  critical  studies, 
however,  had  quite  different  results.  According  to 
these  the  West  pediment  falls  into  four  distinct  groups  : 
on  either  side  of  the  goddess  are  two  warriors  fighting 
over  a  fallen  warrior,  and  beyond  these  an  archer  and 
a  man  with  a  lance  appear  to  be  overthrowing  a  man  in 
each  corner  ;  thus  the  movement  tends  from  the  centre 
to  the  corners.  Instead  of  one  harmonious  whole  we 
have  a  battle  scene  in  four  distinct  groups,  which  are 
parting  asunder  as  if  intended  to  counteract  the  idea  of 
a  co-ordinated  whole.  The  more  advanced  artist  of 
the  East  pediment  realizes  this  fault.  Although  his 
composition,  limited  to  eleven  figures,  is  divided  into 
two  distinct  battle  scenes,  yet  the  two  halves  are  directed 
towards  the  middle  where  the  goddess  forms  the  point 
of  union  for  the  composition.  If  Furtwangler's  new 
reconstruction  is  correct  (without  a  re-examination  of 
the  originals  it  cannot  be  definitely  stated,  but  according 
to  Furtwangler's  account  it  appears  very  probable)  the 
two  groups  show  an  interesting  intermediate  period  of 
art  in  the  development  of  pediment  groups,  falling  mid- 
way between  the  single  and  detached  scenes  of  the  pedi- 
ment of  the  Treasury  of  the  Megarians  at  Olympia  and 
the  complete  groups  of  the  East  pediment  of  the  Temple 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia  and  the  pediments  of  the  Parthenon. 


146  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

It  now  remains  only  to  mention  two  excavations  of 
the  French  School;  one  formed  the  brilliant  close  of  all 
the  enterprises  directed  towards  the  recovery  of  Greek 
cult  sites  during  the  last  century.  Both  sites  were,  like 
Delos,  dedicated  to  Apollo. 

Mt.  Pto'ion  rises  with  many  peaks  in  Bceotia,  south- 
east of  Lake  Kopai's,  and  upon  its  summit  Apollo  possessed 
in  ancient  times  a  popular  cult  site,  which  after  the 
Persian  War  was  far  less  frequented.  The  site,  therefore, 
appeared  most  alluring,  for  one  might  fairly  expect  to 
find  very  early  remains.  Maurice  Holleaux  (1885-6)  was 
fortunate  in  finding  an  old  grotto  of  Apollo  recalling 
Delos,  and  an  old  altar.  These  had  later  been  replaced 
by  a  temple.  Numerous  other  structures  were  found, 
great  ancient  cisterns,  such  as  were  necessary  on  these 
heights,  and  minor  buildings  such  as  belong  to  all  sanc- 
tuaries. A  number  of  archaic  statues  were  discovered. 
Although  those  primitive  attempts  to  represent  the  form 
of  a  nude  youth,  the  so-called  statues  of  Apollo,  had  for  a 
century  come  to  light  everywhere,  even  to  satiety,  yet 
the  "  Ptoion  Apollo  "  presented  such  striking  features  as 
to  secure  him  a  prominent  place  in  the  long  line  of  youths 
advancing  with  the  left  foot.  Products  of  the  handi- 
crafts, dating  from  the  eighth  to  the  sixth  century,  were 
found  in  great  numbers  at  Ptoion  :  clay  pots  and  figurines, 
bronze  figures  and  implements,  among  them  archaic 
tripods  such  as  had  been  found  at  Olympia,  and  such  as 
we  recall  from  Homer.  In  contemplating  these  objects 
one  perceives  how  general  was  the  veneration  of  the 
Ptoion  god,  and  how  these  offerings  were  produced  in 
localities  both  near  and  far ;  some  are  native,  some  Ionian, 
some  come  from  the  Peloponnese.  If  a  complete  publica- 
tion had  been  issued,  it  would  be  possible  to  form  a 
better  judgment  of  the  whole.  Near  Elateia,  in  Phocis, 
the  sanctuary  of  Athene  Kranaia  had  been  successfully 
investigated  by  Pierre  Paris  in  1884. 


DELPHI  147 

The  chief  work  of  the  French  School,  comparable  to 
that  of  Olympia,  was  at  Delphi,  the  great  festal  centre 
in  Northern  Greece.  Nature  formed  in  "  rocky  Pytho  " 
the  greatest  contrast  to  the  level  plain  of  the  Alpheios. 
Delphi  can  only  be  approached  on  two  sides  by  mountain 
paths.  To  the  north  the  Phaedriades  rise  precipitously, 
steep  cliffs  of  Parnassus.  The  rocky  soil  descends 
abruptly,  with  hardly  any  terraces,  southward  to  the 
Pleistos ;  beyond  it  bare  Kirphis  obstructs  the  view  to 
the  Bay  of  Corinth.  It  is  a  most  magnificent  solitude, 
only  perhaps  surpassed  in  Greece  by  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Styx.  The  precinct  of  the  oracle  was  situated  on 
high  under  the  shadow  of  the  Phaedriades  rising  abruptly 
from  south  to  north.  Two  transverse  walls  were  visible 
here,  the  supporting  walls  of  artificial  terraces.  Below 
was  the  "  Helleniko,"  a  freestone  wall ;  above  the 
"  Pelasgik6,"  a  polygonal  wall,  above  which  the  south 
steps  of  the  temple  appeared.  The  rest  was  completely 
hidden  and  covered  by  the  huts  of  the  wretched  little 
village  of  Kastri.  In  1840  Karl  Otfried  Miiller  was 
struck  and  killed  by  the  rays  of  the  Delphic  god,  while 
helping  to  decipher  the  numerous  records  found  in  the 
Pelasgik6.  In  a  modest  way  Conze  and  Michaelis  helped 
in  this  task  in  1860  ;  the  following  year  the  Pelasgiko 
was  successfully  cleared  by  Paul  Foucart  and  Karl 
Wescher.  In  1862  Wescher  proved  that  this  wall,  the 
terrace  wall  of  the  temple,  turns  abruptly  north  at  its 
east  end.  This  indicated  the  extent  of  the  temple 
precinct  on  this  side,  and  the  direction  of  the  approach 
to  the  temple.  The  main  features  of  the  topography 
of  Delphi  had  been  established  in  1838  by  Heinrich 
Nikolaus  Ulrichs,  as  far  as  was  possible  without  excava- 
tions. Among  the  few  pieces  of  sculpture  found  was  a 
slab  with  a  relief  of  a  four-horse  chariot,  which  was  later 
joined  by  its  fellows.  Years  of  inactivity  followed.  Only 
after  the  Archaeological  Society  in  Athens  had,  in  1880, 


148  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

bought  the  land  and  placed  it  at  the  disposal  of  the 
French  School  was  work  again  resumed.  Foucart,  the 
director  of  the  school,  sent  Bernard  Haussoullier  there  ; 
he  excavated  at  the  corner  of  the  Pelasgiko  discovered  by 
Wescher  part  of  the  Sacred  Way  and  an  Ionic  Hall  which 
inscriptions  proved  to  be  the  Stoa  of  the  Athenians, 
destined  for  trophies  of  victories.  Its  date  was  not  quite 
clear,  but  it  may  be  a  monument  of  the  battle  of  Marathon. 
Haussoullier's  great  success  led  the  French  School  to 
contemplate  the  excavation  of  the  entire  sanctuary  of 
Delphi.  But  a  long  time  intervened  before  work  was 
actually  begun.  Foucart  succeeded  as  early  as  1882  in 
concluding  an  agreement  with  the  Greek  Government, 
establishing  the  same  conditions  at  Delphi  as  had  been 
observed  at  Olympia.  The  next  change  of  ministers, 
however,  annulled  the  contract,  and  a  long  period  of  un- 
certainty ensued.  Political  considerations  also  interfered; 
and  it  was  believed  that  the  methods  of  the  excavators 
at  Delphi  contrasted  unfavourably  with  those  at  Olympia, 
so  that  the  scruples  of  the  Greek  Government  were 
aroused,  Germany  was  offered  the  site,  but  declined  out 
of  consideration  for  France.  A  second  agreement  was 
formed  in  1887  between  Greece  and  France,  but  again  it 
was  not  confirmed.  In  1889  America  applied  for  per- 
mission, but  without  success.  Finally,  in  1891,  after 
Theophile  Homolle  had  taken  Foucart's  place,  a  definite 
contract  was  made,  transferring  all  rights  of  excavation 
for  ten  years  to  France  ;  the  French  Government  granted 
500,000  francs  (£20,000).  A  preliminary  condition  was 
the  complete  expropriation  of  the  villagers  of  Kastri,  to 
which  the  Greek  Government  contributed  60,000  drach- 
mas. In  the  meantime  H.  Pomtow  had  carried  on  some 
work  at  Delphi  in  1887  ;  its  chief  result  had  been  the 
discovery  of  the  main  entrance  of  the  precinct  in  the 
south-east  corner. 

Homolle  assumed  the  personal  direction  of  this  great 


DELPHI  149 

task.  He  had  the  assistance  of  Henri  Convert,  an  en- 
gineer, and  Albert  Tournaire,  an  architect.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  school  who  assisted  were  Louis  Couve,  Paul 
Perdrizet,  and  others.  This  task  not  only  involved  great 
expenditure  of  time  and  money,  but  when  the  expro- 
priation of  the  village  of  Kastri  began  the  inhabitants 
began  rioting  and  seized  the  tools  of  the  strangers. 
Finally,  in  April,  1893,  all  preparations  were  completed, 
so  that  the  work  could  begin.  It  was  evident  that  it 
was  a  question  of  three  storeys,  as  it  were,  the  terrace  of 
the  temple  forming  the  middle  one.  The  Pelasgiko 
separated  the  two  lower  ones,  and  the  Helleniko  formed 
the  southern  and  lowest  boundary  of  the  precinct. 
Homolle  began  near  the  latter,  and  fortune  smiled  upon 
him.  He  at  once  struck  a  building,  which,  according 
to  his  ground-plan,  appeared  to  be  one  of  the  treasuries, 
and,  according  to  Pausanias'  description,  the  Treasury 
of  the  Athenians.  Let  us  listen  to  his  words  : 

"  After  deliberating  for  twenty-four  hours,  I  believed 
myself  justified  in  telegraphing  to  Paris  that  we  had 
found  '  le  tresor  des  AtheniensS  Our  joy  was  shared  in 
Paris  and,  for  quite  a  different  reason,  by  the  Greek 
authorities  in  Amphissa,  the  capital  of  the  district.  The 
following  day  I  received  a  telegram  from  the  sub-prefect 
of  that  place,  who  announced  the  arrival  of  his  revenue 
official  to  receive  our  '  treasure.'  The  Greek  Government 
was  at  that  time  not  in  a  brilliant  financial  position  ; 
a  slight  misunderstanding  arose,  and  in  their  artless  way 
they  hoped  that  ready  money  had  been  found  in  the 
ground,  at  an  opportune  moment,  to  pay  off  their  interest 
due." 

In  the  lower  third  of  the  sacred  precinct  the  Sacred 
Way  ascends  with  sharp  turns  ;  on  either  side  of  it  are  the 
treasuries  of  the  Greek  states,  and  near  the  entrance  gate 
are  some  important  votive  offerings.  Only  the  bases  or 
indications  of  their  position  remain  as  in  the  case  of  the 


I5o  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

great  memorial  groups  of  Marathon  and  Aigospotamoi — 
the  glory  of  Athens  and  her  fall.  We  have  again  to  appeal 
to  Pausanias  for  the  names  of  the  treasuries,  many  of 
which  are  far  richer  than  those  at  Olympia.  For  example, 
the  Treasury  of  the  Athenians  is  a  Doric  structure  with 
thirty  metopes  with  archaic  reliefs.  Its  walls  were  in- 
scribed with  the  Hymn  to  Apollo,  the  musical  notation 
of  which  created  such  great  interest,  and  gave  us  the 
first  definite  conception  of  Greek  music  ;  besides  this 
records  were  found  on  the  walls  of  the  official  Athenian 
processions  to  Delphi.  Five  oblong  metopes  were  found 
of  the  Treasury  of  the  Sikyonians,  giving  proof  how 
naive  had  been  the  early  plastic  art  of  that  city.  The 
treasury  attributed  at  first  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
island  of  Siphnos,  and  later  to  the  inhabitants  of  Cnidos, 
is  profusely  decorated  ;  if,  however,  we  follow  Pausanias, 
we  shall  have  to  attribute  this  treasury  to  the  Siphnians, 
and  seek  the  Treasury  of  the  Cnidians  rather  higher.  It 
was  a  graceful  Ionic  building,  its  portico  supported  by 
female  figures  in  the  place  of  columns.  While  we  meet 
here  the  first  indication  of  what  later  is  carried  to  great 
perfection  in  the  Caryatids  of  the  Erechtheion  in  Athens, 
the  frieze  surrounding  the  building  on  four  sides  (the 
relief  of  the  four-horse  chariot  mentioned  on  p.  147  be- 
longed to  it)  vividly  recalls  Ionic  prototypes  of  the 
Parthenon  frieze.  All  is  more  animated,  more  naive, 
than  in  the  more  sober  art  of  Periclean  Athens,  but  the 
pediment  groups  are  still  clumsy  and  heavy.  An  im- 
portant addition  to  the  Ionic  art  of  the  treasuries  was 
the  Column  of  the  Naxians,  crowned  with  an  archaic 
sphinx  ;  it  stood  near  the  terrace  wall  of  the  temple,  the 
so-called  Pelasgiko.  As  our  knowledge  of  the  earlier 
period  of  Ionic  art  is  very  limited,  such  an  example  as  the 
huge  but  simple  capital  of  this  column  becomes  very  im- 
portant. But  that  information  in  regard  to  Ionic  art 
should  come  to  us  from  Delphi  was  entirely  unexpected. 


PLAN  OF  DELPHI 

i.  Main  entrance.  2.  Side  entrances.  3.  Bronze  bull.  5.  Great  monument  erected 
by  Peloponnessians  after  battle  of  Aegospotamoi,  405.  6.  Heroes  of  Argos  on  the  founda- 
tion of  Messene,  360.  7.  Bronze  copy  of  the  "  wooden  horse,"  414.  8.  Greek  monument  of 
Phidias  given  by  the  Athenians  after  the  battle  of  Marathon,  490.  9.  The  Seven  against 
Thebes  (456  dedicated).  12.  Treasury  of  the  Sikyonians.  13.  Treasury  of  the  Siphnians. 
15.  Treasury  of  the  Thebans.  18.  Treasury  of  the  Cnidians.  19.  Treasury  of  the  Corin- 
thians. 23.  Treasury  of  Clazomenae.  28.  Treasury  of  the  Athenians.  29.  Buleuterion. 
32.  Hall  of  the  Athenians.  33.  Copy  of  the  Nike  of  Paionios.  34.  Treasury  of  the 
Corinthians.  36.  Tripod  votive  offering  of  the  Hellenes  after  the  victory  of  Plataea,  479. 
38.  Nike  and  tripod.  To  the  west  the  column  with  the  acanthus.  41.  Temnfe  of  Apollo. 
Behind  the  cella  tripod  of  the  oracle.  46.  The  lion  hunt  of  Alexander,  of  Lysippos  and 
Leochares,  dedicated  by  Krateros.  Near  it  the  quadriga  of  Polyzelos  (Gelon  ?).  47.  The 
theatre.  48.  Poseidonion.  52.  Exedra.  53.  Group  of  Pharsalian  princes ;  Agias  of 
Lysippos.  55.  Lesche  of  the  Cnidians. 


To  face  page  150 


DELPHI  151 

Delphi  above  all  other  places  was  common  to  all  the 
Greeks,  far  more  so  than  Olympia,  which  never  lost  its 
predominantly  Dorian  character.  Another  column  found 
at  Delphi  shows  a  particularly  rich  development  of  the 
Corinthian  acanthus  motive,  enhanced  by  three  highly 
elegant  dancing  figures  which  execute  their  graceful 
movements  aloft.  A  tripod  may  have  crowned  the 
whole. 

Let  us  ascend  the  Sacred  Way,  passing  the  base  of  the 
Serpent  column  of  Plataeafand  the  foundation  oft  the 
monument  of  ^Emilius  Paullus,  the  victor  of  Pydna  ; 
some  fragments  of  this  frieze  had  become  known  as  early 
as  1840.  According  to  Pausanias  we  might  have  ex- 
pected to  find  the  Older  Temple  built  in  the  sixth  century, 
which  had  received  a  marble  fa9ade  from  the  family  of 
the  Alkmaionids,  exiled  from  Athens.  Its  pediments  were 
executed  in  the  fifth  century  by  pupils  of  Kalamis,  and 
Euripides  has  described  the  decorated  metopes.  If  this 
temple  had  been  found  in  the  same  state  of  preservation 
as  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  what  problems  would 
have  been  solved !  Nothing  remained  but  some  frag- 
ments of  sculpture  of  the  temple  of  the  Alkmaionids. 

The  ancient  temple  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
373 — as  we  have  learnt  from  inscriptions — and  the  later 
temple,  of  which  some  remains  have  been  discovered, 
dates  from  the  fourth  century. 

As  recorded  by  inscriptions,  the  temple  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  83  B.C.,  and  after  that  again  slowly  rebuilt. 
Did  Pausanias  quote  an  obsolete  source,  dating  from 
before  the  earthquake  in  373  ?  It  almost  seemed  so — 
and  a  new  opening  was  given  to  the  moderns  who  com- 
plain of  Pausanias'  untrustworthiness,  when  recently 
Emil  Reisch  discovered  the  solution  and  proved  that  the 
Kalamis  referred  to  by  the  writer  was  not  of  the  time  of 
Kimon,  but  was  a  noted  artist  of  the  fourth  century.  His 
pupils  Praxias  and  Androsthenes  would  thus  belong 


152  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

exactly  to  the  time  when  the  temple  at  Delphi  was  being 
built.  The  investigations  at  the  temple  solved  new 
problems  in  the  history  of  art,  although  not  in  regard  to 
the  Temple  of  the  Alkmaionids,  nor  in  regard  to  the 
pediment  groups  of  the  pupils  of  Kalamis  ;  these  are  lost 
without  a  trace.  The  interior  of  the  temple  proved  dis- 
appointing ;  not  a  trace  was  found  of  the  chasm  in  the 
earth  where  the  dragon  Python  had  been  slain  by  Apollo, 
and  over  which  the  priestess  sat  on  a  tripod  while  she 
uttered  the  oracles.  If  the  remains  of  the  temple  were 
somewhat  disappointing,  the  uppermost  part  of  the 
sacred  precinct  proved  all  the  richer  in  discoveries. 
Toward  the  north-west  the  theatre  was  discovered,  and 
near  it  the  fine  stadion  ;  below  the  theatre  traces  were 
found  of  a  group  by  Lysippos — Krateros  saving  the  life 
of  Alexander  the  Great  at  a  lion  hunt.  The  discovery 
of  the  Lesche  of  the  Cnidians  was  of  supreme  importance. 
This  hall,  situated  towards  the  north-east,  served  as  a 
meeting-place  ;  its  walls  had  been  embellished  with  the 
two  famous  paintings  by  Polygnotos  :  the  Taking  of  Troy 
and  the  Descent  of  Odysseus  into  Hades.  As  Pausanias 
has  described  each  figure  of  the  paintings,  they  are  for  us 
the  most  important  work  of  the  great  Thasian  master 
of  wall  painting.  Numerous  attempts  at  their  recon- 
struction have  been  made.  But  all  these  lacked  the 
foundation  which  only  could  be  gained  by  the  knowledge 
of  the  building  and  its  wall  space.  This  foundation  was 
now  acquired.  The  Lesche  proved  to  be  an  oblong 
building  open  in  the  centre  and  receiving  light  thence, 
while  eight  columns  supported  the  roof.  The  building 
may  be  compared  with  the  original  form  of  the  Palaestra 
at  Pompeii.  As  the  door  was  in  the  middle  of  the  long 
south  wall,  it  is  probable  that  the  two  paintings  with 
their  numerous  figures  were  so  distributed  between  the 
eastern  and  western  halves  of  the  hall  that  each  extended 
over  portions  of  three  walls,  the  central  groups  being 


DELPHI  153 

painted  on  the  narrow  east  and  west  walls.  This,  of 
course,  could  not  have  been  foreseen. 

Below  the  Lesche  of  the  Cnidians,  not  far  from  the 
temple,  there  appeared  a  great  group  of  marble  statues  in 
various  styles,  representing  the  family  of  a  Thessalian 
prince  and  his  connections.  The  influence  of  the  art  of 
Scopas,  of  Praxiteles,  and  of  Lysippos  is  perceptible. 
Interest  in  this  group  has  been  greatly  increased  since 
Erich  Preuner  proved  one  of  the  statues,  the  Agias,  to  be 
the  work  of  the  young  Lysippos  (Chap.  XI).  But  the 
finest  and  most  famous  work  the  Delphic  excavation 
yielded  is  the  superb  bronze  statue  of  a  Charioteer  from 
a  four-horse  chariot.  This  may  have  been  erected  by 
the  Syracusan  Prince  Polyzalos  after  480  to  bis  father 
Gelon.  But  this  is  still  uncertain.  It  is  the  only  re- 
maining example  of  the  innumerable  bronze  statues 
which  once  adorned  Delphi,  and  is  hence  of  the  greatest 
value. 

Besides  these  great  architectural  and  sculptural 
treasures  about  3000  inscriptions  were  recovered  during 
the  eight  years'  excavation,  for  the  most  part  of  great 
linguistic  or  historical  interest.  As  at  Olympia,  Syngros, 
and  after  his  death  his  widow,  furnished  the  means  for 
the  erection  of  a  museum.  Some  of  the  treasuries,  as 
those  of  the  Athenians  and  Cnidians,  were  recovered  so 
completely  as  to  make  a  restoration  possible  ;  like  that 
of  the  Temple  of  Athene  Nike  at  Athens  (p.  53).  The 
example  set  at  Olympia  might  have  been  followed  with 
advantage  here.  The  many  fragments  and  inscriptions 
scattered  over  the  extensive  site  might  have  been  brought 
together  and  properly  arranged  ;  it  has  already  become 
difficult  to  find  certain  fragments  and  to  compare  them 
with  others  to  which  they  belong. 

As  the  results  of  the  excavation  a  great  publication  is 
being  issued  to  place  before  the  scientific  public.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  (I  am  not  expressing  my  own  views  only) 


154  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

that  the  publication  begins  with  the  restorations  of 
Tournaire,  for  no  matter  how  elaborate  the  drawings  are, 
they  contain  a  great  deal  that  is  arbitrary  and  false,  and 
are  calculated  more  to  attract  the  general  public  than 
to  satisfy  scientific  requirements.  Other  numbers  offer 
excellent  plates  of  the  large  number  of  bronzes  and  of 
marbles  found. 

But  undoubtedly  as  the  work  continues,  under  Ho- 
molle's  able  guidance,  those  details  will  be  given,  without 
which  it  is  difficult  to  judge  the  architectural  recon- 
structions (p.  120).  The  buildings  form,  as  it  were,  the 
skeleton.  Without  this  solid  framework  all  other  works 
of  art  lose  their  bearings. 


During  thirty  years,  while  all  nations  lent  a  helping 
hand  and  shared  in  the  labour,  a  number  of  sanctuaries 
were  uncovered,  beginning  with  Samothrace  and  ending 
with  Delphi  and  ^Egina.  All  these  helped  to  cast  a  clear 
light  on  a  chapter  in  the  history  of  ritual  antiquities  till 
then  only  known  from  literature. 

Certain  fundamental  features  are  common  to  all  these 
places.  The  altar  is  always  of  foremost  importance  (in 
Olympia  it  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  ascertain  its 
position) ;  small  archaic  votive  offerings  are  found  about 
it ;  at  times  even  a  cave  as  at  Ptoion,  or  an  artificial 
grotto  as  at  Delos.  As  soon  as  the  divinity  assumed  the 
human  form  the  temple  appeared  as  the  dwelling  of  the 
god's  image,  and  other  minor  buildings  soon  became 
necessary.  These  conditions  prevailed  at  Ptoion,  some- 
what improved  at  Elateia,  and  on  the  whole  the  same 
prevail  at  any  number  of  small  or  remote  cult  sites.  The 
noblest  type  is  represented  in  the  Argive  Heraion,  where 
the  rebuilt  temple  displayed  the  full  splendour  of  a  perfect 
art. 

The  sanctuaries,  however,  may  be  distinguished  ac 


GREEK    SANCTUARIES  155 

cording  to  their  significance.  Where  the  cult  was  secret, 
as  the  Mysteries  at  Eleusis  or  Samothrace,  the  first 
essential  was  the  enclosure  of  the  cult  buildings  as  well  as 
the  entire  precinct.  Great  gates  which  could  be  locked 
formed  the  entrance  to  the  precinct,  which  was  either 
naturally  difficult  of  approach  (Samothrace)  or  secured 
by  a  wall  (Eleusis).  At  Eleusis,  where  certain  symbolic 
spectacles  formed  the  chief  part  of  the  ceremonies,  they 
necessitated  a  large  temple  of  several  storeys  and  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  adjoining  which  were  smaller  cult 
temples.  The  great  Temple  was  enlarged  as  the  number 
of  the  initiated  increased.  We  find  at  the  later  sanctuary 
in  Samothrace  beside  the  first  temple  of  the  fourth 
century  a  more  imposing  later  structure  of  the  age  of 
the  early  Ptolemies  ;  both  were  provided  with  a  sacrificial 
pit  for  the  special  cult  of  the  Kabeiri,  and  the  whole  was 
so  extensive  that  the  faithful  could  all  witness  the  action  ; 
differing,  in  this  respect,  from  the  small  Kabeirion  in 
Boeotia,  where  the  sacrificial  court  was  only  externally 
connected  with  the  temple.  In  Samothrace  the  round 
hall  of  Arsince  may  have  been  used  for  other  gatherings 
which  demanded  an  enclosed  building.  Of  the  same 
date  probably  is  the  large  open  hall  outside  the  sacred 
precinct  which  sheltered  the  great  number  of  visitors  to 
the  Mysteries,  upon  this  rough  and  inhospitable  island. 
Far  more  magnificent  were  the  sanctuaries,  which  not 
only  served  sacrificial  purposes,  but  at  the  same  time 
were  planned  with  a  view  to  festivals  and  games.  Olym- 
pia  and  Delphi,  where  the  Olympian  and  Pythian  games 
took  place,  have  yielded  extensive  information,  so  that 
we  may  hardly  hope  to  learn  more  from  excavations  on 
the  Isthmus  or  at  Nemea.  Though  his  temple  was  rebuilt 
at  different  periods,  Apollo  remained  at  Delphi  the  sole 
divinity  (Dionysos  only  appears  beside  him  and  Neopto- 
lemos  was  buried  there),  while  at  Olympia  Hera  possessed 
the  oldest  temple,  and  near  it  Pelops  had  an  enclosed 


156  GREEK    SANCTUARIES 

tomb.  For  a  long  time  Zeus  seems  to  have  only  received 
worship  at  a  great  altar  in  the  open  air  ;  after  the  Persian 
wars,  however,  there  was  erected  the  great  Temple, 
which  dominated  all  its  surroundings,  and  within  it  was 
placed  the  colossal  chryselephantine  statue  by  Phidias. 
The  Mother  goddess  was  later  admitted  as  a  third  di- 
vinity. Common  to  both  places,  although  their  situation 
and  their  decorations  were  very  different,  are  the  trea- 
suries, in  form  usually  temples  in  antis.  These,  from  the 
sixth  century  on,  increased  rapidly,  to  shelter,  beside 
treasures,  the  small  votive  offerings  of  the  different  states 
connected  with  the  cult  at  Delphi  or  Olympia.  Great 
public  votive  offerings  filled  the  sacred  precinct,  and  from 
the  sixth  century  onward  also  an  endless  number  of 
statues  of  victors.  The  extensive  plain  of  the  Altis  at 
Olympia  offered  ample  room,  while  at  Delphi  all  were 
crowded  along  the  Sacred  Way,  or  were  placed  on  the 
narrow  spaces  afforded  on  the  steep  rocky  ascent.  In 
both  places  the  entire  precinct  was  enclosed  by  a  wall. 
At  Olympia,  toward  the  east,  an  extensive  Stoa  provided 
a  sheltered  hall ;  while  at  Delphi  the  steep  cliffs  made 
such  an  open  hall  an  impossibility.  In  place  thereof 
the  Lesche  of  the  Cnidians  appeared  on  the  upper  terrace 
A  peculiarity  at  Delphi  was  the  theatre  within  the  sacred 
precinct,  which  may  have  been  connected  with  the 
musical  contests  at  the  Pythian  festivals.  Both  at 
Olympia  and  at  Delphi,  the  Stadion,  the  arena  for  the 
gymnastic  games,  was  in  close  connection  with  the  sacred 
precinct.  The  racecourse  for  horses  and  chariots  at 
Olympia  was  in  the  neighbouring  plain,  but  every  trace 
of  it  has  been  washed  away  by  the  turbulent  Alpheios. 
At  Delphi  it  was  necessary  to  descend  to  the  Krisaian 
plain  below  to  find  sufficient  room  for  the  races.  The 
sacred  precinct,  in  both  places,  was  surrounded  by 
numerous  other  buildings,  some  only  distantly  connected 


GREEK    SANCTUARIES  157 

with  the  sanctuary  or  the  games.  This  is  most  clearly 
evident  at  Olympia  (p.  132). 

Although  the  Amphiaraeion  possessed  a  theatre  and 
had  games,  it  is  too  unimportant,  when  compared  with 
other  national  sites,  to  deserve  a  lengthy  description. 

At  Delos  the  cult  festival  entirely  took  the  place  of 
the  games,  and  the  accessible  harbour  invited  lonians 
from  a  great  distance.  Hence  there  is  neither  Stadion 
nor  Hippodrome,  but  in  the  one  narrow  level  space 
the  island  affords  the  town  with  the  theatre  and 
palaestra  are  close  to  the  sanctuary.  In  consequence  all 
appears  very  crowded  :  the  temples  of  Apollo,  of  his 
sister  and  his  mother,  near  the  lake,  the  mythical  birth- 
place of  the  twins,  the  treasuries,  the  halls  are  all  close 
together,  so  that  the  market  by  the  harbour  formed  the 
general  meeting  -  place,  and  the  temples  of  the  foreign 
gods,  the  Egyptian,  the  Syrian,  and  the  Kabeiri  had  to 
seek  a  place  outside. 

The  plans  of  the  sanctuary  of  Asklepios  were  again 
quite  different,  as  here  considerations  of  health  and  cure 
outweigh  those  of  the  cult.  The  Athenian  Asklepieion 
is  so  small  that  it  can  hardly  be  considered  a  health 
resort ;  but  it  lacked  neither  a  spring  nor  halls.  The 
famous  health  resorts  Epidauros  and  Kos  afforded  an 
open  situation  and  extensive  space.  Colonnades  which 
served  as  sleeping-apartments  for  the  many  pilgrims 
formed  essential  parts  of  the  establishment,  and  there 
were  besides  numerous  side  buildings.  The  Hieron  at 
Epidauros  had  places  for  gymnastic  exercises  and  a 
theatre  for  entertainment,  as  the  Hieron  was  at  a  distance 
from  the  town,  while  at  Kos  the  proximity  of  the  city 
made  this  superfluous. 

These  are  some  of  the  results  we  owe  to  the  combined 
efforts  of  thirty  years'  labour.  It  is,  however,  quite 
another  matter  that  the  work  of  these  excavations  has 
become  the  great  school  for  the  method  and  technique  of 


158  GREEK   SANCTUARIES 

excavation.  Without  neglecting  single  facts  or  details, 
excavation  aims  at  creating  again  a  picture  of  the  whole. 
To  ascertain  the  original  form  both  of  the  general  plan 
and  of  its  separate  parts,  to  follow  the  successive  altera- 
tions that  have  come  in  the  course  of  time,  to  assign  to 
each  detail  its  place  in  the  development,  and  thus  to 
make  the  excavation  a  reconstruction  of  the  lost  whole, 
is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  new  method. 

Samothrace  formed  the  beginning.  Olympia  stands 
midway,  and  the  successive  excavations  of  the  Greek 
Archaeological  Society  and  the  French  excavation  at 
Delphi  have  confirmed  the  principles  gained  by  ex- 
perience. 


VII 
ANCIENT   CITIES 

THE  great  endeavour  to  gain  scientific  knowledge  of 
ancient  sites  could  not  remain  content  with  the 
exploration  of  the  sanctuaries  alone,  but  aimed  at  a 
complete  uncovering  of  certain  ancient  cities.  The  two 
inquiries  advanced  side  by  side,  indeed  in  one  instance 
the  investigation  of  cities  had  taken  the  lead.  It  was 
only  natural  that  this  work  should  be  resumed  at  Pom- 
peii, where  it  had  been  begun  long  before. 

In  1860,  when  the  misrule  of  the  Bourbon  Government 
ceased,  Pompeii  entered  upon  a  new  era  of  research  work. 
The  Italian  Government  justly  confided  the  direction 
of  the  excavations  to  Giuseppe  Fiorelli,  a  thoroughly 
scientific  man,  who,  during  the  Bourbon  Government, 
had  carried  on  his  Pompeian  studies  always  hampered 
by  petty  obstacles.  The  work  was  now  pursued  not 
only  with  greater  energy,  but  with  better  methods. 
For  the  most  part  only  single  houses  had  formerly  been 
excavated.  It  frequently  happened  that  the  upper 
part  of  the  houses  fell  unavoidably  into  the  more  or  less 
narrow  trenches,  thus  making  farther  examination  im- 
possible. In  fact,  hardly  an  upper  storey  was  known  in 
Pompeii,  although  many  staircases  indicated  their  former 
existence.  Fiorelli  now  began  to  uncover  entire  blocks 
of  houses  (Insults)  simultaneously  from  the  top,  stratum 
by  stratum  ;  and  where  any  characteristic  part  of  a 
building  or  beam  was  laid  bare,  it  was  carefully  preserved, 


160  ANCIENT   CITIES 

propped,  or  replaced  by  a  new  beam  ;  thus  the  exca- 
vators worked  gradually  downwards.  It  was  thus,  for 
instance,  that  the  projecting  upper  storey  was  recovered 
which  is  so  characteristic  a  feature  of  the  lane  to  which 
it  has  given  the  name  of  vicolo  del  balcone  pensile.  A  re- 
construction now  became  possible  of  Pompeian  houses 
of  several  storeys  and  their  roofs,  thereby  extending 
our  knowledge  of  the  Italian  construction  of  dwellings. 
Fiorelli  also  deserves  the  credit  of  abolishing  former 
difficulties  connected  with  the  study  of  Pompeii,  and 
opening  it  freely  to  all.  A  "  Scuola  di  Pompei  "  was 
founded,  open  to  foreigners  as  well  as  Italians,  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Roman  Arcseohlogical  Institute  gratefully 
made  use  of  it.  Investigations  began  with  those  results 
of  the  excavations  which  appeared  unique  and  popular, 
viz.  the  wall  paintings.  Helbig's  work  in  connection 
with  these  has  been  mentioned  above  (p.  114)  ;  he 
recognized  that  these  paintings  essentially  preserved 
the  Hellenistic  tradition.  Otto  Donner  supplemented 
this  by  demonstrating  that  their  much-discussed  technique 
was  fresco  painting,  which  deviated  somewhat  from  the 
modern,  but  was  carried  out  with  great  skill  in  ancient 
times.  With  these  inquiries  the  separation  of  Hellenistic 
tradition  from  original  Pompeian  art  became  a  subject 
of  debate.  In  1873,  in  the  year  when  Helbig's  "  Investi- 
gations "  appeared,  Fiorelli  published  the  results  of 
many  years'  study,  dealing  with  the  plan  of  the  city  and 
the  history  of  its  building.  According  to  Italic  usage  the 
area  of  the  city  was  intersected  by  rectangular  main 
streets,  cardo  and  decumanus  ;  we  may  omit  all  dis- 
cussions connected  therewith,  as  we  are  only  concerned 
with  the  artistic  development.  Mention  may,  however, 
be  made  of  an  Italic  city,  of  about  500  B.C.,  excavated 
in  1888-9  by  Brizio  at  Marzabotto,  near  Bologna,  where 
the  systematic  plan  of  laying  out  streets  at  right  angles 
is  strikingly  illustrated. 


INVESTIGATIONS    AT    POMPEII  161 

But  more  important  are  Fioreili's  investigations  in 
regard  to  building  materials  and  the  technique  of  building, 
and  the  inferences  drawn  from  them,  respecting  the  history 
of  the  building  of  Pompeii.  The  fundamental  facts  were 
correctly  recognized  by  Fiorelli,  and  as  Richard  Schone 
and  Heinrich  Nissen  were  carrying  on  studies  in  the  same 
direction  they  helped  to  elucidate  many  details.  The 
"  Pompeianarum  Quaestionum  Specimen  "  of  Schone  had 
appeared  in  1868,  and  in  1877  appeared  a  work  containing 
the  studies  of  both  ;  many  supplementary  and  detailed 
results  were  published  by  August  Mau  in  1879.  The 
main  facts  of  these  investigations  may  thus  be  stated  : 

The  most  ancient  Pompeii  is  found  in  the  "  limestone 
period,"  when  simple  houses  were  built  of  the  limestone 
from  the  neighbouring  river  Sarno,  with  the  help  of  clay. 
These  "  Atrium "  houses  were  of  one  storey  without 
columns,  and  without  any  painting,  thus  differing  greatly 
from  those  of  the  later  Pompeii.  The  best-preserved 
example  of  this  original  type  we  have  in  the  casa  del 
chirurgo.  Then  follows  the  "  tufa  period "  (according 
to  Nissen  about  200,  but  it  may  be  fifty  years  later), 
when  tufa  from  Nocera  is  used  with  the  limestone. 
Better  material  made  better  buildings  possible.  With 
the  introduction  of  columns  the  plan  of  the  old  Italic 
house  offered  greater  variety.  To  the  old  traditional 
type  new  Greek  features  were  added,  rooms  of  different 
kinds,  the  peristyle,  and  an  upper  storey.  Until  then 
the  houses  had  been  closed  toward  the  street,  now  they 
were  opened  with  shops.  The  walls  were  coloured, 
although  still  without  paintings.  At  times  the  houses 
attain  almost  palatial  dimensions  and  elegance,  as  in 
the  casa  del  Fauno.  Imposing  public  buildings  arose  on 
all  sides,  as  the  theatres,  the  baths,  and  palastrce,  the 
beautiful  Basilica,  and  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  with  its 
Hellenistic  court  surrounded  by  columns.  Everything 
in  this  architecturally  brilliant  period  of  the  Samnite 

M 


162  ANCIENT   CITIES 

free  city  indicated  strong  influences  of  Greek  art  and 
culture,  which  apparently  were  derived  from  the  East, 
but  differ  greatly  from  the  architecture  of  Asia  Minor, 
which  had  attained  in  Rome,  about  the  same  time,  great 
popularity.  All  this  glory  ceased  when  Pompeii  became 
a  Roman  colony  under  Sulla.  Burnt  bricks  now  ap- 
peared besides  tufa  and  lava,  as  the  popular  material  in 
the  "  brick  period."  The  bricks  required  plaster,  and 
the  walls  are  no  longer  simply  coloured,  but  decorated 
with  paintings. 

How  different  is  the  picture  of  this  gradual  development 
from  the  former  conception  of  a  general  brightly  coloured 
"  Pompeian  style."  These  details,  however,  were  not  of 
foremost  importance,  but  the  fact  that  here,  as  elsewhere, 
the  general  tendency  towards  a  historic  view  revealed 
itself — in  other  words,  towards  the  recognition  of  de- 
velopment, that  is,  of  life.  Pompeii  becomes  for  us  a 
growing  city,  in  it  we  see  an  artistic  progress  combined 
with  the  development  of  the  civic  community  and  with 
great  political  events.  It  was  the  same  ideal  (only 
pursued  more  energetically  and  with  a  clearer  knowledge) 
as  that  which  Ernst  Curtius  set  before  himself  on  Greek 
soil.  His  attempts  to  reconstruct  the  histories  of  Perga- 
mon  and  Ephesos  on  the  strength  of  topographical  know- 
ledge, acquired  on  his  journey  in  Asia  Minor  (1871),  were 
unfortunately  frustrated  through  lack  of  material.  He 
aimed,  however,  at  the  same  results  as  Nissen  in  his 
"  Pompejanische  Studien." 

August  Mau's  investigations  were  parallel  with  those 
of  Fiorelli,  Schone,  and  Nissen,  and  were  first  published 
in  the  "  Giornale  degli  scavi  di  Pompei  "  in  1873,  the 
same  year  in  which  Helbig's  researches  and  Fiorelli's 
reports  appeared.  Nine  years  later  Mau  offered  these 
to  the  public  in  a  more  complete  form.  His  attention 
had  been  attracted  to  the  coloured  wall  decorations  in 
Pompeii,  which,  compared  with  the  actual  paintings, 


TUFA    PERIOD    AT    POMPEII  163 

had  received  only  scant  consideration.  Here  also  the 
term  "  Pompeian  style  "  was  used,  when  in  reality  it  was 
a  mixture  of  heterogeneous  types.  By  introducing  the 
historical  method  of  observation  Mau  brought  system 
into  this  chaos. 

This,  of  course,  could  only  be  established  after  the 
different  building  periods  had  been  denned.  The  period 
of  the  colourless  "  limestone  "  was  then  excluded  ;  it 
was  only  when  Hellenistic  influence  had  taken  possession 
of  Pompeii  that  the  Greek  love  of  colour  appeared. 
Pompeii's  most  illustrious  age,  the  "  tufa  period,"  con- 
tented itself  with  "  incrustation,"  i.e.  covering  the  walls 
with  an  imitation  of  a  variety  of  coloured  marbles  made  in 
stucco  relief.  Pilasters  and  cornices  also  in  stucco  relief  in- 
terrupted the  monotony  of  the  surface.  It  is  a  decorative 
scheme  for  the  exterior,  but  transferred  to  the  interior,  so 
that  purely  architectural  motives  were  employed  in  the 
rooms.  This  severe  mode  of  decorating  the  walls  was 
supplemented  by  mosaic  floors  (e.g.  The  Battle  of  Alex- 
ander, p.  68) ;  Greek  works  of  art,  select  Greek  household 
furniture  completed  the  picture.  This  incrustation  style 
gave  place  to  a  totally  different  kind  of  decoration  on  the 
brick  walls  of  Sulla's  colony.  The  rooms,  narrowed  by 
their  lining  of  stucco  blocks,  needed  something  to  give  an 
impression  of  spaciousness.  This  effect  was  aimed  at 
by  architectural  designs  in  perspective.  The  wall  re- 
mained smooth  and  the  perspective  was  produced  by 
pictorial  means  alone.  At  times  the  effect  was  obtained 
by  flower  garlands  connecting  columns,  from  which  the 
wall  appeared  to  recede;  or,  again,  between  dark  columns 
an  extensive  landscape  became  visible,  sometimes  en- 
livened with  figures  (p.  70).  The  house  of  Livia  is  one 
of  the  best  examples  uniting  both  styles.  The  walls 
reflected  a  spirit  at  once  sober  and  cheerful ;  to  the 
Roman  artist  Tadius  we  apparently  owe  the  introduction 
of  the  landscape  and  figure  motives. 


164  ANCIENT   CITIES 

Mau  established  a  third  style,  of  Augustan  times  ;  it 
was  designated  as  the  ornamental  surface  style.  In  it 
the  surface  of  the  wall  again  assumes  its  original  im- 
portance, the  perspective  vista  disappears.  All  decora- 
tions are  in  the  plane  of  the  surface,  arranged  as  borders 
or  carried  out  in  the  manner  of  inlaid  work ;  framed 
paintings  of  a  severe  type  take  the  place  of  the  open-air 
views.  Colours  are  more  restrained,  but  richer  ones  are 
not  lacking.  The  whole  decoration,  refined  and  some- 
what cold,  recalls  the  courtly  poems  of  Horace  ;  the 
careful  execution  corresponds  to  the  distinguished  im- 
pression of  the  whole.  Finally,  the  fourth  style  prevails 
in  the  later  times  of  Pompeii,  the  fantastic  architectural 
style.  This  is  the  style  we  moderns  think  of  when 
Pompeii  is  mentioned.  It  is  the  consistent  development 
of  the  second  perspective  style.  The  entire  wall  gradually 
dissolves  into  perspectives  ;  architectural  figures  do  not 
resemble  anything  real,  and  the  most  extravagant 
fancies  are  indulged.  Colours  become  more  varied,  even 
harsh ;  the  execution  becomes  coarser,  more  superficial, 
and  is  frequently  merely  mechanical.  Numerous  wall 
paintings  repeat  the  same  models,  they  reflect  the  world 
of  Hellenistic  or  Ovidian  love  poetry,  and  show  a  pre- 
ference for  the  nude  from  which  the  former  style  quite 
abstained.  This  bent  was  fully  exploited  in  the  last 
years  of  Pompeii,  between  the  earthquake  in  63  and  its 
destruction  in  79. 

Thus  appeared  the  development  of  this  side  of  Pom- 
peian  art.  Mau  believes  the  four  periods  to  have  followed 
each  other  consecutively.  This  is  certainly  true  of  the 
two  earlier  ones ;  regarding  the  two  latter  doubts  may  be 
expressed  whether  they  did  not  exist  side  by  side.  The 
third  period  may  have  developed  as  a  conscious  reaction 
against  the  perspective  tendency  of  the  second  ;  elegant, 
exclusive,  and  on  account  of  its  costliness  only  used  by 
the  wealthy  ;  while  the  fourth  seemed  a  direct  continua- 


FOUR   DISTINCT    PERIODS   AT   POMPEII       165 

tion  of  the  second,  and  its  effective  representation  and 
superficial  workmanship  appealed  to  the  demands  and 
means  of  the  general  public.  This  latest  style  soon  sup- 
planted the  earlier  ones,  in  accordance  with  the  general 
tendency  of  the  times  of  Nero. 

Evidently  these  four  styles  were  not  confined  to  Pom- 
peii, nor  did  they  originate  there.  Rome  offers  obvious 
parallels,  particularly  to  the  second  and  fourth  styles ; 
the  first  has  been  discovered  at  Pergamon  and  at  other 
places,  while  more  recently  the  second  has  also  been  dis- 
covered at  Pergamon.  But  the  question  of  the  origin  of 
the  different  kinds  of  wall  decoration  and  of  the  factors 
influencing  this  development  or  change  remains  unsolved, 
in  fact,  has  hardly  been  touched  upon.  Certain  facts 
are,  of  course,  obvious.  For  example,  the  incrustation 
style  could  only  originate  in  a  locality  where  variegated 
marble  was  easily  accessible.  As  regards  the  third 
style,  a  curious  product  of  Augustan  times,  it  is  no  mere 
accident  that  the  frequent  occurrence  of  Egyptian  orna- 
mentation coincides  with  the  subjugation  of  Egypt  in 
the  year  30.  This  style  has  so  far  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered in  the  capital,  and  this  still  awaits  an  explanation. 
A  notice  regarding  the  Carian  painter  Apaturios  seems  to 
direct  us  to  Asia  Minor  for  the  fantastic  architectural 
style  of  the  fourth  period,  so  that  we  may  almost  con- 
jecture that  the  tendency  to  perspective  originated  there, 
in  distinction  from  the  earlier  Alexandrinizing  tendency. 
But  these  are  all  questions  in  regard  to  which  new  dis- 
coveries alone  can  offer  solutions ;  not  only  must  we 
look  to  the  East,  but  we  may  hope  to  find  them  in  the 
Greek  cities  of  Southern  Italy. 

In  considering  these  questions,  just  as  in  the  case  of 
the  technique  and  the  history  of  the  building  of  Pompeii, 
we  must  remember  that  Pompeii  was  merely  a  Samnite 
country  town  which  under  Hellenistic  influences  de- 
veloped into  a  Roman  colony  of  veterans.  It  is,  how- 


166  ANCIENT   CITIES 

ever,  equally  important  to  assign  this  picture  its  place 
in  the  more  general  history  of  art,  which  continued  to 
gain  its  impress  from  Greece.  We  must  therefore  look 
toward  the  East  to  see  whether  a  study  of  Greek  city 
sites  will  not  extend  our  vision.  Greece  proper  declined 
more  and  more  in  later  times,  and  cannot  be  considered 
so  important  as  Asia  Minor,  which  flourished  both  in 
Hellenistic  and  Roman  times.  Newton  had  by  his 
discoveries  at  Cnidos  proved  the  importance  of  such 
work. 


Alexander  Conze  was  again  the  pioneer  in  the  excava- 
tions at  Pergamon.  Gustav  Hirschfeld  had  suggested 
them  earlier,  but  it  was  Conze  who  started  them,  and 
gave  them  their  direction.  Texier  had  given  some  cursory 
attention  to  the  capital  of  the  Attalids.  Later  in  1871 
Ernst  Curtius  and  Friedrich  Adler  had  examined  the  visible , 
ancient  remains,  and  Curtius  attempted  unsuccessfully  to 
trace  the  broad  outlines  of  the  history  of  the  city  of  Per- 
gamon. His  acquaintance  with  Karl  Humann  was  a  valu- 
able result  of  this  journey.  Humann  had  lived  since  1861 
in  Asia  Minor  working  as  an  engineer,  and  since  1869  had 
been  chiefly  occupied  in  Pergamon.  This  excellent  and 
admirable  man  had  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
language,  customs,  and  surroundings  of  his  new  home ; 
beloved  by  all,  he  at  the  same  time  preserved  his  German 
ideals,  a  practical  mind  and  tenacious  energy.  Humann 
seemed  to  be  the  man  above  all  others  to  render  valuable 
services  to  archaeological  research.  Pergamon  proved 
most  stimulating  to  his  great  enthusiasm  for  antiquities. 
One  of  the  most  distinguished  reigning  families  among 
the  successors  of  Alexander  the  Great  had  here  taken  up 
its  residence,  and  from  here  fought  and  conquered  the 
Galatians,  who  were  devastating  the  land.  The  kingdom 
was  enlarged  and  the  capital  became  a  centre  of  learning 


HUMANN    AND   CONZE  167 

as  well  as  of  the  arts  ;  of  the  latter  we  still  possess  brilliant 
testimonies  in  the  Dying  Galatian  in  the  Capitol  and  in 
the  Ludovisi  Group  of  Galatians  in  the  Museo  delle 
Terme. 

It  was  not  surprising  that  Humann's  eager  mind  con- 
ceived the  desire  to  restore  some  of  this  former  glory  by 
excavation  ;  for  he  saw  continually  how  precious  remains 
of  antiquity  were  consigned  to  the  limekiln,  a  proceeding 
he  soon  successfully  checked.  Although,  at  first,  Hirsch- 
feld's  exertions  promised  success  in  carrying  out  this 
scheme,  he  received  little  support  in  Berlin,  where  Hu- 
mann  had  applied.  Humann  had  sent  to  the  Berlin 
Museum  some  fragments  from  the  citadel  at  Pergamon, 
consisting  of  reliefs  of  more  than  life  size  and  of  extra- 
ordinary style,  hoping  to  stimulate  its  interest,  but  the 
management,  at  the  time,  was  so  engrossed  in  the  new 
cast  collection,  that  it  accepted  the  gift  without  tany 
thanks  or  consideration.  And  yet,  shortly  before,  Brunn 
had  drawn  attention  to  a  late  record  which  mentioned 
the  Altar  at  Pergamon,  with  its  great  Gigantomachia,  as 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  and  archaeologists  were 
not  lacking  who  recognized  in  these  fragments  remains 
of  this  great  work.  These  traces  were,  however,  not 
immediately  pursued. 

This  only  occurred  in  1877,  after  Conze  had  come  from 
Vienna  to  Berlin,  and  had  taken  charge  of  the  depart- 
ment of  sculpture  at  the  Berlin  Museum.  He  seized  the 
first  opportunity  to  place  himself  in  communication  with 
Humann,  and  consulted  him  as  to  the  feasibility  of  ex- 
cavating for  the  altar  of  the  giants.  At  last  Humann 
had  found  some  one  to  participate  in  his  plans,  and  he  was 
fired  with  enthusiasm  at  the  prospect  of  combined  work. 
The  former  remains  had  come  from  a  Byzantine  wall, 
above  on  the  citadel,  which  now  promised  further  rich 
spoil.  Henceforth  the  two  men  worked  in  the  closest 
friendship,  and  co-operated  with  one  another  in  perfect 


168  ANCIENT   CITIES 

confidence.  The  conditions  were  at  the  time  so  peculiar, 
that  the  Director-General  of  the  Prussian  Museums  was 
not  allowed  to  hear  of  the  plan.  Richard  Schone,  who 
later  became  Director-General,  helped  the  work  along, 
and  the  Crown  Prince  gave  valuable  assistance,  so  that 
it  was  possible  to  secure  a  firman  in  Constantinople, 
permitting  the  excavations,  before  any  one  heard  of  it. 
Prussia  was  to  obtain  two-thirds  and  the  Porte  one- 
third  of  the  find.  By  taking  certain  precautions  it  was 
possible  to  keep  the  course  of  events  secret.  The  eyes 
of  the  archaeological  world  were  at  that  moment  centred 
on  Olympia,  and  the  general  public  was  so  engrossed  by 
Heinrich  Schliemann's  dazzling  discoveries  at  Troy 
(Chap.  VIII),  that  Pergamon  was  thrown  in  the  shade. 
It  actually  happened  that  a  cadet,  who  in  the  spring  of 
1879  had  helped  in  the  shipment  of  some  of  the  spoils  from 
Pergamon,  wrote  home  about  these,  and  was  reprimanded 
by  his  father  for  incorrectly  writing  Pergamon  and 
Humann  while  the  name  of  the  place  should  have  been 
Troy  and  that  of  the  man  Schliemann.  The  citadel  of 
Pergamon  crowns  a  mountain  1000  feet  high,  descending 
by  a  broad  ridge  towards  the  south.  On  9  September, 
1878,  Humann  struck  his  spade  into  the  ground  with  the 
following  patriotic  words,  to  which,  in  consideration  of  his 
audience  he  gave  an  Oriental  colouring :  "In  the  name  of 
the  Protector  of  the  royal  museums,  the  happiest  and  the 
best-beloved  man,  the  warrior  who  has  never  been  van- 
quished, the  heir  of  the  most  illustrious  throne  in  the 
world,  in  the  name  of  our  Crown  Prince  may  the  work 
prosper  and  be  blessed."  "  My  workmen  thought  I  was 
uttering  a  magic  charm,  and  they  were  not  quite  wrong." 
The  old  Byzantine  wall  which  they  proceeded  to  pull  down 
proved  a  treasure-house  of  a  remarkable  kind,  similar  to 
the  "  longer  the  better  "  wall  at  Olympia.  A  great  part 
of  the  magnificent  frieze,  partly  in  entire  slabs,  partly  in 
fragments,  was  built  into  the  wall  with  the  sculptures 


PERGAMON  169 

toward  the  inside.  At  the  very  beginning  important 
slabs  were  found  :  Helios  guiding  a  chariot  and  an  Apollo. 
The  latter  is  comparable  in  beauty  to  the  Apollo  of  Belve- 
dere. Toward  the  end  of  the  year  thirty-nine  slabs  had 
been  recovered.  Humann  rejoiced :  "  We  have  discovered 
an  entire  epoch  in  art,  we  are  at  work  on  the  most  im- 
portant remaining  work  of  antiquity." 

To  transport  these  huge  blocks  to  the  harbour  of  Dikeli, 
some  eighteen  miles  distant,  the  high  road  had  to  be  re- 
paired and  a  landing-stage  built  at  Dikeli.  In  the  follow- 
ing year,  1879,  with  the  co-operation  of  Conze,  the  altar  itself 
was  uncovered  and  a  number  of  slabs  were  found.  The 
following  is  taken  from  Humann's  report :  "  Guests 
had  arrived  at  Pergamon ;  my  wife  had  come  from 
Smyrna  and  Dr.  Boretius  of  Berlin,  while  making  an 
Oriental  tour,  had  landed  at  Smyrna  and  come  over. 
On  21  July,  1879,  I  invited  my  visitors  to  come  to 
the  citadel  to  see  the  slabs  turned,  which  stood  leaning 
against  the  debris,  with  the  sculpture  toward  the  inside. 
While  we  ascended  seven  great  eagles  encircled  the  citadel, 
promising  good  luck.  The  first  slab  was  turned.  It  was 
a  huge  giant  with  serpent-like  feet,  his  muscular  back  was 
turned  towards  us,  with  the  head  towards  the  left,  and 
a  lion's  skin  hung  over  the  left  arm.  '  Unfortunately  it 
does  not  fit  any  known  slab,'  said  I.  The  second  fell, 
showing  a  splendid  god,  the  full  chest  more  powerful  and 
yet  more  beautiful  than  any.  A  garment  hung  from  his 
shoulders,  floating  about  his  striding  legs.  '  Nor  could 
this  slab  be  joined  to  any  known  part,'  I  said.  The  third 
slab  showed  a  swooning  giant  sunk  on  his  knees  ;  the  left 
hand  grasps,  as  if  in  pain,  the  right  shoulder,  the  right 
arm  appears  paralysed — before  this  slab  had  been  quite 
cleared  of  soil  the  fourth  one  was  turned  over  ;  a  giant 
falling  backwards  on  a  rock,  the  upper  part  of  his  thigh 
has  been  struck  by  lightning — I  feel  thy  presence,  Zeus  ! 
I  ran  about  the  four  slabs  excitedly,  and  discovered  that 


170  ANCIENT   CITIES 

the  third  could  be  joined  to  the  first ;  the  serpentine 
legs  of  the  great  giant  evidently  fitted  the  slab  with  the 
giant  sunk  on  his  knees.  The  upper  part  of  the  slab  is 
missing  where  the  giant's  arm  extends,  but  it  is  evident 
he  is  fighting  over  the  fallen  one.  Is  he  fighting  the  great 
god  ?  Yes,  indeed,  the  left  foot  covered  with  his  garment 
disappears  behind  the  kneeling  giant.  '  Three  can  be 
joined  together,'  I  exclaim,  as  I  contemplate  the  fourth. 
It  also  can  be  placed.  The  giant  struck  by  lightning  falls 
away  from  the  god.  I  am  trembling  all  over.  Another 
piece  is  uncovered — I  scrape  off  the  earth  !  It  is  a  lion's 
skin — it  is  the  arm  of  the  huge  giant — and  opposite  is 
a  tangle  of  scales  and  serpents — here  is  the  ^Egis  !  It  is 
Zeus !  We  had  discovered  a  work  as  great  and  superb 
as  any  in  existence,  it  was  the  climax  of  all  our  labour,  a 
worthy  counterpart  to  the  group  of  Athena.  We  three 
happy  beings,  greatly  moved,  surrounded  the  precious 
find  ;  I  then  sat  upon  the  Zeus  and  gave  way  to  tears  of 
joy." 

During  two  years'  labour  the  reliefs  of  the  altar  and 
countless  fragments  were  secured.  There  remained  for 
Berlin  the  wearisome  and  difficult  task  of  fitting  them  all 
together,  and  of  discovering  the  four  different  sides  to 
which  they  belonged. 

Otto  Puchstein  deserves  the  chief  redit  for  this.  By 
methodical  research  he  found  indications  which  justified 
him  in  assigning  the  east  side  to  the  great  Olympians ; 
the  south  side  to  the  gods  of  the  day  ;  the  north  side  to 
the  deities  of  the  night,  the  constellations  and  infernal 
powers  ;  while  the  great  staircase  occupied  the  west  side. 
Here  was  represented  the  struggle  of  the  earthborn 
Titans  with  an  Olympus  of  hitherto  unknown  variety  and 
extent,  exhibiting  great  diversity  of  bodily  form,  an 
endless  surging  and  rushing.  A  second  smaller  frieze, 
representing  the  adventures  of  the  Pergamene  national 
hero,  Telephos,  was  arranged  and  elucidated  as  far  as 


Photo,  Fitzenthale 


ALTAR   FROM   PERGAMON 
BERLIN     MUSEUM 


To  face  page  171 


THE   ALTAR   OF    PERGAMON  171 

its  fragmentary  state  permitted  by  Carl  Robert  and  Hans 
Schrader ;  the  latter  was  also  engaged  on  the  actual 
restoration  of  the  altar ;  while  the  complete  plan  of  the 
whole  with  the  colonnade  above  the  Giant  Frieze  had 
in  the  main  been  already  correctly  interpreted  by  Richard 
Bohn,  while  he  was  at  Pergamon.  The  altar  was  rebuilt 
in  the  new  Pergamon  Museum,  and  the  frieze,  with  all  its 
details,  was  placed  in  a  proper  light,  but  those  seeing  it 
under  a  flat  glass  covering  can  hardly  realize  its  original 
position  on  the  lofty  heights  of  Pergamon  "  where 
Satan's  seat  is  "  (Rev.  n.  13). 

With  the  acquisition  of  the  relief  altar  (Turkey  had  sold 
her  third)  the  Berlin  Museum  attained  at  one  stroke  an 
importance  which  its  former  collection  of  sculpture  could 
not  claim.  These  great  powerful  reliefs  were  at  first 
overrated,  the  impression  they  created  was  so  novel ;  by 
some  they  were  placed  above  the  sculptures  of  the  Par- 
thenon, by  others  they  were  regarded  as  an  epitome  of 
Hellenistic  sculpture.  Both  views  were  exaggerations ; 
the  frieze,  however,  gave  an  idea  of  the  great  capability  of 
Hellenistic  art,  which  had  until  then  been  looked  upon  as 
impotent  and  decadent.  It  became  a  double  acquisition 
to  the  history  of  art,  inasmuch  as  the  frieze  could  with 
certainty  be  dated  under  King  Eumenes  II  about  180. 
This  showy  baroque  style  with  its  parade  of  forms  and 
motives,  a  style  until  then  only  known  in  single  fragments, 
indicates  an  important  tendency  in  Hellenistic  art,  and 
in  particular  of  the  Pergamene — at  a  time  when  European 
Greece  only  produced  insignificant  after-effects  of  its 
classical  period.  The  architectural  parts  of  the  altar 
likewise  indicated  the  aspirations  of  the  age. 

This  much  in  regard  to  the  Altar  of  Pergamon.  But  it 
was  here  as  with  Saul,  who  went  to  seek  his  father's 
asses,  and  found  a  kingdom.  The  altar  proved  only 
a  detail  on  the  Acropolis  of  Pergamon — should  the  exca- 
vation of  the  whole  be  renounced  ?  This  decision  again 


172  ANCIENT   CITIES 

is  to  the  credit  of  Conze.  By  urging  an  extension  of  the 
original  plan  he  made  the  exploration  of  the  whole  site, 
beginning  with  the  highest  part  of  the  city,  the  object  of 
investigation.  For  this  new  task,  into  which  Humann 
entered  with  great  energy,  Richard  Bohn  was  secured 
as  architect  in  1880.  He  had  won  his  laurels  at  Olympia 
and  in  Athens  (Chap.  XI) ;  he  now  came  to  reside  at  Per- 
gamon.  With  him  co-operated  the  architects  Hermann 
Stiller  and  Otto  Raschdorff  and  the  archaeologists  Karl 
Schuchhardt  and  Ernst  Fabricius.  The  "German  House" 
situated  in  the  Greek  quarter  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  was 
for  years  the  scene  of  busy  and  happy  activity,  at  times 
enhanced  by  the  visits  of  colleagues  and  artists.  On  the 
cupboard,  in  the  common  dining-room,  wherein  our  small 
library  and  some  bottles  of  good  wine  were  kept,  the  in- 
scription Nutrimentum  Spiritus  recalled  the  great  Berlin 
library  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  Litteris  et  Patrice  the 
new  University  buildings  just  arising  in  Strasburg. 

The  city  of  Pergamon  is  built  on  a  series  of  terraces  ; 
the  altar  occupied  one  of  these.  On  the  terrace  above, 
within  the  citadel  walls  and  by  the  abruptly  ascending 
path,  the  oldest  temple  of  Athene  was  found,  built  of 
brittle  trachyte,  of  the  period  of  the  early  Kingdom  or 
even  earlier.  In  its  spacious  court  remains  of  the  pedes- 
tals of  the  bronze  triumphal  monuments  of  Attalos  I  were 
found,  of  which  we  can  gain  an  idea  from  the  marble  copies 
identified  in  the  Ludovisi  statues  in  the  Capitol  (p.  167). 
The  son  and  successor  of  Attalos,  Eumenes  II,  who  made 
Pergamon  a  great  city,  had,  according  to  Hellenistic 
usage,  surrounded  the  court  with  a  two-storey  colonnade. 
The  famous  library  of  Pergamon  occupied  its  north  wing 
with  book-cases  for  more  than  100,000  volumes  and  a  lofty 
reading-room.  On  the  other  side  of  the  ascending  path 
were  two  larger  houses  built  around  courts,  according  to 
Greek  custom.  They  undoubtedly  formed  part  of  the 
palace,  and  in  their  simplicity  indicate  the  characteristics 


PERGAMON  173 

of  the  Pergamene  rulers  ;  a  number  of  more  important 
dwelling-houses,  extending  over  the  crest  of  the  hill,  are 
connected  with  them.  From  the  summit,  in  a  southern 
direction,  all  earlier  Hellenistic  buildings  had  disappeared, 
to  make  room  for  a  great  temple  built  on  massive  sub- 
structures. At  first  it  was  supposed  to  be  the  temple  of 
the  city  goddess  Athene,  then  that  of  Augustus,  but  was 
finally  recognized  as  the  Trajaneum  built  by  Hadrian. 

One  prefers  to  linger  over  the  times  before  this  pompous 
imperial  building  existed,  when  the  Attalids  gazed  from 
this  commanding  position  over  their  city  and  their  king- 
dom extending  to  the  Gulf  of  Elaea.  A  marble  seat 
(Exedra)  found  there  gives  food  for  these  reflections  :  it 
has  now  been  placed  before  the  Pergamon  Museum,  in 
Berlin,  to  brave  the  northern  clime. 

To  the  south,  below  the  altar  court,  the  market  terrace 
with  its  arcades  and  shops  was  discovered,  and  the  un- 
pretentious Temple  of  Dionysos.  Toward  the  west, 
below  the  hillside,  extends  a  long  terrace,  supported  by 
a  lofty  wall,  and  formerly  flanked  on  the  outer  side  by  a 
colonnade,  while  opposite  the  theatre  climbs  up  the  steep 
hill,  and  at  the  end  of  the  long  avenue  the  eye  was  at- 
tracted by  the  finest  architectural  structure  in  Pergamon, 
the  "  Ionic  Temple."  Here,  as  elsewhere  on  the  citadel, 
the  grouping  of  the  whole  creates  an  artistic  effect 
similar  to  that  at  Samothrace.  This  artistic  effect 
is  most  strikingly  observed  from  the  western  heights  be- 
yond the  Selinus,  to  which  the  citadel,  as  it  were,  turns 
its  front.  The  theatre,  above  its  long  terrace,  forms 
the  central  point ;  to  the  left,  above  it,  is  the  Temple  of 
Athene,  with  its  court,  and  at  the  top  the  Trajaneum ; 
to  the  right  the  court  of  the  altar,  and  below  it  the  terrace 
of  the  market. 

The  excavations  of  the  citadel  were  concluded  in  1886 
after  nine  years'  labour.  The  work  might  have  been 
considered  ended.  But  from  the  citadel  descended 


174  ANCIENT   CITIES 

a  massive  wall  surrounding  the  city  of  Eumenes  ;  at 
its  lower  extremity  a  gymnasium  had  been  partly  ex- 
cavated at  the  beginning  of  the  undertaking.  Here 
was  scope  for  work,  if  the  plan  of  the  city  was  to  be 
studied  further.  While,  under  a  new  directorate,  the 
Berlin  Museum  undertook  other  plans,  of  which  we  shall 
speak  later,  Conze  always  kept  his  eye  fixed  on  Pergamon. 
The  great  publication  devoted  to  the  excavations  of 
Pergamon  at  times  required  supplementary  information, 
e.g.  renewed  examination  of  the  high-pressure  waterworks 
which  supplied  the  citadel.  Friedrich  Graber  had  dis- 
covered these  in  1886 ;  Karl  Schuchhardt  had  followed 
up  the  discovery  by  tracing  the  conduit  to  the  Madaras 
mountains.  But  the  main  task  had  not  yet  been  com- 
pletely accomplished.  At  Conze's  suggestion  the  Berlin 
Museum  renounced  the  work  in  favour  of  the  Archaeo- 
logical Institute,  and  the  Government  grants  an  annual 
allowance  of  15,000  marks  (£750).  Since  1900,  under 
Dorpfeld's  wise  leadership,  excavations  have  been  carried 
on  at  Pergamon  for  several  months  every  year.  Their 
reward  has  so  far  been  :  the  main  entrance  gate  to  the 
city,  a  lower  market-place,  a  copy  of  the  Hermes  Propy- 
laeos  of  Alkamenes  (Chap.  II),  and  a  gymnasium  of 
Roman  times.  A  Russian  architect  Sergei  Ivanoff  left 
a  fund  in  1877,  part  of  which  was  employed  in  1905-6  to 
dig  on  some  of  the  tumuli  below  the  town,  which  are  so 
characteristic  of  the  plain.  The  largest  still  awaits  ex- 
cavation, two  smaller  ones  were  opened  in  October,  1906, 
affording  a  holiday  for  the  surrounding  population.  In 
each  tumulus  was  found  a  sarcophagus  of  trachyte,  con- 
taining a  skeleton  crumbling  to  dust.  Some  small  offer- 
ings were  in  the  first. 

"  When  on  the  second  day  the  lid  of  the  sarcophagus 
was  raised  "  (thus  writes  an  eye-witness)  "  an  exclamation 
of  surprise  passed  through  the  assemblage,  for  a  gold 
wreath  met  the  eyes  of  the  beholders.  The  dead  warrior 


THE    GUARDING   OF    FINDS  175 

had  evidently  been  a  man  of  massive  frame  wearing  a 
sword  and  spurs.  The  design  of  the  gold  wreath  con- 
sisted of  oak  leaves  and  acorns ;  at  the  point  where  the 
two  branches  met  there  was  a  delicate  little  nude  Nike 
holding  a  wreath.  It  was  a  beautiful  work  weighing 
400  grammes.  But  of  greater  importance  than  these 
objects  is  the  general  idea  gained  of  the  burial  of  a  man 
of  distinction  during  the  times  of  the  Kingdom.  I 
almost  felt  ashamed  to  see  the  people  congregating  about 
the  sarcophagus  and  disturbing  one  who  here  had  made 
history.  Science  is  an  unpleasant  trade." 

But  another  thing  remained  to  be  done.  After  former 
excavations,  when  the  site  had  been  completely  exca- 
vated, it  was  left  in  that  condition.  And  when  it  was 
only  a  question  of  removing  sculpture  or  inscriptions 
this  sufficed ;  when,  however,  it  became  of  importance 
to  reconstitute  the  entire  scene  of  a  site  which  had  been 
uncovered,  its  preservation  became  an  imperative  duty. 
In  Greece,  in  former  times,  the  care  of  monuments  had 
been  entrusted  to  old  soldiers,  who  guarded  them  in  a 
careless  manner.  It  now  became  expedient  to  entrust 
the  care  of  antiquities  to  a  staff  of  custodians  under 
competent  supervision  ;  as,  for  example,  at  Olympia, 
where  Greek  caretakers  were  appointed  immediately 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  excavations  ;  the  same  has 
taken  place  at  Delphi  and  other  places.  Hamdy  Bey, 
the  director  of  museums  and  excavations  at  Constanti- 
nople, experiences  greater  difficulty  in  Turkey,  particu- 
larly in  more  remote  places.  Marble  is  of  use  in  making 
lime,  and  hewn  stones  are  wanted  for  building  ;  even  the 
lead  of  clamps  in  the  walls  is  the  cause  of  their  frequent 
destruction.  Conze  found  in  Samothrace,  after  two 
years,  that  a  great  deal  of  what  had  been  uncovered 
was  either  destroyed  or  carried  off.  The  Temple  of  Zeus 
SosipoKs  at  Magnesia  was  destroyed  soon  after  it  had 
been  excavated  ;  stonemasons  began  making  steps  of 


176  ANCIENT   CITIES 

the  newly  uncovered  architectural  remains  of  the  Temple 
of  Athene  at  Priene.  And  when  an  Englishman  acci- 
dentally found  a  few  coins  and  a  gold  olive  leaf  under 
the  partly  destroyed  base  of  the  statue  of  the  goddess, 
which  had  been  deposited  when  the  foundations  had  been 
laid,  the  vandalism  of  the  villagers  seeking  gold  knew  no 
bounds,  until  hardly  one  stone  remained  upon  another. 
Blocks  with  inscriptions  frequently  share  a  similar  fate. 
These  barbarians  look  upon  the  lettering  as  a  magic 
charm,  by  the  knowledge  of  which  Europeans  know  how 
to  acquire  the  hidden  treasure,  while  those  in  ignorance 
of  this  knowledge  must  destroy  the  stone  to  gain  the 
treasure.  All  must  be  doubly  safeguarded  here.  The 
guardians  placed  here  and  there  by  Turkish  authorities 
do  not  suffice ;  at  Priene  they  were  even  discovered  in 
the  act  of  destroying  the  marble  walls  of  the  market- 
place, as  they  had  run  short  of  lead  for  their  muskets. 
Prussia  has  therefore  placed  its  own  guardians  at  Perga- 
mon,  and  keeps  them  at  its  own  expense  and  in  its  own 
house ;  the  same  is  done  at  Priene  and  elsewhere.  It 
still  remains  to  raise  funds  to  make  these  permanent. 
The  example  should  be  followed  everywhere,  when  it  is 
a  question  of  preserving  for  future  generations  in  an  in- 
telligible and  clear  form  the  records  regained  from  the 
earth  of  the  history  of  cities  and  their  art. 


Pergamon  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  northern 
section  of  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  once  settled  by  ^Eolian 
Greeks.  The  district  continued  to  be  investigated. 
Thus  the  substructure  of  the  Pergamene  theatre  terrace, 
which  consisted  of  several  storeys  serving  as  magazines 
and  shops,  induced  Bohn  in  1886  to  make  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  ^Eolian  district  of  ^Egae  (Nimrud 
Kalessi),  discovered  in  1881  by  Salomon  Reinach,  and 
examined  two  years  later  by  Michel  Clerc.  Here  a 


HELLENISTIC    CITIES  177 

similar  structure  supports  and  bounds  the  abruptly 
descending  side  of  the  market-place.  That  a  favourite 
architectural  motive  of  Hellenistic  times  had  been  dis- 
covered was  demonstrated  by  another  building  in  the 
Carian  town  of  Alinda,  compared  by  Ernst  Fabricius. 

The  same  characteristics  were  not  wanting  in  the  JEo- 
lian  town  of  Assos,  situated  on  a  height  on  the  south 
coast  of  the  Troad,  excavated  by  the  American  Archae- 
ological Institute,  and  the  architects  Joseph  Thacher 
Clarke,  Francis  H.  Bacon,  and  Robert  Koldewey,  1881-3. 
Besides  the  ancient  Temple,  the  plan  of  the  city 
attracted  special  interest,  for  it  climbs  up  the  steep  rock 
on  narrow  terraces.  The  old  proverb  runs  :  "  Go  to 
Assos  if  thou  wishest  to  leave  thy  life  early."  The 
market-place  offered  a  vivid  picture  of  the  plan  of  a 
Hellenistic  city,  with  its  simple  town  hall  of  one  storey, 
halls  of  one  and  two  storeys  and  with  one  and  two  naves, 
a  temple,  baths,  and  gymnasium.  It  was  not  until 
twenty  years  afterwards,  that  an  important  work  giving 
these  details  was  made  public. 

Some  other  investigations  on  ^Eolian  soil  may  here  be 
mentioned,  although  not  all  pertain  to  city  plans.  The 
architect  Robert  Koldewey,  supported  by  Berlin  art 
patrons,  examined  in  1889  the  ancient  little  town  of 
Neandreia,  situated  north  of  Assos.  From  its  elevation 
the  entire  Troad  and  Bezika  Bay  are  visible.  Of  the 
greatest  interest  here  were  the  remains  of  a  very  ancient 
temple  with  two  naves  ;  a  type  at  that  time  little  known, 
but  which  has  frequently  been  found  since.  The  columns 
showed  a  form  of  capital  which  Clarke  and  others  had 
already  observed,  and  which  appears  to  be  confined  to 
jEolian  territory  ;  the  volutes  which  lie  horizontally  in 
an  Ionic  capital  unroll  here  vertically,  as  in  the  capital 
of  an  Ionic  pilaster.  Koldewey  tried  to  combine  with  this 
a  more  artistic  piece,  recalling  late  Persian  capitals,  but 
it  would  rather  appear  to  be  an  independent  capital 

N 


178  ANCIENT   CITIES 

belonging  to  other  columns.  Koldewey,  at  the  direction 
of  the  German  Archaeological  Institute,  travelled  in  1885-6 
in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  once  the  chief  centre  of  ££olian 
life.  Of  architectural  remains  of  earlier  periods  only 
scattered  traces  were  found  here  and  there,  and  some 
ancient  city  walls  ;  but  at  Messa  on  the  Gulf  of  Kallone, 
Koldewey  excavated  the  remains  of  a  great  Ionic  temple  ; 
this  find  proved  of  importance,  inasmuch  as  the  temple 
appeared  to  belong  to  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century, 
and  thus  antedates  the  Ionic  temples  known  in  Asia 
Minor.  Another  great  Ionic  temple,  the  Smintheion, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Troad,  had  been  discovered  in  1853 
by  Captain  T.  A.  B.  Spratt.  R.  P.  Pullan  examined  it 
in  1866,  but  some  parts  were  not  quite  clearly  understood. 
Although  the  structure  may  have  originated  in  the  fourth 
century,  when  Scopas  made  the  Apollo  Smintheus  for 
the  temple  (Apollo  watching  a  field  mouse),  it  seems  to 
have  been  completely  rebuilt  in  Roman  times.  As  long 
as  these  conditions  are  not  yet  quite  clear,  the  temple 
with  some  peculiar  details  is  not  as  important  for  his- 
torical sequence  as  it  otherwise  might  be. 

The  French  School  began  another  task  on  the  ^Eolian 
coast.  Edmond  Pettier,  Salomon  Reinach,  and  Alphonse 
Veyries  began  in  1880-2  excavating  the  necropolis  of 
the  maritime  town  of  Myrina,  the  site  having  been  placed 
at  their  disposal  by  its  owner  Aristides  Baltazzi.  The 
chief  result  was  a  great  number  of  terra-cottas  of  Hellen- 
istic times.  Compared  with  those  found  at  Tanagra 
(Chap.  IX),  they  display  the  freer,  more  coquettish,  and 
picturesque  style  of  later  times  combined  with  charac- 
teristics of  Asia  Minor.  Motives  of  the  Praxitelean  age 
appear,  transformed  by  this  more  modern  taste,  and 
many  new  motives  have  been  added,  so  that  we  can 
judge  better  of  the  originality  and  the  spirit  of  sculpture 
in  Hellenistic  Asia  Minor  in  these  figurines  and  groups, 
than  in  most  of  the  greater  sculpture  preserved  to  us. 


MAGNESIA   ON    THE    MEANDER  179 

The  exhibition  of  this  find  at  the  Louvre  and  its  publica- 
tion by  the  discoverers  give  authentic  evidence  of  this. 
Unfortunately  forgers  both  at  Smyrna  and  in  Athens  de- 
veloped a  flourishing  trade  in  these  "  Terra-cottas  from 
Asia  Minor,"  frequently  made  with  great  skill,  and  de- 
ceiving the  confiding  art  lover. 


In  the  matter  of  the  investigation  of  cities,  to  which 
Berlin  owes  its  Pergamene  treasures,  new  plans  were 
organized,  in  1889,  after  Reinhard  Kekule  had  taken  the 
place  of  Conze.  More  thorough  investigations  of  the 
southernmost  strip  of  Ionian  country,  the  district  about 
the  winding  Maeander,  were  planned.  It  had  been  the 
scene  of  several  earlier  attempts  at  its  important  cities 
of  Magnesia,  Priene,  and  Miletos.  Magnesia,  on  the 
Meander,  is  well  known  in  the  history  of  art  on  account 
of  its  great  Temple  of  Artemis  of  "  the  white  mountain  " 
(Leukophrys).  It  had  been  built  toward  the  end  of  the 
third  century  by  Hermogenes,  the  most  distinguished 
architect  of  that  late  age  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  admired 
as  a  model  structure.  In  consequence  of  Charles  Texier's 
negotiations,  in  1843,  the  Louvre  had  become  possessed  of 
nearly  seventy  metres  of  its  frieze  with  battles  of  the  Ama- 
zons. At  that  time  one  felt  inclined  to  date  Hermogenes 
about  the  time  of  Alexander,  and  keen  disappointment 
was  therefore  felt  in  regard  to  the  monotony  of  the  work 
carried  out  in  a  mechanical  manner  with  trite  motives. 
But  when  in  1874  Gustav  Hirschfeld  studied  some  slabs 
of  a  similar  style  in  Teos,  from  another  temple  by  Hermo- 
genes (these  had  been  discovered  by  Pullan  in  1862,  and 
some  had  been  removed  to  the  British  Museum),  the 
date  of  Hermogenes  had  to  be  placed  later,  and  the 
value,  at  least  of  the  plastic  decorations  of  his  temples, 
decreased.  In  any  case,  it  became  desirable  to  study 
Hermogenes  as  an  architect,  and  in  other  respects  in- 


i8o  ANCIENT   CITIES 

vestigations  in  Magnesia  promised  useful  results.  An 
inquiry  made  by  Olivier  Rayet  and  Albert  Thomas  in 
1873  did  not  add  much  to  our  knowledge.  The  German 
Archaeological  Institute  in  1890  sent  Friedrich  Hiller  von 
Gartringen  and  Otto  Kern  to  make  an  attempt ;  the 
former  excavated  the  theatre  at  his  own  expense.  As 
the  results  were  satisfactory,  the  Berlin  Museum  sent 
an  expedition  in  the  following  years,  1891-3,  consisting  of 
Karl  Humann — who  in  the  meantime  had  been  made 
director  of  a  museum — the  architect  Rudolf  Heyne,  and 
the  philologist  Otto  Kern,  who  gathered  a  rich  harvest  of 
inscriptions.  The  precinct  of  the  Temple  of  Artemis  and 
the  market-place  with  the  small  Temple  of  Zeus  Sosipolis 
formed  the  chief  objects  of  research.  The  latter  is  a 
peculiar  structure,  the  front  an  open  colonnade,  while 
the  back  was  built  in  antis.  The  search  was  made  most 
difficult  by  constant  underground  water.  The  market- 
place surrounded  by  halls,  with  double  naves,  proved 
an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  inscriptions,  which  evi- 
dently had  covered  the  walls  of  these  halls.  Of  great  im- 
portance was  the  discovery  that  the  entire  complex  was 
of  uniform  design,  and  was  therefore  all  the  work  of 
Hermogenes,  dating  from  the  two  last  decades  of  the 
third  century.  As  Hermogenes  is  one  of  the  chief  sources 
of  Vitruvius,  and  soon  became  an  authoritative  guide  for 
Roman  architecture,  it  was  all  the  more  desirable  to 
study  a  larger  example  of  his  work.  The  Temple  of 
Artemis,  in  fact,  showed  an  extraordinary  ground-plan  : 
a  small  Cella,  and  in  consequence  a  deeper  Pronaos  ; 
before  the  Pronaos  and  Opisthodomos  were  partitions 
with  a  door  such  as  may  be  found  in  the  Egyptian  Hypo- 
styles  of  the  Ptolemies.  The  front  had  eight  columns, 
the  central  intercolumniation  was  rather  wider,  which 
latter  novelty  continued  in  favour.  The  plan  of  the 
temple  cannot  exactly  be  looked  upon  as  novel,  it  being 
Pseudodipteros  with  a  wide  colonnade  ;  the  latter  had 


HUMANN    AND    KEKULE   AT    PRIENE       181 

once  been  covered  in  wood;  ancient  Sicilian  temples 
had  displayed  this  form,  and  the  Temple  at  Messa  (p.  178) 
exhibited  it  also  ;  later  it  became  more  general.  The 
huge  columns  are  very  slender  with  comparatively  small 
capitals  (the  shrinking  of  this  important  architectural 
part  is  even  more  evident  in  the  contemporary  Doric). 
The  whole  is  striking  rather  than  beautiful,  and  corre- 
sponds with  the  purely  decorative  frieze.  Three  doorlike 
windows  in  the  pediments  were  a  tasteless  innovation  ; 
as  the  pediments  had  not  the  usual  sculpture  they  seemed 
to  require  some  other  break  in  the  great  surface.  On  the 
whole,  we  have  gained  through  this  excavation  a  far 
more  vivid  idea  of  the  Asian  lonism  of  the  Hellenistic 
age,  as  represented  by  Hermogenes  ;  it  can  be  studied 
in  the  Architectural  Room  of  the  Pergamon  Museum  in 
Berlin,  side  by  side  with  other  remains  of  Asia  Minor. 
The  sculptured  remains  of  the  great  Altar  of  Magnesia 
are  instructive,  inasmuch  as  they  teach  us  that  the  Ionic 
sculpture  of  Southern  Asia  Minor  differed  widely  from 
the  art  of  Pergamon  with  its  baroque  tendencies  ;  it  has 
less  animation,  and  in  consequence  less  force.  In  so  far 
as  the  formation  of  the  folds  and  certain  technicalities 
in  these  sculptures  are  identical  with  those  of  the  Venus 
of  Melos,  they  may  help  to  settle  the  perplexing  question 
of  its  date  (p.  51). 

Humann  and  Kekule  directed  their  thoughts  from 
Magnesia  further  south  to  Priene  ;  in  the  precinct  of  this 
city  had  been  the  common  sanctuary  of  the  twelve  Ionian 
cities  of  Asia  Minor.  The  work  was  begun  by  Humann 
in  1895,  but  the  following  spring  he  succumbed  to  a  long 
illness  against  which  he  had  bravely  fought.  His  place 
was  taken  by  Theodor  Wiegand  and  Hans  Schrader  and 
the  architects  Rudolf  Heyne  and  William  Wilberg. 
The  work  continued  until  1899.  Nor  was  this  entirely 
virgin  soil.  The  Temple  of  Athene,  dedicated  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  had  figured  in  text  books  since  Revett's 


182  ANCIENT   CITIES 

survey  as  a  norm  of  an  Ionic  temple.  But  it  was  only 
completely  uncovered  by  Pullan  in  1866,  who  gained 
valuable  results.  Before  these  had  been  published,  in 
1881,  the  architect  Albert  Thomas — who  with  Olivier 
Rayet,  in  1873,  excavated  Miletos  and  its  surroundings 
through  the  generosity  of  the  brothers  Gustave  and 
Edmond  de  Rothschild — made  use  of  Pullan's  results  and 
published  them  in  1880  in  a  work  on  Miletos  and  the 
Latmian  Gulf,  a  work  never  completed.  Although  this 
temple  had  apparently  been  well  known,  it  remained  for 
Hans  Schrader  and  his  colleagues  to  establish  the  fact 
that  it  never  had  possessed  a  frieze,  thereby  differing 
from  the  regular  Ionic  style.  In  the  Hall  of  Architecture 
in  the  Pergamon  Museum  in  Berlin,  the  design  of  the 
Temple  of  Priene  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the 
Temple  of  Magnesia,  and  it  may  be  observed  how  far 
the  former  exceeds  the  latter  in  workmanship  and  delicacy 
of  outline. 

Far  more  important  results  were  attained  by  the  ex- 
cavation of  the  city  of  Priene  than  by  the  re-examination 
of  the  Temple.  The  situation  of  Priene  is  extraordinary  ; 
it  resembles  Delphi  in  so  far  as  the  rocky  ground  upon 
which  the  city  was  built  ascends  steeply,  and  above  it 
towers  the  precipitous  castle  rock  371  metres  high,  only 
accessible  by  a  giddy  bridle  path.  As  at  Delphi  and 
Cnidos  it  is  only  possible  to  build  by  means  of  terraces. 
And  yet  Priene  as  well  as  Cnidos  were  planned  in  the 
fourth  century,  according  to  a  strict  system  of  rectangular 
streets  :  the  six  long  streets  west  to  east  are,  with  only 
a  slight  elevation  toward  the  middle,  almost  level ; 
while  the  sixteen  north-to-south  ones  are  very  steep  or 
actually  flights  of  steps. 

The  terraces  are  supported  by  great  retaining  walls ; 
while  in  earlier  times  a  wall  was  made  to  appear  as  a 
smooth  unbroken  surface,  now  each  hewn  stone,  according 
to  the  incrustation  style,  is  tooled  so  as  to  remain  distinct. 


PRIENE  183 

The  Temple  of  Athene  Polias  is  upon  an  elevated  terrace. 
Steep  steps  descend  from  it  to  the  market-place  below, 
the  central  point  of  the  city.  This  adjoins  the  main 
street,  with  an  altar  in  the  centre,  and  is  surrounded  on 
three  sides  with  colonnades  behind  which  are  shops. 
Ascending  upon  the  north  side  there  is  a  covered  walk 
leading  to  a  great  "  Sacred  Hall "  with  two  naves,  used 
for  festive  rites,  and  other  civic  buildings  ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  theatre-like  hall  and  offices.  From  the  covered 
walk  a  view  could  be  enjoyed  of  the  market  below.  So 
complete  a  picture  of  a  market-place  had  nowhere  been 
uncovered.  A  fish  and  a  meat  market  were  situated 
rather  off  the  main  street.  The  Temple  of  Asklepios 
and  other  sanctuaries,  scattered  about  the  city,  show 
that  here  too  there  was  no  monotony.  Upon  the  heights 
the  theatre  is  situated  with  a  remarkably  well-preserved 
stage — a  most  instructive  building  ;  below  it  a  stadion 
and  gymnasium,  and  finally  city  walls  surrounding  it  all 
with  three  well-preserved  gates  ;  the  East,  West,  and 
a  third  one  leading  to  a  spring  before  the  city.  An  ex- 
cellent water  supply  within  the  city  supplied  all  the 
public  fountains,  and  provided  for  the  cleaning  of  the 
streets  and  the  wants  of  private  dwellings. 

Besides  the  Temple  of  Athene,  the  market  and  the 
ground-plan — no  other  had  been  so  extensively  excavated 
in  any  ancient  city — many  of  the  private  houses  aroused 
great  interest,  belonging  mainly  to  the  third  and  second 
centuries.  While  in  Pompeii  the  Italic  house  with  Greek 
accessories  prevails,  in  Delos  there  are  chiefly  small 
Greek  houses,  beside  those  of  Italic  type,  Priene  shows 
the  purely  Hellenistic  house  in  numerous  examples. 

The  normal  house  corresponding  to  the  description  of 
a  Greek  house  by  Vitruvius  was  not  absent.  The  es- 
sential feature  is  still  the  main  part  of  the  Homeric  house 
(Chap.  VIII) ;  a  paved  court,  from  which  a  vestibule 
leading  south  opens  into  the  main  apartment ;  about  the 


184  ANCIENT   CITIES 

court  are  sleeping  and  living  rooms,  also  an  Exedra 
looking  on  the  court,  and  a  bathroom  is  not  wanting. 
But  beside  the  normal  house  there  appear  many  variations 
of  the  main  idea — an  open  court  (patio)  surrounded  by 
apartments — according  to  space,  means,  and  require- 
ments even  in  private  dweUings.  Some  evidence  still 
remained  of  the  interior  arrangement  of  the  houses.  The 
walls  show  an  imitation  in  stucco  of  incrustation.  A 
great  number  of  terra-cotta  figurines  adorned  the  rooms, 
representing  Aphrodite  and  Dionysos  or  scenes  from 
daily  life.  In  this  modest  country  town  of  5000  inhabi- 
tants, clay  and  iron  took  the  place  of  bronze,  which  was 
used  in  wealthier  towns,  although  the  latter  is  not  quite 
absent  here.  Thus  a  bronze  bedstead  (now  in  the  Berlin 
Museum)  appears  to  advantage  by  its  tasteful  simplicity 
when  compared  with  a  richer  one  (also  there)  found  near 
Pompeii.  The  excavation  at  Priene  furnishes  one  of 
the  most  valuable  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
Hellenistic  city. 

As  soon  as  Priene  had  been  regained  for  science,  the 
directors  of  the  Berlin  Museum  directed  their  activity  to 
Miletos,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Maeander.  The  constant 
floods  of  the  river  have  changed  the  land  completely. 
The  Latmian  Gulf  has  become  an  inland  lake,  the  penin- 
sula of  Miletos,  with  the  Island  Lade  before  it,  has  become 
an  inland  portion  of  a  marshy  plain,  which  frequently 
is  exposed  to  floods.  Excavations  can  only  be  carried 
on  under  the  greatest  difficulties.  Olivier  Rayet  and 
Albert  Thomas  experienced  these  in  1872-3  when  they 
began^work  here  ;  the  chief  results  then  were  the  theatre 
situated  against  a  hill  and  part  of  a  street  of  tombs  with 
an  antique  seated  figure.  Theodor  Wiegand  in  1899 
began  the  task  with  such  skill  and  energy  that  he  un- 
doubtedly acquired  a  foremost  rank  among  modern  ex- 
cavators. The  architects  who  assisted  were  Hubert 
Knackfuss,  George  Kawerau,  Julius  Hiilsen,  and  the 


MILETOS  185 

epigraphists  C.  Friedrich,  W.  Kolbe,  A.  Rehm,  E.  Zie- 
barth,  and  the  archaeologist  A.  von  Sails.  Through  the 
generosity  of  Georg  von  Siemen  and  other  patrons  in 
Berlin,  Wiegand  has  been  able  to  acquire  a  great  part  of 
the  site  of  Miletos,  and  continued  to  work  it  systematically 
from  year  to  year.  Excavations  continued  on  the  massive 
theatre,  a  great  Roman  structure  upon  older  foundations, 
where  the  "  Jews  faithful  to  the  Emperor  "  were  entitled 
to  special  seats  near  the  Emperor's  box.  The  two- 
storeyed  Nymph asum  is  also  Roman,  with  its  niches, 
columns,  and  coloured  marble,  a  fountain  and  statues, 
a  type  of  building  frequent  in  Asia  Minor.  Roman  is 
the  great  market  gate  leading  to  a  huge  square,  sur- 
rounded by  colonnades  ;  its  baroque  architecture  has 
partly  been  restored ;  great  Roman  Thermae  completed 
the  whole.  From  Hellenistic  times  dates  the  market 
near  the  harbour.  The  entrance  of  the  harbour,  now 
filled  with  marsh,  is  guarded  by  two  marble  lions.  In 
the  market-place  remain  interesting  traces  of  the  town 
hall,  the  design  of  which  has  been  completely  restored 
by  Knackfuss.  An  impressive  grave  site  was  discovered 
within  a  court,  surrounded  by  walls  with  a  gate  and 
columns,  evidently  the  tomb  of  an  honoured  citizen. 
Behind  this  was  a  council  hall,  as  in  Priene,  in  theatre 
form,  and  accommodating  five  hundred  persons.  The 
Temple  of  Apollo  Delphinios  near  by  is  also  Hellenistic  ; 
its  walls  and  marble  slabs  housed  the  civic  archives. 

If  traces  could  be  discovered  of  the  more  ancient 
Miletos,  the  splendid  centre  of  Ionian  life  and  trade,  de- 
stroyed during  the  Ionian  Revolt,  how  far  more  important 
this  would  be  !  Some  traces  of  old  Ionic  architecture 
have  recently  come  to  light  at  the  Delphinion  and  at  the 
Temple  of  Athene.  It  is,  however,  doubtful  whether 
anything  remains  of  early  Miletos  but  tombs  ;  but  there, 
at  least,  we  may  hope  for  some  archaic  sculpture.  Such 
vestiges  have  been  discovered  in  a  late  antique  fortress 


186  ANCIENT   CITIES 

wall,  whereas  at  Olympia  and  Pergamon  these  had  been 
preserved  down  to  our  times ;  remains  of  sculpture, 
architecture,  and  inscriptions  had  in  barbaric  fashion 
been  built  into  the  wall. 

At  the  southern  corner  of  the  peninsula  which  formed 
the  territory  of  Miletos,  at  Didyma  or  Branchidae,  was 
the  sanctuary  of  Apollo  Philesios,  the  so-called  Didymaion, 
which  Herodotus  mentions  with  the  Temple  of  Artemis 
at  Ephesos  and  the  Temple  of  Hera  in  Samos  as  among 
the  largest  temples  of  his  time.  Revett  had  during  his 
two  days'  stay  in  1765  copied  some  details,  but  had  not 
been  able  to  make  a  complete  plan.  This  had  been 
attempted  with  some  success  by  Sir  William  Cell  and  the 
architects  J.  P.  Gandy  and  F.  Bedford  in  1812  by  order  of 
the  Society  of  Dilettanti.  Texier,  in  1836,  did  not  add 
much  to  the  solution  of  the  problem,  and  Newton,  in  1858, 
was  content  simply  to  remove  to  London  the  seated 
statues  from  the  "Sacred  Way"  (leading  from  the  harbour 
of  Panormos  to  the  temple,  p.  101). 

Rayet  and  Thomas,  in  1872-3,  finally  began  excavating 
the  temple  and  established  its  plan.  On  account  of  the 
enormous  size  of  the  temple  (evident  from  three  remaining 
columns  65  feet  high)  the  chief  apartment  was  not  a 
covered  cella,  but  consisted  of  an  open  court  surrounded 
by  pilastered  walls.  The  statue  of  the  god,  the  archaic 
work  of  Kanachos,  was  probably  placed  here  in  a  special 
shrine.  Here  also  had  been  the  olive  tree  under  which 
Zeus  and  Leto  had  sat,  and  a  sacred  spring.  It  was  un- 
fortunately impossible  to  excavate  the  central  apartment, 
the  Chresmographion  (writing-room  of  the  oracle),  as 
a  mill  and  other  buildings  covered  it,  which  the  owner 
refused  to  dispose  of.  Rayet's  unfinished  investigations 
of  1895-6  were  continued  by  his  friend  Bernard  Haussoul- 
lier  and  the  architect  Emanuel  Pontremoli  ;  but  they 
were  unable  wholly  to  overcome  these  difficulties.  How- 
ever, they  excavated  the  front  of  the  temple  with  its  ten 


SAMOS  187 

columns  and  its  peculiar  approach.  The  bases  of  the 
great  Ionic  columns  are  richly,  if  not  tastefully,  decorated. 
The  temple  proved  to  be  of  late  date,  extending  from  the 
time  of  Alexander  into  Roman  times.  Nevertheless,  on 
account  of  its  extraordinary  size  (49^  x  io8£  metres) 
and  its  technical  peculiarities,  it  is  most  gratifying  that 
Wiegand  succeeded  in  1905  in  acquiring  the  mill  and  the 
surrounding  land.  As  at  Delphi,  so  here,  the  entire 
village  of  Hieronda  had  to  be  bought  and  pulled  down  ; 
it  has,  in  consequence,  become  possible  to  continue  work 
on  broader  lines.  It  is  therefore  to  be  hoped  that,  in 
connection  with  the  excavation  at  Miletos,  the  Didymaion 
will  at  last  be  thoroughly  and  satisfactorily  investigated. 

Looking  from  Miletos  past  Cape  Mykale  one  can  per- 
ceive the  island  of  Samos,  another  great  centre  of  Ionian 
life.  Herodotus  mentions  its  three  most  remarkable 
structures :  the  harbour,  the  tunnel  piercing  the  town  hill, 
and  the  Temple  of  Hera.  There  still  remain  in  the  water 
foundation  walls  of  the  great  mole  in  the  harbour.  The 
great  city  walls  extending  into  the  country  from  the  west 
of  the  hill  are  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  but  have 
not  yet  been  examined.  Presumably  during  the  sixth 
century,  under  the  tyrant  Polykrates,  a  tunnel  was  made 
through  this  mountain  ridge  to  bring  spring  water  into 
the  city.  This  tunnel  was  cleared  for  more  than  1000 
metres,  in  1882,  by  two  Samian  abbots.  It  corresponded 
to  the  description  given  by  Herodotus,  and  showed  that 
the  tunnelling  had  been  carried  on  (as  had  been  done 
earlier  in  Jerusalem  under  King  Hezekiah)  from  the  two 
sides  simultaneously.  The  two  halves  did  not  quite  meet, 
but  in  the  absence  of  compass  and  theodolite  the  achieve- 
ment is  a  notable  one,  for  the  error  could  be  adjusted  with 
a  slight  bend  in  the  middle. 

Less  successful  are  the  results  in  the  case  of  the  Temple 
of  Hera,  although  it  can  be  dated  back  to  the  seventh 
century,  and  the  names  of  the  ancient  architects  Rhoikos 


i88  ANCIENT   CITIES 

and  Theodores  were  connected  with  it,  so  that  any  know- 
ledge of  it  would  be  of  the  greatest  significance  for  the 
history  of  early  Ionic  art.  Since  the  days  of  Revett  an 
unfluted  column  and  the  massive  egg  moulding  of  its 
capital  had  been  known.  Paul  Girard,  who  acquired  the 
statue  of  Hera,  dedicated  by  Cheramyes,  for  the  Louvre, 
attempted  in  1879  by  two  months'  work  to  complete  a 
plan  of  the  temple,  but  failed  ;  he  assigned  seven  columns 
to  the  temple.  In  1883  Michel  Clerc  resumed  the  work, 
but  with  little  success,  and  yet  as  far  back  as  1862  Karl 
Humann  had  assigned  eight  columns  to  the  temple  with 
different  intercolumnar  intervals,  which  diminished 
equally  towards  the  corners  on  both  sides.  Great  diffi- 
culties were  encountered  in  consequence  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  island  being  opposed  to  the  demands  of  the 
foreigners.  The  Greek  Archaeological  Society  finally 
overcame  these  difficulties  in  1902,  and  began  under  the 
direction  of  a  Samian  archaeologist,  Themistokles  So- 
phules,  to  excavate  the  temple.  It  is  not  merely  on 
account  of  the  difficulties  experienced  by  reason  of  the 
climate,  but,  above  all,  through  the  lack  of  experienced 
and  competent  architects,  that  expectations  have  not 
been  realized  in  these  excavations.  In  any  case  the  plan 
of  the  temple  is  known  and  its  great  extent  established. 
Somewhat  larger  than  the  Didymaion  (54!  x  109  metres), 
it  showed  the  extraordinary  proportion,  in  a  temple  with 
only  eight  columns,  of  the  width  to  the  length  1.2. 

Besides,  certain  important  details  had  been  found,  as, 
for  example,  part  of  an  Ionic  capital,  which  in  the  massive 
severity  of  its  foliage  recalls  the  capital  of  the  column  of 
the  Naxians  at  Delphi. 


The  Berlin  Museum  had  the  zealous  co-operation  of 
Austria  in  these  investigations  of  ancient  cities  ;  for  Otto 
Benndorf  had  taken  in  1877  Conze's  place  at  the  museum 


THE    HEROON    OF   GIOLBASHI  189 

in  Vienna,  and  promoted  all  archaeological  work.  His 
undertaking  took  a  course  like  that  at  Pergamon  :  a 
single  work  gave  the  motive,  but  extensive  investigations 
followed.  Lycia  formed  the  first  objective.  While 
Fellows  and  Spratt  (p.  96)  were  travelling  there  in  1841-2, 
a  German  schoolmaster,  August  Schonborn,  had  wan- 
dered about  the  country  alone,  and  in  a  remote  region 
had  come  upon  a  large  monument ;  and  the  great  beauty 
of  the  reliefs  induced  him  to  write  as  follows  :  "I  had  the 
Trojan  war  before  my  eyes,  Homer's  creatures  represented 
in  antique  art,  and  I  confess  I  could  not  take  my  eyes  off. 
In  the  corner  of  the  west  side,  the  relief  represented 
Achilles  seated  '  with  wrath  in  his  heart '  near  the  high 
prow  of  his  ships,  his  head  resting  upon  his  hand.  Next 
comes  a  herald  calling  the  assembly  together,  warriors 
and  battle  scenes  follow,  the  battle  approaches  the  city, 
fighting  continues  at  the  gate,  a  company  of  elders  are 
seated  above  the  gate ;  thus  one  picture  after  another 
reveals  a  wealth  of  life  portrayed  with  Greek  assurance 
in  the  groups,  in  the  movements,  and  in  the  proportions 
of  single  figures.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  reliefs, 
placed  at  a  proper  height,  would  be  an  ornament  to  any 
museum,  no  matter  how  rich  it  may  be." 

After  his  return  Schonborn  tried  in  vain  to  induce  the 
Prussian  Government  to  send  an  expedition  to  remove 
the  treasure.  His  notes  were  only  used  by  Karl  Ritter 
in  his  voluminous  book  on  Asia,  where  again  they  lay 
hidden  until  I  made  use  of  them,  sixteen  years  later,  in 
1875,  in  elucidating  the  Nereid  Tomb.  Benndorf  now 
turned  his  eyes  toward  this  monument.  In  April,  1881, 
he  and  George  Niemann,  who  had  both  taken  part  in 
the  work  at  Samothrace,  undertook  a  journey  of  inquiry 
upon  an  Austrian  man-of-war.  They  landed  on  the  steep 
south  coast  of  Lycia,  at  K£kova,  and  directed  their  steps 
at  once  to  the  elevated  region  of  Giolbashi,  where,  ac- 
cording to  Schonborn,  the  monument  was  to  be  found. 


190  ANCIENT   CITIES 

Benndorf  writes  :  "  The  ascent  of  a  steep  rarely  used 
path  amid  summer  heat  was  very  laborious.  We  arrived 
late  and  exhausted  upon  the  border  of  the  plateau  1800 
feet  high,  from  which  we  were  able  to  recognize  in  the 
distance  the  heights  of  Giolbashi.  We  increased  our 
exertions,  and  when  we  arrived  on  the  ridge  of  the  steep 
mountain  could  recognize  the  ruins  of  the  city  described 
by  Schonborn,  and  soon  perceived  at  the  east  end  of  the 
Acropolis  the  long  bands  of  a  relief,  which  we  knew  must 
belong  to  the  Heroon.  I  ran  ahead,  and  worked  my  way 
breathlessly  through  thorn  bushes  and  underwood  to- 
wards the  entrance  gate,  which  opened  in  the  wall  at 
some  distance  from  the  steep  slope.  I  climbed  up  the 
joints  of  the  wall  to  the  threshold  of  the  gate  above,  and 
found  myself  within  the  ruins  suddenly  confronted  by 
a  mass  of  sculpture.  Overshadowed  by  tall  trees,  and 
half -buried  in  abundant  vegetation,  it  presented  a 
marvellous  sight,  in  the  splendour  of  the  sinking  sun. 
I  confess  that  among  the  most  impressive  moments  of  my 
life  were  those  in  which  I  first  gazed  upon  the  now  happily 
attained  goal  of  my  prolonged  efforts,  amid  the  solemn 
tranquillity  and  solitude  of  nature,  while  around  me  lay 
a  vast  and  majestic  scene  of  mountain  gorges  and  wild 
crags,  bounded  by  snowy  peaks  and  a  broad  expanse  of 
sea." 

It  remained  to  acquire  and  secure  the  treasures  thus 
happily  found. 

Upon  Benndorf's  suggestion  a  society  was  formed  in 
Austria  of  generous  art  patrons,  who  combined  to  supply 
means  for  an  expedition,  while  the  Government  lent  a 
man-of-war.  It  was  possible  thus  to  begin  work  in  1882. 
Benndorf  and  Niemann  were  joined  by  Eugen  Petersen, 
then  in  Prague,  and  among  younger  men  by  Emanuel 
Lowy  and  Franz  Studniczka  ;  and  the  engineer  Gabriel 
von  Knaffl  furnished  most  valuable  assistance.  For  a 
high  road  had  to  be  constructed  near  the  steep  ravine  of 


INVESTIGATIONS    IN    LYCIA  191 

I  li<-  river  Myra,  upon  which  the  heavy  blocks  from  Giol- 
baslii,  about  600  metres  high,  could  be  transported  down 
to  the  river.  The  Heroon  of  Giolbashi  is  the  court  of 
a  prince's  tomb,  dating  from  about  the  time  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war ;  its  freestone  wall  at  the  entrance 
and  all  four  walls  in  the  interior  were  adorned  with  a 
double  border  of  bas-reliefs.  These  revealed  a  collection 
of  mythological  scenes  of,  till  then,  unrivalled  variety,  for 
which  Lycian  sculptors  with  a  Greek  training  had  derived 
their  inspiration  from  an  abundance  of  examples  and 
reminiscences,  like  the  sculptors  of  the  Xanthian  Nereid 
monument,  but  in  a  far  more  spirited  and  picturesque 
manner.  The  general  interest  in  this  composition  in- 
creased through  Benndorf's  demonstration  that  it  sug- 
gested motives  of  Polygnotos.  Had  they  been  directly 
borrowed  from  the  great  Master  of  Thasos,  or  were  they 
a  common  heritage  of  Ionian  painting  ?  From  this 
remote  corner  of  the  Lycian  mountains  important  prob- 
lems, in  the  history  of  Greek  art,  hardly  as  yet  touched 
upon,  were  suddenly  unfolded. 

The  reliefs  were  sent  to  Vienna,  and  soon  appeared 
in  an  elaborate  publication.  By  the  acquisition  of  the 
Heroon  the  object  of  the  expedition  was,  however,  by  no 
means  fulfilled.  The  reports  of  Fellows  and  the  de- 
scription of  Spratt  still  formed  the  main  sources  of  our 
knowledge  of  Lycia,  but  were  too  amateurish  to  satisfy 
strictly  scientific  demands.  Benndorf  and  his  compan- 
ions began  a  re-examination  of  Lycia  and  a  great  part  of 
Caria.  One  result  was  an  increase  in  our  geographical 
knowledge  of  these  countries.  Heinrich  Kiepert  supplied 
the  expedition  with  sketch  maps,  and  its  results  were  in- 
corporated in  his  new  maps.  Further,  the  chief  known 
cities  of  Lycia,  Xanthos,  Pinara,  Tlos,  and  Myra  were 
carefully  inspected  and  others  discovered.  The  small 
town  of  Kragos-Sidyma,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Kragos 
Mountains,  was  carefully  investigated.  The  results 


192  ANCIENT   CITIES 

were  so  illuminating  that  Mommsen  made  use  of  them,  to 
describe  a  provincial  town  in  Asia  Minor. 

"  Upon  a  remote  mountain  top  near  the  Lycian  coast, 
where,  according  to  Greek  myth,  the  Chimaera  dwelt,  lay 
ancient  Kragos,  in  all  probability  built  of  logs  and  clay 
bricks,  and  therefore  it  had  disappeared  without  a  trace, 
excepting  the  cyclopean  fortress  walls  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill.  Below  the  summit  expands  a  delightful  valley  with 
fresh  alpine  air  and  southern  vegetation,  surrounded  by 
mountains  covered  with  forests.  When  Lycia  became  a 
province  under  the  Emperor  Claudius,  the  Roman  Govern- 
ment transferred  the  mountain-city,  the  '  green  Kragos  ' 
of  Horace,  to  this  plain.  In  the  market-place  of  the  new 
town  of  Sidyma  there  still  remain  traces  of  the  four- 
columned  temple  which  had  been  dedicated  to  the  Em- 
peror, and  a  colonnade,  built  by  a  citizen  who  had  ac- 
quired a  fortune  as  a  physician,  and  who  built  it  for  his 
native  town.  The  market  was  adorned  with  statues  of  the 
emperors  and  of  distinguished  citizens  ;  in  the  town  was 
a  temple  of  its  patron-divinities  Artemis  and  Apollo. 
There  were  baths  and  gymnasia  for  older  and  younger 
citizens  ;  outside  the  gates  along  the  main  road,  which 
descended  precipitously  from  the  hill  to  the  harbour 
Kalabatia,  on  both  sides  there  were  funeral  monuments  of 
stone,  finer  than  those  at  Pompeii,  and  in  great  part  still 
upright,  while  the  houses,  built  probably  like  those  of  the 
ancient  town  of  perishable  material,  have  disappeared." 

In  the  plain  below  Xanthos  it  was  possible  to  trace 
the  sanctuary  of  the  Confederacy  of  the  Lycian  League, 
which  had  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in  ancient  times 
on  account  of  its  good  regulations. 

But,  above  all,  Lycia  is  the  country  of  tombs.  The 
different  models  were  carefully  examined,  in  particular 
the  national  Lycian  ones,  the  high  pillar  tombs  with  and 
without  reliefs  ;  those,  whether  carved  in  the  face  of  the 
rock  or  standing  free,  which  copied  in  stone  wooden-frame 


PAMPHYLIA  193 

buildings  ;  those  family  tombs  of  several  storeys  formed 
like  a  pillar  and  decorated  with  reliefs,  their  roof  ap- 
pearing like  the  bottom  of  a  boat  turned  upside-down, 
while  in  reality  its  form  seems  to  be  taken  from  an 
arbour. 

Not  till  the  fifth  century  does  Ionic  architecture 
appear.  But  the  later  tombs  are  also  noteworthy. 
Most  conspicuous  is  the  Heroon  of  Opramoas  at  Rhodia- 
polis,  dating  from  the  second  century,  quite  covered 
with  inscriptions,  which  form  the  family  archives ;  and 
there  still  remain  fragments  of  sixty-four  records. 

Roman  remains  predominate,  on  the  whole,  in  Lycia, 
as  in  the  rest  of  Asia  Minor  (the  Roman  province  Asia 
was  called  the  country  of  five  hundred  cities) ;  for  during 
centuries  of  peace  the  country  experienced  great  pros- 
perity. The  English  expedition  had  taken  the  choicest 
pieces  of  the  sculpture  of  earlier  times,  and  it  only  re- 
mained to  supplement  these  scientifically.  The  results 
of  the  Austrian  expedition  were  rapidly  published  in 
two  standard  volumes,  and  made  accessible  for  all 
scientific  purposes. 

One  of  the  patrons  of  the  Lycian  expedition  was  the 
enthusiastic  art  lover  Count  Karl  Lanckoronski.  In- 
terested by  these  events  he  travelled  in  Pamphylia, 
which  adjoins  it  on  the  east,  and  decided  to  prepare 
personally  an  expedition  to  investigate  this  unknown 
country  ;  for  the  great  work  on  the  southern  countries 
of  Asia  Minor  by  the  French  architect  P.  Tr6maux  lay 
unknown  and  unused  in  a  few  libraries.  Lanckoronski 
chose  Eugen  Petersen  and  George  Niemann  to  assist  in 
the  carrying  out  of  his  plans,  and  in  1884  a  trial  journey 
was  undertaken. 

Excavations  were  not  attempted ;  the  aim  of  the 
journey  was  to  gain  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
towns  in  the  maritime  region  of  Pamphylia,  and  in 
Pisidia,  the  mountainous  country  extending  northwards. 


194  ANCIENT   CITIES 

With  these  plans  Petersen  and  Niemann  went  in  1885 
to  Adalia.  Besides  examining  Adalia  (where  are  the 
remains  of  a  fine  gate  of  the  time  of  Hadrian)  they  turned 
their  attention  to  Termessos,  which  is  situated  above  it 
to  the  west ;  then  to  the  long  plain  along  the  coast  rising 
in  terraces  above  the  sea,  where  the  cities  of  Perge,  Sillyon, 
Aspendos  were  situated,  each  of  which  is  recognizable 
from  a  distance  by  its  flat-topped  Acropolis.  Lastly, 
toward  the  east  they  visited  the  seaport  of  Side.  What 
was  aboveground  was  surveyed,  and  it  was  possible 
nearly  everywhere  to  acquire  the  general  outlines  of  the 
plan  of  the  city,  and  by  that  means  to  study  the  develop- 
ment of  these  historically  little-known  places.  The 
well-preserved  Roman  model  theatre  in  Aspendos,  which 
had  been  examined  by  Texier  and  Schonborn,  formed 
an  object  of  interest.  The  Nymphaea  so  frequent  in 
Asia  Minor  next  attracted  the  attention  of  the  travellers  ; 
their  plans  were  similar  to  those  of  the  former  Septizonium 
of  Rome,  and  could  conveniently  be  studied  here. 

From  Pamphylia  they  ascended  the  steep  gorge  of 
the  Eurymedon  to  the  rugged  mountains  of  Pisidia  which 
form  the  transition  to  the  high  plateau  in  the  interior 
of  Asia  Minor.  Nor  were  cities  wanting  here  :  Selge, 
Kremna,  Sagalassos.  At  times,  space  for  a  city  had  only 
with  difficulty  been  gained  on  the  steep  rocky  soil ;  and 
again,  as  at  Kremna,  a  level  plain  had  been  utilized, 
where  to-day  the  remains  of  a  Roman  city  can  still  be 
traced,  with  its  temples,  markets,  halls,  and  theatres. 
Some  of  the  temples  with  their  peculiar  architecture 
testify  to  the  more  baroque  style  of  the  second  century 
A.D.  Numerous  tombs  exhibited  a  great  variety  of  forms. 
The  expedition  proved  thus  very  successful  in  extending 
our  knowledge  of  what  had  been  the  significance  of  the 
Empire  to  Asia  Minor,  even  to  so  wild  and  remote  a 
district  as  Pisidia.  A  brilliant  publication  issued  by  the 
generosity  of  Count  Lanckoronski  and  the  skill  of  Nie- 


EPHESOS  195 

mann,  with  a  full  and  clear  text,  formed  a  noble  memorial 
of  this  journey. 


It  had  been  decided,  in  Vienna,  to  collect  again  the 
inscriptions  of  Asia  Minor,  so  as  to  take  over  part  of  the 
work  of  the  new  Berlin  Corpus  of  Greek  inscriptions. 
With  this  object  Rudolf  Heberdey,  Ernst  Kalinka,  and 
other  younger  scholars  were  sent  to  Asia  Minor  to  travel, 
geography  and  archaeology  profiting  at  the  same  time. 
They  extended  their  journey  to  Cilicia ;  the  Scotchman 
W.  M.  Ramsay  had  travelled,  during  the  eighties,  re- 
peatedly through  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor,  and  numerous 
members  of  the  French  School  at  Athens  carried  on  here 
and  there  similar  investigations.  The  Austrian  scholars 
kept  their  eyes  fixed  on  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1895  Otto 
Benndorf  selected  Ephesos  for  more  extended  archaeo- 
logical investigations.  These  excavations  were  begun  in 
1896  with  the  aid  of  Austrian  lovers  of  art ;  and  later, 
after  the  establishment  of  the  Austrian  Archaeological 
Institute  in  Vienna,  in  1895,  were  taken  over  and  con- 
tinued by  the  Institute. 

Ephesos  had  been  as  important  a  city  of  Ionia  as 
Miletos  and  Samos,  and  survived  the  other  two.  But  the 
same  forces  of  nature  as  in  the  valley  of  the  Maeander 
had  from  the  earliest  times  separated  the  city  more  and 
more  from  the  sea  which  originally  had  washed  its  hills. 
In  consequence  of  the  inundations  of  the  Kaystros,  first 
the  oldest  city  with  the  Temple  of  Artemis,  then  the 
Hellenistic  city,  and  finally  the  Roman  one  had  dis- 
appeared into  the  soft  marsh — one  city  after  another 
had  followed  the  retreating  sea-coast — and  only  a  few 
remains,  chiefly  upon  the  rocky  heights — above  all,  the 
great  city  wall  of  Lysimachos — testified  to  former  gran- 
deur. When,  therefore,  in  1862  E.  Falkener  tried  to 
reconstruct  the  ancient  city,  where  years  before  he  had 


196  ANCIENT   CITIES 

spent  a  fortnight,  it  could  only  be  a  fantastic  picture. 
Ernst  Curtius  also  failed  in  his  attempt  to  connect  the 
history  of  the  city  with  the  localities,  through  insufficient 
evidence.  Only  the  Temple  of  Artemis  had  been  identi- 
fied by  Wood's  excavations.  In  1895  Benndorf  and 
Humann  examined  the  ground  thoroughly  and  projected 
new  plans ;  a  firman  was  secured,  and  the  ground  re- 
quired was  purchased.  In  1896,  with  Benndorf Js  co- 
operation, the  excavations  of  the  Hellenistic  Roman  city 
began,  between  the  rocky  heights  and  the  low-lying 
coast ;  the  harbour  of  the  latest  period  can  clearly  be 
distinguished  here  in  the  marshes.  The  work  is  now 
annually  continued  under  the  able  guidance  of  Rudolf 
Heberdey  and  the  architect  W.  Wilberg.  The  Roman 
market-place  forms  the  central  point.  The  chief  features 
of  the  city,  which  is  Roman  rather  than  Hellenistic  in 
character,  are  colonnades,  with  columns  placed  before 
walls ;  arcades,  and  a  peculiar  three-cornered  two- 
storeyed  hall  which  forms  the  connection  between  a 
street  and  a  square.  A  library  of  several  storeys,  in 
which  niches  in  the  walls  show  where  the  bookcases  had 
been,  is  decidedly  different  in  plan  from  the  one  at  Perga- 
mon.  A  number  of  single  finds  were  made — a  bronze  of 
the  fourth  century  (which  we  shall  meet  again  in  Chapter 
XI)  had  to  be  pieced  together  out  of  234  fragments. 

In  all  the  excavations  made  in  Asia  Minor  the  great 
distinction  to  be  kept  in  view  is  between  the  Hellenistic 
and  the  Roman.  The  first  predominates  in  certain 
places,  as  Pergamon,  Magnesia,  Priene ;  but  on  the 
whole  the  peaceful  times  of  the  empire  seem  to  have 
covered  this  earlier  stratum.  Thus  the  great  majority 
dates  from  Roman  times.  Here  may  be  mentioned  an 
expedition  undertaken  by  Conrad  Cichorius  and  Karl 
Humann,  with  the  assistance  of  Franz  Winter  and  Walter 
Judeich,  in  1887  to  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia ;  they  were  un- 
aware that  Tremaux  had  surveyed  it.  The  hot  springs 


THERA  197 

to  which  the  city  owed  its  renown  had  formed  lime  de- 
posits of  enormous  extent,  upon  which  the  remains  of  a 
Roman  city — partly  covered  in  its  turn  by  later  deposits 
— may  be  recognized.  A  broad  street  with  colonnades 
traversed  the  city  in  a  straight  line  from  one  gate  to 
another,  intersected  by  the  other  streets  at  right  angles  ; 
traces  of  the  agora  are  connected  with  it.  Extensive 
Thermae,  two  structures  which  may  be  termed  a  Basilica 
and  an  Imperial  Lararium,  according  to  Pompeian 
analogies,  and  above  the  town  a  well-preserved  theatre 
may  be  recognized,  nearly  all  in  a  late  and  clumsy  style 
of  architecture.  Outside  of  the  city  walls  an  incredible 
number  of  sarcophagi  and  tombs  are  crowded  together, 
from  which  the  ruins  have  acquired  the  native  name 
Tambuk  -  Kalessi — a  "  city  of  troughs."  The  entire 
site  affords  a  striking  picture  of  the  inexhaustible  forces 
of  nature  overwhelming  the  habitations  of  men.  One  is 
reminded  of  the  medieval  town  of  Ninfa  on  the  Volscian 
hills  ;  only  there  the  water  and  the  luxuriant  vegetation 
produced  by  it  caused  the  devastation,  while  in  Hiera- 
polis  it  has  been  accomplished  by  the  calcareous  incrusta- 
tion of  the  stream. 


The  investigation  of  two  Greek  islands  was  connected 
with  the  quest  for  inscriptions.  Baron  Hiller  von 
Gartringen  had  undertaken  to  prepare  the  latter  for  the 
Berlin  Academy.  Preparatory  work  took  him  to  Thera, 
and  it  was  not  surprising  that  the  island  exerted  such  a 
charm  over  him  that  he  decided  to  extend  his  investiga- 
tions over  the  entire  island. 

Thera,  now  called  Santorin,  is  a  solitary  volcano 
rising  out  of  the  sea.  The  crater  has  been  pierced  at 
three  places,  and  the  sea  has  entered  and  filled  a  basin 
nearly  400  metres  deep.  This  crater-lake  is  surrounded 
by  precipitous  walls,  which  with  their  variegated  hori- 


198  ANCIENT   CITIES 

zontal  strata  attain  a  height  of  360  metres.  The  old  city 
of  Thera  was  situated  on  the  eastern  outer  slope  of  the 
island,  upon  a  limestone  mountain  towering  567  metres 
above  the  island.  A  marvellous  picture  is  unfolded  to 
the  eye.  The  surface,  descending  from  the  edge  of  the 
crater  to  the  sea,  is  covered  with  a  thick  white  layer  of 
pumice-stone,  on  which  low  vines  form  a  carpet-like 
pattern.  From  the  upper  edge  deep  furrows  descend, 
caused  by  heavy  rains,  and  cross  this  flowered  carpet  in 
dark  streaks  ;  in  the  walls  of  these  clefts  wine-cellars, 
wine-presses,  and  even  human  habitations  have  been 
hollowed  out.  Where  the  pumice-stone  meets  the  sea  it 
has  been  gradually  washed  away,  leaving  a  dark  edge 
which  separates  the  white  island  from  the  deep  blue  sea. 
In  the  south  extends  distant  Crete,  with  its  three  snow- 
covered  peaks,  toward  the  east  is  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  to  the  north  are  the  numerous  and  varied  islands  of 
the  Cyclades.  Below  in  the  crater  are  small  newly  formed 
volcanoes  and  the  gently  boiling  sea,  from  which  even  in 
our  times  have  risen  new  volcanic  cones.  Any  one  who 
has  had  the  good  fortune  to  look  down  from  the  convent 
of  Hagias  Elias  must  have  felt  his  heart  deeply  stirred 
by  this  great  beauty. 

In  1834  Baron  von  Prokesch-Osten  had  discovered 
upon  the  rocks  of  the  town  ancient  inscriptions,  which 
became  famous  through  Bockh's  publication.  Ludwig 
Ross  soon  after  visited  Thera  (1835-7,  I^43)>  and  dis- 
covered, in  the  south  of  the  island,  remarkable  rock  tombs 
and  a  well-preserved  marble  sanctuary  or  Heroon. 
And  in  the  city  above,  on  the  mountain,  he  noted  and 
described  a  number  of  buildings,  without,  however, 
recognizing  it  as  the  capital  of  the  island.  It  is  to  the 
credit  of  Hiller  von  Gartringen  to  have  brought  to  light 
again  this  ancient  city  on  the  rocks.  He  continued  to 
work  here  for  six  years  from  1896,  defraying  all  ex- 
penses ;  with  him  co-operated  the  architects  Dorpfeld 


THERA  199 

and  Wilberg  ;  the  archaeologists  Schiff,  Wolters,  and 
Dragendorff,  and  the  surveyor  P.  Wilski.  This  remote 
little  town,  laid  out  with  terraces  and  steps  on  its  wind- 
swept heights,  now  clearly  exhibits  again  its  private 
houses,  public  buildings,  and  sanctuaries.  The  Doric 
temple  of  Apollo  Karneios  dates  back  in  parts  to  the 
archaic  period,  while  a  great  part  of  the  town  belongs 
to  Hellenistic  times,  partly  again  covered  by  a  Roman 
stratum.  The  narrow  little  lanes,  frequently  only  stairs, 
as  well  as  the  houses,  do  not  indicate  the  luxury  of 
Hellenistic  times — one  seeks  here  in  vain  colonnades,  so 
that  the  stoa  near  the  market-place  is  a  remarkable  ex- 
ception. It  had  two  naves,  and  served  for  market 
purposes,  e.g.  as  a  testing-place  for  weights  and  measures. 
The  old  building  had  received  repeated  additions,  and 
was  restored  in  the  second  century  A.D.  under  the  name  of 
a  Basilica,  proving  that  this  much-discussed  name  was 
not  confined  to  the  hall-like  building  with  a  raised  nave, 
as  at  Pompeii.  In  consequence  of  the  proximity  of  the 
island  to  Egypt,  Hellenism  in  Thera  received  a  peculiar 
character.  The  Temple  of  Dionysos  was  later  adapted 
to  the  cult  of  the  Ptolemies,  and  one  of  the  most  striking 
features  in  this  rock  city  is  a  sanctuary,  cut  into  the  rock, 
of  the  Alexandrian  trinity  Serapis,  Isis,  and  Anubis. 
Of  peculiar  interest  are  the  ancient  burial-places  to  the 
north  of  windy  Sellada — the  depression  uniting  the  town 
with  Hagios  Elias.  The  most  ancient  times  and  Roman 
times  are  represented  by  a  great  variety  of  tombs  ;  while 
tombs  of  the  Hellenistic  period  have  not  been  found. 

Some  plastic  decorations  of  the  town  both  of  Alexan- 
drian and  of  Roman  times  have  been  preserved.  But, 
above  all,  pottery,  of  many  different  periods,  has  been 
extensively  found  on  the  island.  Upon  the  island  of 
Therasia  (one  part  of  the  volcano)  were  found,  during 
the  sixties,  potsherds  in  the  lava.  Their  archaic  decora- 
tions caused  astonishment,  and  the  problem  of  placing 


200  ANCIENT   CITIES 

them  in  the  classification  then  current  awoke  serious 
doubts. 

Thera  now  provided  an  abundance  of  this  indestructible 
testimony  of  ancient  civilization,  in  an  almost  unin- 
terrupted series,  so  that  the  progress  of  painting,  which 
in  the  meantime  had  been  elucidated  by  much  research, 
could  be  followed  here  clearly,  particularly  its  older 
periods,  and  its  study  could  be  further  advanced.  A 
great  publication,  the  united  effort  of  all  who  had  taken 
part,  formed  a  worthy  conclusion  to  this  brilliant  work. 

The  Rhodian  expedition  of  the  Danish  Society  of  the 
Sciences  falls  beyond  the  limits  of  the  last  century  ;  this 
was  equipped  from  the  Carlsberg  Fund  established  by  Carl 
Jacobsen.  On  the  old  Acropolis  of  Lindos  C.  Blinkenberg 
and  K.  F.  Kinch  excavated  1902-4.  The  island  of 
Rhodes,  sacred  to  Helios,  lies  furthest  east  and  nearest 
the  sun  of  all  the  islands  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  of  its 
cities  Lindos  juts  out  most  boldly  into  the  broad  Eastern 
sea.  On  its  rocky  citadel  Ross  had,  in  1844,  discovered 
a  number  of  Greek  artists'  inscriptions,  which  seemed  to 
throw  light  upon  the  Rhodian  school  of  art.  Paul 
Foucart  had  made  similar  discoveries  in  1864.  With  the 
exception  of  a  more  accurate  survey  of  the  Temple  of 
Athene,  inscriptions  formed  the  main  objects  of  the  Danish 
expedition.  Two  facts  testify  to  their  value.  It  has 
now  become  possible  to  establish  definitely  the  date  and 
home  of  the  artist  Boethos,  the  creator  of  the  Boy  with 
the  Goose  ;  and  also  to  settle  the  much-disputed  date  of 
the  Laocoon  (this  had  varied  from  the  third  century  to 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Titus).  It  has  now  been  placed, 
with  some  certainty,  in  the  middle  of  the  first  century  B.C. 


Let  us  point  out  the  chief  results  of  these  investigations 
of  ancient  cities.  Two  groups  can  be  distinguished 
according  to  the  situation  of  the  cities.  Either  the  cities 


PLANS    OF   CITIES  201 

show  what  we  may  call  a  naturalistic  conformity  to  the 
configuration  of  the  land  :  the  castle  hill,  the  springs, 
and  the  courses  of  rivers,  the  slope  and  contours  of  the 
ground  ;  or,  it  may  be,  the  relation  to  the  sea  determines 
the  position  of  the  market,  the  gates,  and  streets,  which 
are  bound  by  no  rules.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  entire 
city  is  treated  as  a  work  of  art ;  the  squares  and  streets 
are  planned  according  to  fixed  rules  and  formulae,  without 
considering  the  conditions  set  by  nature.  Very  popular 
is  this  method,  which  strikes  us  as  so  modern,  of  making 
the  streets  cross  one  another  at  right  angles,  in  which 
case  the  main  streets  are  generally  distinguished  by  their 
breadth  from  the  narrower  lanes.  It  is  not  by  chance 
that  this  second  system  was  not  invented  by  a  practical 
architect,  but  by  an  ingenious  theorist — Hippodamos  of 
Miletos.  The  first  examples  of  this  method  in  Periclean 
times  were  the  seaport  of  Piraeus  and  the  Attic  colony 
of  Thurioi,  on  the  Gulf  of  Tarentum.  In  rebuilding  the 
modern  Piraeus,  in  the  forties  of  the  last  century,  it  was 
only  necessary  to  follow  the  street  plan  of  Hippodamos. 
We  will  mention  among  later  plans  of  this  kind  only 
"  Beautiful  Rhodos,"  408  (it  was  impossible,  however, 
to  demonstrate  its  ancient  plan  on  account  of  frequent 
rebuilding) ;  and  Alexander's  oriental  capital  Alexandria, 
332-1  ;  the  rectangular  plan  of  its  streets  was  recovered 
by  Napoleon  I  IPs  excavations  carried  out  by  Mahmud 
Bey. 

Among  recently  investigated  cities  this  "  Hippo- 
damian  method  "  is  most  strikingly  displayed  in  Priene 
and  Cnidos,  near  the  home  of  the  inventor.  In  both 
places  the  rectangular  plan  was  ill  adapted  to  the  very 
irregular  ground,  but  evidently  insisted  on,  as  the  entire 
city  site  was  cut  up  into  terraces.  Most  of  the  streets 
become  stairs,  so  that  wheeled  traffic  could  not  have 
been  very  important  in  these  ancient  cities.  It  has 
been  noted  above  (p.  182)  how  imperative  the  supporting 


202  ANCIENT   CITIES 

walls  became  in  these  cities.  In  a  modified  form  this 
same  plan  was  adopted  in  Thera  with  its  narrow  rocky 
ledges. 

Greater  difficulties  even  than  at  Priene  were  experi- 
enced in  very  steep  Assos  ;  while  at  Hierapolis  it  was  not 
difficult  to  carry  out  such  a  plan  on  the  level  surface  of 
the  lime  deposits.  In  Pompeii  the  system  of  the  city 
plan  is  founded  on  the  Italic  system,  the  two  main  lines 
crossing  each  other,  the  Cardo  and  Decumanus  ;  most 
completely  carried  out  at  Marzabotto.  In  Pompeii 
certain  irregularities  have  arisen  in  consequence  of 
natural  conditions,  which  interfere  with  the  regular 
system.  The  cardo  had  to  follow  toward  the  south  a 
diagonal  trend  of  a  lava  hill,  upon  the  ridge  of  which 
most  of  the  city  is  built,  while  toward  the  north-west  the 
Gate  of  Herculaneum,  with  its  famous  Street  of  Tombs, 
necessitates  a  slight  deviation  from  the  normal  right 
angle. 

The  case  is  quite  different  at  Pergamon.  The  great 
height  of  the  citadel  and  the  steep  mountain,  which  the 
city  of  Eumenes  covered,  necessitated  an  ascending 
main  street  (as  at  Delphi,  p.  149)  with  sharp  curves. 
This  main  street  formed  the  cardinal  feature  of  the  entire 
plan.  How  far  the  city  descended  on  terraces,  how  far 
the  system  of  rectangular  streets  was  carried  cannot  yet 
be  determined.  If  great  irregularities  should  appear,  it 
would  not  be  surprising.  In  the  upper  part,  near  the 
citadel,  and  within  it,  the  streets  perforce  ascend  on 
terraces.  These  exhibit  no  stiff  regularity,  but  adapt 
themselves  to  the  bend  in  the  main  street  or  according 
to  the  configuration  of  the  land.  Thus  the  capital  of  the 
Attalids  is  in  great  contrast  to  the  Hippodamian  cities, 
and  also  to  Halicarnassos,  the  capital  of  the  Carian  rulers. 
Here  the  circular  harbour  forms  a  central  point  to  the 
city,  which,  like  an  orchestra,  rises  in  tiers  above  it, 
with  wide  main  streets.  In  one  respect  Pergamon  re- 


MARKETS  203 

sembles  all  cities  not  situated  in  a  plain :  terrace  walls 
were  indispensable,  and  some  were  of  considerable  height. 
The  wall  below  the  theatre  terrace,  several  storeys  high 
and  200  metres  long,  was  an  important  work,  evidently 
forming  a  model  for  other  cities  in  Asia  Minor. 

These  strict  Hippodamian  conditions  seem  to  have  been 
less  observed  later  on.  They  had  been  most  pedantically 
carried  out  at  Nikaia,  the  capital  of  Bithynia,  and  strictly 
at  Antioch  in  Syria.  Delos,  and  most  Roman  cities  in 
Lycia,  Pamphylia,  and  Pisidia,  were  planned  more  ac- 
cording to  natural  conditions,  while,  on  the  contrary,  at 
Hierapolis  the  regular  plan  was  the  result  of  conditions. 

Apart  from  these  distinctions  in  the  general  plan,  we 
have  learnt  to  know  many  details  of  cities  in  consequence 
of  recent  excavations.  The  Forum  at  Pompeii  had 
practically,  until  of  late,  been  the  only  city  market  known 
to  us,  while  now  we  are  able  to  follow  the  gradual  trans- 
formation of  the  forum.  We  have  become  acquainted 
with  a  normal  market  at  Priene  with  modifications  at 
Assos  and  Pergamon  ;  a  harbour  market  at  Delos,  and  a 
Roman  market  at  Ephesos. 

The  town  hall  was  situated  in  the  market-place  ;  at 
Assos  its  council  hall  was  very  simple,  at  Priene  it  was 
more  ornate  and  adapted  to  its  purpose,  while  at  Miletos 
it  was  most  imposing,  and  stood  in  an  enclosure  with  other 
buildings.  Colonnades,  usually  with  shops  in  the  rear,  sur- 
rounded the  market  as  well  as  the  court  of  the  Milesian 
town  hall  and  nearly  all  the  temple  courts.  They  had 
either  one  or  two  naves,  and  were  one  or  two  storeys  high  ; 
those  at  Pergamon  and  in  the  Stoa  of  Attalos  II  in  Athens 
were  very  imposing.  As  many  of  the  market  halls  were 
built  by  kings,  they  frequently  retain  their  names  or  the 
more  general  designation  Basilica  (hall  of  the  King),  a 
name  they  share  with  the  enclosed  halls  (such  as  the 
splendid  Basilica  at  Pompeii),  which  seem  copied  from 
Egyptian  models. 


204  ANCIENT  CITIES 

The  streets  are  frequently  paved,  as  at  Pergamon, 
Priene,  and  Miletos,  and  drains  have  been  found — most 
clearly  at  Pompeii.  The  houses  were  at  first  completely 
closed  toward  the  streets,  but  gradually  shops  were  added 
in  the  lower  storey,  thereby  adding  animation  to  the 
street  life.  At  Pompeii  this  is  very  evident,  but  it  can  also 
be  seen  at  Pergamon.  But  in  the  recently  discovered 
Hellenistic  cities  we  do  not  find  an  extension  of  the 
colonnades  from  the  squares  to  the  streets,  as  is  recorded 
in  Hellenistic  times  of  Athens  and  Smyrna. 

Rome  had  also  at  an  early  date  these  sheltered  streets. 
Later  the  custom  became  general.  Ephesos  is  an  ex- 
ample, and  in  Hierapolis  the  main  street  had  colonnades 
with  shops  on  either  side. 

A  further  requirement  of  a  city  would  be  a  theatre ; 
the  one  preserved  at  Aspendos  is  one  of  a  number  of 
fine  examples.  The  Gymnasia  were  usually  courts  sur- 
rounded by  colonnades  with  different  rooms  and  niches, 
often  separate  ones  were  provided  for  the  older  and 
younger  men.  Examples  are  at  Sidy  ma,  and  notably 
at  Pompeii,  where  the  gladiators'  barracks,  with  their 
great  court,  had  originally  been  the  athletic  ground  for 
adults  (corresponding  to  the  Palaestra  at  Olympia), 
while  the  small  so-called  Palaestra  was  devoted  to  the 
youths  of  Pompeii,  and  was  thus  an  Ephebeion.  Miletos 
and  Hierapolis,  with  their  hot  springs,  show  us  Roman 
watering-places.  The  knowledge  we  have  gained  of 
Hellenistic  houses  at  Priene  and  Delos  has  been  mentioned 
above ;  until  then  we  had  been  limited  to  Pompeian 
houses,  which  are  of  a  peculiar  type,  as  they  combine 
the  Italic  with  the  Greek. 

Pompeii  afforded  us  the  most  vivid  and  touching 
picture  of  a  Street  of  Tombs,  leading  the  traveller  from 
the  city  gate  into  the  country.  It  dates  almost  entirely 
from  Roman  times.  A  picture  of  classic  times  was 
obtained  when  the  Athenian  burial-ground  was  un- 


THE    DIPYLON    AT    ATHENS  205 

covered  in  1870  outside  of  the  Dipylon,  the  main  city 
gate.  Many  of  the  incomparable  grave  reliefs  of  the 
fifth  and  fourth  centuries  remain  here  still  upright ;  the 
aristocratic  Hegeso ;  the  Knight  Dexileos,  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Corinth,  and  fell  there  in  394  at  the 
age  of  twenty ;  two  rather  dignified  Greek  ladies,  Demetria 
and  Pamphile,  who  look  pleasantly  at  the  beholder. 
These  are  only  single  examples  of  a  class  of  monuments, 
which  in  noble  simplicity  and  quiet  dignity  compares 
favourably  with  any  other.  Owing  to  the  numerous  ex- 
cavations in  Asia  Minor,  our  knowledge  of  these  burial 
grounds  has  greatly  increased.  Lycia  has  long  been 
famed  for  these,  but  of  late  has  again  been  explored  with 
this  object  mainly  in  view.  While  Miletos  has  yielded 
some  of  its  archaic  seated  statues,  Pamphylia  and  Pisidia 
afford  a  great  variety  of  different  monuments  which  in 
part  lead  us  on  to  the  forms  which  prevailed  in  the  de- 
cadence of  antiquity  ;  Hierapolis  surprises  by  the  mono- 
tony of  its  sarcophagi. 

In  these  investigations  of  ancient  cities  the  lion's  share 
falls  to  Hellenistic  times.  It  was  that  age,  however, 
above  all  that  called  for  elucidation,  at  least  in  so  far 
as  its  imperishable  traces  are  concerned,  for  in  our 
literary  traditions  no  other  period  of  Greek  history 
affords  such  a  picture  of  a  confused,  desolate  heap  of 
ruins.  The  stones  had  to  speak  here,  and  they  have 
spoken,  partly  through  inscriptions,  partly  in  the  re- 
mains of  architecture  and  sculpture. 


VIII 
PREHISTORY   AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

FROM  the  decline  of  antiquity  we  may  turn  our 
eyes  back  to  its  beginnings.  It  is  again  the  un- 
obtrusive painted  pottery  which  has  extended  our 
horizon  beyond  all  formerly  known  bounds. 

The  orientalized  or  Corinthian  class  of  vases,  which 
could  be  dated  back  to  the  seventh  century,  had  long 
been  looked  upon  as  the  most  ancient.  And  as  the 
records  of  Greek  artists  did  not  extend  beyond  this,  it 
appeared  to  be  the  beginning  of  all  Greek  art.  At  most, 
the  Homeric  poems  may  have  gone  back  a  little  farther 
into  a  vague  and  uncertain  region,  into  which  the  flowery 
ancient  vases  or  the  "  studded  "  bronze  shields  of  the 
Regulini-Galassi  tomb,  or  some  Assyrian  analogies, 
threw  a  faint  light.  But,  on  the  whole,  we  might  have 
said  that  Greek  art  began  where  the  Homeric  poems 
ended,  and  that  beyond  them  yawned  chaos. 

It  was  again  Conze  who  first  tried  to  fill  this  gap.  He 
had  published  in  1862  some  pots  from  Melos,  resembling 
Corinthian  vases,  except  that  besides  the  orientalized 
conventional  plant-forms  (rosettes,  palmettes,  etc.), 
there  appeared  simple  linear  decorations  (zigzags,  rect- 
angles, etc.),  revealing  an  entirely  different  origin. 
Thomas  Burgon  had,  in  1847,  drawn  attention  to  these 
linear  designs,  and  in  1863  Gottfried  Semper  had  followed 
this  suggestion,  but  it  remained  for  Conze,  in  1870,  to 
distinguish  this  Geometric  style  as  that  of  a  particular 
archaic  class  of  vases.  Its  characteristic  is,  that  the 

206 


THE    GEOMETRIC    STYLE  207 

decorative  scheme  is  entirely  linear,  consisting  of  straight 
lines,  zigzags,  cross  lines,  circles,  spirals,  and  meanders, 
forms  evidently  taken  from  the  ancient  technique  of 
weaving,  plaiting,  and  chasing.  These  were  sys- 
tematically combined,  usually  covering  the  surface  in 
bands,  in  this  respect  differing  from  the  art  of  savages, 
who  make  use  of  many  of  these  elementary  motives. 
The  conventional  plant  motives  so  common  in  the 
orientalized  style  are  absent  here,  as  well  as  the  lions, 
panthers,  sphinxes,  and  griffins  of  the  Orient. 

Where  animals  are  used  they  are  domestic  animals — 
geese,  storks,  horses  at  the  manger,  and  so  on.  In  Italy 
the  Geometric  style  is  especially  frequent  in  the  incised 
patterns  of  metal  utensils,  and  the  ornamentation  on 
clay  vessels  in  that  country  is  frequently  incised  with 
a  graving  tool. 

It  is  evident  that  this  was  the  original  method,  as  the 
prevailing  character  of  the  designs  on  Greek  pottery  is 
rather  linear  than  pictorial.  All  the  decoration — as  well 
as  the  animals,  which  serve  a  decorative  purpose — is 
merely  drawn,  and  the  surfaces  are  filled  with  linear 
designs  ;  a  brushful  of  paint  is  rarely  used. 

Such  was  the  appearance  of  the  sixty  examples  by 
which  Conze  demonstrated  the  Geometric  style.  As  soon 
as  the  eye  had  become  accustomed  to  this  phenomenon, 
their  number  increased  with  great  rapidity,  and  our 
knowledge  was  extended  in  two  directions. 

A  great  discovery  of  vases  at  the  Athenian  Dipylon  in 
1871  showed  that  this  linear  style  was  extended  to  human 
beings,  or  rather  to  schematic  representations  of  them, 
and  indeed,  with  these  simple  means,  attempts  were 
made  at  representing  funeral  processions,  naval  combats, 
etc.  This  more  elaborate  manner  was  called  the  "  Dipy- 
lon style."  Other  examples  of  a  more  advanced  style 
showed  Geometric  designs  closely  connected  with  lions, 
flowers,  and  other  characteristics  of  the  orientalized  style. 


208     PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

Taken  as  a  whole,  it  became  evident  that  the  Geometric 
must  be  older  than  any  known  style,  and  rilled  the  gap 
beyond  the  Oriental  influence,  probably  brought  in,  as 
in  Homer,  by  the  Phoenicians. 

Another  thing  did  not  escape  Conze.  This  Geometric 
style  coincided  in  the  main,  in  its  decorative  schemes, 
with  the  ornamentation  of  the  old  pottery  and  bronze 
implements  of  Central  and  Northern  Europe. 

New  and  extensive  perspectives  were  opened  here. 
Was  the  Geometric  style  a  common  heritage  of  the  entire 
Aryan  family  ?  Or  did  it  represent  a  peculiar  European 
expression  of  Aryan  ornamentation  ?  Had  it  reached 
Greece  from  the  north,  in  consequence  of  those  migrations 
of  peoples  which  we  call  by  the  far  too  narrow  term,  the 
Dorian  Invasion,  and  which  we  usually  date  in  the  first 
century  of  the  last  millennium  before  Christ  ?  This  last 
view  has  been  widely  accepted,  and  still  obtains  to-day. 
We  may,  however,  consider  later  whether  another 
somewhat  different  view  does  not  deserve  more  attention 
(p.  214).  At  present  we  must  look  beyond  the  Greek 
horizon  into  the  fields  of  prehistoric  research. 


By  the  word  prehistory  we  mean  research  into  an- 
tiquity before  there  were  any  written  records.  It  com- 
prises different  sciences,  as  anthropology,  ethnology,  and 
the  history  of  civilization.  But  these  are  as  foreign  to 
our  studies  as  the  questions  of  currency,  trade,  and  history 
would  be  to  numismatics.  The  archaeology  of  art  is  not 
concerned  with  the  questions  whether  the  people  were 
dolichocephalous  or  brachycephalous,  whether  there 
was  inhumation  or  cremation,  or  whether  cist  graves 
existed,  nor  does  it  inquire  into  their  mode  of  living, 
their  dress,  or  their  furniture ;  all  these  points  are  not 
touched  upon.  It  is  only  concerned  with  the  creations 


CHRISTIAN    JURGEN    THOMSEN  209 

and  expressions  of  the  artistic  feeling  among  these  primi- 
tive peoples. 

The  study  of  prehistoric  relics  was  early  awakened  in 
the  north,  where  this  ancient  culture  continued  much 
longer,  and  its  remains  are  more  obvious.  Scandinavia 
took  the  initiative  in  this  science.  In  1832  Christian 
Jiirgen  Thomsen  of  Copenhagen  determined  three  dis- 
tinct periods  of  prehistory  :  the  Stone  Age,  the  Bronze 
Age,  and  the  Iron  Age,  giving  to  each  period  the  name 
of  the  material  most  in  use,  and  at  the  same  time  indi- 
cating a  gradual  development.  For  a  long  time  doubts 
were  expressed  as  to  these  distinctions,  but  they  have 
been  fully  justified,  and  are  accepted  to-day.  With 
this,  the  outline  of  a  scheme  is  given  for  the  study  of 
artistic  productions,  but  the  different  periods  are  by 
no  means  restricted  to  the  chief  material  in  use.  At 
first  the  Stone  Age,  afterwards  known  as  the  Late  Stone 
Age,  attracted  most  attention.  Its  character  is  best 
exhibited  in  those  buildings  of  huge  stone  blocks,  chiefly 
found  in  Scandinavia  and  Western  France.  These 
"  megalithic "  monuments  were  either  for  religious 
purposes — as  the  upright  colossal  blocks  (Menhir)  or 
the  circles  made  of  such  blocks  (Cromlech) — or  they 
form  tombs,  as  the  simple  stone  chambers  (Dolmen)  or 
stone  passages  covered  with  huge  blocks  of  stone ; 
next,  the  barrows  or  graves  covered  with  mounds  of 
earth  ;  finally,  the  great  subterranean  "  giants'  cham- 
bers." 

All  these  structures,  although  the  origin  of  each  in- 
volves a  great  length  of  time,  impress  only  by  the  co- 
lossal size  of  the  materials ;  any  form  of  art,  even  any 
dressing  of  the  rough  surface  is  unknown. 

On  utensils,  however,  both  of  earth  and  metal,  es- 
pecially the  latter,  appear  ornamentations,  which,  it 
would  seem,  although  the  theory  has  been  challenged, 
derive  their  origin  from  the  primitive  arts  of  plaiting 


2io     PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

and  weaving.  The  designs  are,  therefore,  linear  or 
Geometric. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  investigations  ad- 
vanced in  both  directions  :  backwards  to  the  beginning 
of  civilization,  and  forwards  to  the  Iron  Age. 

To  the  Late  Stone  Age  the  Earlier  was  prefixed  (the 
designations  Paleolithic  and  Neolithic  originated  with 
Sir  John  Lubbock,  now  Lord  Avebury).  France  has 
been  the  chief  place  of  research,  as  it  was  not  ice-covered 
during  the  glacial  period,  but  always  remained  habitable 
for  human  beings.  Jacques  Boucher  de  Perthes  of 
Abbeville  began  a  series  of  investigations  upon  stone 
implements  and  other  vestiges  of  human  culture  in 
the  river-beds  of  Northern  France,  in  his  "  Antiquites 
celtiques  et  antediluviennes  "  in  1846-65,  and  in  his 
writings  "  De  Phomme  antediluvien  et  de  ses  ceuvres  " 
in  1860.  Other  investigators,  as  E.  Lartet  and  Gabriel 
de  Mortillet,  followed  his  footsteps.  A  new  direction 
was  given  to  these  investigations  in  1853  by  the  im- 
portant discoveries  of  caves  in  South-western  France. 
Caves,  the  dwelling-places  of  prehistoric  man,  had  fre- 
quently attracted  attention,  at  first  at  Gailertsreuth 
in  Franconia  in  1774  ;  later  in  Great  Britain  ;  gradually 
at  a  number  of  places  in  Central  and  Southern  Europe. 
The  best  results  were  attained  in  the  departments  of 
Dordogne  and  Charente,  and  from  there  southward  to 
the  Pyrenees.  In  these  caves  bones  were  found  of 
cave  bears,  of  mammoths,  and  of  reindeer,  all  remains 
of  the  glacial  period,  extending  back  many  thousands 
of  years,  but  representing  different  periods.  The  periods 
were  soon  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  places 
where  the  most  important  finds  had  been  made,  as  of 
Chelles,  Solutre,  and  Madelaine.  Human  habitation 
in  these  caves  was  not  only  indicated  by  the  rude  stone 
utensils  (pottery  did  not  yet  exist),  but  above  all  by 
the  remarkable  drawings  on  the  bones  of  the  mammoth 


THE   STONE   AGE  211 

and  reindeer.  The  first  bone  with  incised  drawing  had 
been  found  thirty  or  forty  years  previously  at  Chaffaud 
(Vienne),  and  although  exhibited  from  1851  in  the  Mus£e 
de  Cluny  in  Paris,  its  significance  was  only  recognized 
in  1869  by  the  Danish  antiquary,  J.  J.  A.  Worsaae. 
At  that  time  E.  Lartet,  Henry  Christie,  and  E.  Piette 
had  discovered  a  great  quantity  of  material  in  the  caves 
of  PeYigord  (Grotto  d'Aurignac,  Madelaine,  Laugerie 
Basse,  Eyzies).  These  drawings  are  of  very  different 
artistic  merit,  some  exhibiting  a  close  observation  and 
an  accuracy  in  execution  which  are  equally  amazing. 
Some  found  in  the  seventies  in  the  Canton  of  Schaff- 
hausen  (Kesslerloch  near  Thaingen),  and  during  the 
nineties  at  Schweizerbild  near  Schaffhausen,  aroused 
the  greatest  interest,  as,  for  example,  the  masterly 
representation  of  a  reindeer  browsing.  The  perfection 
of  the  drawing  seemed  so  inconceivable,  for  that  primitive 
age,  that  doubts  as  to  its  genuineness  were  expressed 
and  were  unhappily  strengthened  by  the  appearance  of 
forgeries.  Suspicion,  however,  was  soon  silenced.  Re- 
cent discoveries  in  France  have  almost  surpassed  these 
drawings  on  bones,  in  the  paintings  of  animals  which 
have  been  discovered  on  some  of  the  cave  walls  at  Fond 
de  Gaume  (Dordogne).  The  study  of  the  artistic  sense 
and  achievements  of  savage  races  has  proved  the  uni- 
versal validity  of  a  fact  which  seemed  incredible  so  long 
as  it  was  known  only  in  isolated  instances.  A  very 
primitive  stage  of  art  does  not  exclude  an  artistic  eye 
and  a  correct  reproduction  ;  a  valuable  observation  in 
regard  to  the  origins  of  art. 

The  Earlier  Stone  Age  (paleolithic)  was  separated  by 
thousands  of  years  of  the  glacial  period  from  the  Later 
Stone  Age  (neolithic).  To  the  colossal  stone  monuments 
of  the  latter  wooden  structures  were  added.  A  year 
after  the  discoveries  of  some  of  the  greater  caves  in  1854 
the  first  pile  dwellings  were  discovered  in  Switzerland. 


212     PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE   GREECE 

These  villages  had  been  built  on  piles  out  into  the  lakes. 
The  houses  were  chiefly  of  wood,  and  their  refuse  heaps 
indicate  the  mode  of  life  of  the  inhabitants.  The  re- 
mains of  these  pile  villages  increased  rapidly  in  number, 
and  were  soon  discovered  outside  of  Switzerland.  They 
were  eagerly  studied  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  where  the 
villages  in  the  lakes  (palafitte)  and  in  the  plain  (tenemare) 
anticipate  the  later  Italic  cities  with  their  rectangular 
plan.  The  custom  of  building  on  piles  extends  from 
the  Late  Stone  Age  to  far  more  advanced  periods.  Re- 
mains of  weaving  and  pottery  discovered  in  these  dwell- 
ings show  the  Geometric  style  of  ornamentation,  which 
was  characteristic  of  the  period  of  transition  to  the  Bronze 
Age.  Innumerable  bronze  utensils  have  been  found 
throughout  a  vast  area  which  again  can  be  subdivided 
into  earlier  and  later.  The  Bronze  Age  of  Southern 
Europe  may,  on  the  whole,  be  assigned  to  the  second 
millennium  before  Christ ;  all  the  Mycenaean  or  ^Egean 
artistic  productions  soon  to  be  reviewed  belong  to  this 
period. 

Shortly  before  the  discoveries  of  the  caves  and  pile 
dwellings,  some  finds  had  been  made  which  threw  light 
upon  the  Iron  Age,  the  last  period  of  prehistoric  times. 
The  name  Iron  Age  merely  refers  to  the  use  of  iron — 
which  had  formerly  been  rarely  employed — beside  bronze 
for  all  kinds  of  implements.  In  the  development  of 
the  arts  during  ancient  times,  iron  never  played  an  im- 
portant part ;  on  the  contrary,  bronze  always  remained 
the  chief  material  of  artistic  work. 

Above  the  picturesque  little  town  of  Hallstatt  in  the 
Salzkammergut,  wedged  in  between  mountain  cliffs  and 
lake,  there  was  explored,  in  1846,  and  in  the  two  decades 
following,  an  old  burial-ground,  which  yielded  great 
treasures.  The  entire  art  and  civilization  which  here 
came  to  light  for  the  first  time  received  the  name  of 
Hallstatt,  from  the  place  of  their  discovery.  Artistically 


THE    BRONZE   AND    IRON    AGE  213 

considered,  the  forms  and  incised  ornamentations  of  the 
metalwork  represent  a  peculiar  late  expression  of  the 
Geometric  style.  Examples  of  the  Hallstatt  civilization 
were  soon  found  all  over  the  Alpine  region  and  beyond ; 
toward  the  west  as  far  as  Burgundy,  and  toward  the  east 
as  far  as  Hungary  and  Bosnia  (the  graves  of  Glavinae"). 
This  Central  European  civilization,  the  ethnological 
origin  of  which  has  not  yet  been  definitely  fixed  (the 
Illyrians  have  been  suggested),  was  presently  found  in 
a  particularly  rich  form  and  in  various  stages  of  develop- 
ment south  of  the  Alps,  in  the  plain  of  the  Po.  In  1853 
Count  Gozzadini  discovered  a  burial  site  with  rich  finds 
of  an  early  type  at  Villanova,  near  Bologna ;  in  1865 
followed  the  discovery  at  Ma^zabotto,  situated  where 
the  Reno  leaves  the  Apennines  ;  and  in  1871  the  older 
cemetery  near  the  Certosa  at  Bologna  was  found,  both 
representing  a  later  period,  in  which  figures  were  more 
richly  developed.  Both  stages  of  this  development 
were  represented  at  Este. 

The  civilization  of  Hallstatt  may,  on  the  whole,  be 
assigned  to  the  first  half  of  the  last  millennium  before 
Christ,  and  is  thus  contemporary  with  the  earlier  cen- 
turies of  the  development  of  Greek  art. 

Later  developments  of  the  Iron  Age  have  recently 
come  to  light.  During  the  excavations  carried  on  by 
Napoleon  III  in  1862  at  Alesia  (Alise  Sainte-Reine)  to 
recover  Caesarian  relics,  unusual  objects  of  art  were 
discovered,  to  which  others  from  the  Champagne  were 
added.  These  discoveries  of  1876  deserved  special 
study,  and  were  soon  followed  by  those  of  La-T&ne, 
on  the  Lake  of  Neufchatel,  exhibiting  a  similar  form  of 
art.  It  was  observed,  however,  that  these  were  decidedly 
different  from  and  of  later  origin  than  the  art  of  Hallstatt. 
A.  W.  Franks  gave  in  1869  to  this  new  form  of  art  the 
name  of  Late  Celtic,  but  more  widespread  is  the  name  of 
La-Tene  art,  suggested  by  Hans  Hildebrand,  and  pro- 


214     PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

posed  by  him  at  the  Prehistoric  Congress  at  Stockholm 
in  1874,  in  contrast  to  the  older  art  of  Hallstatt.  La-Tene 
art,  the  national  art  of  the  Celts,  is  more  restricted  in 
extent  and  scope,  and  corresponding  to  the  warlike 
character  of  the  Celts,  it  appears  chiefly  on  weapons. 
This  form  of  art  was  superseded  by  the  Roman  in  the 
last  century  B.C.  ;  its  beginning  may  be  traced  to  the 
middle  of  the  last  millennium. 

The  further  back  we  go,  the  more  uncertain  are  chrono- 
logical data,  and  yet  many  scholars  believe  that  the 
different  stages  of  development  can  be  definitely  assigned 
to  certain  centuries,  even  in  those  times  when  we  are 
left  without  records.  One  of  the  most  distinguished 
investigators,  Oskar  Montelius,  represents  these  views. 
And  again  scholars  are  not  all  in  accord,  whether  the 
north  developed  under  the  influence  of  the  south,  or 
whether  the  north  contributed  its  share  ;  whether  there 
were  influences  from  the  Orient,  or  again,  whether  the 
north  and  south  did  not  develop  simultaneously.  It  is 
evident  that  the  chronology  of  the  several  stages  of  de- 
velopment is  very  different  in  various  districts.  In  the 
north,  for  example,  the  Geometric  style  prevailed  until 
the  introduction  of  Christianity,  while  in  Southern 
Europe  it  disappears  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  last 
millennium,  and  its  prime  is  to  be  sought  in  the  second 
millennium.  We  have  seen  that  the  Geometric  style 
appeared  in  Greece  about  this  time.  Had  this  actually 
come  late  from  the  north  with  the  "  Dorian  Invasion  "  ? 
We  shall  presently  see  that  there  existed  in  the  second 
millennium  an  entirely  different  art  in  Greek  countries, 
an  art  for  the  aristocracy  of  the  Greek  Heroic  Age. 
But  would  this  special  style  in  Greece  exclude  an  art 
existing  at  the  same  time  all  over  Europe  ?  The  suppo- 
sition recently  expressed  deserves  special  consideration, 
that  the  plebeian  Geometric  style  existed  side  by  side 
with  the  Mycenaean  art  of  princes,  and  that  only  after 


HEINRICH    SCHLIEMANN:   TROY  215 

the  collapse  of  the  Heroic  Age  did  the  former  attain 
supremacy.  Certain  data  seem  to  support  these  ob- 
servations. If  we  are  not  mistaken,  this  conception 
will  be  justified  in  the  future. 

While  our  outlook  was  thus  extended  back  into  the 
immeasurable  past,  and  the  artistic  tradition  of  Greece 
seemed  to  be  linked  with  that  of  the  rest  of  Europe  by 
channels  till  then  unsuspected,  facts  of  a  new  order 
came  to  light  on  Greek  soil.  We  refer  to  Heinrich 
Schliemann,  whose  name  represents  an  entire  epoch. 

Discussions  concerning  Schliemann  have  not  yet  quite 
ceased.  Although  the  voices  of  those  who  were  totally 
opposed  to  him  have  been  silenced,  yet  at  times  the 
pseans  are  still  heard  of  those  who,  knowing  little  of 
archaeological  science,  look  upon  Schliemann  as  an  ideal 
investigator.  It  is,  however,  possible  to  judge  him  im- 
partially to-day  ;  his  merits  and  his  deficiencies,  as  far 
as  they  affected  science,  can  be  balanced,  and  an  opinion 
can  be  expressed  which  will  have  the  support  of  all  those 
who  are  capable  of  a  scientific  decision  on  archaeological 
questions. 

As  a  boy,  Heinrich  Schliemann  became  inspired  by 
Homer,  and  in  his  eighth  year  he  decided  to  excavate 
Troy.  In  1836,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  apprentice 
to  a  small  shopkeeper ;  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven  he 
had  become  a  wholesale  merchant  in  St.  Petersburg, 
without  ever  losing  sight  of  his  ideals.  He  had  passed 
the  middle  of  the  forties,  when  in  1868  he  ventured  on 
his  first  journey  to  the  Homeric  sites.  The  aim  of  his 
life  was  now  before  him :  to  rediscover  the  Homeric 
world,  every  detail  of  which  he  held  for  gospel  truth. 
Then  began  a  series  of  enterprises,  the  successes  of  which 
were  announced  with  an  amount  of  advertising  that 
frequently  made  the  world  rather  distrustful.  Work 
was  begun  at  Troy  in  1871,  Mycenae  followed  in  1874, 


2i6     PREHISTORY   AND    PRIMITIVE   GREECE 

Troy  was  again  explored  in  1878,  Orchomenos  in  1880, 
and  Tiryns  in  1884,  and  Troy  once  more  in  1890. 

If  it  was  ever  demonstrated  that  "  Faith  alone  makes 
blessed,"  it  certainly  was  in  this  case.  It  endowed 
Schliemann  with  a  divining-rod  to  bring  the  treasures 
forth  from  the  earth,  and  led  him  to  the  places  where  to 
dig.  At  that  time  every  one  believed  that  Homeric 
Troy  had  stood  on  the  heights  of  Bunarbashi,  where  the 
Scamander  enters  the  plain,  and  the  new  Ilion  of  Hellen- 
istic times  on  the  hill  of  Hissarlik.  Schliemann  began  to 
dig  at  Hissarlik,  at  the  suggestion  of  Frank  Calvert, 
and  found  Ancient  Troy. 

At  Mycenae  hardly  any  one  would  have  thought  of 
digging  immediately  behind  the  Lion  Gate,  but  the  mis- 
understanding of  a  word  in  Pausanias  induced  Schlie- 
mann to  look  for  the  graves  of  the  Atridae  there,  and  he 
found,  if  not  these,  far  older  and  more  surprising  burial 
sites.  At  Tiryns,  the  soil  upon  the  rocks  appeared  to 
be  so  light  that  excavations  hardly  promised  anything. 
Schliemann  began,  and  uncovered  a  model  Homeric 
citadel.  Besides  the  firm  belief  in  Homer,  in  the  accuracy 
of  whose  descriptions  he  had  implicit  confidence,  he 
preserved  the  ideals  of  his  youth,  coupled  with  great 
generosity,  which  led  him  to  spend  yearly  £5000  on  his 
excavations.  Finally  he  possessed  indefatigable  energy 
and  tenacity  of  purpose.  Such  were  the  qualities  which 
brought  him  fame  and  repeated  success. 

And  the  result  was  nothing  less  than  the  recovery  of 
a  lost  world,  underlying  what  till  then  was  known,  one 
may  say  the  world  of  Homer — although  not  in  so  literal 
and  narrow  a  sense  as  Schliemann  understood  it.  For 
this  undeniable  and  inestimable  gain  science  must  always 
remain  most  grateful,  and  the  Homeric  world  will  ever 
be  associated  with  his  name  and  that  of  the  noble 
Greek  woman  his  wife,  who\  shared  all  his  labours  and 
cares,  as  well  as  his  success  and  his  fame. 


'*  • 

LION   GATE,   MYCENAE 


To  face  page  216 


DORPFELD   AT   TIRYNS  217 

But  there  is  a  reverse  to  the  medal.  Schliemann's 
education  and  talents  were  quite  foreign  to  all  scientific 
thinking  and  method.  He  cared  neither  for  history 
nor  art,  as  his  indifference  to  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles 
proved ;  primitive  culture,  curiosities,  and  vague  ima- 
ginings exhausted  his  interests.  He  was  a  dilettante  in 
both  senses  of  the  word  :  in  the  good  sense  of  an  enthusi- 
astic lover  of  art  who  makes  sacrifices  for  it,  and  in  the 
other  sense  of  a  man  who  pursues  his  aim  without  method 
or  thorough  knowledge.  He  was  a  dilettante  in  things 
architectural  and  archaeological ;  he  was  a  dilettante  in 
excavating,  for  he  had  no  idea  that  it  is  based  upon 
method  and  technique.  It  appeared  self-evident  to 
him  that  all  traces  of  Homeric  antiquity  had  to  be 
sought  at  a  great  depth.  Thus  he  recognized  in  Hissarlik 
the  site  of  Ancient  Troy,  but  pushed  his  shafts  so  deep 
into  the  hillside  as  almost  to  disregard  the  true  Homeric 
citadel. 

He  only  called  a  halt  at  the  second  lowest  stratum, 
"  the  burnt  city,"  in  which  he  believed  that  he  recognized 
the  Troy  destroyed  by  the  Greeks,  though  it  actually 
was  a  much  older  and  more  primitive  settlement. 

At  Mycenae  some  of  the  grave  reliefs  still  remained 
upright,  but  Schliemann  to  reach  the  shaft  graves  below 
had  these  removed  with  great  difficulty,  without  noting 
their  position  or  their  relation  to  the  different  graves. 

At  Tiryns,  Schliemann  was  on  the  point  of  destroying 
the  walls  of  the  palace,  as  he  thought  he  recognized 
therein  mortar,  the  common  characteristic  of  Roman  or 
medieval  buildings.  Dorpfeld  fortunately  arrived  in 
time  to  save  the  valuable  remains,  and  in  the  supposed 
mortar  he  recognized  the  remains  of  marble  slabs  de- 
composed by  fire. 

His  reports  abounded  in  peculiarities,  as,  for  example, 
his  predilection  for  cow-  or  owl -headed  goddesses 
which  he  recognized  in  many  "  face-urns,"  etc.  How- 


218      PREHISTORY   AND    PRIMITIVE   GREECE 

ever  much  this  impressed  the  general  public  of  amateurs, 
it  could  safely  be  disregarded.  His  reports  were  equally 
well  filled  with  actual  facts  ;  e.g.  as  to  the  depth  at 
which  each  sherd  was  found.  But  as,  according  to 
an  eye-witness,  these  data  were  only  recorded  every 
evening  after  the  day's  work,  one  can  see  how  uncertain 
they  must  be,  for  all  their  apparent  exactitude.  The 
reports,  as  well  as  the  excavations,  only  became  trust- 
worthy where  competent  specialists  assisted  at  the  work 
or  reported  on  it. 

Among  these  Dorpfeld  deserves  the  foremost  place. 
He  not  only  saved  the  remains  of  Tiryns,  but  he  put  them 
in  order,  as  it  were,  so  as  to  make  them  comprehensible 
in  every  respect.  Dorpfeld  first  made  the  architecture 
of  Troy  clear,  and  after  Schliemann's  death  he  uncovered 
in  the  Sixth  City  the  Homeric  Troy,  as  far  as  the  Hellen- 
istic city  had  not  destroyed  it.  Dorpfeld  unfortunately 
did  not  take  part  in  the  Mycenaean  excavations,  and  the 
reports  of  the  Greek  overseer  have  until  recently  been 
withheld  ;  some  compensation  has  been  offered  by  recent 
excavations  undertaken  by  the  first-rate  authority 
Chrest6s  Tsountas. 

The  results  of  Schliemann's  excavations  have  become 
so  well  known  through  popular  publications  that  a  few 
remarks  will  suffice  here. 

The  fortress-hill  of  Troy,  with  an  elevation  of  only 
twenty  metres,  shows  a  series  of  strata  (Schliemann 
counted  seven,  recently  nine  have  been  distinguished), 
in  which  a  development  of  the  settlements  can  be  followed 
from  primeval  to  Roman  times.  Schliemann's  objective, 
as  has  been  stated,  was  the  second  lowest  stratum,  in 
which  he  believed  he  had  found  Homeric  Troy.  The 
castle  wall  appeared,  with  the  Scaean  Gate ;  the  Palace 
of  Priam,  with  a  court,  a  porch,  and  the  main  apartment 
exhibiting  the  archetype  of  the  later  Greek  house.  The 
"  golden  treasure  of  Priam  "  has  the  simplest  designs. 


TROY— MYCENAE— TIRYNS  219 

Finally  a  mass  of  pottery  and  sherds  was  found,  showing 
uniformly  the  most  primitive  character.  The  civilization 
uncovered  here  did  not  correspond  with  the  descriptions 
in  the  Homeric  poems.  The  entire  find  dates  much 
further  back  than  to  the  one  we  have  since  learnt  to 
know  as  Homeric,  and  it  presumably  belongs  to  the 
third  millennium.  After  Mycenae  and  Tiryns  had  been 
excavated,  Schliemann  returned  again  to  Troy  with 
Dorpfeld  in  1890,  in  which  year  Schliemann  died,  and  in 
1893-4  Dorpfeld  worked  here  alone,  and  only  then  un- 
covered in  the  second  uppermost  city  Homeric  Troy, 
or  at  least  the  city  whose  entire  character  corresponds  to 
the  two  citadels  mentioned  above.  In  the  meantime 
we  had  become  accustomed  to  apply  the  term  Mycenaean 
to  its  character.  Unfortunately  the  central  part  of 
the  settlement  had  already  been  destroyed  in  ancient 
times,  to  make  room  for  the  new  city  of  Ilion.  Schlie- 
mann had  found  a  beautiful  metope  with  Helios  driving 
his  car  heavenwards,  belonging  to  the  Temple  of  Athene 
in  that  city.  Of  Mycenaean  Troy  only  the  massive  walls 
remained,  and  some  apartments  (megara),  one  of  which 
showed  two  naves.  We  need  not  necessarily  suppose 
this  to  have  been  a  temple ;  enclosed  temples  only  became 
general  in  the  Greek  world  in  the  last  millennium  B.C. 

At  Tiryns  the  plan  was  much  simpler  ;  here  is  a  citadel, 
which,  according  to  its  form  and  situation,  might  be 
termed  a  diminutive  Orvieto.  It  is  a  low  isolated  rock, 
about  the  shape  of  the  sole  of  a  shoe,  surrounded  by 
cyclopean  walls.  In  the  Homeric  poems  this  city  is 
called  "well-walled"  Tiryns,  this  epithet  testifying  to 
the  impression  the  massive  walls  produce.  The  area 
may  be  divided  into  the  southern,  more  elevated  half 
with  the  citadel,  and  a  northern  half  recently  again  ex- 
cavated, without  yielding  important  results.  The  former 
gives  us  a  distinct  and  clear  picture  of  an  Homeric 
palace,  protected  by  walls,  the  gate  surmounted  by  a 


220     PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE   GREECE 

tower  ;  a  main  entrance  with  several  gates  which  could 
be  well  defended  ;  at  the  side  a  staircase  and  another 
entrance  ;  a  court  with  entrance  gates  and  porches  ; 
besides  a  series  of  magazines  like  casemates  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  for  the  storing  of  provisions ;  two 
megara,  one  for  men  and  one  for  women,  separated,  as 
in  the  palaces  of  Assyria,  by  numerous  courts  and  pas- 
sages. From  the  men's  wing  a  special  entrance  leads 
to  the  paved  court,  surrounded  by  columns  and  containing 
an  altar.  A  short  passage  leads  to  the  luxurious  bath- 
room ;  its  floor  consisted  of  one  huge  stone  of  twelve 
square  metres,  and  the  earthenware  bath  had  painted 
decorations.  On  entering  the  main  court  one  faces 
the  pillared  vestibule  leading  into  the  men's  chief  apart- 
ment, the  Megaron  ;  in  the  centre  of  the  latter  is  the 
round  hearth,  about  which  were  placed  four  wooden 
columns  supporting  the  roof.  An  open  structure  above 
the  fireplace  allowed  the  smoke  to  escape.  The  marble 
frieze  of  the  main  hall,  the  bases  for  wooden  columns, 
tapering  towards  the  bottom  and  with  heavy  capitals, 
the  remains  of  wall  paintings  with  conventional  forms 
and  occasional  figures,  complete  the  picture.  The 
imagination  readily  fills  the  halls  with  Homeric  scenes. 
Telemachos  enters  the  gate — "  the  men  are  led  into 
the  hall  divine,"  "  they  went  to  the  polished  baths  and 
bathed  them,"  "  white-armed  Arete  is  seated  near 
the  hearth,"  "  in  the  hall  where  the  sweet  singer  Demo- 
dokos  showed  forth  his  minstrelsy,"  or  again  "  Athene 
still  for  a  while  made  trial  of  the  might  and  prowess  of 
Odysseus  and  his  renowned  son."  It  is  true  these  are 
ideal  creations,  which  one  delights  to  place  in  their 
proper  environment,  while  more  prosaic  beings  assume 
every  legend  in  the  poems  to  have  been  actual  history. 

The  women's  apartment  at  Tiryns  is  still  on  the  ground- 
floor,  and  not  as  in  the  palace  of  Odysseus  in  an  upper 
storey;  this  merely  indicates  simpler  conditions  than 


TROY 


To  face  page  220 


MYCENAE  221 

were  assumed  by  the  poet  of  the  Odyssey.  Tiryns  itself 
shows  traces  of  later  reconstruction. 

If  the  palace  at  Tiryns,  with  its  delightful  and  ex- 
tensive view  towards  the  sea,  suggests  only  cheerful 
thoughts,  the  situation,  remains  and  legends  of  Mycenae 
suggest  serious  and  sombre  ones.  The  complete  clearing 
of  the  Treasury  of  Atreus  and  the  neighbouring  sepulchral 
monuments  has  revealed  more  clearly  the  majestic 
character  of  these  superb  royal  tombs,  which  can  be 
compared  with  the  Roman  Pantheon  for  impressiveness. 
The  dignified  fa9ade  was  decorated  in  colours,  and  the 
interior  of  the  beehive  tomb  had  metal  ornaments. 
The  ceiling  of  the  inner  chamber  was  missing,  but  its 
character  can  be  inferred  from  the  Minyas  Tomb  at 
Orchomenos,  an  Egyptian  design  of  rosettes  and  palm- 
ettes  evidently  taken  from  a  woven  carpet  pattern. 
The  Lion  Gate  gained  greatly  in  impressiveness  by  being 
quite  uncovered  down  to  the  threshold. 

Although  the  citadel  at  Mycenae  with  a  similar  ground 
plan  has  suffered  greater  destruction  than  Tiryns,  yet 
the  burial  site — surrounded  by  upright  standing  slabs — 
behind  the  Lion  Gate  proved  a  great  surprise.  Schlie- 
mann  discovered  in  this  circle  five  shaft  graves  (a  sixth 
was  later  discovered),  in  two  of  which,  in  particular,  the 
dead  were  completely  covered  with  gold ;  and  so  nu- 
merous were  the  gold  vessels  found  in  them  as  to  justify 
the  Homeric  fame  of  Mycenae  "  rich  in  gold."  A  mass 
of  gold  disks  was  found  with  most  exquisite  designs  of 
cuttlefish,  butterflies  spirals,  and  palm  leaves,  each 
artistically  filling  the  space  ;  a  little  gold  sanctuary  of 
Aphrodite,  resembling  a  high  altar  with  two  doves, 
gold  cups  graphically  recalling  Homer's  description ; 
golden  masks  which,  according  to  a  widespread  custom, 
covered  the  faces  of  the  dead ;  and  a  silver  cow's  head 
with  horns  covered  with  gold  leaf.  A  curious  fragment 
of  a  silver  vase,  representing  a  battle  scene  on  the  castle 


222     PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE   GREECE 

Walls,  recalls  a  famous  scene  on  the  shield  of  Achilles. 
But  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  workmanship  was  only 
discovered  later  in  1880,  when  Athanasios  Kumamides, 
with  great  care  and  skill,  cleaned  certain  daggers  in 
the  Athens  Museum  of  rust,  and  discovered  underneath 
the  most  delicate  work  in  gold,  silver,  and  electron, 
representing  a  lion  hunt,  or  cats  hunting  wild-fowl 
among  reeds,  while  fishes  are  visible  in  a  river.  Another 
dagger  is  adorned  with  lilies. 

Many  of  these  gold  ornaments  show  peculiar  designs, 
which  can  be  recognized  more  clearly  still  on  innumerable 
potsherds  found  on  this  ancient  cult  site.  They  differ 
from  all  known  earlier  styles,  particularly  from  the 
Geometric,  with  which  they  have  only  the  spiral  and  boss 
motives  in  common.  Otherwise  this  art  is  suggested 
chiefly  by  the  life  of  the  sea.  Seaweeds  seem  almost  in 
motion  by  the  action  of  the  water ;  cuttlefish  with  ex- 
tended tentacles,  shellfishes  and  other  animals  of  the 
Mediterranean  are  represented.  Fantastic  aquatic  beings 
are  not  absent ;  only  rarely  does  this  art  venture  on 
other  forms,  as  when  it  represents  lean  warriors  with 
sharp  features,  wearing  plumed  helmets,  and  carrying 
great  8-shaped  shields  of  ox-hide.  On  the  whole,  we  gain 
the  impression  of  an  art  fresh  in  perception  and  in  re- 
production ;  the  plants  are  conventionalized,  but  very 
different  from  the  stiff  forms  of  the  orientalized  style. 

In  these  productions  it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish 
earlier  and  later,  or  again  simpler  and  more  ornate 
designs.  This  shows  that  the  period  lasted  a  long  time, 
and  yet  one  must  deny  it  any  capacity  for  development. 
Evidently  certain  conservative  influences  have  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  to  explain  its  long  duration. 

Hardly  had  Mycenaean  antiquity  been  revealed  in 
the  Argolid  when  there  appeared  numerous  evidences  of 
it  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  as  had  been  the  case  when 
the  Geometric  style  was  discovered.  It  seemed  as  if 


MYCEN/EAN    ART— VAPHIO   CUPS  223 

the  earth  had  only  been  waiting  to  disclose  her  treasures. 
Attica  came  first ;  south  of  Pentelikos,  at  Spata,  the 
ancient  Deme  of  Erchia,  Mycenaean  tombs  were  opened 
in  1877,  while  near  Athens  the  dome-shaped  tomb  at 
Menidi,  in  the  village  of  Acharnai,  made  famous  by  the 
charcoal-burners  in  Aristophanes,  disclosed  in  1880 
similar  rich  treasures.  Mycenaean  remains  were  dis- 
covered all  along  the  east  coast  of  Greece  from  Thessaly 
to  Laconia. 

In  Bceotia,  upon  an  island  in  Lake  Kopais,  a  Mycenaean 
stronghold  was  unexpectedly  revealed,  which  may  be 
the  ancient  Arne.  Chrestos  Tsountas,  who  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Mycenae,  made  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  finds  in  1888.  In  Laconia,  south  of  Sparta 
near  Vaphio,  on  the  site  of  the  Achaean  Pharis,  he  opened 
a  Tholos  tomb,  in  which  he  discovered  two  gold  cups 
with  reliefs  in  a  vigorous  style  of  workmanship.  On  one 
are  represented  bulls  peacefully  grazing  in  a  wood, 
while  on  the  other  they  are  being  caught  in  nets  by  men 
(again  two  pendants  as  in  the  Homeric  description  of 
the  shield) ;  both  evince  the  realistic  observation  and 
the  technical  skill  of  the  Mycenaean  Age  at  a  rare  level 
of  truly  artistic  power. 

But  traces  of  this  art  were  not  confined  to  the  coasts 
of  Greece ;  Mycenaean  vases  and  potsherds  were  soon 
found  on  all  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean  as  far  as  Cyprus. 
Adolf  Furtwangler  and  Georg  Loschcke  set  a  good 
example  by  issuing  at  once  a  complete  publication  of 
these.  Since  then  the  geographical  area  in  which  this 
art  is  known  to  occur  has  been  greatly  extended,  for  it 
has  been  found  on  the  coast  of  Italy  and  as  far  as  Spain. 
It  is  evident  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  civilization  of 
long  duration  and  of  great  extent. 


The  student  soon  realized  that  this  culture  was  richer 


224     PREHISTORY   AND   PRIMITIVE   GREECE 

and  more  ancient  than  that  called  forth  by  the  so-called 
Dorian  Invasion,  which  required  several  centuries  before 
it  produced  the  beginnings  of  the  true  Hellenic  art,  and 
that  this  newly  discovered  art  in  its  technical  perfection, 
its  definite  and  at  times  excellent  designs,  anticipated 
actual  Hellenic  art.  This  art  then  had  to  be  placed  before 
the  beginning  of  Greek  history  in  the  second  millennium. 
Was  it  the  long-sought  Homeric  art  ? 

We  must  distinguish,  as  Wolfgang  Reichel  did  in  1894, 
between  the  time  of  the  Ionian  singers,  to  whom  we  owe 
the  Homeric  poems  as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  and 
the  time  in  which  the  action  of  the  poems  took  place. 
The  singers  found  numerous  old  sagas  which  had  actually 
originated  in  those  heroic  times  described,  and  may 
even,  in  some  cases,  have  already  received  definite  shape, 
but  the  singer  bestowed  upon  them  the  poetic  form  of 
his  time  and  of  his  tribe,  adding  numerous  features 
derived  from  his  own  surroundings.  It  becomes  necessary 
to  differentiate  between  the  old — in  Homeric  language, 
Achaean — Heroic  sagas  of  the  second  millennium  and 
the  Ionian  additions  to  them.  We  are  aided  in  this 
frequently  by  the  contents,  the  character  of  the  motives, 
the  tone  of  the  representation,  the  more  formal  or  the 
freer  description,  but  our  most  certain  guide  is  often  to 
be  found  in  works  of  art.  To  give  the  most  striking 
example  :  neither  Mycenaean  art  nor  the  older  portions 
of  the  Iliad  know  the  round  Ionian  metal  shield,  but 
only  the  great  8-shaped  or  small  crescent-shaped  shield 
of  ox-hide  ;  wherever  we  meet  the  former  we  may  know 
we  are  dealing  with  Ionian  additions.  Therefore  My- 
cenaean art  was  not  the  art  familiar  to  the  Homeric 
Ionian  singers,  but  the  art  of  older  ruling  families,  in 
whose  honour  all  these  sagas  had  been  composed,  and 
from  which  the  Ionian  poet  borrowed  the  colour  and 
circumstances  of  the  Heroic  Age.  We  may,  therefore, 
term  it  the  art  of  the  Homeric  Heroic  Age. 


MYCEN^AN    ART    IN    EGYPT  225 

Both  in  Homeric  poetry  and  in  Mycenaean  art  gold 
plays  an  important  part,  and  yet  is  rarely  found  on 
Greek  soil.  Ivory,  which  must  certainly  have  come 
from  foreign  countries,  was  known  to  Homer,  and  has 
been  discovered  at  Spata.  Lions  were  as  little  known 
to  Greece  as  cats  or  the  papyrus,  and  yet  Homer  knows 
them,  and  they  were  known  in  art,  and  cats  and  papyrus 
as  well,  if  indeed  these  are  the  objects  represented  on 
the  dagger-blade.  Art  then  was  strongly  permeated 
with  foreign  elements ;  were  these  wares  imported  ? 
This  idea  arose  while  this  newly  discovered  early  age 
and  the  extent  and  perfection  of  its  art  were  little  known. 
But  all  doubts  disappeared  when  the  universality  of  the 
decoration  and  style  on  different  materials  was  remarked ; 
e.g.  the  very  peculiar  formation  and  dress  of  the  slim 
men  are  the  same  on  wall  paintings,  gold  cups,  pottery, 
and  gems.  And  this  unity  of  style  becomes  the  more 
convincing  in  view  of  the  wide  dispersion  of  the  sites  ; 
the  potsherds  in  particular  testify  to  the  ubiquity  of 
one  type  of  art.  It  must  have  been  an  indigenous  art, 
an  art  familiar  to  the  old  sagas  ;  all  agree  on  that  point. 

The  foreign  elements  in  Mycenaean  art  demanded 
another  explanation  :  intercourse  with  foreign  countries 
must  have  existed.  It  was  Newton  who  first  discovered 
in  Mycenaean  strata,  in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  Egyptian 
scarabs  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century.  From  re- 
cently discovered  records,  Egyptology  has  established 
that  extensive  intercourse,  chiefly  of  a  warlike  nature, 
had  existed  between  Egypt  and  the  "  Islands  of  the  sea," 
but  this  would  not  in  any  way  exclude  the  influence  of 
trade  or  art.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  Egyptian  traces 
appeared  in  Mycenaean  art,  as  the  cat  and  the  papyrus, 
there  appeared  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century 
under  Amenhotep  III  and  IV  distinct  traces  of  Mycenaean 
influence.  The  favourite  palace  of  the  latter  king, 
Tell-el-Amarna,  differs  greatly  from  the  usual  Egyptian 
Q 


226    PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

type  (Chap.  X) ;  a  floor  in  the  palace  has  a  representation 
of  animals  in  a  thicket  of  reeds,  vying  in  delicacy  and 
animation  with  the  famous  dagger.  Mycenaean  pot- 
sherds have  frequently  been  found  in  Egypt.  Thus 
some  intercourse  in  trade  and  an  exchange  of  objects 
of  art  between  Egypt  and  the  Greek  peoples  of  the  Archi- 
pelago are  established  for  that  period.  But  it  hardly 
appears  as  if  Egypt  had  been  the  one  to  bestow  her 
culture,  for  in  comparing  an  Egyptian  dagger  of  c.  1500 
with  the  Mycenaean  one  of  the  same  date,  the  superiority 
of  the  latter  is  very  evident.  The  art  of  Egypt  was  at 
that  time  already  growing  old  and  stiff.  It  was  the 
Mycenaean  influence  with  its  youthful  vigour  that  in- 
fused a  little  fresh  life  into  it.  The  art  of  Mycenae, 
on  the  other  hand,  possessing  greater  vitality,  borrowed 
at  most  some  externals  from  Egypt.  After  the  short 
episode  of  Amenhotep  IV,  1375-58,  the  reaction  which 
followed  seems  to  have  broken  off  foreign  intercourse 
more  and  more.  It  can  only  rarely  be  traced  in  Egypt 
beyond  the  thirteenth  century  ;  whether  the  internal 
conditions  of  Egypt  brought  this  about,  or  international 
complications,  or  the  collapse  of  Mycenaean  civilization, 
cannot  be  determined.  This  connection  with  Egypt 
only  strengthens  the  impression  made  by  the  remains 
of  Mycenaean  culture.  The  civilization  found  in  the 
islands  and  along  the  coasts  of  the  ^Egean  suggests  the 
idea  of  a  powerful  and  brilliant  development  of  an  in- 
dependent and  vigorous  genius.  We  may  take  it  for 
granted  that  this  precious  art  of  the  Achaean  ruling 
families  which,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  the  pottery, 
was  not  shared  by  their  dependents,  lasted  as  long  as 
the  rule  of  the  heroes  themselves,  that  is,  until  the  slow 
racial  migrations  known  as  the  "  Dorian  Invasion." 
When  this  inundated  Greece,  and  brought  in,  with  the 
germs  of  progress,  for  a  time  more  barbarous  conditions, 
it  extinguished  the  last  remnants  of  this  highly  developed 


MYCEN^AN    AND    GEOMETRIC  227 

culture,  which  henceforth  only  lived  in  the  Heroic  legends. 
In  the  practice  of  art  all  this  aristocratic  splendour 
was  superseded  by  the  plebeian  art  of  the  Geometric 
style,  whether  this  was  introduced  by  the  emigrants, 
or  whether,  as  has  been  hinted  above  (p.  214),  and,  as 
we  believe,  it  was  the  old  art  of  Central  Europe,  which 
had  existed  side  by  side  with  the  princely  Mycenaean 
art,  and  only  now  gained  supremacy. 


As  soon  as  we  had  come  to  know  Mycenaean  civilization 
the  question  arose  where  had  it  originated  and  by  what 
races  had  it  been  cultivated  ?  It  has  always  retained 
the  name  of  Mycenaean  from  the  first  site  where  it  was 
discovered,  and  the  fame  of  Mycenae  in  the  Homeric 
poems  may  have  increased  the  tendency  to  look  upon 
these  fortress-palaces  in  the  Argolid  as  the  starting-point 
of  this  civilization  and  art.  And  although  these  citadels 
occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  Heroic  saga,  in  reality 
they  were  too  unimportant  in  the  history  of  civilization 
to  justify  the  name  of  a  Mycenaean  culture.  These 
petty  princes  of  the  Argolid  were  only  members  of  that 
Achaean  Heroic  world  whose  fame  filled  the  prehistoric 
age.  Does  this  indicate  the  correct  name  ? 

The  Achaeans  were  not  only  settled  in  the  Argolid, 
but  in  many  other  places  on  the  Greek  mainland,  and 
even  beyond,  as  far  as  Crete.  They  were  even  known 
in  foreign  parts,  if  the  Aquaiusha  mentioned  in  Egyptian 
records  under  Meneptah,  1225-15,  the  Pharaoh  of  the 
Exodus  of  the  Children  of  Israel,  are  correctly  identified 
with  the  Achaeans,  which  is  not  by  any  means  certain. 
The  name  Achaean  would  thus  appear  more  acceptable, 
in  any  case,  than  Mycenaean,  but  it  will  hardly  be  ad- 
visable to  adopt  it,  as  it  is  not  descriptive  as  regards  one 
main  point. 

It  was  F.  Dummler  who  first  referred  to  the  vast  ex- 


228    PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

tent  of  this  culture  through  the  whole  Archipelago.  It 
has  been  seen  that  the  favourite  motives  were  derived 
from  the  sea.  The  sea  is,  as  it  were,  the  chief  element  in 
the  art,  and  the  great  extent  of  this  art  in  all  the  islands 
and  along  the  coast  of  the  ^Egean  presupposes  a  great 
sea  power,  a  Thalassocracy.  It  was  therefore  not  strange 
that  U.  Kohler  should  think  of  the  Carians,  a  non-Hellenic 
race  to  whom  ancient  historians  attribute  the  mastery 
of  the  sea  at  a  very  early  period.  They  are  said  to  have 
been  followed  by  the  Cretans,  whose  most  powerful 
ruler  was  Minos. 

At  the  beginning  of  these  investigations  in  1883 
A.  Milchhofer  had  designated  Crete  as  the  main  seat  of 
this  newly  discovered  culture.  The  so-called  "  Island 
stones,"  or  pebbles  cut  with  designs,  which  had  recently 
been  found  in  various  islands,  and  in  Crete  in  particular, 
led  him  to  this  conjecture.  Their  style  was  Mycenaean  ; 
their  frequently  fantastic  designs  Milchhofer  successfully 
proved  to  be  free  from  Asiatic  influence,  and  he  connected 
them  with  other  monuments  of  Mycenaean  art. 

Crete  had  been  the  destination  of  numerous  travellers, 
and  the  remains  of  its  cities  had  been  frequently  in- 
vestigated, but  prehistoric  Crete  still  remained  completely 
unknown.  For  it  was  of  no  importance  that  a  Cretan, 
Minos  Kalokairin6s,  had  in  1878  uncovered  some  walls 
of  the  Minoan  capital  Knossos,  which  W.  J.  Stillman 
had  in  1881  declared  to  be  the  Labyrinth  of  Minos,  the 
scene  of  Theseus'  struggle  with  the  legendary  Minotaur. 
Of  far  greater  importance  were  the  peculiar  pictographs 
noticed  by  Stillman.  A  year  after  the  appearance  of 
Milchhofer 's  book  in  1884,  attention  was  again  drawn 
to  Crete  by  excavations  carried  on  by  the  Italians  on 
the  south  coast,  together  with  a  Cretan,  Georgios  Pas- 
parakes,  the  directors  being  Federico  Halbherr  and  Paolo 
Orsi. 

In  ancient  Gortyna,  the  chief  place  in  Southern  Crete, 


CRETE  229 

the  famous  old  municipal  laws  were  discovered  and  soon 
copied  by  Halbherr  and  Ernst  Fabricius.  But  of  greater 
significance  for  archaeology  was  the  discovery  of  the 
Grotto  of  Zeus  on  Mount  Ida  by  Paspardkes  in  1884, 
and  published  by  the  two  Italians  mentioned.  Besides 
very  primitive  bronze  figures,  bronze  shields  were  found 
with  chased  decoration,  exhibiting  Oriental  motives, 
which  at  first  were  thought  to  be  Phoenician,  until  H. 
Brunn,  in  1893,  declared  these  products  to  be  indigenous, 
although  influenced  by  the  East.  Incited  by  Milchhofer 
and  the  success  of  the  two  Italians,  Schliemann  made,  in 
1886,  an  attempt  to  secure  Knossos  for  excavations, 
the  direction  of  which  would  have  been  in  the  hands  of 
Dorpfeld.  But  the  plan  failed  owing  to  the  excessive 
demands  of  the  Cretans ;  partly  owing  to  political 
complications,  and  partly  to  the  needless  quarrel  in 
which  Schliemann  became  involved  with  T.  E.  Botticher 
(Botticher  could  only  see  in  Troy  a  great  crematorium). 
For  some  time  Crete  remained  in  the  background.  The 
work  was  resumed  again  in  the  nineties,  in  the  north 
and  in  the  south  simultaneously.  In  the  north  Arthur 
Evans,  the  son  of  Sir  John  Evans,  the  eminent  antiquary 
and  savant,  chose  Knossos  as  his  object.  Although 
he  had  to  contend  with  similar  demands  of  the  Cretans, 
he  succeeded  by  patient  endurance  where  Schliemann 
failed,  and  finally  bought  a  great  area,  where  he  has  been 
engaged  since  1900  in  uncovering  what  may  be  termed 
the  Palace  of  Minos.  It  is  a  more  complex  and  extensive 
series  of  courts,  rooms,  and  labyrinthine  passages  than 
has  been  met  with  anywhere  on  Greek  soil.  A  survey 
of  the  whole  is  difficult,  as  it  is  not  a  homogeneous  struc- 
ture, but  numerous  very  different  palaces,  separated 
by  centuries  from  one  another,  and  built  one  above 
the  other  in  strata.  For  one  at  a  distance  it  still  remains 
difficult  to  disentangle  this  maze,  but  one  must  be  im- 
pressed with  the  mighty  royal  residence  of  the  ancient 


230    PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

Cretan  rulers.  The  great  Palace  of  Knossos,  situated 
in  the  open  country  and  undefended  by  walls,  compares 
with  the  small  walled  fortress-palaces  of  Tiryns  and 
Mycenae  as  the  palace  of  Versailles  compares  with  the 
Wartburg.  The  power  of  a  Minos,  who  ruled  the  sea, 
may  have  borne  a  similar  relation  to  that  of  a  Proitos 
or  an  Atreus,  only  no  poet  recorded  his  fame  in  so  brilliant 
and  lasting  a  form  as  was  accorded  to  the  Achaean  princes. 
Even  the  tablets  with  ancient  Cretan  pictographs  which 
Evans  found  will  hardly,  even  if  they  yield  information 
in  regard  to  language  and  nationality,  render  this  service. 
Broad  stairs  lead  from  the  court  through  anterooms 
into  spacious  apartments,  often  divided  by  columns 
longitudinally  or  transversely.  Wooden  columns,  taper- 
ing towards  the  base,  were  a  main  feature  in  Cretan 
architecture.  We  first  encounter  this  column  in  the 
Mycenaean  Lion  Gate,  and  it  is  distinctly  seen,  with 
the  wooden  beams  belonging  to  it,  in  a  wall  painting  at 
Knossos,  which  represents  a  structure  resembling  an 
altar.  One  of  the  smaller  rooms  of  the  palace  provided 
with  an  anteroom  has  stone  seats  around  the  wall,  and 
in  the  centre  a  marble  throne  with  a  high  back.  Oppo- 
site columns  extend  to  a  staircase  which  descends  to  a 
bathroom  lighted  from  above.  Light-wells  were  very 
usual  in  these  palaces  of  several  storeys  ;  one  may  be 
seen,  for  instance,  on  a  staircase,  the  steps  of  which 
are  in  good  condition  to-day.  At  one  of  the  main  en- 
trances the  visitor  was  received  by  a  row  of  life-size 
cup-bearers  of  both  sexes  painted  upon  the  walls.  On 
another  wall  we  see  painted  in  a  clear,  graphic  miniature 
style  men  and  women  thickly  crowded  together  as  if 
eagerly  witnessing  a  performance,  the  latter  in  the  usual 
costume  with  a  full,  elaborately  flounced  skirt  and  a  very 
low-cut  bodice.  Most  perfect  examples  of  stucco  reliefs 
have  been  found.  Neither  bathrooms  nor  latrines  are 
wanting  in  the  palace.  The  great  wealth  of  the  ruler 


KNOSSOS  231 

can  be  more  fully  realized  when  we  see  the  underground 
magazines  within  which  huge  earthen  pithoi  were  ranged 
side  by  side,  filled  with  grain  or  provisions,  while  in 
the  floor  were  ingenious  openings  for  the  safe-keeping 
of  treasures. 

The  palaces  uncovered  on  the  south  coast  at  and  near 
the  beautifully  situated  Phaistos,  by  the  Italians  Federico 
Halbherr,  Luigi  Pernier,  and  Luigi  Savignoni,  present 
the  same  pictures  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  therefore  more 
simply  and  clearly.  All  the  main  features  of  the  palace 
at  Knossos  are  found  here  in  the  chief  palace  on  a  more 
modest  scale  ;  the  small  palace  at  Hagia  Triada  at  first 
suggested  a  summer  villa.  Painting  and  sculpture 
played  an  important  part  here.  The  fragment  of  a  wall 
painting  shows  with  masterly  skill  a  wild  cat  pursuing 
a  pheasant  in  a  thicket,  and  again  a  fragment  of  a  steatite 
vase  exhibits  in  low  relief  a  procession  of  men  in  excellent 
drawing.  Every  new  find  deepens  our  sense  of  a  great 
civilization  and  of  an  art  which,  by  virtue  of  its  frank 
naturalism,  united  to  a  well-trained  artistic  eye  and  a 
technical  skill  by  no  means  contemptible,  succeeded 
in  representing  men  in  as  individual  and  characteristic 
a  manner  as  Hellenic  art  only  attained  nearly  one  thou- 
sand years  later,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 
Such  remains  as  could  be  removed  are  preserved  in  the 
Museum  at  Herakleia  (Candia).  What  a  brilliant  light 
do  these  discoveries  throw  upon  the  Greek  Heroic  Age 
of  the  second  millennium,  which  now  rises  out  of  the 
mists  of  legendary  tradition  !  These  discoveries  breathe 
also  new  life  into  the  portrayal  of  the  Homeric  epos, 
and  help  us  in  distinguishing  the  older  and  more  vigorous 
parts  from  the  delicate  and  more  winning,  but  at  the 
same  time  partly  modern,  partly  conventional  additions 
of  the  Ionian  singers. 

The  Cretans  certainly  had  intercourse  with  Egypt. 
At  least,  the  Keftiu  represented  on  Egyptian  wall 


232     PREHISTORY    AND    PRIMITIVE    GREECE 

paintings  holding  Mycenaean  gold  vessels  are  identified, 
in  all  probability,  with  the  Cretans,  the  Caphtor  of  the 
Bible. 

But  investigations  have  only  just  been  inaugurated 
which  aim  at  establishing  the  relation  of  early  Cretan 
civilization  in  its  various  revolutions  (for  that  such  took 
place  has  been  proved)  with  the  civilization  of  the  main- 
land, and  which  may  some  day  show  to  what  extent 
Cretan  and  Achaean  influences  may  have  been  reciprocally 
exerted. 

Certain  characteristics  are  peculiar  to  Cretan  art, 
others  to  that  of  the  mainland,  but  in  spite  of  this  a 
homogeneous  art  and  culture  cannot  be  doubted.  The 
great  island  of  Crete,  the  seat  of  the  Thalassocracy, 
was  apparently  the  chief  centre  of  this  old  civilization. 
Shall  we  therefore  call  it  "Cretan"  or  "  Minoan  "  ? 
We  should  only  be  justified  in  this,  if  we  were  certain 
that  it  had  originated  only  in  Crete,  and  spread  thence 
northwards.  On  the  other  hand,  "  Achaean "  can 
hardly  be  used,  on  account  of  the  preponderance  of 
Crete,  which  in  its  entirety  can  by  no  means  be  termed 
Achaean.  Let  us  rather  use  the  terms  Cretan,  Mycenaean, 
and  Achaean  to  designate  special  local  groups,  while 
to  the  civilization  as  a  whole  we  may,  without  prejudicing 
the  issue,  apply  a  name  derived  from  the  area  over  which 
it  is  mainly  distributed,  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the 
^Egean,  and  call  it  simply  "  ^Egean." 


IX 
SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON    CLASSIC   SOIL 

THE  new  movement  which  in  the  "  Archaeology  of 
the  Spade  "  has  been  inaugurated  since  1870  we 
have  now  pursued  in  three  directions.  The  chief  sites 
of  Greek  civilization  have  led  us  not  only  into  classic 
but  also  into  late  Greek  times ;  the  plans  of  cities  belong 
mainly  to  Hellenistic  and  Roman  times.  Schliemann 
and  his  successors  have  led  us  backwards,  a  full  millen- 
nium and  more,  and  disclosed  pre-Hellenic  culture  and 
art.  Besides  these  great  results  in  research  a  series 
of  single  finds  has  occurred — partly  by  accident,  partly 
in  consequence  of  a  preconceived  scientific  plan.  It  will 
not  be  possible  to  pursue  here  all  in  detail,  we  will  only 
mention  those  on  classic  soil,  which  have  yielded  the 
greatest  results  for  archaeology,  or  have  offered  the  most 
important  new  problems. 

The  science  of  vases  has  been  extended  back  in  an  un- 
expected manner  by  the  discovery  of  the  Geometric, 
and  later  of  the  Mycenaean  style.  Pottery,  which  is 
almost  indestructible,  and  is  found  everywhere,  affords 
one  of  the  most  certain  indications  of  human  civilization. 
The  different  classes  of  potter}7,  and  their  development 
in  form  and  decoration,  furnish  us  with  the  most  valuable 
assistance  in  recognizing  more  distant  periods  of  civiliza- 
tion and  their  affinities.  Its  significance  and  ethnology 
in  the  history  of  civilization  far  exceeds  its  value  in 
the  history  of  art.  This  only  comes  again  into  the 

233 


234    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

foreground  when  to  the  simple  decorative  scheme  is 
added  the  pictorial  element,  constantly  growing  more 
independent.  In  the  $£gean  period  it  only  appears  in 
isolated  cases.;  it  occurs  more  frequently  in  the  later 
phase  of  the  Geometric  style,  the  so-called  Dipylon 
(p.  207).  For  the  succeeding  periods  of  painted  vases 
of  the  historical  times,  the  old  views  still  obtained  in 
1870,  which  Otto  Jahn  had  developed  in  1854. 

Only  in  one  point  had  we  advanced,  with  the  help 
of  palaeography,  and  not  through  the  study  of  style. 

Adolph  KirchhofF s  epoch-making  "  Studien  zur  Gcs- 
chichte  des  griechischen  Alphabetes  "  appeared  in  1863. 
Among  the  many  important  new  results  of  this  masterly 
investigation  was  a  special  class  distinguished  by  Kirch- 
hoff  amid  the  great  number  of  "  Corinthian  "  vases  by 
virtue  of  the  alphabet ;  this  alphabet  is  referred  to 
Chalkis  and  its  colonies.  For  the  first  time  an  Ionian 
city  was  ranked  among  the  places  of  manufacture  of 
painted  vases.  The  stylistic  test  justified  the  inference, 
and  subsequently  many  may  have  asked  themselves 
why  this  active  and  artistically  endowed  Ionian  race 
should  have  contributed  nothing  to  this  province  of  art  ? 
But  the  old  point  of  view  was  deep-rooted,  and  the  Italian 
horizon  still  so  narrow  that  when  soon  after  in  the  tombs 
at  Caere  (Cerveteri)  a  very  peculiar  class  of  archaic  vases 
appeared,  the  Cseretan  vases  were  looked  upon  as  an 
Etruscan  imitation  of  the  Corinthian  style.  It  required 
a  long  time  to  recognize  here  also  an  Ionian  style,  differ- 
ing, it  is  true,  greatly  from  that  of  Chalkis.  Whoever 
has  contemplated  the  Busiris  Vase  at  Vienna,  with  the 
graphic  representation  of  the  yellow  hook-nosed  Egyptians 
in  their  linen  garments  and  of  the  snub-nosed  and  woolly- 
haired  Nubians,  must  be  convinced  that  the  painter 
gained  his  impressions  in  a  country  where  a  personal 
knowledge  of  Egypt  was  attainable.  We  conjecture 
to-day  that  Samos — which  participated  in  colonizing 


IONIAN   VASES  235 

Naukratis — may  have  been  the  home  of  these  vases, 
which  are  without  inscriptions,  and,  until  now,  have 
only  been  found  at  Caere.  A  possibility,  of  course,  re- 
mains that  they  may  have  been  manufactured  by  Ionian 
settlers  at  Caere  or  at  its  seaport,  Agylla. 

Cyrene  revealed  in  1880  a  class  of  vases  partly  known, 
with  peculiar  characteristics  and  a  special  alphabet ; 
silphion,  the  chief  product  of  the  country,  indicated  the 
home  of  the  vases.  A  vase  in  the  Paris  cabinet  of  coins 
represented  King  Arkesilas  II  as  a  silphion  merchant, 
and  exhibited  certain  characteristics  which  revealed 
familiarity  with  native  customs.  Finally,  the  Phineus 
bowl  at  Wiirzburg,  which  became  known  in  1874,  and  has 
since  been  greatly  damaged,  leads  us  to  infer,  from  the 
character  of  its  inscription,  that  the  place  of  its  manu- 
facture must  have  been  one  of  the  Ionian  islands  or  cities. 

Ionian  painting  thus  disclosed  is  fundamentally  different 
from  the  Corinthian.  Even  when  the  drawing  is  found 
to  be  awkward  and  clumsy,  it  is  never  stiff  nor  lifeless. 
Ionian  mobility  and  volubility  are  evident  everywhere, 
frequently  with  drastic  humour,  so  that  it  even  influenced 
the  more  sober  Corinthian  art.  We  have  learnt  to 
distinguish  the  earlier  pure  Corinthian  from  the  later 
style,  subject  to  Ionian  influences.  The  number  of 
independent  Ionian  communities  accounts  for  the  great 
variety  of  Ionian  vases,  in  spite  of  general  characteristics 
in  common.  An  eager  search  began  in  the  eighties  for 
other  Ionian  examples,  even  without  the  help  of  in- 
scriptions ;  herein  F.  Diimmler  distinguished  himself  by 
his  great  acumen.  Two  definite  facts  helped  in  this 
search. 

In  the  old  Ionian  city  of  Clazomenae,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Smyrna,  until  then  hardly  known  to  the  archaeological 
world,  there  were  found  in  1882  remains  of  painted  terra- 
cotta sarcophagi ;  to  which  others  were  soon  added. 
The  great  museums  of  Berlin,  London,  and  Paris  made 


236    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

efforts  to  acquire  examples  of  these  clay  sarcophagi, 
which  until  now  have  only  been  found  at  Clazomenae. 
The  paintings  on  these  sarcophagi  give  us  an  excellent 
survey  of  a  certain  class  of  painting  on  clay  of  the  sixth 
century,  how  it  developed  from  simple  silhouettes  into 
the  painting  of  light  figures  on  a  dark  background,  or 
again  of  mere  outlines  delicately  traced  (the  Attic  de- 
velopment is  here  clearly  indicated) ;  how  the  severe 
symmetrical  style  of  ornamentation  and  traditional 
scenes  of  war  and  the  chase  were  rendered.  These  are 
apparently  reminiscences  of  the  devastating  invasions 
of  the  Cimmerians  in  Asia  Minor,  a  clear  parallel  to  the 
oldest  Ionian  painting  known  from  literary  tradition, 
the  Battle  of  Magnesia,  by  Bularchos. 

The  second  illuminating  discovery  was  made  in  Egypt, 
when,  in  1884-6,  Flinders  Petrie  and  Ernest  A.  Gardner 
excavated  Naukratis,  the  great  factory  on  the  Nile, 
in  which  a  number  of  cities  in  Asia  Minor  participated. 
Besides  fragments  of  an  early  Ionic  capital,  a  vast 
number  of  potsherds  were  found,  wherein  Georg  Loschcke 
was  able  to  distinguish  three  groups,  which  could  be 
distributed  among  the  three  cities :  Miletos,  Samos, 
and  Mytilene.  This  grouping  was  confirmed  by  the 
investigations  carried  on  by  J.  Bohlau  in  1894  in  Ionian 
burial-grounds,  particularly  at  Samos.  The  Egyptian 
Daphne  (Tell  Defenneh)  offered  another  coloured  style 
in  1888,  and  our  increased  knowledge  of  Ionian  art  even 
led  us  to  attribute  to  the  lonians  the  vases  found  in 
the  Dorian  island  of  Rhodes,  by  Salzmann,  at  Kameiros 
in  the  sixties.  These  Rhodian  vases,  however,  form  a 
class  by  themselves,  and  their  Ionian  origin  has  been 
often  disputed. 

All  these  discoveries  and  researches  threw  unsuspected 
light  on  the  artistic  activity  of  Ionia  in  its  golden  age, 
the  sixth  century.  An  important  and  until  then  blank 
page  in  the  history  of  art  had  been  filled,  and  the  influence 


TANAGRA  237 

of  Ionia  was  perceptible  everywhere.  As  we  shall 
presently  see,  early  Ionian  sculpture,  of  which  fine  ex- 
amples had  been  found  at  Delos,  was  resuscitated  on 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens.  In  Attica  the  search  for  and 
the  study  of  vases  continued,  the  intermediate  period 
was  gradually  being  filled  between  the  Dipylon  and  the 
old  Attic  style  of  the  time  of  Solon  ;  vases  found  in 
Bceotia  helped  to  differentiate  the  peculiarities  of  different 
districts. 

Bceotia  was  also  the  scene  of  a  discovery  which  at  the 
time  created  immense  interest.  Tanagra,  the  little 
town  in  Southern  Bceotia,  need  only  be  mentioned  to 
fill  our  imagination  with  those  delightful  little  figurines 
that  bear  its  name.  Since  1870,  when  secret  excavations 
began  there,  great  numbers  have  emerged  from  the 
graves  of  this  town  once  famed  for  its  ceramic  industry. 
Unfortunately  forgers  soon  began  to  carry  on  a  great 
trade  in  copying  these  figurines. 

The  Tanagra  terra-cottas  are  made  of  Boeotian  clay, 
but  with  Attic  spirit  and  Attic  grace.  Erotes,  trans- 
formed here  into  pretty  children,  hover  in  swarms  about 
girls  and  women,  who  are  represented  now  grave,  now 
playful,  usually  modestly  draped,  often  wearing  a  round 
pointed  hat  or  delicately  tinted  garments,  at  times 
seated  upon  rocks,  or  holding  a  fan,  or  with  a  dove 
upon  the  shoulder,  or  again,  looking  down  upon  a  mask. 
They  are  Praxitelean  forms  taken  from  daily  life,  with 
touches  of  their  surroundings,  preserving  all  the  modest 
dignity  of  good  Attic  times,  as  in  the  Grave  Reliefs,  and 
utterly  different  from  their  luxurious  and  coquettish 
Hellenistic  sisters  of  Asia  Minor. 

And  beside  these  refined  girls  appear  graphic  repre- 
sentations of  daily  life — the  stern  pedagogue,  the  skilful 
barber,  the  dawdling  street-arab,  groups  recalling  the 
simple  realism  of  Egyptian  sculpture  of  the  Old  Kingdom, 


238    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

but  entirely  wanting  in  the  piquant  realism  of  the  Alex- 
andrian bronzes  of  Hellenistic  times.  The  terra-cottas 
of  Tanagra  thus  illustrate  the  after  effects  of  a  great  art 
upon  the  handicraft  of  the  following  generation. 


The  activity  of  the  Archaeological  Society  in  Athens 
led  to  important  results.  By  continuing  to  uncover 
the  Theatre  of  Dionysos,  which  Strack  had  begun  in 
1862  (the  Odeion  of  Her  odes  Atticus  had  been  excavated 
in  1858),  a  stately  row  of  seats  of  honour  was  revealed, 
upon  which  Athenian  priests  and  high  officials  witnessed 
the  performances  as  they  sat  about  the  priest  of  Dionysos 
in  his  arm-chair,  the  latter  covered  with  beautiful  reliefs. 

A  more  thorough  investigation  of  the  stage-building 
was  undertaken  by  Dorpfeld  in  1886-95.  The  burial- 
ground  before  the  Dipylon  and  the  Sanctuary  of  Ask- 
lepios  have  been  mentioned  above  (pp.  205, 135).  Below 
the  latter  there  was  discovered  in  1887-8  a  long  hall  with 
two  naves.  It  had  been  built  for  Athenian  audiences 
by  the  Pergamene  King  Eumenes  II,  and  resembled  the 
Stoa  of  Attalos  II,  built  near  the  Athenian  market,  and 
uncovered  1859-62.  This  had  two  naves,  and  was 
two  storeys  high,  and  provided  with  shops,  and  formed 
a  model  of  Pergamene  architecture,  and  had  been  known 
before  excavations  had  begun  at  Pergamon  itself  or 
the  Hall  of  Eumenes  II  had  been  found  there.  But  all 
these  minor  excavations  appeared  insignificant  compared 
with  the  work  carried  on  on  the  Acropolis. 

On  all  early  pictures  of  the  Acropolis  there  can  be  seen 
a  high  clumsy  tower  erected  near  the  south  wing  of  the 
Propylaea  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  1876  Schliemann 
provided  the  means  for  removing  this  tower.  The 
immediate  result  was  the  elucidation  of  the  plans  of  the 
Propylaea  and  of  the  Temple  of  Nike.  These  successes 
strengthened  the  desire,  frequently  expressed,  to  make 


EXCAVATIONS   ON    THE    ACROPOLIS         239 

a  more  thorough  investigation  of  the  entire  citadel. 
The  Acropolis,  as  is  well  known,  was  completely  devas- 
tated and  destroyed  by  fire  at  the  time  of  the  Persian 
conquest  in  480.  On  the  top  of  this  rubbish  heap  the 
Periclean  Age  erected  its  famous  buildings :  the  Parthe- 
non, the  Propylaea,  the  Temple  of  Nike,  and  the  Erech- 
theion,  which  constituted  its  glory,  and  important 
remains  of  which  have  come  down  to  our  times. 

In  this  manner  all  older  pre-Persian  traces  had  been 
covered  under  the  Periclean  soil — which  has  come  to  be 
simply  termed  "Perserschuit " — rubbish  of  the  Persians. 
Probably  only  one  seated  statue  of  Athene  survived  the 
stress  of  time  ;  Pausanias  saw  this  near  the  Erechtheion, 
near  which  it  was  in  fact  early  discovered.  Only  rarely 
had  any  pre-Persian  work  come  to  light  by  reason  of 
deeper  excavations,  as  the  relief  of  a  youthful  charioteer 
(the  so-called  "Wagenbesteigende  Frau  "),  or  the  statue 
of  a  man  carrying  a  calf  on  his  shoulders.  Excavations 
at  the  massive  foundations  of  the  Parthenon — during 
the  thirties — had  clearly  shown  the  abundance  of  re- 
mains in  these  lower  strata.  It  was  reasonably  hoped 
that  a  thorough  search  would  yield  new  disclosures. 
It  is  true,  a  trial  excavation  by  the  French  School  in 
1879,  under  the  direction  of  the  architect  Paul  Blondel, 
west  of  the  Erechtheion,  proved  fruitless,  so  as  again  to 
cause  hesitation.  However,  the  direct or-in-chief  of  the 
excavations,  Panagiotes  Stamatakes — who  had  done 
good  work  at  Mycenae — would  not  allow  his  resolution 
to  be  shaken,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1884  the  work  of 
excavating  the  entire  citadel  was  begun,  with  the  object 
of  reaching  the  living  rock  everywhere  or  proceeding 
until  the  ancient  foundations  or  remains  were  reached. 
Unfortunately  Stamatakes  died  soon  after,  but  his 
successor  Panagiotes  Kawadias,  who  had  distinguished 
himself  at  Epidauros,  resumed  the  work  with  great 
energy.  The  architectural  part  of  the  task  remained 


240    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

in  the  hands  of  G.  Kawerau,  but  Dorpfeld's  sagacious 
advice  was  constantly  available.  Thus  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  Acropolis  was  systematically  uncovered 
during  1885-91  ;  every  detail  and  the  circumstances 
of  each  find  were  carefully  recorded,  and  Kawerau 
drew  a  plan  of  the  whole,  which  he  had  carefully 
surveyed,  but  unfortunately  its  publication  has  not 
yet  appeared.  Excavations  were  begun  at  the  north  of 
the  Propylaea,  and  continued  in  a  circuit  all  round 
the  citadel. 

Rarely  has  a  plan  begun  and  carried  out  systematically 
yielded  such  valuable  results.  Only  those  points  will  be 
touched  upon  which  have  been  of  great  moment  to  science, 
or  have  presented  new  problems. 

The  discovery  of  the  old  "  Pelasgic  "  wall  proved  of 
the  greatest  significance  for  the  study  and  history  of  the 
Acropolis.  This  wall,  built  of  irregular  blocks,  conforms 
more  closely  to  the  original  form  of  the  citadel-rock  than 
the  post-Persian  walls  ;  hence  its  characteristic  windings, 
chiefly  toward  the  south,  where  it  sinks  lower,  following 
the  level  of  the  rock.  West  of  the  Propylaea  only  had  a 
part  of  the  Pelasgic  wall  always  remained.  Toward 
the  north  were  found,  beside  walls,  numerous  other 
remains  of  ancient  buildings,  as  of  an  ancient  royal 
palace  and  a  back  staircase  similar  to  the  one  at  Tiryns  ; 
thus  at  Athens  also  a  regular  feature  of  these  ancient 
fortress-palaces  was  proved  to  exist. 

South  of  the  Erechtheion  a  great  artificially  levelled 
surface  had  been  observed.  Soon  after  the  beginning 
of  the  excavations,  traces  were  here  discovered  in  which 
Dorpfeld's  sagacity  recognized  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
temple.  Further  research  confirmed  this,  and  an  in- 
scription, found  later  and  pieced  together  out  of  in- 
numerable small  pieces,  proved  to  have  belonged  to 
the  temple,  and  gave  its  authentic  ancient  name  as  the 
Hekatompedon  (sanctuary  one  hundred  feet  long). 


2 


u     ° 
<    2 

§5 

r    o 


THE    HEKATOMPEDON  241 

The   second   official   name,    "  the   old   Temple,"    which 
is  also  referred  to  it,  appears  to  me  incorrect. 

From  the  different  periods  of  the  foundation  Dorpfeld 
recognized  further  that  the  original  Hekatompedon  only 
— the  temple  a  hundred  feet  long — had  had  a  cella 
toward  the  east,  and  a  treasury,  of  two  apartments, 
with  an  opisthodomos  toward  the  west,  the  outer  colon- 
nade being,  however,  a  later  addition  ;  this  seemed  at 
first  a  strange  assumption,  but  soon  an  analogous  struc- 
ture was  found  in  Lower  Italy,  and  the  theory  was  con- 
firmed by  later  discoveries.  Both  conditions  of  the 
temple  belong  undoubtedly  to  the  sixth  century ;  if, 
however,  the  temple  is  simply  designated  as  a  Peisistratan 
temple,  the  path  to  true  knowledge  is  obstructed  here  as 
so  often  by  "  provisional  truth."  The  original  structure 
may  belong  to  pre-Peisistratan  times,  or  to  the  times  of 
Solon  ;  it  may  even  be  conjectured  that  it  can  be  brought 
into  connection  with  the  institution  of  the  Great  Pana- 
thenaean,  in  566. 

The  chief  significance  of  these  finds  has  been  in  con- 
nection with  the  history  and  conditions  of  Athens,  but 
now  a  series  of  results  throw  light  beyond  it  into  the 
history  of  Attic  art.  While  our  knowledge  of  it  in  pre- 
Persian  times  had  been  only  fragmentary  and  discon- 
nected, the  great  wealth  of  plastic  art  now  revealed  in 
the  lower  strata  of  the  Acropolis  has  permitted  us  to 
follow  distinctly  Attic  sculpture  during  the  sixth  century. 

The  Attic  poros  stone,  of  both  the  hard  and  the  soft 
variety,  carved  in  the  manner  of  wood,  appeared  as  the 
oldest  material.  Several  pediments  of  poros  stone, 
with  remains  of  brilliant  colour,  demonstrate  in  low 
and  high  relief  the  development  of  the  Attic  style  of 
relief,  as  well  as  that  of  the  composition  of  the  pediments. 

One  of  these  pediments,  that  called  the  Typhon  pedi- 
ment, proved,  as  the  result  of  Theodor  Wiegand's  investi- 
gation, to  be  of  the  Hekatompedon  in  its  original  con- 


242    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

dition  ;  as  it  represents  the  end  of  the  period  of  limestone 
sculpture,  it  gives  the  relative  date  of  the  first  temple. 
Besides  these  sculptures  numerous  later  marble  frag- 
ments were  found,  out  of  which  Franz  Studniczka,  and 
later  Hans  Schrader,  restored  parts  of  a  pediment  group 
of  a  Gigantomachia  with  Athene  as  the  central  figure, 
which  had  taken  the  place  of  the  Typhon  in  the  Hekatom- 
pedon,  when  it  was  enlarged  and  a  colonnade  added. 
Not  only  had  our  knowledge  of  Attic  plastic  art  been 
greatly  extended,  but  we  also  acquired  definite  chrono- 
logical data  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  Hekatompedon. 

Another  glimpse  of  the  plastic  art  of  Peisistratan  times 
was  afforded  by  the  discovery  on  the  Acropolis  of  the 
wondrous  series  of  maidens  or  Korai.  These  had  stood  on 
pillar-like  bases,  and  must  have  given  a  peculiar  charm 
to  the  pre-Persian  Acropolis. 

Each  single  statue  had  to  be  pieced  together  out  of 
numerous  fragments,  a  laborious  task,  shared  by  a 
number,  but  in  which  Franz  Studniczka  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself.  The  older  of  these  statues  indicated 
distinctly  the  islands  as  their  home.  One  resembles 
closely  the  Hera  of  Samos,  dedicated  by  Cheramyes, 
while  another  ("  the  cheerful  Emma  "),  with  red  hair 
and  green  eyes,  betrays  her  descent  from  the  log-like 
statue  dedicated  by  Nikandra  of  Naxos.  Women  in 
richer  attire  suggested  Chios  as  their  home,  where  a 
school  of  sculpture  flourished  in  ancient  times.  It  was 
difficult  to  decide  on  the  origin  of  others,  but  this  can 
safely  be  stated  :  the  more  advanced  plastic  art  of  the 
Ionian  Islands  entered  Athens  about  the  time  of  Peisis- 
tratos,  and  with  its  over-refined  Rocco  style  it  supplanted 
the  more  sturdy  Attic  art,  and  drew  the  Attic  artists  into 
its  school.  Soon  the  pupils  surpassed  their  masters, 
for  the  statue  of  Antenor  unites  in  the  happiest  manner 
Ionian  grace  with  Attic  dignity  and  Attic  serenity. 
So  that  when  towards  the  end  of  the  century  Dorian 


ARCHAIC    STATUES  243 

influences  from  the  Peloponnese — where  in  the  meantime 
bronzework  had  been  developed  —  became  perceptible 
in  Attica,  Ionian-Attic  art  was  sufficiently  refined  to 
produce  such  graceful  figures  as  the  girl's  head  of  the 
votive  gift  of  Euthydikos,  which  recalls  the  art  of  Fran- 
cesco Francia. 

A  lost  chapter  in  the  history  of  art  had  hereby  been 
recovered  from  the  rubbish  heap  of  the  Persians — an 
important  and  attractive  one,  for  it  forms  the  intro- 
duction to  the  great  Attic  art  of  the  fifth  century. 

The  sculptor  Antenor,  who  later,  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  tyrants,  in  his  group  of  the  Tyrannicides  adopted 
the  method  of  the  Peloponnesian  bronze-workers,  was, 
according  to  the  inscription  on  the  base  of  his  archaic 
female  statue,  the  son  of  the  painter  Eumares,  who, 
according  to  Pliny,  was  instrumental  in  the  development 
of  Attic  painting.  This  coincidence  is  of  interest, 
inasmuch  as  painting  on  archaic  marble  statues  is  very 
evident,  although  not  in  so  great  a  degree  as  on  the  older 
limestone  sculpture.  The  limitation  of  painting  to 
certain  parts  of  sculpture  clearly  overthrows  the  old 
theory,  that  either  every  part  had  been  painted  or  none 
at  all.  But  the  close  connection  of  the  two  arts  became 
very  apparent,  and  recalled  the  words  of  Plato,  that  the 
sculptor  supplied  the  drawing  and  the  form,  but  the 
complete  effect  of  his  work  was  only  produced  after  the 
addition  of  painting. 

Better  understanding  of  painting  on  sculpture  was, 
however,  not  the  only  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of 
painting  gained  during  the  excavations  on  the  Acropolis. 
For  from  the  depths  of  the  Persian  rubbish  heap 
there  emerged  numerous  specimens  of  clay  tablets  and 
potsherds.  A  fixed  date,  which  the  chronology  of  vases 
had  until  then  lacked,  was  gained,  as  the  origin  of  none 
of  the  objects  could  be  later  than  480  ;  the  greatest 
care  being  taken  in  determining  the  position  of  the  finds 


244    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

in  the  strata,  and  in  demonstrating  in  each  instance  that 
they  belonged  to  the  original  deposit.  The  consequences 
of  this  conclusion  we  shall  point  out  in  a  later  chapter 
(Chap.  XI) ;  it  will  suffice  here  to  state  that  our  historical 
conception  was  in  consequence  completely  revolutionized, 
and  that  the  entire  period  of  red  figured  painting  had  to 
be  pushed  back  two  generations,  its  beginning  dating 
from  the  time  of  the  tyrant  Hippias,  before  510.  Un- 
fortunately the  publication  which  will  give  a  full  account 
of  this  new  material  is  still  delayed. 

The  examples  quoted  clearly  demonstrate  how  very 
important  the  excavations  on  the  Acropolis  proved. 
The  work  can,  in  every  respect,  be  placed  by  the  side 
of  Olympia  and  of  Delphi.  Athene  has  assumed  her 
place  with  dignity  beside  Zeus  and  Apollo.  To  complete 
the  task,  it  remained  to  carry  on  the  excavations  outside 
of  the  Acropolis  walls.  The  south  side  has  been  cleared 
of  the  rubbish  accumulated  by  earlier  excavations  and 
the  magnificence  of  its  rock  formation  is  clearly  visible. 
At  the  north-west  corner  Kavvadias  began  in  1896-7 
to  clear  the  Pan  grotto  and  its  surroundings.  Un- 
doubtedly a  continuation  of  the  work  along  the  "  Long 
Rocks  "  of  the  north  and  east  sides  will  solve  other 
problems.  The  west  slope  is  unfortunately  not  accessible 
to  the  excavator,  in  consequence  of  a  modern  thorough- 
fare. But  at  the  foot  of  the  Pynx  Dorpfeld  uncovered 
in  1892-7,  with  funds  supplied  by  the  Archaeological 
Institute  and  some  patrons,  a  great  fountain  of  Peisis- 
tratan  times  which  received  its  supply  by  a  long  tunnel. 
Is  this  the  old  Kallirrhoe  transformed  by  Peisistratos 
into  the  Enneakrounos,  the  Fountain  with  the  Nine 
Spouts  ? 

Discussions  still  continue,  but  opinion  leans  more  and 
more  to  Dorpf eld's  point  of  view.  In  any  case,  we  are 
confronted  with  magnificent  waterworks  of  the  age  of 
the  Tyrants,  to  be  compared  with  the  waterworks  of 


THE    ARCHAEOLOGICAL   SCHOOLS    AT    ATHENS  245 

Polycrates  in  Samos  and  the  great  fountain  house  of 
"  one  hundred  columns,"  constructed  by  the  tyrant 
Theagenes,  uncovered  by  Dorpfeld's  direction  at  Megara 
in  1899  by  R.  Delbriick  and  K.  G.  Vollmoller. 

Nor  have  investigations  ceased  outside  Athens.  Besides 
the  Archaeological  Society,  the  various  Archaeological 
Schools  in  Athens  share  in  these  excavations.  To  re- 
count all  would  be  tedious ;  it  will  suffice  to  mention  only 
those  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  American  School 
has  worked  at  Corinth  since  1896,  from  1896-1904  under 
the  direction  of  Rufus  Richardson  and  others.*  At 
Sikyon  in  1887  M.  L.  Earle  carried  on  extensive  investi- 
gations with  successful  results.  The  excavations  carried 
on  by  the  Dutchman  Wilhelm  Vollgraf  at  Argos  1902-4 
take  us  back  to  prehistoric  times.  On  Aspis,  the  hill  to 
the  north  of  the  city,  a  prehistoric  fortress  was  discovered  ; 
upon  the  citadel  Larisa  opposite,  rock-tombs  of  Mycenaean 
times,  and  the  remains  of  a  city  built  upon  these  are  of 
the  Geometric  period — these  all  afford  new  glimpses  of 
the  antiquity  of  this  plain,  so  important  in  ancient  Greek 
history. 

The  British  School,  under  the  guidance  of  its  director, 
Ernest  A.  Gardner,  and  the  architect  Robert  Weir 
Schultz,  worked  at  Megalopolis  in  1890-1  with  excellent 
results.  In  most  of  these  excavations,  in  the  Peloponnese, 
the  theatre  was  the  principal  object  of  investigation  ; 
at  Megalopolis,  behind  the  theatre  was  situated  the 
Thersilion,  a  pillared  hall  more  artistically  designed  than 
the  Temple  at  Eleusis.  Recently,  in  1906,  the  British 
School  has  begun  work  at  Sparta  under  its  present 
director,  R.  M.  Dawkins.  The  archaic  sanctuary  of 

*  From  1904-5,  the  director  of  the  American  School,  Theodore 
Woolsey  Heermance,  continued  work  at  Corinth,  and  died  in  Athens 
29  September,  1905,  of  fever  contracted  there.  The  present  director, 
B.  Hill— who  has  done  work  on  the  Hekatompedon  inscription — is 
continuing  the  work  at  Corinth. 


246    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

Artemis  Orthia,  the  site  of  a  cruel  cult,  has  been  dis- 
covered, and  a  great  quantity  of  votive  offerings  have 
formed  the  main  results. 

At  Tegea  in  1888-9  Victor  Berard,  of  the  French 
School,  recognized  the  city  walls,  the  Agora,  and  other 
important  points  in  the  city.  But  on  account  of  the 
stubborn  resistance  of  the  inhabitants,  only  scant  frag- 
ments of  the  famous  Temple  of  Athene  Alea,  the  master- 
piece of  the  young  Scopas,  were  revealed,  sufficient, 
however,  to  allow  us  now  to  determine  more  definitely 
the  style  of  Scofcas  (Chap.  XI).  Since  then  the  French 
School  has  continued  these  investigations  with  great 
success.  In  the  neighbouring  Mantineia,  Gustave  Fougere, 
1887-8,  discovered  three  important  slabs,  part  of  the 
base  of  a  group  by  Praxiteles,  illustrating  the  drapery 
motives  of  Praxitelean  art.  More  surprising  even  were 
the  disclosures  from  the  excavations  carried  on  in  1889-90 
by  B.  Leonardos  and  P.  Kavvadfas  at  Lycosura — tra- 
ditionally the  oldest  city  of  the  human  race.  The 
Messenian  sculptor  Damophon  was  the  chief  artist 
to  decorate  these  sanctuaries,  and  for  want  of  more 
accurate  information  he  had  been  placed  in  the  fourth 
century.  But  it  now  appears  from  architectural  evidence 
of  the  temple  remains,  as  well  as  the  style  of  the  sculpture, 
that  Damophon  belonged  to  the  decadence,  about  the 
second  century  before  Christ.  In  1900  divers  off  the 
little  island  of  Antikythera,  near  stormy  Cape  Malea, 
discovered  rich  treasures  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  In 
Roman  times  a  ship  had  foundered  here  (near  the  point 
where  Lord  Elgin's  ship,  the  Mentor,  was  wrecked) 
laden  with  marble  and  bronze  works  of  art.  Piecemeal, 
these  were  brought  up,  and  among  them  a  bronze  statue 
of  beautiful  style  has  been  restored,  which  has  been  made 
a  criterion  for  the  historical  determination  of  style — 
although  its  significance  remains  uncertain.  This  will 
be  discussed  more  fully  in  Chapter  XI. 


THE    PELOPONNESE  247 

The  Peloponnese  had  had  the  lion's  share  in  these 
investigations.  But  even  ^Etolia,  which  had  yielded 
little  in  the  arts,  could  now  claim  some  success.  The 
sanctuary  of  Apollo  at  Thermos,  situated  amid  the 
mountains  of  the  interior,  formed  the  centre  and  meeting- 
place  of  the  ^Etolian  League.  In  1897-9,  under  Georgios 
Soteriades,  a  very  archaic  temple  was  excavated.  It 
was  of  peculiar  construction  ;  a  row  of  columns  not  only 
divided  the  long  and  narrow  cella,  but  the  apartments 
in  the  front  and  back  of  the  temple  as  well.  Where 
had  the  image  of  the  god  stood  in  a  cella  with  two  naves  ? 
It  had  been  conjectured  that  two  deities  must  have 
presided  in  such  a  temple,  but  here  it  is  only  a  question 
of  Apollo.  Thus  a  new  question  has  been  raised,  which 
still  remains  unanswered.  A  couple  of  metopes,  only 
painted  and  of  very  archaic  style,  offered  something 
novel.  Until  now  all  metopes  found  had  either  been 
bare  or  with  reliefs;  painting  taking  the  place  here  of 
painted  reliefs  again  testifies  to  the  equal  value  attached 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  two  arts. 

The  old  Attic  grave  reliefs  of  the  sixth  century  had 
given  this  impression.  Beside  the  painted  relief  stele 
of  Aristion,  we  have  the  stele  of  Lyseas,  which  is  only 
painted ;  upon  the  latter  a  rider  is  figured  in  the  space 
below,  upon  the  stele  of  Aristion  a  space  had  been  left 
for  painting,  and  upon  a  third  stele  the  main  figure,  as 
well  as  a  rider  in  a  secondary  space,  are  represented  in 
relief,  formerly  painted.  According  to  Plato,  quoted 
above,  the  relief  formed  the  groundwork  for  painting, 
giving  it  definite  outline,  and  producing  slight  shadow 
effects. 

From  Greece  we  must  now  turn  to  Italy.  Under  the 
influence  of  Luigi  Pigorini  the  young  Italian  scholars 
have  devoted  themselves  almost  exclusively  since  1870 
to  prehistoric  research.  This  flourishes  in  all  parts  of 


248    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

Italy.  To  this  must  be  added  the  successful  work 
carried  on  by  Italians  in  Crete.  Thus  it  may  have  come 
about  that  only  in  single  cases  have  Italians  devoted 
themselves  to  their  classical  treasures,  which  have 
mainly  been  taken  in  hand  by  foreign  scholars.  The 
German  Archaeological  Institute  in  Rome  carries  on  a 
great  part  of  this  work.  In  1887  Eugen  Petersen  suc- 
ceeded Wolfgang  Helbig,  and  has  since  then,  until  1906,* 
been  its  director.  While  scholars  living  in  Italy,  and 
especially  Italians,  frequently  acquire  a  narrow  outlook 
limited  to  things  Italic,  Petersen,  returning  from  his 
travels  in  Asia  Minor  and  a  year  spent  at  the  head  of 
the  Archaeological  Institute  in  Athens,  had  a  more  ex- 
tended horizon,  and  recognized  at  once,  as  a  long-neglected 
field  of  activity,  the  pursuit  of  Greek  traces  in  Italy. 
Since  Francois  Lenormant's  journey  along  the  coasts  of 
Magna  Graecia  in  1880  no  one  had  investigated  Lower 
Italy  in  connection  with  Greek  art.  Petersen  undertook 
this  task,  and  in  1889  at  Locri,  on  the  south  coast  of 
Calabria,  recognized,  with  his  practised  eye,  the  remains 
of  an  Ionic  temple,  which  Paolo  Orsi  excavated.  In 
Lower  Italy,  where  Doric  architecture  prevailed,  an 
Ionic  temple  was  unique,  and  its  excavation  proved 
important,  as  its  ground  plan  was  archaic  ;  so  that  it 
filled  a  gap  in  our  knowledge  of  the  more  ancient  Ionic 
style.  The  Temple  was  peculiar  in  many  respects, 
having,  for  example,  two  naves,  and  the  addition  of  a 
colonnade  to  the  original  temple  is  evident  here,  as  had 
been  the  case  with  the  recently  discovered  Athenian 
Hekatompedon  (p.  251). 

What  had  thus  been  attempted  in  a  single  case  was 
successfully  pursued  in  the  following  years,  1892-4, 
during  two  journeys  by  Otto  Puchstein  and  Robert 
Koldewey.  Although  carried  on  without  excavations, 
their  renewed  examinations  of  all  the  ruins  of  Lower 
*  When  Korte  succeeded  Petersen. 


IONIAN    BRONZES  249 

Italy  and  Sicily  were  of  great  significance,  and  greatly 
extended  our  knowledge  of  old  Doric  architecture  in 
the  Greece  of  the  West. 

Some  examples  may  be  quoted.  Near  Selinus  a 
pre-Dorian  sanctuary  appeared,  of  which  the  date  could 
approximately  be  fixed ;  the  result  has  been  a  general 
reduction  in  the  estimated  age  of  the  Doric  buildings. 
The  ends  of  the  pediments  of  two  very  ancient  temples 
— the  temple  C  at  Selinus  and  the  Temple  of  Ceres  at 
Paestum — showed  that  they  had  been  turned  down  at  the 
extremities,  an  otherwise  unknown  phenomenon  of  un- 
certain date.  At  Girgenti  the  position  of  the  figures  of 
Atlas  was  fixed  with  probable  accuracy.  By  a  close 
study  of  the  altars  before  the  temples,  the  so-called 
Basilica  at  Paestum,  with  two  naves  and  a  facade  of  nine 
columns,  was  recognized  as  a  temple  ;  formerly  it  had 
been  thought  a  stoa.  A  peculiarity  of  certain  Doric 
capitals,  a  sharp  narrowing  of  the  column  below  the 
echinus,  was  proved  to  be  characteristic  of  the  Achaean 
city  Paestum. 

A  sequel  to  these  studies  of  the  architecture  of  Magna 
Graecia  was  the  discovery  by  H.  Graillot,  in  1896,  of 
a  temple  at  Conca,  near  Antium,  which  Petersen  im- 
mediately investigated.  He  demonstrated  that  about 
500  a  temple  in  Latium  need  not  necessarily  have  had 
the  Italic,  but  could  have  had  the  pure  Greek  ground 
plan,  and  thereby  confirmed  a  fact  that  had  only  been 
known  from  scattered  records — the  influence  of  Greek  art 
upon  the  Rome  of  the  early  Republic.  According  to  the 
traditional  view,  Rome  in  those  times  had  been  entirely 
under  the  influence  of  Etruscan  art  and  culture. 

The  studies  undertaken  by  Petersen  led  to  the  dethrone- 
ment of  Etruria  in  favour  of  Greece  in  many  respects. 
He  proved  that  a  bronze  chariot,  covered  with  reliefs, 
found  at  Perugia  in  1812,  which  until  then  had  been 
looked  upon  as  one  of  the  greatest  Etruscan  works  of 


250    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

art,  was  not  Etruscan  at  all,  but  Ionian,  presumably 
derived  from  one  of  the  Ionian  colonies  of  Southern 
Italy.  What  applied  here  to  the  chariot  applied  to 
other  "  Etruscan "  works,  for  instance,  the  famous 
bronze  candelabrum  of  Cortona.  It  has  long  been 
known  that  the  Chimaera  of  Arezzo  was  Greek,  in  spite 
of  the  Etruscan  inscription.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  regards  the  superb  statue  of  a  youth  known  as  the 
Idolino  of  Pesaro. 

Petersen  extended  his  verdict  even  to  the  famous 
Capitoline  she-wolf  which  bears  no  trace  of  Etruscan 
character,  but,  as  Central  Italian  art  of  this  early  period 
could  scarcely  produce  so  good  a  work,  and  as  certain 
features  suggested  Ionian  art,  Petersen  conjectured  that 
it  had  been  made  by  Ionian  artists  for  Rome,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Republic  ;  a  parallel  to  the  contemporary 
Athenian  Tyrannicides,  inasmuch  as  the  twins  under 
the  she-wolf  represented  the  founders  of  Rome  in  con- 
trast to  the  kings.  To-day  certainly  early  Ionian  art  is 
viewed  with  a  more  critical  eye,  and  distinguished  from 
Etruscan  copies,  and  thereby  new  insight  has  been  gained 
into  Ionian  art,  particularly  that  of  Southern  Italy. 

For  example,  the  marble  relief  found  at  Nemi  in  1791 
representing  the  murder  of  ^Egisthus,  and  now  in  Copen- 
hagen, is  undoubtedly  a  genuine  old  Ionian  work ;  this 
is  confirmed  by  certain  resemblances  to  the  frieze  of  the 
Treasury  of  the  Siphnians  at  Delphi  (p.  150). 


Beside  Greek  models  in  Italic  art,  there  appear  the 
creative  productions  of  Central  Italy.  The  Etruscan, 
or  rather  the  old  Italic  temple  had,  until  recently,  been 
only  known  to  us  from  the  not  very  clear  description  of 
Vitruvius,  hence  attempts  at  its  reconstruction  varied 
greatly.  But  light  has  gradually  penetrated  this  domain 
as  well. 


OLD    ITALIC   TEMPLES  251 

In  the  garden  of  the  Palazzo  Caffarelli,  in  Rome,  there 
had  been  uncovered  in  1865,  and  again  in  1875-6,  the 
foundations  of  the  Temple  of  the  Capitoline  Jupiter ; 
measurements  were  taken,  so  that  an  idea  of  the  general 
plan  was  gained.  At  Ancient  Falerii  (Civita  Castellana) 
there  were  discovered  in  1887  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
tripartite  temple  of  Juno  Curitis,  the  whole  in  a  very 
damaged  condition.  At  Marzabotto,  however,  in  1888-9, 
a  number  of  ground  plans  were  obtained,  giving  a  clearer 
idea,  and  again  at  Alatri  in  1889,  and  at  Florence  in  1892. 
The  result  was  the  same  everywhere  :  in  the  place  of  the 
strict  rules  of  Vitruvius  a  great  variety  of  actual  ground 
plans  appeared. 

A  wall  closed  the  back,  a  wide  porch  or  vestibule  for 
the  observation  of  the  heavens,  the  threshold  of  the  cella, 
or  the  middle  one  of  the  three,  which  formed  the  con- 
secrated central  point  of  the  whole :  these  features 
always  recurred  as  demanded  by  the  ritual.  Otherwise 
great  diversity  existed  in  the  plans,  for  example,  whether 
the  temple  was  on  a  level  surface  or  on  an  elevation  ; 
if  so,  steps  only  in  front  led  to  it.  Discoveries  were  also 
made  of  the  terra-cotta  decoration  which  had  covered 
the  wooden  framework,  thus  illustrating  its  very  ornate 
character ;  ceramics  had  been  a  favourite  branch  of 
Etruscan  industry.  An  entire  pediment  group  of  terra- 
cotta of  the  Roman  Age  had  been  found  in  1842  at  Luni, 
near  Carrara,  but  its  significance  was  only  recognized 
by  Luigi  A.  Milani  in  1885. 

Beside  the  study  of  the  older  forms  of  Italic  temples, 
attention  was  drawn  to  the  long-neglected  subject  of 
the  gradual  transition  from  the  Italic  style  to  the  Greek. 
The  fantastic  work  in  Roman  architecture  of  Luigi 
Canina  had  long  enjoyed  a  reputation  it  hardly  deserved. 
But  a  more  thorough  study  was  undertaken  by  Carlo 
Promis  in  1836  of  the  remains  of  Alba  Fucens  in  the  dis- 
trict of  the  jEqui.  R.  Delbriick  has  recently  begun 


252    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

connected  investigations  of  the  temples  in  Central  Italy, 
and  traced  in  the  Temples  of  Signia,  Norba,  and  Gabii 
the  Greek  influence  on  the  form  of  the  temple  and  its 
development,  as  well  as  the  transition  from  wood  to 
stone  construction ;  finally,  he  has  shown  how  towards 
the  end  of  the  war  of  Hannibal,  the  Asian  mode  of 
construction  of  Hermogenes  was  transferred  to  Rome, 
only  to  degenerate  in  strange  soil.  Temples  that  had 
long  been  known,  as  the  Ionic  Temple  of  Mater  Matuta 
(the  so-called  Fortuna  Virilis)  in  Rome,  or  the  round 
Corinthian  Temple  at  Tivoli,  only  now  appeared  in 
their  true  connection.  The  Temple  at  Cori,  in  the 
Volscian  hills,  in  a  most  beautiful  situation,  shows  how 
the  Doric  style  deteriorated  in  Italy,  and  soon  gave 
way  to  the  Tuscan  style. 


So  great  a  transformation  as  was  caused  in  Rome  by 
the  change  of  the  quiet  Papal  residence  into  the  capital 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  had  not  been  witnessed  since 
the  days  of  Sixtus  V.  The  topography  of  Ancient  Rome 
became  better  known  in  consequence  of  new  data. 
Eager  and  able  workers,  like  Rjtlolfo  Lanciani,  Henri 
Jordan,  and  the  secretary  of  the  German  Institute, 
C.  Hiilsen,  were  very  active.  The  laying  out  of  new 
streets  and  the  erection  of  new  buildings  led  everywhere 
to  the  discovery  of  fragments  of  ancient  buildings  or  of 
sculpture,  so  that  the  Municipal  Museum  on  the  Capitol 
soon  became  too  small  to  contain  the  incessant  stream 
of  treasures.  Besides  the  accidental  finds,  systematic 
research  was  carried  on. 

The  work  begun  by  Napoleon  III  on  the  Palatine 
was  continued,  and  extended  nearly  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  hill,  so  as  to  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  this 
part  of  the  city,  which  became  a  fashionable  quarter 
towards  the  end  of  the  Republic,  and  where  the  palaces 


THE    FORUM  253 

of  the  world-ruling  emperors  had  been.  The  palace  of 
Augustus,  known  from  ancient  prints,  although  only  in 
a  late  reconstruction,  is  beneath  the  Villa  Mills  ;  the 
latter,  it  is  said,  is  now  to  go.  It  is  a  question  whether 
the  gain  to  archaeology  will  counterbalance  the  loss  of 
the  poetic  cypresses.  Many  years  of  work  in  the  Forum 
have  enlightened  us  on  numerous  points  of  Roman  to- 
pography and  antiquity,  and  even  shed  rays  of  light 
upon  the  prehistoric  times  of  the  city,  but  the  Campo 
vaccino,  once  so  lovely,  has  now  become  an  ugly  pit  full 
of  trenches  and  mounds  of  earth.  It  is  difficult  to  find 
compensation  for  this  unattractive  sight  in  the  much- 
vaunted  lapis  niger  over  the  grave  of  Romulus,  or  in 
the  remains  of  the  palace  of  the  Vestal  Virgins,  or  in  the 
Temple  of  Augustus.  The  impression  made  by  the  Arch 
of  Titus  has  certainly  been  enhanced,  for  only  since  the 
excavations  has  the  ridge  of  the  Velia,  upon  which  it  is 
situated,  produced  its  full  effect ;  seen  from  the  Forum, 
the  monument  of  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  now  appears 
on  an  imposing  height. 

Among  the  most  valuable  archaeological  acquisitions 
is  the  house  of  the  Augustan  Age,  discovered  in  the  garden 
of  the  famous  Villa  Farnesina  in  1878,  in  consequence 
of  the  regulation  of  the  course  of  the  Tiber.  Its  well- 
preserved  wall  paintings  exhibit  the  second  style 
in  a  wealth  of  form,  a  beauty  of  design  and  brilliant 
colouring,  which,  as  in  the  paintings  of  the  Palatine, 
mark  the  artistic  superiority  of  the  great  capital  to  the 
Pompeian  country  town. 

The  stucco  decorations  of  the  ceilings,  imaginative  and 
subtly  suggestive  as  they  are  and  free  from  all  suspicion 
of  the  mechanical,  exhibit  one  of  the  most  artistic  ex- 
amples of  decorative  work  in  antiquity.  These  treasures, 
recovered  at  a  place  hallowed  by  modern  art,  are  now 
the  valued  possessions  of  the  newly  found  Museo  Nazionale 
in  the  Thermae  of  Diocletian. 


254    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

Many  other  treasures  discovered  during  the  last 
decades  are  stored  in  the  Museo  delle  Terme.  One  of 
the  loveliest  pieces  of  sculpture  revealed  in  Roman  soil 
was  found  in  1887,  when  the  Villa  Ludovisi  was  wantonly 
wrecked  and  transformed  into  lodging-houses.  It  is 
the  back  of  a  marble  throne  with  a  representation  of 
Aphrodite  rising  from  the  sea,  while  to  the  right  and  left 
she  is  tenderly  received  by  a  nymph.  A  masterpiece 
of  Greek  sculpture,  dating  from  the  transition  to  the 
best  period.  This  valuable  piece  has  found  a  home  in 
the  Museo  delle  Terme  with  the  entire  Ludovisi  collection, 
one  of  the  most  important  private  collections  of  papal 
Rome. 

Here,  in  the  upper  storey,  we  meet  the  noble  Vestal — 
the  prototype  of  an  aristocratic  abbess — found  in  1883  at 
the  Temple  of  Vesta  in  the  Forum.  Among  the  bronzes 
is  the  unkempt  pugilist,  found  in  the  Via  Nazionale  in 
1884,  a  seated  figure  with  a  broken  nose,  swollen  ears, 
and  scratched  arms,  but  nevertheless  full  of  indomitable 
brutality,  a  work  well  executed  and  characteristic  of  the 
taste  of  later  times ;  beside  it  the  bronze  head  of  a  victor 
found  at  Olympia,  although  also  of  ungainly  form,  appears 
as  the  representative  of  a  nobler  race. 

Some  consideration  was  now  devoted  to  old  and  well- 
known  statues  of  the  time  of  the  Empire.  Archaeology 
had  hitherto  treated  Roman  art  very  grudgingly.  The 
great  number  and  great  significance  of  the  ever-increasing 
Greek  works  had  pushed  the  Roman  ones  into  the  back- 
ground. Friedrich  von  Duhn  had  in  1879-81  drawn 
attention  to  some  scattered  reliefs  as  belonging  to  the 
Ara  Pacis.  This  the  Senate  had  vowed  in  the  year  13  B.C., 
after  the  Emperor  Augustus  had  established  peace  in  the 
empire,  and  had  dedicated  it  to  the  goddess  of  peace 
three  and  a  half  years  later.  Eugen  Petersen  began  its 
investigation  in  1894,  and  finally  established  its  form, 
the  extent  of  the  walls  about  the  altar,  and  the  distri- 


ARA    PACTS  255 

bution  and  significance  of  the  decoration.  The  true 
Roman  solemnity  of  the  frieze  and  its  extreme  fidelity 
to  nature  soon  gained  for  the  Ara  Pacis  its  place  as  the 
foremost  work  of  Augustan  sculpture  and  as  a  character- 
istic parallel  to  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  which  repre- 
sents Periclean  Athens. 

We  had  acquired  something  quite  novel  here ;  but 
what  was  its  bearing  on  our  knowledge  of  the  presumably 
well-known  official  sculpture  of  the  Empire  ?  The  work 
begun  by  Adolph  Philippi  in  1872  was  resumed  by 
Edmond  Courbaud  in  1890.  But  the  most  important 
task  still  remained.  Franz  Wickhoffs  analysis  of  the 
reliefs  on  the  Arch  of  Titus  in  1895  and  some  works 
connected  therewith,  gave  us  a  clearer  view  of  art  in  the 
time  of  the  Flavian  emperors,  although  this  work  was 
somewhat  impaired  by  the  over-estimation  of  Roman 
sculpture  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Hellenistic. 

Konrad  Cichorius'  publication  in  1896-1900  of  the 
reliefs  on  the  Column  of  Trojan  first  prepared  the  way 
for  a  more  thorough  historical  and  archaeological  treat- 
ment of  a  work  which  till  then  had  been  unduly  depre- 
ciated. The  photographs  and  casts  taken  of  the  Column 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  at  the  expense  of  the  German  Emperor 
in  1895,  under  the  direction  of  Petersen,  A.  v.  Domas- 
zewski,  and  the  architect  Calderini,  provided  a  basis 
for  its  scientific  study.  On  the  one  hand  we  have  ethno- 
logically  instructive  representations  of  the  Marcomanni 
and  other  enemies  of  the  emperor,  while  on  the  other 
hand  appeared  the  transformation  of  the  frequently 
poetic  tale  of  Trajan  into  a  dry  matter-of-fact  chronicle. 
Finally,  on  the  Arch  of  Constantine  Petersen  distinguished 
the  parts  dating  from  the  time  of  Trajan,  the  round  reliefs, 
from  the  oblong  panels,  which  belong  to  the  time  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  thus  definitely  establishing  important 
points  in  the  art  of  the  Empire.  A  frieze  of  Poseidon  at 
Munich,  which  Heinrich  Brunn  in  1876  felt  inclined  to 


256    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

ascribe  to  Scopas,  but  Overbeck  and  others  more  cor- 
rectly ascribed  to  Hellenistic  art,  Adolph  Furtwangler 
recognized  in  1896  as  belonging  to  the  front  of  a  great 
altar — now  in  the  Louvre — representing  a  great  Roman 
sacrifice,  the  Suovetaurilia,  and  belonging  to  the  Temple 
of  Neptune,  erected  by  Gnaeus  Domitius  Ahenobarbus 
about  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Actium  :  Brunn  had 
also  thought  of  this  as  its  original  place.  The  great 
barriers  found  in  the  Forum  in  1872,  with  representations 
in  relief  of  the  Forum  and  of  official  acts  of  Trajan,  were 
ascribed  by  Petersen  in  1898  to  the  balustrade  of  the 
tribune  as  their  original  place.  This  will  suffice  to  show 
that  our  knowledge  of  the  historical  sculpture  of  the 
empire  has  been  placed  upon  a  secure  footing.  How- 
ever, the  most  important  examples  of  the  architecture 
of  these  times  still  await  investigation,  which  so  far  has 
only  taken  place  in  single  cases. 

Work  continued  at  Pompeii  on  the  lines  described 
above  (p.  159).  One  part  after  another  of  the  ancient 
city  was  uncovered.  Public  buildings,  as  the  so-called 
Stabian  Thermae  or  as  the  completely  destroyed  temple 
of  the  city  divinity,  Venus,  appear  only  rarely.  The 
greatest  interest  was  roused  in  1894-5  by  the  discovery 
of  the  rich  and  well-preserved  house  of  the  Vettii  with 
1 88  paintings  ;  efforts  were  made  to  preserve  this  private 
house  as  completely  and  perfectly  as  possible.  The 
same  method  has  since  been  applied  at  the  Casa  degli 
Amorini  dorati,  with  its  wealth  of  art  objects.  Gilt 
cupids  below  mirrors  have  given  to  the  house  its  name. 
An  unusual  discovery  was  made  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Pompeii  at  Boscoreale,  where  in  1894-6  a  country 
house  and  a  farm  were  excavated  by  A.  Pasqui.  Here 
everything  was  quite  different  from  the  town  residence 
of  Diomedes,  and  for  the  first  time  did  we  gain  an  idea 
of  a  villa  rustica. 


BOSCOREALE  257 

Recently  our  hopes  had  been  revived  that  the  long- 
neglected  excavations  at  Herculaneum  might  be  re- 
sumed. Charles  Waldstein  projected  plans  by  which 
this  great  work  would  have  been  carried  on  by  inter- 
national subscription,  and  greatly  exerted  himself  in 
its  behalf.  The  Italian  Government  was  at  times  favour- 
ably inclined  and  again  opposed  to  these  plans,  according 
to  the  ministry  in  power,  but  finally  the  proud  word 
prevailed,  Italia  jar  a  da  st.  We  can  only  wait  patiently 
and  hope  that  our  descendants  may  see  the  sister  town 
to  Pompeii  brought  back  to  the  light  of  day. 

The  owner  of  the  country  home  at  Boscoreale  was 
not  able  to  save  his  superb  silver,  which  had  been  gathered 
together,  before  the  same  catastrophe  overtook  his 
property  as  the  neighbouring  Pompeii.  It  formed  a 
large  collection  when  discovered,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
Italian  law  prohibiting  the  export  of  works  of  art,  soon 
found  its  way  to  Paris,  and  was  acquired  by  Baron 
Edmond  de  Rothschild,  who  presented  it  to  the  Louvre, 
with  the  exception  of  two  interesting  cups,  which  he 
retained.  It  forms  a  magnificent  treasure,  a  combina- 
tion of  Hellenistic  and  Roman  objects.  A  cup  which 
rapidly  became  famous  represents  a  dance  of  death  of 
Greek  poets  and  philosophers,  and  probably  origin- 
ated in  Alexandria ;  another  cup  with  handles  has  such 
graphic  representations  of  storks  that  it  must  have 
come  from  the  home  of  storks,  presumably  Asia  Minor  ; 
a  sumptuous  cup  with  a  medallion  of  Alexandria  or 
Africa  was,  undoubtedly,  copied  from  an  original  from 
Alexandria.  Tankards  with  historical  scenes  from  the  lives 
of  the  Emperors  Augustus  and  Tiberius,  and  cups  with 
Roman  portraits,  leave  no  doubt  as  to  their  Roman  origin. 
Thus  a  distinction  was  clearly  indicated  between  Hellen- 
istic (not  merely  Alexandrian)  and  Roman  art,  a  dis- 
tinction which  extended  to  certain  marble  reliefs  having 
pictorial  characteristics.  The  opinion  of  scholars  has 
s 


258    SINGLE   DISCOVERIES   ON   CLASSIC   SOIL 

recently  inclined  more  towards  Roman  art,  particularly 
in  the  better  examples  of  the  Augustan  Age  ;  this  by  no 
means  excludes  Hellenistic  models,  which  in  many  in- 
stances may  be  assumed.  Involuntarily  one  thinks 
of  the  relation  of  Roman  poetry,  under  the  empire,  to 
Hellenistic  models. 

The  discovery  of  the  silver  treasure  at  Boscoreale  was 
not  the  first  of  its  kind.  In  Normandy,  at  Berthouville, 
near  Bernay,  there  was  found  in  1830  a  great  silver  treasure 
from  a  Temple  of  Mercury,  now  preserved  in  the  Cabinet 
de  Me*  dailies  in  Paris.  It  can  probably  be  dated  later 
than  the  treasure  of  Boscoreale,  and  testifies  to  the 
ostentatious  and  less  pure  taste  of  the  late  empire. 

Some  time  after  this,  in  1858,  there  were  taken  from 
the  Rhine  at  Lauersfort,  near  Xanten,  silver  decorations 
(phalerce)  of  a  Roman  officer,  viz.  nine  silver  medals  with 
representations  protecting  the  owner  from  evil  or  magic. 
More  important  artistically  was  the  great  silver  treasure 
found  in  1868  on  the  parade  ground  at  Hildesheim  ;  it 
belongs  mainly  to  the  early  empire,  and  may  have  been 
the  dinner  service  of  a  Roman  general,  even  if  not  of 
Varro.  It  has  been  restored  with  great  care  at  the 
Berlin  Museum.  On  the  whole  very  similar  to  the  trea- 
sure of  Boscoreale,  in  some  single  pieces  it  excels  it, 
as,  for  example,  the  great  mixing  bowl  and  the  Athena 
cup — and  it  offers  the  same  problems. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  craft  of  the  silversmith 
was  most  zealously  carried  on  in  imperial  Rome.  Pliny's 
saying,  that  the  art  of  the  silversmiths  and  engravers 
had  expired,  must  be  applied  to  their  inventive  genius, 
and  not  to  technical  finish. 

These  later  examples  have  taken  us  beyond  the  boun- 
daries of  Italy  into  foreign  countries,  which  we  will  rapidly 
traverse  in  the  next  chapter. 


X 

SINGLE  DISCOVERIES  IN  OUTLYING  COUNTRIES 

THE  two  lands  of  classical  fame  are  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  countries  of  such  great  diversity  as  to 
render  an  entirely  different  point  of  view  necessary, 
according  as  the  art  of  a  country  developed  along  the 
lines  of  indigenous  tradition  or  developed  through  Greek 
or  Roman  stimulus.  The  east  naturally  comes  under 
the  former,  the  west  and  the  north  under  the  latter  point 
of  view. 

In  consequence  of  the  preponderating  political  in- 
fluence of  France  in  Egypt,  scientific  investigations  there 
had  practically  been  in  her  hands  since  the  middle  of 
the  century.  Auguste  Mariette,  rather  a  fortunate 
discoverer  than  a  profound  investigator,  excavated  a 
series  of  temples  of  the  New  Kingdom  or  the  times  of 
the  Ptolemies  and  the  empire  of  Edfu,  Dendera,  Karnak, 
and  Deir-el-Bahari.  Abydos  also  owes  to  him  its  dis- 
covery. At  the  beginning  of  Mariette's  activity,  of  great 
importance  was  the  complete  clearing  from  sand  of  the 
Serapeum  at  Memphis,  a  work  of  four  years  (1851-5). 
Unfortunately  to-day  it  has  again  disappeared  under 
the  sand,  and  is  awaiting  a  thorough  excavation  by  the 
Egyptian  Government,  which  began  work  at  Sakkara 
in  1905.  The  main  sanctuary  of  the  later  chief  divinity 
of  Egypt  had  then  been  visible  with  its  graves  of  Apis 
and  a  great  variety  of  sculpture ;  in  one  passage  two 

259 


26o    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

adjoining  chapels,  one  Egyptian,  the  other  Greek,  made 
the  twofold  character  of  the  Ptolemaic  Age  very  evident. 

Mariette,  as  the  director  of  the  Museum  founded  by 
him  at  Bulak,  transferred  to  Gizeh  and  now  at  Cairo, 
excavated  some  neighbouring  graves  with  very  different 
contents.  One  need  only  refer  to  the  squatting  figure 
of  a  scribe  at  the  Louvre,  to  recall  the  remarkable  dis- 
covery that  a  vigorous  art  existed  under  the  Old  King- 
dom in  the  fifth  Dynasty. 

Here  was  an  undreamt-of  new  outlook  into  early 
Egyptian  art.  Free,  as  yet,  from  the  conventional 
limitations  and  subservience  to  architecture  of  the  later 
plastic  art,  this  sculpture,  though  observing  the  law  of 
frontality,  and  its  own  canons  of  style,  exhibits  greater 
freedom  and  independence,  is  based  upon  the  closest 
observation,  and  possesses  a  wonderful  mastery  of  tech- 
nique— and  that  too  in  the  middle  of  the  third  millen- 
nium !  And  the  scribe  was  not  a  unique  instance, 
for  the  village  sheik  soon  surpassed  him  in  popularity, 
and  a  great  number  of  animated  figures  engaged  in  the 
occupations  of  daily  life  appeared  beside  these. 

As  director  of  Egyptian  antiquities  Mariette  was 
succeeded  in  1881  by  Gaston  Camille  Maspero,  who 
emphasized  the  historical  and  philological  sides  of 
Egyptian  research  and  brought  these  studies  to  a  high 
pitch  of  excellence.  Besides  the  great  Pyramids  of 
Gizeh,  he  investigated  the  smaller  and  somewhat  later 
Pyramids  of  Sakkara,  structures  of  the  fifth  and  sixth 
Dynasties.  Long  religious  texts  were  disclosed  in  their 
interiors,  affording  insight  into  the  religion  of  the  age 
of  the  Pyramids.  The  oldest  period  of  the  Egyptian 
language  was  here  for  the  first  time  discovered,  and  there- 
by a  foundation  acquired  for  Egyptian  grammar,  as 
established  by  Adolf  Erman. 

The  perfect  method  with  which  excavations  were 
carried  on  marked  a  further  advance.  The  Egyptian 


EXCAVATIONS    IN   EGYPT  261 

Government,  under  the  direction  of  the  French,  ex- 
cavated and  partly  restored  the  great  Temples  at  Medinet 
Habu,  Luxor,  and  Karnak.  Other  nations  soon  vied 
with  the  French,  foremost  among  them  the  English, 
whose  political  influence  in  Egypt  had  greatly  increased  ; 
the  Americans  soon  followed,  and,  lastly,  the  Germans. 
The  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund,  founded  in  1882,  and 
the  German  Orient  Society,  which  has  been  active  in 
Egypt  since  1902,  are  both  carrying  on  thorough  re- 
search work  at  important  sites.  For  example,  the  former 
excavated  under  Edward  Naville  at  Deir  el  Bahari  in 
1894-6  the  great  terrace-temple  of  Hatshepsut,  and  in 
1903-7  he  uncovered  the  oldest  Theban  Temple,  that 
of  the  Dead,  erected  by  King  Mentuhotep,  about  2100  ; 
it  is  a  terraced  structure  leaning  against  the  rocks ; 
a  pyramid  once  adorned  the  top,  a  later  peculiar  variety 
of  the  old  type  of  pyramid.  Flinders  Petrie,  who  had 
gained  some  experience  at  home  with  British  antiquities, 
has  distinguished  himself  greatly  by  the  energy  with 
which  he  has  undertaken  new  excavations.  He  has 
since  1880  transferred  the  zeal  of  an  enthusiast  to  his 
work  in  Egypt,  displaying  the  energy  of  a  Schliemann 
combined  with  a  much  more  scientific  mind.  After 
some  investigations  of  the  Pyramids  he  directed  his  at- 
tention to  the  uncovering  of  entire  cities,  according  to 
the  tendency  in  classic  lands,  recorded  above  (Chap. 
VII).  His  lucid  reports  followed  at  short  intervals, 
always  immediately  after  the  excavations.  Naukratis 
(1884-6)  has  been  mentioned  above ;  it  had  been  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  ancient  Greek  commerce  with  the 
country  of  the  Nile. 

In  1889  he  excavated  near  Illahun,  a  city  of  pyramids 
of  the  Middle  Kingdom;  not  only  did  this  disclose  the 
character  of  Egyptian  dwellings,  but  when  the  excavations 
were  resumed  there  in  1899  a  great  find  of  papyri  made  it 
possible  to  fix  astronomically  the  date  of  the  Middle 


262    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

Kingdom.  It  was  here  that  the  first  Mycenaean  sherds 
were  found  in  Egypt,  which  Petrie  discovered  in  great 
numbers  in  1895,  although  of  a  later  date  by  500 
years.  Tell-el-Armana,  the  residence  of  the  reformer 
King,  Akenaton  or  Amenhotep  IV,  was  excavated  and 
aroused  extraordinary  interest.  A  realism  quite  un- 
known in  Egypt  distinguished  the  pictures  of  this  heretic 
King,  who  would  not  worship  the  sun-god  Ra,  but  the 
sun  itself  with  its  fiery  rays.  The  landscapes  and  animal 
scenes  in  his  palaces  suggested  a  foreign  "  Achaean  " 
influence  at  that  time  in  Egypt ;  a  view,  however, 
recently  opposed  by  Egyptologists.  The  clay  archives 
of  this  palace  had  already  been  found  in  1887,  giving 
in  cuneiform  a  surprising  view  of  the  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence of  the  great  powers,  Egypt  and  Babylonia, 
c.  1400  B.C.  Since  1895  the  architect  L.  Borchardt  has 
greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  scientific  and 
methodical  explorations.  He  excavated  in  1899-1901 
for  the  Berlin  Museum — with  generous  support  from 
W.  van  Bissing — the  sanctuary  of  the  sun-god  Ra,  near 
Abu  Gurab,  on  the  summit  of  which  there  had  been 
an  obelisk.  The  elaborate  reliefs  of  this  temple  refuted 
the  earlier  views  that  the  temples  of  the  Old  Kingdom 
had  been  without  decorations. 

We  are  indebted  to  Borchardt,  in  consequence  of  his 
excavations  carried  on  in  1902-4  for  the  German  Orient 
Society  at  Abusir,  for  a  better  understanding  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  building  of  pyramids  and  the  extensive 
structures  of  which  the  pyramids  only  formed  a  part ; 
an  entrance  gate  on  the  shore  of  the  Nile,  during  the  in- 
undations, led  to  a  covered  ascending  passage,  this  to 
the  funereal  temple,  behind  which  rose  the  pyramid. 

The  French  at  Abu  Roash  have  worked  along  the  same 
lines,  and  the  Americans  at  Gizeh  have  investigated  the 
funereal  Temple  of  the  Pyramids. 

Borchardt  has  also  illuminated  to  some  extent  the 


THE   TOMBS   OF   KINGS  263 

form  of  the  column  in  Egypt,  and  the  excavation  of  the 
great  Temple  at  Thebes  mentioned  above  has  afforded 
him  an  opportunity  to  develop  the  complicated  history 
of  the  main  parts  of  this  gigantic  structure  (1905). 

The  investigations  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom  have  been  most  successful,  rather  in 
regard  to  the  remarkable  offerings  found  with  the  dead 
than  architecturally.  The  fame  of  the  valuable  find 
made  by  J.  de  Morgan  in  the  Tombs  of  the  Princesses 
of  Dahshur  is  fully  justified.  Incomparable  technique 
combined  with  sumptuous  material  produced  model 
creations  in  Egyptian  artistic  productions.  The  Tombs 
of  the  Kings  of  the  New  Kingdom  at  Biban-el-Muluk, 
excavated  in  recent  years  by  the  generosity  of  the 
American,  Theodore  Davis,  have  disclosed  art  treasures 
of  equal  merit  and  beauty.  As  the  Egyptian  soil  is 
so  very  dry,  even  wooden  furniture  and  utensils  are 
perfectly  preserved.  It  is  owing  to  this  circumstance, 
combined  with  the  excellent  embalming  methods  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  that  certain  distinguished  dead  Kings 
of  the  New  Kingdom  have  come  down  to  us  so  well 
preserved  that  we  know  their  features  better  than  from 
statues  or  pictures. 

The  latest  stages  of  research  in  Egypt  have  here,  as 
elsewhere,  extended  the  limits  of  our  knowledge  back- 
wards, to  the  earliest  dynasties,  beginning  with  King 
Menes,  and,  indeed,  further  still  to  the  dawn  of  Egyptian 
civilization.  During  the  last  ten  years  there  have  been 
engaged  in  this  field  E.  Am61ineau  at  Abydos  ;  J.  de 
Morgan  at  Nagada  ;  Flinders  Petrie  at  Abydos ;  and 
J.  E.  Quibell  at  Kom-el-achmar. 

Borchardt  recognized  at  Nagada  in  1879  the  tomb  of 
King  Menes  about  3400,  very  different  from  later  tombs, 
but  instructive  as  to  their  origin.  The  wall  paintings 
at  Kom-el-achmar  (Hierakonpolis),  and  the  decoration 
on  the  numerous  pots  found  in  the  prehistoric  burial- 


264    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

grounds  revealed  a  childish  art,  while  the  ivory  statuette 
of  an  aged  King  displayed  a  closely  observant  naturalism. 
The  forerunners  of  the  art  relief  of  the  Old  Kingdom 
are  to  be  found  in  the  reliefs  of  the  great  cosmetic  palettes 
of  the  older  Kings. 

By  placing  the  older  possessions  of  their  temples  aside, 
the  ancient  Egyptians  have  allowed  us,  who  follow,  to 
recover  here  and  there  remarkable  glimpses  of  antiquity. 
Thus  Quibell  found  in  the  Temple  of  Kom-el-achmar,  in 
1897,  besides  numerous  examples  of  the  first  Dynasty, 
a  life-size  statue  in  copper  of  King  Pepy,  of  the  sixth 
Dynasty.  And  Legrain  discovered  near  the  Temple  at 
Karnak  in  1904  a  pit  filled  with  hundreds  of  statues, 
which  had  evidently  been  put  there  in  Ptolemaic  times. 

In  consequence  of  these  finds  of  prehistoric  and  ancient 
art,  the  same  questions  arise  in  Egypt  as  in  Greece,  as  to 
the  origin  of  Egyptian  art,  and  as  to  the  age  of  the  con- 
ventional forms  which  are  so  characteristic  of  it.  Some 
progress  is  being  made  towards  the  solution  of  these 
difficult  problems. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  Ptolemaic-Roman  period  has 
also  been  extended.  The  unexpected  information  we 
have  acquired  of  the  administrative  history  of  Egypt, 
which  has  come  to  us  through  the  numberless  papyri 
found,  can  only  be  mentioned  here.  Greek  literature 
has  likewise  been  enriched  from  the  same  sources  by 
fragments  of  Bacchylides  and  Menander  and  Aristotle's 
Athenian  Constitution. 

There  were  found,  in  1887,  in  the  Fayum  a  great  num- 
ber of  pictures  painted  on  thin  slabs  of  wood,  which 
created  great  interest ;  these  had  originally,  like  the 
Egyptian  and  Mycenaean  gold  masks,  covered  the  faces 
of  mummies.  These  very  interesting  paintings,  although 
of  very  different  degrees  of  artistic  merit,  were  at  first 
placed  in  the  times  of  the  Ptolemies,  but  have  later 
been  recognized  as  mainly  productions  of  the  Roman 


THE   MUSEUM    AT    ALEXANDRIA  265 

period.  Besides  adding  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of 
portrait  painting,  those  tablets  have  informed  us  as  to 
the  technique  of  tempera  and  encaustic  painting  and 
their  occasional  combination.  Efforts  have  also  been 
made  to  acquire  fresh  material  in  the  domain  of  Hellenistic- 
Alexandrian  art,  a  task  to  which  T.  Schreiber  has  devoted 
himself. 

While  Egyptologists  are  devoting  themselves  almost 
exclusively  to  Ancient  Egypt — in  the  days  of  her  glory 
and  independence — there  still  remains  a  great  deal  to  be 
done  for  our  knowledge  of  Alexandria,  as  the  centre  of 
"  Alexandrian  "  art ;  only  a  few  decades  ago  the  very 
existence  of  an  Alexandrian  art  was  doubted.  Unfor- 
tunately the  excavations  undertaken  at  Alexandria  by 
Schreiber,  in  1898-9  and  in  1900-1,  at  the  expense  of 
E.  Sieglin,  did  not  result  very  favourably.  Giuseppe 
Botti  has  established  in  the  Alexandrian  Museum  a 
definite  place  for  the  collection  of  this  material.  Besides 
collecting  many  single  objects,  he  succeeded  in  preserving 
in  1900  a  Graeco- Roman  tomb  at  Kom-esh-Shukafa,  of 
several  storeys  and  of  rather  complicated  plan.  While 
the  art  of  Ptolemaic  times  was  marked  by  a  sharp  separa- 
tion between  the  native  and  Greek  elements,  we  find 
during  the  Empire  a  syncretism  of  form  and  contents 
such  as  is  peculiar  to  the  later  art  of  Egypt. 

The  Museum  in  Alexandria  has  found  in  E.  Breccia  a 
zealous  director  for  its  rapidly  increasing  treasures ;  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  will  gradually  collect  and  save 
the  scattered  remains  of  Hellenistic  and  Roman  Alex- 
andria. How  little  care  has  been  taken  in  certain  cases 
is  demonstrated  by  the  fate  of  a  sanctuary  of  the  early 
times  of  the  Ptolemies  erected  by  the  admiral  Kalli- 
krates,  on  the  seashore,  near  the  capital,  to  Arsince,  the 
wife  of  Ptolemy  II,  who  was  worshipped  as  Aphrodite. 
It  was  cleared  of  sand  and  hastily  surveyed  in  1865, 
and,  so  far  as  the  stones  have  not  been  carried  off  as 


266    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

building  material,  is  now  again  completely  enveloped 
in  sand. 

Only  recently  has  it  become  possible  to  investigate 
the  antiquities  of  Abyssinia,  the  fanaticism  of  the  in- 
habitants and  its  inaccessibility  rendering  the  work  most 
difficult.  The  connection  Germany  has  established  with 
the  Negus  Menelik  and  the  generosity  of  the  Emperor 
William  resulted  in  an  expedition  in  1906,  in  which  the 
orientalist  Enno  Littmann,  and  the  architects  D.  Krencker 
and  T.  von  Liipke,  took  part.  Near  Adua,  at  Aksum, 
the  capital  of  the  ancient  Aksuman  Empire,  which  flour- 
ished during  the  first  four  or  five  centuries  after  Christ, 
there  were  discovered  besides  remains  of  temples  and 
palaces  the  great  "  Kings'  chairs,"  erected  in  honour  of 
the  gods,  and  a  number  of  huge  monolithic  stelae.  The 
latter,  while  rivalling  the  obelisks  in  height,  imitate 
ancient  wooden  architecture  with  separate  storeys  and 
beams,  and  are  of  peculiar  interest,  inasmuch  as  they 
do  not  resemble  any  art  in  the  land  of  the  Nile.  South 
Arabian  influences  have  been  conjectured,  and  in  certain 
details  Hellenistic  influences  can  be  traced. 


The  civilization  of  Egypt  had  formerly  been  considered 
far  more  ancient  than  that  of  Mesopotamia,  but  of  late 
this  view  has  been  strongly  contested. 

On  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  as  elsewhere,  excavations 
have  opened  vistas  into  entirely  unknown  ages.  The 
Assyrian  discoveries  mentioned  above  (p.  88)  did  not 
date  further  back  than  the  ninth  century,  but  the  field 
of  research  was  now  transferred  further  south,  to  Baby- 
lonia, where  the  two  rivers  approach  one  another  and 
finally  unite.  Here  it  was  possible  to  penetrate  to  the 
most  remote  antiquity.  Babylonia  had  frequently  been 
the  object  of  scientific  journeys.  Since  the  middle  of 
the  century  the  geologist  W.  Kenneth  Loftus,  1849-52 


BABYLONIA  267 

and  1853-5,  and  the  British  Vice-Consul  J.  E.  Taylor, 
1853-5,  had  distinguished  themselves  by  work  done  in 
the  lower  river  basin.  Our  first  glimpse  into  ancient 
Babylonian  decoration  and  architecture  was  afforded 
by  a  carpet-like  wall  decoration  at  Warka,  and  by  the 
remains  of  a  step-pyramid  at  Mugheir. 

But  the  results  of  the  work  carried  on  by  the  French 
Vice-Consul  Ernest  de  Sarzec,  who  lived  there  some 
years,  were  of  greater  importance.  His  excavations 
carried  on  at  Telloh  in  1877-8  and  1880-1  secured  for 
the  Louvre  a  series  of  reliefs  and  statues  of  the  petty 
Prince  Gudea,  which  testify  to  an  art,  combining  critical 
observation  with  eminent  skill  in  overcoming  technical 
difficulties  in  hard  material,  and  in  some  respects  ex- 
hibiting more  freedom  than  all  later  Mesopotamian  art. 
According  to  the  results  of  late  finds,  these  works  will 
probably  have  to  be  dated  about  2600,  and  thus  would 
be  contemporary  with  the  beginning  of  art  in  Egypt 
under  the  Old  Kingdom.  That  the  art  of  Telloh  is 
not  the  beginning  or  an  early  stage  of  an  art  can  hardly 
be  questioned,  when  its  technical  perfection  is  considered. 
A  little  later  than  de  Sarzec's  time  the  Americans  began 
work  at  Nippur,  in  1888-1900,  under  the  direction  of 
Peters,  Haynes,  Hilprecht,  and  Fisher.  Great  structures 
were  discovered,  step-pyramids  (Ziggurat)  and  temples 
such  as  the  "  House  of  Bel  "  ;  while  at  Abu  Habba  the 
Temple  of  the  Sun  was  excavated  by  the  Turkish  Museum 
under  Father  Scheil  and  Bedri  Bey.  The  archaic  plastic 
art  which  had  been  disclosed  at  Telloh  was  here  supple- 
mented by  heads  of  bulls  and  goats  cast  in  bronze.  For 
Mesopotamia  these  discoveries  signified  the  revelation  of 
a  highly  developed  early  culture,  comparable  with  the 
disclosure  of  the  ^Egean  civilization  in  the  Greek  coun- 
tries. 

Besides  these  single  sites  of  Sumerian  and  early  Semitic 
art  (the  latter  had  existed  early  in  Northern  Babylonia), 


268    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

Babylon  appeared  as  the  capital  of  the  Empire  of  Ham- 
murabi (c.  2200).  The  ruins  of  Babel,  near  Hillah,  also 
those  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  which  were  sought  for  at 
Birs-Nimrud  (Borsippa),  had  early  attracted  attention, 
and  were  examined  and  described  at  various  times  by 
Layard,  Rawlinson,  and  Rassam.  In  1851-4  Jules 
Oppert,  with  Fresnel  and  the  architect  Felix  Thomas, 
carried  on  extensive  investigations -here.  But  thorough 
excavations,  on  a  great  scale,  were  not  undertaken,  and 
the  transportable  results  of  the  last  expedition  were  lost 
in  the  river.  Georges  Perrot  wrote  in  1884  as  follows  : 
"  There  is  more  than  one  mound  in  the  plain  which  no 
spade  has  ever  disturbed,  and  each  of  these  hillocks 
certainly  corresponds  to  some  structure  of  great  age,  to 
some  group  of  houses  or  fragment  of  walls.  It  would  be 
a  creditable  task  to  excavate  these  three  or  four  great 
ruins,  which  are  on  the  site  of  Babylon,  to  their  very 
foundation,  and  to  examine  carefully  their  surroundings. 
Such  an  undertaking  might  be  costly  and  tedious,  but  it 
would  greatly  extend  our  scanty  knowledge  of  ancient 
Chaldaea ;  it  would  be  an  honour  to  the  Government 
which  would  undertake  it,  but  even  more  would  it  profit 
archaeological  science,  if  the  task  were  carried  out  sys- 
tematically." 

The  German  Orient  Society,  founded  in  1898,  has 
undertaken  this  task,  while  the  Prussian  Government  has 
provided  the  greater  part  of  the  funds,  and  placed  them 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Board  of  Administration  of  the 
Prussian  Museums  ;  the  Emperor  also  has  lent  his  sup- 
port. The  society  fortunately  selected  the  architect 
Robert  Koldewey  to  conduct  the  excavations  ;  he  has 
been  assisted  by  Andra,  Noldeke,  and  Jordan.  In  the 
vast  area  of  the  city  the  chief  group  of  mounds,  "  El 
Kasr  "  (the  castle),  was  selected,  and  a  start  was  made  in 
1899.  It  was  not  Old  Babylon  which  was  uncovered 
here,  but  the  Babylon  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  of  the  first 


ASSYRIA  269 

half  of  the  sixth  century.  There  is  a  double  castle  with 
a  court,  a  hall  decorated  with  tiles,  innumerable  rooms 
(in  this  castle  Alexander  the  Great  died) ;  east  of  it  the 
Temple  of  Ninmach  and  the  huge  entrance  gate,  covered 
with  reliefs  of  the  goddess  Istar ;  an  elevated  paved 
processional  way  led  up  to  it,  the  side  walls  of  which 
were  decorated  with  splendid  lions  on  glazed  tiles. 
Finally  there  was  Esagila,  the  great  sanctuary  of  the 
city  god  Marduk.  These  remains  show  great  resemblance 
to  those  of  the  Assyrian  palaces,  to  the  latest  of  which 
they  are  near  in  point  of  time,  but  they  surpass  them  in 
the  delicacy  and  strength  of  their  representations  on 
coloured  tiles.  The  temples  show  features  not  found  in 
those  of  Assyria.  The  German  Orient  Society  has  in- 
vestigated, besides  Babylon,  other  places  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, as,  for  example,  Fara  and  Abu  Hatab,  where 
very  ancient  cylinders  with  remarkable  impressions 
proved  of  great  interest. 

In  the  year  1903  the  excavations  were  extended  to 
Assyria.  To  the  south  of  Nimrud  there  towers  above 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris  the  steep  hill  of  ruins  of 
Kalat  Shergat,  the  site  of  Assur,  the  oldest  capital  of 
Assyria.  Layard  had  begun  excavating  the  mound,  and 
discovered  a  seated  figure  of  black  basalt,  but  then 
abandoned  the  enterprise.  Andra  has  recently  uncovered 
here  a  number  of  structures,  dating  from  the  time  of 
Assurnasirpal  (ninth  century) :  walls  with  great  city 
gates,  palaces,  temples,  and  Ziggurat.  Besides  these, 
of  somewhat  later  date  (seventh  century),  there  were 
found  for  the  first  time  private  Assyrian  houses  in  a 
special  quarter  of  the  city.  Andra  has  also  penetrated 
into  more  ancient  strata,  thus,  for  instance,  he  dis- 
covered down  near  the  Tigris  a  quay  wall  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  But,  above  all,  there  has  appeared  the  chief 
sanctuary  of  Assyria,  the  temple  of  the  national  god 
Assur ;  its  complete  excavation  may  be  hoped  for. 


270    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

A  temple  has  recently  been  discovered  outside  of  the 
city  limits,  which  is  equally  remarkable  for  its  extraor- 
dinary plan  and  for  the  stones  used  in  its  construction.  In 
Assur  a  number  of  statues  have  been  found,  which  is  most 
uncommon  in  Assyrian  art.  Finally,  numerous  structures 
and  works  of  art  of  the  Parthian  age  have  appeared. 

Far  to  the  west  of  the  Tigris,  midway  between  Marash, 
on  the  upper  Euphrates  and  Alexandretta,  on  the  Bay 
of  Issos,  but  still  under  the  influence  of  Assyrian  culture, 
is  the  mound  of  Senjirli.  A  private  Berlin  society,  the 
"  Orient  Committee,"  has  repeatedly  excavated  here, 
in  1888,  1890-1,  and  1894,  at  first  under  Humann  and 
F.  von  Luschan,  and  again  under  von  Luschan  and  Robert 
Koldewey. 

In  the  midst  of  the  city,  which  was  surrounded  by  a 
double  circular  wall,  was  situated  a  fortified  citadel. 
Different  plans  of  palaces  of  the  ninth  and  eighth  cen- 
turies have  been  recovered.  In  the  main  they  have 
the  same  characteristics  as  the  corresponding  Assyrian 
buildings :  an  entrance  hall  with  two  columns,  flanked 
by  towers  (the  Hittite  Chilani),  behind  this  a  great 
transverse  main  hall  with  small  apartments  at  the  side 
and  back.  The  entrance  gates  have  an  outer  and  an 
inner  court  flanked  by  towers.  The  lower  row  of  free- 
stone had  rather  clumsy  reliefs,  which  have  partly  gone 
to  Berlin,  partly  to  Constantinople.  As  is  frequently  the 
case  in  Assyrian  and  Romanesque  art,  the  columns  rested 
on  the  backs  of  lions  or  sphinxes.  Hittite  or  Assyrian 
influences  seem  to  meet  at  Senjirli.  A  relief  stele  of 
Asarhaddon  (671)  points  to  Assyrian  rule. 

At  the  same  time  as  the  excavation  of  Senjirli,  investi- 
gations were  begun,  with  the  object  of  tracing  earlier 
civilizations  in  Palestine.  The  indefatigable  Flinders 
Petrie  began  in  1890  work  at  Tell-el-Hesy,  the  Idumaean 
city  of  Lachish,  east  of  Gaza.  In  a  huge  rubbish  heap 
twenty  metres  high,  he  was  able,  with  the  help  of  pottery 


PALESTINE  271 

found,  to  establish  four  periods  :  a  prehistoric,  a  pre- 
Israelitic  with  many  foreign  influences,  an  Israelitic,  and 
a  Hellenistic.  In  Judaea,  between  Jerusalem  and  the 
sea,  R.  A.  Stewart  Macalister  investigated  in  1902-5 
the  great  mound  of  Geser  (Gazara)  for  the  English 
Egyptian  Exploration  Fund ;  while  further  north  along 
the  west  border  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  opposite 
Nazareth,  E.  Sellin,  supported  by  Austrian  patrons, 
excavated  in  1902-4  Tell-Taannek,  and  G.  Schumacher, 
for  the  German  Palestine  Society,  and  with  the  support 
of  the  Emperor,  in  1903-5,  Tell-el-Mutesellin  (Megiddo). 

All  these  and  minor  investigations  proved  that  the 
state  of  civilization  had  in  antiquity  been  practically 
the  same  all  over  Palestine.  They  afforded  an  insight 
into  Canaanite  (pre-Israelitic)  times,  which  had  been 
more  Egyptian  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  country, 
and  more  ^Egean  and  Hittite  in  the  north,  with  cyclopean 
walls,  great  gates,  and  cult  sites.  At  Megiddo  a  sub- 
terranean passage  was  found,  as  at  Mycenae,  built  of 
huge  undressed  stones.  The  time  of  the  Israelites  was 
here  represented  by  altars,  sacrificial  columns,  and  private 
houses ;  at  Tell-Taannek  there  appeared  an  altar  of  incense 
decorated  with  reliefs  of  rams'  horns,  "  the  Horns  of  the 
Altar. ' J  At  Geser  a  palace  of  Maccabean  times  was  discovered. 
Of  the  later  Hellenistic  times  only  the  scantiest  traces 
have  been  found.  Numerous  elucidations  have  followed 
the  discoveries  of  pottery,  gems — a  seal  of  Jeroboam 
was  found  at  Megiddo — and  cylinders,  while  at  Tell- 
Taannek  a  small  document  in  cuneiform  on  terra-cotta 
was  found.  The  latest  important  excavations  are  those 
begun  at  Jericho  by  Sellin.  As  all  traces  of  the  times 
of  the  Israelites  and  later  settlements  have  disappeared, 
it  is  hoped  that  a  picture  of  Canaanite  civilization  may 
be  gained. 


272    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

To  the  east  of  low-lying  Babylonia  there  rises  in  the 
form  of  terraces  the  Persian  province  of  Susiana,  where 
researches  have  recently  been  carried  on.  Persia  had 
frequently  been  visited  from  the  eighteenth  century  ; 
in  1765  Karsten  Niebuhr  carried  out  his  famous  journey 
of  investigation ;  in  1817-20  Ker  Porter ;  in  1840-1 
Charles  Texier,  the  architect  Pascal  Coste,  and  the 
painter  Eugene  Flandin,  travelled  there.  These  journeys 
had  been  chiefly  undertaken  to  the  two  famous  ruins  in 
the  province  of  Persis,  north  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  to 
Pasargadae  and  Persepolis ;  Stolze  had  in  1878  taken 
photographs  here,  and  F.  C.  Andreas  recorded  his  ob- 
servations. In  Pasargadae  are  monuments  of  the  time 
of  Cyrus  ;  the  tomb  of  that  great  King  has,  in  accordance 
with  Arrian's  description,  been  conjecturally  identified 
with  the  so-called  "  Tomb  of  Solomon's  mother " ; 
while  in  the  tower-like  structures  some  seek  grave-towers, 
though  others,  probably  more  correctly,  consider  them 
to  be  connected  with  the  fire-worship. 

At  Persepolis  was  the  famous  terrace  covered  with 
reliefs,  which  had  been  founded  by  Darius,  and  enlarged 
by  his  successors,  also  palaces  and  reception  halls  rich  in 
columns  (the  celebrated  "  Tchihilminar  "  or  forty  col- 
umns), chief  of  which  was  the  hundred-columned  hall  of 
Artaxerxes.  Besides  these  are  the  vast  rock-tombs  of 
the  Kings  of  Nakshi  Rust  am. 

Mention  must  here  be  made  of  the  copying  and  de- 
ciphering of  an  inscription  by  H.  C.  Rawlinson,  in  1837, 
at  Behistun,  giving  an  account  of  the  reign  of  Darius. 

While  these  palaces  of  the  Persian  Kings  in  their 
ancestral  province  had  long  been  known  to  science,  it 
remained  to  Marcel  Dieulafoy  and  his  wife  Jane,  thor- 
oughly to  investigate  the  rubbish  heap  of  the  most 
famous  Persian  capital  Susa,  which  in  1885-6  had  been 
visited  by  Loftus,  and  to  bring  its  rich  spoils  into  the 
Museum  of  the  Louvre.  The  chief  result  was  the  Palace 


J.    DE    MORGAN    AT   SUSA  273 

of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  Here,  in  387,  the  embassy 
of  Antalcidas  was  received,  and  the  "  peace  of  the  King  " 
was  ratified,  which  again  delivered  all  of  Asia  Minor  to 
the  yoke  of  the  Persians.  The  envoys  saw  on  the  walls 
of  the  throne-room  the  rows  of  lance-bearing  "  Im- 
mortals," the  remains  of  which  still  excite  our  astonish- 
ment in  the  Louvre ;  painted  upon  glazed  tiles,  in  a 
sober  and  dignified  colour  scheme,  they  produce  a 
singularly  majestic  effect.  Similar  friezes  of  animals 
are  in  even  more  subdued  tones.  Assyrian  tradition 
is  as  evident  in  the  technique  and  ornamentation  as  a 
national  element  in  the  life-size  lance-bearers.  A  great 
capital  in  the  form  of  a  bull  is  very  impressive. 
The  knowledge  of  mural  decoration  gained  by  these 
excavations  provides  a  most  important  addition  to 
the  picture  of  Persian  architecture  as  presented  at 
Persepolis. 

At  Susa  the  excavations  have  been  resumed  since  1897 
under  the  direction  of  J.  de  Morgan.  The  most  re- 
markable results  are  the  numerous  remains  of  old  Baby- 
lonian art  reliefs  and  terra-cottas.  Of  the  foremost 
importance  is  a  stele  of  Victory  two  metres  high,  of  the 
old  Babylonian  ruler,  Naram-Sin,  of  the  beginning  of 
the  third  millennium,  which  had  once  been  taken  as 
a  trophy  from  Sippar  to  Susa  ;  its  vigorous  reliefs  testify 
to  a  well-developed  Babylonian  art  in  early  times. 
Abundant  vases  and  vase-fragments  have  been  found ; 
a  peculiar  impression  is  created  on  finding  with  these 
highly  archaic  pieces  a  number  of  sherds  with  Greek 
paintings  of  the  fifth  century,  bearing  witness  to  Greek 
commerce  even  in  distant  Persia.  As  France  acquired 
in  1900  from  the  Shah  of  Persia  the  exclusive  right  to 
excavate  in  Susiana  further  results  may  be  hoped  for. 


Other  excavations  lead  us  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
T 


274    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

ranean,  its  islands  and  its  environs.  Tombs  will  mainly 
engross  our  attention. 

The  island  of  Cyprus  had  been  visited  by  L.  Ross  in 
1845  for  the  first  time  with  archaeological  aims  ;  his 
success,  however,  had  been  only  meagre.  Its  first 
energetic  investigator  was  General  Luigi  Palma  di 
Cesnola,  who  lived  at  Larnaca  as  American  Consul  from 
1867  to  1876.  He  traversed  the  island  in  all  directions, 
and  in  the  course  of  his  unwearied  but  somewhat  ama- 
teurish efforts  he  opened  many  thousands  of  graves, 
which  produced  the  important  collection  now  brought 
together  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New  York. 
Others  followed  him  in  the  eighties,  after  England  had 
taken  possession  of  the  island,  Max  Ohnefalsch-Richter, 
and  in  1888  the  British  School  in  Athens. 

Old  famous  places  along  the  south  coast,  as  Kition, 
Amathus,  Kurion,  Paphos,  Marion,  and  in  the  interior 
Golgoi  and  Idalion,  have  been  ransacked,  and  a  great 
number  of  statues,  although  of  rather  monotonous 
character,  have  been  taken  from  the  temples  and  tombs. 
These  are  productions  of  the  time  when  Cyprus  was  the 
meeting-place  of  Egyptian  and  Babylonian-Assyrian 
influences,  and  the  Phoenicians  controlled  commerce. 
Next  comes  Cyprian  pottery  with  a  peculiar  decorative 
style.  Later  we  trace  the  gradual  preponderance  of 
Greek  influences  and  of  the  Greek  element  in  this  very 
mixed  population.  But  rarely  do  any  works  equal 
other  Greek  creations,  such  as  the  Relief  at  Golgoi  of 
Heracles  and  Geryon  or  the  Sarcophagus  of  Amathus, 
with  its  chariot  and  frieze.  They  are  chiefly  more  or 
less  stiff  statues  showing  a  lifeless  provincial  art  (at  Golgoi 
alone  Cesnola  found  800  pieces). 

Newton  correctly  sought  the  explanation  of  this 
monotonous  and  dreary  impoverishment  of  Greek  art, 
and  this  obstinate  attachment  to  archaic  forms,  in  the 
sequestered  position  of  the  island,  remote  as  it  was  from 


SARCOPHAGI    FROM    SIDON  275 

the  great  current  of  Hellenic  life.  This  entirely  agrees 
with  the  fact  which,  since  Lang's  discovery  in  1870  of 
a  bilingual  inscription  at  Idalion,  has  been  established 
by  the  simultaneous  exertions  of  many  scholars,  that 
even  in  the  fourth  century  the  Cyprians  did  not  use  the 
Greek  alphabet  in  writing  Greek,  but  made  use  of  an 
antiquated  and  imperfect  syllable  script. 

It  was  not  a  happy  thought  of  Cesnola  to  lead  a  learned 
scholar  astray  by  telling  him  of  subterranean  chambers 
in  Kurion,  in  which  the  treasures  were  found,  in  the  first 
the  gold,  in  the  second  the  silver,  next  the  alabaster, 
bronze,  etc.  Or  did  the  Cyprian  treasures  need  some 
fantastic  help,  even  of  a  poor  joke,  to  excite  our  interest  ? 

The  results  yielded  in  the  narrow  strip  of  coastline 
once  inhabited  by  the  Phoenicians  were  unexpectedly 
rich,  although  the  monuments  were  seldom  of  the 
ancient  Phoenician  age.  The  journey  undertaken  by 
Ernest  Renan  in  1860,  at  the  desire  of  Napoleon  III, 
and  a  later  journey  by  Charles  Simon  Clermont-Ganneau 
in  1 88 1,  did  little  to  enhance  the  poor  reputation  of  the 
independent  art  of  the  Phoenicians.  But  the  accidental 
discovery  in  1887  at  Sai'da  (Sidon)  of  extensive  princes' 
tombs  caused  great  surprise.  They  were  of  several 
storeys,  and  contained  many  chambers,  with  a  number 
of  sarcophagi  of  Sidonian  rulers  of  the  fifth  and  fourth 
centuries.  These  afford  new  evidence  of  the  slight 
ability  of  native  Phoenician  sculpture,  as  they  were 
either  imported  from  Asia  Minor  or  Greece,  or  at  least 
were  the  work  of  Greek  artists.  The  marble  sarcophagi 
permit  an  exact  survey  of  the  development  of  art  during 
these  centuries.  The  earliest  ones  are  Greek  copies  of 
Egyptian  coffins,  adapting  themselves  to  the  human 
form,  and  delineating  the  face  with  severe  lines ;  next 
comes  the  "  Sarcophagus  of  the  Satrap,"  illustrating 
the  life  of  a  prince  in  the  modified  style  of  Periclean 
times;  then  the  "  Lycian  Sarcophagus,"  executed  in 


276    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

the  well-known  forms  of  the  Lycian  monuments,  about 
the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  and  undoubtedly 
made  in  Lycia.  All  these  still  belong  to  the  fifth  century. 

The  influence  of  Praxitelean  art  is  apparent  in  the 
"  Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourning  Women,"  beautifully 
draped  figures  surrounding  an  Ionic  tomb  while  lament- 
ing their  master  ;  the  Greek  harem  of  Straton  IV  of  Sidon 
(d.  361)  occurs  at  once  to  the  mind.  Finally,  the  most 
admired  of  all,  the  superb  "  Alexander  Sarcophagus," 
dates  probably  from  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century. 
This,  with  its  well-preserved  colours,  illustrates  most 
perfectly  the  delicate  harmony  of  painted  sculpture. 
The  reliefs,  which  are  as  well  composed  as  executed,  repre- 
sent the  decisive  battle  of  Issos  (333),  the  lion  hunt  of 
a  prince  in  Persian  dress,  and  other  scenes  ;  they  all 
seem  to  point  to  Abdalonymos,  a  scion  of  an  old  Sidonian 
princely  house,  whom  Alexander  appointed  King  of 
Sidon  after  the  battle. 

To  see  this  sarcophagus,  not  only  the  archaeologist, 
but  the  lover  of  art,  travels  to  Constantinople  ;  for  all 
have  been  transferred  thither.  How  times  change ! 
Formerly  the  Moslem  destroyed  all  works  of  art  in  the 
shape  of  the  human  form.  Constantinople,  under  the 
Byzantine  Emperors  the  home  of  art,  became,  after 
its  devastation  by  the  Franks  in  1204,  and  its  capture 
by  the  Turks  in  1453,  one  of  the  poorest  cities  in  works 
of  art.  Only  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century  has 
a  small  collection  been  formed  in  the  ancient  Church  of 
Irene  and  its  enclosed  court,  but  the  gradually  increasing 
antiques  were  poorly  housed  beside  the  great  collection 
of  arms. 

It  is  entirely  owing  to  the  ability  of  Hamdy  Bey,  a 
Turk  who  had  been  trained  in  Paris,  that  the  Tchinili- 
Kiosk  of  Serai  (Porcelain  Pavilion)  and  the  Museum  of 
Antiques  adjoining  it  rank  among  the  finest  in  Europe. 
He  has  won  a  place  for  art  study  in  the  Turkish  curricu- 


I 


PETRA  277 

lum ;  he  and  his  brother  Halil  Edhem  Bey  superintend 
all  the  antiquities  in  the  Turkish  Empire,  and  transport 
them  to  Constantinople,  if  they  cannot  be  safely  ex- 
hibited at  the  place  where  they  are  found.  The  new 
museum  was  founded  in  1881.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years  its  spacious  apartments  were  filled  with  important 
antiques,  until  in  1887,  by  the  acquisition  of  these 
Sidonian  sarcophagi,  which  Hamdy  Bey  secured  at 
once  for  Constantinople,  it  attained  a  brilliant  position, 
shedding  its  rays  upon  the  entire  educated  world.  The 
great  extent  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  and  our  scanty 
knowledge  of  the  artistic  products  of  its  remote  provinces, 
lend  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  Museum  of  the  Tchinili- 
Kiosk,  even  apart  from  its  more  splendid  exhibits. 

After  this  digression,  caused  by  Sidon,  we  will  turn 
south,  to  the  land  of  the  Edomites,  to  the  city  of  tombs, 
Petra.  Many  travellers  had  visited  it  since  J.  L.  Burck- 
hardt,  in  1812,  for  the  first  time  saw  and  described 
the  wonderful  capital  of  Edom  and  the  Nabataeans, 
with  its  narrow  ravines  and  steep  cliffs.  In  1827  it  was 
visited  by  Count  Leon  de  Labor de ;  in  1839  by  David 
Roberts  ;  in  1864  by  the  Duke  de  Luynes,  and  in  1882 
by  the  photographer  E.  L.  Wilson  ;  so  that  a  view  of 
the  "treasure  house"  ("Chazne")  had  even  appeared 
in  popular  books. 

But  only  since  the  long  sojourn  there  of  R.  E.  Briinnow 
and  Alfred  von  Domaszewski  in  1897-8  have  we  acquired 
a  complete  view  of  the  locality  and  its  remains.  With 
the  exception  of  the  "  Chazne,"  which  is  a  temple  of  Isis 
of  the  second  century,  and  not  a  tomb,  and  of  the  "  Castle 
of  Pharaoh,"  also  a  temple,  interest  is  to-day  centred 
in  the  tombs,  where  a  distinct  development  of  forms  can 
be  traced.  We  see  the  ancient  Nabataean  tomb  in  the 
form  of  a  tapering  tower,  gradually  transformed  by  the 
increasing  admixture  of  Hellenistic  elements ;  or  Hellen- 
istic tombs  appear  beside  it,  until  finally  under  the 


278    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

Roman  Empire,  broad,  showy,  overloaded  fagades  of 
several  storeys  appear,  the  most  ornate  example  of  which 
we  see  in  the  Temple  El  Chazne. 

Another  ostentatious  tomb  of  peculiar  character 
towers  above  the  Euphrates,  north  of  Samosata,  upon 
the  Nemrud-Dagh,  about  7200  feet  high.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  the  engineer  K.  Sester,  in  1881,  and  investi- 
gated by  him  and  Otto  Puchstein  in  the  following  year 
at  the  instance  of  the  Berlin  Academy.  Two  expeditions 
again  examined  it  in  1883,  in  May  under  Hamdy  Bey, 
and  in  June  under  Karl  Humann  and  Otto  Puchstein, 
again  at  the  instance  of  the  Berlin  Academy. 

Upon  this  lofty  eminence,  visible  at  a  great  distance, 
King  Antiochos  I  of  Commagene  built  a  splendid  tomb 
in  the  middle  of  the  first  century  B.C.;  upon  the 
summit  of  the  mountain  a  huge  tumulus  had  been 
erected,  with  great  sacrificial  terraces  toward  the  east 
and  west. 

Let  us  listen  to  Humann  after  he  had  reached  the  sum- 
mit :  "  The  first  impression  was  overpowering.  As  one 
mountain  piled  upon  another  appeared  the  tumulus  upon 
the  highest  peak,  rising  forty  metres  above  the  terrace 
we  had  climbed.  Seated  upon  raised  rock  seats  are  the 
colossal  images  of  five  divinities,  only  one  of  which 
remains  in  good  condition.  Involuntarily  the  eye  seeks 
the  distance.  If,  in  a  wild  hurricane,  when  conflicting 
ocean  surges  have  piled  up  huge  waves  to  dizzy  heights, 
and  then  tossed  them  hither  and  thither,  the  sea  were 
suddenly  turned  into  stone,  it  would,  in  a  small  way, 
give  a  picture  of  what  was  unfolded  before  our  eyes  for 
miles  toward:  the  east,  north,  west,  and  south.  The 
white  crests  of  the  waves  are  here  the  snowy  ridges  of  the 
Taurus.  There  may  be  continuous  valleys  and  ravines, 
but  to  us  it  appeared  as  a  wild  confused  mass,  and  the 
eye  could  only  rest  here  and  there  upon  a  mighty  moun- 
tain peak.  This  sea  of  rocks  descends  toward  the  south, 


NEMRUD-DAGH  279 

now  and  then  you  catch  a  gleam  of  the  Euphrates,  and 
the  horizon  beyond  disappears  in  distant  Mesopotamia.'* 

These  five  gods — partly  hybrid  divinities,  as  the  Zeus — 
Ormuzd  in  the  centre — are  gigantic  figures,  composed  of 
huge  blocks,  and  with  eagles,  lions,  and  great  reliefs 
enclose  in  the  rear  the  altar-court.  Other  reliefs  with 
the  ancestors  of  the  King  completed  the  enclosure,  to 
the  left  Alexander  the  Great  and  Seleukos  I,  to  the  right 
Darius.  The  half-barbaric  prince  thus  paraded  his 
Macedonian-Syrian  and  Persian  descent,  the  caricature 
of  a  Hellenistic  King.  There  was  some  grandeur  in  the 
plan  of  the  tomb,  but  its  artistic  execution  was  barbaric, 
without  a  trace  of  the  Hellenic  spirit  remaining.  Other 
large  tombs,  but  not  so  elaborate  as  Nemrud-Dagh, 
are  scattered  over  the  entire  country  of  Commagene  ; 
these  also  were  examined  by  Humann  and  Puchstein. 

The  later  royal  tomb  in  Commagene  recalls  the  ancient 
Lydian  necropolis  at  Sardes.  When  the  eye  passes  to 
the  north,  from  the  crumbling  citadel-rock  of  King 
Croesus,  it  perceives  beyond  the  river  Hermos,  and  its 
fruitful  but  not  extensively  cultivated  plain,  a  long, 
low  elevation  with  a  "thousand  hills"  (Bin-tepe), 
and  beyond  it  the  calm  Lake  Koloe.  It  is  a  touching 
picture  to  see  how,  at  one  time,  the  great  city  of  the  living 
had  been  separated  from  the  city  of  the  dead  on  the 
Acherusian  Lake  by  the  broad  river.  These  thousand 
hills  are  tumuli  of  Lycian  kings  and  nobles  ;  at  the  east 
end  the  mighty  tumulus  of  King  Alyattes,  still  seventy 
metres  high,  towers  above  all.  How  many  secrets  may 
be  buried  under  these  tumuli !  The  excavations  made 
in  the  Tomb  of  Alyattes  in  1854  by  the  Prussian  Consul, 
Spiegelthal,  and  in  1882  by  the  English  Consul,  George 
Dennis,  in  other  tombs,  proved,  however,  fruitless,  as 
the  tumuli  had  already  been  robbed.  Perhaps  less  pre- 
tentious tombs  might  offer  more. 

Similar  tombs  scattered  over  Lycia  and  Phrygia  have 


280    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

frequently  been  examined.  In  1900,  the  two  brothers 
Gustav  and  Alfred  Korte  selected  the  necropolis  of 
Gordion,  the  ancient  capital  of  Phrygia,  and  the  scene 
of  Alexander  the  Great's  most  popular  feat,  and  at  the 
expense  of  F.  A.  Krupp  excavated  five  of  its  tumuli. 
They  had  to  leave  untouched  the  greatest  tumulus, 
perhaps  the  tomb  of  King  Midas  (c.  700).  These  tumuli 
cover,  roughly  speaking,  about  a  century  and  a  half 
(700-550),  and  afford  some  insight  into  the  low  state  of 
civilization  of  this  Phrygian  peasant  and  shepherd  nation, 
whose  favourite  victuals  were  beer  and  cheese,  and  whose 
only  known  art-industry  was  pottery. 

The  most  ancient  finds  can  be  traced  far  into  the  second 
millennium ;  later,  Cyprian  influence  is  very  evident, 
and  about  the  sixth  century  Greek  productions  appear, 
not  only  of  the  neighbouring  Ionian  cities,  but  of  those 
as  distant  even  as  Corinth  and  Athens.  A  great  sur- 
prise was  caused  by  the  finding  of  an  early  Attic  cup  in 
one  of  those  tombs,  originating  from  the  same  factory 
as  the  famous  Frangois  Vase.  Some  red  figured  sherds 
permit  us  to  trace  the  commerce  with  Attica  to  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century.  Remains  of  the  terra-cotta  fagade 
have  been  found,  which  had  covered  the  front  of  the 
modest  temple  in  which  Alexander  the  Great  severed 
the  knot.  These  are  of  twofold  importance,  supporting 
first  A.  Korte's  assertion  that  similarly  decorated  rock 
fagades  in  Phrygia  were  sanctuaries  and  not  tombs, 
and,  secondly,  proving  Ramsay's  view  to  be  correct, 
which  traced  back  this  Geometric  decoration  to  original 
terra-cotta  facing. 


From  the  old  tombs  of  Lycia  and  Phrygia  let  us  return 
once  more  to  Syria,  during  the  last  centuries  of  antiquity. 
While  there  remain  few  traces  of  Hellenistic  times,  and 
these,  as  at  Antioch,  are  still  awaiting  a  divining-rod  to 


AMERICAN  EXPEDITIONS  IN  THE  HAURAN  281 

bring  them  forth  to  daylight,  there  remain  many  monu- 
ments of  that  age  of  prosperity  which  the  Roman  Empire, 
from  the  time  of  Trajan,  had  revived  here,  as  well  as  in 
Asia  Minor.  A  group  of  magnificent  city  ruins  are  situ- 
ated east  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  Hauran,  and  south  of  it. 
These  had  been  visited  by  Guillaume  Rey  in  1857-8,  by 
Ernest  Renan  in  1860,  by  Melchior  de  Vogue*  in  1861-2, 
by  the  Duke  de  Luynes  in  1864,  and  more  recently  by 
two  American  expeditions,  the  first  directed  by  Howard 
Crosby  Butler  in  1899,  the  second  by  Butler  and  E.  Litt- 
man  in  1904.  These  late,  bare,  stone  structures  of  the 
Hauran,  built  of  great  blocks,  afford  important  evidence 
for  the  development  of  vaulted  and  arched  buildings, 
and  have  become  somewhat  known  through  De  Vogue. 
In  the  south  of  the  Hauran,  Howard  Crosby  Butler  has 
also  shown  that  Nabataean  buildings  existed.  But  the 
splendid  remains  of  such  flourishing  cities  as  Bostra, 
Gerasa,  Philadelphia,  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
examined ;  for  that  purpose  it  will  be  necessary  to  ex- 
cavate. But  it  is  high  time ;  for  with  the  railway  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  in  view  of  the  new  Circassian 
settlers,  who  like  to  build,  the  value  of  the  old  ruins 
for  building  material  is  increasing,  and  the  reports  of  the 
disappearance  of  old  buildings  are  most  alarming. 
Government  protection,  even  when  ordered,  does  not 
signify  in  such  remote  districts.  Science  should,  there- 
fore, rescue  all  it  can  before  it  is  too  late. 

Other  interesting  details  were  found  in  the  so-called 
Hill  of  Hyrkanos  (Arak-el-Emir),  examined  by  the  second 
American  expedition.  It  lies  east  of  the  Jordan,  opposite 
to  Jericho.  Cyclopean  walls  surround  a  great  enclosure  ; 
the  main  building,  probably  a  temple  of  the  second 
century,  shows  a  combination  of  Greek  and  Oriental 
style  ;  a  huge  frieze  of  lions  is  a  conspicuous  feature. 

Fate  has  been  more  favourable  at  Baalbec-Heliopolis 
than  in  the  Hauran,  although  here  also  the  railway,  the 


282    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

friend  of  man,  but  the  enemy  of  ancient  structures, 
has  approached  to  within  a  short  distance.  Its  first 
discoverer,  Richard  Wood,  had  been  followed  toward 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  L.  F.  Cassas,  and 
in  1827  by  Leon  de  Laborde  and  others.  But  thorough 
investigations  of  the  famous  temple  ruins  were  only 
undertaken  at  the  expense  of  the  German  Emperor  in 
1899-1904  by  R.  Koldewey,  Otto  Puchstein,  and  the 
architects  B.  Schulz  and  D.  Krencker.  The  huge  temple 
of  the  venerated  Zeus  of  Heliopolis,  the  six  standing 
columns  of  which  to-day  characterize  Baalbec,  has  only 
now  become  known,  especially  as  regards  the  artistic 
arrangement  of  its  courts,  and  thereby  established  a 
resemblance  to  Herod's  Temple  of  Jehovah  at  Jerusalem. 
The  smaller  temple  throws  light  on  the  old  Syrian  ar- 
rangement of  a  raised  choir  with  its  crypt,  which  is  of 
importance  for  the  history  of  the  building  of  Christian 
churches.  The  well-known  round  temple,  with  its 
strangely  curved  entablature,  has,  in  consequence  of 
the  discovery  of  its  podium  with  stairs,  assumed  a  new 
aspect. 

Thus  these  investigations  have  accomplished  all  that 
could  be  expected  without  carrying  on  excavations. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  sister  city  Palmyra  in  the  desert 
will  some  day  experience  the  same  good  fortune.  In  the 
North  Syrian  highland,  east  of  Aleppo,  the  Americans 
discovered  in  1904  numerous  temples,  partly  remodelled 
into  churches  and  private  houses,  which  could  be  dated 
(207-8-308). 

Baalbec,  Palmyra,  and  the  cities  east  of  the  Jordan 
form  a  connected  group  of  structures,  which  are  charac- 
terized by  many  peculiarities  in  their  general  plans  and 
in  their  separate  buildings,  as  well  as  by  their  profuse 
barock  decoration.  These  Syrian  towns,  together  with 
the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  testify  to  the  great  prosperity 
attained  in  the  times  of  peace  under  the  Roman  emperors, 


THE   ORIENT   OR    ROME?  283 

which  culminated  in  the  second  century,  but  continued 
well  into  the  third.  This  is,  however,  not  the  only  point 
of  view  from  which  this  eastern  group  of  buildings 
excites  our  interest.  With  them  is  connected  the  more 
important  question  of  the  relation  of  this  art  to  that  of 
Rome,  the  capital  of  the  Empire.  Did  this  art  originate 
in  Rome,  as  some  believe,  and  is  the  Syrian  style  of 
architecture  only  a  part  of  the  imperial  art,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  permeated  the  entire  extensive  Roman 
Empire,  radiating  from  its  capital  ?  Or  is  it — a  view 
energetically  represented  by  Josef  Strzygowski — the 
ancient  artistic  force  of  the  Orient  which  is  stirring  here, 
and  lends  these  structures  their  peculiar  character  and 
special  significance  ?  The  battle  cry  is,  "  The  Orient  or 
Rome  ?  "  It  would  not  be  seemly  for  one  at  a  distance, 
and  who  gains  his  knowledge  only  indirectly,  to  act  here 
as  a  judge  in  a  discussion  which  on  both  sides  is  repre- 
sented by  able  scholars,  particularly  as  an  opinion  is 
rendered  more  difficult  by  the  utter  lack  of  remains  of 
Syrian  Hellenism,  which  forms  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  old  Oriental  art  and  the  later  Syrian  of  Asia 
Minor. 

The  question  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  far- 
reaching  in  the  history  of  art ;  its  importance  extends 
far  beyond  the  domain  of  ancient  art,  and  is  of  special 
significance  for  the  history  of  Christian  art,  regarding 
which  the  answer  to  the  question,  "  The  Orient  or  Rome  ?  " 
will  perhaps  be,  "  The  Orient  and  Rome." 


The  old  Roman  provinces  of  Mauretania  and  Numidia, 
which  extend  along  the  south  coast  of  the  western 
Mediterranean,  were  opened  to  science  much  earlier 
than  Syria.  With  the  conquest  of  Algeria  by  the  French 
in  the  thirties,  one  of  the  countries  richest  in  ruins  was 
gradually  opened,  which,  like  the  Orient,  had  been  in  its 


284    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

prime  in  the  second  and  third  centuries.     Only  rarely 
had  travellers,  as  Thomas  Shaw,   1720-32,  penetrated 
to  these  unsafe  regions.     The  French  Government  now 
undertook  extensive  scientific  investigations  in  this  land, 
which  it  had  acquired  with  such  difficulty  ;   but  excava- 
tions  were   rarely   undertaken.     Special   recognition   is 
due  to  those  French  officers  who  devoted  themselves 
to    recovering    Roman    antiquities,    and    in    particular 
saved  many  inscriptions  from  utter  destruction.     For 
in  so  extensive  a  country,  and  one  so  thinly  populated, 
over  which  Bedouins  are  constantly  roving,  not  much 
could  at  first  be  done  for  the  preservation  of  ruins  and 
the  security  of  what  had  been  found  ;   and  it  frequently 
happened  that  small  local  museums  lost  after  a  few 
years   the   greater   part    of   their   possessions.     It    was 
only  after  order  had  been  established  in  Algeria,  and 
more  especially  after  Tunis,  the  ancient  province  "Africa," 
had  been  acquired  by  the  French,  in  1881,  that  a  re- 
organization of  archaeological  research  became  possible. 
This  has  been  carried  on  in  an  exemplary  manner  by 
scientific  men,  as  Rene  Cagnat,  Paul  Gauckler,  Stephen 
Gsell,   and   Pere   Delattre,   who   have  gained  enduring 
renown.    The  excavations  have  been  well  planned,  and 
the   uncovering   of  Timgad   (Thamugadi),    the   African 
Pompeii,  with  its  long  streets,  its  Forum,  its  Arch  of 
Trajan,  which  towers  above  all ;    or  the  uncovering  of 
a  Roman  camp  at  Lambaesis,  have  amply  rewarded  the 
labour.     What  is  not  in  good  condition  is  restored  or 
repaired.     The  abundance  of  Roman  structures  is  most 
surprising.     Temples  have  only  rarely  been  found,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  amphitheatres,  theatres,  aqueducts, 
and  nymphaea,  baths,  and  tombs,  are  found  in  great 
number.     The  triumphal  arches  number  seventy  ;  they 
may  be  said  to  be  the  more  solid  forerunners  of  the  later 
eulogies  addressed  to  the  emperors.     With  the  buildings, 
which  are  mostly  in  a  somewhat  plain  and  bald  style, 


AFRICAN    PROVINCES  285 

devoid  of  ornamentation,  are  combined  numerous  mo- 
saics, a  decoration  very  popular  in  Roman  times,  but 
hardly  found  anywhere  so  frequently  as  in  Africa.  In 
a  single  villa  near  Uthina,  not  less  than  sixty-seven 
have  appeared.  Sculpture  rarely  rises  above  the  average 
of  Roman  work.  A  welcome  exception  are  the  remains 
of  a  collection  found  in  Cherchel  (Cirta),  which  King 
Juba  II  had  formed  in  his  residence.  He  had  been  sent 
as  a  hostage  to  Rome,  and  while  there  became  a  dis- 
tinguished art  lover,  so  that  his  collection  contained  ex- 
cellent copies  of  Greek  masterpieces,  surpassing  the 
ordinary  copies  of  the  Roman  workshops. 

The  artistic  character  of  the  African  provinces  is, 
apart  from  many  peculiarities,  almost  entirely  Roman. 
Rarely  do  we  get  a  glimpse  of  the  older  art  of  Punic 
Africa,  and  where  it  is  the  case,  we  distinctly  see  the 
influence  of  Greek  art.  It  is  so  in  the  royal  Numidian 
Tomb  of  Medracen,  where  the  massive  Doric  half-columns 
suggest  the  older  temples  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily. 
Also  in  the  coffin,  found  at  Carthage  in  1902,  of  a  lady, 
whose  portrait  of  the  fourth  century  still  retained  when 
found  its  rich  colouring,  and  exhibits  the  only  slightly 
provincialized  features  of  a  delicate  Greek  archaistic  art. 

Similar  conditions  seem  to  have  prevailed  in  Punic 
Spain,  as  yet  little  investigated.  Here  also  monuments 
of  indigenous  art  are  rare.  The  sculpture  which  has  been 
discovered  since  1830  near  the  Cerro  de  los  Santos,  near 
Montealegre,  in  the  province  of  Albacete,  and  which, 
with  many  spurious  pieces,  was  placed  in  the  Madrid 
Museum  in  1872,  first  showed  the  mixed  character  of 
native  art,  subject  both  to  Phoenician  and  ancient  Greek 
influences.  But  this  combination  of  styles  is  seen  more 
clearly  and  delicately  in  a  charming  woman's  bust  found 
at  Elche  (Ilici),  near  Alicante,  in  1897,  which,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Pierre  Paris,  soon  found  its  way 
to  the  Louvre,  where  it  forms  one  of  the  treasures  of  a 


286    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

Spanish  cabinet.  Although  surrounded  by  a  barbarically 
elaborate  head-dress,  of  which  two  huge  wheels  form  the 
chief  decoration,  and  loaded  with  artistic  gold  ornaments, 
the  face  has  graceful  features  with  something  of  the  charm 
of  the  best  Ionic-Attic  maidens  on  the  Athenian  Acro- 
polis. 


Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Northern  Africa  have  led  us  to 
Roman  provincial  art,  which  we  must  still  pursue  along 
the  northern  boundaries  of  the  empire.  Germany  and 
the  countries  of  the  Danube  did  not  possess  any  note- 
worthy individual  art,  with  the  exception  of  that  of 
Hallstatt,  the  Central  European  art,  which  seems  to 
follow  the  direction  of  the  Alps.  Britain  furnished  the 
valuable  tin,  but  offered  even  less  in  art  than  Germany. 
It  was  different  in  Gaul,  where,  beside  the  La  T&ne  art, 
the  Phocaean  city  of  Massalia  (Marseilles),  was  a  centre  of 
Greek  culture,  which  it  retained  even  after  its  political 
importance  had  been  overthrown  by  Caesar.  The  nu- 
merous ruins  which  are  so  salient  a  feature  in  Provence 
date  only  from  post-Caesarian  times.  Some  of  the  most 
noted,  as  the  Julian  Monument  at  St.  Remy — the  sig- 
nificance of  which  for  the  history  of  art  was  first  noted 
by  H.  Brunn  in  1869 — the  Maison  Carrie  at  Nimes,  the 
Pont  du  Gard  of  Agrippa,  the  Triumphal  Arch  of  Tiberius 
at  Orange  date  from  the  early  Empire.  These  traces  of 
"  Italy  in  France  "  had  attracted  attention  long  ago  in 
the  writings  of  Aubin  Louis  Millin,  1807,  and  of  Count 
Alexander  de  Laborde,  1816-17,  and  in  a  series  of  special 
publications  ;  but  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  whole 
of  ancient  Provence  is  still  wanting,  which  will  satisfy 
the  demands  of  to-day,  and  not  only  examine  and  record 
with  scientific  exactitude  all  the  separate  data,  but  will 
trace  their  general  relations,  above  all  the  distinction 
between  the  purely  Roman  element  and  the  after  effects 


AMBER    TRADE    ROUTES  287 

of  the  older  Greek  culture.  Although  the  latter  axe  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  the  history  of  the  art  of 
Provence,  they  have  been  too  little  investigated.  Only 
when  these  have  been  thoroughly  sifted  can  a  recently 
raised  question  of  Georg  Loschcke's  be  definitely  ans- 
wered, namely,  whether  along  the  old  route  of  the  amber 
trade  from  North  Germany  to  Marseilles,  a  route,  as  it 
were,  marked  out  by  nature,  there  flowed  a  current  of 
culture  and  art  inspired  by  Greece,  traces  of  which  might 
be  found,  for  instance,  in  the  monument  of  the  Secundini 
at  Igel,  and  in  the  reliefs  found  at  Neumagen,  near  Trier, 
in  1877-8.  A  column  with  reliefs,  of  which  numerous 
fragments  were  found  at  Mainz  in  1906,  and  carefully 
restored,  dates  from  the  time  of  Nero,  and,  to  judge  by 
the  representation  of  divinities  upon  it,  its  origin  must 
be  referred  to  Massilia.  So  much  is  already  evident, 
that  the  route  indicated  formed  the  highway  of  ancient 
art  in  Gaul,  compared  with  which  the  other  localities 
where  ancient  works  of  art  have  been  found  appear  as 
isolated  oases. 

France  is  covered  by  a  network  of  antiquarian  societies, 
which  eagerly  pursue  local  and  provincial  antiquities  ; 
the  most  important  is  the  Societe  des  antiquaires  de  France, 
established  in  1804  in  Paris.  But  while  A.  Bertrand  and 
S.  Reinach  have  established  an  admirable  central  museum 
of  the  antiquities  of  Gaul  in  the  Museum  at  Saint-Ger- 
main, curiously  enough  France,  where  the  centralizing 
tendency  is  so  strong,  still  lacks  a  central  authority  by 
which  these  numerous  local  societies  could  be  scientifically 
influenced,  and  although  separated,  could  be  directed  in 
a  common  effort  toward  the  same  aim.  Since  France 
has  established  true  universities,  in  place  of  the  old 
faculties,  and  these  are  provided  with  chairs  of  Archae- 
ology, the  necessary  support  for  such  organizations 
cannot  be  lacking. 

Britain  was  only  slightly  affected  by  Roman  civiliza- 


288    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

tion.  In  addition  to  the  northern  protecting  walls, 
accidental  finds  are  occasionally  made  of  baths,  mosaics, 
etc.,  which,  however,  offer  nothing  peculiarly  British.* 
Under  these  circumstances  the  archaeological  or  anti- 
quarian societies  of  the  Island  Kingdom  do  not  need  to 
exercise  great  activity  in  regard  to  Romano-British  art. 

In  Germany,  as  in  France,  great  activity  exists  in 
numerous  local  societies.  The  Roman  remains  at  and 
near  Trier,  in  the  Rhine  Province,  with  their  relics  of 
imperial  splendour,  are  the  most  distinguished.  At 
Wiesbaden  a  Nassau  society  began  its  work  in  1827. 
More  important  was  the  one  founded  in  Bonn  by 
L.  Urlich  in  1814,  the  "  Verein  von  Alter  turns freunden 
im  Rheinlande"  followed  by  other  societies.  For 
many  years  the  Annual  of  the  Bonn  Society  formed 
the  central  register,  even  for  discoveries  outside  the 
Rhenish  districts,  until  1882,  when  Felix  Hettner's 
"  Westdeutsche  Zeitschrift "  appeared.  Local  provincial 
museums  were  established  everywhere ;  the  one  at  Trier 
remains  the  most  noted.  These  societies  at  times 
undertook  excavations.  Old  Roman  cities  on  the  Moselle 
and  Rhine  were  investigated ;  Trier,  Andernach,  Bonn, 
Cologne,  Neuss,  etc.  Villas  were  uncovered,  the  most 
noted  at  Nennig,  near  Luxemburg,  and  at  Wasserbillig. 
But  certain  tasks  still  remain  unfulfilled,  as  the  exact 
delineation  of  the  great  funereal  monument  at  Igel,  the 
reliefs  of  which  attracted  Goethe's  attention  ;  nor  have 
the  reliefs  at  Neumagen  been  adequately  published ; 
for  the  "  Giant  columns  "  discovered  in  ancient  Belgica 
a  comprehensive  publication  is  necessary,  to  answer  cer- 
tain serious  questions  connected  therewith. 

Here  also  the  evil  effects  of  the  division  of  societies 
and  their  means  are  felt.  An  attempt  at  the  centraliza- 
tion of  finds  has  been  made  in  the  "  Romano-Germanic  " 
Museum  at  Mainz,  established  by  Ludwig  Lindenschmit 

*  [British  archaeologists  will  scarcely  accept  this  opinion. — TV.] 


GERMANIC    "LIMES"  289 

in  1852,  in  which  are  collected  all  kinds  of  typical  originals, 
copies,  and  reconstructions.  But  an  advance  viribus 
unitis  upon  a  great  scale  was  inaugurated  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Theodor  Mommsen  in  the  work  undertaken 
by  the  German  Empire  of  examining  the  Germanic  Limes 
or  frontier  defences  known  as  the  "Pfahlgraben  "  (pali- 
saded ditches). 

This  great  task  has  continued  for  more  than  ten  years 
since  1892,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube,  and  numerous 
scholars  have  taken  part  therein.  After  many  fruitless 
efforts,  the  plans,  which  are  not  everywhere  alike,  have 
become  finally  clear,  and  the  significance  of  the  Limes 
has  become  apparent.  Although  this  knowledge  may 
be  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  study  of  ancient 
fortifications  and  history,  and  the  relation  which  existed 
between  Rome  and  its  Germanic  neighbours,  the  under- 
taking is  of  comparatively  small  consequence  to  the 
archaeology  of  art,  but  resembles  the  instructive  anti- 
quarian investigations  at  Alesia  and  Bibracte,  instituted 
by  Napoleon  III,  or  the  recent  researches  at  Numantia, 
undertaken  by  A.  Schulten,  at  the  expense  of  the  Prussian 
Government.  It  is  therefore  to  be  regretted  from  the 
antiquarian  point  of  view,  not  to  speak  of  the  artistic, 
when  an  important  monument  like  the  Saalburg  is,  in 
consequence  of  restorations,  withdrawn  from  scientific 
research.  The  minor  finds,  as  pottery,  are  of  archaeolo- 
gical interest ;  their  artistic  development  can  be  traced 
from  Greek  and  Gaulish  beginnings  through  the  later 
times  of  the  Republic,  the  time  of  Augustus,  of  the 
Flavian  emperors,  etc.  They  have  been  gathered  from 
the  Limes  and  other  sites,  chiefly  in  the  Rhenish  districts. 
An  important  department  of  Roman  art-industry  has 
thus  been  elucidated,  and  an  important  chronological 
standard  acquired  for  excavations.  This  has  been  proved 
at  Haltern,  where  the  Westphalian  Society  of  Antiquaries 
combined  with  the  Archaeological  Institute.  At  the 


29o    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING   COUNTRIES 

point  where  the  Lippe  became  navigable  in  ancient  times, 
two  days'  journey  from  the  Roman  legionary  camp  of 
Castra  Vetera  (Xanten),  the  excavation  of  a  small  fort 
on  the  bank,  a  harbour  and  a  great  permanent  camp, 
has  proceeded  since  1899  without  a  single  stone  having 
been  found ;  only  by  the  varied  nature  of  the  soil  is  it 
possible  to  disentangle  the  complicated  plan.  But  as 
all  the  objects,  chiefly  coins  and  pottery,  date  from 
Augustan  times,  and  nothing  has  appeared  of  a  later  date, 
it  can  be  definitely  stated  that  this  plan  dated  from  the 
times  of  Augustus,  and  that  the  place  must  have  been 
abandoned  at  that  period. 

These  circumstances,  which  are  applicable  to  Aliso,  men- 
tioned by  Tacitus,  support  the  supposition  that  this  "castle 
on  the  Lippe,"  as  Tacitus  expresses  himself,  is  Aliso.  In  the 
meantime  a  rival  has  appeared  in  the  Roman  castle  found, 
in  1905,  near  Oberaden,  a  mile  up  the  Lippe,  where  the 
neighbouring  district  Elsey  has  a  name  resembling  Aliso. 
Is  this  Aliso  ?  and  is  the  castle  near  Haltern  the  one  to  be 
designated  as  "the  castle  on  the  Lippe  "  ?  Only  more 
extensive  excavations  can  solve  these  questions. 

While  the  investigations  of  the  Limes  demonstrated 
the  advisability  of  a  union  of  scattered  forces,  Loschcke 
and  Conze  were  instrumental  in  forming,  in  1901,  a 
Romano-Germanic  Archaeological  Institute.  Although 
individual  societies  did  creditable  work,  they  lacked 
association,  and  many  acquired  a  narrow  scientific 
horizon,  a  defect  to  which  local  societies  are  prone. 
The  association  of  several  neighbouring  societies  at 
Haltern  formed  an  exception  ;  the  societies  of  South- 
western Germany  had  united  in  1899  for  a  similar  object. 
A  central  organization  has  thus  been  established  by  the 
Empire,  which  gives  advice,  or,  if  necessary,  personal  or 
pecuniary  assistance  to  all  societies  from  the  Dutch  to 
the  Austrian  frontiers.  Without  affecting  the  inde- 
pendence of  individual  societies,  a  possibility  of  united 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  GERMAN  EXCAVATIONS  291 

action  has  been  established.  In  scientific  circles  the 
Central  Museum  at  Mainz,  which  has  received  assistance 
from  the  Government,  would  have  been  unanimously 
selected,  in  connection  with  which  there  would  naturally 
have  arisen  a  school  for  excavating,  for  the  direction  of 
museums  and  for  scientific  investigations.  Unfortunately 
lack  of  foresight  and  other  considerations  have  prevented 
this  union,  so  that  now  the  two  cities  of  Mainz  and  Frank- 
furt share  the  task. 

In  Austria,  in  spite  of  the  great  diversity  of  the  con- 
stituent countries,  there  has  always  existed  a  greater 
concentration  in  archaeological  studies.  A  modest  place 
was  acquired  for  them  in  1853  by  the  central  commission 
for  the  investigation  and  preservation  of  monuments. 
In  1876  A.  Conze  and  O.  Hirschfeld  created  in  the  Archae- 
ological-epigraphic  Seminar  of  the  University  of  Vienna 
a  school  which  in  its  "  Mitteilungen  "  became  the  organ 
of  the  scientific  research  of  Roman  antiquities  in  Austria. 
This  work  was  completed  in  1898  by  the  foundation  of 
the  Austrian  Archaeological  Institute,  which,  under  Otto 
Benndorf's*  able  guidance,  superintends  journeys  and 
excavations,  as  well  as  the  study  of  the  archaeological 
material.  To  mention  only  two  examples  of  its  archae- 
ological activity  :  since  1877  highly  successful  excava- 
tions have  been  carried  on  near  Vienna  to  recover  the 
ancient  Roman  stronghold  Carnuntum ;  besides  which, 
for  years  the  scattered  remains  have  been  collected  of 
the  numerous  monuments  in  the  colony  of  Aquileia,  the 
most  important  mid-station  of  the  commerce  of  Italy  and 
the  north-east.  Museums  are  being  formed  everywhere, 
thus  affording  a  view  of  the  artistic  character  of  single 
districts,  and  at  the  same  time  giving  shelter  to  the 
objects  exhumed. 

The  scientific  influence  of  Austria  is  felt  beyond  the 
borders  of  the  empire,  especially  along  the  Danube. 
*  [Benndorf  died  in  1907. — TV.] 


292    DISCOVERIES    IN    OUTLYING    COUNTRIES 

The  examination  of  the  great  monument  of  Adamklissi, 
in  the  Dobrudja,  has  been  the  result  of  such  combined 
action.  This  had  been  observed  by  H.  von  Moltke  in 
1837,  and  was  excavated  in  1882-90  at  the  expense  of 
the  Roumanian  Government,  under  the  guidance  of 
G.  Tocilesco,  and  published  by  Benndorf  and  G.  Niemann. 
It  is  a  round  tower  similar  to  the  Tomb  of  Caecilia  Metella. 
Near  the  top  there  was  a  frieze  of  metopes,  above  this  a 
hexagonal  plinth  with  a  very  damaged  inscription  of 
Trajan,  dating  from  the  year  109  ;  above  this  a  trophy  ; 
thus  was  the  monument  constructed,  about  which  a 
quarrel  arose  as  bitter  as  any  described  in  the  Iliad.  Its 
origin  in  the  time  of  Trajan  was  the  first  thought,  to 
which  a  theory  was  opposed  which  referred  it  back  to  the 
times  of  the  beginning  of  the  Empire,  immediately  after 
the  battle  of  Actium  ;  an  opinion  was  even  expressed  in 
favour  of  the  age  of  Constantine.  The  question  may  be 
looked  upon  as  decided  in  favour  of  the  first  assumption. 
Either  was  this  the  scene  of  the  great  defeat  which  the 
Dacians  inflicted  on  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of  Domitian 
in  87,  when  about  4000  men  fell,  or  Trajan  may  have 
gained  a  victory  here  in  his  first  war.  In  either  case, 
Trajan  erected  here,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Dacians  in 
107,  a  great  trophy  to  "  Avenging  Mars,"  which  gave 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  village  the  name 
"  Traianenses  Tropaeenses ." 

The  possibility  of  such  a  discussion  was  caused  chiefly 
by  the  barbaric  style  of  the  relief  of  the  metopes.  For 
they  make  it  evident  how  great  a  difference  existed  be- 
tween the  sculpture  of  the  capital  and  that  executed  by 
unskilled  hands  in  distant  barbaric  countries.  But 
one  need  hardly  go  as  far  as  the  desolate  Dobrudja  to 
learn  this;  the  Arch  of  Augustus,  erected  at  Susa,  on 
the  Alpine  route  over  the  Mont  Cenis,  proves  the  same, 
and  the  relief  of  an  altar  found  in  Paris,  of  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Tiberius,  might  almost  be  declared  Roman- 


ADAMKLISSI  293 

esque.  Although  in  many  places,  as,  for  example,  on 
the  military  frontier  of  the  Rhine,  a  certain  common 
Roman  character  exists,  yet  local  differences  cannot  be 
denied.  Many  tasks  are  still  awaiting  archaeological 
solutions. 

What  we  have  observed  in  regard  to  the  historical 
monuments  of  the  Empire  in  the  capital  of  Rome  holds 
good  in  a  still  higher  degree  in  the  art  of  the  provinces, 
which  until  recently  has  been  much  neglected.  And  yet, 
in  all  districts  where  Romans  were  or  Roman  influence 
was  felt,  it  makes  a  strong  appeal ;  for  it  must  be  looked 
upon  as  the  preliminary  condition  of  native  art.  The 
usually  strong  line  of  demarcation  between  Antiquity 
and  the  Middle  Ages  is  not  natural.  As  classical  archae- 
ology has  come  into  touch  with  prehistoric  research, 
so  now  it  must  meet  early  Christian  and  medieval  re- 
search, so  that  the  great  unbroken  line  of  connection 
may  become  more  apparent.  Heralds  are  already  calling 
to  the  new  battle,  and  the  new  century  can  enter  upon 
a  wide  and  magnificent  field  of  research. 


XI 
DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

OUR  journey  is  ended.  We  have  followed  the 
"Archaeology  of  the  spade"  during  a  century, 
making  the  circuit  of  the  ancient  world.  Its  influence 
on  the  science  of  archaeology  has  been  touched  upon  at 
different  points  ;  it  still  remains  to  answer  more  general 
questions.  How  have  all  these  excavations  and  dis- 
coveries influenced,  advanced,  or  transformed  the  archae- 
ology of  classical  art  ? — for  only  of  this  will  we  now  speak. 
Two  periods  may  be  clearly  distinguished.  In  the  first 
decades  it  was  almost  exclusively  a  question  of  accidental 
discoveries,  which  taught  us  to  recognize  some  of  the 
corner-stones  in  the  history  of  the  art  of  the  sixth  and 
fifth  centuries :  Sicily,  ^Egina,  Athens,  Bassae,  Lycia, 
and  painted  vases.  During  the  forties  excavations  were 
undertaken  more  systematically  in  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
at  the  same  time  extending  our  horizon  beyond  the  clas- 
sical countries.  Newton,  in  the  fifties,  was  the  first  to 
pursue  this  more  systematic  method  on  Greek  territory. 
He  greatly  widened  the  range  of  our  knowledge,  especially 
of  the  art  of  the  fourth  century ;  here  the  Mausoleum 
takes  a  foremost  place.  During  the  sixties  the  under- 
takings were  more  rigidly  organized,  to  which  finally 
was  added  a  more  definite  technique  of  excavation,  a 
method  which  at  the  same  time  preserved  and  recon- 
structed. Greater  problems  were  presented,  attacked, 
and  solved.  Art  was  pursued  both  backward  and  for- 
ward, on  the  one  hand  by  the  rediscovery  of  Hellenism, 

294 


VISCONTI— ZOEGA  295 

which  also  threw  new  light  upon  the  long-known  Roman 
art ;  on  the  other  hand,  by  penetrating  into  Greek  and 
pre-Greek  antiquity,  which  led  to  inquiry  into  the 
general  conditions  of  the  early  European  expressions 
of  art. 

We  recognize  the  same  two  periods  in  the  practice  of 
archaeological  science.  Here  we  must  distinguish  be- 
tween the  history  and  the  elucidation  of  art. 

In  the  history  of  art,  Winckelmann's  authority  re- 
mained uncon tested  on  into  the  twenties.  Friedrich 
Thiersch  and  Alois  Hirt  tried  to  improve  matters  here 
and  there,  but  not  with  much  success.  Goethe's  friend, 
H.  Meyer,  still  spoke  of  the  Elgin  Marbles,  in  1817,  as 
insignificant  when  compared  with  the  "  Phidian  "  co- 
lossus on  the  Monte  Cavallo,  and  only  accorded  them 
some  recognition  in  1824,  probably  affected  by  the  en- 
thusiasm of  his  great  friend.  It  seemed  difficult  in 
those  days  to  go  to  the  very  source ;  people  seemed 
content  with  the  scanty  literary  evidence,  with  Roman 
copies,  and  the  historical  scheme  which  Winckelmann 
had  based  thereon. 

For  the  elucidation  of  art  Visconti's  pleasing  and 
elegant,  but  rarely  profound  treatment,  was  universally 
followed.  His  methods  ruled  in  science,  and  helped  to 
form  the  taste  of  the  general  public  for  the  antique. 
Zoega's  thorough,  but  specifically  northern  method, 
found  little  support.  Although  Zoega  was  not  disin- 
clined to  mystical  speculation  in  the  history  of  religion, 
he  maintained  in  archaeological  questions  an  essentially 
sober  and  objective  method  of  explanation,  which  could 
not  find  favour  at  a  time  when  the  cloudy  mythological 
syncretism  of  Creuzer  dominated  the  minds  of  the  ro- 
mantically inclined.  Gerhard  also  developed  his  ideas 
under  the  influence  of  Creuzer,  and  soon  unfolded  a 
system  of  mythological  explanations  of  art  which  may 
have  been  convenient  for  classification,  but  can  hardly 


296  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

be  extolled  on  the  ground  of  objectivity.  Zoega's 
other  pupil,  Welcker,  on  the  contrary,  tried  to  bring 
plastic  art  into  the  closest  relation  with  poetry. 

F.  G.  Welcker  and  K.  O.  Miiller  were  the  two  archae- 
ologists who,  most  evidently,  as  influential  teachers 
and  effective  writers,  experienced  the  stimulating  effects 
of  the  new  discoveries,  and  with  this  new  material  in- 
dicated new  aims  to  archaeology.  The  pursuit  of  Greek 
art  was  for  Miiller  only  a  part  of  the  study  of  Greek 
spiritual  development,  in  the  investigation  of  which  he 
found  his  life-work.  His  " Handbuch  der  Archceologie" 
(1830),  with  a  collection  of  plates,  which  had  originated 
in  the  practical  needs  of  teaching,  adopted  the  new 
methods.  He  wrote  at  a  time  when  a  survey  of  the  whole 
was  not  yet  made  impossible  by  abundant  specialization, 
and  with  a  light  touch  he  knew  how  to  select  the  most 
important  out  of  the  great  mass  of  material.  The  book 
thus  served  several  generations,  although  the  chapters 
on  the  history  of  art  are  less  well  written  than  the  rest, 
and  those  are  naturally  the  most  antiquated  to-day. 
Welcker  too  lived  in  a  Hellenic  atmosphere ;  religion, 
poetry,  and  art  were  for  him  indissolubly  united,  and 
he  felt  as  a  Hellene.  He  had  not  only  looked  through  a 
window  into  one  room  of  the  great  structure,  but  he  was 
familiar  with  every  corner,  and  to  him  each  corner  was 
only  a  part  of  the  whole.  Welcker  possessed  a  more  keen 
delight  in  art  and  poetry  than  Miiller,  combined  with  a 
most  delicate  feeling  for  the  individual.  Individual 
poets  and  artists  appeared  as  special  figures  in  the  great 
current  of  development,  and  in  his  poetic  intuitive  spirit 
he  created  forms,  which,  if  they  were  not  always  quite 
like  the  originals,  pulsated  with  the  blood  of  Hellas. 
Thus,  when  he  first  saw  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon, 
the  Sophocles,  or  the  Apoxyomenos,  they  appeared  as 
living  individuals  whom  he  had  long  known  from  afar  ; 
and  the  significance  he  attached  to  the  contemplation  of 


MULLER— WELCKER— JAHN  297 

statues,  besides  their  study,  he  manifested  by  the  founda- 
tion of  the  first  museum  of  casts,  the  model  institution  at 
Bonn. 

The  great  discoveries  of  vases,  in  the  twenties  and 
thirties,  were  of  great  significance  for  archaeology. 
New  treasuries  of  mythological  scenes,  far  richer  than 
could  ever  have  been  anticipated,  appeared,  and  de- 
manded appreciation  and  explanation.  Thus  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  pictorial  part  of  the  vase  came  into  the 
foreground,  and  for  a  time  science  was  almost  lost  in 
exegesis.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  Otto  Jahn  to  have  freed 
science  from  the  arbitrariness  of  unmethodical  guess- 
work and  barren  subtleties,  to  have  finally  placed  it  on 
a  firm  basis.  He  had  started  with  philology,  a  pupil  of 
Lachmann  and  Bockh,  and  had  transferred  his  philo- 
logical methods  to  archaeological  exegesis.  Raoul-Roch- 
ette  had  preceded  him  in  combining  artistic  and  literary 
sources.  A  survey  of  the  general  development  which 
Jahn,  like  Miiller  and  Welcker,  kept  constantly  in  view, 
promoted  historical  points  of  view,  e.g.  the  recognition 
of  the  fact,  until  then  overlooked,  that  the  tribal  differ- 
ences among  the  Greeks  exerted  a  decisive  influence  on 
their  plastic  art,  as  well  as  on  their  poetry,  philosophy, 
and  architecture  (1846).  Or,  again,  the  demonstration 
that  genre  had  been  familiar  to  late  Greek  art  as  well  as  to 
Hellenistic  poetry,  a  verdict  frequently  questioned  then 
(1848).  To-day  we  can  hardly  understand  that  such 
things  should  ever  have  been  misunderstood. 

This  older  mode  of  thought,  which  Jahn  represented, 
still  lacked  one  thing  :  the  complete  blending  of  the 
literary  and  these  newly  opened  artistic  sources ;  they 
frequently  ran  side  by  side  like  two  streams,  and  rarely 
united.  Thus,  for  example,  Johannes  Overbeck,  in  his 
"  Geschichte  der  Griechischen  Plastik,"  maintained 
through  four  editions  (1857-94)  of  this  much-read  book 
the  separation  of  the  two  sources  ;  for  instance,  the 


298  DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

appreciation  of  Phidias  remains  separated  from  an 
analysis  of  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon.  Even 
Heinrich  Brunn,  in  his  "  Geschichte  der  Griechischen 
Kunstler"  (1853-9),  which  marks  a  great  advance, 
limited  himself  almost  entirely  to  the  literary  evidence, 
which  he  had  critically  sifted,  and  only  referred  to  original 
works  of  art  by  known  artists,  as  the  Laocoon,  the  Bor- 
ghese  Gladiator,  or  the  Apotheosis  of  Homer.  Brunn 
was  quite  right  and  justified  in  critically  examining  the 
traditional  history  of  art,  and  he  is  not  to  blame  that  the 
numerous  histories  of  Greek  sculpture  were  slow  to  adopt 
the  History  of  Art  as  their  subject,  in  the  place  of  the 
History  of  Artists.  And  yet  the  incessant  discovery  of 
nameless  works,  often  far  surpassing  those  which  could 
be  ascribed  to  known  artists,  imperatively  called  for  such 
a  change. 


The  change  in  our  views  and  methods  which  has 
since  arisen  is  due  in  the  first  place  to  the  great  enter- 
prises which  followed  one  another  in  rapid  succession 
during  the  last  third  of  the  century.  These  enterprises, 
however,  widened  the  scope  of  our  vision  both  locally 
and  temporally,  and  along  with  new  knowledge  have 
constantly  presented  new  problems ;  they  have  also 
enriched  and  reinforced,  not  only  our  methods  of  ex- 
cavating, but  of  understanding  and  applying  results. 
But  this  does  not  explain  everything ;  other  essential 
conditions  must  be  considered. 

(i)  The  most  obvious  cause  consists  in  the  great 
facilities  of  travel  offered  by  the  railways  and  steam- 
ships. The  ancient  saying  that  a  journey  to  Corinth  is 
not  for  every  one,  has  lost  its  literal  significance.  To- 
day it  is  possible  for  us  to  be,  as  Pliny  says  of  the 
likenesses  of  famous  men  in  Varro's  book  of  portraits 
(imagines),  "  omnipresent  as  the  gods."  A  stay  of  some 


THE  STUDY  OF  ARCHEOLOGY  299 

length  in  the  south  is  a  matter  of  course,  and  com- 
paratively easily  attainable  for  all  archaeological 
students.  But  also  when  it  is  a  question  of  collecting 
or  comparing  material  for  special  work,  or  even  for  single 
questions,  the  visiting  of  museums,  which  are  almost 
always  generously  opened  to  all  investigators,  is  infinitely 
easier  than  it  was  fifty  years  ago.  Thus  we  not  only  have 
much  more  material  at  our  disposal,  but  we  command 
greater  facilities  for  its  use. 

(2)  Scientific  education  has  also  greatly  altered. 
Fifty  years  ago  by  no  means  all  the  universities  of  Ger- 
many had  chairs  of  Archaeology  ;  in  Austria  there  was 
only  one,  in  Vienna  ;  in  France,  in  Paris ;  and,  to  my 
knowledge,  Italy  and  England  had  none.  To-day  hardly 
any  European  university  is  without  such  a  chair,  and  its 
"  laboratory  "  a  museum  of  casts.  Welcker,  with  the 
assistance  of  Baron  von  Stein,  established  in  Bonn  the 
first  museum  of  the  kind,  which  is  systematically  ar- 
ranged for  study.  Welcker  wrote  in  1827 :  " Tnis 
foundation  is  so  opportune  that  I  am  convinced  the  other 
universities  will  follow  before  long."  The  prediction 
has  been  fulfilled,  at  first  in  Germany,  and  gradually  in 
other  countries  where  archaeology  is  studied.  Although 
the  casts,  at  best,  are  only  a  makeshift,  and  the  opaque 
plaster  cannot  convey  an  idea  of  the  beauty  of  marble 
or  bronze,  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  the  advantage 
of  not  being  limited,  like  a  genuine  museum  of  antiques, 
to  a  chance  collection,  but  the  entire  sequence  of  ancient 
sculpture  can  here  be  exhibited  in  a  systematic  selection. 
Casts  are  also  more  useful  for  scientific  work  than  originals, 
as  certain  important  experiments  can  be  made ;  for 
example,  false  restorations  can  be  removed  and  better 
restorations  can  be  tried,  also  casts  can  be  bronzed  after 
the  originals. 

There  are  still  certain  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  as  it 
is  not  always  possible  to  secure  the  most  important  and 


300  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

instructive  casts.  A  great  central  establishment  is 
wanted,  furnished  with  ample  means,  which  under 
scientific  guidance  would  produce  the  most  important 
casts  according  to  a  definite  scheme.  Or,  if  this  were 
too  great  a  task  for  a  single  institution,  it  would  be 
possible  to  think  of  a  union  of  several  (as  has  recently 
been  established  for  the  great  undertakings  of  the 
academies) ;  thus,  for  example,  factories  for  casts  in 
Berlin,  London,  Paris,  Rome,  Athens,  and  Munich,  could 
unite  and  share  the  task,  of  course  under  the  control  of  a 
scientific  committee.  But  these  are  dreams  of  the  future. 
A  collection  of  the  most  important  examples  can  now  be 
obtained,  as  may  be  seen — apart  from  the  Museums  of 
Berlin  or  Dresden — in  the  University  Galleries  of  Bonn, 
Munich,  Strasburg,  Leipzig,  Cambridge,  Oxford,  Lyons, 
and  Rome.  These  collections  render  possible  those 
exercises  which  Otto  Jahn  was  the  first  to  introduce  into 
the  academic  curriculum.  Here  the  student  learns  the 
difficult  art  of  seeing,  and  is  taught  to  apply  the  principles 
of  criticism  and  interpretation.  A  student  who  has 
thus  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  one  museum  is 
prepared  to  advance  science  when  going  out  into  the 
realm  of  originals,  particularly  if  there  is  combined  with 
the  casts  a  collection  of  originals  as  at  Bonn  and  Wiirz- 
burg.  At  Berlin  and  Munich  large  collections  of  originals 
are  at  the  disposal  of  the  student. 

To  the  universities  at  home  must  be  added  the 
Archaeological  Institutes  or  Schools,  the  places  of  ob- 
servation and  work  in  foreign  countries.  The  Archae- 
ological Institute  in  Rome  remained  alone  for  nearly 
twenty  years.  The  French  School  in  Athens  was  added 
next,  but  did  not  take  part  in  real  archaeological  work 
for  some  time.  To-day,  beside  the  French  School  in 
Athens,  which  has  also  extended  hospitality  to  foreign 
scholars,  there  are  actively  engaged  the  German  Institute, 
the  American  School,  and  the  British  School,  to  which 


THE  SCHOOLS  IN  ATHENS  301 

recently  an  Austrian  has  been  added.  Similar  con- 
ditions prevail  in  Rome,  which,  however,  as  Greece  is  of 
greater  importance  archaeologically,  occupies  a  second 
place.  Besides  other  work  undertaken  by  these  in- 
stitutions, they  devote  themselves  to  the  training  of 
students,  who,  after  preliminary  instruction,  which  is 
ever-increasing  in  efficiency,  have  been  sent  to  them, 
or  present  themselves  of  their  own  accord.  They  are 
made  familiar  with  ancient  sites  and  works  of  art 
by  lectures,  demonstrations,  and  journeys,  and  are 
employed,  with  more  or  less  independence,  at  the  ex- 
cavations. 

A  very  different  training  from  that  of  former  times  ! 

(3)  Another  help  in  the  study  of  art  which  cannot  be 
overrated  has  come  with  the  development  of  photo- 
graphy. Fifty  years  ago  almost  the  only  photographs  of 
antiques  known  were  in  Italy,  and  those  chiefly  in  Rome. 
To-day  there  is  hardly  any  large  Museum  which  does  not 
publish  its  own  photographs,  and  it  is  generally  not 
difficult  to  acquire  photographs  even  of  scattered  an- 
tiques. To-day  a  camera  is  a  necessity  for  every  archae- 
ological traveller.  Photographs  play  an  important  part 
in  the  teaching  of  archaeology.  The  collection,  begun 
by  Brunn-Bruckmann,  and  continued  by  Paul  Arndt, 
of  "  Denkmdler  griechischer  und  romischer  Skulptur " 
is  as  indispensable  for  lectures  as  that  published  by  Arndt 
and  Amelung,  "  Photographische  Einzelaufnahmen  an- 
tiker  Skulptur  en"  is  for  research  work  in  antique  sculp- 
ture. Processes  of  reproduction  such  as  phototypes 
and  autotypes,  while  not  always  artistically  pleasing, 
render  great  variety  and  accuracy  possible  in  the  illus- 
tration of  archaeological  works  both  scientific  and  popu- 
lar. They  can  thus  convey  authentic  knowledge  of 
antique  works  to  an  extended  circle,  and  place  a  living 
image  before  the  beholder  in  the  place  of  a  lifeless  or 
misinterpreted  description.  Even  catalogues  sometimes 


302  DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

follow  this  method,  since  the  collections  in  Berlin  set 
the  example  in  1891.  But  it  is  not  only  the  great  facility 
of  reproduction  that  we  owe  to  photography,  but  the 
manner  of  representation  is  still  more  to  be  considered. 
Engravings  of  earlier  times  bore  the  impress  of  the  period 
or  the  engraver,  and  this  character  increased  with  their 
elaboration.  Rarely  did  they  reproduce  the  style  of 
the  original  so  faithfully  as  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Speci- 
mens of  Ancient  Sculpture,"  the  "  Ancient  Marbles  of 
the  British  Museum,"  or  the  best  plates  in  the  "  Musee 
des  Antiques,"  by  Bouillon.  Accordingly  many  were 
limited  to  mere  outlines  which,  when  carefully  executed, 
sufficed  for  second-rate  works  of  art,  chiefly  interesting 
on  account  of  their  subject,  such  as  those  in  Zoega's 
"  Bassirilievi  " ;  but  when  applied  to  statues  and  busts  of 
high  artistic  merit  could  only  claim  the  value  of  aids  to 
memory,  as  those  in  the  Musee  Napoleon  by  Piroli,  or 
"Denkmaler  der  alien  Kunst"  by  Miiller  and  Osterley. 
How  very  much  the  individuality  of  the  draughtsman 
affected  plates  is  clearly  indicated  in  the  elegant  plates 
of  the  "  Graber  der  Hellenen"  by  Stackelberg.  Compared 
with  these  methods,  photography,  in  spite  of  certain 
inherent  defects  of  foreshortening,  and  in  spite  of  its 
dependence  on  the  often  unfavourable  lighting  of  the 
objects,  shows  an  infinitely  greater  fidelity  and  pre- 
cision in  the  reproduction  of  all  the  nuances  of  style, 
technical  peculiarities,  and  artistic  effects  of  the  original. 
Thus  with  the  help  of  photography  we  have  learnt  to  see 
anew,  and  it  is  greatly  owing  to  its  aid  that  modern 
archaeology  has  turned  so  decidedly  to  stylistic  analysis 
and  appreciation.  Some,  like  Heinrich  Brunn  and  Karl 
Friedrichs,  had  taken  this  course  even  without  photo- 
graphy, but  that  it  has  become  the  great  high  road  of 
archaeology  is  mainly  due  to  our  habit  of  viewing  every- 
thing photographically,  and  to  the  possibility  offered 
by  photography  of  judging  of  the  stylistic  character  of 


PHOTOGRAPHY  303 

originals  without  seeing  them,  and  of  their  relation  to 
other  known  works. 

Photography  has  not  only  influenced  archaeology,  but 
the  History  of  Medieval  and  Modern  Art  as  well.  This  as 
a  science  is  even  more  recent  than  archaeology,  and,  like 
Medieval  and  Modern  History,  learnt  much  from  the 
elder  science  in  its  first  stages  of  development,  when 
modern  and  ancient  art  had  not  been  so  distinctly 
separated.  But  its  special  character  was  early  dis- 
tinguishable. In  Germany  alone  Rumohr's  (1827-31) 
44  Italienische  Forschungen"  and  Gaye's  "  Carteggio 
inedito  di  artisti  "  (1839-40),  may  be  noted  as  the  be- 
ginning of  scientific  method  in  the  history  of  later  art. 
In  the  former,  stylistic  considerations  form  the  chief 
element  in  historical  appreciation  ;  in  the  latter  the 
archives  have  yielded  their  treasures  in  an  admirable 
manner  in  the  service  of  the  history  of  art.  The  history 
of  modern  art  has  at  its  disposal  in  both  respects  in- 
finitely richer  and  more  trustworthy  material  than 
archaeology.  As  works  of  art,  paintings  in  particular 
are  so  scattered,  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  ac- 
quire such  skill  in  stylistic  analysis  without  the  help 
of  photography.  By  such  means  the  mountain  has  come 
to  the  prophet,  where  his  road  to  the  mountain  was 
barred.  The  purely  artistic  point  of  view  has  from 
the  beginning  more  strongly  influenced  the  history  of 
modern  art,  which  has  not  passed  through  a  philological 
stage.  This  circumstance  has  perhaps  made  its  judg- 
ments more  subjective,  but  has  also  called  forth  certain 
critical  methods,  which  can  best  be  designated  by  the 
name  of  Morelli.  Archaeology  has  thus  been  influenced 
by  the  history  of  modern  art  in  proportion  as  the  former 
has  endeavoured  to  keep  questions  of  style  and  art  in  the 
foreground. 

Under  these  influences  a  revolution  has  taken  place  in 


304  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

archaeology  in  regard  to  scientific  observation  and  treat- 
ment. 

During  the  course  of  discovery  new  works  or  groups 
constantly  appeared  of  which  we  had  little  or  no  literary 
or  documentary  evidence,  and  which  could  not  be  assigned 
a  place  in  the  scheme  which  has  been  constructed  mainly 
from  notices  in  Pliny  or  Pausanias.  They  demanded 
independent  criticism  and  comparison  with  others 
already  known  and  designated,  so  as  to  receive  their 
proper  place.  At  times  the  result  was  to  disturb  the 
traditional  classification  or  to  necessitate  a  new  sub- 
division in  it  or  an  addition  to  it.  Of  such  a  nature  was 
Brunn's  theory  of  a  special  Northern  Greek  art.  It  had 
only  slight  support  in  the  literary  evidence  that  a  certain 
Telephanes  flourished  in  Thessaly  about  the  time  of  the 
Persian  wars  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  found  support 
in  the  peculiar  "  pastoso  "  style  of  a  number  of  reliefs 
from  Northern  Greece.  The  doubts  which  this  theory 
encountered,  especially  when  it  was  connected  with  the 
name  of  Paionios,  as  the  alleged  artist  of  the  Eastern 
pediment  group  at  Olympia,  were  silenced  more  and 
more,  since  Brunn  himself  connected  these  monuments 
with  the  Ionian  art  of  Asia  Minor.  This  assumption 
was  not  so  much  based  upon  literary  evidence  as  upon 
stylistic  and  general  historical  considerations. 

Thus  it  has  come  about  that  with  new  finds  not  yet 
labelled,  the  old  philological  point  of  view  has  receded 
and  the  new  stylistic  analysis  taken  its  place.  The  leader 
in  this  movement  was  Heinrich  Brunn.  As  he  was  a 
most  independent  investigator  and  impressive  teacher, 
his  influence  was  very  great.  As  in  modern  aesthetics, 
so  here,  everything  depended  on  the  recognition  of  the 
forms  in  art,  and  the  history  of  art  only  pursued  the 
development  of  the  artistic  form.  This  was  the  natural 
consequence  of  adopting  stylistic  analysis  as  the  prevailing 
method  of  investigation.  To-day  no  one  questions  any 


STYLISTIC  ANALYSIS  305 

longer  the  general  justification  of  the  movement.  It  is 
a  well-known  fact  that  a  new  movement  is  most  intolerant 
to  the  one  just  preceding  it.  Consequently  the  well- 
developed  archaeology  of  style  now  depreciates  the  archae- 
ology of  the  philological  period.  Only  works  of  art  are 
of  importance,  all  tradition  is  useless,  in  fact  often  cannot 
withstand  the  higher  criticism.  Those  who  speak  thus 
do  not  realize  that  they  are  about  to  saw  off  the  branch 
on  which  they  are  sitting.  For  how  could  we  have 
built  the  history  of  art  upon  stylistic  grounds,  if  we  had 
not  documentary  evidence  ?  Let  us  only  compare  the 
assurance  with  which  we  recognize  the  Diskobolos  of 
Myron,  and  use  it  as  a  criterion,  on  the  strength  of  two 
clear  literary  evidences,  with  the  great  insecurity  which 
exists  as  soon  as  we  only  have  stylistic  analysis  as  a 
guide.  The  criterion  of  style  is  naturally  subjective, 
and  varies  according  to  the  conceptions  of  the  individual 
critic,  at  times  even  according  to  the  time  and  conditions 
of  his  knowledge.  One  need  only  remember  the  numerous 
views  expressed  in  regard  to  the  pediment  groups  at 
Olympia  (p.  129),  or  consider  that  no  less  an  authority 
than  Brunn  assigned  the  Diomede  in  Munich,  on  stylistic 
grounds,  to  the  fourth  century,  while  Loschcke,  Stud- 
niczka,  and  Furtwangler  place  it,  no  doubt  correctly, 
in  the  fifth  century.  Kalkmann,  a  man  with  a  most 
subtle  appreciation  of  proportions,  was  capable  of  "  de- 
monstrating "  that  the  magnificent  figure  of  a  youth 
from  Subiaco,  now  in  the  Museo  delle  Terme  in  Rome, 
a  masterpiece  of  the  liquid  style  of  the  time  of  Praxiteles, 
was  an  archaic  figure,  dating  from  about  the  time  of  the 
Persian  wars !  In  the  discussion  about  the  falsely  so- 
called  Apollo  of  the  Omphalos,  rival  claims  are  advanced 
for  Pythagoras  of  Rhegion  (Waldstein),  the  supposed 
Boeotian  Kalamis  (Conze,  Furtwangler,  and  others) 
and  the  Corinthian  Kallimachos  (Schreiber).  Who  does 
not  recall  how  modern  paintings  are  frequently  christened 
x 


3o6  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

over  and  over  again  by  the  virtuosi,  and  how  here,  in 
spite  of  a  much  more  favourable  condition  of  affairs, 
and  with  far  more  numerous  works  undoubtedly  au- 
thenticated, it  is  still  not  always  possible  to  obtain  a 
unanimous  opinion  as  to  the  true  creator  ?  Each  critic 
believes  his  opinion  to  be  the  only  true  one. 

Adolf  Furtwangler  has  taken  a  method  of  his  own  to 
produce  an  agreement  between  literary  tradition  and  the 
monuments  which  have  come  down  to  us.  According 
to  his  statement,  "  in  the  Roman  copies  there  has  been 
preserved  to  us  a  certain  selection  made  from  the  master- 
pieces of  classical  times,  dictated  by  taste  and  knowledge 
at  a  time  when  the  best  culture  prevailed.  It  was  a 
choice  of  the  best  and  most  famous  possessions  of  an- 
tiquity. Among  these  copies  we  must  seek  for  the 
masterpieces  mentioned  by  writers,  those  statues  that 
were  epoch-making,  or  indicated  an  entirely  new  direction 
in  art."  Starting  with  the  hypothesis  that  the  copies 
preserved  can  be  divided  among  the  artists  mentioned  by 
Pliny  and  Pausanias,  he  succeeds  not  only  in  allotting 
to  great  masters  numerous  works,  but  even  shadowy  and 
rarely  mentioned  artists,  as  Telephanes  of  Phocaea,  and 
Praxias,  the  pupil  of  Kalamis,  have  important  statues 
assigned  to  them,  as  the  Ludovisi  Hermes  and  the  Albani 
Athene. 

We  know  of  two  statues  of  Myron  with  certainty,  the 
Diskobolos  and  the  Marsyas.  Following  Morelli's  method 
of  individual  study,  Furtwangler  tries  to  acquire  for  him 
a  series  of  others  ;  some,  as  the  Perseus,  show  an  entirely 
different  style,  and  some  an  apparently  more  elaborate, 
but  really  more  indistinct  type,  hardly  to  be  reconciled 
with  our  earlier,  definite  starting-point.  In  Kalli- 
machos  are  united  the  most  divergent  traits,  so  as  to 
form  an  incomprehensible  personality.  In  the  case  of 
Euphranor  it  is  difficult  to  gain  any  firm  footing.  But 
details  are  always  open  to  discussion,  although  many  of 


A.   FURTWANGLER  307 

the  artists'  portraits  created  by  Furtwangler  have  been 
accepted  as  the  inalienable  possession  of  the  history  of 
art.  Yet  his  premise  appears  to  me  incorrect ;  that  the 
choice  of  antique  statues  which  has  come  down  to  us 
should  correspond  with  the  history  of  art,  which  Pliny 
compiled  out  of  second-hand  authorities,  or  with  the 
works  mentioned  by  Pausanias  in  his  guide-book  of 
Greece.  How  do  we  know  that  the  taste  of  the  Romans 
at  the  end  of  the  Republic  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  Em- 
pire— that  is  about  the  time  from  which  most  of  our 
copies  date — was  the  same  as  that  of  the  sources  of  these 
writers  ?  How  much  the  taste  of  the  moment  or  fashion 
may  have  played  a  part  we  can  never  know.  The  very 
foundations  of  Furtwangler's  system  of  naming  statues 
seem  thus  doubtful,  and  the  uncertain  element  in  his 
decisions  seems  greatly  to  outweigh  the  certain  and  the 
probable.  Among  his  numerous  ascriptions  hardly  one 
possesses  so  high  a  degree  of  certainty  as  the  successful 
recognition  of  the  Lemnian  Athene  of  Phidias,  of  which 
we  shall  speak  again. 

But  when  such  objections  as  look  upon  all  criticism  of 
style  as  subjective  are  set  aside,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
from  this  method  the  history  of  art  has  received  a  fresh 
impetus.  Instead  of  depending  upon  a  scaffolding 
supposed  to  be  firm,  because  derived  from  literary 
tradition,  but  really  flimsy  and  scanty,  we  now  have  a 
structure  rich  in  form  and  colour,  which  may  indeed  in 
the  course  of  time  require  addition  or  rebuilding  and 
change  in  its  decoration,  but  may,  on  the  whole,  be  looked 
upon  as  firmly  established.  The  forms  of  artists  who 
formerly  wandered  about  the  Hades  of  literary  tradition 
as  pale  ghosts,  have  had  blood  put  into  their  veins  by 
the  digging  and  investigating  archaeologists,  and  they 
speak  to  us  in  the  language  of  living  beings.  We  will  try 
to  demonstrate  the  progress  made  by  a  series  of  examples. 


3o8  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

Greek  sculpture  has  acquired  the  most  obvious  gain. 
The  eighteenth  century  knew  but  few  works  definitely 
assignable  to  known  artists.  Apart  from  the  Laocoon, 
the  Farnese  Bull  and  similar  works,  Winckelmann  recog- 
nized the  Lizard  Slayer  of  Praxiteles  and  Visconti  the 
Cnidian  Aphrodite  by  the  same  artist,  the  Ganymede  of 
Leochares,  the  Praying  Boy  of  Bcedas,  and  the  Tyche  of 
Eutychides  ;  and  Carlo  Fea  recognized  in  1783  the  Disko- 
bolos  of  Myron.  For  a  long  time  none  were  added  to  this 
number.  An  important  discovery  was  made  by  Antonio 
Nibby  in  1821,  when  in  the  Dying  Gladiator  (whom 
Byron's  immortal  verses  celebrated  as  a  Dacian  fallen 
in  the  arena),  he  recognized,  by  his  features,  his  hair, 
the  collar  about  his  neck,  and  his  shield,  one  of  the  Gala- 
tians  who,  according  to  Pliny,  had  been  erected  at  Per- 
gamon,  to  commemorate  the  victories  of  Attalos  and 
Eumenes  over  their  formidable  neighbours.  This  at 
once  gave  the  key  to  the  group  of  Galatians  in  the  Ludo- 
visi  collection,  of  the  same  period  and  the  same  marble, 
now  the  pride  of  the  Museo  delle  Terme.  Pergamene  art 
was  thus  placed  beside  the  Rhodian,  represented  by  the 
Laocoon  and  the  Farnese  Bull,  and  they  formed  together 
for  a  long  time  all  that  was  known  of  "  Hellenistic  " 
art.  This  expression  was,  however,  only  coined  in  1833 
by  Johann  Gustav  Droysen. 

Only  about  the  middle  of  the  century  were  new  dis- 
coveries made  and  works  assigned  to  certain  artists. 
It  indicated  the  condition  of  our  actual  knowledge  of  the 
most  important  artists,  that  when  in  1849  the  Apoxy- 
omenos  was  found  at  Trastevere,  doubts  arose  whether 
it  was  the  Polykleitan  or  Lysippan.  The  truth  soon 
prevailed,  whether  Emil  Braun  or  another  was  the  first 
to  decide  the  question,  and  the  Apoxyomenos  has  be- 
come the  mainspring  of  our  knowledge  of  the  great 
reformer  in  art,  Lysippos.  Some  years  later,  in  1853, 
Otto  Jahn  recognized  a  reminiscence  of  another  work  of 


ATHENE  PARTHENOS  309 

Lysippos,  the  Kairos,  in  a  supposed  mosaic,  which  after- 
wards proved  to  be  an  early  medieval  relief.  Jahn  had 
distinguished  as  early  as  1850  the  three  "  Ephesian  " 
types  of  the  Amazon  statues,  among  the  great  number 
existing.  Attempts  have  since  been  often  made  to 
assign  them  to  the  great  artists  Polykleitos,  Phidias, 
and  Kresilas,  although  with  varying  results.  In  1850 
the  characteristics  of  these  three  artists  were  still  too 
indefinite  to  attempt  such  a  distinction  with  success. 

Such  ascriptions  as  rested  primarily  upon  stylistic 
observation  began  to  be  made  in  the  fifties.  Heinrich 
Brunn  recognized  in  1853  a  bearded  satyr,  which  had 
just  then  been  placed  in  the  Later  an,  as  the  Marsyas  of 
Myron,  expressing  lively  surprise  at  the  flutes  which 
Athene  has  thrown  down,  although  the  figure  had  been 
incorrectly  restored  as  dancing  with  castanets.  His 
statement  was  supported  by  a  reference  in  Pliny,  by  an 
Athenian  coin,  and  a  lost  Athenian  relief.  Five  years 
later  Brunn  could  definitely  confirm  the  identification 
by  a  thorough  stylistic  analysis.  Myron  was  thus, 
through  his  Diskobolos  and  Marsyas,  the  first  artist 
with  whose  characteristics  we  became  familiar.  In  1859 
Karl  Friedrichs  followed  with  the  brilliant  discovery  of 
the  group  of  the  Tyrannicides,  two  athletes  in  the  Naples 
Museum,  our  first  glimpse  into  archaic  art.  Here  also 
a  coin,  and  a  relief,  which  had  disappeared,  supplied  the 
authority,  which  was  later  confirmed  by  stylistic  demon- 
stration. But  as  two  groups  of  the  Tyrannicides  had 
existed,  an  earlier  one  by  Antenor  from  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century,  and  a  later  one,  made  thirty  years  after 
by  Kritios  and  Nesiotes,  doubts  arose  to  which  of  the 
two  groups  this  copy  of  the  athletes  belonged.  The 
group  has  now  been  assigned  to  the  later  original. 

An  even  greater  sensation  was  caused  by  the  finding  in 
the  same  year,  in  1859,  m  Athens,  of  an  unfinished 
statuette,  in  which  Charles  Lenormant  recognized  a  copy 


3io  DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

of  the  Athene  Parthenos  of  Phidias.  On  the  strength 
of  many  notices  and  supposed  imitations,  attempts  had 
often  been  made  to  reconstruct  this  famous  masterpiece, 
and,  as  it  proved,  with  some  success  ;  but  we  now  recog- 
nized for  the  first  time  the  severe  architectural  pose  of  the 
colossal  figure,  and  the  arrangement  of  its  accessories  in 
the  authentic  form,  so  that  a  definite  basis  had  been  ac- 
quired for  further  research.  In  1865  Conze  was  able  to 
confirm  and  supplement  this  discovery  by  a  marble  copy 
of  the  shield  which  Newton  had  recently  found  in  Lord 
Strangford's  cellar,  and  secured  for  the  British  Museum. 
In  1880  another  large  duplicate  of  the  same  figure  was 
found  in  Athens.  At  St.  Petersburg  Gangolf  Kieseritzky 
published,  in  1883,  golden  copies  in  relief  of  the  head, 
with  its  rich  head-dress,  which  made  it  evident  that  a 
gem  of  Aspasios  in  Vienna,  already  well  known,  was  the 
best  copy  of  the  head.  While  the  Parthenos  has  thus 
become  constantly  clearer  to  us  in  all  details,  how  sadly 
fragmentary  is  our  knowledge  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  ! 
We  owe  thanks  to  J.  Overbeck  for  recognizing  in  1865-6 
on  some  coins  of  the  time  of  Hadrian  the  only  monu- 
mental evidence  we  have ;  otherwise  we  are  almost 
entirely  dependent  on  Pausanias'  description.  Nothing 
can  demonstrate  more  clearly  the  progress  we  have  made, 
through  the  discovery  and  identification  of  recovered 
copies,  than  a  comparison  of  these  two,  the  chief  works 
of  Phidias. 

In  1863  Friedrichs  demonstrated  convincingly  that 
the  Canon  of  Polykleitos,  the  Doryphoros,  could  be 
recognized  in  the  statue  of  a  youth  in  the  Naples  Museum 
and  in  other  copies — the  same  thought  had  occurred  to 
Brunn  about  the  same  time.  The  sound,  although 
somewhat  monotonous  manner  of  the  Argive  master 
was  thus  clearly  defined,  and  Helbig  had  no  difficulty  in 
recognizing  in  1871  in  a  similar  composition  at  the  British 
Museum,  which  Newton  had  acquired  at  Vaison  (p.  102), 


POLYKLEITOS  AND   KEPHISODOTOS         311 

the  Diadumenos  of  the  same  artist.  Brunn  discovered 
in  1867  another  corner-stone  in  the  history  of  art,  by 
recognizing  in  the  "  Leukothea  "  of  Winckelmann  one  of 
the  finest  statues  in  the  Munich  Glyptothek,  the  goddess 
of  Peace  holding  the  little  god  of  Wealth  in  her  arm — the 
Eirene  and  Plutos — by  the  elder  Kephisodotos,  the  father 
of  Praxiteles.  The  idea  was,  so  to  speak,  in  the  air,  for 
Friedrichs  had  in  1859  recognized  the  "  child-nursing  " 
goddess  as  the  essential  part  of  the  group,  and  Stephani, 
Stark,  Urlichs,  and  Overbeck  thought  of  the  statue  of 
Kephisodotos  almost  simultaneously  ;  but  it  was  left 
for  Brunn  to  confirm  the  supposition  by  the  evidence  of 
an  Athenian  coin  in  the  Munich  Cabinet  of  Coins,  on 
which  the  group  is  reproduced,  and  the  little  Plutos  can 
be  recognized  by  his  cornucopia.  Further  proof  has 
since  been  provided  by  the  discovery  of  replicas  of  the 
child.  The  group  of  Kephisodotos  now  formed  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  tradition  of  the  Phidian  school 
and  the  works  of  Kephisodotos'  great  son  Praxiteles. 

About  the  same  time  Brunn  made  an  important  con- 
tribution to  our  knowledge  of  archaic  art  by  distinguishing 
through  an  exact  analysis  of  the  two  pediment  groups  at 
^Egina  two  distinct  periods  of  style,  an  older  and  more 
conservative  one  in  the  West  pediment,  and  a  later  one 
in  the  East  pediment,  where  new  life  has  been  infused  into 
rigid  forms.  Finally  Brunn  closed  this  series  of  happy 
discoveries  in  1870  by  demonstrating  that  a  number  of 
half  life-size  statues,  all  belonging  to  a  Roman  find  in 
1514,  and  scattered  in  different  museums,  were  remains 
of  the  four  groups  dedicated  by  King  Attalos  upon  the 
Athenian  Acropolis.  From  the  wars  of  the  Giants  and 
of  the  Amazons,  from  the  Battle  of  Marathon  and  the 
victories  won  by  Attalos  over  the  Galatians,  from  each 
of  these  remains  were  found,  corresponding  in  style  to 
those  known  from  Pergamon.  This  was  so  evident  that 
some  doubt  which  had  arisen  in  consequence  of  a  mis- 


3ia  DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

interpretation  of  an  expression  by  Pausanias  was  soon 
silenced. 

These  were  nearly  all  the  artists  whose  names  could  be 
assigned  to  long-known  works.  But  in  the  meantime  the 
era  of  new  discoveries  had  arrived.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
excavations  at  Olympia  (1875)  the  Nike  of  Paionios  was 
found ;  two  years  later  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles.  Both 
have  been  mentioned  above  (pages  128-131),  and  the 
questions  regarding  them  which  have  since  arisen.  It  may 
be  worth  mentioning  that  Emil  Braun  at  one  time 
thought  of  connecting  the  brother  of  the  Hermes,  the  "An- 
tinous  "  of  the  Belvedere,  with  Polykleitos,  he  was  so  im- 
pressed with  the  heavy  form  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 

To  continue  with  Praxiteles,  Gustave  Foug&res  dis- 
covered in  1883  a"t  Mantineia  the  base  of  a  group  by  this 
artist.  The  reliefs  of  the  Muses  upon  it  threw  new  light 
upon  the  drapery  motives  of  Praxiteles.  Benndorf  and 
Furtwangler  recognized  almost  simultaneously  in  a  beau- 
tiful youth's  head,  with  waving  locks,  found  at  Eleusis, 
the  Chthonic  god  Eubouleus,  a  work  which  Georg  Kaibel, 
in  consequence  of  an  inscription,  had  just  assigned  to 
Praxiteles.  And  Furtwangler  believed  he  had  dis- 
covered another  original  work  of  this  master,  in  1893, 
in  a  head  of  Aphrodite,  in  the  Pet  worth  collection. 

While  the  figure  of  Praxiteles,  the  artist,  which  even 
before  was  something  more  than  a  shadow,  now  emerged 
into  ever-increasing  light,  fortune  did  not  smile  upon 
his  elder  colleague  Scopas.  Newton  had  discovered  in 
1867  three  connected  slabs  of  the  frieze,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Mausoleum,  the  side  assigned  to  Scopas,  and  had 
ascribed  them  to  that  sculptor,  but  without  basing  his 
opinion  on  any  exact  analysis.  So  when  Brunn  in  1882, 
after  a  careful  study,  considered  himself  justified  on 
general  grounds  in  depriving  Scopas  of  these,  many 
followed  him.  And  yet  in  1880  remains  of  pediment 
groups  by  Scopas  had  been  found  at  Tegea,  from  which 


SCOPAS— LEOCHARES— BRYAXIS  313 

Kavvadias  and  Treu  inferred  the  characteristics  of 
Scopas  ;  and  Treu  rightly  laid  stress  on  their  connection 
with  the  slabs  of  the  Mausoleum.  Upon  this  basis  L.  R. 
Farnell  (1886)  and  Botho  Graf  (1889)  succeeded  in 
establishing  the  characteristics  of  Scopas,  and  tracing 
them  in  a  number  of  other  works,  so  that  his  style  is 
now  tolerably  familiar  to  us.  Recently  Georg  Treu 
(1902)  has  recovered  another  of  his  works,  by  recognizing 
a  copy  of  his  famous  Frenzied  Maenad. 

Three  other  artists  had  been  engaged  with  Scopas  on 
the  decorations  of  the  Mausoleum — Leochares  on  the 
west  side,  Timotheos  on  the  south,  and  Bryaxis  on  the 
north.  Of  these  artists  we  had  met  Timotheos  first, 
in  the  sculptures  of  the  Temple  of  Asklepios  at  Epidauros. 
Paul  Foucart  in  1890  assigned  these  to  Timotheos,  on  the 
strength  of  the  literary  notices.  The  delicacy  of  the 
drapery  in  these  works  induced  Franz  Winter,  in  180.4, 
to  assign  to  him  a  statue  of  Leda  frequently  copied. 
A  statue  of  Artemis,  which  had  been  placed  in  the  Temple 
of  Augustus  on  the  Palatine,  was  recognized  in  1900  by 
Walther  Amelung  in  a  relief.  The  name  of  Bryaxis 
appeared  in  1891  inscribed  on  a  pedestal  in  Athens  ;  the 
great  lack  of  inventiveness  here  seemed  to  explain  why 
the  most  unfavourable  side  of  the  Mausoleum,  the  north, 
had  been  assigned  to  Bryaxis.  However,  the  statue  of 
a  Persian  rider  found  there  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the 
sculptures  of  the  Mausoleum,  and  would  justify  the  place 
of  honour  accorded  Bryaxis  in  ancient  tradition.  More 
doubtful  is  his  claim  to  some  reliefs  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  of  which  the  most  important  belong  to  the  side 
of  Scopas  or  to  the  Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourning  Women. 
Winter  found  a  resemblance  between  the  well-known 
Ganymede  of  Leochares  and  the  Apollo  Belvedere, 
and  so  in  1892  assigned  the  latter  to  this  spirited  artist, 
amid  general  approbation.  Finally,  in  the  statues  of 
Mausolos  and  Artemisia  and  the  Quadriga  we  now  recog- 


3i4  DISCOVERIES   AND    SCIENCE 

nize  the  work  of  Pythios,  the  architect  and  fifth  sculptor 
of  the  Mausoleum. 

Some  other  identifications  which  have  followed  recent 
excavations  may  be  mentioned.  The  very  archaic  Nike 
leaping  through  the  air,  which  Theophile  Homolle  found 
at  Delos  in  1879,  does  not  belong  to  the  base  and  inscrip- 
tion, found  at  the  same  time,  of  the  early  artist  Archermos 
of  Chios  ;  still  it  takes  us  back  to  the  infancy  of  sculpture, 
when  this  artist  first  introduced  flying  and  leaping 
figures  into  Greek  art.  Soon  the  air  appeared  to  be 
filled  with  these  flying  and  leaping  figures.  The  best- 
preserved  of  the  archaic  standing  female  statues  found 
on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  was  discovered  in  1886. 
It  could  be  almost  entirely  reconstructed,  and  has  with 
great  probability  been  connected  with  an  inscription 
giving  the  name  of  the  artist  Antenor.  In  this  statue 
we  become  acquainted  with  the  artist  of  the  earlier 
group  of  the  Tyrannicides  (p.  309)  in  a  work  made  in  his 
youth,  while  still  under  the  influence  of  the  Ionian  school, 
but  already  far  surpassing  his  masters.  An  unimportant 
herm,  which  appeared  in  1884  with  the  name  Plato,  gave 
Winter  an  opportunity  to  introduce  the  name  of  Silanion, 
an  Attic  realist.  Some  disappointment  was  caused  by 
the  excavations  of  Kavvadias  at  Lycosura  in  1889. 
The  Messenian  artist  Damophon  had  been  supposed  to 
be  a  contemporary  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles,  but,  on  his 
work  being  discovered  here,  he  proved  a  technically 
skilful  but  otherwise  not  very  brilliant  artist  of  later 
times,  of  about  the  second  century.  While  the  Tiber 
was  being  dredged  in  1891  numerous  fragments  were 
found,  out  of  which  an  Apollo  was  reconstructed,  now 
in  the  Museo  delle  Terme,  a  statue  still  faintly  suggesting 
archaic  art,  but  of  such  extraordinary  charm  that  E. 
Petersen's  identification  of  it  as  a  work  of  the  youthful 
Phidias  has  been  widely  accepted.  The  excavations  at 
Ephesos  have  yielded,  besides,  a  number  of  other  statues, 


STATUE  FROM  ANTIKYTHERA  315 

a  beautiful  bronze  Apoxyomenos,  which  was  at  once 
assigned  to  the  fourth  century.     Some  time  before  the 
base  of  a  statue  had  been  found  at  Ephesos,  with  the 
name  of  the  artist  Daidalos,  a  grandson  of  Polykleitos. 
Pliny    also    mentions    an    Apoxyomenos    by    Daidalos. 
Upon  this  premise  Friedrich  Hauser  decided  in   1902 
that  this  must  be  the  statue  found.     And  this  is  in  so  far 
probable,  as  the  statue  appears  to  be  an  example  of 
Peloponnesian   sculpture   under   Attic  influence,   which 
would  be  the  case  with  the  later  generations  of  the  school 
of  Polykleitos.    The  main  statue,  among  those  found  at 
Antikythera,    seems   to    indicate    the    same    tendency. 
Finally  the  excavations  at  Pergamon  yielded  in  1903  a 
bearded  herm,  which  was  described  in  its  inscription  as 
a  copy  of  the  "  Hermes  before  the  gate  "  of  Alkamenes, 
that  is,  the  Hermes  Propylaios  of  the  Athenian  Acropolis. 
The  head,  which  had  already  been  known  from  other 
copies,  some  of  them  better,  shows  archaic  conventional 
forms,  though  some  features  show  more  vivacity.     Will 
the  latter  suffice,  although  wanting  in  some  of  the  better 
copies,  to  enable  us  to  recognize  therein  the  ablest  pupil 
and  successor  of  Phidias,  whose  known  works  appear  far 
softer  ?     Or  shall  we  look  for  an  older  Alkamenes,  of 
whom  there  are  only  vague  traditions,  who  may  even 
reopen  the  question  as  to  the  artist  of  the  West  pediment 
at  Olympia  ?     Another  discovery  which  is  not  only  a 
gain,  but  suggests  a  new  problem. 

This  duplication  of  Alkamenes  was  not  by  any  means 
unique.  For  it  was  customary  in  Greek  families  for  a 
grandson  to  take  the  name  of  his  grandfather.  That 
this  would  be  the  case  with  artists  is  very  probable, 
for  the  same  profession  was  frequently  carried  on  in  a 
family  from  generation  to  generation.  Definite  records 
tell  us,  for  example,  of  two  sculptors  named  Polykleitos, 
of  two  named  Kephisodotos,  and  of  two  painters  Aris- 
teides,  in  each  case  a  grandfather  and  grandson.  It  may 


3i6  DISCOVERIES    AND   SCIENCE 

thus  not  be  easy  to  assign  traditional  works  to  their 
rightful  claimants.  With  Aristeides  the  question  does 
not  seem  settled  yet,  whether  the  grandfather,  as  I  firmly 
believe,  or  the  grandson  was  the  distinguished  master, 
the  famous  "  Aristeides  of  Thebes."  The  great  name 
of  Praxiteles  has  been  involved  in  a  similar  discussion. 
We  know  from  inscriptions  that  there  were  other  minor 
artists  of  the  same  name  in  later  times,  but  doubts  were 
expressed  when  Otto  Benndorf  in  1871  placed  beside 
the  famous  master  of  the  time  of  Demosthenes  an  older 
Praxiteles  of  the  fifth  century,  of  the  correctness  of 
which  theory  I  am  convinced.  Although  some,  being 
over-zealous,  try  to  date  him  back  to  the  time  of  Kimon, 
a  calmer  judgment  would  allow  him  to  follow  Phidias, 
about  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  This  date 
would  permit  him  to  be  the  father  of  the  elder  Kephiso- 
dotos  and  the  grandfather  of  his  distinguished  namesake. 
As  frequently  happens  in  tradition,  the  famous  name  has 
absorbed  the  less  renowned. 

A  supposed  double  Daidalos,  a  Sikyonian  or  a  Bithy- 
nian,  has  disappeared  since  Theo.  Reinach,  in  1897, 
recovered  the  truly  Bithynian  name  Doidalses.  Equally 
surprising  and  convincing  was  the  recent  demonstration 
of  Emil  Reisch  (1906),  that  the  artist  name  of  Kalamis, 
of  whom  we  had  experienced  great  difficulty  in  obtaining 
a  clear  picture,  really  combined  two  artists  of  very  differ- 
ent date.  The  first  of  the  name  flourished  in  the  time 
of  Kimon,  and  still  retains  his  place  in  the  history  of 
archaic  art.  The  second  was  a  far  greater  artist,  the 
only  one  of  the  two  known  to  Pliny,  and  until  recently 
unknown,  a  contemporary  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  greater  discernment  has  widened 
our  horizon.  We  mentioned  above  (p.  151)  how  Praxias 
and  Androsthenes  were  pupils  of  Kalamis — one  had 
felt  inclined  to  attribute  this  to  a  misunderstanding 
of  Pausanias — but  now  they  assume  their  traditional 


Photo,  Gatbier 


LEMNIAN   ATHENE,    DRESDEN 


To  face  page  317 


THE   LEMNIAN   ATHENE  317 

place   as  workers  on  the  sculpture  of   the   Temple  at 
Delphi. 

But  to  return  to  the  recognition  of  important  works 
and  their  artists.  Further  examples  may  be  mentioned 
of  long-known  works,  of  which  we  continue  to  seek  the 
creators.  The  Apollo  Belvedere  has  been  mentioned. 
I  tried  in  1903  to  refer  certain  Pergamene  statues  to 
Epigonos,  an  artist  whose  significance  has  only  been 
revealed  by  the  excavations  at  Pergamon,  and  to  recog- 
nize in  the  Dying  Gaul,  who,  like  another  Roland,  lies 
with  his  trumpet  beside  him,  the  "  excellent "  statue  of 
a  trumpeter  by  this  master  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

In  the  same  year  Furtwangler  published  his  striking 
conclusions  regarding  the  Lemnian  Athene,  mentioned 
above  (p.  307).  We  know  from  ancient  records  that 
this  Athene  was  of  surpassing  renown,  that  her  helmet 
had  been  laid  aside,  and  that  the  outline  of  her  face, 
her  soft  cheeks  and  beautiful  nose  were  admired.  Several 
writers — among  them  Puchstein — had  recognized  the 
Phidian  character  of  a  statue,  the  two  best  copies  of 
which  are  in  the  Museum  in  Dresden.  Puchstein  had 
even  thought  of  the  Lemnian  without  a  helmet.  Both 
copies  have,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  large  statues, 
heads  specially  worked  and  inserted.  To  the  one,  the 
head  does  not  seem  to  belong ;  in  the  other,  the  neck  and 
face  certainly  belong  to  the  original,  while  the  back  of 
the  head  and  the  helmet  are  modern  restorations.  Adam 
Flasch  recognized  that  original  parts  of  this  head  cor- 
respond with  a  superb  head  at  Bologna.  All  united  in 
admiring  this  head,  but  its  interpretation  varied  greatly  : 
was  it  youth,  an  Amazon,  or  an  Athene  ?  When  Furt- 
wangler removed  the  false  head  on  the  first  statue  in 
Dresden,  and  inserted  a  cast  of  the  Bologna  head,  which 
had  also  been  made  to  be  inserted,  the  two  fitted  so 
perfectly  that  no  doubt  could  exist  as  to  their  originally 
having  belonged  to  each  other.  Every  unprejudiced 


3i8  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

person  had  to  acknowledge  that  an  antique  statue  of 
Phidias  had  been  recovered.  The  head  without  a  helmet 
suggested  the  Lemnian,  only  the  glance  very  strongly 
directed  to  the  side  required  an  explanation.  Furt- 
wangler  was  able  to  find  a  solution  even  for  this.  He 
discovered  on  gems,  upon  which  statues  were  frequently 
copied,  the  goddess  gazing  upon  her  helmet  while  holding 
it  in  her  raised  right  hand.  A  most  admirable  work  of 
Phidias,  even  if  a  little  severe,  dating  from  before  the 
time  of  the  Parthenon.  At  the  same  time  it  is  the  only 
head  reproducing  in  a  worthy  manner  this  aspect  of  the 
master. 

Finally,  Studniczka,  in  1902,  combined  a  curiously 
twisted  torso  of  a  "  Diomede,"  in  the  Palace  Valentinelli 
in  Rome,  with  a  head  of  Perseus,  which  Furtwangler,  as, 
I  think,  incorrectly,  tries  to  connect  with  the  Perseus  of 
Myron.  But  we  also  know  that  Pythagoras,  the  con- 
temporary of  Myron,  made  a  Perseus.  It  would  be 
gratifying,  if  in  this  work  we  could  obtain  a  more  vivid 
idea  of  this  distinguished  master  than  we  gain  from  gems 
or  coins.  Another  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  by 
von  Duhn,  who  in  1907,  in  the  half-erased  inscription  of 
the  charioteer,  traced  a  connection  with  the  Quadriga  of 
Pythagoras. 

These  examples  will  suffice  to  show  that  during  the 
last  half-century  stylistic  analysis  combined  with  new 
discoveries — not  necessarily  taken  fresh  from  the  earth, 
but  such  as  may  be  found  daily  in  museums— have 
brought  a  series  of  artists  in  living  palpable  form  before 
our  eyes.  This  is  most  keenly  felt,  in  comparing  im- 
portant masters,  as,  for  example,  Euphranor,  who  have 
not  been  so  fortunate,  and  about  whose  names  conse- 
quently many  hypotheses  twine.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  have  gone  a  step  further  in  having  learnt,  by 
the  aid  of  new  discoveries,  to  distinguish  in  some  artists 
and  their  works  different  stages  of  their  development. 


THE  PARTHENON  319 

The  first  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  on  the  Par- 
thenon. We  know  from  ancient  testimony  that  the 
chryselephantine  statue  of  Phidias  had  been  put  in 
position  in  438,  when  the  building  must  have  been 
practically  finished.  And  as  the  reliefs  on  the  metopes, 
from  definite  indications,  were  not  executed  after  they 
had  been  put  in  their  places,  but  before,  they  must  have 
been  finished  about  440  ;  they  would  thus  belong  to  the 
earliest  sculpture  on  the  Parthenon,  a  conclusion  which 
their  style  confirms.  But  we  were  still  in  the  dark  as 
to  when  the  building  had  been  started,  and  whether  it 
was  completed  in  all  parts  in  438,  until  U.  Kohler  (1879) 
and  G.  Loschcke  (1881)  recognized  that  the  fragments 
of  a  building  inscription,  which  extended  over  more 
than  fourteen  years,  belonged  to  the  Parthenon.  Accord- 
ing to  this,  447  was  the  date  when  the  building  was 
begun,  and  it  continued  for  only  nine  years  to  the  "  Con- 
secration." But  the  inscription  further  testifies  that 
work  continued  on  the  Parthenon  until  432,  almost  to 
the  beginning  of  the  great  war.  The  great  pediments, 
which  are  also  mentioned  in  the  inscription,  can  almost 
with  certainty  be  dated  in  these  last  five  years  ;  perhaps 
also  part  or  all  of  the  famous  frieze,  which  may  very 
probably  have  been  executed  in  position.  Although 
the  frieze  shows  the  workmanship  of  different  hands, 
it  indicates  throughout  a  level  of  style  which  far  excels 
that  of  the  best  metopes.  The  groups  of  the  pediments, 
on  the  other  hand,  vary  from  unmistakable  severity  to 
consummate  perfection,  from  almost  academic  precision 
to  an  intense  individuality  and  sense  of  life.  Thus  the 
metopes  were  executed  in  the  forties,  the  frieze  in  the 
beginning  of  the  thirties,  while  the  pediment  groups  were 
presumably  executed  after  the  death  of  Phidias,  or  after 
he  had  left  Athens,  in  438,  by  his  pupils.  This  may  be 
looked  upon  as  almost  certain.  But  is  it,  therefore, 
permissible,  as  is  generally  done,  to  estimate  and  date  all 


320  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

contemporary  sculpture  according  to  this  canon  ?  It 
may  be  possible  with  all  works  made  under  the  influence 
of  Phidias  or  his  immediate  circle.  But  it  would  be 
ignoring  all  experience  to  try  to  force  all  the  art  of  the 
time,  even  only  Attic  art,  into  this  chronological  strait- 
jacket.  The  meagre  fragments  of  tradition  at  our  dis- 
posal easily  led  us  to  form  too  narrow  a  conception  of  the 
abundance  and  variety  of  independent  movements  in  an 
age  so  full  of  mental  stimulus  and  stir.  We  are  too  fond 
of  imposing  rigid  formulas,  and  mapping  out  a  regular 
course  of  development  for  each  department  of  activity, 
whereas  a  glance  at  reality  ought  to  teach  us  how  large 
is  the  irrational  element  in  all  evolution,  and  how  often 
it  is  impossible  to  trace,  even  in  the  career  of  a  single 
artist,  a  gradual  and  uniform  progress  from  imperfection 
towards  perfection. 

A  few  artists,  I  think,  allow  us  to  follow  this  develop- 
ment. We  have  mentioned  Antenor  (p.  314),  who, 
although  of  Ionian  training,  came  later  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Dorian  art.  Of  Polykleitos,  we  first  learnt  to 
know  the  Doryphoros,  which  became  for  the  ancients 
the  canon  of  his  style.  A  number  of  bases  of  statues  have 
been  discovered  at  Olympia  with  the  name  of  Polykleitos ; 
these  still  showed  traces  of  the  attachment  of  bronze 
statues,  which  permitted  us  to  ascertain  the  position 
of  the  feet.  One  of  them,  on  which  an  inscription  gave 
the  name  Kyniskos,  showed  traces  of  the  feet  of  a  boy 
winning  a  race ;  this  corresponded  with  a  reference  in 
Pausanias.  Maxime  Collignon,  in  1892,  surmised  that 
this  Kyniskos  may  be  recognized  in  a  boy's  statue  of 
Polykleitan  character  in  the  British  Museum,  and  Eugen 
Petersen  confirmed  this,  by  comparing  the  position  of 
the  feet  of  the  London  statue  (the  left  foot  firmly  placed, 
the  right  slightly  drawn  back  and  only  resting  on  the 
ball  of  the  foot),  which  he  found  corresponded  exactly 
with  the  Olympian  base.  But  the  boy  shows  more 


OXYRHYNCHUS  PAPYRI  321 

animation  and  a  less  "  square  "  form  and  movement, 
than  the  Doryphoros  and  his  congeners,  which  is  not 
only  accounted  for  by  his  youth,  but  is  inherent  in  the 
style  as  well.  The  Doryphoros  might  thus  have  sug- 
gested a  less  developed  style.  It  was  therefore  extremely 
interesting  that  Carl  Robert,  in  1900,  showed  from  a 
recently  discovered  papyrus  from  Egypt,*  containing 
a  list  of  victors,  that  the  victory  of  Kyniskos  had  taken 
place  in  460,  which  places  the  statue  at  the  beginning 
of  the  career  of  Polykleitos.  We  therefore  recognize 
in  this  statue  the  early  youthful  style  of  Polykleitos, 
from  which  he  gradually  advanced  to  the  more  sturdy 
normal  proportions  and  soldierly  bearing  of  the  youths 
who  exhibit  his  canon.  Furtwangler  had  recognized 
in  1893  that  to  the  Diadumenos — otherwise  representing 
the  normal  Polykleitan  style — belonged  a  head  at  Cassel, 
which,  according  to  form,  expression,  and  hair,  had 
always  been  considered  Attic.  And,  as  Plato  tells  us  that 
during  the  thirties  the  artist  spent  some  time  in  Athens, 
we  evidently  have  here  a  later  period  with  Attic  influences. 
To  this  later  period  undoubtedly  belongs  the  Hera  of  the 
Argive  Heraion  (after  423),  whose  head,  corresponding 
to  the  coins  of  Argos,  after  a  long  search,  Charles  Wald- 
stein  appears  to  have  (1901)  happily  rediscovered  in  a 
head  at  the  British  Museum. 

Scopas  may  be  compared  with  Polykleitos.  We  only 
learnt  to  recognize  him  with  certainty  in  1880,  from  the 
remains  of  the  pediment  group  of  the  Temple  at  Tegea. 
These,  with  the  entire  temple,  date  from  his  youth 
(after  395),  and  undoubtedly  indicate  Peloponnesian 
training.  His  father,  Aristandros,  although  coming 
from  Paros,  had  worked  in  Sparta.  As  soon  as  he  had 
learnt  to  know  his  style,  others  of  his  works  were  recog- 
nized, as  the  Meleager,  perhaps  also  the  Lansdowne 

*  Papyrus  found  by  Grenfell  and  Hunt  and  published  in  Part  II 
of  the  "Oxyrhynchua  Papyri,"  No.  222.     1899.— Tr. 
Y 


322  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

Herakles ;  these,  combined  with  trustworthy  notices 
of  Scopas'  long  activity  in  Attica,  clearly  demonstrate 
his  Attic  tendencies,  although  Polykleitan  influences  are 
still  perceptible  in  his  proportions.  This  Attic  influence 
in  Scopas  is  plainly  evident  in  the  touching  "  Grave 
relief  from  the  Ilissos,"  and  the  superb  female  head  found 
on  the  Acropolis.  The  Palatine  Apollo  from  Rhamnus 
likewise  shows  the  influence  of  Attica  ;  in  1900  W.  Ame- 
lung  recognized  this  also  in  a  statue  at  Florence.  We 
here  learn  how  the  artist  treated  drapery.  Finally, 
we  see  Scopas  harmonized  and  far  excelling  his  co- 
workers  in  his  reliefs  on  the  Mausoleum,  which  are 
characterized  by  wealth  and  daring  in  the  motives, 
as  well  as  by  delicacy  of  execution.  To  these  works  of 
Scopas  must  be  added  the  recently  found  Frenzied  Maenad, 
which  the  ancients  looked  upon  as  a  striking  example  of 
his  passionate  manner. 

Only  lately  have  we  learnt  to  recognize  a  development  in 
the  style  of  Lysippos.  The  Apoxyomenos  has,  since  its 
discovery  in  1849,  been  regarded  as  the  normal  example 
of  his  style,  which  is  well  marked  in  all  its  aspects.  The 
seated  Ares  of  the  Ludovisi  collection  represents  es- 
sentially the  same  stylistic  characteristics,  and  was 
therefore  assigned  in  1853  by  Welcker  to  the  circle  of 
Lysippos.  This  generally  accepted  theory,  however, 
was  considerably  shaken  when  Adam  Flasch,  in  1892, 
recognized  in  a  better-preserved  copy  of  the  head  in 
Munich  distinct  traces  of  the  style  of  Scopas  which  had 
now  become  known,  although  opinion  inclined  rather  to 
see  in  it  an  Ares  of  Scopas,  recorded  as  having  existed 
at  Halicarnassos,  in  spite  of  its  decided  Lysippan  traits. 
However,  a  solution  was  found  in  consequence  of  a  happy 
and  sagacious  discovery  of  Erich  Preuner  in  1899.  In 
the  excavations  at  Delphi  there  was  discovered  in  1897 
a  group  of  marble  statues  of  the  family  of  a  Thessalian 
prince,  among  them  the  statue  of  Agias  with  a  poetical 


LYSIPPOS  323 

inscription,  recording  his  victory  in  the  games.  Preuner 
was  able  to  prove,  from  papers  of  Stackelberg,  that  the 
same  epigram  had  been  on  a  pedestal  at  Pharsalos, 
the  home  of  Agias,  but  with  the  addition  that  the  statue 
was  the  work  of  Lysippos.  Thus  the  well-preserved 
statue  at  Delphi  was  a  copy  of  one  by  Lysippos,  and,  as 
could  be  proved,  of  his  early  period  (about  340).  The 
future  Lysippos  is  indicated  in  the  position  and  carriage 
of  the  body,  but  while  the  upper  part  is  still  heavy, 
perhaps  recalling  Polykleitan  traditions,  the  face  clearly 
shows  traces  of  the  style  of  Scopas.  Shall  we  therefore, 
with  Percy  Gardner,  renounce  our  entire  former  con- 
ception of  Lysippos,  and  dethrone  the  Apoxyomenos  ? 
Or  is  it  more  likely  that  Lysippos,  who  is  said  to  have 
acknowledged  Polykleitos  and  Nature  as  his  masters, 
should  also  in  his  youth  have  followed  Scopas,  the  fore- 
most artist  of  the  preceding  generation  ?  It  is  true,  he 
later  abandoned  all  these  influences  in  favour  of  his  new 
attitude  towards  Nature.  These  considerations  may 
also  throw  light  on  other  works,  as  the  Herakles  of  the 
Lansdowne  collection.  It  is  impossible  to  suppose  an 
artist  to  whom  1500  statues  are  ascribed  to  have  remained 
on  the  same  level,  especially  so  great  a  master  as  Lysippos. 
These  examples  of  our  progress  in  recognition — all 
from  the  later  decades — encourage  us  to  hope  that  with 
continued  discoveries  and  observations  new  life  will 
constantly  be  infused  into  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  individual  artists — a  promising  outlook  for  the 
new  century ! 

Naturally  similar  efforts  have  been  attempted  in 
painting.  Attic  vase  painting  formed  the  starting-point, 
as  only  here  existed  a  consecutive  series  of  Greek  paint- 
ings. The  chronological  sequence  had  in  general  been 
established  of  black-figured  and  red-figured.  Although 
some  single  fragments  found  on  the  Acropolis  demonstrate 


324  DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

that  vases  had  been  painted  with  red  figures  before  the 
Persian  wars  (480),  the  class,  as  a  whole,  was  dated  from 
the  time  of  Kimon,  and  through  the  entire  fourth  century. 
We  had  learnt  from  Winckelmann  to  distinguish  therein 
a  "  severe  "  and  a  "  beautiful  "  style,  and  to  separate 
them  chronologically.  Not  much  attention  had  been 
given  to  the  names  of  the  makers  of  vases  (eTrolija-ev) 
and  the  painters  of  vases  (lypcn/rev).  I  remember 
causing  a  shaking  of  heads  among  my  colleagues  during 
the  sixties  when  in  my  lectures  on  the  history  of  art  I 
conceded  a  place  to  the  most  important  or  characteristic 
vase  painters  in  the  development  of  art. 

In  1879  appeared  Klein's  "  Euphronios."  By  a  search- 
ing examination  of  the  style  and  subject-matter  of  the 
work  of  a  number  of  vase  painters,  their  artistic  indi- 
viduality appeared,  their  personality  was  brought  into 
relation  with  their  work,  and  an  individual  development 
in  this  branch  of  art  was  shown.  It  was  our  first  clear 
picture  of  the  Athenian  Kerameikos,  with  its  great 
potters'  workshops,  with  its  cult  of  handsome  boys  and 
youths ;  at  times  exhibiting  a  gay  life,  where  wine, 
woman,  and  song  reigned,  and  the  professional  envy  of 
the  potter,  of  which  even  Hesiod  had  sung.  Euthymides, 
a  rather  backward  painter,  although  with  aspirations, 
boasts  on  a  vase  that  this  time  he  has  painted  better 
than  Euphronios  has  ever  done ;  upon  another  he 
applauds  himself  with  "  Bravo  "  ;  upon  a  third  a  hetaira 
drinks  his  health.  That  advertising  was  known  is  very 
evident.  Klein  distinguished  two  periods,  the  older 
"  circle  of  Epiktetos,"  which  made  the  transition  from 
the  black-figured  to  the  red,  and  the  younger  circle, 
which,  in  contrast  to  the  old-fashioned  masters  like 
Euthymides,  chiefly  gathered  about  Euphronios.  Eight 
of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us,  and  permit  us  to 
follow  his  development.  Among  his  pupils  and  followers 
the  most  distinguished  are  Brygos,  Hieron,  and  Douris. 


ATTIC  SPIRIT  OF  ART  325 

This  emancipation  of  Athenian  vase  painting  Klein  dated, 
according  to  the  usual  view,  in  the  time  of  Kimon. 

Then,  when  the  Athenian  citadel  was  being  cleared, 
during  the  eighties,  of  the  "  Perserschutt,"  that  is,  of  the 
debris,  which  dated  before  the  destruction  by  the  Persians 
in  480,  sherds  appeared  of  vases  by  Euphronios,  Hieron, 
and  others.  A  marble  base  even  mentioned  the  "  potter 
Euphronios  "  as  the  dedicator  of  a  votive  offering  which 
he  had  given  as  his  tithe.  It  became  evident  that  Eu- 
phronios, as  well  as  the  younger  Hieron,  had  to  be  pushed 
back  beyond  the  time  of  the  Persians ;  and  if  an  intro- 
ductory period  were  allowed  for  the  beginning  of  the 
movement,  it  would  have  to  be  placed  in  the  time  of 
the  tyrant  Hippias,  before  510.  This  explained  the  fact 
that  the  names  of  the  youths  frequently  mentioned  by 
painters  on  account  of  their  beauty  agreed  in  so  many 
instances  with  those  of  persons  in  the  circle  of  the  tyrants. 
The  chronology  of  vases  had  thus  to  be  pushed  back  con- 
siderably, about  half  a  century. 

This  was  not  merely  one  of  those  numerous  discoveries 
which  lead  to  the  changing  of  a  single  date.  On  the 
contrary,  the  first  decades  of  the  red-figured  painting 
mean  nothing  less  than  a  complete  emancipation  of  the 
Attic  spirit  of  art,  its  liberation  from  the  bonds  of  archaic 
art  in  drawing  objects,  and  composition.  As  by  this 
same  excavation  on  the  Acropolis  the  Attic  sculpture  of 
this  age  was  likewise  revealed  to  us,  a  comparison  showed 
that  some  of  this  same  spirit  is  perceptible  in  sculpture, 
but  the  new  tendency  is  much  freer  and  stronger  in 
vase  painting.  The  painting  of  vases  means  the  handi- 
craft of  painting ;  how  much  greater  then  must  this 
emancipation  have  been  during  this  transition  period 
in  the  great  art  of  painting,  totally  lost  to  us  ! 

It  is  obvious  that  Greek  painting  developed  earlier 
than  Greek  sculpture,  a  truth  I  proclaimed  in  1884  before 
the  clearing  of  the  Acropolis,  but  to  ears  that  would  not 


326  DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

hear.  Or  can  this  have  been  an  isolated  or  accidental 
phenomenon  ?  Since  Welcker's  time,  in  1838,  the  general 
impression  has  prevailed,  that  Phidias  had  been  greatly 
influenced  by  the  somewhat  older  painter  Polygnotos. 
Greek  painting  further  experienced  about  the  time  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war  a  revolution  through  the  transition 
from  the  technique  of  fresco  and  the  historical  compo- 
sitions of  wall  paintings  to  tempera  painting  with  light 
and  shade  and  the  easel  picture— detached  from  archi- 
tecture— so  thorough  a  transformation  that  sculpture 
could  only  follow  slowly.  It  has  never  been  doubted, 
since  Hellenistic  art  has  been  an  object  of  study  at  all, 
that  during  that  period  everything  was  dominated  by 
pictorial  considerations,  and  that  even  sculpture  at- 
tempted illusion.  Finally,  it  can  be  proved  that  even 
in  the  earliest  times  painting  developed  more  rapidly 
than  sculpture,  which  is  hampered  by  its  material  and 
a  more  troublesome  technique.  It  is  thus  obvious  that 
through  the  whole  history  of  Greek  art,  painting  was  the 
directing  art  and  not  sculpture,  although  this  has  always 
been  more  familiar  to  us.  How  we  distort  the  picture 
of  Greek  art  by  not  only  separating  sculpture  from 
architecture,  but  also  from  painting,  which  always  leads 
the  way  ! 

The  dating  back  of  the  older  "  severe  "  style  of  painting 
to  the  time  before  the  Persian  wars  necessarily  affected 
all  the  other  classes.  All  the  others  had  to  follow.  Carl 
Robert  distinguished  in  1882  a  special  class  consisting 
chiefly  of  larger  compositions  with  numerous  figures  ex- 
tending over  undulating  landscapes,  the  movements  as 
well  as  the  features  of  the  separate  figures  aiming  at 
distinct  characterization.  And  this  is  clearly  the  case 
in  what  we  are  told  of  the  paintings  of  Polygnotos. 
Robert's  conjecture,  that  these  vases  could  be  traced  to 
Polygnotan  influence  met  with  almost  universal  ap- 
proval. They  also  became  helpful  to  Robert  while 


POLYGNOTOS  327 

reconstructing  the  compositions  of  Polygnotos — of  which 
we  possess  more  or  less  detailed  descriptions — and  he 
thus,  as  it  were,  put  his  theory  to  the  test  of  experiment. 

Polygnotos  worked  in  Athens  during  the  time  of  Kimon 
and  the  first  years  of  Pericles ;  thus  the  date  given  for 
the  handicraft  influenced  by  his  paintings  would  be 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  If  the  next  de- 
velopment in  the  painting  of  vases  bears  unmistakably 
the  stamp  of  the  serene  and  dignified  manner  of  Phidias, 
this  may  be  less  owing  to  the  immediate  influence  of 
Phidias,  as  Franz  Winter  assumed  in  1885,  but  rather  to 
some  influence,  no  longer  traceable,  in  the  great  art  of 
painting,  which  affected  sculpture  as  well  as  vase  painting. 
This  would  most  clearly  explain,  for  example,  why  the 
same  composition  is  rendered  on  two  metopes  of  the 
Parthenon,  and  upon  an  elegant  vase  of  the  same  period — 
Helen  seeking  protection,  assisted  by  Aphrodite  and 
Eros,  near  the  image  of  Athene,  from  the  persecution 
of  Menelaos.  The  vase,  however,  retains  Peitho  the 
companion  of  Aphrodite,  while  in  her  place,  on  the  metope 
appears  a  commonplace  companion  of  Menelaos. 

The  new  painting  on  clay  tablets  which  began  in 
Periclean  times,  inspired  vase  painters  to  paint  on  a 
white  background  in  delicate  colours  or  to  enrich  the 
composition  by  a  greater  variety  of  colours.  This 
attempt  was  doomed  to  failure,  through  the  natural 
limitations  of  painting  on  clay.  It  has,  however,  be- 
come increasingly  clear,  that  the  defeat  of  the  army  at 
Syracuse  in  413  destroyed  the  prosperous  trade  of  ex- 
porting Attic  pottery  to  Italy,  and  thus  deprived  the 
Athenian  potters  of  their  best  market.  Furtwangler 
surmises  that  this  trade  was  carried  on  by  Thurioi,  a 
colony  of  Pericles.  Tarentum  assumed  the  position  of 
Athens,  and  continued  the  Attic  tendency  to  paint  in 
polychrome,  as  we  see  in  the  beautiful  vase  in  the  British 
Museum  representing  Peleus  and  Thetis.  The  Tarentine 


328  DISCOVERIES    AND   SCIENCE 

compositions  were,  however,  somewhat  stiff  and  gaudy, 
as  if  to  show,  in  the  language  of  Horace,  the  difference 
between  Attic  coin  and  Apulo-Lucanian  counters. 

Thus  new  discoveries  and  more  exact  methods  have 
led  to  a  marked  displacement  in  the  history  of  painting. 


In  architecture  it  is  not  so  much  a  question  of  stylistic 
analysis  as  of  a  close  observation  and  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  ancient  architecture,  even  in  its  technical  aspects. 
Thus  by  close  observation  it  has  been  possible  to  date 
the  buildings  in  Athens  chronologically  according  to  the 
stone  used,  beginning  with  the  limestone  of  the  Acropolis, 
then  the  limestone  from  the  Piraeus,  next  a  conglomerate 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Athens ;  as  in  sculpture, 
where  the  limestone  was  followed  in  succession  by  the 
marbles  of  Hymettos,  Paros,  and  Pentelikos.  Even 
such  apparently  insignificant  objects  as  clamps  are 
subject  to  changes  of  form,  and  help  in  dating  structures. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  with  the  help  of  clamps  that 
a  structure  on  Corfu  (Kardaki,  Cardacchio),  which  Semper 
and  others  considered  very  ancient,  in  reality  only  be- 
longs to  Hellenistic  times.  But  these  are  simply  guides 
in  our  studies.  It  will  be  well  to  show  by  a  few  examples 
that  in  important  questions  also  new  discoveries  have 
led  in  entirely  new  directions. 

Dorpfeld  had  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Troy  and  Tiryns 
that  the  walls  of  the  houses  had  consisted  of  stone  only 
immediately  above  the  ground,  and  the  wall  above  this 
course  had  been  made  of  sun-dried  bricks,  to  which,  as 
is  still  the  case  in  Greece,  wooden  beams  were  added, 
inserted  both  longitudinally  and  transversely  to  give 
increased  solidity.  This  mode  of  construction  had  to 
be  also  assumed  for  the  ancient  Temple  of  Hera  at 
Olympia.  Here,  above  the  foundation,  only  the  course 
of  freestones  (orthostates)  had  been  preserved,  while  the 


DORPFELD  329 

remainder  of  the  walls,  softened  by  the  rain,  had  turned 
into  mud  and  covered  all.  Obviously  the  orthostates 
were  intended  to  preserve  the  sun-dried  bricks  from  the 
damp,  and  a  plaster  covering  and  a  projection  of  the  roof 
afforded  some  further  protection.  Traces  have  been  dis- 
covered of  the  projecting  ends  of  the  walls  or  antae,  of 
upright  wooden  beams,  which  served  as  supports  for  the 
sun-dried  walls.  Pausanias  tells  us  that  in  the  second 
century  A.D.  one  of  the  columns  in  the  Opisthodomos 
of  the  Heraion  was  of  wood  ;  the  conclusion  was  evident 
that  at  one  time  all  the  columns  of  the  temple  must  have 
been  of  wood,  like  the  columns  described  in  Homer  and 
Mycenaean  columns.  This  was  confirmed  by  the  ob- 
servation that  the  existing  stone  columns  of  the  temple 
present  great  differences  in  their  proportions  and  capitals, 
varying  from  the  heavy  and  compact  form  of  the  sixth 
to  the  slender  conventional  forms  of  the  fourth  and  third 
centuries.  Apparently  they  had  gradually  replaced  the 
older  wooden  columns,  beginning  on  the  weather  side. 
There  is,  however,  great  confusion,  so  that  frequently 
an  early  column  is  found  immediately  beside  a  late  one, 
a  conclusive  proof  that  they  were  not  substituted  in 
number,  but  singly,  according  to  the  need  of  the  moment. 
No  trace  has  been  found  of  the  entablature,  which  con- 
clusively proves  that  it  must  have  been  of  wood  to  the 
last,  and  thus  perished.  Only  roof  tiles  and  a  huge 
acroterion  of  painted  terra-cotta  have  been  found. 
Whether  these  date  from  the  original  building  or  from 
a  reconstruction,  when  the  sloping  tile  roof  replaced  a 
horizontal  roof  of  beams  covered  with  clay,  depends  on 
the  date  of  the  temple,  a  question  which  would  here  lead 
us  too  far. 

This  exposition  of  Dorpfeld's  (1884)  threw  considerable 
light  on  the  connection  between  the  early  Doric  temples 
and  the  structures  of  ££gean  times.  Peculiarities  of 
stone  construction,  such  as  the  meaningless  double  height 


330  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

of  the  lowest  course  of  stones  compared  with  the  upper 
courses,  or  the  slightly  projecting  columnar  form  of  the 
anta,  proved  to  be  remains  of  the  old  construction  of 
wood  and  clay.  The  column,  it  is  true,  had  to  be  com- 
pletely altered  in  the  transition  from  wood  to  stone 
construction ;  the  narrowing  of  the  wooden  column 
towards  the  base  (as  in  a  modern  chair  or  table)  gave 
place  in  the  stone  column  to  a  narrowing  towards  the 
top.  A  connection  could,  however,  still  be  traced  in 
the  capital ;  the  occasionally  decorated  torus  of  the 
^Egean  capital  developed  into  the  curved  echinus  of 
the  Doric,  below  which,  in  the  two  older  temples  at 
Paestum,  there  was  still  preserved  a  trochilus  with  leaf 
decoration.  The  connection  between  the  two  forms  was 
made  clear  when  Puchstein  pointed  out  in  1899  that 
Poseidonia-Paestum  had  been  founded  by  Achaeans, 
and  the  only  capital  of  this  form  found  in  Greece  is  in 
the  Achaean  citadel  of  Tiryns.  We  are  obviously  dealing 
with  an  Achaean  tradition  derived  from  the  heroic  age. 

Although  Dorpfeld's  theory  in  regard  to  the  Heraion 
has  not  yet  been  generally  accepted,  it  appears  to  me 
to  be  correct  and  well  maintained  in  face  of  opposition. 
Dorpfeld's  investigations  in  regard  to  the  original  plan  of 
the  Propylaea  have  received  a  consensus  of  approval. 
After  the  medieval  tower  had  been  removed  from  the 
Acropolis  in  1876,  and  important  results  attained  in 
regard  to  the  south  wing  of  the  Propylaea,  Richard  Bohn 
published  in  1879-80  the  plan  anew  without,  however, 
gaining  certainty  on  all  points.  The  plan  of  the  south 
wing  with  a  pillar  projecting  westwards  from  the  align- 
ment and  the  formation  of  the  roof  of  both  wings  re- 
mained obscure ;  besides  which,  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  Propylaea  the  outer  walls  of  the  middle  structure  pre- 
served a  number  of  bosses  on  the  marble,  indicating  that 
they  had  been  left  unfinished,  while  certain  holes  and 
projecting  blocks  could  not  be  explained  by  the  existing 


PLAN  OF  THE  PROPYL^EA  331 

building.  By  close  scrutiny  and  by  availing  himself  of 
the  hints  furnished  by  the  building  as  only  a  trained 
architect  could,  Dorpfeld  succeeded  in  reconstructing 
the  plan  of  Mnesikles.  He  proved  that  the  plan  had 
been  far  more  extensive,  but,  in  consequence  of  interrup- 
tions, had  to  be  curtailed.  As  originally  planned,  the 
great  gateway  would  have  occupied  the  entire  west  side 
of  the  Acropolis,  to  the  edge  of  the  steep  rocks  on  either 
side.  The  middle  structure  on  the  inside  was  to  have 
been  flanked  by  halls  with  columns.  The  hall  to  the 
north  was  partially  carried  out,  while  toward  the  south 
it  had  not  been  possible,  owing  to  the  sanctuary  of  Artemis 
Brauronia.  This  wing  had  to  be  greatly  reduced.  The 
case  was  the  same  with  the  exterior.  While  to  the  north 
the  wing  was  built  according  to  the  plan,  and  still  proudly 
towers  above  its  lofty  base,  to  the  south  upon  the  pro- 
jecting bastion  was  the  sanctuary  of  Athene  Nike,  who 
had  a  marble  altar  here,  and  to  whom  it  had  been  de- 
cided, twenty  years  earlier,  to  erect  a  temple.  If  the 
plan  of  Mnesikles  had  been  carried  out,  the  already 
limited  space  for  the  temple  of  the  city  deity,  the  Giver 
of  Victory,  would  have  been  so  much  cut  down  as  to 
render  its  erection  almost  impossible.  Mnesikles  had, 
therefore,  to  restrict  his  great  plan.  Instead  of  a  broad 
hall  occupying  the  entire  width  of  the  bastion,  and  cor- 
responding in  length  to  the  northern  wing,  with  a  row  of 
columns  opening  on  to  the  Temple  of  Nike,  he  had  to 
content  himself  with  a  compromise.  The  part  facing 
north,  towards  the  approach,  is  of  the  same  length  as  the 
fagade  of  the  north  wing  opposite,  but  towards  the  west, 
where  the  altar  stood,  it  was 'reduced  so  that  the  building 
was  greatly  mutilated.  This  was  no  solution,  but  evi- 
dently a  makeshift,  which  also  necessitated  an  awkward 
arrangement  of  the  hip-roof,  the  traces  of  which  Dorpfeld 
discovered.  The  architect  evidently  hoped  for  better 
times  to  complete  his  original  plans,  and  he  carried  out 


332  DISCOVERIES   AND   SCIENCE 

at  least  their  foundations.  However,  the  Peloponnesian 
war  began,  and  the  building  remained  unfinished,  so 
that  not  even  the  marble  bosses  were  removed  nor  the 
walls  or  floors  finished.  And  Athens  had  other  cares 
after  the  war.  To  the  south  of  the  stunted  marble 
structure  of  Mnesikles  the  remains  of  an  ancient  Pelasgian 
wall  formed  the  boundary  between  the  sanctuaries  of 
Artemis  Brauronia  and  Athene  Nike,  and  closed  in  the 
citadel.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  gap  served  to  provide 
a  way  by  which  the  Prankish  masters  of  Athens  and  their 
successors,  the  Turks,  ascended  the  citadel.  The  north 
hall,  in  the  inside,  as  far  as  it  may  have  been  finished, 
was  pulled  down,  to  make  room  for  the  office  buildings 
of  the  Frankish  Dukes,  who  used  the  Propylaea  as  their 
castle. 

Dorpfeld's  successful  inquiry  thus  takes  us  immediately 
back  to  the  history  of  Athens,  and  brings  vividly  before 
us  events  we  otherwise  only  know  in  broad  outlines  from 
the  records  of  historians.  We  owe  to  Dorpfeld  the 
results  of  similar  inquiries  in  regard  to  the  Parthenon 
and  to  the  different  stages  in  the  history  of  the  temple 
which  preceded  it.  Recently  he  has  tried  to  reconstruct 
the  Erechtheion,  the  great  structural  peculiarities  of 
which  have  been  a  puzzle  to  many.  Here  again  in  his 
opinion  the  building  had  to  be  reduced  almost  to  half 
its  original  plan.  It  would  be  premature  to  express  any 
doubts  before  we  have  a  complete  statement  of  the  argu- 
ments. 

To  the  two  Greek  examples  two  Roman  ones  may  be 
added.  Until  recently  the  Pantheon  in  Rome  had  been 
looked  upon  as  the  classical  example  of  Roman  archi- 
tecture in  the  Augustan  age.  In  the  inscription  above 
the  portico  we  still  read  the  name  of  the  erector,  Marcus 
Agrippa.  But  certain  doubts  existed.  In  the  Pantheon 
of  Agrippa  the  capitals  of  the  interior  columns  had  been 
of  bronze  from  Syracuse,  and  had  supported  marble 


THE  PANTHEON  333 

caryatids  by  the  Athenian  sculptor  Diogenes.  There 
is  no  trace  of  either,  and  the  attempt  to  account  for  this 
by  assuming  a  partial  rebuilding  has  been  refuted  by 
technical  investigations.  We  know  also  from  records 
that  the  structure  of  Agrippa  was  twice  destroyed  by  fire, 
the  first  time  during  a  great  conflagration  under  Titus, 
in  80,  and  again  when  the  building  was  struck  by  light- 
ning in  no  under  Trajan.  But  how  could  a  building 
burn  which  consisted  only  of  bricks,  marble,  and  metal  ? 
Or  how,  even  supposing  we  interpret  the  words  "  burnt  " 
or  "  destroyed  "  not  quite  literally,  could  it  be  seriously 
damaged  by  fire  ?  This  was,  however,  not  considered, 
but  the  statement,  also  on  record,  was  simply  accepted, 
that  the  Pantheon  had  been  restored  by  Domitian,  and 
later  by  Hadrian.  All  damages  were  thus  made  good, 
or  if  anything  still  remained  to  be  done,  there  were  the 
restorations  also  recorded,  under  Antoninus  Pius  and 
Septimius  Severus.  All  doubts  had  thus  been  overcome, 
and  the  existing  Rotunda  remained  as  before,  a  building 
of  the  times  of  Augustus. 

But  in  1885  H.  Dressel  observed  bricks  stamped,  ac- 
cording to  Roman  usage,  in  different  parts  of  the  round 
structure  and  the  portico,  dating  from  the  times  of 
Trajan  and  Hadrian,  all  before  126.  (Brick  stamps,  it 
should  be  explained,  are  dated  or  have  some  chrono- 
logical mark.)  This  same  observation  had  already  been 
made  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Dressel  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Rotunda  had  been  strengthened  or 
refaced  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  not  a  very  acceptable 
theory,  in  view  of  the  inner  construction  of  the  wall, 
which  is  found  in  other  parts,  nor  did  it  explain  the 
stamped  bricks  in  the  portico.  Exact  technical  in- 
vestigations, carried  on  almost  simultaneously  by  two 
architects,  the  Austrian,  Joseph  Dell,  in  1890,  and  the 
Frenchman,  Louis  Chedanne,  in  1891-2,  demonstrated 
two  facts  :  in  the  first  place  that  the  entire  structure,  the 


334  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

walls  and  the  dome,  is  of  one  date,  exhibiting  a  skilfully 
planned  scheme  in  the  pillars,  plinths,  and  discharging 
arches,  and,  secondly,  that  the  tiles  of  Hadrian  are  to 
be  found  in  the  entire  building.  No  doubt  could  any 
longer  exist  of  the  origin  of  the  present  Pantheon  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian — a  fact  of  extreme  importance  for  the 
history  of  Roman  architecture.  The  age  of  Hadrian 
gained  in  splendour  what  that  of  Augustus  lost ;  the 
history  of  vaulted  domes  had  to  be  newly  investigated. 
Agrippa's  inscription  on  the  portico  corresponded  to 
the  custom  of  Hadrian  to  retain  the  name  of  the  original 
builder  on  restored  buildings,  and  to  leave  to  him  all  the 
honour.  To  judge  from  the  character  of  the  inscription, 
Hadrian  must  have  used  the  original  one ;  which  is  some 
help  in  indicating  the  form  of  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa. 
The  front  must  have  been  in  a  straight  line.  How  was  it 
in  other  respects  ?  Had  it  the  usual  oblong  form  of  a 
temple  ?  Or  was  it  a  round  building  like  that  of  Ha- 
drian, without  a  vaulted  dome,  but  with  a  wooden  and 
therefore  inflammable  roof  ?  The  investigations  of 
Chedanne  and  of  an  Italian  commission  under  L.  Bel- 
trami  in  1892-3  did  not  come  to  any  definite  conclusions, 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa  had  been 
of  a  round  form. 

If  the  age  of  Augustus  has  had  to  renounce  the  Pan- 
theon, it  has,  on  the  other  hand,  gained  the  Ara  Pacis. 
The  evidence  is  very  slight  that  has  come  down  to  us 
of  this  altar  of  the  Augustan  goddess  of  peace.  In  litera- 
ture we  do  not  find  it  mentioned.  Augustus,  however, 
in  the  inscription  which  records  his  administration  (p.  105) 
tells  us  that  the  senate  in  the  year  13  B.C.  decided  to 
erect  this  altar,  and  to  institute  an  annual  sacrifice  in 
gratitude  for  his  return  after  a  long  absence.  Other  in- 
scriptions record  that  the  altar  was  founded  on  4  July, 
in  the  year  13,  and  consecrated  30  January,  in  the  year 
9.  When  Friedrich  von  Duhn  in  1879  tried  to  bring  the 


ARA   PACTS  335 

scattered  reliefs  together,  he  assumed  a  monument  of 
extraordinary  size,  and  a  great  part  of  the  sculpture  he 
thought  lost.  Fifteen  years  later  Eugen  Petersen  ex- 
amined the  architectural  remains,  which  until  then  had 
not  been  noticed,  and  while  deliberating  with  the  archi- 
tect, Victor  Rauscher,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
monument  must  have  been  of  much  smaller  proportions. 
According  to  this  theory  the  altar  had  been  surrounded 
by  a  marble  wall  about  six  metres  high  ;  the  length  and 
breadth  of  this  enclosure  amounted  to  10*16  metres. 
The  decoration  on  the  inner  side  of  the  walls  consisted 
mainly  of  delicately  worked  festoons,  while  the  walls 
of  the  exterior  were  covered  below  with  an  equally 
beautiful  design  of  creeping  plants,  and  above  this  with 
a  frieze  i£  metre  high.  On  this,  from  a  symbolical 
centre  at  the  back,  the  imperial  family  and  the  senate 
walk  in  solemn  procession  towards  the  entrance,  to 
witness  at  the  altar  the  sacrifice  to  the  goddess  of  peace. 
As  Petersen  restored  the  whole  in  1902,  it  was  a  monu- 
ment worthy  to  form  the  new  central  point  of  the  history 
of  Augustan  art. 

The  fragments,  which  had  come  to  light  partly  in  the 
cinque-cento,  partly  in  1859,  were  all  from  one  site  ;  they 
had  been  taken  from  the  earth  under  the  Palazzo  Fiano 
on  the  Corso.  The  remains  of  this  proud  monument 
which,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Historical  Congress  in 
Rome,  in  1903,  was  restored  in  a  cast  by  A.  Pasqui, 
seemed  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  a  continua- 
tion of  the  excavations.  During  the  winter  1903-4  the 
Italian  Government  undertook  it  under  the  directions  of 
Pasqui  and  Petersen.  It  was  necessary  to  dig  six  metres 
below  the  present  street  level,  and  under  the  foundation 
walls  of  surrounding  buildings,  to  search  in  underground 
water  for  the  remains  of  the  altar  enclosure.  But  they 
were  finally  found,  and  the  length  of  the  side  walls 
corresponded  to  a  centimetre  with  Petersen's  measure- 


336  DISCOVERIES    AND   SCIENCE 

ments.  The  entrance  side  was,  however,  1*20  metre 
wider,  but  only  because  the  door  was  so  much  wider,  to 
afford  a  convenient  opening  for  the  procession  and  sacri- 
ficial animals.  These  were  extraordinary  proportions, 
which  could  no  more  have  been  foreseen  than  the  fact 
that  an  opening  in  the  rear  corresponded  with  the  front 
entrance.  Thus,  although  certain  details  in  Petersen's 
plan  had  to  be  modified,  on  the  whole  the  reconstruction 
of  the  monument  was  a  brilliant  demonstration  of  the 
accuracy  which  can  be  attained  by  methodical  and  pene- 
trating criticism.  The  result  proved  a  new  and  valuable 
addition  to  the  history  of  art. 


The  examples  quoted  will  have  afforded  the  reader 
some  insight  into  the  scientific  work  of  Archaeology. 
As  science  has  influenced  excavations  by  new  points  of 
view  and  methods,  these  again  have  greatly  influenced 
science  and  revolutionized  her  aims.  Not  this  alone, 
we  have  seen  how  other  factors  have  contributed  their 
influence.  Although  philology  has  taken  a  second  place, 
it  does  not  cease  to  be  helpful  to  archaeology,  and  epi- 
graphy above  all.  What  should  we  know  of  the  Ara 
Pacis  without  inscriptions  ?  Nothing.  These  remains 
would  fill  us  with  perplexity.  Or,  again,  is  Bcethos,  the 
creator  of  the  "  Boy  and  the  Goose,"  a  native  of  Karche- 
don  (Carthage),  as  the  manuscripts  of  Pausanias  declare, 
and  is  the  name,  as  Schubert  surmised,  merely  a  Greek 
rendering  of  a  Punic  Ezra  or  Bonith  ?  or  was  he  born  at 
Kalchedon  (Chalkedon),  as  Otfried  Muller  conjectured  ? 
Archaeologists  and  philologists  would  be  discussing  this 
still,  if  an  inscription  found  in  Rhodes  had  not  decided 
in  favour  of  Muller,  and  given,  at  the  same  time,  the  date 
of  the  artist  as  in  Hellenistic  times,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century.  What  embittered  discussions  have 
taken  place  since  Winckelmann  and  Lessing  respecting 


EPIGRAPHY   AND   PAPYROLOGY  337 

the  date  of  the  group  of  the  Laocoon,  what  floods  of  ink 
have  been  poured  forth  upon  the  critical  passage  in  Pliny ! 
At  first  the  date  wavered  from  the  third  century  B.C. 
to  the  first  A.D.  Then  again  the  group  was  supposed 
to  be  later  than  the  giant  altar  from  Pergamon  (about 
180),  while  some  adhered  to  the  third  century.  Then 
upon  the  evidence  of  inscriptions  the  date  was  fixed  at 
c.  100  B.C.;  later,  according  to  Rhodian  inscriptions, 
the  middle  of  the  century  was  fixed  on.  Since  then  this 
date  has  been  confirmed  by  inscriptions,  which  can  be 
definitely  dated,  so  that  the  supposed  climax  of  Hellenistic 
sculpture  must  be  placed  at  the  very  end  of  Hellenic 
art.  A  sundial  found  in  Tenos  in  1905  bears  an  inscrip- 
tion stating  that  the  donor,  Andronikos  of  Kyrrhos, 
whom  we  know  as  the  founder  of  the  Tower  of  the  Winds 
in  Athens,  was  a  native  of  the  city  of  Kyrrhos  in  Mace- 
donia, and  not  a  Syrian,  as  we  had  until  then  believed. 

And  not  only  inscriptions  on  stone,  which  stand  midway 
between  literary  and  monumental  evidence,  but  the 
science  of  "  Papyrology "  recently  recognized  as  a 
separate  branch  of  philology,  which  draws  its  treasures 
continually  forth  from  the  dry  sands  of  Egypt,  renders 
valuable  services  to  the  history  of  art.  How  long  had 
the  date  of  Polykleitos  wavered,  until  a  list  of  victors  on 
a  papyrus  found  at  Oxyrhynchus,  assigned  him  his  place 
definitely  near  Phidias  (p.  321). 

The  more  the  study  of  style  becomes  dominated,  as 
we  have  already  marked,  by  the  subjective  factor,  so 
much  the  more  wholesome  and  indispensable  to  archaeology 
will  prove  the  checks  and  aids  which  it  receives  from 
sciences  like  philology  and  epigraphy  which  follow  rigid 
methods.  It  is  not  long  since  the  modern  change  of 
attitude  towards  all  questions  also  affected  archaeology, 
and  ancient  statues  changed  their  makers  as  quickly  as 
the  paintings  in  our  galleries — as  many  opinions  as 
heads.  It  was  a  necessary  stage  of  development  in 


338  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

the  emancipation  of  stylistic  analysis.  Gradually  more 
repose  has  come.  In  the  place  of  a  continuous  striving 
for  something  new,  a  more  thoughtful  deliberation  has 
asserted  itself,  and  many  an  "  obsolete  "  conception  or 
attribution  has  again  come  to  light  like  a  diver  from  a 
whirlpool,  while  numerous  ephemeral  creations  have 
vanished  in  the  darkness  below.  Only  such  a  foundation 
is  perfectly  firm,  as  has  been  based  on  incontestable 
documentary  evidence. 

The  mass  of  newly-acquired  works  of  art  has  also  had 
some  less  desirable  results.  It  has  become  impossible  for 
an  individual  student  to  follow  all  discoveries  or  finds  in 
detail.  As  in  other  fields  of  knowledge  or  research,  a 
division  of  labour  has  taken  place  in  archaeology.  One 
man  may  confine  himself  to  architecture,  or  even  only 
a  part  of  it ;  another  will  concern  himself  with  sculpture 
only  ;  while  another  will  limit  himself  to  red-figured 
vases.  A  fourth  thinks  he  can  afford  to  ignore  Hellenistic 
or  Roman  art.  It  has  certainly  become  necessary  to 
specialize,  so  as  to  study  thoroughly  the  constantly 
accumulating  mass  of  new  monuments  and  questions  ; 
and  nothing  is  less  edifying  than  the  habit  of  dabbling 
in  special  problems  without  sound  knowledge.  But 
the  individual  worker  must  always  remain  conscious 
that  his  province  is  only  a  small  section  of  a  vast  whole. 
Even  the  popular  Histories  of  Sculpture  are  far  from 
being  Histories  of  Art.  Useful,  nay  indispensable,  as 
specialists  are,  none  of  them  should  forget  Schiller's 
words  :  "  Ever  strive  towards  the  Whole,  and  if  thou 
canst  not  become  a  Whole,  attach  thyself  as  a  ministering 
member  to  a  Whole." 

No  one  to-day  could  undertake,  with  impunity,  such 
a  task  as  Karl  Otfried  Miiller  undertook  in  his  "  Hand- 
buch  der  Archaeologie  "  in  1830  :  vestigia  tenent !  The 
co-operation  of  many  investigators  would  be  required, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  it  would  be  needful  for  all  to 


PHILOLOGY  339 

keep  the  common  aim  in  view,  so  that  no  series 
of  disconnected  chapters  should  arise,  but  that  one 
spirit  should  animate  the  whole  and  strive  towards  the 
whole. 

Another  point  must  be  considered.  While  in  former 
times  archaeology  devoted  too  much  time  to  the  ex- 
planation of  works  of  art,  the  discovery  of  so  many 
monuments  of  importance  for  the  history  of  art  has  led 
to  an  equally  exclusive  emphasis  of  the  historical  aspect. 
This  is  to  run  to  the  opposite  extreme.  Philology  has 
learnt  more  and  more  clearly  to  see  that  one  of  the  first 
essentials  is  the  comprehension  of  the  texts,  such  as  is 
effected  by  the  art  of  exegesis  or  hermeneutics,  and  that 
the  history  of  literature  can  only  be  safely  based  upon 
such  a  foundation.  It  is  just  the  same  in  archaeology. 
We  need  not  necessarily  return  to  the  old  philological 
mode  of  explanation,  testing  the  picture  by  the  standard 
of  the  written  word.  The  work  of  art  has  a  language  of 
its  own,  which  it  is  our  task  to  understand  and  to  ex- 
plain. There  is  not  only  a  written  but  a  pictorial  tra- 
dition, which  follows  its  own  laws.  But  it  does  not 
appear  right  to  me — though  these  may  be  unwelcome 
reflections — to  appreciate  in  a  work  of  art  only  the  form, 
in  a  picture  the  colour,  and  to  declare  the  content  more 
or  less  indifferent.  Least  of  all  can  this  be  the  case  in 
ancient  art.  The  painter  Nikias  observed  that  the 
subject  formed  a  part  of  painting.  Ancient  art  knows  as 
little  as  ancient  life  of  an  absolute  mastery  of  form. 
The  Athenians  only  considered  the  person  perfect  who 
combined  beauty  with  an  inner  efficiency.  And  ancient 
art  is  not  different.  It  may  be  conceded  that  Lysippos 
said  the  last  word  in  perfecting  Greek  art ;  yet  Phidias 
ranks  above  him,  as  his  content  is  richer  and  higher,  and 
his  form  equals  his  content.  The  form  is  only  the  robe, 
which  the  content  creates  for  itself.  Content  and  form 
are  inseparable  and  one.  It  is  only  their  relation  to  one 


340  DISCOVERIES    AND    SCIENCE 

another  which  determines  the  value  of  a  work  of  art,  and 
is  the  true  object  of  research. 

May  the  young  archaeologists  of  the  new  century, 
for  whom  the  old  century  has  acquired  so  rich  a  heritage, 
not  pass  unheeded  these  warnings  of  a  veteran.  Our 
science,  I  am  convinced,  will  reward  them ! 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


1790.     "  Antiquities  of  Athens,"  Vol.  II,  1787. 

1792.    Massi,  Indicazione  Antiq.  del  Museo  Pio  Clementino. 

1797.    Treaty  of  Tolentino  :    Roman  antiques  delivered  to 

France. 

1798-1801.    Bonaparte's  Expedition  to  Egypt. 
1799.     Pompeii :  excavations  by  Championnet. 
1800-3.    Athens  :   Elgin  works  there. 
iSoi.    London  receives  spoils  from  Egypt. 

1801.  Opening  of  the  Mus£e  Napoleon. 

1801-2.    Clarke,  Dodwell,  Gell,  and  Leake  in  Greece. 

1802.  Wilkins  in  Athens  (Entasis). 

1804.    Paris  :  Societe"  des  Antiquaires  de  France. 

1804.  Millin  travels  in  Southern  France. 

1805.  London  acquires  the  Townley  collection. 
1805-6.    Dodwell,  Gell,  and  Leake  again  in  Greece. 
1807.    Gell,  "  Ithaca." 

1807.    Wilkins,  "  Antiquities  of  Magna  Graecia." 
1807.     Pompeii :   Arditi's  plan  for  excavations. 
1808-15.     Pompeii :   excavations  under  Queen  Caroline. 
1810.    Gell,  "  Argolis." 

1810.  Brondsted,  Cockerell,   Foster,  Haller,  Koes,  Linkh, 

Stackelberg  at  Athens ;  Cockerell  examines  the 
entasis  of  columns. 

1811.  Byron,  "  Curse  of  Minerva." 

1811.  jEgina  :  Pediment  groups  of  the  temple. 

1812.  Bassae  :   the  frieze. 

1812.    Burckhardt  discovers  Petra. 
1812.    Cockerell  in  Sicily. 

1812.    The  Crown  Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  acquires  the 
^Eginetan  sculptures  for  Munich. 


342  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

1812-13.    Gell,  Gandy,  and  Bedford  in  Attica. 

1814.  London  acquires  the  frieze  from  Bassae. 

1815.  Visconti,  "  Memoires  sur  des  ouvrages  de  sculpture  du 

Parthenon." 

1816.  The  British  Museum  acquires  the  Elgin  Marbles. 
1816.     "  Antiquities  of  Athens,"  Vol.  IV. 

1816.    The  antiques  of  the  Musee  Napoleon  are  returned. 
1816.    Stackelberg  in  Rome. 
1816-17.    Laborde,  "  Monuments  de  la  France." 
1817-20.    Ker  Porter  in  W.  Asia. 

1818.  Quatremere,  "  Lettres  a  M.  Canova." 

1819.  Dodwell,  "  Class,  and  topogr.  tour  through  Greece." 

1820.  Aphrodite  of  Melos. 

1821.  Nibby  recognizes  the  groups  of  Galatians  from  Perga- 

mon. 
1821-2.    The  Athenian  Acropolis  bombarded  by  Voutier. 

1822.  Gerhard  in  Rome. 

1822-3.    Harris  and  Angell  at  Selinus. 

1823.  Panofka  in  Rome;   Society  of  the  Roman  Hyper- 

boreans. 
1823-4.    Hittorff  in  Sicily. 

1824.  Gerhard  in  Etruria. 

1826.  The  Athenian  Acropolis  bombarded  by  Reshid  Pasha. 

1827.  Corneto  :  wall  paintings. 

1827.  Laborde  in  Syria  and  Arabia  Petraea. 

1828.  Luynes  at  Metapontum. 
1828-9.    Vulci :   discovery  of  vases. 

1828-30.    Egypt :   Italian  expedition  under  the  direction  of 
Rosellini  and  Champollion. 

1829.  Rome  :    "  Institute  di  corrispondenza  archeologica." 

1829.  Olympia  :  French  excavations  at  the  Temple  of  Zeus. 

1830.  The  conquest  of  Algeria  begun. 

1830.    Berthouville  near  Bernay  :  the  silver  find. 
1830.    The  Crimea  :  Dulrux  opens  the  Kul  Oba,  near  Kertch. 
1830.    Opening  of  the  Museum  in  Berlin  and  the  Glyptothek 
in  Munich. 

1830.  "  Antiquities  of  Athens,"  supplement. 
1830-2.     Semper  in  Italy. 

1831.  Pompeii :   mosaic,  Alexander  the  Great. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  343 

1831.  Gerhard,  "  Rapporto  volcente." 

1832.  Thomsen  distinguishes  the  Stone  Age,  Bronze  Age, 

and  Iron  Age. 

1833-6.    Athens  :  clearing  of  the  citadel  by  Ross. 
1833-7.     Texier  travels  in  Asia  Minor. 

1834.  Dodwell,  "  Views  of  Cyclopian  Remains." 
1834-42.    Serradifalco,  "  Archita  della  Sicilia." 

1835.  Athens  :  reconstruction  of  the  Temple  of  Nike  Apteros. 

1835.  1837,  l843-     Ross  in  Thera. 

1836.  Cerveteri :   the  Regulini-Galassi  tomb. 

1837.  Rawlinson  deciphers  the  inscription  of  Behistun. 
1837.    Athens  :  Pennethorne  discovers  the  horizontal  curves 

on  the  Parthenon. 
1837.    Athens  :   Archaeological  Society. 

1837.  Kramer  on  "  The  Origin  and  Style  of  Greek  Painted 

Pottery." 

1838.  Fellows  travels  in  Asia  Minor. 

1839.  Discovery  of  the  Sophocles  statue. 
1839-40      Fellows  travels  again  in  Lycia. 
184.0.     K.  O.  Miiller  at  Delphi,  dies  at  Athens. 
1840-1.     Coste  and  Flandin  travel  in  Persia. 
1841.     Society  of  Art-lovers  in  the  Rhine  countries. 

1841.  Schonborn  discovers  the  Heroon  of  Giolbashi. 

1842.  Luni :   Pediment  groups  of  terra-cotta. 

1842.     London  acquires  the  Nereid  Monument  from  Xanthos. 
1843-4.     Lycia  :    Fellows  undertakes  another  expedition. 
1843-4.     Ross  in  Rhodes  ;   inscriptions  of  artists. 
1843-4.    Lebas  travels  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor. 
1843-5.    Egypt :   Lepsius  directs  the  Prussian  expedition. 
1843-6.     Khorsabad  excavated  by  Botta. 

1844.  Chiusi :   The  Frai^ois  Vase. 

1845.  Ross  in  Cyprus. 

1845.  Falkener  at  Ephesos. 
1845-7.    Layard  excavates  Nimrud. 
1845-7.     Paccard  at  Athens. 

1846.  Halicarnassos  :   reliefs  sent  to  London. 
1846.    The  "  Apollo  "  of  Tenea  discovered. 
1846.     First  find  at  Hallstatt. 

1846.    Boucher  de  Perthes  begins  a  prehistoric  publication. 


344  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

1846.     Athens  :   Ecole  Fran£aise. 

1846-7.     Penrose  at  Athens. 

1848.    Rome  :  paintings  of  the  Odyssey  in  the  Via  Graziosa. 

1848.  Dennis,  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria.' 

1849.  Rome  :   the  Apoxyomenos  of  Lysippos. 

1849.     Rome  :   discovery  of  the  Catacomb  of  Calixtus  by  De 

Rossi. 

1849-51.    Excavations  at  Kuyunjik  by  Layard  and  Rassam. 
1849-52.     Loftus  in  Babylonia. 
1850-80.    Mariette  in  Egypt. 

1851.  Penrose,    "  An    Investigation    of    the    Principles   of 

Athenian  Architecture/* 

1851-4.    Oppert,  Fresnel,  and  F.  Thomas  in  Babylonia. 
1851-5.     Memphis  :   Mariette  discovers  the  Serapeum. 

1852.  The  Heraion  near  Argos  examined. 

1852.  Beginning  of  the  excavations  in  Southern  Russia. 
1852-3.     Athens :    Beule    uncovers   the    approach    to    the 

citadel. 
1852-9.     Newton  in  the  Levant. 

1853.  Spratt  discovers  the  Smintheion. 
1853.     Villanova :   necropolis. 

1853.    First  discoveries  in  caves  in  Southern  France. 
I853-    The  Marsyas  of  Myron  recognized  by  Brunn. 

1853.  The  Kairos  of  Lysippos  recognized  by  Jahn. 
Vienna  :  Commission  appointed  for  investigating  and 

preserving  architectural  monuments. 
.     Loftus  and  Taylor  travel  in  Babylonia. 
1853-9.    Brunn,  "  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Kiinstler." 

1854.  First  discovery  of  pile-dwellings  in  Switzerland. 
1854.     Sardes  :  Spiegelthal  examines  the  Tomb  of  Alyattes. 
1854.     Jahn,     "  Einleitung    zum    Ketalog    der    Miinchner 

Vasensammlung.' ' 

1855-60.     Pompeii :  the  Stabian  Thermae. 
1856-7.    Conze  visits  the  islands  of  the  Thracian  Sea  and 

Lesbos. 

1857.     Vulci :   Grotta  Francois. 

1857.     Halicarnassos  :  Newton  uncovers  the  Mausoleum. 
1857-8.    Cnidos  and  Branchidai :  Newton. 
1857-8.     Rey  travels  in  the  Hauran. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  345 

1858.  Athens  :   Odeion  of  Herodes  Atticus. 

1858.  Lauersfort :  phalerae. 

1859.  Oppert  investigates  Babylon. 
1859.  Eleusinian  Relief  discovered. 

1859.    Lenormant  discovers  statuette  of  Athene. 

1859.  London  acquires  vases  from  Kameiros  (Salzmann). 
1859-62.    Athens  :  the  Stoa  of  Attalos. 

1860.  Renan  travels  in  Phoenicia. 
1860.    Cyrene  :  Smith  and  Porcher. 

1860.  Boucher  de  Perthes,  "  De  I'homme  Ant&liluvien." 
1860-75.     Pompeii :   Fiorelli  directs  the  excavations. 

1861.  Galatia  and  Bithynia  :   Perrot  and  Guillaumc. 

1861.  Macedonia  :   Heuzey  and  Daumet. 
1861-2.    Delphi :   Foucart  and  Wescher. 
1861-2.    De  Vogue*  travels  in  the  Hauran. 
1861-9.     Rome  :   excavations  on  the  Palatine. 

1862.  Athens  :    Botticher  (Acropolis),  Curtius  (Pnyx),  and 

Strack  (theatre). 
1862.    Teos :    Pullan  discovers  slabs  of  the  frieze  of  the 

Temple  of  Dionysos. 
1862.    Samos  :   Humann  investigates  the  Heraion. 

1862.  Alesia  :  Napoleon  III  has  excavations  carried  on. 
1862-3.    Nikopol :   discoveries  of  tombs. 

1863.  Rome  :  Augustus  from  Prima  Porta. 
1863.    Samothrace  :   Nike  (Champoiseau). 

1863.     Friedrichs  recognizes  the  Doryphoros  of  Polykleitos. 

1863.  Kirchhoff,  "  Studien  zur  Geschichte  des  griechischen 

Alphabets  "  (Chalcidian  vases). 

1864.  Luynes  travels  in  Syria, 
1864.     Thasos:   Miller. 

1864.  Brunn  works  on  the  Julian  Monument  at  St.  Remy. 

1864.  First  discoveries  at  La  T£ne. 

1865.  Cerveteri :   archaic  class  of  vases. 
1865.  Marzabotto :   necropolis. 

1865.     Rome  :  the  temple  on  the  Capitoline. 

1865.  Alexandria  :   the  sanctuary  of  Arsinoe. 

1866.  Smintheion  and  Temple  of  Athene  at  Priene  :  Pullan. 
1866-9.     Humann  in  Asia  Minor. 

1867.  Brunn  recognizes  the  Eirene  of  Kephisodotos. 


346  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

1867-9.    Cyprus :   Cesnola. 

1868.     Schliemann  visits  the  Homeric  sites. 

1868.  Hildesheim  :   discovery  of  the  silver  treasure. 

1869.  Schone,  "  Pompeianarum  quaestionum  specimen." 

1869.  Rome  :  House  of  Livia. 

1869-74.     Ephesos  :   Wood  discovers  the  Artemision. 

1870.  Athens  :  the  Street  of  Tombs  at  the  Dipylon. 

1870.    Brunn  recognizes  the  statues  from  the  votive  offering 
of  Attalos. 

1870.  Conze,   "  Zur   Geschichte   der  Anfange   griechischen 

Kunst  "  (Geometric  style). 
1870-4.    Tanagra  :   the  discovery  of  terra-cottas. 

1871.  Athens  :  the  vases  of  the  Dipylon. 
1871.     Bologna  :  the  necropolis  at  the  Certosa. 
1871.    Troy  :  Schliemann. 

1871.    Curtius,  Adler,  Stark,  and  Hirschfeld  in  Asia  Minor. 
1871.    The    Archaeological    Institute    becomes    a    Prussian 
Government  institution. 

1871.  Helbig  recognizes  the  Diadumenos  of  Polykleitos. 

1872.  Rome  :   the  reliefs  of  the  tribune  in  the  Forum. 

1872.  Michaelis,  "  Der  Parthenon." 

1872-3.    Rayet  and  A.  Thomas  in  the  valley  of  the  Maeander 
(Miletos,  Magnesia,  Priene). 

1873.  Samothrace  :   Austrian  excavations. 
1873.    Delos  :   LebSgue  investigates  the  Grotto. 

1873.    Mau    distinguishes   the    periods   of    Pompeian   wall 

paintings. 

1873.     Helbig,    "  Untersuchungen    iiber    die    campanische 
Wandmalerei  "  (Hellenism). 

1873.  Fiorelli,  "  Relazione  degli  scavi  di  Pompei." 

1874.  Mycenae :   Schliemann. 

1874.    Teos  :   Hirschfeld  investigates  the  ruins. 

1874.  The    German    Archaeological    Institute    becomes    an 

imperial  institution. 
1874-8.    Stolze  in  Persia. 
1875-80.    Olympia  :  German  excavations. 

1875.  Olympia  :  the  Nike  of  Paionios. 
1875.     Samothrace  :   Austrian  excavations. 
1875-6.     Dodona  :   Monteyko  and  Karapanos. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  347 

1875-6.     Rome  :   Temple  of  the  Capitoline  Jupiter. 

1876.    Athens :    Asklepieion :    tower   removed   from   south 

wing  of  Propylaea. 
1876.    Homolle  investigates  Delos. 

1876.  La  TSne  :  beginning  of  excavations. 
1877-94.    Delos  :   French  excavations. 
1877-81.    Telloh  :   de  Sarzec's  excavations. 

1877.  Olympia  :   the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles. 
1877.    Spata  :   "  Mycenaean  "  finds. 

1877.  Nissen,  "  Pompejanische  Studien." 
1877-1907.     Carnuntum  :   excavations. 

1878.  Troy  :   Schliemann  a  second  time. 
1878.     Knossos  :   Kalokairinos'  excavations. 
1878.    Andreas  at  Persepolis. 

1878.  Rome :  house  in  the  Farnesina. 
1878-86.     Pergamon  :   Prussian  excavations. 

1879.  Samos  :   Girard  investigates  the  Heraion. 
1879.    Delos  :  flying  Nike  (Achermos  ?). 

1879.     London :     Society    for   the    Promotion   of    Hellenic 
Studies. 

1879.  Klein,  "  Euphronios." 

1879-81.     Duhn  collects  remains  of  the  Augustan  Ara  Pacis. 

1880.  Flinders  Petrie  begins  to  work  in  Egypt. 
1880.    Delphi :   Haussoullier. 

1880.  Orchomenos  :  Schliemann. 

1880.  Menidi :  vaulted  tomb. 

1880.  Tegea  :   remains  of  pediment  groups  by  Scopas. 

1880.  F.  Lenormant  in  Southern  Italy. 
1880-2.     Myrina  :   French  excavations. 

1881.  Maspero  begins  to  work  in  Egypt. 
1881.  Clermont-Ganneau  travels  in  Phoenicia. 

1881.     Dorpfeld,    Borrmann,    and    others    study    coloured 

architectural  terra-cottas. 
1881.    Tunis  under  a  French  protectorate. 

1881.  Constantinople  :   Museum  in  the  Tchinili-Kiosk. 
1881-3.    Assos  :   American  excavations. 

1881, 1884, 1886, 1888.     Ramsay  travels  in  Lycia  and  Phrygia. 
1881-1903.    Hieron  of  Epidauros  :   Greek  excavations. 

1882.  Caria  and  Lycia  :   Austrian  excavations  (Giolbashi). 


348  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

1882.    Sardes  :   Dennis  opens  a  tumulus. 

1882.    Clazomenai :     first    painted    terra-cotta    sarcophagi 

found. 

1882.     Samos  :   conduits  of  Eupalinos. 
1882.     Wilson  visits  Petra. 
1882.     Alatri :   Bassel  examines  conduits. 
1882.    Robert  distinguishes  a  class  of  vases  as  of  Polygnotan 

style. 
1882.    Athens  :   "  American  School  of  Classical  Studies." 

1882.  London  :    "  Egypt  Exploration  Fund." 
1882-90.     Eleusis  :   Greek  excavations. 
1882-90.    Adamklissi :   Rumanian  excavations. 
1882-1903.    Perrot  and  Chipiez,  "  Histoire  de  1'art  antique." 

1883.  Nemrud  Dagh  :   Humann  and  Puchstein. 

1883.  Milchhofer,  "  Anfange  der  griechischen  Kunst  (Crete). 

1884.  Crete  :  the  grotto  of  Zeus  on  Mt.  Ida,  Italian  excava- 

tions. 

1884.    Tiryns :   Schliemann. 

1884.  Athens :  Stamatakes  begins  excavations  on  the 
Acropolis. 

1884.    Elateia  :   French  excavations. 

1884.     Rome  :  bronze  statue  of  a  pugilist. 

1884.     Wright,  "  Empire  of  the  Hittites." 

1884.  Dorpfeld  elucidates  the  most  ancient  Greek  archi- 
tecture. 

1884-6.    Naukratis  :  British  excavations. 

1884,  1886,  1887.     Oropos,  Amphiaraeion,  Greek  excavations. 

1885.  Susa  :  Dieulafoy  and  his  wife,  Jane. 

1885.    Pamphylia,    Pisidia :    Lanckoronski,   Niemann,   and 

Petersen. 
1885.     Athens  :   British  School. 

1885.  Dorpfeld  on  the  Propylaea. 

1885-6.    Koldewey  travels  in  Lesbos  (Messa). 
1885-6.     Ptoion  :   French  excavations. 
1885-91.    Athens  :    Kavvadias  directs  excavations  on  the 
Acropolis. 

1886.  Athens  :  statue  of  a  woman  by  Antenor. 
1886.     Aigai :   German  excavations. 

1886,  1889,  1895.     Athens  :   Dionysic  Theatre,  Dorpfeld. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  349 

1887.  Sidon  :   tombs  of  princes,  Alexander  sarcophagus. 

1887.  Hierapolis  :   Humann,  Cichorius,  and  others. 

1887.  Tell-el-Amarna  :   archives  on  clay  tablets. 

1887.  Fayum  :   the  first  paintings  on  mummies. 

1887.  Delphi :   Pomtow. 

1887.  Eleusis :   Eubouleus. 

1887.  Rome  :  Ludovisi  marble  throne. 

1887.  Falerii :  Italian  excavations  of  a  temple. 
1887-8.     Athens  :   the  Stoa  of  Eumenes. 

1887-8.   Mantineia :  French  excavations,  Praxitelean  reliefs. 
1887-8.    Sanctuary  of   the   Kabeiri,  near  Thebes,  German 
excavations. 

1888.  Daphnai   in   Egypt :    British   excavations,   coloured 

vases. 

1888.    Senjirli :   first  German  excavations. 
1888.    Vaphio,  near  Sparta  :   Greek  excavations,  Mycenaean 

gold  cups  found. 

1888.  Schreiber,  reliefs  of  fountains  at  Vienna  (Hellenistic). 
1888-9.    Tegea  :   French  investigations. 

1888-99.    Marzabotto  :   Italian  excavations,  plan  of  city. 
1888-1900.    Babylonia  (Nippur) :   American  excavations. 

1889.  Illahun  :   British  excavations. 
1889.     Neandreia :   Koldewey. 

1889.     Locroi :   Italian  excavations  (Ionian  temple). 

1889.  Alatri  :   Italian  excavations  (temple). 
1889-90.    Sikyon  :   American  excavations  (theatre). 
1889-90.    Lycosura  :  Greek  excavations,  Damophon. 

1890.  Tell-el-Hesy  :   Flinders  Petrie's  excavations. 
1890.    Troy  :  Schliemann  works  there  a  third  time. 

1890.  Magnesia  :   Hiller  von  Gartringen,  theatre. 
1890-1.    Senjirli :  further  German  excavations. 
1890-1.    Megalopolis  :  British  excavations. 
1890-3.    Rome  :  investigations  on  the  Pantheon. 

1891.  Delphi :  agreement  with  France. 

1891.     Rome  :  statue  of  Apollo  found  in  the  Tiber. 

1891.  Dorpf  eld's  investigations  in  regard  to  the  Hypaethral 

temples. 
1891-3.    Magnesia  :  excavations  of  the  Berlin  Museum. 

1892.  Collignon  recognizes  the  Kyniskos  of  Polykleitos. 


350  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE 

1892-5.     Heraion,  near  Argos  :    American  excavations. 
1892-4.     Sicily  and  Lower  Italy :    Koldewey  and  Puchstein 

investigate  temple  ruins. 
1892-7.    Athens :  German  excavations  on  the  Pnyx  (Ennea- 

krounos). 

1892-1903.     Investigations  of  the  Germanic  Limes. 
1893.     Furtwangler,  "  Meisterwerke  der  griechischen  Plastik." 

1893.  Furtwangler    recognizes    the    Lemnian    Athene    of 

Phidias. 

1893-4.    Troy:  Dorpfeld. 
1893-1901.    Delphi :   French  excavations. 

1894.  Senjirli :   German  excavations. 

1894.    Samos  :  Bohlau  investigates  the  necropolis. 
1894.    Rome  :  Petersen  reconstructs  the  Ara  Pacis. 

1894.  Reichel,  "  Die  homerischen  Waffen." 
1894-5.    A.  Korte  travels  in  Phrygia. 
1894-5.    Pompeii :  House  of  the  Vettii. 
1894-5.    Boscoreale  :  villa  rustica. 

1895.  Tell-el-Amarna  :  British  excavations  (Amenhotep  IV). 
1894-6.    Deir-el-Bahari :  Temple  of  Hatshepsut. 

1895.    Borchardt  begins  work  in  Egypt. 

1895.    Boscoreale  :   the  silver  treasure. 

1895.    Rome  :  Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius  photographed. 

1895.  Hartel  and  Wickhoff,  "  Die  Wiener  Genesis." 
1895-6.    Didymaion  :   French  excavations. 
1895-9.    Priene  :   excavations  of  the  Berlin  Museum. 

1896.  Conca  :   French  and  Italian  excavations. 

1896-7.    Athens  :  the  grotto  of  Pan,  north-west  corner  of 

the  Acropolis. 

1896-1901.    Thera  :  Killer  von  Gartringen. 
1896-1907.    Ephesos  :   Austrian  excavations. 

1897.  Nagada  :  tomb  of  Menes. 

1897.     Kom-el-Achmar :   discovery  of  statues. 
1897.     Susa  :  French  excavations. 

1897.  Elche,  near  Alicante  :   female  head  discovered. 
1897-8.     Briinnow  and  von  Domaszewski  travel  in  Arabia. 
1897-9.    Thermos  :  Greek  excavations. 

1898.  Vienna  :  Austrian  Archaeological  Institute. 
1898.    Berlin  :   Deutsche  Orient  Gesellschaft. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  35* 

1898-9.     Alexandria  :  German  excavations. 
1899.     Megara  :   German  excavations,  fountain. 
1899.    Howard  Crosby  Butler  travels  in  Syria. 

1899.  Preuner  recognizes  the  Agias  of  Lysippos. 
1899-1901.    AbuGurab:  sanctuary  of  Ra,  German  excavations. 
1899-1904.     Baalbec  :  German  investigations. 
1899-1907.    Babylon  :  excavations  by  the  "  Deutsche  Orient 

Gesellschaft." 

1899-1907.    Miletos  :   excavations  by  the  Berlin  Museum. 
1899-1907.    Haltern  :   excavation  of  a  fort  (Aliso  ?). 

1900.  Gordion  :  A.  and  G.  Korte. 

1900.    Alexandria  :  tomb  at  Kom-esh-Shukafa. 

1900.  Antikythera  :  recovery  of  bronze  statues  from  the  sea. 
1900-1.    Alexandria  :  German  excavations. 

1900-8.     Knossos  :  Arthur  Evans. 

1900-8.     Pergamon  :   new  German  excavations. 

1901-    Waldstein  recognizes  the  Hera  of  Polykleitos. 

1901.  ^Egina  :    Bavarian  excavations  of  the  Temple. 
1901.     Romano-Germanic  Commission  of  the  Archaeological 

Institute. 

1901.  Strzygowski,  "  Rome  oder  Orient  ?  " 

1902.  Samos  :  Greek  excavations  at  the  Heraion. 
1902.    Delos  :   the  French  resume  their  excavations. 
1902.    Treu  recognizes  the  Maenad  of  Scopas. 

1902.  Petersen,  Ara  Pacis  Augustae. 

1902-4.    Kos  :   German  excavations  of  Asklepieion. 
1902-4.     Abusir  :   Borchardt  investigates  pyramids. 
1902-4.    Tell-Taannek  :   Austrian  excavations. 
1902-4.     Lindos  :   Danish  excavations  on  the  citadel. 
1902-4.     Argos  :   Dutch  excavations. 
1902-5.     Geser  :  British  excavations. 

1903.  Pergamon  :  Herm  found  of  the  Hermes  by  Alkamenes. 
1903.    Dellbruck,  "  Drei  Tempel  am  Forum  Holitorium." 
1003.    Strzygowski,   "  Kleimasien  ein  Neuland  der  Kunst- 

geschichte." 

1903-4.     Rome  :  excavations  to  recover  the  Ara  Pacis. 
1903-5.     Megiddo  :   German  excavations. 
1903-7.     Assur :      excavations    by    the    Deutsche    Orient 

GeseUschaft. 


352  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

1904.  Karnak  :  ancient  statues  found. 

1904.  Howard  Crosby  Butler  and  E.  Littmann  in  Syria. 

1904.  Deir-el-Bahari :  Temple  of  the  Dead  of  Mentuhotep. 

1905.  Oberaden  :   Roman  fort  (Aliso  ?). 

1906.  Abyssinia  :   German  expeditions. 

1907.  Jericho  :   Austrian  excavation. 
1904-8.    Leukas-Ithaca  :  Dorpfeld's  excavation. 

1908.  A.  Evans  excavating  at  Knossos. 

1908.  German  School  excavating  at  Pergamon. 

1908.  French  School  excavating  at  Delos. 

1908.  British  School  excavating  at  Sparta. 

1908.  American  School  excavating  at  Corinth. 

1908.  American  School  excavating  at  Moklos  in  Crete. 

1908.  Austrian^School  excavating  at  Ephesos. 


INDEX 


Abdalonymos,  276 

Abu  Gurab,  262 

Abu  Habba,  267 

Abu  Roash,  262 

Abu  Simbel,  86,  87 

Abusir,  262 

Abydos,  259,  263 

Abyssinia,  266 

Achaeans,  224,  227,  232,  330 

Achaean  capital,  249 

Adalia,  194 

Adamklissi,  292 

Adler,  F.,  126,  134,  166 

jEgae,  176 

jEgean  culture,  232 

jEgina,  n,  33,  34  ff.,  143,  311 

./Egisthus  relief,  250 

Age,  Stone,  209,  211 

Age,  Bronze,  209,  212 

Age,  Iron,  209,  213 

Agias,  153,  323 

Agrippa,  M.,  332 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  23 

Aizani,  93 

Akenaten.     v.  Amenhotep  IV 

Aksum,  266 

Alatri,  251 

Alba  Fucens,  251 

Albani  collection,  8,  22,  25 

Aldobrandini  collection,  6 

Aldobrandini  Nuptials,  9 

Alesia,  213,  289 

Alexander  mosaic,  68,  113,  163 

Alexander  sarcophagus,  276 

Alexandria,  199,  265 

Alexandropol,  108 

Alexandros  of  Antioch,  50 

Algeria,  284 

Alinda,  172 

Aliso,  290 

Alkamenes,  38,  128  f.,  174,  315  f. 

Alyattes,  tomb  of,  279 


Amathus,  274 

Amazons,  statues  of,  309 

Amber,  high-road  for,  287 

Amelineau,  E.,  263 

Amelung,  W.,  77,  130,  301,  313, 

322 

Amenhotep  IV,  87,  225,  226 
American  School  of  Archaeology, 

177 

Amphiaraeion,  136,  157 
Amyklai,  69 

Analysis  of  style,  305  ff.,  338 
Andernach,  288 
Andrae,  268,  269 
Andreas,  F.  C.,  272 
Andronikos  of  Kyrrhos,  337 
Androsthenes,  151,  316 
Angell,  S.,  46 
Ancyra,  92,  105 
Antenor,  243,  309,  314,  320 
Antikythera,  246,  315 
"  Antinous,"  Vatican,  132,  312 
Antioch,  203,  280 
Antiochos  I  of  Commagene,  278 
Apaturios,  165 
Aphaia,  144 
Aphrodite,  Cnidos,  308 

Medici,  23 

Melos,  49  ff.,  114,  181 

Petworth,  312 
Aphrodite,  birth  of,  254 
Apollo,    146 

Belvedere,  5,  8,  113 

Omphalos,  305 

Ptoion,  146 

Rhamnus,  322 

Tenea,  53 

Museo  delle  Tenne,  314 
Apoxyomenos,  71,  113,  296,  308, 
322 

Ephesos,  315 
Aquaiusha,  227 


353 


354 


INDEX 


Aquileia,  291 
Ara  Pacis.     v.  Rome 
Arak-el-Emir,  281 
Archaeological  Institute,  German, 
in  Rome,  62  ff.,  77  ft.,  80,  115, 
126,  174,  248,  290,  300 
Archermos,  314 
Ardaillon,  E.,  124 
Arditi,  M.,  19 
Ares,  Ludovisi,  322 

Head,  Munich,  322 
Arezzo,  Chimaera,  250 
Argos,  245 

Ariadne,  Belvedere,  5 
Aristandros,  321 
Aristeides,  316 
Arkesilas,  vase  of,  235 
Arndt,  P.,  79,  301 
Arne,  223 
Arsinoe,  118,  265 
Artaxerxes  II,  273 
Artemis  Palatine,  313 

Versailles,  21 
Artemision.     v.  Ephesos 

Magnesia,  180 

Artists  of  same  name,  3 1 5  f . 
Arundel,  Lord,  10,  31 
Asarhaddon,  270 
Asia  Minor,  n,  89  f.,  93  f.,    100, 

166,  235,  277 
Aspasios  gem,  310 
Aspendos,  194,  204 
Assos,  92,  113,  177,  202 
Assur,  269 

Assurnasirpal,  90,  269 
Assyria,  88  ff.,  270 
Athens,  10,  205,  239  ff. 
'"Acropolis,  29,  33  ff.,  52  ff. 

Erechtheion,  30,  53,  332 

jHekatompedon,  241 

^Temple  of  Nike,  30,  53  ff.,  331 

'Parthenon,  29,  33,  52,  54,  239, 

319,  332 
Pelasgikon,  240 
iPropylaea,  53,  240,  330 
Asklepieion,   135,   157 
*Stoa  of  Attalos,  238 
Theatre  of  Dionysos,  no,  141, 

238 

Dipylon,  205,  207 
Enneakrounos,  244 
Stoa  of  Eumenes,  238 
Pan's  Cave,  244 
Pnyx,  100 
Theseion,  30 
Tower  of  the  winds,  337 


Athens — 

American  School,  142,  245,  300 
Archaeological    Society,    Greek, 

53,   134  ff.,   188 
Austrian  School,  301 
British  School,    104,   245,   274, 

300 
French  School,  54,  115,  121  ff., 

146  ff.,  178,  246,  300 
German     Archaeological     Insti- 
tute, 122,  125  ff.,  135  f.,  174, 
300 
Athene,  Albani,  306 

Lemnian,  307,  3171!. 
Athene  Nike,  53,  331 

Parthenos,  310 

Athene,  Temple  of,  Priene,  183 
Atreus,  tomb  of,  32,  221 
Attalos,  votive  offerings,  311 
Augustus  Bevilacqua,  23 

Prima  porta,  no 
Aurignac,  grotto  of,  211 
Austria,  291  f. 


Baalbec,  10,  282 

Babylon,  268 

Babylonia,    267 

Bacon,  F.  H.,  177 

Balestra,  28 

Baltazzi,  A.,  178 

Barberini  collection,  6 

Barthelemy,  J.  J.,  14 

Basilica,  199,  203 

Bassae,  33,  35  f.,  41,  57 

Beaufort,  F.,  93 

Bedford,  F.,  33,  186 

Bedri  Bey,  267 

Behistun,  272 

Bekker,  I.,  27 

Beltrami,  L.,  334 

Belvedere,  6 

Benedict  XIV,  7 

Benghazi,   102 

Beni  Hassan,  86 

Benndorf,  O.,  77,  118,  138,  188  ff., 
196,  291,  292,  312,  316 

Berard,  V.,  246 

Berlin- 
Museum,  23,  167,  170,  180,  258, 

262,  270,  300 
Egyptian  Museum,  88 
German    Orient    Society,    262, 

268 
Orient  Committee,  270 

Berthouville,  258 


INDEX 


355 


Bertrand,  A.,  287 
Beule,  E.,  54 
Biban-el-muluk,  263 
Bibracte,  289 
Biliotti,  102 
Birs-Nimrud,  268 
Bissing,  W.  von,  262 
Blacas  collection,  102 
Blinkenberg,  C.,  200 
Blondel,  239 
Blouet,  A.,  52,  125 
Bockh,  A.,  27,  198 
Boedas,  308 
Boeotian  vases,  237 
Bcethos,  200,  336 
Boghas-k6i,  93,  105 
Bohlau,  J.,  236 
Bohn,  R.,  126,  171,  172,  330 
Boissonade,  J.  F.,  27 
Bologna,  213,  317 
Bonn,  288 

Museum,  297,  300 
Society,  288 
Borchardt,  L.,  262,  263 
Borghese  collection,  6,  23 
Borghesi,  Count  B.,  79 
Borrmann,  R.,  47,  134 
Boscoreale,  256 
Bosio,  A.,  80 
Bostra,  281 
Botta,  P.  E.,  89 
Botti,  G.,  265 
Botticher,  A.,  126 
Botticher,  E.,  229 
Botticher,  K.,  no,  112 
Boucher  de  Perthes,  J.,  210 
Braschi  collection,  22 
Braun,  E.,  77,  308,  312 
Breccia,  E.,  265 
Brest,  49 
Britain,  287 
British  Museum,  17,  26,  38,  42  f., 

56,  90,  95,  99,  101  f.,  104,  310, 

320 

Brizio,  E.,  160 
Bronstedt,  P.  O.,  33,  49,  57 
Brunn,  H.,  75,  77,  78,  115,  129, 

144,  167,  229,  256,  286,  298, 

301,  302  f.,  309,  311,  312 
Brunnow,  R.  E.,  277 
Brussels  collection,  76 
Bryaxis,  100,  313 
Brygos,  324 

Building  materials,  328 
Building  periods,  Pompeii,   161  f. 
Bulak,  260 


Bunsen,  C.  J.,  57,  62,  85,  86 
Burckhardt,  J.  L.,  277 
Burgon,  T.,  206 
Burnouf,  E.,  115 
Bursian,  K.,  142 
Busiris  vase,  234 
Butler,  Howard  Crosby,  281 
Byron,  Lord,  33,  41,  308 


Caeretan  vases,  70  f.,  234 

Cagnat,  R.,  284 

Cairo,  260 

Calah  (Kalach),  90 

Calderini,  G.,  255 

Callistus  (Calixtus),  81 

Calvert,  F.,  216 

Cambridge,  museum  of  casts,  300 

Camillus,  4 

Campana,  G.  P.,  72  ff. 

Candellori  collection,  63 

Canina,  L.,  251 

Canino,  Prince  of,  63 

Canosa,  62 

Canova,  A.,  38 

Caracalla,  mosaic  of  the  Baths  of, 

7i 

Caphtor,  232 
Capital — Achaean,  249,  329 

^Eolian,  177 
Capitol,     v.  Rome 
Cappadocia,  105 
Carnuntum,  291 
Caroline  of  Naples,  20 
Carpi  collection,  5 
Carrey,  J.,  n 
Carthage,  285 
Cassas,  L.  F.,  282 
Cassel  collection,  23;  head,  321 
Castellani  collection,  102 
Catacombs,  Rome,  80  ff. 
Caves,  finds  in,  210  f. 
Cavallari,  48 
Cecilia,  St.,  81,  83 
Cerro  de  los  Santos,  285 
Cerveteri,  59,  63,  69,  234 
Cesi  collection,  5 
Cesnola,  L.  P.  di,  274 
Chaff aud,  211 
Chalkis,  234 
Chamonardi,  J.,  124 
Championnet,  19 
Champoiseau,  118,  120 
Champollion,  J.  F.,  14,  85 
Chandler,  R.,  11 
Charioteer,  Delphi,  153.  318 


356 


INDEX 


Chedanne,  L.,  333 

Chelles,  210 

Cheramyes,  Hera  by,  188,  242 

Cherchel,  285 

Chigi  collection,  6 

Chios,  242 

Chiusi,  60,  68 

Choiseul-Gouffier,  Count,  29 

Christian  archaeology,  80 

Christie,  H.,  211 

Cichorius,  C.,  196,  255 

Cilicia,  195 

Clamps,  328 

Clarac,  Count,  51 

Clarke,  E.  D.,  28,  32,  93 

Clarke,  J.  T.,  92,  177 

Claubry,  G.  de,  134 

Claudius,  Ap.  Pulcher,  138 

Clazomenae,  235 

Clement  XII,  7 

Clement  XIV,  12 

Clerc,  M.,  176,  188 

Clermont-Ganneau,  C.  S.,  275 

Cnidos,  100,   116,  201 ;  Lesche,  in 

Delphi,  152 

Cockerell,  C.  R.,  33,  45,  49,  143 
Collignon,  M.,  78,  320 
Cologne,   288 
Columns,  Egyptian,  230;  wooden, 

220,  230 
Conca,  249 

Consalvi,  Cardinal,  25 
Constantinople,  99,  100,  276 
Convert,  H.,  124,  149, 
Conze,    A.,    78,    79,    n6flf.,    147, 

166  ff.,  206  ff.,  290,  305,  310 
Cori,  252 
Corinth,  33,  245 
Cornelius,  St.,  82,  83 
Corneto,  60 

Cortona  candelabrum,  250 
Coste,  P.,  272 
Courbaud,  E.,  255 
Couve,  L.,  124,  149 
Crete,  228  fL,  231,  247 
Creuzer,  F.,  57,  295 
Crimea,  107  ff. 
Croesus,  103 
Cromlech,  209 
Cult  sites,  1 54  ff. 
Cumae,  73 
Curtius,  E.,  no,  125  f.,  134,  162, 

165  f.,  196 

Cyprus,  54,  92,  223,  2746 
Cyrene,  102,  235 
Cyrus,  tomb  of,  272 


Daggers,  Mycenaean,  222,  226 

Dahshur,  263 

Daidalos,  315,  316 

Damasus,  82,  83 

Damophon,  246,  314 

Dannecker,  J.  H.,  44 

Daphnae  (Defenneh),  236 

Darius,  272 

Daumet,  P.  J.  H.,  106 

Daveluy,  A.,  115 

David,  P.,  49 

Davis,  Theodore,  263 

Dawkins,  J.,  10 

Debacq,  F.  J.,  48 

Deir-el-Bahari,  259,  261 

Delattre,  A.  L.,  284 

Delbet,  J.,  105 

Delbriick,  R.,  245,  252 

Dell,  J.,  333 

Delos,   117,  122,  146,  154  f.,  204, 

3M 
Delphi,  147  f.,  155,  175 

Lesche,  152 

Treasuries,  150 

Temple,  151  f.,  317 
Demeter,  Cnidos,  100 
Demierre,   123 
Demoulin,  H.,  142 
Dendera,  16,  86,  259 
Dennis,  G.,  102,  279 
Denon,  V.,  15,  22,  25 
Desaux,  14,  15 
Dethier,  P.,  100 
Development  of  artists,  320 
Diadumenos,   321 

Delos,  124 

Vaison,  102,  311 
Didymaion,  38,  186 

Seated  figures,    101,    104,    113, 

122,  186 
Dieulafoy,    Marcel    and   his   wife 

Jane,  272 
Dilettanti,  Society  of,  10,   n,  33, 

39,  103 
Diomede,  Munich,  305 

Valentinelli,  318 
Dioscuri,  Monte  Cavallo,  3 
Dipylon  style,  206  ff.,  233 
Diskobolos,  306,  309 
Dobree,  P.  P.,  27 
Daidalses,  316 
Dodona,  134 
Dodwell,  E.,  32 

Domaszewski,  A.  von,  255,  277 
Donaldson,  T.  L.,  100,  134 
Donner,  O.,  160 


INDEX 


357 


Doric  and  -dEgean  style  of  arch,  329 

Dorpfeld,  W.,  38,  47,  126,  134, 
135,  140,  174,  198,  217  ff.,  229, 
238  ff.,  241,  244,  329,  331 

Doryphoros,  310,  320 

Doublet,  G.,  124 

Douris,  324 

Dragendorff,  H.,  199 

Drawings  on  bones,  2iof. 

Dresden  Museum,  7,  300,  317 

Dressel,  H.,  333 

Droysen,  J.  G.,  308 

Dubois,  J.  J.,  52 

Dubrux,  P.,  107 

Dunn,  F.  von,  77,  254,  318,  334 

Dummler,  F.,  227,  235 

Dumont,  A.,  122 

Dumont  d'Urville,  J.,  49 

Durrbach,  F.,  125 

Dutschke,  H.,  77 

Earle,  M.  L.,  245 

Echo  Hall,  Olympia,  132 

Edfu,  16,  259 

Egypt,    13  ff.,    165,    226,    227  ft., 

231,  261  ff. 
Egypt    Exploration    Fund,    104, 

261,  271 

Eirene  and  Plutos,  3 1 1 
Elateia,  146,  154 
Elche,  285 
Elephantine,  16 
Eleusinian  Relief,  137 
Eleusis,  33,  1365.,  155  f.,  312 
Elgin,  Lord,  28  ff.,  31,  38  ff.,  42 
Elyzies,  211 

English  collectors,  7,  10 
Entasis,  33 

Ephesos,  102  ff.,  113,  195,  203 
Epidauros  Hieron,  138  ff.,  157,313 
Epigonos,  317 
Epigraphy,  79,  337 
Epiktetos,  324 
Erbkam,  G.,  86 
Eretria,  141 
Erman,  A.,  260 
Esagila,  Babylon,  269 
Este,  213 
Este  collection,  5 
Etruria,  57  ff.,  60  ff.,  66  ff.,  251 
Eubouleus,  138,  312 
Eumares,  243 
Euphranor,  306,  318 
Euphronios,  324 
Euripides,  Mantua,  23 
Eusebius.  St.,  83 


Euthydikos,  243 
Euthymides,  324 
Eutychides,  308 
Evans,  Arthur,  229  ff. 
Evstratiades,  P.,  136 
Exekias,  64 

Fabricius,  E.,  172,  177,  229 

Falerii,  251 

Falkener,  E.,  195 

Fara,  269 

Farnell,  L.  R.,  313 

Farnese  collection,  7,  102 

Fauvel,  52 

Fayum  paintings,  264 

Fea,  C.,  62,  308 

Fedor,  28 

Fellows,  C,  93  ff.,  96,  97,  104,  189 

Female  head,  Scopas,  322 

Female   statues,    Acropolis,    242^ 

314*. 

Feoli  collection,  63 
Ferdinand  of  Naples,  20 
Festal  sites,  154,  155  ff. 
Fiechter,  E.,  143 
Fiorelli,  G.,  159,  161 
Fisher,  C.  S.,  267 
Flandria,  E.  N.,  89,  272 
Flasch,  A.,  129,  317,  322 
Flaxman,  J.,  42 
Florence,  251 

Collections,  5,  7,  23,  69,  76 
Fond  de  Gaume,  2 1 1 
Foster,  J.,  33,  35  f.,  49 
Foucart,  P.,  124,  148,  200,  313 
Fougdres,  G.,  124,  246,  312 
Fran9ois,  A.,  68  ff. 
Fran9ois  Vase,  69,  280 
Frankfort,     Romano  -  Germanic 

Commission,  288  f. 
Franks,  A.  W.,  213 
Fresnel,  F.,  268 
Frick,  O.,  loo 
Friedrich,  C.,  185 
Friedrichs,  K.,  78,  144,  302,  309, 

3" 

Friedrich  III,  Emperor,  168 

Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV,  62,  86 

Frohner,  W.,  118 

Furtwangler,  A.,  34,  78,  126,  129. 
134,  138,  143  ff.,  223,  256, 
305,307.312.317.321.327 

Gabii,  252 

Galatians,  105,  167,  308 

Gandy,  J.  P.,  33,  186 


358 


INDEX 


Ganymede,  308,  313 

Gardner,  E.  A.,  236,  245 

Gardner,  Percy,  323 

Gau,  F.  C.,  21 

Gauckler,  P.,  284 

Gaul,  286 

Gauls,  groups  of,  6,  7,  23,  308 

Gaye,  J.,  303 

Gazara,  271 

Gell,  W.,  21,  33,  136,  1 86 

Geneva  collection,  76 

Genoa,  6,  98 

Genre>  178)  238,  260,  296 

Geometric  style,  206  ff.,  212,  214 

Gerasa,  281 

Gerhard,  E.,  57  ff.,  61  ff.,  77,  80, 

US.  295 

Germain,  St.,  Museum,  287 
"  Germanicus,"  Louvre,  21 
Germany,  288 
Geser,  271 

Giant  altar,  Pergamon,  167  ff. 
Giant  columns,  288 
Giolbashi,  97,  i89ff. 
Girard,  P.,  188 
Girgenti,  249 
Giustiniani  collection,  7 
Gizeh,  14,  15,  260,  262 
Glavinae,  213 
Gnaccarini,  F.,  73 
Goethe,  J.  W.,  10,  44,  57 
Gold  utensils,  218,  221,  225 
Gold  wreath,  Pergamon,  174 
Golgoi,  274 
Gordion,  280 
Gortyna,  228 
Gozzadini,  Count,  213 
Graber,  F.,  134,  174 
Graf,  B.,  313 
Graf,  P.,  134 
Graillot,  H.,  249 
Graindor,  P.,  142 
Gregory  XVI,  71,  72,  81 
Grimani  collection,  5 
Gropius,  G.,  36 
Gsell,  S.,  284 
Gudea,  267 
Guillaume,  E.,  105 
Gymnasia,  133,  204 


Hadrian,  333,  334 
Hagia  Triada,  Crete,  231 
Halbherr,  F.,  228,  231 
Halicarnassos,  98  f.,  113,  202,  313, 
322 


Halil-Edhem-Bey,  277 

Haller  von  Hallerstein,  K.,  33  f., 

49 

Hallstatt,  2i2ff. 
Haltern,  290 

Hamdi  Bey,  O.,  175,  277,  278 
Hamilton,  W.,  42,  56 
Hamilton,  W.  R.,  28 
Hansen,  C.,  53 
"  Harpy  Tomb,"  94  f.,  113 
Harris,  W.,  46 
Harrison,  T.,  28 
Hatshepsut,  261 
Hauran,  281 
Hauser,  A.,  117 
Hauser,  F.,  315 
Haussoullier,  B.,  148,  186 
Hauvette,  A.,  124 
Hawkins,  R.,  96 
Haydon,  B.  R.,  39  ff.,  42 
Haynes,  J.  H.,  267 
Head,  B.  V.,  78,  104 
Heberdey,  R.,  195 
Hecht,  G.,  141 
Hekatompedon,  240  ff . 
Helbig,  W.,  77,  114,  160,  248,  310 
Heliopolis.     v.  Baalbec 
Hellenism,    114  f.,   120,   142,   171, 

176  f.,  187,  201,  309 
Henzen,  W.,  80 
Hera,  Polykleitos,  321 
Heracles,  Lansdowne,  321 
Herakleion,  Candia,  231 
Heraion — 

Argos,  142!,  154 

Olympia,  127,  329  f. 

Samos,  187 
Herculaneum,   8  f.,    18  f.,   21,    56, 

ii4,  257 

Hermann,  G.,  27 
Hermes — 

Ludovisi,  306 

Olympia,  51,  131,  132,  312 

Propylaios,  174,  315 
Hermogenes,  179  f.,  252 
Herzog,  R.,  141 
Hettner,  F.,  288 
Heuzey,  L.,  55,  106 
Heydemann,  H.,  77 
Heyne,  R.,  180 
Hierapolis,  196,  202  f.,  204  f. 
Hieron,  vase  painter,  325 
Hieron.     v.  Epidauros 
Hildebrand,  H.,  213 
Hildesheim,  258 
Hillah,  268 


INDEX 


359 


Hiller   von    Gartringen,    F.,    180, 

197  ff. 

Hilprecht,  H.  V.,  267 
Hippodamos,   201  f. 
Hirschfeld,  G.,  126,  166,  167,  179 
Hirschfeld,  O.,  291 
Hirt,  A.,  58,  295 
Hittites,  1 06 
Hittorff,  J.  I.,  47 
Holleaux,  M.,  146 
Homeric  art,  70,  92,  216,  221  f., 

225,  231 

Homolle,  T.f  122  ff.,  148  f.,  314 
Houses,  124,  159  f.,  173,  183,  220 f. 
Hiibner,  E.,  78 
Hiilsen,  C.,  80,  252 
Hiilsen,  J.,  184 
Humann,  K.,  166  ff.,  i8of.,  196, 

270,  278  ff. 

Humboldt,  A.  von,  86 
Humboldt,  W.  von,  25,  57 
Hunt,  P.,  29 

Hypaethral  temples,  37  f.,  121,  186 
Hyperboreans,  Roman,  57 
Hyrkanos,  281 

Idalion,  274,  275 

Idolino,  250 

Igel,  287,  288 

Iktinos,  37,  137 

Illahun,  261 

Imbros,  116 

"  Immortals,"  Susa,  273 

Inghirami,  F.,  59 

Innocent  X,  6 

Inscription  of  artists,  200 

Ionian  art,  92,  237,  250,  286,  306 

Vases,  235 
Island  stones,  228 
Istar,  269 
Ittar,  28 


Jacobsen,  C.,  200 

Jahn,  (X,  67,  70,  77,  78,  115,  234, 

297.  300.  309 
arde,  A.,  125 
ason,  21 
atta,  G.,  78 
ericho,  271 
erusalem,   282 
oachim  of  Naples,  20 
ordan,  268 
ordan,  H.,  252 
oseph  of  Naples,  20 
uba  II,  285 
udeich,  W.,  196 


judicial  proceedings,  4 

ulius  II,  5 

ulius  III,  5 

ulius,  L.,  144 
Junius,  F.,  8 

Kabeiri,  120,  155 

Kaibel,  G.,  312 

Kairos,  309 

Kalamis,  152,  305,  306 

Kalat  Shergat,  269 

Kalinka,  E.,  195 

Kalkmann,  A..  305 

Kallikrates,  265 

Kallimachos,  305,  306 

Kalokairnios,  M.,  228 

Kameiros,  102,  236 

Kanachos,  186 

Kapodistria,  Count,  52 

Karapanos,  K.,  I34f. 

Kardaki  (Cadacchio),  328 

Karnak,  259,  261,  264 

Kavvadias,  P.,  138  f.,  239  f.,  244, 

246,  313,  314 

Kawerau,  G.,  133,  184,  240 
Keftiu,  231 

KekulS,  R.,  77,  79,  129,  179,  181 
Kellermann,  O.,  79 
Kephisodotos,  311  f.,  316 
Ker  Porter,  272 
Kern,  O.,  180 
Kertch,  107 
Kestner,  A.,  57,  6 1,  62 
Khorsabad,  90 
Kiepert,  H.,  103,  191 
Kieseritzky,  G.  von,  310 
Kinch,  K.  F.,  200 
Kircher,  A.,  6 
Kirchhoff,  A.,  128,  234 
Kition,  274 
Klein,  W.,  324 
Klenze,  L.  von,  52 
Knackfuss,  H.,  184 
Knaffl,  G.  von,  190 
Knight,  R.  P.,  39,  41,  42 
Knossos,  229,  230 
Knowles,  W.  W.,  54 
Koes,  G.,  33 
Kohler,  UM  228,  319 
Kolbe,  W.,  185 
Koldewey,  R.,  177  f.,  248  f.  268, 

270,  282 
Kolotes,  129 
Kom-el-achmar,  87,  264 
Kom-esh-shukafa,  265 
Koraes,  A.,  27 


360 


INDEX 


Korte,  A.,  280 
Korte,  G.,  280 
Kos,  141  f.,  257 
Kragos,  192 
Kramer,  G.,  67 
Kremna,   194 
Krencker,  D.,  266,  282 
Kresilas,  309 
Kritios  and  Nesiotes,  309 
Krupp,  F.  A.,  280 
Kuyunjik,  88  f.,  90 
Kul  Oba,  107 
Kumanudes,  A.,  222 
Kurion,  274 
Kyniskos,  320 
Kypselus,  69 

Laborde,  Count  A.  de,  286 

Laborde,  Count  L.  de,  54,  277,  282 

Lachish,  270 

Lambaesis,  284 

Lanciani,  R.,  252 

Lanckoronski,  Count  K.,  193 

Lang,  H.,  275 

Lange,  K.,  144 

Lansdowne,  Heracles,  323 

Laocoon,  5,  8,  330 

Lartet,  E.,  210,  211 

La  Tene,  213,  214 

Lauersfort,  258 

Laugerie  Basse,  211 

Layard,  A.  H.,  89,  90,  91,  268,  269 

Leake,  W.  M.,  32,  52,  134 

Lebas,  P.,  93 

Lebegue,  A.,  122 

Leda,  313 

Legrain,  G.,  264 

Leipzig,  museum  of  casts,  300 

Lekatzas,  134 

Lemnian,  307,  317 

Lemnos,  116 

Lenormant,  C.,  136,  309 

Lenormant,  F.,  136,  248 

Leochares,  100,  313 

Leonardos,  B.,  135,  136 

Lepsius,  R.,  85  ff. 

Lesbos,  1 1 6,  178 

Lesche  of  the  Cnidians,  Delphi,  152 

"  Leukothea,"  Munich,  311 

Library,  Ephesos,  191 

Pergamon,  172 
Limes,  289 

Lindenschmit,  L.,  288 
Lindos,  200 
Linkh,  J.,  33  f.,  49 
Lion  Tomb,  Cnidos,  101 


Lion  group,  Capitol,  4 

Lion  Gate,  Mycenae,  32 

Littmann,  E.,  266  f.,  281 

Locri,  248 

Loftus,  W.  K.,  266,  272 

London,     v.  British  Museum 

Longperier,  A.  de,  92 

Loschcke,  G.,  129,  223,  236,  287, 

290,  305,  319 
Loubat,  Count,  125 
Louis  I  of  Bavaria,  34,  41,  45 
Louvre,    v.  Paris 
Lowy,  E.,  190 
Lubbock,  Sir  J.,  210 
Ludovisi  collection,  6,  24,  254 
Luitpold,  Prince  Regent,  143 
Luni,  251 

Lupke,  T.  von,  266 
Luschan,  F.  von,  270 
Lusieri,  T.,  28,  31 
Luxor,  261 
Luynes,  Duke  de,  48,  61,  76,  277, 

281 

Lycia,  93  ff.,  188  f.,  205 
Lycian  sarcophagus,  Sidon,  275 
Lycosura,  246,  314 
Lyons,  museum  of  casts,  300 
Lysippos,7i,i52,i53,3o8,322,339 

Macalister,  R.  A.  Stewart,  271 
Macedonia,  106 
Madelaine,  210 
Madrid  collection,  7 
Maenad  Scopas,  313,  322 
Magnesia,  141,  175!,  179  f.,  180, 

196 

Mahmud  Bey,  201 
Mainz  Jupiter  column,  287 

Central  Museum,  288,  291 
Mantineia,  141,  246,  312 
Mantua  collection,  33 
Marcellus,  Vicomte  de,  50 
Marchi,  G.,  81 
Marduk,  269 
Mariette,  A.,  259  ff. 
Marion,  274 
Market-places,  20,  174,  177,  180, 

203 

Marsyas,  Myron,  306,  309 
Martha,  J.,  78 
Marzabotto,  160,  213,  251 
Maspero,  G.  C.,  260  f. 
Massalia,  286 
Mastabas,  87 
Mattei  collection,  5 
Matz,  F.,  77,  79 


INDEX 


Mau,  A.,  162  ff. 

Mausoleum,  99  f.,  313,  322 

Mayer,  L.,  93 

Mazois,  F.,  20 

Medici  collection,  5,  7 

Medinet  Habu,  261 

Medracen,  285 

Megalithic  monuments,  209 

Megalopolis,  141,  245 

Megara,  245 

Megiddo,  271 

Meleager,  321 

Melos,  49  f.,  114,  206  f. 

Memnon  colossus,  16,  87 

Memphis,  86,  259 

Meneptah,  227 

Menes,  263 

Menhir,  209 

Menidi,  223 

Mentor  brig,  30 

Mentuhotep,  261 

Mertens-Schaffhausen,  S.,  98 

Messa,  178,  181 

Metapontum,  48 

Metternich,  Prince,  117 

Meyer,  H.,  295 

Micali,  G.,  59 

Michaelis,  A.,  78,  116,  147,  317 

Milani,  L.  A.,  251 

Milchhofer,  A.,  228  f. 

Miletos,   ii,   101,   179,    187,    204. 

See  Didymaion. 
Miller,  E.,  106 
Millin,  A.  L.,  58,  286 
Mineyko,  S.,  134 
Minos,  229  £. 
Miot,  19 
Mnesikles,  331 
Modena  collection,  23 
Mohl,  J.,  88 
Moltke,  H.  von,  292 
Mommsen,  T.,  80,  289 
Montalto  collection,  5 
Montelius,  O.,  214 
Morelli,  303 

Morgan,  J.  de,  263,  273 
Mortillet,  G.  de,  210 
Mosaic,  285 
Mugheir,  267 
Miiller,  K.  O.,  67,  77,   115,   147, 

296  f..  336,  338 
Munich,  museum  of  casts,  300 

Glyptothek,  25,  34,  45,  54,  311 

Collection,  7 

Muses  reliefs,  Mantineia,  312 
Mustoxydes,  A.,  144 


Mycenae,   32,    in,   2i6ff.,   221!., 

225  ff. 

Mycenaean  style,  221  ff.,  225  ff. 
Myra,  93,  191 
Myrina,  178 

Myron,  306,  307,  309,  318 
Mysteries,   155  f. 
Mytilene,  236 

Nagada,  263 
Nakshi,  Rustam,  272 
Naples  collection,  7 
Napoleon  I,  13  ff. 

Musee  Napol6on,  22  ff.,  41 
Napoleon  III,  105  f.,  no,  201,  213, 

252,  275,  289 
Naram-Sin,  273 
Naukratis,  235,  261 
Naville,  £.,261 
Naxos,  23,  242 

Sphinx  in  Delphi,  1 50 
Neandreia,  177 
Nebi  Yunus,  88 
Nebuchadnezzar,  268 
Nemi,  250 
Nemrud-Dagh,  278 
Nennig,  288 
Nenot,  H.  P.,  123,  124 
Nereid  monument,  95  f.,  191 
Neumagen,  287,  288 
Neuss,  288 

Newton,  C.  T.,  99  ff.,  104,  no, 
1 1 6,  120,  1 86,  225,  274,  294, 
310,  312 

New  York  Museum,  274 
Nibby,  A.,  308 
Niebuhr,  B.  G.,  26,  57 
Niebuhr,  K.,  272 
Niemann,  G.,   117,   189  f.,   193  f., 

292 

Nikaia,  203 
Nikandra,  123,  242 
Nike,  Archermos,  123,  314 

Paionios,  128  f.,  133,  312 

Samothrace,  ii8f.,  120 
Nikias,  339 
Nikopol,  1 08 
Nile,  Vatican,  5 
Nimes,  286 
Nimrud,  90  f. 
Nineveh,  88,  91 
Ninmach,  269 
Niobe,  5 

Sipylos,  105,  ill 

Niobe  relief,  St.  Petersburg,  73,  75 
Nippur,  267 


362 


INDEX 


Nissen,  H.,  161 

Noack,  F.,  137 

Nointel,  Marquis,  10 

Noldeke,  268 

Norba,  252 

Northern  Greek  art,  107,  129,  305 

Numantia,  289 

Nymphaea,  185,  194,  284 

Nymph  relief,  Thasos,  106 

Nymphio,  Karabel,  93,  105 

Obelisk,  black,  London,  91 

Oberaden,  290 

Odysseus  paintings,  70  f.,  163 

Ohnefalsch-Richter,  M.,  274 

Olympia,  52  f.,  125  ff.,  156,  304 

Oppert,  J.,  268 

Opramoas  Heroon,  193 

Orange,  286 

Orchomenos,  216,  221 

Orient  and  Rome,  283 

Orsi,  P.,  228,  248 

Orvieto,  60 

Ostia,  72 

Overbeck,  J.,  256,  297,  310,  311 

Oxford  collection,  10 

Oxyrhynchus,  321,  337 


Paccard,  A.,  54 
Paestum,  9,  249,  330 
Paionios,  128  ff.,  130,  304,  312 
Palafitte,  212 
Palatitza,  106 
Palestine,  270 

Palestine  Society,  German,  271 
Palmyra,  10,  282 
Pamfili  collection,  6 
Pamphylia,  193,  203 
Panofka,  T.,  57  f. 
Pantheon,  332  ff. 
Paphos,  274 

Papyrus  finds,  264,  321,  337 
Paris,  Cabinet  des  medailles,  22, 
258 

Louvre,  21  f.,  41,  50,  76,  92, 
106,  118,  120,  179,  257,  272, 
287 

Societe  des  antiquaires,  287 

Tiberius  altar,  292 
Paris,  P.,  124,  146,  285 
Pars,  W.,  ii 
Parthenon  sculptures,   28  ff.,    33, 

37  f-.  39  f«,  319  ff-  327 
Pasargadae,  272 
Paschalis  I,  83 


Pasparakes,  G.,  228,  229 

Pasqui,  A.,  256,  335 

Paton,  R.,  141 

Paul  III,  5 

Pausanias,  32,  130  f.,  149,  151,  307 

Peiraeus,  201 

Peisistratos,  241,  244 

Peleus  vase,  London,,.327 

Pennelli,  74 

Pennethorne,  J.,  54 

Penrose,  F.  C.,  54 

Pepy,  264 

Perdrizet,  P.,  149 

Pergamon,  141,  165,  166  ff.,  202  f., 

204,  238,  308,  315 
Perge,  194 
Pernier,  L.,  231 
Perrot,  G.,  55,  105 
Persepolis,  272 
Perserschutt,  239 
Perseus,  306,  318 
Persia,  272 

Perugia,  bronze  chariot,  249 
Peters,  J.  P.,  267 
Petersburg,  St.,  78,  109 
Petersen,  E.,  77,  190,  194  f.,  248, 

249.  255,  314.  320  f.,  335 
Petra,  277 
Petrie,  Flinders,  236,  261  f.,  263, 

270 

Petworth,  312 
Phaestos,  231 
Pharis,  223 
Pharsalos,  106,  323 
Phidias,   31,    129,   307,   310,    311, 

317!,  319,  326,  327,  339 
Phigalia.     v.  Bassae 
Philae,  16,  86,  87 
Philadelphia,  281 
Philios,  D.,  137 
Philippeion,  Olympia,  132 
Philippi,  A.,  255 
Philis,  106 
Phineus  bowl,  235 
Phoenicia,  275 
Photography,  116,  120,  301 
Piette,  E.,  211 
Pigorini,  L.,  247 
Pile  dwellings,  2 1 2  f . 
Pinara,  191 
Pisa,  68 

Piscatory,  T.,  54 
Pisidia,  194,  203 
Pittakes,  K.,  53 
Pius  VI,  12 
Pius  IX,  75,  82 


INDEX 


363 


Place,  V.,  89 

Plans  of  festal  sites,  155  f. 

Plato,  243,  247,  321 

Bust  of,  314 
Pliny,  258,  307 
Pococke,  R.,  13 
Poggio,  2,  3 
Polychromy,  sculpture,  46  f.,  52, 

242,  243 

Polygnotos,  113,  152,  191,  326  f. 
Polykleitos   the   elder,    102,    124, 
142,  308,  310,  312,  315,  320  f., 

323.  337 

Polykleitos  the  younger,  140,  315 
Pomardi,  S.,  32 
Pompeii,     18  ff.,    56  f.,    68,     115, 

159  ff.,  202,  256  ff. 
Pomtow,  H.,  148 
Pont  du  Card,  286 
Pontremoli,  E.,  186 
Poole,  R.  S.,  78,  104 
Porcher,  E.  A.,  102 
Poraacho,  107,  109 
Porson,  R.,  27 

Poseidon  frieze,  Munich,  255 
Pettier,  E.,  178 
Pourtales  collection,  102 
Prachow,  A.,   144 
Prague  collection,  7 
Praying  Boy,  23,  308 
Praxias,  151,  306,  316 
Praxiteles,    131,    138,    246,    308, 

312  f.,  316 

Prehistory,  115,  206  ff.,  247 
Preuner,  E.,  153,  322 
Priene,  n,  102,  112,  176,  181  f., 

196,  202,  204 
Prima  Porta,  no 
Prokesch-Osten,  Baron,  53,  198 
Promis,  C.,  251 
Provence,  286 
Provincial  art,  286  ff.,  291 
Ptoi'on,  146,  154 
Puchstein,   O.,    170,    248  f.,    279, 

282,  317,  330 
Pugilist,  254 

Pullan,  R.  P.,  100,  102,  178,  182 
Purgold,  K.,  126 
Pyramids,  15,  87  f.,  260  f.,  262 
Pythagoras,  305,  318 
Pythios,  314 

Quatremdre  de  Quincy,  A.  C.,  43 
Quibell,  J.  E.,  263  f. 

Ra,  262 


Ramesseum,  86,  87 

Ramsay,  W.  M.,  195,  280 

Rangabe,  A.  R.,  142 

Raschdorff,  O.,  172 

Rassam,  268 

Rauscher,  V.,  335 

Rawlinson,  G.,  268 

Rawlinson,  H.  C.,  272 

Rayet,  O.,  180,  182,  184,  186 

Regulini-Galassi,  71,  in,  206 

Rehm,  A.,  185 

Reichel,  W.,  224 

Reinach,  S.,  124,  176,  178,  287 

Reinach,  T.,  316 

Reisch,  E.,  151,  316 

Reliefs,  257 

Remy,  St.,  286 

Renan,  E.,  275,  281 

Revett,  N.,  n,  122,  181,  188 

Rey,  G.,  281 

Rhamnus,  33 

Rhodes,   54,   100,    102,  200,   225, 

236 

Rhodiapolis,  193 

Rhoikos  and  Theodoros,  187,  188 
Richardson,  R.  B.,  245 
Ridder,  A.  de,  78 
Rienzi,  4 

Riepenhausen,  F.  and  J.,  112 
Ritter,  K.,  189 
Riviere,  Marquis  de  la,  49 
Robert,  C.,  79,  171,  321,  326 
Roberts,  D.,  277 
Rochette,  R.,  92,  297 
Rohden,  H.  von,  79 
Rome,  2  ff.,  8 

Columbarium  Condini,  72  \ 

Farnesina,  253 

Forum,  252 

Jupiter  Temple,  Capitol,  251 

Catacombs,  80  f. 

Arch  of  Constantino,  255 

Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  255 

Mater  Matuta,  252 

Temple  of  Neptune,  255 

Golden  House  of  Nero,  9 

Palatine,  no,  253 

House  of  Livia,  in,  163 

Prima  Porta,  no 

Arch  of  Titus,  253 

Thermae  of  Titus,  9 

Column  of  Trajan,  255 

Ara  Pads,  254,  334  f. 

Mosaic  of  Caracalla,  7 1      1 

River  god,  Monte  Cavallo,  3 

Reliefs  from  Forum,  255 


3^4 


INDEX 


Rome — 

Marcus  Aurelius,  2,  3 

Marforio,  4 

Paintings  of  Odysseus,  70 

Pasquino,  4 

Antiquities,  2ff. 

Museums,  5  ff.,  70,  72  f.,  252  f. 
Capitol,  5,  7,  22,  25 
Vatican,  5,  7,  12  f.,  22,  25 

Museum  of  casts,  300 
Rosa,  P.,  no 
Rosellini,  I.,  85 
Rosetta  stone,   17 
Ross,  L.,   53  f.,    125,    142  f.,    198, 

200,  274 

Rossi,  G.  B.  de,  80 
Rothschild,  E.  de,  182,  257 
Rothschild,  G.  de,  182 
Rumohr,  K.  F.  von,  303 
Ruvo,  62 


Saalburg,  289 

Safe-keeping  of  excavations,   175 

Sagalossos,   194 

Saitapharnes,  109 

Sakkara,  16,  259,  260 

Salis,  A.  von,  188 

Salmanassar  II,  90 

Salzmann,  A.,  102,  236 

Samos,  ii,  187  f.,  236,  245 

Samothrace,  116,  ii7f.,  120,  154, 

175 

Sanctuaries,  154 
Sardanapalus,  91 
Sardes,  279 
Sargon,  89,  92 
Sarzec,  E.  de,  267 
Satrap  sarcophagus,  Sidon,  275 
Sauer,  B.,  144 
Sauroktonos,   308 
Savignoni,  L.,  231 
Scandinavia,  210 
Scarabs,  225 
Schaffhausen,  211 
Scharf,  G.,  94,  97 
Schaubert,  E.,  53 
Scheil,  P.,  267 
Schiff,  A.,  199 
Schinkel,  K.  F.,  52 
Schliemann,  H.,  71,   168,   215  ff., 

217,  219,  222,  238 
Schonborn,  A.,   i89ff. 
Schone,  R.,  77,  161  f.,  168 
Schrader,  H.,  171,  181,  242 
Schreiber,  T.,  77,  265,  305 


Schubart,  J.  H.  C.,  336 

Schuchhardt,  K.,  172,  174 

Schulter,  A.,  289 

Schultz,  R.  W.,  245 

Schultz,  B.,  282 

Schumacher,  G.,  271 

Schiitte,  K.,  133 

Scopas,  100,  119,  246,  312,  322 

Scribe  statue,  Louvre,  260 

Selge,  194 

Selinus,  46  f.,  48,  113,  249 

Sellin,  E.,  271 

Semper,  G.,  47,  112 

Senjirli,  270  f. 

Serapeum,  Memphis,  259 

Serpent  column,  99,  151 

Serradifalco,  Duke,  48 

Sester,  K.,  278 

Shaftgraves,  221 

Shaw,  T.,  284 

Sicily,  45  ff.,  48,  248  f. 

Side,  194 

Sidon,  275 

Sidyma,  192 

Sieglin,  E.,  141,  265 

Siemens,  G.  von,  185 

Signia,  252 

Sikyon,  141,  245 

Silanion,  314 

Sillyon,  194 

Silver  utensils,  257  f. 

Sinai,  87 

Siphnos  Treasury  at  Delphi,  150 

Sippar,  273 

Sixtus  II,  8 1,  83 

Sixtus  IV,  5 

Smintheion,  102,  178 

Smith,  C.,  104 

Smith,  R.  M.,  102 

Smyrna,  93,  178 

Society    for    the    Promotion    of 

Hellenic  Studies,  104 
Sogliano,  A.,  78 
Solutre,  210 

Sophocles,  Lateran,  71,  113,  296 
Soteriades,  G.,  247 
Southern  Russia,  107  f. 
Spain,  285 
Sparta,  245 
Spata,  223,  225 
Sphinx,  Delphi,  15 
Spiegel  thai,  279 
Spon,  J.,  ii 

Spratt,  T.  A.  B.,  96,  178,  191 
Stackelberg,  O.  M.  von,  33,  36  f., 

49,  57  f.,  66,  144,  302,  323 


INDEX 


365 


Stais,  B.,  143 

Stamatakes,  P.,  239 

Stark,  77,  311 

Stein,  Baron,  299 

Stephani,  L.,  77,  78,  107,  311 

Stier,  W.,  47 

Stiller,  H.,  172 

Stillmann,  W.  J.,  228 

Stone  construction,  328 

Stolze,  F.,  272 

Strack,  H.,  110,  238 

Strangford,  Lord,  310 

Strasburg,  museum  of  casts,  300 

Stratford,  Canning,  89,  98 

Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  Lord,  99 

Straton  I.,  276 

Strzygowski,  J.,  283 

Stuart,  J.,  n,  122 

Studniczka,  F.,  190,  242,  305,  318 

Subiaco  youth,  305 

Sunium,  n 

Susa,  Persia,  272,  273 

Susa,  Piemont,  292 

Syngros,  133,  153 

Syra,  117 

Syria,  280  ff. 


Tadius,  163 

Tanagra,  237  f. 

Tarentum,  327 

Tarral,  C.,  51 

Taylor,  J.  E.,  267 

Tegea,  246,  312.  321 

Telephanes,  304,  306 

Tell-el-Amarna,  88,  225,  262 

Tell-el-Hesy,  270 

Tell-el-Mutesellin,  271 

Tell-Taannek,  271 

Telloh,  267 

Temple,  old  Italic,  250  f. 

Tenea,  53 

Tenos,  142 

Teos,  102,  179 

Termessos,  194 

Ternite,  W.,  21 

Terracina,  71 

Terra-cotta  architectural  slabs,  47, 

251,  280 

Terra-cotta  reliefs,  Campana,  72  f. 
Terremare,  212 
Tetaz,  J.  M.,  54 

Texier,  C.,  92,  166,  179,  186,  272 
Thaingen,  211 
Thasos,  1 06,  116 
Theagenes,  245 


Theatre,  136,  140,  152,  173,  183. 
185  f.,  194,  203  f.,  238,  245, 
284 

Thebes,  Egypt,  16,  86,  87,  263 
Thera,  197  ff.,  202 
Therasia,  199 
Thermos,  247 

Thersilion,  Megalopolis,  245 
Thiersch,  F.,  25,  295 
Thiersch,  H.,  143 
Tholos,  Epidauros,   1 39  f . 
Thomas,  A.,  180,  182,  184 
Thomas,  F.,  89,  268 
Thomsen,  C.  J.,  209 
Thorn  Extractor,  4,  22 
Thorvaldsen,  A.,  34,  62,  144 
Throne,  Ludovisi,  254 
Thurioi,  201 
Thurmer,  J.  H.,  60 
Tiber,  Vatican,  5,  25 
Timgad,  284 
Timotheos,  100,  139,  313 
Tiryns,  32,  216  ff.,  219  f.,  230,  328 
Titeux,  A.,  55 
Tivoli,  252 
Tlos,  191 

Tocilesco,  G.  G.,  292 
Tolentino,  Peace  of,  22 
Torlonia  collection,  74 
Tombs,  94  f.,  191,  192,  204 

Relief  tombs,  205 

Ilissos,  322 
Torso,   Belvedere,   5. 
Tournaire,  A.,  149,  154 
Townley,  C.,  42 
Tremaux,  P.,  193,  196 
Treu,  G.,  126,  131,  134,  313 
Triada  Hagia,  Crete,  231 
Trier,  287 

Museum,  288 

Triumphal  arches,  284,  286 
Troy,  168,21 5,  218  ff.,  220  ff.,  328  f. 
Tsountas,  C.,  218.  223 
Tunis,  284 
Tunnel,  Samos,   187 
Turin  collection,  23 
Tyche  of  Antioche,  308 
Typhon  pediment,  241 
Tyrannicides,  243,  309 


Ulrichs,  H.  N.,  54,  147,  311 
Universities,  archaeological  chairs, 

299  f. 

Urlichs,  L.,  288 
Uthina,  285 


366 


INDEX 


Vaison,  101,  310 
Valentinelli,  G.,  78 
Valle  collection,  5 
Vaphio  cups,  223 
Vases,  62  ff.,  65,  68  f.,  199,  206  ff., 
231,  234,  235,  274,  280,  290, 

297.  323  f-  325 
Veil,  60,  72 
Veil  Pasha,  36 
Venice,  bronze  horses,  23 

Collection,  7 
Vergers,  N.  des,  68,  69 
Verona  collection,   23 
Vestal,  254 

Vettii,  house  of,  Pompeii,  256 
Veyries,  A.,   178 
Vienna    Archaeological    Institute, 

195.  291 

Village  Sheik,  260 
Villanova,  213 

Villa  rustica,  Boscoreale,  256 
Visconti,    E.    Q.,    12,    23  f.,    25, 

41  f.,  58,  295,  308 
Visconti,  P.  E.,  75 
Vogue,  M.  de,  281 
Vollgraf,  W.,  245 
Volterra,  68 
Vulci,  62  ff.,  69 

Wadi  Haifa,  86 

Wagner,  E.,  141 

Wagner,  M.,  35,  37,  144 

Waldstein,  C.,  142,  257,  305,  321 

Warka,  267 

Wasserbillig,  288 

Weil,  R.f  126 

Welcker,  F.  G.,  45,  77,  113,  115, 

296  f.,  299,  322,  326 
Wellington,  Duke  of,  25 


Wescher,  K.,  147 

Wheler,  G.,  n 

Wickhoff,  F.,  255 

Wiegaud,  T.,  181  f.,  184,  187,  241 

Wiesbaden  Society,  288 

Wieseler,  F.,  77 

Wilberg,  W.,  181,  196,  199 

Wilhelm  I,  126 

Wilhelm  II,  255,  266,  268,  271,  282 

Wilkins,  W.,  32,  33,  45 

Wilpert,  J.,  84 

Wilski,  P.,  199 

Wilson,  E.  L.,  277 

Winckelmann,  J.  J.,  7f.,  12,  24, 

125,  295,  308 
Winckler,  H.,  106 
Winter,  F.,  79,  313,  314,  327 
Wolf,  F.  A.,  27 
Wolf,  Capitol,  4,  250 
Wolters,  P.,  78,  199 
Wood,  J.  T.,  103  f.,  196 
Wood,  R.,  10,  282 
Worsase,  J.  J.  A.,  211 
Worsley,  R.,  28 
Wright,  W.,   106 
Wiirzburg  Museum,  300 

Xanthos,  94  ff.,  191.     See  Harpy 

and  Nereid  monuments. 
Xenophantos,  108 

Zahn,  W.,  21 

Zanth,  L.,  47 

Zeus  cave,  Crete,  229 

Zeus  temple,  Olympia,   128  ff. 

Zeus  statue,  310 

Ziebarth,  E.,  185 

Ziggurat,  267,  269 

Zoega,  G.,  13  f.,  58,  295,  302 


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