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oyGoogIe
I
FftOFEIlTY or
l/mmi/jjof
wanes*
A» T ISICIE NTIA VlftlTAS
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
oyGoogIe
oyGoogIe
oyGoogIe
,-.,.,£
u
OyGOOglC 't
oyGoogIe
CEYLON
AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISLAND
PHYSICAL, HISTORICAL, AND TOPOGRAPHICAL
. NOTICES OP ITS NATUHAL EISTOItf, ANTIQDITIE8 AND PB0DUC1I0NS
SIR JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LLD. &&
n.LrSTBATKD UT MAPS, PLAX8 AKD BBAW1HQS
FIFTH EDITION, THOBOUaBLT REVISED
LONDON
LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS
1800
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
CONTENTS
THE FIRST VOLUME.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER I.
Fable of 111' «
Character of tl
(note) 4
t views regarding It n-
mongut the Hindus, — "theHe-
ridinn of Lanka " .6
Buddhist tradition* of former
submersions . . . («o(e) 7
Errors as to the dimension! of
CeVlon 8
Opinions of Oneateritos, Erato-
sthenes, Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy,
Ags tberoerus . . . 8, 9
The Arabian geographer* . . 9
Sumatra supposed
True Utilnde and longitude
Ueneral Fraser's map of Ceylon
Geological formation .
13
Error of supposing Ceylon to be
a detached fragment ofTndia . 14
III. 7*> Minaitaix SyKem . 14
Remarkable hills, Mihintala and
Sigiri IS
Little evidence of volcanic action 16
Kocks, gneiss .... IB
Rock temples .... 17
Laterite or " Cabook " . . 17
Ancient nameTemba-pannl (not)) 17
Coral formatioa ... IB
Extraordinary wells . .21
Darwin's theory of coral wells
examined . . (am*) 22
'The mil of Ceylo* generally poor 31
« Patenas," ''- ■■-----"■■■
Rice Is
24
IV. JBitoIt— Tin
Gold, nickel, cobalt
Quicksilver
V. ATuuraU.- Anthracite, pic
. 29
. (wte) 29
. SO
nibago,
aaoim, mire caves , . .31
List of Ceylon minerals . (note) 32
TL Gnu, ancient fame of . S3
Rose, coloured qusrti . . (acts) 88
Mode of searching for gems . 84
Rubies 8S
Sapphire, topaz, garnet, and
(anfa) 88
Gem-Undent and lapidaries . 89
TIL Riccra— Their character . . 40
The Mahawalli-ganga . . 41
Table of the livers ... 41
Till. Singular coast firmaiioa, and
its cause. .... 48
The currents and their influence 44
Word - Gobb " est plained 44, (wte) 4B
Vegetation of the sand forma-
Thcir suitability for the coco-
IX Hartxmn. — Galle and Trinco-
Tides .'.'.'.'.'..
lied infusoria . .
Population of Ceylon . . , .
CHAP. II
Uniformity of temperature
Brilliancy of foliage .
Colombo. — January — long short
February — cold nights
oyGoogIe.
CONTENTS OF
July and Aw**, September, October,
November, U.K. monsoon . .
Annual quantity of rain in Ceylon
and Hindustan . . . (note) 66
Opposite climates of the same moun-
Clirnale of Gout '.'.'.'.
Kaady and its climate
Mists and hail • , \
Climate of TrincomaHe (text and note) 70
Jaffna tnd iu climate . . .71
Waterspouts 72
Anthelm 78
Buddha rays 78
Ceykm as a sanitarium. — Neuera-eSia 74
Health 76
Malaria 75
Food and wine . . . 7fi, 77
Effects of the climate of Ceylon on
disease 7S
Precautions for health ... SO
CHAP. IIL
The Fhra of Ceylon Imperfectly
known S3
Vegetation similar to that of India
and the Eastern Archipelago . . 81
Trees of the sea-bortie. — Mangroves.
—Screw-pines, Sonnerntia . . 85
The Northern Plains. — Euphorbia „
Cassia.— Mustard- tree of Scri pture 87
Western coast, — Luxurious vegeta-
tion 87
Eastern coast 88
Pitcher plant.— Orchids ... 88
Vines 89
Botany oftht Mountain.— Iron- wood,
Bamboo, European fruit-trees. 90
Tea-plant — Rhododendron - Miche -
lia 90
Rapid disappearance of dead trees
in the forests .... 91
Trees with natural buttresses . 91
Fhatrina Trot.— Coral tree . . 91
The Muratu — Imbnl — Cotton tree
— Champac 93
The Upas Tree— Poisons of Ceylon 95
The Banyan 95
The Sacred Bo-tree ... 97
The I n d ia- K libber tree— The Snake-
tree 98
Kumbuk-tree: lime in its bark 99
Oirioui Seed*.— The Dorian, SUreuha
fcetida . . . .99,100
The Sea Pomegranate ... 100
Strychnoa, curious belief as to its
poison . . . 101
Euphorbia: — The Coa-trtc, error re-
garding , . (note) 101
Climbing plants, epiphytes, and flow-
ering creepers .... 102
OnJiide. — Brilliant terrestrial orchid,
. the Wanna-rajs.— Square- stemmed
Vine 103
Gigantic climbing Plant, . . .104
Enormous bean * . .105
Bonduc seeds. — Eatans — Ratan
bridges 10B
Thorny Trta. — Raised as a natural
fortification by the Kandyans . 107
The buffalo thorn, Acacia tome*.
torn 108
Pahm . , , ... .109
Coco-nut— Tali pat . . . .110
Palmyra ..... Ill
JaggeryPalm — ArecaPalm . 112
Betel-chewing, its theory snd uses . 112
Pingos 11*
Timber Trot 116
Jahwood— Del— Teak . . ,116
Suria 117
Cabinet Woodt.— Sal in -wood— Ebony
— Cidooberio, . . .117
Calamander, its rarity snd beauty US
Tamarind 119
Fruit-trca 119
Remarkable power of trees to gene-
rate cold snd keep their fruit chill 121
Aquatic Plunti — LiAui, red and blue 123
Daaumtkui natam, an aquatic se
. 123
P. Priamua, Jaffna and Trtncomalle
Error regarding the Silenui Ve-
to- (nufe) 129
Preaujtfls Cophslopterus . ■""
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE.mST VOLUME.
Singhalese belief in llo efficacy
erf chum* ... (wO) 199
laurili .189
Curious belief ... > . 140
Anecdotes of leopard* . . .14!
Palm-cat 144
Civet 144
Dogs 144
Jackal 145
Tlie horn of the jackal . . . 14S
Mnngooa 146
1U fight* with serpent* . . 146
Theory of its antidote . . .147
Squirrel* 148
living squirrel . . . .148
Tree fat U9
Story of a rat end* snake . 149
Coffee rat 149
Bandicoot 150
Porcupine 150
Pengolin 161
Jbawumria.— The Gaor . . .161
Oxen . *. . . .162
Humped cattle .... 153
Encounter of a row and a leopard 163
Buffalo™ 154
Sporting buffaloes . . .166
Peculiar structure of the hoof . 155
Deer 156
lleminna 167
FJephante 158
Whales 158
General view of the mammalia of
Ceylon 159
T.ist of Cuvlon mammalia . . .159
Curious parasite of the bat (*<*<) 181
CHAP. IL
Their numbers ....
Songsters
Hornbills, the "bird with two heads'
Pea fowl
Sea birds, their number .
I. Acchiitrn.— Eaglet
Falcons and hawk* .
Owlsr-Uwdevilbird . .
IL Pus*™.— Swallows .
Kingfishers — sunbirds
Hul-bul — tailor bird — and weaver
Crows, anecdotes of .
III. Sraso™— Parroquets
IV. Otumbida.— Pigeons
V. GaUina. — Jungle-fowl
VI Grottt.— Ibis, stork, ic
VII. Altera.— Flamingoes
Pelicans .
Game.— Partridges, Ac.
List of Ceylon bird* .
List of birds peculiar to Ceylon
CHAP. IIL
Lizardt. — Iguana
KebragoyH.bsrbi
paring the oobra-tol poison(aoCs) 183
The green caloU* . . iS
Chameleon 184
Ceratophora 185
Geckoes, -their power of reproduc-
ing limbs . . . 186, 186
Crocodiles
Their power of burying themselves
in the mad
Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode
• ofslrippingitofthetortoiss-shell 190
StrpexU. — Venomons species rare . 1B1
Cobra de capello . . . .19!
Instance of land snakes found at aaa 198
Tame snakes . (*oU) 193
Singular tradition regarding the
cobra de capello , . . . 194
Cropel tills. — New species discover-
ed in Ceylon . . . .195
Buddhist veneration for the co-
bra de capello
Anecdotes of snakes
The Python
Water makes
Snake stones
Analysis of on
Cecilia .
Large frogs
list of Ceylon reptiles
Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known .
Pish for table, seir fl«b
Sardines, poisonous? .
Sharks
Saw-flsh
Pish of brilliant colours .
Curious fish described byffilian (aote)
Fresh-water fish, little known, — not
and lakes
Their re -appearance after n
Mode of fishing in the pond
not tenable
Fish moving on dry laud .
Instances in Guiana («<*)
Perm Seaitdm, ascends trees
Doubts as to lb* story of Daldorf .
Fishes burying themselves during the
The pntopltnu of the Gambia
*-— — ts In the fish of the Kile
• in the fish of South Ai
"log -,.
in the dry tanks in Ceylon
Other animals that so bury them-
selves, Mtlaxia, Ampxlleria, Sic
CONTENTS" OF
The animals that ao bury theui-
selves in India . . (note) 321
Analogous case of . . (note) 221
Theory of antivation and hyberna-
tion 221
Fish in hot-water In Ceylon . . 224
List of Ceylon fishes .... 224
Instances of fishes failing from the
clouds 226
Overland migration of fishes known
to the Greeks and Romans . . 227
Note on Ceylon ashes by Professor
Huxley 229
Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. •
Ma*. . . . . . .231
CHAP. V.
1IOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPILfc.
I. CmcJiology — General character of
Ceylon shells . ... 283
Confusion regarding I
scientific works and co
. (Uwd- Star fish
Sea slags .
Parasitic worms .
d collections £34
Corals little known
Profusion of insects in Ceylon
Imperfect knowledge. of .
I. Cbavpava.— Beetles
Scavenger be; (lea
Coco -nut beetles.
Tortoise beetles .
II. Orthoptera. Mantis and leif-i
Stick-insecti
III. Nturopttra. — Dragon
Ant-lion .
White ants.
Anecdotes of their instinct ard
ravages . . (text and nofe) 254
—Mason Waapa '■'*
liun owing ants .
!. Laridepltra. — Butterflies
Sylph.
LycaHiidm .
Moths.
Silkw
((eat
Wood-carTying Moths
PterophoniB
Til. Homapttra
Till. Ifauiptera
IX. ApkanipUra ,
X Dipf.ro.— Mosquitoes
General character of Ceylon
list of insects in Ceylc
CHAP. TIL
ARACHNIDS, KYHlOitJDA, CRUSTACEA,
Spiders 294
Strange nesti of the wood spiders . 295
OUoi TaprohaiSut . . .295
MfgaUfiudala ... .295
Ticks 296
Mites.— Tronbidivni tiitc/onm , 297
Myriapndt. — Centipedes . . . 297
Cermstia 298
Scolopendra craasa . . . 298
8. poflipes 299
Millijr.dt.— I ulna . .', . .299
Cnutacea 800
Calling crabs 800
Land crabs 601
Painted crabs . . . .801
Paddling crabs . . . .801
Annelida, Leeches.— The land leech . 302
Medical leech . . . .305
Cattle leech 80«
List of Artiralata, ice . . .307
PAET III.
THE SINGHALESE CHBONICLES.
Ceylon formerly thought t<
authentic history .
Researches of Tumour
Recovery of the "tiia" on the Ha-
. 815
Outline of the Mahawaneo .
Tumour's tpitomt of Singhalese his-
tory 816
Historical proofs of the Mahawaneo . 817
Identity of Sandracoltos and Cban-
dragppta 818
Ancient map of Ceylon . (note) 318
List of Ceylon sovereigns . . .820
THE FIRST VOLUME.
p.g.
Singhalese historici all illustrative of
Buddhism 329
A Buddha 826
Gotama Buddha, bis history . . 326
Anuucing prevalence of hit religion
(note) 8S6
IIi» lam Tialti to Ceylon . . .327
Inhabitant! of the island at that
time npposod to be of Malayan
type 827
Legend of their Chinese origin . . 828
Probably identical with the abori-
gines of the Dekksn . .838
Common bssiB of their language . 828
Characteristics of vernacular Slngtia-
leaa 829
State of the aborigines before Wi-
jnyo's invasion .... 880
Story of Wijayo .... 830
The natives of Ceylon described as
Takka and Jvnjus . . .881
Traces of eerpent-worehip in Cejion 891
Coincidence of the Mahawanso with
the Odyraey . . (lute) 882
CO.IQUEST OF WI-J AJO, D.C. 518. — E8TA-
BIJ9HMKBX OF BUDDHISM. B.C. 807.
Eaily commerce of Ceylon described
bv ihe Chineae . 88S
Wijayo as a colonizer . .836
Hit treatment of the native popula-
b.c 505. His death and
A number of petty kingdoms fo
Ceylon divided into throa dist
Pihiti. Rob una, and Maya
The village system establiahed
Agriculture introduced
Irrigation imported from India
lhe first tank constructed, n..
(note) 838
Rapid pragreai of the Island . 83B
Toleration of Wiisyo and his followers 339
^Establishment of Buddhism, 307 n.c. 840
1' reaching of Mabindo . .810
Flanting of the aacred Bo-tree . .841
. 838
Ceylon
The first dagobat boilt
Their mode of construction and v;
The earliest Buddhist Itmpla . . 846
/nones and stains* a later innovation 847
Flint residences of the priesthood . 847
The formation of m
The first wihara built . .3
Form of the modern wiharas . . 8-
Inconrenlent numbers of the Bud-
dhirt priesthood . . .8.
Originally fed by the kings and the
people ■ . 8
Casta annulled in the ease of priests . &
The priestly robe and its peculiarities Si
Progress of civilisation
Thenewaattlersagricultn
MaJabara enlisted aa a
i.c. 237. The revolt of Sena ■
i.e. -205. Usurpation 'of Elala '.
The victory of Dutugaimunu .
Progress of the sooth of the island
Building of the great Ruamrelle"
Dagoba
Building of tha Brazen Palace .
Its vicissitudes and ruins .
Death and character of Dutugaimi
The Mahawanse or Great Dynasty . St
The Suluwanse or Inferior Dynasty . 3t
Services rendered by the Groat Dy-
Frequent usurpations and the cause . 3*
Disputed succesaiooi . . . .81
Rising influence of the priesthood . 31
B.C- 104. Their first endowment with
land SI
Rapid increase of the temple estates . St
Their possessions and their vow of
poverty reconciled . . . , St
Acquire the compulsory labour of
temple-tenants . . .81
Impulse thus given to cultivation . SI
tanks 8<
Tanks conferred on the temples . Bi
The great tank of Hinery formed,
A.n.273 Si
Subserviency of the kings to the
priesthood *
Large possessions of the temples at
the present day . . . .3
Cultivation of flowers for the temples 3
Their singular profusion . . .3
Fruit trees planted by the Buddhist
sovereigns 3
Edicts of Asoea 3
DomzcdoyGoOglc
CONTENTS OF
Page
Aborigines forced to labour for the
new settlers 869
Immensity of the (tincture! erected
by them 870
Slow amalgamation of the natives
with the strangers . . . .870
The worship of snakes and demons
continued 870
Treatment of the aborigines by the
kings 871
Their formal disqualification for high
office 871
Their rebellions 871
They retire into the mountains and
forests 872
Their singular habits of seclusion . 872
Traces of their customs at the present
day 878
B.C. 104. Walagam-bohu L
His wars with the Malahars
The Sooth of Ceylon free from Malabar
The Buddhist doctrines first collected
into books ....
The formation of rock-temples .
Apostasy of Chora Nags .
Ceylon governed by queens
Schisms in religion .
Buddhism tolerant of heresy but i
tolerant of schism .
1 llostra lion 8 of Buddhist toleration
Tolerance enjoined by Aaoca .
Buddhism by the impn-
tntation and repentance
Slate of Ceylon at that period
Prosperity of the North .
Description of Anarajipoora i
fourth centnry
Its municipal organisation
Itspalaeesand temples
Popular error as to the area of the city
(■0*0
Multitudes of the priesthood described
byFaHlen
CHAP. IX
Sovereigns of the Lower Dynasty, a
feeble race 385
Kings who were sculptors, physicians,
and poets 886
Earliest notice of Foreign Embassies
to Rome and to China . . .387
Notices of Ceylon by Chinese Histo-
rians . . . . . .887
Fa Ilian visits Ceylon a.d. 418 . 887
Anecdote related by Fa ilian (ml*) 888
History of " the Sacred Tooth " . 888
Hunter of the king Dhatu Sena, a.d.
of the Malabar invaders of
Origin of
The ancient Indian kingdc
Malabar mercenaries enlisted in Cey-
b.c. 237. Revolt of Sena and Gutika
b.c. 206. Usurpation of Elala .
n.o. 108. Second Malabar invasion
A.D. 110. Third Malabar Invasion
Jewish evidence of Malabar con
quest .... (»ota)
a.d 433. Fourth Malabar invasion .
The influence of the Malabar* firmly
established
Distress of the Singhalese in the 7th
century, as described by Hiouen
A.n. 642. Anarajapoora deserted, and
Pollanarraa built t
The Malabars did nothing to improve
a.d. 840. A fresh Malabar invasion
The Singhalese seek to conciliate
them by alliances ,
a.d. 930. Another Malabar invasion
Extreme misery of the island .
a.d. 1023. The Malabars seize Polla-
namia and occupy the entire north
of the island 40S
A.D. 1071. Recovery of the island
from the Malabars . .41
Wijayo Baho I. expels the Malabars V
Birth of the Prince Prakrama . . 4l
His character and renown . . .41
Immense public works constructed
by him 41
Restores the order of the Buddhist
priesthood 4t
Intercourse between Siam and Ceylon V
Temples and sacred edifices built by
Prakrama 4<
The Ual-Wihara at Pollanarma . 41
Ruins of Pollanarrua . . . . «
Extraordinary extent of hie works
for irrigation 41
Foreign wars of Prakrama . . 4i
His conquests in India . . .4
The death of Prakrama Oahu . .4:
Google
THE FIRST VOLUME.
1.1605.
Fnknmi Bahu, the lut powerful
king . - . .4
Anarchy follow* on tali decease.- . i
A.D. 1197. The Queen Leele-Wattea 4
a.d. 1211. Return of the Malabar
invader* 4
The Malabars establish themselves at
Earl j history of Jaffna . . .4
A.o. 1235. The new capital at Dam-
bedenia 4
Extending ruin of Ceylon . . 4
Ksndy founded aa a new capital . 4
Successive removals of the seat of
Government to Yapahoo, Korne-
galle, Gempola, Kandy, and Cotta 4
Ascendancy of the Malabars . .4
A.D. 1410. The King of Ceylon car-
«
» Chim
PART rv.
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
P^mlalioTi encouraged by the fertility
ofCeylon 421
Evidence of its former extent in the
ruins of the tanks and canals . . 422
Means by which the population was
preserved 429
Causes of its dispersion — the rain of
the tanks 424
Domestic life similar to that of toe
Hindus 425
Respect shown to female* . .425
Caste perpetuated in defiance of reli-
gious prohibition .... 425
Particulars in which caste in Ceylon
differs from caste in India . 425
Slavery, borrowed from Hindustan . 425
Compulsory labour or" Kaja-kariya" 426
Mode of enforcing it . . . . 427
AGBICUI.TUBB, UUUOATIOS, CATTLE, AND
Ah ri culture unknown before the ar-
rival of Wijayo . . .429
Rice waa imported into Ceylon in the
second century B.C. . . .420
The practice ' of irrigation due lo the
Hindu kings 480
Who taught the science of irriga-
tion to the Singhalese . (note) 480
The first tank constructed n.c. 604 . 481
Gardens and fruit-trees first planted 432
Value of artificial Irrigation in the
north ofCeylon .... 13!
In the south of the Island the rains
sustain cultivation . 482
cupstion of king
pal village -system ol
lisiao " of rice lam
Temple villages and their (e
Doub
whether it be indigenous t
The Mango and other fruits . . 4!
Rice and curry mentioned in the
second century n.c . . .41
Animal food used by the early Sin-
ghalese 4!
Betel, antiquity of the custom or
chewing it
i toxica ting
early perfo
CHAP. Ill,
r CONKKRCE, SHirPIKO, A
Trade entirely in the hands of slran-
Sative shipping unconnected with
indifference to trade prevails at
all copied from fo-
ny Google
CONTENTS OF
Vessels with two prows mentioned by
Strabo 444
Foreign trade spoken of B.C. 204 . 414
Internal traffic in the indent city of
Ceylon 445
Merchants traversing the island . 445
Early exports from Ceylon, — gems,
pearls, 6tc 445
The imports, chiefly manufactures . 416
Horses and carriage* imported from
India 447
Cloth, Bilk. 4c, brought from Peraia 4*7
Kashmir, intercourse with . . .447
Edriai's account of Ceylon trade in
the twelfth century . . .448
CHAP. IV.
Silk not produced in Ceylon . . 4,
Coir and cordage . . . .4.
Dress; unshaned robes . ■ ,4
Manual and Mechanical Artt— Weav-
ing 4,
Priest's robes span, woven, and dyed
Peculiar mode of catting out a priest's
robe *
Bleaching and dyeing . . .4!
Earliest artisans, immigrants . . 4i
Handicrafts looked down on . .4;
Pottery 4i
Glass 41
Glass minors 41
Leather 41
Wood earring 41
Chemical Arte — Sugar . . . W
Mineral paints , . • - - 4£
CHAP. V.
Early knowledge of the nee of iron . 4S
Steel it
Copper and its use* . . . .41
Bells, bronze, lead . . . .45
Gold and silver 45
Plate and silver ware . . .45
Bed coral found at Galle . (noli) 45
Jewelry and mounted genu ■ . 45
Gilding.— Coin 46
Coins mentioned In the Hahawanso n. 4G
Meaning of the term "masse." (note) 46
Coins of Loklawaim ■ . ■ .4(1
General device of Singhalese coins . 46
Indian coinage of Prikrama Balm . 46
Fish-hook money .... 46
CHAP. VL
Engineering taught by the Brah-
Rude methods of labour .
Military engineering unknown .
Early attempts at fortification . . ■
Fortified rook of Sigiri .
Foresis, thoir real security . . 466
Thorns planted as defence* . . 466
Bridget and femes .... 466
Method of tying cut stone in forming
tanks 467
Tank sluices ... . .467
Tho art of engii „ ___.
Tbe" Giants' Tunk" a failure . .466
An aqueduct formed, a. d, 66
CHAP. TIL
afuric, its early cultivation . . 470
Harsh character of Singhalese
Tom-toms, their variety and anti-
quity 171
Singhalese gamut .... 4/2
Painting. — Imagination discouraged . 472
Similari ty of Singh alese to Egvptian
art 17*
Rigid rules for religious design . 473
Similar trammels on art In Modem
Greece . . (note) 473
Andin Italy in the 15th century (».)474
Celebrated Singhalese painters . 475
Sculptura.— Statues of Buddha . .475
Built statues 477
Painted statues . . . .177
Statues formed of gems . , .477
Ivory and sandal-wood carved . 477
Architecture, its ruins exclusively re-
ligious 478
Domestic architecture mean at all
times 478
Stone quarried by wedges . . 478
Immense slabs thus prepared . 478
Columns at Anarajapoora . . 479
Materials for building . . .479
Mode of constructing a dagoba . 480
Enormous dimensions of these
. . . . 480
riharas . . 481
. 482
Carvings in stone .... 481
Ubiquity of the honours shown to
goose 484
Delicate outline of Singhalese carv-
ings . . . . .188
Temples and their decorations . 488
Cave temples of Ceylon . . . 189
The Alu-wihara . . . .489
Moulding in plaster . , .489
Claim of the Singhalese to the in-
vention of oil painting . . 490
Lacquer ware of the present day , 490
Honey -suckle ornament . . . 491
CHAP. Till.
Ancient cities and their organieatU
Public buildings, hospitals, shops
Anarajapoora, a* it appeared in 7
century
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE KIRST VOLUME.
The description of it by Fa Hinn
Carriages and Home
Horace imported from Persia .
Fnnutnrg of the houses
Form of Government. — Bevenue
Th« Army and N«yt
■lode of recruiting .
Singular mode of drawing the bow
with the foot . facto) 499
Civil Justice 600
Education and schools
Logic ....
Astronomy and astrology .
Medicine and surgery ■
King Buddha-daaa a physician
Botany
Historiographers employed by the
Ola books, how prepared
A Mile, and the mode of writing
with it i
Books on plates of metal (aafe)i
Differences between Elu and Sing-
Pah' books all written In vi
The Jatatat— resemble the Talmud
Pali literature generally
The MHhida-vratxa
Pali historical books and their cha-
Prineipally on science a
Chiefly ballads and metrical essays 5
Exempt from licentiousness . . 5
Sacred poems in honour of Hindu
General literature of the people
CHAP. XI.
... . exists in Ceylon . 528
Which was the morn ancient, Brah-
msnism or Buddhism . . . 628
Various authorities . . (note) 628
Buddhism, its extreme antiquity . 524
Its prodigious influence , . . 524
Sought to be identified with the
Druids .... (aofe)524
Buddhism an agent of civilisation . 625
Its features in Ceylon . . . 628
The various forms elsewhere . . 627
Points that distinguish it from Bret -
maoism 628
Buddhist theory of human perfection 628
Its treatment of aati . . .6811
Its respect for other religions . . 680
Anecdote, Illustrative of . (_<to!t) 630
Its cosmogony 631
Its doctrine of "nmw/j" . . .682
Transmigration 688
Illustration from Lucan . (not;) 683
The priesthood and its attributes . 534
Buddhist morals .... £84
Prohibition to take life . . . 534
Form of worship .... 686
Bmhmanical corruptions . . .688
Failure of Buddhism as a sustaining
faith 587
Its moral influence over the people . 588
Dtmtm-KnrMhq, 689
Trees dedicated to demons (note) 540
Devil priests and their orgies . .' 641
Ascendency of these superstitious . 642
Buddhism as an obstacle to Chris-
tianity 543
Difficulties presented by the morals
of Buddhism 544
Prohibition against taking away
life (wXe) 644
MEDLBVAL HISTORY.
Various ancient names or Ceylon
fjtsn)5<
Early doubts whether it was an island
or a continent . . .61
Mentioned by Aristotle . . .61
oyGoogIc
CONTENTS «0F
Page
Alleged mention of Ceylon in the Sa- .
ouiiUn Fenta tench . (nn(() 651
Onesicritus'a account . . .562
Mcgssthenes' description . . . 552
Allan's account borrowed from Me-
gaalhenM . . (note J 652
Cevlon known to the Phoenicians mid
:. ... .,_.._.:__.. f>te)668
to tie Egyptis
Hippalua disco va
Effect of toll d
Pliny's accou
Story of Jan
L of Ceylon
rnlus by Diodoras Si-
(■ote) £56
Una . 656
Narrative of Rschias, and its expta-
natloD .... (noti)5B7
Lake Meglsbe, a tank . . .657
Early intercourse with China . . 653
The Veddaha deacribed by Pliny . 568
Interval between Pliny and Ptolemy 658
Ftolemy's account of Ceylon . .569
Explanation of fall errors . (note) 569
Ptolemy discriminates bays from es-
tuaries ' . (»■*) 659
Identification of Ptolemy's names . 660
His map 500
Ilia sources of information .561
Agathemerue, Marr.ianus of Heracles 562
Cosmos Indicopleustes . . . 662
Palladius— St. Ambrosius . (note) 663
State of Cevlon when Coamaa wrote 688
Its commerce at that period . . 563
In the hands of Arabs and Persians . 661
Ceylon as deacribed by Cosmaa . 5G6
Story of his informant Sopater . . 666
Translation of Cosmos . . .667
The gems and other productions of
Cevlon — "agaou" .■ f,"1*} 567
Mesriing of the term "Hyacinth"
(note) 568
The great ruby of Ceylon, Its history
traced .... f^ott) £68
Cosmaa corroborated by the Penplus 670
Horses imported from Persia . 570
Export or elephants .... 570
Note on Ssnchoniathon . . . 671
CHAP. IL
Absurd errors of the Hindus re-
garding Ceylon . . .5:
Their dread of Ceylon as the abode of
Biaeofthe ,
Persians and Arabs trade to India
Story in Beladory of the first Invasion
of India by the Mahometans (text
Character of the Arabian geographers
Their superiority over the Greeks
Greek Paradoxical literature
*.». 861. The two Hanom
Their account of Ceylon
Adam's Peak -.
Obsequies of a king
Councils on religion and history . 5eH
Toleration 685
Cannalhic monument at Colombo
(note) 68S
GaUe, the seat of ancient trade . . £86
Claim of Hautotte disproved . .687
Greek fire ... (aotr) 588
" Kalah " is Gall 589
The Maharaja of Zabedj held posses-
sion of GaUe 689
Evidence of this in the Qarsharsp-
Deriration of " GaUe " (fail and nob) 591
Aversion of the Singhalese to com-
merce 592
Identification of the modern Veddahs
with the ancient Singhalese . .593
Their singular habits, as described by
Robert Knox, Ribeyro, and Va-
lentyn 593
ByAlbyrouni 698
By Palladius 693
By Fa Hian 594
By the Chinese writers (note) 694
By Pliny . . . . ."594
For this reason the coast only known
to strangers ; £95
Arabian outaora who describe Oey Ion £95
Albatcny and Massoudi . ... 696
Tabari .... (wie) 595
Sindbad the Sailor. . . .596
Edrisi 697
Kazwini . . ■ . . . . 698
Cinnamon, no mention of . . . 699
Was cinnamon a native of Ceylon? .' 599
No mention by Singhalese authors . GOO
No mention of by Latin writers . . COO
The Segio Cuouautraiftra was In Af-
rica . . , (nofe) 600
No mention by Arabs or Persians 690
First noticed in Ceylon by Ibn Ba-
tata. COl
ByNieoladiConti (note) 601
Ibn Batata describes Ceylon . .604
His Travels 605
CHAP. IIL
Chinese translations of M
List of Chinese authors relating to
Ceylon .... (Sole) 61
Their errors as to its form and lite . 6<
Their account of Adam'a Peak and its
Chinese names for Ceylon .
Curious habit of its traders
They describe the two races, Tamil
and Singhalese
Origin of the cotton " Comboy "
Costume of Ceylon ,
Early commerce. . . .
Works for irrigation noticed
Island of Junk-Ceylon
GaUe resorted to toy Chinese ships
oyGoogIe
THE FIRST VOLUME.
Vegetable prodactioBB
Kleuhants, ivory, and jewels
1 of Singhalese goldsmiths and
:0 China
Chinese account of Buddhism inCvy-
IS
Monasteries for priests flrat frtonded
in Ceylon ' .
Cities of Ceylon In the sixth century
Patriotism of Singhalese kings .
Domestic manners of the Singhalese
Embassies from China to Ceylon
Chinese travels prior to the aixtl
First emba
4J>. 405 GZU
Sen-stive' of the image which it born
Cfcykra tributary to China In sixth
wen-Thsang dsi
■ Ceylon in
theseventh century . (*■>*•) 621
Events in the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries . . . 621
King of Ceylon carried captive to
China, A.D. 1405 . . . . 623
Last embassy to China, A.D. 1459 . 6!5
Traces of the Chinese In Ceylon . 626
.Evidences of their presence found by
'tfee Portuguese . . . 626
Modern Chinese account of Ceylon
(nolt) G2S
The Moors of Ceylon ...
Their origin ....
The early Mahometans In India
Arabians anciently settled in Ceylon
Real descent of the modem " 111
Their occupation as traders, ancestral
Their hostilities with the Portuguese
They might have been rulers of Cey-
The
East ....
Rise of the Mongol empire
Marco Polo, a.i>. 1271
Tints Ceylon .
Friar Odoric, A.D. 1818 .
Jordan da Beverac, A.D. 1S2S
Giov. de Marignola, a
""-eta di ConB ■ - ■
he flrat tn
Cinnamon
Jerome de Santo Stefano . (nott
Ludov. Barthema, A.D. 1606
Odoardo Barboaa, a.d, 1509 .
Andrea Corsall, a.d. 1516 ■ (noli
Cesar Frederic, a j>. 1563 ,
Course of trade changed by the Cape
Irritation of the Venetians
oyGoogIe
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE FIRST VOLUME.
MAPS.
"Gobbs" on the East Coast ....
"GobbB"on the West Coast ....
Ceylon, according to the Sanskrit and Fell
authors.
Map of Ancient India
Position of Colombo, according to Ptolemy . Sir J. Emkesob Tkhses-i
Ceylon, according to Ptolemy and Pliny , . Sin J. Emkrsob Tbmbbbt
tofac.
PLANS AND CHARTS.
Geological System By.
Currents in the K. E Monsoon
Currents in the N. W. Monsoon
Diagram of Rain in India and in Ceylon . . Dr. Tehfletom
Diagram of the Anthalia Dr. Tkmi-leton
Plan of a Fish-corral
Summit of a Dagoba, with Lightning apparatus ....
WOOD ENGRAVINGS.
Marriage of the Fig-tree and the Palm
Fig-tree on tbe Euins of Pollanairoa
By Mr. A. Niohou. .
Mb, A. Nicuoll
Mb. A. NienoLL
M. II. Stlvat .
M. H. Stlvat
By Da. Temtletoii
The Urryxltii grattdit
A ChimnecU*
Method of Fishing in Pools .
The Awibat of tbe dry Tanks .
Eyes and Teeth of the Land Leech
Db. Temflstoh
Upper and under Surfaces of the Hiruda whom
Tbe Bo-tree at Auarajapoora •
A Dagoba at Kandy .
Ruins of the Brazen Palace
The fortified Bock of Slgiri
Mr. A. Niohou. .
From a Photograph
By Mb. A. Nicholl .
Ma. A. Nicholl
Mb. A. Nicholl
Ancient and Modem Tom-tom Beaters
From the Joihville MSB. .
Sacred Goose from the Burmese Standan
From Fbroussoh'b Handbook -tf
Architecture
Yeddah drawing the Bow with bis Foot
Method of Writing with a Stile
Tbe " Comboy," as worn by both Sexes
By Mb, B. MacDowall
Mr. R. MacDowall
Mr. A. Fairfiblp .
rOOQK
NOTICE
THE FIFTH EDITION.
The improvements in the present impression consist in the intro-
duction of new matter in numerous places, the careful revision
and correction of the old, the re-engraving of some of the illus-
trations, and the insertion of several hundreds of additional
references in the Index.
Since the first volume of the present Edition was printed, my
attention has been called by Lieut. -Colonel H. Aime" Ouvry, who
is about to proceed to Ceylon as Assistant Quartermaster-General,
to a remarkable peculiarity in the Singhalese coins, one of
which is engraved at p. 461, Vol. X. This is accompanied by an
explanation by Mr. Vaux of the British Museum to the effect
that the obverse represents "a rude standing figure of the Haja
holding tbe triavla, in the left hand, and a flower in the right,"
and on the reverse " the same figure seated, the name in Nagari
characters being placed beside the face." But Colonel Ouvry is
of opinion that by. inverting the coin some of the lines, which
otherwise (perhaps intentionally) represent the rude outline
of a human figure, resolve themselves into Arabic characters;
which he considers give the date and place where the piece
was struck, whilst the Deva-Nagari letters supply the name
of the king.
In Colonel Ouvry's opinion the legend on the reverse exhibits
the Arabic sentence iJ L ^j aunna sikha Limkeh, " struck
at Lanka in the year;" while on the obverse, the word Ml
" Lunkeh," is repeated, followed by what appears to be an Arabic
numeral.
vol,. I. "a
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
xviii NOTICE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
Thus on each face of these coins there would seem to be two
inscriptions, one in Nagari and a second in. Arabic ; but each so
placed as to become reversed, when the one above it is held
upright This fact, if established, acquires much significance in
connexion with the great resort of Arabian merchants" at that
time to Ceylon, and it serves to explain the circumstance of one
of these coins being engraved in Davy's Account of the Interior
of Ceylon, on which the Nagari characters are turned upside
down, but when reversed they form the name of Sri Praxraha
Bahh.
J. EMERSON TENftENT.
London,
March 1st, I860.
NOTICE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
The gratifying reception with which the following pages have
been honoured by the public and the press, has in no degree *
lessened my consciousness, that in a work so extended in its
scope, and comprehending such a multiplicity of facts, errors
axe nearly unavoidable both as to conclusions and detail. These,
so far as I became aware of them, I have endeavoured to correct
in the present, as well as in previous impressions.
But my principal reliance for the suggestion and supply both
of amendments and omissions has been on the press and the
public of Ceylon ; whose familiarity with the topics discussed
naturally renders them the most competent judges as to the
mode in which I have treated them. My hope when the
book was published in October last was, that before going again
to press I should be in possession of such friendly communi-
cations and criticisms from the island, as would have enabled me
to render the second edition much more valuable than the pre-
vious one. In this expectation I have been agreeably disappointed,
the sale having been so rapid, as to require a fourth impression
before it was possible to obtain from Ceylon judicious criticisms
on the first. These in due time will doubtless arrive ; and mean-
while, I have endeavoured, by careful revision, to render the
whole as far as possible correct.
J. EMERSON TENNENT.
oyGoogIe
NOTICE
THE THIRD EDITION.
The call for a third edition on the same day that the second waa
announced for publication, and within less than two months
from the appearance of the first, has furnished & gratifying
assurance of the interest which the public are disposed to take
in the subject of the present work.
Thus encouraged, I have felt it my duty to make several
alterations in the present impression, amongst the most im-
portant of which is the insertion of a Chapter on the doctrines
of Buddhism as it developee itself in Ceylon.1 In the historical
sections I had already given an account of its introduction by
Mahindo, and of the establishments founded by successive
sovereigns for its preservation and diffusion. To render the
narrative complete, it was felt desirable to insert an abstract of
the peculiar tenets of the Buddhists ; and this want it has been
my object to supply. The sketch, it will he borne in mind, is
confined to the principal-features of what has been denominated
Southern Buddhism " amongst the Singhalese ; as distin-
guished from "Northern Buddhism" in Nepal, Thibet, and
China.' The latter has been largely illustrated by the labours
1 See Part IV., c. xi
' Mji HDlleb, Bistort/ of Sanskrit Literature, p. 2
ayGoogIc
XX
NOTICE TO THE THIED EDITION.
of Mr. E. II. Hodgson and the toilsome researches of the Transyl-
vanian traveller ALCsoktA of Korrosj and the minutest detailsof the
doctrines and ceremonies of the former have been unfolded in the
elaborate and comprehensive collections of Mr. Spehce Hardy.1
From materials discovered by these and other earnest inquirers,
Buddhism in its general aspect has been ably delineated in the
dissertations of Buknouf3 and Saint Hilaire*, and in the com-
mentaries of Revcsat4, Stanislas Julien*, Foucaux9, Lassen',
and Weber.8 The portion thus added to the present edition
has been to a great extent taken from a former work of mine on
the local superstitions of Ceylon, and the " Introduction and
Progress of Christianity" there; and as the section relating
to Buddhism bad the advantage, previous to publication, of
being submitted to the Bev. Mr. Goqerlt, the most accom-
plished Pali scholar in the island, as well as the most eru-
dite student of Buddhistical literature, I submit it with confi-
dence as an accurate summary of the distinctive views of the
Singhalese on the leading doctrines of their national faith.
A writer in the Saturday Review3, in alluding to the passage
in which I have sought to establish the identity of the ancient
Tarshiah with the modern Point de Galle10, admits the force of
the coincidence adduced, that the Hebrew terms for "ivory,
apes, and peacocks"11 (the articles imported in the ships
of Solomon) are identical with the Tamil names, by which
1 Eastern MonachUm, an account
of the origin, laws, discipline, sacred
writings, mysterious rites, religious
ceremonies, and present circum-
stances of the Order of Mendicants,
founded by Gotoma Budha. 8vo.
Loud. I860 ; and A Manual ofBtid-
hkm in its Modern Deodopmi-ni. 8vo.
Loud. 1863.
* Buknocf, Introduction it FSis-
toireduBouddJiitmtlniiien. 4to. Paris.
1845 ; and translation of the Lotus
de la bonne Loi.
1 J,P»BTinp.ieifT3*TWT-PrTi'""')
LtBouddhaetm Religion, 8m Paris.
1860.
* Introduction and Notes to the
Foe Kovi Ki of Fa Hiait.
* Life and travels of Htouen
' Author of the Indische AUer-
thumskttnde : &c.
" Author of the Inauche Studsew 4c.
* Novemb. 19, 1859, p. 012.
» See VoL XL Pt TO., c. L p. 102.
» 1 Kings, x. 22.
oyGoogIe
NOTICE TO THE THIRD EDITION. XXI
these objects are known in Ceylon to the present day ; and, to
strengthen my argument on this point, he adds that, "these
terms were so entirely foreign and alien from the common
Hebrew language as to have driven the Ftolemaist authors of
the Septuagiut version into a blunder, by which the ivory, apes,
and peacocks come out as 'hewn and carven stones.' '" The
circumstance adverted to had not escaped my notice ; but
I forebore to avail myself of it; for, although the fact is
accurately stated by the reviewer, so far as regards the Vatican
MS., in which the translators have slurred over the passage
and converted " O'aiJ^ D'$£ and B'*?^ " into " ~k(8wv ro-
ptvTwv ical triXgKffrap " (literally, " stones hammered and carved
iu relief"); still, in the other great MS. of the Septuagint,
the Codex Atexandrinus, which is of equal antiquity, the pas-
sage is correctly rendered by OAONTU) €A€*ANTIN(ON .
KAI nieHKtON KAI TAIONUN. The editor of the
Aldine edition1 compromised the matter by inserting "the
ivory and apes," and excluding the " peacocks," in order to
introduce the Vatican reading of "stones."1 I have not com-
pared the Comp] uteiisian and other later versions.
The Kev. Dr. Coreton, of the British Museum, who, at my
request, collated the passage in the Chaldee and Syriac versions,
assures me that in both, the terms in question bear the closest
resemblance to the Tamil words found in the Hebrew; and that
in each and all of them these are of foreign importation.
J. EMERSON TENNENT.
Londoh:
November -2ZA, 1859.
' Venice, 16ia
1 Kai itovruv iKujmrrtrbiv eoi triftj-
«w xal AitW. BA2IA. TPITH. X.
23. It is to be observed, that
Joeephus appears to have been equally
embarrassed by the unfamiliar term
D"?P for peacocks. He alludes to
the voyages of Solomon's merchant-
men to Tarshish, and says that they
brought back from thence cold and
silver, much ivorv, apes, and JEthio-
pitau — thus substituting "slaves"
for pea-fowl — "xai roXAc Mtae,
AiSwiric n mi iriSgnu." Josephus also
renders the word Tiuslrish by "if t$
Tnpo-irji Xiyofiivji SaXdrrp," an expres-
sion which shows that he was think-
ing not of the Indian but the western
Tarshish, situated in what Avienus
calls the Fretwm TarUmum, whence
African slaves might have been ex-
pected to come. — Antiqttit. Judaic*,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
NOTICE
THE SECOND EDITION.
The rapidity with which the first impression has heen absorbed
by the public, has so shortened the interval between its appear-
ance and that of the present edition, that no sufficient time *has
been allowed for the discovery of errors or defects ; and the
work is re-issued almost as a corrected reprint
In the interim, however, I have ascertained, that Ribeyro's
"Historical Account of Ceylon," which it was heretofore supposed
bad never appeared in any other than the French version of the
Abbe Le Grand, and in the English translation of the latter by
Mr. Lee1, was some years since printed for the first time in the
original Portuguese, from the identical MS. presented by the
author to Pedro II. in 1685. It was published in 1836 by the
Academia Real daa Sciencias of Lisbon, under the title of
" Fatalidade Hietorica da Ilka de OeUao;" and forms the
fifth volume of the (( Collegao de NoHdae para a HietoHa e
Geografia das JVafoes TRtramarvnae? A fac-simile from a
curious map of the island as it was then known to the Portu-
guese, has been included in the present edition.1
Some difficulty having been expressed to me, in identifying
the ancient names of places in India adverted to in the following
pages ; and medieval charts of that country being rare, a map
has been inserted in the present edition8, to supply the want
complained of.
The only other important change has been a considerable ad-
dition to the Index, which was felt to be essential for facilitating
reference,
J. E. T.
1 Sou Vol. II. Part vi. ch. i. p. 5, note. * Ibid. p. C. * See VoL L p. 330.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
INTRODUCTION.
There is no island in the world, Great Britain itself
not excepted, that has attracted the attention of authors
in so many distant ages and so many different countries
as Ceylon. There is no nation in ancient or modern
times possessed of a language and a literature, the
writers of which have not at some time made it their
theme. Its aspect, its religion, its antiquities, and
productions, have been described as well by the classic
Greets, as by those of the Lower Empire j by the
Eomans ; by the writers of China, Burmah, India, and
Kashmir ; by the geographers of Arabia and Persia ;
by the mediaeval voyagers of Italy and France ; by the
annalists of Portugal and Spain ; by the merchant
adventurers of Holland, and by the travellers and
topographers of Great Britain.
But amidst this wealth of materials as to its vicissi-
tudes in early times, there is an absolute dearth of in-
formation regarding the state and progress of the island
during more recent periods, and its actual condition
at the present day.
I was made sensible of this want, on the occa- ■
sion of my nomination, in 1845, to an office in con-
iay Google
XXIV INTRODUCTION.
nection with the government of Ceylon. I found
abundant details as to the capture of the maritime
provinces from the Dutch in 1795, in the narrative of
Captain Percivai, \ an officer who had served in the
expedition ; and the efforts to organise the first system
of administration are amply described by Cordineb2,
Chaplain to the Forces j by Lord Valentia 8, who was
then travelling in .the East ; and by Anthony Berto-
lacci4, who acted aa auditor-general to the first go-
vernor, Mr. North, afterwards Earl of Guildford. The
story of the capture of Kandy in 1815 has been related
by an anonymous eye-witness under the pseudonyms
of Philalethes 6, and by Marshall in his Historical
Sketch of the conquest.6 An admirable description of
the interior, as it presented itself some forty years ago,
was furnished by Dr. Davy 7, a brother of the eminent
philosopher, who was employed on the medical staff in
Ceylon, from 1816 till 1820.
Here the series of writers U broken, just at the
commencement of a period the most important and
interesting in the history of the island. The mountain
zone, which for centuries had been mysteriously hidden
from the Portuguese and Dutch8, was suddenly opened
to British enterprise in 1815. The lofty region, from
' An Account of the Island of
Ceylon, Sfc., by Capt. R. Pbhcival.
4to. London, 1805.
2 vols. 4to. London, 1607.
* Voyages and Travels to India,
Ceylon, and the Red Sea, by Lord
Viscount Valentia. S volt. 4to.
London, 1609.
* A View of the Agricultural, Com-
mercial, and Financial Interests of
Ceylon, $v., by A. Bbhtolacci, Esq.
London, 1817.
* A History of Ceylon front the
earliest Period to the Year hdccciv,
by Phiulbtbes, A.M. *4to. Lond.
1817. The author is believed to have
been the Rev. G. Bisset.
6 IIknktMabehaj.l,F.R.S.E„ &c.
went to Ceylon as assistant sur-
geon of the 89th regiment, in 1803,
and from 1816 till 1821 was the
senior medical officer of the Kan-
dyaa provinces.
* An Account of the Interior of
Ceylon, g-e., by Johb D*T», M.D.
4 to. London, 1821.
8 VAjLBsrmi, in his great work on
the Dutch possessions in India, Ovd
oyGoogIe
INTRODUCTION. XXV
behind whose barrier of hills the kings of Sandy
had looked down and defied the arms of three sue*
cessive European nations, was at last rendered acces-
sible by the construction of the grandest mountain road
in India ; and in the north of the island, the ruins of
ancient cities, and the stupendous monuments of an
early civilisation, were discovered and explored in the
solitudes of the great central forests. English mer-
chants embarked in the renowned trade in cinnamon,
which we had wrested from the Dutch ; and British
capitalists introduced the cultivation of coffee into the
previously inaccessible highlands. Changes of equal
magnitude contributed to alter the social position of
the natives; domestic slavery was extinguished ; com-
pulsory labour, previously exacted from the free races,
was abolished; and new laws under a charter of justice
superseded the arbitrary rule of the native chiefs. In
the course of less than half a century, the aspect of the
country became changed, the condition of the people
was submitted to new influences; and the time arrived
to note the effects of this civil revolution.
But on searching for books such as I expected to
find, recording the phenomena consequent on these do-
mestic and political changes, I was disappointed to dis-
cover that they were "few in number and generally
meagre in information. Major Forbes, who in 1826 and
for some years afterwards held a civil appointment in the
Eandyan country, published an interesting account of
his observations 1 ; and his work derives value from the
en Nietttc Oott-Indien, alludes more
than once with regret to the igno-
rance in which his countrymen were
kept as to the interior of Ceylon,
concerning which their only infor-
mation ku obtained through fugi-
tives and spies. (Vol. v. ch. ii. p. 35 ;
cb. XV. p. 203.)
' Eleven Yean in Ceylon, j-c., by
Major Fobbbi. 2 vole. 8vo. London)
1840.
oyGoogle
XXVI INTRODUCTION.
attention which the author had paid to the ancient
records of the island, whose contents were then under-
going investigation by the erudite and indefatigable
Tubnoue.1
In 1843 Mr. Bebhbtt, a retired civil servant of the
colony, who had studied some branches of its natural
history, and especially its ichthyology, embodied
his experiences in* a volume entitled w Ceylon and
its Capabilities" containing a mass of information,
somewhat defective in arrangement. These and a
number of minor publications, chiefly descriptive of
sporting tours in search of elephants and deer, with
incidental notices of the sublime scenery and majestic
ruins of the island, were the only modern works that
treated of Ceylon ; but no one of them sufficed to furnish
a connected view of the colony at the present day,
contrasting its former state with the condition to which
it has attained under the government of Great Britain.
On arriving in Ceylon and entering on my official
functions, I experienced frequent inconvenience from
this dearth of local knowledge. In my tours throughout
the interior, I found ancient monuments, apparently
defying decay, of which no one could tell the date or
the founder: and temples and cities in ruins, whose
destroyers were equally unknown. There were vast
structures for public titility, on whieh the prosperity
of the country had at one time been dependent; arti-
ficial lakes, with their conduits and canals for irri-
gation, the condition of which rendered it interesting to
ascertain the period of their formation, and the causes
of their abandonment; but to every inquiry of this
nature, I was met by the same unvarying reply;
that information regarding them might possibly be
1 See Vol. I. Part in vh, iii. p. 312.
,y Google
INTRODUCTION. XXVli
found in the Mahawanso, or in some other of the native
chronicles ; but that few had ever read them, and
none had succeeded in reproducing them for popular
instruction.
A still more serious embarrassment arose from the
absence of authorities to throw light on questions that
were sometimes the subject of administrative delibera-
tion: there were native customs which no available
materials sufficed to illustrate ; and native claims, often
serious in their importance, the consideration of which
was obstructed by the want of authentic data. With
a view to executive measures, I was frequently de-
sirous of consulting the records of the two European
governments, under which the island had been ad-
ministered for 300 years before the arrival of the
British ; their experience might have served as a guide,
and even their failures would have pointed out errors
to be avoided; but here, again, I had to encounter dis-
appointment : in answer to my inquiries, I was assured
that the records, both of the Portuguese and Dutch, had
long since disappeared from the archives of the Colonial
Secretariat.
Their loss, whilst in our custody, is the more re-
markable, considering the value which was attached to
them by our predecessors. The Dutch, on the conquest
of Ceylon in the seventeenth century, seized the official
accounts and papers of the Portuguese ; and a memoir
is preserved by Valejttyn, in which the Governor, Van
Goens, on handing over the command to his successor
in 1663, enjoins on him the study of these important
documents, and expresses anxiety for their careful pre-
servation.1
' Valbhtts, OudmNiemo Oott-Jnditn, frc, ch. xiii. p. 174.
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
XXVlil INTRODUCTION.
The British, on the capture of Colombo in 1796,
were equally solicitous to obtain possession of the re-
cords .of the Dutch Government. By Art. XIV. of the
capitulation they were required to be " faithfully deli-
vered over;" and, by Art. XI., all "surveys of the
island and its coasts " were required to be surrendered
to the captors.1 But, strange to say, almost the whole
of these interesting and important papers appear to have
been lost; not a trace of the Portuguese records, so far
as I could discover, remains at Colombo; and if any
vestige of those of the Dutch be still extant, they have
probably become illegible from decay and the ravages
of the white ants.2
But the loss is not utterly irreparable ; duplicates of
the Dutch correspondence during their possession of
Ceylon are carefully preserved at Amsterdam ; and
within the last few years the Trustees of the British
Museum purchased from the library of the late Lord
Stuart de Rothesay the Diplomatic Correspondence and
Papers of Sebastiao Joze Cabvalho e Mello (Portu-
guese Ambassador at London and Vienna, and subse-
quently known as the Marquis de Pombal), from 1738
to 1747, including sixty volumes relating to the history
of the Portuguese possessions in India and Brazil during
the 16th 17th, and 18th centuries. Amongst the latter
are forty volumes of despatches relative to India entitled
1 Amongst a valuable collection of ' * Note to the second edition — Since
documents presented to the Royal i the first edition was published, I
Asiatic Society of London, by the have been told by a lute officer of
late Sir Alexander Johnston, for- the Ceylon Government, that many
werly Chief Justice of Ceylon, there years ago, what remained of the
is a volume of Dutch surveys of the Dutch records were removed from
Island, containing important maps the record-room of the Colonial Office
of the coast and its harbours, and j to the cutcberry of the government
plans of the great works for irriga- ' agent of the western province ; where
tion in the northern and eastern pro- ! some of them may still be found.
..Google
INTRODUCTION. XX3X
CoUecqam Auihentica de todas as Leys, Begimentos,
Alvards e mats ordens que se expedtram para a India,
desde o establecimento destas conqulstas ; Orden&da por
proviram de 28 de Marco de 1754. ! These contain the
despatches to and from the successive Captains-General
and Governors of Ceylon, so that, in part at least, the
replacement of the records lost in the colony may be
effected by transcription.
Meanwhile in their absence no other resource was
left me than the original narratives of the Dutch and
Portuguese historians, chiefly Valenttn, De Barkos,
and De Couto, who have preserved in two languages
the least familiar in Europe, chronicles of their re-
spective governments, which, so far as I am aware,
have not been republished in any translation.
•The present volumes contain no detailed notice of
the Buddist faith as it exists in Ceylon, of the Brahma-
nical rites, or of the other religious superstitions of the
island. These I have already described in my history
of Christianity in Ceylon.2 The materials for that work
were originally designed to form a portion of the present
one ; but having expanded to too. great dimensions to
be made merely subsidiary, I formed them into a sepa-
rate treatise. Along with them I have incorporated
facts illustrative of the national character of the Singha-
lese under the conjoint influences of their ancestral
superstitions and the partial enlightenment of education
and gospel truth.
Respecting the Physical Geography and Natural Bis-
1 MSB. Brit. Mub. No. 20.S61 to
20,900.
1 Carutianity in Ceylon: it* In-
troduction and Progreu under the
PorlMgtutt, At Dutch, the Brititk,
and American MUtiont; tritk an
Hiitorieal Sketch of the Brahtnanicat
and Buddkitt Superttitumi, by Sir
Jakeb Emerson Temwwct. Loudon,
Murray, 1800.
oyGoogIc
XXX INTRODUCTION,
tory of the colony, I found an equal want of reliable
information; and every work that even touched on the
subject was pervaded by the misapprehension which I
have collected evidence to correct; that Ceylon is but a
fragment of the great Indian continent dissevered by
some local convulsion; and that the zoology and botany
of- the island are identical with those of the mainland.1
Thus for almost every particular and fact, whether
physical or historical, I have been to a great extent
thrown on my own researches ; and obliged to seek for
information in original sources, and in French and
EngUsh versions of Oriental authorities. The results
of my investigations are embodied in the following
pages; and it only remains for me to express, in terms
however inadequate, my obligations to the literary and
scientific friends by whose aid I have been enabled to
pursue my inquiries.
Amongst these my first acknowledgments are due to.
Dr. TbmpletOn, of the Army Medical Staff, for his cor-
dial assistance in numerous departments ; but above all
in relation to the physical geography and natural his-
tory of the island. Here his scientific knowledge, suc-
cessfully cultivated during a residence of nearly twelve
years in Ceylon, and his intimate familiarity with its
zoology and productions, rendered his- co-operation in-
valuable; and these sections abound with evidences of
the liberal extent to which his stores of information
have been generously imparted. To him and to Dr..
CAmebon, of the Army Medical Staff, I am indebted for
many valuable facts and observations on tropical health
and disease, embodied in the chapter on " Climate"
1 It may seem presumptuous in J j-c, cb. iii. p. 78.), but the grounds
me to question the accuracy of Dr. on which I venture to do bo are
Davt'b opinion on this point (see stated, VoL I. pp. 7, 27, 160, 178,
his Account of the Interior of Ceylon | 208, &c.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
INTRODUCTION. XXXI
Sir Roderick L MuhchIson (without committing *
himself as to the controversial portions of the chapter
on the Geology and Mineralogy of Ceylon) has done me
the favour to offer some 'valuable suggestions, and to
express his opinion as to the general accuracy of the
whole.
Although a feature so characteristic as that of its
Vegetation could not possibly be omitted in a work pro-
fessing to give an account of Ceylon, I had neither
the space nor the qualifications necessary to produce a
systematic sketch of the Botany of the island. I could
only attempt to describe it as it exhibits itself to an un-
scientific spectator; and the notices that I have given
are confined to. such of the more remarkable plants as
cannot fail to arrest the attention of a stranger. In
illustration of these, I have had. the advantage of copious
communications from William Ferguson, Esq., a gen-
tleman, attached to the Survey Department of the Civil
Service in Ceylon, whose opportunities for observation
in all parts of the island have enabled him to cultivate
V0th signal success a taste for botanical pursuits. And
I have been permitted to submit the portion of my
work which refers to this subject to the revision of the
highest living authority on Indian botany, Dr. J. D.
Hooker, of Kew.
Regarding the fauna of Ceylon, little has been pub-
lished in any collective form, with the exception of a
volume by Dr. Kelaabt entitled Prodromus Faunm
Zeilanicm ; several valuable papers by Mr. Edgar L.
Layard in the Annals and Magazine of Natural His-
tory for 1852 and 1853 ; and some very imperfect
lists appended to Pbdjham's compiled account of the
oyGoogIe
XXX11 INTRODUCTION.
• island.1 Knox, in the charming narrative of his cap-
tivity, published in the reign of Charles II., has de-
voted a chapter to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr.
Davy has described some of the reptiles : but with
these exceptions the subject is almost untouched in
works relating to the colony. Yet a more than ordinary
interest attaches to the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of
presenting, as is generally assumed, an identity between
its fauna and that of Southern India, exhibits a re-
markable diversity of type, taken in connection with
the limited area over which they are distributed. The
island, in fact, may be regarded as the centre of a
geographical circle, possessing within itself forms, whose
allied species radiate far into the temperate regions of
the north, as well as into Africa, Australia, and the
isles of the Eastern Archipelago.
In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucida-
tion, I have endeavoured to interest others. in the
subject, by describing my own observations and impres-
sions, with fidelity, and with as much accuracy as may
be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no greater
knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences
than is ordinarily possessed by any educated gentleman.
It was my good fortune, however, in my journeys to
have the companionship of friends familiar with many
branches of natural science: the late Dr. Gardner,
Mr. Edgar L. Latard an accomplished zoologist,
Dr. Templeton, and others ; and I was thus enabled
1 An Historical, Political, and Sta-
tistical Account of Ceylon and its De-
pendencies, by C. Phidham, Esq.
2 vols. 8vo. London, 1849. The au-
thor was Dever, I believe, in Ceylon,
but bis book ia a laborious conden-
sation of the principal English works
relating to it. Its value would have
been greatly increased had Mr.
Pridbam accompanied his excerpts
by references to the respective uu-
oyGoogIe
INTRODUCTION. XXxiii
to collect on the spot many interesting facts relative
to the structure and habits of the numerous tribes
of animals. These, chastened by the corrections of
my fellow-travellers, and established by the examina-
tion of collections made in the colony, and by subse-
quent comparison with specimens contained in museums
at home, I have ventured to submit as faithful outlines
of the fauna of Ceylon.
The sections descriptive of the several classes are
accompanied by lists, prepared with the assistance of
scientific .friends, showing the extent to which each
particular branch had been investigated by naturalists,
up to the period of my departure from Ceylon at the
close of 1849. These, besides their inherent interest,
will, I trust, stimulate others to engage in the same
pursuit, by exhibiting chasms, which it remains for
future industry and research to fill up ; — and the
study »f the zoology of Ceylon may thus serve as
a preparative for that of Continental India, embracing,
as the former does, much that' is common to both, as
well as possessing a fauna peculiar to the island, that in
itself will amply repay more extended scrutiny.
From these lists have been excluded all species
. regarding the authenticity of which reasonable doubts
could be entertained *, and of some of them, a very
few have been printed in italics, in order to denote the
desirability of more minute comparison with well deter-
mined specimens in the great national depositories be-
fore finally incorporating them with the Singhalese
catalogues.
1 An exception occurs in the list I litiea are doubtful have been
ul" shells, prepared by Mr. Sylvascb mit.ted for reasons adduced. 0
Hamlet, in which some whose locn- | Vol. I. p. 234.)
DomzcdoyGoOglc
XXXIV INTRODUCTION.
In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts
embodied in these sections, I cannot too warmly express
my thanks for the aid I have received from gentlemen
interested in similar studies in Ceylon : from Dr.
Kelaabt and Mr. Edgar L. Layard, as well as from
officers of the Ceylon Civil Service ; the Hon. Gerald
C. Talbot, Mr. C. R. Buller, Mr. Mercer, Mr. Morris,
Mr. "Whiting, Major Skinner, and Mr. Mitfohd.
Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work
to the press, I have had the advantage of having portions
of them read by Professor Huxley, Mr. Moobb, of the
East India House Museum; Mr. R. Patterson, F.R.S.,
author of the Introduction to Zooldgy, and by Mr. Adam
White, of the British Museum; to each of whom I am
exceedingly indebted for the care they have bestowed.
In an especial degree I have to acknowledge the kind-
ness of Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., for valuable additions
and corrections in the list of the Ceylon Reptilia ; and
to Professor Fabaday for some notes on the nature and
qualities of the " Serpent Stone," l submitted to him.
I have recorded in its proper place my obligations to
Admiral Fitzroy, for his most ingenious theory in elu-
cidation of the phenomena of the Tides around Ceylon.2
The extent to which my observations on the Elephant
have been carried, requires some explanation. The
existing notices of this noble creature are chiefly de-
voted to its habits and capabilities in captivity ; and
very few works, with which I am acquainted, contain
illustrations of its instincts and, functions when wild in
its native woods. Opportunities for observing the
latter, and for collecting facts in connection with them,
1 See Vol. I. Part 11. ch, iii. p. 199. " See Vol. U. Part to. ch. L p. 116.
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
INTRODUCTION. XXXV
are abundant in Ceylon ; and from the moment of my
arrival, I profited by every occasion afforded to me for
observing the elephant in a state of nature, and obtain-
ing from hunters and natives correct information as to
its ceconomy and disposition. Anecdotes in connection
with this subject, I received from some of the most
experienced residents in the island; amongst others,
from Major Skinner, Captain Philip Payne Gallwet,
Mr. Fairuolmk, Mr. Cripps, and Mr. Morris. Nor
can I omit Jo express my acknowledgments to Pro-
fessor Owen, of the British Museum, to whom this
portion, of my manuscript was submitted previous to its
committal to the press.
In the historical sections of the work, I have been
reluctantly compelled to devote a considerable space to
a narrative deduced from the ancient Singhalese chro-
nicles ; into which I found it most difficult to infuse
any popular interest. But the toil was not undertaken
without a motive. The oeconomics and hierarchical
institutions of Buddhism, as administered through suc-
cessive dynasties, have exercised so paramount an influ-
ence over the habits and occupations of the Singhalese
people, that their impress remains indelible to the
present day. The tenure of temple lands, the compul-
sory services of tenants, the extension of agriculture,
and the whole system of co-operative cultivation, derived
from this source organisation and development; and the
origin and objects of each of these are only to be ren-
dered intelligible by an inquiry into the events and
times in which the system took its rise. In connection
with this subject, I am indebted to the representatives
of the late Mr. Tubnour, of the Ceylon Civil Service,
for access to his unpublished manuscripts; and to those
ba
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
XXXVI INTRODUCTION.
portions of his correspondence with Prinsep, which
relate to the researches of these two distinguished
scholars regarding the Pali annals of Ceylon. I have
also to acknowledge my obligations to M. Jules Mohl,
the literary executor of M. E. Bubnouf, for the use of
papers left by that eminent orientalist in illustration of
the ancient geography of the island, as exhibited in the
works of Pali and Sanskrit writers.
I have been signally assisted in my search for mate-
rials illustrative of the social and intellectual condition
of the Singhalese nation, during the early ages of their
history, by gentlemen in Ceylon, whose familiarity with
the native languages and literature impart authority
to their communications ; by Ernest de Sabam "Wueye-
sekeee Karoonabatne, the Maha-Moodliar and First
Interpreter to the Governor; and to Mr. de Axwts, the
erudite translator of the Sidath Sangara. From the
Rev. Mr. Gooerlt of the "Wesleyan Mission, I have
received expositions of Buddhist policy; and the Rev.
R. Spence Habdt, author of the two most important
modern works on the archaeology of Buddhism1, has
done me the favour to examine the chapter on Sing-
halese Literature, and to enrich it by numerous sug-
gestions and additions. -
In like manner I have had the advantage of com-
municating with Mr. Coolet (author of the History of
Maritime and Inland Discovery) in relation to the
Mediaeval History of Ceylon, and the period embraced
by the narrative of the Greek, Arabian, and Italian
travellers, between the fifth and fifteenth centuries.
1 Oriental MonacMsm, 8vo. London, 1850; and A Manual of Buddhi am,
8 vo. London, 1663.
oyGoogIe
INTRODUCTION. XXXvii
1 have elsewhere recorded my obligations to Mr.
"Wylib, and to his colleague, Mr. Lockhart of Shanghae,
for the materials of one of the most curious chapters of
my work, that which treats of the knowledge of. Ceylon
possessed by the Chinese in the Middle Ages. This is
a field which, so far as I know, is untouched by any
previous writer on Ceylon. In the course of my in-
quiries, finding that Ceylon had been, from the remotest
times, the point at which the merchant fleets from the
Red Sea and the Persian Gulf met those from China
and the Oriental Archipelago (thus effecting an exchange
of merchandise between East and West) ; and discover-
ing that the Arabian and Persian voyagers, on their
return home, had brought back copious accounts of the
island, it occurred to me that the Chinese travellers
during the same period had in all probability been
equally observant and communicative, and that the
results of their experience might be found in Chinese
works of the Middle Ages. Acting on this conjecture,
I addressed myself to a Chinese gentleman, Wang Tao
Chung, who was then in England; and he, on his return
to Shanghae, made known my wishes to Mr. Wylie,
My anticipations were more than realised"by Mr. Wtlie's
researches. I received in due course, extracts from
upwards of twenty works by Chinese writers, between
the fifth and fifteenth centuries, and the curious and
interesting facts contained in them are embodied in the
chapter devoted to that particular subject. In addition
to these, the courtesy of M. Stanislas Julien, the eminent
French Sinologue, has laid me flnder a similar obligation
for access to unpublished passages relative to Ceylon,
prepared for his translation of the great work of Hiouen
oyGoogIe
XXXvHl INTRODUCTION.
Thsang; descriptive of the Buddhist country of India
in the seventh century.1
It is with pain that I advert to that portion of the
section .which treats of the British rule in Ceylon ; in
the course of which the discovery of the private corre-
spondence of the first Governor, Mr. North, deposited
along with the Wellesley Manuscripts, in the British
Museum8, has thrown an unexpected light over the
fearful events of 1803, and the massacre of the -English
troops then in garrison at Kandy. Hitherto the honour
of the British Government has been unimpeached in
these dark transactions; and the slaughter of the troops
has been uniformly denounced as an evidence of the
treacherous and "tiger-like" spirit of the Eandyan
people.3 But it is not possible now to read the narra-
tive of these events, as the motives and secret arrange-
ments of the Governor with the treacherous Minister of
the king are disclosed in the private letters of Mr.
North to the Governor-general of India, without feeling
that the sudden destruction of Major Davie's party,"
however revolting the remorseless butchery by which
it was achieved, may have been but the consummation
of a revenge provoked by the .discovery of the treason
concocted by the Adigar in confederacy with the repre-
sentative of the British Crown. Nor is this construction
weakened by the fact, that no immediate vengeance
was exacted by the Governor in expiation of that
fearful tragedy; and that the private letters of Mr.
North to the Marquis of Wellesley contain avowals of
ineffectual efforts to huSh up the affair, and to obtain a
1 Mimoira tar Us Contrtet Octi- I * Additional MSS., Brit Mub.,
dtnUdei, traduites dti Sanscrit en No. 13,864, &c.
Chinois, en fan 648, &c. Par M. ■ ' Db Qoircet, collected Work,
STAHiBue JcLun. j vol. adi. p. 14,
oyGoogIc
INTRODUCTION. XXXIX
clumsy compromise by inducing the Kandyan king to
make an admission of regret.
I am aware that there are passages in the following
pages containing statements that occur more than once
in the course of the work. But I found that in dealing
with so many distinct subjects the same fact became
sometimes an indispensable illustration of more than
one topic ; and hence repetition was unavoidable even
at the risk of tautology.
I have also to apologise for variances in the spelling
of proper names, both of places and individuals, occurring
in different passages. In extenuation of this, I can
only plead the difficulty of preserving uniformity in
matters dependent upon mere Bound, and unsettled by
any recognised standard of orthography.
I have endeavoured in every instance to append re-
ferences to other authors, in support of statements
which I have drawn from previous writers ; an arrange-
ment rendered essential by the numerous instances in
which errors, that nothing short of the original autho-
rities can suffice to expose, have been reproduced and
repeated by successive writers on Ceylon.
To whatever extent the preparation of this work may
have fallen short of its conception, and whatever its
demerits in execution and style, I am not without hope
that it will still exhibit evidence that by perseverance
and research I have laboured to render it worthy of the
subject.
JAMES EMERSON TENNENT.
JJf lSli, 1859.
oyGoogIe
oyGoogIe
PART I.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
* a,., i,, Google
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. — GEOLOGY.— MINERALOGY. — GEMS,
CLIMATE, ETC.
General Aspect. — Ceylon, from whatever direction, it
is approached, unfolds a scene of loveliness and gran-
deur unsurpassed, if it be rivalled, by any land in the
universe. The traveller from Bengal, leaving behind
the melancholy delta of the Ganges and the torrid
coast of Coromandel ; or the adventurer from Europe,
recently inured to the sands of Egypt and the scorched
headlands of Arabia, is alike entranced by the vision of
beauty which expands before him as the island rises from
the sea, its lofty mountains covered by luxuriant forests,
and its shores, till they meet the ripple of the waves,
bright with the foliage of perpetual spring.
The Brahmans designated it by die epithet of " the
resplendent," and in their dreamy rhapsodies ex-
tolled it as the region of mystery and sublimity 1 ;
the Buddhist poejs gracefully apostrophised it as "a
'"Li en out fait une espece de
paiadis, et ae sont imaging que des
etree d une nature angeiique lea ha-
bitaient." — Albtrouitc, Train da
Ere*, fyc. ; Rktnaud, Qingraphie
if AlouJfida, Introd. sec iii. p. cczziv.
The renown of Ceylon as it leached
Europe in the seventeenth century is
thus summed up by PuitCKAa in Hit
Pilgrimage, b. v. c. 18, p. 560: —
"The heauena -with their dewea, the
ayro with a pleasant huleaomenease
and fragrant freehneeae, the waters in
their many riuere and fountainea,
the earth diuereined in aspiring hills,
lowly vales, equall and indifferent
plaines, filled in her inward chambers
with mettalls and jewella, in her
outward court and vpper face stored
with whole woods of the beat cin-
namon that the amine aeeth ; beaidea
fruits, oranges, lemons, &c. sunnouut-
ing those of Spaine ; fbwles and
benste, both (^me and wilde (among
.Google
4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHT. [Pabt I-
pearl upon the brow of India ; " the Chinese knew
it as the "island of jewels;" the Greeks as fhe "land
of the hyacinth and the ruby ; " the Mahometans, in the
intensity of their delight, assigned it to the exiled
parents of mankind as a new elysium to console them
for the Iobs of Paradise ; and the early navigators of
Europe, as they returned dazzled with its gems, and
laden with its costly spices, propagated the fable that
far to seaward the very breeze that blew from it was
redolent of perfume.1 In later and less imaginative
times, Ceylon has still maintained the renown of its
attractions, and exhibits in all its varied charms " the
highest conceivable development of Indian nature."8
Picturesque Outline. — The nucleus of its mountain
masses consists of gneissic, granitic, and other crystalline
:. 40, the
which ia their elephant honoured by
a naturall acknowledgement of ex-
cellence of ell other elephants in the
world). These all have conspired
and joined in common league to pre-
sent vnto Zeilan the chiefe of worldly
treasures and pleasures, with a long
and healtbfull Life in the inhabitants
to enjoye them. No marvell, then,
if sense and sensualitie haue heere
stumbled on a paradise."
1 The fable of the " spicy breezes "
said to blow from Arabia and India,
is as old as Ctesiaa ; and is eagerlv
adopted by Pliny, lib. xii. c. 42,
and repeated by several voyagers in
the middle ages, and even in later
times. (See Memdelslo's Travels
A.D. 1030. b. ii.) The Greeks bor-
rowed the tale from the Hindus,
who believe that the Chaniiaaa or
sandal-wood imparts its odours to
the winds ; and their poets speak
of the Malayan as the westerns did
of the Bubican breezes. But the
allusion to such perfumed winds
was a trope common to all the
discoverers of unknown lands : the
companions of Columbus ascribed
them to the region of the Antilles;
and Vcrrazani and Sir* Walter Ra-
leigh scented them off the coast of
Carolina, Milton borrowed from
Ariosto employs the same imagina-
tive embellishment to describe the
charms of Cyprus :
" Serpigo i pcru f roic r (ri(lt r croco
(0,1.
smell is pereep-
That some
tible far to seaward, in the vicinity 'of
certain tropical countries, is unques-
tionable ; and in the instance of Cuba,
an odour like tbatof violeta, which is
discernible two or three miles from
land, whciAhe wind is off the shore,
has been traced by Poeppig to a spe-
cies of Trtracera, a climbing plant
which diffuses its odour during the
night But in the case of Ceylon, if
the existence of such a perfume be not
altogether imaginary, the fact has
been falsified by identifying the al-
leged fragrance with cinnamon ; the
truth being that the cinnamon laurel,
unless it be crushed, exhales no aroma
whatever ; and the peculiar odour of
the spice is only perceptible after the
bark uas been separated and dried.
* Lassen, IwHsche AJterthum*-
kunde, vol i. p. 108.
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Chap. T.] FOLIAGE AND VBBDUBE. «
rocks, which in their resistless upheaval have rent the
superincumbent strata, raising them into lofty pyramids
and crags, or hurling them in gigantic fragments to the
plains below. Time and decay are slow in their assaults
on these towering precipices and splintered pinnacles ;
and from the absence of more perishable materials, there
are few graceful sweeps along the higher chains, or roll-
ing downs in the lower ranges of the hills. Every bold
elevation is crowned by battlemented cliffs, and flanked
by chasms in which the shattered strata are seen as
sharp and as rugged as if they had but recently under-
gone the grand convulsion that displaced them.
Foliage and Verdure. — The soil in these regions is
consequently light and unremunerative. But the plentiful
moisture arising from the interception of every passing
vapour from the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal,
added to the intense warmth of the atmosphere, com-
bine to force a vegetation so rich and luxuriant, that
imagination can picture nothing more wondrous and
charming ; every level spot is enamelled with verdure,
forests of never-fading bloom cover mountain and valley ;
flowers of the brightest hues grow in profusion over the
plains, and delicate climbing plants, rooted in the shelving
rocks, hang in graceful festoons down the edge of avery
precipice.
Unlike the forests of Europe, in which the excess of
some peculiar trees imparts a character of monotony
to the outline and'graveness to the colouring, the forests
of Ceylon are singularly attractive from the endless variety
of their foliage, and the vivid contrast of its" tints. The
mountains, especially those looking towards the east and
south, rise abruptly to prodigious and almost precipitous
heights above the level plains ; the rivers wind through
woods below like threads of silver through green em-
broidery, till they are lost in a dim haze which conceals
the far horizon ; and through this a line of tremulous light
marks where the sunbeams are glittering among the waves
upon the distant shore.
B 3
DoiiizcdoyGoogle
9 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Past I.
From age to age a scene so lovely has imparted a
colouring of romance to the adventures of the seamen
who, in the eagerness of commerce, swept round die
shores of India, to bring back the pearls and precious
stones, the cinnamon and odours, of Ceylon. The tales
of the Arabians are fraught with the wonders of
" Serendib ; " and the mariners of the Persian Gulf have
left a record of their delight in reaching the calm
havens of the island, and reposing for^ months together
in valleys where the waters of the sea were overshadowed
by woods, and the gardens were blooming in perennial
summer.1
Geographical Position. ■ — Notwithstanding the feet
that the Hindus, in their system of the universe, had
given prominent importance to Ceylon, their first
meridian, " the meridian of Lanka," being supposed to
pass over the island, they propounded the most extra-
vagant ideas, both as to its position and extent ; expand-
ing it to the proportions of a continent, and at the
same time placing it a considerable distance south-east of
India.'
The native Buddhist historians, unable to confirm
the exaggerations of the Brahmans, and yet reluctant
to diitract from the epic renown of their country by dis-
claiming its stupendous dimensions, attempted to re-
concile its actual extent with the fables of the
eastern astronomers by imputing to the agency of
earthquakes the submersion of vast regions by the
Bea.a But evidence is wanting to corroborate the asser-
1 Rewacd, Relation dts Vayagr* I of the Wett, Agist Researches, vol. x.
Arabct, &c, dans le nevrieme Steele, p. 140.
Paris, 184J>, torn. ii. p. 129. | * Sir William Jones adopted the
1 For a condensed account of the legendary opinion that Ceylon " for-
dimensions and position attributed to , merly, perhaps, extended much far-
I^anka, in the Mythic Astronomy of | ther to the west and south, BO as to
the Hindus, see Rei.vacd'b Introduce \ include Lanka or the equinoctial
(ion to Aboidftda, flee. iii. p. cexvii., ' point of the Indian astronomers." —
and his Mimoire stir FInde, p. 342 ; | Diseovrie on . the Institution of a
Wiuobl's Essay on the Sacred la/a \ Society for inquiring into the History,
oyGoogIe
Our. I.]
GJ^QEAPHICAL POSITION.
tion, of such occurrences, at least -within the historic
period ; no records of them exist in the earliest writings of
the Hindus, the Arabians, or Persians; who, had the
traditions survived, would eagerly have chronicled
catastrophes so appalling.1 Geologic analogy, so far as
an inference is derivable from the formation of the
adjoining coasts, both of India and Ceylon, is opposed
to this theory ; and not only plants, but animals,
mammalia, birds, reptiles, and insects, exist in Ceylon,
which are not to be found in the flora or fauna of the
Indian continent3
$&, of tie Borderer*, Mwmtaineera,
and Ieiandere of Alia. — Works, vol. i.
p. 130. The Portuguese, on their
arrival in Ceylon in the sixteenth cen-
tury, found the natives fully impressed
by the traditions of its former extent
and partial submersion; and their
belief in connection therewith will be
found in the narratives and histories
of Dk Bakbos and Diooo be Couto,
from which they have been transferred,
almost without abridgment, to the
pages of Valentyw. The snbstance
of the native legends will he found in
the MahawmMo, c xxii. p. 131 ; and
Sajavali, pp. 180, 190.
1 The first disturbance of the coast
by which Ceylon is alleged to have
been severed from the main land is
said by the Buddhists to bare taken
place b.c. 2387 ; a second commotion
is ascribed to the age of Panduwaea,
B.O. 604 ; and the subsidence of the
shore adjacent to Colombo is said to
have taken place 200 years later, in
the reign of Devenipiatissa, B.C. 306.
The event is thus recorded in the
Sajavali, one of the sacred books of
Ceylon : — " Iu these days the sea was
seven leagues from Ealany ; but on
account of what had been done to
the teeroonansee (a priest who had
been tortured by the king of Kalany),
the gods who were charged with the
conservation of Ceylon, became en-
raged and caused the sea to deluge
the land ; and as during the epoch
called dmcapawrayaga on account of
the wickedness of Rawana, 26 palaces
and 400,000 streets were all over-run
by the sea, so now in this time of
Tissa Raja, 100,000 large towns, «10
fishers' villages, and 400 villages in-
habited by pearl fishers, making to-
gether eleven-twelfths of the terri-
tory of Ealany, were swallowed up
by the sea." — Rajavali, Ufham'b ver-
sion, voL ii., pp. 180, 190.
Forbks observes the coincidence
that the legend of the first rising
of the sea in 2387 B.C., very nearly
coincides with the date assigned
to the Deluge of Noah, 2348.
— Eleven Yean tn Ceylon, vol ii.
p. 268. A tradition is also extant,
that a submersion took place at a
remote period on the east coast of
Ceylon, whereby the island of Giri-
dipo, which is mentioned in the first
chapter of the Mahawanm, was en-
gulfed. Of this the dangerous rocks
called the Great and Little Basses
are believed to be remnants. —
Mahmmauo, c. L
A riiumt of the disquisitions which
have appeared at various times as to
the submersion of a part of Ceylon,
will be found in a Memoir tor la
Giographie ancieme de Ceylon, in
the Journal AsiiUigue for January,
1867, 6th set., vol. ix. p. 12. See also
Tijbnouji's Jntrod. to the A'
' See Vol. I. p. la Some of the
mammalia, peculiar to the island
are enumerated at p. 100 ; birds
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGEAPH/.
[Part I.
Still in the infancy of geographical knowledge, and
before Ceylon had been circumnavigated by Europeans,
the mythical delusions of the Hindus were transmitted
to the West, and the dimensions of the island were
expanded till its southern extremity fell below die
equator, and its breadth was prolonged till it touched
alike on Africa and China.1
The Greeks who, after the Indian conquests of Alex-
ander, brought back the earliest accounts of the East,
repeated them without material correction, and re-
ported the island to be nearly twenty times its actual
extent. Onesicritus, a pilot of the expedition, assigned
to it a magnitude of 5000 stadia, equal to 500 geogra-
phical miles.2 Eratosthenes attempted to fix its posi-
tion, but went so widely astray that his first (that is his
most southern) parallel passed through it and the
" Cinnamon Land," the Regio Cinnamomiferay on the
east coast of Africa.8 He placed Ceylon at the distance
of seven days' sail from the south of India, and he too
assigned to its western coast an extent of 5000 stadia.4
Both those authorities are quoted by Strabo, who says
that the size of Taprobane was not less than that of
Britain.6
found in Ceylon but not existing
in India are alluded to at p. 178,
and Dr. A. GCktheh, in o. paper
on the Geographical IHstribid\on of
Reptiles, in the Mag, of Nat. Bid.
for March, 1S69, says, " amongst these
larger islands which are connected
with the middle palieotropical region,
none offers forms so different from the
continent and other islands as Ceylon.
It might bo considered the Mada-
gascar of the Indian region. .We not
only find there peculiar genera and
species, not again to be recognised in
other parla ; but even many of the
contmon species exhibit such remark-
able varieties, as to afford ample
means for creating new nominal
species," p. 280. The difference ex-
hibited between the insects of Cey-
lon and those of Hindustan and the
Dekkan are noticed by Mr. Walker
in the present work, p. Li. ch. vii. vol.
this subject RlT-
i. iv. p. 17.
1 Gibbom, ch. xxiv.
* Strabo, lib. v. AaTEKinoBTja
(100 B.O.), quoted by Stefhahub of
Byzantium, gives to Ceylon a
length of 7000 stadia and a breadth
of 600.
3 Strabo, lib. ii. c. i. s. 14.
* The text of Strabo showing this
measure makes it in some places
8000 (Strabo, lib. v.); and Pliny,
quoting 'Eratosthenes, makes it
7000.
* Strabo, lib. ii. c. v. a. 32. Aris-
totle appears to have had more cor-
rect information, and says Ceylon
was not so large as Britain. — Da
Mmdo. ch. iii.
oyGoogIe t
Chap. I.] GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. g
The round numbers employed by those authors, and
by the Greek geographers generally, who borrow from
them, serve to show that their knowledge was col-
lected from rumours ; and that in all probability they
were indebted for their inforlnation to the stories of
Arabian or Hindu sailors returning from their Eastern
Pliny learned from the Singhalese embassy which
reached Koine in the reign of Claudius, that the breadth
of Ceylon was 10,000 stadia from west to east ; .and
Ptolemy fully developed the idea of his predecessors, that
it lay opposite to the " Cinnamon Land," and assigned
to it a length from north to south of nearly fifteen degrees,
with a breadth of eleven, an exaggeration of the truth
nearly twenty-fold.1 Agathemerus copies Ptolemy ; and
the plain and sensible author of the "Periplus"
(attributed to Ajhuah), still labouring with delusions as to
the magnitude of Ceylon, makes it stretch almost to the
opposite coast of Africa.2
These extravagant ideas of the magnitude of Ceylon
were not entirely removed till many centuries later.
The Arabian geographers, Massoudi, Edrisi, and Aboul-
feda, had no accurate data by which to correct the
errors of their Greek predecessors. The maps of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries repeated their distor-
tions8; and Marco Polo, in the fourteenth century, not
only reiterates the usual exaggerated dimensions of the
island, but informs* us that it is now but one half the
size it had been at a former period, the rest having been
engulfed by the sea.*
1 Ftolkhy, lib. vii. c. 4.
* Arriak, JWiplut, p. 36. Mar-
cianue Heracleota (whose Periplus
has been reprinted by Hudson, in the
same collection from which I have
made the reference to that of Anion)
gives to Ceylon a length of 9500
stadia with abreadth of 7600.— Mas.
Hkk. p. 26.
> For an account of Ceylon as it
is figured in the Moppe-mondet of the
Middle Ages, see the Euoi of the
VlCOMTE SB Santarem, Sur la Cot-
inograpkie ft Cartogruphie, torn. ill. p,
335, kc.
* Masco Polo, p. 2, c. 148. A
later authority than Marco Polo, Pok-
cacchi, in his Isoiario, or "Description
of the most celebrated Islands in the
World," which was published at
DomzcdoyGoOglc
10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Part t
Such was the uncertainty thrown over the geography
of the island, by erroneous and conflicting accounts, that
grave doubts came to be entertained of its identity, and
from the fourteenth century, when the attention of
Europe was re-directed to lie nascent science of geo-
graphy, down to the close of the seventeenth, it remained
a question whether Ceylon or Sumatra was the Taprobane
of the Greeks.1
Venice in A.D. 1576, laments his
inability even at that time to ob-
tain any authentic information as
to the boundaries and dimensions
of Ceylon ; and, relying on the
representations of the Moors, who
then carried on an active trade
around its coasts, he describes it as
lying under the equinoctial line, and
possessing a circuit of 2100 miles.
" Ella gira di circuits, secondo il
calcole fatto da Mori, che moderna-
menta l'hanno nauigato d'ogn' intorno
due mik at cento miglia et corre
maestro e sirocco ; et per il mezo
d'ossa passa la linea equinottiale et £
el principio del primo clima al terzo
paralello." — 12 Inch via Fatnoee del
Monde, deecritte da Thomabo Pob-
CACCHI, lib. iii. p. 30.
' Gibbon states, that " Salmasins
and most of the ancients confound
the islands of Ceylon and Sumatra."
—DeeL and JW( ch. xL This is a
mistake. ■ Saumaise was one of those
who maintained a correct opinion ;
and, as regards the "ancients," they
had very Httle knowledge of Further
India, to which Sumatra belongs ;
but so long as Greek and Roman
literature maintained their influence,
no question was raised as to the iden-
tity of Ceylon and Taprobane. Even
in tile sixth century Cosmos Indico-
pleustes declares unhesitatingly that
the Sielediva of the Indians was the
Taprobane of the Greeks.
It was only on emerging from the
general ignorance of thf Middle Ages
that the doubt was first promulgated.
In the Catalan Map of a.d. 1376, en-
titled Image dn Monde, Ceylon is
omitted, and Taprobane is represented
by Sumatra (MaLTE Bbuk, Bid. de
Woffr., vol. i. p. 318) ; in that of Fra
Maaro, the Venetian monk, a.d. 1458,
Seylan is given, hut Taprobane is
added over Sumatra. A similar error
appears in the Mappe-monde, by
Hutch, in the Ptolemy of a.d. 1508,
and in the writings of the geogra-
phers of the sixteenth century, Gem-
ma Fkisius, Sebastian Monster,
Ramdbio, Jin, Scalisek, Oktelips,
and Mebcatob. The same view was
adopted by the Venetian Nicola si
Conti, in the first half of the fifteenth
century, by the Florentine Andrea
Cobs a li, Maximilian us Tkansyl-
VAMrs, Vabthbma, and Pigafetta.
The chief cause of this perplexity
was, no doubt, the difficulty of recon-
ciling the actual position and size of
Ceylon with the dimensions and posi-
tion assigned to it by Strabo and
Ptolemy, the latter of whom, by an
error which is elsewhere explained,
extended the boundary of the island
far to the east of its actual site.
But there was a large body of men
who rejected the claim of Sumatra,
and I>£ Babros, Salmastub, Bo-
cbabt Cluvbrius, Ckllaritjs, Ibaac
Vosstub and others, maintained the
title of Ceylon. A Mappe-monde
of A.D. 1417, preserved in the Pitti
| Palace at Florence compromises the
I dispute by designating Sumatra 7b-
' prooane Major. The controversy
t came to an end at the beginning of the
eighteenth century, when the over-
' powering authority of DELISLB re-
j solved the doubt, and confirmed the
, modem Ceylon as the Taprobane of
. antiquity- Wilford, in the Asiatic
SetearcAet (vol. x. p. 140), still clung
oyGoogIe
<W.L]
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE,
Latitude mid Longitude. — There has hitherto been
considerable uncertainty as to the position assigned to
Ceylon in various maps and geographical notices. These
have been corrected by more recent observations, and
its true place has been ascertained to be between 5°
55' and 9" 51' north latitude, and 79° IV 40" and 81°.
54' 50" east longitude. Its extreme length from north
to south, from Point Palmyra to Dondera Head, is 271£
miles ; its greatest width 137^ miles, fr»m Colombo on
the west coast to Sangemankande on the east ; and its
area, including its dependent islands, 25,742 miles, or
about one-sixth smaller than Ireland.1
to the opposite opinion, and Rant
undertook to prove that Taprobane
was Madagascar.
1 Down to a very recent period no
British colony was more imperfectly
surveyed and mapped than Ceylon ;
but since the recent publication by
Anowamith of the great map by
General Fraser, the reproach has
been withdrawn, and no dependency
of the Crown is now more nchly pro-
vided in this particular. In the map
of Schneider, the Government engi-
neer in 1813, two-thirds of the
Randy an Kingdom are a blank ; and
in that of the Society for the Diffusion
of Knowledge, re-published so late as
1862, the Hen districts of Neuera-kala-
wa and the Wanny, in which there are
innumerable villages (and scarcely a
hill), are marked as an " unknown
mouniiuniHU region." General Fraeer,
after the devotion of a lifetime to
the labour, has produced a survey
which, in extent and minuteness of
detail, stands unrivalled. In this
great work he had the co-operation of
Major Skinner and of Captain Gall-
we v, and to theee two gentlemen the
public are indebted for the greater
portion of the field-work and the tri-
gonometrical operations. To judge
of the difficulties which beset such
an undertaking, it must be borne in
mind that till very recently travel-
ling La the interior was all but
impracticable, in a country unopened
even by bridle-paths, across un-
bridled rivers, over mountains never
trod by the foot of a European, and
amidst precipices inaccessible to all
but the most courageous and pru-
dent Add to this that the country
is densely covered hj forests and
i uncle, with trees aMmndred feet
nigh, from which here and there the
branches had to be cleared to ob-
tain a sight of the signal stations.
The triangulation was carried on
amidst privations, discomfort, and
pestilence, which frequently prostrat-
ed the wbohj party, and forced then-
attendants to desert them rather than
encounter such hardships and peril.
The materials collected by the col-
leagues of General Fraser under these
discouragements have been worked
up by him with consummate «H11 and
perseverance. The base line, five
and a quarter miles in length, was
measured in 1845 in the cinnamon
plantation at Kadiirani, to the north
of Colombo, and its extremities are
still marked by two towera, which it
was necessary to raise to the height
of one hundred feet, to enable them
to be discerned above tie surround-
ing forests. These it is to be hoped
will be carefully kept from decay, as
they may again be called into requi-
sition hereafter.
As regards the sea line of Ceylon,
.Google
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Paw I.
General Form. — In its general outline the island
resembles a pear — and suggests to its admiring, in-
habitants the figure of those pearls which from their
elongated form are suspended
from the tapering end. When
originally upheaved above the
ocean its shape was in all pro-
bability nearly circular, with a
prolongation in the direction of
north-east. The mountain zone
\ in the south, covering an area
j of about 4212 miles1, may then
f have formed the largest propor-
tion of its entire area — and the
belt of low lands, known as the
Maritime Provinces, consists to a great extent of soil
from die disintegration of the gneiss, detritus from the
hills, alluvium carried down the rivers, and marine de-
posits gradually collected on the shore. But in addi-
tion to these, the land has for ages been slowly rising
from the sea, and terraces abounding in marine shells
imbedded in agglutinated sand occur in situations far
above high-water mark. Immediately inland from Point
de Galle, the surface^ soil rests on a stratum of decom-
posing coral ; and^sea shells are found at a considerable
distance from the shore. Further north at Madampe,
between Chilaw and Negombo, the shells of pearl oysters
and other bivalves are turned up by the plough more
than ten miles from the sea.
These recent formations present themselves in a still
more striking form in the north of the island, the greater
portion of which may be regarded as the conjoint pro-
on admirable chart of the West coast,
from Adam's Bridge to Dondera Head,
has been published by the East India
Company from a survey in 1846.
But information is sadly wanted as to
the East and North, of which no
accurate charts exist, except of a few
unconnected points, such, as the har-
bour of Trincomalie.
> This includes not only the lofty
mountains suitable for the cultivation
of cofiee, but the lower ranges and
spurs which connect them with the
maritime plains.
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] GEOLOGY. 13
duction of the coral polypi, and the currents, which
for .the greater portion of the year set impetuously
towards the Bouth. Coming laden with alluvial matter
collected along the coast of Coromandel, and meeting
with obstacles south of Point Calimere, they have de-
posited their burthens on the coral reefs round Point
Pedro ; and these gradually raised above the sea-level,
and covered deeply by sand drifts, have formed the
peninsula of Jaffna and the. plains that trend westward
till they unite with the narrow causeway of Adam's
Bridge — itself raised by the same agencies, and an-
nually added to by the influences of the tides and
monsoons.'
On the north-west side of the island, where the cur-
rents are checked by the obstruction of Adam's Bridge,
and still water prevails in the Gulf of Manaar, these de-
posits have been profusely heaped, and the low sandy
plains have been proportionally extended ; whilst on the
south and east, where the current sweeps unimpeded
along the coast, the line of the shore is bold and occa-
sionally rocky.
This explanation of the accretion and rising of the
land is somewhat opposed to the popular belief that
Ceylon was torn from the main land of India2 by a
convulsion, during which the Gulf of Manaar and the
narrow channel at Paumbam were formed by the sub-
mersion of the adjacent land. The two theories might,
be reconciled by supposing the sinking to have oc-
curred at an early period, and to have been followed
by the uprising still in progress. But on a closer exami-
nation of the structure and direction of the mountain
1 The barrier known as Adam's I rently accumulated by the influence
Bridge, which obstructs the naviga- | of the currents at the change of the
tion of the channel between Ceylon | monsoons. See an Essay by Captain
and Ramnad, constate of several Stkwabt on the Paumbem Postage
parallel ledges of conglomerate and Colombo, 1837. See Vol. II. p. 554.
sandstone, bard at the surface, and '' Lassen. Indische Alterthitme-
growing coarse and soft as it descends kimde, vol. i. p. 193.
till it rests on a bank of sand, appa- ■
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pa,
syatem of Ceylon, it exhibits no traces of submersion.
It seems erroneous to regard it as a prolongation of the
Indian chains ; it lies far to the east of the line formed
by the Ghauts on either side of the peninsula, and any
. affinity which it exhibits is rather with the equatorial
direction of the intersecting ranges of the Nilgherriea
and the Vindhya. In their geological elements there
is, doubtless, a similarity between the southern ex-
tremity of India and the elevated portions of Ceylon ;
but there are also many important particulars in which
their specific differences are irreconcilable with the con-
jecture of previous continuity. In the north of the island
there is a marked preponderance of aqueous strata,
which are comparatively rare in tile vicinity of Cape
Comorin ; and whilst the rocks of Ceylon are entirely
destitute of organic remains l ; fossils, both terrestrial and
pelagic, have been found in the Eastern Ghauts, and
sandstone,*in some instances, overlies the primary rocks
which compose them. The rich and black soil to the
south of the Nilgherries presents a strong contrast to the
red and sandy earth of the opposite coast ; and both in
the flora and fauna of the island there are exceptional
peculiarities which suggest a distinction between it and
the Indian continent.
Mountain- System. — At whatever period the moun-
tains of Ceylon may have been raised, the centre
of maximum energy must have been in the vicinity
of Adam's Peak, the group immediately surrounding
1 At Cutchavelly, north of Trin-
comalie, there exists a bed of, cal-
careous clay, in which shells and
crustaceans are found in a semi-
fossilised state ; but they are all of
recent species, principally Mucroph-
thaimi/s and Scylla. The breccia at
Jaffna contains recent sheila, aa doea
also the arenaceous strata on the
western coast of Manaar and in the
neighbourhood of Galle. The ex-
istence of fossilised crustaceans in the
north of Ceylon was known to the early
Arabian navigators. Abou-zeyd des-
cribes one of them as, "Un animal da
merqui Tes8embloftri5crevisse;quand
cet animal sort da la mer, U »e conoatit
at pierre." See" Rkiwacd, Voyages
fail* par let Araba, rol. i. p. 21. The
Arabs then, and the Chinese at the
present day, use these petrifactiona
when powdered aa a specific for
diseases of the eye.
oyGoogIe
en**, ij geology, n
which has thus acquired an elevation of from six to
eight thousand feet above the sea.1 The uplifting force
seems to have been exerted from south-west to north-
east ; and although there is much confusion in many of
the intersecting ridges, the lower ranges, especially those
to the south and west «f Adam's Peak, from Saffragam
to Ambogammoa, manifest a remarkable tendency to run
in. parallel ridges in a direction from south-east to north-
west
Towards the north, on the contrary, the onsets of
the mountain system, with the exception of those which
stretch towards Trincomalie, radiate to Bhort distances
in various directions, and speedily sink to the level
of the plain. Detached hills of great altitude are rare,
the most celebrated being that of Mihintala, which over-
looks the sacred city of Anarajapoora : and Sigiri is the
only example in Ceylon of those solitary acclivities, which
form so remarkable a feature in the table-land of the
Dekkan, starting abruptly from the plain with scarped
and perpendicular sides, and converted by the Indians
into strongholds, accessible only by precipitous pathways, *
or steps hewn in the solid rock.s
The crest of the Ceylon mountains is of stratified
crystalline rock, especially gneiss, with extensive veins
of quartz, and through this the granite has been every-
where intruded, distorting the riven strata, and tilting
them at all angles to the* horizon. Hence at the abrupt
terminations of some of the chains in the district of
Sanragam, plutonic rocks are seen mingled with the
dislocated gneiss. Basalt makes its appearance both
at Galle and Trincomalie. In one place to the east
1 The following are the heights of $ few of the most remarkable placet :-
PedrotallagaUaf .... 6280 English feet.
KirigBlpotta , ""1 "
Totapefia .
Adam's Peak
Nammoone-Koolle-Bjuida
Plain of Neuera-ellia .
* Bee Vol L p.392 ; H. 679.
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pij
of Pettigalle-Kanda, the rocks have been broken up in
such confusion as to resemble the effect of volcanic action
— huge masses overhang each other like suddenly-cooled
lava; and Dr. Gygax, a Swiss mineralogist, who was
employed by the Government in 1847 to examine and
report on the mineral resources of the district, stated, on
his return, that having seen" the volcanoes of the Azores,
he found a " strange similarity at this spot to one of the
semi-craters round the trachytic ridge of Seticidadas, in
the island of St. Michael." 1
Gneiss. — The great geological feature of the island
is, however, the profusion of gneiss, and the various
new forms arising from its disintegration. In the
mountains, with the exception of occasional beds of
dolomite, no more recent formations overlie it ; from
the period of its first upheaval, the gneiss has undergone
no second submersion, and the sail which covers it in
these lofty altitudes is formed almost entirely by its
decay.
In the lower ranges of the hills, gigantic portions of
gneiss rise conspicuously, so detached from the original
chain and so rounded by the action of the atmosphere,
aided by their concentric lamellation, that but for their
prodigious dimensions, they might be regarded as
boulders. Close under one of these cylindrical masses,
1 lieyond the very slightest symp-
toms of disturbance, earthquakes are
unknown in Ceylon. But although its
geology exhibits little evidence of
volcanic action ^witk tie exception
of the basalt, which occasionally pre-
sents an appearance approaching to
that of lava), there are sorof other
incidents that seem to suggest the
vicinity of fire ; more particularly
the occurrence of springs of high
temperature, one at Badulla, one at
Kitool, eastof Bintenne. another near
Yavi Ooto, in the Veddah country,
and a fourth at Kannea, near Trin-
comalie. I have heard of another
near the Patipal Aar, south of Bot-
ticaloa. The water in each is so pure
and -free from sails that the natives
make use of it for all domestic pur-
poses. Dr. Davy adverts to another
indication of volcanic agency in the
sudden and profound depth of the
noble harbour at Trincomalie, which
even close by the beach is said to
have been hitherto Unfathomed.
The Spaniards believed Ceylon to
be volcanic ; and Arremsola, in his
jConqiiida de las Malvcat, Madrid,
1009, says it produced liquid bitumen
and sulphur: — "Fuentea de betun
Hquido,y bolcanes de perpetuas llamas
que srrojon entre las asperezaa de la
montaua losas de acufre." — Lib. v. p.
184. It is needless to say that this is
altogether imaginary.
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] "CABOOK." 17
600 feet in height, and upwards of three miles in
length, the town of Kornegalle, one of the ancient
capitals of the island, has been built ; and the great
temple of DambooL the most remarkable Buddhist edifice
in Ceylon, is constructed under the hollow edge of
another, its gilded roof being formed by the inverted
arch of the natural stone.1 In other localities also the
Singhalese priests have taken frequent advantage of the
tendency of the gneiss to assume these concentric and
almost circular forms; and some of their most venerated
temples are to be found under the shadow of the
overarching strata, to the imperishable nature of which
they point as symbolical of the eternal duration of their
feith.8
Laterite or " Cabook." — A peculiarity, which is one
of the first to strike a stranger who lands at Guile or
Colombo, is the bright red colour of the streets and
roads, contrasting vividly with the verdure of the trees,
and the ubiquity of the fine red dust which penetrates
every crevice and imparts its own tint to every
neglected article. Natives resident in these localities
are easily recognisable elsewhere, by the general hue of
their dress. This is occasioned by the prevalence along
the western coast of laterite, or, as the Singhalese call
it, cabook, a product of disintegrated gneiss, which
being subjected* to detrition communicates its hue to the
soiL8
1 For as account of the temple of
Dambool, see Vol IL p. 576.
1 The concentric lamellar strata
of the gneiss sometimes extend with
a radius so prolonged that Blabs may
be cut from them and used in sub-
stitution for beams of timber, and as
such they are frequently employed
in the construction of Buddhist tem-
ples. At Piagalla, on the mad be-
tween Oalle and Colombo, within
about four miles of Caltura, there is
a gneiss hill of this description on
which a temple has been so erected.
In this particular rock the garnets
usually found in gneiss are replaced
beauty of the hand-specimens
procurable from a quarry close to
the high road on the landward side;
in which, however, the gems are in
every case reduced to splinters.
1 According to the Mahawanw,
" Tamba-panni," one of those names
by which Ceylon was anciently called,
originated in an incident connected
with the invasion of Wijayo, B.O.
643, whose followers, " exhausted by
sea-sickness and faint from weakness,
sat down at the spot where they had
landed out of the vessels, supporting
themselves on the palms of their
.Google
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pa.
The transformation of gneiss into laterite in these
localities has been attributed to the circumstance, that
(hose sections of the rock which undergo transition
exhibit grains of magnetic iron ore partially dissemi-
nated through them; and the phenomenon of the con-
version has been explained by recurrence not tp^ the
ordinary conception of mere weathering, which is prob-
ably inadequate, but to the theory of catalytic action,
regard being had to the peculiarity of magnetic iron
when viewed in its chemical formula.1 The oxide of
iron thus produced communicates its colouring to the
laterite, and in proportion as felspar and hornblende
abound in the gneiss, the cabook assumes respectively
a white or yellow hue. So ostensible is the series of
mutations, that in ordinary excavations there is no
difficulty in tracing a continuous connection without
definite lines of demarcation between the soil and the
laterite on the one hand, and the laterite and gneiss rock
on the other.2
hands pressed to the ground, whence
the name of Tamba-pannyo, 'copper-
patmed,' from the colour of the soil.
From this circumstance that wilder-
sees obtained the name of Tamba-
panni ; and from the same cause also
this renowned land became celebrated
under that name." — Tursottb's Ma-
haxumto, oh. Ti p. 50. From Tamba-
panni came the Greek name for Cey-
lon, Taprubane, Mr. I)r Ar.wrs has
corrected an error in this passage
of Mr. Tumour's translation ; the
word in the original, which he took
for Tamba-pannit/o, or "copper-
palmed," being in reality tatitba-
«dsm, or "copper-coloured. Colonel
Forbes questions the accuracy of this
derivation, and attributes the name
to the tamana trees ; from the abun-
dance of which he aaya many villages
in Ceylon, as well as a district in
southern India, have been similarly
called. (Eleven Ytan in Ceylon,
vol. i. p. 10.) I have not succeeded
in discovering what tree is desig-
nated by this name, nor does it occur
in Moor's List of Ceylon Phmte, On
the southern coast of India a river,
which flows from the ghats to the
sea, passing Tinnevelly, is called
Tamhapanni. Tambapanni, as the
designation of Ceylon, occurs in the
inscription on the rock of Girnar in
GuzesW, deciphered by Prinsepj con-
taining an edictp by Asoka relative tb
the medical administration of India
for the relief both of man and beast.
(Asiat. Son. Jinirn. Bong. vol. vii.
p. 168.)
1 From a paper read to the Royal
Physical Society of Edinburgh by
the Rev. 3. G. MAcnciB, D.D.
1 From a paper on the Geology of
Ceylon, by Dr. Gardner, in the Ap-
pendix to Lee's translation of Ri-
BBFRo's History of Ceylon, p. 206.
The earliest and one of the ablest
essays on the geological system and
mineralogy of Ceylon will be found
in Davt^ Account of the Interior of
Ceylon, London, 1821. It has, how-
ever, been corrected and enlarged by
recant investigators.
oyGoogIe
Ghat. L] CORAL. 19
The tertiary rocks which form such remarkable
features in the geology of other countries are almost
unknown in Ceylon ; and the " clay-slate, silurian, old red
sandstone, carboniferous, new red sandstone, oolitic, and
cretaceous systems " have not as yet been recognised in
any part of the island.1 Crystalline limestone in some
places overlies the gneiss, and is worked for ceconomical
purposes in the mountain districts where it occurs.3
Along the western, coast, from Point-de-Galle to
Chilaw, breccia is found near the shores, from the
agglutination of corallines and shells mixed with sand,
and the disintegrated particles of gneiss. These beds
present an appearance very closely resembling a similar
rock, in which human remains have been found imbed-
ded, at the north-east of Guadeloupe, now in the
British Museum.8 Incorporated with them there are
minute fragments of sapphires, rubies, and tourmaline,
showing that the sand of which the breccia is composed
has been washed down by the rivers from the mountain
zone.
Northern Provinces. — Coral Formation. — But the
principal scene of the most . recent formations is the
extreme north of the island, with the adjoining penin-
sula of Jaffna. Here the coral rocks abound fer'above
high-water mark, and extend across, the island where
the land has been gradually upraised, from the eastern
to- the western shore. The fortifications of Jaffna were
built by the Dutch, from blocks of breccia quarried far
from the sea, and still exhibit, in their worn surface, the
outline of the shells and corallines of which they mainly
consist. The roads, in the absence of more solid sub-
stances, are metalled with the same material; as the
only other rock which occurs is a description of loose
1 Dr. Gardner. [ this purpose ia industriously collected
1 Id the maritime provinces lima by lite fishermen daring the intervals
for building is obtained by burning when the wind is off shore.
the coral and madrepore, which for | * Dr. Gardner.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
20 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Past I.
conglomerate, similar to that at Adam's Bridge and
Manaar.
The phenomenon of the gradual upheaval of these
strata is sufficiently attested by the position m which
they appear, and their altitude above high-water mark ;
but, in close contiguity with them, an equally striking
evidence presents itself in the fact that, at various points
of the western coast, between the island^f Manaar and
Kkrativoe, the natives, in addition to fishing for chank
shells' in the sea, dig them up in large quantities from
beneath the soil on the adjacent shores, in which they are
deeply imbedded.2
The sand, which covers a vast extent of the peninsula
of Jaffna, and in which the coco-nut and Palmyra-palm
grow freely, has been carried by the currents from the
coast of India, and either flung upon the northern' beach
in the winter months, or driven into the lake during the
Bouth-west monsoon, and thence washed on shore by the
ripple, and distributed by the wind.
The arable soil of Jaffna is generally of a deep red
colour, from the admixture of iron, and, being largely
composed of lime from the comminuted coral, it is sus-
ceptible of the highest cultivation, and produces crops
of great luxuriance. This tillage is carried on exclusively
by irrigation from innumerable wells, into which the
water rises fresh through the madrepore and sand ;
there being no streams in the district, unless those perco-
lations can be so called which make their way under-
ground, and rise through the sands on the margin of the
sea at low water.
Wells in the Coral Rock. — These phenomena occur
at Jaffna, in consequence of the rocks being magnesian
limestone and coral, overlying a bed of sand, and in
1 TurbmrSa rapa, formerly known I western point of .Taflha, of Mich on
P.H Valuta gravit, used by the people and weight as to show that it most
of India to be sawn into bangles and have belonged to a ship of much
anklets. greater tonnage than any which the
* In 1846 an antique iron anchor depth of water would permit to navi-
was found under the soil aMhe north- [ gate the channel at the present day.
oyGoogIe
Cur. L] CORAL WELLS. 21
some places, where the soil is light, the surface of the
ground is a hollow arch, so that it resounds as if a horse's
weight were sufficient to crush it inwards. This is
strikingly perceptible in the vicinity of the remarkable
well at Potoor1, on the west side of die road leading
from Jaffna to Point Pedro, where the surface of the sur-
rounding country is only about fifteen feet above the
sea-level. The well, however, is upwards of 140 feet in
depth ; the water fresh at the surface, brackish lower
down, and intensely salt below. According to the uni-
versal belief of the inhabitants, it is an underground pool,
which communicates with the sea by a subterranean
channel bubbling out on the shore near Kangesentorre,
about seven miles to the north-west.
A similar subterranean stream is said to conduct to the
sea from another singular well near Tillipalli, in sinking
which the workmen, at the depth of fourteen feet, came
to the ubiquitous coral, the crust of which gave way, and
showed a cavern below containing the water they were
in search of, with a depth of more than thirty-three feet
It is remarkable that the well at Tillipalli preserves its
depth at all seasons, uninfluenced alike by rains or
drought ; and a steam-engine erected at Potoor, with the
intention of irrigating the surrounding lands, failed to
lower the water in any perceptible degree.
Other wells, especially some near the coast, maintain
their level with such uruformity as to-be inexhaustible at
any season, even after a succession of years of drought —
a fact from which it may fairly be inferred that their
supply is mainly derived by percolation fronrthe sea.2
1 For the particulars of this si tig itfur
well, see Vol II. Pt. IX. ch. vi. p. 586.
* DiEWTK, in his admirable account
of the coral formations of the Pacific
and Indian oceans, has propounded a
theory as to the abundance of fresh
water in the atolls and islands on
coral reefs, furnished by wells which
ebb and flow with the tides. Assum-
ing it to be impossible to separate
salt from sea water by filtration, ho
suggests that the porous coral rock
being' permeated by salt water, the
rain which falls on the surface sinks
to the level of the surrounding sea,
" and must accumulate there, dis-
placing an equal bulk of sea water
— and as the portion of the latter in
the lower part of the great sponge-
like mass rises and falls with the
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pam L
A general idea of the aspect of Ceylon will be formed
from what has here been described. Nearly four parts
of the island are undulating plains, slightly diversified
tides, eo will the fresh water near the
surface." — Natwalitt't Journal, ch.
xx. But subsequent experiments
have demonstrated that the idea of
separating the salt by filtration is not
altogether imaginary, as Darwin seems
to hare then supposed, and Mr. Witt,
in a remarkable paper 0» a peculiar
power potsetsed by Porous Media of re-
moving matters from toltdiim in water,
has since succeeded in showing that
"water containing considerable quan-
tities of saline matter in solution may,
by merely percolating through great
masses of porous strata during long
periods, be gradually deprived of its
salts to such an extent at probably to
render even tea-water fresh." — Philot.
Mag., 1866. Divesting the subject
therefore of this difficulty, other
doubts would appear to present
themselves as to the applicability of
Darwin's theory to coral formations
in general. For instance, it might
be suggested that rain falling on a
substance already saturated with
moisture, would flow off instead of
sinking into it; and thai being of
less specific gravity than salt water.
it would fail to "displace an equal
bull " of the latter. There bib some
extraordinary but well attested state-
ments of a thin layer of fresh water
having been found on the surface of
the sea, after heavy rains in the Hay
of Bengal. (Journ. Atiat. Soc. Seng.
vol. v. p. 239/) Besides, I fancy that
in the majority of atolls and coral
islands the quantity' of rain which
areas so small are calculated to inter-
cept would be insufficient of itself to ac-
count for the extraordinary abundance
of fresh water drawn daily from the
wells. For instance, the superficial
extent of each of the Laccadives is
but two or three square miles, the
surface soil reeting on a crust of coral,
beneath which is a stratum of sand ;
and yet on reaching the latter, fresh
water flows in suon profusion, that
wells and huge tanks for soaking
coco-nut fibre are formed in any place
by merely "breaking through the crust
and taking out the sand." — Madras
Journal, vol. xiv. It is curious that
the abundant supply of water in these
wells Bhould have attracted the at-
tention of the early navigators, and
Cosines Indicopleustes, writing in the
sixth century, speaks of die numerous
small islands off the coast of Tapro-
bane, with abundance of fresh water
and coco-nut palms, although these
islands rest on a bed of sand. (Cot-
mat Ltd. ed. Thevenot, vol. i. p. 8,
20.) It is remarkable that in the
little island of RamiBseram, one of
the chain which connects Adam's
Bridge with the Indian continent,
fresh water is found freely on rinking
for it in the sand. But this is not
the case in the adjacent island of Ua-
naar, which, being more solid, partici-
pates in the geologic character of the
interior of Ceylon. The fresh water
in the Laccadive wells always fluc-
tuates with the rise and fall of the
tides. In some rare instances, as on
the little island of Bitrs, which is the
smallest inhabited spot in the group,
the water, though abundant, is brack-
ith, but this is susceptible of an ex-
planation quite consistent with the
experiments of Mr. Witt, which
require that the process of perco-.
latum shall be continued " during
long periods and through great matte*
of porous strata;" Darwin equally
concedes thst to keep the rain fresh
when hanked in, as he assumes, by
the sea, the mass of madrepore must
be "sufficiently thick to prevent
mechanical admixture ; and where
the land consists of loose blocks of
coral with open interstices, the water,
if a well be dug, is brackish." Con-
ditions analogous to all these parti-
cularised, present themselves at
Jaffna, and seem to indicate that the
extent to which fresh water is found
there, is directly connected with per-
colation from tne sea. The annual
oyGoogIe
Oh**. I. J
CORAL WELLS.
by onsets from the mountain system which entirely
covers the remaining fifth. Every district, from the
depths of the valleys to the summits of the highest
bills, is clothed with perennial foliage; and even the
sand-drifts, to the ripple on the sea line, are carpeted
foil of rain is leas than in England,
being but thirty inches ; whilst the
average heat is the highest in Ceylon,
and the evaporation great in pro-
rrtion. Throughout the peninsula,
am informed by Mr. Byrne, the
Government surveyor of the dis-
trict, that as a general rule "aB the
i the t
would be useless to rink them in the
higher ground, where they could
only catch surface water. The No-
vember rains fill them at once to the
brim, but the water quickly subsides
as the eeneon becomes dry, and " sinks
to the uniform level, at which A re-
main* fixed fur the next nine or ten
month*, unless when slightly affected
by showers." " No Wf below the sea
level become* dry of H*df," even in
seasons of extreme ana continued
drought But the contents do not
vary with the tides, the rise'of which
is so trifling that the distance from
the ocean, and the slowness of filtra-
tion, renders its fluctuations imper-
ceptible. 4
On the other" hand, the veil of
Potoor, the phenomena of which in-
dicate its direct connection with the
sea, by means of a fissure or a channel
beneath an arch of magnesian lime-
stone, rises and falls a few inches in
the course of every twelve hours.
At Navokeiry, a short distance from
Potoor, another well does the =ame,
whilst the well at Tillipalli is en-
tirely unaffected as to its level by any
rains, and exhibits no alteration of its
depths on either monsoon. Am r ha t
Fttzbot, in bis Narrative of the
Surveying Voyage* of the Adventure
and Beagle, the expedition to which
Mr. Darwin was attached, adverts to
the phenomenon in connection with
the rroah water found in the Coral
Islands, and the rise and fall of the
wells, and the flow and ebb of the tide.
He advances the theory afterwards
propounded by Darwin of the re-
tention of the river-water, which he
says, "does not mix with the salt water
wnich surrounds it except at the edges
of the land. The flowing tide pushes
on every aide, themixed soil being very
porous, and causes the water to rise :
when the tide falls, the fresh water
sinks also. A tponpe fvB of frah
water placed gently in a basin of tail
water. v»U not part toith it* content*
for a length of time if left untouched,
and the watePin the middle of the
sponge will be found untainted by
salt for many days: perhaps much
longer if tried."— Vol. i. p. S66. In
a perfectly motionless medium the ex-
periment of the sponge may no doubt
be successful to the extent mentioned,
by Admiral Fiteroy j and so the rain-
water imbibed by a coral rock might
for a leajgth of time remain fresh
where it came into no contact with
the salt. But the disturbance caused
by the tides, and the partial intermix-
time to taint the fresh water which is
affected by the movement. An analo-
gous fact ia demonstrable by the test of
the sponge; forlnndthaton charging
one with coloured fluid, and immers-
ing it in a vessel containing water
perfectly pure, little or no intermix-
ture takes place so long as the pure
water is undisturbed ; but on causing
an artificial tide, by gradually with-
drawing and as gradually replacing a
portion of the surrounding contents
of the basin, the tinted water in the
sponge becomes displaced and dis-
turbed, and in the course of a few ebbs
and flows its escape is made manifest
by the quantity of colour which it
imparts to the surrounding fluid.
oyGoogIe
24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Pabt L
with verdure, and sheltered from the sunbeams by the
cool shadows of the palm groves.
Soil. — But the soil, notwithstanding its wonderful
display of spontaneous vegetation, is not responsive to
systematic cultivation, and is but imperfectly adapted
for maturing a constant succession of seeds and cereal
crops.1 Hence arose the disappointment which beset
the earliest adventurers who opened plantations of
coffee in the hills, on discovering that after the first
rapid development of the plants, delicacy and languor
ensued, and that these were only to be corrected by re-
turning to the earth, in the form of manures, those elements
with which it had originally been but sparingly supplied,
and which were exhausted by the first experiments in
cultivation.
Patenas. — The only spots hitherto found suitable for
planting coffee, fte those covered by the ancient forests
of the mountain zone ; and one of the most remarkable
phenomena in the oeconomic history of the island, is the
fact that the grass lands on the same hills, closely ad-
joining the forests and separated from them by no
visible line save the growth of the* trees, although they
seem to be identical in the -nature of the soil, have
hitherto proved to be utterly insusceptible of reclama-
tion or culture by the coffee planter.2 These verdant
openings, to which the natives have given the name of
patenas, generally occur about the middle elevation of
the hills, the summits and the hollows being covered
with the customary growth of timber trees, which also
fringe the edges of the mountain streams that trickle
down these park-like openings. The forest approaches
boldly to the very edge of a " patena," not disappearing
1 See a paper in the Journal of
Agriculture, for March, 1857, Edin.:
on THpical-CtUttoatum and its Limits,
by Dr. Macvtcab.
■ Since the above was written,
attempts have been made, chiefly bv
natives, to plant coffee on patena land.
The result in a conviction that the
cultivation is practicable, by the use
of manures from the beginning ;
whereas forest land is capable, lor
three or four years at least, of yield-
ing coffee without any artificial en-
richment of the soil.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Gbap. I.] PATENAS. 29
gradually or abking into a growth of underwood, but
stopping abruptly and at once, the tallest trees forming
a fence around tie avoided spot, as if they enclosed an
area of solid stone. These sunny expanses vary in
width from a few yards to many thousands of acres ; in
the lower ranges of the hills they are covered with tall
lemon-grass (Andropogon schoenanthus), of which the op-
pressive perfume and coarse texture, when full grown,
render it so distasteful to cattle, that they will only crop
the delicate braird which springs after the surface has
been annually burnt by the Kandyans. Two stunted
trees, alone, are' seen to thrive in these extraordinary
prairies, Careya arborea, and Emblica officinalis, and
these only below an altitude of 4000 feet Above this,
the lemon-grass is superseded by hardier and more wiry
species ; the earth being still the same, a mixture of
iliiinlijMjilnl qnWTi largely impregnated with oxide of
" " fron^but wanting the phosphates and other salts which
are essential to highly organised vegetation.' The extent
of this patena land is enormous in Ceylon, amounting to
millions of acres ; and it is to be hoped that the com-
plaints which have hitherto been made by the experi-
mental cultivators of coflke in the Kandyan provinces
may hereafter prove exaggerated, and that much that
has been attributed to the poverty of the soil may even-
tually be traced to deficiency of skill on the part of the
early planters.
The natives in the same lofty localities find no defi-
cient returns in the crops of rice, which they raise in
the ravines and hollows, into which the earth from
above has been washed by the periodical rains ; but
rice cultivation is so entirely dependent on the pre-
with a carpet, the seeds of trees can
no longer terminate and fix them-
selves in the earth, although birds
and winds carry them continually
from the distant forests into the
Savannahs." — Narrative, vol. i. ch,
vi. p. 242.
1 Htjxboldt ia disposed to ascribe
the absence of trees in the vast grassy
plums of South* America to " the
destructive custom of setting fire to
the woods, when the natives want to
convert the soil into pasture I when
during the lapse of centuries grasses
and plants have covered the surface
ayGoogIc
28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Pavt I.
sence of water, that no inference can be fairly drawn
as to the quality of the soil from the abundance of the
harvest
The fields on which rice is grown in these mountains
form one of the most picturesque and beautiful objects
in the country of the Kandyans. Selecting an angular
recess where two hills converge, they construct a series
of terraces, rising stage above stage, and retiring as
they ascend along the slopes of each acclivity, up which
they are carried as high as the soil extends.1 Each
terrace is furnished with a low ledge in front, behind
which the requisite depth of water is retained during
the germination of the seed, and what is superfluous is
permitted to trickle down to the one below it. In order
to carry on this peculiar cultivation the streams are led
along the level of the hills, often from a distance of
many miles, with a skill and perseverance for which
the natives of these mountains have attained a great
renown.
In the lowlands to the south, the Boil partakes of
the character of the hills from whose detritus it is
to a great extent formed, -In it rice is the chief
article produced, and for iff cultivation the disinte-
grated laterite (cabook), when thoroughly irrigated, is
sufficiently adapted. The seed time in the southern
section of the island is dependent on the arrival of
the rains in November and May, and hence the moun-
tains and the maritime districts at their base enjoy
two harvests in each year — the Maha, which is sown
about July and August, and reaped in December and
January, and the Tatla, which is sown in spring, and
reaped from the 15th of July to the 20th September.
But owing to the different description of Beed sown in
particular localities, and the extent to which they are
1 The conToraion of the land into I borrowed from the Kandy&n Tenia-
these hanging farms is known in cular, in which the word "tutoedami"
Ceylon as " atsoedamkiny," a term | implies the propose aboye described.
oyGoogIe
Cur. L] TALAWA3. Vt
respectively affected by the raina, the seasons of seed-time
and harvest vary considerably on different .sides of the
island.' .
In the north, where the influence of the monsoons1
is felt with less force and regularity, and where, to
counteract their uncertainty, the rain is collected in
reservoirs, a wider discretion is left to the husband-
man in the choice of season for his operations.8 Two
crops of grain, however, are the utmost that is taken from
the land, and in many instances only one. The soil near
the coast is light and sandy, but in the great central
districts of Neuera-kalawa and the Wanny, there is
found in the midst of the forests a dark vegetable
mould, in which in former times rice was abundantly
grown by the aid of prodigious artificial works for irri-
gation, the ruins of which still form one of the wonders
of the island. Even after centuries of neglect, the beds of
many of these tanks cover areas of from ten to fifteen
miles in circumference. They are now generally broken
and decayed; the waters which would fertilise a province
are allowed to waste themselves in the sands, and hundreds
of square miles capable of furnishing food for all the in-
habitants of Ceylon are abandoned to solitude and
malaria, whilst rice for the support of the non-agricultural
population is annually imported from the opposite coast
of India.
Talawas. — In these districts of die lowlands, espe-
cially on the eastern coast of the island, and in the
country watered by the Mahawelli-ganga and the other
great rivers which flow towards the Bay of Bengal and
the magnificent estuary of Trincomalie, there are open
glades which diversify the forest scenery somewhat
■ The reaping of other descriptions
of grain besides rice occurs at various
periods of the fear, according to the
* SeeVoL I. p. 67.
1 This peculiarity of the north of
Ceylon m noticed by the Chinese
traveller Fa IIiaw, who visited the
island in the fourth century, and says
of the country around Anarajapoors :
"L'ensemeucement des champs est
suivant la volonW des gens; il n'y
a point de .temps pour cela."— Fm
Kovi Ki, p. 382.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
98 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Putt I.
resembling the grassy patenas in the hills, but differing
from, them in the character of their soil and vegetation.
These park-like meadows, or, as the natives call them,
** talawas," vary in extent from one to a thousand acres.
They are belted by the surrounding -woods, and studded
with groups of timber and sometimes with single trees
of majestic dimensions. Through these pastures the
deer troop in herds within gunshot, bounding into the
nearest cover when disturbed.
Lower still and immediately adjoining the sea-coast,
tRe broken forest gives place to brushwood, with here
and there an assemblage of dwarf shrubs ; but as far as
the eye can reach, there is one vast level of impenetrable
jungle, broken only by the long sweep of salt marshes
which form lakes in the rainy season, but are dry between
the monsoons, and crusted with crystals that glitter like
snow in the sunshine.
On the western side of the island the rivers have
formed broad alluvial plains, in which the Dutch at-
tempted to grow sugar. The experiment has been often
resumed since ; but even here the soil is so defective,
that the cost of artificially enriching it has hitherto been a
serious obstruction to success commercially, although in
one or two instances, plantations on a small scale have
succeeded to a certain extent
Metals. — The plutonic rocks of Ceylon are hut
slightly metalliferous, and hitherto their veins and de-
posits have been but imperfectly examined. The first
successful survey attempted by the Government was
undertaken during the administration of "Viscount Tor-
rington, who, in 1847, commissioned Dr. Gygax to
proceed to the hill district BOuth of Adam's Peak, and
furnish a report on its products. His investigations
extended from Eatnapoora, in a south-eastward direc-
tion, to the mountains which overhang Bintenne, but
the results obtained did not greatly enlarge the know-
ledge previously possessed. He established the exist-
oyGoogIe
Cur. I.] METAI& 29
ence of tin in the alluvium along the base of the moun-
tains to the eastward towards Edelgashena; but so cir-
cumstanced, owing to. the stream of the Wellaway, that,
without lowering the level of the river, the metal- could
not be extracted with advantage. The position in which
it occurs is similar to that in which tin ore presents itself
in Saxony; and along with it, the Singhalese, when search-
ing for gems, discover garnets, corundum, white topazes,
zircon, and tourmaline.
Gold is found in minute particles at Gettyhedra, and
in the beds \t£ the Maha Oya and other rivers flowing
towards the west1 But the quantity hitherto discovered
has been too trivial to reward the Bearch. The early in-
habitants of the island were not ignorant of its presence ;
but its occurrence on a mtmorable occasion, as well as
that of silver and copper, is recorded in the Mahawanso
as a miraculous manifestation, which signalised the
founding of one of the most renowned shrines at the
ancient capital1
Nickel and cobalt appear in. small quantities in Saf-
fragam, and the latter, together with rutile (an oxide of
titanium) and wolfram, may possibly find a market in
China for the colouring of porcelain.8 Tellurium, another
rare and valuable metal, hitherto found only in Transyl-
vania and the UraL has likewise been discovered in these
1 Kuan wellS, a fort about forty
milos distant from Colombo, derives
ita name from the Bands of the river
which flows below it,— rang-weUe,
the central province, is referable to
the same root — "the rock of gold."
* MaAawanno, ch. xxiii. p. 166.
167.
1 The Anatic Annual Register for
1799 contains the following : —
" A discovery has been lately made
hereof a varyriuh mine of quicksilver,
miles from this place. The
.LL »s are very promising, for
a handful of the earth on the surface
Madras Government." — P. 53. See
also Pkkctval's Ceylon, p. 639.
Joihvillb, in a MS. essay on The
Otology of Ceylon, now in the library
of the East India Company, says that
near Trincomalie there is " un sable
noir, compose' de detriments de trappe
et de cristaux de fer, dans lequel on
trouve par le lavage beaucoup de
oyGoogIc
10 PBTSICAL GEOGBAPHY. [Past I.
mountains. Manganese is abundant, and iron occurs
in the form of magnetic iron ore, titanite, chromate,
yellow hydrate, per-oxide and iron, pyrites. In most of
these, however, the metal is scanty, and the ores of little
comparative value, except for the extraction of manganese
and chrome. " But there is another description of iron
ore," says Dr. Gygax, in his official report to the Ceylon
Government, "which* is found in vast abundance, brown
and compact, generally in the state of carbonate, though,
still blended with a little chrome, and often molybdena.
It occurs in large masses and veins, one of which extends
for a distance of fifteen miles ; from it millions of tons
may be extracted, and when found adjacent to fuel and
water-carriage, it might be worked to a profit The
quality of the iron ore found tn Ceylon is singularly fine ;
it is easily smelted, and so pure when reduced as to re-
semble silver. The rough ore produces from thirty to
seventy-five per cent, and on an average fully fifty. The
iron wrought from it requires no puddling, and, converted
into steel, it cuts like a diamond. The metal could be laid
down in Colombo at £6 per ton, even supposing the ore
to be brought thither for smelting, and prepared with
English coal ; — anthracite being found upon the spot, it
could be used in the proportion of three to one of the
British coal ; and the cost correspondingly reduced."
Bemains of ancient furnaces are met with in all
directions precisely similar to those still in use amongst
the natives. The Singhalese obtain the ore they require
without the trouble of mining ; seeking a spot where the
soil has been loosened by the rains, they break off a sufj
ficient quantity, which, in less than three hours, they
convert into iron by the simplest possible means. None
of their furnaces are capable of smelting more than
twenty pounds of ore, and yet this quantity yields from
seven to ten pounds of good metal
The anthracite alluded to by Dr. Gygax is found in
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Chap, t] MINERALS. 81
the southern range of hills near Nambepane, in close
proximity to rich veins of plumbago, which are largely
worked in the same district, and the quantity of the
latter annually exported from Ceylon exceeds a thou-
sand tons. Molybdena is found in profusion dispersed
through .many rocks in Saffragam, and occurs in al-
luvium in grey scales, so nearly resembling plumbago
as to be commonly mistaken for it Kaolin, called by
the natives Kirimattie, appears" near Neuera-ellia, at He-
wahette, Kaduganawa, and in many of the higher ranges
as well as in the low country near Colombo ; its colour is
so clear as to be suitable for the manufacture of por-
celain'; but as yet the difficulty and cost of carriage
render it unavailing for commerce, and the only use to
which it has hitherto been applied is to serve for white-
wash instead of lime.
Nitre has long been known to exist in Ceylon, where
the localities in which it occurs are similar to those in
BraziL In Saflragam alone there ajre upwards of sixty
caverns known to the natives, from which it may be
extracted, and others exist in various parts of the island,
where the abundance of wood to assist in its lixiviation
would render that process easy and profitable. Yet so
sparingly has this been hitherto attempted, that even for
purposes of refrigeration, crude saltpetre is still imported
from India.2
Gems. — But the chief interest which attaches to the
1 The kaolin of Ceylon, according
to an analysis in 1847, consists of—
Pure kaolin , , . 700
Silica . . . .26-0
Molybdena and iron oxide 4-0
100-0
In the Ming-the, or hiatoiy of the
Ming dynasty, A.n. 1868—1643, by
Chan-ting-vuh, " pottery-stone is
enumerated among the imports into
China from Ceylon. — B. cccxxvi. p. 6.
1 The mineralogy of Ceylon has
hitherto undergone no scientific scru-
tiny, nor have its mineral productions
been arranged in any systematic and
comprehensive catalogue. Specimens
are to he found in abundance in the
hands of native dealers; but from
indifference or caution they express
their inability to afford adequate in-
formation as to their locality, then-
geological position, or even to show
with sufficient certainly that they
belong to the island. Dr. Gygax, as
the results of some years spent in ex-
ploring different districts previous to
DomzcdoyGoOglc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Paw I.
mountains and rocks of this region, arises from the
fact that they contain those mines of precious stones
■which from time immemorial have conferred renown
on Ceylon. The ancients celebrated the gems as well
as the pearls of "Taprobane;" the tales of mariners
returning from .their eastern expeditions supplied to
the story-tellers of the Arabian Nights their fables of
the jewels of "Serendib;" and the travellers of the
Middle Ages, on coming back to Europe, told of the
** sapphires, topazes, amethysts, garnets, and other costly
stones " of Ceylon, and of the ruby which belonged to
1647, was enabled to furnish a list of
which he had determined by personal
but thirty-seven species, the site of
inspection. These were ; —
1. Rock crystal
. Abundant
2. Iron quartz
3. Common quarto
, Saflragam.
. Abundant.
4 Amethyst
, Galls Back, Caltura.
6. Garnet
. Abundant
6. Cinnamon stone
. Belligam.
7. Harmotome .
. St Lucia, Colombo.
8. Hornblende .
. Abundant
9. Hypersthene .
Ditto.
10. Common corundum .
. Badulle.
11. Ruby
12. Chryaoberyl .
Ditto and Saflragam.
. Ratgsnga, North Saflragam.
18. Pleonaste ... *
. Badulla.
14. Zircon .
. Wellaway-ganga, Saflragam.
16. Mica
. Abundant .
16. Adular .
. Patua Hille, North-east
17. Common felspar
• Abundant,
18. Green felspar . .
19. Albito .
. Molly Matte*.
20. Chlorite .
21. Finite
. Patna Hills
22. Black tourmaline
. Neuera-ellia.
S3. Calcspar .
Abundant
24 Bitterspar
Ditto.
25. Apatite .
28. Fluorspar,
. G alls Back.
Ditto.
27. Chiastolite
. Mount Lavinia.
28. Iron pyrites .
. Per&denia.
29. Magnetic iron pyrites
Ditto, Raj awella.
30. Brown iron ore . *
. Abundant
81. Snathoee iron ore
32. Manganese
33. Molybden glance
. GalleBack.
, Saflragam.
. Abundant
84. Tin ore .
■ oanragsjn.
36. Areeniate of nickel .
Ditto.
38. Plumbago
. Morowa Corle.
87. EpUtilbite
■ St, Lucia.
..Google
Chap. I. J m GEMS. s>
the king of the island, "a span in length, without a
flaw, and brilliant beyond description."1
The extent to which gems are still found is sufficient
to account for the early traditions of their splendour
and profusion ; and fabulous as this story of the ruby
of the Kandyan kings may be, the abundance of gems
in Saffragam has given to the capital of the district
the name of Ratnapoora, which means literally "the
city of rubies."* They are not, however, confined to
this quarter alone, but quantities are still found on the
western plains between Adam's Peak and the sea, at
Neuera-eUia, in Oovah, at Kandy, at Mattelle in m the
central province, and at Buanwelle near Colombo, at
Matura, and in the beds of the rivers eastwards towards
the ancient Mahagam.
But the localities which chiefly supply the Ceylon
gems are the alluvial plains at the foot of the stu-
pendous hills of Saffragam, to which the detritus of the
rocks has been carried down and intercepted by the
slight elevations that rise at some distance from the
base of the mountains. The most remarkable of these
gem-bearing deposits is. in the flat country around
Ballangodde, south-east of Ratnapoora ; but almost
every- valley in communication with the rocks of the
higher ranges contains stones of more or less value, and
the beds of the rivers flowing southward from the
mountain chain are so rich in comminuted fragments
of rubies, sapphires, and garnets8, that their Bands in
h Century, Loud.
1818.
* In the vicinity of Ratnapoora
there are to be obtained masses of
quartz of the moat delicate rose
colour. Some pieces, which were
brought to me in Colombo, were of
extraordinary beauty ; and I have
reason to believe that it can be ob-
tained in nieces large enough to be
used as slabs for tables, or formed
iSto vases and columns, I may observe
VOL. I.
that similar pieces are to be found
in the south of Ireland, near Cork.
1 Mr. Bakes, in a work entitled
The Rifle and Hie Sotmd w Ceylon,
thus describes the sands of th a Maniek-
■um, near the ruins of Mahagam,
in the south -eastern extremity of the
island : — " The sand was composed
of mica, quarts, sapphire, ruby, and
jacinth ; but the large proportion of
ruby sand was so extraordinary that
it seemed to rival Sindbad's story of
the vale of gems. The whole of thi-i
DomzcdoyGoOglc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pa.
some places are Used by lapidaries in polishing the
softer stones, and in sawing the elephants' grinder*
into plates. The cook of a government officer at
Galle recently brought to him a ruby about the size
of a small pea, which he had taken from the crop of a
fowl
Of late years considerable energy has been shown by
those engaged in the search for gems ; neglected dis-
tricts have been explored, and new fields have been
opened up at such places as Karangoddq and Wera-
loopa, whence stones have been taken of unusual size
and value.
It is not, however, in the upper strata of gravel, nor
in those now in process of formation, that the natives
Bearch for gems. They penetrate to the depth of
from ten to twenty feet, in order to reach a lower
deposit distinguished by the name of NeUcm, in which
the objects of their Bearch are found. This is of so
remote an origin that it underlies the present beds of
rivers, and is generally separated from them or from
the superincumbent gravel by a hard crust (called
Kadua), a few inches in thickness, and so consolidated
as to have somewhat the appearance of laterite, or of
sun-burnt brick. The nellan is for the most part- hori-
zontal, but occasionally it is raised into an incline as it
approaches the base of the hills. It appears to have
been deposited previous to the irruption of the basalt,
and to have undergone some alteration from the contact.
It consists of water-worn pebbles firmly imbedded in
the soil, and occasionally there occur large lumps -of
granite and gneiss, in the hollows under which, as
well aa in M pockets" in the clay (which from their
Bhape the natives denominate " elephants* footsteps")
was valueless, hut the appearance of
the sand was very inviting, aa the
shallow stream in rippling oyer it
magnified the tiny gems into stones
of some magnitude. I pasted an hom
in vainly searching for a ruby worth
collecting, out the largest did not
exceed the size of a mustard seed."
— BAt£B.'eRxfie and Sotatd m Ceylon,
p. 181. "^
oyGoogle
Cuaf. ij ' amis. as
gems are frequently found in groups as if washed in
'by the current
The persons who devote themselves to this uncertain
pursuit are chiefly Singhalese, and the season selected
by them for "gemming" is between December and
March, when the waters are low.1 The poorer and least
enterprising adventurers betake themselves to the beds
of streams, but the most certain though the most costly
course is to sink pits in the adjacent plains, which are
consequently, indented with such traces of recent ex-
plorers. The upper gravel is pierced, the covering
crust is reached and broken through, and the nellan
being shovelled into conical baskets and washed to
free it from the sand, the residuum is carefully searched
for whatever rounded crystals and minute gams it may
contain.
It is strongly characteristic of the want of energy in
the Singhalese, that although for centuries these alluvial
plains and watercourses have been searched without
ceasing, no attempt appears to have been made to explore
the rocks themselves, in the debris of which the gems
have been brought down by the rivers. Dr. Gygax says :
" I found at Hima Pohura, on die south-eastern decline
of the Pettigalle-Kanda, about the middle of the descent;
a stratum' of grey granite containing, with ir#n pyrites
and molybdena, innumerable rubies from one-tenth to a
fourth of an inch in diameter, and of a fine rose colour,
but split and falling to powder. This is not an isolated
bed of minerals, but a regular stratum extending pro-
bably to the same depth and distance as the other
granite formations. I followed it as far as was practi-
cable for close examination, but everywhere in the
lower part of the valley I found it so decomposed that
the hammer sunk in the rock, and even bamboos were
growing in it On the higher ground near some
Germ and Gem Searching, by Mr. j
n 2
DomzcdoyGoOglc
86 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Pur L
small round hills which intercept it, I found the rubies
changed into brown corundum. Upon the hills them-
selves the trace was lost, and instead of a stratum there
was merely a wild chaos of blocks of yellow granite. I
carefully examined all the minerals which this stratum
contains, — felspar, mica, and quartz molybdena, and iron
pyrites, — and I found all similar to those I had pre-
viously got adhering to rough rubies offered for sale at
Colombo. I firmly believe that in suck strata the rubies
of Ceylon are originally found, and that those in the
white and blue clay at BaUangodde and Eatnapoora are
but secondary deposits. I am further inclined to believe
that these extend over the whole island, although often
intercepted and changed in' their direction by the rising
of the yellow granite." It is highly probable that the
finest, rubies are to be found in this rock perfect
and unchanged by decomposition; and that they are
to be obtained by opening a regular mine like the
ruby mine of Badakshan in Bactria described by Sir
Alexander Burnes. Dr. Gygax adds that having often
received the minerals of this stratum with the crystals
perfect, he has reason to believe that places are known
to the natives where such mines might be opened with
confidence of success.
Rubies ioth crystalline and amorphous are also found
in a particular stratum of dolomite at Bullatotte and
Badulla, in which there is a peculiar copper-coloured
mica with metallic lustre. Star rubies, the M asteria" of
Pliny (so called from their containing a movable six-
rayed star), are to be procured at Eatnapoora and for very
trifling sums. Hie blue tinge which detracts from the
value of the pure ruby, (whose colour should resemble
" pigeon's blood,") is removed by the Singhalese, by
enveloping the stone in the lime of a calcined shell and
exposing it to a high heat Spinel of extremely beauti-
ful colours is found in the bed of the Mahawelli-ganga at
Kandy, and from the locality it has obtained the name of
Candite.
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Chi v. L] GRM3. 87
It is strange that although the sapphire is obtained
in this region in greater quantity than the ruby, it has
never yet been discovered in the original matrix, and
the small fragments which sometimes occur in dolomite
show that there it is but a deposit. From its exquisite
colour and the size in which it is commonly found, it
is by far the most valuable gem of the island, A
piece which was dug out of the alluvium within a few
miles of Ratnapoora in 1853, was purchased by a Moor
at Colombo, in whose hands it was valued at upwards of
four thousand pounds.
The original site of the oriental topaz is equally un-
known with that of the sapphire. The Singhalese rightly
believe them to be the same stone only differing in
colour, and crystals are said to be obtained with one por-
tion yellow and the other blue.
Garnets of inferior quality are common in the gneiss,
but finer ones are found in the hornblende rocks.
Cinnamon-stone (which is properly a variety of
garnet) is so extremely abundant, that rocks con-
taining it in profusion exist in many places, especially
in the alluvium around Matura ; and at Belligam, a few
miles east from Foint-de-Oalle, a detached mass is so
largely composed of cinnamon-stones that it is carried
away in lumps for the purpose of extracting and polishing
them. ■
The Cats-eye is one of the jewels of which the
Singhalese are especially proud, from a belief that it is
only found in their island ; but in this I apprehend they
are misinformed, as specimens of equal merit have been
brought from Quilon and Cochin on the southern coast
of Hindustan. The cat's-eye is a greenish translucent
quartz, and when cut en caboehon it presents a moving
internal reflection which is ascribed to the presence of
filaments of asbestos. Its perfection is estimated by the
natives in proportion to the narrowness and sharpness of
the ray and the pure olive-tint of the ground over which
it plays.
D 3
DomzcdoyGoOglc
as PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. .tPMX I.
Amethysts are got in the gneiss, and some discoloured
though beautiful specimens in syenite ; they are too com-
mon to be highly esteemed. The "Matura Diamonds,"
which are largely used by the native jewellers, consist
of zircon, found in the ■ syenite not only uncoloured,
but also of pink and yellow tints, the former passing fox
rubies.
But one of the prettiest though commonest gems in
the island is the "Moon-stone," a variety of pearly
adularia presenting chatoyant rays when simply polished*
They are so abundant that the finest specimens may
be bought for a few shillings. These, with aqua marinat
a bad description of opal rock crystal in extremely large
pieces, tourmaline, and a number of others of no great
value, compose the list of native gems procurable in
Ceylon.1 Diamonds, emeralds, agates, carneliaus, and
turquoise, when they are exhibited by the natives, have
all been imported from India.
During the dynasty of the Kandyan sovereigns, the
right of digging for gems was a royalty reserved jealously
by the King ; and the inhabitants of particular villages
were employed in their search under the superintendence
of hereditary officers, with the rank of " Mudianse," By
the British Government the monopoly was early abolished
as a source of revenue, and no license is now required by
the jewel-hunters. .
Great numbers of persons of the worst-regulated
habits are constantly engaged in this exciting and pre-
carious trade ; and serious demoralisation is engendered
amongst the villagers by the idle and dissolute adven-
turers who resort to Sanragam. Systematic industry
suffers, and the cultivation of the land is frequently neg-
1 Caefwijii and some of the Arabian
geographers desert that the diamond
la found at Adam's Peak ; but this is
improbable, an there, is no formation
here resembling the catcaihao of
Brazil or the diamond conglomerate
of Golconda. If diamonds were of-
fered for sale in Ceylon, in the time
of the Arab navigators, they must
have been brought thither from
India. (Journ. An. Soc. Jknf. liii.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Out. I J OEMS. »
lected ■whilst its owners are absorbed in these 'speculative
and tantalising pursuits. The products of their searches
are disposed of to the Moors, who resort to Saffragam
from the low country, carrying up cloth and salt, to be ex-
changed for gems and coffee. At the annual Buddhist fes-
tival of the Pera-hara, a jewel-fair is held at Batnapoora,
to which purchasers resort from all parts of Ceylon. Of
late years, however, the condition of the people in Saffra-
gam has so much improved that it has become difficult to
obtain the finest jewels, the wealthier natives preferring
to retain them as investments : they part with them
reluctantly, and only for gold, which they find equally
convenient for concealment.1
The lapidaries who cut and polish the stones are
chiefly Moors, but their tools are so primitive, and
their skill so deficient, that a gem generally loses in
value by having passed through their hands. The
inferior kinds, such as cinnamon-stones, garnets, and
tourmaline, are' polished by ordinary artists at Kandy,
Matura, and Galle ; but the more expert lapidaries, who
cut rubies and sapphires, reside chiefly, at Caltura and
Colombo.
As a general rule, the rarer gems are less costly in
Europe than in Colombo. In London and Paris the
quantities brought from all parts of the world are suffi-
cient to establish something like a market value ; but, in
Ceylon, the supply is so uncertain that the price is
always regulated at the moment by the rank and wealth
of the purchaser. Strange to say, too, there is often an
unwillingness even amongst the Moorish dealers to sell
the rarest and finest specimens ; those who are wealthy
being anxious to retain them, and few but stones of
secondary value are offered for Bale. Besides, the
Rajahs and native Princes of India, amongst whom the
passion for jewels is universal, are known to give such
1 So eager is the appetite for | hare frequently been given tor a.
hoarding in these hills, that eleven I sovereign.
rupee* (aqua! to twenty-two abillingn) |
» 4
DomzcdoyGoOglc
40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Furl.
extravagant prices that the best are always sent to them
from Ceylon.
Erom the Custom House returns it is impossible to
form any calculation as to the value of the precious
stones exported from the island. A portion only ap-
pears, even of those sent to England, the .remainder
being despatched through the post-office, or carried away
by private parties. Of the total number found, one-
fourth is probably purchased by the natives themselves,
more than one-half is sent to the Continent of India, and
the remainder represents the export to Europe. Com-
puted in this way, the value of precious stones found in
the island may be estimated at about 10,000/. per annum.
Rivers. — From the mountainous configuration of the
country and the abundance of rain, the rivers are
large and numerous in- the south of the island — ten of
considerable magnitude flowing into the sea on the west
coast, between Pointnle-Galle and Manaar, and a still
greater number, though inferior in volume, on the east
In the low country, where the heat is intense and eva-
poration proportionate, the rivers derive little of their
supply from springs ; and the passing showers do scarcely
more than replace the moisture drawn by the sun from
the parched and thirsty soil.
Hence in the plains there are comparatively few rivu-
lets or running streams ; the rivers there flow in almost
solitary lines to the sea ; and the beds of their minor
affluents serve only to conduct to them the occasional
torrents which descend at the change of each monsoon,
their channels at other times being exhausted and dry.
But in their course through the hills, and the broken
ground at their base, they are supplied by numerous
feeders, which convey to them the frequent showers
that fall in these high altitudes. Hence their tracks
are through some of the noblest scenery in the world ;
rushing through ravines and glens, and falling over
precipitous rocks in the depths of wooded valleys,
they exhibit a succession of rapids, cataracts, and torrents,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Coat. I.] BIVEHS. • 41
unsurpassed in magnificence and beauty. On reaching
the plains, the boldness of their march and the graceful
outline of their sweep are indicative of the little obstruc-
tion opposed by the sandy and porous soil through which
they flow. Throughout their entire course dense forests
shade their banks, and, as they approach the sea, tama-
risks and over-arching mangroves mark where their
waters mingle with the tide.
Of all the Ceylon rivers, the most important by far
is the Mahawelli-ganga — the Ganges of Ptolemy —
which, rising in the south near Adam's Peak, traverses
more than one-third of the mountain zone *, drains up-
wards of fair thousand square miles, and flows into the
sea by a number of branches, near the noble harbour of
Trincomahe. The following table gives a comparative
view of the magnitude of the rivers that rise in the hills,
and of the extent of the low country traversed by each
of them : —
"
ttW
Squire Mile.
Length nf
Embouchure,
drained tn the
Moimuln
MalinweHi-gftngft .
Zone.
.bout
au™.
near Trincomalie .
1782
2300
134
Kirinde ....
at Mahagan . . .
34
800
62
Walkway . . .
near Hambangtotte
263
600
69
Neivalle ....
at Matura . . .
64
200
42
(Three Riven) . .
Gindurn ....
Dear Tangalle . .
nearG&Ue . . .
66
189
200
200
59
Kalu-oya ....
atCaltora . . .
841
800
72
KaW . . . .
The tfaymel or Ma-
Colombo. . . .
692
200
84
haoya ....
Dederoo-oya . . .
near Negombo , .
nearChUaw. . .
253
200
700
68
70
4212
6100
In addition to these, there are a number of large
rivers which belong entirely to the plains in the northern
and south-eastern portions of the island. The principal
are the ArivtS and the Mbderegam, which flow into
1 See ante, \i. 12, for u definition of what constitutes the '
lone" of Ceylon.
oyGoogle
43 PHYSICAL OBOG&APHr. [Fact I.
the Gulf of Manaar ; the Kala-oya and the Kandalady,
which empty themselves into the Bay of Calpentyn;
the Maniek or Kattragam, and the Koombookgam, oppo-
site to the Littje Bass rocks ; and the Naveloor, the
Chadawak, and Arookgam, south .of Batticaloa. The
extent of country drained by these latter streams is little
short of thirteen thousand square miles.
Very few of the rivers of Ceylon are navigable, and
these only by canoes and flat-bottomed paddy boats,
which ascend some of the largest for short distances,
till impeded by the rapids, occasioned by rocks at the
lowest range of the hills. In this way the Neivalle at
Mature, can be ascended for about fifteen mile*, as far as
Wellehara ; the Kalu-ganga can be traversed from Cal-
tura to Batnapoora ; the Bentotte river for sixteen miles
to Pittagalla ; and the Kalany from Colombo to the foot
of the mountains near Ambogammoa. The Maha-
welli-ganga is navigable from Trincomalie to within a
short distance of Kandy l ; and many of the lesser
streams, the Kirinde and Wellaway in the south, and
the Kaymel, the Dedrcxwjya, and the Aripo river on the
west of the island, are used for short distances by boats.
All these streams are liable, during the fury of the
monsoons, to be surcharged with rain till they over-
flow their banks, and spread in wide inundations over
the level country. On the subsidence of their waters,
the intense heat of the sun acting on the surface they
leave deserted, produces a noxious and fatal malaria.
Hence the rivers of Ceylon present the curious anomaly,
that whilst the tanks and reservoirs of the interior dif-
fuse a healthful coolness around, the running water of the
rivers is prolific of fevers ; and in some seasons so deadly
is the pestilence that the Malabar coolies, as well as the
native peasantry, betake themselves to precipitate flight.8
1 Fot an account of the capabilities [ e It has been remarked along the
of the Mahawelli-ganga, as regards Mahawelli-ganga, a few miles from
navigation, nee ~Bv.aaK.Ks Report, liny. Kandy, that during the deadly season,
Geog. Jottrn. vol. ui. p. 223, and pod, after the subsidence of the rains, the
Vol, II. p. 423. [ jungle ferer generally attacks one
DoiiizcdoyGoOgle
Cm*. I.Q SA5D FOBMATION. 43
Few of the larger rivers have been bridged, except
those which intersect the great high roads from Point-
de-Galle to Colombo, and thence to Kandy. Near the
sea this has been effected by timber platforms, sustained
by piles sufficiently strong to withstand the force of the
floods at the change of each monsoon. A bridge of
boats connects each side of the Kalany, and on reach-
ing the Mahawelli-ganga . at Peradenia, one of the
most picturesque structures on the island is a noble
bridge of a single arch, 205 feet in span, chiefly con-
structed of satin-wood, and thrown across the river by
General Fraser in 1832. It is also crossed by a suspen-
sion-bridge recently erected at Gampola. The principal
rivers have been bridged, between Kandy and Kornegalle.
On reaching the margin of the sea, an appearance is
presented by the outline of the coast, near the em-
bouchures of the principal rivers, which is very remark-
able. It is common to both sides of the island, though
it has attained its greatest development on the east.
In order to comprehend its formation, it is necessary
to observe that Ceylon lies in the course of the ocean
currents of the Bay of Bengal, which run north or
south according to the pre-
valence of the monsoon, and
with greater or less velocity
in proportion to its force at
particular periods.
In the beginning and dur-
ing the strength of the north-
east monsoon the current sets
strongly along the coast of
Coromandel to the southward,
a portion of it frequently en-
tering PalkB Bay to the north of Ceylon ; but the main
stream keeping invariably to the east of the island,
face of the hills through which it [ vapour, being carried by the current
winds, leaving the opposite aide en- of air, affected only those aspects
tirelv exempted, na it the poisonous I against which it directly impinged.
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
IPamL
runs with a velocity of from one and a half to two
miles an hour, and after passing the Great Bass, its
course tends seaward. At other times, after the mon-
soon has spent its violence,
the current is weak, and
follows the line of the land
to the westward as far as
Point-de-Galle, or even to
Colombo.
In the south-west monsoon
the current changes its direc-
tion ; and, although it flows
steadily to the northward,
along the east shore of the
Indian Peninsula, its action is very irregular and unequal
till it reaches the Coromandel coast, after passing Ceylon.
This is accounted for by the obstruction opposed by
the headlands of Ceylon, which so intercept the stream
that the current, which might otherwise set into the Gulf
of Manaar, takes a south-easterly direction by Galle and
Dondera Head.1
There being no lakes in Ceylon8, in the still waters
of which the rivers might clear themselves of the earthy
matter swept along in their rapid course from the hills,
they arrive at the beach laden with sand and alluvium,
and at their junction with the ocean being met
transversely by the gulf-streams, the sand and soil
with which they are laden, instead of being carried
out to sea, are heaped up in bars along the shores.
These, augmented by similar deposits held in suspen-
1 For an account of the currants
of Ceylon, see IIohhburqh'h Direc-
tion/ for Sailing to and from the East
Indies, $c, vol. i. p. 510, 530, 580 ;
Kurm Johnston s Physical Atku,
piste liii. p. 50.
1 Pliny alludes to a lake in Ceylon
of vast dimensions, but it is clear
that hut informants must have spoken
of one of the huge tanks for the
purpose of irrigation. Some of the
Mappe-mondet of the Middle Ages
place s lake in the middle of the
island, with a city inhabited hj
astrologers ; but they have merely
reproduced the error of earlier geo-
graphers. (SantaxEM, Coemoff. torn.
oyGoogIe
Chat. I.] SAMD F0BMATI0N. 45
sion by the currents, soon .extend to north and 'south,
and force the rivers to flow behind them in search of a
new outlet
These formations once commenced, their growth pro-
ceeds with rapidity, more especially on the east side of
the island ; as the southern current in skirting the
Coromandel coast brings with it quantities of sand, which
it deposits, in tranquil weather, and this being carried
by the wind is piled in heaps from Point Pedro to
Hambangtotte. At the latter point hills are formed
of such height and dimensions, that it is often necessary
to remove buildings out of their line of encroachment1
At the mouths of the rivers the bars thus created
generally follow the direction of the
current, and the material deposited
being dried and partially consolidated
in the intervals between the tides, long
embankments are gradually raised, be-
hind which the rivers flow for con-
siderable distances "before entering the
sea. Occasionally their embouchures
become closed by the accumulations
without, and the pent-up water as-
sumes the appearance of a still canal,
more or less broad according to the
level of the beach, and extending for
miles along the coast, between the
mainland and the new formations.
When swollen, by the rains, if not as- ,
Bisted by artificial outlets to escape,
the rivers burst new openings for
themselves, and not unfrequently leave "°™BacofSV.'ni"
their ancient channels converted into shallow lagoons
without any visible exit Examples of these fonna-
1 This is occasioned by the waste 1 current, is intercepted by the head-
of the banks further north during the land at Hambangtotte and throws up
violence of the N. E. monsoon ; and these bills as described.
the sand, being carried south by the I
oyGoogIe
PHTSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
tPAKT I.
tions present themselves on. the east side of Ceylon at
Nilla-velle, Batticaloa, and a number of other places north
and south of Trincomalie.
On the west coast embankments of this kind, although
frequent are less conspicuous than on the east, owing
chiefly to the comparative weakness of the current.
For six months in the year during the north-east mon-
soon that side of the island is exempt
from a current in any direction, and
for the remaining six, the current to
the south not only .rarely affects the
Gulf of Manaar, but as it flows out of
the Indian Ocean it brings no earthy
deposits. In addition to this, the surf
during the south-west monsoon rolls
with such turbulence on the level beach
between Colombo and Point-de-Galle,
as in a great degree to disperse the
accumulations of sand brought down
by the rivers, or hea"ped up by the tide,
when the wind is off the land. Still,
many of the rivers are thrown back
by embankments, and after forming
tortuous lakes flow for a long distance
parallel to the shore, before finding an
" ao wM.sco1aTTHE escape for their waters. Examples of
this occur at Pantura, to the south of Colombo, and at
Negombo, Chilaw, and elsewhere to the north of it
In process of time these banks of sand1 become
1 In the voyages of The Two
Mahometan*, the unique MS. of
which dates about a.d. Ml, and is
now in the Bibliothoque Royale at
Paris, Abou-zeyd, one of its authors,
describes the "Gobbs" of Ceylon—
a word, he says, by which the natives
designate the valleys deep and broad
which open to the see. " En face de
cette ileilyaiie vastee Gobb, mot par
lequel on de"sitrne une vallee, quand
die est il la fois longue et large, et
qu'elle dtSbouche dans la mar. Leg
navigateura emploient, pour traveiv
ser le gobb *ppel4 ' Gobb do Se-
rendib,' deux mois et meme davant-
age, passant a travers des bout et des
jardina, au milieu d'une temperature
moyenne." — Kiunaui), Voyage* fait*
per le* Arabet, vol. i. p. 128. A,
oyGoogIe
SAND FOEMATION.
covered -with vegetation; herbaceous plants, shrubs, and
finally trees peculiar to saline soila make their ap-
jnisapprehenaion of this passage
has been admitted into the English
version of the Vogaget of the Uoo
Mahometans published in Pinkbb-
tox's Collection* of Voyage* and Tra-
vels, vol. iii. ; the translator having
treated " gobb " as a term ap-
plicable to valleys in general. " Cey-
lon," he says, " contains valleys of
great length, which extend to the
sea, and hero travellers repair for
two months or more, in which one is
called Gobb Serendib, allured by the
beauty of the scenery, chequered
with groves and plains, water and
meadows,* and blessed by a balmy air.
The valley opens to the sea, and is
transcendently pleasant" — PnfKEH-
ton's Vogaget, vol. vii. p. SIS.
But a passage in Edrisi, while it
agrees with the terms of Abou-zeyd,
explains at the same time that these
gobbs were not valleys converted
into gardens, to which the seamen
resorted for pleasure to spend two
or three months, but embouchures
of rivers flowing between bonis,
covered with gardens and forests,
into which mariners were accustomed
to conduct their vessels for more
secure navigation, and in which they
were subjected to detention for the
period stated. The passage is as
follows in Jaubert's translation of
Edrisi, torn. i. p. 78: — "Cette ile
(Serendib) depend des terras de
l'lnde ; ainsi que les vallees fin orig.
aghbafy par lesquelles ee dechargent
lee rivieres, et qu"on nomme ' Valleea
de Serendib.' Les navires y mouil-
lent, et les navigateurs y passent un
mois ou deux dans l'aobndance et
dans les plaisirB."
It is observable that Ptolemy, in
enumerating the ports and harbours
of Ceylon, maintains a distinction
■between tile ordinary bays, isliroc,
of which be specifies two correspond-
ing to those of Colombo and Trin-
comalie, and the shallower inden -
tfttions,iiuT|i', of which he enumerates
five, the positions' of which go far to
identify them with the remarkable
estuaries or gobbs, on the eastern and
western coast between B&tticaloa and
Calpentvn.
To tne present day these bitter
gulfs are navigable for small craft.
On the eastern side of the island one "
of them forms the harbour of Bat-
ticaloa, and on the western those of
Chilaw and Negombo are bays of
this class. Through the latter a con-
tinuous navigation has been com'
pleted by means of short connecting
canals, and a traffic is maintained
during the south-west monsoon, from
Csltura to the north of Chilaw, a
distance of upwards of eight; miles,
by means of craft which navigate
these shallow channels.
These narrow passages conform in
every particular to the description
given by Abou-zeyd and Edrisi : they
run through a succession of woods
and gardens ; and as a leading wind
is indispensable for their navigation,
the period named by the Arabian
geographers for their passage is per-
haps not excessive during calms or
adverse winds.
An article on the meaning of the
word gobb will be found in the
Journal Atiatique for September,
1844; but it does not exhibit clearly
the very peculiar features of these
openings. It is contained in an ex-
tract from the work on India of
AlbiboutJi, a contemporary of Ayi-
cenna, who was born m the valley of
the Indus. — "Un'golfe (gobb) est
comme une encoignure et un detour
que fait la mer eu penetrant dans le
continents : les navires n'y sont pss
sans pe"ril particuli&rement a regard
du flux et reflux." — Extrmt de fouo-
rage d* Albtbottki «w l'lnde ; Frag-
ment Arahet et Persons, rdntift a
Flnde, retmeHlet par M. Reimaud;
Journ. Ariat., Scptembre et Octobre,
1844, p. 201. In the Turkish nautical
workof SidiAliChelebt, the" Mo-
hit," written about A.D. 1660, which
contains directions for sailors navigat-
ing the eastern seas, the author alludes
to the gobbha't on the coast of Ai-
ay Google
48 PHYSICAL GKOOEAPHY. [Put I.
pearance in succession, and as these decay, their de-
composition generates a sufficiency of soil to sustain
continued vegetation.
The process of this conversion may be seen in all
its stages at various points along the coast of Ceylon.
The margin of land nearest to the water is first taken
possession of by a series of littoral plants, which
apparently require a large quantity of salt to stimu-
late vegetation. These at times are intermixed with
others, which, though found further inland, yet flourish
in perfection on the shore. On the northern and
north-western coasts the glass worts1 and salt worts*
are the first to appear on the newly raised banks, and
being provided with penetrating roots, a breakwater is
thus early secured, and the drier sand above becomes
occupied with creeping plants which in their turn afford
Bhelter to a third and erect class.
The Goat's-foot Ipomoea8, which appears to encircle
the world, abounds on these ahores, covering the surface
to the water's edge with its procumbent branches, which
sending down roots from every joint serve to give the
bank its first firmness, whilst the profusion of its purple-
coloured flowers contrasts strikingly with its dark green
foliage.
Along with the Ipomoea grows the moodurgaeta-kola \
(literally the "jointed sea-shore plant") with pink
flowers and thick succulent leaves, and two species of
bean8 each endowed with a peculiar facility for repro-
duction, all of which help to consolidate the sands into
which they strike.
Another plant which performs an important func-
racan ; and conscious that the term
was local and not likely to be under-
stood beyond those countries, he adds
that "gobbha" means "agulffullof
e/ialbwsj shoait, and brtaken." See
translation by Vow Hakmbb, Aim
Atiat. Hoc. Sena, v. 406.
1 Salicoraia Indica.
' Salsola Indica.
>hylax maridma.
its. (Ctmavalia ob~
ttuifolia), whose flowers have the fra-
grance of the sweet pea, and Doiicho*
oyGoogle
Chat. I.] SAND FORMATION. 49
tion in Qie fertilisation of these arid formations, is the
Spinife* squarrosus, the " water pink," as it is sometimes
called by Europeans. Its seeds are contained in a
circular head, composed of a series of spine-like divisions,
which radiate from the stalk in all directions, making
the diameter of the whole about eight to nine inches.
When the seeds are mature, and ready for dispersion,
the heads become detached from the plant, and are
carried by the wind with great velocity along the sands,
over the • surface of which they are impelled on their
elastic spines. One of these balls may be followed
by the eye for miles as it hurries along the level shore,
dropping its seeds as it rolls, which speedily germinate
and strike root The globular heads are so buoyant as
•to float lightly on the water, and the uppermost spines
acting as sails, they are thus carried across narrow estua-
ries to continue the process of embanking on newly-
formed sand bars. Such an organisation irresistibly
suggests the "wonderful means ordained by Providence
to Bpread this valuable plant along .the barren beach
to which seed-devouring birds seldom resort. Even
the unobservant natives, struck by its singular utility
in resisting the encroachments of the sea, have re-
corded their admiration by conferring on it the name of
Maha-Rawana rceumla, — " the great beard of Kawana."1
The banks being thus ingeniously protected from the
action of the air above, and of the water at their base,
other herbaceous plants soon cover them in quick suc-
cession, and give the entire surface the first carpet of
vegetation. A little retired above high water are to be
found a species of Aristolochia1, the Sayan8, or Choya,
1 See the story of Iiamti- Vol. I. p.
678.
3 Arintnhchxa bracteata. On the
Bands to the north of Ceylon there is
also the A. Indica, which forma the
food of the great block and red but-
terfly (Papjlw Sector).
VOL. I.
' Hcdyotis umbeHata. A veiy cu-
rious account of the Dutch policy in
relation to Choya dye will be found in
a paper On the Vegetable Produc-
tionxof Ceylon, by W. C. Okbaatjie,
in the Ceylon Calendar for 1853.
See also Bemolacci, B. iii. p. 270.
ayGoogIc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Fa.
the roots of which are the Indian Madder (in which,
under the Dutch Government, some tribes in the Wanny
paid their tribute); the gorgeous Gloriosa superba,
the beautiful Vistnw-karandi1 with its profusion of
blue flowers, that remind one of the English "Forget-
me-not," and - the thickly-matted verdure of the Sir-
amana-deetta*, so well adapted for imparting con-
sistency to the soil In the next stage low shrubs
make their appearance, their seeds being drifted by the
waves and wind, and taking ready root wherever they
happen to rest. The foremost of these are the Scs-
volas8 and Screw Pines4, which grow luxuriantly
within the actual wash of the tide, while behind them
rises a dense growth of peculiar plants, each distin-
guished by the Singhalese by the prefix of " moodu" to
indicate its partiality for the sea.6
Where the sand in the lagoons and estuaries is more
or less mingled with the alluvium brought down, by
the rivers, there are plants of another class that are
equally characteristic Amongst these the Mangroves6
take the first place in respect to their mass of vege-
tation ; then follow the Belli-patta \ and Suriya-
gaha8, with their large hibiscus-like flowers; the Ta-
marisks 9 ; the Acanthus 10, with its beautiful blue
petals and holly-like leaves ; the Water Coco-nut u ;
the jEgiceras and Hernandia ", with its sonorous
fruits ; while the dry sands above are taken possession
of by the Acacias, Salvadora Persica (the true mus-
1 Evol vulus nJ sin oid pa.
' Lippia nodiflora.
1 Scfevola takkada and S. Kcenigii.
* Pandanus odoratissimus.
* MiKKlu-kaduru(OeAromnjiarttJrfo-
rd) ; Moodu-cobbe (Ormtrophc .
rata) : Moodu-murunga (Sophora
meniom), &c. &c. Amongst these
marine shrubs the Nil-picha (ftirf-
tarda tpedota), with its white and
delightfully fragrant flowers, is a con-
Point-de-Galle.
6 Two species of Rhaophora, two
of Bruguiera, and one of Ceriept,
7 Paritium tiliaceum.
10 Dilivaria iliciiblia.
" Nipa fruticans.
19 Hernandia soDora.
ayGoogIc
Chap. I.]
SAND FORMATION.
tard-tree of Scripture1, "which here attains a height of
forty feet), Ixoras, and the numerous family of Cassias.
Lastly, after a sufficiency of earth lias been formed by
the decay of frequent successions of their less important
predecessors, the ground becomes covered by trees of
ampler magnitude, most of which are found upon the
adjacent shores of the mainland — the Margosa2, from
whose seed the natives express a valuable oil ; the
Timbiri8, with the glutinous nute with which the fisher-
men " bark " their nets ; the Cashu-nut * ; the Palu s, one
of the most valuable timber trees of the Northern Pro-
vinces ; and tjie "Wood-apple e, whose fruit is regarded
by the Singhalese as a specific for dysentery.
But the most important fact connected with these
recently formed portions of land, is their extraordinary
suitability for the growth of the coco-nut, which re-
quires the sea-air (and in Ceylon at least appears never
to attain its full luxuriance when removed to any con-
siderable distance from it)7, and which, at the same time,
1 The identification of this tree
with the mustard-tree alluded to hj
our Saviour in as interesting fact.
The Greek term oivans, which occurs
Matt. xiii. 31, and elsewhere, is the
name given to mustard; for which
the Arabic equivalent is chardtd or
khardai, and the Syriac khardalo.
The same name is applied at the
present day to a tree which grows
freely in the neighbourhood of Jeru-
salem, and generally throughout
Palestine ; the seeds of which have
an aromatic pungency, which enables
them to be used instead of the ordi-
nary mustard (Sinapin nigra) ; be-
sides which, its structure presents all
the essentials to sustain the illus-
tration sought to be established in
the parable, some of which are want-
ing or dubious in the common plant.
It has a very small seed ; it may be
sown in a garden : it grows into an
"herb," and eventually "becometh
a tree ; so that the birds of the air
come and lodge in the branches there-
of." With every allowance for the
of the domestic tmapa
scarcely j ustify the last illustration ;
besides which it is an annual, and
cannot possibly be classed as a " tree."
The khardai grows abundantly iq
Syria I it was found in Egypt by Sir
Gardner Wilkinson ; in Arabia by
Rovfi; on the Indus by Sir Alex-
ander Burnes: and throughout the
north-west of India it bears the
name of khnrjal. Combining all
these facto, Dr. Royle, in an erudite
paper, has shown demonstrative
reasons for believing that the Sal-
■eiulora Parmca, the "kharjal " of Hin-
dustan, is the "khardai of Arabia,
the " chard ul " of the Talmud, and
the " mustard-free " of the parable.
1 Azadirachta Indies,
1 Diospyros glutinosa.
* Anacardium occidentale.
* Mimusops hexandra.
* ^gle marmelos.
7 Coco-nuts are cultivated at mo-
derate elevations in '
Google
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Paw I
requires a light and sandy soil, and the constant presence
of water in large quantities. All these essentials are
combined in the sea-belts here described, lying as they
do between the ocean on the one side and the fresh-water
lakes formed by the great rivers on the other, thus
presenting every requisite of soil and surface. It is
along a sand formation of this description, about forty
miles long and from one to three miles broad, that
thriving coco-nut plantations have been recently com-
menced at Batticaloa. At Calpentyn, on the western
coast, a like formation has been taken advantage of for
the same purpose. At Jaffna somewhat, similar pecu-
liarities of soil and locality have been seized on for this
promising cultivation; and, generally, along the whole
seaborde of Ceylon to the south and west, the shore
for the breadth of one or two miles exhibits almost con-
tinuous groves of coco-nut palms.
Harbours. — With the exception of the estuaries above
alluded to, chiefly in the northern section of the island,
the outline of the coast is interrupted by few sinuosities.
There are no extensive inlets, or bays, and only two
harbours — -that of Point-de-Galle> which, 'in addition to
being incommodious and small, is obstructed by coral
rocks, reefs of which have been upreared to the surface,
and render the entrance critical to strange ships1; and
the magnificent basin of Trincomalie, which, in extent,
security, and beauty, is unsurpassed by any haven in
the world.
Tides. — The variation of the tides is so slight that
navigation is almost unaffected by it The ordinary
Tillages of the interior ; but the fruit
beats no comparison, in number,
size, or weight, with that produced
in the lowlands, and near the sea, on
either aide of the island.
1 Owing to the obstructions at its
entrance, Galle is extrumcly difficult
of access in particular winds. In
1857 it was announced in the Colombo
Examiner that " the fine ship the
' Black Eagle ' waa blown out of Galls
Uoads the other day, with the pilot
on board, whilst the captain was tem-
porarily engaged on shore; and as
she was not able to beat in again, she
made for Trincomalie, whore she haa
been lying for a fortnight. Such an
event is by no means unprecedented
at Qoile*'— Colombo Rxamirurr, 20
Sept 1867.
oyGooglc
Chap. I.] POPULATION. 53
rise and fall is from 18 to 24 inches, with an increase of
about.a third at spring tides. High water is later on the
eastern than on the western coast ; occurring, at full and
new moon, a little after 11 o'clock at Adam's Bridge,
about 1 o'clock at Colombo, and 1.25 at Galle, whilst it
attains its greatest elevation between 5 and 6 o'clock in
the harbour of Trincomalie.
Red infusoria. — On both Bides of the island (but
most frequently at Colombo), during the south-west
monsoon, a broad expanse of the sea assumes a red
tinge, considerably brighter than brick-dust; and this
is confined to a space so distinct that a line seems to
separate it from the green water which flows on either
side. Observing that the whole area changed its position
without parting with any portion of its colouring, I had
some of the water brought on shore, and, on examination
with the microscope, found it to be filled with infusoria,
probably similar to those which have been noticed near
the shores of South America, and whose abundance has
imparted a name to the " Vermilion Sea" off the coast of
Califcrnia.
The Population op Ceylon, of all races, was, in 1857,
1,697,975 ; but this was exclusive of the military and
their families, both Europeans and Malays, which together
amounted to 5,430 ; and also of aliens and other casual
strangers, forming about 25,000 more.
The particulars are as follow: —
—
Whitei.
Coloured.
Toul.
Population
io. mile.
Mils.
Female*.
MalM.
F-*..
KUM. Female*.
WeMem .
N. Western
Southern .
Central. .
1,293
31
338
SOI
887
1,346
11
341
148
363
304
293,409
100,807
156,900
39,933
193,063
143,472
259,106
96,386
149,649
35,531
148,678
116,237
294,702
100,838
157,138
40,134
153,449
143,940
260,353
96,397
149,890
39,674
149,040
116,441
146-59
59-93
143-72
16-08
95.89
52-57
2,608
3,207
887,573
805,587
890,181
807,794
69-73
oyGoogIc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAP. n
CLIMATE. — HEALTH AND DISEASE.
TnE climate of Ceylon, from its physical configuration
and insular detachment, contrasts favourably with that
of the great Indian peninsula. Owing to the moderate
dimensions of the island, the elevation of its mountains,
the very, short space during which the sun is passing
over it1 in his regression from or approach to the sol-
stices, and to the fact of its surrounding seas being nearly
uniform in temperature, it is exempt from the extremes
of heating and cooling to which the neighbouring con-
tinent of India is exposed From the same causes it
is subjected more uniformly to the genial influences of
the trade winds that blow over the Indian Ocean and
the Bay of Bengal.
The island is seldom visited . by hurricanes2, or
swept by typhoons, and the breeze, unlike the hot and
arid winds of Coromandel and the Dekkan, is always
more or less refreshing. The range of the thermometer
exhibits no violent changes, and never indicates a tem-
. perature insupportably high. The mean on an annual
1 In hie approach to th« northern
solstice, the sun, having passed the
equator on the 21st of March, reaches
the south of Ceylon about the 6th of
April, and ten days later is vertical
over Point Pedro, the northern ex-
tremity of the island. On his return
ho is again over I'oint Pedro about
the 27 tli of August, and passes
southward over Pondera Head about
the 7th of September.
• The exception to the exemption
of Ceylon from hnrricanee is the
occasional occurrence of a cyclone
extending its circle till the verge
has sometimes touched Barticaloa, on
the south-eastern extremity of the
island, causing damage to vegetation
and buildings. Such an event is, how-
ever, exceedinglv rare. On the 7th of
January, 1806, 1I.M.S. "Sheerneas''
and two others were driven on shore
in a hurricane at Trincomalie,
Google
Our. II.] CLIMATE. 05
average scarcely exceeds 80° at Colombo, though in
exceptional years it has risen to 86°. But at no period
of the day are dangerous results to be apprehended
from exposure to the sun ; and except during parts of
the months of March and ApriL there is no season when
moderate exercise is not practicable and agreeable.
For half the year, from Qttober to May, the prevailing
winds are from the north-east, and during the remaining
months the south-west monsoon blows steadily from die
great Indian Ocean. The former, affected by the wintry
chills of the vast tracts of Northern Asia which it traverses
before crossing the Bay of Bengal, is subject to many local
variations and intervals of calm. But the latter, after
the first violence of its outset is abated, becomes nearly
uniform throughout the period of its prevalence, and
presents the character of* an on-shore breeze extending
over a prodigious expanse of sea and land, and exert-
ing a powerful influence along the regions bordering on
India,
In Ceylon the proverbial fickleness of the winds, and
the Uncertainty which characterises the seasons in north-
ern climates, is comparatively unknown'; and the occur-
rence of changes or rain may be anticipated with con-
siderable accuracy in any month of a coming year.
There are, of course, abnormal seasons with higher
ranges of temperature, heavier rains, or droughts of
longer continuance, but such extremes are exceptional
and rare. Great atmospheric changes occur only* at
two opposite periods of the year, and so gradual is then-
approach that the climate is almost monotonous, and
one longs for " the falling of the leaf " to diversify the
sameness of perennial verdura The line is fiunt which
divides the seasons. No period of the year is divested
of its seed-time and its harvest in some part of the
island ; and fruit hangs ripe on the same branches that
are garlanded with opening buds. But as every plant
has its own period for. the production of its flowers and
fruit, each month is characterised by its peculiar flora.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
« PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Past I.
As regards the foliage of the trees, it might be
expected that the variety of tints would be wanting
which forms the charm of a European landscape, and
that all nature would wear one mantle of unchanging
green. But it has been remarked by a tasteful observer1
that such is far from the fact, and though in Ceylon there
is no revolution of seasons, Ae change of leaf on the
same plant exhibits colours as bright as those which
tinge the autumnal woods of America. It is not the
decaying leaves, but the fresh shoots, that exhibit these
brightened colours, the older are still vividly green, whilst
the young are bursting forth ; and the extremities of the
branches present tufts of pale yellow, pink, crimson, and
purple, which give them at a distance the appearance of
clusters of flowers.2
A notice of the variations exhibited by the weather
at Colombo may serve as an index to the atmospheric
condition of the rest of the island, except in those por-
tions (such as the mountains of the interior, and the
low plains of the northern extremity) which exhibit
modifications of temperature and moisture incident to
local peculiarities.
January, — At the opening of the year, the north-east
Wina N E monsoon, which* sets in two months
Temperature, si hoprs : previously, is nearly in mid career.
Mean greatest 85-6° *. •■,■•* .1 i .,,
Mean least . . ess" This wind, issuing from the dull
Bam (inches) . . 31 north ^ robbed Qf itg aquepug va.
pour in passing over the elevated mountain regions on
the confines of China and Thibet, sweeps across the
Bay of Bengal, whence its lowest Btrata imbibe a quan-
1 Prof. Harrey, Trin. Coll. Dublin.
1 Somo few trees, such as the
margoas, (Azadirachta Indica), the
country almond (TiTirtiimlia caiap-
pa), and others, are deciduous, and
part with their leaves. The cinna-
mon shoots forth in all shades from
bright yellow to dark crimson. The
jnaella (Oltix Zeylanicd) lias always a
copper colour; and the iron wood
trees of the interior have a perfect
blaze of young crimson leaves, aa
brilliant as Bowers. The lovi-lovi
(Flacourtia tnermis) has the same
peculiarity; while the large bracts
of the mussomda (Mtttttriida fron-
dosd) attract the. notice of Europeans
for 'their singular whiteness.
oyGoogIe
CiiAr. II.] CLIMATE. «T
tity of moisture, moderate in amount, yet still leaving
the great mass of air far below saturation. Hence it
reaches Ceylon comparatively dry, and its general effects
are parching and disagreeable. This character is - in-
creased as the sun recedes towards its most southern
declination, and the wind acquires a more direct draught
from the north; passing over the Indian peninsula and
becoming almost divested of humidity, it blows down the
western coast of the island, and is known there by the
name of the "along-shore-wind." For a time its influence
is uncomfortable and its effects injurious alike to health
and to vegetation : it warps and rends furniture, dries up
the surface of the earth, and withers the delicate verdure
which had sprung up during the prevalence of the pre*
vious rains. These characteristics, however, subside
towards the end of the month, when the wind becomes
Bomewhat variable with a westerly tendency and occa-
sional showers ; and the heat of the day is then partially
compensated by the greater freshness of the nights. The
fall of rain within the month scarcely exceeds three inches.
February is dry and hot during the day, but the nights
-yyj^ NE_ are cloudless and cool, and the moon-
Temperuure, 24 how* : hprht sinffularly agreeable. Bain is
Mean greatest . 89° P i° T. -T -a. r 11 ■
Mean least . . ti° rare, but when it occurs it falls m
Bain (mcho) . . 2-i dashes, succeeded by damp and sultry
calms. The wind is unsteady and shifts from north-east
to north-west, sometimes fading entirely between noon and
twilight. The quantity of rain is less than in January,
and the difference of temperature between day and night
is frequently so great as 15° or 20°.1
1 Dr. Macyicab, in a paper in the
Ceylon Misce&my, July, 1843, re-
corded the results of some experi-
menter made near Colombo, as to the
daily variation of temperature and
its effects on cultivation, from which
it appeared that a register thermo-
meter, exposed on a tuft of gross in
the cinnamon garden in a clear night
and under the open aky, on the 2nd of
January, 1841, showed in the mom-
ins that it bad been so low as 52°
Falir., and when laid on the ground in
the same place in the aunshine on the
following day, it rose to upwards of
140°. These were results of direct,
and unimpeded radiation.
^Google
S8 PIIYSICAC GEOGRAPHY. [Paw I.
March. — In March the heat continues to increase,
wind N.B. to N.w. the earth receiving more warmth than
Temperature, 2* bom; it radjates or parts with by evapora-
Mean greatest 87'7° . . * J r
Mean lent". . 78*1° tion. The day becomes oppressive,
Bab. (inches) ... 21 ^ mgnts unrefreshing, the grass is
withered and brown, the earth hard and cleft, the lakes
shrunk to shallows, and the rivers evaporated to dry-
ness. Europeans now escape from the low country, and
betake themselves to the shade of the forests adjoining
the coffee-plantations in the hills ; or to the still higher
sanatorium of Neuera-ellia, nearly the loftiest plateau in
the mountains of the Kandyan range. The winds, when
any are perceptible, are faint and unsteady with a still
increasing westerly tendency, partial showers sometimes
fall, and thunder begins to mutter towards sunset. At
the close of the month, the mean temperature will be
found to have advanced about a degree, but the sensible
temperature and the force of the sun's rays are felt in a
still more perceptible proportion.
April is by far the most oppressive portion of the year
wind n.w. to &w. for those who remain at the sea-level
Temperature, s* noun: 0f the island. The temperature Con-
Mean greatest . 88-7° . . . ■ . r, . .
Mean leut . . . 73-6° tinues to me as the sun in his northern
Bam (inche*) ... 7-4 progress passes vertically over the
island. A mirage fills the follows with mimic water ; the
heat in close apartments becomes extreme, and every
living creature flies, to the shade from the suffocating-
glare of mid-day. At length the sea exhibits symptoms
of an approaching change, a ground swell sets in from
the1 west, and the breeze towards sunset brings clouds and
grateful ehowers. At the end of the month the mean
temperature attains its greatest height during the year,
being about 88° in the day, and 10° lower at night
May is signalised by the great event of the change
wind n.w. tos.w. °^ *ne monsoon, and all the grand
Temperature, H4 hours: phenomena which accompany its ap-
Mean greatest . 87-2° r ' , tr r j r
Mean least . . 72-9° proach.
Rain (inche.) . . 13"8 jt fc difficult for ^ one wno has not
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cm*. II.] CLIMATE. 69
resided in the tropics to comprehend the feeling of en-
joyment which accompanies these periodical commo-
tions of the atmosphere; in Europe they would be
fraught with annoyance, but in Ceylon they are wel-
comed with* a relish proportionate to the monotony they
dispeL
Long before the wished-for period arrives, the ver-
dure produced by the previous rains becomes almost
obliterated by the burning droughts of March and
April The deciduous trees shed their foliage, the plants
cease to put forth fresh leaves, and all vegetable life
languishes under the unwholesome heat. The grass
withers on the baked and cloven earth, and red dust
settles on the branches and thirsty brushwood. The
insects, deprived of their accustomed food, disappear
underground or hide beneath the decaying bark; the
water-beetles bury themselves in the hardened mud of
the pools, and the helices retire into the crevices of the
stones or to hollows amongst the roots of the trees,
closing the apertures of their shells with the hybernating
epiphragro. Butterflies are no longer seen hovering over
the flowers, the birds appear fewer and less joyous, and
the wild animals and crocodiles, driven by the drought
from their accustomed retreats, wander through the
jungle, and even venture to approach the village wells in
search of water. Man equally languishes under the
general exhaustion, ordinary exertion becomes distasteful,
and even the native Singhalese, although inured to the
climate, moves with lassitude and reluctance.
Meanwhile the air becomes loaded to saturation with
aqueous vapour drawn up by the augmented force of
evaporation acting vigorously over land and sea: the
sky, instead of its brilliant blue, assumes the sullen tint
of lead, and not a breath disturbs the motionless rest of
the clouds, that hang on the lower range of hills. At
length, generally about the middle of the month, but
frequently earlier, the sultry suspense is broken by
the arrival of the wished-for change. The sun has by
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [T*»tI.
this time nearly attained his greatest northern declina-
tion, and created a torrid heat throughout the lands of
southern Asia and the peninsula of India. The air,
lightened by its high temperature and such watery
vapour as it may contain, rises into loftier cegions and
is replaced by indraughts from the neighbouring sea,
and thus a tendency is gradually given to the forma-
tion of a current bringing up from the south the warm
humid air of the equator. The wind, therefore, which
reaches Ceylon comes laden with moisture, taken up in
its passage across the great Indian Ocean. As the
monsoon draws near, the days become more overcast
and hot, banks of clouds rise over the ocean to the west,
and in the sombre twilight the eye is attracted by the
unusual whiteness of the sea-birds that sweep along the
strand to seize the objects flung on shore by the rising
surf. At last the sudden lightnings flash among the hills
and sheet through the clouds that overhang tfie sea1,
and with a crash of thunder the monsoon bursts over
the thirsty land, not in showers or partial torrents,
but in a wide deluge, that in the course of a few hours
overtops the river banks and spreads in inundations over
every level plain.
All the phenomena of this explosion are stupendous :
thunder, as we are -accustomed to be awed by it in
Europe, affords but the faintest idea of its overpowering
grandeur in Ceylon, and its sublimity is infinitely
increased as it is faintly heard from the shore, re-
sounding through night and darkness over the gloomy
sea. The lightning, when it touches the earth where
1 The lightnings of Ceylon are so
remarkable, that in the middle ages
they were as well known to the
Arabian seamen, who coasted the
island on their way to China, as in
later times the storms that infested
the Cape of Good Hope were fami-
liar to early navigators of Portugal.
In the Mobil of Sioi Axi Ohelebi,
translated by Von Hammer, it is
stated that to seamen, sailing from
Diu to Malacca, " the sign of Ceylon
being near is continual lightning, he
it accompanied by rain or without
rain; 90 t&at 'the lightning of Ceylon
is proverbial for a liar!" — Jtntnt.
Anal. Soc, Beng. v. 465.
oyGoogIe
Chap. II.] CLIMATE. 61
it is covered with the descending torrent, flashes into
it and disappears instantaneously; but, when it strikes
a drier sunace, in seeking better conductors, it often
opens a hollow like that formed by the explosion of
a shell, and frequently leaves behind it traces of vitri-
fication.1 In Ceylon, however, occurrences of this kind
are rare, and accidents are seldom recorded from light-
ning, probably owing to the profusion of trees, and espe-
cially of coco-nut palms, which, when drenched with
rain, "intercept the discharge, and conduct the electric
fluid to the earth. The rain at these periods excites
the astonishment of a European : it descends in almost
continuous streams, so close and so dense that the level
ground, unable to absorb it sufficiently fast, is covered,
with one uniform sheet of water, and down the sides of
acclivities it rushes in a volume that wears channels in
the surface.2 For hours together, the noise of the
torrenr^as it beats upon the trees and bursts upon the
roofs, flowing thence in rivulets along the ground, occa-
sions an uproar that drqwns the ordinary voice, and
renders sleep impossible.
This violence, however, seldom lasts more than an
hour or two, and after intermittent paroxysms, it gra-
dually abates, and a serenely clear sky supervenes. For
Bome days, intensely heavy showers continue to fall at
1 See Daewdj's
j Xaturaliit't Voy-
., , i account of those
vitrified siliceous tubes which ore
formed by lightning entering loose
sand. During a. thunderstorm which
passed over Galle, on the IBth May,
1851, the fortifications were shaken
by lightning, and an extraordinary
cavity was opened behind the re-
taining wall of the rampart, where a
hole, a yard in diamgter, wag carried
into the ground to the depth of
twenty feet, and two chambers, each
six feet in length, branched out on
either side at its extremity.
1 One morning on awaking at
Pusilawa, in the hills between Kandy
and Neuera-ellia, I was takenVsec
the effect of a few hours' rain, during
the night, on a macadamised road
which I had passed the evening be-
fore. There had been no symptom of
a storm at sunset, and the morning
was again bright and cloudless ; but
between midnight and dawn such an
inundation had swept the hills that
in many places the metal had been
washed from the highways over the
face of the acclivities ; and in one
spot where a sudden bend forced the
torrent to impinge against a bank,
it had scooped out an excavation ex-
tending to the centre of the high
road, tnirteen feet in diameteT, and
deep enough to hold a carriage and
DomzcdoyGoOglc
62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Fast I.
intervals ; and the evenings are embellished by sunsets
of the most gorgeous splendour, lighting the fragments
of clouds that survive the recent "commotion.
June. — The extreme heat of the previous month
Wind aw becomes modified in June : the winds
Tempenmra, 34 honrs^ continue to blow steadily from the
m^H few* . . 74-4°. south-west, and frequent showers, ac-
Rain (inchw) . . 611 companied by lightning and thunder,
serve still further to difiuse coolness throughout the
atmosphere anil verdure over the earth.
So instantaneous is the response of Nature to the
influence of returning moisture, that, in a single day,
and almost between sunset and dawn, the green hue of
reviving vegetation begins to tint the saturated ground.
In ponds, from which but a week before the wind
blew clouds of sandy dust, the peasantry may be seen
catching the re-animated fish; and tank-shells and
water-beetles revive and wander over the suraierged
sedges. The efectricity of the air stimulates the vege-
tation of the trees ; and scarce a week elapses till
the plants become covered with the larvos of butter-
flies, the forest murmurs with the hum of insects,
and the air is again harmonious with . the voice of
birds.
The extent to which the temperature is reduced, after
the first burst of the monsoon, is not to be appre-
ciated by the indications of the thermometer alone. It
is rendered still more sensible by the altered density of
the air, the drier state of which is favourable to eva-
poration, whilst the increase of its movement bring-
ing it more rapidly in contact with the human body,
heat is more readily carried off, and the sensation
of coolness is proportionally increased. Occasionally
during the month of June the westerly wind acquires
considerable strength, and sometimes amounts to a mode-
rate gale. At this period, the fishermen seldom put to
sea: their canoes arc drawn far up in lines upon the
shore, and vessels riding in th# roads of Colombo are
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Chap. II.] CLIMATE. 63
often driven from their anchorage and stranded on the
beach.
July resembles, to aWgreat extent, the month which
wind s.w. precedes it, except that, in all parti-
Tempe™tnre,a*iionr«: culars, the season is more moderate.
Mm greatest - 848° , , ~ . iL •
Mean least . . 74-9° showers are less frequent, there is
Rain (beta) . . 3 4 le8S ^^ &nd legg ftbsolute heat
August — In August the weather is charming, notwith-
wind s.w. standing a slight increase of sensible
Temperature, 94 honra: heat, owine to diminished evanora-
Mean greatest . 84 9° . , °. , . r .
He>n lean . . T4i° tion; and the sun being now on its
Rain (inches) ..as j^tum to the equator, its power is felt
in greater force on full exposure to its influence.
.September. — The same atmospheric condition con-
wind sw. * " tinues throughout September, .but to-
Temperaiure, 54 houn^ wards its close the sea-breeze becomes
Me«^ least . ! 74-8° unsteady and clouds begin to col-
Rain (inch*.) . . 5-8 fe^ symptomatic of the approaching
change to the north-east monsoon. The nights are
always clear and delightfully cooL Rain is sometimes
abundant.
October is more unsettled, the wind veering towards
wind s.w. and R.B. tne north, with pretty frequent rain ;
and as the sun is now far to
the southward, the heat continues to
decline,
i the close .of the south-west monsoon,
and the arrival of the north-eastern.
In the early part of the month the
i-s° wind visits nearly every point of the
compass, but shows a marked predi-
lection for the north, generally veering from N.E. at
night and early morning, to N.W. at noon ; calms are
frequent and precede gentle showers, and clouds form
round the lower range of hills. By degrees as the sun
advances in its southern declination, and warms the
lower half of the great African continent, the current
of heated air ascending sirom the equatorial belt leaves
oyGoogIe
Temperature, 94 hours:
Mean greatest . 85-1°
Mean least . . 73-3°
Rain (inches) . . 11-8
November
sees
WindN.E.
Temperature, 24 hours :
Mean greatest . 86-3°
Mean least . . 71-5°
Rain (inches) . . 10*7
M PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Past T.
a comparative vacuum, towards which the leas rarefied
atmoapheric fluid is drawn down' from the regions
north of the tropic, bringing T#th it the cold and dry
winds from the Himalayan Alps, and the lofty ranges
of Assam. The great phenomenon* is heralded as before
by oppressive calms, lurid skies, vivid lightning, bursts
of thunder, and tumultuous rain. But at this change
of the monsoon the atmospheric disturbance is- less
striking than in May ; the previous temperature is lower,
the moisture of the air is more reduced, and the change
ia less agreeably perceptible from the southern breeze
to the dry and parching wind from the north.
December. — In December the sun attains to its
Wind n.e. greatest southern declination, and tiie
Temperature 2* hours: wind setting steadily from the north-
Mean ie«st . . 70° east, brings with it light but frequent
Rwn (inehe.) . . * 8 rajM from ^ Bay of J^^ The
thermometer shows a maximum temperature of 85° with
a minimum of 70° ; the morning and the afternoon are
again enjoyable in the open air, but at night every
lattice that faces the north is cautiously closed against
the treacherous " along-shore-wind."
Notwithstanding the violence and volume in which
the rains have been here described as descending during
the paroxysms of the monsoons, the total rain-fall
in Ceylon is considerably less than on the continent of
India. Throughout Hindustan the annual mean is 117-5
inches, and on some parts on the Malabar coast, upwards
of 300 inches have fallen in a single year ' ; whereas
the average in Ceylon rarely exceeds 80, and the highest
quantity registered in an exceptional season was 120
inches. ■
The distribution is of course unequal, both as to
time and localities, and in those districts where the
1 At Mahabalesh-war, in the West- I Malabar, 268; whilst at Benpnl it v
era Ghaut*, the annual mean is 254 209 inches at Sylliet; and 0103 at
inches, and at Uttray Mullay, in j Cherraponja,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cm&f. II.] RAIN. 69
fall is most considerable, the number of rainless days
is the greatest.1 An idea may be formed of the deluge
that descends in Colombo during the change of the
monsoon, from the fact that out of 72*4 inches, the
annual average there, no less than 20-7 inches fall
in April and May, and 21-9 in October and November,
a quantity one-third greater than the total rain-fall in
England throughout an entire year.
In one important particular the phenomenon of the
Dekkan affortb an analogy Jo that which presents itself
in Ceylon. During the south-west mbnsoon the clouds
are driven against the lofty chain of mountains that
overhang the western shore of the peninsula, and their
condensed vapour descends there in copious showers.
The winds, thus early robbed of their moisture, carry
but little rain to the plains of the interior, and whilst
Malabar is saturated by daily showers, the sky of Coro-
mandel is clear and serene. In the north-east monsoon
a condition the very opposite exists ; the wind that then
prevails being much drier, and the hills which it en-
counters of lower altitude, the rains are carried .further
towards the interior, and whilst the weather is unsettled
and stormy on the eastern shore, the western is compa-
ratively exempt, and enjoys a calm and cloudless sky.a
In like manner the west coast of Ceylon presents a
contrast with the east, both in the volume of rain in
each of the respective monsoons, and in the influence
which the same monsoon exerts simultaneously on the
- one side of the island and on the other. The greatest
Id Jnmi&ry .
February
May
July '.
VOL. I.
In Augunt, . . . .10
September . . .14
October . . . .17
November , . .11
December . . .8
Total . . 118
* The mean of rain is, on tha west-
:rn side of the Dekkan, 80 inches, and
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pa.
quantity of rain fells on the south-western p
the month of May, when the wind from the Ind
portion, in
Indian Ocean
is intercepted, and its moisture condensed by the lofty
mountain ranges, surrounding Adam's Peak. The region
principally affected by it stretches from Point-de-GaiU»
as far north as Putlam, and eastward till it includes the
greater portion of the ancient Kandyan kingdom. But
the rains do not reach the opposite side of the island ;
whilst the west coast is deluged, the east- is sometimes
exhausted with dryness ; and it not unfrequently happens
that different aspects of the same mountain present at
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Cup. II. j
BAIN. — CLIMATE.
the eame moment the opposite extremes of drought and
moisture.1
On the east coast, on the other hand, the fall, during
the north-east monsoon, is very similar in degree to
that on the coast of Coromandel, «s the mountains are
lower and more remote from the sea, the clouds are
carried further inland, and it rains simultaneously on
both sides of the island, though much less oji the west
than during the other monsoon.
The climate of Galle, as already stated, resembles in
its general characteristics that of Colombo, but, being
further to the south, and more equally exposed to the
influence of both the monsoons, the temperature is
not quite so high ; and, during the cold season, it fells
some degrees lower, especially in the evening and early
morning.2
Kandy, from its position, shares in the climate of the
western coast ; but, owing to the frequency of mountain
showers, and the situation of the city, at an elevation of
upwards of sixteen hundred feet above the level of the
sea, it enjoys a much cooler temperature. The surrounding
hill* differ from the low country in one particular, which
is very striking — the early period of the day at which
the maximum heat is attained. This at Colombo is
generally between two and three o'clock in the after-
noon, whereas at Kandy the thermometer shows the
1 AomKALFrtzRorhaadeBcribed,
in his Narrative of the Voyage* of the
Adventure and Beagle, the striking
degree in which this simultaneous
dissimilarity of climate is exhibited
on opposite sides of the Galapagos
Islands ; one aspect exposed to the
south being covered with verdure
and freshened with moisture, whilst
all others are barren and parched. —
Vol ii. p. 603-3. The same state of
things exists in the east and west
sides of the Peruvian Andes, and in
tile mountains of Patagonia. And
no more remarkable example of it
exists than in the island of Socotra,
east of the Straits of Bab el Mandeb,
the west coast of which, during the
north-east monsoon, is destitute of
run and verdure, whilst the eastern
side is enriched by streams and co-
Tered by luxuriant pasturage. — Journ.
Asiat. Soc. Seng, voL iv. p. 141.
1 At Point-de-Galle, in 1854, the
number of rain j days was as follows :
January .
February
March .
April. .
12 July . .
7 August .
16 September
12 October .
23 November
. if'
DomzcdoyGoOglc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pair I.
highest temperature between ten and eleven o'clock in
the morning.
In the low country, ingenuity has devised so many
expedients for defence from the excessive heat of the
forenoon, that the languor it induces is chiefly expe-
rienced after sunset, and the coolness of the night is
insufficient to compensate for the exhaustion of the
day ; but, jn Kandy, the nights are so cool that it is
seldom that warm covering can be altogether dispensed
with. In the colder months, the daily range of the
thermometer is considerable — approaching 30° ; in the
others, it varies little from 15°. The average mean,
however, of each month throughout the year is nearly
identical, deviating only about one degree from 76°, the
mean annual temperature.1
1 The following Table appeared I able from lie care taken by Mr. Caley
in the Colombo Observer, and ih valu- J in its preparation ;
Analytii of the Climate at Peradenia, from 1851 to 18S8 inclusive.
Month!.
ThbpvMit*.
K£
BilaktL
— ."
Mm.
-
«...
inch,. !*-:
|V«t
January .
February.
Mnrch .
May . .
July ! !
September
October .
November
December
85-0
87"75
89-5
89'5
88'0
86-0
83'5
855
86 5
86-75
84*0
82 75
55-0
69-5
675
66 0
71-0
67-0
67'0
67-0
68-2
6S-0
57-0
74-06
75-76
77-42
77-91
77-7
76-69
75-64
75*81
76-13
75-1
74-79
74-05
4
7
7
7
8
8
8
e
8
8
e
7
.4-04
1-625
3-669
7-759
8-022
7-1S5
5 72
6-55
6-318
15-46
14-788
7-72
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5
Fine, sunny, heavy dew at
night, hot days, and cold
nights and mornings.
Fine, snnny, dewy nights,
foggy mormr-ga, days hot,
nights and mornings cold.
Generally a very hot and
oppressive month.
Showery, sultry, and oppres-
sive weather.
Cloudy, windy, rainy; mon-
soon generally changes.
A very wet and stormy month.
Ditto ditto.
Showery, but sometimes more
moderate, variable.
Pretty dry weather, compared
with the next two months.
Wind variable, ranch rain.
Wind variable, storms from
all points of compass, wet;
mon soon generally changes.
Sometimes wet, bat generally
more moderate; towards
end of year like January
Nov. 29, 1898.
- J. A. Caley.
Moan yearly Tem-
perature, 76-93°.
Mean yearly
Rainfall, 80-75
Cutf. II.] CLIMATE OP KANDY. — HAIL. 6^
In all the mountain valleys, the soil being warmer
than the air, vapour abounds . in the early morning
for the most part. of the year. This greatly adds to the
dullness of travelling before dawn ; but, generally
speaking, the mist is not wetting, as it is charged with
the same electricity as the surface of the earth and the
human body. When seen from the heights, it is a
singular object, as it lies compact and white as snow
in the hollows beneath, but it is soon put in motion by
the morning currents, and wafted in the direction of the
coast, and dissipated by the sunbeams.
Snow is unknown in Ceylon; Hail occasionally falls
in the Kandyan hills at the change of the mon-
soon l, but more frequently during that from the north-
east As observed at Kornegalle, the clouds, after
collecting as usual for a few evenings, and gradually
becoming more dense, advanced in a" wedge-like form,
with a well-defined outline.- The first fall of rain was
preceded by a rush of cold air, accompanied by hail-
Btones which outstripped the rain in their descent. Eain
and hail then poured down together, and, eventually,
the latter only spread its deluge far and wide. In
1852, the hail which thus "fell at Kornegalle was of
such a size that half-a-dozen lumps filled a tumbler.
In shape, they were oval and compressed, but the mass
appeared- to have formed an hexagonal pyramid, the
base of which was two inches in diameter, and about
half-an-inch thick, gradually thinning towards the edge.
The pieces were tolerably solid internally, each containing
about the size of a pea of clear ice at the centre, but
the sides and angles were spongy and flocculent, as if
the particles had been driven together by the in-draught
1 It fc stated in the Physicril Atta* I heard of a hail storm at Jaffna. On
of Keith Johkstos, that hail in the 24th of Sept 1867, during a
India has not heen noticed south of I thunder-storm, hail fell near Matclle
Madras. But in Ceylon it has fallen j in such quantity that in places it
Terr recently at Kornegalle, at Ba- formed drifts upwards of a foot in
dulla, at Kaduganawa; and I have I depth.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
70 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Part I.
of the wind, and had coalesced at the instant of contact.
A phenomenon so striking as the fall of ice, at the mo-
ment of the most intense atmospherical heat, naturally
attracts the wonder of the natives, who hasten to
collect £he pieces, and preserve them, when dissolved,
in bottles, from a belief in their medicinal properties.
Mr. Morris, who has repeatedly observed hailstones in
the Seven Korles, is under the impression that their
occurrence always happens at the first outburst of the
monsoon, and that they fell at the moment, which is
marked by the first flash of lightning.
According to Professor Stevelly, of Belfast, the ra-
tionale of their appearance on such occasions seems to
be that, on the sudden formation and descent of the
first drops, the air expanding and rushing into the
void spaces, robs the succeeding drops of their caloric
so effectually as to send them to the earth frozen into
ice-balls.
These descriptions, it will be observed, apply exclu-
sively to the southern regions on the east and west of
Ceylon ; and, in many particulars, they are inapplicable
to the northern portions of the island. At Trincomalie,
the climate bears a general resemblance to that of the
Indian peninsula Bouth of Madras : showers are fre-
quent, but light, and the rain throughout the year does
not exceed forty inches. With moist winds and plentiful
dew, this sustains a vigorous vegetation near the coast ;
but in the interior it would be insufficient for the
culture of grain, were not the water husbanded in tanks ;
and, for this reason, the bulk of the population are
settled along the banks of the great rivers.
The temperature of this part of Ceylon follows the
course of the sun, and ranges from a minimum of 70°
in December and January, to a maximum of 94° in May
and June; but the heat is rendered tolerable tit all
seasons by the steadiness of the land and sea breezes.1
1 The following facta regarding the J ranged from elaborate returns fiir-
climate of Trincomalie have been ar- | nished by Mr. Higgs, the maater-
oyGoogIe
Cha*. H-] CLIMATE OF JAFFNA AM) TBJNCOMALIE. 71
In the extreme north of the island, the peninsula of
Jaffna, and the vast plains of Neuera-kalawa and the
Wanny, form a third climatic division, which, from the
geological structure and peculiar configuration of the dis-
trict, differs essentially from the rest of Ceylon. This
region, which is destitute of mountains, is undulating in
a very slight degree; the dry and parching north-east
wind desiccates the soil in its passage, and the sandy
plains are covered with a low and scanty vegetation,
chiefly fed by the night dews and whatever moisture is
brought by the on-shore wind. The total rain of the
year does not exceed thirty inches ; and the inhabitants
live in frequent apprehension of droughts and famine.
These conditions attain their utmost manifestation at the
extreme north and in the Jaffna peninsula : there the
temperature is the highest l in the island, and, owing
to the humidity of the situation and the total absence of
Mils, it is but little affected by the changes of the mon-
soons ; and the thermometer keeps a regulated pace with
the progress of the sun to and from the solstices. The
soil, except in particular spots, is porous and sandy,
formed from the detritus of the coral rocks which it
overlays. It is subject to droughts sometimes of a whole
Attendant of the port, and published I logical department of the Board o
under the authority of the rat teoro- j Trade : —
lis*.
II
»
f 5
«
b
is
p
4
■a
1
ISM.
'1
11
-a
M
h
h
p
S
1
Jan.
Bl*3°
74-jo
14°
8.1
10
July
87-7°
77-7°
16°
90
6
Feb.
83 8
75 8
14
Kfl
7
87-9
Mar.
85 '9
761
Iff
MM
Sept.
893
77-8
18
Li
April
89 -6
78-9
»•!
a
Oct.
852
7S-8
16
wy
14
89-1
79 3
W
H
Hot.
810
74-9
1.1
900
795
19
94
a
Dec
801
74'3
11
aa
15
Mean temperature for the year 81-4.
1 The mean lowest temperature at I but in 1646-6 the thermometer rose
Jaftaa is 70s, the mean highest 00s ; | to 90s and 100s.
oyGoogIc
PHYSICAL OEOGBAPHY.
[Pa.
year's continuance ; and rain, when it falls, is so speedily
absorbed, that it renders but slight service to cultivation.
This is carried on entirely by means of tanks and
artificial irrigation, in the practice of which the Tamil
population of this district exhibits singular perseverance
and ingenuity.1 In the dry season, when scarcely any
verdure is discernible above ground, the sheep and
goats feed on their kq^es — scraping away the sand, in
order to reach the wiry and succulent roots of the
grasses. From the constancy of this practice horny
callosities are produced, by which these hardy creatures
may be distinguished.
Water-spouts are frequent on the coast of Ceylon,
owing to the different temperature of the currents of air
passing across the heated earth and the cooler sea, but
instances are very rare of their bursting over land, or of
accidents in consequence.2
A curious phenomenon, to which the name of " atf-
thelia" has been given, and' which may probably have
suggested to the early painters the idea of the glory
surrounding the heads of beatified saints, is to be seen in
singular beauty, at early morning, in Ceylon. When the
light is intense, and the shadows proportionately dark —
when the sun is near the horizon, and the shadow of a
person walking is thrown on the dewy grass — each par-
ticle of dew furnishes a double reflection from its concave
' For on account. of the Jaffna
wells, and the theoiy of their supply
with fresh water, see eh. i. p. 21.
' Camoens, who had opportunities
of observing the phenomena of these
seas during his service on board the
fleet of Cabral, off the coast of Ma-
labar and Ceylon, has introduced
into the Lutiad the episode of a
water-spout in the Indian Ocean ;
but, under the belief that the water
which descends had been previously
drawn up by suction from the ocean,
he exclaims: —
And iw* Ow Mcret "mint* "l&ture '.™'«,
Sir *hr the waye. of Wild brlns erewhfle,
Should to the bason of lb* deep recoil.
nip r {BMftT>)
But the truth appears to be that the
torrent which descends from a water-
spout, is but the condensed accumu-
lation of its own vapour, and, though
in the hollow of the lower cone which
rests upon the surface of the sea, salt
water may possibly ascend in the
partial vacuum caused by revolution ;
or spray may be caught up and col-
lected by the wind, still these can-
not be raised by it beyond a very
limited height, and what Cttmoens
saw descend was, i
tie awe' — '
oyGoogIe
and convex surfaces; and to the spectator his own
figure, but more particularly the head, appears sur-
rounded by a halo as vivid as if radiated from dia-
monds.1 The Buddhists may possibly have taken from
this beautiful object their idea of the agni or emblem
of the sun, with which the head of Buddha is sur-
mounted. But unable to express a hah in sculpture,
they concentrated it into aflame.
Another luminous phenomenon which sometimes ap-
pears in the hill country, consists of beams of light,
which intersect the sky, whilst the sun is yet in the
ascendant ; sometimes horizontally, accompanied by in-
termitting movements, and sometimes vertically, a broad
1 Scoresbt describes the occur-
rence of a similar phenomenon in the
Arctic Seas in July, 1813, the lumi-
nous circle being produced on the
particles of fog which rested on the
calm water. "The lower part of
die circle descended beneath my feet
to the side of the ship, and although
it could not be a hundred feet
coloured circle was distinguished by
my own shadow, the head of which,
enveloped by a hslo, was most con-
spicuously pourtraved. The halo or
glory was evidently impressed on the
fog, but the figure appeared to be a
shadow on the water ; the different
parts became obscure in proportion
to their remoteness from the head, so
that the lower extremities were not
perceptible." — Account of the Arctic
Region*, vol. i. ch. v. sec. vi. p. 394.
A similar phenomenon occurs in the
Khasia Hills, in the north-east of
Bengal. — Anal, Soc. Jinirn, lleng,
vol. xiii.p.616. Dr. nTGee of Belfast
writes to me that he has observed the
anthelia in the north of Ireland, when
the rays of the sun were projected
obliquely on the dewy grass ; and
that he has seen the same pheno-
menon on the sea at Atdglass, in the
county of Down, when the surface
of the water was crisped by a faint
bfeath of wind.
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[P*i
belt of the blue sky interposing between them.1 In
Ceylon this is doubtless owing to the air holding in
suspension a large quantity of vapour, which receives
shadows and reflects rays of light. The natives, who
designate them " Buddha's rays," attach a superstitious
dread to their appearance, and believe them to be porten-
tous of misfortune — in every month, with the exception
of May, which, for some unexplained reason, is exempted.
Health. — In connection with the subject of "Cli-
mate," one of the most important inquiries is the
probable effect on the health and constitution of a Euro-
pean produced by a prolonged exposure to an unvarying
temperature, upwards of 30 degrees higher than the
average of Great Britain. But to this the most tran-
quillising reply is the assurance that mere heat, even to a
degree beyond that of Ceylon, is not unhealthy in itself.
Aden, enclosed in a crater of an extinct volcano, is not
considered insalubrious ; and the hot season in some
parts of India, where the thermometer stands at 100° at
midnight, is comparatively a healthy period of the year.
In fact, in numerous cases heat may be the means of
removing the immediate sources of disease. Its first per-
ceptible effect is a slight increase -of the normal bodily
temperature beyond 98°, and, simultaneously, an increased
activity of all the vital functions. To this everything
contributes an exciting sympathy— the glad surprise of
the natural scenery, the luxury of verdure, the tempting
novelty of fruits, and all the unaccustomed attractions
of a tropical home. Under these combined influences
the nervous sensibility is considerably excited, and the
circulation acquires greater velocity, with slightly dimi-
1 Viose mentions an appearance
of this kind in the valley of Kashmir :
" Whilst the rest of the horizon wag
glowing golden over the mountain
tope, a broad, welt-defined re-
shaped streak of indigo was shooting
upwards in the zenith I it remained
nearly stationary about an hour,
and was then blended into the shy
appeared v
day. It was, no doubt, owing t
the presence of some particular
mountains which intercepted the red
rays, and threw a blue shadow, by
causing so much of the sky above
Kashmir to remain unaffected by
them." — Travels in Kashmir, vol. u.
eh. x. p. 115.
Don™*!* Google
Chap. II. J HEALTH. • X5
nished force. This is soon followed, however, by the
disagreeable evidences of the effort made by the system
to accommodate itself to the new atmospheric condition.
■ The skin often becomes fretted by " prickly heat," or
tormented by a profusion of boils, but rehef being speedily
obtained through these resources, the new comer is seldom
afterwards annoyed by a recurrence of the process, un-
less under circumstances of impaired tone, the result of
-weakened digestion or climatic derangement. *
Malaria. — Compared with Bengal and the Dekkan,
the climate of Ceylon presents a Btriking superiority' in
mildness and exemption from all the extremes of atmo-
spheric disturbance ; antl, except in particular localities,
all of which are well known and avoided1, from being
liable after the rains to malaria, or infested at par-
ticular seasons with agues and fever, a lengthened resi-
dence in the island may be contemplated, without the
slightest apprehension of prejudicial results. The pes-
tilential localities are chiefly at the foot of mountains,
and, strange to say, in the vicinity of some active rivers,
whilst the vast level plains, whoge stagnant waters are
made available for the cultivation of rice, are seldom or
never productive of disease. It is even believed that
the deadly air is deprived of its poison in passing over
an expanse of still water ; and one of the most remark-
able circumstances is, that the points fronting the aerial
currents are those exposed to danger, whilst projecting
clifls, belts of forest, and even moderately high walls,
serve to shelter and protect all behind them from attack.2
1 Notwithstanding this general coa-
dition, fevars of a very serious kind
have been occasionally known to at-
tack persona on the coast, who had
oever exposed themselves to the mi-
asma of the jangle. Such instances
have occurred at Galle, and more
rarely at Colombo. The characteristics
of places in this regard have, in some
instances, changed unaccountably
healthy,
flooded deeply by rains, or when
dried to hardness by the sun ; but in
the process of desiccation, its exhala-
tions are perilous. The wooded
slopes at the base of mountains are
likewise notorious for fevers ; such
as the terrai of the Nepal hills, the
Wynaad jungle, at the foot of the
Ghauts, and the eastern side of the
mountains of Ceylon,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
78. ■■ PHYSICAL GBOGEAPHT. [Part I.
In traversing districts suspected of malaria, experience has
indicated certain precautions, which, with ordinary pru-
dence and firmness, serve to neutralise the risk — retiring
to rest punctually at sunset, generous diet, moderate sti-
mulants, and the daily use of quinine both before and
after exposure, These^ and the precaution, at whatever
sacrifice of comfort, to sleep under mosquito curtains, have
been proved in long journeys to be valuable prophy-
lactics -against fever and the pestilence of the jungle.
Food. — Always bearing in mind that of the quantity
of "food habitually taken in a temperate climate, a certain
proportion is consumed to sustain animal warmth, it
is obvious that in the glow of* the tropics, where the
beat is already in excess, this portion of the ingesta
not only becomes superfluous so far as this office is con-
cerned, but occasions disturbance of the other functions
both of digestion and elimination. Over-indulgence in
food, equally with intemperance in wine, is one fruitful
source of disease amongst Europeans in Ceyloiy and
maladies and mortality are often the result of the former,
in patients who would^repel as an insult the imputation
of the latter.
So well have national habits conformed to instinctive
promptings in this regard, that the natives of hot coun-
tries have unconsciously sought to heighten the enjoy-
ment of food by taking their principal repast after sun-
set1; and the European in the East will speedily discover
for himself the prudence, not only of reducing the
quantity, but in regard to the quality of his meals, of
adopting those articles which nature has bountifully
1 The prohibition of swine, which
has formed an item in the dietetic
ritual of the Egyptians, the Hebrews,
and Mahometans, has been defended
in all ages, from Manetho and Hero-
dolus downwards, on the ground that
the flesh of an animal so foully fed
has a tendency to promote cutaneous
disorders, a belief which, though held
as a fallacy in northern climates, may
have a truthful basis in the East
— --Euan, Hitt. Anim. 1. x. 16. In
a recent general order Lord Clyde
has prohibited its use in the Indian
army. Camel's flesh, which is also
declared unclean in Leviticus, is said
to produce in the Arabs serious de-
rangement of the stomach.
oyGoogle
supplied as best suited to the climate. With a moderate
use of flesh meat, vegetables, and especially farinaceous
food, are chiefly to be commended. The latter is ren-
dered attractive by the unrivalled excellence of the Sin-
ghalese in the preparation of innumerable curries l, each
tempered by the delicate creamj* juice expressed from
the flesh of the qpco-nut after it has been reduced to a
pulp. Nothing of the same class in India can bear a
comparison with the piquant delicacy of a curry in Ceylon,
composed of fresh condiments and compounded by the
skilful hand of a native.
The use of fruit — Fruits are abundant and wholesome ;
but with the exception of oranges, pineapples, the luscious
mango and the indescribable "rambutan,"2 for want of
horticultural attention they are inferior in flavour, and
soon cease to be alluring. •
Wine. — Wine has of late years become accessible to all
in the island, and has thus, in some degree, been substi-
tuted for brandy ; the abuse of which at former periods is
commemorated in the records of those fearful disorders of
the liver, derangements of the brain, exhausting fevers,
and visceral diseases, which characterise the medical
annals of earlier times. With a firm adherence to tem-
perance in the enjoyment of stimulants, and moderation
in the pleasures of the table, with attention to exercise
and frequent resort to the bath, it may be confidently
asserted that health in Ceylon is as capable of preser-
vation and life as susceptible of enjoyment, as in any
country within the tropics.
Exposure.— Prudence and foresight are, however,
as indispensable there as in any other climate to escape
well-understood risks. Catarrhs and rheumatism are
1 The popular error of thinking
carry to be an invention of the Por-
tuguese in India is disproved bj the
mention in the Sqfavah of its use in
Ceylon in the second century before
the Christian era, and in the Maha-
vxmto in the fifth century of it. This
subject is mentioned elsewhere : tee
chapter on the Arte and Sciences of
the Singhslese, Vol. I. p. 437.
1 Foradescriptionof the raiubutun
see Vol. I. p. 120., II. p. 115.
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pai
as likely to follow needless exposure to the withering
" along-shore wind " of the winter months in Ceylon ',
as they are traceable to unwisely confronting the east
winds of March in Great Britain ; and during the alter
nation, from the sluggish heat which precedes the
monsoon, to the moistaand chill vapours that follow the
change, intestinal disorders, fevers, an<t liver complaints
are not more characteristic of an Indian rainy season
than of an English autumn, and are equally amenable to
those precautions by which liability may be diminished in
either place.
Paleness. — At the same time it must be observed,
that the pallid complexion peculiar to old residents, is
not alone ascribable to an organic change in the skin
from its being the medium of perpetual exudation, but
in part to a deficiency of red globules in the- blood, and
mainly to a reduced vigour in the whole muscular ap-
paratus, including the action of the heart, which imper-
fectly compensates by increase of rapidity for diminution
of power. It ia remarkable how suddenly this sallow-
ness disappears, and is succeeded by the warm tints of
health, after a visit of a very few days to the plains of
Neuera-ellia, or to the picturesque coffee plantations in the
hills that surround it
Ladies. — Ladies, from their more regular and mo-
derate habits, and their avoidance of exposure, might
be expected to withstand the climate better than men ;
1 See ante, p. 67. It is an agree-
able characteristic of the climate of
Ceylon, that bud- stroke, which is so
common even In the northern por-
tions of India, is almost unknown in
the island. Sportsmen are out all
day long in the hottest weather, a
practice which would be thought
more than hazardous in Oude or the
north-west provinces. Perhaps an
explanation of this may be found in
the difference in moisture in the two
atmospheres, which may modify the
degrees of evaporation ; but the in-
tming b
army that active service, and even a
moderate exposure to the solar rays
(alwayi guarding them from th« head),
are conducive rather than injurious
to health in the tropica. The pale
and sallow complexion of ladies and
children bom in India, is ascribable
in a certain degree to the same pro-
cess by which vegetables are blanched
under shades which exclude the
light: — they are reared in apart-
ments too carefully kept dark.
oyGoogIe
and to a certain extent the anticipation appears to be
correct, but it by no means justifies the assumption of
general immunity. Though less obnoxious to specific
disease, debility and delicacy are the frequent results of
habitual seclusion and avoidance of the solar light.
These, added to more obvious causes of occasional illness,
suggest the necessity of vigorous exertion and regular
exercise as indispensable prophylactics.
Children. — If suitably clothed, and not injudiciously
fed, children may remain in the island till eight or ten
years of age, when anxiety begins to be excited by the
attenuation of the frame and the apparent absence of
strength in proportion to development. These symptoms,
the result of relaxed tone and defective nutrition, are to
be remedied by change of climate either to the more
lofty ranges of the mountains, or, more providently, to
Europe.
Effects on Europeans already Diseased. — To persons
already suffering from disease, the experiment of a resi-
dence in Ceylon is one of questionable propriety. Those
of a scrofulous diathesis need not consider it hazardous,
as experience does not show that in such there is any
greater susceptibility to local or constitutional disorders,
or that when these are present, there is greater difficulty
in their removal.
To those threatened with consumption, the island
may be supposed to offer some advantages in equability
of temperature, and the comparative quiescence of
the lungs from the reduced necessity for respiratory
effort Besides, the choice of climates presented by
Ceylon enables a patient, by the easy change of resi-
dence to a different altitude, avoiding the heats of one
period and the dry winds of another, to check to a great
extent the predisposing causes likely to lead to the de-
velopment of tubercle. This, with attention to clothing
and systematic exercise as preventives of active disease,
may serve to restrain the further progress though it fail
to eradicate the tendency to phthisis. But when the
DoiUzcdoyGoOgte
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[P*M I.
formation of tubercle has already taken place to any con-
siderable extent, and is accompanied by softening, the
morbid condition is not unlikely to advance with alarming
celerity ; and the only compensating circumstance is the
diminution of apparent suffering, ascribable to general
languor, and the absence of bronchial irritation occasioned
by cold and humid air.
Dyspepsia. — Habitual dyspeptics, and those affected
by hepatic obstruction, had better avoid a lengthened
sojourn in Ceylon ; but the tortures of rheumatism and
gout, if they be not reduced, are certainly postponed
for longer intervals than those conceded to the same
sufferers in England. Gout, owing to the greater cutaneous
excretion, in most instances totally disappears.
Precautions for Health. — Next to* attention to diet,
health in Ceylon is mainly to be preserved by systematic
exercise, and a costume adapted to the climate and its
requirements. Paradoxical as it may sound, the great
cause of disease in hot climates is cold. Nothing ought
more cautiously to be watched and avoided than the
chills produced by draughts and dry winds; and a
change of dress or position should be instantly resorted
to when the warning sensation of chilliness is per-
ceived.
Exercise. — The early morning ride, after a single
cup of coffee and a biscuit on rising, and the luxury of
the bath before dressing for breakfast, constitute the
enjoyments of the forenoon ; and a similar stroll on
horseback, returning at sunset to repeat the bath1 pre-
paratory to the evening toilette, completes the hygienic
discipline of the day. At night the introduction of the
Indian punka into bed-rooms would be valuable, a thin
flannel coverlet being spread over the bed. Nothing
premieres annfcn que
pain-lit, i'eus deux
je pri* la
que lea deux
i ie fus en pc
(undies : alori
je jtrU la coutume dc me bien laser
wnr tt malm, et pendant 16 hub que
'j'y ay demeure' depuis, je n'uj pas
aenti le moindre mal." — Rxbbtbo,
Mint, tie. Tide dc Ceylon, vol. v. ch.
xix. p. 140.
oyGoogIe
Chaf II.] HEALTH. 81
serves more effectually to break down an impaired con-
stitution in the tropics than the want of timely and re-
freshing sleep.
Dress. — In the selection of dress experience has taught
the superiority of calico to linen, the latter, when damp
from the exhalation of the akin, ^causing a chill which
is injurious, whilst the former, from some peculiarity in
its fibre, however moist it may become, never imparts
the same sensation of cold. The clothing best adapted
to the climate is that whose texture least excites the
already profuse perspiration, and whose fashion presents
the 'least impediment to its escape." The discomfort
of woollen has led to its avoidance as far as possible;
but those who, in England, may have accustomed, them-
selves to flannel, will find the advantage of persevering
to wear it, provided it is so light as not to excite per-
spiration. .So equipped for active exercise, exposure
to the sun, however hot, may be regarded without ap-
prehension, provided the limbs are in motion and the body
in ordinary health ; but the ins'tinct of all oriental races
has ■ taught the necessity of protecting the head, and
European ingenuity has not failed to devise expedients
for this all-important object
From what has been said, it will be apparent that,
compared with continental India, the securities for health
in Ceylon are greatly in favour of the island. As to the
formidable diseases which are common to both, their
occurrence in either is characterised by the same appalling
manifestations : dysentery fastens, with all its fearful con-
comitants, on the unwary and incautious ; and cholera,
with its dark horrors, sweeps mysteriously across neg-p
lected districts, exacting its hecatombs. But the visitation
and ravages of both are somewhat under control, «and
> "Mail not being created an
aquatic animal, hin skin cannot with
impunity be exposed to perpetual
moisture, whether directly applied or
arising from perspiration retained by
VOL. I.
dress. The importance to health of
keeping the skin dry does not appear
to have hitherto received due att«n-
tioa."—YlCKESIS8,B(lcttof3fan,&c.,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[fuiL
the experience bequeathed by former gloomy visitations
has added to the facilities for cheeking their recurrence.1
In some of the disorders incidental to the climate, and
the treatment of ulcerations caused by the wounds of
the mosquitoes and leeches, the native Singhalese have
a deservedly high reputation ; but their practice, "when
it depends on specifics, is too empirical to be safely re-
lied on; and their traditional skill, though boasting a
well authenticated antiquity, achieves few triumphs in
competition with the soberer discipline of European
science.
1 " It is worthy of remark, that
although all the troops in Ceylon
have occasionally, but at rare inter-
vals, suffered severely from cholera,
the disease has in very few instances
attacked the officers, or indeed Eu-
ropeans in the same grade of life.
This is one important difference to
be borne in mind when estimating the
comparative risk of life in India
and Ceylon. It must, he due to the
difference in comforts and quarters, or
more particularly to the exemption
from night duty, by far the most try-
ing of the soldiers' hardships. The
small mortality amongst the officers
of European regiments in Ceylon is
very remarkable." — Note by Dr. Gl-
heboh, Army Med. Staff.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
VEGETATION. — TREES AND PLANTS.
Although the luxuriant vegetation of Ceylon has at all
times been the theme of enthusiastic admiration, its flora
does not probably exceed 3000 phsenogamic plants 1 ;
and notwithstanding that it has a number of endemic
species, and a few genera, which are not found on the
great Indian peninsula, still its botanical features may be
described as those characteristic of the southern regions
of Hindustan and the Dekkan. The result of some recent
experiments has, however, afforded a curious confirmation
of the opinion ventured by Dr. Gardner, that, regarding
its botany geographically, Ceylon exhibits more of the
Malayan flora and that of the Eastern Archipelago, than
of any portion of India to the west of it Two plants pe-
culiar to Malacca, the nutmeg and the mangosteen, have
been attempted, but unsuccessfully, to be cultivated in
Bengal ; but in Ceylon the former has been reared near
Colombo with such singular success that its produce now
begins to figure in the exports of the island;— and
mangosteens, which, ten years ago, were exhibited as
1 The prolific vegetation of the I was 2670; of which 2025 were di-
island ia likely to cause exaggeration [ cotyledonous, and 044 mouocotyledo-
intheestimate of its variety. fir.Gard- nous flowering njants, besides 247
ner, shortly after his appointment as ferns and lycopoda. When it is con-
superintendent of the Botanic Garden i sidera#tl»at this ia nearly double the
at Kandy, in writing toSirW.IIooker, , indigenous flora of England, andlittle
conjectured that the Ceylon flora I under one thirtieth of the entire
might extend to 4000 or 6000 species, number of plants hitherto described
But from a recent Report of the pre- | over the world, the botanical rich-
aent curatoT, Mr. Thwaitea, it appears ness of Ceylon, in proportion to its
that the indigenous phcenogarnic ! area, must be regarded as equal to
plants discovered up to August, 1856, , that of any portion of the globe.
.Google
B4 ■ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Paw I.
curiosities from a single tree in the old Botanic Garden at
Caltura, are now found to thrive readily, and they occasion-
ally appear at table, rivalling in their wonderful delicacy
of flavour those which have heretofore been regarded
as pecidiar to the Straits,
Up to the present time the botany of Ceylon has been
imperfectly submitted *o scientific scrutiny. Linnaeus,
in 1747, prepared his Flora Zeylanica, from specimens
collected by Hermann, which had previously constituted
the materials of the Thesaurus Zeylanicus of Burman and
now form part of the herbarium in the British Museum.
A succession of industrious explorers have been" since
engaged in following up the investigation ' ; but, with the
exception of an imperfect and unsatisfactory catalogue by
Moon, no enumeration of Ceylon plants has yet been pub-
lished. Dr. Gardner had made some progress with a
Singhalese Flora, when his death took place in 1849, an
event which threw the task on other hands, and has
postponed its completion fqr years.2
From identity of position and climate, and the apparent
similarity of soil between Ceylon and the southern
extremity of the Indian peninsula, a corresponding
agreement might be expected between the vegetable
productions of each : and accordingly in its aspects
and subdivisions Ceylon participates in those distinctive
features which the monsoons have imparted respectively
to the opposite shores of Hindustan, The western coast
1 Amongst the collections of Cey-
lon plants deposited in the Hookerian
Herbarium, are those made by General
and Mrs. Walker, by Major Cham-
pion (who left the island in 1848),
and by Mr. Thwaites, who succeeded
Dr. Gardner in charge of the Royal
Botanic Gardens at Kandy. "Moon,
who had previously held thatappoint-
roent, left extensive collections in
the herbarium at Peradenia, which
have been largely increased by his
successors ; and Macrae, who was
employed by the Horticultural So-
ciety of London, has enriched their
museum with Ceylon plants. Some
admirable letters of Mra. 'Walker
are printed in IIookkh'e Companion
to the Botanical Magazine. They
include an excellent account of the
vegetation of Ceylon.
* Dr. Gardner, in 1848, drew up a
short paper containing Some Remarks
on the Flora of Ceylon, which was
minted in the appendix to Lee's
Tramlutx-Mi of Bibeyro ; to this essay,
and to his personal communications
during frequent journeys, I am in-
debted for many, facte incorporated
in the following pages.
.Google
Cuu. m.]
PLANTS OF THE COAST.
being exposed to the milder influence of the south-west
■wind, shows luxuriaut vegetation, the result of its humid
**and temperate climate ; whilst the eastern, like Coroman-
del, has a comparatively dry and arid aspect, produced
by the hot winds that blow for half the year.
The littoral vegetation of the seaborde exhibits little
variation from that common throughout the Eastern
archipelago ; but it wants the Pkcenix paludosa ' , a
1 Die. Hooker and TnoMaon, in
their Introductory Essay to the Flora
of India, speaking of Ceylon, state
that the A'ipa fruticans (another
characteristic palm of the Gangetic
delta) and Cyeadt are aim wanting
there ; but both these exist (the
former abundantly), though perhaps
not alluded to in any work on Ceylon
botany to which those authors had
access. Inconnectipnwiththissubject
it may be mentioned, as a fact which
is much to be regretted, that, although
botanists have been appointed to
the superintendence of the Botanic
Gardens at Kandy, information re-
garding the vegetation of the island .
is scarcely obtainable without ex-
treme trouble and reference to papers
scattered through innumerable pe-
riodicals. That the majority of Ceylon
plants are already known to science
is owing to the coincidence of their
being also natives of India, whence
descriptions have emanated ; but there
has been no recent attempt on the
part of colonial or European botanists
even to throw into a useful form the
already published descriptions of the
commoner plants of the island. Such
a Work would be the first step to a
Singhalese Flora. The preparation
of such a compendium would seem
to belong to the duties of the colo-
nial botanist, and as such it was
an object of especial solicitude to
the labs superintetident, Dr. Gardner.
But the heterogeneous duties im-
posed upon the person holding his
office (the evils arising from which
are alluded to Vol. II. p. 209), have
hitherto been insuperable obstacles
to the attainment of this object, as
they have also been to the prepara-
tion of a systematic account of the
general features of Ceylon vegeta-
tion. Such a work is strongly felt
to be a desideratum by numbers
in Ceylon, who, though not accom-
plished botanists, are anxious to
acquire accurate ideas as to the
aspects of the flora at different
elevations, " different seasons, and
different quarters of the island ; of
the kinds of plants that chiefly
contribute to the vegetation of the
coasts, the plains, and mountains;
of the 'general relations that subsist
between them and the flora of the
Camatic, Malabar, and the Malay
archipelago;- and generally of the
more useful plants in science, arte,
medicine, and commerce. To render
such a work at once accurate as well
as interesting, would require sound
scientific knowledge; and, however
skilfully and popularly written, there
would still be portions somewhat
difficult of comprehension te the
ordinaiy reader; but curiosity would
he stimulated by the very occurrence
of difficulty, and thus an impulse
might be given to the Requisition of
rudimentary botany, which would
eventually enable the inquirer to
contribute his, quota to the natural
history of Ceylon.
P. S. Since the foregoing passage
was written, Mr. Thwsites has an-
nounced the early publication of a
new work on Ceylon plants, to he
entitled Enumeratio Plantarum Zey-
lanice : with Description* of the new
and little known genera and tpecies ;
and observations on their habits, uses,
£c In the identification of the spe-
DomzcdoyGoOglc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[PabtI.
dwarf date-palm, which literally covers the islands of the
Sunderbunds at the delta of the Ganges. A dense
growth of mangroves 1 occupies the shore, beneath whose
overarching roots the ripple of the sea washes unseen
over the muddy beach. Eetiring from the strand,
there are groups of Sonneratia*, Avicennia, Heritiera,
and Pandanus ; the latter with a stem like a dwarf
palm, round which the serrated leaves ascend in spiral
convolutions till they terminate in a pendulous crown,
from which drop the amber clusters of beautiful but
uneatable fruit, with -a close resemblance in shape
and colour to that of the pineapple, from which, and
from the peculiar arrangement of the leaves, the plant
has acquired its name of the " Screw-pine."
cies Mr. Thwaites is to be assisted
by Dr. Hooker, F. R. S. ; and from
their conjoint labours we may at last
hope for a production worthy of the
subject
1 Bhtumhora Candelaria, Kandelia
Sheedei, Brvgttiera'gymnorhixa.
9 At a meeting of the Entomo-
logical Society in 1843, Dr. Tem-
pkton rent, for the use of the
members, many thin slices of Bub-
ttance to replace cork-wood as a
lining for insect esses and drawer*
Along with the soft wood he sent die
following notice : — "In this country
Se writes from Colombo, Ceylon,
ay 10, 1842), along the marshy
banks of the large rivers,, grows a
very large handsome tree, named
Sonneratia acitia by the younger
Linnrene ; ita roots spread tar and
wide through the soft moist earth,
and at various distances send up
most extraordinary long spindle-
shaped excrescences four or five feet
above the surface. Of these Sir
James Edward Smith remarks, 'what
those hom-shaped excrescences are
which occupy the soil at some dis-
tance from the base. of the tree, from
a span to a foot in length and. of a
corky substance, as described by
Rumphius, we can offer no conjec-
ture.' Most curious things (remarks
Dr. Templeton) they are; they all
spring very narrow from the root,
expand as they rise, and then become
gradually attenuated, occasionally
forking, but never throwing out
whoota or leaves, or in any respect
resembling the parent root or wood.
They are firm and Hose in their tex-
ture, nearly devoid of fibrous struc-
ture, and take a moderate polish
when cut with a sharp instrument ;
but for lining insect boxes and
making setting-boards they have no
equal in the world. The finest pin
passes in with delightful ease and
smoothness, and is held firmly and
tightly so that there is no risk of th'e
insects becoming disengaged. With
a fine saw I form them into little
boards and then smooth them with a
sharp case knife, but the London
veneering- mills would turn them out
fit for immediate use, without any
necessity for more than a touch of
fine glass-paper. Some of my pigmy
boards are two feet long by thfto
and a half inches wide, which is more
than sufficient for our purpose, and
to me they have proved a vast ac-
quisition. The natives call them
' Kirilimcw,' the latter syllable signi-
fying root" — Tsmplktok, Trims.
EfL Soc. voL iii. p. 303.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chat. HI.] PLANTS OP THE COAST. 87
A little further inland, the sandy plains are covered*
by a thorny jungle, the plants of which are the same
as those of the Carnatic, the climate being alike ; and
wherever man has encroached on the solitude, groves of
coco-nut palms mark the vicinity of his habitations.
Remote from the sea, the level country of the north
has a flora almost identical with that of Coromandel ; but
the arid nature of the Ceylon soil, and its drier atmo-
sphere, is attested by the greater proportion of euphor-
bias and fleshy shrubs, as well as by the wiry and
stunted nature of the trees, their smaller leaves and
thorny stems and branches.1 Conspicuous amongst these
are acacias of many kinds; Cassia fistula, the wood apple
(Feronia elephantum), and the mustard tree of Scripture
(Salvadora Persica), which extends from Ceylon to the
Holy Land.8 The margosa (Azadirackta Indica), the
satin wood, the Ceylon oak, and the tamarind and
ebony, are examples of the larger trees ; and in the
extreme north and west the Palmyra palm 'takes the
place of the coco-nut, and not only lines the shore, but
fills the landscape on every side with its shady and
prolific groves.
Proceeding southward on the western coast, the
acacias disappear, and the greater profusion of vegeta-
tion, the taller growth of the timber, and die darker
tinge of the foliage, all attest the influence of the in-
creased moisture both from the rivers and the rains.
The brilliant Ixoras, Erythrinas, Buteas, Jonesias, Hibis-
cus, and a variety of flowering shrubs of similar beauty,
enliven the forests with their splendour ; and the seeds
of the 'cinnamon, carried by the birds from the culti-
vated gardem near the coasts, have germinated in the
sandy soil, and diversify the woods with the fresh ver-
dure of its polished leaves and delicately-tinted shoots.
It is to be found universally to a considerable height in
the lower range of bills,, and thither the Chalias were
* Dr. Gardner. * The mustard tree of Scripture is described ante, p. 51, *
a 4
Doused oyGOQglC
88 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Pa*t I.
•accustomed to resort to cut and peel it, a task which
was imposed on them as a feudal service by the native
sovereign, who paid an annual tribute in prepared cin-
namon to the Dutch, and to the present time this
branch of the trade in the article continues, but divested
of its compulsory character.
The Butch, in like manner, maintained, during the
entire period «of their rule, an extensive commerce in
pepper worts, which still festoon the forest, but the
export has almost ceased from Ceylon. Along with these
the trunks of the larger trees are profusely covered
with other delicate creepers, chiefly Convolvuli and
Ipomceas ; and the pitcher-plant (Nepenthes distitlatoria)
lures the passer-by to halt and conjecture the probable
uses of the curious mechanism, by means of which it
distils a quantity of limpid fluid into the vegetable vases
at the extremity of its leaves. The Orchideffi suspend
their pendulous flowers from the angles of branches,
whilst the bare roots and the lower part of the stem are
occasionally covered with fungi of the most gaudy colours,
bright red, yellow, and purple.
Of the east- side of the island the botany has never
yet been examined by any scientific resident, but the
productions of the hill country have been largely ex-
plored, • and present features altogether distinct from
those of the plains. For the first two or three thousand
feet the dissimilarity is less perceptible to an unscientific
eye, but as we ascend, the difference becomes apparent
in the larger size of the leaves, and the nearly uniform
colour of' the foliage, except where the scarlet shoots of
the ironwood tree (Mesua ferrea) seem like flowers in
their blood-red hue. Here the roots of the broad-leafed
wild-plantain [Musa textilis) penetrate the soil among the
broken rocks ; and in moist spots the graceful bamboo
flourishes in groups, whose feathery foliage waves like
the plumes of the ostrich.1 It is at these elevations that
I instrument of natural music, by per
| foratiop it with holes, through which
DoiiizcdoyGoOgle
Cmr. III.]
PLANTS OF THE HILLS.
the Sameness of the scenery is diversified by the grassy
patenas before alluded to.1, which, in their aspect, though
not their extent, may be called the Savannahs of Ceylon.
Here peaches, cherries, and qfcher European fruit trees,
grow freely ; but they become evergreens in this summer
climate, and, exhausted by perennial excitement, and de-
prived of their winter repose, they refuse to ripen their
fruit.2 A similar failure was discovered in- some European
vines, which were cultivated at Jaffna ; but Mr. Dyke,
the government agent, in whose garden they grew, con-
ceiving that the activity of the plants might be equally '
checked by exposing them to an extreme of warmth, as
by subjecting" them to cold, tried, with perfect success,
the experiment of laying bare die roots in the strongest
heat of the sun. The result verified his conjecture. The
circulation of the sap was arrested, the vines obtained
the needful repose, and the grapes, which before had
fallen almost unformed from the tree, are now brought to
thorough maturity, though inferior in flavour to those
produced at home.8
The tea plant has been raised with complete success in
the hills on the estate of the Messrs. Worms, at Eoth-
thp wind is permitted to nigh ; and the
effect is described as perfectly charm-
ing. Mr. Logan, who in 1847 visited
Waning, contiguous to the frontier of
the European settlement of Malacca,
on approaching the village of Kan-
dang, was surprised by hearing "^he
most melodious sounds, some soft
and- liquid like the notes of a flute,
and others deep and full like the
tones of an organ. They were
sometimes low, interrupted, or even
single, and presently they would
swell into a grand burst of mingled
melody. On drawing near to a
slump of trees, above the branches
of which waved a slender bamboo
about forty feet in height, he
found that the musical tones issued
from it, and were caused by the
breeze patting through perforations
in tie stem. The instrument thus
formed 'u called by the natives
which Mr. Logan b.
had a slit in each joint, So that each
stem possessed fourteen or twenty
1 See ante, p. 24.
* The apple-tree in the Peradenia
Gardens seems not onlv to have be-
come an evergreen, but to have
changed ita character in another par-
ticular ; for it is found to send out
numerous runnera under ground,
which continually rise into small
stems and form a growth of shrub-
like plants around the parent tree.
* An equally successful experi-
ment, to give the vine an artificial
winter by baring the roots, is re-
corded by Mr.-BALLABD, of Bombay,
in the Tramaetiom of the Agric. and
Sortie. Society of India, under date
24th May, 1824. Calcutta, 1850.
Vol. L p. 08,
Domzcd'oy Google
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY'.
TP«
schild, in Pusilawa l ; but the want of any skilful mani-
pulators to collect and prepare the leaves, renders it
hopeless to attempt any experiment on a large scale, until
assistance can be secured from China, to conduct the
preparation.
Still ascending, at an elevation of 6500 feet, as we
approach the mountain plateau of Neuera-ellia, the
dimensions of the trees again diminish, the stems and
branches are covered with orchidea? and mosses, and
around them spring up herbaceous plants and balsams,
with here and there broad expanses covered with Aeon-
t/iacecB, whose seeds are the favourite food of the jungle
fowl, which are always in perfection during the ripening
of the Nilloo.* Jf is in these regions that fhe tree-ferns
(Al&ophita gigantea) rise from the damp hollows, and
carry their gracefully plumed heads sometimes»to the
height of twenty feet. "
At length, in the loftiest range of the hills the
Rhododendrons are discovered ; no longer delicate
bushes, as in Europe, but timber trees of consider-
able height, and corresponding dimensions, and every
branch covered with a blaze of crimson flowers. In
these forests are also to be met with some species of
Michelia, the Indian representatives of the Magnolias of
North America, several arboreous myrtacece and tern-
stromiacece, the most common of which is the camelia-
like Gordonia Ceylanica? These and Vaccinia, GatA-
1 The cultivation of tea was at-
tempted by the Dutch, but without
1 There are said to be fourteen
species of the Nilloo (.Sro&tlostAw)
in Ceylon. They form a complete
under-growth in the forest five or
six feet in height, and sometimes
extending for miles. When in bloom,
their red and blue flowers are a
singularly beautiful feature in the
landscape, and are eagerly searched
by the honey bees. Some species
are said to flower only once in five,
eeven, or nine years ; and after ripen-
ing their seed they die. This is
one reason assigned for the sudden
appearance of the rats, which have
been elsewhere alluded to (vol. i. p.
149, ii. p. 234) as invading the coffee
estates, when deprived of their ordi-
nary food by the decay of the nilloo.
It has been observed that the jungle
fowl, after feeding on the nilloo, hav*
their eyes so affected by.it, as to be
partially blinded, and permit them-
selves to be taken by the hand. Are
the seeds of this plant narcotic like
some of the Solimacett t or do they
cause dilatation of the pupil, like those
of the Atrepa BeJiadomta f
1 Dr. Gardner.
.Google
Chaf. III.] PLASTS OF THE HILLS. flL
theria, Symploci, Gougkia, and Gomphandra, establish the
affinity between the vegetation of this region and that of
the Malabar ranges, the Khasia and Lower Himalaya.1
Generally speaking, the timber on the high mountains
is of little value for (Economic purposes. Though of
considerable dimensions, it is too unsubstantial to be
serviceable for building or domestic uses ; and perhaps,
it may be regarded as an evidence of its perishable
nature, that dead timber is rarely to be seen in any
quantity encumbering the- ground, in the heart of the
deepest forests. It seems to "go to dust almost imme-
diately after its fall, and although the process, of de-
struction is infinitely accelerated by the ravages of
insects, especially the white ants {termites) and beetles,
which instantly seize on every fallen branch : still, one
would expect that the harder woods would, more or
less, resist their attacks till natural decomposition should
have facilitated their operations and thus exhibit more
leisurely the progress of decay. But here decay is
comparatively instantaneous, and it is seldom that fallen
timber is to be found, except in the last stage of con-
version into dust, •
Some of the trees in the higher ranges are remarkable
for the prodigious height to which they struggle up-
wards from the dense jungle towards the air and light ;
and" one of the most curious of nature's devices, is the
singular expedient by which some families of these very
tall and top-heavy trees throw out "buttresses like walls
of wood, to support themselves from beneath. Five or
six of these buttresses project like rays from all sides
of the trunk : they are from six to twelve inches thick,
and advance from five to fifteen feet outward ; and as
they ascend, gradually sink into the bole and disappear
at the height of from ten to twenty feet from the ground.
By the firm resistance which they offer below, the trees
1 Introduction to the Flora ladica of Dr. Hooker and Dr. Thoxsok, p.
120. London, 1866.
oyGoogIe
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[P*.
are effectually steadied, and protected from the leverage
of the crown, by which they would otherwise be uprooted.
Some of these buttresses are so smooth and flat, aa almost
to resemble sawn planks.
The greatest ornaments of the forest in these higher
regions are the large flowering trees ; the most striking
of which is the Rhododendron, which in Ceylon forms
a forest in the mountains, and when covered with flowers,
it seems from a distance as though the hills were strewn
with vermilion. This is the principal tree on the
summit of Adam's Peak, and grows to the foot of the
rock which carries the little temple that covers the
sacred footstep on its crest. Dr. Hooker states that the
honey of its flowers is believed to be poisonous in some
parts of Sikkim ; but I never heard it so regarded in
Ceylon.
One of the most magnificent of the flowering trees,
is the coral tree1, which is also the most familiar to
Europeans, as the natives of the low country and the
coast, from the circumstance of its stem being covered
with thorns, plant it largely for fences, and grow it in_
the -vicinity of their dwellings. It derives its English
name from the resemblance which its scarlet flowers
present to red coral, and as these clothe the branches
before the leaves appear, their splendour attracts the eye
from a diftance, especially when lighted by the full blaze
of the sun.
The Murutu2 is another flowering tree which may
vie with the Coral, the Rhododendron, or the Asoca3,
the favourite of Sanskrit poetry. It grows to a con-
siderable height, especially in damp places and the
neighbourhood of streams, and pains have been taken,
1 Erythrina Indira. It belongs to
the pea tribe, and must not be con-
founded with the Jatropha muUifida
which hua flso acquired the name of
the coral tree. Its wood is bo light
and spongy, that it is used in Ceylon
to form carta for preserve jars; and
both there asd at Madras the natives
moke from it models of their imple-
ments of husbandry, and of* their
Bailing boats and canoes.
9 Lagerstrwniia Regiuse. •
,; G0t^lC
Cha*. III.] . FLOWEBING PLANTS. 93
from appreciation of its' attractions, to plant it by the
road side and in other conspicuous positions. From
the points of the branches panicles are produced, two
or three feet in length, composed of flowers, each the
size of a rose and of every shade, from a delicate pink to
the deepest purple. It abounds in the south-west of
the island.
The magnificent Asoca1 is found in the interior, and,
is cultivated, though not successfully, in the Peradenia
Garden, and in that attached to Elie House at Colombo.
But in Toompane, and in the valley of Doombera, its
loveliness vindicates all the praises bestowed on it by the
poets of the East. Its orange and crimson flowers grow
in graceful racemes, and the Singhalese, who have given
the rhododendron the pre-eminent appellation of the
" great red flower," (maha-rat-mal,) have called the
Asoca the diya-rat^mat to indicate its partiality foe
" moisture," combined with its prevailing hue.
But the tree which will most frequently attract the
eye of the traveller, is the " kattoo-imbul " of the Singha-
lese a, one of those which produce the silky cotton which,
though incapable of being spun, owing to the shortness
of its delicate fibre, makes a most luxurious stuffing for
sofas and pillows. The species -in question is a tall tree
covered with formidable thorns ; and being deciduous, the
fresh leaves, like those of the coral tree, do not make their
appearance till after the crimson flowers have covered,
the branches with their bright tulip-like petals. So
profuse are these gorgeous flowers, that when they fall,
the ground for many roods on all sides is a carpet of
scarlet They are succeeded by large oblong pods, in
which the black polished seeds are deeply embedded in
the floss which is so much prized by the natives. The
trunk is of an unusually bright green colour, and the
1 Jonesis Asoca, I Schott and Endlicher, have assigned
1 Bornbax Malabaricus, Ah the | to the imbul its ancient Sanskrit
genua Bombax ia confined to tropi- name, and described it aa Sulmidia
col America, the German botanists, | Malabarica.
Domzcdoy GpOgIC
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pa,
branches issue horizontally from the stem, in whorls of
threes with a distance of six or seven feet between each
whorl.
Near every Buddhist temple the priests plant the
Iron tree (Messua f erred)1 for the sake of its 'flowers,
with which they decorate the images of Buddha. They
resemble white roses, and form a singular contrast with
♦the buds and shoots of the tree, which are of the deepest
crimson. Along with its flowers the priests use like-
wise those of the Champac (Michelia Champaca), be-
longing to the family of magnoliaceee. They are of a pale
yellow tint, with the sweet oppressive perfume which
is celebrated in the poetry of the Hindus. From the
wood of the- champac the images of Buddha are carved
for the temples. .
The celebrated Upas tree of Java (Antiaris toxicaria),
which has been the subject of so many romances, ex-
ploded by Dr. Horsfield a, was supposed by Dr. Gardner
to exist in Ceylon, but more recent scrutiny has shown
that what he mistook for it, was an allied species, the
A. saccidora, which grows at Kornegalle, and in other
parts of the island ; and is scarcely less remarkable,
though for very different characteristics. The Ceylon
species was first brought to public notice by E. Rawdon
Power, Esq., government agent of the Kandyan province,
who sent specimens of it, and of the sacks which it
furnishes, to the branch of the Asiatic Society at Colombo.
It is known to the Singhalese by the name of "riti-
gaha," and is identical with the Lepurandra saccidora,
from which the natives of Coorg, like those of Ceylon,
1 Dr. Gardner supposed the iron-
wood tree of Ceylon to have been
confounded with the Memo ferrea
of Linnteus. He asserted it to be a
distinct species, and assigned to it the
-well-known Singhalese name "no-
gaha," or iron-wood tree. But this
conjecture has since proved
* The vegetable poisons, the
which 1b ascribed to the Singl
are chiefly the seeds of the Z
which act as a powerful narcotic, and
those of the Craton tigttum, the ex-
cessive effect of which ends in death.
The root of the Naium odorum ia
equally fatal, as is likewise the ex-
quisitely beautiful Gloriota suparba,
whose brilliant flowers festoon the
jungle in the plains of the low
country. See Bennett's account of
the Antiaru, in Hoesffeld's Plant*
Javamca.
jOQgle
Chap. IIL] BANYAN TEEE. m
manufacture an ingenious substitute for sacks by a pri>
cess which ia thus described by Mr-Nimmo.1 " A branch
is cut corresponding to -the length and breadth of the bag
required, it is soaked and then beaten with clubs till the
liber separates from the timber. This done, the sack
which is thus formed out of the bark is turned inside
out, and drawn downwards to permit the wood to be
sawn off, leaving a portion to form the bottom which is
kept firmly in its place by the natural attachment of the
bark."
As we descend the hills the banyans3 and a variety of
figs make their appearance. They are the Thugs of the
vegetable world, for although not necessarily epiphytic,
it may be said that in point of fact no single plant comes
to perfection, or acquires even partial development, with-
out the destruction of some other on which to fix itself
as its supporter. The family generally make their first
appearance as slender roots hanging from the crown or
trunk of some other tree, generally a palm, among the
moist bases of whose leaves the seed carried thither by
some bird which had fed upon the fig, begins to germi-
nate. The root branching as it descends, envelopes the
trunk of the supporting tree with a network of wood,
and at length penetrating the ground, attains the di-
mensions of a stem. But unlike a stem it throws out no
buds, leaves, or flowers ; the true stem, with its branches,
its foliage, and fruit, springs upwards from the spot near
the crown of the tree whence the root is seen descending ;
and from it issue the pendulous rootlets, which, on reaching
the earth, fix themselves firmly and form the marvellous
growth "for which the banyan is so celebrated.8 In the
1 Catalogue of Bombay Plants, off, leaving only the inner bark at-
p. 193. The process in Ceylon is tached to the wood ; which ia thus
thua described in Sir W. Hookeb's easily drawn out by the hand. The
jficport en the Vegetable Prodaett ex- bark thus obtained ia fibrous and
hibited in Fans in 1866 : "/The trees tough, resembling a woven fabric :
chosen for the purpose measure above it is sewn at one end into a sack,
a foot in diameter. The felled trunks which is filled with sand, and dried
are cut into lengths, and the bark is in the ai "
well beaten with a stone or a club
till the parenchymatous part comes
Google
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
[Pa.
depth of this grove, the original tree is incarcerated till,
literally strangled by the folds and weight of its resistless
companion, it dies and leaves the fig in undisturbed
possession of its place. It ia not unusual in the forest to
find a fig-tree which had been thus upborne till it became
a standard, now presenting a hollow cylinder, the centre of
which was once filled by the sustaining tree : but the
empty walls form a circular network of interlaced roots
and branches ; firmly agglutinated under pressure, and
admitting the light through interstices that look like
loopholes in a turret
Another species of the same genus, F. repens, is a
fitting representative of the English ivy, and is con-
stantly to be seen clambering over rocks, twining
the following passage from Pliny re-
ferred to as the original of Milton's
description of this marvellous tree : —
" Ipsa se serous, vastis diSuuditur
rami a : quorum imi adeo ill terrain
ciirvantur, ut annuo spatio infigantur,
novamque sibi propaginem facumt
circa parentemin orbeni. Intra soptem
earn izttivant pattora, opacam pariter
et munitam vallo arboris, decora
specie suhter intuenti, proculve,_^>r-
nicato arbore. Foliorum latitudo
petite effigiem Amaxonica habet," &c.
— Pltht, 1. xii. e. 11.
Pliny's description is borrowed,
with some embellishments, from Tm-
ui'hbastus de. Nat. Plant. 1. i 7. it. 4.
^Google
Chap. HI.].. BAKTAS TBEU. 07
through heaps of stones, or ascending some tall tree to the
height of thirty or forty feet, while the thickness of its
own stem does not exceed a quarter of an inch.
The facility with wliich the seeds of the fig-tree take
root where there is a sufficiency of moisture to permit of
germination, has rendered them formidable assailants of
the ancient monuments throughout Ceylon. The vast
mounds of brickwork which constitute the remains of the.
Dagobas at Anarajapoora, Pollanarrua, and elsewhere are
covered densely with trees, amongst wliich the figs are
always conspicuous. One, which has fixed itself on the
walls of a ruined edifice at the latter city, fonns one of
the most remarkable objects of the place — its roots
streaming downwards over the walls as if their wood had
once been fluid, follow every sinuosity of the building and
terraces till they reach the earth.
To this genus belongs the Sacred Bo-tree of the Bud-
dhists, Ficw* relhjiom, which is planted close to every
temple, and attracts almost as much veneration as the
vol. i. «
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
03 PHYSICAL OEOGEAPUY. . [Pabt I.
statue of the god himself. At Anarajapoora is still pre-
served the identical tree said to have been planted 288
years before the Christian era.1
Although the India-rubber tree (F. elastica) is uot
indigenous to Ceylon, it is now very widely diffused
over the island. It is remarkable for the pink leathery
covering which envelopes the leaves before expansion,
and for the delicate tracery of the nerves which run in
equi-distant rows at right angles from the mid-rib. But
its most striking feature is the exposure of its roots,
masses of whidi appear above ground, exteuding on all
sides from the base, and writhing over the surface in
undulations—
" Like snakes in wild festoon,
So strong, in fact, is the resemblance, that the villagers
give it the name of the " Snake-tree." One, which grows
close to Cotta, at the Church' Missionary establishment
within a few miles of Colombo, affords a remarkable
illustration of this peculiarity.
There is an avenue of these trees leading to the Gar-
dens of Peradenia, the roots of which meet from either
side of the road, and have so covered the surface by
their agglutinated reticulations as to form a wooden
1 For ft memoir of this celebrated I ■ Hood's poem of 7Xe Elm 7Vec.
tree, see the account of Annraiapoom,
Vol. II. p. 814. |
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. III.] THE KUMBUK. 99
framework, the interstices of -which retain the materials
that compose the roadway.1
The Kumbufc of the Singhalese (called by the Tamils
Maratha-maram)2 is one of the noblest and most widely
distributed trees in the island ; it delights in the banks
of rivers and moist borders of tanks and canals ; it
overshadows the stream of the Mahawelli-ganga, almost
from Kandy to the sea ; and it stretches its great arms
above the still water of the lakes on the eastern side of
the island.
One venerable patriarch of this species, which grows
at Mutwal, within three miles of Colombo, towers to so
great a height above the surrounding forests of coco,
nut palms, that it serves as a landmark for the native
boatmen, and is discernible from Negombo, more than
twenty miles distant. The circumference of its stem, as
measured by Mr. W. Ferguson, in 1850, was forty-five
feet close to the earth, and seven yards at twelve feet
above the ground. The timber, which is durable, is
applied to the carving of idols for the temples, besides
being extensively used for lees dignified purposes ; but
it is chiefly prized for the bark, which is Sold as a
medicine, and, in addition to yielding a black dye, it is
so charged with calcareous matter that its ashes, when
burnt, afford a substitute for the lime that the natives
chew with their betel.
Some of the trees found in the forests of the interior
are • remarkable for the curious forms in which they
produce their seeds. One of these, that sometimes
grows to the height of one hundred feet without throwing
out a single branch, has been confounded with the durian
of the Eastern Archipelago, or supposed to be an allied
Bpecies*, but it differs from it in the important particular
1 Mr. Ferguson, of the Surveyor- upwards of 140 feet in length, whilst
General's Department, assures* me the tree itself was not 30 feet high,
that he once measured the root of a 3 Pentaptera tomentosa. (Rox.).
small wild fig-tree, growing in a ! It is the Cullenia exoeUa of
patena at Jlewahette, and found it Wight's lama, &c. (761-2).
DomzcdoyGoOglc
100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Paet I.
that its friiit is not edible. The real durian is not in-
digenous to Ceylon, but was brought there by the Portu-
guese in the sixteenth century.1 It has been very recently
re-introduced, and is now cultivated successfully. The
native name for the Singhalese variety , " Katu-bceda," de-
notes the prickles that cover its fruit, which is as large as
a coco-nut, and set with thorns each -nearly an inch in
length.
The Stercitlia feetida, one of the noblest of the Ceylon
forest-trees, produces from the end of its branches
large bunches of dark purple flowers of extreme
richness and beauty; but emitting a stench so in-
tolerable as richly to entitle it to its very characteristic
botanical name. The fruit is equally remarkable, and
consists of several crimson cases of the consistency of
leather, within which are enclosed a number of black
bean-like seeds : these are dispersed by the bursting of
their envelope, which opens to liberate them when
sufficiently ripened.
The Moodilla (Bar-ringtonia speciosa) is another tree
that attracts the eye of the traveller, not less from
the remarkably shaped fruit which it bears than from the
contrast between its dark glossy leaves and the delicate
flowers which they surround. The latter are white,
tipped with crimson, but the petals drop off early, and
the stamens, of which there are nearly a hundred to
each flower, when they fall to the ground might almost
be mistaken for painters' brushes. This tree (as its native
name implies) loves the shore of the sea, and its large
quadrangular fruits, of pyramidal form, being pro-
tected by a hard coriaceous covering, are tossed by the
waves till they root themselves on the beach. It grows
freely at the mouths of the principal rivers on the west
1 PoHc.itfcm, in his Inolario, writ- quei cocomeri, die a VenetU son
, ten in the sixteenth century, enume- ehiaiuati nnfrmie : in mezo del quale
rates the true durinn as beinir then . troinno (ientro cinque frutti de supor
amongst the ordinary fruit of Cev- ( molto excellent!?."— Lib, jii. p. 188.
Ion. — "Vi Dftflco anchora un frullo Padua, a.d. 1010.
ilctta Duriiuio, verde et (rraude come ,
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
Ckap. III.] THE GODA-KADURU. — EUPHORBIA. 101
coast, and several noble specimens of it are found near the
fort of Colombo.
The Goda-kaduru, or Strychnos mt&oomica, is abun-
dant in these prodigious forests, and has obtained an
European celebrity from the fact of its producing the
poisonous seeds from which strychnine is extracted. Its
fruit, which it exhibits in great profusion, is of the size and
colour of a small orange, within which a pulpy sub-
stance envelopes the seeds that form the " nux-vomica "
of commerce. It grows in great luxuriance in the
vicinity of the ruined tanks throughout the Warmy, and
on the west coast as far south as Negombo. It is
singular that in this genus there should be found two
plants, the seeds of one being not" only harmless but
wholesome, and that of the other the most formidable
of known poisons.1 Amongst the Malabar immigrants
there is a belief that the seeds of the goda-kaduru, if
habitually taken, will act as a prophylactic against the
venom of the cobra de capello ; and I have been assured
that the coolies coming from the coast of India accus-
tom themselves to eat a single seed per day in order to .
acquire the desired protection from the effects of this
serpent's bite.2
In these forests the Euphorbia 3, which we are accus-
tomed to see only as a cactus-like green-house plant, attains
the size and strength of a small timber-tree ; its quadran-
gular stem becomes circular and woody, and its square
fleshy shoots take the form of branches, or rise with a
rounded top to the height of thirty feet.*
1 The ttttan-mUa, the use of which i to increase the intoxicating power of
is described in Vol. II. Pt. u. ch. i. • the spirit,
p. 411, when applied by the natives 3 B. Antiquorun.
to clarify muddy water, w the seed of 4 Amongst the remarkable plants
another species of strychnos, S. pota- of Ceylon, there is one concerning
tonim. The Singhalese name ia\ugiai which" a singular error has been per-
(Uitan-mfta is Tamil). petuated in nottyiieal works from the
* In India, the distillers of arrack time of Paul Ilermann, who first
from the juice of the coco-nut palm described it in 1087, to the present.
are said, by Roxburgh, fc> introduce I mean the kiri-anauaa (Oyrnnenia
the seeds of the strychnus, in order , lactifcrum), evidently a form of the
h 3
-, Go ogle
102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Paet I.
But that which cannot fail to arrest the attention even of
an indifferent passer-by is the endless variety and almost
inconceivable size and luxuriance of the climbing plants
and epiphytes that live upon the forest trees in every
part of the island. It is rare to see one without
its families of dependents of this description, and on
one occasion I counted on a single prostrate stem no less
than sixteen species of Capparis, Beaumontia, Bignonia,
Ipomcea, and other genera, which the tree, in its fall,
had brought along with it to the ground. Those that
are free from climbing plants have their higher branches
and hollows occupied by ferns and orchids, of which
latter the variety is endless in Ceylon, though the beauty
of the flowers is not equal to those of Brazil and other
tropical countries. In the many excursions that I
made with Dr. Gardner he added numerous species
to those already known, including the exquisite Sac-
colabium guttatum, which we came upon in the vicinity
of Bintenne, but it had before been discovered
in Java and the mountains of northern India. Its
large groups of lilac flowers hung in rich festoons
from the branches as we rode under them, and caused
us many an inconvenient halt to admire and secure
the plants.
O. sylvcstre, to which has been given
the name of the Ceylon cow-tree ; and
it is asserted that the natives drink
its juice as we do milk. LotroB
(Ency. of Plant*, p. 197) says, "The
milk of the O. laetiferum is used
instead of the vaccine ichor, and the
leaves are employed in sauces in the
room of cream." And Lindlet, in
his Vegetable Kingdom, in speaking of
the Asclepiads, says, " the cow plant
of Cevlon, ' kiri-angiina,' yields a milk
of which the Singhalese make use
for food, and its leaves are also used
when boiled." Even in the Enylidi
Cpclopadia of Charles Knight,
published so lately as 1864, this error
is repeated. {See art. Cow-tree, p.
178.) But this is altogether a mis-
take;— the Ceylon plant, like many
others, has acquired its epithet of kiri,
nut from the j uicea being susceptible
of being used as a substitute for milk,
but simply from its resemblance to it
in colour and consistency. It is a
creeper, found on the southern and
western coasts, and used medicinally
bv the natives, hut never as an article
of food. The leaves, when chopped
and boiled, are administered to nurses
by native practitioners, and are sup-
posed to increase the secretion of milk.
As to its use, as stated by Loudon,
in lieu of the vaccine matter, it is al-
together erroneous. Moos, in his
Catalogue of the Plants of Ceylon, p. 21 ,
has accidentally mentioned the kiri-
anguna twice, being misled by the
Pali synonym " kiri-hangula " ; they
are the same plant, though he has
inserted them as different
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. HI.] CLIMBING PLANTS AND EriPHYTES. 10?
A rich harvest of botanical discovery still remains
for the scientific explorer of the districts south and
east of Adam's Peak, whence Dr. Gardner's successor,
Mr. Thwaites, has already brought some remarkable '
species. Many of the Ceylon orchids, like those of
South Ameriea, exhibit a grotesque similitude to va-
rious animals ; and one, a Dendrobium, which the Sin-
ghalese cultivate in the palms near their dwelling, bears a
name equivalent to the Whiteyigeon flower, from the
resemblance that its clusters present to a group of those
birds in miniature clinging to the stem with wings at
rest.
But of this order the most exquisite plant I have seen
is the Ancectochiltis setacem, a terrestrial orchid found
about the moist roots of the forest trees, which - has
attracted the attention of even the apathetic Singhalese,
among whom its singular beauty has won for it the
popular name of the Wanna Raja, or " King of the
Forest." It is common in humid and shady places a
few miles removed from the sea-coast ; its flowers have
no particular beauty, but its leaves are perhaps the most
exquisitely formed in the vegetable kingdom; their
colour resembles dark velvet, approaching to black, and
their surface is reticulated with veins of ruddy gold.1
The branches of all the lower trees and brushwood are
so densely covered with convolvuli, and Bimilar delicate
climbers of every colour, that frequently it is difficult to
discover the plant that supports them, owing te- the
heaps of verdure under which it is concealed. One very
curious creeper, which catches the eye, is the square-
stemmed vine2, whose fleshy four-sided runners climb the
1 There ie another small orchid
bearing a slight resemblance to the
wannn raja, which is often found
growing along with it, called by the
Singhalese irirqja, or "atriped king."
Its leaves are somewhat bronzed, but
they are longer and narrower than
those of the wanna raja ; and, aa it*
Singhalese name implies, it has two
white stripes running through the
length of each. They are not of the
same genus ; the wanna raja being
the only species of AnccctochUm yet
found in Ceylon.
' Cissus edulia, Dak.
oyGoogIe
104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Part 1.
highest trees, and hang down in the most fantastic bunches.
Its stem, like that of another plant of the same genus (the
Vitis Indica), when freshly cut, yields a copious draught
of pure tasteless fluid, and is eagerly sought after by ele-
phants.
But it is the trees of older and loftier growth that
exhibit the rank luxuriance of these wonderful epiphytes
in the most remarkable manner. They are tormented by
climbing plants of such extraordinary dimensions that
many of them exceed in diameter the girth of a man ;
and these gigantic appendages are to be seen surmount-
ing the tallest trees of the forest, grasping their stems
in firm convolutions, and then flinging their monstrous
tendrils over the larger limbs till they reach the top,
whence they descend towards the ground in huge festoons,
and, after including another and another tree in their
successive toils, they once more ascend to the summit,
and wind the whole into a maze of living network as
massy as if formed by the cables of a hne-of-battle ship.
When, by-and-by, the trees on which this singular fabric
has become suspended give way under its weight, or sink
by their own decay, the fallen trunk speedily disappears,
whilst the convolutions of climbers continue to grow
on, exhibiting one of the most marvellous living
mounds of confusion that it is possible to fancy. .Fre-
quently one of these creepers may be seen holding
by one extremity the summit of a tall tree, and grasp-
ing with the other an object at some distance near
the earth, between which it is strained as tight and
straight as if hauled over a block. In all probability
the young tendril had been originally blown into this
position by the wind, and retained in it till it had gained
ite maturity, after winch it presents the appearance of
having been artificially arranged as if to support a
falling tree.
This peculiarity of tropical vegetation has been
turned to profitable account by the Ceylon woodmen,
employed by the European planters in felliDg forests
oyGoogIe
Cn*p. III.] CURIOUS CLIMBING PLANTS. 105
preparatory to the cultivation of coffee. Ill this craft
they are singularly expert, and far surpass the Mala-
bar coolies, who assist in the same operations. In
steep and mountainous places where the trees have
been lashed together by interlacing climbers, the prac-
tice is to cut halfway through each stem in succession,
till an area of some acres in extent is prepared for
the final overthrow. Then severing some tall group
on the eminence, and allowing it in its descent to
precipitate itself on those below, the whole expanse
is in one moment brought headlong to the ground ;
the falling timber forcing down those beneath it by its
weight, and dragging those behind to which it is har-
nessed by ifs living attachments. The crash occasioned
by this startling operation is so deafeningly loud, that it
is audible for miles in the clear and still atmosphere of
the hills.
One monstrous- creeping plant called by the Kandyans
the Maha-pus-wael, or " Great hollow climber," ' has
pods, some of which I have seen fully five feet long and
six inches broad, with beautiful brown beans, so large
that the natives hollow them out, and, carry them for
tinder-boxes.
Another climber of less dimensions 2, but greater luxu-
riance, haunts the jungle, and often reaches the tops of
the highest trees, whence it suspends large bunches of its
yellow flowers, and eventually produces clusters of prickly
pods containing greyish-coloured seeds, less than an inch
in diameter, which are so strongly coated with silex, that
they are said to strike fire like a flint.
One other curious climber is remarkable for the
vigour and vitality of its vegetation, a faculty in which
it equals, if it do not surpass, the' banyan. This is the
1 Entadapitrtirifw. The same plant,
when found in lower situations, where
it wants the soil and moisture of the
mountains, is so altered in appearance
that the natives call it the "heen-
pus-wael ; " and even botanists hare
taken it for a distinct species. The
beautiful mountain region of Pusi-
lawa, now familiar as one of the finest
coffee districts in Ceylon, in all pro-
bability takes its name from the giant
bean, " Pus-waelawa."
■ Quilandina Bonduc
oyGoogIe
106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Fm I.
Cocculus cordifolivs, the " rasa-kindu " of the Singhalese,
a medicinal plant which produces the guluncha of Bengal
It is largely cultivated in Ceylon, and when it has
acquired the diameter of Tialf an inch, it is not unusual
for the natives to cut from the main stem a portion of
from twenty to thirty feet in length, leaving the
dissevered plant suspended from the branches of the
tree which sustained it. The amputation naturally
serves for a time to check its growth, but presently
small rootlets, not thicker than a pack-thread, are seen
shooting downwards from the wounded end ; these
swing in the wind till, reaching the ground, they attach
themselves in the soil, and form new stems, which in
turn, when sufficiently grown, are cut away and re-
placed by a subsequent growth. Such is its tenacity
of life, that when the Singhalese wish to grow the rasa'
kindu, they twist several yards of the stem into a coil
of six or eight inches in diameter, and simply hang it
on the branch of a tree, where it speedily puts forth its
large heart-shaped leaves, and sends down its rootlets to
the earth.
The ground, too has its creepers, and some of them
very curious. The most remarkable are the ratans,
belonging to the Calamus genus of palms. Of these I
have seen a specimen 250 feet long and an inch in dia-
meter, without a single irregularity, and no appearance
of foliage other than the bunch of feathery leaves at the
extremity.
The strength of these slender plants is so extreme,
that the natives employ them with striking success in
the formation of bridges across the water-courses and
ravines. One which crossed the falls of the MahaweUi-
ganga, in the Kotmalie range of hills, was constructed
with the scientific precision of an engineer's work. It
was entirely composed of the plant, called by the
natives the " Waywel," its extremities fastened to
living trees, on the opposite sides of the ravine, through
which a furious and otherwise impassable mountain
^-.■^CoOglc
Chap. III.] RATAX BRIDGES. — THORNY I'LAXTS. 107
torrent thundered and fell from rock to rock with a
descent of nearly 100 feet The flooring of this aerial
bridge consisted of short splints of wood, laid trans-
versely, and bound in their places by thin strips of the
waywel itself. The whole structure vibrated and
swayed with fearful ease, but the coolies traversed it
though heavily laden ; and the European, between whose
estate and the high road it lay, rode over it daily without-
dismounting.
Another class of trees which excites the astonishment
of an European, are those whose stems are protected, as
high as cattle can reach, by thorns, which in the jungle
attain a growth and size quite surprising. One species of
palm1, the. Caryota korrida, often rises to a height of
fifty feet," and has a coating of thorns for about six or
eight feet from the ground, each about an inch in length,
and so densely covering the stem that the bark is barely
visible.
A climbing plant, the " Kudu-miris" of the Singhalese2,
very common in the hill jungles, with a diameter of
three or four inches, is thickly studded with knobs
about half an inch high, and from the extremity of each
a thorn protrudes, as large and Bharp as the bill of a
sparrow-hawk. It has been the custom of die Singhalese
from time immemorial, to employ the thorny trees of
their forests in the construction of defences against
their enemies. The Mahawanso relates, that in the
civil wars, in the reign of Prakrama-bahu in the twelfth
century, the inhabitants of the southern portion of the
island intrenched themselves against his forces behind
moats filled with thorns.8 And at an earlier period,
during the contest of Butugaimunu with Elala, the
same authority states, that a town which he was about
1 This palm I have called a Caryota ', The natives identify it with the Ca-
lm the authority of Dr. Gardser, ryota, and call it the " katu-kiftul."
and of Moon's Catalogue ; hut I have j ! Toddalia aculeaU.
been informed bv Dr. Homer and * SfaAaicamo, eh. lxxiv.
Mr. Thwaitrb that it is an Areca. !
OilizcdTiy GoOglc
IDS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Past I.
to attack was "surrounded on all sidea by the thorny
Dadambo creeper (probably .Toddalia aculeata), within
which was a triple line of fortifications, with one gate of
difficult access." *
During the existence of the Kandyan kingdom as an
independent state, before its conquest by the British, the
frontier forests were so thickened and defended by dense
plantations of these thorny palms and climbers at different
points, as to exhibit a natural fortification impregnable to
the feeble tribes on the other side, and at each pass which
led to the level country, -movable gates, formed of the
same formidable thorny beams, were suspended as an
ample security against the incursions of the naked and
timid lowlanders.2
The pasture grounds throughout the vicinity of Jaffna
abound in a low shrub called the Buffalo-thorn3, the black
twigs of wjiich are beset at every joint by a pair of thorns,
set opposite each other like the horns of an ox, as sharp as
a needle, from two to three inches in length, and thicker
at die base than the stem they grow on.
The Acacia tomentosa is of the same genus, with
thorns so large as to be called the "jungle-nail " by
Europeans. It is frequent in the woods of Jaffna and
Manaar, where it bears the Tamil name of Ami mulla,
or " elephant thorn." In some of these thorny plants,
as in the Phoberos Gatrtneri, Thun.,4 the spines grow not
singly, but in branching clusters, each point presenting a
spike as sharp as a lancet ; and where these formidable
1 Mahmoamo, ch. xxv. I less, figured and described by Gaert-
1 The kings of Kandy maintained ner as the LUnnnia pusilla, which,
n regulation " that no one, on pain of after a great deal of labour and re-
death, should presume to cut a road ; search I think I have identified aa
through the forest wider than was I the I'hoberot macropht/Uas fW. and
auffitient for one person to pass."— A. Prod. p. 30). Thunberg alludes to
Wolf's Life and Adventures, p. 308. I it (Travels, vol. iv.) — "Why the
* Acacia latrmmm. Singhalese have called it acinnamon,
* Mr. Win. Ferguson writes to me, I do not know, unless from some
"This is the famous Katu-kunmdu, * ■ ■ - - ■
or ' thorny cinnamon,' of the Sing-ha- |
oyGoogIe
Chap. III.] Tilt; PALMS. IO0
slirubs abound they render the forest absolutely im-
passable, even to the elephant and to animals of great
size and force.
The family of trees which •from their singularity as
well as their beauty, most attract the eye" of the traveller
in the foreits of Ceylon, are the Palms, which occur in
rich profusion, although, of upwards of six hundred
species which are found in other countries, not more
than ten or twelve are indigenous to the island.1 At the
head of these is the coco-nut, every particle of whose
substance, stem, leaves, and fruit, the Singhalese turn to
so many accounts, that' one of their favourite topics to a
stranger is to enumerate the hundred uses to which they
tell us this invaluable tree is applied.2
The most majestic and wonderful of the palm tribe is
the talpat or talipot9, the stem of which sometimes attains
the height of 100 feet, and each of its enormous fan-like
leaves, when laid upon the ground, will form a semicircle
of 16 feet in diameter, and cover an area of nearly 200
superficial feet. The tree flowers but once, and dies ;
Mr. Th wail es has enumerated I preserves. The nut, for eating, for
urry, for milk, for cooking. The oil,
or rheumatism, for anointing thebair,
fifteen species (including the
nut, and excluding the Niptifri
which more properly belongs
for soap, for candles, for light ; and
the pormak, or refuse of the nut after
expressing the oil, for cattlo and
Soultry. The shell of the nut, for
rinkingcups,charcoftl, tooth-powdnr,
spoons, medicine, hookahs, beads,
bottles, and knife-handles. The coir, or.
fibre which envelopes the shell within
Corypha, 1 ; Phoenix, 2 ; CVos, 1.
' The following are only a few of
the countless uses of this invaluable
tree. The leaves, for roofing, for mats,
for baskets, torches or chules, fuel,
brooms, fodder for cattle, manure, i the outer husk, for mattresses, cush-
Thc stem of the leaf, for fences, for ions, ropes, cables, cordage, canvass,
pingoes (or yokes) for carrying bur- ' fishing-nets, fuel, brushes, oakum,
thcns on the shoulders, fur fishing- I and floor mats. The trunk, for rafters,
rods, and innumerable domestic uten- i laths, roiling, boats, troughs, fumi-
sils. The cabbage, or cluster of I ture, firewood ; and when very young,
unexpanded leaves, for pickles and I the first shoots, or cabbage, as a vege-
S reserves. The sap, for toddy, for table for the table. The entire list,
istilling arrack, and for making | with a Singhalese enthusiast, is an
vinegar, and sugar. The unformed ' interminable narration of the virtues
ntd, for medicine and sweetmeats. I of his favourite tree.
The young nut and its milk, for drink- ' J Corypha umbraculifern, Linn.
ing, for deseert; the green husk for |
oyGoogIe
110 1'HTSICAL GEOGRAPHY [I'ait I.
and the natives assert that the bursting of the spadix
is accompanied by a loud explosion. The leaves alone
are converted by the Singhalese to purposes of utility. Of
them they form coverings for their houses, and portable
tents of a rude but effective description ; and on occasions
of ceremony, each -chief and headman walktng abroad
is attended by a follower, who holds above his head an
elaborately-ornamented fan, formed from a single leaf of
the talpat.
But the most interesting use to which they are applied
is as substitutes for paper, both for books and for ordi-
nary purposes. In the preparation of otas, which is the
term applied to them when so employed, the leaves are
taken whilst still tender, and, after separating the central
ribs, they are cut into strips and boiled in spring water.
They are dried, first in the shade, and afterwards in the
sun, then made into rolls, and kept in store, or sent to the
snarket for sale. In order to render them fit for writing
on they are subjected to a second process, called ma-
dtma ; — a smooth plank of areca-palm is tied horizontally
between two trees, each ola is then damped, and a weight
being attached to one end of it, it is drawn backwards and
forwards across the edge of the wood till the surface
becomes polished ; and during the process, as the mois-
ture dries up, it is necessary to renew it till the effect
is complete. The smoothing of a single ola will occupy
from fifteen to twenty minutes.1
The finest specimens in Ceylon are to be obtained at
the Panselas, or Buddhist monasteries ; they are kuown
as puskola, and are prepared by the Samanera priests
(novices) and the students, under the superintendence of
the priests. The raw leaves, when dried without any
preparation, are called karakola, and, like the leaves of
the palmyra, are used only for ordinary purposes by the
Singhalese ; but in the Tamil districts, where palmyras
oyGoogIe
Chap. III.] THE PALMYRA. HI
are abundant, and talpat palms rare, the leaves of the
former are used for books as well as for letters.
The palmyra1 is another invaluable palm, and one of
the most beautiful of the family. It grows in such pro-
fusion over the north of Ceylon, and especially in the
peninsula of Jaffna, as to form extensive forests, whence
its timber is exported for jafters to all parts of the island,
as well as to the opposite coast of India, where, though
the palmyra grows luxuriantly, its wood, from local
causes, is too soft and perishable to be used for any
purpose requiring strength and durability, qualities which,
in the palmyra of Ceylon, are pre-eminent. To the in-
habitants of the northern provinces this invaluable tree is
of the same importance as the coco-nut palm is to the
natives of the south. Its fruit yields them food and oil;
its juice "palm wine" and sugar; its stem is the chief
material of their buildings ; and its leaves, besides serving
as roofs to their dwellings and fences to their farms,
supply them with matting and baskets, with head-dresses
and fans, and serve as a substitute for paper for their
deeds and writings, and for the sacred books, which con-
tain the traditions of their faith. It has been said with
truth that a native of Jaffna, if he be contented with
ordinary doors and mud walls, may build an entire house
(as he wants neither nails nor iron work), with walls,
roof, and covering from the Palmyra palm. From this
same tree he may draw his wine, make his oil, kindle his
fire, carry his water, store his food, cook his repast, and
sweeten it, if he pleases ; in fact, he does so live from
day to day dependent on his palmyra alone. Multitudes
so live, and it may be safely asserted that this tree alone
furnishes one-fourth the means of sustenance for the popu-
lation of the northern provinces.
1 Boranutjtabdliformu. Forai
„.unt of the Palmyra, and its ci „ . .
ration in the peninsula of Jaffna, | 1850. Sec aim Vol 1L p. 61a
oyGoogIc
112 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Pabt I.
The Jaggery Palm1, the Kitool of the Singhalese, is
chiefly cultivated in the Kandyan hills for the sake of
its sap, which is drawn, boiled down, and crystallised
into a coarse brown sugar, in universal use amongst the
inhabitants of the south and west of Ceylon, who also
extract from its pi*h a farina scarcely inferior to sago.
The black fibre of the leaf is twisted by the Eodiyas into
ropes of considerable smoothness and tenacity. A Kitool-
pahu was pointed out to me. at Ambogammoa, which
furnished the support of a Kandyan, his wife, and their
children. A single tree has been known to yield one
hundred pints of toddy within twenty-four hours.
The Areca2 Palm is the invariable feature of a native
garden, being planted near the wells and water-courses,
as it rejoices in moisture. Of all the tribe it is the most
graceful and delicate, rising to the height of forty or fifty
feet8, without an inequality on its thin polished stem,
which is bright green towards the top, sustaining a crown
of feathery foliage, in the midst of which are clustered
the astringent nuts for whose sake it is carefully tended.
The chewing of these nuts with lime and the leaf of the
betel-pepper supplies to the people of Ceylon the same
enjoyment which tobacco affords to the inhabitants of
other countries ; but its use is, if possible, more offensive,
as the three articles, when combined, colour the saliva of
so deep a red that the lips and teeth appear as if covered
with blood. Yet, in spite of this disgusting accompani-
ment, men and women, old and young, from morning till
night indulge in the repulsive luxury.4
It is seldom, however, that we find in semi-civilised
1 Caryota ureas.
1 A. catechu.
* Mr. Ferguson measured tin areca
at Caltura which whs seventy-live
feet high, and grew near a coco-nut
that was upwards of ninety feet tics, he designated the "betel-
Caltura isj however, remarkable for ' chewer's
1 Dr. Elliot, of Colombo, observed
several cases of cancer in the cheek
which, from its peculiar characteris-
oyGoogIe
Cimf HI.] THE USB OP BETEL. 113
life habits universally prevailing which have not their
origin, however ultimately they may be abused by
excess, in 'some sense of utility.-. The Turk, when he
adds to the oppressive warmth of the sun by enveloping
his forehead in a gaudy turban, or the Arab, when
he increases the sultry heat by swathing' his waist in a
showy girdle, may appear to act on no other calculation
than a willingness to sacrifice comfort to a love of display;
but the custom in each instance is the result of pre-
caution— in the former, because the head requires es-
pecial protection from sun-strokes ; and in the latter,
from the fact well known to the Greeks (wfajvoi "A^«iol)
that, in a warm climate, danger is to be apprehended
from a sudden chill to that particular region of the
stomach. In like manner, in the chewing of the areca-
nut with its accompaniments of lime and betel, the native
of Ceylon is unconsciously applying a specific to correct
the defective qualities of his daily food Never eating
flesh meat by any chance, seldom or never using milk,
butter, poultry, or eggs, and tasting fish but occasionally
(most rarely in the interior of the island,) the non-
azotised elements abound in every article he consumes
with the exception of the bread-fruit, the jak, and some
varieties of beans. In his indolent and feeble stomach
these are liable to degenerate into flatulent and acrid
products; but, apparently by instinct, the whole po-
pulation have adopted a simple prophylactic. Every
Singhalese carries in his waistcloth an ornamented box
of silver or brass, according to his means, enclosing a
smaller one to hold a portion of chunam (lime obtained
by the calcination of shells) whilst the larger contains
the nuts of the areca and a few freshly-gathered leaves of
the betel-vine. As inclination or habit impels, he scrapes
down the nut, which abounds in catechu, and, rolling
it up with a little of the lime in a leaf, the whole
is chewed, and finally swallowed, after provoking an
extreme salivation. To effect the desired object, no me-
dical prescription could be more judiciously compounded
vol. I. I
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Ill
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
tP«
than this practical combination of antacid, the tonic, and
carminative.
The custom is so ancient in Ceylon and in India, that
the Arabs and Persians who resorted to Hindustan in the
eighth and ninth centuries carried back the habit to
their own country ; and Massoudi, the traveller of
the Bagdad, who wrote the account of his voyages in A.D.
943, states that the chewing of betel then prevailed along
the southern coast of Arabia, and reached as far as Yemen
and Mecca.1 Ibn Batuta saw the betel plant at Zahfar
in 1332, and describes it accurately as trained like a
vine over a trellis of reeds, or climbing the stems of the
coco*nut palm.a
The leaves of the coca8 supply the Indians of Bolivia
and Peru with a stimulant, whose use is equivalent to
that of the betel-pepper among the natives of Hindustan
and the Eastern Archipelago. With an admixture of
lime, they are ^chewed perseveringly ; but, unlike the
betel, the colour imparted by them to the saliva is
greenish instead of red. It is curious, too, as a coin-
cidence common to the humblest phases of semi-civilised
life, that, in the absence of coined money, the leaves of
the coca form a rude kind of currency in the Andes, as
the betel does still in some parts of Ceylon, and tobacco
did formerly amongst the tribes of the south-west of.
Africa.*
Neither catechu nor its impure equivalent, "terra
japonica," is prepared from the areca in Ceylon ; but the
nuts are exported in large quantities to the Maldive
Islands and to India, the produce of which they excel
in astringency and exceed in size. The fibrous wood of
the areca being at once straight, firm, and elastic, is em-
ployed for making the pingoes (yokes for the shoulders),
as translated
ittr flnde, p. 290.
* Voyage*, *c t ii. p. 206.
1 Erytnroiylon coca.
♦ Tobacco waa a currency in North
America when Virginia
in the early part of the 17th century ;
debts were contracted and paid in
it, and in every ordinary transaction
tobacco answered tie purposes of
coin.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap- III.] TIMBER TREES. llfl
by means of which the Singhalese coolie, like the cor-
responding class among the ancient Egyptians and the
Greeks, carries his burdens, dividing them into portions of
equal weight, one of which is suspended from each end of
the pingo. By a swaying motion communicated to them
as he starts, his own movements are facilitated, whereas
one unaccustomed to the work, by allowing the oscillation
to become irregular, finds it almost impossible to proceed
with a load of any considerable weight1
Timber trees, either for export or domestic use, are
not found in any abundance except in the low country ;
and here the facility of floating them to the sea, down
the streams which intersect the eastern coast of the island,
has given rise to an active trade at Batticaloa and Trinco-
malie. But, unfortunately, the indifference of the local
officers entrusted with the issue of licences to fell, and
the imperfect control exercised over the adventurers who
embark in these speculations, have led to a destruction of
trees quite disproportionate to the timber obtained, and
utterly incompatible with th? conservation of the valuable
kinds. The East India Company have had occasion to
deplore the loss of their teak forests by similar neglect and
mismanagement ; and it is to be hoped that, ere too late,
the attention of the Ceylon Government may be so di-
rected to this important subject as to lead to the appoint-
ment of competent foresters, at various parts of the island,
under whose authority and superintendence the felling of
timber may be carried on.
An interesting memoir on the timber trees of Ceylon
has been prepared by a native officer at Colombo, Adrian .
Mendis, of Morottu, carpenter-moodliar to the Koyal Engi-
neers, in which he has enumerated upwards of ninety
species, which, in various parts of the island, are employed
either as timber or cabinet woods.2 Of these, the jak,
account of the pingo see Vol. L Part
1 The natives of Tahiti use a yoke
of the same form u the Singhalese
pingo, but made from the wood of the
Hibiscus tSiacem, — Darwin, Nat,
Vog. ch. rviii. p. 407. For * further
Mendia List will be found aj
iflfr
ided to the Ctyhn Odatthr for
DomzcdoyGoOglc
116 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. IVamt t
the Kangtal of Bengal (Artocarpus integrifolia), is, next
to the coco-nut and Palmyra, by far the moat valuable
to the Singhalese ; its fruit, which sometimes attains the
weight of 50 lbs., supplying food for their table, its leaves
fodder for their cattle, and its trunk timber for every con-
ceivable purpose both ceconomic and ornamental. The
Jak-tree, (as well as the Del, or wild bread-fruit,) is in-
digenous to the forests on the coast ahd in the central
provinces; but, although the latter is found in the vicinity
of the villages, it doea not appear to be an object of special
cultivation. The Jak, on the contrary, is planted near
every house, and forms the shade of every garden. Its
wood, at first yellow, approaches the colour of mahogany
after a little exposure to the air, and resembles it at all
times in its grain and marking. •
The Del {Artocarpus pubescens) affords a valuable
timber, not only for architectural purposes, but for ship-
building. It and the Halmalille 1 resembling but larger
than the linden tree of England, to which it is closely
allied, are the favourite building woods of' the natives,
and the latter ia used for carts, casks, and all household
purposes, as well as for the hulls of their boats, from the
belief that it resists the attack of the marine worms, and
that some unctuous property in the wood preserves the
iron work from rust*
The Teak (Tectona grandis), which is auperior to all
othera, is not a native of this island, and although largely
cultivated, has not been altogether successful. But the
Batin-wood 8, in point of size and durability, is by far the
first of the timber trees of Ceylon ; — for days together
I have ridden under its magnificent shade, all the
forests around Batticaloa and Trincomalie, and as far
north as Jaffna, being thickly set with it. It grows
to the height of a hundred feet, with a rugged grey
1 Benya ammonilla. I called " Trincomalie wood," from the
1 The Masula boats, which brave place of exportation.
the formidable mrf of Madras, are * CMoroxylon Swietenia.
made of Halmalille, which ia there I
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. HI-] CABINET WOODS. UT
barb, small white flowers, and polished leaves, with
a somewhat unpleasant odour. Owing to the difficulty of
carrying its heavy beams, the natives do not cut it except
near the banks of the rivers, down which it is floated to
the coast, whence large quantities are exported to every
part of the colony. The richly-coloured and feathery
pieces are used for cabinet-work, and the more ordinary
logs for building purposes, every house in the eastern
province, being floored and timbered with satin-wood.
Another useful tree, very common in Ceylon, is the
Suriya1, with flowers so like those of a tulip that Euro-
peans know it as the tulip tree. It loves the sea air
and saline soils. It is planted all along the avenues
and streets in the towns near the coast, where it is
equally valued for its shade and the beauty of its yel-
low flowers, whilst its tough wood is used for carriage
shafts and gun-stocks.
The forests to the east furnish the only valuable c#>
binet woods used in Ceylon, the chief of which is ebony2,
which grows in great abundance throughout all the flat
country to the west of Trincomalie. It is a different
species from the ebony of Mauritius8, and excels it and
all others in the evenness and intensity of its dark colour.
The centre of the trunk is the only portion that fur-
nishes the extremely black part which is the ebony of
commerce ; but the trees are of t such magnitude that
reduced logs of from two to three feet in diameter can
readily be procured from the forests at Trincomalie.
For facility of carriage these are obliged to be cut into
lengths of ten or fifteen feet.
There is another cabinet wood, of extreme beauty,
called by the natives Cadooberia. It is a species of ebony *,
in which the prevailing black is Btained with stripes
of rich brown, approaching to yellow and rose >»lour.
But its density is inconsiderable, and its durability is
far inferior to that of the true ebony.
1 Thespesia populnea,
1 DioepyroB ebenom.
Google
US ' PHYSrCAL GEOGRAPHY. [Paw L
The Calamander1 is the most esteemed cabinet wood
in the island. It resembles rose-wood, but surpasses it
both in beauty and durability; — it has at all times been
in the greatest repute in Ceylon. It grows chiefly in
the southern provinces, and especially in the forests at
the foot of Adam's Peak ; but here it has been so pro-
digally felled, first by the Dutch, and afterwards by
the English, without any precautions for planting or re-
production, that it has at last become exceedingly scarce.
Wood of a large scantling is hardly procurable at any
price ; and it is only in a very few localities, the prin-
cipal of which is Saflragam, in the western province,
that even small sticks are now to be found ; one reason
assigned for this being that the heart of the tree is seldom
sound, a peculiarity which extends also to the Cadooberia.
The twisted portions, and especially the roots, yield
veneers of unusual beauty, dark wavings and blotches,
almost black, being gracefully disposed over a delicate
fawn-coloured ground. Its density is so great (nearly
60 lbs. to a cubic foot) that it takes an exquisite polish,
and is admirably adapted for the manufacture of furniture,
in the ornamenting of which the native carpenters excel.
The chiefs and headmen, with a full appreciation of its
beauty, take particular pride in possessing specimens of
this beautiful wood, roots of which they regard as most
acceptable presents. .Notwithstanding its value, how-
ever, the tree is nearly eradicated, and runs considerable
risk of becoming extinct in the island ; but, as it is not
peculiar to Ceylon, it may hereafter be restored by fresh
importations from the south-eastern coast of India, of
which it is equally a native. I apprehend that the
name, Calamander, which was used by the Dutch, is but
a corruption of " Coromandel."
. Another species of cabinet wood is produced from the
Nedun3, a large tree common on the western coast ; it
' Valbergia Innceolaria.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Our. in.]
FBUIT-TBEHB.
belongs to the Pea tribe, and is allied to the Sisso of
India. Its wood, which is lighter than the M black-wood "
of Bombay, is used for BimiTqr purposes.
The Tamarind tree1, and especially its fine roots, pro-
duce a variegated cabinet wood of much beauty, but of
such extreme hardness as scarcely to be workable by any
ordinary tools.8
As to fruit trees, it is only on the coast, or near the
large villages and towns, that they are found in any
perfection. In the deepest jungle the sight of a single
coconut towering above the other foliage is in Ceylon
a never-failing landmark to intimate *to a traveller his
approach to a village. . The natives have a superstition
'that the coco-nut will not grow out of sound of the
human voice, and would die if the village where it had
previously thriven became deserted ; the solution of the
mystery being in all probability the superior care and
manuring which it receives in inhabited localities.8 In
the generality of the forest hamlets there are always to
be found a few venerable Tamarind trees of patriarchal
proportions, the ubiquitous Jak, with its huge fruits,
weighing from 5 to 50 lbs. (the largest eatable, fruit in
the world), each springing from the rugged surface of the
bark, and suspended by a powerful stalk, which attaches
it to the trunk of the tree. Lime-trees, Oranges, and
Shaddoks are carefully cultivated in gardens, and occa-
sionally the Bose-apple and the Cashu-nut, the Pap-
paya, and invariably as plentiful a supply of Plantains
1 Tamarindus Indies. ;
1 The natives of Western India
have a belief that the shade of the
tamarind tree ia unhealthy, if not
poisonous. But ia Ceylon it is an
abject of the people, especially in the
north of the island, to build their
houses under it, from the conviction
that of all trees its ihade it the cooled.
In this feeling, too, the Europeans are
bo far disposed to concur that it has
been suggested whether there may
not be something peculiar in the re-
Siration of its leaves. The Sin-
iilese have an idea that the twigs of
the ranna-waro (Cassia auricutata)
diffuse an agreeable coolness, and they
pull them for the sake of enjoying it
by holding them in their hands or
applied to the head. ' In the south of
Ceylon it ia called the Matura tea-
tree, its leaves being infused as a sub-
stitute for tea.
» See Vol. IL p. 126,
.Google
120 PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHY. [Furl.
as it ie prudent to raise ■without inviting the visits of
wild elephants, with whom they are especial favourites.
These, and the Bilimbi and Guava, the latter of which
is naturalised in the jungle round every cottage, are
almost the only fruits of the country ; but the Pin£
apple, the Mango, the Avocado-pear, the Custard-apple,
the Eambutan (Nepkelium lappaceum)^ the Fig, the
Oranadilla, and a number of other exotics, are suc-
cessfully reared by the wealthier inhabitants of the
towns and villages ; and within the last few years the
peerless Mangosteen of Malacca, the delicacy of which
we can imagine* to resemble that of perfumed snow,
has been successfully cultivated in the gardens of Caltura
and Colombo.
With the exception of the orange, the fruits of
Ceylon have one deficiency, common, I apprehend,
to all tropical countries. They are wanting in that
piquancy which in northern climates is attributable to
the exquisite perfection in which the sweet and aromatic
flavours are blended with the acidulous. Either the
acid is so ascendant as to be repulsive to the European
palate, qr the saccharine so preponderates as to render
Singhalese fruit cloying and distasteful.
Still, all other defects are compensated by the
coolness which pervades them ; and, under the ex-
haustion of a blazing sun, no more exquisite physical
enjoyment can be imagined than the chill and fragrant
flesh of the pine-apple, or the abundant juice of the
mango, which, when freshly pulled, feels as cold as iced
water. But the fruit must be eaten instantly ; even an
interval of a few minutes after it has been gathered is
sufficient to destroy the charm ; for, once severed from
the stem, it rapidly acquires the temperature of the
surrounding air. *
Sufficient admiration has hardly been bestowed upon
the marvellous power thus displayed by the vegetable
world in adjusting its temperature, notwithstanding at-
mospheric fluctuations, — a faculty in the manifestation
DomzcdoyGoOglc
.CHI*, m.] TEMPEBATUBE OF FEUIT. 121
of which it appears to present a counterpart to that ex-
hibited by the animal ceconomy in regulating its own heat
So uniform is die exercise of the latter faculty in man and
the higher animals, that there is barely a difference of
three degrees between the warmth of the body in the
utmost endurable vicissitudes of heat and cold ; and in
vegetables an equivalent arrangement enables them in
winter to keep their, temperature somewhat above that
of the suirounding air, and in summer to reduce it far
below it. It would almost seem as if plants possessed
a power of producing cold analogous to that exhibited
by animals in producing heat ; and in the luxurious
chillness of the fruit that nature lavishes on the
tropics, .man enjoys the benefit of this beneficent ar-
rangement
The peculiar organisation by which this result is ob-
tained is not free from obscurity, but in all probability
the means of adjusting the temperature of plants is
dependent on evaporation. As regards the power
possessed by vegetables of generating heat, although it
has been demonstrated to exist, it is in so trifling a de-
gree as to be almost inappreciable, except at the period
of germination, when it probably arises from the con-
sumption of oxygen in generating the carbonic acid gas
■which is then evolved. The faculty of retaining tins
warmth at night and at other times may, therefore, be
referable mainly to the closing of the pores, and the con-
sequent check of evaporation.
On the other hand, the faculty of maintaining a tem-
perature below that of the surrounding air, can only be
accounted for by referring it to the mechanical process
of imbibing a continuous supply of fresh moisture from
the soil, the active transpiration of which imparts cool-
ness to every portion of the tree and its fruit. It requires
this combined* operation to produce the desired result;
and the extent to which evaporation can bring down
the temperature of the moisture received 'by absorption,
may be inferred from the fact that Dr. Hooker, when
Google
123 PHYSICAL OROGRAPHY. £Ptxt 1.
in the valley of the Ganges, found the temperature of the
fresh milky juice of the Mudar ^calotropia) to be but 72°,
whilst the damp sand in the bed of the river where it
grew was from 90° to 104°.
Even in temperate climates such a phenomenon is cal-
culated to excite admiration ; but it is still more striking
to find tl>e like effect rather increased than dirainiahed
in the tropics, where one would suppose that the juices,
especially of a small and delicate plant, before* they could
be cooled by evaporation, would be liable to be heated
by the blazing sun.1
A difficulty would also seem to present itself in the
instance of fruit, the juices of which have to undergo a
chemical change ; hence their circulation might be conjec-
tured not only to be slower, but even to be somewhat in-
dependent of the general circulation of the plant Besides,
in the instances of fruit with hard skins, such as the pome-
granate, or with a tough leathery coating, like the mango,
the evaporation must necessarily be less than in those
with a soft and spongy covering. Yet all share alike in
the general coolness of the plant, so long as circulation
supplies fluid for evaporation ; but the moment this re-
source is cut off by the separation of the fruit from
the tree, the supply of moisture failing, the process of
refrigeration is arrested, and the charm of agreeable
freshness gone.
It only remains to notice the aquatic plants, which
are found in greater profusion in the northern and
eastern provinces than in any other districts of the
island. This abundance is owing to the innumerable
tanks and neglected watercourses which cover the whole
surface of this once productive province, but which now
only harbour the alligator, or satisfy the thirst of the
deer and the elephant
1 See on this subject LnmLEs'e I Physiology, ch. ii. s. 407. Cabpek-
Iidroductitm to Botany, vol. ii. book ii. ter's Vegetable Physiology, ch. xi.
cb. Tiii. p. 215. CiitPKMEE, Animal \ a. 407. Load, 1848.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap, m.] VARIETIES OF THE LOTUS, 123
The chief ornaments of these neglected sheets of water
are the large red and white Lotus1, whose flowers may be
seen from a great distance reposing on their broad green .
leaves. The black seeds of these plants are not unlike
little acorns in shape, and in China and some parts of India
they are served at table in place of almonds, which they are
said to resemble, but with a superior delicacy of flavour.
At some of the tanks where the lotus grows in profu-
sion in Ceylon, I tasted the seeds enclosed in the torus
of the flowers, and found them white and delicately-
flavoured, not unlike the small kernel of the pine
cone of the Apennines. This red lotus of the island
appears to be the one that Herodotus describes as
abounding in the Nile in his time, but which is now
extinct j with a flower resembling a rose, and a fruit in
shape like a wasp's nest, containing seeds of the size
of an olive stone, and of an agreeable flavour.2 But
it has clearly no identity with those which he des-
cribes as the food of the Lotophagi of Africa, of the size
of the mastic8, sweet as a date, and capable of being
made into wine.
One species of the water lily, the Nymphcea rubra, with
small red flowers, and of great beauty, is common in the
ponds near Jaffna and in the Wanny ; and I found in
the fosse, near the fort of Mbeletivoe, the beautiful blue
lotus, N. steltata, with lilac petals, approaching to purple
in the centre, which had not previously been supposed to
grow on the ialand.
Another very interesting aquatic plant, which was disco-
vered by Dr. Gardner in the tanks north of Trincomalie, is
the Desmanthus natans, with highly sensitive leaves float-
1 Nalnmbium specioaum.
* Herodotus, k i i . b. 92 .
"The words are "frn filynPoc
5nuv n rijc oxivov" (Herod, b. iv. s.
177); and as ff*Ivor means also a squill
qj a sea-onion, the fruit above referred
to, as the food of the Lotophagi, must
have been of infinitely largor size
and in every way different from the
lotus of the Nile, described in the
2nd book, as well as from the lotus
in the East. Lindley records the
conjecture that the article referred to
by Herodotus was the nabk, the berry
of the lote-bush (ZaupAut lotus),
which the Arabs of Barbery still eat.
( Vmjbtahh Kingdom, p. 682.)
oyGoogIc
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY,
[Po
iug on the surface of the water. It is borne aloft by masses
of a spongy cellular substance, which occur at intervals
along its stem and branches, but the roots never touch the
bottom, absorbing nourishment whilst floating at liberty,
and only found in contact with the ground after the sub-
sidence of water in the tanks.1
1 A species of TJtriadaria, with
yellow lowers (U. stellaris), is a
common water-plant in the still lakes
near the fort of Colombo, where an
opportunity ia afforded of observing
the extraordinary provision of nature
for its reproduction. There are small
appendages attached to the roots,
which become distended with air, and
thus carry the plant aloft to the sur-
face, during the cool season. Here
it floats till the operation of flowering
is over, when the vesicles burst, and
by its own weight it returns to the
bottom of the lake to ripen its seeds
and deposit them in the soil ; after
which the air vessels again fill, and
again it re-ascends to undergo the
process of fecundation.
oyGoogIe
PART II.
ZO 0 10 G Y.
* a,., i,, Google
oyGoogIe
CHAPTER I
With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the
fauna of Ceylon has, up to the present, failed to receive
that systematic attention to which its richness and variety
so amply entitle it The Singhalese themselves, habitually
indolent, and singularly unobservant of nature and her
operations, are at the same time restrained from the study
of natural history by the tenet of their religion which
forbids the taking of life under any circumstances. From
the nature of their avocations, the majority of the
European residents, engaged in planting and commerce,
are discouraged by want of leisure from cultivating the
taste ; and it is to be regretted that the civil servants of
the government, whose position and duties would have
afforded them influence and extended opportunities for
successful investigation, have never seen the importance
of encouraging such studied
The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural
science in* Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when
connected with the medical staff of the army from 1816
to 1820, and his example stimulated some of the assistant-
Burgeons of Her Majesty's forces to make collections in
illustration of the productions of the colony. Of these the
late Dr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and success-
ful He was seconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal
Artillery, who engaged assiduously in the investigation of
various orders, and commenced an interchange of speci-
mens with Mr. Blyth1, the distinguished naturalist and
curator of the Calcutta Museum. The birds and rarer
1 Jourm AsiaL Soc. Bengal, vol. XT. p. 280, 311.
-, Google
128 ZOOLOGY. [Paw H
vertebrate of the island were thus compared -with their
peninsular congeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those
belonging to the island, so far as regards the higher
classes of animals, has been the result. The example so
set has been perseveringly followed by Mr. E. L. Layard
and Dr. Kelaart, and infinite credit is due to Mr. Blyth
for the zealous and untiring 'energy with which he has
devoted his attention and leisure to the identification of the
specimens forwarded from Ceylon, and to their description
in the Calcutta Journal To him, and to the gentleman
I have named, we are mainly indebted for whatever
accurate knowledge we now possess of the zoology of the
colony. •
The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first
scientific description in an able work published recently
by Dr. Kelaart of the army medical staff1, which is by
far the most valuable that has yet appeared on the
Singhalese fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard
has supplied a fund of information especially in ornitho-
logy and conchology. The zoophytes and Crustacea have
been investigated by Professor Harvey, who visited
Ceylon for that purpose in 1852, and by Professor
Schmarda, of the University of Prague, who was lately
sent there for a similar object From the united labours
of these gentlemen and others interested in the same
pursuits, we may hope at an early day to obtain such
a knowledge of the zoology of Ceylon, as may to some
extent compensate for the long indifference of the govern-
ment officers.
I. Quadrumana. 1. Monkeys. — To a stranger in the
tropics, among the most attractive creatures in the forests
are the troops of monkeys, that career in cease-
less chase among the loftiest trees. In Ceylon there
1 Prodrotmu Fauna Ztylaniea;
being Contribution! to the Zoology of
Ceylon, by F. Kblaast, Esq., M.D.,
F.L.S., ic. &c. 2 vols. Colombo
and London, 1862. Dr. Davy, of the
Medics! Staff, brother to Sic Hum-
., 'nUrior of Ceylon and its In-
habitants, which contains the earliest
notices of the natural history of the
island, mid especially of the Ophidian.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. I.] MONKEYS. 126
are five species, four of which belong to one group, the
Wanderoos, and the other is the little graceful grimacing
rilawa1, which is the universal pet and favourite, of both
natives and Europeans.
Knox, in his captivating account of the island, gives
an accurate description of both ; the Eilawas, with
"no beards, white faces, and long hair on the top of
their heads, which parteth and hangeth down like a
man's, and which do a .deal of mischief to the corn,
and are so impudent that they will come into their
gardens, and eat such fruit as grows there. And the
Wanderoos, some as large as our English spaniel dogs,
of a darkish grey colour, and black faces with great
white beards round from ear to ear, which .makes them
shew just like old men. This sort does but little mis*
chief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and
buds of trees, but when they are catched they will eat
anything."2
Knox, whose experience during his long captivity was
confined almost exclusively to the hill country around
Kandy, spoke in all probability of one large and com-
paratively powerful species, Presbytes ursinus, which in-
habits the lofty forests, and which, as well as another of
the same group, P. Tkeraites, was, till recently, unknown *
to European naturalists. The Singhalese word Ouanderu
has a generic sense, and being in every respect the
equivalent for our own term of " monkey," it necessarily
comprehends the low country species, as well as those
which inhabit other parte of the island. And, in point
of fact, there are no less than four animals in the island,
each of which is entitled to the name of " wanderoo."8
Deemaieet.
caque" is common in the south and
west; and a spectacled monkey is
laid to inhabit the low country near
to Bintenne ; but I have never seen
one brought thence. A paper by
Dr. Templetoh, in th« Mag. Nat.
Sid. n. a. xiv. p. 301, contains come
VOL. I.
interesting facta relative to the Ri-
lawa of Ceylon.
' Ks ox, Historical Relation of Cey-
lon, an Island in the East Indua. —
P. i. ch. vi. p. 25. FoL Lond. 1681.
See an account of hia captivity,
VoL II. p. 66 n.
1 Down to a very late period, a
large and somewhat repulwve-look-
oyGoogIc
ISO ZOOLOGY. [Pam II.
Each separate species has appropriated to itself a
different district of the wooded country, and seldom
encroaches on the domain of its neighbours.
1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most
numerous in the island, and the one best known in
Europe, is the Wanderoo of the low country, the P.
cephalopterus of Zimmerman.1 It is an active and
intelligent creature, not much larger than the common
bonneted Macaque, and far from being so mischievous
as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity
it is remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and
for an air of melancholy in its expression and moye-
ments, which are completely in character with its snowy
beard and venerable- aspect Its disposition is gentle
and confiding, it is in the highest degree sensible of
kindness, and eager for endearing attentions, uttering
a low plaintive cry when its sympathies are excited.
It is particularly cleanly in its habits when domes-
ticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its
ing monkey, common to the Malabar i
coast, the Silenus veter, Lorn., was, I
from the circumstance of his pos- |
. sewing a "gTeat white beard," incor-
rectly .assumed to be the "wande- '
roo " of Ceylon, described by Knox ; j
and under that usurped name it has I
figured in every author from Bufibn
to the present time. Specimens of
the true Singhalese species were,
however, received in Europe ; but in
the absence of information in this
country as to their actual habitat,
they were described, first by Zim-
merman, on the continent, under
the name of Lcuvoprynwur eepha-
loeterui, and subsequently by Mr,
E. Bennett, under that of Semno-
pilhecia Nestor (PrOC Zool. Soc.
pt. i. p. 67 : 1833) ; the generic and
specific characters being on this oc-
casion most carefully pointed out by
that ■ eminent naturalist. Eleven
years later Dr. Temple ton forwarded
to the Zoological Society a descrip-
tion, accompanied by drawings, of
the wanderoo of the western maritime
districts of Ceylon, and noticed the
fact that the wanderoo of authors
(& veter) was not to he found in the
island except as an introduced species
in the custody of the Arab horse-
dealers, who visit the port of Colombo
at stated periods. Mr. Waterhonse,
at the meeting (ft-oe. Zool. Soc. p. 1 :
1844) at which this communication
was read, recognised the identity of
the subject of Dr. Templeton's de-
scription with that already laid before
them by Mr. Bennett ; and from this
Eeriod the species in question was
elieved to truly represent the wan-
deroo of Knox. The later discovery,
however, of the P. urmnus by Dr.
Kelaart, in the mountains amongst
which we are assured that Knox spent
so many jears of captivih, reopens
the question, but at the same time ap-
pearsto me to clearly demonstrate that
in this latter we have in reality the
animal to which his narrative refers.
1 Leucoprynmus Nestor, Bennett.
oyGoogIe
Ca«-. I.] MONKEYS. 181
far, and carefully divesting its hair of particles of dust.
Although common in the southern and western provinces,
it is never found at a higher elevation than 1300
feet
When observed in their native wilds, a party of
twenty or thirty of these creatures is generally busily
engaged in the search for berries and buds. They
are seldom to be seen on the ground, except when
they may have descended to recover seeds or fruit
which have fallen at the foot of their favourite trees.
When disturbed, their leaps are prodigious ; but ge-
nerally speaking, their progress is made not so much
by leaping as by swinging from branch to branch,
using their powerful arms alternately ; and when
baffled by distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as
to catch die lower boughs of an opposite tree, the mo-
mentum acquired by their descent being sufficient to
cause a rebound of the branch, that carries them up-
wards again, till they can grasp a higher and more distant
one, and thus continue their headlong flight. In these
perilous achievements, wonder is excited less by the sur-
passing agility of these little creatures, frequently encum-
bered as they are by their young, which cling to them in
their career, than by the quickness of their eye and the
unerring accuracy with which they seem almost to cal-
culate the angle at which a descent will enable them to
cover a given distance, and the recoil to elevate them to
& higher altitude,
2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills
by the larger species, P. ursintis, which, inhabits the
mountain zone. The* natives, who designate the latter
the Maha or Great Wanderoo, to distinguish it from
the Kaloo, or black one, with which they are familiar,
describe it as much wilder and more powerful than its
congener of the lowland forests. It is rarely seen by
Europeans, this portion of the country having till very
recently been but partially opened ; and even now it is
difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the
K 2
D^^Google
152 ZOOLOGY. [Paw IL
few roads which wind through these deep solitudes. It
was first captured by Dr. Kelaart in the woods near
Neuera-ellia, and from its peculiar appearance it has
been named P. ursinus by Mr. Blyth.1
3. The P. Thersites, which is chiefly distinguished from
the others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was
for Borne time doubtful whether the single specimen pro-
cured by Dr. Templeton from Neuera-kalawa, west of
Trincomalie, and on which Mr. Blyth conferred this new
name, was in reality native ; but the occurrence of a
second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has established its
existence as a separate species. like the common wan-
deroo, the one obtained by Dr. Templeton was partial to
fresh 'vegetables, plantains, and fruit ; but he ate freely boiled
rice, beans, and gram. He was fond of being noticed and
petted, stretching out his limbs in succession tobescratched,
drawing himself up so that his ribs might be reached by
the finger, closing his eyes during -the operation, and
evincing his satisfaction by grimaces irresistibly ludicrous,
4. The P. Priamus inhabits the northern and eastern
provinces, and the wooded hills which occur in these
portions of the island. In appearance it differs both in
size and in colour from the common wanderoo, being
larger and more inclining to grey; and in habits it is
much less reserved. At Jaffna, and in other parts of
the island where the population is comparatively nu-
merous, these monkeys become so familiarised with the
presence of man as to exhibit the utmost daring and
indifference. A flock of them will take possession of
a Palmyra palm ; and so effectually can they crouch
and conceal themselves among the leaves that, on the
slightest alarm, the whole party becomes invisible in
an instant. The presence of a dog, however, excites
1 Mr. Blyth quotes as authority
for this trivial name a passage from some distance before n ,
Major Forbes' Eleven Yean in Cmj- ing on all fours, looked so like a
Ion ; and I can vouch for the graphic Ceylon hear, that I nearly took htm
accuracy of the remark. — * A species for one."
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] THE LORIS. 133
each an irrepressible curiosity' that, in order to watch
his movements, they never fail to betray themselves.
They may be frequently seen congregated on the roof
of a native hut ; and, some years ago, the child of a
European clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been
left on the ground by the nurse, was so teased and bitten
by them as to cause its death.
The Singhalese have the impression that the remains
of a monkey are never to be found in the forest ; a belief
which they have embodied in the proverb that " he who
has seen a white crow, the nest of a paddi bird, a
straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey, is certain to
live for ever." This piece of folk-lore has evidently
reached Ceylon from India, where it is believed that
persons dwelling on the spot where a hanum&n monkey,
S. entellus, has been killed, will die, that even its bones
are unlucky, and that no house erected where they are
hid under ground can prosper. Hence when a dwelling
is to be built, it is one of the employments of the Jyotieh
philosophers to ascertain by their science that none such are
concealed ; and Buchanan observes that " it is, perhaps,
owing to this fear of ill-luck that no native will acknow-
ledge his having seen a dead hanuman." 1
The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon
is the little loris 2, which, from its sluggish movements,
nocturnal habits, and consequent inaction during the
day, has acquired the name of the "Ceylon Sloth."
There are two varieties in the island ; one of the ordi-
nary fulvous brown, and another larger, whose fur is
entirely black. A specimen of the former was sent to
me from Chilaw, on the western coast, and lived for
some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, fruit, and vege-
tables. It was partial to ante and other insects, and was
always eager for milk or the bone of a fowl. The
naturally slow motion of its limbs enables the loris to
1 Buchanan's Survey of Bht
or, p. 142. At Gibraltar it if
I * Loru gracilis, Geoff.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
134 ZOOLOGY. TPabt II.
approach its prey so stealthily that it seizes birds before
they can be alarmed by its presence. The natives assert
that it has been known to strangle the pea-fowl at
night, to feast on the brain. During the day the
one which I kept was usually asleep in the strange po-
sition represented below ; its perch firmly grasped with
all hands, its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and its
head hidden deep between its legs. The singularly-
large and intense eyes of the loris have attracted the
attention of the Singhalese, who capture the creature
for the purpose of extracting them as charms and love-
potions, and this they are said to effect by holding the
little animal to the fire till its eyeballs burst Its
Tamil name is thewangu, or " thin-bodied ; " and hence a
deformed child or an emaciated person has acquired
DomzcdoyGoOglc
in the Tamil districts the same epithet. The light-
colouped variety of the loris in .Ceylon has a spot on its
forehead, somewhat resembling the namam, or mark worn
by the worshippers of Vishnu ; and, from this peculiarity,
it is distinguished as the Nama-tkeivangu.1
IL Cheiroptera. Bats. — The multitude of bats is one
of the features of the evening landscape ; they abound
in every cave and subterranean passage, in the tunnels
on the highways, in the galleries of the fortifications,
in the roofe of the bungalows, and the ruins of every
temple and building. At sunset they are seen issuing
from their diurnal retreats to roam through the twilight
in search of crepuscular insects, and as night approaches
and the lights in the rooms attract the night-flying
lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table and
carry off their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps.
Including the frugivorous section about sixteen species
have been identified in Ceylon, and of these, two varieties
are peculiar to the island. The colours of some of
them are as brilliant as the plumage of a bird, bright
yellow, deep orange, and a rich ferruginous brown
inclining to red.8 The Koussette3 of Ceylon (the
"Flying-fox," as it is usually called by Europeans)
measures from three to four feet from point to point of
its extended wings, and some of them have been seen
wanting but a few inches of five feet in the alar
expanse. These sombre-looking creatures feed chiefly
on ripe fruits, the guava, the plantain, and the rose-
apple, and are abundant in all the maritime districts,
especially at the season when the pulun-imbul*, one of the
silk-cotton trees, is putting forth its flower-buds, of which
interesting notice of
Ion by Dr. Tbkple-
tbe Mag. Nat. Hid. 1844,
the loris of Ceylon by Dr. Temple-
' " "off. Nat. ""
* RhinolophusaffinisP var. rubidus,
nVnmf
Hipposideros minimis, var. fulvns,
Kdaart. *
Ilipposideros speoris, var. aurei
Edaart.
Kerivoula picta, Polio*.
Scotophilns Heath ii, Jlorif.
* Ptefcmns Edwardsii, Geoff.
* Eriodendrun orientate, Stead,
oyGoogIc
136 ZOOLOGY. [Pabt II
they are singularly fond. By day they suspend them-
selves from the highest branches, hanging by the .claws
of the hind legs, pressing the chin against the breast,
and using the closed membrane attached to the fore-
arms as a mantle to envelope the head. At sunset
launching into the air, they hover with a murmuring
sound occasioned by the beating of their broad mem-
branous wings, around the fruit trees, on which they
feed till morning, when they resume their pensile atti-
tude as before. They are strongly attracted to the
coco-nut trees during the period when toddy is drawn for
distillation, and exhibit, it is said, at such times symptoms
resembling intoxication.1
The flying-fox is killed by the natives for the sake of
its flesh, which I have been told, by a gentleman who
has eaten it, resembles that of the hare.2
There are several varieties (some of them peculiar to
the island) of the horse-shoe-headed Rhinolophus, with
the strange leaf-like appendage erected on the extremity
of the nose. It has been suggested that bats, though
nocturnal, are deficient in that keen vision characteristic
1 Mr. Thwaitw, of the Royal Bo-
tanic Garden, at Kandv, in a recent
letter, 10th Dec. 1868, gives me the
following description of a periodical
visit of the pteropus to an avenue of
fig-treee : — " You would be much
interested now in observing a colony
of the /iteropiis hat, which has estab-
lished itself for a season on some
trees within sight of my bungalow.
They came about the same time last
year, and, after staying a few weeks,
disappeared : I suppose they had
demolished all the available food in
the neighbourhood. They are now
busy of an evening eating the figs of
JFiciu ehitica, of which we have a
long avenue in the grounds, as I
dare say you remember.
" These bats take possession during
the day of particular trees', upon
which they hang like so much ripe
fruit, but they take it into their
heads to have some exercise every
morning between the hours of 9 and
11, during which they are wheeling-
about in the air by the hundred,
seemingly enjoying the sunshine and
warmth. They then return to their
favourite tree, and rejuain quiet
until the evening, when they move off
towards their feeding ground. There
is a great chattering and screaming
amongst them before they can get
agreeably settled in their places
after their morning exercise ; quar-
relling, I suppose, for the most com-
fortable mots to hangon by during
the rest of the day. The trees they
take possession of become nearly
stripped of leaves ; and it is a curious
sight to Bee them in such immense
numbers. I do not allow them to be
disturbed."
9 In Western India the native
Portuguese eat the flying-fox, and
S renounce it delicate, ana tar from
isagreeablo in flavodr.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chat. I.] BEARS. 197
of animals that take their prey at night I doubt
whether this conjecture be well founded ; but at leaat it
would seem that in their peculiar ceconomy some addi-
tional power is required to supplement that of vision,
as in insects touch is superadded, in the most sensitive
development, to that of sight. Hence, it is possible
that the extended screen stretched at the back of the
nostrils in bats may be intended by nature to facilitate
the collection and conduction of odours, as the vast
development of the shell of the ear in the same family is
designed to assist in the collection of sounds — and thus
to reinforce their vision when in pursuit of their prey
in the dusk by the superior sensitiveness of the organs
of hearing and smell, as they are already remarkable
for that marvellous delicacy of touch which enables them,
even when.deprived of sight, to direct their flight with
security by the nerves of the wing.
One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humble
bee1, and of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be
seen about Colombo. It is so familiar and gentle that
i it will alight on the cloth during dinner, and manifests
so little alarm that it seldom makes any effort to escape
before a wine glass can be inverted to secure iLa
III. Carnivora. — Bears. — Of the camivora, the one
most dreaded by the natives of Ceylon, and the only
one of the larger animals that makes the depths of the
forest its habitual retreat, is the bear8, attracted chiefly by
the honey which is to be found in the hollow trees and
clefts of the rocks. Occasionally apots of fresh earth are
observed which have been turned up by the bears in search
of some favourite root They feed also on the termiteB
and ants. A friend of mine traversing the forest near
Jaffna, at early dawn, had his attention attracted by the
growling of a bear, which was seated upon a lofty branch
■it is a very small Singhalese I site peculiar to the bat, see Note .
variety of Scotophilia Coromandeli- end of this chapter,
cue, r\ Cuv. ■ Prochilua labi&tus, BlainviUt.
1 For a notice of the curious para- j
oyGoogIe
ISS ZOOLOGY. [Paw IT.
thrusting portions of a red-ant's nest into his mouth -with
one paw, whilst with the other he endeavoured to clear
his eyebrows and lips of the angry inmates which bit
and tortured him in their rage. The Ceylon bear is
found in the low and dry districts of the northern
and south-eastern, coast, and is seldom met with on the
mountains or the moist and damp plains of the west. It
is furnished with a bushy tuft of hair on the back, be-
tween the shoulders, by which the young are accustomed
to cling till sufficiently strong to provide for then-
own safety. During a severe drought that prevailed in
the northern province in 1850, the district of Caretchy
was so infested by bears that the Oriental custom of the
women resorting to the wells was altogether suspended,
as it was a common occurrence to find one of these
animals in the water, unable to climb up t|ie yielding
and slippery soil, down which his thirst had impelled
him to slide during the night
Although the structure of the bear shows him to be
naturally omnivorous, he rarely preys upon flesh in
Ceylon, and his solitary habits whilst in search of honey «
and fruits, render him timid and retiring. Hence he
evinces alarm on the approach of man or other animals,
and, unable to make a rapid retreat, his panic rather
than any vicious disposition leads him to become an
assailant in self-defence. But so furious are his assaulta
under such circumstances that the Singhalese have a
terror of his attack greater than that created by any
other beast of the forest If not armed with a gun, a
native, in the places where bears abound, usually carries
a light axe, called " kodelly," with which to strike them
on the head. The bear, on the other hand, always aims
at the face, and, if successful in prostrating his victim,
usually commences by assailing the eyes. J have met
numerous individuals on our journeys who exhibited
frightful scars from such encounters, the white seams
of their wounds contrasting hideously with the dark colour
of the rest of their bodies.
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Ciur. I.] LEOPAEDS. 138
The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose principal stores consist
of honey, live in dread of the bears, because, attracted by
the perfume, they will not hesitate to attack their rude
dwellings, when allured by this irresistible temptation. The
Post*)ffice runners, who always travel by night, are fre-
quently exposed to danger from these animals, especially
along die coast from Putlamto Aripo,wnere they are found
in considerable numbers ; and, to guard against surprise,
they are accustomed to carry flambeaux, to give warning
to the bears, and enable them to shuffle out of the path.1
Leopards' are the only formidable members of the
tiger race in Ceylon,- and they are neither very nume-
e Singhalese there is
a belief that certain charms are effi-
cacious in protecting them from the
violence of benrs, and those whose
avocations expose them to encounters
of this kind are accustomed to cany
a talisman either attached to their
Reck or enveloped in the folds of their
luxuriant hair. A friend of mine,
writing of an adventure which oc-
curred at Anarajapoora, thus de-
scribes an occasion on which a Moor,
who attended him, was somewhat
rudely disabused of his belief in the
efficacy of charms upon bears : —
"Desiring to change the position of a
herd of deer, the Moorman (with his
charm) was sent across some swampy
land to disturb them. As he was
proceeding we saw him suddenly
turn from an old tree and run back
with all speed, his hair becoming un-
fastened and like his clothes stream-
ing in the wind. It Boon became
evident that he was fifing from some
terrific object, for he had thrown
down his gun, and, in his panic, he'
was taking the shortest line towards
us, which lay acrossa swamp covered
with sedge and rushes that greatly
impeded his progress, and prevented
us approaching him, or seeing what
was the cause of his flight. Missing
his steps from one hard spot to an-
other ne repeatedly fell into the
water, but he rose and resumed his
flight I advanced as far as the sods"
would bear my weight, but to go far-
ther was impracticable. Just within
ball range there was an open space,
and, as the man gained it, I saw that
he was pursued by a bear and two
cubs. As the person of the fugitive
covered the boar, it was impossible
to fire without risk. At last ho fell
exhausted, and the bear being close
upon him, I discharged both barrels.
The first broke the bear's shoulder,
but this only made her more savage,
and riaing on her hind legs she ad-
vanced with ferocious growls, when
the second barrel, though I do not
think it took effect, served to frighten
her, for turning round she retreated
at full speed, followed by the cubs.
Some natives then waded through
the mud to the Moorman, who was
head upon a tuft of grass : the poor
man was unable to speak, ana for
several weeks his intellect seemed
confused. The adventure sufficed to
satisfy him that he could not- again
depend upon a charm to protect him
from bears, though he always insisted
that but for its having fallen from
his hair where he had fastened it
under his turban, the bear would not
have ventured to attack him."
* Feliepardu9,£tnn. "What is called
a leopard, or a cheetah, in Ceylon, is
in reality the true panther.
oyGoogle
140 ZOOLOGY. [Tut II
roue nor very dangerous, as they seldom attack man.
By Europeans they are commonly called cheetahs ; but
the true cheetah, the hunting leopard of India (Felis
jubata), does not exist in Ceylon. There is a- rare
variety which has been found in various parts of the
island, in which the skin, instead of being spotted, is of
a uniform black.1 The leopards frequent the vicinity
of pasture lands in quest of the deer and other peace-
ful animals which resort to them; and the villagers
often complain of the destruction of their cattle by
these formidable marauders. In relation to them, the
natives have a curious but firm conviction that when
a bullock is killed by a leopard, and, in expiring, falls
so that its right side is undermost, the leopard will not
return to devour it. I have been told by English
sportsmen (some of whom share in the popular belief),
that sometimes, when they have proposed to watch
by the carcase of a bullock recently killed by a leopard,
in the hope of shooting the spoiler on Ids return in
search of his prey, the native owner of the slaughter-
ed animal, though earnestly desiring to be avenged,
has assured them that it would be in vain, as, the beast
having fallen on its right side, the leopard would not
return.
The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their ex-
tremely beautiful skins, but prefer taking them in traps
and pitfalls, and occasionally in spring cages formed of
poles driven firmly into the ground, within which a kid
is generally fastened as a bait ; the door being held
open by a sapling bent down by the united force of
several men, and so arranged as to act as a spring, to
which a noose is ingeniously attached, formed of plaited
deer's hide. The cries of the kid attract the leopard,
which being tempted to enter, is enclosed by the libe-
ration of the spring and grasped firmly round the body by
the noose,
1 P. melas, Ptroa and Leeeur,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
CiiiP. I.] • LEOPARDS. 141
like the other carnivora, leopards are timid and cowardly
in the presence of man, never intruding on him volun-
tarily and making a hasty retreat when approached.
Instates have, however, occurred of individuals having
been slain by them, and it is believed, that, like the
tiger, having once tasted human blood they acquire an
habitual relish for it A peon on duty by night at the
court-house of Anarajapoora, was some years ago carried
off by a leopard from a table in the verandah on which
he had laid down his head to sleep. At Batticaloa a
" cheetah" in two instances in succession was known
to carry off men placed on a stage erected in a tree
to drive away elephants from rice-land : but such cases
are rare, and as compared with their dread of the
bear, the natives of Ceylon entertain but slight ap- ■
prehensions of the " cheetah." It is, however, the
dread of sportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the
jungle are especially exposed to its attacks: and I am
aware of one instance in which a party having tied their
dogs to the tent-pole for security, and fallen asleep
round them, a leopard sprang into the tent and carried
off a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters.
On one occasion being in the mountains near Kandy, a
messenger despatched to me through the jungle excused
his delay by stating that a "cheetah" had seated itself in
the only practicable path, and remained quietly licking
its fore paws and rubbing them over its face, till he was
forced to drive it, with stones, into the forest.
They are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour
which accompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the
natives to submit themselves or their children to vac-
cination exposes the island to frightful visitations of
this disease ; and in the villages in the interior it ia
usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle
to serve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the
leopards are certain to be allured; and* the medical
officers are obliged to resort to increased precautions in
consequence.
n^i^Google
143 ZOOLOGY. ■ [Pi*t IL
Major SKiNNER,who for upwards of forty years has had
occasion to live almost constantly in the interior, occupied
in the prosecution of surveys and the construction of
roads, is strongly of opinion that the disposition 9f the
leopard towards man is essentially pacific, and that, when
discovered, its natural impulse is to effect its escape. In
illustration of this, I insert an extract from one of his letters,
which describes an adventure highly characteristic of this
instinctive timidity.
" On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam's Peak
in the prosecution of my military reconnoissances of the
mountain zone, I fixed on a pretty little patena (i. e.
meadow) in the midst of an extensive and dense forest in
the southern segment of the Peak Range, as a favourable
■ spot for operations. It would have been difficult, after
descending from the cone of the peak, to have found one's
way to this point, in the midst of so vast a wilderness of
trees, had not long experience assured me that good game
tracks would be found leading to it, and by one of them I
reached it. It was in the afternoon, just after one of those
tropical sun-showers that decorate every branch and
blade with pendant brilliants, and the little patena was
covered with game, either driven to the open space
by the drippings from the leaves or tempted by the
freshness of the pasture : there were several pairs of
elk, the bearded antlered male contrasting finely with
his mate ; and other varieties of game in a profusion
not to. be found in any place frequented by man. It was
some time before I would allow them to be disturbed
by the rude fall of the axe, in our necessity to establish
our bivouac for the night, and they were so unaccustomed
to danger, that it was long before they took alarm at our
noises.
" The following morning, anxious to gain a height for
my observations in time to avail myself of the clear
atmosphere of sunrise, I started off by myself through the
jungle, leaving orders for my men, with my surveying
instruments, to follow my track by the notches which
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] l^OPARD& 143
I cut in the bark of the trees. On leaving the plain,
I availed myself of a fine wide game track which lay in
my direction, and had gone, perhaps, half a mile from the
camp, when I was startled by a slight rustling in the
nilloo1 to my right, and in another instant, by the spring
of a magnificent leopard which, in a bound of full eight
feet in height over the lower brushwood, lighted at my
feet within eighteen inches of the spot whereon I stood,
and lay in a crouching position, his fiery gleaming eyes
fixed on me.
" The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had
no weapon of defence, and with one spring or blow of
his paw the beast could have annilulated me. To move
I knew would only encourage Tiis attack. It occurred
to me at the moment that I had heard of the power
of man's eye over wild animals, and accordingly I fixed
my gaze as intently, as the agitation of such a moment
enabled me, on his eyes : we stared at each other for
some seconds, when, to my inexpressible joy, the beast
turned and bounded down the straight open path before
me. This scene occurred just at that period of the
morning when the grazing animals retired from the open
patena to the cool shade of the forest : doubtless, the
leopard had taken my approach for that of a deer, or
some such animal. And if his spring had been at a
quadruped instead of a biped, his distance was so well
measured, that it must have landed him on the neck of a
deer, an elk, or a buffalo ; as it was, one pace more would
have done for me. A bear would not have let his victim
off so easily."
It is said, but I never have been able personally to verify
the fact, that the Ceylon leopard exhibits a peculiarity in
being unable entirely to retract its claws within their
sheaths.
Of the lesser feline species the number and variety
1 A Bpecieaof one of the suffrnticose [ in the mountain ranges of Ceyloi
Anndhacf.ee which grows abundantly | See ante, p. 90 n.
oyGoogle
144 KOOLOCtf. [Pa«t II.
in Ceylon is inferior to that of India. The Palm-cat 1
lurks by day among the fronds of the coco-nut palms,
and by night makes destructive forays on the fowls of the
villagers ; and, in order to suck the blood of its victim,
inflicts a wound so small as to be almost imperceptible.
The glossy genette a, the " Civet " of Europeans, is common
in the northern province, where the Tamils confine it
in cages for the sake of its musk, which they collect
from the wooden bars on which it rubs itself. Edrisi, the
Moorish geographer, writing in the twelfth century, enu-
merates musk as one of the productions then exported from
Ceylon. 8
Bogs. — There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but
every village and town ^s haunted by mongrels of Eu-
ropean descent, that are known by the generic descrip-
tion of Pariahs. They are a miserable race, acknowledged
by no owners, living on the garbage of the streets
and sewers, lean, wretched, and mangy, and if spoken
to unexpectedly, they shrink with an almost involuntary
cry. Yet in these persecuted outcasts there survives
that germ of instinctive affection which binds the dog
to the human race, and a gentle word, even a look of com-
passionate kindness, is sufficient foundation for a lasting
attachment.
The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to taking
away life in any form, permit the increase of these
desolate creatures till in the hot season they become so
numerous as to be a nuisance ; and the only expedient
hitherto devised by the civil government to reduce
their numbers, is once in each year to offer a reward
for their destruction, when the Tamils and Malays
pursue them in the streets with clubs (guns being
forbidden by the police for fear of accidents), and the
unresisting dogs are beaten to death on the side-paths
and door steps, where they had been taught to resort
1 Panidoxurus typua, F. Cue. I s Esmsi, Gtogr., sec vii.
* Viverra Indies, Qeojfr., Ilodgton. \ bert's translation, t. ii. p. 72.
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.J THE MONGOOS. US
for food. Lord Torrington, during his tenure of office,
attempted the more civilised experiment of putting' some
check on their numbers, by imposing a dog tax, the effect
of which would have been to lead to the drowning of
puppies ; whereas there is reason to believe that dogs are
at present bred by the horse-keepera to be killed for sake
of the reward.
Jackal — The Jackal1 in the low country hunts in
packs, headed by a leader, and these audacious prowlers
have been seen to assault and pull down a deer. The
small number of hares in the districts they infest is
ascribed to their depredations. An excrescence is
sometimes found on the head of the jackal, con-
sisting of a small horny cone about half an inch in
length, and concealed by a tuft of hair. This the -
natives call Narri-comboo, and they aver that this
" Jackal's Horn " only grows on the head of the leader
of the pack.2 Both the Singhalese and the Tamils
regard it as a talisman, and believe that its fortunate
possessor can 'command by its instrumentality the reali-
sation of every wish, and that if stolen or lost by him,
it will invariably return of its own accord. Those who
have jewels to conceal, rest in perfect security if along
with them they can deposit a Narri-comboo, fully con-
vinced that its presence, is an effectual safeguard against
robbers.
Jackals are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are
frequent of cattle being bitten by them and dying in con-
sequence.
The Mongoos. — ■ Of the Mongoos or Ichneumon five
species have been described ; and one that frequents
the hills near Neuera-ellia3, is so remarkable from its
Surgeons, Loudon (No. 4362 a), there
is a cranium of a jackal which exhi-
bits this strange osseous process on
the super-occipital ; and I have placed
along with it a specimen of the horny
VOL. I.
sheath, which was presented to me
by Mr. Lavalliere, the district judge
of Kandy.
» Herpeetes vUttcoUit. Mr, W.
Elliott, in his Catalogue of Mam-
malia found in the Southern Muharata
Country, Madras, 1840, says, that
..Google
146 ZOOLOGY*. [Past U,
bushy far, that the invalid soldiers in the sanatorium,
to whom it is familiar, call it the "Ceylon Badger."
I have found universally that "the natives of Ceylon
attach no credit to the European story of the Mongoos
{H. griseus) resorting to some plant, which no one
has yet succeeded in identifying, as an antidote against
the bite of the venomous serpents on which it preys.
There is no doubt that in its conflicts with the cobra
de capello and other poisonous snakes, which it attacks
with as little hesitation as the harmless ones, it may be
seen occasionally to retreat, and even to retire into the
jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable ; but a
gentleman who has been a frequent observer of its
exploits, assures me that most usually the herb it
resorted to was grass ; and if this were not at hand,
almost any other plant that grew near seemed equally
acceptable. Hence has probably arisen the long list
of plants ; such as the Ophioxylon serpentinum and
Ophiorhiza mungos, the Ari&tolochia Indica, the Mi-
mosa octandria, and others, each of which has been
asserted to be the ichneumon's specific; whilst their
multiplicity is demonstrative of the non-existence of
any one in particular to which the animal resorts for an
antidote. Were there any truth in the tale as regards
the mongoos, it would be difficult to understand, why
other creatures, such as the secretary bird and the
falcon, which equally destroy serpents, should be left
defenceless, and the ichneumon alone provided with
a prophylactic Besides, were the ichneumon inspired
by that courage which would result from the conscious-
ness of security, it would be so indifferent to the bite
of the serpent, that we might conclude that, both in its
approaches and its assault, it would be utterly careless as
to the precise mode of its attack. Such, however, is far
"One specimen of thisllerpesfcs was [ rare, inhabiting only the thickest
Sirocured by accident in the Ghat woods, and its habits are very little
breate in 182(1, and is now deposited known," p. 9. In Ceylon it is coin-
in the British Museum ; it la very | parati vely common.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cur. I.] THE MONGOOS. I47.
from being the case ; and next to its audacity, nothing
can be more surprising than the adroitness with ■which it
escapes the spring of . the snake under a due sense of
danger, and the cunning with which it makes its ar-
rangements to leap upon the back and fasten its teeth in
the head of the cobra. It is this display of instinctive
ingenuity that Lucan1 celebrates where he paints the
ichneumon diverting the attention of the asp, by the
motion of his bushy tale, and then seizing it in the midst
of its confusion.
" Aspidas ut Phoriaa wuida solertior hostis
Ludit, et iiatoe incertfi provocat umbra :
Obliquusque caput vnnas eerpentia in auras
Effuwe toto comprendit giittura morsu
I.etiferam citra saniom ; tunc irrita pestia
Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno."
TharaaUa, lib. iv. v. 729.
The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has
been referred to the supposition that there may be some
peculiarity in its organisation which renders it proof
against the poison of the serpent It remains for
future investigation to determine how far this conjec-
ture is founded in truth ; and whether in the blood of
the mongoos there exists any element or quality which
acts as a prophylactic Such exceptional provisions
v are not without precedent in the animal ceoonomy : the
hornbill feeds with impunity on the deadly fruit of the
strychnos ; the milky juice of some species of euphorbia,
which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal to the
zebra ; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa,
■whose bite is mortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse,
is harmless to man and the untamed creatures of the
forest3
The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos,
which they designate " Hotambeya" and which they
1 The passage in Lucan is a verai- I * Dr. Li vinustonk, Tour m S.
fixation of the same narrative related Africa, p. 60. Is it a fact that in
hv Pliny, lib. viii. ch. 85 ; and -Elian, America, nigs extirpate the rattle-
lib, iii. ch. 22, [ anakee witn impunity F
oyGoogIe
148 ZOOLOGY. [Pah H.
assert never preys upon serpents. A writer in the
Ceylon Miscellany mentions, that they are often to be
seen " crossing rivers and frequenting mud-brooks near
Chilaw ; the adjacent thickets affording them shelter,
and their food consisting of aquatic reptiles, crabs, and
mollusca."1
IV. Kodentia. Squirrels. — Smaller animals in great
numbers enliven .the forests and lowland plains with
their graceful movements. Squirrels8, of which there
are a great variety, make their shrill metallic call heard
at early morning in the woods, and when sounding their
note of warning on the approach of a civet or a tree-
enake, the ears tingle with the loud trill of defiance,
which rings as clear and rapid as the running down of an
alarum, and is instantly caught up and re-echoed from
every side by their terrified playmates.
One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied sub-
genus, is known as the w Flying Squirrel," B from its'
being assisted in its prodigious leaps from tree to tree,
by a parachute formed by the skin of the flanks,
which on the extension of the limbs front and rear, is
laterally expanded from foot to foot Thus buoyed up
in its descent, the spring which it is enabled to make
from one lofty tree to another resembles the flight of a
bird rather ihan the bound of a quadruped. Of these
pretty creatures there are two species, one common to
Ceylon and India, the other (Sciuropterus Layardii,
Kelaart) is peculiar to the island, and is by far the most
beautiful of the family.
■ This is possibly the " musbilai "
or mouse-cat of Behar, wWch preys
upon birds and fish. Can it be the
Urvaof the Nepalese ( Urva cmcrivora,
Hodgson), which Mr. Hodgson de-
scribes as dwelling in burrows, and
being carnivorous and ranivorous F —
Vide Journ. As. Sac. Beng., vol. vi.
p. 56.
' Of two kinds which frequent the
mountains, one which is peculiar to
Ceylon was discovered by Mr. Edgar
L. Layard, who has done i
honourto call itthe&i«n« 75m
Its dimensions are large, measuring
upwards of two feet from head to
tail. It is distinguished from the S.
maemntt by the predominant black
colour of tie upper surface of the
body, with the exception of a rusty
spot at the base of tie ears.
* ^eromys oral, Ticket. P. pet-
>,Pfl&M.
auriata, J
oyGoogIe
Chap. X] THE EAT AND THE BAT-SNAKE. 149
Bats. — Among the multiiarious inhabitants to which
the forest affords at once a home and provender is the
tree rat1, which forms its nest on the branches, and by
turns makes its visits to the dwellings of the natives,
frequenting the ceilings in preference to the lower parts
of houses. Here it is incessantly followed by the rat-
snake2, whose domestication is encouraged by the
servants, in consideration of its services in destroying
vermin. I had one day an opportunity of surprising a
Bnake that had just seized on a rat of this description,
and of covering it suddenly with a glass shade, before it
had time to swallow its prey. The serpent, which ap-
peared stunned by its own capture, allowed the rat to
escape from its jaws, which cowered at one side of the
glass in the most pitiable state of trembling terror. The
two were left alone for some moments, and on my re-
turn to them the snake was as before in the same attitude
of sullen stupor. On setting them at liberty, the rat
bounded towards the nearest fence ; but quick as light-
ning it was followed by its pursuer, which seized it before
it could gain the hedge, through which I saw the snake
glide with its victim in its jaws.
Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which
made its appearance for the first time in the coffee plan-
tations on the Kandyan hills in the year 1 847, and in such
swarms does it continue to infest them, at intervals, that
as many as a thousand have been killed in a single day on
one estate. In order to reach the buds and blossoms of
the coffee, it cuts Buch of the slender branches, as would
not sustain its weight, and feeds as they fall to the ground;
and so delicate and sharp are its incisors, that the twigs
thus destroyed are detached by as clean a cut as if severed
with a knife. The coffee-rat 8 is an insular variety of the
Mus hirsuius of W. Elliot, found in Southern India. They
1 There are two species of the tree I * Coryphodon Btumenbachii, Merr.
rat in Ceylon : M. nifetcena. Gray ; * Golunda EUiotiy Gray.
(M. flaveacens, Miot .-) and Mus ne-
nioralis, Blylh. I
l3
DoivcdoyGoogle
J5t! ZOOLOGY. [Pabt It.
inhabit the forests, making their nests among the roots of
the trees, and feeding in the season, on the ripe seeds of
the nilloo. Like the lemmings of Norway and Lapland,
they migrate in vast numbers on the occurrence of a
scarcity of their ordinary food. The Malabar coolies are
-so fond of their flesh, that they evince a preference for
those districts in which the coffee plantations are subject
to their incursions, where they fry the rats in coco-nut oil,
or convert them into curry.
Bandicoot. — Another favourite article of food -with
the coolies is the pig-rat or Bandicoot1, which attains on
those hills the weight of two or three pounds, and grows
to nearly the length of two feet As it feeds on grain
and roots, its flesh is said to be delicate, and much resem-
bling young pork. Its nests, when rifled, are frequently
found to contain considerable quantities of rice, stored up
against the dry season.
Porcupine. — The Porcupine* is another of the rodentia
which has drawn down upon itself the hostility of the
planters, from its destruction of the young coco-nut palms,
to which it is a pernicious and persevering, but withal so
crafty, a visitor, that it is with difficulty any trap can be
so disguised, or any bait made so alluring, as to lead to
its capture. The usual expedient is to place some of its
favourite food at the extremity of a trench, so narrow
as to prevent the porcupine turning, whilst the direction
of his quills effectually bars his retreat backwards. On a
newly planted coco-nut tope, at Hang-welle, within a few
miles of Colombo, I have-heard of as many as twenty-seven
being thus captured in a single night ; but such success
is rare. The more ordinary expedient is to smoke them
out by burning straw at the apertures of their burrows.
The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon, and in con-
sistency, colour, and flavour, it very much resembles
young pork.
1 Mus baadicota, Becktt. TheEn- I * Hyrtrix leucuius, Sj/ke».
glieh term bandicoot is a corruption
of tlie Telinga name ptmdikoku, lite-
rally pig-rot.
Cuap. I.] THE PENQOUN. 131
V. Edentata. Pengolin. — Of the Edentata the only
example in Ceylon is the scaly ant-eater, called by the
Singhalese, Caballaya, but usually known by its Malay
name of Pengolin1, a word indicative of its faculty of
" rolling itself up " into a compact ball, by bending
its head towards ite«stomach, arching its back into a
circle, and securing all by a powerful fold of its mail-
covered tail. The feet of the pengolin are armed with
powerful claws, which in walking they double in, like
the ant-eater of Brazil. These they use in extracting
their favourite food, the termites, from ant-hills and
decaying wood. When at liberty, they burrow in the
dry ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, where
they reside in pairs, and produce annually one or two
young.
Of two specimens which I kept alive at different
times, one,- about two feet in length, from the vicinity
of Sandy, was a gentle and affectionate creature, which,
after wandering over the house in search of ante, would
attract attention to its wants by climbing up my knee,
laying hold of my leg with its prehensile taiL The other
more than double that length, was caught in the jungle
near Chilaw, and brought to me in Colombo. I had always
understood that the pengolin was unable to climb trees ;
but the one last mentioned frequently ascended a tree
in my garden, in search of ante, and this it effected by •
means of ite hooked feet, aided by an oblique grasp of
the tail The ante it seized by extending its round and
glutinous tongue along their tracks. In both specimens,
the scales of the back were a cream-coloured white,
with a tinge of red in that which came from Chilaw,
probably acquired by the insinuation of the Cabook dust
which abounds along the western coast of the island.
Generally speaking, they were quiet during the day, and
grew restless as evening and night approached.
TL Buminantia. The Gaur. — Besides the deer and
■ Mania pcntmlnctyla, Lam.
I 4
DomzcdoyGoOglc
162 ZOOLOGY. [Pa»t IL
some varieties of the humped ox, that have been in-
troduced from the opposite continent of India, Ceylon
has probably but one other indigenous ruminant, the
buffalo.1 There is a tradition that the gaur, found
in the extremity of the Indian peninsula, was at one
period a native of the Kandyan mountains ; but as Knox
speaks of one which in his time " was kept among the
king's creatures " at Kandy3, and his account of it
tallies with that of the Bos Gaurus of Hindustan, it
would appear even then to have been a rarity. A place
between Neuera-ellia and Adam's Peak bears the name
of Gowra-ellia, and it is not impossible that the animal
may yet be discovered in some of the imperfectly ex-
plored regions of the island8 I have heard of an in-
stance in which a very old Kandyan, residing in the
mountains near the Horton Plains, asserted that when
young he had seen what he believed to have been a
gaur, and he described it as between an elk and a
buffalo in size, dark brown in colour, and very scantily
provided with hair.
Oxen. — Oxen are used by the peasantry both in
ploughing and in tempering lie mud in the wet paddi
fields before sowing the rice ; and when the harvest is
reaped they " tread out the corn," after the immemorial
custom of the East. The wealth of the native chiefs
and landed proprietors frequently consists in their herds
of bullocks, which they hire out to their dependents
during the seasons for agricultural labour ; and as they
already supply them with land to be tilled, and lend
the seed which is to crop it, the further contribution
of this portion of the labour serves to render the de-
pendence of the peasantry on the chiefs and head-men
complete.
The cows are worked equally with the" oxen ; and
1 Bubalus buffelus, Gray. I > Kbl4ART, Fauna Zeylmi., p. 87.
* Historical Jtelalion of Ceylon, &e.,
a.d. 1681. Booki. c.fl.
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] OXEN. ■ 153
as the calves are always permitted to suck them,
milk is an article which the traveller can rarely hope
to procure in a Kandyan village. From their con-
stant exposure at all seasons, the cattle in Ceylon,
both those employed in agriculture and on the roads,
are subject to devastating murrains, that sweep them
away by thousands. So frequent is the recurrence
of these calamities, and so extended their ravages,
that they exercise a serious influence over the com-
mercial interests of the colony, by. reducing the
faculties of agriculture, and augmenting the cost of
carriage during the most critical periods of the coffee
harvest
A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, fre-
quently carries off the cattle in Assam and other hill
countries on the continent of India; and there, as in
Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the lungs and
throat, and the internal derangement and external
eruptive appearances, seem to indicate that the disease
is a feverish influenza, attributable to neglect and ex-
posure in a moist and variable climate; and that its
prevention might be hoped for, and the cattle preserved,
by the simple expedient of more .humane and conside-
rate treatment, especially by affording them cover at
night
During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred
at Neuera-ellia, which invested one of these pretty
animals with an heroic interest A little cow, belong-
ing to an English gentleman, was housed, together with
her calf, near the dwelling of her owner, and being
aroused during the night by her furious bellowing, the
servants, on hastening to the stall, found her goring a
leopard, which had stolen in to attack the calf. She
had got him into a corner, and whilst lowing incessantly
to call for help, she continued to pound him with her
■ horns. The wild animal, apparently stupified by her
unexpected violence, was detained by her till despatched
by a gun.
DoiiizcdoyGoogle
154 ZOOLOGY. [Paw IL,
The Buffalo. — Buffaloes abound in all parts of
Ceylon, but tbey are only to be seen in their native
wildness in the vast solitudes of the northern and eastern
provinces, where rivers, lagoons, and dilapidated tanks
abound. In these they delight to immerse themselves,
till only their heads appear above the surface; or,
enveloped in mud to protect themselves from the assaults
of insects, luxuriate in the long sedges by the water
margins. When the buffalo is browsing, a crow will
frequently be seen stationed on his back, engaged in
freeing it from the ticks and other pests which attach
themselves to his leathery hide, the smooth brown sur-
face of which, unprotected by hair, shines with an un-
pleasant polish in the sunlight. When in motion he
throws back his clumsy head till the huge horns rest
on his shoulders, and the nose is presented in a line
with the eyes.
The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain,
and such is its strength . and courage that in the Hindu
epic of the Itamayana its onslaught is compared to that
of" the tiger.1 It is never quite safe to approach them,
if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from their repose
in the shallow lakes.. On such occasions they hurry into
line, draw up in defensive array, with a few of the
oldest bulls in advance ; and, wheeling in circles,
their horns clashing with a loud sound as they clank
them together in their rapid evolutions, they prepare for
attack ; but generally, after a menacing display the herd
betakes itself to flight Then forming again at a safer dis-
tance, they halt as before, elevating their nostrils, and
throwing back their heads to take a defiant survey of the
intruders. The sportsman rarely molests them, so huge
a creature affording no worthy mark for his skill, and
their wanton slaughter adding nothing to the supply of
food for the assailant.
In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese
domesticate the buffaloes, and use them to assist in the
I and Makskkas'u TronflL vol. i. p. 430, 447.
■v Google
Chap. L] . BUFFALOES. \tSS
labour of the rice lands, the villagers are much annoyed
by the wild ones, that mingle with the tame when
sent out to the woods to pasture; and it constantly
happens that a savage stranger, placing himself at the
head of the tame herd, resists the attempts of the
owners to drive them homewards at sunset In the
districts of Putlam and the Seven Corles, buffaloes
are generally used for draught ; and in carrying heavy
loads of salt from the coast towards the interior, they
drag a cart over roads which would defy the weaker
strength of bullocks.
In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie
I found the natives making an ingenious use of
them when engaged in shtoting water-fowl in the
vast Bait marshes and muddy lakes. Being an object
to which the birds are accustomed, the Singhalese
train the buffalo to the sport, and, concealed behind,
the animal browsing listlessly along, they guide it by
ropes attached to its horns, and thus creep undiscovered
within shot of the flock. The same practice prevails, I
believe, in some of the northern parts of India, where
they are similarly trained to assist the sportsman in ap-
proaching deer. One of these " sporting buffaloes " sells
for a considerable sum.
The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in Ceylon
as an albino, with purely white hair and a pink iris.
There is a peculiarity in the formation of its foot,
which, though it must have attracted attention, I have
never seen mentioned by naturalists. It is equiva-
lent to the arrangement which distinguishes the foot of
the reindeer from that of the stag and the antelope.
In the latter, the hoofs, being constructed for lightness
and flight, are compact and vertical; but, in the rein-
deer, the joints of the tarsal bones admit of lateral
expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards, while
the two secondary ones behind (which are but slightly
developed in the fallow deer and others of the
same family) are prolonged till, in certain positions,
15t ZOOLOGY: _ [FurIL
they are "capable of being applied to the ground, thus
adding to the circumference and sustaining power of
the foot It has been usually suggested as the probable
design of this structure, that it is to enable the reindeer to
shovel away the snow in order to reach the lichens be-
neath it ; but I apprehend that another use of it has been
overlooked, that of facilitating its movements in search
of food by increasing the difficulty of its sinking.
A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems
to point to a corresponding design. The ox, whose
life is spent on firm ground, has the bones of the foot
so constructed as to afford the most solid support to
an animal of its great weight; but in the buffalo,
which delights in the morasses on the margins of
pools and rivers, the formation of the foot resembles
that of the reindeer. The tarsi in front extend almost
horizontally from the upright bones of the leg, and
spread widely on touching the ground; the hoofs are
flattened and broad, with the extremities turned- up-
wards ; and the false hoofs behind descend till they make
a clattering sound as the animal walks. In traversing the
marshes, this combination of abnormal incidents serves to
give extraordinary breadth to the foot, and not only pre-
vents the buffalo from sinking inconveniently in soft
ground1, but at the same time presents no obstacle to
the withdrawal of its foot from the mud.
Deer. — " Deer," says the truthful old chronicler,
Eobert Knox, " are in great abundance in the woods,
from the largeness of a cow to the smallness of a hare,
for here is a creature in this land no bigger than the
latter, though every part rightly resembleth a deer : it
is called meminna, of a grey colour, with white spots
and good meat."8 The httle creature which thus dwelt
1 Professor Owkn has noticed a
similar fact regarding the rudiments
of the second and fifth digits in the
instance of the elk and bison, which
have them largely expanded where
they inhabit swampy ground ; whilst
they are nearly obliterated in the
camel and dromedary, that traverse
arid deserts. — Owes on Limbs, p. 34 ;
see also Beu. on the Hand, ch. lii.
' Knox's Sdation, Sfc,, book i.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. L] EIX 1*7
in the recollection of the old man, as one of the memo-
rials of his long captivity, is the small "musk deer"1
bo called in India, although neither sex is provided with
a musk-bag ; and the Europeans in Ceylon know it by
the name of the moose deer. Ita extreme length never
reaches two feet ; and of those which were domesticated
about my house, few exceeded ten inches in height,
their graceral limbs being of proportionate delicacy.
It possesses long and extremely large tusks, with which
it can inflict a severe bite. The interpreter moodliar
of Negombo had a milk white meminna in 1847, which
he designed to send home as an acceptable present to
Her Majesty, but it was "unfortunately killed by an
accident2
Ceylon Elk. — In the mountains, the Ceylon elk8,
which reminds one of the red deer of Scotland, attains
the height of four or five feet ; it abounds in all
shady places that are intersected by rivers-; where,
though ita chase affords an endless resource 'to the
sportsman, its venison scarcely equals in quality the
inferior beef of the lowland ox. In the glades and
park-like openings that diversify the great forests of the
interior, the spotted Axis troops in herds as numerous
as the fallow deer in England ; and, iu journeys through
the jungle, when often dependent on the guns of our
party for the precarious supply of the table, we found
the flesh of the Axis4 and the Muntjac6 a sorry substi-
tute for that of the pea-fowl, the jungle-cock, and
flamingo. The occurrence of albinos is very frequent
the elk, frequently effect their ap-
proaches by so imitating the call of
the animal as to induce them to re-
spond. An instance occurred during
my residence in Ceylon, in which two
natives, whose mimicry had mutually
deceived them, crept so close toge-
ther in the jungle that one shot the
other, supposing the cry to proceed
from the game.
* Axis macnlata, H. Smith.
'StyloceniB muntjac, Sort/.
1 Moschus meminna.
* "When the English took possession
ofKsndy, in 1803, they found "five
beautiful milk-white deer in the
palace, which was noted as a very
extraordinary thing." — XsUerin Ap-
pendix to Pebctval's Ceylon, p. 428.
The writer does not say of what
species they were.
s Busa Aristotelis. Dr. Gray has
lately shown that this is the great
ariiof Cuvier.— Ou. Fou. 502, t 39,
f. 10. The Singhalese, on following
DomzcdoyGoOglc
lflS ZOOLOGY. [P**T n.
in troops of the axis. Deer's horns are an article of
export from Ceylon, and considerable quantities are
annually -sent to the United Kingdom.
VIL. Pachtdermata. The Elephant — The elephant
and the wild boar, the Singhalese "waloora," are the
only representatives of the pachydermatous order. The
latter, which differs in no respect from the wild boar of
India, is found in droves in all parts of the island where
vegetation and water are abundant. The elephant, the
lord paramount of the Ceylon forests, is to be met with
in every district, on the confines of the woods, in whose
depths he finds concealment and shade during the hours
when the sun is high, and from which he emerges only
at twilight to wend his way towards the rivers and tanks,
where he luxuriates till dawn, when he again seeks the
retirement of the deep forests. This noble animal fills
so dignified a place both in the zoology and ceconomy of
Ceylon, and his habits in a state of nature have been so
much "misunderstood, that I shall devote a separate
section to his defence from misrepresentation, and . to an
exposition of what, from observation and experience, I
believe to be his genuine character when free in his
native domains.
VliL Cetacba. — Among the Cetacea the occur-
rence of the Dugong 1 on various points of the coast,
and especially on the western side of the island, will be
noticed elsewhere; and whales are so frequently seen
that they have been captured within sight of Colombo,
and more than once their carcases, after having been
flinched by the whalers, have floated on shore near the
light-house^ tainting the atmosphere within the fort by
their rapid decomposition.
From this sketch of the Mammalia it will be seen
that, in its general features, this branch of the Fauna
bears a striking resemblance to that of Southern India,
although many of the larger animals of the latter are
1 HaKcwv dugong, F. Cuv,
DoizcdoyGoOgle
PHAP. I.] THE QAL'H. 1*9
unknown in Ceylon ; and, on the other hand, some spe-
cies discovered there are altogether peculiar to the island.
A deer1 as large as the Axis, but differing from it in the
number and arrangement of its spots, has been de-
scribed by Dr. Kelaart, to whose vigilance the natural
history of Ceylon is indebted, amongst others, for the
identification of two new species of monkeys 2, a number
of curious shrews3, and an orange-coloured ichneumon*,
before unknown. There are also two descriptions of
squirrels6 that have not as yet been discovered elsewhere,
one of them belonging to those equipped with a para-
chute 6, as well as some local varieties of the palm squirrel
(Sciurus penicillatus, Leach)?
But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a num-
ber of minor animals found in the Indian peninsula,
cannot boast such a ruminant as the majestic Gam-8,
which inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin to
the Himalaya ; and, providentially, the island is equally
free of the formidable tiger and the ferocious wolf of
Hindustan.
The Hyena and Cheetah 9, common in Southern India,
are unknown in Ceylon ; and though abundant in deer,
the island possesses no example of the Antelope or the
Gazelle.
List of Ceylon Mammalia.
A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In framing it,
as well as the lists appended to other chapters on the Fauna of
the island, the principal object in view has been to exhibit the
extent to which the natural history of the island had been investi-
1 Cervus oralis, Kslaahi, Prod.
F. Za/l., p. 83.
1 Preabytes ursinus, Bh/th, and P.
Tbersites, EUiot.
* Sorei montanus, S. ferruginous,
and Feroculus macropus,
4 llerpeetes fulvescens, Reeaabt,
Prod. Fatm. Zeylan., A pp. p. 42.
* Sciurus Tennentii, Layard.
' Sciuropterua Layardi, Kelaart.
1 There is a rat found only in the
Cinnamon Gardens at Colombo, Hua
Ceylbnus, Kelaart ; and a mouse
which Dr. Kelaart discovered at Trin-
comalie, M. fulvidi-ventris, Bh/th,
both peculiar to Ceylon. Dr. Teic-
pletou has noticed a little ahrew
(Coreira purpurascens, Mag. Nat.
Bid. 1856, p. 238) at Neuera-ellia,
not as yet observed elsewhere.
s Bos cavifrons, Hodgt. ; B. fron-
talis, Lamb.
* Felis jubata, Schreb.
oyGoogIe
160 ZOOLOGY. [Paw XL
gated, and collections made up to the period of my leaving the
colony in 1850. It has been considered expedient to exclude a
few individuals which have not -had the advantage of a direct
comparison with authentic specimens, either at Calcutta or in
England. This will account for the omission of a number
which have appeared in other catalogues, but of which many,
. though ascertained to exist, have not been submitted to this
rigorous process of identification.
The greater portion of the species of mammals and birds con-
tained in these lists will be found, with suitable references to
the most accurate descriptions, in the admirable catalogue of
the collection at the India House, now in course of publication
under the care of Dr. Horafield. This work cannot be too highly
extolled, not alone for the scrupulous fidelity with which the
description of each species is referred to its first discoverer, but
also for the pains which have been taken to elaborate synonymea
and to collate from local periodicals and other sources, little
accessible to ordinary inquirers, such incidents and traits as, are
calculated to illustrate characteristics and habits.
Sorex montann*, XdaarL
Ferocolns macropns, Ktlaart
Duds labiatnfl, Blaine.
Lutrm uair, F. Cub.
Cams aureus, Lint.
Viremi Indies, Geoff., Bodgt.
Herpestea vitticollis, Bout.
griaeus, Gm.
Smith ii, Gray.
fplvescens, Kdanrt
Paradosarus trills. F. Cue.
Pteropas Edwardsii, Geoff. Ceylonicns, Pott.
Leschenaultii, Dum, Felin parJan, Linn.
Cjnopterus margin ains, HamSt. chaos, Gulden*.
Megadarma spasms, Linn. merrinuj, Bam.
ljra, Geoff.
Rbmolophus affinit, Bortf.
Hipposidcros mtirinus, Elliot.
speoris, Elliot
armiger, Hodgt. >
vulgaris, Hon/.
Kcrivoula picta, PaJL
Taphozmis longimanus, Bantv.
Scotopbitus Coromandelicus, F. Cap.
PresliTlea cephaloptenis, Zaun.
nrainus, Blyth.
Priamus, Elliot j- Bh/th.
Thenites, Bh/th.
■ Macncua pilcntua, Sham J- Dean.
Lorit gracilis, Geoff.
Sorex coerolescens. Sham.
ferrogineus, Kelaurt.
serpen tori us. It, Geoff.
Sciuros macmrus. Font
Tennentii, Layard,
penicillatus, Leach
tri I meatus. Watch.
Scinropleras Levai di, Ke laurl.
Vlernmys petauristn. Fall.
Hub bandicota, Bechit
Kok, Gray.
rufescens, Cray.
ne-raorsJis, Blyth.
In die us, Geoff,
fnrridiventris, Blyth,
Nesoki Hardaickii, Gray.
Golnnda Neuera, KelaarU
Ellioti, Gray.
Gerbillni Indicns, Hardm.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. I.]
■a en tat*.
Mflilis pentadactjla, Linn.
Paohydermat*
Elephas Jndicus, Linn.
Sua Indian, Gray.
Ztgtniinu, Blyth,
Moachus memiuna, Efx(.
Styloccras raumiac, Horsf.
Axis maeiilata, H. Smith.
Rum Aristolelis, Cue.
Halicoro duping, F. Cuo.
NOTE (A.)
Parasite of the Bat.
One of the moat curious peculiarities connected with, the bats
is their singular parasite, the Nycteribia.1 On cursory obser-
vation, this creature appears to have neither head, antennae, eyes,
nor mouth ; and the earlier observers of its structure satisfied
themselves that the place of the latter was supplied by a cylin-
drical sucker, which, being placed between the shoulders, the
creature had no option but to . turn on its back to feed. An-
other anomaly was thought to compensate for this apparent
inconvenience: its three pairs of legs, armed with claws,
being so arranged that they seemed to be equally distributed
over its upper and under sides, the credture being thus euabled
to use them^ike hands, and to grasp the strong hairs above it
while extracting its nourishment It moves, in fact, by rolling
itself rapidly along, rotating like a wheel on the extremities of its
spokes, or like the clown in a pantomime hurling himself forward
on hands and feet alternately. Its celerity is so great that Colonel
Montague, who was one of the first to describe it minutely9,
says its speed exceeds that of any known insect, and as its
joints are so flexible as to yield in every direction (like what
mechanics call a "ball and socket"), its motions are exceed-
ingly grotesque as it tumbles through the fur of the bat.
To enable it to attain its marvellous velocity, each foot is
1 This extraordinary creature had I them in Ceylon in great abundance
formerly been discovered only on a I on the fur of the Scotoptelta Coro-
few European bats. Jotnville figured ' mandeliaa, and they will, no doubt,
one whicn he found on the large \ be found on many others.
musette (the flying-fox), and aays he * Celeripes vespertilionis, Moat..
had seen another on a bat of the same I Lin. Trant. xi. p. II.
family. Br. Templetofi observed I '
VOL. I. M
oyGoogIe
182 ZOOLOGY. [Pait II.
armed with two sharp hooks, with elastic pads opposed to them,
so that the hair can not only he rapidly seized and firmly held,
but as quickly disengaged as the creature whirls away in its
headlong career.
The insects to which it bears the nearest affinity are the
Sippoboecidai, or "spider flies," that infest birds and horses,
but, unlike them, it is unable to fly.
Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to the
belief that it is headless, is its faculty when at rest of throwing
back its head and pressing it dose between its shoulders till the
under side becomes uppermost, not a vestige of head being dis-
cernible where we would naturally look for it, and the whole
seeming but a casual inequality on its back.
On closer examination this apparent tubercle is found to
have a leathery attachment like a flexible neck, and by a sud-
den jerk the little creature is enabled to project it forward into
ita normal position, when it is discovered to be furnished with
a mouth, antennae, and four eyes, two on each side.
The organisation of such an insect is a marvellous adaptation
of physical form to special circumstances. As the nycteribia
has to make its way through for and hairs, its feet are furnished
with prehensile hooks that almost convert them into bands; and
being obliged to conform to the sudden flights of its patron,
and accommodate itself to inverted positions, all attitudes are
rendered alike to it by the arrangement of its limbs, which
enables it, after every possible gyration, to find itself always on
its feet.
oyGoogIe
chap. n.
Of the Birds of the island, upwards of three hundred
and twenty species have been indicated, for which we
are indebted to the persevering labours of Dr. Temple-
ton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr. Layard; but many yet
remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye of a
stranger, their prodigious numbers, and especially the
myriads of waterfowl which, notwithstanding the pre-
sence of the crocodiles, people the lakes and marshes in
the eastern provinces, form one of the marvels of Ceylon.
In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the inte-
rior are surpassed by those of South .America and
Northern India ; and the melody of their song will bear
no comparison with that of the ■ warblers of Europe, but
the want of brilliancy is compensated by. their singular
grace of form, and the absence of' prolonged and modu-
lated harmony by the rich and melodious tones of their
clear and musical calls. In the elevations of the Kan-
dyan country there are a few, such as the robin of
Neuera-ellia 1 and the long-tailed thrush 2, whose song
rivals that of their European namesakes; but, far be-
yond the attraction of their notes, the traveller rejoices
in the flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird 8, and
some others equally charming ; when, at the first dawn
of day, they wake the forest with their clear reveil.
It is only on emerging from the dense woods, and
1 Pratiocola atrata, Kelaart.
3 Kittacincla macrura, Gnu
3 Copsychus Baularis, Linn. Called
by the Europeans in Ceylon the
"'Magpie Robin." This is not to be
confounded with tbe other popular
favourite, the " Indian Robin "
(Thamnobia fulicata, Loin.), which Is
"never seen in the unfrequented
jungle, but, like the coco-nut palm,
which the Singhalese assert will only
flourish within the sound of the human
voice, it is always found near the habi-
tations of men. '■
'.. L. Laiabd.
..Google
164 ZOOLOGY. [Pam II.
coming into the vicinity of the lakes and pasture of the
low country, that birds become visible in great quanti-
ties. In the close jungle one occasionally hears the call
of the copper-smith l, or the strokes of the great orange-
coloured woodpecker 2 as it beats the decaying trees in
search of insects, whilst clinging to the bark with its
finely-pointed claws, and leaning for support upon the
Bhort stiff feathers of its tail And on the lofty
branches of the higher trees, the hornbill8 (the toucan
of the East), with its enormous double casque, sits to
watch the motions of the tiny reptiles and smaller birds
on which it preys, tossing them into the air when seized,
and catching them in its gigantic mandibles as they
falL* The remarkable excrescence on the beak of this ■
extraordinary bird may serve to explain the statement
of the Minorite friar Odoric, of Portenau in Friuli, who
travelled in Ceylon in the fourteenth century, and
brought suspicion on the veracity of his narrative by
asserting that he had there seen " birds with two heads." 6
As we emerge from the deep shade and approach the
1 The greater red-headed Barbel
(Wegalaiina indica, Lath.; M. Phi-
lippensia, var. A. Lath.), the incessant
din erf which resembles the blows of
a smith hammering' a cauldron.
1 Brachypternua aurantius, I.mn.
1 Buceros pica, Scop. ,* B. coro-
nate, Bodd. The natives assert that
B. pica builds in holes in the trees,
and that when incubation has fairly
commenced, the female takes her seat
on the eggs, and the male closes up
the orifice by which she entered,
leaving only a small aperture through
which he feeds his partner, whilst
she successfully guards their trea-
sures from the monkey tribes ; her
formidable bill nearly filling the en-
tire entrance. See a paper by Edgar
L. Layard, Esq. Mag. Nat. Hist.
March, 1868. Dr. Horafield had
previously observed the same habit
in a species of Buceros in Java.
(See Homftelo and Moore's Catal.
j&rds, E. I. Corap. Mua. vol. ii.) It
ia curious that a similar trait, though
necessarily from very difFerent in-
stincts, is exhibited by the termites,
who literally build a cell round the
great progenitrix of the community,
and feed her through apertures.
* The hornbill is also frugivorous,
and the natives assert that when en-
deavouring to detach a fruit, if the
stem is too tough to be severed bv
his mandibles, he flings himself off
the branch so as to add the weight
of his body to the pressure of bis
beak. The hornbill abounds in Cut-
tack, and bears there the name of
" Kuchila-Kai," or Kuchila-eater,
from its partiality for the fruit of the
SbYchnus mix -vomica. The natives
regard its flesh as a sovereign specific
for rheumatic affections. — Axwi. Ret.
ch. xv. p. 184.
* IHtterariui Fbatsis Odobkx, de
Foro Julii de Portu-vahonis, Ac. —
Haxlott, vol. ii. p. 39.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. II.] SWALLOWS. 1(15
park-like openings on the verge of the low country,
quantities of pea-fowl are to be found either feeding
on the seeds and fallen nuts among the long grass or sun-
ning themselves on the branches of the surrounding
trees. Nothing to be met with in English demesnes
can give an adequate idea of the size and magni-
ficence of this matchless bird when seen in his native
solitudes. Here he generally selects some projecting ■
branch, from which his plumage may hang free of the
foliage, and, if there be a dead and leafless bough, he is
certain to choose it for his resting-place, whence he
droops his wings and suspends his gorgeous train, or
spreads it in the morning sun to drive off the damps
and dews of the night.
In Borne of the unfrequented portions of the eastern
province, to which Europeans rarely resort, and where
the pea-fowl are unmolested by the natives, their
number is so extraordinary that, regarded as game, it
ceases to be "sport" to destroy them; and their cries
at early dawn are so tumultuous and incessant as to
banish sleep, and amount to an actual inconvenience.
Their flesh is excellent when served up hot, though it is
said to be indigestible ; but, when cold, it contracts
a reddish and disagreeable tinge.
But of all, the most astonishing in point of multitude,
as well as the most interesting from their endless va-
riety, are the myriads of aquatic birds and waders
-which frequent the lakes and watercourses; especially
those along the coast near Batticaloa, between the
mainland and the sand formations of the shore, and
the innumerable salt marshes and lagoons to the south of
Trincomalie. These, and the profusion of perching birds,
fly-catchers, finches, and thrushes, that appear in the
open country, afford sufficient quarry for the raptorial and
predatory species — eagles, hawks, and falcons— whose
daring sweeps and effortless undulations are striking
objects in the cloudless sky.
oyGoogIe
[PahU
L Accipitees. Eagles. — The Eagles, however, are
small, and as compared with other countries rare ; ex-
cept, perhaps, the crested eagle1, which haunts the
mountain provinces and the lower hills, disquieting the
peasantry by its ravages amongst their poultry ; and the
gloomy serpent eagle a, which, descending from its eyrie
in the lofty jungle, and uttering a loud and plaintive
- cry, sweeps cautiously around the lonely tanks and
marshes, to feed upon the reptiles on their margin.
The largest eagle is the great sea Erne3, seen on the
northern coasts and the salt lakes of the eastern pro-
vinces, particularly when the receding tide leaves bare
an expanse of beach, over which it hunts, in company
with the fishing eagle *, sacred to Siva. Unlike it*
companions, however, the sea eagle rejects garbage
for living prey, and especially for the sea snakes
which abound on the northern coasts. These it seizes
by descending with its wings half closed, and, suddenly
darting down its talons, it soars aloft again with its
writhing victim.6
Hawks. — The beautiful Peregrine Falcon6 is rare,
but the Kestrel7 is found almost universally; and the
bold and daring Goshawk8 wherever wild crags and
precipices afford safe breeding places. In the dis-
trict of Anarajapoora, where it is trained for hawking, it
is usual, in lieu of a hood, to darken its eyes by means
of a silken thread passed through holes in the eyelids.
The ignoble birds of prey, the Kites 9, keep close by the
1 Spizaetiu limnaetus, Horsf.
1 Ifasmatornia cheela, Dana.
■ Pontoaetua leucogaster, GmeL
* Haliastur Indus, Bodd.
* E. L, Layard. Europeans have
given this bird the name of the
" Brahminy Kite," probably from ob-
serving the superstitious feeling of
the natives regarding it, who believe
that when two armies are about to
engage, its appearance prognosticates
victory to the party over whom it
hovers.
1 Falco peregrinue, Linn.
i Tinnunculus alaudarius, Brise.
s Astur trivirgatua, Temm.
' Milvua govinda, {fykes. Dr.
Hamilton Buchanan remarks thiit
when gorged this bird delights to sit
on the entablature of buildings, expo-
sing its back to the hottest rays of
tht; huh, placing its breast against the
wall, and stretching out its wings
exactly at the Egyptian Hawk is re-
presented on their n
oyGoogIe
C«af. II.] SWALLOWS. 167
shore, and hover round the returning boats of the fisher-
men to feast on the fry rejected from their nets.
Owls. — Of the nocturnal accipitres the most remark-
able is the brown owl, which, from its hideous yell, has
acquired the name of the ." Devil-Bird." ' The Singhalese
regard it literally with horror, and its scream by night
in the vicinity of a village is bewailed as the harbinger of
approaching calamity.
]X Passbbes. Swallows. — Within thirty-five miles
of Caltura, on the western coast, are inland caves,
to which the Esculent Swift3 resorts, and there builds
the "edible bird's nest," so highly prized in China.
Near the spot a few Chinese immigrants have esta-
blished themselves, who rent the royalty from the
government, and make an annual export of their pro-
duce. But the Swifts are not confined to this district,
and caves containing them have been found far in the
interior, a fact that complicates the still unexplained
mystery of the composition of their nest ; and notwith-
FtutL L. vi. 1. 139; and Tibullus in
his Elegies, L. i. EL 6. Stntius
Bey*—
But Plinv, L si. c. 93, doubts as to
what bird produced the sound; and
the details of Ovid's description do
not apply to an owl.
Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil
Service, to whom I am indebted for
many valuable notes relative to the
birds of the island, regards the iden-
tification of the Singhalese Devil-Hird
as open to similar donbt : he sava —
"The Devil-Bird is not an owl I
never heard it until I came to Korne-
galle, where it haunts the rocky hill
at the back of Government-House.
Itsordinary note ia a magnificent clear
shout like that of a human being, and
which can he heard at a great dis-
tance, and has a fine effect in the
silence of the closing night. It has
another cry like that of a hen just
caught, but the sounds which have
earned for it its bad name, and which
I have heard but once to perfection,
are indescribable, the moat appalling
that can be imagined, and scarcely to
be heard without shuddering ; I can
only compare it to a boy in torture,
whose screams are being stopped by
being strangled. I have offered re-
wards for a specimen, but without
success. The only European who
had aeen and fired at one agreed with.
the natives that it is of the size of a
pigeon, with a long tail. I believe
it ia a Podargue or Night Hawk."
In a subsequent note he further says
— " I have Brace seen two birds by
moonlight, one of the size and shape
of a cuckoo, the other a large black
bird, which I imagine to be the one
which gives these calls."
' Coflocalia breTiroetria, McCUU. :
C. nidifica, Grog.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
163 ZOOLOGY. [Fah II.
standing the power of wing possessed by these birds, adds
something to the difficulty of believing that it consists of
glutinous algae.1 In the nests brought to me there was
no trace of organisation ; and the original material, what-
ever it be, is so elaborated by. the swallow as to pre-
sent somewhat the appearance and consistency of strings
of isinglass. The quantity of these nests exported from
Ceylon is trifling.
Kingfishers.. — In solitary places, where no sound breaks
the silence except the gurgle of the river as it sweeps
round the rocks, the lonely Kingfisher, the emblem of
vigilance and patience, sits upon an over-hanging branch,
his turquoise plumage hardly less intense in its lustre
than the deep blue of the sky above him ; and bo intent
is his watch upon the passing fish that intrusion fails to
scare him from his post.
Sun Birds. — In the gardens the tiny Sun Birds2 (known
as the. Humming Birds of Ceylon) hover all day long,
attracted by the plants over which they hang, poised
on their glittering wings, and inserting their curved beaks
to extract the insects that nestle in the flowers.
Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in
form and motions, and the most chaste in colouring, is the
one which Europeans call "the Bird of Paradise,"8 and
natives " the Cotton Thief," from the circumstance that
its tail consists of two long white feathers, which stream
behind it as it flies. Mr. Layard says :— " I have often
watched them, when seeking theui insect prey, turn
suddenly on their perch and whisk their long tails
with a jerk over the bough, as if to protect them from
injury."
The Bulbul. — The Condatchee Bidbul*, wliich, from
1 An epitome of what hsB been
written on this subject will be found
in Dr. HortfteW* Catalogue of the
Birds in the K. I. Comp. Museum,
vol. i. p. 101, &c.
■ Nectarina Zeylanica, Linn.
3 Tchitrea paradisi, Linn.
' Pjcnonotua hromorrhoua, OmeL
^■Google
Chap. II.] BULBUL. 169
the crest on its head, is called by the Singhalese the
** Konda Coorola," or Tuft bird, is regarded, by the na-
tives as the most "game" of all birds; and training it
to fight was one of the duties entrusted by the Kings of
Kandy to the Kooroowa, or Bird Head-man. For this
purpose the Bulbul is taken from the nest as soon as the
sex is distinguishable by the tufted crown; and being
secured by a string, is taught to fly from hand to hand
of its. keeper. When pitted against an antagonist, such
is the obstinate courage of this little creature that it
will sink from exhaustion rather than release its hokl.
This propensity, and the ordinary character of its notes,
render it impossible that the Bulbul of India can be
identical with the Bulbul of Iran, the " Bird of a Thou-
sand Songs,"1 of which poets say that its delicate
passion for the rose gives a plaintive character to its
note.
Tailor-Bird. — The Weaver-Bird. — The tailor-bird*
having completed her nest, sewing together leaves by
passing through them a cotton thread twisted by herself,
leaps from branch to branch to testify her happiness
by a clear and merry note; and the Indian weaver8, a
still more ingenious artist, having woven its .pendulous
dwelling with grass into a form somewhat resembling
a bottle with a prolonged neck, hangs it from a pro-
jecting branch with its entrance inverted so as to baffle
the approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other
reptiles. The natives assert that the male bird carries
fire flies to the nest, and fastens them to its sides by a
particle of soft mud ; — and Mr. Layard assures me that
although he has never succeeded in finding the fire fly,
the Persian
name for the bulbul. "The 'Per-
sians," according to Zakary lien Mo-
hamed al Caswini, " say the bulbul
has a passion for the rose, and la-
ments and cries when he sees it
pulled." — OusELEr's Oriental Collec-
tions, vol. i. p. 16. According to Pallas
it is the true nightingale of Europe,
Sylvia luscinia, which the Armenians
call botUboul, and the Crim-Tartan
* Orthotomus longicauda, Gmel.
» Ploceus bays, Sfyth. ; P. Philip-
pinua, And.
oyGoogIe
170 ZOOLOGY. fP*wn.
the nest of the male bird (for the female occupies another
during incubation) invariably contains a patch of mud on
each side of the perch. ■ .
Crows. — Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the most
familiar and- notorious is the small glossy crow, whose
shining black plumage shot with blue has obtained for
hirn the title of Corvus splendens.1 They frequent the
towns in companies, and domesticate themselves in the
close vicinity of every house ; and it may possibly serve
to account for the familiarity and audacity which they
exhibit in their intercourse with men, that the Dutch
during their sovereignty m Ceylon enforced severe penal-
ties against any one killing a crow, under the belief that
they are instrumental in extending the growth of cinna-
mon by feeding on the fruit, and thus disseminating the
undigested seed.a
So accustomed are the natives to its presence and ex-
ploits, that, like the Greeks and Romans, they have made
the movements of the crow the basis of their auguries ;
and there is no end to the vicissitudes of good and evil
fortune which may not be predicted from the direction of
their flight, the hoarse or mellow notes of their croaking,
the varietyof trees on which they rest, and the numbers
in which they arc seen to assemble. All day long they
are engaged in watching either the offal of the offices, or
the preparation for meals in the dining-room ; and as
doors and windows are necessarily opened to relieve the
heat, nothing is more common than the passage of crows
across the room, lifting on the wing some ill-guarded
morsel from the dinner-table.
No article, however unpromising its quality, pro-
vided only it be portable, can with safety be left un-
1 There is another species, the
C. culminatus, so culled from the
convexity of its bill; but though
•seen in the towns, it lives chiefly in
the open country, and may be con-
stantly observed wherever there are
buffaloes, perched on their backs and
engaged, in company with the small
Mynah (Acriiiathera trittis), in free-
ing them from ticks.
■ Wolf's Life and Adi-enlura,
p. 117.
oyGoogIe
Chap. II.] CBOWS. 171
guarded in any apartment accessible to them. The con-
tents of ladies' work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket hand-
kerchiefs vanish instantly if exposed near a window or
open door. They open paper parcels to ascertain the
contents ;' they will undo the knot: on a napkin if it
encloses anything eatable, and I have known a crow to
extract the peg which fastened the lid of a basket in
order to plunder the provender within.
On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining
a regimental mess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody
clasp-knife drop from the air at her feet ; but the mys-
tery was explained on learning that a crow, which had
been watching the cook chopping mince-meat, had seized
the moment when his head was turned to carry off the
knife.
One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly atti-
tudinising in front of a chained watch-dog, that was
lazily gnawing a bone, and after fruitlessly endeavour-
ing to divert his attention by dancing before him, with
head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for
a moment, and returned bringing a companion which
perched itself on a branch a few yards in the rear. The
crow's grimaces were now actively renewed, but with no
better success, till its confederate, poising himself on his
wings, descended with the utmost velocity, striking the
dog upon the spine with all the force of his strong beak.
The ruse was successful ; the dog started with surprise
and pain, but not quickly enough to seize his assailant,
whilst the bone he had been gnawing was snatched away
by the other crow the instant his head was turned. Two
well-authenticated instances of the recurrence of this
device came within my knowledge at Colombo, and attest
the sagacity and powers of communication and combina-
tion possessed by these astute and courageous birds.
On the approach of evening the crows near Colombo
assemble in noisy groups along the margin of the fresh-
water lake which surrounds the fort on the eastern side ;
and here for an hour or two they enjoy the luxury of the
DomzcdoyGoOglc
17* ZOOLOGY. [PawIL
bath, tossing the water over their shining backs, and
arranging their plumage decorously, after which they
disperse, each taking the direction of his accustomed
quarters for the night1
During the storms that usher in the monsoon, it has
been observed, that when coconut palms are struck by
lightning, the destruction frequently extends beyond
a single tree, and from the contiguity and conduction
of the spreading leaves, or some similar cause, large
groves will be affected by a single flash, a few killed
instantly, and the rest doomed to rapid decay. In
Belligam Bay, a little to the east of Pointnle-Galle, a
small island, which is covered with coco-nuts, has acquired
the name of " Crow Island," from being the resort of
those birds, which are seen hastening towards it in
thousands towards sunset. A f«w years ago, during a
violent storm of thunder, such was the destruction of
the crows that the beach for some distance was covered
with a black line of their remains, and the trees on wliich
they had been resting was to a great extent destroyed by
the same flash.2
m Scansobes. Parroqueis. — Of the PsittacidsB the only
examples in Ceylon are the parroquets, of which the most
renowned is the Palceorni& Alexandri, wliich has the his-
toric distinction of bearing the name of the great conqueror
of India, having been the first of its race introduced to
the knowledge of Europe on the return of his expedition.
An idea of their number may be formed from the fol-
lowing statement of Mr. Layard, as to the multitudes
which are found on the western coast " At Chilaw I
have seen such vast flights of parroquets coming to roost
1 A similar habit km been noticed lightning seenis uncertain. -In 1838
in the damask Parrots of Africa thirty-three thousand dead crows
(Po&somui/W«0,wliiebdailyTe6ort were found on the shoresof a lake
at the same hour to their accustomed in the county Westmeath in Ireland
water to bathe. after a storm. — Thompson's Nat.
m * Similar instances are recorded in Hid. Ireland, vol. i. p. 318, and Pat-
other countries of sudden mortality tereon in his Zoology, p. 360, men-
amongst crows to a prodigious ex- tions other cases,
tent, but whether occasioned by I
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Coap. H.] PIGEONS. . 173
in the coco-nut trees, which overhang the bazaar, that
their noise drowned the Babel of, tongues bargaining
for the evening provisions. Hearing of the swarms
that resorted to this spot, I posted myself on a bridge
some half mile distant, and attempted to count the flocks
which came from a single direction to the eastward.
About four o'clock in the afternoon, straggling parties
began to wend towards home, and in the course of
half an hour the current fairly set in. But I soon
found that I had no longer distinct nocks to count, it
became one living screaming stream. Some flew high
in the air till right above their homes, and dived ab-
ruptly downward with many evolutions till on a level '
with the trees ; others kept along the ground and dashed
close by my face with the rapidity of thought, their
brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre in
the sun-light I waited on the spot till the evening
closed, when I could hear, though no longer distinguish,
the birds fighting for their perches, and on firing a shot
they rose with a noise like the ' rushing of a mighty
wind,' but soon settled again, and such a din com-
menced as I shall never forget ; the shrill screams of the
birds, the fluttering of their innumerable wings, and the
rustling of the leaves of the palm trees, was almost
deafening, and I was glad at last to escape to the Govern-
ment Rest House, Ml
IV. Columbuwe. Pigeons. — Of pigeons and doves
there are at least a dozen species ; Borne living entirely
on trees2 and never alighting on the ground; others,
notwithstanding the abundance of food and warmth, are
migratory8, allured, as the Singhalese allege, by the
ripening of the cinnamon berries, and hence one species
is known in the southern provinces as the " Cinnamon
Dove." Others feed on the fruits of the banyan : and
it is probably to their instrumentality that this mar-
1 Annali of Nat. Hat. vol. xiii. | * AUocomut ptmtceui, the "Season
263. j Pigeon " of Ceylon, so colled from ita
* Troron tricincta, Jtrd. \ periodical arrival and departure.
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174 . ZOOLOGY. CPawi 11
vellous tree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being
carried by them to remote localities. A very beautiful
pigeon, peculiar to the mountain range, discovered in
the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has, in compliment to
the Viscountess Torrington, been named Carpophaga
Torringionice.
Another, called by the natives neela-cobeya ', although
strikingly elegant both in shape and colour, is still
more remarkable for the singularly soothing effect
of its low and harmonious voice. A gentleman who
has Bpent many years in the jungle, in writing to
me of this- bird and of the effects of its melodious
song, says, that " its soft and melancholy notes, as they
came from some solitary place in the forest, were
the most gentle sounds I ever listened to. Some sen-
timental smokers assert that the influence of the pro-
pensity is to make them feel as if they could freely forgive
all who had ever offended them, and I can say with
truth such has been the effect produced on my own
nerves by the plaintive murmurs of the neela-cobeya.
Sometimes, when irritated, and not without reason, by
the perveraeness of some of my native followers, the
feeling has almost instantly subsided into placidity on
suddenly hearing the loving tones of these beautiful
birds."
V. Galling The Ceylon Jungle-fowl. — The jungle-
fowl of Ceylon2 is shown by the peculiarity of its
plumage to be distinct from the Indian species. It
has never yet bred or survived long in captivity, and
no living specimens have been successfully transmitted
to Europe. It abounds in all parts of the island, but
chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains ; and one of
the most vivid memorials associated with my journeys
through the Mils, is its loud clear cry, that sounds
like a person calling " George Joyce I " At early
morning it rises amidst mist and dew, giving life
1 Chalcophapa Indicus, Linn. ' Gall us Lafayfltti, Lnaon,
Google
Cmap. II.] FLAMINGO. 17fi
to the scenery that has scarcely yet been touched by the
sunlight
VL Qeallm. — On reaching the marshy plains and shal-
low lagoons on either side of the island, the astonishment
of the stranger is excited by the endless multitudes of stilt-
birds and waders which stand in long array within the
■wash of the water, or sweep in vast clouds above it. Ibises *,
storks 8, egrets, spoonbills 8, herons *, and the smaller races
of sand larks and plovers, are seen busily traversing the
wet sand, in search of the red worm which burrows
there, or peering with steady eye to watch the motions
of the small fry and aquatic insects in the ripple on the
shore.
VlL AssEBES. — Preeminent in size and beauty, the tall
flamingoes 6, with rose-coloured plumage, line the beach in
long files. The Singhalese have been led, from their co-
lour and their military order, to designate them the
" English Soldier birds." Nothing can be more startling
than the sudden Bight of these splendid creatures when
alarmed ; their strong wings beating the air sound like
distant thunder ; and as they soar over head, the flock
which appeared almost white but a moment before, is con-
verted into crimson by the sudden display of the red
lining of their wings. A peculiarity in the beak of this
bird has scarcely attracted the attention it merits, as a
striking illustration of creative wisdom in adapting the
organs of animals to their local necessities. The upper
mandible, which is convex in other birds, is flattened
in the flamingo, whilst the lower, instead of being flat,
is convex. To those who have had an opportunity of
witnessing the action of the bird in its native haunts, the
expediency of this arrangement is at once apparent. To
counteract the extraordinary length of its legs, it is pro-
vided with a proportionately long neck, so that in feeding
1 Tantalus leucoceplialus, and Ibis I ■ Platalea lencorodia, Zaoi.
falciueUus. * Anien ciflerea. A. purpurea,
* The violet-headed Stork (Ci- ' Phcenicopteros roseus, Fallot.
conia leucocephala). t
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170 ZOOLOGY. [?iit IT.
in shallow water the crown of the head becomes inverted
and the upper mandible brought into contact with the
bottom ; where its flattened surface qualifies it for per-
forming the functions of the lower one in birds of the same
class ; and the edges of both being laminated, it is thus
enabled, like the duck, by the aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift
its food before swallowing.
Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets of
the Anatid«e,theCbromandel teal1, thelndian hooded gull 2,
the Caspian tern, and a countless variety of ducks and
smaller fowL Pelicans 8 resort in great numbers to the
mouths of the rivers, taking up their position at sunrise on
some projecting rock, from which to dart on the passing
fish, and returning far inland at night to their retreats
among the trees which overshadow some ruined water-
course or deserted tank.
Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, partridges
and quails are to be had at all times ; the woodcock has
occasionally been shot in the hills, and the ubiquitous
snipe, which arrives in September from Southern India, is
identified not alone by the eccentricity of its flight, but by
retaining in high perfection the qualities which have en-
deared it to the gastronome at home. But the magnificent
pheasants that inhabit the Himalayan range and the
woody hills of the Chin-Indian peninsula, have no repre-
sentative amongst the tribes that people the woods of Cey-
lon ; although a bird believed to be a pheasant has more
than once been seen in the jungle, close toEahgbodde, on
the road to Neuera-ellia.
1 Nottapus Coromandtiliamifl, Gmei. I * I'elicanug Philippenns, Gntet
3 Larus brumiicephalus, Jerd. \
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LIST OF BIRDS.
List of Ceylon Birds.
In submitting thia catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, I am
anxious to state that the copious mass of its contents is mainly
due to the untiring energy and exertions of my friend, Mr. E. L.
Layard. Nearly every bird in the list has fallen by hie gun ;
so that the most ample facilities have been thus provided, not
only for extending the limited amount of knowledge which
formerly existed on this branch of the zoology of the island ; but
for correcting, by actual comparison with recent specimens, the
errors which had previously prevailed as to imperfectly described
species. The whole of Mr. Layard's fine collection is at present
in England.
CvpseltiB batassiemia. Gray.
melhfl, £11111.
afflois. Gray.
MacropWryx coronatna, TieteU.
Col local in bteviroatria, McCleL
Aqaita Bonelli, Tenon.
pennata, Gm.
Spiz&eiaB Nipalenais, Hodgt.
limiuEetun, Htrrif.
IcLinaetna Halajenato, Jteinw.
Hsematornia chrcla, DaiuL
spilogastar, Bh/lh.
Fontoaetns lencogaater, Gm.
iclilhyaelns, Hart/.
Haliaatnr Indus, Bodd.
Falco peregrinna, Linn.
pertgrinator. Sand.
Tin nnn cuius alaudarins, Brit*.
Hypotriorchis chicqnera, Daxd.
Baxa lopholea, C'un.
Milvua goTindi, Syic*.
El anna melanoptenis, Daud.
Altar mvirgfllua, Temm.
Accipiter badins, Gm.
Circus Swainsonii, A. Smith.
cincraacena, Mont.
melanolencoa, Gm.
arrttgino*ua, Linn.
Athene castonatus, Bh/lh.
scutulata, Raffle*.
Epbialtoa acopa, Linn.
lcinpijii, Hortf,
aunia, pudge.
Ketopa Cejlonenaia, Gm.
Syrnium Indranee, Syie*.
Strix Javanicu, Gm.
BatracboMomaa Kioniliger, Lauard.
Caprimulgas Mnhrnttcnuis, Sykes.
Keluni, Bhjih.
" " i. Lath.
A can thy lis caudaenta. Lath.
Hirnndo psnayana, Gat.'
daurica, Linn.
hyperjtbxa, Layard.
domicota, Jtrdtin.
Coraciaa Indies, Linn.
Harpsctea fasciatua, Gm. '
Eurystomua oricn talis, Linn.
Halcyon Capenaia, Linn.
alricapillus, Gm.
Smyrnenaia, Linn.
Ceyx tridactyla, Linn.
Alcedo BeDgalontis, Gm.
Cerylc rndia, Linn.
Mcrops Philippinua, Linn.
viridis, Linn.
qnincticolor, Vieili.
Upnpa nigripcriTi in, Could.
Nectarina Zcylanica, Linn.
minima, Syia.
Asiatics, Lath.
Lotenia, Linn.
Dicisiim minimum, Tkhell.
Phyllomia Malabaiica, Lath.
Jerdoni, Bh/lh.
Dcndruphila frontalia, Hurqf. '
Pipriaoma agile, Blyih.
Qrthotomus Ion gi can da, Gm,
Ciaticola cursituns, Frank!.
omaluni, Blyih.
Drymoica valida, Blyih.
innrnsta, Sykes.
Prinia aocialis, Syia.
Acrucephalus dnmetornm, Blyih.
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Pliyllopnens'.c nitidna, Blyth.
montanua, Blyth.
vi riil a hub, Blyth.
CopEj-rhaa saularia, Linn.
Kiltacinela macrura, Gm.
Pranneola caprata, Linn.
strata, Kefaart.
Calliope cyanea, Hodq».
Thilmnobiu fulicuta, Linn.
Cyan ecu] a Suevica, Linn.
Sylvia affinia, Bh/tL
Parus cinereoa, VieilL
Zosteropa palpebroaaa, Ttmm.
lore Zeylanica, Gm.
typllia, Linn,
Hotacilla aulphnrea, Becht.
Indica, Gm.
Madras patana, Brit*.
Bndjtca viridis, Gm.
Anthua rufulaa, VieilL
Richardii, VieilL
Blriolatua, Blyth.
Brncliyptervx Palliaeri, KelaarL
Alcippe nigrifrona, Blyth.
Pitta brarhyura, Jerd.
Oreocincla apilopfera, Blyth.
Mertila Wardii, Jtrd.
Kinnisii, KelaarL
Zoothera imbricata, Layard.
Garrulax cinereifrona, Blyth.
Parmatorhinul melanoma, Bh/th.
Malacocercua rofeaoens, Blyth.
grisens, Gm. ^
Pellornemn foecocapillmn, Blyth.
Dametia albogalaria, Blyth.
Chrjaomma Sinense, Gut.
Oriolua mclanocephalns, Linn.
Iadicaa, Britt.
Criniger ictericas, StiekL
Pjenonotna penicillatus, Kelaatt.
fiavirictoa, Strickl.
biFmorrhouB, Gnu
atricapillos, VieiB.
Hemipai picatus, Sykei.
Hypsipetes Nilgherrienaia, Jtrd.
S'orais rube en bides. Vig.
yiagra aznrea, Bodd.
Cryptolopha cinereocapilla, Vitill.
Leucocerca compreaairoatriB, Blyth
Tchitrea paradisi, Linn.
Butalis latiroatris, Raffit:
Muttni, Layard.
Stoparola mefanopa, Vig .
Pericrocotua flam mens, Fornt.
peregrinoa, Linn.
Campephaga Macei, Lest.
Sykesii, Strickl.
Artamna fuaciia, VieilL
Edohua pared taena, Gm.
Dicrania macrocerctw, VieilL
(rd uli form is, Blyth.
longicandatut, A. Bay.
leucopygialia, Blyth.
ocBnileacena, Linn.
Irena puella. Lath.
Laniua superciliosns. Lath.
erythfonotoB, Vig.
Tephrodomis affinia, Blyth.
Cissa paella, Bh/th Sr Layard.
Coitus apleudens, Vitille.
cnlininatus, Syha.
Eulabes religioaa. Lout.
ptilogenya, Blyth.
Paator rosena, Linn.
Hetsrornia pagodarmn, Gm.
alhifrontutu, Layard.
Acridotberea triatia, Linn.
Ploceua manyar, Hortf.
bay*, Blyth.
Mania andolata, Latr.
Malaharica, Linn.
Malacca, Linn.
rubronigra, Hodg*.
striata, Linn.
pectoralia, Jerd.
Passer Indicua, Jard. §■ Selb.
Alauda gulgula, Frank.
Malabarica, Scop.
Pyrrhulauda griaea. Scop.
Mirafra affinia, Jtrd.
Bnceros gingalensia. Sham.
corooata, Bodd.
Iioriculnt Aaiatictta, Lath.
Palewmis Alexandra, Linn.
■ torquatns. Brio.
cjunocephaloa, Linn.
CaltbropEe. Layard.
Layardi, Blyth.
Megalaima Indica, Latr.
Zeylanica, GmtL
flatifrona, Cm.
rubicapilla, Gm.
Picas gymnopb thai inns, Blyth.
Mahratteneia, Lath.
Macei, VitiO.
Qecinoa chJorophanes, Vieiil.
Bracby plcraus auranuus, Linn.
Ceylon ua, Font
rubacem, VitilL
SlricLlandi, Layard.
Mi crop tern ua gularis, Jerd.
Oentropas rafipennia, IUigtr.
chlororhyncboa, Blyth.
Oxylophue meJanoleucoa, Gm.
Coromandoa, Linn.
Eudynamva oriental if, Linn,
Cucnlns Bartletti, Layard.
atriatua, Drapiez.
canonis, Linn.
Polyphasia tenuiroatria, Gray.
Bonneralii, Lath.
oyGoogIc
LIST OF BIRDS.
Hierococcyx vinos, VahL
Surnicnlua dicruroldeo, Hodgt.
1'hoenicophauB pyrrbocephalus, ForsL
Zanclcisturnus viridircfltiiB, Jerd.
ColnmbBB.
Treron bicincta, Jerd.
flovogularis, Blyth.
Poinpadoura, Gm.
chlorogaster, Blyth.
Carpophaga pusilla, Blyth.
TorringtoniaB, KciaarL
Alsocomua puniceua, Tickel.
Colnmba intermedia, StriciL
Turtur rutorins, Linn.
Suratensis, Lath.
hnmilia, Temm.
orienlalia. Lath.
Chalcophapa Iudicnt, Linn.
Pavo criatatru, Linn.
Gallos Lafayetti, Lesson.
Galloper dix bicalcaratua, Linn.
FiancoliDDi Pontieerianua, Gm.
Pcrdicola agoondah, Sghtt,
Cot urn ir L'hinensis, Linn.
Ttunis ocelUtui tar. Bongalen sis, flfy/A.
„ „ oar. taigoor, Sy*e».
F.sacnB reenrvirostria. Can.
tEdicnemus CTepitana, Temm.
Cursorial Coromandetkus, Gm,
Lobivanetlua, bilobns, Gm.
Goc
t, Gm.
Charadrius rirginiens, Beth*.
Hiaticnla Philippensia, Stop.
Can liana, Lath.
Leschenatiltii, Lets.
Strepailai interprea, Linn.
Ardcs purpurea, Linn.
intermedia, Wagler,
gareetta, Linn.
alba, Linn.
bnbulcus, Savig.
Ardeola leucoptcrn, Bodd.
ArdetU cinnnmomea, Gm.
flavicollis, Lath,
Sioenrda, Gm.
Butoroides Jaranica, Hortf.
Platalea leucorodia, f.inn.
Nycticorax griseua, Linn.
Tigrisoma melanolopba, Baffl,
Mycteria auatralis, Shaw.
Lcptophilua Jaranica, Hortf.
Ciconia leucocephala, Gm.
Tantalus lencocephalus, Gm.
Geronticoa melanocephilua, Loth.
Ibis falciniUns, Linn.
Numenius arqnatus, Linn.
phceopua, Linn,
Tolaniu fuse us, Linn.
ochropuj, Linn,
calidria, Linn.
hypoUncoa, Linn.
glotloides, Vigort.
stag n alia, Bechtt.
Actitis glareola, Gm.
Tringa minuta, LeitL
Bubarqnata, Gm.
Limieola pLatvrhyncha, Temm.
Limoea SBgocepuala, Linn.
Himantopus candid lis, Bon.
Reeurviroatra avocotta, Linn.
Haunatopat oetralegus, Linn.
RhjDcboea Bengalenais, Linn.
Bcolnpax ruBLicola, Linn.
Gollinago atenora. Team.
tevlopacaia, Bom.
gailinula, Linn.
Hrdrophaaianus Sinensis, Gm.
Ortygometra rabiginoaa, Temm.
Corethnra Zeylanjca, Gm.
l'orzjina pygmasa, Aon.
Ballus atriatua, Linn.
Gailinula pbcenicura, I'enn.
chloropua, Linn,
crutata, Lath.
Phcanicopterna ruber, Linn.
Sarkidiornia melanonotoa, Fenn.
Netlapos Co rom an deli anus, Gm.
Anas pcecilorhvncha, Pan.
Deudrocjgnris arcuatns, Cur.
Dafila acuta, Linn.
Querqaedula crecca, Linn.
circia, Linn.
Fuligula rufina, Pali
Spatula clypeata, Linn.
Podiceps Philippensia, Gm.
Larua brannicephalus, Jerd.
ichtbyae'toa, Vail. ,
Sylochelidon Caspius, Lath.
Hydrochelidon Iudjcua, Staph.
Gelochelidon An g liens, Mont.
Onycbc-prion anaathastus. Scop.
Sterna Jaranica, Horsf.
mclanogatter, Temm,
Seena anr'antia. Gray.
Thalasaeua Bengalenaia, Lett.
cristata, Steph.
Dromaa ardeola, Pagh.
Atagen arid, Gould.
Tholassidroma melanogaeter, Gould.
Plolns melunogaster, Gm.
Felicanus Philippenaia, Gm.
Graculos Sinensis, Shaie.
pYgmaBUi, Fallot,
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The following is a list of the
present known, peculiar to the
future day he determined that
geographical range.
Hajmatomis spilopaster. The " Ceylon
eagle;" wm discovered by Mr. La-
yard Id the Wanny, and by Dr.
Kelaart at Trincomslie.
Athene castouotus. Thechestnnt-wing-
ed hawk o<rL Thia pretty little
owl was added to the list of Ceylon
birds by Dr. Tcmpleton.
Batracbostomus monoliger. Thcoilbird j
was discovered amongst (he precipi-
tous rocks of the Adam's Peak range
by Mr. Layard. Another speci-
men was sent about the same time
to Sir James Emerson TennenI
from Avisavelle. Mr. Mitford has
met with it at Batnapoora.
Caprimolgus Kelaarti. Kelaart's night-
jar ; swarms on the marshy plains
of Neuera-ellia at dusk.
Eirnndo hyperythra. The red-bellied
swallow; was discovered in ,1849
by Mr. Layard at Ambep'usse.
They build a globular nest with a
round hole at top. A pair built in
the ring for a hanging lamp in Dr.
Gardner's sfudy at Peradenia, and
hatched their young, undisturbed
by the daily trimming and lighting
of the lamp.
Cisticola omalura. Layard's mountain
grass warbler ; iafbund in abundance
on Horton Plain and Nenera-elliu,
among the long Patena grass.
Drymoica valida, Layard's wren-war-
bler ; frequents tufts of grass and
low bushes, feeding on insects.
Pratincota strata. The Neuera-ellia
robin; a melodious songster; added
to our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart
Brachypteryz PoLiserL Ant thrush. A
rare bird, added by Dr. Kelaart
from Dimboola and Neuera-ellia.
Pellorneum fascocapillnm. Mr. Layard
found two specimens of this rare
thrush creeping about shrubs and
bushes, feeding on insects.
Alcippe ntgrifrons. This thrush fre-
quents low impenetrable thickets,
and seems to be widely distributed.
Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted
thrush is only found in the moun-
tain zone about lofty trees.
birds which are, aa bar as is at
island ; it will probably at some
some included in it have a wider
Morula Kin uisii. The Ncnera-elliablart-
bird ; was added by Dr. Kelaart.
Qarraiaxcinerei Irons. The ashy-headed
babbler; was found by Mr- Layard
near Batnapoora.
Pomatorhinus melanoma. Mr. Layard
states that the mountain babbler
frequents low, scraggy,! in pane trahta
brush, along the margins of deserted
cheena land.
Malacocercos rufescens. The red-dung
thrush added by Dr. Templet on
to the Singhalese Fauna, is found
in thick jungle in the southern and
midland districts.
Pycnonotns penicillatus. The yellow-
eared bnlbul; was found by Dr.
Kelaart at Neuera-ellia.
Butalis MuttuL This very handsome
flycatcher waa procured at Point
Pedro, by Mr. Layard.
Dicrarui edoliformis. Dr. Tcmpleton
found this kingcrow at the Bibloo
Oya. Mr. Laysrd has since got ii
at Atnbogammos.
Dicrnrus lencopygialis. The Ceylon
kingcrow was sent to Mr. Birth
from the vicinity of Colombo, by
Dr. Temple ton.
Tephrodomis uffinis. The Ceylon
butcher-bird. A migratory species
found in the wooded grass lands in
October.
Cisaa pnetla. Layard's mountain jay.
A most lovely bird, found along
mountain streams at Nenera-ellia
and elsewhere.
Eu.lH.bes ptilogenys. Templeton's my-
nah. The largest and most beau-
tiful of the species. It is found in
flocks perching on the highest trees,
feeding on berries.
Loricnlus asiaticue. The small parro-
qnet, abundant in various dis-
Palaornis Calthropss. Layard's purple-
headed parroqnet, Tound at Kaody,
is a very handsome bird, flying in
flocks, and resting on .the summit*
of the very highest trees. Dr.
Kelaart states that it is the only
parroquet of the Henen
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. II.] Ml
Palseornis Layardi. The Jaffna par-
roquet was discovered by Mr. La-
yard at Point Pedro.
Mogalaima Havifrons. The yellow-head-
ed barbet, is not uncommon.
Megalaima rubrieapilla, is found in moat
parti of the island.
Plena gyninophthalmns. Layard'a wood-
pecker. The mullest of the species,
was discovered near Colombo, a-
mongst jak -trees.
Brachypternns Ceylonns. The Ceylon
woodpecker, is found in abundance
near Neuera-ellia.
Brachypternua rnbesceua. The red
woodpecker.
Centropuachlororhynchus. The yellow-
trilled cuckoo, waa delected by Mr.
Layard in dense jungle near Co-
lombo and ATiaavelle.
Pbcanicophaus pyrrhocephalua- The
nMlkoha, is confined to the southern
highlands.
Treron flnv ocularis. The common green
pigeon, il foand in uban dance at
the top of Balacaddua Pass and at
Batnapoora. It feeds on berries
and flics in large flocks. It wan
belieted to be identical with the
following.— Mag. Nat Hint. p. 58 1
IBM.
Treron Pompadonra. The Pompadour
pigeon. " The Prince of Ciraino
IS. 181
has shown that this ie a totally dis-
tinct bird, mnch smaller, with the
quantity of maroon colour on the
mantle greatly reduced." — Paper
by Mr. Bi/rru, Mag, Nat Hut.
p. SUi 18ST.
Csrpophaga Torringtonisa. Lady Tor-
rington'a pigeon; a very handsome
pigeon discovered in the highlands
by Dr. Kclaart. It flies high in
long sweeps, and makes its neat on
the loftiest trees.
Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill
dove, a migratory aperies found by
Mr. Lay aril in the mountain zone,
only appearing with the ripened
fruit of the teak, banyan, &c , on
which they feed.
Oallna Lafayetti. The Ceylon jungle
fowl The female of this handsome
bird was figured by Mr. Ghat (III.
Ind. Zool.) under the name of Q.
Stanleyi. The cock bird bad long
been lost to naturalists, until a speci-
men was forwarded to Mr. Blyth,
who at once recognised it as the
long-looked -for male of Mr. Gray's
recently described female. It is
abundant in all the uncultivated
portions of Ceylon; coming out
.into the open apacea to feed in the
morninga and evenings.
oyGoogIe
Lizards. Iguana. — One of the earliest if not the
first remarkable animal to startle a stranger on arriving
in Ceylon, whilst wending his way from Pointde-
Galle to Colombo, is a huge lizard of from four to
five feet in length, the Talla-goya of the Singhalese, and
Iguana1 of the Europeans. It may be seen at noonday
searching for ants and insects in . the middle of the
highway and along the fences ; when, disturbed but by
no means alarmed, by the approach of man, it moves
off to a safe distance ; and, the intrusion being at an
end, it returns again to the occupation in which it had
been interrupted. Repulsive as it is in appearance, it
is perfectly harmless, and is hunted down by doga
in the maritime provinces, where its delicate flesh is
converted into curry, and its skin into shoes. When
seized, it has the power of inflicting a smart blow with
its tail. The Talla-goya lives in almost any convenient
hollow, such as a hole in the ground, or the deserted
nest of the termites ; and some small ones which fre-
quented my garden at Colombo, made their retreat in
the heart of a decayed tree. A still larger species, the
Kabragoya*, is partial to marshy ground, and when dis-
turbed upon land, will take refuge in the nearest water.
From the somewhat eruptive appearance of the yellow
blotches on its scales, a closely allied species, similarly
1 Monitor dracfenn, Linn. Among I which they regard as a specific foe
the barbarous nostrums of the un- consumption, if plucked from the
educated natives, both Singhalese and living animal and swallowed whole.
Tamil, is the tougue of the iguana, I " Hydrosaunu salv&tor, Wagter.
Google
Cair. III.] LIZARDS. 183
spotted, formerly obtained amongst naturalists the
name of Monitor exanthemata, and it is curious that
the native appellation of this one, Kabra1, is suggestive
of the same idea. The Singhalese, on a strictly homoeo-
pathic principle, believe that its fat, externally applied,
is a cure for cutaneous disorders, but that taken in-
wardly it is poisonous.2 It is one of the incidents that
seem to indicate that Ceylon belongs to a separate circle
of physical geography, that this lizard has not hitherto
been discovered on the continent of Hindustan, though it
is found to the eastward in Burmah.8
Blood-suckers. — These, however, are but the stranger's
introduction to innumerable varieties of lizards, all most
attractive in their sudden movements, and some unsur-
passed in the brilliancy of their colouring, which bask on
banks, dart over rocks, and peer curiously out of the
1 In faeHahawansothe hero,TisflO,
is said to have been " afflicted, with
& cutaneftus complaint which made
his skin scaly like that of the godho,"
— Ch. xxiv. p. 148. "audio" is the
Fait name for the Kabra-iroya.
1 In the preparation of the mys-
terious poison, the Cobra-tel, which
isregRrded with bo much horror by the
Singhalese, the unfortunate Kabra-
gova is forced to take a painfully pro-
minent part. The receipt, as writ-
ten down by a Kandyan, was sent to
me from Komegalle, by Mr. Morris,
in 1840; and in dramatic arrange-
ment it fer outdoes the cauldron of
MtuMh't witches. The ingredients
are extracted from venomous snakes,
the Cobra de Capello (from which
it takes its name), the Carawella,
and the Tic polonga, by making
an incision in the bead and sus-
pending the reptiles over a chattie to
collect the poison. To this, arsenic
and other drags are added, and the
whole is to be " boiled in a human
skull, with the aid of the three
Kabrs-goyas, which are tied on three
sides of the fire, with their heads
directed towards it, and tormented
by whips to make them hiss, so that
the fire may blaze. The froth from
their lips is then to be added to the
boiling mixture, and so soon as an
oily scum rises to the surface, the
cobra-tel is complete."
Although it is obvious that the
arsenic is the main ingredient in the
poison, Mr. Morris reported to me
that this mode of preparing it was
actually practised in his district;
and the above account was trans-
mitted by hJTn apropos to the murder
of a Mohatal and bis wife, which was
then under investigation, and which
had been committed with the cobra-
tel. Before commencing the ope-
ration of preparing the poison, a
cock is first sacrificed to the yakhos
or demons.
1 In corroboration of theyiewpro-
pounded elsewhere (see pp. 7, 84,
JfccA and opposed to the popular
belief that Ceylon, at some remote
period, was detached from the conti-
nent of India by the interposition of
the sea, a list of reptiles will be found
at p. 203, including, not only indivi-
dual species, but whole genera pecu-
liar to the island, and not to be found
on the mainland. See a paper by
Db. A. Gtjmtjieb on The Geog. 2K»-
tribution of Reptiles, Magaz. Nat Hist.
for March, 1869, p. 230.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
184 ZOOLOGT. [Pabi II.
chinks of every ruined wall. In all their motions there
is that vivid and brief energy, the rapid but restrained
action associated with their limited power of respiration,
which justifies the accurate picture of — ■
" The green liutd, rustling thro' the gram,
And np the fluted shaft, with short, puck, spring
To vanish in the diinfci which time has made." 1
One of the most beautiful of this race is the green
calotea2, in length about twelve inches, which, with the
exception of a few dark streaks about the head, is as
brilliant as the purest emerald ox malachite. Unlike
its congeners of the same family, it never alters this
dazzling hue, whilst many of them possess the power,
like the chameleon, but in a less degree, of exchanging
their ordinary colours for others less conspicuous. The
C. ophiomachus, and another, the C. versicolor, ex-
hibit this faculty in a remarkable manner. The head and
neck, when the animal is irritated or hastily swallowing
its food, becomes of a brilliant red {whence the latter has
acquired the name of the " blood-sucker "), whilst the
usual tint of the rest of the body is converted into pale
yellow. The sitana*, and a number of others, exhibit
similar phenomena.
Chameleon. — The true chameleon* is found, but not
in great numbers, in the dry districts in the north of
Ceylon, where it frequents the trees, in slow pursuit of
its insect prey. Whilst the faculty of this creature to
blush all the colours of the rainbow has attracted the
wonder of all ages, sufficient attention has hardly been
given to the imperfect sympathy which subsists between
the two lobes of its brain, and the two sets of nerves .
that permeate the opposite sides of its frame. Hence,
not only has each of the eyes an action quite indepen-
dent of the other, but one side of its body would appear
1 Sooem' Pastum. • I * Sltana Ponticereana, Cuv.
' Calotes viridis, Gray. \ * Chamselio vulgaris, Band.
oyGoogIe
Chat. 111.} CHAMELEON. 1'85
to be sometimes asleep whilst the other' is vigilant and
active : one will assume a green tinge whilst the opposite
one is red ; and it is said that the chameleon is utterly
unable to swim, from the incapacity of the muscles' of
the two Bides to act in concert
Ceratophora. — An unique lizard, hitherto known by
only two specimens, one in the British Museum, and
another in that of Leyden, is the Ceratophora Stod'
dartii, distinguished by the peculiarity of its having
no external ear, whilst its muzzle bears on its extremity
the horn-like process from which it takes its name.
It has recently been discovered by Dr. Kelaart to be a
native of the higher Kandyan hills, where it is sometimes
seen in the older trees in pursuit of insect larvse.1
Geckoes. — But the most familiar and attractive of the
class are the Geckoes2, that frequent the sitting-rooms,
and being furnished with pads to each toe, are enabled
to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere to glass
and ceilings. Being nocturnal in their habits, tie pupil
of the eye, instead of being circular as in the diurnal
species, is linear and vertical like that of the cat. As
soon as evening arrives, the geckoes are to be seen in
every house in keen and crafty pursuit of their prey ;
emerging from the chinks and recesses where they con-
ceal themselves during the day, to search for insects that
then retire to settle for the -night In a boudoir where
the ladies of my family spent their evenings, one of these
familiar and amusing little creatures had its hiding-place
behind a gilt picture frame. Punctually as the candle
were lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be
fed with its accustomed crumb ; and, if neglected, it re-
iterated its sharp quick call of chic, chic, chit, till attended
to. It was of a delicate grey colour, tinged with pink ;
and having by accident fallen on a work-table, it fled,
leaving part of its tail behind it, which, however, it
1 Dr. Kelaart haa likewise die- | * Hemidactjlua maculatus, Dvm.
covered at Neuera-ellia a Salea, dis- et Sib., Gray ; H. Leachenaultii,
tinct from the S. Jewioai, | Dum. et Bib. i H. fretiatua, Schhgtl.
oyGoogIc
186 zoology, tr*w n.
reproduced within less than a month. This faculty of
reproduction is doubtless designed to enable the creature
to escape from its assailants : the detaching of the
limb is evidently its own act ; and it ia observable, that
when reproduced, the tail generally exhibits some varia-
tion from the previous form, the diverging spines being
absent, the new portion covered with small square
uniform scales placed in a cross series, and the scuta
below being seldom so distinct as in the original mem-
ber.1 In an officer's quarters 'in the fort of Colombo,
a Geckoe had been taught to come daily to the dinner-
table, and always made its appearance along with the
dessert. The family were absent for some months, during
which the house underwent extensive repairs, the roof
having been raised, the walls stuccoed, and the ceilings
whitened. It was naturally surmised that so long a sus-
pension of its accustomed habits would have led to
the disappearance of the little lizard; but on the
return of its old friends, at their first dinner it made
its entrance as usual the instant the cloth had been re-
moved.
Crocodile. — The Portuguese in India, like the Spa-
niards in South America, affixed the name of lagarto to.
the huge reptiles that infest the rivers and estuaries of
both continents ; and to the present day the Europeans in
Ceylon apply the term alligator to what are in reality cro-
codiles, which literally swarm in the stall waters and tanks
throughout the northern provinces, but rarely frequent
rapid streams, and have never been found in the marshes
among the hills. Their instincts in Ceylon do not lead to
any variation from their habits in other countries. There
would appear to be two well-distinguished species in the
island, the AUie Kimboola 3, the Indian crocodile, inhabit-
ing the rivers and estuaries throughout the low countries
of the coasts, attaining the length of sixteen or eighteen
* Brit. Mu». Cat. p. 143 ; Kbla- I * Crocodiliu biporctitus, (Sprier.
Abt'b Prod. Faun. Zeytm., p. 183. |
oyGoogle
Chap. III.] CHOCODILE3. 187
feet, and ready to assail man when pressed by hunger ;
and the Marsh crocodile1, which lives exclusively in
fresh water, frequenting the tanks in the northern and
central provinces, and confining its attacks to the
smaller animals : in length it seldom exceeds twelve or
thirteen feet Sportsmen complain that their dogs are
constantly seized by both species ; and water-fowl, when
shot, frequently disappear before they can be secured
by the fowler.2 The Singhalese believe that the croco-
dile can only move swiftly on sand or smooth clay, its
feet being too tender to tread firmly on hard or stony
ground. In the dry season, when the watercourses
begin to fail and the tanks become exhausted, the
Marsh crocodiles are sometimes encountered wandering
in search of water in the jungle ; but generally, during
the extreme drought, when unable to procure their ordi-
nary food from the drying up of the watercourses, they
bury themselves in the mud, and remain in a state of
torpor till released by*the recurrence of the rains.8 At
Arne-tivoe, in the eastern province, whilst riding across
the parched bed of the tank, I was shown the recess,
still bearing the form and impress of a crocodile, out
of which the animal had been seen to emerge the day
before. A story was also related to me of an officer at-
tached to the department of the Surveyor-General, who,
having pitched his tent in a similar position, had been
disturbed during the night by feeling a movement of the
earth below his bed, from which on the following day a
crocodile emerged, making its appearance from beneath
the matting.4
1 ITuROnoTTrs records tLe obser-
vations of the Egyptians that the
crocodile of the Nile abstains from
food daring the four winter months.
— Euterpe, 1 viii .
* Hum TiOLDi relates a aim Uar story
as occurring at C&labar.o, in Vene-
zuela,— Personal Narrative, c. xvi.
1 Crocodilus palustris, Lest.
* In Siara the flesh of the crocodile
is sold for food in the markets and
bazaars, " Un jour je vis plug de
cinquante crocodile*, petits et grands,
attaches but colonnes de leurs mai-
sons. lb les vendent la, chair comme
on vendrait de la chair de pore, mais a
bien meille.nr marche"." — Pal&kgoix,
Siam, vol. i. p. 174.
oyGoogIe
188 ZOOLOGY. [PastH.
The species that inhabits fresh water is essentially
cowardly in its instincts, and hastens to conceal itself
on the appearance of man. A gentleman (who told
me the circumstance), when riding in the jungle, over-
took a crocodile, evidently roaming in search of water.
It fled to a shallow pool almost dried by the sun,
and, thrusting its head into the mud till it covered
up its eyes, remained unmoved in profound confidence
of perfect concealment. In 1833, during the progress
of the Pearl Fishery, Sir Kobert Wilmot Horton em-
ployed men to drag for crocodiles in a pond which
was infested with them in the immediate vicinity of
Aripo. The pool was about fifty yards in length, by
ten Or twelve wide, shallowing gradually to the edge,
and not exceeding four or five feet in the deepest
part As the party approached the bund, from twenty
to thirty reptiles, which had been basking in the sun,
rose and fled to the water. A net, specially weighted
so as to sink its lower edge to. the bottom, was then
stretched from bank to bank and swept to the
further end of the pond, followed by a line of men
with poles to drive the crocodiles forward: so com-
plete was the arrangement, that no individual could
evade the net, yet, to the astonishment of the Governor's
party, not one was to be found when it was drawn
on shore, and no means of escape for them was apparent
or possible except descending into the mud at the bottom
of the pond.1
Testudinata. Tortoise. — Of the testudinata the land
tortoises are numerous, but present no remarkable
features beyond the beautiful marking of the starred
variety8, which is common in the north-western province
* A remarkable instance of thn vi-
tality of the common crocodile, C. bi-
porcatui, was related to me by a
gentleman at Galle : be bad caught
on a baited hook an unusually large
one, which his coolies disembowelled,
the aperture in the stomach being left
expanded by a stick placed across it
On returning in the afternoon with a
view to secure the head, they found
that the creature bad crawled for
some distance, and made its escape
into the water.
1 Tostuiio stellate, Schwtiff.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. III.] T0BT0ISES. 189
around Putlam and Chilaw, and is distinguished by the
bright yellow rays which diversify the deep black of its
dorsal shield. From one of these which was kept in my
garden I took a number of flat ticks (Ixodes), which
adhered to its fleshy neck in such a position as to baffle
any attempt of the animal itself to remove them; but
as they were exposed to constant danger of being crushed
against the plastron during the protrusion and retraction ,
of the head, each was covered with a horny case almost
as resistant as the carapace of the tortoise itself. Such
an adaptation of structure is scarcely less striking than
that of the parasites found on die spotted lizard of
Berar by Dr. Hooker, each of which presented the
distinct colour of the scale to which it adhered.1
The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented
by the terrapins a, which the natives are in the habit of
keeping alive in wells under the conviction that they
clear them of impurities. The edible turtle0 is found
on all the coasts of the island, and sells for a few shil-
lings or a few pence, according to its size and abundance
at the moment. At certain seasons the turtle on the
south-western coast of Ceylon is avoided as 'poisonous,
and some lamentable instances are recorded of death
which was ascribed to their use. At Pantura, to the
south of Colombo, twenty-eight persons who had par-
taken of turtle in October, 1840, were immediately
seized with sickness, after which coma supervened, and
eighteen died during the night Those who survived
said there was nothing unusual in the appearance of
the flesh except that it was fatter than ordinary. Other
similarly fatal occurrences have been attributed to turtle
curry ; but as they have never been proved to proceed
■ Hoozxb's Himatagan Journal*, I tributed in the lower parts of Cej-
vol. i p. 87. Ion, in lakes and tanks. It is put
1 Cryptoput pramim, ScHOPF. Dr. into wells to act the part of a srav -
Kelaaet, in his Prodrotntu (p. 178), enger. By the Singhalese it is named
refers this to the common Indian Kiri-tbba.
species, C. pxmctata ; but it is a ' Chelonia virg&ta, Scktreig.
distinct one. It is generally din- |
oyGoogIc
190 ZOOLOGY. [Paw II.
exclusively from that source, there is room for believing
that the poison may have been contained in some other
ingredient. In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently
found of such a size as to measure between four and
five feet in length ; and on one occasion, in rifling along
the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a man in charge
of some sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle shell,
which he had erected on sticks to protect him from the
sun — almost verifying the statement of Lilian, that in
the seas off Ceylon there are tortoises so large that
several persons may find ample shelter beneath a single
shell1
The hawksbill turtle s, which supplies the tortoise-shell
of commerce, was at former times taken in great num-
bers in the vicinity of Hambangtotte during the season
when they came to deposit their eggs, and there is still
a considerable trade in this article, which is manufac-
tured into ornaments, boxes, and combs by the Moor-
men resident at Galle. If taken from the animal after
death and decomposition, the colour of the shell becomes
clouded and milky, and hence the cruel expedient is
resorted fo of seizing the turtles as they repair to the
shore to deposit their eggs, and suspending them over
fires till heat makes the plates on the dorsal shields
start from the bone of the carapace, after which the
creature iB permitted to escape to the water.8 In
illustration of the resistless influence of instinct at the
1 H Tfcrovrtu Si apa iv raurp rp Sa-
Xorrp, nil £(Xmmm ptjtorai, Innrtp air
rii iXarfia IfMfot yiWiroi* rai jap tan
mi wiyritaitita irtJX"*' *" x'^'*,'tu"'i
»C tiromiv obi flXiyouc, rai rove ijAioec
rBpwltar&TOVC troariyii, sal atiAvda-
pivoie irapixl:"— Lib. XVI. C. 17.
Julian copied this statement lite-
ratim from Mesasthenes, Indica
Frag. lix. 81 ; and may not Mfega-
sthenei have referred to some tradi-
i, the remains of which
are now in the Museum at the East
India House P
s Chelonia imbricata, Linn.
' At Celebes, whence the finest
tortoise-shell is exported to China,
the natives kill the turtle by blows
on the head, and immerse the shell
in boiling water to detach the plates.
Dry heat is only resorted to by the
unskilful, who frequently destroy the
tortoise-shell in the operation. —
Journ. Indian Archipd. vol iii. p. 227,
1848.
oyGoogIe
Chap. III.] SSAEES. 191
period of breeding, it may be mentioned that the identical
tortoise is believed to return again and again to the
same spot, notwithstanding that at each visit she may have
to undergo a repetition of this torture. In the year 1826,
a hawksbill turtle was taken near Hambangtotte, which
" bore a ring attached to one of its fins that had been
placed there by a Dutch officer thirty years before, with
a view to establish the fact of these recurring visits to the
same beach.1
Snakes. — It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited
by the ferocious expression and unusual action of
serpents, combined with an instinctive dread of attack,
that exaggerated ideas prevail both as to their numbers
in Ceylon, and the danger to be apprehended from en-
countering them. The Singhalese profess to distinguish
a great many kinds, of which not more than one half
have as yet been scientifically identified; but bo cau-
tiously do serpents make their appearance, that the
surprise of long residents is invariably expressed at
the rarity with which they are to be seen ; and from
my own journeys, through the jungle, often of two to
five hundred miles, I have frequently returned with-
out seeing a single snake.3 Davy, whose attention was
carefully directed to the poisonous serpents of Ceylon B,
came to the conclusion that but four, out of twenty
species examined by him, were venomous, and that
of these only two (the tic-polonga * and cobra de
capello B) were capable of inflicting a wound likely to -
be fatal to man. The third is the carawilla 6, a
brown snake of about twelve inches in length ; and
for the fourth, of which only a few specimens have
been procured, the Singhalese have no name in their
1 Bkssett's Ceylon, eh. xxxiv. snakes renders them the chief de-
a Mr. Bennett, who resided ranch stroyers of those reptiles.
in the south-east of the island, as- ' See Davy's Ceylon, ch. xiv. ,
cribes the rarity of serpents in * Daboia elegans, Baud.
the jungle to the abundance of the * Naia tripudians, Merr.
wild peafowl, whose partiality to * Trigonocephalus hypnale, Merr.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
192 ZOOLOGY. [Pmt II.
vernacular, — a proof that it is neither deadly nor'
abundant
Cobra de Capetlo. — The cobra de capello is the only
one exhibited by the itinerant snake-charmers : and
the accuracy of Davy's conjecture, that they control it,
not by extracting its fangs, but by courageously avail-
ing themselves of its accustomed timidity and extreme
reluctance to use its fatal weapons, received a painful
confirmation during my residence in Ceylon, by the
death of one of these performers, whom his audience
had provoked to attempt some unaccustomed familiarity
with the cobra ; it bit him on the wrist, and he expired
the same evening. The hill near Kandy, on which the
official residences of the Governor and Colonial Secre-
tary had been built, is covered in many places with
the deserted nests of the white ants (termites), and
these are the favourite retreats of the sluggish and
spiritless cobra, which watches from their apertures the
toads and lizards on which it preys. Here, when I
have repeatedly' come upon them, their only impulse
was concealment; and on one occasion, wlten a cobra
of considerable length could not escape, owing to the
bank being nearly precipitous on both sides of the road,
a few blows from my whip were sufficient to deprive it
of life.
There is a rare variety, fancifully designated by the
natives "the king of the cobras," which has the head
• and the anterior half of the body of so light a colour, that
at a distance it seems like a silvery white.1 A gentleman
who held a civil appointment atKornegalle, had a servant
who was bitten by a snake, and he informed me that on
enlarging a hole near the foot of the tree under which the
accident occurred, he unearthed a cobra of upwards of
1 A Singhalese work, the Sarpa
Boata, quoted in the Ceylon Timet,
January, 1667, enumerates four
species of the cobra; — the rq/'a, or
king; the veiijmtiler, or trader; the
baboona , or hermit; and the goore,
or agriculturist The young cobras,
it says, are not venomous till after the
thirteenth day, when they shed their
coat for the flint tame.
oyGoogle
Chip. III.] SNAKES, 193
rfhree feet long, and so purely white as to induce
him to believe that it was an albino^ With the ex-
ception of the rat-snake l, the cobra de capello is the
only serpent which seems from choice to frequent
the vicinity of human dwellings, but it is doubtless
attracted by the young of the domestic fowl and
by the moisture of the wells and drainage.
The Singhalese remark, that if one cobra be destroyed
near a house, its companion is almost certain to be dis-
covered immediately after,— a popular belief which I had
an opportunity of verifying on more than one occasion.
Once, when a snake of this description was killed in
a bath of Government House at Colombo, its mate
was found in the same spot the day after ; and again,
at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long, having
fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit
its escape, its companion of the same size was found
the same morning in an adjoining drain.3 On this
occasion the snake, which had been several hours in
the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood
above water; and instances have repeatedly occurred
of the cobra de capello voluntarily taking considerable
excursions by sea. When the " Wellington," a govern-
1 Con/phodon BlrttaenbacMi.
Wolf, in his interesting story of
bis Life and Adverdurct tn Ceylon,
mentions that rot -snakes were often so
domesticated by the natives as to feed
at their table. He says: "I once
saw an example, of this in the house
of a native. It being meal time, lie
called his snake, which immediately
came forth from the roof under
which he and I were sitting. He
gave it victuals from his own dish,
which the snake took of itself from
off a fig-leaf that was laid for it, and
ate along with its host. When it
had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss
and bade it go to its hole."
Since the above was written, Major
Skinner, writing to me 13th Dec.
1868, mentions the still more remark-
able case of the domestication of the
VOL. I. <
cobra de capello in Ceylon. "Did
you ever hear," he says, "of tame
cobras being kept and domesticated
about a house, going in and out at
pleasure, and in common with the
rest of the inmates P In one family,
near Negombo, cobras are kept as
protectors, in the place of dogs, by
a wealthy man who has always large
sums of money in his house. But
this is not a solitary case of the kind.
I heard of it only the other day, but
from undoubtedly good authority.
The snakes glide about the house, a
terror to thieves, but never attempt-
ing to barm the inmates."
* Puny notices the affection that
subsists between the male and female
asp ; and that if one of them happens
to lie killed, the other seeks to avenge
its death.— Lib. viii. c 37.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
194 . ZOOLOGY. [Pabt II.
ment vessel employed in the conservancy of the pearl*
bankB, was anchored about a quarter of a mile from
land, in the bay of Koodremale, a cobra was seen, about
an hour before sunset, swimming vigorously towards
the ship. It came within twelve yards, when the
sailors assailed it with billets of wood and other
missiles, and forced it to return to land. The follow-
ing morning they discovered J&e triick which it had
left on the shore, and traced it along the sand till it
was lost in the jungle.1 On a later occasion, in the-
vicinity of the same spot, when the " Wellington " was
lying at some distance from the Bhore, a cobra was
found and killed on board, where it could only have
gained access by climbing up the cable. It was first
discovered by a sailor, who felt the chill as it glided
over his foot.*
In Bennett's account of " Ceylon and its Capabilities"
there is a curious piece of Singhalese folk-lore, to the
effect, that the cobra de capello every time it expends
its poison loses a joint of its tail, and eventually acquires
a head resembling that of a toad. A recent dis-
covery of Dr. Kelaart has thrown fight on the origin
of this popular 'fallacy. The family of "false snakes"
(pseudo-typklops), as Schlegel names the group, have
till lately consisted of but three species, of which only
one was known to inhabit Ceylon. They belong to
a family intermediate between the lizards and serpents
with the body of the latter, and the head of the former,
with which they are moreover identified by having the
' SrEWAKl'a Account of the Pearl
yi*herie> of Ceylon, p. 9 : Colombo,
1843.
The Vy&itm reticulatus (the "rock-
snake") has been known, like the
cobra de capello, to make abort voy-
ages at sen. One was taken on
board II.M.S. "Hastings," when off
the coast of Burnish, in 1853 ; it is
now in the possession of the surgeon,
Dr. Scott.
* SwAiTi.Hon, in his HahiU and
Itistind-a of Animal*, c. iv. p. 187,
says that instances are well attested
of the common English snake having
been met with in the open channel!
between the coast of Wales and the
island of Anglesey, as if they had
token their departure from the one
and were bound for the other.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. lit] SHAKES. 195
upper jaw fixed to the skull as in mammals and birds,
instead of movable as amongst the true ophidians. In
this they resemble the amphisbeenidffi ; but the tribe
of Uropeltidte, or "rough tails," has the further pecu-
liarity, that the tail is truncated, instead of ending, like
that of the typhlops, in a point more or less acute ;
and the. reptile assists its own movements by pressing
the flat end to the ground. Within a very recent period
an important addition has been made to this genus, -by
the discovery of five new species in Ceylon ; in some
of which the singular construction of the tail is de-
veloped to an extent much more marked than in any
previously existing specimen. One of these, the Uro-
peltis grandis of Kelaart, is distinguished by its dark
brown colour, shot with a bluish metallic lustre, closely
approaching the ordinary shade of the cobra ; and- the
tail is abruptly and flatly compressed as though it had
been severed by a knife. The fdrm of this singular
reptile will be best understood by a reference to the
accompanying figure ; and there can be, I think, little
doubt that to its strange and anomalous structure is to
be traced the fable of the transformation of the cobra
de capello. The colour alone would seem to identify
the two reptiles, but the head and mouth are no longer
those of a serpent, and the disappearance of the tail
might readily suggest the mutilation which the tradition
The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence
from inflicting death on any creature, are accustomed,
after securing a venomous snake, to enclose it in a
basket woven of palm leaves, and to set it afloat on a
river. During my residence in Ceylon, I never heard
02
Google
of the death of a European which was caused by the
bite of a snake ; and in the returns of coroners' in-
quests made officially to my department, such accidents
to the natives appear chiefly to have happened at
night, when the animal, having been surprised or trodden
on, had inflicted the wound in self-defence.1 For these
reasons the Singhalese, when obliged to leave then-
houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the
noise 2 of which as they strike it on the ground is
sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their path.
The Python. — The great python3 (the " boa," as it is
commonly designated by Europeans, the " anaconda " of
Eastern story), which is supposed to crush the bones of
an elephant, and to swallow the tiger, is found, though
not of so portentous dimensions, in the cinnamon gardens
within a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it feeds on
hog-deer and other smaller animals.
The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it
to a pole expose it for sale as a curiosity. One that
was brought to me in this way measured seventeen feet
with a proportionate thickness : but another which crossed
my path on a coffee estate on the Peacock Mountain
at Pusilawa, considerably exceeded these dimensions.
Another which I watched in the garden at Elie House,
near Colombo, surprised me by the ease with which it
erected itself almost perpendicularly in order to scale a
■wall upwards of ten feet high.
Of ten species that ascend trees to search, for squirrels
and lizards, and to rifle the nests of birds, one half,
including the green carawilla, and the deadly tic
polonga, are believed by the natives to be venomous ;" but
1 In a return of 112 <
quests, in cases of death from \
raais, held in Cevli
from 1861 to 1856 inclusive, 08 are
ascribed to the bites of serpents ;
and in almost every instance the as-
sault is set down as having taken
place at night. The majority of the
sufferers were childftn and women.
* Punt notices that the serpent
has the sense of hearing more acute
than that of sight; and that it is more
frequently put in motion by the sound
of footsteps than by the appearance
of the intruder, " excitatur pede
sEcpius."— Lib. viii. c. 30.
* Python reticulums, Gray.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. III.] WATEE-SNAKKS. 197
the feet is very dubious. I have heard of the cobra being
found on the crown of a coco-nut palm, attracted, it was
said, by the toddy which was flowing at the time, it
being the season for drawing it.
Water-Snakes. — The fresh- water snakes, of which several
species1 have been described as inhabiting the'still water
and pools, are all harmless in Ceylon. A gentleman, who
found near a river an agglutinated, cluster of the eggs of
one variety (Tropidonotus stolatus ?), placed them under a
glass shade on his drawing-room table, where one by*one
the young serpents emerged from the shell to the number
of twenty.
The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-etone, as a
remedy in cases of wounds by venomous serpents, has
probably been communicated to the Singhalese by the
itinerant snake-charmers who resort to the island from
the coast' of Coromandel; and more than one well-
authenticated instance of its successful application has
been told to me by persons who had been eye-wit-
nesses to what they described. On one occasion, in
March, 1854, a friend of mine was riding, with some
other civil officers of the government, along a jungle
path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when they saw one of
two Tamils, who were approaching them, suddenly dart
into the forest and return, holding in both hands a
cobra de capello which he had seized by the head and
tail. He called to his companion for assistance to
place it in .their covered basket, but, in doing this, he
handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the
finger, and retained its hold for a few seconds, as if
unable to retract its fangs. The blood flowed, and
intense pain appeared to follow almost immediately ;
but, with all expedition, the friend of the sufferer undid .
bis waistcloth, and took from it two snake-stones, each
of the size of a small almond, intensely black.and highly
1 Chersydrus gntnulatuB, Merr. ; I quincunciatus, Srhleg. ; T. stoJatua,
Cerberus cinrrens, Baud. ; Tropido- Lmn ; T. cliry sargim, Sole.
phis schiBtoaiiB, Baud. ; Tropidonotus |
o 3
n^i^Google
198 ZOOLOGY. [Pa»t IT,
polished, though of an extremely light substance. These
he applied orte to each wound inflicted by the teeth
of the serpent, to which they attached themselves
closely, the blood that oozed.ftom the bites being rapidly
imbibed by the porous texture of the article applied,
The stones adhered tenaciously for three or four minutes,
the wounded man's companion in the meanwhile rubbing
his arm downwards- from the shoulder towards the
fingers, ^.t length the snake-stones dropped off of their
own accord ; the suffering of the man appeared to hare
subsided ; be twisted his fingers till the joints cracked,
and went on his way without concern. Whilst this had
been going on, another Indian of the party who had come
up took from his bag a small piece of white wood, which
resembled a root, and passed it gently near the head of
the cobra, which the latter immediately inclined close to
the ground ; he then lifted the snake without hesitation,
and coiled it into a circle at the bottom of his basket
The root by which he professed to be enabled to perform
this operation with safety he called the Nayarthalee
Kalinga (the root of the snake-plant), protected by
which he professed . his ability to approach any reptile
with impunity.
In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, then Dis-
trict Judge of Kandy, informed me that he saw a snake-
charmer in the jungle, close by the town, search for
a cobra de capello, and, after disturbing it in its retreat,
the man tried to secure it, but, in the attempt, he was
bitten in the thigh till blood trickled from the wound.
He instantly appUed the Pamboo-Kaloo, which adhered
closely for about ten minutes, during which time he
passed the root which he held in his hand backwards and
forwards above the stone, till the latter dropped to the
ground. He assured Mr. Lavalliere that all danger was
then past . That gentleman obtained from him the snake-
stone he had relied on, and saw him repeatedly afterwards
in perfect health.
The substances used on both these occasions are now
oyGoogIe
Chap. III/!
S.VAKE-STOSKS.
in my possession. The" roots employed by the several >
parties are mot identical One appears to be a bit of
the stem of an Aristolochia ; the other is so dried as to
render it difficult to identify it, but it resembles the.
quadrangular ' stem of a jungle vine. Some species
of Aristolochia, such as the A. serpentaria of North
America, are supposed to act as specifics in the cure
of snake-bites ; and the A. inctica is the plant to which
the ichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an
antidote when bitten ' ; but it is probable that the* use
of any particular plant by the ■ snake-charmers is a
pretence, or rather a delusion, the reptile being over-
powered by the resolute action of the operator8, and not
by the influence of any secondary appliance, the confi-
dence inspired by the supposed talisman enabling its pos-
sessor-to address himself fearlessly to his task, and thus to
effect, by determination and will, what is popularly
believed to be#the result of charms and stupefaction.
Still it is curious that, amongst the natives of Northern
1 For An account of the encounter
between the ichneumon and the ve-
nomous snakes of Ceylon, see I*t. u.
ph. i. p. 14S). ;
1 The following narrative of the
operations of a snake charmer in Cev-
lon ie contained in a note from Mr.
Reyne, of the department of public
works: "A snake charmer came to
my bungalow in 1854, requesting me
to allow him to show me his snakes
dancing. As I had frequently seen
them, I told him I would give him
a rupee if he would accompany me
to the jungle, and catch a cobra,
that I knew frequented the place.
He was willing, and as I was anxious
to test the truth of the .charm, I
counted his tome snakes, and put a
watch over them until I returned
with him. Before going I examined
the man, and satisfied myself he had
no snake about his person. When
we arrived at the spot, he played on
a small pipe, and After persevering
for some time out came a large
cobra from an ant hill, which I knew
it occupied. On seeing the man it
tried to escape, but be caught it by
the tail and Kept swinging it round
until we reached the bungalow, He
then made it dance, butbefo're long
it bit him above the knee. He im-
mediately bandaged the leg above
the bite, and applied a snake-stone to
the wound to extract the poison. He
was in great pain for a few minutes,
but after that it gradually went away,
the atone falling; off just before he .
was relieved. When he recovered
he held a cloth up, which the snake
flew at, and caught its fangs in it ;
while in that position, the man
passed hie hand up its back, and
having seized it by the throat, he
extracted the fangs in my presence
and gave them to me. Tie then
squeezed out the poison on to a
leaf. It was a clear oily substance,
and when rubbed on the hand pro-
duced a fine lather. I carefully
watched the whole operation, which
was also witnessed by my clerk and
two Or three other persona. Colombo,
13th January, 1800.-11. E. Retire. '!
DoHzcdoyGoOglc
200 ZOOLOGY. IVakt II.
Africa, who lay hold of the Cerastes without fear or
hesitation, their impunity is ascribed to tBe use of a
plant with which they anoint themselves before touching
,the reptile1; and Bruce says of the people of Sennar,
that they acquire exemption from the fatal consequences
of the bite by chewing a particular root, and washing
themselves with an infusion of certain plants. He adds
that a portion of this root was given him, with a view to
test its efficacy in his own person, but that he had not
sufficient resolution to undergo the experiment.
As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the ap-
plication of which I have been describing, to Mr.
Faraday, who has communicated to me, as the result
of his analysis, his belief that it is "a piece of charred
bone which has been filled with blood perhaps several
times, and then carefully charred again. Evidence of
this is afforded, as well by the apertures of cells or tubes
on its surface as by the fact that it jields and breaks
under pressure, and exhibits an organic structure within.
When heated slightly, water rises from it, and also a
little ammonia ; and, if heated still more highly in the
air, carbon burns away, and a bulky white ash is left,
retaining the shape and size of the stone." This ash,
as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged to
any vegetable substance, for it is almost entirely composed
of phosphate of lime. Mr. Faraday adds that " if the
• piece of matter has ever been employed as a spongy
absorbent, it seems hardly fit for that purpose in. its
present state ; but who can say to what treatment it has
been subjected since it was fit for use, or to what treat-
ment the natives may submit it when expecting to have
occasion to use it?"
The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when
instantaneously applied, may be sufncjently porous
and absorbent to extract the venom from the recent
wound, together with a portion of the blood, before it
has had time to be carried into the system ; and that the
1 H&ssellquiet.
r
Chap. III.]
8XAKE-ST0NES.
blood which Mr. Faraday detected in the specimen ■
submitted to him was that of the Indian on whose per-
son the effect was exhibited on the occasion to which my
informant was an eye-witness. The snake-charmers from
the coast who visit Ceylon profess to prepare the snake-
stones for themselves, and preserve the composition as
a secret Dr. Davy1, on the authority of Sir Alexander
Johnston, says the manufacture of them is a lucrative
trade, carried on by the monks of Manilla, who supply
the merchants of India — and his analysis confirms that
of Mr. Faraday. Of the three different kinds which
he examined — one being »f partially burnt bone, and
another of chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of vege-
table matter, resembled a bezoar$ — all of them (except
the first which possessed a slight absorbent power) were
quite inert, and incapable of having any effect exclusive
of that on the imagination of the patient Thunberg
was shown the. snake-stone used by the boers at the
Cape in 1772, which was imported for them " from
the Indies, especially from Malabar," at so high a
price that few of the farmers could afford to possess
themselves of it ; he describes it as convex' on one side,
black, and so porous that " when thrown into water,
it caused bubtyes to rise ; " and hence, by its absorption,
it served, if speedily applied, to extract the poison from
the wound.8
1 Account of the Interior of Cey-
lon, ch. iij. p. 101.
" Tkttaberg, vol. L p. 165. Since
the foregoing account wan published,
I have received a note from Mr.
Hardy, relative to the piedra ponttma,
the snake-stone of Mexico,, in which
he gives the following account of the
method of preparing and applying it
" Take a piece of hart's horn of any
convenient size and shape ; cover it
well round with grass or hay, and
enclosing both in a thin piece of
sheet copper well wrapped round
them, and place the parcel in a char-
coal fire till the bone is sufficiently
charred.
" When cold, remove the calcined
horn from its envelope, when it will
be ready for immediate use. In this
state it will resemble a solid black
fibrous substance, of the same shape
and size as before it was subjected
to this treatment.
" Use. — The wound being slightly
punctured, apply the bone to the
opening, to which it will adhere
firmly for the space ^f two minutes ;
and when it falls, it should be re-
ceived into a basin of water. It
should then be dried in a cloth, and
again applied to the wound. But it
will not adhere longer then about
one minute. In like manner it may
be applied a third time ; but now it
will fall almost immediately, and
.GO
[lc
203 ZOOLOGY. [Paut II.
Cceeilia. — The rocky jungle, bordering the higher
coffee estates* provides a ■ safe retreat for a very singular
animal, first introduced* to the notice of European
naturalists about a century ago by Linnaaus, who
gave it the name Cmcilia glutinosa, to indicate two
peculiarities manifest to the ordinary observer — an appa-
rent defect of vision, from the eyes being so small and
imbedded as to be scarcely distinguishable ; and a power
of secreting from minute pores in the skin a viscous
fluid, resembling that of snails, eels, and some salaman-
ders. Specimens are rare in Europe from the readiness
with which it decomposes, breaking down into a flaky
mass in the spirits in- which it is attempted to be pre-
served.
The creature is about the length and thickness of an
ordinary round desk ruler, a little flattened before and
rounded behind. It is brownish, with a pale stripe along
either side. The skin is furrowed into 350 circular
folds, in which are imbedded minute scales. The head
is tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine curved
teeth for seizing the insects and worms on which it is
supposed to live.
Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and meta-
morphoses of this creature should be carefully ascertained,
for great doubts have been- entertained as to the position
it is entitled to occupy in the chain of creation,
i Frogs. — In the numerous marshes formed by the
overflowing of the rivers in the vast plains of the low
country, there are many varieties of frogs, which, both
by their colours and by their extraordinary size, are
calculated to excite the surprise of strangers.1 In the
nothing will cause it to adhere ony
" Theee effects I witnessed in the
case of a bite of a rattle-snake at
Opoauni, a town in the province of
Sonora, in Mexico, from whence I
obtained my recipe ; and I have
given other particulars respecting it
in my Travels in the Interior of
Mexico, published in 1830. E.W.H.
Hardf. ^ath, 80tf
1 The Indian toad (Bufo melano-
atictus, Scfoicid) is found in Ceylon,
and the belief in ita venomous nature
is as old as the third century B.C.,
when the Mahawanto mentions that
the wife of "King Anoka attempted
to destroy the great bo-tree (at Ma-
gadlia) trith the pouontd fattg of a
toad."— Ch. xx. p. 122.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
CHA*. HI.] REPTILES. 908
\ake8 around Colombo and the still water near Trin-
comalie, there are huge creatures of this family, from
"six to eight inches in lengtff1, of an olive hue, deep-
ening into brown on the back and yellow on thejinder
side. The Kandyah species, recently described, is much
less in dimensions, but distinguished by its brilliant
colouring, a beautiful grass green above and deep orange
underneath.*
In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the
graceful little hylas 8 were to be found in great numbers,
crouching under broad leaves ' to protect them from
the scorching sun ; some of them utter a sharp metallic
sound at night, similar to that produced by smacking the
lips. They possess in a high degree the power of changing
.'their colour ; and one which had seated itself oil the gilt
pillar of a dinner lamp was scarcely to be distinguished
from the or-molu to. which it clung. They are enabled
to asoend glass by means of the suckers at the extremity
of their toes, Their food consists of "flies and minute
coleoptera,
IAet of Ceylon Reptiles. •
I am indebted to Dr. Gray of the British Museum for a
more complete enumeration of the reptiles of Ceylon than is
to be found in Dr. Kelaart's published lists ; but many of those
new to Europeans have been carefully described by the latter
gentleman in his Prodromua Faunce Zeylanicce and its appen-
dices, as well as in the 13th vol. Magaz. Nat. Hist (1854).
■aura. Mitylia mclanogaster, Gray.
Monitor drnccena, Linn. Silubonra Ccylonie*, Cuv.
Kiopa punctata. Linn. Uropeltii Saffrngamtu, Ktlaart
Hardwiukii, Gray. grand!*, Ktlaart.
Bracbjmelei Bonitse, Dam. fr Bib. pardalb, Ktlaart. .
Tiliqna rafescena, Shaw. Dapainnya LankadiTOna, KtL
Euraeces Taprobaiiim, KtL Treveljanii, Kilaart.
NcbsLh Bortoni, Grog. HemWsntylus frenatus, Schtrg.
Acontiaa feyardi, Ktlaart Letetmnaullii, Dam J- Bib.
Argyrophu bramicnn, Baud, trihcdma, Baud.
Miinophis Blythii, Ktlaart. mncnlatus, Dam. {■ Bib.
Mitrlia Gerrardii, Graa. Fireiii, Ktlaart
Templetonii, Grog. • Cocioji, Dam. fr Bib.
nniinaculata, Gray. sublievis. Cantor.
i Rana cutipottiP and the Malabar I * The tree-fro?, Ifyla leucomyrtax,
bull-frog, R. MalabaricA. Gran.
* R. Kandiana, Ketaari. I
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Peripia Peronii, Dam. $- Bib.
Gym no [lamina Kandianus, Kd.
Sitana Poniicercana, Cub.
Lyrionephalus icutatus, Linn.
Cerataphora Stoddartii, Gray.
Saiea Jertlnni, Grot/.
Ca loleg* phi omachjs, Jftrr.
viridii. Gray.
versicolor, DauA,
flouxii. Dun. j- Si*.
mjstftcens, Dun. A- jBi'i.
Chamcleo vulgaris, baud.
Meg»™ trigonocrphalus, Za(r.
Trigonocephalus hyfinnlin, Marr.
Daboia elegana, haul.
Pdantyi bicolvr, DawL
Atnria iapemoide*. Gray.
Hydro phis suhlieiis. Gray.
cynnocinclas, DamL
Cbergydras gran a lotus, Schneid.
Ccrteroi cirierous, Daiui.
Tropidophis ficfiistoswi, Daud.
Pylhon rcliculatus, Gray.
Cylindrophis ruf«, Schneid,
macula! a, Linn.
Aspidura. brachjorrhos, Bolt.
Haplocercus Cryloncnsi.. Glkr.
Oligodon subquadralus, Dim. fc Hit
subgriseus, Dam. ff Bib.
sublines lot. Dam. $ Bib.
Bimotci Kussellii, Daxd.
purpuraecens, Schieg.
Ablates collaris. Gray.
Tropidonotus quincuusiatuj, Schley.
var. funobria.
stolatua, Linn.
clirysargiis. Bole.
Cyuophij Helena, Dawi.
Coryphouon Blumeiihachii. Men.
Cyclophis calamaria, Giinther.
Chrysopclea ornntn, Shaw.
Dendropbis picta. Gin.
Passcrita mycteriznm, Linn.
var. fusca.-
Dipsadomorphus Ccyloncnsis, GSnther.
I.ycodoii aulictu, L n*.
Cercaapii carina ta, KM.
Bungarui fascinatus, Schneid.
rar. Ceylanensia. Gthr.
Na jft trip a di ana, Merr.
Tcstndo Stella in, Schnrciy.
Kbits Scire, Gray.
Cryptoptis gran urn, ScliOpf.
Garetta, imbricata, Linn.
CheLonia virgala, Schiceiyg.
liana liejadactylo, Leu.
Kuhlii, Schley.
robust*, Blyth.
tigrina, Daud.
. MaUbaxk-a, Dm*, {■ Bib.
Knndiana, KelaarL
Nmera-clliana, Kelaart.
Bufo me lanoM ictus, Schneid.
Kelaart ii, GSnther.
Ixalus variabilis, Giinther.
lencorhinus. Marten*.
poec.il opl curus, Mai lent.
anrifasc Lotus, Schieg.
Polypcdates maculatas. Gray.
microlympanum, GSnther.
eques, GSnther.
stellatuB, K.elaa'1.
cchmardanus, KelaarL
Limnodytes lividus, Blyth.
nuuylsris, Blyth.
mutubilis, Kelaart
maculutuB, KelaarL
KoJoula pulchra. Gray.
baJteata, Tar. Giinther.
Pyx ice ph aim fodiens, Jerd.
Engystoma rubru ra, Jerd.
Cawilia glutiuosa, Linn.
Note. — The following species are peculiar to Ceylon; and
the genera Aspidura, Cercaspis, and Haplocercus would
appear to be similarly restricted. Trimesurus Ceyloneneis, T.
nigro -marginatum ; Megasra Trigonocephala ; Trigonocophalus
hypnalis; Daboia elegans ; Cylindrophis maculata; Aspidura
brachyorrhoB ; Haplocercus Ceyloneneis ; Oligodon sublineatua ;
Cynophis Helena; Cyclophia calamSria; Dipsademorphus Cey-
lonensis; Cercaspis carinata; Ixahts variabilis, T. Lencorhinus,
L poecilopleurus ; Polypedates microtympanum, P. eques.
oyGoogIe
CHAP. IV.
As yet little lia8 been done in the examination and de-
scription of the fishes of Ceylon, especially those which
frequent the rivers and inland waters. Mr. Bennett, who
was for some years employed in the Civil Service, directed
his attention to the subject, and published in 1830 some
portions of a projected work on the marine ichthyology
of the island ', but it never proceeded beyond the de-
scription of about thirty specimens. The great work
of Cuvier and Valenciennes* particularises about one
hundred species, specimens of which were procured from
Ceylon by Beynard Leachenault and other correspond-
ents, but of these not more than half a dozen belong to
fresh water.
The fishes of the coast, so far as they have been
examined, present few that are not common to the
seas of Ceylon and India. A series of drawings, includ-
ing upwards of six hundred species and varieties, of
Ceylon fish, all made from recently-captured specimens,
has been submitted to Professer Huxley, and a notice
of their general characteristics forms an interesting article
in the appendix to the present chapter.8
Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by
far is the Seir-fish *, a species of scomber, which is called
Tora-malu by the natives. It is in size and form very
similar io thesalmon, to which the flesh of the female
fish, notwithstanding its white colour, bears a very close
resemblance both in firmness and flavour.
1 A Selection of the mott Stmark- I ■ Hutoire Katurdle dn Pou&m*.
able and Inlereding Fiihet found on ' See note C to this chapter.
t/ie Const of Ceylon. By J.W.BbS- * Cjbium (Scombet, Liwi.) gut-
nktt, Eeq. London, 1830. ] latum.
oyGoogIc
liOfl ZOOLOGY. [Part II,
Mackerel, dories, carp, whitings, mullet both red and
striped, perches and soles, are abundant, and a sardine
(Sardinella Neohowii, Val.) frequents 'the southern and
eastern coast in such profusion that on one instance in
1839 a gentleman, who. was present, saw upwards of
four hundred thousand taken in a haul of the nets in the
little bay of Goyapanna, east of Point-de-Galle. As this
vast shoal approached the shore the broken water became
as smooth as if a sheet of ice bad been floating below the
surface.1
Poisonous Fishes. — The sardine has the reputation of
being poisonous at certain seasons, and accidents ascribed
to eating it are recorded in all parts of the island. Whole
families of fishermen who have partaken of it have died.
Twelve persons in the jail of Chilaw were thus poisoned
about the year 1829 ; and the deaths of soldiers have
repeatedly been ascribed to the same cause. It is diffi-
cult in such instances to say with certainty whether
the fish were in fault; whether there was not a
peculiar susceptibility in the condition of the recipients ;
or whether the mischief may not have been occasioned
by the wilful administration of poison, or its accidental
occurrence in the brass oooking vessels used by the na-
tives. The popular -belief was, however, deferred to
by an order passed by the Governor in Council in
February, 1824, which, after reciting that " Whereas
it appears by information conveyed to the Govern-
ment that at three several periods at Trincomalic
death has been the consequence to several persons
from eating the fish called Sardinia during the months
of January and December," enacts that it shall not
be lawful in that district to catch sardines, during
1 These facta servo to explain the
story told by the Mar Oiinwc of
Friuli, who visited India about the
year 1320 a.d., and Bays there are
" fishes in those seas that come swim-
ming towards the said country in
such abundance that for a great dis-
tance into the sea nothing can be
seen but the hacks of fishes, which
casting themselves on the shore, do
suffer men for the space of three daies
to come and to take as many of them
as they please, and then they return
again into the sea." — ffnWuvt, vol. ii.
p. 67. *
oyGoogIe
CHAr. IV.] SHAEKS. 207
these months, under pain" of fine and imprisonment.
This order ia still in force, but the fishing continues
notwithstanding.1
Sharks. — Sharks appear on all parts of the coast,
and instances continually occur of persons being seized
by them whilst bathing even' in the harbours of Trin-
comalie and Colombo. In the Gulf of Manaar they are
taken for the sake of their oil, of which they yield such
a quantity that " shark's oil " is now a recognised
export. A trade also exists in drying their fins, for
which, owing to the gelatine contained in them, a ready
market is found in China, whither the skin of the basking
shark is also sent ; — to be converted, it is said, into sha-
green.
Saw Ftsh. — The huge saw fish, the Pristis anti-
quorum 2, infests the eastern coast of the island 8, where
it attains a length of from twelve to fifteen feet, in-
cluding the powerful weapon from which its name is
derived. •
But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are
those fishes whose brilliancy of colouring has won for
them the wonder even of the listless Singhalese. Some,
the:
leiogader, Cuv. and Val. n
"wan found by M. Keynaud at
It occurs also off the coast o
ther Ceylon fish of the Ba
Clupea, is known an the
sprat," the bonito {Scmnb-
pckanytT), the kangewena, i
unicorn fish (Balutetf), and
number of others, irfmore i
lms in bod repute from tl
* Two other species ai
found in the Ceylqn waters, J
cuspidttfu* and P.pectinatm
' JEuah mentions, arnoi
marine animals found in the
fish icilhfcet instead ofjins ,
■rnpifa. =— Lib. rri. c. 18.
imr of **Bpeciea of Chiroi ,
Colombo, justify his description ?
oyGoogIe
208 ZOOLOGY. [Pakt II.
like the Red Sea Perch (Holocentrus ruber,' Bennett)
and the Great Fire Fish \ are of the deepest scarlet and
flame colour ; in others purple predominates, as in the
Serranus fiavo-cceruleus ; in others yellow, as in the Chce-
todon Brotcnriggii 2, and Acanthurus vittatus, Bennett *,
and numbers, from the lustrous green of their scales,
have obtained from the natives the appropriate name of
Giraway, or parrots, of which one, the Sparus Hard-
wickii of Bennett, is called the " Flower Parrot," from its
exquisite colouring, being barred with irregular bands of
blue, crimson, and purple, green, yellow, and grey, and
crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.
Fresh-water Fishes. — Of the fresh-water fish, which
inhabit the rivers and tanks, so very little has hitherto
been known to naturalists4, that of nineteen drawings
1 PteroU murk-ata, Cut. and Val
iv. 303. Scorpmta miUt, Bennett ;
named, by the Singhalese, " Maha-
rata~jtim, the Great Ked Fire, a very
brilliant red species spotted with
black. It is very voracious, and is
regarded on some parte of the coast
as edible, while on others it ia re-
jected. Mr. Bennett has giren a
drawing of this species (pi. 9), so
well marked by the armature of the
head. The French naturalists re-
Eard this figure ns being only a
ighly-eoloured variety of their spe-
cies " dout 1'eelet est occasioune" par
la eaison de l'amour." It is found in
the Red Sea and Bourbon and Pe-
nang. Dr. Cantor calls it Iterate
. 484 ; Chatottyt Brown-
ru/j/ii, Bennett. A very small fish
about two inches long, called Kaha
bartikyha by the natives. ' It is
distinct from Chcetodon, in which
Mr. Bennett placed it. Numerous
species of this genus are scattered
throughout the Indian Ocean. It
derives its name from the fine hair-
like character of ite teeth. They
are found chiefly among coral reefs,
and, though eaten, are not much
esteemed. In the French colonies
theyarecaHed"Chanffe-solejf." One
species is found on the jhores of the
New World (O. saxatdu), and it is
curious that Messrs. Quo? and Gu-
rnard found this fish at the Cape de
Verde Islands in 1827.
9 This fish has a sharp round spine
on the side of the body near the
tail; a formidable weapon, which is
generally partially concealed within
n scabbard-like incision. The fish
depresses this spine at plea-
sure. It is yellow, with several nearly
parallel blue stripes od the back and
sides; the belly is white, the tail and
fins brownish green, edged with blue.
It is found in rocky places ; and
according hi Mr. Bennett, who has
figured it in his second plate, it is
named Seweya.* It is scarce on the
southern coast of Ceylon.
* In extenuation of the little that
is known of the fresh- water fishes of
Ceylon, it may be observed that very
few of them are ^ised at table by
Europeans, and there is therefore no
stimiilns on the part of the natives
to catch them. The burbot and
grey mullet are occasionally eaten,
but they taste of mud, and«aro not in
request.
oyGoogIe
Ciiai-. IV.] FEESH-WATEE FISHES. 20B
sent home by Major Skinner in 1852, although spe-
cimens of well-known genera, Colonel Hamilton Smith
pronounced nearly the whole to be new and undescribed
Of eight of these, which were from the Mahawelli-
ganga, and caught in the vicinity of Kandy, five were
carps1, of which two were Leucisci, and one a Masta-
cemblus, to which CoL H. Smith has given the name of
its discoverer, M, Skinneri\ one was an Opkicephalus^
and one a Polyacanthus, with no serra on the gills. Six
were from the Kalany-ganga, close to Colombo, of which
two were Helastoma, in 'shape approaching the Chceto-
don ; two Ophicephali, one a Silurus, and one an Anabas,
but the gills were without denticulation. Prom the still
water of the lake, close to the walls of Colombo, there
were two species of Eleotris, one Silurus with barbels,
and two Malacopterygians, which appear to be Bagri.
In this collection, brought together without premedita-
tion, the naturalist will be struck by the preponderance
of those genera which are adapted by nature to endure a
temporary privation of moisture ; and this, taken in con-
nection with the vicissitudes affecting the waters they
inhabit, exhibits a surprising illustration of the wisdom of
the Creator in adapting the organisation" of His creatures
to the peculiar circumstances under which they are des-
tined to exist
So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that
Knox says, not the running streams alone, but the reser-
voirs and ponds, " nay, every ditch and little plash of
water but ankle deep hath fish in it." 8 But many of
1 Of the fresh-water fishes belong-
ing to the family Cjprinidie, there
art about eighteen species from Cey-
lon in the collection of the British
Museum.
* This fish bears the native name
of Thdiya in Major Skinner's list;
and is described by Colonel Hamilton
Smith as being "of the proportions
of an eel, Beautifully mottled, with
eyes and spots of a lighter olive upon
a dark green." This so nearly cor-
VOL. I.
responds with a fish of the same
name, Thdiya, which was brought to
Gronovius from Ceylon, and proved
to be identical with the Aral of the
dividual already noted by Cuvier
as BhytKohddla ocellata, Cuv. and
Val. vfii. 445.
* Knox's Hidoricol Relation of
Ceylon, Part I. ch. vii. The occur-
rence of fish in the most unlooked-
oglc
these reservoirs and tanks are, twice in each year, liable
to be evaporated to dryness till the mud of the bottom is
converted into dust, and the clay cleft by the heat into
gaping apertures ; yet within a very few days after the
change of the monsoon, the natives are busily engaged in
fishing in those very spots and in the hollows contiguous
to them, although they the latter are entirely unconnected
with any pool or running streams. Here they fish in the
same way which Knox described nearly 200 years ago,
with a funnel-shaped basket, open at bottom and top,
which, as he says, they " jibb down, and the end sticks
in the mud, which often happens upon a fish ; which,
when they feel beating itself against the sides, they put
in their hands and take it out, and reive a ratan through
their gills, and so let them drag after them." 1
This operation may be seen in the lowlands, traversed
by the high road leading from Colombo to Kandy.
Before the change of the monsoon, the hollows on either
for situations, is one of the mysteries
of other eastern countries as well as
Ceylon and India, Id Persia irri-
gation is carried on to a meat ex-
tent by means of wells sunk in line
in the direction in which it is desired
to lead a supply of water, and these
are connected by chancels, which
are carefully arched oyer to protect
them from evaporation. These karat*,
as they are called, are full of fish,
although neither they nor the wells
they unite have any connection with
streams or lakes.
1 Knox, Historical lUlation of Cey-
lon, Part L ch. vii.
oo^Ic
Cuap. IV.'j FALL OF FISHES FftOM CLOUDS. 211
side of the highway are covered with dust or stunted
grass; but when flooded by the rains, they are imme-
diately resorted to by the peasants with baskets, con-
structed precisely as Knox has stated, in which the fish
are entrapped and taken out by the hand.1
So singular a phenomenon as the sudden re-appearance
of full-grown fishes in places that a few days before had
been encrusted with hardened clay, has not failed to
attract attention ; but the European residents have been
content to explain it by hazarding conjectures, either
that the spawn must have lain imbedded in the dried earth
till released by the rains, or that the fish, so unexpectedly
discovered, fall from the clouds during the deluge of the
monBOon.
As to the latter conjecture ; the fall of fish during
showers, even were it not so problematical in theory, is
too rare an event to account for the punctual appearance
of those found in the rice-fields, at stated periods of the
year. Both at Galle and Colombo in the south-west
monsoon, fish are popularly believed to have fallen from
the clouds during violent showers, but those found on
/— \ the occasions that give rise to this belief,
consist of the smallest fry, such as could be
caught up by waterspouts, and vortices ana-
logous to them, or otherwise blown on shore
from the surf; whereas- those which sud-
denly appear in the replenished tanks and
in the hollows which they overflow, are
mature and well-grown fish.8 Besides, the
/
rIBB CUK1IAL
' ' As anglers, the
native Singhalese
exhibit little expert-
ness ; but for fish-
ing the rivers, tbey
construct with singu-
lar ingenuity fences
formed of strong
stakes, protected by
screens of mtan, that
stretch diagonally
across) the current;
and along these the
tish are conducted
into a series of enclosures from which
retreat is impracticable. Mr. Latard,
in the Magazine of Natural Huttory
for M ay, 1853, has given a diagram of
one of these fish " corrals," as they
are called.
* I had an opportunity, on one
occasion only, of witnessing the
phenomenon which gives nse to
this popular belief. I was driving
in the cinnamon gardens near the
fort of Colombo, and saw a violent
but partial shower descend at
no . great distance before me. Oil
ogle
latter are found, under the circumstances I have de-
scribed, in' all parts of the interior, whilst the prodigy
of a supposed fall of fish from the sky has been noticed,
I apprehend, only in the vicinity of the sea, or of some
inland water.
The surmise of the buried spawn is one sanctioned by
the very highest authority. Mr. Yarrell in his "History
of British Fishes," adverting to the fact that ponds (in
Lidia) which had been previously converted into hardened
mud, are replenished with small fish in a very few days
after the commencement of each rainy season, offers this
solution of the problem as probably the true one : " The
impregnated ova of the fish of ODe rainy season, are left
unmatched in the mud through the dry season, and from
their low state of organisation as ova, the vitality is pre-
served till the recurrence, and contact of the rain and
oxygen in the next wet season, when vivification takes
place from their joint influence." l
This hypothesis, however, appears to have been
advanced upon imperfect data ; for although some fish
coming to the spot I found a multi-
tude of small sil very fish from one
and a half to two inches in length,
leaping on the gravel of the high
road, numbers of which I collected
and brought away in my palankin.
The spot was about half a mile from
the sen, and entirely unconnected
with any watercourse or pool,
Mr. whiting, who was manyyears
resident at Trmcomalie, writes me
that he " had often been tuld by the
natives on that side of the island that
it sometime* rained fishes ; and <
one occasion (he adds) I was tak<
ny them, in 1849, to a field at tl
village of Karran-cotta-tivo, nc
Batticaloa, which was dry when
passed over it in the morning, hut
Lad been covered in two houre by
sudden rain to the depth of three
inches, in which there was then a
Suantity of small fish. The water
ad no connection with any pond
stream whatsoever." Mr, Cbipps, in
like manner, in speaking of GsJle,
says; "I have seen in the vicinity of
the fort, fish taken from rain-water
that had accumulated in the hollow
parte of land that in the hot season
are perfectly dry and parched. The
place is accessible to no running
stream or tank ; and either the fish,
or the spawn from which they were
Siroduced, must of necessity have
alien with the rain."
Mr. J. PHinsEP,theeminentsecre-
tary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
found a fish in the pluviometer at
Calcutta, in 1838.— Journ. Asial. Soc.
fitttgal, vol. vi. p. 465.
Aseries of instances in which fishes
have been found on the continent of
India under circumstances which lead
to the conclusion that they must have
fallen from the clouds, Lave been col-
lected by Dr. Buist of Bombay, and
will be found in the appendix to this
chapter.
1 Yaeheix, History of Briluh
Fuhtt, introd. vol. i. p. xivi. This
too was the of inion of Aristotle, De
■' - c. is.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IV.] BtJBIED FISHE8. 813
like the salmon scrape grooves in the sand and place
their spawn in inequalities and fissures ; yet as a general
rule spawn is deposited not beneath but on the surface
of the ground or sand over which the water flows, the
adhesive nature of each egg supplying the means of attach-
ment. But in the Ceylon tanks not only is the surface
of the soil dried to dust after the evaporation of the
water, but the earth itself, twelve or eighteen inches deep,
is converted into sun-burnt clay, in which, although the
eggs of mollusea, in their calcareous covering, are in some
instances preserved, it would appear to be as impossible
for the ova of fish to be kept from decomposition as for
the fish themselves to sustain life. Besides, moisture in
such situations is only to be found at a depth to which
spawn could not be conveyed by the parent fish, by any
means with which we are yet acquainted.
But supposing it possible to carry the spawn sufficiently
deep, and to deposit it safely in the mud below, which is
still damp, whence it could be liberated on the return of
the rains, a considerable interval would still be necessary
after the replenishing of the ponds with water to admit of
vivification and growth. Yet so far from this interval
being allowed to elapse, the rains have no sooner fallen
than the taking of the fish commences, and those captured
by the natives in wicker Gages are mature and full grown
instead of being " small fish " or fry, as supposed by Mr.
Yarrea
Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the
probability that, under favourable circumstances, the
spawn in the tanks might be preserved during the dry
season so as -to contribute to the -perpetuation of their
breed, the fact is no longer doubtful, that adult fish
in Ceylon, like some of those that inhabit similar waters
both in the New and Old World, have been endowed by
the Creator with the singular faculty of providing against
the periodical droughts either by journeying overland in
search of still unexhausted water, or, on its utter disap-
DomzcdoyGoOglc
814 ZOOLOGY. - . CP**t II.
pearance, by burying themselves in the mud to await the
return of the rains.
■ Travelling Fishes. — It was well known to the
Greeks that certain fishes of India possessed the power
of leaving the rivers and returning to them again after
long migrations ' on dry land, and modern observation
has fully confirmed their statements. They leave- the
pools and nullahs in the dry season, and led by an in-
stinct as yet unexplained, shape their course through the
grass towards the nearest pool of water. A similar phe-
nomenon is observable in countries similarly circum-
stanced. The Doras of Guiana * have been seen travelling
over land during the dry season in search of their natural
element8, in such droves that the negroes have filled
baskets with them during these terrestrial excursions.
Pallegoix in his account of Siam, enumerates three
species of fishes which leave the tanks and channels and
traverse the damp grass * ; and Sir John Bowring, in his
account of his embassy to the Siamese kings in 1855,
states, that in ascending and descending the river Meinam
to Bankok, he was amused with the novel sight of fish
leaving the river, gliding over the wet banks, and losing
themselves amongst the trees of the jungle.5
The class of fishes which possess this power are chiefly
■ ' I Jiave collected into s Dote,
which will be found in the appendix
to this chapter, the opinions enter-
tained bv the Greeks and Romans
upon this habit of the fresh-water
fishes of India. See note B.
* D. Hancockii, Cuv. et Val.
■ Sir R. Scbomburgk'a Fjthe* of
Guiana, vol. i. pp. 1)3, 151, 160.
Another migratory fish was found
by Boec very numerous in the fresh
waters of Carolina and in ponds liable
to become dry in summer- When
captured and placed on the ground,
" they alteayt directed themselves to-
ward* the nearest water, ichich they
could not poeeiUy get, and which they
tnust have discovered by tome in-
ternal index. They belong to the
genus Hydrargyra, and are called
Swampines. — Eibbt, BridgewaUr
Treatue, vol. i. p. 143.
Eels kept in a garden, when Au-
gust arrived (the period at which
instinct impels them to go to the «ea
to spawn) were in the habit of leaving
the pond and were invariably found
moving eastward m the' direction of
the tea. — Yabjusll, voL ii. p. 884.
Anglers observe that fish newly
caught, when placed out of sight of
water, always struggle towards it to
escape.
• Pallesoix, vol i. p. 144.
' Sir J. " • '■'
vol i. p. 10.
oyGoogIe
Cna». IV-]
CLIIIBING FISH.
those with kbyrinthiform pharyngeal" bones, so disposed
in plates and cells as to retain a supply of moisture,
which, whilst crawling on land, gradually exudes so as
to keep the gills damp.1
The individual which is most frequently seen in these
excursions in Ceylon is a perch called by the Singhalese
Kavaya or Kawky-ya, and by die Tamils Pannei^eri, or
Sennal. It is closely allied to, if not identical with, the
Anabaa scandens of Cuvier, the Perca scandens of Daldorf.
It grows to about six inches in length, the head round
and covered with scales, and the edges of the gill-covers
strongly denticulated. Aided by the apparatus already
adverted to in its head, this little creature issues boldly
from its native pools and addresses itself to its toil-
some march generally at night or in the early morning,
whilst the grass is still damp with the dew ; but in its
distress it is sometimes compelled to travel by day, and
Mr. R L. Layard on one occasion encountered a number
of them travelling along a hot and dusty gravel road under
the midday sun.2
1 OcVIEEQndVALENCIESNIS,i/iei.
Not. des Poiimmt, torn, vii. p. 240.
* AimaU and Mag. of Nat. Mitt.,
May, 1863, p. 390. Mr. Morris, the
government-agent of Trincomnlie,
writing to me on this subject in
1866, aays — "I was lately on duty
inspecting the bund of a large tank
st Nade-cadua, which, being out of
rcpair; the remaining- water was con-
fined in a small hollow in the other-
wise dry bed. Whilst there heavy
run came on, and, as we stood on the
high ground, we observed a pelican
on the margin of the shallow pool
gorging himself; our people went
towards him and raised a cry of fish !
fish I We hurried down, and found
numbers of fish struggling upwards
through the grass in the rills formed
by the trickling of the rain. There
was scarcely water enough to cover
them, but nevertheless they made
rapid progress up the bank, on which
our followers collected about two
bushels of them at a distance of forty
yards from the tank. They were
forcing their way up the knoll, and,
had they not been intercepted first
by the pelican and afterwards by
ourselves, they would in a few
minutes have gained the highest
point and descended on the other
side into a pool which formed another
portion of the tank. They were
chub, the same as are found in the
mud after the tanks dry up." In a
subsequent communication in July,
1867, the same gentleman says —
" As *he tanks dry up the fish congre-
Sate in the little pools till at last you
nd them jn thousands in the moistest
parts of the beds, rolling in the blue
mud which is at that time about the
consistence of thick gruel."
"As the moisture further evapo-
rates the surface fish are left un-
covered, and tbey. crawl away in
cyGoogle
SIS ZOOLOGY. [P4RT IL
Eeferring to the Anabas scandens, Dr. Hamilton
Buchanan says, that of all the fish with which he was
acquainted it is the most tenacious of life; and he has
known boatmen on the Ganges to keep them for five or six
days in an earthen pot without water, and daily to use
what they wanted, finding them as lively and fresh as when
caught.1 Two Danish naturalists residing at Tranquebar,
have contributed their authority to the fact of this fish
ascending trees on the coast of Coromandel, an exploit
from which it acquired its epithet of Perca scandens.
Daldorf, who was a lieutenant in the Danish East India
Company's service, communicated to Sir Joseph Banks,
that in the year 1791 he had taken this fish from a moist
cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, that grew near
a lake. He saw it when already five feet above the
ground struggling to ascend still higher ; — "suspending
itself by its gill-covers, and bending its tail to the left,
it fixed its anal fin in the cavity of the bark, and sought
by expanding its body to urge its way upwards, and
its march was only arrested by the hand with which
he seized it."'
March of fresh pools. In one place
I saw hundreds diverging in every
direction, from the tank they had
just abandoned to a distance of fifty
or sixty yards, and still travelling
onwards. In going this distance,
however, they must have used mus-
cular exertion sufficient to have taken
them half a mile oh level ground, for
at these places all the cattle and wild
animals of the neighbourhood had
latterly come to drink; so that the
surface was everywhere indented
with footmarks in addition to the
cracks in the surrounding baked mud,
)ntp which the fish tumbled in their
SiogTess. In those holes which were
eep and the sides perpendicular
they remained to die, and were
carried off by kites and crows."
" My impression is that this migm-
tdon takes place at night or before sim-
rJK*i. for it was only early in the morn-
ing, and I found that those f brought
away with me in chatties appeared
quiet by day, hut a large proportion
managed to get out of the chatties
at night — some escaped altogether,
others were trodden on and killed."
"One peculiarity is the large size
of the vertebral column, quite ititt-
proportioned to the hulk of the fish.
I particularly noticed that all in the
act of migrating had their gills ex-
panded."
1 Fishes of the Ganges, 4to. 1822.
" TrttMacbiom Linn. Soc. vol. iii.
p. 63. It is remarkable, however,
that this discovery of Daldorf, which
excited so great an interest in 1791,
hod been anticipated by an Arabian
voyager a thousand years before.
Abou-ieyd, the compiler of the re-
markable MS. known since Rc-
naudot's translation by the title of
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.]
CLIMBING FISH.
There is considerable obscurity about the story of
this ascent, , although corroborated by M. John. Its
motive for climbing is not apparent, since water being
close at hand it could not have gone for sake of the
moisture contained in the fissures of the palm ; nor could
it be in search of food, as it lives- not on fruit but on
aquatic insects.1 The descent, too, is a question of diffi-
culty. The position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-
covers, might assist its journey upwards, but the same
apparatus would prove anything but a facility in steady-
ing its journey down. The probability is, as suggested
by Buchanan, that the ascent which was witnessed by
Daldorf was accidental, and ought not to be regarded as
the habit of the animal. In Ceylon I heard of no in-
stance of the perch ascending trees2, but the fact is
well established that both it, the pullata (a species of
polyacanthus), and others, are capable of long journeyB
on the level ground.8
the Tranels of the Two Mahometans,
states that Suleyman, one of his in-
formants, who visited India at the
close of the ninth century, was told
there of a fish which, issuing from
the waters, ascended the coco-nut
palms to drink their Bap, and re-
turned to the sea. "On parle d'un
poisson da mer qui, sortant de l'eau,
monte sur la cocotier et boit le sue
de la plante; ensuite il retoume a
la mer." See Rktkaud, Relations
de* Voyage* fait* par let Arabes et
Persons dans le neuv&me siecle, torn.
i. p. 21, torn. ii. p. 93.
1 Kirov ttaya that it is " in pursuit
of certain crustaceans that form its
food " (Briaycicater Treatise, vol. i.
p. 144) ; but I am not aware of any
crustaceans in the island which as-
cend the palmyra or feed upon its
fruit. The Birgvt latro, which inhabits
Mauritius, and is said to climb the
coco-nut for this purpose, has not
been observed in Ceylon.
* This assertion must be qualified
by a fact stated by Mr. E. A. Layard,
who mentions that on visiting one of
the fishing stations o
Singhalese
nver, wnere wie nan are caught in
staked enclosures, as described at
p. 212, and observing that the
chambers were covered with net-
ting, he asked the reason, and was
told " that some of thejish climbed tap
the stick* and got ot>er."~Mag. Nat,
Hist, for May 1823, p. 390-1.
1 Strange accidents have more
than once occurred in Ceylon arising
from the habit of the native anglers ;
who, having neither baskets nor
pockets in which t# place what they
catch, will seise a fish in their teeth
whilst putting fresh bait on their
book. In August, 1659, a man was
carried into the Pett&h hospital at
Colombo, having a climbing perch,
which he thus attempted to hold,
firmly imbedded in his throat. The
res of its dorsal fin prevented its
ent, whilst those of the gill-
covers equally forbade its return.
It was eventually extracted by the
forceps through an incision in the
ceaophagus, and the patient recovered.
Other similar cases have proved fatal.
oyGoogIe
ftlS ZOOLOGY. £Paii n.
Burying Fishes. — But a still more remarkable power
possessed by some of the Ceylon fishes, is. that already
alluded to, of secreting themselves in the earth in the dry
season, at the bottom of the exhausted ponds, and there
awaiting the renewal of the water at the change of the
monsoon. The instinct of the crocodile to resort to the
same expedient has been already referred to1, and in like
manner the fish, when distressed by the evaporation of
the tanks, seek relief by immersing first their heads, and
by degrees their whole bodies, in the mud ; sinking to a
depth at which they find sufficient moisture to preserve
life in a state of lethargy long after the bed of the tank
has been consolidated by the intense heat of the sun.
It is possible, too, that the cracks which reticulate the
surface may admit air to some extent to sustain their
faint respiration.
The same thing takes place in other tropical regions,
subject to vicissitudes of draught and moisture. The
Protopterus3 which inhabits the Gamb a (and which,
though demonstrated by Professor Owen to possess all
the essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless pro-
vided with true lungs), is accustomed in the dry season,
when the river retires into its channel, to bury itself to
the depth of twelve or sixteen inches in the indurated
mud of the banks, and to remain in a state of torpor
till the rising of the stream after the rains enables it to
resume its active habits. At this period the natives
of the Gambia, like those of Ceylon, resort to the river,
and secure the fish in considerable numbers as they
flounder in the still shallow water. A parallel instance
occurs in Abyssinia in relation to the fish of the Mareb,
one of the sources of the Nile, the waters of which are
partially absorbed in traversing the plains of Taka.
During the summer its bed is dry, and in the slime
at the depth of more than six feet is found a species
Sec Lin*. Tram. 1830.
oyGoogIe
VP. IV.]
TRAVELLING PISH,
of fish without scales, different from any known to inhabit
the Nile.1 .
In South America the " round-headed hassar " of
Guiana, Cailicihys littoralis, and the " yarrow," a species
of the family Esocida;, although they possess no specially
modified respiratory organs, are accustomed to bury
themselves in the mud on the subsidence of water in
the pools during the dry 'season.8 The Loricaria of
Surinam, another Siluridan, exhibits a similar instinct,
and resorts to the same expedient. Sir R. Schomburgk,
in his account of the fishes of Guiana, confirms this
account of the Calhcthys, and says "they can exist in
muddy lakes without any water whatever, and great
numbers of them are sometimes dug up from such
situations."
In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat,
and small tanks are extremely numerous, the natives in
the hot season are accustomed to dig in the mud for
fish. Mr. Whiting, the chief civil officer of the eastern
1 This statement will be found
in QufTKEXE&E's Mimoires sur
F Egypt*, torn. i. p. 17, on the au-
thority of Abdullah ben Ahmed ben
Solrtim AnHouany, in his History of
Nubia, " Simon, heritier presomptif
du royaume d'Alouah, m'a assure'
que 1 on trouve, dans la vase qui
convre le fond de cette riviere,
un grand poisaon sans ecaillea, qui
no resaemble en rien aux poisaona
du Nil, et que, pour l'avoir, il faut
creuser k une toise et plus de pro-
fond eur." To this passage there
is appended this note : — " Le pa-
triarcbe Mendes, cite par Legrand
( Relation Hid. fAbgssinte, du P.
Lobo, p. 212-3) rapporte que le
fteuve Mareb, aprea avoir arrose' une
e"t endue de pays considerable, ae
Slid sous terra; et que quand lea
ortugaia faiaaient la guerre dans
ee pays, ils fonilloient dans le sable,
et y trouvoient de la bonne eau et
du bon poisaon. An rapport de
Vauteur de ? At/in Akbery (torn, ii
p. 140, ed. 1800), dans le Soubah de
Caschmir, pres du lieu nomme' Tilah-
moulah, est une grande piece de terra
qui eat inondee pendant la aaison dee
pluies. Lorsque lea eaui ae sont
evaporees, et que la vase est presque
seche, lea habitana prennent dea
hfttons d' environ une aune de long,
qu'ils enfoncent dana la vase, et ile y
trouvent quantity de grands et petite
poiaaonaY In the Horary of the
British Museum there is an unique
MS. of MiSoKL de Almeida, wnt-
ten in the sixteenth century, from
which Belthasar Tellei compiled his
Hidoria General de Ethiopia alto,
printed at Coimbra in 1660, and in
it the above statement of Mendes is
corroborated by Almeida, who says
that he was told by Joao Gabriel, a
Creole Portuguese, born in Abys-
sinia, who had visited the Merab,
and who said that the "fish were to
be found everywhere eight or ten
palms down, and that he had eaten
of them." '
' See Paper "on some Species of
Fishes and Reptiles m Demerara," by
J. TTasticock, Esq., M.D., Zoological
Journal, voL iv. p. 243.
'
t30 ZOOLOGT. [Pah II.
province, informs me that, on two occasions, he was pre-
sent accidentally when the villagers were so engaged,
once at the tank of Malliativoe, within a few miles of
Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie, and "again at a
tank between Ellendetorre and Arnitivoe, on the bank
of the Vergel river. The clay was firm, but moist, and
as the men flung out lumps of it with a spade, it fell to
pieces, disclosing fish from nine to twelve inches long,
which were full grown and healthy, and jumped on the
bank when exposed to the sun light.
Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of fish so ex-
humed, I received from the Moodliar of Matura, A. B.
Wickremeratne, a fish taken along with others of the
same kind from a tank in which the water had dried
up ; it was found at a depth of a foot and a half where
the mud was still moist, whilst the surface was diy and
hard. The fish which the moodliar sent to ine proved
to be an Anabas, closely resembling the Perca scandens
of Daldorf.
But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is
not confined in Ceylon to the crocodile sand fishes ; — it is
equally possessed also by some of the fresh-water mollusca
and aquatic coleoptera. The largest of the former, the
Ampullaria glauca, is found in still water in all parts
of the island, not alone in the tanks, but in rice-fields
and the watercourses by which they are irrigated.
There it deposits a bundle of eggs with a white cal-
careous shell, to the number of one hundred or ma**
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.]
BURYING FISH.
in each group, at a considerable depth in the soft mud,
under which, -when the water is about to evaporate
during the dry season, it burrows and conceals itself till
the returning rains restore it to activity, and reproduce
its accustomed food. The Melania Paludina in the same
way retires during the droughts into the muddy soil of
the rice lands ; and it can only be by such an instinct
that this and other mollusca are preserved when the tanks
evaporate, to re-appear in full growth and vigour imme-
diately on the return of the rains.2
Dr. John Hunter8 has advanced an opinion that hy-
bernation, although a result of cold, is not its immediate
consequence, but is attributable to that deprivation of
food and other essentials which extreme cold occasions, .
and against the recurrence of which nature makes a
timely provision by a suspension of her functions. Ex-
1 A knowledge of this fact was
turned to prompt account by Mr,
Edgar S. Layara, when holding a
judicial office at Point Pedro in 1840.
A native who bad been defrauded of
bla land complained before him of
his neighbour, who, during his ab-
sence, had removed their common
landmark by diverting the original
watercourse sad obliterating its traces
by filling it to a level with the rest
of the field. Mr. Layard directed a
trench to be sunk at the contested
r, and discovering numbers of the
pullario, the remains of the eggs,
and the living animal which had been
buried for months, the evidence was
so resistless as to confound the wrong-
doer, and terminate the suit
5 For a similar fact relative to the
shells and water beetles in the pools
near Rio Janeiro, see Dabwih's Nat.
Journal, ch. r. p. 99. Behsoit, in the
first vol. of Gleaning* of Science, pub-
lished at Calcutta m 1829, describes
a species of Paludina found in pools,
which are periodically dried up in
the hot season but reappear with the
rains, p. 363. And in the Journal of
the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal for Sept
1832, Lieut Huttoh, in a singularly
interesting paper, has followed up the
same subject by a narrative of hia
own observations at Mirzapore, where
in June, 1832, after a Tew heavy
showers of rain, that formed poofs
pa the surface of the ground near a
mango grove, he saw the Paludina!
issuing from the ground, " pushing
aside the moistened earth and coming
forth from their retreats ; but on the
disappearance of the water not one of
them was to be seen above ground.
Wishing to ascertain what had be-
come of them, he turned up the earth
at the base of several trees, and in-
variably found the shells buried from
an inch to two inches below the sur-
face." Lieut Hutton adds that the
Ammdlariai and Planorbes, as well
as the Paludina, are found in similar
situations during the heats of the
dry season. The British Piridea e
hibit the si
voL
iv.). The fact is elsewhere alluded
to in the present work of the power
possessed by the land leech of Ceylon
of retaining vitality even after being
parched to hardness during the beat
of the rainless season. Vol. I. ch. vii.
p, 312.
* Hunter's Observation! on porta
of the Animal (Economy, p. 88.
.Google
329 ZOOLOGY. [Ptrr II.
ceasive heat in the tropics produces an effect upon ani-
mals and vegetables analogous to that of excessive cold in
northern regions, and hence it is reasonable to suppose
that the torpor induced by the one may be but the coun-
terpart of the hybernation which results from the other.
The frost that imprisons the alligator in the Mississippi
as effectually cuts it off from food and action as the
drought which incarcerates the crocodile in the sun-burnt
clay of a Ceylon tank. The hedgehog of Europe enters
on a period of absolute torpidity as soon as the incle-
mency of winter deprives it of its ordinary supply of
slugs and insects ; and the Tenrec1 of Madagascar, its
tropical representative, exhibits the same tendency during
. the period when excessive heat produces in that climate a
like result.
The. descent of the Ampullaria, and other fresh-water
molluscs, into the mud of the tanks, has its parallel in
the conduct of the Bulimi and Helices on land. The
European snail, in the beginning of winter, either buries
itself -in the earth or withdraws to some crevice or over-
arching stone to await the returning vegetation of spring.
So, in the season of intense heat, the Helix WaUoni
of Ceylon, and others of the same family, before re-
tiring under cover, close the aperture of their shells
with an impervious epiphragm, which effectually pro-
tects their moisture and juices from evaporation during
the period of their aestivation. The Bulimi of Chili
have been found alive in England in a box packed in
cotton after an interval of two years, and the animal
inhabiting a land-shell from Suez, which was attached
to a tablet and deposited in the British Museum in
1846, was found in 1850 to have formed a fresh
epiphragm, and on being immersed in tepid water, it
emerged from its shell. It became torpid again on the
15th November, 1851, and was found dead and dried
up in March, 1852.' But the exceptions serve to prove
1 Centetes ecaudaiux, Illiger- I See Dr. Baieb'b AecotoU of Hells
* AnaaU of Natural ifirtwy, 1850. | deseriorum; Rice?sior,$c,, ch. i.p.345.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IT] -ESTIVATION OP FISHES, 223
the accuracy of Hunter's opinion almost as strikingly
as accordances, since the same genera of animals that
hybernate in Europe, where extreme cold disarranges
their ceconomy, evince no symptoms of lethargy in the
tropics, provided their food be not diminished by the heat.
Ants, which are torpid in Europe during winter, work all
the year round in India, where sustenance is uniform.1
The Shrews of Ceylon (Sorex montanus and S.ferrugi-
neus of Keiaart), like those at home, subsist upon insects,
but as they inhabit a, region where the equable tempera-
ture admits of the pursuit of their prey at all seasons
of the year, unlike those of Europe, they never hyber-
nate. A similar observation applies to bats, which are
dormant during a northern winter when insects are rare,
but never become torpid in any part of the tropics.
The bear, in like manner, is nowhere deprived of its
activity except when the rigour of severe frost cuts off
its access to its accustomed food. On the other hand, the
tortoise, which in Venezuela immerses itself in indurated
mud during the hot months shows no tendency to torpor
in Ceylon, where its food is permanent ;— -and yet it is
subject to hybernation when carried to the colder regions
of Europe.
To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the
heat, by exhausting the water, deprives them at once
of motion and sustenance, the practical effect must be
the same as when the frost of a northern winter
encases them in ice. Nor is it difficult to believe that
they can successfully undergo the one crisis when we
know beyond question that they may survive the other.2
Hot-water Fishes. — Another incident is striking in
1 Colonel Sykes has described in
the Entomological Tram, the opera-
tions of an ant in India which lays up
a store of hay against the rainy season.
1 Yahekll, vol. i. p. 304, quotes
the authority of Dr. J. Hunter in his
Animal (Eemomu, that fish, "after
being frozen still retain so much of
life as when thawed to resume their
vital actions ;" and in the same -volume
(Introd. vol. i. p. xvii.) he relates
from Jessk's Gleaning* in Natural
History, the story of a gold fish ( Cy-
prinui auratus) which, together with
the water in a marble Dasin, was
frozen into one solid lump of ice, yet,
Google
224 ZOOLOGY. [FmS.
connection with the fresh-water fishes of Ceylon. I have
mentioned elsewhere the hot springs of Kannea, in the
vicinity of Trincomalie, the water in which flows at a
temperature varying at different seasons from 85° to 115°.
In the stream formed by these wells M. Eeynaud found
and forwarded to Cuvier two fishes which he took from
the water at a time when his thermometer indicated a
temperature of 37° Reaumur, equal to 115° of Fahrenheit-
The one was an Apogon, the other an Ambassis, and to
each, from the heat of its habitat, he assigned the specific
name of " Thermalis." '
List of Ceylon Fishes.
Ptrca argentea, Bennett.
Apogon roseipinnia, Can. £ VaL
Zoyloeicns, Cao. fr VaL
thermal!*, Cutt fr VaL
Atnbusis thermalia. Cub. £• VaL
Serramu bigoUatus, Cub. j- VaL
Tankcnillsj, Ben*.
lemniscatus, Cue. &f Vol.
Sonneratii, Cub. £ VaL
flavo-cerulcus, Lacep.
mnrginulis. Cub. k VaL ■
Boelmig, Cub. |" VaL
i Vol.
angularia, Cue. $- VaL
punctulatui, Cuv. g- VaL
Diacope decern -lineatua, Cuv. J- VaL
spilnrn. Bam.
xaiutiupps, Cub. fr VaL
Mesoprion annnlaris, Cuv. % VaL
Holocenirus orientalc. Cub. £ VaL
spinifera, Cue. j- VaL
nrgenteas, Cue If VaL
Upeneus Csniopterua, Cub. fr Vat.
Zeylooicns. Cub. fr Vol.
KosseUi, Cub. fc VaL
cinnabariniis, Cub. j- Vol.
Hutyceplialua punctalos, Cuv. ff Vol.
n the water being- thawed, the fish
ccame as lively as usual, Dr.
□ the third vol of his
fauna Borealis Americana, savs
grey Bucking1 carp, found in the
grey sucking carp,
countries of North onuHica, may uu
frozen and thawed again without
being killed in the process.
1 CcT.and VAL.,vol.iii.p.363. In
nddi tion to the two fishes above named,
a loche L'obitis thermalis, and a carp,
A'uria thermoicos, were found in the
hot-springs of Kannea, at a heat 40°
Cent., 114° Fahr., and a roach, Lew
ciscat thermalis, when the thermo-
meter indicated 50° Cent, 122° Fahr.
— lb. xviii. p. 60, xvi. p. 182, ivii.
p. 04. Fish have been taken from
a hot spring at Fooroe when the
thermometer stood at 112° Fahr.
and as they belonged to a carnivo-
rous genus, they must have found
prey living in the same high tempera-
ture. — Juurn. Aturtic Soc. Beng. vol.
vi. p. 405. Fishes have been observed
in a hot spring at Manilla which
raises the thermometer to 187°, and in
another in Harbary, the usual tempe-
rature of which is 172°; and Humboldt
and Bonpland, when travelling in
South America, saw fishes thrown up
alive from a volcano, in water that
raised the temperature to 210°, being
two degrees below the boiling point.
PiTTERSOH'e Zoology, PL ii. p. 211 ;
Yab&ELL's History of British fishes,
vol. i. In. p. xvi
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IV.]
■caber, Linn.
tuberculatiis, Cuv. ft VaL
ee.rrta.aa, Cuv. ft VaL
Fteroia volitana, Gm.
mnricata, Cuv. fr VaL
Diagramma cineraicena, Cm. ft VaL
Blochii, Cub. ft Vol.
poBciloptera, Cub. ft VaL
CaTieri, Bam,
Sibbaldi, E. Bam.
lobotes elate. Cup. ft Vat.
Scolopsidca bimaculatua, Itupp.
Amphiprion Clarkii, J. Bam.
Ltascjllua aniairas, Cub, ft VaL
GlTpbiaodoD Hahri, Cub. ft VaL
Spar** HwdwickU, J. Bant.
Pagrus longililie, Cm. ft VaL
Lethrinoa opercnlaria, Cup. ft VaL
faficiatus, Cub. ft VaL
fncnatua, Cm. ft VaL
3 -thrums, Cap. ft VaL
nereua. Cue. ft VaL
Smaris baltisatos, Cm. ft VaL
Cussio crernlaareua, Lactp,
Gem* oblongus, Cm. ft VaL
Cheetodon vagnbnnduB, Linn.
Sebaima, Cup. ft VaL
Lajardi, Blyth.
zaatbocephalns, E. Bennett
giiltirjirrimniii E. Bam.
Hamiochna macr^lspi dolus, Linn.
ScatophagDfl argot. Cub. ft VaL
Holacamhos xauthnma, E. Bam.
Platax Raynaldi, Cub. ft VaL
oeellatnis Cm. ft VaL
Ehrenbergii, Cub. ft VaL
Anabaa icawlatt. Hold.
Htlottoma.
Cybium gnttatnm, Bioeh.
Chorinemtu moadetta, Ehrat.
Rhjmchobdella ocellata, Cub. ft VaL
Maatoccinblns Skitmeri, H. Smith.
Caraiix Heberi, J. Bam.
(perioral. Forth.
Rhombos triocellaloa. Cue. ft VaL
Eqtra]a dacer, Cm. ft VaL
filigera, Cue. ft VaL
AmpEacailthni jams, Linn.
flntor, Cub. ft VaL
Acanthoma xanthoma, Blyth,
trioategm, Bkch.
Delisisni, Cup. ft VaL
linealna, .Lactp.
melaa, Cup. ft VaL
Atberina dnodecimalia, Cm. ft VaL
Bhuiraa,
Solatia* marmoratna, Bam,
altieus, Cub. ft VaL
Bleotria texgntutta. Cm. ft VaL
YOL. I,
Cheironectes hispidna. Cup. ft VaL
Taotoga fasciata, Block.
Julia lnnaris, Linn.
deenssalua, W. Bam.
forraosua, Cuv. ft VaL
qnadricolor, Letton.
dorsalis, Quay ft Gait*.
aureomacnlatna, W. Bam.
CoflanicDi, E. Bam.
Finlaysoni, Cud. ft VaL
porpnreo-lineatus, Cub. ft Vol
Gompliosas Aiacas, Cub. ft VaL
Tiridia, W. Bam. .
Scania pepo, W. Bum.
barid. Forth.
Bagrua albilabria. Can. ft VaL
Plotosus lincatos, Cuv. ft VaL
Barboa tor, Cm. ft VaL
Nana thermoicoB, Cub. ft VaL
Lentiscus Zejlonicns, E. Bam.
tbennalis. Cub. ft VaL
Cobitia thcrmalia. Cm. ft VaL
HcmirhnmphuB Beynaldi, Cuv. ft VaL
Georgii, Cuv. ft VaL
Eioc(ctua cvolans, Linn.
Saxdinella leiogaster, Cue. ft Vol.
lineolata. Cue. ft VaL
Saunu myopa, VaL
MaOaooptaiTKU (BuD-nrsMJtilatl).
MalaeoptarycU (Aprtl*).
Murirna.
Tetnodon ocellatna, W. Bam.
argjroplcura, E. Bennett.
anrentatua, Blyth.
Baliites biaculealna, W. Bain,
Triacanthoa biacoleatoa, W. Bam.
H CABTELAGINOUa
Priatia antiqnorum, Lath.
enspidatua, Lath.
peclinatna, Lath.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
NOTE (A.)
INSTANCES OP FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA.
Fntm the Bombay Timet, 1866.
Br. Buiot, after enumerating cases in which fishes were said
to have been thrown out from volcanoes in South America and
precipitated from clouds in various parts of the world, adduces
the following instances of similar occurrences in India. " In
1824," he says, " fishes fell at Meerut, on the men of Her Ma-
jesty's 14th Regiment, then out at drill, and were caught in
numbers. In July, 1826, live fish were seen to fall on the
grass at Moradabad during a storm. They were the common
cyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian waters. On the 19th of
February, 1830, at noon, a heavy fall of fish occurred at the
Nokulhatty factory, in the Daccah zillah; depositions on the
subject were obtained from nine different parties. The fish
were all dead ; most of them were large : some were fresh, others
were rotten and mutilated. They were seen at first in the sky,
like a flock of birds, descending rapidly to the ground ; there
was rain drizzling, but no storm. On the 16th and 17th of
May, 1833, a fall of fish occurred in the zillah of Futtehpoor,
about three miles north of the Jumna, after a violent storm of
wind and rain. The fish were from a pound and a half to three
pounds in weight, and of the same species as those found in the
tanks in the neighbourhood. They were all dead and dry. A
fall of fish occurred at Allahabad, during a storm in May, 1835 ;
they were of the chowla species, and were found dead and dry
after the*storm had passed over the district. On the 20th of
September, 1839, after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of
live fish, about three inches in length and all of the same kind,
fell at the Sunderbunds, about twenty miles south of Calcutta.
On this occasion it was remarked that the fish did not fall here
and there irregularly over the ground, but in a continuous
straight line, not more than a span in breadth. The vast mul-
titudes of fish, with which the low grounds round Bombay are
covered, about a week or ten days after the first burst of the
monsoon, appear to be derived from the adjoining pools or
rivulets, and not to descend from the sky. They are not, so
far as I know, found in the higher parts of the island. I have
never seen them, (though I have watched carefully,) in casks
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.] FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS. £27
collecting water from the roofB of buildings, or beard of them on
the decks or awnings of vessels in the harbour, where they must
have appeared had they descended from the sky. One of the
most remarkable phenomena of this kind occurred during a tre-
mendous deluge of rain at Kattywar, on the 25th of July, 1850,
when the ground around Bajkote was found literally covered
with fish ; some of them were found on the tops of haystacks, where
probably they had been drifted by the storm.' In the course of
twenty-four successive hours twenty-seven inches of rain fell,
thirty-five fell in twenty-six hours, seven inches within one hour
and a half, being the heaviest fall on record. At Poonah, on the
3rd of August, 1852, after a very heavy fall of rain, multitudes
of fish were caught on the ground in the cantonments, full half a
mile from the nearest stream. If showers of fish are to he ex-
plained on the assumption that they are carried up by squalls or
violent winds, from rivers or spaces of water not far away from
where they fall, it would be nothing wonderful were they seen to
descend from the air during the furious squalls which occasion-
ally occur in June."
NOTE (B.)
MIGRATION OF FISHES OVER LAND.
Opiniotu of the Greek* and Soman*.
It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after the
expedition of Alexander the Great, particulars connected with
the natural history of India were sought for and arranged by the
Greeks, that in the works both of Aristotle and Theopheastus
the facts are recorded of the fishes in the Indian rivers migrating
in search of water, of their burying themselves in the mud on its
failure, of their being dug out thence alive during the dry sea-
son, and of their spontaneous reappearance on the return of the
rains. The earliest notice is in the treatise of Aristotle Be
Respiratione, chap, ix., who mentions the strange discovery of
living fish found beneath the surface of the soil, " riov lj^9vav oi
woXkoi fwow ip tij 777, wuvrjrl^ovris fiivroi, koi tvpitrtcwrai
opvrTQpevoi ; " and in his History of Animals be conjectures
that in ponds periodically dried the ova of the fish so buried
d 1
Doi^cdoyGoOglc
280 ZOOLOGY. [Pakp H.
become vivified at the change of the season.' HeBODottjs bad
previously hazarded a similar theory to account for the sadden
appearance of fry in the Egyptian marshes on the rising of
the Nile; but the cases are not parallel. Thbophrastcs, the
friend and pupil of Aristotle, gave importance to the subject by
devoting to it his essay Hipl rf/s iw ly66av h> lypti htaftovijs,
De Piacibua in eicco degentibus. In this, after adverting to the
fish called exocostus, from its habit of going oil shore to sleep,
" dwb Trjt Kotrijs,'' he instances the small fish (lj(8v$ia), that leave
the rivers of India to wander like frogs on the land; and
likewise a species found near Babylon, which, when the
Euphrates runs low, leave the dry channels in search of food,
" moving themselves along by means of their fins and tail." He
proceeds to state that at Heraclea Pontics there are places in
which fish are dug out of the earth, " opvxroi rStv vx&vttv" and he
accounts for their being found under such circumstances by the
subsidence of the rivers, " when the water being evaporated the
fish gradually descend beneath the soil in search of moisture ;
and the Burface becoming hard they are preserved in the damp
clay below it, in a state of torpor, but are capable of vigorous
movements when disturbed." " In this manner, too," adds Theo-
phrastus, "the buried fish propagate, leaving behind them their
spawn, which becomes vivified on the return of the waters to
their accustomed bed." This work of Theophrastus became the
great authority for all subsequent writers on this question.
AthknjKUS quotes it1, and adds the further testimony of PoLTBirjg,
that in Gallia Narbonensis fish are similarly dug out of the
ground.* Strabo repeats the story4, and one and all the
Greek naturalists received the statement as founded on reliable
authority.
Not so the Romans. Livt mentions it as one of the prodigies
which were to be "expiated " on the approach of a rupture with
Macedon, that " in Gallico agro qua induceretur aratrum sub
glebia pisces emersisse," * thus taking it out of the category of
natural occurrences. Pohponius Mela, obliged to notice the
matter in his account of Narbon Gaul, accompanies it with the
intimation that although asserted by both Greek and Roman
1 Lib. vi. ch. 15, 10, 17.
■ Lib. viii. ch. 2.
3 lb. ch. 4.
oyGoogIe
Ckap. IV.] PISHES ON DRY LAND. 229
authorities, the story was either a delusion or a fraud.1 Juvenal
has a sneer for the rustic —
And SeKSCA, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds ironically, that
now we must go to fish with a hatchet instead of a hook ; " non
cum hamis, sed cum dolahra ire piscatum." * Punt, who devotes
the 35th chapter of his 9th book to this subject, uses the narra-
tive of Theophrastus, but with obvious caution, and universally
the Latin writers treated the story as a fable.
In later times the subject received more enlightened attention,
and Beckmann, who in 1736 published his commentary on the
collection tltpl &>avfx,aa£a>y axovafidriav, ascribed to Aristotle, has
given a list of the authorities about his own times, — Georgius
Agricola, Gesner, Rondelet, Dalechamp, Bomare, and Gxonovius,
who not only gave credence to the assertions of Theophrastus,
but adduced modern instances in corroboration of his Indian
authorities.
NOTE (C.)
CEYLON PISHES.
(Memorandum, by Profa»*r Huxley.)
See p. 205.
The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the fishes
of Ceylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, possesses
an unusual value for several reasons.
The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and
even had those from other parts of Ceylon been added, the
geographical area would not have been very extended. Never-
theless there are more than 600 drawings, and though it is
possible that some of these represent varieties in different
stages of growth of the same species, I have not been able to
find definite evidence of the fact in any of those groups which
I have particularly tested. If, however, these drawings repre-
sent six hundred distinct species of fish, they constitute, so far
as I know, the largest collection of fish from one locality in
existence.
1 Lib. ii. ck 5. . * AW. Quad. vii. 10.
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
230 ZOOLOGT. [Pact IL
The number of known British fishes ma; be safely assumed
to be less than 250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr.
Cantor's valuable work on Malayan fishes enumerates not more
than 238, while Dr. Russell has figured only 200 from Coro-
niandeL Even the enormous area of the Chinese and Japanese
seas has as yet not yielded 800 species of fishes.
The large extent of the collection aloue, then, renders it of
great importance ; but its value is immeasurably enhanced by
two circumstances, — the first, that every drawing was made
while the fish retained all that vividness of colouring which be-
comes lost so soon after its removal from, its native element ;
second, that when the sketch was finished its subject was care-
fully labelled, preserved in spirits, and forwarded to England,
so that at the present moment the original of every drawing
can be subjected to anatomical examination, and compared with
already named species.
Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the
collection is one of the most valuable in existence, and might,
if properly worked out, become a large and secure foundation
for all future investigation into the ichthyology of the Indian
Ocean.
It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the
novelty or otherwise of the species and genera figured without the
study of the specimens themselves, as the specific distinctions of
fish are for the most part based upon character; the fin-rays,
teeth, the operculum, &c, which can only be made out by close
and careful examination of the object, and cannot be represented
in ordinary drawings however accurate.
There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family traits
are so marked as to render it almost impossible to mistake even
their portraits, and hence I may venture, without fear of being
far wrong, upon a few remarks as to the general features of the
ichthyological fauna of Ceylon.
In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of fishes
belong to the cod tribe. I have not found one represented in
these drawings, nor do either Russell or Cantor mention any
in the surrounding seas, and the result is in general har-
mony with the known laws of distribution of these most useful
of fishes.
On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tun-
nies, the bonitos, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &c, which form
not more than one sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but which are
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.] FISHES OF CETLON. 281
known to increase their proportion in hot climates, appear in
wonderful variety of form and colour, and constitute not lees
than one fifth of the whole of the species of Ceylon fish. In
Russell's catalogue they form less than one fifth, in Cantor's less
than one sixth.
Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the
continent of Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country,
constitute one twentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell's and
Cantor's lists they form about one thirtieth of the whole.
The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish
fauna. They constitute about one tenth or one eleventh of
Russell's and Cantor's lists, while among these Ceylon drawings
I find not more than twenty, or about one thirtieth of the whole,
which can be referred to this group of fishes. It must be ex-
tremely interesting to know whether this circumstance is owing
to accident, or to the local peculiarities of Colombo, or whether
the fauna of Ceylon really is deficient in such fishes.
The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the propor-
tion of the tribe of flat fishes, or PleurtmectidcB. Soles, turbots,
and the like, form nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both
Cantor and Russell give the flat fishes as making one twenty-
second part of their collection, while in the whole 600 Ceylon
drawings I can find but five PleuronectidcB.
When this great collection has been carefully studied, I
doubt not that many more interesting distributional facts will
be evolved.
Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the drawings
in question have been submitted to Dr. Gray, of the British
Museum. That eminent naturalist, after a careful analysis, has
favoured me with the following memorandum of the fishes they
represent, numerically contrasting them with those of China and
Japan, so far as we are acquainted with the ichthyology of
those seas : —
ChlDiud
LophobranchiL
Bjngoathida .
. . 2
^WA
CjclopodL
■ '•
Tlegtognathi.
cyclopteridn .
oyGoogIe
'*
Ojlun. Japu.
calliooyinidK .
0 ... 7
nranoscopidis .
0
7
(1
trigliito . ■ .
polyneraida .
midlid* . .
11
37
13
1
3
7
bcrjcidiB . .
u
0
IS
6
■illafnmrin
8
in
13
tusaimlmidffl ,
I
13
•errmmdE . .
H\
38
theraponida .
H
30
cirrhitidjo . .
0
3
numudin . .
ar
39
II
17
acuithnrido .
6
chietodontidB .
H)
31
iistaloridsi
8
Periodophaiyngi.
njuKiiidsi . .
„
j
UDHbuntidiB
15
pomacentridre .
10
11
Ceylon
Pharyngo
■combereaocidie . 13 . . • 6
bleauiidM . . . 3 ... 8
Scomberiaa.
Eddn ... . 0 . . .3
■phjnBuidB . . S . • < *
Komberid*} . 118 ... 63
xiphiidm ... 0 ... 1
"ipotidJa ... 0 ... 5
. &tMEOide«! . . 6 . . . 3!
eilaridfe . . . 31 . ■ .34
cypriQidJB . . . 19 . . .33
■copelinidn . . 3 . . . 7
ealmonidiB . . . 0 . . .1
clupeidffi . . . 43 . . .33
gatiidm .... 0 . . .3
macmrida. . . I . . .. 0
angnillida . . . 8 ... IS
mnnenids ... S ... 6
... 10
oyGoogIc
CHAP. V.
CONCHOLOGT, ETC.
I. THE SHELLS OF CETLOIT,
Allusion has been made elsewhere to the profusion and
variety of shells that abound in the seas and inland
waters of Ceylon1, and to the habits of the Moormen,
who monopolise the trade of collecting and arranging them
in satin-wood cabinets for transmission to Europe. But,
although naturalists have long been familiar with the
marine testacea of the island, no successful attempt has
yet been made to form a classified catalogue of the species ;
and I am indebted to the eminent conchologist, Mr. Syl-
vanus Hanley, for the list which accompanies this notice.
In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it
a task of more difficulty than would at first be surmised,
owing to the almost total absence of reliable data from
which to construct it Three sources were available : col-
lections formed by resident naturalists, the contents of the
well-known satin-wood boxes prepared at Trincomalie,
and the laborious elimination of locality from the habitats
escribed to all the known species in the multitude of works
on conchology in general
But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious.
There is no large collection in this country composed ex-
clusively of Ceylon shells ; — and as the very few cabinets
rich in the marine treasures of the island have been
filled as much by purchase as by personal exertion, there
is an absence of the requisite confidence that all professing
» See VoL II. ch. it. p. 474
n^i^Google
234 ZOOLOGY. " [Paw II.
to be Singhalese have been actually captured in the island
and its waters.
The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though
professing to contain the productions of Ceylon, include
shells which have been obtained from other islands in the
•Indian seas ; and books, probably from these very circum-
stances, are either obscure or deceptive. The old writers
content themselves with assigning to any particular
shell the too-comprehensive habitat of " the Indian
Ocean," and seldom discriminate between a specimen
from Ceylon and one from the Eastern Archipelago or
Hindustan. In a very few instances, Ceylon has been
indicated with precision as the habitat of particular
shells, but even here the views of specific essentials
adopted by modern conchologists, and the subdivisions
established in consequence, leave us in doubt for which
of the described forms the collective locality should be
retained.
Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in de-
tached papers, in periodicals, and in the scientific surveys
of exploring voyages. The authentic facts embodied in
the monographs of Reeve; Kuster, Sowerby, and Kiener,
have greatly enlarged our knowledge of the marine
testacea; and the land and fresh-water mollusca have
been similarly illustrated by the contributions of Benson
and Layard in the Annals of Natural History.
The dredge has been used but only in a few insulated
spots along the coasts of Ceylon ; European explorers
have been rare ; and the natives, anxious only to secure
the showy and saleable shells of the sea, have neglected
the less attractive ones of the land and the lakes. Hence
Mr. Hanley finds it necessary to premise that the list
appended, although the result of infinite labour and re-
search, is less satisfactory than could have been wished.
" It is offered," he says, " with diffidence, not pretending
to the merit of completeness as a shell-fauna of the island,
but rather as a form, which the zeal of other collectors
may hereafter elaborate and fill up."
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Chap. V.] • SHELL3. 235
Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared
with the vast and almost untried field which invites
explorers, an assiduous collector may quadruple the
species hitherto described. The minute shells especially
may be said to be unknown ; a 'vigilant examination of
the corals and excrescences upon the spondyli and pearl-
oysters would signally increase our knowledge of the
Bissose, Chemnitziffi, and other perforating testacea,
whilst the dredge from the deep water will astonish the
amateur by the wholly new forms it can scarcely fail to
display.
Dr. Kelaart, an indefatigable observer, has recently under-
taken to investigate the Nudibranchiata, Inferobranchiata,
and Tectibranchiata ; and a recently-received report from
him, in the Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Eoyal
Asiatic Society, in- which he has described fifty-six
species, — thirty-three belonging to the genus Doris
alone, — gives ample evidence of what may be expected
from the researches of a naturalist of his acquirements and
industry.
List of Ceylon Shells.
The arrangement here 'adopted is a modified Lamarckian one,
very similar to that used by Reeve and Sowerby, and by Mb.
Hamlet, in hie Illustrated Catalogue of Recent Shells.1
1 Below will be found a general
reference to the Works or Papers in
'which are. given descriptive notices
of the shells contained in the follow-
ing list ; the names of the authors (in
full or abbreviated) being, as usual,
annexed to each species.
Adams, Proceed. Zooi. Soc. 1863,
64, 66; Thaaur. CowJ,, Albebs,
Zetttch. Malabo. 1863. Anton,
Wiegm. Arch. Not. 1837 ; Veneichn.
Conch. Bbci in Pfeiffer, Symbol
Bdic. Benson, Asm. Nat. But. vii.
]g51(xii.l853;xTiii.l866.. Blaim-
villb, Diet. 8c. Nat. f Nouv. Aim.
Mm. Bid. Nat. i. Boltek, Mm.
Bobn, Tat. Mm. Cms. VnuL Beodk-
Kip, Zool. Jowm. i. iii. Bruquie&E,
Ency. Method. Vers. Carpenter,
Prix:. Zool. Sec. 1856. Chemnitz,
Conch. Cab. Chebtj, lUm. Conch.
Dbsha teb, JEnoyc. Mtth. Vers. ; Mag.
Zool 1831; Voy. Be/anger; Edit.
Lam. An. I. Vert. ,- Proceed. Zool
Sbc. 1853, 54, 55. Dtllwtm, Deter.
Cat. Shells. Dohbn, Proc. Zool Soc.
1867, 68; Mahk. Blotter i Land and
Fluviatile Shells of CeyUm. DuCLOS,
Monog. of Oliva. Fabbichts, m
Pfeiffer Monog. Belie. : in Dohnt's
MS& .Fbbusbao, Bist. MoUmgues.
i'onsslL, Anim. Orient. Gmeum,
oyGoogIc
236
Aspergillum Jaranum, Brag. Eoc. Met.
spars um, Snverbg, Gen. Shells.1
clavatam, Ckcnu, Bluet. Conch.
Teredo nucivorus, Spengi. Ski. Nat.
Sela.*
Solon truncatas, Wcax^ Gen. Conch.
linearis, Wo«i Gen. Conch.
Cultellus, Linn. Syst Nat.
radiatus, Xc'm. Sjst. Nat.
Anatina suhrostrata, Loinarck, Anim. s.
Vert
Aoatinella Nicobarics, Gnt. Syit Nat
Lutraria Egyptiaea, Cham. Conch. Cab. -
Blainrillea vitreB, Chemn. Conch. Cab.*
Scrobicularia angnlata, Chemn. Conch.
Cab.*
Mactra complanata, Deehaytt, Proc.
Zool. Soc*
tnmida, dam. Conch. Cab.
antiquato, Beeue (as of Spengler~),
Conch. Icon.
cygnca, Cham. Conch. Cab.
CorbicnJoides, Duhaytt, Proc. ZooL
Soc. 1854.
Mcaodcsrua Lay&rdi, Duhaya, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1SS4.
-0OT.« tPawtt
striata, CAeran. Conch. Cab.'
Crasaatella rostrata, Lam. Anim. i
Vert.
sulcata. Lam. Anim. s. Vert
Amphideuna duplkatum, Soverbg.
Species Conch.
Pandora Cey l&nica, Sotperoy, Conch. Mil.
Galeomina Layardi, Dethai/a, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 183S.
Kellia pecnliaris, idaMli, Pine. ZooL
Soc 1858.
Fetricola cultellus, Dt&haya, Proc ZooL
Soc. 18S3.
Swiguinolaria rosea, Ltm. Anim. s.Vun.
Psammobia rostrata, Lam. Anim. a. Veil,
occidena, Gm. Systems Natnm.
Skinneri, Brent, Conch. Icon.*
Layardi, Dea*. P. Z. Soc 1854.
lnnulata. Desk. P. Z. Soc 1854.
amtthyBtua, Wood, Gen. Conch.'
rugoaa. Lam. Anim. a. Vert*
Tellina riryaia, Linn. Syst. Nat.1*
rugosa, Bom, Test. Hus. CsE*. Vinci,
oatracea. Lam. Anim. s. Vert
ala, Hatdey, Thesanr. Couch. L
iuicoualia, Hanlaf, Thesanr. Conch, i.
1 A. dichotomnm, Chen*.
' Fiatulana greeata, Lam.
' Blainrilles, Hapt.
* LatrarU tellinoides, Lam.
* I have also seen M. hiani of Philippi
a Ceylon collection.
' M.lmpTt&a.'nwuiM, Index TetLSwpjJ.
' Faammotella Skinneri, Reeve.
* P. CKnileaeena, Lam.
* Sangumolaria rngoaa, Lam.
" T. striatula of Lamarck ia also
supposed to be indigenous to Ceylon.
Sytt. Nat. GRAY, Proc. Zool Soc.
1834, 62: index Tedaceologicu*
Suppl ; SptcUegia Zool. ; Zool. Journ.
h ; ZooL Beechey Voy. GbATBLOPP,
Act. Loot. Bordeaux, iL Gtjebiit,
Bev. Zool 1847. Hamlet, Theeaur.
Conch, i. ; Becent Bivalves ; Proc.
Zool Soc. 1858. Hinds, Zool. Voy.
Sulphur ; Proc. Zool Soc. Htttton,.
Journ. As. Soc. Ka&STEN, Mux. Leak.
Kienkr, Coqtatlet Vivantei. Kbauss,
Sud-Afrik MoBuek. Laharck, An.
tans VerUb. Layard, Proc. Zool
Soc. 1864. Lka, Proceed. Zool. Soc.
1860. LntHiOTa, Syrt. Nat. Mar-
Tim, Conch. Cab. Mawx, Introd,
Linn. Conch. ; Index. Ted. Suppl.
Mettbchem, in Oronov. Zoophylae.
Menxe, Synap. Mollue. MlTLLEB,
Hid. Verm, Terred. Petit, Pro.
Zool Soc. 1842. Ptbiffeb, Money .
Hclic. l Motioy, Pneumon. ; Proceed.
Zeitech, Mai. 1840, 47 ; Ahbild. Nem
Conch. PonEzetMiCHAiTD, Galeric
JJquai. Rako, Mag. ZooL aer. i.
p. 100. Rbcluz, Proceed. Zool See.
1846 ; Revue Zool. Cm: 1841 ; Mag.
Conch. Reeve, Conch. Icon. : Proc
Zool Soc. 1842, 62. Schtthacbxb,
Syd. SflUTTT.KWORTH. SuLAKDKB, ill
DiUm/n'e Detc. Cat. SheBe. Sowebby,
Genera Shells ; Specie* Conch, ; Conch.
Mite, i Thetaur. Conch. ; Conch, tlha. :
Proc. Zool Soc. i App, to Ttmkemilk
Cat. Bpenoles, Skrivt. Nat SAt.
Kiobenhav. 1702. Swaiksoh, Zool
Ittud. ser. ii. Templetoh, Ann.
Nat. Hid. 18&a Tbosohzx, in
Pfeifer, Mm. Pneami Ztihchr.
Mubk. 1847; Wiegm, Arch. JVbt
1837. Wood, General Conch, •
oyGoogIc
i, Dahaya, P. Z. Soc 1854.
robin, Dethayet, P. Z. Soc 1854.
abbreviate Dethayet, P. Z. Soc 1854.
foliates, Linn. Systran* Natural.
lingna-felis, /.inn. Systenm Nature.
vulsella, CViemn. Conch. Cab.'
Iiucina interrnpta. Lam. Anim. a. Vert*
Layardi, Vcshayu, Proc. Zoo!. Soc
1855.
Donax KDmn, iimt. Syst. Nat.
cuneata. Linn. Syat. Nat
faba, CJsna, Conch. Cab.
spinosa, Gb. Syst Nat.
puxillns, 7(eere, Conch. Icon.
Cyrena Ceylanica, Cham. Conch. Cab.
Tennentii, Hanky, P. Z. Soc. 1858.
Cy there* Erycina, Linn. Syst. Nat.'
mcrctrix, Lain. Syst. Nat.'
castanea, Ztna. Anim. a. Vert.
castrcnsis, Linn. Syst Nat.
casta. Cm. Syst, Nat.
costata, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
beta, da. Syst. Nat.
trimaculata, £ast. Anim. 8. Vert.
Hebrata, ium. Anim. a. VerL
mgifero. Lam. Anim. a. Tart.
scripts, Linn. Syst Nat.
gibbia, Lam. Anim. a Vert.
Meroe, ii"«it Syat Nat
testudinalis. Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
aemiimda, Anion. Wiegm. Arch. Nat.
1837.
Cytherea saminnda, Anion.'
Venus reticulata, Linn. Syst Nat'
pingnis, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
rectus, PAifi/jpi, Abbild.Nener Conch.
thiara, niMa. Descriptive Cat Sheila.
Malabarica, Cham. Conch. Cab.
Bnignieri, Hanky, Becent Bivalves.
pnpilionaeea. Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Iridic*, Soire/iy.Thesunr. Conch. iL
inflata, Dahaga, Pros. ZboL Soc
leas.*
Ceylonensia, Smeerby, The*. Conch. IL
literals, Linn. Syslema Natures,
textrix, Cham. Conch. Cab.'
Card in m nncdo. Linn. Syst Nat
maculosnni. Wood, Gen. Con.
leneoetomnm, Bom, Test. Mus. Cass.
Vind.
IAS. 2S7
rngoanm, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
biradiatam, Bivguiert, Encyc. Mflh.
Vers,
artonnatnin, Sotcerby, Conch. Blast,
enoda, Smetrby, Conch. Olnst
papyraeeum, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
rinycnlum, Sowerby, Conch. Illaat.
subnigoBum, Sowerby, Conch. Illnit.
latum. Bom, Teat Mus. Cm Vind.
Asiaticum, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
Cardiia variegata, Bruauitr*, Encyc
Method. Vera.
bieolor, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Area rhombca. Bom, Test Mna.
vellicata. Bean, Conch. Icon.
crnciata, Phitippi, Ab. Nener Conch.
decussata, Btme (as of Sowerby),
Conch. Icon.'
Kapha, Meiuchen, in Gronov. Zoo.
Pectnnculns nodosoa^e«n,Conch.Ioon.
pectiuiformis, Lam. Anim. ■. Vert.
Nncnla mitralis, Hindt, Zool.Toy.SnL
Layardi, Adami, Proc. ZooLSoc r856.
Nncnla Manritii (Hanlty as of Hindi),
Becent Bivalves.
TJnio comipcatufl, MaBtr, Hist Verm.
Ter.»
marginalia, Lam. Anim. b. Vert
Lithodomus cinnamonens. Lam. Anim.
•.Vert.
Mytilns viridis, Linn. Syat Nat"
bilocolaris, Linn. Syst Nat
Pinna inflata, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
caneellata, Matoe, Inir. Lin. Conch.
Mallens vulgaris. Lam. Anim. s. Vert
albns, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
Meleagrina margaritiferaysuRM.Syst.Nat
vexUlnm, Reeve, Conch. Icon.'*
Avicula macroptera, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
Lima squamosa. Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Pecten plica, Linn. Syst Nat
pallium, Linn. Syst Nat
senator. Cm. Syst Nat
histrionicus, Gn\. Syat Nat
1 Indicus, Dahaya, Voyage Belanger.
Layardi, Reese, Conch. Icon.
Spondylns Layardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
candidns, Reeve (as of Lam.) Conch.
1 T. rostrsta, Lam.
1 L-diraricataio found, also, in mixed
Ceylon collections.
1 C diapar of Chemnitz is occasionally
found in Ceylon collections.
* C. impndica, Lam.
■ As Donax. '
• V. corfais. Lam.
. * As Tapes.
■ V. textile. Lam.
' 7 Area Helblingii, Chemn.
" Mr. Coming informs mu that he
has forwarded no less than six. distinct
Unionta from Ceylon to Isaac Lea of
Philadelphia for determination or de-
11 M. smaragdintu, Chemn.
" At Avicula.
DolzcdoyGoOglc
Oetrea liyotit, Linn. Syst. Nat.
glancina. Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
Mytiloides, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
cuculklap vat. Born. Test Mas.
Vind.<
Vulsella Pholadiformin, Stan, Conch.
Icon, (immature). a
Placnna placenta, iinn. Syat. Nat.
Unguis aualina, Jjtm. Anim. a. Vert
Hyalssa tridemata, Far, Anim. Orient.*
Chiton, 2 species (Layard).
Patella Reynandii, Dethat/tt,Voj. Be.
tcatudinaria, Zina. Syst. Nat. *
Emarginula fissurata, Chmm. Conch.
Cab.'Zaw.
CalTptnaa (Cracibulnm) Tiolasccns,
Carpenter, Proc ZooL Son. 1856.
Dentalinm octogonum, Zuia. Anim. ».
Vert.
aprinum, Linn. Syst Vat.
Bulla, aoluta, CW*. Conch. Cab.'
Tcxillum, Cham. Conch. Cab.
Bruguieri, Adam, Thea. Conch.
elongata, -4ifo™», Thea. Conch.
ampulla, Lrnn. Syst. Mat.
Lamellaria (as Harsenia Indies, Leach.
in Brit. Mas.) allied to L. Mauri-
Vaginola maculate, Tempi, An. Nat
Umax, 2 ap.
Pannacella Tennentii, Tempi*
Vitrina irradions, Pfiifftr, Mon. llelic.
Edgariana, Benton, Ann. Nat. Hilt
1B53 (xiL)
membranacea, Benton, AnnaL Nat
Hist 1803 (xii.)
Helix hsamastoma, Linn. Syst Nat
•ittata,3Ti^,VerminmTerrestrium.
btitrialia. Beck, in Pfeiffer, Symbol.
Helic.
Tranquebarica, Fabriciut, in Pfeiff.
Monog. Helic.
Juliana, Gray, Proc ZooL Hoc. 1834.
Walton i, iteetv, Proc ZooL Boc. 1842.
Skinncri, Reeve, Conch- Icon. vii.
corylus. Reeve, Conch. Icon, viL
umbrina, { Reeve, tSoiPfiiff,\ Conchf
lallacioaa, Fetuuae, Hiat Molina.
UWolii, Dtthaytt, Eno. Meth. Vera. ii.
Charpentieri, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic
erronea, Albert, ZciUchr. MaL 1853.
Cameula, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
Chenni, Pfiiff. Monog. Helic
, _ , Pfiiff Monog. Helic.
superba, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic
Ce j lanica, Pfiiff- Monog. Helic
Gardneri, Pfeiff. Monog. llelic.
concaYoepira, Pfiiff. Monog. H<
novella, Pfiiff. Monog. Helic
pHjuui, rjeijj. nuoug. nencr,
builiata, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic,
Isabcllina, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Soc.
trifiloaa, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Soc 1854.
politissima, Pfiiff. Proc. ZooL Soc
1854.
Thwaiteaii, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Soc
1854.
ncpos, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Soc 186S.
aubopaca, Pfeiff. Proc, ZooL Soc
1853.
snbeonoidea, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Boc
1854.
ceraria, Benson, Annals Nat Hist
1853 (xii.)
rilipenaa. Bam, Ann. Nat, Hiat
1853 (xii.)
perfucata, Benton, Ann, Nat Hiat
1853 (xii.)
puteolna, Benton, Ann. Nat Hiat
1853 (xiL)
tnononema, Benton, Ann. Nat Hiat
1863 (xii.)
marcida, Benton, Ann. Nat Hiat
1853 (xii.)
gelerus, Benton, Ann, Nat Hist
1856 (zviii.)
albizonaia, Dohn, Proc Zool. Soc
185B.
1 The specimens are not in a fitting
state for positive determination. They
are strong, extremely narrow, with the
beak of the lower valve much produced,
and the inner edge of the upper valve
denticulated throughout The muscular
inipreasiona arc dusky brown.
' As Anomia,
' The fissurata of Humphreys and
Dacosta, pL 4.— E. rubra, Lamarck.
• B. Ceylanica, Brug.
■ P. Tennentii. "Greyish brown, wiib
longitudinal rows of rufous spots, form-
ing interrupted bands along the sides.
A singularly handsome species, baring
similar habits to Litnax. Found in the
valleys of the KaLmy Ganga, near
Haanwcl!0."-.-7e>si>/e<<ni MSS,
oyGoogIc
Chap. T-3 BH
Niotneri, DrJm, MS. '
GreYillei,Jy«>0,.Proc ZooL Soc 1836.
Streptaxis Layardi, Pftiff. Mon. Helic -
Cingnlentis, P/i:i(£ Monog. Helic.
Pupa rnuscerda, Benton, Anna! a Hal
,__riiL)
Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic
Balima* trifkscUta*, Brag, Encycl.
Meth. Van.
putlog, Graff, Proc ZooL Soc. 1834.
gracilis, Huttnt, Joura. Aliat Soc iii.
punrlatns. Anion, Verieich n. Conch.
CeylanicBn,Pfaff. (? Rise™, Gray, in
Index Tcataceologicus.)
adumbratnn, Pftiff. Monog. Helic
intermedins, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic
Mavortiiu, Reeve, Conch- Icon,
fnscorentris, Bourn, Aon. Nat. Hist
1 80S (xriii.)
rufopictus, Benton, Ann. Nat. Hiat
1836 (xviii)
panes, Benton, Ann. Nat. Hilt. 185.1
Achutina nitons. Gray, Spicilegia ZooL
inornate, Pftiff. Monog. Helic.
capilUcea, Pfeiff. Monog. Hetic.
Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
Punctogallaiia, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
puchjcheila, Beaton,
vernina. Bent. Ann. Nat. Hut. 1853
(xU.)
parabilis. Bent. Ann. Nat Hut. 18S6
Soccinc* Cejlanica, Pftij^.Monog.Eolic.
Aaricula Cejlanica, id™, Proc. Zool.
Soc 1854."
Cejlanica, Peiii, Proc Zool Soc.1842.*
L*J aii.\,Adawa, Proc Zool. Soc. 1 85*. '
pellncenx, Matkt, Synopsis Moll.
Pythia Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Zeiuchc. Ma-
lacca. 1853.
orata, Pfeiff. Proc Zool. Soc 18S4.
TrnncateUa. Ccylanlca, Pfeiff. Proc
ZooL 8oc*1836.
CycloMoma (Cyclopnorut) Ceylanicum,
Somerby, Thes.' Conch,
inrolvnlam. Miller, Verm. Terrest.
Menkeanom, Philippi, Zeitsch. MaL
alabaurnm, Pftiff. Monog. Pnenmon.
Bairdii, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
Tbwaitcsii, Pftiff. Monog. Pnenmon.
annulatnm, troscllel, in Pfeiff. Moil.
Pnenmon.
parapsis, Bene. Ann. Nat. Hilt 1853
(xii)
psnna. Bent. Ann. Nat Hist 1836
(xriii.)
cratera. Bent. Ann. Nat Hist 1838
(xviii.)
(Leptopama) balophilnm, Benton, Ann.
Nat Hist (ter. a. vii.) 1851.
orophilnm, Bent. Annals Nat Hilt
(ser. 8. xl.)
apicutum. Bent Ann. Nat Hist 1858
(xriii.)
conulns, Pftiff- Free ZooL Soc. 1 854.
□ammeum, Pftiff. Monog. Pnenmon.
sera idaoBU m, Pftiff. Monog. Pnenmon .
pcecilnm, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
elatum, Pfeiff. Monog. Paeamon.
Itieri, Gueri*. Be v. ZooL 1847.
helicinnm, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
Hoffraeisteri, Trotchei, Zeitscbr. MaL
1847.
grande, Pftiff, Monog. Pneumon.
spberoideum, Dohrn, Malak, Blatter.
(?) gradatum, Pftiff. Monog. Pneiisa.
Cycloatoma (Fterocyciot).
Cingalense, Bent. Ann. Nat Hist.
TroKheli,£«u.Ann. Nat Hist 1631.
Cnmingii, Pftiff. Monog. Pneumon.
bifrons, Pfeiff. Monog. Itoenmon. "
Cataulai Teni pieman \, Pfeiff. M on. Pneu.
eurjtrema, Pftiff. Proc ZooL Soc
1851.
marginatum, Pfeiff. Proc Zool. Soc.
1853.
duphcmas.Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc 1 834.
aureus, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Soc. 18S5.
Layardi, Gray, Proc ZooL Soc 1833.
Anstenianus, Bent, Ann. Nat Hist
* 1853 (xii.)
Thwaileaii, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Soc
1B6S.
Cnmingii, Pftiff. Proc.Zool. Soc 1838.
decorua, Bens. Ann. Nat Hist 1853.
hssmastoma, Pfeiff. Proc ZooL Soc
1838.
PlanorbU Corotnaadelianna, Fabric, in
Z>«-An'»M3.
Not far from bistrialis and Cey -
!■»■=«- The manuscript species of Mr.
Dohrn will shortly appear in his intended
work upon the land and nnviatile shells
ofCejW.
'As K! labium.
'As Melampns.
' As Ophicardelis.
oyGoogIc
840 ZOO]
StebcnerlJfefe^ProcZooLSoc. 1 858.
nlegantulns, Dohrn, Proc Zool. Soc.
1658.
Limn tea tigrina, Point, Proc Zool. Soc
18S8.
pinguis, .DoAra, Pioc ZooL Soc 1858.
Melnnia taberculata, MHitr, Verm.
Ter.'
Bpinnloaa, Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
corrugate, lain. Anim. b. Vert,
rudia. Lea, Froc Zool Soc. 1850.
acanthica. Lea, Proc ZooL Soc 1850.
Zejlanica, Lea, Proc ZooL Soc 1850.
% confoae,.Doini,ProcZoo].Socl858.
datura, Dohrn, Proc ZooL Soc 1858.
Layardi, 7>oA™, Proc Zool. Soc 18S8.
Palndomna abbreviatna, Sem, Proc.
Zoo). Soc 1859.
clavatM, Reeve, Proc ZooL Soc. 1853.
dilatatna, Reeve.Froc ZooL Soc 1852.
globuloena, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
deenssatus , Jfe«w,Proc- Zoo] .Soc 1 8 52 .
nigricans, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
coiiatricms, Reeve, Proc ZooL Soc
1852.
bicinc(ua,ifcr»,Proc ZooL Soc.1852.
ea«iar,rnus,ff««,ProcZool.So.l852.
vis, Layard, Proc Zool. Soc 1854.
psliifllris, Zayard, Proc Zool. So. 1854.
fulgunHu»,Z)oAm,l'roc.Zool.So.]857.
QMUtua, Uukni, Proc. ZooL Soc. 1857.
ipttfericm,DoAni, Proc Zool. So.1857.
6olinuB,.Z>on™, Proc Zool. Soc 1857.
dutinguendna, Dohr n, Proc ZooL Soc
1857.
Qumiiigi anna, Dohrn, Proc ZooL Bop.
1857.
dromedariua, Dohrn, Proc ZooL Soc.
1897.
Ski nneri.DoAm, Proc ZooL Soc 1857.
Swttim,oni,Uo7iniTProc. Zool. So.1857.
noduIoina,DoArH,Proc.ZooLSo.l857.
Palndomna ( Ttinalia).
lorlcatna. Reeve, Conch. Icon.
ei'maceus, Reevt, Proc Zool. Soc.1852.
areas. Reeve, Proc ZooL Soc 1852.
Layardi, Reeve, Proc ZooL Soc 1 852.
Dndatna, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
Gardner], Retire, Conch. Icon.
. Tennentii, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
. Kee»ei, Laoar4, Proc. ZooL Soc 1854.
TiolacEOi, Layard, Proc ZooL So. 1 8 54.
aimilii, Layard, Proc ZooL 8oc 1854.
(uuieulatue, Layard, Proc ZooL Soc
1854.
Palndomna < Pkilopotamu).
mlcatna. Reeve, Conch. Icon.
nfalb,, layard, Proc. ZooL Soc 1954.
Thwaitesii, Layard, Proc ZooL Soc
1854.
Pirena atra. Lino. Systems Natnnc
Palndina melanoatoma, Bent.
Ceylanrca.noArn, ProcZooLSo. 1S57.
Bythinia, ■tenothyroidea, Dohr*, Proc
ZooL Soc 1857.
modesta, Dohrn, MS.
inconspicua, Dohrn, Proc Zool. Soc.
1857.
Ampul laria Layardi, Reeve, Conch, [cod,
mcBBta, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
cinerea, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
Woodwardi, Dokm, Proc. ZooL Soc
1898.
Tuchbcini, Dohrn, Proc. ZooL Soc
1858.
carinata, Svanaon, ZooL Ulna. ser. 2.
paludinoidet, Cat- Crittofori $ Jan.'
Halubarira, Phrfippi, maaog. Ampul.'
Lnzonica, Reeve, Conch. Icon.*
Sum&treatUtPkilippi, monog. Ampul.*
Navicella esimia, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
reticulata, Reese, Conch. Icon.
LiTeuyi.ZfeAnt, Proc Zool. Soc] 818.
tquamata, Dohr*, Proc. Zoo). So. 1858.
deprcaaa. Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
Neritina crepidnlaria. Lam. Anim. a.
Vert.
melanostoma, Troschd, Wiiigm. Arch.
Nat. 1837.
triaerialis, Sowerby, Cooch. Itlnatr.
Colombaria, Reciutf Proc ZooL Soc
1845.
Perottetiana, Redux, Berne ZooL
Cutler, 1841.
_ \exnan\s,Reciui,
LajardL Reeve, Conch.
roatrata. Reeve, Couch. Icon.
reticulata, Smotrby, Conch. Ulnatr.
Nerila plicala, Lin*. System* Natunc
costata, Ckenn. Conch. Cab.
plena, Cheam. Conch. Cab.'
Nation aqraiitia, Loat, Anim. a. Vert.
mammilla, Linn. Systema Nature.
picta. Reeve (aa of Reclui), Conch,
arachnoidea, Gm, Syitema Natural
lineata. Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
adnata, Cham. Conch. Cab. f. 1926-7,
and Karilen.1
pell is- tigrina, Kartten, Mna. Leak.1
1 M. faadolata, Olivier.
1 Theaa four apedea are included on
the authority of Mr. Dobm.
' N. cxutIb, Lam. not Linn.
* Conch. Cab. f. 1926-7, and N. >.
lanostoma, Lam. In part.
' Cbeun. Conch. Cab. 1893-3.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
didjTrm, Bolton, Mas.1
Isnthina prolongata, Blaine. Diction.
communis, Krattte (aa of Lamarck, in
part) Snd-Afi-ik. MoUnsL .
Sigaretoa. A species (possibly JaTanicna)
is known to have been col-
lected. I have not seen it
Stomatella csliiostoma, Adant, Thenar.
Conch.
Holiotia Tuia, Linn. Syatema Natone.
Striata, Martini (as of Linn.), Conch.
Cab. L
temistriata. Reeve, Conch. Icon.
Tornatella ml i d ula, Linn. Systems. Nat
Pyramiddla maculosa. Lion. Anim. a.
Vert.
Eulima Martini, Adam; Then. Conch, it
Siliqnarin muricsla, Bern, Tost. Mus.
Csas. Vind.
Scalariararicostata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
Ddphimila laciniata^Lara-Anim. a, Vert.
distorts, Linn. Syst, Nat.'
Solarium pcrdix. Hinds. Proc Zool. Soc.
I.ayiu-di, Adams, Proc Zool.SDc.18S4.1
Rotella TCEtiaria, Lin*. Syst. Nat.
Phonis pallidulus, lire i-e. Conch. Icon. i.
Trochos elegantulus. Gray, Index Tea.
Niloticna, Linn. Syst. Nat
Monodonta labio, Linn. Syst. Nat
canalicnlata. Lam. Anim, a. Vert.
Turbo Tenjcolor, Om. Syst Nat.
princeps, PSilippL*
Planaxis undalatas, Lam. Anim. ■.Vert.'
Iittorinn an gul if era, Lam. Anim. a, Vert.
rna Ian oetotna. Gray, Zool, BeecLVoj*
Chemnitiialrilinoata, Adawu\Proa,Zool,
Soc. 1853.
TairitclU bacillnm, Kitner, Coqi
coin m n arisrKi>nsr,Coqii illea Vi va
duplicate, Lain. Syst. Nat. m
— enuata. Reeve, Sy~' w ■■*
Ilium fluTi stile, /
Gal eric Doaai.
Layardi (Cerithidea), Adam*, Proc.
Zool. Soc 1854.
poJustre, Lmn. Syst. Nat.
• ' N. glaucina. Lam. not Linn.
1 Not Of Lamarck. D. at r Us, Ret ve.
1 Philippia L.
' Zcit. Mai. 1846 far T. argyroatoma.
Lain, not Linn.
* Bnccmnm pyramidalnm, Gut. in
part: B. aalcalum, tit. C. of Brag.
* Teste Cuming.
VOL. I.
alnco, Zinn. Syat Nat.
nsperam, Linn Syst. Nat
teleicopinm, Linn. Syst. Not
palustre obeliacos, Linn. Syat Nat
fasciatnm, fli-uy. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
rnbn*, Sovxrby (as of Martyn), Thea.
Sowerbyi, Kitner, CoquiUes Virantca
(teste Sir E. Tennent).
Fleurotoms. Indies, JJcthayrt, Voyage
Tjigo, Luu Anim. a. Vert.
Turbinella pyrnm, Linn. Syst Not
rapa, Lam. Anim. a- Vert (the Chant.)
comigera. Lain. Anim. a. Vert,
spirilla*, Linn. Syst Nat
Cancellaxia trigonoatoma. Lam. Anim,
». Vert.'
scalots, Soictrby, Theaanr. Conch.
■ articularis, Sowerby Theaanr, Conch.
L it tori ni form is, -Souxriy. The*. Conch,
contabulata, Sijiwriy, Thea. Conch.
Fasciolaria fUamentosa, Xim. Anim. a.
Vert,
trapexinm, Linn, Syst. Nat
Fusua longissimns, /-am. Anim. a. Vert.
colas, iinn. Mas. Lad. Ulrica).
torenma, Dcehayu, (as Murex t.
Martyn). ed. Lam. Anim. a Vert,
laticoatutus Bahayct, Magus. Zool.
isai.
Blosvdlei, Dahaget, Encycl. Method.
Pyrula rapa, Linn. Syat Nat1
eitriua Lam. Anim. a. Vert
pugilina. Bom. Teat Mus. Vind.'
licus, Linn. Syst. Nat
ficoides. Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Ranella cramem, Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
apinoaa. Lam. Anim. a Vert.
rana, Linn. Syst Nat"
margaritula, Iiakoya,Vaj. Bclangcr.
Murex haostclium, Linn. Syst Nat
aduatua. Lam. Anim. a. Vert,
microphyllns, Lam. Anim. a Vert
anguliferns, Ion. Anim. s. Vert
paTmaroalB, Zoni. Anim. a. Vert.
temispina, Kitner (aa of Lam.), Co-
qaiilea Vi win tea.
tenuispina, iam. Anim. s. Vert,
fcmigo, Moire, Index. Teat. Suppl."
Beevean as, ShattleworlM. teste Chin's jr).
■ Aa Delphinulat
* P. pspyTaeca, £osl In mixed
collections 1 have scan the Chinese P.
bczonr of Lamarck aa from Ceylon.
■ P. Teapertilio, Om.
" R. albiraricosa, llrere.m
" M. angulifenis rar. Lam.
oyGoogIc
Triton anna, Linn, Syat Nat.'
mulus, DUlwgH, Descript Cat. Shells.
return, £<im. Anim. s. Vert.
{mum, i™. Syst Nat
cl«TM»r, Cham. Conch. Cah.
Ceylonenaia, Soioo Ay,Proc ZooL Soc
lotorium, Zjul (not Limn.) Anim. 8.
Vert,
lamps*, Linn. Sjit. Nat
Pterocera Iambi*, lin. Syat. Nat.
miUspeda, Linn. Syat Hat
Strombus caaarinm. Lain. Syat Nat.*
soccinctua, ZiiM. Sj*t Nat.
fascisms font, T««L. Mm. Cna.Vind.
Sibbaldii, Saotrty. Tbeaanr. Conch, t.
lentiginosis, Un SyM. Nat.
maripnatus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
Lsmarcfcii, Soteerby, Theaanr. Conch.
Cassis glauca, iina. Syat Nat.'
canilicolata, Lam. Anita, a. Vert. *
Zeylanica, Lam. Anim. a. Tort.
areola, Xinn. Syat. Nat.
Bicinula albolabria, Blaino. Nouv. Ann,
Mo*. H. N. i.*
horrida, Zulu. Anim. ». Text,
moras, Zjw. Anim. a. Vert.
Purpura fiscells, Cham. Conch. Cab.
Persies, Linn. Syat. Nat
bystrix, Lam. (not Linn.') Anim. i.
Vert.
a. Vert
bufu, Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
carinifem, Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
Harpa couoidalis. Lam. Anim. i. Vert.
minor, Lam. Anim. a. Vert.
Dolinm pomnm, Linn. Syat. Nat
olearium, Lain. Syat Nat
perdix. Limn. Syat. Nat
macnlatum, LunL Anim. a. Vert.
Naaaa ornata, K-emer, Coa. Virantea.*
verrucosa, Brag. EncycL Meth. Vera.
crenulata, Brug. Kr.cjcL Meth. Vera.
olivacca, Bruy. EncycL Meth. Vera.
arm. Encyi
in. 87* Na
arcularia, j
papulosa, Linn. Sjat Nat
Phos rirgatus. Hind*. ZooL 8uL Moll.
retecoaaj, Hinds, ZooL Sulphur, MolL
----- '■ ugjatNat
[Fab
Buccinum rnelaacstoma, Smoaty, Ap[>.
to Tankerr. Cat
erythroatoma, ifeeix. Conch. Icon.
Proteus, Rkw, Conch. Icon.
rubiginosom, Metvt, Conch. Icon.
Eburn* spinita, Linn. Syat Nat*
a. Vert*
Ceylanica, Brugniere, En. Meth. Vera
Bullia rittaia, Linn. Syat Nat
linoolata, Somtrtm, Tankerr. Cat*
Melanoides, Dakota, Voy. Belan.
Terebra chlorata, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
tnaacaria. Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Levigate, Gray, Proc. ZooL Soc 1834.
mucin lata. Lin n. Syat Nat
subulata, Linn. Syat Nat
concinna, Dama/u, ed. Lam. Anim.
a. Ti-ife
myurua, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
tigrina. On. Syat Nat
Ceritbina, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Columbetla flavida. Lam. Anim. a. Vert
fulgnrana, Lam. Anim. B. Vurt
raeudiearia, Linn. Syat Nat
scripta, Lam. Anim. a. Vart( teste Jot).
Milraepiacopalia, J9 [toy*, Descript Cat
Shell*,
cardinalis, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
crebrilirata, fleece, Conch. Icon,
punctostruila, Adam; Proc. ZooL Sot
18S*.
inacolpte, Adam*, Proc. ZooL Soc.
18S+.
Lnyarrt, A daw, Proc ZooL Soc. 1854.'
Voluta TBiillum, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
Lapponiea, Linn. Syat Nat
Meio Indies*, Gm. Syat Nat
Marginalia Sarda, Kiener, Coq. Vi rauie*.
Orutum ovum, Linn. Syat Nat
verrucosum, Linn. Syat Nat
padicanifAaamt, ProcZool Soc ISSt
Cyprea Argua, Linn. Syat Nat
Arabics, Linn. Syst Nat
Manritians, Linn. Syat Nat
hirnndn, Linn. Syat Nat
Lynx^Linn. Syat Nat
asello*, Linn. Syat Nat
eroaa, Linn. Syat Nat
vitellns, Linn. Syat Nat
atolida, Linn. Syat Nat
1 T. cynocephalna of
met with in Ceylon collection*.
* S. iaciaus otihe Index Teataceo-
logicua (urcenn, Tar. Sow. Thrattur.) is
fuund in inised Ceylon collections.
* C. plicaria ofZaimur*, and C. coro-
nnlata of Stnatrbg, are also aaid to be
found in Ceylon.
* Ab Purpura. •
* N. sntoralia, Retet (as of Lam.), a
met with in mixed Ceylon collections.
* E. amolata Lam.
' E. spirata. Lam. not Loot.
* B. Belsmgeri, Kioto:
' Aa Tnrricula L,
oyGoogIc
Our. V.] SHI
Dieppe, Lam. Syat Nat
helTola, Linn. Syst. Nat.
eironea, Linn. Syst Nat.
cribraria, Linn. Syat Nat.
globulus, Linn. Syat Nat,
clandestine, Zinn. SysL Nat
occlliita, Zt*n. Syst Nat.
caurica, lira. Syat. Nat.
tabeacens, Smander, in Diltwjn Descr.
Cat. Shell*.
gangrenosa, So/andtr, in Dillwyn
Dese Cat Shellr.
interrupts, Gray. Zool Jonrn, i.
tentiginosa, Gray, Zool. Jonrn. i.
pyriformis. Gray, Z00L Jonrn. i.
niToaa, Braderip, Zool. Jonrn, iii.
poraria, Zfo a. Syat Nat
testndinaria, Zmn. Synl. Nat
Tercbellam *nbutstnm, Lam. Anim. s. •
Vert
Ancillsria glabrata, Linn. Syat. Nat
Candida, Lam. Anim: 8. Vert
Olira Maura, Zam. Anim. a. Vert
erythroetoma, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
gibboea. Born, Test Mue. Cam.1
nebnlosa, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Macleayana, Duel*, Monograph of
OIlTB.
episcopal!*. Lam. Anim. s. Vert
elegans, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
ispidnU, Lam. Syat Nat (partly).'
Zeilanica, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
■ndata. Lam. Anim. a Vert
insane. Lam. Anim. a. Vert (teste
Dacfat).
Conns miles, Linn. Syat Nat
generalis, Zi'a*. Syat. Nat
betnlinns, Zuui. Syat. Nat
gterens-muaearum, Linn. Syat Nat
Hebrews, Linn. Syat Nat .
rirgo, Linn. Syst. Nat.
geographiens, Linn. Syat Nat
molicus, itaa. Syat. Nat
flgnlinns, Linn. Syst, Nat
atrittus, Zimt. Syst Nat
A conclusion Dot unworthy of observation may be deduced
from this catalogue ; namely, that Ceylon was the unknown, and
hence unacknowledged, source of almost every extra-European
shell which has been described by Linnieus without a recorded
habitat. This fact gives to Ceylon specimens an importance
which can only be appreciated by collectors and the students of
Mollusca. _
senator, Linn. Syst. NaL1
literatim, Linn. Syst Nat
impsrialia, Xiaa. Syst Nat
teasel! ata«,Bwn,Te*t. Mas. Cms. Vind.
Angur, Bruguicrr, EncycL Meth. Vers,
obesas, Bmguieri Encycl. Moth. Vers,
snuieosas, Brug. Encycl. Metb. Ven.
gnbernator, Brag. Encycl. Meth. Vers,
mo nils, Brug. Encycl. M6th. Vera.
nimbostu, Bntg. Encycl. Met h. Vers,
ehurneus, Bmmj. Encycl. Meth. Vera,
yitulinna, Bntg. Encycl. Metb. Vera,
qnercinus, Brno. Encycl. Meth. Vera,
l! vidua, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vert.
Gmaria, Brag. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
MaldiTus, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
noctnrnufc Brag. Encycl. Moth. Vera.
Ceylouensia,iJrBg. Encycl Meth.Vero.
arenatos, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vera.
Nicobericns, Br115.Encycl.Mtth. Vers,
glsna, Brno. Encycl. Meth. Vers.
Amadla, Cktmn. Conch. Cab.
ponctatna, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
minimus, Jfenw (fit ol Linn.), Conch'.
terminus, Lam, Anim. a. Vert
lineatus, Ch/mm. Conch. Cab.
' episcopua, Brug. Encycl. Mi'th. Vers.
Tcn-iculum, Retot, Conch. Cab.
sonatas, Brug. Encycl. Mftb. Vers,
raltns, Brug. Encycl. Muth. Vers.
(teste Chemn,)
Srtueas, Brug. Encycl. Meth. Vera.
nssatella, Linn. Syst Nat
lithoglyphus, Brug. En. Meth. Vers.'
tnlipa, Linn. Syat. Nat
Aromiralis. Tar. Linn, teste Brag.
Spirula Feronii, Lam. Anim. a. Vert
Sepia Hieredda, Bang, Magna. Zool.
scr. i. p. 100.
Sepiotenthis, Sp.
Loligo, Sp.
1 O. ntricnJaa, DUUeyn. 1
' C. planorbis. Born ( C. nlpintts,
■ Conns ermineuj, Born, in part
oyGoogIc
2. BADIATA.
The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated
animals, but it is to be regretted that they have as yet
received but little attention from English naturalists.
Eecently, however, Dr. Kelaart has devoted himself to the
investigation of supine of the Singhalese species, and has
published his discoveries in the Journal of the Ceylon
Branch of the Asiatic Society for 1856-8. Our informa-
tion respecting the radiata on the confines of the island
is, therefore, very scanty ; with the exception of the ge-
nera l examined by him. Hence the notice of this exten-
sive class of animals must be limited to indicating a few
of those which exhibit striking peculiarities, or which
admit of the most common observation.
Star Fish. — Very large species of Ophiurida? are to
be met with at Trincomalie, crawling busily about, and
insinuating their long serpentine arms into the irregu-
larities and perforations in the rocks. To these they
attach themselves with such a firm grasp, especially when
they perceive that they have attracted attention, that it
is almost impossible to procure unmutUated specimens
without previously depriving them of life, or at least
modifying their muscular tenacity. The upper surface
is of a dark purple colour, and coarsely spined ; the arms
of the largest specimens are more than a foot in length,
and very fragile.
The star fishes, with immovable rayss, are by no
means rare ; many kinds are brought up in the nets, or
may be extracted from the stomachs of the larger market
fish. One very large species3, figured by Joinville in
the manuscript volume in the library at the India
House, is not uncommon; it has thick arms, from
1 Actinia, 9 sp. ; Anthea, 4 sp. ; '
Actinodendron, 3 sp. ; DioBcoaoma, |
1 ap. ; l'eecliea, 1 ep. ; Zoanthura,
lsp. I
oyGoogIe
Chap. Vj PARASITIC WOEMS. 246
■which and the disc numerous large fleshy cirrhi of a
bright crimson colour project downwards, giving the
creature a remarkable aspect No description of it, so
far as I am aware, has appeared in any systematic work
on zoology. '
Sea Slugs. — There are a few species of Hohthurice, of
which the trepang is the best known example. It is
largely collected in the Gulf of Manaar, and dried in the
sun to prepare it for export to China.1 A good descrip-
tion and figure of it are still desiderata.
Parasitic Worms.— Oi these entozoa, the Filaria me-
dinensis, or guinea worm, which burrows in the cellular
tissue under the skin, is well known in the north of
the island, but rarely found in the damper districts
of the south and west. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, the
natives attribute its octJurrence to drinking the waters
of particular wells ; but this belief is inconsistent with
the fact that its lodgment in the human body is almost
always effected just above the ankle. This shows ' that
the minute parasites are transferred to the skin of the
leg from the moist vegetation bordering the footpaths
leading to wells. At this period the creatures are
minute, and the process of insinuation is painless and
imperceptible. It is only when they attain to considerable
size, a foot or more in length, that the operation of ex-
tracting them is resorted to, when exercise may have
given rise to inconvenience and inflammation.
PUmaria. — In the journal above alluded to, Dr. Ke-
laart has given descriptions of fifteen species of planaria,
and four of a new genus, instituted by him for the recep-
tion of those differing from the nonflal kinds by some
peculiarities which they exhibit in common. At Point
Pedro,*Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on the bark of
trees, after heavy rain, which would appear to belong to
th» subgenus geoplana?
tail, half-moon -
a grocer's cheese
1 See Vol. IL p. 566. [ a peculiarly ahaped
• " A curious species, which is of shaped, in fact, like
light brown above, white under- [ knife."
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
; very broad and thin, end has j
AeaUpha. — Acalephfle1 are plentiful, so much so,
indeed, that they occasionally tempt the larger cetacea
into the Gulf of Manaar. In the calmer months of the
year, when the sea is glassy, and for hours together
undisturbed by a ripple, the minute descriptions are
rendered perceptible by their beautiful prismatic tint-
ing. So great is their transparency that they are only
to be distinguished from the water by the return of
the reflected light that glances from their delicate and
polished surfaces. Less frequently they are traced by
the faint hues of their tiny peduncles, arms, or ten-
taeniae ; and it has been weO observed that they often
give the seas in which they abound* the appearance of
being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow. The
larger kinds, when undisturbed in their native haunts,
attain to considerable size. %. faintly blue medusa,
nearly a foot across, may be seen in the Gulf of Manaar,
where, no doubt, others of still larger growth are to be
found.
The remaining orders, including the corals, madrepores,
and other polypi, have yet to find a naturalist to under-
take their investigation, but in all probability the species
are not very numerous.
'Jellyfiah.
oyGoogIc
L
CHAP. VL
Owing to the favourable combination of heat, moisture, and
vegetation, the myriads of insects in Ceylon form one of
the characteristic features of the island. In the solitude of
the forests there is a perpetual music from their soothing
and melodious hum, which frequently swells to a startling
sound as the cicada trills his sonorous drum on the sunny
bark of some tall tree. At morning the dew hangs in
diamond drops on the threads and gossamer which the
spiders suspend across every pathway ; and above the
pool dragon-flies, of more than metallic lustre, flash in the
early Bunbeams. The earth teems with countless ants,
which emerge from beneath its surface, or make their de-
vious highways to ascend to their nests in the trees.
Lustrous beetles, with their golden elytra, bask on the
leaves, whilst minuter species dash through the air in
circles, which the ear can follow by the booming of their
tiny wings. Butterflies of large size and gorgeous colour-
ing flutter over the endless expanse of flowers, and
at times the extraordinary sight presents itself of
flights of these delicate creatures, generally of a white
or pale yellow hue, apparently miles in breadth, and of
such prodigious extension as to occupy hours, and even
days, uninterruptedly in their passage — whence coming
no one knows ; whither going no tfne can tell1 As day
1 The butterflies I have Been in
t&eee wonderful migrations in Cey-
lon were mostly Cauidryat Hilana,
C. jUcmecme, and C. Pyranthe, with
straggling individuals of the genua
Eupiaa, E. Cow, and K Prothoa.
Their passage took place in April and
May, generally in a north-easterly
direction.
DomzWoyGoOglc
248 ZOOLOGY. [Pabt II.
declines, the moths issue from their retreats, the crickets
add their shrill voices to swell the din ; and when dark-
ness descends, the eye is charmed with the millions of.
emerald lamps lighted up by the fire-flies amidst the sur-
rounding gloom.
As yet no attempt has been made to describe the insects
of Ceylon systematically, much less to enumerate the pro-
digious number of species that abound in every locality.
Occasional observers have, from time to time, contributed
notices of particular families to the Scientific Associations
of Europe, but their papers remain undigested, and the
time has not yet arrived for the preparation of an Ento-
• mology of the island.
What Darwin remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is
nearly as applicable to the same order of insects in
Ceylon : " The number of minute and obscurely coloured
beetles is exceedingly great ; the cabinets of Europe can
as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only of the larger
species from tropical climates, and it is sufficient to dis-
turb the composure of an entomologist to look forward to
the future dimensions of a catalogue with any pretensions
to completeness." 1 M. Nietner, a German entomologist,
who has spent some years in Ceylon, has recently pub-
lished, in one of the local periodicals, a series of papers
on the Coleoptera of the island, in which every species
introduced is stated to be previously undescribed.2
• Coleoptera. — Buprestidce ; Golden Beetles. — In the
morning the herbaceous plants, especially on the eastern
side of the island, are studded with these gorgeous beedes,
whose golden wing-cases8 are used to enrich the em-
broidery of the Indian zenana, whilst the lustrous joints of
the legs are strung on silken threads, and form necklaces
and bracelets of singular brilliancy.
These exquisite colours are not confined to one order,
< Nat. Journal, p. SO. Is Stemocera Chrysit ; S. e/enn'-
* HepHAyhtdmtheAnn.Nat.Ilitt. J cornie.
oyGoogIe
CaA*..VT.] BEETLES. 2-1D
and some of the Elaterida;1 and Lamellicoms exhibit hues
of green and blue, that rival the deepest tints of the eme-
rald and sapphire.
Scavenger Beetles. — Scavenger beetles 2 are to be seen
wherever the presence of putrescent and offensive matter
affords opportunity for the display of their repulsive but
most curious instincts ; fastening on it with eagerness,
severing it into lumps proportionate to their strength, and
rolling it along in search of some place sufficiently soft in
which to bury it, after having deposited their eggs in the
centre. I had frequent opportunities, especially in tra-
versing the sandy jungles in the level plains to the north
of the island, of observing the unfailing appearance*
of thes» creatures instantly on the dropping of horse
dung, or any other substance suitable for their purpose ;
although' not one was visible but a moment before.
Their -approach on the wing is announced by a loud and
joyous booming sound, as they dash in rapid circles in
search of the desired object, led by their sense of smell,
but evidently little assisted by the eye in shaping their
course towards it In these excursions they exhibit a
strength* of wing and sustained power of flight, such as is
possessed by no other class of beetles with which I
am acquainted, but which is obviously indispensable
for the due performance of the useful functions they
The Coco-nut Beetle. — In the luxuriant forests of*
Ceylon, the extensive family of Longicorns live in de-
structive abundance. Their ravages are painfully fami-
liar to the coco-nut planters.8 The larva of one species
1 Of the family of Elaterida, one
of the finest is a Singhalese species,
the Comjuottenuu Tentpletonii, of an
exquisite golden green colour, with
blue reflections (described and figured
by Mr. Westwood in his Cabinet of
Oriental Entomoloay, pL 36, t 1). In
"■" 1 work la figured another
this is the Alaus sordidut, — West-
WOOD, L c pi. 36, f. 8.
1 Ateuchw toco- ; Capri* tagai- ;
C, capucaua, &c. &c
a There is a paper in the Jbvrn. of
the A'iat. Soetety of Ceylon, May,
1845, by Mr. Cappeb, on the ntvaa-es
perpetrated by these beetles.
species of large size, also from Ceylon, I writer had recently passed through
DomzcdoyGoOglc
250 ZOOLOGY. [far U.
of large dimensions, Batocera rubus1, called by the
Singhalese " Cooroominya," makes its way into the
stems of the younger trees, and after perforating them
in all directions, forms a cocoon of the gnawed wood
and sawdust, in which it reposes during its sleep as a
pupa, till the arrival of the period when it emerges as a
perfect beetle. Notwithstanding the repulsive aspect of
the large pulpy larvae of these beetles, they are esteemed
a luxury by the Malabar coolies, who so far avail them-
selves of the privilege accorded by the Levitical law,
which permitted the Hebrews to eat " the beetle after his
kind."3
• Tortoise Beetles. — There is one family of insects, the
members of which cannot fail to strike the traveller
by their singular beauty, the Cassididce or tortoise
beetles, in which ' the outer shell overlaps the body, and
the limbs are susceptible of being drawn entirely within
it. The rim is frequently of a different tint from the
centre, and one species which I have seen is quite start-
ling from the brilliancy of its colouring, which gives it
the appearance of a ruby enclosed in a frame of pearl ;
but this wonderful effect disappears immediately on the
death of the insect.8
Osthopteha. The Soothsayer. — But the admiration
of colours is still less exciting than the astonishment
created by the forms in which some of the insect families
'present themselves; especially the "soothsayers" (Man-
tida) and " walking leaves." The latter 4, exhibiting
the most cunning of all nature's devices for the preser-
vation of her creatures, are found in the jungle in all
several coco-nut plantations, " vary-
ing in extent from 30 to 160 acres.
and about two to three years old ;
and in these he did not discover a
single young tree untouched by the
cooroominya." — P. 49.
1 Called also B. txio-maculatvt ;
Lamia rubui, Fabr.
1 Leviticus, xL 22,
* One species, the Caesida farinoua,
frequent in the jungle -which sur-
rounded my official residence at San-
dy, is covered profusely with a snow-
white powder, arranged in delicate
filaments, which it moves without
dispersing : hut when dead they mil
rapidly to dust.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. VL] OBTnOFIEBA. Ml
varieties of hue, from the pale yellow of an opening
bud to the rich green of the full-blown leaf, and the
withered tint of decay. So perfect is the imitation in
structure and articulation, that this amazing insect when
at rest is aknoet undistinguishable from the foliage around :
not only are the wings modelled to resemble ribbed and
fibrous follicles, but every joint of the legs is expanded
into a broad plait like a half-opened leaflet
It rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it
. slowly along, and thus the flatness of its attitude serves
still further to add to the. appearance of a leaf. One of
the most marvellous incidents connected with its organi-
sation was exhibited by one which I kept under a glass *
shade on my table ; it laid a quantity .of eggs, that, in
colour and shape, were not to •be discerned from seeds.
They were brown and pentangular, with a short stem,
and slightly punctured at the intersections.
The " soothsayer," on the other hand (Mantis sup,etsti-
tiosa, Fab.1), little justifies by its propensities the appear-
ance of gentleness, and the attitudes of sanctity, which
have obtained for it the title of the "praying mantis." Its
habits are carnivorous, and degenerate into cannibalism,
aa it preys on the weaker individuals of its own species.
Two which I enclosed in a box were both found
dead a few hours after, literally severed limb from
limb in their encounter. The formation of the foreleg
enables the tibia to be so closed on the sharp edge
of the thigh as to amputate any slender substance
grasped within it
1 M. aridifoUa and M. extauicoEit, I and dilatations on the posterior
u well as Emjnwa gongvloida, re- I thighs, are common in the island,
workable for the long leaf-like head, |
oyGoogIe
The Stick-insect — The Phasmidtx or spectres, another
class of orthoptera, present as close a resemblance to
small brandies or leafless twigs as their congeners do
to green leaves. The wing-covers, where they exist,
instead of being expanded, are applied so cloiely to the
body as to detract nothing from its rounded form, and
hence the name which they have acquired of " walking-
sticks." Like the Phyllium, the Phasma lives exclusively
on vegetables, and some attain the length of several
inches.
Of all the other tribes of the Orthoptera Ceylon pos-
sesses many representatives ; in swarms of cockroaches,
grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets.
Neubopteba. Dragori'Jlies.—Oi the Neuroptera, some
of the dragon-flies are* pre-eminently beautiful ; one
species, with rich brown-coloured spots upon its gauzy
wings, is to be seen near every pool.1 Another2, which
dances above the mountain streams in Oovah, and
amongst the liills descending towards Kandy, gleams
in the sun as if each of its green enamelled wings
had been sliced from an emerald.8
The Ant-lion. — Of the ant-lion, whose larva? have
earned a bad renown from their predaceous ingenuity,
Ceylon has, at least, four species, which seem peculiar
to the island.4 This singular creature, preparatory to its
pupal transformation, contrives to excavate a conical pitfall
in the dust to the depth of about an inch, in the bottom
of which it conceals itself, exposing only its open man-
dibles above tb.e surface ; and here every ant and soft-
bodied insect which curiosity tempts to descend, or acci-
dent may precipitate into the trap, is ruthlessly seized and
devoured by its ambushed inhabitant.
1 LibeUula pvIcfcUa. • * Palparet corUrariut, "Walker ;
1 Euphaia nplcndens, Ilagen. Myrntdcon gravit, Walker ; M. dims,
! Gymnacantha 8uhiidcmipta,'Ramh. Walker ; M. borbaru-*, Walker.
oyGoogIe
ClIAt-. VI.]
WHITE ANTS.
The White AnW — But of the insects of this order the
most noted are the white ants or termites (which are ants
only by a misnomer). They are, unfortunately, at once
ubiquitous and innumerable in every spot where the
climate is -not too chilly, or the soil too sandy, for them to
construct their domed edifices.
These they raise from a considerable depth under
ground, excavating the clay with their mandibl^, and
moistening it with tenacious saliva1 until it assume the
appearance, and almost the consistency, of sandstone.
So delicate is the trituration to which they subject this
material, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the
powdered clay of the ant hills in preference to all other
substances in the preparation of crucibles and moulds
for their finer castings ; and -Knox says, " the people
use this clay to make their earthen gods of, it is so
pure and fine."2 These structures the termites erect
with such perseverance and durability that they fre-
quently rise to the height of ten or twelve feet from
the ground, with a corresponding diameter. They are
1 It become' an interesting question
■whence the termites derive the large
supplies of moisture with ■which they
not only temper the clay for the con-
struetiun of their long covered-ways
above ground, but for keeping their
passages uniformly damp and cool
Mow the surface. Yet their habits
in this particular are unvaiying, in
the seasons of droughts as well as after
rain ; in the driest and least promis-
ing positions, in situations inaccessible
to drainage from above, and cut off by
rocks and impervious strata from
springs from below. Dr. Living-
stove, struck with this phenomenon
in Southern Africa, asks : " Can the
white ants possess the power of com-
bining the oxygen and hydrogen of
their vegetable loud by vital force so
as to form watej.P " — Travel*, p. 22.
And he describes at Angola an insect'
resembling the Aphrophora af
seven or eight individuals of which
distil several pints of water evenr
night— P. 414. It is highly probable
that the termites are endowed with
some such faculty : nor is it more re-
markable that an insect should com-
bine the gases of its food to produce
water, than that a fish should decom-
pose water in order to provide itself
with gas. Fouscroix found the cc
tents of the air-bladder it
be pure nitrogen, — YarreB, voL l.
42. And the aquatic larva yf the
dragon-fly extracts air for its respira-
tion from the water in which it is
submerged. A similar mystery per-
vades the inquiry whence plants under
peculiar circumstances derive the
water essential to vegetation.
" Knox's CeyUm. Part I. ch. vi.
p. 24.
oyGoogIc
264 ZOOLOGY. [Pam IT.
so firm in their texture that, the weightoof a horse makes
no apparent indentation on their solidity ; and even the
intense rains of the monsoon, which no cement or mortar
can long resist, fail to penetrate the surface or substance
of an ant hill.1 In their earlier stages the termites
proceed with such energetic rapidity, that I have seen a
pinnacle of moist clay, six inches in height and twice as
large m diameter, constructed underneath a table between
sitting down to dinner and the removal of the cloth.
As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried
up from beneath the surface, a cave of corresponding
dimensions is necessarily scooped out below, and here,
under the multitude of miniature cupolas and pinnacles
which canopy it above, the termites hollow out the royal
chamber for their queen, with spacious nurseries sur-
rounding it on all sides. Store-rooms and magazines
occupy the lower apartments, and all are connected by
arched galleries, long passages, and doorways of the
most intricate and elaborate construction. In the
centre and underneath the spacious dome is the recess
for the queen — a hideous creature, with the head and
thorax of an ordinary termite, but a body swollen to a
hundred times its usual and proportionate bulk, and
presenting the appearance of a mass of shapeless pulp.
From this great progenitrix proceed the myriads that
people the subterranean hive, consisting, like the com-
1 Dr. Hooker, in his Himalayan
Journal (vol. i. p. SO) is of opinion
that the nests of the termites are not
independent structures, but that their
nucleus is "the debris of clumps of
bamboos or the trunks of large trees
which these insects have destroyed."
He supposes that the dead tree falls
leaving the stump coated with sand,
which the action of the weather toon
fashions into a cone. But indepen-
dently of the fact that the " action of
the weather" produces little or no
effect on the closely cemented clay of
the white ants' nest, they may be
daily seen constructing their edifices
in the vary form of a cone, which
they ever after retain. Besides which,
they appear in the midst of terraces
and fields where no trees ate to, be
seen ; and Dr. Hooker seems ato orer-
losk the fact that the termites rarely
attack a living tree; and although
their nests may be built against one,
it continues to flourish not the less
for their presence. *
oyGoogIe
Chap. VI.] WHITE ANTS. 2J6
munitics of the genuine mtax of labourers and soldiers,
which are destined never to acquire a fuller development
than that of larva;, and the perfect insects which in due
time become invested with wings and take their depart-
ing flight from the cave. But their new equipment
seems only destined to facilitate their dispersion from
the parent nest, which takes place at dusk ; and almost
as quickly as they leave it they divest themselves of
their ineffectual wings, waving them impatiently and
twisting them in every direction till they become de-
tached and drop off, and the swarm, within a few hours
of their emancipation, become a prey to the night-jars
and bats, which are -instantly attracted to them as they
issue in a cloud from the ground. I am not prepared
to say that the other insectivorous birds would not
gladly make a meal of the termites, but, seeing that in
Ceylon their numbers are chiefly kept in check by the
crepuscular birds, it is observable, at least as a coinci-
dence, that the dispersion of die swarm generally takes
place at twilight. Those that escape the caprimulgi fall
a prey to the crows, in the morning succeeding their
flight
The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages
of the white ants is that they shrink from the light,
in all their expeditions for providing food they con-
struct a covered pathway of moistened clay, and their
galjeries above ground extend to an incredible distance
from the central nest No timber, except ebony and
ironwood, which are too hard, and those which are
strongly impregnated with camphor or aromatic oils,
which they dislike, presents any obstacle to their ingress.
I have had a case of wine filled, in the course of two
days, with almost solid clay, and only discovered the pre-
sence of the white ants by the escape from the corks. I
have had a portmanteau in my tent so peopled with them
in the course of a single night that the contents were
found worthless in the morning. In an incredibly short
oyGoogIc
256 ZOOLOGY. [1'abt II.
time a detachment of these pests will destroy a press full
of records, reducing the paper to fragments i and a shelf
of books will be tunnelled into a gallery if it happen to
be in their line of march. The timbers of a house when
fairly attacked are eaten from within till the beams are
reduced to an absolute shell, so thin that it may be
punched through with the point of the "finger : and even
kyanized wood, unless impregnated with an extra quantity
of corrosive Bublimate, appears to occasion them no in-
convenience. The only effectual precaution for the pro-
tection of furniture is incessant vigilance — the constant
watching of every article, and its daily removal from
place to place, in order to baffle their assaults.
They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of
2000 feet One species of white ant, the Termea Tapro-
banes, was at one time believed by Mr. Walker to be
peculiar to the island, but it has recently been found
in Sumatra and Borneo, and in some parts of Hin-
dustan.
Hymekoptera. Mason Wasp. — In Ceylon as in all
other countries, the order of hymenopterous insects
arrests us less by the beauty of their forms than the
marvels of their sagacity and the acliievements of their
instinct. A fossorial wasp of the family of Sphegidce ',
which is distinguished by its metallic lustre, enters by
the open windows, and changes irritation at its movements
into admiration of the graceful industry with which it
stops up the keyholes and similar apertures with clay in
order to build in them a cell. Into this it thrusts the
pupa of some other insect, within whose body it has pre-
viously introduced its own eggs ; and, enclosing the whole
with moistened earth, the young parasite, after under-
going its transformations, gnaws its way into light, and
emerges a four-winged fly.8
1 It belongs to the genua Pelopaut, I implanted its eggs, belongs to the
.P.i^ti»oJ(*,8t.Fargeiiu. ThaAmpnle.fi tame family. •
compretta, which drags about the lar- * Mr. E. L. Layard hns giron sn
vm of cockroaches into which it has I interesting account of this Mason
oyGoogIe
CilAP. VI.]
-Of the wasps, one formidable species
(Spkez ferruginea of St. Fargeau), which is common to
India and most of the eastern islands, is regarded with
the utmost dread by the unclad natives, who fly preci-
pitately on finding themselves in the vicinity1 of its
nests. These are of such ample dimensions, that when
suspended from a branch, they often measure upwards
of six feet in length.2
Bees. — Bees of several species and genera, some
divested of stings, and some in size scarcely exceeding
a house-fly, deposit their honey in hollow trees, or
suspend their combs from a branch. The spoils of their
industry form one of the chief resources of the uncivi-
lised Veddahs, who collect the wax in the upland
wasp in tbe Annals and Magazine of
Nat. History for Mav, 1863.
"I have irequentfyj" he says, "se-
lected one of those flies for observa-
tion, and have seen their labours ex-
tend orer a period of a fortnight or
twenty dap ; sometimes only half a
cell was completed in a day, at others
ns much as two. I never saw more
than twenty cells in one nest, seldom
indeed that number, and whence the
caterpillars were procured .was always
to me a mystery. I have seen thirty
or forty brought in of a species which
I knew to he very rare in the perfect
uLate, and which I bad sought for in
vain, although I knew on what plant
they fed.
" Then again how are thoy disabled
by the wasp, and yet not injured so
as to cause their i m mediate" death P
Die they all do, at least all that I
have ever tried to rear, after taking
them from the neat.
" The perfected fly never effect* its
egress from the closed aperture,
through which the caterpillars were
inserted, and when cells are placed
end to end, as they are in many in-
stances, the outward end of each is
always selected. I cannot detect any
difference 'in the thickness in the
crust of the cell to cause this uni-
formity of practice. It is often as
much as half an inch through, of
VOL. I.
great hardness, and as far as I can see
impervious to air and light. How
then does the enclosed fly always
select the right end, and with what
secretion is it supplied to decompose
this mortar P"
1 It ought to he remembered in
travelling in the forests of Ceylon
that sal volatile applied immediately
is a specific for the sting of a wasp.
* At the January (1839) meeting
wasps' nest from Ceylon, between
seven and eight feat long and two
feet in diameter, and showed that
the construction of the cells was per-
fectly analogous to those of the hive
bee, and that when connected each
has a tendency to assume a circular
outline. In one specimen where
tbere were three cells united the
outer part was circular, whilst the
portions common to the three formed
straight walls. From this Singhalese
nest Mr. Whitehouse demonstrated
that the wasps at the commencement
of their comb proceed slowly, form-
ing the bases of several together,
wherehy they assume the hexagonal
shape, whereas, if constructed sepa-
rately, he thought each single cell
would be circular. See Proc. Ent,
Soc. vol. iii. p. xvi.
oyGoogIc
258 ZOOLOGY. [Pakt H.
forests, to be bartered for arrow points and clothes in the
lowlands.1 I have never beard of an instance of persons
being attacked by the bees of Ceylon, and hence the
natives assert, that those most productive of honey are
destitute of stings.
The Carpenter Bee. — The operations of one of the
most interesting of the tribe, the Carpenter beea, I have
watched with admiration from the window of the Colo-
nial Secretary's official residence at Kandy. So soon as
the day grew warm, these active creatures were at work
perforating the wooden columns which supported the
verandah. They poised themselves on their shining
purple wings, as they made the first lodgment in the
wood; enlivening the work with an uninterrupted hum of
delight, winch was audible to a considerable distance.
When the excavation had proceeded so far that the
insect could descend into it, the music was suspended,
but renewed from time to time, as the little creature came
to the orifice to throw out the chips, to rest, or to enjoy
the fresh air. By degrees, a mound of saw-dust was
formed at the base of the pillar, consisting of particles
abraded by the mandibles of the bee. These, when
the hollow was completed to the depth of several inches,
were partially replaced in the excavation after being
agglutinated- to form partitions between the eggs, as
they are deposited within. •
Ante. — As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstand-
ing their numbers and familiarity, information is very
imperfect relative to the varieties' and habits of these
marvellous insects in Ceylon.8 In point of multitude
1 A gentleman connected with the
department of the Surveyor-General
writes to me that ho measured a
honey-comb which he found fastened
to the overhanging branch of a small
tree in the forest near Adam's Peak,
and found it nine links of his chain
or about ail feet in length snd a foot
in breadth where it was attached to
tbc branch, but tApering towards the
other extremity. "It was a single
comb with a layer of cells on either
side, but so weighty that the branch
broke by the strain."
■ Xylocopa tenuueapa, Westw. ; A'.
latipet, Drury.
' Mr. Jordan, in a series of papers
in the thirteenth volume of the Annate
of Natural History, has described
forty-seven species of ants in Souti-
oyGoogIe
Chap. VI.] ANTS. 259
it is scarcely an exaggeration to apply to them the
figure of " the sands of the sea." They are every-
where; in the earth, in the houses, and in the trees;
they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and
'almost on every plant in the jungle. To some of the
latter they are, perhaps, attracted by the sweet juices
secreted by the aphides and coccidas. Such is the pas-
sion of the ants for sugar, and their wonderful faculty
of discovering it, that the smallest particle of a substance
containing it, though placed in the least conspicuous
position, is quickly covered with them, where not a single
one may have been visible a moment before. But it is
not sweet substances alone that they attack ; no animal
or vegetable matter comes amiss to them ; no aperture
appears too small to admit them ; it is necessary to place
everything which it may be desirable to keep free from
their invasion, under the closest cover, or on tables with
cups of water under every foot. As scavengers, they
are invaluable; and as ants never sleep, but work
without cessation, during the night as weU as by day,
every particle of decaying vegetable or putrid animal
matter is removed with inconceivable speed and certainty.
In collecting shells, I have been able to turn this pro-
pensity to good account ; by placing them within Aeir
reach, the ants in a few- days removed every vestige of
the mollusc from the innermost and otherwise inaccessible
whorls ; thus avoiding all risk of injuring the enamel by
arty mechanical process.
But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead
animals alone, they attack equally such small insects as
they can overcome, or find disabled by accidents or
wounds ; and it is not unusual to see some hundreds of
en India. But M. Nietner has re-
cently forwarded to the Berlin Mu-
seum upwards of seventy aperies
taken by him in Ceylon, chiefly in the
western province and the vicinity of
Colombo. Of these many axe iden-
tical with those noted by Mr. Jerdan
as belonging to the Indian continent
One (probably OrepanoffnalAta tal-
tator of Jerdan) is described by M.
Niotner as "moving by jumps of
several inches at a spring."
DomzcdoyGoOglc
them surrounding a maimed beetle, or a bruised cock-
roach, and hurrying it along in spite of its struggles. I
have, on more than one occasion, seen a contest between
them and one of the viscouB ophidians, Ccecilia glutinosa1,
a reptile resembling an enormous earthworm, common in
the Kandyan hills, of an inch in diameter, and nearly two
feet in length. It would seem on these occasions as if the
whole community had been summoned and turned out
for such a prodigious effort ; they surrounded their victim
literally in tens of thousands, inflicting wounds on all
parts, and forcing it along towards their nest in spite
of resistance. In one instance to which I was a wiU
ness, the conflict lasted for the latter part of a day,
but towards evening the Coecilia was completely ex-
hausted, and in the morning it had totally disappeared,
having been carried away either whole or piecemeal by
its assailants.
The species I here allude to, is a very small ant,
called the Koombiya in Ceylon. There is a still
more minute description, which frequents the carafles
and toilet vessels, and is evidently a distinct species.
A third, probably the Formica nidificans of Jerdan, is
black, of the same size as that last mentioned, and,
from its colour, called the Kalu koombiya by the
natives. In the houses its propensities and habits are
the same as those of the others ; but I have observed
that it frequents the trees more profusely, forming small
paper cells for its young, like miniature wasps' nests, in
which it deposits its eggs, suspending them from the leaf
of a plant.
The most formidable of all is the great red ant or
Dimiya.2 It is particularly abundant in gardens, and
on fruit trees; it constructs its dwellings by glueing
the leaves of such species as are suitable from their
shape and pliancy into hollow balls, and these it lines
with a kind of transparent paper, like that manufac-
1 See miU, It. i. ch. iii. p. 201. a Formica ttnaragdina, Fab. -
D^^Google
Chap. VI.] ANTS. 261
tured by the wasp. I have watched them at the inter-
esting operation of forming these dwellings ; — a line
of ants standing on the edge of one leaf bring another
into contact with it, and hold both together with
their mandibles till their companions within attach
them firmly by means of their adhesive paper, the
assistants outside moving along as the work proceeds.
If it be necessary to draw closer a leaf too distant to
be laid hold of by the immediate workers, they form a
chain by depending one from the other till the object is
reached, when it is at length brought into contact, and
made fast by cement.
Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual
motion, forming lines on the ground along which they
pass, in continual procession to and from the trees on
which they reside. They are "the most irritable of the
whole order in Ceylon, biting with such intense ferocity as
to render it difficult for the unclad natives to collect the
fruit from the mango trees, which the red ants espe-
cially frequent. They drop from the branches upon
travellers in the jungle, attacking them with venom and
fury, and inflicting intolerable pain both upon animals and
man. On examining the structure of the head through a
microscope, I found that the mandibles, instead of merely
meeting in contact, are so hooked as to cross each other
at the points, whilst the inner line is sharply serrated
throughout its entire length ; thus occasioning the intense
pain of their bite, as compared with that of the ordinary
ant
To check the ravages of the coffee bug (Lecanium
coffees, Walker), which for some years past has devastated
some of the plantations in Ceylon, the experiment was
made of introducing the red ants, who feed greedily on
the Coccus. But the remedy threatened to be attended
with some inconvenience, for the Malabar Coolies, with
bare and oiled skins, were so frequently and fiercely
assaulted by the ants as to endanger their stay on the
fomzcdoyGoogle
269 ZOOLOOT. [Put H
The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are
generally, but not invariably, black, and aome of them are
of considerable size. One species, about the third of an
inch in length, is abundant in the hills, and especially about
the roots of trees, where they pile up the earth in circular
heaps round the entrance to their nests, and in doing this
I have observed a singular illustration of their instinct. To
carry up each particle of Band by itself would be an end-
less waste of labour, and to carry two or more loose ones
securely would be to them embarrassing, if not impossible.
To overcome the difficulty they glue together with their
saliva so much earth or sand as is sufficient for a burden,
and each ant may be seen hurrying up from below with
his load, carrying it to the top of the circular heap out-
Bide, and throwing it over, whilst it is bo strongly attached
as to roll to the bottom without breaking asunder.
The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, dif-
fering in thiB particular from the Dimiya and another of
similar size and ferocity, which iB called by the Singhalese
Kaddiya. They have a legend illustrative of their alarm
for the bites of the latter, to the effect that the cobra de
capello invested the Kaddiya with her own venom in admi-
ration of the singular courage displayed by these little
creatures.1
Lepidoptera. Butterflies. — In the interior of the island
butterflies are comparatively rare, and, contrary to the ordi-
nary belief, they are seldom to be seen in lie sunshine.
They frequent the neighbourhood of the jungle, and espe-
cially the vicinity of the rivers and waterfalls, living mainly
in the shade of the moist foliage, and returning to it in haste
after the shortest flights, as if their slender bodies were
speedily dried up and exhausted by the exposure to the
intense heat.
Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon Lepi-
doptera is the great black and yellow butterfly (Ornithoptera
1 Knox's Hidorical Relation of Ceylon, pt i. cb. vi. p. 23.
Chap. VI.] BUTTEBFLIES. 263
darsvus, Gray) ; the upper wings of which measure six
inches across, and are of deep velvet black, the lower,
ornamented by large particles of satiny yellow, through
-which the sunlight passes. Pew insects can compare with
it in beauty, as it hovers over the flowers of the helio-
trope, which furnish the favourite food of the perfect fly,
although the caterpillar feeds on the aristolochia and the
betel leaf, and suspends its chrysalis from its drooping
tendrils.
Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often
exceeding it in breadth, is the black and blue Papilio
Polymnestor, which darts rapidly through the air,
alighting on the ruddy flowers of the hibiscus, or the
dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it deposits
its eggs. The larvae of this species are green with white
bands, and have a hump on the fourth or fifth segment.
From this hump the caterpillar, on being irritated, pro-
trudes a singular horn of an orange colour, bifurcate at
the extremity, and covered with a pungent mucilaginous
secretion. This is evidently intended as a weapon of
defence against the attack of the ichneumon flies, that
deposit their eggs in its soft body, for when the grub is
pricked, either by the ovipositor of the ichneumon, or
by any other sharp instrument, the horn is at once pro-
truded, and struck upon the offending object with un-
erring aim.
Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies is
the P. Sector, with gorgeous crimson spots set in the
black velvet of the inferior wings; these, when fresh, are
shot with a purple blush, equalling in splendour the azure
of the European " Emperor"
Another butterfly, but belonging to a widely different
group, is the " sylph" (Hestia Jasonia), called by the Euro-
peans by the various names of Floater, Spectre, and Silver-
paper-fiy, as indicative of its graceful flight It is found
only in the deep shade of die damp forest, usually fre-
quenting the vicinity of pools of water and cascades, about
which it sails heedless of the spray, the moisture of which
s 4
-DolzcdoyGoOglc
364 ZOOLOGY. [Pa*t II.
may even be beneficial in preserving the elasticity of its
thin and delicate wings, that bend and undulate in the act
of flight
The Lycmtidm \ a particularly attractive group, abound
near the enclosures of cultivated grounds, and amongst the
low shrubs edging the patenas,. flitting from flower to
flower, inspecting each in turn, as if attracted by
their beauty, in the full blaze of sun-light ; and shunning
exposure less sedulously than the other diumals. Some
of the more robust kinds2 are magnificent in the
bright light, from the splendour of their metallic blues
and glowing purples, but they yield in elegance of form
and variety to their tinier and more delicately-coloured
congeners.
Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar
forms, and the naturalist marks with interest the small,
but strong, Hesperiidcfl, hurrying, by abrupt and jerk-
ing flights, to the scented blossoms of the champac or
the sweet night-blowing moon-flower ; and, when dark-
ness gathers around, we can hear, though hardly distin-
guish amid the gloom, the humming of the powerful
wings of innumerable hawk moths, which hover with their
long proboscides inserted into the starry petals of the peri-
winkle.
Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the richly-
coloured Acherontia Satanas, one of the Singhalese repre-
sentatives of our Death's-head moth, which utters a
sharp and stridulous cry when seized. This sound has
been conjectured to be produced by the friction of
its thorax against the abdomen ; — Eeaumur believed
it to be caused by rubbing the palpi against the tongue.
I have never been able to observe either motion, and Mr.
E. L. Layard is of opinion that the sound is emitted
from two apertures concealed by tufts of wiry bristles
1 Lycalta palyommaty*, $?. I * PampkHa hesperia, I
' Ambtypot&a ptevdocentaurm, $c. J
oyGoogIe
Cbap. VI.] MOTHS. 263
thrown out from each aide of the inferior portion of the
thorax,1
Moths. — Among the strictly nocturnal Lepidoptera
are some gigantic species. Of these the cinnamon-eat-
ing Atlas, often attains the dimensions of nearly a foot
in the stretch of its superior wings. It is very common
in the gardens about Colombo, and its size, and the trans-
parent talc-like spots in its wings cannot fail to strike
even the most careless saunterer. But little inferior
to it in size is the famed Tusseh Bilk moth2, which
feeds on the country almond (Terminalia catappa) and
the pahna Christi or Castor-oil plant; it is easily dis-
tinguishable from the Atlas, which has a triangular
wing, whilst its is falcated, and the transparent spots are
covered with a curious thread-like division drawn across
them.
Towards the northern portions of the island this
valuable species entirely displaces die other, owing to
the fact that the almond and pahna Christi abound
there. The latter plant springs up spontaneously on
every manure-heap or neglected spot of ground ; and
might be cultivated, as in India, with great advantage,
the leaf to be used as food for the caterpillar, the stalk
as fodder for cattle, and the seed for die expression of
castor-oiL The Dutch took advantage of this facility,
and gave every encouragement to the cultivation of silk
at Jaffna8, but it never attained such a development as to
1 There is another variety of the
game moth in Ceylon which closely
resembles it in its markings, but I
have never detected in it the utter-
ance of this curious cry. It is smaller
than the A, Satanat, and, like it, often
eaten dwellings at night, attracted
by the lights ; but I have not found
its larvie, although that of the other
species is common on several widely
different plants.
* Anther aa mylUUt, Drury.
* The Portuguese had made thy
attempt previous to the arrival of the
Dutch, and a strip of land on the
banks of the Kalsny river near Co-
lombo, still bears the name of Orta
Sods, the silk garden. The attempt
of the Dutch to introduce the true
Bilk worm, the Bombyx mori, took
place under the governorship of
Ryklof Van Goens, who, on handing
over the administration to his suc-
cessor in A.d. 16G3, thus apprises him
of the initiation of the experiment :
— "At Jaffna Palace a trial has been
undertaken to feed silkworms, and to
ascertain whether silk may be reared
at that station. I have planted a
quantity of mulberry trees, which
Google
become an article of commercial importance. Ceylon
now cultivates no silkworms whatever, notwithstanding
this abundance of the favourite food of one species ; and
the rich silken robes sometimes worn by the Buddhist
priesthood are still imported from China and the con-
tinent of India.
In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there
are many other Bombycidce in Ceylon ; and, though the
silk of some of them, were it susceptible of being un-
wound from the cocoon, would not bear a comparison
with that of the Bombyx mori, or even of the Tusseh
modi, it might still prove to be valuable when carded and
spun. If the European residents in the colony would
rear the larva; of these Lepidoptera, and make drawings
of their various changes, they would render a possible
service to commerce, and a certain one to entomological
The Wood-carrying Moth.— There is another family of
insects, the singular habits of which will not fail to
attract the traveller in the cultivated tracts of Ceylon
— these are moths of the genus Oiketicus1, of which the
females are devoid of wings, and some possess no articu-
lated feet Their larvre construct for themselves cases,
which they suspend to a branch frequently of the pome-
granate2, surrounding them with the stems of leaves, and
thorns or pieces of twigs bound together by threads, till
the whole presents the appearance of a bundle of rods
about an inch and a half long ; and, from the resem-
blance of this to a Roman fasces, one African species
has obtained the name of " Lictor." The German ento-
mologists denominated the group Sack-trager, the Singha-
lese call them Dalmea kattea or " billets of firewood," and
rw well there, and they ought to
planted in oth or directions." — Va-
LENTTTf, chap. xiii. The growth of
the mulberry trees is noticed the year
after in a report to the gov*rnor-
general of India, but Jhe subject
afterwards ceased to be attended to.
1 EuT/ieta, Wlk.
* The singular instincts of a species
of Tliodi, IHpea* Itocratet, Fab.,
in connection with the fruit of the
pomegranate, were fully described by
Mr. Westwoodj in a paper read before
the Entomological Society of London
oyGoogIe
Crap. VI.] BUGS. 267
regard the inmates as human beings, who, as a punish-
ment for stealing wood in some former stage of existence,
have been condemned to undergo a metempsychosis
under the form of these insects.
The male, at the close of the pupal rest, escapes from
one end of this singular covering, but the female makes
it her dwelling for life ; moving about with it at pleasure,
and entrenching herself within it, when alarmed, by draw-
ing together the purse-like aperture at the open end.
Of these remarkable creatures there are five ascertained
species in Ceylon. Psyche Doubledaii, Westw. ; Metisa
plana, Walker ; Eumeta Cramerii, Westw. ; E, Temple-
tonii, Westw. ; and Cryptothelea consorta, Temp.
All the other tribes of minute Lepidoptera have abun-
dant representatives in Ceylon ; some of them most
attractive from the great beauty of their markings and
colouring. Thg curious little split-winged moth (Ptero-
pkorus) is* frequently seen in the cinnamon gardens and
the vicinity of the fort, resting in the noonday heat in
the cool grass shaded by the coco-nut topes. Three
species have been captured, all characterised by the
same singular feature of having the wings fan-like, sepa-
rated nearly their entire length into detached sections*
resembling feathers in the pinions of a bird expanded for
flight.
Homoptera. Cicada. — Of the Homoptera, the one
which will most frequently arrest attention is the cicada,
which, resting high up on the bark of a tree, makes the
forest re-echo with a long-sustained noise so curiously re-
sembling that of a cutler's wheel that the creature pro-
ducing it has acquired the highly-appropriate name of
the " knife-grinder."
Hemiptera. Bugs. — On the shrubs in his compound
the newly-arrived traveller will be attracted by an insect
of a pale green hue and dehcately-thin configuration,
which, resting from its recent flight, composes its scanty
wings, and moves languidly along the leaf. But expe-
rience will teach him to limit his examination to a
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
respectful view of its attitudes ; it is one of a numerous
family of bugs, (some of them most attractive1 in their
colouring,) which are inoffensive if unmolested, but if
touched or irritated, exhale an odour that, once endured,
is never afterwards forgotten.
Aphaniptera, Fleas. — Fleas are equally numerous,
and may be seen in myriads in the dust of the streets or
skipping in the sunbeams which fall on the clay floors of
the cottages. The dogs, to escape diem, select for their
sleeping places spots where a wood fire has been pre-
viously kindled ; and here prone on the white ashes, their
stomachs close to the earth, and their hind legs extended
behind, they repose in comparative coolness, and bid de-
fiance to their persecutors.
Diptera. Mosquitoes. — But of all the insect* pests
that beset an unseasoned European the most provoking
by far are the truculent mosquitoes.3 Even in the
midst of endurance from their onslaughts one cannot
but be amuaed by the ingenuity of their movements;
as if aware of the risk incident to an open assault, a
favourite mode of attack is, when concealed by a
table, to assail the ankles through the meshes of the
stocking, or the knees which are ineffectually protected
by a fold of Russian duck. When you are reading, a
mosquito will rarely settle on that portion of your hand
which is within range of your eyes, but cunningly steal-
ing by the underside of the book fastens on the wrist or
little finger, and noiselessly inserts his proboscis there.
I have tested the classical expedient recorded by
Herodotus, who states that the fishermen inhabiting the
fens of Egypt cover their beds with their nets, knowing
that the mosquitoes, although they bite through linen
1 Such as Cimtuo ocellnlta, Lepto-
tcelu Marginal!*, CaUidea Stocktriut,
&c. &c. Of the aquatic species, the
gigantic Beltntoma ItuHcvm cannot
escape notice, attaining a size of nearly
three inches.
formidable hooked proboscis, to which
he haa assigned the appropriate name
oyGoogIe
Chap. VI.] CEYLON INSECTS. 269
robes, will not venture though a net1 But, notwith-
standing the opinion of Spence8, that nets with meshes
an inch square will effectually exclude them, I have been
satisfied by painful experience thai (if the theory is not
altogether fallacious) at least the modern mosquitoes
of Ceylon are uninfluenced by the same considerations
which restrained those of the Nile under the successors
of Cambyses.
List of Ceylon Insects.
For the following list of the insects of the island, and
the remarks prefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F.
Walker, by whom it has been prepared after a careful
inspection of the collections made by Dr. Templeton,
Mr. E. L. Layard, and others ; as well as those in the
British Museum and in the Museum of the East India
Company.
" A short notice of the aspect of the Island will afford the
best means of accounting, in some degree, for its entomological
Fauna: first, as it is an island, and has a mountainous central
region, the tropical character of its productions, as in moat
othe%cases, rather diminishes, and somewhat approaches that
of higher latitudes.
" The coast-region of Ceylon, and fully one-third of its
northern part, have a much drier atmosphere than that of the
rest of its surface; and their climate and vegetation are nearly
similar to those of the Carnatic, with which this island may
have been connected at no very remote period.* But if, on
the contrary, the land in Ceylon is gradually rising, the dif-
ference of its Fauna from that of Central Hindustan is less
remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then be
conjectured to have been nearly or wholly separated from the
central part of Hindustan, and confined to the range of mount-
ains along the eastern coast ; the insect-fauna of which is as
1 Hebodotits, Euterpe, xcv. j * On the subject of thin conjecture
* KiRBY and S pence ' s Entomology, see ante, Vol, I. Pt I, ch. i. p. 7.
letter iv. i
DomzcdoyGoOglc
970 ZOOLOGY. [P»mr H.
yet almost unknown, but will probably be found to have more
resemblance to that of Ceylon than to the insects of northern
and western India — just as the insect-fauna of Malaya appears
more to resemble the similar productions of Australasia than
those of the more northern continent.
" Mr. Layard's collection was partly formed in the dry
northern province of Ceylon ; and among them more Hindustan
insects are to be observed than among those collected by Dr.
Templeton, and found wholly in the district between Colombo
and Kandy. According to this view the faunas of the Neilgherry
Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of the peninsula of Malacca,
and of Australasia would be found to form one group; — while
those of Northern Ceylon, of the western Dekkan, and of the
level parts of Central Hindustan would form another of more
recent origin. Tbe insect-fauna of the Carnatic is also pro-
bably similar to that of tbe lowlands of Ceylon ; but it is still
unexplored. The regions of Hindustan in which species have
been chiefly collected, such as Bengal, Silhet, and the Funjaub,
are at the distance of from 1300 to 1600 miles from Ceylon,
and therefore the insects of the latter are fully as different from
those of the above regions as they are from those of Australasia,
to which Ceylon is as near in point of distance, and agrees
more with regard to latitude.
" Dr. Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the
mountains of Ceylon to be quite different from that of the
plains and of the shores. The south and west districts have a
very moist climate, and as their vegetation is like that ot Ma-
labar, their insect-fauna will probably also resemble that of the
latter region.
"The insects mentioned in the following list are thus dis-
tributed : — a
Order Coleopteka.
" The recorded species of Ciclndelidce inhabit the plains or
the coast country of Ceylon, and several of them are also found
in Hindustan.
" Many of tbe species of Carabida and of Staphylinidca, es-
pecially those collected by Mr. Thwaitea, near Kandy, and by
M. Nietner at Colombo, have much resemblance to the insects
of these two families in North Europe ; in the Scydmcmidce,
Ptiliadce, Pkalacridee, NUidulidw,Colydiadce,andLatkridiadai
the northern form is still more striking; and strongly contrasts
oyGoogIe
Our. VI,] CEYLON INSECTS. 2T1
with the tropical forms of the gigantic Copridce, Buprestidcs,
and CerambytidcB, and with the JSlateridce, Lampyridec, Tent-
brionidce, Helopidce, Meloidce, Cwrculionidce, PrionidcB,Ceram-
bycidcB, Lawviidw, and EndomychidcB.
" The Copridce, Dynastidce, Melolonthidts, Getoniadcr., and
PasaalidcB are well represented on the plains and on the coast,
and the species are mostly of a tropical character.
" The ffydropkilidce have a more northern aspect, as is gene-
rally the case with aquatic species.
" The order Strepeiptera is here considered as belonging to
the Mordellidce, and is represented by the genus Myrmecolax,
which is peculiar, as yet, to Ceylon.
" In the CurciUionidcB the single species of ^Lpion will recall
to mind the great abundance of that genus in North Europe.
" The Prionidce and the two following families have been in-
vestigated by Mr. Fascoe, and the Hispidas, with the five fol-
lowing families, by Mr. Baly; these two gentlemen are well
acquainted with the above tribes of beetles, and kindly supplied
me with the names of the Ceylon species.
Order Orthoptera.
" These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. The
Physapoda, which will probably be soon incorporated with
them, are likely to be numerous, though only one species has
as yet been noticed.
Order Nbitboptzea.
" The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue pub-
lished by Dr. Hagen, and containing descriptions cf the species
named by him or by M. Nietner. They were found in the most
elevated parts of the island, near Rangbodde, and Dr. Hagen
informs me that not less than 500 species have been noticed in
Ceylon, but that they are not yet recorded, with the exception
of the species here enumerated. It has been remarked that
the Trickoptera and other aquatic Neuroptera are less local than
the land species, owing to the more equable temperature of the
habitation of their larva?, and on account of their being often
conveyed along the whole length of rivers. The species of
Psocue in the list are far more numerous than those yet ob-
served in any other country, with the exception of Europe.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Order Hymenopteea.
" In this order the Formicidas and the Ponei-idte are very nu-
merous, as they are in other damp and woody tropical countries.
Seventy species of ants have been observed, but as yet few of
them have been named. The various other families of aculeate
ffymenoptera are doubtless more abundant than the species
recorded indicate, and it may be safely* reckoned that the para-
sitic Hymcnoptera in Ceylon far exceed one thousand species in
number, though they are yet only known by means of about two
dozen kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites.
Order Lepidopteba.
" The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order
than in any other of the insect tribes, but as yet the Lepidoptera
alone in their class afford materials for a comparison of the
productions of Ceylon with those of Hindustan and of Austral-
asia; 932 species have been collected by Dr. Templeton and
by Mr. Layard in the central, western, and northern parte of the
island. All the families, from the Papiiionidce to the Tiiieida,
abound, and numerous species and several genera appear, as .
yet, to be peculiar to the island. As Ceylon is situate at the en-
trance to the eastern regions, the list in this volume will suitably
precede the descriptive catalogues of the heterocerous Lepi-
doptera of Hindustan, Java, Borneo, and of other parte of Aus-
tralasia, which are being prepared for publication. In some of
the heterocerous families several species are common to Ceylon
and to Australasia, and in various cases the faunas of Ceylon and
of Australasia seem to be more similar than those of Ceylon and
of Hindustan. The long intercourse between those two regions
may have bfenthe means of conveying some species from one to
the other. Among the Pyralites, Hymenia recurvalie inhabits
also the West Indies, South America, West Africa, Hindustan,
China, Australasia, Australia, and New Zealand ; and its food-
plant is probably some vegetable which is cultivated in all those
regions; so also Desmia afflictalis is found in Sierra Leone,
Abyssinia, Ceylon, and China.
Order Diptera.
" About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but
most of those here recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at
Kandy, and have a great likeness to Ttorth European species.
■ DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Our. VI] CEYLON INSECTS. 278
The mosquitoes are very annoying on account "of their numbers,
as might be expected from the moisture and heat of the climate.
Otdex laniger is the coast species, and the other kinds here
mentioned are from Kanily. Humboldt observed that in some
parts of South America each stream had its peculiar mosquitoes,
and it yet remains to be seen whether the gnats in Ceylon
are also thus restricted in their habitation. The genera Soiara,
Ceddomyia, and Svnvuliwm, which abound so exceedingly in
temperate countries, have each one representative species in
the collection made by Mr. Thwaites. Thus an almost new
field remains for the Entomologist in the study of fhe yet
unknown Singhalese Diptera, which must be very numerous.
Order Hemipteba.
*'The species of this order in the list are too few and too similar
to those of Hindustan to need any particular mention. Le-
canium coffees may be noticed, on account of its infesting the
coffee plant, as its name indicates, and the ravages of other
species of the genus will be remembered, from the fact that
one of them, in other regions, has put a stop to the cultivation
of the orange as an article of commerce.
" In conclusion, u*may be observed that the species of insects
in Ceylon may be estimated as exceeding 10,000 in number, of
which about 2000 are enumerated in this volume.
Class Arachsida.
" Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens can-
not be satisfactorily described; one Ixodes and one Chelifer
have been forwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr. Thwaites."
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Note — The uUriik prelated
Ouder, Coleoptram,
Fam. Cicun>BLLi>£, Sw/>4
Ciciudela, Linn.
flay n punctata. And.
diacrepana, WW.
an ro fascial*, Gtttr.
qnadrilineata, Fabr.
biramoaa, Fabr.
catena. Fair.
"injiignifirans, Dohrn.
Tricondjla, Lair.
femofata, 1(7*.
•tnmidula, Wlk.
•sciiiscabrs, Wlk.
•concinna, Dohrn.
Fam. Caraeuh, ieacA,
Casllunia, Lair.
•punctata, NieL
•pilifera, NitL
Ophionea, King.
"cyanocephaltl, Fair.
Enplyncs. NieL
Dohrnii, A*«t
Heteroglosaa, AYef.
•elegane, NieL
•mficollia, NitL
•birnaculata, NieL
Zuphiam, Lair.
•pabescens, NieL
Pheropsophua, Solier.
Catoirei, Dej.
bimacalfitua, Fair.
Cymiml lb, La.tr.
ruGvcntris, Wlk.
Ancbinta, NieL
•modeata, NieL
Dromiue, lion.
marginifer, Wlk.
rtpandens, Wlk.
Lebia, Latr.
bipara, Wlk.
Crcagris, NieL
labroao, NitL
Filiotia, NieL
pallipes, Niet.
Maraga, Wlk.
planigera. Wlk.
Cataacopaa, Kir by.
facialis. Wind.
reducing, Wlk.
Scan tea, Fabr.
obliterans, Wlk.
aabaignani, Wlk.
designana, Wlk.
Clivinn, Lair.
H tho ipeclei dlMOTer*u In Cejlon itnee Sir J. E. Tenant**
•rngosifrona, NitL
•eluugatula, NitL
•maculata, NitL
recta, Wlk.
Leiatna, FrcthL
linearis, Wlk.
laotarsua, La/trU.
q n ad ri mac ulatlis, Olio.
Panagaraa, Latr.
retractua, Wlk.
Cblsenms, Ban.
bimaculntns, Dej.
difliuia, Seiche.
•Ceylanicua, NitL
*q u in que -macolatas,
JWkt
pnlcher, NieL
cupricollis, NieL
ragnloana, NieL
Anchomenus, Bon.
illocatna, Wlk.
Agon am, Bon.
degener, Wlk.
relinquens, Wlk.
Simphyos, NieL
•unieolor, NitL
Brady tas, Steph
atolidas, Wlk.
Curtonotaa, Steph.
compositas, Wlk.
Harpalns, Latr.
'mlvolane, NitL
diepellens, Wlk.
Calodromus, NieL
'rxornntus, Nitt.
McgarislcTas, NieL
•mandibularia, NieL
•utenolophoidca, NitL
•Indicua, NieL
Platynma, Bon.
retinena, Wlk.
Morio, Latr.
trogositoidea, Wlk.
encujoidea, Wlk.
Barysomna, Dtj.
•Gyllenhalii, Dtj.
Oodea, Bon.
•picena, NitL
SelenophoruB, Dej.
iaflxnn, Wlk.
Orthogoniua, X**>
femoratus, Dtj.
HeUuodes, Westtv.
Taprobaoas, Watts.
Phyaocrotaphus, Parry
Pbysodcra, Etch.
Egchacboluii, Parry.
Omphra, Lab.
"ovipennig, lieicht.
Planetea, Mad.
bimaculitun, Maclaiy.
Cardiadema, Dej.
ecitas, Wlk.
DiEtrigufl, Dej.
•eofrtatui, NttU
•enbmetaJlicuB, NieL
•rnfopicetM, NieL
•ffneus, NitL
♦Dejesni, Niet.
Drimostoma, Dej.
•Caylanicum, NieL
"marginal*. Wlk.
Cyclosomiis, Latr.
flcxuosu j, Fabr.
Ochthepbilua, NieL
'Ceylanicoa, NicL
Spatbinus, Niet.
"nigricepa, NitL
Acu palpus, Latr.
derogatna, Wit.
extremas, Wlk.
Bembidinm, Latr.
finitimnm, Wlk.
•opnlenlnm, NieL
•truncatum, NieL
"tropicnm, NieL
"triangnlare, NieL
•Ceylanicnm, NitL
Klugii, NieL
•ebeninam, NieL
■oriental e, NieL
•em argiii alum, NieL
•ornatum, NieL
■aRjdnueuoides, NieL
Fam. PiCBain«, Wettw.
Cerapterus, Siced.
latipes. Steed.
Pleuropteras, Wett
Wettennanni, Went
Fauasus, Xinn.
paci(icat, West.
Fam. DlTlBCtlxa, MaeL.
Cybistcr, CnrL
limbatas, Fair.
Dytiacas, Linn.
cxtcnuans, Wlk.
Eunectca, Erich.
grisena. Fair.
Hydaticua, Leach.
festi vus, ///.
vittatiiB, Fair.
dii-locans, Wlk.
fraciifcr, Wlk.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
CEYLON INBECTS.
275
Colymbctes, Cbfrn.
inlerclosna, Wlk
Hydroporna, Clairv.
interpolaus, Wlk
intennixtus, Wlk
tetabilis, Wik.
•incfficiens, Wlk,
Fam. GybjnidjB, Leach.
Dioeatcs, Mad,
spinoaas, Fabr.
PorrorhynchuB, Lap,
indiums. Wlk.
Gyrates, Brutti.
discifer. Wlk.
Gyrinns, Linn.
nttidalus, Fabr.
ObliqnUB, Wlk.
Orectochilus, Etch.
•Icnoci ni urn, Dohrn.
Ocypns, Kirby.
longipcnnis. Wli.
corigrnuo, Wlk.
piincliiinea, Wlk.
"Iincatus, Wlk.
Philonthns, Leach.
•ptdeniio, Wlk,
Xanthulinus, DahL
cinctus, »'«.
•inclinana, Wlk.
San ins. Leach.
•obliqtias, WM.
CEdichirus, frici.
•alatus, jVr'et
Posterns, Fabr.
aiternans, Wlk.
• Steiiua, Lair.
•barbnius, Niet
*lllCGlt»idc9, Niet.
Oaoriiis? Leach.
'compactna, Wlk.
Prognmha, Lair.
deeisa, Wlk.
•tenuis, Wlk.
Leptochirua, Perty,
•bispinns, Erich.
Gxytdus, Grav.
rudis, HU
prodnctas. Wlk.
•bicotor, Wlk.
TrogophkeiiB, Mann,
•Taprobansj, Wlk.
Omaliam, Grav.
filiforme, Wlk.
Aleochara, Grav,
pOKlJCQ, Wlk.
*i ran sluts, Wlk.
•snbjecta, Wlk.
Fam. Pbelaph i DM, ieacA.
Pselaphanax, Wtt.
KtOBUS, Wfl.
Fam. ScTinu:>-iDJr.,Z«acA.
Erinens, TFM.
manetrasus, Wii.
ScydtRJOlMM, Lair.
•megsmelss, WW.
•alatus, Alrt.
* ft in oral is, Nitt
•Ceylanicns, AT*(.
•intermedins, A*iV(.
•paelaphoidcs, Niet.
•ndvolans, Niet
•pttbcHcens, Niet
•pypmeuB, iVief.
•glandul [ferns, AIX.
•graminicola, Niet.
•pyriformis, Niet.
•anguBticepa, Niet.
•otMus, JViet
Fam. Ptiluce, Wall.
Trichopteryx, Kirby.
•cursitans, Niet
•ini in ilium, Niet.
•inrisihiliB, Niet.
Ftilium, Sch&pp.
•aubquadratiim, Niel.
Ptenidium, Erich.
•macrocephalum, Nat
Fam. Pn.iLAouiDs, Leach
Fam. N jti mji-i »J5, Leach
Hitidula, Fabr.
contigens, Wlk.
in tern dens, Wlk.
signiflouis, Wlk.
to merit i fern, Wlk.
•flubmocnlata, Wlk.
'glabncula, Dohrn.
NitidulopsfB, Wlk.
asqualU, Mi.
Meligethea, Kirby.
•orientalis, Niet.
•respondent. Wit,
Rhii«>phagii5, Herlist
paroJlelus, Wlk.
Fam. CoLrDiAD.fi, WolL
Lyctus, Fabr.
retractus, Wlk.
dixputans. Wit
Ditoma, lilig.
rtiQicollia, Wlk.
Fam. TBOOOeiTlD.fi, Kirby.
Trogosita, Okie.
inflinnanB. Wlk.
■rhyiophagoides, Wli.
Fam. Cvqbjidx, Stepk
Loamophloaua, JW.
ferniginenB, Wli.
Cncujus ? Fabr.
•incoraraodus, Wlk
Si Ivan us, Latr.
retrahens, Wlk.
•scnticoilis, Wlk
'porrectua, Wlk.
Brontes, Fabr.
'orientalis, Dej.
Fam. Lathbiduks, WolL
Latbridius, Her fist.
perpusilraB, Wlk.
Cotticaria, Marsh.
resects, Wli.
Monotonia, Herbit.
concranula, Wlk
Fam. Dkhuestip.e, Leack
Dcmitstes. Linn.
Tnlpinus, Fabr.
AttagmiiB, Latr.
defectus, Wli.
rnfipea, Wli.
Trinodes, Meg.
birtellus, Wli.
Fam. Btbkhid-e, Leack
Inclica, Wlk.
solida, Wlk.
Fam.'HiBTBSiDX, Leack
Hister, Linn.
Bengalenris, Wei J.
enc.HustiiE, Mare.
orientalis, Payk
bipnatulatna, Fabr.
•mnndisBimus, Wlk.
Saprinus, Erich.
semipunctatns, Fabr.
Platyaoma, Leack
alratam? Erichi.
desinens, Wlk.
reatoratum, Wlk
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Dcndrophilns, Luck.
fiuitimoa, Wlk.
Fam. JufBooiADM, Mad,
A phodi in, lilig.
robustus, Wlk
dynastoidea, Wlk
paUidkornis, Wlk
irnitana, WW.
aeqnena, TFI*.
Pnanimodins, GylL
iiiEcitus, Wlk
Fata. Tbogid*, Macl.
Trox,Fair.
indiums, W7t
conmtua, Fair.
Fam. Coram* , /.eotA.
Atenchne, Weber.
meet, Linn.
Gyninopleiirua, Jffia.
amaragdifer, Wlk
Kffinigii, Pair.
Siayphaa, £a*r.
BOUJflulUS, WW.
Buhsidciis, Wlk.
prominena, Wlk
Orepanoceraa, Kirhy.
Taprobansa, WeiL
Copiis, Geoffr.
Pinna!, Fair.
Bagax, Queuj.
capucinna, Fair.
cribricollia, WW.
repertna, WW.
aodalis, WW.
oigiiatuB, WW.
diminntivns, WW.
Onthopbagua, Latr.
Bonassiia, fair.
cervioornis, Fair.
prolixna, Wit.
gravis, m*.
difficilis, Wlk.
lucena, WW.
negligena, Wlk
mcerena, Wlk.
tnrbatDE, Wlk
On ilia, Fair.
FMlemon, Fair,
Xylotrnpcs, Hope,
Gideon, Linn.
rtductua, Wlk
aolidipea, Wlk.
FbileuriUt Lair.
detraciui, Wlk.
Orphnna, Macl.
deWgena, Wlk.
Bcitieslmiis, Wlk.
Fam. Geotbupid s^Leack
Bolboceraa, .Kir by.
lintsatuB, Wttnv.
Fam. Ueloloxthida,
JfocL
Melolontha, Fair.
jicodBH- "— "
rubiginosa, Wit
ferrnginoaa. Wit
seriata, Hope.
pinguia, Wlk
setoaa, WW.
RhuoiroKue, Latr.
hirtipectua, Wlk
aqnalis, WW.
coetalus, W'tt.
indnclna, WW.
exactoa, WW.
gnlcifer, WU.
Phyllopertha, Kirby.
tranaverea. Bum.
Silpbodes, Watw.
Indies, Wcsitc.
TYigonostoma, "Dig.
assimilc, Hope.
compressum? Weid.
nammi, WW.
Series, JlfaeJ.
pruinoaa, //opt.
Popilia, Leach.
marginicollia, Newt*.
cyanclla, Hope.
discalia, Wlk.
Sericesthia, Dei.
rotundata, Wlk.
subaignata, Wlk
mollia, Wlk.
conSimata, Wlk
Plectria, Lep. Ijc Scrv.
solids, Wlk
punctigere, Wlk
gUbriiinea, Wlk.
IsonychuB, Mann.
ventralU, Wlk.
pectoralia, Wlk.
Omaloplia, Meg.
fracta, Wlk.
interrupt*, Wlk.
Bcmicincta, Wlk
•bamifera, Wlk
•picta, Dohrn,
•nana, Jiohrn.
Apogonia, Kirby.
nigricans, Hope.
Phy talus, Erkh.
euiystomus, Burst.
Ajwiylouy chs, -Dg.
Rcyaaudii, Blanck
Lcucopholis, 2)ej.
Mallei, Gkt.
pingnia, Burm.
AbodjhIu, Jfisp.
data, Fair. ,
hnmerali*, fflt
diacalis, Wtt.
varicokir, ScA.
conformis, ffBfc
rimilis, Hope.
pnnctatisaima, Wlk
faflsa, Wlk
Himela, Kirby.
variegate, Wlk.
mnndiuima, WU.
Panurtaaia, Wtttto.
rnfopicU, Wettw.
Eucb loia, Macl.
viridU, Fair.
perplex*, Hope.
Fam. CETOHiiD-s, Kirby.
Glycyphana, Bum.
versicolor, Fair.
Inctnoaa, Gory.
rariegata. Fair.
marginicollia, Gory.
Cb'nteria, Buna.
imperialis, Sckaim.
cbloronola, Blanck
Tuniodera, Barm.
Malabarienaia, Gotjf.
SnadriTittala, While.
Ibognttaca, Vtgtm.
Protietia, Bum.
macnlata. Fair.
Wbitehouaii, Parry.,
Agestrata, Erich.
nigrita, Fair.
orichalcea, Linn.
Corypbocera, Buna.
elegana, Fair.
Macronota, Haffm.
qnadriTiuata, Sck.
Fam. Triobude, Leach.
ValgiiB, Scribe.
addendus, Wlk
Fam. Lucakids, Leaek
Odonlolabis, Barm.
Bengalenlia, Forrjf.
emarginatna, Dtp
Jigm, Mad.
aenminatoa. Fair.
lnnatus, Fair.
Singhala, Bland:.
oyGoogIc
CEYLON INSECTS.
Fam. Pass wjii m, Mad
Paasalus, Fabr.
transvernus, Dukrn.
interstitial is. Perch.
punr tiger? Lefeb.
bicolor, Fabr.
Fam. SPHTiiiniiUja,
Sphffir idiom, Fabr.
tricolor, Wlk,
Cercjon, Leach.
•ricmale, Wlk.
Hydrnus, Leach.
•raflYentris, Nat.
•inconsplcuns, NieL
Hydro-bius, Leach.
BtllltUS, H7*_
Fhilydms, Sutler.
esurient, ITU.
Baroeus, Leach,
•decresceos, WH.
Hydrochnn, Gout.
•lacustris, A'ltf.
GcoryacnB, Lair.
'gemma, Nlct.
•itwnlaris, Dohr*.
Daatarcus, Wlk.
Fam. Bcfrkbtih*. Sfp*,
Stemocera, i'scn.
ehrjeig, Zinn.
ateniicornis, Linn.
Ohry sochroa, Softer.
ignite, /.inn.
ChinensiB, Zap.
Rajah, Zap.
•cyaneocephala, Fair.
Chrysodema, Zap.
sulcata, Taiaii.
Beltonota, Esck.
■catellariB, Fabr.
•Petiti, Gory.
Chrytobothris, Etch.
autnraJia, Wit.
Agiiluo, Meg.
■ulcioollis, Wlk
•cupreicepe. Wit.
•cnpreicollia, Wlk.
•armatus, Fabr.
Fam. Eutzbida, Leach.
Campeotternoe, Lair.
Tumpltlonii, Walts.
Bohemannii, Cand.
veuustuliio, Cand.
pallid ipee, Cand.
AgTjpnnfl, Esck.
maclpeB, fair.
AIuub, Each.
speciostiB, Linn.
■ordidna, Westw.
Cardiophoma, Etch.
hnmerifer, WUt.
Cory mbi tea, Loir.
divide™, Wlk.
diviM, Wlh.
■birittava, Wlk.
Laco n, Lap.
'obesnfi, Cand.
Athooa, Esclu
puactosus, Wlh.
inapertns, Wlh.
decretuB, Wlk,
inefficiens, Wlh.
Ampedua, Men.
■acotifer, Wlk.
•discicollia, WIL
Legna, Wlk
id ones, Wlh.
Fam, LiVFYKli)*, Leach.
Lyctta, Fabr.
triangularis, Hope,
go miii us, WIL
astutiifl, Wlk.
fallax, Wlk
planicorois, Wlh.
molan op torus, WW.
pubicorniB, Wlh.
duplex, Wlh.
costifcr, Wlh.
revoeaus, Wlh.
duuelletu, Wlk
•pubipanniB, Wlh.
•hnmerifer, Wlk.
expanajcomis, Wlk.
divifius, Wlh.
Dictyojrtenin, Lair.
intermix us, Wlk
Lampyris, Geoff.
ttnebroia, Wlh.
diffiaia, Wlk
loteecens, Wlk.
"Titrifera, Wlh.
Colopbotia, Ihj.
humeralia, Wlk
[Yespertina, Fair.
perplex*, Wlk J]
intricate, Wlh.
entricaus, Wlk.
promeJaa, Wlh.
Harmatelia, Wlh.
dlscalia, Wlh.
bilinea, Wlh.
Fun. THLEPHORID2,
dimidiatns, Fabr,
maltbinoides, Wlh.
Engcn.sis, Wettw.
palpator, We/tut,
Fam. Ckbkiohidjb, Sleph.
CallirMpis, Latr.
Templetonil, Wettw.
Coampiomi, Weatia.
Fam. Meiteidjs, Leach.
MeJachius, Fabr.
plagiatus, Wlk
Malthiu
•fortici
t. Latr.
l Wlk.
•retractns, WUt.
fragilis, Dohrn.
Emcopua, Sleph.
pToficions, Wlk,
Honoaca, IK*.
necrobiotdes, Wlk.
Fam. Clehid.15, Kirby.
Fam. Ftirid^ Leach.
Ptinus, Linn.
*nigerrimoa, Boicld.
Fam. DiAFERrax, Leach,
Diapcria, Geoff.
Zophobaa, Dej.
errans? Dej.
clavipen, Wlh.
iBOlidoS, wa.
Pseudoblapn, Guer.
nlgrita. Fair.
Tenebrio, Zinn.
robripea, Hope.
retenta, WUt.
Trar h race lis. Lair.
bruunea, Dohru.
DomzcdoyGoOgle
273
Fwn. Op at bid* Shuck,
Opatrum, Fabr.
contraheiw, Wlk.
bilineatum, Wlk
planatum, Wlk.
serricolle, Wlk.
Asiiis, Lair.
horrida, Wlk
Crypticua, Lair,
detcrans, Wit.
longipcnnis, Wlk
Fhnk'ria, Lair.
rufipes, Wlk.
Toxicum, Lair.
oppugn an a, Wli.
biluna. Wilt.
Boletophagiis, IU.
•morosus, Dohrn.
•exaspcratus, Dvh.
TJloma, Meg.
scita, Wlk
AJphitopbagus, Slepk
suhfojicia, Wlk.
ram. IIelofidje, Slepk.
Osdora, H7*.
picipes, IRA.
Cholipus, Dej.
brcvicornis, Da.
parsbolicus, Wli.
laeviusculns, Wli.
Delops, Fabr.
ebeninna, Wlk. .
Camaria, Lep, g" Sent.
amethyst in a, L. fy S.
Amarygmus, Dulm.
chryaomeloides, Dtj.
Fara. ]
>m, WoO.
Epicautu, Dej.
CissitcR, Lair.
teataecus, Fabr.
Mvlabria, Fabr.
.humcrnli?, Wlk.
alter na, Wli.
'rccognila, H74.
Atractoecrus, Fat,, Bv.
debilis, WW.
rcteraus, Wlk.
Fara. CEdehbkidje, SiqiA.
Ostein, Ab1.
concma, W7i.
•falsifies. Wlk,
Allecula, Fabr.
fusiformis, Wlk.
elcgans, Wli,
'fkvifemur, Wli.
Sora, Wlk.
•maiginatn, Wlk.
Tbaccona, Wlk
dimclas, Wlk
Fam. Moedellids, Slepk.
Acosmus, Dej.
languid us, Wli.
Bhipiphorns, Fair.
•tropicus, Nitt.
Mordclla, Linn.
compoaita, Wlk
•d eft-diva, Wlk.
Myrmccolax, Weila.
•Nietneri, Westxc.
Fam. Anthicid*;, Wlk,
An tu ic us, J 'a ah.
•quiaquilaiius, JViet
•insulnrins, Niel.
•sticticollis, Wlk.
Fam. Cisbiike, Ltach,
Cia, Lair.
contcndens, Wlk.
Fam. Touicmx, SAhcA.
Apate, Fabr.
sabmedia, Wlk
Bostrichna, Geaff.
mutilatus, 1174.
•vertens, Wlk
•moderatus, Wlk
•leslaeeus, Wlk
•exiguua, Wlk.
Platypus, HerbsU
minax, Wlk.
aolidus, B7*.
•latiBuis, W7*.
Hylurgus, Zafr.
dctctminans, Wlk.
•concinnnliis, Wlk
Hylcsinus, Fabr.
curvifer, Wlk.
dcapecius, Wlk
icresolutua, Wlk.
Brachus, Linn.
Scutellaria, Fabr.
Spermopbagus, Slam
convolvuli, Thinb.
figuratus, Wlk.
Cisti. Fabr.
in ccrl us, Wlk.
dccretuB, Wlk.
Dondropcmon, SckSn.
"melancholic an, Dohrn .
Decdrotrogus, Jck,
[PamIX
Dohrnii, Jek
discrepans, Dohrn.
Eneorynua, SchCn.
colligendus, Wlk,
colligens, Wlk.
Bssitropis, Jrh.
* disco n Dial 11 *, Jek.
Litoceras, SckBn.
pnnctulatus, Dohrn.
Trupideres, ScK
punctnlifer. Dohrn.
fragilis. Wlk
Cedns, Waterh.
•cancelliitui, Dohm.
Xylinadca, Latr.
sobrinuius, Dohrn.
indignus, Wlk
Xenoccrus, Gem.
anguliferus, Wlk.
revocans, Wlk.
•ancboralis, Dohrn.
Caliislocerus, Dohrn.
•Nietneri, Dohrn.
Antbribos, Geoff.
longicornis. Fair.
apicalia, Wlk.
faeilis, Wlk
Aracerna, SchOn.
coffbie, Fabr.
•insidiosuH, Fabr.
•muBCulns, Dohm,
•incarsgiiiis, Wlk.
•bifovea, Wlk.
Dipieia, Pasc.
•insignia, Dohrn,
Apolecta, Pasc.
•Nietneri, Dohrn,
•musculus, Dohrn.
Arrhenodes, Steven.
miles, Sch.
pilicornis, Sch.
dentiroatris, Jck.
approximans, Wlk
Veneris, Dohm.
Cerobatea, SchOn.
thrasco, Dohrn.
acieulatus, Wlk
Ceocephalus, SchOn.
cavna, Wlk
•relic ulatua, Fabr,
Ncmacephalus, Latr.
sfllcirostris, -De Haan.
pbmicotlis, Wlk.
spinirostris, Wlk.
Apodcrus, Olio.
longicollis? Fabr.
Trail q uebaricua. Fair.
oygneus, Fabr. T
Bcitnlus, Wlk
•triaugularis, Fabr.
•echinatua, ScK
Bbynchites, Herbtt.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
CEYLON INSECTS.
c.......,.™, wu.
•restitnena, Wli.
Apion, HerbtL
•Cingalese, Wli.
Strophosomua, Biltmg.
•antunlis, Wli,
Piasomias, SchSn.
asqujilis, Wlk.
Aatycoa, SchSn.
lateralis, Fubr. ?
ebeniuuH, W7i.
•irnmuiiifl, Wlk.
Clconaa, SchSn.
iodacent, Wlk.
Mvllocenis, SchBn,
transmarinus, HtrbsLi
epurcalue, Wlk.
•retrahena, Wlk.
•portico*, Wlk.
Phyllobius, SchBn.
■mimical, Wlk.
Episomns, SchBn.
paupernlus, Fabr.
lixns. Fair.
nebuii fascia, Wli.
Aclees, &&hi.
cribrauia, iJf;.
Ale idea, Uo/»i.
rignatna. Boh.
obliqniu, Wlk.
transversa*. Wlk.
•cltttuus, Wli.
Acicnemis, Fain*.
Cejlomcoj, Jek.
ApolomorhinuK, SchSn.
Bignatua, Wlk.
alboaier, Wlk.
Cryplorhynchus, IUig.
ineffecttu, Wlk.
aaaimilans, Wlk.
dedaratiu, Wlk.
notabilia, Wlk.
vexatus, Wlk.
Camptorhinua, SchBn.?
reverflna, Wli.
•in disc rein a, Wlk.
Deamjdophoras, Cheer.
bebea, Fabr.
communicanB, Wlk.
stramius, Wlk.
•diacri miliaria, Wlk.
incxpertiis, Wlk.
faaciculicollis, Wlk.
SipaJu», SchBn.
granulatm, Fair.
poroeiia, Wlk.
tinctus, Wli.
Mccopua, Dabn.
■Waterhousci, Dohrn.
Rhynchophorus, HerbtL
lerragineaa, Fabr.
introdnccuB, Wlk.
molaasni? Oliv.
Sphnnopharas, SchBn.
glabricliBCM, Wli.
exquisitue, Wli,
Dehaani ? Jii.
cribricollia, Wli.
Y pojiops. Wlk.
Cosaonus, Clairv.
•qaadrimacnla, Wlk.
Phebeu, Wlk.
ambiguus, Sch. ?
Seitophilua, SchBn.
oris*, linn.
disci ft ma, Wli.
Mccinus, Germ.
* ? rciictna, Wlk.
Fam, Priori dj:, ZeacA.
Trietenotoma,G..R. Groj.
Templctoni, Wetfio.
Priori omnia. White.
orientalia, Oliv.
Acaothopborua, Sen,
aerratLCOrnia, Oliv,
Cnemoplitea, JVnom.
Rhesus, Match,
Mgatomt, Scrtf.
Ciugalenie, White.
Fam. Cbbihdicida,
Kirby.
Cerambyx, Linn.
indium, Neien.
vernicosaa, Paic,
consocius, Pate.
TersutDi, Pate:
nitidua. Fate.
macilentua, Pate.
torticollis, Dohrn.
Sebasmia, Fare.
Tcmpletoni, Pate.
Callichroma, Latr.
trngonimim, Pate.
teleph oroides, Wetta.
Homalomelas, White.
(jracilipe*. Parry.
lonatna, Pate.
Colubua, Serv.
Cingalensia, While.
Thr&niui, Face.
gibboauB, I'atc,
Denteromma, Pose,
mntica, Pate.
Obrium, Meg.
lalcralc. Fate.
mceatum, Pate.
Psilomtrus, Blanch.
macilentm. Pate.
Cljtat, Fabr.
T 4
vicious, Hope.
ascendens, Pate.
Walkeri, Pate.
annularis, Fabr.
•aurilincti, Dohrn.
Rhnpbuma, Fate.
leucoacutellata, Hope,
Cererinin, JVcwnt.
cretatnm, White.
Zeylanicum, White,
Stromatiam, Serv.
barbatum, Fabr.
maculatum, White.
lies ph crop ha nes, Mult.
■implex, Gyll.
Fam. Lahiidx, Kirbg.
Nyphona, Mult.
cylindraceu, White.
Mesosa, Serv.
columba, I'atc.
Coptops, Sew.
bidena, Fabr,
Xjlorhiza, Dej.
adiuta, Wied,
Cacia, An™.
triloba. Pate.
Batoccra, Blanch.
ratal, Fabr.
rerraginea, Blanch.
MonohammiiB, Meg.
fistulator. Gem.
cmcifer, Fabr.
nirosua, While.
commixtus, Pate.
Cercopaius, Dup.
patron at. Pate.
Pelargoderus, Sera.
tigriuna. Cheer.
Olenocamptua, Chevr.
bilobna, Fabr.
Praonethn, Dej.
annaUta, Cheer.
pusticalia. Fate.
Apomecyna, Sere,
histiio, Fabr. var. 7
liopica, Fate.
prffiusta, Pate,
Hnthlia, Serv.
proccra, Pate.
Iolea, Pate.
huttrio. Pate.
Glenea, Newm.
anlpharclla. White.
commisaa, Pate.
acapifera. Fate,
^Google
Fnm. HiSFms, Kvby.
Oncocephala, Dohrn.
deltoidca, Bohrn.
Leptiapa, Bah.
pygmiea, Baly,
Amblispa, Bah.
Dohruii, Baly.
Eatigmena, Hope,
CliiuiiiisiB, Hope.
Hispa, Linn.
hyBtrix, Fahr.
erinaeea, Fabr.
nifrrina, Bohrn.
*Walkeri, Bah.
Flatypria, Guer.
echidna, Guir.
Fam. Casbidiils, Wetbo.
Epistictia, Boh.
matronnla. Boh.
Hoplionota, Hope.
tetraapilota, Bah.
rnbromarginata, Boh.
horrifica, Boh.
Aipidomorpha, Hope.
St. cruris, Fabr.
miliaria, Fabr.
pilUdim ny" Mtr Pah,
doraata, Fabr.
call) ({era. Boh.
roicans, Fabr.
Cassida, Linn.
clathrata, Fabr.
timefacta, Boh.
farinosa, Boh.
Laccoptera, Boh.
14-notata, Boh.
Coptcycla, Chevr.
Bex-notata, Fabr.
13-Eignatn, Boh.
l.'i-notata, Boh.
omaCa, Fabr.
Ceylonica, Boh.
Balyi, Boh.
trivittata, Fabr.
15-ptractata, Boh.
cntenata, Dej.
Fam. Saoridx, Kirby.
Sagra, Fabr.
nigriu, Olh.
Fam. Dokaciimb, Laeord.
Donacia, Fabr,
Delesaerti, Guir.
Temple toni, Bah.
pyroepilotm, Baly.
mic&na, Bah.
cuprenj Bah/.
cupronj B
fiumglpml, F
lemeides, Wih.
Fam. Cbyptocepkiui>.s,
Cryptocephalus, Geoff.
aex-piinctatus, Fabr.
Walkeri, Baly.
Dinpromorpha, Lac
Dinpromorpl
Turcica, /
Baly.
Baly.
Fam. EtracoLFiDa, Baly.
Cory nodes, Hope.
Cbslcolampa, Bal$
Templeloni, "
Lina, Meg.
convexa, Baly.
Cbrygomela, Linn.
TempletODi, Bab/.
Fam. Gu.EunciDJe, Sleph.
Galernca, Geoff.
"pcctiniitn, Duhrn.
Graplodera, Cheer.
cyanoa, Fabr.
Mouolepta, Cheer.
pulcbclla, Baly.
Thy amis, Sleph.
Ceylonkufl, Bah.
Fam. Cocci bsijj 11^, Latr.
Epilachna, Chevr.
58- punctata, Fabr.
Dclcssortii, Over.
pnbesceuf , Hope.
imrahii, Olie.
Coccinella, Linn.
trictneta, Fabr.
•repaudo, Mulx.
tennilinea, Wlk.
rejiciens, Wlk.
mtemtmpcnB, Wlk.
qninqneplaga, Wlk.
simplex, Wlk,
antica, Wlk.
flavicepa, Wlk.
Kudu, Muh.
tricolor, Fabr.
Coelopbora, Mule.
B-mftcoIata, Fabr.?
Cbiloconu, Leach.
opponens, Wlk.
Scymnua, Kug.
variabilis, Wlk.
[Finn.
Fam. -Ekottlidje, Leack.
F&tua, Dej.
Nepalcuaia, Hope.
Triplax, Fayh.
decorua, Wlk.
Tritoma, Fabr.
•bifaciea, Wlk.
•propooita, HI*.
be Lyras, Chen.
graudio. Fair.
Eagoaiaa, GertL
annularis, GertL
lunnlatna, GertL
Euroorphua, Weber.
pnJcbripes, GertL
•tener, Dohrn.
Stcaotarana, Perty.
Nietneri, GertL
•caatanetiB, GertL
*tomcTitosnr,, GatL
"vallatos, GertL
Lycoperdirja, Lair.
glabrata, Wlk.
Ancylopun, GertL
melanocephalns, Oliv.
Sanla, GertL
•nigripca, GertL
•ferrnginea, GertL
Mycctma, GertL
Order Ortboptera, Zhjl
Fam. FonFicnUBM, Stepk.
Forflcula, Zout
Fam. Bui-nosE, Sleph.
Panesthia, Serv.
Javanica, Sera.
plagiata, Wlk.
Poljioiteria, Barm.
Corydia, Sen.
Fetiveriaua, Lem.
Fam. Mahiiu-k, LeacL
Emptua, Iflig.
gongylodes, Lim.
Earpax, Serv.
Eigaifer, Wlk.
Schiiocephala, Sere.
Mantis, Linn.
snpergtiliosa, Fabr.
aridifolia, SlaiL
extensicoUis ? So-"-
oyGoogIc
CEYLON INSECTS.
Fam. Peuiods, Serv.
Acrophjlla,
sj-Btropedc .
eordidum, Dt Hoax.
Fhyllium, Illig.
dccifolinm, Linn,
Fam. Gbtllie^ Sleph.
Acbeta, Linn.
bimacnlata, Dm.
supplir.aiis, W&.
wjnalis, WU.
confirrasta, WU.
PuHjdactylna, Bnttt
craasipeg. Win.
Stoirodon, Sere.
lanceolattim, Wit.
Pbjllophora, Tkunb.
felaifolia. Wit
Acanthodis, Serv.
rngusfl, WM.
Fhaneroptera, Serv.
aitemiftta, WU.
Pliymatcns, Thvnb.
miliaria, Linn.
Trust a] is, I. inn.
eialtnta. Wlk.
porrccla. Wit
Acridi um, Gtoffr.
extenaum, WU,
depotiena, WIA.
nifltibia, Wlk.
clactifemar, Wlk,
■ rwpondona, Wlk.
\ nigrifascia, Wlk.
1 Order, Phyaapods*, Dm
! Thrips, Linn.
■ itenomelaa, WIA.
Macronema, PicL
multifariam, Wlh.
•splimdidum, Hagen,
•nebulosnm, Hagen.
•obliquam, Hagen.
•Ceylaoicum, NieL
•stintilicorne, Niet.
Molanna, Curt.
mixta, Hagen,
Setodot, /fasti.
•Iris, Hagen.
•Ino, Hagen.
Fam. l'srOHOMiDiv Curl
Chimarra, Leach.
•anricepa, Hpgen.
•fnncsta, Hagen.
•aepulcrajia, Hagen.
Hy dropsy elm, Pirt.
•THprobaiies, Hagen.
•miiis, Hagen.
Fam. Hut Acorim jm,
StJpft.
Rhyacophila, Piet
•caatanea, Hagen.
Fam. Peblidk, Leach.
Perla, Geq/Tr.
wlgnlala, WU.
Fam. BrUABj, Wejfir.
Dilar, flom/i.
•Nietuoii, Hagen.
Fam. Hembrobid-s, ZotcA.
Mantiapa, Tfty.
•Indica, trcjfw.
mutata. Wit
Ctrysopa, Leach.
invalid. Wit.
■tropica, Hagen.
anrifera, WU.
•punctata, Hagen.
Micronierus, ./fa mi.
•linearis, Hagen.
•austialis, Hagen.
Hemerobias, /.inn.
•frontalis, Hagen.
Coniopteryj:, /fat
•cerata, Hagen,
Fam. Utkkelsokidjb,
Palparcs, Bamb.
contrarius, Wli.
Acanthoclieia, liamb.
•moleatos, Wtt.
Myriuelcon, Linn.
gravis, WI*.
dims, WU.
barbonu, WZi
Aacalaphns, Fair.
nngax, WU.
inciwana. Wit.
•cervinua, JVat
Fam. Psocrcs, Leach,
Paoens, Zofr.
•conaitns, Hagen.
•trimacalatna, Hagen.
"obtnsna, Hagen.
•elongatos, Hagen.
•chloroticna, Hagen.
•aridua, Hagen.
•coleoptrahiB, Hagen.
•dolabratua, Hagen.
•in foli Jt, Hagen.
Fam. TEmnTiD^, Leach.
Termes, Linn.
Taprobanes, WU.
fetalis, Kan,
monoccroe, Keen.
•nmbilicatuB, Hagen.
•n. a. Johv.
Fam. Eheid.e, Hagen.
Oligotoma, Wettu.
•Saandenii, Watte.
Fam. Efhkmeeid^ Leach.
Bntia, Leach.
Taprobanea, WIA,
Potamantbm, Pict.
•fascial us, Hagen.
•annulatna, Hagen.
•femoralis, Hagen.
Cloe, Rum.
"marginalis, Hagen.
den is, Steph.
perpuailla, WU,
Fam. Libeij.tji.idx.
Calopteryx, Leach.
Cbinensis, Linn.
Euphcaa, Seljft.
splendent, Hagen.
Microraerua, Bamb.
Trichocnemys, Stlge.
•aerapica, Hagen.
Lcates, Leach.
ilia, Hagen.
■!,-„:! r,v COOglC
Agiion, Fabr.'
•Corovnnn d el ian rnuj1.
•hilare, Hagtn.
•lelare, Httgen.
•delicatum, Ilagen.
Gynataulha, Ramb,
Bnliinlermpta, JJawS.
Epoplitbnlmin, Bum.
yiltata, Bum.
Zjxomma, Dumb.
petioLuom, Ramb.
Aciaoma, Ramb.
panorpoidca, Bomb.
Libcllula, Linn.
Marcia, Drurg.
Tillarga, Fabr.
variegata, Linn.
flawscena. Fair.
Sabina, Drvry.
viridnla. Pal. Beauv.
congener, Ramb.
aoroT, flamA.
Aurora, Burni.
vioUcea, NieU
perla, Hagen.
san guinea, Bum.
trivial is, Ramb.
coiitaminata, Fabr.
nebulosa, Fabr.
Fam. Foemicid.e, Leach,
Formica, Linn.
troaragdina, Fabr.
mitia, Smith.
•Taprobane, Smith.
•variogHta, Smith.
•exercita, Wlk.
*e*tmdana, Wlk.
•meritana, Wlh.
•latebrosa, Wlh.
•pan gens, Wlk.
'iDgruens, Wlh.
•detorquens. Wlk.
•dLffldena, Wlh.
•obscarana, Wlh.
•inderlexa, Wlh.
consultary, Wlh.
Polyrhachis, Smith,
■ilUndatna, Wlk.
Fam. Pohebics, Smith.
Odonlomachas, Lair.
FUjiillimuB, Smith.
Typbloponc, WtttiB.
Cartisii, Shuck.
zooLoor.
Hjrmica, Latr.
Wain, Smith.
contigua. Smith.
glyeipbjla. Smith.
■consWrnens, Wlh.
Crcmatogastor, Lund.
■pellena, Wlh.
"deponens, Wlh.
•IbrticnJoa, Wlk.
Psendomyrma, (lore.
•tttrala. Smith.
ullaborana, Wlk.
Atta, St. Farg.
didita, Wlh.
Pheidole, Wata.
Janus, Smith.
•Tnprobanaa, Smith.
'rugosa, Smith.
Meranoplus, Smith.
'dimicana, Wlh.
Cataulacus, Smith.
Taprobanai, Smith,
Fan. ISomuoM, Leach.
Mutilla, Linn.
•Sibylla, Smith.
Tiphia, Fabr.
•decrescenfl, Wlk.
Fam. Eumenid^, Wata).
Odyncrus, Latr.
•tinctiponnis, Wlh.
•intemlcns, Wlh.
Scolia, Fabr.
anricollis, St Farg.
Fam. CfUBHOwiD-K, Leach.
Phil an thus. Fabr.
baaalis, Smith.
Stigmns, Jur.
•congruus, WUh.
Fam. Sphegie-b, Stepk.
Ammophila, Kirby.
atripea. Smith.
Pelopajua, Latr.
Bjmjlas, St. Farg.
Sphex, Fabr.
femiginea, St. Farg,
Ampulex, Jur.
compreasa, Fabr.
Fam. T, in ni nn, Steph.
Larrada, Smith.
•mtenaa, Wlk.
Fam. roHPTLin-e, Leaeh.
Fam, Arma, Loach.
Andrena, Fair.
•eiagens, Wlk.
Nomia, Latr.
rustica, Watvr.
•yincta, Wlk.
Allodapa, Smith.
"marginata. Smith.
Ceratina, Latr.
viridia. Oner.
picta. Smith,
•Bimiilima, Smith.
CaeJioxva, Latr.
capitata. Smith.
Crocisa, Jur.
•raniosa, St. Farg.
Stolis, Panz.
carbonari a, Smith.
Antbopbora, Latr.
sonata. Smith.
Xvlocopa, Latr.
teuuiscapa, Westw.
latipea, Druru.
Apia, Lino.
Indies, Smith.
Trigone, Jur.
iridipennis, Smith.
•preterits, Wlh.
Fam. Chktbuj.*, Wlk,
Stilbum, Spin.
splendid urn, DahL
Fan). Dohtlir*, Shuck.
Enictna, Shuck.
porizonoidea, Wlh.
Crypto*, Fabr.
•ODUltlU, Wlh.
Heraitelcs? Grav.
•varioa, Wlk.
Porizon, Fall.
•dominane, Wlk.
Pimpla, Fabr.
albopicca, Wlk.
Fam. Bnicomrja, Hal.
Microgaster, Latr.
•recnsana, Wlh.
•Bignificana, Wlh.
•subdncens, WU.
•detract*, Wlh.
Spa thiii 9, JVm*.
•biaignatns, Wlh.
•signipannia, Wlh.
Heratemia, Wli.
•fflosm, Wlh.
oyGoogIe
CEYLON INSECTS.
ITebartha, Wli.
•maeropoidcB, Wli.
Payualia, Wlk.
•testacca, Wit.
Pom. Chai.cidis, S/jih.
Chalcia, Fair.
•diridens, WU.
•pandcns, Pfti.
Halticella, Spin.
"rufimanna, Wtt.
•inflcicns, Wit
Ditrhinas, Dub*.
•an three in, Wlk.
Enrytoma, III
"contraria, Wlk.
•indefensa, Wlk
Eucharis, Latr.
■converj-cns, Wlk
•deprivata, WO.
Fleromalua, Swtd.
•njagniceps, Wlk.
Encyrtua, Latr.
•obatractua, Wlk.
Fam DiATiiina, J/a£
Diapria, io(r.
apicalis, Wlk.
Fam. 1'jfili on i !>.*;, Leach.
Ornithcptera, Baud.
Damns, G. E. Gray.
Papilift Linn.
Dipliilus, Ftp.
Jopbon, G. R. Grog
Hector, Linn.
Romolua, Cram.
Polymnestor, Cram.
Crino, Fair.
Helenas, Linn.
Pammon, Linn.
Pol ytes, Linn.
Erithonius, Cram.
Antipathia, Cram,
Agamemnon, Linn.
' Kar jpi'lus, Linn.
Batbyclea, Zinri-Som.
Sarpedon, Linn.
diwimilis, Linn.
Fori tilt. Fair.
Nina, Fabr.
Fieri a, Sekr.
Encharis, Drury.
Coronis, Cram.
Epicharis, Godl.
Noma, Doubl.
Bcmha, Moore.
Mesentina, Godu
Severina, Cram.
Namonna, Doubl.
Phryne, Fabr.
Paulina, Godl.
Theatylia, Doubl.
Callosune, Doubl
Eacharia, Fair.
Dunne, Fabr.
Etrida, Boitd.
Idmaia, Boitd.
Calais, Cram.
Thestias, Boitd.
Mariamne, Cram,
Pirene, Xtnn.
Hebomoia, Hub*.
Glaueippe, Linn.
Eronia, llvbn.
Valeria, Cram.
Callirlryaa, Boitd.
Fhillipina, Boitd.
Pyrajithe, Linn.
Hilaria, Cram.
Alcmeone, Cram.
Thisorella, Boitd.
TerUa, Swain.
Drona, Hortf.
Hccabe, Linn.
Fam. Nymph alid-e, Swain.
Euplnsa, Fair.
l'rothoe, Godl. ■
Core, Cram.
Alcethoe, GodL
Danais, Latr.
Chrysippns, Linn.
Plexippm, Linn.
Aglae, Cram.
Melissa, Cram.
Limniacn, Cram.
Juvcnta, Cram.
Hcstia, Hiibn.
Jssonia, Wtttw.
Telchinia, Iliibn.
viobe, Fair.
Cethoaia, Fabr.
Cyane, Fair.
Messarns, Doubl.
Ervmanlhis. Drury.
Alella, Doubl
Phalanta, Drury.
Argynnia, Fair.
Niphe, Linn.
Clagia, Godt.
Ergolia, Boitd.
Taprobana, Wait
Vanessa, Fair.
Chnronia, Drury.
Lihvthea, Fair.
Medharina, Wlk,
Pnaheara, Wlk.
Pyrantels, RSbn.
Charonia, Drury.
Cardni, Linn.
Csllirhot, Hiibn.
Junonis, Hiibn.
Li m oil i as, Linn.
CEmone, Linn.
Orithyia, L.inn.
Ldomfidia, Linn.
Asterie, Linn.
Precis, Hiibn.
Iphita, Cram.
Cynthia, Fair.
ArainoL", Cram,
Parthenos, Hiibn.
Gambrisius, Fair,
Limenitis, Fabr.
Calidn^a. Moore.
Neptis, Fabr.
Heliodore, Fair.
Columella, Cram.
acerts, Fair.
Jnmheji, Moon.
Hordonia, Stall.
Diadema, Boitd.
Angc, Cram.
Bolins, il'nn.
Bymphiedrn. Hiibn.
ThyeUa, Fair.
Adolias, Boitd.
Evelina, StolL
Lubcr.tina, Fabr.
Vaaanla, Moon.
Garuda, Moon.
Nymphalii, Latr.
Psaphon, Wake.
Bernard as, Fair.
Athamaa, Oar*.
Fabius, Fair.
Kallima, Doubl
Philarchus, Wttbo.
Helanitis, Fabr.
Banksia, Fair,
Leda, Linn.
Caaiphone,(7. R.Gray.
undularis, Boitd.
Tplblhima, Hiibn.
Ly sandra. Grant.
Parthalis, Wlk.
Cyllo, Boitd.
Gorya, Wlk.
Catbaain, Wli.
Embolima, Wlk.
Neilgbemensis, Gmtr.
Piiriranra, Wlk.
Piuhpamilra, Wlk.
Mycalesis, Hiibn.
Patnia, Moore.
Gamalibn, 117*.
Dosuron, Wlk.
Balnba, Moon.
Casnonympha, Hiibn,
,y Google
Ennaplii, Wilt.
Euiesia, Fair.
Eclieri ns , StoB.
Fnm. Ltaml M, Leack.
Aiiopu, Boisd.
Bniis, Boisd.
Thetya, Drurg.
Loxara, Horsf.
Atymnua, Cram.
Myriiin, Oodt.
Selimnug, Doubled.
Triopas, Cram.
Ambljpodia, Horsf.
Longinna, Fair.
Najflda, Horsf.
Pseudocentaiiriia, Do.
qnercctarnm, Boisd.
AphnieuB, Hiibn.
Pindanu, Fabr.
Etolua, Cram.
Hepbsestos, Doubled.
Crotns, Doubled.
Dip™, Doubled.
Chryflomallue, Hub*.
loocratcB, Fair.
Iiycana, Fair.
Alexia, Stofi.
Beetles, Linn.
Theophraatns, Fabr,
Plato, Fabr.
l'arai i a, Horsf.
Nyaeus, Gu*.
Ethioa, Baud.
Ccleno, Oram.
Kandarpa, Horsf.
Elpia, Gmft.
Chimonaa, Wlk.
Gaodara, Wlk.
Cborienis, Wtk.
Geria, WIK
Doanas, IF!*.
Sunya, Wlk.
Audbra, TV/A.
Polyommatas, Lair.
Akaaa, Sort/.
Pnapa, Bar*/.
]Uius, Cram.
Ethioa, Baud.
Cattigara, Wlk.
Gorgippia, WH.
Lucia, traffic
Epiua, Wertw.
Pithecopa, Hm/
Hylai, Fabr.
Fam. Hmpekhu, StepL
Goniloba, Wetter.
Iapetus, Cram.
Pyrgua, ffiion.
Saperna, Moore.
Danna, Moore.
Genu, IVit
Sytlras, FT*.
Niaoniadee, Ji/iiix.
Diodes, Boisd.
■ Salsala, Wwrt
Toides, WUt.
Famphila, Fabr.
Augiaa, Linn.
Achylodea, Hub*.
Temala, Wlk.
Heaperia, Fabr.
Indiani, Moore.
Chaya, Moore.
Cinnara, Moon.
greening. Lair.
Cendochatea, Wlk.
Tiagara, Wlk.
Cotiaria, Wlk.
Sigala, Wlk.
Fam. Sphinoisa, Leach.
Sesia, Fabr.
Hylas, £um.
Macroglosaa, Ochs.
Stellatarom, Linn.
avians, Boisd.
Corythas, Boisd.
divergent, Wlk.
Calymnia, Boisd.
Panopus, Cram.
Cbcerocampa, Dup.
Thyelia, Linn.
Nyaana, Dmry.
Clolho, Drury.
Oldenlaadiie, Fair,
Lycctns, Cram.
Silbetensis, Boisd.
Fergeea, Wlk.
Acteos, Cram.
P&nacra, WIL
vigil. Oust.
Daphms, Hiibn.
Nerii, iinn.
Zonilia, Boisd.
Morpheus, Cram.
Macroglia, Boisd.
obliqua, Wlk.
diacistriga, Wlk.
Sphinx, Linn.
convolvoli, Linn.
Acberontia, Ochs.
Satanaa, Boisd.
Smerinthus, Latr.
Dryaa, Boisd.
Fam. Casrans.x, Wlk.
Enaemio, Dabn.
bellatrix, Westio.
yEgnoPrs, Lair.
Veouiia, Cram.
bimacula, Wlk.
Fam. Ziosniixb, Leach.
Byntomis, Of At.
SctuBnheni, Boisd.
Crcuaa, Lixn.
Imaon, CVam.
Gkacopis, Fabr.
anbaarata, WBt.
Enchromia, Hvbn.
Polymelia, Cram.
diminnta, Wlk.
Fam, IiItbobiidje, Slepk.
Scapteayle, Wlk.
bicolor, Wlk.
Nyctemera, Hub*.
lacticinia, Cram.
latistriga, TVtt.
Coleta, Cram.
Knschema, Hiibn.
rabrepleta, Wlk.
transversa, Wlk.
villa, Wik.
Chaleosia, Hiibn.
Tiberioa, Oram.
Eternaia, Hope.
Taprobanea, WIL
HeteropaQ, Wlk.
scintilluns, Wli.
Hypsa, Hiibn.
plana, Wlk.
caricee, Fabr.
fiens. Fair.
Vilesaa, Moor.
Zemire, Cram.
Litliosia, Fair.
arnica, Wlk.
brevi pen nib, Wlk.
Setina, Schr.
aemifaacia, Wlk.
solita, Wlk.
Dolicbc, Wlk.
hilaris, Wlk.
Pitane, Wlk.
conacrta, Wlk.
Mmeae, Wlk.
Taprobanea, Wlk.
Diradea, Wlk.
aitacoidca, Wlk.
Cyllene, Wlk.
traosveraa, Wlk.
"apoliata, Wlk.
Biame, Wlk.
suboniata, Wlk.
porcgrina, Wlk.
oyGoogIc
Deiopeia, Steph.
pnJcbsIla. linn.
Aolrfia, Dnay.
Argus, KoBar.
Kam, Aacnro,*, Leach.
Alope, Wit
ocelliftra, WO.
Sangarida, Cram.
■nnoHoa, Wit.
ebnrnaigntta, WIA.
Creatonotoa, Biibn.
iutcrmptn, Linn.
emittens, Wlk.
Acmonia, Wlk.
lithoaioidea, Wlk.
Spiioaoma, ffftpi.
Bnhfascia, Wit
Cjcuia, fliiin.
robida, Wtt.
Bparaigntta, WIA.
Antheua, Wlk.
(Uscalia, Wit
Aloa, WIA.
lactiuea, Cram.
eandidnla, WO.
evosa, Wit
Amerila, Ftt.
Melanthus, Cram.
Ammalho, Wlk.
canjouotatus, Wlk.
Fun. Ltp*rh>je, TR4
Artaia, Wlk.
guttata, WH.
•variana, WZ*.
atomaria, WH.
Aojphas, wz*,
■riridetcem, Wlk.
Latida, TWA,
rotnndata, Wit
antica, Wlk.
Bubnoiata, Wlk.
compIertB, Wlk.
promitteos, Wlk,
itrignlifera, Wlk.
Amsacta? Wlk.
It nebroaa, HT*.
Antipha, WU.
coMalia, WH.
Anaxtla, Wlk.
notala, TFtt.
Procodcca, FA.
angultfera, Wlk.
Eedoa, WH.
Bubmarginata, Wlk.
Enproctia, HSbn.
TirguncoU, Wlk.
bimacnlata, Wlk.
lunula, WU.
tinctifera, Wlk.
ceylos msfiora
Ciapia, Wlk.
plagiata, Wlk.
DaBjcbira, Bttm.
pndibunda, Lao.
Ljmantria, Iluba.
grandis, Wlk.
marginal*, Wlk.
Gnome, Wlk.
ampla, WIA.
Dreata, WIA.
plnmipea, WIA.
geminata, Wlk.
mutana, Wlk.
mollifera, WIA.
Pandala, Wlk.
doloaa, Wlk.
Cnamidaj, Wlk.
jonctifera, Wlk.
Fam. Pbtchuxs, Bru.
P»jche, Schr.
Donbledaii, Wcs.hr.
Metisa, W&
plana, Wft.
Enmeta, Wit
Cramerii, Wutw.
Templetonii, Wuto,
Cryptothelea, Tempi.
conaorta. Tempi.
Fam. NoroDOHiiDj^ St
Centra, Sc/v.
liturata, WIA.
Stauropufl, Germ.
allernans, Wlk.
Nioda, WIA.
fbaiibnnia, WIA.
truMvana, Wlk.
Kilia, Wlk.
lanceolata, Wlk.
baaivitta, Wlk.
Ptilomacra, Wlk.
juvcnis, WIA,
Ela via, Wit
metaptuea, WO.
Hotodorita, Ocfo.
ejecta. Wit
Ichthyura, fliiin.
Wtt.
Fam. LivAcoDiujE, Dup.
Scopelodci, Waiter.
nnicolor. Winter.
Meaaata, Wit
mbiginoaa, Wlk.
Miresa, WIA.
BTgCDtifara, Wlk.
aperiens, Wlk.
Nysala, /for. ScA.
lata. Wetter.
Neeere, flan-. Set,
gracioia, We»ter.
Naroaa, Wlk.
consperaa, WIA.
Haprepa, Wlk.
wianj, Wlk.
Fam. Dhkp akdliiu, Wlk.
Oreta, W2J.
Bnffnsa, Tftt.
oxtensa, WIA.
Ama, Wit
apiealis, WIA.
Ganisa, Wit
poatica, Wit
Fam. SiTirsniiDjB, Wit
Attacoa, £«'«■.
Allan, Litm.
lunula, Anon.
Aiitheriea, Wiiin.
M/litta, iJr-ury.
Aasama, Weafw.
Tropiea, HUbn.
Fam. BonBicroa, Sfcpi
Trabala, WO.
baaalis. Wit
praiina, Wlk.
Lasiocumpa, Schr.
triftiBcia, WZ*.
Megaaoma, Boitd.
TODUBtam, Wlk.
Lebeda, Wit.
repanda, Wit
plagiata, Wlk.
bimacnlata, Wit
■criptiplaga, WIA.
Fam. CoisiD*, Atom. •
CoBBufl, Fahr.
quadrinotatna. Wit
Zeuzera, Lair.
leucouota, Sieph,
pusilla. Wit
Fam. Hbpiaudx, Sttph.
Phaseus, StepA.
Bignifer, WIA.
Fam. liHTorii i j.id s, Guen.
BryophUa, TreiL
oyGoogIc
Fam. BohhicoidX, Gufn.
Diphtera, Ochs.
doccptura, Wli.
Fam. I.eucakid.e, CvCn.
teucania, Ochs.
confuaa, Wli.
exempta, Wli.
inferena, Wlk.
coUecu, Wli.
Brada, H'«.
truncaia, F».
Fam. Glottuuda, Guilt.
Polytela, Guan.
glorioaa, Fabr.
Glottala, Guin.
Dominica. Cram.
Chaonina. Wtk.
pavo, Wli.
cjgnns, W7A.
Fam. ArAHiri.fi, GuAt.
Laphygma, Gutn.
obstans, ITU.
trajicicns, H7i
Prodenia, Gain.
retina, Friw.
glaucistriga, Wli.
apertnra, Wlk.
Calogramma, Wli.
feaiiva, Don.
Heliophobus, Boitd.
discrepant Wli.
Hydnecia, Gain.
lampadifera, Wlk.
Apamea, Ochs.
undecilia. Wtk.
■ Celffiiia, Steph.
senra, Wlk.
Fam. C aqadriki wu, Qutn.
Amynn, Guia.
aelenampba, Gain.
Fam. Ni)cruu>.E, Gain.
Agrotia, Ochs.
ariatifera, Guer.
congrna, Wlk.
punclipes, Wlk.
mnndata, Wlk.
tranadncta. Wlk.
plngiala, Wlk.
plagifera, Wlk.
Fam. Dadenid*, Gittn.
Enrols, Hibn.
anriplena, Wlk.
ZOOLOGY.
incluta, Wtk.
Epiceia, Wlk,
eubsignata, Wlk.
Hadena, TrtiL
aubcurra, Wlk.
poatica, Wlk.
retrahens, Wlk.
confnodens, Wtk.
congressa, Wli.
ruptiatriga, Wlk.
Ansa, Wli.
fiUpalpia, Wlk.
Fam. Xtlimidjs, Gain.
Bagado, Wtk.
pyrorcbroma, Wlk.
Cryassa, Wlk.
bifocies, WH.
Egelista, Wlk.
rudivitta, Wit.
Xylina, Ochs.
deflexa, irfl.
incboans, H7A.
Fam. HELiorniE.fi, Gain.
Heliothis, Ochs.
armigera, HSbn.
Fam. UxiiEaosiDje, Gain
Ariola, JTfl.
coslisigna, Wtt.
Fam. AcoNTins-, ffufe.
Xanihodea, GuAi.
interaepta, Gain,
Ac on lift, Oe/is.
tropica, Gafn.
olivacea, WW.
fasciciitosa, Wlk,
aignifcrn, Wlk.
turpis, W«.
roianiSidca, WH.
npproximans. Wit
divulsa, Wtk.
*egens, Wlk.
plonicosta, Wlk.
de term in a: a, Wlk.
hypiotroidoB. Wli.
Chlumetia, Wlk.
mnltilinea, Wlk.
Fam. ANTHorniLina!,
Gain.
Mi era. Gain.
destitnta, Wlk.
dcrocata, Wtk.
simplex, Wlk.
Fam. Eriopiixb, Oafii.
Callopistria, Huba.
exotica. Gut*.
riYulari*. FM.
doplicana, IfZi.
Fam. EnsntPlcs, Gain.
PenidUaria, Gwtn.
nugatrix. Gain.
resoluta. Wlk.
solida, Wlk.
ladatrix, Wli.
Rfaeaala, Wlk.
imparala, Wlk.
Entelia, Ilibn.
favilktrix, Wli.
thermesiides, Wli.
Fam. Pldsudx, Boisd.
Abrostola, Ocas.
transtiKa, Wli.
Plugia, Qchs.
anrifera, Hahn.
vertieillata. Gut*.
agramina, Gutn.
obtusiaigna, Wlk.
nigrilnna. Wli.
signala, Wli.
dispcllena, WH,
propnlaa, Wlk.
Fam. CiiJ'iDffi, Gx&u
Calpe, TrtiL
minaticonua, Gala.
Orcesis, Gain.
emarglnata, Fo6r.
Deva, Wli.
condaceua, Wlk,
Fam. HEXiCEsraB, Gain.
Westermannin. IRin.
anperba. Halm.
Faro. Hydlitwh, Gafit
U vbkea, GuAi.
Foera, Cram.
constellata. Gain.
Nolascna. Wlk.
fcrrifcivcns, Wtk.
Fam, GosoFTEHJUi, Gaot.
Coemophila, Boitd.
lndica, Gain.
xaiithiiulyma. Baud.
Anomia, Habn,
fulvida, Gain.
iconics, Wlk.
Gonitis, Gain.
combinans, Wlk.
albitibia, Wli.
mesogona, Wlk.
giittamTis, Wlk.
Tnvoluta, Wli.
oyGoogIc
CEYLON INSECTS.
basalis. Wlk
Eporedia, Wlk
damnipennis. Wlk
HnsicBda, Wlk
nigrilarsifl, Wlk
Pasipeda, Wtk
rnfipalpis, Wtk.
Toxocainpa, Gain.
metaapiia, WIA.
scxlinea, Wtk.
quinquelina. Wit,
Albonloa, Wlk.
reTwra, Wlk.
Fam.PontFBsimi.K, GhAi.
Polydesnia, Bowrf
Fam. Homoptebida, Buis.
Alamifl, Gate.
cpoliala, Wlk.
Homoptcria, Baud.
bssipallcns, WIA.
retrahcna, WH.
coatifera, WIA.
diyisistriga, Mi.
proctunbcna, Wlk.
Diacnists, Wlk.
homoptcroidoa, WIA.
Dasata, Wlk.
bijnogens, WIA.
Fam. Htpoobuottds,
GkAi.
Briarda, HT*.
precedent, Wlk.
Brans, BU
calopasa, rFtt.
Cona, WIA.
lignioolor. WO.
Avatha, TPtt.
inclndens, WW.
Gadirtha, HU
decreaciiQn, WIA.
impingena. Mi.
■parcata, Wlk.
rectifers, WIA.
dnptksiu, TPM.
imrtisa, WIA.
Erebeia, WI*.
divenipennil, WIA.
Plotheia, WIA.
frontalis, WIA.
Diomea, WIA.
rotnndats, WIA.
cliloromcls. Mi.
orbicularis. WIA.
mnacosa, Wlk.
Dinnmms, WIA.
platens, WIA.
Luiia, WIA.
geo metro ides, WIA.
perficita, WIA.
repulsa, WIA.
AbnnU, Wtt.
trlmesa, Mi.
Fam. Catepbtids, Guen.
Coej-todeB, Guiit.
ccarnls, Guen.
modcnta, WIA.
Catephia, Ocht,
linlcola, flute.
Anophia, Gate.
acranyctoidee, Gate.
Sterna, Wlk,
robobliqua, Wlk.
trsjiciens, WIA.
Ancha, WIA.
Tclans, Wlk.
JEgiUs, Wlk.
describes, Wlk.
Maceda, Mi,
mananeta, WIA.
Fam. Hytocmjtjjc, Gain.
Hypocala, Gute.
efflorescens, Gutn.
snboatnra, Gutn.
Gam. Catocalidse, Baud.
Blenina, Wtk.
donans, Wlk.
accipieng, Wtk
Fam.OPHiDEBivjE, Gate.
Ophidcrea, Baud.
Materns, Linn.
fnllonics, Linn.
Cnjeta, Croat.
Ancilla, Cram.
Salaminia, Cram.
Hypermneatts, Cram.
multiscripta, WIA.
bilineoss, Wlk.
Potamophcra, Gate.
Manila, Cram.
Lygniodes, Gain.
redncens, Wlk.
disparana, Wlk. ■
hypolenca, Gate.
Fam. E he bid*, Gutn.
Oxjodes, Gain.
Clytia, Cram.
Fam. OsmATOFHOBiDSE,
Gute.
Speiredonia, Hiitm,
retrahens, Wlk.
Sericia, Gute.
anops, Gutn.
pBTvipeDtiis, Wlk.
Fatula Gute.
macropa, Linn.
Argira, HSbn.
hieroglyphics, Drury.
Beregra, WIA.
raplenens, WIA.
Faro. IIipofyhid.e, Gute.
Spiramia, Gute.
Heliconia, HSbn.
triloba. Gute.
Hypopyra, Gute.
Tespertilio, Fohr.
Ortospana, Wlk.
connectenj, WIA
Entomogramms, Guilt.
fantrix, Gute.
Fam. BsirDiDf, Gate,
BonueB, Gute.
clathrum, Gutn.
Hnlodes, Gute.
caianea. Cram.
paliunbs, Gute.
Fam. Ofiuusid-b, Gute.
Sphingomorpha, Gute.
Chloreft, Cram.
Lagoptera, Gute.
hones la, Hubn.
mugica, Hvbn.
dotata, Fair.
Opbiodea, Gute.
discriminana, WIA.
basiBtigma, Wlk.
Cerbia, WIA.
fugitive, WIA.
Ophisma, Gute.
. Iffitabilis, Gute.
defieiena, Wlk.
gravata. Wit.
circnmferena. WIA.
tenninana, Wlk.
Actuea, Iliilm.
Melicerta, Drury.
Mezentia, Cram.
Cyllota, Gate.
Cyllaris, Cram,
fusifera, WIA.
>, WIA.
i, WIA.
combinsna. Wit,
expectant, Wlk.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
266
Serrodef, Gutn.
campana, Gutn,
Naxin, Gafli.
abaentimacala, Gut*.
Onelia, Cufn.
cslefiwieiu, Wlk.
odoriftca, HT*.
Cfllesio, Gut*.
hdimonhoda, Gain,
Hypattra, (Jufn.
trigonifera, Wlk.
currifera, Wlk.
cgndlta, Wlk.
eomplacena, Wtt.
din**, Wtt.
Optima, Ochs.
myops, Gutn.
lUbivitta, Gutn.
Actaatina, Stife.
fulvotsenia, Gu&t.
aimillima, Gain.
ftstlaata, Wtt.
pallidilinea, Wlk.
InteipalpU, Wlk.
Fodina, Gut*.
■tola, Gutn.
Grammodea, Guia.
Ammonia, Cram.
Mygdon, f>a«.
Stolid a, Fair.
miindicolor, Wlk.
Fam. Edclidida, Guen.
Trigonodes, Gain.
Hippaaia, Cram.
Fam. RsxraiDat, GWn.
Kamigia, Orfu,
Arehesia, Cram.
frugal is, Fabr.
pertcndens, Wlk.
congrcgata, WIS.
opturata, Wlk.
Fam. FocnxtDA, Gu*n.
Fodlla, GWn.
submemorans, Wtt.
Lacera, Gutn.
cnpeila, Gwta,
Ampbigunia, Gutn.
hepatLxani, Gutn.
Fam. TsERHiemx, Gutn.
ZOOLOGY.
Thermeaia, iTui*.
finipalpia, Wlk.
goluta, TFM.
Azaiia, W».
rnbricans, Bvisd.
Selenia, Gutn.
nivisapex, Wlk.
multignttata, Wlk
aemilox, Wlk.
Ephyrodes, Gutn.
eicipiena, Wlk.
criatiafara, Wlk.
lineifera, HI*.
CapEodes, Gutn.
•maeulieoBta, Wlk.
BalUtbo, Wlk.
atrotomens. Wlk.
Daranisaa, Wlk.
digramma, Wlk.
Dana, Wlk.
defectissima, Wlk.
Earn. Uraftebtd^b, Gutn.
Lagyra, Wlk.
Talflca, mi.
Fam. Emoincs, Gutn.
Hyparythra, GuAi.
limbolaria, Guilt.
Onotioba, WU.
Bajaca, Wlk.
Fascellina, Wlk.
chromataria, Wlk.
Laginia, Wlk.
bractiaria, Wlk.
Fam. ROAB JODJE, <rt< At.
Amblychia, Giien,
nngcronia, GuAt.
poattlrigaria, H7*.
Boannia, 5V»it
tnblavaria, GuAi.
admissaria, Gutn.
raptaria, Wlk.
Medaaina, Wlk.
Bhunnitrm Wlk.
Suiasasa, Wlk.
diffluaria, Wlk.
caritaria, Wlk.
excltuaria, Wlk.
Hypochroma, Guin.
■ minim aria, Guin.
Gnophoa, TrtiL
Polinda, Wlk.
Culataria, Wlk.
II cm i'. tophi I a, SlepH.
Tidbiaara, W.h.
Agathia, Gutn.
blandiaria, Wlk.
Bolonga, Wlk.
Ajaia, Wlk.
Chacoraca, Wlk.
Cbaadubija, Wlk.
Fam.GEOXBTRiDx, Gut*.
Geometra, Linn.
apecnlaria, Gutn.
Nanda; Wlk.
Nemoria, Hub*.
caudularia. Gust.
■olidaria, Gutn.
Thalaasodca, Gain,
qnadraria, Gutn.
cattaiariu, Wlk.
immissaria, Wlk.
Sisunaga, Wlk.
adorn ataria, Wlk.
moritaria, Wlk.
caektaria, Wlk.
gratnlaria, Wlk.
cblorazonaria, Wlk.
lattaria, Wlk.
■impliciaria, Wlk.
immisaaria, Wlk.
Comibiena, Wlk.
Dirapala, Wlk.
impolsaria, Wlk.
Calenna, Wlk.
satnrattma, Wlk.
Paeudoterpoa, Wlk.
Virilaca, Wlk.
Amaurinia, Gut*.
rubrolimbarii, Wlk.
Fam. Paltap* Gut*.
Enmelea, Dune.
ladovicata, Gutn.'
aureliala, Gutn.
caroearia, Wlk.
Fam. Epimmxa, Gut*.
Epbyra, Dup.
obrinaria, Wlk.
deenraaria, Wlk.
Cacavena, Wlk.
abhadraca, Wlk.
Vaandeva, Wlk.
Snaarmana, Wlk.
Vntnn
„ wo.
, Wlk.
Fam. AoiDAXiDJi, Guf*.
Drapetodea, Gutn.
mitaiia. Gut*.
Fomasia, Gain.
Payiaria, Gutn.
Siuiandaria, Wlk.
oyGoogIe
Cbai>. VI.]
Addalia, TrtiL
obliTiaria, Wlk.
adeptaria, Wlk
nexiaria, Wlk.
addictaria, Wlk.
actioaaria, Wlk.
dei'amataria, Wlk.
negataria, WW.
iictnuria, HT*.
conns, Wlk.
Cabera, -StaiA.
fiilaaria, Wlk.
decoaaaria, Wlk.
famulaiia, W1Z
nigrarenaria, Wlk.
Hjria, StepL
elataria, Wlk.
marctdaria, Wlk.
oblxuria, Wlk.
grataria, Wlk.
rhodinaria, Wlk.
Timandra, Dup.
Ajuia, Wlk.
Tijnia, Wlk.
Agyria, Qmtm.
deliaria, GuO.
Zancloptery x,Htrr. Stk.
aaponaria, Hot. Sch.
gX
Fam. Michowid.*,
Micronia, G»*i
candfta, Fabr.
aculeata. Gain.
Faro. Macabids, GuAt.
Maearia, Curf.
FJaonora, Cram.
Variiara, tftt.
Bbaginta, Wit
Palaca, Wlk.
bonaitaria, Wlk.
Saogata, Wlk.
honoraria, Wlk.
Malaria, Wlk.
Mbcandartft, Wlk.
Boava. Wlk.
adjntaria, Wlk.
flgnraria, Wlk.
Fam. L»bextd>£, Girfn.
Saoris, GkAi.
himdinata, G*Ai.
Camptogramma, Stepk.
baccala, Gut*.
BUmyia, TO*.
Baiaca, TO*.
Miliaria, ITU.
Coremia, Gut*.
Gomatina, Wlk.
Lobophora, Curt
Salknca, Wlk.
VOL. I.
CEYLON mSEClS.
Gliosha, Wlk.
contributaria, Wlk
Mesogramma, Soph.
Isctularia, Wlk.
acitaria, Wlk.
Eapitaecia, Curl.
Rceoaitaria, Wlk.
admixtaria, Wlk.
immixtaria, Wlk.
Gathynia, Wlk.
tniraria, Wlk.
Fam. Plattdidx, Gut*.
Fam, HrrENia*. Hot.
Sch.
Dichromio, Gutx.
Oroeislia, Cram. s
Ilypena, Sch:
rhombalia, Gu&l
jococalb, Wlk.
mandalalis, Wlk.
qoawitalia, Wlk.
laceratalia, Wlk.
ieonicalia, Wlk.
labatalta, Mi
obacerralia, Wlk.
pactalii. Wit.
nralia, Wlk.
partialis, Wlk.
snrreptalu, Wlk.
deteraalis, Wlk.
ineSectalli, Wlk.
iocongrnalia, Wlk.
rnbripanctum, Wlk.
Gesoaia, Wlk.
•obeditalia, Wlk.
duplex, Wlk.
Fam. HeBminDi, Dup.
Herminia, Latr.
Timonalis, Wlk.
diffusalia, Wlk.
inlerstam, Wlk.
Adrapaa, Wlk.
ablualia, Wlk.
B-TtuU, 170.
abjndicalia, Wlk.
raptatalia, Wlk.
conligcris, Wlk
Bocana, Wlk.
jutalia, TO*.
mani fetalis, Wlk.
ophiosalia, Wlk.
vagalia, Wlk
tarpatalia, Wlk
bypemaliB, Wlk
gnuawliB, Wlk.
mmidaliB, Wlk.
V
Ortbaga, Wlk
Eoadnualia, Wlk.
Hipoepa, Wlk
lapaalii, Wlk.
Lamora, Wlk.
oberratalia, Wlk.
Echana, Wlk.
abavalis, Wlk.
Dragann, Wlk.
paaaalia, Wlk
Pingraea, Wlk.
Hccuralia, Wlk.
Egnaeia, Wlk
epbyradalia, Wlk
accingalia, Wlk.
participalia, Wlk.
nsnrpatalis, Wlk
Berresa, Wlk
natalia, Wlk.
Imma, Wlk
rqgMalia, Wlk.
Chnaaria, Wlk.
retatalia, Wlk.
Corgalbo, Wlk
aonalia, Wlk.
Cauda, Wlk.
glomeralia, Wlk.
captwialia, Wlk
Fan. Pyralid-s, GWn.
Pyralia, Linn.
igniflaalii, Wlk.
Palwalia, Wlk.
recondltalia. Wlk.
Idalmlis, Wlk.
JanattalU, Wlk.
Agkaaa, Lair.
Gnidusalia, Wlk.
Labwnda, Wlk.
harbeali*. Wlk.
Fam. EtntrCBiDA, dtp.
Fyranrta, Sc/o.
•abaittalia, Wlk.
Fam. AaoPiDA, GuAh.
Dcamia, Wtltw.
afflictalif, Gut*.
concisalia, Wlk.
^diodea, Guin.
ftavibasalis, Guin.
efferiBlia, Wlk.
Samaa, Gwht.
gratioaaliu, Wlk.
Aiopia, Gutn.
Tulgalia, G*(n.
hUidicalia, Wlk
abniptalia, Wlk.
lati margin a lis, Wlk.
prateritalis, Wlk.
ErjJtali^ Wlk.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
roridalia, Wlk.
Agathodea, Gain.
ostenlalis, Geytr.
LCDCtllHllcB, Qui*.
orbonalia, Gut*.
Hymenia, Hubs.
rGcnrvalis, Fabr.
Agrotera, Schr.
Suffntalia, Wlk.
decewalta, Wlk.
Isopteryx, Gain.
"melaieucalis, Wlk.
•impoUalis, Wlk,
•npilomeJalis, Wlk.
acelaralia, Wlk.
abnegatalis, Wlk.
Oligostigma. Girea.
obitalu, Wlk.
TOtalia, Wlk.
. Cataclyata,ifcrr.ScA.
di lucid alia, Gair.
biiectalia, Wlk.
blandialia, Wlk.
clutalia, Wtt.
Fam.SpiLOHELiDst, Gu<*».
Lepyrodes, Guln.
geometraliu. Gain.
lepidaiia, Wlk.
peritalia, Wlk.
Phalangiodea, GWn.
Naptiaalia, Crura.
Spilomela, Gain.
meriuUia, IFffi.
abdicalls, 1TO.
dccossalin, Mt.
aorolinealia, WW.
Nittra, Wlk.
ccelatalis, Wlk.
Pagjda, W».
Bnlrnlb, WM.
Maaaepha, WZ*.
abaolntalis, BT*.
Glyphodea, Gin4™.
(horn alia, CWn.
decretal is, Gain.
casiilia, W7A.
onivocalia. Wlk.
Phakellnra, L GaiU.
gazorialia, Gain.
Margarodea, Gain.
pgittacalia, Hiibn.
pom on alls, Gain.
hilaralis, Wlk.
Pygospila, Gain.
Tyrcoalis, Cram.
Nenrina, Gain.
Procopialis, Cram.
ignibaaalla, Wlk.
Borgia, ITU.
defamalia, ITU.
HaruCB, JFU.
raptalU, 1*7*.
cariulia, Wlk.
Fam. ButiDs, Gain.
Botya, iotr.
marginalia, Com.
scllalis. CVn.
niqltiliuealis, Guaa-
admenaalie, Wlk.
abjnngalii, Wlk.
rniilalia, Wlk.
. admixtalia, WH.
celatalia, Wlk.
deduccalis. Wlk.
cekalia, W*.
Tulsalia, Wlk.
ultimatis, Wlk.
tropicalis, Wlk.
abstrusalis, Wlk.
rn rails, Wlk.
adhceaalia, Wlk.
illiaalis, TW*.
ntnltalis, WU.
adductalis, HTA,
hiairicalis, IRi,
iUectalta, Wlk.
snspicalia, Wlk.
Jnnasaalir, Wlk.
Nephealia, Wit.
Cynaralie, Wlk.
Dialis, WH.
Thaiaalia, WW.
Dryopealia, Wlk.
Mjrinalis, Wlk.
phjddalis, Wlk.
annolalia, Wlk
breri lineal in, Wlk.
plagiatalia, Wlk.
Ebulea, Gain.
aberraUilis, Wlk.
Camillalia, Wlk.
Rones, Guin.
actualie, Wlk.
Optiletalis, Wlk.
Jnbeaalis, Wlk.
brevialis, Wlk.
auffuaalis, Wlk.
Seopula, Schr.
rcvocatalia, Wlk.
turgid: J is. Wlk.
volutaldia, Wlk.
Qodara, Wlk.
pcrraaalia, Wlk.
Uerculia, Wlk
bractialis, Wlk.
Mecyna, Gain.
depriralia, Wlk.
Fam. Sooriiuns, Guin.
Scoparia, Haa>.
muriflcalia, Wlk.
congeBlalis, Wlk.
Alconalia, Wlk.
Dwana, Wlk.
Phalantalis, Wlk.
Danania, Wlk.
Niobeaalia, Wlk.
Doaara, Wlk.
coelatella, Wlk.
lapaalia, Wlk.
immeritalia, Wlk.
Nin.cca.ba, Wlk.
mmptialia, Wlk.
Simietiiia, Lem-h,
Clatella, Wlk.
Damonclla, Wlk.
Bathuaella, Wlk.
•
Fam. Phtcid*, Sloint
Mjeloie, Hsbn.
actiosclla, Wlk.
braciiateUft. Wlk.
cantella, Wlk.
adaptella, Wlk.
illnaeUa, Wlk.
baaifnacella, Wlk.
Ligeralia, Wlk.
Manyaaalis, Wlk.
Dascuaa, Wlk.
Valenaalia, Wlk.
Daroma, Wlk.
Zeuxoalia, Wlk.
Epnlnsalia, Wlk.
Timcnaalis, Wlk.
Homoseoma, Curt.
gratella, Wlk.
Gptusella, Wlk
Sephopteryx, Hiibn.
Etolnaalis, Wlk.
CrUoallii, Wlk.
Hylaaalia, Wlk.
Aciaalia, Wlk.
Harpaxalia, Wlk.
-Soloaalia, Wlk
Argiadeaalis, Wlk
Philiasalis, Wlk.
Pempelta, HSbn.
laudateUa, Wlk.
Prion apwrjx, Sttph.
Lincuaalia, Wlk.
oyGoogIc
Pindiciton, Wlk.
Acreonalia, Wlk.
.Aimtualia, Wlk.
Thyibeaalia, Wlk.
IJucensalU, Wlk.
Ladpta, mt
mnicoaeHa, mt
Aruu, Sfepi
admouJK W3*.
decnsella, WW.
celHella, Wlk.
admigratella, Wlk,
casclla, 1V«.
candidatdla, Wit.
Calngela, Wtt.
•djurella, Wli
■cricoetU, WM.
lantuella, Wlk.
Fam. CEnrain.K, Dup.
Cramb qjj, Fair.
coDClaellna, Wlk.
»Mbh«CB, Wtt.
. inceplellB. mt
Jsrthera, Wtt.
honorella, Wlk.
Bulina, WZi
solitella. Wit
Bembina, W/i
CywinMilia, mi
Chilo, Zmck.
dodatella, Wlk.
gnuiowlU, Wit
aditella, Wrt.
blitolla, Wit
Darianea, Wlk.
Eabatalia, m*.
Arrbade, Wlk.
Emaiheonalia, Wlk.
Dameniia, Wlk.
Strephonella, Wit
Thagora, Wlk.
fignrans, Wlk.
Earias, HObn.
chromatana, Wlk.
Fan l Toktmctox, 5r<pi
Loxotaniia, Siro.i
retractana, Wlk.
Pcronea, Curt.
diTiaana, Wlk.
Lithogramroa, Sunk.
fexiiineana, Wlk.
Diclyujiwrjx, Slcpk.
pnnctana, Wlk.
Homona, Wlk.
CEYLON INSECTS.
faacicalana, Wlk.
Hemonio, Wlk.
orbiferua, Wlk.
AchroLa, Habn.
tricmgnl&na, Wlk.
7am. Yponombctid«,
Sttph.
Atteya, m*.
niveigiitw, WU.
Fain. Qbuohid4 Stai*t.
Depreaaaria, i7a».
obligated WW.
flmbriella, Wft.
Decuaria, Wlk.
mendiwll., Wfl.
Gfllechia, JWAn.
nugatalla, Wlk.
calatclla, Wlk.
dednctella, mi
Perionella, Wlk.
Gltama, Wlk.
blandietla, mi
Enitipia, mi
falaella, Wlk.
Gapharia, Wlk.
rocitatclla, Wtt.
Goeaa, mi
decuaella, Wlk.
Cimitra, mi
aeclaaella, mi
Ficolea, Wlk.
blatidnlella, Wlk.
Freailia, mi
ncaciatella, mi
Geaottha, Wlk.
captiosclla, mi
AgiQis, mt
Tiilariella, mi
Cadra, Wlk.
"Wlk.
Gljphyteryx, B&*.
acitulella. mi
Hjbela, Wlk.
manauetella, Wlk.
Fam, TimiDX, Leach.
Tinea, L\ sn.
tapalxella, Linn.
rcoeplsllft, Wlk.
pplionello, Linn.
plagifr rclla, Wlk.
Fam. Ltohitid,*, StainL
Cachura, mi
objectalla, mt
Fani.PTEBOPHORnus, Z«tt
Ptcrophorna, Geoffr.
lcocadactylus, M
oxydactylnn, mi
aniaodactjlos, Wit
Fam. CEciixmjtEiDJt, An/.
Cecidomyia, Lair.
"primaria, WA.
Fam. SiitDLiTkB, Hal.
Fam, Chieobojcd-e, fiat
'albocinctna.
Wlk.
Fan. Cciicidjc, Sl«pA.
Cnlez, Linn.
regioe, Thwaita.
fuscanus, Witd.
circumvolans, Wlk.
contrahens, Wlk.
Fam. Tifut.ib*. Hal.
Ctenoptaora, Fabr.
Taprobanea, Wlk.
Gjmnopligiia? Watm.
hebea, Wlk.
FaHL STKATJOKTO.S, X(l(f.
Pulwera, WW.
quadridentata, Fabr.
fastuoaa, Geiil.
Pachygaatar, Meig.
rnfitarsio, Macq.
Acantbina, Wied,
aiurea, GtiiL
Fam. TabAXIDs, Leach.
Fangonia, Lair.
Taprobanaa, mi
Fam. Aavjfma, Leach.
Trupanea, Macq.
Ceylanica, Macq.
Aailoa, IAm.
flavicomii, Macq.
Barium, Wlk.
oyGoogIc
Catacanthoa, Spin-
iucanifttos, Drttrg.
Rhaphigaiter, Lap.
Wlk.
Fam. Husoicb. Lair.
Taenia*.? Fair.
•tenebrosa, Wlk.
Muaca, Linn.
doraeatica, Linn.
Dacna, Fabr.
•intcrclaius, Wlk.
•nlgrowneua, Wlk.
•delentaa, Wlk.
OrtaUs, Fott.
•con fund wis, tfi*.
SdomjBa, FaB.
•leucotelu*, Wlk.
DroRophila, FaB.
•reatitaena, »T*.
Njcteribia, £oo-.
? a specica
parasitic on Bca-
tophihu Coromaa-
delicus, Bligh. Sec
ante, p. 161.
Order Kemlptor*. Linn.
Fam, PACE YCOBIDA ■/■*<""■
Cantuo, Anu/ot j- Sere.
ocellatna, 7Sub4.
Callidea, Zap.
anperba, Dnfl.
Stockcnu, iiitn.
Fam. Pl j-tsbpiixi, Datf.
Fam. Halydicw, Hall.
Fata. PKHT ATOK1TM5,
StepA.
Pentatoma, Ofin
Ti mo re n sen sis, ffqp*.
TaprobanenaU, Doft
Fam. Edebstd-e, JJuJt
Aapongopna, Lap.
anas, Fabr.
Teueraloma, £qj. §■
papillose, Dnay.
Cjclopelta, An. j- Sera.
siccifol 1 ft, Hope.
Fam. Micttdjb, DaiZ,
Mictis, Leach.
caatanea. Dull.
Talida, -DoC.
pnncrnm. Hop*.
Crinoceros, Burnt.
ponderosna, Wlk.
¥ am . Animmcexid m,l>alt.
Leptoeceiia, Lap.
ventralie, Dall
turpis, HT*.
marginalia, HT*.
Serinetha, Spat.
Taprobanenaia, Doll
abdominal!*. Fair.
Fam. Ai.TnrD.jt, DaR.
Alydns, Fair.
linearia, Fair.
Fam. Corehu", Sup*.
Bhopaloe, 5cftiE
interruptna, Tftt.
Fam. Lra.xrax, WetAe.
LygicaB, Fair.
luteacens, Wlk.
flgurataa, Wlk.
discifer, Wlk.
Bhrparochromns. Curt.
Wlk.
Fam. Akadidjb, fftt.
Fam. Total n& Wis.
CalloDUaa, Wlk.
•elegaoa, WZ*.
Fam. Cimcin*, Wlk.
Cimex, £■«.
lectulariua, Xon.?
Fam. RKDtiTiiDje, SfcpJL
Pirate*, BarM.
margiaalue, Wlk.
AcantheipisTj4»«J'Ser».
aanguinipee, IrVi
folTitpina, Wlk.
Fam. Kefidje, X«oea.
Belostoma, Latr.
Indicant, St Farg. $
Fam.NoTOJiBCTiD«,Slep*.
Notonecta, Linn.
abbreviata, Wlk.
simplex, Wlk.
Corixa, Gtoff.
•■abjanna, Fit
Order Komopttm. Latr.
Fam. CicADiuji, Wh&p.
Dnndnbia, Aa J- So*.
atipata, Wft.
Clonia, W*.
Laras, Wlk.
Cicada, Lam.
limitaria, Wlk
nnbifnrca, WUt.
Fam.FuLGOBiD*, Sckaum.
Hotinos, Am. j-So»
macnlatns, (Win.
fulTiroKrij, Wlk,
coccineos, Wlk
Pjropt, Spat.
punctata, One.
oyGoogIe
CEYLON INSECTS.
Aptnena, Quit:
■anguinalu, Weitic.
Elidipie™, Spit.
Emeraouiana, White.
Faro. CtxnaM, WIA.
Enrybrachja, Guer.
tomentosa, Fabr.
dilaiala, Wlk.
crudelU, Westtc.
Cilios, Latr.
•nobiloa, WIA.
Fam. Iuim, Wlk.
Hemispbrerins, Schaum.
•Schanmi, StaL
•bipmtnlaius, WIA.
Fun. Dikbid-e, Scliaum.
Thracia, Wcifto.
pterophorideB, VFnfw.
Dcrbc, Fair.
Fain. Fljlttida, ScAoiol
Flatoides, Gufr.
hjalintu, Fa6r.
tenebrotna, Wlk.
Hicaniii, Gent.
Heraerobii, Wlk.
Pceciloptera, Lair.
palvcmleiita, Guer.
Mellaril, WO.
Teanentina, White.
Fam. Mekbraciixi, Wlk.
Oxyrhachis, Germ.
•IndicaiiB, WTA.
Ceil trains, JaAr.
•reponens, Wtt.
•malleus, Wlk.
subslitatus, Wlk.
•decipiena, WIA.
•relinqiiBns. Wlk.
•Imitator, Wlk.
•represan*, Wlk.
•tennmrUia, WIA.
Fam. Ckrcopick, Leach.
Fam. TBrriooKiicE, Wtt.
Fam. Seuunum, WIA.
loin, Fabr.
mgosa, H7*.
conica, HTA.
Qjpono, Gem.
pragma, Wit.
Fam. Iamid«, WTO.
Fam. PaTLuoa, £afr.
Fam. Cocoida, Xeacn.
Lecaninm, JZho.
CWeta, mt
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
ABACHNIDA— MTRIOPODA — CRUSTACEA, ETC.
With a few striking exceptions, the true spiders of
Ceylon resemble in oeconomy and appearance those we
are accustomed to see at home. They frequent the
houses, the gardens, the rocks and the stems of trees
and along the sunny paths, where the forest meets the
open country, the Epeira and her congeners, the true
net-weaving spiders, extend their lacework, the grace of
their designs being even less attractive than the beauty
of the creatures that elaborate them.
Those of them that live in the woods select with sin-
gular sagacity the bridle-paths and narrow passages for
expanding their nets ; no doubt perceiving that die Jarger
insects frequent these openings for facility of movement
through the jungle ; and that the smaller ones are car-
ried towards them by currents of air. Their nets are
stretched across the path from four to eight feet above
the ground, suspended from projecting shoots, and at-
tached, if possible, to thorny shrubs ; and these sometimes
exhibit the most remarkable scenes of carnage and
destruction. I have taken down a ball as large as a
man's head consisting of successive layers rolled together,
in the heart of which was the den of the family, whilst
the envelope was formed, sheet after sheet, by coils of
the old web filled with the wings and limbs of insects
of all descriptions, from large moths and butterflies
to mosquitoes and minute coleoptera. Each layer
appeared to have been originally hung across the
passage to intercept the expected prey ; and, as it became
surcharged with carcases, to have been loosened, tossed
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
•. VII.]
CEYLON INSECTS.
over by the wind or its own weight, and wrapped round
the nucleus in the centre, the spider replacing it by a
fresh sheet, to be in turn detached and added to the
mass within.
Walckenaer has described a spider of large size, under
the name of Olios Taprobanius, which is very common
and conspicuous from the fiery hue of the under surface,
the remainder being covered with gray hair so short
and fine that the body seems almost denuded. It spins
a moderate-sized web, hung vertically between two sets
of strong lines, stretched one above the other athwart
the pathways. Some of the cords thus carried hori-
zontally from tree to tree at a considerable height from
the ground are so strong as to cause a painful check
across the face when moving quickly against them ; and
more than once in riding I have had my hat lifted off my
head by a single line.1
Separated by marked peculiarities of structure, as well
as of instinct, from the spiders which live in the open
air, and busy themselves in providing food during the
day, the Mygale fasciata is not only sluggish in its habits,
but disgusting in its form and dimensions. Its colour is a
gloomy brown, interrupted by irregular blotches and faint
bands (whence its trivial name) ; it is sparingly sprinkled
with hairs, and its limbs, when expanded, stretch over
an area of six to eight inches in diameter. It is familiar
to Europeans in Ceylon, who have given it the name,
and ascribed to it the fabulous propensities,- of the
Tarentula.*
' Over the country generally aw
scattered species of Qarteracanlha,
remarkable for their firm shell-co-
vered bodies, with projecting knobs
arranged in pairs. In habit these
anomalous-looldng Epdrtda appear
to differ in no respect front the
rest of the family, waylaying their
prey in similar situation* and in the
Another very singular subgenus,
met with in Ceylon, is distinguished
by the abdomen being dilated behind,
and armed with two long spines, arch-
ing obliquely backwards. These ab-
normal kinds are not so handsomely
coloured as the smaller species of
typical form.
* 8pecies of the true larentula are
not uncommon in Ceylon ; they are
•all of very small size, and perfectly
harmless.
oyGoogIc
By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it
issues at night to feed on larvae and worms, devouring
cockroaches1 and their pupa;, and attacking the mille-
peda, gryllotalpEe, and other fleshy insects. The Mygale
is found abundantly in the northern and eastern parts
of the island, and occasionally in dark unfrequented
apartments in the western province ; but its inclinations
are solitary, and it shuns the busy traffic of towns.
Ticks. — Ticks are to be classed among the intolerable
nuisances to the Ceylon traveller. They live in immense
numbers in the jungle3, and attaching themselves to
the plants by the two forelegs, lie in wait to catch at
unwary animals as they pass. A shower of these dirni-
' Mr. Edgab L. Layakb has de-
scribed the encounter between a My-
gale and a cockroach, which he wit-
nessed in the madua of a temple at
Alittane, between Anarajapoora and
Dambool. When about a yard apart,
each discerned the other and stood
ier with his legs slightlj
b body raised, the cock-
i and directing
his antennas with s restless undu-
lation towards his enemy. The
spider, by stealthy movements, ap-
proached to within a few Inches and
paused, both parties eyeing each other
intently : then suddenly a rush, a
scuffle, and both fell to the ground,
when the blatta's wings closed, the
spider seized it under the throat
with his claws, and dragging it into
a corner, the action of his jaws was
distinctly audible. Next morning
Mr. Layard found the soft parts of
the body had been eaten, nothing but
the head, thorax, and elytra remain-
ing.— Ann. ty Mag. Nat. Hid. Hay,
• Dr. HOOKEB, in
Journal, vol. i. p. 279, in speaking of
the multitude of these creatures in
the mountains of Nepal, wonders
what they find to feed on, as in these
humid forests in which they literally
swarmed, there was neither pathway
nor animal life. In Ceylon they
abound everywhere in the plains on"
the low brushwood ; and in the yery
driest seasons they are quite as nu-
merous as at other times. In the
mountain zone, which is more humid,
they are less prevalent Dogs are
tormented by them; sod they display
something closely allied to cunning'
in always fastening on an animal in
those parts where they cannot be
torn off by his paws ; on his eye-
brows, the tips of his ears, and the
back of his neck. With a corre-
sponding instinct I have always ob-
served in the gambols of the Pariah
dogs, that they invariably commence
their attentions by mutually gnawing
each other's ears and necks, as if in
pursuit of ticks from places from
which each is unable to expel them
for himself. Horses have a similar
instinct ; and when they meet, they
apply their teeth to the roots of the
ears of their companions, to the neck
and the crown of the head. The
buffaloes and oxen are relieved of
ticks by the crows which rest on
their backs as they browse, and free
them from these pests. In the low
country the same acceptable office is
Grformed by the "cattle-keeper
ron " (Araea hubukut), which is
" sure to be found In attendance on
them while grazing; and the animals
seem to know their benefactors, and
stand quietly, while the birds peck
their tormentors from their flanks.'' —
Mag. Nat. Hid. p. Ill, 1844.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Da**. VH.] MTBIAPODB. 887
nutive vermin will sometimes drop from a branch, if
unluckily shaken, and disperse themselves over the body,
each fastening on the neck, the ears, and eyelids, and
inserting a barbed proboscis. They burrow, with their
heads pressed aa far as practicable under the skin, causing
a sensation of smarting, aa if particles of red hot sand
had been scattered over the flesh. If torn from their
hold, the suckers remain behind and form an ulcer.
The only safe expedient is to tolerate the agony of
their penetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the
juice of a lime can be applied, when these little furies
drop off without further ill consequences. One very
large species, dappled with grey, attaches itself to the
buffaloes.
Mites. — The Trombidium tinctorum of Hermann is
found about Aripo, and generally over the northern pro-
vinces, — where after a shower of rain or heavy night's
dew, they appear in countless myriads. It is about half
an inch long, like a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts
its colouring matter readily to any fluid in which it may
be immersed. It feeds on vegetable juices, and is per-
fectly innocuous. Its European representative, similarly
tinted, and found in garden mould, is commonly called
the " little red pillion."
Mtblapods. — The certainty with which an accidental
pressure or unguarded touch is resented and retorted by
a bite, makes the centipede, when it has taken up its
temporary abode within a sleeve or the fold of a dress,
by far the most unwelcome of all the Singhalese assail-
ants. The great size, too (little short of a foot in length),
to which it sometimes attains, renders it formidable ; and,
apart from the apprehension of unpleasant consequences
from a wound, one shudders at the bare idea of such
hideous creatures crawling over the skin, beneath the
innermost folds of one's garments.
^t the head of the Myrxapodst and pre-eminent from
a superiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus
CermaHa : singular-looking objects ; mounted upon slen-
DoilzcdoyGoOglc
308 ZOOLOGY. [Pin II.
der legs, of gradually increasing length from front to
roar, the hind ones in some species being amazingly
prolonged, and all handsomely marked with brown
annuli in concentric arches. These myriapods are
harmless, excepting to woodlice, spiders, and young
cockroaches, which form their ordinary prey. They
are rarely to be seen ; but occasionally at daybreak,
after a more than usually abundant repast, they may
be observed motionless, and resting with their regularly
extended limbs nearly flat against the walls. On being
disturbed they dart away with a surprising velocity,
to conceal themselves in chinks until the return of
night
But the species to be really dreaded are the true
Scolopendrce, which are active and carnivorous, living
in holes in old walls and other gloomy dens. One
species 1 attains to nearly the length of a foot, with cor-
responding breadth ; it is of a dark purple colour, "ap-
proaching black, with yellowish legs and antenna?, and
its whole aspect repulsive and frightful It is strong
and active, and evinces an eager disposition to fight
when molested. The Scolopendrce are gifted by nature
with a rigid coriaceous armour, which does not yield
to common pressure, or even to a moderate blow ; so
that they often escape the most well-deserved and well-
directed attempts to destroy them, seeking refuge in
retreats which effectually conceal them from sight
There is a smaller scorpion a, that frequents dwelHng-
1 Scotopmdra cnu/a, Temp. s Stxkpmdra paBfpe*.
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
Chap. VII.] HILLIPEDS. WO
houses ; it ib about one quarter the size of the preceding,
and of a dirty olive colour, with pale ferruginous legs.
It is this species that generally inflicts the wound, when
persons complain of being bitten by a scorpion ; and
if has a mischievous propensity for insinuating itself
into the folds of dress. The bite at first does not occa-
sion more suffering than would arise from the pene-
tration of two coarsely-pointed needles ; but after a
little time the wound swells, becomes acutely painful,
and if it be over a bone or any other resisting part,
the sensation is so intolerable as to produce fever. The
agony subsides after a few hours' duration. In some
cases the bite is unattended by any particular degree of
annoyance, and in these instances it is to be supposed
that the contents of the poison gland had become ex-
hausted by previous efforts, since, if much tasked, the
organ requires rest to enable it to resume its accustomed
functions and to secrete a supply of venom.
Millipeds. — In the hot dry season, and more especially
in the northern portions of the island, the eye is attracted
along the edges of the sandy roads by fragments of the
dislocated rings of a huge species of millipede1, lying in
short, curved tubes, the cavity admitting the tip of the
little finger. When perfect the creature is two-thirds
of a foot long, of a brilliant jet black, and with above a
hundred yellq^v legs, which, when moving onward, pre-
sent the appearance of a series of undulations from rear
to front, bearing the animal gently forwards. This
julus is harmless, and may be handled with perfect im-
punity. Its food consists chiefly of fruits and the roots
and stems of succulent vegetables, its jaws not being
framed for any more formidable purpose. Another
and a very pretty species 2, quite as black, but with
a bright crimson band down the back, and the legs
similarly tinted, is common in the gardens about Co-
lombo and throughout the western province.
i Jalut ater, " Juhu eanufex, Fab.
i ..Google
Cbustacea. — The seas around Ceylon abound with
marine articulata ; but a knowledge of the Crustacea of
the island is at present a desideratum ; and with the
exception of the few commoner species that frequent
the shores, or are ofiered in the markets, we are literatfy
without information, excepting the little that can be
gleaned from already published systematic works.
In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are ex-
posed for sale ; and amongst the delicacies at the tables
of Europeans, curries made from prawns and lobsters
are the triumphs of the Ceylon cuisine. Of these latter
the fishermen sometimes exhibit specimens 1 of extra-
ordinary dimensions, and of
a beautiful purple hue, varie-
gated with white. Along the
level shore north and south- of
Colombo, and in no less pro-
calliuo okas of cbylon fusion elsewhere, the nimble
little Calling Crabs 2 scamper
over the moist sands, carrying aloft the enormous
hand (sometimes larger than the rest of the body),
which is their peculiar characteristic, and which, from
its beckoning gesture, has suggested their popular
name. They hurry to conceal themselves in the deep
retreats which they hollow out in the banks that border
the sea.
Sand Crabs. — In the same localities, or a little farther
inland, the ocypode6 burrows in the dry soil, making
deep excavations, bringing up literally armfuls of sand ;
which with a spring in the air, and employing its other
limbs, it jerks far from its burrows, distributing it in
a circle to the distance of several feet.4 So inconvenient
are the operations of these industrious pests that men
1 Paknunu ornattu, Fab. I ■ Ocypode ctratopWalmui, VtH
* Qdanmti* letragrmon f Edw. ; (?. + Am. Hat. Mitt. April, 1852.
annuHpett Edw.; O, DuuumitriT \ Paper by Mr. Edgar I,. T.ithhi,
oyGoogIe
Chap. VII] ASH EI JDS, 901
are kept regularly employed at Colombo in filling up
the holes formed by them on the surface of the Galle
face. This, the only equesijian promenade of the
capital, is so infested by these active little creatures
that accidents often occur by horsey stumbling in their
troublesome excavations.
Painted Crabs. — On the reef of rocks which lies to
the south of the harbour at Colombo, the beautiful little
painted crabs ', distinguished by dark red markings on a
yellow ground, may be seen .all day long running nimbly
in. the spray, and ascending and descending in security
the almost perpendicular sides of the rocks which are
washed by the waves. Paddling Crabs 2, with the hind
pair of legs terminated by flattened plates to assist them
in swimming, are brought up in the fishermen's nets.
Hermit Crabs take possession of the deserted shells of
the univalves, and crawl in pursuit of garbage along
the moist beach. Prawns and shrimps furnish deli-
cacies for the breakfast table ; and the delicate little
pea crab, Pontonia infiata*, recalls its Mediterranean
congener4, which attracted the attention of Aristotle,
from taking up its habitation in the shell of the living
pinna.
Annelto^e. — The marine Annelides of the island
have not as yet been investigated ; a cursory glance,
however, amongst the stones on the beach at Trinco-
malie and in the pools, that afford convenient basins
for examining them, would lead to the belief that the
marine species are not numerous ; tubicole genera, as
well as some nereids, are found, but there seems to be
little diversity, though it is not impossible that a
closer scrutiny might be repaid by the discovery of
some interesting forms.
Leeches. — Of all the plagues which beset the traveller
1 Grapsus ntrigoims, Herbst. | * MnJTB Edw. Bitt. Nat. Crtttf.
1 NeptMMi* pthgicut, Linn. ; A' vol. ii. p. 360.
wtiatolaUtu, Herbst, &c. && | * Pamolheret vtienan.
oyGoogIc
in the rising grounds of Ceylon, the most detested are
the land leeches.1 They are not frequent in the plains.
1 H&ttwtlipsu Ceyhmica, Bosc.
Blainv. These pests are "not, how-
ever, confined to Ceylon ; they infest
the lower ranges of the Himalaya.
— Hoom, vol. i. p. 107 ; vol. ii.
p. 54. Thtnbeeo, who records
(TraveU, vol. it. p. 232) having seen
them in Ceylon, likewise met with
them in the forests and slopes of
Batavia. Mabsden (Hut, p. 311)
complains of them dropping on tra-
vellers in Sumatra. Knors found
them at Japan ; and it is affirmed
that they abound in islands farther
to the eastward. M. Gay encoun-
tered them in Chili. — MoaulS-
Tandon (ffirr«toi^«, p. 211, 3-W). It
is very doubtful, however, whether
all these are to be referred to one
rios. M. i»: Biatnville, under
Ceylanicaj in the Diet, de Scitn.
Wat. vol. xlvii. p. 271, azotes M. Bosc
as authority for the kind which that
naturalist describes being "rouges et
tachete'ea ; " which is scarcely ap-
Slienble to the Singhalese species.
! ie more than probable therefore,
considering the period at which
M. Bosc wrote, that he obtained hie
information from travellers to the
further east, and has connected with
the habitat universally ascribed to
them from old Knox's work (Part L
chap, vi) a meagre description, more
properly belonging to the land leech
of Batavia or Japan. In all like-
lihood, therefore, there may be a
II. Boacii, distinct from the II. Cey-
l/inica. That which is found in Cey-
lon is round, a little flattened on the
inferior surface, largest at the anal
extremity, thence gradually taper-
ing forward, and with the anal socket
composed of four rings, and wider in
proportion than in otoer species. It
is of a clear brown colour, with a
yellow stripe the entire length of each
side, and a greenish dorsal one. The
body is formed of 100 rings ; the eyea,
of which there are five pairs, are
E laced in an arch on the dorsal sur-
tce; the first four pairs occupying
Contiguous rings (thus differing from
the water-leeches, which hare an un-
occupied ring betwixt the third and
fourth); the fifth pair are located on
the seventh ring, two vacant rings in-
tervening. To fir, Th wai tea, Director
of the Botanic Garden at Peradenia,
who at my request examined their
structure minutely, I am indebted for
the following most interesting particu-
lars respecting them. "I have been
giving a little time to the examination
of the land leech. I find it to have
five pairs of ocelli, the first four
seated on corresponding segments,
and the posterior pair on the seventh
segment or ring, the fifth and sixth
rings being eyeless (Jig. A). The
mouth is very retractile, and the
aperture is shaped as *in ordinary
leechee. The serratures of the teeth,
or rather the teeth themselves, are
very beautiful. Each of the three
"teeth," or cutting instruments, is
principally muscular, the muscular
body being very clearly seen. The
rounded edge in which the teeth are
set appears to be cartilaginous in
structure ; the teeth are very nume-
rous, (Jig. B) ; but some near the bass
have a curious appendage, apparently
(I have not yet made this out quite sa-
tisfactorily) set upon one aide. I have
not yet been able to detect the anal
or sexual pores. The anal sucker
seems to be formed of four rings,
and on each side above is a sort of
crenated flesh-like appendage. The
tint of the common species U yellow-
ish-brown or snuff-coloured, streaked
with black, with a yellow-greenish
dorsal, and another lateral line along
oyGoogIe
Chap. VII.] LEECHES. - 803
which are too hot and dry for them-; but amongst the
rank vegetation in the lower ranges of the hill country,
which is kept damp by frequent showers, they are found
in tormenting profusion. They are terrestrial, never
visiting ponds or streams. In size they are about an
inch in length, and as fine as a common knitting needle ;
but capable of distension till they equal a quill in thick-
ness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their
structure is so flexible that they can insinuate them-
selves through the meshes of the finest stocking, not
only seizing on the feet and ankles, but ascending to*
the back and throat and fastening on the tenderest
parts of the body. The coffee planters, who live amongst
these pests, are obliged, in order to exclude them, to
envelope their legs in " leech gaiters " made of closely
woven cloth. The natives smear their bodies with oil,
tobacco ashes, or lemon juice 1 ; the latter serving not
only to stop the flow of blood, but to expedite the
healing of the wounds. In moving, the land leeches
have the power of planting one extremity on the earth
and raising the other perpendicularly to watch for their
victim. Such is their vigilance and instinct, that on
the approach of a passer-by to a spot which they
infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen
leaves on the edge of a native path, poised erect, and
preparing for their attack on man and horse. On
ita whole length. There is a larger
species to be found in this garden
with a broad green dorsal fascia ;
but I have not been able to procure
one although I have offered a small
reward to any coolie who will bring
me one." In a subsequent commu-
nication Mr. Thwaitee remarks "that
the dorsal longitudinal fascia is of the
mime width as the lateral ones, and
differs only in being perhaps slightly
more green ; the colour of the three
fasciie varies from brownish-yellow
to bright green." He likewise states
"that the rings which compose the
body are just 100, and the teeth 70
to 80 in each set, in a single row,
except to one end, where they are in
a double row."
1 The Minorite friar, Odokic of
Portenau, writing in a.d. 1820, save
that the gem-finders who sought tie
t'ewels around Adam's Peak, " take
emons which they peel, anointing
themselves with the juice thereof, so
that the leeches may not be able to
hurt them." — Haxlcyt, Voy. vol. ii.
p. 58.
oyGoogIc
304 * ZOOLOGY. [Part II.
descrying their prey they advance rapidly by semi-
circular strides, fixing one end firmly and arching the
other forwards, till by successive advances they can
lay hold of the traveller's foot, when they disengage
themselves from the ground and ascend his dress ia
search of an aperture to enter. In these encounters
the individuals in the rear of a party of travellers
in the jungle, invariably fare worst, as the leeches,
once warned of their approach, congregate with sin-
gular celerity. Their size is so insignificant, and the
wound they make is so skilfully punctured, that both
are generally imperceptible, and the first intima-
tion of their onslaught is the trickling of the blood
or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins to
hang heavily ou the skin from being distended by
its repast. Horses are driven wild by them, and
stamp the ground in fury to shake them from their
fetlocks, to which they hang in bloody tassels. The
bare legs of the palankin bearers and coolies are a
favourite resort ; and, their hands being too much en-
gaged to be spared to pull them off, the leeches hang
like bunches of grapes round their ankles ; and I have
seen the blood literally flowing over the edge of a
European's shoe from their innumerable bites. In
healthy constitutions the wounds, if not irritated, gene-
rally heah occasioning no other inconvenience than a
slight inflammation and itching ; but in those with a
bad state of body, the punctures, if rubbed, are liable
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cbap. VII.] LEECHEST**" — - * ■ *M
to degenerate into ulcers, which may lead to the loss of limb
or even of life. Both Marshall and Davy mention, that
during the march of troops in the mountains, when the
Kandyans were in rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and
especially the Madras sepoys, with the pioneers and coolies,
suffered so severely from this cause that numbers of
them perished.1
One circumstance regarding these land leeches is re-
markable and unexplained ; they are helpless without
moisture, and in the hills w,here they abound at all
other times, they entirely disappear during long droughts ;
— yet re-appear instantaneously on the very first fall of
rain ; and in spots previously* parched, where not one
was visible an hour before, a single shower is sufficient
to reproduce them in thousands, lurking beneath the
decaying leaves, or striding with rapid movements
across the gravel. Whence do they re-appear? Do
they, too, take a "summer sleep," like the reptiles,
molluscs, and tank fishes ? or may they, like the Roti/era,
be dried up and preserved for an indefinite period,
resuming their vital activity on the mere recurrence of
moisture ?
Besides a species of the medicinal leech, which2 is
1 Davy's Ceylon, p. 104 ; Mae-
bhall's CtyUm, p. 15. .
3 Hirudo tatu/uitorba. The paddi-
6eld leech of Ceylon, used for sur-
gical purposes. Las the dorsal sur-
face of blackish olive, with eevei
longitudinal stripe, more or leas d
fined ; the crenated maivin yello'
The ventral surface ia fulvous, bor-
dered laterally with olive ; the i
treme margin yellow. The eyes are
ranged mi;
VOL. I.
the common medicinal
leech of Europe; the four anterior ones
rather larger than the others. The
teeth are 140 in each series, appearing
as a single row; in size diminishing
gradually from one end, very close
set, and about half the width of a
tooth apart. When full (frown, these
leeches are about two niches long,
but reaching to six inches when ex-
tended. Hr. Thwaites, to whom I
am indebted for these particulars,
adds that he saw in a tank atKolona
Korle leeches which appeared to him
flatter and of a darker colour than
those described above, bnt that he
had not an opportunity of examining
them particularly. •
Mr. Thwaites states that there is a
smaller tank leech of an olive-green
colour, with some indistinct longi-
tudinal stria) on the upper surface j
oyGoogIe
900 ZOOLOGY. [Part II.
found in Ceylon, nearly double the size of the Europeau
one, and with a prodigious faculty of engorging blood,
there iB another pest in the low country, which is a
source of considerable annoyance, and often of loss, to
the husbandman. This is the cattle leech1, which
infests the stagnant pools, chiefly in the alluvial lands
around the base of the mountain zone, whither the
cattle resort by day, and the wild animals by night, to
quench their thirst and to bathe. Lurking amongst
the rank vegetation that .fringes these deep pools, and
hid by the broad leaves, or concealed among the stems
and roots covered by the water, there are quantities of
these pests in wait to attach the animals on their approach
to drink. Their natural food consists of the juices of
lumbrici and other invertebrata ; but they generally
avail themselves of the opportunity afforded by the
dipping of the muzzles of the animals into the water
to fasten on their nostrils, and by degrees to make
their way to the deeper recesses of the nasal passages,
and the mucous membranes of the throat and gullet.
As many as a dozen have been found attached to the
epiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing such
irritation and submucous effusion that death has even-
the crcnated margin of e pale yellow-
ish-green ; ocelli as in the paddi-field
leech ; length, one inch at rest, three
inches when extended.
• Mr. E. L. Latasd informs us, Mag.
Nat. Hid. p. 226, 1863, that a bub-
bling spring at the Tillage of Tou-
njotoo, three miles S. W. of Moele-
tivoe, supplies most of the leeches
used in the island. Those in use at
Colombo are obtained in the briine-
1 JItstnopsis pallidum. In size the
catfts leech of Ceylon is somewhat
larger than the medicinal leech of
Europe.; in colour it is of a uniform
brown without bands, unless a rufous
margin may be so considered. It
has dark strin. The body is some-
what rounded, flat when swimming,
and composed of rather more than
ninety rings. The greatest dimen-
sion is a little in advance of the anal
sucker; the body thence tapers to
the other extremity, which ends in
an upper lip projecting considerably
beyond the mouth. The eyes, ten in
number, are disposed as in the com-
mon leech. The mouth is oval, the
biting apparatus with difficulty seen,
and the teeth not very numerous.
The bite is so little acute that the
moment of attachment and the inci-
sion of the membrane is scarcely
perceived by the sufferer from its
oyGoogIe
Chap. VII.] AftlCPLATA. 307
tually ensued ; and so tenacious are the leeches that even
after death they retain their hold for some hours.1
Achorentes coccinea.
Lcpisma nigrofasciiita, Temp.
Buthua aftr, Linn.
Cejlouicas, Koch.
Scorpio lincarii.
Cbelifer librorum.
Obiainm cruttifintur.
Phryout loiiatua. Pall.
Thelj-phonus caodatns, Linn.
Ptialsnginm biiignatum.
Mygalu nuciata, Wale*.
Olios taprobanius, Walck.
NepMa ?
Trombidioui tinctomm, Harm,
Oribota ?
Cemia'.ia dkpar.
Jji thobiui 'lanbratilit .
Scolopendra cratta.
epinosn, JVeicp.
Grajfii t Ntwp.
tubercnlideiut, Nttop.
Ceylouensis, Newp.
flava, Nticp.
Craspedoj
iPolydesmi
CRUSTACEA.
Sempoda, biMlvwa.
Fclgbna.
Neptunua pelagieQB, Linn.
fianguinolemus, Habxt.
Thalainita . . . . f
ThelpbuBa Indica, Latr.
Cardismia . . . . 7
Ocypoda ceratophthalmnfl, Pall.
naerocera, Ettw.
Gclasimufl tttra aonon, Eda.
anmdipa. Elite.
Macrophthatmus carinii/ianu
Grapsus motor, Fortk.
strigosus, Herbal.
Plagaeia depressa, Fair.
Cakppa philaisoi, Liim.
tuberculatum Fair.
Mutntu victor, Fabr.
Le ncoria J^gax, Fabr.
Dortppt.
Hippa Asiatica, Edw.
Pagttttu afflnia, 2M*.
piMctiiiitiu, Qliv.
VoTceUana ....
,Za(r.
1 Even men, when stooping to
drink at a pool, are not safe from the
assault of the cattle leeches. They
cannot penetrate the human akin,
but the delicate membrane of the
mucous passages is easily ruptured
by their serrated jaws. Instances
have come to my knowledge of Eu-
ropeans into whose nostrils they have
gained admission and caused serious
disturbance.
oyGoogIe
ZOOLoA
gcjlluiu oricxlala. Fab.
Palinnrns ornatnl, Fab.
qffinv, N.S.
Alpheia '. '■ ■ *
Pontani* inflala, Eda.
Fklntnon carciniu, Fair.
BlecopqJ . . . • 1
CIR1UBIFED1A.
TnbkMl*.
Dombranchiata.
AbrmcMa.
Hirudo mtgttUoibu.
B*mop«ii pabulum.
HnmsdipM O/lana, Blab™.
Lnmbrlcni .... ?
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
PART III.
TIIE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
* a,., i,, Google
oyGoogIe
SOURCES OP SINGHALESE HISTORT. — THE MAHAWANSO AND
OTHER NATIVE ANNALS.
It was long affirmed by Europeans that the Singhalese an-
nals, like those of the Hindus, were destitute of interest or
devoid of value as historical elements ; that, viewed as re-
ligious disquisitions, they were no better than the ravings
of fanaticism, and that myths and romances had been re-
duced to the semblance of national chronicles. Such was
the opinion of the Portuguese writers De Barroh and De
Codto; and Valentin, who, about the year 1725, pub-
lished his great work on the Dutch possessions in India,
states his conviction that no reliance can be placed on such
of the Singhalese books as profess to record the ancient
condition of their country. These he held to be even of
less authority than the traditions of the same events
which had descended from father to son. On the in-
formation of learned Singhalese, (drawn apparently from
the Rajavali,) he commenced an account of the native sove-
reigns, froift the earliest times to the arrival of the Portu-
guese ; but, wearied by the monotonous inanity of the
story, he omitted every reign between the fifth and
fifteenth centuries of the Christian era.1
A writer, who, under the signature of Philalethes,
published, in 1816, A History of Ceylon from the earliest
period, adopted the dictum of Valentyn, and contented
himself with still further condensing the " account,"
which the latter had given " of the ancient Emperors
1 Valehtyk, Oud en Hieua Ood-lndim, §c, La/tdbachn/t-ing van t' Eylaiid
Ceglo*, ch. it. p. 80.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
[Pi.
and Kings " of the island. Dr. Davy compiled the
portion of his excellent narrative which has reference
to the early history of Kandy, chiefly from the recitals
of the most intelligent natives, borrowed, as in the
case of the informants of Valentyn, from the perusal of
popular legends ; but he and every other author unac-
quainted with the native language, who wrote on Ceylon
previous to 1833, assumed without inquiry the non-
existence of historic data,1
It was not till about the year 1826 that the discovery
was made and communicated to Europe, that whilst the
hiBtory of India was only to be conjectured from epic myths
and elaborated from the dates on copper grants, or fading
inscriptions on rocks and columns8, Ceylon could boast
the possession of continuous written chronicles, rich in
authentic facts, and not only presenting a connected his-
tory of the island itself, but also yielding valuable mate-
rials for elucidating that of India. At the moment when
Prinsep was deciphering the mysterious Buddhist inscrip-
tions, scattered over Hindustan and Western India, and
when Csoma de Korros was unrolling the Buddhist records
of Thibet, and Hodgson those of Nepaul, a fellow-labourer of
kindred genius was successfully exploring the Pali manu-
scripts of Ceylon, and developing results not less re-
markable nor less conducive to the illustration of the
early history of Southern. Asia. Mr. Tumour, a civil
officer of the Ceylon service8, was then administering
1 Datt'b Ceylon, ch. x. p. 293. See
also Pbbcital s Ceylon, p. 4.
1 ReINAItD, Mtnimrt.surl'Inde,-p.'&.
3 Ukokoe Tubnouk was the eldest
son of the Hon. George Tumour,
sod of the first Earl of Winterton ;
his mother being Emilie, niece to the
Cardinal Due de Be&usaet. He was
bom in Ceylon in 1799, and having
been educated in England under the
guardianship of the Right Hon. Sir
Thomas Maifland, then gov enior of
the island, he entered the Civil Sen-ice
ml818, in which he rose to the highest
rank. He was equally distinguished
by his abilities and by his modest
display of them. Interpreting in its
largest sense the duty enjoined on
him, as a public officer, of acquiring
a knowledge of the" native languages,
he extended his studies, from the
vernacular and written Singhalese
to Pali, the great root and original
of both, known only to tie Buddhist
priesthood, and imperfectly and even
rarely amongst them. No diction-
"Google
. L]
SOURCES OF SINGHALESE BISTORT.
the government of the district of Saflragam, and resided
at Katnapoora near the foot of Adam's Peak. He
-was enabled to pursue his studies under the guidance
aries then existed to assist in defining
the meaning of Pali terms which no
teacher could be found capable of ren-
dering into English, eo that Mr. Tur-
nour was entirely dependent on his
knowledge of Singhalese as a medium
for translating theni. To an ordinary
mind such obstructions would have
proved insurmountable, aggravated
aa they were by discouragements
arising from the assumed barrenness
of the field, and the absence of all
sympathy with his pursuits, on the
part of those around him, who re-
served their applause and encour-
agement till success had rendered
him indifferent to either. From this
apathy of the government officers.
Major Forbes, who was then the
resident at Matelle, was honour-
ably exempt ; and his narrative of
Eleifti Year* m Ceylon shows with
what ardour and succors he shared
the tastes and cultivated the studies
to which he had been directed by the
genius and example of Tumour. So
zealous and unobtrusive were the
re of the value and extent
of his acquirements till apprised of
their importance and profundity by
the acclamation with which his dis-
coveries and translations from die
Pali were received by the sevens of
Europe. Major Forbes, in a private
letter, which I have been permitted
to see, speaking of the difficulty of
doing justice to the literary cha-
racter of Tumour, and the ability,
energy, and perseverance which he
exhibited in his historical investiga-
tions, Bays, " his Epitome of the Hit-
lory of Ceyltmrvaa from the first
correct; I saw it seven years before
it was published, and it scarcely re-
quired an alteration afterwards."
Whilst engaged in his translation of
the Mohawiooo, TuRNouH, amongst
other able papers on Buddhist History
and Indian Chronology in the Journal
of the Bengal Asiatic Society, v. 621,
vi. 299, 790, 1049, contributed a
series of essays on lite Polt-Buddhu-
tieal Annals, which were published in
1838, 1837, 1838.— Joarn. Asiatic
Soc. Bengal, vi. 601, 714, vii. 686,
7S9, 919. He published at various
times in the same journal an account
of the Tooth Belie of Ceylon, lb.
vi. 850, and notes on the inscriptions
on the columns of Delhi, Allahabad,
and Betiah, &c. &c, and frequent
notices of Ceylon coins and inscrip-
tions. He bad likewise planned
another undertaking of signal im-
portance, the translation into En-
glish of a Pali version of the Bud-
dhist scriptures, an ancient copy
of which he had discovered, unen-
cumbered by the ignorant commen-
taries of later writers, and the fables
with which they have defaced the
plain and simple doctrines of the
early faith. lie announced his in-
tention in the Introduction to the
Mahawanao to expedite the publica-
tion, as '' the least tardy means of
effecting a comparison of the Pali
S'th the Sanskrit version " (p. ex.).
s correspondence with Prinsep,
Vhich I have been permitted, by
his family to inspect, abounds with
the evidence of inchoate inquiries
in which their congenial spirits bad
in interest, but which were
ended by the premature de-
both. Tumour, with shat-
tered health, returned to Europe in
1842, and died at Naples on the
10th of April in the following year.
The first volume of his translation
of the Mahmoonto, which contains
thirtv-eight chapters out of the
hundred which form the original
work, was published at Colombo
in 1837 ; to which, apprehensive
that scepticism might assail the
authenticity of a discovery so
important, he added a reprint
of the original Pali in Roman
characters with diacritical points!.
abruptly e:
oyGoogIc
314 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Part III.
of Galle\ a learned priest, through whose instrumen-
tality he obtained from the Wihara, at Mulgiri-galla,
near Tangalle (a temple founded about 130 years before
the Christian era), some rare and important manu-
scripts, the perusal of which gave an impulse and di-
rection to the studies and investigations which occupied
the rest of his life.
It is necessary to premise, that the most renowned
of the Singhalese books is the Makawanso, a metrical
chronicle, containing a dynastic history of the island for
twenty-three centuries from B.c. 543 to a.d. 1758. But
being written in Pah verse its existence in modern times
was only known to the priests, and owing to the obscurity
of its diction it had ceased to be studied by even the learned
amongst them.
To relieve the obscurity of their writings, and supply
the omissions, occasioned by the fetters of rhythm and
the necessity for permutations and elisions, required to
accommodate their phraseology to the obligations of
verse, the Pali authors of antiquity were accustomed
to accompany their metrical compositions with a tika
or running commentary, which contained a literal ver-
sion of the mystical text, and supplied illustrations of
its more abstruse passages. Such a tika on the Maka-
wanso was generally know* to have been written ; but
so utter was the neglect into which both it and the
" original text had been permitted to fall, that Tumour
till 1826 had never met with an individual who
had critically read the one, or more than casually
heard of the existence of the other.1 At length,
He did not live to complete the task
be hnd so nobly began ; he died while
engaged on the second volume of his
translation, and only a few chapters,
executed with his characteristic ac-
t diminishes, though in a slight de-
gree, our regret for the interruption
of his literary labours to know that
the section of the Mahawanao which
he left unfinished is inferior both in
authority and value to tbe earlier
portion of the work, and that being
composed at a periooVwhen literature
was at its lowest ebb in Ceylon, it
differs little if at all from other
chronicles written during the decline
of the native dynasty.
1 "YTmsoTm's Mahatwmto, introduc-
tion, vol. i. p. ii.
oyGoogIe
Chat. L] THE MAHAWANSO. 315
amongst the books procured for him by the high
priest of Safiragam, was one which proved to be
this neglected commentary on the mystic and other-
wise unintelligible Mahawanso; and by the assistance
of this precious1 document he undertook, with confidence,
a translation into English of the long lost chronicle, and
thus vindicated the claim of Ceylon to the possession of
an authentic and unrivalled record of its national
history.
The title "Mahawanso," which means literally the
M Genealogy of the Great" properly belongs only to the
first section of the work, extending from b.c. 543 to
A.D. 301 *, and containing the history of the early kings,
from Wijayo to Maha Sen, with whom the Singhalese
consider the "Great Dynasty" to end. The author
of this portion was Mahanamo, uncle of the king
Dhatu Sena,*in whose reign it was compiled, between
the years jld. 459 and 477, from annals in the vernacular
language then existing at Anarajapoora."
The sovereigns who succeeded Maha Sen are dis-
tinguished as the " Sulu-wanse," or " lower race."
The story of fceir line occupies the continuation of this
extraordinary chronicle, the second portion of which
was written by order of the illustrious king Prakrama
Bahu, . about the year a. d. 1266. The narrative
was continued, under subsequent sovereigns, down to
the year a.d. 1758, the latest chapters having been*
compiled by command of the King of Kandy, Kirti-
1 Although the Mahmcanm must
be regarded as containing the earliest
historical notices of Ceylon, the
. island, under its Sanskrit name- of
I jinka, occupies a prominent place in
the mythical poems of the Hindus,
and its conqiftst by Rama is the
theme of the Kamayana, one of the
the King Megavahana, who, accord-
ing to the chronology of Troyer,
reigned a.d. 24, made an expedition
to Cevlon for the purpose of extend-
ing Buddhism, and visited Adam's
Feab, where he had an interview
with the native sovereign. — Itaja-
Tarangud, Book Hi. si. 71—79. lb.
oldest epics in existence. In the I vol. ii. p. 364.
Jtaja-Taranaini also, an historical j * Mahawanso, ch. i. The early
chronicle which maybe regarded as Arabian travellers in Ceylon mention
the Mahaicanto of Kashmir, very i the official historiographers employed
early accounts of Ceylon are con- by order of the kings. See Vol. I.
tained, and the historian records that ' Ft in. ch. viii. p, 387, note.
v. Google
THE SINGHALESE CHEONICLES.
[Past 1IL
Sri, partly from Singhalese works brought back to the
island from Siam (whither they'had been carried at
former periods by priests dispatched upon missions), and
partly from native histories, which had escaped the
general destruction of such records about the year
1590, in the reign of Raja Singha I, an apostate from
Buddhism, who, during the period when the Por-
tuguese were in occupation of the low country, exter-
minated the priests of Buddha, and transferred the care
of the shrine on Adam's Peak to Hindu Fakirs.
But the Mahawanso, although the most authentic,
and probably the most ancient, is by no means the only
existing Singhalese chronicle. Between the 14th and
18th centuries several historians recorded passing events ;
and as these corroborate and supplement the narrative
of the greater work, they present an uninterrupted His-
torical Record of the highest authenticity, comprising
the events of nearly twenty-four centuries.'
From the data furnished by these, and from corrobo-
rative sources5, Tumour, in addition to many elabo-
rate contributions • drawn from the recesses of Pali
learning in elucidation of the chronology' of India, was
1 In 1833 TJpham published, under
the title of The Sacral and Historical
Books of Ceylon, translations of what
0 professed to be authentic copies of
the JUahatcantio, the Rajaratnacari,
and Rojaixdi; prepared for the use
of Sir Alexander Johnston when
f-hiuf-JusticB of the island. But
Tumour, in the introduction to his
masterly translation of the Mtiha-
waiuo, has shown that Sir Alexander
had been imposed upon, and that the
alleged transcripts supplied to him
are imperfect as regards the original
text and unfaithful as translations.
Of the Sfa&avxmso in particular, Mr.
Tumour says, in a private letter
which I have seen, that the earlypart
of Uphnm's volume " is not a trans-
lation but a compendium of several
works, and the subsequent portions
a mutilated abridgment." Taoltuja- I
volt, which is the most valuable of
these volumes, was transkMB for Sir
Alexander Johnston by Mr. Dionj-
sins Lambertus Pereira, who was then
Interpreter-Moodliar to the Cntchery
at Matura. These English versions,
though discredited as independent
authorities, are not without value
in so far as they afford corroborative
support to the genuine text of the
Mdiammto, and on this account I
have occasionally cited them.
' Besides the Mahmvanto, Haja-
ratnaciiri, and Rajavali, the other
native chronicles relied on by Tur-
nourin compiling bis epitome were the
Pujavali, composed in the thirteenth
century, the ftiluiya-eatioraha, written
A.D. 1347, and the Account of Oe
Embassy to Siam in the reign of Raja
Singhall-.A.- * "' ' "'
nBnwpt Mci
to Siam it
a.d. 1730-47, SyWiinI-
.Google
Chap. I.] THE MAHAWAKSO. 317
enabled to prepare an Epitome of the History of Ceylon.
In this work he has exhibited the succession and
genealogy of one hundred and sixty-five kings, who
filled the throne during 2341 years, extending from
the invasion of the island from Bengal, by Wijayo,
in the year b.c. 543, to its conquest by the British in
1798. He has succeeded, after infinite labour, in con-
densing the events of each reign, commemorating
the founders of the chief cities, and noting the erec-
tion of the great temples and Buddhist monuments,
and the construction of some of those gigantic reservoirs
and works for irrigation, which, though in ruins, arrest
the traveller in astonishment at their stupendous di-
mensions. He thus effectually demonstrated the mis-
conceptions of those who had previously believed the
literature of Ceylon to be destitute of historic materials.1
Besides evidence of a less definite character, there is
one remarkable coincidence which affords ground for
confidence in the faithfulness of the purely historic
portion of the Singhalese chronicles ; due allowance
being made for that exaggeration of style which is
apparently inseparable from oriental recite! The cir-
cumstance alluded to is the mention in the Mahawamo
of the Chandragupta2, so often alluded to by the Sanskrit
writers, who, as Sir William Jones was the first to
discover, is identical with Sandracottus or Sandra-
coptus, the King of the Prasii, to whose court, on the
banks of the Ganges, Megasthenes was accredited as an
ambassador from Seleucus Nicator, about 323 years be-
1 By the help of Tcknotth's trans-
lation of the Mahetwmto and the
i of the Eajantnacari and
" rablished by Upham, two
lave since expanded the
Epitomti of the former into something
like a connected narrative, and those
who wish to pursue the investigation
of thessariy story of the island, will
and facilities in the History of Ceylon,
published by Khiohios in 1846,
and in the first volume of Ceylon
, by Pbtdhait,
hww, j.>jw. To facilitate re-
ference I have appended a Chrono-
logical Litt of Singhalese Sovereigns,
compiled from the historical epitome
of Tumour. See Note B. at the end
of this chapter.
* The era and identity of Sandra-
cottus and Chandragnpta have been
accurately traced in Mai MItllbk's
History ofSmukrit Literature, p. 298,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
318 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [P ait III.
fore Christ. Along with a multitude of facta relating to
Ceylon, the Mahawanso contains a chronologically con-
nected history of Buddhism in India from b.c. 590 to b.c.
307, a period signalised in classical story by the Indian
expedition of Alexander the Great, and by the Embassy
of Jfegasthenes to Palibothra, — events which in their
results form the great link connecting the histories of
the West and East, but which have been omitted or
perverted in the scanty and perplexed annals of the
Hindus, because they tended to the exaltation of Bud-
dhism, a religion loathed by the Brahmans.
The Prasii, or people of Magadha, occupy a promi-
nent place in the history of Ceylon, inasmuch as
Gotama Buddha, the great founder of the faith of its
people, was a prince of that country, and Mahindo,
who finally established the Buddhist religion amongst
them, was the greatrgrandson of Chandagutto, a prince
whose name thus recorded in the Mahawanso1 (not-
withstanding a chronological discrepancy of about sixty
years, which Tumour has shown that there are reason-
able grounds to account for2), may with little difficulty be
identified with the" Chandragupta" of the Hindu Purana,
and the " Sandracottus" of Megasthenes.
This is one out of the many coincidences which demon-
strate the authenticity of the ancient annals of Ceylon ;
and from sources so venerable, and materials so abun-
dant, I propose to select a few of the leading events,
sufficient to illustrate the origin, and explain the in-
fluence of institutions and customs which exist at the
present day in Ceylon, and which, from time imme-
morial, have characterised the island.
1 Mahatoanto ,ch. v.p.21. See&lao I a Introd. MahtMtmso, p.K. Seepwt,
Wilbqn'b A'ofc» tothe VUAnu Purilna, p. 829, note *.
oyGoogIe
DomzcdwGbogfe
ANCIENT MAP OF CEYLON.
NOTE (A.) ,
ANCIENT KAP OF CEILON.
So far as I am aware, no map has ever been produced, ex-
hibiting the comparative geography of Ceylon, and placing its
modem names in juxtaposition with their Sanskrit and Pali
originals. In the comprehensive plan which Burnouf had drawn
up for an exposition of the history of the island, in elucidation
of the progress of Buddhism in India, he intended to include a
chart to exhibit its archaeological divisions and localities ; and in
the only portion of the work which he lived to complete, and
which was published, after his decease, by M. Jules Mohl, under
the title of Recherchea but la OSograpkie ancienne -de Ceylon,
in the Journal Aeiatique for January, 1857, he has enlarged
upon the necessity of such a chart, and the difficulties likely to
attend its construction. He bad discovered that many names of
historic interest had utterly disappeared from the modem map, or
had become so changed as to be scarcely recognisable; and that
Sanskrit words especially had been so superseded by Singhalese
as to be no longer susceptible of identification. In order there-
fore to trace the events of which Ceylon was the theatre,
between the fourth and the seventh centuries, he found himself
obliged to undertake the construction of a map in which it was
his design to restore the ancient nomenclature, and correct the
corrupted orthography where it had not been altogether ob-
literated.
This task Burnouf appears to have commenced, -but death
interrupted its progress ; and he left behind only some manu-
script materials, consisting of lists of the names of those towns
and villages, the great majority of which he had found it impos-
sible to identify. These papers have been confided to me by his
literary executor, M. Jules Mohl, and by their help and the aid
of similar collections made by Tumour and others, I have ven-
tured to produce the map which accompanies this chapter. Not-
withstanding the omission of a great number of names that it is
no longer possible to identify, this map fixes, with at least compa-
rative accuracy, the principal localities, mountains, rivers, and
cities mentioned in the Mahawanao, the Rojavoli, and Rajcb-
ratnacari. The names wanting are chiefly those of villages,
tanks, and wiharas, which, although occurring frequently in the
ecclesiastical portion of the national chronicles* are of little poli-
tical or historic importance.
oyGoogIe
THE SINGHALESE CDBONICLES.
NOTE (B.)
NATIVE SOVEREIGNS OP CKTLON.
1. Wcjaya or Wijeyo1, founder of tbo Wejayau
8. Upatissa 1 .
8. Paaduwasa, paternal nephew of Wejaya
Rima
■brother* in lam
Wijitla
4. AbhHTtt, son of Paduwiaa, dethroned
Interregnum ....
5. Pandukabhaya, maternal grandson of Pan-
S. Mutaoiwa, paternal grandson
7. DeFenipialitsa, second SOU .
Mahu ndga, brother . -.
Yalillatiua, sot ....
Gotdbhaya, urn ....
KeUani-tifta, not tpecified .
Kfilvan-titsa, urn of (foldbhaya .
B. Uuiya, fourth son of Mutaaiwa ,
0. Mahasiivs, fifth do.
10. Suratissa, sixth do. put to death
11. Sena and Guttika, foreign neurpert — put
to death
IS. Ascla, ninth son of Mutasiwa — deposed
13. ElsJa, foreign usurper — killed in battle
14. Dutngaimunu, sou of Kdaantista
15. Saidaitiaia, brother
16. Tnhl or Thullntbanaka, younger ion — de-
Tamananeuera
Upatiagauener*
ditto. - .
Rdmagoxa .
Mdgama
KtiLnia
M&guaa
Anuradbapoor*
ditto.
ditto.
ditto .
ditto .
ditto.
305 {
death
19. Walagambihu 1st
— deposed
fPuIahattha
Bay ins
20. J PanayamSri
I Pcliyamira
r Wattagamini, brother
Foreign usurpers — Buc-
cessiTely deposed and-
pat to death.
ditto,
ditto .
ditto.
SI. Welagatnbibu 1st, reconquered the kingdoi
as. Mahadailitisaa or MahachiUe, son
S3. Chora Nags, son — put to death .
24. Kudii TisiH. sou — poisoned by fab wife
S5. Anula, widow
36. MakaiantLssa or Eallakonni Ttssa, second so
ofKnditisM
37. Batiyatisaa 1st, or Batikabhays, son .
> Wejiyi U alio Ipdfcd Wijaya, u
oyGoogIc
NATIVE SOVEREIGNS OF CEYLON.
ttuanuld Relation. hip of tmch IL
28. Maha Dailiya Mina or Dsthika, brother
29. Addagaimnnu or Amanda Gimini, ana-
put to death
30. Kin ihi rr id ail a or Kanijani Tinea, brother
31. Ends Abhi or Chilian hay a, Ion
31. Singha«felii or Siwalli, lister— put to death
Interregnum
S3. Ellnni or Ik Niiga, maternal nephew of
Ad.lngnimonu
34. Sanaa Muliuua or Chanda Mukha Siva,
35. Yasa Silo or Yatilekatisse, brother—
36. Subha, usurper — pat to death
87. Wahapp or Wasahba, descendant of Lai'
38. Waknsis or Wonka Nasica, son
39. Gsjibiha 1st or Gimini, ion .
40. Mahalnmini or Mallaka Naga, maternal
41. Batiya Tiasa 2nd or BhStika Tissu, so
42. Cbala Tina or Eanitthatissa, brother
43. Knhuna or Chndda Niga, ion — murdered
44. Kudanama or Kttdtt Naga, nephew — de-
45. Knda Sirini or Siri Naga 1st, brother- in.
46. Waiwahairatiasa or Wairatiasa, aon-
47. Abhi Sen or Abhi Tissa, brother
4%. Siri Nfiga 2nd, MB .
4V. Weja tndn or Wejeya and, ton — pot to
50. Sangatisaa 1st, descendant of Laiminj
51. Bahama Siriaanga Bo or Siriaang* Bodbi
1st, do da — deposed .
52. Gota Abhi, Gothabhays or Meglia
Abhay, do. do.
53. Mskalan Deta Tiasa 1st, son .
94. Maha Sen, brother ....
50. KiisiriMaiwanlstorEirtisriMeghawarna,
SB. Deta Tissa 2nd, brother
57. Bujas or Budha Dise, so
SB. Upaiitta Slid, son .
69. Maha Nima, brother
80. Senghot or SotthI Sena,
61. Laimini Tiasa 2nd or Chatagihaka, de-
scendant of Laitninitissa
62. Mitta Sen* or Karalion, not specified —
put to death ■
'Pandn
Pirinda Kudo
63. Khndda Pirinda J- 34. 9. Foreign usurpers
Ditthija . '
Pitthiya .
64. DasenkelleyaorDhatu Sena, descendant of
the original royal family — pnt to death
65. Sigirl Kasnmbn or Kiayapa lit, son-
committed suicide ....
VOL. I.. Y
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto .
ditto .
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto .
ditto .
THE SINGHALESE CHEONICLES.
Kimn aod Helttloasbtp o( neb taceeedtog Sovereign.
w
«=-,.
66. Mngallana lit, brother ....
Anaradhapoora
495
67. Knmara Das or Knmara Dhatu Sena, son
— immolated himself .
ditto .
513
68. Kirli Sean, boo — murdered
ditto .
69. Maidi Siwu or Siwaka, maternal uncle —
ditto .
70. Laimini Upitisaa 3rd, brother-in-law
ditto .
531
71. Ambaherra Salamaiwan or Silakala, son-
in-law
534
73. Ddpuln 1st or Daiihapa Bhodhi, second
son — committed suicide ...
ditto .
73. Dalamagalan or Mngallana 2nd, elder
547
74. Euda Kitsiri Mai wan 1st or Kirtisri Mcg-
hnwarna, son — put to death
ditto .
567
75. Siiiioivi or Maha Naga, descendant of the
ditto .
586
76. Aggrabodhi IstorAkho, maternal nephew
ditto .
689
77. Aggrabodhi 2nd orSula A kbo, son-in-law
ditto .
623
78. Snnghatissa, brotlu-r — decapitated .
ditto .
633
79. BnnaMugalan or Laimini Bunaya,nsnrpcr
ditto ,
633
80. Abhasiggahaka or Asiggihaka, maternal
ditto .
639
8!. Siri Sangabo 2nd, son — deposed
82. Kalnna Dctutissa or Laimina Katuriya,
descendant of Lniminitissa ■ — committed
Dewnncnra or Don-
648
Siri Sangabo 2nd, restore'!, and again <le-
Annradhapoora
64%
83. Dalnpiatissa 1st or Dbatthopatissa, Laimini
branch— killed in battle
ditto .
665
84 Paisulii Kasumbn or Kasyaps 2nd, brother
ditto .
677
85. Dapulu 2nd, Okska branch — deposed
686
86. Dalnpiatissa 2nd or Hattba-Datthopatissa,
son of Dalnpiatissa 1st .
ditto .
693
87. Paisntn Siri Sanga Bo 3rd or Aggrabodhi,
brother . . ...
ditto .
70J
8B. Walpitti Wasidata or Dantanima, Okaka
ditto .
7 18
89. Hununarn Riandaln or Hatthadatha, ori-
ginal royal family— decapitated
ditto . ,
780
90 Mahalaipanu or Uttnawamnia, do. do. .
ditto .
7*0
91. Kasiyappa 3rd or Kasnmbn, son
ditto .
726
92. Aggrabodhi 3rd or Akbo, nephew
Pollonnarms .
719
93. Aggrabodhi 4th or Knda Akbo, son
ditto .
769
94. Mahindu 1st or Salamaiwan, original royal
ditto .
775
ditto .
785
96. Muradn 2nd or Dharmika-SilamaigB, son
ditto .
BOO
97. Aggrabodhi 5th or Akho, brother .
804
98. Dnppnla 3rd or KuJa Dappula, son
ditto .
815
99. Aggrnbodhi 6th, cousin ....
ditto .
831
100. MitwcllB Sen or Silamaiga, son
ditto .
838
101. Kasiyappa. 4th or Maganyin Sena or Mi-
858
ditto .
891
NATIVE SOVEREIGNS OP CETLON.
oiuhlp of oich (ucnedlng Sovereign.
3. Udaya 2nd, Km .
1. Kisiyappa 5th, nephew and
5. Kisiyuppa 6th, son-in-law
S. Dsppula 4th, son
7. Dappula 5th, not specified
3. Udaya 3rd, brother .
9. Sena Snd, notepecified
0. Udaya 4th, do, da.
1. Stna 3rd, do. do.
3. Mihindu 3rd, do. do.
3. Sena 4th, sod — minor
4. Mihindu 4th, brother— carried captive to
India during the Cholian conquest ,
Interregnam Cholian viccroyalty ,
Maha Lai or Malta \
J Ala Kirti . . \
Wikrama Pdndi . f Subordinate native
Jagat Pdndi or Jagati' king* during the
Pita . . . j Cholian vicc-
PrAkrama Pdndi or \ royalty.
Prdkrama Bdhu . 1
Lokaiiwara . ,
5. Wejajabahn let or Sirisangabo 4th, grand-
son of Mihindu 4th .
S. Jayahiliu 1st, brother
7. Wikramabaha 1
Mdndbarana.
8. Oajabihu Snd . J A disputed
SiriiBaOaba or Kitsiri
119. Prakraoia Bihn 1st, ton of Manabaruna
190. Wcjayabahu Snd, nephew— mnrdered .
191. Mihindn Sih or Kitsen Kisdaa, usurper —
pat to death ......
193. Kjrti Nissangn, a prince of Kalinga .
Wirabahu, son — pat to death
193. Wikramabahu 2nd, brother of Kirti Niasangit
— pot to death
i. Chondakango, nephew — deposed
115. Lilawati, widow of Prakramabihu — de-
posed
196. SahasamaJIawa, Okaka branch — deposed
197. Kaljincwati, sister of Kirti Nissaaga .
128. Dharmiaoks, not specified — a minor .
199. Nayaanga, or Nikanga, minister— pat to
death
lilawati, restored, and again deposed .
130. Lokaiswem 1st, nsnrper — deposed
Lilawati, again restored, and deposed a third
131. Pandi Frskrama Bihn Sad, usurper— de-
. Migtu, foreign usurper ....
133. Wcjajabiha 3rd, descendant of Siriaan-
> Kalikala Sahitra Sargwajnya or Pandits
Frakrama Balm 3rd, son .
13S. Bosst Wcjaya Bihn 4th, son
Pollonnarrua .
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
Pollonnamia .
ditto ,
ditto
ditto .
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
1300
1202
1208
1209
1209
1210
1214
1235
TUB SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
Nhdci ml Rcl.liunihlp of wh niccutlng Sow
136. BbiiwancVa Bahu 1st, brother .
1ST. Prikrama Bahu 3rd, eon of BoMt Wejsya-
134. Bhw&neka Bahn Snd, boh of Bhwsntka
139. Piiiidita Prakrama Balm 4th, no! specified
140. Wanny Bhuwaneka Balm 3rd, do.
141. Wcjuya Balm 5th, do.
143. Bhuwaneka Bahu 4th, do.
145. 'Bliuwaneka Bahn 5
], not specified
Wfr»Bflw,do
148. Jay&bahn 2nd, maternal grandson— put to
149. Bhuwaneka Bahn Gib, not ipecified .
150. Pandits Prakrama Bahu 7ih, adopted son .
151. Wire Prakrama Bahn 8th, brother of Bhn-
waneka Bihu 6th
153. Dharma Prakrama Bahu 9th, son
153. Wejaya Bahn Tib, brother— murdered
Jagaatra Banddra
154. Bhnwaneka Bahu 7th, son .
Mtyadunnai . . . , .
Rtigaam. Banddra
Jnyawira Banddra
153. Don Juan Dharmapala .
A Malabar
i'srtufiitexc
Widiye B dia
Rdja Sinijha
Idiriaant Suriya
WiAramaBdhujUacmdant n/Siriaangabo 1 st
156. Raja Singha 1st, son of Mdyidunnai ,
Java Suriya
Widiye Rdja't queen ....
1ST. Wimala Dharma, original royal family
158. Senaraana or Senarat, brother .
159. llaja-aingha 2nd, son .....
K*mdra-*inga, brother ....
Wejaya Pdla, brother .
160. Wimala Dharma Suriya 2nd, sou of Raja-
161. Sriwlra Prakrama rTareudrasinghii or Kun-
dasala . ...
163. Sriwejaya Raja Singha or Hanguranketta,
brother-in-law
163. Kirtisri Raja Singha, brother- in law .
164. Rajadhi Kaja Singha, brother
165. Sri Wikrema Raja Singha, son of the late
king* wife's sister, deposed by the English
in 1815, and died in captivity in »3a
Yapakn or Stbba-
ditto
Gampola or Gang*-
ditto .
Partly at Kandy or
Scngadagalla Neuera
Gampola or Gangf-
siripoora .
ditto .
1485
150S
ditto .
Gampola
Kotta
Setaioacca
Vapahu
Seven Km lea
Setawacca
15B1
■Gon^+c
THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OP CEYLON.
Divested of the insipid details which overlay them,
the annate of Ceylon present comparatively few stirring
incidents, and still fewer events of historic importance
to repay the toil of their perusal They profess to record
no occurrence anterior to the advent of the last Buddha,
the great founder of the national faith, who was born on
the borders of Nepaul in the seventh century before Christ
In the theoretic doctrines of Buddhism " Buddhas" 1
are beings who appear after intervals of inconceivable
extent ; they undergo transmigrations extending over
vast spaces of time, accumulating in each stage of
existence an increased degree of merit, till, in their last
incarnation as men, they attain to a degree of purity so
immaculate as to entitle them to the final exaltation
of " Buddha-hood," a state approaching to incdrnate
divinity, in which they are endowed with wisdom so
supreme as to be competent to teach mankind the path
to ultimate bliss.
'Their precepts, preserved orally or committed to
writing, are cherished as bana or the " word ; " their
doctrines are incorporated in the system of dharma or
" truth f and, at their death, instead of entering on a
new form of being, either corporeal or spiritual, they
are absorbed into Nirwana, that state of blissful uncon-
sciousness akin to annihilation which is regarded by
Buddhists as the consummation of eternal felicity.
dissertation* on Buddhism
in Ceylon, will be found in the works | be found in this work. Vol. i. Port
of the Rev. R. Spehob Hardy, East- iii.ch.xi.
an Monachitm, Lond. I860, and A \
oyGoogIe
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
Gotama, who is represented as the last of the series
of Buddhas1, promulgated a religious system in India
wliich has exercised a wider influence over the Eastern
world than the doctrines of any other uninspired
teacher in any age or country.2 He was born B.c.
624 at Kapila-Vastu (a city which has no place in the
geography of the Hindus, but which appears to have
been on the borders of Nepaul) ; he attained bis superior
Buddha-hood b.c. 588, under a bo-tree8 in the forest of
Urawela, the site of the present Buddha Gaya in Bahar ;
and, at the age of eighty, he died at Kusinara, a doubtful
locality, which it has been sought to identify with the
widely separated positions of Delhi, Assam,, and Cochin
China.*
In the course of his ministrations Gotama is said to
have thrice landed in Ceylon. Prior to his first coming
amongst them, the inhabitants of the island appear to
have been living in the simplest and most primitive
manner, supported on the almost spontaneous products
of the soil. Jjrotama in person undertook their conver-
sion, and alighted on the first occasion atBintenne, where
1 There were twenty-four Buddhas
previous to the advent of Gotama,
who ia the fourth ia the present
Kalpa or chronological period. Ilie
system of doctrine is to endure for
5000 yours, when it will he auper-
seded tiy the appearance and preach-
ing of his successor. — Sajaratnacart)
ch. i.p. 42.
* Hardy's. Eastern Monachitm,
ch. i. p. 1. There is evidence of
the widely-spread worship of Buddha
in tae remotely separated individuals
with whom it has been sought at
various times to identify him. "Thus
it haa been attempted to show that
Buddha was the same as Thoth of
the Egyptians, and Tumi of the
Etruscans, that he was Mercury, Zo-
roaster, Pythagoras, the Woden of the
Scandinavians, the Manes of the Mani-
cha?anB, the prophet Daniel, and even
the divine author of Christian il v."
(Thofebbok Wilson, Journ. Aeiat.
Sac., vol. xvi. p. 233.) Another
curious illustration of the prevalence
of his doctrines may be discovered
in the endless variations of hie name
in the numerous countries over which
hie influence has extended : Buddha,
Budda, Bud, Bot, Booth, Bute, Buds-
do, Bdho, Pout, Pote, Fo, Pod, Fohi,
Fuh, Pet, Pta, Poot, Phthi, Phut,
Pht,&c— Pococke'b Axfia w Greece,
appendix, 397. Harm's Budtihisin,
ch.vii.p. 355. Raiuiy hi~hm Eastav
Monachitm aaye, "There is no country
in either Europe or Asia, except that
that are Buddhist, in which the same
religionianowprofessedthatwasthere .
existent at the time of the Redeemer's
death," ch. xxii. p. 327.
* The Pippul, Fiau religioaa.
4 Professor H. IL Wilson ha»
identified Kusinara or Kuainagaxa
with Kutia in Gorakhpur, Journ.
Kmj, Aeiat. Soc vol. ivi. p. 246.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chip. II.] ABOBIGINAL INHABITANTS OP CEYLON. 3S7
there exists to the present day the remains of a monu-
ment erected -two thousand years ago * to commemorate
his arrival. His second visit was to Nagadipo in the
north of the island, at a place whose position yet
remains to be determined ; and the " sacred foot-print"
on Adam's Peak is still worshipped by his devotees as the
miraculous evidence of his third and last farewell.
To the question as to what particular race the inha-
bitants of Ceylon at that time belonged, and whence or
at what period the island was originally peopled, the
Buddhist chronicles furnish no reply. No memorials
of the aborigines themselves, no monuments or inscrip-
tions, now remain to afford ground for speculation. Con-
jectures have been hazarded, based on no sufficient data,
that the Malayan type, which extends from Polynesia to
Madagascar, and from Chin-India to Taheite, may still be
traced in the configuration, and in some of the imme-
morial customs, of the people of Ceylon.2 *
1 By Dutugaimunu, h*. c. 164.- For
an account of the present condition
of this Dagoba. at Bintenne, see Vol.
II. Pt. ix. ch, ii.
9 Amongst the incidents ingeni-
ously pressed into the support of this
conjecture is the use by the natives
of Ceylon of those double canoes and
boat* with outriggers, which are never
■wed on the Arabian side of India,
but which are peculiar to the Ma-
layan race in almost every country
to which they have migrated ; Mada-
Car and the Comoro islands, Sooloo,
in, the Society Islands, and Ton-
es. PBTrcHABD'a Race* of Man, ch.
it. p. 17. For a sketch of this pecu-
liar canoe, see Vol. II. Pt. TO ch. L
There ia a dim tradition that the
first settlers in Ceylon arrived from
the coasts of China. It is stated in
the introduction to Hibetso'b History
of Ceylon, but rejected by Valentin,,
eh. i
The legend prefixed
is as follows. "Si nov
les historiena Portugaia, les Chi
KlBEYEO
>yons
out 6i& les premiers qui ont habiW
cette isle, et cela arriva de cetta
maniere. Cos peuples e'toient lea
maitrea du commerce de tout l'orient ;
quelques unes de leurs vaisseftux fn-
rent porte"z but lee basses qui sontprea
du lieu, que dt^uis on appelle Cbilao
par corruption au lieu de Cinilao.
Les equipages se aauverent a terre,
et trouvant le pais bon et fertile ils *
s'y e'tablirent : bientot apres ils s'al-
lierent avec les Malabares, et lee Ma- V
labares y envoyoient ceux qu'ils ex- '■}
Uoient et qu'ils nominoient Galas.
Ces exiles » etant confondus avec les
Cbinois, de deux noma n'en ont fait
qu'un, et se sent Hppelle's Chin-galas
et ensuite Cbingalais." — RlnEY.Ro,
Hist, de Ceylon, pref. du trad.
It ia only necessary to observe in
reference to this hypothesis that it
is at variance with the structure of
the Singhalese alphabet, in which n
and a form but one letter. Be
Bassos and De Couto likewise
adhere to the theory of a mixed race,
originating in the settlement of Chi-
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
But the greater probability is, that a branch of the
same stock that originally colonised the Dekkan
extended its migrations to Ceylon. All the records and
traditions of the peninsula point to a time when its
nations were not Hindu ; and in numerous localities ',
in the forests and mountains of the peninsula, there are
still to be found the remnants of tribes who undoubtedly
represent the aboriginal race. The early inhabitants
of India before their comparative civilisation under
the influence of the Aryan invaders, like the abori-
gines of Ceylon before the arrival of their Bengal
conquerors, are described as mountaineers and
foresters who were " rakshas " or demon worshippers ;
a religion, the traces of which are to be found
to the present day amongst the hill tribes in the
Concan and Canara, as swell as in Guzerat and Cutch.
In addition to other evidences of the community of
origin of these continental tribes and the first in-
habitants of Ceylon, there is a manifest identity,
not alone in their popular superstitions at a very
early period, but in the structure of the national
dialects, which are still prevalent both in Ceylon and
Southern India. Singhalese, as it is spoken at the
present day, and, still more strikingly, as it exists as
a written langffage in the literature of the island,
presents unequivocal proofs of an " affinity with the
group of languages still in use in the Dekkan ; Tamil,
Telingu, and Malayalim. But with these its iden-
tification is dependent on analogy rather than on
structure, and all existing evidence goes to show that
the period at which a vernacular dialect could have been
common to the two countries must have been extremely
remote.2
nese in the south of Ceylon, but they
refer the event to a period suhse-
Suent to the seizure of the Singha-
aifi king and his deportation to
China in the fifteenth century. Dk
Babkos, Dec iii. oh. i. ; De Couto,
Dec. t. eh. 5.
vol. i. p. 199,862.
1 The Mahawattto (ch. xiv.) attests
that at the period of Wijayo's con-
quest of Ceylon, B.C. 643, the lan-
guage of the natives was different
from that spoken by himself and his
..Google
Chap. II.] ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OK CEYLON. 329
Though not based directly on either Sanskrit or Pali,
Singhalese at various times has been greatly enriched
from both sources, and especially from the former;
and it is corroborative of the inference that the ad-
mixture was comparatively recent; and chiefly due to
association with domiciliated strangers, that the further
we go back in point of time the proportion of amalgama-
tion diminishes, and the dialect is found to be purer
and less alloyed. Singhalese seems to bear towards
Sanskrit and Pali a relation similar to that which
the English of the present day bears to the combination
of Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Norman French, which
serves to form the basis of the language. As in our
own tongue the words applicable to objects connected
with rural life are Anglo-Saxon, whilst those indicative of
domestic refinement belong to the French, and those per-
taining to religion and science are borrowed from Greek
or Latin * ; so, in the language of Ceylon, the terms appli-
cable to the national religion are taken from Pali, those
of science and art from Sanskrit, whilst to pure Singha-
lese belong whatever expressions were required to denote
the ordinary wants of mankind before society had attained
Whatever momentary success may have attended the
preaching of Buddha, no traces of hiB pious labours long
survived him in Ceylon. The mass of its inhabitants
were still aliens to his religion, when, on the day of
hiB decease, b.c. 543, Wijayo 8, the discarded son of one
companions, which, as they came
from Bengal, was in all probability
Pali. Several centuries afterwards,
k.V. 330, the dialect of the two races
was still different, and some of the
■acred writings were obliged to be
translated from Pali into the Sihala
language. — Mahatcanto, ch. Ilivii.
ixiviii. p. 247. At a still later period,
A.r. 410, a learned priest from Ma-
gadha translated the Attah-Katha
from Singhalese into Pali.— lb. p. 253.
Bee also Du AtwlS, Stfath-Songara,
p. 19.
1 See Trench on the Study of
Word*.
1 See De Alwis, Siduth -Stmgara,
* Spelled also Wejaya. See List,
p. 320. Turkocr has demonstrated
that the alleged concurrence of the
death of Buddha and the landing of
Wijayo is a device of the sacred an-
nalists, in order to give a pious in-
terest to the latter event, which took
place about sixty years later. — In trod.
Mahaimmtu. p. liu.
oyGoogIe
830 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. . [Pam III.
of the petty sovereigns in the valley of the Ganges',
effected a landing with a handful of followers in the
vicinity of the modem Putlam.2 Here he married the
daughter of one of the native chiefe, and having speedily
v taken from
ancient divisions of India, a small | Lassen's induche Alterthumsktotde.
* Bubxotif conjectures tliat the [ cording the Singhalese tradition _
point . from which Wiiayo set sail I collected by tlie Portuguese, says he
for Ceylon was the Godavery, whi
the name of Bandar-maha-lanka (the
Fort of the Great Lanka), still corn-
event Journ. Amat.
34. De Cotjto, ra-
ided at Preature' (Pereatorrej, be-
tween Trincomalie and Jattna-patani,
and that the first citr founded by
him was Mantotte. — Decade v. 1. I.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. LL] ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OP CEYLON. 331
made himself master of the island by her influence, he
established his capital at Tamana Neuera1, and founded
a dynasty, which, for nearly eight centuries, retained
supreme authority in Ceylon.
The people whom he mastered with so much facility
are described in the sacred books as Yakkhos or "de-
mons,"2 and Nagas", or "snakes;" designations which
the Buddhist historians are supposed to have employed
in order to mark their contempt for the uncivilised
aborigines4, in the same manner that the aborigines in
the Dekkan were denominated goblins and demons by
the Hindus", from the fact that, like the Yakkhos of
Ceylon, they too were demon worshippers. The Nagas,
another section of the same superstition, worshipped
the cobra de capello as an emblem of the destroying
power. They appear to have chiefly inhabited the
northern and western coasts of Ceylon, as the Yakkhos
did the interior8 ; and, notwithstanding their alleged bar-
barism, both had organised some form of government,
, however rude.7 The Yakkhos had a capital which they
called Lankapura, and the Nagas _ a king, the possession
of whose " throne of gems"8 was disputed by the rival
sovereign of a neighbouring kingdom. So numerous
were the followers of this gloomy idolatry of that time
in Ceylon, that they gave the name of Nagadipo 9, the
1 Sea* note at the end of thisch&p-
ter, on the landing ofWijayoinCeylon,
as described in the Malunoanto.
1 Mahawanso, ch. vii. ; Fa Hiah,
Fot-hnie-ki, ch. xxxvii.
» Eqjavali, p. 100.
* Keinaub, Introd. to Aboulfeda,
vol. i. sec iii. p. ccxvi. See also
CWUOH'b Singhalese Dictionary, vol.
ii. p. 2.
* MomcrenrART Elpiunsiosb's,
History of India, b. iv. ch. xi. p. 216.
6 The first descent of Uotania
Buddha in Ceylon was amongst the
Yakkhos at Bintenrie ; in his second
visit ha converted the " Xaga King
of KaJany," near Colombo, Maha
locnto, ch. i. p. 5.
1 Faber, Origin of Idolatry, b. ii.
ch. vii. p. 440.
* Tunxoim -was unable to deter-
mine the position on the modern
map of the ancient territory of Na-
gadipo. — Introd. p. xxxi v. Casus
Chitty, in a paper m the Journal of
the Ceylon Astatic Society, 1848,p. 71,
endeavours to identify it with jafina,"
The Bajaratnacari places it at the
present Kalany, on the river of that
name near Colombo (voL ii. p. 22).
The Mahawanso in many passages
alludes to the existence of Naga
kingdoms on the continent of India.
showing that at that time serpent-
worship had not been entirely ex-
tdnguisned by Brahmanism in the
Dekkan, and affording an additional
ground for conjecture that the first
Google
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES..
[P«
Island of Serpents, to the portion of the country which
they held, in the same manner that Rhodes and Cyprus
severally acquired the ancient designation of Ophiusa,
from the fact of their being the residence of the Ophites,
who introduced serpent-worship into Greece.1
But whatever were the peculiarities of religion which
distinguished the aborigines from their conquerors, the
attention of Wijayo was not diverted from his projects
of colonisation by any anxiety to make converts to his
own religious belief. The earliest cares of himself and
his followers were directed to implant civilisation, and
two centuries were permitted to elapse before the first
effort was made to supersede the popular worship by the
inculcation of a more intellectual faith.
DB8CBIPTI0N IN THE MAHAWAN80 OP THE LANDING OF WIJAYO.
The coincidences are so remarkable between the structure and
treatment of the great Hindu Epic of the Ramayana, and the
events and machinery of the Iliad and the Oydssey, as to have .
given rise to the conjecture that Homer, in his wanderings as a
minstrel, must have listened at Rhinocolura or some other port
frequented by the Phoenicians, to the metrical romances, brought
home by seamen returning from their eastern voyages.* Hence
it has been said of Valmiki's grand poem, that it is " an Iliad
preceded by an Odyssey ;" and even their respective titles coin-
cide, the Ramayana {" Ramcs vict") being equivalent to what
Statius calls the " Viae Ulixi.'"* The enumeration of the
forces, in the^aTnayajio,hasaBtrikingsimilarityto Homer's lists
inhabitants of Ceylon were a colony
from the opposite coast of Calinga.
, ' Bktant's Analyst* of Mythology,
chapter on Ophinl atria, vol. 1. p. 480,
" Eubcea means Oub-aia, and signi-
fies the serpent island." (J6.J
But Stkaho affords us a still more
striking illustration of the Maha-
manto, in calling the serpent wor-
shippers of Ceylon "Serpents," since
he states that in Phrygia and on the
Hellespont thepeople who were styled
o'-.0rwrc,ortheS '
retained a phyBii
terpeut races, actual ly
cal affinity with the
snakes with whom they were popu-
larly id «n tiii wi, "i i-rn u Da p u Si iic u 01 t oif
'Ofioyivitc ovyyivriiav nvq lxiiv irpoc
roic (•.«&"— SrftABO, lib. xiii. c. 588.
Pliny alludes to the same fable
(lib. vii.). And Ovid, from the in-
cident of Cadmus' having sown the
dragon's teoth (that is, implanted
Ophiol atria in Greece), calls the
Athenians Serpentiyaia.
* See Vol. I. p. 520, 647 ; Vol H.
Fattchb, Ramayana, torn.
P-ll-
i, lib. ii. p. 7, 49,
Doused oyGOQglC
Chap. II.] THE LANDING OF WIJATO. S33
of the army and the ships, and many other grand features are
equally coincident Sougriva, it is asserted, is the prototype of
Agamemnon ; and his epithet in Sanskrit is identical with the
aval; avSp&v of the Greek. In like manner Ajax is a re-pro-
duction of Angaria, Nestor of Djambavat, Achilles of Rama,
and Patroclus of the faithfuP Lakshman. Hanuman, the
Monkey chief, is the original of the cunning and agile Ulysses,
and one of Homer's biographies, Ascribed to Herodotus, attributes
to him the composition of a poem, of which the heroes were
ayes.
In like manner, coincidences between the ifakawanso and
some passages in Homer have attracted attention; amongst
others the landing of Wijayo in Ceylon as related in the 7th
chapter, presents so strong a similarity to Homer's account of the
landing of Ulysses in the island of Circe ; that it is difficult to
conceive that the author was entirely ignorant of the works of the
Father of Poetry. Wijayo and his followers are met by a
" devo," and one of the band presently discovers the princess
seated near a tank, and she being a magician imprisons him and
eventually the rest of his companions in a cave. The Makawaneo
then proceeds: "all these persons not returning, Wijayo proceeded
after them, and examined the delightful pond : he could perceive
no footsteps but those leading down into it, and there he saw the
princess. It occurred to him his retinue must surely have been seized
by her, and he exclaimed, ' Pray, why dost not thou produce my
attendants ? ' ' Prince,' she replied, * from attendants what
pleasure canBt thou derive ? drink and bathe ere thou departest.'
Seizing her by the hair with his left band, whilst with his right
he raised his sword, he exclaimed, ' Slave, deliver my followers or
die.' The Yakkbini terrified, implored for her life ; ' Spare me,
prince, and on thee will I bestow sovereignty, my love, and
my service.1 He forced her to swear1, and when heagain demanded
the liberation of his attendants she brought them forth, and dis-
tributed to them rice and other articles procured from the wrecked
ships of mariners, who had fallen a prey to her. A feast follows,
and Wijayo and the princess retire to pass the night in an apart-
ment which she causes to spring up at the foot of a tree, cur-
tained as with a wall and fragrant with incense." It is impos-
sible not to he struck with a curious resemblance between this
description and that in the 10th book of the Odyssey, where
Eurylochus, after landing, returns to Ulysses to recount the
-Otlyt.x. 1.343.
-..Google
334 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Fin III,
fate of his companions, who, having wandered^ towards the
palace of Circe, had been imprisoned after undergoing trans-
formation into swine. Ulysses hastens to their relief, the story
proceeds : —
'Jl* <pdr iyii 6" &op o^t^pwrtrAfixvos irapd fiypav
KipKrjhnjtlfa dxrre KrapAvai psvsaiixov. k. t. X.
"She spake, I, drawing fnom beside my thigh
The faulcbion keen, with death denouncing looks,
Kush'rt on her, — she, with a shrill scream of fear,
And in winged accents plaintive thus began i—
" * * * ' Sheath again
Thy Bword, and let us on my bed recline.*
The goddess spake, to whom I thus replied :
* Oh Circe, canst thou bid me meek become,
And gentle, who beneath thy roof detain'st
My fellow-voyagers. * * "
No, trust me, never will I share thy bed,
Till first, oh goddess, thou com ent to swear
That dread, all-binding oath, that other harm
Against myself, thou wilt imagine none.'
I spake, she, swearing as I bade, renounced
All evil purpose, and her Bolemn oath
Concluded, I ascended next her bed." l
The story of Wijayo's interview with Kuweni is told in
the MaJiawanbo in nearly the same terms as it appeared in the
Rajavali, p. 172.
Another classical coincidence is curious: we are strongly
reminded of Homer's description of the Syrens by the following
passage, relative to the female Rahekasis, or demons, by whom
Ceylon was originally inhabited, which is given in the memoirs
of HiopEN-TnsANO, the Chinese traveller in the 7th century,
as extracted by him from the Buddhist Chronicles. "Elks
epiaient constamment les marchands qui abordaient dans lisle,
et se changeant en femmes d'une grande beaute elles venaient
au-devant d'eux avec des fleurs odorantes et au son des instru-
ments de musique, leur adressaient des paroles bienveillantes et
les attiraient dans la ville de fer. Alors elles leur offraient un
joyeux festin et se livraient au plaisir avec eux : puis elles les
enfermaient dans un prison de fer et les mangeaient Pun apres
Pautre." *
..Google
THE CONQUEST OF CEYLON BY WIJAYO, B.C. B43, AND THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM, B.C. 307.
The sacred historians of Ceylon affect to believe in the b.c.
assertion of some mysterious connection between the &*8.
landing of Wijayo, and the conversion of Ceylon to Bud-
dhism, one hundred and fifty years afterwards; and
imply that the first event was but a pre-ordained precur-
sor of the second.1 The Singhalese narrative, however,
admits that Wijayo was but a " lawless adventurer,"
who being expelled from his own country, was refused
a settlement on the coast of India before he attempted
Ceylon, which had previously attracted the attention of
other adventurers. This story is in no way inconsis-
tent with that told by the Chinese Buddhists, who
visited Ceylon in the fifth and seventh centuries. Fa
Hian states, that even before the advent of Buddha, the
island was the resort of merchants, who repaired there
to exchange their commodities for gems, which the
" demons " and " serpents," who never appeared in
person, deposited on the shore, with a specified value
attached to each, and in lieu of them the strangers *
substituted certain indicated articles, and took their
departure.2
Hioubn-Thsang, at a later period, disposes of the
fables of Wijayo's descent from a .lion8, and of his
1 Mahawaiuo, ch. vii.
1 Fa Hun, Foe-Koui-ki, ch.
xxxviii. See a notice of this story
of Fa HlAX, as it implies to the still
existing habits of the Veddahs,
Vol. L PL v. eh. ii. p. 692, &c
1 The legend of Wijayo's descent
from a lion, probably originated from
hia father being the son of an outlaw
named "Singha."
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
[Pinl
b.c. divine mission to Ceylon, by intimating) that, according
to certain authorities, he was the son of a merchant
(meaning a sea-faring trader), who, having appeased
the enmity of the Yakkhos, succeeded by his discretion
in eventually making himself their king.1
Whatever may have been his first intentions, bis sub-
sequent policy was rather that of an agriculturist than
an apostle. Finding the country rich and fertile, he
invited merchants to bring their families, and take pos-
session of it.a He dispersed his followers to form
settlements over the island, and having given to the
kingdom his patrimonial name of Sihala 3, he addressed
himself to render his dominions "habitable for men."1
He treated the subjugated race of Yakkhos with a de-
spotic disdain, referable less to pride of caste than to
contempt for the rude habits of the native tribes. He
repudiated the Yakkho princess whom he had espoused,
because her unequal rank rendered her unfit to remain
the consort of a king 6 ; and though she had borne him
children, he drove her out before his second marriage
with the daughter of an Indian prince, on the
ground that the latter would be too timid to bear the
presence of a being so inferior.6
b.c Leaving no issue to inherit the throne, he was suo
50*' ceeded by his nephew', who selected a relation of Gotama
Buddha for his queen ; and her brothers having dispersed
themselves over the island, increased the number of petty
kingdoms, which they were permitted to form in vari-
. ous districts8, a policy that was freely encouraged by
all the early kings, and which, though it served to
1 " S uivartt certains auteuro, Seng-
kia-lo (Wijayo) aerait le nom du
tils d'un marchand, qui, par sa pru-
dence, ayant echappe' 4 la fureur ho-
micide dea Lo-Ua (demons) re"uaait
enauite a sa faire Hoi." — Hiocten
Thsano, Voyage*, fyc. I. iv. p. 198.
* Hiottbn Thsano, eh. iv.
* Whence Singhala (and Singha-
lese) Silan, Seylan, and Ceylon.
* Sfafunoanso, ch. ri
ratnmari, ch. i.
* Mahaivatto, ch. v
' Ibid., p. 52.
p. 49. Saja-
- p. 61.
8 Mahawantt), ch. vii. p. 51, is. p.
57; Bajavali, part i. p. 177, 186;
and Tbrnovr'b Epitome, p. 12, 14.
oyGoogIe
Chap. III.] CONQUEST OF CEYLON BT WIJAYO. 837
accelerate colonisation, and to extend the knowledge of
agriculture, led in after years to dissensions, civil war,
and disaster.
It was at this period that Ceylon was resolved into
the three geographical divisions, that, down to a
very late period, are habitually referred to by the
native historians. All to the north of the Maha-
welli-ganga was comprised in the denomination PikiH,
or the Kaja-ratta, from its containing the ancient capital
and the residence of royalty ; south of this was Rohano
or Rohuna, bounded on the east and south by the sea,
and by the Mahawelli-ganga and Kalu-ganga, on the north
and west ; a portion of this division near Tangalle still
retains the name of Koona.1 The third was the Maya-
ratta, which lay between the mountains, the two great
rivers and the sea, having the Dedera-oya to the north,
. and the Kalu-ganga as its southern limit.
The patriarchal village system, which from time im-
memorial has been one of the characteristics of the .
Dekkan, and which still prevails throughout Ceylon in
a modified form, was one " of the first institutions
organised by the successors of Wijayo. "They fixed
the boundaries of every village throughout Lanka;"8
they "caused the whole island to be divided into fields
and gardens;"8 and so uniformly were the rites of
these rural municipalities respected in after times, that
one of the Singhalese monarchs, on learning that merit
attached to alms given from the fruit of the donor's own
exertions, undertook to sow a field of rice, and "from the
1 The district of Rohuna included
the mountain zone of Ceylon, and
hence probably its name, rohmo
meaning the " act or instrument of
ascending, aa steps or a ladder."
Adam's Peak was in toe Maya di-
vision ; but Edrisi, who wrote in the
twelfth century, says, that it was then
called "El Rahoun."— GeVgngtto, fe.
viii. Jadbebt's '/'rami. vol. u. p. 71.
Tiahu is an ordinary name for the dis-
VOL. I.
trict amongst Mahometan writers,
and in the Raja Tarangini, it is called
"Rohanam," b. iii. 66, 72.
1 It was established by Panduka-
bhaya, a.d. 437. — Mahatcanxo, ch. I.
p. 07, Bujaratnacari, ch. i.
" Rajaratttacuri, ch. it. , Itajacali,
b. i. p. 186. For the scriptural mean-
ing o? " dividing the fields," see vol.
i. p. 480. n. 4.
■!,-„:! r,,- Google
838 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Past HI.
portion derived by him as the cultivator's Bhare," to be-
stow an offering on a religious mendicant *
From the necessity of providing food for their fol-
lowers, the earliest attention of the Bengal conquerors
was directed to the introduction and extension of agri-
culture. A passage in the Mahawanso would seem to
imply, that previous to the Ion fling of Wijayo, rice was
imported for consumption8, and upwards of two cen-
turies later the same authority specifies "one hundred
and sixty loads of hill-pad di,"8 among the presents sent
to the island from Bengal
In a low and level country like the north of Ceylon,
where the chief subsistence of the people is rice, a
grain that -can only be successfully cultivated under
water, the first requisites of society are reservoirs and
canals. The Buddhist historians extol the father of
Wijayo for his judgment and skill "in forming villages*
in situations favourable for irrigation ; "* his own attention
was fully engrossed with the cares attendant on the
consolidation of his newly acquired power ; but the
earliest public work undertaken by his successor Pan-
duwasa, B.C. 504, was a tank, which he caused to be
formed in the vicinity of his new capital Anarajapoors
(the AnuTogrammum of Ptolemy), originally .a village
founded by one of the followers of Wijayo.8
1 The king tii Afahachula, 77 B.C.
— Ma&awanso, ch. xxxiv.
9 Kuweni distributed to the com-
panions of Wijayo, "rice and other
articles, procured from the wrecked
thips of mariners." '(Mahampuo,
ch. vii. p. 4i). ) A tank is mentioned
as then existing near the residence of
Kuweni ; but it was only to be used
as a bath. (lb. c. to. p. 48.) The
Rqjaratmacari also mentions that, in
the Millions age of the second Hud
dha, of the present K&lpa, there was a
famine in Ceylon, that dried up the
cisterns and fountains of the island.
But there is no evidence of the ex-
istence of systematic tillage anttrw
to the reign of ffljayo.
» Malwmmto, ch. xi. p. 70. JW*
is rice before it has been freed from
the husk.
1 Mahaiixmto, ch. yi. p. 46.
* The first tank recorded in Ojw"
is the Abayeweva, made by iWu-
wasa, B.C. 603 or 4 (Mahatmio, <*■
is. p. 57). The second was the J»y»-
weva, fonnefl. by Pandukabhaya, B.f-
437. (lb. ch. x. p. 66.) The <*™
the Oamini tank, made by the wjk
king at the same place, Anarajapow-
— S>. ch. x. p. 66. •
oyGoogIe
Cntr. III.] CONQUEST OF CEYLON BT WIJATO. S39
The continual recurrence of records of similar con- B.c.
structions amongst the civil exploits of* nearly every 307.
succeeding sovereign, together with the prodigious^
number formed, alike attest the unimproved condition
of Ceylon, prior to the arrival of the Bengal invaders,
and the indolence or ignorance of the original inhabitants,
as contrasted with the energy and skill of their first
conquerors.
Upwards of two hundred years were spent in initiatory b.c.
measures for the organisation of the new state. 30?-
Colonists from the continent of India were encouraged
by facilities held out to settlers, and carriage roads
were formed in the vicinity of the towns.1 Village
communities were duly organised, gardens were planted,
flowers and fruit-bearing trees introduced2, and the pro-
duction of food secured by the construction of canals8,
■and other public works for irrigation. Moreover, the
kings and petty princes attested the interest which they
felt in the promotion of agriculture, by giving personal
attention to the formation of tanks and to the labours
of cultivation.4
Meantime, the effects of Gotama Buddha's early visits
had been obliterated, and the sacred trees which he
planted were dead ; and although the bulk of the settlers
had come from countries where Buddhism was the domi-
nant faith, no measures appear to have been taken by the '
Bengal immigrants to revive or extend it throughout
Ceylon. Wijayo was, in all probability, a Brahman, but
Mahaaxmao, ch. xiv. rv. xvi.
Mahatotmto, ch. xi. p. 00 {307
), ch. roiv. p. 211 (b.c. 20),
r. p. 215 (A.D. 20). "
i, ch. ii. p. 29
185, 227.
s Mahaicanto, eh.
(B.C. 42), ch. mt.
(*.D. 275), ch. oxvii. w .,
ratnacan, ch. ii. p. 48, and .Btuavait,
p. 223, &c
-.p. :
221, :
* MahatvanlO, ch. X. p. 61, xxii.
p. 130, iiiv. p. 140. Rajavuli, p. 186,
186. The Buddhist kings of Buraiah,
at the present day, in imitation of
the ancient sovereigns of Ceylon,
rest their highest claims to Known
on the number of works for irrigation
which they have either formed or
repaired. See Yule't Narrative of
the British minion to Ami in 1865,
p. 106.
oyGoogIe
340 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Fast III
so indifferent was he to his own faith, that his first alliance
in Ceylon was- with a demon worshipper.1 His immediate
successors were so eager to encourage immigration, that
they treated all religions with a perfect equality of royal
favour. Yakkho temples were not only respected, but
" annual demon offerings were provided " for them ; halls
were built for the worshippers of Brahma, and residences
provided at the public cost, for " five hundred persons of
various foreign religious faiths ;"2 but no mention is made
in the Makawanso of a single edifice having been then
raised for the worshippers of Buddha, whether resident
in the island, or arriving amongst the colonists from
India.
It was not till the year B.c. 807, in the reign of
Tissa, that the preacher Mahindo visited Ceylon, under
the auspices of the king, whom he succeeded in inducing
to abstain from Brahmanical rites, and to profess faith,
in the doctrines of Gotama. From the prominent part
thus taken by Tissa in establishing the national faith of
Ceylon, the sacred writers honour his name with the
prefix of Dewdnan-pia, or " beloved of the saints."
The Mahawamo exhausts the vocabulary of ecstacr
in describing the advent of Mahindo, ' a prince of
Magadha, and a lineal descendant of Chandragupta
It records the visions by which he was divinely
directed to " depart on his mission for the conversion
of Lanka ;" it describes his aerial flight, and his descent
on Ambatthalo, the loftiest peak of Mihintala, the moun-
tain which, rising suddenly from the plain, overlooks
the sacred city of Anarajapoora. The story proceeds to
* According to the Mahatomuo, > insanity, as a punishment in his penofl
Vishnu, in order to protect Wijayo | of the crime of penury, committed br
and his followers from the sorceries his predecessor Wijayo, Iaoara *t
of the Yakkhos, met them on their supplicated to interpose, and by bi*
landing in Ceylon, and "tied thread* mediation the king was restored M
on tMr arms, ch. vii. ; and at alater his right mind.— Rajavaii, p. 181.
period, when the king Panduwasa, ' Mi&awm'to, ch. x. p. 87 ; A
b.c .504, was afflicted with temporary I xsxiii. p. 203.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Caif. III.] COSQUEST OF CEYLON BV WIJATO. 841
explain, how the king, who was hunting the elk, was B.c.
miraculously allured by the fleeing game to approach 30"-
the spot where Mahindo was seated ' ; and how the
latter forthwith propounded the Divine doctrine " to the
ruler of the land ; who, at the conclusion of his discourse,
together with his forty thousand followers, obtained the
salvation of the faith." 2
Then follows the approach of Mahindo to the capital ;
the conversion of the queen and her attendants, and
the reception of Buddhism by the nation, under the
preaching of its great Apostle, who " thus became the
luminary that shed the light of religion over the
land." He and his sister Sanghamitta thenceforth de-
voted their lives to the organisation of Buddhist com-
munities throughout Ceylon, and died in the odour of
sanctity, in the reign of King Uttiya, B.c. 267.
m But the grand achievement that consummated the
establishment of the national faith, was the arrival b.c.
from Magadha of a branch of the sacred Bo-tree. Every 289-
ancient race has had its sacred tree ; the Chaldeans, the
Hebrews 8, the Greeks, the Romans and the Druids, had
each their groves, their elms and their oaks, under which
to worship. like them, the Brahmans have their Kalpa
' The story, as related in the
MaJiawaniio, bears a resemblance to
the legend of St. Hubert and the
stag, in the forest of Ardennes, and
to that of St Eustace, who, when
hunting, wan led bj a deer of singular
beauty towards a rock, where it dis-
filayed to him the crucifix upon its
brehead ; whence an appeal was ad-
dressed which effected his conversion.
" The king Dewananpiyatissa de-
parted for an elk hunt, taking with
him a retinue ; and in the course of
the pursuit of the game on foot, be
came to the Missa mountain. A
certain devo, assuming the form of an
elk, stationed himself there, grazing ;
the sovereign descried him, and say-
ing ' it is not fair to shoot him stand-
ing,' sounded his bowstring, on which
the elk fled to the mountain. The
king gave chase to the flying animal,
and, on reaching the spot where the
priests were, the thero Mahindo came
within sight of the monarch ; but the
metamorphosed deer vanished." —
Mahmvatuo, c. xiv. The device of
the flying deer, is by no means an
infrequent one in the poetry of the
East : it occurs in the fiamayana ;
where Rama is allured to a distance
by a demon under the form of a deer,
whilst Ravana approaches the dwell-
ing of Site and carries her off.
* Mahaaxmio, ch. xiv. p. 80.
* " They sacrifice upon the tops of
mountains, and bum incense under
oaks, and poplars, and elms, because
the shadow thereof is good."— Hotra,
iv. 13.
oyGoogIc
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
THE EARLT BUDDHIST MONUMENTS.
B.c. Almost simultaneously -with the establishment of the
289. Buddhist religion was commenced the erection of those
stupendous ecclesiastical structures, the number and mag-
nitude of whose remains form a remarkable characteristic
in the present aspect of the country.
The architectural history of continental India dates
from the third century before Christ ; not a single build-
ing or sculptured stone having as yet been discovered
there, of an age .anterior to the reign of Asoka 1, who
was the first of his dynasty to abandon the religion of
Brahma for that of Buddha. In like manner the earliest
existing monuments of Ceylon belong to the same period ;
they owe their construction to Devenipiatissa, and the
historical annals of the island record with pious gratitude
the series of dagobas, wiharas, and temples erected by
him and his successors.
Of these the most remarkable are the Dagobas, piles
of brickwork of dimensions so extraordinary that they
suggest comparison with the pyramids of Memphis a, the
barrow of Halyattys 3, or the mounds in the valleys of the
Tigris and Euphrates.
1 FsRovasoN-, Handbook of Archi-
tecture, b. i. c. i. p. B.
3 So vast did the dagobas appear
to the Singhalese that the author of
the lUahamaMo, in describing the
construction of that called the Rvan
ivelie at Anarajapoora, slates that
each of the loner courses contained
ten kotis (a kotd being equal to 100
lace) or 10,000,000 brichs. — Maha-
wanto, eh. mi. p. 170.
> "Theancientedificesof Cfii-Chen
in Central America bear a striking
resemblance to the topes of India.
The shape of one of the domes, its
apparent size, the small tower on the
summit, the trees growing on the
sides, the appearance of masonry
here and there, the shape of the
ornaments, and the small doorway M
the base, are so exactly similar to
what 1 had Been at Anaraj spoors
that when my eyes first fell on the
engravings of these remarkable ruin*
I supposed that they were presented
in illustration of the dagobas of Cey-
lon." — Habdt's Jiaster* Mtmachimi,
c. xU. p. 222.
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.] THE EARLY BUDDHIST MONUMENTS. 345
A dagoba (from data, a relic, and gabbhan, a shrine1) ' b.c
is a monument raised to preserve one of the relics of 289
Gotama, which were collected after the cremation of
his body at Kusinara, and it is candidly admitted in the
Makawanso that the intention in erecting them was to
provide " objects to which offerings could be made." '
Ceylon contains but one class of these structures,
and boasts no tall monolithic pillars like the kits of
Delhi and Allahabad, and no regularly built columns
similar to the minars of Cabul ; but the fragments of the
bones of Gotama, and locks of his hair, are enclosed in
enormous masses of hemispherical masonry, modifica-
tions of which may be traced in every Buddhist country
of Asia, in the topes of Afghanistan and the Punjaub,
in the pagodas of Pegu, and in the Boro-Buddor of
Java. Those of Ceylon consist of a bell-shaped dome of
brick-work surmounted by a terminal or tee (generally in
the form of a cube supporting a pointed spire), and
resting on a square platform approached by flights of
stone steps. ThosB, the ruins of which have been explored
in modern times, have been found to be almost solid, en-
1 Delta, "the body," and gopa, I — Wilsoh's Amal. IU*. i
" what preserves ; " because they en- I p. 805.
9hrinehair,t«eth,naiU,&e.ofBii(klh(i. | * Mahawamo, ch. xvii. p
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CHEONICLES.
[P«.HI.
" closing a hollow vessel of metal or stone that had once
contained the relic, but of which the ornament alone and
a few gems or discoloured pearls set in gold, are usually
all that is now discoverable.
Their outline exhibits but little of ingenuity or of
art, and their construction is only remarkable for the
vast amount of labour which must necessarily have
been lavished upon them. But, independently of this,
the first dagoba erected at Anarajapoora, the Thupa-
ramaya, which exists to the present day, " as nearly as
may be in the same form in which it was originally
designed, is possessed of a peculiar interest from the
fact that it is in all probability the oldest architectural
monument now extant in India." l It was raised by
King Tissa, at the close of the third century before
Christ, over the eollar-bone of Buddha, which Mahindo
had procured for the king.2 In dimensions this monu-
ment is inferior. to those built at a later period by the
successors of Tissa, some of which are scarcely exceeded
in diameter and altitude by the dome of St Peter's8 ; but
in elegance of outline it immeasurably surpassed all the
other dagobas, and the beauty of its design is still percep-
tible in its ruins after the lapse of two thousand years.
The king, in addition to this, built a number of others
in various parts of Ceylon*, and his name has been per-
petuated as the founder of temples, for the rites of the
new religion, and of Wiharas or monasteries for the resi-
dence of its priesthood. The former were of the simplest
design, for an atheistical system, which substitutes medi-
tation for worship, dispenses with splendour in its edifices
and pomp in its ceremonial.
1 FkhUUSROn's Handbotik af Archi-
tecture, b. i. c. Ui. p. 43.
■ Mahawan»ol ch. xvii. The Raja-
vali calls it the jaw-bone. p. 184.
3 TheAbhayagiri dagoba at Anara-
japoora, built B.C. 89, was originaUy
180 cubits high, which, taking the
Ceylon cubit at 2 feet 3 inches,
would be equal to 405 feet. The
le was hemispherical, anddeserib-
ed with a raBius of 180 feet, giving «
circumference of 1130 feet The
summit, of this stupendous work was
therefore fifty feet higher than St.
Paul's, and fifhr feet h
Peter't
See vol ii. j
* Tuasotra's EpOomt, p. 15.
i. p. <H2.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IV.] THE EARLY BUDDHIST MONUMENTS. 847
The images of Gotama, which in time became objects **■
of veneration, were but a late innovation 1, and a doubt
has even been expressed whether the religion of Buddha
in its primitive constitution, rejecting as it does the doc-
trine of a mediatorial priesthood, contemplated the exists
ence of any organised ministry.
Caves, or insulated apartments in imitation of their
gloom and retirement, were in all probability the first
resort of devotees in Ceylon, and hence amongst the
deeds of King Tissa, the most conspicuous and munifi-
cent were the construction of rock temples, on Mihintala,
and of apartments for the priests in all parts of his
dominions.2
The directions of Gotama as to the residence of his
votaries are characterised by the severest simplicity, and
the term " pansala," literally " a dwelling of leaves,"8 by
which the house of a priest is described to the present
day, serves to illustrate the original intention that persons
dedicated to his service should cultivate solitude and
meditation by withdrawing into the forest, but this was
to be within such a convenient distance as would not
estrange them from the villagers, on whose bounty and
alms they, were to be dependent for subsistence.
In one of the rock inscriptions deciphered by Prinsep,
King Asoka, in addressing himself to his Buddhist
subjects, distinguishes them as " ascetics and house-
holders." In the sacred books a laic is called a " graha
paU," meaning " the ruler of a house ; " and in contra-
distinction Fa Hian, the Chinese Buddhist, speaks of the
priests of Ceylon under the designation of " the 1
1 The precise date of their intro- i were Buddhists or Brshmans ; hut
auction is unknown, but the first j the account which he gives of the
mention of a statue occurs in an in- . class of them whom he stvli
script ion on the rock at Mihintala, ' Hvlobii, would D~"" *-■■ ■''"- tie-
bearing date A.D. 246, and referring with the Srsn
•- the house constructed " " ;— *u----
fig-ure of Buddha.
* Tr/BSOTTS'S Epiiome, p. 16.
* It is questionable whether the
Samunai, mentioned by Megasthenes,
passing their lives in the woods,
time if r«Ic tonic, living on fruits
and seeds, and clothed with the bark
of trees." — Mboasthbites' lndka,
&&, Fragm. xlii.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
[Put in.
less," to mark their abandonment of social enjoyments.1
Anticipating the probable necessity of their eventually
resorting to houses for accommodation, Buddha directed
that, if built for an individual, the internal measurement
of a cell should be twelve spans in length by seven in
breadth3; and, if restricted to such dimensions, the asser-
tions of the Singhalese chronicles become intelligible as
to the prodigious number of such dwellings said to have
been raised by the early kings.8
But the multitudes who were thus attracted to a life
of indolent devotion became in a short time so excessive
that recourse was had to other devices for combining
economy with accommodation, and groups of such cells
were gradually formed into wiharas and monasteries,
the inmates of which have uniformly preserved their
organisation and order. Still the edifices thus con-
structed have never exhibited any tendency to -depart
from the primitive simplicity bo strongly enjoined by
their founder ; and, down to the present time, the homes
of the Buddhist priesthood are modest and humble struc-
tures generally reared of mud and thatch, with no pre-
tension to external beauty and no attempt at internal
decoration.
To supply to the ascetics the means of seclusion and
exercise, the early kings commenced the erection of
ambulance-halls ; and gardens were set apart for the
use of the great temple communities. The Mahawaim
describes, with all the pomp of oriental diction, the
ceremony observed by King Tissa on the occasion
of -setting apart a portion of ground as a site for the
first wihara at his capital ; the monarch in person,
attended by standard bearers and guards with golden
staves, having come to mark out the boundary with
1 " Lob hommes hors de lew mai-
eona." — Fa Hun, Foi-koue-ki, fcli.
mix. This is the equivalent of
the Singhalese term for the same
class, agariyan-puhbqjito, used in the
Rttakan.
* Hakdt'b Eastern JTmaMm
ch. xiii. p. 122.
' The Jtojaratnacari says that
Devenipiatisaa caused etghtg-fr**
Aowand temples to be built during
his reign, p. 35,
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.] THE BAHLY BUDDHIST MONUMENTS. 349
a plough drawn by elephants.1 A second monastery
was erected by him on the summit of Mihintala2; a '
third was attached to the dagoba of the Thuparamaya,
and others were rapidly founded in every quarter of the
island.3
It was in all probability owing to the growth of these
institutions, and the establishment of colleges in con-
nection with them, that halls were eventually appro-
priated for the reception of statues ; and that apartments
so consecrated were devoted to the ceremonies and
worship of Buddha. Hence, at a very early period,
the dwellings of the priests were identified with the
chaityas and sacred edifices, and the name of the Wihara
came to designate indifferently both the temple and the
monastery.
But the hall which contains the figures of Buddha,
and which constitutes the "temple" proper, is always
detached from the domestic buildings, and is frequently
placed on an eminence from which the view is com-
manding. The interior is painted in the style of Egyptian
chambers, and is filled with figures and illustrations of
the legends of Gotama, whose statue, with hand uplifted
in the attitude of admonition, or reclining in repose
emblematic of the blissful state of Nirwana, is placed in
the d:mmest recess of the edifice. Here lamps cast a
feeble light, and the air is heavy with the perfume of
flowers, which are daily renewed by fresh offerings from
the worshippers at the shrines.
In no other system of idolatry, ancient or modern,
have the rites been administered by such a multitude
of priests as assist in the passionless ceremonial of
1 Mahouxmm, ch. xv. p. 99, ,
1 Mahavxmao, ch. xx. p. 123.
s Five hundred were built by
king alone, the third in succest
from Deverripiatiasa, b.c. 246 (Ma-
hawaao, ch. mi. p. 127). About
the same period the petty chiefs of
Rohuna and Mahagam were equally
zealous in their devout labours, the
one having1 erected siity-four wi-
haras in the east of the island, and
the other sixty-eight in the aouth. —
MaAawtnuo, ch. xxiv. p. 145, 148.
oyGoogIc
[P*1T HI.
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLEa
Buddhism. Fa Hian, in the fourth century, was a
by the people of Ceylon that at that period the priests
numbered between fifty and raxty thousand, of whom two
thousand were attached to one wihara at Anarajapoora,
and three thousand to another.1
As the vow which devotes the priests of Buddha to
religion binds them at the same time to a life of poverty
and mendicancy, the extension of the faith entailed in
great part on the crown the duty of supporting the vast
crowds who withdrew themselves from industry to em-
brace devotion and indigence. They were provided with
food by the royal bounty, and hence the historical books
make perpetual reference to the priests "going to the
king's house to eat," 2 when the monarch himself set the
example to his subjects of " serving diem with rice
broth, cakes, and dressed rice." s Bice in all its varieties
ia the diet described in the Mahawanso as beiilg pro-
vided for the priesthood by the munificence of the
kings ; " rice prepared with sugar and honey, rice with
clarified butter, and rice in its ordinary form."* In
addition to the enjoyment of a life of idleness, another
powerful incentive conspired to swell the numbers of
these devotees. The followers and successors of Wijayo
1 Fa HiAJf, Foi-koul-tu, ch.
xxxviii. p. 331), 360. At the present
■ day the number in the whole island
does not probably exceed 2600
(Hardy's Eastern jUmutchUm, p. 57,
909). Bnt this ia far below the pro-
portion of the Buddhist priesthood
in other countries : in Si am nearly
every adult male becomes a priest
for a certain portion of his life; a
similar practice prevails in Ava ; and
in Burmah so common ia it to assume
the yellow robe, that the popular
expedient for effecting divorce is for
the parties to make a«profession of
the priesthood, the ceremonial of
which is sufficient to dissolve the
marriage vow, and after an interval of
a few months, the individual can
throw off the yellow robe and ii
then at liberty to marry again.
3 Rgaoali^.im. Hiouen Thaarnr,
the Chinese pilgrim, describing Ana-
rajapoora in the seventh century,
says : " A cote do palais du roi, on
a construit une vaste cuisine on Ton
prepare ch&que jour des aliments
Fnur dix-huit nulle religious. A
heure de repas, lee religieux vien-
nent, un pot a la main, pour recevoir
leur nourriture. Apres l'avoir ob-
tenue*ils s'en retournent chacun dans
leur chambre."— Hiouen Thsaxg,
Trawl. M. Jttcjex, lib. xi. torn, ii
p. 143.
* Mahawmto, ch. xiv. p. 82.
* Mahawtmft; ch. xxiii. ; Baja-
" i. p. 37, ch. ii. p. 66,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. TV.] THE EARLY BUDDHIST MOHUMEMS. Wl
preserved intact the institution of caste, which they had
brought with them from the valley of the Ganges ; and, '■
although caste was not abolished by the teachers of Bud-
dhism, who retained and respected it as a social institution,
it was practically annulled and absorbed in the religious
character ; — all who embraced the ascetic life being si-
multaneously absolved from all conventional disabilities,
and received as members of the sacred community with
all its exalted prerogatives.1
Along with food, clothing consisting of three garments
to complete the sacerdotal robes, as enjoined by the
Buddhist ritual3, was distributed at certain seasons ; and
in later times a practice obtained of providing robes for
the priests by " causing the cotton to be picked from .
the tree at sunrise, cleaned, spun, woven, dyed yellow,
and made into garments and presented before sunset."8
The condition of the priesthood was thus reduced to a
state of absolute dependency on alms, and at the earliest
period of their history the vow of poverty, by which
their order is bound, would seem to have been righteously
observed.
1 Professor Wruon, Journ. Hoy.
Asiat. Soc. vol. if i. p. 249.
■ To avoid the vanity of drees or
the temptation to acquire property,
no Buddhist priest is allowed to have
more than one set of robes, consist-
ing of three pieces, and if an extra,
one be bestowed on him it must be
surrendered to the chapter of his
wihara within ten days. The dimen-
sions must not exceed a specified
length, and when obtained new the
cloth must be disfigured with mud or
otherwise before he puts it on. A
magnificent robe having been given
to Uotama, his attendant Ananda, in
order to destroy its intrinsic value,
cut it into thirty pieces and sewed
them together in four divisions, so
that the robe resembled the patches
of a rice-field divided by embank-
ments. And in conformity with this
precedent the robes of every priest
are similarly dissected and reunited.
— Hardy's Eattem Monaehiem, c.
xii. p. 117 ; Jtajaratnacari, ch. ji.
00, pp. 66.
i,pp. 104,109, 112.
The custom which is still observed
in Ceylon, of weaving robes between
Bunrise and sunset is called Catma
dhwaaa (SajavaH, p. 201). The work
is performed chiefly by women, and
the practice is identical with that
mentioned by Herodotus, as observed
by the priests of Egypt, who cele-
brated a festival in honour of the
return of BhampsinituB, after playing
at dice with Ceres in Hades, by in-
vesting one of their body with a cloak
made in a single day, faooc aiiTwitpav
itvUp/avns, Euterpe, ciucii. Gray,
in his ode of The Fatal Sitters, has
embodied the Scandinavian myth in
which the twelve weird sisters, the
Valku-iw, weave "the crimson web
of war " be^een the rising: and set-
ting of the sun. Amongst tie Budd-
hists in Burmah the same practice
prevails, and there the weaving of the
robe is called inatho thengan. See
Bkiggb' Heathen and Holy Lands, p.
92 ; see also pott, p. 462.
..Google
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
CHAP. V.
SINGHALESE CHIVALRY. — ELALA AND DUTUGAIHUOT,
For nearly a century after the accession of Devenipia-
tissa, the religion and the social development of Ceylon
thus exhibited an equally steady advancement. The
cousins of the king, tliree of whom ascended the throne
in succession, seem to have vied with each other in
works of piety and utility. Wiharas were built in all
parts of the island, both north and south of the Maha-
welli-ganga. Dagobas were raised in various places,
and cultivation was urged forward by the formation
of tanks and canals. But, during this period, from
the fact of the Bengal immigrants being employed in
more congenial . or more profitable occupations (pos-
sibly also from the numbers who were annually devoting
themselves to the service of the temples), and from
the ascertained inaptitude of the native Singhalese to
bear arms, a practice was commenced of retaining
foreign mercenaries, which, even at that early period,
was productive of animosity and bloodshed, and hi
process of time led to the overthrow of the Wijayan
dynasty and the gradual decay of the Sinhala sovereignty.
The genius of the Gangetic race, which had taken
possession of Ceylon, was essentially adapted to agricul-
tural pursuits— in which, in their own country, to the pre-
sent day, their superiority is apparent over the less ener-
getic tribes of the Dekkan. Busied with such employments,
the early colonists had no leisure for military service ;
besides, whilst Devenipia-tissa and his successors were
earnestly engaged in the formation of religious com-
munities, and the erection of sacred edifices in the
ay Google
Chap. V-] ELALA. 803
northern portion of the island, various princes of the bjv
same family occupied themselves in forming settlements 266*
in the south and west Hence, whilst their people
were zealously demoted to the service and furtherance
of religion, a combination of causes compelled the so-
vereign at Anarajapoora to take into his pay a
body of Makbars ' for the protection both of the coast
and the interior. Of the foreigners .thus confided in,
" two youths, powerful in their cavalry and navy, named
Sena and Guttika,"2 proved unfaithful to their trust, and
after causing the death of the king Suratissa (b.c. 237), BC-
retained the supreme power for upwards of twenty years,
till overthrown in their turn *nd put to death by the
adherents of the legitimate line.8 Ten years, however,
bad barely elapsed when the attempt to establish a Tamil
sovereign was renewed by Elala, " a Malabar of the
illustrious Uju tribe, who invaded the island from the *-c
Chola4 country, killed the reigning king Asela, and ruled
the kingdom for forty years, administering justice im-
partially to friends and foes."
Such is the encomium which the Mahawanso passes B-c-
on an infidel usurper, because Elala offered his protection
to the priesthood ; and' the orthodox annalist closes his
notice of his reign by the moral reflection that " even he
who was an heretic, and doomed by his creed to perdi-
tion, obtained an exalted extent of supernatural power
from having eschewed impiety and injustice." 6
1 The term " Malabar" is used
throughout the following pages in the
comprehensive sense in which it is
applied in the Singhalese chronicles
to the continental invaders of Ceylon ;
but it must be observed that the ad-
venturers in these expeditions, who
are styled in the Mahawanso, " dami-
los" or Tamils, came not only from the
south-western tract of the Dekkon,
known in modem geography as " Mala-
bur," but also from all parts of the
Ssmneuk, as far north sn Cuttack and
rissa.
1 Mahawanso, ch, xxi. p. 127.
' Mahawanso, xxi. ; Majaratnacttri,
ch.ii.
1 Chola, or Sales, was the ancient
name of Tanjore, and the country
traversed by the river Caveri. See
Map of India, p. 330.
' Mahawanso, xxi. p. 139. The
other historical books, the RajavaU,
and Sajaratnacari, give a totally
diflerent character of Elala, and re-
present him as the desecrator of mo-
numents and the overthrower of
temples. The traditional estimation
which Ku followed his memory is
the best attestation of tho superior
accuracy of the Mahawanso.
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834 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Put HI
But it was not the priests alone who were captivated
by the generosity of Ekla. In the final struggle for
the throne, in which the Malabare were worsted by the
gallantry *of Dutugaimunu, a prince- of the excluded
family, the deeds of daring displayed by him were
the admiration of bJB enemies. The contest between the
rival chiefs is the solitary tale of Ceylon chivalry, in which
Elala is the Saladin and Dutugaimunu the Cceur-de-lion.
So genuine was the admiration of Elala's bravery that his
rival erected a monument in his honour, on the spot where
he fell ; the ruins of which remain to die present (lav,
and are still regarded by the Singhalese with respect
and veneration. " On reaching the quarter of the city
in which it stands," saye the Mahawanso ', " it has been
the custom for the monarchs of Lanka to silence their
music, whatsoever procession they may be heading;"
and so uniformly was the homage continued down to
the most recent period, that so lately as 1818, on the
suppression of an attempted rebellion, when the de-
feated aspirant to the throne was making his escape by
Anarajapoora, ne alighted from his litter, on approach-
ing the quarter in which the monument was known W
exist, " and although weary and almost incapable of
exertion, not knowing the precise spot, he continued
on foot till assured that he had passed far beyond the
ancient memorial." 2
Dutugaimunu, in the epics of Buddhism, enjoys 3
renown, second only to that of King Tissa, as the
champion of the faith. On the recovery of his kingdom
he addressed himself with energy to remove the effects
produced in the northern portions of the island by forty
years of neglect and inaction under the sway of Elala.
During that monarch's protracted usurpation the minor
sovereignties, which had been formed in various parts
of the island prior to his seizure of the crown, were
' ifahawmwo, ch. xji.
• Foa.>«i Eleven Years in Ceylon, vol. i. p. 233.
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Cqur. V.J ELALA AND DUTUGAIMUNU. SOS
little impeded in their social progress by the forty- B-°-
four years' residence of the Malabars at Anarajapoora.
Although the petty kings of Eohuna •and Maya sub-
mitted to pay tribute to Elala, his personal rule did not
extend south of the Mahawelli-ganga l, and whilst the
strangers in the north of the island were plundering
the temples of Buddha, the feudal chiefs in £he south
and west were emulating the munificence of Tissa in the
number of wiharas which they constructed.
Eager to conciliate his subjects by a similar display
of regard for religion, Dutugaimunu signalised his victory
and restoration by commencing the erection of the Buan-
wclle" dagoba, the most stupendous as well as the most
venerated of those at Anarajapoora, as it enclosed a more
imposing assemblage of relics than were ever enshrined
in any other in Ceylon.
The mass of the population was liable to render
compulsory labour to the crown ; but wisely reflecting
that it was not only derogatory to the sacredness of the
object, but impolitic to exact any avoidable sacrifices
from a people so recently suffering from internal warfare,
Dutugaimunu came to the resolution of employing hired
workmen only, and according to the *Mahawanso vast
numbers of the Yakkhos became converts to Buddhism
during the progress of the building 2, which the king did
not live to complete.
But the most remarkable 6f the edifices which lie
erected at the capital was the Maha-Lowa-paya, a mon-
astery which obtained the name of the Brazen Palace
from the fact of its being roofed with plates of copper
It was elevated on sixteen hundred monolithic columns of
1 Mahawansa, ch. uii., liujatali,
p. 188, Hajaratnacari, p. 36. The
Mahawaruo has ft story of Dutugai-
munu, when a boy, illustrative of his
early impatience to rid the island of
the Malabars. His father seeing him
lying on his bed, with his hands and
feet gathered up, inquired, " My boy,
why not stretch thyself at length on
tby bed P" " Confined by the Da-
milae," he replied, " beyond the river
on the one side, and by the unyield-
ing ocean on the other, how can 1 lie
with outstretched limbs f "
* Mahawaruo. ch. xsxiii. xxix. in.
^omzBdoy Google
356 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Fait III.
granite twelve feet high, and arranged in lines of forty, so
as to cover an area of upwards of two hundred and twenty
feet square. On* these rested the building nine stories in
height, which, in addition to a thousand dormitories for
priests, contained halls and other apartments for their ex-
ercise and accommodation.
The Mahawanso relates with peculiar unction the
munificence of Dutugaimunu in remunerating those era-
ployed upon this* edifice ; he deposited clothing for that
purpose as well as " vessels filled with sugar, buffalo
butter and honey ; " he announced that on this occasion
it was not fitting to exact unpaid labour, and, " placing
high value on the work to be performed, he paid the
workmen with money." '
The structure, when completed, far exceeded in splen-
dour anything recorded in the sacred books. All its
apartments were embellished with " beads, resplendent
like gems;" the great hall was supported by golden
pillars resting on lions and other animals, and the walls
were ornamented with festoons of pearls and of flowers
formed of jewels; in the centre was an ivory throne,
with an emblem on one side of a golden sun, and on
the other of the moon in silver, and above all glittered
the imperial ** chatta," the white canopy of dominion.
The palace, says the Maliawanso, was provided with rich
carpets and couches, and " even the ladle of the rice
boiler was of gold."
The vicissitudes and transformations of the Brazen
Palace are subjects of frequent mention in the his-
tory of the sacred city. As originally planned by
Dutugaimunu, it did not endure through the reign of
his successor Saidaitissa, at whose expense it was re-
constructed, B.c. 140, but the number of stories was
reduced to seven, a More than two centuries later, a.d.
182, these were again reduced to five8, and the entire
! Mahawxouo, cJi. xxxiii.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. V.] DUTUOAIMUNU. 357
building must have been taken down in A.D. 240, as the
king who was then reigning caused " the pillars of the
Lowa Pasado to be arranged in a different form."
The edifice erected on its site was pulled to the ground
by the apostate Maha-Sen, a.d. 301 '; but penitently
reconstructed by him on his recantation of his errors.
Its last recorded restoration took place in the reign of
Prakrama-bahu, towards the close of the twelfth century,
when " the king rebuilt the Lowa-Maha-paya, and raised
up the 1600 pillars of rock."
Thus exposed to spoliation by its splendour, and ob-
noxious to infidel invaders from the religious uses to which
it was dedicated, the palace was subjected to violence
on every commotion, whether civil or external, which
disturbed the repose of the capital ; and at the pre-
sent day, no traces of it remain except the indestruc-
tible monoliths j>n which it stood. A " world of stone
columns," to "use the quaint expression of Knox, still
marks the site of the Brazen Palace of . Dutugaimunu,
1 Mahaicnnso, eh. xxxvii.
oyGoogIc
858 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Fur III.
B.c. and attests the accuracy of the chronicles which describe
161- its former magnificence.
The character of Dutugaimunu is succinctly ex-
pressed in his dying avowal, that he had lived " a slave
to the priesthood."1 Before partaking of food, it was
his practice to present a portion for their use ; and
recollecting in maturer age, that on one occasion, when
a child, he had so far forgotten this invariable rule, as
to eat a chilly without sharing it with a priest, he
submitted himself to a penance in expiation of this
youthful impiety.2 His death scene, as described in
the Mahawanso, contains an enumeration of the deeds
b.c of piety by which his reign had been signalised.8 Ex-
tended on his couch in front of the great dagoba which
he had erected, he thus addressed one of his military
companions who had embraced the priesthood : " Id
times past, supported by my ten warriors, I engaged in
battles ; now, single-handed, I commence my last con-
flict, with death ; and it is not permitted to me to over-
come my antagonist." " Ruler of men," replied the
thero, " without subduing the dominion of sin, the power
of death is invincible ; bizt call to recollection thy acts
of piety performed, and from these you will derive con-
solation." The : secretary then "read from the register
of deeds of piety," that " one hundred wiharas, less
one, had been constructed by the Maharaja, that he
had built two great dagobas and the Brazen Palace at
Anarajapoora; that in famines he had given his jewels to
support the pious ; that on three several occasions lie
had clothed the whole priesthood throughout the island,
giving three garments to each ; that five times he hod
conferred the sovereignty of the land for the space of
seven days on the National Church ; that he had
founded hospitals for the infirm, and distributed rice to
the indigent ; bestowed lamps on innumerable temples.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. V.] DDTCGAIMWU. #8
and maintained preachers, in the various wiharas, in all
parts of his dominions. ' All these acts,' said the dying
king, ' done in my days of prosperity, afford no comfort
to me now ; but two offerings which I made when
in affliction and in adversity, disregardful of my own
fate, are those which alone administer solace to me.'1
After this, the pre-eminently wise Maharaja expired,
stretched on his bed, in the act of gazing on the
Mahathupo." a
1 Mahmvmuo, ch. zxxii.
1 Another name for the Rutmwell£ daguba, which he had built.
oyGoogIc
THE SINGHALESE CHBONICLES.
THE INFLUENCE OP BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION.
Aftek the reign of Dutugairnunu there is little in the
pages of the native historians to Bustain interest in the
story of the Singhalese monarchs. The long line of
sovereigns is divided into two distinct classes ; the kings
of the Maha-wanse or " superior dynasty " of the uncon-
tatninated blood of Wijayo, who occupied the throne from
his death, B.c. 505, to that of Maha-Sen, a.d. 302, and
the kings of the Sulu-wanse or " inferior race," whose de-
scent was less pure, but who, amidst invasions, revolutions,
and decline, continued, with unsteady hand, to hold the
government down to the occupation of the island hy
Europeans in the beginning of the sixteenth century.
To the great dynasty, and more especially to its
earliest members, the inhabitants were indebted for the
first rudiments of civilisation, for the arts of agricidtunil
life, for an organised government, and for a system of
national worship. But neither the piety nor the muni-
ficence of the kings sufficed to conciliate the personal
attachment of their subjects, or to strengthen their throne
by national attachment such as would have fortified its
occupant against the fatalities incident to despotism.
Of fifty-one sovereigns who formed the pure Wijayan
dynasty, two were deposed by their subjects, and nine-
teen put to death by their successors.1 Excepting the
1 There is something' very striking
in the facility with which aspirants to
the throne obtained the instant ac-
quiescence of the people, so soon as
assassination had put them in pos-
session of power. This is the m<
remarkable, where the usurpers m
of the lower grade, as in the i
stance of Subho,a gate porter, w
murdered King Yasa Silo, a,j>. I
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. VL] INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION. 361
rare instances in which a reign was marked by some
occurrence, such as an invasion and repulse of the
Malabars, there is hardly a sovereign of the "Solar
race " whose name is associated with a higher achieve-
ment than the erection of a dagoba or the formation of
a tank, nor one-whose story is enlivened by an event
more exciting than the murder through which he
mounted the throne or the conspiracy by which he was
driven from it.1
One source of royal contention arose on the death of
Dutugaimunu ; his son, having forfeited his birthright
by an alliance with a wife of lower caste, was set aside
from the succession ; Saidaitissa, a brother of the de-
ceased king, being raised to the throne in his stead.
The priests, on the death of Saidaitissa, B.C. 119, has-
tened to proclaim his youngest #son Thullatthanaka 2, to
the prejudice of his elder brother Laiminitissa, but the
latter established his just claim by the sword, and hence
and reigned for six years (Mahaw. ch.
xxxv. p. 218). A carpenter, and a
carrier of fire-wood, were each ac-
cepted in succession as sovereigns,
*..». 47 ; whilst the "artat dynasty "
was still in the plenitude of its po-
pularity. The mystery is perhaps
referable to the dominant necessity
of securing tranquillity at any coat,
in the state of society where the means
of cultivation were directly dependent
on the village organisation, and
famine and desolation would have
been the instant and inevitable con-
sequences of any commotions which
interfered with the conservancy and
repair of the tanks and means of ir-
rigation, and the prompt application
of labour to the raising and saving of
produce at the instant when the fall
of the rains or the ripening of the
crops demanded its employment with
the utmost vigour.
1 In theory the Singhalese monar-
chy was elective in the descendants
of the Solar race : in practice, primo-
geniture had a preference, and the
cro^rn was either hereditary or be-
came the prize of those who claimed
to be of royal lineage. On reviewing
the succession of kings from B.C. 307
to a.d. 1816, thirty-nine eldest sons
(or nearly one fourth) succeeded to
their fathers : and twenty-nine kings
(or more than one fifth) were suc-
ceeded by brothers. Fifteen reigned
for a period less than one year, and
thirty for more than oneyear, and leas
than four. Of the Singhalese kings
who died by violence, twenty- two
were murdered by their successors ;
six were killed by other individuals;
thirteen fell in feuds and war, and
four committed suicide ; eleven were
dethroned, and their subsequent fate
is unknown. Not more than two-
thiids of the Singhalese kings re-
tained sovereign authority to their
decease, or reached the funeral pile
without a violent death. — Fobbes'
Eleven Yean in Ceylon, vol. i. ch. iv.
p. 80, 97; Joihvxlle, Religion and
Maimeraof the People of Ceylon; Atiat.
Set. vol. vii. p. 423. See also Ma-
hawaneo, ch. xxiii. p.* 201.
1 MahuKorao, ch. xxiiii. p. 201,
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THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
[Put III
arose two rival lines, which for centuries afterwards
were prompt on every opportunity to advance adverse
pretensions to the throne, and assert them by force of
arms.
In such contests the priesthood brought a preponde-
rant influence to whatever side they inclined l ; and thus
the royal authority, though not strictly sacerdotal, be-
came so closely identified with the hierarchy, and so
guided by its will, that each sovereign's attention was
chiefly devoted to forwarding such measures as most con-
duced to the exaltation of Buddhism and the maintenance
of its monasteries and temples.
A signal effect of this regal policy, and of the growing
diffusion of Buddhism, is to be traced in the impulse
which it communicated to the reclamation of lands and
the extension of cultivation. For more than three
hundred years no mention is made in the Singhalese
annals of any mode of maintaining the priesthood other
than the royal distribution of clothing and voluntary
offerings of food. The priests resorted for the " royal alms "
either to the residence of the authorities or to halls
specially built for their accommodation 2, to which they
were summoned by " the shout of refection ; " B the ordi-
nary priests receiving rice, " those "endowed with the
gift of preaching, clarified butter, sugar, and honey."4
Hospitals and medicines for their use, and rest houses on
their journeys, were also provided at the public charge.5
These •xpediente were available so long as the num-
bers of the priesthood were limited ; but such were the
1 It was the dying boast of Dutn-
gaimunu that he had lived " a slave to
the priesthood." The expression was
figurative in his case ; but so abject
did the subserviency of the kings
become, and so rapid was its growth,
that Bitiya Tissa, who reigned i.n.
8, rendered it literal, aud "dedicated
himself, his queen, and two sons, as
well as his charger, and state ele-
phant, as tlavei to the prietthood."
The Mahawanao intimated that the
priests themselves protested against
this debasement, eh. xxxiv. p. 211.
3 Mahawawo.ch-
a. p. 123 ; xxii.
p. 132, 135.
' Mahaiamio, ch.
xxviii. p. 167.
* Mahawanno, ch.
xrxii. p. 196-7.
* Mahamanto, ch.
xxxii. p. 190;
xzxvii. p. 244 ; Hqjaratnacari, p. 39,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. V*.] INFLUENCE OP BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION. 563
multitudes who were tempted to withdraw from the b.c.
world and its pursuits, in order to devote themselves to 119-
meditation and the diffusion of Buddhism, that the
difficulty became practical of maintaining them by per-
sonal gifts, and the alternative suggested itself of setting
apart lands for their support This innovation was
first resorted to during an interregnum. The Sin-
ghalese king Walagam Bahu, being expelled from his
capital by a Malabar usurpation fl.c. 104, was unable to b.c.
continue the accustomed regal bounty to the priesthood; 10*'
and dedicated certain lands while in exile in Bohuna, for
the support of a fraternity "who had sheltered him
there." 1 The precedent thus established, was speedily
seized upon and extended ; lands were everywhere set
apart for the repair of the sacred edifices2, and eventually,
about the beginning of the Christian era, the priesthood
acquired such an increase of influence as sufficed to
convert their precarious eleemosynary dependency into
a permanent territorial endowment ; and the practice had
become universal of conveying estates in mortmain on
the construction of a wihara or the dedication of a
temple.8
The corporate character of the recipients served to
neutralise the obligations by which they were severally
bound ; the vow of poverty, though compulsory on an
individual priest, ceased to be binding on the commu-
nity of which he was a member ; and whilst, on his own
behalf, he was constrained to abjure the possession of
property, even to the extent of one superfluous cloth,
the wihara to which he was attached, in addition to its
ecclesiastical buildings, and its offerings in gems and
gold, was held competent to become the proprietor of
broad and fertile lands.* These were so bountifully
to, ch. xxxiii. p. 203.
Previous to this date a king of Ro-
hnna, during the usurpation of Elala,
B.C. 206, had appropriated lands near
Kalanj, foT the repairs of the dagoba.
—Btgaratnacari, p. 37.
* In the reign of Bntiva Tisaa, b.c.
1). Mahawatuo, cb. xxxiv. p. 212 ;
taiarataaeari, p. 51.
* Mahawanto, ch. xxxir. p. 214.
* Hardy's Etuttnt MonacSitm, ch.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
364 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Pa*t III.
bestowed by royal piety, by private munificence, and
by mortuary gifts, that ere many centuries had elapsed
the temples of Ceylon absorbed a large proportion of
the landed property of the kingdom, and their pos-
sessions were not only exempted from taxation, but
accompanied by a right to the compulsory labour of die
temple tenants.1
As the estates so made over to religious uses lay for
tile most part in waste districts, the quantity of land to be
brought under cultivation necessarily involved large ex-
tensions of the means of irrigation. To supply these,
reservoirs were formed on such a scale as to justify the
term " consecrated lakes," by which they are described
in the Singhalese annals.2
Where the circumstances of the ground permitted,
their formation was effected by drawing an embankment
across the embouchure of a valley so as to arrest and
retain the waters by which it was traversed, and so vart
were the dimensions of some of these gigantic tanks that
many yet in existence still cover an area of from fifteen
to twenty miles in circumference. The ruins of that
at Xalaweva, to the north-west of Dambool, show that
its original circuit could not have been less than
forty miles, its retaining bund being upwards of twelve
miles long. The spill-water of stone, which remains' to
the present time, is " perhaps one of the most stupend-
ous monuments of misapplied human labour in the
island." 8
The number of these stupendous works, which were
formed by the early sovereigns of Ceylon, almost ex-
ceeds credibility. Kings are named in the native annafc,
1 The Itajaratnacari mentions an
instance, A.D. 02, of eight thousand
rice fields bestowed in one giant,' and
similar munificence is recorded in
-XajaratMicarifp. 57,59,64,74,11.1,
fee. MahawansD, ch. nxxv. p. 228,
!24; ch. ix*vi. p. 233.
1 Rqjaratnacari, ch. ii. p.37; Baja-
volt, p. 237.
■ TUBNOUB, Mahatomuo, p. \--
The tank of Kalaweva was furrod
by Dhatu Sena, a.b. 450.— JUS*-
vjctnsa, ch. xxxviii. p. 257.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cuap. VI.] INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION. 365
each of whom made from fifteen to thirty1, together D.c.
with canals and all the appurtenances for irrigation. 104-
Originally these vast undertakings were completed "for
the benefit of the country," and " out of compassion for
living creatures ;"3 but so early as -the first century of the
Christian era, the custom became prevalent of forming
tanks with the pious intention of conferring the lands
which they enriched on the church. Wide districts,
rendered fertile by the interception of a river and the
formation of suitable canals, were appropriated to the
maintenance of the local priesthood a ; a tank and the
thousands of acres which it fertilised were sometimes
assigned for the perpetual repairs of a dagoba*, and the
revenues of whole villages and their surrounding rice
fields were devoted to the support of a single wihara.5
So lavish were these endowments, that one king, who
signalised his reign by such extravagances as laying a
carpet seven miles in length, " in order that pilgrims
might proceed with unsoiled feet all the way from the
Kadambo river (the Malwatte oya) to the mountain
Chetiyo (Mihintala), awarded a priest who had presented
him with a draught of water during the construction of a
wihara, " land within the circumference of half a yogana
(eight miles) for the maintenance of the temple."8 ,
It was in this manner that the beautiful tank at
Minery, one of the most lovely of these artificial lakes,
was enclosed by Maha Sen, a.d. 275 ; and, together with
the 80,000 amonams of ground which it waters, was
n, p. 41, 46, 54, 55 ;
la. B.C. 137, made
" eighteen lakes" (Rqjaoali, p. 233), . ratnacari, <
King Wssabha, who ascended the j 74
throne a.d. 06, " caused sixteen , * Mnhawanso, ch. xxxv. p. 215,
large lakes to be enclosed " (Raja- \ 218, 223 j ch. sxxvii. p. 234 ; Raja-
11 ' "" ratnaeari, ch. it. p. 51. ToTtNOUB's
Epitome, p. 21.
1 JfoAaiWBMO, ch. xxxr. p. 218,
221 ; JZiiJaratnacttri, ch. ii. p. 51 j
Rqjaoali, p. 241.
0 MtiJuivxmsv, ch. xxxiv. p. 8.
. 57). Detu Tiasa,
i!fll,e*cavBU>d six {RajavuK, p. 237),
and Kinpr Maha Sen, a.d. 275, seven-
teen (Mahavxnao, ch. xxxTiii. p.
230).
1 MahaicaiuQ, ch. zzzvii. p. 242.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
366 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Pakt UI.
conferred on the Jcytawana .Wihara which the king had
just erected at Anarajapoora.1
To identify the crown still more closely with the
interests of agriculture, some of the kings superintended
public works for irrigating the lands of the temples1;
and one more enthusiastic than the rest toiled in the rice
fields to enhance the merit of conferring their produce on
the priesthood.8
These broad possessions, the church, under all vicissi-
tudes and revolutions, has succeeded in retaining to the
present day. Their territories, it is true, have been
diminished in extent by national decay ; the destruction
of works for irrigation has converted into wilderness
and jungle plains once teeming with fertility ; and the
mild policy of the British government, by abolishing
raja-kariya *, has emancipated the peasantry, who are
no longer the serfs either of the temples or the chiefs.
But in every district of the island the priests are in
the enjoyment of the most fertile lands, over which the
crown exercises no right of taxation ; and such is the
extent of their possessions that, although their precise
limits have not been ascertained by the local govern-
ment, they have been conjectured with probability to
be equal to one-third of the cultivated land of the
island.
One peculiarity in the Buddhist ceremonial served at
all times to give a singular impulse to the progress of
horticulture. Flowers and garlands are introduced in
its religious rites to the utmost excess. The atmosphere
of the wiharas and temples is rendered oppressive with
the perfume of champac and jessamine, and the shrine
of the deity, the pedestals of his image, and the steps
leading to the temple are strewn thickly with blos-
1 Majaratnacarx, ch. ii. p. 09. tinction which they haye ewned, hj
* TPBSODfi'B Epitome, p. 33. the multitudes of tanks they ha"
* Mahaioanto, ch. xxxiv. The constructed or restored. See YulEfl
Buddhist kings of Burm&h are still Narrative of tlie Mutton to Ave i»
accustomed to boast, almost in the 1850, p. 106.
terms of the Muhawamo, of the dis- * Compulsory labour.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. VIJ INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION. 367
soms of the nagaha and the lotus. At an earlier period b.c. '
the profusion in which these beautiful emblems were 104,
employed in sacred decorations appears almost incre-
dible; the Mahawanso relates that the Kuanwelle" da-
goba, which was 270 feet in height, was on one occasion
"festooned with garlands from pedestal to 'pinnacle till
it resembled one uniform bouquet;" and at another
time, it and the lofty dagoba at Mihintala were buried
under heaps of jessamine from the ground to the
summit.1 Fa Hian, in describing his visit to Anaraja-
poora in the fourth century, dwells with admiration
and wonder on the perfumes and nowers lavished on
their worship by the Singhalese2 ; and the native histo-
rians constantly allude as familiar incidents to the
profusion in which they were employed on ordinary
occasions, and to the formation by successive kings of
innumerable gardens for the floral requirements of the
temples. The capital was surrounded on all sides3 by
flower gardens, and these were multiplied so extensively
that, according' to the Rajaratnaeari, one was to be
found within a distance of four leagues in any part of
Ceylon.^ Amongst the regulations of the temple built
at Dambedenia, in the thirteenth century, was " every
day an offering of 100,000 flowers, and each day a
different flower." 6
Another advantage conferred by Buddhism on the
country was the planting of fruit trees and esculent vege-
tables for the gratuitous use of travellers in all the fre-
quented parts of the island. The historical evidences of
this are singularly corroborative of the genuineness of the
' Mahateaam, ch.
ratnacari, p. 62, 53.
* Fa-Iuaj*. Foc-koul-ki, eh.
juiriii. p. 335.
9 JRnjaraii, p. 227; Mahawanio, ch.
* Ag'aroinacflri'jp. 29,49. Amongst
the officers attached to the great
establishments of the priests in Mihin-.
tola, a.o. 240, there are enumerated
in an inscription engraven on a rock
there, a secretary, a treasurer, a
physician, a Bureeon, a painter, twelve"
cooks, twelve thatchers, ten carpen-
ters, six carters, and tvxtjlorist*.
* Rajaratnaeari, p. 103. The same
book states that another kin?, in
the fifteenth century, "offered no
less than 0,480,320 sweet smelling
flowers" at the shrine of the Tooth.
— lb., p. 136.
oyGoogIe
THE SINGHALESE CHBONICLES.
[Pin in.
Bflddhist edicts engraved on various rocks and monu-
ments in India, the deciphering of which was the
grand achievement of Prinsep and his learned coadju-
tors. On the pillars of Delhi, Allahabad, and other
places, and on the rocks of Girnar and Dfiauli, there
exist a number of Pah inscriptions purporting to be
edicts of Asoka (the Dharmasoca of the Mahaicawo).
King of Magadha, in the third century before the
Christian era, who, on his conversion to the religion of
Buddha, commissioned Mahindo, his son, to undertake
its establishment in Ceylon. In these edicts, which were
promulgated in the vernacular dialect, the king endea-
voured to impress both upon his subjects and allies, a--1
well as those who, although aliens, were yet " united iu
the law " of Buddha, the divine precepts of their great
teacher ; prominent amongst which are the prohibition
.against taking animal life1, and the injunction that,
"everywhere wholesome vegetables, roots, and fruit
trees shall be cultivated, and that on the roads wells
shall be dug and trees planted for the enjoyment of men
and animals." In apparent conformity with these edicts,
one of the kings of Ceylon, Addagaimunu, about the
year 20 A.D., is stated in the Mahawanso to have " caused
to be planted throughout the island every description of
fruit-bearing creepers, and interdicted the destruction of
animal life," * and similar acts of pious benevolence,
performed by command- of various other sovereign*,
are adverted to on numerous occasions.
*■ It is curious that one of these
edicts of Anoka, who was cotem-
porary with Devenipifltissa, is nd-
■dressed to " all the conquered terri-
tories of the rajs, even unto the ends
of the earth, as in Chols, in Pida, in
Keralaputra, and in Tnmbapatuii (or
Ceylon}." Thia license of speech,
reminding one of the grandiloquent
epistles " from the Klniuininn Gate,"
was no doulrt assumed in virtue of the
"the religion of the Vanquish*
nnd Asuka, as its propagator, thus
claims to address the converts as hi'
" subjects."
1 Mahawcmso, ch.
\J\.
215.
The king Upatissa, a.d. 368, in tbc
midst of a solemn ceremonial, " ob-
serving ants, and other insects drown-
ing in an inundation, halted, uh'
having swept them towards the baal
with the feathers of a peacock's tail,
and enabled them to save themseln*.
he continued the procession. "— ,1ft-
hawanw, ch. xxivii. p. 240; %aj«-
ratnaeari, p. 49, 52 ; ItajauaU, i»
DomzcdoyGoOglc
• . chap. vn.
PATE OF THE ABORIGINES.
It has already been shown, that devotion and policy com- b.c
bitied to accelerate the pragmas of social improvement 10*- '
in Ceylon, and that before tbe close of the third century of
the Chflstian era, the portion of the island to the north of
the Kandyan mountains contained numerous cities and
villages, adorned with temples and dagobas, and seated
in the midst of highly cultivated fields. The fece of the
country exhibited broad expanses of rice land, irri-
gated by artificial lakes, and canals of proportionate
magnitude, and thus the waters from the rivers, which
would otherwise have flowed idly to the sea, were
diverted inland in all directions to fertilise" the fields
of the interior.1 •
In the formation of these prodigious tanks, the
chief labour employed was that of the aboriginal in-
habitants, the Yakkhos and Nagas, directed by the
science and skill of the conquerors. Their contribu-
tions of work, though in the instance of the Bud-
dhist converts they may have "been to some extent
voluntary, were, in general, the result of compulsion.2
Like the Israelites under the Egyptians, the aborigines
were ordered to -make bricks8 for the stupendous
dagobas erected by their masters4; and eight hundred
years after the subjugation of the island, the Rajavali
describes vast reservoirs and appliances for irriga-
tion, as being constructed by the forced labour of the
1 MahaHxauo, ch. xxiy. xxxvii. I *
, * Id some instances the soldiers of <
tbe kiag were employed in forming
worhi of irrigation , [
VOL I. BB
DomzcdoyGoOglc
370 THE SINGHALESE CHEONICLES. [Fait III.
Yakkhos ', under the superintendence of Brahman engi-
neers.* This, to some extent, accounts for the prodigious
amount of labour bestowed on these structures ; labour
which the whole revenue of the kingdom would not
have sufficed to purchase, had it not been otherwise
procurable.
Under this system, the fate of the aborigines was
that usually consequent on the subjugation of an infe-
rior race by one more highly civilised. The process of
their absorption into the*dominant race was slow, and
for centuries they continued to exist distinct, as a subju-
gated people. So firmly rooted amongst them %as the
worship both of demons and Berpents, that, notwith-
standing the ascendancy of Buddhism, many centuries
elapsed before it was ostensibly abandoned ; from time
to time, " demon offerings " were made from the royal
treasury 8 ; and one of the kings, in his enlarged libe-
rality, ordered that for every ten villages there should
be maintained an astrologer and a "devil-dancer," in
addition to* the doctor and the priest.4
Throughout the Singhalese chronicles, the notices of
the aborigines are but casual, and occasionally contemp-
tuous. Sometimes they allude to " slaves of the Yakkbo
tribe," 6 and in recording the progress and completion of
the tanks and other stupendous works, the Mahawanso
and the Rajaratnacari, in order to indicate the inferi-
ority of the natives to their masters, speak of their
conjoint labours as that of " men and snakes," 6 and
" men and demons." 7
1 Fajavali, p. 237, 238. Excep-
tions to the extortion of forced labour
for public works took place under the
more pious kings, who mode a merit
of paying the workmen employed in
the erection of dsgobas and other
religious monuments. — Mahawaato,
■ Mahaieanto, eli. x.
• Mahavxmto, ch. X.: TdBJTOIFK's
*p.23.
* TmHorjB'8^i*tom«,p.27;««"-
ratnacari, ch. ii. ; Rq/aKui, p. 241.
1 Mtshawatuo, ch. x.
' Ibid., ch. xix. p. 115.
' The Kinp Malm-Sen, anxious for
the promotion of agriculture, caused
many tanks to be made " by men wd
devils." — Mahammto, ch. xxjtK-;
Upham'8 TranAl Rcg'aratnat&i, f
09; Rqjuoali, p. 237.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. 711.] FATE OF THE ABORIGINES. 371
Notwithstanding the degradation of the natives, it
was indispensable to M befriend the interests l " of a
race so numerous and so useful ; hence, they were fre-
quently employed in the military expeditions of the Wi-
jayan sovereigns, and the earlier kings of that dynasty
admitted the rank of the Yakkho chiefs who shared in
these enterprises. They assigned a suburb of the capital
for their residence 2, and on festive occasions they were
seated on thrones of equal eminence with that of the
king.8 But every aspiration towards a recovery of
their independence was checked by a device less charac-
teristicft)f ingenuity in the ascendant race, than of
simplicity combined with jealousy in the aborigines.
The feeling was encouraged and matured into a con-
viction which prevailed to the latest period of the Sin-
ghalese sovereignty, that no individual of pure Singhalese
extraction could be elevated to the supreme power, since
no one could prostrate himself t«fore one of his own
nation.*
For- successive generations, the natives, although
treated with partial kindness1, were regarded as a sepa-
rate race. Even the children of Wijayo, by his first
wife Kuweni, united themselves with their maternal con-
nexions on the repudiation of their mother by the king,
" and retained the attributes of Yakkhos," 6 and by that
designation the natives continued to be distinguished
down to the reign of Dutugaimunu.
In spite of every attempt at conciliation, the process
of amalgamation between the two races was reluctant
and slow. The ■earliest Bengal immigrants sought
wives among the TamilB, on the opposite coast of
India 8 ; and although their ' descendants intermarried
with the natives, the great mass of the population long
held aloof from the invaders, and occasionally vented
1 Mahawanto, eh.*, I * Joihville's Atiat. Bet. vol. ril.
' Ibid., ch. x. p. 67. ' p. 422.
1 Ibid., p. 68. ' I * Mahmwinao, ch. vii.
| * Ibid., p. 68,
B B 9
DomzcdoyGoOglc
372 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. friar HI
their impatience in rebellion.1 Hence the progress tf
civilisation amongst them was but partial and slow,
and in the narratives of the early rulers of the island
there is ample evidence that the aborigines long retained
their habits of shyness and timidity.
Notwithstanding the frequent resort of every nation
of antiquity to its coasts, the accounts of the first voy-
agers are almost wholly confined to descriptions of the
loveliness of the country, the singular brilliancy of it'
jewels, the richness of its pearls, the sagacity of iu
elephants, and the delicacy and abundance of its spices;
but the information which they furnish regarWng its
inhabitants is so uniformly meagre, as to attest the absence
of intercourse ; and the writers of all nations, Greek.',
Romans, Arabians, Chinese and Indians, concur in their
allusions to the unsocial and uncivilised customs of the
islanders.8
As the Bengal adventurers advanced into the interior
of the island, a large section of the. natives withdrew
into the forests and hunting grounds on the eastern and
southern coasts.8 There, subsisting by the bow * and the
chase, they adhered, with moody tenacity, to the rude
habits of their race ; and in the Veddah of the present
day, there is still to be recognised a remnant of the un-
tamed aborigines of Ceylon.6 - ■
Even those of the original race who slowly conformed
to the religion and habits of their masters, were never
entirely emancipated from the ascendency of their
ancient superstitions. Traces of the worship of snakes
and demons are to the present hour clearly perceptible
amongst them; the Buddhists still resort to the uicaU'
1 Mahcaaauo, ch. hnv.
1 See an account of these singular
peculiarities, Vol. I. P. v. c ii. p. 692.
' Jliotitn Thvmg, the Chinese geo-
grapher, who visited India in the
seventh century, aays that at that
time the Yakkhos had retired to the
south-east corner of Ceylon; — and
here their descendants, the Veddahs,
are found at the present day- — 'V'
age*, fe, "- "' " "™
zxxiii. p. 204.
" Db Aiwre," SWatt 8m#*+ £
xviL For an account of the Ye*"*'
and their present condition, »• >*
II. P. n. ch. iiL
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Oiliv. VII.] FATK OP TUB ABOBIQINES. 378
tationa of the "devil dancers" in case of danger and b.c.
emergency1; a Singhalese, rather than put a Cobra de 104-
capello to death, encloses the reptile in a wicker cage,
and sets it adrift on the nearest stream ; and in the island
of Nainativoe, to the south-west of Jaffna, there was till
recently a little temple, dedicated to the goddess Naga
'JTambiran, in which consecrated serpents were tenderly
reared by the Pandarams, and daily fed at the expense of
the worshippers.2
1 For an account of Demon wot- I Chrutianity m Ceylon, ch. v. p. 236.
shiji as it still exists in Ceylon, see * Casus Chittt'b Gazetteer, 8fc.,
Sir J. EsnntsoN Tehnest's History •/ \ p. 109.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CHBOHICLES.
chap vm
EXTWCTIOH OF THE " QBEAT DYNASTY."
Fbom the death of Dutugaimunu to the exhaustion
of the superior dynasty on the death of Maha-Sen, a.d.
301, there are few demonstrations of pious munificence
to signalise the policy of the intervening sovereign*
The king whom, next to Devenipiatissa and Dutugai-
munu, the Buddhist historians rejoice to exalt as one
of the champions of the faith, was Walagam-bahu L1.
whose reign, though marked by vicissitudes, was pro-
ductive of lasting benefit to the national faith. Wala-
gam-bahu ascended the throne B.C. 104., but was almost
immediately forced to abdicate by an incursion of the
Malabars. Concerting a simultaneous landing at several
parts of the island, the invaders combined their movement
bo successfully that they seized on Anarajapoora, and
drove the king into concealment in the mountains near
Adam's Peak ; and whilst one portion of them re-
turned laden with plunder to the Dekkan, their com-
panions remained behind and held undisputed possession
of the northern parts of Ceylon for nearly fifteen
years.
In this and the frequent incursions which followed,
the Malabar leaders were attracted by the wealth of
the country to the north of the Mahawelli-ganga, the
southern portion of the island being either too wild
and unproductive to present A temptation to conquest:
or too steep and inaccessible to afford facilities for in-
vasion. Besides, the Highlanders who inhabit the lofty
ranges that lie around Adam's Peak (a district know"
1 Called in the Mahavxmso, " Wata-gamini,"
DonizcdoyGoogle
Chap. VUl.] EXTINCTION OF THE "GREAT DYNASTY." 875
as Malaya, " the region of mountains and '. torrents,")1
then and at all times exhibited their superiority over
the lowlanders in, vigour, courage, and endurance.
Hence the petty kingdoms of Maya and Kohuna af-
forded on every occasion a refuge to the royal family
■when driven from the northern capital, and furnished
a force to assist in their return and restoration. Wala-
gam-bahu, after many years' concealment there, was
at last enabled to resume the offensive, and succeeded
in driving out the infidels, and recovering possession of
the sacred city, an event which he commemorated in
the usual manner by the construction of tanks, and the
erection of dagobas and wiharas.
But the achievement by which most of all he entitled
himself to the gratitude of the Singhalese annalists, was
the reduction to writing of the doctrines and discourses
of Buddha, which had been orally delivered by.Mahindo,
and previously preserved by tradition alone. These
Bacred volumes, which may be termed the Buddhist
1 MahawmtO, ch. vii.
B B 4
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CIIROMCLES.
[Pa.
Scriptures, .contain the Pittakataya, and its comment-
aries the Atthakatha, and were compiled by a company
of priests in a cave to the north of Matelle, known as
the Alu-wihara,1 This, and other caverns in which
the king had sought concealment during his adversity,
he caused to be converted into rock temples after liis
restoration to power ; — amongst . the rest, Bamboo),
the moat remarkable of the cave temples of Ceylon
from its vastness, its elaborate ornaments, and the
romantic beauty of its situation and the scenery sur-
rounding it
The history of the Buddhist religion in Ceylon is
not, however, a tale of uniform prosperity. The
first of its domestic enemies was Naga, the grandson
of the pious Walagam-bahu, whom the native liisto-
riana stigmatise by the prefix of " chora " or the " ma-
rauder." Ilis story is thus briefly but emphatically told
in the M&kawan&o: "During the reign of his father
Mahachula, Chora Haga wandered through the island
leading the life of a robber ; returning on the demise
of the king he assumed the monarchy; and in the
places which had denied liim an asylum during his
marauding career, .he impiously destroyed the wiharas."
After a reign of twelve years be was poisoned by
his queen Anula, and regenerated in the Lokantariko
hen.-1
IDs son, King Kuda Tissa, was also poisoned by his
mother, in order to clear her own path to the throne.
The Singhalese annals thus exhibit the unusual incident
of a queen enrolled amongst the monarchs of the great
dynasty— -a. precedent which was followed in after times ;
, ch. i. p. 43. Abou-
■b that at that time public
writers were, employed in recording
tin' traditions of the inland: "La
Itoj'aiime do Serendvb a une loi et
dea doctcura qui a'aaauniblent de
tumps en temps comine se rSunissent
ehei nous les personnes qui recneil-
lent lee traditions dii prophets, et les
Indiensae rendent aupres dssdoctewrs,
et eerivent sous leiir dict^e, la vie £<•
leura propliJtes et lea prfcepttaj di>
leur loi.'f — RmhauDj itelotton, $v,
torn. i. p. 127. .
2 Mahawatuo, eh. xxJuii. ; Rqja-
vali, p. 224; TnBWOUR's fy/Uome,
p. 19 ; Rajnratnacari, ch. i. p. 43, 44.
9 MaJmwanao, ch. xxxiv. p. 200.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. VIII.] EXTINCTION OP THE " GREAT DYNASTY." 377
Queen Siwalli having reigned in the succeeding cen- b.c.'
tury, A.D. 37, Queen Lila-wati, in A.D. 1197, and Queen 47*'
Kalyana-wati in a.d. 1202. Prom the excessive vileness
of her character, the first of the Singhalese women who
attained to the honours of sovereignty is denounced
in the Makawanso as "the infemous Anula." In the
enormity of her crimes and debauchery she was the
Messalina of Ceylon ; — she raised to the throne a porter
of the palace with whom she cohabited, descending
herself to the subordinate rank of Queen Consort, and
poisoned him to promote a carpenter in his stead. A
carrier of firewood, a Brahman, and numerous other
paramours followed in rapid succession, and shared a
similar fate, till the kingdom was at last relieved from
the opprobrium by a son of Prince Tissa, who put the
murderess to death, and restored the royal line in his
own person. His successors for more than two centuries b.c.
were a race of pious faineanfk, undistdnguifAied by any 60,
qualities, and remembered only by their fanatical subser-
viency to the priesthood.
Buddhism, relieved from the fury of impiety, was
next imperilled by the danger of schism. Even before
the funeral obsequies of Buddha, schism had dis-
played itself in Magadha, and two centuries had not
elapsed from his death. till it had manifested itself on
no less than seventeen occasions. In each instance
it was with difficulty checked by councils in which the
priesthood settled the faith in relation to the points
which gave rise to dispute ; but not before the actual
occurrence of secessions from the orthodox church.1
The earliest differences were on questions of discipline a.d.
amongst the colleges and fraternities at Anarajapoora ; 209*
but in the reign ofWairatissa, A.D. 209, a formidable
controversy arose, impugning the doctrines of Buddhism,
and threatened for a time to rend in sunder the sacred
unity of the church.8
i, ch. v. p. 21. '* Ibid., cli. xxziii.
-. Google
378 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Past IE
Buddhism, although tolerant of heresy, has ever been
vehement in ita persecution of schism. Boldly con-
fident in its own superiority, it bears without im-
patience the glaring errors of open antagonists, and
seems to exult in the contiguity of competing sys-
tems as if deriving strength by comparison. In this
respect it exhibits a similarity to the. religion of Brahma,
which regards with composure shades of doctrinal
difference, and only rises into jealous energy in support
of the distinctions of caste, an infringement of which
might endanger the supremacy of the priesthood1 To
the assaults of open opponents the Buddhist displays tlic
calmest indifference, convinced that in ita undiminished
strength, his faith is firm and inexpugnable ; his vigilance
is only excited by the alarm of internal dissent, and
all his passions are aroused to stifle the symptoms of
schism.2
This characteristic of the " religion of the Vanquisher "
is in strict conformity, not alone with the spirit of his
1 Hence the indomitable hatred
frith which the Brahmaus pursued
the disciples of Buddhism from the
fourth etmtury before Christ to its
final expulsion from Hindustan.
" Abundant proofs," savs Tumour,
" may be adduced to show the fa-
natical ferocity with which these two
great sects persecuted each other;
and which subsided into passive
hatred and contempt, only when the
parties were no longer placed in the
position of actual collision." — Introd.
MahawunAo, p. xxii.
" In its earliest form Buddhism
was equally averse to persecution,
and the Mahawmso extols the libe-
rality of Asoka in giving alms indis-
criminately to the members of all
religions (Mahawunm, oh. y. p. 23).
A sect which is addicted to persecu-
tion is not likely to speak approvingly
of toleration, but the Mahavxmto re-
cords with evident satisfaction the
courtesy paid to the sacred things of
Buddhism by the believers in other
the Bo-tree oi
(lb. ch. ids. p.
PtRTTSTES, Whc
visited ■ Ceylon
doctrines; thus the Nagaa did honags
to the relics of Buddha and mourn*!
their removal from Monet, Men
(Makavxmmt, ch. xxxi. p. 189) f uv
Yskkhos assisted at the building of
dagabas to enshrine them, and tbi'
Brehmans were the first to reaped
i its arrival in Cevlor.
119). CoshabIhww-
se informant, 8of*W>
______ in the sixth centurv.
records that there was then tf>'
most extended toleration, and that
even the Nestorian Christiana hud
perfect freedom and protection far
their worship.
Among the Buddhists of Burm«h,
however, " although they are tolerant
of the practice of other religions bi
those who -profess them, seceasiuii
from the national faith is rigidly pro-
hibited, and a convert to any »
form of faith incurs the penalty of
death." — Professor "Wiusoir, Jatr*.
Soy. Asiai. Sac., vol. xyL p. 361.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cm*. VIJIJ EXTINCTION OP THB w GREAT DYNASTY." 37»
doctrine, but also with the better of the law laid down
for the guidance of his disciples. Two of the singular
rock-inscriptions of India deciphered by Prinsep, in-
culcate the duty of leaving the profession of different
faiths unmolested ; on the ground, that " all aim at
moral restraint and purity of life, although all cannot
be equally successful in attaining to it" The sentiments
embodied in one of the edicts1 of King Asoka are very
striking : u A man must honour his own feith, without
blaming that of his neighbour, and thus will but little that
is wrong occur. There are even circumstances under
which the faith of others should be honoured, and in
acting thus a man increases his own faith and weakens
that of others. He who acts differently, diminishes his
own faith and injures that of another. Whoever he may
be who honours his own faith and blames that of others
out of devotion to his own, and says, ' let us make our
faith conspicuous,' that man merely injures the faith he
holds. Concord *lone is to be desired"
The obligation to maintain the religion of Buddha
was as binding as the command to abstain from as-
sailing that of its rivals, and -hence the kings who had
treated the snake-worshippers with kindness, who had
made a state provision for maintaining " offerings to
demons," and built dwellings at the capital to accom-
modate the " ministers of foreign religions," rose in
fierce indignation against the preaching of a firm be-
liever in Buddha, who ventured to put an independent
interpretation on points of faith. They burned the
books of the Wytulians, as the" new sect were called,
and frustrated their irreligious attempt3 The first
' The twelfth tablet, which, as
translated by Bubkoct and Pro-
fessor Wilsoh, will be found in Mrs.
Speik's Life, in Ancimt India, book ii.
ch. iv. p. 339.
* The Mahawanto throws no light
on the nature of the Wytulian (or
Wettulyan) heresy (ch. xxvii. p. 227),
but the " '
Wytulia was a Brahman who had
" subverted by craft and intrigue the
religion of Buddha " (ch. ii. p. 61 ).
As it is stated in a further passage
that the priests who were implicated
were stripped of their habits, it is
evident that the innovation had been
introduced under the garb of Buddha.
**-•— *- : -*- u, p. 66.
.Google
380 TUB SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. .. [Part 11L
».r>. effort at repression was ineffectual. It was made by
■ 209. -the King WairatisBa, A.D. 209 ; but within forty years
the schismatic tendency returned, the persecution was
a.d. renewed, and the apostate priests, after being branded
2*8. on the back, were ignominiously transported to the
opposite coast of India.1
The new sect had, however, established an interest in
high places ; and Sangha-mitta, one of the exiled priests,
returning from banishment on the death of the king, so
ingratiated himself with his successor, that he was en-
trusted with the education of the king's sons. One of the
a.d. latter, Maha-Sen, succeeded to the throne, A.D. 275, and,
275* openly professing his adoption of the Wytulian tenets,
dispossessed the popular priesthood, and overthrew the
Brazen Palace. With the materials of the great wihara,
he constructed at the sacred Bo-tree a building as a
receptacle for relics, and a temple in which the statue of
Buddha was to be worshipped according to the rites of
the reformed religion.3 •
So bold an innovation roused the passions of the
nation ; the people prepared for revolt, and a conflict
was imminent, when the schismatic Sangha-mitta was
suddenly assassinated, and the king, convinced of his
J. 25, Ma-
hawaao, ch. xxxvi. p. 232. As the
Mahawanso intimates in another pas-
sage that amongst the priests who
were banished to the opposite coast
of India, theie was one Sangha-
mitta, " who was profoundly teraed
in the rites of the demon faith
('bhuta'), it is probable that out
of the YVytulian heresy grew the
system which prevails to tho present
day, by which the heterodox dewola
and halls for devil dances are built
in close contiguity to the temples and
wiharas of the orthodox Buddhists,
and the barbarous rites of demon
worship are incorporated with the
abstractions of the national religion.
On the restoration of Maha-Sen to the
true faith, the Ma&ateanao repre-
sents him as destroying the deieatft
at Anaraiapoora in order to replace
them with wiharas (Makamauo, cb.
xxxvii. p. 237). An account of tta
niingliitg of Brnhmanicsl with Rud J-
hist worship, as it exists at the pre-
sent day, will be found in Habdi*
Oriental Motuichism, ch. lix. Pro-
fessor H. II. Wilson, in his Hittorial
SheUA of the Kaufdom of Pautya,
alludes to a heresy, which, anterior
to the sixth century, disturbed the
eangattar or college of Madura j the
leading feature of which was the ad-
mixture of Buddhist doctrines with
the rite of the Brahmans, and " tail
heresy," he says, "some traditions
assert was introduced from Ceylon."
— Anal. Journ. yol. iii. p. 218.
1 Mahavmuo, ch, xxxvii . p. 235.
Chap. VIII.] EXTINCTION OF THE lt GREAT DYNASTY." S61
errors, addressed himself 'with energy to" restore the *■»■
buildings he had destroyed, and to redress the mis- 2-
chiefs caused by his apostacy. He demolished the
dewales of the Hindus, in order to use their sites for
Buddhist wiharas ; he erected nunneries, constructed
the Jaytawanarama (a dagoba at Anarajapoora), formed
the great tank of Mineri by drawing a dam across the
Kara-ganga and that of Kandelay or Gantalawa, and
consecrated the 20,000 fields which it irrigated to the
Dennanaka Wihare. ' " He repaired numerous dilapi-
dated temples throughout the island, made offerings of
a thousand robes to a thousand priests, formed sixteen
tanks to extend cultivation — there is no defining the
extent of his charity" — and having performed during
his existence acts both of piety and impiety, the Maha-
wanso cautiously adds, " his destiny after death was
according to Iris merits J' a
With King Maha-Sen end the glories of the "superior *■»■
dynasty" of Ceylon. The " sovereigns of the Suhiwanse,
who followed," Bays the Rajavali, " were no .longer of
the unmixed blood, but the offspring of parents, only
one of whom was descended from the sun, and the
other from the bringer of the Bo-tree or the sacred
tooth ; on that account, because the God Sakkraia had
ceased to watch . over Ceylon, because piety had dis-
appeared, and the city of Anarajapoora was in ruins,
and because the fertility of the land was diminished,
the kings who succeeded Maha-Sen were no longer
reverenced as of old."8
The prosperity of Ceylon, though it may not have
attained its acme, was sound and auspicious in the
beginning of the fourth century, when the solar line
became extinct Pihiti, the northern portion -of the
island, was that which most engaged the solicitude of
the crown, from its containing the ancient capital,
1 TnutoTIB's Epitome., j. 26.
a. MaJuitvanto, ch. Xxziu. p. '
DomzcdoyGoOglc
382 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Pi.t III
whence it obtained its designation of .the Baja-ratta or
country of the kings. Here the labour bestowed on
irrigation had made the food of the population abundant,
and the sums expended on the adornment of the city, the
multitude of its sacred structures, the splendour of its
buildings, and the beauty of its lakes and gardens, ren-
dered it no inappropriate representative of the wealth
and fertility of the kingdom.
Anarajapoora had from time immemorial been a
venerated locality in the eyes of the Buddhists ; it had
been honoured by the visit of Buddha in person, and
it was already a place of importance when Wijayo effected
his landing near Putlam in the fifth century before the
Christian era. It became the capital a century after,
and the King Pandukabhaya, who formed the ornamen-
tal lake which adjoined it, and planted gardens and parks
for public festivities, built gates and four suburbs to the
city, set apart ground for a public cemetery, and erected
a gilded hall of audience, and a palace for his own
residence.
The Mahawanso describes with particularity the offices
of the Naggaraguttiko, who was the chief of the city guard,
and the organisation of the low caste Chandalas, who
were entrusted with the cleansing of the capital and
the removal of the dead for interment For these and
for the royal huntsmen villages were constructed in the
environs, mingled with which were dwellings for the suit-
jugated native tribes, and temples for the worship of
foreign devotees.1
Seventy years later, when Mabindo arrived in Ceylon,
the details of his reception disclose the increased mag-
nificence of the capital, the richness of the royal parks,
and the extent of the state establishments ; and describe
the chariots in which the king drove to Mihintala, to
welcome his exalted guest2
Tet these were but preliminary to the grander con-
1 Matiavxmto, cb. x. p. 06, * Jbtd., eh. xiv., XT., U.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. VIII.] EXTIHCTION OP THE " QSBAT DYNASTY." 488
atructions which gave the city its lasting renown ;
stupendous dagobaa raised by successive monarchs^each"
eager to surpass the conceptions of* his predecessors;
temples in which were deposited statues of gold adorned
with gems and native pearls ; the decorated terraces of
the Bo-tree," and the Brazen Palace, with its thousand
chambers and its richly embellished halls. The city ■
■was enclosed by a rampart upwards of twenty feet in
height1, which was afterwards replaced by a wall3;
and, so late as the fourth century, the Chinese tra-
veller Fa-Hian describes the condition of the place in
terms which fully corroborate the accounts of the
1 By Wambha, A. d. 88. Muha-
teatuo, ch. xxxv. p. 222.
' TiTRNuuH, in his Epitome of the
History of Ceylon, says that Anara-
japoora was enclosed by a rampart
seven cubits high, b. c 41, and that
A. d. 66 King Wasabha built a wall
round the city sixteen gaous in cir-
cumference. As he estimates the gaou
at four English miles, this wouloV
give an area equal to abfnt 300
square miles. A space so prodigious
for the capital seems to be dispro-
Srtionate to the extent of the kmg-
m, and far too extended for the
wants of the population. Tuknour
does not furnish the authority on
which he gives the dimensions, nor
have I been able to discover it in the
SajavaK nor ill the Rajaiatnacari.
Thj Mahawanto alludes to the feet
of Anarejapoora having been fortified
by Wasabha, but, instead of a wall,
the work which it describes this kimr
to have undertaken was the raising of
the height of the rampart from eeven
cubits to eighteen (Mahawatao, ch.
xxxv. p. 222). Major Forbes, in his
account of the ruins of the ancient city,
repeats the story of their former ex-
tent, in which he no doubt considered
that the high authority of Tumour in
matters of antiquity was sustained
by a statement made by Lieutenant
Skinner, who had surveyed the
'■"ins, to the effect that he had dis-
covered near Alia-parto the remains
of masonry, which he concluded to
be a portion of the ancient city wall
running north and south and forming
the west face : and, as Alia-parte is
seven miles from Anarajapoora, he
regarded this discovery as confirming
the account given of its original di-
mensions. Lieutenant, now Major,
Skinner has recently informed me
that, on mature reflection, he has
reason to fear that his first inference.
was precipitate. In a letter of the
8th of May, 1856, he saya: — "I
first visited Anarajapora in 1833,
when I made my survey of its
ruins. The supposed foundation of
the western race of the city wall was
pointed out near the village of Alia-
parte by the people, and I hastily
adopted it. I had not at the time
leisure to follow up this search and
determine how far it extended, but
from subsequent visits to the place
I have been led to doubt the accu-
racy of this tradition, though on most
other points I found the natives
tolerably accurate in their knowledge
of the history of the ancient capital.
I have since sought fo* traces or the
other faces of the supposed wall, st
the distances from the centre of the
city at which it was said to have
existed, but without success." The
ruins which Major Skinner saw at
Alia-parte are most probably those of
one of the numerous forts which the
Singhalese kings erected at a much
later period, to keep the Malabars in
check.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
SSI THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. TPau 111.
Makawanso. It was crowded, he says, with nobles,
"magistrates, and foreign merchants; the houses weru
handsome, and the public buildings richly adorned.
The streets and highways were broad and level, and
halls for preaching and reading bona were erected in all
the thoroughfares. He was assured that* the island
■ contained not less than from fifty to sixty thousand
ecclesiastics, who all ate in common ; and of whom from
five to six thousand were supported by the bounty of the
king.
The sacred tooth of Buddha was publicly exposed
on sacred days in the capital with gorgeous ceremonies,
which he recounts, and thence carried in procession to
"the mountains without fear;" the road to which was
perfumed and decked with flowers for the occasion ; and
the festival was concluded by a dramatic representation
of events in the life of Buddha, illustrated by scenery
and costumes, with figures of elephants and stags, so
. delicately coloured as to be undistinguishable from
1 Fa-Hun, Foi-hmi-M, ch. xxiviii. p. 334, See.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cuap. IX.] KINGS OP THE " LOWER DYNASTY."
CHAP. IX
KINGS OP THE " LOWER DYNASTY."
The story of the kings of Ceylon of the Sulu-wame a.i\
or " lower line," is but a narrative of the decline of the 802,
power and prosperity which had been matured under
the Bengal conquerors and of the rise of the Malabar
marauders, whose ceaseless forays and incursions even-
tually reduced authority to feebleness and the island to
desolation. The vapid biography of the royal imbeciles
who filled the throne from the third to the thirteenth
century embodies scarcely an incident of sufficient inte-
rest to diversify the inpnotonous repetition of temples
founded and dagobas repaired, of tanks constructed
and priests endowed with lands reclaimed and . fertilised
by the " forced labour " of the subjugated races. Civil
dissensions, religious schisms, royal intrigues and assas-
sinations contributed equally with foreign invasions to
diminish the influence of the monarchy and exhaust the
strength of the kingdom.
Of sixty-two sovereigns who reigned from the death
of Maha-Sen, A.D. 301, to the accession of Prakrama
JBa.hu, a.d. 1153, nine met a violent death at the hands
of their relatives or subjects, two ended their days in
exile, one was slain by the Malabars, and four com-
mitted suicide. Of the lives of the larger number the
Buddhist historians fail to furnish any important inci-
dents ; they relate merely the merit which each acquired
by his liberality to the national religion or the more
substantial benefits conferred on the people by the for-
mation of lakes for irrigation.
vol. i. c c #
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
386 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Past IE
a.d. Unembarrassed by any questions of external policy
33°* or foreign expeditions, and limited to a narrow range
of internal administration, a few of the early kins*
addressed themselves to intellectual pursuits. One im-
mortalised himself in the estimation of the devout by hi*
• skill in painting and sculpture, and in carving in ivory,
arts which he displayed by modelling statues of Buddha,
and which he employed himself in teaching to hi'
a.d. subjects.1 Another was equally renowned as a medical
339- author and a practitioner of surgery2, and a third wis
so passionately attached to poetry that in despair for
the death of Kalidas3, he -flung liimself into the flame*
of the poet's funeral pile.
With the exception of the embassy sent from Ceylon
to Home in the reign of the Emperor Claudius4, tie
earliest diplomatic intercourse with foreigners of which
a record exists, occurred in the fourth or fifth centuries
when the Singhalese appear to have sent ambassador?
to the Emperor Julian5, and for the first time to have
established a friendly connection with China. It i?
strange, considering the religious sympathies which
united the two people, that the native chronicles make
no mention of the latter negotiations or their results, so
that we learn of them only through Chinese lustorian?.
The Encyclopaedia of Ma-touan-lIn, written at tlw
close of the thirteenth century6, records that Ceylon
Ceylon, A.D. 513. For an accounl •"
Kalidas, see De Alwis's Sidath *»■
gara, p. cliv.
* Pijsi, lib. vi. c. 24.
s AMHIASL'sMABCBLLINI;S,lib.K'
0.7.
* Klatboth doubts, "ai la mw*
lie 1' Europe a prodiu't jusqu's J1"';
1 Detu Tissa, a.d. 330, Maha-
icanm, xxxm. p. 242.
a Budha Daasa, a.d. 390, Maha-
toanm, xxxvii. p. I'i'i. Hie work on
medicine, entitled Sarasangraha or
Sarat-tha-Sambo, is still extant, and
native practitioners profess to consult
it — TriiNOUtt's Einlome, p, 27.
* Not Kalidas, the author of Sa- j sent un ourrajje de ce genre s1
eoniala, to whom Sir W. Jones awards bien execute' et capable de souiw
the title of " The .Shakspeare of the ; la comparaison avec cette micy"''0'
East," but Pakdiia Kalidas, a Sin- | pfidie en i noise. "—Journ. Atiat. l>»u
Shalese poet, none of whose verses xxi. p. 3. See also Asiatic /wW*
■\e been preserved. His royal London, 1832, VoL zxzr. p. 110. "
patron was Kumara Das, king of I has been often reprinted in 100 1*? ■
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Cuap. IX.] KIXGS OF THE " LOWER DYNASTY." 387
first entered into pofftical relations with China in the
fourth century.1 It was about the year 400 A.D., 4(ays
the. author, "in the reign of the Emperor Nyan-ti, that
ambassadors arrived from Ceylon bearing a statue of Fo
in jade-stone four feet two inches high, painted in five
colours, and of such singular beauty that one would have
almost doubted its being a work of human ingenuity.
It was placed in the Buddhist temple at Kien-Kang
(Nankin)." In the year 428 A.D., the King of Ceylon
(Maha Nama) sent envoys to offer tribute, and this
homage was repeated between that period and a.d. 529,
by three other Singhalese kings, whose names it -is dif-
ficult to identify with their Chinese designations of Kia-oe,
Kia-lo, and the Ho-li-ye.
In A.D, 670, another ambassador arrived from Ceylon,
and in 742, Chi-lo-mi-kia sent presents to the Emperor
of China consisting of pearls (perles de feu), golden flowers,
precious stones, ivory, and pieces of fine cotton cloth.
At a later period mutual intercourse became frequent
between the two countries, and some of the Chinese
travellers who resorted to Ceylon have lefj valuable
records as to the state of the island.
It was during the reign of Maha Nama, about the year
413a.d., that Ceylon was visited by Fa Hian, and the
statements of the Mahawanso are curiously corroborated
by the observations recorded by this Chinese traveller,
lie describes accurately the geniality of the climate,
whose uniform temperature rendered the seasons undis-
tinguishable. " Winter and summer," he says, " are alike
uuknown, and perpetual 'verdure realises the idea of a
volumes. M. Stanislas Jultek flays these authorities will he found ex-
that in another Chinese work, Pien-i- tracted in the chapter in which I
tint, or The History of foreign No- have described the intercourse be-
tianx, there is a compilation including tween China and Ceylon, VoL I. P. t.
every passage in which Chinese au- ch. iii.
thors hove written of Ceylon, which l Between the years 817 and 420
occupies about forty pagee 4to. lb. A.d. — Journ. Atiat. torn, xxviii. p.
torn, xxix p. 30. A number of 401.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
388 TIIE SINGHALESE CHBONICLES. [Fait III.
perennial spring, periods for seed time and harvest
■ beiag regulated by the taste of the husbandman." Thi>
statement has reference to the multitude of tanks which
, rendered agriculture independent of the periodical rains.
Fa Hian speaks of the lofty monuments which were
the memorials of Buddha, and of the gems and gold
that adorned his statues at Anarajapoora. Amongst
the most surprising of these was a figure in whal
he calls " blue jasper," inlaid with jewels and other
precious materials, and holding in one hand a pearl of
inestimable value. ' He describes the Bo-tree in terms
that might almost be applied to its actual condition
at the present day, and he states that they had recently
erected a building to contain " the tooth* of Buddha.*
This was exhibited to the pi«us in the middle of the
third moon with processions and ceremonies which In'
minutely details.2 All this corresponds closely with the
narrative of the Mahawanao. The sacred tooth of Bud-
dha, called at that time Ddtkd dhdtu, and now the
Dalada, had been brought to Ceylon a short time before
Fa Hian's. arrival in the reign of Kirti-Sri-Megha-wana
a.d. 311, in charge of a princess of Kalinga, who con-
cealed it in the folds of her hair. And the Mahawaim
with equal precision describes processions conducted
by the king and the assembled priests, in which
1 It was whilst looking at this
statue that Fa Hiajt encountered an
incident which he has related with
touching- simplicity: — " Depuia que
Fa Hian avait quitte" la terre (fo
Sail, phisieurs aunSes s'etaient ecou-
li!<!» ; lea gens avec lesqiiels il avait
des rapports e"taient toua des horames
de con trees ^trangeres. Les mon-
tagnes, les rivieres, les herbes, les
arbres, tout ce qui avail frappe* scs
yeux e"tait nouveau pour lm. De
plus, ceux qui avaient fait route avec
tut, s'en etaient se"pares, les una
a'e't&nt arrets, et les autrea e"tant
morts. En rdfldchissant au passe", son
ccsur e"tait toujours rempli de pen-
se"es et de triatesse. Tout a roup. *
cote" de cotte figure de jnspe, U VLl
un marchand qui faisait fiomniip'
a la statue d'un eventeil de taflei*
blanc du pays de Ttin. Sans quo"
e'en apercut cela lui causa une emo-
tion telle que ses Urines coulfren'
et remplirent sea yeux." (Fa H»»-
Foe-koui-ki, ch. xxxviii. p. S3M
"Tain" means the province *
Chensi, which was the birthpUw of
Fa Hian.
1 Fa Hian, Foi-koui-l*, *
xxxviii. p. 334-6.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Ck*p. IX.] KINGS OP THE " LOWER DYNASTY." 389
the tooth was borne along the streets of Anarajapoora
amidst the veneration of the multitude.1
One of the most striking events - in this period of
Singhalese history was the murder of the kmg, Dhatu
Sena, a.d. 459, by his son, who seized the throne under ,
the title of Kasyapa L The story of this outrage,
which is highly illustrative of the superstition and
cruelty of the age, is told with much feeling in the
Mahawamo ; the author of which, Mahanamo, was the
uncle of the outraged king, Dhatu Sena was a
descendant of the royal line, whose family were living
in retirement during the usurpation of the Malabara,
a.d. 434 to 459. As a youth he had embraced the
priesthood, and his future eminence was foretold by an
omen. " On a certain day, when chaunting at the foot
of a tree, when a shower of rain fell, a cobra de capeEo
encircled him with its folds and covered his book with
its hood," B He was educated by his uncle, Mahanamo,
and in process of time, surrounding himself with ad-
herents, he successfully attacked the Malabars, defeated
two of their chiefs in succession, put three t others to
death, recovered *the native sovereignty of Ceylon, " and
the religion which had been set aside by the foreigners,
he restored ,to its former ascendancy." He recalled
1 Mahatoanto, ch, ixxvii. p. 241, j in person to Madura to negotiate its
249. After the funeral rites of Go- | surrender, and brought it back to
tama Buddha bad been performed j Follanamia. Its subseqiteut adven-
at Kusinara, B.C. 643, his "left ca> | tures and its final destruction by the
nine tooth was carried to Danta- i Portugese, on recorded by De Couto
piira, the capital of Kalinga, where I and others, will be found in a subm-
it was preserved for 800 years. The I quentpassage,seeVal. ll.P.vii.ch.v,
King of Kalinga, in the reign of ■ The Singhalese maintain that the
Muha-Sen, being on the point of en- , Dalada, still treasured in its strong
gaging in a doubtful conflict, directed, tower at Kandy, is the genuine relic,
in the event of defeat, that the sacred , which was preserved from the Portu-
relic should be conveyed to Ceylon, guese spoilers by secreting it at Del-
whither it was accordingly taken as gamoa in Saflragara. 1'ub noun's
described. (RajavaH, p. 240.) Be- ' Account of the Tooth Rdic of Ceylon)
tween A.D. 1303 and 1316 the tooth [ Journal of the Asiatic Society of
-was carried back to Southern India ' Bengal, 1&37, vol. vi. p. 2, p. 806. _
bv the leader of an army, who invaded I * This is a frequent emblematic
Ceylon and sacked Yapahoo, which episode in connection with the heroes
was then the capital. Tho succeed- , of Hindu history. — Atiat. Reeearche*,
ing .monarch, Pralrrama III., went , vol. XT. p. 276.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
S90 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Part III.
the fugitive inhabitants t» Anarajapoora ; degraded the
nobles who had intermarried with the Malabars, and
vigorously addressed himself to repair the sacred edifices
and to restore fertility to the lands which had been neg-
lected during their hostile occupation by the strangers.
He applied the jewels from his head-dress to replace the
gems of which the statue of Buddha had been despoiled,
the curled hair of the divine teacher^ being represented
bysapphires, and the lock on his forehead by threads uf
gold.
The family of the king consisted of two sons and a
daughter, the latter married to his nephew, -who
" caused her to be flogged on the thighs with a whip
although she had committed no offence ; " on which the
king, in his indignation, ordered the mother of her
husband to be burned. His nephew and his eldest son
now conspired to dethrone him, and having made him a
prisoner, the latter " raised the chatta " (the white parasol
emblematic of royalty), and seized on the supreme power.
PreBsed by his son to discover the depository of his
treasures, the captive king entreated to be taken to
Kalawapi1, under the pretence of pointing out the place
of their concealment, but in reality with a determination
to prepare for death, after having seen his early friend
Mahanamo, and bathed in the great tank which he
himself had constructed. • The usurper complied,
and assigned for the journey a " carriage with broken
wheels," the charioteer of which shared his store of
" parched rice " with the fallen king. " Thus worldly
prosperity," says Mahanamo, who lived to write the sad
story of the interview, " is like the * glimmering of
lightning, and what reflecting man would devote himself
to its pursuit ! " The Raja approached hie friend and.
" from .the manner these two persons discoursed, side
by side, mutually quenching the fire of their afflictions,
they appeared as if endowed with royal prosperity.
Having allowed him to eat, the thero (Mahanamo) in
1 The grent tank of Kakiran— Seu Vol. I. p. 466 ; Vol II. p. G03.
Cuap. IX.] KJHGS OP THE " LOWEE DYNASTY." 301
various ways administered consolation and abstracted his a.d.
inind from all desire to prolong his existence." The king 459'
then bathed in the tank ; and pointing to his friend and
to it, " these," he exclaimed to the messengers, " are all
the treasures I possess."
He was conducted back to the capital ; and Kasyapa,
suspecting that the king was concealing his riches
for his second son, Mogallana, gave the order for his
execution. Arrayed in royal insigma, he repaired to the
prison of the Raja, and continued to walk to and fro in
his presence : till the king, perceiving his intention to
■wound his feelings, said mildly, " Lord of statesmen, I
fjQar the same affection towards you as to Mbgallana."
The usurper smiled and shook his head ; then stripping
the king naked and casting him into chains, he built up a a.d.
'wall, embedding him in it with his face towards the east, 477-
and enclosed it with clay : "thus the monarch Dhatu-Sena,
who was murdered by his son, united himself with Sakko
the Eider of Devos." '
The parricide next directed his groom and his cook
to assassinate his brother, who, however, escaped to the
coast of India.2 bailing in the attempt, lie repaired to Siha-
giri (Sigiri), a place difficult of access to men, and having
cleared it on all sides, he surrounded it with a rampart
He built three habitations, accessible only by nights of
steps, and ornamented with figures of lions (siho),
■whence the fortress takes fts name, Siha-giri^ " the Lion
liock." Hither he carried the treasures of his father,
and here he built a palace, " equal in beauty to the ce-
lestial mansion." «He erected temples to Buddha, and
1 Mahawanm, ch. sxxviii. To this
hideous incident Mahanamo adds
the following curious moral : " Thia
HajaDhatu Sena, at the time he was
improving the Kalowapi tank, ob-
served a certain priest absorbed in
meditation, and not being able to
rouse him from abstraction, had him
buried under the embankment by
heaping earth over him. Ilia own
impious act.
* I am indebted to the family of
the late Mr. Tumour for access to a
manuscript translation of a further
portionof the JfaAoiranso, from which
this continuation of the narrative is
extracted.
oyGoogIe
392 THE SINGHALESE -CHRONICLES. [Pur III.
a.d. monasteries for his priests, but conscious of the enor-
477> mity of his crimes, these endowments were conferred in
the names of his minister and Iris children. Failing to
"derive merit" from such acts, stung with- remorse,
and anxious to test public feeling, he enlarged bis
deeds of charity ; he formed gardens at the capital,
and planted groves of mangoes throughout the island.
Desirous to enrich a wihara at Anarajapoora, he 'pro-
posed to endow it with a village, but " the ministers of
religion, regardful* of the reproaches of the world, de-
clined accepting gifts at the hands of a parricide. Kasyapa,
bent on befriending them, dedicated the village to Buddha,
after which they consented, on the ground that it was then
the property of the divine teacher." Impelled, says the
Mahawanso, by the irrepressihje dread of a future exist-
ence, he strictly performed his " aposaka " ■ vows, prac-
tised the virtue of non-procrastination, acquired the " da-
thanga,"2 and caused books to be written, and image
and alms-edifices to be formed.
Meanwhile, after an interval of eighteen years, Mo-
gallana, having in Iris exile collected a sufficient force,
1 A lay- devotee who takes on him- I which thaclesvinj- to existence ia de-
self the obligation of asceticism with- j stroyod, involving piety, abstinence,
out putting on the yellow robe. and self - mortification. — ILuwt'd
' The' QAthanga" or "teles-dat- Eadern MonacMim, ch. ii. p. 9.
hangs "at* the thirteen ordinances by I
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IX.] KINGS OF THE " LOWEB DYNASTY." 393
returned from India to avenge the murder of his father ;
and the brothers encountered each other in a decisive
engagement at Ambatthakolo in the Seven Corles.1
Kasyapa,. perceiving a swamp in his front, turned the
elephant which he rode into a side path to avoid it ; on
which his army in alarm raised the shout that " their
liege lord was flying," and in the confusion which fol-
lowed, Mogallana, having struck off the head of his
brother, returned the kreese to its scabbard, and led
his followers to take possession of the capital ; where he
avenged the death of his father, by the execution of the
minister who had consented to it. He established a
marine force to guard the island against the descents
of the Matetbars, and " having purified both the orthodox
dbarma3, and the' religion of the* vanquisher, he died,
after reigning eighteen years, signalised by acts of piety."8
This story as related by its eye-witness, Mahanamo, forms
one of the most characteristic; as well as the best au-
thenticated episodes of contemporary history presented
by the annals of Ceylon.
Such was the feebleness of the royal house, that of the
eight kings who succeeded Mogallana between a.d. 515
and A.D. 586, two died by suicide, three by murder,
and one from grief occasioned by the treason of his son.
The anarchy consequent ■upon such disorganisation stimu-
lated the rapacity of the Malabars ; and the chronicles
of the following centuries are filled with the accounts of
their descents on the island and the misery inflicted by
their excesses.
1 At-or near the Ridi-wihara, eight
miles north-east of KorneEalle.
1 The doctrines of Buddha.
9 Mahauxmw, ch. nxsix. Manu-
script translation by Turrouh. Tok-
NouH, in his Epitome, says Easrapa
" committed suicide on the field of
battle," but this does not appear from
the narrative of the Maharcanso.
lonizcdoyGoogle
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
CHAP. X.
THE DOMINATION OF THE MALABAHS.
It has been already explained that the invaders wan
engaged in forays into Ceylon, though known by the
general epithet of Malabars (or as they are designated
in Pah, damiloa, " Tamils "), were also natives of plans
in India remote fromjihat now known as Malabar. They
were, in reality, the inhabitants of one of the earliest
states organised in Southern India, the kingdom of Pandya1.
whose sovereigns, from their intelligence, and their en-
couragement of native literature, have been appropriately
styled " the Ptolemies of India," Their dominions, which
covered the extremity of the peninsula, comprehended"
the greater portion of the Coromandel coast, extending
to Canara on the western coast, and southwards to the
sea.* Their kingdom was subsequently contracted iu
dimensions, first by the assertion of their independence by
the people of Malabar, and eventually by the rise of the
state of Chera to the west, of Kamnad to the south, ami
of Chola in the east, till it sank in modern times into the
petty government of the Naicks of Madura.8
The relation between the monarchs of this portion of the
Dekkan and the early colonisers of Ceylon was rendeml
intimate by many concurring incidents. Wijayo himself
was connected by maternal descent with the king of
1 Pandya, as a kingdom, was not PLINI, vi. 2(1; Ptolemy, viL 1.
unknown in classical times, and its Vide Mop of India, Vol. I. p. 880.
ruler was the B«iti*j..c Umvbmv men- ■ See an Hittorical Skttch of t>*
tioned in the IVjirfui of (Ae Ery- Kingdom of Pandya, by Prof. ILII.
threran Sea, and the king Pandion, Wilsom, Amat. Journ., vol. iii.
who sent an embassy to Augustus.— I ' Soe ante, p. 36.1, a.
.Google
Chap. X.] THE DOMINATION 09 THE MALABAfiS. 39S
Kalinga ', now known as the Northern Circars ; his -a.d.
second wife was the daughter of the king of Pandya, and 5i!>-
the ladies who accompanied her to Ceylon were given in
marriage ■ to his ministers and officers.2 Similar alli-
ances were afterwards frequent; and the Singhalese
annalists allude on more than one 'occasion to the-
" damilo consorts " of their sovereigns.8 Intimate in-
tercourse and consanguinity, were thus established from
the remotest period. Adventurers from the opposite
coast , were encouraged by the previous settlers ; high
employments were thrown open to them, Malabars were
subsidised both as cavalry and as seamen ; and the
first abuse of their privileges was in the instance of the
brothers Sena and Goottika, who, holding naval and
military commands, took advantage of their position
and seized on the throne, B.c. 23T; apparently with such
acquiescence on the part of the- people, that even the
Mahawanso praises the righteousness of their reign, which "
was prolonged to twenty-two years, when they were put
to death by the ffightful heir to the throne.*
■ The easy success of the first usurpers encouraged the
ambition of fresh aspirants, and barely ten years elapsed
till the Jirst regular invasion of the island took place,
under the illustrious Elala, who, with an army from
Mysore (then called Chola or -Soli), subdued the entire
of Ceylon, north of the Mahawelli-g*anga, and* compelled
the chiefs of the rest of the island, and the kings of Eohuna
and Maya, to acknowledge his supremacy and become
his tributaries.6 As in the instance of the previous
revolt, the people exhibited such faint resistance to the
usurpation, that tJie reign of Elala extended to forty-
four years. It is difficult to conceive that their quies-
cence under a stranger was entirely ascribable to the
1 itahaicanto, ch. vi. p. 43.
* Mahuwatuo, ch. vii. p. 53; the
Rnjavali (p. 173) Bays they were
700 in number.
3 Mahawxmto, cb. ixxviii, p. 253.
* Mahawaiwo, ch. xii. p. 127.
s Turnoiir's Epitome, p. 17; Ma-
hawamo, ch. Kii. p, 128; RiyavaU,
p. 1B8.
ayGoogIc
306 THE SINGHALESE CHBOSICLES. [Part 111.
fact, that the rule. of the Malabars, although adverse to
Buddhism, was characterised by justice and impartiality.
Possibly they recognised to some extent their pretensions,
as founded on their relationship to the legitimate sove-
reigns of the" island, and hence they bore. their sway with-
out impatience.1 •
The majority of the subsequent invasions of Ceylon by
the Malabars partook less of the character of conquest
than of forays, by a restless and energetic race, into a
fertile and defenceless country. Mantotte* on the north-
west coast, near Adam's Bridge, became the great place of
debarcation ; and here successive bands of marauders
landed time after time without meeting any effectual resist-
ance from the unwarlike Singhalese.
The second great invasion took place about a century
after the first, b.c. 103, when seven .Malabar leaders
effected simultaneous descents at different points of the
coast*, and combined with a disaffected "Brahman
prince " of Kohuna, to force Walagam-bahu L to sur-
render his sovereignty. The king, aftfir an ineffectual
show of resistance, fled to the mountains of Malaya ; one
of the invaders carried off the queen to the coast of India;
a third despoiled the temples of Anarajapoora and retired,
whilst the others continued in possession of the capital
for nearly fifteen years, till Walagam-bahu, by the aid
of the Eohuna highlflnders, succeeded in recovering the
throne. '
The third great invasion on record 8 was in its cha-
1 See ante, p. 360, n.
' TcKNOOk b Epitome, p. 16. The
Mahtnvtmso save they landed at
" Miihatttlba."— Maniotft, ch. sxxiii.
1 This incursion of the Malabars
is not mentioned in the Makawanso,
but it is described in the Rajarxdi, p.
229, and mentioned by TunSous, in
his Epitome, #c, p. 21. There is
evidence- of the conscious supremacy
of the Malabars over the north of
Ceylon, in the fourth century, in a
very curious document, relating to
that period. The existence of a co-
lony of Jews at Cochin, in the south-
western extremity of the Dekkan,
has long been known in Europe, and
half a century ago, particular)! of
their condition and numbers were
published bv Dr. Claudius Buchanan.
(Chrutian Researches, fyc.) Amongst
other facts, he made known their
possession of Hebrew MSS. demon-
strative of the great antiquity of their
settlement in India, and also of their
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. X.] THE DOMINATION OF THE MALABARS. 897
racter still more predatory than those which preceded ■*•"•
it, and it was headed by a king in person, who carried 515'
away 12,000 Singhalese as slaves -to Mysore. It oc-
curred in the reign of Waknais, a.d. 110, whose Bon
Gaja-bahu, a.d. 113, avenged the outrage by invading
the Solee or Chola country with an expedition which*
sailed from JafTnapatam, and brought back not only the - ,
rescued Singhalese captives, but also a multitude of
Solleans, whom the king established on lands in the
Alootcoor Corle, where the Malabar features are thought
to be discernible to the present day.1
A long interval of repose ensued, and no fresh ex-
pedition from -India is mentioned in the chronicles of
Ceylon till A.D. 433, when the capital was again taken
by the Malabara ; the Singhalese families fled beyond
the Mahawelli-ganga ; and the invaders occupied the
entire extent of the Pihiti Ratta, where for twenty-
seven years, five of them in succession administered the
government, till I)hatu Sena collected forces sufficient
to overpower the strangers, and, emerging from his
retreat in Eohuna, recovered possession of the north of
the island.2
Dhatu Sena, after his victory, seems to have made an
attempt, though an ineffectual one, to reverse the policy
that had operated under his predecessors as an in-
centive to the immigration of Malabara ; settlement
title deeds of land (i
RTnvt'd on plates of copper, and pre-
sented to them by the early kings of
that portion of the peninsula. Some
of the latter hare been carefully
translated into English (see Madras
Journ., vol. xiiL xiv.). One of their
MSS. has recently been brought to
England, under circumstances which
are recounted by Mr. FoBffTBB,,in
the third vol of his One Primeval
Language, p. 303. This US. I have
been permitted to examine. It is in
corrupted Rabbinical Hebrew, writ-
ten about the year 1781, and contains
a partial synopsis of the modem his-
tory of the section of the Jewish na-
tion to whom it belongs ; with ac-
counts of their arrival in the year
a.b. 08, and of their reception by tho
Malabar kings. Of one of the latter,
frequently spoken of by the honorific
style of Sri I'khumai, but identifiable
with Irayi Vakmar, who reigned
A.D. 379, the manuscript says that
his "rule extended from Goa to
Colombo."
i Casts Chtttt, Ceylon Gazetteer,
p. 7.
■ Bajavoli, p. 243 j TmUTOTUfa
Epitome, p. 27.
oyGoogIc
398 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Put III,
and intermarriages had been all along encouraged',
and even during the recent usurpation, many Singha-
lese families of rank had formed connections with the
Damilos. The schisms among the Buddliist tffemselves,
tending as they did to engraft Brahmanical ritis
•upon the doctrines of the purer faith, seem to have
promoted and matured the intimacy between the two
people ; some of the Singhalese kings erected temples
to the gods of the Hindus2, and the promoters of the
Wytulian heresy found a refuge from persecution
amongst their sympathisers in the Dekkan.3
The Malabars, trained to arms, now resorted in such
numbers to Ceylon, that the leaders in civil commotions
were accustomed to hire them in bands to act against
the royal forces4; and whilst no precautions were
adopted to check the landing of marauders on the
coast, the invaders constructed forts throughout the
country to protect their conquests from recapture by
the Singhalese. Proud of these successful expeditions, the
native records of the Chola kings make mention of their
victories ; and in one of their grants of land, engraved
on copper, and still in existence, Viradeva-Chola, the
sovereign by whom it was made, is described as having
triumphed over "Madura, Izham, Caruvar, and the
crowned head of Pandya;" Izham, (or Ham) being
the Tamil name of Ceylon.? On their expulsion by
Dhatu Sena, he took possession of the fortresses and
extirpated the Damilos ; degraded the Singhalese who
had intermarried with them ; confiscated their estates
in favour of those who remained true to his cause;
1 Anula, the queen of Ceylon, a d.
47, met with no opposition in raising
one of her Malabar husbands to the
throne. — Tubnock'b Epitome, p. 10.
Sotthi Sena, who reigned a.». -1X2,
had a Dam Uo queen. — $fahtnoanso,
ch. xxxviii. p. 253.
> SriSangaBoIII.A.D. 702, "made
a figure of the God Viahnu ; and woa
a supporter of the religion of Buddlia,
and a friend of the people." -*-lhy*-
ratnacari, p. 78,
' Mahawanm, ch. xxxviL p. 23-1;
Tchnouk'9 Epitome, p. 25.
* Mahaivanto, ch. isxvi. p. 228.
1 Dowbon, Oh the Chera Kuigtlvm
of India. — Altai. Journ. roL viii. p-
24.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. X.] THE DOMINATION OF THE MALABABS. 396
and organised a naval force for the protection of the ■
coasts ' of the island.
But his vigorous policy produced no permanent
effect ; his son Mogallana, after the murder of his father
and the usurpation of Kasyapa, fled for refuge to the
coast of India, and subsequently recovered possession of.
the throne, by the aid of a force collected there. 2 In
the succession of assassinations, conspiracies, and civil
wars which distracted the kingdom in the sixth and
seventh centuries, during the struggles of the rival
branches of the royal house, each claimant, in his adver-
sity, betook himself to the Indian continent, and Malabar
mercenaries from Pandya and Chola enrolled themselves
indifferently under any leader, and deposed or restored
kings at their pleasure.*
The Rajavali, in a single passage enumerates fourteen J
sovereigns, each of whom was murdered by his successor
between a.d. 523 and A.D. 648. During this period of
violence and anarchy, peaceful industry was suspended,
arid extensive emigrations took place to Bahar and Orissa.
Buddhism, however, was still predominant, and protection
was accorded to its professors. Hiouen Thsang, a
Chinese traveller, who visited India between' 629 a.d. and ■
645 4, encountered many numbers of these exiles, who in-
formed him that they fled from civil commotion's in
Ceylon, in which religion had undergone persecution, the
king lost his life, cultivation had been interrupted, and
the island wasted by famine. This account of the Chinese
voyager accords accurately with the events detailed in the
Singhalese annals, in which it is stated that Sanghatissa
was deposed and murdered, A.D. 633, by Seneriwat,
1 Mahaircaaa, ch. ixxviii. p. 2G6. * Hwtotre de la Vie de Hiouen
and xxxix. Tcrnour'b MS., Tram. Thsang, et de tes Votf/iget dans rlnde
8 Ttmioitr'b Epitome, p. 20; So- depuui Can B20 junqu'en 043. Par
jarali, p. 244. Hom-iirt Yht-Thsanb, $c. Tra-
■ Jvssovr'b Ejnlome,^. 31. Sa- dttite da Chinoit par Stanislas
javali, p. 247. f Jvlieh, Paris, 1853.
oyGoogle
400 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Past III.
his minister, who, amidst die horrors of a general famine,
was put to death by the people of Bohuna, and a civil
war ensued ; one result of which was the defeat of the
Malabar mercenaries and their distribution as slaves to the
temples. Hiouen Thsang relates the particulars of his
■interviews with the fugitives, from whom he learned the
extraordinary riches of Ceylon, the number and wealth
of its wiharas, the density of its population in peaceful
times, the fertility of its soil, and the abundance of its
produce.1
For nearly four hundred years, from the seventh till
the eleventh century, the exploits and escapades of the
Malabars occupy a more prominent portion of the
Singhalese .annals than that devoted to the policy of
the native sovereigns. They filled every office, in-
cluding that of prime minister2, and they decided the
claims of competing candidates for the crown. At
length the country became so infested by their numbers
that the feeble monarchs found it impracticable to effect
their exclusion from Anarajapoora.8 Hence to escape from
their proximity, the kings in the eighth century began
to move southwards, and transferred their residence to
Pollanarrua, which eventually became the capital of the
kingdom. Enormous tanks were constructed in the
vicinity of the new capital ; palaces were erected, sur-
passing those of the old city in architectural beauty;
dagobas were raised, nearly equal in altitude to the
Thuparama and Ruanwelte, and temples and statues
were hewn out of the living rock, the magnitude and
beauty of whose ruins attest the former splendour of
Pollanarrua.4
1 " Ce wjiume a sept mille li do ! at Pollanarrua was Sri Sanga Bo II.,
tour, et sa capitals qusrante li ,
population eat aggloraeree, et la terra
produit dee grams en abondanco." — -
Hiotfbh-Thsaito, liv. iv. p. 194
1 Tutoour's Etntome, p. 33.
* Turnouh's Epitome, A.D. 1580
p. 31.
' The first king who built a palace
One of his successors, Sri
Sanga Bo III., took up his residence
there temporarily, A.n. 702 ; it was
made the capital by Kuda Akbo, A.n.
769, and its embellishment, the build-
ing of colleges, and the formation of
tanks in its vicinity, were the occupa-
tions of numbers of subsequent kings.
Chap. X.] THE DOMINATION OF THE MALABARS. 401
Notwithstanding their numbers and their power, it is a.d.
remarkable that the Malabars were never identified with 6i0-
any plan for promoting the prosperity and embellishment
of Ceylon, or with any undertaking for the permanent im-
provement of the island. Unlike the Gangetic race, who
were the earliest colonists, and with whom originated
every project for enriching and adorning the country, the
Malabars aspired not to beautify or enrich, but to impo-
verish and deface ; — and nothing can more strikingly
bespeak the inferiority of die southern race than the
single fact that everything tending to exalt and to civilise,
in the early condition* of Ceylon, was introduced by the
northern conquerors, whiist all that contributed to ruin
and debase is distinctly traceable to the presence and
influence of the Malabars.
The Singhalese, either paralysed by dread, made feeble
efforts to rid themselves of the invaders ; or fascinated by
their military. pomp, endeavoured to conciliate them by
alliances. Thus, when the king of Pandya over-ran the A#p#
north of Ceylon, A.D. 840, plundered the capital and 840.
despoiled its temples, the unhappy sovereign had no other
resource than to purchase the evacuation of the island by
a heavy ransom.1 Yet such was the influence still exer-
cised by the Malabars, that within a very few years his
successor on the throne lent his aid to the son of the same
king of Pandya in a war against his father, and conducted
the expedition in person.2 His army was, in all proba-
bility, composed chiefly of Dairrilos, with whom he over-
ran the south of the Indian peninsula, .and avenged the
outrage inflicted on his own kingdom in the late reign
by bearing back the plunder of Madura.
This exploit served to promote a more intimate inter-
course between the two races, and after the lapse of a
' TVbkobb'b EpiUmt, p. 36 ; Ha- I * A.u. 868 j Rajaratitacari, p. 84.
jaratmacari, p, 79. j
' DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
402 THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Put IE
a.i>. century, a.d. 954, the king of Ceylon a second time in-
954* terposed with an army to aid the Pandyan sovereign
in a quarrel with his neighbour of Chola. In this the
former was worsted, and forced to seek a refuge in the
territory of his insular ally, whence he was ultimately
expelled for conspiracy against his benefactor. Having
fled to India without Ids regalia, his Cholian* rival made
the refusal of the king of Ceylon to surrender them the
pretext for a fresh Malabar invasion, a.d. 990, when
the enemy was repulsed by the mountaineers of Bohuni
who, from the earliest period down to the present day.
have evinced uniform impatience of strangers, and steady
determination to resist their encroachments.
But Such had been the influx of foreigners, that the
efforts of these highland patriots were powerless againfl
a.d. their numbers. Mahindo ILL, a.d. 997, married i
"7- princess of Kalinga1, and in a civil war which ensued.
during the reign of his son and successor, the now!
spectacle was presented of a Malabar army supportiE
the cause of the royal family against Singhalese insur-
gents. The island was now reduced to the extreme rf
anarchy and insecurity ; " the foreign population " W>
increased to such an extent as to gain a complete ascen-
dancy over the native inhabitants, and the sovereign bail
lost authority over both.2
a.d. Ln a.d. 1023, the Cholians again invaded Ceylon1,
1023" carried the king captive to the coast of India (where
he died in exile), and established a Malabar viceroy; «
Pollanarrua, who held possession of the island for nearly
thirty years, protected in his usurpation by a foreign
army. Thus, " throughout the reign of nineteen kings."
says the Rajaratnacari, " extending over eighty-six years.
the Malabara kept up a continual war with the Singhfr :
lese, till they filled by degrees every village in the
island." *
* Now tie Northern Circnre. I ' In the reign of Mahindo IV.
* Turkoeb's Epitome, p. 37. | * lUtJaratnacfri, p. 85.
oyGoogIe
Chap. X.] THE DOMINATION OF THE MALABAKS. 403
During the absence of the rightful king, and in the
confusion which ensued on his decease, various mem- ]
bers of the royal family arrived at the sovereignty of
Rohuna, the only remnant of free territory left. Four
brothers, each assuming the title of king, contended
together for supremacy ; and amidst anarchy and intrigue,
each in turn took up the reins of government, as they
fell or were snatched from the hands of his predeces-
sor \ till at length, on the retirement of all other can-
didates, the forlorn crown was assumed by the minister
Lokaiswara, who held his court at Kattragam,- and died
a.d. 1071.*
1 Tubnoto's Epitome, p. 8», » Mahmcamo, ck. lxi.
DotocdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CUB05ICLES.
THE REIGN OF FRAKBAHA BAWU.
a-d. From the midst of this gloom and despondency, with
1071, usurpation successful in the only province where even
a semblance of patriotism survived, and a foreign enemy
universally dominant throughout the rest of Ceylon,
there suddenly arose a dynasty which delivered the
island from the sway of the Malabars, brought back its
ancient wealth and tranquillity, and for the space of a
century made it pre-eminently prosperous at home ami
victorious in expeditions by which its rulers rendered it
respected abroad.
The founder of this new and vigorous race was a
member of the exiled family, who, on the death of
Lokaiswara, was raised to the throne under the title of
"Wijayo Bahu.1 Dissatisfied with the narrow limits of
Rohuna, he resolved on rescuing Pihiti from the usurp-
ing strangers ; and, by the courage and loyalty of his
mountaineers, he recovered the ancient capitals from the
Malabars, compelled the whole extent of the island to
acknowledge his authority, reunited the several king-
doms of Ceylon under one national banner, and, "for
the security of Lanka against foreign invasion, placed
trustworthy chiefs at the head of paid troops, and
stationed them round the coast."2 Thus signally suc-
cessful at home, the fame of his exploits " extended
Iratnacari, p. 58; Xajavuli, p. 251 r
TVBWCTBt's Epilom*, p. 39.
,y Google
Ca*». XL] THE BEIGN OP PRAKBAMA BAHU. 40fi
over all Dambadiva1, and ambassadors arrived at his
court from the sovereigns of India and Siam."
As he died without heirs a contest arose about the a.d.
succession, which threatened again to dissever the unity 1126-
of the kingdom by arraying Rohuna and the south
against the brother of Wijayo Bahu, who had gained
possession of Pollanarrua. But in this emergency the
pretensions of aD other claimants to the crown were
overruled in favour of Prakrama, a prince of accomplish-
ments and energy so unrivalled as to secure for him the
partiality of his kindred and the admiration of the nation
at large.
He was son to the youngest of four brothers who
had recently contended together for the crown, and his
ambition from his childhood had been to rescue his country
from foreign dominion, and consolidate the monarchy
in his own person. He completed by foreign travel an
education which, according to the Mahawanao, comprised
every science and accomplishment of the age in which he
lived, including theology, medicine, and logic ; grammar,
poetry, and music ; the training of the elephant and the
■ management of the horse,*
On the death of his father he was proclaimed king by
the people, and a summons was addressed by him to his
surviving uncle, calling on him to resign in his favour
and pay allegiance to his supremacy. As the feeling of
the nation was with him, the issue of a civil war left him
master of Ceylon. He celebrated his coronation as King •
of Pihiti at Pollanarrua, A.D. 1153, and two years later, *■■>•
after reducing the. refractory chiefs of Bohuna to obe-
dience, he repeated the ceremonial by crowning himself
" sole King of Lanka." 8
There is no* name in Singhalese history "which holds
the same rank in the admiration of the people as that of
Prakrama Bahu, since to the piety of Devenipiatissa he
united the chivalry of Dntugaimunu. The tranquillity
1 India Proper. ■ Mahowanto, eh. liiv. ' Mahawtmto, ch. lixi.
D i> 3
Google
406 THE SINGHALESE CHB02HCLES. [Paw in.
a.d. insured by the independence and consolidation of Ms
1155. dominions he rendered subservient to the restoration of
religion, the enrichment of his subjectSj and the embellish-
ment of the ancient capitals of his kingdom ; and, ill-
satisfied with the inglorious ease which had contented
his predecessors, he aspired to combine the renown of
foreign conquests with the triumphs of domestic policy.
Faithful to the two grand objects of royal solicitude,
religion and agriculture, the earliest attention of Pra-
krama.was directed to the re-establishment of the one,
and the encouragement and extension of the other. He
rebuilt the temples of Buddha, restored the monument
of religion in more than their pristine splendour, and
covered the face of the kingdom with works for irriga-
tion to an extent that would seem incredible did noi
their existing ruins corroborate the historical narrative of
his stupendous labours.
Such had been the ostensible decay of Buddhism
during the Malabar domination that, when the kingdom
was recovered from them by Wijayo Bahu, A.D. 1071,
" there was not to be found in the whole island fire
tirunansis," and an embassy was sent to Arramana1 to
request that members of this superior rank of the priest-
hood might be sent to restore the order in- Ceylon.8
1 A part of the Chin-Indian pen-
insula, probably between Arrncan and
1 Rqjarafaaeari, p. 86 ; Eajaiali,
p. 262 ; MaAawamo, eh. \x.
From the identity of the national
faith in the two countries, inter-
course existed between Siam and
Ceylon from time immemorial. At
a very early period missions were
literature, and in
owing to the oppres-
sors certain orders
had become extinct
ime essential to seek
.nation at the hands
erarchy (Rqjaratna-
the
sions of the Malabars from Choi* ad
Pandya, the literary treasures of
Cevlen were deliberately destroyed,
and the Mahmcmuo and Rajardi.
make frequent lamentations over the
loss of the sacred books. (See also
Jtajaratnadtri, pp. 77, 95, 97.) At »
still later period the savage Raj*
Singha, who reigned between *■»■
1681 and 1692, and became a con-
vert to Brahmanism, sought eagerlj
for Buddhistical books, and " de-
lighted in burning them in heaps s.-
high aa a coco-nut tree." These
losses it was nought to repair by an
embassy to Siam, sent by Kirti-^ri
in A.D. 1763. when a copious aupply
was obtained of Burmese versions el
Pali sacred literature.
Google
CH4r. XI.] THE BEIGN OP PRAKRAMA BA1IU. 407
During the same troublous times, schisms and heresy a.d.
had combined to undermine the national belief and 1155-
hence one of the first cares of Prakrama Bahu waa to
weed out the perverted sects, and establish a council
for the settlement of the faith on debatable points.1
Dagobas and statues of Buddha were multiplied with-
out end during his reign, and temples of every form were
erected both at Pollanarrua and throughout the breadth
of the island. Halls for the reading of "bana," image
rooms, residences for the priesthood, ambulance halls and
rest houses for their accommodation when on journeys,
were built in every district, and rocks were hollowed
into temples ; one of which, at Pollanarrua,' remains to
the present day with its images of Buddha ; " one in
a sitting and another in a lying posture," almost as de-
scribed in the Mahaioamo.2
In conformity with the spirit of toleration, which is one
of the characteristics of Buddhism, the king " erected a
house for the Brahmans of the capital to afford the com-
forts of religion even to his Malabar enemies." And
mindful of the divine injunctions engraven on the rock
by King Asoka, "he forbade the, animals in the whole
of Lanka, both of the earth and the water, to be killed,"8
and planted gardens, " resembling the paradise of the
God-King Sakkraia, with trees of all sorts bearing fruits
and odorous flowers."
For the people theldng erected almonries at the four
gates of the capital, and hospitals, with slave Boys and
* Mahawmao, ch. Ixxrii.
' Mahawaiuo, ch. lxxii. For a
description of this temple Bee the ac-
count of Pollanarrua in the present
work, Vol. IL PL x. ch. L p. 596.
' Mahawanso, ch. lxivii. Among
the religious edifices constructed by
Prakranra Balm in many parts of his
kingdom, the Mahainamo, enumerates
three temples at Pollanarrua, besides
others at every two or three gows
distance ; 101 dagobas, 473 statues
of Buddha, and 300 image rooms
built, besides 6100 repaired. He
built for the reception of priests from
a distance, " 230 lodging apartments,
50 halls for preaching, and 0 for
walking, 144 gates, and 192 rooms
for the purpose of offering flowers.
He built 12 apartments and 230 halls
for the use of strangers, and 31 rock
temples, with tanks, baths, and gar-
dens for the priesthood."
oyGoogle
408 TUB SIHGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Past IH,
a.d. maidens to wait upon the sickT superintending them in
US*- person, and bringing hia medical knowledge to assist in
their direction and management.
Even now the ruins of PollanarriTa, the most pictu-
resque in Ceylqn, attest the care which he lavished on
his capital He surrounded it with ramparts, raised a
fortress within them, and built a palace for his own
residence, containing four thousand apartments. He
founded schools and libraries; built halls for music
and dancing ; formed tanks for public baths ; opened
streets, and surrounded the whole city with a wali
which, if we are to credit the native chronicles, en-
closed an area twelve miles broad by nearly thirty in
length.
By his liberality, Eohuna and Pihiti. were equally em-
bellished ; the buildings of Vigittapura and Sigiri were
renewed ; and the ancient edifices at Anarajapoora were
restored, and its temples and palaces repaired, under the
personal superintendence of his minister. It is worthy of
remark that so greatly had the constructive arts declined,
even at that period, in Ceylon, that the king had to
"bring Damilo artificers" from the opposite coast of India
to repair the structures at his capital1
The details preserved in the Singhalese chronicles as
to the works for irrigation which he formed or restored,
afford an idea of the prodigious encouragement bestowed
upon agriculture in this reign, as well as of the extent
to which the rule of the Malabars had retarded the pro-
gress and destroyed the earlier traces of civilisation.
Fourteen hundred and seventy tanks were constructed
by the king in various parts of the island, three of them
of such vast dimensions that they were known as the
" Seas of Prakrama ; " 3 and in addition to these, three
hundred others were formed by hira for the special
benefit of the priests. The " Great Lakes " which he
repaired, as specified in the Mahawanso, amount to
1 Xttkmoatoo, eh. lxxv. lxxvii. ' JRajaratmieari, p. 88.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. XI.] THE REIGN OP FBAKSAHA BAE0. 409
thirteen hundred and ninety-five, and the smaller ones a.t».
wlych he restored or enlarged to nine hundred and 1155,
sixty. Besides these, by damming up the rivers, he made
five hundred and thirty-four watercourses and canals,
and he repaired three thousand six hundred and twenty-
one.*
The bare enumeration of such labours conveys an
idea of the prodigious extent to which structures of
this kind had been multiplied by the early kings; and
we are enabled to form an estimate of the activity of
agriculture in the twelfth century,, and the vast popula-
tion whose wants it supplied, by the thousands of reser-
voirs still partially used, though in ruins; and the still
greater number now dry and deserted, and concealed
by dense jungle, in districts once waving with yellow
grain. Such was the internal tranquillity which per-
vaded Ceylon under his rule, that an inscription, engraved
by one of his successors, on the rock of Dambool, after
describing the general peace and "security which he
established, as well in the wilderness as in the inhabited
places," records that, "even a woman might traverse
the island with a precious jewel and not be asked what it
was."2
In the midst of these congenial operations the energetic
king had command of military resources, sufficient not
1 The useful ambition of signalising
their reign by the constriction of
works of irrigation, is still exhibited
by the Buddhist sovereigns of the
East; and the king of Bunnah in his
interview with the British envoy in
1855, advanced his exploits of this
nature as his highest claim to distinc-
tion. The conversation is thus re-
Srted in Tclb'8 Narrative of the
uiion. London, 1868.
"King. Have you seen any of the
royal tanks at Oung-ben-le', which
have recently been constructed ?
" Kmxitt. I hare not been yet, your
Majesty, but I purpose going.
" Kimj, I have caused ninety-nine
tanks and ancient reservoirs to be
dug and repaired ; and dxly-sb:
canals : whereby a great deal of rice
land will be available. * * ' In
the reign of Nauraba-dzyar 9909
tanks and canals were constructed :
I purpose renewing them." — P. 109.
* Moore's melody, beginning
•' Rich ud riK were the gcmt tfas woit."
was founded on a parallel figure
illustrative of^the security of Ireland
under the rule of King Brien; when,
according to Warner, " a maiden
undertook a journey alone, from one
extremity of the kingdom to another,
with only a wand in her hand, at the
top of which was a ring of exceeding
great value."
DomzcdoyGoOglc
410 THE SINGHALESE CHBOXICLES. [Pact III.
x.d. only to repress revolt within his own dominions, bnt
1155- also to carry war into distant countries, that- had
offered him insult or inflicted injury on his subjects.
His first foreign expedition was fitted out to chastise
the king of Cambodia and Arramana1 in the Siamese
peninsula, who had plundered merchants from Ceylon,
visiting those countries to trade in elephants ; he had
likewise intercepted a vessel which was carrying some
Singhalese princesses, had outraged Prakrama's ambas-
sador, and had dismissed him mutilated and maimed
Frakrama sailed on this service with a fleet in the sixteenth
year of his reign. He effected a landing in Arramana, van-
quished the king, and obtained full satisfaction,2 He
next directed his arms against the Pandyan king, for the
countenance which that prince had uniformly given to
the Malabar invaders of the island. He reduced Pandra
and Chola, rendered their sovereigns his tributaries, and
having founded a city within the territory of the latter, and
coined money in his own name, he returned in triumph
to Ceylon.8
"Thus," says the Mahawanso, "was the whole island
of Lanka improved and beautified by this king, whose
majesty is famous in the annals of good deeds, who was
faithful in the religion of Buddha, and whose fame ex-
tended abroad as the light of the moon." 4 " Having
departed this life," adds the author of the Rajavali,
" he was found on a silver rock in the wilderness of the
Himalaya, where are eighty-four thousand mountains
of gold, and where he will reign as a king as long as the
world endures." s
1 See ante, p. 406, n.
4 Tuenock 8 Bpiiom*, p. 41 ; Ma-
kawmuo, bcxrv. ; Bqjaratnacari, p.
87; SqjavaU, p. 264. .
3 Mahawanso, ch. Ixxvi. I am not
aware whether the Tumi! historians
have chronicled this remarkable ex-
pedition, and the conquest of this
portion of the Dekkan by the king
of Ceylon ; but in the catalogue of the
Kings appended by Prof. Wilbok
to his Historical Sketch of Jfewfra
(Asia! Jonrn. vol. iii. p. 201) tie
name of "Pracram&Baghu" oceuwas
the sixty-fifth in the list of Bonm'if-nf
of that state. Furan account of Pipal-
denia, where he probably coined bis
Indian money, see Asiai. Soc. Jour*-
Seagal, y. vi, pp. 218, SOI.
* Mahavxmso, ch. Ixxviii.
s JRtQarattiaeari, p. 91.
DomzcdoyGoOgle
Chap. XII.] FATE OF THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY.
FATE OF THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY. — ARRIVAL OF
THE PORTUGUESE, A.D. 1501.
The reign of Prakrama Bahu, the most glorious in the 1155.
annals of Ceylon, is the last which has any pretension to
renown. His family were unequal to sustain or extend
the honours he had won, and his nephew1, a pious
voluptuary, by whom he was succeeded, was killed in n'ge.
an intrigue with the daughter of a herdsman whilst
awaiting the result of an appeal to the Buddhist sove-
reign of Arramana to aid him in reforming religion.
His murderer, whom he had previously nominated his a.d.
successor, himself fell by assassination. An heir to the 111*'*
throne was discovered amongst the Singhalese exiles on a.d.
the coast of India a, but death soon ended his brief reign. 1192'
His brother and his nephew in turn assumed the crown ; A D
both were despatched by the Adigar, who, having allied 1196.
himself with the royal family by marrying the widow of
the great Prakrama, contrived to place her on the throne,
under the title of Queen Lila-Wati, a.d. 1197. With- n'97.
in less than three years she was deposed by an usurper,
and he being speedily put to flight, another queen, AD
Kalyana-Wati, was placed at the head of the kingdom. 1202.
The next ill-fated sovereign, a baby of three months
1 Wijayo Bahu II., killed by I * Kirti Nisaanga, brought from
Mihindo, a.d. 1187. | Kalinga, a.d. 1192.
oyGoogIc
412. THE SINGHALESE CHEONICLES. [Put m.
a.d. old, was speedily set aside by means of a hired
1202. force, and the first queen, Lila-Wati, restored to
the throne. But the same band who had effected
a revolution in her favour were prompt to repeat
the Bxploit; she was a second time deposed, and a
third time recalled by the intervention of foreign merce-
naries.1
a.d. Within thirty years from the decease of Prakrama
1211. Bahu, the kingdom was reduced to such an extremity
of weakness by contentions amongst the royal family,
and by the excesses of their partisans, that the vigilant
Malabars seized the opportunity to land with an army
of 24,000 men, reconquered the whole of the island,
and Magha, their leader, became king of Ceylon jld.
1214.2
The adventurers who invaded Ceylon on this occasion
came not from Chola or Pandya, as before, but from
Kalinga, that portion of the Dekkan which now forms
the Northern Circars. Their domination was marked
by more than ordinary cruelty, and the Mahawanso and
Majaratnacari describe with painful elaboration the
extinction of Buddhism, the overthrow of temples, the
ruin of dagobas, the expulsion of priests, and the occu-
pation of their dwellings by Damilos, the outrage of
castes, the violation of property, and the torture of its
possessors to extract the disclosure of their treasures,
" till the whole island resembled a dwelling in flames
or a house darkened by funeral rites."8
On all former occasions Eohuna and the South had
been comparatively free from the actual presence of the
enemy, but in this instance they established themselves
1 Of the very rare examples now
extant of Singhalese coins, one of thu
most remarkable bears the name of
Lila-Wati. — Numismatic Chroni-
cle, 1863. Papers on gome Coins
Ceylon, lyW.STW. VaUX,^.
* Bqjaeali, p. 260.
* Mahaioanso, oh. Ixxix. ; Jtqj
ratnacari, p. 93 ; Rajamli, p. 360.
i
oyGoogIe
Chap. XII.] PATE OP THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY. 418
at Mahagam \ and thence to Jaffnapatam, every pro- aj>.
vince in the island was brought under subjection to their 1211*
rule.
The peninsula of Jaffna and the extremity of the island
north of AdanYs Bridge, owing to its proximity to the
Indian coast, was at all times die district most infested
by the Malabars. Jambukola, the modern Colombogam,
is the port # which is rendered memorable in the Maha-
wanso by the departure of embassies and (he arrival of
relics from the Buddhist countries, and Mantotte, to the
north of Manaar, was the landing place of the innumer-
able expeditions which sailed from Chola and Pandya for
the subjugation of Ceylon.
The Tamils have a tradition that, prior to the Christian
era, Jaffna was colonised by Malabars, and that a Cholian
prince assumed the government, a.d. 101, — a date which
corresponds closely with the second Malabar invasion
recorded in the Mahawanso. Thence they extended their
authority over the adjacent country of the Wanny, as far
south as Mantotte and Manaar, " fortified their frontiers
and stationed wardens and watchers to protect them-
selves from invasion." z The successive bands . of ma-
rauders arriving from the Cbast had thus on every occasion
a base for operations, and a strong force of sympa-
thisers to cover their landing ; and from the inability
of the Singhalese to offer an effectual resistance, those
portions of the' island were from a very early period
practically abandoned to the Malabars, whose de-
scendants at the present day form the great bulk of its
population.
After an interval of twenty years, Wijayo Bahu Kt, a.d. a.d.
1235, collected as many Singhalese followers as enabled 1235'
him to recover a portion of the kingdom, and establish
himself in Maya, within which he built a capital at Jam-
budronha or Dambedenia, about fifty miles north-east of
DomzcdoyGoOglc
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Pa*t IE.
AD- the present Colombo. The Malabara still retained posses-
' sion of Pihiti, and defended their frontier by <& line of
forts drawn across the island from Pollanarrua to Ooroo-
totta on the western coast1
a.o. Thirty years later Pandita Prakram£ Bahu HL, in
1206. 1266, effected a. further dislodgment of the enemy in the
north ; but Ceylon, which possessed
" The fatal gift of beauty, that became .
A funeral dower of present woes and past,"
was destined never again to be free- from the evils of foreign
invasion ; a new race of marauders from the Malayan
peninsula were her neA assailants a ; and these "were fol-
lowed at no very long interval by a fresh expedition from
the coast of India.8
Having learned by experience the exposure and inse-
curity of the successive capitals, which had been built
by former sovereigns in the low lands, this king founded
the city of KantLy, then called Siriwardanapura, amongst
the mountains of Maya4, to which he removed the
sacred dalada, and the other treasures of the crown.
But such precautions came too late : to use the simik
of the native historian, they were " fencing the field
whilst the oxen were within engaged in devouring
the corn."8 The power of the Malabars had become
so firmly rooted, and had so irresistibly extended' itself,
that, one after another, each of the earlier capitals waS
abandoned to them, and the seat of government' car-
ried further towards the eouth. Pollanarrua had risen
into importance in the eighth and ninth centuries, when
Anarajapoora was found to be no longer tenable against
the strangers. Dambedenia was next adoptetl, a. p.
A.D. 1235, as a retreat from Pollanarrua ; and this being
1303. deemed insecure, was exchanged, a.d. 1303, for Tapahu
in the Seven Corles. Here the Pandyan marauder?
Mahawatiso, ch. lxxx, Ixxxii.; Ita-
m, pp.94, 95 ; JtajamU, p. 258.
1 Mahavxauo, ch. trxxii.
104; Jfcfci-
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cbaf. XII.] FATE OF THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY. 416
followed in the rear of the retreating sovereign1,
surprised- the new capital, and carried off the dalada
relic to the coast of India. After its recovery Ya-
pahu was deserted, a. d. 1319. Kornegalle or Kurunai- *•»•
galla, then called Hastisailapura, and Ganipola2 still
further to the south, and more deeply intrenched
amongst the Kandyan mountains, were successively
chosen for the royal residence, a.d. 1347. Thence the .gjj
uneasy seat of government was carried to Peradenia, close
by Kandy,"and its latest migration, a.d. 1410, was to ■*■?■
Jaya-wardana-pura, the modern Cotta, a few miles east of
Colombo. •
Such frequent removals are evidences of the alarm and
despondency excited by the forays and encroachments of
the Halabars, who from their stronghold at Jaffna exercised
undisputed dominion over the northern coasts on both
sides of the island, and, secure in the possession of the
two ancient capitals, Anarajapoora and Follanarrua, spread
over the rich and productive plains of the north. To
the present hour the population of the island retains the
permanent traces of this alien occupation of the ancient
kingdom of Pihiti. The language of the north of the
island, from Chilaw on the west coast to Batticaloa on
the east, is chiefly, and in the majority of localities
exclusively, Tamil ; whilst to the south of the Dedera-
oya and the Mahawelli-ganga, in the ancient divisions
of Bohuna and Maya, the vernacular is uniformly Sin-
ghalese.
Occasionally, after long periods of inaction, collisions
took place ; or the Singhalese kings equipped expeditions
against the north ; but the contest was unequal ; and in
spite of casual successes, " the king of the Ceylonese Ma-
labars," as he is styled in the Rajavati, held his court at
Jaffnapatam, and collected tribute from both the high and
1 a.b. 1308. j nacttri to have been built by one of
* Gampola or dam-pals, Ganya- the brothera-in-law of Panduwasa,
ririfna-a, " the beautiful city near B.C. 604.
the river," is said in tho Itajarat- \
DomzcdoyGoOglc
TEE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. [Put III.
a.d. the low countries, whilst the south of the island was sob-
1410. divided into a variety of petty kingdoms, the chiefs of
which, at Yapahu, at Kandy, at Gampola, at Matura,
Mahagana, Matelle, and other places l, acknowledged the
nominal supremacy of the sovereign at Cotta, with whom,
however, they .were necessarily involved in territorial
contentions, and in hostilities provoked by the withhold-
ing of tribute.
It was during thia period that an event occurred,
which is obscurely alluded to in some of the Singhalese
chronicles, but is recorded with such minute details in
several of the Chines* historical works, as to afford a
reliable illustration of the condition of the island and its
monarchy in the fifteenth century. Prior to that time
the community of religion between Ceylon and Cliina,
and the eagerness of the latter country to extend its
commerce, led to the establishment of an intercourse
which has been elsewhere described s ; missions were
constantly despatched charged with an interchange of
courtesies between the sovereigns ; theologians and
officers of state arrived in Ceylon empowered to col-
lect information regarding the doctrines of Buddha;
and envoys were sent in return bearing royal donations
of relics and sacred books. The Singhalese* monarchy
overawed by the magnitude of the imperial power, were
induced to avow towards China a sense of dependency
approaching to homage ; and the gifts which they offered
are all recorded in the ' Chinese annals as so many
"payments of tribute." At length, in the year 14053,
1 Bajavali, p. 263; Mahammto,
cl. IxXNYli.
* See Part t. ch. in.
* The narrative in the text is ex-
tracted from the Ta-teing-yi-Umg,
a " Topographical Account of the
Manehoo Empire," written in the
seventeenth century, to a copy of
which, in the British Museum, my
attention was directed by the eru-
dite Chinese scholar, Mr. Meadows,
author of " The Chinete and their
The story of this
Chinese expedition to Ceylon will
also be found in the Se-yA-kf-foo-
choo, "A Description of T^swm
Countries," a.d. 1460 ; the Woo kfv
pecu, " A Record of the Ming Dvn»*-
ty," a.d. 1622. b. Iriii. p. 3, and in the
Ming-she, " A History of the Ming
Dynasty," a.d. 1730, ccexxvi. p. ?■
For a further account of this event
see Part v. of this work, ch. iii
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. XII.] FATE OF THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY". 417
during the reign of the emperor Yung-lo ' of the Ming a.».
dynasty, a celebrated Chinese commander, Ching-Ho, I41°*
having visited Ceylon as the bearer of incense and
offerings, to be deposited at the shrine of Buddha, was
waylaid, together with his followers, by the Singhalese
king, Wijayo Bahu VI, who held his court at Gampola,
and with difficulty effected an escape to his ships. To
revenge this treacherous affront Ching-Ho was despatched
a few years afterwards with a considerable fleet and a
formidable military force, which the king (whom the
Chinese historian calls A-lee-ko-nae-wih) prepared to re-
sist; but by a vigorous effort* Ho and his followers
succeeded in seizing the capital, and bore off the sove-
reign, together with his family, as prisoners to China.
He presented them to the emperor, who, out of com-
passion, ordered them to be sent back to their country
on the condition that u the wisest of the family should
be chosen king." " Seay-pa^nea-na " H was accordingly
elected, and this choice being confirmed, he was sent
to his native country, duly provided with a seal of in-
vestiture, as a vassal of the empire under the style of Sri
Prakrama Bahu. VL, — and from that period till the reign
of Teen-shun, a.d. 1434 — 1448, Ceylon continued to pay
an annual tribute to China.
From the beginning of the 13th century to the ex-
tinction of the Singhalese dynasty in the 18th, the island
cannot be said to have been ever entirely freed from the
presence of the Malabars. The latter, even when tem-
porarily subdued, remained with forced professions of
loyalty ; Damilo soldiers were taken into pay by the
Singhalese sovereigns ; the dewales of the Hindu worship
were built in close contiguity to the wiharas of Buddhism,
and by frequent intermarriages the royal line was almost as
closely allied to the kings of Chola and Pandya as to the
blood of the Suluwanse.1
1 The Mins-tke calls the Emperor I ' fty"arWi,p.201,202. Iha.p.1187
"Ching>tsoo." on the death of &UundoV.,tbeaMond
1 So called in the Chinese ori- in succession from the (peat Prnk-
ginaL I mniu, the crown devolved upon Kirti
VOL. I. E E
jOo^Ic
THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.
[FuiDL
It was in this state of exhaustion, that the Singhalese
were brought into contact with Europeans, during the
reign of Dharma Prakrama EL, when the Portuguese, who
had recently established themselves in India, appeared
fc$ the first time in Ceylon, a.d. 1505. The paramount
sovereign was then living at Cotta ; and the Rajavali re-
cords the event in the following terms : — "And now it
came to pass that in the Christian year 1522,- in the
month of April, a ship from Portugal arrived at Colombo,
and information was brought to the king, that there were
in the harbour a race of very white and beautiful people,
who wear boots and hate of iron, and never stop in one
place. They eat a sort of white stone, and drink blood ;
and if they get a fish they give two or three Tide in gold
for it; and besides, they have guns with a noise louder
than thunder, and a ball shot from one of them, after tra-
versing a league, will break a castle of marble." l
Before proceeding to recount the intercourse of the
islanders with these civilised visitors, and the grave re-
sults which followed, it will be well to cast a glance over
the condition of the people during the period which pre-
ceded ; and to cull from the native historians such notices
of the domestic and social position of the Singhalese as
occur in passages intended by their annalists to chronicle
only those events which influenced the national worship,
or idle exploits of those royal personages, who earned im-
mortality by their protection of Buddhism.
Nissanga, who »m summoned from
Kalings on the Coromandel Coast
On the extinction of the recognised
line of Sulttwanse in a.d. 1706, a
prince from Madura, who was merely
a connection by marriage, succeeded
to the throne. The King RaiaSingha,
who detained K s ox in captivity, A.B.
1640, was married to a Malabar prin-
cess. In fact, tie four last longs of
Ceylon, prior to its surrender to flies'
Britain, were pure Malahars, without
a trace of Singhalese blood.
1 SaiaoaU, Upham's Teraion, p-
■278.
■!,-„:! .."Google
PART IV.
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS
THE ANCIENT SINGHALESE.
IIS
■ r sy Google
oyGoogIe
CHAPTER I
POPULATION. — CASTE. — 8LAVEBT AND EAJA-KAEITA.
Population. — In no single instance do the chronicles of
Ceylon mention the precise amount of the population of
the island, at any particular period ; but there is a suffi-
ciency of evidence, both historical and physical, to show
that it must have been prodigious and dense, especially in
the reigns of tie more prosperous kings. In a civilised
state and in ordinary climates, artificial wants necessarily
impose certain limits to the increase of man. Not so,
however, in a tropical region, where clothing is an encum-
brance, the smallest shelter a home, and sustenance supplied
by the bounty of the soil in almost spontaneous abundance.
Under such propitious circumstances, in the midst of a
profusion of fiaiit-bearing-trees, and in a country reple-
nished by a teeming harvest twice, at least, in each year,
with the least possible application*of labour ; it will be
readily granted that the number of the people must
be mainly, if not entirely, adjusted by the extent of arable
land.
The emotion of the traveller of the present time, as day
after day he traverses the northern portions of the island,
and penetrates the deep forests of the interior, is one of
unceasing astonishment at the inconceivable multitude of
deserted tanks, the hollows of which are still to be traced ;
and the innumerable embankments, overgrown with tim-
ber, indicating the sites of prodigious reservoirs that for-
merly fertilised districts now solitary and barren. Every
such tank is the landmark of one village at least, and
such are the dimensions of some of them that in propor-
ii 3
DonizcdoyGoogle
422 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS. [Pait IV.
tion to their, area, it is probable that hundreds of villages
may have been supported by a single one of these inland
lakes.
The labour necessary to construct one of these gigan-
tic works for irrigation is in itself an evidence of local
density of population ; but their multiplication by suc-
cessive kings, and the constantly recurring record of
district after district brought under cultivation in each
successive reign ' , demonstrate the steady increase
of population, and the multitude of husbandmen whose
combined and sustained toil was indispensable to keep
these prodigious structures in productive activity.
The Rajavali relates that in the year 1301 A.D.
King Prakrama HL, on the eve of his death, reminded
Mb sonB, that having conquered the Malabars, he had
united under one rule the three kingdoms of the island,
Hhiti with 450,000 villages, Eohuna with 770,000,
and Maya with 250,000.2 A village in Ceylon, it must
be observed, resembles a " town " in the phraseology of
Scotland, where the smallest collection of houses, or
even a single farmstead with its buildings is enough to
justify that appellation. In the same manner, according
to the saared ordinances which regulate the conduct of
the Buddhist priesthood, a "solitary house, if there be
people, must be regarded as a village," 3 and all beyond
it is the forest.
Even assuming that the figures employed by the
author of the Rajavali partake of the exaggeration
common to all oriental narratives, no one who has
visited tbfc silent %and deserted regions, which were
1 The practice of recording the
formation of tanks for irrigation bj
the sovereign is not confined to the
chronicles of Ceylon. The construc-
tion of similar works on the continent
of India has been commemorated in
the same manner by the native histo-
rians. The memoirs of the Rajas of
Orissa show the number of tanks
matte and wells dug in every reign.
A century later
the reign of Prakrama-Kotta, a.d,
1410, the Rajaratnacari says, there
then were 256,000 villages in the
province of Mature, 405,000 in that of
Jaflha, and 780,000 in Oovsh.—
p7ii2.
* Haedy's -Satient Monacfutm, ch
xiii. p. lss.
oyGoogle
Chap. I.] POPULATION. 421
once the homes of millions, can hesitate to believe that
when the island was in the zenith of its prosperity,
the population of Ceylon must of necessity have
been at least ten times as great as it is at the present
day.
The same train of thought leads to a clearer concep-
tion of the means by which this dense population was
preserved, through so many centuries, in spite of frequent
revolutions and often recurring invasions ; as well as
of the causes which led to its ultimate disappearance,
when intestine decay had wasted the organisation on
which the fabric of society rested. Cultivation, as it
existed in the north of Ceylon, was almost entirely de-
pendent on the store of water preserved in each village
tank ; and it could only be carried on by the combined
labour of the whole local community, applied in the
first instance to collect and secure the requisite supply
for irrigation, and afterwards to distribute it to the
rice lands, which were tilled by the united exertions of
the inhabitants, amongst whom the crop was divided in
due proportions. So indispensable were concord and
union in such operations, that injunctions for their
maintenance were sometimes engraven on ih% rocks, as
an imperishable exhortation to forbearance and harmony.1
Hence, in the recurring convulsions that overthrew suc-
cessive dynasties, and transferred the crown to usurpers,
with a facile rapidity, otherwise almost unintelligible,
it is easy to comprehend that the mass of the people
had the strongest possible motives for passive sub-
mission, and were constrained to acquiescence by an
instinctive dread of the fatal effects of prolonged com-
motion. If interrupted in their industry, by the
dread of such events, they retired till the storm had
blown over, and returned, after each temporary disper-
1 See the inscription on the rock of I one on a rook at PoUanarrus, ibid.,
Mihintala, A. d. 282, Tussock's Epi- p. 93.
tome, Appendix, p. 90 ; and a simDur |
114
oyGoogIc
424 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS. [Paw IV.
aion, to resume possession of the lands and their village
tank.1
The desolation which now reigns over the plains
which the Singhalese formerly tilled, was precipitated
by the reckless domination of the Malabars, in the four-
teenth and following centuries. The destruction of
reservoirs and tanks has been ascribed to defective con-
struction, and to the absence of spill-waters, and other
facilities for discharging the surplus-water, during the
prevalence of excessive rains ; but independently of the
fact that vast numbers of these tanks, though utterly
deserted, remain, in this respect, almost uninjured to
the present day, we have the evidence of their own
native historians, that for upwards of fifteen centuries,
the reservoirs, when duly attended to, successfully" defied
all the dangers to be apprehended from inundation.
Their destruction and abandonment are ascribable, not
so much to any engineering defect, as to the disruption
of the village communities, by whom they were so long
maintained. The ruin of a reservoir, when neglected
and permitted to fall into decay, was speedy and inevi-
table ; and as the destruction of the village tank involved
the flight *f all dependent upon it, the water, once per-
mitted to escape, carried pestilence and miasma over the
plains they had previously covered with plenty. After
such a calamity any partial return of the villagers, even
where it was not prevented by the dread of malaria,
would have been impracticable ; for the obvious reason,
that where the whole combined labour of the commu-
nity was not more than sufficient to carry on the work
of conservancy and cultivation, the diminished force of
a few would have been utterly unavailing, either to
effect the reparation of the watercourses, or to restore
the system on which the culture of rice-land depends.
Thus the process of decay, instead of a gradual decline as
1 Seeon/eVol. I. p. 361..
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] CASTE. 425
in other countries, became sudden and utter desolation in
Geylon.
From such traces as are perceptible in the story of
the earliest immigrants, it is obvious that in their
domestic habits and civil life they brought with them
and preserved in Ceylon the traits and pursuits
which characterised the Aryan races that had colonised
the valley of the Ganges. The Singhalese Chronicles
abound, like the ancient Vedas, in allusions to agri-
culture and herds, to the breeding of cattle and the
culture of grain. They speak of village communities
and of their social organisation, as purely patriarchal.
Women were treated with respect and deference;
and as priestesses and queens they acquired a pro-
minent place in the national esteem. Eich furniture
was used in dwellings and costly textures for dress ;
but these were obtained from other nations, whose
ships resorted to the island, whilst its inhabitants,
averse to intercourse with foreigners, and ignorant* of
navigation, held the pursuits of the merchant in no
Caste. — Amongst the aboriginal inhabitants caste ap-
pears to have been unknown, although after -the arrival
of Wijayo and his followers the syftem in all its minute
subdivisions, and slavery, both domestic and predial,
prevailed throughout the island. The Buddhists, as
dissenters, who revolted against the arrogant preten-
sions of the Brahmans, embodied in their doctrines a
protest against caste under any modification. But even
after the conversion of the Singhalese to Buddhism, and
their acceptance of . the faith at the hands of Mahindo,
caste as a national institution was found too obstinately
established to be overthrown by the Buddhist priest-
hood; and reinforced, as its supporters were, by sub-
sequent intercourse with the Malabars, it has been
perpetuated to the present time, as a conventional and
social, though no longer as a sacred institution. Prac-
tically, the Singhalese ignore three of the great classes,
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
4» SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AKTS. [Put IT.
theoretically maintained by the Hindus ; among them
there are neither Brahmane, Vaisyas, nor Kshastryas;
and at the head of the class which they retain, they
place the Gowoame or Vellalas, nominally " tillers of
the soil." In earlier times the institution seems to have
been recognised in its entirety, and in the glowing de-
scription given in the Mahawanso of the planting of the
great Bo-tree, "the sovereign the lord of chariots
directed that it should be lifted by the four high caste
tribes and by eight persons of each of the other castes."1
In later times the higher ranks are seldom spoken of in
the historical books but by specific titles, but frequent
allusion is made to the Chandalas, the lowest of all, who
were degraded to the office of scavengers and carriers of
corpses.*
Slavery, — The existence of slavery is repeatedly re-
ferred to, and in the absence of any specific allusion to
its origin in Ceylon, it must be presumed to have been
borrowed from India. As the Sudras, according to the
institutes of Menu, were by the laws of caste consigned
to helpless bondage, so slavery in Ceylon was an attri-
bute of race 8 ; and those condemned to it were doomed
to toil from their birth, with no requital other than the
obligation on the part of their masters to maintain
them in health, to succour them in sickness, and appor-
tion their burdens to their strength.4 And although the
liberality of theoretical Buddhism threw open, even to
the lowest caste, all the privileges of the priesthood, the
1 MiiAatvanMo, ch. zix. p. 116.
* Ibid., ch. x. p. 66. The Chandala
In one uf the Jatakas is represented
u "one born in the open air, his pa-
rente not being possessed of a roof;
and as he lies amongst the pote when
bis mother goes to cut fire-wood, he
is Buckled by the bitch along with her
pupa." — Hardy'si Buddhism, ch. iii.
In later times, slavery was not
Ined to the low castes ; insolvents
could be made slaves by their credi-
tors— the chief frequently buying the
debt, and attaching the debtor to hia
followers. The children of freemen,
by female slaves, followed the status
of their mothers.
* Habdt's Buddhism, ch. x. p. 432.
oyGoogle
Cbaf. I.] • SLATKET. 4HT
slave alone was repulsed, on the ground that his admis-
sion would deprive the owner of his services.1 Like
other property, slaves could be possessed by the
Buddhist monasteries, and inscriptions, still gristing
upon the rocks of Mihintala and Dambool, attest the
competency of the priests to receive them as gifts, and to
require that as slaves they should be exempted from
taxation.
Unrelaxed in its assertion of abstract right, but miti-
gated in the forms of its practical enforcement, slavery
endured in Ceylon till extinguished by the fiat of the
British Government in 1845.2 In the northern and
Tamil districts of the island, its characteristics differed
considerably from its aspect in the south and amongst
the Katidyan mountains. In the former, the slaves were
employed in the labours of the field and rewarded with
a small proportion of the produce ; but amongst the pure
Singhalese, slavery was domestic rather than predial,
and those bom to its dutieB were employed less as the
servants, than as the suite of the Eandyan chiefs. Slaves
swelled the train of their retainers on all occasions of
display, and had certain domestic duties assigned to them,
amongst which was the carrying of fire-wood, and the
laying out of the corpse after death." The strongest proof
of the general mildness of their treatment in all parts of
the island, is derived from the fact, that when in 1845,
Lord Stanley, now the Earl of Derby, directed the final
abolition of the system, slavery was extinguished in
Ceylon without a claim for compensation on the part of
the proprietors.
Compulsory Labour. — Another institution, to the in-
fluence and operation of which the country was indebted
for the construction of the works which diffused plenty
throughout every region, was the system of Raja-kariya,
1 Hardy's Eastern Monactenn, ch. I and the proceedings for its suppres-
iv. p. 18. sion, will be found in Pbidham'b
■ An Kceoant of slavery in Ceylon, | Ceylon, vol. i p. 223.
DoizcdoyGoOglc
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTB.
[PabtIV.
by which the king had a right to employ, for public
purposes, the compulsory labour of the inhabitants. *Co
what extent this was capable of exaction, or under what
safeguards it was enforced in early times, does not appear
from the historical books. But on all occasions when
tanks were to be formed, or canals cut for irrigation,
the Mahawanso alludes — almost in words of course —
to the application of Kaja-kariya for their construction ',
the people being summoned to the task by beat of
drum.8
The only mention of the system which attracts parti-
cular attention, is the honour awarded to the most pious
of the kings, who, whilst maintaining Eaja-kariya as an
institution, nevertheless stigmatised it as " oppression "
when applied to non-productive objects ; and on the
occasion of erecting one of the most stupendous of the
monuments dedicated to the national faith, felt that the
merit of the act would be neutralised, were it to be
accomplished by " unrequited " labour.8
1 The inscription engraven on the
rock at Mihintala, amongst other re-
gulations for enforcing the observance
declares that "if a fault be committed
by an j of the cultivators, the adequate
fine ahall be assessed according to
usage ; or in lieu thereof, the delin-
quent shall be directed to work at the
lake in making an excavation not
exceeding sixteen cubits in circum-
ference and one cubit deep." — Tra-
Nona's Epitome, kc, Appendix, p. 87.
1 Mahaioanto, ch. xxv. p. 149.
* Ibid., ch. xxviL pp. 163, 165.
King Tiasa, A. o. 201, in imitation of
Dutugaimunu, caused the restorations
of monuments at the capital " to be
made witk paid labour." — Ibid., ch.
xxxvi. p. 226. See ante Vol I. It m.
oyGoogle
CHAP. n.
AGRICULTURE. — IRRIGATION. — CATTLE AHD CROPS.
Agriculture. — Prior to the arrival of the Bengalis, and
even for some centuries after the conquest of Wijayo,
before the knowledge of agriculture had extended
throughout the island, the inhabitants appear to have
subsisted to a great extent by the chase.1 Hunting the
elk and the boar was one of the amusements of the
early princes; the "Eoyal Huntsmen" had a range of
buildings erected for their residence at Anarajapoora,
B.c. £04 s, and the laws of the chase generously forbade
to shoot deer except in flight8 Dogs were trained to
assist in the sport * and the oppressed aborigines, driven
by their conquerors to the forests of Eohuna and Maya,
are the subject of frequent commendation in the pages of
the Mahawanao, from their singular ability in the use of
the bow.6 .
Before the arrival of Wijayo, b.c. 543, agriculture was
unknown in Ceylon, and grain, if grown at all, was not
systematically cultivated- The Yakkhos, the aborigines,
subsisted, as do the Veddahs, their lineal descendants, at
the present day, on fruits, honey, and the products of the
chase. Bice was distributed by Kuweni to die followers
of Wijayo, but it was " rice procured from the wrecked
1 MaJtowonso, ch. x. p. 60: eh. xiv.
xi. 78 ; ch. xiiii. p. 142. The hunt-
ing of the hare is mentioned 161 B.C,
MahawoMO, ch. xxiii. p. 141.
* Ibid., ch. x. p. 66.
* Ibid., ch. xiv. p. 78. King De-
venipiatisaa, when descrying the elk
which led him to the mountain where
Mahindo was seated, exclaimed, '
ia not fair to shoot him standing ! "
he twanged hie bowstring and fol-
lowed him as he fled. See ante,
16.
202, 204,
Google
p. 841, n.
* Ibid, ch. xxviii. p. 166.
* Ibid, ch. MJtiii. pp. 202, 204,
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS.
[Past IV.
ships of mariners." ' And two centuries later, so scanty
was the production of native grain, that Asoka, amongst
the presents which he sent to his ally Devenipiatiasa,
included " one hundred and sixty loads of hill.paddi from"
Bengal"8
A Singhalese narrative of the " Planting of the Bo-tree,"
an English version of which will be found amongst the
translations prepared for Sir Alexander Johnston, men-
tions the fact, that rice was still imported into Ceylon
from the Coromandel coaat 8 in the second century before
Christ
Irrigation. — It was to the Hindu kings who succeeded
Wijayo, that Ceylon was indebted for the earliest know-
ledge of agriculture, for the construction of reservoirs,
and the practice of irrigation for the cultivation of rice,*
1 Mahauxmto, ch. vii. p. 49.
» Ibid., ch. xi. p. 70.
' Upham, Sacred Book* of Ceylon,
vol iii. p. 231.
4 A very able report on irrigation
in some of the districts of Ceylon
has been recently drawn up by Mr.
BiiLBT, of the Ceylon Civil Service ;
but the author lias been led into an
error in supposing that, "it cannot bo
to India that we must look for the
origin of tanks and canals in Ceylon,"
and that the knowledge of their con-
struction waa derived through " the
Arabian and Persian merchants who
traded between Egypt and Ceylon."
Mr. Bailey rests this conclusion on
the assertion that the first Indian
canal of which we hare any record
dates no farther back than the middle
of the fourteenth century, There was
nothing in common between the
shallow canals for distributing the
periodical inundation of the Nile over
the level lands of Egypt (a country
in which rice was little known),
and the gigantic embankments by
which hills were so connected in
Ceylon as to convert tike valleys be-
tween them into inland lakes; and
there was no similarity to render
the excavation of the one a model
and precedent for the construction of
the other. Probably the lake Hceru
dwells in the mind of those who
ascribe proficiency is irrigation to
the ancient Egyptians ; but although
Herodotus asserts it to hare been an
excavation, x"/""ro"!ri'C *«" *pHr|i
(lib, ii. 149), geologic investigation
baa shown that Mceris is a natural
lake created by the local depression
of that portion of the Arsinoite nome.
Neither Strabo nor Pliny, who be-
lieved it to be artificial, ascribed its
origin to anything connected with
irrigation, for which, in fact, its level
would render it unsuitable. Nature
had done so much for irrigation in
Egypt, that art woe forestalled ; and
even had it been otherwise, and bad
the natives of that country been adepts
in the science, or capable of teaching
it, die least qualified importers of
engineering knowledge would have
been the Arab and Persian mariners,
whose livee were spent in coasting
the shores of the Indian Ocean. It is
true that in Arabia itself, at a very
early period, there is the tradition of
the great artificial lake of Aram, in
Yemen, about the time of Alexander
the Great (Sale's Koran, Intriid. p. " |:
and evidence still more authentic
serves to show that the practice of
artificial irrigation -waa one of the
oyGoogIe
Ghaf.IL]
IH3I0ATI0N.
The first tank in Ceylon was formed by the successor
of Wijayo, B.c. 504, and their subsequent multiplication
to an almost incredible extent is ascribable to the
influence of the Buddhist religion, which, abhorring
earliest occupations of the human race.
The Scriptures, Id enumerating the
descendants of Shem, state that "unto
fiber were born two eons, and Hie
name of one wis Polog, for in his days
the earth was divided." (Genetit.ch.
x. ver. 25.) In this passage, according
to Cyril C. Graham, the term Peley
has a profounder meaning, and the
sentence should hare been translated
— "for tn hit dayt the earth wot cat
mtocanall." {Cambridge E»>ay f,l$Ji&.)
But historical testimony exists
which removes all obscurity from the
inquiry as to who were the instruc-
tors of the Singhalese. The most
ancient books of the Hindus show
that the practice of canal. making-was
understood in India at as early a period
as in Egypt. Canals are mentioned in
the liayaiiuBm, the star; of which be-
longs to the dimmest antiquity ; and
when Baratha, the half-brother of
Rama, was about to search for Mm in
the Dekkan, his train is described as
including "labourers, with carts,
bridge-builders, carpenters, and dig-
gers of canals." (Jtamayana, Cast's
Trans., vol. iii. p. 228.) The Maha-
loanto, removes all doubt as to the
person by whom the Singhalese were
instructed in forming workn for irriga-
tion, by naming the Brahman engineer
contemporary with the construction
of the earliest tanks in the fourth
century before the Christian era.
(MahcneaMo, ch. x.) Somewhat later,
B.C. 262, the inscription, on the rock
at Mihintala ascribes to the Malabars
the system of managing the water for
the nee lands, and directs that " ac-
cording to the supply of water in
the lake, the same shall be distri-
buted to the lands of the wihara
m the maimer formerly regulated by
the Tomtit." (Ifotet to TubnouWs
.Epitome, p. 90. ) To be convinced of
the Tamil origin of the tank system
which subsists to the present day in
Ceylon, it is only necessary to see the
tanks of the Southern Bekkan. The
innumerable excavated reservoirs or
calami of Ceylon will be found to cor-
respond with the calami of Mysore ;
and the vast erayt formed by drawing
a bund to intercept the water flawing
between two elevated ridges, exhibit
the model which has been followed at
Padivil, Kandelai, Minery, and all the
other huge constructions of Ceylon.
But whoever may have been the ori-
ginal instructors of the Singhalese in
the formation of tanks, there seems
every reason to believe that from their
own subsequest experience, and the
prodigious extent to which they oc-
cupied themselves in the formation of
works of this kind, a facility was at-
tained in Ceylon unsurpassed by the
people of any other country. It is a
curious circumstance in connection
with this inquiry, that in the eighth
century after Christ, the King of
Kashmir despatched messengers to
Ceylon to engage workmen, whom he
employed in constructing an artificial
lake. (Maja-Tarangini, Book iv. sL
GOO.) If it were necessary to search
beyond India for the origin of culti-
vation in Ceylon, the Singhalese, in-
stead of borrowing a theory from
Egypt, might more naturally have
imitated the ingenious devices of their
own co-religionists in China, where
the system of irrigation as pursued in
the military colonies of that country
has been a theme of admiration in
every age of their histo^. " (See Jour-
nal Asiatiqve, 1850, vol In. pp. 341,
346.) And as these colonies were
planted not only in the centre of the
empire, but on its north-west extre-
mities towards Kaachgar and the
north-east of India, where the new
settlers occupied themselves in drain-
ing marshes and leading streams to
water their arable lands, the proba-
bilities are that their system may
have been known and copied by the
people of Hindustan.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
432 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS. [Fur IV.
the destruction of animal life, taught its multitudinous
votaries to Bubsist exclusively upon vegetable food
Hence the planting of gardens, the diffusion of fruit-
trees and leguminous vegetables *, the sowing of dry
grain1, the formation of reservoirs and canals, and the
reclamation of land " in situations favourable for irri-
gation."
It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of
this system of water cultivation, especially in the north of
Ceylon, a country subject to periodical droughts. From
physical and geological causes, the mode of cultivation
in that section of the island at the present day differs
essentially from that practised in the southern division ;
and whilst in the latter the frequency of rains and the
abundance of r;vers afford a copious supply of water,
the rest of the district is mainly dependent upon artificial
irrigation, and 'on the quantity of rain collected in tanks ;
or of water diverted from streams and directed into
reservoirs.
As has been elsewhere" explained, the mountain
ranges that tower along the south-western coast,
and extend far towards the eastern, serve in both
monsoons to intercept the trade winds and condense
the vapours with which they are charged, thus ensuring
to those regions a plentiful supply of rain. Hence the
harvests in those portions of the island are regulated by
the two monsoons, the yalla being gathered in May and
the maha in November ; and seed-time in both is adjusted
so as to take advantage of the copious showers that fall
at those periods.
But in the northern portions of Ceylon, owing to the
absence of mountains, this natural resource cannot be
relied on. The winds in both monsoons traverse the
island without parting with a sufficiency of moisture;
1 Beans, designated by the term of j
Moid in the Mahotcaiuio, wsra sruvm rice" is mentioned in the Matt
in the aecond century before Christ, b,c. 77, oh. xxiiv. p. 208.
ch. jcria. p. 14a J • See Vol I. Pwti.cn. ii. p. 67.
ayGoogIc
Cmap. II.] IRRIGATION. 430
droughts are of frequent occurrence and of long con-
tinuance ; and vegetation in the -low and scarcely undu-
lated plains is mainly dependent on dews and whatsoever -
damp is distributed by the steady sea-breeze. In some
places the sandy soil rests upon beds of madrepore and
coral rock, through which the scanty rain percolates
too quickly to refresh the soil ; and thus the husbandman
is entirely dependent upon wells and village tanks for
the means of irrigation.
In a region exposed to such climatic vicissitudes the risk
would have been imminent and incessant, had the popu-
lation been obliged to rely on supplies of dry grain alone,
the growth of which muBt necessarily have been precarious,
owing to the possible failure or deficiency of the rains.
Hence frequent famines would have been inevitable in
those seasons of prolonged dryness and scorching heat,
when " the sky becomes as brass and the earth as iron."
What an unspeakable blessing that against such calami-
ties a security should have been found by the introduc-
tion of a grain calculated to germinate under water;
and that a perennial supply of the latter, not only
adequate for all ordinary purposes, but sufficient to guard
against extraordinary emergencies, should have been pro-
vided by the ingenuity of the people, aided by the
bounteous solicitude of their sovereigns. It is no
matter of surprise that the kings who devoted their
treasures and their personal energies to the formation of
tanks and canals have entitled their memory to traditional
veneration, as benefactors of their race and country. And
in striking contrast to them, it is the pithy remark of the
author of the Rajavali, mourning over the extinction
of the Great Dynasty and the decline of the country,
that " because ike fertility of the land was decreased the
kings who followed were no longer of such consequence
as those who went before."1
oyGoogIc
434 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS. [Pin IT.
Simultaneously with the construction of works for the
advancement of agriculture, the patriarchal village system,
• copied from that which existed from the earliest ages
in India1, was established in the newly settled districts;
and every hamlet, with its governing " headman " its
artisans, its barber, its astrologer and washerman, was
taught to conduct its own affairs by its gamsabe or
village council ; to repair its tanks and watercourses, and
to collect the harvests in each year by the combined
labour of the whole community.
Between the agricultural system of the mountainous
districts and that of the lowlands, there was at all times
the same difference which distinguishes at the present day
the tank cultivation of Neuera-kalawa and the Wanny from
the hanging rice lands of the Kandyan hills. Among the
latter, reservoirs are comparatively rare, as the natives
rely on the certainty of the rains, which seldom fail at
their due season in those lofty regions. Streams are con-
ducted by means of channels ingeniously carried round
the spurs of the hills and along the face of acclivities, so
as to fertilise the fields below, which in the technical
phrase of the Kandyans are " assoedamised " for the
purpose ; that is, formed into terraces, each protected
by a shallow ledge over which the superfluous water
trickles, from the highest level into that immediately
below it; thus descending through all in succession till
it escapes in the depths of the valley.
For the tillage of the lands with which the temples
were so largely endowed in all quarters of the island,
the sacred communities had assigned to them certain
villages, a portion of whose labour was the property
of the wihara,2 Slaves were also appropriated to them,
and an instance is mentioned in the fifth century8, of
the inhabitants of a low-caste village having been be-
stowed on a monastery by the king Aggrabodhi, " in order
1 Mahawtrnso, ch. x. p. 07. See I
oyGoogle
Chap. II.] AGRICULTURE. 435
that the priests might derive their Bervice as slaves." l
Sharing in a prerogative of royalty, some of the temples
had, moreover, a right to the compulsory labour of the
community ; and in one of the inscriptions carved on
the rock at Mihintala, the " Baja-kariya writer " is enu-
merated in the list of temple officers.2 The temple lands
were occasionally let to tenants whose rent was paid
either in " land-fees," or in kind.3
Farm-stock. — The only farm-stock which appears to
have been kept for tillage purposes, were buffaloes, which,
then as now, were used in treading the soft mud of the
irrigated rice-fields, preparatory to casting in the Beed.
Cows are alluded to in the Mahawanso, but never in
connection with labour ; and although butter is spoken
of, it is only that of the buffalo.*
Gardens, — Probably the earliest enclosures attempted
in a state of incipient civilisation, were gardens for the
exclusion of wild animals from fruit trees and vegeta-
bles, when these were first cultivated for the use of
man ; and to the present day, the frequent occurrence
of the termination " watte " in the names of places on
the map of Ceylon, is in itself an indication of the im-
portance attached to them by the villagers. The term
" garden," however, conveys to an European but an im-
perfect idea of the character and style of these enclosures;
which in Ceylon are so similar to the native gardens
in the south of India, as to suggest a community of
origin. Their leading features are lines of the graceful '
areca palms, groves of oranges, limes, jak-trees, and
bread fruit ; and irregular clumps of palmyras and coco-
nuts. Beneath these, there is a minor growth, sometimes
of cinnamon or coffee bushes ; and always a wilderness
of plantains, guavas and papayas ; a few of the commoner
flowers ; plots of brinjals (egg plants) and other esculents ;
1 Uahawimto, ch. zlii. Tvsxova, I ' Ibid., pp. 86, 87.
MS. translation. * Mahaaanto, ch, xxTli. p. 108.
1 Tuesobk's Epitome, Apvendix,
p. 88. |
* t 2
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
436 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS. [Part IV.
and' the stems of the standard trees are festooned with
climbers, pepper vines, tomatas, and beteL
The CoctMiut Palm. — It is curious and suggestive
as regards the coco-nut, which now enters so largely
into the domestic ceconomy of the Singhalese, that al-
though it is sometimes spoken of in the Mahawanso (but
by no means so often as the palmyra), no allusion is
ever made to it as an article of diet, or an element in
the preparation of food, nor is it mentioned before the
reign of Prakrama I., A.D. 11531, in the list of those
fruit-trees, the planting of which throughout the island
is so often recorded amongst the munificent acts of
the Singhalese kings.
As the other species of the same genus of palms are
confined to the New World2, a doubt has been raised
whether the coco-nut be indigenous in India, or an im-
portation. If the latter^ the first plant must have been
introduced anterior to the historic age; and whatever
the period at which the tree may have been first cul-
tivated, a time is indicated when it was practically un-
known in Ceylon by the fact, that a statue, without date
or inscription, is carved in high relief in a niche hol-
lowed out of a rock to the east of Galle, which tradition
says is the monument to the Kustia Kaja, an Indian
prince, whose claim to remembrance is, that he first
taught the Singhalese the use of the coco-nut.8
1 Mahmoanm, ch. bcxii. i the tree ia found in greatest
* Bbown'h NeUt to Tcckey's Ex- abundance in Ceylon. Hither, if
pedititm to Out Congo, p. 456. originally self-sown, it must hare
3 The earliest mention of the been floated and flung ashore by the
coco-nut in Ceylon occurs in the j waves; and as the north -east coast,
Mahatcaao, which refers to it as though washed by a powerful current^
known at Rohuna to the south, b. c. | is almost altogether destitute of these
161 (ch. xxv. p. 140). " The milk palms, it is obvious that the coco-
of the small red coco-nut " is stated nut, if carried by sea front some other
shore, must have been brought
during the south-west monsoon from
the coast near Cape Ooroorin. j^ijas
notices as one of the leading pecu-
to have been used by Dutugmm
in preparing cement for building the
RuanweUe' dagnba (Hah. ch. xxx.
p. 169). The south-west of the ir
L160). The south-west of the is- notices as one of the leading pecu-
d, and especially the maruin of liaritiee in the appearance of the sea
the tea, is stilt the locality in which | coast of Ceylon, that the palm trees
Doused oyGOQglC
. n.]
AGRICULTURE.
The mango, the jambo, and several other fruits are
particularised, but the historical books make no mention
either of the pine-apple or the plantain, both of which
appear to have been of comparatively recent introduction.
Pulse is alluded to at an early date under the generic
designation of " Masa."1
Rice and- Curry. — Rice in various forms is always
spoken of as the food alike of the sovereign, the priests,
and the people ; rice prepared plainly, conjee-(the water in
which rice is boiled), " rice mixed with sugar and honey,
and rice dressed with clarified butter." s Chillies are
now and then mentioned as an additional condiment8
The Rajavali speaks of curry in the second century
before Christ *, and the Mahawanso in the fifth century
after.6
Although the taking of fife is sternly forbidden in the
ethical code of Buddha, and the most prominent of the
(by which, as the south of the island
was the place of resort, he most pro-
bably mesas the coco-nut palms) grew
in regular quincunxes, as if planted
by skilful hands in a well-ordered
garden. "H vijaoc, ijv jcoXpSon Toirpo-
ftavifti, ix" tfniviitai>n£ ftiv SaupaonJc
irtfD7-(ii/ifwuic n'c <rrorj(oi', ioirEp ally
ir rale dSfi'iiQ ruv wapaiilatav of
tovtiuv fitXtSutyoi Qtirevovoi rd Itvooa
rd miaiTifiSpa" — Lib. XVI, ch. 18.
The comparative silence of the Ma-
hawanm in relation to the coco-nut
may probably be referable to the iact
that its author resided and wrote in
the interior of the island ; over which,
unlike the light seeds of other plants,
its ponderous nuts could not have
been distributed accidentally, where
down to the present time it lias been
b impartially introduced, and nowhere
in any considerable number. Its pre-
sence throughout Ceylon is always
indicative of the vicinity of man, and
at a distance from the shore it appears
in those places only where it has been
planted by hie care. TheSinghalesc
believe that the coco-nut will not
flourish "unless yon walk under it
and tali under it:" but its proxi-
mity to human habitations is possibly
explained by the consideration that
if exposed in the forest, it would be
liable, when young, to be forced down
by the elephants, who delight in its
delicate leaves. See Davy's Angler
in the Lake District!, p. 245.
1 Mahawanso, ch. xxiii. p. 140.
* Ibid., ch. xxxii. p. 196.
3 Ibid., ch, xxv. p. 158 ; ch. xxvi.
p. 160.
'« Rtyawli, pp. 1W, 200, 202.
1 JUahawaruo, Tuehour's MS.
translation, ch. xxxix.
Knox says that currv is a Portu-
guese word, currf (Itelation, &c,
part i. ch. iv. p. 12), but this is a
misapprehension. Professor II. H.
Wilson, ina private letterto me, says,
"In Hindustan weare accustomed to
consider ' curry ' to be derived from
tarkari, a general term for esculent
vegetables, but it is probably the
English version of the Kanara and
Malayalam kadi; pronounced with a
hard r, ' kari ' or ' Icuri,' which means
sour milk with rice boiled, which was
originally used for such compounds
as curry at the present day. The
Kamata majkke-kari is a dish of rice,
sour milk, spices, red pepper, &c.
&c."
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS.
[Pa«i IV.
obligations undertaken by lie priesthood is directed to
its preservation even in the instances of insects and
animalculse, casuistry succeeded so far as to fix the crime
on the slayer, and to exonerate the individual who
merely partook of die flesh.1 Even the inmates of the
wiharas and monasteries discovered devices for the saving
of conscience, and curried rice was not rejected in con-
sequence of the animal ingredients incorporated with
it The mass of the population were nevertheless vege-
tarians, and so little value did they place on animal food,
that according to the account furnished to Edrisi by
the Arabian seamen returning from Ceylon, " a sheep
sufficient to regale an assembly was to be bought there
for half a drachm." a
Betel. — In connection with a diet so largely composed
of vegetable food, arose the custom, which to the present
day is universal in Ceylon, — of chewing the leaves
of the betel vine, accompanied with lime and the sliced
nut of the areca palm.8 The betel (piper betel), which
is now universally cultivated for this purpose, is pre-
sumed to have been introduced from some tropical
island, as it has nowhere been found indigenous in con-
tinental India,4 In Ceylon, its use is mentioned as early
as the fifth century before Christ, when "betel leaves"
formed the present sent by a princess to her lover.8 In
a conflict of Dutugaimunu with the Malabars, B.c. 161,
the enemy seeing on his lips the red stain of the betel.
1 Hardy's Eastern Monachiittn,
ch. iv. p. 24; ch. Li. p. 02; ch. xvi.
p. 158. IIabdy's liuddhiun, ch. vii.
p. 3-27.
1 Edbibi, Geographic, &c. torn. i.
p. 73.
* For an account of the medicinal
influence of betel-chewing, bco Part I.
c. iii. 5 ii. p. 112.
4 IIotle a Esahi/ on the Antiquity
of Hindoo Medicine, p. 85.
"B.C. 604. Mahawanto, ch. !*.
p. C7. Dutugaimunu, when building
the Hum wells' dagoba, provided for
tha labourers amongst other article*
" the five condiments used in masti-
cation." This probably refers to the
chewing of betel and its accompani-
ments (MahatBaato, ch. hi. p. 175).
A story is told of the wife of a Sin-
ghalese minister, about a. D. GO, who
to warn him of a conspiracy, »ent
him his " betel, &&, for mastication,
omitting the chunam," hoping that
coming in search of it, he ntipM
escape hia "impending fate." M«-
havxauo, ch. XXXY. p. 219.
oyGoogIe
CiiAP. II.] AGRICULTURE. 430
mistook it for blood, and spread the false cry that the
king had been slain.1
Intoxicating liquors are of sufficient antiquity to be
denounced in the moral system of Buddhism. The use
of toddy and drinks obtained from the fermentation of
" bread and flour " is condemned in the laity, and
strictly prohibited to the priesthood 2 ; but the Arabian
geographers mention that in the twelfth century, wine,
in defiance of the prohibition, was imported from Persia,
and drunk by the Singhalese after being flavoured with
cardamoms.8
» Rajavnli, ft. SSI. I » Eroisl, Giographie, tec, Trad.
* Hakdt'b BudcVtitm, Ac, eh. x. Jaubebt, torn. i. p. 78.
p. 474. I
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS.
EABLT COMMERCE, SHIPPING, AND PRODUCTIONS.
Trade. — At a very early period the mass of the people
of Ceylon were essentially agricultural, and the propor-
tion of the population addicted to other pursuits consisted
of the small number of handicraftsmen required in a
community amongst whom civilisation and refinement
were so slightly developed, that the bulk of the inhabitants
may be said to have had few wants beyond the daily
provision of food.
Upon trade the natives appear to have looted at all
times with indifference. Other nations, both to the east
and west of Ceylon, made the island their halting-place ,
and emporium ; the Chinese brought tliither the wares
destined for the countries beyond the Euphrates, and the
Arabians and Persians met them with th,eir products in
exchange ; but the Singhalese appear to have been unin-
terested spectators of this busy traffic, in which they can
hardly be said to have taken any share. The inhabitants
of the opposite coast of India, aware of the natural wealth
of Ceylon, participated largely in its development, and
the Tamils, who eagerly engaged in the pearl fishery, gave
to the gulf of Manaar the name of Salabham, " the Bea of
gain." l
Native Shipping. — The only mention made of na-
tive ship3 in the sacred writings of the Singhalese, is
1 The Tamils pave the same name I Ibn Batata calls Salawat) ; «nd
to Chilaw, which was the nearest eventually they called the whole is-
town to the pearl fishery (and which | land Satebham.
oyGoogIe
CuAr. III.] EARLY TRADE. 441
in connection with missions for the promotion of Budd-
hism, or embassies for the negotiation of marriages and
alliances with the princes of "India.1 The building of
dhoneys is adverted to as early as the first century, but
they were only intended by a devout king to be stationed
along the shores of the island, covered by day with
white cloths, and by night illuminated with lamps, in
order that from them priests, as the royal almoners,
might distribute gifts and donations of food.2
The genius of the people seems to have never inclined
them to a sea-faring life, and the earliest notice that
occurs of ships for the defence of the coast, is in connec-
tion with the Malabars who were taken into the royal
service from their Bkill in naval affairs.8 A national
marine was afterwards established for this purpose, A.D.
495, by the King Mogallana.4 In the Suyskoo, a Chinese
history of the Suy dynasty, it is stated that in A.D. 607,
the king of Ceylon " sent the Brahman Kew-mo-16 with
thirty vessels, to meet the approaching ships which con-
veyed an embassy from China,"6 And in the twelfth
century, when Prakrama L was about to enter on his
foreign expeditions, " several hundreds of vessels were
equipped for that service within five months."6
It "is remarkable that the same apathy, if not anti-
pathy to navigation, still prevails amongst the inhabi-
tants of an island, the long sea-borde of which affords
facilities for cultivating a maritime taste, did any such
exist But whilst the natives of Hindustan fit out sea-
going vessels, and take service as sailors for distant voy-
ages, the Singhalese, though most expert as fishers and
boatmen, never embark in foreign vessels, and no in-
1 Tbbnoue'b Epitome, App. p. 78. * Mahawanso, ch. iL Ttekoub's
1 By King Mala Dailiya, *.»■ 8. MS, Tranal.
Mahaicanto, ch. xxxiv. p. 211; Raja- s Suy-$hoo, h. lncd. p. 3.
vali, p. 228 ; Enjaratnacari, p. 52. ° Tumour's Epitome, &c, App.
9 a c. 247. MaAawanto, ch. xxi. p. 73.
p. 127.
oyGoogIe
442 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS. [Put IT.
stance exists at the present day, nor so far as I can dis-
cover at any former period, of a native ship, owned,
built, or manned by Singhalese.
The boats which are in use at the present day, and
which differ materially in build at different parts of the
island, appear to have been all taken from models sup-
plied by other countries. In the south the curious double
canoes, that attract the eye of the stranger arriving at
Point de Galle by their balance-log and outrigger, were
borrowed from the islanders of the Eastern Archipelago ;
the more substantial canoe called a ballam, which
is found in the estuaries and shallow lakes around the
northern shore, is imitated from one of similar form od
the Malabar coast; and the catamaran is common to
Ceylon and CoromandeL The awkward dhoneys, built
at Jaffna, and manned by Tamils, are copied from those
at Madras ; while the Singhalese dhoney, south of Co-
lombo, is but an enlargement of the Galle canoe with
its outrigger, so clumsily constructed that the gunwale is
frequently topped by a line of wicker-work smeared with
clay, to protect the deck from the wash of the sea.1
One peculiarity in the mode of constructing the
native shipping of Ceylon existed in the remotest times,
and is retained to the present day. The practice is
closely connected with one of the most imaginative
incidents in the mediaeval romances of the East
Their boats and canoes, like those of the Arabs and
other early navigators who crept along the • shores of
India, are put together without the use of iron nails8,
the planks being secured by wooden bolts, and stitched
together with cords spun from the fibre of the coco-
1 The gunwale of the boat of
Ulysses was raised by hurdles of
osiers to keep off the waves.
♦,™£i li fiiv fiinitriri ItaiiTipic olmittfai
Kr/mroc ilXop tptv' mWitv I' Ixi-
Xtiato Vkr,r. Od. v. 256.
1 Delavuiue, Etudes but la " Re-
lation del voyage* f 'aits par let Arabtt
et lei Tersms datw Ilnde." An
Asiot. tout. xlix. p. 137. See also
Ma i.tk Bsun, Hid. de Gtogr. torn, i p.
409, with the references to the Pen-
SUio Mar. Eiythr., Strabo, Procopius.
» Gibboh, Bed. and Fail, vol. v
oyGoogIe
Oiiaf. HI.] SHIPS. 443
nut1 Pallamus, a Greek of the lower empire, to
■whom is ascribed an account of the nations of India,
■written in the fifth century2, adverts to this peculiarity
of construction, and connects it with the phenomenon
which forms so striking an incident in one of the tales
in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. In the story
of the "Three Royal Mendicants," - the "Third Cal-
ender," as he is called in the old translation, relates to
the ladies of Bagdad, in whose house he is enter-
tained, how he and his companions lost their course,
when sailing in the Indian Ocean, and found them-
selves in the vicinity of "the mountain of loadstone
towards which the current carried them with violence,
and when the ships approached it they fell asunder, and
the nails and everything that was of iron flew from them
towards the loadstone."
The learned commentator, Lute, says that several
Arab writers describe this mountain of loadstone, and
amongst others he instances El Caswini, who lived in
the latter half of the thirteenth century.3 Edeisi, the
Arab geographer, likewise alludes to it ; but the inven-
tion belongs to an earlier age, and Palladius, in de-
scribing Ceylon, says that the magnetic rock is in the
adjacent islands called Maniolsa (Maldives?), and that
ships coming within the sphere of its influence are
irresistibly drawn towards it, and lose all power of
progress except in its direction. Hence it is essential,
he adds, that vessels sailing for Ceylon should be fastened
with wooden instead of iron bolts.*
1 Boats thus aewn together existed
at an early period on the coast of
Arabia as well aa of Ceylon. Odoric
of Friuli saw them at Omnia in the
fourteenth century (Sa/tluyt, vol. ii
p. 86) ; and the construction of shite
without iron was not peculiar to the
Indian seas, as Homer mentions that
the boat built by Ulysses was pnt
together with wooden pegs, y^inpnimv,
instead of bolt*. Odyt. v. 249.
1 The tract alluded to is usually
known as the treatise de Morifnu
BracJmanortim, and ascribed to St
Ambrose. For an account of it see
Vol I. Pt t. ch. i. p. 688.
• Lane's Arabian Nights, vol. i.
ch. iii. n. 72, p. 243.
4 "*£»]■( it Wiiiic ft SuHrtpiucra
rXela tie ttitvijv rr)v fuyaktiv vijaov
aviu oJifpou iirioupioic CuA("i>(C rora-
aKivaviiiva." — Palladia, in Pteudo-
CaUuOenea, Jib. iii, c vii. But the
fable of the loadstone mountain is
Google
444 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS. [Pur IV.
Another peculiarity of the native craft on the west
coast of Ceylon is their construction with a prow at
each extremity, a characteristic which belongs also to
the Maafioula boats of Madras, as well as to others on
the south of India. It is a curious illustration of the
abiding nature of local usages when originating in neces-
sities and utility, that Stiiabo, in describing the boats in
which the traffic was carried on between Taprobane and
the continent, says they were " built with prows at each
end, but without holds or keels." l
Foreign Trade. — In connection with foreign trade the
Mahawanso contains repeated allusions to ships wrecked
upon the coast of Ceylon2, and amongst the remarkable
events which signalised the season, already rendered me-
morable by the birth of Dutugaimunu, B.C, 204, was the
" arrival on the same day of seven ships laden with golden
utensils and other goods."8 As these were brought by
order of the king to Mahagam, then the capital of Rohuna,
the incident is probably referable to the foreign trade
which was then carried on in the south of the island4 by
older than either the Arabian sailors
or the Greeks of the lower empire.
Aristotle speaks of a magnetic
mountain on the coast of India, and
Pliny repeats the story, adding that
" si sint clavi in calciamentis, ves-
tigia avelli in altera nou posse in
altera sisti." — Lib. ii. c. 98,Iib.xxxri.
c. 36. Ptolemy recounts a similar
fable in his geography. Klaproth, in
his Lettre tor la Souttoie, says that
this romantic belief was first com-
municated to the West from China.
" Leg anciena auteurs Chinois par-
lent aussi de montagnes magne'tiquea
de la mer mendionale stir les cotes
de Tonqiiin et de la Cochin Chine ;
et disent quo si les vaisseaux
strangers qui sont garnis de plaques
de fer s'en approchent ils y sont
arrStes et aucun d'eux ue peut passer
par ces endroita."— Klaphoth, ZeS.
t. p. 117, quoted by Svtaseh, Et-
sai mtr THitt. de <?otmogr., toL l
Pliny, who make* the tsmf
atatement,sayatfie Singhalese adopted
this model to avoid the necessitr of
tacking in the narrow and shalW
channels, between Ceylon and the
mainland of India (lib. Yi. c. 24J.
' b. C. 543. Mahamatuo, ch. yd, p.
49: b.c. 306. Ibid., eh. xi.p.B8,&t
' Mahmeanto, ch. zzii. p. 1%.
4 The first direct intimation of
trading carried on by native Sin-
ghalesn, along the coast of Ceylon,
occurs in the Rajavali, but not till
the year a.d. 1410, — the king, who
had made Cotta his capital, b^flr
represented as "loading a teaw
with goods and sending it to Jsflhft
to carry on commerce with his son."
—Bajaeali, p. 289.
oyGoogIc
Chap.-IU.]
EAELT EXPORTS.
the Chinese and Arabians, and in wiiich, as I have stated,
the native Singhalese took no part.
Still, notwithstanding their repugnance to intercourse
■with strangers, the Singhalese were not destitute of traffic
amongst themselves, and their historical annals contain
allusions to the mode in which it was conducted. Their
cities exhibited rows of shops and bazaars ', and the coun-
try was traversed by caravans much in the same manner
as the drivers of tavalams carry goods at the present day
between the coast and the interior.2
Whatever merchandise was obtained in barter from
fureign ships, was by this means conveyed to the* cities
and the capital s, and the reference to carts which were
accustomed to go from Anarajapoora to the division of
Malaya, lying round Adam's Peak, " to procure saffron
and ginger," implies that at that period (b. c. 165)
roads and other facilities for wheel carriages must have
existed, enabling them to traverse forests and cross the
rivers.*
Early Exports of Ceylon. — The native historians
give an account of the exports of Ceylon, which corres-
ponds in all particulars with the records left by the
early travellers and merchants, Greek, Roman, Arabian,
Indian, and Chinese. They consisted entirely of natural
productions, aromatic drugs, gems, pearls, and shells ;
and it is a strong evidence of the more advanced state
of civilisation in India at the same period that, whilst
the presents sent from the kings of Ceylon to the native
1 b. c. 204, a Tisitor to Anaraja-
poora io described as "purchasing
aromatic drugs from the bazaars,
and departing by the Northern Gate
(Mahnvatuo, ch. ixiii. p. 139) ; and
A.D. S, the King Maha lint hits
"ranged shops on each side of the
streets of the capital." — Mahawrauo,
ch. xixiv. p. 213.
1 B.C. 170. Muhawanso, ch. xxii.
' In the reign of Elala, B.C. 204,
the son of " an eminent caravan
chief " was despatched to a Brahman,
who resided near the Chetiyo moun-
tain (Mihintola), in whose possession
there were rich articles, frankincense,
sandal-wood, &c, imported from be-
yond the ocean. — Mahawaiuo. ch.
xiiii. p. 138.
* Mahawans'i, ch. xxviii. p. 167.
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[P*K IV.
princes of Hindustan* and the Dekkan were always of
this precious but primitive character, the articles re-
ceived in return were less remarkable for the intrinsic
value of the material, than for the workmanship bestowed
upon them. Thus Devenipiatissa sent by his ambassa-
dors to Asoka, b. c. 306, " the eight varieties of pearls,
viz., kaya (the horse), gaja (the elephant), ratha (the
chariot wheel), maalaka (the nelli fruit), va.la.ya (the
bracelet), anguliwelahka (the ring), kakudaphala (the
kabook fruit), and pakatika, the ordinary description.
He sent sapphires, lapis lazuli 1, and rubies, a right hand
chanl? a, and three bamboos for chariot poles, remarkable
because their natural marking resembled the carvings of
flowers and animals. On the other hand the gifts sent by
the king of Magadba, indicate the advanced state of the
arts in Bengal, even at that early period : they con-
sisted of "a chowrie (the royal fly flapper), a diadem,
a sword of state, a royal parasol, golden slippers, a
crown, an anointing vase, asbestos towels, to be cleansed
by being passed through the fire, a costly howdah, and
sundry vessels of gold." Along with these was sacred
water from the Anotatto lake and from the Ganges,
aromatic and medicinal drugs, hill paddi and sandal-
wood ; and amongst the other items " a virgin of royal
birth and of great personal beauty." e
Early Imports. — Down to a very late period, gems,
pearls, and chank shells continued to be the only
products taken away from Ceylon, and cinnamon is
nowhere mentioned in the Sacred Books as amongst
the exports of the island.* In return for these exports,
1 Lapis lazuli is not found in Cey-
lon, and must have been brought by
the caravans from Budakshan. It is
more than once mentioned in the
Mahaicatuu, ch. xi. p. 69; ch. xxx. p.
the natives attach a superstition*
value : professing that a shell so
formed is worth its weight in gold.
1 Mahawanw, ch. xi. pp. 68, 70.
4 For an account of tie earliest
trade in cinnamon, see potl, Part t.
ch. ii. on the Knowledge of Ceylon
possessed by the Ajabians,
oyGoogIe
Chap. HI.]
EAELY IMPORTS.
slaves, chariots, and horses were frequently transmitted
from India. The riding horses and chargers, so often
spoken of \ must necessarily have been introduced from
thence, and were probably of Arab blood ; but I have
not succeeded in discovering to what particular race
the " Sindhawa " horses belonged, of which four purely
white were harnessed to the state carriage of Dutugai-
munu.s Gold cloth a, frankincense, and sandal-wood were
brought from India4, as was also a species of "clay"
and of " cloud-coloured stone," which appear to have
been used in the construction of dagobas.* Silk 6 and
vermilion 7 indicate the activity of trade with China ; and
woollen cloth a and carpets 8 with Persia and Kashmir.
Intercourse voith Kashmir. — Possibly the woollen
cloths referred to may have been shawls, and there is
evidence in the Raja-tarangini10, that at a very early
period the possession of a common religion led to an
intercourse between Ceylon and Kashmir, originating
in the sympathies of Buddhism, but perpetuated by
the Kashmirians for the pursuit of commerce. In the
fabulous period of the narrative, a king of Kashmir is
said to have sent to Ceylon for a delicately fine cloth, em-
broidered with golden footsteps.11 In the eighth century
of the Christian era, Singhalese engineers were sent for to
construct works in Kashmir 1S ; and Kashmir, according
&C. &c.
1 Ibid., eh. xx
ii.p.H2;
p. 186.
* a.d.469. Mafiawaiito, oh. xxxviii.
p. 268.
* Ibid., ch. xiiii. p. 138.
1 Ibid., eh. nii. p. 100
eh. xxi.
p. 179.
' * Ibid,, ch. ir
iii.p.139
Rajarat-
nacari, p. 49.
'■' Ibid., ch. xi
x. p. 169
liajarid-
nacari, p. 61.
* Mahavian&o,
ch. xxx
P- 177:
XajaBaU, p. 269.
Woollen 'cloth is
described as "most valuable" — an
epithet which indicates its rarity, and
probably foreign origin.
* Mahawanto, ch. xiv. p. 82 ; ch.
xv. p. 87 ; ch. xxv. p. 161 ; carpets of
wool, ib. eh. xxvii. p. 164.
The Rajutarangini resemble a the
mvaiwo, in being a metrical
chronicle of Kashmir written at
various times by a series of authors,
the earliest of whom lived in the
12th century. It has been translated
into French by M. Troyer, Paris,
1840.
,.', b. i. el. 204.
.■, b. iv. aL 602, &c.
oyGoogIc
SCIENCES AXD SOCIAL AXIS.
tPiKI IT.
to Trover, took part in the trade between Ceylon and the
West.'
Of the trade between Ceylon and Kashmir and its
progress, the account given by Edrisi, the most re-
nowned of the writers on eastern geography, who wrote
in the twelfth century1, is interesting, inasmuch as it
may be regarded as a picture of this remarkable
commerce, after it had attained its highest develop-
ment
Edbisi did not write from personal knowledge, as he
had never visited either Ceylon or India; but compiling
as he did, by command of Eoger LT., of Sicily, a compen-
dium of geographical knowledge as it existed in his time,
the information which he has systematized may be re-
garded as a condensation of such facts as the eastern sea-
men engaged in the Indian trade had brought back with
them from Ceylon.
" In the mountains around Adam's Peak," says Edbisi,
" they collect precious stones of every description, aud in
the valleys they find those diamonds by means of which
they engrave the setting of stones on rings. The saine
mountains produce aromatic drugs perfumes, and aloes-
1 " I* communication en tre Kash-
mir et Ceylan n'a pas eii lieu settle-
ment par lea entreprises guerrierea
que je viena de rappeler, mais ausai
par un commerce paiaible; e'eat de
cette ile que venaient des artistes
qu'on appeUit Rakchaaaa a cause du
merveilleux de leur art; et qui
executaient dea ouviagee pour 1 u-
tilite' et pour 1'ornement ^"D P*JB
montagneux etaujetaux inondations.
Ceci confirroe ce que nous appren-
nent lee geographea grecs, que Cey-
lon, avast et apres le commencement
de notre ere, Stait un grand point de
reunion pour le commerce deYOrient
et de I 'Occident" — Jinjalarangini,
vol. ii. p. 434.
' Abou-abd-allah Mahommedwas
a Moor of the family who reigned over
Malaga after the fall of the Kalifat
of Cordova, in the early part of the
11th centurv, and his patronymic of
Edrisi or Ai Edrissy implies that be
was descended from the princes of
that race who had previously he'd
supreme power in what is at the pre-
sent day the Empire of Morocco. lie
took up his residence in Sicilv under
the patronage of the Norman kin;?,
Koger II., a.d. 1154, and the work
on geography which he there com-
posed was not only based on the pre-
vious labours of Massondi, lbs
Haukul, Albyrouni, and others, but
it embodied the reports of persons
commissioned specially by the king
to undertake voyages for the purpose
of bringing back correct accounts of
foreign countries. See Rebuck's
Introduction to the Geography »j
Abuifeda, p. cxiii.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cuap. III.] FOREIGN TRADE. 4411
wood, and there too they find the animal, the civet,
which yields musk. The islanders cultivate rice, coco-
nuts, and sugar-cane ; in the rivers is found rock
crystal, remarkable both for brilliancy and size, and
the sea on every side has a fishery of magnificent
and priceless pearls. Throughout India there is no
prince whose wealth can compare with the King of
Serendib, his immense riches, his pearls and his jewels,
being the produce of his own dominions and seas ; and
thither ships of China, and of every neighbouring
country resort, bringing the wines of Irak and Fars,
which the king buys for sale to his subjects ; for he
drinks wine and prohibits debauchery ; whilst other
princes of India encourage debauchery and prohibit
the use of wine. The exports from Serendib consist of
silk, precious stones, ■ crystals, diamonds, and per-
fumes."1
i Euaiai, Giograpkie, Trad. Jaubbbt, torn. i. p. 73.
oyGoogle
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
MANUFACTURES.
The silk alluded to in the last chapter must have
been brought from China for re-exportation to the
West. Silk is frequently mentioned in the Mahawanso ',
but never with any- suggestion as to its being a native
product of Ceylon.
Coir and Cordage. — Edrisi speaks of cordage made
from the fibre of the" coco-nut, to prepare which,
the natives of Oman and 'Yemen resorted to Cey-
lon.2 Hence the Singhalese would appear to have
been instructed by the Arabs in the treatment of coir,
and its formation into ropes i an occupation which, at
the present day, affords extensive employment to the
inhabitants of the south and south-western coasU
Ibn Batuta describes ■ the use of coir, for sewing toge-
ther the planking of boats, as it was practised at Zafar
in the fourteenth century e ; ' and the word itself bespeaks
its Arabian origin, as Albtrocni, who divides the
Maldives and Laccadives into two classes, - calls . the
one group the Dyvah-kouzah, or islands that produce
cowries; and the other the • Dyvahrkanbar, or islands
that produce coir*.
Dress. — The dress of the people was of the simplest
Silk is mmtioned 20 B.C. Raja- I Arabe*, fyc, pp. 93, 124. The Var-
acari, p. 49. Mahaieanto, ch. tuguese adopted, the wori from the
xxiii. p. 189. Hmdtu, and Cabtafrd*. in fli*. of
* Edsisi, t i. p. 74. ■ I Ac THtcovay of India, describe* lie
* PoJaye#,-#0., vol ii. p. 207.' I Moors of So&lah sewing their boats
Paris, 1864 I with "oayro," ch. v. 14, xxx. 75.
* Als^eouki, ialiETXkVBfFrwjni. i
oyGoogIe
Cbap. IV.]
MANUFACTURES.
kind, and similar to that which is worn at the pre-
sent day. The bulk of the population wore scanty
cloths, without shape or seam, folded cloeely round the
body and the portion of the limbs .which it is cus-
tomary to cover ; and the Chinese, who visited ' the
island in the seventh century, described the people as
clothed in the loose robe, still known as a "com-
boy," a wofd probably derived from the Chinese koo-
pei, which signifies cotton.1
The wealthier classes indulged in flowing robes, and
Bujas Dasa the long, who in' the fourth century devoted
himself to the study of medicine and the cure of the
sick, was accustomed, when seeking objects for his com-
passion, to appear as a common person, simply " dis-
guising himself by gathering his cloth, up between his
legs." 2 Robes with flowers 8, and a turban of silk, con-
stituted the dress of state -bestowed on men whom the
king delighted to honour.* Cloth of gold- is spoken of
in the fifth century, bat the allusion is probably made
to the kinbaub of India.5
Manual and Mechanical- Abts.. Weaving. — The
aborigines practised the art of weaving before the arrival
ofWijayo. Kuweni, when the adventurer approached
her, was " seated at the foot of' a tree, spinning thread ; " f
cotton was the ordinary material, but " linen cloth " is
mentioned in the second century before Christ7 White
cloths are spoken of as having been employed, in the
earliest times, on every occasion of ceremony for covering
chairs on which persons of rank were expected to be
seated ; whole " webs of doth"1 were used to wrap the
carandua in which the sacred.relics were enclosed8, and
1 See Part v. cl
ledge of Ceylon
n th<i Know-
wed by the.
Chinese.
1 Mahawante, ch. xzxvii. p. 246,
1 By the ordinances of Bnddhifarr
it was forbidden to the priesthood
"to adorn the body with .flowers,"
thus showing it to have been a prac-
tice of the laity. Habdy's Etutem
1 Mahawoaro, ch. xx\\\. p. If
* Ibid., ch. Ksriii-jt. 268.
6 Mtt/wcanto, ch. Vii. p. 48 ; .
taHf.v. 173.
7 MahoTeatuo, ch. sir." p. IB!
»,p. 72.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[PakIV,
one of the kings, on the occasion of consecrating a
dagoba at Mjhintalnj covered with " white cloth " the
road taken by the procession between the mountain and
capital, a distance of more than seven miles.1
Li later times a curious practice prevailed, which
exists to the present day; — on occasions when it was
intended to make offerings of yellow robes to the priest-
hood, the cotton was plucked from the tree at day-
break, and "cleaned, spun, woven, dyed, and made
into garments" before the setting of the Bun.8 This
custom, called Catina Dhavma, is first referred to in
the Rajaratnacari in the reign of Frakrama L:, A.D.
1153.
The expression " made into garments " alludes to the
custom enjoined on the priests of having the value of
the material destroyed, before consenting to accept it as
a gift, thus carrying out their vow of poverty. The
robe of Gotama Buddha was cut into thirty pieces,
these were again united, so that they "resembled the
patches of ground in a rice field ; " and hence he en-
joined on his followers the observance of the same
practice.8
. The arts of bleaching and dyeing were understood
as well as that of weaving, and the Mahawamo, in
describing the building of the Ruanwelle' dagoba, at
Anarajapoora, B.C.. 161, tehs of a canopy formed of
" eight thousand pieces of cloth of every hue." *
Earliest Artisans. — Valentyn, writing on the tradi-
tional information •acquired from the Singhalese them-
selves, records the belief of the latter, that in the suite
of the Pandyan princess, who arrived to marry Wijayo,
were artificers from Madura, who were the first to intro-
1 A.D. 8. Rajavaii, p. 227 j Maha-
Khmm, ch. xxxiv. p. 213.
* See ante, Vol. II. p. 361. Jteo-
ratnacari, pp. 104, 100, 112, 136;
Hajavali, p. 261 : Ha&DI's Eastern
" i, ch. wi. pp. 114,121.
* HARDY'S Eastern Mimadiim,
ch. xii. p. 117. See mavVoL I. Ptm.
ch. It. p. 861.
* JMahawmuo, ch. m. p. 17ft &e
also ch. xxxriii. p. 266.
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.] MANUFACTUBBS. 448
duce the knowledge and practice of handicrafts amongst
the native population. According to the story, these
were goldsmiths, blacksmiths, brass-founders, carpenters,
and stone-cutters.1
The legend is given with more particularity in an
historical notice of the Chalia caste, written by Adrian
Rajapaxa, one of their chiefs, who describes these
immigrants as Peskare Brahmans, who were at first
employed in weaving gold tissues for the queen, but
who afterwards abandoned that art for agriculture.
A fresh company were said to have been invited in the
reign of Devenipiatissa, and were the progenitors of
" Saleas, at present called Chalias," who inhabit the
country between Galle and Colombo, and who, along
with their ostensible occupatioa as peelers of cinna-
mon, still employ themselves in the labours of the
loom.a All handicrafts are conventionally regarded by
the Singhalese «s the occupations of an inferior class ;
and a man of high caste would submit to. any privation
rather than stoop to an occupation dependent on manual
skill.
Pottery. — One of the most ancient arts, the making
of earthenware vessels, exists at the present day in all
its pristine simplicity, and the "potter's wheel," which
is kept in motion by an attendant, whilst the hands of
the master are engaged in shaping the clay as it revolves,
is the primitive device which served a similar purpose
amongst the Egyptians and Hebrews.8
A " potter" is enumerated in the list of servants and
tradesmen attached to the temple on the Rock of Mihin-
tala, a.d. 262, al«ng with a sandal-maker, blacksmiths,
carpenters, stone-cutters, goldsmiths, and " makers of
1 Valbkttk, Oud en 2Kew Oost-
Jndien, chap. iv. p. 367.
* A History of the Chalias, by
Adbiait Kajapaxa. Atiatie Bet.
vol. vii. p. 440. lb., vol. x. p. 82.
> Pottery ia mentioned in the
Mahawanto, B.C. 161, ch, xziz. p.
173 : the allusion is to " new earthen
vases," and shows that the people at
that time, like the Hindus of to-
day, avoided where possible the re-
peated use of the same vessel.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
464 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AHTS. [Part IT.
strainera " through which the water for the priests was
filtered, to avoid taking away the life of ammalcul®.
The other artisans on the establishment were chiefly
those in charge of the buildings, lime-burners, plasterers,
white-washers, painters, and a chief builder.
Glass. — Glass, the knowledge of which existed in
Egypt and in India1, was introduced into Ceylon at
an early period ; and in the Dipawanso, a work older
than the Mahawanso by a century and a half, it is stated
that Saidaitissa, the brother of Dutugaimunu, when com-
pleting trie Ruanwelle" dagoba, which his predecessor
had commenced, surmounted it with a " glass pinnacle." *
This was towards the end of the second century before
Christ. Glass is frequently mentioned at later periods ;
and a "glass mirror" is spoken of8 in the third century
before Christ, but how made, whether by an amalgam
of quicksilver or by colouring the under surface, is not
recorded. •
Leather. — The tanning of leather from the hide of
the buffalo was understood so far back as the second c*i-
tury before Christ, and " coverings both for the back and
the feet of elephants " were then formed of it*
Wood-carving, — Carving in sandal-wood and inlaying
with ivory, (of which latter material " state fans and
thrones" were constructed for the Brazen Palace6,) are
often alluded to amongst the mechanical arts ; and during
the period of prosperity which signalised the era of the
" Great Dynasty," there can be little doubt that skilled
artificers were brought from India to adorn the cities and
palaces of Ceylon.
Chemical Arts. — A rude knowledge of chemical ma-
1 Br. Royle's Lecture* on (he Art*
and Manufacture* of India, 1852, p.
221. Pliny stays the class of India
being made of pounded crystal, none
other can compare with it, (Lib.
* See pott, Vol I. Part it. £ 61a
3 Mahaieiauo, ch. xt. p. 09, A.
jcp. 182.
* Ibid., ch. xiv. p. 152, ch. nix.
169.
' Ibid., ch. xivii. p. 163, 104.
DoiizcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IV.]
MANUFACTURES.
nipulation was required for the extraction of camphor1
and the preparation of numerous articles specified
amongst the productions of the island, aromatic oils3,
perfumes8, and vegetable dyes.
Sugar. — Sugar was obtained not only from the
Palmyra and Kittool palms4, but also from the cane ;
which, besides being a native of India, was also indigenous
to Ceylon.6 A " sugar mill " for expressing its juice
existed in the first century before Christ in the district of
the " Seven Corles,"6 where fifteen hundred years after-
wards a Dutch governor of the island made an attempt to
restore the cultivation of sugar.
Mineral Paints. — Mineral preparations were made
with success. Bed lead, orpiment, and vermilions are
mentioned as pigments; but as it is doubtful whether
Ceylon produces quicksilver, the latter was probably
imported from China7 or India, where the method of
preparing it hasjong been known.
There is likewise sufficient evidence in these and a
number of other preparations, as well in the notices of
perfumes, camphor, and essential oils, to show that the
Singhalese, like the Hindus, had a very early acquaint-
ance with chemical processes and with the practice of
1 Rajaratnacttri, p. 183. Dr.
Rotlb doubts whether camphor was
known to the Hindus at this early
period, hut " camphor oil " is re-
peatedly inrai tinned in the Singhalese
chronicles amongst the articles pro-
Tided for the temples. — Royle's
Ennay on Hindoo Medicine, p. 140 ;
Ilajawli, p. 100.
■ Makamtmgo, ch. xiv. p. 157.
> B.C. 101. Mahaw&nw, ch. xn.
p. 180.
* " Palm sugar," As distinguished
from " cane sugar," is spoken of in
the MahawoHio in the second century
b.o. ch. xxvii. p. 163.
* "Cane sugar" is referred to in
the Mahawanso B.C. 101, ch. xxvii. p.
102, ch. xxxi p. 192.
« a.d. 77. fci
1 See o»fe, Vol. I. Part I. ch. i. p. 29.
n. Both quicksilver and vermilion
are mentioned in the Bajaratnacari,
p. 51, as being in use in the year 20
B.C. Vermilion is also spoken of B.C.
307 In the Makmcanto, ch. xxvii. p.
102, o. The two passages in which
vermilion is spoken of in the Old
Testament, Jerom. xxii. 14, and
Ezek. xxiii. 14, both refer to the
painting of walls and woodwork, a
purpose to which it would be scarcely
suitable, were not the article alluded
to the opaque bisulphuretof mercury;
and the same remark applies to the
vermilion used by the Singhalese.
The bright red obtained from the
insect coccus (the vermictdui, whence
the original terra "vermilion" is
said to be derived) would be too
transparent to be so applied.
O 4
oyGoogIc
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AKIB.
[Pkt IV.
distillation, which they retain to the present day.1 Tie
knowledge of the latter they probably acquired from the
Arabs or Chinese.
i it i wu frequently visited by one
old man, a priest, who had travelled
through Bengal, ISurmah, Siaro, and
many other countries, and who
prided himself on being able to make
calomel much better than the Euro-
pean doctors, as his preparation did
not cause the falling out of the
teeth, soreness of the mouth, or
salivation. He learnt the secret from
an ancient sage whom he met with
in a forest on the continent of India;
and often when listening to him 1
was reminded of the mysteries ind
crudities of the alchemists." —
Hardy's Eastern Motauhum, Loud.
I860, eh, xxiii. p. 312,
oyGoogle
CHAP. V.
WORKING IN METALS.
Metals. Iron. — Working in metals was early un-
derstood in Ceylon. Abundance of iron ore can be
extracted fro>m the mountains round Adam's Peak ; the
black oxide is found on the eastern shore in the state
of iron-sand ; and both are smelted with comparative
ease by the natives. I»n tools were in use for the
dressing of stones ; and in the third century before
Christ, the enclosed city of Vijittapoora was secured by
an " iron gate." l
Steel. — The manufacture of arms involved the use of
steel, the method of tempering which was derived from
the Hindus, by whom the wootz was prepared, of which
the genuine blades of Damascus are shown to have been
made, the beauty of their figuring being dependent on
its peculiar crystallisation. Ezekiel enumerates amongst
the Indian imports of Tyre "bright iron, calamus and
cassia." 8
Copper. — Copper was equally in demand, but, like
silver and gold, it is nowhere alluded to as a production
of the island. In ancient, as in modern times, therefore,
the numerous articles formed from this metal were pro-
bfcbly imported from India. The renowned Brazen
Palace of Anarajapoora was so named from the quan-
tity of copper used in its construction. Bujas Raja,
a. d. 359, covered a building at Attanagalla with "tiles
made of copper, and gilt with gold," 8 and " two boats
built of brass," were placed near the Bo-Tree at the
capital " to hold food for the priests." * Before the
1 Mahajeanto, ch. xxv. p. 152. I * Rajaratnacari, p. 73.
1 RoTLE on the Antiquity of Hindoo * Ibid., p. 60.
3f<xft'«itt,p.D8. EzESJRL,ob.xxvii.l9. I
DomzcdoyGoOglc
458 SCIENCES AXD SOCIAL ABTS. [Past JV.
Christian era, armour for elephants l, and vessels of large
dimensions, cauldrons3, and baths3, were formed of
copper. The same material was used for the lamps,
goblets 4, kettles, and cooking utensils of the monasteries
and wiharas.
Belts. — Bells were hung in the palaces5, and bell-metal
is amongst the gifts to tie temples recorded on the rock
at Pollanarrua, A. D. 1187.6
Bronze. — Bronze was cast into figures of Buddha7, and
the Makawanso, describing the reign of Dhatu-Sena,
A. d. 459, makes mention of " sixteen bronze statues of
virgins having the power of locomotion." 8
Lead. — Lead was UBed duAig the wars of Dutugai-
munu and Elala, and poured molten over the attacking
elephants during the siege of Vijittapoora,9 As lead is
not a native product of Ceylon, it must have been brought
thither from Ava or Malwa.
Gold and Silver. — Ceylon, like the continent of India,
produces no silver and gold, save in the scantiest quan-
tities.10 The historical bookB, in recording the splendour
of the temples and their riches, and the wealth lavished
by the kings upon the priesthood, describe in perpetually
recurring terms, the multitude of ornaments and vessels
made of silver and gold. In early times the most pre-
cious of these were received as gifts from the princes of
India, and in the second century before Christ the Maha-
wanso* records the arrival of ships in the south of the
island, " laden with golden utensils." The import of
these might possibly have been a relic of th* early tralfe
with the Phoenicians, whom Homer, in a passage quoted
8 Maheovanto, ch. xxxviii. p. 257.
* MaAanxouo, ch. xxv. p. 152.
10 Amongst the miracles which
signalized the construction of the
Kuanwulle dagoha nt An&rajapooni
was the sudden appearance in »
locality to the north-east of the
6 Tubnoub's Epitome, $c, Appx. capital of " sprouts " of gold above
p. 01. and below the ground, and of silver
' a.d.275, Mohan-anto, ch. xxxvii. in the vicinity of Adam's Peak.—
p. 238 ; Rajavali, p. 135. Makawanso, ch. xxriii. pp. 106, lli".
i Eqfavaii, p. 214.
• B.C. 204. Snjavali, p. 100.
1 A.D. 1267. RqjaratHacari,
oyGoogIe
CaAr. V.] WORKING IN METALS. 45&
by Strabo (L xvi. c. 2. s. 24.), describes as making these
cups, and carrying across the sea for sale in the great
emporiums visited by these ships.1 A variety of articles
of silver are spoken of at very early periods. Dutu-
gaimunu, when building the great dagoba, caused the
circle of its base to be described by " a pair of com-
passes made of silverf and pointed with gold ; " a parasols, *
vases, caranduas and numerous other regal or religious
paraphernalia, were made from this precious material.
Gold was applied in every possible form and combination
to the decoration and furnishing of the edifices of Bud-
dhism ; — " trees of gold with roots of coral," 8 flowers
formed of gems with stems of silver *, fringes of bullion
mixed with pearls ; umbrellas, shields, chains, and jew-
elled statuettes 6, are described with enthusiasm by the
annalists of the national worship.
The abundance of precious stones naturally led to their
being extensively mounted in jewelry, and in addition to
those found in Ceylon, diamonds 6 and lapis lazuli 7 (which
must have been brought thither from India and Persia)
are classed with the native sapphire and the topaz.
The same passion existed then, as now, for covering
the person with ornaments ; gold and silver, set with gems
were fashioned into rings for the ears, nose, fingers,
and toes, into plates for the forehead, and chains for
the neck, into armlets, and bracelets, and anklets, and
into decorations* of every possible form, not only for
the women, but for men, and, above all, for the children
of both sexes. The poor, unable to indulge in the
luxury of precious metals, found substitutes in shells
and glass ; and the extravagance of the taste was de-
fended on the ground that their brilliancy served to
1 Mahawansc, ch. xxii. p. 163.
h Afjn>l*- xpiTic* Tiny?**' ■ I . i
, . . lltirli rti.vi*.1*i4, vT («w«,
«ai>.mr *' i*». *i)(ii It' **-!».« «frm
1 Mahamanm, ch. zxx. p. 172.
9 Red coral, equal in ita delicacy
from the Mediterranean, is found in
small fragments on the sea-shore
north of Point^de-Galla.
< Mahawamo, ch. xxx. p. 170.
* Mahawanso, A. p. 180.
iP.ei.
oftint to the highly-prized specimens I ' Mattau'inwo, ch. xxx. p. 182.
DoHizcdoyGoOglc
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[Pin IV.
avert the malignity of " the evil eye " from the wearer to
the jewel
Gilding. — Gilding was likewise understood by the Sin-
ghalese in all its departments, both as applied to the baser
metals and to other substances — wood-work was gilded
for preaching places1, as was also copper far roofing,
* cement for decorating walls, and stone for statuary and
carving.8
Coin. — Although the Singhalese through their sacred
writings had a knowledge of coined money, and of its
existence in India from a period little subsequent to
the death of Gotama Buddha 3 ; and although their annal-
ists give the names of particular coins in circulation
at various times *, no Singhalese money has yet been dis-
covered of a date antecedent to the eleventh century.
The Chinese in the fifteenth century spoke with admira-
tion of the gold pieces struck" by the kings of Ceylon,
. p- GO-
Rock inscription at Pollanamia,
a.d 187—190.
1 The Mohoiromo mentions the
existence of coined metals in India
in the tenth year of the reign of
Kalasoka, a century from the death
of Buddha, ch. i v, p. 15. According
to HabDY, in the meet nncient laws
of the Buddhists the distinction is
recognised between coined money
and bullion. — Etutern Monochitm,
vol. Tii. p. 66.
* The coins mentioned in the Ma-
hmcanes, Jfajaratnacari, and Itaja-
vali are as follows : B.C. 161, the
kiihapanim (Xahawanto, ch. zxz. pp.
157, 175), which Tumjoub says was
a gold coin worth ten mauakan or
masta. The latter are " the pieces of
gold fonnerijr current in Ceylon," a
Heap of which, according to the
Iltijaratnacari (p. 48), was seen by
King Bhatda Tissa when he was per-
mitted to penetrate into the chamber
oftbeRuanweU6dagoba,A.D.137. The
silver massa, according to Tmisoni,
woe valued at eight-pence. These
are repeatedly mentioned in the
Raiaratnacari (a.d. 201, p. 60, a.d.
284, p. 62, A.». 1262, p. 103, a.d.
1301, p. 107, a.d. 1482, p. 113). The
Unjavuli spends of "gold massa" a)
in circulation in tbe time of Duta-
gaimunu, B.C. 181 (p. 201). The
word moss in Singhalese meats
"pulse," or any description of
"beans;" and it seems not impro-
bable that the origin of the term is
applied to money may be traced to
toe practice in the early Indian coin-
It can only be a coincidence that tlw
Roman term for an ingot of (fold
was " MUM " (PtXXT, L. xxxiiLc. 19).
These Singhalese massa were pro-
bably similar to the " punched coins,"
having rude stamps without effigies,
and rarely even with letters, which
have been turned up at Kanooj,
Oujein, and other places iu Western
India. A copper coin is likewise
mentioned in the fourteenth century,
in the Bajatali, where it is termed
caraotJiatDjtti ; the value of whkh
Uphak, without naming his authority,
says was "about a pice and a hall!''
—P. 180.
oyGoogle
Cuap. V.] WORKING IN METALS. 461
■which they found in circulation on their frequent visits
to the emporium at Galle l ; but of these only a few very
rare examples have been preserved, one of which bears
the effigy and name of Lokaiswaira2, who usurped the
throne during a period of anarchy about A. D. 1070.
Numbers «of small copper* coins of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries have from time to time been dug up
both in the interior and on the coast of the island.1 A
quantity of these which were found in 1848 by Lieu-
tenant Evatt, when in command of a pioneer corps
near the village of Ambogammoa, were submitted to
Mr. Vaux of the British Museum, and prove to
belong to the reign of Wejaya Bahu, A.D. 1071, Pra-
krama L, A.D. 1153, the Queen Lilawati, A.D. 1197,
King Sahasamallawa, a.d. 1200, Dharmasoka, a.d. 1208,
and Bhuwaneka Bahu, a.d. 1303. These coins have
one and all the same device on the obverse, — a rude
standing figure of the Baja holding the trisula in his
left hand, and a flower in the right 'His dress is a
flowing robe, the folds of which are indicated rather
than imitated by the artist ; and on the reverse the
same figure is seated, the name in Nagari characters being
placed beside the face.*
The JLmdyans, by whom these coins are frequently
found, give the copper pieces the name of Dambedenia
1 Woo hid pi'en, " Records of the
Ming Dynasty," a.d. 1522, B. txviii.
p. 5. &uh Won keen tuna h
" Antiquarian Researches,"
ccxxxvi. p. 11.
9 Two gold coins of Lokaiswaira
are in the collection of the British
Museum, and will be found described
by Mr. Vaux in the 16th vol. of the
NuniMmatic Chronicle, p. 121.
* There is a Singhalese coin figured
in Davy's 'Ceylon, p. 245, the legend
on which is turned upside down, but
when reversed it reads, " & ~
kra-ma Bahu."
* Numismatic Chronicle,
p. 124.
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES ASD SOCIAL ARTS.
[F*bt IV.
chatties, and tradition, with perfect correctness, assigns
them to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the
kings of that period are believed to haye had a mint at
Dambedenia.
A quantity of coina similar in every respect to those
dug up in Ceylon have befn found at Dijaildenia or
Amarawati, on the continent of India, near the mouth of
the Kistua ; a circumstance which might be accounted
for by the frequent intercourse between Ceylon and the
coast, but which is possibly referable to the fact re-
corded in the Mahawanso that Prakrama L, after his
successful expedition against the King of Pandya, caused
money to be coined in his own name before returning to
Ceylon.1
Hook-money. — No ancient silver coin has yet been
found, but specimens are frequently brought to light of
the ridis, pieces of twisted silver wire, which from their
being sometimes bent with a considerable curve have
been called " Fish-hook money.'" These are occasionally
impressed with a legend, and for a time the belief
obtained that they were a variety of ring-money
peculiar to Ceylon.3 Of late this error has beeu
corrected ; the letters where they occur have been
1 Mahawanto, cB. lxxvi. pp. 208,
2©0, Uphax'8 Trans, The circum-
stance ia exceedingly curious of
coins of Prakrama, " identical " with
those found at Dambedenia, in Cey-
lon, having also been discovered at
Dipaldenia, on the opposite con-
tinent ; and it goes far to confirm the
accuracy of the Mahavamso as to the
game king having coined money in
both places. Those found in the
latter locality form part of the Mac-
kenzie Collection, and have been
figured in the Asiat. Researches,
xvii. 597; and afterwards by Mr.
Peiksep in the Joum. of the Asiat.
Soc. of Seagal, vi. 301. See also a
notice of Cevlon coins, in the Joum.
As. Soc. Seng. iv. 673, yi. 218 ; Cisra
CSTTTY, in the Joum. of the Ceylon
Attat. Soc., 1847, p. 0, has given an
account of a hoard of copper coins
..., j the same
journal, p. 149, has given a rtttani
of the information generally pos-
sessed as to the ancient coins of tb«
island. Priksrp's paper on tVy/c
Coins will be found in vol. i. of the
recent reprint of his Essays on In-
dian Antiquities, p. 419. Lond. 1858.
* This error may be traced to the
French commentator on Ribbtbo's
History of Ceylon, who describes the
fish-hook money in use in the king-
dom of Kandy, whilst the Portuguese
held the low country, as so sim-
ple in its form that every man might
make it for himself: '*Le Rot de
Candy avoit aussi pennis a ses pea-
pies ae se servir d'une momtoye que
chacun peut fabriquer." — Ck x. p.
81. •
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. V.]
MANUFACTURES.
shown to be not Singhalese or Sanskrit, but Persian,
and the tokens themselves have been proved to be-
Jong to Laristan on the Persian Gulf,
from the chief emporium of which, Gam-
broon, they were brought to Ceylon in
the course of Indian commerce ; chiefly
by the Portuguese, who are stated by
Van Cardaen to have introduced them
in great quantities into Cochin and the
ports of Malabar.1 There they were
circulated so freely that an edict of Pra-
krama enumerates the ridi amongst .the coins in which
the taxes were assessed on land.2
In India they are called larins, and money in imita-
tion of them, struck by the princes of Bijapur and by
Sivaji, the founder of the Mahrattas, was in circulation
in the Dekkan as late as the seventeenth century.8
1 " Tiealnriiis eont tout -a fait com-
modes et necesBaires dans les Tndes,
eurtont pour seheler du poivre i
Cochin, oil Ton en fait grand Stat." —
Voyage, aux India OnerUalei. Am-
sterdam, A.D. 1716, toI. vi. p. 020.
1 Rock-inscription at Dambool,
A.D. 1200. The Jiajaivdi mentions
the ridie as in circulation in Ceylon
at the period of the arrival of the
Portuguese, a.d. 1606.— P. 278.
3 Prof. WlL80K'B&marA» on Fish-
hook Monty, Numum. Chronic. 1864j
p. 181.
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS.
CHAP. VL
ENGINEERING.
It has already been shown * that the natives of Ceylon
received their earliest instruction in engineering from
the Brahmans, who attached themselves to. the fol-
lowers of Wijayo and his immediate successors.8 But
whilst astonished at the vastness of conception obser-
vable in the works executed at this early period, we
are equally struck by the extreme simplicity of the
means employed by their designers for carrying their
plans into execution ; and the absence of all ingenious
expedients for supplementing or effectively applying
manual labour. The earth which forms their prodi-
gious embankments was carried by the labourers in
baskets8, in the same primitive fashion that prevails
to the present day. Stones were detached in the
quarry by the slow and laborious process of wedging!
of* which they still exhibit the traces ; and those intended
for prominent positions were carefully dressed with
iron tools. For moving them no mechanical con-
trivances were resorted to *, and it can only have been
by animal power, aided by ropes and rollers, that vast'
1 See Vol. I. Part it. chap. ii. p.
430.
" King Pandukabhnya, B.C. 437,
" built a residence for the Brahman
Jiitiyo, the chief engineer." — Maha-
tnatuo, ch. x. p. 66.
3 Mahawan»o, ch. x\iii, p. 144.
* The only instance of mechanism
applied in aid of human labour is
referred to in a passage of the J&-
hairanso, which alludes to a deerm
for " raising the water of the Abhsy
tank by means of machinery," in
order to pour it over a dagoba during
the solemnisation of a fystiVal, J-C
-Mahmixauo, ch. xuciv. u. 211;
" p. 61.
oyGoogIe
Cmr. VL] ENGINEERING. 463
blocks like the great tablet at Pollanarrua were dragged
to their required positions.1
Fortifications. — Of military engineering the Singha-
lese had very slight knowledge. Walled towns and
fortifications are frequently spoken of, but the ascer-
tained difficulty of raising, squaring, or carrying stones,
points to the inference which is justified by the expres-
sions of the ancient chronicles, that the walls they
allude to, must have been earthworks2, and that the
strength of their fortified places consisted in their inac-
cessibility. The first recorded attempt at fortification
was made by the Malabars in the second century before
Christ for the defence of Vijitta-poora, which is described
as having been secured by walls, a fosse, and a gate.3
Elala about the same period built " thirty-two bul-
warks" at Anarajapoora4; and Dutugaimunu, in com-
mencing to besiege him in the city, followed his exam-
ple, by throwing up a " fortification in an open plain," at
a spot well provided with wood and water.6
At a later time, the Malabars, when in possession of
the northern portion of the island, formed a chain of
strong "forts" from the eastern to the western coast,
and the Singhalese, in imitation of them, occupied
similar positions. The most striking example "of me-
dieval fortification which still survives, is the imperish-
able rock of Sigiri, north-east of Dambool, to which
the infamous Kassyapa retired with his treasures,
after the assassination of his father, King Dhatu Sena,
a.d. 459 ; when having cleared its vicinity, and sur-
1 No document is better calculated
mpress the reader with a due
appreciation of the indomitable pei
severance of the Singhalese in .works
of engineering than the able report
of Messrs. Adams, Chuschill, and
Bailey, on the great Canal from
EUahara to Qantataioa, appended to
the Ceylon Calendar for 1857. ch.
1 Maltalantissa, who reigned
VOL. I. H H
41, "built a rampart seven cubits
high, and dug a ditch round the
capital." — Mahawaneo, ch. ixxiv. p.
210.
9 Rajavali, p.
ch. xxv. p. 16L
Rajavali, p. 187.
Maiurwaneo,
Rtyaoali, p. 216 ; Mahawavto,
oyGoogIe
466 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS. CPabt IV-
rounded it by a rampart, the figures of lions with which
he decorated it, obtained for it the name of Sihagiri,
the "Lion-rock." But the real defences of Sigiri were
its precipitous cliffs, and its naturally scarped walls,
which it was not necessary to strengthen by any artificial
structures.
Their rocky hills, and the almost impenetrable forests
that enveloped them, were in every age the chief security
of the Singhalese ; and so late as the 12th century, the
inscription engraved on the rock at Dainbool, in de-
scribing the strength of the national defences under the
King Kirti Nissanga, enumerates the " strongholds in
the midst of forests, those upon steep lulls, and the
fastnesses surrounded by water." l
Tkorn~gates. — The device, retained down to the
period of the capture of Kandy by the British, when
the passes into the hill country were defended by thick
plantations of formidable thorny trees, appears to have
prevailed in the earliest times. The protection of Ma-
helo, a town assailed by Dutugaimunu, B.c. 162, consist-
ing in its being " surrounded on all sides with the thorny
dadambo creeper, within which was a triple line of
fortifications." a
Bridges, — As to 'bridges, Ceylon had none till the
end of the 13th century8, and Tumour conjecture
that even then they were only formed of timber,
like the Pons Sublicius at Home. At a later period stone
pillars were used in pairs, on which beams or slabs were
* Tcbnock's Epitome and Appm-
■ dii; p. 05.
3 Mahawanao, ch. xiy. p. 153.
When Albuquerque attacked Ma-
lacca in a.d. 1511, the chief who
defended the place "covered the
streets with poisoned thorns, to gore
the Portuguese coming in." Fakia
Y SoozA, vol. i. p. 180. Valentyn,
in speaking of the dominions of the
King of Kandy during the Dutch
occupation of the Low Country, de-
scribes the density of the forests,
"which not only serve to divide the
earldoms one from another, tint, above
all, tend to the fortification of the
country, on which account no one
dare, on pain of death, to thin or root
out a tree, more than to permit a
for c "-
iVfeutp Oott-lndUn, fyc,
Knox gives a curious account oi
these "thorn -gates." (PartiL ch, vi.
p. 45J
■ T cay o en's Epitome and Sett*,
p. 72. Major Forbes says, howeTff,
." .Google
Ch*p. VI.]
ENGINEERING.
horizontally rested, in order to form a roadway l, in the
same manner that Herodotus describes the most ancient
bridge on record, which was constructed by Queen Ni-
tocris, at Babylon ; the planks being laid during the day
and lifted again at night, for the security of the city.8
The principle of the arch appears never to have been
employed in bridge building. Ferries, and the taxes on
crossing by them, are alluded to down to a very late
period amongst other sources of revenue.8
In forming the bunds of their reservoirs and of the
stone dams which they drew across the rivers that
supplied them with water, the Singhalese were accus-
tomed, with incredible toil, infinitely increased by the
imperfection of tools and implements, to work a raised
moulding in front of the blocks of stone, so that each
course was retained in position, not alone by its own
■weight, but by the difficulty 'of forcing it forward by
pressure from behind.
The conduits by which the accumulated waters were
distributed, required to be constructed under the bed
of the lake, so that the egress should be certain and
equal 4, as long as any water remained in the tank.
To effect this, they were cut in many instances through
solid granite ; and their ruins present singular illustra-
tions of determined perseverance, undeterred by the
most discouraging difficulties, and unrelieved by the
slightest appliance of ingenuity to diminish the toil of
excavation.
It cannot but exalt our opinion of a people, to find
there is reason to believe that the
remains of stone piera across the
Kalawa-oya, on the line between
Komegalle and AnnrBJapoom, are the
ruins of the bridge erected by King
Maha Sen, a.b. 301.
1 Mahawmto, ch. lxxxv. TJphax's
translation, pp. 340, 349; Sqfaratrta-
earifjpp. 164, 131. The bridge on
the Wanny hereafter described (see
toI. ii. p. 474) was thus constructed.
a Herodotus,!. 186.
1 Mahawtnuo, cb. xxiii. pp. 136,
138, «h. xiv. p. 150; Kajarainacari,
p. 112.
* The Lake of Albano presents an
example of a conduit or " emissary "
of this peculiar construction to draw
ofl the water. It is upwards of 6000
feet in length. A similar emisi
serves a like purpose at Lake jf en
oyGoogIc
46S SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS. [Pin IV.
that, under disadvantages so signal, they were .capable oE
forming such a work as the Kalaweva tank, between
Anarajapoora and Dambool, which Turnour justly Bays,
is the greatest of the ancient works in Ceylon. This
enormous reservoir was forty miles in circumference,
with an embankment twelve miles in extent, and the
spill-water, ineffectual for the purpose designed, is " one
of the most stupendous monuments of misapplied human
labour." 1
When to such difficulties of construction were added tie
alarms of frequent invasion and all the evils of almost
incessant occupation by a foreign enemy, it is only sur-
prising that the Singhalese preserved so long the degree
of expertness in engineering to which, they had originally
attained. No people in any age or country had so
great practice and experience in the construction of
works for irrigation ; and so far had the renown of their
excellence in this branch reached, that in the eighth
century, the king of Kashmir, Djaya-pida, " sent to
Ceylon for engineers to form a lake." 2 But after the
reign of Prakrama I., the decline was palpable and pro-
gressive. No great works, either of ornament or utility,
no temples nor inland lakes, were constructed by his
successors ; and it is remarkable, that even during his
own reign, artificers were brought from the coast of
India to repair the monuments of Anarajapoora.8 The
last great work attempted for irrigation was probably
the Giant's Tank, north-east of Aripo ; but so much
had practical science declined, that after an enormous
1 TfKNorK'a Mahaicmmo, Index,
p. zi. This stupendous work was
constructed A.D. 459. Mahateanso,
si. 602, 506.
9 Mahawatuo, L-fham's tronsl., ch.
Ixxv. n, 294. This passage in the
JUahaitiansu luight seem to imply that
it was as an act of retribution that
Malabara, by whom the monuments
hod been injured, were compelled to
restore them. But in ch. lxxrit it
is Stated that they were brought from
India for this purpose, because it
"had been found impracticable tv
other kings to renew and repair
them."— P. 305.
oyGoogIe
Chap. VI.] ENGINEERING. 469
expenditure of labour in damming up the Moeselley
river, whose waters were to have been diverted to the
lake, it was discovered that the levels were unsuitable,
and the work was abandoned in despair.1
The talents of the civil engineer were likewise em-
ployed in providing for the health and comfort of their
towns and the Dipawanso, a chronicle earlier in point of
date than the Mahawanso, relates that Wasabha, who
reigned between a.d. 66 and 110, constructed a tunnel
("um-maggo") for the purpose of supplying Anarajapoora
with water.8
1 For an account of the present I ' Jottrn. Asiat. Soc. Seng. yoL vii,
condition of the Giant's Tank, see p. 933.
Vol. IL Part x. ch. ii. |
DomzcdoyGoOglc
SCIENCES AXD SOCIAL AETS.
chap. vn.
THE FINE ABTS.
Music. — The science and practice of the fine arts were
never very highly developed amongst a people whose
domestic refinement became arrested at a very early
stage ; and whose efforts in that direction were almost
wholly confined to the exaltation of the national faith,
and the embellishment of its temples and monuments.
Their knowledge of music was derived from the Hindus,
by whom its study was regarded as of equal importance
with that of medicine and astronomy ; and hence amongst
the early Singhalese, along with the other " eighteen
sciences," ' music was taught as an essential part of the
education of a prince.2
But unlike the soft melodies of Hindustan, whose cha-
racteristic is their gentle and soothing effect, the music
of the Singhalese appears to have consisted of sound
rather than of harmony; modulation and expression
having been at all times subordinate *o volume and
metrical effect.
Reverberating instruments were their earliest inven-
tions for musical purposes, and those most frequently
alluded to in their chronicles are drums, resembling
the tom-toms used in the temples to the present day.
The same variety of form prevailed then as now, and
the Rajavali relates, in speaking of the army of Dutu-
gaimunu, that in its march the " rattling of the sixty-
four kinds of drums made a noise resembling thunder
1 This fact is curious, seeing that
at the present day the cultivation of
music Debugs, to one of the lowest
castes in Ceylon.
' Mahawtnuo, ch. lxiv.; UPHAll'e
version, p. 256. An ingenious psp«
0& Singhalese Miaic, by Mr. Louis
Nell, is printed in the Journ. of the
Ceylon branch of the Soy. Atiat. Stc.
for 1850-8, p. 200.
DoiiizcdoyGoOgle
Chap. Vn.]
THE FINE ARTS.
breaking on tbe rock from behind which the sun rises." 1
The band of Devcuipiatissa, b.c. 307, was called the
talawackara, from the multitude of drums2: ehank-
shells contributed to swell the din, both in warfare3
and in religious worship * ; choristers added their
voices 6 ; and the triumph of effect consisted in " the
united crash of every description of sound, vocal as well
as instrumental." 6 Although " a full band " is explained
in the Mahawanso to imply a combination of " all
descriptions of musicians," no flutes or wind instru-
ments are particularised, and the incidental mention of
a harp only occurs in the reign of Dutugaimunu, B.c.
161.7 Joinville says, that certain musical principles
were acknowledged in Ceylon at an early period, and
that "pieces are to be seen in some of the old Pah
books in regular notation; the gamut, which was
termed septa souere, consisting of seven notes, and ex-
pressed not by signs, but in letters equivalent to their
' Eajavali, pp. 217, 210. At the
present day, there we four or five
varieties of drums in use: — the tom-
tom or tam-a-tom, properly so-called,
which consists of two cylinders placed
side by side, and is beaten with two
sticks; — the daelie, a single cylinder
struck with a stick at one end, and
with the hand at the other; — the ou-
daelle, which is held in the left hand,
and struck with the right ; — and the
berri, which is suspended from the
beater's Deck, and struck with both
hands, one at each end, precisely as a
similar instrument is shown in some
of the Egyptian monuments.
3 Mahawanso, eh. xvii. p. 104.
* B.C. 161. Mahawanso, ch. xxv.
p. 154.
* B.C. 20. Raiarali, p. 61.
x 157.
8 Mahawanso, ch. xxvi. 180.
1 Mahawanso, ch. xxx. p. 180.
The following passage in Upham's
translation of tlie Mahawanso, cb.
lisii. toI. i. p. 274, would convey r , ,,-
the idea that the j^iolian harp was gave harmonious sounds as if they
meant, or some arrangement of were moved by the air.
n it 4
strings calculated to elicit similar
sounds: — " The king Prakrama built
a palace at the city of Pollanarrua ;
and the stone works were carved in
the shape of flowers and creeping
plants, with golden networks which
:-T.,::l% Google
478 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS. [Pabt IV.
pronunciation, sa, ri, ga, me, qa, de, m." At the
present day, harmony is still superseded by sound,
the singing of the Singhalese being a nasal whine, not
unlike that of the Arabs. Flutes, almost insusceptible
of modulation, chanks, which give forth a piercing
scream, and the overpowering roll of tom-toms, con-
stitute the music of the temples ; and all day loog the
women of a family will sit round a Bpecies of timbrel,
called rabaniy and produce from it the most monotonous,
but to their ear, most agreeable noises, by drumming
with the fingers.
Painting. — Painting, whether historical or imaginative,
is only mentioned in connection with the decoration of
temples, and no examples survive of sufficient antiquity
to exhibit the actual state of the art at any remote
period. But enough is known of the trammels imposed
upon all art, to show that from the earliest times, imagi-
nation and invention were prohibited by the priesthood ;
and although execution and facility may have varied at
different eras, design and composition were stationary
- and unalterable.
Like the priesthood of Egypt, those of Ceylon regu-
lated the mode of delineating the effigies of their divine
teacher, by a rigid formulary, with which they com-
bined corresponding directions for the drawing of the
human figure in connection with sacred subjects. In
the relics of Egyptian painting and sculpture, we find
" that the same formal outline, the same attitudes and
postures of the body, the same conventional modes of
representing the different parts, were adhered to at the
latest, as at the earliest periods. No improvements
were admitted; no attempts to copy nature or to give
an air of action to the limbs. Certain rules and certain
models had been established by law, and the faulty con-
ceptions of early times were copied and perpetuated by
every succeeding artist." 2
1 Joinvilt.b, Anal. Rc*earche>, I ■ Sra Gardner WrLEixsoB's /fa-
vol. Tii. p. 488. rient Egyptian*, vol. iii. eh. X. p. 67,
I 2M.
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Chap. VH.]
THE PISE ARTS.
The same observations apply, almost in the same terms,
to the paintingB of the Singhalese. The historical
delineations of the exploits of Gotama Buddha and of
his disciples and attendants, which at the present day
cover the wallB of the temples and wiharas, follow, with
rigid minuteness, pre-existing illustrations of the sacred
narratives. They appear to have been copied, with a
devout adherence to colour, costume, and detail, from
designs which from time immemorial have represented
the same subjects ; and emaciated ascetics, distorted
devotees, beatified simpletons, and malefactors in torment
are depicted with a painful .fidelity, akin to modern
pre-Raphaehtism.
Owing to this discouragement of invention, one series
of pictures is so servile an imitation of another, that
design has never improved in Ceylon ; one scene is but
the facsimile of a previous one, and each may almost
be regarded as an exponent of the state of the art at any
preceding period.1
Hence even the most modern embellishments in the
temples have an air of remote antiquity. The colours
are tempered with gum ; and but for their inferiority
1 The Egyptians and Singhalese
wen not, however, the only authori-
ties who overwhelmed invention by
ecclesiastical conventionalism. The
early artiste of Greece were not at
liberty to follow tbe bent of their
own genius, or to depart from esta-
blished regulations in representing
the figures of the gods. In the
middle ages, the influence of the
churches, both of Home and Byzan-
tium, was productive of a similar
result ; and although the Latins
early emancipated themselves, the
painters of the Greek church, to
the present hour, labour under tho
identical trammels which crippled
art at Constantinople a thousand
years ago. M. DmBON, who visited
the churches and monasteries of
Greece in 1839, makes the remark
that " ni le temps nt le lieu ne font
rien al'sitOrec: au XVIII* aiecle, le.
peintre Moreote continue et caique
le peintre Vent5tien du X', le peintro
Auionite du V* ou VI*. Le costume
dea peraonnages est partout et en
tout temps le memo, non-seulement
pour la forme, maia pour la couleur,
maia pour le deasin, maia jusque
■e et I'epaisseur dee
. ._ __ saurait pouaser plus
loin l'exactitude tradi domicile, f'es-
clavage du passe'." (Manuel a" Icono-
graphic ChrMienne Grcetpie. et Latin,
p. li.) The explanation of this fact
is striking. Mount Athos is the
rd manufactory of pictures for
Greek churches throughout tbe
world; and M. Didkon found the
artists producing, with the servility
and almost the rapidity of machi-
nery, endless facsimiles of pictures
in rigid conformity with a recognised
./Google
474 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AKIS. £Pa*i IV.
in drawing the human figure, as compared with the
Egyptians, and their defiance of the laws of perspective,
their inharmonious tints, coupled with the -whiteness
of the ground-work, would remind one of similar pecu-
liarities in the paintings in the Thcbaid, and the caves
of Beni Hassan.
Fa Hian 'describes in the fourth century precisely
the same series of subjects and designs which are deli-
neated in the temples of the present day, and taken
from the transformation of Buddha. With hundreds of
these, he says, painted in appropriate colours and ex-
ecuted in imitation of life, the king caused both sides
of the road to be decorated on the occasion of religious
processions,1
Amongst the most, renowned of the Singhalese masters,
was the King Detu Tissa, a.d. 330, "a skilful carver,
who executed many arduous undertakings in painting,
and taught it to his subjects. He modelled a statue of
code of instruct: Ops drawn up under I rum inventio sod peclesiie cfttholicffl
ecclesiastical authority and entitled I probata legislatio et traditio." Is
'Eptiijvtui rrjc Zwypartwqci "The Spain, the sacro-pictorial law, under
Guide for Painting," a literal trans- | the title of Pirtor Christianas, wis
lation of which he haa published. '' promulnpjted, in 1730, by Fray Juan
This very curious manuscript con- i de Avals, a monk of the order of
tains minute directions for the ' Mercy; and such subjects are dis-
figures, costume, and attitude of the cussed as the shape of the true crow :
sacred character, and for the pre- whether one or two angels should sit
paration of many hundreds of histo- ] on the stone by the sepulchre P and
rical subjects required for the de- whether the Devil should be drawn
coration of churches. The artist, with horns and a tail? In the Na-
whcn solicited by M. Didron to i tional Gallery of London there is *
sell " cette bible de son art," na- painting of the Holy Family by Be-
ively refused, on the simple ground ' noMO Gozsoli, and Sir Charles L,
that "a'il se depouillait de ce livre, , Eastlake has permitted me to see a
'■'''• contract between the painter and his
employer a.d. 1461, in which everv
figure is literally " made to order, '
its attitude bespoke, and its place
in the composition distinctly agreed
for. One clause, however, contem-
plates progress, and binds the painter
to make the piece his chef-d'aauire —
" che detta dipentura exceda ogni
buona dipintura infino aqui facto per
il ne pourrait plus rien fairs ,
perdant son Guide, il perdait son
art, il perdait ses yeux etses mains"
(to, p. xxiii.). It was not till the
fifteenth century that the painters of
Italy shook themselves free of the
authority of the Latin church in
matters of art. The second council
of Nice arrogates to the Roman
church the authority in such mat-
ters still retained by the Greek ; I detto Benozzo.
"non est iinaginum structura picto- I * h'oe-kn«c-ki, ch. ixxviii. p. 335.
oyGoogle
Chap. TIL] THE FINE ARTS. ' 475
Buddha so exquisitely that he seemed to have been
inspired; and for it he made an altar, and gilt an
edifice inlaid with ivory." ' Among the presents sent
by the King of Ceylon (a.d. 459) to the Emperor of
China, the Tsih foo yuen kwei, a chronicle compiled by
imperial command, particularises a picture of Buddha.2
The colours employed in decorating their temples are
mixed in tempera, as were those used in the ancient
paintings in Egypt ; the claim of the Singhalese to the
priority of invention in the mixture of colours with oil,
is adverted to elsewhere.8
Sculpture. — In style Singhalese sculpture was even
more conventional and less imaginative than their paint-
ing ; since the subjects to which it was confined were
almost exclusively statues of Buddha*, and its efforts
were mere repetitions of the three orthodox attitudes
of the great archetype — sitting, as when in deep medi-
tation, under the sacred w Bo-tree ; standing, as when
exhorting his multitudinous disciples ; and reclining, in
the enjoyment of the everlasting repose of " nirwana."
In the contemplative calmness of the latter one is re-
minded of that sublime composure which characterises the
sculpture of the Egyptians ; a feeling so associated with
dignity that in later times it may possibly have suggested
the epithet of " Serene" as an honorific title of majesty.
In each and all of these the details are identical ; the
length of the ears, the proportions of the arms, fingers,
and toes ; the colour of the eyes, and the curls of the
hair 6 being repeated with wearisome iteration. To such
■to, cli. zxzvii. p. 242.
* B. li p. 7.
' See p. 490.
* Jlentton ia made of a figure of
an elephant (JRqjavali, p. 342), and
of a horse (Mahavxmso, eh. mix.
T trRHOffi's manuscript translation),
and a carved bull as amongst the
ruins of Anarajapoora.
* M. Abel Rbmusat has devoted
a section of his Mtianycs Asialu/uet,
1826, vol. i. p. 100, to combating
the conjecture of Sir W. Jones in
his third Dissertation on the Hindus,
drawn from the curled or rattier the
woolly hair represented in his sta-
tues, that Buddha drew his descent
from an African origin, f Work*, vol.
i. p. 12.) Another ground for Sir. W. •
Jones's conjecturo was tie large
ears which are usually characteristic
of the statues of Buddha. But it ia
curious that one of the peculiar fea-
turee ascribed to the Singhalese by
D.0Hi7cdoy GoOglC
476 " SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS. [Pakt IV,
aii extent were these multiplied, and with an adherence
so rigid to the same recognised models, that the Rajavali
ventures to ascribe to one king the erection of " seventy-
two thousand statues of Buddha," — an obvious error1, but
indicating, nevertheless, that the real amount must have
been prodigious, in order to obtain credence for the
exaggeration. Many other sovereigns are extolled in
the national annals, who. rendered their reigns illustrious
by the multiplicity of statues which they placed in the
temples.
It was doubtless from this incessant study of one
and the same figure, that the artists of Ceylon at-
tained to a facility and superiority in producing statues
of Buddha, that rendered them famous throughout the
countries of Asia, in which his religion prevailed. The
early historians of China speak in raptures of works of
this kind, obtained from Singhalese sculptors in the fourth
and fifth centuries; they were eagerly sought after by
all the surrounding nations ; and one peculiarity in their
execution consisted in so treating the features, that
" on standing at about ' ten paces distant they appeared
truly brilliant, but the lineaments gradually disappeared
on a nearer approach."2 The labours of the sculptor
and painter were combined in producing these images
of Buddha, that are always coloured in imitation of life,
each tint of his complexion and hair being in religious
conformity with divine authority, and the ceremony of
" painting of the eyes,"3 is always observed by the devout
Buddhists as a solemn festival.
Many of the works which were thus executed were
cither golden4 or gilt, with brilliants inserted in the
the early Greek writers was the I a Wei thoo, a " History of theVei
possession of pendulous ears, possibly | Tartar Dynasty," written a.d 500.
, occasioned by their heavy ear-rings. | B. cxiv. p. 8.
1 Sqfamli, p. 255. Most of these i ' MaJtawaano, ch. lxxii. ; U foam's
were built of tenn-cotta and cement version, vol. i. p. 275.
covered with chunaiii, preparatory * Makawatuo, eh. jxj. pp. 180,
to boinif painted. See p. 478. ' 182 ; Rajaratnaeari, pp. 47, 48 ; JBi-
1 jawdi, p. 237.
oyGoogIe
Chap. VII.]
TUB FINE ARTS.
eyes, and the draperies enriched with jewels.1 Fa Hian
in the fourth century, speaks of a figure of Buddha
upwards of twenty-three feet in height, formed out of
blue jasper, and set with precious stones, that sparkled
with singular splendour, and which bore in its right
hand a pearl of priceless value.3 This may possibly
have been the statue of which the Mahawanso speaks
in like terms of admiration : " the eye formed by a
jewel from the royal head-dress, each curl of the hair by
a sapphire, and the lock in the centre of the forehead by
threads of gold." 8
Ivory also and sandal-wood4, as well as copper and
bronze, served as materials for statues; but granite
was the substance most generally selected, except in
the rare instances where the temple and the statue
were hewn together out of the living rock, on which
occasions gneiss was most generally selected. Such are
the statues at Pollanarrua, at .Mihiutak, and at the
Aukana Wihara, near Vijittapoora. A still more
common expedient, which is employed to the present
time, was to form the figures of Buddha with pieces of
burnt clay joined together by cement ; and coated with
highly polished chunam, in order to prepare the surface
for the painter. In this manner were most ' probably
produced the " seventy-two thousand statues " ascribed to
Mihindo V.
Figures of elephants were similarly formed at an early
period.6 An image of Buddha so composed in the 12th
century, is still standing at Pollanarrua 6, and every
1 Mahawanso, ch. xzxriii. p. 268.
1 " Parmi toutea lee choses pnioi-
euaes qu'on j voit, 11 y a une image
de ibspe bleu haute de deux tckang ;
tout sou corps est forme" des sept
choses precieusea ; elie est e'tincel-
laiite de aplendeuret plus mBJestueuee
Su'on ne saurnit l'exprimer. Dans
l main droite elle bent one perle
d'un prix ineatimable." — Foi-koue-M,
ch. xxxviii. p, 333.
1 A.n. 469. Mahateanto, ch. Jtxxviii.
p. 258. Another statue of gold, with
the features and members appropri-
ately coloured in gems, is spoken of in
the second century B.C. (Mahawanto,
ch. xxx. p. 180.)
4 Rajarutnacari, p. 72.
s A.D. 432. RajarattMcari, p. 74.
a Possibly the "standing fifture
of Buddha mentioned in the So/a-
vail, p. 253.
oyGoogIe
478 SCIENCES AXD SOCIAL ABTS. [Past IV.
temple has one or more effigies, either sedent, erect, or
recumbent, carefully modelled in cemented clay, and
coloured after life.
Architecture. — In Ceylon, as in Egypt, Assyria, and
India, the ruins which survive to attest the character of
ancient architecture are exclusively sacred, with the
exception of occasional traces of the residences of theo-
cratic royalty ; but everything has perished that
could have afforded an idea of the dwellings and
domestic architecture of -the people. The cause of this
is to be traced in the perishable nature of the sun-dried
clay, of which the walls of the latter were composed.
Added to this, in Ceylon there were the pride of rank
and the pretensions of the priesthood, which, whilst they
led to lavish expenditure of the wealth of the king-
dom upon palaces and monuments, and the employment
of stone in the erection of temples l and monasteries, for-
bade the people to construct their dwellings of any other
material than sun-baked earth.2 This practice continued
to the latest period ; and nothing struck the British army
of occupation with more surprise on entering the city
of Kandy, after its capture in 1815, than to find that the
palaces and temples alone were constructed of stone,
whilst the streets and private houses were formed of mud
and thatch.
Though stone is abundant in Ceylon, it was but
sparingly used in the ancient buildings. Squared
stones8 were occasionally employed, but large slabs
seldom occur, except in the foundations of dagobas.
The vast quantity of material required for such struc1
tures, the cost of quarrying and carriage, and the want
of mechanical aids to raise ponderous blocks into position,
naturally led to the substitution of bricks for the upper
portion of the superstructure.
There is evidence to show that wedges were employed
1 Rajaratttacari, pp. 78, 7ft I s ttajavali, p. 210; Valbntyk, Ond
1 Rqjavaii, p. 222. | en Kieuw Ood-Indim, eta. iii. p. 45.
oyGoogIe
Chap. VII.]
THE FINE ARTS.
to detach the blockB in the quarry, and the amount
of- labour devoted to the preparation of those in which
strength, irrespective of ornament, was essential, ia
shown in the remains of the sixteen hundred ■ undressed
pillars1 that supported the Brazen Palace at Anara-
japoora, and in the eighteen hundred stone steps, many
of them exceeding ten feet in length, which led from
the- base .of. the mountain to the very summit of Mihin-
tala. A single piece of granite now lies at Anarajapoora
hollowed into an " elephant trough," with ornamental
pilasters, which measures ten feet in length by six wide
and two deep; and amongst the ruins of Pollanarrua
a still more remarkable slab, twenty-five feet in length
by six broad and two feet thick, bears an inscription of
the twelfth century, which records that it was brought
from a distance of more than thirty miles.
The majority of the columns at Anarajapoora are of
dressed stone, octangular and of extremely graceful
proportions. They were UBed in pro-
fusion to form circular colonnades
around the principal dagobas, and the
vast numbers which still remain up-
right, are one of the peculiar charac-
teristics of the place, and justify the
expression of Knox, when, speaking of
similar groups elsewhere, he calls them
a " world of hewn stone pillars."2
Allusions in the Mahawanso show that
extreme care was taken in the preparation
of bricks for the building of dagobas.8
Major Skinner, whose official duties as
engineer to the government have ren-
dered him familiar with all parts of
Ceylon, assures me that the bricks in
1 The Rajticali states that these I a Knox, Halation, vol. v. pt iv.
rough pillars were originally covered ch. ii. p. 166.
with copper, p. 222. * MaAatcanto, ch. xrviii. p. 165;
| ch. ixix. p. 160, ftc
DomzcdoyGoOglc
480 SCIENCES AXD SOCIAL ARTS. [Pjet IV.
every ruin he has seen, including the dagobas at Ana-
rajapoora, Bintenne, and Poilanarrua, have been fired
with so much skill that exposure through successive
centuries has but slightly affected either their sharpness
or consistency.
The sand for mortar was " pounded, sifted, and
ground j " ' the " cloud-coloured stones, " 2 used to form
the immediate receptacle in which a sacred relic was
enclosed, were said to have been imported from India ;
and the " nawanita " clay, in which these were imbedded,
was believed to have been brought, from the mythical
Anotattho lake in the Himalayas.3
Dagobas.— The process of building the Ruanwelle
dagoba is thus minutely described in the MaJuiicamo :
" That the structure might endure for ages, a foundation
was excavated to the depth of one hundred cubits, and
the round stones were trampled by enormous elephants
whose feet were protected by leather cases. Over tins
the monarch spread the sacred clay, and on it laid the
bricks, and over them a coating of astringent cement,
above this a layer of sand-stones, and on all a plate of
iron. Over this was a large pholika (crystallised
stone), then a plate of brass, eight inches thick, em-
bedded in a cement made of the gum of the wood-appfe
tree, diluted in the water of the small red coco-nut" *
The shape of these huge mounds of masonry was
originally hemispherical, being that best calculated to
prevent the growth of grass or other weeds on objects so
1 Mahawamo, ch. xxx. p. 175.
8 The"cloud-coloured Btone"may
possibly bate been marble, but no
traces of marble have been found in
any ruins in Ceylon. Diodorus, in
describing some of the monuments of
Egypt alludes to a " partv-colouxed "
stone, Xibta iroiriXov, which likewise
remains without identification. —
Wodertu, 1. i. c ML
3 Mahawanso, ch. xxix. p. ISO;
ch. xxx. p. 179.
< Mahawamo, ch. xxix. p. W;
ch. xxx. p. 178. The internal struc-
ture of the Sancbi tope at Bilssli in
Central India presents the arrange-
ment here described, the brick* br»>9
laid in mud, but externally it is faced
with dressed stone.
oyGoogIe
Chap. VII.] THE FINE ARTS. 481
sacred. Dutugaimnnu, according to the Makawanso,
■when about to build the Ruanwelle' dagoba, consulted a-
mason as to the most suitable form, who, " filling a
golden dish with water, and taking some in the palm of
his hand, caused a^bubble in the form of a coral bead to
rise on the surface ; and he replied to the king, ' In this
form will I construct it. ' " 1 Two dagobas at Anaraja-
poora, the Abay-a-giri and Jeyta-wana-rama, still retain
their original outline, — the Ruanwelle^ from age and
decay, has partly lost it,— the Thupa-rama is flattened on
the top as if suddenly brought to a close ; and the Lanka-
rama is shaped like a bell.
Monasteries and Wiharas. — According to the annals
of Ceylon the construction of dwellings for the de-
votees of Buddha preceded the erection of temples for
his worship. Originally the anchorite selected a care
or some shelter in the forest as his place of repose or
meditation.2 In the Rajavali Devenipiatissa is said to
have " caused caverns to be cut in the solid rock at
the sacred place of Mihintala ; " a and these were the
earliest residences for the higher orders of the priest-
hood in Ceylon, of which a record has been preserved.
A less costly sttbstitute was found in the erection of
detached huts of the rudest construction, in which
may be traced the embryo of the Buddhist mon-
astery ; and the king Walagambahu was the ' first,
B.C. 80, to gather these scattered residences into groups
and " build wiharas in unbroken ranges, conceiving
that thus their repairs would be more easily ef-
fected." *
Mahnvxmto, ch. too., p. 175. I of Ilalyattea, which in the progress
" '" the constructive arts, came to be co
This legend us to the origin of tb
semicircular form of the^agoba is ai
variance with the conjecture of Major
Fobbks, that these vast structures
■were merely an advance on the
mounds of earth similar to the burrow
VOL. I. 1
verted into brickwork.— Eleven Years
m CeyUm, v. i. p. 222.
* Maluneatuo, c. xxx. p. 174.
9 Rajavali, p. 1B4.
" ' cU. zxxiii. p. 207.
oyGoogIc
463 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS. [PimlV.
Simplicity and retirement were at all times the cha-
racteristics of these retreats, which rarely aspired to
architectural display ; and the only recorded instance of
extravagance in this particular was the " Brazen Palace"
at Anarajapoora, with its sixteen hundred columns ; an
edifice which, though nominally a dwelling for the priest-
hood, appears to have been in reality a vast suite of halls
for their assemblies and festivals, and a sanctuary for the
safe custody of their jewels and treasure. '
Allusions are occasionally made to other edifices more
or less fantastic in their design and structure, such as
" an apartment built on a single pillar," * a " house of
an octangular form," built in the 12th century8, and
another of an " oval, " shape4, erected by Prakrama L
Palaces. — The royal residences as they were first
constructed, must have consisted of very few chambers,
since mention is made in the Mahawanso of the ear-
liest, which contained " many apartments," having been
built by Pandukabhaya, b.c. 437.6 But within two
centuries afterwards, Dutugaimunu conceived the mag-
nificent idea of the Lowa Pasada, with its quadrangle
one hundred cubits square, and a thousand dormitories
with ornamental windows.8 This patace was in its
turn surpassed by the castle of Prakrama L at Folia*
narrua, which, according to the Mahawanso, " was seven
stories high, consisting of five thousand rooms, lined
1 MaJurtvanto, ch. xxrii. p. 163.
Like the " nine-storied "pagodas of
China, the palace of " the Lowa Maya
Paya" was originally nine ttorie» in
height, and Fergusson, from the
analogy of Buddhist buildings in
other countries, supposes that these
diminished in succession asthe build-
ing arose, till the outline of the whole
assumed the form of a pyramid.
(Handbook of Architecture, h. i. ch.
id. p. 44) In this he is undoubtedly
correct, and & building still existing,
though in ruins, at Pollanarrua, and
known as the Sat-mal-pcuado, or the
" seven-storied palace," probably built
by Prakrama, about the year 1170,
serves to support his conjecture.
o description of it, part x. ch. l
vnl. i
688.
B.C. 504, MaAmotttuo, ch. a- P
66 : ch. lxxii, Upkam's version, p.
274.
1 RajaratniKari, p. 106.
* Muhawanso, ch. lxxii. UfII.UI S
rersion, p. 274.
s Ibid., ch. x. p. 06.
* Ibid., ch. -civil, p. 103.
.Google
Chap. VII.] THE FINE ARTS. 463
■with hundreds of stone columns, and outer halls of an
oval shape, with large and small gates, staircases, and
glittering walls." J
In what now remains of these buildings at Anaraja-
poora, there is no trace to be found of an arch, truly
turned and secured by its keystone ; but at Pollanarrua
there are several examples of the false arch, produced
by the progressive projection of the layers of brick.8
The finest specimens of ancient brickwork are to be
seen amongst the ruins of the latter city, where the ma-
terial is compact and smooth, and the edges sharp and
unworn. The mortar shows the remains of. the pearl
oyster-shells from which it was burnt, and the chunam
•with which the walls were coated still clings to 6ome of
the towers, and retains its angularity and polish.*
Of the details of external and internal decoration
applied to these buildings, descriptions are given which
attest a perception of taste, however distorted by the
exaggerations of oriental design. " Gilded tiles " * in
their bright and sunny atmosphere, must have had a
striking effect, especially when surmounting walls de-
corated with beaded mouldings, and festooned with
** carvings in imitation of creeping plants and flowers." 6
Carving in stone. — Carving appears to have been
practised at a very early period with singular success ;
but in later times it became so deteriorated, that there
is little difficulty at the present day, in pronouncing on
the superiority of the specimens remaining at Anaraja-
poora, over those which are to be found amongst the
ruins of the later capitals, Pollanarrua, Yapahu, or
Kornegalle. The author of the Makawanso dwells
1 MtAammto, ch. lxxii. Upham's
version, p.^74.
* Fokbbb's Eleven Years m CtyUm,
vol. i. ch. xvii. p. 414.
'Expressions in the Mahawaato,
ch. xxyii. p. 164, show, that as early
aethe 2nd century, B.C., the Singha-
lese -were acquainted with this beau-
tiful cement, which is susceptible of
a polish almost equal to marble.
' Haiavali, p. 78.
i, ch. lxxii. p. 274.
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484 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS. ' [Paot IV.
with obvious satisfaction on his descriptions of tie
" stones covered with flowers and creeping plants."'
Animals are constantly introduced in the designs exe-
cuted on stone, and a mythical creature, called tech-
nically makara'torana, is conspicuous, especially on door-
ways and balustrades, with the head of an elephant, the
teeth of a crocodile, the feet of a lion, and the tail of a
fish.
At the entrance to the great wihara, at Anarajapoora.
there is now lying on the ground a semi-circular slab
of granite, the ornaments of which are designed in ex-
cellent tas,te, and executed with singular skill ; elephants,
lions, horses, and oxen, forming the outer border ; that
within consisting of a row of the " hanza," or sacred
goose. This bird is equally conspicuous on the vast
tablet, one of the wonders of Pollanarrua, before alluded
to.!
Taken in connection with the proverbial contempt for
the supposed stolidity of the goose, there is sometliing
still unexplained in the extraordinary honours paid to
it by the ancients, and the veneration in which it is
held to the present day by some of the eastern nations.
The figure that occurs so frequently on Buddhist monu-
ments, is the Brahmanee goose (casarka rutila), which
is not a native of Ceylon ; but from time immemorial has
been an object of veneration there and in all parts of
India. Amongst the Buddhists especially, impressed a?
they are with the solemn obligation of solitary retirement
for meditation, the hanza has attracted attention by its
periodical migrations, which are supposed to be directed
to the holy Lake of Manasa, in the mythical regions of
the Himalaya. The poet Kalidas, in his Cloud Mm-
senger, speaks of the hanza as " eager to set out for the
' Mahavxtnto, ch. isxii. p. 274, [ seenin the engraving- of theSst-roal"
Uphah's version. pra^^intheaecoiiiitof PoUanwruit
* A sketch of this stone will be | Part I. ch, i. vol li. 588.
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Chap. VII.]
THE FINE ARTS.
Sacred Lake." Hence, according to the Rajavali,
the lion was pr^-eminent amongst beasts, "the hanza
■was king over all the feathered tribes." l In one of
the Jatakas, which contains the legend of Buddha's
apotheosis, his hair, -when suspended in the sky, is de-
scribed as resembling "the beautiful Kala hanza."3
The goose is, at the present day, the national emblem
emblazoned on the 'standard of Burmah, and the brass
weights of the Burmese are
generally cut in the shape
of the sacred bird, just as
the Egyptians formed their
weights of stone after the
same model.8
Augustine, in his Civttas
Dei, traces the respect for
the goose, displayed by the
Romans, to gratitude for the
preservation of the capitol ;
when the vigilance of this
bird defeated the midnight attack by the Goths. The
adulation of the citizens, he says, degenerated afterwards
almost to Egyptian superstition, in the rites instituted
in honour of their preservers on that occasion.4 But
the very fact that the geese which saved the citadel
were already sacred to Juno, and domesticated in her
temple, demonstrates the error of Augustine, and shows
that they had acquired mythological eminence, before
1 Rajavali, p. 149. The Maha-
Kamo, ch. xxx. p. 179, also speaks of
the "karoo," as amongst the decora-
tions chased on the stem of a bo-
tree, modelled in gold, which was
deposited by Dutugaimunu when
building the Ruanwelle" dagoba at
Anaraj&poora in the 2nd century be-
fore Const
3 Haedt'b Buddhism, ch. vii. p.
161.
1 See Stile's Embassy to Ana, p.
330 ; Yitlb's Narrative of the British
Mimon to Ava in 1866. p. HO. I
have seen a stone in the form of a
goose, found in the ruins of Nineveh,
which appears to have been used as a
weight.
* " And hereupon did Rome fall
almost into the superstition of the
Egyptians that warship birds and
beasts, for they henceforth kept a
holy day which they call the goose't
featt."— ArBTTBTTNE, Civitas Dei, fyc.
book ii. ch. 22 : Englished by F. H.
Icond. 1610.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
SCIENCES AKD SOCIAL ABTS.
[Pin IV.
achieving political renown. It must be observed, too,
that the birds which rendered that memorable service,
were the ordinary white geese of Europe l, and not the
red geese of the Nile (the ^vaXaJarj £ of Herodotus),
which, ages before, had been enrolled amongst the ani-
mals held sacred in Egypt, and which formed the em-
blem of Seb, the rather of Osiris.2 Hobapollo, endea-
vouring to account for this predilection of the Egyptians
(who employed the goose hieroglyphically to denote a
son), ascribes it to their appreciation of the love evinced
by it for its offspring, in exposing itself to divert the at-
tention of the fowler from its young.8 • This opinion was
shared by the Greeks and the Romans. Aristotle praises
its sagacity; iElian dilates on the courage and cunning
of the " vulpanser," and its singular attachment to man4;
and Ovid ranks the goose as superior to the dog in the
scale of intelligence, —
The feeling appears to have spread westward at an
early period ; the ancient Britons, according to Caesar,
held it impious to eat the flesh of the goose 5, and the
followers of the first crusade which issued from
1 This appears from a line of Lu-
1 Sir Oaxsneb Wilkinson's
Manners and Custom*, &c. 2nd Ser.
pi. 81, fig. 2, toI. i. p. 312; vol. ii.
6 227. Mr. Birch of the British
usauui informs me that throughout
the ritual or hermetic books of the
ancient Egyptians a mystical notion
is attached to the goose as one of the
creatures into which the dead had to
undergo a transmigration. That it
was actually worshipped is attested
by a sepulchral tablet of the 28th
dynasty, about 700 B.C., in which it
is figured standing on a small chapel
over which are the hieroglyphic
words, " The good goose greauy be-
loved; " and on the lower part of the
tablet the dedicator makes an offer-
ing of fire and water to " Amman and
the Ooote." ■ — Revue Archceo., vol. ii
pi. 27.
'Horapollo, SStragkfphka, lib.
* Mlwb, Nat. Hid., lib. v. e. 29,
30, 60. -Elian says that the Romans,
in recognition of the superior vigi-
lance or the goose on the occasion of
the assault on the Capitol, instituted
a procession in the Forum in honour
of the goose, whose watchfulness was
incorruptible ; hut held an annual de-
-nunciation of the inferior fidelity at
the dogs, which allowed themselves
to be silenced by meat flung to them
by the Gauls. — Nat Bit. lib. «i.
5 " Anserem gustare fas non po-
tant"— OasME, BeO. Gaff., lib. v.
ch. xii
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cmr. VH.] THE FINE ARTS. 487
^England, France, and Flanders, adored a goat and a
goose, which they believed to be filled by the Holy
Spirit.1
It is remarkable that the same word appears to desig-
nate the goose in the most remote quarters of the globe.
The Pah term " hanza " by which it was known to the
Buddhists of Ceylon, is still the, "hema" of the Bur-
mese and the " gangsa " of the Malays, and is to be
traced" in the " jpp " of the- Greeks, the " anser " of the
Romans, the "ganso" of the Portuguese, the "ansar"
of the Spaniards, the "gans" of the Germansa(who,
Pliny says, called-the white geese ganza), the "gas" of
the Swedes, and the." gander " of the English.2
In the principal apartment of the royal palace "at
Kandy, now the official re-
sidence of the chief civil
officer in charge of the pro-
vince, the sacred bird occurs
amongst the decorations, but
so modelled as to resemble
the dodo rather than the
Brahmanee goose.
In the generality of the
examples of ancient Singha-
lese carvings that have come
down to us, ihe character-
1 MILL'S Sid. of the Crusades,
vol. i. ch. ii. p. 76. Forster has sug-
gested that it was a species of goose
(which annually migrates from the
Black Sea towards the south) that
fed the Israelites in the desert of
Sinai, and that the " winged fowls "
meant by the word tain, which has
been heretofore translated "quails,"
were " red geese," resembling those
of Egypt and India. He renders one
of the mysterious inscriptions which
abound in the Wady Mokatteb (the
Valley of Writings), "the red geese
ascend from the sea, — lusting the
people eat to repletion;" thus pre-
senting% striking concurrence with
the passage in humb. n. 31, "there
went forth a wind from the Lord and
brought quails (sola) from the sea."
— FoRSTER'e One Primeval Language,
vol. i. p. 90.
* Hardy observes that the ibis of
the Nile is called " Abou-Sanaa " by
the Arabs (Buddhism, ch. i. p. 17);
John, and that the bird always ap-
pears on St John's dny .- he implies,
however, that this is probably a cor-
ruption of an ancient name now
lost.
oyGoogIe
488 SCIENCES AMD SOCIAL AHTS. [PuiJV.
istic which most strongly recommends them, is their
careful preservation of the outline and form of the
article decorated, notwithstanding the richness and pro-
fusion of the ornaments applied. The subjects en-
graved are selected with so much judgment, that
whilst elaborately covering the surface, they in no
degree mar the configuration. Even in later times
thia principle has been preserved, and the chasings in
silver and tortoise shell on the scabbards of the swords
of state, worn by the Kandyan kings and their attend-
ants, are not surpassed by any specimens of similar
workmanship in India.
Temples. — The temples of Buddha were at first as
unpretending as the residences of the priesthood. No
mention is made of them during the infancy of
Buddhism in Ceylon ; when caves and natural grottoes
were the only places of devotion. In the sacred
books these are spoken of as " stone houses " l to dis-
tinguish them from the "houses of earth"2, and other
materials used in the construction of the first buildings
for the "worship of Buddha ; such temples having been
originally confined to a single chamber of the humblest
dimensions, within which it became the custom at a
later period to place a statue of the divine teacher re-
clining in dim seclusion, the gloom being increased to
heighten the scenic effect of the ever-burning lamps by
which the chambers are imperfectly lighted.
The construction* of both these descriptions of
temples was improved in later times, but no examples
remain of the ancient chaityas or built temples in
Ceylon, and those of the rock temples still existing
1 The King Walagambahu, who in I stone or cavetoflhe rocks in which he
his exile had been living amongst the had taken refuge to be mode more
focka in the wilderness, ascended the commodious." — Rii/avali, p. 234.
throne after defeating the Malahars ' Rqjaoati, p. 232.
(b.c. 104), and "caused th» houtt* of \
oyGoogIe
Chap. TIL] THE FINE ARTS. igfr
exhibit a very slight advance beyond the rudest attempts
at excavation.
On examining the cave temples of continental India,
they appear to exhibit three stages of progress, — first
mere unadorned cells, like those formed by Dasartha,
the grandson of Asoka, in the granite rocks of Behar,
about B.c. 200 ; next oblong apartments with a veran-
dah in front, like that of Ganesa, at Cuttack ; and lastly,
ample halls with colonnades separating the nave from the
aisles, and embellished externally with facades and agri-
cultural decorations, such as the caves of Karli, Ajunta,
and Ellora,1 But in Ceylon the earliest rock temples
were merely hollows beneath overhanging "rocks, like
those still existing at Dambool, and the Aluwihara at
Matelle, in both of which advantage has been taken of
the accidental shelter of rounded boulders, and an en-
trance constructed by applying a facade of masonry, de-
void of all pretensions to ornament.
Th€ utmost effort at excavation never appears to
have advanced beyond the second stage attained in
Bengal, — a small cell with a few columns to* support a
verandah in front ; and even of this but very few exam-
ples now exist in Ceylon, the most favourable being
the Galle-wihara. at Pollanarrua, which, according to the
Rajavali, was executed by Prakrama L, in the 12th
century.2
Taking into consideration the enthusiasm exhibited
by the kings of Ceylon, and the munificence displayed
by them in the exaltation and extension of Buddhism,
their failure to emulate the labours of its patrons in India
must be accounted for by the intractable nature of the
rocks with which they had to contend, the gneiss and
the Bock-cut Temptei of India,
! , ,,., cLlxxvii.
See Feeofs§on'b Illustrations of I 1845. and Handbook of Architecture,
Mock-cut Tempia of India, Lond. | ch. fa. p. 23.
Google
SCIENCES A1JD SOCIAL AET&
[PabtIV.
quartz of Ceylon being less favourable to such works than
the sandstone of Cuttack, or the trap formations of the
western ghauts.
Oilyainting. — In decorative art, carving and mould-
ing in chunam were the principal expedients resorted
to. Of this substance were also formed the "beads
resplendent like gems;" the "flower-ornaments" resem-
bling gold ; and the " festoons of pearls," that are more
than once mentioned in describing the interiors of the
palaces.1 Externally, painting was applied to the dago*
bas alone, as in the climate of Ceylon, exposure to the
rains would have been fatal to the duration of the colours,
if only mixed in tempera ; but the Singhalese, at a very
early period, were aware of the higher qualities possessed
by some of the vegetable oils. The chum of Van Eyck
to the invention of oil-painting in the 15th century, has
been Bhown to be untenable. Sir Charles L. Eastiake*
has adduced the evidence of jEtius of Diarbekir, to prove
that the use of oil in connection with art8 was known
before the 6th century ; and Dioscorides, who wrote
in the age of Augustus, has been hitherto regarded as
the most ancient authority on the drying properties of
walnut, aesamum, and poppy. But the Mahausanso
affords evidence of an earlier knowledge, and records
that in the 2nd century before Christ, " vermilion paint
mixed with tila oil,"4 was employed in the building of
the Buanwelle dagoba. This is, therefore, the earliest
testimony extant of the use of oil as a medium for paint-
fay of OH Painting, ch. i. p. 18.
3 Aetius B'BAiov larpiriv.
* Tila or tula is the Singhalese
name for sesamum from which the
natives express the ginfreli oil. Sib
Charles L, E+stlake is of opinion
that " Besamum cannot be called a
drying oil in the ordinary acceptation
of the term," but in this passage of
the Mahawauo, it is mentioned as
being used as a cement A question
has been raised in favour of the claim
of the Egyptians to the use of oil in
the decoration of their mummy cases,
but the probability is that they were
coloured in. tempera and then: per-
manency afterwards secured by »
oyGoogIe
Cbap. VII.] THE PINE ARTS. 491
ing, and till a higher claimant appears, the distinction
of the discovery may be permitted to rest with the
Singhalese.
Style of Ornament — In decorating the temporary tee,
which was placed on the Ruanwelle' dagoba, prior to its
completion, the square base was painted with a design
representing vases of flowers in the four panels, sur-
rounded by "ornaments radiating like the five fingers."1
TnTs description points to the " honeysuckle border,"
which, according to Fergusson, was adopted and carried
westward by the Greeks, and eastward by the Buddhist
architects.8 It appears upon the lat column at Allaha-
bad, which is inscribed with one of the edicts of Asoka,
issued in the 3rd century before Christ.
The spire itself was "painted with red stick-lac,"
probably the same prepara-
tion of vermilion as is \
used at the present day on
the lacquered ware of Bur- L
mah, Siam, and China,8 " raoM thb CAMTtL OF A Lvr
Gaudy colours appear at all
times to have been popular ; yellow, from its religious
associations, pre-eminently so4 ; and red lead was applied
to the exterior of dagobas.5 Bujas Raja, in the 4th cen-
tury, painted the walls and roof of the Brazen Palace
1 Mahairaruo, eh, xxxii. p. 193;
ch. nxviii. p. 258.
1 FERGnssON's Handbook of Archi-
tecture, vol. i. ch. ii. p. 7.
1 A species of lacquer painting is
practised with great success at the
present day in the Kandyan pro-
vinces, and especially at Matelle, the
colours being mixed with a resinous
exudation collected from a shrub
called by the Singhalese Wftl-koep-
petya (CWrfon lacciferum).
coloured varnish thus prepared is
formed into films and threads chiefly
by aid of the thumb-nail of the left
ig and uncut
for tne purpose, ft is then applied
by beat and •polished It is chiefly
employed in ornamenting the covers
of books, walking-sticks, the shafts of
spears, and the handles of fans for the
priesthood. The Burmese artists who
make the japanned ware of Ava, u»
the hand in laying on the lacquer —
which there, too, as well as in China,
is the produce of a tree, the Melano-
rhaa glabra of Wallicb.
* Oajaratnacari, p. 184.
1 Mahavxmto, ch. xxxiv. p. 212. -
oyGoogIe
4U2 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AKTS. [Pin IV-
blue1, and built a sacred edifice at Anarajapoora, which
from the variety and brilliancy of the colours with which
he ornamented the exterior, was known as the Monara
Paw Periwana, or Temple of the Peacock*
1 Rajavali, p. 201, The bine used I obtained by combining the first a
for this purpose was probably a pre- last
parationof indigo; the red, vermilion; ■ Hajavali, p. 73.
the yellow, orpunentj and green waa |
oyGoogIe
DOMESTIC LIFE.
Cihes. — Anarajapoora. — Striking evidences of the
state of civilisation in Ceylon are furnished by the de-
scriptions given, both by native "writers and by travellers,
of its cities as they appeared prior to the 8th century of
the Christian .era. The municipal organisation of Ana-
rajapoora, in the reign of Pandukabhaya, B.c. 437, may
be gathered from the notices in the Mahawanso, of the
" naggaraguttiko" who was conservator of the city, of the
" guards stationed in the suburbs," and of the " chan-
dalas," who acted as scavengers and carriers of corpses.
As a cemetery was attached to the city, interments must
have, frequently taken place, and the nichi-chandalas are
specially named as the " cemetery men ; " ' but the prac-
tice of cremation prevailed in the 2nd century before
Christ, and the body of Elala was burned on the spot
where he fell, B.c. 161.'
The capital at that time* contained the temples of
numerous religions, besides public gardens, and baths ;
to which were afterwards added^ halls for dancing and
music, ambulance halls, rest-houses for travellers 3, alms-
houses 4, and hospitals B; in which animals, as well as men,
were tenderly cared for. The "corn of a thousand fields"
was appropriated by one king for their use 6 ; another
set aside rice to feed the squirrels which frequented his
x. p. 06, 66. I * Rock inscription at Pollanamia,
" Ibid., ch. xiv. p. 155. A.D..1187.
1 Theserest-houseBjliketheChoul- * Hajaratnacari,p.W; Mahawanso,
tries of India, were constructed by ch. I. p. 67; Hardy's EutAern Mo-
private liberality along all the lead- nachism, p. 485.
mg highways and forest roads. "Oh I * Mahawanso, ch. Iiriii. Ufuam's
that I had in the wilderness a lodging- I version, vol. i. p. 246.
place of wayfaring men."— Jer. ix. 2. ;
•
4S4 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS. [Pa«t IV.
garden * ; and a third displayed his skill as a surgeon,
in treating the diseases of elephants, horses, and snakes.3
The streets contained shops and bazaars 3 ; and on festive
occasions, barbers and dressers were stationed at each
of the gates, for the convenience of those resorting
to the city.4
The Lankawistariyaye, or " Ceylon Illustrated," a
Singhalese work of the 7th century, gives a geogra-
phical summary of the three great divisions of the
island, Rohuna, Maya, and Pihiti, and dwells with
obvious satisfaction on the description of the capital of
that period. The details correspond so exactly with
another fragment of a native author, quoted by Major
Forbes5, that both seem to have been written at one and
the. same period ; they each describe the " temples and
palaces, whose golden pinnacles glitter in the sky, the
streets spanned by arches bearing flags, the side ways
strewn with black sand, and the middle sprinkled with
white, and on either side vessels containing flowers, and
niches with statues holding lamps. There are multi-
tudes of men armed with swords, and bows and arrows.
Elephants, horses, carts, and myriads of people pass and
repass, jugglers, dancers, and musicians of all nations,
with chank shells and other instruments ornamented
with gold. The distance from the principal gate to the
south gate is four gows ; and the same from the north
to the south gate. The principal streets are Moon
Street, Great King Street, Hinguruwak, and Mahnwelli
Streets, — the first containing eleven thousand houses,
many of them two stories in height. The smaller
streets are innumerable. The palace has large ranges
1 Mahavxmto, ch. xxxvii. p. 249. ecri prion of the ancient capital of the
' Ibid., p. 244, 246. , kings of Ayoudhya (Oude) that both
' Ibid., ch. xxiii.D. 189. seem to have been copied from that
1 Ibid., ch. xxvlii. p. 170; ch. portion of the Kamayano. See the
xxxiv. p. 214. translation by Carey and Marshnian,
1 Stolen 1'eare in Ceylon, vol. i. vol. i. p. 96, and the French version
p. 236. But there ia so close a re- of Fauche, torn. i. p. 66.
aemhlance in each author to the de-
oyGoogIe
Our. VID.] DOMESTIC LIFE. 495
of buildings, some of them two and three stories high,
and its subterranean apartments are of great extent"
The native descriptions of Anarajapoora, in the 7th
century, are corroborated by the testimony of the foreign
travellers who visited it about the same period. Fa Hian '
says, "The city is the residence of many magistrates,
grandees, and foreign merchants ; the mansions beautiful,
the public buildings richly adorned, the streets and high-
ways straight and level, and houses for preaching built at
every thoroughfare." ' The Leangsku, a Chinese history
of the Leang Dynasty, written between a.d. 507 — 509,
describing the cities of Ceylon at that period, says, " The
houses had upper stories, the walls were built of brick,
and secured by double gates." *
Carriages and Horses. — -Carriages 3 and chariots 4
are repeatedly mentioned, as being driven through the
principal cities, and carts and waggons were accustomed
to traverse the interior of the country.* At the same
time, the frequent allusions to the clearing of roads
through the forests, on the approach of persons of dis-
tinction, serve to show that the passage of wheel
carriages must have been effected with difficulty6, along
tracks prepared for the occasion, by freeing them of the
jungle and brushwood. The horse is not a native of
Ceylon, and those spoken of by the ancient writers
must have been imported from India and Arabia.
White horses were especially prized, and those men-
tioned with peculiar praises were of the "Sindhawo"
breed, a term which may either imply the place whence
1 Foi-koul-ki, eh. sxxviii. p. 334. I buy ginger and saffron" (Mahawanto,
1 Letmg-shu, B. liv. p. 10. ch. nviii. p. 167} ; and in the 3rd
a T. „ m Mahawanto, ch. xiv. j century after Christ a wheel chariot
B.C. 204, lb., ch. xii. was driven from the capital to the
carriage drawn by four i Kalaweva tank twenty nulea N.W. of
ationed, B.C. 1C1, Maha-m ■ Dambool. — Mafutwauo, ch. xxxyiii.
mi. v. 186. . p. 260. See ante, Vol II. p. 446.
* FoBBsa suggests that on such
journeys the carriages must have
been pushed by men, as horses could
not possibly have drawn them in the
hill country (vol. iL p. 86). •
leanaoj ch. it
4 B.C. 307,
p. 84 ; ch. xvi. p. 103.
* B.C. 161, "amerchan^of Anara-
japoora proceeded with carts to the
Malaya division near Adam's Peak to
DomzcdoyGoOglc
496 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS. [Part IV.
they were brought, or the swiftness of their speed.1 In
battle the soldiers rode chargers', and a passage in the
Makawanso shows that they managed them by means of
a rope passed through the nostril, which served as a
' bridle.8 Cosmas Indicopleustes, who Considered the
number of horses in Ceylon in the 6 th century to be a
fact of sufficient importance to be recorded, adds, that
they were imported from Persia,* and the merchants
bringing them were treated with special favour and
encouragement, their ships being exempted from all
dues and charges. Marco Polo found the export of
horses from Aden and Ormus to India going on with
activity in the 13th century.*
Domextk Furniture. — Of the furniture of the pri-
vate dwellings of the Singhalese, such notices as have
come down to us serve to show that their intercourse
with other Buddhist nations was not without its
influence on their domestic habits. Chairs6, raised
seats 6, footstools 7, and metal lamps fl, were articles com-
paratively unknown to the Hindus, and were obviously
imitated by the Singhalese from the East, froia China,
Siam, or Pegu.8 The custom which prevails to the
present day of covering a chair with a white cloth,
as an act of courtesy in honour of a visitor, was ob-
served with the same formalities two thousand yeare
ago.10 Rich beds11 and woollen carpets12 were in
. p. 182;
1 Siyhan, swift ; dhawa, to run ;
MafctwitMo, ch. xxiii. p. 142, 186.
1 Mahawaiuo. ch. xxii. p. 132 ;
ch. xxiii. 142.
1 The Prince Dutugatmunu, when
securing the mare which afterwards
carried him in the wax against Elala,
" seized her by the throat and boring
her nostril with the point of his
sword, secured her with his rope." —
Mnhair/mso, ch. X. p. 00.
4 Marco Polo, ch. xx. 6. ii. ;
ch. xi.
6 Mahcnoanto, ch. xiv. p. 80 ; ch.
XT. p. 84 ; Rajaratnacari, p. 134.
• Ibid., ch, xiii. p. 82.
' Ibid., xxrii. p. 104.
ch.
9 Nahavmnto,
ch. xxxii. p. 192.
9 Asiatic Reiearche*, Tol. vi. P-
437. Chairs are shown on the sculp-
tures of l'ersepolis ; and it is pro-
bably a remnant of Grecian civilisa-
tion in Bactria that chairs are ei-.ll
used by the mountaineers of Balk!)
and Bokhara.
10 b.c. 307, King Devenipiatissa
*aused a chair to be so prepared for
Mnhiodo.
11 Mahawanto, ch. xv. p. 84 ; fli.
xxiii. p. 120. A four-post bed is
mentioned, B.C. 180. Mahawan»,
ch. xxiv. p. 148?
11 Ibid., ch. xiv, p. 82.
^Google
Chap. VI II J FORM OP GOVERNMENT. 497
use at the same early period, and ivory was largely
employed in inlaying the more sumptuous articles.1
Coco-nut shells were used for cups and ladles2 ; earthen-
ware for jugs and drinking cups8; copper for water-
pots, oil-cans, and other utensils; and iron for razors,
needles, and nail-cutters.1 The pingo, formed of a lath
cut from the stem of the areca, or of the young coco-nut
palm, and still used as a yoke in carrying burdens,
existed at an early period6, in the same form in which
it is borne at the present day. It is identical with the
asilla, an instrument for the same purpose depicted on
works of Grecian art6 and on the monuments of Egypt.
Form of Government — The form of government was
at all times an unmitigated despotism ; the king had mi-
nisters, but only to relieve him of personal toil, and the
institution of Gam-sabes, or village municipalities, which
existed in every hamlet, however small, was merely a
miniature council of the peasants, in which they settled
all disputes about descent and proprietorship, and main-
tained the organisation essential to their peculiar tillage ;
facilitating at the same time the payment of dues to the
crown, both in taxes and labour.
Revenue. — The main sources of revenue were taxes,
> Mahamm»o, eh. xxvii. p. 163.
* Ibid., eh. ixvii. p. 164.
» JWrf.,ch. 3tv._p. 86.
* Rajaratnacari, p. 134. ■
» Ibid., p. 108. Tttie implement ia
identical with the " yoke ' bo often
mentioned in the Old and New Tes-
VOL. I. K K
tament as an emblem of bandage and
labour ; and figured^ with the same
aigmficance, on Grecian sculpture and
gems. See ante, Vol I. Pti. ch.iii.
p. 114.
• Ahdjtotls, Shet. i. 7.
oyGoogIe
4!)S SCIENCES ASD SOCIAL 1MB. [Put IV.
levied both on the land and its produce. These were
avowedly so oppressive in amount, that the merit of
having reduced or suspended their assessment was
thought worthy of being engraved on rocks by the
sovereigns who could claim it In the inscription at
the temple of Dambool, A.D. 1187, the king boasts of
having " enriched the inhabitants who had become im-
poverished by inordinate taxes, and made them opulent
by gifts of land, cattle, and slaves, by rehnquishing the
revenues for five years, and restoring inheritances,
and by annual donations of five times the weight of
the king's person in gold, precious stones, pearls, and
silver; and from an earnest wish that succeeding kings
should not again impoverish the inhabitants of Geyloii
by levying excessive imposts, he fixed the revenue at
a moderate amount, according to the fertility of th»
land"1
There was likewise an imperial tax upon produce, ori-
ginally a tenth, but subject to frequent variation.2 For
instance, in consideration of the ill-requited toil of fell-
ing the forest land, in order to take a crop of dry grain,
the soil being unequal to sustain continued cultivation,
the same king seeing that " those who laboured with
the bill-hook in clearing thorny jungles, earned their
livelihood distressfully," ordained that this chena culti-
vation, as it is called, should be for ever exempted from
taxation.
Army and Navy. — The military and naval forces of
Ceylon were chiefly composed of foreigners. The
genius of the native population was at all times averse
to arms; from the earliest ages, the soldiers employed
by the crown were mercenaries, and to this pecu-
liarity may be traced the first encouragement given to
the irruptions of the Malabars. These were employed
both on land and by sea in the third century before
1 Tuknoub's Epitome, App. p. 96 ; I * Rock inscription at Pollftnairua,
Mahawaiuo, ch. mif. p. 211. | A.D. 1187.
ayGoogIe
Chap. VIII.] ARMY AND NAVY. 409
Christ1 ; and it was not till the eleventh century of our
era, that a marine was organised for the defence of the
coast.2 #
The mode of raising a national force to make war
against the invaders, is described in the Mahawanso3 ;
the king issuing commands to ten warriors to enlist
each ten men, and each of this hundred in turn to
enrol ten more, and each of the new levy, ten others ;
until " the whole company embodied were eleven
thousand one hundred and ten."
The troops consisted of four classes : the " riders
on elephants, the cavalry, then those in chariots, and the
foot soldiers,"4 and this organisation continued till the
twelftn century.6
Their arms were " the five weapons of war," swords
spears, javelins, bows, and arrows, and a rope with a
noose, running in a metal ring called narachana.6 The
archers were the main strength of the army, and their
skill and dexterity are subjects of frequent eulogium.7
1 Mahawatwo, ch. xxi. p. 127.
a Ibid., ch. xxxix. ; TcHNOira'H
MS. Transl. p. 269.
1 Ibid., ch. xxiii. p. 144.
* Rajacali, p. 208. The una of ele-
phants in war is frequently adverted
to in the Mahawonto, en. xxv. p.
151-166, 4c.
5 See the inscription on the tablet
at Pollsnarrua, a.d. 1187.
* MaAawatuo, ch, vii. 48 ; ch. xxv.
p. 166.
7 One of the chiefs in the army of
Dutugaimunu, b.c. 100, is dseenbed
as combining all the excellences of the
craft, 'being at once a "sound archer,"
who shot by ear, when his object was
oat of sight ; "a lightning archer,"
whose arrow was as rapid as a
thunderbolt ; and a " sand- archer,"
who could send the shaft through
a cart filled with sand and through
hides an hundred-fold thick." — Ma-
hawatuo, ch. xxiii. p. 143. In one of
the legends connected with the early
life of Gotama, before he attained the
exaltation of Buddhahood, he is re-
E resented as displaying his strength
y taking "a bow which required
a thousand men to bend it, and
placing it against the toe of his right
foot without standing up, he drew
the string with his finger-nail." —
ILlrdt'8 Manual of Buddhwm, ch.
vii. p. 153. It is remarkable that
at the present day this ia the atti-
tude assumed by a Veddah, when
anxious to send an arrow with more
than ordinary force. The following
sketch is from a model in ebony
executed by a native carver.
I am not aware that examples
this mode of drawing the bow are
Google
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[PaitIY.
The Rajaratnacari Btates that the arrows of the
Malabars were sometimes " drenched with the poison
of serpents," to reader recovery impossible.1 Against
such weapons the Singhalese carried shields, some of
them covered with plates of the chank shell2; this shell
was also sounded in lieu of a trumpet8, and the disgrace
of retreat is implied by the expression that it ill becomes
a soldier to " allow his hair to fly behind."*
Civil Justice. — Civil justice- was entrusted to pro-
vincial judges6 ; but the King Kirti Nissanga, in the
great tablet inscribed with his exploits, which still
exists at Pollanarrua, has recorded that under the
belief that "robbers commit their crimes through
hunger for wealth, he gave them whatever riches they
required, thus relieving the country from the alarm of
their depredations."6 Torture was originally recognised
as a stage in the administration of the law, and in the
original organisation of the capital iu the fourth century
before Christ, a place for its infliction was established ad-
joining the place of execution and the cemetery.7 It was
abolished in the third century by King Wairatissa ; but
the frightful punishments of impaling and crushing by
elephants continued to the latest period of the Ceylon
monarchy.
be found on any ancient
Egyptian, Assyrian, Grecian, or Ro-
man ; but that it was regarded as
peculiar to the inhabitants of India
is shown by the fact that Ariuan
describes *it as something remark-
able in the Indiana in the age of
Alexander. "'OvXiowc ti rjjc 'ivtmn
oi<c itlri'if i7c T(,i~<it, &W of fiiv
rtloi aiiTtXm rityv ri cjovmv, to-ofitictE
iiri rijf ytfv flfvrft itni Tip rati r<p
Apioriptji ArrtfiarTtf, sG™c Isroitirovai,
rtjv vttipqv iwi lilya AgriVu Amyiiyav-
Ttf"— AJERIAK, Indicii, lib. xvi. At-
rinn adds that such was the force
with which their arrows travelled
that no substance was strong enough
to resist them, neither shield, breast-
plate, nor armour, all of which tbej
Knetrated. In the account of Broil,
Kidder and Fletcher, Philad.
1 850, p -658, the Indians of the Am**
zon are said to draw the bow with
the foot, and a figure is ginin of a
Caboclo archer in the attitude; but,
unlike the Veddah of Ceylon, the
American usee both feet
1 R qfarattiacari, p. 101.
a Rajamdi, p. 217.
* Mahawanto, ch, xxv. p. 164.
* Rajaivdi, p. 213.
' Inscriptions on the Great Tablet
at Pull on ami a.
* Ibid.
i, eh. x. p. 08.
Google
ASTEONOMT, ETC.
Education. — As the Brahmans had been the first to in-
troduce the practice of the mechanical arts, so they were
also the earliest instructors of youth in the rudiments of
general knowledge. Pandukabhaya, who was afterwarda
king, Was "educated in every accomplishment by Pandulo,
a Brahman, who taught him along with his own son."1 The
Buddhist priests became afterwards the national instructors,
and a passage in the Rajavali seems to imply that writing
was regarded as one of the distinctive accomplishments
of the priesthood, not often possessed by the laity, as it
mentions that the brother of the king of Kalany, in the
second century before Christ, had been taught to write
by a tirunansi, " and made such progress that he could
write as well as the tirunansi himself."2 The story in
the Rajavali of an intrigue which was discovered by
" the sound of the fall of a letter," shows that the mate-
rial then in use in the second century before Christ, was
the same as at the present day, the prepared leaf of a palm
tree.8
The most popular sovereigns were likewise the most
sedulous patrons of learning. Prakrama 1 founded
schools at Pollanarrua * ; and it is mentioned with due
praise in the Rajaratnacari, that the King Wijayo Bahu
HI., who reigned at Dambedenia, A.D. 1240, " esta-
blished a Bchool in every village, and charged the priests
who superintended them to take nothing from the pupils,
1 Mahamrouo, ch. x.. p. 60. I * MaJuneamo, ch. Ixxli. Upham'b
* Rajavali, p. 180. version, vol. i. p. 274,
1(1
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
fl02 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS. [Paw IV.
promising that he himself would, reward them for their
trouble." l
Amongst the propagators of a religion whose lead-
ing characteristics are its subtlety and abstractions, it
may naturally be inferred that argument and casuistry
held a prominent place in the curriculum of instruction.
In the story of Mahindo, and the conversion of the island
to Buddhism, the following display of logical acumen is
ostentatiously paraded as evidence of the highly cultivated
intellect of the neophyte king.z
For the purpose of ascertaining the capacity of the gifted
monarch, Mahindo thus interrogated him : —
" 0 king ; what is this tree called ?
"The Ambo.
" Besides this one, is there any other Ambo-tree ?
" There are many.
" Besides this Ambo, and those other Ambo-trees, are
there any other trees on the earth ?
" Lord ; there are many trees, but they are not Ambo-
trees.
" Besides the other Ambo-trees, and the trees that arc
not Ambo, is there any other?
" Gracious Lord, this Ambo-tree.
" Buler of men, thou art wise !
" Hast thou any relations, oh, king ?
" Lord, I have many. *
" King, are there any persons not thy relations ?
" There are many who are not my relations.
" Besides thy relations, and those who are not thy rela-
tions, is there, or is there not, any other human being in
existence ?
" Lord, there is myself.
" Euler of men, Sadhu ! thou art wise."
The course of education suitable for a prince in the
thirteenth century included what was technically termed
the eighteen sciences : " 1. oratory, 2. general know-
1 Jtigaratntu-ati, p. 90. ■ Mahawunso, ch. xiv. p. TO.
DoilzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IX.] A&TBOSOMY.
ledge, 3. grammar, 4. poetry, 5.
nomy, 7. tlie art of giving counsel, 8. the means of
attaining nirwana l, 9. the discrimination of good and evil,
10. shooting with the bow, 11. management of the ele-
phant, 12. penetration of thoughts, 13. discernment of
invisible beings, 14. etymology, 15. history, 16. law, 17.
rhetoric, 18. physic"2
Astronomy. — Although the Singhalese derived from the
Hindus their acquaintance, such as it was, with the
heavenly bodies and their movements, together with their
method of taking observations, and calculating eclipses 8,
yet in this list the term " astrology " would describe
better than " astronomy " the science practically cul-
tivated in Ceylon, which then, as now, had its professors
in every village to construct horoscopes, and cast the
nativities of the peasantry. Dutugaimunu, in the
second century before Christ, after his victory over
Elala, commended himself to his new subjects by his
fatherly care in providing " a doctor, an astronomer,
and a priest, for each group of sixteen villages through-
out the kingdom ; " * and he availed himself of the
services of- the astrologer to name the proper day of the
moon on which to lay the foundation of his great religious
structures.6
King Bujas Eaja,A.D. 339, increased his claim to popular
acknowledgment "by adding " an astrologer, a devil-dancer,
and a preacher."6 At the present day the astronomical
treatbes possessed by the Singhalese are, generally speak-
ing, borrowed, but with considerable variation, from the
Sanskrit7
1 " JVfrwano" is the state of sus-
pended flensntioa, which constitutes
the eternal bliss of the Buddhist in
i p. 100.
of the knowledge
by the early Hindus of
PBJKSTONE's Sidney of India daring
the Hindu and Huhuniedan Period*,
book iii. ch. i. p. 127.
* Jtajaratnaeari, p. 40..
* Makawatuo, ch. xxix. p. 100 —
173.
* Tctuioub'b Epitome, p. 27.
1 Hardy's Buddhism, ch. i. p. 2f.
oyGoogIc
004 8CIESCES AXD SOCIAL ABTS. [Paw IV
Medicine. — Another branch of royal education was
medicine. The Singhalese, from their intercourse with
the Hindus, had ample opportunities for acquiring a know-
ledge of this art, which was practised in India before it
was known either in Persia or Arabia ; and there is rea-
son to believe that the distinction of having been the
discoverers of chemistry which has been so long
awarded to the Arabs, might with greater justice have
been claimed for the Hindus. In point of antiquity the
works of Charak and Susruta on Surgery and Materia
Medica, belong to a period long anterior to Geber, and
the earliest writers of Arabia ; and served as authorities
both for them and the Mediaeval Greeks.1 Such was their
celebrity that two Hindu physicians, Manek and Saleb,
lived at Bagdad in the eighth century, at the court of
Haroun al Easchid.1
One of the edicts of Asoka engraved on the second
tablet at Oirnar, relates to the establishment of a
system of medical administration throughout his do-
minions, "as well as in the parts occupied by the
faithful race as far as Tambaparni (Ceylon), both
medical aid for men, and medical aid for animals, toge-
ther with medicaments of all sorts, suitable for animals
and men." 8
These injunctions of the Buddhist sovereign of
Magadha were religiously observed by many of the
kings of Ceylon. In the " register of deeds of piety " id
which Dutugaimunu, in the second century before Christ,
caused to be enrolled the numerous proofs of his de-
votion to the welfare of his subjects, it was recorded
that the king had "maintained at eighteen different
places, hospitals provided with suitable diet and medi-
cines prepared by medical practitioners for the infirm." *
In the second century of the Christian era, a physiciau
.' See Dr. Roitji'b Estay on the I s Journal Atiat. Sac. Sengal, vol
Antiquity of Hindu HixliriM, p. G4. rii. part i. p. 159.
5 Professor Dietz, quoted* by Dr. * JftAawamo, ch. ixiii. p. IOC
RoTLB. '
oyGoogIe
Chap. IX.] BOTANY. SOS
and a surgeon were borne on the establishments of the
great monasteries1, and even some of the sovereigns
acquired renown by the study and practice of physic.
On Bujas Eaja, who became king of Ceylon, A.D. 339,
the Mahawanso pronounces the eulogium, that he " pa-
tronised the virtuous, discountenanced the wicked, ren-
dered the indigent happy, and comforted the diseased
by providing medical relief." 2 He was the author of a
work on Surgery, which is still held in repute by his
countrymen ; he built hospitals for the sick and asylums
for the maimed, and the benefit of his science and skill
was not confined to his subjects alone, but was equally
extended to the relief of the lower animals, elephants,
horses, and other suffering creatures.
Botany. — The fact that the basis of their Materia
Medico, has been chiefly derived from the vegetable king-
dom, coupled, with the circumstance that their clothing
and food were Jaoth drawn from the same source, may
have served to give to tie Singhalese an early and
intimate knowledge of plants. It was at one time
believed that they were likewise possessed of a com-
plete and general botanical arrangement; but Moon,
whose attention was closely directed to this subject,
failed to discover any trace of a system ; and came
to the conclusion that, although well aware of the
various parts of a flower, and their apparent uses, they
never applied that knowledge to a distribution of plants
by classes or orders.8
Geometry. — The invention of geometry has been
ascribed to the Egyptians, who were annually obliged to
ascertain the extent to which their lands had been
affected by the inundations of the Nile, and to renew
the obliterated boundaries. A similar necessity led
to a like proficiency amongst the people of India and
1 Rock inscription at Mibintala, I * Mood's Catalogue of Indigenow
D. 262. and Exotic Float* grovmtg in Ceylon,
* Mahawtouo, ch. xUYii. p. 242- 4to. Colombo, 1824, p. 2.
245.
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS.
[Paet IV.
Ceylon, the minute subdivision of whose lands under
their system of irrigation necessitated frequent calcula-
tions for the definition of- limits and the division of the
crops.1
Lightning Conductors. — In connection with physical
science, a curious passage occurs in the Mahawanso which
gives rise to a conjecture that early in the third century
after Christ, the Singhalese had some dim idea of the
electrical nature of lightning, and a belief, however erro-
neous, of the possibility of protecting their buildings by
means of conductors.
The notices contained in Theophkastds and Pliny
show that the Greeks and the Romans were aware of the
quality of attraction exhibited by amber and tourmaline.2
The Etruscans, according to the early annalists of
Borne, possessed the power of invoking and compelling
thunder storms.8 Nuroa Pompilius would appear to
have anticipated Franklin by drawing, lightning from
the clouds ; and Tullus Hbstilius, his successor, was killed
by an explosion, whilst unskilfully attempting the same
experiment.*
Ctesias, a contemporary of Xenophon, spent much
of his life in Persia, and says that he twice saw the
king demonstrate the efficacy of an iron sword planted
in the ground in dispersing clouds, hail, and lightning 5 ;
'The " Suriya Sidhanta," gene-
rally assigned to the fifth or sixth
century, contains a system of Hindu
trigonometry, which not only goes
beyond any thing known to the
Greeks, but involves theorems that
were not discovered in Europe till
the sixteenth century. — Motfwt-
BTUABI ELFHINSTONE'S India, b. iii.
ch. i.p. 129.
1 The electrical snbstances " lyn-
- curium " and " theamedes " have each
been conjectured to be the "tourma-
line" which is found in Ceylon.
' "Velcogi fulminaTelinmetrari."
— PusY, Nat. Hist, lib. ii. ch. Iii.
* Ibid. There is an interesting
paper an the subject of the knowledge
of electricity possessed by the an-
cienta, by Dr. Falconkk in the
Memoirs of the Manchester iftifr-
sophicai Society, A.D. 1788, vol, iii.
p. 279.
5 Photifs, who has preserved the
fragment (BiW. lizii.), after quoting
the story of Ctebtas as to the iron in
Juestion being found in a mysterious
idian lake, adds, regarding the
sword, " #>|oi &' jrepi aiirov on xijyvi-
/<i»poc iv r$ fi vbfolK ™' X"*»?*IC *"'
xtntQTripwv iariv ajrorporawG. Kal
li.Tv aiirov rubra Qnvi ffamXkvc Sc
roapavrac." See Baehb's (taw
XeUgma, kc, p. 246, 271.
oyGoogIc
CHAP. IX.]
LIGHTA'ING CONDUCTOBS.
and the knowledge of conduction is implied by an ex-
pression of-LucAN, who makes Aruna, the Etrurian flamen,
concentrate the flashes of lightning and direct them
beneath the surface of the earth : —
" disperses fulminis ignea
Colligit, et terrm mceeto cum murmure eoiidit."
Phart. lib. i. v. 600.
There is scarcely an indication in any work that has
come down to us from the first to tie fifteenth cen-
tury, that the knowledge of auch phenomena survived
in the western world ; but the books of the Singhalese
contain allusions which demonstrate that in the third
and in the fifth century it was the practice in Ceylon
to apply mechanical devices with the hope of protecting
edifices from lightning.
The most remarkable of these passages occurs in
connection with the following subject. It will be
remembered that Dutugaimunu, by whom the great
dagoba, known as the Euanwelle", was built at Anara-
japoora, died during the progress of the work, B. c. 137,
the completion of which he entrusted to his brother and
successor Saidatissa. l The latest act of the dying
king was to form "the square capital on which the
spire was afterwards to be placed 2, and on each side of
this there was a representation of the sun." 8 The Ma-
hdwanso states briefly, that in obedience to his deceased
brother's wishes, Saidatissa, his successor, " completed
the pinnacle," * for which the square capital before alluded
to served as a base; — but the Dipawanso, a chronicle
older than die Mahawanso by a century and a half,
gives a minuter account of this stage of the work, and says
that this pinnacle, which Saidatissa erected between the
years 137 and 119 before Christ, was formed of glass.6
1 Mahaii-anno, ch. xxxii.
!B anfc, Vol. L Pt. in. ch. r.
* Ibid., ch. vud. p. 192.
» Ibid., ch. xuii. p. 193.
* Ibid., cb, xxxiii. p. 200.
1 "Karaperi khara-pindan malm
thupe varuttame." For this refer-
ence to the mpmcanso I tun indebted
to Mt^De Axwis of Colombo.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[Pam 17.
A subsequent king, Amanda, a.d. 20, fixed on the
spire a chatta (in imitation of the white umbrella, em-
blematic of royalty)1, and two centuries later, San-
ghatissa, who reigned A.D. 234 to 246, "caused this
chatta to be gilt, and set four gems in the centre of the
four emblems of the sun, each of which cost a lac." *
And now follows the passage which is interesting from
its reference, however obscure, to the electrical nature of
lightning. The Mahawanso continues : " he in like man-
ner placed a glass pinnacle on the spire to serve as a
protection against lightning." B
The term "wajira-chumbatan" in the original Pali,
which Turnouii has here rendered "a glass pinnacle,"
ought to be translated " a diamond hoop," both in this
passage and in another in the same book in which
it occurs.* The form assumed by the upper portion of
the dagoba would therefore resemble the annexed sketch.
1 MtOunoanxo, ch. xxiv. p. 215.
* Ibid., ch. xxxvi. p. 229.
* Ibid. . ch. xuvi. p. 220. This be-
lief in the power of averting light-
nine by mechanical means, prevailed
on the continent of India as well aa
in Ceylon, and one of the early Ben-
galeae histories of the temple of J ug-
gemauth, written between the years
a.I). 470 and a.d. 520, saya thatwhen
the building was completed, " aneef-
chukro was placed at the top of the
temple to prevent the falling of
thunderbolts?' In an account of the
modern temple which replaced this
ancient structure, it is stated that
" it bore a loadstone at the top, which,
as it drew vessels to land, was seized
and carried off two centuries ago
Bailors." — Ariat. Hes. vol. xv. ~
4 In describing the events in the
reign of Dhatu-Sena, the king at
whose instance and durin g whose re i gn
the Mahawanaa was written by his
uncle Mahanaino, between the years
■*.!>. 459, 477, the author, who was
contemporary with the occurrence he
relates, says, that " at the three prin-
cipal chetyas (dagobasj he made a
golden cbatta and n diamona hoop
{wajira-chimbaian) for each." — Ma-
p. fi27.
j, ch. ixxviii.p. 259. Similar
instances of gems being attached to
the ehattas of dagobas -are recorded
in the same work, ch. ilii. and elsc-
The original passage relative to
the diamond hoop placed by Sanghs-
tissa runs thus in Pali, " Wisun sata-
sahassagghfi chaturocha mahamanin
mnjjlie' chatiuinan suriyaSSn thapa-
pdsi mahipati ; l/uipaxsa nxuddhani
tntha anagghdrt irajira-ehumbaUm,"
which Mr. Dk Alwib translates :
" The king caused to be set four
gems, each of the value of a lac, in
the centre of the four emblems of the
sun, and likewise an invaluable ada-
mantine (or diamond) ring on the top
ofthethupa (the shrine)." Some diffi-
culty existed in Ttiknoce's mind aa to
the rendering to be given to these two
last words " loajira-chumhatan." Prof.
H. H. Wilson, to whom I have sub-
mitted the sentence, says, " Wqjira
is either ' diamond,' or ' adamant,' or
' the thunderbolt of Indra; "'and with
him the most learned Pali scholars in
Ceylon entirely concur ; De Sajux,
the Maha-Moodliar of the Governor's
Gate, the Rev. Mr. Gookrlt, Mr. He
Axwis, Pepole the High Priest of
oyGoogle
Chap. IX.] LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 809
The chief interest of the story centres in the words
" to serve as a protection
against lightning," which do
not belong to the metrical
text of the Makawanso, but
are taken from the expla-
natory notes appended to it.
I have stated elsewhere, that
it was the practice of authors
■who wrote in Pali verse, to
attach to the text a com-
mentary in prose, in order -
to illustrate the obscurities *•
incident to the obligations e
of rhythm. In this in- tiS
the Aegiria (who was Tuiutour'b
instructor in Pali), Wattegamine
Unkamse of Kimdv, Bullbtqamone
UnNANSEof Galle, Batuwamtudawe,
of Colombo, and lis SoYZA,the trans-
lator Moodliar to the Colonial Secre-
tary's Office. Mr. De Alwis says,
" 'l'iio epithet anagghan, 'invaluable'
of ' priceless/ immediately preceding
and qualifying wajira in the original
(tut omitted by Tumour in the
translation), shows that a substance
far more valuable than glass must
have been meant." " Chumbatan,"
Prof. Wilson supposed to be the Pali
equivalent to the Sanskrit chumbahatn,
"the kisser orattractor of steal;" ths
question, he says, is whether iiinjira
is to be considered an adjective or
part of a compound substantive,
whether the phrase is a diamond'
magnet pinnacle, or conductor, or a
conductor or attractor of the thunder-
bolt. Id the latter case it would
intimate that the Singhalese hsd amo-
tion of lightning conductors. Mr. Db
Alwis, however, and Mr. Gogbrly
agree that chumbafci is the same both
in Sanskrit and Pali, whilst chumbft&j
is a Pali compound, which means a
circular prop or support, a ring on
which something rests, or a roll of
cloth formed into a circle to form a
stand for a vessel ; so that the term
must be construed to mean a diamond
circlet, and the passage, transposing
the order of the words, will read
literally thus:
th»p*|>ei! Lath* muiMhiul thupuH
Turnour wrote bis translation whilst
residing at Kandy and with the aid
of the priests, who being ignorant of
English could only assist him to
Singhalese equivalents for Pali words.
Hence he was probably led into the
mistake of confounding wajira, which
signifies " diamond," or an instrument
for cutting diamonds, with the modern
word jcidiira, which bears the same
import but is colloquially used by
the Kandyans for "glass.*' However,
as glass as well as the diamond is an
insulator of electricity, the force of
the passage would be in no degree
altered whichever of the two sub-
stances was really particularised.
Tubitour was equally uncertain as
to the meaning of chumhatan, mhi<:\i
in one instance he has translated a
"pinnacle," and has left in the other
without any English equivalent, sim-
ply calling " wajira-chumbatan" a
"chumbatan of glass. "-
ch. xzzviii. p. 250.
..Google
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS.
[Pai
stance, the historian, who was the kinsman and intimate
friend of the king, by whose order the glass pinnacle
was raised in the fifth century, probably felt that
the stanza descriptive of the placing of the first of
those costly instruments in the reign of Sanghatissa,
required some elucidation, and therefore inserted a
passage in the " tika," by which his poem was accom-
panied, to explain that the motive of its erection was
"for the purpose of averting tfie dangers of lightning." 1
The two passages, taken in conjunction, leave no
room for doubt that the object in placing the diamond
hoop on the dagoba, was to turn aside the stroke of the
thunderbolt. But the question still remains, whether, at
that very early period, the people of Ceylon had a con-
ception, (however crude and erroneous,) of the nature
of electricity, and the relative powers of conducting and
non-conducting bodies, such as would induce them to place
a mistaken reliance upon the contrivance described, as
being calculated to ensure their personal safety ; or whe-
ther, as religious devotees, they presented it as a costly
offering to propitiate the mysterious power that con-
trols the elements. The tiling affixed was however so
insignificant in value, compared with the stupendous
edifice to be protected, that the latter supposition is
scarcely tenable : — the dagoba itself was an offering, on
the construction of which the wealth of a kingdom had
been lavished ; besides which it enshrined the holiest of
all conceivable objects — portions of the deified body of
Gotama Buddha himself ; and if these were not already
1 The explanatory sentence in the
" tika " la oa follows :
" Thupaasa muddhani tat qA naggha
wttjira-cWubatHJiti tathewe maha
thupaasa muddhani Batssahasaggha
nikan jnaha manincha patithapetwa
tassahetti asani upaddawa widdhansa
natthan ad ham walayamewa katwa
anaggha wajira-chumbatancha puje-
seti atho."
Mr. De Sarah and Mr. De Aiwia
concur in translating thia passage as
follows, " In like manner haying
placed a large gem, of a lac in value,
on the top of the great thnpa, he
fined below it, for tAe purpose of de-
stroying the dangers of lightning, an
invaluable diamond chuinbatan, hav-
ing made it
circular res
those in italics, Mr. TtfBNOCT e
bodied in his translation, hut placed
them between brockets to denote
tJiat they were a quotation.
ny Google
Chap. IX.] LIGHTNING CONDUCTOBS. 511
secured from the perils of lightning by their innate
sanctity, their safety could scarcely be enhanced by the
addition of a diamond hoop.
The conjecture is, therefore, forced on us, that the
Singhalese, in that remote era, had observed some phy-
sical facts, (or learned their existence from others,) which
suggested the idea that it might be practicable, by some,
mechanical device, to ward off the danger of lightning.
It is just possible that having ascertained that glass
or precious stones acted as insulators of electricity, it
may have occurred to them that one or both might be
employed as preservative charms. Modern science is
enabled promptly to condemn this reasoning, and to
pronounce that the expedient, so far from averting, would
fearfully add to the peril. But in the infancy of inquiry
the observation of effects precedes the comprehension of
causes, and whilst it is obvious that nothing attained by
the Singhalese in the third century anticipated the great
discoveries relative to the electric nature of lightning,
which were not announced till the seventeenth or
eighteenth, we cannot but feel that the contrivance
described in the Mahawanso was one likely to originate
amongst an ill-informed people, who had witnessed
certain phenomena the sources of which they were un-
able to trace, and from which they were incapable of
deducing any accurate conclusions. l
' I have been told that within a I surmount the lightning conductors
comparatively recent period It was of the Admiralty and some other
customary in this country, from some Government buildings with a glass
motive not altogether apparent, to summit.
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS.
CHAP. X.
SINGHALESE LITERATURE.
-The literature of the ancient Singhalese derived its
character from the hierarchic ascendancy, which was
fostered by their government, and exerted a prepon-
derant influence over the temperament of the people.
The Buddhist priesthood were the depositories of all
learning and the dispensers of all knowledge :— by the
obligation of their order the study of the classical Pah '
was rendered compulsory upon them2, and the books
which have come down to us show that they were at the
same time familiar with Sanskrit. They were employed
by royal command in compiling the national annals8, and
kings at various periods not only encouraged their la-
bours by endowments of lands*, but conferred distinction
on such pursuits by devoting their own attention to the
cultivation of poetry6, and the formation of libraries,8
• The books of the Singhalese are formed to-day, as they
have been for ages past, of olas or strips taken from the
young leaves of the Talipat or the Palmyra palm,
cut before they have acquired the dark shade and
strong texture which belong to the full-grown frond.'
1JWi, which ifl the language of
Buddhist literature in Siam, Ava, as
well fta in Ceylon, is, according to
Dr. Mill, "no other than the Ma-
a Prakrit, the classical form
enters as largely into the drama of
the Hindus, as did the Doric dialect
into the Attic tragedy of Ancient
Greece." In 1826 MM. Buhnouit
and Lassen published their learned
" Estai tur lePali," but the most am-
ple light was thrown upon its struc-
ture and history by the subsequent
— of Tn-RKOTJB, who,
in the introduction to his Tendon of
the Mahawaiito, has embodied a dis-
quisition on the antiquity of Pali m
compared with Sanskrit, (p. xxii.Sc-)'
8 Kajarcdnaaari, p. 106.
1 Ibid., p. 43-74.
* Had., p. US.
' BajavaU, p. 245 ; MtAoKmm,
eh. liv,, Lxxix.
6 Rajavaii, p. 244.
' The leaves of the Palmyra, simi-
larly prepared, are used for writing
of an ordinaiy kind, but the most
valuable books are written on the
Talipat. Sceante, Vol. I. Pt. i.eh. iii.
p. no.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chat. X.j
PREPARATION OP OLA8.
After undergoing a process (one stage of which consists
in Bteeping them in hot water and sometimes in milk) to
preserve their flexibility, they are" submitted to pressure
in order to render their surface uniformly smooth. They
are then cut into stripes of two or three inches in breadth,
and from one to three feet long. These are pierced with
two holes, one near each end, through which a cord is
passed, so as to secure them between two wooden covers,
lacquered and ornamented with coloured devices. The
leaves thus strung together and secured, form a book.
On these palm-leaves the custom is to write with an
iron stile held ■ nearly upright, and steadied by a nick
cut to receive it in the thumb-nail of the left hand.
The stile is sometimes richly ornamented,
like an arrow, and inlaid
with gold, one blade of
the feather serving as a
knife to trim the leaf pre-
paratory to writing. The
case is sometimes made
of carved ivory bound
with hoops of filigreed
silver.
The furrow made by the
pressure of the steel is ren-
dered visible by the appli-
cation of charcoal ground with a fragrant oil1, to the
odour of which the natives ascribe the remarkable state
of preservation in which their most sacred books are
found, its aromatic properties securing the leaves from
destruction by white ants and other insects.2
1 For this purpose a renin is used,
called dmtmia by the natives, who
dig it up from beneath the surface
of lands from which the forest has
disappeared.
* In Ceylon there are a few Budd-
hist books brought from Burmah, in
which the text is inscribed on plates ' which
VOL I.
of silver. I have seen others on
leaves of ivory, and some belonging
to the Dalada Wihara, at Handy,
are engraved on gold. The earliest
grants of lands, called latmae, were
written on palm- -leaves, but a
rfOyGOOglC
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[Bun IV.
The wiharas and monasteries of the Buddhist priest-
hood are the only depositaries in Ceylon of the national
literature, and in these Bre to be found quantities of ola
books on an infinity of subjects, some of them, especially
those relating to religion and ecclesiastical history, being
of the remotest antiquity.
Works of the latter class are chiefly written in Pali.
Treatises on astronomy, mathematics, and physics are
almost exclusively in Sanskrit, whilst those on general
literature, being comparatively recent, are composed in
Elu, a dialect which differs from the colloquial Sin-
gljalese rather in style than in structure, having been
liberally enriched by incorporation from Sanskrit and
Pali1 But of the works which have come down to
us, ancient as well as modern, so great is the pre-
ponderance of those in Pali and Sanskrit, that the
Singhalese can scarcely be said to have a literature in
their national dialect ; and in the books which they do pos-
sess, so utter is the dearth of invention or originality, that
almost all which are not either ballads or compilations,
are translations from one or other of the two learned
L Pali. — Works in Pali are written, like those
of Burmah and Siam, not in Nagari or any peculiar
character, but in the vernacular alphabet Of these,
as might naturally be expected, the vast majority are on
subjects connected with Buddhism, and next to them
in point of number are grammars and grammatical com-
mentaries.
The original of the great Pali grammar of Eachcha-
cnrds that TT'ig Prakrama Bahu I.
made it a rule that " when permanent
grants of land -wore to be made to
those who had performed
, euch behests should not be
evanescent like lines drawn on water,
by being inscribed on leaves to be
destroyed by rate and whito ants,
but engraved on plates of copper, ao
aa to endure to posterity."
1 Tubsoub'b Introd. to the Moha-
wrmto, p. JtiiL A critical account of
the Elu will be found in an able
and learned essay on the language
and literature of Ceylon by Mr. J,
De Alwis, prefixed to his English
translation of the Sidath Stmgara, a
grammar of Singhalese, written in
the fourteenth century. Colombo,
1852. Introd. p. xxvii. xxsvii.
oyGoogIe
Chap. X.] LITERATURE. 615
yano is now lost, but its principles survive in nu-
merous text-books and treatises, written at succeeding
periods to replace it1 Such is the passion for versifi-
cation, probably as an assistant to memory, that nearly
every Singhalese work, ancient as well as 'modern, is com-
posed in rhyme, and even the repulsive abstractions of
Syntax have found an Alvarez and been enveloped in
metrical disguise.
Of the sacred writings in Pali, the most renowned are
the Pitakattayan, literally "The Thrfee Baskets," which
embody the doctrines, discourses, and discipline of the
Buddhists, and so voluminous is this collection that its
contents extend to 592,000 stanzas ; and the Atthakatha
or commentaries, which are as old as the fifth century 2,
contain 361,550 more. From their voluminousness, the
■pittakas are seldom to be seen complete, but there are
few of the superior temples in which one or more of the
separate books may not be found.
The most popular portion of the Pittakas are the
legendary tales, which profess to have been related by
Gotamo Buddha himself, in his Sutras or discourses, and
were collected under the title of Pansiya-panas-jataka-
pota, or the " Five hundred and fifty Births." The series
is designed to commemorate events in his own career,
during the states of existence through which he passed
preparatory to his reception of the Buddhahood. In
1 The Rev. E. Spbscb TIabdt, to
whom I am indebted for much valu-
able information on the subject of
the literature current at the present
day in Ceylon, published a list in the
Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the
Asiatic Society for 1848, in which he
Ct he titles of 407 works in Pali,
■Tit, and Elu, collected by him-
self during hia residence in Ceylon.
.Of these about 80 are in Sanskrit,
160 in Elu (or Singhalese), and the
remainder in Pali, either with or
without translations. Of the Pali
books 28 are either grammars or
treatises on grammar.
This catalogue of Mr. Hardy is,
however, by no means to be re-
garded as perfect; not only because
several are omitted, but because
many are but excerpts from larger
works. The titles are seldom de-
scriptive of the contents, hut in
true Oriental taste are drawn from
emblems and figures, such as" I jght,"
" Gems," and " Flowers." The au-
thors' names are rarely known, and
the language or style seldom affords
an indication of the age of the com-
* They were translated into Pali
from Singhalese by Buddhaghoso,
oyGoogIe
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[Pi*r IV.
structure and contents these bear a striking resemblance
to the Jewish Talmud, combining, with aphorisms and
maxims, philological explanations of the divine test,
stories illustrative of its doctrines, into which not only
saints and heroes, but also animals and inanimate ob-
jects, are introduced, and not a few of the fables that
pass as iEsop's are to be found in the Jatakas of Ceylon.
There are translations into Singhalese of the greater part
of its contents, and so attractive are its narratives that the
natives will listen the livelong night to recitations from
its pages.1
The other Pati works 2 embrace subjects in connection
with cosmography and the Buddhist theories of the uni-
verse ; the distinctions of caste, topographical narratives,
a few disquisitions on medicine, and books which, like
the Milindaprasna, or " Questions of Milinda," 8 without
being canonical give an orthodox summary of the national
religion.
But the chefs-d'ceuvre of Pali literature are their chro-
nicles, the Dipawanso, Makawanso, and others ; "of which
the most important by far is the Mahawanso and its
tikas or commentaries. It stands at the head of the
historical literature of the East; unrivalled by any-
thing extant in Hindustan4, the wildness of whose chro-
> Hardy's Buddhism, ch. v. p. 08.
8 A lucid account of the principal
Pali works in connection with reli-
gioD will be found in the Appendix
to Hardy's Manual of Buddhism,
p. 609, and in Hardy's Eastern
Monachism, pp. 27, 315.
■ The title of this popular work
has given rise to a very curious con-
jecture of Tumour's. It professes to
contain the dialectic controversies of
Naga-sena, through whose instru-
mentality Buddhism- was introduced
into Kashmir, with Milinda, who was
the Raja of an adjoining country,
called Sagala, near the junction of
the rivers Ravi and Chenab. These
discussions must have taken place
about the year B.C. 43. Now Sagala
is identical with Sangala, the people
of which, according to Arrian, made
a bold resistance to the advance of
Alexander the Great beyond the
Hydraotes; and it has been sup-
posed by Sir Alexander Bumes tn
nave occupied the site of Lahore.
Its sovereign, therefore, who em-
braced the doctrines of Buddha, was
probably an Asiatic Greek, and To-
kottr augoests that the " You " or
"Yonicaa who, according to the
Milinda-prasna, formed his body-
guard, were either Greeks or tim
descendants of Greeks from Ionia,.
— Journ. Asiat. Soe. Beng., y. 54);
Hardt's Manual of Buddhism, p.
512; RrasiUD, Mtmoire sur link.
p. 65.
* Labsen, IridU. AM.,foL ii. p. 13
-15.
oyGoogIe
Ohav XJ f* LITERATURE. 517
nology it controls ; and unsurpassed, if it be equalled,
by the native annals of China or Kashmir. So conscious
were the Singhalese kings of the value of this national
monument, that its continuation was an object of royal
soHcitude to successive dynasties1 from the third to
the thirteenth century ; and even in the decay of the
monarchy the compilation was performed in A.D. 1696,
by an unknown hand, and, finally, brought down to
a.d. 1758 by order of one of the last of the Kandyan
kings.
Of the chronicles thus carefully constructed, which
exhibit in their marvellously preserved leaves the
■study and' elaboration of upwards of twelve hundred
years, Prinsep, supreme as an authority, declared
that they served to "clear away the chief of dif-
ficulties in Indian genealogies, which seem to have
been intentionally falsified by the Brahmans and thrown
back into remote antiquity, in order to confound their
Buddhist rivals." 2
But they display in their mysterious rhymes few
facts or revelations to repay the ordinary reader for
the labour of their perusal. Written exclusively by
the Buddhist priesthood, they present the meagre cha-
racteristics of the soulless system which it is their
purpose to extoL No occurrence finds a record in
their pages which does not tend to exalt the genius of
BuHdhism or commemorate the acts of its patrons :
the reigns of the monarchs who erected temples for its
worship, or consecrated shrines for its relics, are traced
■ with tiresome precision ; even where their accession
1 CosmabIhtjico-pletjbtk^Edeist,
Abotj-zeyd, and almost all the tra-
-vellers and geographers of the middle
ages, have related, as a trait of the
native rulers of Ceylon, their em-
ployment of annalists to record the
history df the kingdom. — Edeisi,
aim. I sec8,j». 3. .
* Pbirsbp, in a private letter to
Tumour, in 1830, speaking of the
singular value of the Mahaicanso in
collating the* chronology of India,
says, "had your Buddhist chronicles
been accessible to Sir "W. Jones and
Wilford, they would have been
greedily seized to correct anomalies
at every stop."
DomzcdoyGoOglc
SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ARTS.
[PakIV.
was achieved by usurpation and murder, their lives
are extolled for piety, provided they ■were charac-
terised by liberality to the church..; whilst those
alone are stigmatised as impious and consigned to
long continued torments, whose reigns are undis-
tinguished by acts conducive to the* exaltation of the
national worship.1
The invasions which disturbed the tranquillity of the
throne, and the schisms which rent the unity of the
church, are described with painful elaboration ; but we
search in vain for any instructive notices of the people
or of their pursuits, for any details of their social con-
dition or illustration of then* intellectual progress.
Although the commerce of all nations swept for
ages along the shores of Ceylon, and the ships of
China and Arabia made its ports their emporiums;
the national chronicles, whose compilation was an
object of solicitude to successive dynasties, are silent
regarding such adventurous expeditions; and utterly
indifferent to all that did not affect the progress of
Buddhism or minister to the * interests of the priest-
hood.8
1 Asok^ " who put to death one
hundred brothers," to secure the
throne to himself, is described in the
Ufahawanto, ch. y. p. 21, as a prince
"of pietvaiid mipprnatural wisdom."
Even Malabar infidels, who assassi-
nated the Buddhist kings,
tolled as " righteous
(Mahawtouo, ch. xxi. p. _
Buddhist king who caused a priest
to be put to death who was believed
to be guilty of a serious crime, is
consigned by the RiyaiKiIi to a hell
with a copper roof " bo hot that the
waters of the sea are dried as they
roll above it." — Jtajavali, p. 192.
1 It has been surmised that in the
intercourse which subsisted between
India and the western world by way
of Alexandria and Persia, and which
did not decline till the sixth or seventh
Century, the influences of Nestorian
Christianity may have left their im-
press on the genius and literature
of Buddhism ; and in the legends
of its historians one is struck by
the many passages that suraest a
similarity to events recorded in the
Jewish Scriptures. The coincidence
may also be accounted for by the
close proximity of a Jewish ^ace in
Afghanistan (the descendants of
those carried away into captivity by
Shshnanasar) which eventually ex-
tended itself along the west coast of
India, and became the progenitors
of the Hebrew colony that still in-
habits the south of the Dekkan near
Cochin, and known as the "Black
Jews of Malabar." The influence of
this immigration is perceptible in tlw
sacred books, both of the Brshmans
and Buddhists ; the laws of Menu
present some striking resemblances
to the tnw of Moses, and it was pro-
bably from a knowledge of the can'
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chat. X.] LITERATURE. SI9
U. Sanskrit. — In Sanskrit or tranalatioas from it,
the SinghaleBe have preserved their principal
tenw of thaHebrowrollsatill possessed
by this remnant of the dispersion that
the Buddhists borrowed the Humo-
rous incidents which wif find re-pro-
duced in the historical books of
Ceylon. Thus tie aborigines, when
subdued by their Bengal invaders,
wore forced, like the Israelites, by
. their masters "to make bricks for
the construction of their stupendous
edifices (Mahawanio, ch. xxviii.).
On the occasion of building the
great dogoba, the Rnanwelfe, at
Anarajapoora, B.C. 161, the materials
e all prepared at a distance, and
brought ready to be deposited
their places (JtaAatcaiuo, '■' '
n the occasion of building the first
temple at Jerusalem, "the stone was.
made ready before it was brought, so
that there was neither hammer, nor
axe, nor any tool of iron heard whilst
it was building." The parting of
the Red Sea to permit the march of
the fugitive Hebrews has its counter-
Srt in the exploit of the King Gaja
thu, A.d. 100, who, when marching
his army to the coast of India, in
order to bring back the Singhalese,
from captivity in Chola, " smote the
waters of the sea till they parted, so
that he and his army marched through
without wetting the soles of their
feet" — Rmaratnacari, p. 59. King
Maha Sen (a.d. 275), seeking a relic,
had the mantle of Buddha lowered
down from heaven : and Buddha
had, previously, in designating Kas-
yapa as his successor, transmitted
to him his robe as Khjah let foil
his mantle upon 1-lialift (Rtyauali,
p. 238; HABDI'S Oriental Motta-
cAum, p. 118.) There is a resem-
blance too between the apotheosis
of Dutucoimunu and the translation
of Elijah when "in a chariot and
horses of fire he went up into
heaven" (2 Kings, ii. 11); — accord'
ing to the Mahawtmto, ch. iiii. p. 190,
when the Singhalese king was dying,
a chariot was seen descending from
the sky and his disembodied spirit
" manifested itself standing in the car
in which be drove thrice round the
great shrine, and then bowing down
to the attendant priesthood, ne de-
parted for tusita" (the Buddhists'
heaven). The ceremonial and dog-
matic coincidences are equally re-
markable , — constant allusion is made
to the practice of the kings to '■ wash
the feet of the priests and anoint
them with oil." — Mahawanao, ch.xxv.
— xzx. In conformity with the
denunciation that the sins of the
fathers were to be visited on the
children) the Jews inquired whether
a " man's . parents did commit Bin
that he waa born blind P " (John, ix.
8) ; and in like manner, in the
Itajavali, " the perjury of W'ijayo
(who had repudiated his wife after
swearing fidelity to her) was visited
on the person of the King Pandu-
wasa," his nephew, who was afflicted
with insanity in consequence (Bqja-
vuli, pp. 174—178). The account in
the liajaratnacart of King Batiya
Tissa (B.C. 20), who was enabled to
enter the R.uanwelle' dagoba by the
secret passage known only to the
priests, and to discover their wealth
and treasures deposited within, has
a close resemblance to the descent
of Daniel and King Astyages into
the temple of Bel, by the privy en-
trance under the table, whereby the
priests entered and consumed the
offerings made to the idol (Bel and
the Dragon, Apocryp. ch. i. — xiii. ;
Rxgaratwcari, p. 45). The inex-
tinguishable fire which was for ever
burning on the altar of God (Le-
viticus, ch. vi. 18) Tesembles the
lamps that burned for 5000 years
continually in honour of Buddha
(Mahamamo, ch. lxxxi. ; Kajaratno-
cari, p. 49); and these again had their
imitators in the lamp of Minerva,
which was never permitted to go out
in the temple at Athens; and in the
Xujfvoif aojiitrroi; which was for ever
burning in the temple of Amnion.
The miracle of feeding the multitude
by our Saviour upon a few loaves
and fishes, is repeated in the Maim-
oyGoogIc
o20 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AETS. [Pabt IV.
on pliysical science, cosmography, materia medica, and
Burgery. From it, too, they have borrowed the limited
knowledge of astronomy, possessed by the individuals
who combined with astrology and the casting of nati-
vities, the practice of palmistry and the interpretation
of dreams. In Sanskrit, they have treatises on music
and painting, on versification and philology ; and their
translations include a Singhalese version of those por-
tions of the Ramayana, which commemorate the con- .
quest of Lanka.
HL Eld and Singhalese. — There is no more
striking evidence of. the intellectual inferiority of the
modern, as compared with the ancient inhabitants of
Ceylon, than is afforded by the popular literature of
the latter, and the contrast it presents to the works of
former ages. Descending from the gravity of religions
disquisition and the dignity of history and science, the
authors of later times have been content to limit
their efforts to works of fiction and amusement, and to
ballads and doggerel descriptions of places or passing
events.
But, to the credit of the Singhalese, it must be
wanso, where a divinely endowed
princess fed Pandukabhaya, B.C. 437,
uid five hundred of his followers
with the repast which she was taking
to her father and his reapers, .the re-
freshment being " scarcely diminished
in quantity as if one person only
had eaten therefrom." — Mahawanto,
ch. x. p. 62. The preparation of the
high road for the procession of the
sacred bo-tree after its landing (Jfa-
hawan&o, ch. xix. p. 116), and the
order to clear a road through the
wilderness for the march of the king
at the inauguration of Buddhism,
recall the words of the prophet,
"Prepare ye the way of the Lord,
make straight a highway in the
desert" (Isaiah, xL 8.) And we
rtb reminded of the prophecy of
Isaiah as to the kingdom of peace, in
which " the leopard shall he down
with the kid and the calf with the lion,
and a young child shall lead them,"
by the Singhalese historians, in de-
scribing the religious repose of the
kingdom of Asoka under the in-
fluence of the religion of Buddha,
where "the elk and the wild hog
were the guardians of the gardens
and fields, and the tiger led forth the
cattle to graze and reconducted them
in safety to their pens." — Maha-
wanto, ch. v. p. 22. The narrative
of the "judgment of Solomon," in
the matter of the contested child
(1 Kings, ch. iiL), has its parallel in
a story in every respect similar in
the PanByiapanas-jataka. — Robert's
Orient. fUtrntr. p. 191.
ny Google
Chap. X.] UTEEATUEB. flSr
said, that their compositions, however satirical or
familiar they may be, are entirely free from the
licentiousness which disfigures similar productions in
India; and that if deficient in imagination and grace,
their verses are equally exempt from grossness and
indelicacy.
The Singhalese language is so flexible that it admits
of every description of rhythm ; of this the versifiers
have availed themselves to exhibit every variety of
stanza and measure, and every native, male or female,
can recite numbers of their favourite ballads. Their
graver productions consist of poems in honour, not of
Buddha alone, but of deities taken from the Hindu
Pantheon, — Patine, Siva, and Ganesa, panegyrics
upon almsgiving, and couplets embodying aphorisms
and morals.
A considerable number of the Sutraa or Discourses
of Buddha have been translated into the vernacular
from Pali, but the most popular of all are the jatakas,
the Singhalese versions of which are so extended, that
one copy alone fills 2000 olas or palm leaves, each
twenty-nine inches in length and containing nine lines
in a page.
The other works in Singhalese are on subjects con-
nected with history, such as the Rajavali and Rajarat-
nacari, on grammar and lexicography, on medicine,
topography, and other analogous subjects. But in
all their productions, though invested with the trap-
pings of verse, there is an avoidance alike of what
is practical and true, and an absence of all that is in-
ventive and poetic. They contain nothing that appeals
to the heart or the affections, and their* efforts of
imagination aspire not to please or to elevate, but to
astonish and bewilder by exaggeration and fable.
Their poverty of resources leads to endless repetitions
of the same epithets and incidents ; books are multiplied
at the present day chiefly by extracts from works of
oyGoogIe
ff23 SCIENCES AND SOCIAL ABTS. [Put IT.
established popularity, and the number of qualified
writers is becoming annually less .from the altered cir-
cumstances of the island and the decline of those
institutions and proBpecta which formerly stimulated the
ambition of the Buddhist priesthood, and inspired a
love of Btudy and learning.
oyGoogIe
BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WOHSHIP.1
It is difficult to attempt any condensed, and at the same
time perspicuous, sketch of the national religion of Ceylon
— ■ a difficulty which arises not merely from the volumi-
nous obscurity of its sacred history and records ; but still
more from confusion in the variety of forms under which
Buddhism exhibits itself in various localities, and the
divergences of opinion which prevail as to its tenets
and belief. The antiquity of its worship is so extreme,
that doubts still hang over its origin and its chronological
relations to the religion of Brahma. Whether it took its
rise in Hindustan, or in countries farther to the West, and
whether Buddhism was the original doctrine of which
Brahmanism became a corruption, or Brahmanism the
original and Buddhism an effort to restore it to its
pristine purity % are questions which have yet to be
1 The details of the following
chapter have been principally taken
from Sir J. Emebbou Tvsheht'h
Christianity in Cfylon, ch. v.
1 Those early writers on the reli-
gions of India who drew their infor-
mation exclusively from Brahmanicot
sources, incline to favour the preten-
sions of that system as the most an-
cient of the two. Klaproth, a profound
authority, was of this opinion ; but in
later times the translations of the
Pali records and other sacred volumes
of Buddhism in Western India, Cey-
lon, and Nepal, have inclined the
preponderance of opinion, if not in
favour of the superior antiquity of
Buddhism, at least in support of
its contemporaneous development.
A summary of the arguments in
" Notes," %. , by Colonel Stkes, in
the 13th volume of the Aatatia
Journal — and in the JSssai sar
P Origine del Prmcipaux Peaples An-
cient, par F. 'L. M. Maotied,
chap. viii. The arguments on the
side of those who look on Brahman-
ism as the original, ore given by
MomrrsTUABT Elphtjjstone In his
History of India, vol. i. b. ii. c 4.
An able disquisition will be found in
Max MUllek's History of Sanskrit
Literature, pp. 33, 260, Ac. Mr.
Goof.rly, the most accomplished
student of Buddhism in Ceylon, says
its sacred hooks expressly d emonstrate
that its doctrines hod been preached
by the twenty-four Buddhas who
DomzcdoyGoOgle
824 BUDDHISM AND DEMON WORSHIP. [Fabt IV.
adjusted by the results of Oriental research.1 It is, how-
ever, established by a concurrence of historical proofs,
that many centuries before the era of Christianity the
doctrines of Buddha were enthusiastically cultivated in
Bahar, the Magadka, or country of the Magas, whose mo-
dern name is identified with the Wiharas or monasteries of
Buddhism. Thence its teachers diffused themselves ex-
tensively throughout India and the countries to the east-
ward ; — upwards of two thousand years ago it became the
national religion of Ceylon and the Indian Archipelago ;
and its tenets have been adopted throughout the vast re-
gions which extend from Siberia to Siam, and from the
Bay of Bengal to the western shores of the Pacific*
Looking to its influence at the present day over at
least three hundred and fifty millions "of human beings
— exceeding one-third of the human race — it is no ex-
aggeration to say that the religion of Buddha is the most
widely diffused that now exists, or that has ever existed
since the creation of mankind.8
had lived prior to Gotama, in
periods incredibly remote ; but that
they had entirely disappeared at
the time of Gotama's birth, 80
that he re-discovered the whole,
and reiived an extinguished or
nearly extinct school of philoso-
phy.— Ifolet on Buddhitm by the
Rev. Mr. Gogebxy, Appendix to
Lee's Translation of Kibeyro, p.
266.
1 The celebrated temple of Som-
nauth was originally a Buddhist
foundaton, and in the worship of
Joggernath, to whose orgies all ranks
are admitted without distinction of
caste, there mar still be traced an
influence of Buddhism, if not a direct
Buddnisticsl origin. Colonel Sykes
is of opinion that the sacred tooth of
Buddha was at one time deposited
and worshipped in the great Temple
of Kalinga, now dedicated to Jngger-
nath, by the Princes of Orissa, who
in the fourth century professed the
Buddhist religion. (Colonel Syxes,
Note*. &c, Asiatic Journal, vol. xiL
pp. 275, 317, 420.)
1 Fa Hiak declares that in the
whole of India, including Affghsuisten
and Bokhara, he found in the fourth
century a Buddhist people and
dynasty, with traditions of its endur-
ance for the preceding thousand years.
" As to Hindustan itself, he says,
from the time of leaving the deserts
(of Jaysulmeer and Bikaneer) and
the -river (Jumna) to the west, nil the
king* of the different kingdom* in
India are firmly attached to the law of
Buddha, and when they do honour to
the ecclesiastics they take off their
diadems." — See also Mat/pim), E**ai
»ur T Origins det 1'rincipaux Peyile*
Ancient, chap. ix.P- 209.
* See ante, p. 320. So ample are
the materials offered by Buddhism
foT antiquarian research, that its doc-
trines bave been sought to be iden-
tified at once with the Asiatic philo-
sophy and with the myths of the
Scandinavians. Buddha has been at
oyGoogle
Chap. XI.] BBAHMANISM TRIUMPHS OVER BUDDHISM. 525
•From the earliest period of Indian tradition, the strug-
gle between the religion of Buddha and that of Brahma
was carried on with a fanaticism and perseverance which
resulted in the ascendancy of the Brahmans, perhaps about
the commencement of the Christian era, and the eventual
expulsion some centuries later of the worship of their
rivals from Hindustan ; but at what precise time the latter
catastrophe was consummated has not been' recorded in
the annals of either sect.1
That Buddhism thus dispersed over eastern and central
Asia became an active agent in the promotion of whatever
civilisation afterwards enlightened the races by whom
its doctrines were embraced, seems to rest upon evidence
admitting of no reasonable doubt The introduction
of Buddhism into China is ascertained to have been con-
one time conjectured to be the Woden
of the Scythians; at another the
prophet Daniel, whom Nebuchad-
nezzar had created master of the
astrologers, or chief priest of the Magi,
as the title is rendered in the Septua-
gint — Apxoi/ra Maya;*. An anti-
quarian of Wales, in devising a
pedigree for the Cymri, has imported
ancestors for the ancient Britons from
Ceylon; and a writer in the Asiatic
Researches, in 1807, as a preamble to
the proof that the binomial theorem
was familiar to the Hindus, has
traced Western civilisation to an
mans, and declared Stonehenge to be
"one of the temples of Boodh."
(Asiat. Jfesv to), ii. p. 448.) A still
m ore recent in r esti gator, M. M a l* vie d,
has collected, in his Ruai aw- V Origins
ties Peupies Ancient, wB at he considers
to be the evidence that Buddhism
maybe indebted for its appearance in
India to the captivity of the Jews by
Shalmanezar, B.c 729 (or according to
Bosanquet, 711 B.C.) to their disper-
sion by Assar-Addon at a still more
recent period; to their captivity in
Babylon, b.c. 560, or 606 b.o. ; their
diffusion over Media and the East,
Persia, Bactria, Thibet, and China,
and the communication of their sacred
book to the nations amongst whom
they thus became sojourners. He ven-
tures even to suggest a possible iden-
tity between the names Jehovah and
Buddha: " Les voyclles du mot
Bouddha eont les memos que celles
du mot Jehovah, qu'on prononce
aussi Jouva ; main d ailleurs le nom
de Boudda a bien pu Stre tire du mot
Jeoudda Juda, le dieu de Joudda
Boudda." — Chap. is. p. 236. To
account for the purer morals of Budd-
hism, Maupied has recourse to the
conjecture that they may have been
influenced* by the preaching of St.
Thomas at Ceylon, and Bartholomew
on the continent of India. " Or ii
nous icmble lot/it/uc de conclure de tous
ces fails que le Bouddhisme, data tee
doctrine/ etsentielles, est dorigine Juive
et Chritietme ; consequence inattendue
pour la plus grandepartie de noshctewt
sans doute." — Maupied, th. ii. p. 267 ;
ch.x^p. 263.
1 The final overthrow of Buddhism
in Bahar and its expulsion from Hin-
dustan took place probably between
the seventh and twelfth centuries of
the Christian era. Colonel Stkeh,
however, extends the period to the
thirteenth or fourteenth (Asiatic Jour-
nal, vol. It. p. 334).
ny Google
828 BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WOESHIP. [Past IT.
temporary with the early development of the arts amongst
this remarkable people, at a period coeval with, if not
anterior to the-era of Christianity.1 Buddhism exerted a
salutary influence over the tribes of Thibet; through them
it became instrumental in humanising the Moguls ; and it
more or less led to the cessation of the devastating in-
cursions by which the hordes of the East were precipitated
over the Western Empire in the early ages of Christianity.
The Singhalese, and the nations of further Asia, are
indebted to Buddhism for an alphabet and a literature 2 ;
and whatever of authentic history we possess in relation
to these countries we owe to the influence of their generic
religion. Nor are its effects limited to these objects :
much of what is vigorous iu the character of its northern
converts may be traced in the development of their habits
to the operation of its principles, which, unlike those
of the unwarlike Singhalese, rejected sloth and effemi-
nacy to aim at conquest and power. Looking to the
self-reliance which Buddhism inculcates, the exaltation
of intellect which it proclaims, and the perfection of virtue
and wisdom to which it points as within the reach of
every created being, it may readily be imagined, that it
must have wielded a spell of unusual potency, and one
well calculated to awaken boldness and energy in those
already animated by schemes of ambition. In Ceylon,
on the contrary, owing more or less to insulation and
seclusion, Buddhism has survived for upwards of 2000
years as unchanged in all its leading characteristics as
the genius of the people has remained torpid and inani-
mate under its influence. In this respect the Singhalese
are the living mummies of past ages ; and realise in their
immovable characteristics the Eastern fable of the city
whose inhabitants were perpetuated in marble. If change
has in any degree supervened, it has been from the cor-
ruption of the practice, not from any abandonment of the
1 Max MflliEK, Hist. Sanskrit I eur & Pali, em Langue Sacrte de la
Literature, p. 264. Pr&qu'ile au-delii th* Gauge, ch. i,
* Sco BvBNOur et Labsek, Euai I &c
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. XI.] BUDDHISM UNDEE MAST SHAPES. M?
principles, of Buddhism ; and in arte, literature, and civili-
sation, the records of their own history, and the ruins of
their monuments, attest their deterioration in common with
that of every other nation which has not at some time been
brought under the ennobling influences of Christianity.
In alluding to the doctrines of Buddhism, as it exists at
the present day, my observations are to be understood as
applying to the aspect under which it presents itself in
Ceylon, irrespective of the numerous forms in which it
has been cultivated elsewhere. Even before the de-
cease of the last Buddha, schisms had arisen amongst hia
followers in India. Eighteen heresies are deplored in the
Mahawanao within two centuries from his death ; and four
distinct sects, "each rejoicing in the name of Buddhists, are
still to be traced amongst the remnants of his worshippers
in Hindustan.1 In its migrations to other countries since
its dispersion by the Brahmans, Buddhism has assumed and
exhibited itself in a variety of shapes. At the present day
its doctrines, as cherished among the Jalnas of Guzerat and
Eajpootanaa, differ widely from its mysteries, as adminis-
tered by the Lama of Thibet; and both are equally distinct
from the metaphysical abstractions propounded by the
monks of Nepal Its observances in Japan have under-
gone a still more striking alteration from their vicinity to
the Syntoos ; and in China they have been similarly mo-
dified in their contact with the rationalism of Lao-teen
and the social demonology of the Confucians.8 But in each
and all the distinction is in degree rather than essence ; and
the general concurrence is unbroken in all the grand
essentials of the system.
a?
Colebrootet Essay t on the Phtio-
....y of the Hindoo*, sect, v. part 5, p.
il. SeeaIflo<mfe,'vol.I.p.377,38u. Max M&lleb, Hiat. Samkrit Litem-
* An account of the religion of the tare, .p. 261, So.
Jains or Jainaa, will be found in ' Details of Buddhism in China
MousTsruART Elphinbtoke'b Hit- and Chin-India will be found in the
lory of India, vol. i. h. ii. ch. 4. They erudite commentaries of Klapboto,
riroee in the sixth or seventh century, Rem tis.vt, and Lakdkebbb.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
528 BUDDHISM AND DEMON WOBSHIP. [Past IT.
Whilst Brahmanism, without denying the existence, prac-
tically ignores the influence and power of a creating and
controlling intelligence, Buddhism, exulting in the idea of
the infinite perfectibility of man, and the achievement of
the highest attainable happiness by the unfaltering practice
of every conceivable virtue, exalts the individuals thus pre-
eminently wise into absolute supremacy over all existing
beings, and attempts the daring experiment of an atheistic
morality. l Even Buddha himself is not worshipped as a de-
ity, or as a still existent and active agent of benevolence and
power. He isreverenced merely as a glorifiedremembrance,
the effulgence of whose purity selves as a guide and incen-
tive to the future struggles and aspirations of mankind. The
sole superiority which his doctrines admit is that of good-
ness and wisdom ; and Buddha having attained to this
perfection by the immaculate purity of his actions, the
1 M. Rexubat announces, as the
result of Lis researches, that neither
the Chinese, the Tartars, dot Monguls
have any word in their dialects ex-
pressive of our idea of a God. — Foe-
KMii-H, p. 138; Bud M. IJakthk-
lbmy Saikt-IIilaiee adds, that " il
n'y u pas trace de l'idee de Dieu
dans le Bouddhisme entier, ni au
diSbut ni au feme." — Le Bouddha,
&c, Introd. p. iv. Colonel Stkes, in
the xiith Tiu. of the Asiatic Journal,
pp. 203 and 37S, denies that Bud-
dhism is atheistic: and adduces, in
support of his views, allusions made
by Fa Htaw. But the passages to
which he refers present no direct
contradiction to those metaphysical
subtleties by which the Buddluatical
writers have carefully avoided whilst
they closely approach the admission
of belief in a deity. I am not pre-
pared to deny that the faith in a su-
preme being may not have charac-
terised Buddhism in its origin, as
the belief in a Great First Cause in
the person of Brahma is Still acknow-
ledged by the Hindus, although ho-
noured by no share of their adoration.
But it admits of little doubt that
neither in the discourses of its priest-
hood at the present day nor in the
practice of its followers in Ceylon
is the name or the existence of
an omnipotent First Cause recog-
nised in any portion of their worship
Maupeed has correctly described
Buddhism both in Ceylon and Chin*
as a system of refined atheism (£s*ti
sur V Originc des Pmtplex Ancient, ch.
x. p. 277), and Moctjtstuabt Ei-
pkinstohe gives the weight of his
high authority in the statement thsx
" The most ancient of Baudha sects
entirely denies the being of a God;
and some of those which admit the
existence of God still refuse to ac-
knowledge him as the creator and
ruler of the world. .... The
theistical sect seems to prevail in
Nepal, and the atkeixtica} to mdmd
in perfection m Ceylon." — HuLorg of
India, vol. L pt, ii, ch. 4. An able
writer in the fourth volume of the
Calcutta Review has also controverted
the assertion of its atheistic complex-
ion; but whatever truth may be de-
veloped in his news, their application
is confined to Buddhism in Hindustan
and Nepal, and is utterly at variance
with the practice and received dog-
mas in Ceylon.
oyGoogIe
Chap. XI.] BRAHMANISM AND BUDDHISM COMPARED. £20
absolute subjugation of passion, and the unerring accuracy
of bis unlimited knowledge, became entitled to lie homage
of all, and was required to render it to none.
Externally coinciding with Hinduism, so far as the
avatar of Buddha may be regarded as a pendant for
the incarnation of Brahma, die worship of the former
is essentially distinguished from the religion of the latter
in one important particular. It does not regard Bud-
dha as an actual emanation or manifestation of the
divinity, but as a guide and example to teach an en-
thusiastic self-reliance by means of which mankind, of
themselves and by their -own unassisted exertions, may
attain to perfect virtue here and to supreme happiness
hereafter. Both systems inculcate the mysterious doc-
trine of the metempsychosis ; but whilst the result of suc-
cessive embodiments is to bring the soul of the Hindu
nearer and nearer to the final' beatitude of absorption into
the essence of Brahma, the end and aim of the Bud-
dhistical transmigration is to lead the purified spirit to
Nirwana \ a condition between which and utter anni-
hilation there exists but the dim distinction of a name.
Nirwima is the exhaustion but not the destruction of
existence, the close but not the extinction of being.
In deliberate consistency with this principle of human
elevation, the doctrines of Buddha recognise the full
eligibility of every individual born into the world for the
attainment of the highest degrees of intellectual perfection
and ultimate bliss. Herein consists its most striking
departure from the Brahmanical system in denying the
superiority of the " twice born " , over the rest of
mankind ; in repudiating a sacerdotal supremacy of race,
and in claiming for the pure and the wise that supremacy
and exaltation which the self-glorified Brahmans would
monopolise for themselves.
Hecce the supremacy of " caste " is utterly disclaimed
'"Nirwana" is Sanskrit, n» (r j derived from newanawa, to extinguish.
eiiphon. causa} wana desire. The See J. Barthelemt Saiwt-Hilairb,
Singhalese name " Nirwana " is also I Lc Bouddha, lfl3, 177, &c.
VOL. I. MM
DomzcdoyGoOglc
530 BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WOBSHIP. [Past IT.
in the sacred books which contain the tenets of Buddha ;
and although in process of time his followers have de-
parted from that portion of his precepts, still distinction of
birth is nowhere authoritatively recognised as a quali-
fication for the priesthood. Buddha being in fact a deifi-
cation of human intellect, the philanthropy of the system
extends its participation and advantages to the whole
family of mankind, the humblest member of which is
sustained by the assurance that by virtue and endurance lie
may attain an equality though not an identification with
supreme intelligence. Wisdom thus exalted as the sole
object of pursuit and veneration, the Buddhists, with cha-
racteristic liberality, admit that the teaching of virtue is
not necessarily confined to their own professors ; especially
when the ceremonial of others does not involve the taking
of hf« Hence in a great degree arises the indifference of
the Singhalese as to the comparative claims of Christianity
and Buddhism, and hence the facility with which, both
under the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the British Govern-
ment, they have combined the secret worship of the one
with the ostensible profession of the other. They in lact
admit Christ to • have been a teacher, second only to
Buddha, but inferior, inasmuch as the latter, who was
perfect in wisdom, has attained to the bliss of Nirwana.1
As regards the structure of t/ie universe, the theories
' Sir John Davis, in his account j the Scriptures and attendance at the
of the Chinese, states that -the Budd- | hours of worship and prayer; sc-
hists there worship the " Queen of counting for his ready acquiescence
Heaven," a personage evidently bor- by an assurance that he entertained
rowed from theRoman Catholics, and an equal respect for the doctrines of
that the name of "Je«*s"«ppears in '■ Buddhism and Christianity. "But
thelistof their divinities. (Chap.xiv.) how can you," said the principal,
A curious illustration of thepreva- " with your superior education and
lence of this disposition to conform to ' intelligence, reconcile yourself thus
two religious was related to me in j to halt between two opinions, and
Ceylon. A Singhalese chief came a submit to the inconsistency of pro-
short time since to the principal of a fesaing an equal belief in two con-
government seminary at Colombo, ! flirting religions?" "Do you see,"
desirous to place his son as a pupil of I replied the subtle chief, laying his
the institution, and agreed, without hand on the arm of the other, and
an instant's hesitation, that the boy '■ directing hiss'
should conform tothediseiplineof the : with a large Lt_
school, which requires the reading of lashed alongside, ii
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Gmir. XI.] WHEBEIN THE TWO BELKHONS AGREE. OM
of the Buddhists, though in a great degree borrowed from
the Brahmans, occupy a much less prominent position in
their mythology, and are less intimately identified with
their system of religion. Their attention has been directed
less to physical than to metaphysical disquisitions, and
their views of cosmogony have as little of truth as of
imagination, in their details. The basis of the system is a
declaration of the eternity of matter, and its submission at
remote intervals to decay and re-formation ; but this and
the organisation of animal life are but the results of
spontaneity and procession, not the products of will and
design on the part of an all' powerful Creator.
Buddhism adopts something approaching to the
mundane theory of the Brahmans, in the multiplicity and
superposition of worlds and the division of the earth into
concentric continents, each separated by oceans of various
fabulous liquids. Its' notions of geography are at once
fanciful and crude; and again borrowing its chronology
from the Shastras, its legends extend over boundless por-
tions of time, but it invests with the authority of history
those occurrences only which have taken place since the
birth of Gotama Buddha.
The Buddhists believe in the existence of lokas, or
heavens, each differing in glory, and serving as the tem-
porary residences of demigods and divinities, as well-as of
men whose etherialisation is but inchoate, and who have
yet to visit the earth in further births and acquire in '
future transmigrations their complete attainment of
Nirwana. They believe likewise in the existence of hells
which are the abodes of demons or tormentors, and in
which the wicked undergo a purgatorial imprisonment
preparatory to an extended probation upon earth Here
their torments are in proportion to their crimes, and
man was just pushing off upon the
lake, " do you see the style of these
boats, in which our fishermen always
put to sea. and that that spar is al-
inoet equivalent to a second canoe,
which keeps the first from upsollinp?
It is precisely so with myself: I add
on your religion to steady my owu,
because I consider Christianity a very
tafe outrigger to Suddhum."
DomzcdoyGoOglc
S32 BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WORSHIP. [P**r IT.
although not eternal, their duration extends almost to the
infinitude of eternity ; those who have been guilty of the
deadly sins of parricide, sacrilege, and defiance of the faith
being doomed to die endurance of excruciating deaths,
followed by instant revival and a repetition of these
tortures without mitigation and apparently without end.1
It is one of the extraordinary anomalies of the system,
that combined with these principles of self-reliance and
perfectibility, Buddhism has incorporated to a certain
extent the doctrine of fate .or " necessity," under which
it demonstrates that adverse events are the general
results of akusalcu or moral demerit in some previous
stage of existence. This belief, winch lies at the very
foundation of their religion, the Buddhists have so adap-
ted to the rest of the structure as to avoid the incon-
sistency of making this directing power inherent in any
Supreme Being, by assigning it as one of the attributes
of matter and a law of its perpetual mutations.
Like all the leading doctrines of Buddhism, however,
its theories on this subject are propounded with the usual
admixture of modification and casuistry; only a portion
of men's conduct is presumed to be exclusively control-
lable by fate— neither moral delinquency nor virtuous
actions are declared to be altogether the products of an
inevitable necessity; and whilst both the sufferings and the
enjoyments of mortals are represented as the general
consequences of merit in a previous stage of existence,
even this fundamental principle is not without its ex-
ception, inasmuch as die vicissitudes- are admitted to be
partially the results of man's actions in this life, or of
the influence of others from which his own deserts are
insufficient to protect him. The main article, however,
which admits neither of modification nor evasion, is that
neither in heaven nor on earth can man escape from the
consequences of his acts ; that morals are in their essence
productive causes, without the aid or intervention of any
1 Dati'b Account uft&e Inferior of Gylon, p. 204.
-, Google
Chap. XI.] BEWABDS AND PUNISHMENTS. A33
liigher authority; and hence forgiveness or atonement
are ideas utterly unknown in the despotic dogmas of
Buddha.
Allusion has already been made to the subtleties enter-
tained by the priesthood, in connexion with the doctrine
of the metempsychosis, as developed in their sacred
books; but the exposition would be tedious to show the
distinctions between their theories, and the opinions of
transmigration entertained by the mass of the Singhalese
Buddhists. The rewards of virtue and the punishment
of vice are supposed to be equally attainable in this
world; . and according to the amount of either, which
characterizes the conduct of an individual in one stage
of being, will be the elevation or degradation into which
he will be hereafter born.
Thus punishment and reward become equally fixed
and inevitable : but retribution may be deferred by the
'intermediate exhibition of virtue, and an offering or
prostration to Buddha, or an aspiration of faith in his
name, will suffice to ward off punishment for a time, and
even to produce happiness in an intermediate birth. Hence
the most flagitious offender, by an act of reverence, in
dying, may postpone indefinitely the evil consequence of
his crimes, and hence the indifference and apparent
apathy which is a. remarkable characteristic of the
Singhalese w%o suffer death for their offences.1
To mankind in general Buddha came only as an ad-
viser and a friend; but, as regards his own priesthood,
he assumes all the authority of a lawgiver and chief.
Spurning the desires and vanities of the world, he
taught them to aspire to no other reward for their
labours, than the veneration of the human race, as
teachers of knowledge and examples of benevolence.
Taking the. abstract idea of perfect intelligence and
■ Et TM MftMtKM rllui. moromijLie ilnlitmm ( FaUiia rrgmit prttaU; rtgil Idem iptrlfia'-ttu
Smtrorum Druid* poillU rspetlitii tb mrnli. OrhtaUe: lent* (■' onuiil cupula) MM
Solii nOws dt-oi. et mil immtnaiobll Man media tit. Certtpeptb (W» inphil .Irctol
ml hamt rrgci fell" mttmi. Me.
cilal Errbi ttda Uiluqm piafmnill
..Google
BUDDHISM AND DBMOS-WOBSH1P.
[FutVL
immaculate virtue for a divinity, Buddhism accords
honour to all, in proportion to their approaches towards
absolute wisdom ; but as the realisation of this per-
fection is regarded as almost hopeless in a life
devoted to secular cares, the priests of Buddha, on as-
suming their robe and tonsure, forswear all earthly
occupations; subsist on alms, not in money, but in
food; devote themselves to meditation and self-denial;
and, being thus proclaimed and recognised as the most
successful aspirants to Nirwana, they claim the homage
of ordinary mortals, acknowledge no superior upon earth,
and withhold even the tribute of a salutation from all
except the members of their own religious order.
To mankind in general the injunctions of Buddha
prescribe a code of morality second only to that of Chris-
tianity, and superior to every other heathen system that the
world has seen,1 It forbids the taking of life from even
the humblest created animal, and prohibits incontinence,*
intemperance, dishonesty and falsehood — vices which
are referred to their formidable assailants, rdga or con-
cupiscence, doso or malignity, and moha, ignorance or
folly.2 These, again, involve all their minor modifications
- — hypocrisy and anger, unkindness and pride, ungenerous
suspicion, covetousness, evil wishes to others, the betrayal
of secrets, and the propagation of slander. Whilst all
such offences are forbidden, every excellence is simul-
taneously enjoined — the forgiveness of injuries, the
practice of charity, a reverence for virtue, and the che-
rishing of the learned ; submission to discipline, veneration
for parents, the care for one's family, a sinless vocation,
contentment and gratitude, subjection to reproof, mo-
deration in prosperity, submission under affliction, and
cheerfulness at all times. " Those," said Buddha, " who
point, parmi lea fondateun de religion,
do figure pluspure ni plim touchante
que cello do Boudilha. 6a vie n'a
g'int de tacoe." — Lt. Bouddha, par J.
AMHELKKT SAUfT-HZLAIRE, In-
1 The Rev. Mr. Gooerxt'h Jfatn
on Budt&um. Lee's Itibeyro, p, 207.
Chap. XI.] BUDDHISM A SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY. 63$
practise all these virtues, and are not overcome by evil,
will enjoy the perfection of happiness, and attain to
supreme renown." l
Buddhism, it may be perceived from this sketch, is,
properly speaking, leas a form of religion than a school
of philosophy ; and its worship, according to the institutes
of its founders, consists of an appeal to the reason, rather
than an attempt on the imagination through the instru-
mentality of rites and parade. "Salvation is made de-
pendent, not upon the practice of idle ceremonies, the
repeating of prayers or of hymns, or invocations to
pretended gods, but upon moral qualifications, winch
constitute individual and social happiness here, and
ensure it hereafter." 2 In later times, and in the failure
of Buddhism by unassisted arguments to ensure the ob-
servance of its precepts and the practice of its morals,
the experiment has been made to arouse the attention
and excite the enthusiasm of its followers by the adoption
of ceremonies and processions ; but these are declared
to be only the innovations of priestcraft, and the Singha-
lese, whilst they unite in their celebration, are impatient
to explain that such practices are less religious than
secular, and that the Perahara in particular, the chief
of their annual festivals, was introduced, not in honour
of Buddha, but as a tribute to the Kandyan kings as the
patrons and defenders of the faith.8
Whatever alterations in its formula Buddhism may
have undergone .in Ceylon are altogether external, and
clearly referable to its anomalous association with the
worship of its ancient rivals the Brahmans. These
changes, however, are the result of proximity and asso-
1 Discourse of Buddha entitled I not a little remarkable, that along
with the image of Buddha were as-
sociated those of the Brahmanical
deities Ittdra and Brahma, the Lha
of the Thibetans and the Toegri of
the Moguls.
Mangold,
talonel SlEES, Asiai. Jottrn.. vol.
»i. p. 266.
*Fa Hiax describes the proces-
sion of Buddhists which he witnessed
in the kingdom of Khotan, and it is
oyGoogIc
036 BDDBHI8M AKD DEMON-WOBSHIP. [Past IV.
ciation rather than of incorporation or adoption ; and
even now the process of expurgation is in progress with
a view to the restoration of the pristine purity of the
faith by a formal separation from the observances of Hin-
duism. The schismatic kings and the Malabar sovereigns
introduced the worship of Vishnu and Shiva into the
same temples with that of Buddha.1 The innovation has
been perpetuated ; and to the present day the statues of
these conflicting divinities are to be found within the
same buildings: the Dewales of Hinduism are erected
within the same inclosure as the Wiharas of the Buddhists ;
and the Kappoorales of the one religion officiate at
their altars, almost beneath the same roof with the
priests and neophytes of the other. But beyond this
parade of their emblems, the worship of the Hindu
deities throughout the Singhalese districts is entirely de-
void of the obscenities and cruelty by which it is cha-
racterised on the continent of India ; and it would almost
appear as if these had been discontinued by the Brah-
mans in compliment to the superior purity of the worship
with which their own had become thus fortuitously as-
sociated. The exclusive prejudices of caste were at the
same remote period partially engrafted on the simpler
and more generous discipline of Buddha ; and it is only
recently that any vigorous exertions have been attempted
for their disseverance.
On comparing this system with other prevailing re-
ligions which divide with it the worship .of the East, Bud-
dhism at once vindicates its own superiority, not only by
the purity of its code of morals, but by its freedom from
the fanatical intolerance 6V the Mahometans and its ab-
horrent rejection of the revolting rites of the Brahmanical
faith. But mild and benevolent as are its aspects and
design, its theories have failed to realise in practice the
reign of virtue which they proclaim. Beautiful as is the
body of its doctrines, it wants the vivifying energy and
' See ante, Vol. I. Put in. ch. viii. p. 378.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. XL] BUDDHISM DESTITUTE OP VITALITY. 037
soul which are essential to ensure ita ascendancy and
power. Ita cold philosophy and thin abstractions, how-
ever calculated to exercise the faculties of anchorets and
ascetics, have proved insufficient of themselves to arrest
man in his career of passion and pursuit ; and the bold
experiment of influencing the heart and regulating the
conduct of mankind by the external decencies and the
mutual dependencies of morality, unsustained by higher
hopes and by a faith that penetrates eternity, has proved in
this instance an unredeemed and hopeless failure. The
inculcation of the social virtues as the consummation of
happiness here and hereafter, suggests an object sufficiently
attractive for the bulk of mankind ; but Buddhism pre-
sents along with it no adequate knowledge of the means
which are indispensable for its attainment In confiding
all to the mere strength of the human intellect and the
enthusiastic self-reliance and determination of the human
"heart, it makes no provision for defence against those
powerful temptations before which ordinary resolution
must give way ;. and affords no consoling support under
those overwhelming afflictions by which the spirit is pros-
trated and subdued, when unaided by the influence of a
purer faith and unsustained by its confidence in a diviner
power. From the contemplation of the Buddhist all the
awful and un-ending realities of a future life are with-
drawn— his hopes and his fears are at once mean and
circumscribed ; the rewards held in prospect by his creed
are insufficient to incite him to virtue; and its punish-
ments too remote to deter him from vice. Thus, insuffi-
cient for time, and rejecting eternity, the utmost triumph
of his religion is to live without fear and to die without
hope.
Both socially and in its effects upon individuals, the
result of the system in Ceylon has been apathy almost ap-
proaching to distrust. Even as regards the tenets of
their creed, the mass of the population exhibit the pro-
foundest ignorance and manifest the most irreverent in-
difference. In their daily intercourse and acts, morality
■v. Google
538 BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WORSHIP. [Put IV.
and virtue, so far from being apparent as the rule, are
barely discernible as the exception. Neither hopes nor
apprehensions have proved a sufficient restraint on the
habitual violation of all those precepts of charity and
honesty, of purity and truth, which form the very essence
of the doctrine ; and in proportion as its tenets have been
slighted by the people, are its priesthood disregarded, and
its temples neglected.
No national system 6f religion, no prevailing super-
stition that has ever fallen under my observation presents
so dull a level, and is so pre-eminently deficient in popular
influences, as Buddhism amongst the Singhalese. It has
its multitude of followers, but it is a misnomer to describe
them as its votaries, for the term implies a warmth and
fervour unknown to a native of Ceylon. He believes,
or he thinks he believes, because Ije is of the same
faith with his ancestors ; but he looks on the religious
doctrines of the various sects which surround him with a
stolid indifference which is the surest indication of the little
importance which he attaches to his own. The fervid
earnestness of Christianity, even in its most degenerate
forms, die fanatical enthusiasm of Islam, the haughty ex-
clusiveness of Brahma, and even the zealous warmth of
other Northern faiths, are all emotions utterly foreign and
unknown to the followers of Buddha in Ceylon.
Yet, strange to say, under the coldness of this barren
system, there burn below the unextinguished fires of
another and' a darker superstition, whose flames overtop
the icy summits of the Buddhist philosophy, and excite a
deeper and more reverential awe in the imagination of the
Singhalese. As the Hindus in process of time superadded
to their exalted conceptions of Brahma, and the benevolent
attributes of Vishnu, those dismal dreams and apprehen-
sions which embody themselves in the horrid worship of
Shiva, and in invocations to propitiate the destroyer ; so
the followers of Buddha, unsatisfied with the vain preten-
sions of unattainable perfection, struck down by their in-
ternal consciousness of sin and insufficiency, and seeing
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. XI.] DEMON-WORSHIP OLDER THAN BUDDHISM. 039
around them, instead of the reign of universal happiness
and the apotheosis of intellect and wisdom, nothing but
the ravages of crime and the sufferings produced by igno-
rance, have turned with instinctive terror to propitiate the
powers of evil, by whom alone such miseries are supposed
to be inflicted, and to worship the demons and tormentors
to whom their superstition is contented to attribute a cir-
cumscribed portion of power over the earth.1
DjBMON-wosaHiP prevailed amongst the Singhalese be-
fore the introduction of Buddhism by Mahindo. Some
principle akin to it seems to be an aboriginal impulse of
uncivilised man in his first and rudest conceptions of reli-
gion, engendered, perhaps, by the spectacle of cruelty and
pain, the visitations of suffering and death, and the con-
templation of the awful phenomena of nature — storms,
torrents, volcanoes* earthquakes, and destruction. The
conciliation of the powers which inflict such calamities,
seems to precede, when it does not supplant, the adoration
of the benevolent influence to which belong the creation,
the preservation, and the bestowal of happiness on man-
kind ; and in the mind of die native of Ceylon this ancient
superstition has maintained its ascendancy, notwithstanding
the introduction and ostensible prevalence of Buddhism ; for
the latter, whilst it admits the existence of evil spirits, has
emphatically prohibited their invocation, on the ground
that any malignant influence they may exert over man is
merely the consequence of his vices, whilst the cultivators
of virtue may successfully bid them defiance. The demons
here denounced are distinct from a class of demigods, who,
under the name of Yakshyos, are supposed to inhabit the
waters, and dwell on the Bides of Mount Meru, and who
are distinguished not only for gentleness and benevolence,
but even by a veneration for Buddha, who, in one of "his
1 See anU, Vol. I. pp. 331, 370.
The Spaniards found amongst the
Indians of the Eosequibo the same
worship of the principal of evil based
on the motive of fear. " Demonem
tantummodo venernntur, non quod
malum esse ignorant, Bed ne illis
malum induat" — De Laf.t Now*
Orblt,\. xvii. c. 17, quoted by Helps,
Spoaith Conquest of America.
..Google
fiJO BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WORSHIP. (Pam IV.
earlier transmigrations, was himself born under the form
of a Yakshyo, and, attended by similar companions, tra-
versed the world teaching righteousness. One section of
these demigods, however, the Rakshyos, are fierce and
malignant, and in these respects resemble the Takhas or
demons so much dreaded by the Singhalese, and who, like
the Ghouls of the Mahometans, are believed to infest the
vicinity of graveyards, or, like the dryads and hamadryads
of the ancients, to frequent favourite forests and groves,
aud to inhabit particular trees, whence they sally out to
seize on the passer by.1 The Buddhist priests connive at
demon worship because their efforts are ineffectual to sup-
press it, and the most orthodox Singhalese, whilst they
confess its impropriety, are still driven to resort to it in all
their fears and afflictions.
Independent of the malignant spirits or Yakhas, who
are the authors of indefinite evil the Singhalese have a
demon or Sanne for each form of disease, who is supposed
to be its direct agent and inflictor, and who is accordingly
invoked for its removal ; and others, who delight in the
miseries of mankind, are to be propitiated before the arrival
of any event over Which their pernicious influence might
otherwise prevail. Hence, on every domestic occurrence,
as well as in every domestic calamity, the services of the
1 Travellers from Point deGslle to
Colombo, in driving through the long
succession of gardens and plantations
of coco-nuts which theroad traverses
throughout its entire extent, will not
foil to unserve fruit-trees of different
kinds, round the stem of which a
band of leave* ha* been fattened hyihi
owner. This is to denote that the
tree has been devoted to a demon ;
and some times to Vishnu ot the
Kattregam dewo. Occasionally these
dedications are made to the temples
of Buddha, and oven to the Roman
Catholic altars, as to that of St.
Anne of Calpentyn. This ceremony
is called Gok-bundeemaj " the tying
of the tender leaf," and its operation
is to protect the fruit from pillage
till ripe enough to be plucked and
sent as an offering to the divinity to
whom it has thus been consecrated.
There is reason to fear, however, that
on these occasions the devil is, to
some extent, defrauded of his due, as
the custom is, after applying a few
only of the finest as an offering to the
evil one, to appropriate the remainder
to the use of the owner. When
coco-nut palms are so preserved, the
fruit is sometimes converted into oil
and burned before the shrine of the
demon. The superstition extends
throughout other parte of Ceylon ;
and so long as the wreath continues
to hang upon the tree, it is presumed
that no thief would venture to plun-
der the garden.
Google
Chat. XI.] DEVIL-DANCEES. HI
Kattadias or devil-priests are to be sought, and their
ceremonies performed, generally with observances so bar- ■
barous as to be the most revolting evidence still extant of
the uncivilised habits of the Singhalese. Especially in cases
of sickness and danger, the assistance of the devil-dancer
is implicitly relied on : an altar, decorated with garlands,
is erected within sight of the patient, and on this an
animal, frequently a cock, is to be sacrificed for his
recovery. The dying man is instructed to touch and
dedicate to the evil spirit the wild flowers, the rice, and
the flesh, which have been prepared as the pidaneys
or offerings to be made at sunset, at midnight, and
the morning ; and in the intervals the dancers per-
form their incantations, habited in masks and disguises
to represent die demon which they personate, as the
immediate author of the patient's suffering. In the frenzy
of these orgies, the Kattadia having feigned the access of
inspiration from the spirit he invokes, is consulted by
the friends of the afflicted, and declares the nature
of his disease, and the probability of its favourable
or fatal termination. At sunrise, the ceremony closes
with an exorcism chanted to disperse the demons who
have been attracted by the rite ; the devil-dancers
withdraw with the offerings, and sing, as they re-
tire, the concluding song of the ceremony, " that the
sacrifice may be acceptable and the life of the sufferer
extended."
In addition to this Takha worship, which is essentially
indigenous in Ceylon, the natives practise the invocation
of a distinct class of demons, their conceptions of which
are evidently borrowed from the debased ceremonies of
Hinduism, though in their adoption they have rejected
the grosser incidents of its ritual, and replaced them with
others less cruel, but by no means less revolting. The
Capuas, who perform ceremonies in honour of these
strange gods, are of a higher rank thjm the Kattadias,
who conduct the incantations to the Yakhas, and they are
■
642 BUDDHISM AND DEMOS-WORSHIP. [Put IV.
more or less connected with the Dewales and temples of
Hinduism. The spirits in whose honour these ceremonies
are performed, are all foreign to Ceylon. Some, such as
Kattregam and Pattine, are borrowed from the mythology
of the Brahmans ; some are the genii of fire and other ele-
ments of the universe, and others are deified heroes ; but
the majority are dreaded as the inflictors of pestilence and
famine, and propitiated by rites to avert the visitations of
their malignity.
The ascendancy of these superstitions, and the anomaly
of their association with the religion of Buddha, which
has taken for its deity the perfection of wisdom and
benevolence, present one of the most signal difficulties
with which missionaries have had, at all times, to contend
in their efforts to extend Christianity throughout Ceylon.
The Portuguese priesthood discovered that, however the
Singhalese might be induced to profess the worship of
Christ, they adhered with timid tenacity to their ancient
demonology. The Dutch clergy, in their reiterated la-
mentations over the failure of their efforts for conversion,
have repeatedly recorded the fact, that however readily
the native population might be brought to abjure their
belief in the doctrines of Buddha, no arguments or expe-
dients had proved effectual to overcome their terror of
the demons, or check their propensity to resort on every
emergency to the ceremonies of the Capuas, and the dismal
rites of the devil-dancers.1 The Wesleyans, the Baptists,
and other missionaries, who in later' times have made the
hamlets and secluded districts of Ceylon the scene of their
unwearied labours, have found, with equal disappointment,
that to the present hour the villagers and the peasantry
are as powerfully attracted as ever by this strong super-
stition, bearing on their person the charms calculated to
protect them from the evil eye of the demon, consulting
the astrologers and the Capuas on every domestic emer-
gency, solemnising their marriages under their auspices,
1 Huron, Hht. Chrut. m India, vol. iv. b. xii. ch. r.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cur. XI.] BUDDHISM EXTREMELY TOLERANT. 543
and requiring their presence at the birth of their children,
who, together with their mother, are not unfrequently ■
dedicated to the evil spirits, whom they dread.1
As regards Buddhism itself, whilst in the tenets and
genius of Brahmanism there is that which proclaims an
active resistance to any other form of religion, Chris-
tianity in the southern expanse of Ceylon has to encounter
an obstacle still more embarrassing in the habitual apathy
and listless indifference of the Buddhists. In its consti-
tution and spirit Brahmanism is essentially exclusive and
fanatical, jealous of all conflicting faiths, and strongly dis-
posed to persecution. Buddhism, on the other hand, in
the strength of its self-righteousness, extends a latitudina-
■ rian liberality to every other belief, and exhibits a Laodi-
cean indifference towards its own. Whilst Brahmanism
is a science confided only to an initiated priesthood ; and
the Vedas and the Shastras in which its precepts are
embodied are kept with jealousy from the profane eye 01
the people, Buddhism, rejoicing in its universality,
aspires to be the religion of the multitude, throws open
its sacred pages without restriction, and encourages their
perusal as a meritorious act of devotion. The despotic
ministers of Brahma affect to be versed only in arcana
and mystery, and to issue their dicta from oracular autho-
rity ; but the priesthood of Buddha assume no higher
functions than those of teachers of ethics, and claim no
loftier title than that of " the clergy of reason."2
In the character of the Singhalese people there is to be
traced much* of the genius of their religion. The same
passiveness and love of ease which restrain from active
exertion in the labours of life, find a counterpart in the
adjustment by which virtue is limited to abstinence, and
1 Habvaed's History of the Wet-
leyan Mission in Ceylon, Introd.,
p. iii.
* The sect of the Lao, Tun, or
" Doctors of Season," whom Lan-
D&ES6E regards as a development of
Buddhism, prevailed in Thibet and
the countries lying between China
and India in the fifth and sixth cen-
turies ; and Fa Hi as always refers to
them as the * Clergy of Season!!' —
¥oi Koui Ki, chap, xxxriii.
oyGoogIe
044 BUDDHISM AND DEMON-WOBSHIP. [Past IV.
worship to contemplation ; with only so much of actual
ceremonial as may render visible to the eye what would
be otherwise inaccessible to the mind, The same love of
repose which renders sleep and insensibility the richest
blessings of this life, anticipates torpor, akin to extinction,
as the supremest felicity of the next In common with
all other nations they deem some form of religious wor-
ship indispensable, but, contrary to the usage of most,
they are singularly indifferent as to what that particular
form is to be ; leaving it passively to be determined by
the conjunction of circumstances, the accident of locality,
and the influence of friends or worldly prospects of gain.
Still, in the hands of the Christian missionary, they are
by no means the plastic substance which such a descrip-
tion would suggest — capable of being moulded into
any form, or retaining permanently any casual im-
pression— but rather a yielding fluid which adapts its
shape to that of the vessel into which it may happen to
be poured, without any change in its quality or any mo-
dification of its character.
From the unexcitable temperament of the people, com-
bined with the exalted morals which form the articles of
their belief, result phenomena which for upwards of three
hundred years have more or less baffled the exertions of
all who have laboured for the overthrow of their national
superstition and the elevation of Christianity in its stead.
The precepts of the latter, when offered to the natives
apart from the divinity of their origin, present something
in appearance so nearly akin to their own tenets that they
have been slow to discern their superiority. If Christianity
requires purity and truth, temperance, honesty and bene-
volence, these are already discovered to be enjoined with
at least equal impressiveness in the precepts of Buddha.
The Scripture commandment forbidding murder is sup-
posed to be analogous to the Buddhist prohibition to Trill1;
1 The order of Buddha not to take I to mankind in general it forms one
aw»y life is imperative and unqua- of his " SUahapuda" or advice*, and
Med oe regards the priesthood ; out | admits of modification under certain
DoilizcdoyGoOgIC
Chap. XI.]
CHRISTIAN CONVERTS FEW.
and where the law and the Gospel alike enforce the love
of one's neighbour as the love of one's self, Buddhism
insists upon charity as the basis of worship, and calls on
its own followers " to appease anger by gentleness, and
overcome evil by good."1
Thus the outward concurrence of Christianity in those
points on which it agrees with their own religion, has
proved more embarrassing to the natives than their per-
plexity as to others in which it essentially differs ; till at
last, too timid to doubt and too feeble to inquire, they
cling with helpless tenacity to their own superstition, and
yet subscribe to the new faith simply by adding it on to
the old.
Combined with this state of irresolution a serious ob-
stacle to the acceptance of reformed Christianity by the
Singhalese Buddhists has arisen from the differences and
disagreements between the various churches by whose
ministers it has been successively offered to them. In the
persecution of the Roman Catholics by the Dutch, the
subsequent supercession of the Church of Holland by that
of England, the rivalries more or less apparent between
the Episcopalians and Presbyterians, and the peculiarities
which separate the Baptists from the "Wesleyan Methodists
— all of whom have their missions and representatives in
Ceylon — the Singhalese can discover little more than that
they are offered something still doubtful and unsettled,
in exchange for which they are pressed to surrender their
contingencies. A priest who should
take away the life of an animal, or
even an uuect, under any circum-
stances, would be guilty of the offence
denominated Packittvya and subject
to penal discipline ; but to take away
human life, to be accessory to murder,
or to encourage to suicide, amounts
to the sin of Farajika, and ia visited
with permanent expulsion from the
order. Aswgards the laity, the use
lfi>
Tided the i
self been an agent in depriving it
VOL. I.
of life. The doctrine of prohibition,
however, although thus regulated,
like many others of the Buddhists,
by subtleties and sophistry , has proved
en obstacle in the way of the Mission-
aries; and, coupled with the permis-
sion in the Scriptures " to slay and
eat," it has not oiled to operate pre-
judicially to the spread of Christianity.
1 From the - Singhalese book, the
" Dharmma I'adan, or Footsteps of
Religion, portions of which are trans-
lated in "The Frimd," Colombo,
1840.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
BUDDHISM AND DEM0N-W0U3HIP. [Put IT.
own ancient superstition. Conscious of their inability to
decide on what has baffled the wisest of their European
teachers to reconcile, they hesitate to exchange for an
apparent uncertainty that which has been unhesitatingly
believed by generations of their ancestors, and which
comes recommended to them by all the authority of an-
tiquity ; and even when truth has been so tar successful
as to shake their confidence in their national faith, the
choice of sects which has been offered to them leads to
utter bewilderment as to the peculiar form of Christianity
with which they may most confidingly replace it1
' A narrative of the efforts made
by the Portuguese to introduce
Christianity, and by the Dutch to
establish the reformed Religion, trill
be found in Sir J. Ekebboh Thsnknt's
Christianity in Ceylon ; together with
an exposition of the systems adopted
by the European and American mis-
sions, and their influence on the Hindu
and Buddhist »
Those who Reek to pursue the study
of Buddhism, its tenets and econo-
mies, as it exhibits itself in Ceylon,
will find ample details in the two
Sifound works published by Mr.
SPBHCB HiBDT ; Etwtrrn Moaa-
ehitm, Lond. 1860, and A Manual of
Buddhism, m itt Modern DemhpmaU,
Lond. 1863.
oyGoogIe
PART V.
MEDIEVAL HISTORY.
* a,., i,, Google
/^:Kr ■■'-•Six
DonizcdoyGoogle
CHAPTER L
CETLON AS KNOWN TO THE GBEEES AND ROMANS.
Aithough mysterious rumours of the ^wealth and
wonders of India had reached the Western nations in
the heroic ages, and though travellers at a later period
returning from Persia and the East had spread romantic
reports of its vastness and magnificence, it is doubtful
whether Ceylon had been heard of in Europe l even
' Nothing is more strikingly sug-
gestive of the extended renown of
Ceylon and of the different countries
which maintained an intercourse with
the island, than the number and
dissimilarity of the names by which
it has been known at various periods
throughout Europe and Asia, So
remarkable is this peculiarity, that
LiSSEH has made "the names of
Taprobane" the subject of several
learned disquisitions (De Taprobane
Insula veter. cogn. IHssert. sec 2, p.
6 ; Indiscke AUerthwntfamde, vol. i.
6200, note viii. p. 212, ftc.) ; and
urnouf has devoted two elaborate
essays to their elucidation, Journ.
Atiat. 1826, vol. viii. p. 129. Ibid.,
1867, vol. xxxiii p. 1.
In the literature of the Brahmans,
Lanka, from having been the scene
of the exploits of Kama, is as re-
nowned as Dion in the great epic of
the Greeks. "Taprobane," the name
by which the island was first known
to the Macedonians, is derivable from
the Pali "Tamha panni." The ori-
gin of the epithet will be found in
the Mahavxmto, eh. vii. p. 56; and
it is further noticed in the present
work, VoL I. P. i. ch. i. p. 17, and
P. m. ch. ii p. 866. — It has like-
wise been referred to the Sanskrit
" Tambrapanii" which, according to
Lasseit, means "the great pond," or
"tbe pond covered with the red
lotus,*' and was probably associated
with the gigantic tanks for which
Ceylon is so remarkable. In later
times Taprobane was exchanged for
Simundu, Palai-aimundu, andSalike,
under which names it is described
by Ptolemy, the author of the Pen-
ptm, and by Mabch.vtjs of Hera-
clcea. Palat-simuiidu, Lassen con-
jectures to be derived from the San-
skrit Pali-nmtmta, " the bead of the
sacred law," from Ceylon having be-
come the great centre of the Budd-
hist faith (D» Taprob., p. 16 ; ImU-
tche Alter, vol. i. p. 200) ; and Salike
he regards merely as a seaman's cor-
ruption of " Sinhala or Sihala," the
name chosen by the Singhalese them-
selves, and signifying " the dwelling
place of lions." Bubhocf suggests
whether it may not be Sri-Lanka, or
"Lanka the Blessed."
Sinhala, with the suffix of " diva."
or "dwipa" (island), was subsequently
converted into " Silan-dwipa and
"Seren-diva,' ' whence the " Serendib"
of tbe Arabian navigators and their
romances ; and this in later times
was contracted into Zeilan by the
Portuguese, Ceylan by the Dutch,
and Ceylon by the English. VmCEKi,
In his Commentary on the PeripUu of
the Brythram Sea, vol. 11. p. 493,
has enumerated a variety of other
names borne by the island; and to
all these might be further added
oyGoogIe
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.
[Past Vv
by name till the companions of Alexander the Great,
returning from his Indian expedition, brought back
accounts of what they had been told of its elephants
and ivory, its tortoises and marine monsters.1
So vague and uncertain was the information thus
obtained, that Strabo, writing upwards of two cen-
turies later, manifests irresolution in stating that
Taprobane was an island 2 ; and Pomfonids Mela, who
wrote early in the first century of the Christian era,
quotes as probable the conjecture of Hipparchus, that
it was not in reality an island, but the commencement
of a south-eastern continent8; an opinion which Pliny
records as an error that had prevailed previous to his
own time, but which he had been enabled to correct by
the information received from the ambassador who had
been sent from Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius.*
In the treatise De Mundo, which is ascribed to Aris-
totle 5, Taprobane is mentioned incidentally as of less
size than Britain ; and this is probably the earliest his-
thoee assigned to it in China, in
Siani, in Hindustan, Kashmir, Persia,
and other countries of the East The
learned ingenuity of Bochart ap-
plied a Hebrew root to expound the
origin of Taprobane (Gcogr. Sac. lib.
ii. eh. xrriii.) ; but the later re-
searches of TtJRHOTB, BmraoiTF, and
Lassen hare traced it with certainty
to its Bali and Sanskrit origin.
1 Gosselin, in his Recherche* tur
la Gfoffraphie den Ancient, torn. iii.
p. 201, says that Onesicritus, the
pilot of Alexander's fleet, " avait
visits' la Taprobane pendant un
nouveau voyage qu'il eut ordre "de
faire." If so, he was the first Euro-
pean on record who had seen the
island ; hut I have searched unsuc-
cessfully for any authority to sustain
this statement of Gosseluj.
a Stbado, L ii. c. i. s. 14, c v. s. 14,
tlvat pan vfliw ; L XV. c. i. S. 14. OTID
" " nt, and sung of —
1 " Taprobanen aut grandis ailmo-
lium insula aut prima pars orbis al-
terius Hipparcho dicitur." — Po*-
pohttts Mela, iii. 7. "Dubitare pote-
rant juniores num revera insula esset
2 nam ill! pro veterum Taprobane
abobant, si nemo eousque repertus
esset qui earn circumnavigasset : sic
enim de nostra quoque Britannia dubi-
tatum est essetne insula antequam
illam circumnavigasset Agricola." —
Disiertatio deflate nt Aactore Peripli
1 Marif En/thriri : Hudson, Geoa.
Feter, Scrip. Grac. Mm., voL i. p. 97.
* Pliny, 1. vi. c. 24.
* 1 have elsewhere disposed of the
alleged allusions of Sancnociathon to
an island which was obviously meant
for Ceylon. (See Note (A) end of
this chapter.) The authenticity of
the treatise De Mundo, as a pro-
duction of Aristotle, is somewhat
doubtful (ScBXBLL; Lilerat. Grecgne,
liv. It. c. xl.) ; and it might add to the
suspicion of its being a modern com-
position, that Aristotle should do
no more than mention the Dame and
oyGoogIe
THE GREEKS.
torical notice of Ceylon that has come down to us1 as
the memoirs of Alexander's Indian officers, on whose
size of a country of which Onesi-
critus and Nearchus had just brought
home accounts bo surprising ; and
that he should speak of it with con-
fidence as an island, although the
question of its insularity remained
somewhat uncertain at a much later
1 Fabbicius, in the supplemental
volume of his Coder Peewkpigraphi
veteris Tatamenti, llnmb., a.d. 1723,
says, "Samarita, Genesis, riii.4, tra-
dit Note arcam requievisse super
montem r^c Serendib sive Zeylan. —
P. 30; and it was possibly upon
•this authority that it has been stated
in Kitto'b Cyclopedia of Biblical
Literature, vol. i. p. 199, as " a curi-
ous circumstance that in Genesis,
vili. 4, the Samaritan Pentateuch
has Sarandib, the Arabic name of
Ceylon," instead of Ararat, as the
resting place of the ark. Were this
true, it would give a triumph to spe-
culation, and serve by a single but
irresistible proof to dissipate doubt,
if there were any, as to the early
intercourse between the Hebrews and
that island as the country from which
Solomon drew his triennial supplies
of ivory, apes, and peacocks (1 Kings,
x. 32). Assuming the correctness
of the opinion that the Samaritan
Pentateuch is as old as the separa-
tion of the tribes in the reign of
Behoboam, n. c. 976-958, this would
not only furnish a notice of Ceylon
far anterior to any existing autho-
rity ; but would assign an antiquity
irreconcilable with historical evidence
as to its comparatively modem name
of " Serendib." The interest of the
disco very would still be extraordinary,
even if the Samaritan Pentateuch
he referred to the later date assigned
to it by Frankel, who adduces evi-
dence to show that its writer had
made use of the Septuaeint. The
author of the article in the Biblical
Cyclopaedia is however in error.
Every copy of the Samaritan Pen-
tateuch, both those printed in the
Paris Polyglot and in that of Walton,
as well as the five MSS. in- the Bod-
leian Library at Oxford, which con-
tain the eighth chapter of Genesis,
together with several collations of the
Hebrew and Samaritan text, make
no mention of Sarandib, but all ex-
hibit the word " Ararat " in its pro-
per place in the eighth chapter of
Genesis. "Ararat is also found
correctly in Blatnby's Pentat.
Httor<eo-SamaTit.,Q-x£ot&, 1790.
But there is another work in
which "Sarandib" does appear in
the verse alluded to. Pietbo della
Valle, in that most interesting letter
in which he describes the manner
in which he obtained at Damascus,
in a. u. 1616, a manuscript of the
Pentateuch on parchment in the
Hebrew language, but written in
Samaritan characters j relates that
along with it he procured another on
£aper, in which not only the letters,
ut the language, was Samaritan—
"che non solo e scritto con lettere
Samaritans, ma in lingua anche
propria de Semaritani, che i un
misto della Ebraica e della Caldea."
— Viaggi, 8fc, Lett, da Aleppo, 16.
di Giugno a.d. 1610.
The first of these two manuscripts
is the Samaritan Pentateuch, the
second is the " Samaritan version " of
it. The author and age of the second
are alike unknown ( but it cannot, in
the opinion of Frankel, date earlier
than the second century, or a still
later period. (Davison's Biblical Cri-
ticism, vol. i. ch. ?
%\
ail ancient targums, it bears in some
particulars the character of a para-
phrase ; and amongst other departures
from the literal text of the original
Hebrew, the translator, following the
example of Onkelos and others, has
substituted modern geographical
names for some of the more ancient,
such as Oermm for Mount Ebal
(Deut. xxvii. 4), Paneat for Dan, and
Atcalon for Gerar; and in the 4th
verse of the viiith chapter of Genesis
he has made the ark to rest" upon
the mountami of Sarandib." Onkelos
.„,.::! r,, C.OOgle
MEDLEVAL HISTOBY.
[Paw V.
authority Aristotle (if he be the author of the treatise
" De Mundo ") must have written, survive only in
fragments, preserved by the later historians and geo-
graphers.
From their compilations, however, it appears that
the information concerning Ceylon collected by the Mace-
donian explorers of India, was both meagre and erro-
neous. Onesicritcs, as he is quoted by Strabo "and
Pliny, propagated exaggerated statements as to the dimen-
sions of the island l, and the number of herbivorous ceta-
cea s found in its seas ; the elephants he described as far
surpassing those of continental India both in courage
and in size.8 *
Megasthenes, twenty years after the death of Alex-
ander the Great, was accredited as an ambassador from
Seleucus Nicator to the court of Sandracottus, or
Chandra-Gupta, the King of the Prasii*, from whose
country Ceylon had been colonised two centuries before
by the expedition under Wijayo.8 It was, perhaps,
in the same passage has Kar&t in
place of Ararat See "Walton's
Polyglot, vol. L p. 81 ; Babtow, Bibl
Diet. 1847, vol. i. p. 71.
According to the Mahawatuo, the
epithet of Sihale-dwipa, the island of
lions, was conferred upon Ceylon by
the followers of Wijayo, n.c. 543
(MaJumanto, ch. vii. p. 51), and from
this was formed, by Uie Arabian sea-
men, the names Silan-dip and Seraa-
dib. The occurrence of the latter
word, therefore, in the "Samaritan
Pentateuch," if its antiquity be refer-
able .to the reign of Rehoboam, would
be inexplicable; whereas no anachron-
ism is involved by its appearance in
the " Samaritan version, which was
not written till many centuries after
the Wijavan conquest
There is another mnnuscript,written
on bombycine, in the Bodleian Libra-
ry, No. 345, described as an Arabic
version of the Pentateuch, written
between the years 884 and 885 of
the Hejira, a.d. 1470 and 1480, and
ascribed to Aba Said, son of Aba
Hassan, " in eo continetur versio
Arabics Pentateuchi quo? ex textu
Hebneico-Samaritano nan ex version*
ilia oute diulecto guadam pecuiiari
Samaritans quondam vernaciua Scrip-
ts at."— Cat. Orient. MSS. vol. i. p. 2.
In this manuscript, also, the word
Sarendip, instead of Ararat, occurs in
the passage in Genesis descriptive of
the resting of the ark.
1 These early errors as to the site
and position of Ceylon will be found
explained elsewhere. See Vol LP. I.
ch. i. p. 81.
* Strabo, iv. p. 601. The animal
referred to by the informants of One-
sicritus was the dugong, whose form
and attitudes gave rise to the fabled
mermaid. See Mvus, lib. xvi. ch.
xviii., who says it has the face of a
woman and spines that resemble hair.
* Pliny, lib. vi. ch. 24. See Map
of India, p. 330, where it is put down
' See VoL I. P. m. ch. HL p. 806.
oyGoogIe
Chap. L] THE GREEKS. 553
from the latter circumstance and the communication
subsequently maintained between the insular colony
and the mother country, that Megasthenes, who never
visited any part of India south of the Ganges, and who
was, probably, the first European who ever beheld
that renowned river *, was nevertheless enabled to
collect many particulars relative to the interior of
Ceylon. He described it as being divided by a river
(the Mahawelli-ganga ?) into two sections, one infested
by wild beasts and elephants, the other producing gold
and gems, and inhabited by a people whom he called
PalBeogoni 2, a hellenized form of Pali-Putra, " the sons
of the Paly the first Prasian colonists.
Such was the scanty knowledge regarding India
communicated to Europe by. those who had followed
the footsteps of conquest into that remote region ; and
although eighteen centuries elapsed from the death of
Alexander the Great before another European power
sought to establish its dominion in the East, a new
passion had been early implanted, the cultivation of
which was in the highest degree favourable to the ac-
quisition and diffusion of geographical knowledge. In
an age before the birth of history8, the adventurous
Phoenicians, issuing from the Red Sea, in their ships,
1 Robebtsok's dncient India, one.
ii.
* BCH ITASBKX'B Mffftathenet,
Fragm. rviii. ; Souinrs Polthibtob,
liii. 3; Pliht, lvi. ch. 24. Mu&s,
in compiling his Jfatura Animaii-
um, has introduced the story told
by Megasthenes, and quoted by
St&abo, of cetaceous animals in the
seas of Ceylon with heads resembling
oxen and lions ; and this justifies the
conjecture that other portions of the
same work referring to the island may
have been simultaneously borrowed
from the same source. Schwah-
jieok, apparently on this ground, has
included among the Fragments tn-
carta those passages from #jElian,
lib. xvi. ch. 17, 18, in which he says,
VOL. I. 0
and truly, that in Taprobane there
were no cities, but from five to seven
hundred villages built of wood,
thatched with reeds, and occasionally
covered with the shells of huge tor-
toises. The sea coast then as now
was densely covered with palm-trees
(evidently coco-nut and Palmyra),
and the forests contained elephants
so superior to those of India that
they were shipped in large vessels
and sold to the King of Kalinga
('Northern Circars). The island, he
saysj is so large that " those in the
maritime districts never hunted in
the interior, and those in the in-
terior had never seen the sea."
' A compendious account of the
early trade between India Mid the
oyGoogIe
1IEDLEVAL HISTOEY.
[PinV.
had reached the.shores of India, and centuries afterwards
their experienced seamen piloted the fleets of Solomon in
search of the luxuries of the East.1
Egypt, under the Ptolemies, became the seat of that
opulent trade which it had been the aim of Alexander
the Great to divert to it from Syria. Berenice was
built on the Red Sea, as an emporium for the ships
engaged in Indian voyages, and Alexandria excelled
- Tyre in the magnitude and success of her mercantile
operations.
The conquest of Egypt by Augustus, so far from
checking, served to communicate a fresh impulse to the
intercourse with India, whence all that was costly and
rare was collected in wanton profusion, to minister to
the luxury of Rome. A. bold discovery of the same
period imparted an entirely new character to the navi-
gation of the Indian Ocean. The previous impediment
to trade had been the necessity of carrying it on in
small vessels, that crept cautiously along the windings
of the shore, the crews being too ignorant and too timid
to face the dangers of the open sea. But the courage
of an individual at length solved the difficulty, and dis-
sipated the alarm. Hippalus, a seaman in the reign of
Claudius, observing the steady prevalence of the mon-
soons 2, wliich blew over the Indian Ocean alternately
from east and west, dared to trust himself to their in-
coun tries bordering on die Medi-
terranean will be found in PakdeS-
bus's Collection rlei Low Maritime*
anterieurt* au XVIll* si&cle, torn. i.
p. 9.
1 It has been conjectured, and not
without reason, that it may possibly
have been from Ceylon and certainly
from Southern India that the fleets
of Solomon were returning when
ships of Tarsh'ish, bringing gold and
silver, ivorv, apes, anil peacocks." —
I Kings, x. 22, II Chron. xx. 21.
An exposition of the reasons for
believing that the site of Tarshish
subsequent chapter descriptive of
that ancient emporium. See also
Note A at the end of this chapter.
! Arabic "mauttam," I believe the
root belongs to a dialect of India, and
signifies " seasons." YracEHT fixes
the discovery of the monsoons by
Hippalus about the year a.D. 47, al-
though it admits of no doubt that the
periodical prevalence of the winds
must have been known long before,
if not partially taken advantage of
by the seamen of Arabia and India.
Periplus, Jrc, vol. ii. pp. 24—57.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. I.] HIPPALUS. AM
fluence, and departing from the coast of Arabia, he
stretched fearlessly across the unknown deep, and was
carried to Muziris, a port on the coast of Malabar, the
modern Mangalore.
An exploit so adventurous and so triumphant, ren-
dered Hippalus the Columbus of his age, and his
countrymen, to perpetuate his renown, called the winds
which he had mastered by his name.1 His discovery
gave a new direction to navigation, altered the di-
mensions and build of the ships frequenting those seas 2,
and imparted so great an impulse to trade, that within
a very brief period it became a subject of apprehension
at Borne, lest the empire should be drained of its specie
to maintain the commerce with India ; — silver to the
value of nearly a million and a half sterling, being
annually required to pay for the spices, gems, pearls, and
silks, imported through Egypt.3 An extensive acquain-
tance was now acquired with the sea-coast of India, and
the great work of Pliny, compiled less than fifty years
after the discovery of Hippalus, serves to attest the ad-
ditional knowledge ^garding Ceylon which had been
collected during the interval.
Pliny, writing in the first century, puts aside the
fabulous tales previously circulated concerning the
island4; he gives due credit to the truer accounts of
Onesicritus and Megasthenes, and refers to the later
1 Pertplu*, S(G., Hudson, p. 32- I tured, but without any justifiable
Pliny, lib. vi. eh. 26. A learned ' grounds, to be laid in Ceylon ; and
disquisition on the discovery of the I which is strangely incorporated with
monsoons will be found in Vis- the authentic work of Diodoktjh
cent's Commerce of the Ancients, Sicm.cs, written in the age of Au-
vol. i. pp. 47, 263; vol. ii. pp.
467 ; Robertson's India, sec. ii.
a Punt, lib. vi. ch. 24.
s Plint, lib. vi. ch. 26. The
nature of this rich trade is folly
described by the author of the Pen-
5hu of the Eryihrean Sea, who was
imself a merchant engaged in it
* I have not thought it necessary
to advert to the romance of JAMBd.ua,
the scene of which has been conjec-
pistus. Diodobus professes to give
it as an account of the recent du-
covery of an island to which it refers ;
a fact sufficiently demonstrative of
its inapplicability to Ceylon, the ex-
istence of which had been known to
the Greeks three hundred years be-
fore. It is the story of a merchant
made captive by pirates and carried
to Ethiopia, where, in compliance
with a solemn rite, he and a coin-
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDLEVAL HISTORY.
[Pa«T V.
works of Eratosthenes and Aetemidoeds1 the geo-
graphers, as to its position, its dimensions, its cities,
its natural productions, and as to the ignorance of navi-
gation exhibited by its inhabitants. All this, he says,
was recorded by former writers, but it had fallen to
his lot to collect information from natives of Ceylon
who had visited Home during his own time under sin-
gular circumstances. A ship had been despatched to
the coast of Arabia to collect the Bed Sea revenues, but
having been caught by the monsoon it was carried to
Hippuros, the modern Koodra-malie, in the north-west
of Ceylon, near the pearl banks of Manaar. Here the
officer in command was courteously received by die
king, who, struck with admiration of the Eomans and
eager to form an alliance with them, despatched an
embassy to Italy, consisting of a Eaja and suite of three
persons.2
panion were exposed in a boat, which,
after a voyage of four months, was
wafted to one of the Fortunate Is-
lands, in the Southern Sea, where
he resided seven years, whence having
been expelled, he made his way to
Palibothra, on the Ganges, and thence
returned to Greece. In the pre-
tended account of this island given
by J ambclub I cannot discover a sin-
gle attribute sufficient to identify it
with Ceylon. On the contrary, the
traits which he narrates of the coun-
try and its in habitants, when they
are not manifest inventions, are ob-
viously borrowed from tie descrip-
tions of the continent of India, given
by Ctestab and Mkuastkkwks.
Peinsep, in his learned analysis of
the Sanchi Inscription, shows that
what Jamb ul us says of the alphabet
of his island agrees minutely with the
character and symbols on the an-,
cient Buddhist late of Central India.
Jmirn. Aeitd. Soc. Sen., vol. vi. p.
470. WlLFORU, in his Eway on the
Soared Islet of the West, Astat. Set.
x. 160, enumerates the statements of
J a a b ur, u b whi ch might possibly apply
to Sumatra, but certainly not to
Ceylon, an opinion in which he had
terthumskundc, vol. iii. p. 270, assigns
his reasons for believing that Bali, to
the easff of Java, must De the island
in which Jahbuxvb laid the scene of
his adventures. Diodobus Sicuirs,
lib. ii. ch, lv., ftc. An attempt has
also been made to establish an iden-
tity between Ceylon and the inland
of Paneh«a, which Diodorus describes
in the Indian Sea, between Arabia
and Gedrosia (lib. v. 41, &c.) ; but
the efforts of an otherwise ingenious
writer have been unsuccessful. See
Gbovrr's Voice front Stonehetu/c, pL
i. p. 95.
1 Plcjt, lib. xxii. ch. liii iv. ch.
xxiv. vii. ch. ii.
* "Legatee quatuor misit, principe
eorum Rachia.ft— Punt, lib. vi.ft. 24.
This passage is generally understood
to indicate four ambassadors, of
whom the principal was one named
Racbias. Cabee Chittt, in a learned
paper on the early History of Jajfiw,
oners another conjecture that " lla-
chia" may mean Arachia, a Singha-
lese designation of rank which exists
to the present day; and in support
of his hypothesis he instances the co-
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. I.] PLINY. , 557
The Singhalese king of whom this is recorded was
probably Chanda-Mukha-Siwa, who ascended the throne
A.D. 44, and was deposed and assassinated by his brother
A.D. 52. He signalised his reign by the construction of
one of those gigantic tanks which still form the wonders
of the island.1 Prom his envoys Pliny learned that Ceylon
then contained five hundred towns (or more properly
villages), of which the chief was Pabesimunda, the
residence of the sovereign, with a population of two
hundred thousand souls.
They spoke of a lake called Megisba, of vast magni-
tude, and giving rise to two rivers, one flowing by the
capital and the other northwards, towards the conti-
nent of India, which was most likely an exaggerated
account of some of the' great tanks, possibly that of
Tissaweva, in the vicinity of Anarajapoora. They de-
scribed the acoral which abounds in the Gulf of Manaar ;
and spoke of marble, with colours like the shell of the
tortoise ; of pearls and precious stones ; of the luxuri-
ineidence that " at a lator period a
similar functionary was despatched
by the ffing Bhuwaneka-Bahu VIII.
as ambassador to the court of Lisbon."
— Journal Ceylon Ariat. Soc., p. 74,
1848, The event to which he refers
is recorded in the Eqjavali: it is
stated that the king of Cotto, about
the year 1640, " caused a figure of
the prince bis grandson to be made
of gold, and sent the same under
the care of Saliappoo Arachy, to be
delivered to the King of Portugal.
The Arachy having arrived and de-
livered the presents to the King of
Portugal,- obtained the promise of
great assistance," &c. — ttajavali, p.
286. See also Valkntyh, Oud en
Memo Oort-Indim, ch. vi. ; Tuk-
ITOUB'b Epitome, p. 49 ; ItiBETRo's
History, trans, by Lee, ch. v. But
as the embassy sent to the Emperor
Claudius would necessarily have been
deputed by one of the kings of the
"Wijayan dynasty, it is more than pro-
bable that the rank of the envoy was
Indian rather than Singhalese, and
that " Rachia " means raja rather
thiin arachj/.
It may, however, be observed that
" Rackha " is a name of some renown
in Singhalese annals. Rackha was the
general whom Prakrama Balm sent
to reduce the south of Ceylon when
in arms in the 12th century (Maha-
wanso, ch. lniii.) ; and it is also the
name of one of the heroes of the
Pajamas. Wilfobd, Ax, Jim., vol.
ix.p. 41.
■ Mahauxmto, ch. szx. p. 218;
Ttrnottk'h Epitome, p. 21 ; Axta -
knvb Mahcei. limits mentions another
embassy which arrived from Ceylon
in the reign of the Emperor Julian,
1. xx. c. 7, and which consequently
must have been despatched by the
king Upa-tissa II. I have elsewhere
remarked, that it was in this century
that the Singhalese appear to have
first commenced the practico of send-
ing frequent embassies to distant
countries, arid especially to China.
(See chapter on the Knowledge of
Ceylon possessed by the Chinese.)
DomzcdoyGoOglc
JS5S MEDLEVAL HISTORY. [Pitt V.
ance of the soil, the profusion of all fruits except that
of the vine, the natural wealth of the inhabitants, the
mildness of the government, the absence of vexatious-
laws, the happiness of the people, and the duration of
life, which was prolonged to more than one hundred
years. They spoke of a commerce with China, but it
was evidently overland, by way of India and Tartary, the
country of the Seres being visible, they said, beyond the
Himalaya mountains.1 They described the mode of
trading among their own countrymen precisely as it is
practised by the Veddahs in Ceylon at the present
day8 ; the parties to the barter being concealed from
each other, the one depositing the articles to be ex-
changed in a given place, and the other, if they agree
to the terms, removing them unseen, and leaving behind
what they give in return.
It is impossible to read this narrative of PJiny without
being struck with its fidelity to truth in many particulars ;
and even one passage, to which exception has been taken
as an imposture of the Singhalese envoys, when they
manifested surprise at the quarters in which the sun rose
and set in Italy, has been referred8 to the peculiar system
of the Hindus, in whose maps north and south are left
and right ;■ but it may be explained by the feet of the sun
passing over and to the north of Ceylon, in his transit to
the summer solstice ; instead of hanging about the south,
as in Italy.
The rapid progress of navigation and discovery in
the Indian seas, within the interval of sixty or seventy
years which elapsed between the death of Pliny and
the compilation of the great work of Ptolemy is in no
instance more strikingly exhibited than on comparing
the information concerning Taprobane, which is given
by the latter in his " System of Geography," * with the
' "Ultra
qnoque
Emodos Seres
ipsia aspici notos etinm
'—Pliny, lib. ri. c. 24.
1 See the chapter on the Veddahs,
Vol. II. Part n. ch. iii.
' See Wilfokd'8 Satrtd lAnA
of the Wed, AtiaL Set., vol. X. p-
* Ptolbmt, Geog.,\ib.vii.ci,tA.
i. Aeite. In one important parti-
Chap. I.] PTOLEMY. M9
meagre knowledge of the island possessed by all his
predecessors. From his position at Alexandria and
his opportunities of intercourse with mariners return-
ing from their distant voyages, he enjoyed unusual
facilities for ascertaining facts and distances, and in
proof of his singular diligence he was enabled to lay
down in his map of Ceylon the position of eight pro-
montories upon its coast, the mouths of five principal
rivers, four bays, and harbours ; and in the interior he
had ascertained that there were thirteen provincial
divisions, and nineteen towns, besides two emporiums on
.the coast; five great estuaries which he terms lakes1-,
cular a recent author has done jus-
tice to the genius and perseverance
of Ptolemy, by demonstrating' that
although mistaken in adopting some
of the fallacious statements of his
predecessors, he has availed himself
of better data by which to fix the
position of Ceylon ; so that the west-
ern coast in the Ptolemaic map co-
incides with the modern Ceylon in
the vicinity of Colombo. Mr. Coolry,
in his learned work on Claudius Pto-
lemy and the Nile, Lend. 1854, has
successfully shown that whilst forced
Taprobane, magnified far beyond its
true dimensions, appears to extend
two degrees below the equator, and
to the seventy -first meridian east of
Alexandria (nearly twenty degrees
too far east), wherca* the prestribed
reduction brinat it westward tmd north-
ward till it covers the modern Ceylon,
the western coasts of both coinciding
at the very part near Colombo likely
to have been visited by shipping." —
Pp. 47, 53. See also Schcell, Mint.
de la tit. Qrecque, 1. v. c. lxx.
check, Ptolemy conscientiously a- >jt
vailed himself of the best materials
at his command, and endeavoured
fix his distances by means of the r_
ports of the Greek seamen who fre-
quented the coasts which he described,
constructing his maps by means of —
their itineraries and the journals of
trading voyages. But a fundamental
error pervades all his calculations,
inasmuch as he assumed that there
were but fiOO stadia (about fifty u
graphical miles) instead of sixty miles
to a degree of a great circle of the
earth ; thus curtailing the globe of
one sixth of its circumference. Once
apprised of this mistake, and reckon-
ing Ptolemy's longitudes and lad'
tudes from Alexandria, and reducing „,
them to degrees of 600 stadia, his I ' It is observable that Ptolemy u.
positions may be laid down on a more nis list distinguishes those indenta-
correct graduation; otherwise "bis | tions in the coast which he described
£*.
oyGoogIe
MEDIEVAL HISTORY.
tPiwVl
two bays, and two chains of mountains, one of them
surrounding Adam's Peak, which he designates as Ma-
laaa — the name by which the hills that environ it are
designated in the Maltatsanso. . He mentions the recent
change of the name to Salike (which Lassen conjectures
to be a seaman's corruption of the real name Sihala *) ;
and he notices, in passing^ the fact that the natives
wore their hair then as they do at the present day, in
such length and profusion as to give them an appear-
ance of effeminacy, "ftaXXsiV yucotixsioiff tig atrav avat-
to Point Pedro. Although the ma-'
jority of the names which he sup-
plies are no longer susceptible of
identification on the modem map,
some Of them can he traced with-
out difficulty — thus his Ganges is
still the Mshawelli-ganga ; his Ma
agrammttm would appear, on a
first glance, to be Mahsgam, hut as
be calls it the " metropolis," and
places it beside the great river, it is
evidently Bintenne, whose ancient
name wos"Maha-yangana"or *Si-
ha-welli-gam." His Jbmragrammum,
which he calls ftaaiktwv, " the royal
residence," is obviously Anaraja-
Cra, the city founded by Anuradha
hundred years before Ptolemy
was born (Mahaicanso, ch. vii. p 60 ;
x. 65, Sic.). It may have borne in
his time the secondary rank of a Til-
lage or a town (gam at gramma), and
afterwards acquired the higher epi-
thet of Anuradha-ptwro, the "
as bays, t6\roci from the
to which he gives the epithet of
"lakes," Aifiqv. Of the former he
particularises two, the position pf
which would nearly correspond with
the Bay of Trincomalie and the har-
bour of Colombo. Of the latter he
enumerates five, and from their posi-
tion they Seem to represent the pecu-
liar estuaries formed by the conjoint
influence of the rivers and the cur-
rent, and known by the Arabs by
the term oC'gobbt." A description of
them will be found at Vol. I, Part I.
ch. i. p. 43.
1 May it not have an Egyptian
origin " Siela-Keh," the land of
8idaf
5 The description of Taprobane
given by Ptolemy proves that the
island had been thoroughly circum-
navigated and examined by the ma-
riners who were his informants. Not
having penetrated the interior to any
extent, their reports relative to it are
confined to the names of the prin-
cipal tribes inhabiting the several
divisions and provinces, and the po-
sition of the metropolis and seat of
government. But respecting the
coast, their notes were evidently mi-
nute and generally accurate, and
from them Ptolemy was enabled to
enumerate in succession the bays,
rivers, and harbours, together with
the headlands and cities on the sea-
borde in consecutive order ; beginning
at the northern extremity, proceed-
ing southward down fie western
coast, and returning along the east
UieZ Ol AUUXaUUH-^WOTT*, IU« "" C1LJT
of Anuradha, after it had grown to
the dimensions of a capital. The
province of the Modntti in Ptolemy's
list has a close resemblance in name,
though not in position, to Mantotte ;
tbe people of Rayagam Corle still
occupy the country assigned by him
to tbe RAogandani — his Nat/a dibit
are identical with the Nagadiva of
the Mahawan»o; and the islet to
which he has given the name of
Sana, occupies nearly the position
of the Basses, which it has been the
custom to believe were so called by
the Portuguese — " Baxos " or " Bsj-
sos," tvmken rockt. It is curious
DomzcdoyGoOglc
.'-.^--J
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] PTOLEMY. 501
The extent and accuracy of Ptolemy's information
is so surprising, that it has given rise to surmises as
to the sources whence it could possibly have been de-
rived.1 But the conjecture that he was indebted to
ancient Phoenician or Tyrian authorities whom he has
failed to acknowledge, is sufficiently met by the con-
sideration that these were equally accessible to his pre-
decessors. The abundance of his materials, especially
those relating to the sea-borde of India and Ceylon, is
sufficient to show that he was mainly indebted for his
facts to the adventurous merchants of Egypt and
Arabia, and to works which, like the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea (erroneously ascribed to Aeeian the
historian, but written by a merchant probably of the
same name), were drawn up by practical navigators to
serve as sailing directions for seamen resorting to the
Indian Ocean,8
that the position in which he hu
placed the elephant plains or feeding
grounds, iXiQavruiv vofioi, to the
south-east of Adam's Peak, is the
portion of the island about Matura,
where, down to a very recent period,
the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the
English successively held their an-
nual battues, not only for the supply
of the government studs, but for ex-
r; to India. Making due allowance
the false dimensions of the island
assumed by Ptolemy, but taking his
account of the relative positions of
the headlands, rivers, harbours, and
cities, the accompanying map affords
a proximate idea of his views of
Taprobane and its localities as pro-
pounded in his Geography.
Pott-iKriptum. Since the above
was written, and the map it refers to
was returned to me from Uie engraver,
I have discovered that a similar
attempt to identify the ancient
names of Ptolemy with those now at-
tached to the supposed localities, was
made by Gosseltn ; and a chart so
constructed will be found (No. xiv.)
appended to his Recherche* tur la
303. I have
T™> u« Ancient, t. iii. p.
have been gratified to find
luiu, in the more important points
we agree ; but in many of the minor
ones, the want of personal knowledge
of the island involved Gosselin in er-
rors which the map 1 have prepared
will, I hope, serve to rectify.— J. E.T.
i HxEEEV, Hist. Betearchtt, vol.
ii. Appendix xii.
1 Lasses, De Taprob. In*, p, 4.
From the error of Ptolemy in mak-
ing the coast of Malabar extend from
west to enst, whilst its true position
is laid down in the Periplus, Vin-
cent concludes that he was not ac-
quainted with the Periplus, as, an-
terior to the invention of printing,
cotemporaries might readily be igno-
rant of the productions of each other
(VnrtJBBT, voL ii. p. 66). Vincent
assigns the composition of the Pe-
riplus to the reign of Claudius or
Nero, and Dodwell to that of M.
Aurelius, but Letronne more judi-
ciously ascribes it to the period of
Sever us and Caracalla, a.d. 108, 210,
fifty years later than Ptolemy. The
author, a Greek of Alexandria and
a. merchant, never visited Ceylon,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDIEVAL HISTOBY.
So ample was the description of Ceylon afforded by
Ptolemy, that for a very long period his successors,
Aoathemerus, Mabcianus of Beraclea, and other geo-
graphers, were severally contented to use the facts
originally collected by him.1 And it was not till the
reign of Justinian, in the sixth century, that Cosmas
Indico-pleustes, by publishing the narrative of Sopater,
added very considerably to the previous knowledge of
the island.
As Cosmas is the last Greek writer who treats of
Taprobane s, it may be interesting, before passing to his
though he had been as far south as
Nolkynda (the modern Neliseram),
and the account which ho gives from
report of the island is meagre, and
in soma respects erroneous. Abri-
ANI, Peripiu* Mam Eryth. ; HuDtOV,
toI. i. p. 36 ; Vincent, vol. ii. p. 403.
1 AoATHEMEBUS, Iluthan Gcog., 1.
ii. c. 7, 8. ; Mabcianes Hesacleota,
Peripka, Hudson, p. 26. Steph*nps
BrBAMTiNTjs, m verba "Taprobane."
Instead of the expression of Ptolemy
that Taprobane IxoXiit-d naXai Ei/iot'iv-
Ibb, which Maxciahvs bad ren-
dered na\ntai,iai-rta<; SlEEHANES
transposes the words u if to guard
against error, m\\ni piv (rnXiir.i 2i-
nuiircav, &c. The prior authority of
Ptolemy, however, serves to prolong
the mystery, as he calls the capital
l'alfcaimundum.
* There is another curious work
which,notwithstanding certain doubts
as to its authorship, contains internal
evidence entitling it, in point of time,
to take precedence of Coshab. This
is the tract "Da Moribut Broch-
numomm," ascribed to St. Ambrose,
and which under the title " iimi r&r
been also attributed to Palladius, but
in all probability it was actually
the composition of neither. Early
in the fifth century Palladius was
Bishop of Helenopolifl, in Bithynia,
and died about a.d. 410. He spent
a part of his life in Coptic monas-
teries, and it is possible that during
his sojourn in Egypt, meeting tra-
vellers and merchants returning from
India, he may have caused this nar-
rative to "be taken down from the
dictation of one of them. Cave he-
sitates to believe that it was written
by PALLADrrs,"haud facile credem,"
&'c. (Script. Eccle*. Sid. Lit) ; and
the learned Benedictine editors of
Ambrose have excluded it from the
works of the latter. They could
scarcely have done otherwise when
the first chapter of the Latin version
opens with the declaration that it
rawn up b
it of " Pal:
request of " Palladius." " Beside-
rium mentis tue Palladi opus efficere
nos compellit," &c. Neither of the
two versions can be accepted as "m
translation of the other, but the dis-
crepancies are not inconsistent, and
would countenance the conjecture
that the book is the production of
one and the same person. Much of
the material is borrowed from Pto-
lemy and Pliny, but the facts which
are new could only have been col-
lected by persons who had visited the
scenes they describe. The compiler
says he had learned from a certain
scholar of Thebes that the inhabitants
of Ceylon were called Macrobii, be-
cause, owing to the salubrity of the
climate, the average duration of life
was 160 years. The petty kings of
the country acknowledged one para-
mount sovereign to whom they were
subject as satraps ; this the Theban
was told by others, as he himself was
not allowed to visit the interior. A
oyGoogIe
Chap. I-]
COSMAS INDICO-PLEUBTES.
account of the island, to advert to what has been re-
corded by the , Singhalese chroniclers themselves, as
to its actual condition at the period when Cosmas
described it, and thus to verify his narrative by the
test of historical evidence. It has been shown in an-
other chapter that between the first and the sixth
centuries, Ceylon had undergone all the miseries of
frequent invasions : that ' in the vicissitudes of time
the great dynasty of Wijayo had expired, and the
throne had fallen into the hands of an effeminate and
powerless race, utterly unable to contend with the
energetic Malabars, who acquired an established foot-
ing in the northern parts of the island. The south,
thousand other islands lie adjacent to
Ceylon, and in a group of these which
he calls Maniolie (probably the Attols
of the Maldives,) is found the load-
stone, which attracts iron, bo that a
vessel coming within its influence,
is seized and forcibly detained, and
for this reason the snips which navi-
gate these seas are fastened with pegs
of wood instead of bolts of iron.
Ceylon, according to this tra-
veller, has five large and navigable
— 1, it rejoices m one per — ;"'
' ' * ■sandtl
perennial
d the ripe
harvest, and the flowers
fait hang together on mo same
Branch. There are palm trees; both
those that bear the great Indian nut,
and the smaller aromatic one (the
areka). The natives subsist on milk,
rice, and fruit. The sheep produce
no wool, but have long and silky
hair, and linen being unknown, the
inhabitants clothe themselves in
skins, which are far from inelegantly
worked.
to trade, the Theban attempted to go
into the interior, and succeeded in
getting sight of a tribe whom he calls
Besadie or Vesadre, his description of
whom is in singular conformity with
the actual condition of the Ved-
dahs in Ceylon at the present day.
«Th0V BT0"ll " * "
a feeble and
to gather pepper from the climbing
filants. They are of low stature, with
anre heads and shaggy uncut hair."
The Theban proceeds to relate
that being arrested by one of the
ehiefc, on the charge of having en-
tered his territory without permission,
he was forcibly detained there for
six years, subsisting on a measure of
food, issued to him daily by the royal
authority. This again presents a
curious coincidence with the deten-
tion and treatment of Knox and other
captures by the kings of Kandy in
modern times. He was at last re-
leased owing to the breaking out of
hostilities between the chief who held
him prisoner and another prince, who
accused the former before the supreme
sovereign of having unlawfully de-
tained a Roman citizen, after which
he was setT at liberty, out of respect
to the Roman name and authority.
This curious tract was first pub-
lished by Camekabius, but in 1865
Sir Edward Bissb, Baronet, and
Clarenceux King-at-Arms, repro-
duced the Greek original, supposing
it to be an unpublished manuscript,
with a Latin translation. It is in-
corporated in one of the MSS. of the
Pteudo-CaUitihenet recently edited
by MOller, lib. iii. ch. vii. viii. ;
D'idot, Script. Grttc. Bib,, vol. xivi.
Paris. 1846.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
SM MBDIJEVAL H1STOBT. [FuiV.
too wild and uncultivated to attract these restless
plunderers, and too rugged and inaccessible to be over-
run by them, was divided into a number of petty prin-
cipalities, whose kings did homage to the paramount
sovereign north of the Mahawelli-ganga. Buddhism
was the national religion, but toleration- was shown to
all others, — to the worship of the Brahmans as well
as to the barbarous superstition of the aboriginal tribes.
At the same time, the productive wealth of the island
had been developed to an extraordinary extent by the
care of successive kings, and .by innumerable, works for
irrigation and agriculture provided by their policy.
Anarajapoora, the capital, had expanded into extra-
ordinary dimensions, it was adorned with buildings
and monuments, surpassing in magnitude those of any
city in India, and had already attracted pilgrims and
travellers from China and the uttermost countries of
the East.
With the increasing commercial intercourse between
the West and the East, Ceylon, from its central position,
half way between Arabia and China, had during the
same period risen into signal' importance as a great
emporium for foreign trade. The transfer of the seat of
empire from Kome to Constantinople served to revive tl«?
over-land traffic with India ; and the Persians for the
first time I vied with the Arabs and the merchants of
Egypt, and sought to divert the Oriental trade from the
Bed Sea and Alexandria to the Euphrates and the
Tigris.
Already, between the first and fifth centuries, the
course of that trade had undergone a considerable
change. In its infancy, and so long as the navigation
was confined to coasting adventures, the fleets of the
Ptolemies sailed no further than to the ports of Arabia
Felix 3, where they were met by Arabian vessels return-
i Roman emporium, j
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cbaf. I-] COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES. S6tf
ing from the west coast of India, bringing thence the
productions of China, shipped at the emporiums of
Malabar. After the discovery of the monsoons, and
the accomplishment of bolder voyages, the great en-
trepot of commerce was removed further south; first,
from Muziris, the" modern Mangahre, to Nelkynda, now
Neliseram, and afterwards to Calicut and Coulam, or
Quilon. In like manner the Chinese, who, whilst the
navigation of the Arabs and Persians was in its infancy,
had extended their voyages not only to Malabar but
to the Persian Gulf, gradually contracted them as their
correspondents ventured further south. Hamza says,
*that in the fifth century the Euphrates was navigable,
as high as Hira, within a few miles of Babylon 1 ; and
MAS80uDi,~in his Meadows of Gold, states .that at that
time the Chinese ships ascended the river and anchored
in front of the houses there.2 At a later period, then-
utmost limit was Syraf, in Farsistan3; they after-
wards halted first at Muziris, next at Calicut *, then at
Coulam, now Quilon 6 ; and eventually, in the fourth and
fifth centuries, the Chinese vessels appear rarely to have
sailed further west than Ceylon. Thither they came
with their silks and other commodities, those destined
fijr Europe being chiefly paid for in silver6, and those
intended for barter in India were trans-shipped into
smaller craft, adapted to the Indian seas, by which they
were, distributed at the various ports east and west of
Cape Comorin.7
Cosmas was a merchant of Egypt in the reign of Jus-
tinian, who, from the extent of his travels, acquired the
title of " Indico-pleustes." Eetiring to the cloister, he
devoted the remnant of his life to the preparation of a
1 RlMZA Ifll'AHANENES, p. 102;
Reinattd, Relation, $c., voL l. p. 36.
9 Massoudi, Meadow* of Gold,
Traual. of Spkengeb, vol. i p. 246.
s Abou-^yd, voL i. p. 14 j Rei-
BACn, Diteourt, pp. 44, 78.
* DuiAVBntB, Jour*. Anal., vol.
ilk. p. 141; Vincent, vol. ii. pp.
* Abop-zetd, p. 16 ; Reinaud,
Mfm. tur flnde, p. 201.
• Plctt, lib. vi. oh. xivi. j iVt-
phu Mar. Erytftr.
' Robertson, j^tic. Jiirf., Bee. ii. The
Periplua of the Erythrean Sea de-
scribes these Ceylon crafts bs rigged
vessels, l«riairt)riiiit/iivwi' vijiwi.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
566 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [Pui V.
work in defence of the cosmography of the Pentateuch
from the errors of the Ptolemaic astronomy.1 He died in
the year 550, before his task was completed, and one of
the last portions of it on which he was employed was an
account of Taprobane, taken down from the reports of
Sopater, a Greek trader whom he had met at Adule in
Ethiopia, when on his return from Ceylon.
Sopater, in the course of business as a merchant, sailed
from Adule in the same ship with a Persian bound for
Ceylon, and on his arrival he and his fellow-traveller were
presented by the officers of the port to the king, who was
probably Kumara Das, the friend and patron of the poet
Kalidas.* The king received them with courtesy, and"
Cosmas recounts how in the course of the interview
Sopater succeeded in convincing the Singhalese monarch
of the greater power of Rome as compared with that of
Persia, by exhibiting the large and highly finished gold
coin of the* Roman Emperor in contrast with the small and
inelegant silver money of the Shah. This story would,
however, appear to be traditional, as Pliny relates a
somewhat similar anecdote of the ambassadors from
Ceylon in the reign of Claudius, and of the profound
respect excited in their minds by the sight of the Roman
denarii.
As Sopater was the first traveller . who described
Ceylon from personal knowledge, I shall give his account
of the island in the words of Cosmas, which have, not
before been presented in an English translation. " It
is," he says, " a great island of the ocean lying in the
1 Xpiorionri) Tojrnypnfiu, sive | and 560; and the voyage of Sopatra
Christianorum Opinio de Mundo. j to CeyloD had been made thirty years
This curious book has been printed before. Kumara Baa reigned from
entire bv Montfaueon from a MS. in I a.d. 515 to a.d. 624. \ lucent baa
the Vatican Coll Fatt., vol. ii. p. I noted the fact that in bii interview
333. Paris, 1706 a.d. There u with the Greek he addressed him by
only one other MS. known, which the epithet of Koomi, " av'Puiptvi"
was formerly in Florence; and from it which is the term that has been »p-
Thevenot had previously extracted plied from time immemSrial in India
and published the portion relating to to the powers who have been succea-
India in his Relation de» Die. Vaij., sh-ely in possession of Constantinople,
vol. i. Paris, 1676 a.d. whether Roman, Christian, or Ma-
a Coamas wrote between a.d. 545 hommedan. Vol. ii p. 611, &c
Chap. L]
C09MAS INDICO-PLBUSTES.
Indian Sea, called Sielendib by the Indians, but Tapro-
bane by the Greeks. The stone, the hyacinth, is found
in it ; it lies beyond the pepper country.1 Around it
there are a multitude of exceedingly small islets8, all
containing fresh water and coco-nut palms a ; these
(islands) lie as close as possible together. The great
island itself, according to the accounts of its inha-
bitants, is 300 gaudia1, or 900 miles long, and as many
in breadth. There are two kings ruling at opposite
ends of the island6, one of whom possesses the hya-
cinth 8, and the other the district, in whitth are the port
1 Malabar or Narghvl Arabia.
* The Maldive Islands.
* 'ApytMua pro rapyUXio, from nari-
kcia, the Sanskrit, and naryhyl, Arab,
for the "coco-nut palm." Gilbr-
mkstkk, Script. Arab. p. 8tf.
* " ravlt.i." It is very remarkable
that this singular word gaou, in which*
Cosmos gives the dimensions of the
island, ia in use to the present daj in
Ceylon, and means the distance which
a man can walk in an hour. Vincent,
in his Commerce and Navigation of
the AneienU, has noticed this passage
(vol. ii. p. 500), and says, somewhat
loosely, that the Singhalese gaou,
which he spells "ghadia," is the same
as the naUgiat of the Tamils, and
equal to three-eighths of a French
league, or nearly one mile and a
quarter English. This is incorrect ;
a gaou In Ceylon expresses a some-
what indeterminate length, according
to the nature of the ground to be
traversed, a gaou across a mountain-
ous country being less than one mea-
sured on level, ground, and a gaou
for a loaded cooley is also permitted
to be shorter than for one uubur-
thened, but on the whole the average
may be token under four miles. This
is worth remarking, because it brings
the statement mode to Sopater by
the Singhalese in the sixth century
into consistency with the representa-
tions of the ambassadors to the Em-
peror Claudius in the first, although
both prove to be erroneous. It is
curious that Fa Hi an, the Chinese
traveller, whose zetvl for Buddhism
led him to visit India and Ceylon a
century and a half before Cosmos,
gives on area to the island which ap-
proaches very nearly to correctness ;
although he reverses the direction in
which its length exceeds its breadth.
Foe-kovi-Jci, c. xxxvii. p. 328.
1 "'£vai>rwin\Xij\ur. Thismoyolso
mean " at war with one another."
0 This has been translated so as to
mean the portion or the island pro-
ducing hyacinth stones ("la partie de
l'isle ou se trouvent lee j&cinthes."
Thevenot). But besides that I
know of no Greek form of expression
that admits of such expansion ; this
construction, if accepted, would be
inconsistent with tact ; — for the
king alluded to held the north of the
island, whereas the region producing
gems is the south, ami in it were also
the "emporium," and the harbour
frequented by shipping and mer-
chants. I am disposed therefore to
accept the term in its simple sense,
and to believe that it refers to one
particular jewel, for the possession
of which the king of Ceylon enjoyed
an enviable renown. Cosmas, in the
succeeding sentence, describes this
wonderful gem as being deposited in
a temple near the capital, and liiouen
Thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, says that
in the seventh century, a ruby was
elevated on a spire surmounting a
temple at Anarajapoora " dont 1' eclat
magnifique illumine tout le cit'L" —
Vie de Hiouen Thtumg, lib. iv. p. 190;
Voyages dee Pflerins Bouddkidet,
lib. xi. v. ii. p. 141. Marco Polo,
in the thirteenth century, says, the
" king of Ceylon is reputed to have
Google
MEDLEVAL HISTOBY.
[Pa.
and emporium ', for the emporium in that place is the
greatest in those parts.
" The island has also a community of Christians s,
chiefly resident Persians, "with a presbyter ordained in
Persia, a deacon, and a complete ecclesiastical ritual8
" The natives and their kings are of different races.*
The temples are numerous, and in one in particular, situ-
ated on an eminence 6, is the great hyacinth, as large as a
pine-cone, the colour of fire, and flashing from a distance,
especially when catching the beams of the sun — a match-
less sight
the gran deet ruby that was ever seen,
a span in length, the thickness of a
man's arm ; brilliant beyond descrip-
tiim, and without asiugle flaw. It hue
the appearance of a glowing fire, and
its worth cannot be estimated in
money. The Grand Khan Kublai
sent ambassadors to this monarch to
offer for it the vajue of a city, but he
would not part with it for all the
treasures of the world, as it was a
jewel handed down by his ancestor/
on the throne." — Trans, Marsden,
4to. 1818. It is most probable that
the stone described by Marco Polo
was not a ruby, but an amethyst,
which is found in large crystals in
Ceylon, and which modern mineralo-
gists believe to be the " hyacinth " of
the ancients. (Dana's Mineralogy,
to), ii. p. 196.) Corsalt says it was a
carbuncle (Raniusio, vol. i. p. 180) ;
and Jordan ok Severac, about the
year 1323, repeats the story of its
being a ruby so large that it could
not be grasped in the closed hand.
(Recueil de rot/., Soc Geog. Paris.
vol. iv. p. 60.) If this resplendent
object really exhibited the dimen-
sions assigned to it, the probability
is that it was not a gem at all, but
one of those counterfeits of glass, in
producing whichSTBASO relates that
the artists of Alexandria attained the
highest possible perfection (L xvi.
c. 2. sec 26). lis luminosity by
night is of course a fiction, unless,
indeed, like the emerald pillar in the
temple of Hercules at Tyre, which
Hkbodotuh describes as "shining
brightly by night," it was a hollow
cylinder into which a lamp could be
introduced. Herod, ii. 44.
Of the ultimate history of this re-
nowned jewel we hiive no authentic
narrative ; but it is stated in the
Chinese accounts of Ceylon that early
in the fourteenth century an officer
was sent by the emperor to purchase a
"carbuncle" ofunusual lustre. "This
served as the ball on the emperor's
cap, and was transmitted to succeed-
ing emperors on their accession as a
precious heirloou}, and worn on the
birthday and at the grand courts held
on the first day of the year. It was
upwards of an ounce in weight, and
cost 100,000 strings of cash. Every
time a grand levee was held during
the darkness of the night, the red
lustre filled the palace, and it was
for this reason designated ' The Red
Palace-Illuminator."' — Tsih-ke, <jr
Miscellaneous Record, quoted in the
Kih che-king-yuen, Mirror of Science,
b. xxxiii. p. 1, 2.
1 The port and harbour of Point
deGalle.
* Nestorians, whose "Catholicos"
resided first at Ctesiphon, and after-
wardsat Mosul. Vincent, Peripla*,
8,-c.,^ voL ii. p. 607. For an exami-
nation of the hypotheses based on
this statement of Cosmas, see Sir J.
Emerson Tennent's History of
Christianity in Ceylon, ch. i.
* " Aimvpylav, literally liturgy :
which meant originally the pomp and
ceremonial of worship as well as the
form of prayer. * 'AAMaaXn-
5 Probably that at Mjhintala, the
sacred hill near Anarajapoora.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. I.]
COSMAS IHDICO-PLEUBTES.
" As its position is central, the island is the resort of
ships from all parts of India, Persia, and Ethiopia, and,
in like manner, many are despatched from it. From
the inner 1 countries ; I mean China, and other em-
poriums, it receives silk2, aloes, cloves, clove-wood, chan-
danaz, and whatever else they produce. These it
again transmits to the outer ports4, — I mean to Males,
whence the pepper comes ; to Calliana 6, where there
is brass and sesamine-wood,*and materials for dress
(for it is also a place of great trade), and to Sindon 7,
where they get musk, castor, and androstachum8, to
Persia, the Homeritic coasts9, and Adule. Receiv-
ing in return, the exports of those emporiums, Tapro-
bane exchanges them in the inner ports (to the east of
Cape Comorin), sending her own produce along with them
to each.
" Siekdiba, or Taprobane, lies seaward about five
days' sail from the mainland.10 Then further on
the continent is Marallo, which furnishes cochlea u ;
then comes Kaber, which exports ' alabandanum ;'u
and next is the clove country, then China, which ex-
ports eilk ; beyond which there is no other land, for
the ocean encircles it on the east. Sielediba being
thus placed in the middle as it were of India, and pos-.
fiide (that is to the east) of Cape
Comorin, as distinguished from the
outer ports (rd ifyripn) mentioned
below, which lie west of it
* " litraby." Of this foreign word,
applied by the mediieval Greeks to
suit in general, as well as to row silk,
Poocopnrs says : — " Afirij ti l«w ij
pirate, i£ !js liuBaai ri)v Mrjra ipyi-
ZhtOiu, ijv n-dA.«(/iff"EXAi|V(£ M&i'jv,
COP. Persic. I. Mdaxa, or anciently
mataxa, " thread," "yarn," seems to
he Latin rather than Greek. The ni«-
taxariua was a "yarn-broker;" and
thn word having got possession of
the market~was extended to the
VOL. I. P
woven stuff. The modern Greeks
call ailk lilrata,
* " rt&vSava," probably " sandal-
wood;" sometimes called agaUochum.
* " ri UvrtpOf" those iymg west of
Cape Comorin.
6 Bombay.
I Scinde.
■ " avSpooT&X'n'."
"> Southern Arabia, chiefly Tlsdra-
10 Cosmas probably means " the
more distant porU on the mainland
of India.
II " myXfovcr" probably chank-
shells, turbmelia ropa. See Anoc-
ZETB, vol. i. p. 6.
11 " a\a£uv&aviv.''
DomzcdoyGoOglc
570 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [P«kt T.
sessing the hyacinth, receives goods from all nations,
and again distributes them, thus becoming a great em-
porium."
This description of the Indian trade by Cosmas is
singularly corroborative of the account that had pre-
viously been given by the author of the Periplw ; and
as the Singhalese have at all times been remarkable for
their aversion to the sea, the country-craft1, thus men-
tioned by both authorities lis engaged in voyages between
Ceylon and the countries east and west of Cape Comorin,
must have been manned in part by Malabars, but chiefly
by the Arabs and Persians, who, previous to the time of
Cosmas, had.been induced to settle in large numbers in
Ceylon B, attracted by the activity of its commerce, and
the extensive employment for shipping afforded by its
transit trade.
Amongst the objects, the introduction of which was
eagerly encouraged in Ceylon, Cosmas particularises
horses from Persia ; the traders in which were exempted
from the payment of customs. The most remarkable
exports were elephants, which from their size and sa-
gacity were found to be superior -to those of India for
purposes of war. Hence the renown accorded to Ceylon,
as pre-eminently the birthplace of the Asiatic race of
elephants.
"M^ri/jo Tairpo£iii'j)v 'hmtlytviuv l\t$arrwv."
Dios isrus Pskieobtes, v. 693.
Cosmas observes upon the smallness of their tusks com-
pared with those of Africa, and mentions the strange fact,
that ivory was then exported from .-Ethiopia to India, as
well as to Persia and' the countries of Europe. He makes
other allusions to Ceylon, but the passages extracted
above present the bulk of his information concerning the
island.8
1 " ro-«4 wXoTo." — PeripUu. i made from TirarEMOt'ft- version of
* REiNArDjjlfiin.suri'/iwfe, p. 124. Cosmos, which may differ slightly
end Introd. Abuui.ff.da. from that of Uomtfabpok. Cvllect.
* The above translation has been | Nov. Patrum. Paris, m)6, vol. ii. p.
CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE PHOENICIANS.
NOTE (A>
Knowledge of Ceylon possessed by the Phoenicians.
In the previous chapter, p. 550, &c, allusion has been made to
the possible resort of the Phoenicians to Ceylon in the course of
their voyages to India, but I have not thought it expedient to
embody in the text any notice of the description of the island
which is given in the Phcenician History of SaHCHONiathon,
published by Wagenfeld, at Bremen, in 1837, under the title
of " Sanchuniathonis ffistoriarwn Pkcenieiai Jnbri Nowm,
Greece Yersoa a Philone Byblio, edidit Latinaque Vendone do-
navit F. WAOENrELL."
Sanchoniathon is alleged to have lived before the Trojan war ;
and in Asiatic chronology he is said to have been a contemporary
of Semiramh. The Phoenician original perished ; but its contents
were preserved in the Greek translation of Philo, a native of By-
blus, a frontier town of Phoenicia, who wrote in the first cen-
tury after Christ, and till the alleged discovery of the MS. from
which Wagenfeld professed to publish, the only portion of Philo's
version known to exist consisted of fragments preserved by
Eusebius and Porphyry. Wagenfeld's statement was, that the
MS. in his possession had been obtained from the Portuguese
monastery of St. Maria de Merinhao (the existence of wich
there hi reason to doubt), and the portion which he first ven-
tured to print appeared with a preface by Qrotefend. Its ge-
nuineness was instantly impugned ; a learned and protracted
controversy arose ; and though Wagenfeld eventually pub-
■130. In point of time, the notice of
Ceylon given by the Armenian Arch-
bishop Moses of Chorene in his Hi»-
toria Armeniaca el E/rittrme Qeoffra-
phia, is entitled to precede that of
Cosniaa Indico-pleustes, inasmuch as
Moses has translated into Armenian
the Greek text of Pappus of Alex-
andria, who wrote about the end
of the fourth century. Of Ta-
probane he says — it is one of the
largest islands in the world, being
1100 miles in length by 1600 broad,
and reckons 1370 adjacent islands
amongst its dependencies. He al-
ludes to its mountains and rivers,
the variety of races which inhabit it,
and its production of gold, silver,
gems, spices, elephants, and tigers ;
and dwells on the fact, previously
noticed by Agathemerue, that the
men of this country dress their hair
after the fashion of women, by braid-
ing it in tresses on the top of their
heads, " viri regionis istiua capillis
muliebribus sua capita redimiunt." —
Moses Chokesbnsis, Sec., edit Whis-
ton, 1730, p. 367. The most remark-
able circumstance is that he alludes
thus early to the footprint on Adam's
Peak, which is probably the meaning
of his expression, " ibidem Satana
laptum narrant," t iv.
oyGoogIe
Sli MEDLBVAL HISTOBT. [Vixt V.
listed the whole of the Greek MS., with a Latin version -by
himself, he was never prevailed upon to exhibit the original
parchments, alleging- that he had been compelled to restore
them to the convent The assailants of Wagenfeld accuse him
of wilful deception ; but the probability is that the document
which he translated is one of those inventions of the Middle
Ages, in which history and geography were strangely confounded
with imagination and romance; and that it is an attempt to
restore the lost books of Philo Byblius, as Philo himself «is
more than suspected to have invented the history which he
professed to have translated from SanchoniathoD. (See Ebsch
and Grubek's Encyclopedia, 1847 ; Mover's Phoenician His-
tory, vol. i. p. 117.)
In books vii. and viiL, Sanchoniathon gires an account of
an island in the Indian seas explored by Tynan naviga-
tors, the description of which is evidently copied from the early
Greek writers . who had visited Taprobane, and the name
which is assigned to it, " the Island of Rachius? is borrowed
from Pliny. The period of their visit is fixed by Sanchoni-
athon shortly after the conquest of Cittium, in Cyprus, by the
Phoenicians ; an event which occurred when Hiram reigned at
Tyre, and Solomon at Jerusalem. The narrative is given as
follows (book* vii. ch. v. p. 150): "So Bartophae died the
next day, having exercised imperial authority for six years."
(Ch. v.) " And on his death they chose Joramus, the son of
Bartophas, king, whom the Tyrians styled Hierbas, aad who
reigned fifty-seven years. He having collected seventy-nine
long ships, sent an expedition against Cittium." . . . (Ch. vi.)
" At this time, Obd alius, king of the island of Mylite, sent all
his forces to assist the Tyrians at Cittium ; and when it came
to the knowledge of the barbarians who inhabited Tenga, that
the island was denuded of men and ships, they invaded it under
the command of Plusiacon, the son-in-law of Obdalius, and
having slain him and many of his people, they plundered the
country, and gave the city to the flames." (Ch. vii.) " And
Joramus directed all the eparchs in the cities and islands to
make out and send to Tyre descriptions of the inhabitants,
their ships, their arms, their horses, their scythe-bearing
chariots, and their property of ail kinds ; and he ordered them
to send to distant countries persons competent to draw up nar-
ratives of the same kind, and to record them all in a book. In
this manner he obtained accurate geographical descriptions of
oyGoogIe
Chap. I.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE PHffiNICIANS. 373
all the regions to the east and the west, both islands and inland
parts. But the ^Ethiopians ■ represented to the king that to the
south there were great and renowned countries, densely popu-
lated, and rich in precious things, gold and silver, pearls, gems,
ebony, pepper, elephants, monkeys, parrots, peacocks, and in-
numerable other things; and that there was a peninsula so far
to the east that the inhabitants could see the son rising out of
the sea." (Ch. viii.) " Joramus then sent messengers to Natam-
balus, the king of the Babylonians, who were to say to him,
' I have heard that the countries of the ^Ethiopians are numerous,
and abounding in inhabitants; they are easy of access from
Babylon, but very difficult from Tyre. If, therefore, I should
determine to explore them, and you will let my subjects have
suitable ships, y»u shall have in return a hundred purple
cloaks.' Natambalus was willing to do so; but the Ethiopian
merchants, who resorted to Babylon, vowed* that they would
take their departure if he should assist Joramus to sail to
Ethiopia.* (Chap, ix.) " Subsequently Joramus addressed him-
self to Irenius of Judea, and undertook that if he would let
the Tynans have a" harbour on the sea towards Ethiopia, he
would assist him in the building of a palace, in which he was
then engaged ; and bind himself to supply him with materials
of cedar and fir, and squared stones. Irenius assenting, made
over to Joramus the city and harbour of Ilotha. There were
a great many date trees there, but as their timber was not suit-
able for constructing vessels, Joramus despatched eight thou-
sand camels to Ilotha, loaded with materials for ship-building,
and ordered the shipwrights to build ten ships, and he ap-
pointed Cedarus and Jaminus and Cotilus, commanders. . . ,
They sailed from Ilotha; but furious tempests prevented them
from passing the straits.'' And while they were wind-bound,
they remained five months in a certain island, and having
sowed wheat on the low ground, they reaped an abundant crop.
After this they sailed towards the rising sun, and leaving the
land of the Arabians they fell in with Babylonian ships re-
turning from .("Ethiopia.' And on the following day they
arrived at the country of the ^Ethiopians, which they perceived
sandy and devoid of water on the coast, but mountainous in-
land. They then sailed eastward along the shore for ten days.
' Tbe .Ethiopians alluded to were | Babylon is mentioned lib. vii. cb. i,
a company of Indian jugglers and * Of Bab-el- man deli.
make-charmers, whose armal from I * India. •
r r fi
DomzcdoyGoOglc
674 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [Put T.
There an immense region extends to the south, and the Ethi-
opians dwell in numerous populous' and weU-<rircuinstanced
cities, and navigate the sea. Their ships are not suited for
war, and have no sails. And having sailed thirty-six days to
the southward, the Tynans arrived at the island of Rachius
('Pa^oo rflirw)."
(Ch. 9.) " The roadstead was in front of a level strand, bor-
dered with lofty trees, and coming on to blow at night, they
were in the utmost danger till sunrise : but running then to
the south, they came In sight of a safe harbour1 ; and saw many
populous towns inland. On landing, they were surrounded by
the villagers, and the governor of the place entertained them
hospitably for seven days ; pending the return of a messenger
whom he had despatched to the principal king, to ask his in-
structions relative to the Tynans who had anchored in the
harbour. The messenger having returned on the seventh day,
the governor sent for the Tynans the following morning, and
informed them that they must go with him to the king, who
was then residing at Rocliapatta, a large and prosperous city in
the Centre of the island. In front marched several spearmen,
sent by the king as a guard of honour to the strangers; who
with the clash of their spears scared away the elephants
which were numerous and dangerous because it was their
rutting time. The Tynans marched in the centre, and Cedarus,
Cotilus, and Jatoinus were carried in palanquins. The vil-
lagers as they passed along offered them presents, and the
governor brought up the rear, where he rode on an elephant,
surrounded by his body guard. In this order of march, they
on the third day came to a ford ; in the passage over which, one
of the travellers was devoured by crocodiles which swarm in
the rivers. Having proceeded thus for several days, they at
length descried the city of Rochapatta, environed by lofty
mountains. And when it was known that they had arrived
(for the rumour of their approach had preceded them) the in-
habitants rushed from the city in a body to see the Tynans ;
some riding on elephants, some on asses, some in palan-
quins, but the greater part on foot. And the commander
having conducted them into a spacious and splendid palace,
caused the gates to be closed, that the crowd might not make
their way in; and led the Tynans to the King Rachius, who
was seated on a beautiful couch. Presents were then inter-
1 GalleP
oyGoogIe
Cbaf. I.] CEYLON AS KHOWK TO THE PHCKNICIANS. SIS,
changed. To the Tynans, who brought horses and purple robes,
and seats of cedar, the king gave in return, pearls, gold,
2000 elephants' teeth, and much unequalled cinnamon (xtrrapm
irowi ri xa) fax<pif>ovri) ; and he entertained them as guests for
thirty days." (Ch. si.) " Some of the Tyrians perished in the
island, one indeed by sickness, but the others smitten by the gods.
One man, picking up some pellets of sheep's dung, drew lines
on the sand, and challenged another who happened to be looking
on, to play a gams with them. The challenger held the sheep's
dung, but the other, who could not find any dung of camels
(for there are no camels in that island), took cow-dung, of
which there was a great quantity, and rolling up little balls of
it, placed them on the lines. But a priest who was present
warned them to desist, because cow-dung is sacred among
them, but they only laughed. So the priest passed on, and
they continued their game ; but shortly after, both fell down
and expired, to the consternation of the bystanders. One of
those who died was a native of Jerusalem." (Ch. xii..) " The sea
encircles this great island of Rachius on every side, except that
to the north and west there is an isthmus -which affords a
passage to the opposite coast. Baaut constructed this place by
heaping up mud, and her footprint is still to be seen in the
mountain (fc x«l "x">f *<*t\v h toj; opoij).
" And the great king traced his descent from her race. The
island is six days' journey in breadth, and twelve days' journey
in length. It is populous and delightful. Its natural produc-
tions are magnificent, and the sea furnishes fish of the finest
flavour, and in the greatest abundance, to the inhabitants of the
coast Wild beasts are numerous in the mountains, of which
elephants are the largest of all. There is also the most fragrant
of cassia (xotri'a 8f >| apa/jj-aTiKana-'iTj).
" They find stones containing gold in the rivers, and pearls on
the sea-shore. Four kings govern the island, all subordinate
to the paramount sovereign, to whom they pay as tribute, cassia,
ivory, gems, and pearls ; for the king has gold in the greatest
abundance. The first of these kings reigns in the south, where
there are herds of elephants, of which great numbers are cap-
tured of surprising size. In this region the shore is inhos-
pitable, and destitute of inhabitants, but the city, in which tbe
governor resides, lies inland, and is said to be large and
flourishing. The second king governs the western regions
which produce cinnamon (ru/v srpij iinripav t irp ap.fi f'vw* t£v
xiwa/uefuipoptov) ; and it was there the Tyriiin ships cast
rr 4
Google
576 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. [Pam V.
anchor. The third rules the region towards the north, which
produces pearls. He has made a great rampart on the isthmus
to control the passage of the barbarians from the opposite coast ;
for they used to make incursions in great numbers, and de-
stroyed all the houses, temples, and plantations they could reach,
and slew such men as were near, or could not flee to the moun-
tains. The fourth king governs the region to the east, pro-
ducing the riohest gems in surprising profusion ; the ruby, the
sapphire, and diamond. All these, being the brothers of the
great king in Roehapatta, are appointed to rule over these
places, and he who is the eldest of the brothers has the supreme
power, and is called the chief and mighty ruler. He has a
thousand black elephants, and five light-coloured ones. The
black are abundant, but the fair-coloured are rare, and found
nowhere except in this island, and the black ones do homage to
them. Having captured such a one, they bring him to the
king in Roehapatta, whose peculiar prerogative it is to ride on
a white elephant, this being unlawful for his subjects. There
are many fierce crocodiles in the rivers, and they are killed by
crowds of men who rush with shouts into the water, armed
with sharp stakes. And ten days after they arrived in Ro-
chapatta, many Tyrians joined Rachius in hunting crocodiles."
(Ch, xii.) "When the ships returned to Tyre, Joramus gave
orders to erect a pillar at the temple of Melicarthus, and to
engrave on it an account of all that had taken place. This
pillar was thrown down in the earthquake of last year, but
it was not broken, so that the narrative can even now be seen.*'
BOOK VIII.
(Ch. i.) " This is the voyage which Joramus, the king of the
Tyrians, ordered Joramus, the priest of Melicarthus, to recount
and to engrave on a pillar in the temple of Melicarthus, and
Sydyk, the scribe, having four copies, was directed to send
them to the Sidonians, the Byblians, the Aradians, and the
Berythians. The other copies can nowhere be found, and the
pillar lies shattered in the ruins of the temple, but the copy of
the Byblians is still left in the Temple of Baaltis, and its words
are to this effect. "
(Ch. ii.) "Hierbas, the son of Bartophas, and king of the
Tyrians, thus addressed Joramus, the priest of Madynus, at
the time when figs were first ripe : * Taking a book and pen,
describe all the cities and islands and colonies and the countries
Chat. L] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE PHfflNICIANS. 477
of the barbarians, and the forces of them all, and their ships of
war and of burthen, and their scythe-armed chariots. For
when our ships of war, sailing to the island of Rachius,
reached the remotest parts eastward that we knew, the ex-
tremities of all lands, and the nations that inhabited them, we
discovered things unknown to our ancestors. For our an-
cestors, sailing only to the islands and the region extending to
the west, knew nothing of the countries which we have ex-
plored to the east : you will therefore write all these things for
the information of posterity.* When having prostrated myself
before the king, on his saying these things, and having re-
turned to my own house, I wrote as follows : —
(Ch. xvi.) . ..." To the eastward dwell the Babylonians
and Medians and ^Ethiopians. The city of the Babylonians is
flourishing and populous ; Media produces white horses ;
^Ethiopia is barren and arid near the sea, and mountainous in
the interior. And further to the east is the peninsula of
Rachius, whither the ships of Hierbas sailed."
On this narrative of Sanchoniathon it is only necessary to
remark that the allusion in ch. ix. to the assistance rendered
by the Tyrians to Irenius of Judea, when building his palace,
in supplying him with timber and squared stones, is almost
literally copied from the passage in the Old Testament (1 Kings,
ix. 11), where Hiram is stated to have furnished to Solomon
"cedar trees and fir trees," for the building of the Temple.
The cession by Irenius of the city and harbour of Hotha
refers to the resort of the Tyrians to Ezion Geber, or Eloth,
in the jElanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, lb., v. 26, whence they
piloted the ships of Solomon, which once in every three years
returned with cargoes of gold from Opbir. (lb., v. 28.)
As to the incidents and observations recorded by the Phoeni-
cian travellers during their journey to the interior of Ceylon, —
the kings by which it was governed, the natural productions of
the various regions, the footprint on Adam's Peak, the incur-
sions of the Malabars, the ascendency of their religion, the
absence of camels, the abundance of elephants, and the culti-
vation of cinnamon, — all these are so palpably imitated from the
accounts of Gosmas Indico-pleuetes, and the voyages of Arabian
mariners, that it is almost unnecessary to point to the parallel
passages from which they are taken.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDLEVAL HISTORY.
CHAP. n.
INDIAN, ARABIAN, AND PERSIAN AUTHOBITIES.
On closing the volume of Cosmos, we part with the last
of the Greek writers whose pages guide us through the
mist that obscures the early history of Ceylon. The reli-
gion of the Hindus is based on a system of physical error,
so incompatible with the extension of scientific truth, that
in their language the term " geography " is unknown.1
But still it is remarkable as an illustration of the uninquir-
ing character of the people, that the allusions of Indian
authors to Ceylon, an island of such magnitude, and so
close to their own country, are pre-eminent for ab-
surdity and ignorance. Their " Lanka " and its inha-
bitants are but the distortion of a reality into a myth.
So late as the eleventh century, Albyrouni, the Arabian
geographer, says that the Hindus at that day thought
the island haunted ; their ships sailing past it, kept at a
distance from its shores ; and even at the present day,
it is the popular belief on the continent of India that the
interior of Ceylon is peopled by demons and monkeys.8
This degree of popular ignorance regarding a country so
contiguous to their own, appears to have prevailed amongst
the Hindus in all ages. The story embodied in their great
1 The Arabians began the study so
late, that they, too, had to borrow a
word from the Greeks, whence their
term " Ajagraflya."
1 Moob'b Hindu Pantheon, p. 3ia
Moor speaks of an educated Indian
gentleman who was attached na
Munahi to the staff of All. North,
Governor of Ceylon, in 1804, and
who, on his return to the continent,
wrote a history of the island, in
which he repeats the belief current
among his countrymen, that " the
interior was not inhabited by human
hemes of the ordinary shapes." —
P. 329.
oyGoogIe
Chap. II.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. £70
national poem the Ramayana\ which is probably the
most ancient epic in existence, although its main incidents
turn upon the invasion of Lanka (Ceylon) from India,
evinces not the most remote evidence of acquaintance
with even the physical features of an island within sight
from their shores. Rama, the hero of the poem, son to
Dasartha, the King of Ayodhya (the modern Oude), has
the misfortune to have his wife Sita carried off by Eawana,
the sovereign of Ceylon ; and the Ramayana, like the
Eiad, is devoted to a description of the expedition and
siege which he conducted for her recovery. In the course
of it, the great causeway of Adam's Bridge was con-
structed, for the passage of the army, by Hanuman, the
monkey deity2 ; and one of the most calamitous incidents
of the war is the conflagration of the capital, owing to the
demons having maliciously set fire to Hanuman's tail.3 The
author of the Ramayana speaks of Ceylon as of prodigious
dimensions, and separated from India by seas of infinite
width. He describes the island as* covered by forests of
surpassing luxuriance, adorned with magnificent buildings,
and protected by a fortified capital, whose battlemented
castles and formidable bulwarks bade defiance to all as-
sailants. The whole narrative is an illustrative specimen
of eastern romance, unrelieved by a single incident to im-
part to it an air of reality, except some allusions to the
gems of the island, its chank shells, and fishery of pearls.*
But the century in which Cosmas wrote witnessed the rise
of a power whose ascendant energy diffused a new character
' An English version of the first
and second booka of this remarkable
poem was published by Carry and
Mahshmas at Serampore in 1806-10;
and translations mora or less com-
Jlete have been since published in
tatian by Gomesio, in Modern Greek
by T) em ethics Galah'09, and in
French by Fatjchk, 8\a. Paris, 1867.
The story of the poem will be found
in Mrs. Spiers' Ancient India, #c.,ch.
iv., and in the Wettmintter Review
for October, 1848.
1 SeeaquotationfromthispasBfure,
Vol. II. p. 664
s FAUCHB,tom.vi.Bec.xlix.Jp. 336.
* Hanuman is described approach-
ing Lanka. " Cette ville, que pro-
tege une mer, richo en mines varices
de pierreries, jonchee aux phases de
la lune par Hue amas de couques et
huitres a perlea."— Fadche, torn. vi.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDLEVAL HI8T0BY.
Cpai
over the polity and literature of the East. Scarcely
twenty years elapsed in the interval between his death
and the birth of Mahomet — and during the two centuries
that ensued, so electric was the influence of Islam, that
its -supremacy was established with a rapidity beyond
parallel, from the sierras of Spain to the borders of China.
The dominions of the Khalifs exceeded in extent the
utmost empire of the .Romans ; and' so undisputed was
the sway of the new religion, that a follower of the
Prophet could travel amidst beHevers of his own faith,
from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, and from the
chain of the Atlas to the mountains of Tartary.
Syria and Egypt were amongst its earliest con-
quests ; and die power thus interposed between the
Greeks and their former channels of trade, effectually
excluded them from the commerce of India. The
Persians and the Arabs became its undisputed masters,
and Alexandria and Seleucia declined in importance
as Bassora and Bagdad rose to the rank of Oriental
emporiums.1
Early in the sixth century, the Persians under Chosroes
Nouschirvan held a distinguished position in the East,
their ships frequented the harbours of India, and their
fieet was successful in an expedition against Ceylon
to redress the wrongs done to some of their fellow-
countrymen who had settled there for purposes of
trade.2
The Arabs, who had been familiar with India before
it was known to the Greeks8, and who had probably
availed themselves of the monsoons long before Hippalus
a of opinion, that
a the aversion of tiia Persians
to the sea, that " do commercial inter-
course took place between Persia and
India." — India, s. i. p. 0. But this
is at variance with the testimony of
C'oumas Inmco-PLEITBTEB, as well as
of Hamk.i of Ispahan and others.
* IIakzaIhpahanensis, Annul, vol.
ii. c 2. p. 43. PetropoL 1848, 8vo.
Reinadd, M£moire sur rindt,p. 124.
1 There is an obscure sentence in
Pliny which would seem to imply
that the Arabs had settled in Ceylon
before the first century of our Chris-
tian era : — " Regi cultum Liberi
patris, ■ ca-terw Arabum." — Lib. vi.
c.22.
oyGoogIe
CuJtr. II.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. Ml
ventured to trust to them, began in the fourth and
fifth centuries to establish themselves as merchants at
Cambay and Surat, at Mangalore, Calicut, Coulam, and
other Malabar ports1, whence they migrated to Ceylon,
the government of which was remarkable for its tolera-
tion of all religious sects2, and its hospitable reception
of fugitives.
It is a curious circumstance, related by Bbladory, who
lived at the court of the Khalif of Bagdad in die ninth
century, that an outra^ committed by Indian pirates
upon some Mahometan ladies, the daughters of traders
who had died in Ceylon, and whose families the King
Dalupiatissa H, a.d. 700, was sending to their homes
in the valley of the Tigris, served as the plea under
which Hadjadj, the fanatical governor of Irak, directed
the first Mahometan expedition for subjugating the valley
of the Indus.8
From the eighth till the eleventh century the Persians
and Arabs continued, to exercise the same influence
1 GrLBEMKIHTKH, Scripture* Arabi
de Rabun Indicia, p. 40.
* Edrisi, torn. 1. p. 72.
* The chief of the Indue was the
Buddhist Prince Daher, whose
capital was at Daybal, near the
modern Kurachee. The stair, as it
appears in the MS. of Beladory in
the library of Leyden, has been ex-
tracted by Knnn.iT n in hia'Fragmens
Arabet et Penan* rdati/i & flnde,
No. v. p. 161, with the following
translation : —
" Sous le gouvemement de Mo-
hammed, le roi de Vile du Ruble
(Djeiyret-Alyacout) ofirit 4 Hadjadj
dee femmes musulmanes qui avaient
refu le jour dans sea etats, et dont
les peres, livres a la profession du
commerce, e"taient njorts. Le prince
esp6ia.it par Is, gagnor l'amita£ do
Hadjadj ; mats fe nayiro oil l'on
avait embarquo' ces femmes fut at-
taqne' par une penplade de race Meyd,
dea environs de Daybal, qui etait
montee but des barques. Les Meyda
enleverent le navire avec ce qu'il
renfermait Dana cette extremity,
une de ces femmea de la trihu de
Yarboua, s'e'cria : ' Que n'es-tu la, oh
Hadjadi 1 ' Cette nouvelle e"tant par-
Tenue a Badj'odj, il re'pondit : ' Mn
voilA. ' Aussitot il envoya un depute
a Daher pour l'inviter & faire mettre
ces femmea en liberty. Mais Dfiher
repondit : ' Ce sont dea pirates qui
ont anlevd ces femmes, et je nai
aucune autoriW hut les ravisseurs.'
Alors Hadjadj engages Obeyd Allah,
fils de Nabhan, a faire one expedition
contre Daybal."— P. 190.
The " Island of Rubies" was the
Persian name for Ceylon, and in this
particular instance Fkmshta con-
firms the identical application of these
two names, vol. li. p. 402. See
Journal Atiet. vol. llvL p. 181, 163 ;
Reinaud, Mtm. sur P&de, p. 1~~
Aboulfeda, j
ccclxxxv. ; ElPj
v. ch. L p. 260.
, xli.
oyGoogIe
382 MEDLEVAL HISTOKY. [Put V.
over the opulent commerce of- Ceylon that was aftei>
wards enjoyed by the Portuguese and Dutch in succes-
sion between 1505, and the expulsion of the latter by
the British in 1796. During this early period, there-
fore, we must look for the continuation of accounts
regarding Ceylon to the literature of the Arabs and
Persians, and more especially to the former, by whom
geography was first cultivated as a science in the eighth
and ninth' centuries under the auspices of the Khalife
Almansour and Almamoun. •
On turning to the Arabian treatises on geography, it
will be found that the Mahometan writers on these
subjects were for the most part grave" and earnest men
who, though liable equally with the imaginative Greeks to
be imposed on by their informants, exercised somewhat
more caution, and were more disposed to confine their
writings to statements of facts derived from safe au-
thorities, or to matters which they had themselves seen.
In their hands scientific geography combined theoretic
precision, which had been introduced by their prede-
cessors, with the extended observation incident to the
victories and enlarged dominion of the Khalifs. Ac-
curate knowledge was essential for the civil govern-
ment of their conquests ' ; and the pilgrimage to Mekka,
indispensable once at least in the life of every Maho-
metan a, rendered the followers of the new faith ac-
quainted with many countries in* addition to their
own,"
Hence the records of their voyages, though present
1 " La science geograpliique,
comme les autres sciences en g6n6-
ral, notsmment 1'astwmomie, com-
inenca a bo former ctaez les Arabea,
dans la deraiere moitifl du viii* siecle,
et se fixa dans la premiere moiti6 du
is*. On fit usage dee itintSraires
traces par lea chefs des anuses con-
qudrantes et des tableaux dresses
par les gouvorneurs dc provinces ;
en nieme temps on m it a la contri-
bution les melhodca propagfies par
les Indiens, les Persons, et surtout
les Grecsj qui ardent apporte* le plus
de precision dans Ieurs operations."
— Kmkaud, Introd. *Aboulfeda, tyc.,
p. ri.
1 Rec-'ADD, Introd. Aboul/tda, p.
1 Ibid., vol. i. p. xL
oyGoogIc
Chap. II.] INDIAN, AHABIAN, PBESIAN AUTHORITIES. 383
rag numerous exaggerations and assertions altogether
incredible, exhibit a superiority over the productions
of the Greeks and Bomans. To avoid the fault of
dulness, both the latter were accustomed to enliven
their topographical itineraries, not so much by " moving
accidents," and "hair-breadth 'scapes," as by mingling
fanciful descriptions of monsters and natural pheno-
mena with romantic accounts of the gems and splen-
dours of the East.
From Ctesias to SlWohn Maondeville, every early
traveller in India had his " hint to speak," and each
strove to embellish his story by incorporating with such
facts as he had witnessed, improbable reports collected
from the representations of others. Such were their ex-
cesses in this direction, that the Greeks formed a class
of" " paradoxical " literature, by collecting into separate
volumes the marvels and wonders gravely related by
their voyagers and historians.1
The Arabs, on the contrary, with sounder discretion,
generally kept their " travellers' histories " distinct from
their sober . narratives, and whilst the marvellous in-
cidents related by adventurous seamen were received
as materials for the story-tellers and romancers, the staple
of their geographical works consisted of truthful de-
scriptions of the countries visited, their forms of govern-
ment, their institutions, their productions, and their
trade.
In illustration of this matter-of-fact character of the
Arab topographers, the most familiar example is that
known by the popular title of the Voyages of the
1 Such are the Mirabile* Am-
adtalionm of —Aristotle, the In-
credSniia of AIlefhatbs, the Hii-
Urrianim MirabHinm CoUecHo of Au-
ti (iours Caktbtius, the HitloritP Mi-
rabikt of Apolloriub the Meagre,
and the Collections of PiiLfcoos of
Tralles, Michael Brllts, and many
other Greeks of the Lower Empire.
For n succinct account of these
compilers, gee Westemtah's rinnn-
ZoEoypafoi, Scriptures Scrum Mira-
bSiuin Graci. Brunswick, 1830.
oyGoogIe
MEDIEVAL HISTORY.
[P**tV.
two Mahometans1, who travelled in India and China
in the beginning of the ninth century. The book pro-
fesses to give an account of the countries lying between
Bassora and Canton ; and in its unpretending style, and
useful notices of commerce in those seas, it resembles
the record, which the merchant Abbias has left us in
the Periplus, of the same trade as it existed seven
centuries previously, in the hands of the Greehs.
The early portion of the book, which was written
A.D. 851, was taken down from the recital of Soley-
man, a merchant who had frequently made the voy-
ages he describes, at the epoch when the commerce
of Bagdad, under the Khalife, was at the height of its
prosperity. The second part was added sixty years
later, by Abou-zeyd Hassan, an amateur geographer,
of Bassora (contemporary with Massoudi), from the
reports of mariners returning from China, and is, to
a great extent, an amplification of the notices supplied
by Soleyman.
Solbyman describes the sea of Herkend, as it lay
between the Laccadives and Maldives2, on the west,
and swept round eastward by Cape Comorin and
Adam's Bridge to Ceylon, thus enclosing the precious
fishery for pearls. In Serendib, his earliest attention
was devoutly directed to the sacred footstep on Adam's
Peak ; in his name for which, "Al-rohoun," we trace the
Buddhist name for the district, Eohuna, so often occur-
ring in the Mahawanso.8 This is the earliest notice, of
i It was first published by Res ab-
bot in 1718, from the unique MS.
now in the Bibliotheque impe*ri&le
of Paris, and again by Reisaud in
1845, with & valuable discourse; pre-
fixed on the nature and extent of
the Indian trade prior to the»tenth
century- — lidatv/n det Voyages fa-its
par lei ArabeM et let Pertma done
Tlnde et Chine data le ix' Stick, 6>c.
2 Tola. 18mo. Paris, 1845.
* The " Divi" of Ammianus Mar-
cellinus, who along with the Singha-
lese " SeUndioi " sent ambassador*
to the Emperor Julian, 1. xxii,
a 7. •
3 A portion of the district near
Tangallo is known to the present da?
as " Rouna." — Mahawanto, eh. ix.
p. 57 ; ch. xxii. p. 130, ftc.
oyGoogIe
Coat. II.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 583
the Mussulman tradition, which associates the story of
Adam with Ceylon, though it was current amongst
the Copts in the fourth and fifth centuries.1 On all
sides of the mountain, he adds, are the mines of rubies,
hyacinths, and other. gems; the interior produces aloes;
and the sea the highly valued chank shell*, which served
the Indians for trumpets2 The island was subject to
two kings; and on the. death of the chief one his body
was placed on a low carriage, with the head declining
till the hair swept the ground, and, as it was drawn
slowly along, a female, with a bunch of leaves, swept
dust upon the features, crying : " Men, behold your king,
whose will, but yesterday, was law ! To-day, he bids
farewell to the world, and the Angel of Death has
seized his spirit. Cease, any longer, to be deluded by
the shadowy pleasures of life." At the conclusion of
this ceremony, which lasted for three days, the corpse
was consumed on a pyre of -sandal, camphor, and other
aromatic woods, and the ashes scattered to the winds.8
The widow of the king was sometimes burnt along with
his remains* but compliance with the custom was not
held to be compulsory.
Such is the account of Soleyman, but, in the second
part of the manuscript, Abou-zeyd, on the authority of
another informant, Ibn- Wahab, .who had sailed to the
same countries, speaks of the pearls of Ceylon, and adds,
regarding its- precious stones, that they are obtained in
part from the soil, but chiefly from those points of the
beach at which the rivers flowed into the sea and to
which the gems are carried down by the torrents from
the hills.4
-Aboc-zetd describes the frequent conventions of the
heads of the national religion, and the attendance of
1 See the account of Adam's Peak,
VoL II. Pt. vn. ch. ii.
* Aboc-zetd, Relation, $c., vol. i.
p. 5.
' lb., p. 50. The practice of hunt-
ing the remains of the kings and of
VOL. I. Q
persons of exalted rank, continued as
long as the native dynasty held the
throne of Kandy. — See Knox's His-
torical Relation of Ceylon, A.D. 1081,
Part til c. ii.
* Ibid., vol. i. p. 127.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
S8G 'MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. [Far V.
scribes to write down from their "dictation the doctrines
of Buddhism, the legends of its prophets, and the
precepts of Its law. This statement has an obvious
reference to the important events recorded in the
Mahawamo1 ;— the reduction of the tenets, orally de-
livered by Buddha, to their written form, as they appear
in the Pittakatayan ; the translation of the Atthakatha.
from Singhalese into Pali, in the reign of Mahanamo,
A. d. 410-432 ; as also to the singular care displayed, at
all times, by the kings and the priesthood, in preserving
authentic records of every event connected with the
national religion and its history.
Abou-zeyd adverts to the richness of the temples of
the Singhalese, and to the colossal dimensions of their
statues, and dwells with particularity on the toleration
of air religious sects in the island as attested by the
existence there, in the ninth century, of a sect of Mani-
chseans, and a community of Jews.8
1 Mahawamo, ch. xxxiii. p. 207;
ch. xxxvii. p. 262.
* It was to Ceylon that the terri-
fied worshippers of Siva betook them-
selves in their flight, when Mahmoud
of Ghuznee smote the idol and over-
threw the temple of Somnaut, a, d.
1035. (Ferthuta, transl. by Briggs,
vol. i. p. 71 ; Rein add, Introd, to
Aboulfeda, vol. i. p. cccxlix. Mf-
moiret mr Find*, p. 270.) Twenty
years previously, when the same
orthodox invader routed the schis-
matic Carmathians at Moid tan, the
fugitive chief of the Sheahs found an
asylum in Ceylon. (Rkinaud, Journ.
Atiat., vol. jIt. p. 283; vol. xlvi. p.
129.) The latter circumstance servos
to show that the Mahometans in
Ceylon have not been uniformly
Sonnees, and it may probably throw
light on a fact of much local interest
connected with Colombo. There for-
merly stood there, in the Mahometan
Cemetery, a atone with an ancient
inscription in Cufic characters, which
no one could decipher, but which was
said to record the virtues of a man of
singular virtue, who had arrived in
the inland in the tenth century.
About the vear 1787 A. D.. one of the
Dutch officials removed the Stone to
the spot where he was building, " and
placed it where it now stands, at one
of the steps to his door." This is the
account given by Sir Alexander
Johnston, who, in 1827, sent a copy
of the inscription to the Royal
Asiatic Society of London. GilSii;-
meistee pronounces it to be written
in Carmathic characters, and to com-
memorate an Arab who died a.d.
848. " Karmathacis qtire dicuntur
Uteris exarata vim cuidam Anbo
Mortuo, 948 a.d. posita," Strtpt.
Arabi de Hcbtis In/licit, p, 69. A
translation of the inscription by Lee
was published in Tram. Sag. AMvt,
Sac., vol. i. p. 645, from wh'ich it
Spears that the deceased, Khalid
n Abu Bakayn, distinguished him-
self by obtaining " security* for re-
ligion, with other advantages, in the
year 317 of the Hejira." Lee was
disposed to think that this might be
the tomb of the Imaum Abu Abd
Allah, who first taught tho Maho-
metans the route by which pilgrims
might proceed from India to the
sacred footstep on Adam's Teak.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. IL] INDIAN, AHABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 58T
Ibn Wahab, his informant, appears to have looked back
with singular pleasure to the delightful voyages which
he h^l made through the remarkable still-Water channels,
elsewhere described, which form so peculiar a feature on
the seaborde of Ceylpn, and to which the Arabs gave
the obscure term of " gobbs." 1 Here months were
consumed by the mariners, amMst flowers and over-,
hanging woods, with the enjoyments of abundant food
and exhilarating draughts of arrack flavoured with
honey. The natives of the island were devoted to
pleasure, and their days were, spent in cock-fighting
and games of chance, into which they entered with so
much eagerness as to wager the joints of their fingers
when all else was lost.
But the most interesting passages in the narrative of
Abou-zeyd are those relating to the portion of Ceylon
which served as the emporium for the active and opulent
trade of which the island was then, in every sense of the
word, the centre. Gibbon, on no other ground than
its "capacious harbour," pronounces Trincomalie to
have been the port which received and dismissed the
fleets of the East and West.18 But the nautical grounds
are even stronger than the historical for regarding
this as improbable ; — the winds and the currents,
as well as its geographical position, render Trinco-
malie difficult of access to vessels coming from the
Eed Eea or the Persian Gulf; and it is evident from
the narrative of Soleyman and Ibn Wahab, that
But besides the discrepancy of the
names, the Imaum died in the year
a. p. 963, and was interred at Shiraz,
where Ibn Batuta made a visit to his
tomb. (Travel*, transl. Defr emery,
&c, toia. ii. p. 7ft)
Edriht, in hia Geography, writing
in the twelfth century, confirms the
account " of Abou-zeyd as to the
toleration of all sects in Ceylon, and
illustrates it by the fact, that of the
sixteen officers who formed the coun-
cil of the king, four were Buddhists,
four Mussulmans, four Christians,
and four Jews. — G fldex eibtek,
Script. Arabi, 8/c., p. 53 ; Esniai, 1
Clint, sec. 6.
1 " Aghbab" Arab. For an ac-
count of those of Cerlon, see Vol. I.
It i. ch. i. p. 42. the idea enter-
tained by the Arabs of these Gobbs,
will be found in a passage from
Albyrouni, given by Kkinatjd, Frag-
ment Arabes, fye., 119, and Journ.
Altai, vol. xlv. p. 201. See also
Eurisi, Gtoff., torn. i. p. 73.
* Decline and Fall, ch. rf.
oyGoogIc
688 MEDLEVAL HISTOEY. [Pam V.
ships availing themselves of the monsoons to cross the
Indian Ocean, crept along the shore to Cape Comorin ;
and passed close by Adam's Bridge to reach their destined
ports.1
An opinion has been advanced by Bertolacci that the
entrepot was Mantotte, at the northern extremity of the
,Gulf of Manaar. Prewming that the voyages both ways
were made through the Manaar channel, he infers that
the ships of Arabia and India, rather than encounter
the long delay of waiting for the change of the mon-
soon to effect the passage, would prefef to " flock to the
Straits of Manaar, and those which, from their size, could
not pass the shallow water, would be unloaded, and their
merchandise trans-shipped into other vessels, as they
arrived from the opposite coast, or deposited in stores to
await an opportunity of conveyance."2 Hence Mantotte,
he concludes, was the station chosen for such combined
operations.
But Bertolacci confines his remarks to the Arabian and
Indian crafts alone : he leaves out of consideration the ships
of the largest size called in the Periplus xoXavSjoohwyret,
which kept up the communication between the west and
east coast of India, in the time of the Romans, and he
equally overlooks the great junks of the Chinese, which,
by aid of the magnetic compass8, made bold passages
from Java to Malabar, and from Malabar to Oman, —
vessels which (on the authority of an ancient Arabic MS.)
Eeinaud says carried from four to five hundred men, with
arms and naphtha, to defend themselves against the
pirates of India.*
* See the
probably written by Mabboodi. Kbi-
uato, "Mtonoiret tar Clnde^p. 200 ;
Relation et Dacoart, pp. lz. lxriii. ;
Abotjlfeda, Introd. ccixii. May not
this early mention of the use of
" naphtha" by the Chinese far burn-
ins the ships of an enemy, throw sraio
light on the disquisition a adverted to
by Gibbon1, ch. lii., as to the nature
of "the Greek Jire," eo destructive to
1 Abop-kbto, voL I. p. 128 ; Rei-
Sato, Diicoun, fe., pp. he. — lxix.;
Introd. Aboulfeda, p. cdxii.
3 Bbuto wool's Ceylon, pp. 18, 19.
9 The knowledge of the mariner's
comjtnas, probably possessed by the
Chinese prior to the twelfth century,
is discussed by Klaproth in his
" Lettre & M. le Baron Humboldt mr
r invention (k la bouuole." Paris,
1834
oyGoogIe
OtUP. II.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 669"
On this point we have the personal testimony of
the Chinese traveller Fa Hian, who at the end of the
fourtii century sailed direct from Ceylon for China, in a
merchant vessel so large as to accommodate -two hun-
dred persons, and having in tow a smaller one, as
a precaution against dangers by sea1 : — and Ibn Batuta .
saw, at Calicut, in the fourteenA century, junks from
China capable of accommodating a thousand men, of
whom 'four hundred were soldiers, and each of these
large ships was followed by three smaller,3 With
vessels of such magnitude, it would be neither ex-
pedient nor practicable to navigate the shallows in the
vicinity of Manaar ; and besides, Mantotte, or, as it was
anciently called, MakatiUa or Maha-totta, "the great
ferry," although it existed as a port upwards of four
hundred years before the Christian era, was at no period
an emporium of commerce. Being situated so close to
Anarajapoora, the ancient capital, it derived its notoriety
from being the point of arrival and departure of the
Malabars who resorted to the island; and the only
trade for which it afforded facilities was the occasional
importation of the produce of the opposite coast of
India.8 It is not only probable, but almost certain,
that during the middle ages, and especially prior to the
eleventh century, when the trade with Persia and
Arabia was at its height, Mantotte afforded the facilities
indicated by Bertolacci to the smaller craft that availed
the fleets of their assailants during
the first and second siege of Constan-
tinople'in the seventh and eighth
centuries f Gibbob aays -that the
principal ingredient was naphtha, and
that the Greek emperor learned the
secret of its composition from a Syrian
who deserted from the service of the
Khalif. Did the Khalif acquire the
knowledge from the Chinese, whose
ships, it appears, were armed with
some preparation of this nature in
their voyages to Bassora f
1 Foi-kovi-ki, ch. xl. p. 359. In a
previous passage, Fa Hias describes
the large vessels in which the trade
was carried between Tom took, on the
Iloogly, and Ceylon: — "A cettQ
e'poque, des marchands, ee mettant
en mer avec de grands vaisseaus,
Brent route vers le sud-ouest ; et au
commencement de l'hiver, le vent
e'tant favorable, aprea une navigation
de quatone nnits et d'autant de jours,
on arriva au Boyaumc de» £wns."—
Ibid, chap. xuvi. p. 328.
* Ibh Batuta, Lee's translation,
p. 172.
■ jtfoAawwwo, ch.vii.p. 61 ; ch.xxv.
p. 156 ; ch. xxxv. p. 217.
oyGoogIe
MEDIEVAL UKTOKT.
[Pa.
themselves of the Paumbam passage ; but we have still
to ascertain the particular liarbour which was the
centre of the more important commerce between China
and the West. That _ harbour I believe to have been
Point de Galle,
Abou-zeyd describes the rendezvous of the ships arriv-
ing from Oman, where they met those bound for the
Persian Gulf, as lying half-way between Arabia and
China. " It was the centre," he saye, " of the trade in
aloes and camphor, in sandal-wood, ivory and lead." '
This emporium he denominates " Kalah," and when we
remember that he is speaking of a voyage which he him-
self had not made, and of countries then very imperfectly
known to the people of the West, we need not be sur-
prised that he calls it an island, or rather a peninsula.
According to him, " Kalah" was at that period subject
to the Maharaja of Zabedj, the sovereign of a singular
kingdom of which little is known. It appears, however,
to have been formed about the commeucement of the
Christian era ; and to have extended, in the eighth and
ninth centuries, over the groups of islands south and west
of Malacca, including Borneo,- Java, and Sumatra, which
had become the resort of a vast population of Indians,
Chinese, and Malays.2 The sovereign of this opulent em-
pire had brought under his dominion the territory of the
King of Comar, the southern extremity of the Dekkan3,
and at the period when Abou-zeyd wrote, he likewise
claimed the sovereignty of " Kalah."
This incident is not mentioned in the Singhalese chro-
nicles, but their silence is not to be regarded as conclu-
1 Abou-zeyd, Relation, fyc, vol. i.
p. A3 : Heina™, Dine. p. lixiv.
* Journ. Asiat. vol. xlix. p. 206;
Elph in stone's India, h. iii. ch. x. p.
168 ; KniNArD, Mimoiree sur Vlnde,
p. 39; Introd. Aboolfkda, p. eccxe.
Baron Walcienaer has ascertained.
from the puranas mid other Hindu
sources, that the Great Dynast; of the
Maharaja continued tiD a.b. 628,
after which the inlands were sub-
divided into numerous sovereignties.
See Major's Introduction to the In-
dian Voyage* in the Fifteenth Cen-
tury, in the Ilaktayt Soc. J'vbL p.
9 Masbottdi relates the conquest of
the kingdum of Comar by the Maha-
mJK of Zabedj, nearly in the same
words as it U told by Abou-Mvd j
GlLDEIfEIBTEB, Script. Arab., pp. 145,
146. Reisavo, JUemoiret w Tlndr,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chat. II.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 081
sive evidence against its probability ; the historians of
the Hindus ignore the expedition of Alexander the Great,
and it is possible that those of Ceylon, indifferent to all
that did not directly concern the religion of Buddha, may
have felt little interest in the fortunes of Galle, situated as
it was at the remote extremity of .the island, and in a
region that hardly acknowledged even a nominal alle-
giance to the Singhalese crown.
The assertion of Abou-zeyd as to the sovereignty of
the Maharaja of Zabedj, at Kalah, is consistent with the
statement of Soleyman in the first portion of the work,
that " the island was in subjection to two monarchy ; " l
and this again agrees with the report of Sopater to
Cosmas Indico-pleustes, who adds that the king who
possessed the hyacinth was at enmity with the king of
the country in which were the harbour and the great
emporium.*
But there is evidence that the subjection of this por-
tion of Ceylon to the chief of the great insular empire
was at that period currently believed in the East. In
the " Garsharsp-Namah," a Persian poem of the tenth
century, by Asedi, a manuscript of which was in the
possession of Sir William Ouseley, the story turns on a
naval expedition, fitted out by Delak, whose dominions
extended from Persia to Palestine, and despatched at
the request of the Maharaja against Baku, die King of
Ceylon. In the course of the narrative, Garsharsp and his
fleet reach their destination at Kalah, and there achieve
a victory over the " Shah of Serendib." 8
It must be observed, that one form of the Arabic
letter K is sounded like g, so that Kalah would sound
like Gala* and to the present day the Moors of Ceylon
1 Relation, Tol. i. p. 6.
1 At>o ti paaihtig tlaiv Iv r$
ivrioi dXXqXw, 6 lU iX»
tivSo-y, (a! A Irtpoe t! pipoc n
C (J Bit AS IhDICOFL.
s Otjbeley'h Travrb. vol. i. p. 48.
1 * Xalah mil}- possibly be identical
with thi! Singhalese word gab, which
q q 4
means an " enclosure," and the deeply
bayed harbour of Galle would serve
to justify the name. Qalla signifies
a rock, end this derivation would be
equally sustained hy the dangerous
coral reefs which obstruct the en-
trance to the port, and by other
• " ■ ottf -*- "
tural features of the place.
Google
uedlxval Kieroirr.
write and pronounce Galle h'aleh, in the same manner as
it is spelled in the travels of Ibn Satuta in the fourteenth
century. The identity, however, is established not
merely by similarity of sound, but by the concurrent
testimony of Cosmas and the Arabian geographers \ as
to the nature and extent of the intercourse between China
and Persia, statements which are intelligible if referred
to this particular point, but inapplicable to any other.
Coupled with these considerations, the identity of
name is not without its significance. It was the habit
of the Singhalese to apply to a district the name of
the principal place within it ; thus Lanka, which in
the epic of the Hindus was originally the capital and.
castle of Havana, was afterwards applied to tie island
in general ; and according to the Mahawanso, Tam-
bapani, the point of the coast where Wijayo landed,
came to designate first the wooded country that sur-
rounded it, and eventually the whole area of Ceylon.2
In tho. same manner Galla served to describe not only
the harbour of that name, but the district north and
east of it to the extent of 600. square miles, and Be
Barros, De Couto, and Ribejjro, the chroniclers of the
Portuguese in Ceylon, record it as a tradition of the
island, that the inhabitants of that region had acquired
the name of the locality, and were formerly known as
"Gallas."3
Galle therefore, in the earlier ages, appears to have
occupied a position in relation to trade of equal if not
of greater importance than that which attaches to it at
the present day. It was the central emporium of a com-
merce which in turn enriched every country of Western
Asia, elevated the merchants of Tyre to the rank of
1 JIur.AT-RTr.R, in the Journal
Ariatique for Sept. 1846, vol. xlix.
p. 200, kaa brought together the
authorities of Abonlfeda, Kazwini,
and others, to show that Kalah must
be situated in Ceylon, and he hss
combated the conjecture of M. Alfred
Maury that it may be identical with
Kedah in the Malay Peninsula. —
Keinaud, Relation, $o. Di*e., pp.
xli. — Ixxxiv., Introd. Aboulfkda, p.
A notice of this tribe will be
d in another place. See VoL II.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. II.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 59S
princes, fostered the renown of the Ptolemies, rendered
the wealth and the precious products of Arabia a gor-
geous mystery 1, freighted the Tigris with " barbaric
pearl and gold,"" and identified the merchants of Bagdad
and the mariners of Bassora with associations of ad-
venture and romance. Yet, strange to say, the native
Singhalese appear to have taken no part in this exciting
and enriching commerce ; their name is never mentioned
in connection with the immigrant races attracted by it to
their shores, and the only allusions of travellers to the
indigenous inhabitants of the island are in connection
with a custom so remarkable and so peculiar as at once
to identify the tribes to whom it is ascribed with the
remnant of the aboriginal race of Yeddahs, whose des-
cendants still haunt the forests in the east of Ceylon.
Such is the aversion of this untamed race to any
intercourse with civilised life, that when in want of the
rude implements essential to their savage economy,
they repair by night to the nearest village on the
confines of their hunting-fields. They indicate by well-
understood signs and models the number and form of
the articles required, whether arrow-heads, hatchets,
or cloths, and depositing an equivalent portion of dried
deer's flesh or honey near the door of the dealer, and
retire unseen to the jungles, returning by stealth within
a reasonable time, to carry away the manufactured
articles, which they find placed at the same spot in
exchange.
This singular custom has been described without
variation by numerous writers on Ceylon, both in recent
. and remote times. To trace it backwards, it is narrated
nearly as I have stated it, by Robert Knox in 1681 a;
and it is confirmed by Valentin, the Dutch historian of
Ceylon8; as well as by Ribeybo, the Portuguese, who
wrote somewhat earlier.* Albthooni, the geographer,
1 " intactis opulontior [ part iii. ch. i. p. 62.
Thesauria Aiabum, ct divitia * Valenttm, Oud en Nteuw Oo*t~
Indis." Horace. Indien, ch. iii. p. 49.
* Knox, Historical Eolation, %c, I * " Lorequ'ile out besoin do Twchee
Cookie
MEDLEVAL HISTORY.
[Pa.
who in the reign of Mahomet of Ghuznee,-A.D. 1030, de-
scribed this singular feature in the trade with the island,
of which he speaks under the name of Lanka, says it
was the belief of the Arabian mariners that the parties
with whom they held their mysterious dealings were
demons or savages.1
Concurrent testimony, to the same effect, is found
in the recital of the Chinese Buddhist, Fa Hian, who in
the third century, describing the same strange peculiarity
of the inhabitants in those days, (whom he also designates
" demons,") says they deposited, unseen, the precious
articles which they come down to barter with the foreign
merchants resorting to their shores.*
ou de flechea, ila font un muddle avec
iles feiiilles d'arbre, et vont la nuit
porter ce models, et la moitio' d'un
corf ou d'un aanglier, k la porte d'un
armurier, qui voynnt le matin cette
viande pendue k sa porte, scut ce que
coin vent dire; il trayaille auasi-tut et
, 3 jours apres il pend las flechea ou
lea baches au rrn'me endroit ou itxnt
la viande, et la nuit suivante le lieda
lea vient prendre." — Kibetbo, Hid.
de Ceytot,A.D.1686,ch.xiiT.p.ir9.
1 " Lea marius bo reunissent pour
dire que lorsquo lee navires mint
arrives dans ces parages, quelqnes una
do requipage montent eur des cha-
loupes et dcsceudent k terre pour y
depoaer, soitderargent,soitdesobjets
utiles a la pereonne des habitans, tela
que des pagnes, du Bel, etc. Le lende-
tnoin, quand ils reviennent, ils trou-
vent k la place de l'argent des pagnee
et du eel, une qiuuititd de girofle
d'une raleur egale. On ajoute que
ce commerce se fait avec des frfnies,
ou, sui van t d'autrea, avec des homines
restes i l'etat sau vage. " — Albtbovni,
trwtat. by Keinauv, lutrvd. to Abocl-
fkda, sec. iii. p. ccc. See also
ICeinaco, Mim. tur flnde, p. 343.
I have before alluded (p. 638, n.) to
the trealiso De Moribim Brachma-
ttoi-um, ascribed to Palladius, one
version of which is embodied in the
spurious Life of Alexander the Great,
written by the Pseudo-Callistbenea,
la it the traveller from Thebes, who
is the author's informant, states, that
when in Ceylon, ha obtained pepper
from the Beaadre, and succeeded in
getting so near them as to be able to
describe accurately their appearance,
their low stature and feeble confi-
guration, their large heads and
shaggy uncut hair, — a description
which in even- particular agrees with
the aspect of the Veddahs at the
E resent day. Ilia expression that .
e succeeded in " getting near "
them, tpHaoa iy?vc t£v itaXovfuytrv
Bioaiav, shows their propensity to
conceal themselves even when bring-
ing the articles which they had col-
lected in the woods to selL — Pskudo
CiLLisTHP.yra, lib. iii. cb. vii. Paris,
1846, p. 103.
* " Lee marchands des aiitres roy-
aumes y faisaient le commerce ;
quand le temps de ce commerce
fitait venu, lea genies et lea demons
ne paraissaient pas ; maia ila met-
taient en avant des choses precieusos
dont ils marquaient le juste prix, — *
s'il convenait an* marchands, ceux-
ci 1'acqiuttaient et prenaient La mer-
chandise."—Fa HrSr, Foc-koue-ki.
language is a Chinese Encyclopaedia
which, under the title of ft'en-fium-
oyGoogIc
Cha*. IT,] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PEHSIAN AUTHORITIES. 693
The chain of Evidence is rendered complete by a
passage in Puny, which, although somewhat obscure
(facts relating to the Seres, being confounded .with
statements regarding Ceylon), serves nevertheless to
show that the custom in question was then well known
to the Singhalese ambassadors sent to the Emperor
Claudius, and was also familiar to the Greek traders
resorting to the island. The envoys stated, at Borne,
that the habit . of the people of their country was, on
the arrival of traders, to go to " the further side of some
river where wares and commodities are laid down by
the strangers, and if the natives list to make exchange,
they have them taken away, and- leave other mer-
chandise in lieu thereof, to content the foreign mer-
chant"1
tory of every art and science from
the commencement of the empire to
the era of the author Ma-TODAN-LIN,
who wrote in the thirteenth century.
M. Stanislas Julien has published in
the Journal Atiatique for July 1836
a translation of that portion of this
great work which has relation to
Ceylon. It is there stated of the
aborigines that when " lea march anda
dfs autres royaumes y venaient com-
mercer, iit ne laimaieni pat voir hurt
corps, et montraient au moyen de
pierree precieusee le prix que pou-
vaient Taloir lea merchandises. Lea
niarcbands venaient et en prenaient
une quantity £quivalente ik Inure mer-
chandises."— Journ. Atiat. t. xxviii.
p. 402; ixiv. p. 41. I hare extracts
from seven other Chinese works,
written between the seventh and
the twelfth centuries, in all of which
there occurs the same account of
Ceylon, — that it was formerly sup-
posed to be inhabited by dragons
and demons, and that when "mer-
chants from, all nations come to trade
with them, they are invisible, but
leave their precious wares spread out
with an indication of the value set on
them, and the Chinese take them at
the prices stipulated." — Leang-thoo,
"History of the Leang Dynasty,"
a.d. 030, b. liv. p. la N&t-ihi,
"History of the Southern Empire/1
a.d. 660, p. xxxviii. p. 14. Jvng-
teen, " Cyclopaedia of History," a.d.
740, b. cxciii. p. 8. The Tae-piaa,
a " Digest of History," compiled by
Imperial command, a.d. 983, b.
dccxciii. p. 9. Txih-foo-yuen-kwei,
the " Great Depositary of. the Na-
tional Archives, a.d. 1012, b. cccclvi.
p. 21. Sw-Jang-thoo, " New His-
tory of the Tang Dynasty," A.D. 1000,
b.cxlvi.partii.p. 10. tran-heen-hiuff-
Kvxm, " Antiquarian Researches,"
A.D. 1319, b. cccxxxviii. p. 24.
1 Plint, Jfat. Hut., lib. vi. ch.
xxiv. Transl. Philemon Holland,
p. 130. This passage has been some-
times supposed to refer to the Serte,
but a reference to the text will con-
firm the opinion of MamiAntts and
Sounds, that Pliny applies it to the
Singhalese ; and that the allusion to
red hair and grey eyes, " rutUis
comis" and"cserulei80culis" applies
to some northern tribes whom the
Singhalese had seen in their uver-
IanB journeys to Chins. "Later
travellers," saysCooLRT, "have like-
wise had glimpses, on the frontiers
of India, of these German features ;
but nothing; is yet known with cer-
tainty of the tribe to which they
properly belong." — Hid. hikmd and
Maritime Discovery, vol. i. p. 71.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
fififi MEDLEVAL BISTORT. [Pa*tV.
The fact, thus established, of the" aversion to com-
merce, iramenioriaUy evinced by the southern Singhalese,
and of* their desire to escape from intercourse with the
strangers resorting to trade on their coasts, serves to
explain the singular scantiness of information regarding
the interior of the island which is apparent in the
writings of the Arabians and Persians, between the
eighth and thirteenth centuries. Their knowledge of
the coast was extensive, they were familiar with the
lofty mountain which served as its landmark, they dwell
with admiration on its productions, and record, with
particularity the objects of commerce which were to be
found in the island-; but, regarding the Singhalese them-
selves and their social and intellectual condition, little, if
any, real information is to be gleaned from die Oriental
geographers of the middle ages.
Albatent and Massoudi, the earliest of the Arabian
geographers', were contemporaries of Abou-zetd, in the
ninth century, and neither adds much to the description
of Ceylon, given in the narratives of " The two Mahome-
tans? The former assigns to the island the fabulous*
dimensions ascribed to it by the Hindus, and only alludes
to the ruby and the sapphire* as being found in the rivers
that Sow from its majestic mountains. Massoudi asserts
that he visited Ceylon8, and describes, from actual know-
ledge, the funeral ceremonies of a king, and the increma-
tion of his remains ; but as his statements are borrowed
almost verbatim from the account given by Soleyman*,
there is reason to believe that he merely copied, from
1 Probably the earliest allusion to
Ceylon by any Arabian or Persian
author, is tiiat of Tabaej, who was
bom in A.d. 838 ; but be liraits*his
notices to an exaggerated account of
Adam's Peak, " than which the
whole world, does not contain a
mountain of greater height." — O use-
let's 7rar*h. vol. i. p. 34, ».
* " Le rubu rouge, et la pierra qui
est coulaur de cieL" Albatbkt,
quoted by Reinaud, ltdrod. Aaoct-
FEDA, p. CCClxXXY.
> Massoudi in Gildemeisterj&nj*.
Arab. p. 164. Oildemeister discre-
dits the assertion of Massoudi, that
he bad been in Ceylon. (lb. p. 154, n.)
He describes Kalah as an island
distinct from Serendib.
« Abou-s-.es; i), Ilclalirm, jc, p. 50.
oyGoogIe
Cuap. II.] INDIAK, ARABUN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 697
Abou-zeyd the portions of the "Meadows of Gold"1 in
which reference is made to Ceylon.
In the order of time, this is the place to allude to
another Arabian mariner, whose voyages have had a
world-wide renown, and who, more than any other
author, ancient or modern, has contributed to familiarise
Europe with the name and wonders of Serendib. I allude
to " Sindbad of the Sea," whose voyages were first inserted
by Galland, in his Prench translation of the " Thousand*
and-one Nights." Sindbad, in his own tale, professes to
have lived in the reign of the most illustrious Khalif of
the Abbassides, —
" Sole star of all that place and time ; —
And saw him, in hia golden prime,
The good Haroun Alraschid."
But Haroun died, A.D. 808, and Sindbad's narrative
is bo manifestly based on the recitals of Abou-zeyd and
Massoudi, that although the author may have lived
shortly after, it is scarcely possible that he could have
Jjeen a contemporary of the great ruler of Bagdad.3
One inference is clear, from the story of Sindbad,
that whilst the sea-coast of Ceylon was known to the
Arabians, the interior had been little explored by
them, and was so enveloped in mystery that any tale of
its wonders, however improbable, was sure to gain
credence. Hence, what Sindbad relates of the shore
and its inhabitants is devoid of exaggeration: in his
1 A translation of Masbovot's
Xeadatet .of Gold in English was
begun by Dr. Stronger for the
"Oriental Translation Fund," but it
has not advanced beyond tho first
volume, which was published in 1841.
s Bethaud notices the Ketab-al-
q/at/b, or " Book of Wonders," of
Massottsi, as one of the works whence
the materials of Sindbad's Voyages
were drawn. (Introd. Abod-lfeda,
vol. i. p. lzxvii.j IIole published in
1Z97 A.D. his learned lictnarks on
lAe Origin of Sindbad's Voyage*, and
in that work, as well as in La role's
edition of Sindbad ; and in the notes
by Last, to his version of the "Arabian
Night*' Entertainment," Edrisi, Kaz-
irnri, and many other writers are
mentioned whose works contain pa-
and thirteenth centuries, it does n
follow that the author** Sindbad
lived later than they, as both may
havo borrowed their illustrations
from the same early sources.
oyGoogle
MEDIEVAL HISTOBT.
[PutV.
first visit the natives who received him were'Malabars,
one of whom had learned Arabic, and they were engaged
in irrigating their rice lands from a tank. Such incidents
are characteristic of the north-western coast of Ceylon
at the present day ; and the commerce, for which the
island was remarkable in the ninth and tenth centuries is
implied by the expression of Sindbad, that on the occasion
of his next vojage, when bearing presents and a letter
from the Khalif to the King of Serendib, he embarked
at Bassora in a ship, and with him " were many merchants."
Of the Arabian authors of the middle ages the one
who dwells most largely on Ceylon is Edbisi, born of a
family who ruled over Malaga after the fall of the
Khalife of Cordova. He was a protegi of the Sicilian
king, Eoger the Norman, at whose desire he compiled his
Geography, A.D. 1154. But with regard to Ceylon, his
pages contain only the oft-repeated details of the
height of the holy mountain, the gems found in its
ravines, the musk, the perfumes, and odoriferous woods
which abound' there.1 He particularises twelve cities,
but their names are scarcely identifiable with any1 now*
known.2 The sovereign, who was celebrated for the
mildness o£ his rule, was ■assisted by a council of sixteen,
of whom four were of the national religion, four Chris-
tians, four Mussulmans, and four Jews; and one of the
chief cares of the government was given to keeping up
the historical records of the reigns of their kings, the
fives of their prophets, and the sacred books of their law.
Ships from China and other distant countries resorted
to the island, and hither " came the wines of Irak, and
Fars, which are purchased by the king, and sold again
to his subjects ; for, unlike the princes of India, who
encourage debauchery but strictly forbid wine, the
1 Ebrisi mentions, that at that
period the flgar-cano was cultivated
* Marnaba, (Mtmaar f) Aghna
Ferescouri, (Perudarrcf) Aide, Ma-
houloun, (Putlam?) Harori, Telmadi,
{Ta'manaarf) Lendoitmii, Sedi, lles-
li, Bereeli and Medouim (MaturaT).
"Afrhna"or"Ana," as Edriai makes
it the residence of the kinj;, must bu
Annrajapoorn. *
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. II. ] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. £99
King of Serendib recommends wine and prohibits de-
bauchery." The exports of the island he describes as
silk, precious stones of every hue, rock-crystal, diamonds,
and a profusion of perfumes.1
The last of this class of writers to whom it is neces-
sary to allude is Kazwini, who lived at Bagdad in the
thirteenth century, and, from the diversified nature of Ins
writings, has been called the Pliny of the East. In his
geographical account of India, he includes Ceylon, but it
is evident from the details into wMch he enters as to the
customs of the court and the people, such as the burning
of the widows of the kings on the same pile with their
husbands, that the information he had received had been
collected amongst the BrahinanicaL, not the Budd-
hist portion of the people. This is confirmatory of
the actual condition of the people of Ceylon at the
period as shown by the native chronicles, the king being
the Malabar Magna, who invaded the island from
Kalinga, 1219, overthrew the Buddhist religion, dese-
crated its monuments and temples, and destroyed the
■edifices and literary records of the capital.2
Kazwini dwells on the productions of the island, its
spices, and its odours, its precious woods and medical
drugs, its profusion of gems, its gold and silver work,
and its pearls8 : but one circumstance will not fail to
strike the reader as a strange omission in these frequent
enumerations of the exports of Ceylon. I have traced
them from their earliest notices by the Greeks and
Komans to the period when the commerce of the East
had reached its climax in the hands of the Persians and
Arabians. My survey extends over fifteen centuries,
during which Ceylon and its productions were familiarly
known to the traders of all countries, and yet in the
pages of no author, European or Asiatic, from the earliest
* Edrisi, Ofoffr. Tnuisl. de Jau-
bert, 4to. Parie, 1836, £ i. p. 71, &e.
Edrisi, in his " Notice of Coylon,"
quotes largely and verbatim, from
tho work of Abou-zeyd.
1 MdhaiBmuo, ch. lxxxr Rajartrintti
cari, p. 03 ; Bajarvli, p. 2M. Tcs-
noto'b Epitome, Secy. 44.
s Kabwisi, in Gildeuieiator, &n)rf.
Arab. p. 198.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDLEVAL HISTORY.
tP*w V.
ages to the close of the thirteenth century, Is there the
remotest allusion to Cinnamon as an indigenous produc-
tion, or even as an article of commerce in Ceylon. I may
add, that I have been equally unsuccessful in finding any
-allusion to the tree in any Chinese work of ancient date,1
This unexpected result has served to cast a suspicion
on the title of Ceylon to be designated par excellence the
" Cinnamon Isle," and even with the knowledge that
the cinnamon laurel is indigenous there, it admits of
but little doubt that tlft spice which in the earlier ages
was imported into Europe through Arabia, was obtained,
first from Africa, and afterwards from India ; and that -it
was not till after the twelfth or thirteenth century that its
existence in Ceylon became known to the merchants re-
sorting to the island. So little was its real history known
in Europe, even at the latter period, that Phile, who
composed his metrical treatise, lit?) Zmmv 'ISioVijt-oj, for
the information of the Emperor Michael XL (Palteologus),
about the year 1310, repeats the ancient fable of Hero-
dotus, that cinnamon grew in an unknown Indian country,
whence it was carried by birds, from whose nests it was
abstracted by the natives of Arabia.2
1 In the Chiae.se Materia Medics,
" Pun-Uuo-kang-muh" cinnamon or
cassia is described under the name of
"£wa',"but always as a production
of Southern China and- of Cochin
China. In the Ming History, a pro-
duction of Ceylon is mentioned under
the name of " Shoo-hamq" or "tree-
perfume;" but my informant, Mr.
Wylie, of Shanghae, is unable to
identify it with cinnamon oil.
1 "Opvif o civviipufioc birofiaaftlvoc
To ttVVfifiuUillf ivfilv nyvoaviiivov,
'if' oil c<tWv opyavoi roic JiXrdroij
MriXAov Si toTq fiXafTif 'IvSoic, av-
'Apiu/'nr.irii' r;£t>l'i;i< ansXirii.
VnfCEirT, in scrutinising the writ-
ings of the classical authors, anterior
to Cosmas, who treated of Tapro-
bane, was surprised to discover that
no mention of cinnamon as a produc-
tion of Ceylon was to be met with in
Pliny, Djoscorides, or Ptolemy, and
that even the mercantile author of
the Periphu was silent regarding it
(Vol. ii. p. 612.) D'llerbolot has
likewise called attention to the same
fact (Sibl. Orient, vol. iii. p. 308.)
ThJg ^— S — :-- :- --• • ■• l.„ —
interest of the
Greeks and Romans was. naturally
excited to discover the country
which produced a luxury so rare as
to be a suitable gift for a king ; and
so costly, that a crown of cinnamon
tipped with gold was a becoming
oftering to the gods. But the Arabs
i succeeded in preserving the socret of
its origin, and the curiosity -of
Europe was baffled by tales of cin-
| minion being found in the nest of the
Phounjx, or gathered in marshes
I guarded by monsters and winged
oyGoogIe
Chap. II.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 801
The first authentic notice which we have of Singhalese
cinnamon occurs in the voyages of Ibn Batuta the Moor,
serpents. Pliny appears to have
been the first to suspect that the most
precious of spices came not from
Arabia, but from Ethiopia (lib. xii. c.
xlii.) ; and Coo Let, in an argument
equally remarkable for ingenuity and
research, baa succeeded in demon-
strating the soundness of this con-
jecture, and establishing the fact that
the cinnamon brought to Europe by
the Arabs, and afterwards by the
Greeks, came chiefly from the east-
ern angle of Africa, the tract around
Cape Qardafui, which is marked on
the ancient maps as the Reyio C'in-
namomifera. (Journ. Roy. Geogr.
Society, 1849, -vol. xix. p. 168.)
Coolxy has suggested in his learned
work on " Ptolemy and the Kile," that
the name Gardafui is a compound
of the Somali word yard, "a port,"
and the Arabic afhao»i, a generic
term for aromntt and apices. It
admits of no doubt that the cinna-
mon of Ceylon- was unknown to com-
merce in the sixth century of our
era ; although there is evidence of a
supply which, if not from China, was
probably carried in Chinese vessels,
at a much earlier period, in the
Persian name dar ehini, which means
" Chinete wood," and in the ordinary
word " cinn-amon,'V." Chinese amo-
mum," a generic name for aroitmtic
spices generally. (Ness Von Ebes-
bach, de Citmamomo Ditputafio, p.
12.) Ptolemy, equally with Pliny,
placed the "Cinnamon Region" at tfie
north-eastern extremity of Africa,
now the country of the Somnlis ;
' and the author of the Periplui, mind-
ful of his object, in writing a guide-
book for merchant-seamen^ particu-
larises cassia amongst the exports
of the sameKoast ; but although he
enumerates the productions of Cey-
lon, gems, pearls, ivory, and tortoise-
shell, he is silent aa to cinnamon.
Dioscorides and Galen, in common
with the travellers and geographers
of the ancients, ignore its Singhalese
origin, and unite with them in trac-
ing it to the country of the Trog-
VOL. 1 B
lodytsa. I attach no importance to
those passages in Wagksfelb's ver- _
sion of Sanchaniathon, in Which,
amongst other particulars, obviously
describing Ceylon under the name
of "the island of Rachius," (which he
states to have been visited by the
Phoenicians) ho says, that the western
province produced the finest cinna-
that the mountains abounded in
cassia (cdnn ttinujinririurcin,), and that
the minor kings paid their tribute in
both, to the paramount sovereign.
(Samcb:oniathon, ed. Wagenfeld,
Bremen, 1837, lib. vii. ch. xiij. The
MS. from which Wagenfeld printed,
is evidently a medireval forgery (see
note(A)tovoLi.ch.v.p.647J. Again,
it is equally strange that the wnteK
of Arabia and Persia preserve a si-
milar silence as to the cinnamon of
the island, although they dwell with
due admiration on its other pro-
ductions, in all of which they carried
on a lucrative trade. Sir williak
Ocsei^y, after a fruitless search
through the writings of their geo-
graphers and travellers, records his
surprise, at this result, and men-
tions especially his disappointment,
that Ferdousi, who enriches his great
poem with glowing descriptions of
all the objects presented by sur-
rounding nations to the sovereigns of
Persia, — ivory, ambergris, and aloes,
vases, bracelets, and jewels, — never
once adverts to the exquisite cinna-
mon of Ceylon.— TWnwfe, vol. i. p. 41.
The conclusion deduciblo from
fifteen centuries of historic testi-
mony is, that the earliest knowledge
nations was derived from China, and
that it first reached Judea and Phoe-
nicia overland by way of Persia
(Song of Solomon, iv. 14 : Revela-
tion xviii. 13). At a later period,
when the Arabs," « the merchants of
Sheba," competed for the trade of
Tyre, and carried to her " the chief
of all spices" (Eiekiel xvH. 22),
their supplies were drawn from their
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.
who, impelled by religious enthusiasm^ set out from his
native city Tangiers, in the year 1324, and devoted
African possessions, and the cassia
•of the Troglodytic coast supplanted
the cinnamon of the far East, and to
a great extent excluded it from the
market. The Greeks having at
leu plli discovered the secret of the
Arabs, resorted to the same coun-
tries as their rivals in commerce, and
surpassing them in practical naviga-
tion and the construction of ships,
the Sabreans were for some centuries I
reduced to a state of mercantile
dependence and inferiority. In the
meantime the Roman linpire de-
clined i the Persians under the Sassa-
nides engrossed the intercourse with
the East, the trade of India now
flowed through the Persian Gulf, and
the ports uf the Red Sea were de-
serted. " Thus the downfall, and it
may be the extinction, of the African
spice trade probably dates from the
close of the sixth century, andMalnbar
succeeded at once to this branch of
commerce." — Coo let, Regio Cin-
nanioiiiifcra, p. 14. Cooley sup-
poses that the Malabars may have
obtained from Ceylon the cinnamon
with which they supplied the Per-'
sians;aaIbnB«tuto, in the fourteenth
century, saw cinnamon trees drifted
upon the shores of the island, whither
they had been carried by torrents
from the forests of the interior (74b
Baluta, ch. xx. p. 182). The fact of
their being found so is iu itself suffi-
cient evidence, that down to that
time no active trade had been carried
on in the article ; and the earliest
travellers iu the thirteenth and four-
teenth 'centuries, Marco Polo, Jons
opHksse, Pha Jordanus and others,
whilst they allude to cinnamon as
one of the chief productions of Mala-
bar, speak of Ceylon, notwithstand-
ing her wealth in jewels and pearls,
as if she were utterly destitute of any
spice of this kind. »Sicola be Conti,
a.I). 1444, is the first European wri-
ter, in whose pages I have found
Ceylon described as yielding cinna-
mon, and ho is followed by ltai1ln-nia,
a.d. 1600, and Corsali, *.». 1515.
in the forests of the interior, where it
was cut and brought away by the
Chalias, the caste who, from having
been originally weavers, devoted
themselves to this new employment.
The Chalias are themselves an im-'
migrant tribe, and, according to their
own tradition, they came to the
island only a very snort time before
the appearance of the Portuguese.
(See a. History of the Chatiat, by
Adrian Raja passe, a Oarf of the
Caste, Atiat. Reser, vol. iii. p. 440. 1
So difficult of access were the forei-N
that the Portuguese could only obtain
a full supply from them once m three
years; and the Dutch, to remedy this
uncertainty, made regular plantations
in the vicinity of their forte about the
year 1770 a.d., "to that the cuttiirtiou
of cinnamon in Crylon it not yd a cm-
hay oW."— Coolet, p. 18. It is a
question for scientific research rattier
than for historical scrutiny, whether
the cinnamon laurel of Cevlon, as it
p exists at the present day, is indigenous
to the island, or whether it is identical
with the cinnamon of Abyssinia, anil
may have been carried thence tiy the
Arabs ; or whether it was brought to
the island from the adjacent conti-
nent of India ; or imported by the
Chinese from islands still further
to the oast. One fact is notorious
at the present day, that nearly the
whole of the cinnamon grown in
Ceylon is produced in a small and
well -defined area occupying the
S.W. quarter of the island, which
has been at all times the resort of
foreign shipping. The natives, from
observing its appearance for the first
time in other ana unexpected placr*,
believe it to be sown oy the birds
who carry thither the undigested
seeds; anil the Dutch, for this reason,
prohibited the shooting of crows,—
a precaution that would scarcely be
necessary for the protection of th*
plant, had they believed it to be n»t
only indigenous, but peculiar to the
oyGoogIe
Cha*. II.] INDIAN, ABAKAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 603
twenty-eight years to a pilgrimage, the record of which
has entitled him to rank amongst the most remarkable
travellers of any age or country.
island. We ourselves were led, till
very recently, to imagine that Ceylon
enjoyed a " natural monopoly of.
Mr. Tkwaubs, of the Royal Botanic
Gardens at Kandy, is of opinion from
his own observation, that cinnamon is
indigenous to Ceylon, as it is found,
but of inferior quality, in the central
mountain range, as high as 3000 feet
above the level of the sea — and
such quantity aa to suggest the idea
that it must he the remains of for-
mer cultivation. This statement of
Mr. ThwaJtes is quite in consistency
with tie narrative of Valemttb (ch.
vii.), that the Dutch, on their first
arrival in Ceylon, A.D. 1001-2, took
on board cinnamon at Batticaloa, —
and that the surrounding district
continued to produce it in great abun-
dance in a.d. 1726. (lb., ch. xv. p. 223,
224.) Still it must be observed that
its appeanincn in these situations is
not altogether inconsistent with the
popular belief that the seeds may
hare been carried there by birds.
Finding that the Singhalese work*
accessible to me, the Mahawanto, the
TitijiiHtti, the ftqjaratttacari, &c, al-
though frequently particularising the
aromatic shrubs and flowers planted
by tha pious care of the native
sovereigns, made no mention of
cinnamon, I am indebted to the
good offices of the Maha-Moodliar DE
Sarem,' of Mr. Dk Alwis, the trans-
lator of the Stdatk-Sangqr", and of
Mr. S PENCE Haedy, the learned his-
torian of Buddhism, for a thorough
examination of such native books as
were likely to throw light on the
question. Mr. Hardy writes to me
that he has not met with the word
cinnamon* (kurtmdu) in any early
Singhalese books ; but there is men-
tion of a substance called " ptwpala-
vxita" of which cinnamon forms one
of the ingredients. Mr. de Alwis
has been equally unsuccessful, al-
though in the SanutoaU Nigurdu, an
ancient Sanskrit Catalogue of Plants,
the true "cinnamon is spoken of as
Sinhalam, a word which signifies
" belonging to Ceylon," to distinguish
it from cassia, which is found in
Hindustan. The Maha-Moodliar, as
the result of an investigation made
by him in communication with some
of the most erudite of the Buddhist
priesthood familiar with Pali and
Singhalese literature, informs me
that whilst cinnamon is alluded to) in
several Sanskrit works on Medicine,
such as that of Susruta, and thence
copied into Pali translations, its name
has been found only in Singhalese
works of comparatively modern date,
although it occurs in the treatise on
Medicine and Surgery popularly
attributed to King Bui as Kara, a.d.
339. Lankaqoddk, alearned priest
of Galle, says that the word lawanga
in an ancient Pali vocabulary means
cinnamon, but I rather think this ia
a mistake, for taaanga or lavanga ia
the Pali name for "cloves," that for
cinnamon being Inmayo.
The question therefore remains in
considerable obscurity. It is diffi-
cult to understand how an article so
precious could exist in the highest
perfection in Ceylon, at the period
when the island was the very focus
and centre of Eastern commerce, and
yet not become an object of interest
and an item of export. And although
it is sparingly used in the Singhalese
cuisine, still looking at its many
religious uses for decoration and
incense, the silence of the ecclesias-
tical writers ss to its existence is
not easily accounted for.
The explanation may possibly be,
that cinnamon, like colfee, was origi-
nally a native of the east angle of
Africa; and that the same Arabian
adventurers who carried coffee to Ve-
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDIEVAL HISTOEY.
IPibtV,
On his way to India, he visited, in Shiraz, the tomb of
the Imaum Abu Abd Allah, " who made known the
way from India to the mountain of Serendib." As this
saint died in the year of the Hejira 331, his story serves
to fix the origin of the Mahometan pilgrimages to Adam's
Peak, in the early part of the tenth century. When
steering for the coast of India, from the Maldives, Ibn
Batuta was carried by the south-west monsoon towards
the northern portion of Ceylon, which was then (a.d.
1347) in the hands of the Malabars, the Singhalese
sovereign having removed his capital southward to Gam-
pola. At this time the Hindu chief of Jaffna was in
possession of a fleet in " which he occasionally transported
his troops against the Mahometans on other parts of the
coast ; " and the Singhalese chroniclers relate that the
Tamils had erected forts at Colombo, Negombo, and
Chilaw.
Ibn Batuta was permitted to land at Battala (Put-
lam), and found the shore covered with " cinnamon
wood," which "the merchants of Malabar transported
without any other price than a few articles of clothing
given as presents to the king. This, he says, may be attri-
buted to the circumstance that it is brought down by the
mountain torrents, and left in great heaps upon the shore."
This passage is interesting, though not devoid of ob-
scurity, for cinnamon is not now known to grow further
north than Chilaw, nor is there any river in die district
of Putlam which could bear the designation of a ?' mountain
torrent." Along the coast further south the cinnamon
district commences, and the current of the sea may possibly
have carried with it the uprooted laurels described in
the narrative. The whole passage, however, demonstrates
that at that time, at least, Ceylon had no organised trade
in the spice.
combination of soil, tempe
mental in introducing
India and Ceylon. In India its
cultivation, probably from natural
causes, proved unsuccessful ; but in
Ceylon the plant enjoyed that rare
combination of soil, temperature, and
climate, which ultimately gave to ita
qualities the highest possible develop-
oyGoogIe
Chap. If.] INDIAN, ARABIAN, PERSIAN AUTHORITIES. 60S
The Tamil chieftain exhibited to Ibn Batuta his
wealth in "pearls," and under his protection he made
the pilgrimage to the summit of Adam's Peak accom-
panied by four jyogees who visited the foot-mark every
year, " four Brahmans, and ten of the king's companions,
with fifteen attendants 'carrying provisions." The first
day he crossed a river, (the estuary of Calpentyn ?) on ■
a boat matFe of reeds, and entered the city of Manar
Mandali (probably the site of the present Humeri
Mundal). This was the "extremity of the territory of
the infidel king," whence Ibn Batuta proceeded to the
port of Salawat (Chilaw), and thence (turning inland) )ie
reached the city of the Singhalese sovereign at Gam-
pola, then called Ganga-sri-pura, which he contracts into
Kankar or Ganga.1
He describes accurately the situation of the ancient
capital, in a valley between two hills, upon a bend of
the river called, " the estuary of rubies." The emperor
he names "Kina," a term I am unable to explain, as
the prince who then reigned was probably Bhuwaneka-
bahu IV., the first Singhalese monarch who held his court
at Gampola.
The king on feast days rode on a white elephant
his head adorned .with very large rubies, which are
found in his country, imbedded in "a white stone
abounding in fissures, from which they cut it out and
give it to the pqhshers." Ibn Batuta enumerates three
varieties, " the red, the yellow, and1 the cornelian ; '' but
the last must mean the sapphire, the second the
topaz ; and the first refers, I apprehend, to the amethyst ;
for in thefollowing passage, in describing the decorations
of the head of the white elephant, he speaks of " seven
rubies, each of which was larger than a hen's egg,"
and a saucer %iade of a ruby as broad as the palm of the
hand.
In the ascent from Gampola to Adam's Peak, he
1 Aa he afterwards writes, Oalle, " K^h."
l l 3
MEDIAEVAL HIBTOBY.
[P«
speaks of the monkeys with beards like a man (Pres-
bytes ursine or P. cephalopterus), and of the "fierce
leech," which lurks in the trees and damp grass, and
springs on the passers by. He describes the' trees with
leaves that never fall, and the " red roses " of the rhodo-
dendrons which still characterise that lofty region. At
the foot of the last pinnacle which crowns the summit
of the peak, he found a minaret named after Alexander
the Great ' ; steps hewn out of the rock, and " iron pins
to which chains are .appended " to assist the pilgrims
in their ascent ; a well filled with fish, and last of all, on
tlje loftiest point of the mountain, the sacred foot-print
of the First Man, into the hollow of which the pilgrims
drop their offerings of gems and gold.
In descending the mountain, Ibn Batuta passed
through the village of Kalanga, near which was a tomb,
said to be that of Abu Abd Allah Ibn Khalif2; he
visited the temple of J)inaur (Devi-Neuera, or Dondera
Head), and returned to Putlam by way of Kale (Galle),
and Kolambu (Colombo), " the finest and largest city in
Serendib."
■ * In oriental tradition, Alexander
is believed to have visited Ceylon in
company with the " philosopher Bo-
linus," by whom De Sacy believes
that the Arabs meant Apollonius of
Tyana. There is a Persian poem by
Ashref, the Zaffrr Namah Ski-n/iari,
which describes the conqueror's voy-
age to Serendib, and bis devotions at
the foot-mark of Adam, for reaching
which, he and Bolinus caused steps
to be hewn in the rock, and the
ascent secured bv rivet* and chains
—See OcsELET'a'TVaneb, vol. i. p. 68,
' Abu Abd Allah was the first who
led the Mahometan pilgrims to Cevlon.
The tomb alluded to was probably a
cenotaph in his honour; aslbnBatiiU
had previously visited his tomb at
oyGoogIc
CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE.
Although the intimate knowledge of Ceylon acquired
by the Chinese at an early period, is distinctly ascrib-
able to the sympathy and intercourse promoted by com-
munity of religion, there is traditional, if not historical
evidence that its origin, in a remote age, may be traced
to their love of gain and eagerness for the extension of
commerce. The Singhalese ambassadors who arrived
at Home in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, stated
that their ancestors had reached China by traversing
India and the Himalayan mountains long before ships
had attempted the voyage by sea l , and as late as the
fifth century of the Christian era, the King of Ceylon2,
in an address delivered by his envoy to the Emperor of
China, shows that both routes were then in use.8
It is not, however, till after the third century of the
Christian era that we jind authentic records of such
journeys in the literature of China. The Buddhist
pilgrims, who at that time resorted to India, published
on their return itineraries and descriptions of the distant
countries they had visited, and officers, both' military
and civil, brought back memoirs and statistical state-
ments for the information of the government and the
guidance of commerce.4
1 PLDTT, b. vi.cn, xxiv. the countries lying between their own
a Mahft Nama, a.d. 428; Sung- frontier 'and the north-east boundaw
ihoo, a " History of the Northern of India. — Joarn. Asiat. 1. vi. p. 343.
Sung Dynasty," b. xcrii. p. B. An embassy from China to Ceylon,
■ It was probably the Knowledge a.d. 607, was entrusted to Chang-
of the overland route that led the Ttuen, " Director of the _ Military
Chinese to establish their military Lands." — Stiy-ahoo, b. lxxxi. p. 3.
colonies in Kashgar, Yarkband and * Reifacd, Mhnoire tur ritvic,
x a 4
jOOC^Ic
MEDICAL HI8T0RT.
[Pa.
It was reasonable to anticipate that in such records
information would be found regarding the condition
of Ceylon as it presented itself from time to time to
the eyes of the Chinese ; but unfortunately numbers of
the original works have long since perished, or exist
only in extracts preserved in dynastic histories and
encyclopaedias, or in a class of books almost peculiar to
China, called " tsung-akoo," consisting of excerpts re-
produced from the most ancient writers. M. Stanislas
Julien discovered in the Pien-i'tien, (" a History of
Foreign Nations," of which there is a copy in the Im-
perial Library of Paris,) a collection of fragments from
Chinese authors who had treated of Ceylon ; but as the
intention of that eminent Sinologue to translate them *
has not yet been carried into effect, they are not avail-
able to me for consultation. In this difficulty I turned
for assistance to China; and through the assiduous
kindness of Mr. Wylie, of the London Mission at
Shanghai, I have received extracts from twenty-four
Chinese writers between the fifth and eighteenth cen-
turies, from which and from translations of Chinese
travels and topographies made by Remusat, Klaproth,
Landresse, Pauthier, Stanislas Julien, and others, I
have been enabled to collect the following facts relative
to the knowledge of Ceylon possessed by the Chinese in
the middle ages.2
E. 0. Stanislas Julibn, preface to
is translation of Hitmen- 'Duong,
Paris, 1863, p. 1. A bibliographical
notice of the most important Chinese
works which contain descriptions of
India, by M. S. Jflikn, will be found
in the Jottrn. Anat. for October, 1832,
p. 264.
1 Jutirn. Anal. t. J£lis. p. 39. M.
Stanislas Julien is' at present en-
gaged in the translation of the .Si'-
yu-ki, or " Memoires des Contre'es
Occidentales," the eleventh chapter
of which contains an aecount of Cey-
lon in the eighth century.
* She Chinese works referred to
in the following pages are:- — 8nng~
shoo, the "History of the Northern
Sung Dynasty," A.D. 417 — 178, by
Chik-Yo, written about a.d. 487.
— Wei-shoo, " a History of the Wei
Tartar Dynaetv," a.d. 386— 566, by
Wri-show, LA. 690. — Foi-kouf-ki,
an "Aecount of the Buddhist King-
do™," by Ch5-FI-IUas, A.D. 899—
414, French transl., bv Kern mutt,
Klaproth, and Landrease. Paris, 1830.
— Leung-shoo, " History of the i*ang
Dynasty," a.d. 602—657, bT Y'aou-
Szk-Leen, A. d. 030.— Suy-thoo," His-
tory of the Hut Dynasty,'' a.d. 681
—017, by Wei-Chtso, a.d. 033.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. Ill J CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE. 600
like the Greek geographers, the earliest Chinese
authorities grossly exaggerated the size of Ceylon : they
represented it as lying " cross-wise in the Indian
Ocean ', and extending in width from east to west one
third more than in depth from north to south.* They
were Btruck by the altitude of its hills, and, above all,
by the lofty crest of Adam's Peak, which served as the
land-mark for ships approaching the island. They
Bpeak reverentially of the sacred foot-mark B impressed
— Hiottex-Thsaks. His Life and
Travels, a.d. 645, French trans!., by
Stanislas Julien. Paris, 1853. —
iVint-*A£, "History of the Southern
Empire," a.d. 317—589, by Lk-ybn-
bkow, A.D. 660. — Tung-tien. "Cyclo-
pedia of History," by Too- Yew, a.d.
740. — Ki-MiB m'-ylA hmg-Ching,
" Itineraryof K£-njii'8 Travels in the
Western Regions," from a.d. 004 —
076.— Tae-pmgj/u-lm, "The Tae-
jing Digest of History," compiled by
Imperial Command, a.d. 983. —
T»A-foo yuen-Kwa, " Great De-
pository of the National Archives,"
compiled by Imperial Command, A.D.
1012.— ixn-Tcmg-shoo, " A New His-
tory of the Tang Dynasty," a.d. 618
— 906,byaow-YAMfl-8EW and Sraa-
i£, A.B. 1000.— Tung-chc, "National
Annals," by CmNO-TBEAOU, a.d.
1150. — Wan-teen tung-kaou, " Anti-
quarian Researches," by Ma-Twan-
LIN, A.n. 1310. OLtliis remarkable
worh there is an admirable analysis
by Klaprothin the Atiatie Journal foi
1832, vol. Jtxxv. p. 110, and one still
more complete in the Journal Asia-
tiaue, vol. xxi. p. 3. The portion
relating to Ceylon has been trans-
lated into French by M. Pautkier
in the Journal Ariatique for April,
1830, and again by M. Stanislas
Julien in the same Journal for July,
1836, t xxis. p. 36. — Yuh-hat,
" The Ocean of Gems," by Wano-
TANQ-ltk, a.d. 1338. — Taou-e che-
U6, " A Oeneral Account of Island
Foreigners," by Wako-Ta-YOUKH,
a.d. 1360.— Tuih-it," Miscellaneous
Record ; " written at the end of the
Yuen dynasty, about the close of the
fourteenth centuiy. — Po-ieSh yaou-
lan, " Philosophical Examiner ; "writ-
ten during the Ming dynasty, about ■
the beginning of the fifteenth century.
— Se-yih-kefoo-choo, " A Description
of Western Countries," a.d. 1450.
This is the important work of which
M. Stanislas Julien has recently pub-
lished the flist volume of his French,
translation, Mimoires des Contrfet
Occidental*, Paris, 1857 ; and of
which he has been so obliging as to
send me those sheets of the second
volume, now preparing for the press,
which contain the notices of Ceylon
by Hiouejj-Thsasg. They, how-
ever, add very little to the infor-
mation already given in the Life and
Travel* of Mouen-Thsang.— Woo-
he6-pcat, " Records of the Ming Dy-
nasty," by Chimo-Hbaoo, a.d. 1522.
— S&h-wan-hem tung-kaou, " Supple-
ment to the An tiquarian Resesxches,"
Wakb-K^A
—Suh-Hung
keen-luh," Supplement to the History
of the Middle Ages," by Shaou-
Yubn-pihq, A.D. 1706.— Ming-she,
"History of the Ming Dynasty, A.S.
1638—1643, by CHAKo-Trso-rtB:,
a.d. 1739.— Ta-tting yih-timy, "A
Topographical Account of the Man-
cboo Dynasty," of which there is a
copy in the British Museum.
' Taoa-e chi-led, quoted in the Ifae-
k\e6-too cAe, " Foreign Geography,"
b. zviii. p. 15.
* Leang-shoo, b. liv. p. 10 ; Xim-
sht, b. lxxiii. p. 13; Tung-teen, b.
clxxxviii, p. 17.
* The Chinese books repeat the
popular belief that the hollow of the
sacredfootstep contains water '*9hich
Google
MEDL£VAL*fIISTORY.
[PuiV.
by the first created man, who, in their mythology, bears
the name of Pawn-koo ; and the gems which are found
upon the mountain they believe to be his " crystallised
tears, thus accounting for their singular lustre and
marvellous tints." ' The country they admired for its
fertility and singular beauty ; the climate they compared
to that of Siam!, with slight alterations of seasons ; refresh-
ing showers in every period of the year, and the earth
consequently teeming with fertility."
The names by which peylon was known to them
are either adapted from the Singhalese, as nearly as
the Chinese characters would supply equivalents for the
' Sanskrit and Pali letters, or else they are translations
of the sense implied by each designation. Thus, Sinhala
was either rendered " Seng-Holo," * or " Sv~t$eit-Jcicd,"
the latter name, as well as the original, meaning " the
'kingdom of hone." e The classical Lanka is preserved in
the Cliinese " Lang-kea" and " Lang^yaseu." In the
epithet " Chih-too," the Red Land6, we have a simple"
rendering of the Pali Tambapanni, the "Copper-palmed,''
from the colour of the soil.7 Paou-choo 8 is a translation
of the Sanskrit Eatna-dwipa, the " Island of Gems," and
Tsih-e-lan, Selh-lan, and Se-lung, are all modern modifica-
tions of the European " Ceylon."
does not dry up all the year round ; "
and that invalids recover by drinking
from the well nt the foot of the
mountain, into which " the sea-water
enters free from salt." . Taou-o c/>6-
Ie6, quoted in the Hac-kwo-tod-cht,
at Foreign Geography, b. xxviii.
p. 16. •
' Po-wuh Yaou-lan, b. xxxiii. p. 1.
W ako-Kb, Sah- Wan-heen fung-haou,
b. eexxxvi. p. 19.
a Timg-leea, b. clxxxviii. p. 17,
Tar-ping, b. dcclxxxvii. p. 5.
■ Leang-shoo, b. liv. p. 10. '
4 Hiouen-Thtaru/, b. iv. p. 194.
Trawl. M. S. Julien.
■ This, M. Stanislas Julien says,
«hould be " the kingdom of the lion,"
in fission to the mythical ancestry
of WijflYO. — fmrn. Atrial., (ran.
xxiz. p. ST. And in & note to the
tenth book of Hiouek-Thbaxgb
Voyeqet ilex Pflerat* BouAHtuta,
vol. ii. p. 124, he says one name for
Ceylon m Chinese is" Tchi-see-taeu"
" (le royaiune de celui qui) a pris un
* Sin/-nhoo, b. Ins. p. 3. In the
Se-ylh-kf foo-ehoo, or " Descriptions
of Western Countries," Ceylon ia
called Woo-yew-fewd, " thesorrowlees
* MaAatrimso, eh. vii p. 60.
8 Se-ylh-kt foo-ehoo, quoted in the
Hae-kivo-too che, or " Foreign Geo-
graphy," 1. xviii. p. 16 ; Hiovkk-
'hsano, Voyage* da Pflrr. Boudd.,
> ■• - 125; 130 n.
u voL ii. ]
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Cma*. IIIJ CEYLON AS KNOW#TO THE CHINESE. 611
The ideas of the Chinese regarding the mythical
period of Singhalese history, and the first peopling of
the island, are embodied in a very few sentences which .
are repeated throughout the series of authors, and with
which we are made familiar in the following passage
from FA Hian : — " Sze-tseu-kwo, the kingdom of
lions ', was inhabited originally not by men but by de-
mons and dragons.2 Merchants were attracted to the
island, by the prospect of trade ; but the demons re-
mained unseen, merely exposing the precious articles
which they wished to barter : with a price marked for
each, at which the foreign traders were at liberty to
take them, depositing the equivalents indicated in ex-
change. From the resort of these dealers, the inhabi-
tants of other countries, hearing of the attractions of
the island, resorted to it in large numbers, and thus
eventually a great kingdom was formed." 8 .
The Chinese were aware of two separate races, one
occupying the northern and fhe other the southern ex-
tremity of the island, and were struck with the resem-
blance of the Tamils to the Hoo, a people of Central
Asia, and of the Singhalese to the Leaou, a mountain
tribe of Western China.4 The latter they describe as
having "large ears, long eyes, purple faces, black
bodies, moist and strong hands and feet, and living to
one hundred years and upwards.6 Their hair was worn
long and flowing, not only by the women but by the
men." In - these details there are particulars that
1 Wan- hem tuny -kaou,
p. 24.
1 The Yakkhos and Nagas (" devils"
and " serpents ") of the Mmtneanso.
1 Foe-hoat-kt, ch. xxxviii p.
333. Transl. Rkhusat. This ift-
countof Ceylon is repeated almost
verbatim in the Tung-U^, and in nu-
merous other Chinese works, with the
addition that the newly-formed king-
dom of Sinhala, " Sze-teeu-kwu,"
took its name from the " skill of the
natives in training lions." — B. cxciii.
pp. 8, 9 ; Tae-ping, b. dccxciii. p. 0 ;
Sin-Ttmtj-ehov, b. cxl?i. part ii. p.
10. A very accurate translation of
the passage as it is given by Ma-
roc an -lih is published by M.
Stanislas Julien in the Journ. Atiat.
for July, 1830, torn. siix. p. 30.
* Too-Hiouen, quoted in the Tung-
Urn, b. czciii. p. 8.
3 Taou-c cM-led, quoted in the
Hae-kwd-too chd, or " Foreign Geo-
graphy," b. xviii. p. 15.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDIjEVAL^ISTORY.
[Pai
closely resemble the description of the natives of the
island visited by Jambulus, as related in the story told by
. Diodorus.1
The Chinese in the seventh century found the Singha-
lese dressed in a costume which appears to be nearly
identical with that of the present day.* Both males
and females had their hair long and flowing, but the
heads of children were closely shaven, ,a practice which
still partially prevails. The jackets of the girls were
occasionally ornamented wjfh gems.8 " The men," says
the Tung-teen, " have the upper part of the body naked,
but cover their limbs with a cloth, called Kan-man^
made of Koo-pei, ' Cotton,' a word in which we may
recognise the term 'Comboy,' used to designate the
cotton cloth universally worn at the present day by the
Singhalese of both sexes in the maritime provinces.4
For their vests, the kings and nobles made use of a sub-
>.'i3,il'
3 Nan-iht, a.d. 650, b. btsriii. p.
13 ; Leang-ihoo, a.d. 670, b. liv. p.
11. Such is still the dress of the
Singhalese females.
4 Ttmii-tfm, b, plyxsTiii, p. 17; | *&*>, b. oxcviii. p. 5
Xmi-M, b. lxxviii. p. 18 ; Siii-tmii/- \ iv. Vol. I. p. 450.
oyGoogIe
Cbap. HI.] CEYLON AS KNOW TO THB CHINESE. 618
stance -which ia described as 'cloud cloth,'1 probably
from its being very transparent, and gathered" (as is still
the costume of the chiefs of Kandy) " into very large
folds. It was fastened with golden cord. Men of rank
were decorated with earrings. The dead were burned,
notburied." And the following passage from the Suh-wan-
keen tung-kaou, or the • " Supplement to Antiquarian
Researches," is strikingly descriptive of what may be con-
stantly witnessed in Ceylon ; — " the females who live
near the family of the dead assemble in the house, beat
their breasts with both hanils, howl and weep, which
constitutes their appropriate^rite." 2
The natural riches of Ceylon, and its productive capa-
bilities, speedily impressed the Chinese, who were bent
upon, the discovery of outlets for their commerce, with
the conviction of its importance as an emporium of
trade. So remote was the age at which strangers fre-
quented it, that in the " Account of Island Foreigners, "
writteiLby Wang-ta-yuen fl in the fourteenth century, it
is stated that the origin of trade in the island was
coeval with the visit of Buddha, who, " taking compas-
sion on the aborigines, who were poor and addicted to
robbery, turned their disposition to virtue, by sprinkling
the land with sweet dew, which caused it to produce
red gems, and thus gave them wherewith to trade,"
and hence it became the resort of traders from every
country.* Though aware of the unsuitability of the
climate to ripen wheat, the Chinese were struck with
admiration at the wonderful appliances of the Singhalese
for irrigation, and the cultivation of rice.6
According to the Tung-teen, the intercourse between
them and the Singhalese began during the Eastern Tsin
1 The Chinese term is " vun-hae -
poo." — Leang-tkoo, b. liv. p. 10.
* B. ccxxivi. p. 19. *
* Taou-e cki-m, footed in the
Foreign Geography, b. iviii. p. 15.
* The rapid peopling of Ceylon at
a very remote age ia accounted for in
the following terms in a passage of
Ma-twan-lin, as translated bv II.
Stanislas Julien; — "Lea habitants
des autres royaumes entendirent par-
ler de ce pays fortune ; c'est pour-
a l'en
Journ. Anal., t. nii. p. 42.
* Jlecordt of the Ming Dynasty, by
Cirao. ■ IliAor, b. lxnii. p. 5.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDLEVAL HISTORY.
tPut V.
dynasty, a.d. 317 — 419 1; and one remarkable island
still retains a name which is commemorative of their
presence. Salang, to the north of Penang, lay in the
direct course of the Chinese junks on their way to and
from Ceylon, through the Straits of Malacca, and, in
addition to its harbour, was attractive from its valuable
mines of tin. Here the Chinese fleets called on both
voyages; and the fact of their resort is indicated by
the popular name " Ajung-Selan," or "Junk-Ceylon;"
by which the place is still known, Ajung, in the language
of the Malays, being the term for " large shipping," and
Selan, their name for Ceylon^
"The port in Ceylon which the Chinese vessels made
their rendezvous, was Lo-le (Galle), " where, " it is said,
" ships anchor, and people land." 3
Besides rice, the vegetable productions of the island
enumerated by the various Chinese authorities were
aloes-wood, sandal-wood *, and ebony ; camphor B, areca-
nuts, beans, sesamum, coco-nuts (and arrack djstilled
from the coco-nut palm)» pepper, sugar-cane, myrrh,
frankincense, oil and drugs.6 An odoriferous extract,
called by the Chinese Skoo-heang, is likewise particular-
ised, but it is not possible now to identify it
Elephants and ivory were in request ; and the only
manufactures alluded to for export were woven cotton7,
1 Tung-teen, a.d. 740, b. clxxxviii.
p. 17.
1 Singapore Chronicle, 1830.
1 Wlso-BB, Suh-Toan-heen iung-
kaou, b- ccxxsvi. p. 19.
* The mention of sandal-wood is
suggestive. It does not, so far as I
could ever learn, exist in Ceylon ; yet
it is mentioned by the designation of
"almug-wood," among the treasures
which the navies of Phoenicia brought
back amongst the imports from Tar-
shish and Ophir (1 Kings, x. 2.) ; and
Abou-zeyd enumerates it amongst the
exports "of Ceylon in the ninth cen-
tury (see <mU, p. 689). It figures,
too, amongst the exports of the island,
in the records of the Chinese, Can it
be that, like the calamander, or Coro-
mandel-wood, which is rapidly ap-
proaching extinction, sandal -wood
was extirpated from the island by
injudicious cutting, unaccompanied
by any precautions for the reproduc-
tion of tie tree P It appears to have
been found in Cevlon about the year
1830, or later, when Moon drew up
his catalogue of Ceylon plants.
5 Nan-die, b. lxxViii. p. 13.
1 Sak-IIunftteen-tuh, b. xlii. p. 52.
7 Ttih-fuo yurn-facei, A.D. lOJd,
b. deecclxxi. p. 15. At a later
period " Western cloth " is mention-
ed among the exports of Ceylon,
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. III.] CEYLON AS .KNOWN TO THE CHINESE. 615
gold ornaments, and jewelry ; including models of the
shrines in which were deposited the sacred relics of
Buddha,1 Statues of Buddha were frequently sent
as royal presents, and so great was the fame of Cey-
lon for. their production in the fourth and fifth cen-
turies, that according to the historian of the Wei Tartar
dynasty, a.d. 386 — 556, people " from «the countries
of Central Asia, and the kings of those nations,
emulated each other in sending artisans to* procure
copies, but none could rival the productions of Nan-te\2
On standing about ten paces distant they appeared truly
brilliant, but the lineaments gradually disappeared on a
nearer approach." 8
Pearls, corals, and crystals were eagerly sought after ;
but of all articles the gems of Ceylon were in the
greatest request. The business of collecting and selling
them seems from the earliest time to have fallen into the
hands of the Arabs, and hence they bore in China the desig-
nation o.f " Mahometan stones." * They consisted of rubies,
sapphires, amethysts, carbuncles (the " red precious stone,
the lustre of which serves instead of a lamp at night "J6 ;
and topazes of four distinct tints, " those the colour of wine ;
the delicate tint of young goslings, the deep amber, like
bees'-wax, and the pale tinge resembling the opening bud
of the pine." 8 In exchange for these commodities the
Chinese traders brought with them silk, variegated lute
strings, blue porcelain, enamelled dishes and cups, and
but the reference must be to cloth
previously imported either from In-
dia or 1'eraia. — Muig-tfie Hittory of
the Miiy Dynasty, A.n. 1308 — 1043,
b. cccxivi. p. 7.
1 A model of the shrine contain-
ing the sacred tooth was sent to the
Emperor of China in the fifth cen-
tury by the King of Ceylon ; " Chacha
Mo-ho-nan,'' a name which appears
to coincide with Kaja Maha Ndnia,
who reigned A.n. 410— 433.— Shm-
thoo, a. d. 487, b. ilviL p. 0.
1 Nan-te" woe a Buddhist priest,
who in the year a.d. 456 was sent
on an embassy to the Emperor of
Chine, and wag made, the bearer of
three statues of his own making. — -
Tstit-foo yaen-kicei, b. li. p'. 7. See
pott,vLQ27.
' Wei-eAoo, a. d. 690, b. rativ. jj. ft
* Tilh-ke, quoted in the Chinese
Mirror of ScteiHXt, b. ssxiii. p. 1."
1 Po-wuA yaou-lan, b. nxiii. p. 2.
' Ibid,
oyGoogIe
616 MEDIEVAL HISTOBT. [Paw Y.
quantities of copper cash wanted for adjusting the balances
of trade.1
It will not fail tP be observed that throughout all
these historical and topographical works of the Chinese,
extending over a period of twelve centuries, from the
year A.D. 487, there is no mention whatever of cinnamon
as a production of Ceylon ; although cassia, described under
the name of kwei, is mentioned as indigenous in China
and Cochki-China.
Of the religion of the people, the - earliest account
recorded by the Chinese is that of FA Hiaic, in the
fourth century2, when Buddhism was signally in the as-
cendant But in the century which followed, travellers *
returning from Ceylon brought back accounts of the
growing power of the Tamils, and of the consequent
eclipse of the national worship. The Yung-teen and
the Tae-ping describe at that early period the prevalence
of Brahmanical customs, but coupled with "greater rever-
ence for the Buddiustical faith."* In process of time,
however, they are forced to^admit the gradual decline of
the latter, and the attachment of the Singhalese kings to
the Hindu ritual, exhibiting an equal reverence for the ox
and for the images of Buddha.4
The Cliinese trace to Ceylon the first foundation of
monasteries, and of dwelling-houses for the priests,
and in this they are corroborated by the Mahawanso.6
From these pious communities, the Emperors of China
were accustomed from time to time to solicit tran-
scripts of theological works 6, and their envoys, return-
ing from such missions, appear to have brought glowing
accounts of the Singhalese temples, the costly shrines for
Suy-Aoo, "History of the Suy xx. p. 123. In the Itinerary of K«-
sstv." »_Ti_ft*t. k lTiii n. S. nHB's Trawl* m Out Western Kina-
Dynasty," a.d.883, h. lxxxi. p. 3.
3 Foi-koui-ki, ch. xxxviii.
1 Tae-ping, b. dccxdii. p. 0.
■* Woo-hen-pien, " Records of the
Ming Dynasty," b. lxviii. p. 4 ; Tung-
nee, b. cxevi. pp. 79, 80.
1 MaJuiicanso, ch. xv. p. 90 ; ch.
Travel* in the Western King-
dom* in Ike tenth Century ho mentions
having seen a monastery of Singha-
lese on the continent of India. — Kb-
sfift, S&-gih king-thing, J. D. 964 —
97U.
* Tae-ping, b. dcclxxxvii. p. 5.
oyGoogIe
Chap. III.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE. 017
relics, and the fervid devotion of the people to the
national worship. '
The cities of Ceylon in the sixth century are stated,
in the " History of the Leang Dynasty," to have been
encompassed by walls built of brick, with double gates,
and the houses within were constructed with upper
stories.2 The palace of the king, at Anarajapoora, in
the eleventh century, was sufficiently splendid to excite
the admiration of these visitants, " the precious articles "
with which it was decorated being reflected in the
thoroughfares."3
The Chinese authors, like the Greeks and Arabians,
"are warm in their praises of the patriotism of the Sin-
ghalese sovereigns, and their active exertions for the
improvement of the country, and the prosperity of the
people.* On state occasions, the king, " carried on an
elephant, and accompanied by banners, streamers, and
tom-toms, rode under a canopy6, attended by a military
guard."6
Throughout all the Chinese, accounts, from the very
earliest period, there are notices of the manners of
the Singhalese, and even minute particulars of their
domestic habits, that attest a continued intercourse and
an intimate familiarity between the people of the two
countries.7 In this important feature the narratives of
1 Taou-e ch4-&6. "Account of
Island Foreigners," quoted in the
" Foreign GeiyrapSy,* b. xviii. p. 16.
Se-ylh-ke foo-ehoo. lb. "At day-
break every morning the people are
summoned, and exhorted to repeat
the passages of Buddha, in order to
remove ignorance and open the minds
of the multitude. Discourses are de-
livered upon the principles of vacancy
(nirwana?) and abstraction from all
material objects, in order that truth
may be studied in solitude and silence,
and the unfathomable point of prin-
ciple attained free from the distract-
ing influences of round or amcll." —
T*ih-foo tpien-kHiei, A. d. 1012, b.
dccccucL p. 5.
VOL. L S
11.
30, b. liv. p.
mbrella, e
T*lh-foo yuen-kwei, b. dcccclxi.
p. 6.
« Ibid.
8 The " chatta," o
blematic of royalty.
* Jjeaag-shoo, b. lit. p. 10.
1 This is apparent from the fact
that their statements are not confined
to descriptions of the customs and
chattlcter of the male Singhalese,
but exhibit internal evidence that
they had been introduced to their
families, and had had opportunities
of noting peculiarities in the ens-.
toms of the females. They describe
their dress, their mode of tying
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDIEVAL HISTOET.
fPA*
the Arabs, who, with the exception of the pilgrimage
made with difficulty to Adam's Peak, appear to have
known only the seareoast and the mercantile communi-
ties established there, exhibit a marked difference, when
compared with those of the Chinese ; as the latter, in ad-
dition to their trading operations in the south of the
island, made their way into the interior, and penetrated
to the cities in the northern districts. The explanation is to
"be found in the original identity of the national worship,
attracting as it did the people of China to the Bacred
island, which was once the great metropolis of their
common faith, and to the sympathy and hospitality with
which the Singhalese welcomed the frequent visits of'
their distant co-religionists.
This interchange of courtesies was eagerly encouraged
by the sovereigns of the two countries. The emperors
of China were . accustomed to 6end ambassadors, both
laymen and theologians, to obtain images and relics of
Buddha, and to collect transcripts of the sacred books,
which contained the exposition of his doctrines1; — and
the kings of Ceylon despatched embassies in return,
authorised to reciprocate these religious sympathies and
do homage to the imperial majesty of China,
The historical notices of the island by the Chinese
relative to the period immediately preceding the four-
teenth century, are meagre, and confined to a native
tradition that " about 400 years after the establish-
ment • of the kingdom, the Great Dynasty fell into
decay, when there was but one man of wisdom and
virtue belonging to the royal house to whom the people
became attached : the monarch thereupon caused him
to be thrown into prison ; but the lock opened of its
own accord, and the king thus satisfied of his sacred
character did not venture to take his life, but drove
their hair, their treatment of infants
and children, the fact that the women
as well ns the men were addicted to
chewing betel, and that they did not
sit down to meals with their hus-
bands, but " retired to some private
apartments to eat their food."
1 HioueH-Thtang, Introd. Sta-
nislas JULIEK. p. 1.
oyGoogIe
Omav. lit] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE. 619
liim into banishment to India (Teen chuh), whence, after
marrying .a royal princess, he was recalled to Ceylon
on the death of the tyrant, where he reigned twenty
years, and was succeeded by hia son, Po-kea Ta-To." L
In this story may probably be traced the extinction
of the " Great Dynasty " of Ceylon, on the demise of
Mana-Sen, and the succession of the " Sulu-wanse", or
Lower Dynasty, in the person of Kitsiri Maiwan, a.d.
301, whose son, Detu Tissa, may possibly be the Po-kea
T&4o of the Chinese Chronicle.2
The visit of Fa-Hian, the zealous Buddhist pilgrim,
in the fifth century of our era, has been already fre-
'quently adverted to.8 He landed in Ceylon A.D. 412,
and remained for two years at Anarajapoora, engaged
in transcribing the sacred books. Hence his descrip-
tions are confined almost exclusively to the capital ;
and he appears to have- seen little of the rest of the
island. He dwells with delight on the magnificence
of the Buddhist buildings, the richness of their jewelled
statues, and *hc prodigious dimensions of the dagobas,
one of which, from its altitude and solidity, was called
tbe " Mountain without fear." * But what most excited
his admiration was his finding no less than 5000 Buddhist
priests at the capital, 2000 in a single monastery on a
•mountain (probably Mihintala), 'and between 50,000 and
60,000 dispersed throughout the rest of the island.6
Pearls and gems were the wealth of Ceylon ; and from
the latter the king derived a royalty of three out of every
ten discovered.*
The, earliest embassy from Ceylon recorded in the
Chinese 7 annals at the beginning of the fifth century,
r "History of tie
J Jiang Dynasty," b. liv. p. 10.
* Mahawanto, c. mvii. p. 242.
Turnous'h Epitome, &c, p, 24.
3 The FoS-koui-ki, or " Descrip-
tion of Buddhist Kingdoms," by F*-
tT-.— I 1 j __l_*_j v_^ rtx
i and
* In Chinese, Woo-vxi.
s Foe-koui-hi, c. Jixxviii
334.
pp.333,
Ibid., c. xxxvii. p. 328.
'.a.d- 406. Gibbon alludes with
natural surprise to hie discovery of the
fact, that prior to tbe reign of Jus-
tinian, the "monarch of China had
actually received on embassy from
oyGoogle
820 MEDLEVAL HJSTOBY. [Pa*t V.
appears to have proceeded overland by way of India,
and was ten years before reaching the capital of China-
It was the bearer of "a jade-stone image of Buddha,
exhibiting every colour in purity and richness, in work-
manship unique, and appearing to be beyond human
art." l
During the same century there were four other em-
bassies from Ceylon. One a.d. 428, when the King
Cha-cha Mo-ho-nan (Raja Maha Nama) sent an ad-
dress to the emperor, which will be found in the history
of the Northern Sung dynasty2, together with a "model
of the shrine of the tooth," as a token of fidelity ; —
two in 430 and 435 ; and a fourth 456, when five
priests, of whom one was Nante\ the celebrated sculptor,
brought as a gift to the emperor a " three-fold image of
Buddha."3
According to the Chinese ■ annalists, the - kings of
Ceylon, in the sixth century, acknowledged themselves
vassals of the Emperor of China, and in the year 515,
on the occasion of Kumara Das raising tke chatta, an
envoy was despatched with tribute to China, together
with an address, announcing the royal accession, in
which the king intimates that he " had been desirous to
go in person, but was deterred by fear of winds and
waves." *
tho island of Ceylon."— Derline and I let* for the emperor's favourite eon-
Fall, c si. sort Pwao. JKto-sfti, b, Isxriii. p.
1 Leang-thoa, a.d. 030, b. liv. p. 13. Tung-tern, b. exciii. p. 8. Tae-
13. The ultimate fate of this re- . ping, &c, b. dcclxxsvii. p. 6.
nowned work of art is related in the * Sung-thoo, a,d. 48^ b. icvii.
Isimg-thoo, and several other of the I p. 6.
Chinese chronicles. Throughout the * Probably one in each of the
Tsin and Sung dynasties it was pre- three orthodoi attitudes, — sitting in
nerved in the Wa-kwna monastery at j meditation, standing to preach, and
Nankin, along with five otherstatues reposing in "nirwana." Wei-shoo,
and three paintings which were es- | "Historvof the Wei Tartar Dynasty,"
teemed chefs-d'oeuvre. The jade- j A.D. 590", b. exiv. p. 9.
stono image was at length destroyed ' * I*ang-ihoo, b. liv. p. 10. YSh-
in the time of Tung-hwan, of the . hae, " Ocean of Gems/1 a.d. 1331, h.
Tse dynasty ; first, the arm was clii. p. 33, The latter authority un-
broken off, and eventually the body ' noiuu'es in like terms two other em-
takes to make hair-pins and arm- ' bassies with tribute to China, ono in
oyGoogIe
Chap. III.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE. 6:11
But although all these embassies are recorded in the
Chinese chronicles as so many instances of acknow-
ledged subjection, there is every reason to believe that
the magniloquent terms in which they ar% described
are by no means to be 'taken in a literal sense, and that
the offerings enumerated were merely in recognition of
the privilege of commercial intercourse subsisting be-
tween the two nations. But as the Chinese literati affect
a lofty contempt for commerce, all allusion to trade is
omitted in their books ; and beyond an incidental remark
in some works of secondary importance, the literature of
China observes a dignified silence on the subject.
Only one embassy is mentioned in the seventh cen-
tury^ when Dalu-piatissa despatched "a memorial and
offerings of native productions ; " 1 but there were four
in the century following 2, after which the"re occurs an
interval of above five hundred years, during which the
Chinese writers are singularly silent regarding Ceylon ;
but the Singhalese historians incidentally mention that
swords and musical instruments were then imported from
China, for the use of the native forces, and thatChinese
soldiers took service in the army of Prakrama HX
A.D. 1266.s
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the only
records of intercourse relate to the occasional despatch of
public officers by the Emperor of China to collect gems
a.d. 523, and another in the reign of
Kirti Sena, a.d. 527. The Tilh-foo
yuen-kaiei mentions a similar mission
m A.D. 631, b. dccccixviii. p. 20.
1 a.d. 670. THh-foo yuen-hwei,
■ b. dcccclxs. p. 16. It was in the
early part of this century, during a
period of intestine commotion, when
the native princes were overawed by
the Mslnbars, that Hiotttn -Thtang
met on the coast of India, fugitives
from Ceylon, from whom he derived
his information as to the internal
condition of the isjand, A.D. 629 —
633. See Trans), by STANistAB Ju-
lian, "La Vie de Htoutn-Thtang,"
Paria, 1863, pp. 192—198.
1 A.D. 711, a.d. 746, A.D. 750,
and A.D. 762. Tsih-foo yuen-kmet,
b. dcccclxxi. p. 17. On the second
occasion (a.d. 746) the king; who
despatched the embassy, is described
as sending as his envoy a "Brahman
priest, the anointed graduate of the
threefold repository, bearing as offer-
ings head- ornaments of gold, precious
neck-pendants, a copy of the great
Prajna Sutra, and forty webs of fine
cotton cloth."
* See the Katoia-takara, written
about a.d. 1410.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDLEVAL HISTOKY.
[Pa.
and medical drugs, and on three successive occasions
during the earlier part of the Yuen dynasty, envoys were
empowered to negotiate the purchase of the sacred alms-
dish of Buddha.1
The beginning of the fifteenth* century was, however,
signalised by an occurrence, the details of which throw
light over the internal condition of the island, at a
period regarding which the native histories are more
than usually obscure At this time the glory of Bud-
dhism had declined, and the political ascendancy of
the Tamils had enabled the Brahmans to taint the
national worship by an infusion of Hindu observances.
The Se-yik-ke foo-choo, or "Description of Western
Countries," says that in 1405 A.D. the reigning king,
A-lee-koo-nae-urh (Wejaya-bahu YL), a native of Chola,
and "an adherent of the heterodox faith, so fax from
honouring Buddha, tyrannised over hiB followers." a
He maltreated strangers resorting to the island, and
plundered their vessels, "so that the envoys from
other lands, in passing to and fro, were much annoyed
by him£8
In tnat year a mission from China, Bent with incense
1 "In front of tile image of Buddha
there is a sacred bowl which is neither
made of jade, nor copper, nor iron ;
it is of a purple colour and glossy,
and when struck it sounds like glass.
At the commencement of the Yuen
dynasty, three separate envoys were
sent to obtain it." — Taou-e che-tio,
"Account of Island Foreigners," a.d.
1360, quoted in the " Foreign Gtogra-
pAy,"b. xviii. p. 15. This statement of
the Chinese authorities corroborates
the story told by Marco Polo, pos-
sibly from personal knowledge, that
" the Grand Khan Kublai sent am-
bassadors to Ceylon with a request
that the king would yield to him pos-
session of "the gTeat ruby" in return
for the " value of a citv. — ( TravtU,
cb. xix.) The MS. of 'Marco Polo,
which contains the Latin version of
his Travels, is deposited in the Im-
perial Library of Paris, and it ia
remarkable that a passage in it, which
seems to be wanting in the Italian
and other MSS., confirms this ac-
count of the Chinese annalists, and
states that the alms-dish of Buddha
was at length yielded by the King of
Ceylon as a gift to Kublai Khan, and
carried with signal honour to China.
Marco Polo describes the scene as
something within his own know-
ledge : — " Quando autem magnua •
Kuan solvit quod isti amb&xi&tores
redibant cum reliquis irtis, et ersnt
prop* terrain ubi ipse tunc erat, scili-
cet in Cambslu (Vekin), fecit mitri
bandum quod omnes de terra ohvis-
rent reliquis istia (quia credebat quod
easent reliquin de Adam) et istud
fuit a.d. 1284." •
» B. xviii. p. 15.
* Ming-she, b. cccisvi. p^7.
..Google
Chap. III.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE CHINESE. 628
and offerings to the shrine of the tooth, was insulted
and waylaid, and with difficulty effected an escape from
Ceylon.1 According to the Ming-she, or History of the
Ming Dynasty, " the Emperor Ching-tsoo, indignant at
this outrage on his people ; and apprehensive lest the
influence of China in other countries besides Ceylon had
declined during the reign of his predecessors, sent Ching-
Ho, a soldier of distinction, with a fleet of sixty-two
ships and a large military escort, on an expedition to
visit the western kingdoms, furnished with proper cre-
dentials and rich presents of silk and gold. Ching-Ho
touched at Cochin-China, Sumatra, Java, Cambodia, Siam,
and other places, " proclaiming at each the Imperial edict,
and conferring Imperial gifts." If any of the princes re-
fused submission, they were subdued by force ; and the
expedition returned to China in a.d. 1407, accompanied
by envoys from the several nations, who came to pay
court to the Emperor.
In the following year Ching-Ho, having been de-
spatched on a similar mission to Ceylon, the king, A-lee-ko-
nae-urh, decoyed his party into the interior, threw up
stockades with a view to their capture, in the hope of a
ransom, and ordered soldiers to the coast to plunder the
Chinese junks. But Ching-Ho, by a dexterous move-
ment, avoided the attack, and invested the capital2,
made a prisoner of the king, succeeded- in conveying
him on board his fleet, and carried him captive to China,
together with his queen, his children, his officers of state,
and'his attendants. He brought away with him spoils,
which were long afterwards exhibited in the Tsing-
hae monastery at Nankin 8, and one of the commentaries
on the Si-yU'ke of Hiouen Thaang, states that amongst
the articles carried away, was the sacred tooth of
1 8e-yih-ke foo-choo, b. xviii. p. 18.
This Chinese invasion of Ceylon ha*
been already adverted to in the sketch
of the domestic history of the bland,
Vol. I. Part iv. ch. xii. p. 417.
* Gainpola.
» Suh- Wan-heen lung-kaoa, book
cexxxvi. p. 12.
oyGoogIe
UEDLEVAL H1ST0BT.
[Pa.
Buddha.1 "In the sixth month of the year 1411,"
says* the author of the Ming-She, "the prisoners were
presented at court. The Chinese ministers pressed for
their execution, but the emperor, in pity for their ig-
norance, set them at "liberty, but commanded them to
select a virtuous man from the same family to occupy the
throne. All the captives declared in favour of Seay-pa-
nae-na, whereupon an envoy was sent with a seal to
invest him with the royal dignity, as a vassal of the
empire," and in that capacity he was restored to Ceylon,
the former king being at the same* time sent back to the
island.3 It would be difficult to identify the names in
this story with the kings of the period, were it not stated
in another chronicle, the Woo-heo^peen, or Kecord of
the Jfing Dynasty, that Seay-pa-nae-na was afterwards
named Pw-la-ko-ma Ba-zae La-cha, in which it is not
difficult to recognise "Sri Prakrama Bahu Baja," the
sixth of his name, who transferred the seat of govern-
ment from Gampola to Cotta, and reigned from a.d. 1410
till 1462. 8
For fifty years after this untoward event the sub-
jection of Ceylon to China appears to have been
WS«« note at the end of this
* Ming-ihe, b. cccxxvi. p. 5. M.
Stanislas Julteji intimates that the
forthcoming volume of his version of
the St'-uu-ki will contain the eleventh
book, in which an account will be
given of the expedition of Ching-Ho.
— Memoiret tur lea Cootrtes Occiden-
tals, torn. i. p. 28. In anticipation
of* its publication, M. JvLIEIt has
been eo obliging as to make for me a
translation of the passage regarding
Ceylon, but it proves to be an anno-
tation of the fifteenth century, which,
by the inadvertence of transcribers,
has become interpolated in the text
of Hiouex- TTviang. It contains, how-
ever, no additional facts or state-
ments, beyond the questionable one
before alluded to, that the sacred
tooth of Buddha was amongst the
spoils carried to Pekin by Ching-
* Woo-heS-peen, b. lxviii. p. 6.
See also the Ta-ttwff ylh-tiaig, a
topographical account of the Manchoo
empire, a copy of which is among the
Chinese books in the British Museum.
In the very imperfect version of the
Tiajairali, published by Upham, this
important passage is- rendered un-
intelligible by the want of fidelity of
the translator, who has transformed
the conqueror into a " Malabar," and
ante-dated the event by a century,
(Rajavali, p. 263.) I am indebted
to Mr. De Alwis, of Colombo, for a
correct translation of the original,
which is as follows : " In the reign of
King Wijayo-bahu. the King of
Maha (great) China landed in Ceylon
with an army, pretending that ha
was bringing tribute ; King Wijayo-
oyGoogIe
Chap. TIL] CEYLON A3 KNOWN TO THE CHINESE. 623
humbly and periodically acknowledged ; tribute was
punctually paid to the" emperor, and on two occasions,
in 1416 A.T>.y and 1421, the kings of Ceylon were
the bearers of it in person.1 In 1430, at a period of
intestine commotion, . " Ching-Ho issued a proclamation
for the pacification of Ceylon," and, at a somewhat
later period, edicts were promulgated by the Emperor
of China for the government of the island.8 In 1459
A.D., however, the series of humiliations appears to
have come abruptly to a close ; for, ." in that year," says
the Mingshk, "the King of Ceylon for the last time
sent an envoy with tribute, and after that none ever
came again."
On their arrival in Ceylon early in the sixteenth
century8, the Portuguese found many evidence* still
existing of the intercourse and influence of the Chinese.
They learned that at a former period they had esta-
blished themselves in the south of the island ; and both
De Barros and De Couto ventured to state that the
Singhalese were so called from the inter-marriage of
the Chinese with the Gallas or Chalias, the caste who
in great ' numbers still inhabit the country to the north
of Point de Galle.4 But the conjecture is erroneous, the
■ derivation of Singhala is clearly traced to the Sanskrit
bahft, believing his professions (be-
cause it had been customary in the
time of King Prakrama-bahu for.
foreign countries to nay tribute to
Ceylon), acted incautiously, and he
was treacherously taken prisoner by
the foreign kffig. His four brothers
were killed, and with them fell many
people, and the king himself whs car-
ried captive to China." De Couto,
in his continuation of De Barros,
has introduced the story of the cap-
ture of the king by the Chinese ; but
he has confounded the dates, mysti-
fied the facta, and altered the name
of the new sovereign to Pftndar,
which is probably only a corruption
of the Singhalese Sanaa, " a prince."
— Db Couto, Asia, $c, dec v. lib. i.
c. vi. vol. ii. part i. p. 51. Purchas
says : " The Singhalese language is
thought to have been left thereby
the Chinois, some time Lord of
Zeilan. " -* Pilgrimage, c. xviii.
f. 552. The adventures of Ching-
Io, in his embassy to the nations of
the Southern Ocean, have been made
the ground-work of a novel, the
Se-yvng-he, which contains an en-
larged account of his exploits in
Ceylon ; but fact is so overlaid with
fiction that the passages are not worth
extracting.
1 Ming-thi, b. vii. pp. 4, 8.
* IMd., b. cecxxvii. p. 7.
1 a.d. 1505.
* " Serem os Chijis senhores da
costa Chorom&ndel, parte do Malabar
oyGoogIe
MEDIEVAL HISTORY.
[Pai
" Singha ; " besides which, in die alphabet of the Sin-
ghalese, n and g combine to form* a single and insoluble
letter.
In process of time, every trace disappeared of the
former presence of the Chinese in, Ceylon — embassies
ceased to arrive from the " Flowery Kingflom," Chi-
nese vessels deserted the harbours of the island, pil-
grims no longer repaired to the shrines of Buddha;
and even the inscriptions became obliterated in which
the ^imperial offerings to the temples were recorded on
the rocks.1 The only mementos which remain at the
present day to recall their ancient domestication in- the
island, is the occasional appearance in the mountain
villages of an itinerant vendor of sweetmeats, or a hut
in the solitary forest near some cave, from which an
impoverished Chinese renter annually gathers the edible
nest of the swallow.
NOTE.
As it may be interesting to learn the opinions of the Chinese
at the present day regarding Ceylon, the following account of
the island has been translated for me by Dr. Lockhart, of
Shanghae, from a popular work on geography, written by the
late lieutenant-governor of the province of Fuh-kien, assisted by
e dosta llha Ceillo. Na qual Dha
leixartim liimin lingua, a que ellea
chamam Chingalla, e aw proprioa
puvos Chingallaa, principalmente os
nvivem da poota de Galls por
te na face da terra contra o Sul,
e Orient* : e par ser pegada neste
Cabo Galle, chamou a outra gente,
que vi via do meio da ilha pera cima,
aos que aqui habitavam VhittgaUu e
& lingua delles tambem, quari como
m dusettem lingua on genie dot Chijo
de Gaile." — Dr Bassos, Asia, $c.,
Dec. iii. lib. ii. c. i. De Couto's
account is as follows : " E como 6s
Chins formain ob primeiroa que nave-
garam polo Oriente, tendo noticia da
| .eanella, acudiram muitos 'juncos'
aquella llha a carregar della^ e dalli
a Waram aos portoa de Persia, o da
Arabia donde pasaou £ Europe, — de
que ae deixaram ficair muitos China
ua terra, e se misturiram por aaaa-
menfoB com os naturaee ; dmtre quern
naiceram hunt mietcot que te fiearatn
chamando Cim-GaUdi; ajwtando a
nome dm naturaes, que eram GaUae
aot dot China, que vieram por tem-
pos a ser tab faraosoa, que detain o
aeu nome a todoe os da llha.' : — Asia,
%c, Dec. t. lib. eh. v.
1 SUA- Wan-hem iimg-kaou, book
ccxxxvi. p. 12.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
Chap. HI. j CEYLON AS KNOWN TO ftlE CHINESE. 627
some foreigners. The book is called Ying-hwan-che-ke, or
" The General Account of the Encircling Ocean."
"Seih-lan is situated in Southern India, and is a large
island in the sea, on the south-east coast, its circumference
being about 1000 le (300 miles), having in the centre lofty
mountains ^on the coast the land is low and marshy. The
country is characterised by much rain and constant thunder.
The hills and valleys are beautifully ornamented with
flowers and trees of great variety and beauty, the cries of
the animals rejoicing together fill the air with gladness, and
the landscape abounds with splendour. In the forests are
many elephants, and the natives use them instead of draught
oxen or horses. The people are all of the Buddhistic religion ;
it is said that Buddha was born here : he wag born with an
excessive number of teeth. The grain is not sufficient for the
inhabitants, and they depend for food on the various districts
of India. Gems are found in the hills, and pearls on tfce sea
coast ; the cinnamon that is produced in the country is excellent,
and much superior to that of Kwang-se. In the middle of the
Ming dynasty, the Portuguese seized upon Seih-lan and esta-
blished marts on the sea coast, which b; schemes the Hol-
landers took from them. In the first year of Kia-King (1795),
the English drove out the Hollanders and took possession of
the sea coast At this time the people of Seih-lan, on account
of their various calamities or invasions, lost heart. Their city
on the coast, called Colombo, was attacked by the English, and
the inhabitants were dispersed or driven away; then the whole
island fell into the hands of the English, who eventually sub-
jected it. The harbour for rendezvous on the coast is called
Ting-k o-ma-le."
To this the Chinese commentator adds, on the authority of a
work, from which he quotes, entitled, " A Treatise on the
Diseases of all the Kingdoms of the Earth : " —
" The Kingdom of Seih-lan was anciently called' Lang-ya-
sew; the passage from Soo-mun-ta-che (Sumatra), with a
favourable wind, is twelve days and nights; the country is
extensive, and the people numerous, and the products abun-
dant, but inferior to Kwa-wa (Java). In the centre are lofty
mountains, which yield the A-kiih (crow and pigeon) gems;
after every storm of rain they are washed down from the
hills, and gathered among the sand. From Chang-tsun, Lin-
yib in the extreme west, can he seen. In the foreign language,
oyGoogIe
S28 KEvBeVAL HI8T0ET. [Fait T.
the high mountain is called Seih-lan ; hence the name of the
island. It is said Buddha (Shih-ka) came from the island of
Ka-lan (the gardens of Buddha), and ascended this mountain,
on which remains the trace of his foot. Below the hill there is
a monastery, in which they preserve the nee-pwan (a Bud-
dhistic phrase, signifying the world ; literally r^dered, his
defiling or defiled vessel) and the Shay-le-tsze, or relics of
Buddha.
"In the sixth year of his reign (1407), Yung-lo, of the Ming
dynasty, sent an ambassador extraordinary, Ching-Ho and
others, to transmit the Imperial mandate to the King A-lee-
jd-nai-urh, ordering him to present numerous and valuable
offerings and banners to the monastery, and to erect a stone
tablet, and rewarding him «by his appointment as tribute-
bearer ; A-lee-jc-nai-urh ungratefully refusing to comply, they
seized him, in order to bring him to terms, and chose from
among hia nearest of kin A-pa-nae-na, and set him on the
throne. For fourteen years, Teen-ching, Kwa-wa (Java),
Mwan-che-kea, *Soo-mun-ta-che (Sumatra), and other coun-
tries, sent tribute in the tenth year of Chin-tun g, and the
third year of Teen-shun they again sent tribute." ■
" I have heard from an American, A-pe-le*, that Seih-lan
was the original country of Teen-chuh (India), and that which
is now called Woo-yin-too was Teen-chuh, but in the course
of time the names have become confused. According to the
records of the later Han dynasty, Teen-chuh was considered
the Shin-tuh, and that the name is not that of an island, hut
of the wfcole country. I do not know what proof there is
for A-pe-le's statement,"
1 There is here some confusion in I * Mr. Abed, an American i
the chronology, as Teen-shun reigned sionary.
before Ching-timg. J
oyGoogIe
CHAP. IV.
CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE MOOES, GENOESE, AND
VENETIANS.
The rapid survey of the commerce of India during
the middle ages, -which it has been necessary to in- -
troduce'into the preceding narrative, will also serve to
throw light on a subject hflherto but imperfectly in-
vestigated.
The most remarkable of the many tribes which in-
habit Ceylon are the Mahometans, or, as they are
generally called on the island, the " Mot>r-men," ener-
getic and industrious communities of whom are found
on all parts of the coast, but whose origin, adventures,
and arrival are amongst the historical mysteries of
Ceylon.
The meaningless designation of " Moors," applied to
them, is the generic term by which it was at one time
customary in Europe to describe a Mahometan, from
whatsoever country he came, as the word Gentoo1
was formerly applied in England to the inhabitants'
of Hindustan, without distinction of race. The prac-
tice probably originated from the Spaniards having
given that name to the followers of the Prophet, who,
after traversing Morocco, overran the peninsula in
the seventh and eighth centuries.2 The epithet was
borrowed by the Portuguese, who, after their discovery
1 Tha practice originated with the
J/ortugueBe, who applied to any un-
converted native of India the term
gtntio, "idolater" or "barbarian."
a The Spanish word " Mora " and
) the Portuguese "Monro" may be
traced either to the " Mauri," the
ancient people of Mauritania, now
Morocco, or to the modem name of
"Moghrib," by which the inhabi-
tants, the Moghribina, designate their
country.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDLEVAL HISTORY.
[Paw V.
of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, bestowed
it indiscriminately upo» the Arabs and their descen-
dants, whom, in the sixteenth century, they found
established as traders in every port on the Asian and
African coast, and whom they had good reason to
regard as their most formidable competitors for the
commerce of the East.
Particular events have been assumed as marking the
probable date of their first appearance in Ceylon. Sir
Alexander Johnston, on the authority of a tradition
current amongst their descendants, says, that "the first.
Mahometans who settled there were driven from' Arabia
in the early part of tl^ eighth century, and estab-
lished themselves at Jaflha, Manaar, Koodramalie,
Putlam, Colombo, Barberyn, Point de Galle, and Trin-
comalie."1 The Dutch authorities, on the other hand,
hold that Xhe 'Moors were Moslemin only by profession,
that by birth they were descendants of a mean and
detestable Malabar caste, who in remote times had
been converted to Islam through intercourse with the
Arabs of Bassora and the Red Sea; that they had
frequented the coasts of India as seamen, and then in-
fested them as pirates ; and that their first appearance
in Ceylon was not earlier than the century preceding
the landing of the Portuguese.2
■ The truth, however, is, that there were Arabs in
Ceylon ages before the earliest date named in these
1 Iran*. Soy. Asiat. Society, 1827,
vol. i. 538. The Moon, who were
the informants of Sir Alexander
Johnston, probably spoke on the equi-
vocal authority of the Tohftd-ul-
mm'aMdcen, which is generally, but
erroneously, described as a narrative
of the settlement of the Mahometans
in Malabar. Its second chapter gives
an account of "the manner in which
the Mahometan religion was first
propagated " there ; and states that
its earliest apostles were a Sheikh
and his companions, who touched at
Cranganore about 823 A.D., when
on their journey as pilgrims to the
sacred foot-print on Adam's Peak.
(RoWLAHDSOir, Orient. Trand. 1'itnd,
pp. 47, 55.) But the introduction of
the new faith into this part of India
was subsequent to the arrival of the
Arabs themselves, who had long be-
fore formed establishments at nume-
rous places on the coast
1 Vm.f.nttn, ch. xv. p. 214.
%,zcdt>:
Chap. IV.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE MOOB& 631
conjectures1 ; they were known there as traders centuries
before Mahomet was born, and»such was their passion
for enterprise, that at one and the same moment they
were pursuing commerce in the Indian Ocean8, and
manning the galleys of Marc Antony in the fatal sea-
fight at Actium.8 The author of tie Periplua found
them in Ceylon about the first Christian century, Cos-
mas Indico-pleustes in the sixth ; and they had become
so numerous in China in the eighth, as to cause a tumult
at Canton.* From the tenth till the fifteenth century,
■the Arabs, as merchants, were the undisputed masters
of the East ; they formed commercial establishments in
every country that had productions to Export, and their
vessels sailed between every sea-port from Sofala to
Bab-el-Mandeb, and from Aden to Sumatra.6 The,
" Moors," who at the present day inhabit the coasts of
Ceylon, are the descendants of these active adventurers ;
they are not purely Arabs in blood, but descendants
from Arabian ancestors by intermarriage with the
native races who embraced the religion of the Prophet6
1 MoTTKTSTDiKT Eiphikbtoke, on language in the servico of their
the authority of Agatharchidos (as mosques (c. i. note, p. 84). There is
quoted by Diodorus end Photins), reason to believe that at a former
Bays, that "from all that appears in period there were Mahometans in
that author, we should conclude that Ceylon to whom this description would
two centuries before the Christian apply ; but at the present day the
era, the trade (between India and the' Moors throughout the island are, I
Erts of Sabrea) was entirely in the believe, universally Sonneee, belong-
nds of the Arabs." — Hid. India, b. j ing to one of the four orthodox eecta
iii. c. x. p. 167. called Shafees, and using Arabic as
a Pliny, b.*i c. 22. j their ritual dialect Their vernacular
' •• omoU «o wrurt Sbtpiiu (* ind.i ■ js Tamil, mixed with a number of
'mm ""vESS^JSTriii. 705. ! A™j*c words | and all their religious
' I books, except the Koran, are in that
* Anotr-ZETD, vol. i. p. xlii. eix. I dialect Casio Chitty, the erudite
■ Vikcent, vol ii. p. 451. The [ District Judge of Chilaw, writes to
Moors of Ceylon are identical in race me that " the Moors of Ceylon be-
with "the Mopilleea of the Malabar ' lieve themselves to be of the posterity
coast" — M'Eekzie, Atiat. Res., voL
Ti. p. 430.
" In a former work, " Chridianity
in Ceylon," I was led, by incorrect
information, to describe a section of
the Moors as belonging to the sect of
' the Shiahs, and using the Persian
of Hashem ; and, according t
tradition, their progenitors were dri-
ven from Arabia by Mahomet himself,
as a punishment for their cowardice
at the battle of Ohod. But according
to another version, they tied from the
tyranny of the Khalif Abu al Melek
Google
MEDLEVAL HI8T0ET.
[Part V.
The Singhalese epithet of " Marak-kala-minisu" or
"Mariners," describes at once their origin and occu-
pation ; but during the middle ages, when Ceylon was
the Tyre of Asia, these immigrant traders became
traders in all the products of the island, and the brokers
through whose hands they passed in exchange for the
wares of foreign countries. At no period were they
either manufacturers or producers in any department ;
their genius was purely commercial, and their attention
exclusively devoted to buying and selling what had
been previously produced by the industry and ingenuity^
of others. They were dealers in jewelry, connoisseurs
in gems, and collectors of pearls ; and whilst the con-
tented and apathetic Singhalese in the villages and forests
of the interior passed their lives in the cultivation of
their rice-lands, and sought no other excitement than
the pomp and ceremonial of their temples ; the busy and
ambitious Mahometans of the coast "built their ware-
houses at the ports, crowded the harbours with their
shipping, and collected the wealth and luxuries of the
island, its precious stones, its dye-woods, its spices and
ivory, to be forwarded to China and the Persian Gulf.
Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, found the
Moors in uncontested possession of this busy and lucra-
tive trade, and Babbosa, in bis account of the island, A. D.
1519, says, that not only were they to be found in every
sea-port and city, conducting and monopolising its com-
merce, but Moors from the coast of Malabar were con-
tinually arriving to swell their numbers, allured by the
facilities of commerce and the unrestrained freedom en-
ben Merivan, in tlie K&rly part of the
eighth century. Their first settle-
ment in India was formed at Kail-
patam, to the east of Cape Comorin,
whence tbat place is still regarded as
the ' father-land of the Woors.' "
Another of their traditions is, that
their first landing-place in Ceylon
was at Barboryn, south of Calture,
in the 402nd year of the Ilejira
(a.i>. 1024). These legends would
seem to refer to the arrival of some
important section of the Moors, hut
not to the first appearance of this
remarkable people in Ceylon. The
Ceijtm GantUer, Cotta, 1$34, p. 2B4,
contains a valuable paper by Casie
Chittyon "the Manners and Customs
of the Moors of Ceylon."
Domz'cdoyGoOglc
Chap. IV.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE MOOES. G33
joyed under the government.1 In process of time their
prosperity invested them with political influence, and in
the decline of the Singhalese monarchy they took ad-
vantage of the feebleness of the King of Cotta, to direct
armed expeditions against parts of the coast, to plunder
the inhabitants, and supply themselves with elephants
and pearls.8 They engaged in conspiracies against the
native princes ; and the assassin of Wijayo Bahu VH,
who was murdered in 15^, was a turbulent Moorish
leader called Soleyman, whom the eldest son and suc-
cessor of the kins*- had instigated to the crime.8
The appearance of the Portuguese in Ceylon at this
critical period, served not only to check the career of the
Moors, but to extinguish the independence of the native
princes ; and looking to the facility with which the former
had previously superseded the Malabars, and were fast
acquiring an ascendancy over the Singhalese chiefs, it
is not an unreasonable conjecture that, but for this
timely appearance of a Christian power in the island, '
Ceylon, instead of a possession of the British crown,
might at the present day have been a Mahometan king-
dom, under the rule of some Arabian adventurer.
But although the position of the Arabs in relation to
the commerce of the East underwent no unfavourable
change prior to the arrival of the Portuguese in the
Indian seas, numerous circumstances combined in the
early part of the sixteenth century to bring other
European nations into communication with die East
1 " Molti Mori Malabnri vengono &
rtantdare in queata iaola per esser in
grandiaaima liberta, oltre tutte le
commodita e delitie del mondo," etc
— Odoabdo Basbosa, Sommario deUt
India Orientate, in Raittuno, vol. i. p.
313.
> Hajarali, p. 274.
■ lb., p. 284. Poroacchj, in hia
laolario, written at Venice a.b. 1576,
thus records the traditional reputa-
tion of the Moore of Ceylon: — "I
Mori cli' babitano hoggi la Taprobana
fanno grandiBaimi traffichi, nauigando
per tutto : et piu anchora vengono da
diverse parte malic, mercantie, masai-
mamente dal paeee di Cambaia, con
coralli, cinabrio, et argento vivo.
Ma son queati Mori perfidi et am-
mazxono apesse volte i lor Re ; ot ne
creano degli altri."— Page 188.
oyGoogie
HEDLETAL HISTORY.
[Pa,
The productions of India, whether they passed by
the Oxus to the Caspian, or were transported in cara-
. vans from the Tigris to the .shores of the Black Sea,
were poured into the magazines of Constantinople, the
merchants of which, previous to the fall of the Lower
Empire, were the most opulent in the world. During
the same period, Egypt commanded the trade of the
Bed Sea; and received, through Aden, the luxuries of
the far East, with which %she supplied the Moorish
princes of Spain, and the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean.1 •
Even when the dominion of the Khalifs was threat-
ened by the rising power of the Turks, and long
after the subsidence of the commotions and vicissitudes
which marked the period of the Crusades, part of this
lucrative commerce was still carried to Alexandria,
by the Nile and its canals. The Genoese and Vene-
tians, each eager to engross the supply of Europe,
sought permission from the emperors to form establish-
ments on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediter-
ranean. The former advanced their fortified factories as
far eastward as Tabriz, to meet the caravans returning
from the Persian Gulf2, and the latter, in addition to
the formation of settlements at- Tyre, Beyrout, and
Acre 8, acquired after the fourth crusade, succeeded (in
defiance of the interdict of the Popes against trading
with the infidel) in negotiating a treaty with the
Mamelukes for a share in the trade of Alexandria.* It
was through Venice that England and the western na-
1 Odoardo Barbosa, in Ramusio,
vol. i. p. 282. Baldelli Bom. Sela-
aone deW Ewopa e deff Asia, lib. ii.
ch. iH-ij. Faria T Soma, Portug.
Asia, part L ch. viii.
9 Gibbon, Deci. and Fall, ch. lsiii.
* Dart/, Hid. de Venue, lib. six.
vol. iv. p. 74. Macfhbrsoh's AnnaU
of Commerce, vol. i. p. 370.
4 So impatient wore the Venetians
to grasp the trade of Alexandria
that Marino Sanuto, about the year
1331 A.D., endeavoured to excite a
new crusade in order to wrest it from
the Sultan of Egvpt by force of
arms. Seereta Fwaelium Cruris, in
Bosoaes, Oesta Dei per Franco*,
Tldtiau, leil. Adam Smith, Wealth
of Nations, b. iv. ch. vii. Darv, Hid.
de Venue, lib. xix, voL iv. p. S8,
oyGoogIe
Chap. IV.] CEYLON" AS KNOWN TO VENETIANS. 633
tions obtained the delicacies of India and China, down
to the period when the overland route and the Eed Sea
were deserted for the grander passage by the Cape of
Good Hope.1
Another great event which stimulated the commercial
activity of the Italians in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, was the extraordinary progress of the Mongols,
who in an incredibly short space of time absorbed Cen-
tral Asia into one powerful empire, overthrew the
ancient monarchy of China, penetrated to the heart of
Kussia, and directed their arms with equal success both
against Poland and Japan. The popes and the sovereigns
of Europe, alarmed alike for their .dominions and their
faith, despatched ambassadors to the Great Elan ; the
mission resulted in allaying apprehension for the further
advance of their formidable neighbours towards the
west, and the vigilant merchants of Venice addressed
themselves to effect an opening for trade in the new
domains of the Tartar princes.
It is to this commercial enterprise that we are in-
debted for the first authentic information regarding
China and India, that reached Europe after the silence
of the middle ages ; and the voyages of the Venetians,
in some of which therealities of travel appear as extra-
ordinary as the incidents of romance, contain accounts
of Ceylon equally interesting and reliable.
Makco Polo, who left Venice as a youth in the year
1271, and resided seventeen years at the court of Kubla
Khan, was the first European who penetrated to China
Proper; whence he embarked in 1291, at Fo-Kien,
and passing through the Straits of Malacca, rested at
Ceylon, on his homeward route by Ormuz. He does not
name the port in Ceylon at which he landed, but he
1 Gibbon, Dec!, and FaU, eli. Ix. I was cast away on the Isle of Wight,
The last of the Venetian " argosies" ! a.d. 1687.
which reached the shores of England |
oyGoogIe
MEDICAL HISTORY.
[Pa«
calls the king Sender^naz, a name which may possibly be
identified with the Malay Chandrabami, who twice
invaded the island during the reign of Fandita Prak-
rama-bahu TTT.1
He repeats the fonner exaggerated account as to die
dimensions of Ceylon ; states that it was believed to
have been anciently larger still, and shows incidentally
that as early as the thirteenth century, the Arab sailors
possessed charts of the island which they used in navi-
gating the Indian seas.2 Then, as now, the universal
costume of the Singhalese was the cotton "comboy,"
worn only on the lower half of the body8, their
grains were sesamum and rice ; their food the latter with
milk and flesh-meat; and their drink coco-nut toddy,
which Marco calls "wine drawn from the trees." He
dwells with rapture on the gems and costly stones, and,
above all, on the great ruby, a span long, for which Kubla
Khan offered the value of a city. With singular truth he
says, " the people are averse to a military life, abject and
timid, and when they have occasion to employ soldiers,
they procure them from other countries in the vicinity
of the Mahometans." From this it would seem that six
hundred years ago, it was the practice in Ceylon, as it
i$ at the present day, to recruit the forces of the island
from the Malays. -
The next Venetian whose travels qualified him to
speak of Ceylon was the Minorite friar Odoric, of
Portenau in the Priuli *, who, setting out from the Black
Sea in 1318, traversed the Asian continent to China,
and returned to Italy after a journey of twelve years.
In Ceylon he was struck by the number of serpents,
1 Pandita Prakrenia Bahu DX
was also called Ealikalla Saahitya
Sargwajnya. — Tronoca'a Epitome,
p. 44
* I have seen with the aailora of
the Maldives, who resort to Ceylon
at the present day, charts evidently
copied from very ancient originals.
* See the drawing, page 613.
* litnerariam Fratns Oboeici de
Foro Julii de Porta- Vahonie.
oyGoogIe
Chat. 17.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO VENETIANS. 687
and the multitude of wild animals, lions (leopards?),
bears, and elephants. " In it he saw the mountain on
which Adam for the space of 500 years mourned the
death of Abel, and on which his tears and those of Eve
formed, as men believed, a' fountain;" but this Odoric
discovered to be a delusion, as he saw the spring gush-
ing from the earth, and its waters " flowing over jewels,
but abounding with leeches and blood-suckers." The
natives were permitted by the king to collect the gems ;
and in doing so they smeared their bodies with the juice
of lemons to protect them from the leeches. The wild
creatures, they said, however dangerous to the inhabi-
tants of the island, wgre harmless to strangers. In
that island Odoric saw " birds with two heads," which
possibly implies that he saw the hornbill1, whose huge
and double casque may explain the expression.
In the succeeding century* the most authentic ac-
count of Ceylon is given by Nicolo m Conti, another
Venetian, who, though of noble family, had settled as a
1 Buceroe Pica, See ante, Part n.
ch. ii. p. 167.
* Among the writers on India in
the 14th century, a. d. 1328, was the
Dominican missionary Jofrdain
Catalaki, or " Jordan de Severac,"
regarding whose title of JiUhop of
Colombo, " Episcopus Columbonsis, '
it is somewhat uncertain whether his
see was in Ceylon, or at Coulam
(Quilon), on the Malabar coast. The
probability in favour of the latter is
sustained by the fact of the very
limited ■ accounts of the island con-
tained in his Mirabilia, a work in
which he has recorded his observa-
tions on tile Dekkan. Cinnamon he
describe) at a production of Malabar,
and Ceylon ' he extols only for its
gems, pre-eminent among which
were two rubies, one worn by the
king, suspended round his neck, and
the otberwhich, when grasped in the
hand, could not be covered by the
ringers, "Nan credo mundum habere
uiiiversum tale.8 duo lapidos, nee tanti
pretii." The SIS. of Pre. Jobda-
nua's Mirabilia has been printed in
the Hecueil det Voyages of the So-
cie"tt5 GtSogr. of Paris, vol. i. p. 48.
Giovanw de Masjinola, a Floren-
tine and Legate of Clement VI.,
landed in Ceylon in 1340 a.d., at
which time the legitimate king was
driven away and the supreme power
left in the Lands of a eunuch whom
he calls Cqja-Joan, " pessimus Sara-
cenus." The legate's attention was
chiefly directed to " the mountain
opposite Paradise."— Douses, Mo-
num. ffistor. Iiocmite. Pragre, 1764-
86.
John of Hbssb, in his "Itinerary"
(in which occurs the date a.d. 1398)
says, " Adsunt et in quSdara insula
nomine Taprobaues mi crudeliseimi
et moribua asperi: permagnas habent
aures, et illas pluximis gemmis ornsre
dieuntur. Hi cornea hum/ma» pro
Kiimmii lUli'Ain comedttnt." — Johan-
his db Hesse, Presbyteri Itmerarium,
r t 3
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDIEVAL HI3T0KT.
[Pai
merchant at Damascus, -whence he had travelled over
Persia, India, the Eastern Archipelago, and China,
Returning by way of Arabia and the Eed Sea, in 1444,
he fell into danger amongst some fanatical Mahometans,
and was compelled to renounce the faith of a Christian,
less from regard for his own safety than- apprehension for
that of his children and wife. For this apostacy he be-
sought the pardon of Pope Eugenius IV., who absolved
him from guilt on condition that he should recount his
adventures to the apostolic secretary, Poggio Bracciolini,
by whom they have been preserved in his dissertation on
" Tk^'Vicissitudes of Fortune."1
Di Conti is, I believe, the firsj, European who speaks
of cinnamon as a production of Ceylon. " It is a tree,"
he says, " which grows there in abundance, and which
very much resembles our thick willows, excepting that
the branches do not grow upwards, but spread hori-
zontally ; the leaves are like those of the laurel, but
somewhat larger ; the bark of the branches is thinnest
and best, that of the trunk thick and inferior in flavour.
The fruit resembles the berries of the laurel; the In-
dians extract from it an odoriferous oil, and the wood,
after the bark has been stripped from it, is used by them
for fuel." 2
The narrative of Di Conti, as it is printed by Ramusio,
from a Portuguese version, contains a passage not found
in Poggio, in which it is alleged that a river of Ceylon,
called Aroton, has a fish somewhat like the torpedo, but
whose touch, instead of electrifying, produces a fever so
long as it is held in the hand, relief being instantaneous
on letting it go.8
1 De Varietate Fortunte, Basil,
1538. Ad admirable translation of
the narrative of Di Conti has re-
cently been made by R. IL Major,
Esq., for the I lakluyt Society. Lon-
don, 1857.
* Poooio makes Nicolo di Conti say
that the island contains a lake, in the
middle of which is a city three miles
. but this is evi-
dently an amplification of his own,
borrowed from the passage in which
Pliny (whom Poggio elsewhere
quotes) alludes to the fabulous Lake
Megisba. — Plutt, lib. vi. ch. Mi v.
* Di Conti in Ranuaio, vol. i. p,
344. There an two other Italian
travellers of this century who touched
oyGoogIe
Cbjw. IV.] CETL0N AS KNOWN TO VENETIANS. 630
The sixteenth century "was prolific in navigators, the
accounts of whose adventures served to diffuse through-
out Europe a general knowledge of Ceylon, at least as
it was known superficially before the arrival of the
Portuguese. Ludovico Barthema, or Varthema, a
Bolognese1, remained at a port on the west coast3 for
some days in 1506. The four kings of the island being
busily engaged in civil war3, he found it difficult to
land, but he learned that permission to search for
jewels at the foot of Adam's Peak might be obtained
by the payment of five ducats, and restoring as a
royalty all gems over ten carats. Fruit was delicious
and abundant, especially "artichokes" and oranges4, but
rice was so insufficiently cultivated that the sovereigns
of the island were dependent for their supplies upon
the King of Narsingha, on the continent of India.6
This statement of Barthema is without qualification ;
there can be-little doubt that it applied. chiefly to the
southern parts of the island, and that the north was
still able to produce food sufficient for the wants of the
inhabitants.
Barthema found the supply of cinnamon small, and
so precarious that the cutting took place but once in three
years. The Singhalese were at that time ignorant of
at Ceylon j one a "Qentlemam op
Florence," whose story is printed
by ltamusio (but without the author's
name), who accompanied Vasco de
Oamii, in the year 1479, in his voyage
to Calicut, and who speaks of the
trees " clio fanno la canella in molta
perfettione."— Vol. L p. 120. The
otberiaOlBouilODlSiNToSTBPAKo,
a Genoese, who, in pursuit of com-
merce, made a jo«ney to India which
he described on his return in 1400,
in a letter inserted by ltamusio in his
collection of voyages. Ho stayed but
one day in the island, and saw only
its coco-nuts, jewels, and cinnamon,
—Vol L p. 8*4
ne la Suria, ne la Arabia Detain c
Felice, ne la Pcrna, ne la India, e
ne la JEt)tiupiti — la fide el vivere a
costume de tutte le prefotte provincie.
Roma. 1611, 4. B.
1 Probably Colombo.
1 These conflicts and the actors in
them are described in the Jiajavoli,
p. 274.
* " Carxofoli megliori che li nostri,
melangoli dolci, li megliori credo,
che eiano nel mondo." — Varthema,
pt.«vii.
* " In questo paose non nasce
riso ; ma ne li rieno da terra femia.
Li re de quellA isola Bono tributarii
d' il re de Narsinga per lepetto del
riao." — lim., pt. xirvii. See also
Bakdosa, in Riimiirio, vol. i. p. 312.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.
[Fai
the use of gunpowder l, and their arms were swords and
lance-heads mounted on shafts of bamboo ; " with these
they fought, but their battles were not bloody." The
Moors were in possession of the trade, and the king sent
a message to Barthema and his companions, expressive
of his desire to purchase their commodities ; but in con-
sequence of a hint that payment would be regulated by
the royal discretion, the Italians weighed anchor at night-
fall and bade a sudden adieu to Ceylon.
Early in the sixteenth century, Odoardo- BabboSa,
a Portuguese captain, who had sailed in the Indian
seas, compiled a summary of all that was then known
concerning the countries of the East2, with which the
people of Portugal had been brought into connection by
their recent discovery of the passage round the Cape of
Good Hope. Writing partly from personal observation,
but chiefly from information obtained from the previous
accounts of Di Conti, Barthema and Corsali 8, he speaks
of that " grandest and most lovely "island, which the
Moors of Arabia, Persia, and Syria call Zeilam, but the
Indians, Tenarisim, or the land of delights." Its ports
were crowded with Moors, who monopolised commerce,
and its inhabitants, whose complexions were, fair and their
stature robust and stately, were altogether devoted to
pleasure and indifferent to arms.
Barbosa appears to have associated chiefly with the
Moors, whose character and customs he describes almost
as they exist at the present day. He speaks of their
heads, covered with the finest handkerchiefs; of their
ear-rings, so heavy with jewels that they hang down to
i, p. 279, describes
the wonder of the binghaleso on wit-
riessingfor the first time the discharge
of a cannon by the Portuguese who
had landed at Colombo, A. s. 1517.
" A ball shot from one of them, after
' I! Smtimario dclle Inde Oriental*
di OboABDo Barbou, Lisbon, 1519.
A aketch of the life of Babbosa is
given in Cra wptod's Dictionary of
the Indian Island), p. 39.
• Two letters written by Andrea
Corsali, a Florentine, dated from
Cochin, a. D. 1515, and addressed to
the Grand Duke Julian de Medici*.
oyGoogIe
Cuap. IV.] CEYLON AS KNOWN TO VENETIANS. 641
their shoulders ; of the upper parts of their bodies ex-
posed, but the lower portions enveloped in silks and
rich cloths, secured by an embroidered girdle. He
describes their language as a mixture of Arabic and
Malabar, and states that numbers of their co-religionists
from the Indian coast resorted ■ constantly to Ceylon,
and established themselves there as traders, attracted by
the delights of the climate, and the luxury and abundance
of the island, but above all by the unlimited freedom
which they enjoyed under its government. The duration
of life was longer in Ceylon than in any country of India.
With a profusion of fruits of every kind, and of ani-
mals fit for food, grain alone was deficient ; rice was
largely imported from the Coromandel coast, and sugar
from Bengal
Di Conti and Barthema had ascertained the existence
of cinnamon as a production of the island, but Barbosa
was the first European who asserted its superiority
over that of all otner countries. Elephants captured by
order of the king, were tamed, trained, and sold to the
princes of India, whose agents^ arrived annually in quest
of them. The pearls of Manaar and the gems of
Adam's Peak were the principal riches of Ceylon. The
cat's-eye, according to Barbosa, was as highly valued
as the ruby by the dealers in India; and the rubies
themselves were preferred to those of Pegu on ac-
count of their density1 ; but, compared with those of
Ava, they were inferior in colour, a defect which the
Moors were skilled in correcting by the application of
fire.
The residence of the king was at " Colmucho" (Co-
lombo), whither vessels coming for elephants, cinnamon,
1 Cebarb bb Fredehici, ft Vene- I that, "they find there some rubies,
tmn merchant, whose travels in but I have sold rubies well there
India, A. a. 1663, have been trans- that I brought with me from Pegu."
lated by HickoCke, says of Zeilan, I — In Ilakhtyt, vol. i. p. 226.
oyGoogIe
MEDLBVAL HISTORY.
[l'AI
V.
and gems brought fine cloths from Cambay, together
with saffron, coral, quicksilver, vermilion, and specie, and
above all silver, which was more in demand than all the
rest
Such is the sum of intelligence concerning Ceylon
recorded by the Genoese and Venetians during the
three centuries in which they were conversant with the
commerce of India. Their interest in the island had
been rendered paramount by the events of the first
Crusades, but it was extinguished by the discovery of
fhe passage round the Cape of Good Hope. In the
period which intervened the word traveller may be said
to have been synonymous with merchant1, and when
the occupation of. the latter was withdrawn, the adven*
tures of the other were suspended. The vessels of the
strangers, in a very few years after their first appear-
ance in the Indian seas, began to divert from its accus- ■
tomed channel the stream of commerce which for so
many ages had flowed in the direction of the Eed Sea
and the Persian Gulf; and the galleons of Portugal
superseded the caravans of Arabia and the argosies of
Venice.
1 C.fiSAK Frederic opens the ac-
count of his wanderings in India,
A.D. 15G3, as follows: — "Having for
the space of eighteen years continu-
ally coasted and travelled in many
countries beyond the Indies, wherein
I have had both good and ill success
in my travels," &c lie may be re-
garded as the lost of the merchant
voyagers of Venice. His book was
translated into English almost simul-
taneously with its appearance in
Italian, under trie title of " The
Voyages and Trarailc of if. Ca-sar
Fredrick, Merchant of Venice, into
the East Indies, and beyond the
Indies, written at sea, in the Hercules
of London, the 25th Starch, 1588, and
translated out of Italian by Mr.
Thomas Hickookr, I*nd., 4to.
1588." The author, who left Venice
in 1503, crossed over from Cape
Comorin to Chilaw, to be present at
the fishery of pearls, which he de-
scribeg almost as it is practised at the
present time. The divers engaged in
it were all Christians (see Christianity
in Ceylon, ch. i. p. 11), under the
care of friars of the order of St.
Paul. Colombo was then a hold of
the Portuguese, but without " wallea
or enemies ; " and thence " to see how
they gather the sinnamon, or take it
from the tree that it groweth on
(because the time that I was there,
waa the season that they gather it,
in the moneth of Aprill) I, to
satisfie my desire, weut into a wood
three miles from the citie, although
in great danger, the Portupals
being in arms, and in the field with
the king of the country." Here he
gives with great accuracy the par-
ticulars of the process of peeling
cinnamon, as it is still practised by .
the Chalias.
DomzcdoyGoOglc
oyGoogIe